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JAaCS!  BURNS  &.  SONS 

nth  AVZ.  &  43pd   ST. 

NEW  YORK 


AH  About 

Coffee 


SUMMIT,  NEW  JE;RSET 


NuW  YORK 


"cALL    cABOUT 

COFFEE 


'I 


By 
WILLIAM  H.  'UKERf,  M.  A. 

Editor 
THE  TEA  AND  COFFEE  TRADE  JOURNAL 


NEW   YORK 
THE  TEA  AND  COFFEE  TRADE  JOURNAL  COMPANY 


^ 


Copyright   1922 

BY  f 

THE   TEA   AND   COFFEE  TRADE  JOURNAL   COMPANY 
New  York 


05 


International  Copyright  Secured 

All  Rights  Reserved  in  U.  S.  A.  and 
itrics 


PRINTED  IN  U.  S.  A. 


ALL     ABO  U  T     COFFEE 


i 


^.t.L^linu 


COFFEE  ARABICA ;  LEAVES,  FLOWERS  AND  FRUIT 

Paintpd  from  nature  by  M.  E.  Eaton — Detail  aketohes  show  anther,  pistil,  and  section  of  corolla 


To  My    Wife 

HELEN  DE  GRAFF  UKERS 


PREFACE 

SEVENTEEN  years  ago  the  author  of  this  work  made  his  first  trip  abroad  to  gather 
material  for  a  book  on  coffee.  Subsequently  he  spent  a  year  in  travel  among  the 
coffee-producing  countries.  After  the  initial  surveys,  correspondents  were  ap- 
pointed to  make  researches  in  the  principal  European  libraries  and  museums ;  and  this 
phase  of  the  work  continued  until  April,  1922.  Simultaneous  researches  were  conducted 
in  American  libraries  and  historical  museums  up  to  the  time  of  the  return  of  the  final 
proofs  to  the  printer  in  June,  1922. 

Ten  years  ago  the  sorting  and  classification  of  the  material  was  begun.  The  actual 
writing  of  the  manuscript  has  extended  over  four  years. 

Among  the  unique  features  of  the  book  are  the  Coffee  Thesaurus ;  the  Coffee  Chro- 
nology, containing  492  dates  of  historical  importance ;  the  Complete  Reference  Table  of 
the  Principal  Kinds  of  Coffee  Grown  in  the  World ;  and  the  Coffee  Bibliography,  con- 
taining 1,380  references. 

The  most  authoritative  works  on  this  subject  have  been  Robinson's  The  Early  His- 
tory of  Coffee  Houses  in  England,  published  in  London  in  1893;  and  Jardin's  Le  Cafe, 
published  in  Paris  in  1895.  The  author  wishes  to  acknowledge  his  indebtedness  to  both 
for  inspiration  and  guidance.  Other  works,  Arabian,  French,  English,  German,  and 
Italian,  dealing  with  particular  phases  of  the  subject,  have  been  laid  under  contribution; 
and  where  this  has  been  done,  credit  is  given  by  foot-note  reference.  In  all  cases  where 
it  has  been  possible  to  do  so,  however,  statements  of  historical  facts  have  been  verified  by 
independent  research.  Not  a  few  items  have  required  months  of  tracing  to  confirm  or  to 
disprove. 

There  has  been  no  serious  American  work  on  coffee  since  Hewitt's  Coffee:  Its  His- 
tory, Cultivation  and  Uses,  published  in  1872;  and  Thurber's  Coffee  from  Plantation  to 
Cup,  published  in  1881.  Both  of  these  are  now  out  of  print,  as  is  also  Walsh's  Coffee:  Its 
History,  Classification  and  Description,  published  in  1893. 

The  chapters  on  The  Chemistry  of  Coffee  and  The  Pharmacology  of  Coffee 
have  been  prepared  under  the  author's  direction  by  Charles  W.  Trigg,  industrial  fellow 
of  the  Mellon  Institute  of  Industrial  Research. 

The  author  wishes  to  acknowledge,  with  thanks,  valuable  assistance  and  numerous 
courtesies  by  the  officials  of  the  following  institutions : 

British  Museum,  and  Guildhall  Museum,  London ;  Bibliotheque  Nationale,  Paris ; 
Congressional  Library,  Washington ;  New  York  Public  Library,  Metropolitan  Museum  of 
Art,  and  New  York  Historical  Society,  New  York;  Boston  Public  Library,  and  Boston 
Museum  of  Fine  Arts ;  Smithsonian  Institution,  Washington ;  State  Historical  Museum, 
Madison,  Wis. ;  Maine  Historical  Society,  Portland ;  Chicago  Historical  Society;  New 
Jersey  Historical  Society,  Newark ;  Harvard  University  Library ;  Essex  Institute,  Salem, 
Mass. ;  Peabody  Institute,  Baltimore. 

VII 


\ 


Thanks  and  appreciation  are  due  also  to : 

Charles  James  Jackson,  London,  for  permission  to  quote  from  his  Illustrated  His- 
tory of  English  Plate; 

Francis  Hill  Bigelow,  author ;  and  The  Maemillan  Company,  publishers,  for  permis- 
sion to  reproduce  illustrations  from  Historic  Silver  of  the  Colonies; 

H.  G.  D wight,  author;  and  Charles  Scribner's  Sons,  publishers,  for  permission  to 
quote  from  Constantinople,  Old  and  New,  and  from  the  article  on  "Turkish  Coffee 
Houses"  in  Scribner's  Magazine; 

Walter  G.  Peter,  Washington,  D.  C,  for  permission  to  photograph  and  reproduce 
pictures  of  articles  in  the  Peter  collection  at  the  United  States  National  Museum ; 

Mary  P.  Hamlin  and  George  Arliss,  authors,  and  George  C.  Tyler,  producer,  for  per- 
mission to  reproduce  the  Exchange  coffee  house  setting  of  the  first  act  of  Hamilton; 

Judge  A.  T.  Clearwater,  Kingston,  N.  Y. ;  R.  T.  Haines  Halsey,  and  Francis  P. 
Garvan,  New  York,  for  permission  to  publish  pictures  of  historic  silver  coffee  pots  in 
their  several  collections; 

The  secretaries  of  the  American  Chambers  of  Commerce  in  London,  Paris,  and 
Berlin ; 

Charles  Cooper,  London,  for  his  splendid  co-operation  and  for  his  special  contribu- 
tion to  chapter  XXXV; 

Alonzo  H.  De  Graff,  London,  for  his  invaluable  aid  and  unflagging  zeal  in  directing 
the  London  researches; 

To  the  Coffee  Trade  Association,  London,  for  assistance  rendered; 

To  G.  J.  Letliem,  London,  for  his  translations  from  the  Arabic ; 

Geoffrey  Sephton,  Vienna,  for  his  nice  co-operation; 

L.  P.  de  Bussy  of  the  Koloniaal  Institute,  Amsterdam,  Holland,  for  assistance  ren- 
dered ; 

Burton  Holmes  and  Blendon  R.  Campbell,  New  York,  for  courtesies; 

John  Cotton  Dana,  Newark,  N.  J.^  for  assistance  rendered; 

Charles  H.  Barnes,  Medford,  Mass.,  for  permission  to  publish  the  photograph  of 
Peregrine  White's  Mayflower  mortar  and   pestle; 

Andrew  L.  Winton,  Ph.D.^  Wilton,  Conn.,  for  permission  to  quote  from  his  The 
Microscopy  of  Vegetable  Foods  in  the  chapter  on  The  Microscopy  of  Coffee  and  to 
reprint  Prof.  J.  Moeller's  and  Tschirch  and  Oesterle's  drawings; 

F.  Hulton  Frankel,  Ph.D.,  Edward  M.  Frankel,  Ph.D.,  and  Arno  Viehoever,  for 
their  assistance  in  preparing  the  chapters  on  The  Botany  of  Coffee  and  The  Microscopy 
of  Coffee; 

A.  L.  Burns,  New  York,  for  his  assistance  in  the  correction  and  revision  of  chapters 
XXV,  XXVI,  XXVII,  and  XXXIV,  and  for  much  historical  information  supplied  in 
connection  with  chapters  XXX  and  XXXI ; 

Edward  Aborn,  New  York,  for  his  help  in  the  revision  of  chapter  XXXVI; 

George  W.  Lawrence,  former  president,  and  T.  S.  B.  Nielsen,  president,  of  the  New 
York  Coffee  and  Sugar  Exchange,  for  their  assistance  in  the  revision  of  chapter  XXXI ; 

Helio  Lobo,  Brazilian  consul  general,  New  York ;  Sebastiao  Sampaio,  commercial  at- 
tache of  the  Brazilian  Embassy,  AVashington ;  and  Th.  Langgaard  de  Menezes,  American 
representative  of  the  Sociedade  Promotora  da  Defeza  do  Cafe ; 

Felix  Coste,  secretary  and  manager,  the  National  Coffee  Roasters  Association;  and 
C.  B.  Stroud,  superintendent,  the  New  York  Coffee  and  Sugar  Exchange,  for  information 
supplied  and  assistance  rendered  in  the  revision  of  several  chapters; 

VIII 


F.  T.  Holmes,  New  York,  for  his  help  in  the  compilation  of  chronological  and  de- 
scriptive data  on  coffee-roasting  machiner}' ; 

Walter  Chester,  New  York,  for  critical  comments  on  chapter  XXVIII. 

The  author  is  especially  indebted  to  the  following,  who  in  many  ways  have  con- 
tributed to  the  successful  compilation  of  the  Complete  Reference  Table  in  chapter  XXIV, 
and  of  those  chapters  having  to  do  with  the  early  history  and  development  of  the  green 
coffee  and  the  wholesale  coffee-roasting  trades  in  the  United  States: 

George  S.  "Wright,  Boston;  A.  E.  Forbes,  William  Fisher,  Gwynne  Evans,  Jerome  J. 
Schotten,  and  the  late  Julius  J.  Schotten,,  St.  Louis;  James  H.  Taylor,  William  Bayne, 
Jr.,  A.  J.  Dannemiller,  B.  A.  Livierato,  S.  A.  Schonbrunn,  Herbert  Wilde,  A.  C.  Fitzpat- 
rick,  Charles  Meehan,  Clarence  Creighton,  Abram  Wakeman,  A.  H.  Davies,  Joshua 
Walker,  Fred  P.  Gordon,  Alex.  H.  Purcell,  George  W.  Vanderhoef,  Col.  William  P. 
Roome,  W.  Lee  Simmonds,  Herman  Simmonds,  W.  H.  Aborn,  B.  Lahey,  John  C.  Lou- 
don, J.  R.  Westfal,  Abraham  Reamer,  R.  C.  Wilhelm,  C.  H.  Stewart,  and  the  late  Au- 
gust Haeussler,  New  York ;  John  D.  Warfield,  Ezra  J.  Warner,  S.  0.  Blair,  and  George 
D.  McLaughlin.  Chicago  ;  W.  H.  Harrison,  James  Heekin,  and  Charles  Lewis,  Cincinnati ; 
Albro  Blodgett  and  A.  M.  Woolson,  Toledo ;  R,  V.  Engelhard  and  Lee  G.  Zinsmeister, 
Louisville;  E.  A.  Kahl,  San  Francisco;  S.  Jackson,  New  Orleans;  Lewis  Sherman,  Mil- 
waukee ;  Howard  F.  Boardman,  Hartford ;  A.  H.  Devers,  Portland,  Ore. ;  W.  James 
Mahood,  Pittsburgh;  William  B.  Harris,  East  Orange,  N.  J. 

New  York.  June  17,  1922. 


IX 


C  O  X  T  E  N  T  S 

A  COFFEE  THESAURUS 

i:ncoiiiiums  and  descriptive  phrases  applied  to  the  plant,  the  berry,  and  the  beverage.  .Page  xxvix 

THE  EVOLUTION  OF  A  CUP  OF  COFFEE 
Showing  the  various  steps  through  which  the  bean  passes  from  plantation  to  cup Page  xxix 

CHAPTER  I 

Dealing  with  the  Etymology  of  Coffee 

Origin  and  translation  of  the  word  from  the  Arabian  into  various  languages  —  Views  of  many 
writers    ; Page    1 

CHAPTER  II 

History  of  Coffee  Propagation 
A  brief  account  of  the  cultivation  of  the  coffee  plant  in  the  Old  World,  and  of  its  introduction  into 
the  New  —  A  romantic  coffee  adventure Page  5 

CHAPTER  III 

Early  History  of  Coffee  Drinking 
Coffee  in  the  Near  East  in  the  early  centui'ies  —  Stories  of  its  origin  —  Discovery  by  phyMcians 
and  adoption  by   the  Church  —  Its   spread  through  Arabia,  Persia,  and  Turkey  —  Persecu- 
tions and  intolerances  —  Early  coffee  manners  and  customs Page  11 

CHAPTER  IV 

Introduction  of  Coffee  into  Western  Europe 

When  the  three  great  temperance  beverages,  cocoa,  tea,  and  coffee,  came  to  Europe  —  Coffee  first 
mentioned  by  Rauwolf  in  1582  —  Early  days  of  coffee  in  Italy  —  How  Pope  Clement  VIII 
haptizetl  it  and  made  it  a  triily  Christian  beverage  —  The  first  European  coffee  house,  in 
Venice,  1645  —  The  famous  Caff 6  Florian  —  Other  celebrated  Venetian  coffee  houses  of  the 
eighteenth  century  —  The  romantic  story  of  Pedrocchi,  tJie  poor  lemonade-vender,  who  built 
the  most  beautiful  coffee  house  in  the  world  I'age  25- 

CHAPTER  V 

The  Beginnings  of  Coffee  in  France 
What  French  travelers  did  for  coffee  —  the  introduction  of  coffee  by  P.  de  la  Roque  into  Marseilles 
in  1&44  — Tlie  first  commercial  importation  of  coffee  from  Egypt  —  The  first  French  coffee 
house  —  Failure  of  the  attempt  by  physicians  of  Marseilles  to  discredit  coffee  —  Soli- 
man  Aga  introduces  coffee  into  Paris  —  Cabarets  ft  caffe  —  Celebrated  works  on  coffee  by 
French  writers Page   31 

Xlll 


CONTENTS 

CHAPTER  VI 


The  Introduction  op  Coffee  into  England 

The  first  printed  reference  ito  coffee  in  English  —  Early  mention  of  coffee  by  noted  English  travelers 
and  writers  —  The  Lacedaemonian  "black  broth"  controversy  —  How  Gonopios  introduced 
coffee  drinking  at  Oxford^- The  first  English  coffee  house  in  Oxford  —  Two  English  botan- 
ists on  coffee Page    35 

CHAPTER  VII  ) 

The  Introduction  op  Coffee  into  Holland 
How  the  enterprising  Dutch  traders  captured  the   first   world's   market  for  coffee  —  Activities  of 
the  Netherlands  East  India  Company  —  The  first  coffee  house  at  the  Hague  —  The  first  public 
auction  at  Amsterdam  in  1711,  when  Java  coffee  brought  forty-seven  cents  a  pound,  green 

Page  43 

CHAPTER  VIII  'y- 

The  Introduction  op  Coffee  into  Germany 

The  contributions  made  by  German  travelers  and  writers  to  the  literature  of  the  early  history 
of  coffee  —  The  first  coffee  house  in  Hamburg  opened  by  an  English  merchant  —  Famous 
coffee  houses  of  old  Berlin  —  The  first  coffee  periodical  and  the  first  kaffeeklatsch  — 
Frederick  the  Great's  coffee  roasting  monopoly  —  Coffee  persecutions  —  "Coffee-smellers"  — 
The  first  coffee  king Page   45 

CHAPTER  IX 

Telling  How  Coffee  Came  to  Vienna 
The  romantic  adventure  of  Franz  George  Kolsehitzky,  who  carried  "a  message  to  Garcia"  through 
the  enemy's  lines  and  won  for  himself  the  honor  of  being  the  first  to  teach  the  Viennese 
the  art  of  making  coffee,  to  say  nothing  of  falling  heir  to  the  supplies  of  the  green  beans 
left  behind  by  the  Turks ;  also  the  gift  of  a  house  from  a  grateful  municipality,  and  a 
statue  after  death  —  Affectionate  regard  in  which  "Brother-heart"  Kolsehitzky  is  held  as 
the  patron  saint  of  the  Vienna  Eaffeesieder  —  Life  in  the  early  Vienna  caf6s Page  49 

/ 
CHAPTER  X  / 

The  Coffee  Houses  op  Old  London 
One  of  the  most  picturesque  chapters  in  the  history  of  coffee  —  The  first  coffee  house  in  London  — 
The  first  coffee  handbill,  and  the  first  newspaper  advertisement  for  coffee  —  Strange  coffee 
mixtures  —  Fantastic  coffee  claims  —  Coffee  prices  and  coffee  licenses  —  Coffee  club  of  the 
Rota  —  Early  coffee-house  manners  and  customs  —  Coffee-house  keepers'  tokens  —  Opposition 
to  the  coffee  house  —  "Penny  universities"  —  Weird  coffee  substitutes  —  The  proposed  coffee- 
house newspaper  monopoly  —  Evolution  of  the  club  —  Decline  and  fall  of  the  coffee  house  — 
Pen  pictures  of  coffee-house  life  —  Famous  coffee  houses  of  tihe  seventeenth  and  eighteenth 
centuries —  Some  Old  World  pleasure  gardens  —  Locating  the  notable  coffee  houses.  .Page  53 

CHAPTER  XI 

History  op  the  Early  Parisian  Coffee  Houses 
The  introduction  of  coffee  into  Paris  by  ThSvenot  in  1657  —  How  Soliman  Aga  established  the 
custom  of  coffee  drinking  at  the  court  of  Louis  XIV  —  Opening  of  the  first  coffee  houses  — 
How  the  French  adaptation  of  the  Oriental  coffee  house  first  appeared  in  the  real  French 
caf6  of  FrauQois  Procoi)e  - —  Important  part  played  by  the  coffee  houses  in  the  development 
-  of  French  literature  and  the  stage  —  Their  association  with  the  Revolution  and  the  found- 
ing of  the  Republic  —  Quaint  customs  and  patrons —  Historic  Parisian  cafes Page  91 

XIV 


CONTENTS 

CHAPTER  XII 
Introduction  op  Coffee  into  North  America 

Captain  John  Smith,  founder  of  the  Ck)lony  of  Virginia,  is  the  first  to  bring  to  North  America  a 
linowledge  of  coffee  in  1607  —  The  coffee  grinder  on  the  Mayflower  —  Coffee  drinking  in  1668  — 
William  Penn's  coffee  purchase  in  1683  —  Coffee  in  colonial  New  England  —  The  psychology 
of  the  Boston  "tea  party,"  and  why  the  United  States  became  a  nation  of  coffee  drinkers  in- 
stead of  tea  drinkers,  like  England  —  The  first  coffee  license  to  I>orothy  Jones  In  1670  —  The 
first  coffee  house  in  New  England  —  Notable  coffee  houses  of  old  Boston  —  A  sky-scraper 
coffee-house  Page   105 


CHAPTER  XIII 

History  of  Coffee  in  Old  New  York 
The  burghers  of  New  Amsterdam  begin  to  substitute  coffee  for  "must,"  or  heer,  for  breakfast  in 
1668  —  William  Penn  makes  his  first  purchase  of  coffee  in  the  green  bean  from  New  York 
merchants  in  1683  —  The  King's  Arms,  the  first  coffee  house  —  The  historic  Merchants, 
sometimes  called  the  "Birthplace  of  our  Union"  —  The  coffee  house  as  a  civic  forum  —  The 
Exchange,  Whitehall,  Burns,  Tontine,  and  other  celebrated  coffee  houses  —  The  Vauxhall  and 
Ranelagh  pleasure  gardens Page   115 


CHAPTER  XIV 

Coffee  Houses  of  Old  Philadelphia 

Ye  Coffee  House,  Philadelphia's  first  coffee  house,  opened  about  1700  —  The  two  London  coffee 

houses  —  The  City   tavern,  or  Merchants  coffee  house  —  How  these,  and  other  celebrated 

resorts,  dominated  the  social,  political,  and  business  life  of  the  Quaker  City  in  the  eighteenth 

century   Page    125 


CHAPTER  XV 

The  Botany  of  the  Coffee  Plant    - 
Its  complete  classification  by  class,  sub-class,  order,  family,  genus,  and  species  —  How  the  Coffea 
arabica  grows,  flowers,  and  bears  —  Other  species  and  hybrids  described  —  Natural  caffein- 
free  coffee  —  Fungoid  diseases  of  coffee Page   131 

CHAPTER  XVI 

The  Microscopy  of  the  Coffee  Fruit 
How  the  beans  may  be  examined  under  the  microscope,  and  what  is  revealed  —  Structure  of  the 
berry,   the  green,   and   the  roasted  beans  —  The  coffee-leaf  disease  under  the  microscope  — 
Value  of  microscopic  analysis  in  detecting  adulteration Page  149 

CHAPTER  XVII 

The  Chemistry  of  the  Coffee  Bean  - 

By  Charles  W.  Trigg. 
Chemistry  of  the  preparation  and  treajtment  of  the  green  bean  —  Artificial  aging  —  Renovating 
damaged  coffees  —  Extracts  —  "Oaffetannic  acid"  —  Caffein,  caffein-f ree  coffee  —  Caffeol  — 
Fats  and  oils  —  Carbohydrates  —  Roasting  —  Scientific  aspects  of  grinding  and  packaging  — 
The  coffee  brew  —  Soluble  coffee  —  Adulterants  and  substitutes  —  Official  methods  of  anal- 
ysis  Page   155 

XV 


C  O  X  T  E  X  T  S 

(mAPTER  XVIII 
Pharmacology  of  the  Coffee  Deink  ., 

liy   Charles   IF.    Trigg 
General  physiological  action  —  Effect  on  chiklven  —  Effect  on  longevity  —  Behavior  in  the  alimen- 
tary  rSgime  —  Place   in  dietary  —  Action  on    bacteria  —  Use    in    medicine  —  Physiological 
,, action  of  "caffetannic  acid"  —  Of  caffeol  —  Of  caflfein  —  Effect  of  caffein  on  mental  and  motor 
efficiency  —  Conclnsions     Page   174 


CHAPTER  XIX 

The  Commercial  Coffees  of  the  World 

The  geographical  distribution  of  the  coffees  grown   in   North  America,   Centi-al   America,    South 

America,  tlie  West  India  Islands,  Asia,  Africa,  the  Pacific  Islands,  and  the  Easit  Indies  — 

A  statistical  study  of  tlie  distribution  of  the  principal  kinds  —  A  commercial  coffee   chart 

of    the   world's    leading   growths,    with   market   names    and    general    trade    characteristics 

Page  189 

CHAPTER  XX 

Cultivation  of  the  Coffee  Plant 

The  early  days  of  coffee  culture  in  Abyssinia  and  Arabia  —  Coffee  cultivation   in  general  —  Soil. 

climate,    rainfall,    altitude,   propagation,   prepairing    the    i^lantation,    shade,    w^ind    breaks, 

fertilizing,  praning,  catch  crops,  pests,  and   diseases  —  How    coffee    is    grown   around    the 

world  —  Cultivation  in  all  the  principal  producing  countries Page  197 

CHAPTER  XXI 

Preparing  Green  Coffee  for  Market 
Early  Arabian  methods  of  preparation  —  How  primitive  devices  were  replaced  by  modern  methods 
—  A  chronological  story  of  the  development  of  scientific  plantation  machinery,  and  the 
part  played  by  English  and  American  inventors  —  The  marvelous  coffee  package,  one 
of  the  most  ingenious  in  all  nature  —  How  coffee  is  harvested  —  Picking  —  Preparation  by 
the  drj-  and  the  wet  methods  —  Pulping  —  Fermentation  and  washing  —  Drying  —  Hulling, 
or  peeling,  and  polishing — Siting,  or  grading  —  Preparation  methods  of  different  countries 

Page  245 

CHAPTER  XXII 

The  Production  and  Consumption  of  Coffee 
A  statistical  study  of  world  production  of  coffee  by  countries  —  Per  capita  figures  of  the  leading 
consuming  countries  —  Coffee-consumption  figures  comi>ared  with  tea-consumption  figures  in 
the  United  States  and  the  United  Kingdom  t— Three  centuries  of  coffee  trading — Coffee 
drinking  in  the  United  States,  past  and  present  —  Reviewing  the  1921  trade  in  the  United 
States    Page   273 


CHAPTER  XXIII 

How  Green  Coffees  Are  Bought  and  Sold 
Buying  coffee  in  the  producing  countries  — Transi>orting  coffee  to  the  coaisuming  markets  —  Some 
recoi"d  coffee  cargoes  shipped  to  th^  United  States  —  Transport  over  seas  —  Java  coffee 
"ex-sailing  vessels"  —  Handling  coffee  at  New  York,  New  Orleans,  and  San  Francisco  — 
The  coffee  exchanges  of  Europe  and  the  United  States — ^Commission  men  and  brokers  — 
Trade  and  exchange  contracts  for  delivery  —  Important  rulings  affecting  coffee  trading  — 
Some  well-known  green  coffee  marks Page    SOS 

XVI 


^ 


CONTEXTS 


I 

^M                                Greejsi  and  Roasted  Coffee  Characteristics  ' 
'  The  trade  values,  bean  characteristics,  and  cup  merits  of  the  leading  coffees  of  commerce,  with  a 
"Complete   Reference   Table  of  the   Principal    Kinds    of    Coffee    Grown    in    the    World" — 
Appearance,  aroma,  and  flavor  in  cup-testing  —  How  experts  test  coffee  —  A  typical  sample- 
roasting  and  cup-testing  outfit Page    341    V 

CHAPTER  XXV  /^ 

Factory  Preparation  op  Roasted  Coffee 
Coffee  roasting  as  a  business  —  Wholesale  coffee-roasting  machinery  —  Separating,  milling,  and 
mixing  or  blending  green  coffee,  and  roasting  by  coal,  coke,  gas,  and  electricity  —  Facts 
about  coffee  roasting  —  Cost  of  roasting  —  Green-coffee  shrinkage  table  —  "Dry"  and  "wet" 
roasts  —  On  roasting  coffee  etficiently  —  A  typical  coal  roaster  —  Cooling  and  stoning  — 
Finishing  or  glazing  —  Blending  roasted  coffees  —  Blends  for  restaurants  —  Grinding  and 
packaging  —  Coffee  additions  and  fillers  —  Treated  coffees,  and  dry  extracts Page  379 

CHAPTER  XXVI 

Wholesale  Merchandising  of  Coffee 
How  coffees  are  sold  at  wholesale  —  The  wholesale  salesman's  place  in  merchandising  —  Some 
coffee  costs  analyzed  —  Handy  coffee-selling  chart  —  Terms  and  credits  —  About  package 
coffees  —  Various  types  of  coffee  containers  —  Coffee  package  labels  —  Coffee  package 
economies  —  Practical  grocer  helps  —  Coffee  sampling  —  Premium  method  of  sales  promo- 
tion     , Page   407 

CHAPTER  XXVII 

Retail  Merchandising  op  Roasted  Coffee 
How  coffees  are  sold  at  retail  —  The  place  of  the  grocer,  the  tea  and  coffee  dealer,  the  chain 
store,  and  the  wagon-route  distributer  in  the  scheme  of  distribution  —  Starting  in  the  retail 
coffee  business  —  Small  roasters  for  retail  dealers  —  Model  coffee  departments  —  Creating 
a  coffee  trade  —  Meeting  competition  —  Splitting  nickels  —  Figuring  costs  and  profits  —  A 
credit  policy  for  retailers  —  Premiums Page   415 

CHAPTER  XXVIII 

A  Short  History  of  Coffee  Advertising 
Early  coffee  advertising  —  The  first  coffee  advertisement  in  1587  was  frank  propaganda  for  the 
legitimate  use  of  coffee  —  The  first  printed  advertisement  in  English  —  The  first  newspaper 
advertisement  —  Early  advertisements  in  colonial  America  —  Evolution  of  advertising  — 
Package  coffee  advertising — ^  Advertising  to  the  trade  —  Advertising  by  means  of  news- 
papers, magazines,  bill-boards,  electric  signs,  motion  pictures,  demonstrations,  and  by  samples 
—  Advertising  for  retailers  —  Advertising  by  government  propaganda  —  The  Joint  Coffee 
Trade  publicity  campaign  in  the  United  States  —  Coffee  advertising  efficiency Page  431 

CHAPTER  XXIX 

The  Coffee  Trade  in  the  United  States 
The  coffee  business  started  by  Dorothy  Jones  of  Boston  —  Some  early  sales  —  Taxes  imposed  by 
Congress  in  war  and  peace  —  The  first  coffee-plantation-machine,  coffee-roaster,  coffee- 
grinder,  and  coffee-pot  patents  —  Early  trade  marks  for  coffee  —  Beginnings  of  the  coffee 
urn,  the  coffee  container,  and  the  soluble-coffee  business  —  Chronological  record  of  the  most 
important  events  in  the  history  of  the  trade  from  the  eighteenth  century  to  the  twentieth 

Page  4G7 

XVII 


i 


CONTENTS 

CHAPTER  XXX 

Development  of  the  Green  and  Roasted  Coffee 
Business  in  the  United  States 
A  brief  history  of  the  growth  of  coffee  trading  —  Notable  firms  and  personalities  that  have  played 
important  parts  in  green  coffee  in  the  principal  coffee  centers  —  Green  coffee  trade  organ- 
izations—  Growth  of  the  wholesale  coffee- roasting  trade,  and  names  of  those  who  have 
made  history  in  it  —  The  National  Coffee  Roasters  Association  —  Statistics  of  distribution  of 
coffee-roasting  establishments  in  the  United  States   Page  475 


CHAPTER  XXXI 

Some  Big  Men  and  Notable  Achievements 
^  B.  G.  Arnold,  the  first,  and  Hermann  Sielcken,  the  last  of  the  American  "coffee  kings"  —  John 
Arbuckle,  the  original  package-coffee  man  —  Jabez  Bums,  the  man  who  revolutionized  the 
roasted-coffee  business  by  his  contributions  as  inventor,  manufacturer,  and  writer  —  Ck>ffee 
trade  booms  and  panics  —  Brazil's  first  valorization  enterprise  —  War-time  government 
control  of  coffee  —  The  story  of  soluble  coffee Page  517 


CHAPTER  XXXII 

A  History  of  Coffee  in  Literature 
The  romance  of  coffee,  and  its  influence  on  the  discourse,    poetry,    history,    drama,    philosophic 
writing,  and  fiction  of  the  seventeenth  and  eighteenth  centuries  and  on  the  writers  of  to- 
day —  Coffee  quips  and  anecdotes Page   541 

CHAPTER  XXXIII 

Coffee  in  Relation  to  the  Fine  Arts 

How  coffee  and  coffee  drinking  have  been  celebrated  in  painting,  engraving,  sculpture,  caricature, 

lithography,  and  music  —  Epics,  rhapsodies,   and   cantatas  in  praise  of  coffee  —  Beautiful 

specimens  of  the  art  of  the  potter  and  the  silversmith  as  shown  in  the  coffee  service  of 

various  periods  in  the  world's  history  —  Some  historical  relics Page  587 

CHAPTER  XXXIV 

The  Evolution  of  Coffee/ Apparatus 
Showing  the  development  of  coffee-roasting,  coffee-grinding,   coffee-making,   and  coffee-serving  de- 


L 


vices  from  the  earliest  time  to  the  present  day  -^"The  original  coffee  grinder,  the  first  coffee 
roaster,  and  the  first  coffee  pot  —  T^e  original  French  drip  pot,  the  De  Belloy  percolator  — 
Count  Rumford's  improvement  —  How  the  commercial  coffee  roaster  was  developed  —  The 
^y olution-jQf^  fi  1  tra tio n  ,ii^^eg  —  The  old  Carter  "pull-out"  roaster  —  Trade  customs  in 
New^iork  ana  ist.  rSms  in  the  sixties  and  seventies  —  The  story  of  the  evolution  of  the 
Burns  roaster  —  How  the  gas  roaster  was  developed  in  France,  Great  Britain,  and  the 
United  States Page    615 


CHAPTER  XXXV 

World's  Coffee  Manners  and  Customs 
How  coffee  is  roasted,  prepared,  and  served  in  all  the  leading  civilized  countries  —  The  Arabian 
coffee  ceremony  —  The  present-day  coffee  houses  of  Turkey  —  Twentieith   century   improve- 
ments in  Europe  and  the  United  States Page   655 

XVIII 


CONTENTS 

CHAPTER  XXXVI  - 

Preparation  of  the  Uniyersal  Beverage 
I  he  evolution  of  grinding  and  brewing  methods  —Coffee  was  first  a  food,  then  a  wine,  a  medicine, 
a  devotional  ref reshment>  a  confection,  and  finally  a  beverage  —  Brewing  by  boiling,  infu- 
sion, percolation,  and  filtration  —  Ck)ffee  making  in  Enrope  in  the  nineteenth  century  —  Early 
coffee  making  in  the  United  States  —  Latest  developments  in  better  coffee  making  —  Various 
aspects  of  scientific  coffee  brewing  —  Advice  to  coffee  lovers  on  how  to  buy  coffee,  and  how 
to  make  it  in  perfection Page   693 

A  COFFEE  CHRONOLOGY 

Giving  dates  and  events  of  historical  interest  in  legend,  travel,  literature,  cultivation,  plantation 
treatment,  trading,  and  In  the  preparation  and  use  of  coffee  from  the  earliest  time  to  the 
present    ' Page   725 

A  COFFEE  BIBLIOGRAPHY 

A  list  of  references  gathered  from  the  principal  general  and  scientific  libraries  —  Arranged  in 
alphabetic  order  of  topics Page  738 

INDEX 

Page  769 


XIX 


ILLUSTRATIONS 


Color  Plates 


Facing  paye 
Cofifee  branches,  flowers,  and  fruit  (painted 

by  Blendon  Campbell)  Frontispiece v 

Coffea   arabica;   leaves,   flowers,   and   fruit 

(painted  by  M.  E.  Eaton) 1 

Tlie  coffee  tree  bears  fruit,  leaf,  and  blossom 

at  the  same  time  16 

A  close-up  of  ripe  coffee  berries 32 

Coffee  under  the  Stars  and  Stripes 144 

Coffee  scenes  in  British  India 160 

Picking  and  sacking  coffee  in  Brazil 176 

Mild-coffee  culttire  and  preparation 192 


.  Facing  page 

Coffee  scenes  in  Java 200 

Coffee  scenes  in  Sumatra 216 

Coffee   preparation   in    Central    and    South 

America  248   M 

Typical  coffee  scenes  in  Costa  Rica 336  " 

Principal    varieties    of   green-coffee    beans, 

natural  size  and  color 352 

Coal-roasting  plant,  New  York 408 

Coffee  scenes  in  the  Near  and  Far  East 544 

Primitive  transportation  methods,  Arabia . .  640 
Hulling  coffee  in  Aden,  Arabia 656 


Black  and  White  Illustrations 


rage 

Coffee  tree  in  flower 4 

De  Clieu  and  his  coffee  plant 7 

Legendary  discovery  of  coffee  drink 10 

Title  page  of  Dufour's  book 13 

Frontispiece  from  Dufour's  book 15 

Turkish  coffee  house,  17th  century 21 

Serving  coffee  to  a  guest,  Arabia 23 

First  printed  reference  to  coffee 24 

An  18th-century  Italian  coffee  house 2() 

Nobility  in  an  early  Venetian  caff^ 27 

Goldoni  in  a  Venetian  coffee  house 28 

Florian's  famous  coffee  house 29 

Title  page  of  La  Roque's  work 82 

Coffee  tree  as  pictured  by  La  Roque 32 

Coffee  branch  in  La  Roque's  work 33 

First  printed  reference  in  English 37 

Reference  in  Sherley's  travels 39 

References  in  Biddulph's  travels 40 

Mol's  coffee  house  at  Exeter 41 

Reference  in  Sandys'  travels 42 

Richter's  coffee  house,  Leipsic 40 

Coffee  house,  Germany,  17th  century 47 

Kolschitzky  in  his  Blue  Bottle  coffee  house . .  48 

First  coffee  house  in  Leopoldstadt. 50 

Statue  of  Kolschitzky 51 

First  advertisement  for  coffee 55 

First  newspaper  advertisement 57 


Page 

Coffee  house,  time  of  Charles  II 60 

London  coffee  house,  17th  century 61 

Coffee  house,  Queen  Anne's  time 62 

Coffee-house  keepers'  tokens  (plate  1) 63 

A  broadside  of  1663 64 

Coffee-house  keepers'  tokens  (plate  2) 65 

A  broadside  of   1667 68 

A  broadside  of   1670 70 

A  broadside  of   1672 70 

A  broadside  of  1674 71 

White's  and   Brooke's   coffee   houses 78 

London  coffee-house  politicians 78 

Great  Fair  on  the  frozen  Thames 79 

Lion's  head   at  Button's 80 

Trio  of  notables  at  Button's 81 

Vauxhall  Gardens  on  a  gala  night 82 

Rotunda  in  Ranelagh  Gardens 83 

Garraway's  coffee  house 84 

Button's  coffee  house 84 

Slaughter's  coffee  house 85 

Tom's  coffee  house 85 

Lloyd's  coffee  house 86 

Dick's  coffee  house 87 

Grecian  coffee  house 87 

Don  Saltero's  coffee  house 88 

British  coffee  house 88 

French  coffee  house  in  London 89 

XX 


ILLUSTRATIONS 


Pa<je 

Raiuponaux'  Royal  Drummer  ca fg 90 

La  Foire  St.-Germaiu 92 

Street  coffee  vender  of  Paris 92 

Armenian  decorations  in  Paris  cafe 93 

Corner  of  liistoric  Caf6  de  Procope 93 

C4if6  de  Procope,  Paris 9.j 

Cashier's  desk  in  coffee  liouse,  Paris 9G 

Caf6    Foy 97 

Caf6  des  Mille  Colonnes 99 

Caf 6  de  Paris 101 

Interior  of  a  typical  Parisian  cafe 103 

Chess  at  tlie  Caf6  de  la  R^gence 104 

Types  of  colonial  coffee  roasters 100 

Early  family  coffee  roaster 100 

Historic  relics,  early  New  England 107 

Maytlower   "coffee   grinder" 108 

Crown  coffee  house,  Boston lOS 

Coffee  devices,  Massachusetts  colony 109 

Coft'ee  devices  of  western  pioneers 110 

Coffee  pots  of  oolouial  days 110 

Green  Dragon  tavern.  Boston Ill 

Metal  coffee  pots.  New  York  colony 112 

Exchange  coffee  house,  Boston 113 

President-elect     Washington's    official    wel- 
come at  Merchants  Coffee  House 114 

King's  Arms  coffee  house,  New  York IIG 

Burns  coffee  house 117 

Merchants  coffee  house 119 

Tontine  coffee  house 121 

Tontine  building  of  1850 122 

Xiblo's    Garden 122 

Coffee  relics,  Dutch  New  York 122 

New  York's  Vauxhall  Garden  of  1803 123 

Tavern  and  grocers'  signs,  old  New  York ....   124 
Second  London  coffee  house,  Philadelphia . .   127 

Selling  slaves,  old  London  coffee  house 128 

City  tavern,  Philadelphia 129 

Coffee-house  scene  in  "Hamilton" 130 

Coffee  tree,  flowers  and  fruit 132 

Germination  of  the  coffee  plant 133 

Brazil  coffee  plantation  in  flower 134 

f'offea  arahica,  Porto  Rico 135 

Coffea  arahica,  flower  and  fruit,  Costa  Rica.   135 

Young  Coffea  arabica.  Kona,  Hawaii 136 

Survivors  of  first  Liberiau  trees  in  Java ....   130 

Coffea  arabica  in  flower.  Java 137 

Liberian  coffee  tree,  Lamoa,  P.  1 138 

Coffea  congensis,  2J^  years  old 138 

Flowering  of  5-year-old  Coffea  excelsa 139 

Branches  of  Coffee  excelsa 140 

Coffea  stenophylla 140 

Near  view  of  Coffea  arahica  berries 141 

Wild  caffein-f ree  coffee  tree 142 

Coffee   bean    characteristios. 142 

Coffea  arabica  berries 143 

Rohusta  coffee  in  flower 144 

One-year-old  rohusta  estate 145 


Paije 

Coffea  Quillou  Cowers 146 

Quillou  coffee  tree  in  blossom 147 

Coffea    L'gandae 148 

Coffea  arahica  under  the  microscope 149 

Cross-section  of  coffee  bean 150 

Cross- section  of  hull  and  bean 150 

Epicarp  and  pericarp  under  microscope....  151 
Endocarp  and  endosperm  under  microscope.   152 

Spermoderm  under  microscope 152 

Tissues  of  embryo  under  microscope 152 

Coffee-leaf  disease  under  microscope 353 

Green  and  roasted  coffee  under  microscope. .  153 
Green  and  roasted  Bogota  under  microscope  154 

Cross-section  of  endosperm 156 

I'ortiou  of  the  investing  membrane , .  157 

Structure  of  the  green  bean 157 

Ground  coffee  under  microscope 167 

Coffee  tree  in  bearing,  Lamoa,  P.  1 196 

Early  coffee  implements 198 

Ci-oss-section  of  mountain  slope,  Yemen 198 

First  steps  in  coffee-growing 199 

Coffee  nursery,  Guatemala 200 

Coffee  under  shade,  Porto  Rico 201 

Boekit  Gompong  estate,  Sumatm 202 

Estate  in  Antioquia,  Colombia 203 

Weeding  and  harrowing,  Sao  Paulo 204 

Fazenda  Dumout,  Sao  Paulo 205 

Fazenda  Guatapara,  Sao  Paulo 206 

Picking  coffee,  Sao  Paulo 207 

Intensive  cultivation,  Sao  Paulo 207 

Private  railroad,  Sao  Paulo 208 

Coffee  culture  in  Sao  Paulo 209 

Heavily  laden  coffee  tree,  Bogota 210 

Picking  coffee,  Bogota 211 

Altamira  Hacienda,  Venezuela 212 

Carmen  Hacienda,  Venezuela 213 

Heavy  fruiting,  Coffea  rohusta.  Java 214 

Road  through  coffee  estate,  Java 215 

Native  picking  coffee,  Sumatra 216 

Administrator's  bungalow,  Java 216 

Administrator's  bungalow,  Sumatra 217 

Coffee  culture  in  Guatemala 218 

Indians  picking  coffee,  Guatemala 219 

Bungalow,  coffee  estate,  Guatemala 220 

Thirty-year-old  coffee  trees,  Mexico 221 

Mexican  coffee  picker. .' 222 

Receiving   coffee,    Mexico 223 

Heavily  laden  coffee  tree,  Porto  Rico 224 

Coffee  cultivation,  Costa  Rloa 225 

Picking  Costa  Rica  coffee 226 

Mountain  coffee  estate,  Costa  Rica 226 

Mysore  coffee  estate 227 

Coffee  growing  under  shade,  India 228 

Coffee  estate  at  Harar 229 

Wild  coffee  near  Adis  Abeba 231 

Mocjia  coffee  growing  on  terraces 232 

Picking  Blue  Mountain  Ijerries,  Jamaica...  233 


XXI 


ILLUSTRATIONS 


Page 

Coffee   pickers,   Guadeloupe 234 

Coffee  in  blossom,  Panama 235 

Robusta  coffee,  Cochin-Ghina 237 

Bourbon  trees,   French  Indo-Ohina 238 

Picking  coffee  in  Queensland 239 

Coffee  in  bloom,  Kona,  Hawaii 240 

Coffee  at  Hamakua,   Hawaii 241 

Coffee  trees,  South  Kona,  Hawaii 242 

Plantation  near  Sagada,  P.  1 243 

Coffee  preparation,  Sao  Paulo 244 

Walker's  original  disk  pulper 246 

Early  English  coffee  peeler 246 

Group  of  English  cylinder  pulpers 247 

Copper  covers  for  pulper  cylinders 248 

Granada  unpulped  coffee  separator 249 

Hand-power  double-disk  pulper 249 

Tandem    coffee   pulper 250 

Horizontal   coffee   washer 251 

Vertical  coffee  washer 251 

Coban  pulper,  Venezuela 252 

Niagara  power  coffee  huller 252 

British  and  American  coffee  driers 253 

American  Guardiola  drier 254 

Smout  i>eeler   and   polisher 254 

Smout  peeler  and  polisher,  exposed 255 

O'Krassa's   coffee  drier 255 

Six  well-known  huUers  and  separators 256 

El  Monarca  coffee  classifier 257 

Hydro-electric  installation,  Guatemala 258 

Preparing  Brazil  coffee  for  market 259 

Working  coffee  on  the  drying  flats 260 

Fermenting  and  washing  tanks,  Sao  Paulo.  260 

Drying  grounds,  Fazenda  Schmidt 261 

Prei)aring  Colombian  coffee  for  market 262 

Old-fashioned   ox-power   huller 263 

Street-car  coffee  transport,  Orizaba 264 

Coffee  on  drying  floors,  Porto  Rico 264 

Sun-drying  coffee 265 

Drying  patio,  Costa  Rica 266 

Early  Guardiola  steam  drier 266 

Indian  women  cleaning  Mocha  coffee 267 

Cleaning-and-grading  machinery,  Aden 268 

Drying  coffee  at  Harar 269 

Preparing  Java  coffee  for  market 270 

Coffee  transport  in  Java 271 

Meeting  of  Amsterdam  coffee  brokers,  1820.  291 

Bill  of  public  sale  of  coffee,  1790 292 

Last  sample  before  export,  Santos 304 

Stamping  bags  for  export 304 

Preparing  Brazil  coffee  for  export 305 

Grading  coffee  at  Santos 306 

The  test  by  the  cups,  Santos 306 

New  York  importers'  warehouse,  Santos 307 

Pack-mule  transport  in  Venezuela 308 

Coffee-carrying  cart,  Guatemala 308 

Pack-oxen  fording  stream,  Colombia 308 

Coffee  transport,  Mexico  and  South  America  309 


Page 

Donkey  coffee-transport  at  Harar 310 

Coffee  camels  at  Harar 310 

Selling  coffee  by  tapping  hands,  Aden 310 

Packing  and  transporting  coffee,  Aden 311 

Coffee  camel  train  at  Hodeida 312 

Methods  of  loading  coffee,  Santos 313 

Coffee  freighter,  Cauca  River,  Colombia 314. 

Coffee  steamers  on  the  Magdalena 314 

Loading  heavy  cargo  on  Santa  Cecilia 315 

Unloading  Java  coffee  from  sailing  vessel . .  317 

Receiving  piers  for  coffee.  New  York 318 

Unloading  coffee,  covered  pier.  New  York . .  319 

Receiving  and  storing  coffee,  New  York 320 

Tester  at  work.  Bush  Terminal,  New  York.  321 
Loading  lighters,  Bush  Docks,  Brooklyn...  321 

New  Terminal  system  on  Staten  Island 322 

Motor  tractor.  Bush  piers 322 

Unloading  with  modern  conveyor 323 

Coffee  handling.  New  Orleans  piers 324 

Coffee  in  steel -covered  sheds,  New  Orleans.  325 
Unloading  and  storing  coffee,  San  Francisco  326 
Modern  device  for  handling  green  coffee ....  327 
Handling  green  coffee  at  European  ports. . .  328 

New  York  Coffee  and  Sugar  Exchange 329 

Coffee  section,  Coffee  and  Sugar  Exchange. .  330 

Blackboards,  Coffee  Exchange 331 

"Coffee  afloat"  blackboard 332 

Well  known  green-coffee  marks 339 

Bourbon-Santos  beans,  roasted 343 

Flat  and  Bourbon-Santos  beans,  roasted...  343 

Rio  beans,  roasted 343 

Mexican  beans,  roasted 347 

Guatemala  beans,  roasted 347 

Bogota  (Colombia)  beans,  roasted 348 

Maracaibo  beans,   roasted 349 

Mocha  benas,  roasted 351 

Washed  Java  beans,  roasted. 353 

Sample- roasting  and  cup- testing  outfit 357 

Modern  gas  coffee-roasting  plant 380 

Sixteen-cylinder  coal  roasting  plant 382 

Green-coffee  separating  and  milling  machines  384 

English  gas  coffee-roasting  plant 386 

German  gas  coffee- roasting  plant 386 

French  gas  coffeenroasting  plant 387 

Jumbo  coffee  roaster,  Arbuckle  plant 388 

Roasting  plant  of  Reid,  Murdoch  &  Co 389 

Complete  gas  coffee-plant  installation 390 

Burns  Jubilee  gas  roaster 391 

Burns  coal   roaster 392 

Open  perforated  cylinder  with  flexible  back 

head  392 

Trying  the  roast 394 

Monitor  gas  roaster 394 

A  group  of  roasting-room  accessories 394 

Dumping  the  roast 395 

A  four-bag  coffee  flnisher 396 

Burns  sample-coffee  roaster 396 


xxn 


ILLUSTRATIONS 


Page 

Lambert  coal  coffee-roasting  outfit 397 

Coles  No.  22  grinding  mill 398 

Monitor  coffee-granulating  machine 398 

C'lallenge  pulverizer  398 

Burns  No.  12  grinding  mill 399 

Monitor  steel-cut  grinder,  separator,  etc 399 

Johnson  carton-filling,  weighing,  and  sealing 

machine  400 

Ideal  steel -cut  mill 400 

Smyser  package-making  and  filling  machine  401 

Automatic  coffee-packing  machine 402 

Complete  coffee-cartoning  outfit 403 

Automatic  coffee-weighing  machines 404 

Units  in  manufacture  of  soluWe  coffee 405 

Tyi^s  of  coffee  containers 411 

Fresh-roasted-coffee  idea  in  retailing 414 

Premium  tea  and  coffee  dealer's  display. . . .  416 

Chain-store  interior   417 

Familiar  A  &  P  store  front 418 

Specialist  idea  in  coffee  merchandising 419 

Monitor  gas  roaster,  cooler,  and  stoner 420 

Royal  gas  coffee  roaster  for  retailers 420 

Burns  half-bag  roaster,  cooler,  and  stoner.  421 

Lambert  Jr.  roasting  outfit  for  retailers 421 

Faulder  and  Simplex  gas  roasters 422 

Coffee  roasters  used  in  Paris  shops 423 

Small   German  roasters 424 

Popular  French  retail  roaster 424 

Uno  cabinet  gas  roaster  and  cooler 424 

Educational  window  exhibit 425 

Better-class  American  grocery,  interior 426 

Prize-winning  window  display 427 

Americanized  English  grocer's  shop 429 

Famous  package  coffees 430 

First  coffee  advertisement  in  U.  S 433 

Coffee  advertisement  of  1790 434 

First  colored  handbill  for  package  coffee. . .  435 

Reverse  side  of  colored  handbill 435 

St.  Louis  handbill  of  1854 436 

Advertising-card  copy,   1873 437 

Handbill  copy  of  the  seventies 437 

Box-end  sticker,  1833 438 

Chase  &  Sanborn  advertisement,  1888 438 

A  Goldberg  cartoon,  1910 439 

Copy  used  by  Chase  &  Sanborn,  1900 439 

An  effective  cut-out 442 

How  coffee  is  advertised  to  the  trade 443 

Joint  Coffee  Trade  Publicity  Committee...  447 

Magazine  and  newspaper  copy,  1919 449 

Copy   that   stressed   helpfulness   of   coffee, 

1919-20   450 

Joint  Committee's  house  organ 451 

Introductory  medical-journal  copy 451 

Telling  the  doctors  the  truth,  1920 452 

Joint  Committee's  attractive  booklets 453 

More  medical  journal  copy,  1920 454 

Magazine  and  newspaper  copy,  1921 455 


Page 

Educating  the  doctor,  1922 456 

Magazine  and  newspaper  copy,  1922 457 

Specimen  of  early  Yuban  copy 459 

Historical  association  in  advertising 459 

Package  coffee  advertising  in  1922 460 

The  social  distinction  argument 461 

Drawing  upon  history  for  atmosphere 461 

An  impressive  electric  sign,  Chicago 462 

How  coffee  is  advertised  outdoors 463 

Attractive  car  cards,  spring  of  1922 464 

Effective  iced-coff ee  copy 465 

European  advertising  novelty,  New  York . .  465 

Coenties  Slip,  in  days  of  sailing  vessels 466 

First  U.  S.  coffee-grinder  patent 469 

Carter's  Pull-out  roaster  patent 469 

First  registered  trade  mark  for  coffee 470 

Original  Arbuckle  coffee  packages 471 

Merchants  coffee  house  tablet 473 

Departed   dominant   figures   in   New    York 

green  coffee  trade 476 

"Their  association  with   New   York   green 

coffee  trade  dates  back  nearly  fifty  years"  477 
Green  coffee  trade-builders  who  have  passed 

on    478 

"Their  race  is  run,  their  course  is  done"'..  479 

112  Front  Street,  New  York,  1879 480 

At  87  Wall  Street,  New  York,  years  ago 480 

Wall  and  Front  Streets,  New  York,  1922. . .  481 

Front  Street,  New  York,  1922 483 

In  the  New  Orleans  coffee  district 486 

Green  coffee  district.  New  Orleans 487 

California   Street,  San  Francisco 488 

San  Francisco's  coffee  district 489 

Pioneer  coffee  roasters.  New  York  City 493 

Oldtime  New  York  coffee  roasters 495 

Pioneer  coffee   roasters  of  the  North  and 

East,  U.   S 500 

Pioneer  coffee  roasters  of  the   South   and 

West,  U.  S 504 

Ground  coffee  price  list  of  1862 507 

Organization  convention,  N.  C.  R.  A.,  1911..  510 

Former  presidents,  N.  C.  R.  A 512 

Earliest  coffee  manuscript 540 

Song  from  "The  Coffee  House" 555 

Dr.  Johnson's  seat,  the  Cheshire  Cheese 567 

Original  coffee  room,  old  Cock  Tavern 568 

Morning  gossip  in  the  coffee  room 569 

"His  Warmest  Welcome  at  an  Inn" 571 

Alexander  Pope  at  Button's,  1730 577 

Dutch  coffee  house,  1650  (by  Van  Ostade) . .  586 
White's  coffee  house,  1733  (by  Hogarth).,.  588 

Tom  King's,  1738  (by  Hogarth) 589 

Petit  Dejeuner  (by  Boucher) 590 

Coffee  service  in  the  home  of  Madame  de 

Pompadour  (by  Van  Loo) 590 

Madame  Du  Barry  (by  Decreuse) 591 

Coffee  house  at  Cairo  (by  G6r6me) 592 


XXIII 


ILLUSTRATIONS 


Page 

Kaffeebesuch  ( by  Philippi) 593 

Coffee  comes  to  the   aid  of  the  Muse    (by 

Ruffio)     593 

M«(l  dog  in  a  c-offee  house  (by  Rowlaiidson )   594 

Napoleon  and  the  cure   (by  Charlet) 595 

Coffee,  a  chanson  (music  by  Colet) 596 

Statue   of   Kolschitzlvy 597 

Betty's  Aria,  Bach's  coffee  cantata 598 

Caf6  Pedrocdii,   Padua 599 

Coffee  grinder  set  with  jewels. 600 

Italian  wrought-iron  coffee  roaster 6(X) 

Seventeenth-century  tea  and  coffee  pots...   601 

Lantern  coffee  pot,  1692 602 

Follvingham  pot,   1715-16. 602 

AVastell   ]K>t.   1720-21 603 

Dish  of  coffee-boy  design,  1692 603 

Cliinese  porcelain  coffee  pot 604 

Silver  coffee  pots,  early  18th  century 604 

Silver  coffee  pots,  18th  century 605 

Pottery  and  porcelain  pots 606 

Silver  coffee  pots,  late  18th  century 607 

Porcelain  pots,  Metropolitan  Museum 608 

Vienna  coffee  pot,  1830 609 

Spanish  coffee  pot,  18th  century 609 

Silver  coffee  pots  in  American  collections. .  610 
Coffee  pot  by  Wm.  Shaw  and  Win.  Priest. .  611 

Pot  of  Sheffield  plate,  18th  century 611 

Pot  by   Ephraim    Brasher 611 

French  silver  coffee  i)ot 612 

Green  Dragon  tavern  coffee  urn <j12 

Coffee  pots  by  American  silversmiths ()13 

Twentieth-century  American  coffee  service.   613 

Turkish  coffee  set,  Peter  collection 614 

Oldest  coffee  grinder •.   616 

Grain  mill  used  by  Greeks  and  Romans 616 

First  coffee  roaster 616 

First  cylinder  roaster,  1650 616 

Historical  relics,  U.  S.  National  Museum..  617 

Turkish   coffee  mill 618 

Early  French  wall  and  table  grinders 618 

Bronze  and  brass  mortars,  17th  century. . . .   619 

Early  American  coffee  roasters 619 

Roaster  with  three-sided  hood 620 

Roasitdng,  making,  and  serving  devices.  17th 

century    • 620 

Englisli  and  French  coffee  grinders 621 

Eighteenth-century  roaster   621 

Original   French  drip  pot 621 

Belgian.  Russian,  and  French  pewter  pots. .   622 

17th  and  18th  century  pewter  pots 623 

Count  Rumford's  percolator 623 

Drawings  of  early  French  coffee  makers...  624 

Early  Fi'ench  filtration  devices 624 

Early  American  coffee-maker  patents......  625 

French  coffee  makers.  19th  century 625 

First  ISnglish  commercial  roaster  patent...  626 
Early  French  coffee- roasting  machines 627 


Page 

Battery  of  Carter  pull-out  machines 628 

Early  Englisli  and  American  roasters 630 

Early  Englisli  and  American  coffee-making 

devices    632 

Dakin  roasting  machine  of  1848 633 

Globe  stove  roaster  of  1860 634 

Hyde's  combined  roa.ster  and  stove 634 

Original  Burns  roaster,  1864 635 

Burns  granulating  mill,  1872-74 636 

Napier's  vacuum  machine 637 

German  gas  and  coal  roasting  machines...  638 

Other  German  coffee  roasters 639 

Original   Enterprise  mill 640 

Max  Thiirmer's  quick  gas  roaster 640 

An  English  gas  coffee-roasting  plant 641 

Frencli  globular  roaster 642 

Sirocco  machine    (French) 642 

English  roasting  and  grinding  equipment..   643 

Magic  gas  machine  (French) 644 

Burns  Jubilee  gas  machine 644 

Double  gas  roasting  outfit  (French) 645 

Lambert's  Victory  gas  machine 646 

One  of  the  first  electric  mills 647 

English  electric-fuel  roaster 648 

Ben  Franklin  electric  coffee  roaster 648 

Enterprise  hand  store  mill 649 

Latest  types  electric  store  mills 650 

Italian  rapid  coffee-making  machines 651 

Working  of  Italian  rapid  machines 652 

La  Victoria  Arduino  Mignonne 652 

N.  C.  R.  A.  Home  coffee  mill 653 

Manthey-Zorn  rapid  infuser  and  dispenser. .   653 

Tricolette,  single-cup  filter  device 654 

Moorish  coffee  house  in  Algiers 656 

Coffee  house  in  Cairo 656 

Coffee  service  in  Cairo  barber  shop 657 

Coffee-laden  camels,  Arabia 658 

Arabian  coffee  liouse 658 

Mahommedan  brewing  coffee  for  guest 659 

Native  cafe,   Harar 661 

Early  coffee,  tea,  and  chocolate  service 661 

Nubian  slave  girl  with  coffee  service 662 

Persian  coffee  service,  1737 663 

In  a  Turkish  coffee  house 664 

Roasting  coffee  outside  a  Turkisli  caf6 (>64 

Turkish  caffinet,  early  19th  century 665 

Coffee-making  in  Turke.v 666 

Street  coffee  vender  in  the  Levant 666 

A  coffee  house  in  Syria 667 

Cafetan — garb  of  oriental  caf6-keeper 668 

Street  coffee  service  in  Constantinople 668 

Riverside  caf6  in  Damascus 669 

Coffee  al  fresco  in  Jerusalem 671 

Caf§  Schrangl,  Vienna 672 

Favorite  English  way  of  making  coffee 673 

A  caf§  of  Ye  Mecca  Company,  Loudon 673 

Groom's  coffee  liouse,  London 674 


XXIV 


ILLUSTRATIONS 


Page 

Caf6  Monico,  Picadilly  Circus,  London 674 

Gatti's,  The  Strand.  London 675 

Tea  lounge,  Hotel  Savoy,  London 675 

Two  popular  places  for  coffee  in  London 676 

Temple  Bar  restaurant,  London 677 

Tea  balcony,  Hotel  Cecil,  London 677 

One  of  Slater's  chain-shops,  London 677 

St.  James's  restaurant,  Picadilly,  London...   678 

An  A.  B.  C.  shop.  London 678 

Halt  of  caravaners  at  a  serai,  Bulgaria. . . .  678 

Cafe  de  la  Paix,  Paris 679 

Sidewalk  annex,  Caf6  de  la  Paix 680 

Caf^  de  la  R4gence,  Paris 681 

Cafe  de  hi  Regence  in  1922 682 

One  of  the  Biard  cafgs,  Paris 683 

Restaurant  Proeope,  1922 683 

Morning  coffee  at  a  Boulevard  caf6 684 

Caf§  Bauer,  Unter  den  Linden,  Berlin 684 

Cafe   Bauer,   exterior 685 

Kranzler's  Unter  den  Linden,  Berlin 685 

Swedish  coffee  boilers ; 687 

Sidewalk  caf6,  Lisbon 687 


Page 

Coffee  rooms  replacing  hotel  bars,  U.  S 688 

Britannia  coffee  pot — a  Lincoln  relic 690 

Coffee  service.  Hotel  Astor,  New  York 691 

Early  coffee  making  in  Persia 694 

Napier  vacuum  coffee  maker 700 

Xapier-List  steam  coffee  machine 700 

Finley  Acker's  filter-paper  coffee  pot 700 

Kin-Hee  pot  in  operation 701 

Tricolator  in  operation 701 

King  percolator 701 

Three  American  coffee-making  machines  in 

operation 7(^ 

How  the  Tru-Bru  pot  operates 702 

Coffee-making  devices  used  in  U.  S 703 

English  hotel  coffee-making  machines 706 

Well-known  makes  of  large  coffee  urns 707 

Popular  German  drip  jtot 708 

Section  of  roasted  bean,  magnified 719 

Cross-section  of  roasted  bean,  magnified...  720 

Coarse  grind  under  the  microscope 720 

Medium  grind  under  the  microscope 721 

Fine-meal  grind  under  the  mici-oscope 721 


Portraits 


Page 

Ach,  F.  J 447,  512 

Akers,  Fred  495 

Ames,  Allan  P 447 

Arbuckle,  John   523 

Arnold,  Benjamin  Greene   476,  517 

Arnold,  F.  B 476 

Bayne,  William     479 

Bayne,  William,   Jr 447 

Beard,  Eli   493 

Beard,  Samuel  493 

Bennett,  William  H 479 

Bickford,  C.  E 478 

Boardman,  Thomas  J 500 

Board'man,  William    500 

Brand,  Carl  W 512 

Brandenstein,  M.  J 504 

Burns,  Jabez   527 

Cauby,  Edward  500 

Casanas,  Ben  C 512 

CaucOiois.  F.  A 493 

Chase,  Caleb   500 

Cheek,  J.  0 504.  515 

Clos-set,  Joseph   504 

Coste,  Felix  447 

Crossman,  Geo.  W 479 

Devers,  A.  H 504 

Dwinell,  James  F 500 

Eppens,  Fred. 495 

Eppens,  Julius  A 495, 497 

Eppens.  W.    H 493, 495 


Page 

Evans,  David  G. 504 

Fischer,  Benedickt 493 

Flint,  J.  G 500 

Folger,  J.  A.,  Jr 504 

Folger,  J.  A.,  Sr 504 

Forbes,  A.  E 504 

Forbes,  Jas.  H 504 

Geiger,  Frank  J 500 

Gillies,  Jas.  W 493 

Gillies,  Wright    493 

Grossman,   William    500 

Harrison,  D.  Y 500 

Harrison,  W.  H 500 

Haulenbeek,  Peter  493 

Hayward,  Martin  500 

Heekin,  James  500 

Jones,  W.  T 504 

Kimball.  O.  G 478 

Kinsella,  W.  J 504 

Kirkland,  Alexander  495 

Kolschitzky,  Franz  George   50 

McLaughlin,   W.  F 500 

Mahood,   Samuel  500 

Mayo,  Henry   495 

Meehan,  P.  C 477 

Menezes,  Th.  Langgaard  de 446 

Meyer,  Robert 511 

Peck,  Edwin  H 477 

Phyfe,  Jas.  W 478 

Pierce,  O.  W.,  Sr 500 


XXV 


ILLUSTRATIONS 


Page 

Pupke,  John  F 495 

Purcell,  Joseph   476 

Reid,  Fred  495 

Reid,  Thomas 493,  495 

Roome,  Ck)l.  William  P 499 

Russell,  James  C 478 

Sanborn,  James  S 500 

Schilling,  A 504 

Schotten,  Julius  J 504,  512 

Schotten,  William    504 

Seelye,  Frank  R 512 

Sielcken,  Hermann   476,  519 

Simmonds,  H 477 

^innott,  J.  B 504 

SiiBith,  L.  B 493 

Smith,  M.  E 504 

S'prague,  Albert  A 500 


Page 

Stephens,  Henry  A 500 

Stoffregen,  Charles   504 

Stoflfregen,  C.  H 447 

Taylor,  James  H 477 

Thomson,  A,  M 500 

Van  Loan,  Thomas  498 

Weir,  Ross  W 447,  512 

Westf eldt,  George   .' 479 

Widlar,  Francis   500 

Wilde,  Samuel       493 

Withington,   Elijah    493 

Woolson,  Alvin  M 500 

Wright,  George  C 500 

Wright,  George  S 447 

Young,   Samuel   500 

Zinsmeister,  J 504 


Maps,    Charts,    and    Diagrams 


Page 
Map  of  London  coffee-house  district,  1748 ...     76 

Formula  for  Caffein 160 

Commercial  coffee  chart 191 

Eiffel  and  Woolwortih  towers  in  coffee 272 

World's  coffee  cup  and  largest  ship 275 

Coffee  exi>orts,  1850-1920 277 

Coffee  exports,  1916-1920 277 

Brazil  coffee  exports,  1850-1920 278 

World's  coffee  consumption,  1850  - 1920 286 

Coffee  imports,  1916-1920 286 

World    trend    of   consumption    of    tea    and 

coffee,  1860-1920  288 

Coffee  map  of  World  (folded  insert)  facing  288 
Pre-war  annual  average  production  of  coffee 

by  continents  294 

Pre-war  annual  average  production  of  coffee 

by  countries  294 

Pre-war  average  annual   imports  of  coffee 

into  U.  S.  by  continents 295 


Page 
Pre-war   average  annual   imports  of  coffee 

into  U.  S.  by  countries 295 

Pre-war  coffee-imports  chart ,  297 

Pre-war  consumption  and  price  chart 297 

Coffee  map,  Brazil    342 

Coffee  map,  Sao  Paulo,  Minas,  and  Rio 344 

Mild-coffee  map,  1 346 

Coffee  map,  Africa  and  Arabia 352 

Mild-coffee  map,  2 354 

Complete  reference  table  (21  pp.) 358 

Plan  of  milling-machine  connections 381 

Plan  of  green-coffee-mixer  connections 383 

Layout  for  coffee  and  tea  department 418 

Chart,  advertising  of  coffee  and  coffee  sub- 
stitutes, 1911-20 440 

Charts,   per   capita   consumption   of  coffee, 

and  coffee  and  substitute  advertising 441 

Chart,  plan  of  advertising  campaign 448 

Chart,  private-brand  advertising,  1921 458 


XXVI 


A    COFFEE    THESAURUS 

Encomiums  and  descriptive  phrases  applied  to  the  plant,  the  berry, 
and  the  beverage 


The  Plant 
The  precious  plant 
This  friendly  plant 
Mocha's  happy  tree 
The  gift  of  Heaven 

The  plant  with  the  jessamine  -  like  flowers 
The  most  exquisite  perfume  of  Araby  the  blest 
Given  to  the  human  race  by  the  gift  of  the  Gods 

The  Berry 
The  magic  bean 
The  divine  fruit 
Fragrant  berries 
Rich,  royal  berry 
Voluptuous  berry 
The  precious  berry 
The  healthful  bean 
The  Heavenly  berry 
The  marvelous  berry 
This  all-healing  berry 
Yemen's  fragrant  berry 
The  little  aromatic  berry 
Little  brown  Arabian  berry 
Thought-inspiring  bean  of  Arabia 
The  smoking,  ardent  beans  Aleppo  sends 
That  wild  fruit  which  gives  so  beloved  a  drink 

The  Beverage 
Nepenthe 
Festive  cup 
Juice  divine 
Nectar  divine 
Ruddy  mocha 
A  man's  drink 
Lovable  liquor 
Delicious  mocha 
The  magic  drink 
This  rich  cordial 
Its  stream  divine 
The  family  drink 
The  festive  drink 
Coffee  is  our  gold 
Nectar  of  all  men 
The  golden  mocha 
This  sweet  nectar 
Celestial  ambrosia 
The  friendly  drink 
The  cheerful  drink 
The  essential  drink 
The  sweet  draught 
The  divine  draught — 
The  grateful  liquor 
The  universal  drink 
The  American  drink 
The  amber  beverage 


The  convivial  drink 
The  universal  thrill 
King  of  all  perfumes 
The  cup  of  happiness 
The  soothing  draught 
Ambrosia  of  the  Gods  — 
The  intellectual  drink 
The  aromatic  draught 
The  salutary  beverage 
The  good  -  fellow  drink 
The  drink  of  democracy  — 
The  drink  ever  glorious 
Wakeful  and  civil  drink 
The  beverage  of  sobriety — - 
A  psychological  necessity^ 
The  fighting  man's  drink -^' 
Loved  and  favored  drink 
The  symbol  of  hospitality  — 
This  rare  Arabian  cordial 
Inspirer  of  men  of  letters 
The  revolutionary  beverage 
Triumphant  stream  of  sable 
Grave  and  wholesome  liquor"'^ 
The  drink  of  the  intellectuals— 
A  restorative  of  sparkling  wit 
Its  color  is  the  seal  of  its  purity 
The  sober  and  wholesome  drink 
Lovelier  than  a  thousand  kisses — , 
This  honest  and  cheering  beverage 
A  wine  which  no  sorrow  can  resist 
The  symbol  of  human  brotherhood 
At  once  a  pleasure  and  a  medicine 
The  beverage  of  the  friends  of  God 
The  fire  which  consumes  our  griefs 
Gentle  panacea  of  domestic  troubles 
The  autocrat  of  the  breakfast  table- — 
The  beverage  of  the  children  of  God- 
King  of  the  American  breakfast  table 
Soothes  you  softly  out  of  dull  sobriety 
The  cup  that  cheers  but  not  inebriates* 
Coffee,  which  makes  the  politician  wise 
Its  aroma  is  the  pleasantest  in  all  nature 
The  sovereign  drink  of  pleasure  and  health* 
The  indispensable  beverage  of  strong  nations 
The  stream  in  which  we  wash  away  our  sorrows 
The  enchanting    perfume    that    a    zephyr    has 

brought 
Favored   liquid   which   fills   all   my    soul   with 

delight 
The  delicious  libation  we  pour  on  the  altar  of 

friendship 
This  invigorating  drink  which  drives  sad  care 

from  the  heart 


•  First  written   about   tea ;    Improperly  claimed   to 
have  been  written  of  coffee. 


XXVII 


EVOLUTION  OF  A  CUP  OF  COFFEE 

Showing  the  various  steps  through  which 
the  hean  passes  from  plantation  to  cup 

1  Planting  the  seed  in  nursery 

2  Transplanting  into  roAvs 

3  Cultivating  and  pruning 

4  Picking  the  cherries 

5  Pulping 

6  Fermenting 

7  Washing 

8  Drying  in  the  parchment 

9  Hulling 

10  Polishing 

11  Grading 

12  Transporting  to  the  seaport 

13  Buying  and  selling  for  export 

14  Transhipment  overseas 

15  Buying  and  selling  at  wholesale 

16  Shipment  to  the  point  of  manufacture 

17  Separating 

18  Milling 

19  Mixing  or  blending 

20  Roasting 

21  Cooling  and  stoning 

22  Buying  and  selling  at  retail 

23  Grinding 

24  ^Making  the  beverage 


>r^ 


%^ 


*^.^ 


■%;   ^^-^K^X 


-W    '^# 


Chapter  I 
DEALING  WITH  THE  ETYMOLOGY  OF  COFFEE 


Origin  and  translation  of  the  word  from  the  Arabian  into  various 
languages — Views  of  many  writers 


THE  history  of  the  word  coffee  involves 
several    phonetic    difficulties.      The 
11^.         European  languages  got  the  name  of 
^■e  beverage  about  1600  from  the  original 

Ai-abic     \^4^      qahwah,  not  directly,  but 

ihrough  its  Turkish  form,  kahveh.  This  was 
the  name,  not  of  the  plant,  but  the  beverage 
made  from  its  infusion,  being  originally  one 
of  the  names  employed  for  wine  in  Arabic. 
Sir  James  Murray,  in  the  New  English 
Dictionary,  says  that  some  have  conjectured 
that  the  wordjsAXoreign,  perhaps, A frica.n, 
word  disguised,  and  have  thought  it  con- 
nected with  the  name  Kaffa^  a^  tqwn^in^|hoaj 
southwest  Abyssinia,  reputed  native  place 
of  the  coffee  plant,  but  that  of  this  there  is 
no  evidence,  and  the  name  qahwah  is  not 
given  to  the  berry  or  plant,  which  is  called 

*  »    hunn,  the  native  name  in  Shoa  be- 

^*   ing  bun. 

Contributing  to  a  symposium  on  the 
etymology  of  the  word  coffee  in  Notes  and 
Queries,  1909,  James  Piatt,  Jr.,  said: 

The  Turkish  form  might  have  been  written 
kahv6,  as  its  final  h  was  never  sounded  at  any 
time.  Sir  James  Murray  draws  attention  to  the 
existence  of  two  European  types,  one  like  the 
French  caU,  Italian  caffd,  the  other  like  the 
English  coffee,  Dutch  Icoffie.  He  explains  the 
vowel  0  in  the  second  series  as  apparently  rep- 
resenting au,  from  Turkish  ahv.  This  seems 
unsupi>orted  by  evidence,  and  the  v  is  already 
represented  by  the  ff,  so  on  Sir  James's  assump- 
tion coffee  must  stand  for  kahv-ve,  which  is 
unlikely.  The  change  from  a  to  o,  in  my  opin- 
ion, is  better  accounted  for  as  an  imperfect 
appreciation.  The  exact  sound  of  a  in  Arabic 
and  other  Oriental  languages  is  that  of  the  Eng- 
lish short  u,  as  in  "cuff."  This  sound,  so  easy 
to  us,  is  a  great  stumbling-block  to  other  nations. 
I  judge  that  Dutch  koffie  and  kindred  forms  are 
iniperfect  attempts  at  the  notation  of  a  vowel 


which  the  writers  could  not  grasp.  It  is  clear 
that  the  French  type  is  more  correct.  The  Ger- 
mans have  corrected  their  koffee,  which  they 
may  have  got  from  the  Dutch,  into  kaffee.  The 
Scandinavian  languages  have  adopted  the 
French  form.  Many  must  wonder  how  the  hv 
of  the  original  so  persistently  becomes  ff  in  the 
European  equivalents.  Sir  James  Murray 
makes  no  attempt  to  solve  this  problem. 

Virendranath  Chattopadhyaya,  who  also 
contributed  to  the  Notes  and  Queries  sym- 
posium, argued  that  the  hw  of  the  Arabic 
qahwah  becomes  sometimes  ff  and  some- 
times only  /  or  I)  in  European  translations 
because  some  languages,  such  as  English, 
have  strong  syllabic  accents  (stresses), 
while  others,  as  French,  have  none.  Again, 
he  points  out  that  the  surd  aspirate  h  is 
heard  in  some  languages,  but  is  hardly  au- 
dible in  others.  Most  Europeans  tend  to 
leave  it  out  altogether. 

Col.  W.  F.  Prideaux,  another  contribu- 
tor, argued  that  the  European  languages 
got  one  form  of  the  w^ord  coffee  directly 
from  the  Arabic  qahwah,  and  quoted  from 
Hobson- Jobson  in  support  of  this : 

Chaoua  in  1598,  Cahoa  in  IGIO,  Cahue  in  1G15 ; 
while  Sir  Thomas  Herbert  (1638)  expressly 
states  that  "they  drink  (in  Persia)  ♦  *  *  above 
all  the  rest,  Coho  or  Gopha:  by  Turk  and  Arab 
called  Caphe  and  Cahua."  Here  the  Persian, 
Turkish,  and  Arabic  pronunciations  are  clearly 
differentiated. 

Col.  Prideaux  then  calls,  as  a  witness  to 
the  Anglo-Arabic  pronunciation,  one  whose 
evidence  was  not  available  when  the  Neiv 
English  Dictionary  and  Hobson- Jobson 
articles  were  written.  This  is  John  Jour- 
dain,  a  Dorsetshire  seaman,  whose  Diary 
was  printed  by  the  Hakluyt  Society  in  1905. 
On  May  28,  1609,  he  records  that  "in  the 


ALL     ABOUT     COFFEE 


afternoone  wee  departed  out  of  Hatch  (Al- 
Hauta,  the  capital  of  the  Lahej  district 
near  Aden),  and  travelled  untill  three  in 
the  morninge,  and  then  wee  rested  in  the 
plaine  fields  untill  three  the  next  dale, 
neere  unto  a  cohoo  howse  in  the  desert." 
On  June  5  the  party,  traveling  from  Hippa 
(Ibb),  "laye  in  the  mountaynes,  our 
camells  being  wearie,  and  our  selves  little 
better.  This  mountain  is  called  Nasmarde 
(Nakil  Sumara),  where  all  the  cohoo 
grows."  Farther  on  was  "a  little  village, 
where  there  is  sold  cohoo  and  fruite.  The 
seeds  of  this  cohoo  is  a  greate  marchandize, 
for  it  is  carried  to  grand  Cairo  and  all 
other  places  of  Turkey,  and  to  the  Indias." 
Prideaux,  however,  mentions  that  another 
sailor,  William  Revett,  in  his  journal 
(1609)  says,  referring  to  Mocha,  that  "Sha- 
omer  Shadli  (Shaikh  'Ali  bin  'Omar  esh- 
Shadil)  was  the  fyrst  inventour  for 
drynking  of  eoffe,  and  therefor  had  in  es- 
teemation."  This  rather  looks  to  Prideaux 
as  if  on  the  coast  of  Arabia,  and  in  the  mer- 
cantile towns,  the  Persian  pronunciation 
was  in  vogue ;  whilst  in  the  interior,  where 
Jourdain  traveled,  the  Englishman  repro- 
duced the  Arabic. 
\  Mr.  Chattopadhyaya,  discussing  Col.  Pri- 
^'  deaux's  views  as  expressed  above,  said: 

Col.  Prideaux  may  doubt  "if  the  worthy  mar- 
iner, in  entering  the  word  in  his  log,  was  influ- 
enced by  the  abstruse  principles  of  phonetics 
enunciated"  by  me,  but  he  will  admit  that  the 
change  from  kahvah  to  coifee  is  a  phonetic 
change,  and  must  be  due  to  the  operation  of  some 
phonetic  principle.  The  average  man,  when  he 
endeavours  to  write  a  foreign  word  in  his  own 
tongue,  is  handicapped  considerably  by  his  in- 
herited and  acquired  phonetic  capacity.  And, 
in  fact,  if  we  take  the  quotations  made  in 
"Hobson-Jobson,"  and  classify  the  various  forms 
of  the  word  coffee  according  tc  the  nationality 
of  the  writer,  we  obtain  very  interesting  results. 

Let  us  take  Englishmen  and  Dutchmen  first. 
In  Danvers's  Letters  (IGll)  we  have  both  "colio 
pots"  and  "coffao  pots";  Sir  T.  Roe  (1615)  and 
Terry  (161G)  have  cohu;  Sir  T.  Herbert  (1638) 
has  coho  and  copha;  Evelyn  (1637),  coffee; 
Fryer  (1673)  coUo;  Ovington  (1690),  coffee;  and 
Valentijn  (1726),  coffi.  And  from  the  two  ex- 
amples given  by  Col.  Prideaux,  we  see  that 
Jourdain  (1609)  has  cohoo,  and  Revett  (1609) 
has  coffe. 

To  the  above  should  be  added  the  follow- 
ing by  English  writers,  given  in  Foster's 
English  Factories  in  India  (1618-21, 
1622  -  23,  1624  -  29)  :  eowha  (1619),  cowhe, 
couha  (1621),coffa  (1628). 

Let  us  now  see  what  foreigners  (chiefly 
French  and  Italian)  write.  The  earliest 
European   mention    is   by    Rauwolf,    who 


knew  it  in  Aleppo  in  1573.  He  has  the 
form  clmube.  Prospero  Alpini  (1580)  has 
caova;  Paludanus  (1598)  chaoua;  Pyrard 
de  Laval  (1610)  cahoa;  P.  Delia  Valle 
(1615)  cahue;  Jac.  Bontius  (1631)  caveah; 
and  the  Journal  d'Antoine  Galland  (1673) 
cave.  That  is.  Englishmen  use  forms  of  a 
certain  distinct  type,  viz.,  cohu,  coho,  coffao, 
coffe,  copha,  coffee,  which  differ  from  the 
more  correct  transliteration  of  foreigners. 

In  1610  the  Portuguese  Jew,  Pedro 
Teixeira  (in  the  Hakluyt  Society's  edition 
of  his  Travels)  used  the  word  kavdh. 

The  inferences  from  these  transitional 
forms  seem  to  be:  1.  The  word  found  its 
way  into  the  languages  of  Europe  both 
from  the  Turkish  and  from  the  Arabic.  2. 
The  English  forms  (which  have  strong 
stress  on  the  first  syllable)  have  6  instead 
of  a,  and  /  instead  of  h.  3.  The  foreign 
forms  are  unstressed  and  have  no  h.  The 
original  v  or  w  (or  labialized  u)  is  re- 
tained or  changed  into  /. 

It  may  be  stated,  accordingly,  that  the 
chief  reason  for  the  existence  of  two  dis- 
tinct types  of  spelling  is  the  omission  of 
h  in  unstressed  languages,  and  the  conver- 
sion of  h  into  /  under  strong  stress  in 
stressed  languages.  Such  conversion  often 
takes  place  in  Turkish ;  for  example,  silah 
dar  in  Persian  (which  is  a  highly  stressed 
language)  becomes  zilif  dar  in  Turkish.  In 
the  languages  of  India,  on  the  other  hand, 
in  spite  of  the  fact  that  the  aspirate  is 
usually  very  clearly  sounded,  the  word 
qafivah  is  pronounced  kaiva  by  the  less 
educated  elasses,  owing  to  the  syllables  be- 
ing equally  stressed. 

Now  for  the  French  viewpoint.  Jardin  ' 
opines  that,  as  regards  the  etymology  of  the 
word  coffee,  scholars  are  not  agreed  and 
perhaps  never  will  be.  Dufour '  says  the 
word  is  derived  from  caouhe,  a  name  given 
by  the  Turks  to  the  beverage  prepared  from 
the  seed.  Chevalier  d'Arvieux,  French 
consul  at  Alet,  Savary,  and  Trevoux,  in  his  ' 
dictionary,  think  that  coffee  comes  from  the 
Arabic,  but  from  the  word  cahoueh  or  qua- 
weh,  meaning  to  give  vigor  or  strength,  be- 
cause, says  d'Arvieux,  its  most  general  ef- 
fect is  to  fortify  and  strengthen.  Ta ver- 
nier combats  this  opinion.  Moseley  attrib- 
utes the  origin  of  the  word  coffee  to  Kaffa. 
Sylvestre   de   Sacy,   in  his   Chrestomathie 

'.Tardin.  fidelestan.  Le  CafHer  et  le  Caf4.  Paris, 
1895   (p.  55). 

'Dufour,  Philippe  Sylvestre.  TraiUs  Nouveaux  et 
Gurieux   du    Cafi,   du    Th6,    et    du    Ohocolat.      Lyons^ 


ETYMOLOGY  OP  COFFEE 


8 


Arabe,  published  in  1806,  thinks  that  the 
word  kahwa,  synonymous  with  makli, 
roasted  in  a  stove,  might  very  well  be  the 
etymology  of  the  word  coffee.  D'Alembert 
in  his  encyclopedic  dictionary,  writes  the 
word  caffe.  Jardin  concludes  that  what- 
ever there  may  be  in  these  various  etymolo- 
gies, it  remains  a  fact  that  the  word  coffee 
comes  from  an  Arabian  word,  whether  it  be 
kahua,  kahoueh,  kaffa  or  kahwa,  and  that 
the  peoples  who  have  adopted  the  drink 
have  all  modified  the  Arabian  word  to  suit 
their  pronunciation.  This  is  shown  by 
giving  the  word  as  written  in  various  mod- 
ern languages: 

French,  cafe;  Breton,  kafe;  German, 
kaffee  (coffee  tree,  kaffeehaum)  ;  Dutch, 
koffie  (coffee  tree,  koffiehoonen)  ;  Danish, 
kaffe;  Finnish,  kahvi;  Hungarian,  kave; 
Bohemian,  kava;  Polish,  kawa;  Roumanian, 
cafea;  Croatian,  kafa;  Servian,  kava;  Rus- 


sian, kophe;  Swedish,  kaffe;  Spanish,  cafe; 
Basque,  kaffia;  Italian,  caffe;  Portuguese, 
cafe;  Latin  (scientific),  coffea;  Turkisii, 
kahue;  Greek,  kafeo;  Arabic,  qahwah  (cof- 
fee berry,  hun)  ;  Persian,  qehve  (coffee  ber- 
ry, bun")  ;  Annamite,  ca-phe;  Cambodian, 
kafe;  Dukni*,  bunbund^ ;  Teluyan',  kapri- 
vittidu;  Tamil*,  kapi-kottai  or  kopi;  Can- 
areze\  kapi-bija;  Chinese,  kia-fey,  teoutse; 
Japanese,  kelii;  Malayan,  kawa,  koppi; 
Abyssinian,  bonn';  Foulak,  legal  cafe'; 
Sousou,  houri  caff';  Marquesan,  kapi; 
Chinook",  kaufee;  Volapuk,  kaf;  Esperanto, 
kafva. 

'Coffee  covered  with  the  skin  is  called  boun,  and 
the  eoftee-tree,  boun-tree   (aejar  et  boun). 

*These  four  dialects  are  spoken  in  Hindustan. 

''Notice  must  be  taken  of  the  similarity  in  the  names 
of  coffee  in  Hindustan  and  Abyssinia,  and  of  the  name 
of  the  coffee-tree  as  given  by  ancient  authors. 

"See  note  3  above. 

''Legal  and  Houri  mean  tree. 

"North-.^merican  Indian. 


ALL     ABOUT     COFFEE 


THE  FAIRY  BEAUTY  OP'  A  COFFEE   TREE  IN  FLOWER 


Chapter  II 

HISTORY     OF      COFFEE      PROPAGATION 

A  brief  account  of  the  cultivation  of  the  coffee  plant  in  the  Old  World 
and  its  introduction  into  the  Neiv — A  romantic  coffee  adventure 


THE  history  of  the  propagation  of  the 
coffee  plant  is  closely  interwoven 
with  that  of  the  early  history  of 
coffee  drinking,  but  for  the  purposes  of  this 
chapter  we  shall  consider  only  the  story  of 
the  inception  and  growth  of  the  cultivation 
of  the  coffee  tree,  or  shrub,  bearing  the 
seeds,  or  berries,  from  which  the  drink,  cof- 
fee, is  made. 

Careful  research  discloses  that  most  au- 
thorities agree  that  the  coffee  plant  is  indig- 
enous to  Abyssinia,  and  probably  Arabia, 
whence  its  cultivation  spread  throughout 
the  tropics.  The  first  reliable  mention  of 
the  properties  and  uses  of  the  plant  is  by 
an  Arabian  physician  toward  the  close  of 
the  ninth  century  A.  I).,  and  it  is  reason- 
able to  suppose  that  before  that  time  the 
plant  was  found  growing  wild  in  Abyssinia 
and  perhaps  in  Arabia.  If  it  be  true,  as 
Ludolphus  writes,'  that  the  Abyssinians 
came  out  of  Arabia  into  Ethiopia  in  the 
early  ages,  it  is  possible  that  they  may  have 
brought  the  coffee  tree  with  them;  but  the 
Arabians  must  still  be  given  the  credit  for 
discovering  and  promoting  the  use  of  the 
beverage,  and  also  for  promoting  the  propa- 
gation of  the  plant,  even  if  they  found  it  in 
Abyssinia  and  brought  it  to  Yemen. 

Some  authorities  believe  that  the  first  cul- 
tivation of  coffee  in  Yemen  dates  back  to 
575  A.  D.,  M'hen  the  Persian  invasion  put 
an  end  to  the  P]thiopian  rule  of  the  negus 
Caleb,  who  conquered  the  country  in  525. 

Certainly  the  discovery  of  the  beverage 
resulted  in  the  cultivation  of  the  plant  in 
Abyssinia  and  in  Arabia;  but  its  progress 
Avas  slow  until  the  15th  and  16th  centuries, 
when  it  appears  as  intensively  carried  on 


'r<a    Uoquo,    Jean. 
I'arls,  17J(J. 


Voyage    de    I' Arabic    Heureuae. 


in  the  Yemen  district  of  Arabia.  The 
Arabians  were  jealous  of  their  new  found 
and  lucrative  industry,  and  for  a  time  suc- 
cessfully prevented  its  spread  to  other 
countries  by  not  permitting  any  of  the  pre- 
cious berries  to  leave  the  country  unless 
they  had  first  been  steeped  in  boiling  water 
or  parched,  so  as  to  destroy  their  powers  of 
germination.  It  may  be  that  many  of  the 
early  failures  successfully  to  introduce  the 
cultivation  of  the  coffee  plant  into  other 
lands  was  also  due  to  the  fact,  discovered 
later,  that  the  seeds  soon  lose  their  germi- 
nating power. 

However,  it  was  not  possible  to  watch 
every  avenue  of  transport,  with  thousand.^ 
of  pilgrims  journeying  to  and  from  Mecca 
every  year ;  and  so  there  would  appear  to  be 
some  reason  to  credit  the  Indian  tradition 
concerning  the  introduction  of  coffee  culti- 
vation into  southern  India  by  Baba  Budan, 
a  Moslem  pilgrim,  as  early  as  1600,  although 
a  better  authority  gives  the  date  as  1695. 
Indian  tradition  relates  that  Baba  Budan 
planted  his  seeds  near  the  hut  he  built  for 
himself  at  Chickmaglur  in  the  mountains 
of  Mysore,  where,  only  a  few  years  since, 
the  writer  found  the  descendants  of  these 
first  plants  growing  under  the  shade  of  the 
centuries-old  original  jungle  trees.  The 
greater  part  of  the  plants  cultivated  by  the 
natives  of  Kurg  and  Mysore  appear  to  have 
come  from  the  Baba  Budan  importation. 
It  was  not  until  1840  that  the  English  be- 
gan the  cultivation  of  coffee  in  India.  The 
plantations  extend  now  from  the  extreme 
north  of  Mysore  to  Tuticorin. 

Early  Cidtivation  by  the  Dutch 
In  the  latter  part  of  the  16th  century, 
German,  Italian,  and  Dutch  botanists  and 


5 


6 


ALL    ABOUT     COFFEE 


travelers  brought  back  from  the  Levant 
considerable  information  regarding  the 
new  plant  and  the  beverage.  In  1614  en- 
terprising Dutch  traders  began  to  examine 
into  the  possibilities  of  coffee  cultivation 
and  coffee  trading.  In  1616  a  coffee  plant 
was  successfully  transported  from  Mocha 
to  Holland.  In  1658  the  Dutch  started  the 
cultivation  of  coffee  in  Ceylon,  although 
the  Arabs  are  said  to  have  brought  the 
plant  to  the  island  prior  to  1505.  In  1670 
an  attempt  was  made  to  cultivate  coffee  on 
European  soil  at  Dijon,  France,  but  the 
result  was  a  failure. 

In  1696,  at  the  instigation  of  Nicolaas 
Witsen,  then  burgomaster  of  Amsterdam, 
Adrian  Van  Ommen,  commander  at  Mala- 
bar, India,  caused  to  be  shipped  from  Kan- 
anur,  Malabar,  to  Java,  the  first  coffee 
plants  introduced  into  that  island.  They 
were  grown  from  seed  of  the  Goffea  arabica 
brought  to  Malabar  from  Arabia.  They 
were  planted  by  Governor-General  Willem 
Van  Outshoorn  on  the  Kedawoeng  estate 
near  Batavia,  but  were  subsequently  lost 
by  earthquake  and  flood.  In  1699  Henricus 
Zwaardecroon  imported  some  slips,  or  cut- 
tings, of  coffee  trees  from  Malabar  into 
Java.  These  were  more  successful,  and  be- 
came the  progenitors  of  all  the  coffees  of 
the  Dutch  East  Indies.  The  Dutch  were 
then  taking  the  lead  in  the  propagation  of 
the  coffee  plant. 

In  1706  the  first  samples  of  Java  coffee, 
and  a  coffee  plant  grown  in  Java,  were  re- 
ceived at  the  Amsterdam  botanical  gardens. 
Many  plants  were  afterward  propagated 
from  the  seeds  produced  in  the  Amsterdam 
gardens,  and  these  were  distributed  to 
some  of  the  best  known  botanical  gardens 
and  private  conservatories  in  Europe. 

While  the  Dutch  were  extending  the  cul- 
tivation of  the  plant  to  Sumatra,  the 
Celebes,  Timor,  Bali,  and  other  islands  of 
the  Netherlands  Indies,  the  French  were 
seeking  to  introduce  coffee  cultivation  into 
their  colonies.  Several  attempts  were  made 
to  transfer  young  plants  from  the  Amster- 
dam botanical  gardens  to  the  botanical  gar- 
dens at  Paris;  but  all  were  failures. 

In  1714,  however,  as  a  result  of  negotia- 
tions entered  into  between  the  French  gov- 
ernment and  the  municipality  of  Amster- 
dam, a  young  and  vigorous  plant  about  five 
feet  tall  was  sent  to  Louis  XIV  at  the* 
chateau  of  Marly  by  the  burgomaster  of 
Amsterdam.  The  day  following,  it  was 
transferred  to  the  Jardin  des  Plantes  at 
Paris,  where  it  was  received  with  appro- 


priate ceremonies  by  Antoine  de  Jussieu, 
professor  of  botany  in  charge.  This  tree 
was  destined  to  be  the  progenitor  of  most 
of  the  coffees  of  the  French  colonies,  as  well 
as  of  those  of  South  America,  Central 
America,  and  Mexico, 

The  Romance  of  Captain  Gabriel  de  Clieu 

Two  unsuccessful  attempts  were  made  to 
transport  to  the  Antilles  plants  grown  from 
the  seed  of  the  tree  presented  to  Louis  XIV ; 
but  the  honor  of  eventual  success  was  won 
by  a  young  Norman  gentleman,  Gabriel 
Mathieu  de  Clieu,  a  naval  officer,  serving  at 
the  time  as  captain  of  infantry  at  Martin- 
ique. The  story  of  de  Clieu 's  achievement 
is  the  most  romantic  chapter  in  the  history 
of  the  propagation  of  the  coffee  plant. 

His  personal  affairs  calling  him  to 
France,  de  Clieu  conceived  the  idea  of  util- 
izing the  return  voyage  to  introduce  coffee 
cultivation  into  Martinique.  His  first  diffi- 
culty lay  in  obtaining  several  of  the  plants 
then  being  cultivated  in  Paris,  a  difficulty 
at  last  overcome  through  the  instrumental- 
ity of  M.  de  Chirac,  royal  physician,  or,  ac- 
cording to  a  letter  written  by  de  Clieu 
himself,  through  the  kindly  offices  of  a  lady 
of  quality  to  whom  de  Chirac  could  give  no 
refusal.  The  plants  selected  were  kept  at 
Rochefort  by  M.  Begon,  commissary  of  the 
department,  until  the  departure  of  de  Clieu 
for  Martinique.  Concerning  the  exact  date 
of  de  Clieu 's  arrival  at  Martinique  with  the 
coffee  plant,  or  plants,  there  is  much  con- 
fiict  of  opinion.  Some  authorities  give  the 
date  as  1720,  others  1723.  Jardin  "  suggests 
that  the  discrepancy  in  dates  may  arise 
from  de  Clieu,  with  praiseworthy  persever- 
ance, having  made  the  voyage  twice.  The 
first  time,  according  to  Jardin,  the  plants 
perished ;  but  the  second  time  de  Clieu  had 
planted  the  seeds  when  leaving  France  and 
these  survived,  "due,  they  say,  to  his  hav- 
ing given  of  his  scanty  ration  of  water  to 
moisten  them. ' '  No  reference  to  a  preced- 
ing voyage,  however,  is  made  by  de  Clieu 
in  his  own  account,  given  in  a  letter  written 
to  the  Annee  Litteraire  ^  in  1774.  There  is 
also  a  difference  of  opinion  as  to  whether 
de  Clieu  arrived  with  one  or  three  plants. 
He  himself  says  "one"  in  the  letter  re- 
ferred to. 

According  to  the  most  trustworthy  data, 
de  Clieu  embarked  at  Nantes,  1723.  *     He 


''.Tardiii.  firlelestan. 
1895    (p.  102). 

■KAnni^e   fjitt^raire. 

*r''ranklin,  Alfred. 
Paris,  1833, 


Le  Caf^ier  et   le  GafS.     Paris, 

Paris,  1774   (vol.  vi :  p.  217). 
'Lia     Vie     Privic     d'4-tttrefoit. 


COFFEE  PROPAGATION 


had  installed  his  precious  plant  in  a  box 
covered  with  a  glass  frame  in  order  to  ab- 
sorb the  rays  of  the  sun  and  thus  better  to 
retain  the  stored-up  heat  for  cloudy 
days.  Among  the  passengers  one  man,  en- 
vious of  the  young  officer,  did  all  in  his 
power  to  wrest  from  him  the  glory  of  suc- 
cess. Fortunately  his  dastardly  attempt 
failed  of  its  intended  effect. 

"It  is  useless,"  writes  de  Clieu  in  his 
letter  to  the  A?inee  lAtteraire,  "to  recount 


I 


Captain  de  Clieu  Shares  His  Drinking  Water 

With  the  Cofj-ee  Plant  He  Is  Carrying 

TO  Martinique 

in  detail  the  infinite  care  that  I  was  obliged 
to  bestow  upon  this  delicate  plant  during  a 
long  voyage,  and  the  difficulties  I  had  in 
saving  it  from  the  hands  of  a  man  who, 
basely  jealous  of  the  joy  I  was  about  to 
taste  through  being  of  service  to  my  coun- 
try, and  being  unable  to  get  this  coffee 
plant  3,wq,y  frpm  me,  tprp  pff  a  brai^ch," 


The  vessel  carrying  de  Clieu  was  a  mer- 
chantman, and  many  were  the  trials  that 
beset  passengers  and  crew.  Narrowly 
escaping  capture  by  a  corsair  of  Tunis, 
menaced  by  a  violent  tempest  that  threat- 
ened to  annihilate  them,  they  finally  en- 
countered a  calm  that  proved  more  appall- 
ing than  either.  The  supply  of  drinking 
water  was  well  nigh  exhausted,  and  what 
was  left  was  rationed  for  the  remainder  of 
the  voyage. 

"Water  was  lacking  to  such  an  extent," 
•says  de  Clieu,  "that  for  more  than  a  month 
I  was  obliged  to  share  the  scanty  ration  of 
it  assigned  to  me  with  this  my  coffee  plant 
upon  which  my  happiest  hopes  were 
founded  and  which  was  the  source  of  my 
delight.  It  needed  such  succor  the  more  in 
that  it  was  extremely  backward,  being  no 
larger  than  the  slip  of  a  pink."  Many 
stories  have  been  written  and  verses  sung 
recording  and  glorifying  this  generous  sac- 
rifice that  has  given  luster  to  the  name  of 
de  Clieu. 

Arrived  in  Martinique,  de  Clieu  planted 
his  precious  slip  on  his  estate  in  Precheur, 
one  of  the  cantons  of  the  island;  where, 
says  Raynal,  "it  multiplied  with  extraordi- 
nary rapidity  and  success."  From  the 
seedlings  of  this  plant  came  most  of  the 
eoft'ee  trees  of  the  Antilles.  The  first  har- 
vest was  gathered  in  1726. 

De  Clieu  himself  describes  his  arrival  as 
follows : 

Arriving  at  home,  iny  first  cure  was  to  set  out 
my  plant  with  great  attention  in  the  part  of  my 
garden  most  favorahle  to  its  growth.  Although 
keeping  it  in  view,  I  feared  many  times  that  it 
would  be  taken  from  me ;  and  I  was  at  last 
obliged  to  surround  it  with  thorn  bushes  and  to 
establish  a  guard  .about  it  until  it  arrived  at 
maturity  .  .  .  this  precious  plant  which  had 
become  still  more  dear  to  nie  for  the  dangers  it 
had  run  and  the  cares  it  had  cost  me. 

Thus  the  little  stranger  thrived  in  a  dis- 
tant land,  guarded  day  and  night  by  faith- 
ful slaves.  So  tiny  a  plant  to  produce  in 
the  end  all  the  rich  estates  of  the  West 
India  islands  and  the  regions  bordering  on 
the  Gulf  of  Mexico !  What  luxuries,  what 
future  comforts  and  delights,  resulted  from 
this  one  small  talent  confided  to  the  care  of 
a  man  of  rare  vision  and  fine  intellectual 
sympathy,  fired  by  the  spirit  of  real  love 
for  his  fellows!  There  is  no  instance  in 
the  history  of  the  French  people  of  a  good 
deed  done  by  stealth  being  of  greater  serv- 
ice to  humanity. 

De  Clieu  thus  describes  the  events  that 
fpjlowed   last    upon    the   introduction    of 


8 


ALL     ABOU 


coffee  into  Martinique,  with  particular  ref- 
erence to  the  earthquake  of  1727 : 

Success  exceeded  my  hopes.  I  gathered  alx>iit 
two  pounds  of  seed  which  I  distributed  among 
all  those  whom  I  thought  most  capable  of  giving 
the  plants  the  care  necessary  to  their  prosperity. 

The  first  harvest  was  very  abundant ;  with  the 
second  it  was  possible  to  extend  the  cultivation 
prodigiously,  but  what  favored  multiplication, 
most  singularly,  was  the  fact  that  two  years 
afterward  all  the  cocoa  trees  of  the  country, 
which  were  the  resource  and  occupation  of  the 
people,  were  uprooted  and  totally  destroyed  by 
horrible  tempests  accompanied  by  an  inundation 
which  submerged  all  the  land  where  these  trees 
were  planted,  land  which  was  at  once  made  into 
coffee  plantations  by  the  natives.  These  did 
marvelously  and  enabled  us  to  send  plants  to 
Santo  Domingo,  Guadeloupe,  and  other  adjacent 
islands,  where  since  that  time  they  have  been 
cultivated  with  the  greatest  success. 

By  1777  there  were  18,791,680  coffee 
trees  in  Martinique. 

De  Clieu  was  born  in  Anglequeville-sur- 
Saane,  Seine-Inferieure  (Normandy),  in 
1686  or  1688."  In  1705  he  was  a  ship's 
ensign;  in  1718  he  became  a  chevalier  of 
St.  Louis;  in  1720  he  was  made  a  captain 
of  infantry ;  in  1726,  a  major  of  infantry ; 
in  1733  he  was  a  ship's  lieutenant;  in  1737 
he  became  governor  of  Guadeloupe ;  in  1746 
he  was  a  ship'  captain ;  in  1750  he  was  made 
honorary  commander  of  the  order  of  St. 
Louis ;  in  1752  he  retired  with  a  pension  of 
6000  francs ;  in  1753  he  re-entered  the  naval 
service;  in  1760  he  again  retired  with  a 
pension  of  2000  francs. 

In  1746  de  Clieu,  having  returned  to 
France,  was  presented  to  Louis  XV  by  the 
minister  of  marine,  Rouille  de  Jour,  as  ''a 
distinguished  officer  to  whom  the  colonies, 
as  well  as  France  itself,  and  commerce 
generally,  are  indebted  for  the  cultivation 
of  coffee." 

Reports  to  the  king  in  1752  and  1759  re- 
call his  having  carried  the  first  coffee  plant 
to  Martinique,  and  that  he  had  ever  been 
distinguished  for  his  zeal  and  disinterested- 
ness. In  the  Mercure  de  France,  December, 
1774,  was  the  following  death  notice : 

Gabriel  d'Erchigny  de  Clieu,  former  Ship's 
Captain  and  Honorary  Commander  of  the  Royal 
and  Military  Order  of  Saint  Louis,  died  in  Paris 
on  the  30th  of  November  in  the  88th  year  of 
his  age. 

A  notice  of  his  death  appeared  also  in 
the  Gazette  de  France  for  December  5, 
1774,  a  rare  honor  in  both  cases ;  and  it  has 
been  said  that  at  this  time  his  praise  was 
again  on  every  lip. 

'Michaud,  I.  F.  and  L.  G.  Biographic  Universelle. 
Paris. 


T     COFFEE 

One  French  historian,  Sidney  Daney,' ^ 
records  that  de  Clieu  died  in  poverty  at 
St.  Pierre  at  the  age  of  97 ;  but  this  must 
be  an  error,  although  it  does  not  anywhere 
appear  that  at  his  death  he  was  possessed 
of  much,  if  any,  means.    Daney  says : 

This  generous  man  received  as  his  sole  recom- 
pense for  a  noble  deed  the  satisfaction  of  seeing 
this  plant  for  whose  preservation  he  had  shown 
such  devotion,  prosper  throughout  the  Antilles. 
The  illustrious  de  Clieu  is  among  those  to  whom 
Martinique  owes  a  brilliant  reparation. 

Daney  tells  also  that  in  1804  there  was 
a  movement  in  Martinique  to  erect  a  monu- 
ment upon  the  spot  where  de  Clieu  planted 
his  first  coffee  plant,  but  that  the  under- 
taking came  to  naught. 

Pardon,  in  his  La  Martinique  says : 
Honor  to  this  brave  man!  He  has  deserved 
it  from  the  people  of  two  hemispheres.  His 
name  is  worthy  of  a  place  beside  that  of  Par- 
mentier  who  carried  to  France  the  potato  of 
Canada.  These  two  men  have  rendered  im- 
mense service  to  humanity,  and  their  memory 
should  never  be  forgotten  —  yet  alas !  Are  they 
even  remembered"? 

Tussac,  in  his  Flora  de  las  Antillas,  writ- 
ing of  de  Clieu,  says,  "Though  no  monu- 
ment be  erected  to  this  beneficent  traveler, 
yet  his  name  should  remain  engraved  in  the 
heart  of  every  colonist." 

In  1774  the  Annee  Litteraire  published 
a  long  poem  in  de  Clieu 's  honor.  In  the 
feuilleton  of  the  Gazette  de  France,  April 
12,  1816,  we  read  that  M.  Donns,  a  wealthy 
Hollander,  and  a  coffee  connoisseur,  sought 
to  honor  de  Clieu  by  having  painted  upon-  a 
porcelain  service  all  the  details  of  his  voy- 
age and  its  happy  results.  "I  have  seen 
the  cups,"  says  the  writer,  who  gives  many 
details  and  the  Latin  inscription. 

That  singer  of  navigation,  Esmenard,  has 
pictured  de  Clieu 's  devotion  in  the  follow- 
ing lines : 

Forget  not  how  de  Clieu  with  his  light  vessel's 

sail, 
Brought  distant  Moka's  gift — that  timid  plant 

and  frail. 
The  waves  fell  suddenly,  young  zephyrs  breathed 

no  more. 
Beneath  fierce  Cancer's  fires  behold  the  fountain 

store. 
Exhausted,  fails  ;  while  now  inexoi'able  need 
Makes  her  unpitying  law  —  with  measured  dole 

obeyed. 

Now  each  soul  fears  to  prove  Tantalus  torment 

first. 
De   Clieu    alone   defies:    While    still    that    fatal 

thirst. 
Fierce,  stifling,  day  by  day  his  noble  strength 

devours, 

"Daney,  Sidney.  .Hiatoirc  de  la  Martinigue.  Fort 
Royal,  184G.  ^ 


COFFEE  PROPAGATION 


9 


And  still  a  heaven  of  brass  inflames  the  burning 

hours. 
With  that  refreshing  draught  his  life  he  will  not 

cheer ; 
But  drop   by   drop   revives   the  plant  he  holds 

more  dear. 
Already  as  in  dreams,  he  sees  great  brandies 

grow, 
One  look  at  his  dear  plant  assuages  all  his  woe. 

The  only  memorial  to  de  Clieu  in  Mar- 
tinique is  tlie  botanical  garden  at  Fort  de 
France,  which  was  opened  in  1918  and  dedi- 
cated to  de  Clieu,  ' '  whose  memory  has  been 
too  long  left  in  oblivion.'" 

In  1715  coffee  cultivation  was  first  intro- 
duced into  Haiti  and  Santo  Domingo. 
Later  came  hardier  plants  from  Martinique. 
In  1715  -  17  the  French  Company  of  the 
Indies  introduced  the  cultivation  of  the 
plant  into  the  Isle  of  Bourbon  (now  Re- 
union) by  a  ship  captain  named  Dufou- 
geret-Grenier  from  St.  Malo.  It  did  so 
well  that  nine  years  later  the  island  began 
to  export  coffee. 

The  Dutch  brought  the  cultivation  of  cof- 
fee to  Surinam  in  1718.  The  first  coffee 
plantation  in  BraziTwas  started  at  Para  in 
1723  with  plants  brought  from  French 
Guiana,  but  it  was  not  a  success.  The  Eng- 
lish brought  the  plant  to  Jamaica  in  1730. 
In  1740  Spanish  missionaries  introduced 
coffee  cultivation  into  the  Philippines  from 
Java.  In  1748  Don  Jose  Antonio  Gelabert 
introduced  coffee  into  Cuba,  bringing  the 
seed  from  Santo  Domingo.  In  1750  the 
Dutch  extended  the  cultivation  of  the  plant 
to  the  Celebes.  Coffee  was  introduced  into 
Guatemala  about  1750  -  60.  The  intensive 
cultivation  in  Brazil  dates  from  the  efforts 
begun  in  the  Portuguese  colonies  in  Para 
and  Amazonas  in  1752.  Porto  Rico  began 
the  cultivation  of  coffee  about  1755.  In 
1760  Joao  Alberto  Castello  Branco  brought 

''Innuguratiim  du  Jardin  Deaclieux.  Fort  de  France, 
1918. 


to  Rio  de  Janeiro  a  coffee  tree  from  Goa, 
Portuguese  India.  The  news  spread  that 
the  soil  and  climate  of  Brazil  were  particu- 
larly adapted  to  the  cultivation  of  coffee. 
Molke,  a  Belgian  monk,  presented  some 
seeds  to  the  Capuchin  monastery  at  Rio  in 
1774.  Later,  the  bishop  of  Rio,  Joachim 
Bruno,  became  a  patron  of  the  plant  and 
encouraged  its  propagation  in  Rio,  Minas. 
Espirito  Santo,  and  Sao  Paulo.  The  Span- 
ish voyager,  Don  Francisco  Xavier  Na- 
varro, is  credited  with  the  introduction  of 
coffee  into  Costa  Rica  from  Cuba  in  1779. 
In  Venezuela  the  industry  was  started  near  ~ 
Caracas  by  a  priest,  Jose  Antonio  Mohe- 
dano,  with  seed  brought  from  Martinique 
in  1784. 

Coffee  cultivatinn  in  Mpyien  h^^n  in 
1790,  the  seed  being  brought  from  the  West 
Indies.  InJlSITLDon  fjuan  Antonio  (lomex 
mstitutel  intensive  cultivation  in  ihp  Statpi 
of  Vexa^ruz.  In  1825  the  cultivation  of 
THe^  plant  was  begun  in  the  Hawaiian 
Islands  with  seeds  from  Rio  de  Janeiro. 
As  previously  noted,  the  English  began  to 
cultivate  coffee  in  India  in  1840.  In  1852 
coffee  cultivation  was  begun  in  Salva- 
dor with  plants  brought  from  Cuba.  In 
1878  the  English  began  the  propagation  of 
coffee  in  British  Central  Africa,  but  it  was 
not  until  1901  that  coffee  cultivation  was 
introduced  into  British  East  Africa  from 
Reunion.  In  1887  the  French  introduced 
the  plant  into  Tonkin,  Indo-China.  Coffee 
growing  in  Queensland,  introduced  in  1896, 
has  been  successful  in  a  small  way. 

In  recent  years  several  attempts  have 
been  made  to  propagate  the  coffee  plant  in 
the  southern  United  States,  but  without 
success.  It  is  believed,  however,  that  the 
topographic  and  climatic  conditions  in 
southern  California  are  favorable  for  its 
cultivation. 


10 


ALL    ABOUT     COFFEE 


Omar  and  the  Marvelous  Coffee  Bird 


Kaldi  and  His  Dancing  Goats 
THE  LEGENDARY  DISCOVERY  OF  THE   COFFEE  DRINK 

From  drawings  by  a  modern  French  artist 


Chapter  III 
ARLY    HISTORY    OF    COFFEE    DRINKING 

Coffee  in  the  Near  East  in  the  early  centuries  —  Stories  of  its  origin 

—  Discovery  by  physicians  and  adoption  by  the  Church  —  Its  spread 
through  Arabia,  Persia  and  Turkey  —  Persecutions  and  intolerances 

—  Early  coffee  manners  and  customs 


THE  coffee  drink  had  its  rise  in  the 
classical  period  of  Arabian  medicine, 
which  dates  from  Rhazes  (Abu  Bakr 
Muhammad  ibn  Zakariya  El  Razi)  who  fol- 
lowed the  doctrines  of  Galen  and  sat  at  the 
feet  of  Hippocrates.  Rhazes  (850  -  922) 
was  the  first  to  treat  medicine  in  an  ency- 
clopedic manner,  and,  according  to  some 
authorities,  the  first  writer  to  mention 
coffee.  He  assumed  the  poetical  name  of 
Razi  because  he  was  a  native  of  the  city  of 
Raj  in  Persian  Irak.  He  was  a  great 
philosopher  and  astronomer,  and  at  one 
time  was  superintendent  of  the  hospital  at 
Bagdad.  He  wrote  many  learned  books  on 
medicine  and  surgery,'  but  his  principal 
work  is  Al-IIaiwi,  or  The  Continent,  a  col- 
lection of  everything  relating  to  the  cure 
of  disease  from  Galen  to  his  own  time. 

Philippe  Sylvestre  Dufour  (1622 -87)\  a 
French  coffee  merchant,  philosopher,  and 
writer,  in  an  accurate  and  finished  treatise 
on  coffee,  tells  us  (see  the  early  edition  of 
the  work  translated  from  the  Latin)  that 
the  first  writer  to  mention  the  properties 
of  the  coffee  bean  under  the  name  of  hun- 
chum  was  this  same  Rhazes,  "in  the  ninth 
century  after  the  birth  of  our  Saviour"; 
from  which  (if  true)  it  would  appear  that 
coffee  has  been  known  for  upwards  of  1000 
^ars.  Robinson^,  however,  is  of  the  opinion 
that  hnnchum  meant  something  else  and 
had  nothing  to  do  with  coffee.  Dufour, 
himself,  in  a  later  edition  of  his  Traitez 


'Dufour.  Philippe  Sylvestro.  Trait^n  Nouveaux  et 
Curieux  du  Cajii,  du  Th6,  et  du  Ghocolat.  Lyons, 
1684.      (Titlo  pago   lias   Traitez:  elspwhore,   Traitia.) 

^'Robinson,  Edward  Forbos.  The  Early  History  of 
Coffee  Houses  in  England.     Loudon,  1893. 


Nouveaux  et  Curieux  du  Cafe  (the  Hague, 
1693)  is  inclined  to  admit  that  bunchum 
may  have  been  a  root  and  not  coffee,  after 
all ;  however,  he  is  careful  to  add  that  there 
is  no  doubt  that  the  Arabs  knew  coffee  as 
far  back  as  the  year  800,  Other,  more 
modern  authorities,  place  it  as  early  as  the 
sixth  century. 

Wiji  Kawih  is  mentioned  in  a  Kavi 
(Javan)  inscription  A.  D.  856;  and  it  is 
thought  that  the  "bean  broth"  in  David 
Tapperi's  list  of  Javanese  beverages  (1667  - 
82)  may  have  been  coffee'. 

While  the  true  origin  of  coffee  drinking 
may  be  forever  hidden  among  the  mysteries 
of  the  purple  East,  shrouded  as  it  is  in 
legend  and  fable,  scholars  have  marshaled 
sufficient  facts  to  prove  that  the  beverage 
was  known  in  Ethiopia  "from  time  imme- 
morial," and  there  is  much  to  add  verisi- 
militude to  Dufour 's  narrative.  This  first 
,  coffee  merchant-prince,  skilled  in  languages 
and  polite  learning,  considered  that  his 
character  as  a  merchant  was  not  incon- 
sistent with  that  of  an  author ;  and  he  even 
went  so  far  as  to  say  there  were  some  things 
(for  instance,  coffee)  on  which  a  merchant 
could  be  better  informed  than  a  philoso- 
pher. 

Granting  that  by  hnnchum  Rhazes  meant 
coffee,  the  plant  and  the  drink  must  have 
been  known  to  his  immediate  followers ;  and 
this,  indeed,  seems  to  be  indicated  by  simi- 
lar references  in  the  writings  of  Avicenna 
(Ibn  Sina),  the  Mohammedan  physician 
and  philosopher,  who  lived  from  980  to 
1037  A.  D. 

^Encyclopedia  Britannica.    1910.     (vol.  xv :  p.  291.) 


11 


12 


ALL    ABOUT     COFFEE 


Rhazes,  in  the  quaint  language  of  Du- 
four,  assures  us  that  "hunchum  (coffee) 
is  hot  and  dry  and  very  good  for  the  stom- 
ach." Avicenna  explains  the  medicinal 
properties  and  uses  of  the  coffee  bean  {hon 
or  hunn)^  which  he,  also,  calls  hunchum, 
after  this  fashion: 

As  to  the  choice  thereof,  that  of  a  lemon  color, 
light,  ami  of  a  good  smell,  Ls  the  best;  the  white 
and  the  heavy  is  naught.  It  is  hot  and  dry  lu 
the  first  degree,  and,  according  to  others,  cold 
in  the  tirst  degree.  It  fortifies  the  members,  it 
(•loans  the  skin,  and  dries  up  the  humidities  that 
are  under  it,  and  gives  an  excellent  smell  to  all 
the  body. 

The  early  Arabians  called  the  bean  and 
the  tree  that  bore  it,  himn;  the  drink, 
hunchnm.  A.  Galland'  (1646-1715),  the 
French  Orientalist  who  first  analyzed  and 
translated  from  the  Arabic  the  Abd-al- 
Kadir  manuscript",  the  oldest  document  ex- 
tant telling  of  the  origin  of  coffee,  observes 
that  Avicenna  speaks  of  the  hunn,  or  coffee ; 
as  do  also  Prospero  Alpini  and  Veslingius 
(Vesling).  Bengiazlah,  another  great 
physician,  contemporary  with  Avicenna, 
likewise  mentions  coffee;  by  which,  says 
Galland,  one  may  see  that  we  are  indebted 
to  physicians  for  the  discovery  of  coffee,  as 
well  as  of  sugar,  tea,  and  chocolate. 

Rauwolf  (d.  1596),  German  physician 
and  botanist,  and  the  first  European  to 
mention  coffee,  who  became  acquainted 
with  the  beverage  in  Aleppo  in  1573,  tell- 
ing how  the  drink  was  prepared  by  the 
Turks,  says: 

In  this  same  water  they  take  a  fruit  called 
Bunnu,  which  in  its  bigness,  shape,  and  color 
is  almost  like  unto  a  bayberry,  with  two  thin 
shells  surrounded,  whieh,  as  they  informed  me, 
are  brought  from  the  Indies;  but  as  these  in 
themselves  are,  and  have  within  them,  two  yel- 
lowish grains  in  two  distinct  cells,  and  besides, 
being  they  agree  in  their  virtue,  figure,  looks, 
and  name  with  the  Biinchum  of  Avicenna  and 
Bunca  of  Rasis  ad  Almans  exactly:  therefore 
I  take  them  to  be  the  same. 

In  Dr.  Edward  Pocoke's  translation  (Ox- 
ford, 1659)  of  The  Nature  of  the  Drink 
Kauhi,  or  Coffee,  and  the  Berry  of  which 
it  is  Made,  Described  hy  an  Arabian  Phisi- 
tian,  we  read : 

Btm  is  a  plant  in  Yaman  [Yemen],  which  is 
planted  in  Adar,  and  groweth  up  and  is  gathered 
in  Ah.  It  is  about  a  cubit  high,  on  a  stalk  about 
the  thickness  of  one's  thumb.  It  flowers  white, 
leaving  a  berry  like  a  small  nut,  but  that  some- 

■•Galland,  Antoino.  Lettrc  sur  I'Origine  et  le  Progres 
du  Cnf6.     Paris,  1690. 

'The  Ahd-al-Kadir  mnnuscript  is  described  and  illus- 
trated in  chapter  XXXII. 

'Rauwolf,  Leonhard.  Aigcntliche  beschreibung  der 
Raisis  so  er  vor  diser  zeit  gegen  auffgang  inn  die 
morgenlaender  volbracht.     Lauwingen,  1582-83, 


times  it  is  broad  like  a  bean;  and  when  it  is' 
peeled,  parteth  in  two.  The  best  of  It  is  that 
which  is  weighty  and  yellow;  the  worst,  that 
whieh  is  black.  It  is  hot  in  the  first  degree,  dry 
in  the  second :  it  is  usually  reported  to  be  cold 
and  dry,  but  it  is  not  so;  for  it  is  bitter,  and 
whatsoever  is  bitter  is  hot.  It  may  be  that  the 
scorce  is  hot,  and  the  Bun  it  selfe  either  of 
equal]  temperature,  or  cold  in  the  first  degree. 

That  which  makes  for  its  coldnesse  is  Its  stip- 
ticknesse.  In  summer  it  is  by  experience  found 
to  conduce  to  the  drying  of  rheumes,  and  fleg- 
matick  eoughes  and  distillations,  and  the  opening 
of  obstructions,  and  the  provocation  of  urin. 
It  is  now  known  by  the  name  of  Kohioah.  When 
it  is  dried  and  thoroughly  boyled,  it  allayes  the 
ebullition  of  the  blood,  is  good  against  the  small 
jK)xe  and  measles,  the  bloudy  pimples ;  yet 
causeth  vertiginous  headheach,  and  maketh  lean 
much,  occasioneth  waking,  and  the  Emrods,  and 
asswageth  lust,  and  sometimes  breeds  melan- 
cliolly. 

He  that  would  drink  it  for  livelinesse  sake, 
and  to  discusse  slothfulnesse,  and  the  other 
properties  that  we  have  mentioned,  let  him  use 
nuich  sweat  meates  with  it,  and  oyle  of  pis- 
taccioes,  and  butter.  Some  drink  it  with  milk, 
but  it  is  an  error,  and  such  as  may  bring  in 
danger  of  the  leprosy. 

Dufour  concludes  that  the  coffee  beans  of 
commerce  are  the  same  as  the  bunchum 
(bunn)  described  by  Avicenna  and  the 
bunca  (bunchum)  of  Rhazes.  In  this  he 
agrees,  almost  word  for  word,  with  Rau- 
wolf, indicating  no  change  in  opinion 
among  the  learned  in  a  hundred  years. 

Christopher  Campen  thinks  Hippocrates, 
father  of  medicine,  knew  and  administered 
coffee. 

Robinson,  commenting  upon  the  early 
adoption  of  coffee  into  materia  medica, 
charges  that  it  was  a  mistake  on  the  part 
of  the  Arab  physicians,  and  that  it  origi- 
nated the  prejudice  that  caused  coffee  to  be 
regarded  as  a  powerful  drug  instead  of  as 
a  simple  and  refreshing  beverage. 

Homer,  the  Bible,  and  Coffee 

In  early  Grecian  and  Roman  writings  no 
mention  is  made  of  either  the  coffee  plant 
or  the  beverage  made  from  the  berries. 
Pierre  (Pietro)  Delia  Valle'  (1586-1652), 
however,  maintains  that  the  nepenthe, 
which  Homer  says  Helen  brought  with  her 
out  of  Egypt,  and  which  she  employed  as 
surcease  for  sorrow,  was  nothing  else  but 
coffee  mixed  with  wine.*  This  is  disputed 
by  M.  Petit,  a  well  known  physician  of 
Paris,  who  died  in  1687.  Several  later 
British  authors,  among  them,  Sandys,  the 

'Delia  Valle,  Pierre  (Pietro).  De  Constantinople  a 
Bombay,  Lettres.     1615.      (vol.  i  :  p.  90.) 

»"She  mingled  with  the  wine  the  wondrous  juice  of 
a  plant  which  banishes  sadness  and  wrath  from  the 
heart  and  brings  with  it  forgetfulness  of  every  woe," 


EARLY  HISTORY  OF  COFFEE 


13 


])oet;  Burton;  and  Sir  Henry  Blount,  have 
suggested  the  probability  of  coffee  being  the 
"black  broth"  of  the  Lacedaemonians. 

George  Paschius,  in  his  Latin  treatise  of 
tlie  New  Discoveries  Made  since  the  Time 
of  the  Ancients,  printed  at  Leipsic  in  1700, 

T  R  A  I  T  E  Z 

NouYcaux  &  curicujc 

DU  CAFE'. 

D  U    THE' 

E  1     D  U 

CHOCOLATE. 

Ouvrageegdement  necelTaire  aux 

Medecins ,  &  a  tous  ceux  qui 

aiment  leur  fante. 

PaiPHiLtPP  fiSytvESTRB  Dupour 

e^  quoy  on  a  adjoute  dans  cettc.  Edition  ,  la  meil- 
leure  de  toutes  les  metkodes  ,  qui  manquoit 
a  ce  Livre  j  pour  compojer    ' 

L'JEXCELLENT  OHOCOiATE. 

Par   Mi.   St.  D  i  s  d  i  £  r. 
Troifi^me  Edition. 


A  LAHAYEi 

Chez  ADRIAN  MOETJENS.Mar- 

chand  Librairc  prez  laCour ,  a  la 
LibraireFran9oi(e, 

M,  DG.  XCHL 

Title  Page  of  Dufoub's  Book,  Edition  of  1693 

says  he  believes  that  coffee  was  meant  by 
the  five  measures  of  parched  corn  included 
among  the  presents  Abigail  made  to  David 
to  appease  his  wrath,  as  recorded  in  the 
Bible,  1  Samuel,  xxv,  18.  The  Vulgate 
translates  the  Hebrew  words  sein  kali  into 
sata  polentea,  which  signify  wheat,  roasted, 
or  dried  by  fire. 

Pierre  fitienne  Louis  Dumant,  the  Swiss 
Protestant  minister  and  author,  is  of  the 


opinion  that  coffee  (and  not  lentils,  as 
others  have  supposed)  was  the  red  pottage 
for  which  Esau  sold  his  birthright;  also 
that  the  parched  grain  that  Boaz  ordered 
to  be  given  Ruth  was  undoubtedly  roasted 
coffee  berries. 

Dufour  mentions  as  a  possible  objection 
against  coffee  that  "the  use  and  eating  of 
beans  were  heretofore  forbidden  by  Py- 
thagoras," but  intimates  that  the  coffee 
bean  of  Arabia  is  something  different. 

Scheuzer,"  in  his  Physique  Sacree,  says 
"the  Turks  and  the  Arabs  make  with  the 
coffee  bean  a  beverage  which  bears  the  same 
name,  and  many  persons  use  as  a  substitute 
the  flour  of  roasted  barley. ' '  From  this  we 
learn  that  the  coffee  substitute  is  almost  as 
old  as  coffee  itself. 

Some  Early  Legends 

After  medicine,  the  church.  There  are 
several  Mohammedan  traditions  that  have 
persisted  through  the  centuries,  claiming 
for  "the  faithful"  the  honor  and  glory  of 
the  first  use  of  coffee  as  a  beverage.  One  of 
these  relates  how,  about  1258  A.  D.,  Sheik 
Omar,  a  disciple  of  Sheik  Abou'l  hasan 
Schadheli,  patron  saint  and  legendary 
founder  of  Mocha,  by  chance  discovered  the 
coffee  drink  at  Ousab  in  Arabia,  whither 
he  had  been  exiled  for  a  certain  moral 
remissness. 

Facing  starvation,  he  and  his  followers 
were  forced  to  feed  upon  the  berries  grow- 
ing around  them.  And  then,  in  the  words 
of  the  faithful  Arab  chronicle  in  the  Biblio- 
theque  Nationale  at  Paris,  ' '  having  nothing 
to  eat  except  coffee,  they  took  of  it  and 
boiled  it  in  a  sauce-pan  and  drank  of  the 
decoction. ' '  Former  patients  in  Mocha  who 
sought  out  the  good  doctor-priest  in  his 
Ousab  retreat,  for  physiic  with  which  to 
cure  their  ills,  were  given  some  of  this  de- 
coction, with  beneficial  effect.  As  a  result 
of  the  stories  of  its  magical  properties,  car- 
ried back  to  the  city.  Sheik  Omar  was  in- 
vited to  return  in  triumph  to  Mocha  where 
tile  governor  caused  to  be  built  a  monastery 
for  him  and  his  companions. 

Another  version  of  this  Oriental  legend 
gives  it  as  follows : 

The  dervish  Hadji  Omar  was  driven  by  his 
enemies  out  of  Mocha  into  the  desert,  where  they 
expected  he  would  die  of  starvation.  This  un- 
doubtedly would  have  occurred  if  he  liad  not 
plucked  up  courage  to  taste  some  strange  berries 
which  he  found  growing  on  a  shrub.  While  they 
seemed  to  be  edible,  they  were  very  bitter ;  and 


*SchPuzer,     .T.     .T.     Physique     8acr6e,    ou    Hiatoire 
Naturelle  de  la  Bible.     Amsterdam,  1732,  1737. 


14 


ALL    ABOUT     COFFEE 


he  tried  to  improve  tlie  taste  by  roasting  tliein. 
He  found,  liowever,  tliut  tliey  liad  become  very 
hard,  so  he  attempted  to  soften  them  with  water. 
The  berries  seemed  to  remain  as  hard  as  before, 
but  the  iiquid  turned  brown,  and  Omar  dranli 
It  on  the  chance  that  it  contained  some  of  the 
nourishment  from  the  berries.  He  was  amazed 
at  how  it  refreshed  him,  enlivened  his  sluggish- 
ness, and  raised  his  drooping  spirits.  Later, 
when  he  returned  to  Mocha,  liis  salvation  was 
considered  a  miracle.  The  beverage  to  wliich  it 
was  due  sprang  into  high  favor,  and  Omar  him- 
self was  made  a  saint. 

A  popular  and  much-quoted  version  of 
Omar's  discovery  of  coffee,  also  based  upon 
the  Abd-al-Kadir  manuscript,  is  the  fol- 
lowing: 

In  the  year  of  the  Ilegira  C5(5,  the  moUah 
Schadheli  went  on  a  pilgrimage  to  Mecca.  Ar- 
riving at  the  mountain  of  the  Emeralds  (Ousab), 
he  turned  to  his  disciple  Omar  and  said :  "I  shall 
die  in  this  place.  When  my  soul  has  gone  forth, 
a  veiled  person  will  appear  to  you.  Do  not  fail 
to  execute  the  command  which  he  will  give  you." 

The  venerable  Schadheli  being  dead,  Omar  saw 
in  the  middle  of  the  night  a  gigantic  specter 
covered  by  a  white  veil. 

"Who  are  youV"  he  asked. 

The  phantom  drew  back  his  veil,  and  Omar 
saw  with  surprise  Schadheli  himself,  grown  ten 
cubits  since  his  death.  The  mollah  dug  in  the 
ground,  and  water  miraculously  appeared.  The 
spirit  of  his  teacher  bade  Omar  fill  a  bowl  with 
the  water  and  to  proceed  on  his  way  and  not  to 
stop  till  he  reached  the  spot  where  the  water 
would  stop  moving. 

"It  is  there,"  he  added,  "that  a  great  destiny 
awaits  you." 

Omar  started  his  journey.  Arriving  at  Mocha 
in  Yemen,  he  noticed  that  the  water  was  im- 
movable.   It  was  here  that  he  must  stop. 

The  beautiful  village  of  Mocha  was  then  rav- 
aged by  the  plague.  Omar  began  to  pray  for  the 
sick  and,  as  the  saintly  man  was  close  to 
Mahomet,  many  found  themselves  cured  by  his 
prayers. 

The  plague  meanwhile  progressing,  the  daugh- 
ter of  the  King  of  Mocha  fell  ill  and  her  father 
had  her  carried  to  the  home  of  the  dervish  who 
cured  her.  But  as  this  young  princess  was  of 
rare  beauty,  after  having  cured  her,  the  good 
dervish  tried  to  carry  her  off.  The  king  did  not 
fancy  this  new  kind  of  reward.  Omar  was 
driven  from  the  city  and  exiled  on  the  mountain 
of  Ousab,  with  herbs  for  food  and  a  cave  for 
a  home. 

"Oh,  Schadheli,  my  dear  master,"  cried  the 
unfortunate  dervish  one  day ;  "if  the  things 
which  happened  to  me  at  Mocha  were  destined, 
was  it  worth  the  trouble  to  give  me  a  bowl  to 
come  here?" 

To  these  just  complaints,  there  was  heard  im- 
mediately a  song  of  incomparable  harmony,  and 
a  bird  of  marvelous  plumage  came  to  rest  in  a 
tree.  Omar  sprang  forward  quickly  toward  the 
little  bird  which  sang  so  well,  but  then  he  saw 
on  the  branches  of  the  tree  only  flowers  and 
fruit.  Omar  laid  hands  on  the  fruit,  and  found 
it  delicious.  .  Then  he  filled  his  great  pockets 
with  it  and  went  back  to  his  cave.    As  he  was 


preparing  to  boil  a  few  herbs  for  his  dinner,  the 
idea  came  to  him  of  substituting  for  this  sad 
souj),  some  of  his  harvested  fruit.  From  it  he 
obtained  a  savory  and  perfumed  drink ;  it  was 
coffee. 

The  Italian  Journal  of  the  Savants  for 
the  year  1760  says  that  two  monks,  Scialdi 
and  Ayduis,  were  the  first  to  discover  the 
properties  of  coffee,  and  for  this  reason  be- 
came the  object  of  special  prayers.  "Was 
not  this  Scialdi  identical  with  the  Sheik  j| 
Schadheli  ? ' '  asks  Jardin."  1 

The  most  popular  legend  ascribes  the  dis- 
covery of  the  drink  to  an  Arabian  herdsman 
'in  upper  Egypt,  or  Abyssinia,  who  com- 
plained to  the  abbot  of  a  neighboring 
monastery  that  the  goats  confided  to  his 
care  became  unusually  frolicsome  after  eat- 
ing the  berries  of  certain  shrubs  found  near 
their  feeding  grounds.  The  abbot,  having 
observed  the  fact,  determined  to  try  the 
virtues  of  the  berries  on  himself.  He,  too, 
responded  with  a  new  exhilaration.  Ac- 
cordingly, he  directed  that  some  be  boiled, 
and  the  decoction  drunk  by  his  monks,  who 
thereafter  found  no  difficulty  in  keeping 
awake  during  the  religious  services  of  the 
night.  The  abbe  Massieu  in  his  poem. 
Carmen  Caffaeum,  thus  celebrates  the 
event : 

The  monks  each  in  turn,  as  the  evening  draws 

near, 
Drink   'round   the  great  cauldron  —  a   circle  of 

cheer ! 
And  the  dawn  in  amaze,  revisiting  that  shore. 
On  idle  l)eds  of  ease  surprised  them  nevermore! 

According  to  the  legend,  the  news  of  the 
"wakeful  monastery"  spread  rapidly,  and 
the  magical  berry  soon  "came  to  be  in  re- 
quest throughout  the  whole  kingdom;  and 
in  progress  of  time  other  nations  and 
provinces  of  the  East  fell  into  the  use 
of  it." 

The  French  have  preserved  the  following 
picturesque  version  of  this  legend : 

A  young  goatherd  named  Kaldi  noticed  one 
day  that  his  goats,  whose  deportment  up  to  that 
time  had  been  irreproachable,  were  abandoning 
themselves  to  the  most  extravagant  prancings. 
1'he  venerable  buck,  ordinarily  so  dignified  and 
solemn,  bounded  about  like  a  young  kid.  Kaldi 
attributed  this  foolish  gaiety  to  certain  fruits 
of  which  the  goats  had  been  eating  with  delight. 

The  story  goes  that  the  poor  fellow  had  a 
heavy  heart;  and  in  the  hope  of  cheering  him- 
self up  a  little,  he  thought  he  would  pick  and  eat 
of  the  fruit.  The  experiment  succeeded  mar- 
velously.  He  forgot  his  troubles  and  became  the 
happiest  herder  in  happy  Arabia.  When  the 
goats  danced,  he  gaily  made  himself  one  of  the 

J^ardin,  I5del,estan.     Le  Cafiier  et  le  Caf6.     Paris, 


teARLY  ttL^TORY  OF  COFFER 


1.5 


party,  and  entered  into  their  fun  witli  admirable 
spirit. 

One  day,  a  monk  clianced  to  pass  by  and 
stopiied  in  surprise  to  find  a  ball  going  on.  A 
score  of  goats  were  executing  lively  pirouettes 
like  a  ladies'  chain,  wMle  the  buck  solenuily 
halan(('-fH\,  and  the  herder  went  through  the 
ttgures  of  an  eccentric  i)astoral  dance. 

The  astonished  monk  inquired  the  cause  of  this 
saltatorial  madness ;  and  Kaldi  told  him  of  his 
precious  discovery. 

Now,  this  poor  monk  had  a  great  sorrow ;  he 
always  went  to  sleep  in  the  middle  of  his 
prayers;  and  he  reasoned  that  Mohannned  with- 


Cats,  JO  v  Tsi,    *  r  2J  v  CkJc  o  itA.  i!^.. 

Arai!   DiiiNKiNo   ('okike;    Chinaman,   Tea;   and 

Indian,  Cuocolatb 

Frontispiece   from   Dufour's    work 

out  doubt  was  revealing  this  marvelous  fruit  to 
him  to  overcome  his  sleepiness. 

Piety  does  not  exclude  gastronomic  instincts. 
Those  of  our  good  monk  were  more  than  ordi- 
nary ;  because  he  thought  of  drying  and  boiling 
the  fruit  of  the  herder.  This  ingenious  concoc- 
tion gave  us  coffee.  Immediately  all  the  monks 
of  the  realm  made  use  of  the  drink,  because  It 
encouraged  them  to  pray  and,  perhaps,  also  be- 
cause it  was  not  disagreeable. 


In  those  early  days  it  appears  that  the 
drink  was  prepared  in  two  ways;  one  in 
which  the  decoction  was  made  from  the 
hull  and  the  pulp  surrounding  the  bean, 
and  the  other  from  the  bean  itself.  The 
roasting  process  came  later  and  is  an  im- 
provement generally  credited  to  the  Per- 
sians. There  is  evidence  that  the  early 
Mohammedan  churchmen  were  seeking  a 
.substitute  for  the  wine  forbidden  to  them 
by  the  Koran,  when  they  discovered  coffee. 
The  word  for  coffee  in  Arabic,*  ga/ii^a/i,  is 
the  same  as  one  of  those  used  for  wine ;  and 
later  on,  when  coffee  drinking  grew  so  pop- 
ular as  to  threaten  the  very  life  of  the 
church  itself,  this  similarity  was  seized 
upon  by  the  church-leaders  to  support  their 
contention  that  the  prohibition  against 
wine  applied  also  to  cott'ee. 

La  Roque,"  writing  in  1715,  says  that  the 
Arabian  word  cakouah  signified  at  first 
only  wine;  but  later  was  turned  into  a 
generic  term  applied  to  all  kinds  of  drink. 
' '  So  there  were  really  three  sorts  of  coffee ; 
namely,  wine,  including  all  intoxicating 
liquors ;  the  drink  made  with  the  shells,  or 
cods,  of  the  coffee  bean;  and  that  made 
from  the  bean  itself." 

Originally,  then,  the  coffee  drink  may 
have  been  a  kind  of  wine  made  from  the 
coffee  fruit.  In  the  coffee  countries  even 
today  the  natives  are  very  fond,  and  eat 
freely,  of  the  ripe  coffee  cherries,  voiding 
the  seeds.  The  pulp  surrounding  the  cof- 
fee seeds  (beans)  is  pleasant  to  taste,  has 
a  sweetish,  aromatic  flavor,  and  quickly 
ferments  when  allowed  to  stand. 

Still  another  tradition  (was  the  wish 
father  to  the  thought?)  tells  how  the  coffee 
drink  was  revealed  to  Mohammed  himseif 
by  the  Angel  Gabriel.  Coffee's  partisans 
found  satisfaction  in  a  passage  in  the 
Koran  which,  they  said,  foretold  its  adop- 
tion by  the  followers  of  the  Prophet: 

'i'hey  shall  be  given  to  drink  an  excellent  wine, 
sealed ;  its  seal  is  that  of  the  musk. 

The  most  diligent  research  does  not  carry 
a  knowledge  of  coffee  back  beyond  the  time 
of  Rhazes,  two  hundred  years  after  Mo- 
hammed ;  so  there  is  little  more  than  specu- 
lation or  conjecture  to  support  the  theory 
that  it  was  known  to  the  ancients,  in  Bible 
times  or  in  the  days  of  The  Praised  One. 
Our  knowledge  of  tea,  on  the  other  hand, 
antedates    the    Christian    era.      We   know 

also    that    tea   was   intensively    cultivated 

( 

"La  Roque,  Jean.  Voyage  dans  I'Arabie  Heureuae, 
de  1708  d  nis,  et  TraiU  HistoHque  du  Ca}6.  Paris, 
1715.      (pp.  247,  251.) 


16 


ALL    ABOUT     COFFEE 


and  taxed  under  the  Tang  dynasty  in 
China,  A.  D.  lU'.i,  and  that  Arab  traders 
knew  of  it  in  tlie  following  century. 

The  First  Reliable  Coffee  Date 

About  1454  Sheik  Gemaleddiii  Abou  Mu- 
hammad Bensaid,  mufti  of  Aden,  sur- 
named  Aldhabhani,  from  Dhabhan,  a  small 
town  where  he  was  born,  became  acquainted 
with  the  virtues  of  coffee  on  a  journey  into 
Abyssinia.''  Upon  his  return  to  Aden,  his 
health  became  impaired;  and  remembering 
the  coffee  he  had  seen  his  countrymen 
drinking  in  Abyssinia,  he  sent  for  some  in 
the  hope  of  finding  relief.  He  not  only 
recovered  from  his  illness;  but,  because  of 
its  sleep-dispelling  qualities,  he  sanctioned 
the  use  of  the  drink  among  the  dervishes 
"tliat  they  might  spend  the  night  in 
prayers  or  other  religious  exercises  with 
tnore  attention  and  presence  of  mind."" 

It  is  altogether  probable  that  the  coffee 
drink  was  known  in  Aden  before  the  time 
of  Sheik  Gemaleddin ;  but  the  endorsement 
of  the  very  learned  imam,  whom  science 
and  religion  had  already  made  famous,  was 
sufficient  to  start  a  vogue  for  the  beverage 
that  spread  throughout  Yemen,  and  thence 
to  the  far  corners  of  the  world.  We  read 
in  the  Arabian  manuscript  at  the  Biblio- 
theque  Nationale  that  lawyers,  students, 
as  well  as  travelers  who  journeyed  at  night, 
artisans,  and  others,  who  worked  at  night, 
to  escape  the  heat  of  the  day,  took  to  drink- 
ing coffee ;  and  even  left  off  another  drink, 
then  becoming  popular,  rhade  from  the 
leaves  of  a  plant  called  khat  or  cat  {catha 
edulis). 

Sheik  Gemaleddin  was  assisted  in  his 
work  of  spreading  the  gospel  of  this  the 
first  propaganda  for  coffee  by  one  Mu- 
haramed  Alhadrami,  a  physician  of  great 
reputation,  born  in  Hadramaut,  Arabia 
Felix. 

A  recently  unearthed  and  little  known 
version  of  coffee's  origin  shows  how  fea- 
tures of  both  the  Omar  tradition  and  the 
Gemaleddin  story  may  be  combined  by  a 
professional  Occidental  tale- writer" : 

Toward  the  middle  of  the  fifteenth  century, 
a  poor  Arab  was  traveling  in  Abyssinia.  Find- 
ing himself  weak  and  weary,  he  stopped  near  a 
grove.  For  fuel  wlierewith  to  cook  his  rice,  he 
cut  down  a  tree  that  happened  to  be  covered 
with  dried  berries.  His  meal  being  cooked  and 
eaten,  the  traveler  discovered  that  these  half- 
burnt   berries   were   fragrant.     He   collected   a 


^^Adjam,  by  many  writers  wrongly  rendered  Persia. 
"Scheuzer,  ,T.  J.     Physique  Sacrie,  ou  Histoire  Nat- 
urelle  de  la  Bible.     AmBterdam,  1732,  1737. 

^*Harper'a  Weekly.     New  Yorlc,  1911.     (Jan.  21.) 


number  of  them  and,  on  crushing  them  with  a 
stone,  found  that  the  aroma  was  increased  to  a 
great  extent.  While  wondering  at  this,  he  acci- 
dentally let  tlie  substance  fall  into  an  earthen 
vessel  that  contained  his  scanty  supply  of  water. 
.V  miracle  !  The  almost  putrid  water  was  puri- 
Hctl.  He  brought  it  to  his  lips;  it  was  fresh  and 
agreeable;  and  after  a  short  rest  the  traveler  so 
far  recovered  his  strength  and  energy  as  to  be 
able  to  resume  his  journey.  The  lucky  Arab 
gathered  as  many  berries  as  he  could,  and  hav- 
ing arrived  at  Aden,  informed  the  mufti  of  his 
(lisc-overy.  That  worthy  was  an  inveterate 
opium-smoker,  who  had  been  slifliering  for  years 
from  the  influence  of  the  poisonous  drug.  He 
tried  an  infusion  of  the  roasted  berries,  and  was 
so  delighted  at  the  recovery  of  his  former  vigor 
that  in  gratitude  to  the  tree  he  called  it  cahuha 
which  in  Arabic  signifies  "force". 

Galland,  in  his  analysis  of  the  Arabian 
manuscript,  already  referred  to,  that  has 
furnished  us  with  the  most  trustworthy  ac- 
count of  the  origin  of  coffee,  criticizes  An- 
toine  Faustus  Nairon,  Maronite  professor 
of  Oriental  languages  at  Rome,  who  was  the 
author  of  the  first  printed  treatise  on  coffee 
only,""  for  accepting  the  legends  relating  to 
Omar  and  the  Abyssinian  goatherd.  He 
says  they  are  unworthy  of  belief  as  facts  of 
history,  although  he  is  careful  to  add  that 
there  is  some  truth  in  the  story  of  the  dis- 
covery of  coffee  by  the  Abyssinian  goats 
and  the  abbot  who  prescribed  the  use  of 
the  berries  for  his  monks,  "the  Eastern 
Christians  being  willing  to  have  the  honor 
of  the  invention  of  coffee,  for  the  abbot,  or 
prior,  of  the  convent  and  his  companions 
are  only  the  mufti  Gemaleddin  and  Mu- 
hammid  Alhadrami,  and  the  monks  are  the 
dervishes. ' '  ^ 

Amid  all  these  details,  Jardin  reaches 
the  conclusion  that  it  is  to  chance  we  must 
attribute  the  knowledge  of  the  properties 
of  coffee,  and  that  the  coffee  tree  was  trans- 
ported from  its  native  land  to  Yemen,  as 
far  as  Mecca,  and  possibly  into  Persia, 
before  being  carried  into  Egypt. 

Coffee,  being  thus  favorably  introduced 
into  Aden,  it  has  continued  there  ever 
since,  without  interruption.  By  degrees 
the  cultivation  of  the  plant  and  the  use  of 
the  beverage  passed  into  many  neighbor- 
ing places.  Toward  the  close  of  the  fif- 
teenth century  (1470  - 1500)  it  reached 
Mecca  and  Medina,  where  it  was  intro- 
duced, as  at  Aden,  by  the  dervishes,  and 
for  the  same  religious  purpose.  About 
1510  it  reached  Grand  Cairo  in  Egypt, 
where  the  dervishes  from  Yemen,  living  in 
a  district  by  themselves,  drank  coffee  on  the 

"*Nairon,  Antoine  Faustus.  De  Saluberrimd  Cahue 
seu  Caf6  nuncupata  Diacuraus.     Rome,  1671. 


A  L  L    A  H  ()  i;  T    C  O  F  F  1^:  h 


Eh 

w 

Eh 

o 

m 
O 

Q 


EARLY  HISTORY  OF  COFFEE 


t 

^■fhts  they  intended  to  spend  in  religious 
Trevotion.  They  kept  it  in  a  large  red 
earthen  vessel  —  eacli  in  turn  receiving 
it,  respectfully,  from  their  superior,  in  a 
small  bowl,  which  he  dipped  into  the  jar  — 
in  the  meantime  chanting  their  prayers, 
the  burden  of  which  was  always:  "There 
is  no  God  but  one  God,  the  true  King, 
whose  power  is  not  to  be  disputed." 

After  the  dervishes,  the  bowl  was  passed 
to  lay  members  of  the  congregation.  In  this 
way  coffee  came  to  be  so  associated  with 
tiie  act  of  worship  that  "they  never  per- 
formed a  religious  ceremony  in  public  and 
never  observed  any  solemn  festival  with- 
out taking  coffee." 

Meanwhile,  the  inhabitants  of  Mecca  be- 
came so  fond  of  the  beverage  that,  disre- 
garding its  religious  associations,  they 
made  of  it  a  secular  drink  to  be  sipped 
publicly  in  Icaveh  kanes,  the  first  coffee 
houses.  Here  the  idle  congregated  to  drink 
coffee,  to  play  chess  and  other  games,  to 
discuss  the  news  of  the  day,  and  to  amuse 
themselves  with  singing,  dancing,  and 
music,  contrary  to  the  manners  of  the  rigid 
Mahommedans,  who  were  very  properly 
scanchilized  by  such  performances.  In  Me- 
dina and  in  Cairo,  too,  coffee  became  as 
common  a  drink  as  in  Mecca  and  Aden. 

The  First  Coffee  Persecution 

At  length  the  pious  Mahommedans  began 
to  disapprove  of  the  use  of  coffee  among 
the  people.  For  one  thing,  it  made  com- 
mon one  of  the  best  psychology  -  adjuncts 
of  their  religion ;  also,  the  joy  of  life,  that 
it  helped  to  liberate  among  those  who  fre- 
quented the  coffee  houses,  precipitated 
.social,  political,  and  religious  arguments ; 
and  these  frequently  developed  into  dis- 
turbances. Dissensions  arose  even  among 
the  churchmen  themselves.  They  divided 
into  camps  for  and  against  coffee.  The 
hiw  of  the  Prophet  on  the  subject  of  wine 
was  variously  construed  as  applying  to 
loffee. 

About  this  time  (1511)  Kair  Bey  was 
governor  of  Mecca  for  the  sultan  of  Egypt, 
lie  appears  to  have  been  a  strict  disci- 
plinarian, but  lamentably  ignorant  of  the 
actual  conditions  obtaining  among  his 
people.  As  he  was  leaving  the  mosque  one 
evening  after  prayers,  he  was  offended  by 
seeing  in  a  corner  a  company  of  coffee 
drinkers  who  were  preparing  to  pass  the 
night  in  prayer.  His  first  thought  was 
that  they  were  drinking  wine ;  and  great 
was  his  astonishment  when  he  learned  what 


vt 


the  liquor  really  was  and  how  common  was 
its  use  throughout  the  city.  Further  in- 
vestigation convinced  him  that  indulgence 
in  this  exhilarating  drink  must  incline  men 
and  women  to  extravagances  prohibited  by 
law,  and  so  he  determined  to  suppress  it. 
First  he  drove  the  coffee  drinkers  out  of 
the   mosque. 

The  next  day,  he  called  a  council  of 
officers  of  justice,  lawyers,  physicians, 
priests,  and  leading  citizens,  to  whom  he 
declared  what  he  had  seen  the  evening  be- 
fore at  the  mosque;  and,  "being  resolved 
to  put  a  stop  to  the  coffee-house  abuses,  he 
sought  their  advice  upon  the  subject." 
The  chief  count  in  the  indictment  was  that 
"in  these  places  men  and  women  met  and 
played  tambourines,  violins,  and  other 
musical  instruments.  There  were  also 
people  who  played  chess,  mankala,  and 
other  similar  games,  for  money ;  and  there 
were  many  other  things  done  contrary  to 
our  sacred  law  —  may  God  keep  it  from 
all  corruption  until  the  day  when  we  shall 
all  appear  before  him!"" 

The  lawyers  agreed  that  the  coffee 
houses  needed  reforming;  but  as  to  the 
drink  itself,  inquiry  should  be  made  as  to 
whether  it  was  in  any  way  harmful  to 
mind  or  body;  for  if  not,  it  might  not  be 
sufficient  to  close  the  places  that  sold  it. 
It  was  suggested  that  the  opinion  of  the 
physicians  be  sought. 

Two  brothers,  Persian  physicians  named 
Ilakimani,  and  reputed  the  best  in  Mecca, 
were  summoned,  although  we  are  told  they 
knew  more  about  logic  than  they  did 
about  physic.  One  of  them  came  into  the 
council  fully  prejudiced,  as  he  had  already 
written  a  book  against  coffee,  and  filled 
with  concern  for  his  profession,  being  fear- 
ful lest  the  common  use  of  the  new  drink 
would  make  serious  inroads  on  the  prac- 
tise of  medicine.  His  brother  joined  with 
him  in  assuring  the  assembly  that  the 
plant  hunn,  from  which  coffee  was  made, 
was  "cold  and  dry"  and  so  unwholesome. 
When  another  physician  present  reminded 
them  that  Bengiazlah,  the  ancient  and  re- 
spected contemporary  of  Avicenna,  taught 
that  it  was  "hot  and  dry,"  they  made 
arbitrary  answer  that  Bengiazlah  had  in 
mind  another  plant  of  the  same  name,  and 
that  anyhow,  it  was  not  material;  for,  if 
the  coffee  drink  disposed  people  to  things 
forbidden  by  religion,  the  safest  course  for 

^^de  Sacy,  Bnron  Antolne  Isaac  Silvestre.     Chreato- 
nathie  Arahc.     Paris,  1806.      (vol.  il :  p.  224.) 


18 


ALL    ABOUT    COFFEE 


Mahommedans  was  to  look  upon  it  as  un- 
lawful. 

The  friends  of  coffee  were  covered  with 
confusion.  Only  the  mufti  S'poke  out  in 
the  meeting  in  its  favor.  Others,  carried 
away  by  prejudice  or  misguided  zeal,  af- 
firmed that  coffee  clouded  their  senses.  One 
man  arose  and  said  it  intoxicated  like  wine ; 
which  made  every  one  laugh,  since  he  could 
hardly  have  been  a  judge  of  this  if  he  had 
not  drunk  wine,  which  is  forbidden  by  the 
Mohammedan  religion.  Upon  being  asked 
whether  he  had  ever  drunk  any,  he  was  so 
imprudent  as  to  admit  that  he  had,  thereby 
condemning  himself  out  of  his  own  mouth 
to  the  bastinado. 

The  mufti  of  Aden,  being  both  an  officer 
of  the  court  and  a  divine,  undertook,  with 
some  heat,  a  defense  of  coffee;  but  he  was 
clearly  in  an  unpopular  minority.  He 
was  rewarded  with  the  reproaches  and  af- 
fronts of  the  religious  zealots. 

So  the  governor  had  his  way,  and  coffee 
was  solemnly  condemned  as  thing  forbid- 
den by  the  law ;  and  a  presentment 
was  drawn  up,  signed  by  a  majority  of 
those  present,  and  dispatched  post-haste  by 
the  governor  to  his  royal  master,  the  sultan, 
at  Cairo.  At  the  same  time,  the  governor 
published  an  edict  forbidding  the  sale  of 
coffee  in  public  or  private.  The  officers 
of  justice  caused  all  the  coffee  houses  in 
Mecca  to  be  shut,  and  ordered  all  the  coffee 
found  there,  or  in  the  merchants'  ware- 
houses, to  be  burned. 

Naturally  enough,  being  an  unpopular 
edict,  there  were  many  evasions,  and  much 
coffee  drinking  took  place  behind  closed 
doors.  Some  of  the  friends  of  coffee  were 
outspoken  in  their  opposition  to  the  order, 
being  convinced  that  the  assembly  had  ren- 
dered a  judgment  not  in  accordance  with 
the  facts,  and  above  all,  contrary  to  the 
opinion  of  the  mufti  who,  in  every  Arab 
community,  is  looked  up  to  as  the  inter- 
preter, or  expounder,  of  the  law.  One  man, 
caught  in  the  act  of  disobedience,  besides 
being  severely  punished,  was  also  led 
through  the  most  public  streets  of  the  city 
seated  on  an  ass. 

However,  the  triumph  of  the  enemies  of 
coffee  was  short-lived;  for  not  only  did 
the  sultan  of  Cairo  disapprove  the  "indis- 
creet zeal"  of  the  governor  of  Mecca,  and 
order  the  edict  revoked;  but  he  read  him 
a  severe  lesson  on  the  subject.  How  dared 
he  condemn  a  thing  approved  at  Cairo, 
the  capital  of  his  kingdom,  where  there 
were    physicians    whose    opinions    carried 


more  weight  than  those  of  Mecca,  and  who 
had  found  nothing  against  the  law  in  the 
use  of  coffee?  The  best  things  might  be 
abused,  added  the  sultan,  even  the  sacred 
waters  of  Zamzam,  but  this  was  no  reason 
for  an  absolute  prohibition.  The  fountain, 
or  well,  of  Zamzam,  according  to  the  Mo- 
hammedan teaching,  is  the  same  which 
God  caused  to  spring  up  in  the  desert  to 
comfort  Hagar  and  Ishmael  when  Abraham 
banished  them.  It  is  in  the  enclosure  of 
the  temple  at  Mecca;  and  the  Mohamme- 
dans drink  of  it  with  much  show  of  devo- 
tion, ascribing  great  virtues  to  it. 

It  is  not  recorded  whether  the  misguided 
governor  was  shocked  at  this  seeming  pro- 
fanity; but  it  is  known  that  he  hastened 
to  obey  the  orders  of  his  lord  and  master. 
The  prohibition  was  recalled,  and  there- 
after he  employed  his  authority  only  to 
preserve  order  in  the  coffee  houses.  The 
friends  of  coffee,  and  the  lovers  of  poetic 
justice,  found  satisfaction  in  the  governor's 
subsequent  fate.  He  was  exposed  as  "an 
extortioner  and  a  public  robber,"  and  "tor- 
tured to  death,"  his  brother  killing  him- 
self to  avoid  the  same  fate.  The  two 
Persian  physicians  who  had  played  so  mean 
a  part  in  the  first  coffee  persecution,  like- 
wise came  to  an  unhappy  end.  Being  dis- 
credited in  Mecca  they  fled  to  Cairo, 
where,  in  an  unguarded  moment,  having 
cursed  the  person  of  Selim  I,  emperor  of 
the  Turks,  who  had  conquered  Egypt,  they 
were  executed  by  his  order. 

Coffee,  being  thus  re-established  at 
Mecca,  met  with  no  opposition  until  1524, 
when,  because  of  renewed  disorders,  the 
kadi  of  the  town  closed  the  coffee  houses, 
but  did  not  seek  to  interfere  with  coffee 
drinking  at  home  and  in  private.  His 
successor,  however,  re-licensed  them;  and, 
continuing  on  their  good  behavior  since 
then,  they  have  not  been  disturbed. 

In  1542  a  ripple  was  caused  by  an  order 
issued  by  Soliman  the  Great,  forbidding 
the  use  of  coffee;  but  no  one  took  it  seri- 
ously, especially  as  it  soon  became  known 
that  the  order  had  been  obtained  "by 
surprise"  and  at  the  desire  of  only  one 
of  the  court  ladies  "a  little  too  nice  in  this 
point." 

One  of  the  most  interesting  facts  in  the 
history  of  the  coffee  drink  is  that  wher- 
ever it  has  been  introduced  it  has  spelled 
je volution.  It  has  been  the  world's  most 
radical  dfink  in  that  its  function  has  al- 
ways been  to  make  people  think.  And 
when  the  people  began  to  think,  they  be- 


EARLY  HISTORY  OF  COFFEE 


19 


came  dangerous  to  tyrants  and  to  foes  of 
liberty  of  thought  and  action.  Sometimes 
the  people  became  intoxicated  with  their 
new  found  ideas;  and,  mistaking  liberty 
for  license,  they  ran  amok,  and  called 
down  upon  their  heads  persecutions  and 
many  petty  intolerances.  So  history  re- 
peated itself  in  Cairo,  twenty-three  years 
after  the  first  Mecca  persecution. 

Coffee's  Second  Religious  Persecution 

Selim  I,  after  conquering  Egypt,  had 
brought-  coffee  to  Constantinople  in  1517. 
The  drink  continued  its  progress  through 
Syria,  and  was  received  in  Damascus 
(about  1530),  and  in  Aleppo  (about  1532), 
without  opposition.  Several  coffee  houses 
of  Damascus  attained  wide  fame,  among 
them  the  Cafe  of  the  Roses,  and  the  Cafe 
of  the  Gate  of  Salvation. 

Its  increasing  popularity  and,  perhaps, 
the  realization  that  the  continued  spread  of 
the  beverage  might  lessen  the  demand  for 
his  services,  caused  a  physician  of  Cairo 
to  propound  (about  1523)  to  his  fellows 
this  question : 

What  is  your  opinion  concerning  the  liquor 
called  coffee  which  is  drank  in  company,  as  heing 
reckoned  in  the  number  of  those  we  have  free 
leave  to  make  use  of,  notwithstanding  it  is  the 
cause  of  no  small  disorders,  that  it  flies  up  into 
the  head  and  is  very  pernicious  to  health?  Is 
it  permitted  or  forbidden? 

At  the  end  he  was  careful  to  add,  as 
his  own  opinion  (and  without  prejudice?), 
that  coffee  was  unlawful.  To  the  credit  of 
the  physicians  of  Cairo  as  a  class,  it  should 
be  recorded  that  they  looked  with  unsympa- 
thetic eyes  upon  this  attempt  on  the  part 
of  one  of  their  number  to  stir  up  trouble 
for  a  valuable  adjunct  to  their  materia 
medica,  and  so  the  effort  died  a-borning. 

If  the  physicians  were  disposed  to  do 
nothing  to  stop  coffee's  progress,  not  so 
the  preachers.  As  places  of  resort,  the 
coffee  houses  exercised  an  appeal  that 
proved  stronger  to  the  popular  mind  than 
that  of  the  temples  of  worship.  This  to 
men  of  sound  religious  training  was  in- 
tolerable. The  feeling  against  coffee 
smouldered  for  a  time;  but  in  1534  it 
broke  out  afresh.  In  that  year  a  fiery 
preacher  in  one  of  Cairo's  mosques  so 
played  upon  the  emotions  of  his  congrega- 
tion with  a  preachment  against  coffee, 
claiming  that  it  was  against  the  law  and 
that  those  who  drank  it  were  not  true  Mo- 
hammedans, that  upon  leaving  the  build- 
ing a  large  number  of  his  hearers,  enraged, 


threw  themselves  into  the  first  coffee  house 
they  found  in  their  way,  burned  the  coffee 
pots  and  dishes,  and  maltreated  all  the 
])ersons  they  found  there. 

Public  opinion  was  immediately  aroused ; 
and  the  city  was  divided  into  two  parties; 
one  maintaining  that  coffee  was  against 
the  law  of  Mohammed,  and  the  other  tak- 
ing the  contrary  view.  And  then  arose 
a  Solomon  in  the  person  of  the  chief  jus- 
tice, who  summoned  into  his  presence  the 
learned  physicians  for  consultation.  Again 
the  medical  profession  stood  by  its  guns. 
The  medical  men  pointed  out  to  the  chief 
justice  that  the  question  had  already  been 
decided  by  their  predecessors  on  the  side 
of  coffee,  and  that  the  time  had  come  to 
put  some  check  "on  the  furious  zeal  of 
the  bigots"  and  the  "indiscretions  of 
ignorant  preachers."  Wihereupon,  the 
wise  judge  caused  coffee  to  be  served  to  the 
whole  company  and  drank  some  himself. 
By  this  act  he  "re-united  the  contending 
parties,  and  brought  coffee  into  greater 
esteem  than  ever." 

Coffee  in  Constantinople 

The  story  of  the  introduction  of  coffee 
into  Constantinople  shows  that  it  experi- 
enced much  the  same  vicissitudes  that 
marked  its  advent  at  Mecca  and  Cairo. 
There  were  the  same  disturbances,  the  same 
unreasoning  religious  superstition,  the  same 
political  hatreds,  the  same  stupid  inter- 
ference by  the  civil  authorities ;  and  yet,  in 
spite  of  it  all,  coffee  attained  new  honors 
and  new  fame.  The  Oriental  coffee  house 
reached  its  supreme  development  in  Con- 
stantinople. 

Although  coffee  had  been  known  in  Con- 
stantinople since  1517,  it  was  not  until  1554 
that  the  inhabitants  became  acquainted 
with  that  great  institution  of  early  eastern 
democracy  —  the  coffee  house.  In  that  year, 
under  the  reign  of  Soliman  the  Great,  son 
of  Selim  I,  one  Scherasi  of  Damascus  and 
one  Hekem  of  Aleppo  opened  the  first  two 
coffee  houses  in  the  quarter  called  Taktaca- 
lah.  They  were  wonderful  institutions  for 
those  days,  remarkable  alike  for  their  fur- 
nishings and  their  comforts,  as  well  as  for 
the  opportunity  they  afforded  for  social 
intercourse  and  free  discussion.  Schemsi 
and  Hekem  received  their  guests  on  "very 
neat  coiiches  or  sofas,"  and  the  admission 
was  the  price  of  a  dish  of  coffee  —  about 
one  cent. 

Turks,  high  and  low,  took  up  the  idea 
with  avidity.     Coffee  houses  increased  in 


20 


ALL    ABOUT     COFFEE 


number.  The  deinaiid  outstripped  the 
supply.  In  the  seraglio  itself  special  offi- 
cers {kafivedjibachi)  were  commissioned  to 
prepare  the  coffee  drink  for  the  sultan. 
Coffee  was  in  favor  witli  all  classes. 

The  Turks  gave  to  the  coffee  houses  the 
name  kahveh  kancs  {diver soria,  Cotovicus 
called  them)  ;  and  as  they  grew  in  popu- 
larity, they  became  more  and  more  luxu- 
rious. There  were  lounges,  richly  carpeted; 
and  in  addition  to  coffee,  many  other  means 
of  entertainment.  To  these  ' '  schools  of  the 
wise"  came  the  ''young  men  ready  to  enter 
upon  offices  of  judicature ;  kadis  from  the 
provinces,  seeking  re-instatement  or  new 
appointments ;  muderys,  or  professors ;  of- 
ficers of  the  seraglio;  bashaws;  and  the 
principal  lords  of  the  port,"  not  to  men- 
tion merchants  and  travelers  from  all  parts 
of  the  then  known  world. 

Coffee  House  Persecutions 

About  1570,  just  when  coffee  seemed 
settled  for  all  time  in  the  social  scheme, 
the  imams  and  dervishes  raised  a  loud  wail 
against  it,  saying  the  mosques  were  almost 
empty,  while  the  coffee  houses  were  always 
full.  Then  the  preachers  joined  in  the 
clamor,  affirming  it  to  be  a  greater  sin  to 
go  to  a  coffee  house  than  to  enter  a  tavern. 
The  authorities  began  an  examination ;  and 
the  same  old  debate  was  on.  This  time, 
however,  appeared  a  mufti  who  was  un- 
friendly to  coffee.  The  religious  fanatics 
argued  that  Mohammed  had  not  even 
known  of  coffee,  and  so  could  not  have 
used  the  drink,  and,  therefore,  it  must  be 
an  abomination  for  his  followers  to  do  so. 
Further,  coffee  was  burned  and  ground  to 
charcoal  before  making  a  drink  of  it ;  and 
the  Koran  distinctly  forbade  the  use  of 
charcoal,  including  it  among  the  unsani- 
tary foods.  The  mufti  decided  the  ques- 
tion in  favor  of  the  zealots,  and  coffee  was 
forbidden  by  law. 

The  prohibition  proved  to  be  more  hon- 
ored in  the  breach  than  in  the  observance. 
Coffee  drinking  continued  in  secret,  instead 
of  in  the  open.  And  when,  about  1580, 
Amurath  III,  at  the  further  solicitation  of 
the  churchmen,  declared  in  an  edict  that 
coffee  should  be  classed  with  wine,  and  so 
prohibited  in  accordance  with  the  law  of 
the  Prophet,  the  people  only  smiled,  and 
persisted  in  their  secret  disobedience.  Al- 
ready they  were  beginning  to  think  for 
themselves  on  religious  as  well  as  political 
matters.  The  civil  officers,  finding  it  use- 
less to  try  to  suppress  the  custom,  winked 


at  violations  of  the  law;  and,  for  a  con- 
sideration, permitted  the  sale  of  coffee  pri- 
vately, so  that  many  Ottoman  "speak- 
easies" sprung  up  —  places  where  coffee 
might  be  had  behind  shut  doors;  shops 
where  it  was  sold  in  back-rooms. 

This  was  enough  to  re-establish  the  cof- 
fee houses  by  degrees.  Then  came  a  mufti 
less  scrupulous  or  more  knowing  than  his 
predecessor,  who  declared  that  coffee  was 
not  to  be  looked  upon  as  coal,  and  that  the 
drink  made  from  it  was  not  forbidden  by 
the  law.  There  was  a  general  renewal  of 
coffee  drinking;  religious  devotees,  preach- 
ers, lawyers,  and  the  mufti  himself  indulg- 
ing in  it,  their  example  being  followed  by 
the  whole  court  and  the  city. 

After  this,  the  coffee  houses  provided  a 
handsome  source  of  revenue  to  each  suc- 
ceeding grand  vizier ;  and  there  was  no  fur- 
ther interference  with  the  beverage  until 
the  reign  of  Amurath  IV,  when  Grand 
Vizier  Kuprili,  during  the  war  with  Can- 
dia,  decided  that  for  political  reasons,  the 
coffee  houses  should  be  closed.  His  argu- 
ment was  much  the  same  as  that  advanced 
more  than  a  hundred  years  later  by  Charles 
II  of  England,  namely,  that  they  were  hot- 
beds of  sedition.  Kuprili  was  a  military 
dictator,  with  nothing  of  Charles's  vacillat- 
ing nature;  and  although,  like  Charles,  he 
later  rescinded  his  edict,  he  enforced  it, 
while  it  was  effective,  in  no  uncertain 
fashion.  Kuprili  was  no  petty  tyrant.  For 
a  first  violation  of  the  order,  cudgeling  was 
the  punishment;  for  a  second  offense,  the 
victim  was  sewn  in  a  leather  bag  and  thrown 
into  the  Bosporus.  Strangely  enough, 
while  he  suppressed  the  coffee  houses,  he 
permitted  the  taverns,  that  sold  wine  for- 
bidden by  the  Koran,  to  remain  open. 
Perhaps  he  found  the  latter  produced  a 
less  dangerous  kind  of  mental  stimulation 
than  that  produced  by  coffee.  Coffee,  says 
Virey,  was  too  intellectual  a  drink  for  the 
fierce  and  senseless  administration  of  the 
pashas. 

Even  in  those  days  it  was  not  possible 
to  make  people  good  by  law.  Paraphrasing 
the  copy-book,  suppressed  desires  will 
arise,  though  all  the  world  o'erwhelm  thera, 
to  men's  eyes.  An  unjust  law  was  no  more 
enforceable  in  those  centuries  than  it  is  in 
the  twentieth  century.  Men  are  humans 
first,  although  they  may  become  brutish 
when  bereft  of  reason.  But  coffee  does  not 
steal  away  their  reason ;  rather,  it  sharpens 
their  reasoning  faculties.  As  Galland  has 
truly  said:     "Coffee  joins  men,  born  for 


EART.Y  HISTORY  OF  COFFEE 


21 


Characteristic   Scene  in  a  Turkish  Coffee    House    of    the    Seventeenth    Century 


society,  in  a  more  perfect  union ;  protesta- 
tions are  more  sincere  in  being  made  at  a 
time  when  the  mind  is  not  clouded  with 
fumes  and  vapors,  and  therefore  not  easily 
forgotten,  which  too  frequently  happens 
when  made  over  a  bottle." 

Despite  the  severe  penalties  staring  them 
in  the  face,  violations  of  the  law  were  plen- 
tiful among  the  people  of  Constantinople. 
Venders  of  the  beverage  appeared  in  the 
market-'places  with  "large  copper  vessels 
with  fire  under  them ;  and  those  who  had 
a  mind  to  drink  were  invited  to  step  into 
any  neighboring  shop  where  every  one  was 
welcome  on  such  an  account." 

Later,  Kuprili,  having  assured  himself 
that  the  coffee  houses  were  no  longer  a 
menace  to  his  policies,  permitted  the  free 
use  of  the  beverage  that  he  had  previously 
forbidden. 


Coffee  and  Coffee  Houses  in  Persia 

Some  writers  claim  for  Persia  the  dis- 
covery of  the  coffee  drink;  but  there  is  no 
evidence  to  support  the  claim.  There  are, 
however,  sufficient  facts  to  justify  a  belief 
that  here,  as  in  Ethiopia,  coffee  has  been 
known  from  time  immemorial  —  which  is 
a  very  convenient  phrase.  At  an  early  date 
the  coffee  house  became  an  established  insti- 
tution in  the  chief  towns.  The  Persians 
appear  to  have  used  far  more  intelligence 
than  the  Turks  in  liandling  the  political 
phase  of  the  coffee-house  question,  and  so 
it  never  became  necessary  to  order  them 
suppressed  in  Persia. 

The  wife  of  Shah  Abbas,  observing  that 
great  numbers  of  people  were  wont  to 
gather  and  to  talk  politics  in  the  leading 
coffee  house  of  Ispahan,  appointed  a.  mol- 


22 


ALL    ABOUT     COFFEE 


lah  —  an  eeclesiastix-'al  teacher  and  ex- 
pounder of  the  law  —  to  sit  there  daily 
to  entertain  the  frequenters  of  the  place 
with  nicely  turned  points  of  history,  law, 
and  poetry.  Heing  a  man  of  wisdom  and 
great  tact,  he  avoided  controversial  ques- 
tions of  state ;  and  so  politics  were  kept  in 
the  background,  lie  proved  a  welcome  visi- 
tor, and  was  made  much  of  by  the  guests. 
This  example  was  generally  followed,  and 
as  a  result  disturbances  were  rare  in  the 
coffee  houses  of  Ispahan. 

Adam  Olearius"  (1599-1671),  who  was 
secretary  to  the  German  Embassy  that 
traveled  in  Turkey  in  1633  -  36,  tells  of 
the  great  diversions  made  in  Persian  coffee 
houses  "by  their  poets  and  historians,  who 
are  seated  in  a  high  chair  from  whence 
they  make  speeches  and  tell  satirical  stories, 
playing  in  the  meantime  with  a  little  stick 
and  using  the  same  gestures  as  our  jug- 
glers and  legerdemain  men  do  in  England." 

At  court  conferences  conspicuous  among 
the  shah's  retinue  were  always  to  be  seen 
the  "kahvedjibachi,"  or  "  coffee-pourers. " 

Early  Coffee  Manners  and  Customs 

Karstens  Niebuhr"  (1733-1815),  the 
Hanoverian  traveler,  furnishes  the  follow- 
ing description  of  the  early  Arabian, 
Syrian,  and  Egyptian  coffee  houses: 

They  are  commonly  large  halls,  having  their 
floors  spread  with  mats,  and  illuminated  at  night 
by  a  multitude  of  lamps.  Being  the  only 
theaters  for  the  exercise  of  profane  eloquence, 
poor  scholars  attend  here  to  amuse  the  people. 
Select  portions  are  read,  e.  g.  the  adventures  of 
Rustan  Sal,  a  Persian  hero.  Some  aspire  to  the 
praise  of  invention,  and  compose  tales  and 
fables.  They  walk  up  and  down  as  they  recite, 
or  assuming  oratorial  consequence,  harangue 
upon  subjects  chosen  by  themselves. 

In  one  coffee  house  at  Damascus  an  orator 
was  regularly  hired  to  tell  his  stories  at  a  fixed 
hour;  in  other  cases  he  was  more  directly  de- 
pendent upon  the  taste  of  his  hearers,  as  at  the 
conclusion  of  his  discourse,  whether  it  had  con- 
sisted of  literary  topics  or  of  loose  and  idle  tales, 
he  looked  to  the  audience  for  a  voluntary  con- 
tribution. 

At  Aleppo,  again,  there  was  a  man  with  a  soul 
above  the  common,  who,  being  a  per.son  of  dis- 
tinction, and  one  that  studied  merely  for  his  own 
pleasure,  had  yet  gone  the  round  of'all  the  coffee 
houses  in  the  city  to  pronounce  moral  harangues. 

In  some  coffee  houses  there  were  singers 
and  dancers,  as  before,  and  many  came  to 
listen  to  the  marvelous  tales  of  the  Thou- 
sand and  One  Nights. 

"Olearius.  Adam.  An  Account  of  His  Journeys. 
London,  1669. 

"Niebuhr,  Karstens.  Description  of  Arabia.  Amster- 
dam, 1774.     (Heron  trans.,  London,  1792;  p.  266.) 


In  Oriental  countrieii  it  was  once  the  cus- 
tom to  offer  a  cup  of  "bad  coffee,"  i.e., 
coffee  containing  poison,  to  those  function- 
aries or  other  persohs  who  had  proven 
themselves  embarrassing  to  the  authorities. 
While  coffee  drinking  started  as  a  pri- 
vate religious  function,  it  was  not  long 
after  its  introduction  by  the  coffee  houses 
that  it  became  secularized  still  more  in  the 
homes  of  the  people,  although  for  centuries 
it  retained  a  certain  religious  significance. 
Galland  says  that  in  Constantinople,  at  the 
time  of  his  visit  to  the  city,  there  was  no 
house,  rich  or  poor,  Turk  or  Jew,  Greek 
or  Armenian,  where  it  was  not  drunk  at 
least  twice  a  day,  and  many  drank  it 
oftener,  for  it  became  a  custom  in  every 
house  to  offer  it  to  all  visitors;  and  it  was 
considered  an  incivility  to  refuse  it. 
Twenty  dishes  a  day,  per  person,  was  not 
an  uncommon  average. 

Galland  observes  that  "as  much  money 
must  be  spent  in  the  private  families  of 
Constantinople  for  coffee  as  for  wine  at 
Paris,"  and  relates  that  it  is  as  common 
for  beggars  to  ask  for  money  to  buy  cof- 
fee, as  it  is  in  Europe  to  ask  for  money  to 
buy  wine  or  beer. 

At  this  time  to  refuse  or  to  neglect  to 
give  coffee  to  their  wives  was  a  legitimate 
cause  for  divorce  among  the  Turks.  The 
men  made  promise  when  marrying  never 
to  let  their  wives  be  without  coffee.  "That," 
says  Fulbert  de  Monteith,  "is  perhaps  more 
prudent  than  to  swear  fidelity." 

Another  Arabic  manuscript  by  Bichivili 
in  the  Bibliotheque  Nationale  at  Paris  fur- 
nishes us  with  this  pen  picture  of  the  cof- 
fee ceremony  as  practised  in  Constanti- 
nople in  the  sixteenth  century: 

In  all  the  great  men's  houses,  there  are  ser- 
vants whose  business  it  ds  only  to  take  care  of 
the  coffee ;  and  the  head  officer  among  them,  or 
he  who  has  the  inspection  over  all  the  rest,  has 
an  apartment  allowed  him  near  the  hall  which 
is  destined  for  the  reception  of  visitor-s.  The 
Turks  call  this  officer  Kavveghi,  that  is.  Over- 
seer or  Steward  of  the  Coffee.  In  the  harem  or 
ladies'  apartment  in  the  seraglio,  there  are  a 
great  many  such  officers,  each  having  forty  or 
fifty  Baltafiix  under  them,  who,  after  they  have 
served  a  certain  time  in  these  coffee-houses,  are 
sure  to  be  well  provided  for,  either  by  an  ad- 
vantageous post,  or  a  sufficient  quantity  of  land. 
In  the  houses  of  persons  of  quality  likewise, 
there  are  pages,  called  Itchogluns,  who  receive 
the  coffee  from  the  stewards,  and  present  it  to 
the  company  with  surprising  dexteritv  and  ad- 
dress, as  soon  as  the  master  of  the  faniily  makes 
a  sign  for  that  purpose,  which  is  all  the  language 
they  ever  speak  to  them.  ...  The  coffee  is 
served  on  salvers  without  feet,  made  commonly 


EARLY  HISTORY  OF  COFFEE 


23 


Serving  Cofiee  to  a  Guest. — After  a  Drawing  in  an  Early  Edition  of  "Arabian  Nights" 


of  painted  or  varnished  wood,  and  sometimes 
of  silver.  They  hold  from  15  to  20  china  dishes 
each ;  and  such  as  can  afford  it  have  these 
dishes  half  set  in  silver  .  .  .  the  dish  may  be 
easily  held  with  the  thumb  below  and  two  fingers 
on  the  upper  edge. 

In  his  Relation  of  a  Journey  to  Constan- 
tinople in  1657,  Nicholas  Rolamb,  the  Swe- 
dish traveler  and  envoy  to  the  Ottoman 
Porte,  gives  us  this  early  glimpse  of  cof- 
fee in  the  home  life  of  the  Turks:" 

This  [coffee]  is  a  kind  of  pea  that  grows  in 
l^fiupt,  which  the  Turks  pound  and  boil  in  water, 
and  take  it  for  pleasure  instead  of  brandy,  sip- 
ping it  through  the  lips  boiling  hot,  persuading 
themselves  that  it  consumes  catarrhs,  and  pre- 
vents the  rising  of  vapours  out  of  the  stomach 
into  the  head.  The  drinking  of  this  coffee  and 
smoking  tobacco  (for  tho'  the  use  of  tobacco 
is  forbidden  on  pain  of  death,  yet  it  is  used  in 
Constantinople  more   than   any   where   by  men 

'"A  Collection  of  Voyages  and  Travels.  London, 
1745.     (vol.  Iv:  p.  690.) 


as  well  as  women,  tho'  secretly)  makes  up  all 
the  pastime  among  the  Turks,  and  is  the  only 
thing  they  treat  one  another  with;  for  which 
reason  all  people  of  distinction  have  a  particular 
room  next  their  own,  built  on  purpose  for  it, 
where  there  stands  a  jar  of  coffee  continually 
boiling. 

It  is  curious  to  note  that  among  several 
misconceptions  that  were  held  by  some  of 
the  peoples  of  the  Levant  was  one  that 
coffee  was  a  promoter  of  impotence,  al- 
though a  Persian  version  of  the  Angel 
Gabriel  legend  says  that  Gabriel  invented 
it  to  restore  the  Prophet's  failing  metabo- 
lism. Often  in  Turkish  and  Arabian  litera- 
ture, however,  we  meet  with  the  sugges- 
tion that  coffee  drinking  makes  for  sterility 
and  barrenness,  a  notion  that  modern  medi- 
cine has  exploded;  for  now  we  know  that 
coffee  stimulates  the  racial  instinct,  for 
which  tobacco  is  a  sedative. 


24 


ALL     ABOUT     COFFEE 


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a    XT    *-■    ^* 


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£»•  «•  /V^    ^*•   is    tt   ^   S    ^  *i    ii  TZ    *s 


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--11^1 


Chapter    IV 
INTRODUCTION    OF    COFFEE   INTO   WESTERN   EUROPE 

When  the  three  great  temperance  beverages,  cocoa,  tea,  and  coffee, 
came  to  Europe  —  Coffee  first  mentioned  by  Rauivolf  in  1582  — 
Early  days  of  coff'ee  in  Italy  —  How  Pope.  Clement  VIILJbaptised  it 
and  made  it  a  truly  Qhrisiicm  beverage  —  The  first  European  coffee 
house,  in  Venice,  1645  —  The  famous  Caffe  Florian  —  Other  cele- 
brated Venetian  coffee  houses  of  the  eighteenth  century  —  The 
romantic  story  of  Pedrocchi,  the  poor  lemonade-vender,  who  built  the 
most  beautiful  coffee  house  in  the  world 


OF  the  Avorld's  three  great  temperance 
beverages,  cocoa,  tea,  and  coffee, 
cocoa  was  the  first  to  be  introduced 
into  Europe,  in  lh28^hy  the  Spanish.  It 
was  nearly  a  century  later^ift-1 61^,  that 
the  Dutch  brought  tea  to  Europe.  Vene- 
tian traders  introduced  coffee  into  Europe 
in  1615. 

Europe's  first  knowledge  of  coffee  was 
brought  by  travelers  returning  from  the 
Far  East  and  the  Levant.  Leonhard  Rau- 
wolf  started  on  his  famous  journey  into  the 
Eastern  countries  from  Marseilles  in  Sep- 
tember, 1573,  having  left  his  home  in 
Augsburg,  the  18th  of  the  preceding  May. 
He  reached  Aleppo  in  November,  1573 ;  and 
returned  to  Augsburg,  February  12,  1576. 
He  was  the  first  European  to  mention  cof- 
fee; and  to  him  also  belongs  the  honor  of 
being  the  first  to  refer  to  the  beverage  in 
print. 

Rauwolf  was  not  only  a  doctor  of  medi- 
cine and  a  botanist  of  great  renown,  but 
also  official  physician  to  the  town  of  Augs- 
burg. When  he  spoke,  it  was  as  one  having 
authority.  The  first  printed  reference  to 
coffee  appears  as  chauhe  in  chapter  viii  of 
Rauwolf 's  Travels,  which  deals  with  the 
manners  and  customs  of  the  city  of  Aleppo, 
The  exact  passage  is  reproduced  herewith 
as  it  appears  in  the  original  German  edi- 
tion of  Rauwolf  published  at  Frankfort 


and  Lauingen  in  1582-83. 
tion  is  as  follows: 


The  transla- 


If  you  have  a  mind  to  eat  something  or  to 
drinii  other  liquors,  there  is  commonly  an  open 
shop  near  it,  where  you  sit  down  upon  the 
ground  or  carpets  and  drink  together.  Among 
the  rest  they  have  a  very  good  drink,  by  them 
called  Chauhe  [coffee]  that  is  almost  as  black 
as  ink,  and  very  good  in  illness,  chieti.v  that  of 
the  stomach ;  of  this  they  drink  in  the  morning 
early  in  open  places  before  everybody,  without 
any  fear  or  regard,  out  of  China  cups,  as  hot  as 
they  can :  they  put  it  often  to  their  lips  but 
drink  but  little  at  a  time,  and  let  it  go  round 
as  they  sit. 

In  this  same  water  they  take  a  fruit  called 
Bunnu  which  In  its  bigness,  shape  and  color  is 
almost  like  unto  a  bayberry,  with  two  thin  shells 
surrounded,  which,  as  they  informed  me,  are 
brought  from  the  Indies;  but  as  these  in  them- 
selves are,  and  have  within  them,  two  yellowish 
grains  in  two  distinct  cells,  and  besides,  being 
they  agree  in  their  virtue,  figure,  looks,  and 
name  with  the  Bunchum  of  Avicenna,  and  Bunca 
of  Rasis  ad  Almans  exactly;  therefore  I  take 
them  to  be  the  same,  until  I  am  better  informed 
by  the  learned.  This  liquor  is  very  common 
among  them,  wherefore  there  are  a  great  many 
of  them  that  sell  it.  and  others  that  sell  the 
berries,  everywhere  in  their  Batzars. 

The  Early  Days  of  Coffee  in  Italy 

It  is  not  easy  to  determine  just  whvm  the 
use  of  coffee  spread  from  Constantinople  to 
the  western  parts  of  Europe ;  but  it  is  more 
than  likely  that  the  Venetians,  because  of 
their  close  proximity  to,  and  their  great 


25 


26 


ALL    ABOUT    COFFEli 


trade    with,    the    Levant,    were    the    first 
acquainted  with  it. 

Prospero  Alpini  (Alpinus;  1553-1617), 
a  learned  physician  and  botanist  of  Padua, 
journeyed  to  P^^ypt  in  1580,  and  brought 
back  news  of  coffee.  He  was  the  first  to 
print  a  description  of  the  coffee  plant  and 
drink  in  his  trcatisi'  The  Vlanis  of  Kgypl, 
written  in  Tjatin,  and  published  in  Venice, 
1592.     lie  says: 

I  have  seen  this  tree  at  Cairo,  it  being  tlio 
same  tree  that  prodnces  the  frnit,  so  common  in 
Egypt,  to  which  they  giro  tlie  name  hnn  or  hnn. 
The  Arabians  and  the  Egyptians  malie  a  sort 
of  decoction  of  it,  which  they  drink  instead  of 
wine;  and  it  is  sokl  in  all  their  public  houses, 
as  wine  Is  with  us.  They  call  this  drink  caova. 
The  fruit  of  which  they  make  it  comes  from 
"Arabia  the  Happy,"  and  the  tree  that  I  saw 
looks  like  a  spindle  tree,  but  the  leaves  are 
thicker,  tougher,  and  greener.  The  tree  is  never 
without  leaves. 

Alpini  makes  note  of  the  medicinal  quali- 
ties attributed  to  the  drink  by  dwellers  in 
the  Orient,  and  many  of  these  were  soon 
incorporated  into  Europe's  materia  medica. 

Johann  Vesling  (Veslingius;  1598- 
1649),  a  German  botanist  and  traveler, 
settled  in  Venice,  where  he  became  known 
as  a  learned  Italian  physician.  He  edited 
(1640)  a  new  edition  of  Alpini 's  work;  but 
earlier  (1638)  published  some  comments  on 
Alpini 's  findings,  in  the  course  of  which 
he  distinguished  certain  qualities  found  in 
a  drink  made  from  the  husks  (skins)  of 
the  coffee  berries  from  those  found  in  the 
liquor  made  from  the  beans  themselves, 
which  he  calls  the  stones  of  the  coffee  fruit. 
He  says : 

Not  only  in  Egypt  is  coffee  in  much  request, 
but  in  almost  all  the  other  provinces  of  the 
Turkish  Empire.  Whence  it  comes  to  pass  that 
it  is  dear  even  in  the  Levant  and  scarce  among 
the  Europeans,  who  by  that  means  are  deprived 
of  a  very  wholesome  liquor. 

From  this  we  may  conclude  that  coffee 
was  not  wholly  unknown  in  Europe  at  that 
time.  Vesling  adds  that  when  he  visited 
Cairo,  he  found  there  two  or  three  thousand 
coffee  houses,  and  that  "some  did  begin  to 
put  sugar  in  their  coffee  to  correct  the  bit- 
terness of  it,  and  others  made  sugar-plums 
of  the  berries." 

Coffee,  Baptized  hy  the  Pope 

Shortly  after  coffee  reached  Rome,  ac- 
cording to  a  much  quoted  legend,  it  was 
again  threatened  with  religious  fanaticism, 
which  almost  caused  its  excommunication 
from  Christendom.    It  ig  rel$.te4  that  eer- 


Ax  EuniTEENTii  Centuuy  Italian  Coffee  House 
After  Goldoni,  by  Zatta 

tain  priests  appealed  to  Pope  Clement  VIII 
(1535-1605)  to  have  its  use  forbidden 
among  Christians,  denouncing  it  as  an  in- 
vention of  Satan.  They  claimed  that  the 
Evil  One,  having  forbidden  his  followers, 
the  infidel  Moslems,  the  use  of  wine  —  no 
doubt  because  it  was  sanctified  by  Christ 
and  used  in  the  Holy  Communion  —  had 
given  them  as  a  substitute  this  hellish  black 
brew  of  his  which  they  called  coffee.  For 
Christians  to  drink  it  was  to  risk  falling 
into  a  trap  set  by  Satan  for  their  souls. 

It  is  further  related  that  the  pope,  made 
curious,  desired  to  inspect  this  Devil's 
drink,  and  had  some  brought  to  him.  The 
aroma  of  it  was  so  pleasant  and  inviting 
that  the  pope  was  tempted  to  try  a  cupful. 
After  drinking  it,  he  exclaimed,  "Why,  this 
Satan's  drink  is  so  delicious  that  it  would 
be  a  pity  to  let  the  infidels  have  exclusive 
use  of  it.  We  shall  fool  Satan  by  baptizing 
it,  and  making  it  a  truly  Christian  bev- 
erage. ' ' 

Thus,  whatever  harmfulness  its  oppo- 
nents try  to  attribute  to  coffee,  the  fact 
remains  (if  we  are  to  credit  the  story)  that 
it  has  been  baptized  and  proclaimed  un- 
harmful,  and  a  "truly  Christian  beverage," 
by  his  holiness  the  pope. 

The  Venetians  had  further  knowledge  of 
coffee  in  1585,  when  Cianfrancesco  Moro- 
sini,  city  magistrate  at  Constantinople,  re- 
ported to  the  Senate  that  the  Turks  ' '  drink 
a  black  water  as  hot  as  they  can  suffer  it, 
which  is  the  infusion  of  a  bean  called  cavee, 
which  is  said  to  possess  the  virtue  of  stimu- 
lating mankind." 

Dr.  A.  Couguet,  in  an  Italian  review, 
asserts  that  Europe's  first  cup  of  coffee 
was  sipped  in  Venice,  toward  the  close  of 


COFFEE  IN  WESTERN  EUROPE 


27 


the  sixti'oiith  eontury.  He  is  of  the  opin- 
ion that  the  first  berries  were  imported  by 
Mocenjrio,  who  was  called  the  pevcre,  be- 
cause he  made  a  huge  fortune  trading-  in 
spices  and  others  specialties  of  the  Orient. 
In  Kilf)  Pierre  (Pietro)  Delia  Valle 
(ir)8()  - 1652),  the  well  known  Italian  trav- 
eler and  author  of  Travels  in  India  and 
Persia,  wrote  a  letter  from  Constantinople 
to  his  friend  Mario  Schipano  at  Venice: 

The  Turks  have  a  drink  of  black  color,  which 
dnrinj?  tho  suinnier  is  very  cooliii}?.  whereas  in 
the  winter  it  heats  and  warms  the  Itody,  re- 
maiiiiiiK  always  the  same  boverajje  and  not 
changinj;  its  sui»stance.  They  swallow  it  hot 
as  it  comes  from  the  fire  and  they  drink  it  in 
lonj;  draughts,  not  at  dinner  time,  but  as  a 
kind  of  dainty  and  sipped  slowly  while  talking 
with  one's  friends.  One  cannot  find  any  meet- 
ings among  them  where  they  drink  it  not.  .  .  . 
With  this  drink,  whicli  they  call  cahue,  they 
divert  themselves  in  their  conversations.  .  .  . 
It  is  made  with  the  grain  or  fruit  of  a  certain 
tree  called  cahuc.  .  .  .  When  I  return  I  will 
bring  some  with  me  and  1  will  impart  the  knowl- 
edge to  the  Italians. 


Nobility  in  an  Early  Vknetian  CAFFfe 

From    the    Grevembroch    collection    in    the   Museo 
CIvico 


Delia  Valle 's  countrymen,  however,  were 
in  a  fair  way  to  become  well  acquainted 
with  the  beverage,  for  already  (1615)  it 
had  been  introduced  into  Venice.  At  first 
it  was  used  largely  for  medicinal  purposes; 
and  high  prices  were  charged  for  it.  Ves- 
ling  says  of  its  use  in  Europe  as  a  medicine, 
''the  first  step  it  made  from  the  cabinets 
of  the  curious,  as  an  exotic  seed,  being  into 
the  apothecaries'  shops  as  a  drug." 

The  first  coffee  house  in  Italy  is  said  to 
have  been  opened  in  1645,  but  convincing 
confirmation  is  lacking.  In  the  beginning, 
the  beverage  was  sold  with  other  drinks  by 
lemonade-venders.  The  Italian  word  aqua- 
cedratajo  means  one  who  sells  lemonade  and 
similar  refreshments;  also  one  who  sells 
coffee,  chocolate,  liquor,  etc.  Jardin  says 
the  beverage  was  in  general  use  throughout 
Italy  in  1645.  It  is  certain,  however,  that 
a  coffee  shop  was  opened  in  Venice  in  1683 
under  the  Procuratie  Nuove.  The  famous 
Gaffe  Florian  was  opened  in  Venice  by 
Floriono  Francesconi  in  1720. 

The  first  authoritative  treatise  devoted  to 
coffee  only  appeared  in  1671.  It  was  writ- 
ten in  Latin  by  Antoine  Faustus  Nairon 
(1635-1707),  Maronite  professor  of  the 
Chaldean  and  Syrian  languages  in  the  Col- 
lege of  Rome. 

During  the  latter  part  of  the  seventeenth 
century  and  the  first  half  of  the  eighteenth, 
the  coffee  house  made  great  progress  in 
Italy.  It  is  interesting  to  note  that  this 
first  European  adaptation  of  the  Oriental 
coffee  house  was  known  as  a  caffe.  The 
double  f  is  retained  by  the  Italians  to  this 
day,  and  by  some  writers  is  thought  to 
have  been  taken  from  coffea,  without  the 
double  f  being  lost,  as  in  the  case  of  the 
French  and  some  other  Continental  forms. 

To  Italy,  then,  belongs  the  honor  of  hav- 
ing given  to  the  Western  world  the  real 
coffee  house,  although  the  French  and 
Austrians  greatly  improved  upon  it.  It  was 
not  long  after  its  beginning  that  nearly 
every  shop  on  the  Piazza  di  San  Marco  in 
Venice  was  a  caffe  \  Near  the  Piazza  was 
the  Caffe  della  Ponte  dell'  Angelo,  where 
in  1792  died  the  dog  Tabacchio,  celebrated 
by  Vincenzo  Formaleoni  in  a  satirical  eu- 
logy that  is  a  parody  of  the  oration  of 
Ubaldo  Bregolini  upon  the  death  of  Angelo 
Emo. 

In  the  Caffe  della  Spaderia,  kept  by 
Marco  Ancilloto,  some  radicals  proposed  to 

1  Molnipnti,  Pompeo.  La  Btoria  di  Venezia  nella 
Vita  Privata.     Bergamo,  1908.     (pt  3 :  p.  245.) 


28 


ALL     ABOUT     COFFEE 


open  a  rcadiiifr-room  to  encourage  the 
spread  of  liberal  ideas.  The  inquisitors 
sent  a  foot-soldier  to  notify  the  proprietor 
that  he  should  inform  the  first  person  en- 
tering the  room  that  he  was  to  present  him- 
self before  their  tribunal.  The  idea  was 
thereupon  abandoned. 

Among  other  celebrated  coffee  houses 
was  the  one  called  Menegazzo,  from  the 
name  of  the  rotund  proprietor,  Menico. 
This  place  was  much  frequented  by  men 
of  letters ;  and  heated  discussions  were  com- 


GoLDONi  IN  A  Venetian  Caffe 
From  a  painting  by  P.   Longhi 

mon  there  between  Angelo  Maria  Barbaro, 
Lorenzo  da  Ponte,  and  others  of  their  time. 

The  coffee  house  gradually  became  the 
common  resort  of  all  classes.  In  the  morn- 
ings came  the  merchants,  lawyers,  physi- 
cians, brokers,  workers,  and  wandering  ven- 
ders; in  the  afternoons,  and  until  the  late 
hours  of  the  nights,  the  leisure  classes,  in- 
cluding the  ladies. 

For  the  most  part,  the  rooms  of  the  first 
Italian  caffe  were  low,  simple,  unadorned, 
without  windows,  and  only  poorly  illumi- 
nated by  tremulous  and  uncertain  lights. 
Within  them,  however,  joyous  throngs 
passed  to  and  fro,  clad  in  varicolored  gar- 
ments, men  and  women  chatting  in  groups 
here  and  there,  and  always  above  the  buzz 
there  were  to  be  heard  such  choice  bits  of 


scandal  as  made  worthwhile  a  visit  to  the 
coffee  house.  Smaller  rooms  were  devoted 
to  gaming. 

In  the  "little  square"  described  by  Gol- 
doni  ^  in  his  comedy  The  Coffee  House, 
where  the  combined  barber-shop  and  gam- 
bling house  was  located,  Don  Marzio,  that 
marvelous  type  of  slanderous  old  romancer, 
is  shown  as  one  typical  of  the  period,  for 
Goldoni  was  a  satirist.  The  other  charac- 
ters of  the  play  were  also  drawn  from  the 
types  then  to  be  seen  every  day  in  the 
coffee  houses  on  the  Piazza. 

In  the  square  of  St.  Mark's,  in  the  eigh- 
teenth century,  under  the  Procuratie  Vec- 
chie,  were  the  caffe  Re  di  Francia,  Abbon- 
danza,  Pitt.  I'eroe,  Regina  d'Uiigheria, 
Orfeo,  Redentore.  Coraggio  -  Speranza, 
Arco  Celeste,  and  Quadri.  The  last-named 
was  opened  in  1775  by  Giorgio  Quadri  of 
Corfu,  who  served  genuine  Turkish  coffee 
for  the  first  time  in  Venice. 

Under  the  Procuratie  Nuove  were  to  be 
found  the  caffe  Angelo  Custode,  Duca  di 
Toscana,  Buon  genio  -  Doge,  Imperatore 
Imperatrice  della  Russia,  Tamerlano,  Fon- 
tane  di  Diana,  Dame  Venete,  Aurora  Piante 
d'oro,  Arabo  -  Piastrelle,  Pace,  Venezia 
trionfante,  and  Florian. 

Probably  no  coffee  house  in  Europe  ha.s 
acquired  so  world-wide  a  celebrity  as  that 
kept  by  Florian,  the  friend  of  Canova  the 
sculptor,  and  the  trusted  agent  and  ac- 
quaintance of  hundreds  of  persons  in  and 
out  of  the  city,  who  found  him  a  mine  of 
social  information  and  a  convenient  city 
directory.  Persons  leaving  Venice  left 
their  cards  and  itineraries  with  him ;  and 
new-comers  inquired  at  Florian 's  for  tid- 
ings of  those  whom  they  wished  to  see, 
"He  long  concentrated  in  himself  a  knowl- 
edge more  varied  and  multifarious  than 
that  possessed  by  any  individual  before  or 
since,"  says  Hazlitt^  who  has  given  us 
this  delightful  pen  picture  of  caffe  life  in 
Venice  in  the  eighteenth  century: 

Venetian  coffee  was  said  to  surpass  all  others, 
and  the  article  placed  before  his  visitors  by 
Florian  was  the  best  in  Venice.  Of  some  of  the 
establishments  as  they  then  existed,  Molmenti 
lias  supplied  us  with  illustrations,  in  one  of 
which  Goldoni  the  dramatist  is  represented  as 
a  visitor,  and  a  female  mendicant  is  soliciting 
alms. 

So  cordiftl  -was  the  esteem  of  the  great  sculp- 
tor  Canova   for   him,   that   when   Florian   was 

=  Goldoni,  Carlo.     La  Bottegn  di  Caffe.     IToO. 
=•  Hazlitt,  W.  Carew.     The  Venetian  Republic.     Lon- 
don, 1905.      (vol.  2:  pp.  1012-15.) 


COFFEE  IN  WESTERN  EUROPE 


29 


i 


Flokian's  Famous  Cafkk  in  the  Piazza  di  San  Marco,  Venice,  Nineteenth  Century 


overtaken  by  gout,  he  made  a  model  of  his 
leg.  that  the  poor  fellow  might  be  spared  the 
anguish  of  fitting  himself  with  boots.  The 
friendsliip  had  begun  when  Canova  was  enter- 
ing on  liis  career,  and  he  never  forgot  the 
.substantial  services  which  had  been  rendered 
to  him  in  the  hour  of  need. 

In  later  days,  the  Cafife  Florian  was  under 
the  superintendence  of  a  female  chef,  and  the 
waitresses  used,  in  the  case  of  certain  visitors, 
to  fasten  a  liower  in  the  button-hole,  perhaps 
allusively  to  the  name.  In  the  Piazza  Itself 
girls  would  do  the  same  thing.  A  good  deal  of 
hospitality  is,  and  has  ever  been,  dispensed  at 
Venice  in  the  caf6s  and  restaurants,  which  do 
service   for   the   domestic   hearth. 

There  were  many  other  establishments  de- 
voted, more  especially  in  the  latest  period  of 
Venetian  independence,  to  the  requirements  of 
those  wlio  desired  such  resorts  for  purposes  of 
conversation  and  gossip.  These  houses  were 
frequented  by  various  classes  of  patrons  —  the 
patrician,  the  politician,  the  soldier,  the  artist, 
the  old  and  the  young  —  all  had  their  special 
haunts  where  the  company  and  the  tariff  were 
in  accordance  with  the  guests.  The  upper  cir- 
cles of  male  society  —  all  above  the  actually 
poor  —  gravitated  hither  to  a  man. 

For  the  Venetian  of  all  ranks  the  coffee  house 
was  almost  the  last  place  visited  on  departure 
from  the  city,  and  the  first  visited  on  his  re- 
turn. His  domicile  was  the  residence  of  his 
wife  and  the  repository  of  his  possessions;  but 
only  on  exceptional  occasions  was  it  the  scene 
of  domestic  hospitality,  and  rare  were  the  in- 
stances when  the  husband  and  wife  might  be 
seen    abroad    together,    and    when    the    former 


would  invite  the  lady  to  enter  a  cafe  or  a  con- 
fectioner's shop  to  partake  of  an  ice. 

The  Caffe  Florian  has  undergone  man^^ 
changes,  but  it  still  survives  as  one  of  the 
favorite  caffe  in  the  Piazza  San  Marco. 

By  1775  coffee-house  history  had  begun 
to  repeat  itself  in  Venice.  Charges  of  im- 
morality, vice,  and  corruption,  were  pre- 
ferred against  the  caffe;  and  the  Council 
of  Ten  in  1775,  and  again  in  1776,  directed 
the  Inquisitors  of  State  to  eradicate  these 
' '  social  cankers. ' '  However,  they  survived 
all  attempts  of  the  reformers  to  suppress 
them. 

The  Caffe  Pedrocchi  in  Padua  was  an- 
other of  the  early  Italian  coffee  houses  that 
became  famous.  Antonio  Pedrocchi  (1776- 
1852)  was  a  lemonade- vender  who,  in  the 
hope  of  attracting  the  gay  youth,  the  stu- 
dents of  his  time,  bought  an  old  house  with 
the  idea  of  converting  the  ground  floor 
into  a  series  of  attractive  rooms.  He  put 
all  his  ready  money  and  all  he  could  borrow 
into  the  venture,  only  to  find  there  were 
no  cellars,  indispensable  for  making  ices 
and  beverages  on  the  premises,  and  that  the 
walls  and  floors  were  so  old  that  they 
crumbled  when  repairs  were  started. 

He  was  in  despair ;  but,  nothing  daunted, 
he  decided  to  have  a  cellar  dug.    What  was 


80 


ALL    ABOUT    COt^FEE 


his  surprise  to  find  the  house  was  built 
over  the  vault  of  an  old  church,  and  that 
the  vault  contained  considerable  treasure. 
The  lucky  proprietor  found  himself  free  to 
continue  his  trade  of  lemonade-vender  and 
coffee-seller,  or  to  live  a  life  of  ease.  Being 
a  wise  man,  he  adhered  to  his  original  plan ; 
and  soon  his  luxurious  rooms  became  the 
favorite  rendezvous  for  the  smart  set  of 
his  day.  In  this  period  lemonade  and  cof- 
fee frequently  went  together.  The  Gaffe 
Pedrocchi  is  considered  one  of  the  finest 
pieces  of  architecture  erected  in  Italy  in 
the  nineteenth  century.  It  was  begun  in 
1816,  opened  in  1831,  and  completed  in 
1842. 


Coffee  houses  were  early  established  in 
other  Italian  cities,  particularly  in  Rome, 
Florence,  and  Genoa. 

In  1764,  11  Cajfe,  a  purely  philosophical 
and  literary  periodical,  made  its  appear- 
ance in  Milan,  being  founded  by  Gount 
Pietro  Verri  (1728-97).  Its  chief  editor 
was  Gesare  Beccaria.  Its  object  was  to 
counteract  the  influence  and  superficiality 
of  the  Arcadians.  It  acquired  its  title  from 
the  fact  that  Gount  Verri  and  his  friends 
were  wont  to  meet  at  a  coffee  house  in 
Milan  kept  by  a  Greek  named  Demetrio.  It 
lived  only  two  years. 

Other  periodicals  of  the  same  name  ap- 
peared at  later  periods. 


■4 


Chapter   V 

THE    BEGINNINGS    OF    COFFEE    IN    FRANCE 

What  French  travelers  did  for  coffee  —  The  introduction  of  coffee 
hy  P.  de  la  Roque  into  Marseilles  in  1644  —  The  first  commercial 
importation  of  coffee  from  Egypt  —  The  first  French  coffee  house  — 
Failure  of  the  attempt  hy  physicians  of  Marseilles  to  discredit 
coffee  —  Soliman  Aga  introduces  coff'ee  into  Paris  —  Cabarets  a 
caffe  —  Celebrated  works  on  coffee  hy  French  writers 


WE  are  indebted  to  three  great  French 
travelers  for  much  valuable  knowl- 
edge about  coffee;  and  these  gal- 
lant gentlemen  first  fired  the  imagination 
of  the  French  people  in  regard  to  the  bev- 
erage that  was  destined  to  play  so  impor- 
tant a  part  in  the  French  revolution.  They 
are  Tavernier  (1605  -  89),  Thevenot  (1633  - 
67),  and  Bernier  (1625-88). 

Then  there  is  Jean  La  Roque  (1661- 
1745),  who  made  a  famous  "Voyage  to 
Arabia  the  Happy"  {Voyage  de  rArabie 
Heureuse)  in  1708  - 13  and  to  whose  father, 
P.  de  la  Roque,  is  due  the  honor  of  having 
brought  the  first  coffee  into  France  in  1644. 
Also,  there  is  Antoine  Galland  (1646  - 
1715),  the  French  Orientalist,  first  trans- 
lator of  the  Arabian  Nights  and  antiquary 
to  the  king,  who,  in  1699,  published  an  an- 
alysis and  translation  from  the  Arabic  of 
the  Abd-al-Kadir  manuscript  (1587),  giv- 
ing the  first  authentic  account  of  the  origin 
of  coffee. 

Probably  the  earliest  reference  to  coffee 
in  France  is  to  be  found  in  the  simple 
statement  that  Onorio  Belli  (Bellus),  the 
Italian  botanist  and  author,  in  1596  sent  to 
Charles  de  I'ficluse  (1526  - 1609),  a  French 
physician,  botanist  and  traveler,  "seeds 
used  by  the  Egyptians  to  make  a  liquid 
they  call  cave.^" 

P.  de  la  Roque  accompanied  M.  de  la 
Haye,  the  French  ambassador,  to  Constan- 

•  Jardin,  fidelestan.  Le  Caf&icr  vt  le  Caji.  I'aris, 
1895.      (p.  16  ) 


tinople;  and  afterward  traveled  into  the 
Levant.  Upon  his  return  to  Marseilles  in 
1644,  he  brought  with  him  not  only  some 
coffee,  but  "all  the  little  implements  used 
about  it  in  Turkey,  which  were  then  looked 
upon  as  great  curiosities  in  France. ' '  There 
were  included  in  the  coffee  service  some 
findjans,  or  china  dishes,  and  small  pieces 
of  muslin  embroidered  with  gold,  silver, 
and  silk,  which  the  Turks  used  as  napkins. 

Jean  La  Roque  gives  credit  to  Jean  de 
Thevenot  for  introducing  coffee  privately 
into  Paris  in  1657,  and  for  teaching  the 
French  how  to  use  coffee. 

De  Thevenot  writes  in  this  entertaining 
fashion  concerning  the  use  of  the  drink  :u 
Turkey  in  the  middle  of  the  seventeenth 
century : 

They  have  another  drink  in  ordinary  use. 
Tliey  call  it  cahve  and  take  it  all  hours  of  the 
day.  This  drink  is  made  from  a  berry  roasted 
in  a  pan  or  other  utensil  over  the  fire.  They 
pound  it  into  a  very  fine  powder. 

When  they  wish  to  drink  it,  they  take  a  boiler 
made  expressly  for  the  purpose,  which  they  call 
an  ibrik;  and  having  filled  it  with  water,  they 
let  it  boil.  When  it  boils,  they  add  to  about 
three  cups  of  water  a  heaping  spoonful  of  the 
powder ;  and  when  it  boils,  they  remove  it 
quickly  from  the  fire,  or  sometimes  they  stir  it, 
otherwise  it  would  boil  over,  as  it  rises  very 
quickly.  When  it  has  boiled  up  thus  ten  or 
twelve  times,  they  pour  it  into  porcelain  cups, 
which  they  place  upon  a  platter  of  painted  wood 
and  bring  it  to  you  thus  boiling. 

One  must  drink  it  hot,  but  in  several  instal- 
ments, otherwise  it  is  not  good.    One  takes  it  in 


31 


32 


ALL    ABOUT     COFFEE 


little  swallows '  for  fear  of  burning  one's  self  — 
in  such  fashion  that  in  a  cavekane  (so  they  call 
the  places  where  it  is  sold  ready  prepared),  one 
hears  a  plea.saiit  little  musical  sucking  sound. 
.  .  .  There  are  some  who  mix  with  it  a  small 
quantity  of  cloves  and  cardamom  seeds ;  others 
add  sugar. 

It  was  really  out  of  curiosity  that  the 
[)e()ple  of  France  took  to  coffee,  says  Jar- 

VO Y AG  E 

D  E 
L'ARABIE   HEUREUSE. 

PAR    L  OCEAN    ORIENTAL, 

5£  Ic  Dctioit  dc  la  Mcr  Rouge.  Fau  par 
Ics  Fran^oji  pout  U  premiere fbis,  dans 
les  anncci  1708,170^^6^1710. 

AVEC  LA  RELATION  PA  RTICULIERE 
d'un  Voyage  fait  du  Pott  de  Mcka  a  laCour  du 
Roy  d'Yemcn  ,  dans  la  feconde  Expedition  dc$ 
annees  1711,  1711  &  1713. 

UN  ME  MOIRE  CONCERNANT  L'ARERE 
Sc  le  Fruit  du  Cafe ,  dfc  (Te  fur  ks  Obfervations 
de  ceux  qui  ont  fait  cc  dernier  Voyage.  Et  un 
Traitc  hiftonque  de  Toi  igine  &  du  progfcs  du 
Cafe,  tant  dans  lAfie  que  dans  'Europe  ;  de  Con 
introduftion  en  France,  &  de  rctiblmemcnt dc 
fon  ufagc  a  Paris. 

A     PARIS, 

Chez  A  N  D  R  E^  C  A  1  L  L  F.  A  u,  fur  Ic  Quay  dcj 
Auguftins,  p;es  la  rue  Pavec  ,  a  Saint  Andre. 

M   D  C  C   X  V  L 
^vtc  jipprobmon ,  ^&  Privilege  du  R»y, 

Title  Page  of  La  Roque's  Work,  1716 

din;  "they  wanted  to  know  this  Oriental 
beverage,  so  much  vaunted,  although  its 
blackness  at  first  sight  was  far  from  attrac- 
tive." 

About  the  year  1660  several  merchants 
of  Marseilles,  who  had  lived  for  a  time  in 
the  Levant  and  felt  they  were  not  able  to 
do  without  coffee,  brought  some  coffee  beans 
home  with  them;  and  later,  a  group  of 
apothecaries  and  other  merchants  brought 
in  the  first  commercial  importation  of  eof- 

^  "Drop  by  drop  they  take  it  in,"  said  Cotoviciis. 


fee  in  bales  from  Egypt.  The  Lyons  mer- 
chants soon  followed  suit,  and  the  use  of 
coffee  became  general  in  those  parts.  In 
1671  certain  private  persons  opened  a  cof- 
fee house  in  Marseilles,  near  the  Exchange, 
which  at  once  became  popular  with  mer- 
chants and  travelers.  Others  started  up, 
and  all  were  crowded.  The  people  did  not, 
however,  drink  any  the  less  at  home.  "In 
fine,"  says  La  Roque,  "the  use  of  the  bev- 
erage increased  so  amazingly  that,  as  was 
inevitable,  the  physicians  became  alarmed, 
"thinking  it  would  not  agree  with  the  in- 
habitants of  a  country  hot  and  extremely 
dry." 

The  age-old  controversy  was  on.  Some 
sided  with  the  physicians,  others  opposed 
them,  as  at  Mecca,  Cairo,  and  Constanti- 
nople; only  here  the  argument  turned 
mainly  on  the  medicinal  question,  the 
Church  this  time  having  no  part  in  the 
dispute.  "The  lovers  of  coffee  used  the 
physicians  very  ill  when  they  met  together, 


Poj.^jS. 


^^rh.re' Ail  Cn/c   dcj'sniii  en. 


.'ir/xhit  j->ir  h  }7an%rcf. 


'  TA.-n^^U  J-c, 


The  Coffee  Tree  as  Pictured  by  La  Roque  in 
His  "Voyage  de  l'Arabie  Heureuse" 

and  the  physicians  on  their  side  threatened 
the  coft'ee  drinkers  with  all  sorts  of  dis- 
eases. ' ' 

Matters  came  to  a  head  in  1679,  when 
an  ingenious  attempt  by  the  physicians  of 


ALL     ABOUT     COFFEE 


A  CLOSE-UP  OF  RIPE  COFFEE  BERRIES 


«•■■ 


BEGINNINGS  IN  FRANCE 


88 


Marseilles  to  discredit  coffee  took  the  form 
of  having  a  young  student,  about  to  be  ad- 
mitted to  the  College  of  Physicians,  dis- 
pute before  the  magistrate  in  the  town  hall, 
a  question  proposed  by  two  physicians  of 
the  Faculty  of  Aix,  as  to  whether  coffee  was 
or  was  not  prejudicial  to  the  inhabitants  of 
Marseilles. 

The  thesis  recited  that  coffee  had  won 
the  approval  of  all  nations,  had  almost 
wholly  put  down  the  use  of  wine,  although 
it  was  not  to  be  compared  even  with  the 
lees  of  that  excellent  beverage;  that  it  was 
a  vile  and  worthless  foreign  novelty ;  that 
its  claim  to  be  a  remedy  against  distempers 
was  ridiculous,  because  it  was  not  a  bean 
but  the  fruit  of  a  tree  discovered  by  goats 
and  camels;  that  it  was  hot  and  not  cold, 
as  alleged;  that  it  burned  up  the  blood, 
and  so  induced  palsies,  impotence,  and 
leanness ;  ' '  from  all  of  which  we  must  nec- 
essarily conclude  that  coffee  is  hurtful  to 
the  greater  part  of  the  inhabitants  of  Mar- 
seilles. ' ' 

Thus  did  the  good  doctors  of  the  Faculty 
of  Aix  set  forth  their  prejudices,  and  this 
was  their  final  decision  upon  coffee.  Many 
thought  they  overreached  themselves  in 
their  misguided  zeal.  They  were  handled 
somewhat  roughly  in  the  disputation,  which 
disclosed  many  false  reasonings,  to  say 
nothing  of  blunders  as  to  matters  of  fact. 
The  world  had  already  advanced  too  far  to 
have  another  decision  against  coffee  count 
for  much,  and  this  latest  effort  to  stop  its 
onward  march  was  of  even  less  force  than 
the  diatribes  of  the  Mohammedan  priests. 
The  coffee  houses  continued  to  be  as  much 
frequented  as  before,  and  the  people  drank 
no  less  coffee  in  their  homes.  Indeed,  the 
indictment  proved  a  boomerang,  for  con- 
sumption received  such  an  impetus  that  the 
merchants  of  Lyons  and  Marseilles,  for  the 
first  time  in  history,  began  to  import  green 
coffee  from  the  Levant  by  the  ship-load  in 
order  to  meet  the  increased  demand. 

Meanwhile,  in  1669,  Soliman  Aga,  the 
Turkish  ambassador  from  Mohammed  IV  to 
the  court  of  Louis  XIV,  had  arrived  in 
Paris.  He  brought  with  him  a  considerable 
quantity  of  coffee,  and  introduced  the  cof- 
fee drink,  made  in  Turkish  style,  to  the 
French  capital. 

The  ambassador  remained  in  Paris  only 
from  July,  1669,  to  May,  1670,  but  long 
enough  firmly  to  establish  the  custom  he 
had  introduced.     Two  years  later,  Pascal, 


4 .  AtyoM.  tfp^s/U 


A   Coffee  Branch   With   Flowers   and   Fruit 

AS    iLLUSTItATED    IN    La    ROQUE'S    "VoYAGE 
DE    L'ArABIE    HeUREUSE" 

an  Armenian,  opened  his  coffee-drinking 
booth  at  the  fair  of  St.-Germain,  and  this 
event  marked  the  beginning  of  the  Parisian 
coffee  houses.  The  story  is  told  in  detail 
in  chapter  XI. 

The  custom  of  drinking  coffee  having 
become  general  in  the  capital,  as  well  as 
in  Marseilles  and  Lyons,  the  example  was 
followed  in  all  the  provinces.  Every  city 
soon  had  its  coffee  houses,  and  the  beverage 
was  largely  consumed  in  private  homes.  La 
Roque  writes:  "None,  from  the  meanest 
citizen  to  the  persons  of  the  highest  quality, 
failed  to  use  it  every  morning  or  at  least 
soon  after  dinner,  it  being  the  custom  like- 
wise to  offer  it  in  all  visits." 

"The  persons  of  highest  quality"  en- 
couraged the  fashion  of  having  cabarets  a 
caffe;  and  soon  it  was  said  that  there  could 
be  seen  in  France  all  that  the  East  could 
furnish  of  magnificence  in  coffee  houses, 
"the  china  jars  and  other  Indian  furniture 


d4 


ALL    ABOUT    COFFEE 


being  richer  and  more  valuable  than  the 
gold  and  silver  with  which  they  were  lav- 
ishly adorned." 

In  1671  there  appeared  in  Lyons  a  book 
entitled  The  Most  Excellent  Virtues  of  the 
Mulberry,  Called  Coffee,  showing  the  need 
for  an  authoritative  work  on  the  subject  — 
a  need  that  was  ably  filled  that  same  year 
and  in  Lyons  by  the  publication  of  Philippe 
Sylvestre  Dufour's  admirable  treatise, 
Concerning  the  Use  of  Coffee,  Tea,  and 
Chocolate.  Again  at  Lyons,  Dufour  pub- 
lished (1684)  his  more  complete  work  on 
The  Manner  of  Making  Coffee,  Tea,  and 
Chocolate.  This  was  followed  (1715)  by 
the  publication  in  Paris  of  Jean  La  Roque  's 
Voyage  de  I' Arabic  Heureuse,  containing 
the  story  of  the  author's  journey  to  the 
court  of  the  king  of  Yemen  in  1711,  a  de- 
scription of  the  coffee  tree  and  its  fruit, 
and  a  critical  and  historical  treatise  on  its 
first  use  and  introduction  to  France. 

La  Roque 's  description  of  his  visit  to  the 
king's  gardens  is  interesting  because  it 
shows  the  Arabs  still  held  to  the  belief  that 
coffee  grew  only  in  Arabia.    Here  it  is : 

There  was  nothing  remarkable  in  the  King's 
Gardens,  except  the  great  pains  taken-to  furnish 
it  with  all  the  kinds  of  trees  that  are  common 
in  the  country ;  amongst  which  there  were  the 
cofifee  trees,  the  finest  that  could  be  had.  When 
the  deputies  represented  to  the  King  how  much 
that  was  contrary  to  the  custom  of  the  Princes 
of  Europe  (who  endeavor  to  stock  their  gardens 


chiefly  with  the  rarest  and  most  uncommon 
plants  that  can  be  found)  the  King  returned 
them  this  answer:  That  he  valued  himself  as 
much  upon  his  good  taste  and  generosity  as  any 
Prince  in  Europe ;  the  coffee  tree,  he  told  them, 
was  indeed  common  in  his  country,  but  it  was 
not  tlie  less  dear  to  him  upon  that  account ;  the 
perpetual  verdure  of  it  pleased  him  extremely; 
and  also  the  thoughts  of  its  producing  a  fruit 
which  was  nowhere  else  to  be  met  with ;  and 
when  he  made  a  present  of  that  that  came  from 
his  own  Gardens,  it  was  a  great  satisfaction  to 
him  to  be  able  to  say  that  he  had  planted  the 
trees  that  produced  it  with  his  own  hands. 

The  first  merchant  licensed  to  sell  coffee 
in  France  was  one  Damame  Frangois,  a 
bourgeois  of  Paris,  who  secured  the  privi- 
lege through  an  edict  of  1692.  He  was 
given  the  sole  right  for  ten  years  to  sell 
coffees  and  teas  in  all  the  provinces  and 
towns  of  the  kingdom,  and  in  all  territories 
under  the  sovereignty  of  the  king,  and  re- 
ceived also  authority  to  maintain  a  ware- 
house. 

To  Santo  Domingo  (1738)  and  other 
French  colonies  the  caf6  was  soon  trans- 
ported from  the  homeland,  and  thrived  un- 
der special  license  from  the  king. 

In  1858  there  appeared  in  France  a  leaf- 
let-periodical, entitled  The  Cafe,  Literary, 
Artistic,  and  Commercial.  Ch.  Woinez,  the 
editor,  said  in  announcing  it:  "The  Salon 
stood  for  privilege,  the  Caf6  stands  for 
equality."  Its  publication  was  of  short 
duration. 


Chapter    VI 
THE     INTRODUCTION     OF      COFFEE     INTO     ENGLAND 

The  first  printed  reference  to  coffee  in  English  —  Early  mention  of 
coffee  by  noted  English  travelers  and  writers  —  The  Lacedaemonian 
''black  broth''  controversy —  How  Conopios  introduced  coffee  drink- 
ing at  Oxford  — The  first  English  coffee  house  in  Oxford  — Two 
English  botanists  on  coffee 


ENGLISH  travelers  and  writers  of  the 
sixteenth  and  seventeenth  centuries 
were  quite  as  enterprising  as  their 
Continental  contemporaries  in  telling  about 
the  coffee  bean  and  the  coffee  drink.  The 
first  printed  reference  to  coffee  in  English, 
however,  appears  as  chaoua  in  a  note  by 
a  Dutchman,  Paludanus,  in  Linschoten's 
Travels,  the  title  of  an  English  translation 
from  the  Latin  of  a  work  first  published  in 
Holland  in  1595  or  1596,  the  English  edi- 
tion appearing  in  London  in  1598.  A  re- 
production made  from  a  photograph  of  the 
original  work,  with  the  quaint  black-letter 
German  text  and  the  Paludanus  notation  in 
roman,  is  shown  herewith. 

Hans  Hugo  (or  John  Huygen)  Van  Lin- 
sehooten  (1563  - 1611)  was  one  of  the  most 
intrepid  of  Dutch  travelers.  In  his  de- 
scription of  Japanese  manners  and  cus- 
toms we  find  one  of  the  earliest  tea  refer- 
ences. He  says: 

Their  manner  of  eating  and  drinking  is :  everie 
man  hatli  a  table  alone,  without  table-clothes 
or  napkins,  and  eateth  with  two  pieces  of  wood 
like  the  men  of  Chino :  they  drinke  wine  of  Rice, 
wherewith  they  drink  themselves  drunke,  and 
after  their  meat  they  use  a  certain  drinke,  which 
4s  a  pot  with  bote  water,  which  they  drinke 
as  bote  as  ever  they  may  indure,  whether  it  be 
Winter  or  Summer. 

Just  here  Bernard  Ten  Broeke  Paludanus 
(1550-1633),  Dutch  savant  and  author, 
professor  of  philosophy  at  the  University 
of  Leyden,  himself  a  traveler  over  the  four 
quarters  of  the  globe,  inserts  his  note  con- 
taining the  coffee  reference.    He  says: 


The  Turks  holde  almost  the  same  manner  of 
drinking  of  their  Chaona  \  which  they  make  of 
certalne  fruit,  which  is  like  unto  the  Bakelaer  ^ 
and  by  the  Egyptians  called  Bon  or  Ban:' :  they 
take  of  this  fruite  one  pound  and  a  half,  and 
roast  them  a  little  in  the  fire  and  then  sieth 
them  in  twenty  .pounds  of  water,  till  the  half 
be  consumed  away :  this  drinke  they  take  every 
morning  fasting  in  their  chambers,  out  of  an 
earthen  pot,  being  verie  bote,  as  we  doe  here 
drinke  aqiKwmnposita*  in  the  morning :  and  they 
say  that  it  strengtheneth  and  maketh  them 
warme,  breaketh  wind,  and  openeth  any  stop- 
ping. 

Van  Linsohooten  then  completes  his  tea 
reference  by  saying: 

Tlie  manner  of  dressing  their  meat  is  alto- 
gether contrarie  unto  other  nations:  the  afore- 
said warme  water  is  made  with  the  powder  of 
a  certaine  hearbe  called  Chaa,  which  is  much 
esteemed,  and  is  well  accounted  among  them. 

The  chaa  is,  of  course,  tea,  dialect  t'eh. 

In  1599,  *'Sir"  Antony  (or  Anthony) 
Sherley  (1565  - 1630),  a  picturesque  gentle- 
man-adventurer, the  first  Englishman  to 
mention  coffee  drinking  in  the  Orient,  sailed 
from  Venice  on  a  kind  of  self-appointed, 
informal  Persian  mission,  to  invite  the  shah 
to  ally  himself  with  the  Christian  princes 
against  the  Turks,  and  incidentally,  to  pro- 
mote English  trade  interests  in  the  East. 
The  English  government  knew  nothing  of 
the  arrangement,  disavowed  him,  and  for- 
bade his  return  to  England.    However,  the 

1  Misprinted  thus  in  the  original  Dutch  and  here 
Read  Chaoua,  i.  e.,  Arabic  qahwah. 

*  Laurel  berry,  of  which  the  taste  is  bitter  and 
disagreeable.     From  Latin   bacca  lauri. 

'  Arabic,   iunn ;  coffee  berries. 

*  Brandewijn  in  original  Dutch. 


35 


3i5 


ALL    ABOUT     COFFEE 


expedition  got  t()  Persia;  and  the  account 
of  the  voyage  thither  was  written  by  Will- 
iam Parry,  one  of  the  Sherley  party,  and 
was  published  in  London  in  1601.  It  is 
interesting  because  it  contains  the  first 
printed  reference  to  coffee  in  English  em- 
ploying the  more  modem  form  of  the  word. 
The  original  reference  was  photographed 
for  this  work  in  the  Worth  Library  of  the 
British  Museum,  and  is  reproduced  here- 
with on  page  39. 

The  passage  is  part  of  an  account  of  the 
manners  and  customs  of  the  Turks  (who. 
Parry  says,  are  "damned  infidells")  in 
Aleppo.    It  reads: 

Tliey  sit  at  tlieir  meat  (which  is  served  to 
them  upon  the  ground)  as  Tailers  sit  upon  their 
stalls,  crosse-legd ;  for  the  most  part,  passing 
the  day  in  banqueting  and  carowsing,  untill  they 
surfet,  drinking  a  eertaine  lifpior,  which  they 
do  call  Coffc,  which  is  made  of  seede  nuich  like 
mustard  seede,  which  will  soone  intoxicate  the 
braine  like  our  Metheglin." 

Another  early  English  reference  to  coffee, 
wherein  the  word  is  spelled  "coffa",  is  in 
Captain  John  Smith's  book  of  Travels  and 
Adventure,  published  in  1603.  He  says  of 
the  Turks :  ' '  Their  best  drink  is  coff'a  of  a 
graine  they  call  coava.'^ 

This  is  the  same  Captain  John  Smith  who 
in  1607  became  the  founder  of  the  Colony 
of  Virginia  and  brought  with  him  to  Amer- 
ica probably  the  earliest  knowledge  of  the 
beverage  given  to  the  new  Western  world. 

Samuel  Purchas  (1527-1626),  an  early 
English  collector  of  travels,  in  Purchas  His 
Pilgrimes,  under  the  head  of  ' '  Observations 
of  William  Finch,  merchant,  at  Socotra" 
(Sokotra  —  an  island  in  the  Indian  Ocean) 
in  1607,  says  of  the  Arab  inhabitants : 

Tlieir  best  entertainment  is  a  china  dish  of 
Coho,  a  blacke  bitterisli  drinke,  made  of  a  berry 
like  a  baybei'ry,  brought  from  Mecca,  supped 
off  hot,  good  for  the  head  and  stomache." 

Still  other  early  and  favorite  English 
references  to  coffee  are  those  to  be  found  in 
the  Travels  of  William  Biddulph.  -  This 
work  was,  published  in  1609.  It  is  entitled 
The  Travels  of  Certayne  Englishmen  in 
Africa,  Asia,  etc.  .  .  Begunne  in  1600 
and  by  some  of  them  finished  —  this  yeere 
1608.  These  references  are  also  reproduced 
herewith  from  the  black-letter  originals 
in  the  British  Museum  (see  page  40). 

Biddulph 's  description  of  the  drink,  and 
of  the  coffee-house  customs  of  the  Turks, 


was  the  first  detailed  account  to  be  written 
by  an  Englishman.  It  also  appears  in 
Purchas  His  Pilgrimes  (1625).  But,  to 
quote : 

Tlieir  most  common  drinke  is  Coffa,  which  is 
a  blacke  kinde  of  drinke,  made  of  a  kind  of 
I'ulse  like  Pease,  called  Coaua;  which  being 
grownd  in  the  Mill,  and  boiled  in  water,  they 
drinke  it  as  hot  as  they  can  suffer  it ;  which  they 
tinde  to  agree  very  well  with  them  against  their 
crudities,  and  feeding  on  hearbs  and  rawe 
meates.  Other  compounded  drinkes  they  have, 
called  Sherbet,  made  of  Water  and  Sugar,  or 
Hony,  with  Snow  therein  to  make  it  coole;  for 
although  the  Countrey  bee  hot,  yet  they  keepe 
Snow  all  the  yeere  long  to  coole  their  drinke. 
It  is  accounted  a  great  curtesie  amongst  them 
to  give  unto  their  frends  when  they  come  to 
visit  them,  a  Fin-ion  or  Scudella  of  Coffa,  which 
is  more  holesome  than  toothsome,  for  it  causeth 
good  concoction,  and  driveth  away  drovvsinesse. 

Some  of  them  will  also  drinke  Bersh  or 
Opium,  which  maketh  them  forget  themselves, 
and  talk  idely  of  Castles  in  the  Ayre,  as  though 
they  saw  Visions,  and  heard  Revelations.  Tlieir 
Coffa  liouses  are  more  common  than  Ale-houses 
in  England ;  but  they  use  not  so  much  to  sit 
in  the  houses,  as  on  benches  on  both  sides  the 
streets,  neere  unto  a  Coffa  house,  every  man 
with  his  Fin-ionful ;  which  being  smoking 
hot,  they  use  to  put  it  to  their  Noses  &  Eares, 
and  then  sup  it  off  by  leasure,  being  full  of 
idle  and  Ale-house  talke  vk^hiles  they  are  amongst 
themselves  drinking  it ;  if  there  be  any  news, 
it  is  talked  of  there. 

Among  other  early  English  references  to 
coffee  we  find  an  interesting  one  by  Sir 
George  Sandys  (1577  - 1644),  the  poet,  who 
gave  a  start  to  classical  scholarship  in  Amer- 
ica by  translating  Ovid's  Metamorphoses 
during  his  pioneer  days  in  Virginia.  In 
1610  he  spent  a  year  in  Turkey,  Egypt,  and 
Palestine,  and  records  of  the  Turks : ' 

Although  they  be  destitute  of  Taverns,  yet 
have  they  their  Coffa-houses,  which  something 
resemble  them.  There  sit  they  chatting  most 
of  the  day;  and  sippe  of  a  drinke  called  Coffa 
(of  the  berry  that  it  is  made  of)  in  little  China 
dishes  as  hot  as  they  can  suffer  it:  blacke  as 
soote,  and  tasting  not  much  unlike  it  (why  not 
that  Wacke  broth  which  was  in  use  amongst 
the  Lacedemonians^)  which  helpeth,  as  they 
say,  digestion,  and  procureth  alacrity :  many  of 
the  Cofta-men  keeping  beautiful!  boyes,  who 
serve  as  stales  to  procure  them  customers. 

Edward  Terry  (1590-1660),  an  English 
traveler,  writes,  under  date  of  1616,  that 
many  of  the  best  people  in  India  who  are 
strict  in  their  religion  and  drink  no  wine 
at  all,  "use  a  liquor  more  wholesome  than 
pleasant,  they  call  coffee ;  made  by  a  black 
Seed  boyld  in  water,  which  turnes  it  almost 


"  Mead. 

•  Purchas  His  Pilgrimes. 


London,  1625. 


'  Sandys,    Sir    George. 
1673.   (p.  66.) 


Sandys'   Travels.     London, 


INTRODUCTION  INTO  ENGLAND 


87 


46 


£)ftl)e3ilanD5aptirt. 


I 


rr.rclohrs  tuijctt  \0c  mcanc  to  goe  ab;o<iD 

tuto  t1)c  totunc  0;  countnc,  tbcp  put  tbcin  off 

Ui7]rn  tbrp  goc  fo:tb,  putting  oti  great  IvpDc 

l):ffrbc0,aijo  r  cinmg  borne  tbep  put  tbem  off 

aijiim,  miD  cnft  tl)circloUc0\)pon  tbctr  fljotU* 

set  saiiQ  as  among  ottiernatioiw  it  ui  a  gso 

figl)t  to  fa  men  iwtb  Uibitc  nno  pcaloU)  bap;c 

aiiD  luliitc  tiTtb,ta)itb  tbem  it  to  eaocmco  the 

6ltbufttbm;intbe  U)0:[8,  anD  fixKe  biNiU 

inrancothci'uiaplo  nwhe  t5)cir  bapjc  aiiD 

trtrtbblathc,  fc:  tb.u  tbc  tobite  caufetb  tbctr 

(tricf,anotbc  bUchc  mahctb  tbcm  glafi.  Ebc 

ItUc  cuSomc  IS  among  tbe  Uionir n,  fo}  n0 

tbc>>gocab:eaDtbcpbduc  tbfir  Daugbterst 

inapDca  brfojc  tbcni,  ano  tbcir  men  feruants 

tome  bebmfi,vu'.ncb  m  Spjignc  ie  cleanecon- 

traric,  raiD  UJben  tbcp  arc  great  luitb  rtjitec, 

tbci'  tr e  tbctr  girblcs  fo  bare  about  tbctti,tbat 

men  icculD  tbtn^e  tbcp  Qjulu  burlt ,  an& 

U)bcn  tbcp  arc  not  luttb   CbilDc ,  tijcp 

locate  tbcir  gtrDIcs  fo  fl,ichc,  tbat  pou  U)oulo 

tbmhc  tbcp  luonlD  fall  from  tbe ir  boOicc,fap; 

tngtbstL'i'ri-pincncc  tbcp  Co  finCc,  iftbcp 

UoulD  not  Cce  fo,tbcp  fljoulo  bauc  eutll  lucKe 

iuitb  tbfJr  fruicr,  ano  pjcfcntip  as  fcone  as 

tbcp  arc  DeUttcreD  of  tbeirebilorn,  inftfrD  tf 

.     tbi.n(l>;n5  botb  tU  motber  ana  tbe  cbilo  iwtb 

fomc  f  omfo:tablc  meat,  tbcp  p;cfentlp  UJaCb 

tbeclwlDcmcoU)  toater,  aniifo;ntime  giue 

tbe  mctbrr  ^rp  Utile  to  eate,  anu  tbat  of  no 

great  fubQance.SLbeir  manner  of  eating  an» 

c:mhiiis  10:  Cuetiem«t  batb  a  table  ^alonc, 

iDittjout  tablc-clotbcsoj  naphtns,anOcatetb 

iDitbtUJo  ports  of  lDQji3,liUetbcmenofClii' 

11.V,  tbep  D;mkc  iuinc  of  Hice,  tobcreimtb 

tbep  Dimh  tbemfclurs  D;unhe,an6  after  tbcir 

tncattbcp  tfea  rertatne  Ojmkc,  lubirbisa 

pot  tuitb  bote  toater ,  lublcb  tbep  ti:mKe  as 

botcaseuerttjepmapmourc,  laijctberitbe 

©amtcro}  Summer. 

^nnotjt  .'^'''^  Turkcs  holdc  -alinoll  the  f.inic 
D.I'ilJ. '  i^'^ncofdrinkinq; of  their  ^i;4*«/»,wlucli 
•  .'  tlicy  make  of  ccrtainc  fruit,  which  is  like 
xntothc'SAli^/Aer ^ iiid  by  the  Egyptians 
called  5«fl  or  S4«;  they  takcof this  huuc 
one  pound  and  a  half,  androall  thcnia 
little  ill  the  fire,  and  then  ficth  theiu  in 
twentic  poundcs  of  water,  till  the  half 
beconfuuiedatvay.-  this  dnnketliey  take 
ciierie  uiorning/a'rtin^  in  their  chambers , 
out  ofan  earthen  pot,  being  vcric  liote, 
as  we  doe  here  dr  i  nkc  aqHacemftfitm  i  n  the 
morning:  and  tlicy  fay  that  it  flrcngthcn. 
ethandmakcth  tliem  warmc,  breakcth 
\vind,sndopencfh  aiiv  ffoppinsj. 

Ebc  mannrt  of  Djeamg  tbefr  imat  i&  al« 
togptljcr  coittrartc  twto  otticr  nation»:tl)t  «u 
ft^efiitt)  tDonm  tuater  tsmafee  tmtl  Vtn  po\» 
tarofaccrtalne  ftcacbcealkt>  Chaa,  tobicti 
temutfjeOfftneft,  anhts  toll  WMonte^of 
Tht  i^ookt. 


among  tbcm,anDal  fittb  ns  a»t?  of  an?  ccwt' 
trnance  oj  babflitic  bauc  tbe  faio  toater  Itcpt 
foj  tbcm  m  a  ferret  plire,  aiio  tbe  gentlemen 
make  It  tbemfelues,  aiiD  toben  tbr?  totU  en- 
tcrtamcanp  of  tbcir  fnencs.  tbrp  giue  bun 
fome  of  tbat  toamte  luater  to  ojmkc:  fo;  tbe 
pots  toliercm  tbep  fietbit,  ano  uibcrcmlbc 
bcarbc  is  kept,  tuittj  tbe  eartben  cups  tobieb 
tbcp  D?uihc  It  «i .  tbcp  cttocmc  as  mucb  of 
tbem.os  lucooeof  Diamants.Uubies  ano  O' 
tber  precious  Hones,  ano  tbep  are  not  el!a> 
mcOfo;tbe(r  nciunes,  but  fo:  tbctr  oltmes, 
ano  fo;  tbat  tbcp  tocre  maoc  bp  a  geD  too;k- 
man:  anotoknotoanDlicepcfucbbptbem' 
fclucs,  tbep tahc great anO  fpeciall care,  as 
alfo  of  fucb  as  arc  tbe  \xilctocrs  of  tbcm, 
ano  are  fhilfiill  in  tbcm  ,  as  luitb  t)s  tbe 
golofmttb  p:ifetb  ano  tialuetb  Glurr  ano  goto, 
ano  tbe  ieVueltcrs  all  kinoes  of  pjccious 
ttonrs:  foiftbnrpotsicbppesbc  ol^an  olO 
i  eicellet  U)o:hmasmahing,tbcparc  tooitii 
4  0;  5  tboufaO  Cutats  0:  mo;e  ttjepcccc.SSIjt 
iiing  oiB\.wz,n  oto  giue  fs:fucb  a  pot,bautn9 
tb;(cfttt,  14  tboufano  Ducats,  ano  a  lapan 
beuig  a  Cb;itliun  in  tbe  tolon  of  Sacay^gaue 
fo;  fiub  a  pot  1 400  &ucats ,  anti  pet  It  bao  ? 
pfcceo  \jpon  it .  "Cbcp  Doe  liftetoifc  eOcettv 
mucb  of  onp  picture  0;  table,  tobrrem  ispain^ 
teoablachetrtr,  o;ablncKebtrO.  attOto^ 
ti]ep  tooloeittsmaoc  ofU]a3D,nnlbpanMi< 
tlent  %  cuntng  matttcr,tbep  guie  tobatfoctKt 
pou  iDill  afUe  fo:  it.  3t  bappenctb  fome  tunes 
tt}at  fucb  a  piitiire  10  folD  fo;  3  st  4  tbetifano 
Ducats  ant)  mo:e.   Ebepalfoelttemcmucti 
of  a  gooo  rapier,  mafic  bp  an  olo  anD  cunnmg 
inaifter.fwb  a  one  manp  times  coftetb  %  oj  * 
4  tboufano  Crotons  tbe  pcrce.  Ebefe  tbmgs 
Doe  tbcp  hff  epe  anD  cftcrmc  fo;  tbcir  Jclods, 
as  W  cftamc  our  Jetof  Is  t  p;eaous  flones* 
llnDtobcntoc  aftetijem  \xA)v  tbepcttarme 
tl)emfo  mucb  .tbcp  afKcbsagamc,  Uibptoe 
efttcmcfo  UicU  of  our  p;c£iaiis  ftoncs  f  ietD« 
els,  U)t)trtbp  tbcrc  is  not  unv  p;oftte  to  be 
baD  anD  ferue  to  no  ottjcr  ufr,  tbcit  oirtp  fo;  a 
fl)tU)c,  5  tbat  tbcir  tbliigs  ferue  to  fome  cnb. 
Cbeir  JufhceanDgoucnimcnt  \i  asfoU 
Iotoctb:€bcir  kings  arc  callcDlacuay,  anD 
'are  abfolutclv  Li^os  of  tbe  lanD ,  nottott^' 
ftanoingtbcp  kocpcfo;  tbemfelues  asmn^ 
as  IS  neccifarp  fo:  tftcm  anD  tbctr  ettate,  ana 
tbe  rctt  of  tbcir  lanD  tbep  ocupDc  among  9' 
tbers,  tobtcb  arc  callcD  Cunixus,  ipbicb  arc 
like  our  Carles  anD  Duhe0:tbcfe  are  appoln* 
teffbPtbeUmg,  aitDbc  taufctb  tbcm  to go' 
ucnur  t  rule  ttje  lanD  as  it  plctife tb  blm:  tbep 
arc  bouno  to  feme  tijt  iitng  iis  mcU  in  peace, 
as  (n  toarres,  at  tbeir  otonr  c ott  j  c barges, 
acc8;tKn3to  tbcu:  iiia.it^  nnotfic  aunnent 
laUits  of  Upan.^befc  c^imuviis  bane  otbem 
tjnDcrtlxwtsUcD  lums,  UJbubarcliUf  our 

&,o:ds 


FIRST  PRINTED  REFERENCE  TO  COFFEE  IN  ENGLISH,  1598 

It  appears  as  Chaona  (chaoua)  Ju  the  second  line  of  tbe  roman  text  notation  by  Paludanus 


38 


ALL    ABOUT     COFFEE 


into  the  same  colour,  but  doth  very  little 
alter  the  taste  of  the  water  [!],  notwith- 
standing it  is  very  good  to  help  Digestion, 
to  quicken  the  Spirits  and  to  cleanse  the 
Blood." 

In  1623,  Francis  Bacon  (1561  - 1626),  in 
his  Historia  Vitae  et  Mortis  says:  "The 
Turkes  use  a  kind  of  herb  which  they  cali 
caphe";  and,  in  1624,  in  his  Sylva  Syl- 
varum '  (published  in  1627,  after  his  death) , 
he  writes : 

They  have  in  Turkey  a  drink  called  coffa 
made  of  a  berry  of  the  same  name,  as  black  as 
soot,  and  of  a  strong  scent,  but  not  aromatical ; 
which  they  take,  beaten  into  powder,  in  water, 
as  hot  as  they  can  drink  it:  and  they  take  it, 
and  sit  at  it  in  their  coffa-houses,  which  are  like 
our  taverns.  This  drink  comforteth  the  brain 
and  heart,  and  helpeth  digestion.  Certainly  this 
berry  coffa,  the  root  and  leaf  betel,  the  leaf 
tobacco,  and  the  tear  of  poppy  (opium)  of  which 
the  Turks  are  great  takers  (supposing  it  ex- 
pelleth  all  fear),  do  all  condense  the  spirits,' 
and  make  them  strong  and  aleger.  But  it  seerofi-^ 
eth  tli^y  wei-e  taken  after  several  manners;  for^ 
coffa  and  opium  are  taken  down,  tobacco  but 
in  smoke,  and  betel  is  but  champed  in  the  mouth 
with  a  little  lime. 

Robert  Burton  (1577-1640),  English 
philosopher  and  humorist,  in  his  Anatomy 
of  Melancholy*' writes  it  1632: 

The  Turkes  have  a  drinke  called  coffa  (for 
they  use  no  wine),  so  named  of  a  bei*ry  as  blacke 
as  soot  and  as  bitter  (like  that  blacke  drinke 
which  was  in  use  amongst  the  Lacedemonians 
and  perhaps  the  same),  which  they  sip  still  of, 
and  sup  as  warme  as  they  can  suffer ;  they  spend 
much  time  in  those  coffa-houses,  which  are 
somewhat  like  our  Ale-houses  or  Taverns,  and 
there  they  sit,  chatting  and  drinking,  to  drive 
away  the  time,  and  to  be  merry  together,  be- 
cause they  find,  by  experience,  that  kinde  of 
drinke  so  used,  helpeth  digestion  and  procureth 
alacrity. 

Later  English  scholars,  however,  found 
sufficient  evidence  in  the  works  of  Arabian 
authors  to  assure  their  readers  that  coffee 
sometimes  breeds  melancholy,  causes  head- 
ache, and  "maketh  lean  much."  One  of 
these,  Dr.  Pocoke,  (1659:  see  chapter  TIT) 
stated  that,  "he  that  would  drink  it  for 
livelinesse  sake,  and  to  discusse  slothful- 
nesse  ...  let  him  use  much  sweet 
meates  with  it,  and  oyle  of  pistaceioes,  and 
butter.  Some  drink  it  with  milk,  but  it  is 
an  error,  and  such  as  may  bring  in  danger 
of  the  leprosy."  Another  writer  observed 
that  any  ill  effects  caused  by  coffee,  unlike 

•  Bacon,  Francis.  Sylva  Sylvarum.  London,  1627. 
(vol.  v:  p.  26.) 

»  Burton.  Robert.  The  Anatomy  o1  Melancholy. 
Oxford,  1632.  (pt.  2  :  sec.  5  :  p.  397.)  This  reference 
does  not  appear  m  the  earlier  editions  of  1621,  24,  28. 


those  of  tea,  etc.,  ceased  when  its  use  was 
discontinued.  In  this  connection  it  is  in- 
teresting to  note  that  in  1785  Dr.  Benjamin 
Mosely,  physician  to  the  Chelsea  Hospital, 
member  of  the  College  of  Physicians,  etc., 
probably  having  in  mind  the  popular  idea 
that  the  Arabic  original  of  the  word  coffee 
meant  force,  or  vigor,  once  expressed  the 
hope  that  the  coffee  drink  might  return  to 
popular  favor  in  England  as  "a  cheap 
substitute  for  those  enervating  teas  and 
beverages  which  produce  the  pernicious 
habit  of  dram-drinking." 

About  1628,  Sir  Thomas  Herbert  (1606  - 
1681),  En^ish  traveler  and  writer,  records 
among  his  observations  on  the  Persians 
that: 

"They  drink  above  all  the  rest  Coho  or  Copha : 

by  Turk  and  Arab  called  Caphe  and  Cahua:  a 

'  drink  imitating  that  in  the  Stigian  lake,  black, 

thick,    and    bitter:    destrain'd    from    Bunchi/, 

liunnu,  or  Bay  berries;   wholesome,   they   say, 

if  hot,  for  it  expels  melancholy  .  .  .  but  not  so 

Jimuch   regarded    for   those   good   properties,   as 

•■■tfrom    a    Romance    that    it    was    invented    and 

brew'd  by  Gabriel  .  .  .  to'  restore  the  decayed 

radical  'Moysfcure  of  kind  hearted  Mahomet." 

In  1634,  Sir  Henry  Blount  (1602-82), 
sometimes  referred  to  as  "the  father  of  the 
English  coffee  house, ' '  made  a  journey  on  a 
Venetian  galley  into  the  Levant.  He  was 
invited  to  drink  cauphe  in  the  presence  of 
Amurath  IV;  and  later,  in  Egypt,  he  tells 
of  being  served  the  beverage  again  "in  a 
porcelaine  dish".  This  is  how  he  describes 
the  drink  in  Turkey :  " 

They  have  another  drink  not  good  at  meat, 
called  Cauphe,  made  of  a  Berry  as  big  as  a 
small  Bean,  dried  in  a  Furnace,  and  beat  to 
Ponder,  of  a  Soot-colour,  in  taste  a  little  bit- 
terish, that  they  seeth  and  drink  as  hot  as  may 
be  endured :  It  is  good  all  hours  of  the  day, 
but  especially  morning  and  evening,  when  to 
that  purpose,  they  entertain  themselves  two  or 
three  hours  in  Cauphe-houses,  which  in  all  Tur- 
key abound  more  than  Inns  and  Ale-houses  with 
us ;  it  is  thought  to  be  the  old  black  broth  used 
so  much  by  the  Lacedemonians,  and  dryeth  ill 
Humours  in  the  stomach,  comforteth  the  Brain, 
never  causeth  Drunkenness  or  any  other  Sur- 
feit, and  is  a  harmless  entertainment  of  good 
Fellowship;  for  there  upon  Scaffolds  half  a 
yard  high,  and  covered  with  Mats,  they  sit 
Cross-leg'd  after  the  Turkish  manner,  many 
times  two  or  three  hundred  together,  talking, 
and  likely  with  some  poor  musick  passing  up 
and  down. 

This  reference  to  the  Lacedaemonian  black 
broth,   first  by   Sandys,   then   by   Burton, 

"  Herbert.  Sir  T.  Travels.  London,  ed.  1638. 
(p.   241.) 

"  Blount.  Sir  Henry.  A  Voyage  Into  the  Levant, 
London.  1671.-   (pp.  20,  21,  54,  55,  138,  1.39.) 


INTRODUCTION  INTO  ENGLAND 


39 


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40  ALL     ABOUT     COFFEE 

again  by  Blount,  and  concurred  in  by  James  Although  it  seems  likely  that  coffee  must 
Howell  (1595-1666),  the  first  historio-  have  been  introduced  into  England  some- 
grapher  royal,  gave  rise  to  considerable  time  during  the  first  quarter  of  the  seven- 
controversy  among  Englishmen  of  letters  in  teenth  century,  with  so  many  writers  and 
later  years.  It  is,  of  course,  a  gratuitous  travelers  describing  it,  and  with  so  much 
speculation.  The  black  broth  of  the  Lace-  trading  going  on  between  the  merchants 
dsemonians  was  "pork,  cooked  in  blood  and  of  the  British  Isles  and  the  Orient,  yet  the 
seasoned  with  salt  and  vinegar.""  first  reliable  record  we  have  of  its  advent 

Sl^eti;  molt  common  o^tntie  10  Coi6,lTif)ul^  Coffa, 
tea  Uadtetnittof  o;iritte  maoe  of  afcino  of  fdulfe  like  peafe^ 
cofleoCotua;  tD^  being  atotxmo  in  tt)e  milUanDbotleD  in 
imtet^  H^D^mSeitasbot  astljep  can fuffcc  it; taljicl)  t\)c^ 
ftmto  agne  tieri^Uieatinl!)  tbem  againtt  tljcic  auoities  ano 
iitetat  onbeacb^anD  catoemeates* 

3it  t0  occountcD  a  great  cuttt&t  amonsS  tbem  to  giue  bnto 
tlieic  f ccnos  iDtjen  i\)e^  tome  to  utat  tbem,a  ifm-  ton  o^  ^cut^el^ 
laofCofFa,  lD^ut)tduto;etiolefometbant(Dt|irome)fo^  it  cao^ 
fetl)  SOD  concoction ,  ano  o^iuetb  atnav  o;»tD(ineaei 

^  W^tit  Cof{a^ottfe0  ace  mo;e  common  t^mSk-^onttBrn 
(i^nglami;  butti^  bfenotfomu^tofit  in  V)t  ^onttB  us  on 
bencbe0  on  botb  Qoe^  tbe  ftreets  netce  bnto  a  CoSi  boufe,  euec? 
ttian  tuitb  W  if  tn*ton  ful^ixibicl^beins  rmotunsbot^  tf^e;  bfe  to 
put  itto  ^eit  nofes  f  eaceB,  anb  tlftn  fnpitoff  b^Ieadtce,  being 
fnllof  iole  anoiaie-boufetalbelubtled  tije^ace  amongtltt^em^ 
felues  blinking  of  it ;  if  tbece  be  ani>  nt\s)Sy  it  is  talbeo  of  tljere^ 

Kefekences   to   Coffee   as    Found    in    Kiddulpii's  Travels    1G04) 
J  From   the  black  -  letter  original  in   the  British  Museum 

William  Harvey  (1578-1657),  the  fa-  is  to  be  found  in  the  Diary  and  Corre- 
mous  English  physician  who  discovered  the  spondence  of  John  Evelyn,  F.  B.  S. ", 
circulation  of  the  blood,  and  his  brother  are  under  "Notes  of  1637",  where  he  says : 
reputed  to  have  used  coffee  before  coffee  Tiiere  came  in  my  time  to  tine  college  (Baliol, 
houses  came  into  vogue  in  London  —  this  Oxford)  one  Natlianiel  Conopios.  out  of  Greece, 
must  have  been  previous  to  1652.  "I  re-  f™m  Cyrill,  the  Patriarch  of  Constantinople, 
TTiPmher"  ^savs  Anbrev"  "be  was  wont  to  ^^'^^"'  ''^turning  many  years  after  was  made  (as 
^^™,  ®  'J^^^  f  ?V^^  '  ^f  ^,^?  T  1  ^  understand)  Bishop  of  Smyrna.  He  was  the 
dnnke  coffee ;  which  his  brother  Eliab  did,  first  I  ever  saw  drink  cofCee ;  which  custom 
before  coffee  houses  were  the  fashion  in  came  not  into  England  till  thirty  years  there- 
London."     Houghton,  in  1701,  speaks  of  a^t^i'- 

"the  famous  inventor  of  the  circulation  of         Evelyn  should  have  said  thirteen  years 

the  blood.  Dr.  Harvey,  who  some  say  did  after;  for  then  it  was  that  the  first  coffee 

frequently  use  it."  house  was  opened  (1650). 
"TTT-.u    .  r,    .        rr,.    r.     .:  .■      .  .  .■    :■  Couoplos  was  a  native  of  Crete,  trained 

**  Gilbert.   Gustav.      The   Conxtttuttonal  Anttqmttes       •       ii,      /-i        i       x.         i         tt      i  • 

of  Sparta  and  Athena.    London.  1895.  (p.  69.)  m  tile  Lrreek  ctiurch.     He  became  pnmore 

"  Aubrev.  John.     Lives  of  Eminent  Men.     London, 

1813.     (vol.  ii :  pt.  2  :  pp.  384  -  85.)  "  Works,     (vol.  iv  :  p.  389.) 


INTRODUCTION  INTO  ENGLAND 


41 


Cyril],    Patriarch    of    Constantinople. 

''hen  Cyrill  was  strangled  by  the  vizier, 

Jonopios  fled  to  England  to  avoid  a  like 

jarbarity.      He   came   with   credentials   to 

irchbishop  Laud,  who  allowed  him  main- 

'tenance  in  Balliol  College. 

It  was  observed  that  while  he  continued  in 
Balliol  College  he  made  the  drink  for  his  own 
use  called  Coffey,  and  usually  drank  it  every 
morninj;:.  heiiiR  the  first,  as  the  antients  of  that 
House  have  informed  me,  that  was  ever  drank 
in   Oxon.^^ 

In  1640  John  Parkinson  (1567-1650), 
English  botanist  and  herbalist,   published 


Mol's  Coffeie  House,  Exeter,  England, 
Now  WouTii's  Art  KoOxMS 

his  Theatrnm  Botanicum^%  containing  the 
first  botanical  description  of  the  coffee  plant 

"a  Wood,  Anthony.  Athcnac  Oxonicnaea.  London, 
1692.     (vol.  il:  col.  058.) 

"  Parkinson.  John.  Theatruin  Botanictim.  London, 
1640.      (p.    1622.) 


in  English,  referred  to  as  ''Arbor  Bon  cum 
sua  Buna.    The  Turkes  Berry  Drinke". 

His  work  being  somewhat  rare,  it  may  be 
of  historical  interest  to  quote  the  quaint 
description  here : 

Alpinus,  in  his  Booke  of  Egiptian  plants,  giv- 
eth  us  a  description  of  this  tree,  which  as  hee 
saith,  hee  saw  in  the  garden  of  a  certain  Cap- 
taine  of  the  lanissarics,  which  was  brought  out 
of  Arabia  fclix  and  there  planted  as  a  rarity, 
never  seene  growing  in  those  places  before. 

Tlie  tree,  saith  Alpinus,  is  somewhat  like  unto 
the  Evonymus  Pricketimber  tree,  whose  leaves 
were  thicker,  harder,  and  greener,  and  always 
abiding  greene  on  the  tree;  the  fruite  is  called 
Buna  and  is  somewhat  bigger  then  an  Hazell 
Nut  and  longer,  round  also,  and  pointed  at  the 
end,  furroweti  also  on  both  sides,  yet  on  one 
side  more  conspicuous  than  the  other,  tha$  it 
might  be  parted  in  two,  in  each  side  whereof 
lyeth  a  small  long  white  kernell,  flat  on  that 
side  they  joyne  together,  covered  with  a  yellow- 
ish skinne.  of  an  acid  taste,  and  somewhat  bit- 
ter withall  and  contained  in  a  thinne  shell,  of 
a  darkish  ash-color ;  with  these  berries  gen- 
erally in  Arabia  and  Egipt,  and  in  other  places 
of  the  Turkes  Dominions,  they  make  a  decoc- 
tion or  drinke.  which  is  in  the  stead  of  Wine 
to  them,  and  generally  sold  in  all  their  tappe 
houses,  called  by  the  name  of  Caova;  Paludatms 
saith  Chaova,  and  Ramcolflus  Chaube. 

This  drinke  hath  many  good  physical  prop- 
erties therein ;  for  it  strengtheneth  a  week 
stomacke,  helpeth  digestion,  and  the  tumors  and 
obstructions  of  the  liver  and  spleene,  being 
drunke  fasting  for  some  time  together. 

In  1650,  a  certain  Jew  from  Lebanon, 
in  some  accounts  Jacob  or  Jacobs  by  name, 
in  others  Jobson  ",  opened  "at  the  Angel 
in  the  parish  of  St.  Peter  in  the  East", 
Oxford,  the  earliest  English  coffee  house 
and  "there  it  [coffee]  was  by  some  who 
delighted  in  noveltie,  drank".  Chocolate 
was  also  sold  at  this  first  coffee  house. 

Authorities  differ,  but  the  confusion  as  to 
the  name  of  the  coffee-house  keeper  may 
have  arisen  from  the  fact  that  there  were 
two  —  Jacobs,  who  began  in  1650;  and  an- 
other. Cirques  Jobson,  a  Jewish  Jacobite, 
who  followed  him  in  1654. 

The  drink  at  once  attained  great  favor 
among  the  students.  Soon  it  was  in  such 
demand  that  about  1655  a  society  of  young 
students  encouraged  one  Arthur  Tillyard, 
' '  apothecary  and  Royalist, ' '  to  sell  ' '  coffey 
publickly  in  his  house  against  All  Soules 
College."  It  appears  that  a  club  composed 
of  admirers  of  the  young  Charles  met  at 
Tillyard's  and  continued  until  after  the 
Restoration.  This  Oxford  Coffee  Club  was 
the  start  of  the  Royal  Society. 

"  D'lsraeli.  I.  Curiosities  of  Literature.  London, 
1798.      (vol.  i :  p.  345.) 


42 


ALL     ABOUT     COFFEE 


Jacobs  removed  to  Old  Southhampton 
Buildings,  London,  where  he  was  in  1671. 

Meanwhile,  the  first  coffee  house  in  Lon- 
don had  been  opened  by  Pasqua  Ros^e  in 
1652 ;  and,  as  the  remainder  of  the  story  of 
coffee's  rise  iind  fall  in  England  centers 
around  the  coffee  houses  of  old  London,  we 
shall  reserve  it  for  a  separate  chapter. 

Uf  course,  the  coffee-house  idea,  and  the 
use  of  coffee  in  the  home,  quickly  spread 
to  other  cities  in  Great  Britain ;  but  all  the 
coffee  houses  were  patterned  after  the  Lon- 


When  the  Bishop  of  Berytus  (Beirut) 
was  on  his  way  to  Cochin  China  in  1666, 
he  reported  that  the  Turks  used  coffee  to 
correct  the  indisposition  caused  in  the 
stomach  by  the  bad  water.  "This  drink," 
he  says,  "imitates  the  effect  of  wine  ,  .  . 
has  not  an  agreeable  taste  but  rather  bitter, 
yet  it  is  much  used  by  these  people  for  the 
good  effects  they  find  therein." 

In  1686,  John  Ray  (1628-1704),  one  of 
the  most  celebrated  of  English  naturalists, 
published  his  Universal  History  of  Plants, 


JUthough  they  be  dcftitutc  of  Taucms,yct  hauc  they  their 
CofEhhoufes,  which  Ibmething  refemble  them.  There  fiifthey  chatting  moil  of 
the  day;  ^  fippe  of  a  drinke  called  Coffii  (of the  berry  that  it  is  made  of)  in  little 
Ckmd  diiibes,  as  hoc  as  they  can  futfer  it :  blacke  as  foote^nd  tailing  not  much  W 
Iikeic<why.pot  that  blade  broth  which  was  invfeamongft  the  LucedemoniAns'^) 
which  helpeth,fe  they  (ay,  digeftion,andprocureth  alacrity:  many  of  the  Coffa- 
DKolce^mgbcautiiuUboyeSjwhoienieasftalesto  procure  them  cii^ 

Early  English  Reference  to  Coffee  by  Sib   Gbx)rge  Sandys 
From  the  seventh  edition  of  Sandys'  Travels,  London,  1673 


don  model.  Mol's  coffee  house  at  Exeter, 
Devonshire,  which  is  pictured  on  page  41, 
was  one  of  the  first  coffee  houses  established 
in  England,  and  may  be  regarded  as  typical 
of  those  that  sprang  up  in  the  provinces. 
It  had  previously  been  a  noted  club  house ; 
and  the  old  hall,  beautifully  paneled  with 
oak,  still  displays  the  arms  of  noted  mem- 
bers. Here  Sir  Walter  Ealeigh  and  con- 
genial friends  regaled  themselves  with 
smoking  tobacco.  This  was  one  of  the  first 
places  where  tobacco  was  smoked  in  Eng- 
land.    It  is  now  an  art  gallery. 


notable  among  other  things  for  being  the 
first  work  of  its  kind  to  extol  the  virtues  of  - 
coffee  in  a  scientific  treatise. 

R.  Bradley,  professor  of  botany  at  Cam- 
bridge, published  (1714)  A  Short  Histori- 
cal Account  of  Coffee,  all  trace  of  which 
appears  to  be  lost. 

Dr.  James  Douglas  published  in  London 
(1727)  his  Arior  Yemensis  fructum  Cofe 
ferens;  or,  a  description  and  History  of 
the  Coffee  Tree,  in  which  he  laid  under 
heavy  contribution  the  Arabian  and  French 
writers  that  had  preceded  him. 


Chapter   VII 

THE      INTRODUCTION     OF      COFFEE     INTO     HOLLAND 

Hotv  the  enterprising  Dutch  traders  captured  the  first  world's 
market  for  coffee  —  Activities  of  the  Netherlands  East  India  Com- 
pany  —  The  first  coffee  house  at  the  Hague  —  The  first  public  auction 
at  Amsterdam  in  1711,  when  Java  coffee  brought  forty-seven  cents  a 
pound,  green 


THE  Dutch  had  early  knowledge  of 
coffee  because  of  their  dealings  with 
the  Orient  and  with  the  Venetians, 
and  of  their  nearness  to  Germany,  where 
Rauwolf  first  wrote  about  it  in  1582.  They 
were  familiar  with  Alpini's  writings  on  the 
subject  in  1592.  Paludanus,  in  his  coffee 
note  on  Linschoten's  Travels,  furnished 
further  enlightenment  in  1598. 

The  Dutch  were  always  great  merchants 
and  shrewd  traders.  Being  of  a  practical 
turn  of  mind,  they  conceived  an  ambition 
to  grow  coffee  in  their  colonial  possessions, 
so  as  to  make  their  home  markets  head- 
quarters for  a  world 's  trade  in  the  product. 
In  considering  modern  coffee-trading,  the 
Netherlands  East  India  Company  may  be 
said  to  be  the  pioneer,  as  it  established  in 
Java  one  of  the  first  experimental  gardens 
for  coffee  cultivation. 

The  Netherlands  East  India  Company 
was  formed  in  1602.  As  early  as  1614, 
Dutch  traders  visited  Aden  to  examine  into 
the  possibilities  of  coffee  and  coffee-trad- 
ing. In  1616  Pieter  Van  dan  Broeck 
brought  the  first  coffee  from  Mocha  to 
Holland.  In  1640  a  Dutch  merchant,  named 
Wurffbain,  offered  for  sale  in  Amsterdam 
the  first  commercial  shipment  of  coffee  from 
Mocha.  As  indicating  the  enterprise  of 
the  Dutch,  note  that  this  was  four  years 
before  the  beverage  was  introduced  into 
France,  and  only  three  years  after  Conopios 
had  privately  instituted  the  breakfast  coffee 
cup  at  Oxford. 


About  1650,  Varnar,  the  Dutch  minister 
resident  at  the  Ottoman  Porte,  published 
a  treatise  on  coffee. 

When  the  Dutch  at  last  drove  the  Por- 
tuguese out  of  Ceylon  in  1658,  they  began 
the  cultivation  of  coffee  there,  although  the 
plant  had  been  introduced  into  the  island 
by  the  Arabs  prior  to  the  Portuguese  in- 
vasion in  1505.  However,  it  was  not  until 
1690  that  the  more  systematic  cultivation 
of  the  coffee  plant  by  the  Dutch  was  under- 
taken in  Ceylon. 

Regular  imports  of  coffee  from  Mocha  to 
Amsterdam  began  in  1663.  Later,  supplies 
began  to  arrive  from  the  Malabar  coast. 

Pasqua  Ros6e,  who  introduced  the  coffee 
house  into  London  in  1652,  is  said  to  have 
made  coffee  popular  as  a  beverage  in  Hol- 
land by  selling  it  there  publicly  in  1664. 
The  first  coffee  house  was  opened  in  the 
Korten  Voorhout,  the  Hague,  under  the 
protection  of  the  writer  Van  Essen ;  others 
soon  followed  in  Amsterdam  and  Haarlem. 

At  the  instigation  of  Nicolaas  Witsen, 
burgomaster  of  Amsterdam  and  governor  of 
the  East  India  Company,  Adrian  Van  Om- 
men,  commander  of  Malabar,  sent  the  first 
Arabian  coffee  seedlings  to  Java  in  1696, 
recorded  in  the  chapter  on  the  history  of 
coffee  propagation.  These  were  destroyed 
by  flood,  but  were  followed  in  1699  by  a 
second  shipment,  from  which  developed  the 
coffee  trade  of  the  Netherlands  East  Indies, 
that  made  Java  coffee  a  household  word  in 
every  civilized  country. 


48 


44 


ALL    ABOUT     COFFEE 


A  trial  shipment  of  the  coffee  grown  near 
Batavia  was  received  at  Amsterdam  in  1706. 
also  a  plant  for  the  botanical  gardens.  This 
plant  subsequently  became  the  progenitor 
of  most  of  the  coffees  of  the  West  Indies 
and  America. 

The  first  Java  coffee  for  the  trade  was 
received  at  Amsterdam  1711.  The  ship- 
ment consisted  of  894  pounds  from  the 
Jakatra  plantations  and  from  the  interior 
of  the  island.  At  the  first  public  auction, 
this  coffee  brought  twenty-three  and  two- 
thirds  stuivers  (about  forty-seven  cents) 
per  Amsterdam  pound. 

The  Netherlands  East  India  Company 
contracted  with  the  regents  of  Netherlands 
India  for  the  compulsory  delivery  of  coffee ; 
and  the  natives  were  enjoined  to  cultivate 
coffee,  the  production  thus  becoming  a 
forced  industry  worked  by  government.  A 
"general  system  of  cultivation"  was  intro- 
duced into  Java  in  1832  by  the  government, 
which  decreed  the  employment  of  forced 
labor  for  different  products.  Coffee  -  grow- 
ing was  the  only  forced  industry  that  ex- 


isted before  this  system  of  cultivation,  and 
it  was  the  only  government  cultivation  that 
survived  the  abolition  of  the  system  in 
1905  -  08,  The  last  direct  government  in- 
terest in  coffee  was  closed  out  in  1918.  From 
1870  to  1874,  the  government  plantations 
yielded  an  average  of  844,854  piculs  *  a 
year;  from  1875  to  1878,  the  average  was 
866,674  piculs.  Between  1879  and  1883,  it 
rose  to  987,682  piculs.  From  1884  to  1888, 
the  average  annual  yield  was  only  629,942 
piculs. 

Holland  readily  adopted  the  coffee  house ; 
and  among  the  earliest  coffee  pictures  pre- 
served to  us  is  one  depicting  a  scene  in  a 
Dutch  coffee  house  of  the  seventeenth  cen- 
tury, the  work  of  Adriaen  Van  Ostade 
(1610-1675),  shown  on  page  586. 

History  records  no  intolerance  of  coffee 
in  Holland.  The  Dutch  attitude  was  ever 
that  of  the  constructionist.  Dutch  inventors 
and  artisans  gave  us  many  new  designs  in 
coffee  mortars,  coffee  roasters,  and  coffee 
serving  -  pots. 

*  A  weight  of  from  1.33  to  140  pounds. 


Chapter   VIIj 

THE      INTRODUCTION      OF     COFFEE     INTO     GERMANY 

The  contributions  made  by  German  travelers  and  writers  to  the 
literature  of  the  early  history  of  coffee  —  The  first  coffee  house  in 
Hamburg  opened  by  an  English  merchant  —  Famous  coffee  houses 
of  old  Berlin  —  The  first  coffee  periodical,  and  the  first  kaffee- 
klatsch—  Frederick  the  Great's  coffee-roasting  monopoly  —  Coffee 
persecutions  —  ''Coffee-smellers"  —  The  first  coffee  king 


AS   we   have   already   seen,   Leonhard 
Rauvvolf,  in  1573,  made  his  memora- 
ble trip  to  Aleppo  and,  in  1582,  won 
for  Germany  the  honor  of  being  the  first 
European  country  to  make  printed  mention 
of  the  coffee  drink, 

Adam  Olearius  (or  Oelschlager) ,  a  Ger- 
man Orientalist  (1599-1671),  traveled  ia 
Persia  as  secretary  to  a  German  embassy 
in  1633  -  36.  Upon  his  return  he  published 
an  account  of  his  journeys.  In  it,  under 
date  of  1637,  he  says  of  the  Persians: 

They  drink  with  their  tobacco  a  certain  blaclc 
water,  whicli  they  call  cahwa,  made  of  a  fruit 
brought  out  of  Egypt,  and  which  is  in  colour 
like  ordinary  wheat,  and  in  taste  like  Turkish 
wheat,  and  is  of  the  bigness  of  a  little  bean. 
.  .  .  The  Persians  think  it  allays  the  natural 
heat. 

In  1637,  Joh.  Albrecht  von  Mandelsloh,, 
in  his  Oriental  Trip,  mentions  "the  black 
water  of  the  Persians  called  Kahwe",  say- 
ing ' '  it  must  be  drunk  hot. ' ' 
^  .Coffee  drinking  was  introduced  into  Ger- 
many about  1670.  The  drink  appeared  at 
the  court  of  the  great  elector  of  Branden- 
burg in  1675.  Northern  Germany  got  its. 
first  taste  of  the  beverage  from  London,  an 
English  merchant  opening  the  first  coffee- 
house in  Hamburg  in  1679  -  80.  Regens- 
burg  followed  in  1689 ;  Leipsic,  in  1694 
Nuremberg,  in  1696;  Stuttgart,  in  1712;. 
Augsburg,  in  1713;  and  Berlin,  in  1721. 
In  that  year  (1721)  King  Frederick  Will- 
iam I  granted  a  foreigner  the  privilege  of 


conducting  a  coffee  house  in  Berlin  free  of 
all  rental  charges.  It  was  known  as  the 
English  coffee  house,  as  was  also  the  first 
coffee  house  in  Hamburg.  And  for  many 
years,  English  merchants  supplied  the 
coffees  consumed  in  northern  Germany; 
while  Italy  supplied  southern  Germany. 

Other  well  known  coffee  houses  of  old 
Berlin  were,  the  Royal,  in  Behren  Strasse; 
that  of  the  Widow  Doebbert,  in  the  Stech  - 
bahn ;  the  City  of  Rome,  in  Unter  -  den  - 
Linden;  Amoldi,  in  Kronen  Strasse; 
Miercke,  in  Tauben  Strasse,  and  Schmidt, 
in  Post  Strasse. 

Later,  Philipp  Falck  opened  a  Jewish 
coffee  house  in  Spandauer  Strasse.  In  the 
time  of  Frederick  the  Great  (1712-1786) 
there  were  at  least  a  dozen. coffee  houses  in 
the  metropolitan  district  of  Berlin.  In  the 
suburbs  were  many  tents  where  coffee  was 
served. 

The  first  coffee  periodical,  The  New  and 
Curious  Coffee  House,  was  issued  in  Leipsic 
in  1707  by  Theophilo  Georgi.  The  full  title 
was  The  New  and  Curious  Coffee  House, 
formerly  in  Italy  hut  now  opened  in  Ger- 
many. First  water  debauchery.  "City  of 
the  Well."  Brunnenstadt  by  Lorentz 
Schoepfftvasser  [draw-water]  1707.  The 
second  issue  gave  the  name  of  Georgi  as  the 
real  publisher.  It  was  intended  to  be  in 
the  nature  of  an  organ  for  the  first  real 
-German  kaft'ee-klatsch.  It  was  a  chronicle 
of  the  comings  and  goings  of  the  savants 


45 


46 


ALL    ABOUT     COFFEE 


who  frequented  the  "Tusculum"  of  a 
well-to-do  gentleman  in  the  outskirts  of 
the  city.  At  the  beginning  the  master  of 
the  house  declared: 

I  know  that  the  gentlemen  here  speak  French, 
Italian  and  other  languages.  I  know  also  that 
in  many  eoflfee  and  tea  meetings  it  is  considered 
requisite  that  French  be  spoken.  May  I  ask, 
however,  that  he  who  calls  upon  me  should  use 
no  other  language  l)ut  German.  We  are  all 
Germans,  we  are  in  Germany ;  shall  we  not  con- 
duct ourselves  like  true  Germans? 

In  1721  Leonhard  Ferdinand  Meisner 
published  at  Nuremberg  the  first  compre- 
hensive German  treatise  on  coffee,  tea,  and 
chocolate. 

During  the  second  half  of  the  eighteenth 
century  coffee  entered  the  homes,  and  be- 
gan to  supplant  flour-soup  and  warm  beer 
at  breakfast  tables. 

Meanwhile  coffee  met  with  some  opposi- 
tion in  Prussia  and  Hanover.  Frederick 
the  Great  became  annoyed  when  he  saw 
how  much  money  was  paid  to  foreign  coffee 
merchants  for  supplies  of  the  green  bean, 
and  tried  to  restrict  its  use  by  making 
coffee  a  drink  of  the  "quality".  Soon  all 
the  German  courts  had  their  own  coffee 
roasters,  coffee  pots,  and  coffee  cups. 

Many  beautiful  specimens  of  the  finest 
porcelain  cups  and  saucers  made  in  Meissen, 
and  used  at  court  fetes  of  this  period,  sur- 
vive in  the  collections  at  the  Potsdam  and 
Berlin  museums.  The  wealthy  classes  fol- 
lowed suit;  but  when  the  poor  grumbled 
because  they  could  not  afford  the  luxury, 
and  demanded  their  coffee,  they  were  told 
in  effect:  "You  had  better  leave  it  alone. 
Anyhow,  it's  bad  for  you  because  it  causes 
sterility."  Many  doctors  lent  themselves 
to  a  campaign  against  coffee,  one  of  their 
favorite  arguments  being  that  women  using 
the  beverage  must  forego  child-bearing. 
Bach's  Coffee  Cantata^  (1732)  was  a 
notable  protest  in  music  against  such  libels. 

On  September  13,  1777,  Frederick  issued 
a  coffee  and  beer  manifesto,  a  curious  docu- 
ment, which  recited: 

It  is  disgusting  to  notice  the  increase  in  the 
quantity  of  coffee  used  by  my  subjects,  and  the 
amount  of  money  that  goes  out  of  the  country 
in  consequence.  Everybody  is  using  coffee.  If 
possible,  this  must  be  prevented.  My  people 
must  drink  beer.  His  Majesty  was  brought  up 
on  beer,  and  so  were  his  ancestors,  and  his 
officers.  Many  battles  have  been  fought  and 
won  by  soldiers  nourished  on  beer;  and  the 
King  does  not  believe  that  coffee-drinking  sol- 
diers can  be  depended  upon  to  endure  hardship 

1  See  chapter  XXXII. 


or  to  beat  his  enemies  in  case  of  the  occurrence 
of  another-  war. 

For  a  time  beer  was  restored  to  its 
honored  place ;  and  coffee  continued  to  be  a 
luxury  afforded  only  by  the  rich.  Soon  a 
revulsion  of  feeling  set  in ;  and  it  was  found 
that  even  Prussian  military  rule  could  not 
enforce  coffee  prohibition.  Whereupon,  in 
1781,  finding  that  all  his  efforts  to  reserve 
the  beverage  for  the  exclusive  court  circles, 
the  nobility,  and  the  officers  of  his  army, 
were  vain,  the  king  created  a  royal  mo- 
nopoly in  coffee,  and  forbade  its  roasting 
except  in  royal  roasting  establishments.  At 
the  same  time,  he  made  exceptions  in  the 
cases  of  the  nobility,  the  clergy,  and  govern  - 
ment  officials;  but  rejected  all  applications 
for  coffee-roasting  licenses  from  the  com- 
mon people.  His  object,  plainly,  was  to 
confine  the  use  of  the  drink  to  the  elect. 
To  these  representatives  of  the  cream  of 
Prussian  society,  the  king  issued  special 
licenses  permitting  them  to  do  their  own 
roasting.  Of  course,  they  purchased  their 
supplies  from  the  government;  and  as  the 
price  was  enormously  increased,  the  sales 
yielded  Frederick  a  handsome  income.  In- 
cidentally, the  possession  of  a  coffee-roast- 
ing license  became  a  kind  of  badge  of 
membership  in  the  upper  class.  The  poorer 
classes  were  forced  to  get  their  coffee  by 
stealth;   and,   failing  this,   they   fell   back 


Richteb's    Coffee   House   in    Leipsic 
TEENTH  Century 


Seven- 


upon  numerous  barley,  wheat,  corn, 
chicory,  and  dried-fig  substitutes,  that  soon 
appeared  in  great  numbers. 

This  singular  coffee  ordinance  was  known 
as  the  "Declaration  du  Roi  concernant  la 


INTRODUCTION  INTO  GERMANY 


47 


Coffee  House  in  Germany  —  Middle  of  the  Seventeenth  Century 


ve7ite  du  cafe  hruU",  and  was  published 
January  21,  1781. 

After  placing  the  coffee  regie  (revenue) 
in  the  hands  of  a  Frenchman,  Count  de 
Lannay,  so  many  deputies  were  required  to 
make  collections  that  the  administration 
of  the  law  became  a  veritable  persecution. 
Discharged  wounded  soldiers  were  mostly 
employed,  and  their  principal  duty  was  to 
spy  upon  the  people  day  and  night,  fol- 
lowing the  smell  of  roasting  coffee  when- 
ever detected,  in  order  to  seek  out  those 
who  might  be  found  without  roasting 
permits.  The  spies  were  given  one-fourth 
of  the  fine  collected.  These  deputies  made 
themselves  so  great  a  nuisance,  and  became 
so  cordially  disliked,  that  they  were  called 
"coffee-smellers"  by  the  indignant  people. 

Taking  a  leaf  out  of  Frederick's  book,  the 
elector  of  Cologne,  Maximilian  Frederick, 
l)ishop  of  Miinster,  (Duchy  of  Westphalia) 
on  February  17,  1784,  issued  a  manifesto 
which  said : 

To  our  great  displeasure  we  have  learned 
that  in  our  Duchy  of  Westphalia  the  misuse  of 
the  coffee  beverage  has  become  so  extended  that 
to  counteract  the  evil  we  command  that  four 
weeks  after  the  publication  of  this  decree  no 
one  shall  sell  coffee  roasted  or  not  roasted  un- 
der a  fine  of  one  hundred  dollars,  or  two  years 
in  prison,  for  each  offense. 

Every  coffee-roasting  and  coffee-serving  place 
shall  he  closed,  and  dealers  and  hotel-koepers 
are  to  get  rid  of  their  coffee  supplies  in  four 
weeks.  It  is  only  permitted  to  obtain  from  the 
outside  coffee  for  one's  own  consumption  in  lots 
of  fifty  pounds.  House  fathers  and  mothers 
shall  not  allow  their  work  people,  especially 
their  washing  and  ironing  women,  to  prepare 


coffee,   or  to  allow  it  in  any  manner  under  "a 
penalty  of  one  hundred  dollars. 

All  officials  and  government  employees,  to 
avoid  a  penalty  of  one  hundred  gold  florins,  are 
called  upon  closely  to  follow  and  to  keep  -a 
watchful  eye  over  this  decree.  To  the  one  who 
reports  such  persons  as  act  contrary  to  this 
decree  shall  be  granted  one-half  of  the  said 
money  fine  with  absolute  silence  as  to  his  name. 

This  decree  was  solemnly  read  iq.  the 
pulpits,  and  was  published  besides  in  the 
usual  places  and  ways.  There  immediately 
followed  a  course  of  'Helling-ons",  and 
of  "coffee-smellings",  that  led  to  many 
bitter  enmities  and  caused  much  unhappi- 
ness  in  the  Duchy  of  Westphalia.  Appar- 
ently the  purpose  of  the  archduke  was  to 
prevent  persons  of  small  means  from  enjoy- 
ing the  drink,  while  those  who  could  afford 
to  purchase  fifty  pounds  at  a  time  were  to 
be  permitted  the  indulgence.  As  was  to  be 
expected,  the  scheme  was  a  complete  failure. 

While  the  king  of  Prussia  exploited  his 
subjects  by  using  the  state  coffee  monopoly 
as  a  means  of  extortion,  the  duke  of  Wiirt- 
temberg  had  a  scheme  of  his  own.  He  sold 
to  Joseph  Suess-Oppenheimer,  an  un- 
scrupulous financier,  the  exclusive  privilege 
of  keeping  coffee  houses  in  Wiirttemberg. 
Suess-Oppenheimer  "in  turn  sold  the  in- 
dividual coffee-house  licenses  to  the  highest 
bidders,  and  accumulated  a  considerate 
fortune.    He  was  the  first  ' '  coffee  king. ' ' 

But  coffee  outlived  all  these  unjust 
slanders  and  cruel  taxations  of  too  paternal 
governments,  and  gradually  took  its  right- 
ful pl^fee  as  one  of  the  favorite  beverages 
of  the  German  people."  " 


48 


ALL    ABOUT     COFFEE 


M 

N 

o 
w 

C 


Chapter    IX 

TELLING     HOW     COFFEE     CAME     TO    VIENNA 

The  romantic  adventure  of  Franz  George  Kolschitsky,  who  carried 
"a  message  to  Garcia"  through  the  enemy's  lines  and  won  for  him- 
self the  honor  of  being  the  first  to  teach  the  Viennese  the  art  of 
making  coffee,  to  say  nothing  of  falling  heir  to  the  supplies  of  the 
green  beans  left  behind  by  the  Turks;  also  the  gift  of  a  house  from  a 
gratefid  municipality,  and  a  statue  after  death  —  Affectionate  regard 
in  tvhich  ^'brother-heart''  Kolschitsky  is  held  as  the  patron  saint  of 
the  Vienna  kaffeesieder  —  Life  in  the  early  Vienna  cafes 


AROMAA^TIC  tale  has  been  woven 
around  the  introduction  of  coffee  into 
Austria.  When  Vienna  was  besieged 
l)y  the  Turks  in  1683,  so  runs  the  legend, 
Franz  George  Kolschitzky,  a  native  of 
Poland,  formerly  an  interpreter  in  the 
Turkish  army,  saved  the  city  and  won  for 
himself  undying  fame,  with  coffee  as  his 
principal  reward. 

It  is  not  known  whether,  in  the  first  siege 
of  Vienna  by  the  Turks  in  1529,  the  in- 
vaders boiled  coffee  over  their  camp  fires 
that  surrounded  the  Austrian  capital;  al- 
though they  might  have  done  so,  as  Selim 
I,  after  con([uering  Egypt  in  1517,  had 
brought  with  him  to  Constantinople  large 
stores  of  coffee  as  part  of  his  booty.  But 
it  is  certain  that  when  they  returned  to  the 
attack,  154  years  later,  they  carried  with 
them  a  plentiful  supply  of  the  green  beans. 
Mohammed  IV  mobilized  an  army  of 
300,000  men  and  sent  it  forth  under  his 
vizier,  Kara  Miistapha,  (Kuprili's  succes- 
sor) to  destroy  Christendom  and  to  conquer 
Europe.  Reaching  Vienna  July  7,  1683,  the 
army  quickly  invested  the  city  and  cut  it 
off  from  the  world.  Emperor  Leopold  had 
escaped  the  net  and  was  several  miles  away. 
Nearby  was  the  prince  of  Lorraine,  with  an 
army  of  33,000  Austrians,  awaiting  the 
succor  promised  by  John  Sobieski,  king  of 


Poland,  and  an  opportunity  to  relieve  the 
besieged  capital.  Count  Rudiger  von  Star- 
hemberg,  in  command  of  the  forces '  in 
Vienna,  called  for  a  volunteer  to  carry  a 
message  through  the  Turkish  lines  to  hurry 
along  the  rescue.  He  found  him  in  the 
person  of  Franz  George  Kolschitzky,  who 
had  lived  for  many  years  among  the  Turks 
and  knew  their  language  and  customs. 

On  August  13,  1683,  Kolschitzky  donned 
a  Turkish  iniiform,  passed  through  the 
enemy's  lines  and  reached  the  Emperor's 
army  across  the  Danube.  Several  times  he 
made  the  perilous  journey  between  the  camp 
of  the  prince  of  Lorraine  and  the  garrison 
of  the  governor  of  Vienna.  One  account 
says  that  he  had  to  swim  the  four  interven- 
ing arms  of  the  Danube  each  time  he  per- 
formed the  feat.  His  messages  did  much 
to  keep  up  the  morale  of  the  city's  de- 
fenders. At  length  King  John  and  his  army 
of  rescuing  Poles  arrived  and  were  consoli- 
dated with  the  Austrians  on  the  summit  of 
Mount  Kahlenberg.  It  was  one  of  the  most 
dramatic  moments  in  history.  The  fate  of 
Christian  Europe  hung  in  the  balance. 
Everything  seemed  to  point  to  the  triumph 
of  the  crescent  over  the  cross.  Once  again 
Kolschitzky  crossed  the  Danube,  and 
brought  back  word  concerning  the, signals 
that  the  prince  of  Lorraine  and  King  Jflhn 


49 


50 


ALL    ABOUT    COFFEE 


Franz  George  Kolschitzky,  Patron  Saint  of 
Vienna   Coffee   Lovers 

would  give  from  Mount  Kahlenberg  to  in- 
dicate the  beginning  of  the  attack.  Count 
Starhemberg  was  to  make  a  sortie  at  the 
same  time. 

The  battle  took  place  September  12,  and 
thanks  to  the  magnificent  generalship  of 
King  John,  the  Turks  were  routed.  The 
Poles  here  rendered  a  never  -  to  -  be  -  for- 
gotten service  to  all  Christendom.  The 
Turkish  invaders  fled,  leaving  25,000  tents, 
10,000  oxen,  5,000  camels,  100,000  bushels 
of  grain,  a  great  quantity  of  gold,  and 
many  sacks  filled  with  coffee  —  at  that  time 
unknown  in  Vienna.  The  booty  was  dis- 
tributed; but  no  one  wanted  the  coffee. 
They  did  not  know  what  to  do  with  it; 
that  is,  no  one  except  Kolschitzky.  He  said, 
•'If  nobody  wants  those  sacks,  I  will  take 
them",  and  every  one  was  heartily  glad 
to  be  rid  of  the  strange  beans.  But  Kol- 
schitzky knew  what  he  was  about,  and  he 
soon  taught  the  Viennese  the  art  of  prepar- 
ing coffee.  Later,  he  established  the  first 
public  booth  where  Turkish  coffee  was 
served  in  Vienna. 

This,  then,  is  the  story  of  how  coffee  was 
introduced  into  Vienna,  where  was  devel- 
oped that  typical  Vienna  caf6  which  has 


become  a  model  for  a  large  part  of  the 
world.  Kolschitzky  is  honored  in  Vienna 
as  the  patron  saint  of  coffee  houses.  His 
followers,  united  in  the  guild  of  coffee 
makers  (kaffee-sieder),  even  erected  a 
statue  in  his  honor.  It  still  stands  as  part 
of  the  facade  of  a  house  where  the  Kol- 
schitzygasse  merges  into  the  Favoritengasse, 
as  shown  in  the  accompanying  picture. 

Vienna  is  sometimes  referred  to  as  the 
"mother  of  cafes".  Caf6  Sacher  is  world- 
renowned.  Tart  a  la  Sacher  is  to  be  found 
in  every  cook-book.  The  Viennese  have 
their  '' jause"  every  afternoon.  When  one 
drinks  coffee  at  a  Vienna  cafe  one  generally 
has  a  kipfel  with  it.  This  is  a  crescent- 
shaped  roll  —  baked  for  the  first  time  in  the 
eventful  year  1683,  when  the  Turks  be- 
sieged the  city.  A  baker  made  these  cres- 
cent rolls  in  a  spirit  of  defiance  of  the  Turk. 
Holding  sword  in  one  hand  and  kipfel  in 
the  other,  the  Viennese  would  show  them- 
selves on  top  of  their  redoubts  and  chal- 
lenge the  cohorts  of  Mohammed  IV. 

Mohammed  IV  was  deposed  after  losing 
the  battle,  and  Kara  Mustapha  was  executed 
for  leaving  the  stores  —  particularly  the 
sacks  of  coffee  beans  —  at  the  gates  of 
Vienna;  but  Vienna  coffee  and  Vienna 
kipfel  are  still  alive,  and  their  appeal  is 
not  lessened  by  the  years. 

The  hero  Kolschitzky  was  presented  with 
a  house  by  the  grateful  municipality;  and 


The  First  Coffee  House  in  the  Leopoldstadt 
From  a  cut  so  titled  in  Bermann's  Alt  und  Neu  Wiett 


there,  at  the  sign  of  the  Blue  Bottle,  ac- 
cording to  one  account,  he  continued  as  a 
coffee-house  keeper  for  many  years.^  This, 
in  brief,  is  the  story  that — although  not 


'  Vulcaren.   John   Peter  A. 
of  Vienna.     1684. 


Relation  of  the  Siege 


1 


HOW  COFFEE  CAME  TO  VIENNA 


51 


authenticated  in  all  its  particulars  —  is 
seriously  related  in  many  books,  and  is 
firmly  believed  throughout  Vienna. 

It  seems  a  pity  to  discredit  the  hero  of 
so  romantic  an  adventure ;  but  the  archives 
of  Vienna  throw  a  light  upon  Kolschitzky 's 
later  conduct  that  tends  to  show  that,  after 
all,  this  Viennese  idol's  feet  were  of  com- 
mon clay. 

It  is  said  that  Kolschitzky,  after  receiv- 
ing the  sacks  of  green  coffee  left  behind  by 
the  Turks,  at  once  began  to  peddle  the 
beverage, from  house  to  house,  serving  it  in 
little  cups  from  a  wooden  platter.  Later  he 
rented  a  shop  in  Bischof-hof.  Then  he 
began  to  petition  the  municipal  council, 
that,  in  addition  to  the  sum  of  100  ducats 
already  promised  him  as  further  recogni- 
tion of  his  valor,  he  should  receive  a  house 
with  good  will  attached;  that  is,  a  shop  in 
some  growing  business  section.  "His  peti- 
tions to  the  municipal  council",  writes  M. 
Bermann  *,  ' '  are  amazing  examples  of  meas- 
ureless self-conceit  and  the  boldest  greed. 
He  seemed  determined  to  get  the  utmost 
out  of  his  own  self-sacrifice.  He  insisted 
upon  the  most  highly  deserved  reward,  such 
as  the  Romans  bestowed  upon  their  Curtius, 
the  Lacedsemonians  upon  their  Pompilius, 
the  Athenians  upon  Seneca,  with  whom  he 
modestly  compared  himself." 

At  last,  he  was  given  his  choice  of  three 
houses  in  the  Leopoldstadt,  any  one  of 
them  worth  from  400  to  450  gulden,  in 
place  of  the  money  reward,  that  had  been 
fixed  by  a  compromise  agreement  at  300 
gulden.  But  Kolschitzky  was  not  satisfied 
with  this;  and  urged  that  if  he  was  to 
accept  a  house  in  full  payment  it  should 
be  one  valued  at  not  less  than  1000  gulden. 
Then  ensued  much  correspondence  and  con- 
siderable haggling.  To  put  an  end  to  the 
acrimonious  dispute,  the  municipal  council 
in  1685  directed  that  there  should  be  deeded 
over  to  Kolschitzky  and  his  wife,  Maria 
Ursula,  without  further  argument,  the 
house  known  at  that  time  as  30  (now  8) 
Haidgasse. 

It  is  further  recorded  that  Kolschitzky 
sold  the  house  within  a  year;  and,  after 
many  moves,  he  died  of  tuberculosis,  Feb- 
ruary 20,  1694,  aged  fifty-four  years.  He 
was  courier  to  the  emperor  at  the  time  of 
his  death,  and  was  buried  in  the  Stefans- 
freithof  Cemetery. 


*  Bermann,  M. 
(p.  964.) 


Alt  und  Neu  Wien.     Vienna,   1880. 


Statue  of   Kolschitzky  Erected  by   the 
Coffee  Makers  Guild  of  Vienna 


Kolschitzky 's  heirs  moved  the  coflfee 
house  to  Donaustrand,  near  the  wooden 
Schlagbriicke,  later  known  as  Ferdinand's 
briicke  (bridge).  The  celebrated  coffee 
house  of  Franz  Mosee  (d.  1860)  stood  on 
this  same  spot. 

In  the  city  records  for  the  year  1700  a 
house  in  the  Stock-im-Eisen-Platz  (square) 
is  designated  by  the  words  "allwo  das  erste 
kaffeegewolhe"  ("here  was  the  first  coffee 
house").  Unfortunately,  the  name  of  the 
proprietor  is  not  given. 

Many  stories  are  told  of  Kolschitzky 's 
popularity  as  a  eoflPee-house  keeper.  He  is 
said  to  have  addressed  everyone  as  hruder- 
herz  (brother-heart)  and  gradually  he 
himself  acquired  the  name  bruderherz.  A 
portrait  of  Kolschitzky,  painted  about  the 
time  of  his  greatest  vogue,  is  carefully  pre- 
served by  the  Innungi  der  Wiener  Kaffee- 
sieder  (the  Coffee  Makers'  Guild  of 
Vienna) . 


52 


ALL    A  B  OUT     COFFEE 


Even  during  the  lifetime  of  the  first 
kaffee-sieder,  a  number  of  others  opened 
coffee  houses  and  acquired  some  little  fame. 
Early  in  the  eighteenth  centurj^  a  tourist 
gives  us  a  glimpse  of  the  progress  made  by 
coffee  drinking  and  by  the  coffee-house 
idea  in  Vienna.    "We  read : 

The  t'it.v  of  Vienna  is  filled  witli  coffee  liouses, 
where  the  novelists  or  those  who  Inisy  them- 
selves with  the  newspapers  delight  to  meet,  to 
read  the  gazettes  and  discuss  their  contents. 
Some  of  these  houses  have  a  better  reputation 
than  others  because  such  zeitungs-d  actors 
(newspaper  dQ'ctors  — an  ironical  title)  gather 
there   to   pass   most  unhesitating   judgment   on 


the  weightiest  events,  and  to  surpass  all  others 
in  their  opinions  concerning  political  matters 
and  considerations. 

All  this  wins  them  such  respect  tliat  many 
congregate  there  because  of  them,  and  to  enrich 
their  minds  with  inventions  and  foolishness 
which  thev  innnediately  run  through  the  city  to 
bring  to  the  ears  of  the  said  ])ersonalities.  It 
is^  impossil)le  to  believe  what  freedom  is  per- 
mitted, in  furnishing  this  gossip.  They  speak 
without  reverence  not  only  of  the  doings  of  gen- 
erals and  ministers  of  state,  but  also  mix  them- 
selves in  the  life  of  the  Kaiser  (Emperor)  him- 
self. 

Vienna  liked  the  coffee  house  so  well  that 
by  1839  there  were  eighty  of  them  in  the 
city  proper  and  fifty  more  in  the  suburbs. 


M 


Chapter   X 


THE     COFFEE     HOUSES      OF     OLD     LONDON 


I 


One  of  the  most  picturesque  chapters  in  the  history  of  coffee The 

first  coffee  house  in  London  —  The  first  coffee  handbill,  and  the  first 
newspaper  advertisement  for  coffee— Strange  coffee  mixtures  — 
Fantastic  coffee  claims— Coffee  prices  and  coffee  licenses— Coffee 
club  of  the  Rota  —  Early  coffee-house  manners  and  customs  — 
Coffee-house  keepers'  tokens  —  Opposition  to  the  coffee  house  — 
''Penny  universities'' —  Weird  coffee  substitutes —  The  proposed 
coffee-house  newspaper  monopoly  —  Evolution  of  the  club  — Decline 
and  fall  of  the  coffee  house  —  Pen  pictures  of  coffee-house  life  — 
Famous  coffee  houses  of  the  seventeenth  and  eighteenth  centuries  — 
Some  Old  World  pleasure  gardens  —  Locating  the  notable  coffee 
houses 


THE  two  most  picturesque  chapters  in 
the  history  of  coffee  have  to  do  with 
the  period  of  the  old  London  and 
Paris  coffee  houses  of  the  seventeenth  and 
eighteenth  centuries.  Much  of  the  poetry 
and  romance  of  coffee  centers  around  this 
time. 

"The  history  of  coffee  houses,"  says 
D 'Israeli,  "ere  the  invention  of  clubs,  was 
that  of  the  manners,  the  morals  and  the 
politics  of  a  people."  And  so  the  history 
of  the  London  coffee  houses  of  the  seven- 
teenth and  eighteenth  centuries  is  indeed 
the  history  of  the  manners  and  customs  of 
the  English  people  of  that  period. 

The  First  London  Co  fee  House 

"The  first  coffee  house  in  London", 
says  John  Aubrey  (1626-97),  the  Eng- 
lish antiquary  and  folklorist,  "was  in  St. 
Michael's  Alley,  in  Comhill,  opposite  to 
the  church,  which  was  sett  up  by  one  .  .  . 
Bowman  (coachman  to  Mr.  Hodges,  a  Tur- 
key merchant,  who  putt  him  upon  it)  in 
or  about  the  yeare  1652.  'Twas  about  four 
years  before  any  other  was  sett  up,  and 
that  was  by  Mr.  Farr.    Jonathan  Paynter, 


over-against  to  St.  Michael's  Church,  was 
the  first  apprentice  to  the  trade,  viz.,  to 
Bowman. ' '  * 

Another  account,  for  which  we  are  in- 
debted to  William  Oldys  (1696  - 1761),  the 
bibliographer,  relates  that  Mr.  Edwards,  a 
London  merchant,  acquired  the  coffee  habit 
in  Turkey,  and  brought  home  with  him 
from  Ragusa,  in  Dalmatia,  Pasqua  Ros6e, 
an  Armenian  or  Greek  youth,  who  prepared 
the  beverage  for  him.  "But  the  novelty 
thereof,"  says  Oldys,  "drawing  too  much 
company  to  him,  he  allowed  the  said  servant 
with  another  of  his  son-in-law  to  set  up 
the  first  coffee  house  in  London  at  St. 
Michael's  Alley,  in  Cornhill." 

From  this  it  would  appear  that  Pasqua 
Ros6e  had  as  partner  in  this  enterprise,  the 
Bowman,  who,  according  to  Aubrey,  was^ 
coachman  to  Mr.  Hodges,  the  son-in-law 
of  Mr.  Edwards,  and  a  fellow  merchant 
traveler. 

Oldys  tells  us  that  Rosee  and  Bowman 
soon  separated.  John  Timbs  (1801  - 1875), 
another  English  antiquary,  says  they 
quarreled,  Rosee  keeping  the  house,  and  his 

*  Manuscript  in  t\n'  Boilloiaii  Library. 


53 


54 


ALL    ABOUT     COFFEE 


partner  Bowman  obtaining  leave  to  pitch 
a  tent  and  to  sell  the  drink  in  St.  Michael's 
churchyard. 

Still  another  version  of  this  historic  inci- 
dent is  to  be  found  in  Houghton's  Collec- 
tion, 1698.    It  reads : 

It  appears  that  a  Mr.  Danie'  Edwards,  an 
English  merchant  of  Smyrna,  brought  with  him 
to  this  conntry  a  Greek  of  the  name  of  Pasqua, 
in  16r)2,  who  made  his  coffee ;  this  Mr.  Edwards 
married  one  Alderman  Ilodges's  danghter,  who 
lived  in  Walbrook.  and  set  up  Pasqna  for  a  cof- 
fee man  in  a  shed  in  the  churchyard  in  St. 
Michael.  Cornhill,  which  is  now  a  scrivener's 
brave-house,  when,  having  great  custom,  the 
ale-sellers  i)etitioned  the  Lord  Mayor  against 
him,  as  being  no  freeman.  This  made  Alderman 
Hodges  join  his  coachman,  Bowman,  who  was 
free,  as  Pasqua's  partner;  but  Pasqua,  for 
some  misdemeanor,  was  forced  to  run  the  coun- 
try, and  Bowman,  by  his  trade  and  a  contribu- 
tion of  1000  sixpences,  turned  the  shed  to  a 
house.  Bowman's  apprentices  were  first,  John 
Painter,  then  Humphry,  from  whose  wife  I  had 
this  account. 

This  account  makes  it  appear  that  Ed- 
wards was  Hodges'  son-in-law.  Whatever 
the  relationship,  most  authorities  agree  that 
Pasqua  Rosee  was  the  first  to  sell  coffee 
publicly,  whether  in  a  tent  or  shed,  in  Lon- 
don in  or  about  the  year  1652.  His  original 
shop-bill,  or  handbill,  the  first  advertise- 
ment for  coffee,  is  in  the  British  Museum, 
and  from  it  the  accompanying  photograph 
was  made  for  this  work.  It  sets  forth  in 
direct  fashion :  "The  Vertue  of  the  COF- 
FEE Drink  First  publiquely  made  and 
sold  in  England,  by  Pasqua  Rosee  ...  in 
St.  Michaels  Alley  in  Cornhill.  ...  at  the 
Signe  of  his  own  Head."  ' 

H.  R.  Fox  Bourne  '  (about  1870)  is  alone 
in  an  altogether  different  version  of  this 
historic  event.    He  says: 

"In  1652  Sir  Nicholas  Crispe,  a  Levant 
merchant,  opened  in  London  the  first  coffee 
house  known  in  England,  the  beverage  be- 
ing prepared  by  a  Greek  girl  brought  over 
for  the  work," 

There  is  nothing  to  substantiate  this 
story;  the  preponderance  of  evidence  is  in 
support  of  the  Edwards  -  Rosee  version. 

Such  then  was  the  advent  of  the  coffee 
house  in  London,  which  introduced  to  Eng- 
lish-speaking people  the  drink  of  de- 
mocracy. Oddly  enough,  coffee  and  the 
Commonwealth  came  in  together.  The 
English  coffee  house,  like  its  French  con- 
temporary, was  the  home  of  liberty. 

»  See  also  chapter  XXVIII. ' 

'  The  Romance  of  Trade.  London,  (chap,  ii ;  p.  31.) 


Robinson,  who  accepts  that  version  of 
the  event  wherein  Edwards  marries 
Hodges 's  daughter,  says  that  after  the  part- 
ners Rosee  and  Bowman  separated,  and 
Bowman  had  set  up  his  tent  opposite  Rosee, 
a  zealous  partisan  addressed  these  verses 
"To  Pasqua  Rosee,  at  the  Sign  of  his  own 
Head  and  half  his  Body  in  St.  Michael's 
Alley,  next  the  first  Coffee-Tent  in  Lon- 
don": 

Were  not  the  fountain  of  my  Tears 
Each  day  exhausted  by  the  steam 

Of  your  Coffee,  no  doubt  appears 

But  they  would  swell  to  such  a  stream 

As  could  admit  of  no  restriction 

To  see,  poor  Pasqua,  thy  Affliction. 

What!  Pasqua,  you  at  first  did  broach 
This  Nectar  for  the  publick  Good, 

Must  you  call  Kitt  down  from  the  Coach 
To  drive  a  Trade  he  understood 

No  more  than  you  did  then  your  creed, 

Or  he  doth  now  to  write  or  read? 

Pull  Courage,  Pasqua,  fear  no  Harms 

From   the  besieging  Foe ; 
Make  good  your  Ground,  stand  to  your  Arms, 

Hold  out  this  summer,  and  then  tho' 
He'll  storm,  he'll  not  prevail  —  your  Face  * 
Shall  give  the  Coffee  Pot  the  chace. 

Eventually  Pasqua  Rosee  disappeared, 
some  say  to  open  a  coffee  house  on  the  Con- 
tinent, in  Holland  or  Germany.  Bowman, 
having  married  Alderman  Hodges 's  cook, 
and  having  also  prevailed  upon  about  a 
thousand  of  his  customers  to  lend  him  six- 
pence apiece,  converted  his  tent  into  a  sub- 
stantial house,  and  eventually  took  an 
apprentice  to  the  trade. 

Concerning  London's  second  coffee- 
house keeper,  James  Farr,  proprietor  of  the 
Rainbow,  who  had  as  his  most  distinguished 
visitor  Sir  Henry  Blount,  Edward  Hatton' 
says: 

I  find  it  recorded  that  one  James  Farr,  a 
barber,  who  kept  the  coffee-house  which  is  now 
the  Rainbow,  by  the  Inner  Temple  Gate  (one  of 
the  first  in  England),  was  in  the  year  1657, 
prosecuted  by  the  inquest  of  St.  Dunstan's  in 
the  West,  for  making  and  selling  a  sort  of 
liquor  called  coffe,  as  a  great  nuisance  and 
prejudice  to  the  neighborhood,  etc.,  and  who 
would  then  have  thought  London  would  ever 
have  had  near  three  thousand  such  nuisances, 
and  that  coffee  would  have  been,  as  now,  so 
much  drank  by  the  best  of  quality  and  physi- 
cians? 

Hatton  evidently  attributed  Farr's  nuis- 
ance to  the  coffee  itself,  whereas  the  present- 

*  Pasqua  Rosee's  sign.  Kltt's  (or  Bowman's)  sign 
was  a  coffee  pot. 

*  Ilatton,  Edward.  .  New  View  of  London.  London. 
1708.     (vol.  i:  p.  30.) 


COFFEE  HOUSES  OF  OLD  LONDON 


55 


4^^iiiSI 


[ThcVevtucofthe  COFFEE  Drinkr 

Firftpub!ic]uciy  mad:  and  fold  in  England,  by  Ttifciti^  <Pofee, 

TH  E  Grain  or  Berry  called  Coffecy  groweth  upon  licdc  Trees, 
on  ;y  i  n  the  Defeits  of  Arabia: 

ic  is  brouglu  from  thence,  anddmnk  generally  throughouc 
all  tlie  Grand  Seigniors  Dominions. 

I.  is  a  fimple  innocent  thing,  compofed  into  a  Drijik,  by  being  dry- 
cd  in  snOven,  and  ground  to  Powder,and  boiled  up  with  Spring  wa- 
ter, and  about  half  a  pint  of  it  to  be  drunk,  fading  an  hour  before  .and 
not  Edting  an  hour  after,  and  CO  be  taken  as  hot  as  pofsibly  can  be  en- 
dured ;  chcvvhich  will  never  fetch  the  skin  offthe  mouth,or  raifc  any 
Blii>.:'rs,by  rc:fon  of  chat  Heat, 

V  The  ru:ks  drink  2t  meals  and  other  times,  is  ufually  W'^ffr,  and 
their  Dyec  confill;  much  of  Fr/4^  ^  the  Crudities  whereof  arc  very 
much  corrected  by  this  Drink.  ;■  4^  Is 

The  quality  of  this  Drink  h  cofd  and  Dryj  and  though  it  be  a 
Dryer^  yst  it  neither  heats, 'nor  inflames  more  then  hot  fojfet. 

Ir  fcTclofech  the  Orifice  of  the  Stomack,  and  fortifies  the  heat  wiih- 
ns  very  good  (o^help  digeftionj  and  therefore  of  great  u/e  to  be 
bout 3  or4aCiockafternoon,as  wcUas  \n  the  morning.- 
ucn  quickens  the  Spirits^  and  makes  the  Heart  Ughtfwie, 

.  is  goodagauift  lore  Eys,  and  the  better  if  you  hold  your  Head  o- 
er  It,  and  rake  in  the  Steem  that  way. 

Ic  lu'.preifeth  Fumes  exceedingly,  and  therefore  good  againftthc 
Head~ach,  an^i  wiU  very  much  flop  any  De fluxion  of  <l{heums,  that  diftil 
from  the  Hrad  upon  the  Stomachy  and  fo  prevent  and  help  Qonjumfti' 
ons^a  nd  the  Cough  of  the  Lun^s, 

It  is  excellent  to  prevent  and  cure  the  Vropfyy  Gout,  and  Scuryy, 

II  is  known  l?y  experience  to  be  better  then  any  other  Drying 
"DnuV^oxTeople  in  years,  or  CWirew  that  have  any  running  humors  u^- 
cnx!tiCV[\yZS  the  Kings  B\fiU  &c. 

It  is  very  good  to  prevent  Mif  carryings  in  Qnli-hearing  Women, 

Jt  is  a  moft  excellent  Remedy  againft  the  Spleen  ^  Hypoconclriac^, 
TT/nt/y,  or  thelike. 

It  will  prevent  'Dro'^fintfsy  and  make  one  fitforbiifines,if  one  have 
occafion  ro  Watch-^  and  therefore  you  are  not  to  Drink  of  u  after  Supper^ 
unlets  you  intend  to  be  watchful^^or  it  will  hinder  llecp  for )  <jr  4  hours. 

It  is  obferVed  that  in  Turkey 3  Ti'here  this  is  generally  drunk,  that  they  are 
mt  trolled  leith  the  Stone ,  Gout ,  Dropjie ,  or  ScurVey ,  a?id  that  their 
Skins  are  exceeding  deer  and  vhite.  ^^£^ 

khnckhct  Laxative  not  ^eflringent.    ^8. 

Made  and  Sold  in  St.  Michaels  Alley  in  Cornhilh  by  Pafqua  T^hftty 
at  the  Signc  of  lus  own  Head. 


FIRST  ADVERTISEMENT  FOR  COFFEE  — 1652 

Handbill  used  by  Pasqua  Rosf^e,  who  opened  the  first  coffee  house  in  London 
From  the  original  in  the  British  Museum 


56 


ALL     ABOUT     COFFEE 


ment*    clearly    shows    it    was    in    Farr's 
chimney  and  not  in  the  coffee. 

Mention  has  already  been  made  that  Sii 
Henry  Blount  w'as  spoken  of  as  "the  fathei 
of  Enirlish  coffee  houses"  and  his  claim  to 
this  distinction  would  seem  to  be  a  valid 
one,  for  his  strong  personality  "stamped  it 
self  upon  the  system."  His  favorite  motto, 
"Loqnendum  est  cum  vulgo,  sentiendum 
cum  sapientihus  (the  crowd  may  talk  about 
it;  the  wise  decide  it),  says  Robinson,  "ex- 
presses well  their  colloquial  purpose,  and 
w'as  natural  enough  on  the  lips  of  one  whose 
experience  had  been  world  wide. ' '  Aubrej 
says  of  Sir  Henry  Blount,  ' '  He  is  now  neer 
or  altogether  eighty  yeares,  his  intellectuals 
good  still  and  body  pretty  strong." 

Women  played  a  not  inconspicuous  part 
in  establishing  businesses  for  the  sale  of  the 
coffee  drink  in  England,  although  the  coffee 
houses  were  not  for  both  sexes,  as  in  other 
European  countries.  The  London  City 
Quaeries  for  1660  makes  mention  of  "a  she- 
coffee  merchant."  Mary  Stringar  ran  a 
coffee  house  in  Little  Trinity  Lane  in  1669  ; 
Anne  Blunt  was  mistress  of  one  of  the 
Turk's-Head  houses  in  Cannon  Street  in 
1672.  Mary  Long  was  the  widow  of  Will- 
iam Long,  and  her  initials,  together  with 
those  of  her  husband,  appear  on  a  token 
issued  from  the  Rose  tavern  in  Bridge 
Street,  Covent  Garden.  Mary  Long's  token 
from  the  "Rose  coffee  house  by  the  play- 
house" in  Covent  Garden  is  shown  among 
the  group  of  coffee-house  keepers'  tokens 
herein  illustrated. 

The  First  Newspaper  Advertisement 

The  first  newspaper  advertisement  for 
coffee  appeared.  May  26,  1657,  in  the  Puh- 
lich  Adviser  of  London,  one  of  the  first 
weekly  pamphlets.  The  name  of  this  pub- 
lication was  erroneously  given  as  the  Pub- 
lick  Advertiser  by  an  early  writer  on  coffee, 
and  the  error  has  been  copied  by  succeeding 
writers.  The  first  newspaper  advertisement 
was  contained  in  the  issue  of  the  Puhlick 
Adviser  for  the  week  of  May  19  to  May  26, 
and  read: 

In  Bartholometc  Lane  on  the  back  side  of  the 
Old  Exchange,  the  drink  called  Coffee,  (which 
is  a  very  wholsom  and  Physical  drink,  having 
many  excellent  vei-tues.  closes  the  Orifice  of  the 
Stomack,  fortifies  the  heat  within,  helpeth  Di- 
gestion, quickneth  the  Spirits,  maketh  the  heart 
lightsom,  is  good  against  Eye-sores,  Ck>ughs,  or 
Colds,  Rhumes,  Consumptions,  Head-ach,  Drop- 


»  The   prosecution    came   under   the   heading,    "Pis- 
orders  and  Annoys." 


sie,  Gout,  Scurvy,  Kings  Evil,  and  many  others 
is  to  be  sold  both  in  the  morning,  and  at  three 
of  the  clock  in  the  afternoon. 

Chocolate  was  also  advertised  for  sale  in 
London  this  same  year.  The  issue  of  the 
Puhlick  Adviser  for  June  16,  1657,  con- 
tained this  announcement: 

In  Bishopgate  Street,  in  Queen's  Head  Alley, 
at  a  Frenchman's  house  is  an  excellent  West 
India  drink  called  chocolate,  to  be  sold,  where 
you  may  have  it  ready  at  any  time,  and  also 
unmade  at  reasonable  rates. 

Tea  was  first  sold  publicly  at  Garra way's 
(or  Garway's)  in  1657. 

Strange  Coffee  Mixtures 

The  doctors  were  loath  to  let  coffee  escape 
from  the  mysteries  of  the  pharmacopoeia 
and  become  "a  simple  and  refreshing  bev- 
erage" that  any  one  might  obtain  for  a 
penny  in  the  coffee  houses,  or,  if  preferred, 
might  prepare  at  home.  In  this  they  were 
aided  and  abetted  by  many  well-meaning 
but  misguided  persons  (some  of  them  men 
of  considerable  intelligence)  who  seemed 
possessed  of  the  idea  that  the  coffee  drink 
was  an  unpleasant  medicine  that  needed 
something  to  take  away  its  curse,  or  else 
that  it  required  a  complex  method  of 
preparation.  Witness  "Judge"  Walter 
Rumsey's  Electuary  of  Cophy,  which  ap- 
peared in  1657  in  connection  with  a  curious 
work  of  his  called  Organon  Salutis:  an  in- 
strument to  cleanse  the  stomach. '  The  in- 
strument itself  was  a  flexible  whale-bone, 
two  or  three  feet  long,  with  a  small  linen 
or  silk  button  at  the  end,  and  was  designed 
to  be  introduced  into  the  stomach  to  pro- 
duce the  effect  of  an  emetic.  The  electuary 
of  coffee  was  to  be  taken  by  the  patient 
before  and  after  using  the  instrument, 
which  the  "judge"  called  his  Provang. 
And  this  was  the  "judge's"  "new  and 
superior  way  of  preparing  coffee ' '  as  found 
in  his  prescription  for  making  electuary  of 
cophy : 

Take  equal  quantity  of  Butter  and  Sallet-oyle, 
melt  them  well  together,  but  not  boyle  them ; 
Then  stir  re  them  well  that  they  may  incorpor- 
ate together:  Then  melt  therewith  three  times 
as  much  Honey,  and  stirre  it  well  together: 
Then  add  thereunto  powder  of  Turkish  Cophie, 
to  make  it  a  thick  Electuary. 

A  little  consideration  will  convince  any 
one  that  the  electuary  was  most  likely  to 
achieve  the  purpose  for  which  it  was  recom- 
mended. 

'  Rumsey  (or  Ramsey),  W.  Organon  Salutis.  LoU' 
don,   1657. 


COFFEE  HOUSES  OF  OLD  LONDON  57 

_ 

TIiePublickAdvifer, 

WEEKLY 

CommunicsUin(*  unto   the  whole 

Nation  the  fcvcral  Occafroni  of  all  perfons 
that  arc  any  way  concerned  in  matter  of  Buying  and 
iSelling,  or  in  any  kind  of  Impa)ymcnt,  or  deahnos 
whaifoever^  according  to  the  int«ntof  the  OFFICE 
OF  PUBLICK  ADVICE  newly  fct  up  in 
feveral  places  ,  in  and  about  L4ff/ipff  and  rP^/- 
mhfifr. 

For  the  better  Accommodation  and  Eafc  of 
the  People ,  and  the  Univerfal  Benefit  of  the 
Commonwealth,  in  point  of 

PUBLICK     I  NTERCOURSE. 


from  Tuefda^  Maj  r^  r#  Ttn/Hdy  May  a5. 


la  B^rtholomem  Lane  on  the  back  liJc  of  the  Old 
Exchange,  the  drink  called  Coffee^  (  yvhich  is  a  very  wHol- 
form  and  Phyfical  drink,  havjng  many  excellent  vertues, 
clofes  rhe.Orifice  of  the  Stomack,  fortifies  the  heat  with- 
m,  helpcth  Digeftion,qUJckncthihc  Spirits,  niakcth  the 
hitt  hghtfom,  is  gcodagainft  Eyc-furfS.  Coughs,  or 
Colds/ Hhun^cs,  Confumptions;  Heid-ach,  Dropfie, 
Goac,.ScQrvy»Kings  Evlland  many  others  if  to  hrfofd 
bothta  the  morning,  and  at  three  of  the  clock  in  ihe^  a(-^ 
ternooo* 

xjittifcers* 

ONc  Mrs.  Uffdel  living  at  the  fi^  of  the  Boot  in  Ful- 
lers Rentsin//o/^»r;i,  AttirethanJ  DrefTcih  Lidicf 
and  Gcntlt  womcns  Heads  •,  and  tcawheth  Maids  to  ** 
H:ads:  TAct';  fV  c  refTiMS  *  ' 
till  they  br  p*****^ 


THE  FIRST  NEWSPAPER  ADVERTISEMENT  FOR  COFFEE  — 1657 


58 


ALL    ABOUT     COFFEE 


Another  concoction  invented  by  the 
"jud^e"  was  known  as  "wash-brew",  and 
included  oatmeal,  powder  of  "cophie",  a 
pint  of  ale  or  any  wine,  ginger,  honey,  or 
sugar  to  please  the  taste;  to  these  ingre- 
dients butter  might  be  added  and  any 
cordial  powder  or  pleasant  spice.  It  was  to 
be  put  into  a  tiannel  bag  and  "so  keep  it  at 
pleasure  like  starch."  This  was  a  favorite 
medicine  among  the  common  people  of 
Wales. 

The  book  contained  in  a  prefix  an  in- 
teresting historical  document  in  the  shape 
of  a  letter  from  James  Howell  (1595  - 1666) 
the  writer  and  historiographer,  which  read : 

Touching  coffee,  I  concurre  with  them  in  opin- 
ion, who  lioltl  it  to  be  that  black-broth  which 
was  us'd  of  old  in  Lacedemon,  whereof  the 
Poets  sing ;  Surely  it  must  needs  be  salutiferous, 
because  so  many  sagacious,  and  the  wittiest 
sort  of  Nations  use  it  so  much ;  as  they  who 
have  conversed  with  Shashes  and  Turbants  doe 
well  know.  But,  besides  the  exsiccant  quality 
it  hath  to  dry  up  the  crudities  of  the  Stomach, 
as  also  to  comfort  the  Brain,  to  fortifle  the 
sight  with  its  steem,  and  prevent  Dropsies, 
Gouts,  the  Scurvie,  together  with  the  Spleen 
and  Hypocondriacall  windes  (all  which  it  doth 
without  any  violance  or  distemper  at  all.)  I 
say,  besides  all  these  qualities,  'tis  found  al- 
ready, that  this  Coffee-drink  hath  caused  a 
greater  sobriety  among  the  nations;  for  where- 
as formerly  Apprentices  and  Clerks  with  others, 
used  to  take  their  mornings'  draught  in  Ale, 
Beer  or  Wine,  which  by  the  dizziness  they  cause 
in  the  Brain,  make  many  unfit  for  business, 
they  use  now  to  play  the  Good-fellows  in  this 
wakefull  and  civill  drink :  Therefore  that 
-worthy  Gentleman,  Mr.  Mudiford*,  who  intro- 
duced the  practice  hereof  first  to  London,  de- 
serves much  respect  of  the  whole  nation. 

The  coffee  drink  at  one  time  was  mixed 
with  sugar  candy,  and  also  with  mustard. 
In  the  coffee  houses,  however,  it  was  usually 
served  black;  "few  people  then  mixed  it 
with  either  sugar  or  milk." 

Fantastic  Coffee  Claims 
One  can  not  fail  to  note  in  connection 
with  the  introduction  of  coffee  into  Eng- 
land that  the  beverage  suffered  most  from 
the  indiscretions  of  its  friends.  On  the  one 
band,  the  quacks  of  the  medical  profession 
sought  to  claim  it  for  their  own ;  and,  on 
the  other,  more  or  less  ignorant  laymen 
attributed  to  the  'drink  such  virtues  as  its 
real  champions  among  the  physicians  never 
dreamed  of.  It  was  the  favorite  pastime 
of  its  friends  to  exaggerate  coffee 's  merits ; 
and  of  its  enemies,  to  vilify  its  users.  All 
this  furnished  good  ' '  copy ' '  for  and  against 

*  Also  given  as  Sir  James  Muddiford,  Murford,  Mud- 
ford,  Moundeford,  and  Modyford, 


the  coffee  house,  which  became  the  central 
figure  in  each  new  controversy. 

From  the  early  English  author  who 
damned  it  by  calling  it  "more  wholesome 
than  toothsome",  to  Pas(iua  Rosee  and  his 
contemporaries,  who  urged  its  more  fan- 
tastic claims,  it  was  forced  to  make  its  way 
through  a  veritable  morass  of  misunder- 
standing and  intolerance.  No  harmless 
drink  in  history  has  suffered  more  at  hands 
of  friend  and  foe. 

Did  its  friends  hail  it  as  a  panacea,  its 
enemies  retorted  that  it  was  a  slow  poison. 
In  France  and  in  England  there  were  those 
who  contended  that  it  produced  melancholy, 
and  those  who  argued  it  was  a  cure  for  the 
same.  Dr.  Thomas  Willis  (1621-1673),  a 
distinguished  Oxford  physician  whom  An- 
toine  Portal  (1742-1832)  called  "one  of 
the  greatest  geniuses  that  ever  lived",  said 
he  would  sometimes  send  his  patients  to  the 
coffee  house  rather  than  to  the  apothecary's 
shop.  An  old  broadside,  described  later  in 
this,  chapter,  stressed  the  notion  that  if  you 
"do  but  this  Rare  ARABIAN  cordial  use, 
and  thou  may'st  all  the  Doctors  Slops 
Refuse." 

As  a  cure  for  drunkenness  its  "magic'' 
power  was  acclaimed  by  its  friends,  and 
grudgingly  admitted  by  its  foes.  This  will 
appear  presently  in  a  description  of  the  war 
of  the  broadsides  and  the  pamphlets.  Coffee 
was  praised  by  one  writer  as  a  deodorizer. 
Another  (Richard  Bradley),  in  his  treatise 
concerning  its  use  with  regard  to  the  plague, 
said  if  its  qualities  had  been  fully  known 
in  1665,  "Dr.  Hodges  and  other  learned 
men  of  that  time  would  have  recommended 
it."  As  a  matter  of  fact,  in  Grideon  Har- 
vey's Advice  against  the  Plague,  published 
in  1665,  we  find,  "coffee  is  commended 
against  the  contagion." 

This  is  howl  the  drink's  sobering  virtue 
was  celebrated  by  the  author  of  the  Rehelli- 
ous  Antidote : 

Come,  Frantick  Fools,  leave  off  your  Drunken 

fits. 
Obsequious  be  and  I'll  recall  your  Wits, 
From  perfect  Madness  to  a  modest  Strain 
For  farthings  four  I'll  fetch  you  back  again, 
Enable  all  your  mene  with  tricks  of  State, 
Enter  and  sip  and  then  attend  your  Fate; 
Come  Drunk  or  Sober,  for  a  gentle  Fee, 
Come  n'er  so  Mad,  I'll  your  Physician  be. 

Dr.  Willis,  in  his  Pharmaceutice  Ration- 
alis  (1674),  was  one  of  the  first  to  attempt 
to  do  justice  to  both  sides  of  the  coffee 
question.  At  best,  he  thought  it  a  some- 
what risky  beverage,  and  its  votaries  must, 


COFFEE  HOUSES  OF  OLD  LONDON 


59 


some  cases,  be  prepared  to  suffer  languor 
and  even  paralysis;  it  may  attack  the  heart 
and  cause  tremblings  in  the  limbs.  On  the 
other  hand  it  may,  if  judiciously  used, 
prove  a  marvelous  benefit;  "being  daily 
drunk  ii,  wonderfully  clears  and  enlightens 
each  part  of  the  Soul  and  disperses  all  the 
clouds  of  every  Function." 

It  was  a  long  time  before  recognition  was 
obtained  for  the  truth  about  the  "novelty 
drink'';  especially  that,  if  there  were  any 
beyond  purely  social  virtues  to  be  found  in 
coffee,  they  were  "political  rather  than 
medical." 

Dr.  James  Duncan^  of  the  Faculty  of 
Montpellier,  in  his  book  Wholesome  Advice 
against  the  Abuse  of  Hot  Liquors,  done  into 
English  in  1706,  found  coffee  no  more  de- 
serving of  the  name  of  panacea  than  that 
of  poison. 

George  Cheyne  (1671-1743),  the  noted 
British  physician,  proclaimed  his  neutral- 
ity in  the  words,  "I  have  neither  great 
praise  nor  bitter  blame  for  the  thing.  * ' 

Coffee  Prices  and  Coffee  Licenses 

Coffee,  with  tea  and  chocolate,  was  first 
mentioned  in  the  English  Statute  books  in 
1660,  when  a  duty  of  four  pence  was  laid 
upon  every  gallon  made  and  sold,  "to  be 
paid  by  the  maker. ' '  Coffee  was  classed  by 
the  House  of  Commons  with  "other  out- 
landish drinks." 

It  is  recorded  in  1662  that  "the  right 
coffee  powder"  was  being  sold  at  the  Turk's 
Head  coffee  house  in  Exchange  Alley  for 
"4s.  to  6s.  8d.  per  pound;  that  pounded  in 
a  mortar,  2s ;  East  India  berry.  Is.  6d. ;  and 
the  right  Turkic  berry,  well  garbled 
[ground]  at  3s.  The  ungarbled  [in  the 
bean]  for  less  with  directions  how  to  use 
the  same."  Chocolate  was  also  to  be  had 
at  "2s.  6d.  the  pound;  the  perfumed  from 
4s.  to  10s," 

At  one  time  coffee  sold  for  five  guineas  a 
pound  in  England,  and  even  forty  crowns 
(about  forty-eight  dollars)  a  pound  was 
paid  for  it. 

In  1663,  all  English  coffee  houses  were 
required  to  be  licensed ;  the  fee  was  twelve 
pence.  Failure  to  obtain  a  license  was 
punished  by  a  fine  of  five  pounds  for  every 
month's  violation  of  the  law.  The  coffee 
houses  were  under  close  surveillance  by 
government  officials.  One  of  these  was 
Muddiman,  a  good  scholar  and  an  "arch 
rogue ' ',  who  had  formerly  '  *  written  for  the 
Parliament"  but  who  later  became  a  paid 


spy.  L 'Estrange,  who  had  a  patent  on 
"the  sole  right  of  intelligence",  wrote  in 
his  Intelligencer  that  he  was  alarmed  at  the 
ill  effects  of  "the  ordinary  written  papers 
of  Parliament's  news  .  .  .  making 
coffee  houses  and  all  the  popular  clubs 
judges  of  those  councils  and  deliberations 
which  they  have  nothing  to  do  with  at  all." 

The  first  royal  warrant  for  coffee  was 
given  by  Charles  II  to  Alexander  Man,  a 
Scotsman  who  had  followed  General  Monk 
■to  London,  and  set  up  in  Whitehall.  Here 
he  advertised  himself  as  "coffee  man  to 
Charles  II." 

Owing  to  increased  taxes  on  tea,  coffee, 
and  newspapers,  near  the  end  of  Queen 
Anne's  reign  (1714)  coffee-house  keepers 
generally  raised  their  prices  as  follows: 
Coffee,  two  pence  per  dish;  green  tea,  one 
and  a  half  pence  per  dish.  All  drams,  two 
pence  per  dram.  At  retail,  coffee  was  then 
sold  for  five  shillings  per  pound ;  while  tea 
brought  from  twelve  to  twenty-eight  shill- 
ings per  pound. 

Cofee  Club  of  The  Rota 

"Coffee  and  Commonwealth",  says  a 
pamphleteer  of  1665,  "came  in  together  for 
a  Reformation,  to  make  's  a  free  and  sober 
nation."  The  writer  argues  that  liberty 
of  speech  should  be  allowed,  "where  men 
of  differing  judgements  croud";  and  he 
adds,  "that's  a  coffee-house,  for  where 
should  men  discourse  so  free  as  there?" 
Robinson's  comments  are  apt: 

Now  perhaps  we  do  not  always  connect  the 
ideas  of  sociableness  and  freedom  of  discussion 
with  the  days  of  Puritan  rule;  yet  it  must  be 
admitted  that  something  like  geniality  and 
openness  characterized  what  Pepys  calls  the 
Coffee  Club  of  the  Rota.  This  "free  and  open 
Society  of  ingenioiis  gentlemen"  was  founded  in 
the  year  1659  by  certain  members  of  the  Re- 
publican party,  whose  peculiar  opinions  had 
been  timidly  expressed  and  not  very  cordially 
tolerated  under  the  Great  Oliver.  By  the  weak 
Government  that  followed,  these  views  were  re- 
garded with  extreme  dislike  and  with  some 
amount  of  terror. 

"They  met",  says  Aubrey,  who  was  him- 
self of  their  number,  "at  the  Turk's  Head 
[Miles 's  coffee  house]  in  New  Palace  Yard, 
Westminster,  where  they  take  water,  at  one 
Miles 's,  the  next  house  to  the  staires,  where 
•  was  made  purposely  a  large  ovall  table, 
wdth  a  passage  in  the  middle  for  Miles  to 
deliver  his  coffee." 
Robinson  continues : 

This  curious  refreshment  bar  and  the  interest 
with  which  the  beverage  Itself  was  regarded, 
were  quite  secondary  to  the  excitement  caused 


60 


ALL     ABOUT     COFFEE 


A  Coffee  House  in  the  Time  of  Charles   II 
From  a  wood  cut  of  1674 


by  another  novelty.  When,  after  heated  dis- 
putation, a  member  desired  to  test  tlie  opinion 
of  the  meeting,  any  particular  point  might,  by 
agreement,  be  put  to  the  vote  and  then  every- 
thing depended  upon  "our  wooden  oracle,"  the 
first  balloting-box  ever  seen  in  England.  Formal 
methods  of  procedure  and  the  intensely  practi- 
cal nature  of  the  subjects  discussed,  combined 
to  give  a  real  importance  to  this  Amateur  Par- 
liament. 

The  Rota,  or  Coffee  Club,  as  Pepys  called 
it,  was  essentially  a  debating  society  for  the 
rlissemi nation  of  repubjican  opinions.  It 
was  preceded  only,  in  the  reign  of  Henry 
IV,  by  the  club  called  La  Court  de  Bone 
Compagnie ;  by  Sir  Walter  Raleigh's  Friday 
Street,  or  Bread  Street,  club ;  the  club  at  the 
Mermaid  tavern  in  Bread  Street,  of  which 
Shakespeare,  Beaumont,  Fletcher,  Raleigh, 
Selden,  Donne,  et  al.,  were  members;  and 
"rare"  Ben  Jonson's  Devil  tavern  club, 
between  Middle  Temple  Gate  and  Temple 
Bar. 

I  The  Rota  derived  its  name  from  a  plan. 

Which    it    was    designed    to    promote,    for 

onanging  a  certain  number  of  members  of 

parliament  annually  by  rotation.     It  was 

y^ounded  by  James  Harrington,   who  had 

/painted  it  in  fairest  colors  in  his  Oceana, 

I  that  ideal  commonwealth. 

Sir  "William  Petty  was  one  of  its  mem- 
bers. Around  the  table,  "in  a  room  every 
fivening  as  full  as  it  could  be  crammed," 
says  Aubrey,  sat  Milton  ( ?)  and  Marveil, 
Cyriac   Skinner,   Hamngton,   Nevill,    and 


their  friends,  discussing  abstract  political 
questions. 

The  Rota  became  famous  for  its  literary 
strictures.  Among  these  was  ' '  The  censure 
of  the  Rota  upon  Mr.  Milton 's  book  entitled 
The  ready  and  easie  way  to  establish  a  free 
commonwealth"  (1660) ,  although  it  is  doubt- 
ful if  Milton  was  ever  a  visitor  to  this 
"bustling  coffee  club."  The  Rota  also 
censured  "Mr.  Driden's  Conquest  of 
Granada"  (1673). 

Early  Coffee-House  Manners  and  Customs 
Among  many  of  the  early  coffee-house 
keepers  there  was  great  anxiety  that  the 
coffee  house,  open  to  high  and  low,  should 
be  conducted  under  such  restraints  as  might 
secure  the  better  class  of  customers  from 
annoyance.     The  following  set  of  regula- 
tions in  somewhat  halting  rhyme  was  dis- 
played on  the  walls  of  several  of  the  coffee 
houses  in  the  seventeenth  century : 
The  Rules  and  Orders  of  the  Coffee  Housej. 
Enter,  Sirs,  freely,  but  first,  if  you  please, 
Peruse  our  civil  orders,  which  are  these. 
Jlrst,  gentry,  tradesmen,  all  are  welcome  hither, 
And  may  without  affront  sit  down  together: 
Pre-eminence  of  place  none  here  should  mind, 
Rut  take  the  next  fit  seat  that  he  can  find : 
Nor  need   any.   if  finer  persons  come, 
Rise  up  to  assigue  to  them  his  room; 
To  limit  men's  expence,  we  think  not  fair, 
But    let    him    forfeit    twelve-pence    that   shall 

swear ; 
He  that  shall  any  quarrel  here  begin. 
Shall  give  each  man  8  digU  t'  atone  the  sin; 


COFFEE  HOUSES  OF  OLD  LONDON 


61 


And  so  shall  he,  whose  compliments  extend 

So  far  to  drink  in  coffee  to  his  friend ; 

Ij«»t  noise  of  loud  disputes  he  quite  forhorne, 

\()  maudlin  lovers  here  in  corners  mourn. 

Hut  all  he  brisk  and  talk,  hut  not  too  much, 

On  sacred  things,  let  none  presume  to  touch. 

Nor  profane  Scripture,  nor  sawcily  wrong 

Affairs  of  state  with  an  irreverent  tongue : 

Let  mirth  he  innocent,  and  each  man  see 

That  all  his  jests  without  reflection  be ; 

To  keep  the  house  more  quiet  and  from  blame, 

We  banish  hence  cards,  dice,  and  every  game ; 

Nor  can  allow  of  wagers,  that  exceed 

Five    shillings,    which    ofttimes    much    trouble 

breed ; 
Let  all  that's  lost  or  forfeited  be  spent 
In  such  good  liquor  as  the  house  doth  vent. 
And  customers  endeavour,   to  their  powers. 
For  to  observe  still,  seasonable  hours. 
Lastly,  let  each  man  what  he  calls  for  pay. 
And  so  you're  welcome  to  come  every  day. 

The  early  coffee  houses  were  often  up  a 
flight  of  stairs,  and  consisted  of  a  single 
large  room  with  ' '  tables  set  apart  for  divers 
topics."  There  is  a  reference  to  this  in  the 
prologue  to  a  comedy  of  1681  (quoted  by 
Malone)  : 

In  a  coffee  house  just  now  among  the  rabble 
I  bluntly  asked,  which  is  the  treason  table? 

This  was  the  arrangement  at  Man's  and 
others  favored  by  the  wits,  the  literati,  and 
"men  of  fashionable  instincts."  In  the 
distinctly  business  coffee  houses  separate 
rooms  were  provided  at  a  later  time  for 
mercantile  transactions.  The  introduction 
of  wooden  partitions  —  wooden  boxes,  as  at 
a  tavern  —  was  also  of  somewhat  later  date. 

A  print  of  1674  shows  five  persons  of  dif- 
ferent ranks  in  life,  one  of  them  smoking, 
sitting  on  chairs  around  a  coffee-house 
table,  on  which  are  small  basins,  or  dishes, 
without  saucers,  and  tobacco  pipes,  while 
a  coffee  boy  is  serving  coffee. 

In  the  beginning,  only  coffee  was  dis- 
pensed in  the  English  coffee  houses.  Soon 
chocolate,  sherbert,  and  tea  were  added; 
but  the  places  still  maintained  their  status 
as  social  and  temperance  factors.  Con- 
stantine  Jennings  (or  George  Constantine) 
of  the  Grecian  advertised  chocolate,  sher- 
bert and  tea  at  retail  in  1664  -  65 ;  also 
free  instruction  in  the  part  of  preparing 
these  liquors.  "Drams  and  cordial  waters 
were  to  be  had  only  at  coffee  houses  newly 
set  up,"  says  Elford  the  younger,  writing 
about  1689.  While  some  few  places  added 
ale  and  beer  as  early  as  1669,  intoxicating 
liquors  were  not  items  of  importance  for 
many  years. 

After  the  fire  of  1666,  many  new  coffee 
houses  were  opened  that  were  not  limited 


to  a  single  room  up  a  flight  of  stairs.  Be- 
cause the  coffee-house  keepers  over-em- 
phasized the  sobering  qualities  of  the  coffee 
drink,  they  drew  many  undesirable  char- 
acters from  the  taverns  and  ale  houses  after 
the  nine  o'clock  closing  hour.  These  were 
hardly  calculated  to  improve  the  reputa- 
tion of  the  coffee  houses;  and,  indeed,  the 
decline  of  the  coffee  houses  as  a  temperance 
institution   would   seem   to   trace   back   to 


CojpFiE  House  xests 


A  London  Coffee  House  of  the  Seventeenth 

Century 

From   a   wood  cut   of  the   period 

this  attitude  of  false  pity  for  the  victims 
of  tavern  vices,  evils  that  many  of  the 
coffee  houses  later  on  embraced  to  their 
own  undoing.  The  early  institution  was 
unique,  its  distinctive  features  being  un- 
like those  of  any  public  house  in  England 
or  on  the  Continent.  Later  on,  in  the  eigh- 
teenth century,  when  these  distinctive  fea- 


62 


ALL    ABOUT    COFFEE 


tures   became   obscured,    the   name   coffee 
house  became  a  misnomer. 

However,  Robinson  says,  "the  close  in- 
tercourse between  the  habitu6s  of  the  coffee 
house,  before  it  lost  anything  of  its  gen- 
erous social  traditions  and  whilst  the  issue 
of  the  struggle  for  political  liberty  was  as 
yet   uncertain,   was   to  lead  to  something 


Coffee  House,  Queen  Anne's  Time  — 1702-14 
Showing  coffee  pots,  coffee  dishes,  and  coffee  boy 

more  than  a  mere  jumbling  or  huddling 
together  of  opposites.  The  diverse  ele- 
ments gradually  united  in  the  bonds  of 
common  sympathy,  or  were  forcibly  com- 
bined by  persecution  from  without  until 
there  resulted  a  social,  political  and  moral 
force  of  almost  irresistible  strength." 

Coffee-Eouse  Keepers'  Tokens 

The  great  London  fire  of  1666  destroyed 
some  of  the  coffee  houses;  but  prominent 
among  those  i^iat  survived  was  the  Rain- 
bow, whose  proprietor,  James  Farr,  issued 
one  of  the  earliest  coffee-house  tokens, 
doubtless  in  grateful  memory  of  his  escape. 
Farr's    token    shows    an    arched    rainbow 


emerging  from  the  clouds  of  the  "great 
fire,"  indicating  that  all  was  well  with 
him,  and  the  Rainbow  still  radiant.  On 
the  reverse  the  medal  was  inscribed,  "In 
Fleet  Street  — His  Half  Penny." 

A  large  number  of  these  trade  coins  were 
put  out  by  coffee-house  keepers  and  other 
tradesmen  in  the  seventeenth  century  as 
evidence  of  an  amount  due,  as  stated  there- 
on, by  the  issuer  to  the  holder.  Tokens 
originated  because  of  the  scarcity  of  small 
change.  They  were  of  brass,  copper,  pew- 
ter, and  even  leather,  gilded.  They  bore 
the  name,  address,  and  calling  of  the  is- 
suer, the  nominal  value  of  the  piece,  and 
some  reference  to  his  trade.  They  were 
readily  redeemed,  on  presentation,  at  their 
face  value.  They  were  passable  in  the  im- 
mediate neighborhood,  seldom  reaching 
farther  than  the  next  street.  C.  G.  William- 
son writes : 

Tokens  are  essentially  deniooratic ;  they  would 
never  have  been  issued  but  for  the  indifterenee 
of  the  Government  to  a  public  need ;  and  in 
tJieni  we  have  a  remarkable  instance  of  a  people 
forcing  a  legislature  to  comply  with  demands  at 
once  reasonable  and  imperative.  Taken  as  a 
whole  series,  they  are  homely  and  quaint,  want- 
ing in  beauty,  but  not  without  u  curious  domes- 
tic art  of  their  own. 

Robinson  finds  an  exception  to  the  gen- 
eral simplicity  in  the  tokens^  issued  by  one 
of  the  Exchange  Alley  houses.  The  dies 
of  these  tokens  are  such  as  to  have  sug- 
gested the  skilled  workmanship  of  John 
Roettier.  The  most  ornate  has  the  head 
of  a  Turkish  sultan  at  that  time  famed  for 
his  horrible  deeds,  ending  in  suicide;  its 
inscription  runs: 

Morat  ye  Great  Men  did  mee  call; 
Where  Eare  I  came  I  conquer'd  all. 

A  number  of  the  most  interesting 
coffee-house  keepers'  tokens  in  the  Beau- 
foy  collection,  in  the  Guildhall  Museum 
were  photographed  for  this  work,  and  are 
shown  herewith.  It  will  be  observed  that 
many  of  the  traders  of  1660-75  adopted 
as  their  trade  sign  a  hand  pouring  coffee 
from  a  pot,  invariably  of  the  Turkish- 
ewer  pattern.  Morat  (Amurath)  and  Soli- 
man  were  frequent  coffee-house  signs  in 
the  seventeenth  century. 

J.  H.  Bum,  in  his  Catalogue  of  Traders' 
Tokens,  recites  that  in  1672  "divers  per- 
sons who  presumed  ...  to  stamp,  coin, 
exchange  and  distribute  farthings,  half- 
pence and  pence  of  brass  and  copper' 
were  "taken  into  custody,  in  order  to 


COFFEE  HOUSES  OF  OLD  LONDON 


63 


Andrew  Vincent 
in  Friday  Street 


Morat  Ye  Great  Coffee  House 
in  Kxchange  Alley 


Mary  Long 
in  Russell  Street 


Robins'  Coffee  House 
in  Old  Jewry 


Union   Coffee   House 
in   Cornhill 


James  Farr,  the  Rainbow 
In  Fleet  Street 


Chapter  Coffee  House 
in  Paternoster  Row 


Sultaness   Coffee  House 
in  Cornhill 


Achler  Brocas 
in  Exeter 


Morat  Coffee  House 
in  Exchange  Alley 


PLATE  1  —  COFFEE-HOUSE  KEEPERS'  TOKENS  OF  THE  17TH  CENTURY 

Drawn  for  this  work  from  the  originals  in  the  British  Museum,  and  in  the  Beaufoy  collection  at  the 

Guildhall  Museum 


64 


ALL     ABOUT     COFFEE 


severe  prosecution";  but  upon  submission, 
their  offenses  were  forgiven,  and  it  was 
not  until  the  year  1675  that  the  private 
token  ceased  to  pass  current. 

A  royal  proclamation  at  the  close  of 
1674  enjoined  the  prosecution  of  any  who 
should  "utter  base  metals  with  private 
stamps,"  or  "hinder  the  vending  of  those 
half  pence  and  farthings  which  are  pro- 
vided for  necessary  exchange."  After 
this,  tokens  were  issued  stamped  "neces- 
sary change." 

losition  to  the  Coffee  House 

It  is  easy  to  see  why  the  coffee  houses 
at  once  found  favor  among  men  of  intel- 


A  Cup  oh 

O    F    E    E 

OR, 

CoiFee  in  its  Colqms. 


7WiMmt<jtad«^d  . 


?uulf«d 


r^^^w 


ii.{>.p»»j.rfi».°ti'»~"r'  ■ 


•w,  SKl^i 


w«  luw  fkM  fMT  WMteAi  Jn 


ta<l|TVdS*> 


A  Broadside  of  1GG3 

ligence  in  all  classes.  Until  they  came, 
the  average  Englishman  had  only  the  tav- 
ern as  a  place  of  common  resort.  But 
here  was  a  public  house  offering  a  non-in- 
toxicating beverage,  and  its  appeal  was  in- 
stant and  universal.  As  a  meeting  place 
for  the  exchange  of  ideas  it  soon  attained 
wide  popularity.  But  not  without  opposi- 
tion. The  publicans  and  ale-house  keep- 
ers, seeing  business  slipping  away  from 
them,  made  strenuous  propaganda  against 
this  new  social  center;  and  not  a  few  at- 
tacks were  launched  against  the  coffee 
drink.  Between  the  Restoration  and  the 
year  1675,  of  eight  tracts  written  upon  the 
subject  of  the  London  coffee  houses,  four 


have  the  words  "character  of  a  coffee 
house"  as  part  of  their  titles.  The  au- 
thors appear  eager  to  impart  a  knowledge 
of  the  town's  latest  novelty,  with  which 
many  readers  were  unacquainted; 

One  of  these  early  pamphlets  (1662)  was 
entitled  lite  Coffee  Scuffle,  and  professed 
to  give  a  dialogue  between  "a  learned 
knight  and  a  pitifull  pedagogue,"  and  con- 
tained an  amusing  account  of  a  house 
where  the  Puritan  element  was  still  in  the 
ascendant.  A  numerous  company  is  pres- 
ent, and  each  little  group  being  occupied 
with  its  own  subject,  the  general  effect  is 
that  of  another  Babel.  "While  one  is  en- 
gaged in  ({noting  the  classics,  another  con- 
fides to  his  neighbors  how  much  he  admires 
Euclid ; 

A  third's  for  a  lecture,  a  fourth  a  conjecture, 
A  fifth  for  a  penny  in  the  pound. 

Theology  is  introduced.  Mask  balls  and 
plays  are  condemned.  Others  again  dis- 
cuss the  news,  and  are  deep  in  the  store 
of  "mercuries"  here  to  be  found.  One 
cries  up  philosophy.  Pedantry  is  rife,  and 
for  the  most  part  unchecked,  when  each 
'prentice-boy  "doth  call  for  his  coffee  in 
Latin"  and  all  are  so  prompt  with  their 
learned  quotations  that  "  't  would  make 
a  poor  Vicar  to  tremble." 

The  first  noteworthy  effort  attacking  the 
coffee  drink  was  a  satirical  broadside  that 
appeared  in  1663.  It  was  entitled  A  Cup 
of  Coffee:  or,  Coff'ee  in  its  Colours.  It  said: 

For   men   and    Christians    to    turn   Turks,    and 

tliink 
T'  excuse  the  Crime  because  'tis  in  their  drink, 
Is  more  tlian  Magick     . 

Pure  English  Apes !  Ye  may,  for  ought  I  know. 
Would  it  but  mode,  learn  to  eat  Spiders  too. 

The  writer  wonders  that  any  man  should 
prefer  coffee  to  canary,  and  refers  to  the 
days  of  Beaumont,  Fletcher,  and  Ben 
Jonson.     He  says : 

They  drank  pure  nectar  as  the  gods  drink  too, 
Sublim'd  with  rich  Canary     .      . 

shall  then 
These  less  than  coffee's  self,  these  coffee-men. 
These  sons  of  nothing,  that  can  hardly  make 
Their   Broth,    for   laughing  how    the  jest  doth 

take ; 
Yet  grin,  and  give  ye  for  the  Vine's  pure  Blood 
A  loathsome  potion,  not  yet  understood, 
Syrrop  of  soot,  or  Essence  of  old  Shooes, 
Dasht  with  Diurnals  and  the  Books  of  news? 

The  author  of  A  Cup  of  Coffee,  it  will 
be  seen,  does  not  shrink  from  using  epi- 
thets. 


COFFEE  HOUSES  OF  OLD  LONDOX 


65 


Richard  Lione 
in  tlie  Strand 


Mary    Stringar 
in  Little  Trinity  Lane 


Richard  Tart 
in  Gray  Friars,  Newgate  Street 


I 


William  Russell 
in  St.  Bartholomew's  Close,  Smithfleld 


John   Marston 
in  Trumpington  Street,  Cambridge 


Henry  Muscut 
opposite  Brook  House  in  Holborn 


West   Country   Coffee  House 
in  Lothebury 


Thomas  Outridge 
in  Carter  Lane  End,  near  Creed  Lane 


Ward's  Coffee  House 
in  Bread  Street 


Mansfield's  Coffee  House 
in  Shoe  Lane 


PLATE  2— COFFEE-HOUSE    KEEPERS'  TOKENS  OF  THE   17TH  CENTURY 

Drawn  for  this  work  from  the  originals  in  the  British  Museum,  and  in  the  Beaufoy  collection  at  the 

Guildhall  Museum 


66 


ALL     ABOUT     COFFEE 


The  Coffee  Man's  Granado  Discharged 
upon  the  Maiden's  Complaint  Against 
Coffee,  a  dialogue  in  verse,  also  appeared 
in  1663. 

The  Character  of  a  Coffee  House,  hy  an 
Eye  and  Ear  Witness  appeared  in  1665. 
It  was  a  ten-page  pamphlet,  and  proved  to 
be  excellent  propaganda  for  coffee.  It  is 
so  well  done,  and  contains  so  much  local 
color,  that  it  is  reproduced  here,  the  text 
being  copied  from  the  original  in  the  Brit- 
ish Museum.     The  title  page  reads: 

The 
Character 

OF  A 

COFFEE-HOUSE 

wherein 
Is    contained    a    Description    of    the    Persons 
usually  frequenting  it,  with  their  Dis- 
course and  Humors, 
As  Also 
The  Admirable  Vertues  of 
COFFEE 
By  an  Eye  and  Ear  Witness 

When  Coffee  once  was  vended  here. 
The  Alc'ron  shortly  did  appear, 
For  our  Reformers  were  such  Widgeons. 
New  Liquors  brought  in  new  Religions. 

Printed  in  the  Year,  1665. 


the 


The   text   and   the   arrangement   of 
body  of  the  pamphlet  are  as  follows : 

The 
Character 

OF  A 

Coffee-House 
the  derivation  of 
A  coffee-house 

A  Coffee-house,  the  learned  hold 
It  is  a  place  where  Coffee's  sold ; 
This  derivation  cannot  fail  us, 
For   where  Ale's  vended,   that's  an   Ale-house. 

This  being  granted  to  be  true, 
'Tis  meet  that  next  the  Signs  we  shew 
Both  where  and  how  to  find  this  house 
Where  men  such  cordial  hroth  carowse. 
And  if  Culpepper  woon  some  glory 
In  turning  the  Dispensatory 
From  Latin  into  English;  then 
Why  should  not  all  good  English  men 
Give  him  much  thanks  who  shews  a  cure 
For  all  diseases  men  endure? 

SIGNS  :    HOW    TO 
FIND   IT   OUT 

As  you  along  the  streets  do  trudge. 

To  take  the  pains  you  must  not  grudge, 

To  view  the  Posts  or  Broomsticks  where 

The  Signs  of  Liquors  hanged  are. 

And  if  you  see  the  great  Moral 

With  Shash  on's  head  instead  of  hat, 

Or  any  Sultan  in  his  dress, 

Or  picture  of  a  Sultaness, 

Or  John's  admir'd  curled  pate, 

Or  th'  great  Mogul  in's  Chair  of  State, 

Or  Constantine  the  Grecian, 

Who  fourteen  years  was  th'  onely  man 

That  made  Coffee  for  th'  great  Bashaw, 


Although  the  man  he  never  saw; 
Or  if  you  see  a  Coffee-cup 
Fil'd  from  a  Turkish  pot,  hung  up 
Within  the  clouds,  and  round  it  Pipes, 
Wax  Candles,  Stoppers,  these  are  types 
And  certain  signs  (with  many  more 
Would  be  too  long  to  write  them  'ore,) 
Which  plainly  do  Spectators  tell 
That  in  that  house  they  Coffee  sell. 
Some  wiser  than  the  rest  (no  doubt,) 
Say  they  can  by  the  smell  find't  out ; 
In  at  a  door   (say  they,)   but  thrust 
Your  Nose,  and  if  you  scent  burnt  Crust, 
Be  sure  there's  Coffee  sold  that's  good. 
For  so  by  most  'tis  understood. 

Now  being  enter'd,  there's  no  needing 
Of  complements  or  gentile  breeding, 
For  you  may  seat  you  any  where, 
There's  no  respect  of  persons  there ; 
Then  comes  the  Coffee-man  to  greet  you, 
With  welcome  Sir,  let  me  entreat  you. 
To  tell  me  what  you'l  please  to  have. 
For  I'm  your  humble,  humble  slave ; 
But  if  you  ask,  what  good  does  Coffee? 
He'l  answer,  Sir,  don't  think  I  scoff  yee. 
If  I  affirm  there's  no  disease 
Men  have  that  drink  it  but  find  ease. 

THE  VERTUES 
OF  COFFEE 

Look,  there's  a  man  who  takes  the  steem 
In  at  his  Nose,  has  an  extreme 
Worm  in  his  pate,  and  giddiness. 
Ask  him  and  he  will  say  no  less. 
There  sitteth  one  whose  Droptick  belly 
AVas  hard  as  flint,  now's  soft  as  jelly. 
There  stands  another  holds  his  head 
'Ore  th'  Co:i9'ee-pot,  was  almost  dead 
Even  now  with  Rhume;  ask  him  hee'l  say 
That  all  his  Rhum's  now  past  away. 
See,  there's  a  man  sits  now  demure 
And   sober,  was  within  this  hour 
Quite  drunk,  and  comes  here  frequently. 
For  'tis  his  daily  Malady, 
More,  it  has  such  reviving  power 
'Twill  keep  a  man  awake  an  houre, 
Nay,  make  his  eyes  wide  open  stare 
Both  Sermon  time  and  all  the  prayer. 
Sir,  should  I  tell  you  all  the  rest 
O'   th'  cures  't  has   done,   two  hours  at  least 
In  numb'ring  them  I  needs  must  spend. 
Scarce  able  then  to  make  an  end. 
Besides  these  vertues  that's  therein, 
For  any  kind  of  Medicine, 
The   C ommonwealthr Kingdom  I'd   say. 
Has  mighty  reason  for  to  pray 
That  still  Arabia  may  produce 
Enough  of  Berry  for  it's  use : 
For't   has   such    strange   magnetick    force, 
That  it  draws  after't  great  concourse 
Of  all  degrees  of  persons,  even 
From  high  to  low,  from  morn  till  even ; 
Especially  the  "iober  Party, 
And  News-mongers  do  drink't  most  hearty. 
Here  you'r  not  thrust  into  a  Box 
As  Taverns  do  to  catch  the  Fox, 
But  as  from  th'  top  of  Pauls  high  steeple, 
Th'  whole  City's  view'd,  even  so  all  people 
May  here  be  seen ;  no  secrets  are 
At  th'  Court  for  Peace,  or  th'  Camp  for  War,. 
But  straight  they'r  here  disclos'd  and  known ; 
Men  in  this  Age  so  wise  are  grown. 
Now   (Sir)  what  profit  may  accrew 


^BWith  that  he's  loudly  call'd  upon 
^B  For  Coffee,  and  then  whip  he's  gone. 
^Hthe  company 
^B       Here  at  a  Table  sits  (perplext) 

A  griping  Usurer,  and  next 

To  him  a  gallant  Furioso, 

Then  nigh  to  him  a  Virtuoso; 

A  Player  then   (full  fine)   sits  down, 

And  close  to  him  a  Country  Clown. 

()'  th'  other  side  sits  some  Pragmatick, 

And  next  to  him  some  sly  Phanatick. 

THE   SEVERAL 
LIQUORS 

The  gallant  he  for  Tea  doth  call, 
The   Usurer  for  nought  at  all. 
The  Pragmatick  he  doth  intreat 
That  they  will  fill  him  some  Beau-cheat, 
The  Virtuoso  he  cries  hand  me 
Some  Coffee  mixt  with  Sugar-candy. 
Phanaticus  (at  last)   says  come. 
Bring  me  some  Aromaticum. 
The  Player  bawls  for  Chocolate, 
All  which  the  Bumpkin  wond'ring  at, 
Cries,  ho,  my  Masters,  what  d'  ye  speak, 
D'  ye  call  for.  drink  in  Heathen  Greek  ? 
Give  me  some  good  old  Ale  or  Beer, 
Or  else  I  will  not  drink.  I  swear. 
Then  having  charg'd  their  Pipes  around, 

THEIR  DISCOURSE 

They  silence  break ;   First  the  profound 
And  sage  Phanatique,  Sirs  what  news? 
Troth  says  the  UsWer  I  ne'r  use 
To  tip  my  tongue  with  such  discourse, 
.  'Twere  news  to  know  how  to  disburse 
A  summ  of  mony   (makes  me  sad) 
To  get  ought  by't,  times  are  so  bad. 
The  other  answers,  truly  Sir 
You  speak  but  truth,  for  I'le  aver 
They  ne'r  were  worse ;  did  you  not  hear 
What  prodigies  did  late  appear 
At  Xoririch.  Ipsirich.  Grantham,  Gotam? 
And  though  prophane  ones  do  not  not'em, 
Yet  we  —  Here  th'  Virtuoso  stops 
The  current  of  his  speech,  with  hopes 
Quoth  he.  you  will  not  tak'd  amiss, 
I  say  all's  lies  that's  news  like  this, 
For  I  have  Factors  all  about 
The  Realm,  so  that  no  Stars  peep  out 
That  are  unusual,  much  less  these 
Strange  and  unheard-of  prodigies 
You  would  relate,  but  they  are  tost 
To  me  in  letters  by  first  Post. 
At  which  the  Furioso  swears 
Such  chat  as  this  offends  his  ears 
It  rather  doth  become  this  Age 
To  talk  of  bloodshed,  fury,  rage. 
And  t'  drink  stout  healths  in  brim-fill'd  Nogans. 
To  th'  downfall  of  the  Hogan  Mogans. 
With  that  the  Player  doffs  his  Bonnet, 
And  tunes  his  voice  as  if  a  Sonnet 
Were  to  be  sung;  then  gently  says, 
O  what  delight  there  is  in  Plays! 
Sure  if  we  were  but  all  In  Peace, 
This  noise  of  Wars  and  News  would  cease ; 
All  sorts  of  people  then  would  club 
Their  pence  to  see  a  Play  that's  good. 
You'l  wonder  all  this  while  (perhaps) 
The  Ctirioso  holds  his  chaps. 
But  he  doth  in  his  thoughts  devise. 
How  to  the  rest  he  may  seem  wise ; 


COFFEE  HOUSES  OF  OLD  LONDON  67 


Yet  able  longer  not  to  hold. 

His  tedious  tale  too  must  be  told. 

And  thus  begins.  Sirs  unto  me 

It  reason  seems  that  liberty 

Of  speech  and  words  should  be  allow'd 

Where  men  of  differing  judgements  croud. 

And  that's  a  Coffee-house,  for  where 

Should  men  discourse  so  free  as  there? 

Coffee  and  Commonwealth  begin 

Both  with  one  letter,  both  came  in 

Together  for  a  Reformation, 

To  make's  a  free  and  sober  Nation. 

But  now  —  With   that  Phanaticus 

Gives  him  a  nod.  and  speaks  him  thus. 

Hold  brother,  I  know  your  intent, 

That's  no  dispute  convenient 

For  this  same  place,  truths  seldome  find 

Acceptance  here,  they'r  more  confin'd 

To  Taverns  and  to  Ale-house  liquor. 

Where  men  do  vent  their  minds  more  quicker 

If  that  may  for  a  truth  but  pass 

What's  said,  In  vino  Veritas. 

With  that  up  starts  the  Country  Clown, 

And  stares  about  with  threatening  frown 

As  if  he  would  even  eat  them  all  up. 

Then  bids  the  boy  run  quick  and  call  up, 

A  Constable,  for  he  has  reason 

To  fear  their  Latin  may  be  treason 

But  straight  they  all  call  what's  to  pay, 

Lay't  down,  and  march  each  several  way. 

THE   COMPANY 

At  th'  other  table  sits  a  Knight, 
And  here  a  grave  old  man  ore  right 
Against  his  worship,  then  perhaps 
That  hy  and  by  a  Drawer  claps 
His  bum  close  by  them,  there  down  squats 
A  dealer  in  old  shoes  and  hats; 
And  here  withouten  any  panick 
Fear,  dread  or  care  a  bold  Mechanick. 

THEIR  DISCOURSE 

The  Knight  (because  he's  so)  he  prates 
Of  matters  far  beyond  their  pates. 
The  grave  old  man  he  makes  a  bustle, 
And  his  wise  sentence  in  must  justle. 
Up  starts  th'  Apprentice  boy  and  he 
Says  boldly  so  and  so't  must  be. 
The  dealer  in  old  shoes  to  utter 
His  saying  too  makes  no  small  sputter. 
Then  comes  the  pert  mechanick  blade, 
And  contradicts  what  all  have  said. 
*     *     * 

There  by  the  fler-side  doth  sit, 
One  freezing  in  an  Ague  fit. 
Another  poking  in't  with  th'  tongs, 
Still  ready  to  cough  up  his  lungs 
Here  sitteth  one  that's  melancolick. 
And  there  one  singing  in  a  frolick. 
Each  one  hath  such  a  prety  gesture. 
At  Smithfield  fair  would  yield  a  tester. 
Boy  reach  a  pipe  cries  he  that  shakes. 
The  songster  no  Tobacco  takes. 
Says  he  who  coughs,  nor  do  I  smoak. 
Then  Monsieur  Mopus  turns  his  cloak 
Off  from  his  face,  and  with  a  grave 
Majestick  beck  his  pipe  doth  crave. 
They  load  their  guns  and  fall  a  smoaking 
Whilst  he  who  coughs  sits  by  a  choaking. 
Till  he  no  longer  can  abide. 
And  so  removes  from  th'  fier  side. 
Now  all  this  while  none  calls  to  drink. 
Which  makes  the  Coffee  hoy  to  think 


68 


ALL     ABOUT     COFFEE 


Much  they  his  pots  should  so  enclose, 

He  cannot  pass  but  tread  on  toes. 

With  that  as  he  the  Nectar  fills 

From  pot  to  pot,  some  on't  he  spills 

Upon  the  Songster.    Oh  cries  he. 

Pox,  what  dost  do?    thou'st  burnt  my  knee; 

No  says  the  boy,   (to  make  a  bald 

And  blind  excuse.)     Sir  Hvnll  not  scald. 

With  that  the  man  lends  him  a  cuff 

O'  th'  ear,  and  whips  away  in  snuff. 

The  other  two,  their  pipes  being  out, 

Says  Monsieur  Mopus  I  much  doubt 

My  friend  I  wait  for  will  not  come. 

But  if  he  do,  say  I'm  gone  home. 

Then  says  the  Aguish  man  I  must  come 

According  to  my  wonted  custome. 

To  give  ye'  a  visit,  although  now 

I  dare  not  drink,  and  so  adieu. 

The  boy  replies,  O  Sir,  however 

You'r  very  welcome,  we  do  never 

Our  Candles,  Pipes  or  Fier  grutch 

To  daily  customers  and  such, 

They'r  Company  (without  expence,) 

For  that's  sufficient  recompence. 

Here  at  a  table  all  alone, 

Sits  (studying)  a  spruce  youngster,  (one 

Wlio  doth  conceipt  himself  fully  witty, 

And's  counted  one  o'  th'  wits  o'  th'  City,) 

Till  by  him  (with  a  stately  grace,) 

A  Spanish  Don  himself  doth  place. 

Then  (cap  in  hand)  a  brisk  Monsieur 

He  takes  his  seat,  and  crowds  as  near 

As  possibly  that  he  can  come. 

Then  next  a  Dutchman  takes  his  room. 

The  Wits  glib  tongue  begins  to  chatter, 

Though't  utters  more  of  noise  than  matter, 

Yet  'cause  they  seem  to  mind  his  words. 

His  lungs  more  battle  still  affords 

At  last  says  he  to  Don,  I  trow 

Ydu  understand  me?    Sennor  no 

Says  th'  other.    Here  the  Wit  doth  pause 

A  little  while,  then  opes  his  jaws. 

And  says  to  Monsieur,  you  enjoy 

Our  tongue  I  hope?    Non  par  ma  foy, 

Replies  the  Frenchm/m :  nor  you,  Sir? 

Says  he  to  th'  Dutchman,  7veen  mynheer, 

With  that  he's  gone,  and  cries,  why  sho'd 

He  stay  where  tmfs  not  understood? 

There  in  a  place  of  his  own  chusing 

(Alone)  some  lover  sits  a  musing, 

With  arms  across,  and's  eyes  up  lift, 

As  if  he  were  of  sence  bereft. 

Till  sometimes  to  himself  he's  speaking, 

Then  sighs  as  if  his  heart  were  breaking. 

Here  in  a  comer  sits  a  Phrantick, 

And  there  stands  by  a  frisking  Antick, 

Of  all  sorts  some  and  all  conditions 

Even  Vintners,  Surgeons  and  Physicians. 

The  blind,  the  deaf,  and  aged  cripple 

Do  here  resort  and  Coffee  tipple. 

Now  here  (perhaps)  you  may  expect 
My  Muse  some  trophies  should  erect 
In  high  flown  verse,  for  to  set  forth 
The  noble  praises  of  its  worth. 

Truth  is,  old  Poets  beat  their  brains 
To  find  out  high  and  lofty  strains 
To  praise  the  (now  too  frequent)  use 
Of  the  bewitching  grapes  strong  juice, 
Some  have  strain'd  hard  for  to  exalt 
The  liquor  of  our  English  Mault 
Nay  Don  has  almost  crackt  his  nodle 
Enough  t'  applaud  his  Caaco  Caudle. 


The  Germans  Mum,  Teag's  Usquebagh, 
(Made  him  so  well  defend  Tredagh,) 
MethegUn,   which   the  Brittains  tope, 
Hot  Brandy  wine,  the  Hogans  hope. 
Stout  Meade  which  makes  the  Russ  to  laugh, 
Spic'd  Punch  (in  bowls.)  the  Indians  quaff. 
All  these  have  had  their  pens  to  raise 
Tliem  Monuments  of  lasting  praise, 
Onely  poor  Coffee  seems  to  me 
No  subject  fit  for  Poetry 
At  least  'tis  one  that  none  of  mine  is. 
So  I  do  wave  't,  and  here  write — 
FINIS. 

News  from  the  Coffe  House;  in  which 
is  shewn  their  several  sorts  of  Passions  ap- 


NEWS  from  the  COFFE-HOUSE; 

In  which  is  (hewn  their  fcvaral  forts  of  Pairions, 
Conuining  Newes  fiom  all  cm  Nogjibour  \amn!. 

A      POEM. 


YOo  tint  4eli«lit  iii  iv-,i  j„j  Mirth, 
Aniiotn  to  bcBr  imti  N«w(, 
Ai  roam  from  «11  P»m  of  the  Fteih, 
Vmii.  DMfj,  Mil  Tmltj,  md  J,w', 


Ihe,  know  more  Tbingi 'then  ci 
No  Moitty  ia  the  M'liiing-jMtufc 


/I  >«a,i  tm  h  CO 

Bdore  tf«  Ji.vp,  ftlt  tn  Work 
Tta^kai*  who  lladi  kc  Wion 

Tbiy  llMTt  CM  tdl  yciritH  the  7 
iJCtaidlTlKiilaDmnfi 

Wks  M  dU  Cm  D.  tmim,  u« 
hmBffi  Ita  jovial  Crete ; 

Ob  WhoMl  givf  tiM  i^fTiitkji 

k  filhrma  i,i  taWlv  teTI, 
Am  ftrongly  d:il  a  voucli. 

He  Cufht  %  Shne!  (.i  Metkirel, 
T!»tPtrlej'J.i;w7l.i.-4, 


ntf„.,hK..,mV,.  G,d\,i,mg, 

Miiieof  Mit-S  >ctom-d  Hoan, 
Shell  Coinfiu  E.t.'"»l  '*u-il  *h  .Lt 


There*!  neit!  ing  done  ir.  ill  iht  Wi  r/, 

Bw««vDevo(Nicht':i»bjr:<i  , 

Into  the  tr.f  ,.fa»/,. 
WEUI  tiiJitar  Rhtt   fM^<r  tin 

By  An,  n«i  briri;  Ibiwr, 
*i  C.f.-*wi//  you'l  find  ■  Ml", 

C—  faitH/i  fi-d  .1  .«, 

They1tti)|«ilierc.  whit  Itdy  wire. 

Oflite  i»  fftn/n  too  I'l^itf  ; 
WhSt  W.fe.tBin  Ibeii  tnta  favour  r»f> 

Whet  fo«l  diill  bt  1  K-mhil 
Ztty'i  tell  yc  wbcn  tier  F«>  Inn  Xttie, 

&fMl!Kifcij;'in,  end  Flotitilh, 
Or  m-Iks  7,*r^  JJ^ai,  (hill  be  mi^ 

Olorth-Wirden  ^  tie  Pirifli. 

'*>&>,  trimti  h)  t.  Cnw>l,  for  rbx,^  frt  •>;  ilii 


Ttty  lnow»hol)>«iiin  Iimei  i,no» 

Be  either  made,  or  undone, 
Trom great  S!.  fiwi-Jtrintn  timt 

And  lloeile  Kill  at  Clrtjn,., 
WhittnU  uath  great ei'l  Gi.n; 

And  in  that  place,  what  Biajen-f.te 
Doth  mtti  a  Golden  Cham. 

At  Sea  their  Knoia-ledee  ii  lo  muth, 
TleyHrowall  Kotli  and  snel.ei, 

Tl«y  Unrn  ,h  Counci'li  of  t.'.t  D.r.*, 
More  il,e=  -hey  kr»»  Them^elrei , 

f.  ho  •[,!  ni.l    -el  the  ti'>  ai  lad. 
They  perlefily  ran  Omw 

The?  know  a:!  that  it  Gtini,  t"  Hun 
To  Dam  yr,  or  to  Save  ye  ; 

There  i,  the  C  ''*i',  and  the  Cfr, 
TlwCa*"';.  tTaaip,  and  hivit; 


)&&.  IheDtml:n5ill.reotCt..>./.,-, 

S^  Tht  tend  Of  nii/i:-,.- 

5^^  "Til  Cheaperfarr  then  Wine. 

«)(v>  Yoti  ftiall.  fciiow  there,  lehatFllltontwei 

ij;i6>  H»"l'<irT»igg,artCiirl'd, 

y  fci;  Arf  lor  a  Penny  yoo  flit||  ktall, 

gj*  All  Novel*  in  (he  WoHd 

gg  Doth  Old  and  Yontif,  and  Gleat  andSlMB, 

CVqp  And  Kich,  and  faon,  ymtl  ftf : 

Sf&  Thavefori  ktl  t«  tie  Cafe  *8, 

gg^  Cone  All  an;  >1A  Uk.           FMl   . 

C»iia!c. fafcv/n»  ><«j.    ^ahjkfnnsa.  ji 


A  Broadside  of  1667 

peared  in  1667.  It  was  reprinted  in  1672 
as  The  Coffee  House  or  Newsmongers' 
Hall. 

Several  stanzas  from  these  broadsides 
have  been  much  quoted.  They  serve  to 
throw  additional  light  upon  the  manners 
of  the  time,  and  upon  the  kind  of  conver- 
sation met  with  in  any  well  frequented 
coffee  house  of  the  seventeenth  century, 
particularly  under  the  Stuarts.  They  are 
finely   descriptive   of   the   company   char- 


COFFEE  HOUSES  OF  OLD  LONDON 


69 


acteristics  of  the  early  coffee  houses.  The 
fifth  stanza  of  the  edition  of  1667,  inimical 
to  the  French,  was  omitted  when  the  broad- 
side was  amended  and  reprinted  in  1672, 
the  year  that  England  joined  with  France 
and  again  declared  war  on  the  Dutch.  The 
following'  verses  with  explanatory  notes 
are  from  Timbs: 

News  from  the  Coffe  House 

You  that  delight  in  Wit  and  Mirth, 

And  long  to  hear  such  News, 
As  comes  from  all  Parts  of  the  Earth, 

Dutch,  Danes,  and  Turks,  and  Jews, 
I'le  send  yee  to  a  Rendezvouz, 

Where  it  is  smoaking  new ; 
Go  hear  it  at  a  Coffe-house, 

It  cannot  hut  he  true. 

Tliere   Battles   and   Sea-Fights  are  Fought, 

And  bloudy  Plots  display'd ; 
They  know  more  Things  then  ere  was  thought 

Or  ever  was  betray'd : 
No  Money  in  the  Minting-house 

Is  halfe  so  Bright  and  New ; 
And  comming  from  a  Coffe-house 

It  cannot  hut  he  true. 

Before  the  Navyes  fall  to  Work, 

They  know  who  shall  be  Winner ; 
They  there  can  tell  ye  what  the  Turk 

Last  Sunday  had  to  Dinner ; 
Who  last  did  Cut  Du  Ruitters "  Corns, 

Amongst  his  jovial  Crew ; 
Or  Who  first  gave  the  Devil  Horns, 

Which  cannot  hut  he  true. 

A  Fisherman  did  boldly  tell, 

And   strongly  did  avouch, 
He  Caught  a  Shoal  of  Mackarel, 

That  Parley'd  all  in  Dutch, 
And  cry'd  out  Yaw,  yaw,  yaw  Myne  Here; 

But  as  the  Draught  they  Drew 
They  Stunck  for  fear,  that  Monck^''  was  there. 

Which  cannot  hut  he  true. 


There's  nothing  done  in  all  the  World, 

From  M anarch  to  the  Mouse 
But  every  Day  or  Night  'tis  hurld 

Into  the  Coffe-house. 
What  Lillie^^  or  what  Booker^  can 

By  Art,,  not  bring  about, 
At  Coffe-house  you'l  find  a  Man, 

Can  quickly  find  it  out. 


They  know  who  shall  in  Times  to  come, 

Be  either  made,  or  undone, 
From  great  St.  Peters  street  in  Rome, 

To  Tumhull-street^^  in  London; 

*  *     * 

They  know  all  that  is  Good,  or  Hurt, 

To  Dam  ye,  or  to  Save  ye; 
There  is  the  Colledge,  and  the  Court, 

The  Country,  Camp  and  Navie; 
So  great  a  Universitie, 

I  think  there  ne're  was  any ; 
In  which  you  may  a   Schoolar  be 

For  spending  of  a   Penny. 

*  *     * 

Here  Men  do  talk  of  every  Thing, 

With  large  and  liberal  Lungs, 
Like  Women  at  a  Gossiping, 

With  double  tyre  of  Tongues; 
They'l  give  a  Broad-side  presently, 

Soon  as  you  are  in   view. 
With  Stories  that,  you'l  wonder  at, 

Which  they  will  swear  are  true. 

Tlie  Drinking  there  of  Chockalat, 

Can  make  a  Fool  a  Sophie : 
'Tls  thought  the  Turkish  Mahomet 

Was  first  Inspir'd  with  Coffe, 
By  which  his  Powers  did  Over-flow 

The  Land  of  Palestine : 
Then  let  us  to,  the  Coffe-house  go, 

'Tis  Cheaper  farr  then  Wine. 

You  shall  know  there,  what  Fashions  are ; 

How  Perrywiggs  are  Curl'd ; 
And  for  a  Penny  you  shall  heare, 

All  Novells  in  the  World. 
Both  Old  and  Young,  and  Great  and  Small, 

And  Rich,  and  Poore,  you'l  see ; 
Therefore  let's  to  the  Coffe  All, 

Come  All  away  with  Mee. 

Finis. 

Robert  Morton  made  a  contribution  to 
the  controversy  in  Lines  Appended  to  the 
Nature,  Quality  and  Most  Excellent  Ver- 
ifies of  Coffee  in  1670. 

There  was  published  in  1672  A  Broad- 
side Against  Coffee,  or  the  Marriage  of 
the  Turk,  verses  that  attained  consider- 
able fame  because  of  their  picturesque  in- 
vective. They  also  stressed  the  fact  that 
Pasqua  Ros^e's  partner  was  a  coachman, 


»  The  Dutch  admiral  who,  in  June,  1667,  dashed 
into  the  Downs  with  a  fleet  of  eighty  "sail",  and 
many  "flre-ships",  blocljed  up  the  mouths  of  the 
Medway  and  Thames,  destroyed  the  fortifications  at 
Sheerness.  cut  away  the  paltry  defenses  of  booms  and 
chains  drawn  across  the  rivers,  and  got  to  Chatham, 
on  the  one  side,  and  nearly  to  Gravesend  on  the 
other,  the  king  having  spent  in  debauchery  the  money 
voted  by  Parliament  for  the  proper  support  of  the 
English  navy. 

"  General  Monk  and  Prince  Rupert  were  at  this 
time  commanders  of  the  English  fleet. 

"  Lillie  (Lilly)  was  the  celebratefl  astrologer  of  the 
Protectorate,  who  earned  great  fame  at  that  time  by 
predicting,  in  June,  1645,  "if  now  we  fight,  a  victory 
stealeth  upon  us ;"  a  lucky  guess,  signally  verified  in 


the  King's  defeat  at  Naseby.  Lilly  thenceforth  always 
saw  the  stars  favourable  to  the  Puritans. 

"  This  man  was  originally  a  fishing-tackle  maker  in 
Tower  Street  during  the  reign  of  Charles  I ;  but 
turning  enthusiast,  he  went  about  prognosticating 
"the  downfall  of  the  King  and  Popery  ;"  and  as  he 
and  his  predictions  were  all  on  the  popular  side,  he 
became  a  great  man  with  the  superstitious  "godly 
brethren"   of   that  day. 

1*  Turnball,  or  TurnbuU  -  street,  as  it  is  still  called, 
had  been  for  a  century  previous  of  infamous  repute. 
In  Beaumont  and  Fletcher's  play,  the  Knipht  of  the 
Burning  Pestle,  one  of  the  ladies  who  is  undergoing 
penance  at  the  barber's,  has  her  character  sufliciently 
pointed  out  to  the  audience,  in  her  declaration,  that 
she  had  been  "stolen  from  her  friends  in  Turnball  - 
street." 


70 


ALL     ABOUT     COFFEE 


N.taircQualicy,  and  Mofl:  Ex'ccllcnc  V' 


or 


COFFEE 


crtucs 


MKti  ihmi    k>r  the 

fhim  rtiobchts  »^  <lrv'  becaufeO- 
'  -iid  axnft,  liiakcn  ^hcn  ^vr\  has* 

M  coU  thm^*  dulli  the  tK'sui  n 

tcrfii  liung    i)Ott  d*  SroiB*  '■ 

^     h  t  ai,d  di^  rfang^  flroigiithe 


A  Broadside  of  1670 

and  imitated   the  broken   English   of   the 
Ragusan  youth: 

A  Broad-side  Against  COFFEE  ; 

Ob,  the 

Mabbiage  of  the  Turk 

Coffee,  a  kind  of  Turkish  Renegade, 

Has  late  a  match  with  Christian  water  made ; 

At  first  l)etween  them  happen'd  a  Demur, 

Yet  joyn'd  they  were,  but  not  without  great  stir; 

*  *     * 

Coffee  was  cold  as  Earth,   Water  as   Thames, 
And  stood  in  need  of  recommending  Flames; 

*  iti         * 

Coffee  so  brown  as  berry  does  appear, 
Too  swarthy  for  a  Nymph  so  fair,  so  clear : 

*  *     * 

A  Coachman  was  the  first  (here)   Coffee  made, 
And  ever  since  the  rest  drive  on  the  trade; 
Me  no  good  Engalash!  and  sure  enough. 
He  plaid  the  Quack  to  salve  his  Stygian  stuff; 
Ver  boon  for  de  stomach,  de  Cough,  de  Ptisick 
And  I  believe  him,  for  it  looks  like  Physick. 
Coffee  a  crust  is  charkt  into  a  coal. 
The  smell  and  taste  of  the  Mock  China  bowl ; 
Where  huflf  and  puff,  they  labour  out  their  lungs, 
Lest  Dives-like  they  should  bewail  their  tongues. 
And  yet  they  tell  ye  that  it  will  not  burn. 
Though  on  the  Jury  Blisters  you  return ; 
Whose  furious  heat  does  make  the  water  rise. 
And  still  through  the  Alembicks  of  your  eyes. 
Dread  and  desire,  ye  fall  to't  snap  by  snap, 


As  hungry  Dogs  do  scalding  porrige  lap, 
But  to  cure  Drunkards  it  has  got  great  Fame; 
Posset  or  Porrige,  will't  not  do  the  same? 
Confusion  huddles  all  into  one   Scene, 
Like  Noah's  Ark,  the  clean  and  the  unclean. 
But  now,  alas!  the  Drench  has  credit  got, 
And  he's  no  Gentleman  that  drinks  it  not ; 
That  such  a  Dwarf  should  rise  to  such  a  stature  I 
But  Custom  is  but  a  remove  from  Nature. 
A  little  Dish,  and  a  large  Coffee-house, 
What  is  it,  but  a  Mountain  and  a  Mouse? 
*     *     * 

Mens  humana  novitatis  avidissim^a. 

And  so  it  came  to  pass  that  coffee  his- 
tory repeated  itself  in  England.  Many 
good  people  became  convinced  that  coffee 
was  a  dangerous  drink.  The  tirades  against 
the  beverage  in  that  far-off  time  sound  not 
unlike  the  advertising  patter  employed  by 
some  of  our  present-day  coffee-substitute 
manufacturers.  It  was  even  ridiculed  by 
being  referred  to  as  "ninny  broth"  and 
"Turkey  gruel." 

A  brief  description  of  the  excellent  ver- 
tues  of  that  sober  and  wholesome  drink 
called  coffee  appeared  in  1674  and  proved 
an  able  and  dignified  answer  to  the  at- 
tacks that  had  preceded  it.  That  same  year, 
for  the  first  time  in  history,  the  sexes  di- 
vided in  a  coffee  controversy,  and  there 
was  issued  The  Women's  Petition  against 
Coffee,  representing  to  public  consideration 
the  grand  inconveniences  accruing  to  their 


A  Broad-ride  againft  COFFEE;  , 

Or,  the 

Marriage  of  the  Turk.  -x 


■^'llFhE.i.i.n 


^  lih  t    ,  ;  jr  11 


ii/f  iThisMii 
r  rmadi;  'And  boil 
I     ACo 


Cr 


All         H.  funtlouk  y  I   t 

.      JnrUintoacjjl 


'1  •» ' 
I,  )'l 


I 

I'l.l   lu(a»  I  t      , 

S  K  I.   ijf[\  t-  1  1 1 
An'    1        <i.<fl. 

;,  I'L'  diou-,h  t-om 
^■ur  t'>ij'e i  -vcxt  U 

Wh  t  ft.ll!    HI 


lie  1  ft 


VVi   I 

L  lltt  c 

An  J  yctt 

rhouctioiiil-JuryBli         »  r 

W  lioie  furijj  heat  does  n^k«  tl  e  Witcrn  c, 

\nA  dtil  iluougii  ilw  Atcmbicls  of  yaur  cyn 

0  eaJ  ind  dcHre,  w  f-'i'  to  i  f  lap  I )  f  lap, 

'AshongryI>)j;i«oK-aldingp  iii       ip 
Bjiiocir  Dn nlad? It lia  go«gc  iF  in  , 

lPi>,r«o  -Por??,  wiiitnotdodnlmi  > 
CtiI  I'm   lit.i"j  -tall  idtoone  S  c  i- 

Xl  ^M»  All,  hedcamndiUuiiclcw 

iRurov,  Va  '  .hr  Drench  ha  crd.  ;;« 
AnilKu  jtjcn  l-matitlntdiiik   H»ut, 
T  in.  1    u    /)  r      rt  ouH  r¥c  to  fi.  H  a  Ibture ' 
B'ClH  i    til  no\    fromNaluri: 

A  ii  'f  D  n  f    ft  e  V,  m'c 

\V  ,        ' 


?  („,J  , 


II, 


e<i!.Biit!i:vs%*( 


,r.sta). 


'  L.  JfiM  Efits  itf^a 


A  Broadside  of  1672 


COFFEE  HOUSES  OF  OLD  LOXDON 


71 


sex  from  the  excessive  use  of  the  drying 
and  enfeebling  Liquor,  in  which  the  ladies, 
who  had  not  been  accorded  the  freedom  of 
the  coffee  houses  in  England,  as  was  the 
custom  in  France,  Germany,  Italy,  and 
other  countries  on  the  Continent,  com- 
plained that  coffee  made  men  as  "unfruit- 
ful as  the  deserts  where  that  unhappy 
berry  is  said  to  be  bought."  Besides  the 
more  serious  complaint  that  the  whole  race 
was  in  danger  of  extinction,  it  was  urged 
that  "on  a  domestic  message  a  husband 
would  stop  by  the  way  to  drink  a  couple 
of  cups  of  coffee." 

This  pamphlet  is  believed  to  have  pre- 
cipitated the  attempt  at  suppression  by 
the  crown  the  following  year,  despite  the 
prompt  appearing,  in  1674,  of  The  Men's 
Answer  to  the  Women's  Petition  Against 
Coffee,  vindicating  .  .  .  their  liquor,  from 
the  undeserved  aspersion  lately  cast  upon 
them,  in  their  scandalous  pamphlet. 

The  1674  broadside  in  defense  of  coffee 
was  the  first  to  be  illustrated;  and  for  all 
its  air  of  pretentious  grandeur  and  occa- 
sional bathos,  it  was  not  a  bad  rhyming 
advertisement  for  the  persecuted  drink.  It 
was  printed  for  Paul  Greenwood  and  sold 
"at  the  sign  of  the  coffee  mill  and  tobacco- 
roll  in  Cloath-fair  near  West-Smithfield, 
who  selleth  the  best  Arabian  coffee  powder 
and  chocolate  in  cake  or  roll,  after  the 
Spanish  fashion,  etc."  The  following  ex- 
tracts will  serve  to  illustrate  its  epic  char- 
acter : 

When    the    sweet    Poison    of    the    Treacherous 

Grape, 
Had  Acted  on  the  world  a  General  Rape ; 
Drowning  our  very  Reason  and  our  Souls 
In  such  deep  Seas  of  large  o'reflowing  Bowls, 

*  *      an 

When  Foggy  Ale,  leavying  up  mighty  Trains 
Of  muddy  Vapours,  had  besieg'd  our  Brains ; 

*  *     * 

Then  Heaven  in  Pity,  to  Effect  our  Cure, 

*  *     * 

First  sent  amongst  us  this  All-heaUng-Berry, 
At  once  to  make  us  both  Sober  and  Merry. 

Arabian  Coffee,  a  Rich  Cordial 
To  Purse  and  Person  Beneficial, 
Which  of  so  many  Vertues  doth  partake, 
Its  Country's  called  Felix  for  its  sake. 
From  the  Rich  Chambers  of  the  Rising  Sun, 
Where  Arts,  and  all  good  Fashions  first  begun. 
Where  Earth  with  choicest  Rarities  is  blest. 
And  dying  Phoenix  builds  Her  wondrous  Nest;: 
COFFEE   arrives,    that   Grave   and   wholesome 

Liquor, 
That    heals    the    Stomack,    makes    the    Genius 

quicker, 


DESCRIPTh   N 


COFFEE 


■^J*!,- INCOMPARABLE 
'.*-jj^       EFFECTS 


Wr^-^:t^i: 


mil  F    HOUSE. 


I  b  whi,.^  I.  ..  HA.n.VMVM. 


A    I  ".udADsii'i;   III     It;,  1 
The  first  one  to  be  illustrated 

Relieves  the  Memory,  Revives  the  Sad. 
*     *     * 

Do  but  this  Rare  ARABIAN  Cordial  Use, 
And  thou  may'st  all  the  Doctors  Slops  Refuse. 
Hush  then,  dull  QUACKS,  your  Mountebanking 

cease, 
COFFEE'S  a  speedier  Cure  for  each  Disease; 
How  great  its  Vertues  are,  we  hence  may  think. 
The  Worlds  third  Part  makes  it  their  common 

Drink ; 
In  Breif,  all  you  who  Healths  Rich  Treasures 

Prize, 
And  Court  not  Ruby  Noses,  or  blear'd  Eyes, 
But  own  Sobriety  to  be  your  Drift. 
And  Love  at  once  good  Company  and  Thrift ; 
To  Wine  no  more  make   Wit  and   Coyn  a 

Trophy, 
But  come  each  Night  and   Fi-<>llique  here  in 

Coffee. 

• 

An  eight-page  folio,  the  last  argument 
to  be  issued  in  defense  of  coffee  before 
Charles  II  sought  to  follow  in  the  foot- 
steps of  Kair  Bey  and  Kuprili,  was  issued 
in  the  early  part  of  1675.  It  was  entitled 
Coffee  Houses  Vindicated.  In  answer  to 
the  late  published  Character  of  a  Coffee 
House.  Assertiiig  from  Reason,  Experi- 
ence and  good  Authors  the  Excellent  Use 
and  physical  Virtues  of  that  Liquor.  .  .  . 
With  the  Grand  Conveniency  of  such  civil 
Places  of  Resort  and  ingenious  Conversa- 
tion. 


72 


ALL     ABOUT     COFFEE 


The  advantage  of  a  coffee  house  com- 
pared with  a  "  publiek-house "  is  thus  set 
forth: 

First,  In  regard  of  easy  expense.     Being  to 
wait  for  or  meet  a  friend,  a  tavern-reckoning 
soon    breeds    a    purse-consumption :    in    an   ale 
house,  you  must  gorge  yourself  with  pot  after 
pot     .     .     .     But  here,  for  a  penny  or  two,  you 
may  spend  two  or  three  hours,  have  the  shelter 
of  a  house,  the  warmth  of  *a  fire,  the  diversion 
of  company ;  and  conveniency,  if  you  please,  of 
taking  a  pipe  of  tobacco ;  and  all  this  without 
any  grumbling  or  repining.     Secondly.     For  so- 
briety.    It  is  grown,  by  the  ill  influences  of  I 
know  not  what  hydropick  stars,  almost  a  gen- 
eral custom  amongst  us,  that  no  bargain  can 
be  drove,   or  business  concluded  between  man 
and   man,  hut  it   must   be   transacted   at  some 
publick-house     .     .     .     where  continual  sippings 
.     .     .     would  be  apt  to  fly  up  into  their  brains, 
and  render  them  drowsy  and  indisposed     .     .     . 
whereas,    having    now    the    opportunity    of    a 
coffee-house,    they    repair    thither,    take    each 
man  a  dish  or  two  (so  far  from  causing,  that  it 
cures  any  dizziness,  or  disturbant  fumes)  :  and 
so,    dispatching    their    business,    go    out    more 
sprightly  about  their  affairs,  than  before.  .    .   . 
Lastly,  For  diversion     .     .     .     where  can  young 
gentlemen,  or  shop-keepers,  more  innocently  and 
advantageously  spend  an  hour  or  two  in  the  eve- 
ning than  at  a  coffee-house?    Where  they  shall 
be  sure  to  meet  company,  and,  by  the  custom  of 
the  house,  not  such  as  at  other  places  stingy  and 
reserved  to  themselves,  but  free  and  communica- 
tive, where  every  man  may  modestly  begin  his 
story,    and   propose    to,    or   answer    another,    as 
he  thinks  fit.     .     .     .     So  that,  upon  the  whole 
matter,  spight  of  the  idle  sarcasms  and  paltry 
reproaches   thrown   upon   it,    we  may,    with   no 
less  truth  than  plainness,  give  this  brief  char- 
acter of  a  well-regulated  coffee-house,   (for  our 
pen  disdains  to  be  an  advocate  for  any  sordid 
holes,  that  assume  that  name  to  cloke  the  prac- 
tice of  debauchery,)   that  it  is  the  sanctuary  of 
health,  the  nursery  of  temperance,  the  delight  of 
frugality,    and    academy    of   civility,    and    free- 
school  of  ingenuity. 

The  Ale  Wives'  Complaint  Against  the 
Coffee-houses,  a  dialogue  between  a  vict- 
ualer's  wife  and  a  coffee  man,  at  difference 
about  spiriting  away  each  other's  trade, 
also  was  issued  in  1675. 

As  early  as  1666,  and  again  in  1672,  we 
find  the  government  planning  to  strike  a 
blow  at  the  coffee  houses.  By  the  year 
1675,  these  "seminaries  of  sedition"  were 
much  frequented  by  persons  of  rank  and 
substance,  who,  "suitable  to  our  native 
genius,"  says  Anderson,"  "used  great  free- 
dom therein  with  respect  to  the  courts' 
proceedings  in  these  and  like  points,  so 
contrary  to  the  voice  of  the  people." 
.  In  1672,  Charles  II,  seemingly  eager  to 
emulate  the  Oriental  intolerants  that  pre- 

^*  Anderson.    Adam.      Historical    and    Chronological 
Deduction  of  the  Origin  of  Commerce.     London,  1787. 


ceded  him,  determined  to  try  his  hand  at 
suppression.  "Having  been  informed  of 
the  great  inconveniences  arising  from  the 
great  number  of  persons  that  resort  to 
coffee-houses,"  the  king  "desired  the  Lord 
Keeper  and  the  Judges  to  give  their  opin- 
ion in  writing  as  to  how  far  he  might  law- 
fully proceed  against  them." 

Roger  North  in  his  Examen  gives  the 
full  story;  and  D 'Israeli,  commenting  on 
it,  says,  "it  was  not  done  without  some 
apparent  respect  for  the  British  constitu- 
tion." The  courts  affected  not  to  act 
against  the  law,  and  the  judges  were  sum- 
moned to  a  consultation ;  but  the  five  who- 
met  could  not  agree  in  opinion. 

Sir  William  Coventry  spoke  against  the 
proposed  measure.  He  pointed  out  that 
the  government  obtained  considerable 
revenue  from  coffee,  that  the  king  himself 
owed  to  these  seemingly  obnoxious  places 
no  small  debt  of  gratitude  in  the  matter 
of  his  own  restoration;  for  they  had  been 
permitted  in  Cromwell's  time,  when  the 
king's  friends  had  used  more  liberty  of 
speech  than  "they  dared  to  do  in  any 
other."  He  urged,  also,  that  it  might  be 
rash  to  issue  a  command  so  likely  to  be 
disobeyed. 

At  last,  being  hard  pressed  for  a  reply, 
the  judges  gave  such  a  halting  opinion  in 
favor  of  the  king's  policy  as  to  remind  us 
of  the  reluctant  verdict  wrung  from  the 
physicians  and  lawyers  of  Mecca  on  the 
occasion  of  coffee 's  first  persecution.''  ' '  The 
English  lawyers,  in  language  which,  for  its 
civility  and  indefiniteness, ' '  says  Robinson, 
"would  have  been  the  envy  of  their  East- 
em  brethren,"  declared  that: 

Retailing  coffee  might  be  an  innocent  trade, 
as  it  might  be  exercised;  but  as  it  is  used  nt 
present,  in  the  nature  of  a  common  assembly, 
to  discourse  of  matters  of  State,  news  and 
great  Persons,  as  they  are  Nurseries  of  Idle- 
ness and  Pragmaticalness,  and  hinder  the  ex- 
pence  of  our  native  Provisions,  they  might  be 
thought  common  nuisances. 

An  attempt  was  made  to  mold  public 
opinion  to  a  favorable  consideration  of  the 
attempt  at  suppression  in  The  Grand  Con- 
cern of  England  explained,  which  w^as  good 
propaganda  for  his  majesty's  enterprise, 
but  utterly  failed  to  carry  conviction  to 
the  lovers  of  liberty. 

After  much  backing  and  filling,  the  king, 
on  December  23,  1675,  issued  a  proclama- 
tion which  in  its  title  frankly  stated  its 

"  See  chapter  III. 


COFFEE  HOUSES  OF  OLD  LONDON 


78 


object  —  "foF  the  suppression  of  coffee 
houses."  It  is  here  given  in  a  somewhat 
condensed  form: 

BY   THE   KING:    A  PROCLAMATION 

^FOR  THE  SUPPRESSION  OF 

COFFEE  HOUSES 

Charles  R. 

Whereas  it  is  most  apparent  that  the  multi- 
tude of  Coffee  Houses  of  late  years  set  up  and 
kept  within  this  kingdom,  the  dominion  of 
Wales,  and  town  of  Berwick-upon-Tweed,  and 
the  great  resort  of  Idle  and  disaffected  persons 
to  them,  have  produced  very  evil  and  dangerous 
effects ;  as  well  for  that  many  tradesmen  and 
others,  do  herein  mispend  much  of  their  time, 
which  might  and  probably  would  be  employed 
in  and  about  their  Lawful  Calling  and  Affairs ; 
but  also,  for  that  in  such  houses  .... 
divers  false,  malitious  and  scandalous  reports 
are  devised  and  spread  abroad  to  the  Defama- 
tion of  his  Majestie's  Government,  and  to  the 
Disturbance  of  the  Peace  and  Quiet  of  the 
Realm ;  his  Majesty  hath  thought  fit  and  neces- 
sary, that  the  said  Coffee  Houses  be  (for  the 
future)  Put  down,  and  suppressed,  and  doth 
.  strictly  charge  and  command  all  man- 
ner of  persons.  That  they  or  any  of  them  do 
not  presume  from  and  after  the  Tenth  Day  of 
January  next  ensuing,  to  keep  any  Public  Cof- 
fee House,  or  to  utter  or  sell  by  retail,  in  his, 
her  or  their  house  or  houses  (to  be  spent  or 
consumed  within  the  same)  any  Coffee,  Choco 
let,  Sherbett  or  Tea,  as  they  will  answer  the 
contrary  at  their  utmost  perils  .  .  .  (all 
licenses  to  be  revoked). 

Given  at  our  Court  at  Whitehall,  this  third- 
and-twentleth  dajj  of  Dec,  1675,  in  the  seven - 
and-twentieth  year  of  our  Reign. 

GOD  SAVE  THE  KING. 

And  then  a  remarkable  thing  happened. 
It  is  not  usual  for  a  royal  proclamation 
issued  on  the  29th  of  one  month  to  be  re- 
called on  the  8th  day  of  the  next ;  but  this 
is  the  record  established  by  Charles  II. 
The  proclamation  was  made  on  December 
23,  1675,  and  issued  December  29,  1675. 
It  forbade  the  coffee  houses  to  operate 
after  January  10,  1676,  But  so  intense 
was  the  feeling  aroused,  that  eleven  days 
was  sufficient  time  to  convince  the  king 
that  a  blunder  had  been  made.  Men  of 
all  parties  cried  out  against  being  deprived 
of  their  accustomed  haunts.     The  dealers 

I  in  coffee,  tea,  and  chocolate  demonstrated 
that  the  proclamation  would  greatly  lessen 
his  majesty's  revenues.  Convulsion  and 
discontent  loomed  large.  The  king  heeded 
|the  warning,  and  on  January  8,  1676,  an- 
other proclamation  was  issued  by  which 
the  first  proclamation  was  recalled. 

In  order  to  save  the  king's  face,  it  was 
solemnly  recited  that  "His  Gracious  Maj- 


esty," out  of  his  "princely  consideration 
and  royal  compassion"  would  allow  the  re- 
tailers of  coffee  liquor  to  keep  open  until 
the  24th  of  the  following  June.  But  this 
was  clearly  only  a  royal  subterfuge,  as 
there  was  no  further  attempt  at  molesta- 
tion, and  it  is  extremely  doubtful  if  any 
was  contemplated  at  the  time  the  second 
proclamation  was  promulgated. 

"Than  both  which  proclamations  noth- 
ing could  argue  greater  guilt  nor  greater 
weakness,"  says  Anderson.  Robinson  re- 
marks, "A  battle  for  freedom  of  speech 
was  fought  and  won  over  this  question  at 
a  time  when  Parliaments  were  infrequent 
and  when  the  liberty  of  the  press  did  not 
exist, ' ' 

"Penny  Universities" 

"We  read  in  1677  that  "none  dare  ven- 
ture into  the  coffee  houses  unless  he  be 
able  to  argue  the  question  whether  Parlia- 
ment were  dissolved  or  not." 

All  through  the  years  remaining. in  the 
seventeenth  century,  and  through  most  of 
the  eighteenth  century,  the  London  coffee 
houses  grew  and  prospered.  As  before 
stated,  they  were  originally  temperance  in- 
stitutions, very  different  from  the  taverns 
and  ale  houses.  "Within  the  walls  of  the 
coffee  house  there  was  always  much  noise, 
much  clatter,  much  bustle,  but  decency 
was  never  outraged." 

At  prices  ranging  from  one  to  two 
pence  per  dish,  the  demand  grew  so  great 
that  coffee-house  keepers  were  obliged  to 
make  the  drink  in  pots  holding  eight  or 
ten  gallons. 

The  seventeenth-century  coffee  houses 
were  sometimes  referred  to  as  the  "penny 
universities";  because  they  were  great 
schools  of  conversation,  and  the  entrance 
fee  was  only  a  penny.  Two  pence  was  the 
usual  price  of  a  dish  of  coffee  or  tea,  this 
charge  also  covering  newspapers  and  lights. 
It  was  the  custom  for  the  frequenter  to 
lay  his  penny  on  the  bar,  on  entering  or 
leaving.  Admission  to  the  exchange  of 
sparkling  wit  and  brilliant  conversation 
was  within  the  reach  of  all. 

So  great  a  Vniveraitie 
I  think  there  ne're  was  any ; 
In  which  you  may  a  Schoolar  be 
For  spending  of  a  Penny. 

"Regular  customers,"  we  are  told,  "had 
particular  seats  and  special  attention  from 
the  fair  lady  at  the  bar,  and  the  tea  and 
coffee  boys." 


74 


ALL     ABOUT     COFFEE 


It  is  believed  that  the-iiifidern  custom 
of  tipping,  and  the  wordQ^tip^  originated 
in  the  coffee  houses,  where  irequently  hung 
brass-bound  boxes  into  which  customers 
were  expected  to  drop  coins  for  the  ser- 
vants. The  boxes  were  inscribed  "Jc)  Ttt- 
mxet  Promptness''  and  from  the  initial 
letters  of  these  words  came  "tip." 

The  National  Review  says,  ' '  be^re  1715 
the  number  of  coffee  houses  in  London  was 
reckoned  at  2-000."  Dufour,  who  wrote  in 
1683,  declares,  upon  information  received 
from  several  persons  who  had  staid  in 
London,  that  there  were  3000  of  these 
places.  However,  2000  is  probably  nearer 
the  fact. 

In  that  critical  time  in  English  history, 
when  the  people,  tired  of  the  misgovern- 
ment  of  the  later  Stuarts,  were  most  in  need 
of  a  forum  where  questions  of  great  mo- 
ment could  be  discussed,  the  coffee  house 
became  a  sanctuary.  Here  matters  of 
supreme  political  import  were  threshed  out 
and  decided  for  the  good  of  Englishmen 
for  all  time.  And  because  many  of  these 
questions  were  so  well  thought  out  then, 
there  was  no  need  to  fight  them  out  later. 
England's  great  struggle  for  political 
liberty  was  really  fought  and  won  in  the 
coffee  house. 

To  the  end  of  the  reign  of  Charles  II, 
coffee  was  looked  upon  by  the  govern- 
ment rather  as  a  new  check  upon  license 
than  an  added  luxury.  After  the  revolu- 
tion, the  London  coffee  merchants  were 
obliged  to  petition  the  House  of  Lords 
against  new  import  duties,  and  it  was  not 
until  the  year  1692  that  the  government, 
"for  the  greater  encouragement  and  ad- 
vancement of  trade  and  the  greater  impor- 
tation of  the  said  respective  goods  or  mer- 
chandises," discharged  one  half  of  the  ob- 
noxious tariff. 

Weird  Co/fee  Substitutes 

Shortly  after  the  "great  fire,"  coffee 
substitutes  began  to  appear.  First  came 
a  liquor  made  with  betony,  "for  the  sake 
of  those  who  could  not  accustom  themselves 
to  the  bitter  taste  of  coffee."  Betony  is 
a  herb  belonging  to  the  mint  family,  and 
its  root  was  formerly  employed  in  medi- 
cine as  an  emetic  or  purgative.  In  1719, 
when  coffee  was  7s.  a  pound,  came  bocket, 
later  known  as  saloop,  a  decoction  of  sassa- 
fras and  sugar,  that  became  such  a  favorite' 
among  those  who  could  not  afford  tea  or 
coffee,  that  there  were  many  saloop  stalls 


in  the  streets  of  London.     It  was  also  sold 
at  Read's  coffee  house  in  Fleet  Street. 

The  Coffee  Men  Overreach  Themselves 

The  coffee-house  keepers  had  become  so 
powerful  a  force  in  the  community  in  1729 
that  they  lost  all  sense  of  proportion;  and 
we  find  them  seriously  proposing  to  usurp 
the  functions  of  the  newspapers.  The  vain- 
glorious coffee  men  requested  the  govern- 
ment to  hand  over  to  them  a  journalistic 
monopoly;  the  argument  being  that  the 
newspapers  of  the  day  were  choked  with 
advertisements,  filled  with  foolish  stories 
gathered  by  ail-too  enterprising  news- 
writers,  and  that  the  only  way  for  the  gov- 
ernment to  escape  "further  excesses  occa- 
sioned by  the  freedom  of  the  press"  and 
to  rid  itself  of  "those  pests  of  society,  the 
unlicensed  newsvendors, "  was  for  it  to  in- 
trust the  coffee  men,  as  "the  chief  support- 
ers of  liberty"  with  the  publication  of  a 
Coffee  House  Gazette.  Information  for  the 
journal  was  to  be  supplied  by  the  habitues 
of  the  houses  themselves,  written  down  on 
brass  slates  or  ivory  tablets,  and  called  for 
twice  daily  by  the  Gazette's  representatives. 
All  the  profits  were  to  go  to  the  coffee  men 
—  including  the  expected  increase  of  cus- 
tom. 

Needless  to  say,  this  amazing  proposal 
of  the  coffee-house  masters  to  have  the  pub- 
lic write  its  own  newspapers  met  with  the 
scorn  and  the  derision  it  invited,  and  noth- 
ing ever  came  of  it. 

The  increasing  demand  for  coffee  caused 
the  government  tardily  to  seek  to  stimulate 
interest  in  the  cultivation  of  the  plant  in 
"British  colonial  possessions.  It  was  tried 
out  in  Jamaica  in  1730.  By  1732  the  ex- 
periment gave  such  promise  that  Parlia- 
ment, "for  encouraging  the  growth  of 
coffee  in  His  Majesty's  plantations  in 
America,"  reduced  the  inland  duty  on  cof- 
fee coming  from  there,  "but  of  none  other," 
from  two  shillings  to  one  shilling  six  pence 
per  pound.  "It  seems  that  the  French  at 
Martinico,  Hispaniola,  and  at  the  Isle  de 
Bourbon,  near  Madagascar,  had  somewhat 
the  start  of  the  English  in  the  new  prod- 
uct as  had  also  the  Dutch  at  Surinam,  yet 
none  had  hitherto  been  found  to  equal  cof- 
fee from  Arabia,  whence  all  the  rest  of 
the  world  had  theirs."  Thus  writes  Adam 
Anderson  in  1787,  somewhat  ungraciously 
seeking  to  damn  England's  business  rivals 
with  faint  praise.  Java  coffee  was  even 
then  in  the  lead,  and  the  seeds  of  Bourbon- 


COFFEE  HOUSES  OF  OLD  LONDON 


75 


Jantos  were  multiply ing  rapidly  in  Bra- 
ilian  soil. 

The  British  East  India  Company,  how- 
Bver,  was  much  more  interested  in  tea  than 
coffee.  Having  lost  out  to  the  French 
ind  Dutch  on  the  "little  brown  berry  of 
Lrabia,"  the  company  engaged  in  so  lively 
propaganda  for  "the  cup  that  cheers" 
lat,  whereas  the  annual  tea  imports  from 
[700  to  1710  averaged  800,000  pounds,  in 
[721  more  than  1,000,000  pounds  of  tea 
Jrere  brought  in.  In  1757,  some  4,000,000 
^Jounds  were  imported.  And  when  the  cof- 
fee house  finally  succumbed,  tea,  and  not 
coffee,  was  firmly  intrenched  as  the  na- 
tional drink  of  the  English  people. 

A  movement  in  1873  to  revive  the  coffee 
house  in  the  form  of  a  coffee  ' '  palace, ' '  de- 
signed to  replace  the  public  house  as  a 
place  of  resort  for  working  men,  caused 
the  Edinburgh  Castle  to  be  opened  in  Lon- 
don. The  movement  attained  considerable 
success  throughout  the  British  Isles,  and 
even  spread  to  the  United  States. 

Evolution  of  the  Club 

Every  profession,  trade,  class,  and  party 
had  its  favorite  coffee  house.  ' '  The  bitter 
black  drink  called  coffee,"  as  Mr.  Pepys 
described  the  beverage,  brought  together 
all  sorts  and  conditions  of  men;  and  out 
of  their  mixed  association  there  developed 
groups  of  patrons  favoring  particular 
houses  and  giving  them  character.  It  is 
easy  to  trace  the  transition  of  the  group 
into  a  clique  that  later  became  a  club,  con- 
tinuing for  a  time  to  meet  at  the  coffee 
house  or  the  chocolate  house,  but  event- 
ually demanding  a  house  of  its  own. 

Decline  and  Fall  of  the  Coffee  House 

Starting  as  a  forum  for  the  commoner, 
the  coffee  house  soon  became  the  plaything 
of  the  leisure  class ;  and  when  the  club  was 
evolved,  the  coffee  house  began  to  retro- 
grade to  the  level  of  the  tavern.  And  so 
the  eighteenth  century,  which  saw  the  cof- 
fee house  at  the  height  of  its  power  and 
popularity,  witnessed  also  its  decline  and 
fall.  It  is  said  there  were  as  many  clubs 
at  the  end  of  the  century  as  there  were 
coffee  houses  at  the  beginning. 

For  a  time,  when  the  habit  of  reading 
newspapers  descended  the  social  ladder, 
the  coffee  house  acquired  a  new  lease  of 
life.     Sir  Walter  Besant  observes: 

They  were  then  frequented  by  men  who  came, 
not  to  talk,  but  to  read ;  the  smaller  tradesmen 


and  the  better  class  of  mechanic  now  came  to 
the  cofifee-house.  called  for  a  cup  of  cofifee,  and 
with  it  the  daily  paper,  which  they  could  not 
afford  to  take  in.  Every  cofifee-house  took  three 
or  four  papers ;  there  seems  to  have  been  in  this 
latter  phase  of  the  once  social  institution  no 
general  conversation.  The  cofifee-house  as  a 
place  of  resort  and  conversation  gradually  de- 
clined ;  one  can  hardly  say  why,  except  that  all 
human  institutions  do  decay.  Perhaps  manners 
declined;  the  leaders  in  literature  ceased  to  be 
seen  there;  the  city  clerk  began  to  crowd  in; 
the  tavern  and  the  club  drew  men  from  the  cof- 
fee-house. 

A  few  houses  survived  until  the  early 
years  of  the  nineteenth  century,  but  the 
social  side  had  disappeared.  As  tea  and 
coffee  entered  the  homes,  and  the  exclusive 
club  house  succeeded  the  democratic  coffee 
forum,  the  coffee  houses  became  taverns 
or  chop  houses,  or,  convinced  that  they  had 
outlived  their  usefulness,  just  ceased  to  be. 

Pen  Pictures  of  Coffee-House  Life 

From  the  writings  of  Addison  in  the 
Spectator,  Steele  in  the  Tatler,  Mackay  in 
his  Journey  Through  England,  Macaulay 
in  his  history,  and  others,  it  is  possible  to 
draw  a  fairly  accurate  pen-picture  of  life 
in  the  old  London  coffee  house. 

In  the  seventeenth  century  the  coffee 
room  usually  opened  off  the  street.  At 
first  only  tables  and  chairs  were  spread 
about  on  a  sanded  floor.  Later,  this  ar- 
rangement was  succeeded  by  the  boxes,  or 
booths,  such  as  appear  in  the  Rowlandson 
caricatures,  the  picture  of  the  interior  of 
Lloyds,  etc. 

The  walls  were  decorated  with  handbills 
and  posters  advertising  the  quack  medi- 
cines, pills,  tinctures,  salves,  and  electu- 
aries of  the  period,  all  of  which  might  be 
purchased  at  the  bar  near  the  entrance, 
presided  over  by  a  prototype  of  the  mod- 
ern English  barmaid.  There  were  also 
bills  of  the  play,  auction  notices,  etc.,  de- 
pending upon  the  character  of  the  place. 

Then,  as  now,  the  barmaids  were  made 
much  of  by  patrons.  Tom  Brown  refers 
to  them  as  charming  "Phillises  who  invite 
you  by  their  amorous  glances  into  their 
smoaky  territories." 

Messages  were  left  and  letters  received 
at  the  bar  for  regular  customers.  Stella 
was  instructed  to  address  her  letters  to 
Swift,  "under  cover  to  Addison  at  the  St. 
James's  coffee  house."    Says  Macaulay: 

Foreigners  remarked  that  it  was  the  coffee 
house  which  specially  distinguished  London  from 
all  other  cities;  that  the  coffee  house  was  the 


76 


ALL     ABOUT     COFFEE 


MAP  SHOWING  THE  LOCATION    OF  MANY  OF  THE  OLD  LONDON 
COFFEE  HOUSES  PREVIOUS  TO  THE  FIRE  OF  1748 


COFFEE  HOUSES  OF  OLD  LONDOJl 


jondoner's  home,  and  that  those  who  wished  to 

ind  a  gentleman  commonly  asked,  not  whether 

the  lived  in  Fleet  Street  or  Chancery  Lane,  but 

j-whether  he  frequented  the  Grecian  or  the  Rain- 

fcbow. 

So  every  man  of  the  upper  or  middle 
classes  went  daily  to  his  coffee  house  to 
learn  the  news  and  to  discuss  it.  The  better 
class  houses  were  the  meeting  places  of  the 
most  substantial  men  in  the  community. 
Every  coffee  house  had  its  orator,  who  be- 
came to  his  admirers  a  kind  of  "fourth 
estate  of  the  realm. ' ' 

Macaulay  gives  us  the  following  picture 
of  the  coffee  house  of  1685 : 

Nobody  was  excluded  from  these  places  who 
laid  down  his  penny  at  the  bar.  Yet  every 
rank  and  profession,  and  every  shade  of  reli- 
gious and  political  opinion  had  its  own  head- 
quarters. 

There  were  houses  near  St.  James'  Park, 
where  fops  congregated,  their  heads  and  shoul- 
ders covered  with  black  or  flaxen  wigs,  not  less 
ample  than  those  which  are  now  worn  by  the 
Chancellor  and  by  the  Speaker  of  the  House  of 
Commons.  The  atmosphere  was  like  that  of  a 
perfumer's  shop.  Tobacco  in  any  form  than 
that  of  richly  scented  snuff  was  held  in  abom- 
ination. If  any  clown,  ignorant  of  the  usages 
(if  the  house,  called  for  a  pipe,  the  sneers  of  the 
whole  assembly  and  the  short  answers  of  the 
waiters  soon  convinced  him  that  he  had  better 
go  somewhere  else. 

Nor,  indeed,  would  he  have  far  to  go.  For,  in 
general,  the  coffee-houses  reeked  with  tobacco 
like  a  guard  room.  Nowhere  was  the  smoking 
more  constant  than  at  Will's.  That  celebrated 
house,  situated  between  Covent  Garden  and  Bow 
street,  was  sacred  to  polite  letters.  There  the 
talk  was  about  poetical  justice  and  the  unities 
of  place  and  time.  Under  no  roof  was  a  great- 
er variety  of  figures  to  be  seen.  There  were 
earls  in  stars  and  garters,  clergymen  in  cas- 
socks and  bands,  pert  Templars,  sheepish  lads 
from  universities,  translators  and  index  makers 
in  ragged  coats  of  frieze.  The  great  press  was 
to  get  near  the  chair  where  John  Dryden  sate. 
In  winter  that  chair  was  always  in  the  warmest 
nook  by  the  fire ;  in  summer  it  stood  in  the  bal- 
cony. To  bow  to  the  Laureate,  and  to  hear  his 
opinion  of  Racine's  last  tragedy,  or  of  Bossu's 
treatise  on  epic  poetry,  was  thought  a  privilege 
A  pinch  from  his  snuff-box  was  an  honour  suffl- 
cient  to  turn  the  head  of  a  young  enthusiast. 

There  were  coffee-houses  where  the  first  medi- 
cal men  might  be  consulted.  Dr.  John  Rad- 
cliffe.  who,  in  the  year  1685,  rose  to  the  largest 
practice  in  London,  came  daily,  at  the  hour 
when  the  Exchange  was  full,  from  his  house  in 
Bow  street,  then  a  fashionable  part  of  the  capi- 
tal, to  Garraway's,  and  was  to  be  found,  sur- 
rounded by  surgeons  and  apothecaries,  at  a  par- 
ticular table. 

There  were  Puritan  coffee-houses  where  no 
oath  was  heard,  and  where  lank-haired  men 
discussed  election  and  reprobation  through  their 
Boses;  Jew  coffee-houses,  where  dark-eyed 
money  changers  from  Venice  and  Amsterdam 
greeted  each  other;   and  Popish  coffee-houses. 


77 

where,  as  good  Protestan^j  believed,  Jesuits 
planned  over  their  cups  another  great  fire,  and 
cast  silver  bullets  to  shoot  the  King. 

Ned  Ward  gives  us  this  picture  of  the 
coffee  house  of  the  seventeenth  century. 
He  is  describing  Old  Man's,  Scotland 
Yard: 

We  now  ascended  a  pair  of  stairs,  which 
brought  us  into  an  old-fashioned  room,  where  a 
gaudy  crowd  of  odoriferous  Tom-Essences  were 
walking  backwards  and  forwards,  with  their 
hats  in  their  hands,  not  daring  to  convert  them 
to  their  intended  use  lest  it  should  put  the  fore 
tops  of  their  wigs  into  some  disorder.  We 
squeezed  through  till  we  got  to  the  end  of  the 
room,  where,  at  a  small  table,  we  sat  down, 
and  observed  that  it  was  as  great  a  rarity  to 
hear  anybody  call  for  a  dish  of  politicians  por- 
ridge, or  any  other  liquor,  as  it  is  to  hear  a 
beau  call  for  a  pipe  of  tobacco;  their  whole 
exercise  being  to  charge  and  discharge  their 
nostrils  and  keep  the  curls  of  their  i)eriwigs  in 
their  proper  order.  The  clashing  of  their  snush- 
box  lids,  in  opening  and  shutting,  made  more 
noise  than  their  tongues.  Bows  and  cringes  of 
the  newest  mode  were  here  exchanged  'twixt 
friend  and  friend  with  wonderful  exactness. 
They  made  a  humming  like  so  many  hornets  in 
a  country  chimney,  not  with  their  talking,  but 
with  their  whispering  over  their  new  Minuets 
and  Bories,  with  the  hands  in  their  pockets,  if 
only  freed  from  their  snush-box.  We  now  began 
to  be  thoughtful  of  a  pipe  of  tobacco,  where- 
upon we  ventured  to  call  for  some  instruments 
of  evaporation,  which  were  accordingly  brought 
us,  but  with  such  a  kind  of  unwillingness,  as  if 
they  would  much  rather  been  rid  of  our  com- 
pany ;  for  their  tables  were  so  very  neat,  and 
shined  with  rubbing  like  the  upper-leathers  of 
an  alderman's  shoes,  and  as  brown  as  the  top 
of  a  country  house-wife's  cupboard.  The  floor 
was  as, clean  swept  as  a  Sir  Courtly's  dining 
room,  which  made  us  look  round  to  see  if  there 
were  no  orders  hung  up  to  impose  the  forfeiture 
of  so  much  mop-money  upon  any  person  that 
should  spit  out  of  the  chimney-corner.  Not- 
withstanding we  wanted  an  example  to  en- 
courage us  in  our  porterly  rudeness,  we  ordered 
them  to  light  the  wax  candle,  by  which  we 
ignifled  our  pipes  and  blew  about  our  whiffs ; 
at  which  several  Sir  Foplins  drew  their  faces 
into  as  many  peevish  wrinkles  as  the  beaux  at 
the  Bow  Street  Coffee-house,  near  Covent 
Garden,  did  when  the  gentleman  in  masquerade 
came  in  amongst  them,  with  his  oyster-barrel 
muff  and  turnip-buttons,  to  ridicule  their  fop- 
eries. 

In  A  Brief  and  Merry  History  of  Great 
Britain  we  read: 

There  is  a  prodigious  number  of  Cofifee- 
Houses  in  London,  after  the  manner  I  have 
seen  some  in  Constantinople.  These  Coffee- 
Houses  are  the  constant  Rendezvous  for  Men 
of  Business  as  well  as  the  idle  People.  Besides 
Coffee,  there  are  many  other  Liquors,  which 
People  cannot  well  relish  at  first.  They  smoak 
Tobacco,  game  and  read  Papers  of  Intelligence; 
here  they  treat  of  Matters  of  State,  make 
Leagues  with  Foreign  Princes,  break  them  again, 


78 


ALL    ABOUT     COFFEE 


White's  and  Brookes',  St.  James's  Street 


and  transact  Affairs  of  the  last  Consequence  to 
the  whole  World.  They  represent  these  Coffee- 
Houses  as  the  most  agreeable  things  in  London, 
and  they  are,  in  my  Opinion,  very  proper  Places 
to  find  People  that  a  Man  has  Business  with, 
or  to  pass  away  the  Time  a  little  more  agree- 
ably than  he  can  do  at  home;  but  in  other  re- 
spects they  are  loathsome,  full  of  smoak,  like 
a  Guard-Room,  and  as  much  crowded.  I  be- 
lieve 'tis  these  Places  that  furnish  the  Inhabi- 
tants with  Slander,  for  there  one  hears  exact 
Account  of  everything  done  in  Town,  as  if  it 
were  but  a  Village. 

At  those  Coffee-Houses,  near  the  Courts,  called 
White's,  St.  James's,  Williams's,  the  Conversa- 
tion turns  chiefly  upon  the  Equipages,  Essence, 
Horse-Matches,  Tupees,  Modes  and  Mortgages ; 
the  Cocoa-Tree  upon  Bribery  and  Corruption, 
Evil  ministers,  Errors  and  Mistakes  in  Govern- 
ment :  the  Scotch  Coflfee-Houses  towards  Char- 
ing Cross,  on  Places  and  Pensions ;  the  Tiltyard 
and  Young  Man's  on  Affronts,  Honour,  Satisfac- 
tion, Duels  and  Rencounters.  I  was  informed 
that  the  latter  happen  so  frequently,  in  this  part 
of  the  Town,  that  a  Surgeon  and  a  Sollicitor  are 
kept  constantly  in  waiting ;  the  one  to  dress  and 
heal  such  Wounds  as  may  be  given,  and  the 
other  in  case  of  Death  to  bring  off  the  Survivor 
with  a  Verdict  of  Se  Devendendo  or  Man- 
slaughter. In  those  Coffee-Houses  about  the 
Temple  the  Subjects  are  generally  on  Causes, 
Costs,  Demurrers,  Rejoinders  and  Exceptions; 
Daniel's  the  Welch  Coffee-House  in  Fleet  Street, 
on  Births,  Pedigrees  and  Descents;  Child's  and 
the  Chapter  upon  Glebes,  Tithes,  Advowsons. 
Rectories  and  Lectureships ;  North's  Undue 
Elections,  False  Polling,  Scrutinies,  etc. ;  Ham- 
lin's, Infant-Baptism,  Lay-Ordination,  Free- 
will, Election  and  Reprobation ;  Batson's,  the 
Prices  of  Pepper.  Indigo  and  Salt-Petre;  and 
all  those  about  the  Exchange,  where  the  Mer- 
chants meet  to  transact  their  Affairs,  are  in  a 
perpetual  hurry  about  Stock-Jobbing,  Lying, 
Cheating,  Tricking  Widows  and  Orphans,  and 
committing  Spoil  and  Rapine  on  the  Publick. 

In  the  eighteenth  century  beer  and  wine 
were  commonly  sold  at  the  coffee  houses 
in  addition  to  tea  and  chocolate.  Daniel 
Defoe,  writing  of  his  visit  to  Shrewsbury 


in  1724,  says,  "I  found  there  the  most 
coffee  houses  around  the  Town  Hall  that 
ever  I  saw  in  any  town,  but  when  you 
come  into  them  they  are  but  ale  houses, 
only  they  think  that  the  name  coffee  house 
gives  a  better  air." 

Speaking  of  the  coffee  houses  of  the  city, 
Besant  says: 

Rich  merchants  alone  ventured  to  enter  cer- 
tain of  the  coffee  houses,  where  they  transacted 
business  more  privately  and  more  expeditiously 
than  on  the  Exchange.  There  were  coffee  houses 
where  officers  of  the  army  alone  were  found ; 
where  the  city  shopkeeper  met  his  chums ;  where 
actors  congregated;  where  only  divines,  only 
lawyers,  only  physicians,  only  wits  and  those 
who  came  to  hear  them  were  found.  In  all 
alike  the  visitor  put  down  his  penny  and  went 
in,  taking  his  own  seat  if  he  was  an  habitue; 
he  called  for  a  cup  of  tea  or  coffee  and  paid  his 
twopence  for  it ;  he  could  call  also,  if  he  pleased, 
for  a  cordial:  he  was  expected  to  talk  with  his 
neighbour  whether  he  knew  him  or  not.  Men 
went  to  certain  coffee  houses  in  order  to  meet 
the  well-known  poets  and  writers  who  were  to 
be  found  there,  as  Pope  went  in  search  of  Dry- 
den.  The  daily  papers  and  the  pamphlets  of 
the  day  were  taken  in.  Some  of  the  coffee 
houses,  but  not  the  more  respectable,  allowed 
the  use  of  tobacco. 


Coffee  House  Politicians  of  the  Seventeenth 
Century 


COFFEE  HOUSES  OF  OLD  LONDON 


79 


The  Great  Fair  on  the  Frozen  Tpiames — 1683 
From  a  broadside  entitled  Wonders  on  the  Deep.     Figure  2  is  the  Duke  of  York's  Coffee  House 


Mackay,  in  his  Journey  Through  Eng- 
land (1724),  says: 

We  rise  by  nine,  and  those  that  frequent  great 
men's  levees  find  entertainment  at  them  till 
eleven,  or,  as  in  Holland,  go  to  tea-tables ;  about 
twelve  the  heau  monde  assemble  in  several  cof- 
fee or  chocolate  houses ;  the  best  of  which  are 
the  Cocoatree  and  White's  chocolate  houses,  St. 
James',  the  Smyrna,  Mrs.  Rochford's  and  the 
British  coffee  houses ;  and  all  these  so  near  one 
another  that  in  less  than  an  hour  you  see  the 
company  of  them  all.  We  are  carried  to  these 
places  in  chairs  (or  sedans),  which  are  here 
very  cheap,  a  guinea  a  week,  or  a  shilling  per 
hour,  and  your  chairmen  serve  you  for  porters 
to  run  on  errands,  as  your  gondolierg  do  at 
Venice. 

If  it  be  fine  weather  we  take  a  turn  into  the 
park  till  two,  when  we  go  to  dinner;  and  if  it 
be  dirty,  you  are  entertained  at  piequet  or 
basset  at  White's,  or  you  may  talk  politics  at 
the  Smyrna  or  St.  James'.  I  must  not  forget  to 
tell  you  that  the  parties  have  their  different 
places,  where,  however,  a  stranger  is  always 
well  received;  but  a  Whig  will  no  more  go  to 
the  Ck)coatree  than  a  Tory  will  be  seen  at  the 
Coffee  House,  St.  James'. 

The  Scots  go  generally  to  the  British,  and  a 
mixture  of  all  sorts  go  to  the  Smyrna.  There 
are  other  little  coffee  houses  much  frequented 
in  this  neighborhood — Young  Man's  for  officers ; 
Old  Man's  for  stock  jobbers,  paymasters  and 
courtiers,    and    Little    Man's    for    sharpers.     I 


never  was  so  confounded  in  my  life  as  when  I 
entered  into  this  last.  I  saw  two  or  three 
tables  full  at  faro,  and  was  surrounded  by  a 
set  of  sharp  faces  that  I  was  afraid  would  have 
devoured  me  with  their  eyes.  I  was  glad  to 
drop  two  or  three  half  crowns  at  faro  to  get 
off  with  a  clear  skin,  and  was  overjoyed  I  so- 
got  rid  of  them. 

At  two  we  generally  go  to  dinner;  ordinaries 
are  not  so  common  here  as  abroad,  yet  the 
French  have  set  up  two  or  three  good  ones  for 
the  convenience  of  foreigners  in  Suffolk  street, 
where  one  is  tolerably  well  served ;  but  the  gen- 
eral way  here  is  to  make  a  party  at  the  coffee 
house  to  go  to  dine  at  the  tavern,  where  we  sit 
till  six,  when  we  go  to  the  play,  except  you  are 
invited  to  the  table  of  some  great  man,  which 
strangers  are  always  courted  to  and  nobly  en- 
tertained. 

Mackay  writes  that  "in  all  the  coffee 
houses  you  have  not  only  the  foreign  prints 
but  several  English  ones  with  foreign  oc- 
currences, besides  papers  of  morality  and 
party  disputes." 

"After  the  play,"  writes  Defoe,  "the 
best  company  generally  go  to  Tom's  and 
Will's  coffee  houses,  near  adjoining,  where 
there  is  playing  at  piequet  and  the  best  of 
conversation  till  midnight.  Here  you  will 
see  blue  and  green  ribons  and  stars  sitting 
familiarly  and  talking  with  the  same  free- 


80 


ALL     ABOUT     COFFEE 


dom  as  if  they  had  left  their  equality  and 
degrees  of  distance  at  home." 

Before  entering  the  coffee  house  every 
one  was  recommended  by  the  Tatler  to 
prepare  his  body  with  three  dishes  of 
bohea  and  to  purge  his  brains  with  two 
pinches  of  snuff.  Men  had  their  coffee 
houses  as  now  they  have  their  clubs  — 
sometimes  contented  with  one,  sometimes 
belonging  to  three  or  four.  Johnson,  for 
instance,  was  connected  with  St.  James's, 
the  Turk's  Head,  the  Bedford,  Peele's,  be- 
sides the  taverns  which  he  frequented.  Ad- 
dison   and    Steele    used    Button's;    Swift, 


The   Lion's  Head  at  Button's   Coffee  House 

Designed  by  Hogarth,   and  put  up   by  Addison,    1713 

From    a   water    color   by    T.    H.    Shepherd 

Button's,  the  Smyrna,  and  St.  James's; 
Dryden,  Will's;  Pope,  Will's  and  Button's; 
Goldsmith,  the  St.  James's  and  the  Chap- 
ter; Fielding,  the  Bedford;  Hogarth,  the 
Bedford  and  Slaughter's;  Sheridan,  the 
Piazza;  Thurlow,  Nando 's.  | 

Some  Famous  Coffee  Houses  i 

Among  the  famous  English  coffee  houses 
of  the  seventeenth  -  eighteenth  century 
period  were  St.  James's,  Will's,  Garra- 
way's.  White's,   Slaughter's,  the  Grecian, 


Button's,  Lloyd's,  Tom's,  and  Don  Sal- 
tero  's. 

St.  James's  was  a  Whig  house  frequented 
by  members  of  Parliament,  with  a  fair 
sprinkling  of  literary  stars.  Garra way's 
catered  to  the  gentry  of  the  period,  many 
of  whom  naturally  had  Tory  proclivities. 

One  of  the  notable  coffee  houses  of 
Queen  Anne's  reign  was  Button's.  Here 
Addison  could  be  found  almost  every  after- 
noon and  evening,  along  with  Steele,  Dave- 
nant,  Carey,  Philips,  and  other  kindred 
minds.  Pope  was  a  member  of  the  same 
coffee  house  club  for  a  year,  but  his  inborn 
irascibility  eventually  led  him  to  drop  out 
of  it. 

At  Button's  a  lion's  head,  designed  by 
Hogarth  after  the  Lion  of  Venice,  **a 
proper  emblem  of  knowledge  and  action, 
being  all  head  and  paws,"  was  set  up  to 
receive  letters  and  papers  for  the  Guard- 
ian". The  Tatler  and  the  Spectator  were 
born  in  the  coffee  house,  and  probably 
English  prose  would  never  have  received 
the  impetus  given  it  by  the  essays  of  Addi- 
son and  Steele  had  it  not  been  for  coffee 
house  associations. 

Pope's  famous  Rape  of  the  Lock  grew 
out  of  coffee-house  gossip.  The  poem  itself 
contains  one  charming  passage  on  coffee." 

Another  frequenter  of  the  coffee  houses 
of  London,  when  he  had  the  money  to  do 
so,  was  Daniel  Defoe,  whose  Rohinson  Cru- 
soe was  the  precursor  of  the  English  novel. 
Henry  Fielding,  one  of  the  greatest  of  all 
English  novelists,  loved  the  life  of  the 
more  bohemian  coffee  houses,  and  was,  in 
fact,  induced  to  write  his  first  great  novel, 
Joseph  Andrews,  through  coffee-house  criti- 
cisms of  Richardson's  Pamela. 

Other  frequenters  of  the  coffee  houses 
of  the  period  were  Thomas  Gray  and  Rich- 
ard Brinsley  Sheridan.  Garri.^k  was  often 
to  be  seen  at  Tom's  in  Birchin  Lane,  where 
also  Chatterton  might  have  been  found  on 
many  an  evening  before  his  untimely  death. 

The  London  Pleasure  Gardens 

The  second  half  of  the  eighteenth  cen- 
tury was  covered  by  the  reigns  of  the 
Georges.  The  coffee  houses  were  still  an 
important  factor  in  London  life,  but  were 
influenced  somewhat  by  the  development 
of  gardens  in  which  were  served  tea,  choc- 
olate, and  other  drinks,  as  well  as  coffee. 
At  the  coffee  houses  themselves,  while  cof- 

"  More  fully  described  in  chapter  XXXII. 
"  See  chapter  XXXII. 


I 


COFFEE  HOUSES  OF  OLD  LOXDOX 


81 


Jrom  {!)(  orcgiAal   dra^wing   hy  HOCARTH  in.  ilt  ColUdion.   ofSam.  .frdaTii  . 


A  Trio  of  Notables  at  Button's  in  1730 

The  figure  in  the  cloak  is  Count  Viviani;  of  the  figures    facing    the    reader,    the    draughts   player   is   Dr. 
Arbuthnot,    and    the    figure    standing    is    assumed    to    be    Pope 


^fee  remained  the  favorite  beverage,  the 
proprietors,  in  the  hope  of  increasing  their 
patronage,  began  to  serve  wine,  ale,  and 
other  liquors.  This  seems  to  have  been  the 
first  step  toward  the  decay  of  the  coffee 
house. 

The  coffee  houses,  however,  continued  to 
be  the  centers  of  intellectual  life.  When 
Samuel  Johnson  and  David  Garrick  came 
together  to  London,  literature  was  tempo- 
rarily in  a  bad  way,  and  the  hack  writers 
of  the  time  dwelt  in  Grub  Street. 

It  was  not  until  after  Johnson  had  met 
with  some  success,  and  had  established  the 
first  of  his  coffee-house  clubs  at  the  Turk's 
Head,  that  literature  again  became  a  fash- 
ionable profession. 

This  really  famous  literary  club  met  at 
the  Turk's  Head  from  1763  to  1783. 
Among  the  most  notable  members  were 
Johnson,  the  arbiter  of  English  prose; 
Oliver  Goldsmith;  Boswell,  the  biographer; 
Burke,  the  orator;  Garrick,  the  actor;  and 


Sir  Joshua  Reynolds,  the  painter.  Among 
the  later  members  were  Gibbon,  the  his- 
torian; and  Adam  Smith,  the  political 
economist. 

Certain  it  is  that  during  the  sway  of  the 
English  coffee  house,  and  at  least  partly 
through  its  influence,  England  produced 
a  better  prose  literature,  as  embodied  alike 
in  her  essays,  literary  criticisms,  and  nov- 
els, than  she  ever  had  produced  before. 

The  advent  of  the  pleasure  gaiden 
brought  coffee  out  into  the  open  in  Eng- 
land; and  one  of  the  reasons  why  gardens, 
such  as  Ranelagh  and  Vauxhall,  began  to 
be  more  frequented  than  the  coffee  houses 
:was  that  they  were  popular  resorts  for 
women  as  well  as  for  men.  All  kinds  of 
beverages  were  served  in  them;  and  soon 
the  women  began  to  favor  tea  as  an  after- 
noon drink.  At  least,  the  great  develop- 
ment in  the  use  of  tea  dates  from  this 
period;  and  many  of  these  resorts  called 
themselves  tea  gardens. 


82 


ALL     ABOUT     COFFEE 


The  use  of  coffee  by  thip.  time,  however, 
was  well  established  in  the  homes  as  a 
breakfast  and  dinner  beverage,  and  such 
consumption  more  than  made  up  for  any 
loss  sustained  through  the  gradual  de- 
cadence of  the  coffee  house.  Yet  signs  of 
the  change  in  national  taste  that  arrived 
with  the  Georges  were  not  wanting ;  for  the 
active  propaganda  of  the  British  East  In- 
dia Company  was  fairly  well  launched 
during  Queen  Anne's  reign. 

The  London  pleasure  gardens  of  the 
eighteenth  century  were  unique.  At  one 
time  there  was  a  "mighty  maze"  of  them. 
Their  season  extended  from  April  or  May 
to  August  or  September.  At  first  there 
was  no  charge  for  admission,  but  Warwick 
Wroth"  tells  us  that  visitors  usually  pur- 
chased cheese  cakes,  syllabubs,  tea,  coffee 
and  ale. 

The  four  best-known  London  gardens 
were  Vauxhall ;  Marylebone ;  Cuper  's, 
where  the  charge  for  admission  subse- 
quently was  fixed;  at  not  less  than  a  shill- 
ing; and  Ranelagh,  where  the  charge  of 
half  a  crown  included  "the  Elegant  Ee- 
gale"  of  tea,  coffee,  and  bread  and  butter. 

18  Wroth,  Warwick.     The.  London  Pleasure  Oardena 
of  the   18th  Century.     London,   1896. 


The  pleasure  gardens  provided  walks, 
rooms  for  dancing,  skittle  grounds,  bowl- 
ing greens,  variety  entertainments,  and 
promenade  concerts;  and  not  a  few  places 
were  given  over  to  fashionable  gambling 
and  racing. 

The  Vauxhall  Gardens,  one  of  the  most 
favored  resorts  of  pleasure-seeking  Lon- 
doners, were  located  on  the  Surrey  side  of 
the  Thames,  a  short  distance  east  of  Vaux- 
hall Bridge.  They  were  originally  known 
as  the  New  Spring  Gardens  (1661),  to  dis- 
tinguish them  from  the  old  Spring  Gar- 
dens at  Charing  Cross.  They  became  fa- 
mous in  the  reign  of  Charles  II.  Vauxhall 
was  celebrated  for  its  walks,  lit  with  thou- 
sands of  lamps,  its  musical  and  other  per- 
formances, suppers,  and  fireworks.  High 
and  low  were  to  be  found  there,  and  the 
drinking  of  tea  and  coffee  in  the  arbors 
was  a  feature.  The  illustration  shows  the 
garden  brightly  illuminated  by  lanterns 
and  lamps  on  some  festival  occasion.  Cof- 
fee and  tea  were  served  in  the  arbors. 

The  Ranelagh,  "a  place  of  public  enter- 
tainment," erected  at  Chelsea  in  1742,  was 
a  kind  of  Vauxhall  under  cover.  The 
principal  room,  known  as  the  Rotunda,  was 
circular  in  shape,  150  feet  in  diameter,  and 


Vauxhall  Gardens  on  a  Gala  Night 


COFFEE  HOUSES  OF  OLD  LONDON 


83 


m^. 


The  Kotunda  ix  Kaxelagh  Gardens  With  the  Company  at  Breakfast  — 1751 


had  an  orchestra  in  the  center  and  tiers 
of  boxes  all  around.  Promenading  and 
taking  refreshments  in  the  boxes  were  the 
principal  divertisements.  Except  on  gala 
nights  of  masquerades  and  fireworks,  only 
tea,  coffee,  bread  and  butter  were  to  be 
had  at  Ranelagh. 

In  the  group  of  gardens  connected  with 
mineral  springs  was  the  Dog  and  Duck 
(St.  George's  Spa),  which  became  at  last 
a  tea  garden  and  a  dancing  saloon  of 
doubtful  repute. 

Still  another  division,  recognized  by 
Wroth,  consisted  mainly  of  tea  gardens, 
among  them  Highbury  Barn,  The  Canon- 
bury  House,  Hornsey  and  Copenhagen 
House,  Bagnigge  Wells,  and  White  Con- 
duit House.  The  two  last  named  were  the 
classic  tea  gardens  of  the  period.  Both 
were  provided  with  "long  rooms"  in  case 
of  rain,  and  for  indoor  promenades  with 
organ  music.  Then  there  were  the  Adam 
and  Eve  tea  gardens,  with  arbors  for  tea- 
drinking  parties,  which  subsequently  be- 
came the  Adam  and  Eve  Tavern  and  Cof- 
fee House.  Well  known  were  the  Bays- 
water  Tea  Gardens  and  the  Jews  Harp 
House  and  Tea  Gardens.  All  these  were 
provided  with  neat,  "genteel"  boxes,   let 


into  the  hedges  and  alcoves,  for  tea  and 
coffee  drinkers. 

Locating  the  Notable  Coffee  Houses 

Garraw'ay's,  3  'Change  Alley,  Cornhill, 
was  a  place  for  great  mercantile  transac- 
tions. Thomas  Garway,  the  original  pro- 
prietor, was  a  tobacconist  and  coffee  man, 
who  claimed  to  be  the  first  that  sold  tea 
in  England,  although  not  at  this  address. 
The  later  Garra way's  was  long  famous  as 
a  sandwich  and  drinking  room  for  sherry% 
pale  ale,  and  punch,  in  addition  to  tea  and 
coffee.  It  is  said  that  the  sandwich-maker 
was  occupied  two  hours  in  cutting  and  ar- 
ranging the  sandwiches  for  the  day's  con- 
sumption. After  the  "great  fire"  of  1666 
Garra  way's  moved  into  the  same  place  in 
Exchange  Alley  where  Elford  had  been 
before  the  fire.  Here  he  claimed  to  have 
the  oldest  coffee  house  in  London ;  but  the 
ground  on  which  Bowman's  had  stood 
was  occupied  later  by  the  Virginia  and  the 
Jamaica  coffee  houses.  The  latter  was 
damaged  by  the  fire  of  1748  which  con- 
sumed Garraway's  and  Elford 's  (see  map 
of  the  1748  fire). 

Will's,  the  predecessor  of  Button's, 
first  had  the  title  of  the  Red  Cow,  then  of 


84 


ALL     ABOUT     COFFEE 


Gakraway's  Coffee  House  in  'Change  Alley 

Garway   (or  Garraway)   claimed  to  have  been  first 

to  sell  Tea  in  England 

the  Rose.  It  was  kept  by  William  Urwin, 
and  was  on  the  north  side  of  Russell  Street 
at  the  corner  of  Bow  Street.  "It  was  Dry- 
den  who  made  Will's  coffee  house  the  great 
resort  of  the  wits  of  his  time."  {Pope  and 
Spence.)  The  room  in  which  the  poet  was 
accustomed  to  sit  was  on  the  first  floor ;  and 
his  place  was  the  place  of  honor  by  the 
fireside  in  the  winter,  and  at  the  corner  of 
the  balcony,  looking  over  the  street,  in  fine 
weather;  he  called  the  two  places  his  win- 
ter and  his  summer  seat.  This  was  called 
the  dining-room  floor.  The  company  did 
not  sit  in  boxes  as  subsequently,  but  at 
various  tables  which  were  dispersed  through 
the  room.  Smoking  was  permitted  in  the 
public  room ;  it  was  then  so  much  in  vogue 
that  it  does  not  seem  to  have  been  consid- 
ered a  nuisance.  Here,  as  in  other  similar 
places  of  meeting,  the  visitors  divided 
themselves  into  parties;  and  we  are  told 
by  Ward  that  the  young  beaux  and  wits, 
who  seldom  approached  the  principal 
table,  thought  it  a  great  honor  to  have  a 
pinch  out  of  Dryden's  snuff-box.  After 
Dry  den's  death  Will's  was  transferred 
to  a  house  opposite,  and  became  Button  "s, 


"over  against  Thomas's  in  Covent  Gar- 
den." Thither  also  Addison  transferred 
much  company  from  Thomas's.  Here 
Swift  first  saw  Addison.  Hither  also  came 
"Steele,  Arbuthnot  and  many  other  wits 
of  the  time. ' '  Button  's  continued  in  vogue 
until  Addison's  death  and  Steele's  retire- 
ment into  Wales,  after  which  the  coffee 
drinkers  went  to  the  Bedford,  dinner  par- 
ties to  the  Shakespeare.  Button's  was 
subsequently  known  as  the  Caledonien. 
Slaughter's,  famous  as  the  resort  of 
painters  and  sculptors  in  the  eighteenth 
century,  was  situated  at  the  upper  end  of 
the  west  side  of  St.  Martin's  Lane.  Its 
first  landlord  was  Thomas  Slaughter,  1692. 
A  second  Slaughter's  (New  Slaugh- 
ter's) was  established  in  the  same  street 
in  1760,  when  the  original  Slaughter's 
adopted  the  name  of  Old  Slaughter's.  It 
was  torn  down  in  1843  -  44.  Among  the 
notables  who  frequented  it  were  Hogarth ; 
young  Gainsborough ;  Cipriani ;  Haydon  ; 
Roubiliac ;  Hudson,  w^ho  painted  the  Dilet- 
tanti portraits;  M'Ardell,  the  mezzotinto- 


BuTTOx's  Coffee  House,  Great  Russell  Street 
Afterward  it  became  the  Caledonien 
From  a  water  color  by  T.  H.  Shepherd 


^^r 


COFFEE  HOUSES  OF  OLD  LONDON 


85 


Taper;  Luke  Sullivan,  the  engraver; 
Gardell,  the  portrait  painter;  and  Parry, 
the  Welsh  harper. 

Tom  s,  in  Birchin  Lane,  Cornhill,  though 
in  the  main  a  mercantile  resort,  acquired 
some  celebrity  from  having  been  frequented 
by  Garrick,  Tom's  was  also  frequented 
by  Chatterton,  as  a  place  "of  the  best  re- 
sort." Then  there  was  Tom's  in  Devereux 
Court,  Strand,  and  Tom  's  at  17  Great  Rus- 
sell Street,  Covent  Garden,  opposite  But- 
ton's, a  celebrated  resort  during  the  reign 
of  Queen  Anne  and  for  more  than  a  cen- 
tury^  after. 

The  Grecian,  Devereux  Court,  Strand, 
was  originally  kept  by  one  Constantine,  a 
Greek.  From  this  hou^e  Steele  proposed 
to  date  his  learned  articles  in  the  Tatler; 
it  is  mentioned  in  No.  1  of  the  Spectator, 
and  it  was  much  frequented  by  Goldsmith. 
The  Grecian  was  Foote's  morning  lounge. 
In  1843f  the  premises  became  the  Grecian 
Chambers,  with  a  bust  of  Lord  Devereux, 
earl  of  Essex,  over  the  door, 

Lloyd's,  Royal  Exchange,  celebrated  for 
its  priority  of  shipping  intelligence  and 
its  marine  insurance,  originated  with  Ed- 


Slaughter's  Coffee  House.  St.  Martin's  Lane 

It  was  taken  down  in  1843 

From  a  water  color  by  T.  H.  Shepherd,  1841 


Tom's  Coffee  House,  17  Great  Russell  Street 

Used  as  a  coffee  house  until  1804  and  razed  in  1865 

From  a  water  color  by  T.  H.   Shepherd 

ward  Lloyd,  who  about  1688  kept  a  coffee 
house  in  Tower  Street,  later  in  Lombard 
Street  corner  of  Abchurch  Lane.  It  was 
a  modest  place  of  refreshment  for  sea- 
farers and  merchants.  As  a  matter  of  con- 
venience, Edward  Lloyd  prepared  "ships' 
lists"  for  the  guidance  of  the  frequenters 
of  the  coffee  house.  "These  lists,  which 
were  written  by  hand,  contained,."  accord- 
ing to  Andrew  Scott,  "an  account  of  ves- 
aeh  which  the  underwriters  who  met  there 
were  likely  to  have  offered  them  for  in- 
surance." Such  was  the  beginning  of  two 
institutions  that  have  since  exercised  a 
dominant  influence  on  the  sea-carrying 
trade  of  the  whole  world  —  the  Royal  Ex- 
change Lloyd's,  the  greatest  insurance  in- 
stitution in  the  world,  and  Lloyd's  Regis- 
ter of  Shipping.  Lloyd's  now  has  1400 
agents  in  all  parts  of  the  world.  It  re- 
ceives as  many  as  100,000  telegrams  a  year. 
It  records  through  its  intelligence  service 
the  daily  movements  of  11,000  vessels. 

In  the  beginning  one  of  the  apartments 
in  the  Exchange  was  fitted  up  as  Lloyd's 


86 


ALL     ABOUT     COFFEE 


Lloyd's  Coffee  House  in  the  Royal  Exchange,  Showing  the  Subscrh'tion  Uoom 


coffee  room.  Edward  Lloyd  died  in  1712. 
Subsequently  the  coffee  house  was  in 
Pope's  Head  Alley,  where  it  was  called 
New  Lloyd's  coffee  house,  but  on  Septem- 
ber 14,  1784,  it  was  removed  to  the  north- 
west corner  of  the  Royal  Exchange,  where 
it  remained  until  the  partial  destruction  of 
that  building  by  fire. 

In  rebuilding  the  Exchange  there  were 
provided  the  Subscribers'  or  Underwriters' 
room,  the  Merchants'  room,  and  the  Cap- 
tains' room.  The  City,  second  edition, 
1848,  contains  the  following  description  of 
this  most  famous  rendezvous  of  eminent 
merchants,  shipowners,  underwriters,  in- 
surance, stock  and  exchange  brokers : 

Here    is   obtained    the    earliest    news    of    the 
arrival  and  sailing  of  vessels,  losses  at  sea,  cap-  . 
tures,  recaptures,  engagements  and  other  ship- 
ping intelligence;  and  proprietors  of  ships  and 
freights  are  insured  hy  the  underwriters.     The 
rooms   are  in   the  Venetian  style  with  Roman 
enrichments.     At  the  entrance  of  the  room  are 
exhibited    the    Shipping    Lists,    received    from 
Lloyd's  agents  at  home  and  abroad,  and  afford- 
ing  particulars    of    departures    or    arrivals    of  ' 
vessels,    wrecks,    salvage,    or    sale   of   property  , 
saved,  etc.     To  the  right  and  left  are  "Lloyd's 
Books,"    two    enormous    ledgers.      Right    hand,  ' 
ships  "spoken  with"  or  arrived  at  theii-  destined 
ports;   left   hand,    records   of   wrecks,    fires   or 
severe  collisions,  written  in  a  fine  Roman  han.d 
in  "double  lines."     To  assist  the  underwriters 
in  their  calculations,  at  the  end  of  the  room  is 


an  Anemometer,  which  registers  the  state  of  the 
wind  day  and  night ;  attached  is  a  rain  gauge. 

The  British,  Cockspur  Street,  "long  a 
house  of  call  for  Scotchmen,"  was  fortun- 
ate in  its  landladies.  In  1759  it  was  kept 
by  the  sister  of  Bishop  Douglas,  so  well 
known  for  his  works  against  Lauder  and 
Bower,  which  may  explain  its  Scottish 
fame.  At  another  period  it  was  kept  by 
Mrs.  Anderson,  described  in  Mackenzie's 
Life  of  Home  as  "a  woman  of  uncommon 
talents  and  the  most  agreeable  conversa- 
tion." 

Don  Saltero's,  18  Cheyne  Walk,  Chel- 
sea, was  opened  by  a  barber  named  Salter 
in  1695.  Sir  Hans  Sloane  contributed  of 
his  own  collection  some  of  the  refuse  gim- 
cracks  that  were  to  be  found  in  Salter's 
"museum."  Vice-Admiral  Munden,  who 
had  been  long  on  the  coast  of  Spain,  where 
he  had  acquired  a  fondness  for  Spanish 
titles,  named  the  keeper  of  the  house  Don 
Saltero,  and  his  coffee  house  and  museum 
D6n  Saltero 's. 

Squire's  was  in  Fulwood's  Rents,  Hol- 
burn,  running  up  to  Gray's  Inn.  It  was 
one' of  the  receiving  houses  of  the  Spectator. 
In  No.  269  the  Spectator  accepts  Sir  Roger 
de  Coverley's  invitation  to  "smoke  a  pipe 
with  him  over  a  dish  of  coffee  at  Squire's. 
As  I  love  the  old  man,  I  take  delight  in 


COFFEE  HOUSES  OF  OLD  LONDON 


87 


complying  with  everything  that  is  agree- 
able to  him,  and  accordingly  waited  on  him 
to  the  coffee-house,  where  his  venerable 
figure  drew  upon  us  the  eyes  of  the  whole 
room.  He  had  no  sooner  seated  himself 
at  the  upper  end  of  the  high  table,  but  he 
called  for  a  clean  pipe,  a  paper  of  tobacco, 
a  dish  of  coffee,  a  wax  candle  and  the  '  Sup- 
plement' (a  periodical  paper  of  that  time), 
with  such  an  air  of  cheerfulness  and  good 
humour,  that  all  the  boys  in  the  coffee 
room  (who  seemed  to  take  pleasure  in  serv- 
ing him)  were  at  once  employed  on  his 
several  errands,  insomuch  that  nobody  else 
could  come  at  a  dish  of  tea  until  the  Knight 
had  got  all  his  conveniences  about  him." 
Such  was  the  coffee  room  in  the  Spectator's 
day. 

The  Cocoa-Tree  was  originally  a  coffee 
house  on  the  south  side  of  Pall  Malll.  When 
there  grew  up  a  need  for  ''places. of  resort 
of  a  more  elegant  and  refined  character," 
chocolate  houses  came  into  vogue,  and  the 


^ 


Interior  of  Dick's  Coffee  House 

From    the    frontispiece    to    "The    Coffee    House- 
dramatick   Piece"    (see   chapter   XXXII) 


The  (tKix  lAX  ('oijkk  iloi  si:.  Devebeux  Coi  ht 
It  was  closed  in  1843.     From  a  drawing  dated  1809 

Cocoa- Tree  was  the  most  famous  of  these. 
It  was  converted  into  a  club  in  1746. 

White's  chocolate  house,  established  by 
Francis  White  about  1693  in  St.  James's 
Street,  originally  open  to  any  one  as  a 
coffee  house,  soon  became  a  private  club, 
composed  of  '*the  most  fashionable  ex- 
quisites of  the  town  and  court."  In  its 
coffee-house  days,  the  entrance  was  six- 
pence, as  compared  with  the  average  penny 
fee  of  the  other  coffee  houses.  Escott  re- 
fers to  White's  as  being  "the  one  speci- 
men of  the  class  to  which  it  belongs,  of 
a  place  at  which,  beneath  almost  the  same 
roof,  and  always  bearing  the  same  name, 
whether  as  coft'ee  house  or  club,  the  same 
class  of  persons  has  congregated  during 
more  than  two  hundred  years." 

Among  hundreds  of  other  coffee  houses 
that  flourished  during  the  seventeenth  and 
eighteenth  centuries  the  following  more 
notable  ones  are  deserving  of  mention: 

Baker's,  58  'Change  Alley,  for  nearly 
half  a  century  noted  for  its  chops  and 
steaks  broiled  in  the  coffee  room  and  eaten 
hot    from   the    gridiron;    the   Baltic,    in 


88 


ALL     ABOUT     COFFEE 


Don  Saltero's  Coffee  House,  Cheyne  Walk 

From  a  steel  engraving  in  the  British  Museum 

Threadneedle  Street,  the  rendezvous  of 
brokers  and  merchants  connected  with  the 
Russian  trade;  the  Bedford,  "under  the 
Piazza,  in  Covent  Garden,"  crowded  every 
night  with  men  of  parts  and  "signalized 
for  many  years  as  the  emporium  of  wit, 
the  seat  of  criticism  and  the  standard  of 
taste";  the  Chapter,  in  Paternoster  Row, 
frequented  by  Chatterton  and  Goldsmith; 
Child's,  in  St.  Paul's  Churchyard,  one  of 
the  Spectator's  houses,  and  much  fre- 
quented by  the  clergy  and  fellows  of  the 
Royal  Society;  Dick's,  in  Fleet  Street, 
frequented  by  Cowper,  and  the  scene  of 
Rousseau's  comedietta,  entitled  The  Coffee 
House;  St.  James's,  in  St.  James's  Street, 
frequented  by  Swift,  Goldsmith,  and  Gar- 
rick;  Jerusalem,  in  Cowper 's  Court,  Corn- 
hill,  frequented  by  merchants  and  captains 
connected  with  the  commerce  of  China, 
India,  and  Australia;  Jonathan's,  in 
'Change  Alley,  described  by  the  Tatler  as 
"the  general  mart  of  stock  jobbers";  the 
London,  in  Ludgate  Hill,  noted  for  its 
publishers'  sales  of  stock  and  copyrights; 


Man's,  in  Scotland  Yard,  which  took  its. 
name  from  the  proprietor,  Alexander  Man, 
and  was  sometimes  known  as  Old  Man's, 
or  the  Royal,  to  distinguish  it  from  Young 
Man's,  Little  Man's,  New  Man's,  etc., 
minor  establishments  in  the  neighborhood  ;'* 
Nando 's,  in  Fleet  Street,  the  favorite 
haunt  of  Lord  Thurlow  and  many  profes- 
sional loungers,  attracted  by  the  fame  of 
the  punch  and  the  charms  of  the  land- 
lady; New  England  and  North  and 
SouTPi  American,  in  Threadneedle  Street, 
having  on  its  subscription  list  representa- 
tives of  Barings,  Rothschilds,  and  other 
wealthy  establishments;  Peele's,  in  Fleet 
Street,  having  a  portrait  of  Dr.  Johnson 
said  to  have  been  painted  by  Sir  Joshua 

19  There  were  six  places,  all  told,  bearing  the  name 
"Man's".  Alexander  Man  was  coffee  maker  to 
William   III. 


'V\\\z  ItiMTisii  Coffee  House 

FN  CbcKSPTjR  Street 

Prom  a  print  published  in  1770 


I 


COFFEE  HOUSES  OF  OLD  LONDON 


89 


The  French   Coffee  House  in   London,  Second  Half  of  the  Eighteenth   Century 

From   the  original  water-color  drawing  by  Thomas  Rowlandson 


Reynolds;  the  Percy,  in  Oxford  Street, 
the  inspiration  for  the  Percy  Anecdotes; 
the  Piazza,  in  Covent  Garden,  where 
Macklin  fitted  up  a  large  coffee  room,  or 
theater,  for  oratory,  and  Fielding  and 
Foote  poked  fun  at  him;  the  Rainbow,  in 
Fleet  Street,  the  second  coffee  house  opened 
in  London,  having  its  token  money;  the 
Smyrna,  in  Pall  Mall,  a  "place  to  talk 
politics,"    and    frequented    by    Prior    and 


Swift;  Tom  King's,  one  of  the  old  night 
houses  of  Covent  Garden  Market,  "well 
known  to  all  gentlemen  to  whom  beds  are 
unknown";  the  Turk's  Head,  'Change 
Alley,  which  also  had  its  tokens;  the 
Turk's  Head,  in  the  Strand,  which  was  a 
favorite  supping  house  for  Dr.  Johnson 
and  Boswell;  the  Folly,  a  coffee  house  on 
a  houseboat  on  the  Thames,  which  became 
quite  notorious  during  Queen  Anne's  reign. 


90 


ALL     ABOUT     COFFEE 


Chapter    XI 


HISTORY   OF    THE   EARLY   PARISIAN  COFFEE  HOUSES 


i 


The  introduction  of  coffee  into  Paris  by  Thevenot  in  1657  —  How 
Soliman  Aga  established  the  custom  of  coffee  drinking  at  the  court 
of  Louis  XIV  —  Opening  the  first  coffee  houses  —  How  the  French 
adaptation  of  the  Oriental  coffee  house  first  appeared  in  the  real 
French  cafe  of  Frangois  Procope  —  The  important  part  played  by 
the  coffee  houses  in  the  development  of  French  literature  and  the 
stage  —  Their  association  with  the  Revolution  and  the  founding  of 
the  Republic  —  Quaint  customs  and  patrons  —  Historic  Parisian 
cafes 


IF  we  are  to  accept  the  authority  of  Jean 
La  Roque,  "before  the  year  1669  coffee 
had  scarcely  been  seen  in  Paris,  except 
at  M.  Thevenot 's  and  at  the  homes  of  some 
of  his  friends.  Nor  had  it  been  heard  of 
except  in  the  writings  of  travelers." 

As  noted  in  chapter  V,  Jean  de  Thevenot 
brought  coffee  into  Paris  in  1657.  One  ac- 
count says  that  a  decoction,  supposed  to 
have  been  coffee,  was  sold  by  a  Levantine 
in  the  Petit  Chatelet  under  the  name  of 
cohove  or  cahoue  during  the  reign  of  Louis 
XIII,  but  this  lacks  confirmation.  Louis 
XIV  is  said  to  have  been  served  with  coffee 
for  the  first  time  in  1664. 

Soon  after  the  arrival,  in  July,  1669,  of 
the  Turkish  ambassador,  Soliman  Aga,  it 
became  noised  abroad  that  he  had  brought 
with  him  for  his  own  use,  and  that  of  his 
retinue,  great  quantities  of  coffee.  He 
"treated  several  persons  with  it,  both  in 
the  court  and  the  city."  At  length  "many 
accustomed  themselves  to  it  with  sugar, 
and  others  who  found  benefit  by  it  could 
not  leave  it  off." 

Within  six  months  all  Paris  was  talking 
of  the  sumptuous  coffee  functions  of  the 
ambassador  from  Mohammed  IV  to  the 
court  of  Louis  XIV. 

Isaac  D  'Israeli  best  describes  them  in  his 
Curiosities  of  Literature: 


On  bended  knee,  the  black  slaves  of  the  Am- 
bassador, arrayed  in  the  most  gorgeous  Orien- 
tal costumes,  served  the  choicest  Mocha  coffee 
in  tiny  cups  of  egg-shell  porcelain,  hot.  strong 
and  fragrant,  poured  out  in  saucers  of  gold  and 
silver,  placed  on  embroidered  silk  doylies  fringed 
with  gold  bullion,  to  the  grand  dames,  who  flut- 
tered their  fans  with  many  grimaces,  bending 
their  piquant  faces — ^be-rouged,  be-powdered 
and  be-patched  —  over  the  new  and  steaming 
beverage. 

It  was  in  1669  or  1672  that  Madame  de 
Sevigne  (Marie  de  Rabutin-Chantal ; 
1626-96),  the  celebrated  French  letter- 
writer,  is  said  to  have  made  that  famous 
prophecy,  "There  are  two  things  French- 
men will  never  swallow  —  coffee  and  Ra- 
cine 's  poetry, ' '  sometimes  abbreviated  into, 
"Racine  and  coffee  will  pass."  "What  Ma- 
dame really  said,  according  to  one  author- 
ity, was  that  Racine  was  writing  for 
Champmesle,  the  actress,  and  not  for  pos- 
terity; again,  of  coffee  she  said,  "s'en 
degoi'derait  comme)  d'un  indigne  favori 
(People  will  become  disgusted  with  it  as 
with  an  unworthy  favorite). 

Larousse  says  the  double  judgment  was 
wrongly  attributed  to  Mme.  de  S6vign6. 
The  celebrated  aphorism,  like  many  others, 
was  forged  later.  Mme.  de  S6vign6  said, 
"Racine  made  his  comedies  for  the  Champ- 
mesle—  not  for  the  ages  to  come."  This 
was  in  1672.    Four  years  later,  she  said  to 


91 


92 


ALL     ABOUT     COFFEE 


Coffee  Was  First  Sold  and  Served  Publicly  in 

THE  Fair  of  St.-Germain 

From   a   Seventeenth-Century   Print 

her  daughter,  "You  have  done  well  to  quit 
coffee.    Mile,  de  Mere  has  also  given  it  up. " 

However  it  may  have  been,  the  amiable 
letter-writer  was  destined  to  live  to  see 
Frenchmen  yielding  at  once  to  the  lure  of 
coffee  and  to  the  poetical  artifices  of  the 
greatest   dramatic   craftsman    of   his   day. 

While  it  is  recorded  that  coffee  made 
slow  progress  with  the  court  of  Louis  XIV, 
the  next  king,  Louis  XV,  to  please  his 
mistress,  du  Barry,  gave  it  a  tremendous 
vogue.  It  is  related  that  he  spent  $15,000 
a  year  for  coffee  for  his  daughters. 

Meanwhile,  in  1672,  one  Pascal,  an 
Armenian,  first  sold  coffee  publicly  in  Paris. 
Pascal,  who,  according  to  one  account,  was 
brought  to  Paris  by  Soliman  Aga,  offered 
the  beverage  for  sale  from  a  tent,  which 
was  also  a  kind  of  booth,  in  the  fair  of  St.- 
Germain,  supplemented  by  the  service  of 


Turkish  waiter  boys,  who  peddled  it  among 
the  crowds  from  small  cups  on  trays.  The 
fair  was  held  during  the  first  two  months 
of  spring,  in  a  large  open  plot  Just  inside 
the  walls  of  Paris  and  near  the  Latin 
Quarter.  As  Pascal's  waiter  boys  circu- 
lated through  the  crowds  on  those  chilly 
days  the  fragrant  odor  of  freshly  made 
coffee  brought  many  ready  sales  of  the 
steaming  beverage;  and  soon  visitors  to 
the  fair  learned  to  look  for  the  "little 
black"  cupful  of  cheer,  or  petit  noir,  a 
name  that  still  endures. 

When  the  fair  closed,  Pascal  opened  a 
small  coffee  shop  on  the  Quai  de  I'ficole, 
near  the  Pont  Neuf;  but  his  frequenters 
were  of  a  type  who  preferred  the  beers  and 
wines  of  the  day,  and  coffee  languished. 
Pascal  continued,  however,  to  send  his 
waiter  boys  with  their  large  'coffee  jugs, 
that  were  heated  by  lamps,  through  the 
streets  of  Paris  and  from  door  to  door. 
Their  cheery  cry  of  "cafe!  cafe!'^  became 
a  welcome  call  to  many  a  Parisian,  who 
later  missed  his  petit  noir  w^hen  Pascal  gave 
up  and  moved  on  to  London,  where  coffee 
drinking  was  then  in  high  favor. 

Lacking  favor  at  court,  coffee's  progress 
was  slow.  The  French  smart  set  clung  to 
its  light  wines  and  beers.    In  1672,  Maliban, 


Street  Coffee  Vender  of  Paris  ■ —  Period,  1GT2 

TO  1689  —  Two  Sous  per  Dish,  Sugar 

Included 


EARLY  PARISIAN  COFFEE  HOUSES 


93 


mother  Armenian,  opened  a  coffee  house  in 
|he  rue  Bussy,  next  to  the  Metz  tennis  court 
lear  St.-Germain's  abbey.  He  supplied 
)bacco  also  to  his  customers.  Later  he 
rent  to  Holland,  leaving  his  servant  and 
>artner,  Gregory,  a  Persian,  in  charge, 
rregory  moved  to  the  rue  Mazarine,  to  be 
lear  the  Comedie  Franqaise.  He  was  suc- 
^eded  in  the  business  by  Makara,  another 
*ersian,  who  later  returned  to  Ispahan, 
Saving  the  coffee  house  to  one  Le  Gantois, 
Liege. 

About  this  period  there  was  a  cripple 

^oy  from  Candia,  known  as  le  Candiot,  who 

^egan  to  cry  "coffee!"  in  the  streets  of 

*aris.     He  carried  with  him  a  coffee  pot 

|if  generous  size,  a  chafing-dish,  cups,  and 

11  other  implements  necessary  to  his  trade. 

le  sold  his  coffee  from  door  to  door  at  two 

)us  per  dish,  sugar  included. 

A    Levantine    named    Joseph    also    sold 

)ffee  in  the  streets,  and  later  had  several 

)ffee  shops  of  his  own.      Stephen,   from 

^\leppo,  next  opened  a  coffee  house  on  Pont 

lu    Change,    moving,    when    his    business 


.Many  ok  the  Early  Parisian  Coffee  Houses 

Followed   Pascal's    Lead   and   Abfected 

Armenian  Decohations 

From  a  Seventeenth-Century  Print 


A  Corner  of  the  Historic  CafS  de  Procope 

Showing  Voltaire  and  Diderot  in  Debate 

From   a   rare   water   color 

prospered,  to  more  pretentious  quarters  in 
the  rue  St.-Andre,  facing  St. -Michael's 
bridge. 

All  these,  and  others,  were  essentially  the 
Oriental  style  of  coffee  house  of  the  lower 
order,  and  they  appealed  principally  to  the 
poorer  classes  and  to  foreigners.  "Gentle- 
men and  people  of  fashion"  did  not  care 
to  be  seen  in  this  type  of  public  house. 
But  when  the  French  merchants  began  to 
set  up,  first  at  St.-Germain's  fair,  "spa- 
cious apartments  in  an  elegant  manner, 
ornamented  with  tapestries,  large  mirrors, 
pictures,  marble  tables,  branches  for 
candles,  magnificent  lustres,  and  serving 
coffee,  tea,  chocolate,  and  other  refresh- 
ments", they  were  soon  crowded  with  peo- 
ple of  fashion  and  men  of  letters. 

In  this  way  coffee  drinking  in  public 
acquired  a  badge  of  respectability.  Pres- 
ently there  were  some  three  hundred  coffee 
houses  in  Paris.  The  principal  coffee  men, 
in  addition  to  plying  their  trade  in  the  city, 
maintained  coffee  rooms  in  St.-Germain's 
and  St. -Laurence's  fairs.  These  were  fre- 
quented by  women  as  well  as  men. 


94 


ALL     ABOUT     COFFEE 


The  Progenitor  of  the  Real  Parisian  Cafe 

It  was  not  until  1689,  that  there  appeared 
in  Paris  a  real  French  adaptation  of  the 
Oriental  coffee  house.  This  was  the  Cafe 
de  Procope,  opened  by  Frangois  Procope 
(Procopio  Cultelli,  or  Cotelli)  who  came 
from  Florence  or  Palermo.  Procope  was  a 
limonadier  (lemonade  vender)  who  had  a 
royal  license  to  sell  spices,  ices,  barley 
water,  lemonade,  and  other  such  refresh- 
ments. He  early  added  coffee  to  the  list, 
and  attracted  a  large  and  distinguished 
patronage. 

Procope,  a  keen-witted  merchant,  made 
his  appeal  to  a  higher  class  of  patrons  than 
did  Pascal  and  those  who  first  followed  him. 
He  established  his  caf6  directly  opposite 
the  newly  opened  Com6die  Frangaise,  in 
the  street  then  known  as  the  rue  des 
Fosses-St.-Germain,  but  now  the  rue  de 
I'Ancienne  Comedie.  A  writer  of  the  period 
has  left  this  description  of  the  place :  ' '  The 
Cafe  de  Procope  .  .  .  was  also  called 
the.Antre  [cavern]  de  Procope,  because  it 
was  very  dark  even  in  full  day,  and 
ill-lighted  in  the  evenings ;  and  because  you 
often  saw  there  a  set  of  lank,  sallow  poets, 
who  had  somewhat  the  air  of  apparitions. ' ' 

Because  of  its  location,  the  Cafe  de 
Procope  became  the  gathering  place  of 
many  noted  French  actors,  authors,  dram- 
atists, and  musicians  of  the  eighteenth 
century.  It  was  a  veritable  literary  salon. 
Voltaire  was  a  constant  patron;  and  until 
the  close  of  the  historic  cafe,  after  an  exist- 
ence of  more  than  two  centuries,  his  marble 
table  and  chair  were  among  the  precious 
relics  of  the  coffee  house.  His  favorite 
drink  is  said  to  have  been  a  mixture  of 
coffee  and  chocolate.  Eousseau,  author  and 
philosopher;  Beaumarchais,  dramatist  and 
financier;  Diderot,  the  encyclopedist;  Ste.- 
Foix,  the  abbe  of  Voisenon;  de  Belloy, 
author  of  the  Siege  of  Callais;  licmierre, 
author  of  Artaxerce;  Crebillon;  Piron;  La 
Chaussee;  Fontenelle;  Condorcet;  and  a 
host  of  lesser  lights  in  the  French  arts,  were 
habitues  of  Francois  Procope 's  modest 
coffee  saloon  near  the  Comedie  Frangaise. 

Naturally,  the  name  of  Benjamin  Frank- 
lin, recognized  in  Europe  as  one  of  the 
world's  foremost  thinkers  in  the  days  of  the 
American  Revolution,  was  often  spoken  over 
the  coffee  cups  of  Cafe  de  Procope;  and 
when  the  distinguished  American  died  in 
1790,  this  French  coffee  house  went  into 
deep  mourning  "for  the  great  friend  of 


republicanism."  The  walls,  inside  and  out, 
were  swathed  in  black  bunting,  and  the 
statesmanship  and  scientific  attainments  of 
Franklin  were  acclaimed  by  all  frequenters. 

The  Caf6  de  Procope  looms  large  in  the 
annals  of  the  French  Revolution.  During 
the  turbulent  days  of  1789  one  could  find 
at  the  tables,  drinking  coffee  or  stronger 
beverages,  and  engaged  in  debate  over  the 
burning  questions  of  the  hour,  such  char- 
acters as  Marat,  Robespierre,  Danton, 
Hebert,  and  Desmoulins.  Napoleon  Bona- 
parte, then  a  poor  artillery  officer  seeking 
a  commission,  was  also  there.  He  busied 
himself  largely  in  playing  chess,  a  favorite 
recreation  of  the  early  Parisian  coffee- 
house patrons.  It  is  related  that  Franqois 
Procope  once  compelled  young  Bonaparte 
to  leave  his  hat  for  security  while  he  sought 
money  to  pay  his  coffee  score. 

After  the  Revolution,  the  Cafe  de  Pro- 
cope lost  its  literary  prestige  and  sank  to 
the  level  of  an  ordinary  restaurant.  During 
the  last  half  of  the  nineteenth  century, 
Paul  Verlaine,  bohemian,  poet,  and  leader 
of  the  symbolists,  made  the  Cafe  de  Procope 
his  haunt ;  and  for  a  time  it  regained  some 
of  its  lost  popularity.  The  Restaurant  Pro- 
cope still  survives  at  13  rue  de  I'Ancienne 
Comedie. 

History  records  that,  with  the  opening  of 
the  Caf^  de  Procope,  coffee  became  firmly 
established  in  Paris.  In  the  reign  of  Louis 
XV  there  were  600  cafes  in  Paris.  At  the 
close  of  the  eighteenth  century  there  were 
more  than  800.  By  1843  the  number  had 
increased  to  more  than  3000. 

The  Development  of  the  Cafes 

Coffee's  vogue  spread  rapidly,  and  many 
cabarets  and  famous  eating  houses  began 
to  add  it  to  their  menus.  Among  these 
was  the  Tour  d'Argent  (silver  tower), 
which  had  been  opened  on  the  Qua!  de  la 
Tournelle  in  1582,  and  speedily  became 
Paris 's  most  fashionable  restaurant.  It 
still  is  one  of  the  chief  attractions  for  the 
epicure,  retaining  the  reputation  for  its 
cooking  that  drew  a  host  of  world  leaders, 
from  Napoleon  to  Edward  VII,  to  its  quaint 
interior. 

Another  tavern  that  took  up  coffee  after 
Procope,  was  the  Royal  Drummer,  which 
Jean  Ramponaux  established  at  the  Cour- 
tille  des  Porcherons  and  which  followed 
Magny's.  His  hostelry  rightly  belongs  to- 
the   tavern    class,    although    coffee    had    sli 


EARLY  PARISIAN  COFFEE  HOUSES 


95 


THE  CAFE  DE  PROCOPE  IN  1743 

From  an  engraving  by  Bosredon 


96 


ALL     ABOUT     COFFEE 


The    Cashier's    Counter    in    a    Paris    Coffee 

House  of  1782 

From  a   drawing,'  by   Retif  tie  la  Bretonne 

prominent  place  on  its  menu.  It  became 
notorious  for  excesses  and  low-class  vices 
during  the  reign  of  Louis  XV,  who  was  a 
frequent  visitor.  Low  and  high  were  to  be 
found  in  Ramponaux's  cellar,  particularly 
when  some  especially  wild  revelry  was  in 
prospect.  Marie  Antoinette  once  declared 
«he  had  her  most  enjoyable  time  at  a  wild 
farandole  in  the  Royal  Drummer.  Ram- 
ponaux  was  taken  to  its  heart  by  fashion- 
able Paris;  and  his  name  was  used  as  a 
trade  mark  on  furniture,  clothes,  and  foods. 
The  popularity  of  Ramponaux's  Royal 
Drummer  is  attested  by  an  inscription  on 
an  early  print  showing  the  interior  of  the 
cafe.     Translated,  it  reads : 

The  pleasures  of  ease  untroubled  to  taste, 

The  leisure  of  home  to  enjoy  without  haste, 
Perhaps 'a  few  hours  at  Magny's  to  waste, 

Ah,  that  was  the  old-fashioned  way ! 
Today  all  our  laborers,  everyone  knows. 

Go   running  away   ere   the   working   hours 
close. 
And   why?     Tliey   must  be   at  Monsieur   Ram- 
ponaux' ! 

Behold,  the  new  style  of  cafe! 


When  coffee  houses  began  to  crop  up 
rapidly  in  Paris,  the  majority  centered  in 
the  Palais  Royal,  "that  garden  spot  of 
beauty,  enclosed  on  three  sides  by  three 
tiers  of  galleries,"  which  Richelieu  had 
erected  in  1636,  under  the  name  of  Palais 
Cardinal,  in  the  reign  of  Louis  XIII.  It 
became  known  as  the  Palais  Royal  in  1643 ; 
and  soon  after  the  opening  of  the  Cafe  de 
Procope,  it  began  to  blossom  out  with  many 
attractive  coffee  stalls,  or  rooms,  sprinkled 
among  the  other  shops  that  occupied  the 
galleries  overlooking  the  gardens. 

Life  In  The  Early  Coffee  Houses 

Diderot  tells  in  1760,  in  his  Bameau's 
Nephew,  of  the  life  and  frequenters  of  one 
of  the  Palais  Royal  coffee  houses,  the 
Regency  {Cafe  de  la  Regence)  : 

In  all  weathers,  wet  or  fine,  it  is  my  practice 
to  go  toward  live  o'clock  in  the  evening  to  take 
a  turn  in  the  Palais  Roj^al.  ...  If  the  weather 
is  too  cold  or  too  wet  I  take  shelter  in  the 
Regency  coffee  house.  There  I  amuse  myself 
by  looking  on  while  they  play  chess.  No  where 
in  the  world  do  they  play  chess  as  skillfully  as 
in  Paris  and  nowhere  in  Paris  as  they  do  a' 
tliis  coffee  house ;  'tis  here  you  see  Legal  the 
profound,  Philidor  the  subtle.  Mayot  the  solid  ; 
here  you  see  the  most  astounding  moves,  and 
listen  to  the  sorriest  talk,  for  if  a  man  be  at 
once  a  wit  and  a  great  chess  player,  like  L'5gal, 
he  may  also  be  a  great  chess  player  and  a  sad 
simpleton,  like  Joubert  and  Mayot. 

The  beginnings  of  the  Regency  coffee 
house  are  associated  with  the  legend  that 
Lefevre,  a  Parisian,  began  peddling  coft'ee 
in  the  streets  of  Paris  about  the  time  Pro- 
cope  opened  his  cafe  in  1689.  The  story 
has  it  that  Lefevre  later  opened  a  cafe  near 
the  Palais  Royal,  selling  it  in  1718  to  one 
Leclerc,  who  named  it  the  Cafe  de  la 
Regence,  in  honor  of  the  regent  of  Orleans, 
a  name  that  still  endures  on  a  broad  sign 
over  its  doors.  The  nobility  had  their 
rendezvous  there  after  having  paid  their 
court  to  the  regent. 

To  name  the  patrons  of  the  Cafe  de  la 
Regence  in  its  long  career  would  be  to 
outline  a  history  of  French  literature  for 
more  than  two  centuries.  There  was  Phili- 
dor the  "greatest  theoretician  of  the  eigh- 
teenth century,  better  known  for  his  chess 
than  his  music ' ' ;  Robespierre,  of  the  Revo- 
lution, who  once  played  chess  with  a  girl  — 
disguised  as  a  boy  —  for  the  life  of  her 
lover;  Napoleon,  who  was  then  noted  more 
for  his  chess  than  his  empire-building  pro- 
pensities; and  Gambetta,  whose  loud  voice, 
generally  raised  in  debate,  disturbed  one, 


EARLY  PARISIAN  COFFEE  HOUSES 


97 


THE  CAFfi  FOY  IN  THE  PALAIS  RO  YAL,  1789 

From  an  engraving  by  Bosredon 


98 


ALL    ABOUT     COFFEE 


chess  player  so  much  that  he  protested 
because  he  could  not  follow  his  game. 
Voltaire,  Alfred  de  Musset,  Victor  Hugo, 
Th6ophile  Gautier,  J.  J.  Rousseau,  the 
Duke  of  Richelieu,  Marshall  Saxe,  Buffon, 
Rivarol,  Fontenelle,  Franklin,  and  Henry 
Murger  are  names  still  associated  with 
memories  of  this  historic  cafe.  Marmontel 
and  Philidor  played  there  at  their  favorite 
game  of  chess.  Diderot  tells  in  his  Memoirs 
that  his  wife  gave  him  every  day  nine  sous 
to  get  his  coffee  there.  It  was  in  this 
establishment  that  he  worked  on  his  Encyc- 
lopedia. 

Chess  is  today  still  in  favor  at  the 
Regenee,  although  the  players  are  not,  as 
were  the  earlier  patrons,  obliged  to  pay  by 
the  hour  for  their  tables  with  extra  charges 
for  candles  placed  by  the  chess-boards. 
The  present  Cafe  de  la  Regenee  is  in  the 
rue  St.-Honore,  but  retains  in  large  meas- 
ure its  aspect  of  olden  days. 

Michelet,  the  historian,  has  given  us  a 
rhapsodic  pen  picture  of  the  Parisian  cafes 
under  the  regency : 

Paris  became  one  vast  cafe.  Conversation  in 
France  was  at  its  zenitli.  Tliere  were  less 
eloquence  and  rhetoric  than  in  '89.  With  the 
exception  of  Rousseau,  there  was  no  orator  to 
cite.  The  intangible  flow  of  wit  was  as  spon- 
taneous as  possible.  For  this  sparkling  out- 
burst there  is  no  doubt  that  honor  should  be 
ascribed  in  part  to  the  auspicious  revolution 
of  the  times,  to  the  great  event  which  created 
new  customs,  and  even  modified  human  tempera- 
ment —  the  advent   of  coffee. 

Its  effect  was  immeasurable,  not  being  weak- 
ened and  neutralized  as  it  is  today  by  the 
brutalizing  influence  of  tobacco.  They  took 
snuff,  but  did  not  smoke.  Tlie  cabaret  was  de- 
throned, the  ignoble  cabaret,  where,  during  the 
reign  of  Louis  XIV.  the  youth  of  the  city  rioted 
amid  wine-casks  in  the  company  of  light  women. 
The  night  was  less  thronged  with  chariots. 
Fewer  lords  found  a  resting  place  in  the  gutter. 
The  elegant  shop,  where  conversation  flowed,  a 
salon  rather  than  a  shop,  changed  and  ennobled 
its  customs.  The  reign  of  coffee  is  that  of  tem- 
perance. Coffee,  the  beverage  of  sobriety,  a  pow- 
erful mental  stimulant,  which,  unlike  spirituous 
liquors,  increases  clearness  and  lucidity ;  coffee, 
which  suppresses  the  vague,  heavy  fantasies  of 
the  imagination,  which  from  the  perception  of 
reality  brings  forth  the  sparkle  and  sunlight  of 
truth ;   coffee  anti-erotic.  .  .  . 

The  three  ages  of  coffee  are  those  of  modern 
thought;  they  mark  the  serious  moments  of 
the  brilliant  epoch  of  the  soul. 

Arabian  coffee  is  the  pioneer,  even  before  1700. 
The  beautiful  ladies  that  you  see  in  the  fash- 
ionable rooms  of  Bonnard.  sipping  from  their 
tiny  cups  —  they  are  enjoying  the  aroma  of 
the  finest  coffee  of  Arabia.  And  of  what  are 
they  chatting?  Of  the  seraglio,  of  Chardin,  of 
the  Sultana's  coiffure,  of  the  Thousand  and  One 


Nights  (1704).  They  compare  the  ennui  of 
Versailles  with  the  paradise  of  the  Orient. 

Very  soon,  in  1710  -  1720.  commences  the  reign 
of  Indian  coffee,  abundant,  popular,  compara- 
tively cheap.  Bourbon,  our  Indian  island,  where 
coffee  was  transplanted,  suddenly  realizes  un- 
heard-of happiness.  This  coffee  of  volcanic 
lands  acts  as  an  explosive  on  the  Regency  and 
the  new  spirit  of  things.  This  sudden  cheer, 
this  laughter  of  the  old  world,  these  overwhelm- 
ing flashes  of  wit,  of  which  the  sparkling  verse 
of  Voltaire,  the  Persian  Letters,  give  us  a  faint 
idea !  Even  the  most  brilliant  books  have  not 
succeeded  in  catching  on  the  wing  this  airy 
chatter,  which  comes,  goes,  flies  elusively.  This 
is  that  spirit  of  ethereal  nature  which,  in  the 
Thousand  and  One  Nights,  the  enchanter  con- 
fined in  his  bottle.  But  what  phial  would  have 
withstood  that  pressure? 

The  lava  of  Bourbon,  like  the  Arabian  sand, 
was  unequal  to  the  demand.  The  Regent  rec- 
ognized this  and  had  coffee  transported  to  the 
fertile  soil  of  our  Antilles.  T"lie  strong  coffee 
of  Santo  Domingo,  full,  coarse,  nourishing  as 
well  as  stimulating,  sustained  the  adult  popu- 
lation of  that  period,  the  strong  age  of  the  en- 
cyclopedia. It  was  drunk  by  Buffon,  Diderot, 
Rousseau,  added  its  glow  to  glowing  souls,  its 
light  to  the  penetrating  vision  of  the  prophets 
gathered  in  the  cave  of  Procope.  who  saw  at 
the  bottom  of  the  black  beverage  the  future  rays 
of  '89.  Danton,  the  terrible  Danton.  took  sev- 
eral cups  of  coffee  before  mounting  the  tribune. 
'The  horse  must  have  its  oats,'  he  said. 

The  vogue  of  coffee  popularized  the  use 
of  sugar,  which  was  then  bought  by  the 
ounce  at  the  apothecary's  shop.  Dufour 
says  that  in  Paris  they  used  to  put  so  much 
sugar  in  the  coffee  that  "it  was  nothing 
but  a  syrup  of  blackened  water."  The 
ladies  were  wont  to  have  their  carriages 
stop  in  front  of  the  Paris  cafes  and  to  have 
their  coffee  served  to  them  by  the  porter 
on  saucers  of  silver. 

Every  year  saw  new  cafes  opened.  When 
they  became  so  numerous,  and  competition 
grew  so  keen,  it  was  necessary  to  invent 
new  attractions  for  customers.  Then  was. 
born  the  cafe  chantant,  where  songs,  mono- 
logues, dances,  little  plays  and  farces  (not 
always  in  the  best  taste),  were  provided  to 
amuse  the  frequenters.  Many  of  these 
cafes  chantants  were  in  the  open  air  along 
the  Champs-Elysees.  In  bad  weather,  Paris 
provided  the  pleasure-seeker  with  the 
Eldorado,  Alcazar  d'Hiver,  Scala,  Gaiete, 
Concert  du  XIX^^  Si^cle,  Folies  Bobino, 
Rambuteau,  Concert  Europeen,  and  count- 
less other  meeting  places  where  one  could 
be  served  with  a  cup  of  coffee. 

As  in  London,  certain  cafes  were  noted 
for  particular  followings,  like  the  military, 
students,    artists,    merchants.      The    politi 


EARLY  PARISIAN  COFFEE  HOUSES 


THE  CAFfi  DES  MILLE  COLONNES  IX  1811 

From  an  engraving  by  Bosredon 


100 


ALL     ABOUT     COFFEE 


eians    had    their    favorite    resorts.     Says 
Salvandy : 

These  were  senates  in  miniature ;  here  miglity 
political  questions  were  discussed ;  here  peace 
and  war  were  decided  upon ;  here  generals  were 
brought  to  the  bar  of  justice  .  .  .distinguished 
orators  were  victoriously  refuted,  ministers 
heckled  upon  their  ignorance,  their  incapacity, 
their  perfidy,  their  corruption.  The  cafe  is  in 
reality  a  French  institution ;  in  them  we  find 
all  these  agitations  and  movements  of  men,  the 
like  of  which  is  unknown  in  the  English  tavern. 
No  government  can  go  against  the  sentiment  of 
the  caf6s.  The  Revolution  took  place  because 
they  were  for  the  Revolution.  Napoleon  reigned 
because  they  were  for  glory.  Tlae  Restoration 
was  shattered,  because  they  understood  the 
Charter  in  a  different  manner. 

In  1700  appeared  the  Portefeuille  Galant, 
containing  conversations  of  the  caf6s. 

The  Cafes  in  the  French  Revolution 

The  Palais  Royal  coffee  houses  were 
centers  of  activity  in  the  days  preceding 
and  following  the  Revolution.  A  picture 
of  them  in  the  July  days  of  1789  has  been 
left  by  Arthur  Young,  who  was  visiting 
Paris  at  that  time : 

The  coffee  houses  present  yet  more  singular 
and  astounding  spectacles;  they  are  not  only 
crowded  within,  but  other  expectant  crowds  are 
at  the  doors  and  windows,  listening  d  gorge 
d4plogec  to  certain  orators  who  from  chairs  or 
tables  harangue  each  his  little  audience;  the 
eagerness  with  which  they  are  heard,  and  the 
thunder  of  applause  they  receive  for  every 
sentiment  of  more  than  common  hardiness  or 
violence  against  the  government,  cannot  easily 
be  imagined. 

The  Palais  Royal  teemed  with  excited 
Frenchmen  on  the  fateful  Sunday  of  July 
12,  1789.  The  moment  was  a  tense  one, 
when,  coming  out  of  the  Cafe  Foy,  Camille 
Desmoulins,  a  youthful  journalist,  mounted 
a  table  and  began  the  harangue  that  pre- 
cipitated the  first  overt  act  of  the  French 
Revolution.  Blazing  with  a  white  hot 
frenzy,  he  so  played  upon  the  passions  of 
the  mob  that  at  the  conclusion  of  his  speech 
he  and  his  followers  "marched  away  from 
the  Cafe  on  their  errand  of  Revolution." 
The  Bastille  fell  two  days  later. 

As  if  abashed  by  its  reputation  as  the 
starting  point  of  the  mob  spirit  of  the 
Revolution,  Cafe  Foy  became  in  after  years 
a  sedate  gathering-place  of  artists  and 
literati.  Up  to  its  close  it  was  distinguished 
among  other  famous  Parisian  cafes  for  its 
exclusiveness  and  strictly  enforced  rule  of 
"no  smoking." 

1  Salvandy,  Naroissp-Achille.  Influence  des  Caf48 
sur  lea  Moeurs  PoUtiqtiea. 


Even  from  the  first  the  Parisian  cafes 
catered  to  all  classes  of  society ;  and,  unlike 
the  London  coffee  houses,  they  retained  this 
distinctive  characteristic.  A  number  of 
them  early  added  other  liquid  and  substan- 
tial refreshments,  many  becoming  out-and- 
out  restaurants. 

Coffee-House  Customs  and  Patrons 

Coffee's  effect  on  Parisians  is  thus 
decribed  by  a  writer  of  the  latter  part  of 
the  eighteenth  century: 

I  think  I  may  safely  assert  that  it  is  to  tlie 
establishment  of  so  many  cafes  in  Paris  that  is 
due  the  urbanity  and  mildness  discernible  upon 
most  faces.  Before  they  existed,  nearly  every- 
body passed  his  time  at  the  cabaret,  where  even 
business  matters  were  discussed.  Since  their 
establishment,  people  assemble  to  hear  what  is 
going  on,  drinking  and  playing  only  in  modera- 
tion, and  the  consequence  is  that  they  are  more 
civil  and  polite,  at  least  in  appearance. 

Montesquieu's  satirical  pen  pictured  in 
his  Persian  Letters  the  earliest  cafes  as 
follows : 

In  some  of  these  liouses  they  talk  news ;  in 
others,  they  play  draughts.  There  is  one  where 
they  prepare  the  coffee  in  such  a  manner  that 
it  inspires  the  drinkers  of  it  with  wit ;  at  least, 
of  all  those  who  frequent  it,  there  is  not  one 
person  in  four  who  does  not  think  he  has  more 
wit  after  he  has  entered  that  house.  But  what 
offends  me  in  these  wits  is  that  they  do  not 
make  themselves  useful  to  their  country. 

Montesquieu  encountered  a  geometrician 
outside  a  coffee  house  on  the  Pont  Neuf, 
and  accompanied  him  inside.  He  describes 
the  incident  in  this  manner: 

I  observe  that  our  geometrician  was  received 
there  with  the  utmost  ofRciousness,  and  that  the 
coffee  house  boys  paid  him  much  more  respect 
than  two  musqueteers  who  were  in  a  corner  of 
the  room.  As  for  him,  he  seemed  as  if  he 
thought  himself  in  an  agreeable  place ;  for  he 
unwrinkled  his  brows  a  little  and  laughed,  as  if 
he  had  not  the  least  tincture  of  geometrician  in 
him.  .  .  .  He  was  offended  at  every  start  of  wit, 
as  a  tender  eye  is  by  too  strong  a  light.  ...  At 
last  I  saw  an  old  man  enter,  pale  and  thin, 
whom  I  knew  to  be  a  coffee  house  politician 
before  he  sat  down ;  he  was  not  one  of  those 
who  are  never  to  be  intimidated  by  disasters, 
but  always  prophesy  of  victories  and  success; 
he  was  one  of  those  timorous  wretches  who  are 
always  boding  ill. 

Cafe  Momus  and  Caf6  Rotonde  figure 
conspicuously  in  the  record  of  French 
bohemianism.  The  Momus  stood  near  the 
right  bank  of  the  River  Seine  in  rue  des 
Pretres  St.-Germain,  and  was  known  as  the 
home  of  the  bohemians.  The  Rotonde  stood 
on  the  left  bank  at  the  corner  of  the  rue  de 


EARLY  PARISIAN  COFFEE  HOUSES 


101 


THE  CAFfi  DE  PARIS  IN  1843 

From  an  engraving  by  Bosredon 


102 


ALL    ABOUT     COFFEE 


rficole  de  Medecine  and  the  rue  Haute- 
feuille. 

Alexandre  Schanne  has  given  us  a 
glimpse  of  bohemian  life  in  the  early  cafes. 
He  lays  his  scene  in  the  Cafe  ]Rotonde,  and 
tells  how  a  number  of  poor  students  were 
wont  to  make  one  cup  of  coffee  last  the 
coterie  a  full  evening  by  using  it  to  flavor 
and  to  color  the  one  glass  of  water  shared 
in  common.    He  says : 

Every  evening,  the  first  comer  at  the  waiter's 
inquiry,  "What  will  you  talie,  sir?"  never  failed 
to  reply,  "Nothing  just  at  present,  I  am  waiting 
for  a  friend."  The  friend  arrived,  to  be  assailed 
by  the  brutal  question,  "Have  you  any  money?" 
He  would  make  a  despairing  gesture  in  the  nega- 
tive, and  then  add,  loud  enough  to  be  heard  by 
the  dame  clu  comptoir,  "By  Jove,  no ;  only  fancy, 
I  left  my  purse  on  my  console-table,  with  gilt 
feet,  in  the  purest  Louis  XV  style.  Ah !  what  a 
thing  it  is  to  be  forgetful."  He  would  sit  down, 
and  the  waiter  would  wipe  the  table  as  if  he 
had  something  to  do.  A  third  would  come,  who 
was  sometimes  able  to  reply,  "Yes,  I  have  ten 
sous."  "Good !"  we  would  reply ;  "order  a  cup 
of  coffee,  a  glass  and  a  water  bottle ;  pay  and 
give  two  sous  to  the  waiter  to  secure  his 
silence."  Tliis  would  be  done.  Others  would 
come  and  take  their  places  beside  us,  repeating 
to  the  waiter  the  same  chorus,  "We  are  with 
this  gentleman."  Frequently  we  would  be  eight 
or  nine  sitting  at  the  same  table,  and  only  one 
customer.  Whilst  smoking  and  reading  the 
papers  we  would,  however,  pass  the  glass  and 
bottle.  When  the  water  began  to  run  short,  as 
on  a  ship  in  distress,  one  of  us  would  have  the 
impudence  to  call  out,  "Waiter,  some  water !" 
The  master  of  the  establishment,  who  understood 
our  situation,  had  no  doubt  given  orders  for  us 
to  be  left  alone,  and  made  his  fortune  without 
our  help.  He  was  a  good  fellow  and  an  intel- 
ligent one,  having  subscribed  to  all  the  scientific 
journals  of  Europe,  which  brought  him  the  cus- 
tom of  foreign  students. 

Another  cafe  perpetuating  the  best  tradi- 
tions of  the  Latin  Quarter  was  the  Vaehette, 
which  survived  until  the  death  of  Jean 
Moreas  in  1911.  The  Vaehette  is  usually 
cited  by  antiquarians  as  a  model  of  circum- 
spection as  compared  with  the  scores  of 
cafes  in  the  Quarter  that  were  given  up  to 
debaucheries.  One  writer  puts  it:  "The 
Vaehette  traditions  leaned  more  to  scholar- 
ship than  sensuality." 

In  the  late  seventeenth  and  early  eigh- 
teenth centuries  the  Parisian  cafe  was  truly 
a  coffee  house ;  but  as  many  of  the  patrons 
began  to  while  away  most  of  their  waking 
hours  in  them,  the  proprietors  added  other 
beverages  and  food  to  hold  their  patron- 
age. Consequently,  we  find  listed  among 
the  cafes  of  Paris  some  houses  that  are 
more  accurately  described  as  restaurants, 


although    they    may    have    started    their 
careers  as  coffee  houses. 

Historic  Parisian  Cafes 

Some  of  the  historic  cafes  are  still  thriv- 
ing in  their  original  locations,  although  the 
majority  have  now  passed  into  oblivion. 
Glimpses  of  the  more  famous  houses  are  to 
be  found  in  the  novels,  poetry,  an'd  essays 
written  by  the  French  literati  who  patron- 
ized them.  These  first-hand  accounts  give 
insights  that  are  sometimes  stirring,  often 
amusing,  and  frequently  revolting  —  such 
as  the  assassination  of  St.-Fargeau  in 
Fevrier's  low- vaulted  cellar  cafe  in  the 
Palais  Royal. 

There  is  Magny  's,  originally  the  haunt  of 
such  literary  men  as  Gautier,  Taine,  Saint- 
Victor,  Turguenieff,  de  Goncourt,  Soulie, 
Renan,  Edmond.  In  recent  years  the  old 
Magny 's  was  razed,  and  on  its  site  was  built 
the  modem  restaurant  of  the  same  name, 
but  in  a  style  that  has  no  resemblance  to  its 
predecessor.  Even  the  name  of  the  street 
has  been  changed,  from  rue  Contrescarpe  to 
the  rue  Mazet. 

Meot's,  the  Very,  Beauvilliers',  Mass^'s, 
the  Cafe  Chartres,  the  Troi  Freres  Proven- 
qaux,  and  the  du  Grand  Commun,  all  situ- 
ated in  the  Palais  Royal,  are  cafes  that 
figured  conspicuously  in  the  French  Revolu- 
tion, and  are  closely  identified  with  the 
French  stage  and  literature.  Meot's  and 
Masse 's  were  the  trysting  places  of  the 
Royalists  in  the  days  preceding  the  out- 
break, but  welcomed  the  Revolutionists 
after  they  came  in  power.  The  Chartres 
was  notorious  as  the  gathering  place  of 
young  aristocrats  who  escaped  the  guillo- 
tine, and,  thus  made  bold,  often  called  their 
like  from  adjoining  caf6s  to  partake  in  some 
of  their  plans  for  restoration  of  the  empire. 
The  Trois  Freres  Provengaux,  well  known 
for  its  excellent  and  costl/  dinners,  is  men- 
tioned by  Balzac,  Lord  Lytton,  and  Alfred 
de  Musset  in  some  of  their  novels.  The 
Cafe  du  Grand  Commun  appears  in 
Rousseau's  Confessions  in  connection  with 
the  play  Devin  du  Village. 

Among  the  most  famous  of  the  cafes  on 
the  Rue  St.  Honore  were  Venua's,  patron- 
ized by  Robespierre  and  his  companions  of 
the  Revolution,  and  perhaps  the  scene  of 
the  inhuman  murder  of  Berthier  and  its 
revolting  aftermath ;  the  Mapinot,  which  has 
gone  down  in  cafe  history  as  the  scene  of 
the  banquet  to  Archibald  Alison,  the  22- 


EARLY  PARISIAN  COFFEE  HOUSES 


103 


Interior  of  a  Typical  Parisian  CAFfi  of  the  Early  Nineteenth  Century 


year-old  historian;  and  Voisin's  cafe, 
around  which  still  cling  traditions  of  such 
literary  lights  as  Zola,  Alphonse  Daudet, 
and  Jules  de  Goncourt. 

Perhaps  the  boulevard  des  Italiens  had, 
and  still  has,  more  fashionable  cafes  than 
any  other  section  of  the  French  capital. 
The  Tortoni,  opened  in  the  early  days  of 
the  Empire  by  Velloni,  an  Italian  lemonade 
vender,  was  the  most  popular  of  the  boule- 
vard caf^s,  and  was  generally  thronged 
with  fashionables  from  all  parts  of  Europe. 
Here  Louis  Blanc,  historian  of  the  Revolu- 
tion, spent  many  hours  in  the  early  days  of 
his  fame.  Talleyrand ;  Rossini,  the  musi- 
cian ;  Alfred  Stevens  and  Edouard  Manet, 
artists,  are  some  of  the  names  still  linked 
with  the  traditions  of  the  Tortoni.  Farther 
down  the  boulevard  were  the  Cafe  Riche, 
Maison  Doree,  Cafe  Anglais,  and  the  Cafe 
de  Paris.  The  Riche  and  the  Doree,  stand- 
ing side  by  side,  were  both  high-priced  and 
noted  for  their  revelries.  The  Anglais, 
which  came  into  existence  after  the  snuffing 
out  of  the  Empire,  was  also  distinguished 
for  its  high  prices,  but  in  return  gave  an 
excellent  dinner  and  fine  wines.  It  is  told 
that  even  during  the  siege  of  Paris  the 
Anglais  offered  its  patrons  "such  luxuries 
as  ass,  mule,  peas,  fried  potatoes,  and  cham- 
pagne." 


Probably  the  Cafe  de  Paris,  which  came 
into  existence  in  1822,  in  the  former  home 
of  the  Russian  Prince  Demidoff,  was  the 
most  richly  equipped  and  elegantly  con- 
ducted of  any  cafe  in  Paris  in  the  nine- 
teenth century,  Alfred  de  Musset,  a  fre- 
quenter, said,  ' '  you  could  not  open  its  doors 
for  less  than  15  francs." 

The  Cafe  Litteraire,  opened  on  boulevard 
Bonne  Nouvelle  late  in  the  nineteenth 
century,  made  a  direct  appeal  to  literary 
men  for  patronage,  printing  this  footnote 
on  its  menu :  ' '  Every  customer  spending  a 
franc  in  this  establishment  is  entitled  to 
one  volume  of  any  work  to  be  selected  from 
our  vast  collection. ' ' 

The  names  of  Parisian  cafes  once  more  or 
less  famous  are  legion.    Some  of  them  are : 

The  Cafe  Laurent,  which  Rousseau  was 
forced  to  leave  after  writing  an  especially 
bitter  satire;  the  English  cafe,  in  which 
eccentric  Lord  Wharton  made  merry  with 
the  Whig  habitues;  the  Dutch  cafe,  the 
haunt  of  Jacobites;  Terre's,  in  the  rue 
Neuve  des  Pet  its  Champs,  which  Thackeray 
described  in  The  Ballad  of  Bouillahaisse; 
Maire's,  in  the  boulevard  St.-Denis,  which 
dates  back  beyond  1850;  the  Caf6  Madrid, 
in  the  boulevard  Montmartre,  of  which 
Carjat,  the  Spanish  lyric  poet,  was  an 
attraction;   the   Caf6   de   la   Paix,   in   the 


104 


ALL     ABOUT     COFFEE 


boulevard  des  Capucines,  the  resort  of  Sec- 
ond Empire  Imperialists  and  their  spies ; 
the  Caf6  Durand,  in  the  place  de  la  Made- 
leine, which  started  on  a  plane  with  the 
high-priced  Riche,  and  ended  its  career 
early  in  the  twentieth  century;  the  Rocher 
de  Cancale,  memorable  for  its  feasts  and 
high-living  patrons  from  all  over  Europe ; 


the  Cafe  Guerbois,  near  the  .rug,  d^e,  St. 
Petersbourg,  where  Manet,  the  impres- 
sionist, after  many  vicissitudes,  won  fame 
for  his  paintings  and  held  court  for  many 
years ;  the  Chat  Noir,  on  the  rue  Victor 
Masse  at  Montmartre,  a  blend  of  cafe  and 
concert  hall,  which  has  since  been  imitated 
widely,  both  in  name  and  feature. 


Chess  Has  Been  a  Favorite 
Pastime  at  the  CafS;  de  la 
rfigence  for  t\vo  hundred  years 


I 


A  I.  L     ABOUT     COFFEE 


r 


COFFEE  BRANCHES,  FLOWERS,  AND  FRUIT 

Showing  the  Berry  in  its  Various  Ripening  Stages  from  Flower  to  CiiKituY 

(luset:  1,  green  bean;  2,  silver  skin;  i?,  parohment ;  4,  fruit  pulj).) 

Painted  from  life  by  Blendon  Campbell 


Chapter    XII 


INTRODUCTION    OF    COFFEE     INTO     NORTH    AMERICA 


Captain  John  Smith,  founder  of  the  Colony  of  Virginia,  is  the  first 
to  bring  to  North  America  a  knowledge  of  coffee  in  1607  —  The 
coffee  grinder  on  the  Mayflower  —  Coffee  drinking  in  1668  —  Wil- 
liam Penn's  coffee  purchase  in  1683  — Coffee  in  colonial  New  Eng- 
land—  The  psychology  of  the  Boston  "tea  party,"  and  why  the 
United  States  became  a  nation  of  coffee  drinkers  instead  of  ti  i 
drinkers,  like  England  —  The  first  coffee  license  to  Dorothy  Jones  i 
1670  —  The  first  coffee  house  in  New  England  —  Notable  coffi  ? 
houses  of  old  Boston  —  A  sky-scraper  coffee  house 


'-A 


UNDOUBTEDLY  the  first  to  bring  a 
knowledge  of  coffee  to  North  Amer- 
ica was  Captain  John  Smith,  who 
founded  the  Colony  of  Virgmia  at  James- 
town in  1607.  Captain  Smith  became  fa- 
miliar with  coffee  in  his  travels  in  Turkey. 

Although  the  Dutch  also  had  early  knowl- 
edge  of  coffee,  it  does  not  appear  that  the 
Dutch  West  India  Company  brought  any 
of  it  to  the  first  permanent  settlement  on 
Manhattan  Island  (1624).  Nor  is  there 
any  record  of  coffee  in  the  cargo  of  the 
Mayflower  (1620),  although  it  included  a 
wooden  mortar  and  pestle,  later  used  to 
make  "coffee  powder." 

In  the  period  when  New  Yo^T^  ^^^^  T>Jp-«zl 

AmstPrdanij     and     ^^^n^(^r■    Dnfpli     r>r>mipanny 

(1624-64),  it  is  possible  that  coffee  ma^v 
have  bppn  import^H  from  Holland,  where 
it  was  being  sold  on  the  Amsterdam  market 
as  early  as  1640,  and  where  regular  sup- 
plies of  the  green  bean  were  being  received 
from  Mocha  in  1663;  but  positive  proof  is 
lacking.  The  Dutch  appear  to  have  brought 
tea  across  the  Atlantic  from  Holland  before 
coffee.  The  English  may  have  introduced 
the  coffee  drink  into  the  New  York  colony 
between  1664  and  1673.  The  earliest  refer- 
ence to  coffee  in  America  is  1668  \  at  which 


•  Singleton,  Esther. 
1909.      (p.  132.) 


Dutch  New  York.     New  York, 


time  a  beverage  made  from  the  roasted 
beans,  and  flavored  with  sugar  or  honey, 
and  cinnamon,  was  being  drunk  ii  New 
York. 

,^Coffee  first  appears  in  the  official  lecords 
oFthe  New  England  colony  in  ifiTfL,  in 
1683,  the  year  following  William  Penn's 
settlement  on  the  Delaware,  we  find  him 
buying  supplies  of  coffee  in  the  New  York 
market  and  paying  for  them  at  the  rate  of 
eighteen  shillings  and  nine  pence  per 
pound.'' 

Coffee  houses  patterned  after  the  English 
and  Continental  prototypes  were  soon  estab- 
lished in  all  the  colonies.  Those  of  New- 
York  and  Philadelphia  are  described  in 
separate  chapters.  The  Boston  houses  are 
described  at  the  end  of  this  chapter. 

Norfolk,  Chicago,  St.  Louis,  and  New 
Orleans  also  had  them.  Conrad  Leonhard  's 
coffee  /house  at  320  Market  Street.  St. 
Louis,  was  famous  for  its  coffee  and  coffee 
cake,  from  1844  to  1905,  when  it  became  a 
bakery  and  lunch  room,  removing  in  1919 
to  Eighth  and  Pine  Streets. 

In  the  pioneer  days  of  the  great  west, 
coffee  and  tea  were  hard  to  get;  and,  in- 
stead of  them,  teas  were  often  made  from 
garden    herbs,    spicewood,    sassafras-roots^ 

^  Bishop,  J.  Leander.  A  History  of  American  Manu- 
factures, 1608  to  IfdO.  New  York,  1804.  (Vol.  1;  p. 
259.) 


105 


106 


ALL     ABOUT     COFFEE 


and  other  shrubs,  taken  from  the  thickets '. 
In  1839,  in  the  city  of  Chicago,  one  of  the 
minor  taverns  was  known  as  the  Lake  Street 
coffee  house.  It  was  situated  at  the  corner 
of  Lake  and  Wells  Streets.  A  number  of 
hotels,  which  in  the  English  sense  might 
more  appropriately  be  called  inns,  met  a 
demand  for  modest  accommodation  *.  Two 
coffee  houses  were  listed   in  the   Chicago 


Types  of  Colonial  Coffee  Roasters 

The  cylinder  at  the  top  of  the  picture  was  revolved 
by  hand  in  the  fireplace;  the  skillets  were  set  in 
the  smouldering  ashes 

directories  for  1843  and  1845,  the  Wash- 
ington coffee  house,  83  Lake  Street;  and 
the  Exchange  coffee  house,  Clarke  Street 
between  La  Salle  and  South  Water  Streets. 
The  oldtime  coffee  houses  of  New  Orleans 
W'Cre  situated  within  the  original  area  of  the 
city,  the  section  bounded  by  the  river,  Canal 
Street,  Esplanade  Avenue  and  Rampart 
Street.  In  the  early  days  most  of  the  big 
business  of  the  city  was  transacted  in  the 
coffee  houses.  The  brideau,  coffee  with 
orange  juice,  orange  peel,  and  sugar,  wdth 
cognac  burned  and  mixed  in  it,  originated 
in  the  New  Orleans  coffee  house,  and  led  to 
its  gradual  evolution  into  the  saloon. 

How  the  United  States  Became  a  Nation 
of  Coffee  Drinkers 

Coffee,  tea,  and  chocolate  were  introduced 
into  North  America  almost  simultaneously 
in  the  latter  part  of  the  seventeenth  century. 
In  the  first  half  of  the  eighteenth  century, 
tea  had  made  such  progress  in  England, 
thanks  to  the  propaganda  of  the  British 
East  India  Company,  that,  being  moved  to 
extend  its  use  in  the  colonies,  the  directors 
turned  their  eyes  first  in  the  direction  of 
North  America.  Here,  however,  King 
George  spoiled  their  well-laid  plans  by  his 

« Patterson,  Robert  W.     Early  Society  in  Southern 
Illinois.     Chicago,   1881. 

*  Andreas,    A.    T.      History    of    Chicago.      Chicago, 


unfortunate  stamp  act  of  1765,  which 
caused  the  colonists  to  raise  the  cry  of  "no 
taxation  without  representation." 

Although  the  act  was  repealed  in  1766, 
the  right  to  tax  was  asserted,  and  in  1767 
was  again  used,  duties  being  laid  on  paints, 
oils,  lead,  glass,  and  tea.  Once  more  the 
colonists  resisted ;  and,  by  refusing  to  im- 
port any  goods  of  English  make,  so  dis- 
tressed the  English  manufacturers  that 
Parliament  repealed  every  tax  save  that  on 
tea.  Despite  the  growing  fondness  for  the 
beverage  in  America,  the  colonists  preferred 
to  get  their  tea  elsewhere  to  sacrificing  their 
principles  and  buying  it  from  England.  A 
brisk  trade  in  smuggling  tea  from  Holland 
was  started. 

In  a  panic  at  the  loss  of  the  most  promis- 
ing of  its  colonial  markets,  the  British  East 
India  Company  appealed  to  Parliament  for 
aid,  and  was  permitted  to  export  tea,  a 
privilege  it  had  never  before  enjoyed. 
Cargoes  were  sent  on  consignment  to 
selected  commissioners  in  Boston,  New 
York,  Philadelphia,  and  Charleston.  The 
story  of  the  subsequent  happenings  proper- 
ly belongs  in  a  book  on  tea.  It  is  sufficient 
here  to  refer  to  the  climax  of  the  agitation 
against  the  fateful  tea  tax,  because  it  is 
undoubtedly  responsible  for  our  becoming 
a  nation  of  coffee  drinkers  instead  of  one 
of  tea  drinkers,  like  England. 

The  Boston  "tea  party"  of  1773,  when 
citizens  of  Boston,  disguised  as  Indians, 
boarded  the  English  ships  lying  in  Boston 
harbor  and  threw  their  tea  cargoes  into  the 


' "  X 

■ 

f                                       I 

An   Early  Family  Coffee   Roaster 
This    machine,    known    in    Holland    as    a    "Coffee 
Burner,"  was  used  late  in  the  18th  century  in 
New  England.    It  hung  in  the  fireplace  or  stood 
in   the   embers 


INTRODUCTION  INTO  NORTH  AMERICA 


lOT 


Historical  Relics  Associated  With  the   Early  Days  of  Coffee  in  New  England 


These  exhibits  are  in  the  Museum  of  the  Maine  Historical  Society  at  Portland.  On  the  left  is  Kenrick's 
Patent  coffee  mill.  In  the  center  is  a  Britannia  urn  with  an  iron  bar  for  heating  the  liquid.  The 
bar  was  encased  in  a  tin  receptacle  that  hung  inside  the  cover.  On  the  right  is  a  wall  type  of  coffee 
or  spice   grinder 


ay,  cast  the  die  for  coffee;  for  there  and 
then  originated  a  subtle  prejudice  against 
"the  cup  that  cheers",  which  one  hundred 
and  fifty  years  have  failed  entirely  to  over- 
come. ^Meanwhile,  the  change  wrought  in 
our  social  customs  by  this  act,  and  those  of 
like  nature  following  it,  in  the  New  York, 
Pennsylvania,  and  Charleston  colonies, 
caused  coffee  to  be  crowned  "king  of  the 
American  breakfast  tahl^"^  and  the  sover- 
eign drmir^f  the  American  ppopTp"         ^ 

Coffee  in  Colonial  New  England 

The  history  of  coffee  in  colonial  New 
England  is  so  closely  interwoven  with  the 
story  of  the  inns  and  taverns  that  it  is 
difficult  to  distinguish  the  genuine  coffee 
house,  as  it  was  known  in  England,  from 
the  public  house  where  lodgings  and  liquors 
were  to  be  had.  The  coffee  drink  had 
strong  competition  from  the  heady  wines, 
the  liquors,  and  imported  teas,  and  conse- 
quently it  did  not  attain  the  vogue  among 
the  colonial  New  Englanders  that  it  did 
among  Londoners  of  the  late  seventeenth 
and  early  eighteenth  centuries. 

Although  New  England  had  its  coffee 
houses,  these  were  actually  taverns  where 
coffee  was  only  one  of  the  beverages  served 
to  patrons.  "They  were'^  gay«  Rnhinson. 
"generally  meeting  pla^ces_of_those_whQj^£re 
conservative  in — ffieir^  views  ref^'arding 
church  and~slate7"^5emg_frignds  of  therul- 
ing— a:difrinistration.'     Sucir~persons    were 


terms  'Courtiers'  by  their  adversaries,  the 
Dissenters  and  Republicans." 

Most  of  the  coffee  houses  were  estab- 
lished in  Boston,  the  metropolis  of  the 
Massachusetts  Colony,  and  the  social  center 
of  New  England.  While  Plymouth,  Salem, 
Chelsea,  and  Providence  had  taverns  that 
served  coffee,  they  did  not  achieve  the 
name  and  fame  of  some  of  the  more  cele- 
brated coffee  houses  in  Boston 

It  is  not  definitely  known  when  the  first 
coffee  was  brought  in ;  but  it  is  reasonable 
to  suppose  that  it  came  as  part  of  the 
household  supplies  of  some  settler  (prob- 
ably between  1660  and  1670) ,  who  had  be- 
come acquainted  with  it  before  leaving 
England.  Or  it  may  have  been  introduced 
by  some  British  officer,  who  in  London  had 
made  the  rounds  of  the  more  celebrated 
coffee  houses  of  the  latter  half  of  the  seven- 
teenth century. 

The  First  Coffee  License 

According  to  early  town  records  of  Bos- 
ton, Dorothy  Jones  was  the  first  to  be 
licensed  to  sell  "coffee  and  cuchaletto," 
the  latter  being  the  seventeenth-century 
spelling  for  chocolate  or  cocoa.  This  license 
is  dated  1670,  and  is  said  to  be  the  first 
written  reference  to  coffee  in  the  Massa- 
chusetts Colony.  It  is  not  stated  whether 
Dorothy  Jones  was  a  vender  of  the  coffee 
drink  or  of  "coffee  powder,"  as  ground 
coffee  was  known  in  the  early  days. 


108 


ALL     ABOUT     COFFEE 


The  Mayflowek  "Coffee  Grinder" 

Mortar  and  pestle  for  "braying"  coffee  to  make 
coffee  powder,  brought  over  in  the  Mayflower 
by  tiie  parents  of  Peregrine  White 

There  is  some  question  as  to  whether 
Dorothy  Jones  was  the  first  to  sell  coffee 
as  a  beverage  in  Boston.  Londoners  had 
known  and  drunk  coffee  for  eighteen  years 
before  Dorothy  Jones  got  her  coffee  license. 
British  government  officials  were  frequent- 
ly taking  ship  from  London  to  the  Massa- 
chusetts Colony,  and  it  is  likely  that  they 
brought  tidings  and  samples  of  the  coffee 
the  English  gentry  had  lately  taken  up. 
No  doubt  they  also  told  about  the  new-style 
coffee  houses  that  were  becoming  popular 
in  all  parts  of  London.  And  it  may  be 
assumed  that  their  tales  caused  the  land- 
lords of  the  inns  and  taverns  of  colonial 
Boston  to  add  coffee  to  their  lists  of  bever- 
ages. 

New  England's  First  Coffee  House 

The  name  coffee  house  did  not  come  into 
use  in  New  England  until  late  in  the  seven- 
teenth century.  Early  colonial  records  do 
not  make  it  clear  whether  the  London  coffee 
house  or  the  Gutteridge  coffee  house  was  the 
first  to  be  opened  in  Boston  with  that  dis- 
tinctive title.  In  all  likelihood  the  London 
is  entitled  to  the  honor,  for  Samuel  Gardner 
Drake  in  his  History  and  Antiquities  of  the 
City  of  Boston,  published  in  1854,  says  that 
*'Benj.  Harris  sold  books  there  in  1689." 
Drake  seems  to  be  the  only  historian  of 
early  Boston  to  mention  the  London  coffee 
house. 

Granting  that  the  London  coffee  house 
was  the  first  in  Boston,  then  the  Gutteridge 
coffee  house  was  the  second.     The  latter 


stood  on  the  north  side  of  State  Street,  be- 
tM'een  Exchange  and  Washington  Streets, 
and  was  named  after  Robert  Gutteridge, 
who  took  out  an  innkeeper's  license  in  1691. 
Twenty-seven  years  later,  his  widow,  Mary 
Gutteridge,  petitioned  the  town  for  a  re- 
newal of  her  late  husband's  permit  to  keep 
a  public  coffee  house. 

The  British  coffee  house,  which  became 
the  American  coffee  house  when  the  crowm 
officers  and  all  things  British  became  ob- 
noxious to  the  colonists,  also  began  its 
career  about  the  time  Gutteridge  took  out 
his  license.  It  stood  on  the  site  that  is  now 
Q&  State  Street,  and  became  one  of  the  most 
widely  known  coffee  houses  in  colonial  New 
England. 

Of  course,  there  were  several  inns  and 
taverns  in  existence  in  Boston  long  before 
coffee  and  coffee  houses  came  to  the  New 
England  metropolis.  Some  of  these  taverns 
took  up  coffee  when  it  became  fashionable 
in  the  colony,  and  served  it  to  those  patrons 
who  did  not  care  for  the  stronger  drinks. 

The  earliest  known  inn  was  set  up  by 
Samuel  Cole  in  Washington  Street,  midway 
between  Faneuil  Hall  and  State  Street. 
Cole  was  licensed  as  a  "comfit  maker"  in 
1634,  four  years  after  the  founding  of 
Boston ;  and  two  years  later,  his  inn  was  the 


<f. 


The  Crown   Coffee   House,   Boston 

One  of  the  first  in  New  England  to  bear  the  dis- 
tinctive name  of  coffee  house;  opened  in  1711 
and  burned  down  in  1780 


I 


INTRODUCTION  INTO  NORTH  AMERICA 


109 


r 


Coffee    Making   and    Serving    Devices    Used    in    the   ^NlA.s^iAenLsEirs    Colony 


hese  exhibits  are  in  the  Museum  of  the  Essex  Institute  at  Salem,  Mass.  Top  row,  left  and  right, 
Britannia  serving  pots;  center,  Britannia  table  urn;  bottom  row,  left  end,  tin  coffee  making  pot; 
center,  Britannia  serving  pots;  right  end,  tin  French  drip  pot 


temporary  abiding  place  of  the  Indian  chief 
Miantonomoh  and  his  red  warriors,  who 
came  to  visit  Governor  Vane.  In  the  fol- 
lowing year,  the  Earl  of  Marlborough  found 
that  Cole's  inn  was  so  "exceedingly  well 
governed,"  and  afforded  so  desirable  pri- 
vacy, that  he  refused  the  hospitality  of 
Governor  Winthrop  at  the  governor's  man- 
sion. 

Another  popular  inn  of  the  day  was  the 
Red  Lyon,  which  was  opened  in  1637  by 
Nicholas  Upshall,  the  Quaker,  who  later 
was  hanged  for  trying  to  bribe  a  jailer  to 
pass  some  food  into  the  jail  to  two 
Quakeresses  who  were  starving  within. 

Ship  tavern,  erected  in  1650,  at  the 
corner  of  North  and  Clark  Streets,  then  on 
the  waterfront,  was  a  haunt  of  British 
government  officials.  The  father  of  Gover- 
nor Hutchinson  was  the  first  landlord,  to 
be  succeeded  in  1663  by  John  Vyal.  Here 
lived  the  four  commissioners  who  were  sent 
to  these  shores  by  King  Charles  II  to  settle 
the  disputes  then  beginning  between  the 
colonies  and  England. 

Another  lodging  and  eating  place  for  the 
gentlemen  of  quality  in  the  first  days  of 
Boston  was  the  Blue  Anchor,  in  Cornhill, 
which  was  conducted  in  1664  by  Robert 


Turner.  Here  gathered  members  of  the 
government,  visiting  officials,  jurists,  and 
the  clergy,  summoned  into  synod  by  the 
Massachusetts  General  Court.  It  is  assumed 
that  the  clergy  confined  their  drinking  to 
coffee  and  other  moderate  beverages,  leav- 
ing the  wines  and  liquors  to  their  con- 
freres. 

Some  Notable  Boston  Coffee  Houses 

In  the  last  quarter  of  the  seventeenth 
century  quite  a  number  of  taverns  and 
inns  sprang  up.  Among  the  most  notable 
that  have  obtained  recognition  in  Boston's 
historical  records  were  the  King's  Head,  at 
the  corner  of  Fleet  and  North  Streets;  the 
Indian  Queen,  on  a  passageway  leading 
from  Washington  Street  to  Hawley  Street ; 
the  Sun,  in  Faneuil  Hall  Square,  and  the 
Green  Dragon,  which  became  one  of  the 
most  celebrated  coffee-house  taverns. 

The  King's  Head,  opened  in  1691,  early 
became  a  rendezvous  of  crown  officers  and 
the  citizens  in  the  higher  strata  of  colonial 
society. 

The  Indian  Queen  also  became  a  favorite 
resort  of  the  crown  officers  from  Province 
House.  Started  by  Nathaniel  Bishop  about 
1673,  it  stood  for  more  than  145  years  as 


110 


ALL     ABOUT     COFFEE 


Coffee  Devices  that  Figured  in  the  Pioneering  of  the  Great  West 

Photographed  for  this  work  in  the  Museum  of  the  State  Historical  Society  of  Wisconsin.  Left  to  right, 
English  decorated  tin  pot;  coffee  and  spice  mill  from  Lexington,  Mass.;  Globe  roaster  built  by  Rays 
&  Wilcox  Co.,  Berlin,  Conn.,  under  Wood's  patent;  sheet  brass  coffee  mill  from  Lexington,  Mass.; 
John  Luther's  coffee  mill,  Warren,  R.  I.;   cast  iron  hopper  mill 


the  Indian  Queen,  and  then  was  replaced 
by  the  Washington  cotfee  house,  which  be- 
came noted  throughout  New  England  as  the 
starting  place  for  the  Roxbury  "hourlies,'' 
the  stage  coaches  that  ran  every  hour  from 
Boston  to  nearby  Roxbury. 

The  Sun  tavern  lived  a  longer  life  than 
any  other  Boston  inn.  Started  in  1690  in 
Faneuil  Hall  Square,  it  was  still  standing 
in  1902,  according  to  Henry  R.  Blaney ;  but 
has  since  been  razed  to  make  way  for  a 
modern  skyscraper. 

New-Emj^mid's  Most  Famous  Coffee  House 

The  Green  Dragon,  the  last  of  the  inns 
that  were  popular  at  the  close  of  the  seven- 
teenth century,  was  the  most  celebrated  of 
Boston's  coffee-house  taverns.  It  stood  on 
Union  Street,  in  the  heart  of  the  town's 
business  center,  for  135  years,  from  1697 
to  1832,  and  figured  in  practically  all  the 
important  local  and  national  events  during 


its  long  career.  Red-coated  British  soldiers, 
colonial  governors,  bewigged  crown  ofificers, 
earls  and  dukes,  citizens  of  high  estate,  plot- 
ting revolutionists  of  lesser  degree,  con- 
spirators in  the  Boston  Tea  Party,  patriots 
and  generals  of  the  Revolution  —  all  these 
were  wont  to  gather  at  the  Green  Dragon 
to  discuss  their  various  interests  over  their 
cups  of  coffee,  and  stronger  drinks.  In  the 
words  of  Daniel  Webster,  this  famous 
coffee-house  tavern  was  the  "headquarters 
of  the  Revolution."  It  was  here  that 
Warren,  John  Adams,  J ames  Otis,_aiid-P aul 
ReveT'e  met  as  a  "wd>s  ancTmeans  com- 
'        "'  to  se^rnre-f^eedtmiliiJiJlie^miHcau 


mi  __ 

ftnlohies.  HereT  too,  came  members  of  the 
Grand  Lodge  of  Masons  to  hold  their  meet- 
ings under  the  guidance  of  Warren,  who 
was  the  first  grand  master  of  the  first 
Masonic  lodge  in  Boston.  The  site  of  the 
old  tavern,  now  occupied  by  a  business 
block,  is  still  the  property  of  the  St.  An- 


Metal  and  China  Coffee  Pots  Used  in  New   England's  Colonial  Days 
From  the  collection  in  the  Museum  of  the  Pocumtuck  Valley  Memorial  Association,  Deerfleld,  Mass. 


INTRODUCTION  INTO  NORTH  AMERICA 


111 


The  Green  Dragon,  the  Center  of  Social  and  Political  Life  in  Boston  for  135  Years 

This  tavern  figured  in  practically  all  the  important  national  affairs  from   1697  to  1832,  and,  according  to 
Daniel   Webster,   was   the   "headquarters   of   the  Revolution" 


drew 's  Lodge  of  Free  Masons.  •  The  old 
tavern  was  a  two-storied  brick  structure 
with  a  sharply  pitched  roof.  Over  its  en- 
trance hungr  a  sign  bearing  the  figure  of  a 
green  dragon. 

Patrons  of  the  Green  Dragon  and  the 
British  coffee  house  were  decidedly  opposed 
in  their  views  on  the  questions  of  the  day. 
While  the  Green  Dragon  was  the  gathering 
piaf>Aj2^f  t^Q  pflt^^'^t^^  "^^"^inls^  thp_  British 
was  the  rendezvous  of  the  loyalists,  and 
frequent  were  the  encounters  hetwppn  thp 
patrons  ol  these  two  celebrated  taverns.  It 
was  in  Llie  British  coft'ee  house  that  James 
Otis  was  so  badly  pummeled,  after  being 
lured  there  by  political  enemies,  that  he 
never  regained  his  former  brilliancy  as  an 
orator. 

It  was  there,  in  1750,  that  some  British 
red  coats  staged  the  first  theatrical  enter- 
tainment given  in  Boston,  playing  Otway's 
Orphan.  There,  the  first  organization  of 
citizens  to  take  the  name  of  a  club  formed 
the  Merchants'  Club  in  1751.  The  member- 
ship included  ofiicers  of  the  king,  colonial 
governors  and  lesser  officials,  military  and 
naval  leaders,  and  members  of  the  bar,  with 
a  sprinkling  of  high-ranking  citizens  who 
were  staunch  friends  of  the  crown.  How- 
ever, the  British  became  so  generally  dis- 


liked that  as  soon  as  the  king's  troops 
evacuated  Boston  in  the  Revolution,  the 
name  of  the  coffee  house  was  changed  to  the 
American. 

The  Bunch  of  Grapes,  that  Francis 
Holmes  presided  over  as  early  as  1712,  was 
another  hot-bed  of  politicians.  Like  the 
Green  Dragon  over  the  way,  its  paJtjrous 
included  unconditional  freedom  ^<^e^--Qvg^ 
many  coming  from  the  British  coffee  house 
when  things  became  too  hot  for  them  in  that 
Tory  atmosphere.  The  Bunch  of  Grapes 
became  the  center  of  a  stirring  celebration 
in  1776,  w^hen  a  delegate  from  Philadelphia 
read  the  Declaration  of  Independence  from 
the  balcony  of  the  inn  to  the  crowd 
assembled  in  the  street  below.  So  enthus- 
iastic did  the  Bostonians  become  that,  in 
the  excitement  that  followed,  the  inn  was 
nearly  destroyed  when  one  enthusiast  built 
a  bonfire  too  close  to  its  walls.  Another 
anecdote  told  of  the  Bunch  of  Grapes  con- 
cerns Sir  "William  Phipps,  governor  of 
Massachusetts  from  1692  -  94,  who  was 
noted  for  his  irascibility.  He  had  his 
favorite  chair  and  window  in  the  inn,  and 
in  the  accounts  of  the  period  it  is  written 
that  on  any  fine  afternoon  his  glowering 
countenance  could  be  seen  at  the  window 
by  the  passersby  on  State  Street. 


112 


ALL     ABOUT     COFFEE 


After  the  beginning  of  the  eighteenth 
century  the  title  of  coffee  house  was  applied 
to  a  number  of  hostelries  opened  in  Boston. 
One  of  these  was  the  Crown,  which  was 
opened  in  the  ' '  first  house  on  Lon^g  Wharf ' ' 
in  1711  by  Jonathan  Belcher,  who  later  be- 
came governor  of  Massachusetts,  and  still 
later  of  New  Jersey.  The  first  landlord  of 
the  Crown  was  Thomas  Selby,  who  by  trade 
was  a  periwig  maker,  but  probably  found 
the  selling  of  strong  drink  and  coffee  more 
profitable.  Selby 's  coffee  house  was  also 
used  as  an  auction  room.  The  Crown  stood 
until  1780,  when  it  was  destroyed  in  a  fire 
that  swept  the  Long  Wharf.  On  its  site 
now  stands  the  Fidelity  Trust  Company  at 
148  State  Street. 

Another  early  Boston  coffee  house  on 
Statef  Street  was  the  Royal  Exchange.  How 
long  it  had  been  standing  before  it  was  first 
mentioned  in  colonial  records  in  1711  is 
unknown.  It  occupied  an  ancient  two-story 
building,  and  was  kept  in  1711  by  Benjamin 
Johns.  This  coffee  house  became  thp  start- 
ing  place  for  stage  coaches  running  between 
Boston  and  New  York._the  first  one  leaving 
SepJ-pmher  7,  'ITT^^'^Tn  fhe  ColumFian 
Centinel  of  January  1,  1800,  appeared  an 
advertisement  in  which  it  was  said:  ''New 
York  and  Providence  Mail  Stage  leaves 
Major    Hatches'    Royal    Exchange    Coffee 


House  in  State  Street  every  morning  at  8 
o'clock." 

In  the  latter  half  of  the  eighteenth  cen- 
tury the  North-End  coffee  house  was  cele- 
brated as  the  highest-class  coffee  house  in 
Boston.  It  occupied  the  three-storied  brick 
mansion  which  had  been  built  about  1740 
by  Edward  Hutchinson,  brother  of  the 
noted  governor.  It  stood  on  the  west  side 
of  North  Street,  between  Sun  Court  and 
Fleet  Street,  and  was  one  of  the  most 
pretentious  of  its  kind.  An  eighteenth 
century  writer,  in  describing  this  coffee- 
house mansion,  made  much  of  the  fact  that 
it  had  forty-five  windows  and  was  valued  at 
$4,500,  a  large  sum  for  those  days.  During 
the  Revolution,  Captain  David  Porter, 
father  of  Admiral  David  D.  Porter,  was  the 
landlord,  and  under  him  it  became  cele- 
brated throughout  the  city  as  a  high-grade 
eating  place.  The  advertisements  of  the 
North-End  coffee  house  featured  its  "din- 
ners and  suppers  —  small  and  retired  rooms 
for  small  company  — ' oyster  suppers  in  the 
nicest  manner." 

A  "Skyscraper"  Coffee  House 

The  Boston  coffee-house  period  reached 
its  height  in  1808,  when  the  doors  of  the 
Exchange  coffee  house  were  thrown  open 
after  three  years  of  building.     This  struc- 


Metai.   Coffee   Pots   Used   in   the   New   York    Colony 
Left,  tin  coffee  pot,  dark  brown,  with  "love  apple"  decoration    In    red,    New    Jersey    Historical    Society, 
Newark;  right,  weighted  bottom  tin  pot  with  rose  decoration,  private  owner 


IXTRODUCTrOX  INTO  NORTH  AMERICA 


113 


Exchange    Coffee   House,    Boston,   1808,   Probably  the 'Largest  and  Most  Costly  in  the  World 

Juilt  of  stone,  marble  and  brick,  it  stood  seven  stories  high  and  cost  $500,000.     It  was  patterned  after 
Lloyd's  of  London,   and  was  the  center  of  marine  intelligence  In  Boston 


ire,  situated  on  Congress  Street  near  State 
Street,  was  the  skyscraper  of  its  day,  and 
probably  was  the  most  ambitious  coffee- 
house project  the  world  has  known.  Built 
of  stone,  marble,  and  brick,  it  stood  seven 
stories  high,  and  cost  a  half-million  dollars. 
Charles  Bulfinch,  America's  most  noted 
architect  of  that  period,  was  the  designer. 
Like  Lloyd's  coffee  house  in  London,  the 
Exchange  was  the  center  of  marine  intelli- 
gence, and  its  public  rooms  were  thronged 
all  day  and  evening  with  mariners,  naval 
officers,  ship  and  insurance  brokers,  who  had 
come  to  talk  shop  or  to  consult  the  records 
of  ship  arrivals  and  departures,  manifests, 


charters,  and  other  marine  papers.  The 
first  floor  of  the  Exchange  was  devoted  to 
trading.  On  the  next  floor  was  the  large 
dining  room,  where  many  sumptuous  ban- 
quets were  given,  notably  the  one  to  Presi- 
dent Monroe  in  July,  1817,  which  was  at- 
tended by  former  President  John  Adams, 
and  by  many  generals,  commodores,  gover- 
nors, and  judges.  The  other  floors  were 
given  over  to  living  and  sleeping  rooms,  of 
which  there  were  more  than  200.  The  Ex- 
change coffee  house  was  destroyed  by  firf" 
in  1818;  and  on  its  site  was  erected  an- 
other, bearing  the  same  name,  but  having 
slight  resemblance  to  its  predecessor. 


114 


ALL     ABOUT     COFFEE 


Chapter   XIII 


HISTORY    OF     COFFEE     IX     OLD     XEW     YORK 


I 


The  burghers  of  Neiv  Amsterdam  begin  to  substitute  coffee  for 
"must,"  or  beer,  at  breakfast  in  1668  —  William  Penn  makes  his 
first  purchase  of  coffee  in  the  green  bean  from  New  York  merchants 
in  1683  —  The  King's  Arms,  the  first  coffee  house  —  The  historic 
Merchants,  sometimes  called  the  "Birth-place  of  our  Union"  —  The 
coffee  house  as  a  civic  forum  —  The  Exchange,  Whitehall,  Burns, 
Tontine,  and  other  celebrated  coffee  houses  —  The  Vauxhall  ayid 
Ranelagh  pleasure  gardens 


THE  Dutch  founders  of  New  York 
seem  to  have  introduced  tea  into  New 
Amsterdam  before  they  brought  in 
coffee.  This  was  somewhere  about  the 
middle  of  the  seventeenth  century.  We  find 
it  recorded  that  about  1668  the  burghers 
succumbed  to  coffee '.  Coffee  made  its  way 
slowly,  first  in  the  homes,  where  it  replaced 
the  "must",  or  beer,  at  breakfast.  Choco- 
late came  about  the  same  time,  but  was 
more  of  a  luxury  than  tea  or  coffee. 

After  the  surrender  of  New  York  to  the 
British  in  1674,  English  manners  and  cus- 
toms were  rapidly  introduced.  First  tea, 
and  later  coffee,  were  favorite  beverages 
in  the  homes.  By  1683  New  York  had  be- 
come so  central  a  market  for  the  green 
bean,  that  William  Penn,  as  soon  as  he 
found  himself  comfortably  settled  in  the 
Pennsylvania  Colony,  sent  over  to  New 
York  for  his  coft'ee  supplies  ^  It  was  not 
long  before  a  social  need  arose  that  only 
the  London  style  of  coffee  house  could  fill. 

The  coffee  houses  of  early  New  York, 
like  their  prototypes  in  London,  Paris,  and 
other  old  world  capitals,  were  the  centers 
of  the  business,  political  and,  to  some  ex- 
tent, of  the  social  life  of  the  city.  But  they 
never  became  the  forcing-beds  of  literature 


*  Singleton,  Esther. 
133.) 

'  Bishop,  J.  Leander. 
ufacture8,  1608  to  1860. 


Dutch  New  York.      1909.      (p. 

A  History  of  American  Man- 
New  York. 


that  the  French  and  English  houses  were, 
principally  because  the  colonists  had  no 
professional  writers  of  note. 

There  is  one  outstanding  feature  of  the 
early  American  coffee  houses,  particularly 
of  those  opened  in  New  York,  that  is  not 
distinctive  of  the  European  houses.  The 
colonists  sometimes  held  court  trials  in  the 
long,  or  assembly,  room  of  the  early  coffee 
houses;  and  often  held  their  general  as- 
sembly and  council  meetings  there. 

TJie  Coffee  House  as  a  Civic  Forum 

The  early  coffee  house  was  an  important 
factor  in  New  York  life.  What  the  per- 
petuation of  this  public  gathering  place 
meant  to  the  citizens  is  shown  by  a  com- 
plaint (evidently  designed  to  revive  the 
declining  fortunes  of  the  historic  Merchants 
coffee  house)  in  the  New  York  Journal  of 
October  19,  1775,  which,  in  part,  said: 
To  the  Inhabitants  of  New  York  : 

It  gives  me  concern,  in  this  time  of  public 
difficulty  and  danger,  to  find  we  have  in  tliis 
city  no  place  of  daily  general  meeting,  where  we 
might  hear  and  communicate  intelligence  from 
every  quarter  and  freely  confer  with  one  another 
on  every  matter  that  concerns  us.  Such  a  place 
of  general  meeting  is  of  very  great  advantage 
in  many  respects,  especially  at  such  a  time  as 
this,  besides  the  satisfaction  it  affords  and  the 
sociable  disposition  it  has  a  tendency  to  keep  up 
among  us,  which  was  never  more  wanted  than 
at  this  time.  To  answer  all  these  and  many 
other  good   and   useful  purposes,  coffee  houses 


115 


116 


ALL     ABOUT     COFFEE 


have  been  universally  deemed  the  most  conve- 
nient places  of  resort,  because,  at  a  small  ex- 
pense of  time  or  money,  persons  wanted  may 
be  found  and  spoke  with,  appointments  may  be 
made,  current  news  heard,  and  whatever  it  most 
concerns  us  to  know.  In  all  cities,  therefore, 
and  large  towns  that  I  have  seen  in  the  British 
dominions,  sufficient  encouragement  has  been 
given  to  support  one  or  more  coffee  houses  in  a 
genteel  manner.  How  comes  it  then  that  New 
York,  the  most  central,  and  one  of  the  largest 
and  most  prosperous  cities  in  British  America, 
cannot  support  one  coffee  house?  It  is  a  scandal 
to  the  city  and  its  inhabitants  to  be  destitute 
of  such  a  convenience  for  want  of  due  encour- 
agement. A  coffee  house,  indeed,  there  is,  a 
very  good  and  comfortable  one,  extremely  well 
tended  and  accommodated,  but  it  is  frequented 
but  by  an  inconsiderable  number  of  people ;  and 
I  have  observed  with  surprise,  that  but  a  small 
part  of  those  who  do  frequent  it,  contribute  any- 
thing at  all  to  the  expense  of  it,  but  come  in 
and  go  out  without  calling  for  or  paying  any- 
thing to  the  house.  In  all  the  coffee  houses  in 
London,  it  is  customary  for  every  one  that  comes 
in  to  call  for  at  least  a  dish  of  coffee,  or  leave 
the  value  of  one,  which  is  but  reasonable,  be- 
cause when  the  keepers  of  these  houses  have 
been  at  the  expense  of  setting  them  up  and  pro- 
viding all  necessaries  for  the  accommodation  of 


company,  every  one  that  comes  to  receive  the 
benefit  of  these  conveniences  ought  to  contribute 
something  towards  the  expense  of  them. 

A  Friend  to  the  City. 

New  York's  First  Coffee  House 

Some  chroniclers  of  New  York's  early 
days  are  confident  that  the  first  cofi'ee  house 
in  America  was  opened  in  New  York;  but 
the  earliest  authenticated  record  they  have 
presented  is  that  on  November  1, 1696,  John 
Hutchins  bought  a  lot  on  Broadway,  be- 
tween Trinity  churchyard  and  what  is  now 
Cedar  Street,  and  there  built  a  house,  nam- 
ing it  the  King's  Arms.  Against  this  rec- 
ord, Boston  can  present  the  statement  in 
Samuel  Gardner  Drake's  History  and  An- 
tiquities of  the  City  of  Boston  that  Benj. 
Harris  sold  books  at  the  "London  Coffee 
House"  in  1689. 

The  King's  Arms  was  built  of  wood,  and 
had  a  front  of  yellow  brick,  said  to  have 
been  brought  from  Holland.  The  building 
was  tM^o  stories  high,  and  on  the  roof  was 
an  "observatory,"  arranged  with  seats,  and 


New    York's    Pioneer    Coffee    House,    the    King's    Arms,    Opened    in    1696 
This  view  shows  the  garden  side  of  the  historic  old  house  as  It  was  conducted  by  John  Hutchins,  near 
Trinity  Church,  on  Broadway.     The  observatory  may  have  been  added  later 


COFFEE  IN  OLD  NEW  YORK 


117 


BuRXS   Coffee   House   as    It    Appeared   About   the    Middle   of   the    Nineteenth    Century 

It  stood  for  many  years  on  Broadway,  opposite  Bowling  Green,   in   the  old  De  Lancey  House,   becoming 
known  in  1763  as  the  King's  Arms,  and  later  the  Atlantic  Garden  House 


commanding  a  fine  view  of  the  bay,  the 
river,  and  the  city.  Here  the  coffee-house 
visitors  frequently  sat  in  the  afternoons.  It 
is  not  shown  in  the  illustration. 

The  sides  of  the  main  room  on  the  lower 
floor  were  lined  with  booths,  which,  for  the 
sake  of  greater  privacy,  were  screened  with 
green  curtains.  There  a  patron  could  sip 
his  coffee,  or  a  more  stimulating  drink,  and 
look  over  his  mail  in  the  same  exclusiveness 
affected  by  the  Londoner  of  the  time. 

The  rooms  on  the  second  floor  were  used 
for  special  meetings  of  merchants,  colonial 
magistrates  and  overseers,  or  similar  public 
and  private  business. 

The  meeting  room,  as  above  described, 
seems  to  have  been  one  of  the  chief  features 
distinguishing  a  coffee  house  from  a  tavern. 
Although  both  types  of  houses  had  rooms 
for  guests,  and  served  meals,  the  coffee 
house  was  used  for  business  purposes  by 
permanent  customers,  while  the  tavern  was 
patronized  more  by  transients.  Men  met  at 
the  coffee  house  daily  to  carry  on  business, 
and  went  to  the  tavern  for  convivial  pur- 
poses or  lodgings.     Before  the  front  door 


hung  the  sign  of  "the  lion  and  the  unicorn 
fighting  for  the  crown." 

For  many  years  the  King's  Arms  was  the 
only  coffee  house  in  the  city ;  or  at  least  no 
other  seems  of  sufficient  importance  to  have 
been  mentioned  in  colonial  records.  For  this 
reason  it  w^s  more  frequently  designated  as 
"the"  coffee  house  than  the  King's  Arms. 
Contemporary  records  of  the  arrest  of  John 
Hutchins  of  the  King's  Arms,  and  of  Roger 
Baker,  for  speaking  disrespectfully  of  King 
George,  mention  the  King's  Head,  of  which 
Baker  was  proprietor.  But  it  is  generally 
believed  that  this  public  house  was  a  tavern 
and  not  rightfully  to  be  considered  as  a 
coffee  house.  The  White  Lion,  mentioned 
about  1700,  was  also  a  tavern,  or  inn. 

The  New  Coifee  House 

Under  date  of  September  22,  1709,  the 
Journal  of  the  General  Assembly  of  the 
Colony  of  New  York  refers  to  a  conference 
held  in  the  "New  Coffee  House." 
About  this  date  the  business  section  of  the 
city  had  begun  to  drift  eastward  from 
Broadway  to  the  waterfront ;  and  from  this 


I 


118 


ALL    ABOUT     COFFEE 


fact  it  is  assumed  that  the  name  "New 
Coffee  House"  indicates  that  the  King's 
Arms  had  been  removed  from  its  original 
location  near  Cedar  Street,  or  that  it  may 
have  lost  favor  and  have  been  superseded 
in  popularity  by  a  newer  coffee  house.  The 
Journal  does  not  give  the  location  of  the 
"New"  coffee  house.  Whatever  the  case 
may  be,  the  name  of  the  King's  Arms  does 
not  again  appear  in  the  records  until  1763, 
and  then  it  had  more  the  character  of  a 
tavern,  or  roadhouse. 

The  public  records  from  1709  up  to  1729 
are  silent  in  regard  to  coffee  houses  in  New 
York.  In  1725  the  pioneer  newspaper  in 
the  city,  the  New  York  Gazette,  came  into 
existence ;  and  four  years  later,  1729,  there 
appeared  in  it  an  advertisement  stating 
that ' '  a  competent  bookkeeper  may  be  heard 
of"  at  the  "Coffee  House."  In  1730  an- 
other advertisement  in  the  same  journal 
tells  of  a  sale  of  land  by  public  vendue 
(auction)  to  be  held  at  the  Exchange  coffee 
house. 

The  Exchange  Coffee  House 

By  reason  of  its  name,  the  Exchange 
Coffee  House  is  thought  to  have  been  lo- 
cated at  the  foot  of  Broad  Street,  abutting 
the  sea-wall  and  near  the  Long  Bridge  of 
of  that  day.  At  that  time  this  section  was 
the  business  center  of  the  city,  and  here 
was  a  trading  exchange. 

That  the  Exchange  coffee  house  was  the 
only  one  of  its  kind  in  New  York  in  1732 
is  inferred  from  the  announcement  in  that 
year  of  a  meeting  of  the  conference  com- 
mittee of  the  Council  and  Assembly  ' '  at  the 
Coffee  House."  In  seeming  confirmation  of 
this  conclusion,  is  the  advertisement  in  1733 
in  the  New  York  Gazette  requesting  the 
return  of  "lost  sleeve  buttons  to  Mr.  Todd, 
next  door  to  the  Coffee  House."  The  records 
of  the  day  show  that  a  Robert  Todd  kept  the 
famous  Black  Horse  tavern  which  was 
located  in  this  part  of  the  city. 

Again  we  hear  of  the  Exchange  coffee 
house  in  1737,  and  apparently  in  the  same 
location,  where  it  is  mentioned  in  an  ac- 
count of  the  "Negro  plot"  as  being  next 
door  to  the  Fighting  Cocks  tavern  by  the 
Long  Bridge,  at  the  foot  of  Broad  Street. 
Also  in  this  same  year  it  is  named  as  the 
place  of  public  vendue  of  land  situated  on 
Broadway. 

By  this  time  the  Exchange  coffee  house 
had  virtually  become  the  city's  official  auc- 
tion room,  as  well  as  the  place  to  buy  and 


to  drink  coffee.  Commodities  of  many 
kinds  were  also  bought  and  sold  there,  both 
within  the  house  and  on  the  sidewalk  be- 
fore it. 

The  Mercha7its  Coffee  House 

In  the  year  1750,  the  Exchange  coffee 
house  had  begun  to  lose  its  long-held 
prestige,  and  its  name  was  changed  to  the 
Gentlemen's  Exchange  coffee  house  and 
tavern.  A  year  later  it  had  migrated  to 
Broadway  under  the  name  of  the  Gentle- 
mens'  coffee  house  and  tavern.  In  1753  it 
was  moved  again,  to  Hunter's  Quay,  which 
was  situated  on  what  is  now  Front  Street, 
somewhere  between  the  present  Old  Slip 
and  Wall  Street.  The  famous  old  coffee 
house  seems  to  have  gone  out  of  existence 
about  this  time,  its  passing  hastened,  no 
doubt,  by  the  newer  enterprise,  the  Mer- 
chants coffee  house,  which  was  to  become 
the  most  celebrated  in  New  York,  and,  ac- 
cording to  some  writers,  the  most  historic 
in  America. 

It  is  not  certain  just  when  the  Merchants 
coffee  house  was  first  opened.  As  near  as 
can  be  determined,  Daniel  Bloom,  a  mariner, 
in  1737  bought  the  Jamaica  Pilot  Boat 
tavern  from  John  Dunks  and  named  it  the 
Merchants  coffee  house.  The  building  was 
situated  on  the  northwest  corner  of  the 
present  Wall  Street  and  Water  (then 
Queen)  Street;  and  Bloom  was  its  landlord 
until  his  death,  soon  after  the  year  1750. 
He  was  succeeded  by  Captain  James  Ack- 
land,  who  shortly  sold  it  to  Luke  Roome. 
The  latter  disposed  of  the  building  in  1758 
to  Dr.  Charles  Arding.  The  doctor  leased 
it  to  Mrs.  Mary  Ferrari,  who  continued  as 
its  proprietor  until  she  moved,  in  1772,  to 
the  newer  building  diagonally  across  the 
street,  built  by  William  Brownejohn,  on  the 
southeast  corner  of  Wall  and  Water  Streets. 
Mrs.  Ferrari  took  with  her  the  patronage 
and  the  name  of  the  Merchants  coffee  house, 
and  the  old  building  was  not  used  again  as 
a  coffee  house. 

The  building  housing  the  original  Mer- 
chants coffee  house  was  a  two-story  struc- 
ture, wdth  a  balcony  on  the  roof,  which  was 
typical  of  the  middle  eighteenth  century 
architecture  in  New  York.  On  the  first 
floor  were  the  coffee  bar  and  booths  de- 
scribed in  connection  with  the  King's  Arms 
coffee  house.  The  second  floor  had  the 
typical  long  room  for  public  assembly. 

During  Bloom's  proprietorship  the  Mer- 
chants coffee  house  had  a  long,  hard  struggle 


COFFEE  IN  OLD  NEW  YORK 


11& 


Merchants  Ck)FFEE  House  (at  the  Right)  as  It  Appeared  from  1772  to  1804 

The  original  coffee  house  of  this  name  was  opened  on  the  northwest  corner  of  Wall  and  Water  Streets 
about  1737,  the  business  being  moved  to  the  southeast  corner  in  1772 


to  win  the  patronage  away  from  the  Ex- 
change coffee  house,  which  was  flourishing 
at  that  time.  But,  being  located  near  the 
Meal  Market,  where  the  merchants  were 
wont  to  gather  for  trading  purposes,  it 
gradually  became  the  meeting  place  of  the 
city,  at  the  expense  of  the  Exchange  coffee 
house,  farther  down  the  waterfront. 

Widow  Ferrari  presided  over  the  original 
Merchants  coffee  house  for  fourteen  years, 
until  she  moved  across  the  street.  She  was 
a,  keen  business  woman.  Just  before  she 
was  ready  to  open  the  new  coffee  house  she 
announced  to  her  old  patrons  that  she 
would  give  a  house-warming,  at  which 
arrack,  punch,  wine,  cold  ham,  tongue,  and 
other  delicacies  of  the  day  would  be  served. 
The  event  was  duly  noted  in  the  news- 
papers, one  stating  that  ''the  agreeable 
situation  and  the  elegance  of  the  new  house 
liad  occasioned  a  great  resort  of  company 
to  it." 

]\Irs.  Ferrari  continued  in  charge  until 
May  1,  1776,  when  Cornelius  Bradford  bo- 
came  proprietor  and  sought  to  build  up  the 
patronage,  that  had  dwindled  somewhat 
during  the  stirring  days  immediately  pre- 
ceding the  Revolution.  In  his  announce- 
ment of  the  change  of  ownership,  he  said, 
""Interesting  intelligence  will  be  carefully 


collected  and  the  greatest  attention  will  be 
given  to  the  arrival  of  vessels,  when  trade 
and  navigation  shall  resume  their  former 
channels."  He  referred  to  the  complete 
embargo  of  trade  to  Europe  which  the 
colonists  were  enduring.  When  the  Amer- 
ican troops  withdrew  from  the  city  during 
the  Revolution,  Bradford  went  also,  to 
Rhinebeck  on  the  Hudson. 

During  the  British  occupation,  the  Mer- 
chants coffee  house  was  a  place  of  great 
activity.  As  before,  it  was  the  center  of 
trading,  and  under  the  British  regime  it 
became  also  the  place  where  the  prize  ships 
were  sold.  The  Chamber  of  Commerce 
resumed  its  sessions  in  the  upper  long  room 
in  1779,  having  been  suspended  since  1775. 
The  Chamber  paid  fifty  pounds  rent  per 
annum  for  the  use  of  the  room  to  Mrs. 
Smith,  the  landlady  at  the  time. 

In  1781  John  Stachan,  then  proprietor 
of  the  Queen's  Head  tavern,  became  land- 
lord of  the  Merchants  coffee  house,  and  he 
promised  in  a  public  announcement  *'to 
pay  attention  not  only  as  a  Coffee  House, 
but  as  a  tavern,  in  the  truest;  and  to  dis- 
tinguish the  same  as  the  City  Tavern  and 
Coffee  House,  with  constant  and  best  at- 
tendance. Breakfast  from  seven  to  eleven ; 
soups  and  relishes  from  eleven  to  half-past 


120 


ALL     ABOUT     COFFEE 


one.  Tea,  coffee,  etc.,  in  the  afternoon,  as 
in  England."  But  when  he  began  charging 
sixpence  for  receiving  and  dispatching  let- 
ters by  man-o'-war  to  England,  he  brought 
a  storm  about  his  ears,  and  was  forced  to 
give  up  the  practise.  He  continued  in 
charge  until  peace  came,  and  Cornelius 
Bradford  came  with  it  to  resume  pro- 
prietorship of  the  coffee  house. 

Bradford  changed  the  name  to  the  New 
York  coffee  house,  but  the  public  continued 
to  call  it  by  its  original  name,  and  the  land- 
lord soon  gave  in.  He  kept  a  marine  list, 
giving  the  names  of  vessels  arriving  and 
departing,  recording  their  ports  of  sailing. 
He  also  opened  a  register  of  returning  citi- 
zens, "where  any  gentleman  now  resident 
in  the  city,"  his  advertisement  stated, 
"may  insert  their  names  and  place  of 
residence."  This  seems  to  have  been  the 
first  attempt  at  a  city  directory.  By  his 
energy  Bradford  soon  made  the  Merchants 
coffee  house  again  the  business  center  of  the 
city.  When  he  died,  in  1786,  he  was 
mourned  as  one  of  the  leading  citizens. 
His  funeral  was  held  at  the  coffee  house 
over  M^iich  he  had  fjresided  so  well. 

The  Merchants  coffee  house  continued 
to  be  the  principal  public  gathering  place 
until  it  was  destroyed  by  fire  in  1804.  Dur- 
ing its  existence  it  had  figured  prominently 
in  many  of  the  local  and  national  historic 
events,  too  numerous  to  record  here  in  de- 
tail. 

Some  of  the  famous  events  were :  The 
reading  of  the  order  to  the  citizens,  in  1765, 
warning  them  to  stop  rioting  against  the 
Stamp  Act;  the  debates  on  the  subject  of 
not  accepting  consignments  of  goods  from 
Great  Britain ;  the  demonstration  by  the 
Sons  of  Liberty,  sometimes  called  the  "Lib- 
erty Boys,"  made  before  Captain  Lockyer 
of  the  tea  ship  Nancy  which  had  been 
turned  away  from  Boston  and  sought  to 
land  its  cargo  in  New  York  in  1774;  the 
general  meeting  of  citizens  on  May  19, 
1774,  to  discuss  a  means  of  communicat- 
ing with  the  Massachusetts  colony  to  ob- 
tain co-ordinated  effort  in  resisting  Eng- 
land's oppression,  out  of  which  came  the 
letter  suggesting  a  congress  of  deputies 
from  the  colonies  and  calling  for  a  "vir- 
tuous and  spirited  Union ; ' '  the  mass  meet- 
ing of  citizens  in  the  days  immediately  fol- 
lowing the  battles  at  Concord  and  Lexing- 
ton in  Massachusetts;  and  the  forming  of 
the  Committee  of  One  Hundred  to  admin- 


ister the  public  business,  making  the  Mer- 
chants coffee  house  virtually  the  seat  of 
government. 

When  the  American  Army  held  the  city 
in  1776,  the  coffee  house  became  the  resort 
of  army  and  navy  officers.  Its  culminating 
glory  came  on  April  23,  1789,  when  Wash- 
ington, the  recently  elected  first  presi- 
dent of  the  United  States,  was  officially 
greeted  at  the  coffee  house  by  the  governor 
of  the  State,  the  mayor  of  the  city,  and  the 
lesser  municipal  officers. 

As  a  meeting  place  for  societies  and 
lodges  the  Merchants  coffee  house  was  long 
distinguished.  In  addition  to  the  purely 
commercial  organizations  that  gathered  in 
its  long  room,  these  bodies  regularly  met 
there  in  their  early  days:  The  Society  of 
Arts,  Agriculture  and  Economy;  Knights 
of  Corsica ;  New  York  Committee  of  Cor- 
respondence; New  Yori?:  Marine  Society; 
Chamber  of  Commerce  of  the  State  of  New 
York;  Lodge  169,  Free  and  Accepted  Ma- 
sons; Whig  Society;  Society  of  the  New 
York  Hospital;  St.  Andrew's  Society;  So- 
ciety of  the  Cincinnati ;  Society  of  the  Sons 
of  St.  Patrick;  Society  for  Promoting  the 
Manumission  of  Slaves ;  Society  for  the  Re- 
lief of  Distressed  Debtors;  Black  Friars 
Society ;  Independent  Rangers ;  and  Federal 
Republicans. 

Here  also  came  the  men  who,  in  1784,. 
formed  the  Bank  of  New  York,  the  first 
financial  institution  in  the  city;  and  here 
was  held,  in  1790,  the  first  public  sale  of 
stocks  by  sworn  brokers.  Here,  too,  was 
held  the  organization  meeting  of  subscrib- 
ers to  the  Tontine  coffee  house,  which  in  a 
few  years  was  to  prove  a  worthy  rival. 

Some  Lesser  Known  Coffee  Houses 

Before  taking  up  the  story  of  the  famous 
Tontine  coffee  house  it  should  be  noted 
that  the  Merchants  coffee  house  had  some 
prior  measure  of  competition.  For  four 
years  the  Exchange  coffee  room  sought  toi 
cater  to  the  wants  of  the  merchants  around 
the  foot  of  Broad  Street.  It  was  located 
in  the  Royal  Exchange,  which  had  beea 
erected  in  1752  in  place  of  the  old  Ex- 
change, and  until  1754  had  been  used  a» 
a  store.  Then  William  Keen  and  Alex- 
ander Lightfoot  got  control  and  started 
their  coffee  room,  with  a  ball  room  at- 
tached. The  partnership  split  up  in  1756^ 
Lightfoot  continuing  operations  until  he 
died  the  next  year,  when  his  widow  tried  t& 


COFFEE  IN  OLD  NEW  YORK 


121 


The  Toxtine   Coffee   House    (Second   Building  at   the   Left),   Opened   in   1792 

This  is  the  original  structure,  northwest  corner  of  Wall   and   Water   Streets,    which   was   succeeded   about 

1850  by  a  flve-story  building  (see  page  122)  that  in  turn  was  replaced  by  a  modern  office  buildii.g 


carry  it  on.  In  1758  it  had  reverted  into 
its  original  character  of  a  mercantile  estab- 
lishment. 

Then  there  was  the  Whitehall  coffee 
house,  which  two  men,  named  Rogers  and 
Humphreys,  opened  in  1762,  with  the  an- 
nouncement that  "a  correspondence  is  set- 
tled in  London  and  Bristol  to  remit  by 
every  opportunity  all  the  public  prints  and 
pamphlets  as  soon  as  published;  and  there 
will  be  a ,  weekly  supply  of  New  York, 
Boston  and  other  American  newspapers." 
This  enterprise  had  a  short  life. 

The  early  records  of  the  city  infrequent- 
ly mention  the  Burns  coffee  house,  some- 
times calling  it  a  tavern.  It  is  likely  that 
the  place  was  more  an  inn  than  a  coffee 
house.  It  was  kept  for  a  number  of  years 
by  George  Burns,  near  the  Battery,  and 
was  located  in  the  historic  old  De  Lancey 
house,  which  afterward  became  the  City 
hotel. 

Burns  remained  the  proprietor  until 
1762,  when  it  was  taken  over  by  a  Mrs. 
Steele,  who  gave  it  the  name  of  the  King's 
Arms.  Edward  Barden  became  the  land- 
lord in  1768.  In  later  years  it  became 
known  as  the  Atlantic  Garden  house.    Trai- 


tor Benedict  Arnold  is  said  to  have  lodged 
in  the  old  tavern  after  deserting  to  the 
enemy. 

The  Bank  coffee  house  belonged  to  a 
later  generation,  and  had  few  of  the  char- 
acteristics of  the  earlier  coffee  houses.  It 
was  opened  in  1814  by  William  Niblo,  of 
Niblo's  Garden  fame,  and  stood  at  the 
corner  of  William  and  Pine  Streets,  at  the 
rear  of  the  Bank  of  New  York.  The  cof- 
fee house  endured  for  probably  ten  years, 
and  became  the  gathering  place  of  a  co- 
terie of  prominent  merchants,  who  formed 
a  sort  of  club.  The  Bank  coffee  house  be- 
came celebrated  for  its  dinners  and  dinner 
parties. 

Fraunces'  tavern,  best  known  as  the 
place  where  Washington  bade  farewell  to 
his  army  officers,  was,  as  its  name  states, 
a  tavern,  and  can  not  be  properly  classed 
as  a  coffee  house.  While  coffee  was  served, 
and  there  was  a  long  room  for  gatherings, 
little,  if  any,  business  was  done  there  by 
merchants.  It  was  largely  a  meeting  place 
for  citizens  bent  on  a  "good  time." 

Then  there  was  the  New  England  and 
Quebec  coffee  house,  which  was  also  a 
tavern. 


122 


ALL     ABOUT     COFFEE 


The  Tontine  Building  of  1850 

Northwest  corner  of  Wall  and  Water  Streets;  an 
omnibus  of  the  Broadway-Wall-Street  Ferry 
line  is  passing 

The  Tontine  Coffee  House 

The  last  of  the  celebrated  coffee  houses 
of  New  York  bore  the  name,  Tontine  cof- 
fee house.  For  several  years  after  the 
burning  of  the  Merchants  coffee  house,  in 
1804,  it  was  the  only  one  of  note  in  the 
city. 

Feeling  that  they  should  have  a  more 
commodious  coffee  house  for  carrying  on 
their  various  business  enterprises,  some  150 
merchants  organized,  in  1791,  the  Tontine 
coffee  house.  This  enterprise  was  based' 
on  the  plan  introduced  into  France  in  1653 
by  Lorenzo  Tonti,  with  slight  variations. 
According  to  the  New  York  Tontine  plan, 
each  holder's  share  reverted  automatically 


^ 

^  1 

^^H|    ,4 

ii.j# 

^^ 

^^^^1^ 

^i^nji. 

?r 

-^1 

--.^. 

Stf'jf 

to  the  surviving  shareholders  in  the  asso- 
ciation, instead  of  to  his  heirs.  There 
were  157  original  shareholders,  and  203 
shares  of  stock  valued  at  £200  each. 

The  directors  bought  the  house  and  lot 
on  the  northwest  corner  of  Wall  and  Water 
Streets,  where  the  original  Merchants  cof- 
fee house  stood,  paying  £1,970.  They  next 
acquired  the  adjoining  lots  on  Wall  and 
Water  Streets,  paying  £2,510  for  the  for- 
mer, and  £1,000  for  the  latter. 

The  cornerstone  of  the  new  coffee  house 
was  laid  June  5,  1792 ;  and  a  year  later  to 
the  day,  120  gentlemen  sat  down  to  a  ban- 
quet in  the  completed  coffee  house  to  cele- 
brate the  event  of  the  year  before.  John 
Hyde  was  the  first  landlord.  The  house 
had  cost  $43,000. 


NiBLo's  Gakden, 


Broadway  and  Pkince  Street, 

1828 


Coffee  Kelics  of  Dutch  New  York 

Spice-grinder  boat,   coffee   roaster,   and   coffee  pots 
at  the  Van  Cortlandt  Museum 

A  contemporary  account  of  how  the  Ton- 
tine coffee  house  looked  in  1794  is  supplied 
by  an  Englishman  visiting  New  York  at 
the  time : 

The  Tontine  tavern  and  coffee  house  is  a 
handsome  large  brick  building;  you  ascend  six 
or  eight  steps  under  a  portico,  into  a  large  pub- 
lie  room,  which  is  the  Stock  Exchange  of  New 
York,  where  all  bargains  are  made.  Here  are 
two  books  kept,  as  at  Lloyd's  [in  London]  of 
every  ship's  arrival  and  clearance.  This  house 
was  built  for  the  accommodation  of  the  mer- 
chants by  Tontine  shares  of  two  hundred  pounds 
each.    It  is  kept  by  Mr.  Hyde,  formerly  a  woolen 


COFFEE  IN  OLD  NEW  YORK 


123 


i 


.fc*—  :■-  ■  li  aTKMiq^^ 


New  York's  Vauxiiall  Garden  of  1803 
From   an   old   print 


draper  in  London.  You  can  lodge  and  board 
tliere  at  a  common  table,  and  you  pay  ten  shil- 
lin<?s  currency  a  day,  whether  you  dine  out  or 
not. 

The  stock  market  made  its  headquarters 
in  the  Tontine  coffee  house  in  1817,  and 
the  early  organization  was  elaborated  and 
became  the  New  York  Stock  and  Exchange 
Board.  It  was  removed  in  1827  to  the 
Merchants  Exchange  Building,  where  it  re- 
mained until  that  place  was  destroyed  by 
fire  in  1835. 

It  was  stipulated  in  the  original  articles 
of  the  Tontine  Association  that  the  house 
was  to  be  kept  and  used  as  a  coffee  house, 
and  this  agreement  was  adhered  to  up  to 
the  year  1834,  when,  by  permission  of  the 
Court  of  Chancery,  the  premises  were  let 
for  general  business-office  purposes.  This 
change  was  due  to  the  competition  offered 
by  the  Merchants  Exchange,  a  short  dis- 
tance up  Wall  Street,  which  had  been 
opened  soon  after  the  completion  of  the 
Tontine  coffee  house  building. 

As  the  city  grew,  the  business-office  quar- 
ters  of  the  original  Tontine  coffee  house  be- 
came inadequate;  and  about  the  year  1850 
a  new  five-story  building,  costing  some  $60,- 
000,  succeeded  it.  By  this  time  the  build- 
ing had  lost  its  old  coffee-house  character- 
istics.    This  new  Tontine  structure  is  said 


to  have  been  the  first  real  office  building  in 
New  York  City.  Today  the  site  is  occu- 
pied by  a  large  modern  office  building, 
which  still  retains  the  name  of  Tontine, 
It  was  owned  by  John  B.  and  Charles  A. 
O'Donohue,  well  known  New  York  coffee 
merchants,  until  1920,  When  it  was  sold 
for  $1,000,000  to  the  Federal  Sugar  Refin- 
ing Company. 

The  Tontine  coffee  house  did  not  figure 
so  prominently  in  the  historic  events  of  the 
nation  and  city  as  did  its  neighbor,  the 
Merchants  coffee  house.  However,  it  be- 
came the  Mecca  for  visitors  from  all  parts 
of  the  country,  who  did  not  consider  their 
sojourn  in  the  city  complete  until  they  had 
at  least  inspected  what  was  then  one  of  the 
most  pretentious  buildings  in  New  York. 
Chroniclers  of  the  Tontine  coffee  house  al- 
ways say  that  most  of  the  leaders  of  the 
nation,  together  with  distinguished  visitors 
from  abroad,  had  foregathered  in  the  large 
room  of  the  old  coffee  house  at  some  time 
during  their  careers. 

It  was  on  the  walls  of  the  Tontine  coffee 
house  that  bulletins  were  posted  on  Hamil- 
ton's  struggle  for  life  after  the  fatal  duel 
forced  on  him  by  Aaron  Burr. 

The  changing  of  the  Tontine  coffee  house 
into  a  purely  mercantile  building  marked 
the   end   of   the   coffee-house   era   in   New 


124 


ALL     ABOUT     COFFEE 


York.  Exchanges  and  office  buildings  had 
come  into  existence  to  take  the  place  of  the 
business  features  of  the  coffee  houses ;  clubs 
were  organized  to  take  care  of  the  social 
functions;  and  restaurants  and  hotels  had 
sprung  up  to  cater  to  the  needs  for  bever- 
ages and  food. 

New  York's  Pleasure   Gardens 

There  was  a  fairly  successful  attempt 
made  to  introduce  the  London  pleasure- 
garden  idea  into  New  York.  First,  tea 
gardens  were  added  to  several  of  the  tav- 
erns already  provided  with  ball  rooms. 
Then,  on  the  outskirts  of  the  city,  were 
opened  the  Vauxhall  and  the  Eanelagh 
gardens,  so  named  after  their  famous  Lon- 
don prototypes.  The  first  Vauxhall  gar- 
den (there  were  three  of  this  name)  was 
on  Greenwich  Street,  between  "Warren  and 
Chambers  Streets.  It  fronted  on  the  North 
River,  affording  a  beautiful  view  up  the 
Hudson.  Starting  as  the  Bowling  Green 
garden,  it  changed  to  Vauxhall  in  1750. 

Ranelagh  was  on  Broadway,  between  Du- 
ane  and  Worth  Streets,  on  the  site  where 
later  the  New  York  Hospital  was  erected. 
From  advertisements  of  the  period  (1765  - 
69)  we  learn  that  there  were  band  concerts 
twice  a  week  at  the  Ranelagh.  The  gardens 
were  "for  breakfasting  as  well  as  the  eve- 
ning entertainment  of  ladies  and  gentle- 


men." There  was  a  commodious  hall  in 
the  garden  for  dancing.  Ranelagh  lasted 
twenty  years.  Coffee,  tea,  and  hot  rolls 
could  be  had  in  the  pleasure  gardens  at 
any  hour  of  the  day.  Fireworks  were  fea- 
tured at  both  Ranelagh  and  Vauxhall  gar- 
dens. The  second  Vauxhall  was  near  the 
intersection  of  the  present  Mulberry  and 
Grand  Streets,  in  1798;  the  third  was  on 
Bowery  Road,  near  Astor  Place,  in  1803. 
The  Astor  library  was  built  upon  its  site 
in  1853. 

William  Niblo,  previously  proprietor  of 
the  Bank  coffee  house  in  Pine  Street, 
opened,  in  1828,  a  pleasure  garden,  that 
he  named  Sans  Souci,  on  the  site  of  a  circus 
building  called  the  Stadium  at  Broadway 
and  Prince  Street.  In  the  center  of  the 
garden  remained  the  stadium,  which  was 
devoted  to  theatrical  performances  of  "a 
gay  and  attractive  character."  Later,  he 
built  a  more  pretentious  theater  that 
fronted  on  Broadway.  The  interior  of  the 
garden  was  "spacious,  and  adorned  with 
shrubbery  and  walks,  lighted,  with  festoons 
of  lamps."  It  was  generally  known  as 
Niblo 's  garden. 

Among  other  well  known  pleasure  gar- 
dens of  old  New  York  were  Contoit's,  later 
the  New  York  garden,  and  Cherry  gardens, 
on  old  Cherry  Hill. 


Tavern  and  Grocers'   Signs   Used  in   Old  New  York 
Left,  Smith  Richards,  grocer  and  confectioner,  "at  the   sign   of  the   tea  canister  and   two   sugar  loaves" 
(1773)  ;  center,  the  King's  Arms,  originally  Burns  coffee  house   (1767) ;  right,  George  Webster,  Grocer, 
"at  the  sign  of  the  three  sugar  loaves" 


Chapter   XIV 
COFFEE    HOUSES    OF    OLD    PHILADELPHIA 

Ye  Coffee  House,  Philadelphia's  first  coffee  house,  opened  about 
1700  —  The  two  London  coffee  houses  —  The  City  tavern,  or  Mer- 
chants coffee  house  —  How  these,  and  other  celebrated  resorts, 
dominated  the  social,  political,  and  business  life  of  the  Quaker  City 
in  the  eighteenth  century 


WILLIAM  PENN  is  generally  cred- 
ited with  the  introduction  of  coffee 
into  the  Quaker  colony  which  he 
founded  on  the  Delaware  in  1682.  He  also 
brought  to  the  "city  of  brotherly  love" 
that  other  great  drink  of  human  brother- 
hood, tea.  At  first  (1700),  "like  tea,  cof- 
fee was  only  a  drink  for  the  well-to-do, 
except  in  sips. ' "  As  was  the  case  in  the 
other  English  colonies,  coffee  languished 
for  a  time  while  tea  rose  in  favor,  more 
especially  in  the  home. 

Following  the  stamp  act  of  1765,  and 
the  tea  tax  of  1767,  the  Pennsylvania  Col- 
ony joined  hands  with  the  others  in  a 
general  tea  boycott ;  and  coffee  received  the 
same  impetus  as  elsewhere  in  the  colonies 
that  became  the  thirteen  original  states. 

The  coffee  houses  of  early  Philadelphia 
loom  large  in  the  history  of  the  city  and 
the  republic.  Picturesque  in  themselves, 
with  their  distinctive  colonial  architecture, 
their  associations  also  were  romantic.  Many 
a  civic,  sociological,  and  industrial  reform 
came  into  existence  in  the  low-ceilinged, 
sanded-floor  main  rooms  of  the  city's  early 
coffee  houses. 

For  many  years.  Ye  coffee  house,  the  two 
London  coffee  houses,  and  the  City  tavern 
(also  known  as  the  Merchants  coffee  house) 
each  in  its  turn  dominated  the  official  and 
social  life  of  Philadelphia.  The  earlier 
houses  were  the  regular  meeting  places  of 

*  Oberholtzer,  Ellis  Paxson.  Philadelphia ;  a  his- 
tory of  the  city  and  its  people.  Philadelphia,  1912. 
(vol.  i  :  p.  106.) 


Quaker  municipal  officers,  ship  captains, 
and  merchants  who  came  to  transact  pub- 
lic and  private  business.  As  the  outbreak 
of  the  Revolution  drew  near,  fiery  colonials, 
many  in  Quaker  garb,  congregated  there  to 
argue  against  British  oppression  of  the 
colonies.  After  the  Revolution,  the  leading 
citizens  resorted  to  the  coffee  house  to  dine 
and  sup  and  to  hold  their  social  functions. 

When  the  city  was  founded  in  1682,  cof- 
fee cost  too  much  to  admit  of  its  being 
retailed  to  the  general  public  at  coffee 
houses,  William  Penn  wrote  in  his  Ac- 
counts that  in  1683  coffee  in  the  berry 
was  sometimes  procured  in  New  York  at 
a  cost  of  eighteen  shillings  nine  pence  the 
pound,  equal  to  about  $4.68.  He  told  also 
that  meals  were  served  in  the  ordinaries 
at  six  pence  (equal  to  twelve  cents),  to  wit: 
"We  have  seven  ordinaries  for  the  enter- 
tainment of  strangers  and  for  workmen 
that  are  not  housekeepers,  and  a  good  meal 
is  to  be  had  there  for  six  pence  sterling." 
With  green  coffee  costing  $4.68  a  pound, 
making  the  price  of  a  cup  about  seventeen 
cents,  it  is  not  likely  that  coffee  was  on 
the  menus  of  the  ordinaries  serving  meals 
at  twelve  cents  each.  Ale  was  the  common 
meal-time  beverage. 

There  were  four  classes  of  public  houses 
—  inns,  taverns,  ordinaries,  and  coffee 
houses.  The  inn  was  a  modest  hotel  that 
supplied  lodgings,  food,  and  drink,  the  bev- 
erages consisting  mostly  of  ale,  port,  Ja- 
maica rum,  and  Madeira  wine.    The  tavern, 


125 


126 


ALL     ABOUT     COFFEE 


though  accommodating  guests  with  bed  and 
board,  was  more  of  a  drinking  place  than  a 
lodging  house.  The  ordinary  combined  the 
characteristics  of  a  restaurant  and  a  board- 
ing house.  The  coffee  house  was  a  preten- 
tious tavern,  dispensing,  in  most  cases,  in- 
toxicating drinks  as  well  as  coffee. 

Philadelphia's  First  Coffee  House 

The  first  house  of  public  resort  opened 
in  Philadelphia  bore  the  name  of  the  Blue 
Anchor  tavern,  and  was  probably  estab- 
lished in  1683  or  1684;  colonial  records  do 
not  state  definitely.  As  its  name  indicates, 
this  was  a  tavern.  The  first  coffee  house 
came  into  existence  about  the  year  1700. 
Watson,  in  one  place  in  his  Annals  of  the 
city,  says  1700,  but  in  another  1702.  The 
earlier  date  is  thought  to  be  correct,  and  is 
seemingly  substantiated  by  the  co-authors 
Scharf  and  Westcott  in  their  History  '  of 
the  city,  in  which  they  say,  * '  The  first  pub- 
lic house  designated  as  a  coffee  house  was 
built  in  Penn's  time  [1682-1701]  by 
Samuel  Carpenter,  on  the  east  side  of 
Front  Street,  probably  above  Walnut 
Street.  That  it  was  the  first  of  its  kind  — 
the  only  one  in  fact  for  some  years  — 
seems  to  be  established  beyond  doubt.  It 
was  always  referred  to  in  old  times  as  'Ye 
Coffee  House.'  " 

Carpenter  owned  also  the  Globe  inn, 
which  was  separated  from  Ye  coffee  house 
by  a  public  stairway  running  down  from 
Front  Street  to  Water  Street,  and,  it  is 
supposed,  to  Carpenter's  Wharf.  The  ex- 
act location  of  the  old  house  was  recently 
established  from  the  title  to  the  original 
patentee,  Samuel  Carpenter,  by  a  Phila- 
delphia real-estate  title-guarantee  company, 
as  being  between  Walnut  and  Chestnut 
Streets,  and  occupying  six  and  a  half  feet 
of  what  is  now  No.  137  South  Front  Street 
and  the  whole  of  No,  139. 

How  long  Ye  coffee  house  endured  is  un- 
certain. It  was  last  mentioned  in  colonial 
records  in  a  real  estate  conveyance  from 
Carpenter  to  Samuel  Finney,  dated  April 
26,  1703.  In  that  document  it  is  described 
as  "That  brick  Messuage,  or  Tenement, 
called  Ye  Coffee  House,  in  the  possession 
of  Henry  Flower,  and  situate,  lying  and 
being  upon  or  before  the  bank  of  the  Dela- 
ware River,  containing  in  length  about 
thirty  feet  and  in  breadth  about  twenty- 
four." 

The  Henry  Flower  mentioned  as  the  pro- 
prietor of  Philadelphia's  first  coffee  house, 


was  postmaster  of  the  province  for  a  num- 
ber of  years,  and  it  is  believed  that  Ye 
coffee  house  also  did  duty  as  the  post-offiei' 
for  a  time.  Benjamin  Franklin's  Penn- 
sylvania Gazette,  in  an  issue  published  in 
1734,  has  this  advertisement: 

All  persons  who  are  indebted  to  Henry  Flower, 
iQ/te  postmaster  of  Pennsylvania,  for  Postage  of 
Letters  or  otherivise,  are  desir'd  to  pay  the  same 
to  Mm  at  the  old  Coffee  House  in  Philadelphia. 

Flower's,  advertisement  would  indicate 
that  Ye  coffee  house,  then  venerable  enough 
to  be  designated  as  old,  was  still  in  exist- 
ence, and  that  Flower  was  to  be  found 
there.  Franklin  also  seems  to  have  been 
in  the  coffee  business,  for  in  several  issues 
of  the  Gazette  around  the  year  1740  he 
advertised:  "Very  good  coffee  sold  by  the 
Printer. ' ' 

The  First  London  Coffee  House 

Philadelphia's  second  coffee  house  bore 
the  name  of  the  London  coffee  house,  which 
title  was  later  used  for  the  resort  William 
Bradford  opened  in  1754.  The  first  house 
of  this  name  was  built  in  1702,  but  there 
seems  to  be  some  doubt  about  its  location. 
Writing  in  the  American  Historical  Regis- 
ter, Charles  H.  Browning  says:  "William 
Rodney  came  to  Philadelphia  with  Penn  in 
1682,  and  resided  in  Kent  County,  where 
he  died  in  1708 ;  he  built  the  old  London 
coffee  house  at  Front  and  Market  Streets 
in  1702."  Another  chronicler  gives  its  lo- 
cation as  "above  Walnut  Street,  either  on 
the  east  side  of  Water  Street,  or  on  Dela- 
ware Avenue,  or,  as  the  streets  are  very 
close  together,  it  may  have  been  on  both. 
John  Shewbert,  its  proprietor,  was  a  pa- 
rishioner of  Christ  Church,  and  his  estab* 
lishment  was  largely  patronized  by  Church 
of  England  people."  It  was  also  the  gath- 
ering place  of  the  followers  of  Penn  and 
the  Proprietary  party,  while  their  oppo- 
nents, the  political  cohorts  of  Colonel 
Quarry,  frequented  Ye  coffee  house. 

The  first  London  coffee  house  resembled 
a  fashionable  club  house  in  its  later  years, 
suitable  for  the  "genteel"  entertainments 
of  the  well-to-do  Philadelphians.  Ye  cof- 
fee house  was  more  of  a  commercial  or 
public  exchange.  Evidence  of  the  gentility 
of  the  London  is  given  by  John  William 
Wallace : 

The  appointments  of  the  London  Coffee  House, 
if  we  may  infer  what  they  were  from  the  will 
of  Mrs.  Shtitiert  [Shewbert]  dated  November  27, 
1751,    were    genteel.      By    that   instrument    she 


IN  OLD  PHILADELPHIA 


127 


The  Second  London  Coffee  House,  Opened  in  1754  by  William  Bradford,  the  Printer 
Up  to  the  outbreak  of  the  American  Revolution,  it  was    more    frequented    than   any    other    tavern    in    the 
Quaker   city  as  a   place   of  resort  and   entertainment,    and   was   famous   throughout   the   colonies  v.^ 


makes  bequest  of  two  silver  quax't  tankards;  a 
silver  cup ;  a  silver  porringer ;  a  silver  pepper 
pot ;  two  sets  of  silver  castors ;  a  silver  soup 
spoon ;  a  silver  sauce  spoon,  and  numerous 
silver  tablespoons,  and  tea  spoons,  with  a  silver 
teapot. 

One  of  the  many  historic  incidents  con- 
nected with  this  old  house  was  the  visit 
there  by  William  Penn's  eldest  son,  John, 
in  1733,  when  he  entertained  the  General 
Assembly  of  the  province  on  one  day  and 
on  the  next  feasted  the  City  Corporation. 

Roberts'  Coffee  House 

Another  house  with  some  fame  in  the 
middle  of  the  eighteenth  century  was  Rob- 
erts' coffee  house,  which  stood  in  Front 
Street  near  the  first  London  house.  Though 
its  opening  date  is  unknown,  it  is  believed 
to  have  come  into  existence  about  1740. 
In  1744  a  British  army  officer  recruiting 
troops  for  service  in  Jamaica  advertised 
in  the  newspaper  of  the  day  that  he  could 
be  seen  at  the  Widow  Roberts'  coffee  house. 
During  the  French  and  Indian  War,  when 
Philadelphia  was  in  grave  danger  of  attack 
by  French  and  Spanish  privateers,  the  citi- 
zens felt  so  great  relief  when  the  British 
ship  Otter  came  to  the  rescue,  that  they 
proposed  a  public  banquet  in  honor  of  the 
Otter's  captain  to  be  held  at  Roberts'  cof- 


fee house,.-  For  some  unrecorded  reasoii 
the  entertainment  was  not  given ;  probably 
because  the  house  was  too  small  to  accom- 
modate all  the  citizens  desiring  to  attend. 
Widow  Roberts  retired  in  1754. 

The  James  Coffee  House 

Contemporary  with  Roberts '  coffee  house 
w^as  the  resort  run  first  by  Widow  James, 
and  later  by  her  son,  James  James.  It 
was  established  in  1744,  and  occupied  a 
large  wooden  building  on  the  northwest 
corner  of  Front  and  Walnut  Streets.  It 
w^as  patronized  by  Governor  Thomas  and 
many  of  his  political  followers,  and  its 
name  frequently  appeared  in  the  news  and 
advertising  columns  of  the  Pennsylvania 
Gazette. 

The  Second  London  Coffee  House 

Probably  the  most  celebrated  coffee  house 
in  Penn's  city  was  the  one  established  by 
William  Bradford,  printer  of  the  Pennsyl- 
vania Journal.  It  was  on  the  southwest 
corner  of  Second  and  Market  Streets,  and 
was  named  the  London  coffee  house,  the 
second  house  in  Philadelphia  to  bear  that 
title.  The  building  had  stood  since  1702, 
when  Charles  Reed,  later  mayor  of  the 
city,  put  it  up  on  land  which  he  bought 


128 


ALL     ABOUT     COFFEE 


from  Letitia  Penn,  daughter  of  William 
Penn,  the  founder.  Bradford  was  the  first 
to  use  the  structure  for  coffee-house  pur- 
poses, and  he  tells  his  reason  for  entering 
upon  the  business  in  his  petition  to  the  gov- 
ernor for  a  license :  ' '  Having  been  advised 
to  keep  a  Coffee  House  for  the  benefit  of 
merchants  and  traders,  and  as  some  people 
may  at  times  be  desirous  to  be  furnished 
with  other  liquors  besides  coffee,  your  pe- 
titioner apprehends  it  is  necessary  to  have 
the  Governor's  license."  This  would  indi- 
cate that  in  that  day  coffee  was  drunk  as 
a  refreshment  between  meals,  as  were 
spirituous  liquors  for  so  many  years  be- 
fore, and  thereafter  up  to  1920. 


Selling  Slaves  at  the  Old  London  Coffee 
House 

Bradford's  London  coffee  house  seems  to 
have  been  a  joint-stock  enterprise,  for  in 
his  Journal  of  April  11,  1754,  appeared 
this  notice:  "Subscribers  to  a  public  cof- 
fee house  are  invited  to  meet  at  the  Court- 
house on  Friday,  the  19th  instant,  at  3 
o'clock,  to  choose  trustees  agreeably  to  the 
plan  of  subscription." 

The  building  was  a  three-story  wooden 
structure,  with  an  attic  that  some  historians 
count  as  the  fourth  story.  There  was  a 
wooden  awning  one-story  high  extending 
out  to  cover  the  sidewalk  before  the  cof- 
fee house.  The  entrance  was  on  Market 
(then  known  as  High)  Street. 


The  London  coffee  house  was  "the  pul- 
sating heart  of  excitement,  enterprise,  and 
patriotism"  of  the  early  city.  The  most 
active  citizens  congregated  there  —  mer- 
chants, shipmasters,  travelers  from  other 
colonies  and  countries,  crown  and  provin- 
cial officers.  The  governor  and  persons  of 
equal  note  went  there  at  certain  hours  "to 
sip  their  coffee  from  the  hissing  urn,  and 
some  of  those  stately  visitors  had  their 
own  stalls."  It  had  also  the  character  of 
a  mercantile  exchange  —  carriages,  horses, 
foodstuffs,  and  the  like  being  sold  there  at 
auction.  It  is  further  related  that  the  early 
slave-holding  Philadelphians  sold  negro 
men,  women,  and  children  at  vendue,  ex- 
hibiting the  slaves  on  a  platform  set  up 
in  the  street  before  the  coffee  house. 

The  resort  was  the  barometer  of  public 
sentiment.  It  was  in  the  street  before  this 
house  that  a  newspaper  published  in 
Barbados,  bearing  a  stamp  in  accordance 
with  the  provisions  of  the  stamp  act,  was 
publicly  burned  in  1765,  amid  the  cheers 
of  bystanders.  It  was  here  that  Captain 
Wise  of  the  brig  Minerva,  from  Pool,  Eng- 
land, who  brought  news  of  the  repeal  of  the 
act,  was  enthusiastically  greeted  by  the 
crowd  in  May,  1766.  Here,  too,  for  several 
years  the  fishermen  set  up  May  poles. 

Bradford  gave  up  the  coffee  house  when 
he  joined  the  newly  formed  Revolutionary 
army  as  major,  later  becoming  a  colonel. 
When  the  British  entered  the  city  in  Sep- 
tember, 1777,  the  officers  resorted  to  the 
London  coffee  house,  which  was  much  fre- 
quented by  Tory  sympathizers.  After  the 
British  had  evacuated  the  city,  Colonel 
Bradford  resumed  proprietorship ;  but  he 
found  a  change  in  the  public's  attitude 
toward  the  old  resort,  and  thereafter  its 
fortunes  began  to  decline,  probably  hast- 
ened by  the  keen  competition  offered  by  the 
City  tavern,  which  had  been  opened  a  few 
years  before. 

Bradford  gave  up  the  lease  in  1780, 
transferring  the  property  to  John  Pember- 
ton,  who  leased  it  to  Grifford  Dally.  Pem- 
berton  was  a  Friend,  and  his  scruples  about 
gambling  and  other  sins  are  well  exhibited 
in  the  terms  of  the  lease  in  which  said 
Dally  "covenants  and  agrees  and  promises 
that  he  will  exert  his  endeavors  as  a  Chris- 
tian to  preserve  decency  and  order  in  said 
house,  and  to  discourage  the  profanation 
of  the  sacred  name  of  God  Almighty  by 
cursing,  swearing,  etc.,  and  that  the  house 


I 


IN    OLD    PHILADELPHIA 


129 


The  City  Tavern,  Built  i.n    .17i;i.  am>  K.nuwn    as    iiii-:   Mlkciiams   Coiii-h  lluttot 

The  tavern  (at  the  left)  was  regarded  as  the  largest  inn  of  the  colonies  and  stood  next  to  the  Bank  of 
Pennsylvania    (center).     From   a   print   made   from  a  rare  Birch  engraving 


I 


on  the  first  day  of  the  week  shall  always  be 
kept  closed  from  public  use. "  It  is  further 
covenanted  that  "under  a  penalty  of  ilOO 
he  will  not  allow  or  suffer  any  person  to 
use,  or  play  at,  or  divert  themselves  with 
cards,  dice,  back-gammon,  or  any  other  un- 
lawful game." 

It  would  seem  from  the  terms  of  the 
lease  that  what  Pemberton  thought  were 
ungodly  things,  were  countenanced  in  other 
coffee  houses  of  the  day.  Perhaps  the  regu- 
lations were  too  strict ;  for  a  few  years  later 
the  house  had  passed  into  the  hands  of  John 
Stokes,  who  used  it  as  dwelling  and  a  store. 

City  Tavern  or  Merchants  Coffee  House 

The  last  of  the  celebrated  coffee  houses 
in  Philadelphia  was  built  in  1773  under 
the  name  of  the  City  tavern,  which  later 
became  known  as  the  Merchants  coffee 
house,  possibly  after  the  house  of  the  same 
name  that  was  then  famous  in  New  York. 
It  stood  in  Second  Street  near  Walnut 
Street,  and  in  some  respects  was  even  more 
noted  than  Bradford's  London  coffee  house, 
with  which  it  had  to  compete  in  its  early 
days. 

The  City  tavern  was  patterned  after  the 
best    London    coffee    houses;    and    when 


opened,  it  was  looked  upon  as  the  finest 
and  largest  of  its  kind  in  America.  It  was 
three  stories  high,  built  of  brick,  and  had 
several  large  club  rooms,  two  of  which  were 
connected  by  a  wide  doorway  that,  when 
open,  made  a  large  dining  room  fifty  feet 
long. 

Daniel  Smith  was  the  first  proprietor, 
and  he  opened  it  to  the  public  early  in  1774. 
Before  the  Revolution,  Smith  had  a  hard 
struggle  trying  to  win'  patronage  from 
Bradford's  London  coffee  house,  standing 
only  a  few  blocks  away.  But  during  and 
after  the  war,  the  City  tavern  gradually 
took  the  lead,  and  for  more  than  a  quar- 
ter of  a  century  was  the  principal  gather- 
ing place  of  the  city.  At  first,  the  house 
had  various  names  in  the  public  mind,  some 
calling  it  by  its  proper  title,  the  City  tav- 
ern, other  attaching  the  name  of  the  pro- 
prietor and  designating  it  as  Smith's  tav- 
ern, while  still  others  used  the  title,  the 
New  tavern. 

The  gentlefolk  of  the  city  resorted  to 
the  City  tavern  after  the  Revolution  as 
they  had  to  Bradford's  coffee  house  before. 
However,  before  reaching  this  high  estate, 
it  once  was  near  destruction  at  the  hands 
of  the  Tories,  who  threatened  to  tear  it 


180 


ALL    ABOUT     COFFEE 


down.  That  was  when  it  was  proposed  to 
hold  a  banquet  there  in  honor  of  Mrs. 
George  Washington,  who  had  stopped  in 
the  city  in  1776  while  on  the  way  to  meet 
her  distinguished  husband,  then  at  Cam- 
bridge in  Massachusetts,  taking  over  com- 
mand of  the  American  army.  Trouble  was 
averted  by  Mrs.  Washington  tactfully  de- 
clining to  appear  at  the  tavern. 

After  peace  came,  the  house  was  the 
scene  of  many  of  the  fashionable  enter- 
tainments of  the  period.  Here  met  the 
City  Dancing  Assembly,  and  here  was  held 
the  brilliant  fete  given  by  M.  Gerard,  first 
accredited  representative  from  France  to 
the  United  States,  in  honor  of  Louis  XVI  's 
birthday.  Washington,  Jefferson,  Hamil- 
ton, and  other  leaders  of  public  thought 
were  more  or  less  frequent  visitors  when 
in  Philadelphia. 

The  exact  date  when  the  City  tavern  be- 
came the  Merchants  coffee  house  is  un- 
known. When  James  Kitchen  became  pro- 
prietor, at  the  beginning  of  the  nineteenth 


century,  it  was  so  called.  In  1806  Kitchen 
turned  the  house  into  a  bourse,  or  mercan- 
tile exchange.  By  that  time  clubs  and 
hotels  had  come  into  fashion,  and  the  cof- 
fee-house idea  was  losing  caste  with  the 
elite  of  the  city. 

In  the  year  1806  William  Renshaw 
planned  to  open  the  Exchange  coffee  house 
in  the  Bingham  mansion  on  Third  Street. 
He  even  solicited  subscriptions  to  the  enter- 
prise, saying  that  he  proposed  to  keep  a 
marine  diary  and  a  registry  of  vessels  for 
sale,  to  receive  and  to  forward  ships'  letter 
bags,  and  to  have  accommodations  for  hold- 
ing auctions.  But  he  was  persuaded  from 
the  idea,  partly  by  the  fact  that  the  Mer- 
chants coffee  house  seemed  to  be  satisfac- 
torily filling  that  particular  niche  in  the 
city  life,  and  partly  because  the  hotel 
business  offered  better  inducements.  He 
abandoned  the  plan,  and  opened  the  Man- 
sion House  hotel  in  the  Bingham  residence 
in  1807. 


Exchange  Coffee  House  Scene  in  "Hamilton" 

In  this  setting  for  the  first  act  of  the  play  by  Mary  P.  Hamlin  and  George  Arliss,  produced  in  1918, 
the  scenic  artist  aimed  to  give  a  true  historical  Background,  and  combined  the  features  of  several 
inns  and  coffee  houses  in  Philadelphia,  Virginia,  and  New  England  as  they  existed  in  Washington's 
first  administration 


Chapter   XV 
HE      BOTANY      OF      THE     COFFEE     PLANT 

Its  complete  classification  hy  class,  sub-class,  order,  family,  genus, 
and  species  —  How  the  Coffea  arahica  groivs,  flowers,  and  hears  — 
Other  species  and  hybrids  described  —  Natural  caffein-free  coffee  — 
Fungoid  diseases  of  coffee 


THE  coffee  tree,  scientifically  known 
as  Coffea  arahica,  is  native  to  Abys- 
sinia and  Ethiopia,  but  grows  well  in 
Java,  Sumatra,  and  other  islands  of  the 
Dutch  East  Indies;  in  India,  Arabia,  equa- 
torial Africa,  the  islands  of  the  Pacific, 
in  Mexico,  Central  and  South  America,  and 
the  AVest  Indies.  The  plant  belongs  to  the 
large  sub-kingdom  of  plants  known  scien- 
tifically as  the  Angiosperms,  or  Angio- 
spermcE,  which  means  that  the  plant  re- 
produces by  seeds  which  are  enclosed  in  a 
box-like  compartment,  known  as  the  ovary, 
at  the  base  of  the  flower.  The  word  Angio- 
sperm  is  derived  from  two  Greek  words, 
sperma,  a  seed,  and  aggeion,  pronounced 
angeion,  a  box,  the  box  referred  to  being 
the  ovary. 

This  large  sub-kingdom  is  subdivided  in- 
to two  classes.  The  basis  for  this  division 
is  the  number  of  leaves  in  the  little  plant 
which  develops  from  the  seed.  The  coffee 
plant,  as  it  develops  from  the  seed,  has  two 
little  leaves,  and  therefore  belongs  to  the 
class  Dicotyledonece.  This  word  dicotyle- 
donece  is  made  up  of  the  two  Greek  words, 
di{s),  two,  and  kotyledon,  cavity  or  socket. 
It  is  not  necessary  to  see  the  young  plant 
that  develops  from  the  seed  in  order  to 
know  that  it  had  two  seed  leaves;  because 
the  mature  plant  always  shows  certain 
characteristics  that  accompany  this  condi- 
tion of  the  seed. 

In  every  plant  having  two  seed  leaves, 
the  mature  leaves  are  netted-veined,  which 
is  a  condition  easily  recognized  even  by  the 
layman;  also  the  parts  of  the  flowers  are 


in  circles  containing  two  or  five  parts,  but 
never  in  threes  or  sixes.  The  stems  of 
plants  of  this  class  always  increase  in  thick- 
ness by  means  of  a  layer  of  cells  known  as 
a  cambium,  which  is  a  tissue  that  continues 
to  divide  throughout  its  whole  existence. 
The  fact  that  this  cambium  divides  as  long 
as  it  lives,  gives  rise  to  a  peculiar  appear- 
ance in  woody  stems  by  which  we  can,  on 
looking  at  the  stem  of  a  tree  of  this  type 
when  it  has  been  sawed  across,  tell  the  age 
of  the  tree. 

In  the  spring  the  cambium  produces 
large  open  cells  through  which  large 
quantities  of  sap  can  run ;  in  the  fall 
it  produces  very  thick-walled  cells,  as  there 
is  not  so  much  sap  to  be  carried.  Because 
these  thin-walled  open  cells  of  one  spring 
are  next  to  the  thick-walled  cells  of  the  last 
autumn,  it  is  very  easy  to  distinguish  one 
year's  growth  from  the  next;  the  marks  so 
produced  are  called  annual  rings. 

We  have  now  classified  coffee  as  far  as 
the  class;  and  so  far  we  could  go  if  w'e 
had  only  the  leaves  and  stem  of  the  coffee 
plant.  In  order  to  proceed  farther,  we 
must  have  the  flow^ers  of  the  plant,  as  bo- 
tanical classification  goes  from  this  point 
on  the  basis  of  the  flowers.  The  class 
Dicotyledonecu  is  separated  into  sub-classes 
according  to  whether  the  flower's  corolla 
(the  showy  part  of  the  flower  which  ordi- 
narily gives  it  its  color)  is  all  in  one  piece, 
or  is  divided  into  a  number  of  parts.  The 
coffee  flower  is  arranged  with  its  corolla 
all  in  one  piece,  forming  a  tube-shaped  ar- 
rangement, and  accordingly  the  coffee  plant 


131 


132 


ALL    ABOUT     COFFEE 


The  Coffee  Tree,  Showing  Details  of  Flowers  axd  Fruit 
From    a    drawing    by    Ch.   Emonts  in  Jardin's  Le  Cafcier  et  Le  Cafe 


belongs  to  the  sub-class  Sympetalce,  or 
MetachlamydecE ,  which  means  that  its  pet- 
als are  united. 

The  next  step  in  classification  is  to  place 
the  plant  in  the  proper  division  under  the 
sub-class,  which  is  the  order.  Plants  are 
separated  into  orders  according  to  their 
varied  characteristics.  The  coffee  plant  be- 
longs to  an  order  known  as  Buhiales.  These 
orders  are  again  divided  into  families.  Cof- 
fee' is  placed  in  the  family  Buhiacece,  or 
Madder  Family,  in  which  we  find  herbs, 
shrubs  or  trees,  represented  by  a  few  Amer- 
ican plants,  such  as  bluets,  or  Quaker 
ladies,  small  blue  spring  flowers,  common 
to  open  meadows  in  northern  United  States ; 
and  partridge  berries   {Mitchella  repens). 

The  Madder  Family  has  more  foreign 
representatives  than  native  genera,  among 
which  are  Coffea,  Cinchona,  and  Ipecac- 
uanha {Uragoga),  all  of  which  are  of  eco- 
nomic importance.  The  members  of  this 
family  are  noted  for  their  action  on  the 
nervous  system.  Coffee,  as  is  well  known, 
contains  an  active  principle  known  as 
caffein  which  acts  as  a  stimulant  to  the 
nervous  system  and  in  small  quantities  is 
very  beneficial.  Cinchona  supplies  us  with 
quinine,  while  Ipecacuanha  produces  ipe- 
cac, which  is  an  emetic  and  purgative. 

The  families  are  divided  into  smaller  sec- 
tions known  as  genera,  and  to  the  genus 


Coffea  belongs  the  coffee  plant.  Under  this 
genus  Coffea  are  several  sub-genera,  and  to 
the  sub-genus  Eucoffea  belongs  our  common 
coffee,  Coffea  arabica.  Coffea  arahica  is 
the  original  or  common  Java  coffee  of  com- 
merce. The  term  "common"  coffee  may 
seem  unnecessary,  but  there  are  many  other 
species  of  coffee  besides  arahica.  These 
species  have  not  been  described  very  fre- 
quently; because  their  native  haunts  are 
the  tropics,  and  the  tropics  do  not  always 
offer  favorable  conditions  for  the  study  of 
their  plants. 

All  botanists  do  not  agree  in  their  classi- 
fication of  the  species  and  varieties  of  the 
coffea  genus.  M.  E.  de  Wildman,  curator 
of  the  royal  botanical  gardens  at  Brussels, 
in  his  Les  Plantes  Tropicales  de  Grande 
Cidture,  says  the  systematic  division  of 
this  interesting  genus  is  far  from  finished; 
in  fact,  it  may  be  said  hardly  to  be  begun. 

Coffea  arahica  we  know  best  because  of 
the  important  role  it  plays  in  commerce. 

Complete  Classification   of  Coffee 

Kingdom    Vegetable 

Sub-Kiiigdom    Angiospermce 

Class    DicotyledonecB 

Sub-class   Sympetalce  or  Metaclilamydew 

Order  Ruhiales 

Family   RuMacece 

Genus Coffea 

Sub-genus Eucoffea 

Species  C.  araiica 


BOTANY   OF   COFFEE 


138 


CH  .E/v\OMT 


Details  of  the  Germination  of  the  Coffee  Plant 
From  a  drawing  by  Ch.  Emonts  in  Jardin's  Le  Cafeier  et  Le  Cafe 


The  coffee  plant  most  cultivated  for  its 
berries  is,  as  already  stated,  Coffea  arabica, 
which  is  found  in  tropical  regions,  although 
it  can  grow  in  temperate  climates.  Unlike 
most  plants  that  grow  best  in  the  tropics, 
it  can  stand  low  temperatures.  It  requires 
shade  when  it  grows  in  hot,  low-lying  dis- 
tricts; but  when  it  grows  on  elevated  land, 
it  thrives  without  such  protection.  Free- 
man' says  there  are  about  eight  recognized 
species  of  coffea. 

Coffea  Arabica 

Coffea  arabica  is  a  shrub  with  evergreen 
leaves,  and  reaches  a  height  of  fourteen 
to  twenty  feet  when  fully  grown.  The 
shrub  produces  dimorphic  branches,  i.  e., 
branches  of  two  forms,  known  as  uprights 
and  laterals.  When  young,  the  plants  have 
a  main  stem,  the  upright,  which,  however, 
eventually  sends  out  side  shoots,  the  later- 
als. The  laterals  may  send  out  other  later- 
als, known  as  secondary  laterals;  but  no 
lateral  can  ever  produce  an  upright.  The 
laterals  are  produced  in  pairs  and  are  op- 
posite, the  pairs  being  borne  in  whorls 
around  the  stem.  The  laterals  are  pro- 
duced only  while  the  joint  of  the  upright, 
to  which  they  are  attached,  is  young;  and 
if  they  are  broken  off  at  that  point,  the 

1  Freeman,   W.   G.      The  World's   Commercial  Prod- 
ucts.    Boston,    (p.   170.) 


upright  has  no  power  to  reproduce  them. 
The  upright  can  produce  new  uprights 
also;  but  if  an  upright  is  cut  off,  the  later- 
als at  that  position  tend  to  thicken  up. 
This  is  very  desirable,  as  the  laterals  pro- 
duce the  flowers,  which  seldom  appear  on 
the  uprights.  This  fact  is  utilized  in  prun- 
ing the  coffee  tree,  the  uprights  being  cut 
back,  the  laterals  then  becoming  more  pro- 
ductive. Planters  generally  keep  their 
trees  pruned  down  to  about  six  feet. 

The  leaves  are  lanceolate,  or  lance-shaped, 
being  borne  in  pairs  opposite  each  other. 
They  are  three  to  six  inches  in  length,  with 
an  acuminate  apex,  somewhat  attenuate  at 
the  base,  with  very  short  petioles  which  are 
united  with  the  short  interpetiolar  stipules 
at  the  base.  The  coffee  leaves  are  thin,  but 
of  firm  texture,  slightly  coriaceous.  They 
are  very  dark  green  on  the  upper  surface, 
but  much  lighter  underneath.  The  margin 
of  the  leaf  is  entire  and  wavy.  In  some 
tropical  countries  the  natives  brew  a  coffee 
tea  from  the  leaves  of  the  coffee  tree. 

The  coft'ee  flowers  are  small,  white,  and 
very  fragrant,  having  a  delicate  character- 
istic odor.  They  are  borne  in  the  axils  of 
the  leaves  in  clusters,  and  several  crops  are 
produced  in  one  season,  depending  on  the 
conditions  of  heat  and  moisture  that  pre- 
vail in  the  particular  season.  The  diffor- 
ent  blossomings  are  classed  as  main  blossom- 


134 


ALL     ABOUT     COFFEE 


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BOTANY  OF  COFFEE 


185 


ing  and  smaller  blossomings.  In  semi-dry 
high  districts,  as  in  Costa  Rica  or  Guate- 
mala, there  is  one  blossoming  season,  about 
March,  and  flowers  and  fruit  are  not  found 
together,  as  a  rule,  on  the  trees.  But  in 
lowland  plantations  where  rain  is  peren- 
nial, blooming  and  fruiting  continue  prac- 
tically all  the  year;  and  ripe  fruits,  green 
fruits,  open  flowers,  and  flower  buds  are  to 
be  found  at  the  same  time  on  the  same 
branchlet.  not  mixed  together,  but  in  the 
order  indicated. 

The  flowers  are  also  tubular,  the  tube  of 
le   corolla   dividing   into   five   white   seg- 


m.         '''-ni^B-'A. 

C<^^^^r:^ 

":'^,''™l 

[4%?      " 

r-  ■  ^^^ 

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"Ik^sk"    :*m 

^f  "J 

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--■f'    N^ 

,^1 
1.  ^ 

Pfc 

%^M 

^    ■ 

COFFEA    ARABICA  I'ORTO    KiCO 

ments.  Dr.  P.  J.  S.  Cramer,  chief  of  the 
division  of  plant  breeding.  Department  of 
Agriculture,  Netherlands  India,  says  the 
number  of  petals  is  not  at  all  constant,  not 
even  for  flowers  of  the  same  tree.  The 
corolla  segments  are  about  one-half  inch 
in  length,  while  the  tube  itself  is  about 
three-eighths  of  an  inch  long.  The  anthers 
of  the  stamens,  which  are  five  in  number, 
protrude  from  the  top  of  the  corolla  tube, 
together  with  the  top  of  the  two-cleft  pistil. 
The  calyx,  which  is  so  small  as  to  escape 
notice  unless  one  is  aware  of  its  existence, 
is  annular,  with  small,  tooth-like  indenta- 
tions. 

While  the  usual  color  of  the  coffee  flower 
is  white,  the  fresh  stamens  and  pistils  may 
have  a  greenish  tinge,  and  in  some  culti- 
vated species  the  corolla  is  pale  pink. 

The  size  and  condition  of  the  flowers  are 
entirely  dependent  on  the  weather.  The 
flowers  are  sometimes  very  small,  very  fra- 
grant, and  very  numerous;  while  at  other 
times,  when  the  weather  is  not  hot  and  dry, 
they  are  very  large,  but  not  so  numerous. 
Both  sets  of  flowers  mentioned  above  "set 


fruit,"  as  it  is  called;  but  at  times,  espe- 
cially in  a  very  dry  season,  they  bear 
flowers  that  are  few  in  number,  small,  and 
imperfectly  formed,  the  petals  frequently 
being  green  instead  of  white.  These  flowers 
do  not  set  fruit.  The  flowers  that  open  on 
a  dry  sunny  day  show  a  greater  yield  of 
fruit  than  those  that  open  on  a  wet  day,  as 
the  first  mentioned  have  a  better  chance 
of  being  pollinated  by  the  insects  and  the 
wind.  The  beauty  of  a  coffee  estate  in 
flower  is  of  a  very  fleeting  character.  One 
day  it  is  a  snowy  expanse  of  fragrant  white 
blossoms  for  miles  and  miles,  as  far  as  the 
eye  can  see,  and  two  days  later  it  reminds 
one  of  the  lines  from  Villon's  Des  Dames 
du  Temps  Jadis, 

Where  are  the  snows  of  yesterday? 

The  winter  winds  have  blown  them  all  away. 

But  here,  the  winter  winds  are  not  to 
blame :  the  soft,  gentle  breezes  of  the  per- 


CoFFEA  Ababica,  Flower  axu  Fruit  —  Costa 
Rka 

petual  summer  have  wrought  the  havoc, 
leaving,  however,  a  not  unpleasing  picture 
of  dark,  cool,  mossy  green  foliage. 

The  flowers  are  beautiful,  but  the  eye  of 
the  planter  sees  in  them  not  alone  beauty 
and  fragrance.  He  looks  far  beyond,  and 
in  his  mind's  eye  he  sees  bags  and  bags 


186 


ALL    ABOUT    COFFEE 


Young  Coffea  Arabica  Tkee  at  Kona,  Hawaii 

of  green  coffee,  representing  to  him  the 
goal  and  reward  of  all  his  toil.  After  the 
flowers  droop,  there  appear  what  are  com- 
mercially known  as  the  coffee  berries.  Bo- 
tanically  speaking,  "berry"  is  a  misnomer. 
These  little  fruits  are  not  berries,  such  as 
are  well  represented  by  the  grape ;  but  are 
drupes,  which  are  better  exemplified  by  the 
cherry  and  the  peach.  In  the  course  of 
six  or  seven  months,  these  coffee  drupes 
develop  into  little  red  balls  about  the  size 
of  an  ordinary  cherry;  but,  instead  of 
being  round,  they  are  somewhat  ellipsoidal, 
having  at  the  outer  end  a  small  umbilicus. 
The  drupe  of  the  coffee  usually  has  two 
loeules,  each  containing  a  little  "stone" 
(the  seed  and  its  parchment  covering)  from 
which  the  coffee  bean  (seed)  is  obtained. 
Some  few  drupes  contain  three,  while 
others,  at  the  outer  ends  of  the  branches, 
contain  only  one  round  bean,  known  as 
the  peaberry.  The  number  of  pickings 
corresponds  to  the  different  blossomings 
in  the  same  season ;  and  one  tree  of  the 
species  arabica  may  yield  from  one  to 
twelve  pounds  a  year. 

In  countries  like  India  and  Africa,  the 
birds  and  monkeys  eat  the  ripe  coffee  ber- 
ries.    The  so-called   "monkey   coffee"   of 


India,  according  to  Arnold,  is  the  undi- 
gested coffee  beans  passed  through  the  ali- 
mentary canal  of  the  animal. 

The  pulp  surrounding  the  coffee  beans 
is  at  present  of  no  commercial  importance. 
Although  efforts  have  been  made  at  various 
times  by  natives  to  use  it  as  a  food,  its 
flavor  has  not  gained  any  great  popularity, 
and  the  birds  are  permitted  a  monopoly  of 
the  pulp  as  a  food.  From  the  human 
standpoint  the  pulp,  or  sarcocarp,  as  it  is 
scientifically  called,  is  rather  an  annoyance, 
as  it  must  be  removed  in  order  to  procure 
the  beans.  This  is  done  in  one  of  two 
ways.  The  first  is  known  as  the  dry  meth- 
od, in  which  the  entire  fruit  is  allowed  to 
dry,  and  is  then  cracked  open.  The  sec- 
ond way  is  called  the  wet  method;  the 
sarcocarp  is  removed  by  machine,  and  two 
wet,  slimy  seed  packets  are  obtained.  These 
packets,  which  look  for  all  the  world  like 
seeds,  are  allowed  to  dry  in  such  a  way  that 
fermentation  takes  place.  This  rids  them 
of  all  the  slime;  and,  after  they  are  thor- 
oughly dry,  the  endocarp,  the  so-called 
parchment  covering,  is  easily  cracked  open 
and  removed.  At  the  same  time  that  the 
parchment  is  removed,  a  thin  silvery  mem- 
brane, the  silver  skin,  beneath  the  parch- 
ment,  comes   off,   too.      There   are   always 


Survivors  of  the  First  Liberian  Cofbee  Trees 
Introduced  into   Java   in   1876 


BOTANY  OF  COFFEE 


137 


^^■K'^^^'S 

■jjjj 

^^^^^^J^^^^^^H 

Pf      '^"t^^^^B 

P^pr            ^^^^1 

j^B 

BBS 

^^^^^^t^w^^^B*^ 

^^^^^^^Hk^^S^B^  ^ 

COFFEA  ARABICA  IN  FLOWER  ON  A  JA\' A  ESTATE 

From   a  photograph   made   at   I>ramaga,   Preanger,    Java,   in   1907 


138 


ALL     ABOUT     COFFEE 


LiBERiAX  Coffee  Tree  at  Lamoa,  P.  I. 

small  fragments  of  this  silver  skin  to  be 
found  in  the  groove  of  the  coffee  bean  con- 
tained within  the  parchment  packet, 
r  We  have  said  that  the  coffee  tree  yields 
from  one  to  twelve  pounds  a  year,  but  of 
course  this  varies  with  the  individual  tree 
and  also  with  the  region.  In  some  coun- 
tries the  whole  year's  yield  is  less  than  200 
pounds  per  acre,  while  there  is  on  record 
a  patch  in  Brazil  which  yields  about  seven- 
teen pounds  to  the  tree,  bringing  the  yield 
per  acre  much  higher. 

The  beans  do  not  retain  their  vitality  for 
planting  for  any  considerable  length  of 
time;  and,  if  they  are  thoroughly  dried,  or 
are  kept  for  longer  than  three  or  four 
months,  they  are  useless  for  that  purpose. 
It  takes  the  seed  about  six  weeks  to  ger- 
minate and  to  appear  above  ground.  Trees 
raised  from  seed  begin  to  blossom  in  about 
three  years ;  but  a  good  crop  can  not  be  ex- 
pected of  them  for  the  first  five  or  six 
years.  Their  usefulness,  save  in  excep- 
tional cases,  is  ended  in  about  thirty  years. 
The  coffee  tree  can  be  propagated  in  a 
way  other  than  by  seeds.  The  upright 
branches  can  be  used  as  slips,  which,  after 
taking  root,  will  produce  seed-bearing  lat- 
erals. The  laterals  themselves  can  not  be 
used  as  slips.  In  Central  America  the  na- 
tives   sometimes    use    coffee    uprights    for 


fences  and  it  is  no  uncommon  sight  to  see 
the  fence  posts  "growing." 

The  wood  of  the  coffee  tree  is  used  also 
for  cabinet  work,-  as  it  is  much  stronger 
than  many  of  the  native  woods,  weighing 
about  forty-three  pounds  to  the  cubic  foot, 
having  a  crushing  strength  of  5,800  pounds 
per  square  inch,  and  a  breaking  strength  of 
10,900  pounds  per  square  inch. 

The  propagation  of  the  coffee  plant  by 
cutting  has  two  distinct  advantages  over 
propagation  by  seed,  in  that  it  spares  the 
expense  of  seed  production,  which  is  enor- 
mous, and  it  gives  also  a  method  of  hybrid- 
ization, which,  if  used,  might  lead  not  only 
to  very  interesting  but  also  to  very  profit- 
able results. 

The  hybridization  of  the  coffee  plant  was 
taken  up  in  a  thoroughly  scientific  manner 
by  the  Dutch  government  at  the  experi- 
mental garden  established  at  Bangelan, 
Java,  in  1900.  In  his  studies,  twelve  va- 
rieties of  Coffea  arabica  are  recognized  by 
Dr.  P.  J.  S.  Cramer,  namely : 

Laurina,  a  hybrid  of  Coffea  arahica  with  C. 
mauritiana,  having  small  narrow  leaves,  stiff, 
dense  branches,  young  leaves  almost  wliite,  berry 
long  and  narrow,  and  beans  narrow  and  oblong. 

Mnrta,  having  small  leaves,  dense  branches, 
beans  as  in  the  typical  Coffea  arabica,  and  the 
plant  able  to  stand  bitter  cold. 

Menosperma,  a  distinct  type,  with  narrow 
leaves    and    bent-down    branches    resembling    a 


2  Tea   and    Coffee   Trade  Jour.,    1018. 
no.    4  ) 


(vol.    XXXV  : 


Two-and-One-Half-Yeab-Old   C.   Congensis 


BOTANY  OF  COFFEE 


139 


A  HEAVY  FLOWERING  OF  FIVE-YEAR-OLD  COFFEA  EXCELSA 

This  Is  a  comparatively  new  species,  discovered  in  the  Tcliad   T>ake  district   of   West   Africa    in   190r». 

a  small-beaned  variety  of  Coffca  liberica 


It   is 


140 


ALL     ABOUT     COFFEE 


JBbanches  of  Cofpea  Excels  a   Grown  at  the 
Lamao   Experiment    Station,   P.    I. 

willow,  the  berries  seldom  containing  more  tlian 
one  seed. 

Mohka  (Coffea  MokkcB),  having  small  leaves, 
dense  foliage,  small  round  berries,  small  round 
beans  resembling  split  peas,  and  possessed  of  a 
stronger  flavor  than  Coffea  arabica. 

Purpurescens,  a  red-leaved  variety,  compar- 
able with  the  red-leaved  hazel  and  copper  beech, 
a  little  less  productive  than  the  Coffea  arahka. 

Variegata,  having  variegated  leaves  striped 
and  spotted  with  white. 

Amarella,  having  yellow  berries,  comparable 
with  the  white-fruited  variety  of  the  strawberry, 
raspberry,  etc. 

Bullata,  having  broad,  curled  leaves ;  stiflf, 
thick,  fragile  branches,  and  round,  fleshy  ber- 
ries containing  a  high  percentage  of  empry 
beans. 

Angustifolia,  a  narrow-leaved  variety,  with 
berries  somewhat  more  oblong  and,  like  the 
foregoing,  a  poor  producer. 

Erecta,  a  variety  that  is  sturdier  than  the 
typical  arabica,  better  suited  to  windy  places, 
and  having  a  production  as  in  the  common 
arabica. 

Maragogipe,  a  well-defined  variety  with  light 
green  leaves  having  colored  edges;  berries  large, 
broad,    sometimes    narrower   in    the    middle ;    a 


C.  Stenopiiylla,  From  Which  Is  Obtained  the 
Highland  Coffee  of  Sierra  Leone 

light   bearer,    the   whole   crop   sometimes   being 
reduced  to  a  couple  of  berries  per  tree.' 

Columruvris,  a  vigorous  variety,  sometimes 
reaching  a  height  of  25  feet,  having  leaves 
rounded  at  the  base  and  rather  broad,  but  a 
shy  bearer,  recommended  for  dry  climates. 

Coffea  Stenophylla 

Coffea  arabica  has  a  formidable  rival  in 
the  species  stenophylla.  The  flavor  of  this 
variety  is  pronounced  by  some  as  surpass- 
ing that  of  arabica.  The  great  disadvan- 
tage of  this  plant  is  the  fact  that  it  re- 
quires so  long  a  time  before  a  yield  of  any 
value  can  be  secured.  Although  the  time 
required  for  the  maturing  of  the  crop  is 
so  long,  when  once  the  plantation  begins 
to  yield,  the  crop  is  as  large  as  that  of 
Coffea  arahica,  and  occasionally  somewhat 
larger.  The  leaves  are  smaller  than  any 
of  the  species  described,  and  the  flowers 
bear  their  parts  in  numbers  varying  from 
six  to  nine.  The  tree  is  a  native  of  Sierra 
Leone,  where  it  grows  wild. 

Coffea  Lib  erica 

The  bean  of  Coffea  arabica,  although  the 
principal  bean  used  in  commerce,  is  not  the 

^  Dr.  Cramer  considers  C.  Maragogipe  "the  flnrst 
coffee  known ;  it  lias  a  higlily  developed,  splendid 
flavor." 


BOTANY  OF  COFFEE 


Copyright,  iyU9,  by  The  Tea  and  Coffee  Trade  Journal 

NEAR  VIEW  OF  COFFEE  BERRIES  OF  COFFEA  ARABICA 


142 


ALL     ABOUT     COFFEE 


Wild  "Caffein-Free"'  Coffee  Tree 
Mantsa'ka  or    Cafe  Sauvofje — Madagascar 

only  one ;  and  it  may  not  be  out  of  place 
here  to  describe  briefly  some  of  the  other 
varieties  that  are  produced  commercially. 
Coffea  liberica  is  one  of  these  plants.  The 
quality  of  the  beverage  made  from  its  ber- 
ries is  inferior  to  that  of  Coffea  arahica, 
but  the  plant  itself  offers  distinct  advan- 
tages in  its  hardy  growing  qualities.  This 
makes  it  attractive  for  hybridization. 

The  Coffea  liberica  tree  is  much  larger 
and  sturdier  than  the  Coffea  arahica',  and 
in  its  native  haunts  it  reaches  a  height  of 
30  feet.  It  will  grow  in  a  much  more  tor- 
rid climate  and  can  stand  exposure  to 
strong  sunlight.  The  leaves  are  about  twice 
as  long  as  those  of  arahica,  being  six  to 
twelve  inches  in  length,  and  are  very  thick, 
tough,  and  leathery.  The  apex  of  the 
leaf  is  acute.  The  flowers  are  larger  than 
those  of  arahica,  and  are  borne  in  dense 


clusters.  At  any  time  during  the  season, 
the  same  tree  may  bear  flowers,  white  or 
pinkish,  and  fragrant,  or  even  green,  to- 
gether with  fruits,  some  green,  some  ripe 
and  of  a  brilliant  red.  The  corolla  has 
been  known  to  have  seven  segments,  though 
as  a  rule  it  has  five.  The  fruits  are  large, 
round,  and  dull  red;  the  pulps  are  not 
juicy,  and  are  somewhat  bitter.  Unlike 
Coffea  arahica,  the  ripened  drupes  do  not 
fall  from  the  trees,  and  so  the  picking  can 
be  delayed  at  the  planter's  convenience. 

Among  the  allied  Liberian  species  Dr 
Cramer  recognizes: 

Abeokutae,  having  small  leaves  of  a  bright 
green,  flower  buds  often  pink  just  before  open- 
ing (in  Liberian  coffee  never),  fruit  smaller 
with  sharply  striped  red  and  yellow  shiny  skin, 
and  producing  somewhat  smaller  beans  than 
Liberian  coffee,  but  beans  whose  flavor  and 
taste  are  praised  by  brokers ; 

Deivevrei.  having  curled  edged  leaves,  stiff 
branches,  thick-skinned  berries,  sometimes  pink 
flowers,  beans  generally  smaller  than  in  C. 
liberica,  but  of  little  interest  to  the  trade : 

Arnoldiana,  a  species  near  to  Coffea  Abeoku- 
tae having  darker  foliage  and  the  even  colored 
small  berries : 

Laurentii  Gillet,  a  species  not  to  be  confused 
with  the  V.  Laurentii  belonging  to  the  robusta 
coffee,  but  standing  near  to  C.  liberica,  charac- 
terized by  oblong  rather  than  thin-skinned  ber- 
ries ; 

Excelsa,  a  vigorous,  disease-resisting  species 
discovered  in  1905  by  Aug.  Chevalier  in   West 


Differentiating  Characteristics  of  Coffee 

Beans,  in   Cross-section 

Col.  I.  Mature  bean.     Col.  II.  Embryo. 

A.  Gojfea  arabica,  R.  Coffea  rohusta,  L.  Coffea  liberica 


BOTANY  OF  COFFEE 


143 


144 


ALL    ABOUT    COFFEE 


Africa,  in  the  region  of  tlie  Chari  River,  not  far 
from  Lake  Tchad.  The  broad,  dark-green  leaves 
have  an  under  side  of  liglit  green  witli  a  bluish 
tinge ;  the  flowers  are  large  and  white,  borne  in 
axillary  clusters  of  one  to  five ;  the  berries  are 
short  and  broad,  in  color  crimson,  the  bean 
smaller  than  rohusta,  very  like  Mocha,  but  in 
color  a  bright  yellow  like  Uberica.  The  caffein 
content  of  the  coffee  is  high,  and  the  aroma  is 
very  pronounced ; 

Dyboicskii,  another  disease-resisting  variety 
similar  to  excelsa,  but  having  different  leaf  and 
fruit  characteristics ; 

LanibOray,  having  bent  gutter-like  leaves,  and 
soft-skinned,  oblong  fruit ; 

Wanni  Riikula,  having  large  leaves,  a  vigorous 
growth,   and  small  berries ; 

Coffca  arutmmensis,  being  a  mixture  of  dif- 
ferent types. 

The  last  three  types  were  received  by  Dr. 
Cramer  at  Bangelan  from  Frere  Gillet  in 
the  Belgian  Congo,  and  were  still  under 
trial  in  Java  in  1919. 

Coffea  Rohusta 

Emil  Laurent,  in  1898,  discovered  a  spe- 
cies of  coffee  growing  wild  in  Congo.  This 
was  taken  up  by  a  horticultural  firm  of 
Brussels,  and  cultivated  for  the  market. 
This  firm  gave  to  the  coffee  the  name  Coffea 


rohusta,  although  it  had  already  been  given 
the  name  of  the  discoverer,  being  known  as 
Coffea  Laurentii.  The  plant  diifers  widely 
from  both  arahica  and  liherica,  being  con- 
siderably larger  than  either.  The  tree  is 
umbrella-shaped,  due  to  the  fact  that  its 
branches  are  very  long  and  bend  toward 
the  ground. 

The  leaves  of  rohusta  are  much  thinner 
than  those  of  liherica,  though  not  as  thin 
as  those  of  arahica.  The  tree,  as  a  whole, 
is  a  very  hardy  variety  and  even  bears 
blossoms  when  it  is  less  than  a  year  old. 
It  blossoms  throughout  the  entire  year,  the 
flowers  having  six-parted  corollas.  The 
drupes  are  smaller  than  those  of  liherica; 
but  are  much  thinner  skinned,  so  that  the 
coffee  bean  is  actually  not  any  smaller. 
The  drupes  mature  in  ten  months.  Al- 
though the  plants  bear  as  early  as  the  first 
year,  the  yield  for  the  first  two  years  is  of 
no  account;  but  by  the  fourth  year  the 
crop  is  large. 

Amo  Viehoever,  pharmacognosist  in 
charge  of  the  pharmacognosy  laboratory  of 
the  Bureau  of  Chemistry,  United  States 
Department  of  Agriculture,   has   recently 


RogusTA  Coffee  in  Flower,  Preangeb,  Java 


ALL     ABOUT     COFFEE 


Coffee  Estate  in  the  Luquillo  Mountains,  Porto  Rico 


Jai'anksi:  i,Ai!t)i!i:i:s  I'UKi.Nd  Coffee  on  Kona  rSiiiE,   Island  of  Hawaii 

COFFEE  UNDER  THE  STABS  AND  STRIPES 


BOTANY  OF  COFFEE 


145 


One-Ykau-Ulu    Kuhusta    Estate,    on    Sumatra's  West    Coast 


announced  findings  confirming  Hartwich 
which  appear  to  permit  of  differentiation 
between  rohusta,  arabica,  and  liherica* 
These  are  mainly  the  peculiar  folding  of 
the  endosperm,  showing  quite  generally  a 
distinct  hook  in  the  case  of  the  rohusta  cof- 
fee bean.  The  size  of  the  embryo,  and  es- 
pecially the  relation  of  the  rootlet  to  hy- 
pereotyl,  wall  be  found  useful  in  the  dif- 
ferentiation of  the  species  Coffea  arabica, 
liherica,  and  rohusta  (see  cut,  page  142). 

Viehoever  and  Lepper  carried  on  a  series 
•of  cup  tests  of  rohusta,  the  results  as  to 
taste  and  flavor  being  distinctly  favorable.* 
They  summarized  their  studies  and  tests 
as  follows: 

The  time  when  coffee  could  be  limited  to 
beans  obtained  from  plants  of  Coffea  arabica 
and  Coffea  Uberica  has  passed.  Other  species, 
with  qualities  which  make  them  desirable,  even 
in  preference  to  the  well  reputed  named  ones, 
have  been  discovered  and  cultivated.  Among 
them,  the  species  or  group  of  Coffea  rohusta  has 
attained  a  great  economic  significance,  and  is 
grown  in  increasing  amounts.  While  it  has,  as 
reports  seem  to  indicate,  not  as  yet  been  pos- 
sible to  obtain  a  strain  that  would  be  as  de- 
sirable in  flavor  as  the  old  "standard"  Coffea 


*,Ioumnl  of  the  A^nnciation  of  Official  Agricultural 
Chemists,   ><ov.    15,    1921.      (vol.   v :   no.  2  :   pp.   274  - 

•2S8.) 


arabica,  well  known  as  Java  or  "Fancy  Jav&" 
coffee,  its  merits  have  been  established. 

The  botanical  origin  is  not  quite  cleared  up, 
and  the  classification  of  the  varieties  belonging 
to  the  rohusta  group  deserves  further  study. 
Anatomical  means  of  differentiating  rohusta 
coft'ee  from  other  species  or  groups,  may  be  ap- 
plied as  distinctly  helpful.     , 

As  is  usual  in  most  of  the  coffee  species,  caf- 
fein  is  present.  The  amount  appears  to  be,  on 
an  average,  somewhat  larger  (even  exceeding 
2.0  percent)  than  in  the  South  American  cof- 
fee species.  In  no  instance,  however,  did  the 
amount  exceed  the  maximum  limits  observed  in 
coffee  in  general.     . 

Due  to  its  rapid  growth,  early  and  prolific 
yield,  resistance  to  coffee  blight,  and  many  other 
desirable  qualities,  Coffea  rohusta  has  estab- 
lished "its  own".  In  the  writers'  judgment, 
rohusta  coffee  deserves  consideration  and  rec- 
ognition. 

Among  the  rohusta  varieties,  Coifea  cane- 
pJiora  is  a  distinct  species,  well  character- 
ized by  growth,  leaves,  and  berries.  The 
branches  are  slender  and  thinner  than 
rohusta;  the  leaves  are  dark  green  and 
narrower ;  the  flowers  are  often  tinged  with 
red ;  the  unripe  berries  are  purple,  the  ripe 
berries  bright  red  and  oblong.  The  produce 
is  like  rohusta,  only  the  shape  of  the  bean, 
somewhat  narrower  and  more  oblong,  makes 
it  look  more  attractive.     Coffea  canephora, 


146 


ALL     ABOUT     COFFEE 


like  C.  robusta,  seems  better  fitted  to  higher 
altitudes. 

Other  canephora  varieties  include : 

Madagascar,  having  small,  slightly- 
striped,  bright  red  berries  and  small  round 
beans ; 

Quilloucnsis,  having  dark  green  foliage 
and  reddish  brown  young  leaves;  and, 

Stenophylla  Paris,  with  purplish  young 
berries. 

These  last  two  named  were  under  test  at 
the  Bangelan  gardens  in  1919. 

Among  other  allied  rohusta  species  are: 

Vgandce,  whose  produce  is  said  to  pos- 
sess a  better  flavor  than  rohusta; 

Bukobensis,  different  from  Vgandce  in 
the  color  of  its  berries,  which  are  a  dark 
red;  and 

Quillou,  having  bright  red  fruit,  a  cop- 
per-colored silver  skin,  three  pounds  of 
fruit  producing  one  pound  of  market  coffee. 
Some  people  prefer  Quillou  to  robusta  be- 
cause of  the  difference  in  the  taste  of  the 
roasted  bean. 

Some  Interesting  Hybrids 

.  The  most  popular  hybrid  belongs  to  a 
crossing  of  liberica  and  arabica.  Cramer 
states  that  the  beans  of  this  hybrid  make 
an  excellent  coffee   combining  the   strong 


taste  of  the  liberica  with  the  fine  flavor  of 
the  old  Government  Java  (arabica),  adding: 

The  hybrids  are  not  only  of  value  to  the 
roaster,  but  also  to  the  planter.  They  are  vig- 
orous trees,  pi-actically  free  from  leaf  disease ; 
they  stand  drought  well  and  also  heavy  rains ; 
they  are  not  particular  in  regard  to  shade  and 
upkeep;  never  fail  to  give  a  fair  and  often  a 
rather  heavy  crop.  The  fruit  ripens  all  the 
year  around,  and  does  not  fall  so  easily  as  in 
the  case  of  arabica. 

Among  other  hybrids  (many  were  still 
under  trial  in  1919)  may  be  mentioned: 
Coffea  excelsia  x  liberica;  C.  Abeokuta;  x 
liberica;  C.  Dybowskii  x  excelsa;  C.  steno- 
phylla X  Abeokutce;  C.  congensis  x 
Ugandce;  C.  Uganda;  x  congensis;  and  C. 
robusta  x  Maragogipe. 

There  are  many  species  of  Coffea  that 
stand  quite  apart  from  the  main  groups, 
arabica,  robusta  and  liberica;  but  while 
some  are  of  commercial  value,  most  of  them 
are  interesting  only  from  the  scientific  point 
of  view.  Among  the  latter  may  be  men- 
tioned: Coffea  bengalensis,  C.  Perieri,  C. 
mauritiana,  C.  macrocarpa,  C.  madagas- 
cariensis,  and  C.  schumanniana. 

M.  Teyssonnier,  of  the  experimental  gar- 
den at  Camayenne,  French  Guinea,  West 
Africa,  has  produced  a  promising  species  of 
coffee  known  as  affinis.  It  is  a  hybrid  of 
C.  stenophylla  with  a  species  of  liberica. 


Coffea   Quillou    Flowers   in    Full   Bloom 


^Kd  by  Dr.  Cramer  are : 

Coffea  congensis,  whose  berry  resembles 
that  of  C.  arahica,  when  well  prepared  for 
the  market  being  green  or  bluish ;  and 

Coffea  congensis  var.  Chalotii,  probably 
a  hybrid  of  C.  congensis  with  C.  canephora. 

Caffein-free  Coffee 

Certain  trees  growing  wild  in  the  Comoro 
Islands  and  Madagascar  are  known  as 
caffein-free  coffee  trees.  Just  whether  they 
are  entitled  to  this  classification  or  not  is  a 
question.  Some  of  the  French  and  Ger- 
man investigators  have  reported  coffee  from 
these  regions  that  was  absolutely  devoid  of 
caffein.  It  w^as  thought  at  first  that  they 
must  represent  an  entirely  new  genus ;  but 
upon  investigation,  it  was  found  that  they 
belonged  to  the  genus  Coffea,  to  which  all 
our  common  coffees  belong.  Professor 
Dubard,  of  the  French  National  Museum 
and  Colonial  Garden,  studied  these  trees 
botanically  and  classified  them  as  C.  Gal- 
lienii,  C.  Bonnieri,  C.  Mogeneti,  and  C. 
Aiigag)tcuri.  The  beans  of  berries  from 
these  trees  were  analyzed  by  Professor 
Bertrand  and  pronounced  caffein-free ;  but 
Labroy,  in  writing  of  the  same  coffee,  states 
that,  while  the  bean  is  caffein-free,  it  con- 
tains a  very  bitter  substance,  cafamarine. 


BOTANY  OF  COFFEE 


147 


which  makes  the  infusion  unfit  for  use. 
Dr.  O.  W.  Willcox",  in  examining  some 
specimens  of  wild  coffee  from  Madagascar, 
found  that  the  bean  was  not  caffein-free; 
and  though  the  caffein  content  was  low,  it 
was  no  lower  than  in  some  of  the  Porto 
Rican  varieties. 

Hartwich'  reports  that  Hanausek  found 
no  caffein  in  C.  mauritiana,  C.  humboltiana, 
C.  Gallienii,  C.  Bonnerii,  and  C.  Mogeneti. 

Fungoid  Disease  of  Coffee 

The  coffee  tree,  like  every  other  living 
thing,  has  specific  diseases  and  enemies,  the 
most  common  of  which  are  certain  fungoid 
diseases  where  the  mycelium  of  the  fungus 
grows  into  the  tissue  and  spots  the  leaves, 
eventually  -causing  them  to  fall,  thus  rob- 
bing the  plant  of  its  only  means  of  elabor- 
ating food.  Its  most  deadly  enemy  in  the 
insect  world  is  a  small  insect  of  the  lepidop- 
terous  variety,  which  is  known  as  the  coffee- 
leaf  miner.  It  is  closely  related  to  the 
clothes  moth  and,  like  the  moth,  bores  in  its 
larval  stage,  feeding  on  the  mesophyl  of 
the  leaves.  This  gives  the  leaves  an  appear- 
ance of  being  shriveled  or  dried  by  heat. 

There  are  three  principal  diseases,  due 
to    fungi,    from    which   the    coffee    plants 

^The  Tea  and  Cotfee  Trade  Jour.,  1912.  (vol.  xxiii : 
no.  3.) 

'Die  Menachlichen  Oenusmittel,  1911.      (p.  300.) 


An  Eighteen-Months'-Old  Coffea  Quiulou  Tree  in  Blossom 


148 


ALL     ABOUT     COFFEE 


suffer.  The  most  common  is  known  as  the 
leaf-blight  fungus,  Pellicularia  tokeroga, 
which  is  a  slow-spreading  disease,  but  one 
that  causes  great  loss.  Although  the  fungus 
does  not  produce  spores,  the  leaves  die  and 
dry,  and  are  blown  away,  carrying  with 
them  the  dried  mycelium  of  the  fungus. 
This  mycelium  will  start  to  grow  as  soon 
as  it  is  supplied  with  a  new  moist  coffee 
leaf  to  nourish  it.  The  method  of  getting 
rid  of  this  disease  is  to  spray  the  trees  in 
seasons  of  drought. 

It  was  a  fungoid  disease  known  as  the 
Hemileia  vastatrix  that  attacked  Ceylon's 
coffee  industry  in  1869,  and  eventually 
destroyed  it.     It  is  a  microscopic  fungus 


whose  spores,  carried  by  the  wind,  adhere 
to  and  germinate  upon  the  leaves  of  the 
coffee  tree'. 

Another  common  disease  is  known  as  the 
root  disease,  which  eventually  kills  the  tree 
by  girdling  it  below  the  soil.  It  spreads 
slowly,  but  seems  to  be  favored  by  collec- 
tions of  decaying  matter  around  the  base 
of  the  tree.  Sometimes  the  digging  of 
ditches  around  the  roots  is  sufficient  to 
protect  it.  The  other  common  disease  is 
due  to  Stilhium  flavidum,  and  is  found  only 
in  regions  of  great  humidity.  It  affects 
both  the  leaf  and  the  fruit  and  is  known 
as  the  spot  of  leaf  and  fruit. 

'  See  chapter  XVI. 


CoFFEA  Uganda   Bent  Over  by  a  Heavy  Crop 


Chapter   XVI 

HE     MICROSCOPY    OF    THE     COFFEE     FRUIT 

How  the  beans  may  be  examined  under  the  microscope,  and  what  is 
revealed  —  Structure  of  the  berry,  the  green,  and  the  roasted  bean  — 
The  coffee  leaf  disease  under  the  microscope  —  Value  of  microscopic 
analysis  in  detecting  adulteration 


THE  microscopy  of  coffee  is,  on  the 
whole,  more  important  to  the  planter 
than  to  the  consumer  and  the  dealer ; 
while,  on  the  other  hand,  the  microscopy  is 
of  paramount  importance  to  the  consumer 
and  the  dealer  as  furnishing  the  best  means 
of  determining  whether  the  product  offered 
is    adulterated    or    not.      Also,    from    this 


spherical ;  in  the  rare  instances  where  three 
seeds  are  found,  the  grains  are  angular. 

The  coffee  bean  with  which  the  consumer 
is  familiar  is  only  a  small  part  of  the  fruit. 
The  fruit,  which  is  the  size  of  a  small 
cherry,  has,  like  the  cherry,  an  outer  fleshy 
portion  called  the  pericarp.  Beneath  this  is 
a  part  like  tissue  paper,  spoken  of  technic- 


Mk 


I  11 

Fig.  331.  Coffee  (Coffea  arahica).  I — Cross-section  of  berry,  natural  size;  Pk,  outer  pericarp; 
Mk,  endocarp  ;  Ek,  spermoderm  ;  8a,  liard  endosperm  ;  8p,  soft  endosperm.  II — Longitudinal 
section  of  berry,  natural  size  ;  Dis,  bordered  disk  ;  8e,  remains  of  sepals  ;  Em,  embryo.  Ill- 
Embryo,  enlarged;  cot,  cotyledon;  rad,  radicle.      (Tschircli  and  Oesterle.) 


standpoint,  the  microscopy  of  the  plant  is 
less  important  than  that  of  the  bean. 

The  Fruit  and  the  Bean 

The  fruit,  as  stated  in  chapter  XV,  con- 
sists of  two  parts,  each  one  containing  a 
single  seed,  or  bean.  These  beans  are  flat- 
tened laterally,  so  as  to  fit  together,  except 
in  the  following  instances :  in  the  peaberry, 
where  one  of  the  ovules  never  develops,  the 
single  ovule,  having  no  pressure  upon  it,  is 


ally  as  the  parchment,  but  known  scientific- 
ally as  the  endocarp.  Next  in  position  to 
this,  and  covering  the  seed,  is  the  so-called 
spermoderm,  which  means  the  seed  skin, 
referred  to  in  the  trade  as  the  silver  skin. 
Small  portions  of  this  silver  skin  are  always 
to  be  found  in  the  cleft  of  the  coffee  bean. 
The  coffee  bean  is  the  embryo  and  its 
food  supply ;  the  embryo  is  that  part  of  the 
seed  which,  when  supplied  with  food  and 
moisture,  develops  into  a  new  plant.    The 


149 


150 


ALL    ABOUT     COFFEE 


embryo  of  the  coffee  is  very  minute  (Fig. 
331,  II,  Em)  ';  and  the  greater  part  of  the 
seed  is  taken  up  by  the  food  supply,  con- 


Fig.  332.  Coffee.  Cross  section  of  bean 
showing  folded  endosperm  with  hard 
and  soft   tissues.     x6.      (Moeller) 


sisting  of  hard  and  soft  endosperm  (Fig. 
331,  I  and  II,  Sa,  Sp).  The  minute  em- 
bryo consists  of  two  small  thick  leaves,  the 
cotyledons  (Fig.  331,  III,  cot),  a  short 
stem,  invisible  in  the  undissected  embryo, 
and  a  small  root,  the  radicle  (Fig.  331,  III, 
rad). 

Fruit  Structure 

In  order  to  examine  the  structure  of  these 
layers  of  the  fruit  under  the  microscope,  it 
is  necessary  to  use  the  pericarp  dry,  as  it 
is  not  easily  obtainable  in  its  natural  con- 
dition. If  desired,  an  alcoholic  specimen 
may  be  used,  but  it  has  been  found  that 
the  dry  method  gives  more  satisfactory  re- 
sults. The  dried  pericarp  is  about  0.5  mm 
thick.  Great  difficulty  is  experienced  in 
cutting  microtome  sections  of  pericarp  when 
the  specimen  is  embedded  in  paraffin,  be- 
cause the  outer  layers  are  soft  and  the 
endocarp  is  hard,  and  the  two  parts  of  the 
section  separate  at  this  point.  To  overcome 
this,  the  sections  might  also  be  embedded  in 
celloidin.  When  the  sections  are  satisfac- 
tory, they  may  be  stained  with  any  of  the 
double  stains  ordinarily  used  in  the  study 
of  plant  histology. 

A  section  cut  crosswise  through  the  entire 
fruit  would  present  the  appearance  shown 
in  Fig.  333.     The  cells  of  the  epicarp  are 

^These  and  all  other  numbered  drawings  in  this 
chapter  are  from  Andrew  L.  Winton's  The  Microscopy 
of  Vegetable  Foods,  copyright  191G,  and  reprinted  by 
permission. 


broad  and  polygonal,  sometimes  regularly 
four-sided,  about  15-35  fi  broad.  At  in- 
tervals along  the  surface  of  the  epicarp  are 
stomata,  or  breathing  pores,  surrounded  by 
guard  cells.  The  next  layer  of  the  pericarp 
is  the  mesocarp  (Figs.  333,  334,  335),  the 
cells  of  which  are  larger  and  more  regular 
in  outline  than  the  epicarp.  The  cells  of 
the  mesocarp  become  as  large  as  100  fi 
broad,  but  in  the  inner  parts  of  the  layer 
they  become  very  much  flattened.  Fibro- 
vascular  bundles  are  scattered  through  the 
compressed  cells  of  the  mesocarp.  The  cell 
walls  are  thick;  and  large,  amorphous, 
brown  masses  are  found  within  the  cell; 
occasionally,  large  crystals  are  found  in  the 
outer  part  of  the  layer.  The  fibrovascular 
bundles  consist  mainly  of  bast  and  wood 
fibers  and  vessels.  The  bast  fibers  are  as 
large  as  1  mm  long  and  25  fi  broad,  with 


fffb 


ixpn9BSrS6a: 


Fig.  333.  Coffee.  Cross  section  of  hull 
and  bean.  Pericarp  consists  of  :  1,  epi- 
carp ;  2-3,  layers  of  mesocarp,  with  4, 
flbro-vascular  bundle  ;  5,  palisade  layer  ; 
and  6,  endocarp  ;  ss,  spermoderm,  con- 
sists of  8,  sclerenchyma,  and  9,  paren- 
chyma ;  End,  endosperm  (Tschirch  and 
Oesterle) 


MICROSCOPY  OF  COFFEE 


151 


Fig.  334.  Coflfee.  Surface  view  of  ep,  epi- 
carp,  and  p^  outer  parenchyma  of  meso- 
carp.     xl60.   (Moeller) 


thick  walls  and  very  small  lumina.  Spiral 
and  pitted  vessels  are  also  present. 

The  layer  next  to  this  is  a  soft  tissue, 
parenchyma  (Fig.  333,  5;  Fig.  334,  p). 
The  parenchyma,  or  palisade  cells  as  they 
are  called,  is  a  thin-walled  tissue  in  which 
the  cells  are  elongated,  from  which  fact 
they  receive  their  name.  The  walls  of  these 
cells,  though  verj^  thin,  are  mucilaginous, 
and  capable  of  taking  up  large  amounts  of 
water.  They  stain  well  with  the  aniline 
stains. 

The  endocarp  (Fig.  336)  is  closely  con- 
nected with  the  palisade  layer  and  has  thin- 
walled  cells  that  closely  resemble,  in  all 
respects,  the  endocarp  of  the  apple.  The 
outer  layer  consists  of  thick-walled  fibers, 
which  are  remarkably  porous  (Fig.  333,  6; 
Fig.  336)  while  the  fibers  of  the  inner  layer 
are  thin-walled  and  run  in  the  transverse 
direction. 

The  Bean  Structure 

Spermoderm,  or  silver  skin,  is  not  diffi- 
cult to  secure  for  microscopic  analysis ;  be- 
cause shreds  of  it  remain  in  the  groove  of 
the  berry,  and  these  shreds  are  ample  for 
examination.  It  can  readily  be  removed 
without  tearing,  if  soaked  in  water  for  a 
few  hours.  The  spermoderm  is  thin  enough 
not  to  need  sectioning.  It  consists  of  two 
elements  —  sclerenchyma  and  parenchyma 
cells.  (Figs.  333,  337,  st,p). 

Sclerenchyma  forms  an  uninterrupted 
covering  in  the  early  stages  of  the  seed ;  but 


Fig.  335.  Coffee.  Elements  of  pericarp  in 
surface  view.  p,  parencliyma ;  Itp, 
parencliyma  of  fibro-vascular  bundle ; 
ft,  bast  fiber ;  sp,  spiral  vessel.  xl60. 
(Moeller) 


as  the  seed  develops,  surrounding  tissues 
grow  more  rapidly  than  the  sclerenchyma, 
and  the  cells  are  pushed  apart  and  scattered. 
The  cells  occurring  in  the  cleft  of  the  berry 
are  straight,  narrow,  and  long,  becoming  as 
long  as  1  mm,  and  resemble  bast  fibers 
somewhat.  On  the  surface  of  the  berry, 
and  sometimes  in  the  cleft,  there  are  found 
smaller,  thicker  cells,  which  are  irregular 
in  outline,  club-shaped  and  vermiform 
types  predominating. 

Parenchyma  cells  form  the  remainder  of 
the  spermoderm;  and  these  are  partially 
obliterated,  so  that  the  structure  is  not 
easily  seen,  appearing  almost  like  a  solid 
membrane.  The  raphe  runs  through  the 
parenchyma  found  in  the  cleft  of  the  berry. 

The  endosperm  (Figs.  333;  338)  consist 
of  small  cells  in  the  outer  part,  and  large 
cells,  frequently  as  thick  as  100  /x,  in  the 
inner  part.  The  cell  walls  are  thickened 
and  knotted.  Certain  of  the  inner  cells 
have  mucilaginous  walls  which  when  treated 
with  water  disappear,  leaving  only  the 
middle  lamellae,  which  gives  the  section  a 
peculiar  appearance.  The  cells  contain  no 
starch,  the  reserve  food  supply  being 
stored  cellulose,  protein,  and  aleurone 
grains.  Various  investigators  report  the 
presence  of  sugar,  tannin,  iron,  salts,  and 
caffein. 

The  embryo  (Fig.  331,  III)  may  be  ob- 
tained by  soaking  the  bean  in  water  for 
several  hours,  cutting  through  the  cleft  and 
carefully  breaking  apart  the  endosperm.  If 


152 


ALL    ABOUT     COFFEE 


Fig.    336.      Coffee.      Sclerenchyma    fibers    of 
endocarp.        xl60.       (Moeller) 


it  is  now  soaked  in  diluted  alkali,  the 
embryo  protrudes  through  the  lower  end  of 
the  endosperm.  It  is  then  cleared  in  alkali, 
or  in  chloral  hydrate.  The  cotyledons 
shown  have  three  pairs  of  veins,  which  are 
slightly  netted.  The  radicle  is  blunt  and  is 
about  %  mm  in  length,  while  the  cotyledons 
are  ^  mm  long. 

The  Coffee-Leaf  Disease 
The  coffee  tree  has  many  pests  and  dis- 
eases; but  the  disease  most  feared  by 
planters  is  that  generally  referred  to  as  the 
coffee-leaf  disease,  and  by  this  is  meant  the 
fungoid  Hemileia  vastatrix,  which  as  told  in 


Fig.  338.  Coffee.  Cross-section  of  outer 
layers  of  endosperm,  shiowing  knotty 
thickenings  of  cell  walls.  xl60. 
(Moeller) 


chapter  XV,  destroyed  Ceylon's  once  pros- 
perous coffee  industry.  As  it  has  since  been 
found  in  nearly  all  coffee-producing  coun- 
tries, it  has  become  a  nightmare  in  the 
dreams  of  all  coffee  planters.  The  micro- 
scope shows  how  the  spores  of  this  dreaded 


Fig.  339.  Coffee.  Tis- 
sues of  embryo  in  sec- 
tion.   xl60.     (Moeller) 


Fig.  337.  Coffee.  Spermoderm  in  surface  view.  at. 
sclerenchyma  ;  p,  compressed  parencnyma.  xlOO. 
(Moeller) 


fungus,  carried  by  the  winds  upon  a  leaf 
of  the  coffee  tree,  proceed  to  germinate  at 
the  expense  of  the  leaf;  robbing  it  of  its 
nourishment,  and  causing  it  to  droop  and 
to  die.  A  mixture  of  powdered  lime  and 
sulphur  has  been  found  to  be  an  effective 
germicide,  if  used  in  time  and  diligently 
applied. 

Value  of  Microscopic  Analysis 

The  value  of  the  microscopic  analysis  of 
coffee  may  not  be  apparent  at  first  sight; 
but  when  one  realizes  that  in  many  cases 
the  microscopic  examination  is  the  only  way 
to  detect  adulteration  in  coffee,  its  import- 
ance at  once  becomes  apparent.  In  many 
instances  the  chemical  analysis  fails  to  get 
at  the  root  of  the  trouble,  and  then  the  only 
method  to  which  the  tester  has  recourse  is 
the  examination  of  the  suspected  material 
under  the  scope.     The  mixing  of  chicory 


MICROSCOPY  OF  COFFEE 


153 


^th  coffee  has  in  the  past  been  one  of  the 
)mmonest  forms  of  adulteration.  The 
ucroscopic  examination  in  this  connection 


Roasted  date  stones  have  been  used  as 
adulterants,  and  these  can  be  detected  quite 
readily  with  the  aid  of  the  microscope,  as 


Coffee    Leaf    Disease    (Hemileia    vastatrix) 

1,  under  surface  of  affected  leaf,  x  %  ;  2,  section  through  same  showing  mycelium,  haustoria. 
and  a  spore-cluster ;  3,  a  spore-cluster  seen  from  below :  4,  a  uredospore ;  5,  germinating 
uredospore ;  6,  appressorial  swellings  at  tips  of  germ-tubes ;  7,  infection  through  stoma  of 
leaf ;  8.  teleutospores  ;  9,  teleutospore  germinating  with  promycelium  and  sporidia  ;  10,  spori- 
dia  and  their  germination  (2  after  Zimmermann,  3  after  Delacroix,  4-10  after  Ward) 


is  the  most  reliable.  The  coffee  grain  will 
have  the  appearance  already  described. 
Microscopically,  chicory  shows  numerous 
thin-w^alled  parenchymatous  cells,  lactifer- 
ous vessels,  and  sieve  tubes  with  transverse 
plates.  There  are  also  present  large  vessels 
with  huge,  well-defined  pits. 


they  have  a  very  characteristic  microscopic 
appearance.  The  epidermal  cells  are  almost 
oblong,  while  the  parenchymatous  cells  are 
large,  irregular  and  contain  large  quantities 
of  tannin. 

Adulteration    and    adulterants    are   con- 
sidered more  fully  in  chapter  XVII. 


Green  and  Roasted  Coffee  Under  the  Microscope 


Green  bean,  showing  the  size  and  form  of  the  cells 
as  well  as  the  drops  of  oil  contained  within  their 
cavities.  Drawn  with  the  camera  lucida,  and 
magnified  140  diameters. 


A  fragment  of  roasted  coffee  under  the  niicrcscope. 
Drawn  with  the  camera  lucida,  and  magnifled 
140   diameters. 


154 


ALL     ABOUT     COFFEE 


Bogota,  Gkeen 
Longitudinal  —  Magnifled  200  diameters 


Bogota,  Green 
Cross  Section  —  Magnified  200  diameters 


Bogota,  Green 
Tangential  —  Magnified   200   diameters 


Bogota,  Roasted 
Tangential  —  Magnified    200    diameters 


GREEN  AND  ROASTED  BOGOTA  COFFEE  UNDER  THE  MICROSCOPE 

These  pictures  serve  to  demonstrate  that  the  coffee  bean  is  made  up  of  minute  cells  that  are 
not  broken  down  to  any  extent  by  the  roasting  process.  Note  that  the  oil  globules  are  more 
prominent  in  the  green  than  in  the  roasted  product 


Chapter  XVII 


& 


Q 


THE  CHEMISTRY  OF  THE  COFFEE  BEAN 

Chemistry  of  the  preparation  and  treatment  of  the  green  hean  — 
Artificial  aging — .Renovating  damaged  coffees  —  Extracts  —  ''Caf- 
fetannic  acid"  —  Caffein,  caffein-free  coffee  —  Caffeol  —  Fats  and 
oils  —  Carbohydrates  —  Roasting  —  Scientific  aspects  of  grinding 
and  pacJiaging  —  The  coffee  brew  —  Soluble  coffee  —  Adulterants 
and  substitutes  —  Official  methods  of  analysis 

By  Charles  W.  Trigg 

Industrial  Fellow  of  the  Mellon  Institute  of  Industrial  Research,  Pittsburgh,  191G  - 1920 


WHEN  the  vast  extent  of  the  coffee 
business  is  considered,  together 
with  the  intimate  connection 
which  coffee  has  with  the  daily  life  of  the 
average  human,  the  relatively  small  amount 
of  accurate  knowledge  which  we  possess  re- 
garding the  chemical  constituents  and  the 
physiological  action  of  coffee  is  productive 
of  amazement. 

True,  a  painstaking  compilation  of  all 
the  scientific  and  semi-scientific  work  done 
upon  coffee  furnishes  quite  a  compendium 
of  data,  the  value  of  which  is  not  commen- 
surate with  its  quantity,  because  of  the 
spasmodic  nature  of  the  investigations  and 
the  non-conclusive  character  of  the  results 
so  far  obtained.  The  following  general  sur- 
vey of  the  field  argues  in  favor  of  the  pro- 
mulgation of  well-ordered  and  systematic 
research,  of  the  type  now  in  progress  at 
several  places  in  the  United  States,  into  the 
chemical  behavior  of  coffee  throughout  the 
various  processes  to  which  it  is  subjected  in 
the  course  of  its  preparation  for  human 
consumption. 

Green  Coffee 

One  of  the  few  chemical  investigations 
of  the  growing  tree  is  the  examination  by 
Graf  of  flowers  from  20-year-old  coffee 
trees,  in  which  he  found  0.9  percent  caffein. 


a  reducing  sugar,  caffetannic  acid,  and 
phytosterol.  Power  and  Chestnut'  found 
0.82  percent  caffein  in  air-dried  coffee 
leaves,  but  only  0.087  percent  of  the  alka- 
loid in  the  stems  of  the  plant  separated 
from  the  leaves.  In  the  course  of  a  study" 
instituted  for  the  purpose  of  determining 
the  best  fertilizers  for  coffee  trees,  it  de- 
veloped that  the  cherries  in  different  stages 
of  growth  show  a  preponderance  of  potash 
throughout,  w^hile  the  proportion  of  PgOg 
attains  a  maximum  in  the  fourth  month 
and  then  steadily  declines. 

Experiments  are  still  in  progress  to  as- 
certain the  precise  mineral  requirements 
of  the  crop  as  well  as  the  most  suitable 
stage  at  which  to  apply  them.  During  the 
first  five  months  the  moisture  content  un- 
dergoes a  steady  decrease,  from  87.13  per- 
cent to  65.77  percent,  but  during  the  final 
ripening  stage  in  the  last  month  there  is  a 
rise  of  nearly  1  percent.  This  may  ex- 
plain the  premature  falling  and  failure  to 
ripen  of  the  crop  on  certain  soils,  especially 
in  years  of  low  rainfall.  Malnutrition  of 
the  trees  may  result  also  in  the  production 
of  oily  beans.' 

1  JoMr.  Am.  Chan.  Soc,  1919   (vol.  xli  :  p.  1306 K 
-  Anstead,  R.  D.     Annals  on  Applied  Biology,  1915 

(vol.   i:  pp.  299-302). 
*  Huntington,   L.   M.      Tea  and   Coffee   Trade  Jour., 

1917  (vol.  xxxiii:  p.  228). 


155 


156 


ALL    ABOUT    COFFEE 


The  coffee  berry  comprises  about  68  per- 
cent pulp,  6  percent  parchment,  and  26 
percent  clean  coffee  beans.  The  pulp  is 
easily  removed  by  mechanical  means;  but 
in  order  to  separate  the  soft,  glutinous,  sac- 
charine parchment,  it  is  necessary  to  resort 
to  fermentation,  which  loosens  the  skin  so 
that  it  may  be  removed  easily,  after  which 
the  coffee  is  properly  dried  and  aged. 
There  is  first  a  yeast  fermentation  produc- 
ing alcohol ;  and  then  a  bacterial  action 
giving  mainly  inactive  lactic  acid,  which  is 
the  main  factor  in  loosening  the  parchment. 
For  the  production  of  the  best  coffee,  acetic 
acid  fermentation  (which  changes  the  color 
of  the  bean)  and  temperature  above  60° 
should  be  avoided,  as  these  inhibit  subse- 
quent enzymatic  action.* 

Various  schemes  have  been  proposed  for 
utilizing  the  large  amount  of  pulp  so  ob- 
tained in  preparing  coffee  for  market. 
Most  of  these  depend  upon  using  the  pulp 
as  fertilizer,  since  fresh  pulp  contains  2.61 
percent  nitrogen,  0.81  percent  PaO.,,  2.38 
percent  potassium,  and  0.57  percent  cal- 
cium. One  procedure'  in  particular  is 
to  mix  pulp  with  sawdust,  urine,  and  a 
little  lime,  and  then  to  leave  this  mixture 
covered  in  a  pit  for  a  year  before  using. 
In  addition  to  these  mineral  matters,  the 
pulp  also  contains  about  0.88  percent  of 
caffein  and  18  to  37  percent  sugars.  Ac- 
cordingly, it  has  been  proposed"  to  extract 
the  caffein  with  chloroform,  and  the  sugars 
with  acidulated  water.  The  aqueous  solu- 
tion so  obtained  is  then  fermented  to 
alcohol.  The  insoluble  portion  left  after 
extraction  can  be  used  as  fuel,  and  the  re- 
sulting ash  as  fertilizer. 

The  pulp  has  been  dried  and  roasted  for 
use  in  place  of  the  berry,  and  has  been  im- 
ported to  England  for  this  purpose.  It  is 
stated  that  the  Arabs  in  the  vicinity  of 
Jiddah  discard  the  kernel  of  the  coffee  ber- 
ries and  make  an  infusion  of  the  husk.' 

Quality  of  green  coffee  is  largely  depend- 
ent upon  the  methods  used  and  the  care 
taken  in  curing  it,  and  upon  the  conditions 
obtaining  in  shipment  and  storage.  True, 
the  soil  and  climatic  conditions  play  a  de- 
terminative role  in  the  creation  of  the 
characteristics  of  coffee,  but  these  do  not 

^  Gorter,  Ann.   (vol.  ccclxxii :  pp.  237-46). 
Schulte,   A.       Z.  Nahr.    Oenussm.    (vol.   xxvii  :   pp. 
209-25). 

Loew,  Oscar.  Ann.  Rep.  P.  R.  Apr.  Expt.  Sta., 
1907   (pp.  41-55). 

»  Senclal.     El  Hacendado  Mex.   (vol.  ix  :  p.  191). 
'Pique,  R.     Bull.  As-^oc.  Chim.  aucr.  dist.  (vol.  xxiv  : 
pp.  1210-13). 

'' Pharm.  Jour.,  1886   (vol.  xvii :  p.  656). 


offer  any  greater  opportunity  for  construc- 
tive research  and  remunerative  improve- 
ment than  does  the  development  of  methods 
and  control  in  the  processes  employed  in 
the  preparation  of  green  coffee  for  the  mar- 
ket. 

Storage  prior  and  subsequent  to  ship- 
ment, and  circumstances  existing  during 
transportation,  are  not  to  be  disregarded 
as  factors  contributory  to  the  final  quality 
of  the  coffee.    The  sweating  of  mules  carry- 


Cross-Section  of  the  Endosperm  or  Hard 
Structure  of  the  Green   Bean 


ing  bags  of  poorly  packed  coffee,  and  the 
absorption  of  strong  foreign  aromas  and 
flavors  from  odoriferous  substances  stored 
in  too  close  proximity  to  the  coffee  beans, 
are  classic  examples  of  damage  that  bear 
iterative  mention.  Damage  by  sea  water, 
due  more  to  the  excessive  moisture  than  to 
the  salt,  is  not  so  common  an  occurrence 
now  as  heretofore.  However,  a  cheap  and 
thoroughly  effective  means  of  ethically 
renovating  coffee  which  has  been  damaged 
in  this  manner  would  not  go  begging  for 
commercial  application. 

That  green  coffee  improves  with  age,  is 
a  tenet  generally  accepted  by  the  trade. 
Shipments  long  in  transit,  subjected  to  the 
effects  of  tropical  heat  under  closely  bat- 
tened hatches  in  poorly  ventilated  holds, 
have  developed  into  much-prized  yellow 
matured  coffee.  Were  it  not  for  the  large 
capital  required  and  the  attendant  prohibi- 
tive carrying  charges,  many  roasters  would 
permit  their  coffees  to  age  more  thoroughly 
before  roasting.  In  fact,  some  roasters  do 
indulge  this  desire  in  regard  to  a  portion 
of  their  stock.    But  were  it  feasible  to  treat 


CHEMISTRY    OF    COFFEE 


157 


?ortiox  of  the  investing  membrane,  showing 

Its   Structure 
Drawn  with  the  camera  lucida,   and  magnified  140 
diameters 


and  hold  coffees  long  enough  to  develop 
their  attributes  to  a  maximum,  still  the 
exact  conditions  which  would  favor  such 
development  are  not  definitely  known. 
What  are  the  optimum  temperature  and 
the  correct  humidity  to  maintain,  and 
should  the  green  coffee  be  well  ventilated 
or  not  while  in  storage?  How  long  should 
coffee  be  stored  under  the  most  favorable 
conditions  best  to  develop  it?  Aging  for 
too  long  a  period  will  develop  flavor  at  the 
expense  of  body;  and  the  general  cup  effi- 
qiency  of  some  coffees  will  suffer  if  they 
be  kept  too  long. 

The  exact  reason  for  improvement  upon 
aging  is  in  no  wise  certain,  but  it  is  highly 
probable  that  the  changes  ensuing  are 
somewhat  analogous  to  those  occurring  in 
the  aging  of  grain.  Primarily  an  unde- 
fined enzymatic  and  mold  action  most  likely 
occurs,  the  nature  of  the  enzymes  and  molds 
being  largely  dependent  upon  the  previous 
treatment  of  the  coffee.  Along  with  this 
are  a  loss  of  moisture  and  an  oxidation,  all 
three  actions  having  more  evident  effects 
with  the  passage  of  time. 

Artificial  Aging 

In  consideration  of  the  higher  prices 
which  aged  products  demand,  attempts 
have  naturally  been  made  to  shorten  by 
artificial  means  the  time  necessary  for  their 
natural  production.    Some  of  these  methods 


depend  upon  obtaining  the  most  favorable 
conditions  f6r  acceleration  of  the  enzyme 
action ;  others,  upon  the  effects  of  micro- 
organisms; and  still  others,  upon  direct 
chemical  reaction  or  physical  alteration  of 
the  green  bean. 

One  of  the  first  efforts  toward  artificial 
maturing  was  that  of  Ashcroff ,  who  argued 
from  the  improved  nature  of  coffee  which 
had  experienced  a  delayed  voyage.  His 
method  consisted  of  inclosing  the  coffee  in 
sweat-boxes  having  perforated  bottoms  and 
subjecting  it  to  the  sweating  action  of 
steam,  the  boxes  being  enclosed  in  an  oven 
or  room  maintained  at  the  temperature  of 
steam. 

Timby"  claimed  to  remove  dusts,  foreign 
odors,  and  impurities,  while  attaining  in  a 
few  hours  or  days  a  ripening  effect  nor- 
mally secured  only  in  several  seasons.  In 
this  process,  the  bagged  coffee  is  placed  in 
autoclaves  and  subjected  to  the  action  of 
air  at  a  pressure  of  2  to  3  atmospheres  and 
a  temperature  of  40°  to  100°  F.  The  tem^ 
perature  should  seldom  be  allowed  to  rise 
above  150°   F.     The  pressure  is  then  al-. 


r^ 


Structure  of  the  Green  Bean 
Showing   thick-walled   cells   enclosing   drops   of  oil 

lowed  to  escape  and  a  partial  vacuum 
created  in  the  apparatus.  This  alteration 
of  pressure  and  vacuum  is  continued  until 
the  desired  maturation  is  obtained. 
Desvignes"  employs  a  similar  procedure, 
although    he    accomplishes    seasoning    by 

»U.  S.  Pat.,  113,832.  April  18,  1871. 
»U.  S.  Pat.,  660,602,  Oct.  30,  1900. 
"French  Pat.,  379,036,  Aug.  28,  1906. 


158 


ALL     ABOUT     COFFEE 


treating  the  coffee  also  with  oxygen  or 
ozone."  First  the  coffee  is  rendered  porous 
by  storage  in  a  hot  chamber,  which  is  then 
exhausted  prior  to  admission  of  the  oxygen. 
The  oxygen  can  be  ozonized  in  the  closed 
vessel  while  in  contact  with  the  coffee. 
Complete  aging  in  a  few  days  is  claimed. 

Weitzmann"  adopts  a  novel  operation, 
by  exposing  bags  of  raw  coffee  to  the  action 
of  a  powerful  magnetic  field,  obtained  with 
two  adjustable  electro-magnets.  The  claim 
that  a  maturation  naturally  produced  in 
several  years  is  thus  obtained  in  %  to  2 
hours  is  open  to  considerable  doubt.  A 
process  that  is  probably  attended  with  more 
commercial  success  is  that  of  Gram"  in 
which  the  coffee  is  treated  with  gaseous 
nitrogen  dioxid. 

By  far  the  most  notable  progress  in  this 
field,  both  scientifically  and  commercially, 
has  been  made  by  Robison*  with  his  "cul- 
turing"  method.  Here  the  green  coffee  is 
washed  with  water,  and  then  inoculated 
with  selected  strains  of  micro-organisms, 
such  as  Ochraeceus  or  Aspergillus  Wintii. 
Incubation  is  then  conducted  for  6  to  7 
days  at  90°  F.  and  85  percent  relative  hu- 
midity. Subsequent  to  this  incubation,  the 
coffee  is  stored  in  bins  for  about  ten  days ; 
after  which  it  is  tumbled  and  scoured. 
With  this  process  it  is  possible  to  improve 
the  cupping  qualities  of  a  coffee  to  a  sur- 
prising degree. 

Renovating  Damaged  Coffees 

Sophistication  has  often  been  resorted  to 
in  order  ostensibly  to  improve  damaged  or 
cheap  coffee.  Glazing,  coloring,  and  polish- 
ing of  the  green  beans  was  openly  and 
covertly  practised  until  restricted  by  law. 
The  steps  employed  did  not  actually  im- 
prove the  coffee  by  any  means,  but  merely 
put  it  into  condition  for  more  ready  sale. 
An  apparently  sincere  endeavor  to  reno- 
vate damaged  coffee  was  made  by  Evans'° 
when  he  treated  it  with  an  aqueous  solu- 
tion of  sulphuric  acid  having  a  density  of 
10.5°  Baume.  After  agitation  in  this  solu- 
tion, the  beans  were  washed  free  from  acid 
and  dried.  In  this  manner  discolorations 
and  impurities  were  removed  and  the 
beans  given  a  fuller  appearance. 

The  addition  of  glucose,  sucrose,  lactose, 
or  dextrin  to  green  coffees  is  practised  by 

"French  Pat.,  359,451,  Nov.  15,  1905. 
"British    Pat.,    26,905,   Dec.   9,    1904. 
"U.  S.  Pat.,  843,530,  Feb.  5,  1907. 
"IT.  S.  Pat.,  1,313.209,  Aug.   12,  1919. 
«U.  S.  Pat.,  134,792,  Jan.   14,   1873. 


von  Niessen'"  and  by  Winter",  with  the  ob- 
ject of  giving  a  mild  taste  and  strong  aroma 
to  "hard"  coffees.  The  addition  is  accom- 
plished by  impregnating,  with  or  without 
the  aid  of  vacuum,  the  beans  with  a  mod- 
erately concentrated  solution  of  the  sugar, 
the  liquid  being  of  insufficient  quantity  to 
effect  extraction.  When  the  solution  has 
completely  disseminated  through  the  ker- 
nels, they  are  removed  and  dried.  Upon 
subsequent  roasting,  a  decided  amelioration 
of  flavor  is  secured. 

Another  method  developed  by  von  Nies- 
sen'"  comprises  the  softening  of  the  outer 
layers  of  the  beans  by  steam,  cold  or  warm 
water,  or  brine,  and  then  surrounding  them 
with  an  absorbent  paste  or  powder,  such  as 
china  clay,  to  which  a  neutralizing  agent 
such  as  magnesium  oxid  may  be  added. 
After  drying,  the  clay  can  be  removed  by 
brushing  or  by  causing  the  beans  to  travel 
between  oppositely  reciprocated  wet  cloths. 
In  the  development  of  this  process,  von 
Niessen  evidently  argued  that  the  so-called 
"caffetannic  acid"  is  the  "harmful"  sub- 
stance in  coffee,  and  that  it  is  concentrated 
in  the  outer  layers  of  the  coffee  beans.*  If 
these  be  his  precepts,  the  question  of  their 
correctness  and  of  the  efficiency  of  his 
process  becomes  a  moot  one. 

A  procedure  which  aims  at  cleaning  and 
refining  raw  coffee,  and  which  has  been  the 
subject  of  much  polemical  discussion,''  is 
that  of  Thum'\  It  entails  the  placing  of 
the  green  beans  in  a  perforated  drum ;  just 
covering  them  with  water,  or  a  solution  of 
sodium  chloride  or  sodium  carbonate,  at  65° 
to  70°  C. ;  and  subjecting  them  to  a  vigor- 
ous brushing  for  from  1  to  5  minutes,  ac- 
cording to  the  grade  of  coffee  being  treated. 
The  value  of  this  method  is  somewhat 
doubtful,  as  it  would  not  seem  to  accom- 
plish any  more  than  simple  washing.  In' 
fact,  if  anything,  the  process  is  undesir- 
able ;  as  some  of  the  extractive  matters 
present  in  the  coffee,  and  particularly  eaf- 
fein,  will  be  lost.  Both  Freund'"  and  Har- 
nack'"  hold  briefs  for  the  product  produced 
by  this  method,  and  the  latter  endeavors 
analytically  to  prove  its  merits ;  but  as  his 
experimental  data  are  questionable,  his  con- 
clusions do  not  carry  much  weight. 

"  British  Pat.,  7.427,  Mar.  24,  1910. 
"U.   S.  Pat.,  997,431,  July  11,   1911. 
"British  Pat.,  28.087.  Oct.  9,  1912. 

French  Pat.,  449.343,  Oct.  12,  1912. 
"British  Pat.,  21,397.  Sept.  26,  1907. 

French  Pat.,  382,238.  Sept.  26,  1907. 

U.  S,  Pat.,  982.902,  Jan.  31,  1911. 
^Pharm.   Zentralhalle,  1915    (vol.   Ivi  :   pp.   343-48). 
'^  Munch.  Med.  Wochschr.,  (vol.  Iviii :  pp.  1868-72).- 


^■The  study  of  the  acids  of  coffee  has  been 

^^oduetive  of  much  controversy  and  many 
contradictory  results,  few  of  which  possess 
any  value.  The  acid  of  coffee  is  generally 
spoken  of  as  "caifetannic  acid."  Quite  a 
few  attempts  have  been  made  to  determine 
the  composition  and  structure  of  this  com- 
pound and  to  assign  it  a  formula.  Among 
them  may  be  noted  those  of  Allen "  who 
gives  it  the  empirical  formula  Ci^Hj^sO^; 
Hlasiwetz/'  who  represents  it  as  (TisHisOg ; 
Richter,  as  C^oHisOie ;  Griebel,"  as 
CisHo^Ojo,  and  Cazeneuve  and  Haddon/" 
as  CoiH2sOi4.  It  is  variously  supposed  to 
exist  in  coffee  as  the  potassium,  calcium,  or 
magnesium  salt.  In  regard  to  the  physical 
appearance  of  the  isolated  substance  there 
is  also  some  doubt,  Thorpe'^  describing  it 
as  an  amorphous  powder,  and  Howard'''  as 
a  brownish,  syrup-like  mass,  having  a 
slight  acid  and  astringent  taste. 

The  chemical  reactions  of  "caffetannic 
acid"  are  generally  agreed  upon.  A  dark 
green  coloration  is  given  with  ferric  chlo- 
rid;  and  upon  boiling  it  with  alkalies  or 
cHTute  acids,  caffeic  acid  and  glucose  are 
formed.  Fusion  with  alkali  produces  pro- 
tocatechuie  acid. 

K.  Gorter"  has  made  an  extensive  and 
accurate  investigation  into  the  matter,  and 
in  reporting  upon  the  same  has  made  some 
very  pertinent  observations.  His  claim  is 
that  the  name  "caffetannic  acid"  is  a  mis- 
nomer and  should  be  abandoned.  The  so- 
called  "caffetannic  acid"  is  really  a  mix- 
ture which  has  among  its  constituents 
chlorogenic  acid  (CgoH^gOio),  which  is  not 
a  tannic  acid,  and  coffalic  acid.     Tatlock 

^  and  Thompson"*  have  expressed  the  opinion 
that  roasted  coffee  contains  no  tannin,  and 
that  the  lead  precipitate  contains  mostly 
coloring  matter.  They  found  only  4.5  per- 
cent of  tannin  (precipitable  by  gelatin  or 
"  alkaloids)   in  raw  coffee. 

Hanausek"*  demonstrated  the  presence  of 
oxalic  acid  in  unripe  beans,  and  citric  acid 
has  been  isolated  from  Liberian  coffee.  It 
also   has   been   claimed   that  viridic   acid, 

'  C14H20O11,  is  present  in  coffee.     In   addi- 

**  Commercial  Organic  Analysis. 
»A«n.  Chem.  Pharm  .  1 S07    fvol.  cxlii  :  p.  230). 
"  Inaugural  Diss.,  Munich.  1903. 
'^  Comptes  Rertdus,  1807    (vol.  cxxiv  :  p.   1458). 
^  Diet.  Avp.  Chem.,  15)13   (vol.  v:  p.  393). 
"U.    S.   Dept.   Agr.    Bur.    Chem.      Bull.    105,    1907. 
<P.  42). 

^  Ann.    (vol.  cccviii  :  pp.  327-348). 

Ibid.   (vol.  ccclxxH  :  pp.  237,  246). 

Arch.  Pharm.    (vol.  ccxlvii :  pp.  184-196). 
'^Jour.   Soc.   Chem.,  Ind..  1910    (vol.  xxlx  :   p.   138). 
^"Z.  Nahr.  Gentissm.   (vol.  xxi :  p.  295). 


CHEMISTRY    OF    COFFEE 


159 


tion  to  these,  the  fat  of  coffee  contains  a 
certain  percentage  of  free  fatty  acids. 

It  is  thus  apparent  that  even  in  green 
coffee  there  is  no  definite  compound  "caffe- 
tannic acid,"  and  there  is  even  less  likeli- 
hood of  its  being  present  in  roasted  coffee. 
The  conditions,  high  heat  and  oxidation,  to 
which  coffee  is  subjected  in  roasting  would 
suffice  to  decompose  this  hypothetical  acid 
if  it  wera  present.  ^- 

In  the  method  of  analysis  for  caffetannic 
acid  (No.  24)  given  at  the  end  of  this  chap- 
ter, there  are  many  chances  of  error, 
although  this  procedure  is  the  best  yet  de- 
vised. Lead  acetate  forms  three  different 
compounds  with  "caffetannic  acid,"  so  that 
this  reagent  must  be  added  with  extreme 
care  in  order  to  precipitate  the  compound 
desired.  The  precipitate,  upon  forming, 
mechanically  carries  down  with  it  any  fats 
which  may  be  present,  and  which  are  re- 
moved from  it  only  with  difficulty.  The 
majority  of  the  mineral  salts  in  the  solu- 
tion will  come  down  simultaneously.  All 
of  the  above-mentioned  organic  acids  form 
insoluble  salts  with  lead  acetate,  and  there 
will  also  be  a  tendency  toward  precipita- 
tion of  certain  of  the  components  of  cara- 
mel, the  acidic  polymerization  products  of 
acrolein,  glycerol,  etc.,  and  of  the  proteins 
and  their  decomposition  products. 

In  view  of  this  condition  of  uncertainty 
in  composition,  necessity  for  great  care  in 
manipulation,  and  ever-present  danger  of 
contamination,  the  significance  of  "caffe- 
tannic acid  analysis"  fades.  It  is  highly 
desirable  that  the  nomenclature  relevant  to 
this  analytical  procedure  be  changed  to 
one,  such  as  "lead  number,"  which  will  be 
more  truly  indicative  of  its  significance. 

The  Alkaloids  of  Coffee 

In  addition  to  caffein,  the  main  alkaloid 
of  coffee,  trigonellin  —  the  methylbetaine 
of  nicotinic  acid  —  sometimes  known  as 
caffearine,  has  been  isolated  from  coffee." 
This  alkaloid,  having  the  formilla 
C14H16O4N2,  is  also  found  in  fenugreek, 
Trigonella  foenumrgrcecum,  in  various  le- 
guminous plants,  and  in  the  seeds  of  stro- 
phanthus.  When  pure  it  forms  colorless 
needles  melting  at  140"  C,  and,  as  with  all 
alkaloids,  gives  a  weak  basic  reaction.  It  is 
very  soluble  in  water,  slightly  soluble  in. 
alcohol,  and  only  very  slightly  soluble  in 

31  Paladino,  Oasietta,  1895  (vol.  xxv :  no.  1 :  p.  104). 

Forster  &  Rlechelmann,  Zeitach.  6ffent.  Chem., 
1897    (vol.   lii:   p.   129). 

Polstorflf,  K.  Wallach-Featachrift,  1909  (pp.  569- 
83). 


160 


ALL     ABOUT     COFFEE 


ether,  chloroform  or  benzol,  so  that  it  does 
not  contaminate  the  caffein  in  the  deter- 
mination of  the  latter.  Its  effects  on  the 
body  have  not  been  studied,  but  they  are 
probably  not  very  great,  as  Polstorff  ob- 
tained only  0.23  percent  from  the  coffee 
which  he  examined. 

Caffein,  thein,  trimethylxanthin,  or 
C5H(CH3)3N40a,  in  addition  to  being  in 
the  coffee  bean  is  also  found  in  guarana 
leaves,  the  kola  nut,  mate,  or  Paraguay  tea, 
and,  in  small  quantities,  in  cocoa.  It  is  also 
found  in  other  parts  of  these  plants  besides 
those   commonly   used   for   food   purposes. 

A  neat  test  for  detecting  the  presence  of 
caffein  is  that  of  A.  Viehoever,"'  in  which 
the  caffein  is  sublimed  directly  from  the 
plant  tissue  in  a  special  apparatus.  The 
presence  of  caffein  in  the  sublimate  is  veri- 
fied by  observing  its  melting  point,  deter- 
mined on  a  special  heating  stage  used  in 
connection  with  a  microscope.    . 

The  chief  commercial  source  of  this  alka- 
loid is  waste  and  damaged  tea,  from  which 
it  is  prepared  by  extraction  with  boiling 
water,  the  tannin  precipitated  from  the 
solution  with  litharge,  and  the  solution  then 
concentrated  to  crystallize  out  the  caffein. 
It  is  further  purified  by  sublimation  or  re- 
cpystallization  from  water.  «Coffee  chaff 
and  roaster-flue  dust  have  been  proposed  as 
sources  for  medicinal  caffein,  but  the  ex- 
traction of  the  alkaloid  from  the  former 
has  not  proven  to  be  a  commercial  success. 
Several  manufacturers  of  pharmaceuticals 
are  now  extracting  caffein  from  roaster-flue 
dust,  probably  by  an  adaptation  of  the 
Faunce""  process.  The  recovery  of  caffein 
from  roaster-flue  gases  may  be  facilitated 
and  increased  by  the  use  of  a  condenser 
such  as  proposed  Ewe."* 

Pure  caffein  forms  long,  white,  silky,  flex- 
ible needles,  which  readily  felt  together  to 
form   light,    fleecy    masses.      It    melts    at 

^Private  comninnioation. 
M  U.  S.  Pat,  716,878,  Dec.  30,  1902. 
»*  Tea  d  Coffee  Trade  Jour.,  1920    (vol.  xxxvlii :  pp. 
321-22). 


235  -  7°  C.  and  sublimes  completely  at  178 
C,  though  the  sublinlation  starts  at  120  . 
Salts  of  an  iinstable  nature  are  formed  with 
caffein  by  most  acids.  The  solubility  o!: 
caffein  as  determined  by  Seidell  is  given 
in  Table  I. 


Table  I — 'The  Solubility  of  Caffein 


\( 


r,\ 


Solvent 


Tempera- 
ture of 
Sp.  Gr.  of  Solu- 

Solvent  tlon 


Water    0.95)7  25 

J]ther    0.716  25 

Chloroform    .  .  .  1.476  25 

Acetone    0.809  30-1 

Benzene    0.872  80-1 

Benzaldehyde    .  1.055  30-1 

Amylacetate    .  .  0.860  30-1 

Anmne    1.02  «0-l 

Amyl    alcohol..  0.814  25 

Acetic    acid 1.055  21.5 

Xylene    0  847  32.5 

Toluene     0.862  25 


Solubility: 
Grm.  Caf- 
fein per  100 
Grm.  of 
Saturated 
Solution 
2.14 
0.27 
11.0 
2.18 
1.22 
11.62 
0.72 
22.89 
0.49 
2.44 
1.11 
0.57 


Sp.   Gr. 

of  Satu- 
rated 
Solu- 
tion 


0.832 
0.875 
1.087 
0.862 
1.080 
0.810 

0.847 
0.801 


The  similarity  between  caffein  and  theo- 
bromin  (the  chief  alkaloid  of  cocoa),  xan- 
thin  (one  of  the  constituents  of  meat),  and 
uric  acid,  is  shown  by  the  accompanying 
structural  formulae. 

These  formulae  show  merely  the  relative 
position  occupied  by  caffein  in  the  purin 
group,  and  do  not  in  any  wise  indicate,  be- 
cause of  its  similarity  of  structure  to  the 
other  compounds,  that  it  has  the  same 
physiological  action.  The  presence  and 
position  of  the  methyl  groups  (CH3)  in 
caffein  is  probably  the  controlling  factor 
which  makes  its  action  differ  from  the  be- 
havior of  other  members  of  the  series.  The 
structure  of  these  compounds  was  estab- 
lished, and  their  syntheses  accomplished,  in 
the  course  of  various  classic  researches  by 
Emil  Fischer.'' 

Gorter  states  that  caffein  exists  in  coffee 
in  combination  with  ehlorogenic  acid  as  a 
potassium  chlorogenate,  Ca^HaeOia, 
K2(C8HjoO,N,)2-2H20,  which  he  'isolated 
in  colorless  prisms.  This  compound  is 
water-soluble,  but  caffein  can  not  be  ex- 
tracted from  the  crystals  with  anhydrous 

^Jour.  Amer.  Chetn.  Soc,  1907  (vol.  xxix  :  p.  1091). 
^*  Ber.,  1895  (vol.  xxviii  :  p.  3137)  ;  1899  (vol.  xxxii : 
p.  435);   1900    (vol.   xxxiii :   p.   3035). 


CttjN— CO 


OC      C— Nn 


XH, 


.CH 


CH3N  — C-N^ 
Caffcm  (their\) 


HN — CO 

I       I 
OC      C— N<^"3 

I        II       >" 
CH3N— C— N 

Thcobromin 


HN. 


-co 


OC       c — 


^ 


CH 


HN —  C  — N'^ 

Xanthin 


MN— CO 

I        I 

OC      C~NH 


HN—  C — NH 

Unc  Acid 


CO 


Formula  fob  Caffein,  Showing  Its  Relation  to  the  Purin  Group 

.'  ■  I    ,-1 


ALL     ABOUT     COFFEE 


1(1(11, IKS    l>A(i(ll  ,\(;    iOIlKK   ON     TllK     1  »i;\  1  .N(i    GkOUNDS 

COFFEE  SCENES  IN  BRITISH  INDIA 


■p 


I 

^^B  Green 

^Hoisture  April  20th 8.75 

Moisture   Septemb,  r  20tli 8.12 

Ash    4.41 

Oil    12.96 

CaJfein     1.87 

Caffein,  dry  basis 2.03 

Crude  fiber 20.70 

I'rotein    9.50 

Protein,  dry  basis 10.41 

Water  e.xtrnct    31.11 

Specific  gravity,   10  p  rcent  extract     1.0109 

Bushelwt'ight    47.0 

1,000  kernel   weight ISO. 60 

1,000  kernel  weight,  dry  basis 119.1 

Dextrose   

■ffetannic   acid    15.58 

iility  by  titration   apparent 1.50 


CHEMISTRY    OF    COFFEE 


Table  II  —  Coffee  Analyses 


Santos 
Roasted 

3.75 

6.45 

4.49 
13.76 

1.81 


14.75 
12.93 

30.30 

1.0101 
28.2 
120.20 
115.7 
0.72 
17.44 
2.08 


^^■||vents.     To  this  behavior  can  probably 
^^H  attributed  the  difficulty  experienced  in 
^^Blracting  caffein  from  coffee  with  dry  or- 
^^nic  solvents.     However,  the  fact  that  a 
small  percentage  can  be  extracted  from  the 
green  bean  in  this  manner  indicates  that 
some  of  the  caffein  content  exists  therein 
in  a  free  state.    This  acid  compound  of  caf- 
fein will  be  largely  decomposed  during  the 
process  of  torrefaction,  so  that  in  roasted 
coffee  a  larger  percentage  will  be  present  in 
the  free  state.     Microscopical  examination 
of  the  roasted  bean  lends  verisimilitude  to 
this  contention. 

As  may  be  seen  in  Table  II "  the  caffein 
content  of  coffee  varies  with  the  different 
kinds,  a  fair  average  of  the  caffein  content 
being  about  1.5  percent  for  C.  arahica,  to 
which  class  most  of  our  coffees  belong. 
However,  aside  from  these  may  be  men- 
tioned C.  canephora,  which  yields  1.97  per- 
cent caffein  ;  C.  mauritiana,  which  contains 
0.07  percent  of  the  alkaloid  (less  than  the 
average  "caffein-free  coffee")  ;  and  C. 
humhoUiana,  which  contains  no  caffein,  but 
a  bitter  principle,  cafemarin.  Neither  do 
the  berries  of  C.  Gallienii,  C.  Bonnieri,  or 
C.  Mogeneti  contain  any  caffein ;  and  there 
has  also  been  reported^'  a  "Congo  coffee" 
which  contained  no  crystallizable  alkaloid 
whatever. 

Apparently  the  variation  in  caffein  con- 
tent is  largely  due  to  the  genus  of  the  tree 
from  which  the  berry  comes,  but  it  is  also 
quite  probable  that  the  nature  of  the  soil 
and  climatic  conditions  play  an  important 
part.  In  the  light  of  what  has  been  accom- 
plished in  the  field  of  agricultural  research, 
it  does  not  seem  improbable  that  a  man 
of  Burbank's  ability  and  foresight  could 
successfully  develop  a  series  of  coffees  pos- 

"  Willcox  &  Rentschler.  Tea  &  Coffee  Trade  Jour., 
1910   (vol.  six:  p.  440). 

■^  Pricke,  E.  Zeits.  /.  angew.  Chemie,  1889  (pp. 
121-122). 


Padang 
Green 

8.78 

8.05 

4.23 
12.28 

1.56 

1.69 
21.92 
12.62 
13.68 
30.83 

1.0107 
4o.2 
167.30 
154.1 


Padang 
Roasted 
2.72 
6.03 
4.70 
13.33 
1.47 

14.95 
14.75 


15.37 
1.47 


30.21 

1.0104 
27.8 
151.35 
147.2 
0.81 
16.93 
2.00 


Guate- 
mala 
Green 

9.59 

8.68 

3.93 
12.42 

1.26 

1.39 
22.23 
10.43 
11.53 
31.04 

1.0105 
52.2 
189.20 
171.0 


Guate- 
mala 
Roasted 
3.40 
6.92 
4.48 
13.07 
1.22 

15.23 
11.69 


16.27 
1.39 


30.47 

1.0104 
27.2 
165.80 
160.1 
0.54 
17.13 
2.13 


Mocha 
Green 

9.06 

8.15 

4.20 
14.04 

1.61 

1.44 
22.46 

8.56 

9.41 
31.27 

1.0108 
48.8 
119.52 
10i8.6 

iV.ei 
1.11 


161 


Mocha 
Roasted 

3.36 

7.10 

4.43 
14.18 

1.28 

15.41 
9.57 

80.44 

1.0108 
30.2 
100.00 
96.6 

0.46 
16.89 

1.87 


sessed  of  all  the  cup  qualities  inherent  in 
those  now  used,  but  totally  devoid  of  caf- 
fein. Whether  this  is  desirable  or  not  is  a 
question  to  be  considered  in  an  entirely 
different  light  from  the  possibility  of  its 
accomplishment. 

Table  III  —  Caffein  in  Different  Roasts 


(ireen     

Rio 

1  68% 

Santos 

1.85% 

1.72 

1.66 

1.66 

Guatemala 
1.82% 
1.80 
1.56 
1.46 

Cinnamon    .  .  . 

Medium 

City    

.  ..      1.70 
.  .  .      1.66 
.  .  .      1.36 

The  variation  in  the  caffein  content  of 
coffee  at  different  intensities  of  roasting, 
as  shown  in  Table  III^  is,  of  course,  pri- 
marily dependent  upon  the  original  content 
of  the  green,  A  considerable  portion  of  the 
caffein  is  sublimed  off  during  roasting,  thus 
decreasing  the  amount  in  the  bean.  The 
higher  the  roast  is  carried,  the  greater  the 
shrinkage ;  but,  as  the  analyses  in  the  above 
table  show,  the  loss  of  caffein  proceeds  out 
of  proportion  to  the  shrinkage,  for  the  per- 
centage of  caffein  constantly  decreases  with 
the  increase  in  color.  If  the  roast  be  car- 
ried almost  to  the  point  of  carbonization, 
as  in  the  case  of  the  "Italian  roast,"  the 
caffein  content  will  be  almost  nil.  This  is 
not  a  suitable  coffee  for  one  desiring  an  al- 
most caffein-free  drink,  for  the  empyreu- 
matic  products  produced  by  this  excessive 
roasting  will  be  more  toxic  by  far  than  the 
caffein  itself  would  have  been. 

Caffein-free  Coffee 

The  demand  for  a  caffein-free  coffee  may 
be  attributed  to  two  causes,  namely:  the 
objectionable  effect  which  caffein  has  upon 
neurasthenics;  and  the  questionable  adver- 
tising of  the  "coffee-substitute"  dealers, 
who  have  by  this  means  persuaded  many 
normal  persons  into  believing  that  they  are 
decidedly  sub-normal.  As  a  result  of  this 
demand,  a  variety  of  decaffeinated  coffees 


s*  Willcox  &  Rentschler. 
1911    (vol.  XX  :  p.  355). 


Tea  d  Coffee  Trade  Jour., 


162 


ALL     ABOUT     COFFEE 


have  been  placed  on  the  market.  Just  why 
the  coffee  men  have  not  taken  advantage  of 
naturally  caffein-free  coffees,  or  of  the  pos- 
sibility of  obtaining  coffees  low  in  caffein 
content  by  chemical  selection  from  the  lines 
now  used,  is  a  difficult  question  to  answer. 

In  the  endeavor  to  develop  a  commercial 
decaffeinated  coffee  the  first  method  of  pro- 
cedure was  to  extract  the  caffein  from 
roasted  coffee.  This  method  had  its  advan- 
tages and  its  disadvantages,  of  which  the 
latter  predominated.  The  caffein  in  the 
roasted  coffee  is  not  as  tightly  bound  chemi- 
cally as  in  the  green  coffee,  and  is,  there- 
fore, more  easily  extracted.  Also,  the 
structure  of  the  roasted  bean  renders  it 
more  readily  penetrable  by  solvents  than 
does  that  of  the  green  bean.  However,  the 
great  objection  to  this  method  arises  from 
the  fact  that  at  the  same  time  as  the  caf- 
fein is  extracted,  the  volatile  aromatic  and 
flavoring  constituents  of  the  coft'ee  are  re- 
moved also.  These  substances,  which  are 
essential  for  the  maintenance  of  quality  by 
the  coffee,  though  readily  separated  from 
the  caffein,  can  not  be  returned  to  the 
roasted  bean  with  any  degree  of  certainty. 
This  virtually  insurmountable  obstacle 
forced  the  abandonment  of  this  mode  of 
attack. 

In  order  to  avoid  this  action,  the  atten- 
tion of  investigators  was  directed  to  extrac- 
tion of  the  alkaloid  in  question  from  the 
green  bean.  Because  of  the  difficulty  of 
causing  the  solvent  to  penetrate  the  bean, 
recourse  to  grinding  resulted.  This  greatly 
facilitated  the  desired  extraction,  but  a 
difficulty  was  encountered  when  the  subse- 
quent roasting  was  attempted.  The  irregu- 
lar and  broken  character  of  the  ground 
green  beans  resisted  all  attempts  to  produce 
practically  a  uniformly  roasted,  highly 
aromatic  product  from  the  ground  ma- 
terial. 

Avoidance  of  this  lack  of  uniformity  in 
the  product,  and  the  great  desirability  to 
duplicate  the  normal  bean  as  far  as  pos- 
sible, necessitated  the  development  of  a 
method  of  extraction  of  the  caffein  from  the 
whole  raw  bean  without  a  permanent  al- 
teration of  the  shape  thereof.  The  close 
structure  of  the  green  bean,  and  its  conse- 
quent resistance  to  penetration  by  solvents, 
and  the  existence  of  the  caffein  in  the  bean 
as  an  acid  salt,  which  is  not  easily  soluble, 
offered  resistance  to  successful  extraction. 

As  a  means  of  overcoming  the  difficulty 
of  structure,  the  beans  were  allowed  to 
stand  in  water  in  order  to  swell,  or  the  cells 


were  expanded  by  treatment  with  steam,  or 
the  beans  were  subjected  to  the  action  of 
some  "cellulose-softening  acids,"  such  as 
acetic  acid  or  sulphur  dioxid.  As  a  method 
of  facilitating  the  mechanical  side  of  ex- 
traction without  deleterious  effects,  the 
treatment  of  the  coffee  with  steam  under 
pressure,  as  utilized  in  the  patented  proc- 
ess of  Myer,  Eoselius,  and  Wimmer,*"  is 
probably  the  safest. 

Many  ingenious  methods  have  been  de- 
vised for  the  ready  removal  of  the  caffein 
from  this  point  on.  Several  processes 
employ  an  alkali,  such  as  ammonium  hy- 
droxid,  to  free  the  caffein  from  the  acid ;  or 
an  acid,  such  as  acetic,  hydrochloric,  or 
sulphurous,  is  used  to  form  a  more  soluble 
salt  of  caffein.  Other  procedures  effect  the 
dissociation  of  the  caffein-acid  salt  by 
dampening  or  immersion  in  a  liquid  and 
subjecting  the  mass  to  the  action  of  an 
electric  current. 

The  caffein  is  usually  extracted  from  the 
beans  by  benzol  or  chloroform,  but  a  variety 
of  solvents  may  be  employed,  such  as  pe- 
trolic ether,  water,  alcohol,  carbon  tetra- 
chlorid,  ethylene  chlorid,  acetone,  ethyl 
ether,  or  mixtures  or  emulsions  of  these. 
After  extraction,  the  beans  may  be  steam 
distilled  to  remove  and  to  recover  any  resid- 
ual traces  of  solvent,  and  then  dried  and 
roasted.  It  is  said"  that  by  heating  the 
beans  before  bringing  them  into  contact 
with  steam,  not  only  is  an  economy  of  steam 
effected,  but  the  quality  of  the  resultant 
product  is  improved. 

One  clever  but  expensive  method"  of  pre- 
paring caffein-free  coffee  consists  in  heat- 
ing the  beans  under  pressure,  with  some 
substance,  such  as  sodium  salicylate,  with 
the  resultant  formation  of  a  more  soluble 
and  more  easil.y  steam-distillable  compound 
of  caffein.  The  beans  are  then  steam  dis- 
tilled to  remove  the  caffein,  dried,  and 
roasted. 

Another  process  of  peculiar  interest  is 
that  of  Hubner,"  in  which  the  coffee  beans 
are  well  washed  and  then  spread  in  layers 
and  kept  covered  with  water  at  15°  C.  until 
limited  germination  has  taken  place,  where- 
upon the  beans  are  removed  and  the  caf- 
fein extracted  with  water  at  50°  C.  It  is 
claimed  by  the  inventor  that  sprouting 
serves  to  remove  some  of  the  caffein,  but  it 
is  quite  probable  that  the  process  does  noth- 

*»U.  S.  Pat,  897,840.   Sept.  1,  1908. 
"British  Pat.,  144,988,  March  19,  1920. 
« French   Pat.,   412,550.   Feb.    12,    1910. 
«U.   S.  Pat.,  947,577,  Jan.   25,   1910. 


CHEMISTRY    OF    COFFEE 


163 


ig  more  than  aecoinplish  simple  aqueous 

ttraction. 

In  the  majority  of  these  processes  the 

Ivor  of  the  resultant  product  should  be 

iry    similar    to    natural    roasted    coffee. 

[owever,  in  the  cases  where  aqueous  ex- 

raction  is  employed,  other  substances  be- 

jjdes  caffein  are  removed  that  are  replaced 

the  bean  only  with  difficulty.     The  re- 

iltant  product  accordingly  is  very  likely 
to  have  a  flavor  not  entirely  natural.  On 
the  other  hand,  beans  from  which  the  caf- 
fein is  extracted  with  volatile  solvents,  if 
the  operation  be  conducted  carefully, 
should  give  a  natural-tasting  roast.  Any 
residual  traces  of  the  solvent  left  in  the 
bean  are  volatilized  upon  roasting. 

Some  of  the  caffein-free  coffees  on  the 
market  show  upon  analysis  almost  as  much 
eaffein  as  the  natural  bean.  Those  manu- 
factured b}'  reliable  concerns,  however,  are 
virtually  caffein-free,  their  content  of  the 
alkaloid  varying  from  0.3  to  0.07  percent 
as  opposed  to  1.5  percent  in  the  untreated 
coffee.  Thus,  although  actually  only  caf- 
fein-poor,  in  order  to  get  the  reaction  of 
one  cup  of  ordinary  coffee  one  would  have 
to  drink  an  unusual  amount  of  the  brew 
made  from  these  coffees. 

The  Aromatic  Principles  of  Coffee 

To  ascertain  just  what  substance  or  sub- 
stances give  the  pleasing  and  characteristic 
aroma  to  coffee  has  long  been  the  great 
desire  of  both  practical  and  scientific  men 
interested  in  the  coffee  business.  This  elu- 
sive material  has  been  variously  called  caf- 
feol,  caffeone,  "the  essential'  oil  of  coffee," 
etc.,  the  terms  having'acquired  an  ambigu- 
ij^ous  and  incorrect  significance.  It  is  now 
f  generally  agreed  that  the  aromatic  con- 
!  stituent  of  coffee  is  not  an  essential  oil,  but 
!  a  complex  of  compounds  which  usage  has 
causecPto  be  coITecHvery  called  "caffeol.',' 
These  substances  are  not  present  in  the, 
green  bean,  but  are  produced  during  the 
process  of  roasting.  Attempts  at  identi- 
fication and  location  of  origin  have  been 
numerous;  and  although  not  conclusive, 
still  have  not  proven  entirely  futile.  One 
of  the  first  observations  along  this  line  was 
that  of  Benjamin  Thompson  in  1812. 
"This  fragrance  of  coffee  is  certainly  ow- 
ing to  the  escape  of  a  volatile  aromatic 
substance  which  did  not  originally  exist  as 
such  in  the  grain,  but  which  is  formed  in 
the  process  of  roasting  it."  Later,  Graham, 
Stenhouse,  and  Campbell  started  on  the 
way  to  the  identification  of  this  aroma  by 


noting  that  "in  common  with  all  the  valu- 
able constituents  of  coffee,  caffeone  is  found 
to  come  from  the  soluble  portion  of  the 
roasted  seed."" 

Comparison  of  the  aroma  given  off  by 
coffee  during  the  roasting  process  with  that 
of  fresh-ground  roasted  coffee  shows  that 
the  two  aromas,  although  somewhat  differ- 
ent, may  be  attributed  to  the  same  sub- 
stances present  in  different  proportions  in 
the  two  cases.  Recovery  and  identification 
of  the  aromatic  principles  escaping  from 
the  roaster  would  go  far  toward  answering 
the  question  regarding  the  nature  of  the 
aroma.  Bernheimer"  reported  water,  caf- 
fein, caffeol,  acetic  acid,  quinol,  methyla- 
min,  acetone,  fatty  acids  and  pyrrol  in  the 
distillate  coming  from  roasting  coffee. 
The  caffeol  obtained  by  Bernheimer  in  this 
work  was  believed  by  him  to  be  a  methyl 
derivative  of  saligenin.  Jaeekle"  examined 
a  similar  product  and  found  considerable 
quantities  of  caffein,  furfurol,  and  acetic 
acid,  together  with  small  amounts  of  ace- 
tone, ammonia,  trimethylamin,  and  formic 
acid.  The  caffeol  of  Bernheimer  could  not 
be  detected.  Another  substance  was  sepa- 
rated also,  but  in  too  small  a  quantity  to 
permit  complete  identification.  This  sub- 
stance consisted  of  colorless  crystals,  which 
readily  sublimed,  melted  at  115°  to  117°  C, 
and  contained  sulphur.  The  crystals  were 
insoluble  in  water,  almost  insoluble  in  alco- 
hol, but  readily  soluble  in  ether. 

By  distilling  roasted  coffee  with  super- 
heated steam,  Erdmann"  obtained  an  oil 
consisting  of  an  indifferent  portion  of  58 
percent  and  an  acid  portion  of  42  percent, 
consisting  mainly  of  a  valeric  acid,  prob- 
ably alphamethylbutyric  acid.  The  indif- 
ferent portion  was  found  to  contain  about 
50  percent  furfuryl  alcohol,  together  with 
a  number  of  phenols.  The  fraction  con- 
taining the  characteristic  odorous  constit- 
uent of  coffee  boiled  at  93°  C.  under  13 
mm.  pressure.  The  yield  of  this  latter 
principle  was  extremely  small,  only  about 
0.89  gram  being  procured  from  65  kilos 
of  coffee. 

Pyridin  was  also  shown  to  be  present  in 
•coffee  by  Betrand  and  Weisweiller*'  and  by 
Sayre.*"    As  high  as  200  to  500  milligrams 

**J(jur.   Chem.   Soc,  1857    (vol.  Ix  :  p.   34). 

"Tl'tcn.  Akad.  Ber.   (2  Abth.)    (vol.  Ixxxi :  pp.  1032- 
104.S). 

Monatsh,   f.    Chem.,    1880    (vol.    i:    p.    456). 

**  Zeita.   f.    Vntersuch.    d.   Nahr.    u.    Ocnussm.,    1898 
(vol.  vii  :  pp.  457-472) 

«  Ber ,  1901  (vol.  xxxv  :  pp.  1846-1854). 

<»Co»ipf.  rend.    (vol.  clvii :  pp.  212-13). 

*»  Bull.  Pharm.,  1916  (vol.  xxx  :  pp.  276^-78). 


164 


ALL     ABOUT     COFFEE 


of  this  toxic  compound  have  been  obtained 
from  1  kilogram  of  freshly  roasted  coffee. 

As  stated  above,  the  empyreumatic  vola- 
tile aromatic  constituents  of  the  coffee  are 
without  question  formed  during  and  by  the 
roasting  process.  According  to  Thorpe/" 
the  most  favorable  temperature  for  devel- 
opment of  coffee  odor  and  flavor  is  about 
200°  C.  Erdmann  claimed  to  have  pro- 
duced caffeol  by  gently  heating  together 
caffetannic  acid,  caffein,  and  cane  sugar. 
Other  investigators  have  been  unable  to 
duplicate  this  work.  Another  authority," 
giving  it  the  empirical  formula  CgHioOa, 
states  that  it  is  produced  during  roasting, 
probably  at  the  expense  of  a  portion  of  the 
caffein.  These  conceptions  are  in  the  main 
incomplete  and  inaccurate. 

By  means  of  careful  work,  Grafe"  came 
closer  to  ascertaining  the  origin  of  the  fuga- 
cious aromatic  materials.  His  work  with 
normal,  caffein-free  coffee  and  with  Thum's 
purified  coffee  led  him  to  state  that  a  part 
of  these  substances  was  derived  from  the 
crude  fiber,  probably  from  the  hemi-cellu- 
lose  of  the  thick  endosperm  cells.  Sayre" 
makes  the  most  plausible  proposal  regard- 
ing the  origin  of  caffeol.  He  considers  the 
roasting  of  coffee  as  a  destructive  distilla- 
tion process,  summarizing  the  results, 
briefly,  as  the  production  of  furfuraldehyde 
from  the  carbohydrates,  acrolein  from  the 
fats,  catechol  and  pyrogallol  from  the  tan- 
nins, and  ammonia,  amins,  and  pyrrols 
from  the  proteins.  The  products  of  roast- 
ing inter-react  to  produce  many  compounds 
of  varying  degrees  of  complexity  and 
toxicity. 

The  great  difficulty  which  arises  in  the 
attempt  to  identify  the  aromatic  constit- 
uents of  coffee  is  that  the  caffeols  of  no  two 
coffees  may  be  said  to  be  the  same.  The 
reason  for  this  is  apparent;  for  the  green 
coffees  themselves  vary  in  composition,  and 
those  of  the  same  constitution  are  not 
roasted  under  identical  conditions.  There- 
fore, it  is  not  to  be  expected  that  the  de- 
composition products  formed  by  the  action 
of  the  different  greens  would  be  the  same. 
Also,  these  volatile  products  occur  in  the 
roasted  coffee  in  such  a  small  amount  that 
the  ascertaining  of  their  percentage  rela- 
tionship and  the  recognition  of  all  that  are 
present  are  not  possible  with  the  methods 
of  analysis  at  present  at  our  disposal. 
Until    better    analytical    procedures    have 

^  Diet.  App.  Chem.,  1913  (vol.  li :  p.  99). 

"  [/.  S.  Dispensatory,  19th  Ed,  1907   (p.  145). 

^^Monatsh.   f.    Chem.    (vol.    xxxiii :   pp.   1389-1406). 


been  developed  we  can  not  hope  to  estab- 
lish a  chemical  basis  for  the  grading  ol' 
coffees  from  this  standpoint. 

Coffee  Oil  and  Fat 

It  is  well  to  distinguish  between  the  * '  cof- 
fee oils,"  as  they  are  termed  by  the  trade, 
and  true  coffee  oil.  In  speaking  of  thi' 
qualities  of  coffee,  connoisseurs  frequently 
use  erroneous  terms,  particularly  when  they 
designate  certain  of  the  flavoring  and  aro- 
matic constituents  of  coffee  as  "oils"  or 
"essential  oils."  Coffee  does  not  contain 
any  essential  oils,  the  aromatic  constituent 
corresponding  to  essential  oil  in  coffee  being 
caffeol,  a  complex  which  is  water-soluble,  a 
property  not  possessed  by  any  true  oil. 
True,  the  oil  when  isolated  from  roasted 
coffee  does  possess,  before  purification,  con- 
siderable of  the  aromatic  and  flavoring  con- 
stituents of  coffee.  They  are,  however,  no 
part  of  the  coffee  fat,  but  are  held  in  it  no 
doubt  by  an  enfleurage  action  in  much  the 
same  way  that  perfumes  of  roses,  etc.,  are 
absorbed  and  retained  by  fats  and  oils  in 
the  commercial  preparation  of  pomades  and 
perfumes.  This  affinity  of  the  coffee  oil  for 
caffeol  assists  in  the  retention  of  aromatic 
substances  by  the  whole  roasted  bean. 
However,  upon  extraction  of  ground 
roasted  coffee  with  water,  the  caffeol  shows 
a  preferential  solubility  in  water,  and  is 
dissolved  out  from  the  oil,  going  into  the 
brew. 

The  true  oil  of  coffee  has  been  investi- 
gated to  a  fair  degree  and  has  been  found 
to  be  inodorous  when  purified.  Analysis  of 
green  and  roasted  coffees  shows  them  to 
possess  between  12  percent  and  20  percent 
fat.  Warnier"  extracted  ground  unroasted 
coffee  with  petroleum  ether,  washed  the  ex- 
tract with  water,  and  distilled  off  the  sol- 
vent, obtaining  a  yellow-brownish  oil 
possessing  a  sharp  taste.  From  his  exam- 
ination of  this  oil  he  reported  these  con- 
stants: d24_5,  0.942;  refraction  at  25°, 
81.5 ;  solidifying  point,  6°  to  5° ;  melting 
point,  8°  to  9° ;  saponification  number, 
177.5 ;  esterification  number,  166.7 ;  acid 
number,  6.2 ;  acetyl  number,  0 ;  iodin  num- 
ber, 84.5  to  86.3.  Meyer  and  Eckert"  care- 
fully purified  coffee  oil  and  saponified  it 
with  LigO  in  alcohol.  In  the  saponifiable 
portion,  glycerol  was  the  only  alcohol  pres- 
ent, the  acids  being  carnaubic,  10  percent; 
daturinic  acid,  1  to  1.5  percent;  palmitic 

^^^Apoth.-Ztg.   (vol.  xxii:  pp.  919-20). 
Pharm.  Weekbl.,  1907  (vol.  xxxvii). 
^  Monatsh.  f.  Chem.   (vol.  xxxi :  p.  1227). 


^Ri< 


CHEMISTRY    OF    COFFEE 


165 


id,  25  to  28  percent ;  capric  acid,  0.5  per- 
cent ;  oleic  acid,  2  percent,  and  linoleic  acid, 
50  percent.  The  unsaponifiable  wax 
amounted  to  21.2  percent,,  was  nitrogen- 
free,  gave  a  phytostearin  reaction,  and 
saponification  and  oxidation  indicated  that 
it  was  probably  a  tannol  carnaubate.  Von- 
Bitto'"  examined  the  fat  extracted  from  the 
inner  husk  of  the  coffee  berry  and  found  it 
to  be  faint  yellow  in  color,  and  to  solidify 
only  gradually  after  melting.  Upon  analy- 
sis, it  showed :  saponification  value,  141.2 ; 
palmitic  acid,  37.84  percent,  and  glycerids 
as  tripalmitin,  28.03  percent. 

Carbohydrates  of  the  Coffee  Berry 

There  has  been  considerable  diversity  of 
opinion  regarding  the  sugar  of  coffee.  Bell 
believed  the  sugar  to  be  of  a  peculiar  species 
allied  to  melezitose,  but  Ewell,°"  G.  L.  Spen- 
cer, and  others  definitely  proved  the  pres- 
ence of  sucrose  in  coffee.  In  fat-free  coffee 
6  percent  of  sucrose  was  found  extractable 
by  70  percent  alcohol.  Baker"  claimed  that 
manno-arabinose,  or  manno-xylose,  formed 
one  of  the  most  important  constituents  of 
the  coffee-berry  substance  and  yielded  man- 
nose  on  hydrolysis.  Schultze  and  Maxwell 
state  that  raw  coffee  contains  galactan, 
mannan,  and  pentosans,  the  latter  present 
to  the  extent  of  5  percent  in  raw  and  3  per- 
cent in  roasted  coffee.  By  distilling  coffee 
with  hydrochloric  acid  Ewell  obtained  fur- 
furol  equivalent  to  9  percent  pentose.  He 
also  obtained  a  gummy  substance  which,  on 
hydrolysis,  gave  rise  to  a  reducing  sugar; 
and  as  it  gave  mucic  acid  and  furfurol  on 
oxidation,  he  concluded  that  it  was  a  com- 
pound of  pentose  and  galactose.  In  un- 
dressed Mysore  coffee  Commaille°'  found 
2.6  percent  of  glucose  and  no  dextrin.  This 
claim  of  the  presence  of  glucose  in  coffee 
was  substantiated  by  the  work  of  Hlasi- 
wetz,""  who  resolved  a  caffetannie  acid, 
which  he  had  isolated,  into  glucose  and  a 
peculiar  crystallizable  acid,  C8H8O4,  which 
he  named  caffeic  acid. 

The  starch  content  of  coffee  is  very  low. 
Cereals  may  readily  be  detected  and  identi- 
fied in  coffee  mixtures  by  the  presence  and 
characteristics  of  their  starch,  in  view  of 
the  fact  that  coffee  (chicory,  too)  is  prac- 
tically free  from  starch.  On  this  score  it  is 
inadvisable  for  diabetics  to  use  any  of  the 
many  cereal  substitutes  for  coffee.     It  is 

"Jour.  Lnndw.,  1904    (vol.  Hi:   p.  93). 

">  Amer.  Chem.  Jour.,  1892   (vol.  xiv  :  p.  47.3). 

"Analyst,  1902   (vol.  xxvl  :  p.   116). 

''Mon.  8ci.   (vol.  iii  :  no.   6:  p.  779). 

»»J.  P.  C,  1867    (p.  307). 


pertinent  to  note  in  this  connection  that 
persons  suffering  from  diabetes  may 
sweeten  their  coffee  with  saccharin  (I/2  to 
1  grain  per  cup)  or  glycerol,  thus  obtaining 
perfect  satisfaction  without  endangering 
their  health. 

The  cellulose  in  coffee  is  of  a  very  hard 
and  horny  character  in  the  green  bean,  but 
it  is  made  softer  and  more  brittle  during 
the  process  of  roasting.  It  is  rather  diffi- 
cult to  define  under  the  microscope,  par- 
ticularly after  roasting,  even  though  the 
chief  characteristics  of  the  cellular  tissue 
are  more  or  less  retained.  Coffee  cellulose 
gives  a  blue  color  with  sulphuric  acid  and 
iodin,  and  is  dissolved  by  an  ammoniacal 
solution  of  copper  oxid.  Even  after  roast- 
ing, remnants  of  the  silver  skin  are  always 
present,  the  structure  of  which,  a  thin 
membrane  with  adherent,  thick-walled, 
spindle-shaped,  hollow  cells,  is  peculiar  to 
coffee. 

The  Chemistry  of  Roasting 

The  effect  of  the  heat  in  the  roasting  of 
coffee  is  largely  evidenced  as  a  destructive 
distillation  and  also  as  a  partial  dehydra- 
tion. At  the  same  time,  oxidizing  and 
reducing  reactions  probably  occur  within 
the  bean,  as  well  as  some  polymerization 
and  inter-reactions. 

A  loss  of  water  is  to  be  expected  as  the 
natural  outcome  of  the  application  of  heat ; 
and  analyses  show  that  the  moisture  con- 
tent of  raw  coffee  varies  from  8  to  14  per- 
cent, while  after  roasting  it  rarely  exceeds 
3  percent,  and  frequently  falls  as  low  as 
0.5  percent.  The  loss  of  the  original  water 
content  of  the  green  bean  is  not  the  only 
moisture  loss ;  for  many  of  the  constituents 
of  coffee,  notably  the  carbohydrates,  are  de- 
composed upon  heating  to  give  off  water, 
so  that  analysis  before  and  after  roasting  is 
no  direct  indication  of  the  exact  amount  of 
water  driven  off  in  the  process.  If  it  be 
desired  to  ascertain  this  quantity  accu- 
rately, catching  of  the  products  which  are 
driven  off  and  determination  of  their  water 
content  becomes  necessary. 

The  carbohydrates  both  dehydrate  and 
decompose.  The  result  of  the  cjehydration 
is  the  formation  of  caramel  and  related 
products,  which  comprise  the  principal 
coloring  matters  in  coffee  infusion.  That 
portion  of  the  carbohydrates  known  as  pen- 
tosans gives  rise  to  furfuraldehyde,  one  of 
the  important  components  of  caffeol. 

The  effect  of  roasting  upon  the  fat  con- 
tent of  the  beans  is  to  reduce  its  actual 


166 


ALL     ABOUT     COFFEE 


weight,  but  not  to  change  appreciably  the 
percentage  present,  since  the  decrease  in 
quantity  keeps  pace  fairly  well  with  the 
shrinkage.  Some  of  the  more  volatile  fatty 
acids  are  driven  off,  and  the  fats  break 
down  to  give  a  larger  percentage  of  free 
fatty  acids,  some  light  esters,  acrolein,  and 
formic  acid.  If  the  roast  be  a  very  heavy 
one,  or  is  brought  up  too  rapidly,  the  iai 
wall  come  to  the  surface,  through  breaking 
of  the  fat  cells,  with  a  decided  alteration  in 
the  chemical  nature  of  the  fat  and  with 
pronounced  expansion  and  cracking. 

Decomposition  of  the  caffein  acid-salt 
and  considerable  sublimation  of  the  caffein 
also  occur.  The  majority  of  the  caffein  un- 
dergoes this  volatilization  unchanged,  but 
a  portion  of  it  is  probably  oxidized  with  the 
formation  of  ammonia,  methylamin,  di- 
methylparabanic  acid,  and  carbon  dioxid. 
This  reaction  partly  explains  why  the 
amount  of  caffein  recovered  from  the 
roaster  flues  is  not  commensurate  with  the 
amount  lost  from  the  roasting  coffee;  al- 
though incomplete  condensation  is  also  an 
important  factor.  Microscopic  examination 
of  the  roasted  beans  will  show  occasional 
small  crystals  of  caffein  in  the  indentations 
on  the  surface,  where  they  have  been  de- 
posited during  the  cooling  process. 

The  compound,  or  compounds,  known  as 
**caffetannic  acid"  are  probably  the  source 
of  catechol,  as  the  proteins  are  of  am- 
monia, amins,  and  pyrrols.  The  crude 
fiber  and  other  unnamed  constituents  of 
the  raw  beans  react  analogously  to  similar 
compounds  in  the  destructive  distillation  of 
wood,  giving  rise  to  acetone,  various  fatty 
acids,  carbon  dioxid  and  other  uncondens- 
able  gases,  and  many  compounds  of  un- 
known identity. 

During  the  course  of  roasting  and  subse- 
quent cooling  these  decomposition  products 
probably  interact  and  polymerize  to  form 
aromatic  tar-like  materials  and  other  com- 
plexes which  play  an  important  role  among 
the  delicate  flavors  of  coffee.  In  fact,  it  is 
not  unlikely  that  these  reactions  continue 
throughout  the  storage  time  after  roasting, 
and  that  upon  them  the  deterioration  of 
roasted  coffee  is  largely  dependent.  Specu- 
lation upon  what  complex  compounds  are 
thus  formed  offers  much  attraction.  A 
notable  one  by  Sayre"*  postulates  the  reac- 
tion between  acrolein  and  ammonia  to  give 
methyl  pyridin,  which  in  turn  with  fur- 
furol  forms  furfurol  vinyl  pyridin.     This 

«» Trans.  Kansas  Acad.  Sci.,  1918  <vol.  xxviil :  pp. 
136-141). 


upon  reduction  would  produce  the  alkaloid, 
conin,  traces  of  which  have  been  found  in 
coffee. 

Although  furfuraldehyde  is  the  natural 
decomposition  product  of  pentosans,  fur- 
furyl  alcohol  is  the  main  furane  body  of 
coffee  aroma.  This  would  indicate  that 
active  reducing  conditions  prevail  within 
the  bean  during  roasting;  and  the  further 
fact  that  carbon  monoxid  is  given  oft'  dur- 
ing roasting  makes  this  seem  quite  prob- 
able. If  one  admits  that  caffetannic  acid 
exists  in  the  green  bean;  that  upon  oxida- 
tion it  gives  viridic  acid ;  and  that  it  is  con- 
centrated in  the  outer  layers  of  the  bean, 
as  certain  investigators  have  claimed,  then 
there  is  chemical  proof  of  the  existence  of 
oxidizing  conditions  about  the  exterior  of 
the  bean.  In  any  event,  however,  the  fact 
that  oxidizing  conditions  predominate  on 
the  external  portion  of  the  bean  is  obvious. 
Accordingly,  our  meager  knowledge  of  the 
chemistry  of  roasting  indicates  that  while 
the  external  layers  of  the  roasting  beans  are 
subjected  to  oxidizing  conditions,  reducing 
ones  exist  in  the  interior.  Future  experi- 
mentation will,  no  doubt,  prove  this  to  be 
the  case. 

Attempts  have  been  made  to  retain  in 
the  beans  the  volatile  products,  which  nor- 
mally escape,  both  by  coating  previous  to 
roasting"  and  by  conducting  the  process 
under  pressure."'  However,  the  results  so 
obtained  were  not  practical,  since  the  cup 
values  were  decreased  in  the  majority  of 
cases;,  and  the  physiological  effects  produced 
were  undesirable.  In  cases  where  the  qual- 
ity was  improved,  the  gain  was  not  suffi- 
cient to  recompense  the  roaster  for  the  ad- 
ditional expense  and  difficulty  of  operation. 

Various  persons  have  essayed  to  control 
the  roasting  process  automatically;  but 
the  extreme  variance  in  composition  of 
different  coffees,  the  effect  of  changing 
atmospheric  conditions,  and  the  lack  of 
constancy  in  the  calorific  power  of  fuels 
have  conspired  to  defeat  the  automatic 
roasting  machine."  It  is  even  doubtful 
whether  De  Mattia's"  process  for  roasting 
until  the  vapors  evolved  produce  a  violet 
color  when  passed  into  a  solution  of  fuchsin 
decolorized  with  sulphur  dioxid  is  commer- 
cially reliable. 


81  Feitler,  S. :  Enj?.  Pat.,  19,84.5,  Aug.  28,  1897. 

«U.  S.  Pat.,  33,453,  Oct.  8.  1861. 

U.  S.  Pat.,  75.829,  March  24.  1868, 

U.  S.  Pat.,  701,750,  June  3,  1902. 

«'U.   S.  Pat,  943,   238,   Dec.   14.   1909. 

«*U.  S.  Pat.,   703,508,  July  1,   1902. 

U.  S.  Pat.,  865,203,  Sept.  3,  1907. 


I 


CHEMISTRY    OF    COFFEE 


167 


Many  patents  have  been  granted  for  the 
treatment  of  coffees  immediately  prior  to  or 
during  roasting  with  the  object  of  thus  im- 
proving the  product.  The  majority  of 
These  depend  upon  adding  solutions  of 
sugar.'"  calcium  saccharate,""  or  other  carbo- 
hydrates,*' and  in  the  case  of  Eckhardt,"" 
of  small  percentages  of  tannic  acid  and  fat. 
In  direct  opposition  to  this  latter  practise, 
urgens  and  Westphaf"  apply  alkali, 
tensibly  to  lessen  the  "tannic  acid"  con- 


^  ''L^k 


if 

tl  Iff  ^1 


Grouxd  Coffee  Under  the  Microscope 

tent.  Brougier'"  sprays  a  solution  contain- 
ing caifein  upon  the  roasting  berries ;  and 
Potter"  roasts  the  coffee  together  with 
chicory,  effecting  a  separation  at  the  end. 
The  exact  effect  which  roasting  with 
sugars  has  upon  the  flavor  is  not  well  un- 
derstood ;'but  it  is  known  that  it  causes  the 
beans  to  absorb  more  moisture,  due  to  the 
hygroscopicity  of  the  caramel  formed.  For 
inrstance,  berries  roasted  with  the  addition 
of  glucose  syrup  hold  an  additional  7  per- 
cent of  water  and  give  a  darker  infusion 
than  normally  roasted  coffee.  When  the 
green  coffee  is  glazed  with  cane  sugar  prior 
to  roasting,  the  losses  during  the  process 
are  much  higher  than  ordinarily,  on  ac- 
count of  the  higher  temperature  required 
to  attain  the  desired  results.  Losses  for 
ordinary  coffee  taken  to  a  16-percent  roast 
are  9.7  percent  of  the  original  fat  and  21.1 

«  Winter.  H.  :    U.  S.  Pat.,  997.4.31.  Augr.  28,  1897. 

'"Simon,  M.,  Jr.:    Ger.  Pat..  2.53.419.  Feb.  19.  1911. 

«'  Von   Niessen  :   British   Pat.,   7,417,  Mar.   24,   1910. 

•«  Eng.  Pat.,  5.776,  Mar.  19,  1895. 

«»U.  S.  Pat,  832..322. 

">Eng.  Pat.,  8.270,  April  24,   1893. 

«U.  S.  Pat.,  994,785,  June  13,  1911. 


percent  of  the  original  caffein ;  while  for 
"sugar  glazed"  coffee  the  losses  were  18.3 
percent  of  the  original  fat  and  44.3  percent 
of  the  original  caffein,  using  8  to  9  percent 
sugar  with  Java  coffee. 

Grinding  and  Packaging 

It  is  a  curious  fact  that  green  coffee  im- 
proves upon  aging,  whereas  after  roasting 
it  deteriorates  with  time.  Even  when 
packed  in  the  best  containers,  age  shows  to 
a  disadvantage  on  the  roasted  bean.  This 
is  due  to  a  number  of  causes,  among  which 
are  oxidation,  volatilization  of  the  aroma, 
absorption  of  moisture  and  consequent 
hydrolysis,  and  alteration  in  the  character 
of  the  aromatic  principles.  Doolittle  and 
Wright'''  in  the  course  of  some  extensive  ex- 
periments found  that  roasted  coffee  showed 
a  continual  gain  in  weight  throughout  60 
weeks,  this  gain  being  mostly  due  to  mois- 
ture ab.sorption.  An  investigation  by 
Gould"  also  demonstrated  that  roasted  cof- 
fee gives  off  carbon  dioxid  and  carbon 
monoxid  upon  standing.  The  latter,  ap- 
parently produced  during  roasting  and 
retained  by  the  cellulffr  structure  of  the 
bean,  diffuses  therefrom;  whereas  the 
former  comes  from  an  ante-roasting  decom- 
position of  unstable  compounds  present.'* 

The  surface  of  the  whole  bean  forms  a 
natural  protection  against  atmospheric  in- 
fluences, and  as  soon  as  this  is  broken,  de- 
terioration sets  in.  On  this  account,  coffee 
should  be  ground  immediately  before  ex- 
traction if  maximum  efficiency  is  to  be 
obtained.  The  cells  of  the  beans  tend  to 
retain  the  fugacious  aromatic  principles  to 
a  certain  extent ;  so  that  the  more  of  these 
which  are  broken  in  grinding,  the  greater 
will  be  the  initial  loss  and  the  more  rapid 
the  vitiation  of  the  coffee.  It  might,  there- 
fore, seem  desirable  to  grind  coarsely  in 
order  to  avoid  this  as  much  as  possible. 
However,  the  coarser  the  grind,  the  slower 
and  more  incomplete  will  be  the  extraction. 
A  patent"  has  been  granted  for  a  grind 
which  contains  about  90  percent  fine  coffee 
and  10  percent  coarse,  the  patentee's  claim 
being  that  in  his  "irregular  grind"  the 
coarse  coffee  retains  enough  of  the  volatile 
constituents  to  flavor  the  beverage,  while 
the  fine  coffee  gives  a  very  high  extraction, 

".4m.  J.  P^ar»»./l915   (vol.  Ixxxvil :  pp.  524-26). 

"  Orig.  Com.  8th  Intern.  Cong.  Appl.  Chetn. 
(Apprn  )    (vol.  xxvl  :  p.  389) 

'♦  Ten  d  Coffee  Trade  Jour.,  1920  (vol.  xxxlx  :  pp. 
318-19). 

«  King,  J.  E.  :     U.  S.  Pat.  1,263,434. 


168 


ALL     ABOUT     COFFEE 


thus  giving  an  efficient  brew  without  sacri- 
ficing individuality. 

In  packaging  roasted  coffee  the  whole 
bean  is  naturally  the  best  form  to  employ, 
but  if  the  coffee  is  ground  first,  King'" 
found  that  deterioration  is  most  rapid  with 
the  coarse  ground  coffee,  the  speed  decreas- 
ing with  the  size  of  the  ground  particles. 
He  explains  this  on  the  ground  of  ' '  ventila- 
tion"—  the  finer  the  grind,  the  closer  the 
particles  pack  together,  the  less  the  circula- 
tion of  air  through  the  mass,  and  the 
smaller  the  amount  of  aroma  which  is  car- 
ried away.  He  also  found  that  glass  makes 
the  best  container  for  coffee,  with  the  tin 
can,  and  the  foil-lined  bag  with  an  inner 
lining  of  glassine,  not  greatly  inferior. 

Considerable  publicity  has  been  given 
recently  to  the  method  of  packing  coffee  in 
a  sealed  tin  under  reduced  pressure.  While 
thus  packing  in  a  partial  vacuum  undoubt- 
edly retards  oxidation  and  precludes  escape 
of  aroma  from  the  original  package,  it 
would  seem  likely  to  hasten  the  initial  vola- 
tilizing of  the  aroma.  Also,  it  would  appear 
from  Gould's"  work  that  roasted  coffee 
evolves  carbon  dioxid  until  a  certain  posi- 
tive pressure  is  attained,  regardless  of  the 
initial  pressure  in  the  container.  Accord- 
ingly, vacuum-packing  apparently  enhances 
decomposition  of  certain  constituents  of 
coffee.  "Whether  this  result  is  beneficial  or 
otherwise  is  not  quite  clear. 

Brewing 

The  old-time  boiling  method  of  making 
coffee  has  gone  out  of  style,  because  the 
average  consumer  is  becoming  aware  of  the 
fact  that  it  does  not  give  a  drink  of  maxi- 
mum efficiency.  Boiling  the  ground  coffee 
with  water  results  in  a  large  loss  of  aro- 
matic principles  by  steam  distillation,  a 
partial  hydrolysis  of  insoluble  portions  of 
the  grounds,  and  a  subsequent  extraction  of 
the  products  thus  formed,  which  give  a  bit- 
ter flavor  to  the  beverage.  Also,  the  main- 
tenance of  a  high  temperature  by  the  direct 
application  of  heat  has  a  deleterious  effect 
upon  the  substances  in  solution.  This  is 
also  true  in  the  ease  of  the  pumping  perco- 
lator, and  any  other  device  wherein  the 
solution  is  caused  to  pass  directly  into 
steam  at  the  point  where  heat  is  applied. 
Warm  and  cold  water  extract  about  the 
same  amount  of  material  from  coffee;  but 
with  different  rates  of  speed,  an  increase 

"Tea  4c  Coffee  Trade  Jour.,  1917  (vol.  xxxiii :  pp. 
552-55). 

■'■' hoc.  cit.    (see  73). 


in  temperature  decreasing  the  time  neces- 
sary to  effect  the  desired  result. 

It  is  a  well  known  fact  that  rewarming  a 
coffee  brew  has  an  undesirable  effect  upon 
it.  This  is  very  probably  due  to  the  pre- 
cipitation of  some  of  the  water-soluble 
proteins  when  the  solution  cools,  and  their 
subsequent  decomposition  when  heat  is  ap- 
plied directly  to  them  in  reheating  the  solu- 
tion. The  absorption  of  air  by  the  solution 
upon  cooling,  with  attendant  oxidation, 
which  is  accentuated  by  the  application  of 
heat  in  rewarming,  must  also  be  considered. 
It  is  likewise  probable  that  when  ap  extract 
of  coffee  cools  upon  standing,  some  of  the 
aromatic  principles  separate  out  and  are 
lost  by  volatilization. 

The  method  of  extracting  coffee  which 
gives  the  most  satisfaction  is  practised  by 
using  a  grind  just  coarse  enough  to  retain 
the  individualistic  flavoring  components, 
retaining  the  ground  coffee  in  a  fine  cloth 
bag,  as  in  the  urn  system,  or  on  a  filter 
paper,  as  in  the  Tricolator,  and  pouring 
water  at  boiling  temperature  over  the  cof- 
fee. During  the  extraction,  a  top  should 
be  kept  on  the  device  to  minimize  volatiliza- 
tion, and  the  temperature  of  the  extract 
should  be  maintained  constant  at  about 
200°  F.  after  being  made.  Whether  a  re- 
pouring  is  necessary  or  not  is  dependent 
upon  the  speed  with  which  the  water  passes 
through  the  coffee,  which  in  turn  is  con- 
trolled by  the  fineness  of  the  grind  and  of 
the  filtering  medium. 

The  Water  Extract 

Although  many  analyses  of  the  whole 
coffee  bean  are  available,  but  little  work 
has  been  reported  upon  the  aqueous  ex- 
tracts. The  total  water  extract  of  roasted 
coffee  varies  from  20  to  31  percent  in  dif- 
ferent kinds  of  coffee.  The  following 
analysis  of  the  extract  from  a  Santos  coffee 
may  be  taken  as  a  fair  average  example  of 
the  water-soluble  material.'' 

Table    IV- — Analysis    of    Santos    Coffee  Extract 
(Dry  Basis) 

Ether  extract,  fixed 1.06% 

Total  nitrogen    3.40% 

Caffein     5.42% 

Crude    fiber    0.25% 

Total  ash    17.43% 

Reducing  sugar 2.70% 

Caffetannic   acid    15.33% 

Protein    7.71% 

It  is  difficult  to  make  the  trade  ternis, 
such  as  acidity,  astringency,  etc.,  used  in 
describing  a  cup  of  coffee,  conform  with  the 

'"Tea  d  Coffee  Trade  Jour.,  1911    (vol.  xx :  p.  34)- 


CHEMISTRY    OF    COFFEE 


169 


_emical  meanings  of  the  same  terms, 
owever,  a  fair  explanation  of  the  cause  of 
ime  of  these  qualities  can  be  made.  Care- 
1  work  by  Warnier"  showed  the  actual 
iidities  of  some  East  India  coffees  to  be : 

'ABLE  V  —  Acidity  of  Some  East  India  Coffees 
ffee  from  Acid  Content 

Sindjai    0.033% 

Timor    0.028% 

'       Bauthain     0.019% 

^K  Boengei    0.016% 

^B  Loewae    0.021% 

^^"    Waloe   Pengenteu    0.018% 

Kawi  Redjo    0.015% 

Palman    Tjiasem     0.022% 

Malang    0.013% 

These  figures  may  be  taken  as  reliable 
examples  of  the  true  acid  content  of  coffee ; 
and  though  they  seem  very  low,  it  is  not  at 
all  incomprehensible  that  the  acids  which 
they  indicate  produce  the  acidity  in  a  cup 
of  coffee.  They  probably  are  mainly  vola- 
tile organic  acids,  together  with  other 
acidic-natured  products  of  roasting.  "We 
know  that  very  small  quantities  of  acids  are 
readily  detected  in  fruit  juices  and  beer, 
and  that  variation  in  their  percentage  is 
quickly  noticed,  while  the  neutralization  of 
this  small  amount  of  acidity  leaves  an  in- 
sipid drink.  Hence,  it  seems  quite  likely 
that  this  small  acid  content  gives  to  the 
coffee  brew  its  essential  acidity.  A  few 
minor  experiments  on  neutralization  have 
proven  that  a  very  insipid  beverage  is  pro- 
duced by  thus  treating  a  coffee  infusion. 

The  body,  or  what  might  be  called  the 
licorice-like  character,  of  coffee,  is  due 
conceivably  to  the  presence  of  bodies  of  a 
glucosidic  nature  and  to  caramel.  Astrin- 
gency,  or  bitterness,  is  dependent  upon  the 
decomposition  products  of  crude  fiber  and 
chlorogenic  acid,  and  upon  the  soluble  min- 
eral content  of  the  bean.  The  degree  to 
which  a  coffee  is  sweet-tasting  or  not  is,  of 
course,  dependent  upon  its  other  charac- 
teristics, but  probably  varies  with  the  re- 
ducing sugar  content.  Aside  from  the 
effects  of  these  constituents  upon  cup  qual- 
ity, the  influence  of  volatile  aromatic  and 
flavoring  constituents  is  always  evident  in 
the  cup  valuation,  and  introduces  a  con- 
trolling factor  in  the  production  of  an 
individualistic  drink. 

Coffee  Extracts 

I  The  uncertainty  of  the  quality  of  coffee 

'        brews  as  made  from  day  to  day,  the  incon- 

^*Phnrm.  WeekM.  voor  Nederl.,  1899    (no.  13). 
Apoth.  Ztg.,  1899  (p.  14). 


venience  to  the  housewife  of  conducting  the 
extraction,  and  the  inevitable  trend  of  the 
human  race  toward  labor-saving  devices, 
have  combined  their  influences  to  produce  a 
demand  for  a  substance  which  will  give  a 
good  cup  of  coffee  when  added  to  water. 
This  gave  rise  to  a  number  of  concentrated 
liquid  and  solid  ''extracts  of  coffee,"  which, 
because  of  their  general  poor  quality,  soon 
brought  this  type  of  product  into  disrepute. 
This  is  not  surprising;  for  these  prepara- 
tions were  mainly  mixtures  of  caramel  and 
carelessly  prepared  extracts  of  chicory, 
roasted  cereals,  and  cheap  coffee. 

Liquid  extracts  of  coffee  galore  have  ap- 
peared on  the  market  only  soon  to  disap- 
pear. Difficulty  is  experienced  in  having 
them  maintain  their  quality  over  a  pro- 
tracted period  of  time,  primarily  due  to 
the  hydrolyzing  action  of  water  on  the 
dissolved  substances.  They  also  ferment 
readily,  although  a  small  percentage  of 
preservative,  such  as  benzoate  of  soda,  will 
halt  spoilage.'" 

So  much  trouble  is  not  encountered  with 
coffee-extract  powders  —  the  so-called 
"soluble"  or  "instant"  coffees.  The  ma- 
jority of  these  powdered  dry  extracts  do, 
however,  show  great  affinity  for  atmos- 
pheric moisture.  Their  hygroscopicity 
necessitates  packing  and  keeping  them  in 
air-tight  containers  to  prevent  them  run- 
ning into  a  solid,  slowly  soluble  mass. 

The  general  method  of  procedure  em- 
ployed in  the  preparation  of  these  powders 
is  to  extract  ground  roasted  coffee  with 
water,  and  to  evaporate  the  aqueous  solu- 
tion to  dryness  with  great  care.  The  major 
difficulty  which  seems  to  arise  is  that  the 
heat  needed  to  effect  evaporation  changes 
the  character  of  the  soluble  material,  at  the 
same  time  driving  off  some  volatile  con- 
stituents which  are  essential  to  a  natural 
flavor.  Many  complex  and  clever  processes 
have  been  developed  for  avoiding  these 
difficulties,  and  quite  a  number  of  patents 
on  processes,  and  several  on  the  resultant 
product,  have  been  allowed;  but  the  com- 
mercial production  of  a  soluble  coffee  of 
freshly-brewed-coffee-duplicating-power  is 
yet  to  be  accomplished.  However,  there 
are  now  on  the  market  several  coffee-extract 
powders  which  dissolve  readily  in  water, 
giving  quite  a  fair  approximation  of  freshly 
brewed    coffee.     The   improvement  shown 

<^  Jour.  Assoc.   Off.  Agri.   Chem.,  1920    (vol.   ill:  p. 
501). 


170 


ALL     ABOUT     COFFEE 


since  they  first  appeared  augurs  well  for 
the  eventual  attainment  of  their  ultimate 
goal. 

Adulterants  and  Substitutes 

There  would  appear  to  be  three  reasons 
why  substitutes  for  coffee  are  sought  —  the 
high  cost,  or  absence,  of  the  real  product; 
the  acquiring  of  a  preferential  taste,  by  the 
consumer,  for  the  substitute;  and  the  in- 
jurious effects  of  coffee  when  used  to  excess. 
Makers  of  coffee  substitutes  usually  empha- 
size the  latter  reason ;  but  many  substitutes, 
which  are,  or  have  been,  on  the  market, 
seem  to  depend  for  their  existence  on  the 
other  two.  Properly  speaking,  there  are 
scarcely  any  real  substitutes  for  coffee. 
The  substances  used  to  replace  it  are  mostly 
like  it  only  in  appearance,  and  barely  simu- 
late it  in  taste.  Besides,  many  of  them  are 
not  used  alone,  but  are  mixed  with  real 
coffee  as  adulterants. 

The  two  main  coffee  substitutes  are 
chicory  and  cereals.  Chicory,  succory, 
Cichorium  Iniybus,  is  a  perennial  plant, 
growing  to  a  height  of  about  three  feet, 
bearing  blue  flowers,  having  a  long  tap  root, 
and  possessing  a  foliage  which  is  sometimes 
used  as  cattle  food.  The  plant  is  cultivated 
generally  for  the  sake  of  its  root,  which  is 
cut  into  slices,  kiln-dried,  and  then  roasted 
in  the  same  manner  as  coffee,  usually. with 
the  addition  of  a  small  proportion  of  some 
kind  of  fat.  The  preparation  and  use  of 
roasted  chicory  originated  in  Holland, 
about  1750.  Fresh  chicory''  contains  about 
77  percent  water,  7.5  gummy  matter,  1.1  of 
glucose,  4.0  of  bitter  extractive,  0.6  fat,  9.0 
cellulose,  inulin  and  fiber,  and  0.8  ash. 
Pure  roasted  chicory"  contains  74.2  percent 
water-soluble  material,  comprised  of  16.3 
percent  water,  26.1  glucose,  9.6  dextrin  and 
inulin,  3.2  protein,  16.4  coloring  matter, 
and  2.6  ash;  and  25.8  percent  insoluble 
substances,  namely,  3.2  percent  protein,  5.7 
fat,  12.3  cellulose,  and  4.6  ash.  The  effect 
of  roasting  upon  chicory  is  to  drive  off  a 
large  percentage  of  water,  increasing  the 
reducing  sugars,  changing  a  large  propor- 
tion of  the  bitter  extractives  and  inulin,  and 
forming  dextrin  and  caramel  as  well  as  the 
characteristic  chicory  flavor. 

The  cereal  substitutes  contain  almost 
every  type  of  grain,  mainly  wheat,  rye, 
oats,  buckwheat,  and  bran.  They  are  pre- 
pared in  two  general  ways,  by  roasting  the 

»  Blyth,  Wynter.     Foods.  1909    (p.  3.59> 

»2  Petermann.    Bied.  Zentr.,  1899   (vol.  ii :  p.  211). 


grains,  or  the  mixtures  of  grains,  with  or 
Avithout  the  addition  of  such  substances  as 
sugar,  molasses,  tannin,  citric  acid,  etc.,  or 
by  first  making  the  floured  grains  into  a 
dough,  and  then  baking,  grinding,  and 
roasting.  Prior  to  these  treatments,  the 
grains  may  be  subjected  to  a  variety  of 
other  treatments,  such  as  impregnation 
with  various  compounds,  or  germination. 
The  effect  of  roasting  on  these  grains  and 
other  substitutes  is  the  production  of  a 
destructive  distillation,  as  in  the  case  of 
coffee;  the  crude  fiber,  starches,  and  other 
carbohydrates,  etc.,  being  decomposed,  with 
the  production  of  a  flavor  and  an  aroma 
faintly  suggesting  coffee. 

The  number  of  other  substitutes  and  imi- 
tations which  have  been  employed  are  too 
numerous  to  warrant  their  complete  de- 
scription; but  it  will  prove  interesting  to 
enumerate  a  few  of  the  more  important 
ones,  such  as  malt,  starch,  acorns,  soya 
beans,  beet  roots,  figs,  prunes,  date  stones, 
ivory  nuts,  sweet  potatoes,  beets,  carrots, 
peas,  and  other  vegetables,  bananas,  dried 
pears,  grape  seeds,  dandelion  roots,  rinds 
of  citrus  fruits,  lupine  seeds,  whey,  pea- 
nuts, juniper  berries,  rice,  the  fruit  of  the 
wax  palm,  cola  nuts,  chick  peas,  cassia 
seeds,  and  the  seeds  of  any  trees  and  plants 
indigenous  to  the  country  in  which  the 
substitute  is  produced. 

Aside  from  adulteration  by  mixing  sub- 
stitutes with  ground  coffee,  and  an  occa- 
sional case  of  factitious  molded  berries,  the 
main  sophistications  of  coffee  comprise 
coating  and  coloring  the  whole  beans. 
Coloring  of  green  and  roasted  coffees  is 
practised  to  conceal  damaged  and  inferior 
beans.  Lead  and  zinc  chromates,  Prussian 
blue,  ferric  oxid,  coal-tar  colors,  and  other 
substances  of  a  harmful  nature,  have  been 
employed  for  this  purpose,  being  made  to 
adhere  to  the  beans  with  adhesives.  As 
glazes  and  coatings,  a  variety  of  substances 
have  been  emplyyed,  such  as  butter,  mar- 
garin,  vegetable  oils,  paraffin,  vaseline, 
gums,  dextrin,  gelatin,  resins,  glue,  milk, 
glycerin,  salt,  sodium  bicarbonate,  vinegar, 
Irish  moss,  isinglass,  albumen,  etc.  It  is 
usually  claimed  that  coating  is  applied  to 
retain  aroma  and  to  act  as  a  clarifying 
agent;  but  the  real  reasons  are  usually  to 
increase  weight  through  absorption  of 
water,  to  render  low-grade  coffees  more  at-' 
tractive,  to  eliminate  by-products,  and  to 
assist  in  advertising. 


CHEMISTRY    OF    COFFEE 


171 


METHODS  OF  ANALYSIS  OF  COFFEES" 
{Official  and  Tentative) 


(Sole    responsibility   for   any   errors   in   compilation 
printing    of    these    metliods    is    assumed    by    the 
kuthor.i 


1^; 
Green  Coffee 
,  Macroscopic  Examination  —  Tentative 
A  macroscopic  exaniiuation  is  usually  sufficient 
)  show  the  presence  of  excessive  amounts  of 
black  and  blighted  coffee  beans,  coffee  hulls, 
stones,  and  other  foreign  matter.  These  can  be 
iparated  by  hand-picking  and  determined  gravi- 
letrically. 

Coloring  Matters  —  Tentative 

Shake  vigorously  100  grams  or  more  of  the 

iple  with  cold  water  or  70  percent  alcohol  by 
>lume.  Strain  through  a  coarse  sieve  and 
low  to  settle.  Identify  soluble  colors  in  the 
)lution  and  insoluble  pigments  in  the  sediment. 

Roasted  Coffee 
Macroscopic  Examination  —  Tentative 
Artificial  coffee  beans  are  apparent  from  their 
Sxact  regularity  of  form.  Roasted  legumes  and 
lumps  of  chicory,  when  present  in  whole  roasted 
coffee,  can  be  picked  out  and  identified  micro- 
scopically. In  the  case  of  ground  coffee,  si>rinkle 
some  of  the  sample  on  cold  water  and  stir 
lightly.  Fragments  of  pure  coffee,  if  not  over- 
roasted, will  float ;  while  fragments  of  chicory, 
legumes,  cereals,  etc.,  will  sink  immediately, 
I'hicory  coloring  the  water  a  decided  brown.  In 
all  cases  identify  the  particles  that  sink  by 
microscopical  examination. 

4.  Preparation  of  Sample  —  Official 

Grind  the  sample  to  pass  through  a  sieve  hav- 
ing holes  0.5  mm.  in  diameter  and  preserve  in  a 
tightly  stoppered  bottle. 

r>.  Moisture  —  Tentative 

Dry  5  gi'ams  of  the  sample  at  105°  - 110° C.  for 
5  hours  and  subsequent  periods  of  an  hour  each 
until  constant  weight  is  obtained.  The  same  pro- 
cedure may  be  used,  drying  in  vacuo  at  the  tem- 
perature of  boiling  water.  In  the  case  of  whole 
coffee,  grind  rapidly  to  a  coarse  powder  and 
weigh  at  once  portions  for  the  determination 
without  sifting  and  without  unnecessary  ex- 
posure to  the  air. 

6.  Soluble  Solids  —  Tentative 
Place  4  grams  of  the  sample  in  a  200-cc.  flask, 

add  water  to  the  mark,  and  allow  the  mass  to 
infuse  for  eight  hours,  with  occasional  shaking ; 
let  stand  IG  hours  longer  without  shaking,  filter, 
evaporate  50  cc.  of  filtrate  to  dryness  in  a  flat- 
bottomed  dish,  dry  at  100°  C,  cool  and  weigh. 

7.  Ash  —  Official 
Char  a  quantity  of  the  substance,  rei>resenting 

al>out  2  grams  of  the  dry  material,  and  burn 
until  free  of  carbon  at  a  low  heat,  not  to  exceed 
dull  redness.  If  a  carbon-free  ash  can  not  be 
obtained  in  this  manner,  exhaust  the  charred 
mass  with  hot  water,  collect  the  insoluble  resi- 
due on  a  filter,  burn  till  the  ash  is  white  or 
nearly  so.  and  then  add  the  filtrate  to  the  ash 
and  evaporate  to  dryness.  Heat  to  low  redness, 
until  ash  is  white  or  grayish  white,  and  weigh. 


^  Association     of     Official     Agricultural     Chemists. 
Sept.   1920. 


8.  Ash  Insoluble  in  Acid  —  Official 

Boil  the  water-insoluble  residue,  obtained  as 
directed  under  9,  or  the  total  ash  obtained  as 
directed  under  7,  with  25  cc.  of  10-perceut  hydro- 
chloric acid  (sp.  gr.  1.050)  for  5  minutes,  collect 
the  insoluble  matter  on  a  Gooch  crucible  or  an 
ashless  filter,  wash  with  hot  water,  ignite  and 
weigh. 

9.  Soluble  and  Insoluble  Ash  —  Official 

Heat  5  to  10  grams  of  the  sample  in  a  plati- 
num dish  of  from  50  to  100  cc.  capacity  at  100° 
C.  until  the  water  is  expelled,  and  add  a  few 
drops  of  pure  olive  oil  and  heat  slowly  over  a 
rtame  until  swelling  ceases.  Then  place  the  dish 
in  a  muffle  and  heat  at  low  redness  until  a  white 
ash  is  obtained.  Add  water  to  the  ash,  in  the 
platinum  dish,  heat  nearly  to  boiling,  filter 
through  ash-free  filter  paper,  and  wash  with  hot 
water  until  the  combined  filtrate  and  washings 
measure  to  about  00  cc.  Return  the  filter  and 
contents  to  the  platinum  dish,  carefully  ignite, 
cool  and  weigh.  Compute  percentages  of  water- 
insoluble  ash  and  water-soluble  ash. 

10.  Alkalinity  of  the  Soluble  Ash  —  Official 
Cool  the  filtrate  from  9  and  titrate  with  N/10 

hydrochloric  acid,  using  methyl  orange  as  an 
indicator. 

Express  the  alkalinity  in  terms  of  the  number 
of  cc.  of  N/10  acid  per  1  gram  of  the  sample. 

11.  Soluble  Phosphoric  Acid  in  the  Ash  —  Official 
Acidify  the  solution  of  soluble  ash,  obtained  in 

9,  with  dilute  nitric  acid  and  determine  phos- 
phoric acid  (PoOs).  For  percentages  up  to  5 
use  an  aliquot  corresponding  to  0.4  gram  of  sub- 
stance, for  percentages  between  5  and  20  use  an 
aliquot  corresponding  to  0.2  gram  of  substance, 
and  for  percentages  above  20  use  an  aliquot  cor- 
responding to  0.1  gram  of  substance.  Dilute  to 
75  - 100  cc,  heat  in  a  water-bath  to  60°  -  65°  C, 
and  for  percentages  below  5  add  20  -  25  cc.  of 
freshly  filtered  molybdate  solution.  For  per- 
centages between  5  and  20  add  30  -  35  cc.  of 
molybdate  solution.  For  percentages  greater 
than  20  add  sufficient  iholybdate  solution  to  in- 
sure complete  precii>itation.  Stir,  let  stand  in 
the  bath  for  about  15  minutes,  filter  at  once, 
wash  once  or  twice  with  water  by  decantation, 
using  25-30  cc.  each  time,  agitate  the  precipi- 
tate thoroughly  and  allow  to  settle;  transfer  to 
the  filter  and  wash  with  cold  water  until  the 
filtrate  from  two  fillings  of  the  filter  yields  a 
pink  color  upon  the  addition  of  phenolphthalein 
and  one  drop  of  the  standard  alkali.  Transfer 
the  precipitate  and  filter  to  the  beaker,  or  pre- 
cipitating vessel,  dissolve  the  precipitate  in  a 
small  excess  of  the  standard  alkali,  add  a  few 
drops  of  phenolphthalein  solution,  and  titrate 
with  the  standard  acid. 

12.  Insoluble    Phosphoric    Acid    in    the    Ash  — 

Official 
Determine  iihosphoric  acid    (P3O5)    in  the  in- 
soluble ash  by  the  foregoing  method. 

13.  Chlorids  —  Official 

Moisten  5  grams  of  the  substance  in  a  plati- 
num dish  with  20  cc.  of  a  5-percent  solution  of 
sodium  carbonate,  evaporate  to  dryness  and 
ignite  as  thoroughly  as  possible  at  a  temperature 
not  exceeding  dull  redness.  Extract  with  hot 
water,  filter  and  wash.     Return  the  residue  to 


172 


ALL     ABOUT     COFFEE 


the  platinum  dish  and  ignite  to  an  ash ;  dissolve 
In  nitric  acid,  and  add  this  solution  to  the 
water  extract.  Add  a  linown  volume  of  N/10 
sliver  nitrate  In  slight  excess  to  the  combined 
solutions.  Stir  well,  filter  and  wash  the  sliver 
chlorld  precipitate  thoroughly.  To  the  filtrate 
and  washings  add  5  cc.  of  a  saturated  solution 
of  ferric  alum  and  a  few  cc.  of  nitric  acid. 
Titrate  the  excess  silver  with  N/10  ammonium 
or  potassium  thlocyanate  until  a  permanent  light 
brown  color  appears.  Calculate  the  amount  of 
chlorln. 

14.  Caffein —  The  Fendler  and  Stiiber  Method  — 
Tentative 
Pulverize  the  coffee  to  pass  without  residue 
through  a  sieve  having  circular  openings  1  mm. 
in  diameter.  Treat  a  10-gram  sample  with  10 
grams  of  10-percent  ammonium  hydroxld  and 
200  grams  of  chloroform  in  a  glass-stoppered 
bottle  and  shake  continuously  by  machine  or 
hand  for  one-half  hour.  Pour  the  entire  con- 
tents of  the  bottle  on  a  12.5-cm.  folded  filter, 
covering  with  a  watch  glass.  Weigh  150  grams 
of  the  filtrate  into  a  250-cc.  flask  and  evaporate 
on  the_  steam  bath,  removing  the  last  chloroform 
with  a  blast  of  air.  Digest  the  residue  with 
80  cc.  of  hot  water  for  ten  minutes  on  a  steam 
bath  with  frequent  shaking,  and  let  cool.  Treat 
the  solution  with  20  cc.  (for  roasted  coftee)  or 
10  cc.  (for  unroasted  coffee)  of  1-percent  potas- 
sium permanganate  and  let  stand  for  15  minutes 
at  room  temperature.  Add  2  cc.  of  3-percent 
hydrogen  peroxid  (containing  1  cc.  of  glacial 
acetic  acid  in  100  cc).  If  the  liquid  is  still  red 
or  reddish,  add  hydrogen  peroxid,  1  cc.  at  a 
time,  until  the  excess  of  potassium  permanganate 
is  destroyed.  Place  the  flask  on  the  steam  bath 
for  15  minutes,  adding  hydrogen  peroxid  in 
0.5-cc.  portions  until  the  liquid  becomes  no 
lighter  in  color.  Cool  and  filter  into  a  separa- 
tory  funnel,  washing  with  cold  water.  Extract 
four  times  with  25  cc.  of  chloroform.  Evaporate 
the  chloroform  extract  from  a  weighed  flask 
with  aid  of  an  air  blast  and  dry  at  100°  C.  to 
constant  weight  (one-half  hour  is  usually  suffi- 
cient). Weigh  the  residue  as  caffein  and 
calculate  on  7.5  grams  of  coffee.  Test  the  purity 
of  the  residue  by  determining  nitrogen  and  mul- 
tiplying by  3.464  to  obtain  caffein. 

15.  Caffein  —  Power-Chestnut  Method  —  Official 
Moisten  10  grams  of  the  finely  powdered 
sample  with  alcohol,  transfer  to  a  Soxhlet,  or 
similar  extraction  apparatus,  and  extract  with 
alcohol  for  8  hours.  (Care  should  be  exercised 
to  assure  complete  extraction.)  Transfer  the 
extract  with  the  aid  of  hot  water  to  a  porcelain 
dish  containing  10  grams  of  heavy  magnesium 
oxdd  in  suspension  in  100  cc.  of  water.  (This 
reagent  should  meet  the  U.  S.  P.  requirements.) 
Evaporate  slowly  on  the  steam  bath  with  fre- 
quent stirring  to  a  dry,  powdery  mass.  Rub  the 
residue  with  a  pestle  into  a  paste  with  boiling 
water.  Transfer  with  hot  water  to  a  smooth 
filter,  cleaning  the  dish  with  a  rubber-tipped 
glass  rod.  Collect  the  filtrate  in  a  liter  flask 
marked  at  250  cc.  and  wash  with  boiling  water 
until  the  filtrate  reaches  the  mark.  Add  10  cc.  of 
10-percent  sulphuric  acid  and  boil  gently  for  30 
minutes  with  a  funnel  in  the  neck  of  the  flask. 
Cool  and  fllter  through  a  moistened  double  paper 
into  a  separatory  funnel  and  wash  with  small 


portions  of  0.5-percent  sulphuric  acid.  Extract 
with  six  successive  25-cc.  portions  of  chloro- 
form. Wash  the  combined  chloroform  ex- 
tracts in  a  separatory  funnel  with  5  cc.  of 
1-percent  potassium  hydroxld  solution.  Fil- 
ter the  chloroform  into  an  Erlenmeyer  flask. 
Wash  the  potassium  hydroxld  with  2  portions 
of  chloroform  of  10  cc.  each,  adding  them  to  the 
flask  together  with  the  chloroform  washings  of 
the  filter  paper.  Evaporate  or  disitil  on  the 
steam  bath  to  a  small  volume  (10-15  cc.) ,  trans- 
fer with  chloroform  to  a  tared,  beaker,  evaporate 
carefully,  dry  for  30  minutes  in  a  water  oven, 
and  weigh.  The  purity  of  the  residue  can  be 
tested  by  determining  nitrogen  and  multiplying 
by  the  factor  3.464. 

16.  Crude  Fiber  —  Official 

Prepare  solutions  of  sulphuric  acid  and  sodium 
hydroxld  of  exactly  1.25-percent  strength,  deter- 
mined by  titration.  Extract  a  quantity  of  the 
substance  representing  about  2  grams  of  the  dry 
material  with  ordinary  ether,  or  use  residue 
from  the  determination  of  the  ether  extract. 
To  this  residue  in  a  500-cc.  flask  add  200  cc. 
of  boiling  1.25-percent  sulphuric  acid ;  connect 
the  flask  with  a  reflux  condenser,  the  tube  of 
which  passes  only  a  short  distance  beyond  the 
rubber  stopper  into  the  flask,  or  simply  cover  a 
tall  conical  flask,  which  is  well  suited  for  this 
determination,  with  a  watch  glass  or  short 
stemmed  funnel.  Boil  at  once  and  continue  boil- 
ing gently  for  thirty  minutes.  A  blast  of  air 
conducted  into  the  flask  may  serve  to  reduce  the 
frothing  of  the  liquid.  Filter  through  linen,  and 
wash  with  boiling  water  until  the  washings  are 
no  longer  acid ;  rinse  the  substance  back  into 
the  flask  with  200  cc.  of  the  boiling  1.25-ipercent 
solution  of  sodium  hydroxld  free,  or  nearly  so, 
of  sodium  carbonate ;  boil  at  once  and  continue 
boiling  gently  for  thirty  minutes  in  the  same 
manner  as  directed  above  for  the  treatment  with 
acid.  Filter  at  once  rapidly,  wash  with  boiling 
water  until  the  washings  are  neutral.  The  last 
filtration  may  be  performed  upon  a  Gooch 
crucible,  a  linen  filter,  or  a  tared  filter  paper. 
If  a  linen  filter  is  used,  rinse  the  crude  fiber, 
after  washing  is  completed,  into  a  flat-bottomed 
platinum  dish  by  means  of  a  jet  of  water ; 
evaporate  to  dryness  on  a  steam  bath,  dry  to 
constant  weight  at  110°  C,  weigh,  incinerate 
completely,  and  weigh  again.  The  loss  in  weight 
is  considered  to  be  crude  fiber.  If  a  tared  filter 
paper  is  used,  weigh  in  a  weighing  bottle.  In 
any  case,  the  crude  fiber  after  drying  to  con- 
stant weight  at  110°  C,  must  be  incinerated  and 
the  amount  of  the  ash  deducted  from  the  original 
weight. 

17.  Starch — Tentative 

Extract  5  grams  of  the  finely  pulverized 
sample  on  a  hardened  filter  with  five  successive 
portions  (10  cc.  each)  of  ether,  wash  with  small 
portions  of  J>5-percent  alcohol  by  volume  until 
a  total  of  200  cc.  have  passed  through,  place  the 
residue  in  a  beaker  with  50  cc.  of  water,  im- 
merse the  beaker  in  boiling  water  and  stir  con- 
stantly for  15  minutes  or  until  all  the  starch  is 
gelatinized ;  cool-  to  55°  C,  add  20  cc.  of  malt 
extract  and  maintain  at  this  temperature  for  an 
hour.  Heat  again  to  boiling  for  a  few  minutes, 
cool  to  55°  C,  add  20  cc.  of  malt  extract  and 
maintain  at  this  temperature  for  an  hour  or 
until   the  residue  treated  with  iodln  shows  no 


CHEMISTRY    OF    COFFEE 


173 


l)lue  color  upon  microscopic  examination.  Cool, 
make  up  directly  to  250  cc,  and  filter.  Place 
1100  cc.  of  the  filtrate  in  a  fiask  with  20  cc.  of 
liydrochloric  acid  (sp.  gr.  1.125)  ;  connect  with  a 
loflux  condenser  and  heat  in  a  boiling  water 
bath  for  2.5  hours.  Cool,  nearly  neutralize  with 
sodium  hydroxid  solution,  and  make  up  to  500 
cc.  Mix  the  solution  well,  pour  through  a  dry 
filter  and  determine  the  dextrose  In  an  aliquot. 
Conduct  a  blank  determination  upon  the  same 
volume  of  the  malt  extract  as  used  upon  the 
sample,  and  correct  the  weight  of  reduced  cop- 

;r  accordingly.  The  weight  of  the  dextrose 
Obtained  multiplied  by  0.90  gives  the  weight  of 

tarch. 
|8.  Sugars  —  Tentative 

See  original."' 
19.  Petroleum  Ether  Extract  —  Official 

Dry  2  grams  of  coffee  at  100°  C,  extract  with 

?troleum  ether  (boiling  point  35°  to  50°  C.)  for 
IG  hours,  evaporate  the  solvent,  dry  the  residue 
It  100°  C,  cool,  and  weigh. 
Total  Aciditu  —  Tentative 

Treat  10  grams  of  the  sample,  prepared  as 
lirected  under  4,  wdth  75  cc.  of  80-percent  alco- 
hol by  volume  in  an  Erlenmeyer  flask,  stopper, 
md  allow  to  stand  16  hours,  shaking  occasion- 
illy.  Filter  and  transfer  an  aliquot  of  the 
lltrate  (25  cc.  in  the  case  of  green  coffee,  10  cc. 
In  the  case  of  roasted  coffee;  to  a  beaker,  dilute 
|o  about  100  cc.   with   water  and  titrate  with 

f/10  alkali,  using  phenolphthalein  as  an  indi- 
Bator.  Express  the  result  as  the  number  of  cc. 
)f  N/10  alkali  required  to  neutralize  the  acidity 
)f  100  grams  of  the  sample. 

21.  Volatile  Acidity  —  Tentative 

Into  a  volatile  acid  apparatus  introduce  a  few 
glass  beads,  and  over  these  place  20  grams  of 
the  unground  sample.  Add  100  cc.  of  recently 
boiled  water  to  the  sample,  place  a  sufficient 
quantity  of  recently  boiled  water  in  the  outer 
flask  and  distil  until  the  distillate  is  no  longer 
acid  to  litmus  paper.  Usually  100  cc.  of  distillate 
will  be  collected.  Titrate  the  distillate  with 
N/10  alkali,  using  phenolphthalein  as  an  indi- 
cator. Express  the  result  as  the  number  of  cc. 
of  N/10  alkali  required  to  neutralize  the  acidity 
of  100  grams  of  the  sample. 

Unofficial  Methods 

22.  Protein 

Determine  nitrogen  in  3  grams  of  the  sample 
by  the  Kjeldahl  or  Gunning  method.    This  gives 


the  total  nitrogen  due  to  both  the  proteids  and 
the  caCfein.  To  obtain  the  protein  nitrogen,  sub- 
tract from  the  total  nitrogen  the  nitrogen  due  to 
caffein,  obtained  by  direct  determination  on  the 
separated  caffein  or  by  calculation  (caffein 
divided  by  3.464  gives  nitrogen).  Multiply  by 
0.25  to  obtain  the  amount  of  protein. 

23.  Ten  Percent  Extract  —  McGill  Method 
Weigh  into  a  tared  flask  the  equivalent  of  10 

grams  of  the  dried  substance,  add  water  until 
the  contents  of  the  flask  weigh  110  grams,  con- 
nect with  a  reflux  condenser  and  heat,  beginning 
the  boiling  in  10  to  15  minutes.  Boil  for  1  hour, 
cool  for  15  minutes,  weigh  again,  making  up 
any  loss  by  the  addition  of  water,  filter,  and 
take  the  specific  gravity  of  the  filtrate  at  15°  C. 

According  to  McGill,  a  10-percent  extract  of 
pure  coffee  has  a  specific  gravity  of  1.00986  at 
15°  C,  and  under  the  same  treatment  chicory 
gives  an  extract  with  a  specific  gravity  of 
1.02821.  In  mixtures  of  coffee  and  chicory  the 
approximate  percentage  of  chicory  may  be  cal- 
culated by  the  following  formula  : 

(1.02821  —  sp.gr.) 

Percent  of  chicory  =  100 • 

0.01835 

The  index  of  refraction  of  the  above  solution 
may  be  taken  with  the  Zeiss  immersion  refrac- 
tometer  or  with  the  Abbe  refractometer. 

With  a  10-percent  coffee  extract,  n^  20°  = 
1.3377. 

With  a  10-percent  chicory  extract,  n^  20°  = 
1.3448. 

Determinations  of  the  solids,  ash,  sugar,  nitro- 
gen, etc.,  may  be  made  in  the  10-percent  extract, 
if  desired. 

24.  Caffetannic  Acid  —  Krug's  Method^* 

Treat  2  grains  of  the  coffee  with  10  cc.  ol 
water  and  digest  for  36  hours ;  add  25  cc.  of  90- 
percent  alcohol  and  digest  24  hours  more,  filter, 
and  wash  with  90-percent  alcohol.  The  filtrate 
contains  tannin,  caffein,  color,  and  fat.  Heat  the 
filtrate  to  the  boiling  point  and  add  a  saturated 
solution  of  lead  acetate.  If  this  is  carefully 
done,  a  caffetannate  of  lead  will  be  precipitated 
containing  49  percent  of  lead.  As  soon  as  the 
precipitate  has  become  flocculent,  collect  on  a 
tared  filter,  wash  with  90-percent  alcohol  until 
free  from  lead,  wash  with  ether,  dry  and  weigh. 
The  precipitate  multiplied  by  0.51597  gives  the 
weight  of  the  caffetannic  acid. 


"^  Association     of     Official     Agricultural     Chemists. 
Sept.,    ]!)20. 


"U.  S.  Dept.  Agri.,  Div.  of  Chem.    Bull.  13  (pt.  7: 
p.  908). 


Chapter  XVIII 
PHARMACOLOGY     OF     THE     COFFEE     DRINK 

General  physiological  action  —  Effect  on  children  —  Effect  on  longev- 
ity —  Behavior  in  the  alimentary  regime  —  Place  in  dietary  —  Action 
on  bacteria  —  Use  in  medicine  —  Physiological  action  of  " caff  etannic 
acid"  —  Of  caffeol  —  Of  caffein  —  Effect  of  caffein  on  mental  and 
motor  efficiency  —  Conclusions 

By  Charles  W.  Trigg 

Indnsti-ial  Fellow  of  the  Mellon  Institute  of  Industrial  Research,  Pittsburgh,  191G-1920 


THE  published  information  regarding 
the  effects  of  coffee  drinking  on  the 
human  system  is  so  contradictory  in 
its  nature  that  it  is  hazardous  to  make 
many  generalizations  about  the  physiologi- 
cal behavior  of  coffee.  Most  of  the  investi- 
gations that  have  been  conducted  to  date 
have  been  characterized  by  incompleteness 
and  a  failure  to  be  sufficiently  comprehen- 
sive to  eliminate  the  element  of  individual 
-idiosyncrasy  from  the  results  obtained.  Ac- 
cordingly, it  is  possible  to  select  statements 
from  literature  to  the  effect  either  that  cof- 
fee is  an  ''elixir  of  life,"  or  even  a  poison. 
This  is  a  deplorable  state  of  affairs,  nor 
calculated  to  promote  the  dissemination  of 
accurate  knowledge  among  the  consuming 
public,  but  it  may  be  partly  excused  upon 
the  grounds  that  experimental  apparatus 
has  not  always  been  at  the  level  of  perfec- 
tion that  it  now  occupies.  Also,  to  do  jus- 
tice to  some  of  the  able  men  who  have 
interested  themselves  in  this  problem,  it 
should  be  said  that  some  of  their  results 
were  obtained  in  researches,  distinguished 
by  painstaking  accuracy,  which  have  ef- 
fected the  establishment  of  the  major  reac- 
tions of  ingested  coffee. 

The  Physiological  Action  of  Coffee 

Drinking  of  coffee  by  mankind  may  be 
attributed  to  three  causes :  the  demand  for, 
and  the  pleasing  effects  of,  a  hot  drink  (a 


very  small  percentage  of  the  coffee  con- 
sumed is  taken  cold),  the  pleasing  reaction 
which  its  flavors  excite  on  the  gustatory 
nerve,  and  the  stimulating  effect  which  it 
has  upon  the  body.  The  flavor  is  due 
largely  to  the  volatile  aromatic  constit- 
uents, "caffeol,"  which,  when  isolated,  have 
a  general  depressant  action  on  the  system; 
and  the  stimulation  is  caused  by  the  caffein. 
The  general  and  specific  actions  of  these  in- 
dividual components,  together  with  that  of 
the  hypothetical  "caffetannic  acid,"  are 
considered  under  separate  headings. 

Coffee  may  be  considered  a  member  of 
the  general  class  of  adjuvant,  or  auxiliary, 
foods  to  which  other  beverages  and  condi- 
ments of  negligible  inherent  food  value  be- 
long. Its  position  on  the  average  menu 
may  be  attributed  largely  to  its  palatability 
and  comforting  effects.  However,  the 
medicinal  value  of  coffee  in  the  dietary  and 
per  se  must  not  be  overlooked. 

The  ingestion  o,f  coffee  infusion  is  always 
followed  by  evidences  of  stimulation.  It 
acts  upon  the  nervous  system  as  a  powerful 
cerebro-spinal  stimulant,  increasing  mental 
activity  and  quickening  the  power  of  per- 
ception, thus  making  the  thoughts  more 
precise  and  clear,  and  intellectual  work 
easier  without  any  evident  subsegirent  de- 
pression. The  muscles  are^caused  to  con- 
tract more  vigorously,  increasing  their 
working   power   without   there   being   any 


174 


PHARMACOLOGY    OF    COFFEE 


175 


secondary  reaction  leading  to  a  diminished 
capacity  for  work.    Its  action  upon  the  cir- 
culation   is    somewhat    antagonistic;    for 
hile  it  tends  to  increase  the  rate  of  the 
eart    by    acting    directly    on    the    heart 
uscle,  it  tends  to  decrease  it  by  stimulat- 
ing the  inhibitory  center  in  the  medulla/ 
The  effect  on  the  kidneys  is  more  marked, 
he  diuretic  effect  being  shown  by  an  in- 
rease  in  water,  soluble  solids,  and  of  uric 
cid  directly  attributable  to  the  caffein  con- 
ent  of  the  coffee  taken.    In  the  alimentary 
iract  coffee  seems  to  stimulate  the  oxyntic 
ells  and  slightly  to  increase  the  secretion 
of  hydrochloric  acid,  as  well  as  to  favor  in- 
testinal peristalsis.     It  is  difficult  to  accept 
reports  of  coffee  accomplishing  both  a  de- 
crease  in  metabolism  and  an  increase  in 
body  heat;  but  if  the  production  of  heat  by 
^Bithe  demethylation  of  caffein  to  form  uric 
^Hftcid  and  a  possible  repression  of  perspira- 
^Hpion  by  coffee  be  considered,  the  simultane- 
^^Bus  occurrence  of  these  two  physiological 
^^■•eactions  may  be  credited. 
^L        The  disagreement  of  medical  authorities 
over  the  pliysiological  effects  of  coffee  is 
quite  pronounced.     This  may  be  observed 
by  a  careful  perusal  of  the  following  state- 
ments made  by  these  men.     It  will  be  no- 
ticed   that    the    majority    opinion    is    that 
coffee  in  moderation  is  not  harmful.     Just 
how  much  coffee  a  person  may  drink,  and 
still  remain  within  the  limits  of  moderation 
and  temperance,  is  dependent  solely  upon 
the  individual  constitution,  and  should  be 
decided   from   personal    experience   rather 
than  by  accepting  an  arbitrary  standard  set 
by  some  one  who  professes  to  be  an  author- 
ity on  the  matter. 

A  writer  in  the  British  Homeopathic  Re- 
vieiv^  says  that  "the  exciting  effects  of 
coffee  upon  the  nervous  system  exhibit 
themselves  in  all  its  departments  as  a  tem- 
porary exaltation.  The  emotions  are  raised 
in  pitch,  the  fancies  are  lively  and  vivid, 
benevolence  is  excited,  the  religious  sense  is 
stimulated,  there  is  great  loquacity.  .  .  . 
The  intellectual  powers  are  stimulated, 
both  memory  and  judgment  are  rendered 
more  keen  and  unusual  vivacity  of  verbal 
expression  rules  for  a  short  time."  He 
continues : 

Hahnemann  gives  a  characteristically  careful 
account  of  the  coffee  headache.  If  the  quantity 
of  coffee  taken  he  immoderately  great  and  the 
l>ody  he  very  excitable  and  quite  unused  to  cof- 
fee,   there  occurs  a  semilateral  headache  from 


the  upper  part  of  the  parietal  hone  to  the  base 
of  the  brain.  The  cerebml  membranes  of  this 
side  also  seem  to  be  painfully  sensitive,  the 
hands  and  feet  becoming  cold,  and  sweat  ap- 
pears on  the  brows  and  palms.  The  disposition 
becomes  irritable  and  intolerant,  anxiety,  trem- 
bling and  restlessness  are  apparent.  ...  I 
have  met  with  headaches  of  this  type  which 
yielded  readily  to  coffee  and  with  many  more 
in  which  the  indicated  remedy  failed  to  act  until 
the  use  of  coffee  as  a  beverage  was  abandoned. 
The  eyes  and  ears  suffer  alike  from  the  super- 
excitation  of  coffee.  There  is  a  characteristic 
toothache  associated  with  coffee. 

In  apparent  contradiction  of  this  opin- 
ion, Dr.  Valentin  Nalpasse,'  of  the  Faculty 
of  Medicine  of  Paris,  states : 

When  coffee  is  properly  made  and  taken  in 
moderation,  it  is  a  most  valuable  drink.  It 
facilitates  the  digestion  because  it  produces  a 
local  excitement.  Its  principal  action  gives  clear 
and  stable  imaginative  power  to  the  brain.  By 
doing  that,  it  makes  intellectual  work  easy, -and, 
to  a  certain  extent,  regulates  the  functions  of 
the  brain.  The  thoughts  become  more  precise 
and  clear,  and  mental  combinations  are  formed 
with  much  greater  rapidity.  Under  the  influ- 
ence of  coffee,  the  memory  is  sometimes  sur- 
prisingly active,  and  ideas  and  words  flow  with 
ease  and  elegance.  .  .  .  Many  people  abuse 
coffee  without  feeling  any  bad  effect. 

Discussing  the  use  and  abuse  of  coffee, 
I.  N.  Love*  says : 

The  world  has  in  the  infusion  of  coffee  one  of 
its  most  valuable  beverages.  It  is  a  prompt 
diffusible  stimulant,  antiseptic  and  encourager 
of  elimination.  In  season  it  supports,  tides  over 
danger,  helps  the  appropriate  powers  of  the  sys- 
tem, whips  up  the  flagging  energies,  enhances 
the  endurance ;  but  it  is  in  no  sense  a  food,  and 
for  this  reason  it  should  be  used  temperately. 

Also  Dr.  Jonathan  Hutchinson'  makes 
the  following  weighty  pronouncement : 

In  reference  to  my  suggestion  to  give  children 
tea  and  coffee,  I  may  explain  that  it  is  done  ad- 
visedly. There  is  probably  no  objection  to  their 
use  even  at  early  ages.  They  arouse  the  duU, 
calm  the  excitable,  prevent  headaches,  and  fit  the 
brain  for  work.  They  preserve  the  teeth,  keep 
them  tight  in  their  place,  strengthen  the  vocal 
chords,  and  prevent  sore  throat.  To  stigmatize 
these  invaluable  articles  of  diet  as  "nerve  stimu- 
lants" is  an  erroneous  expression,  for  they  un- 
doubtedly have  a  right  to  rank  as  nerve 
nutrients. 

But  Dr.  Harvey  Wiley"  comes  forth  with 
evidence  on  the  other  side,  saying: 

The  effects  of  the  excessive  use  of  coffee,  tea, 
and  other  natural  caffein  beverages  is  well 
known.  Although  the  caffein  is  combined  in  these 


^Niles,    G.    M.       Tea    &    Coffee    Trade    Jour.,    1910 
(vol.  xix  :  no.  1 :  p.  27). 
"Through  The  Sun,  New  York,  July  17.  1910. 


'  Annales  PoUtiquea  et  Littirairea,  through  Tea,  d 
Coffee  Trade  Jour.,  1906    (vol.  x:  p.  303). 

*Jour.  Am.  Med.  Assoc.,  1891    (vol.  xvl). 

s  The  Times,  London,  Oct.  1,  1904  ;  through  Tea  & 
Coffee  Trade  Jour,  1911    (vol.  xxl  :  p.  36). 

« Oood  Housekeeping,  through  Tea  d  Coffee  Trade 
Jour.,   1912    (vol.   xxiii  :   p.   237). 


176 


ALL    ABOUT     COFFEE 


beverages  naturally,  and  they  are  as  a  rule 
taken  at  meal  times,  which  mitigates  the  effects 
of  the  caffein,  they  are  recognized  by  every  one 
as  tending  to  produce  sleeplessness,  and  often 
indigestion,  stomach  disorders,  and  a  condition 
which,  for  lack  of  a  better  term,  is  described 
as  nervousness.  .  .  .  The  excessive  drinking  of 
tea  and  coffee  is  acknowledged  to  be  injurious 
by  practically  all  specialists. 

Dr.  V.  C.  Vaughn/  of  the  University  of 
Michigan,  speaking  of  tea  and  coffee,  ex- 
presses this  opinion : 

I  believe  that  caffein  used  as  a  beverage  and 
in  moderation  not  only  is  harmless  to  the  ma- 
jority of  adults,  but  is  beneficial. 

This  verdict  is  upheld  by  the  results  of  a 
symposium"  conducted  by  the  Medical 
Times,  in  which  a  large  majority  of  the 
medical  experts  participating,  among  whom 
may  be  enumerated  Drs.  Lockwood,  Wood, 
Hollingworth,  Robinson,  and  Barnes, 
agreed  that  the  drinking  of  coffee  is  not 
harmful  per  se,  but  that  over-indulgence  is 
the  real  cause  of  any  ill  effects.  This  is  also 
true  of  any  ingested  material. 

Insomnia  is  a  condition  frequently  at- 
tributed to  coffee,  but  that  the  authorities 
disagree  on  this  ground  is  shown  by 
Wiley's*  contention,  "We  know  beyond 
doubt  that  the  caffein  (in  coffee)  makes  a 
direct  attack  on  the  nerves  and  causes  in- 
somnia." While  Woods  Hutchinson'  ob- 
serves : 

Oddly  enough,  a  cup  of  hot,  weak  tea  or  coffee, 
with  plenty  of  cream  and  sugar,  will  often  help 
you  to  sleep,  for  the  grateful  warmth  and  stimu- 
lus to  the  lining  of  the  stomach,  drawing  the 
blood  into  it  and  away  from  the  head,  will  pro- 
duce more  soothing  effects  than  the  small  amount 
of  caffein  will  produce  stimulating  and  wakeful 
ones. 

The  writer  has  often  had  people  remark 
to  him  that  while  black  coffee  sometimes 
kept  them  awake,  coffee  with,  cream  or 
sugar  or  both  made  them  drowsy. 

In  the  course  of  experiments  conducted 
by  Montuori  and  Pollitzer'"  it  was  found 
that  coffee  prepared  by  hot  infusion  when 
given  by  mouth  or  hypodermically  with  the 
addition  of  a  small  dose  of  alcohol  proved 
an  efficient  means  of  combating  the  perni- 
cious effects  of  low  temperatures.  Coffee 
prepared  by  boiling,  and  tea,  showed  nega- 
tive effects. 

The  value  of  coffee  as  a  strength-con- 
server,  and  its  function  of  increasing  en- 

■    '  Tea  d  Coffee  Trade  Jour.,  1913  (vol.  xxiv  :  p.  455). 

» Tea  &  Coffee  Trade  Jour.,  1912  (vol.  xxiii :  p. 
356). 

'  Good  Housekeeping,  through  Tea  &  Coffee  Trade 
Jour.,  1915    (vol.  xxviii :  p.  533). 

^'>  Atti.  accad.  Lincei,  1915  (vol.  xxiv:  no.  2:  pp. 
543-48). 


durance,  morale,  and  healthfulness,  was 
demonstrated  by  the  great  stress  which  the 
military  authorities,  in  the  late  and  in  pre- 
vious wars,  placed  upon  furnishing  the 
soldiers  with  plenty  of  good  coffee,  particu- 
larly at  times  when  they  were  under  the 
greatest  strain.  Various  articles"  record 
this  fact;  and  these  statements  are  further 
borne  out  by  the  data  given  below  in  the 
discussion  of  the  physiological  effects  of 
caffein,  to  which  the  majority  of  the  stimu- 
lating effects  of  coffee  may  be  attributed. 

According  to  Fauvel,'^  with  a  healthy 
patient  on  a  vegetable  diet,  chocolate  and 
coffee  increase  the  excretion  of  purins, 
diminishing  the  excretion  of  uric  acid  and 
apparently  hindering  the  precipitation  of 
uric  acid  in  the  organism.  This  diminu- 
tion, however,  was  not  due  to  retention  of 
uric  acid  in  the  organism. 

"Habit-forming"  is  one  of  the  adjectives 
often  used  in  describing  coffee,  but  it  is  a 
fact  that  coffee  is  much  less  likely  than  alco- 
holic liquors  to  cause  ill  effects.  A  man 
rarely  becomes  a  slave  of  coffee ;  and  exces- 
sive drinking  of  this  beverage  never  pro- 
duces a  state  of  moral  irresponsibility  or 
leads  to  the  commission  of  crime.  Dr.  J.  W. 
Mallet,"  in  testimony  given  before  a  Fed- 
eral Court,  stated  that  caffein  and  coffee 
were  not  habit-forming  in  the  correct  sense 
of  the  term.  His  definition  of  the  expres- 
sion is  that  the  habit  formed  must  be  a 
detrimental  and  injurious  one  —  one  which 
becomes  so  firmly  fixed  upon  a  person  form- 
ing it  that  it  is  thrown  off  with  great  diffi- 
culty and  with  considerable  suffering, 
continuous  exercise. of  the  habit  increasing 
the  demand  for  the  habit-forming  drug. 
It  is  well  known  that  the  desire  ceases  in  a 
very  short  period  of  time  after  cessation  of 
use  of  caffein-containing  beverages,  so  that 
in  that  sense,  coffee  is  not  habit-forming. 

It  has  been  shown  by  Gourewitsch"  that 
the  daily  administration  of  coffee  produces 
a  certain  degree  of  tolerance,  and  that  the 
doses  must  be  increased  to  obtain  toxic  re- 
sults. Harkness"  has  been  quoted  as  stat- 
mg  that  "taken  in  moderation,  coffee  is  one 
of  the  most  w^holesome  beverages  known. 
It  assists  digestion,  exhilarates  the  spirits, 
and  counteracts  the  tendency  to  sleep." 

"  Nalpasse,  Dr.  Valentin,  loc.  cit.    (see  3). 
Flint,  Dr.  Austin  B.    Text  Book  of  Physiology. 
Wood,  H.  C,  Jr.    Therapeutic  Gazette,  1912    (vol. 
xxxvi :  p.   13). 

^  Compt,  rend.   (vol.  cxlviii :  p.  1541). 
"  Tea   &    Coffee    Trade   Jour.,    1914    (vol.    xxvi :    p. 
5.39). 

^*Arch.  exp.  Path.  Pharm.,  1907   (vol.  Ivii  :  p.  214). 
^^  Universal  Dictionary,  1897   (vol.  i:  p.  1097). 


ALL     ABOUT     COFFEE 


Men  and  Women  Laborers  Picking  Cofi-ee  on  a  Sao  Paulo  Estate 


¥ 


SACKING    COFIEE    IN    A    WAUEJIOUSE   AT   THE   POBT   OF    SANTOS 

PICKING  AND  SACKING  COFFEE  IN  BRAZIL 


PHARMACOLOGY    OF    COFFEE 


177 


Carl  V.  Voit,"  the  German  physiological 
chemist,  says  this  about  coffee: 

The  effect  of  coffee  is  that  we  are  bothered 
[less  by  uupleasant  experiences  and  become  more 
[able  to  conquer  difficulties;    therefore,  for   the 

feasting  rich,  it  makes  intestinal  work  after  a 

meal  le^^s  evident  and  drives  away  the  deadly 
( ennui ;  for  the  student  it  is  a  means  to  keep  wide 

awake  and  fresh ;  for  the  worker  it  makes  the 

day's  fatigue  more  bearable. 

Dr.  Brady"  believes  that  the  so-called 
,harmfulness  of  coffee  is  mainly  psychologi- 
jcal,  as  evidenced  by  his  expression,  ''Most 
I  of  the  prejudice  which  exists  against  coffee 
as  a  beverage  is  based  upon  nothing  more 
(than  morbid  fancy.  People  of  dyspeptic 
for  neurotic  temperament  are  fond  of  assum- 
ing that  coffee  must  be  bad  because  it  is  so 
good,  and  accordingly,  denying  themselves 
the  pleasure  of  drinking  it." 

The  recounting  of  evidence,  both  pro  and 

con,  relevant  to  the  general  effects  of  coffee 

tcould  continue  almost  ad  infinitum,  but  the 

fairest  unification  of  the  various  opinions  is 

best  quoted  from  Woods  Hutchinson ' : 

Somewhere  from  1  to  3  percent  of  the  com- 
munity are  distinctly  injured  or  poisoned  by 
tea  or  coffee,  even  small  amounts  producing 
burning  of  the  stomach,  palpitation  of  the  heart, 
headache,  eruptions  of  the  skin,  sensations  of 
extreme  nervousness,  and  so  on ;  though  the  re- 
maining 97  i>ercent  are  not  injured  by  them  in 
I  any  appreciable  way  if  consumed  in  moderation. 

So,  if  one  is  personally  satisfied  that  he 
belongs  to  the  abnormal  minority,  and  has 
not  been  argued  by  fallacious  reasoning 
into  his  belief  that  coffee  injures  him,  he 
should  either  reduce  his  consumption  of 
coffee  or  let  it  alone.  Even  those  most 
vitally  interested  in  the  commercial  side  of 
coffee  will  admit  that  this  is  the  logical 
procedure. 

Effects  of  Coffee  on  Children 

The  same  sort  of  controversy  has  raged 
around  the  question  of  the  advisability  of 
giving  coffee  to  children  as  has  occurred 
regarding  its  general  action.  Dr.  J. 
Hutchinson"*  advocates  furnishing  children 
with  coffee,  while  Dr.  Charlotte  Abbey""  is 
strongly  against  such  a  practise,  claiming 
that  use  of  caffein-containing  beverages  be- 
fore the  attainment  of  full  growth  will 
weaken  nerve  power.     Nalpasse"  observes 

"  Handhuch  der  Physiologic,  1881   (vol.  vi :  p.  435). 

"r/ie  CoScc  Club,  1921    (vol.  i:  p.  4). 

"  Saturday  Evening  Post,  throujih  Tea  d  Coffee 
Trade  Jour,  1914    ^vol.  xxvii :  p.  5St)). 

*»  hoc.  cit.    (see  5). 

''Seven  Truths  to  Teach  the  Young  in  Regard  to 
Life  and  Sex,  No.  2. 

**  Loc.  cit.    (see  3). 


that  until  fully  developed  the  young  are 
immoderately  excited  by  coffee ;  and  Hawk" 
is  of  the  opinion  that  to  give  such  a  stimu- 
lant to  an  active  school-child  is  both  logi- 
cally and  dietetically  incorrect.  Dr. 
Vaughn"  advances  this  scientific  argument 
against  the  drinking  of  coffee  by  children 
under  seven  years  of  age : 

In  proportion  to  body  weight  the  young  con- 
tain more  of  the  xanthin  bases  than  adults. 
They  are  already  laden  with  these  physiological 
stimulants,  and  the  additional  dose  given  in  tea 
or  coffee  may  be  harmful. 

In  a  study  of  the  effects  of  coffee  drink- 
ing upon  464  school  children,  C.  K,  Tay- 
lor'* found  a  slight  difference  in  mental 
ability  and  behavior,  unfavorable  to  coffee. 
About  29  percent  of  these  children  drank 
no  coffee ;  46  percent  drank  a  cup  a  day ; 
12  percent,  2  cups;  8  percent,  3  cups;  and 
the  remainder,  4  or  more  cups  a  day.  The 
measurements  of  height,  weight,  and  hand 
strength  also  showed  a  slight  advantage  in 
favor  of  the  non-coffee  drinkers.  If  these 
results  be  talfen  as  truly  representative, 
their  indication  is  obvious.  However,  it 
seems  desirable  to  repeat  these  experiments 
upon  other  groups ;  at  the  same  time  noting 
carefully  the  factors  of  environment,  and 
other  diet,  before  any  criterion  is  made. 

As  a  refutation  to  this  experimental  evi- 
dence is  the  practical  experience  of  the  in- 
habitants of  the  Island  of  Groix,  off  the 
Brittany  coast,  whose  annual  consumption 
of  coffee  is  nearly  30  pounds  per  cxpita, 
being  ingested  both  as  the  roasted  bean  and 
as  an  infusion.  It  is  reported  that  many 
of  the  children  are  nourished  almost  en- 
tirely on  coffee  soup  up  to  ten  years  of  age, 
yet  the  mentality  and  physique  of  the 
populace  does  not  fall  below  that  of  others 
of  the  same  stock  and  educational  oppor- 
tunities," "• 
Pertinent  in  this  connection  is  Hawk^s"* 
statement  that  young  mothers  should  re- 
frain from  the  use  of  coffee,  as  caffein 
stimulates  the  action  of  the  kidneys  and 
tends  to  bring  about  a  loss  from  the  body 
of  some  of  the  salts  necessary  to  the  de- 
velopment of  the  unborn  child  as  well  as 
for  the  proper  production  of  milk  during 
the  nursing  period.  The  caffein  of  coffee 
also  increases  the  flow  of  milk,  but  the  milk 
produced  is  correspondingly  dilute  and  a 
later  decreased  secretion  may  be  expected. 

"Ladies'  Home  Journal,  Dec,  1916  (p.  37). 

'^  Loc.  cit.    (see  7). 

^  Psych.  Clin.    (vol.  vi  :  pp.  56-5S). 

"Tea  d  Coffee  Trade  Jour.,  June,  1905   (p.  274). 


178 


ALL     ABOUT     COFFEE 


Furthermore,  some  of  the  caffein  of  the 
coffee  may  pass  into  the  mother's  milk,  thus 
reaching  the  child,  so  that  the  use  of  coffee 
during  the  nursing  period  is  undesirable  on 
this  ground  also."  Naturally,  the  question 
arises  as  to  whether  this  arra^ignment  is 
purely  theoretical  or  based  upon  analytical 
and  clinical  data. 

It  is  a  difficult  matter  definitely  to  set 
an  age  below  which  coffee  should  not  be 
drunk,  as  the  time  of  reaching  maturity 
varies  with  climate  and  ancestral  origin. 
Yet,  from  a  theoretical  standpoint,  chil- 
dren before  or  during  the  adolescent  period 
should  be  limited  to  the  use  of  a  rather 
small  amount  of  tea  and  coffee  as  bever- 
ages, as  their  poise  and  nerve  control  have 
not  reached  a  stage  of  development  suffi- 
cient to  warrant  the  stimulation  incident 
to  the  consumption  of  an  appreciable  quan- 
tity of  caffein. 

Coffee  Drinking  and  Longevity 

There  are  many  who  would  have  us  be- 
lieve that  the  use  of  coffee  is  only  a  means 
toward  the  end  of  quickly  reaching  the 
great  beyond;  but  it  is  known  that  the 
habitual  coffee  drinker  generally  enjoys 
good  health,  and  some  of  the  longest-lived 
people  have  used  it  from  their  earliest 
youth  without  any  apparent  injury  to  their 
health.  Nearly  every  one  has  an  acquaint- 
ance who  has  lived  to  a  ripe  old  age  despite 
the  use  of  coffee.    Quoting  Metchnikoff'' : 

In  some  cases  centenarians  have  been  much 
addicted  to  the  drinlving  of  coffee.     The  reader 
will  recall  Voltaire's  reply  when  his  doctor  de- 
scribed   the    grave   harm    that  comes   from    the 
abuse   of  coffee,   which   acts  as   a   real   poison. 
"Well",    said   Voltaire,    "I   have   been   poisoning 
myself  for  nearly  eighty  years."    There  are  cen- 
tenarians who  have  lived  longer  than  Voltaire, 
and   have   drunk    still    more   coffee.      Elizabeth^ 
Dririeux,  a  native  of  Savoy,  reached  the  age  of  1 
114.     Her  principal  food  was  coffee,  of  which  i 
she   took    daily   as   many   as   forty    small    cups. 
She  was  jovial  and  a  boon  table  companion,  and 
used  black  coffee  in  quantities  that  would  have 
surprised  an  Arab.     Her  coffee-pot  was  always 
on  the  fire,  like  the  tea-pot  in  an  English  cot- 
tage  (Lejoncourt,  p.  84;  Chemin,  p.  147). 

The  entire  matter  resolves  itself  into  one 
of  individual  tolerance,  resistivity,  and 
constitution.  Numerous  examples  of  young 
abstainers  who  have  died  and  coffee 
drinkers  who  have  still  lived  on  can  be 
found,  and  vice  versa,  the  preponderance 
of  instances  being  in  neither  direction. 
Bodies  of  persons  killed  by  accident  have 
been  painstakingly   examined  for  physio- 

"  The  Prolongation  oj  Life. 


logical  changes  attributable  to  coffee;  but 
no  difference  between  those  of  coffee  and 
of  non-coffee  drinkers  (ascertained  by  care- 
ful investigation  of  their  life  history) 
could  be  discerned."'  In  the  long  run,  it  is 
safe  to  say  that  the  effect  of  coffee  drinking 
upon  the  prolongation  or  shortening  of  life 
is  neutral. 

Coffee  in  the  Alimentary  Tract 

When  coffee  is  taken  per  os  it  passes  di-. 
rectly  to  the  stomach,  where  its  sole  im- 
mediate action  is  to  dilute  the  previous 
contents,  just  as  other  ingested  liquids  do. 
Eventually  the  caffein  content  is  absorbed 
by  the  system,  and  from  thence  on  a  stimu- 
lation is  appareiit.  Considerable  conjec- 
ture has  occurred  over  the  difference  in  the 
effects  of  tea  and  coffee,  the  most  feasible 
explanation  advanced  being  one  appearing 
in  the  London  Lancet.'" 

The  caffein  tannate  of  tea  is  precipitated  by 
weak  acids,  and  the  presumption  is  that  it  is 
precipitated  by  the  gastric  juice  and,  therefore, 
the  caffein  is  probably  not  absorbed  until  it 
reaches  the  alkaMne  alimentary  tract.  In  the 
\case  of  coffee,  however,  in  whatever  form  the 
caffein  may  be  present,  it  is  soluble  in  both  al- 
kaline and  acid  liuids,  and,  therefore,  the  absorp- 
tion of  the  alkaloid  probably  takes  place  in  the 
stomach. 

This  theory,  if  true,  goes  far  toward  ex- 
plaining the  more  rapid  stimulation  of 
coffee. 

The  statement  has  sometimes  been  made 
that  milk  or  cream  causes  the  coffee  liquid 
to  become  coagulated  when  it  comes  into 
contact  with  the  acids  of  the  stomach.  This 
is  true,  but  does  not  carry  with  it  the  in- 
ference that  indigestibility  accompanies 
this  coagulation.  Milk  and  cream,  upon 
reaching  the  stomach,  are  coagulated  by  the 
..gastric  juice;  but  the  casein  product 
formed  is  not  indigestible.  These  liquids, 
when  added  to  coffee,  are  partially  acted 
upon  by  the  small  acid  content  of  the  brew, 
so  that  the  gastric  juice  action  is  not  so 
pronounced,  for  the  coagulation  was  started 
before  ingestion,  and  the  coagulable  con- 
stituent, casein,  is  more  dilute  in  the  cup 
as  consumed  than  it  is  in  milk.  Accord- 
ingly, the  particles  formed  by  it  in  the 
stomach  will  be  relatively  smaller  and  more 
quickly  and  easily  digested  than  milk  per 
se.  It  has  been  observed  that  coffee  con- 
taining milk  or  cream  is  not  as  stimulating 
as  black  coffee.     The  writer  believes  that 


^  Hekteon  and  LeConte. 

» Through    Tea   &    Coffee    Trade    Jour..    1914    (vol. 
xxvi  :   pp.   29  32). 


PHARMACOLOGY    OF    COFFEE 


179 


m 


is  is  probably  due  to  mechanical  inclusion . 
caffein  in  the  casein  and  fat  particles, 

d  also  to  some  adsorption  of  the  alkaloid 
by  them.  This  would  materially  retard  the 
absorption  of  the  caffein  by  the  body, 
spread  the  action  over  a  longer  period  of 
time,  and  hence  decrease  the  maximum 
stimulation  attained. 

In  a  few  instances,  a  small  fraction  of 
one  percent  of  coffee  users,  there  is  a  cer- 
tain type  of  distress,  localized  chiefly  in  the 

imentary  tract,   caused  by  coffee,  which 

n  not  be  blamed  upon  the  much-maligned 
caffein.  The  irritating  elements  may  be 
generally  classified  as  compounds  formed 
upon  the  addition  of  cream  or  milk  to  the 
coffee  liquor,  volatile  constituents,  and 
products  formed  by  hydrolysis  of  the 
fibrous  part  of  the  grounds.  It  may  be 
generally  postulated  that  the  main  causa- 
tion of  this  discomfort  is  due  to  substances 
formed  in  the  incorrect  brewing  of  coffee, 
the  effect  of  which  is  accentuated  by  the 
addition  of  cream  or  milk,  when  the  condi- 
tion of  individual  idiosyncrasy  is  present. 

Without  enlarging  upon  his  reason,  Lo- 
rand'"  concludes  that  neither  tea  nor  coffee 
is  advisable  for  weak  stomachs.  Nalpasse," 
however,  believes  that  coffee  taken  after 
meals  makes  the  digestion  more  perfect  and 
more  rapid,  augmenting  the  secretions,  and 
that  it  agrees  equally  well  with  people  in- 
clined to  embonpoint  and  heavy  eaters 
whose  digestion  is  slow  and  difficult. 
Thompson^^  also  observes  that  coffee  drunk 
in  moderation  is  a  mild  stimulant  to  gastric 
digestion. 

Eder'^  reported,  as  the  result  of  an  in- 
quiry into  the  action  of  coffee  on  the  ac- 
tivity of  the  stomachs  of  ruminants,  that 
coffee  infusions  produced  a  transitory  in- 
crease in  the  number  and  intensity  of  the 
movements  of  the  paunch,  but  that  the  in- 
fluence exercised  was  very  irregular. 

An  elaborate  investigation  of  the  action 
of  tea  and  coffee  on  digestion  in  the  stomn, 
ach   was   made   by   Fraser,^*   in   which   hei 
found   that   both  retard   peptic   digestion,  | 
the  former  to   a  greater  degree  than  the' 
latter.    The  digestion  of  white  of  egg,  ham, 
salt  beef,  and  roast  beef  was  much  less  af- 
fected than  that  of  lamb,  fowl,  or  bread. 
Coffee  seemed  actually  to  aid  the  digestion 

'»  Old  Age  Deferred,  1910. 
^^  Loc.  cit.     (see  3). 
^Practical  Dietetics,  1017   (p.   254). 
^^  Zentr.  Biochem  Biophys,  1912    (vol.  xili :  p.  504). 
^Jour.  Anat.  d  Phyai.,  through  Tea  &  Coffee  Trade 
Jour.,  1913    (vol.  XXV  :  p.  345). 


of  egg  and  ham.  He  attributed  the  retard- 
ing effect  to  the  tannic  acid  of  the  tea  and 
the  volatile  constituents  of  the  coffee  —  the 
caffein  itself  favoring  digestion  rather  than 
otherwise.  Tea  increased  the  production  of 
i  gas  in  all  but  salt  foods,  whereas  coffee  did 
'  not.  Coffee  is,  therefore,  to  be  preferred  in 
cases  of  flatulent  dyspepsia. 

Hutchinson,  in  his  Food  and  Dietetics, 
opines : 

As  regards  the  practical  inferences  to  be 
drawn  from  experiences  and  observations,  it  may 
be  said  that  in  health  the  disturbance  of  diges- 
tion px'oduced  by  the  infused  beverages  (tea  and 
coffee)  is  negligible.  Roberts,  indeed,  goes  so 
far  as  to  suggest  that  the  slight  slowing  of  di- 
gestion which  they  produce  may  be  favored 
rather  than  otherwise,  as  tending  to  compensate 
for  too  rapid  digestibility  which  refinements  of 
manufacture  and  preparation  have  made  char- 
acteristic of  modern  foods. 

Regarding  increase  in  secretory  activity, 
Moore  and  Allanston"'  report  that  in  their 
experience  meat  extracts,  tea,  caffein  solu- 
tion, and  coffee  call  forth  a  greater  gastric 
secretion  than  does  water,  while  with  milk 
the  flow  of  gastric  juice  seems  to  be  re- 
tarded. Cushing'*  and  others  support  this 
statement.  This  action  is  partially  ex- 
plained by  Voit  on  the  grounds  that  all 
tasty  foods  increase  gastric  secretion,  the 
action  being  partly  psychological;  but 
Cushing  observed  the  same  effects  upon  in- 
troducing coffee  directly  into  the  stomachs 
of  animals. 

In  general,  a  moderate  amount  of  coffee 
stimulates  appetite,  improves  digestion  and 
relieves  the  sense  of  plenitude  in  the  stom- 
ach. It  increases  intestinal  peristalsis,  acts 
as  a  mild  laxative,  and  slightly  stimulates 
seei:£tion._ofbile.  Excessive  use,  however, 
profoundly  disturbs  digestive  function,  and 
promotes  constipation  and  hemorrhoids." 
There  is  much  evidence  to  support  the  view 
that  "neither  tea,  coffee,  nor  chicory  in 
dilute  solutions  has  any  deleterious  action 
on  the  digestive  ferments,  although  in 
strong  solutions  such  an  action  may  be 
manifest.'"'  After  conducting  exhaustive 
experiments  with  various  types  of  coffee, 
Lehmann''  concluded  that  ordinary  coffee  is 
without  effect  on  the  digestion  of  the  ma- 
jority of  sound  persons,  and  may  be  used 
with  impunity. 

^Lancet,  Dec  2,   1911. 
^^Pharmacology,  1913    (p.  258). 

"  Butler.  Materia  Medica,  Therapeutics  and  Pharma- 
cology, 1906   (p.  256). 

»«Tognmi,  K.     Biochem.  Zeit  ,  1908  (vol.  ix  :  p.  453). 
'» Munch.  Med.  Wochcnschr.  (vol.  Ix  :  pp.  281-85.  357- 
61). 

Naturwias.   Umschau.  d.  Chem.,  Ztg.  1913    (p.  4). 
Schxoeiz.  Wochenachr.  (vol.  11:  pp.  490-92). 


180 


ALL     ABOUT     COFFEE 


Coffee  in  the  Dietary  —  Food  Value 

There  are  three  things  to  be  considered 
in  deciding  upon  the  inclusion  of  a 
substance  in  the  dietary  —  palatability,  di- 
gestibility without  toxicity  or  disarrange- 
ment, and  calorific  value.  Coffee  is  as 
satisfactory  from  these  viewpoints  as  any 
other  food  product. 

The  palatability  of  a  well-made  cup  of 
good  coffee  needs  no  eulogizing;  it  speaks 
for  itself.  It  adds  enormously  to  the  at- 
tractiveness of  the  meal,  and  to  our  ability 
to  eat  with  relish  and  appetite  large 
amounts  of  solid  foods,  without  a  subse- 
quent uncomfortable  feeling.  Wiley^"  says 
that  the  feeling  of  drowsiness  after  a  full 
meal  is  a  natural  condition  incidental  to 
the  proper  conduct  of  digestion,  and  that 
to  drive  away  this  natural  feeling  with  cof- 
fee must  be  an  interference  with  the  normal 
condition.  However,  if  by  so  doing,  we  can 
increase  our  over-all  efficiency  without  ma- 
terial harm  to  our  digestive  organs  (and 
we  can  and  do),  the  procedure  has  much 
in  its  favor  both  psychologically  and 
dietetically. 

The  fact  that  coffee  favors  digestion 
without  eventual  disarrangement  has  been 
demonstrated  above.  On  the  subject  of  the 
relative  agreement  with  the  constitution  of 
foods  of  daily  consumption.  Dr.  English" 
said: 

It  is  well  known  that  there  is  no  species  of 
diet  which  invariably  suits  all  constitutions,  nor 
will  that  which  is  palatable  and  salutary  at  one 
time  be  equally  palatable  and  salutary  at  an- 
other time  to  the  same  individual.  I  think  the 
most  natural  food  provided  for  us  is  milk ;  yet  I 
will  engage  to  show  twenty  instances  where  milk 
disagrees  more  than  coffee. 

Further  in  this  regard,  Hutchinson^" 
considers  that  ninety  percent  of  the  "dys- 
pepsias" attributed  to  coffee  are  due  to 
malnutrition,  or  to  food  simultaneously  in- 
gested, no  disease  known  to  the  medical 
profession  being  directly  attributable  to  it. 

No  one  cognizant  of  the  facts  will  con- 
tend that  a  cup  of  black  coffee  has  any  di- 
rect food  value ;  but  not  so  with  the  roasted 
bean.  This  has  quite  an  appreciable  content 
of  protein  and  fat,  both  substances  of  high 
calorific  value.  The  inhabitants  of  the 
Island  of  Groix  eat  the  whole  roasted  coffee 
bean  in  considerable  quantity,  and  seem  to 
obtain  considerable  nourishment  therefrom. 
Also,    the    Galla,    a    wandering    tribe    of 

*^  hoc.  cit.    (see  6). 

■•1  Through  Tea  d  Coffee  Trade  Jour.,  1916  (vol. 
XXX :  p.  443). 

*^Tea  d  Coffee  Trade  Jour.,  1909   (vol.  xvi  :  p.  271). 


Africa,  make  large  use  of  food  balls,  about 
the  size  of  billiard  balls,  consisting  of  pul- 
verized coffee  held  in  shape  with  fat.  One 
ball  is  said  to  contain  a  day's  ration;  and, 
because  of  its  food  content  and  stimulating 
power,  serves  to  sustain  them  on  long 
marches  of  days'  duration. 

When  an  infusion,  or  decoction,  of 
roasted  coffee  is  made,  about  1.25  percent 
of  the  extracted  matter  is  protein,  it  being 
accompanied  by  traces  of  dextrin  and 
sugar.  The  same  dearth  of  extraction  of 
food  materials  occurs  upon  infusing  coffee 
substitutes.  This  small  amount  can  have 
but  little  dietetic  significance.  However, 
upon  addition  of  sugar  and  of  milk  or 
cream,  with  their  content  of  protein,  fat, 
and  lactose,  the  calorific  value  of  .the  cup 
of  coffee  rises.  Lusk  and  Gephart"  give 
the  food  value  of  an  ordinary  restaurant 
cup  of  coffee  as  195.5  calories,  and  Locke" 
gives  it  as  156. 

Mattei""  found  that  8  cc.  of  an  infusion 
of  roaSited  Mocha  coffee  of  five-percent 
strength  suppressed  incipient  polyneuritis 
in  pigeons  within  a  few  hours'  time.  Their 
weight  did  not  improve,  but  otherwise  they 
were  completely  restored  to  health.  How- 
ever, in  from  four  to  six  weeks  after  the 
apparent  cure,  the  symptoms  rapidly  re- 
turned and  the  pigeons  perished,  with 
symptoms  of  paralysis  and  cerebral  com- 
plications. The  temporary  cure  was  prob- 
ably due  to  caffein  stimulation  and  sec- 
onciary  actions  of  the  volatile  constituents 
of  coffee,  which  may  be  related  to  the  vita- 
mines;  for  it  is  not  likely  that  the  vita- 
mines  would  withstand  the  heat  of  roasting. 
If  B-vitamine  does  occur  in  roasted  coffee, 
it  is  present  only  in  traces."" 

The  inclusion  of  coffee  in  the  average 
dietary  is  warranted  because  of  its  evident 
worth  as  an  aid  to  digestion  and  for  its  as- 
similating power,  thus  earning  its  charac- 
terization as  an  "adjuvant  food." 

Action  of  Coffee  on  Bacteria 

The  employment  of  coffee  as  an  aid  to 
sanitation  has  been  but  little  considered. 
Coffee,  when  freshly  roasted  and  ground,  is 
deodorant,  antiseptic,  and  germicidal, 
probably  due  to  the  empyreumatic  products 
developed  during  the  process  of  roasting. 
An  infusion  of  0.5  percent  inhibits  the 
growth  of  many  pathogenic  organisms,  and 

"  Prankel.   F.   H.      Tea  &   Coffee   Trade  Jour.,   191C 
(vol.  xxxi :  p.  446). 
**Food  Values,  1914    (p.   54). 
**^  PoHclin.,  1920   (no.  27:  p.   1011). 
"''Funk,  C.     The  Vitamines,  1922   (p.  270). 


PHARMACOLOGY    OF    COFFEE 


181 


those  of  10  percent  kill  anthrax  bacteria  in 
three  hours,  cholera  spirilla  in  four  hours, 
and  many  other  bacteria,  including  those 
producing  typhoid,  in  two  to  six  days." 

The  maintenance  of  a  low  rate  of  contrac- 
tion of  typhoid  fever  has  often  been  at- 
tributed to  drinking  of  coffee  instead  of 
water,  the  action  of  the  coffee  being  partly 
due  to  the  bactericidal  effect  of  the  caffeol 
and  partly  to  the  boiling  of  the  water  be- 
fore infusion.  The  stimulating  tendency  of 
the  caffein  to  sustain  and  to  "tide  over" 
those  of  low  vitalities  is  also  evidenced. 

Use  of  Coffee  in  Medicine 

Coffee  has  been  employed  in  medicinal 
practise  as  a  direct  specific,  as  a  preven- 
tive, and  as  an  antidote.  The  United  States 
Dispensatory*''  summarizes  the  uses  of  caf- 
fein and  coffee  as  follows : 

Caffein  is  a  valuable  remedy  in  practical 
medicine  as  a  cerebral  and  cardiac  stimulant 
and  as  a  diuretic.  In  undue  somnolence,  in  ner- 
vous headache,  in  narcotism,  also,  at  times 
when  the  exigencies  of  life  require  excessively 
prolonged  wakefulness,  caffein  may  be  used  as 
the  most  powerful  agent  known  for  producing 
wakefulness.  In  a  series  of  experiments, 
J.  Hughes  Bennett  found  that  within  narrow 
limits  there  is  a  direct  physiological  antagonism 
lietween  caffein  and  morphine.  Coffee  and  caf- 
fein in  narcotic?  poisoning  are  of  value  as  a 
means  of  keeping  the  patient  awake,  and  of 
stimulating  the  respiratory  centres. 

As  a  cardiac  stimulant,  caffein  may  be  used 
in  any  form  of  heart  failure:  the  indications  for 
its  use  are  those  which  call  for  the  employment 
of  digitalis.  It  is  superior  to  digitalis  in  never 
disagreeing  with  the  stomach,  in  having  no  dis- 
tinctive cumulative  tendency,  and  in  the  prompt- 
ness of  its  action.  It  is  pronouncedly  inferior 
to  digitalis  in  the  power  and  certainty  of  its 
action,  and  in  the  permanence  of  its  influence 
once  asserted.  As  a  diuretic  it  is  superior ;  it  is 
very  valuable  in  the  treatment  of  cardiac  drop- 
sies, and  is  often  useful  in  chronic  BrighVs 
disease  when  there  is  no  irritation  of  the 
kidneys. 

On  account  of  its  tendency  to  produce  wakeful- 
ness, it  is  usually  better  to  mass  the  doses  early 
in  the  day,  at  least  six  hours  being  left  between 
the  last  dose  and  the  ordinary  time  for  sleep. 
From  eight  to  fifteen  grams  (of  caffein)  may  be 
given  in  the  course  of  a  day  in  severe  cases. 
If  tried,  it  would  probably  prove  a  useful  drug 
in  cases  of  sudden  collapse  from  various  causes. 

Good  effects  of  coffee  are  recounted  by 
Thompson." 

It  removes  the  sensation  of  fatigue  in  the 
muscles,  and  increases  their  functional  activity; 
it  allays  hunger  to  a  limited  extent ;  it  strength- 

*°  Potter.  Materia  Medica,  Pharmacy  and  Thera^ 
peutics.  10th  ed..  1906  (n.  187). 

Culbreth.  Materia  Medica  and  Pharmacology,  2nd 
ed.  (p.  520). 

"Nineteenth  ed.   (p.  254). 

«Loc.  cit.     (see  32). 


ens  the  heart  action;  it  acts  as  a  diuretic, 
and  increases  the  excretion  of  urea  ;  it  has  a 
mildly  sudorific  infiuence ;  it  counteracts  ner- 
vous exhaustion  and  stinuilates  nerve  centers. 
It  is  used  sometimes  as  a  nervine  in  cases  of 
migraine,  and  there  are  many  persons  who  can 
sustain  prolonged  mental  fatigue  and  strain 
from  anxiety  and  worry  much  better  by  the  use 
of  strong  black  coffee.  In  low  delirium,  or  when 
the  nervous  system  is  overcome  by  the  use  of 
narcotics  or  by  excessive  hemorrhage,  strong 
black  coffee  is  serviceable  to  keep  the  patient 
from  falling  into  the  drowsiness  which  soon 
merges  into  coma.  In  such  cases  as  much  as 
half  a  pint  of  strong  black  coffee  may  be  in- 
jected into  the  rectum. 

Strong  coffee  with  a  little  lemon  juice  or 
brandy  is  often  useful  in  overcoming  a  malarial 
chill  or  a  paroxysm  of  astlima.  It  is  a  useful 
temporary  cardiac  stimulant  for  children  suffer- 
ing collapse. 

Dr.  Restrepo,"  of  Medellin,  Colombia, 
claims  to  have  cured  many  cases  of  chronic 
malaria  and  related  diseases  with  infusion 
of  green  coffee,  after  quinine  had  failed. 
Wallace"  states  that  tincture  of  green  cof- 
fee is  a  natural  and  efficacious  specific  for 
cholera,  and  that  she  knows  of  more  than 
a  thousand  cases  of  cholera  and  diarrhea 
which  have  been  treated  with  it  without  an 
isolated  case  of  failure.  Landanabileo  has 
been  quoted  as  using  raw  coffee  infusion  in 
hepatic  and  nephritic  diseases,  venal  and 
hepatic  colics,  and  in  diabetes. 

In  the  Civil  War,  surgeons  utilized  cof- 
fee in  allaying  malarial  fever  and  other 
maladies  with  which  they  had  to  contend, 
often  under  the  most  trying  conditions, 
and  with  severely  limited  means  of  combat- 
ing disease.'"  Its  effect  is  to  counteract  the 
depressant  action  of  low  and  miasmatic 
atmospheres,  opening  the  secretions  which 
they  have  checked.  Travelers  from  the 
colder  climes  soon  find  that  the  fragrant 
cup  of  coffee  is  a  corrective  to  derange- 
ments of  the  liver  resulting  from  climatic 
conditions." 

Dr.  Guillasse,  of  the  French  Navy,  in  a 
paper  on  typhoid  fever,  says: 

Coffee  has  given  us  unhoped  for  satisfaction, 
and  after  having  dispensed  it  we  find,  to  our 
great  surprise,  that  its  action  is  as  prompt  as  it 
is  decisive.  No  sooner  have  our  patients  taken 
a  few  tablespoonfuls  of  it,  than  their  features 
become  relaxed  and  they  come  to  their  senses. 
The  next  day  the  improvement  is  such  that  we 
are  tempted  to  look  upon  coffee  as  a  specific 
against  typhoid  fever.  Under  its  infiuence  the 
stupor  is  dispelled,  and  the  patient  arouses  from 


"Keable.   B.   B.      Coffee    (p.   97). 

"WaUace,  Mrs.  C.  L.  H.  "Cholera:  Its  Cause  and 
Cure."  The  Herald  of  Health,  through  Tea  d  Coffee 
Trade  Jour.,  1908   (vol.  xiv  :  p.  22). 

^  "S.  Culaplus",  Tea  d  Coffee  Trade  Jour.,  1913 
(vol.  XXV :  p.  239). 

"  Tea  d  Coffee  Trade  Jour.,  1913  (vol.  xxv  :  p.  458). 


182 


ALL     ABOUT     COFFEE 


the  state  of  somnolency  in  which  he  has  been 
since  the  invasion  of  the  disease.  Soon  all  the 
functions  take  their  natural  course,  and  he 
enters  upon  eonAalescence.°- 

Also  it  has  been  reported  that  in  extreme 
cases  of  yellow  fever,  coffee  has  been  used 
most  effectively  by  many  physicians  as  the 
main  reliance  after  all  other  well  known 
remedies  have  been  administered  and 
failed. 

According  to  Lorand,"  the  use  of  coffee 
in  gout  is  strictly  prohibited  by  Umber  and 
Schittenhelm ;  but  he  considered  it  a  mis- 
take absolutely  to  forbid  coffee,  as,  when  a 
person  has  good  kidneys,  the  small  amount 
of  uric  acid  furnished  by  the  caffein  can 
readih'-  be  eliminated.  A  curious  remedy 
for  gout  and  rheumatism,  the  efficacy  of 
which  the  writer  scouts,  is  said  to  be'*  —  a 
pint  of  hot,  strong,  black  coffee,  which  must 
be  perfectly  pure,  and  seasoned  with  a  tea- 
spoonful  of  pure  black  pepper,  thoroughly 
mixed  before  drinking,  and  the  preparation 
taken  just  before  going  to  bed.  If  this  have 
any  value,  it  is  probably  purely  psychologi- 
cal in  its  function. 

Several  writers''  attribute  amblyopia  and 
other  affections  of  the  sight  to  coffee  and 
chicory,  without  giving  much  conclusive 
experimental  data.  Beer,°'  a  Vienna  ocu- 
list, however,  held  that  the  vapor  from 
pure,  hot,  freshly-made  coffee  is  beneficial 
,to  the  eyes. 

Coffee  and  caff'ein  are  physiologically  an- 
tagonistic to  the  common  narcotics,  nico- 
tine, morphine,  opium,  alcohol,  etc.,  and 
are  frequently  used  as  antidotes  for  these 
poisons.  Binz  found  that  dogs  that  have 
been  stupified  with  alcohol  could  be  awak- 
ened with  coffee.  It  may  thus  be  prescribed 
for  hard  drinkers  to  counteract  the  baleful 
excitability  produced  by  alcohol;  in  fact, 
many  topers  taper  off  after  a  long  debauch 
with  coffee  containing  small  amounts  of  al- 
coholic beverages.  Considering  its  ability 
to  counteract  the  slow  intoxication  of  to- 
bacco, it  may  be  inferred  that  coffee  is 
indispensable  for  hard  smokers. 

In  general,  the  medicinal  value  of  coffee 
may  be  said  to  be  directly  attributable  to 
its  caffein  content,  although  its  antiseptic 
properties  are  dependent  upon  the  volatile 
aromatic  constituents.     Its  function  is  to 


•'■'2  Thnrber,    F.    B.      Coffee   from    Plantation    to    Cup 
(p.   182). 

"^  Health  and  Lonrieviti)  Through  Rational  Diet. 

"*  Keable.  B.  B.  Coffee  (p.  98). 

==  Bulson.   A.   E.   J.     Am.   Jour.    Opthal.,   1905    (vol. 
xxii  :   pp  .00-64) 

Handhool;  of  Medical  Science  (vol.  Hi:  d.  190i.-t 

"•KealilP.  B.  B.     Coffee  (p.  98). 


raise  and  to  sustain  vitalities  which  have 
been  lowered  by  disease  or  drugs.  Al- 
though some  of  the  cures  attributed  to  it 
are  probably  purely  traditional;  still,  it 
must  be  admitted,  that  by  utilizing  its 
stimulating  qualities  in  many  illnesses  the 
patient  may  be  carried  past  the  danger 
point  into  convalescence. 

Physiological  Action  of  "Caffetannic 
Acid" 

It  has  been  demonstrated  in  chapter  XVII 
that-  there  is  no  definite  compound  ' '  caffe- 
tannic  acid,"  and  that  the  heterogeneous 
material  designated  by  this  name  does  not 
possess  the  properties  of  tanning.  Further 
substantiation  of  this  contention,  and  more 
evidence  of  the  innocuous  character  of  the 
tannin-like  compounds  in  coffee,  are  con- 
tained in  the  testimony  of  Sollmann." 
"Tannins  precipitate  proteins,  gelatine, 
and  connective  tissue,  and  thus  act  as 
astringents,  styptics,  and  antiseptics.  The 
different  tannins  are  not  equivalent  in 
these  respects.  Some  (which  are  perhaps 
misnamed)  such  as  those  of  coffee  and  ipe- 
cac, are  practically  non-precipitant.  .  .  . 
On  the  whole,  one  may  say  that  the  small 
quantities  of  tannin  ordinarily  taken  with 
the  food  and  drink  are  not  injurious,  but 
that  large  quantities  (excessive  tea  drink- 
ing) are  certainly  deleterious.  The  tannin 
of  coffee  is  scarcely  astringent,  and,  there- 
fore, lacks  this  action,"  which  is  proven  by 
the  fact  that  it  does  not  precipitate  pro- 
teins. 

"It  has  been  claimed  that  'caffetannic 
acid'  injuries  the  stomach  walls,  but  there 
is  no  evidence  that  this  is  so."''  Wiley," 
in  reporting  some  of  his  experiments,  says : 
"Apparently  the  efforts  to  saddle  the  in- 
jurious effects  of  coffee-drinking  upon  caf- 
fetannic  acid  in  any  form  in  which  it  may 
exist  in  the  coffee-extract  are  not  supported 
by  these  recent  data."  The  fact  that  tan- 
nins retard  intestinal  peristalsis,  whereas 
coffee  promotes  this  digestive  action,  lends 
further  proof  to  the  non-existence  of  tannin 
in  coffee.  These  statements  by  eminent 
authorities  may  be  consolidated  into  the 
verity  that  there  is  no  tannin,  in  the  true 
sense  of  the  term,  in  coffee:  and  that  the 
constituents  of  the  coffee  brew  which  have 
been  so  designated  are  physiologically 
harmless. 


^-  A   Manual  of  Pharmacology    (pp.   137.  215). 
"Hawk.  Philip  B.     Loc.  cit.    (see  22). 
'*  Good  Housekeevinp.  Oct..  1917   (p.  144). 


PHARMACOLOGY    OF    COFFEE 


183 


Physiological  Action  of  Caffeol 

The  evidence  regarding  the  physiological 
action  of  caffeol  is  contradictory  in  many 
cases.  J.  Lehmann  found  in  1853,  that  the 
"erapyrenmatie  oil  of  coffee,  caffeorie,"  is 
active ;  but  more  recent  investigations  have 
yielded  results  at  variance  with  this. 
Hare  and  Marshall"*  believe  that  they 
proved  it  to  be  active.  E.  T.  Reichert," 
however,  found  it  inactive  in  dogs,  except- 
ing in  so  far  that,  when  given  intraven- 
ously, it  mechanically  interfered  with  the 
circulation.  With  it  Binz"'  Avas  able  to  pro- 
duce in  man  only  feeble  nervous  excite- 
ment, with  restlessness  and  increase  in  the 
rate  and  depth  of  respirations. 

The  general  effects,  as  summated  by  Soll- 
mann"'  are,  for  small  closes,  pleasant  stimu- 
lation ;  increased  respiration ;  increased 
heart  rate,  but  fall  of  blood  pressure ;  mus- 
cular restlessness ;  insomnia ;  perspiration  ; 
congestion;  for  large  doses,  increased  peri- 
stalsis and  defecation  :  depression  of  respira- 
tion and  heart ;  fall  of  blood  pressure  and 
temperature;  paralytic  phenomena.  It  is 
doubtful  whether  the  quantities  taken  in 
the  beverage  cause  any  direct  central 
stimulation. 

Investigations  have  also  been  conducted 
with  the  various  known  constituents  of  this 
"coffee  oil."  Erdmann"*  found  that  in 
doses  of  between  0.5  and  0.6  gram  per  kilo 
of  body  weight,  furane-alcohol  kills  a  rab- 
bit by  respiratory  paralysis;  and  that  the 
symptoms  of  poisoning  are  a  short  primary 
excitement,  salivation,  diarrhea,  respira- 
tory depression,  continuous  fall  of  the  body 
temperature,  and  death  from  collapse  with 
respiratory  failure.  In  man,  doses  of  from 
0.6  to  1  gram  of  furane-alcohol  increased 
respiratory  activity  without  producing 
other  symptoms. 

However,  man  is  not  as  susceptible  to 
these  compounds  as  are  the  smaller  animals. 
But  even  if  their  relative  susceptibility  be 
assumed  to  be  the  same,  the  lethal  dose 
given  the  rabbit  is  equivalent  to  giving  a 
140-pound  man  one  dose  containing  the 
furane-alcohol  content  of  over  5,000  cups  of 
coffee.  Thus,  in  view  of  the  very  apparent 
minuteness  of  the  quantity  of  this  com- 
pound present  in  one  cup  of  coffee,  together 
with  the  fact  that  it  is  not  cumulative  in  its 
physiological  action,  the. importance  of  its 

»«J/ed.  News,   1886  (p.  52). 

"J/ed.  News.   1890  (n.   56). 

'-Centr.  In.  Med..   1900  (p.  21). 

'^  Loc.   cit.     (see  57 1. 

"^  Arch.  Exper.  Path.  Phnrm..   1902  (bd.  48). 


toxic  properties  becomes  very  inconsequen- 
tial to  even  the  most  profuse  and  inveterate 
coffee  drinkers. 

Burmann"  reported  the  volatile  principle 
to  have  a  reducing  action  on  the  hemo- 
globin; a  depressing  effect  on  the  blood 
pressure ;  a  depressant  action  on  the  central 
nervous  system,  disturbing  the  cardiac 
rhythm;  and  an  action  on  the  respiratory 
centers,  causing  dyspnea.  The  report  of 
Sayre""  regarding  the  minimum  lethal  dose 
of  the  concentrated  combined  active  prin- 
ciples of  coffee  obtained  from  dry  distilla- 
tion is,  for  frogs,  administered  intraperi- 
toneally  and  subcutaneously,  0.03  cubic 
centimeters  per  gram  of  body  weight ;  for 
guinea  pigs  per  stomach,  7.0  cc.  per  kilo- 
gram of  body  weight,  and  administered  in- 
travenously and  intraperitoneally,  about 
1.0  cc.  per  kilogram. 

This  evidence  regarding  the  physiologi- 
cal action  of  caffeol  can  not  in  any  wise  be 
construed  to  indicate  a  harmfulness  of  cof- 
fee. The  percentage  of  these  volatile  sub- 
stances in  a  cup  of  coffee  infusion  is  so  low 
as  to  be  relatively  negligible  in  its  action. 
And,  again,  the  caffein  content  of  the  brew, 
as  will  be  seen,  tends  to  counteract  any 
possible  desultory  effects  of  the  caffeol. 

General   Physiological   Action   of    Caffein 

More  attention  has  been  given  to  the 
study  of  the  physiological  action  of  caffein' 
than  to  that  of  the  other  individual  con- 
stituents of  coffee.  Since  certain  of  the 
effects  of  coffee  drinking  have  been  attribu- 
ted to  this  alkaloid,  a  brief  presentment 
of  the  pharmacology  of  caffein  will  be  given 
as  an  exposition  of  the  many  statements 
made  regarding  it.  According  to  the  Brit- 
ish Pharmaceutical  Codex"" : 

Caffein  exerts  thi-ee  important  actions:  (1)  on 
the  central  nervous  system:  (2)  on  muscles,  in- 
cluding cardiac:  and  (3)  on  the  kidney.  The 
action  on  the  central  nervous  system  is  mainly 
ou  that  part  of  the  hrain  connected  with  psychi- 
cal functions.  It  produces  a  condition  of  wake- 
fulness and  increased  mental  activity.  The 
interpretation  of  sensory  impressions  is  more 
perfect  and  correct,  and  thought  becomes  clearer 
and  quicker.  With  larger  doses  of  caffein  the 
action  extends  from  the  psychical  areas  to  the 
motor  area  and  to  the  cord,  and  the  patient  be- 
comes at  first  restless  and  noisy,  and  later  may 
show  convulsive  movements. 

Caffein  facilitates  the  performance  of  all 
forms  of  physical  work,  and  actually  increases 
the   total    work    which    can   be   obtained   from 

"^  Bull.  gen.  therap.  (vol.  clxvl :  p.  379). 

Zentr.  Biochem.  Biophya.  (vol.  xvl :  p.  79). 
""Bull.  Pharm..  1916  (vol.  xxx  :  pp.  276-78). 
•^1907    (p.    176). 


184 


ALL     ABOUT     COFFEE 


muscle.  On  the  normal  man,  however,  it  is  im- 
possible to  say  how  much  of  the  action  on  the 
muscle  is  central  and  how  much  peripheral,  but, 
as  fatigue  shows  itself  first  by  an  action  on  the 
center,  it  is  probable  that  the  action  of  eaffeiu 
in  diminishing  fatigue  is  mainly  central.  Caf- 
fein  accelerates  the  pulse  and  slightly  raises 
blood  pressure.  It  has  no  action  in  any  way 
resembling  digitalis ;  by  increasing  the  irritabil- 
ity of  the  cardiac  muscle,  its  prolonged  use 
rather  tends  to  fatigue  than  to  rest  the  heart. 

Caffein  and  its  allies  form  a  very  important 
group  of  diuretics.  The  urine  is  generally  of  a 
lower  specific  gravity  than  normal,  since  it  con- 
tains a  lesser  proportion  of  salt  and  urea ;  but 
the  total  excretion  of  solids,  both  as  regards 
urea,  uric  acid,  and  salts,  is  increased.  Caf- 
fein, by  exciting  the  medulla,  produces  an  initial 
vaso-constriction  of  the  kidneys,  which  tends  at 
first  to  retard  the  flow  of  urine.  So  in  recent 
years,  other  drugs  liave  been  introduced,  allies 
of  caffein,  which  act  like  it  on  the  kidneys,  but 
are  without  the  stimulant  action  on  the  brain. 
Theobromine  is  such  a  drug. 

Another  authority  states  that"^: 

One  of  the  most  constant  symptoms  produced 
in  man  by  over-doses  of  caffein  is  excessive  diu- 
resis, and  experiments  made  upon  the  lower  ani- 
mals show  that  caffein  acts  as  a  diuretic  not 
only  by  influencing  the  circulation,  but  also  by 
directly  affecting  the  secreting  cells,  the  proba- 
bilities being  in  favor  of  the  flrst  of  these 
theories  of  action.  According  to  Schroeder,  not 
only  the  water  but  also  the  solids  of  the  urine 
are  increased. 

The  question  whether  caffein  has  an  influ- 
ence upon  tissue  changes  and  the  consequent 
nitrogenous  elimination  can  not  be  considered  as 
distinctly  answered,  though  the  most  probable 
conclusion  is  that  the  action  of  caffein  upon  urea 
elimination  and  upon  general  nutrition  is  not 
direct  or  pronounced.  While  the  therapeutic 
dose  of  caffein  is  broken  up  in  the  body  with 
the  formation  of  methylxanthin, '  which  escapes 
with  the  urine,  the  toxic  dose  is  at  least  in 
part  eliminated  by  the  kidney  unchanged. 

The  metabolism  of  the  methyl  purins, 
of  which  group  caffein  is  a  member,  ap- 
pears to  vary  with  the  quantity  ingested. 
The  manner  in  which  the  methyl  group  is 
liberated  by  the  cell  protoplasm  is  said"'  to 
determine  the  amount  of  stimulus  which 
the  tissues  receive  from  these  substances. 
The  xanthin  group  is  almost  without  any 
excitatory  action,  and  its  metabolic  end 
products  are  constant.  Perhaps  the  varia- 
tion in  the  excretions  of  unchanged  methyl- 
purins  is  dependent  upon  the  amount  of 
total  reactive  energy  they  invoke. 

Baldi'"  found  that  caffein  in  small  doses 
increases  muscular  excitability  in  dogs  and 
frogs.  The  spinal  and  muscular  hyperic 
excitability  produced  by  caffein  is,  in  his 

«» D'.  8.  Dispensatory,  19th  ed.    (p.   253). 
"Hall.    I.    W.      The   Purin   Bodies    of  Food    Stuffs, 
1904    (p.   98). 
^*  Terapia  moderna,  Dec,  1891. 


opinion,  due  to  the  methyl  groups  attached 
to  the  xanthin  nucleus.  Fredericq"  states 
that  caffein  increases  the  irritability  of  the 
cardiac  vagus  and  accelerates  the  appear- 
ance of  pseudofatigue  of  the  vagus  which 
is  produced  by  prolonged  stimulation  of  the 
nerve.  The  action  of  caffein  on  the  mam- 
malian heart  has  also  been  investigated  by 
Pilcher,"  who  found  that,  following  the 
rapid  intravenous  injection  of  caffein,  there 
is  an  acute  fall  of  blood  pressure ;  and  with 
a  maximal  quantity  of  caffein,  10  milli- 
grams per  kilogram,  the  cardiac  volume 
and  the  amplitude  of  the  excursions  are 
usually  unchanged.  With  larger  quanti- 
ties, the  volume  progressively  increases  and 
the  amplitude  of  the  excursion  decreases. 

Salant"  found  that  the  intravenous  injec- 
tion of  15  to  25  milligrams  of  caffein  per 
kilogram  in  animals  was  followed  by  a  fall 
of  blood  pressure  amounting  to  7  to  35  per- 
cent in  most  cases,  which  was  transitory, 
although  in  some  animals  it  remained  un- 
changed. A  moderate  rise  was  rarely  ob- 
served. Caffein  aids  the  action  of  nitrates, 
acetanilid,  ethyl  alcohol  and  amyl  alcohol, 
and  increases  the  toxicity  of  barium  chlo- 
rid.  In  a  very  thorough  study  of  the 
toxicity  of  caffein  which  he  made  with 
Reiger,"  a  greater  toxicity  of  about  15  to 
20  percent  by  subcutaneous  injection  than 
by  mouth,  and  but  about  one-half  this 
when  injected  peritoneally,  was  found. 
Intramuscularly  the  toxicity  is  30  percent 
greater  than  subcutaneously.  In  making 
the  tests  on  animals,  they  found  that  in- 
dividuality, season,  age,  species,  and  certain 
pathological  conditions  caused  variation  in 
the  toxic  effect  of  the  administered  caffein. 
Low  protein  diet  tends  to  decrease  resist- 
ance to  caffein  in  dogs,  and  a  milk  or  meat 
diet  does  the  same  for  growing  dogs.  Caf- 
fein is  not  cumulative  for  the  rabbit  or  dog. 

As  a  result  of  experiments  on  the  action 
of  caffein  on  the  bronchiospasm  caused  by 
peptone  (Witte),  silk  peptone,  B-imidoazo- 
lyl-ethylamin.  curare,  vasodilation,  and 
mucarin,  Pal"  concluded  that  caffein  stimu- 
lates certain  branches  of  the  peripheral 
sympathetic  and  is  thus  enabled  to  widen 
the  bronchi  or  remove  bronchiospasm. 

According  to  Lapicque'",  caffein  produces 
a  change  in  the  excitability  of  the  medulla 
of  the  frog  similar  to  that  produced  by  rais- 

^^  Arch,  intern,  physiol.    (vol.  xiii :  pp.   107-14). 
"/.  Pharmachol.    (vol.   iii  :   p.   609). 
"./.  Pharmachol.    (vol.  iii:  p.  468). 
''*  J.  Pharmachol.    (vol.  Iii:  p.  455). 
"  Wien.  Deut.  med.   Wochenschr.    (vol.   xxxviii :   pp. 
1774  76). 

"  Comp.  rend.  soc.  biol.    (vol.  Ixxiv  :  p.   32). 


PHARMACOLOGY    OF    COFFEE 


185 


t 


ing  the  temperature  of  the  nerve  centers. 
Schiirhoff''  has  pointed  out  that  the  con- 
tinued use  of  large  quantities  of  caffein  will 
produce  cardiac  irregularity  and  sleepless- 
ness. 

Cochrane"  cited  three  cases  where  caffein 
was  hypodermically  administered  in  cases 
of  acute  indigestion,  etc.,  and  concluded 
that  the  cases  prove  that  caffein,  or  a  com- 
pound containing  it  as  a  synergist,  does 
indirectly  make  the  injection  of  morphia  a 
safe  proceeding,  and  directly  increases  the 
force  of  the  heart  and  arterial  tension. 
However,  Wood'"  found  that  medium  doses 
of  caffein  do  not  produce  any  marked  rise 
in  blood  pressure,  and  cause  a  reduction  in 
pulse  rate.  He  attributes  the  contradictory 
results  which  prior  investigations  gave,  to 
employment  of  unusually  large  doses  and 
to  inaccurate  experimental  methods. 

Caffein  was  found  by  Nonnenbruch  and 
Szyszka""  to  have  a  slight  action  toward  ac- 
celerating the  coagulation  time  of  the  blood, 
being  active  over  several  hours.  It  inhibits 
coagulation  in  vitrio.  Its  action  in  the  body 
apparently  rests  on  an  increase  of  the  fibrin 
ferment.  There  is  no  reason  to  believe  that 
the  behavior  is  dependent  on  a  toxic  action, 
but  there  is  probably  an  action  on  the 
spleen ;  for  in  several  rabbits  from  which 
the  spleen  was  removed,  no  action  was 
observed. 

Experiments  conducted  by  Levinthal" 
gave  no  positive  information  as  to  the  for- 
mation of  uric  acid  from  caffein  in  the 
human  organism.  The  elimination  of  caf- 
fein has  also  been  studied  by  Salant  and 
Reiger"',  who  found  that  larger  amounts  of 
caffein  are  demethylated  in  carnivora  than 
in  herbivora,  and  resistance  to  caffein  is 
inversely  as  demethylation,  caffein  being 
much  more  toxic  in  the  former  class.  In  a 
similar  investigation,  Zenetz"^  observed  that 
caffein  is  very  slightly  eliminated  from  the 
system  by  the  kidneys,  and  that  its  action 
on  the  heart  is  cumulative;  therefore  he 
concludes  that  it  is  contra-indicated  in  all 
renal  diseases,  in  arterio-sclerosis,  and  in 
cardiac  affections  secondary  to  them.  The 
inaccuracy  of  these  conclusions  regarding 
the  non-elimination  of  caffein  and  those  of 


"  D.  A.  Apoth.-Ztg.,  1911-12  (vol.  xxxii :  p.  4). 

"J/ed.  Record,  N.  Y.,  1916  (vol.  xxx  :  p.  68). 

^Therap.  Gazette.  1912   (vol.  xxxvi :  pp.  6-13). 

"  Deut.  Arch.  Klin.  Med.,  1920  (vol.  cxxxiv  :  pp. 
174-84). 

"Z.  phpsioi.  Chem.     (vol.  Ixxvii :  p.  259). 

*>  Bull.  Bur.  of  Chem.   (no.  157). 

»» Pharm.  J.,  Mar.  31,  1900,  through  Brit.  Med.  J.. 
Bpit.,  1900  (vol.  i:  p.  35). 


Albanese,"  Bondzynski  and  Gottlieb", 
Leven'",  Schurtzkwer",  and  Minkowski'',  has 
been  shown  by  Mendel  and  Wardelf,  who 
point  out  that  many  of  these  experimenters 
worked  with  dogs,  in  which  the  chief  end- 
product  of  purin  metabolism  is  not  uric 
acid,  but  allantoin.  They  observe  that  the 
increase  in  excretion  of  uric  acid  after  the 
addition  of  caffein  to  the  diet  seems  to  be 
proportional  to  the  quantity  of  caffein 
taken,  and  equivalent  to  from  10  to  15  per 
cent  of  the  ingested  caffein.  The  remainder 
of  the  caffein  is  probably  eliminated  as 
mono-methylpurins. 

Regarding  the  alleged  cumulative  action 
of  caffein,  Pletzer",  Liebreich,"  Szekacs'^ 
Pawinski,"'  and  Seifert"*  all  concluded  from 
their  investigations  that  the  action  of  caf- 
fein is  usually  of  brief  duration,  and  does 
not  have  a  cumulative  effect,  because  of 
its  rapid  elimination;  so  that  there  is  no 
danger  of  intoxication. 

Dr.  Oswald  Schmiedeberg  says: 

Caffein  is  a  means  of  refreshing  bodily  and 
mental  activity,  so  that  this  may  be  prolonged 
when  the  condition  of  fatigue  has  already  begun 
to  produce  restraint,  and  to  call  for  more  severe 
exertion  of  the  will,  a  state  which,  as  is  well 
known,  is  painful  or  disagreeable. 

This  advantageous  effect,  in  conditions  of 
fatigue,  of  small  quantities  of  caffein,  as  it  is 
commonly  taken  in  coffee  or  tea,  might,  how- 
ever, by  continued  use  become  injurious,  if  it 
were  in  all  cases  necessarily  exerted ;  that  is 
to  say,  if  by  oaffein  the  muscles  and  nerves 
were  directly  spurred  on  to  increased  activity. 
This  is  not  the  case,  however,-  and  just  in  this 
lies  the  peculiarity  of  the  effect  in  question. 
The  muscles  and  the  simultaneously-acting 
nerves  only  under  the  influence  of  caffein  re- 
spond more  easily  to  the  impulse  of  the  will, 
but  do  not  develop  spontaneous  activity ;  that 
is,  without  the  co-operation  of  the  will. 

The  character  of  oaffein  action  makes  plain 
that  these  food  materials  do  not  injure  the  or- 
ganism by  their  caffein  content,  and  do  not  by 
continued  use  cause  any  chronic  form  of  illness. 

According  to  Dr.  Holl  ing  worth's"'  deduc- 
tions, caffein  is  the  only  known  stimulant 
that  quickens  the  functions  of  the  human 

^  Arch.  f.  exper.  Path.  u.  Pharmakol.,  1895  (vol. 
XXXV  :   p.  449). 

^Ibid.,  1895  (vol.  xxxvi:  p.  45).  IMd  ,  1896  (vol. 
xxxvii :  p.  385). 

'^  Arch,  de  physiol.  norm,  et  path.,  1868  (vol.  i:  p. 
179). 

*'  Inaug.  Diss.,  Konigsberg,  1882. 

'^  Arch,  f,  exper.  Path.  u.  Pharmakol,  1898  (vol. 
xli:   p.   375). 

"''Jour.  Am.  Med.  Assoc,  1917  (vol.  Ixviii :  pp.  1805- 
07). 

^Berliner  Klin.  Wochenschrift.  1889    (no.  40). 

0^  Encijc.  dcr  Therapie,  1896   (vol.  i). 

"Pester,  Med.-Chir.  Presse,  1885   (no.  39). 
Orrosi  Hetilap,  1885   (nos.  32-33). 

**  Zeitschrift  f.  Klin.   Med..  1893    (vol.  xxii'). 

"  Mitt,     aus    der     Wurzburger    Med.     Klinik,     1885 
(vol.   i). 

"-Veto  York  Herald,  Mar.  24.  1912. 


186 


ALL     ABOUT     COFFEE 


body  without  a  subsequent  period  of  de- 
pression. His  explanation  for  this  behavior 
is  that  "caffein  acts  as  a  lubricator  for  the 
nervous  system,  having  an  actual  physical 
action  ^yhereby  the  nerves  are  enabled  to 
do  their  work  more  easily.  Other  stimu- 
lants act  on  the  nerves  themselves,  causing 
a  waste  of  energy,  and  consequently,  ac- 
cording to  nature's  law,  a  period  of  de- 
pression follows,  and  the  whole  process 
tends  to  injure  the  human  machine."  In 
not  a  single  instance  during  his  experi- 
ments at  Columbia  University  did  depres- 
sion follow  the  use  of  caffein. 

Of  course,  cafifein,  like  any  other  alka- 
loid, if  used  to  excess  will  prove  harmful, 
due  to  the  over-stimulation  induced  by  it. 
However,  taken  in  moderate  quantities,  as 
in  coffee  and  tea  by  normal  persons,  the 
conclusions  of  Hirsch™  may  be  taken  as  cor- 
rect, namely :  caffein  is  a  mild  stimulant, 
without  direct  effect  on  the  muscles,  the 
effect  resulting  from  its  own  destruction  and 
being  temporary  and  transitory;  it  is  not 
a  depressant  either  initially  or  eventually ; 
and  is  not  habit-forming  but  a  true  stimu- 
lant, as  distinguished  from  sedatives  and 
habit-forming  drugs. 

Caffein  and  Mental  and  Motor  Efficiency 

The  literature  on  the  influence  of  caffein 
on  fatigue  has  been  summarized,  and  the 
older  experiments  clearly  pointed  out,  by 
Rivers"'.  A  summary  of  the  most  important 
researches  Avhich  have  had  as  their  object 
the  determination  of  the  influence  of  caf- 
fein on  mental  and  motor  processes  has 
been  made  by  HolIingworth°*,  from  whose 
monograph  much  of  the  following  material 
has  been  taken. 

Increase  in  the  force  of  muscular  con- 
tractions was  demonstrated  in  1892  by  De 
Sarlo  and  Barnardini""  for  caffein  and  by 
Kraepelin  for  tea.  These  investigators  used 
the  dynamometer  as  a  measure  of  the  force 
of  contraction ;  however,  most  of  the  sub- 
sequent work  on  motor  processes  has  been 
by  the  ergographic  method.  Ugolino 
Mosso™,  Koch"\  Rossi'";  Sobieranski"'^ 
Hoch  and  Kraepelin,'""  Destree,'°°  Benedi- 

^  Tea  &  Coffee  Trade  Jour.,  1914  (vol,  xxvi :  pp. 
537-41). 

»'  The  Influence  of  Alcohol  and  Other  Drugs  on 
Fatigue. 

98  "The  Influence  of  Caffeine  on  Mental  and  Motor 
Efficiency."     Archives  of  Psychology,  1912   (no.  22). 

^  Revista  sper.  di.  Freniatria  (vol.  xviii :  p.   1). 

^ooArchiv.  ital.  de  Biol..  1893   (vol.  xix  :  p.  241). 

101  Inaug.  Diss.,  Marburs.  1894. 

^"^  Revista  sper.  di  Freniatria.  1S94  Cvol.  xx  :  D.  458). 

w3  CentralU.  f.  Physiol.,  1896  (vol.  x  :  p.  126). 

■^'>*  Psychol.  Arhrit..  1S96   (vol.  1:  p.  378). 

^°^Jour.  Med.  de  Brvxellcs,  1897. 


centi,"'"  Schumberg,"*'  Hellsten/"'  and  Jo- 
teyko,"*°  have  all  observed  a  stimulating  ef- 
fect of  caffein  on  ergographic  performance. 
Only  one  investigation  of  those  reported  by 
Rivers  failed  to  find  an  appreciable  effect, 
that  of  Oseretzkowsky  and  Kraepelin,"" 
while  Fere"'  affirms  that  the  effect  is  only 
an  acceleration  of  fatigue. 

In  spite  of  the  general  agreement  as  to 
the  presence  of  stimulation  there  is  some 
dissension  regarding  whether  only  the 
height  of  the  contractions  or  their  number 
or  both  are  affected.  As  might  be  expected 
from  the  great  diversity  of  methods  em- 
ployed, the  quantitative  results  also  have 
varied  considerably.  Carefully  controlled 
experiments  by  Rivers  and  Webber""  "con- 
firm in  general  the  conclusion  reached  by  , 
all  previous  workers  that  caffein  stimulates  ■ 
the  capacity  for  muscular  work;  and  it  is 
clear  that  this  increase  is  not  due  to  the 
various  psychical  factors  of  interest,  sen- 
sory stimulation,  and  suggestion,  which  the 
experiments  were  especially  designed  to  ex- 
clude. The  greatest  increase  .  .  .  falls, 
however,  far  short  of  that  described  by 
some  previous  w^orkers,  such  as  Mosso ;  and 
it  is  probable  that  part  of  the  effect  de- 
scribed by  these  workers  was  due  to  the  fac- 
tors in  question." 

Investigations  of  mental  processes  under 
the  influence  of  caffein  have  been  much  less 
frequent,  most  notable  among  which  are 
those  of  Dietl  and  Vintschgau,"'  Dehio,'" 
Kraepelin  and  Hoch,"''  Ach,"'  Lang- 
f eld,"'  and  Rivers."'  Kraepelin""  observes : 
"We  know  that  tea  and  coffee  increase 
our  mental  efficiency  in  a  definite  way,  and 
we  use  these  as  a  means  of  overcoming  men- 
tal fatigue  .  .  .  In  the  morning  these 
drinks  remove  the  last  traces  of  sleepiness 
and  in  the  evening  when  we  still  have  intel- 
'  lectual  tasks  to  dispose  of  they  aid  in  keep- 
ing us  awake. ' '  Their  use  induces  a  greater 
briskness  and  clearness  of  thought,  after 

^'^  Moleschott's   Untersuchungen,  1899    ^vol.   xvi :   p. 
170). 

-"' Archiv.     f.    Anat.    u.    Physiol.     (Physiol.    AMh,), 
Suppl.  Bd.,  1899  (p.  289). 

^'^  Skand.  Arch.  f.  Physiol.,  1904   (vol.  xvi:  p.  197). 

109  Travaux  du  Lah.   de  Physiol.  Inst.   Solraii,   1904 
(vol.  vi:  p.  361). 

^"^^  Psychol.  Arbeit.,  1901  Cvol.  iii :  p.  617). 

"1 C.  R.   de  la  Soc.   de  Biol.   Paris,   1901    (pp.    593- 
627). 

^^-Op.   at.     (p.  38).      (See  97.) 

^'^^  PflUf/ers  Archiv.,  1877  (vol.  xvi:  p  .316). 

^^*  Diss..  Dorpat..   1887. 

'-P  Psychol.  Arbeit.,  1896  (vol.  i:  p.  431). 

'-^^  Psychol.  Arbeit..   1901    Cpp.   203-289). 

'^"Psychol.  Rev.,  1911   (vol.  xviil :  p.  424). 
."^Op,  at      (see  97). 
■  "»  Ueber  die  Beeinfliissung  einfacher  vsvchischer  Vor- 
rjilngc  diirch  einige  Arzeneimittel  (p.  224). 


PHARMACOLOGY    OF    COFFEE 


187 


^'hich  secondary  fatigue  is  either  entirely 
ibsent  or  is  very  slight. 
Tendency    toward    habituation    of    the 
jpyschic    functions     to     caffein    has    been 
[studied     by     Wedemeyer'™,     who     found 
Hhat  in  the  regular  administration  of  it  in  /■ 
the  course  of  four  to  five  weeks  there  is  a/ 
measurable    weakening    of    its    action    on 
psychic  processes. 

Rivers"',  who  seems  to  have  been  the  first 
to  appreciate  fully  the  genuine  and  prac- 
tical importance  of  thoroughly  controlling 
'the  psychological  factors  that  are  likely  to 
play  a  role  in  such  experiments,  concludes 
that  "caffein  increases  the  capacity  for  both 
muscular  and  mental  work,  this  stimulating 
action  persisting  for  a  considerable  time 
after  the  substance  has  been  taken  without 
there  being  any  evidence,  with  moderate 
doses,  of  reaction  leading  to  diminished 
capacity  for  work,  the  substance  thus  really 
diminishing  and  not  merely  obscuring  the 
effects  of  fatigue. ' ' 

Subsequent  to  these  investigations  was 
that  of  Hollingworth'"  which  is  at  once  the 
most   comprehensive,   carefully  conducted, 


of  individuals  for  a  long  period  of  time, 
under  controlled  conditions;  to  study  the 
way  in  which  this  influence  is  modified  by 
such  factors  as  the  age,  sex,  weight,  idio- 
syncrasy, and  previous  caffein  habits  of  the 
subjects,  and  the  degree  to  which  it  depends 
on  the  amount  of  the  dose  and  the  time  and 
conditions  of  its  administration ;  and  to  in- 
vestigate the  influence  of  caffein  on  the  gen- 
eral health,  quality  and  amount  of  sleep, 
and  food  habits  of  the  individual  tested. 

To  obtain  this  information  the  chief  tests 
employed  were  the  steadiness,  tapping,  co- 
ordination, typewriting,  color-naming,  cal- 
culations, opposites,  cancellation,  and  dis- 
crimination tests,  the  familiar  size-weight 
illusion,  quality  and  amount  of  sleep,  and 
general  health  and  feeling  of  well-being. 
A  brief  review  of  the  results  of  these  tests 
is  given  in  the  tabular  summary. 

From  these  Hollingworth  concluded 
that  caffein  influenced  all  the  tests  in  a 
given  group  in  much  the  same  way.  The 
effect  on  motor  processes  comes  quickly  and 
is  transient,  while  the  effect  on  higher  men- 
tal processes  comes  more  slowly  and  is  more 


Effect  of  Caffein  ox  Mental  and  Motor  Processes 
Schematic  Summary  of  All  Results 


St.  =  Stimulation.      0: 


Process 
Motor  speed 
Coordination 


Association 


Xo    effect.      Ret.  =  Retardation. 

PRIMARY    effect 

Small       Medium    Large 
Doses 
St. 
0 


Doses 
St. 
St. 


Doses 
St. 
Ret. 


St. 


0 


Ret. 


Choice 


General 


Tests 

1.  Tapping     

2.  Three-hole     

3.  Typewriting 

(a)  Speed    

(b)  Errors     

4.  Color-naming    

5.  Opposites    

6.  Calculation     

7.  Discrimination  reaction  time 

8.  Cancellation   

9.  S-W   illusion    

10.  Steadiness     

11.  Sleep  quality    Individual    differences    de- 

12.  Sleep   quantity    pending    on    body    weight 

13.  General  health    and     conditions     of      ad- 

ministration 


Secondary  Action  Time 
Reaction  Hours 


None 
None 


.75  - 1.5 
1  -1.5 


Duration 
in  Hours 

2-4 

3-4 


Fewer  for  all  doses 
St.  St.  St. 

St.  St.  St. 

St.  St.  St. 

Ret.  0"  St. 

Ret.  ?  St. 

0  0  0 

Unsteadiness 


None 
None 
None 
None 
None 
None 
None 

None 


Results  show  only  in  total 
day"s  work 
2-2.5  3-4 

2.5  -  3  Next  day 

2.5  Next  day 

,2-4  Next  day 

3  -  5  No  data 


1-3 
2  ? 


-4 


and  scientifically  accurate  one  yet  per- 
formed. He  employed  an  ample  number  of 
subjects  in  his  experimentation ;  and  both 
his  subjects,  and  the  assistants  who  re- 
corded the  observations,  were  in  no  wise 
cognizant  of  the  character  or  quantity  of 
the  dose  of  caffein  administered,  the  other 
experimental  conditions  being  similarly 
rigorous  and  extensive. 

The  purpose  of  his  study  was  to  deter- 
mine both  qualitatively  and  quantitatively 
the  effect  of  caffein  on  a  wide  range  of 
mental  and  motor  processes,  by  studying 
the  performance  of  a  considerable  number 

^  Arch.  exp.  Path.  Pharm.,  1920  (vol.  Ixxxv :  pp. 
339-58) . 

^^^Op.   cit.   (p.   50K      (See  97.) 
^^  Loc.  cit.    (see  95). 


persistent.  Whether  this  result  is  due  to 
quicker  reaction  on  the  part  of  motor- 
nerve  centers,  or  whether  it  is  due  to  a 
direct  peripheral  effect  on  the  muscle  tissue 
is  uncertain,  but  the  indications  are  that 
caffein  has  a  direct  action  on  the  muscle 
tissue,  and  that  this  effect  is  fairly  rapid  in 
appearance.  The  two  principal  factors 
which  seem  to  modify  the  degree  of  caffein 
influence  are  body  weight  and  presence  of 
food  in  the  stomach  at  the  time  of  ingestion 
of  the  caffein.  In  practically  all  of  the 
tests  the  magnitude  of  the  caffein  influence 
varied  inversely  with  the  body  weight,  ^nd 
was  most  marked  when  taken  on  an  empty 
stomach  or  without  food  substance.  This 
variance  in  action  was  also  true  for  both 


188 


ALL     ABOUT     COFFEE 


the  quality  and  amount  of  sleep,  and 
seemed  to  be  accentuated  when  taken  on 
successive  days;  but  it  did  not  appear  to 
depend  on  the  age,  sex,  or  previous  caffein 
habits  of  the  individual.  Those  who  had 
given  up  the  use  of  caffein-eontaining  bev- 
erages during  the  experiment  did  not  re- 
port any  craving  for  the  drinks  as  such,  but 
several  expressed  a  feeling  of  annoyance  at 
not  having  some  sort  of  a  warm  drink  for 
breakfast. 

It  is  interesting  to  note  that  he  also  found 
a  complete  absence  of  any  trace  of  second- 
ary depression  or  of  any  sort  of  secondary 
reaction  consequent  upon  the  stimulation 
which  was  so  strikingly  present  in  many  of 
the  tests.  The  production  of  an  increased 
capacity  for  work  was  clearly  demonstrated, 
the  same  being  a  genuine  drug  effect,  and 
not  merely  the  effect  of  excitement,  interest, 
sensory  stimulation,  expectation,  or  sugges- 
tion. However,  this  study  does  not  show 
whether  this  increased  capacity  comes  from 
a  new  supply  of  energy  introduced  or  ren- 
dered available  by  the  drug  action,  or 
whether  energy  already  available  comes  to 
be  employed  more  effectively,  or  whether 
fatigue  sensations  are  weakened  and  the  in- 
dividual's standard  of  performance  thereby 
raised.  But  they  do  show  that  from  a 
standpoint  of  mental  and  productive  physi- 
cal efficiency  "the  widespread  consumption 
of  caffeinic  beverages,  even  under  circum- 


stances in  which  and  by  individuals  for 
whom  the  use  of  other  drugs  is  stringently 
prohibited  or  decried,  is  justified." 

Conclusion 

Brief  summarization  of  the  information 
available  on  the  pharmacology  of  coffee  in- 
dicates that  it  should  be  used  in  modera- 
tion, particularly  by  children,  the  permis- 
sible quantity  varying  with  the  individual 
and  ascertainable  only  through  personal 
observation.  Used  in  moderation,  it  will 
prove  a  valuable  stimulant  increasing  per- 
sonal efficiency  in  mental  and  physical 
labor.  Its  action  in  the  alimentary  regime 
is  that  of  an  adjuvant  food,  aiding  diges- 
tion, favoring  increased  flow  of  the  diges- 
tive juices,  promoting  intestinal  peristalsis, 
and  not  tanning  any  portion  of  the  diges- 
tive organs.  It  reacts  on  the  kidneys  as  a 
diuretic,  and  increases  the  excretion  of  uric 
acid,  which,  however,  is  not  to  be  taken  as 
evidence  that  it  is  harmful  in  gout.  Coffee 
has  been  indicated  as  a  specific  for  various 
diseases,  its  functions  therein  being  the 
raising  and  sustaining  of  low  vitalities.  Its 
effect  upon  longevity  is  virtually  nil.  A 
small  proportion  of  humans  who  are  very 
nervous  may  find  coffee  undesirable;  but 
sensible  consumption  of  coffee  by  the  aver- 
age, normal,  non-neurasthenic  person  will 
not  prove  harmful  but  beneficial. 


Chapter  XIX 

THE    COMMERCIAL    COFFEES    OF    THE    WORLD 

The  geographical  distribution  of  the  coffees  grown  in  North  America, 
Central  America,  South  America,  the  West  India  Islands,  Asia, 
Africa,  the  Pacific  Islands,  and  the  East  Indies  —  A  statistical  study 
of  the  distribution  of  the  principal  kinds  —  A  commercial  coffee 
chart  of  the  world's  leading  growths,  with  market  names  and  general 
trade  characteristics 


A  STUDY  of  the  geographical  distri- 
bution of  the  coffee  tree  shows  that 
it  is  grown  in  well-defined  tropical 
limits.  The  coffee  belt  of  the  world  lies 
between  the  tropic  of  cancer  and  the  tropic 
of  Capricorn.  The  principal  coffee  consum- 
ing countries  are  nearly  all  to  be  found  in 
the  north  temperate  zone,  between  the 
tropic  of  cancer  and  the  arctic  circle. 

The  leading  commercial  coffees  of  the 
world  are  listed  in  the  accompanying  com- 
mercial coffee  chart,  which  shows  at  a 
glance  their  general  trade  character.  The 
cultural  methods  of  the  producing  coun- 
tries are  discussed  in  chapter  XX ;  statistics 
in  chapter  XXII ;  and  the  trade  character- 
istics, in  detail,  in  chapter  XXIV,  which 
considers  also  countries  and  coffees  not  so 
important  in  a  commercial  sense.  Mexico 
is  the  principal  producing  country  in  the 
northern  part  of  the  western  continent,  and 
Brazil  in  the  southern  part.  In  Africa,  the 
eastern  coast  furnishes  the  greater  part  of 
the  supply;  while  in  Asia,  the  Netherlands 
Indies,  British  India,  and  Arabia  lead. 

Within  the  last  two  decades  there  has 
been  an  expansion  of  the  production  areas 
in  South  America,  Africa,  and  in  southeast- 
ern Asia :  and  a  contraction  in  British  India 
and  the  Netherlands  Indies. 

The  Shifting  Coffee  Currents  of  the  World 

Seldom  does  the  coffee  drinker  realize 
how  the  ends  of  the  earth  are  drawn  upon 


to  bring  the  perfected  beverage  to  his  lips. 
The  trail  that  ends  in  his  breakfast  cup,  if 
followed  back,  w^ould  be  found  to  go  a 
devious  and  winding  way,  soon  splitting  up 
into  half-a-dozen  or  more  straggling 
branches  that  would  lead  to  as  many  widely 
scattered  regions.  If  he  could  mount  to  a 
point  where  he  could  enjoy  a  bird's-eye 
view  of  these  and  a  hundred  kindred  trails, 
he  would  find  an  intricate  criss-cross  of 
streamlets  and  rivers  of  coffee  forming  a 
tangled  pattern  over  the  tropics  and  reach- 
ing out  north  and  south  to  all  civilized 
countries.  This  would  be  a  picture  of  the 
coffee  trade  of  the  world. 

It  would  be  a  motion  picture,  with  the 
rivulets  swelling  larger  at  certain  seasons, 
but  seldom  drying  up  entirely  at  any  time. 
In  the  main  the  streamlets  and  rivers 
keep  pretty  much  the  same  direction  and 
volume  one  year  after  another,  but  then 
there  is  also  a  quiet  shifting  of  these  cur- 
rents. Some  grow  larger,  and  other  dimin- 
ish gradually  until  they  fade  out  entirely. 
In  one  of  the  regions  from  which  they 
take  their  source  a  tree  disease  may 
cause  a  decline;  in  another,  a  hurricane 
may  lay  the  industry  low  at  one  quick 
stroke;  and  in  still  another,  a  rival  crop 
may  drain  away  the  life-blood  of  capital. 
But  for  the  most  part,  when  times  are 
normal,  the  shift  is  gradual;  for  interna- 
tional trade  is  conservative,  and  likes  to  run 
where  it  finds  a  well-worn  channel. 


189 


190 


ALL     ABOUT     COFFEE 


In  recent  times,  of  course,  the  big  dis- 
turbing element  in  the  coffee  trade  was  the 
"World  War.  Whole  countries  were  cut  out 
of  the  market,  shipping  was  drained  away 
from  every  sea  lane,  stocks  were  piled  high 
in  exporting  ports,  prices  were  fixed,  im- 
ports were  sharply  restricted,  and  the  whole 
business  of  coffee  trading  was  thrown  out 
of  joint.  To  what  extent  has  the  world 
returned  to  normal  in  this  trade?  Were 
the  stoppages  in  trade  merely  temporary 
suspensions,  or  are  they  to  prove  perma- 
nent? How  are  the  old,  long-worn  chan- 
nels filling  up  again,  now  that  the  dams 
have  been  taken  away? 

We  are  now  far  enough  removed  from 
the  war  to  begin  to  answer  these  questions. 
We  find  our  answer  in  the  export  figures  of 
the  chief  producing  countries,  which  for  the 
most  part  are  now  available  in  detail  for 
one  or  two  post-war  years.  These  figures 
are  given  in  the  tables  below ;  and  for  com- 
parison, there  are  also  given  figures  show- 
ing the  distribution  of  exports  in  1913  and 
in  an  earlier  year  near  the  beginning  of  the 
century.  These  figures,  of  course,  do  not 
necessarily  give  an  accurate  index  to 
normal  trade ;  as  in  any  given  year  some 
abnormal  happening,  such  as  an  exception- 
ally large  crop  or  a  revolution,  may  affect 
exports  drastically  as  compared  with  years 
before  and  after.  But  normally  the  pro- 
portions of  a  country's  exports  going  to  its 
various  customers  are  fairly  constant  one 
year  after  another,  and  can  be  taken  for 
any  given  year  as  showing  approximately 
the  coffee  currents  of  that  period. 

The  figures  following  are  for  the  calendar 
year  unless  the  fiscal  year  is  indicated. 
Where  figures  could  not  be  obtained  from 
the  original  statistical  publications,  they 
have  been  supplied  as  far  as  possible  from 
consular  reports. 

Brazil.  The  war  naturally  increased  the 
dependence  of  Brazil  on  its  chief  customer, 
and  the  proportion  of  the  total  crop  coming 
to  this  country  since  the  war  has  continued 
to  be  large.  Shipments  to  United  States 
ports  in  1920  represented  about  fifty-four 
percent  of  the  total  exports.  Figures  for 
that  year  indicate  also  that  France  and 
Belgium  were  working  back  to  their  normal 
trade;  but  that  Spain,  Great  Britain,  and 
the  Netherlands  were  taking  much  less 
coffee  than  in  the  year  just  before  the  war. 
Germany  was  buying  strongly  again,  her 
purchases  of  72,000,000  pounds  being  about 


half  as  much  as  in  1913.  Shipments  to 
Italy  were  four  times  as  heavy  as  in  1913. 
The  natural  return  to  normal  was  much 
interfered  with  by  speculation  and  valor- 
ization. Brazil  seems  to  have  come  through 
the  cataclysmic  period  of  the  war  in  better 
style  than  might  have  been  expected. 

Coffee  Exports  from  Brazil 

1900  1913  1920 

Exported    to          Pounds  Pounds  Pounds 

United  States.  .566,686,343  650,071,337  826,425,340 

France    78,408, .S62  244,295,282  203,694,212 

Great     Britain.      6,442,739  32,559,715  9,597,378 

Germany    235,131,881  246,767,144  72,196,934 

Aus.-Hunsary    .  71,696,556  134,495,310 

Netherlands     ..102,711,887  196,169,240  49,760,767 

Italy     17,559,107  31,364,656  132,543,798 

Spain    868,617  14,407,906  6,057,833 

Belgium    41,500,638  58,858,562  42,309,469 

Other  countries.  59,432,882  145,896,327  181,796,919 

Total     1,180,439,514  1,754,885,479  1,524,382,650 

The  1900  figures  are  for  the  ports  of  Ric, 
Santos,  Bahia,  and  Victoria. 

"Other  countries"  in  1913  included  Ar- 
gentina, 32,941,182  pounds;  Sweden,  28,- 
045,737  pounds;  Cape  Colony,  15,930,731 
pounds;  Denmark,  6,252,931  pounds.  In 
1920  they  included  Argentina,  37,736,498 
pounds;  Sweden,  51,026,591  pounds;  Den- 
mark, 18,764,483  pounds;  Cape  Colony, 
26,936,653  pounds. 

Venezuela.  Venezuela's  coffee  trade  was 
deeply  affected  by  the  war;  both  because 
the  Germans  were  prominent  in  the  in- 
dustry, and  because  the  regular  shipping 
service  to  Europe  was  discontinued.  Large 
amounts  of  coffee  were  piled  up  at  the 
ports  and  elsewhere ;  and  when  the  restric- 
tions were  swept  away  in  1919,  an  abnormal 
exportation  resulted.  Although  Germany 
had  been  one  of  the  chief  buyers  before  the 
war,  Venezuela  was  by  no  means  dependent 
on  the  German  market.  In  fact,  her  com- 
bined shipments  to  France  and  the  United 
States,  just  before  the  war,  were  three  times 
as  great  as  her  exports  to  Germany.  These 
two  countries  took  two-thirds  of  her  total 
exports  in  1920.  Spain  and  the  Nether- 
lands were  also  prominent  buyers. 

Coffee  Exports  from   Venezuela 

1906  1913  1920 

Exported    to  Pounds  Pounds  Pounds 

United     States.    35,704,398  45,570,268  43,670,191 

Prance     21,748,370  46,413,174  4,647,978 

Germany    5,270.814  32,203,972  546,363 

Aus. -Hungary    .         289,851  3,015,723 

Spain    3,133,012  7,372,839  15,210,756 

Netherlands     .  .    28,549,920  2,903,806  1,836,209 

Italy     315,293  2,805,948  719,850 

Great  Britain.  .         404,720  98,796  1,518,175 

Other  countries     2,663,507  1,631,143  5,577,110 

Total    98,079,885     142,015,669       73,726,632 

Colombia.  Colombian  statistics  of  for- 
eign trade  are  issued  very  irregularly,  and 


191 


COMMERCIAL  COFFEE  CHART 

The  World's  Leading  Growths,  with  Market  Names  and  General 

Trade  Characteristics 


Grand  Division 

Country 

Principal 
Shipping  Ports 

Best   Known 
Market   Names 

Trade   Characteristics 

North 

Mexico 

Vera  Cruz 

Coa tepee 

Greenish    to   yellow    bean ; 

America 

Huatusco 
Orizaba 

mild  flavor. 

Central 

Guatemahi 

Puerto  Barrios 

Coban 

Waxy,  bluish  bean ;  mellow 

America 

Antigua 

flavor. 

Salvador 

La  Libertad 

Santa  Ana 
Santa  Tecla 

Smooth,  green  bean ;  neu- 
tral flavor. 

Kk'- 

Costa  Rica 

I'uerto  Limon 

Costa  Ricas 

Blue-greenish    bean ;    mild 

t 

flavor. 

^PtVest 

Haiti 

Cape  Haitien 

Haiti 

Blue     bean ;     rich,     fairly 

If  Indies 

acid ;  sweet  flavor. 

w 

Santo  Domingo 

Santo  Domingo 

Santo  Domingo 

Flat,  greenish-yellow  bean ; 
strong  flavor. 

Jamaica 

Kingston 

Blue  Mountain 

Bluish-green  bean ;  rich, 
full  flavor. 

Porto  Rico 

Ponce 

Porto  Ricans 

Gray-blue  bean ;  strong, 
heavy  flavor. 

South 

Colombia 

Sa  van  ill  a 

Medellin 

Greenish-yellow  bean ;  rich. 

^   America 

Manizales,  Bogota 
Bucaramanga 

mellow  flavor. 

Venezuela 

La  Gualra 

Merida 

Greenish-yellow  bean ;  mild, 

Maracaibo 

Cucuta 
Caracas 

mellow  flavor. 

Brazil 

Santos 

Santos 

Small  bean ;  mild  flavor. 

Rio  de  Janeiro 

Rio 

Large  bean ;  sti-ong  cup. 

Asia 

Arabia 

Aden 

Mocha 

Small,  short,  green  to  yel- 
low bean ;  unique,  mild 
flavor. 

India 

Madras 

Mysore 

Small   to  large,  blue-green 

Calicut 

Coorg  (Kurg) 

bean ;  strong  flavor. 

East  India 

Malay   States 

Penang     (Geo't'n) 

Straits 

Liberian   and   Robusta 

Islands 

Singapore 

Liberian,  Robusta 

growths  from  Malaysia. 

Sumatra 

Padang 

Mandheling 
Ankola 
Ayer  Bangles 

Large,  yellow  to  brown 
bean ;  heavy  body ;  ex- 
quisite flavor. 

Java 

Batavia 

Preanger 
Cheribon,   Kroe 

Small,  blue  to  yellow  bean  ; 
light  in  cup. 

Celebes 

Menado 
Macassar 

Minahassa 

Large,  yellow  bean ;  aro- 
matic cup. 

Africa 

Abyssinia 

Jibuti 

Harar 
Abyssinia 

Large,  blue  to  yellow  bean ; 
very  like  Mocha. 

Pacific 

Hawaiian 

Honolulu 

Kona 

Large,    blue,    flinty    bean ; 

Islands 

Islands 

Puna 

mildly  acid. 

Philippines 

Manila 

Manila 

Yellow  and  brown  large 
bean ;  mild  cup. 

192 


ALT.     ABOUT     COFFEE 


no  figures  are  available  to  afford  compari- 
son between  pi*e-war  and  post-war  trade. 
The  figures  below,  however,  -will  show  the 
comparative  amounts  of  coffee  going  to  the 
chief  buying  countries  at  different  periods. 
From  these  it  will  be  seen  that,  the  countries 
mainly  interested  in  the  trade  in  Colombian 
coffee  are  those  prominent  in  the  trade  in 
other  tropical  American  sections.  England, 
France,  Germany,  and  the  United  States 
took  the  great  bulk  of  the  exports.  A  con- 
sular report  written  after  the  outbreak  of 
the  war  says : 

Prior  to  the  war  the  United  States  took  about 
seventy  percent  of  Colombia's  coffee  crop ;  tlie 
remainder  being  about  equally  divided  between 
England.  France,  and  Germany,  with  England 
taking  the  largest  share. 

Coffee  Exports  fkom  Colombia  * 
(Prom  Barranquilla  only) 

1899                  1905  1916 

Exported    to          Pounds             Pounds  Pounds 

•Great    Britain.    22,573,828         7,268,429  442,026 

France     6,873,722             496,120  1,685,454 

Germany    9,348,028          8,568,131  

United     States.    17,991,500       43.518,704  134,292,858 

Other  countries 7,396,385  23,753,678 

Total    56,787,078       67,247,769     160,174,016 

*  Tliese  figures  are  taken  from  a  consular  report, 
which  gave  statistics  only  for  the  port  of  Barran- 
quilla and  did  not  include  the  total  shipments  from 
that  port.  Shipments  from  Cartagena,  the  only  other 
exporting  port  of  any  consequence,  amounted  to 
7,836,505  pounds,  destination  not  stated.  The  Bar- 
ranquilla figures,  in  the  absence  of  oflicial  statistics, 
can  be  taken  as  fairly  representative  of  the  total 
trade  so  far  as  destination  is  concerned.  They  are 
for  fiscal  years,  ending  June  30. 

"Other  countries"  in  1916  included 
Italy,  1,135,137  pounds ;  Venezuela,  20,564,- 
321  pounds;  Dutch  West  Indies,  400,132 
pounds. 

Central  America.  The  three  largest  pro- 
ducing countries  of  Central  America, 
Guatemala,  Salvador,  and  Costa  Rica,  w^ere 
all  closely  linked  to  Germany  by  the  coffee 
trade  before  the  war.  German  capital  was 
heavily  invested  in  coffee  plantations;  Ger- 
man houses  had  branches  in  the  principal 
cities ;  and  German  ships  regularly  served 
the  chief  ports.  Accordingly,  when  the 
Mockade  became  effective,  these  countries 
were  placed  in  a  difficult  position.  But 
fortunately  for  them,  a  special  effort  had 
Ibeen  made  shortly  before  by  Pacific-coast 
interests  in  the  United  States  to  divert  a 
part  of  the  coffee  trade  to  San  Francisco  \ 
The  market  to  the  east  being  shut  off,  these 
countries  turned  naturally  to  the  north. 
This  trade  with  the  United  States  has  ap- 
parently been  firmly  established,  and  there 
lias  not  yet  been  much  of  a  return  to  Ger- 
man ports. 

1  See  chapter  XXX. 


Guatemala.  Of  the  three  countries 
named,  Guatemala  was  the  most  heavily 
involved  in  German  trade.  In  1913  she 
sent  to  Germany  53,000,000  pounds  of 
coffee,  a  fifth  more  than  in  1900.,  Her  ship- 
ments of  more  than  10,000,000  pounds  to 
the  United  Kingdom  were  about  the  same 
as  at  the  beginning  of  the  century.  The 
war  turned  both  these  currents  into  United 
States  ports,  and  they  continued  to  tlow  in 
that  direction  through  1920.  The  figures 
follow : 

Coffee  Exports  from  Guatemala 

1900  191i3  1920 

Exported  to                Pounds  Pounds  Pounds 

Germany    44.416,064  53,232,910  452,206 

United  States    .  .  .    14,057,120  21,188,444  78,226,508 

United    Kingdom.    11,467.680  10,666,604  2,341,217 

Other    countries..      3,041,584  6,641.936  13,185,638 

Total    72.982,448     91,729,894     94,205,569 

"Other  countries"  in  1913  included  Aus- 
tria-Hungary, 4,205,400  pounds;  Nether- 
lands, 407,900  pounds.  In  1920,  they  in- 
cluded Netherlands,  10,355,625  pounds; 
Sweden,  422,421  pounds;  Norway,  57,408 
pounds;  Spain,  97,519  pounds;  France, 
27,956  pounds. 

Salvador.  Salvador  is  one.  of  the  coun- 
tries in  which  the  publication  of  foreign- 
trade  statistics  has  been  irregular  in  the 
past,  and  none  is  available  to  show  the  full 
trade  in  coffee  at  the  beginning  of  the 
century.  A  consular  report  gives  figures 
for  the  first  half  of  1900.  The  most  recent 
statistics  show  that  the  United  States  still 
holds  much  of  the  trade  gained  during  the 
war,  although  Salvador  is  sending  to  Scan- 
dinavian countries  many  millions  of  pounds 
of  her  coffee  that  came  to  the  United  States 
in  wartime. 

Coffee  Exports  from   Salvador 

1900  (1st  6mos.)      1913  1920 

Exported   to          Pounds             Pounds  Pounds 

United     States.      6,700,101       10,779,655  46,262,256 

France     22,948,712       15,955,920  6,686,714 

Germany      6,607,892        12,120,133  813, 16Q 

Great     Britain.      4,396,465          3,415,187  4,226,061 

Italy     4,322,003  9,538,976 

Aus.-Hungary    .     1,335,626  3,557,482 

Belgium    210,834                  5,508  3,104 

Spain    24,799             377,729  364,296 

Other    countries             3,920         7,193,107  24,509,071 

Total    46.550.352       62,943.697       82,^64,668 

"Other  countries"  in  1913  included  Nor- 
way, 2,070,220  pounds;  Sweden,  2,238,332 
pounds;  Netherlands,  738,694  pounds; 
Chile,  609,441  pounds;  Russia,  95,625 
pounds;  Denmark,  140,665  pounds.  In 
1920,  they  included  Norway,  10,726,375 
pounds;  Chile,  1,772,346  pounds;  Nether- 
lands, 1,071,614  pounds ;  Sweden,  9,635,947 
pounds;  Denmark,  1,061,772  pounds. 


AL  J.     A  HO  r  T     COFFK  K 


A  Fi.ouKisiiiNG  Coffee  Estate  in  Chiapas,  Mexico 


i..\1!oi;ei!S  BRI^■GI^G  ia  the  Day's  I'ickings,  2seak  Bogota,  Columuia 
l\[TT;D-rOFFEK   rTT.TFRE   A\D   PKKPARATTON 


WORLD'S    COMMERCIAL    COFFEES 


L,»  „..„.. 

man  capital  was  heavily  invested  in  Costa 
^^ica  before  the  war,  and  all  three  nations 
^ftere  interested  in  the  coffee  trade.  For 
^Tiany  years  England  had  maintained  the 

lead  as  a  coffee  customer,  and  shipments 

continued  in  large  volume  after  the  war. 

The  following  figures  are  for  the  crop  year 

ending  September  30 : 

Coffee   Exports 
1903 
xported   to  Pounds 

United  States  ..     6,388,236 
Great    Britain.    27,756,661 

France     1.241,816 

Germany    2.676,841 

Other   countries         147.925 


193 


tOM    Costa    Rica 

1913 
Pounds 

1921 
Pounds 

1,625,866 

23,464,827 

741,548 

2,581,055 

288,521 

14,137,605 

13,418,527 

313,538 

376,649 

1,155,066 

28,701,817 

29,401,385 

i 


Total    38,211,479 

In  1900  total  shipments  were  35,496,055 
pounds,  of  which  20,587,712  pounds  went 
to  Great  Britain;  8,874,014  pounds  to  the 
United  States;  and  3,904,566  pounds  to 
Germany. 

"Other  countries"  in  1903  included 
Spain.  49,189  pounds;  Italy,  4,104  pounds. 
In  1921,  they  included  Netherlands,  837,- 
496  pounds :  'Spain,  308,308  pounds ;  Chile, 
9,259  pounds. 

Mexico.  Mexico  has  naturally  sent  most 
of  her  coffee  across  the  border  into  the 
United  States,  and  she  continued  to  do  so 
during  and  after  the  war.  But  she  had 
worked  up  a  very  important  trade  with 
Europe,  chiefly  with  Germany ;  and  German 
capital,  and  German  planters  and  mer- 
chants were  prominent  in  the  industry. 
France  and  England  also  were  interested 
in  the  trade,  and  purchased  annually  sev- 
eral million  pounds.  During  the  war,  as 
shown  by  the  exports  in  its  final  year,  this 
trade  almost  entirely  ceased,  and  the 
United  States  and  Spain  remained  as  the 
only  consumers  of  Mexican  coffee.  Details 
of  the  after-war  trade  are  not  yet  available 
in  published  statistics.  In  the  following 
table,  1900  and  1918  are  calendar  years, 
and  1913  is  a  fiscal  year. 

Coffee  Exports  from  Mexico 
1900 
.  Exported   to  Pounds 

United  States.  28.882.954 
Germany  .....  10,074,001 
Aus.-Hunjrary   .         163.934 

Belgium    25,855 

Spain .  546,132 

France     3,927,294 

Netherlands  ...  220.607 
Great  Britain .  3,848,605 
Cuba     ...-...•.:         467;201 

Italy    , .         157,653 

Other  couptries 


Total    '. 48,314,236 


1913 

1918 

Pounds 

Pounds 

28,012,655 

23,816,044 

10,461,382 

30.864 

39.722 

184,941 

6,184,494 

4,482,011 

46,296 

2,170,669 

37,921 

171,527 

347,758 

655,073 

46,469.292 

30.172,065 

In  1913  "other  countries"  included 
Panama,  342,131  pounds;  Canada,  276,567 
pounds;  Sweden,  3,079  pounds;  British 
Honduras,  33,179  pounds;  Denmark,  112 
pounds. 

Jamaica.  The  French,  more  than  any 
other  peoples  in  Europe,  have  cultivated  a 
taste  for  coffee  from  the  West  Indies;  and 
France  normally  has  led  all  other  countries 
in  shipments  from  the  larger  producing 
islands,  including  Jamaica,  although  the 
island  is  a  British  possession.  In  the 
year  before  the  war,  France  bought  nearly 
4,000,000  pounds  of  Jamaican  coffee,  more 
than  half  the  total  production.  In  the  year 
1900-01  also  she  took  about  4,000,000 
pounds,  leading  all  other  countries.  This 
trade  was  very  much  cut  down  during  the 
war.  but  was  not  wiped  out.  As  shown  in 
the  figures  for  1918,  England  largely  took 
the  place  of  France  in  that  year,  and 
Canada  increased  her  purchases  several 
hundred  percent. 

Coffee  Exports  from  Jamaica 


1901  (fls.yr.) 

1913 

1918 

Exported   to 

Pounds 

Pounds 

Pounds 

Great    Britain 

.      1,849,456 

671,440 

6.919,808 

Canada     

109,536 

263,872 

1.819.328 

United     States 

.      2,976.512 

802,032 

643,888 

France     

.      3,958,304 

3,743,264 

729.120 

Aus. -Hungary 

104,272 

303,296 

Cuba     

114,800 

Barbados     . . . 

226,464 

26,992 

Other  countries        508,704 

507,248 

97.440 

Total    

.      9,621,584 

6,517.616 

10,236.576 

"Other 

countries ' ' 

in     1901 

included 

British  West  Indies,  316,512  pounds.  In 
1913,  they  included  Netherlands,  125,216 
pounds;  is^rway,  28,896  pounds;  Sweden, 
70,224  pounds ;  Italy,  46,592  pounds ;  Aus- 
tralia, 71,456  pounds. 

Haiti.  Prior  to  the  taking  over  of  the 
administration  of  the  customs  of  Haiti  by 
the  United  States,  detailed  statistics  of  the 
exports  are  almost  wholly  lacking.  France 
took  most  of  the  annual  production,  con- 
tinuing a  trade  that  dated  back  to  old 
colonial  times.  An  American  consular 
report  says: 

Before  the  war  there  was  no  market  for  Hai- 
tian coffee  in  the  United  States,  practically  the 
entire  crop  going  to  Europe,  with  France  as  the 
largest  consumer.  However,  there  has  been  for 
some  time  past  a  determined  effort  made  to 
create  a  demand  in  the  United  States,  and  this 
is  said  to  be  meeting  with  ever-increasing  suc- 
cess. 

The  actual  success  achieved  can  be  meas- 
ured by  the  following  figures  for  the  fiscal 
year  ended  September  30.,' 1920: 


194 


ALL     ABOUT     COFFEE 


Coffee   Exports   from    Haiti 
Exported  to  Pounds 

United    States    27,647,077 

France     23,921,083 

Great  Britain   39,583 

Other  countries    10,362,351 

Total 61,970,094' 

These  figures  do  not  include  6,322,167 
pounds  of  coffee  triage,  or  waste,  of  which 
the  United  States  took  2,028,352  pounds; 
France,  1,491,507  pounds. 

Dominican  Republic.  The  comparatively 
small  production  of  the  Dominican  Repub- 
lic was  divided  among  the  United  States 
and  three  or  four  European  countries  be- 
fore the  war.  Since  the  war  the  exports 
have  been  scattered  among  the  former 
customers  in  varying  amounts.  Germany 
is  again  a  buyer,  although  her  purchases 
have  not  come  back  to  anything  like  the 
pre-war  level. 

Coffee  Exports  from  the  Dominican  Republic 

1906  1913  1920 

Exported    to          Pounds  Pounds  Pounds 

United     States.         564,291  506,456  529,831 

France     569,215  1,248,418  454,165 

Germany    1,562,193  327,843  69,224 

Italy     *  195,294  51,543 

Cuba     *  25,628  132,569 

Great     Britain.                     *  660  54,114 

Other   countries        221,028  8,154  70,220 

Total    2,916,727         2,312,453  1,361,666 

*No  shipments,  or  included  in  "other  countries." 

"Other  countries"  in  1920  included  only 
the  Netherlands. 

PoRTO  Rico.  In  spite  of  several  attempts 
on  the  part  of  Porto-Rican  planters  to 
make  their  product  popular  in  the  markets 
of  the  United  States,  the  American  con- 
sumer has  never  found  the  taste  of  that 
coffee  to  his  liking.  The  big  market  for 
the  Porto-Rican  product  has  been  Cuba, 
which  has  depended  on  her  neighbor  for 
most  of  her  supply.  This  demand  takes  a 
large  part  of  the  annual  crop,  including 
the  lower  grades.  The  better  grades,  be- 
fore the  war,  went  largely  to  Europe, 
mostly  to  the  Latin  countries.  During  the 
war,  the  Cuban  mai-ket  carried  the  Porto- 
Rican  planters  through,  although  shipments 
of  considerable  size  continued  to  go  to 
France  and  Spain.  Recovery  of  the  pre- 
war trade  with  Europe,  however,  has  been 
slow,  Spain  being  the  only  country  to  take 
over  1,000,000  pounds  in  1920.  Shipments 
to  that  country  totaled  3,472,204  pounds; 
those  to  France,  900,868  pounds.  Both 
countries  increased  their  purchases  con- 
siderably in  1921. 


Coffee  Exports  from  Porto  Rico 

1900-01  (fls.yr.)  1913  1921 

Exported    to  Pounds  Pounds  Pounds 

United     States.  29,565  628,843  211,531 

France     3,348,025  6,0'20,170  1,625,065 

Spam    2,590,096  6,851,235  5,705,932 

Aus.-Hungary    .  386,158  6,729,726 

Germany    493,891  876,315  363,993 

Belgium     9,964  25,867  234  019 

Italy     611,033  3,498,157  43,484 

Netherlands     .  .  8,860  497,938  25  199 

Sweden     32,390*  633,046  266,550 

Cuba     4,633,538  23,179,690  21,135,397 

Other   countries  13,720  393,586  356.709 

Total      12,157,240        49,334,573        29,967,879 

*  Includes  Norway. 

Hawaii.  The  war  disarranged  Hawaii's 
coffee  trade  very  little,  as  she  had  for  many 
years  been  shipping  chiefly  to  continental 
United  States.  Recently  a  considerable 
trade  with  the  Philippines  has  developed. 

Coffee  Exports  from  Hawaii 

1901-02  (fls.yr.)  1913  1921 

Exported    to          Pounds  Pounds  Pounds 

United     States.      1,082,994  3,393,009  4,183,046 

Canada     77,900  10,200  11  355 

Japan     24,155  49,167  23,950 

Germany    2,100  1,612 

Philippines    ...                     *  932,640  747,700- 

Other    countries          23,349  49,179  13,070 

Total    1,210,498         4,435, 807         4,979,121 

*No  exports,  or  included  in  "other  countries." 

Aden.  Lying  on  the  edge  of  the  war 
area  and  on  the  road  to  India,  Aden  felt 
the  full  force  of  the  disarrangement  of 
commercial  traffic  by  the  war.  Ordinarily,. 
Aden  is  not  only  the  chief  outlet  for  the 
coffee  of  the  interior  of  Arabia  —  the  orig- 
inal "Mocha"  —  but  it  is  also  the  tranship- 
ping point  for  large  amounts  from  Africa 
and  India.  The  figures  given  below  relate 
for  the  most  part  to  this  transhipped 
coffee.  Exports  of  coffee  from  Aden  go. 
chiefly  to  the  United  Kingdom,  France,  and 
the  United  States,  and  to  other  ports  of 
Arabia  and  Africa.  Before  the  war  no» 
great  proportion  went  to  the  Central 
Powers.  The  following  figures  apply  to 
fiscal  years  ending  March  31 : 

Coffee  Exports  from  Aden 

1901  (fls.yr.)      1914  (fls.yr.)  1921  (fls.yr.) 

Exported    to  Pounds  Pounds  Pounds 

Great     Britain.  1,563,632  696,976  466,928 

United     States.  2,412,368  4,300,128  2,507,344 

France 3,789,296  2,975,840  814.016 

Egypt     1,024,576  3,108,336 

Arab.   Gulf  Pts.  860,160  852,320  606,592 

Germany    247,184  465,136 

Aus.-Hungary    .  341,152  553,952 

Italy     197,568  811,664  7,504 

Br.     Somaliland  280,224  23,408 

♦Africa     337,344  2,390,640  292,880 

Other  countries  1,114,848  2,500,456  1,659,504 

Total    12,168,352       15,570,520         9,463,104 

•Including  adjacent  islands,  but  exclusive  of  British 
territory. 

"Other  countries"  in  1914  included 
Australia,  222,320  pounds;  Perim,  142,016 
pounds;  Zanzibar,  148,848  pounds;  Mauri- J| 

I 


WORLD'S    COMMERCIAL    COFFEES 


195 


ius,  154,672  pounds;  Seychelles,  116,704 
founds;  Sweden,  118,720  pounds;  Norway, 
^9,168  pounds ;  Russia,  196,448  pounds.  In 
1921,  they  included  Denmark,  120,624 
pounds ;  Spain,  124,208  pounds';  Massowah, 
110,704  pounds. 

British  India.    As  India's  trade  before 

le  war  was  chiefly  with  the  mother  coun- 

ry,   with  France,    and   with    Ceylon,   the 

I'eturn  to  normal  has  been  rapid.     In  the 

rear  following  the  war,   these   three   cus- 

)mers  were  again  credited  with  the  largest 

^mounts  exported  from  India,  except  for 

lipments  to  Greece,  W'hich  took  little  before 

le  war.     The  following  figures  are  for  the 

iscal  years  ending  March  31 : 

Coffee   Exports  from  British  India 

1901  (fla.yr.)  1914  (fls.yr.)  1920(fla.yr.) 

Exported    to          Pounds  Pounds  Pounds 

Jreat     Britain.    15,678,768  10,343,536  8,138,144 

Ceylon      1,088,528  l,428i,112  1,423,072 

France   8,430.016  10  924,816  9,256,352 

Belgium     617,792  1,021,664 

Germany    126,560  1,033,088  25,312 

Aus.-Hungary    .         123,312  1,358,896  8,400 

Italy     23,968  22,624  30.912 

United     States.           54,096  16,576 

Turkey   in   Asia        232,176  501,984  986,720 

♦Africa     118,272  113,344  619,696 

Other  countries     1,106,784  2,360,736  10,021,648 

Total    27,600,272       29,108,800       30,526,832 

♦Including  adjacent  islands. 

"Other  countries"  in  1914  included 
Netherlands,  238,560  pounds;  Australia, 
748,608  pounds;  Bahrein  Islands,  757,568 
pounds.     In   1920,   they   included   Greece, 


6,487,376  pounds;  Australia,  481,152 
pounds ;  Bahrein  Islands,  1,081,696  pounds ; 
Aden  and  dependencies,  459,984  pounds; 
other  Arabian  ports,  890,176  pounds. 

Dutch  East  Indies.  The  war  played 
havoc  with  the  coffee  trade  of  the  Dutch 
East  Indies,  taking  away  shipping,  closing 
trade  routes,  and  causing  immense  quanti- 
ties of  coffee  to  pile  up  in  the  warehouses. 
When  the  war  ended,  this  coffee  was  re- 
leased; and  trade  was  consequently  again 
abnormal,  although  in  the  opposite  direc- 
tion from  that  it  took  during  war  years. 
The  1920  figures  indicate  that  the  trade  is 
working  back  into  its  old  channels. 


Coffee  Exports  from 

Dutch   East 

Indies 

1900 

1913 

1920t 

Exported    to 

Pounds 

Pounds 

Pounds 

Netherlands     . 

81,489,000 

33,323,748* 

*50,028,815 

Great    Britain 

88,000 

981,201 

5,987,598 

Prance  

2,560,000 

9,081,715* 

5,410,582 

Aus.-Hungary 

1,153,000 

996,988 

Germany    .... 

71,000 

997,715* 

75,699 

Egypt     

5,494,000 

104,868 

1,418,313 

United     States 

8,408,000 

5,695,180 

17,274,522 

Singapore    .  .  . 

9,952,000 

4,785,580 

8,349,415 

Other  countries     2,965,000 

7,831,732 

10,475,509 

Total    

112,180,000 

63,798,727 

99,020,453 

♦Includes  shipments  "for  orders." 

t  These  figures  cover  only  Java  and  Madura. 

"Other  countries"  in  1920  included, 
Norway,  2,606,421  pounds ;  Sweden,  728,580 
pounds;  Australia,  1,553,495  pounds; 
British  India,  1,912,541  pounds;  Italy,  1,- 
964,109  pounds;  Denmark,  1,191,643 
pounds ;  Belgium,  166,092  pounds. 


196 


ALL     ABOUT     COFFEE 


^*jt 


M 


COFFEE    TREE    IN   BEARING  AT    THE   GOVERNMENTAL   EXPERIMENT 
STATION  AT  LAMOA,  NEAR  MANILA,  P.  I. 


Chapter   XX 
CULTIVATION      OF      THE     COFFEE     PLANT 

The  early  days  of  coffee  culture  in  Abyssinia  and  Arabia  —  Coffee 
cultivation  in  general  —  Soil,  climate,  rainfall,  altitude,  propagation, 
preparing  the  plantation,  shade  and  wind  breaks,  fertilising,  prun- 
ing, catch  crops,  pests,  and  diseases  —  How  coffee  is  grown  around 
the   ivorld  —  Cidtivation   in   all   the   principal   producing   countries 


^OR  the  beginnings  of  coffee  culture 
we  must  go  back  to  the  Arabian 
colony  of  Harar  in  Abyssinia,  for 
lere  it  was,  about  the  fifteenth  century, 
that  the  Arabs,  having  found  the  plant 
growing  wild  in  the  Abyssinian^  highlands, 
first  gave  it  intensive  cultivation.  The  com- 
plete story  of  the  early  cultivation  of  cofl'ee 
in  the  old  and  new  worlds  is  told  in  chapter 
II,  which  deals  with  the  history  of  the 
propagation  of  the  coffee  plant. 

La  iloque  ^  was  the  first  to  tell  how  the 
plant  was  cultivated  and  the  berries  pre- 
pared for  market  in  Arabia,  where  it  was 
brought  from  Abyssinia. 

The  Arabs  raised  it  from  seed  grown  in 
nurseries,  transplanting  it  to  plantations 
laid  out  in  the  foot-hills  of  the  mountains, 
to  which  they  conducted  the  mountain 
streams  by  ingeniously  constructed  small 
channels  to  water  the  roots.  They  built 
trenches  three  feet  wide  and  five  feet  deep, 
lining  them  with  pebbles  to  cause  the  water 
to  sink  deep  into  the  earth  with  which  the 
trenches  were  filled,  to  preserve  the  mois- 
ture from  too  rapid  evaporation.  These 
were  so  constructed  that  the  water  could 
be  turned  off  into  other  channels  when  the 
fruit  began  to  ripen.  In  plantations  ex- 
posed to  the  south,  a  kind  of  poplar  tree 
was  planted  along  the  trenches  to  supply 
needful  shade. 

La  Roque  noted  that  the  coffee  trees  in 
Yemen  were  planted  in  lines,  like  the  apple 
trees  in  Normandy;  and  that  when  they 


^  La    Roque,    .lean.      Voyage   de    I'AraMe   Heureuae, 
Paris.   17] 5.      (p.   280.) 


were  much  exposed  to  the  sun,  the  shade 
poplars  were  regularly  introduced  between 
the  rows. 

Such  cultivation  as  the  plant  received  in 
early  Abyssinia  and  Arabia  was  crude  and 
primitive  at  best.  Throughout  the  inter- 
vening centuries,  there  has  been  little  im- 
provement in  Yemen ;  but  modern  cultural 
methods  obtain  in  the  Harar  district  in 
Abyssinia. 

Like  the  Arabs  in  Yemen,  the  Harari 
cultivated  in  small  gardens,  employing  the 
same  ingenious  system  of  irrigation  from 
mountain  springs  to  water  the  roots  of  the 
plants  at  least  once  a  week  during  the  dry 
season.  In  Yemen  and  in  Abyssinia  the 
ripened  berries  were  sun-dried  on  beaten- 
earth  barbecues. 

The  European  planters  who  carried  the 
cultivation  of  the  bean  to  the  Far  East  and 
to  America  followed  the  best  Arabian  prac- 
tise, changing,  and  sometimes  improving 
it,  in  order  to  adapt  it  to  local  conditions. 

Cofee  Cidtivation  in  General 

Today  the  commercial  growers  of  coffee 
on  a  large  scale  practise  intensive  cultiva- 
tion methods,  giving  the  same  care  to  pre- 
paring their  plantations  and  maintaining 
their  trees  as  do  other  growers  of  grains 
and  fruits.  As  in  the  more  advanced 
methods  of  arboriculture,  every  effort  is 
made  to  obtain  the  maximum  production  of 
quality  coffee  consistent  with  the  smallest 
outlay  of  money  and  labor.  Experimental 
stations  in  various  parts  of  the  world  are 
constantly  working  to  improve  methods  and 


197 


198 


ALL     ABOUT     COFFEE 


products,  and  to  develop  types  that  will 
resist  disease  and  adverse  climatic  condi- 
tions. 

While  cultivation  methods  in  the  differ- 
ent producing  countries  vary  in  detail  of 
practise,  the  principles  are  unchanging. 
Where  methods  do  differ,  it  is  owing  prin- 
cipally to  local  economic  conditions,  such  as 
the  supply  and  cost  of  labor,  machinery, 
fertilizers,  and  similar  essential  factors. 


Implements    Used    in    Early   Arabian    Coffee 
Culture 

1,  Plow.     2  and  3,  Mattocks.     4,  Hatchet  and  sickle. 
Top,   Seeder  implement 

Soil.  Rocky  ground  that  pulverizes 
easily  —  and,  if  possible,  of  volcanic  origin 
—  is  best  for  coffee;  also,  soil  rich  in  de- 
composed mold.  In  Brazil  the  best  soil  is 
known  as  terra  roxa,  a  topsoil  of  red  clay 
three  or  four  feet  thick  with  a  gravel  sub- 
soil. 

Climate.  The  natural  habitat  of  the 
coffee  tree  (all  species)  is  tropical  Africa, 
Mhere  the  climate  is  hot  and  humid,  and  the 
soil  rich  and  moist,  yet  sufficiently  friable 
to  furnish  well  drained  seed  beds.  These 
conditions  must  be  approximated  when  the 
tree  is  grown  in  other  countries.  Because 
the  trees  and  fruit  generally  can  not  with- 
stand frost,  they  are  restricted  to  regions 
where  the  mean  annual  temperature  is 
about  70°   F.,  with  an  average  minimum 


about  55°,  and  an  average  maximum  of 
about  80°.  Where  grown  in  regions  subject 
to  more  or  less  frost,  as  in  the  northernmost 
parts  of  Brazil's  coffee-producing  district, 
which  lie  almost  within  the  south  temperate 
zone,  the  coffee  trees  are  sometimes  frosted, 
as  was  the  case  in  1918,  when  about  forty 
percent  of  the  Sao  Paulo  crop  and  trees 
suffered. 

Generally  speaking,  the  most  suitable 
climate  for  coffee  is  a  temperate  one  within 
the  tropics;  however,  it  has  been  success- 
fully cultivated  between  latitudes  28°  north 
and  38°  south. 

Rainfall,  Although  able  to  grow  satis- 
factorily only  on  well  drained  land,  the 
coffee  tree  requires  an  abundance  of  water, 
about  seventy  inches  of  rainfall  annually, 
and  must  have  it  supplied  evenly  through- 
out the  year.  Prolonged  droughts  are 
fatal ;  while,  on  the  other  hand,  too  great  a 
supply  of  water  tends  to  develop  the  wood 
of  the  tree  at  the  expense  of  the  flowers  and 
fruit,  especially  in  low-lying  regions. 

Altitude.  Coffee  is  found  growing  in  all 
altitudes,  from  sea-level  up  to  the  frost-line, 
which  is  about  6,000  feet  in  the  tropics. 
Rohusta  and  liberica  varieties  of  coffee  do 
best  in  regions  from  sea-level  up  to  3,000 
feet,  while  arabica  flourishes  better  at  the 
higher  levels. 

Carvalho  says  that  the  coffee  plant  needs 
sun,  but  that  a  few  hours  daily  exposure  is 
sufficient.  Hilly  ground  has  the  advantage 
of  offering  the  choice  of  a  suitable  exposure, 
as  the  sun  shines  on  it  for  only  a  part  of 
the  day.  Whether  it  is  the  early  morning 
or  the  afternoon  sun  that  enables  the  plant 
to  attain  its  optimum  conditions  is  a  ques- 
tion of  locality. 

In  Mexico,  Romero  tells  us,  the  highlands 
of  Soconusco  have  the  advantage  that  the 
sun  does  not  shine  on  the  trees  during  the 
whole  of  the  day.    On  the  higher  slopes  of 


Cross  Section  of  Mountain  Slope  in  Yemen,   Arabia,   Showing  Coffee  Terraces 
These  miniature  plantations  are  found  chiefly  along  the  caravan  route  between  Hodeida  and   Sanaa 


COFFEE    CULTIVATION 


199 


Cleauinu  Virgin    Fokest  for  a  Coffee  Estate  in  Mexico 


Coffee  Xubsery  Under  a  Bamboo  Roof  in  Colombia 
THE    FIRST    STEPS    IN    COFFEE     GROWING 


200 


ALL     ABOUT     COFFEE 


the  Cordilleras  —  from  2,500  feet  above 
sea-level  —  clouds  prevail  during  the  sum- 
mer season,  when  the  sun  is  hottest,  and 
are  frequently  present  in  the  other  seasons, 
after  ten  o'clock  in  the  morning.  These 
keep  the  trees  from  being  exposed  to  the 
heat  of  the  sun  during  the  whole  of  the  day. 
Perhaps  to  this  circumstance  is  due  the 
superior  excellence  of  certain  coffees  grown 
in  Mexico,  Colombia,  and  Sumatra  at  an 
altitude  of  3,000  feet  to  4,000  feet  above 
sea-level. 

Richard  Spruce,  the  botanist,  in  his  notes 
on  South  America,  as  quoted  by  Alfred 
Russel  Wallace,"  refers  to  "a  zone  of  the 
equatorial  Andes  ranging  between  4,000 
and  6,000  feet  altitude,  where  the  best 
flavored  coffee  is  grown." 

Propagation.  Coffee  trees  are  grown 
most  generally  from  seeds  selected  from 
trees  of  known  productivity  and  longevity ; 
although  in  some  parts  of  the  world  propa- 
gation is  done  from  shoots  or  cuttings.  The 
seed  method  is  most  general,  however,  the 
seeds  being  either  propagated  in  nursery 
beds,  or  planted  at  once  in  the  spot  where 
the  mature  tree  is  to  stand.     In  the  latter 


^Encyclopedia  Britannica,  11   ed.,   Cambridge,   1910. 
(vol.   i:   p.   118.) 


case  —  called  planting  at  stake  —  four  or 
five  seeds  are  planted,  much  as  corn  is 
sown ;  and  after  germination,  all  but  the 
strongest  plant  are  removed. 

Where  the  nursery  method  is  followed, 
the  choicest  land  of  the  plantation  is 
chosen  for  its  site ;  and  the  seeds  are 
planted  in  forcing  beds,  sometimes  called 
cold-frames.  When  the  plants  are  to  be 
transplanted  direct  to  the  plantation,  the 
seeds  are  generally  sown  six  inches  apart 
and  in  rows  separated  by  the  same  distance, 
and  are  covered  with  only  a  slight  sprink- 
ling of  earth.  When  the  plants  are  to  be 
transferred  from  the  first  bed  to  another, 
and  then  to  the  plantation,  the  seeds  are 
sown  more  thickly;  and  the  plants  are 
"pricked"  out  as  needed,  and  set  out  in 
another  forcing  bed. 

During  the  six  to  seven  weeks  required 
for  the  coffee  seed  to  germinate,  the  soil 
must  be  kept  moist  and  shaded  and  thor- 
oughly weeded.  If  the  trees  are  to  be 
grown  without  shade,  the  young  plants  are 
gradually  exposed  to  the  sun,  to  harden 
them,  before  they  begin  their  existence  in 
the  plantation  proper. 

Considerable  experimental  work  has  been 
done  in  renewing  trees  by  grafting,  notably 


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ALL     ABOUT     COFFEE 


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COFFEE  SCENES  IN  JAVA,  NETHERLANDS   EAST  INDIES 


COFFEE    CULTIVATION 


201 


Coffee  Growing  Under  Shade,  Porto  Rico 


in  Java ;  but  practically  all  commercial 
planters  follow  the  seed  method. 

Preparing  the  Plantation.  Before 
transplanting  time  has  come,  the  plantation 
itself  has  been  made  ready  to  receive  the 
young  plants.  Coffee  plantations  are  gen- 
erally laid  out  on  heavily  wooded  and  slop- 
ing lands,  most  often  in  forests  on  moun- 
tainsides and  plateaus,  where  there  is  an 
abundance  of  water,  of  which  large  quan- 
tities are  used  in  cultivating  the  trees  and 
in  preparing  the  coffee  beans  for  market. 
The  soil  most  suitable  is  friable,  sandy,  or 
even  gravelly,  with  an  abundance  of  rocks 
to  keep  the  soil  comparatively  cool  and  well 
drained,  as  well  as  to  supply  a  source  of 
food  by  action  of  the  weather.  The  ideal 
soil  is  one  that  contains  a  large  proportion 
of  potassium  and  phosphoric  acid ;  and  for 
that  reason,  the  general  practise  is  to  burn 
off  the  foliage  and  trees  covering  the  land 
and  to  use  the  ashes  as  fertilizer. 

In  preparing  the  soil  for  the  new  planta- 
tion under  the  intensive  cultivation  method, 
the  surface  of  the  land  is  lightly  plowed, 
and  then  followed  up  with  thorough  cul- 
tivation. "When  transplanting  time  comes, 
which  is  when  the  plant  is  about  a  year  old, 
and  stands  from  twelve  to  eighteen  inches 
high     with     its     first     pairs     of    primary 


branches,  the  plants  are  set  out  in  shallow 
holes  at  regular  intervals  of  from  eight  to 
twelve,  or  even  fourteen,  feet  apart.  This 
gives  room  for  the  root  system  to  develop, 
provides  space  for  sunlight  to  reach  each 
tree,  and  makes  for  convenience  in  cultivat- 
ing and  harvesting.  Liherica  and  robusta 
type  trees  require  more  room  than  arahica. 
When  set  twelve  feet  apart,  which  is  the 
general  practise,  with  the  same  distance 
maintained  between  rows,  there  are  approxi- 
mately four  hundred  and  fifty  trees  to  the 
acre.  In  the  triangle,  or  hexagon,  system 
the  trees  are  planted  in  the  form  of  an 
equilateral  triangle,  each  tree  being  the 
same  distance  (usually  eight  or  nine  feet) 
from  its  six  nearest  neighbors.  This  sys- 
tem permits  of  600  to  800  trees  per  acre. 

Shade  and  Wind  Breaks.  Strong,  chilly 
winds  and  intensely  hot  sunlight  are  foes 
of  coffee  trees,  especially  of  the  arahica 
variety.  Accordingly,  in  most  countries  it 
is  customary  to  protect  the  plantation  with 
wind-breaks  consisting  of  rugged  trees,  and 
to  shade  the  coffee  by  growing  trees  of 
other  kinds  between  the  rows.  The  shade 
trees  serve  also  to  check  soil  erosion :  and 
in  the  case  of  the  leguminous  kinds,  to 
furnish  nutriment  to  the  soil.  Coffee  does 
best  in  shade  such  as  is  afforded  bv  the  silk 


202 


ALL     ABOUT     COFFEE 


oak  (Grevillea  rohusta).  In  Shade  in 
Coffrf  Culture  {Bulletin  25,  1901,  division 
of  botany,  United  States  Department  of 
Agriculture),  0.  F.  Cook  goes  extensively 
into  this  subject. 

The  methods  emploj^ed  in  the  care  of  a 
coffee  plantation  do  not  differ  materially 
from  those  followed  by  advanced  orchard- 
ists  in  the  colder  fruit-belts  of  the  world. 
After  the  young  plants  have  gained  their 
start,  they  are  cultivated  frequently,  prin- 
'cipally  to  keep  out  the  weeds,  to  destroy 
pests,  and  to  aerate  the  earth.  The  imple- 
ments used  range  from  crude  hand-plows  to 
horse-drawn  cultivators.. 

Fertilizing.  Comparatively  little  fer- 
tilizing is  done  on  plantations  established 
on  virgin  soil  until  the  trees  begin  to  bear, 
which  occurs  when  they  are  about  three 
years  of  age.  Because  the  coffee  tree  takes 
potash,  nitrogen,  and  phosphoric  acid  from 
the  soil,  the  scheme  of  fertilizing  is  to 
restore  these  elements.  The  materials  used 
to  replace  the  soil-constituents  consist  of 
stable  manure,  leguminous  plants,  coffee- 
tree  prunings,  leaves,  certain  weeds,  oil 
cake,  bone  and  fish  meal,  guano,  wood 
ashes,  coffee  pulp  and  parchment,  and  such 
chemical  fertilizers  as  superphosphate  of 
lime,    basic    slag,    sulphate    of    ammonia, 


nitrate  of  lime,  sulphate  of  potash,  nitrate 
of  potash,  and  similar  materials. 

The  relative  values  of  these  fertilizers 
depend  largely  upon  local  climate  and  soil 
conditions,  the  supply,  the  cost,  and  other 
like  factors.  The  chemical  fertilizers  are 
coming  into  increasing  use  in  the  larger  and 
more  economically  advanced  producing 
countries.  Brazil,  particularly,  is  showing 
in  late  years  a  tendency  toward  their  adop- 
tion to  make  up  for  the  dwindling  supply 
of  the  so-called  natural  manures.  As  the 
coffee  tree  grows  older,  it  requires  a  larger 
supply  of  fertilizer. 

Pruning.  On  the  larger  plantations, 
pruning  is  an  important  part  of  the  cul- 
tivation processes.  If  left  to  their  own 
devices,  coffee  trees  sometimes  grow  as  high 
as  forty  feet,  the  strength  being  absorbed 
by  the  wood,  with  a  consequent  scanty  pro- 
duction of  fruit.  To  prevent  this  undesir- 
able result,  and  to  facilitate  picking,  the 
trees  on  the  more  modern  plantations  are 
pruned  down  to  heights  ranging  from  six 
to  twelve  feet.  Except  for  pruning  the 
roots  when  transplanting,  the  tree  is  per- 
mitted to  grow  until  after  producing  its 
first  full  crop  before  any  cutting  takes 
place.  Then,  the  branches  are  severely  cut 
back ;  and  thereafter,  pruning  is  carried  on 


The   Famous   Boekit  Gompong  Estate,  Near   Padang,  on  Sumatra's  West  Coast 
Showing  the  healthy,  regrular  appearance  of  well-cultivated    coffee    bushes,    twenty-six    years    old. 
note  the  line  of  feathery  bamboo  wind-breaks 


Also 


COFFEE    CULTIVATION 


203 


Coffee  Estate  in  Antioquia,  Colombia,  Showing  Wind-Breaks 


annually.  Topping  and  pruning  begin  be- 
tween the  first  and  the  second  years. 

Coffee  trees  as  a  rule  produce  full  crops 
from  the  sixth  to  the  fifteenth  year,  al- 
though some  trees  have  given  a  paying  crop 
until  twenty  or  thirty  years  old.  Ordinarily 
the  trees  bear  from  one-half  pound  to  eight 
pounds  of  coffee  annually,  although  there 
are  accounts  of  twelve  pounds  being  ob- 
tained per  tree.  Production  is  mostly  gov- 
erned by  the  cultivation  given  the  tree,  and 
by  climate,  soil,  and  location.  When  too 
old  to  bear  profitable  yields,  the  trees  on 
commercial  plantations  are  cut  down  to  the 
level  of  the  ground;  and  are  renewed  by 
permitting  only  the  strongest  sprout  spring- 
ing out  of  the  stump  to  mature. 

Catch  Crops.  On  some  plantations  it 
has  become  the  practise  to  grow  catch  crops 
between  the  rows  of  coffee  trees,  both  as 
a,  means  of  obtaining'  additional  revenue 
and  to  shade  the  young  coffee  plants.  Corn, 
beans,  cotton,  peanuts,  and  similar  plant-s 
are  most  generally  used. 

Pests  and  Diseases.  The  coffee  tree,  its 
wood,  foliage,  and  fruit,  have  their  enemies, 
chief  among  which  are  insects,  fungi, 
rodents  (the  "'coffee  rat"),  birds,  squirrels. 


and  —  according  to  Rossignon  —  elephants, 
buffalo,  and  native  cattle,  which  have  a 
special  liking  for  the  tender  leaves  of  the 
coffee  plant.  Insects  and  fungi  are  the 
most  bothersome  pests  on  most  plantations. 
Among  the  insects,  the  several  varieties  of 
borers  are  the  principal  foes,  boring  into 
the  wood  of  the  trunk  and  branches  to  lay 
larvae  which  sap  the  life  from  the  tree. 
There  are  scale  insects  whose  excretion 
forms  a  black  mold  on  the  leaves  and 
affects  the  nutrition  by  cutting' off  the  sun- 
light. Numerous  kinds  of  beetles,  cater- 
pillars, grasshoppers,  and  crickets  attack 
the  coffee-tree  leaves,  the  so-called  "leaf- 
miner"  being  especially  troublesome.  The 
Mediterranean  fruit  fly  deposits  larvae 
which  destroy  or  lessen  the  worth  of  the 
coffee  berry  by  tunneling  within  and  eating 
the  contents  of  the  parchment.  The  coffee- 
berry  beetle  and  its  grub  also  live  within 
the  coffee  berry. 

Among  the  most  destructive  fungoid  dis- 
eases is  the  so-called  Ceylon  leaf  disease, 
which  is  caused  by  the  Hemileia  vastatrix,  a 
fungus  related  to  the  wheat  rust.  It  was 
this  disease  which  ruined  the  coffee  industry 
in  Ceylon,  where  it  first  appeared  in  1869, 


204 


ALL     ABOUT     COFFEE 


and  since  has  been  found  in  other  coffee- 
producing  regions  of  Asia  and  Africa. 
America  has  a  similar  disease,  caused  by  the 
Sphaerostilhe  flavida,  that  is  equally  de- 
structive if  not  vigilantly  guarded  against. 
(See  chapters  XV  and  XVI.) 

The  coffee-tree  roots  also  are  subject  to 
attack.  There  is  the  root  disease,  prevalent 
in  all  countries,  and  for  wh'ch  no  cause 
has  yet  been  definitely  assigned,  although 
it  has  been  determined  that  it  is  of  a 
fungoid  nature.  Brazil,  and  some  other 
American  coft'ee-producing  countries,  have 
a  serious  disease  caused  by  the  eelworm, 
and  for  that  reason  called  the  eelworm 
disease. 

Coffee  planters  combat  pests  and  diseases 
principally  with  sprays,  as  in  other  lines  of 
advanced  arboriculture.  It  is  a  constant 
battle,  especially  on  the  large  commercial 
plantations,  and  constitutes  a  large  item  on 
the  expense  sheet. 

Cultivation  hy  Countries 

Coffee-cultivation  methods  vary  some- 
what in  detail  in  the  different  producing 
countries.  The  foregoing  description  covers 
the  underlying  principles  in  practise 
throughout  the  world;  while  the  following 
is   intended   to   show   the   local  variations 


in  vogue  in  the  principal  countries  of 
production,  together  with  brief  descriptions 
of  the  main  producing  districts,  the  alti- 
tudes, character  of  soil,  climate,  and  other 
factors  that  are  peculiar  to  each  country. 
In  general,  they  are  considered  in  the  order 
of  their  relative  importance  as  producing 
countries. 

Brazil.  In  Brazil,  the  Giant  of  South 
America,  and  the  world's  largest  coffee 
producer,  the  methods  of  cultivation  natur- 
ally have  reached  a  high  point  of  develop- 
ment, although  the  soil  and  the  climat3 
were  not  at  first  regarded  as  favorable. 
The  year  1723  is  generally  accepted  as  the 
date  of  the  introduction  of  the  coft'ee  plant 
into  Brazil  from  French  Guiana.  Coffee 
planting  was  slow  in  developing,  however, 
until  1732,  when  the  governor  of  the  states 
of  Para  and  Maranhao  urged  its  cultiva- 
tion. Sixteen  years  later,  there  were  17,000 
trees  in  Para.  From  that  year  on,  slow 
but  steady  progress  was  made ;  and  by  1770, 
an  export  trade  had  been  begun  from  the 
port  of  Para  to  countries  in  Europe. 

The  spread  of  the  industry  began  about 
this  time.  The  coffee  tree  was  introduced 
into  the  state  of  Rio  de  Janeiro  in  1770. 
From  there  its  cultivation  was  gradually 


Up-to-Date   Weeding   and  Hakeowing,  Sao  Paulo 


COFFEE    CULTIVATION 


205 


Photograph  by  Courtesy  of  J.   Aron  &  Co. 

General  View  of  Fazenda  Uumont,  Ribeirao  Preto,  Sao  Paulo,   Brazil 


extended  into  the  states  of  Sao  Paulo,  Minas 
Geraes,  Bahia,  and  Espirito  Santo,  which 
have  become  the  great  coffee-producing  sec- 
tions of  Brazil.  The  cultivation  of  the 
plant  did  not  become  especially  noteworthy 
until  the  third  decade  of  the  nineteenth 
century.  Large  crops  were  gathered  in  the 
season  of  1842  -  43 ;  and  by  the  middle  of 
the  century,  the  plantations  were  producing 
annually  more  than  2,000,000  bags. 

Brazil's  commercial  coffee-growing  region 
has  an  estimated  area  of  approximately 
1,158,000  square  miles,  and  extends  from 
the  river  Amazon  to  the  southern  border  of 
the  state  of  Sao  Paulo,  and  from  the 
Atlantic  coast  to  the  western  boundary  of 
the  state  of  Matto  Grosso.  This  area  is 
larger  than  that  section  of  the  United 
States  lying  east  of  the  Mississippi  River, 
with  Texas  added.  In  every  state  of  the 
republic,  from  Ceara  in  the  north  to  Santa 
Catharina  in  the  south,  the  coffee  tree  can 
be  cultivated  profitably;  and  is,  in  fact,, 
more  or  less  grown  in  every  state,  if  only 
for  domestic  use.  However,  little  attention 
is  given  to  coffee-growing  in  the  north,  ex- 
cept in  the  state  of  Pernambuco,  which  has 
only  about  1,500,000  trees,  as  compared, 
with  the  764.000,000  trees  of  Sao  Paulo  in 
1922. 

The  chief  coffee-growing  plantations  in 
Brazil  are  situated  on  plateaus  seldom  less 
than  1,800  feet  above  sea-level,  and  ranging 


up  to  4,000  feet.  The  mean  annual  tem- 
perature is  approximately  70°  F.,  rang- 
ing from  a  mean  of  60.8°  in  winter  to  a 
mean  of  72°  in  summer.  The  temperature 
has  been  known,  however,  to  register  32° 
in  winter  and  97.7°   in  summer. 

"While  coffee  trees  will  grow  in  almost 
any  part  of  Brazil,  experience  indicates 
that  the  two  most  fertile  soils,  the  terra 
roxa  and  the  massape,  lie  in  the  "coffee 
belts."  The  terra  roxa  is  a  dark  red  earth, 
and  is  practically  confined  to  Sao  Paulo, 
and  to  it  is  due  the  predominant  coffee 
productivity  of  that  state.  Massape  is  a 
yellow,  dark  red  —  or  even  black  —  soil, 
and  occurs  more  or  less  contiguous  to  the 
terra  roxa.  With  a  covering  of  loose  sand, 
it  makes  excellent  coffee  land. 

Brazil  planters  follow  the  nursery-propa- 
gated method  of  planting,  and  cultivate, 
prune,  and  spray  their  trees  liberally. 
Transplanting  is  done  in  the  months  from 
November  to  February. 

Coffee-growing  profits. have  shown  a  de- 
cided falling  off  in  Brazil  in  recent  years. 
In  1900  it  was  not  uncommon  for  a  coffee 
estate  to  yield  an  annual  profit  of  from  100 
to  250  percent.  Ten  years  later  the  average 
returns  did  not  exceed  twelve  percent. 

In  Brazil's  coffee  belt  there  are  two  sea- 
sons —  the  wet,  running  from  September 
to  March ;  and  the  dry,  running  from  April 
to  August.     The  coffee  trees  are  in  bloom 


206 


ALL     ABOUT     COFFEE 


COFFEE    CULTIVATIOX 


207 


from  September  to  December.  The  blos- 
soms last  about  four  days,  and  are  easily 
beaten  off  by  light  winds  or  rains.  If  the 
rains  or  winds  are  violent,  the  green  berries 
may  be  similarly  destroyed ;  so  that  great 
damage  may  be  caused  by  unseasonable 
rains  and  storms. 

The  harvest  usually  begins  in  April  or 
May,  and  extends  well  into  the  dry  season. 
Even  in  the  picking  season,  heavy  rains 
and  strong  winds  —  especially  the  latter  — 
may  do  considerable  damage;  for  in  Brazil 
shade  trees  and  wind-breaks  are  the  excep- 
tion. 

Approximately  twenty-five  percent  of  the 
Sao  Paulo  plantations  are  cultivated  by 
machinery,  A  type  of  cultivator  very  com- 
mon is  similar  to  the  small  corn-plow  used 
in  the  United  States.  The  Planet  Junior, 
manufactured  by  a  well  known  United 
States  agricultural-machinery  firm,  is  the 
most  popular  cultivator.  It  is  drawn  by  a 
small  mule,  with  a  boy  to  lead  it,  and  a 
man  to  drive  and  to  guide  the  plow. 

The  preponderance  of  the  coffee  over 
other  industries  in  Sao  Paulo  is  shown  in 
many  ways.  A  few  years  ago  the  registra- 
tion of  laborers  in  all  industries  was  about 
450,000;  and  of  this  total,  420,000  were 
employed  in  the  production  and  transpor- 
tation of  coffee  alone.  Of  the  capital  in- 
vested in  all  industries,  about  eighty-five 
percent  was  in  coffee  production  and  com- 
merce, including  the  railroads  that  de- 
pended upon  it  directly.  An  estimated 
value  of  $482,500,000  was  placed  upon  the 


Copyright  by  Brown  &  Uawsui 

Picking  Coffee  in  Sao  Paulo 


plantations  in  the  state,  including  land,, 
machinery,  the  residences  of  owners,  and 
laborers'  quarters. 

In  all  Brazil,  there  are  approximately 
1,200,000,000  coffee  trees.  The  number  of 
bearing  coffee  trees  in  Sao  Paulo  alone  in- 
creased from  735,000.000  in  1914-15  to: 
834,000,000 'in  1917-18.  The  crop  in  1917- 
18  was  1,615,000,000  pounds,  one  of  the 
largest  on  record.  In  the  agricultural  vear 
of  1922-23  there  were  764,969,500  coffee 
trees  in  bearing  in  Sao  Paulo,  and  in  Sao 
Paulo,    Minas,    and    Parana,    824,194,500. 

Plantations  having  from  300,000  to  400,- 
000  trees  are  common.  One  plantation  near 
Ribeirao  Preto  has  5,000,000  trees,  and 
requires  an  army  of  6,000  laborers  to  work 


y   •:    .1.    A:,  i:    \    (V. 

Intensive  Cultivation  METiions  in  the  Kibeirao  Preto  District,  Sao  Paulo 


208 


ALL     ABOUT     COFFEE 


It 

1?                  ^ 

i^B^£ 

^- ■...•,     !'■  '     ■     ^:'.^.dMM 

^^H^^^^^HBHt'l^  JjTfl 

Pliotograph  by  Courtesy  of  J.  Aion  k  Co. 

Private    Railroad    on  a  Sao  Paulo  Coffee  Fazenda 
Showing   coffee  trees  and   laborers'    houses  in   the  middle   distance  at  right 


it.  Another  planter  owns  thirty-two  ad- 
jacent plantations  containing,  in  all,  from 
7,500,000  to  8,000,000  coffee  trees  and 
gives  employment  to  8,000  persons.  There 
are  fifteen  plantations  having  more  than 
1,000,000  trees  each,  and  five  of  these  have 
more  than  2,000,000  trees  each.  In  the 
munieipalitv  of  Ribeirao  Preto  there  were 
30,000,000  trees  in  1922. 

The  largest  coffee  plantations  in  the  world 
are  the  Fazendas  Dumont  and  the  Fazendas 
Schmidt.  The  Fazendas  Dumont  were 
valued,  in  1915,  in  cost  of  land  and  im- 
provements, at  $5,920,007;  and  since  those 
figures  were  given  out,  the  value  of  the 
investment  has  much  increased.  Of  the 
various  Fazendas  Schmidt,  the  largest, 
owned  by  Colonel  Francisco  Schmidt,  in 
1918  had  9.000.000  trees  with  an  annual 
yield  of  200,000  bags,  or  26,400,000  pounds, 
of  coffee.  Other  large  plantations  in  Sao 
Paulo  with  a  million  or  more  trees,  are  the 
Companhia  Agricola  Fazenda  Dumont,  2,- 
420,000  trees;  Companhia  Sao  Martinho, 
2,300,000  trees ;  Companhia  Dumont,  2,000,- 
000  trees :  »Sao  Paulo  Coffee  Company, 
1,860,000  trees;  Christiana  Oxorio  de 
Oliveira.  1.790.000  trees;  Companhia  Guata. 
para  1.550.000  trees;  Dr.  Alfredo  Ellis, 
1,271,000  trees;  Companhia  Agricola  Ara- 
qua,  1,200,000  trees;  Companhia  Agricola 
Ribeirao  Preto,  1,138,000  trees;  Rodriguez 
Alves  Irmaos,  1,060,000  trees;  Francisca 
Silveira  do  Val,  1,050,000  trees;  Luiza  de 
Oliveira  Azevedo,  1,045,000  trees;  and  the 
Companhia  Cafeeria  Sao  Paulo,  1,000,000 
trees. 

The  average  annual  yield  in  Sao  Paulo  is 
estimated  at  from  1,750  to  4,000  pounds 


from  a  thousand  trees,  while  in  exceptional 
instances  it  is  said  that  as  much  as  6,000 
pounds  per  1,000  trees  have  been  gathered.^ 
Dift'erences  in  local  climatic  conditions,  in 
ages  of  trees,  in  richness  of  soil,  and  in  the 
care  exercised  in  cultivation,  are  given  as 
the  reasons  for  the  wide  variation. 

The  oldest  coffee-growing  district  in  Sao 
Paulo  is  Campinas,     There  are  136  others. 

Bahia  coffee  is  not  so  carefully  cultivated 
and  harvested  as  the  Santos  coffee.  The 
introduction  of  capital  and  modern  methods 
would  do  much  for  Bahia,  which  has  the 
advantage  of  a  shorter  haul  to  the  New 
York  and  the  European  markets. 

On  the  average,  something  like  seventy 
percent  of  the  world's  coffee  crop  is  grown 
in  Brazil,  and  two-thirds  of  this  is  produced 
in  Sao  Paulo.  Coffee  culture  in  many  dis- 
tricts of  Sao  Paulo  has  been  brought  to  the 
point  of  highest  development;  and  yet  its 
product  is  essentially  a  quantity,  not  a 
quality,  one. 

Colombia.  In  Colombia^coffee  is  the 
J2rineipal  crop  gro\\'n  tor  export  It  is 
produced  m  nearly — aii — depSHments  at 
elevations  ranging  from  3,500  feet  to  6,500 
feet.  Chief  among  the  coffee-growing  de- 
partments are  Antioquia  (capital,  Medel- 
lin)  ;  Caldas  (capital,  Manizales)  ;  Mag- 
daleuaL^(capitfil,  Santa  Marta)  ;  Sgntander 
(capital,  Bucaramanga)  ;  Tolima'~(' capital, 
Ibague)  ;  and  the  Federal  TPistric^  (capital, 
Bogota).  'I'he  department  of  Cundm'a- 
marca  produces  a  coffee  that  is  counted  one 
of  the  best  of  Colombian  grades.  The  finest 
grades  are  grown  in  the  foot-hills  of  the 
Andes,  in  altitudes  from  3,500  to  4,500  feet 
above  sea  level. 


COFFEE    CULTIVATIOX 


209 


The  Conducting  Sluiceway  at  Guatapaea 

The  running  water  carries  tlie  picljecl  coffee  berries  to  pulpers    and   washing   tanks 


CuilEE    ritlvl.NG    AM)    l-'lKLI)    Tl!A.\Sl'OI!T 

COFFEE   CULTURE   IN   SAO  PAULO,  BRAZIL 


210 


ALL     ABOUT     COFFEE 


o 


< 

O 

O 


o 

EH 

o 

Q 


COFFEE  CULTIVATION 


211 


I'icKiNG  Coffee  on  a   LIogota    Plantation 


Methods  of  planting,  cultivation,  gather- 
ing, and  preparing  the  Colombian  coffee 
crop  for  the  market  are  substantially  those 
that  are  common  in  all  cofifee-producing 
_eountries,  although  they  differ  in  some  small 
particulars.  About  700  trees  are  usually 
planted  to  the  acre,  and  native  trees  fur- 
nish the  necessary  shade.  The  average 
yield  is  one  pound  per  tree  per  year. 

While  Coffea  arabica  has  been  mostly  cul- 
tivated in  Colombia,  as  in  the  other  coun- 
tries of  South  America,  the  liherica  variety 
has  not  been  neglected.  Seeds  of  the 
liherica  tree  were  planted  here  soon  after 
1880,  and  were  moderately  successful. 
Since  1900,  more  attention  has  been  given 
to  liherica,  and  attempts  have  been  made 
to  grow  it  upon  banana  and  rubber  planta- 
tions, which  seem  to  provide  all  the  shade 
protection  that  is  needed.  Liherica  coffee 
trees  begin  to  bear  in  their  third  year. 
From  the  fifth  year,  when  a  crop  of  about 
650  pounds  to  the  acre  can  reasonably  be 
expected,  the  productiveness  steadily  in- 
creases until  after  fifteen  or  sixteen  years, 
when  a  maximum  of  over  one  thousand 
pounds  an  acre  is  attained. 

Antioquia  is  the  largest  coffee  producing 
department  in  the  republic,  and  its  coffee 
is  of  the  highest  grade  grown.     Medellin, 


the  capital,  where  the  business  interests  of 
the  industry  are  concentrated,  is  a  hand- 
some white  city  located  on  the  banks  of  the 
Aburra  river,  in  a  picturesque  valley  that 
is  overlooked  by  the  high  peaks  of  the 
Andean  range.  It  is  a  town  of  about 
80,000  inhabitants,  thriving  as  a  manufac- 
turing center,  abundant  in  modern  improve- 
ments, and  is  the  center  of  a  coffee  produc- 
tion of  500,000  bags  known  in  the  market 
as  Medellin  and  Manizales.  Another  center 
in  this  coffee  region  is  the  town  of  Mani- 
zales, perched  on  the  crest  of  the  Andean 
spurs  to  dominate  the  valley  extending  to 
Medellin  and  the  Cauca  valley  to  the 
Pacific.  There-about  many  small  coffee 
growers  are  settled,  and  several  hundred 
thousand  bags  of  the  beans  pass  through 
annually. 

One  of  the  interesting  plantations  of  the 
country  was  started  a  few  years  ago  in  a 
remote  region  by  an  enterprising  American 
investor.  It  was  located  on  the  slopes  of 
the  Sierra  Nevada  mountains  3,000  to  5,000 
feet  above  sea-level,  about  twenty-five  miles 
from  the  city  of  Santa  Marta.  An  extended 
acreage  of  forest-covered  land  was  acquired, 
about  600  acres  of  which  were  cleared  and 
either  planted  in  coffee  or  reserved  for 
pasturage  and  other  kinds  of  agriculture. 


212 


ALL     ABOUT     COFFEE 


When  the  plantation  came  to  maturity,  it 
had  nearly  300,000  trees.  In  1919.  there 
were  425,000  trees  producing  3,600  hun- 
dred-weight of  coffee. 

A  typical  Colombian  plantation  is  the 
Namay,  owned  by  one  of  the  bankers  of  the 
iBanco^de  Colombia  of  Bogota.  It  is  located 
'a  good  half  day's  travel  by  rail  and  horse- 
back from  the  city,  about  5,000  feet  above 
the  level  of  the  sea.  There  are  1,000  acres 
in  the  plantation,  with  250,000  trees  having 
an  ultimate  productive  capacity  of  nearly 
2,000  bags  a  year.  During  crop  times, 
which  are  from  May  to  July,  about  two 
hundred  families  are  needed  on  an  estate 
oi  this  size. 

Venezuela.  Seeds  of  the  coffee  plant 
were  brought  into  Venezuela  from  Marti- 
nique in  1784  by  a  priest  who  started  a 
small  plantation  near  Caracas.  Five  years 
later,  the  first  export  of  the  bean  was 
made,  233  bags,  or  about  30,000  pounds. 
Within  fifty  years,  production  had  in- 
creased to  upward  of  50,000,000  pounds 
annually ;  and  by  the  end  of  the  nineteenth 
century,  to  more  than  100,000,000  pounds. 

Situated  between  the  equator  and  the 
twelfth  parallel  of  north  latitude,  in  the 
world's  coffee  belt,  this  country  has  an 
area  equal  to  that  of  all  the  United  States 
east  of  the  Mississippi  river  and  north  of 


the  Ohio  and  Potomac  rivers,  or  greater 
than  that  of  France,  Germany,  and  the 
Netherlands  combined  —  599,533  square 
miles. 

The  chain  of  the  Maritime  Andes,  reach- 
ing eastward  across  Colombia  and  Vene- 
zuela, approaches  the  Caribbean  coast  in 
the  latter  country.  Along  the  slopes  and 
foot-hills  of  these  mountains  are  produced 
some  of  the  finest  grades  of  South  American 
coffee.  Here  the  best  coffee  grows  in  the 
tierra  templada  and  in  the  lower  part  of  the 
tierra  fria,  and  is  known  as  the  cafe  de 
tierra  fria,  or  coffee  of  the  cold,  or  high, 
land.  In  these  regions  the  equable  climate, 
the  constant  and  adequate  moisture,  the 
rich  and  well-drained  soil,  and  the  protect- 
ing forest  shade  afford  the  conditions  under 
which  the  plant  grows  and  thrives  best.  On 
the  fertile  lowland  valleys  nearer  the  coast 
grows  the  cafe  de  tierra  caliente,  or  coffee 
of  the  hot  land. 

Coffee  growing  has  become  the  main 
agricultural  pursuit  of  the  country.  In 
1839  it  was  estimated  that  there  were  8,900 
acres  of  land  planted  in  coffee,  and  in  1888 
there  were  168,000,000  coffee  trees  in  the 
country  on  346,000  acres  of  land.  In  the 
opening  years  of  the  twentieth  century  not 
far  from  250,000  acres  were  devoted  to  this 
cultivation,  comprised  in  upward  of  33,000 


The  long  pipe  crossing 


On  the  Altamira  Hacienda,    Venezuela 
the  center  of  the  picture  is  a  water    sluiceway    bringing 


coffee    down    from    the    hills 


COFFEE    CULTIVATION 


213 


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Carmen    Hacienda,  Fronting  on  the  Escalante  Kivek,  Venezuela 


plantations.  The  average  yield  per  acre  is 
about  250  pounds.  The  trees  are  usually 
planted  from  two  to  two  and  a  quarter 
meters  apart,  and  this  gives  about  800  trees 
to  the  acre.  The  triangle  system  is  un- 
knoAvn. 

In  this  country,  the  coffee  tree  bears  its 
first  crop  when  four  or  five  years  old.  The 
trees  are  not  subject  to  unusual  hazards 
from  the  attacks  of  injurious  insects  and 
animals  or  from  serious  parasitic  diseases. 
Nature  is  kind  to  them,  and  their  only  seri- 
ous contention  for  existence  arises  from  the 
luxuriant  tropical  vegetation  by  which  they 
are  surrounded.  On  the  whole  their  culti- 
vation is  comparatively  easy.  On  the  best 
managed  estates  there  are  not  more  than 
1,000  trees  to  a  fanegada  —  about  one  and 
three-quarters  acres  of  land  —  and  it  is 
calculated  that  an  average  annual  yield  for 
such  a  fanegada  should  be  about  twenty 
quintals,  a  little  more  than  2,032  pounds  of 
merchantable  coffee.  It  is  to  be  noted, 
however,  that  the  average  yield  per  tree 
throughout  Venezuela  is  low  —  not  more 
than  four  ounces. 

There  are  no  great  coffee  belts  as  in 
Mexico  and  Central  America.  Many  dis- 
tricts are  days'  rides  apart.  The  planta- 
tions are  isolated,  and  there  is  lacking  a  co- 
operative spirit  among  the  growers. 

Methods  of  cultivating  and  preparing  the 
berry  for  the  market  are  substantially  those 
that  prevail  elsewhere  in  South  America. 


Most  plantations  are  handled  in  ordinary, 
old-fashioned  ways;  but  the  better  estates 
employ  machinery  and  methods  of  the  most 
advanced  and  improved  character  at  all 
points  of  their  operation,  from  the  planting 
of  the  seed  to  the  final  marketing  of  the 
berry. 

Java.  Java,  the  oldest  coffee-producing 
country  in  which  the  tree  is  not  indigenous, 
was  producing  a  high-grade  coffee  long 
before  Brazil,  Colombia,  and  Venezuela 
entered  the  industry;  and  it  held  its 
supremacy  in  the  world's  trade  for  many 
years  before  the  younger  American  pro- 
ducing countries  were  able  to  surpass  its 
annual  output.  The  first  attempt  to  intro- 
duce the  plant  into  Java  took  place  in  1696, 
the  seedlings  being  brought  from  Malabar 
in  India  and  planted  at  Kadawoeng,  near 
Batavia.  Earthquake  and  flood  soon  de- 
stroyed the  plants;  and  in  1699  Henricus 
Zwaardecroon  brought  the  second  lot  of 
seedings  from  Malabar.  These  became  the 
progenitors  of  all  the  arahica  coffees  of  the 
Dutch  East  Indies.  The  industry  grew, 
and  in  1711  the  first  Java  coffee  was  sold  at 
public  auction  in  Amsterdam.  Exports 
amounted  to  116,587  pounds  in  1720;  and 
in  1724  the  Amsterdam  market  sold  1,396,- 
486  pounds  of  coffee  from  Java. 

From  the  early  part  of  the  nineteenth 
century  up  to  1905,  cultivation  was  carried 
on  under  a  Dutch  government  monopoly — 


214 


ALL     ABOUT     COFFEE 


PS 


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•/:-^  -  :<y^^- 


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^••;f  r>^r:-i 


u/,   ■•^^.-.  .4, 


:'li.  '".^  "''^' 


\a   ,^4,,'  . "X     -^'"^        ^ 


A  Heavy  Fruiting  of  Coifea  Robusta  in  Java 


excepting  for  the  five  years,  1811  - 16, 
when  the  British  had  control  of  the  island. 
The  government  monopoly  was  first  estab- 
lished when  Marshal  Daendels,  acting  for 
the  crown  of  Holland,  took  control  of  the 
islands  from  the  Netherlands  East  India 
Company.  Before  that  time,  the  princes  of 
Preanger  had  raised  all  the  coffee  under 
the  provisions  of  a  treaty  made  in  the 
middle  of  the  eighteenth  century,  by  which 
they  paid  an  annual  tribute  in  coffee  to  the 
company  for  the  privilege  of  retaining 
their  land  revenues.  When  the  Dutch  gov- 
ernment recovered  the  islands  from  the. 
British,  the  plantations,  which  had  been  per- 
mitted to  go  to  ruin,  were  put  in  order 
again,  and  the  government  system  re-estab- 
lished. 

A  modification  of  the  first  monopoly  plan 
of  the  government  was  put  into  effect  later 
in  the  regime  of  Governor  Van  den  Bosch, 
^nd  was  maintained  until  into  the  twentieth 
century.  Under  the  Daendels  plan,  each 
native  family  was  required  to  keep  1000 
coffee  trees  in  bearing  on  village  lands,  and 
to  give  to  the  government  two-fifths  of  the 
crop,  delivered  cleaned  and  sorted,  at  the 
government  store.  The  natives  retained  the 
other  three-fifths.  Under  the  Van  den 
Bosch  system,  each  family  was  required  to 


raise  and  care  for  650  trees  and  to  deliver 
the  crop  cleaned  and  sorted  to  the  govern- 
ment stores  at  a  fixed  price.  The  govern- 
ment then  sold  the  coffee  at  public  auctions 
in  Batavia,  Padang,  Amsterdam,  or  Rotter- 
dam. 

This  method  of  fostering  the  new  in- 
dustry resulted  in  government  control  of 
fully  four-fifths  of  the  area  under  the  crop, 
only  the  small  balance  being  owned  or 
worked  independently  by  private  enter- 
prise. For  many  years  after  the  cultiva- 
tion had  been  fully  started,  this  condition 
of  the  business  persisted.  Most  of  the  pri- 
vately-operated plantations  had  been  in 
existence  before  the  government  had  set  up 
its  monopoly  system.  Others  were  on  the 
estates  of  native  princes  who,  in  treating 
with  the  Dutch,  had  been  able  to  retain 
some  of  their  original  sovereign  rights. 
While  these  plans  worked  well  in  encourag- 
ing the  industry  at  the  outset,  they  were  not 
conducive  to  the  fullest  possibilities  in  pro- 
duction. Forced  labor  on  the  government 
plantations  was  naturally  apt  to  be  slow, 
careless,  and  indifferent.  Private  owner- 
ship and  operation  bettered  this  somewhat, 
•^he  private  estates  being  able  to  show  an- 
nual yields  of  from  one  to  two  pounds  per 
tree  as  compared  with  only  a  little  more 


COFFEE    CULTIVATION 


215 


than  one-half  pound  per  tree  on  govern- 
ment-controlled estates. 

In  the  course  of  time,  the  system  of  pri- 
vate ownership  gradually  expanded  beyond 
that  of  the  government;  and  before  the  end 
of  the  nineteenth  century,  private  owners 
were  growing  and  exporting  more  coffee 
than  did  the  Javanese  government.  The 
government  withdrew  from  the  coffee  busi- 
ness in  Java  in  1905,  and  the  last  govern- 
ment auction  was  held  in  June  of  that  year. 
The  monopoly  in  Sumatra  was  given  up  in 
1908.  After  that,  however,  coffee  con- 
tinued to  be  grown  on  government  lands, 
but  in  much  less  quantity  than  in  the  years 
immediately  preceding.  The  Dutch  govern- 
ment withdrew  from  all  coffee  cultivation 
in  1918  - 19. 

According  to  statistics,  the  ground  under 
cultivation  for  all  kinds  of  coffee  in  Java 
and  the  other  islands  of  the  Dutch  East 
Indies  in  1919  was  142,272  acres,  of  which 
112,138  acres  were  in  Java.  Of  this  area, 
110.903  acres  were  planted  with  robust  a, 
15,314  acres  with  arabica,  4,940  with 
liherica,  and  11,115  with  other  varieties. 

There  were  more  than  400  European- 
managed  estates  in  1915,  covering  a  planted 
area  of  about  209,000  acres.  Three  hun- 
dred and  thirty  of  these  estates,  represent- 


ing 165,000  acres,  were  in  Java.  On  that 
island  production  in  1904  was  47,927,000 
pounds;  in  1905,  59,092,000  pounds;  in 
1906,  66,953,000  pounds;  in  1907,  31,044,- 
000  pounds ;  1908,  39,349,000  pounds.  The 
total  crop  in  1919  for  all  the  Netherlands 
East  Indies  was  97,361,000  pounds,  as 
against  140,764,800  pounds  for  1918. 

Intensive  cultivation  methods  on  the 
European-operated  plantations  in  Java 
have  been  practised  for  many  years;  and 
the  Netherlands  East  Indies  government 
has  long  maintained  experimental  stations 
for  the  purpose  of  improving  strains  and 
cultivation  methods. 

In  some  parts  of  the  island,  especially  in 
the  highlands,  the  climate  and  soil  are  ideal 
for  coffee  culture.  The  robusta  tree  grows 
satisfactorily  even  at  altitudes  of  less  than 
1,000  feet  in  some  regions ;  but  its  bearing 
life  is  only  about  ten  years,  as  compared 
with  the  thirty  years  of  the  arabica  at 
altitudes  of  from  3,000  to  4,000  feet.  The 
low-ground  trees  generally  produce  earlier 
and  more  abundantly.  On  some  of  the 
highland  plantations,  pruning  is  not  prac- 
tised to  any  great  extent,  and  the  trees 
often  reach  thirty  or  forty  feet  in  height. 
This  necessitates  the  use  of  ladders  in  pick- 


lloAD  TiiuouGU  A  Coffee  Estate  in  East  Java 


216 


ALL     ABOUT     COFFEE 


Native  Picking  Coffee,  Sumatha 

ing;  but  frequently  the  yield  per  tree  has 
been  from  six  to  seven  pounds. 

Coffee  is  produced  commercially  in  near- 
ly every  political  district  in  Java,  but  the 
bulk  of  the  yield  is  obtained  from  East 
Java,  The  names  best  known  to  European 
and  American  traders  are  those  of  the 
regencies  of  Besoeki  and  Pasoeroean ;  be- 
cause their  coffees  make  up  eighty-seven 
percent  of  Java's  production.  Some  of  the 
other  better  known  districts  are :  Preanger, 


Cheribon,  Kadoe,  Samarang,  Soerabaya,  and 
Tegal. 

The  arabica  variety  has  practically  been 
driven  out  of  the  districts  below  3,500  feet 
altitude  by  the  leaf  disease,  and  has  been 
succeeded  by  the  more  hardy  robust  a  and 
Uherica  coffees  and  their  hybrids.  Illus- 
trating the  importance  of  robusta  coffee, 
Netherlands  East  India  government  in  a 
statement  issued  August,  1919,  estimated 
the  area  under  cultivation  on  all  islands  as 
follows:  robusta,  eighty-four  percent; 
arabica,  five  and  one-half  percent;  liberica, 
four  and  one-half  percent.  The  balance, 
six  percent,  was  made  up  of  scores  of  other 
varieties,  among  the  most  important  being 
the  canepliora,  Ugandae,  baukobensis,  sua- 
kurensis,  Qwillou,  stenophylla,  and  rood- 
bessige.  All  of  these  are  similar  to  robusta, 
and  are  exported  as  robiista-achtigen 
(robusta-like) .  The  liberica  group  includes 
the  excelsa,  abeokuta,  Dewevrei,  arnoldi- 
aiia,  aruwimiensis,  and  Dybowskii. 

Sumatra.  Practically  all  the  coffee  dis- 
tricts in  Sumatra  are  on  the  west  coast, 
where  the  plant  was  first  propagated  early 
in  the  eighteenth  century.  Padang,  the 
capital  city,  is  the  headquarters  for 
Sumatra  coffee.  With  climate  and  soil 
similar  to  Java,  the  island  of  Sumatra  has 
the  added  advantage  that  its  land  is  not 
"coffee  moe'\  or  coffee  tired,  as  is  the  case 


'aS.^'-'-yt 

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Palatial  Bungalow  of  Administkator,  Db  vmaga,    in    the    Preanger  District,  Java 


A  L  I.     ABO  U  T     C  O  F  1^^  K  E 


"111    li\iL    Sau.iau    \i;,-,.skl    Lc)A1)I.\(,    ;.s    f.vuA.s,,    ICuau; 


i.NTElUOl!    OF    A    DLTCH    CoI  1  KKCLLA^sI.NU    FACTOUY,    TADA-NLi 

COFFEE  SCENES  IN  SUMATRA,  NETHERLANDS  EAST  INDIES 


COFFEE    CULTIVATION 


217 


Administkatoe's   Bungalow   on  the    Gadoeng   Batoe   Estate,    Sumatra 


in  parts  of  Java.  Some  of  the  world's  best 
coffees  are  still  coming  from  Sumatra;  and 
the  island  has  possibilities  that  could  make 
it  an  important  factor  in  production. 
Sumatra  produced  287,179  piculs  of  coffee 
in  1920.  The  total  production  of  all  the 
islands  that  year  was  807,591  piculs. 

The  districts  of  Ankola,  Siboga,  Ayer 
Bangles,  Mandheling,  Palembang,  Padang, 
and  Benkoelen,  on  the  west  coast,  have 
some  of  the  largest  estates  on  the  island; 
and  their  products  are  well  known  in  inter- 
national trade.  The  east  coast  has  recently 
gone  in  for  heavy  plantings  of  rohusta. 

As  in  Java,  coifee  for  a  century  or  more 
was  cultivated  under  the  government-mo- 
nopoly scheme.  The  compulsory  system  was 
given  up  in  this  island  in  1908,  three  years 
after  it  was  abandoned  in  Java. 

Other  East  Indies.  Coffee  is  grown  in 
several  of  the  other  islands  in  the  Dutch 
East  Indian  archipelago,  chiefly  on  the 
Celebes,  Bali,  Lombok,  the  Moluccas,  and 
Timor.  Most  of  the  estates  are  under 
native  control,  and  the  methods  of  cultiva- 
tion are  not  up  to  the  standard  of  the 
European-owned  plantations  on  the  larger 
islands  of  Java  and  Sumatra.  The  most 
important  of  these  islands  is  Celebes,  where 
the  first  coffee  plant  was  introduced  from 
Java  about  1750,  but  where  cultivation  was 
not  carried  on  to  any  great  extent  until 


about  seventy-five  years  later.  In  1822  the 
production  amounted  to  10,000  pounds;  in 
1917,  the  yield  was  1,322,328  pounds. 

Salvador.  Coffee,  which  is  far  and  away 
the  most  important  crop  in  Salvador,  con- 
stitutes in  value  more  than  one-half  the 
total  exports.  It  has  been  cultivated  since 
about  1852,  when  plants  were  brought  from 
Havana;  but  the  development  of  the  in- 
dustry in  its  early  years  was  not  rapid. 
The  first  large  plantations  were  established 
in  1876  in  La  Paz,  and  that  department  has 
become  the  leading  coffee-producing  section 
of  the  country. 

The  berry  is  grown  in  all  districts  that 
have  altitudes  of  from  1,500  to  4,000  feet. 
Besides  those  of  La  Paz,  the  most  produc- 
tive plantations  are  in  the  departments  of 
Santa  Ana,  Sonsonate,  San  Salvador,  San 
Vincente,  San  Miguel,  Santa  Tecla,  and 
Ahuachapam.  In  contrast  with  several  of 
the  adjoining  Central  American  republics, 
native  Salvadoreans  are  the  owners  of  most 
of  the  coffee  farms,  very  few  having  passed 
into  the  hands  of  foreigners.  The  laborers 
are  almost  entirely  native  Indians.  A  con- 
siderable part  of  the  work  of  cultivating 
and  preparing  the  berry  for  the  market  is 
still  done  by  hand;  but  in  recent  years 
machinery  has  been  set  up  on  the  large 
estates  and  for  general  use  in  the  receiving 
centers. 


218 


ALL     ABOUT     COFFEE 


Well  Cultivated  Young  Coffee  Tkees  in  Blossom 


Entrance  to  a  Finca  in  the  Highlands 
COFFEE  CULTURE  IN  GUATEMALA 


COFFEE    CULTIVATION 


219 


It  is  estimated  that  now  about  166,000 
acres  are  under  coffee,  nearly  all  the  land 
in  the  country  suitable  for  that  purpose. 
As  in  most  other  coffee-raising  countries, 
the  trees  begin  bearing  when  they  are  two 
or  three  years  old,  reach  full  maturity  at 
the  age  of  seven  or  eight  years,  and  con- 
tinue to  bear  for  about  thirty  years.  In- 
tensive cultivation  and  a  more  extensive 
use  of  fertilizers  have  been  urged  as  neces- 
sary in  order  to  increase  the  crop ;  but,  so 
far,  with  not  much  effect,  the  importation 
of  fertilizer  being  still  very  small.  Crop 
gathering  begins  in  the  lowlands  in  No- 
vember, and  gradually  proceeds  into  the 
higher  regions,  month  by  month,  until  the 
picking  in  the  highest  altitudes  is  finished 
in  the  following  March. 

Guatemala.  Guatemala  began  intensive 
coffee  growing  about  1875.  Coffee  had  been 
known  in  the  country  in  a  small  way  from 
about  1850,  but  now  serious  attention  began 
to  be  given  to  its  cultivation,  and  it  quickly 
advanced  to  an  industrial  position  of  im- 
portance. Within  a  generation  it  became 
the  great  staple  crop  of  the  country. 

Guatemala  has  an  area  of  48,250  square 
miles,  about  the  size  of  the  state  of  Ohio. 
Its  population  is  about  2,000,000.  Three 
mountain  ranges,  intersecting  magnificent 
table  lands,  traverse  the  country  from  north 
to  south ;  and  there  is  the  great  coffee  terri- 
tory. The  table  lands  are  from  2,500  to 
5,000  feet  above  sea-level,  and  have  a  tem- 
perate climate  most  agreeable  to  the  coffee 
tree.  On  the  lower  heights  it  is  necessary 
to  protect  the  young  trees  from  the  extreme 
heat  of  the  sun ;  and  the  banana  is  most 
approved  for  this  purpose,  since  it  raises 
its  own  crop  at  the  same  time  that  it  is 
giving  shade  to  its  companion  tree.  On  the 
higher  levels  the  plantations  need  protec- 
tion from  the  cold  north  winds  that  blow 
strongly  across  the  country,  especially  in 
December,  January,  and  February.  The 
range  of  hills  to  the  north  is  the  best 
protection,  and  generally  is  all  sufficient. 
When  the  weather  becomes  too  severe,  heaps 
of  rubbish  mixed  with  pitch  are  thrown  up 
to  the  north  of  the  fields  of  coffee  trees  and 
set  afire,  the  resultant  dense  smoke  driving 
down  between  rows  of  trees  and  saving 
them  from  the  frost. 

Named  in  the  order  of  their  productivity, 
the  coffee  districts  are  Costa  Cuea,  Costa 
Grande,  Barberena,  Tumbador,  Coban, 
Costa  de  Cucho,   Chicacao,   Xolhuitz,   Po- 


IxDiANs  Picking  Coffee,  Guatemala 

chuta,  Malacatan,  San  Marcos,  Chuva, 
Panan,  Turgo,  Escuintla,  San  Vincente, 
Pacaya,  Antigua,  Moran,  Amatitlan,  Sumat- 
an,  Palmar,  Zunil,  and  Motagua. 

Estimates  of  coffee  acreage  vary.  One 
authority,  too  conservatively,  perhaps,  puts 
the  figure  at  145,000.  Another  estimate  is 
260,000  acres.  Under  cultivation  are  from 
70,000,000  to  100,000,000  trees  from  which 
an  annual  crop  averaging  about  75,000,000 
pounds  is  raised,  and  the  exceptional 
amounts  of  nearly  90,000,000  and  97,000,000 
pounds  have  been  harvested.  Several 
plantations  of  size  can  be  counted  upon  for 
an  annual  production  of  more  than  1,000,- 
000  pounds  each. 

Before  the  World  War  German  interests 
dominated  the  coffee  industry,  handling 
fully  eighty  percent  of  the  crop,  and  grow- 
ing nearly  half  of  it. 

Planting  and  cultivation  methods  in 
Guatemala  are  about  the  same  as  those 
prevailing  in  other  countries.  The  trees 
are  usually  in  flower  in  February,  March, 
and  April,  and  the  harvesting  season  ex- 
tends from  August  to  January,  All  work 
on  the  plantation  is  done  by  Indian 
laborers  under  a  peonage  system,  families 
working  in  companies :  wages  are  small,  but 
sufficient,  conditions  of  living  being  easy. 
As   elsewhere   in   these   tropical   and   sub- 


220 


ALL     ABOUT     COFFEE 


tropical  countries,  scarcity  of  labor  is 
severely  felt,  and  is  a  grave  obstacle  to  the 
development  of  the  industry  in  a  land  that 
is  regarded  as  particularly  well  adapted 
to  it. 

Haiti.  Haiti,  the  magic  isle  of  the  Indies, 
has  grown  coffee  almost  from  the  beginning 
of  the  introduction  of  the  tree  into  the 
western  hemisphere.  Its  cultivation  was 
started  there  about  1715,  but  the  trees  were 
largely  permitted  to  fall  into  a  wild  natural 
state,  and  little  attention  was  given  to  them 
or  to  the  handling  of  the  crop.  Fertility  of 
soil,  climate,  and  moisture  are  favorable, 
and  the  advancement  of  the  industry  has 
been  retarded  only  by  the  political  condi- 
tions of  the  negro  republic  and  a  general 
lack  of  industry  and  enterprise  on  the  part 
of  the  people. 

Haiti  is  an  island  with  three  names. 
Haiti  is  used  to  describe  the  island  as  a 
whole,  and  to  denote  the  Republic  of  Haiti, 
which  occupies  the  western  third  of  its  area. 
The  island  is  also  known  as  Santo  Domingo, 
and  San  Domingo,  names  likewise  applied 
to  the  Dominican  Republic  which  occupies 
the  eastern  two-thirds  of  the  land  unit. 

Plantations  now  existing  in  Haiti  have 
had,  with  rare  exceptions,  a  life  of  more 
than  ten  or  twenty  years.  It  is  estimated 
that  they  cover  about  125,000  acres,  with 
about  400  trees  to  the  acre. 


When  the  French  acquired  the  island  in 
1789,  the  annual  production  was  88,360,502 
pounds.  During  the  following  century  that 
amount  was  not  approached  in  any  year, 
the  nearest  to  it  being  72,637,716  pounds 
in  1875.  The  lowest  annual  production 'was 
20,280,589  pounds  in  1818.  The  range  dur- 
ing the  hundred  years,  1789  - 1890,  was, 
with  the  exceptions  noted,  from  45,000,000 
to  71,000,000  pounds. 

Mexico.  Opinions  differ  as  to  the  exact 
date  when  coffee  was  introduced  into 
Mexico.  It  is  said  to  have  been  trans- 
planted there  from  the  West  Indies  near  the 
end  of  the  eighteenth  century.  A  story  is 
current  that  a  Spaniard  set  out  a  few  trees, 
on  trial,  in  southern  Mexico,  in  1800,  and 
that  his  experiments  started  other  Mexican 
planters  along  the  same  line.  Coffee  was 
grown  in  the  state  of  Vera  Cruz  early  in 
the  nineteenth  century;  and  the  books  of 
the  Vera  Cruz  custom  house  record  that 
1,101  quintals  of  coffee  were  exported 
through  that  port  during  the  years  1802, 
1803,  and  1805. 

In  the  Coatepec  district,  which  eventually 
became  famous  in  the  annals  of  Mexican 
coffee  growing,  trees  were  planted  about  the 
year  1808.  Local  history  says  that  seeds 
were  brought  from  Cuba  by  Arias,  a  part- 
ner of  the  house  of  Pedro  Lopez,  owners  of 
the  large  hacienda  of  Orduna  in  Coatepec. 


m 

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The  Coffee  Plakter's  Life  in  Guatemala  Is   0>'e  of  Pleasantness  and  Peace 


I 


COFFEE    CULTIVATION 


221 


THiaTY-YEAK-OLD   COFFEE   TrEES,    La    EsPEIiANZA,     HUATUSCO,     MEXICO 


The  seeds  were  given  to  a  priest,  Andres 
Dominfriiez,  who  sowed  them  near  Teocelo. 
When  he  had  succeeded  in  starting  seed- 
lings, he  gave  them  away  to  other  planters 
there-about.  The  plants  thrived,  and  this 
was  the  beginning  of  coffee  cultivation  in 
that  section  of  the  country. 

It  was,  however,  nearly  ten  years  later 
before  the  cultivation  was  on  a  scale  ap- 
proaching industrial  and  commercial  im- 
portance. About  1816  or  1818  a  Spaniard, 
named  Juan  Antonio  Gomez,  introduced  the 
plant  into  the  neighborhood  of  Cordoba, 
This  city,  now  on  the  line  of  the  Mexican 
and  Vera  Cruz  Railroad,  200  miles  from 
Mexico  City,  and  sixty  miles  from  Vera 
Cruz,  is  2,500  feet  above  sea-level,  and  is 
situated  in  the  most  productive  tropical 
region  of  the  country. 

Having  been  started  in  Coatepec  and 
Cordoba,  the  industry  was  centered  for  a 
long  time  in  the  state  of  Vera  Cruz.  For 
many  years  practically  all  the  coffee 
grown  commercially  in  Mexico  was  pro- 
duced in  that  state.  Gradually  the  new 
pursuit  spread  to  the  mountains  in  the 
adjacent  states  of  Oaxaca  and  Puebia, 
where  it  was  taken  up  by  the  Indians  al- 
most entirely,  and  is  still  followed  by  them, 
but  not  on  a  large  scale. 


Although  cultivation  is  now  widely  dis- 
tributed in  most  of  the  more  southern 
states  of  the  republic,  the  principal  coffee 
territory  is  still  in  Vera  Cruz,  where  lie 
the  districts  of  Cordoba,  Orizaba,  Huat- 
usco,  and  Coatepec.  In  the  same  region 
are  the  Jalapa  district,  and  the  mountains 
of  Puebia,  where  a  great  deal  of  coffee  is 
grown.  Farther  south  are  the  Oaxaca 
districts  on  the  mountain  slopes  of  the 
Pacific  coast,  and  still  farther  south  the 
districts  of  the  state  of  Chiapas.  Planting 
in  the  Pluma  district  in  Oaxaca  was  begun 
about  fifty  years  ago,  and  it  now  produces 
annually,  in  good  years,  nearly  1,000,000 
pounds.  The  youngest  district  in  this  sec- 
tion is  Soconusco,  one  of  the  most  prolific 
in  the  republic,  having  been  developed 
within  the  last  thirty  years.  The  region  is 
near  the  border  of  Guatemala,  and  the 
coffee  is  held  by  many  to  possess  some  of 
the  quality  of  the  coffee  of  that  country. 
The  influence  of  Guatemalan  methods  has 
been  felt  also  in  its  cultivation  and  hand- 
ling, especially  in  increasing  plantation 
productiveness.  On  the  gulf  slope  of 
Oaxaca,  there  are  plantations  that  annu- 
ally produce  222,000  to  550,000  pounds. 
Several  United  States  companies  have  be- 
come interested  in  coffee  growing  in  this 


222 


ALL     ABOUT     COFFEE 


state,  and  their  output  in  recent  years  has 
been  put  upon  the  market  in  St.  Louis. 

Two  principal  varieties  of  coffee  are 
recognized  in  Mexico.  A  sub-variety  of 
Coffea  arabica  is  mostly  cultivated.  This 
is  an  evergreen,  growing  only  from  five 
to  seven  feet.  It  flourishes  well  at  differ- 
ent altitudes  and  in  different  climes,  from 
the  temperate  plains  of  Puebla  to  the  hot, 
damp,  lower  lands  of  Vera  Cruz  and 
Oaxaca,  and  other  Pacific-coast  regions. 
The  range  of  elevation  for  it  is  from  1,500 
to  5,000  feet,  and  it  is  satisfied  with  a 
temperature  as  low  as  55°  or  as  high  as 
80°,  with  plenty  of  natural  humidity  or 
with  irrigation  in  the  dry  season.  The 
other  variety  is  called  the  "myrtle"  and 
is  widely  grown,  although  not  in  large 
quantities.  It  is  distinguished  from 
arahica  by  the  larger  leaf  of  the  tree  and 
by  the  smaller  corolla  of  the  flower.  It  is 
a  hardier  plant  than  the  arahica  and  will 
stand  the  higher  temperature  of  low  alti- 
tudes, thriving  at  an  elevation  of  from  500 
to  3,000  feet  above  sea-level.  Mostly  it  is 
cultivated  in  the   Cordoba  district. 

It  is  claimed  by  many  that  the  Mexican 
coffee  of  best  quality  is  grown  in  the 
western  regions  of  the  table  lands  of 
Colima  and  Michoacan,  but  only  a  small 
quantity  of  that  is  available  for  export. 
The  ■  state  of  Michoacan  is  especially 
favored  by  climate,  altitude,  soil,  and  sur- 
roundings to  produce  coffee  of  exception- 
ally high  grade,  and  the  Uruapan  is  con- 
sidered to  be  its  best. 

Trees  flower  in  January  and  March,  and 
in  high  altitudes  as  late  as  June  or  July. 
Berries  appear  in  July  and  are  ripe  for 
gathering  in  October  or  November,  the 
picking  season  lasting  until  February. 

Trees  begin  to  yield  when  two  or  three 
years  old,  producing  from  two  to  four 
ounces.  They  reach  full  production,  which 
is  about  one  and  a  half  pounds,  at  the  age 
of  six  or  seven  years,  though  in  the  dis- 
tricts of  Chiapas,  Michoacan,  Oaxaca,  and 
Puebla,  annual  yields  of  three  to  five 
pounds  per  tree  have  been  reported. 

Since  the  World  War  American  buyers 
have  shown  greater  interest  in  the  Tapa- 
chula  coffee  grow^n  in  Chiapas. 

Porto  Rico.  Coffee  culture  in  Porto 
Rico  dates  from  1755  or  even  earlier,  hav- 
ing been  introduced  from  the  neighboring 
islands  of  Martinique  and  Haiti.  Count 
O'Reilly,    writing    of    the    island    in    the 


v. 

Mexicain  Coffee  Pickeu,  Coatepec  Distkict 

eighteenth  century,  mentions  that  the 
coffee  exports  for  five  years  previous  to 
1765  amounted  in  value  to  $2,078.  Old 
records  show  that  in  1770  there  was  a  crop 
of  700,000  pounds  and  that  seems  to  be 
the  first  evidence  that  the  new  industry 
was  growing  to  any  noticeable  propor- 
tions. For  a  hundred  years,  at  least,  only 
slow  progress  was  made.  In  1768  the  king 
of  Spain  issued  a  royal  decree  exempting 
coffee  growers  on  the  island  from  the  pay- 
ment of  taxes  or  charges  for  a  period  of 
five  years;  but  even  that  measure  was  not 
materially  successful  in  stimulating  in- 
terest and  in  developing  cultivation. 

Porto  Rico  is  a  good  coffee-growing 
country ;  soil,  climate,  and  temperature  are 
well  adapted  to  the  berry.  The  coffee  belt 
extends  through  the  western  half  of  the 
island,  beginning  in  the  hills  along  the 
south  coast  around  Ponce,  and  extending 
north  through  the  center  of  the  island 
almost  to  Arecibo,  near  the  west  end  of  the 
north  coast.  But  some  coffee  is  grown  in 
the  other  parts  of  the  island,  in  sixty-four 
of  the  sixty-eight  municipalities.  Mountain 
sections  are  considered  to  be  superior. 

The  largest  plantations  are  in  the  region 
which  includes  the  municipalities  of 
Utuado,  Adjuntas,  Lares,  Las  Marias, 
Yauco,  Maricao,  San  Sebastian,  Mayaguez, 
Ciales,  and  Ponce.  With  the  exception  of 
Ponce  and  Mayaguez,  all  these  districts  are 
back  from  the  coast ;  but  insular  roads  of 


COFFEE    CULTIVATION 


223 


recent  construction  make  them  now  easily 
accessible,  and  there  is  no  point  on  the 
island  more  than  twenty  miles  distant 
from  the  sea. 

From  the  Sierra  Luquillo  range,  which 
rises  to  a  height  of  1,500  feet,  and  from 
Yauco,  Utuado,  and  Lares,  come  excellent 
coffees ;  and.  on  the  whole,  these  are  con- 
sidered to  be  the  best  coffee  regions  of  the 
island.  A  fine  grade  of.  coffee  is  also  grown 
in  the  Ciales  district.  Figures  compiled 
by  the  Treasury  Department  of  the  insular 
government  for  the  purpose  of  taxation 
showed  that  for  the  tax  year  1915-16 
there  were  167,137  acres  of  land  planted 
to  coffee  and  valued  at  $10,341,592,  an 
average  of  .$61.87  per  acre.  In  1910, 
there  were  151,000  acres  planted  in  coffee. 
In  1916  there  were  more  than  5,000  sep- 
arate coffee  plantations. 

Originally  the  coffee  trees  of  Porto  Rico 
were  all  of  the  arahica  variety.  In  recent 
years  numerous  others  have  been  intro- 
duced, until  in  1917  there  were  more  than 
2,500  trees  of  new  descriptions  on  the 
island. 

The  virgin  land  in  the  interior  of  the 
island  is  admirably  adapted  to  the  coffee 
tree,  and  less  labor  is  required  to  prepare 
it  for  plantation  purposes  than  in  many 


other  coffee-growing  countries.  It  is 
cleared  in  the  usual  manner,  and  the  trees 
are  planted  about  eight  feet  apart,  an 
average  of  680  trees  to  the  acre.  The  seeds 
are  planted  in  February;  and  if  the  seed- 
lings are  transplanted,  that  is  done  when 
they  are  a  year  or  a  year  and  a  half  old. 
The  guama,  a  big  strong  tree  of  dense 
foliage,  is  used  for  a  wind-break  on  the 
ridges;  and  the  guava,  for  shade  in  the 
plantation.  Plow  cultivation  is  generally 
impossible  on  account  of  the  lay  of  the 
land,  and  only  hoeing  and  spade  work  are 
done.  Pruning  is  carefully  attended  to  as 
the  trees  become  full  grown. 

Flowering  is  generally  in  February  and 
March,  or  even  later.  Heavy  rains  in 
April  make  a  poor  crop.  Harvesting  be- 
gins in  September  and  extends  into  Jan- 
uary, during  which  time  ten  pickings  are 
made. 

The  average  yield  per  acre  is  between 
200  and  300  pounds;  but  expert  authority 
—  Prof.  O.  F.  Cook  —  in  a  statement  made 
to  the  Committee  on  Insular  Affairs  of  the 
United  States  House  of  Representatives,  in 
1900,  held  that  under  better  cultural 
methods  the  yield  could  be  increased  to 
800  or  900  pounds  per  acre.  One  estima- 
tor has  calculated  that  an  average  planta- 


Keceiving  and  Measuring  the  Ripe  Bebbies    fbom    the    Pickers,    Mexico 


224 


ALL     ABOUT     COFFEE 


COFFEE    CULTIVATION 


225 


lion  of  100  acres  had  cost  its  owner  at  the 
end  of  six  or  seven  years,  the  bearing  age, 
,i1)ont  $13,100  with  yields  of  75  pounds  per 
ii'-re  in  the  third  and  in  the  fourth  years, 
Li  to  pounds  per  acre  in  the  fifth  year,  and 

M)  pounds  in  the  sixth  year,  the  income 
:  rom  which  would  practically  have  met 
•lie  cost  to  that  time.     It  is  held  by  the 

tue  authority  that   an   intensively   culti- 

tted,  well-situated  farm  of  selected  trees, 
bSO  to  the  acre,  should  yield  some  880 
pounds  of  cleaned  coffee  to  the  acre. 

Costa  Rica.  Costa  Rica  ranks  next  to 
<luatemala  and  Salvador  among  the  Cen- 
tral American  countries  as  a  producer  of 
coffee,  showing  an  average  annual  yield 
ill    recent   years  of   35,000,000   pounds   as 

nipared  with  Guatemala's  80,000,000 
,iiid  Salvador's  75,000,000  pounds.  Nica- 
i'a2"ua  has  an  average  annual  production  of 
::0^000,000  pounds. 

Coffee  was  introduced  into  Costa  Rica 
in  the  latter  part  of  the  eighteenth 
century;  one  authority  saying  that  the 
plants  were  brought  from  Cuba  in  1779 
by  a  Spanish  voyager,  Navarro,  and  an- 
other saying  that  the  first  trees  were 
])lanted  several  years  later  by  Padre 
Carazo,  a  Spanish  missionary  coming  from 
Jamaica.      For   more   than   a   century   six 


big  coffee  trees  standing  in  a  courtyard 
in  the  city  of  Cartago  were  pointed  out  to 
visitors  as  the  very  trees  that  Carazo  had 
planted. 

The  coffee-producing  districts  are  prin- 
cipally on  the  Pacific  slope  and  in  the 
central  plateaus  of  the  interior.  Planta- 
tions are  located  in  the  provinces  of  Car- 
tago, Tres  Rios,  San  Jose,  Heredia,  and 
Alajuela.  In  the  province  of  Cartago 
are  several  extensive  new  estates  on  the 
slope  to  the  Atlantic  coast.  The  San  Jos4 
and  the  Cartago  districts  are  considered 
by  many  to  be  the  best  naturally  for  the 
coffee  tree.  The  soil  is  an  exceedingly  rich 
black  loam  made  up  of  continuous  layers 
of  volcanic  ashes  and  dust  from  three  to 
fifteen  feet  deep.  Preferable  altitudes  for 
plantations  range  from  3,000  to  4,500  feet, 
although  a  height  of  5,000  feet  is  not  out 
of  use  and  there  are  some  estates  that  do 
fairly  well  on  levels  as  low  as  1,500  feet. 

India.  Tradition  has  it  that  a  Moslem 
pilgrim  in  the  seventeenth  century 
brought  from  Mecca  to  India  the  first 
coffee  seeds  known  in  that  country.  They 
were  planted  near  a  temple  on  a  hill  in 
Mysore  called  Baba  Budan,  after  the  pil- 
grim ;  and  from  there  the  cultivation  of 
coffee    gradually    spread    to    neighboring 


The  Modern  Iuea  in  CutiEK  Culiivaxion,  Costa  Rica 


226 


ALL     ABOUT     COFFEE 


Picking  Costa  Kica  Coptee 

districts.  Aside  from  this  legend,  nothing 
further  is  heard  about  coffee  in  India  until 
the  early  part  of  the  nineteenth  century, 
when  its  existence  there  was  confirmed  by 
the  granting  of  a  charter  to  Fort  Gloster, 
near  Calcutta,  authorizing  that  place  to 
become  a  coffee  plantation. 


Planting  was  begun  on  the  flat  land  of 
the  plains,  but  the  trees  did  not  thrive. 
Then  the  cultivation  was  extended  to  the 
hills  in  southern  India,  especially  in 
Mysore,  where  better  success  was  achieved. 
The  first  systematic  plantation  was  estab- 
lished in  1840.  For  the  most  part,  the 
production  has  always  been  confined  to 
southern  India  in  the  elevated  region  near 
the  southwestern  coast.  The  coffee  district 
comprises  the  landward  slopes  of  the 
"Western  Ghats,  from  Kanara  to  Travan- 
core. 

About  one-half  of  the  coffee-producing 
area  is  in  Mysore;  and  other  plantations 
are  in  Kurg  (Coorg),  the  Madras  districts 
of  Malabar,  and  in  the  Nilgiri  hills,  those 
regions  having  86  percent  of  the  whole 
area  under  cultivation.  Some  coffee  is 
grown  also  in  other  districts  in  Madras, 
principally  in  Madura,  Salem,  and  Coim- 
bator,  in  Cochin,  in  Travancore,  and,  on  a 
restricted  scale,  in  Burma,  Assam,  and 
Bombay.  The  area  returned  as  under 
coffee  in  1885  was  237,448  acres;  in  1896, 
as  303,944  acres.  Since  then  there  has 
been  a  progressive  decrease  on  account  of 
damage  from  leaf  diseases  difficult  to 
combat,  and  by  competition  with  Brazilian 
coffee. 


Coffee  Estate  in  the  Mountains  of  Costa  Rica 


COFFEE    CULTIVATION 


227 


Bikd's-Eye  View  of  a  Coffee  Estate  in  Mysore,    India 


New  land  that  had  just  been  planted 
with  icoffee  in  plantations  reported  for 
1919  -  20  amounted  to  7,012  acres ;  while 
the  area  abandoned  was  8,725  acres,  rep- 
resenting a  net  decrease  in  cultivated  area 
of  1,713  acres. 

Of  the  total  area  devoted  to  coffee  cul- 
tivation (126,919  acres),  49  percent  was 
in  Mysore,  which  yielded  35  percent  of 
the  total  production ;  ^vhile  Madras,  with 
23  percent  of  the  total  area,  yielded  38 
percent  of  the  production.  The  total  pro- 
duction for  the  year  1920  -  21  is  reported  as 
26.902,471  pounds. 

Yield  varies  throughout  the  country  ac- 
cording to  the  methods  of  cultivation  and 
the  condition  of  the  season.  On  the  best 
estates  in  a  good  season,  the  yield  per 
acre  may  be  as  high  as  1,100  or  1,200 
pounds,  and  on  poor  estates  it  may  not  be 
over  200  or  300  pounds.  The  arabica 
variety  is  chiefly  cultivated.  The  rohusta 
and  Maragogipe  have  been  tried,  but  with- 
out much  success. 

A  representative  plantation  is  the  San- 
taverre  in  Mysore,  comprising  400  acres, 
at  an  elevation  of  from  4,000  to  4,500 
feet,  where  the  coffee  trees,  cultivated  un- 
der shade,  produce  from  100  to  250  tons 
of  coffee  a  year.  Other  prominent  es- 
tates in  Mysore  are  Cannon's  Baloor  and 


Mylemoney,  the  Hoskahn,  and  the  Sum- 
pigay  Khan. 

Nicaragua.  Coffee  trees  will  grow  well 
anywhere  in  Nicaragua,  but  the  best  loca- 
tions have  altitudes  of  from  2,000  to  3,000 
feet  above  sea  level.  At  such  elevations 
the  yield  varies  from  one  pound  to  five 
pounds  per  tree  annually;  but  above  or 
below  those,  the  average  production  dimin- 
ishes to  from  one  pound  to  one-half  pound 
a  tree. 

Lands  most  suitable  for  the  berry  are 
on  the  Sierra  de  Managua,  in  Diriambe, 
San  Marcos,  and  Jinotega,  and  about  the 
base  of  the  volcano  Monbaeho  near  Gra- 
nada. Good  land  is  also  found  on  the  is- 
land Omotepe  in  Lake  Nicaragua,  and 
around  Boaco  in  the  department  of  Chon- 
tales,  where  cultivation  was  begun  in 
1893. 

There  are  also  plantations  in  the  vicin- 
ity of  Esteli  and  Lomati  in  the  depart- 
ment of  Neuva  Segovia.  The  most  exten- 
sive operations  are  in  the  departments  of 
Managua,  Carazo,  Matagalpa,  Chontales, 
and  Jinotega,  and  from  those  regions  the 
annual  crop  has  attained  to  such  quantity 
that  it  has  become  the  chief  agricultural 
product  of  th&  republic.  Poor  and  costly 
means  of  transportation  on  the  Atlantic 
slope  have  operated  to  retard  the  develop- 


228 


ALL    ABOUT     COFFEE 


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Coffee  Growing  Undek  Shade,  Ubban  Estate,    India 


ment  of  the  industry  there,  even  though 
conditions  of  climate  are  not  unfavorable. 

Abyssinia.  In  the  absence  of  any  con- 
clusive evidence  to  the  contrary,  the  claim 
that  coffee  was  first  made  known  to  mod- 
ern man  by  the  trees  on  the  mountains  of 
the  northeastern  part  of  the  continent  of 
Africa  may  be  accepted  without  reserve. 
Undoubtedl.y  the  plant  grew  wild  all 
through  tropical  Africa:  but  its  value  as 
an  addition  to  man's  dietary  was  brought 
forth  in  Abyssinia. 

Abyssinia,,  while  it  may  have  given 
coffee  to  the  world,  no  longer  figures  as  a 
prime  factor  in  supplying  the  world,  and 
now  exports  only  a  limited  quantity. 
There  are  produced  in  the  country  two 
coffees  known  to  the  trade  as  Harari  and 
Abyssinian,  the  former  being  by  far  the 
more  important.  The  Harari  is  the  fruit 
of  cultivated  arahica  trees  grown  in  the 
province  of  Harar,  and  mostly  in  the 
neighborhood  of  the  city  of  Harar,  capital 
of  the  province.  The  Abyssianian  is  the 
fruit  of  wild  arahica  trees  that  grow 
mainly  in  the  provinces  of  Sidamo,  Kaffa, 
and  Guma. 

The  coffee  of  Harar  is  known  to  the 
trade  as  Mocha  longberry  or  Abyssinian 
longberry.     Most  of  the  plantations  upon 


which  it  is  raised  are  owned  by  the  na- 
tive Hararis,  Galla,  and  Abyssinians,  al- 
though there  are  a  few  Greek,  German, 
and  French  planters.  The  trees  are 
planted  in  rows  about  twelve  or  fifteen 
feet  apart,  and  comparatively  little  at- 
tention is  given  to  cultivation.  Crops  av- 
erage two  a  year,  and  sometimes  even  five 
in  two  years.  The  big  yield  is  in  Decem- 
ber, January,  and  February.  The  aver- 
age crop  is  about  seventy  pounds,  and  is 
mostly  from  small  plots  of  from  fifty  to 
one  hundred  trees,  there  being  no  very 
large  plantations.  All  the  coffee  is 
brought  into  the  city  of  Harar,  whence  it 
is  sent  on  mule-back  to  Dire-Daoua  on  the 
Franco-Ethiopian  Railway,  and  from 
there  by  rail  to  Jibuti.  Some  of  it  is  ex- 
ported directly  from  Jibuti,  and  the  rest 
is  forwarded  to  Aden,  in  Arabia,  for  re- 
exporting. 

Abyssinian,  or  wild,  coffee  is  also  known 
as  Kaft'a  coffee,  from  one  of  the  districts 
where  it  grows  most  abundantly  in  a  state 
of  nature.  This  coffee  has  a  smaller  bean 
and  is  less  rich  in  aroma  and  flavor  than 
the  Harari;  but  the  trees  grow  in  such 
profusion  that  the  possible  supply,  at  the 
minimum  of  labor  in  gathering,  is  prac- 
tically unlimited.     It  is  said  that  in  south- 


COFFEE    CULTIVATION 


229 


western  Alwssinia  there  are  immense  for- 
ests of  it  that  have  never  been  encroached 
upon  except  at  the  outskirts,  where  the 
natives  lazily  pick  up  the  beans  that  have 
fallen  to  the  ground.  It  is  shelled  where 
it  is  found,  in  the  most  primitive  fashion, 
and  goes  out  in  a  dirty,  mixed  condition. 

Formerly,  much  of  this  Kaffa  cotfee 
was  sent  to  market  through  Boromeda, 
Ilarar,  and  Dire-Daoua.  An  average  an- 
nual crop  was  about  6,000  bags,  or  800,000 
pounds,  of  which  something  more  than 
one-half  usually  went  through  Harar.  A 
customs  and  trading  station  has  lately 
been  established  at  Gambela,  on  the  Sobat 
Biver:  and  with  the  development  of  this 
outlet,  there  has  been  a  substantial  and 
increasing  exploitation  of  the  wild-coffee 
plants  since  1913.  Large  areas  of  land 
have  been  cleared,  with  a  view  to  cultiva- 
tion, and  attention  is  being  given  to  im- 
proved methods  of  harvesting  and  of  pre- 
paring the  coffee  for  the  market.  At  one 
time  a  fair  amount  of  coffee  from  this  re- 
gion went  to  Adis  Abeba  on  the  backs  of 
pack  mules,  a  journey  of  thirty-five  or 
forty  days,  and  then  was  carried  to  Jibuti, 
nearly  500  miles,  part  of  the  way  by  rail. 
Now  practically  all  of  it  goes  to  Gambela, 
thence   by  steamers  to   Khartum,    and   by 


rail  to  the  shipping-point  at  Port  Sudan 
on  the  Red  Sea. 

Other  African  Countries..  Practi- 
cally every  part  of  Africa  seems  to  be 
suitable  for  coffee  cultivation,  even 
United  South  Africa,  in  the  southern  part 
of  the  continent,  producing  140,212 
pounds  in  1918.  To  name  all  the  coun- 
tries in  which  it  is  grown  would  be  to 
list  nearly  all  the  political  divisions  of 
Africa.  Among  the  largest  producers  are 
the  British  East  African  Protectorate.  18,- 
735,572  pounds  in  1918;  French  Somali- 
land,  11,222,736  pounds  in  1917;  Angola, 
10,655,934  pounds  in  1913;  Uganda, 
9,999, 84o  pounds  in  1918 ;  former  German 
East  Africa,  2,334,450  pounds  in  1913; 
Cape  Verde  Islands,  1,442,910  pounds  in 
1916;  Madagascar,  707,676  pounds  in 
1918;  Liberia,  761,300  pounds  in  1917; 
Eritrea,  728,840  pounds  in  1918;  St. 
Thomas  and  Prince's  Islands,  484,350 
pounds  in  1916;  and  the  Belgian  Congo, 
375,000  pounds  in  1917. 

Angola.  Coffee  is  Angola's  second 
product,  and  there  are  large  areas  of  wild- 
coffee  trees.  With  a  production  of  nearly 
11,000,000  pounds,  Angola  ranks  about 
third  in  Africa  as  a  coffee-growing  coun- 
try.    The  coffee  is  gathered  and  sold  by 


j^ssim^ 


;■  -:^-v*;>:/.  * 


I' 


(»i 


A  Galla  Coffee  Gkower.  and  His  Helper,  in    His    Grove    of    Young    Trees    near    Harab 


230 


ALL    ABOUT     COFFEE 


the  natives,  and  there  are  also  several  Eu- 
ropean companies  engaged  in  the  coffee 
business.  The  chief  coffee  belt  extends 
from  the  Quanza  River  northward  to  the 
Kongo  at  an  altitude  of  1,500  to  2,500 
feet.  In  the  Cazengo  valley  the  wild 
trees  are  so  thick  that  thinning  out  is  the 
only  operation  necessary  to  the  planta- 
tion-owner. When  the  trees  become  too 
tall,  they  are  simply  cut  off  about  two  feet 
above  ground;  and  new  shoots  appear 
from  the  trunks  the  following  season. 

The  largest  coffee  plantation,  owned  by 
the  Companhia  Agricola  de  Cazengo,  pro- 
duced in  1913,  a  record  year,  nearly  1,500 
tons. 

Liberia.  Coffee  is  native  to  Liberia, 
growing  wild  in  the  hinterland  of  the 
negro  republic,  and  in  the  natural  state 
the  trees  often  attain  a  height  of  from 
thirty  to  forty  feet.  Cultivated  Liberian 
coffee,  Coffea  liherica,  has  become  a  staple 
of  the  civilized  inhabitants  of  the  country, 
and  is  grown  successfully  in  hot,  moist 
lowlands  or  on  hills  that  are  not  much  ele- 
vated. On  account  of  the  size  of  the  trees, 
only  about  four  hundred  can  be  planted 
to  the  acre.  In  recent  years  the  native 
Africans  have  been  planting  thousands  of 
trees  in  the  district  of  Grand  Cape  Mount. 
Coffee  is  grown  in  all  parts  of  the  repub- 
lic, but  chiefly  in  Grand  Cape  Mount  and 
Montserrado. 

General  Outlook  in  Africa.  In  the 
African  countries  under  control  of  Euro- 
pean governments  much  recent  progress 
has  been  made  in  promoting  coffee  grow- 
ing and  in  improving  methods  of  cultiva- 
tion. 

British  interests  were  reported  in  1919 
as  having  started  a  movement  toward 
reviving  interest  in  the  coffee  growing 
industry  in  the  British  possessions  in 
Africa.  The  report  stated  that  Uganda, 
in  the  East  African  Protectorate,  had  21,- 
000  acres  under  coffee  cultivation,  with 
16,000  acres  more  in  other  -parts  of  the 
Protectorate,  and  1,300  acres  in  Nyasa- 
land;  also  that  there  is  no  hope  of  an 
immediate  revival  of  the  industry  in  Natal, 
where  it  was  killed  twenty  years  ago  by 
various  pests ;  ' '  but  it  should  certainly  be 
established  in  the  warmer  parts  of  Rhode- 
sia ;  and  in  the  northern  part  of  the  Trans- 
vaal an  effort  is  being  made  to  bring  this 
form  of  enterprise  into  practical  ex- 
istence." 


Coffee  growing  possibilities  in  British 
East  Africa  (Kenya  Colony)  are  alluring, 
according  to  reports  from  planters  in  that 
region.  Late  in  1920,  Major  C.  J.  Ross, 
a  British  government  officer  there,  said 
that  "British  East  Africa  is  going  to  be 
one  of  the  leading  coffee  countries  of  the 
world."  Coffee  grows  wild  in  many  parts 
of  the  Protectorate,  but  the  natives  are 
too  lazy  to  pick  even  the  wild  berries. 

On  the  more  advanced  plantations  in  all 
parts  of  Africa  the  approved  cultivation 
methods  of  other  leading  countries  are 
carefully  followed ;  especial  care  being 
given  to  weeding  and  pruning,  because  of 
the  rank  growth  of  the  tropics.  On  the 
whole,  however,  little  attention  is  given 
to  intensive  methods. 

Arabia.  Whether  the  coffee  tree  was 
first  discovered  indigenous  in  the  moun- 
tains of  Abyssinia,  or  in  the  Yemen  dis- 
trict of  Arabia,  will  probably  always  be 
a  matter  of  contention.  Many  writers 
of  Europe  and  Asia  in  the  fifteenth  cen- 
tury, when  coffee  was  first  brought  to  the 
attention  of  the  people  of  Europe,  agree 
on  Arabia;  but  there  is  good  reason  to  be- 
lieve the  plant  was  brought  to  Arabia 
from  Abyssinia  in  the  sixth  century. 

Once  all  the  coffee  of  Arabia  went  to 
the  outside  world  through  the  port  of 
Mocha  on  the  eastern  coast  of  the  Red 
Sea.  Mocha,  which  never  raised  any 
coffee,  is  no  longer  of  commercial  impor- 
tance; but  its  name  has  been  permanently 
attached  to  the  coffee  of  this  country. 

Mocha  {Moka,  or  Morkha)  coffee  (i.  e. 
Coffea  arabica)  is  raised  principally  in 
the  vilayet  of  Yemen,  a  district  of  south- 
eastern Arabia.  Yemen  extends  from 
the  north,  southerly  along  the  line  of  the 
Red  Sea,  nearly  to  the  Gulf  of  Aden. 
With  the  exception  of  a  narrow  strip  of 
land  along  the  shores  of  the  Red  Sea,  the 
Strait  of  Bab-el-Man  deb,  and  the  Gulf  of 
Aden,  it  is  a  rugged,  mountainous  region, 
in  which  innumerable  small  valleys  at 
high  elevations  are  irrigated  by  waters 
from  the  melting  snows  of  the  mountains. 

Coffee  can  be  successfully  grown  in  any 
part  of  Yemen,  but  its  cultivation  is  con- 
fined to  a  few  widely  scattered  districts, 
and  the  acreage  is  not  large.  The  prin- 
cipal coffee  regions  are  in  the  mountains 
between  Taiz  and  Ibb,  and  between  Ibb 
and  Yerim,  and  Yerim  and  Sanaa,  on  the 
caravan    route    from    Taiz   to    Sanaa;    be- 


COFFEE    CULTIVATION 


231 


Wild  Kaffa  Coffee  Trees  Near  Adis  Abeba 


tween  Zabeed  and  Ibb,  on  the  route  from 
Taiz  to  Zabeed;  between  Hajelah  and 
Menakha,  on  the  route  from  Hodeida  to 
Sanaa,  and  in  the  wild  mountain  ranges 
both  to  the  north  and  south  of  that  route ; 
between  Beit-el-Fakih  and  Obal;  and  be- 
tween ]\Ianakha  and  Batham  to  the  north 
of  Bajil.  The  plant  does  best  at  eleva- 
tions ranging  from  3,500  to  6,500  feet. 

In  the  Yemen  district,  cotfee  is  gener- 
ally grown  in  small  gardens.  Large  plan- 
tations, as  they  exist  in  other  coffee-grow- 
ing countries,  are  not  seen  in  Arabia. 
Many  of  these  small  farms  may  be  parts 
of  a  large  estate  belonging  to  some  rich 
tribal  chief.  The  native  Arabs  do  not  use 
coffee  in  the  way  it  is  used  elsewhere  in 
the  world.  They  drink  kisher,  a  beverage 
brewed  from  the  husks  of  the  berry  and 
not  from  the  bean.  Consequently,  the  en- 
the  crop  goes  into  export.  But  bad  con- 
ditions of  trade  routes,  political  disturb- 
ances, and  small  regional  wars,  absence  of 
good  cultivation  methods,  and  heavy  tran- 
sit taxes  imposed  by  the  government,  have 
combined  to  restrict  the  production  of 
Yemen  coffee. 

Land  for  the  coffee  gardens  is  selected 
on  hill-slopes,  and  is  terraced  with  soil  and 
small   walls   of  stone   until  it   reaches  up 


like  an  amphitheater  —  often  to  a  consider- 
able height.  The  soil  is  well  fertilized. 
For  sowing,  the  seeds  are  thoroughly  dried 
in  ashes,  and  after  being  placed  in  the 
ground,  are  carefully  watched,  watered, 
and  shaded.  In  about  a  year  the  shrub 
has  grown  to  a  height  of  twelve  or  more 
inches.  Seedlings  in  that  condition  are 
set  out  in  the  gardens  in  rows,  about  ten 
to  thirteen  feet  apart.  The  young  trees 
receive  moisture  from  neighboring  wells 
or  from  irrigation  ditches,  and  are  shaded 
by  bananas. 

At  maturity  the  trees  reach  a  height  of 
ten  or  fifteen  feet.  Since  they  never  lose 
all  their  leaves  at  one  time,  they  appear 
always  green,  and  bear  at  the  same  time 
flowers  and  fruits,  some  of  which  are  still 
green  while  others  are  ripe  or  approaching 
maturity.  Thus,  in  some  districts,  the 
the  trees  are  considered  to  have  two  or 
even  three  crops  a  year.  All  the  trees  be- 
gin to  bear  about  the  end  of  the  third 
year. 

Cuba.  Coffee  can  be  grown  in  prac- 
tically every  island  of  the  West  Indies, 
but  owing  to  the  state  of  civilization  in 
many  of  the  lesser  islands,  little  is  pro- 
duced  for   international   trade,    excepting 


232 


ALL     ABOUT     COFFEE 


COFFEE    CULTIVATION 


233 


in  Jamaica,  Guadeloupe,  Haiti,  the  Do- 
minican Republic,  Trinidad,  and  Tobago. 
In  past  years  a  considerable  quantity  of 
good-quality  coffee  was  produced  in  Cuba, 
the  annua]  export  in  the  decade  of  1840 
averaging  50,000,000  pounds.  Severe  hur- 
ricanes, adverse  legislation,  the  rise  of 
coffee-growing  in  Brazil,  the  increase  in 
cultivation  of  sugar  and  other  more  profit- 
able crops,  practically  eliminated  Cuba 
from  the  international  coffee-export  trade. 

Martinique.  This  is  a  name  well 
known  to  coffee  men,  the  world  over,  as 
the  pioneer  coffee-growing  country  of  the 
western  hemisphere.  Gabriel  de  Clieu  in- 
troduced the  coffee  plant  to  the  island  in 
1723  by  bringing  it  through  many  hard- 
ships from  France.  For  a  time,  coffee 
flourished  there,  but  now  practically  none 
is  grown.  Such  coffee  as  bears  the  name 
Martinique  in  modern  trade  centers  is  pro- 
duced in  Guadeloupe,  and  is  only  shipped 
through  Martinique. 

Jamaica.  Coffee  was  introduced  into 
Jamaica  in  1730 ;  and  so  highly  was  it  re- 
garded as  a  desirable  addition  to  the  agri- 
cultural resources  of  the  island,  that  the 
British  Parliament  in  1732  passed  a  spe- 
cial act  providing  for  the  encouraging  and 
fostering  of  its  cultivation.  Later,  it  be- 
came one  of  the  great  staples  of  the  coun- 
try. Disastrous  floods  in  1815,  and  the 
gradual  exhaustion  of  the  best  lands  since 
then,  have  brought  about  a  decline  of  the 
industry,  which  is  now  confined  to  a  few 
estates  in  the  Blue  Mountains  and  to  scat- 
tered "settler"  or  peasant  cultivation  in 
the  same  districts  but  at  lower  altitudes. 

The  tree  was  formerly  grown  at  all  al- 
titudes, from  sea-level  to  5,000  feet;  but 
the  best  height  for  it  is  about  4,500  feet. 
Four  parishes  lead  in  coffee  producing: 
Manchester,  with  an  area  of  5,045  acres; 
St.  Thomas,  with  2,315  acres;  Clarendon, 
with  2,172  acres ;  St.  Andrew,  with  1,584 
acres.  Nine  other  parishes  that  raise 
coffee  have  less  than  1,000  acres  each  un- 
der cultivation.  There  were  24,865  acres 
devoted  to  coffee  in  1900.  In  addition,  it 
was  estimated  that  there  were  80,000  acres 
suitable  for  the  cultivation,  nearly  all  be- 
ing owned  by  the  government. 

Dominican  Republic.  Coffee  was  once 
the  leading  staple  in  the  Dominican  Re- 
public as  in  the  adjoining  Haitian  Repub- 
lic; but  in  recent  years  cacao,  sugar,  and 
tobacco    have    become    the    predominating 


crops.  Said  to  have  the  world's  richest 
and  most  productive  soil,  one-half  of  the 
republic's  area  is  particularly  suited  to 
the  cultivation  of  a  good  grade  of  coffee 
of  the  highland  type.  But  political  and 
industrial  conditions  have  made  for  neg- 
lect of  its  cultivation  by  efficient  methods. 
Lack  of  suitable  roads  has  also  militated 
against  the  development  of  the  coffee  in- 
dustry. 

In  spite  of  many  drawbacks,  it  is  to  be 
noted  that,  from  the  beginning  of  the 
twentieth  century,  the  coffee-growing  area 
has  been  gradually  expanded  until  ex- 
ports increased  from  less  than  1,000,000 
pounds  to  5,029,316  pounds  in  1918,  al- 
though in  the  next  two  years  there  was 
a  recession  in  the  total  exports  to  1,358,- 
825  pounds  in  1920. 

The  principal  plantations  are  in  the 
vicinity  of  the  town  of  Moca  and  in  the 


■A. 

'^VI^I^B    ' 

'\ 

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Picking  Blue  Mountain  Berries,  Jamaica 

districts  of  Santiago,  Bani,  and  Barahona. 
Generally  speaking,  the  methods  of  cul- 
tivation in  the  Dominican  Republic  are 
somewhat  crude  •  as  compared  with  the 
practise  in  the  larger  countries  of  produc- 
tion in  Central  America  and  South 
America. 

Guadeloupe,  Guadeloupe  has  an  area 
of  619  square  miles,  and  about  one-third 
of  this  area  is  under  cultivation.  About 
15,000  acres  are  in  coffee,  giving  employ- 
ment to  upward  of  10.000  persons.  The 
average  yield  of  a  plantation  of  mature 
trees  is  about  535  pounds  to  the  acre. 


234 


ALL     ABOUT     COFFEE 


In  the  early  years  of  the  industry  in 
Guadeloupe,  production  and  export  were 
considerable.  From  old  records  it  ap- 
pears that  in  1784  the  exports  amounted 
to  7,500,000  pounds.  During  the  closing 
years  of  the  eighteenth  century  the  annual 
exports  were  from  6,500,000  to  8,500,000 
pounds,  and  in  the  beginning  of  the  next 
century  they  registered  about  6,000,000 
pounds.  Toward  the  middle  of  the  nine- 
teenth century  the  growing  of  sugar  cane 
overtopped  that  of  coffee  in  profit,  and 
many  planters  abandoned  coffee.  After 
1884,  with  the  decadence  of  the  sugar  in- 
dustry, coffee  was  again  favored,  the  gov- 
ernment giving  substantial  encouragement 
by  paying  bounties  ranging  from  $15  to 
$19  per  acre  for  all  new  coffee  plantations. 

In  recent  years,  considerable  lib  erica 
and  rohnsta  have  been  planted  in  place  of 
the  exhausted  arahica. 

Trinidad  and  Tobago.  The  islands  of 
Trinidad  and  Tobago  are  small  factors  in 
international  coffee  trading.  Coffee  can 
be  grown  almost  any  place  on  the  islands; 
but -its  cultivation  is  confined  principally 
to'  the   districts   of   Maracas,   Aripo,    and 


North  Oropouche.  Both  the  arahica  and 
the  liberica  varieties  are  grown. 

Honduras.  Soil,  surface,  and  climate 
in  Honduras,  as  far  as  they  relate  to  the 
cultivation  of  coffee,  are  similar  to  those 
of  the  adjoining  regions  of  Central  Amer- 
ica. The  tree  grows  in  the  uplands  of  the 
interior,  thriving  best  at  an  altitude  of 
from  1,500  to  4,000  feet.  Scarcity  of  la- 
bor and  insufficient  means  of  transporta- 
tion have  been  the  chief  obstacles  in  the 
way  of  the  large  development  of  the  in- 
dustry. 

The  departments  of  Santa  Barbara, 
Copan,  Cortez,  La  Paz,  Choluteca,  and  El 
ParaisO  have  the  principal  plantations. 
The  ports  of  shipment  are  Truxillo  and 
Puerto  Cortes.  Annual  production  in  re- 
cent years  has  been  about  5,000,000 
pounds.  In  1889  the  United  States  im- 
ported 3,322,502  pounds,  but  in  1915  its 
importations  fell  away  to  665,912  pounds. 

British  Honduras,  British  Honduras 
has  never  undertaken  to  raise  coffee  on  a 
commercial  scale  despite  the  fact  that 
conditions  are  not  unfavorable  to  its  cul- 
tivation. It  has  failed  to  produce  enough 
even  for  domestic  consumption,  importing 


CoFFKE  Pickers  Returning  from  the  Fields,  Guadeloupe 


COFFEE    CULTIVATION 


235 


Three- Year-Old  Coffee  Trees  in  Blossom,  Panama 


most  of  what  it  has  needed.  Annual  pro- 
duction, as  recorded  in  recent  years,  has 
been  upward  of  10,000  pounds. 

Panama.  Panama  presents  a  very  fa- 
vorable field  for  the  growing  of  coffee. 
The  l)est  district  is  situated  in  the  uplands 
of  the  district  of  Bugaba,  where  vast  areas 
of  the  best  lands  for  coffee-growing  exist, 
and  where  climatic  and  other  conditions 
are  most  favorable  to  its  growth. 

No  shade  is  required  in  this  country ; 
and  the  only  cultivation  consists  of  tliree 
or  four  cleanings  a  year  to  keep  down  the 
weeds,  as  no  plowing,  etc.,  are  necessary. 
Coffee  matures  from  October  to  January. 
Water  power  being  abundant,  it  is  used 
for  running  all  machinery. 

The  annual  output  of  the  province  of 
Chiriqui,  which  produces  the  bulk  of  the 
coffee,  is  approximately  4.000  sacks  of  100 
pounds  each;  all  of  which  is  produced  in 


the  Boquete  district  at  present,  as  the 
coffee  planted  in  the  Bugaba  section  is 
still  young  and  unproductive.  The  local 
supply  does  not  meet  the  domestic  de- 
mand; and  instead  of  exporting,  a -great 
deal  is  imported  from  adjoining  countries, 
although  there  is  a  protective  tariff  of  six 
dollars  per  hundred  pounds. 

The  Guianas.  Coffee  has  had  a  precari- 
ous existence  in  the  Guianas.  Plants  are 
said  to  have  been  brought  by  Dutch  voy- 
agers from  Amsterdam  in  1718  or  1720. 
They  flourished  in  the  new  habitat  to 
which  they  were  introduced,  and  in  1725 
were  carried  from- Dutch  Guiana  into  the 
district  of  Berbice  in  British  Guiana  and 
into  French  Guiana.  There  the  berry  was 
a  considerable  success  for  a  time :  Berbice 
coffee  especially  acquiring  a  good  reputa- 
tion ;  and  when  Demerara  was  settled, 
coffee    became    a    staple    of    that    region. 


236 


ALL     ABOUT     COFFEE 


Shortage  of  native  labor,  and  the  difficulty 
of  procuring  cheap  and  capable  workers 
from  outside  the  country,  ultimately  com- 
pelled the  practical  abandonment  of  the 
crop  in  all  three  sections,  Dutch,  French, 
and  British,  In  British  Guiana  it  is  now 
grown  mainly  for  domestic  consumption, 
and  the  same  is  true  of  French  Guiana, 
which  also  imports. 

From  the  time  of  its  introduction,  about 
1718,  until  about  1880,  the  only  coffee 
grown  in  Surinam,  or  Dutch  Guiana,  was 
the  Coffea  arahica.  It  was  not  a  boun- 
tiful producer,  and  with  labor  scarce  and 
unreliable,  its  cultivation  was  expensive. 
Therefore  experiment  was  made  with  the 
liherica  plant.  This  proved  to  be  very 
satisfactory,  growing  luxuriantly,  produc- 
ing abundantly,  and  requiring  minimum 
labor  in-  care.  In  1918  some  16,000,000 
pounds  were  produced. 

Ecuador.  Though  not  of  great  com- 
mercial importance,  coffee  in  Ecuador 
grows  on  both  the  mainland  and  on  the 
adjacent  islands.  The  area  planted  to 
coffee  is  estimated  at  32,000  acres  having 
an  aggregate  of  about  8,000,000  trees. 
The  trees  blossom  in  December,  and  the 
picking  season  is  through  April,  May  and 
June.  Coffee  ranks  third  in  value  among 
the  exports  of  the  country. 

Peru.  Although  possessed  of  natural 
coffee  land  and  climate,  little  has  been 
done  to  develop  the  industry  in  Peru.  A 
finely  flavored  coffee  grows  at  an  altitude 
of  7,000  feet,  while  that  grown  in  the  low- 
lands along  the  Pacific  coast  is  not  so  de- 
sirable. Such  small  quantities  as  are 
grown  are  cultivated  in  the  mountain  dis- 
tricts of  Choquisongo,  Cajamarca,  Perene, 
Paucartambo,  Chaucghamayo,  and  Huan- 
ace.  The  Pacific-coast  district  of  Paces- 
mayo  also  grows  a  not  unimportant  crop. 

Bolivia.  Comparatively  little  attention 
is  given  to  coffee  cultivation  in  Bolivia. 
Agricultural  methods  are  crude,  and  are 
limited  to  cutting  down  weeds  and  under- 
growth twice  a  year.  The  coffee  is 
planted  in  small  patches,  or  as  hedges 
along  the  roads  or  around  the  fields  of 
other  crops.  The  first  crop  is  picked  at 
the  end  of  one  and  a  half  or  two  years. 
The  trees  bear  for  fifteen  to  twenty  years. 
The  average  yield  is  from  three  to  eight 
pounds  per  tree.  The  best  grades  of 
coffee  are  grown  at  2,000  to  6,000  feet 
above  sea  level. 


Coffee  is  cultivated  in  the  departments 
of  La  Paz,  Cochabamba,  Santa  Cruz,  El 
Beni,  and  Chuquisca.  In  the  department 
of  Santa  Cruz  there  are  plantations  in 
the  provinces  of  Sara,  Velasco,  Chiquitos 
and  Cordillera.  In  the  Yungas  and  the 
Apolobamba  districts  of  La  Paz,  its  cul- 
tivation reaches  the  greatest  importance, 
but  even  there  is  not  of  large  proportions. 

Chile,  Paraguay,  and  Argentina. 
Coffee  is  of  minor,  almost  insignificant, 
importance  in  the  agriculture  of  Chile, 
Paraguay,  and  Argentina.  In  Uruguay 
the  climate  is  altogether  unsuitable  for  it. 

Argentina  and  Paraguay  each  have 
small  growing  districts.  In  the  first 
named,  only  the  provinces  of  Salta  and 
Jujuy  have,  at  the  latest  reports,  a  little 
more  than  3,000  acres  under  cultivation. 
In  Paraguay  some  householders  have 
grown  coffee  iji  their  yards  solely  for  their 
own  use.  In  the  Paraguayan  district  of 
Altos,  north  of  Asuncion,  a  small  group 
of  plantations  was  started  before  the  out- 
break of  the  World  War,  and  produced 
about  300,000  pounds  of  coffee  in  a  year. 

Ceylon.  Coffee  planting  in  Ceylon 
was  an  important  industry  for  a  century, 
until  the  so-called  Ceylon  leaf  disease  at- 
tacked the  plantations  in  1869,  and  a  few 
years  later  had  practically  destroyed  all 
the  trees  of  the  country.  Although  coffee 
raising  has  continued  since  then,  there  has 
been,  especially  since  the  beginning  of  the 
twentieth  century,  a  steady  decline  in 
acreage.  There  were  4,875  acres  under 
cultivation  in  1903,  2,433  acres  in  1907, 
1.389  in  1912,  and  941.5  in  1919.  Only 
2,200  pounds  were  produced  in  1917. 
However,  the  climate  and  soil  of  Ceylon 
seem  adapted  to  coffee  culture,  and  the 
experimental  stations  at  Peradeniya  and 
Anuradhapura  have  been  experimenting 
in  recent  years  with  rohusta,  canepJiora, 
TJgandae,  and  a  rohusta  hybrid  for  the 
purpose  of  reviving  the  industry  in  the 
country, 

Ceylon  is  one  of  the  oldest  coffee-grow- 
ing countries,  the  Arabs  having  experi- 
mented with  it  there,  according  to  legend, 
long  before  the  Portuguese  seized  the  is- 
land in  1505,  The  Dutch,  who  gained 
control  in  1658,  continued  the  cultivation, 
and  in  1690  introduced  more  systematic 
methods.  They  sent  a  few  pounds  in  1721 
to  Amsterdam,  where  the  coffee  brought  a 
higher  price  than  Java  or  Mocha.     How- 


COFFEE    CULTIVATION 


237 


RoBusTA   Coffee    Growing   on    the    Suzannah    Estate,  Cociiin-China 


ever,  it  was  not  until  after  the  British 
occupied  the  island  in  1796,  that  coffee 
growing  was  carried  on  extensively.  The 
first  British-owned  upland  plantation  was 
started  in  1825  by  Sir  Edward  Barnes; 
and  for  more  than  fifty  years  thereafter 
coffee  was  one  of  the  island's  leading 
products.  An  orgy  of  speculation  in 
coffee  growing  in  Ceylon,  in  which 
£5,000,000  sterling  are  said  to  have  been 
invested,  culminated  in  1845  in  the  burst- 
ing of  the  coffee  bubble,  and  hundreds 
were  ruined.  The  peak  of  the  export 
trade  was  reached  in  1873,  when  111,495,- 
216  pounds  of  coffee  were  sent  out  of  the 
country.  Even  then,  the  plantations  were 
suffering  severely  from  the  leaf  disease, 
which  had  appeared  in  1869 ;  and  by  1887, 
the  coffee  tree  had  practically  disappeared 
from  Ceylon.  Ceylon's  day  in  coffee  was 
a  cycle  of  fifty-odd  years. 

French  Indo-China.  Coffee  culture  in 
French  Indo-China  is  a  comparatively 
small  factor  in  international  trade,  al- 
though production  is  on  the  increase,  par- 
ticularly from  those  plantations  planted 
to  robiista,  liherica,  and  excelsa  varieties. 
The  average  annual  export  for  the  five- 
year  period  ended  with  1918  was  516.978 
pounds,  nearly  all  of  it  going  to  France. 


The  first  experiments  with  coffee  grow- 
ing were  begun  in  1887,  near  Hanoi  in 
Tonkin.  The  seeds  were  of  the  arabica 
variety,  brought  from  Reunion,  and  the 
production  from  the  first  years  was  dis- 
tributed throughout  the  country  to  foster 
the  industry.  Eventually  arahica  was 
found  unsuitable  to  the  soil  and  climate, 
and  experiments  were  begun  with  robusta 
and  other  hardier  types. 

A  survey  of  the  industry  of  the  coun- 
try in  1916  showed  that  the  plant  was  be- 
ing successfully  grown  in  the  provinces 
of  Tonkin,  Anam,  and  Cochin-China,  and 
that  altogether  there  were  about  1,000,000 
trees  in  bearing.  The  plantations  are 
mostly  in  the  foot-hills  of  the  mountain 
ranges  or  on  the  slopes,  although  a  few 
are  located  near  the  coast  line  at  1,000 
feet,  or  even  less,  above  sea-level. 

The  larger  and  more  successful  planta- 
tions follow  advanced  methods  of  planting 
and  cultivating,  while  the  government 
maintains  experimental  stations  for  the 
purpose  of  fostering  the  industry.  It  is 
believed  that  French  Indo-China  in  com- 
ing years  will  assume  an  important  po- 
sition in  the  coffee  trade  of  the  world, 
particularly  as  a  source  of  supply  for 
France. 


238 


ALL     ABOUT     COFFEE 


Federated  Malay  States,  Including 
Strait's  Settlements.  Rubber  has  been 
the  chief  cause  of  the  decline  of  coffee 
industry  in  the  Federated  Malay  States. 
Since  the  closing  years  of  the  nineteenth 
century  coffee  has  been  steadily  on  the 
downward  path  in  acreage  and  produc- 
tion, with  the  possible  exception  of  parts 
of  Straits  Settlements,  which  in  1918  ex- 
ported, mostly  to  England,  some  3,500,000 
pounds  of  good  grade  coffee.  The  other 
sections  of  the  federation  shipped  less 
than  1,000,000  pounds. 

In  the  early  days,  planters  of  the  Malay 
Peninsula  knew  little  about  proper  meth- 
ods of  cultivating,  and  depended  mostly 
upon  what  they  learned  of  the  practises 
in  Ceylon,  which,  unfortunately  for  them, 
were  not  at  all  suited  to  the  Malay 
country.  They  secured  their  best  crops 
from  lowlands  where  peaty  soil  prevailed, 
and  eventually  all  the  coffee  grown  on  the 
peninsula  came  from  such  regions. 

Liberica  is  mostly  favored,  and  is 
grown  with  some  success  as  an  inter-crop 
with  cocoanuts  and  rubber.  The  rohusta 
variety  has  also  been  introduced,  but  does 
not  seem  to  do  as  well  as  the  liberica.  Be- 
tween 2,300  and  2,600  acres,  according  to 
recent  returns,  have  been  under  coffee  as 
a  catch-crop  with  cocoanuts,  out  of  a  total 


of  40,000  acres  in  cocoanut  estates.  One 
planter  has  been  reported  as  making  quite 
a  success  with  this  method  of  inter-crop- 
ping for  coffee,  but  it  is  not  generally 
approved. 

There  has  been  a  general  decline  in 
acreage,  product,  and  exports  since  the 
closing  years  of  the  nineteenth  century, 
until  now  the  industry  is  regarded  as  prac- 
tically at  a  stand-still  and  likely  so  to  re- 
main as  long  as  rubber  shall  continue  to 
hold  the  commercially  high  position  to 
which  it  has  attained.  Unsatisfactory 
prices  realized  for  the  crop,  poor  growth 
of  the  trees  in  some  localities,  and  the 
gradual  weakening  of  the  trees  under 
rubber  as  they  mature,  are  offered  as  the 
principal  explanations  of  this  decrease  in 
acreage.  Nearly  all  the  Malay  crop  in 
recent  years  has  been  grown  in  Selangor, 
though  Negri  Sembilan,  Pahang,  and 
Perak  continue  as  factors  in  the  trade. 

Australia.  Although  Australia  is  a 
prospective  coffee-growing  country  of 
large  natural  possibilities,  the  Australian 
Year  Book  for  1921  states  that  Queensland 
is  the  one  state  in  which  experiments  have 
been  tried,  and  that  in  1919  -  20  there 
were  only  twenty-four  acres  under  cul- 
tivation. Queensland  soils  are  of  volcanic 
origin,    exceptionally    rich,    and    support 


Coffee  Trees  of  the  Bourbon  Variety,  French  Indo-China 


COFFEE    CULTIVATION 


239 


Picking  Coffee  on  a  North  Queensland  Plantation 


trees  that  are  vigorous  and  prolific  with 
a  bean  of  fine  quality.  The  arabica  is 
chiefly  cultivated,  and  the  trees  can  be 
successfully  grown  on  the  plains  at  sea- 
level  as  well  as  up  to  a  height  of  1,500  or 
2,000  feet.  The  trees  mature  earlier  than 
in  some  other  countries.  Planted  in  Jan- 
uary, they  frequently  blossom  in  Decem- 
ber of  the  next  year,  or  a  month  later, 
and  yield  a  small  crop  in  July  or  August; 
that  is,  in  about  two  years  and  a  half  from 
the  time  of  planting.  The  bean  closely  re- 
sembles the  choice  Blue  Mountain  coffee 
of  Jamaica.  For  coffee  cultivation  the 
labor  cost  is  almost  prohibitive. 

As  much  as  fifteen  hundredweight  of 
beans  per  acre  have  been  gathered  from 
trees  in  North  Queensland;  and  for  years 
the  average  was  ten  hundredweight  per 
acre.  After  thirty  years  of  cultivation, 
no  signs  of  disease  have  appeared.  Af^ 
late  as  1920,  the  government  was  propos- 
ing to  make  advances  of  fourteen  cents  a 
pound  upon  coffee  in  the  parchment  to 
encourage  the  development  of  the  indus- 
try to  a  point  where  it  would  be  possible 
for  local  coffee  growers  to  capture  at  least 
the  bulk  of  the  commonwealth's  import 
coffee  trade  of  2,605,240  Rounds. 


Coffee  grows  well  in  most  all  the  islands 
of  the  Pacific  Ocean,  and  in  some  of  them^ 
as  in  the  Philippines  and  Hawaii,  the  in- 
dustry in  past  years  reached  considerable 
importance. 

Hawaii.  Coffee  has  been  grown  in 
Hawaii  since  1825,  from  plants  brought 
from  Brazil.  It  has  also  been  said  that 
seed  was  brought  by  Vancouver,  the  Brit- 
ish navigator,  on  his  Pacific  exploration 
voyage,  1791  -  94.  Not,  however,  until 
1845  was  an  official  record  made  of  the 
crop,  which  was  then  248  pounds.  The 
first  plantations,  started  on  the  low  levels, 
near  the  sea,  did  not  do  well;  and  it  was 
not  until  the  trees  were  planted' at  eleva- 
tions of  from  1,000  to  3,000  feet  above 
sea-level  that  better  returns  were  obtained. 

Coffee  is  grown  on  all  the  islands  of 
the  group,  but  nowhere  to  any  great  ex- 
tent except  on  Hawaii,  which  produces 
ninety-five  percent  of  the  entire  crop.  Next 
in  importance,  though  far  behind,  is  the 
island  of  Oahu.  On  Hawaii  there  are 
four  principal  coffee  districts,  Kona, 
Hamakua,  Puna,  and  Olaa.  About  four- 
fifths  of  the  total  output  of  the  islands  is 
produced  in  Kona.  At  one  time  there 
were    considerable    coffee    afe^s    in    Maui 


240 


ALL     ABOUT     COFFEE 


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COFFEE  CULTIVATION 


241 


and  Kauai,  but  sugar  cane  eventually 
there  took  the  place  of  coffee. 

The  Kona  coffee  district  extends  for 
many  miles  along-  the  western  slope  of  the 
island  of  Hawaii  and  around  famous 
Kealakekua  Bay.  The  soil  is  volcanic, 
and  even  rocky;  but  coffee  trees  flourish 
surprisingly  well  among  the  rocks,  and 
are  said  to  bear  a  bean  of  superior 
quality. 

Coffee  trees  in  Kona  are  planted  prin- 
cipally in  the  open,  though  sometimes  they 
are  shaded  by  the  native  kukui  trees. 
They  are  grown  from  seed  in  nurseries; 
and  the  seedlings,  when  one  year  old,  are 
transplanted  in  regular  lines  nine  feet 
apart.  In  two  years  a  small  crop  is  gath- 
ered, yielding  from  five  to  twelve  bags  of 
cleaned  coft'ee  per  acre.  At  three  years 
of  age  the  trees  produce  from  eight  to 
twenty  bags  of  cleaned  coffee  per  acre, 
and  from  that  time  they  are  fully  ma- 
tured. The  ripening  season  is  between 
September  and  January,  and  there  are 
two  principal  pickings.  Many  of  the 
trees  are  classed  as  wild;  that  is,  they  are 
not  topped,  and  are  cultivated  in  an  ir- 
regular manner  and  are  poorly  cared  for; 
but  they  yield  700  or  800  pounds  per  acre. 
The  fruit  ripens  very  uniformly,  and  is 
picked  easily  and  at  slight  expense. 

It  is  calculated  that  in  the  Hawaiian 
group  more  than  250,000  acres  of  good 
coffee  land  are  available  and  about  200,- 
000  acres  more  of  fair  quality.  Com- 
paratively little  of  this  possible  acreage 
has  been  put  to  use.  According  to  the 
census  of  1889,  there  were  then  6,451  acres 
devoted  to  coffee,  having,  young,  and  old, 
3,225,743  bearing  trees.  The  yield,  in 
that  census  year,  was  2,297,000  pounds,  of 
which  2,112,650  pounds  'were  credited  to 
Hawaii,  the  small  remainder  coming  from 
Maui,  Oahu,  Kauai,  and  Molokai. 

A  blight  in  1855  -  56  set  back  the  indus- 
try, many  plantations  being  ruined  and 
then  given  over  to  sugar  cane.  After  the 
blight  had  disappeared,  the  plantations 
were  re-established,  and  prosperity  cou: 
tinued  for  years.  Following  the  Ameri- 
can occupation  of  the  islands  in  1898, 
came  another  period  of  depression.  With 
the  loss  of  the  protective  tariff  that  had 
existed,  prices  fell  to  an  unremunerative 
figure;  and  the  more  profitable  sugar  cane 
was  taken  up  again.  After  1912,  the  in- 
creased demand  for  coffee,  with  higher 
prices,  led  again  to  hopes  for  the  future 


Coffee  Growing  Under  Shade,  Hamakua,  H.  I. 

of  the  industry.  Planting  was  encour- 
aged; and  it  has  been  demonstrated  that 
from  lands  w^ell  selected  and  intelligently 
cultivated  it  is  possible  to  have  a  yield  of 
from  1,200  to  2,100  pounds  per  acre. 
Improvements  have  also  been  made  in 
pulping  and  milling  facilities.  Many  of 
the  plantations  are  cultivated  by  Japanese 
labor. 

Exports  of  coffee  from  Hawaii  to  the 
principal  countries  of  the  world  in  1920 
were  2,573,300  pounds. 

Philippine  Islands.  Spanish  mission- 
aries from  Mexico  are  said  to  have  carried 
the  coffee  plant  to  the  Philippine  Islands 
in  the  latter  part  of  the  eighteenth  cen- 
tury. At  first  it  was  cultivated  in  the 
province  of  La  Laguna ;  but  afterward 
other  provinces,  notably  Batangas  and 
Cavite,  took  it  up ;  and  in  a  short  time  the 
industry  was  one  of  the  most  important 
in  the  islands.  The  coffee  was  of  the 
arahica  variety.  In  the  middle  of  the 
eighteenth  century,  and  after,  the  indus- 
try had  a  position  of  importance;  several 
provinces  produced  profitable  crops  that 
contributed  much  to  the  wealth  of  the 
communities  where  the  berry  was  culti- 
vated. In  those  days  the  city  of  Yipa  was 
an  important  trading  center.  In  the 
period  of  its  prime  Philippine  coffee  en- 
joyed fine  repute,  especially  in  Spain, 
Great  Britain,  and  China  (at  Hong 
Kong),  those  three  countries  being  the 
largest     consumers.     At     one     time  —  in 


242 


ALL    ABOUT    COFFEE 


1883  and  1884  —  the  annual  export  was 
16,000,000  pounds,  which  demonstrates 
the  importance  of  the  industry  at  the  peak 
of  its  prosperity.  The  leaf  blight  ap- 
peared on  the  island  about  1889,  causing 
destruction  from  which  there  has  not  yet 
been  complete'  recovery.  The  export  of 
3,086  pounds  in  1917  shows  the  depths 
into  which  the  industry  had  fallen. 

The  Bureau  of  Agriculture  at  Manila 
announced  in  1915  that  an  effort  was  to 
be  made  to  re-habilitate  the  coffee  indus- 
try of  the  islands..  Nothing  came  of  the 
effort,  which  died  a-borning.  Since  then, 
several  attempts  to  introduce  disease-re- 
sisting varieties  of  coffee  from  Java  have 
failed  because  of  lack  of  interest  on  the 
part  of  the  natives. 

Despite  the  misfortunes  that  have  over- 
whelmed it  in  the  past  and  are  now  re- 
tarding its  growth,  it  is  still  believed  that 


the  industry  in  these  islands  may  be  re- 
habilitated. Conditions  of  soil  and  cli- 
mate are  favorable;  land  and  labor  are 
cheap,  abundant,  and  dependable:  rail- 
roads run  into  the  best  coffee  regions,  and 
good  cart  roads  are  in  process  of  construc- 
tion. Some  plantations  of  consequence 
are  still  in  existence,  and  serious  consid- 
eration is  being  given  to  their  develop- 
ment and  to  increasing  their  number, 

Guam.  Coffee  is  one  of  the  commonest 
wild  plants  on  the  little  island  of  Guam. 
It  grows  around  the  houses  like  shade 
trees  or  flowering  shrubs,  and  nearly  every 
family  cultivates  a  small  patch.  Climate 
and  soil  are  favorable  to  it;  and  it  flour- 
ishes, with  abundant  crops,  from  the  sea- 
level  to  the  tops  of  the  highest  hills.  The 
plants  are  set  in  straight  rows,  from  three 
and  a  half  to  seven  feet  apart,  and  are 
shaded   by   banana   trees   or   bv    cocoanut 


The  Coffee  Tbee  Thrives  in  the  Lava  Soil  of  South  Kona,  Island  of  Hawaii 


COFFEE    CULTIVATION 


243 


Coffee    Plantation  Near  Sagada,  Bontoc  Province,  P.  I. 


leaves  stuck  in  the  ground.  There  is  no 
production  for  export,  scarcely  enough  for 
home  consumption. 

Other  Pacific  Islands.  Other  islands 
of  the  Pacific  do  not  loom  large  in  coffee 
growing,  though  New  Caledonia  gives 
promise  as  a  producer,  exporting  1,248,- 
024  pounds   in   1916,   most  of  which  was 


rohusta.  Tahiti  produces  a  fair  coffee, 
but  in  no  commercial  quantity.  In  the 
Samoan  group  there  are  plantations,  small 
in  number,  in  size,  and  in  amount  of  pro- 
duction. Several  islands  of  'the  Fiji 
group  are  said  to  be  well  adapted  to  coffee, 
but  little  is  grown  there  and  none  for 
export. 


244 


ALL    ABOUT     COFFEE 


Owner's   Residence  Adjoining   Drying   Grounds  on  One  of  the  Large  Estates 


Drying    Grounds,    Fazenda    Santa    Adelaide,    Kibeiuao    Preto 
COFFEE   PREPARATION   IN   SAO   PAULO,   BRAZIL 


Chapter  XXI 

RE PARING    GREEX    COFFEE     FOR     MARKET 

Early  Arabian  methods  of  preparation-  —  Hoiv  primitive  devices  were 
replaced  by  modern  methods  —  A  chronological  story  of  the  develop- 
ment of  scientific  plantation  machinery,  and  the  part  played  by  Brit- 
ish and  American  inventors  —  The  marvelous  coffee  package,  one 
of  the  most  ingenious  in  all  nature  —  Hoiv  coffee  is  harvested  — 
Picking  —  Preparation  by  the  dry  and  the  ivet  methods  —  Pulping  — 
Fermentation  and  washing  —  Drying  —  Hulling,  or  peeling,  and  pol- 
ishing—  Sizing,  or  grading  —  Preparation  methods  of  different 
countries 


LA  ROQUE',  in  his  description  of  the 
ancient  coffee  culture,  and  the  prepa- 
ration methods  as  followed  in  Yemen, 
says  that  the  berries  were  permitted  to  dry 
on  the  trees.  When  the  outer  covering  be- 
gan to  shrivel,  the  trees  were  shaken,  caus- 
ing the  fully  matured  fruits  to  drop  upon 
cloths  spread  to  receive  them.  They  were 
next  exposed  to  the  sun  on  drying-mats, 
after  which  they  were  husked  by  means  of 
wooden  or  stone  rollers.  The  beans  were 
given  a  further  drying  in  the  sun,  and  then 
were  submitted  to  a  winnowing  process,  for 
which  large  fans  were  used. 

Development  of  Plantation  Machinery 
The  primitive  methods  of  the  original 
Arab  planters  were  generally  followed  by 
the  Dutch  pioneers,  and  later  by  the 
French,  with  slight  modifications.  As  the 
ultivation  spread,  necessity  for  more  effec- 
live  methods  of  handling  the  ripened  fruit 
mothered  invention's  that  soon  began  to 
transform  the  whole  aspect  of  the  business. 
Probably  the  first  notable  advance  was  in 
curing,  when  the  West  Indian  process,  or 
wet  method,  of  cleaning  the  berries  w^as 
evolved. 

About  the  time  that   Brazil   began  the 
active  cultivation  of  coffee,  William  Panter 


'  La   Koque,   Jean. 
Paris,  1715   (r.  285). 


Voyage  dc   I'Arahie  Heureuae, 


was  granted  the  first  English  patent  on  a 
"mill  for  husking  coffee."  This  was  in 
1775.  James  Henckel  followed  with  an 
English  patent,  granted  in  1806,  on  a  coffee 
drier,  "an  invention  communicated  to  liim 
by  a  certain  foreigner."  The  first  Amer- 
ican to  enter  the  lists  was  Nathan  Reed  of 
Belfast,  Me.,  who  in  1822  was  granted  a 
United  States  patent  on  a  coffee  huller. 
Roswell  Abbey  obtained  a  United  States 
patent  on  a  huller  in  1825 ;  and  Zenos 
Bronson,  of  Jasper  County,  Ga.,  obtained 
one  on  another  huller  in  1829.  In  the  next 
few  years  many  others  followed. 

John  Chester  Lyman,  in  1834,  was  grant- 
ed an  English  patent  on  a  coffee  huller  em- 
ploying circular  wooden  disks,  fitted  with 
wire  teeth.  Isaac  Adams  and  Thomas  Dit- 
son  of  Boston  brought  out  improved  hullers 
in  1835 ;  and  James  Meacock  of  Kingston, 
Jamaica,  patented  in  England,  in  1845,  a 
self-contained  machine  for  pulping,  dress- 
ing, and  sorting  coffee. 

William  McKinnon  began,  in  1840,  the 
manufacture  of  coffee  plantation  machinery 
at  the  Spring  Garden  Iron  Works,  founded 
by  him  in  1798  in  Aberdeen,  Scotland.  He 
died  in  1873 ;  but  the  business  continues 
as  Wm.  McKinnon  &  Co.,  Ltd. 

About  1850  John  Walker,  one  of  the  pio- 
neer English  inventors  of  coffee-plantation 


245 


246 


ALL     ABOUT     COFFEE 


Walker's  Okiginal  Disk  Pulper,  1860 
Much   favored   in   Ceylon   and   India 

machinery,  brought  out  in  Ceylon  his 
cylinder  pulper  for  Arabian  coffee.  The 
pulping  surface  was  made  of  copper,  and 
was  pierced  with  a  half-moon  punch  that 
raised  the  cut  edges  into  half  circles. 

The  next  twenty  years  witnessed  some  of 
the  most  notable  advances  in  the  develop- 
ment of  machinery  for  plantation  treat- 
ment, and  served  to  introduce  the  inven- 
tions of  several  men  whose  names  will  ever 
be  associated  with  the  industry. 

John  Gordon  &  Co.  began  the  manufac- 
ture in  London  of  the  line  of  plantation 
machinery  still  known  around  the  world  as 
"Gordon  make"  in  1850;  and  John  Gordon 
was  granted  an  English  patent  on  his  im- 
proved coffee  pulper  in  1859. 

Robert  Bowman  Tennent  obtained  Eng- 
lish (1852)  and  United  States  (1853)  pat- 
ents on  a  two-cylinder  pulper. 

George  L.  Squier  began  the  manufacture 
of  plantation  machinery  in  Buffalo,  N.  Y., 
in  1857.  He  was  active  in  the  business  until 
1893,  and  died  in  1910.  The  Geo.  L.  Squier 
Manufacturing  Co.  still  continues  as  one 
of  the  leading  American  manufacturers  of 
coffee-plantation  machinery. 

Marcus  Mason,  an  American  mechanical 
engineer  in  San  Jose,  Costa  Rica,  invented 
(1860)  a  coffee  pulper  and  cleaner  which 
became  the  foundation  stone  of  the  exten- 
sive plantation-machinery  business  of  Mar- 
cus Mason  &  Co.,  established  in  1873  at 
Worcester,  Mass. 


John  Walker  was  granted  (1860)  an 
English  patent  on  a  disk  pulper  in  which 
the  copper  pulping  surface  was  punched, 
or  knobbed,  by  a  blind  punch  that  raised 
rows  of  oval  knobs  but  did  not  pierce  the 
sheet,  and  so  left  no  sharp  edges.  During 
Ceylon's  fifty  years  of  coffee  production, 
the  Walker  machines  played  an  important 
part  in  the  industry.  They  are  still  manu- 
factured by  Walker,  Sons  &  Co.,  Ltd.,  of 
Colombo,  and  are  sold  to  other  producing 
countries. 

Alexius  Van  Gulpen  began  the  manufac- 
ture of  a  green-coffee-grading  machine  at 
Emmerich,  Germany,  in  1860, 

Following  Newell's  United  States  patents 
of  1857  -  59,  sixteen  other  patents  were  is- 
sued on  various  types  of  coffee-cleaning  ma- 
chines, some  designed  for  plantation  use, 
and  some  for  treating  the  beans  on  arrival 
in  the  consuming  countries. 

James  Henry  Thompson,  of  Hoboken,  and 
John  Lidgerwood  were  granted,  in  1864,  an 
English  patent  on  a  coffee-hulling  machine. 
William  Van  Vleek  Lidgerwood,  American 
charge  d'affaires  at  Rio  de  Janeiro,  was 
granted  an  English  patent  on  a  coffee  hull- 
ing and  cleaning  machine  in  1866.  The 
name  Lidgerwood  has  long  been  familiar  to 
coffee  planters.  The  Lidgerwood  Manufac- 
turing Co.,,  Ltd.,  has  its  headquarters  in 
London,  with  factory  in  Glasgow.  Branch 
offices  are  maintained  at  Rio  de  Janeiro, 
Campinas,  and  in  other  cities  in  coffee- 
growing  countries. 

Probably  the  name  most  familiar  to  cof- 
fee   men    in    connection    with    plantation 


Eaely  English  Coffee  Peeleb 
Largely  used  in  India  and  Ceylon 


GREEN    COFFEE    PREPARATION 


247 


Group    of    English    Cylinder    Coffee-Pulping    Machines 


lethods  is  Guardiola.  It  first  appears  in 
the  chronological  record  in  1872,  when  J. 
Guardiola,  of  Chocola,  Guatemala,  was 
granted  several  United  States  patents  on 
machines  for  pulping  and  drying  coffee. 
Since  then,  "Guardiola"  has  come  to  mean 
a  definite  type  of  rotary  drying  machine 
that  —  after  the  original  patent  expired  — 
was  manufactured  by  practically  all  the 
leading  makers  of  plantation  machinery. 
Jose  Guardiola  obtained  additional  United 
States  patents  on  coffee  hullers  in  1886. 

William  Van  Vleek  Lidgerwood,  Morris- 
town,  N.  J.,  was  granted  an  English  patent 
on  an  improved  coffee  pulper  in  1875. 

Several  important  cleaning  and  grading 
machinery  patents  were  granted  by  the 
United  States  (1876-1878)  to  Henry  B. 
Stevens,  who  assigned  them  to  the  Geo.  L. 
Squier  Manufacturing  Co.,  Buffalo,  N.  Y. 
One  of  them  was  on  a  separator,  in  which 
the  coffee  beans  were  discharged  from  the 
hopper  in  a  thin  stream  upon  an  endless 
■carrier,  or  apron,  arranged  at  such  an  in- 
clination that  the.  round  beans  would  roll 
by  force  of  gravity  down  the  apron,  while 
the  flat  beans  would  be  carried  to  the  top. 

C.  F.  Hargreaves,  of  Eio  de  Janeiro,  was 
granted  an  English  patent  on  machinery 
for  hulling,  polishing,  and  separating  cof- 
fee, in  1879. 


The  first  German  patent  on  a  coffee  dry- 
ing apparatus  was  granted  to  Henry  Scol- 
field,  of  Guatemala,  in  1880. 

In  1885  Evaristo  Conrado  Engelberg  of 
Piracicaba,  Sao  Paulo,  Brazil,  invented  an 
improved  coffee  huller  which,  three  years 
later,  was  patented  in  the  United  States. 
The  Engelberg  Huller  Co.  of  Syracuse, 
N.  Y.,  was  organized  the  same  year  (1888) 
to  make  and  to  sell  Engelberg  machines. 

Walker  Sons  &  Co.,  Ltd.,  began,  in  1886, 
experimenting  in  Ceylon  with  a  Liberian 
disk  pulper  that  was  not  fully  perfected 
until  twelve  years  later. 

Another  name,  that  has  sinjce  become  al- 
most as  well  known  as  Guardiola,  appears 
in  the  record  in  1891.  It  is  that  of 
O'Krassa.  In  that  year  R.  F.  E.  O'Krassa 
of  Antigua,  Guatemala,  was  granted  an 
English  patent  on  a  coffee  pulper.  Addi- 
tional patents  on  washing,  hulling,  drying, 
and  separating  machines  were  issued  to  Mr. 
O'Krassa  in  England  and  in  the  United 
States  in  1900,  1908,  1911,  1912,  and  1913. 

The  Fried.  Krupp  A.  G.  Grusonwerk, 
Magdeburg-Buckau,  Germany,  began  the 
manufacture  of  coffee  plantation  machines 
about  1892.  Among  others  it  builds  coffee 
pulpers  and  hulling  and  polishing  machines 
of  the  Anderson  (Mexican)  and  KruU 
(Brazilian)  types. 


248 


ALL     ABOUT     COFFEE 


Additional  United  States  patents  were 
granted  in  1895  to  Marcus  Mason,  assignor 
to  Marcus  Mason  &  Co.,  New  York,  on  ma- 
chines for  pulping  and  polishing'  coffee. 
Douglas  Gordon  assigned  patents  on  a  cof- 
fee pulper  and  a  coffee  drier  to  Marcus 
Mason  &  Co.  in  1904  -  05. 

The  names  of  Jules  Smout,  a  Swiss,  and 
Don  Roberto  O'Krassa,  of  Guatemala,  are 
well  known  to  coffee  planters  the  world 
over  because  of  their  combined  peeling  and 
polishing  machines. 

The  Huntley  Manufacturing  Co.,  Silver 
Creek,  N.  Y.,  began  in  1896  the  manufac- 
ture of  the  Monitor  line  of  coffee-grading- 
and-cleaning  machines. 

TJie  Marvelous  Coffee  Package 

It  is  doubtful  if  in  all  nature  there  is  a 
more  cunningly  devised  food  package  than 
the  fruit  of  the  coffee  tree.  It  seems  as  if 
Good  Mother  Nature  had  said :  ' '  This  gift 
of  Heaven  is  too  precious  to  put  up  in  any 
ordinary  parcel.  I  shall  design  for  it  a 
casket  w^orthy  of  its  divine  origin.     And 


the  casket  shall  have  an  inner  seal  that 
shall  safeguard  it  from  enemies,  and  that 
shall  preserve  its  goodness  for  man  until 
the  day  when,  transported  over  the  deserts 
and  across  the  seas,  it  shall  be  broken  open 
to  be  transmuted  by  the  fires  of  friendship, 
and  made  to  yield  up  its  aromatic  nectar 
in  the  Great  Drink  of  Democracy." 

To  this  end  she  caused  to  grow  from  the 
heart  of  the  jasmine-like  flower,  that  first 
herald  of  its  coming,  a  marvelous  berry 
which,  as  it  ripens,  turns  first  from  green 
to  yellow,  then  to  reddish,  to  deep  crimson, 
and  at  last  to  a  royal  purple. 

The  coffee  fruit  is  very  like  a  cherry, 
though  somewhat  elongated  and  having  in 
its  upper  end  a  small  umbilicus.  But  mark 
with  what  ingenuity"  the  package  has  been 
constructed  !  The  outer  wrapping  is  a  thin, 
gossamer-like  skin  which  encloses  a  soft 
pulp,  sweetish  to  the  taste,  but  of  a  mucila- 
ginous consistency.  This  pulp  in  turn  is 
wrapped  about  the  inner-seal  —  called  the 
parchment,  because  of  its  tough  texture. 
The  parchment  encloses  the  magic  bean  in 


iiii]WWII^^i  ,   I  ^■i^^ 

r  -^  ^ 


iirnTjiHiii  iM 


II  ,il'!l'<ii  III, I    ' 


,5?  'T^'"'r^>' 


^' Wlk 


I  ii  I  "    I M  '  I  'I    I   I         II    t 

4  .  -     atii.ii....4    4l.I'  '. 
M II '"  u^MHSr  1 1  I  <<^^H      ifl 


'^^^1 1 '  I'll  1 7^fffiiii'''i  I'li^^^^' 


■ill-:.!- 


■I!  1 1'.  J  .v^ 


Specimens  of  Copper  Covers  for  Pulper  Cylinders 

For  Arabian  coffee   (Coffea  ardbica).     2  —  For  Liberian   coffee    {Coffea   liberica).     3  —  Also   for  Arabian.. 
4 — For;  Coffea  canephora.     5  —  For  Coffea  robusta.  6  —  For  larger  Arabian,  and  for  Coffea  Maragoyipe. 


ALL     ABOUT     COFFEE 


Dkyim,  GituL  ._^,  I'LLPi^G  House,  and  Fermentation   Vats,   Boa   Vista.  Brazil 


Pulping  House  and  1<"^rmentation  Tanks,  Costa  Rica 
COFFEE  PREPARATION  IN  CENTRAL  AND  SOUTH  AMERICA 


GREEN    COFFEE    PREPARATION 


249 


Its  last  wrapping,  a  delicate  silver-colored 
Bkin,  not  unlike  fine  spun  silk  or  the  sheer- 
est of  tissue  papers.     And  this  last  wrap- 
Iping  is  so  tenacious,  so  true  to  its  guardian- 


I 


Granada  Unpulped  Coffee   Separator 
Shown  in  combination  witl]  a  Guatemala  coffee  pulper 

ship  function,  that  no  amount  of  rough 
treatment  can  dislodge  it  altogether;  for 
portions  of  it  cling  to  the  bean  even  into 
the  roasting  and  grinding  processes. 

Coffee  is  said  to  be  "in  the  husk,"  or  "in 
the  parchment,"  when  the  whole  fruit  is 
dried;  and  it  is  called  "hulled  coffee"  when 
it  has  been  deprived  of  its  hull  and  peel. 
The  matter  forming  the  fruit,  called  the 
coffee  berry,  covers  two  thin,  hard,  oval 
seed  vessels  held  together,  one  to  the  other, 
by  their  fiat  sides.  These  seed  vessels,  when 
broken  open,  contain  the  raw  coffee  beans 
of  commerce.  They  are  usually  of  a  round- 
ish oval  shape,  convex  on  the  outside,  flat 
inside,  marked  longitudinally  in  the  center 
of  the  flat  side  with  a  deep  incision,  and 
wrapped  in  the  thin  pellicle  known  as  the 
silver  skin.  "When  one  of  the  two  seeds 
aborts,  the  remaining  one  acquires  a  greater 
size,  and  fills  the  interior  of  the  fruit,  which 
in  that  case,  of  course,  has  but  one  cellule. 
This  abortion  is  common  in  the  arahica 
variety,  and  produces  a  bean  formerly 
called  grage  coffee,  but  now  more  commonly 
known  as  peaberry,  or  male  berry. 

The  various  coverings  of  the  coffee  beans 
are  almost  always  removed  on  the  planta- 
tions in  the  producing  countries.  Properly 
to  prepare  the  raw  beans,  it  is  necessary  to 
remove  the  four  coverings  —  the  outer  skin, 
the  sticky  pulp,  the  parchment,  or  husk, 
and  the  closely  adhering  silver  skin. 

There  are  two  distinct  methods  of  treat- 
ing the  coffee  fruits,  or  "cherries."  One 
process,  the  one  that  until  recent  years 
was  in  general  use  throughout  the  world, 
and  is  still  in  many  producing  countries, 
is  known  as  the  dry  method.     The  coffee 


prepared  in  this  way  is  sometimes  called 
"common,"  "ordinary,"  or  'natural,"  to 
distinguish  it  from  the  product  that  has 
been  cleaned  by  the  wet  or  washed  method. 
The  wet  method,  or,  as  it  is  sometimes 
designated,  the  "West  Indian  process" 
(W.I.P.)  is  practised  on  all  the  large  mod- 
ern plantations  that  have  a  sufficient  supply 
of  water. 

In  the  wet  process,  the  first  step  is  called 
pulping;  the  second  is  fermentation  and 
washing;  the  third  is  drying";  the  fourth  is 
hulling  or  peeling;  and  the  last,  sizing  or 
grading.  In  the  dry  process,  the  first  step 
is  drying ;  the  second  hulling ;  and  the  last, 
sizing  or  grading. 

Harvesting 

The  coffee  cherry  ripens  about  six  to 
seven  months  after  the  tree  has  flowered, 
or  blossomed;  and  becomes  a  deep  pur- 
plish-crimson color.  It  is  then  ready  for 
picking.  The  ripening  season  varies 
throughout  the  world,  according  to  climate 
and  altitude.  In  the  state  of  Sao  Paulo, 
Brazil,  the  harvesting  season  lasts  from 
May  to  September ;  while  in  Java,  where 
three  crops  are  produced  annually,  harvest- 
ing is  almost  a  continuous  process  through- 
out the  year.  In  Colombia  the  harvesting 
seasons  are  March  and  April,  and  Novem- 
ber and  December.  In  Guatemala  the  crops 
are  gathered  from  October  through  Decem- 
ber ;  in  Venezuela,  from  November  through 
March.  In  Mexico  the  coffee  is  harvested 
from  November  to  January;  in  Haiti  the 
harvest  extends  from  November  to  March ; 
in    Arabia,    from    September    to    March; 


Hand-Power   Double-Disk  Pulper 


250 


ALL    ABOUT     COFFEE 


in  Abyssinia,  from  September  through 
November,  In  Uganda,  Africa,  there  are 
two  main  crops,  one  ripening  in  March  and 
the  other  in  September,  and  picking  is  car- 
ried on  during  practically  every  month 
except  December  and  January.     In  India 


work.  About  thirty  pounds  is  considered  a 
fair  day 's  work  under  good  conditions.  As 
the  baskets  are  filled,  they  are  emptied  at 
a  ''station"  in  that  particular  unit  of  the 
plantation;  or,  in  some  cases,  directly  into 
wagons  that  keep  pace  with  the  pickers. 


Tandem  Coffee   Pulpee  of   English   Make 
Being  a  combination  of  a  Bon-Accord-Valencia  pulper  with  a  Bon-Accord  repassing  machine 


the  fruit  is  ready  for  harvesting  from  Oc- 
tober to  January. 

Picking 

The  general  practise  throughout  the 
world  has  been  to  hand-pick  the  fruit;  al- 
though in  some  countries  the  cherries  are 
allowed  to  become  fully  ripe  on  the  trees, 
and  to  fall  to  the  ground.  The  introduc- 
tion of  the  wet  method  of  preparation,  in- 
deed, has  made  it  largely  unnecessary  to 
hand-pick  crops;  and  the  tendency  seems 
to  be  away  from  this  practise  on  the  larger 
plantations.  If  the  berries  are  gathered 
promptly  after  dropping,  the  beans  are  not 
injured,  and  the  cost  of  harvesting  is  re- 
duced. 

The  picking  season  is  a  busy  time  on  a 
large  plantation.  All  hands  join  in  the 
work  —  men,  women  and  children;  for  it 
must  be  rushed.  Over-ripe  berries  shrink 
and  dry  up.  The  pickers,  with  baskets 
slung  over  their  shoulders,  walk  between  the 
rows,  stripping  the  berries  from  the  trees, 
using  ladders  to  reach  the  topmost 
branches,  and  sometimes  even  taking  imma- 
ture fruit  in  their  haste  to  expedite  the 


The  coffee  is  freed  as  much  as  possible  of 
sticks,  leaves,  etc.,  and  is  then  conveyed  to 
the  preparation  grounds. 

A  space  of  several  acres  is  needed  for  the 
various  preparation  processes  on  the  larger 
plantations;  the  plant  including  concrete- 
surfaced  drying  grounds,  large  fermenta- 
tion tanks,  washing  vats,  mills,  warehouses, 
stables,  and  even  machine  shops.  In  Mex- 
ico this  place  is  known  as  the  heneficio. 

Washed  and  Unwashed  Coffee 

Where  water  is  plenty,  the  ripe  coffee 
cherries  are  fed  by  a  stream  of  water  into 
a  pulping  machine  which  breaks  the  outer 
skins,  permitting  the  pulpy  matter  envelop- 
ing the  beans  to  be  loosened  and  carried 
away  in  further  washings.  It  is  this  wet 
separation  of  the  sticky  pulp  from  the 
beans,  instead  of  allowing  it  to  dry  on  them, 
to  be  removed  later  with  the  parchment  in 
the  hulling  operation,  that  makes  the  dis- 
tinction between  washed  and  unwashed 
coffees.  Where  water  is  scarce  the  coffees 
are  unwashed. 

Either  method  being  well  done,  does 
washing  improve  the  strength  and  flavor? 


GREEN    COFFEE    PREPARATION 


251 


i 


Opinions  differ.  The  soil,  altitude,  climatic 
influences,  and  cultivation  methods  of  a 
country  give  its  coffee  certain  distinctive 
drinking  qualities.  Washing  immensely  im- 
proves the  appearance  of  the  bean ;  it  also 
reduces  curing  costs.  Generally  speaking, 
washed  coffees  will  always  command  a  pre- 
mium over  coffees  dried  in  the  pulp. 

Whether  coffee  is  washed  or  not,  it  has 
to  be  dried ;  and  there  is  a  kind  of  fermenta- 
ion  that  goes  on  during  washing  and  dry- 
g,  about  which  coffee  planters  have  differ- 
g  ideas,  just  as  tea  planters  differ  over 
the  curing  of  tea  leaves.  Careful  scientific 
study  is  needed  to  determine  how  much,  if 
any,  effect  this  fermentation  has  on  the  ulti- 
mate cup  value. 

Preparation  hy  the  Dry  Method 

The  dry  method  of  preparing  the  berries 
is  not  only  the  older  method,  but  is  con- 
sidered by  some  operators  as  providing  a 
distinct  advantage  over  the  wet  process, 
since  berries  of  different  degrees  of  ripeness 
can  be  handled  at  the  same  time.  However, 
the  success  of  this  method  is  dependent 
largely  on  the  continuance  of  clear  warm 
weather  over  quite  a  length  of  time,  which 
can  not  always  be  counted  on. 

In  this  process  the  berries  are  spread  in 
a  thin  layer  on  open  drying  grounds,  or 
barbecues,  often  having  cement  or  brick 
surfaces.  The  berries  are  turned  over  sev- 
eral times  a  day  in  order  to  permit  the 
sun  and  Avind  thoroughly  to  dry  all  por- 
tions. The  sun-drying  process  lasts  about 
three  weeks ;  and  after  the  first  three  days 


Costa  Rica  Vertical  Coffee  Washer 

of  this  period,  the  berries  must  be  protected 
from  dews  and  rains  by  covering  them  with 
tarpaulins,  or  by  raking  them  into  heaps 
under  cover.  If  the  berries  are  not  spread 
out,  they  heat,  and  the  silver  skin  sticks 
to  the  coffee  bean,  and  frequently  discolors 
it.  When  thoroughly  dry,  the  berries  are 
stored,  unless  the  husks  (outer  skin  and 
inner  parchment)  are  to  be  removed  at 
once.  Hot  air,  steam,  and  other  artificial 
drying  methods  take  the  place  of  natural 
sun-drying  on  some  plantations. 

In   the   dry  method,  the  husks  are  re- 
moved   either    by    hand     (threshing    and 


Continuous  Working   Horizontal  Coffee  Washer 


252 


ALL     ABOUT     COFFEE 


COBAN    PULPEU   IN    TaCIIIKA,    VENEZUELA 

pounding  in  a  mortar,  on  the  smaller  plan- 
tations) or  by  specially  constructed  ma- 
chinery, known  as  hulling  machines. 

The    Wet   Method  —  Pulping 

The  wet  method  of  preparation  is  the 
more  modern  form,  and  is  generally  prac- 
tised on  the  larger  plantations  that  have  a 
sufficient  supply  of  water,  and  enough 
money  to  instal  the  quite  extensive  amount 
of  machinery  and  equipment  required.  It 
is  generally  considered  that  washing  results 
in  a  better  grade  of  bean. 

In  this  method  the  cherries  are  sometimes 
thrown  into  tanks  full  of  water  to  soak 
about  twenty-four  hours,  so  as  to  soften 
the  outer  skins  and  underlying  pulp  to  a 
condition  that  will  make  them  easily  remov- 
able by  the  pulping  machine  —  the  idea 
being  to  rub  away  the  pulp  by  friction 
without  crushing  the  beans. 

On  the  larger  plantations,  however,  the 
coffee  cherries  are  dumped  into  large  con- 
crete receiving  tanks,  from  which  they  are 
carried  the  same  day  by  streams  of  running 
water  directly  into  the  hoppers  of  the  pulp- 
ing machines. 

At  least  two  score  of  different  makes  of 
pulping  machines  are  in  use  in  the  various 
coffee-growing  countries.  Pulpers  are  made 
in  various  sizes,  from  the  small  hand- 
operated  machine  to  the  large  type  driven 
by  power;  and  in  two  general  styles  — 
cylinder,  and  disk. 

The  cylinder  pulper,  the  latest  style  — 
suggesting  a  huge  nutmeg-grater  —  con- 
sists of  a  rotary  cylinder  surrounded  with 
a  copper  or  brass  cover  punched  with  bulbs. 
These  bulbs  differ  in  shape  according  to 
the  species,  or  variety,  of  coffee  to  be 
treated  —  arabica,  liherica,  rohusta,  cane- 
phora,  or  what  not.     The  cylinder  rotates 


against  a  breast  with  pulping  edges  set  at 
an  angle.  The  pulping  is  effected  by  the 
rubbing  action  of  the  copper  cover  against 
the  edges,  or  ribs,  of  the  breast.  The  cher- 
ries are  subjected  to  a  rubbing  and  rolling 
motion,  in  the  course  of  which  the  two 
parchment-covered  beans  contained  in  the 
majority  of  the  cherries  become  loosened. 
The  pulp  itself  is  carried  by  the  cover  and 
is  discharged  through  a  pulp  shoot,  while 
the  pulped  coffee  is  delivered  through  holes 
on  the  breast.  Cylinder  machines  vary  in 
capacity  from  400  pounds  (hand  power) 
to  4,800  pounds  (motive  power)  per  hour. 

Some  cylinder  pulpers  are  double,  being 
equipped  with  rotary  screens  or  oscillating 
sieves,  that  segregate  the  imperfectly 
pulped  cherries  so  that  they  may  be  put 
through  again.  Pulpers  are  also  equipped 
with  attachments  that  automatically  move 
the  imperfectly  pulped  material  over  into 
a  repassing  machine  for  another  rubbing. 
Others  have  attachments  partially  to  crush 
the  cherries  before  pulping. 

The  breasts  in  cylinder  machines  are 
usually  made  with  removable  steel  ribs ;  but 
in  Brazil,  Nicaragua,  and  other  countries, 
where,  owing  to  the  short  season  and  scarc- 
ity of  labor,  the  planters  have  to  pick, 
simultaneously,  green,  ripe,  and  over-ripe 
(dry)  cherries,  rubber  breasts  are  used. 

The  disk  pulper  (the  earliest  type,  hav- 
ing been  in  use  more  than  seventy  years) 
is  the  style  most  generally  used  in  the 
Dutch  East  Indies  and  in  some  parts  of 
Mexico.  The  results  are  the  same  as  those 
obtained  with  the  cylindrical  pulper.    The 


Niagara  Power  Coffee  .  Huller 


GREEX    COFFEE    PREPARATION 


253 


McKinnon's   Guardiola  Coffee   Drier 


The  Squier-Guardiola  Coffee  Drier,  With  Direct-Fire  HEATEn 


BRITISH   AND   AMERICAN   COFFEE   DRIERS  —  GUARDIOLA   SYSTEM 

There  are  numerous  makes  of  cofifee  driers  based    upon   the   original    invention   of  Jos6   Guardiola   of 
Chocola,    Guatemala.    In    the    two    illustrated    above    both    direct-fire    heat    and    steam    heat 

may   be   utilized 


254 


ALL     ABOUT     COFFEE 


' 

nm^ 

^^^j^f^y^'     ,^  ^^^^BBiiiiiiiiiii"  ^^ 

Another  American  Guardiola  Drier 

disk  machine  is  made  with  one,  two,  three, 
or  four  vertical  iron  disks,  according  to  the 
capacity  desired.  The  disks  are  covered  on 
both  sides  with  a  copper  plate  of  the  same 
shape,  and  punched  with  blind  punches. 
The  pulping  operation  takes  place  between 
the  rubbing  action  of  the  blind  punches,  or 
bulbs,  on  the  copper  plates  and  the  lateral 
pulping  bars  fitted  to  the  side  cheeks.  As 
in  the  cylinder  pulper,  the  distance  between 
the  surface  of  the  bulbs  and  the  pulping 
bar  may  be  adjusted  to  allow  of  any  clear- 
ance that  may  be  required,  according  to 
the  variety  of  coffee  to  be  treated. 

Disk  pulpers  vary  in  capacity  from  1,200 
pounds  to  14,000  pounds  of  ripe  cherry 
coffee  per  hour.  They,  too,  are  made  in 
combinations  employing  cylindrical  sepa- 
rators, shaking  sieves,  and  repassing  pulp- 
ers, for  completing  the  pulping  of  all 
unpulped  or  partially  pulped  cherries. 

Fermentation  and  Washing 

The  next  step  in  the  process  consists  in 
running  the  pulped  cherries  into  cisterns, 
or  fermentation  tanks,  filled  with  water, 
for  the  purpose  of  removing  such  pulp  as 
was  not  removed  in  the  pulping  machine. 
The  saccharine  matter  is  loosened  by  fer- 
mentation in  from  twenty-four  to  thirty- 
two  hours.  The  mass  is  kept  stirred  up 
for  a  short  time ;  and,  in  general  practise, 
the  water  is  drawn  off  from  above,  the  light 
pulp  floating  at  the  top  being  removed  at 
the  same  time.  The  same  tanks  are  often 
used  for  washing,  but  a  better  practise  is 
to  have  separate  tanks. 

Some  planters  permit  the  pulped  coffee 
to  ferment  in  water.  This  is  called  the  wet 
fermentation  process.  Others  drain  off  the 
water  from  the  tanks  and  conduct  the  fer- 


menting   operation    in    a    semi-dry    state, 
called  the  dry  fermentation  process. 

The  coffee  bean,  when  introduced  into  the 
fermentation  tanks,  is  enclosed  in  a  parch- 
ment shell  made  slimy  by  its  closely  adher- 
ing saccharine  coat.  After  fermentation, 
which  not  only  loosens  the  remaining  pulp 
but  also  softens  the  membranous  covering, 
the  beans  are  given  a  final  washing,  either 
in  washing  tanks  or  by  being  run  through 
mechanical  washers.  The  type  of  washing 
machine  generally  used  consists  of  a  cylin- 
drical tub  having  a  vertical  spindle  fitted 
with  a  number  of  stirrers,  or  arms,  which, 
in  rotating,  stir  and  lift  up  the  parchment 
coffee.  In  another  type,  the  cylinder  is 
horizontal ;  but  the  operation  is  similar. 

Drying 

The  next  step  in  preparation  is  drying. 
The  coffee,  which  is  still  "in  the  parch- 
ment," but  is  now  known  as  washed  coffee, 
is  spread  out  thinly  on  a  drying  ground, 
as  in  the  dry  method.  However,  if  the 
weather  is  unsuitable  or  can  not  be  de- 
pended upon  to  remain  fair  for  the  neces- 
sary length  of  time,  there  are  machines 
which  can  be  used  to  dry  the  coffee  satis- 
factorily. On  some  plantations,  the  drying 
is  started  in  the  open  and  finished  by  ma- 
chine. The  machines  dry  the  coffee  in 
twenty-four  hours,  while  ten  days  are  re- 
quired by  the  sun. 

The  object  of  the  drying  machine  is  to 
dry  the  parchment  of  the  coffee  so  that  it 


The  Smout  Peeler  and  Polisher 


GREEN    COFFEE    PREPARATION 


255 


a. 

n 


may  be  removed  as  readily  as  the  skin  on 
a  peanut;  and  this  object  is  achieved  in  the 
most  approved  machines  by  keeping  a  hot 
current  of  air  stirring  through  the  beans. 
One  of  the  best-liked  types,  the  Guardiola, 
resembles  the  cylinder  of  a  coffee-roasting 
machine.  It  is  made  of  perforated  steel 
plates  in  cylinder  form,  and  is  carried  on  a 
hollow  shaft  through  which  the  hot  air  is 
circulated  by  a  pressure  fan.  The  beans 
are  rotated  in  the  revolving  cylinder;  and 
,s  the  hot  air  strikes  the  wet  coffee,  it 
reates  a  steam  that  passes  out  through  the 
erforations  of  the  cylinder.  Within  the 
cylinder  are  compartments  equipped  with 
winged  plates,  or  ribs,  that  keep  the  coffee 
constantly  stirred  up  to  facilitate  the  dry- 
ing process.  Another  favorite  is  the 
O'Krassa.  It  is  constructed  on  the  prin- 
ciple just  described,  but  differs  in  detail  of 
construction  from  the  Guardiola,  and  is 
able  to  dry  its  contents  a  few  hours  quicker. 
Hot  air,  steam,  and  electric  heat  are  all- em- 
ployed in  the  various  makes  of  coffee 
driers.  A  temperature  from  65°  to  85° 
centigrade  is  maintained  during  the  drying 
process. 

When  thoroughly  dry,  the  parchment 
can  be  crumbled  between  the  fingers,  and 
the  bean  within  is  too  hard  to  be  dented  by 
finger  nail  or  teeth. 

Hulling,  Peeling,  and  Polishing 

The  last  step  in  the  preparation  process 
is  called  hulling  or  peeling,  both  words  ac- 
curately   describing    the    purpose    of    the 


The  Smout  Peeler  and  Polisher,  with  Cylin- 
der Open  Showing  Cone 

operation.  Some  husking  machines  for 
hulling  or  peeling  parchment  coffee  are 
polishers  as  well.  This  work  may  be  done 
on  the  plantation  or  at  the  port  of  shipment 
just  before  the  coffee  is  shipped  abroad. 
Sometimes  the  coffee  is  exported  in  parch- 
ment, and  is  cleaned  in  the  country  of  eon- 
sumption  ;  but  practically  all  coffee  entering 
the  United  States  arrives  without  its  parch- 
ment. 

Peeling  machines,  more  accurately  named 
hullers,  work  on  the  principle  of  rubbing 
the  beans  between  a  revolving  inner  cylin- 
der and  an  outer  covering  of  woven  wire. 
Machines  of  this  type  vary  in  construction. 
Some  have  screw-like  inner  cylinders,  or 
turbines,  others  having  plain  cone-shaped 
cores  on  which  are  knobs  and  ribs  that  rub 


O'Kkassa's  Coffee  Drier  Combined  with  Direct- Fire  Heater 


256 


ALL     ABOUT     COFFEE 


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I— I 

p^ 


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GREEN    COFFEE    PREPARATION 


257 


the  beans  against  one  another  and  the  outer 
shell.  Practically  all  types  have  sieve  or 
exhaust-fan  attachments,  which  draw  the 
loosened  parchment  and  silver  skin  into  one 
compartment,  while  the  cleaned  beans  pass 
into  another. 

Polishers  of  various  makes  are  sometimes 
used  just  to  remove  the  silver  skin  and  to 
give  the  beans  a  special  polish.  Some  coun- 
tries demand  a  highly  polished  coffee ;  and 
)  supph'  this  demand,  the  beans  "are  sent 
ihrough  another  huller  having  a  phosphor- 
bronze  cylinder  and  cone.  Much  Guade- 
loupe coffee  is  prepared  in  this  way,  and  is 
known  as  cafe  honifieur  from  the  fact  that 
the  polishing  machine  is  called  in  Guade- 
loupe the  honifieur  (improver).  It  is  also 
called  cafe  de  luxe.  Coffee  that  has  not 
received  the  extra  polish  is  described  as 
habitant;  while-  coffee  in  the  parchment  is 
known  as  cafe  en  parch e.  Extra  polished 
coffee  is  much  in  demand  in  the  London, 
Hamburg,  and  other  European  markets. 
A  favorite  machine  for  producing  this  kind 
of  coffee  is  the  Smout  combined  peeler  and 


polisher,  the  invention  of  Jules  Smout,  a 
Swiss.  Don  Roberto  O'Krassa  also  has 
produced "  a  highly  satisfactory  combined 
peeler  and  polisher. 

For  hulling  dry  cherry  coffee  there  are 
several  excellent  makes  of  machines.  In 
one  style,  the  hulling  takes  place  between 
a  rotating  disk  and  the  casing  of  the  ma- 
chine. In  another,  it  takes  place  between 
a  rotary  drum  covered  with  a  steel  plate 
punched  with  vertical  bulbs,  and  a  chilled 
iron  hulling-plate  with  pyramidal  teeth 
cast  on  the  plate.  Both  are  adjustable  to 
different  varieties  of  coffee.  In  still  an- 
other type  of  machine,  the  hulling  takes 
place  between  steel  ribs  on  an '  internal 
cylinder,  and  an  adjustable  knife,  or  hull- 
ing blade,  in  front  of  the  machine. 

Sizing  or  Grading 

The  coffee  bean  is  now  clean,  the  proc- 
esses described  in  the  foregoing  having  re- 
moved the  outer  skin,  the  saccharine  pulp, 
the  parchment,  and  the  silver  skin.  This 
is  the  end  of  the  cle'aning  operations;  but 


THE  GEO.LSOUIER   MTG  rn 

BUFFALO   n"     USA 


El   Moxarca   Coffee  Classifier 


258 


ALL     ABOUT     COFFEE 


Old   ropo-diivu    transmission   on   Finca   Ona.  Hydro-electric  power  plant  on   Finca   Ona. 

Hydro-Electric  Installation  on  a  Guatemala  Finca 


there  are  two  more  steps  to  be  taken  before 
the  coffee  is  ready  for  the  trade  of  the 
world  —  sizing  and  hand-sorting.  These 
two  operations  are  of  great  importance; 
since  on  them  depends,  to  a  large  extent, 
the  price  the  coffee  will  bring  in  the  market. 

Sizing,  or  grading  by  sizes,  is  done  in 
modern  commercial  practise  by  machines 
that  automatically  separate  and  distribute 
the  different  beans  according  to  size  and 
form.  In  principle,  the  beans  are  carried 
across  a  series  of  sieves,  each  with  perfora- 
tions varying  in  size  from  the  others;  the 
beans  "passing  through  the  holes  of  cor- 
responding sizes.  The  majority  of  the  ma- 
chines are  constructed  to  separate  the  beans 
into  five  or  more  grades,  the  principal 
grades  being  triage,  third  flats,  second  flats, 
first  flats,  and  first  and  second  peaberries. 
Some  are  designed  to  handle  "elephant" 
and  "mother"  sizes.  The  grades  have  local 
nomenclature  in  the  various  countries. 

After  grading,  the  coffee  is  picked  over 
by  hand  to  remove  the  faulty  and  discol- 
ored beans  that  it  is  almost  impossible  to 
remove  thoroughly  by  machine.  The  higher 
grades  of  coffee  are  often  double-picked; 
that  is,  picked  over  twice.  When  this  is 
done  on  a  large  scale,  the  beans  are  gen- 
erally placed  on  a  belt,  or  platform,  that 
moves  at  a  regulated  speed  before  a  line 
of  women  and  children,  who  pick  out  the 
undesirable  T)eans  as  they  pass  on  the  mov- 
ing belt.  There  are  small  machines  of  this 
type  built  for  one  person,  who  operates  the 
belt  mechanism  by  means  of  a  treadle. 

Preparation  in  the  Leading  Countries 

The  foregoing  description  tells  in  gen- 
eral terms  the  story  of  the  most  approved 
methods  of  harvesting,  shelling,  and  clean- 
ing the  coffee  beans.  The  following  para- 
graphs will  describe  those  features  of  the 


processes  that  are  peculiar  to  the  more  im- 
portant large  producing  countries  and  that 
differ  in  details  or  in  essentials  from  the 
methods  just  outlined. 

In  the  Western  Hemisphere 

Brazil.  The  operation  of  some  of  the 
large  plantations  in  Brazil,  a  number  of 
which  have  more  than  a  million  trees,  re- 
quires a  large  number  and  a  great  variety 
of  preparation  machines  and  equipment. 
Grenerally  considered,  the  State  of  Sao 
Paulo  is  better  equipped  with  approved 
machinery  than  any  other  commercial  dis- 
trict in  the  world. 

In  Brazil,  coffee  plantations  are  known 
as  fazendas,  and  the  proprietors  as  fazen- 
deiros,  terms  that  are  the  equivalent  of 
"landed  estates"  and  "landed  proprie- 
tors." Practically  every  fazenda  in  Brazil 
of  any  considerable  commercial  importance 
is  equipped  with  the  most  modern  of  cof- 
fee-cleaning equipment.  Some  of  the 
larger  ones  in  the  state  of  Sao  Paulo,  like 
the  Dumont  and  the  Schmidt  estates,  are 
provided  with  private  railways  connecting 
the  fazendas  with  the  main  railroad  line 
some  miles  away,  and  also  have  miniature 
railway  systems  running  through  the  fa- 
zendas to  move  the  coffee  from  one  harvest- 
ing and  cleaning  operation  to  another. 
The  coffee  is  carried  in  small  cars  that  are 
either  pushed  by  a  laborer  or  are  drawn 
by  horse  or  mule. 

Some  of  the  larger  fazendas  cover  thou- 
sands of  acres,  and  have  several  millions 
of  trees,  giving  the  impression  of  an  un- 
ending forest  stretching  far  away  into  the 
horizon.  Here  and  there  are  openings  in 
which  buildings  appear,  the  largest  group 
of  structures  usually  consisting  of  those 
making  up  the  cafezale,  or  cleaning  plant. 
Nearby,  stand  the  handsome  "palaces"  of 


i 


GREEX    COFFEE    PREPARATION 


259 


Picking   Coffee  on   a   Well   Kept   Fazenda 


Manager's  Residence  on  One  of  the  Big  Sao  Paulo  Fazendas 


Photographs  by  Courtesy  of  J.   Aron  &  Co. 

Drying  Grounds  on  a  Modern  Estate  in  Ribeirao  Preto 
MAKING    BRAZIL    COFFEE    READY    TO    MARKET 


260 


ALL     ABOUT     COFFEE 


Copyright  hy 

WoRKI^"G   (.  oiihr,_uA   DkyiiNg  Fla i s,   Sao  I'aulo 

the  fazendeiros;  but  not  so  close  that  the 
coffee  princes  and  their  households  will  be 
disturbed  by  the  almost  constant  rumble 
of  machinery  and  the  voices  of  the  workers. 

Brazilian  fazendeiros  follow  the  methods 
described  in  the  foregoing  in  preparing 
their  coffee  for  market,  using  the  most  mod- 
ern of  the  equipment  detailed  under  thb 
story  of  the  wet  method  of  preparation. 
On  most  of  the  fazendas  the  machinery  is 
operated  by  steam  or  electricity,  the  latter 
coming  more  and  more  into  use  each  year 
in  all  parts  of  the  coffee-growing  region. 

In  some  districts,  however,  far  in  the 
interior,  there  are  still  to  be  found  small 


plantations  where  primitive  methods  of 
cleaning  are  even  now  practised.  Produc- 
ing but  a  small  quantity  of  coffee,  possibly 
for  only  local  use,  the  cherries  may  be 
freed  of  their  parchment  by  macerating  the 
husks  by  hand  labor  in  a  large  mortar.  On 
still  another  plantation,  the  old-time 
bucket-and-beam  crusher  perhaps  may  be 
in  use. 

This  consists  of  a  beam  pivoted  on  an 
upright  upon  which  it  moves  freely  up 
and  down.  On  one  end  of  the  beam  is  an 
open  bucket;  and  on  the  other,  a  heavy 
stone.  Water  runs  into  the  bucket  until  its 
weight  causes  the  stone  end  of  the  beam  to 
rise.  When  the  bucket  reaches  the  ground, 
the  water  is  emptied,  and  the  stone  crashes 
down  on  the  coffee  cherries  lying  in  a  large 
mortar. 

The  workers  on  some  of  the  largest 
Brazilian  fazendas  would  constitute  the 
population  of  a  small  city  —  more  than  a 
thousand  families  often  finding  continuous 
employment  in  cultivating,  harvesting, 
cleaning,  and  transporting  the  coffee  to 
market.  For  the  most  part,  the  workers 
are  of  Italian  extraction,  who  have  almost 
altogether  superseded  the  Indian  and  Negro 
laborers  of  the  early  days.      The  workers 


Fehmextixg  and  ■\VAs^I^'G  Tanks  on  a  Sao  Paulo  Fazenda 


GREEX    COFFEE    PREPARATION 


261 


By  Coiirtisy  of  J.    Aroii   k   Co.  » 

Drying  Grounds  on  Fazenua  Schaiidt,  the  Largest  in  Brazil 


live  on  the  fazendas  in  quarters  provided 
by  the  fazendeiros,  and  are  paid  a  weekly 
or  monthly  wage  for  their  services;  or 
they  may  enter  upon  a  year's  contract  to 
cultivate  the  trees,  receiving  extra  pay  for 
picking  and  other  work.  Brazil  in  the  past 
has  experimented  with  the  slave  system, 
with  government  colonization,  with  co- 
operative planting,  with  the  harvesting  sys- 
tem, and  with  the  share  system.  And  some 
features  of  all  these  plans  —  except  slav- 
ery, which  was  abolished  in  1888  —  are 
still  employed  in  various  parts  of  the  coun- 
try, although  the  wage  system  predomi- 
nates. 

Brazil  has  six  gradings  for  its  Sao  Paulo 
coffees,  which  are  also  classified  as 
Bourbon  Santos,  Flat  Bean  Santos,  and 
Mocha-seed  Santos.  Rio  coffees  are  graded 
by  the  number  of  imperfections  for  New 
York,  and  as  washed  and  unwashed  for 
Havre.     (See  chapter  XXIV.) 

Colombia.  Practically  all  the  countries 
of  the  western  hemisphere  producing  cof- 
fee in  large  quantities  for  export  trade  use 
the  eleaning-and-grading  machines  specified 
in  the  first  part  of  this  chapter;  and  the 
installation  of  the  equipment  is  increasing 
as  its  advantages  become  better  known 

In  Colombia,  now  (1922),  next  to  Brazil 
the  world's  largest  producer,  the  wet 
method  of  preparing  the  coffee  for  market 
is  most  generally  followed,  the  drying  proc- 
esses often  being  a  combination  of  sun  and 
drying  machines.  Many  plantations  have 
their  own  hulling  equipment ;  but  much  of 


the  crop  goes  in  the  cherry  to  local  com- 
mercial centers  where  there  are  establish- 
ments that  make  a  specialty  of  cleaning 
and  grading  the  coffee. 

The  Colombia  coffee  crop  is  gathered 
twice  a  year,  the  principal  one  in  March 
and  April  and  the  smaller  one  in  Novem- 
ber and  December,  although  some  picking 
is  done  throughout  the  year.  For  this 
labor  native  Indian  and  negro  women  are 
preferred,  as  they  are  more  rapid,  skilful, 
and  careful  in  handling  the  trees.  Con- 
trary to  the  method  in  Brazil,  where  the 
.  tree  at  one  handling  is  stripped  of  its  en- 
tire bearings,  ripe  and  unripe  fruit,  here 
only  the  fully  ripened  fruit  is  picked.  That 
necessitates  going  over  the  ground  several 
times,  as  the  berries  progressively  ripen. 
More  time  is  consumed  in  this  laborious 
operation,  but  it  is  believed  that  thereby 
a  better  crop  of  more  uniform  grade  is  ob- 
tained and  in  the  aggregate  with  less  waste 
of  time  and  effort. 

Colombian  planters  classify  their  coffees 
as  cafe  trillado  (natural  or  sun-dried), 
cafe  lav  ado  (washed),  cafe  en  pergamino 
(washed  and  dried  in  the  parchment). 
They  grade  them  as  excel  so  (excellent), 
fantasia  (excelso  and  extra),  extra  (extra), 
primera,  (first),  segundo  (second),  caracol 
(peaberry),  monstruo  (large  and  de- 
formed), consumo  (defective),  and  casilla 
(sif  tings). 

Venezuela.  Venezuela  employs  both  the 
dry  and  the  wet  methods  of  preparation, 
producing  both  "washed"  and  ''commons" 


262 


ALL     ABOUT     COFFEE 


GREEN    COFFEE    PREPARATION 


263 


m 


d  also,  like  Colombia,  has  a  large  part 
of  the  coffee  cleaned  in  the  trading  centers 
of  the  various  coffee  districts.  Dry,  or  un- 
washed, coffees  are  known  as  trillado 
(milled),  and  compose  the  bulk  of  the 
country's  output.  Venezuela's  plantation- 
working  forces  are  largely  natives  of  Indian 
descent  and  negroes,  some  of  them  coming 
during  harvesting  season  from  adjoining 
Colombia  and  returning  there  after  the 
picking  is  done.  The  resident  workers 
labor  under  a  sort  of  peonage  system  which 
is  tacitly  recognized  by  both  employee  and 
employer,  although  no  laws  of  peonage  or 
slavery  have  ever  existed  in  Venezuela. 
Under  this  system,  the  laborers  live  in  little 
colonies  scattered  over  the  haciendas,  as 
the  coffee  plantations  are  called  in  Vene- 
zuela. Company  stores  keep  them  supplied 
with  all  their  wants.  Modern  plantation 
machinery  is  very  scarce;  the  ancient 
method  of  hulling  coffee  in  a  circular 
trough  where  the  dried  berries  are  crushed 
by  heavy  wooden  wheels  drawn  by  oxen,  is 
still  a  common  sight  in  Venezuela.  In  pre- 
paring washed  coffees,  some  planters  fer- 
ment the  pulped  coffee  under  water  (wet 
fermentation  process)  ;  while  others  fer- 
ment without  water  (dry  fermentation). 
The  principal  ports  of  shipments  for 
Venezuela  coffees  are  La   Guaira,   Puerto 


Cabello,  and  Maracaibo.  Caracas,  the  capi- 
tal, is  five  miles  in  an  air  line  from  the  port 
of  La  Guaira;  but  in  ascending  the  three 
thousand  feet  of  altitude  to  the  city  the 
railroad  twists  and  turns  among  the  moun- 
tains for  a  distance  of  twenty-four  miles. 
By  rail  or  motor  the  trip  is  one  of  much 
charm  and  great  beauty. 

Salvador.  The  planters  in  Salvador 
favor  the  dry  method  of  coffee  preparation ; 
and  the  bulk  of  the  crop  is  natural,  or  un- 
washed. 

Guatemala.  Most  Guatemalas  are  pre- 
pared for  market  by  the  wet  method.  The 
gathering  of  the  crops  furnishes  employ- 
ment for  half  the  population.  German  and 
American  settlers  have  introduced  the  lat- 
est improvements  in  modern  plantation 
machinery  into  Guatemala. 

Mexico.  In  Mexico  coffee  is  harvested 
from  November  to  January,  and  large 
quantities  are  prepared  by  both  the  dry  and 
the  wet  methods,  the  latter  being  practised 
on  the  larger  estates  that  have  the  neces- 
sary water  supply  and  can  afford  the  ma- 
chinery. Here,  too,  one  will  find  coffee 
being  cleaned  by  the  primitive  hand-mor- 
tar and  wind-winnowing  method.  Labor- 
ers are  mostly  half-breeds  and  Indians. 
Chinese  coolies  have  been  tried  and  found 


This    Old-Fa.shioned     Huli.ixo     Ma(iiim;     Ls    di'khatki-    hy    i)x     I'owkh    in     Venezuela 


264 


ALL     ABOUT     COFFEE 


Street  Cak  Cofi'Ee  Tkanspokt  in  Okizaija, 
Mexico 

satisfactory,  and  some  Japanese  are  util- 
ized, though  not  largely. 

Haiti.  In  Haiti  the  picking  season  is 
from  November  to  March.  In  recent  years 
better  attention  has  been  paid  to  cultural 
and  preparation  methods ;  and  the  product 
is  more  favorably  regarded  commercially. 
Large  quantities  are  shipped  to  France  and 
Belgium ;  and  much  of  that  sent  to  the 
United  States  is  reshipped  to  France,  Bel- 
gium, and  Germany,  where  it  is  sorted  by 
hand.  Both  dry  and  wet  methods  are  em- 
ployed in  Haiti. 

Porto  Rico.  Here  planters  favor  the  wet 
method  of  coffee  preparation.  The  crop  is 
gathered  from  August  to  December.  The 
coffees  are  graded  as  caracollilo  (peaberry), 
primero  (hand-picked),  segundo  (second 
grade),  trillo  (low  grade). 

Nicaragua.  The  wet  method  of  coffee 
preparation  is  mostly  favored  in  Nicaragua. 
Many  of  the  large  plantations  are  worked 
by  colonies  of  Americans  and  Germans  who 
are  competent  to  apply  the  abundant  nat- 
ural water  power  of  the  country  to  the 
operation  of  modern  coffee  cleaning  ma- 
chinery. 

Costa  Rica.  Costa  Rica  was  one  of  the 
first  countries  of  the  western  world  to  use 
coffee  cleaning  machinery.  Marcus  Mason, 
an  American  mechanical  engineer  then 
managing  an  iron  foundry  in  Costa  Rica, 
invented  three  machines  that  would  respec- 
tively peel  off  the  husk,  remove  the  parch- 
ment and  pulp,  and  winnow  the  light  refuse 
from  the  beans. 

The  inventor  gave  his  original  demon- 
stration to  the  planters  of  San  Jose  in  1860, 
and  duplicates  were  installed  on  all  the 
large  plantations.  In  the  course  of  the  next 
thirty  years.  Mason  brought  out  other  ma- 
chines until  he  had  developed  a  complete 


line  that  was  largely  used  on  coffee  plan- 
tations in  all  parts  of  the  world. 

In  the  Eastern  Hemisphere 

Modern  cleaning  machinery  and  methods 
of  preparation  are  employed  to  some  extent 
in  the  large  coffee-producing  countries  of 
the  eastern  hemisphere,  and  do  not  differ 
materially  from  those  of  the  western. 

Arabia.  In  Arabia  the  fruit  ripens  in 
August  or  September,  and  picking  con- 
tinues from  then  until  the  last  fruits  ripen 
late  in  the  March  following.  The  cherries, 
as  they  are  picked,  are  left  to  dry  in  the 
sun  on  the  house-top  terrace  or  on  a  floor 
of  beaten  earth.  When  they  have  become 
partly  dry,  they  are  hulled  between  two 
small  stones,  one  of  which  is  stationary, 
while  the  other  is  worked  by  the  hand 
power  of  two  men  who  rotate  it  quickly. 
Further  drying  of  the  hulled  berry  follows. 
It  is  then  put  into  bags  of  closely  woven 
aloe  fiber,  lined  with  matting  made  of  palm 
leaves.  It  is  next  sent  to  the  local  market 
at  the  foot  of  the  mountain.  There,  on 
regular  market  days,  the  Turkish  or 
Arabian  merchants,  or  their  representa- 
tives, buy  and  dispatch  their  purchases  by 
camel  train  to  Hodeida  or  Aden.  The  prin- 
cipal primary  market  in  recent  years  has 
been  the  city  of  Beit-el-Fakih. 

In  Aden  and  Hodeida  the  bean  is  sub- 
mitted to  further  cleaning  by  the  principal 


Coffee  on  the  Drying  Floors  in  Porto  Rico 


I 


GREEX    COFFEE    PREPARATIOX 


265 


Raking  Coffee  on  Drying  Floors  —  Ciiuva  District,  Guatemala 


Coffee  Drying  Patios,  Hacienda   Longa-Espana,  Venezuela 
SUN-DRYING  COFFEE  AMID  SCENES  OF  RARE  TROPICAL  BEAUTY 


266 


ALL     ABOUT     COFFEE 


A  Drying  1'atio  ox  a  Costa  Kica  Estate 

foreign  export  houses  to  whom  it  has  come 
from  the  mountains  in  rather  dirty  condi- 
tion. Indian  women  are  the  sole  laborers 
employed  in  these  cleaning  houses.  First, 
the  coffee  beans  are  separated  from  the  dry 
empty  husks  by  tossing  the  whole  into  the 
air  from  bamboo  trays,  the  workers  deftly 
permitting  the  husks  to  fly  off  while  the 
beans  are  caught  again  in  the  tray.  The 
beans  are  then  surface-cleaned  by  passing 
them  gently  between  two  very  primitive 
grindstones  worked  by  men.    A  third  proc- 


ess is  the  complete  clearing  of  the  bean 
from  the  silver  skin,  and  it  is  then  ready 
for  the  final  hand  picking.  Women  are 
called  into  service  again,  and  they  pick  out 
the  refuse  husks,  quaker  or  black,  beans, 
green  or  immature  beans,  white  beans,  and 
broken  beans,  leaving  the  good  beans  to  be 
weighed  and  packed  for  shipment.  The 
cleaned  beans  are  known  as  bun  safi;  the 
husks  become  kisher.  Some  of  the  poorer 
beans  also  are  sold,  principally  to  France 
and  to  Egypt.  Hand-power  machinery  is 
used  to  a  slight  extent;  but  mostly  the  old- 
fashioned  methods  hold  sway. 

The  Yemen,  or  Arabian,  bale,  or  package, 
is  unique.  It  is  made  up  of  two  fiber  wrap- 
pers, one  inside  the  other.  The  inside  one 
is  called  attal  or  darouf.  It  is  made  from 
cut  and  plaited  leaves  of  nakhel  douin  or 
narghil,  a  species  of  palm.  The  outer  cover- 
ing, called  garair,  is  a  sack  made  of  woven 
aloe  fiber.  The  Bedouins  weave  these 
covers  and  bring  them  to  the  export  mer- 
chants at  Aden  and  Hodeida.  A  Mocha 
bundle  contains  one,  two,  or  four  fiber  pack- 
ages, or  bales.  When  the  bundle  contains 
one  bale  it  is  known  as  a  half ;  when  it  con- 
tains two  it  is  known  as  quarters ;  and  when 
it  contains  four  it  is  known  as  eighths. 
Arabian  coffee  for  Boston  used  to  be  packed 
in  quarters  only;  for  San  Francisco  and 


Photograph  by  R.  C.  Wilhelm. 

Early    Guardiola    Steam    Drier,    "El    Canida"  Plantation,  Costa  Rica 


GREEN    COFFEE    PREPARATION 


267 


INDIAN  WOMEN  CLEANING  MOCHA  COFFEE   IN  AN  ADEN  WAREHOUSE 


There  are  four  processes  in  cloaniag  Mocha  coffee.  In  order  to  separate  the  dried  beans  from  the 
broken  hnlls  these  Momen  (brought  over  from  India)  toss  the  beans  in  the  air,  very  deftly  permit- 
ting the  empty  hulls  to  fly  off.  and  catch  the  coffee  beans  on  the  bamboo  trays.  Then  the  coffee  is 
passed  between  two  primitive  grindstones,  turned  by  men.  After  this  grinding  process  the  beans 
are  separated  from  the  crushed  outside  hulls'  and  the  loose  silver  skins.  In  the  fourth  process  tlie 
Indian  women  pick  out  by  hand  the  remaining  husks,  the  quakers,  the  immature  beans,  the  white 
beans  and  the  broken  beans.  Being  Mohammedans,  their  religion  does  not  permit  such  little  van- 
ities as  picture  posing,  which  explains  why  their  faces  are  covered  and  turned  away  from  the 
camera 


268 


ALL     ABOUT     COFFEE 


New  York,  in  quarters  and  eighths.  The 
longberry  Abyssinian  coffees  were  for- 
merly packed  in  quarters  only.  Since  the 
"World  War,  however,  there  has  been  a 
scarcity  of  packing  materials,  and  packing 
in  quarters  and  eighths  lias  stopped.  Now, 
all  Mocha,  as  well  as  Harar,  coffee  comes  in 
halfs.  A  half  weighs  eighty  kilos,  or  176 
pounds,  net  —  although  a  few  exporters 
ship  "halfs"  of  160  pounds. 

Abyssinia.  Little  machinery  is  used  in 
the  preparation  of  coffee  in  Abyssinia; 
none,  in  preparing  the  coffee  known  as 
Abyssinian,  which  is  the  product  of  wild 
trees ;  and  only  in  a  few  instances  in  clean- 
ing the  Harari  coffee,  the  fruit  of  cultivated 
trees.  Both  classes  are  raised  mostly  by 
natives,  who  adhere  to  the  old-time  dry 
method  of  cleaning.  In  Harar,  the  coffee 
is  sometimes  hulled  in  a  wooden  mortar; 
but  for  the  most  part  it  is  sent  to  the  bro- 
kers in  parchment,  and  cleaned  by  primi- 
tive hand  methods  after  its  arrival  in  the 
trading  centers. 

Angola.  In  Angola  the  coffee  harvest 
begins  in  June,  and  it  is  often  necessary  for 
the  government  to  lend  native  soldiers  to 
the  planters  to  aid  in  harvesting,  as  the 
labor  supply  is  insufficient.    After  picking, 


the  beans  are  dried  in  the  sun  from  four- 
teen to  forty  days,  depending  upon  the 
weather.  After  drying,  they  are  brought 
to  the  hulling  and  winnowing  machines. 
There  are  now  about  twenty-four  of  these 
machines  in  the  Cazengo  and  Golungo  dis- 
tricts, all  manufactured  in  the  United 
States  and  giving  satisfactory  results. 
They  are  operated  by  natives. 

A  condition  adversely  affecting  the  trade 
has  been  the  low  price  that  Angola  coffee 
commands  in  European  markets.  The 
cost  of  production  per  arroha  (thirty-three 
pounds)  on  the  Cazengo  plantations  is 
$1.23,  while  Lisbon  market  quotations  aver- 
age $1.50,  leaving  only  twenty-seven  cents 
for  railway  transport  to  Loanda  and  ocean 
freight  to  Lisbon.  It  has  been  unprofitable 
to  ship  to  other  markets  on  account  of  the 
preferential  export  duties.  A  part  of  the 
product  is  now  shipped  to  Hamburg,  where 
it  is  known  as  the  Cajiengo  brand.  Next  to 
Mocha,  the  Cazengo  coffee  is  the  smallest 
bean  that  is  to  be  found  in  the  European 
markets. 

Java  and  Sumatra.  The  coffee  industry 
in  Java  and  Sumatra,  as  well  as  in  the  other 
coffee-producing  regions  of  the  Dutch  East 
Indies,  was  begun  and  fostered  under  the 


Cleaning   and    Grading    Coffee  uy  Machinery  in  Aden 


GREEN    COFFEE    PREPARATIOX 


269 


Duvx>;g  Coffee  in  the  Sun  at  the    Custum-House,    IIauak,    AiiYbsiMA 


paternal  care  of  the  Dutch  govermnent ; 
and  for  that  reason,  machine-cleaning  has 
always  been  a  noteworthy  factor  in  the  mar- 
keting of  these  coffees.  Since  the  govern- 
ment relinquished  its  control  over  the 
so-called  government  estates,  European 
operators  have  maintained  the  standard  of 
preparation,  and  have  adopted  new  equip- 
ment as  it  was  developed.  The  majority  of 
estates  producing  considerable  quantities  of 
coffee  use  the  same  types  of  machinery  as 
their  competitors  in  Brazil  and  other  west- 
ern countries. 

In  Java,  free  labor  is  generally  em- 
ployed ;  while  on  the  east  coast  of  Sumatra 
the  work  is  done  by  contract,  the  workers 
usually  being  bound  for  three  years.  In 
both  islands  the  laborers  are  mostly  Java- 
nese coolies. 

Under  the  contract  system,  the  worker  is 
subject  to  laws  that  compel  him  to  work, 
and  prevent  him  from  leaving  the  estate 
until  the  contract  period  expires.  Under 
the  free-labor  system,  the  laborer  works  as 
his  whims  dictate.  This  forces  the  estate 
manager  to  cater  to  his  workers,  and  to 
build  up  an  organization  that  will  hold 
together. 

As  an  example  of  the  working  of  the 
latter  system,  this  outline  —  by  John  A. 
Fowler,  United  States  trade  commissioner 
—  of  the  organization  of  a  leading  estate  in 


Java  will  indicate  the  general  practise  in 
vogue : 

The  manager  of  this  estate  has  had  full  con- 
ti-ol  for  twenty  years  and  knows  the  "adat" 
(tribal  customs)  of  his  jjeople  and  the  individual 
peculiarities  of  the  leaders.  This  estate  has  been 
described  as  having  one  of  the  most  perfect 
estate  organizations  in  Java.  It  consists  of  two 
divisions  of  3,440  bouws  (about  G,048  acres  in 
all),  of  which  2,500  bouws  are  in  rubber  and 
coffee  and  550  in  sisal ;  the  remainder  includes 
rice  fields,  timber,  nurseries,  bamboo,  tealv,  pas- 
tures, villages,  roads,  canals,  etc. 

The  foreign  staff  is  under  the  supervision  of 
a  general  manager,  and  consists  of  the  follow- 
ing personnel:  A  chief  garden  assistant  of  sec- 
tion 1,  who  has  under  him  foiir  section  assist- 
ants and  a  native  staff;  a  chief  garden  assist- 
ant of  section  2,  who  has  under  him  three  sec- 
tion assistants,  an  apprentice  assistant,  and  a 
native  staff ;  a  chief  factory  assistant,  who  has 
under  him  an  assistant  machinist,  an  apprentice 
assistant,  and  a  native  staff:  and,  finally,  a 
bookkeeper.  The  term  "garden"'  means  the  area 
under  cidtivation. 

The  bookkeeper,  a  man  of  mixed  blood,  handles 
all  the  general  accounting,  accumulating  the  re- 
ports sent  in  by  the  various  assistants.  The 
two  chief  garden  assistants  are  resiK)nsible  to 
the  manager  for  all  work  outside  the  factory 
except  the  construction  of  new  buildings,  which 
is  in  charge  of  the  chief  factory  assistant.  The 
two  divisions  of  the  estate  are  subdivided  into 
seven  agricultural  sections,  each  section  being 
in  full  charge  of  an  assistant.  A  section  may 
include  coffee,  rubber,  sisal,  teak,  bamboo,  a  co- 
agulation station  and  nurseries.    The  assistant's 


270 


ALL     ABOUT     COFFEE 


Open-Air  Drying  Grounds  on  a  West  Java  Estate 

The  beans  are  being  turned  by  native  Sudanese  men  and  women 


Interioe  of  a  Modern  Coffee  Factory  in  East  Java 
Sliowing  pulping  machinery  and   fermentation   tanks 

PREPARING  JAVA  COFFEE  FOR  THE  MARKET 


GREEN   COFFEE    PREPARATION 


271 


duties  include  tlie  supervision  of  road  building 
and  repairs,  building  repairs,  transportation, 
paying  tbe  labor,  and  the  supervision  of  section 
accounts. 

The  factory  includes  a  water-power  plant  de- 
livering, through  an  American  water  wheel  and 
by  cable,  250  horse-power  to  the  main  shafting, 
an  auxiliary  steam  plant  of  150  horse-i>ower  as 
a  reserve,  a  rubber  mill,  a  coffee  mill,  three 
sisal-stripping  machines,  smoke-houses,  drying 
fields  and  houses  for  sisal,  drying  floors  and 
houses  for  coffee,  sorting  rooms,  blacksmith 
shop,  machine  shop,  brass-fitting  foundry,  pack- 
ing houses,  warehouses,  and  other  equipment. 
The  factory  is  in  charge  of  a  first  assistant,  who 
is  a  machinist,  with  a  European  staff  consist- 
ing of  a  machinist  and  an  apprentice  assistant. 

The  chief  garden  assistant  is  paid  350  to  400 
florins,  and  the  garden  "assistants  start  at  200 
florins  per  month,  with  graduated  yearly  in- 
creases up  to  300  florins  per  month  ( florin  = 
$0.40).    The  chief  factory  assistant  receives  300 


florins,  and   the  machinist  and  bookkeeper  250 
florins  each. 

The  mandoer  in  charge  of  the  air  and  kiln 
drying  of  coffee  gets  25  florins  per  month,  and 
the  mandoer  at  the  coffee  mill  20  florins,  A 
woman  mandoer  in  cliarge  of  the  coffee  sorters 
receives  0.50  florin  per  day  and  0.01  florin  each 
for  sewing  the  bags.  This  woman  supervises 
all  the  sorters,  fixes  their  status,  and  inspects 
their  work.  Unskilled  labor  (male)  receives 
0.40  florin  per  day  in  the  coffee  sheds,  and  the 
women  sorters  are  paid  0.50  florin  per  picul 
of  136  pounds,  measured  before  sorting.  These 
women  are  graded  into  three  classes  —  those 
who  can  sort  1  picul  in  a  day,  those  who  can 
sort  three-fourths  of  a  picul,  and  those  who  can 
sort  but  one-half  of  a  picul  in  a  day.  Some  of 
these  women  become  very  expert  in  sorting,  and 
the  quality  of  the  output  of  a  factory  is  largely 
dependent  on  an  ample  supply  of  expert  sorters. 
Many  years  are  required  to  develop  an  adequate 
personnel  for  this  department. 


Coffee  Transport  in  Java 


272 


ALL     ABOUT     COFFEE 


©  -»'      ^      CiTl 


I 


THE    WORLD'S   COFFEE    TOWER   COMPARED    WITH    THE    EIFFEL    AND 

WOOLWORTH    TOWERS 


The  Woohvorth  Building,  the  world's  loftiest  office  structure,  is  792  feet  high  from  street  to  top  of 
■  tower ;  its  main  section  of  151  by  196  feet  stretches  up  386  feet,  and  its  volume  equals  a  total  of 
13,110,942  cubic  feet.  But  a  tower  made  of  the  year's  supplj'  of  bags  of  green  coffee  (132  pounds 
each)  would  equal  73,649,115  cubic  feet,  or  nearly  six  times  the  bulk  of  the  Woolworth  Building. 
In  the  same  proportions  it  would  rise  1,386  feet,  with  the  lower  section  260  by  340  feet  and  670 
feet  high.  Its  dimensions  would  be  nearly  double  those  of  the  Woolworth  Building  in  every  direc- 
tion. And  the  Eiffel  Tower,  reaching  up  1,000  feet  toward  the  sky  would  be  lost  in  a  tower  made 
of  a  year's  bags  of  coffee.  Such  a  tower  would  stand  1,425  feet  high  on  a  base  area  of  230  feet 
square,  the  size  of  the  Eiffel's  first  floor 


Chapter  XXII  •      ' 

THE    PRODUCTION    AND    CONSUMPTION     OF     COFFEE 

A  statistical  study  of  world  production  of  coffee  by  countries  —  Per 
capita  figures  of  the  leading  consuming  countries  —  Coffee-consump- 
tion figures  compared  with  tea-consumption  figures  in  the  United 
States,  and  the  United  Kingdom  —  Three  centuries  of  coffee  trading 
—  Coffee  drinking  in  the  United  States,  past  and  present  —  Review- 
ing the  1921  trade  in  the  United  States 


THE  world's  yearly  production  of 
coffee  is  on  the  average  considerably 
more  than  one  million  tons.  If  this 
were  all  made  up  into  the  refreshing  drink 
we  get  at  our  breakfast  tables,  there  would 
be  enough  to  supply  every  inhabitant  of 
the  earth  with  some  sixty  cups  a  year, 
representing  a  total  of  more  than  ninety 
billion  cups.  In  terms  of  pounds  the  an- 
nual world  output  amounts  to  about  two 
and  a  quarter  billions  —  an  amount  so 
large  that  if  it  were  done  up  in  the  fa- 
miliar one-pound  paper  packages;  and  if 
these  packages  were  laid  end  to  end  in  a 
row;  they  would  form  a  line  long  enough 
to  reach  to  the  moon.  If  this  average 
yearly  production  were  left  in  the  sacks  in 
which  the  coffee  is  shipped,  the  total  of 
17,500,000  would  be  enough  to  form  a 
broad  six-foot  pavement  reaching  entirely 
across  the  United  States,  upon  which  a 
man  could  walk  steadily  for  more  than 
five  months  at  the  rate  of  twenty  miles  a 
day.  This  vast  amount  of  coffee  comes 
very  largely  from  the  western  hemisphere; 
and  about  three-fourths  of  it,  from  a  single 
country.  The  production,  shipment,  and 
preparation  of  this  coffee,  directly  and  in- 
directly support  millions  of  workers;  and 
many  countries  are  entirely  dependent  on 
it  for  their  prosperity  and  economic  well- 
being. 

During  the  crop  year  that  ended  June 
30,    1921,    this    million-ton    average    was 


considerably  exceeded,  though  it  did  not 
approach  the  record  yield  of  all  time  in 
the  crop  year  1906  -  07,  when  the  total 
amounted  to  almost  24,000,000  sacks;  or, 
in  round  numbers,  3,000,000,000  pounds. 

As  indicated  by  the  Statistical  Record 
table,  on  page  274,  Brazil  produces  more 
than  all  the  rest  of  the  world  put  together. 
Coffee  growing,  however,  is  general 
throughout  tropical  countries,  and  in  most 
of  them  constitutes  one  of  the  leading  in- 
dustries. Yet  in  most  cases,  the  actual 
production  of  these  countries  can  only  be 
estimated,  as  accurate  figures,  showing  the 
exact  output,  are  seldom  kept.  But  the 
contribution  which  each  country  makes 
to  the  total  world  traffic  in  coffee  can  be 
determined  by  its  export  figures,  which 
are  obtainable  in  reasonably  accurate  and 
up-to-date  form.*  The  table  on  page  276 
gives  the  coffee  export  figures,  in  pounds, 
for  practically  every  country  that  pro- 
duces coffee  for  sale  outside  its  own  bor- 
ders. Figures  are  given  for  the  latest 
available  year,  and  also  for  the  average 
of  the  last  five  years  for  which  statistics 
are  to  be  obtained.  The  figures  are  taken 
from  official  statistics,  from  the  publica- 
tions of  the  International  Institute  of 
Agriculture  of  Rome,  and  from  other  au- 
thoritative sources. 

For  the  most  part,  these  figures  of  ex- 
portation are  the  only  ones  available  to 
indicate   the   actual   coffee   production   in 


273 


274 


ALL    ABOUT     COFFEE 


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PRODUCTION  AND  CONSUMPTION 


275 


THE   WORLD'S  COFFI^E  CUP  AND  THE   WORLD'S  LARGEST    SHIP 

The  statistical  sharks  talk  of  the  17,5GG,000  bags,  or  2,318,712,000  pounds  of  coffee  that  the  world 
drinks  every  year ;  but  how  many  really  appreciate  what  those  huge  figures  mean?  For  instance,  com- 
puting 40  cups  of  beverage  to  the  pound,  there  are  more  than  90,000,000,000  cups  drunk  annually,  or 
enough  to  fill  a  gigantic  cup  4,000  feet  in  diameter  and  40  feet  deep,  on  which  the  "Majestic,"  the  world's 
largest  ship,  would  appear  floating  approximately  as  shown  in  the  drawing 


the  countries  named.  The  following  ad- 
ditional data,  however,  will  serve  to  show 
the  extent  to  which  the  coffee-raising  in- 
dustry has  developed  in  most  of  these 
countries,  and  in  a  few  places  of  minor 
importance  not  named  in  the  table : 

Brazil.  The  coffee  industry  of  Brazil, 
which  has  furnished  seventy  percent  of 
the  world's  coffee  during  the  last  ten 
years,  has  developed  in  a  century  and  a 
half.  Brazilian  soil  first  made  the  ac- 
quaintance of  the  coffee  plant  at  Par4  in 
1723.  A  small  export  trade  to  Europe 
had  developed  by  1770,  the  year  when  the 
first  plantation  was  established  in  the 
state  of  Rio  de  Janeiro,  and  from  which 
the  country's  great  industry  really  dates. 
Development  at  first  was  apparently  slow, 
as  no  exports  are  recorded  until  the  be- 
ginning of  the  nineteenth  century;  so  that 
the  history  of  Brazil's  coffee  trade  is  a 
matter  entirely  of  the  nineteenth  and 
twentieth    centuries.     Once    started,   how- 


ever, the  new  line  of  export  made  rapid 
progress.  In  1800,  the  amount  of  coffee 
exported  was  1720  pounds,  contained  in 
thirteen  bags.  Twenty  years  later,  12.- 
896,000  pounds  were  shipped,  the  number 
of  bags  being  97,498.  Ten  years  later,  in 
1830,  this  amount  had  increased  to  64,- 
051,000  pounds;  and  in  1840,  to  137,300,- 
000  pounds.  In  1852  -  53,  the  receipts  for 
shipment  at  the  ports  were  double  that 
amount,  284,592,000  pounds;  in  1860-61 
they  were  420,420,000  pounds;  in  1870- 
71  they  had  increased  to  427,416,000 
pounds ;  in  1880  -  81  they  were  764,945,000 
pounds;  in  1890-91,  739,654,000  pounds; 
and  at  the  beginning  of  this  century, 
1900-01,  they  were  1,504,424,000  pounds, 
having  passed  the  one  billion-pound  mark 
in  1896-97.  The  highest  point  of  coffee 
receipts  in  the  country's  history  was 
reached  in  1906-07  with  2,699,644,694 
pounds;  and  since  that  year,  the  amount 
ha,«    staid    at    about    one    and    one-half 


276 


ALL     ABOUT     COFFEE 


Exports  of  Coffee  from  the  Coffee-Producing  Countries  of  the  World 

,\ 

Country  Five-Year  Average 

South  America:  Tear  Pounds  Pounds 

Brazil 1920  1,524,382,650  1,469,&49,180 

Colombia 1920  190,901.953=  172,862,121 

Venezuela    1920  73,726,632  110,174,946 

Guiana,  Br 1917  267,344  257,152 

Guiana,  Fr 1918  1,100  970 

Guiana,   D 1918  3,856  923,644<i 

Ecuador   1919  3,729,413  5,843,033 

Peru    1919  370,655  455,212 

Central  America : 

Salvador    1920  82,864,668  78.953,339 

Nicaragua    1920  15,345,398  23,243,865 

Costa  Rica    1921''  29,401,683  28,667,262 

Guatemala 1920  94,205,569  88,213,080 

Honduras    1920^  1,091,977  646,574 

Mexico    1918  30,172,065  47,555,5141 

West  Indies : 

Haiti 1920b  61,970,094e  54,308,959d 

Dominican  Republic 1920  1,361,666  3,497,866 

Jamaica    1919  8,246,672  7,918,781 

Porto  Rico 1921  29,967,879'  30,033,4711  f 

Trinidad  &  Tobago 1920  73,201  19,639 

Martinique    1918  10.358  17,219 

Guadeloupe   1918  2,144,855  1,594,146 

Dutch  East  Indies   1920  99,020,4531  103,701,297h 

Pacific  Islands: 

Br.  North  Borneo  1918  1,984  6,613 

New   Caledonia    1916  1,248.024  784,176 

New  Hebrides    1917  625,224  608,410g 

Hawaii  1921  4,979,121'  4,244,479d' 

Reunion    1918  3,527  26,455 

Asia : 

Aden    (Arabia)    1921b  9,463,104  10,837,893 

Br.  India  1920b  30,526.832  23,767,744 

French  Indo-China 1918  79,145  516,978 

Africa : 

Eritrea    1918  728,840  315,698 

Somaliland,  Fr 1917  11,222,736  9,321,930 

Somaliland,  Br 1918  440,272  233,908 

Somaliland,    It 1918  3,747  3,306 

Abyssinia  1917  17,324,223  12,744,406 

German  East  Africa   (former)..  1913  2,334,450  2,649,0471 

Br.  East  African  Protectorate..  1918  18,735.572  8,397,541 

Uganda    1918  9,999,845  5,076,091 

Nyasaland 1918  122,796  92,593 

Mayotte  (including  Comoro  Is.) .  1914  3,306  660 

Madagascar 1918  707,676  981,047 

Angola    1913  10,655.934  10,459,724 

Belgian  Congo   1919  347,588  186,432b 

Fr.  Equatorial  Africa 1916  48,060  47,046 

Nigeria  1916  3,527  19,180 

Ivory  Coast 1918  66,358  49,162 

Gold  Coast 1917  660  220 

French  Guinea  1918  1,320  1,320 

Spanish  Guinea  1918  8,150  3,968b 

St.  Thomas  &  Prince's  Is 1916  484,350  1,125,448 

Liberia   1917  761,300 

Cape   Verde   Islands    1916  1,442,910  1,100,095 

a  Crop  yen-,  ii  Fiscal  ye^r.  c  Inclurting  small  proportion  of  nnhiisked  coffee.  d  Four-year  averag:e.  e  Not 
including  6,322,167  pounds  "triage"  or  waste  coffee,  t  Including  shipments  to  continental  United  States. 
K  Two-year   average,     h  Three-year    average,     i  Java    and  Madura  only 


PRODUCTION  AND  CONSUMPTION 


277 


billion  pounds.  Further  expansion  in  the 
last  fifteen  years  has  been  closely  regu- 
lated to  prevent  over-production. 

It  is  estimated  that  the  area  in  the 
coffee-growing  section  suitable  for  coffee 
raising  covers  1,158,000  square  miles,  or 
more  than  one-third  the  area  of  con- 
tinental United  States.  The  state  of  Sao 
Paulo  is  the  chief  producing  state,  and 
supplies  practically  half  the  world's 
annual  output.  Most  of  this  Sao  Paulo 
coffee  is  exported  through  the  port  of 
Santos,  which  is  consequently  the  leading 
coffee  port  of  the  world.  Besides  Santos, 
the  ports  of  Rio  de  Janeiro  and  Victoria 
are  of  much  importance  in  the  coffee 
trade,  although  some  twenty  or  thirty 
million  pounds  are  exported  each  year 
through  the  port  of  Bahia,  and  smaller 
amounts  through  various  other  ports.  The 
crop  year  of  Brazil  runs  from  July  1  to 
June  30,  the  heaviest  receipts  for  shipment 
coming  as  a  rule  in  the  months  of  August, 
September,  and  October  of  each  year. 
One-third  of  the  season's  crop  is  usually 
received  at  ports  of  shipment  before  the 
last  of  October,  sometimes  as  early  as  the 
latter  part  of  September;  one-half  comes 
in  by  the  middle  or  last  of  November;  and 


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1  —  Coffee   Exports,   1850-1920 


This   diagram   shows  the   exports  of   the   principal 
coffee-producing  countries,   omitting   Brazil 


No.  21  —  1  Coffee  Exports,  1916-1920 

This  diagram  shows  the  exports  of  the  leading^ 
coffee  countries  (except  Brazil)  in  a  period 
covering  most   of   the   World   War 

two-thirds  is  usually  received  by  the  end 
of  January. 

Venezuela.  The  coffee  plant  was  intro- 
duced into  Venezuela  in  1784,  being 
brought  from  Martinique;  and  the  first 
shipment  abroad,  consisting  of  233  bags, 
was  made  five  years  later.  By  1830  -  31, 
production  had  increased  to  25,454,000 
pounds;  and  in  the  next  twenty  years,  it 
more  than  trebled,  amounting  to  83,717,- 
000  pounds  in  1850  -  51.  Since  then,  how- 
ever, the  increase  has  been  much  more 
gradual.  In  1881-82,  94,369,000  pounds 
were  produced;  and  about  the  same 
amount,  95,170,000  pounds,  in  1889-90. 
Twentieth-century  production  has  appar- 
ently exceeded  the  hundred-million  mark 
on  the  average,  although  there  are  no 
definite  statistics  beyond  export  figures. 
These  showed  86,950,000  pounds  sent 
abroad  in  1904  -  05 ;  103,453,000  pounds  in 


278 


ALL     ABOUT     COFFEE 


1908  -  09  ;  and  88,155,000  pounds  in  1918 ; 
the  trade  in  the  last-named  year  being  cut 
down  by  war  conditions.  In  1919,  the 
extraordinary  amount  of  179,414,815 
pounds  was  exported,  the  high  figure  be- 
ing due  to  the  release  of  coffee  stored 
from  previous  years.  It  has  been  esti- 
mated that  domestic  consumption  of  coffee 
would  amount  to  a  maximum  of  25,000,000 
pounds  yearly,  but  may  be  much  less  than 
that.  The  United  States  and  France  have 
in  the  past  been  Venezuela's  best  custo- 
mers. 

Colombia,  Prior  to  1912,  the  total 
production  of  coffee  in  Colombia  was 
around  80,000,000  pounds  annually,  of 
which  some  3,000,000  or  4,000,000  pounds 
were  consumed  in  the  country  itself.  But 
in  the  last  decade  production  has  been 
advancing  rapidly,  and  the  present  pro- 
duction is  the  heaviest  in  the  history  of 
the  country.  The  industry  has  practically 
grown  up  in  the  last  seventy  years,  the 
exports  for  the  decade  1852  -  53  to  1861  - 
62  averaging  only  about  940,000  pounds; 
in  the  decade  following,  about  5,700,000 
pounds ;  and,  in  the  ten  years  from  1872  - 
73  to  1881-82,  about  12,600,000  pounds, 
according  to  an  unofficial  compilation. 
Exportations  had  advanced  to  about  47,- 
000,000  pounds  by  1895 ;  and  to  80,000,000 
pounds  by  1906.  As  large  quantities  of 
Colombian  coffee  are  shipped  out  through 
Venezuela,  and  because  of  the  lack  of  de- 
tailed statistics  in  Colombia,  the  actual 
exportation  each  year  is  not  easy  to 
determine ;  but  the  following  figures,  ob- 
tained by  a  trade  commissioner  of  the 
United  States,  may  be  taken  as  a  fairly 
accurate  estimate  of  exports  from  1906  to 

1918: 

Columbian  Coffee  Exports 
Year                                           Sacks  (138  lbs.) 
1906 605,705 

1907  -. -.  .541,300 

1908  577,900 

1909 673,350 

1910 543,000 

1911 601.600 

1912  888,800 

1913 972,000 

1914 983,000 

1915  1,074,600 

1916 1,153,000 

1917 1,093,000 

1918 1,102,000 

Ecuador.  Annual  production  in  Ecua- 
dor runs  from  3,000,000  to  8,000,000 
pounds,  most  of  which  is  exported.     The 


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No.  3  —  Brazil's  Coffee  Exports,  1850-1920 

Diiifiram     based     on     -^-year     avf^rages     with     quanti- 
ties given  in  millions  of  pounds 

greater  part  of  the  production  is  sent  to 
Chile  and  the  United  States.  Production 
has  shown  only  a  gradual  increase  since 
the  middle  of  the  nineteenth  century, 
when  planters  began  to  give  some  atten- 
tion to  coffee  cultivation.  Exports  were 
about  87,000  pounds  in  1855;  296,000 
pounds  in  1870;  and  985,000  pounds  in 
1877.  By  the  beginning  of  the  present 
century,  production  had  reached  6,204,000 
pounds;  in  1905,  it  was  estimated  at 
4,861,000  pounds ;  and  in  1910,  at  8,682,000 
pounds.  Exports  in  1912  were  6,101,700 
pounds;  and  7,671,000  pounds  in  1918; 
but  there  was  a  falling  off  to  3,729,000 
pounds  in  1919,  Several  years  ago  it  was 
estimated  that  the  coffee  trees  numbered 
8,000,000,  planted  on  32,000  acres. 

Peru.  Coffee  is  one  of  the  minor  prod- 
ucts of  Peru,  and  the  country  does  not 
occupy  a  place  of  importance  in  the  inter- 
national coffee  trade.  The  larger  part  of 
,the  production  is  apparently  consumed  in 
the  country  itself.  Export  figures  indicate 
that  the  industry  is  steadily  declining. 
Exports  amounted  to  2,267,000  pounds  in 
1905;  to  1,618,000  pounds  in  1908;  and 
in  the  five  years  ending  with  1918,  exports 
averaged  only  529,000  pounds;  while  fig- 


PRODUCTION  AND  CONSUMPTION 


279 


ures  for  1919  show  that  in  that  year  thev 
fell  still  lower,  to  370,000  pounds.  Pro- 
duction is  mainly  in  the  coast  lands. 

British  Guiana.  The  Guianas  are  the 
site  of  the  first  coffee  planting  on  the 
continent  of  South  America;  and  accord- 
ing to  some  accounts,  the  first  in  the  New 
World.  The  plants  were  brought  first  into 
Dutch  Guiana,  but  there  was  no  planting 
in  what  is  now  British  Guiana  (then  a 
Dutch  colony)  until  1752.  Twenty-six 
years  later,  6,041,000  pounds  were  sent  to 
Amsterdam  from  the  two  ports  of  De- 
marara  and  Berbice;  and  after  the  colony 
fell  into  the  hands  of  the  English  in  1796, 
cultivation  continued  to  increase.  Exports 
amounted  to  10,845,000  pounds  in  1803; 
and  to  more  than  22,000,000  pounds  in 
1810.  Then  there  was  a  falling  off,  and 
the  production  in  1828  was  8,893,500 
pounds  and  3,308,000  pounds  in  1836.  In 
1849  British  Guiana  exported  only  109,- 
600  pounds.  For  a  long  period  thereafter 
there  was  little  production,  and  practi- 
cally no  exportation;  exports  in  1907,  for 
instance,  amounting  to  only  160  pounds. 
With  the  next  year,  however,  a  revival  of 
exportation  began,  and  it  has  continued  to 
grow  since  then.  In  1908,  exports  were 
88,700  pounds;  and  for  the  succeeding 
years,  up  to  1917,  the  following  amounts 
are  recorded:  1909,  96,952  pounds;  1910, 
108,378  pounds;  1911,  136,420  pounds; 
1912,  144,845  pounds;  1913  ,  89,376 
pounds;  1914,  238,767  pounds;  1915, 
172,326  pounds;  1916,  501,183  pounds; 
1917,  267,344  pounds.  In  the  last-named 
year  4,953  acres  were  in  coffee  plantations. 

French  Guiana.  This  colony  raises  a 
small  amount  of  coffee  for  local  consump- 
tion, and  exports  a  few  hundred  pounds; 
but  it  is  really  an  importing  and  not  an 
exporting  colony.  Coffee  cultivation  was 
never  of  much  importance,  although  in 
1775  some  72,000  pounds  were  exported. 
One  hundred  and  eighty  thousand  pounds 
were  harvested  in  I860;  and  132,000 
pounds  in  1870,  mostly  for  local  con- 
■consumption. 

Dutch  Guiana.  Regular  shipments  of 
coffee  from  Dutch  Guiana  have  been  made 
for  two  centuries,  beginning  —  a  few  j^ears 
after  the  plant  was  introduced  —  with  a 
shipment  of  6,461  pounds  to  the  mother 
country  in  1723.  Seven  years  later,  472,- 
000  pounds  were  shipped ;  and  in  1732  - 
33  exportation  reached   1,232,000  pounds. 


Exports  were  averaging  16,900,000  pounds  a 
year  by  1760 ;  and  reached  almost  20,600,000 
pounds  in  1777.  At  the  beginning  of  the 
nineteenth  century,  they  amounted  to 
about  17,000,000  pounds;  but  a  few  years 
later  fell  off  to  some  7,000,000  pounds, 
where  they  remained  until  about  1840; 
after  which  they  began  again  to  decline. 
Exportation  had  practically  ceased  by  1875, 
only  1,420  pounds  going  out  of  the  country, 
although  cultivation  still  continued,  as  evi- 
denced by  a  production  of  82,357  pounds 
in  that  year.  In  1890,  production  was  onlj 
15,736  pounds,  and  exports  only  476 
pounds;  but  since  then  there  has  been  a 
considerable  increase.  In  1900,  production 
amounted  to  433,000  pounds,  and  exports 
to  424,000  pounds.  In  1908,  1,108,000 
pounds  were  grown,  of  which  310,000 
pounds  were  sent  abroad;  and  in  1909,  the 
figures  were  552,000  pounds  produced  and 
405,000  pounds  exported.  No  figures  are 
available  for  production  in  recent  years; 
but  the  exportation  of  1,600,000  pounds  in 
1917  indicates  that  plantings  have  been 
steadily  growing. 

Other  South  American  Countries.  Of 
the  other  South  American  countries,  Argen- 
tina, Chile,  and  Uruguay  are  coffee-import- 
ing countries;  and  the  coffee-raising 
industry  of  Paraguay,  although  more  or 
less  promising,  has  yet  to  be  developed.  In 
Argentina,  a  few  hundred  acres  in  the  sub 
tropical  provinces  of  the  north  have  been 
planted  to  coffee;  but  coffee-growing  will 
always  necessarily  remain  a  very  minor  in 
dustry.  Many  attempts  have  been  made  to 
establish  the  industry  in  Paraguay,  where 
favorable  conditions  obtain,  but  only  a  few 
planters  have  met  with  success.  Their 
product  has  all  been  consumed  locally. 
Bolivia  has  much  land  suitable  for  coffee 
raising ;  and  it  is  estimated  that  production 
has  reached  as  high  as  1,500,000  pounds  a 
year,  but  transportation  conditions  are  such 
as  to  hold  back  development  for  an  indefi- 
nite time.  Small  amounts  are  now  exported 
to  Chile. 

Salvador.  Coffee  was  introduced  into 
Salvador  in  1852,  and  immediately  began  to 
spread  over  the  country.  Exports  were 
valued  at  more  than  $100,000  in  1865 ;  and 
by  1874-75  the  amount  exported  had 
reached  8,500,000  pounds.  The  first  large 
plantation  was  established  in  1876;  and 
since  then  planting  has  continued,  until 
now    practically    all    the    available    coffee 


280 


ALL     A B  OUT     COFFEE 


land  has  been  taken  up.  The  area  in 
plantations  has  been  estimated  at  166,000 
acres,  and  the  annual  production  at  50,000,- 
000  to  75,000,000  pounds,  of  which  some 
5,000,000  pounds  are  consumed  in  the 
country.  Since  the  beginning  of  the  present 
century,  exports  have  in  general  shown  a 
considerable  increase,  the  figures  for  1901 
being  50,101,000  pounds ;  for  1905,  64,480,- 
000  pounds;  for  1910,  62,764.000  pounds; 
for  1915,  67,130,000  pounds ;  and  for  1920, 
82,864,000  pounds. 

GrUATEMALA.  Cultivation  of  coffee  in 
Guatamala  became  of  importance  between 
1860  and  1870.  In  1860,  exports  were  only 
about  140,000  pounds;  by  1863,  they  had 
increased  to  about  1,800,000  pounds;  and 
by  1870,  to  7,590,000  pounds.  In  1880  -  81, 
they  amounted  to  28,976,000  pounds ;  and  in 
1883-84,  to  40,406,000  pounds.  Twenty 
years  later,  they  had  doubled.  In  recent 
years,  exports  have  ranged  between  75,- 
000,000  and  100,000,000  pounds ;  the  years 
from  1909  to  1918  showing  the  following 
results,  according  to  a  consular  report : 
Guatemala's  Coffee  Exports 

Cleaned  Vnshelled 

Year                               (pounds)  (pounds) 

1909 92,639,800  23,654,600 

1910  50,717,600  19,671,700 

1911   60,689,500  20,959,500 

1912   14,329,800  60,837,500 

1913  70,749,100  20,980,700 

1914 71,136,800  14,999,600 

1915  69,649,500  9,892,000 

1916 85,057,000  3,015,800 

1917  89,259,600  1,410,200 

1918 77,842,800  511,500 

Costa  Eica.  Coffee  raising  in  Costa  Rica 
dates  from  1779,  when  the  plant  was  intro- 
duced from  Cuba.  By  1845,  the  industry 
had  grown  sufficiently  to  permit  an  expor- 
tation of  7,823,000  pounds;  and  twenty 
years  later,  11,143,000  pounds  were  shipped. 
Thereafter,  production  increased  rapidly; 
so  that  in  1874,  the  total  exports  were  32,- 
670,000  pounds,  and  in  1884  they  were  more 
than  36,000,000  pounds.  In  recent  years, 
the  average  production  has  been  around 
35,000,000  pounds.  For  the  crop  years 
1916  - 17  to  1920  -  21  exports  have  been : 
Costa  Rica's  Coffee  Exports, 

Year  Pounds 

1916  - 17  27,044,550 

1917  - 18  25,246,715 

191S  - 19  30,784,184 

1919  -  20  30,860,634 

1920  -  21  29,401,683 


Nicaragua.  Production  of  coffee  in 
Nicaragua  began  between  1860  and  1870; 
and  in  1875,  the  yield  was  estimated  at 
1,650,000  pounds.  By  1879-80,  this  had 
increased  to  3,579,000  pounds;  and  by 
1889  -  90,  to  8,533,000  pounds.  In  1890  -  91 
production  was  11,540,000  pounds;  and  in 
1907-08  it  was  estimated  at  more  than 
20,000,000  pounds.  Ten  years  later,  25,- 
000,000  pounds  were  produced;  and  the 
crop  of  1918  - 19  was  estimated  at  about 
30,000,000  pounds.  Lack  of  transportation, 
and  excess  of  political  troubles,  have  been 
important  factors  in  holding  back  develop- 
ment. 

Honduras.  The  coffee  of  Honduras  is  of 
very  good  quality ;  but  production  is  small, 
and  the  country  is  not  an  important  factor 
in  international  trade.  Exports  usually 
run  less  than  1,000,000  pounds.  The  chief 
obstacle  to  expansion  is  said  to  be  lack  of 
transportation  facilities. 

British  Honduras.  This  colony  grows  a 
little  coffee  for  its  own  use,  but  imports 
most  of  what  it  needs.  Production  had 
reached  almost  50,000  pounds  in  1904 ;  but 
the  present  average  is  only  about  10,000 
pounds,  raised  on  scattering  trees  over  about 
1,000  acres. 

Panama.  A  small  amount  of  coffee,  of 
which  occasionally  as  much  as  200,000  or 
250,000  pounds  a  year  are  exported,  is 
raised  in  the  uplands  of  Panama,  or  is 
gathered  from  wild  trees.  The  industry 
is  not  of  great  importance,  and  the  country 
imports  considerable  supplies,  mostly  from 
the  United  States. 

Mexico.  A  very  good  grade  of  coffee  is 
produced  in  Mexico;  and  it  is  said  that 
there  is  sufficient  area  of  good  coffee  land 
to  take  care  of  the  demand  of  the  world 
outside  of  that  supplied  by  Brazil.  Pro- 
duction, however,  is  limited,  and  to  a  large 
extent  goes  to  satisfy  home  needs,  leaving 
only  about  50,000,000  pounds  for  export. 
In  spite  of  much  government  encourage- 
ment in  past  years,  coffee  cultivation  has 
not  made  rapid  progress,  when  we  remem- 
ber that  the  country  became  acquainted 
with  the  plant  as  early  as  1790.  Not  until 
about  1870  did  the  country  begin  to  become 
important  in  the  list  of  coffee-exporters; 
but  by  1878  -  79,  shipments  amounted  to 
about  12,000,000  pounds.  This  steadily  in- 
creased to  29,400,000  pounds  in  1891-92. 
Exports  in  recent  years  have  averaged  about 
50,000,000  pounds;  but  in  1918  were  only 


PRODUCTION  AND  CONSUMPTION 


281 


30,000,000.  Production  has  fluctuated 
greatly.  In  the  years  preceding  the  troubled 
revolutionary  period,  the  total  output  was 
estimated  as  follows:  1907,  45,000,000 
pounds:  1908,  42,000,000  pounds;  1909, 
81,000,000  pounds ;  1910,  70,000,000  pounds. 
In  the  ten  years  preceding  1907,  production 
dropped  as  low  as  22,000,000  pounds  in 
1902;  and  rose  to  88,500,000  pounds  in 
1905.  Next  to  the  United  States,  Germany 
was  the  chief  buyer  of  Mexican  coffee  before 
the  war;  although  France  and  Great  Brit- 
ain also  took  several  million  pounds  each. 

Haiti.  For  well  over  a  century  Haiti  has 
been  shipping  tens  of  millions  of  pounds 
of  coffee  annually;  and  the  product  is  the 
mainstay  of  the  country's  economic  life. 
In  all  that  time,  however,  shipments  have 
maintained  much  the  same  level.  The 
country  has  been  a  coffee  producer  from  the 
early  years  of  the  eighteenth  century,  when 
the  plants  began  to  spread  from  the  orig- 
inal sprigs  in  Guiana  or  Martinique.  After 
half  a  century  of  growth,  exports  had  risen 
to  885860,000  pounds  in  1789  -  90,  a  mark 
that  has  never  again  been  reached.  Since 
then,  exports  have  ranged  between  40,000,- 
000  and  80,000,000  pounds,  keeping  close  to 
the  lower  mark  in  recent  years  because  of 
European  conditions.  They  were  38,000,000 
pounds  in  1856 ;  55,750,000  pounds  in  1866 ; 
and  52,300,000  pounds  in  1876.  They  had 
reached  84,028,000  pounds  in  1887  -  88 ;  but 
fell  back  to  67,437,000  pounds  in  1897  -  98 ; 
and  ten  years  later,  were  63,848,000  pounds. 
In  1917  - 18,  they  were  only  about  two- 
thirds  that  amount,  or  42,100,000  pounds. 
Some  8,000,000  pounds  are  consumed  yearly 
in  the  country  itself.  The  coffee  planta- 
tions cover  about  125,000  acres. 

Dominican  Republic.  Coffee  production 
in  the  Dominican  Republic  ranges  between 
1,000,000  and  5,000,000  pounds,  exports  in 
recent  years  averaging  about  3,500,000 
pounds.  The  quality  of  the  coffee  is  good ; 
but  the  plantations  are  not  well  cared  for. 
Until  fifty  years  ago,  the  industry  was  in  a 
state  of  decline  from  a  condition  of  former 
importance;  but  it  was  revived,  and  by 
1881  it  supplied  1,400,000  pounds  for  ex- 
port. The  amount  was  1,480,000  pounds 
in  1888 ;  3,950,000  pounds  in  1900 ;  1,540,- 
000  pounds  in  1909 ;  and  4,870,000  pounds 
in  1919.  Blight,  and  disturbed  political 
conditions,  have  hampered  development.  In 


normal  times,  Europe  takes  most  of  the 
export. 

Jamaica.  Jamaica  began  to  raise  coffee 
about -1730;  and  from  that  time  on  there 
was  a  steady  but  slow  increase  in  produc- 
tion. Shipments  amounted  to  about  60,000 
pounds  in  1752,  and  to  about  1,800,000 
pounds  in  1775.  At  the  beginning  of  the 
new  century,  in  1804,  exports  of  22,000,000 
pounds  are  recorded ;  and  in  1814  the  figure 
was  34,045,000  pounds.  Then  exports  grad- 
ually fell  off,  and  in  1861  were  only  6,700,- 
000  pounds.  They  were  10,350,000  pounds 
in  1874;  and  since  then,  have  not  varied 
much  from  9,000,000  or  10,000,000  pounds 
a  year.  They  were  9,363,000  pounds  in 
1900 ;  7,885,000  pounds  in  1909 ;  and  8,246,- 
000  pounds  in  1919.  The  acreage  in  coffee 
remains  fairly  constant,  being  24,865  in 
1900 ;  22,275  in  1911 ;  and  20,280  in  1917. 
It  is  said  that  there  are  80,000  acres  of 
good  coffee  land  still  uncultivated. 

Porto  Rico.  The  cultivation  of  coffee  in 
Porto  Rico  dates  back  to  the  middle  of  the 
eighteenth  century;  but  exportation  does 
not  seem  to  have  been  much  more  than  a 
million  pounds  a  year  until  the  first  years  of 
the  nineteenth  century.  Between  1837  and 
1840,  the  average  exportation  was  about 
10,000,000  pounds;  and  by  1865,  this  had 
risen  to  24,000,000  pounds.  Ten  years  later, 
it  was  25,700,000  pounds.  In  recent  years, 
it  has  averaged  about  37,000,000  pounds; 
the  1921  figure,  including  shipments  to 
continental  United  States,  being  29,968,000 
pounds.  Production  since  1881  has  been 
between  30,000,000  and  50,000,000  pounds ; 
the  heaviest  being  in  1896  when  the  total 
output  was  62,628,337  pounds  —  the  largest 
figure  in  the  island's  history.  The  industry 
was  greatly  damaged  by  a  disastrous  storm 
in  1900,  and  was  also  adversely  affected  by 
the  European  War,. as  a  large  part  of  Porto 
Rico's  crop  goes  to  Europe.  Porto  Rican 
coffee  has  not  been  popular  in  the  United 
States,  which  takes  only  limited  amounts. 
Cuba  is  one  of  the  island's  best  customers. 

Guadeloupe.  Coffee  production  in 
Guadeloupe  reached  its  highest  point  in 
the  latter  part  of  the  eighteenth  century, 
when  more  than  8,000,000  pounds  were 
raised.  The  figure  was  about  6,000,000  in 
1808;  but  the  output  declined  during  the 
succeeding  decades,  and  forty  years  later 
was  only  375,000  pounds.  The  amount  pro- 
duced in  1885  was  986,000  pounds;  and 


282 


ALL     ABOUT     COFFEE 


there  has  been  a  gradual  increase,  so  that 
the  crop  has  been  large  enough  to  permit 
the  exportation  of  1,000,000  to  2,000,000 
pounds,  or  more,  since  the  beginning  of  the 
present  century.  Exports  in  1901  were 
1,449,000  pounds;  in  1908,  2,266,000 
pounds ;  and  in  1918,  2,144,000  pounds. 

Other  West  Indian  Islands.  Some  little 
coffee  is  gathered  for  home  consumption  in 
many  other  West  Indian  islands,  but  little 
is  exported.  The  island  of  Martinique, 
which  is  said  to  have  seen  the  introduction 
of  the  coffee  plant  into  the  western  hemi- 
sphere, does  not  now  raise  enough  for  its 
own  use.  Cuba  was  formerly  one  of  the 
important  centers  of  production;  but  for 
various  reasons  the  industry  declined,  and 
for  many  years  the  country  has  imported 
most  of  its  coffee  supply.  A  century  ago, 
the  plantations  numbered  2,067 ;  and  the 
annual  exportation  amounted  to  50,000,000 
pounds.  When  the  island  became  inde- 
pendent, steps  were  taken  to  revive  coffee 
planting;  and  in  1907  there  were  1,411 
plantations  and  3,662,850  trees,  producing 
6,595,700  pounds  of  coffee.  The  Cubans, 
however,  now  find  it  convenient  to  obtain 
their  coffee  from  the  neighboring  island  of 
Porto  Rico  and  from  other  sources ;  and  im- 
portations have  remained  around  20,000,000 
pounds  a  year.  In  Trinidad  and  Tobago, 
exports  have  reached  as  high  as  1,000,000 
pounds  a  year ;  but  in  recent  times  they  have 
fallen  off  heavily.  St.  Vincent  exported  485 
pounds  in  1917,  and  Grenada,  251  pounds 
in  1916.  The  Leeward  Islands  exported 
1,415  pounds  in  1917,  and  2,946  pounds  in 
1916,  the  acreage  being  274,  the  same  as  for 
many  years  past. 

Arabia.  The  home  of  the  famous  Mocha 
coffee  still  produces  considerable  quantities 
of  that  variety,  although  the  output,  com- 
paratively speaking,  is  not  large.  The  chief 
district  is  the  vilayet  of  Yemen ;  and  the 
product  reaches  the  outside  world  mainly 
through  the  port  of  Aden,  although  before 
the  war  much  of  this  coffee  was  exported 
through  Hodeida.  The  port  of  Massowah, 
in  the  last  two  or  three  years,  has  been 
drawing  some  of  the  supply  of  Mocha  for 
export.  No  statistics  are  available  to  show 
the  production  of  Mocha  coffee ;  but  an  esti- 
mate made  by  the  oldest  coffee  merchant  in 
Aden  places  the  average  annual  output  at 
45,000  bags  of  176  pounds  each,  or  7,920,000 
pounds.  Although  this  is  the  only  district 
in  the  world  that  can  produce  the  particular 


grade  of  coffee  known  as  Mocha,  there  is 
little  systematic  cultivation,  and  large  areas 
of  good  coffee  land  are  planted  to  other 
crops  to  provide  food  for  the  natives.  When 
transportation  facilities  are  provided,  so 
that  this  food  can  be  imported,  it  is  pre- 
dicted that  the  output  of  Mocha  coffee  will 
be  doubled. 

Aden  is  a  great  transhipping  port  for 
coffee  from  Asia  and  Africa,  and  more  than 
half  its  exports  are  re-exports  from  points 
outside  of  Arabia.  The  following  figures 
will  show  the  proportion  of  Arabian  coffee 
coming  into  Aden  for  export  as  compared 
with  that  from  other  producing  sections : 

Aden's  Coffee  Receipts  for  Re-Expoet 

Imports                  1916-17  1917-18      1918-19 

from                   (pounds)  (pounds)    (pounds) 

Abyssinia  (via  Jibuti)    .4,529,280  6,174,896  4,337,760 

Mocha  and  Ghizan    ....3,555,104  6,562,752  3,075,024 

Somaliland  (British)  ..  394,128  396,592  245,840 
Straits  Settlements    .  .  .     672,224 

Zanzibar  and  Pemba     ..       92,512  795,312      764,288 

All  other  countries     ...     162,064  307,104      323,616 


Total    9,405,312   14,236,656  8,746,528 

British  India.  Cultivation  of  coffee  was 
begun  systematically  in  India  in  1840 ;  and 
twenty  years  later,  the  country  exported 
about  5,860,000  pounds.  For  the  next  eight 
years  the  exports  remained  at  about  that 
figure;  but  in  1859  they  amounted  to  11,- 
690,000  pounds;  and  by  1864  they  had 
doubled,  rising  in  that  year  to  26,745,000 
pounds.  They  have  continued  at  between 
20,000,000  and  60,000,000  pounds  ever 
since,  reaching  their  highest  point  in  1872 
with  56,817,000  pounds.  In  recent  years, 
production  and  exportation  have  declined; 
the  exports  in  1920  being  only  30,526,832 
pounds.  The  area  under  coffee  has  been 
between  200,000  and  300,000  acres  for  fifty 
years  or  more,  reaching  its  highest  point 
in  1896,  with  303,944  acres.  Recently  the 
area  has  been  slowly  decreasing. 

Ceylon.  The  island  of  Ceylon  was  form- 
erly one  of  the  important  producers  of 
coffee;  and  the  industry  was  a  flourishing 
one  until  about  1869,  when  a  disease  ap- 
peared that  in  ten  or  fifteen  years  practi- 
cally ruined  the  plantations.  Production 
has  gone  on  since  then,  but  at  a  steadily 
declining  rate.  In  late  years,  the  island 
has  not  produced  enough  for  its  own  use, 
and  is  now  ranked  as  an  importer  rather 
than  as  an  exporter.  It  is  said  that  system- 
atic cultivation  was  carried  on  in  Ceylon 
by  the  Dutch  as  early  as  1690;  and  ship- 
ments of  10,000  to  90,000  pounds  a  year 


PRODUCTIOX   AND   CONSUMPTION 


I _ 

tury,  exports  in  one  year,  1741,  going  as 
high  as  370,000  pounds.  The  English  took 
the  island  in  1795,  and  thirty  years  later, 
they  began  to  expand  cultivation.  Exports 
had  risen  to  12,400,000  pounds  in  1836  ;  and 
they  continued  to  increase  to  a  high  point 
of  118,160,000  pounds  in  1870;  but  in  the 
next  thirty  years  they  declined,  until  they 
were  only  1,147,000  pounds  in  1900.  The 
total  acreage  in  coffee  at  one  time  reached 
as  high  as  340,000;  but  as  the  coffee  trees 
were  att'ected  by  the  leaf  disease,  this  land 
was  turned  to  tea;  and  in  1917  there  were 
only  810  acres  left  in  cotfee. 

Dutch  East  Indies.  The  year  1699  saw 
the  importation  from  the  Malabar  coast  of 
India  to  Java  of  the  cotfee  plants  which 
were  destined  to  be  the  progenitors  of  the 
tens  of  millions  of  trees  that  have  made  the 
Dutch  East  Indies  famous  for  two  hundred 
years.  Twelve  years  afterward,  the  first 
trickle  of  the  stream  of  coffee  that  has  con- 
tinued to  flow  ever  since  found  its  way 
from  Java  to  Holland,  in  a  shipment  of  894 
pounds.  About  216,000  pounds  were  ex- 
ported in  1721;  and  soon  thereafter,  ship- 
ments  rose   into    the   millions   of   pounds. 

From  1721  to  1730  the  Netherlands 
East  India  Co.  marketed  25,048,000  pounds 
of  Java  coffee  in  Holland;  and  in  the  de- 
cade following,  36,845,000  pounds.  Ship- 
ments from  Java  continued  at  about  the 
latter  rate  until  the  close  of  the  century, 
although  in  the  ten  years  1771  -  80  they 
reached  a  total  of  51,319,000  pounds.  The 
total  sales  of  Java  coffee  in  Holland  for  the 
century  were  somewhat  more  than  a  quarter 
of  a  billion  pounds,  which  represented 
pretty  closely  the  amount  produced. 

With  the  beginning  of  the  nineteenth 
century,  coffee  production  soon  became 
much  heavier;  and  in  1825  Java  exported, 
of  her  own  production,  some  36,500,000 
pounds,  besides  1,360,000  pounds  brought 
from  neighboring  islands  to  which  the  cul- 
tivation had  spread.  In  1855,  the  amount 
was  168,100,000  pounds  of  Java  coffee,  and 
4,080,000  pounds  of  coffee  from  the  other 
islands.  This  is  the  highest  record  for  the 
half-century  following  the  beginning  of  the 
regular  reports  of  exports  in  1825.  From 
1875  to  1879  the  average  annual  yield  was 
152,184,000  pounds.  In  1900,  production 
in  Java  was  84,184,000  pounds;  in  1910, 
it  was  31,552,000  pounds,  and  in  1915  it 
had  jumped  to  73,984,000  pounds. 


283 


On  the  west  coast  of  Sumatra  coffee  was 
regularly  cultivated,  according  to  one  ac- 
count, as  early  as  17-83 ;  but  it  was  not  until 
about  1800,  that  exportation  began,  with 
about  270,000  pounds.  By  1840,  exports 
were  averaging  11,000,000  to  12,250,000 
pounds  per  year.  Ofificial  records  of  pro- 
duction date  from  1852,  in  which  year  the 
figures  were  16,714,000  pounds.  Five  years 
later  the  recorded  yield  was  25,960,000 
pounds,  the  high-water  mark  of  Sumatra 
production.  The  total  output  in  1860  was 
21,400,000  pounds;  and  22,275,000  pounds 
in  1870.  The  average  from  1875  to  1879 
was  17,408,000  pounds;  and  from  1895  to 
1899,  it  was  7,589,000  pounds.  The  yield 
was  5,576,000  pounds  in  1900;  1,360,000 
in  1910;  and  7,752,000  in  1915. 

In  Celebes,  the  first  plants  were  set  out 
about  1750 ;  but  seventy  years  later  produc- 
tion was  only  some  10,000  pounds.  This 
soon  increased  to  half  a  million  pounds; 
and  from  1835  to  1852  the  yield  ran  between 
340,000  and  1,768,000  pounds.  From  1875 
to  1879,  production  averaged  2,176,000 
pounds;  from  1885  to  1889,  2,747,000 
pounds;  and  from  1895  to  1899,  707,000 
pounds.  In  1900,  it  was  680,000  pounds; 
in  1910,  272,000  pounds ;  and  in  1915,  272,- 
000  pounds. 

Planting  under  government  control, 
largely  wdth  forced  labor,  has  been  the 
special  feature  of  coffee  cultivation  in  the 
Dutch  East  Indies.  At  first  the  govern- 
ment exercised  what  was  practically  a 
monopoly;  but  private  planting  was  more 
and  more  permitted ;  and  in  the  latter  part 
of  the  nineteenth  century,  the  amount  of 
coffee  produced  on  private  plantations  ex 
ceeded  that  raised  by  the  government.  The 
government  has  now  entirely  given  up  the 
business  of  coffee  production. 

The  total  production  of  coffee  in  Java, 
Sumatra,  and  Celebes,  in  1920,  in  piculs  of 
136  pounds,  was  as  follows : 

Dutch  East  Indies'  Coffee  Production 
Kind  of  Quantity  Produced  in 

Coffee  Java       Sumatra     Celebes        Total 

and  Bali 
(piculs)     (piculs)     (piculs)    (piculs) 
Liberica     .     14,972  6,243         2,074        23,289 

Java     16,312         24,291       70,621       111,224 

Robusta  ..  411,235       256,645        4,998      672,878 


Total     ..  442,519       287,179       77,693       807,391 

Straits  Settlements.    Trade  in  coffee  is 
a  transhipping  trade,  Singapore  acting  as  a 


284 


ALL     ABOUT     COFFEE 


clearing  center  for  large  quantities  of 
coffee  from  the  neighboring  islands.  In 
1920,  the  imports  were  25,914,267  pounds; 
and  the  exports,  26,856,000  pounds. 

Federated  Malay  States.  The  acreage 
in  coffee  in  the  Federated  Malay  States  is 
steadily  declining.  In  1903,  coffee  planta- 
tions covered  22,700  acres;  in  1913,  7,695 
acres ;  and  in  1916,  4,312  acres.  There  was 
formerly  a  considerable  export ;  but  appar- 
ently local  production  is  now  required  for 
home  consumption,  as  in  1920  exports  were 
practically  nothing,  and  about  9,800  pounds 
were  imported. 

British  Nortpe  Borneo.  Total  exports  of 
coffee  have  reached  as  high  as  50,000 
pounds,  which  was  the  figure  in  1904;  but 
they  are  much  less  now;  being  5,973 
pounds  in  1915 ;  15,109  pounds  in  1916  ;  and 
1,980  pounds  in  1918. 

Sarawak.  Previous  to  1912,  the  exporta- 
tion of  coffee  from  Sarawak  was  20,000  to 
45,000  pounds  annually.  In  1912,  a  coffee 
estate  of  300  acres  was  abandoned,  and  since 
that  time  there  have  been  no  exports. 

Philippines.  Coffee  raising  was  former- 
ly one  of  the  chief  industries  of  the  Philip- 
pines; but  it  has  now  greatly  declined, 
partly  because  of  the  blight.  Exports 
reached  their  highest  point  in  1883,  when 
16,805,000  pounds  were  shipped.  Since 
then,  they  have  fallen  off  steadily  to  noth- 
ing; and  the  islands  are  now  importers, 
although  still  producing  considerable  for 
their  own  use.  The  area  still  under  cultiva- 
tion in  1920  was  2,700  acres ;  and  the  pro- 
duction in  that  year  was  given  as  2,710,000 
pounds,  as  compared  with  1,580,000  pounds 
in  1919,  and  an  average  of  1,500,000  pounds 
for  the  previous  five  years. 

Guam.  Coffee  is  a  common  plant  on  the 
island  but  is  not  systematically  cultivated. 
There  is  no  exportation,  but  a  Navy  De- 
partment report  says  that  the  possible  ex- 
port is  not  less  than  seventy-five  tons 
annually. 

Hawaii.  A  certain  amount  of  coffee  has 
been  produced  in  the  Hawaiian  Islands  for 
many  years,  exports  being  recorded  as  49,- 
000  pounds  in  1861;  as  452,000  pounds  in 
1870 ;  and  as  143,000  pounds  in  1877.  The 
trees  grow  on  all  the  islands ;  but  nearly  all 
the  coffee  produced  is  raised  on  Hawaii. 
The  trees  are  not  carefully  cultivated;  but 
the  coffee  has  an  excellent  flavor.  The- 
amount  of  land  planted  to  coffee  is  about 


6,000  acres.  The  exports  go  mostly  to  con- 
tinental United  States.  The  exports  are 
increasing,  the  figures  up  to  1909  ranging 
usually  between  1,000,000  and  2,000,000 
pounds,  and  now  usually  running  between 
2,000,000  and  5,000,000  pounds.  Including 
shipments  to  continental  United  States, 
Hawaii  exported  5,775,825  pounds  in  1918 ; 
3,649,672  pounds  in  1919 ;  2,573,300  pounds 
in  1920 ;  and  4,979,121  pounds  in  1921. 

Australia.  Queensland  is  the  only  state 
of  the  Commonwealth  in  which  coffee  grow- 
ing has  been  at  all  extensively  tried;  and 
here  the  results  have,  up  to  the  present 
time,  been  far  from  satisfactory.  The  total 
area  devoted  to  this  crop  reached  its  highest 
point  in  the  season  1901  -  02  when  an  area 
of  547  acres  was  recorded.  The.  area  then 
continuously  declined  to  1906  -  07,  when  it 
was  as  low  as  256  acres.  In  subsequent 
seasons  the  area  fluctuated  somewhat;  but, 
on  the  whole,  with  a  downward  tendency. 
In  1919  -  20,  only  24  productive  acres  were 
recorded,  with  a  yield  of  16,101  pounds. 
The  country  is  now  listed  among  the  con- 
suming rather  than  the  producing  countries. 

Abyssinia.  This  country,  usually  cred- 
ited with  being  the  original  home  of  the 
coffee  plant,  still  has,  in  its  southern  part, 
vast  forests  of  wild  coffee  whose  extent  is 
unknown,  but  whose  total  production  is 
believed  to  be  immense.  It  is  of  inferior 
grade,  and  reaches  the  market  as  ' '  Abyssin- 
ian" coffee.  There  is  also  a  large  district 
of  coffee  plantations  producing  a  very  good 
grade  called  "Harari",  which  is  considered 
almost,  if  not  quite,  the  equal  of  the 
Arabian  Mocha.  This  is  usually  shipped 
to  Aden  for  re-export.  Abyssinia's  coffee 
reaches  the  outside  world  through  three 
different  gate-ways ;  and  as  the  neighboring 
countries,  through  which  the  produce  passes, 
also  produce  coffee,  no  accurate  statistics 
are  available  to  show  the  country's  annual 
export.  The  total  probably  ranges  from 
10,000,000  to  20,000,000  pounds  a  year. 
Coffee  was  shipped  from  Abyssinia  to  the 
extent  of  6,773,800  pounds  in  1914,  over 
the  Franco-Ethiopian  railroad;  10,054,000 
pounds  in  1915;  and  9,064,000  pounds  in 
1916.  Export  figures  of  the  port  of  Mas- 
sowah  include  a  large  amount  of  Abyssin- 
ian coffee,  but  the  proportion  is  unknown. 
At  this  port  108,680  pounds  of  coffee  were 
exported  in  1914;  and  1,221,880  pounds  in 
1915.  Abyssinian  coffee  exported  by  way  of 
the  Sudan  amounted  to  232,616  pounds  iiL 


i 


PRODUCTION  AND  CONSUMPTION 


285 


1914;  to  140,461  pounds  in  1915;  and  to 
4,164,600  pounds  in  1916. 

British  East  African  Protectorate. 
The  acreage  in  coffee  has  greatly  increased 
in  recent  years.  It  was  estimated  at  1,000 
acres  in  1911 ;  and  by  1916,  it  had  grown 
to  22,200  acres.  Production,  as  shown  by 
the  exports,  has  likewise  increased  greatly; 
and  exports  in  recent  years  have  averaged 
about  8,000,000  pounds  a  year.  They  were 
10,984,000  pounds  in  1917;  and  were  18,- 
735,000  pounds  in  1918. 

Uganda  Protectorate.  The  acreage  in 
coffee  has  been  steadily  increasing,  as  shown 
bv  the  following  figures:  1910,  697  acres; 
1914,  19,278  acres ;  1916,  23,857  acres ;  1917, 
22,745  acres.  In  1909,  33,440  pounds  of 
coffee  were  produced ;  and  by  1918,  this  had 
grown  to  10,000,000  pounds.  The  average 
for  the  five  years,  1914-18,  was  5,076,000 
pounds. 

Nyasaland  Protectorate.  Twenty-five 
years  ago,  this  colony  exported  coffee  in 
amounts  ranging  from  300,000  to  more  than 
2,000,000  pounds.  Production  has  now  so 
declined,  that  only  122,000  pounds  were 
exported  in  1918  ;  and  the  average  for  recent 
years  has  been  about  92,000  pounds.  The 
acreage  in  bearing  in  1903  was  8,234;  and 
in  1917  it  was  1,237. 

Nigeria.  Production  has  been  falling  off 
in  recent  years.  Exports  were  35,000 
pounds  in  1896 ;  57,000  pounds  in  1901 ;  and 
70,000  pounds  in  1909.  In  1916  and  1917, 
however,  they  were  only  about  3,000 
pounds. 

Gold  Coast.  This  colony  formerly  pro- 
duced considerable  coffee,  exporting  142,000 
pounds  in  1896.  There  have  been  no 
exports  in  recent  years,  except  about  440 
pounds  in  1916,  and  660  pounds  in  1917. 

SOMALILAND   PROTECTORATE.       ExpOrts   of 

coffee  were  more  than  7,500,000  pounds  in 
1897,  indicating  a  very  extensive  produc- 
tion. But  since  then,  there  has  been  a 
steady  decline ;  and  in  1918  only  about  440,- 
000  pounds  were  shipped. 

Somali  Coast  (French).  Exports  of 
coffee  from  this  colony  amounted  to  more 
than  5,000,000  pounds  in  1902;  and  since 
then,  they  have  remained  fairly  steadily  at 
that  figure,  showing  considerable  increase 
in  late  years.  Total  exports  in  1917  were 
11,200,000  pounds. 

Italian  Somaliland.  Some  coffee  ap- 
pears to  be  grown  in  this  colony;  but  ex- 


ports have  been  inconsiderable  for  many 
years. 

Sierra  Leone.  Production  has  been 
steadily  declining  for  twenty  years.  Ex- 
ports were  33,376  pounds  in  1903;  17,096 
pounds  in  1913 ;  and  8,228  pounds  in  1917. 

Mauritius.  In  former  times  this  island 
was  an  important  coffee  producer,  exports 
in  the  early  part  of  the  nineteenth  century 
running  as  high  as  600,000  pounds.  To-day 
there  is  practically  no  export,  and  only 
about  30  acres  are  in  bearing,  producing 
4,000  to  8,000  pounds  a  year. 

Reunion.  This  island  also  was  once  a 
notable  grower  of  coffee.  A  century  ago, 
production  was  estimated  as  high  as  10,- 
000,000  pounds;  and  this  rate  of  output 
continued  well  through  the  nineteenth 
century.  In  the  present  century,  produc- 
tion has  fallen  off;  and  only  about  530,000 
pounds  were  exported  in  1909.  The  de- 
crease has  continued,  so  that  the  average  in 
recent  years  has  been  only  about  25,000 
pounds. 

Coffee  Consumption 

Of  the  million  or  more  tons  of  coffee 
produced  in  the  world  each  year,  prac- 
tically all  —  with  the  exception  of  that 
which  is  used  in  the  coffee-growing  coun- 
tries themselves  —  is  consumed  by  the 
United  States  and  western  Europe,  the 
British  dominions,  and  the  non-producing 
countries  of  South  America.  Over  that  vast 
stretch  of  territory  beginning  with  western 
Russia,  and  extending  over  almost  the  whole 
of  Asia,  coffee  is  very  little  known.  In  the 
consuming  regions  mentioned,  moreover, 
consumption  is  concentrated  in  a  few  coun- 
tries, which  together  account  for  some 
ninety  percent  of  all  the  coffee  that  enters 
the  world's  markets.  These  are,  the  United 
States,  which  now  takes  more  than  one-half, 
and  Germany,  France,  Spain,  Italy,  Hol- 
land, Belgium,  Switzerland,  and  Scandi- 
navia. 

The  United  Kingdom  stands  out  conspicu- 
ously among  the  nations  of  western  Europe 
as  a  small  consumer  of  coffee,  the  per 
capita  consumption  in  that  country  being 
only  about  two-thirds  of  a  pound  each  year. 
France  and  Germany  are  by  far  the  biggest 
coffee  buyers  of  Europe  so  far  as  actual 
quantity  is  concerned;  although  some  of 
the  other  countries  mentioned  drink  much 
more  coffee  in  proportion  to  the  population. 
The     Mediterranean     countries     and     the 


286 


ALL     ABOUT     COFFEE 


COrrEE   CONSUMPT/ON. 


J»00  /SOO         /a/O        A9SO 


No.  4  —  Woklh's  Coffee  Consumption,  1850-1920 

Diagram     showing    the     relationship    between    the 
leading  coffee-consuming  countries 


Balkans  are  of  only  secondary  importance 
as  coffee  drinkers.  Among  the  British 
dominions,  the  Union  of  South  Africa  takes 
much  the  largest  amount,  doubtless  because 
of  the  Dutch  element  in  its  population ; 
while  Canada,  Australia,  and  New  Zealand 
show  the  influence  of  the  mother  country, 
consumption  per  head  in  the  last  two  being 
no  greater  than  in  England. 

In  South  America,  Brazil,  Bolivia,  and 
all  the  countries  to  the  north,  are  coffee 
producers.  Of  the  southern  countries,  Ar- 
gentina is  the  chief  coffee  buyer,  with  Chile 
second.  In  the  western  hemisphere,  how- 
ever, the  largest  per  capita  coffee  consumer 
is  the  island  of  Cuba,  which  raises  some 
coffee  of  its  own  and  imports  heavily  from 
its  neighbors. 

The  list  of  coffee-consuming  countries  in- 
cludes practically  all  those  that  do  not  raise 
coffee,  and  also  a  few  that  have  some  coff'ee 
plantations,  but  do  not  grow  enough  for 
their  own  use.  These  countries  are  listed 
on  page  287.  Consumption  figures  can  be 
determined  with  fair  accuracy  by  the  im- 
port figures;  although  in  some  countries, 
where  there  is  a  considerable  transit  trade, 
it  is  necessary  to  deduct  export  from  import 
figures  to  obtain  actual  consumption  figures. 
The  import  figures  given  are  the  latest  avail- 
able for  each  country  named. 

On  account  of  the  very  wide  fluctuations 
in  imports  during  the  war  and  the  period 
following  the  war,   per   capita  figures  of 


consumption  are  of  only  relative  value,  as 
they  have  naturally  changed  radically  in 
recent  years.  For  the  most  part,  however, 
the  trade  has  about  swung  back  to  normal ; 
and  per  capita  figures  based  on  the  amounts 
retained  for  consumption,  as  given  in  the 
General  Coffee  Consumption  Table,  are 
fairly  close  to  those  for  the  years  before 
the  war.  As  per  capita  calculations  must 
take  into  account  population  as  well  as 
amounts  of  coffee  consumed;  and  as  popu- 
lation figures  are  usually  estimates,  the  re- 
sults arrived  at  by  different  authorities 
are  likely  to  vary  slightly,  although  usu- 


/S/6 


/S/7 


/9/8 


/S/-9        /920 


Coffee  Imports,   lUl<')-lt)2() 


In  this  diagram  a  comparison  is  drawn  between  the 
coffee  imports  of  the  leading  consuming  coun- 
tries over  a   critical  5-year  period 


ally  they  are  not  far  apart.  In  figuring 
the  per  capita  amounts  in  the  table  on 
page  288,  latest  available  estimates  of  popu- 
lation have  been  used.  The  figures  show 
that    the    following    are    the    ten    leading- 


PRODUCTION  AND   CONSUMPTION  287 

General  Coffee  Consumption  Table 

Country  Year 

United  States 1921a 

Canada   1921c 

Newfoundland    1920  c 

United  Kingdom    1921 » 

France    1921  a 

Spain    1920 

Portugal 1919a 

Belgium    1921  a 

Holland    1921  a 

Denmark    1921  a 

Norway    1921  a 

Sweden  1921  a 

Finland    1921  a 

Rnssiii    1916 

Austria-Hungary  (former)  1917 

Austria     1921  e 

Germany  (former)    1913 

Germany  (present)   1921' 

Poland    1920 

Bulgaria 1914 

Rumania    1919 

Greece 19208 

Switzerland 1921* 

Italy   1920 

Algeria   1920 

Tunis    1920 

Egypt    1921a 

Union  of  So.  Africa    1920 

Northern  Rhodesia   1920 

Southern  Rhodesia  1920 

Mozambique    1919 

Ceylon    1920 

China    1920 

Japan    1920 

Philippines    1920 

Canary  Islands 1917 

Cyprus   1918 

Australia    1920c 

New  Zealand 1920 

Cuba    1920c 

Martinique    1918 

Panama    1920 

Argentina    1919 

Chile   1920 

Uruguay 19218 

Paraguay  1920 


Imports 

Exports 

Consumption 

(pounds) 

(pounds) 

(pounds) 

.,345,366,943  b 

41,813,197b 

1,303,553,746 

17,517,353 

20.349 

17,497,004 

46,813d 

46.813 

34.363,728  d 

34,360,128 

322.419.884 

1,154,769 

321,265,115 

48,518,854 

5,033 

48,513,821 

6,926,575 

1,258,271 

5,668,304 

105.365,586 

21,541,049 

83,824.537 

135.566.943 

66,567,702 

69,999,241 

46,571,954 

3,449,537 

43,122,417 

29,835,544 

169,921 

29,665,623 

89,660.766 

89,660.766 

27,968,355 

27.968,355 

9,801,014 

9,801,014 

17,966,167 

56,217 

17,909,950 

5,128,781 

79,365 

5,049,416 

371.130,520 

1,783,521 

369,346,999 

167.675.258 

210,535 

167,464,723 

7,612,526 

26,781 

7,585,745 

1,300,493 

1,300.493 

5,134,198 

66,757 

5.067.441 

13,118,626 

13,118.626 

31,582,879 

47,619 

31.535,260 

66,509,255 

14,330 

66,4^4,925 

17,273,041 

17,273,041 

3,458,018 

3,458.018 

20,939,542 

218,938 

20,720,604 

28,752,538 

954,181b 

27,798,357 

43,880 

8.263 

35,617 

325,900 

10,064 

315,836 

111,614 

78,973 

32,641 

1,853,537 

2,240 

1,851,297 

613,217 

297,663 

315,554 

684,826 

684,826 

3,475,530 

26 

3,475,504 

529,104 

529,104 

451,880 

451,880 

2,502,429 

263,4301 

2.238,999 

304,737 

21,104 

283,633 

39,983,001 

1,305 

39,981,696 

335,099 

10,362 

324,737 

216,923 

518 

216,405 

37,541,020 

37,541,020 

12,357,929 

12,357,929 

4,896,507 

4,896,507 

262,737 

262,737 

a  Preliminary  figures. 

b Figures  are  for  continental  U.  S.  Imports  include  both  foreign  coffee  and  coffee  from  our  Island  posses- 
sions. Exports  include  both  foreign  and  domestic  exports  from  continental  U.  S.  and  also  exports  to  our 
island  possessions. 

'•Fiscal  year,      d  Entered  for  home   consumption. 

eFirst  six  months.     Imports  in  1920  were  6,042,808    pounds;   exports  93,034  pounds. 

f  Eight  months,  May  -  December.       k  First   eleven   months. 

h  Exports  of  foreign  coffee.     Domestic  exports  were    48,463  pounds. 

i  Exports  of  foreign  coffee.     Domestic   exports  were    208,445  pounds. 


288 


ALL     ABOUT     COFFEE 


countries  in  the  per  capita  consumption  of 
coffee  in  pounds : 

1.  Sweden 15.25  6.  Norway 10.95 

2.  Cuba    13.79  7.  Holland 10.22 

3.  Denmark 13.19  8.  Finland 8.25 

4.  United  States.  12.09  9.  Switzerland  .  8.17 

5.  Belgium    11.06  10.  France 7.74 

The  per  capita  consumption  of  the  most 
important  coffee-consuming  countries, 
based  on  the  large  table,  is  given  with  the 
1913  per  capita  figures  for  comparison : 

Per  Capita   Coffee   Consumption  Table 

Country                    Year  Pounds  Pds.,  1913 

United  States 1921  12.09  8.90b 

Canada 1921^  1.93  2.17= 

Newfoundland  .....   1920a  o.l9  0.19" 

United  Kingdom  . . .   1921  0.72  0.61b 

France 1921  7.74  6.41 

Spain   1920  2.33  1.64 

Portugal    1919  0.86  1.16 

Belgium 1921  11.06  12.27 

Holland 1921  10.22  18.80 

Denmark 1921  13.19  12.85 

Norway   1921  10.95  12.29 

Sweden    1921  15.25  13.41 

Finland   1921  8.25  8.85 

Russia   1916  0.05  0.16 

Austria-Hungary  . . .   1917  0.34  2.54 

Germany 1921  4.10  5.43 

Roumania 1919  0.29  1.04 

Greece   1920  2.97  1.19 

Switzerland    1921  8.17  6.48 

Italy 1920  1.84  1.79 

Egypt    1921  1.53  1.15 

Union  of  So.  Africa .   1920  S.SOd  4.19^ 

Ceylon   1920  0.43  0.36 

China 1920  0.001  0.01 

Japan 1920  0.01  0.0O4 

Cuba 1920a  13.79  10.00 

Argentina   1919  4.40  3.74 

Chile    1920  3.06  3.04 

Uruguay    1921  3.61  e 

Paraguay 1920  0.26  ^ 

Australia    1920a  0.42  0.64 

New  Zealand 1920  0.24  0.29 

a  Fiscal  year. 

bFiscal  year  1913. 

cFiscal  year  ending  March  31,   1914. 

d  Including  both  white  and  colored  population. 

eNot  available. 

Tea  and  Coffee  in  England  and  the  U.  S. 

The  rise  of  the  United  States  as  a  coffee 
consumer  in  the  last  century  and  a  quarter 
has  been  marked,  not  only  by  steadily  in- 
creased imports  as  the  population  of  the 
country  increased,  but  also  by  a  steady 
growth  in  per  capita  consumption,  show- 
ing that  the  beverage  has  been  continually 
advancing  in  favor  with  the  American  peo- 
ple. To-day  it  stands  at  practically  its 
highest  point,  each  individual  man,  woman, 
and  child  having  more  than  12  pounds  a 
year,  enough  for  almost  500  cups,  allotted 
to  him  as  his  portion.     This  is  four  times 


/sea  /fft^  /ssa   /sse>  /&ao  /^/o  /&po 


No.  6  —  World's  Consumption  of  Tea  and 

Coffee 
Diagram    showing   their    relationship,    1900-1920 

as  much  as  it  was  a  hundred  years  ago; 
and  more  than  twice  as  much  as  it  was  in 
the  years  immediately  following  the  Civil 
War.  In  general  it  is  fifty  percent  more 
than  the  average  in  the  twenty  years  pre- 
ceding 1897,  in  which  year  a  new  high  level 
of  coffee  consumption  was  apparently  es- 
tablished, the  per  capita  figure  for  that  year 
being  10.12  pounds,  which  has  been  ap- 
proximately the  average  since  then. 

Since  the  advent  of  country-wide  pro- 
hibition in  the  United  States  on  July  1, 
1919,  about  two  pounds  more  coffee  per 
person,  or  80  to  100  cups,  have  been  con- 
sumed than  before.  Part  of  this  increase 
is  doubtless  to  be  charged  to  prohibition; 
but  it  is  yet  too  early  to  judge  fairly  as 
to  the  exact  effect  of  "bone-dry"  legisla- 


PRODUCTIOA^  AND   CONSUMPTION 


289 


tion  on  coffee  drinking.  The  continued 
growth  in  the  use  of  coffee  in  the  United 
States  has  been  in  decided  contrast  to  the 
per  capita  consumption  of  tea,  which  is  less 
now  than  half  a  century  ago. 

In  the  United  Kingdom,  the  reverse  eon- 
ilition  prevails.  Tea  drinking  there  stead- 
ily maintains  a  popularity  which  it  has 
enjoyed  for  centuries;  while  coffee  appar- 
ently makes  no  advance  in  favor.  In  this 
respect,  the  country  is  sharply  distin- 
guished from  its  neighbors  of  western  Eu- 
rope, in  many  of  w^hich  coffee  drinking  has 
been  much  heavier,  considering  the  popu- 
lation, even  than  in  the  United  States. 
The  contrast  between  the  tastes  of  the  two 
countries  in  beverages  is  shown  clearly  by 
the  per  capita  figures  of  tea  and  coffee 
consumption  for  half  a  century,  as  they 
appear  in  the  table,  next  column. 

Coffee  Consumption  in  Europe 

On  the  continent  of  Europe,  however, 
coffee  enjoys  much  the  same  sort  of  popu- 
larity that  it  does  in  the  United  States. 
The  leading  continental  coffee  ports  are 
Hamburg,  Bremen,  Copenhagen,  Amster- 
dam, Rotterdam,  Antwerp,  Havre,  Bor- 
deaux, Marseilles,  and  Trieste ;  and  the  na- 
tionalities of  these  ports  indicate  pretty 
well  the  countries  that  consume  the  most 
coffee.  The  northern  ports  are  tranship- 
ping points  for  large  quantities  of  coffee 
going  to  the  Scandinavian  countries,  as  well 
as  importing  ports  for  their  own  countries ; 
and  these  countries  have  been  among  the 
leading  coffee  drinkers,  per  head  of  popu- 
lation, for  many  decades.  Norway,  for  in- 
stance, in  1876  was  consuming  about  8.8 
pounds  of  coffee  per  person;  Sweden,  5 
pounds;  and  Denmark,  5.2  pounds.  The 
per  capita  consumption  of  various  other 
countries  at  about  the  same  period^  1875  to 
1880,  has  been  estimated  as  follows :  Hol- 
liand,  17.6  pounds ;  Belgium,  9.1  pounds ; 
Germany,  5.1  pounds;  Austria-Hungary, 
2.2  pounds;  Switzerland,  Q.Q  pounds; 
France,  3  pounds ;  Spain,  0.2  pounds ;  Por- 
tugal, 0.7  pounds;  and  Greece,  1.6  pounds. 

Today,  the  leading  country  of  the  world 
in  point  of  per  capita  consumption  is 
Sweden  (15.25  pounds)  ;  but  Holland  held 
that  position  for  a  long  while.  During  the 
World  War  the  disturbance^  of  trade  cur- 
rents, and  the  high  price  of  coffee,  greatly 
reduced  the  amount  of  coffee  drinking ;  and 


Tea  and  Coffee  Consumption  Pee  Capita 

Year  United  States  United  Kingdom 

Cofifee  Tea  Coffee  Tea 

pounds  pounds  pounds      pounds 

1866 4.96  1.17  1.02  3.42 

1867  5.01  1.09  1.04  3.68 

1868    6.52  .96  1.00  3.52 

1869 6.45  1.08  .94  3.63 

1870 6.00  1.10  .98  3.81 

1871  7.91  1.14  .97  3.92 

1872  7.28  1.46  .98  4.01 

1873 6.87  1.53  .99  4.11 

1874 6.59  1.27  .96  4.23 

1875 7.08  1.44  ,98  4.44 

1876 7.33  1.35  .99  4.50 

1877 6.94  1.23  .96  4.52 

1878 6.24  1.33  .97  4.66 

1879 7.42  1.21  .99  4.68 

1880 8.78  1.39  .92  4.57 

1881  8.25  1.54  .89  4.58 

1882  8.30  1.47  .89  4.69 

1883 8.91  1.30  .89  4.82 

1884 9.26  1.09  .90  4.90 

1885 9.60  1.18  .91  5.06 

1886 9.36  1.37  .87  4.92 

1887 8.53  1.49  .80  5.02 

1888 6.81  1.49  .83  5.03 

1889 9.16  1.25  .76  4.99 

1890 7.77  1.32  .75  5.17 

1891 7.»4  1.28  .76       "     5.36 

1892 9.59  1.36  .74  5.43 

1893 8.23  1.32  .69  5.40 

1894  8.01  1.34  .68  5.51 

1895 9.24  1.39  .70  5.65 

1896 8.08  1.32  .69  5.75 

1897  10.04  1.56  .68  5.79 

1898  11.59  .93  .68  5.83 

1899 10.72  .97  .71  5.95 

1900 9.84  1.09  .71  6.07 

1901  10.43  1.12  .76  6.16 

1902  33.32  .92  .68  6.07 

1903 10.80  1.27  .71  6.04 

1904 11.67  1.31  .68  6.02 

1905  11.98  1.19  .67  6.02 

1906 9.72  1.06  .66  6.22 

1907 11.15  .96  .67  6.26 

1908 9.82  1.03  .66  6.24 

1909  11.43  1.24  .67  6.37 

1910 9.33  .89  .65  6.39 

1911 9.29  1.05  .62  6.47 

1912 9.26  1.04  .61  6.49 

1913 8.90  .96  .61  6.68 

1914 10.14  .91  .63  6.89 

1915 10.62  .91  .71  6.87 

1916  11.20  1.07  .66  6.56 

1917 12.38  .99  1.02  6.03 

1918 10.43  1.40  1.19  6.75 

1919 9.13  .87  .76  8.43 

1920 12.78  .84  .74  8.51 

Figures  for  all  except  most  recent  years  are  taken 

from  the  Stati8ti<-al  Abstract  publications  of  the  two 

countries.  For  the  United  States  the  figures  given 
apply  to  fiscal  years  ending  June  30,  and  for  the 
United  Kingdom  to  calendar  years. 


290 


ALL     ABOUT     COFFEE 


the  Dutch  took  to  drinking  tea  in  consider- 
able quantities. 

France.  Second  only  to  the  United 
States,  in  the  total  amount  of  coffee  con- 
sumed, is  France ;  although  that  country 
before  the  war  occupied  third  place,  being 
passed  by  Grcrmany.  Havre  is  one  of  the 
great  coffee  ports  of  Europe ;  and  has  a 
coffee  exchange  organized  in  1882,  only  a 
short  time  after  the  Exchange  in  New  York 
began  operations.  France  draws  on  all  the 
large  producing  regions  for  her  coffee ;  but 
is  especially  prominent  in  the  trade  in  the 
West  Indies  and  the  countries  around  the 
Caribbean  Sea.  Imports  in  1921  (prelim- 
inary) amounted  to  322,419,884  pounds; 
exports  to  1,154,769  pounds;  and  net  con- 
sumption, to  321,265,115  pounds. 

Germany.  Hamburg  is  one  of  the  world 's 
important  coffee  ports ;  and  in  normal  times 
coffee  is  brought  there  in  vast  amounts,  not 
only  for  shipment  into  the  interior  of  Ger- 
many, but  also  for  transhipment  to  Scandi- 
navia, Finland  and  Russia.  Up  to  the  out- 
break of  the  war,  Germany  was  the  chief 
coffee-drinking  country  of  Europe.  During 
the  blockade,  the  Germans  resorted  to  sub- 
stitutes; and  after  the  war  because  of  high 
prices,  there  was  still  some  consumption  of 
them.  German  coffee  imports  since  the  war 
have  not  quite  climbed  back  to  their  former 
high  mark;  and  the  per  capita  consump- 
tion, judged  by  these  figures  is  still  some- 
what low.  Importations  amounted  to 
90,602,000  pounds  in  1920.  The  amount  of 
total  imports  was  371,130,520  pounds  in 
1913;  total  exports,  1,783,521  pounds;  and 
net  imports,  369,346,999  pounds. 

Netherlands.  Netherlands  is  one  of  the 
oldest  coffee  countries  of  Europe,  and  for 
centuries  has  been  a  great  transhipping 
agent,  distributing  coffee  from  her  East 
Indian  possessions  and  from  America 
among  her  northern  neighbors.  Before 
sending  these  coffee  shipments  aloner.  how- 
ever, she  kept  back  enough  plentifully  to 
supply  her  own  people,  so  that  for  many 
years  before  the  war  she  led  the  world  in 
per  capita  consumption.  As  far  back  as 
1867  -  76,  coffee  consumption  was  averaging 
more  than  13  pounds  per  capita.  In  the 
year  before  the  war,  the  average  was  18.8 
pounds.  The  blockade,  and  other  abnormal 
conditions  during  the  war,  threw  the  trade 
off;  and  it  is  still  subnormal.  In  1920  the 
net  imports  were  about  96,000,000  pounds, 
Avhich  would  give  a  per  capita  consump- 


tion of  about  14  pounds  if  it  all  went  into- 
consumption.  But  part  of  it  was  probably 
stored  for  later  exportation,  as  indicated 
by  the  figures  for  1921,  which  show  heavy 
exports  and  a  c&nsequent  lower  figure  for 
consumption.  Eighty  per  cent  of  the  Neth- 
erlands coffee  trade  is  handled  through 
Amsterdam. 

Consumption  of  coffee  is  now  slowly 
going  back  to  normal,  but  the  change  in 
source  of  imports  —  which  before  the  war 
came  largely  from  Brazil  but  which  war 
conditions  turned  heavily  toward  the  East 
Indies  —  is  still  in  evidence.  Per  capita 
consumption  of  coffee  in  Holland  up  to  the 
outbreak  of  the  war  was  as  follows : 
Coffee  Consumption  ?*:»  Capita  in  Holland 


Year 


Pounds 


Year 


Pounds: 


1847-56  ... 

.  9.6 

19()7  .... 

14.9 

1857-66  ... 

.  7.1 

1908  .... 

14.8 

1867-76  ... 

.  18.3 

1909  .... 

. ...  16.7 

1877-86  ... 

.  16.7 

1910  .... 

....  15.7 

1887-96  ... 

.  12.8 

1311  .... 

. ...  15.8 

1897-1906  . 

.  16.7 

1912  .... 

12.8 

1906 

.  17.2 

1913  .... 

.  ...  18.8 

Other  Countries  op  Europe.  Denmark^ 
Norway,  and  Sweden  are  all  heavy  coft'ee 
drinkers.  In  1921  Sweden  had  the  highest 
per  capita  consumption  in  the  world,  15.25 
pounds.  Before  the  war,  these  three  coun- 
tries each  consumed  about  as  much  per 
capita  as  the  United  States  does  to-day,  12 
to  13  pounds.  The  1921  imports  for  con- 
sumption! were  as  follows:  Denmark,  43,- 
122,417  pounds;  Norway,  29,665,623 
pounds;  Sweden,  89,660,766  pounds.  Aus- 
tria-Hungary was  formerly  an  important 
buyer  of  coffee,  large  quantities  coming 
into  the  country  yearly  through  Trieste. 
Imports  in  1913  totaled  130,951,000  pounds ; 
and  in  1912,  124,527,000  pounds.  In  1917 
the  war  cut  down  the  total  to  17,910,000 
pounds  net  consumption.  Finland  shares 
with  her  neighbors  of  the  Baltic  a  strong 
taste  for  coffee,  importing,  in  1921,  27,- 
968,000  pounds,  about  8.25  pounds  per 
capita.  In  the  same  year,  Belgium  had  a 
net  importation  of  83,824,000  pounds. 

Spain,  in  1920,  consumed  48,513,821 
pounds.  Portugal,  in  1919,  imported  6.- 
926,575  pounds;  and  exported  1,258,271 
pounds,  leaving  5,668,304  pounds  for  home 
consumption.  Coffee  is  not  especially  pop- 
ular in  the  Balkan  States  and  Italy;  im- 
portations into  the  last-named  country  in 
1920  amounting  to  66,494,925  pounds  net. 
Switzerland  is  a  steady  coffee  drinker,  con- 

>  The  1921  figures  for  all  countries  given  are  pre- 
liminary. 


PRODUCTION   AND   CONSUMPTION 


291 


; 


IS  \S 


■0- 


^:V^v-H, 


:\'i 


A   Meeting   of  the   Coffee  Brokeks  of  Amsterdam,  1820 
Reproduced  from  an  old  print 


Sliming  31,535,260  pounds  in  1921.  Russia 
was  never  fond  of  coffee ;  and  her  total  im- 
ports in  1917,  according  to  a  compilation 
made  under  Soviet  auspices,  were  only 
4,464,000  pounds. 

Other  Countries.  The  Union  of  South 
Africa,  in  1920,  imported  27,798,000  pounds 
net,  or  about  3.8  pounds  per  capita.  Cuba 
purchased  39,981,696  pounds  in  the  fiscal 
year  1920 ;  Argentina,  37,541,000  pounds  in 
1919;  Chile,  12,358,000  pounds  in  1920; 
Australia,  2,239,000  pounds  in  1920;  and 
New  Zealand,  283,633  pounds  in  that  year. 

Three  Centuries  of  Coffee  Trading 
The  story  of  the  development  of  the 
world's  coffee  trade  is  a  story  of  about 
three  centuries.  When  Columbus  sailed  for 
the  new  world,  the  coffee  plant  was  un- 
known even  as  near  its  original  home  as  his 
native  Italy.  In  its  probable  birthplace  in 
southern  Abyssinia,  the  natives  had  enjoyed 
its  use  for  a  long  time,  and  it  had  spread 
to  southwestern  Arabia ;  but  the  Mediter- 
ranean knew  nothing  of  it  until  after  the 
beginning  of  the  sixteenth  century.  It  then 
crept  slowly  along  the  coast  of  Asia  Minor, 
through  Syria,  Damascus,  and  Aleppo, 
until  it  reached  Constantinople  about  1554. 
It  became  very  popular ;  coffee  houses  were 
opened,  and  the  first  of  many  controversies 
arose.    But  coffee  made  its  way  against  all 


opposition,  and  soon  was  firmly  established 
in  Turkish  territory. 

In  those  deliberate  times,  the  next  step 
westward,  from  Asia  to  Europe,  was  not 
taken  for  more  than  fifty  years.  In  general, 
its  introduction  and  establishment  in 
Europe  occupied  the  whole  of  the  seven- 
teenth century. 

The  greatest  pioneering  work  in  coffee 
trading  was  done  by  the  Netherlands  East 
India  Company,  which  began  operations  in 
1602.  The  enterprise  not  only  promoted  the 
spread  of  coffee  growing  in  two  hemi- 
spheres ;  but  it  was  active  also  in  introduc- 
ing the  sale  of  the  product  in  many  Euro- 
pean countries. 

Coffee  reached  Venice  about  1615,  and 
Marseilles  about  1644.  The  French  began 
importing  coffee  in  commercial  quantities 
in  1660.  The  Dutch  began  to  import 
Mocha  coffee  regularly  at  Amsterdam  in 
1663 ;  and  by  1679  the  French  had  devel- 
oped a  considerable  trade  in  the  berry  be- 
tween the  Levant  and  the  cities  of  Lyons 
and  Marseilles.  Meanwhile,  the  coffee  drink 
had  become  fashionable  in  Paris,  partly 
through  its  use  by  the  Turkish  ambassador, 
and  the  first  Parisian  cafe  was  opened  in 
1672.  It  is  significant  of  its  steady  popu- 
larity since  then  that  the  name  cafe,  which 
is  both  French  and  Spanish  for  coffee,  has 


292 


ALL    ABOUT     COFFEE 


A".    179  o. 
OOST-IN  D  ISCHE 

COMPAGNIE. 


5562  Baalcn  Bruync  Peeper 
4:0000  (5  Canned  in  Fardcclen 
8000  —  Blankc  Fouly 
10000  —  Bruine  dico 
gjooo  ~  Ongcgaibulcerdc  Fouly  - 
;  50000  —  Nagelen 
100000  -  Cclloken  Noten  Muscaten 
6000  ps  Mannetgcs  Noocen 
500  —  Ceconfytc  dito 
1 10000  (8  Sappanhout  Blmaa's 

1 0000  -  dito  Javas 
179920  —  Pocder  Suiker 
01875  -  Thin  Bankas 
I  ia4  —  Cardamom  Java's 
688  -  Langc  Peeper 
3515  -  Cubebc  of  Staartpeeper 
1 388  -  Sago  Mallax 
4-547  ps  llandrotcingcn  op   Vragt 
1 5000  (I!  Catoene  Gaarcn  Java's 
760000  -   CofFy  Javas 
2141    -  Thee  op  \ragt 


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tionccrbc  Oort^nbiKf)C  (Connjmjnic  /  m  Dfiijnbcnnij  liaii 
be  SElicnticntn/  p:cfcntfciEn  i^i  be  .niannbcn  April  en 
May  be.ie^  ^aa^^!^  '79^'  "^  ^f  fieipectibc  lianicrcn/  m 
t  X>penijaat  rt  ticilcn/he  naboljcnbe  (i3ocbeien/  en  bar 
lin  Dcibeelmgc  in  be  feamcien  /  en  ten  baije  al^  bolgb: 

ZeflanH  of         Daft ,  np 

den  19  yipril  I  Hen  77  jlpr-tl 
1790         I        i;90 

1500  I  056 

105000  C635O 
2000  I  500 
6950 

8000 1   aooo 

62500 1  15625 

3910    650 


1790. 
1470 

aiOGOo 
4000 
1000 

'5375 
1 25000 
8  a  760 

2250 

400 

35000 


768 
458 

2350 

45'78 

200000 
2141 


100 

85000 

10000 

1 79920 

21875 

356 

230 

"75 
1388 
2 -.en  I 

"375  1 


Rm.tiltin 
up  Dimmer. 
da^  dt»  59 
,ip'U  179, 

H„  ,  M,, 
1790. 

Do»4cnt/>lt 

/4»  6  \U, 

1790. 

4OO' 

356 

580 

26250 

26250 

26250 

5fo 

500 

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871 

iSo 



2  coo 

2000 

2625 

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15626 

170 

6250 

6250 

III! 
1     1     1     1    ^J 

750 

750 







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1 
1 

Als  mccdc  dc  Gocdcrc 
d."  Rdpcclive  Kjnicrcn  a 


vnn  PjniculiLTcn,  aangcliouJen  Gocdcren  en  vcrdcre  Rcftantcn  en  KIciniijIiccdcn,  die  by 
handcn  nioijrcn  z^n 


Dc  lx)vcnna:indc  B-unk-  Peeper,  C;innccl,  Fouly,  Nagelen ,  gcR(X)ke  Nooten  Nfusratcn  en  Mannetges  Nooten, 
worded  Vcrkogt  met  een  fiiLUnd  tot  den  Ecrfle  Maart  1791  Egtcr  lx:lioud  dc  Conipagnic  aan  haar  de  Facultyt 
tni  dc  Bruine  PccjxT,  welkc  voor  den  EeiRc  April  1790  nog  mogt  uordcn  aangebragt,  ten  alien  tyden  te  nn^en 
\  crkoopcn ;  en  wordcn  alle  do  ani.k;rc  aangcflaagen  Gocdercn ,  nict  dc  Gerclcr\eerde  Schccpco  aangcbragt  {ca  by  hct 
N:ijaar>  Vcrkooi>billct  vcrmdd)  Vcrkogt  ma  eeo  ftilftand  tot  den  Eerfte  Augustus  1790. 


Tc  Amftcrdam,   by  NICOLAAS    BYL,  op  den  Nicuwcndyk,  D'tikkcr  «n  de  Ooft-Iiufitbc  Compigni 


BILL    OF    PUBLIC    SALE    OF    COFFEE,    ETC.,  1790 

Reproduction  of  an  advertisement  by  the  Dutch  East  India  Company 


PRODUCTION  AND  CONSUI^IPTION 


293 


come  to  mean  a  general  eating  or  drinking 
place. 

Active  trading  in  coffee  began  in  Ger- 
many about  1670,  and  in  Sweden  about 
1674. 

Trading  in  coflfee  in  England  followed 
swiftly  upon  the  heels  of  the  opening  of  the 
first  coffee  house  in  London  in  1652.  By 
1700,  the  trade  included  not  only  exporting 
and  importing  merchants,  but  wholesale 
and  retail  dealers;  the  latter  succeeding  the 
apothecaries  who,  up  to  then,  had  enjoyed  a 
kind  of  monopoly  of  the  business. 

Trade  and  literary  authorities  *  on  coffee 
trading  tell  us  that  in  the  early  days  of  the 
eighteenth  century  the  chief  supplies  of 
coffee  for  England  and  western  Europe 
came  from  the  East  Indies  and  Arabia. 
The  Arabian,  or  —  as  it  was  more  generally 
known  —  Turkey  berry,  was  bought  first- 
hand by  Turkish  merchants,  who  were  ac- 
customed to  travel  inland  in  Arabia  Felix, 
and  to  contract  with  native  growlers. 

It  was  moved  thence  by  camel  transport 
through  Judea  to  Grand  Cairo,  via  Suez, 
to  be  transhipped  down  the  Nile  to  Alex- 
andria, then  the  great  shipping  port  for 
Asia  and  Europe.  By  1722,  60,000  to  70,- 
000  bales  of  Turkish  (Arabian)  coffee  a 
year  were  being  received  in  England,  the 
sale  price  at  Grand  Cairo  being  fixed  by  the 
Bashaw,  who  "valorized"  it  according  to 
the  supply.  "Indian"  coffee,  which  was 
also  grown  in  Arabia,  was  brought  to 
r  Bettelfukere  (Beit-el- fakih)  in  the  moun- 
tains of  southwestern  Arabia,  where  Eng- 
lish, Dutch,  and  French  factors  went  to  buy 
it  and  to  transport  it  on  camels  to  Moco 
(Mocha),  whence  it  was  shipped  to  Europe 
around  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope. 

In  the  beginning,  "Indian"  coffee  was 
inferior  to  Turkish  coffee ;  because  it  was 
the  refuse,  or  what  remained  after  the 
Turkish  merchants  had  taken  the  best.  But 
after  the  European  merchants  began  to 
make  their  own  purchases  at  Bettelfukere, 
the  character  of  the  "Indian"  product  as 
sold  in  the  London  and  other  European 
;  markets  was  vastly  improved.  Doubtless 
the  long  journey  in  sailing  vessels  over 
tropic  seas  made  for  better  quality.  It  was 
estimated  that  Arabia  in  this  way  exported 
about  a  million  bushels  a  year  of  "Turkish" 
and  "Indian"  coffee. 


1  Broadbent,  Humphrey.  The  Domestick  Coffee  Man. 
London.  1720. 

Brndley,  Richard.  The  vertu  and  use  of  coffee  with 
reqard  to  the  plague  and  other  infectious  distempers. 
London, 1721. 


The  coffee  houses  became  the  gathering 
places  for  wits,  fashionable  people,  and 
brilliant  and  scholarly  men,  to  whom  they 
afforded  opportunity  for  endless  gossip 
and  discussion.  It  was  only  natural  that 
the  lively  interchange  of  ideas  at  these 
public  clubs  should  generate  liberal  and 
radical  opinions,  and  that  the  constituted 
authorities  should  look  askance  at  them. 
Indeed  the  consumption  of  coffee  has  been 
curiously  associated  with  movements  of 
political  protest  in  its  whole  history,  at  least 
up  to  the  nineteenth  century. 

Coffee  has  promoted  clear  thinking  and 
right  living  wherever  introduced.  It  has 
gone  hand  in  hand  with  the  world's  on- 
ward march  toward  democracy. 

As  already  told  in  this  work,  royal  orders 
closed  the  coffee  houses  for  short  periods  in 
Constantinople  and  in  London ;  Germany 
required  a  license  for  the  sale  of  the 
beverage;  the  French  Revolution  was 
fomented  in  coffee-house  meetings ;  and  the 
real  cradle  of  American  liberty  is  said  to 
have  been  a  coffee  hovise  in  New  York.  It 
is  interesting  also  to  note  that,  while  the 
consumption  of  coffee  has  been  attended  by 
these  agitations  for  greater  liberty  for  three 
centuries,  its  production  for  three  centuries, 
in  the  Dutch  East  Indies,  in  the  West 
Indies,  and  in  Brazil,  was  very  largely  in 
the  hands  of  slaves  or  of  forced  labor. 

Since  the  spread  of  the  use  of  coffee  to 
western  Europe  in  the  seventeenth  century, 
the  development  of  the  trade  has  been 
marked,  broadly  speaking,  by  two  features : 
(1)  the  shifting  of  the  weight  of  produc- 
tion, first  to  the  West  Indies,  then  to  the 
East  Indies,  and  then  to  Brazil;  and  (2) 
the  rise  of  the  United  States  as  the  chief 
coffee  consumer  of  the  world.  Until  the 
close  of  the  seventeenth  century,  the  little 
district  in  Arabia,  w'hence  the  coffee  beans 
had  first  made  their  way  to  Europe,  con- 
tinued to  supply  the  whole  w^orld's  trade. 
But  sprigs  of  coffee  trees  were  beginning 
to  go  out  from  Arabia  to  other  promising 
lands,  both  eastward  and  westward.  As 
previously  related,  the  year  1699  was  an 
important  one  in  the  history  of  this  expan- 
sion, as  it  was  then  that  the  Dutch  success- 
fully introduced  the  coffee  plant  from  Ara- 
bia into  Java.  This  started  a  Far  Eastern 
industry,  whose  importance  continues  to 
this  day,  and  also  caused  the  mother  coun- 
try, Holland,  to  take  up  the  role  of  one  of 
the   leading  coffee  traders  of   the   world, 


294 


ALL     ABOUT     COFFEE 


which  she  still  holds.  Holland,  in  fact, 
took  to  coffee  from  the  very  first.  It  is 
claimed  that  the  first  samples  were  intro- 
duced into  that  country  from  Mocha  in 
1616  —  long  before  the  beans  were  known  in 
England  or  France  —  and  that  by  1663, 
regular  shipments  were  being  made.  Soon 
after  the  coffee  culture  became  firmly  es- 
tablished in  Java,  regular  shipments  to  the 
mother  country  began,  the  first  of  these 


Pbe-Wak  Average  Annual   Production  of 
Coffee  by  Continents 

Fiscal  years:  1910-1914 
Total   pounds:    2,311,917,200 

being  a  consignment  of  894  pounds  in  1711. 
Under  the  auspices  of  the  Netherlands  East 
India  Co.  the  system  of  cultivating  coffee 
by  forced  labor  was  begun  in  the  East  In- 
dian colonies.  It  flourished  until  well  into 
the  nineteenth  century.  One  result  of  this 
colonial  production  of  coffee  was  to  make 
Holland  the  leading  coffee  consumer  per 
capita  of  the  world,  consumption  in  1913, 
as  recorded  on  page  290,  having  reached  as 
high  as  18.8  pounds.  It  has  long  been  one 
of  the  leading  coffee  traders,  importing  and 
exporting  in  normal  times  before  the  war 
between  150,000,000  and  300,000,000  pounds 
a  year. 

The  introduction  of  the  coffee  plant  into 
the  new  world  took  place  between  1715  and 
1723,  It  quickly  spread  to  the  islands  and 
the  mainland  washed  by  the  Caribbean. 
The  latter  part  of  the  eighteenth  centur}^ 
saw  tens  of  millions  of  pounds  of  coffee 


being  shipped  yearly  to  the  mother  coun- 
tries of  western  Europe ;  and  for  decades, 
the  two  great  coffee  trade  currents  of  the 
world  continued  to  run  from  the  West 
Indies  to  France,  England,  Holland,  and 
Germany ;  and  from  the  Dutch  East  Indies 
to  Holland.  These  currents  continued  to 
flow  until  the  disruption  of  world  trade- 
routes  by  the  World  War;  but  they  had 
been  pushed  into  positions  of  secondary  im- 
portance by  the  establishing  of  two  new 
currents,  running  respectively  from  Brazil 
to  Europe,  and  from  Brazil  to  the  United 
States,  which  constituted  the  nineteenth 
century's  contribution  to  the  history  of  the 
world's  coffee  trade. 

The  chief  feature  of  the  twentieth  cen- 
tury's developments  has  been  the  passing 
by  the  United  States  of  the  half-way  mlark 
in  world  consumption;  this  country,  since 


C-OST^  /?/C^ 


Pre- War    Average  Annual  Production   of 
Coffee  by  Countries 

Fiscal  years:  1910-1914 
Total   pounds:    2,311,917,200 

the  second  year  of  the  World  War,  having 
taken  more  than  all  the  rest  of  the  world 
put  together.  The  world's  chief  coffee 
"stream,"  so  to  speak,  is  now  from  Santos 
and  Rio  de  Janeiro  to  New  York,  other 
lesser  streams  being  from  these  ports  to 
Havre,  Antwerp,  Amsterdam,  and  (in  nor- 
mal times)  Hamburg;  and  from  Java  to 
Amsterdam  and  Rotterdam.  It  is  said  that 
a  movement,  fostered  by  Belgium  and 
Brazil,  is  under  way  to  have  Antwerp  suc- 
ceed Hamburg  as  a  coffee  port. 


PRODUCTION   AND   CONSUMPTION 


295 


The  rise  of  Brazil  to  the  place  of  all- 
important  s^ource  of  the  world's  coffee  was 
•entirely  a  nin^eteentth  oentury  development. 
When  the  coffee  tree  found  its  true  home 
in  southern  Brazil  in  1770,  it  began  at  once 
to  spread  widely  over  the  area  of  excellent 
soil;  but  there  was  little  exportation  for 
thirty  or  forty  years.  By  the  middle  of 
the  nineteenth  century  Brazil  was  con- 
tributino;  twice  as  much  to  the  w^orld's  com- 
merce as  her  nearest  competitor,  the  Dutch 
East  Indies,  exports  in  1852  -53  bein^ 
2,353,563  ba^s  from  Brazil  and  1,190,543 
Ij&gs  from  the  Dutch  East  Indies.  The 
world's  total  that  year  was  4,567,000  bags, 
so  that  Brazilian  coffee  represented  about 
one-half  of  the  total.  This  proportion  was 
roughly  maintained  during  the  latter  half 
•of  the  nineteenth  century,  but  has  gradu- 


\ 


Pke-Wak  Average  Annual   Imports  of  Coffee 
INTO  THE  United  States  by  Continents 

Fiscal    years:    1910-1914 
Total  pounds:  899,339,327 

:ally    increased   since    then    to   its    present 
three-fourths. 

The  most  important  single  event  in  the 
history  of  Brazilian  production  was  the 
carrying  out  of  the  valorization  scheme,  by 
which  the  State  of  Sao  Paulo,  in- 1906  and 
1907,.  purchased  8,474,623  bags  of  coffee, 
and  stored  it  in  Santos,  in  New  York,  and 
in  certain  European  ports,  in  order  to 
stabilize  the  price  in  the  face  of  very  heavy 
production.  At  the  same  time,  a  law  was 
passed  limiting  the  exports  to  10,000,000 


bags  per  year.  This  law  has  since  been 
repealed.  The  story  of  valorization  is  told 
more  fully  in  chapter  XXXI.  The  coffee 
thus  purchased  by  the  state  was  placed  in 
the  hands  of  an  international  committee, 
which  fed  it  into  the  world 's  markets  at 
the  rate  of  several  hundred  thousand  bags 
a  year.  Good  prices  were  realized  for  all 
coffee  sold;  and  the  plan  was  successful, 
not  only  financially,  but  in  the  achievement 


-cosr/i  /?/c^ 

-l/\/SST  /A/O/SS 


Pre- War  Average  Annual   Imports  of   Coffee 
INTO  THE  United  States  by  Countries 

Fiscal  years:  1910-1914 
Total   pounds:    899,339,327 

of  its  main  object,  the  prevention  of  the 
ruin  of  planters  through  overproduction. 

Another  valorization  campaign  was 
launched  by  Brazil  in  1918,  and  a  third  in 
1921.  Early  in  1918,  the  Sao  Paulo  gov- 
ernment bought  about  3,000,000  bags.  Sub- 
sequent events  caused  a  sharp  advance  in 
prices,  and  at  one  time  it  was  said  that 
the  holdings  showed  a  profit  of  $60,000,000. 
The  Brazil  federal  government  appointed 
an  official  director  of  valorization,  Count 
Alexandre  Sieiliano.  A  federal  loan  of 
£9,000,000,  with  4,535,000  bags  of  valorized 
coffee  as  collateral,  was  placed  in  London 
and  New  York  in  May,  1922. 

European  consumption  during  the -last 
century  has  been  marked  by  the  growth,  of 
imports  into  France  and  Germany;  these 
being  the  two  leading  coffee  drinkers  of  the 
world,  aside  from  the  United  States.  Ger- 
many held  the  lead  in  European  consump- 
tion during  the  whole  of  the  nineteenth 


296 


ALL     ABOUT     COFFEE 


Trend  of  European  Coffee  Consumption  for  Seventy  Years 

Year                  Germany                   France                    Holland  Aus.-Hung.  Belgium 

(pounds)                   (pounds)                   (pounds)                   (pounds)  (pounds) 

1853 104,049,000                 48,095,000  46,162,000                   44,716,000'  41.270.000 

1863 146.969,000                 87.524,000  30.299.000                   44,966.000  39,305,000 

1873 215,822.000                 98.841.000  79.562.000                   71,111.000  49,874.00f) 

1883. 251,706,000  150,468,000  130.380,000                   74,145,000  62,846,0(JO 

1893 269,.S81.000  152,203,000  75,562,000                   79,438.000  52,046,000 

19a3 403,070,000  246,122.000  78.328,000  104,200.000  51,859,000 

1913 369,347,000  254,102,000  116,749,000                130,951,000  93,250,000 


century,  and  also  in  this  century  until  all 
imports  were  stopped  by  the  Allied  navies; 
although,  in  actual  imports,  Holland  for 
many  years  showed  higher  figures.  Both 
Holland  and  England  have  acted  as  dis- 
tributers, re-exporting  each  year  most  of 
the  coffee  which  entered  their  ports.  In 
the  last  half-century,  the  chief  consumers, 
in  the  order  named,  have  been  Germany. 
France,  Holland,  Austria-Hungary,  and 
Belgium.  However,  with  the  removal  of 
the  duty  on  coffee  in  the  last-named  coun- 
try in  1904,  imports  trebled;  and  Belgium 
took  third  place.  The  table  at  the  top  of 
this  page  shows  the  general  trend  of  the 
trade  for  the  last  seventy  years. 

Most  of  the  coffee  for  these  countries 
has  for  many  years  been  supplied  by 
Brazil,  even  Holland  bringing  in  several 
times  as  much  from  Brazil  as  from  the 
Dutch  East  Indies.  Special  features  of  the 
European  trade  have  been  the  organization, 
in  1873,  and  successful  operation,  in  Ger- 
man}^, of  the  world's  first  international 
syndicate  to  control  the  coffee  trade;  and 
the  opening  of  coffee  exchanges  in  Havre 
in  1882,  in  Amsterdam  and  Hamburg,  in 
]  887 ;  in  Antwerp,  London,  and  Rotterdam, 
in  1890 ;  and  in  Trieste  in  1905. 

The  advance  of  coffee  consumption  in  the 
United  States,  the  chief  coffee-consuming 
country  in  the  world,  has  taken  place 
through  about  the  same  period  as  the  ad- 
vance of  production  in  Brazil,  the  chief 
producing  country ;  but  it  has  been  far  less 
rapid.  From  1790  to  1800,  coffee  imports 
for  consumption  ranged  from  3,500,000  to 
32,000,000  pounds.  The  figures  in  the  next 
column  show  the  net  importations  of  coffee 
into  this  country  since  the  beginning  of  the 
nineteenth  century. 

The  chief  source  of  supply,  of  course, 
has  been  Brazil;  and  the  commercial  and 
economic  ties  created  by  this  immense  cof- 
fee traffic  has  knit  the  two  countries  closely 
together.  Brazil  is  probably  more  friendly 
to  the  United  States  than  any  other  South 


American  country,  as  shown  by  her  action 
in  following  this  country  into  the  World 
War  against  Germany.  She  also  grants  the 
United  States  certain  tariff  preferentials  a.s 
a  recognition  of  the  continued'policy  of  this 
country  of  admitting  coffee  free  of  duty. 
The  chief  port  of  entry  of  coffee  into  the 
United  States  is  New  York,  which  for 
decades  has  recorded  entries  amounting 
from  sixty  to  ninety  percent  of  the  coun- 
try's total.  Since  1902,  New  Orleans  has 
shown  a  big  advance,  and  in  1910  imported 
some  thirty-five  percent  of  the  total.  The 
only  other  port  of  importance  is  San 
Francisco,  where  imports  have  been  in- 
creasing in  recent  years  because  of  the 
growth  of  the  trade  in  Central  American 
coffee. 

Throughout  the  century  and  a  third  of 
steady  increase  of  importations  of  coffee. 

Coffee  Imports,  United  States,  for  120  Years 
l^et  Imports 


Year 


Pounds 


Year 


Pounds 


1800  a  .  . 

8,792,472 

1906  .  . . 

.  804,808,594 

1811a  ... 

19,801,230 

1907  .  .  . 

.  935,678,412 

1821a  ... 

11,886,063 

1908  .  . . 

.  850.982.919 

1830a  ... 

38.363,687 

1909  .  . . 

.  1,006,975,047 

184<^)a  .  .  . 

86.297,761 

1910  .  .  . 

.  813.442.972 

1850 

129.791.466 

1911  ... 

.  869.489,902 

1860  .  .  .  . 

182,049,527 

1912  . .  . 

.  880,838,776 

1870  .  .  .  . 

231,173,574 

1913  .  . . 

.  859.166.618 

1880  .  .  . 

440,128,838 

1914  ... 

.  991,953,821 

1890  .  . .  . 

490,161,900 

1915  .  . . 

.  1,051,716,023 

1900 

748.800.771 

1916  ... 

.  1,131,730,672 

1901  .  .  .  . 

809.036,029 

1917  .  . . 

.  1,267.975.290 

1902  .  .  .  . 

1,056,541.637 

1918  ... 

.  1.083.480.622 

1903  .  .  . 

867,385  063 

1919  ... 

.  968.297,668 

1904  .  .  . 

960  878  977 

1920  .  . . 

.  1.364,252.073 

1905  .  . . 

991,160.207 
year  ending  Sept 

1921  .  . . 
30;  all  ( 

.  1,309,010,452 

a  Fiscal 

)ther  years  end 

June  30. 

Congress  has  for  the  most  part  permitted 
its  free  entry;  as  a  rule,  resorting  to  taxa- 
tion of  "the  poor  man's  breakfast  cup" 
only  when  in  need  of  revenue  for  war  pur- 
poses. At  times,  the  free  entry  has  been 
qualified ;  but  for  the  most  part,  coffee  has 
been  free  from  the  burden  of  customs 
tariff. 


PRODUCTIOX   AND   CONSUMPTIOX 


297 


The  country's  coffee  trade  before  the 
Civil  War  was  without  special  incident; 
but  since  that  time,  the  continued  growth 
has  brought  about  manipulations  that  have 
often  resulted  in  highly  dramatic  crises ; 
organizations  to  exercise  some  sort  of  regu- 
lation in  the  trade;  the  development  of  a 
trade  in  substitutes ;  the  advance  of  the  sale 
of  branded  package  coffee;  the  institution 
of  large  advertising  campaigns;  and  other 
interesting  features.  These  are  treated  more 
in  detail  in  chapters  that  follow. 

Coifee  Drinking  in  the  United  States 
Is  the  United  States  using  more  coffee 
than  formerly,  allowing  for  the  increase  in 
population  ?  Of  course  there  are  sporadic 
increases,  in  particular  years  and  groups  of 
years,  and  they  may  indicate  to  the  casual 
observer  that  our  coffee  drinking  is  mount- 


Uj'Oijjio     t—r—  0OcOff>(Ji    oo    — 
Ju«nt.1iiS2    WoooooooooooooOoo    ffiff)    S>V«lue 

100    p-^ 1         I        .        I         I         I r— r-^ r— ,  20 

90 1^ 7^/ 'S 

85 '-^ -/.^L ,  17 

80 r— — vy 1 V-  '6 

75 -i ^ ^-^  15 

70 -i 7^^ /^ 14 

65 i / v-/ 13 

feo '^y— ^/ —  '^ 

50 l-J. 10 

45 i-J- 9 

40 -!-l 8 

35—3 7 

30 ,J. 6 

25  ^'Ij- 5 

20   ^ : 4 

15 3 

10 a 

5 I 

0  I    I     I    I    I    I    I     I     I    I     I     I    I  0 


I'ke-War  Ciiakt  of  Coffee  Imports 

Quantity  and  value  of  net  imports  of  coffee  into  the 
United  States  for  the  fiscal  years  1851  to  1914 
in  five-year  averages.  Solid  line  represents 
quantity,  figures  in  million  pounds  on  left  side. 
Dotted  line  represents  value,  figures  in  million 
dollars  on  right  side 

ing  rapidly.  And  then  there  is  the  steadily 
growing  import  figure,  double  what  it  was 
within  the  memory  of  a  man  still  young. 


looinoiooiooiooioo-^ 

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Cents  S2    ««ooooo0ooooooco50>   5}Ro«b; 

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10 
9 
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7 

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10 
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8 

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6 

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I're-War    Consumption    and    Price    Chart 

Import  price  and  per  capita  consumption  of  coffee 
in  the  United  States  for  the  fiscal  years  1851 
to  1914,  in  five-year  averages.  Solid  line  repre- 
sents import  price  per  pound.  Dotted  line 
represents  per  capita  consumption 

But  the  apparent  growth  in  any  given 
year  is  a  matter  of  comparison  with  a  near- 
by year,  and  there  are  declines  as  well  as 
jumps;  and,  as  for  the  gradual  growth,  it 
must  always  be  remembered  that,  according 
to  the  Census  Bureau,  some  1,400,000  more 
people  are  born  into  this  country  every 
year,  or  enter  its  ports,  than  are  removed 
by  death  or  emigration.  At  the  present 
rate  this  increase  would  account  for  abouu 
17,000,000  pounds  more  coffee  each  year 
than  was  consumed  in  the  year  before. 

The  question  is :  Do  Mr.  Citizen,  or  Mrs. 
Citizen,  or  the  little  Citizens  growing  up 
into  the  coffee-drinking  age,  pass  his  or  her 
or  their  respective  cups  along  for  a  second 
pouring  where  they  used  to  be  satisfied 
with  one,  or  do  they  take  a  cup  in  the 
evening  as  well  as  in  the  morning,  or  do 
they  perhaps  have  it  served  to  them  at  an 
afternoon  reception  where  they  used  to  get 
something  else?  In  other  words,  is  the 
coffee  habit  becoming  more  intensive  as 
well  as  more  extensive  ? 

There  are  plenty  of  very  good  reasons 
why  it  should  have  become  so  in  the  last 


298 


ALL     ABOUT     COFFEE 


twenty-five  or  thirty  years ;  for  the  improve- 
ments in  distributing,  packing,  and  prepar- 
ing coffee  have  been  many  and  notable.  It 
is  a  far  cry  these  days  from  the  times  when 
the  housewife  snatched  a  couple  of  minutes 
amid  a  hundred  other  kitchen  duties  to  set 
a  pan  oyer  the  fire  to  roast  a  handful  of 
green  coffee  beans,  and  then  took  two  or 
three  more  minutes  to  pound  or  grind  the 
crudely  roasted  product  into  coarse  gran- 
ules for  boiling. 

For  a  good  many  years,  the  keenest  wits 
of  the  coffee  merchants,  not  only  of  the 
United  States  but  of  Europe  as  well,  have 
been  at  work  to  refine  the  beverage  as  it 
comes  to  the  consumer's  cup;  and  their 
success  has  been  striking.  Now  the  con- 
sumer can  have  his  favorite  brand  not  only 
roasted  but  packed  air-tight  to  preserve  its 
flavor ;  and  made  up,  moreover,  of  growths 
brought  from  the  four  corners  of  the  earth 
and  blended  to  suit  the  most  exacting  taste. 
He  can  buy  it  already  ground,  or  he  can 
have  it  in  the  form  of  a  soluble  powder ;  he 
^an  even  get  it  with  the  caffein  element 
ninety-nine  percent  removed.  It  is  pre- 
served for  his  use  in  paper  or  tin  or  fiber 
boxes,  with  wrappings  whose  attractive  de- 
signs seem  to  add  something  in  themselves 
to  the  quality.  Instead  of  the  old  coffee 
pot,  black  with  long  service,  he  has  modern 
shining  percolators  and  filtration  devices; 
with  a  new  one  coming  out  every  little 
while,  to  challenge  even  these.  Last  but  not 
least,  he  is  being  educated  to  make  it 
properly  —  tuition  free. 

It  would  be  surprising,  with  these  and 
dozens  of  other  refinements,  if  a  far  better 
average  cup  of  coffee  were  not  produced 
than  was  served  forty  years  ago,  and  if  the 
coffee  drinker  did  not  show  his  apprecia- 
tion by  coming  back  for  more. 

As  a  matter  of  fact,  the  figures  show  that 
he  does  come  back  for  more.  We  do  not 
refer  to  the  figures  of  the  last  two  years, 
which  indeed  are  higher  than  those  for 
many  preceding  years,  but  to  the  only  aver- 
ages that  are  of  much  significance  in  this 
connection ;  namely,  those  for  periods  of 
years  going  back  half  a  century  or  more. 
Five-year  averages  back  to  the  Civil  War 
show  increa.sing  per  capita  consumption  for 
continental  United  States  (see  table). 

It  will  be  seen  that  the  gain  has  been  a 
decided  one,  fairly  steady,  but  not  exactly 
uniform.  In  the  fifty  years,  John  Doe  has 
not  quite  come  to  the  point  where  he  hands 


FIVE-YEAK    I'ER    C.'APITA     CONSUMPTION     FIGURES 

Five-year         Per  capita     Five-year    Per  capita 
Period  Pounds  Period         Pounds 


1867 

-71 

6.38 

1897 

-1901 

10.52 

1872 

-76 

7.03 

1902 

-06 

11.50 

1877- 

■81 

7.53 

1907  ■ 

11 

10.21 

1882. 

-86 

9.09 

1912- 

■16 

10.02 

1887- 

■91 

8.07 

1917- 

■21 

11.39 

1802  - 

mi 

8.(i3 

up  his  cup  for  a  second  helping  and  keeps 
a  meaningful  silence.  Instead,  he  stipu- 
lates, "Don't  fill  it  quite  full;  fill  it  about 
five-sixths  as  full  as  it  was  before."  That 
is  a  substantial  gain,  and  one  that  the  next 
fifty  years  can  hardly  be  expected  to  dupli- 
cate, in  spite  of  the  efforts  of  our  coffee 
advertisers,  our  inventors,  and  our  vigor- 
ous importers  and  roasters. 

The  most  striking  feature  of  this  fifty- 
year  growth  was  the  big  step  upward  in 
1897,  when  the  per  capita  rose  two  pounds 
over  the  year  before  and  established  an 
average  that  has  been  pretty  well  main- 
tained since.  Something  of  the  sort  may 
have  taken  place  again  in  1920,  when  there 
was  a  three-pound  jump  over  the  year 
before.  If  will  be  interesting  to  see  whether 
this  is  merely  a  jump  or  a  permanent  rise ; 
whether  our  coffee  trade  has  climbed  to  a 
hilltop  or  a  plateau. 

In  this  connection  it  should  be  noted  that 
the  government's  per  capita  coffee  figures 
apply  only  to  continental  United  States, 
and  that  in  computing  them  all  the  various 
items  of  trade  of  the  noncontiguous  posses- 
sions (not  counting  the  Philippines,  whose 
statistics  are  kept  entirely  separate  from 
those  of  the  United  States  proper)  are  care- 
fully taken  into  account. 

But  for  the  benefit  of  students  of  coffee 
figures  it  should  be  added  that  this  method 
does  not  result  in  a  final  figure  except  for 
one  year  in  ten.  The  reason  is  that  between 
censuses  the  population  of  the  country  is 
determined  only  by  estimates;  and  these 
estimates  (by  the  U.  S.  Bureau  of  the 
Census)  are  based  on  the  average  increase 
in  the  preceding  census  decade.  The  in- 
crease between  1910  and  1920,  for  instance, 
is  divided  by  120,  the  number  of  months 
in  the  period,  and  this  average  monthly  in- 
crease is  assumed  to  be  the  same  as  that 
of  the  current  year  and  of  other  years  fol- 
lowing 1920.  Until  new  figures  are  obtained 
in  1930,  the  monthly  increase  will  continue 
to  be  estimated  at  the  same  rate  as  the 
increase  from  1910  to  1920,  or  about  118,- 


PRODUCTION  AND   CONSUMPTION 


299 


000.  This  figure  will  be  used  in  computing 
the  per  capita  coffee  consumption.  But 
when  the  1930  figures  are  in,  it  may  be 
found  that  the  estimates  were  too  low  or 
too  high,  and  the  per  capita  figures  for  all 
intervening  years  will  accordingly  be  sub- 
ject to  revision.  This  will  not  amount  to 
much,  probably  five-hundredths  of  a  pound 
at  most ;  but  it  is  evident  that  between  1920 
and  1930  all  per  capita  consumption  figures 
issued  by  the  government  are  to  be  con- 
sidered as  provisional  to  that  extent  at  least. 
In  the  1920  Statistical  Abstract  the  gov- 
ernment has  revised  its  per  capita  coffee 
and  tea  figures  to  conform  to  actual  instead 
of  estimated  population  figures  between 
1910  and  1920,  with  the  result  that  these 
figures  are  slightly  different  from  those 
published  in  previous  editions  of  the  Ab- 
stract. Figures  from  1890  to  1910  have  also 
heen  slightly  changed,  as  they  were  orig- 
inallv  computed  by  using. population  figures 
as  of  June  1,  w^hereas  it  is  desirable  to  have 
computations  based  on  July  1  estimates  to 
make  them  conform  to  present  per  capita 
figures. 

Reviewing  the  1921  Trade  in  the 
United  States 

According  to  the  latest  available  foreign 
trade  summaries  issued  by  the  government, 
the  United  States  bought  more  coffee  in 
1921  than  in  any  previous  calendar  year  of 
our  history,  although  the  total  imports  did 
not  quite  reach  the  highest  fiscal-year  mark. 
Our  purchases  passed  the  1920  mark  by 
more  than  40,000,000  pounds  and  were 
higher  than  those  of  two  years  ago  by 
a.500.000  pounds. 

But  this  record  was  made  only  in  actual 
amounts  shipped,  as  the  value  of  imported 
coffee  was  far  below  that  of  immediately 
preceding  years.  Coffee  values,  however, 
fell  off  less  than  the  average  values  for  all 
imports,  the  decrease  for  coffee  being 
forty-three  percent  and  for  the  country's 
total  imports  fifty-two  percent. 

Exports  of  coffee  were  somewhat  less  in 
quantity  than  in  1920,  and  about  the  same 
as  in  1919;  although  the  value,  like  that  of 
imports,  w^as  considerably  less  than  in  either 
previous  year. 

Re-exports  of  foreign  coffee  were  con- 
siderably below  the  1920  mark,  in  both 
quantity  and  value,  and  indeed  were  less 
than  in  several  years.  The  amount  of  tea 
re-exported  to  foreign  countries  was  only 
about  half  that  shipped  out  in  1920,  show- 


ing a  continuation  of  the  tendency  of  the 
United  States  to  discontinue  its  services  as 
a  middleman,  which  raised  the  through 
traffic  in  tea  several  million  pounds  during 
the  dislocation  of  shipping. 

Actual  figures  of  amounts  and  values  of 
gross  coffee  imports  for  the  three  calendar 
years,  1919-1921,  have  been  as  follows: 

Pounds  Value 

1921    1.340,979,776  $142,808,719 

1920    1.297,439,310  252.450.651 

1919    1.337.564.067  261.270,106 

This  represents  a  gain  of  three  and  three- 
tenths  percent  over  1920  in  quantity  and  of 
only  about  one-fifth  of  one  percent  over 
1919.  The  decrease  in  value  in  1921  was 
forty-three  percent  from  the  figures  for 
1920  and  forty-five  percent  from  those  of 
1919. 

Domestic  exports  of  coffee,  mostly  from 
Hawaii  and  Porto  Rico,  amounted  to  34,- 
572,967  pounds  valued  at  $5,895,606,  as 
compared  with  36,757,443  pounds  valued  at 
$9,803,574  in  the  calendar  year  1920,  or  a 
decrease  of  six  percent  in  quantity  and 
forty  percent  in  value.  In  1919  domestic 
exports  were  34,351,554  pounds,  having  a 
value  of  $8,816,581,  practically  the  same  in 
quantity,  but  showing  a  falling  off  of  thirty- 
three  percent  in  value. 

Re-exports  of  foreign  coffee  amounted  to 
36,804,684  pounds  in  1921,  having  a  value 
of  $3,911,847,  a  decline  of  twenty-five  per- 
cent from  the  49,144,691  pounds  of  1920 
and  of  fifty-four  percent  from  the  81,129,- 
691  pounds  of  1919 ;  whereas  in  point  of 
value  there  was  a  decrease  of  fifty-six  per- 
cent from  1920,  which  was  $9,037,882,  and 
of  eighty-eight  percent  from  that  of  1919, 
which  was  $16,815,468. 

The  average  value  per  pound  of  the 
imported  coffee,  according  to  these  figures, 
works  out  at  little  more  than  half  that  of 
either  1920  or  1919,  illustrating  the  precipi- 
tate drop  of  prices  w^hen  the  depression 
came  on.  The  pound  value  in  1921  was 
10.6c. ;  for  1920,  19.4c. ;  and  for  1919,  19.5c. 
These  values  are  derived  from  the  valua- 
tions placed  on  shipments  at  the  point  of 
export,  the  "foreign  valuation"  for  which 
the  much  discussed  "American  valuation" 
is  proposed  as  a  substitute.  They  accord- 
ingly do  not  take  into  account  costs  of 
freisrht.  insurance,  etc. 

It  is  interesting  to  note  that  the  average 
valuation    of    10.6c.    a    pound    for    coffee 


300 


ALL    ABOUT     COFFEE 


shipped  during  the  calendar  year  is  a  sub- 
stantial drop  from  the  13.12c.  a  pound  that 
was  the  average  for  the  fiscal  year  1921, 
showing  that  the  decline  in  values  con- 
tinued during  the  last  half  of  the  calendar 
year. 

Coffee  imports  in  1921  continued  to  run 
in  about  the  same  well-worn  channels  as 
in  previous  years,  according  to  the  figures 
showing  the  trade  with  the  producing  coun- 
tries. The  United  States,  as  heretofore, 
drew  almost  its  whole  supply  from  its 
neighbors  on  this  side  of  the  globe ;  the 
countries  to  the  south  furnishing  ninety- 
seven  percent  of  the  total  entering  our 
ports.  The  three  chief  countries  of  South 
America  contributed  eighty-five  percent; 
and  the  share  of  Brazil  alone  was  sixty-two 
and  five-tenths  percent. 

Brazil's  progress  to  her  normal  pre-war 
position  in  our  coffee  trade  is  rather  slow, 
although  she  continues  to  show  a  gain  in 
percentage  each  year.  Formerly  we  ob- 
tained seventy  percent  to  seventy-five  per- 
cent of  our  coffee  from  that  country;  but 
war  conditions,  diverting  nearly  all  of 
Central  America's  production  to  our  ports, 
reduced  the  proportion  to  almost  half.    In 

1919  this  had  risen  to  fifty-nine  per  cent,  in 

1920  it  was  somewhat  over  sixty  percent, 
and  in  1921  it  attained  a  mark  of  sixty-two 
and  five-tenths  percent.  The  actual  amount 
shipped,  which  was  839,212,388  pounds  hav- 
ing a  value  of  $77,186,271,  was  about  seven 
percent  higher  than  in  1920,  which  was 
785,810,689  pounds  valued  at  $148,793,593 ; 
and  about  the  same  percent  higher  than 
that  of  1919  —  787,312,293  pounds  valued 
at  $160,038,196.  Although  the  actual  pound- 
age showed  an  increase,  it  will  be  noted  that 
the  value  fell  off  almost  one-half  as  com- 
pared with  1920,  and  more  than  one-half 
as  compared  with  the  year  before. 

The  real  feature  of  the  year,  and  perhaps 
the  most  interesting  development  in  the 
coffee  trade  of  this  country  in  recent  years, 
is  the  steady  advance  of  Colombian  coffee. 

In  the  year  before  the  war,  we  obtained 
from  our  nearest  South  American  neighbor 
87,176,477  pounds  of  coffee  valued  at  $11,- 
381,675,  which  was  about  ten  percent  of  our 
total  imports.  In  1919,  the  first  year  after 
the  war,  this  amount  was  almost  doubled, 
being  150,483,853  pounds  with  a  value  of 
$30,425,162.  In  1920,  there  was  a  further 
increase  to  194,682,616  pounds  valued  at 
$41,557,669,  and  in  1921  the  high  mark  of 


249,123,356  pounds  valued  at  $37,322,305 
was  reached.  This  was  a  gain  of  twenty- 
eight  percent  over  1920  shipments ;  and, 
although  the  value  was  less  than  in  the  year 
before,  the  decrease  was  only  ten  percent 
in  a  year  when  the  average  fall  in  value  was 
forty-three  percent. 

It  will  be  news  to  many  people  interested 
in  the  coffee  trade  that  the  value  of  Colom- 
bian coffee  now  imported  into  the  United 
States  is  almost  half  the  value  of  the 
Brazilian  coffee  —  $37,000,000  as  compared 
with  $77,000,000.  The  number  of  pounds 
imported  is  a  little  less  than  one-third  the 
Brazilian  contribution;  but  at  the  present 
rate  of  increase,  it  will  pass  the  half  mark 
in  a  few  years. 

Colombia  and  Venezuela  together  now 
supply  considerably  more  than  half  as  much 
coffee  as  Brazil  in  value,  and  more  than 
one-third  as  much  in  quantity.  The  average 
value  of  Colombian  coffee  in  1921  was  about 
fifteen  cents  a  pound,  as  compared  with 
eleven  cents  for  Venezuelan,  nine  cents  for 
Brazilian,  ten  cents  for  Central  American, 
and  ten  and  six-tenths  cents  for  total  cof- 
fee imports. 

Shipments  from  Venezuela  showed  a  drop 
in  quantity  of  nine  percent  as  compared 
with  1920  imports,  being  59,783,303  pounds 
valued  at  $6,798,709;  in  1920  they  were 
65,970,954  pounds  valued  at  $13,802,995; 
and  in  1919,  they  were  109,777,831  pounds 
valued  at  $23,163,071. 

The  figures  relating  to  imports  from 
Central  America  are  of  interest  as  showing 
to  what  extent  we  are  continuing  tc  hold 
the  trade  of  the  war  years,  when  nearly  all 
coffee  shipped  from  that  region  came  to  the 
United  States.  Although  there  has  prob- 
ably been  a  considerable  swing  back  to  the 
trade  with  Europe,  the  1921  figures  show 
that  a  large  percent  of  the  trade  that  this 
country  gained  during  the  war  is  being 
retained.  Imports  in  1921  were  consider- 
ably lower  than  in  1920  or  in  1919,  but  were 
still  more  than  three  times  as  heavy  as  in 
1913,  the  last  year  of  normal  trade. 

The  displacement  of  Central  America's 
trade  by  the  war,  and  the  extent  to  which 
it  has  so  far  returned  to  old  channels,  are 
illustrated  in  the  table  of  Imports  into  the 
United  States  from  Central  America  in 
thB  last  nine  years  on  page  301. 

As  Germany  was  very  prominent  in  pre- 
war trade,  it  is  likely  that  more  and  more 
coffee   will   be   diverted   from  the   United 


PRODUCTION  AND  CONSUMPTION 


301 


Imports  Into  the  United  States  from 
Central  America 

Year                       Pounds  Value 

1913    36.326.440  $4,635,359 

1914    44,896.856  5,465,893 

1915    71,361.288  8,093,532 

1916    111.259,125  12,775,921 

1917    148.031.640  15,751,761 

1918    195.259.628  19,234,198 

1919    131.638,695  19.375,179 

ir>20    159.204,341  30,388,567 

1921    118,607,382  12,308,250 

States  as  German  imports  gradually  in- 
crease to  their  old  level. 

Imports  from  Mexico  in  1921  were 
greater  by  thirty-eight  percent  than  in  1920, 
but  were  less  than  in  1919,  and  were  still 
much  below  the  normal  trade  before  the 
war.  The  total  was  26,895,034  pounds  hav- 
ing a  value  of  $3,475,122,  as  compared  with 
19,519,865  pounds  valued  at  $3,873,217  in 
the  year  before,  and  with  29,567,469  pounds 
valued  at  $5,434,884  in  1919.  The  imports 
in  1913  were  more  than  40,000,000  pounds, 
in  1914  more  than  43,000,000  pounds,  and 
in  1915  more  than  52,000,000  pounds. 

West  Indian  coffees  showed  a  gradual 
settling  back  to  pre-war  figures,  which 
ranged  from  3,000,000  to  12,000,000  pounds 
annually,  but  which  in  1918,  the  last  year 
of  the  war,  leaped  to  52,000,000  pounds. 
In  1919  they  amounted  to  42,013,841 
pounds  valued  at  $7,575,051 ;  and  in  1920, 
fell  to  29,204,674  pounds  valued  at  $5,711,- 
993.  In  1921  they  continued  to  drop,  the 
total  being  15,398,073  pounds  valued  at 
$1,518,784,  a  decrease  of  forty-seven  and 
three-tenths  percent  in  quantity. 

The  year  under  review  showed  practically 
a  return  to  normal  for  importations  from 
Aden,  which  up  to  1917  ran  about  3,000,000 


pounds  a  year.  In  that  year  the  full 
effects  of  the  war  were  felt  in  the  Aden 
district,  and  shipments  of  coffee  to  this 
country  dropped  to  187,817  pounds.  They 
rose  to  432,000  pounds  in  1918;  and  in 
1919,  to  681,290  pounds  valued  at  $141,391. 
In  1920  there  was  a  further  rise  to  889,633 
pounds  valued  at  $200,505;  and  in  1921 
they  amounted  to  2,799,824  pounds  valued 
at  $476,672.  But  this  trade  is  of  little 
importance  compared  with  that  of  the  pro- 
ducing countries  of  this  hemisphere,  being 
less  than  one  percent  of  our  total  imports. 

Imports  from  the  Dutch  East  Indies  con- 
tinued to  decline,  being  fifty-five  percent 
less  than  in  1920.  The  total  of  12,438,016 
pounds,  however,  valued  at  $1,771,602,  is 
still  two  or  three  times  the  normal  pre-war 
importations. 

Exports  of  coffee  in  1921  —  33,389,805 
pounds  of  green  coffee  valued  at  $5,590,318 
and^l, 183,162  pounds  of  roasted  valued  at 
$305,288  —  were  about  the  same  as  those  of 
the  year  before  in  quantity,  although  much 
lower  in  value.  The  1920  shipments  were 
34,785,574  pounds  valued  at  $9,223,966  of 
green  coffee  and  1,971.869  pounds  of 
roasted  valued  at  $579,608. 

In  the  re-export  trade,  shipments  of 
coffee  were  lower  than  in  several  years, 
total  amounts  for  1921,  1920,  and  1919  be- 
ing 36,804,684  pounds,  49,144,091  pounds, 
and  81,129,641  pounds,  and  total  values 
$3,911,847,  $9,037,882,  and  $16,815,468. 

Re-exports  to  France  fell  off  from  16,- 
760,977  pounds  in  1920  to  11,429,952  in 
1921.  Mexico  took  3,236,245  pounds  as 
compared  with  9,892,639  in  the  previous 
year,  and  Cuba  also  reduced  her  purchases 
from  6,319,105  pounds  to  2,831,109.    Ship- 


Pebcentage  of  Total,  Coffee  Imports  Into  United  States 


1919 

, ^ 

From  Quantity  Value 

rVntral  America 9.80       7.40 

Mexico     2.20       2.10 

West  Indies 3.10        2.90 

Brazil 58.80     61.30 

Colombia   11.20     11.60 

Venezuela   8.20       8.90 

Aden  0.05       0.05 

Dutch  East  Indies 4.20       3.80 

Other  countries 2.45        1.95 

Total    100.00    lOO.OO 


1920 


1921 


Percentage  of  in- 
crease (4-)  or  de- 
crease ( — )  of 
1921  imports  com- 
pared with   1920. 


r 

Quantity 

^  r                                  ~    ^ 

Value     Quantity  Value 

Quantity 

Value 

12.30 

12.00 

8.80 

8.60 

—  25.50 

—  50.00 

1.50 

1.50 

2.00 

2.40 

-f  37.80 

—  1O30 

2.20 

2.20 

1.10 

1.00 

—  47.30 

—  73.40 

60.50 

58.90 

62.50 

W.OO 

-f    6.80 

—  48.10 

15.00 

16.40 

18.50 

26.10 

-f  28.00 

—  10.20 

5.10 

5.10 

4.40 

4.80 

—    9.30 

—  50.70 

0.07 

0.08 

0.20 

0.30 

4-214.80 

-f  137.70 

2.10 

2.00 

0.90 

1.20 

—  55.70 

—  65.40 

1.23 

1.52 

1.60 

1.60 

100.00    100.00     100.00    100.00     +     3.40     —  43.40 


302 


ALL     ABOUT     COFFEE 


ments  to  Denmark,  4,099,403  pounds,  were 
practically  the  same  as  in  1920,  3,951,166 
pounds,  as  were  also  those  to  Germany, 
3,200,158  pounds  as  compared  with  2,917,- 
773  in  1920. 

In  the  trade  of  the  two  coffee-exporting 
possessions  of  the  United  States,  Hawaii 
and  Porto  Rico,  the  1921  figures  show  a 
considerable  increase  in  shipments  from 
Hawaii  to  continental  United  States  and  to 
foreign  countries,  while  exports  from  Porto 
Rico  fell  off  slightly. 

Hawaii  in  1921  sent  803,905  pounds 
valued  at  $123,347  to  foreign  countries, 
which  compared  with  687,597  pounds 
valued  at  $200,180  in  the  year  before,  and 
4,183,046  valued  at  $650,036  to  continental 
United  States,  as  against  1,885,703  pounds 
valued  at  $476,033  in  the  previous  year. 

Porto  Rico 's  crop,  as  usual,  furnished  the 
bulk  of  the  domestic  exports  of  the  United 
States  to  foreign  countries  —  29,546,348 
pounds  valued  at  $5,027,741,  as  against 
1920  exports  of  31,321,415  pounds  valued 
at  $8,455,908.  Shipments  from  Porto  Rico 
to  continental  United  States  amounted  to 
211,531  pounds  valued  at  $35,780,  as 
against  418,127  pounds  valued  at  $118,663 
in  1920. 

Following  are  the  figures  of  re-exports  of 
coffee  by  countries  in  the  calendar  year 
1921: 

Ke-Exports  of  Cofff:k  from  United  States,  1921 
Country  Pounds 

Belgium     2,717,949 

Denmark  4.099,403 

France  11,429,952 

Germany   3.200.158 

Greece    539,933 

Netherlands   920,855 

Norway    237,155 

Sweden    1,935.641 

Canada    1,037,628 

Mexico  3,236,245 

Cuba    2,831,109 

Other  Countries    4.618.f!56 

Total    36,804,684 


Per  capita  consumption  of  coffee  in  con- 
tinental United  States  showed  a  slight  in- 
crease during  the  calendar  year  1921  over 
that  of  1920,  the  figure  being  12,09  pounds 
as  against  11.70  for  the  previous  year.  This, 
calendar-year  figure  compares  with  the 
fiscal-year  figure  of  12.21  pounds,  indicat- 
ing that  imports  during  the  last  half  of 
1920  were  somewhat  heavier  than  during 
the  last  half  of  1921. 

The  various  items  for  the  two  calendar 
years  1920  and  1921  are  shown  as  follows : 

1921         1920 

Calendar  year.  Calendar  year,. 

(pounds)  (pounds) 

(a)  Total    imports    into 

U.   S 1,340,979,776      l,297,439,3ia 

(b)  Imports     into     non- 

contiguous terri- 
tory from  foreign 
countries 7,410  27 

(c)    (a)   minus   (b) ...  1,340,972,366      1,297,439,283 

(d)  Total    exports    from 

U.  S 34,572,967  36,757,443 

(e)  Exports    from     non- 

contiguous terri- 
tory to  foreign 
countries 30,363,098  32.028,832 

(f)    (d)   minus   (e) .  . .  4,209,869  4,728,611 

(g)   Total  re-exports  from 

U.S.    36,804,684  49,144,691 

(h)  Re-exports  from  non- 
contiguous terri- 
tory to  foreign 
countries    20,008 

(i)    (g)   minus   (li)...        36,804,684  49,124,683 

(j)  Imports  Into  con- 
tinental U.  S.  from 
non  -  contiguous 
territory    4,394,577  2,303,830 

(k)  Exports  to  non-con- 
tiguous territory 
from  continental 
U.   S 798,644  972,303 

(1)    (J)    minus    (k)  .  .  .  3,595,933  1,331,527 

Net  consumption,  con- 
tinental U.  S.  :  (c) 
minus  (f)  minus 
(i)    plus    (1) 1,303,553,746       1,244,917,516 

Population,  July   1 107,833,279  106,418,170 

Per    capita    consumption, 

1921    12.09  11.70 


Chapter  XXIU 

HOW  GREEN  COFFEES   ARE  BOUGHT  AND  SOLI> 

Buying  coffee  in  the  producing  countries  —  Transporting  coffee  to 
the  consuming  markets  —  Some  record  coffee  cargoes  shipped  to  the 
United  States  —  Transport  over  seas  —  Java  coffee  "ex-sailing  ves- 
sels"—  Handling  coffee  at  New  York,  New  Orleans,  and  San  Fran- 
cisco —  The  coffee  exchanges  of  Europe  and  the  United  States  — 
Commission  men  and  brokers  —  Trade  and  exchange  contracts  for 
delivery  —  Important  rulings  affecting  coffee  trading  —  Some  well 
known  green  coffee  marks 


IN  moving  green  coffee  from  the  planta- 
tions to  the  consuming  countries,  the 
shipments  pass  through  much  the  same 
trade  channels  as  other  foreign-grown  food 
products.  In  general,  the  coffee  goes  from 
planter  to  trader  in  the  shipping  ports; 
thence  to  the  exporter,  who  sells  it  to  an 
importer  in  the  consuming  country;  he  in 
turn  passing  it  on  to  a  roaster,  to  be  pre- 
pared for  consumption.  The  system  varies 
in  some  respects  in  the  different  countries, 
according  to  the  development  of  economic 
and  transportation  methods;  but,  broadly 
considered,  this  is  the  general  method. 

Buying  Coffee  in  the  Producing  Countries 

The  marketing  of  coffee  begins  when  the 
berries  are  swept  up  from  the  drying 
patios,  put  in  gunny  sacks,  and  sent  to  the 
ports  of  export  to  be  sampled  and  shipped. 
In  Brazil,  four-wheeled  wagons  drawn  by 
six  mules,  or  two-wheeled  carts  carry  it  to 
the  nearest  railroad  or  river. 

Brazil,  as  the  world's  largest  producer  of 
coffee,  has  the  most  highly  developed  buy- 
ing system.  Coffee  cultivation  has  been  the 
chief  agricultural  pursuit  in  that  country 
for  many  years ;  and  large  amounts  of  gov- 
ernment and  private  capital  have  been  in- 
vested in  growing,  transportation,  storage, 
and  ship-loading  facilities,  particularly  in 
the  state  of  Sao  Paulo. 


The  usual  method  in  Brazil  is  for  the^ 
fazendeJTf^  (-pogfep-grower)  or  the  conu 
nuftarin  ('commission  merchant)  to  load  his 
[  sKipments  of  coffee  at  an  interior  railroad 
station.  If  his  consignee  is  in  Santos,  he 
generally  deposits  the  bill  of  lading  with 
a  bank  and  draws  a  draft,  usually  payable 
after  thirty  days,  against  the  consignee. 
When  the  consignee  accepts  the  draft,  he 
receives  the  bill  of  lading,  and  is  then  per- 
jmitted  to  put  the  coffee  in  a  warehouse. 

Storing  at  Santos 

At  Santos  most  of  the  storing  is  done 
in  the  steel  warehouses  of  the  City  Dock 
Company,  a  private  corporation  whose 
warehouses  extend  for  three  miles  along 
the  waterfront  at  one  end  of  the  town. 
Railroad  switches  lead  to  these  warehouses, 
so  that  the  coffee  is  brought  to  storage  in 
the  same  cars  in  which  it  was  originally 
loaded  up-country.  Tiio  T^y^T-oVimigog  f^y^ 
leased  by  commisarios.  There  are  also 
Tnany  old  warehouses,  built  of  wood,  still 
operated  in  Santos,  and  to  these  the  coffee 
is  transferred  from  the  railroad  station 
either  by  mule  carts  or  by  automobile 
trucks. 

At  the  receiving  warehouses,  samples  of 
each  bag  are  taken ;  the  tester,  or  sampler, 
standing  at  the  door  with  a  sharp  tool,  re- 
sembling a  cheese-tester,  which  he  thrusts. 


303 


304 


ALL     ABOUT     COFFEE 


The  Last  Sami'le  Before  Expokt,  Santos 

into  the  center  of  the  bag  as  the  men  pass 
liim  with  the  bags  of  coffee  on  their  heads, 
removing  a  double  handful  of  the  contents. 
The  samples  are  divided  into  two  parts; 
one  for  the  seller,  and  one  that  the  com- 
misario  retains  until  he  has  sold  the  eon- 
;signment  of  coffee  covered  by  that  particu- 
lar lot  of  samples. 

The  Disappearing  Ensaccador 

I  In  the  old  days  it  was  the  custom  every 
morning  for  the  ensaccadores,  or  baggers, 
;and  the  exporters  or  their  brokers,  to  visit 
the  commisarios'  warehouses  and  to  bar- 
gain for  lots  of  coffee  made  up  by  the 
.commisario. 

In  the  Santos  market,  until  recent  years, 
the  ensaccador,  or  coffee-bagger,  often  stood 
(_J)etween  the  commisario  and  exporter. 
When  American  importing  houses  began  to 
establish  their  own  buying  offices  in  the 
Brazilian  ports  (about  1910)  to  deal  direct 
with  the  fazendeiro  and  the  commisario, 
the  gradual  elimination  of  the  ensaccador 
was  begun.  Today  he  has  entirely  disap- 
peared from  the  Santos  market,  and  is  dis- 
appearing from  Rio  de  Janeiro,  Bahia,  and 
Victoria. 

Coffee  reaches  Santos  in  a  mixed  condi- 
tion ;  that  is,  it  has  not  been  graded,  or 
separated  according  to  its  various  qualities. 
This  is  the  work  of  the  commisario,  who 
puts  each  shipment  into  "lots"  in  new 
^'official"  bags,  each  of  which  bears  a  mark 


stating  that  the  contents  are  Sao  Paulo 
growth-.  If  the  coffee  is  offered  for  sale 
by  the  owner,  the  commisario  will  then  put 
it  on  the  "street,"  the  section  of  Santos 
given  over  to  coffee  trading. 

The  commisario  works  with  samples  of 
the  coffee  he  has  to  offer  and  only  puts 
out  one  set  at  a  time.  He  names  his  "ask- 
ing" price,  known  locally  as  the  pedido, 
which  is  the  maximum  rate  he  expects  to 
get,  but  seldom  receives.  A  set  of  samples 
may  be  shown  to  twenty-five  or  thirty  ex- 
porting houses  in  a  day,  one  at  a  time. 
When  the  sample  is  in  the  hands  of  a  firm 
for  consideration,  no  other  exporter  has 
the  right  to  buy  the  lot  even  at  the  pedido 
price,  and  the  commisario  can  not  accept 
other  offers  until  he  has  refused  the  bid. 
On  the  other  hand,  if  a  house  refuses  to 
give  up  the  samples,  it  is  understood  that 
it  is  willing  to  pay  the  pedido  price.  The 
firm  first  offering  a  price  acceptable  to  the 
commisario' s  broker  gets  the  lot,  even 
though  other  houses  have  offered  the  same 
price. 

When  a  lot  is  sold,  the  samples  are 
turned  over  to  the  successful  bidder,  and 
he  then  asks  the  commisario  for  larger 
samples  for  comparison  with  the  first  set. 

Commisarios  Make  as  High  as  Nine  Percent 

Having  sold  the  coffee  of  a  given  planter, 
the  commisario  often  gets  as  much  as  nine 
percent  for  his  share  of  the  transaction. 


.Staju'ixg  Bacis  for  Export,   Santos 


BUYING  AND  SELLING  GREEN  COFFEE 


305 


Coffee  from  the  Fazendas  is  Deliveued  at  the  Commissarios'  Warehouses  in  Rio 


Interior  of  a  Santos  Cleaning   and    Grading    ^YAREHOUSE 
PREPARING    BRAZIL    COFFEE    FOR    EXPORT 


306 


ALL     ABOUT     C0FFP:E 


Gkadixg  Coffee  at  ^Santos 

Unless  the  bags  have  been  furnished  to  the 
planter  at  a  good  rental,  the  coffee  must 
be  transferred  to  the  commisario  's  bags ; 
and  for  this  the  planter  pays  a  commission. 
'  Formerly  the  coffee,  being  rebagged  by 
the  ensaccador,  was  manipulated  in  what  is 
called  ligas;  that  is,  mixing  several  neutral 
grades  from  various  lots  to  create  an  arti- 
ficial grade ;  or,  more  properly  speaking,  a 
"type,"  desirable  for  trading  on  the  New 
York  market. 

Grading  and  Testing  in  Brazil 

Having  bought  a  lot  of  coffee,  the  ex- 
porter's next  step  is  to  grade  and  to  test  it. 
Grading  is  generally  done  in  the  morning 
and  late  afternoon,  the  hours  from  one  to 
half-past  four  being  devoted  to  making 
offers.  The  afternoon  grading  is  done  by 
sight.  The  morning  examinations  are  more 
thorough,  some  progressive  exporting 
houses  even  cup-testing  the  samples.  Sam- 
ples' are  compared  with  house  standards, 
and  with  the  requirements  that  have  been 
cabled  from  the  home  office  in  the  consum- 
ing country.  Some  of  the  coffee  is  roasted 
to  obtain  a  standard  by  which  all  ' '  chops ' ' 
(varieties)  are  then  graded  and  marked  ac- 
cording to  quality  — fine,  good,  fair,  or 
pooc  Quality  is  further  classified  by  the 
numerals  from  two  to  eight,  which  stand- 
ards have  been  established  on  the  New  York 
Coffee  and  Sugar  Exchange,  and  are  de- 
scribed farther  on  in  this  chapter.  Some 
traders  also,  use  the  terms  large  or  small 
bean ;  fair,  good,  or  poor  roasters ;  soft  or 
hard  bean;  light  or  dark;  and  similar  de- 
scriptive terras. 


When  a  lot  is  ready  for  shipment  over- 
seas, the  commisario  stamps  each  bag  with 
his  identifying  mark,  to  which  the  buyer  or 
exporter  adds  his  brand.  If  the  com- 
m,isario  is  ordered  before  eleven  in  the 
morning  to  ship  a  lot  of  coffee,  he  must  be 
paid  before  three  in  the  afternoon  of  the 
same  day;  if  he  receives  the  order  after- 
eleven,  payment  need  not  be  made  before- 
three  in  the  afternoon  of  the  following  day.. 
Generally  the  terms  of  sale  are  full  settle- 
ment in  thirty  days,  less  discount  at  the 
rate  of  six  percent  per  annum  for  the  un- 
expired time,  if  paid  before  the  period  of 
grace  is  up.  _,.  ^,    .   , 

Dispatching  and  Capitazias 

The  exportei*  collects  his  money  by  draw- 
ing a  draft  against  his  client  oh  deposit  of 
bill  of  lading,  cashing  the  draft  through  an 
exchange  broker  who  deducts  his  brokerage 
fee.  The  exporter  must  obtain  a  consular 
invoice,  a  shipping  permit  from  both  fed- 
eral and  state  authorities,  and  pay  an  ex- 
port tax,  before  the  coffee  goes  aboard  the 
ship.  This  process  is  known  as  ''dispatch- 
ing," while  the  dock  company's  charges 
are  known  as  capitazias. 

In  practically  all  coffee-growing  sections 
the  small  planter  is  helped  financially  by 
the  owners  of  processing  plants  or  by  the 
exporting  firms.  The  larger  planters  may 
even  obtain  advances  on  their  crops  from 
the  importing  houses  in  New  York,  Havre,. 
Hamburg,  or  other  foreign  centers. 

The  Exchange  at  Santos 

A  new  coffee  exehange  began  business  at 
Santos  on  May  1,  1917,  sitting  with  the 
Coffee    Brokers    Board   of    Control.     This. 


H  '^v 


The  Test  by  Cups,  Santos 


BUYING  AND  SELLING  GREEN  COFFEE 


307 


Where   Coffees   Are   Sight-Graded   Before    Being     Submitted    to    Cup    Tests 


Hand  »&  Raxd  Building:   First  Floor,  Storage;  Second   Floor,   Offices 
NEW  YORK  COFFEE  IMPORTERS'  MODEL  ESTABLISHMENT  AT  SANTOS 


308 


ALL     ABOUT     COFFEE 


Pack-Mule  Transport  in  Venezuela 

Board  consists  of  five  coffee  brokers,  four 
elected  annually  at  a  general  meeting  of 
the  brokers  of  Santos,  and  one  chosen  an- 
nually by  the  president  of  the  state  of 
Sao  Paulo.  Among  the  duties  of  the  Board 
are  the  classification  and  valuation  of  cof- 
fee, adjustment  of  differences,  etc. 

^  Transporting  Coffee  to  Points  of  Export 

Transportation  methods  from  plantation 
to  shipside  naturally  vary  with  local  topo- 
graphical and  economic  conditions.  In 
Venezuela,  the  bulk  of  th.e  coffee  is  trans- 
ported by  pack-mule  from  the  plantations 
and  shipping  towns  to  the  head  of  the  rail- 
road system,  and  thence  by  rail  to  the 
Catatumbo  River,  where  it  is  carried  in 
small  steamers  down  the  river  and  across 
Lake  Maracaibo  to  the  city  of  Maracaibo. 
In  Colombia,  coffee  is  sent  down  the  Mag- 
dalena  River  aboard  small  steamers  direct 
to  the  seaboard.  In  Central  America, 
transportation  is  one  of  the  most  serious 


problems  facing  the  grower.  The  roads 
are  poor,  and  in  the  rainy  season  are  some- 
times deep  with  mud ;  so  much  so  that  it 
may  require  a  week  to  drive  a  wagon-load 
of  coffee  to  the  railroad  or  the  river  ship- 
ping point. 

Buying  Coffee  in  Abyssinia 

Coffee  is  generally  grown  in  Abyssinia 
by  small  farmers,  who  mostly  finance  them- 
selves and  sell  the  crop  to  native  brokers, 
who  in  turn  sell  it  to  representatives  of 
foreign  houses  in  the  larger  trading  cen 
ters.  Trading  methods  between  farmer 
and  broker  are  not  much  more  than  the  old 
system  of  barter.  In  the  southwestern  sec- 
tion, where  the  Abyssinian  coffee  grows 
wild,  transport  to  the  nearest  trading  cen- 
ter is  by  mule  train,  and  not  infrequently 


Coffee-Carrying  Cart,  Guatemala 


Coffee- Laden  C)xen  Fording  Stream,  Colombia 

by  camel  back.  In  the  Harar  district,  the 
women  of  the  farmers  living  near  Harar 
the  market  center,  carry  the  coffee  in  long 
shallow  baskets  on  their  heads  to  the  na- 
tive brokers.  In  the  more  remote  places^ 
the  coffee  farmer  waits  for  the  broker  to 
call  on  him.  From  the  town  of  Harar  the 
coffee  is  transported  by  mule  or  camel  train 
to  Dire-Daoua,  whence  it  is  shipped  by 
rail  to  Jibuti,  to  be  sent  by  direct  steamers 
to  Europe,  or  across  the  Gulf  of  Aden  to 
Aden  in  Arabia. 

Ten  different  languages  are  spoken  in 
Harar.  In  order  successfully  to  engage  in 
the  coffee  business  there,  it  is  necessary 
either  to  become  proficient  in  all  these 
tongues,  or  to  engage  some  one  who  is. 

When  the  coffee  is  brought,  partially 
cleaned,   into   Harar  by  donkey  or  mule 


BUYIXG  AND  SELLING  GREEN  COFFEE 


309 


Transporting  Coffee  by  Mitleback  in  the  City  of  Cucuta,  Colombia 


SchooiuT  from   Encontrados   to   Maracaibo  One  of  the  lake  and  river  steamers 

Coffee  Cargo  Carriers  That  Operate  on  Lake    Maracaibo   and   Tributary   Rivers 


Donkey  Transport  Train  for  Coffee  in  .Mexico 
COFFEE    TRANSPORT   IN  MEXICO   AND   SOUTH    AMERICA 


310 


ALL     ABOUT     COFFEE 


Donkey   Coffee  Tkanspobt  on  the  Way  from 

HARAR   to   DiRte-DAOUA 

train,  it  is  first  taken  to  the  open  air 
eustom-house  (coffee  exchange)  in  the  cen- 
ter of  the  town,  where  a  ten-percent  duty 
(in  coffee)  is  exacted  by  the  local  govern- 
ment, and  one  Abyssinian  dollar  (fifty 
cents)  is  added  for  every  thirty-seven  and 
a  half  pounds,  this  latter  being  Ras  Makon- 
nen's  share.  As  soon  as  the  native  dealer 
has  released  to  him  what  remains  of  his 
shipment,  he  takes  it  out  of  the  custom- 
house enclosure  and  disposes  of  it  through 
the  native  brokers,  who  have  their  little 
' '  office ' '  booths  stretching  in  a  long  line  up 
the  street  just  outside  the  custom-house 
entrance. 

There,  a  brokerage  charge  of  one  piaster 
per  bag  is  paid  by  the  buyer,  and  the  coffee 
then  becomes  the  property  of  the  European 
merchant.  In  some  cases  it  is  put  through 
a  further  cleaning  process ;  but  usually  it 
is  shipped  to  Jibuti  or  Aden  uncleaned. 


Arriving  at  Jibuti,  there  is  a  one-percent 
ad  valorem  duty  to  pay.  At  Aden,  there 
is  another  tax  of  one  anna  (two  cents)  to 
be  paid  to  the  British  authorities. 

Since  1914,  however,  Abyssinian  coffee 
has  been  exported  largely  through  the 
Sudan,  a  much  shorter  and  less  expensive 
trip  than  that  to  Adis  Abeba  and  Jibuti. 
Now  the  coffee  is  carried  by  pack-train  to 
Gambela  on  the  Sobat  River ;  and  thence 
by  river  steamer  to  Khartoum,  where  it  is 
loaded  on  railroad  trains  and  sent  to  Port 
Sudan  on  the  Red  Sea. 

Buying  Coffee  in  Arabia 

Most  of  the  coffee  in  Arabia  is  grown  in 
almost  inaccessible  mountain  valleys  by  na- 
tive Arabs,  and  is  transported  by  camel 
caravan  to  Aden  or  Hodeida,  where  it  is 
sold  to  agents  of  foreign  importing  houses. 


Coffee  Camels  in  the  Custom-House.  Harar 


Selling  Coffee  at  Aden  by  Tapping  Hands 
Under  Cover 

Mocha,  once  the  principal  exporting  city 
for  coffee,  was  abandoned  as  a  coffee  port 
early  in  the  nineteenth  centurj%  chiefly  be- 
cause of  the  difficulty  of  keeping  the  road- 
stead of  the  harbor  free  from  sandbars. 

In  Aden  there  is  a  kind  of  open-air  cof- 
fee "exchange"  (as  in  Harar)  where  the 
camel  trains  unload  their  coffee  from  the 
interior.  The  European  coffee  merchant 
does  not  frequent  it,  but  is  represented  by 
native  brokers,  through  whom  all  coffee 
business  is  transacted.  This  native  broker 
is  an  important  person,  and  one  of  the 
most  picturesque  characters  in  Aden.  He 
receives  a  commission  of  one  and  a  half 
percent  from  both  buyer  and  seller.  Cer- 
tain grades  of  coffee  are  purchasable  only 
in  Maria  Theresa  dollars ;  so  a  knowledge 
of  exchange  values  is  essential  to  the 
broker's  calling. 


BUYING  AND  SELLING  GREEN  COFFEE 


311 


PACKING  AND  TRANSPORTING  COFFEE  AT  ADEN 


312 


ALL     ABOUT     COFFEE 


In  making  coffee  sales,  the  negotiations 
between  buyer  and  seller  are  carried  on  by- 
means  of  finger  taps  under  a  handkerchief. 
The  would-be  purchaser  reaches  out  his 
hand  to  the  seller  under  cover  of  the  cloth 
and  makes  his  bid  in  the  palm  of  the 
seller's  hand  by  tapping  his  fingers.  The 
code  is  well  understood  by  both.  Its  ad- 
vantage lies  in  the  fact  that  a  possible 
purchaser  is  enabled  to  make  his  bid  in 
the  presence  of  other  buyers  without  the 
latter  knowing  what  he  is  offering. 

Buying  Coffee  in  Netherlands  India 

In  the  Dutch  East  Indies  cultivation  of 
Coff'ea  arabica  has  diminished,  the  decay  of 
the  industry  beginning  when  Brazil  and 
Central  America  became  the  dominant  fac- 
tors in  the  green  market.  Not  so  many 
years  ago  coffee  growing  and  coffee  trading 
were  virtually  government  monopolies. 
Under  government  control  each  native  fam- 
ily was  required  to  keep  from  six  hundred 
to  a  thousand  coffee  trees  in  bearing,  and 
to  sell  two-fifths  of  the  crop  to  the  govern- 
ment. It  was  also  compulsory  to  deliver 
the  coffee  cleaned  and  sorted  to  the  official 
godowns,  and  to  sell  the  crop  at  fixed 
prices  —  nine  to  twelve  florins  per  picul 
previous  to  1874,  although  forty  to  fifty 


florins  were  ott'ered  in  the  open  market. 
Later,  the  price  was  advanced ;  until  about 
1900  the  government  paid  fifteen  florins 
per  picul  for  coffee  in  parchment.  All 
government  coffee  was  sold  at  public  auc- 
tion in  Batavia  and  Padang,  these  sales 
being  held  four  times  a  year  in  Batavia 
and  three  times  a  year  in  Padang. 

Coffee  from  private  estates,  not  under 
government  control  and  operated  by  Euro- 
pean corporations  or  individuals,  has  now 
succeeded  the  government  monopoly  coffee. 
Private-estate  crops  are  sold  by  public  ten- 
der, usually  on  or  about  January  28  of 
each  year.  If  the  owners  do  not  get  the 
price  they  desire  in  Batavia  or  Padang,. 
the  coffee  is  sent  to  Amsterdam  for  dis- 
posal. Some  coffees  always  are  sent  to 
Holland ;  because  the  directors  of  the  com- 
pany get  a  commission  on  all  sales  there, 
and  also  because  the  coffees  are  prepared 
especially  for  the  Dutch  market.  The 
Hollander  wants  his  coffee  blue-green  in 
color. 

Loading  Coffee  at  Santos 

In  Brazil,  when  the  coffee  has  been  re- 
bagged  and  marked  by  both  the  com- 
misario  and  the  exporter,  the  coffee  is  again 
sampled.     These    samples    are    compared 


Coffee  Camel  Train  Arriving  at  the  Hodeida  Custom-IIouse  from  the  Interior  of  Yemen 


BUYIXG  AND  SELLING  GREEN  COFFEE 


313 


Loading  by  the  Old-Style  Hand-Labor  Method 


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Here  the  Autoaiatic  Belt  Pours  Into  the  Hold  a  Continuous  Stream  of  Bacs  of  Coffee 
OLD  AND  NEW  METHODS  OF  LOADING  COFFEE  AT  SANTOS 


314 


ALL     ABOUT     COFFEE 


A'  Coffee  FREiaHTEK  on  the  Cauca  River, 
Colombia 

with  those  by  which  the  purchase  was 
made;  and  if  right,  the  bags  are  turned 
over  to  the  dock-master,  who  sets  his  la- 
borers to  work  loading  ship.  Two  methods 
are  used  at  Santos.  The  old  familiar  style 
of  hand  labor  is  still  in  evidence  —  men  of 
all  nationalities,  but  largely  Spaniards  and 
Portuguese,  take  the  bags  on  their  heads 
and  carry  them  in  single  file  up  the  gang- 
planks and  into  the  hold  of  the  ship.  The 
dock  company,  however,  operates  a  huge 
automatic  loading  machine,  or  belt,  which 
saves  a  great  deal  of  time  and  labor.  In 
other  Brazilian  ports  all  loading  is  done  by 
manual  labor. 

Recently,  at  the  suggestion  of  the  Com- 
mercial Association  of  Santos,  the  minister 
of  transport  of  Sao  Paulo  ordered  that  cof- 
fees destined  for  legitimate  traders  should 
be  transported  during  four  days  of  the 
week,  and  those  of  a  speculative  nature 
during  the  remaining  two  days.  A  pre- 
mium of  as  much  as  five  milreis  a  bag  has 
been  paid  by  speculators  in  order  to  obtain 
immediate  transport. 

Skipping  Coffee  from  Colombia 

As  Colombia  ranks  next  to  Brazil  in  cof- 
fee, a.  brief  description  of  its  transporta- 
tion methods,  which  are  unique,  should  be 
of  interest  to  coffee  shippers.  A  goodly 
portion  of  Colombia's  coffee  exports  comes 
from  the  district  around  the  little  city  of 
Cucuta,  whose  official  name  is  San  Jose  de 
Cucuta.  It  is  the  capital  of  North  San- 
tander,  is  situated  in  a  beautiful  valley  of 
the  Colombian  Andes  mountains  that  is 
watered  by  several  rivers,  and  is  only  about 
a  half-hour 's  ride  by  motor  from  the  Vene- 
zuelan frontier. 

Due  to  its  geographical  position,  Cucuta 
serves  as  the  most  convenient  inland  port 


and  commercial  center  for  most  of  the  de- 
partment of  North  Santander.  For  the 
same  reason,  it  is  forced  to  depend  on 
Maracaibo  as  its  seaport,  even  though  the 
Venezuelan  government  has  a  number  of 
annoying  laws  controlling  the  commerce 
thus  conducted.  The  Colombian  ports  of 
Baranquilla  and  Cartagena  on  the  Atlantic 
are  too  distant  from  Cucuta  to  be  avail- 
able; and  a  large  part  of  the  traffic  would 
have  to  be  done  on  mule-back  across  one 
of  the  most  formidable  ranges  of  the  Co- 
lombian Andes,  involving  high  cost  and  de- 
lay in  transportation.  Yet  its  frontier  po- 
sition makes  it  possible  for  Cucuta  to  have 
important  commercial  relations  with  the 
neighboring  republic  of  Venezuela,  and  to 
enjoy  exceptional  privileges  from  the  Co- 
lombian central  government. 

A  cargo  of  coff'ee  leaving  Cucuta  has  to 
go  through  the  following  steps  on  its  way 
to  a  foreign  market : 

1.  From  Cucuta,  it  travels  thirty-five 
miles  by  railroad  to  Puerto  Villamizar,  a 
Colombian  river  port  on  the  Zulia  river. 

2.  At  Puerto  Villamizar  it  is  loaded 
into  small,  flat-bottomed,  steel  lighters  that 
are  taken  to  Puerto  Bncontrados  by  man 
power.  Puerto  Bncontrados,  belonging  to 
Venezuela,  is  on  the  Catatumbo  river;  and 
the  trip  from  Villamizar  takes  from  two 
to  four  days,  depending  on  the  depth  of 
water  in  the  river.  During  high  water, 
river  steamers  are  also  used,  and  make  the 
trip  in  less  than  a  day. 

3.  At  Bncontrados  the  cargo  is  loaded 
on  river  steamboats  more  or  less  of  the 
Mississippi  river  type,  which  take  it  to 
Maracaibo,  Venezuela.  Coffee  is  also  car- 
ried to  Maracaibo  by  small  sailing  vessels. 

4.  At  Maracaibo  it  is  taken  by  ocean 
vessel,  which  either  carries  it  direct  to  New 


Coffee   Steamers  on   the   Magdalena, 
Colombia 


BUYING  AND  SELLING  GREEN  COFFEE 


315 


Oi.i>    A.xu    New    Methods    Employeu    ix    Loajiag    Heavy    Caugo    ox    the    .Santa    Cecilia 


York  or  to  Curacao,  Dutch  West  Indies, 
where  it  is  transhipped  to  steamers  plying 
between  New  York  and  Curacao.  It  is  ob- 
vious that  the  many  transhipments  that 
coffee  coming  from  Cucuta  has  to  undergo 
greatly  retard  its  arrival  at  a  foreign  port ; 
and  a  cargo  sometimes  takes  a  month  or 
more  to  reach  New  York. 

Coffee  from  Cucuta  is  stored  in  the  Vene- 
zuelan custom-house,  from  which  it  must 
be  shipped  for  export  within  forty-five 
days,  or  the  shipper  runs  the  risk  of  hav- 
ing it  declared  by  the  Venezuelan  govern- 
ment for  cansumo  (home  consumption)  at 
a  prohibitory  tariff.  AiTangements  can  be 
made  at  considerable  cost  to  have  the  cof- 
fee talcen  to  a  private  warehouse ;  but  it  is 
no  longer  possible  to  make  up  the  chops  in 
Maracaibo,  as  was  done  formerly  with  all, 
the  Cucutas.  The  Venezuelan  customs  will 
not  even  allow  the  Maracaibo  forwarding 
agent  the  same  chops,  as  a  general  rule. 
Special  permission  must  be  obtained  to 
change  any  bags  that  are  stained  or  dam- 
aged. Schooners  from  Curacao  have,  in 
the  past,  carried  a  great  deal  of  the  Colom- 
bian coffee  to  Curagao. 

Port  Handling  Charges  in  Brazil 

It  is  almost  impossible  to  list  all  the  vari- 
ous charges  for  the  handling  of  coffee  at 


the  port  of  shipment  in  Brazil,  the  figures 
not  being  accessible  to  outsiders.  Some 
fi;gures,  such  as  warehouse  charges  and  va- 
rious forms  of  tax,  are  obtainable,  however. 
For  every  bag  of  coffee  which  is  in  ware- 
house over  forty-eight  hours  from  tlu;  time 
of  its  arrival  from  the  railroad  there  is  a 
charge  of  two  hundred  reis  (about  five 
cents).  In  Sao  Paulo  there  is  an  export 
tax  of  nine  percent  ad  valorem  levied  by 
the  state,  and  in  Rio  the  state  tax  is  eight 
and  a  half  percent.  Then  there  is  a  surtax 
of  five  francs  per  bag  in  Santos,  and  of 
three  francs  in  Rio,  which  goes  toward  de- 
fraying the  expenses  of  valorization.  For 
every  bag  of  coffee  that  passes  over  the 
dock  the  dock  company  charges  one  hun- 
dred reis  (about  two  and  a  half  cents). 

Some  Record  Coffee  Cargoes 

With  its  superior  loading  and  shipping 
facilities  Brazil  has  been  able  to  send  ex- 
traordinarily large  cargoes  of  coffee  to  the 
United  States  since  the  development  of 
large  modern  freight-carrying  steamships. 
While  75,000  or  90,000  bag  cargoes  were  of 
common  occurrence  just  prior  to  the  out- 
break of  the  World  War,  several  shipments 
of  more  than  100,000  bags  were  made  in 
the  years  1915^  1916,  and  1917.  Up  to  Jan- 
uary,  1919,   the   record  was  held  by  the 


316 


ALL     ABOUT     COFFEE 


steamship  Bjornstjeriie  Bjomson  which  un- 
loaded 136,424  bags  at  New  York  on  No- 
vember 17,  1915.  Other  shipments  of 
more  than  100,000  bags  were  by  the  Ros- 
setti  (December,  1900),  125,918  bags ;  the 
Wascana  (March  3,  1915),  108,781  bags; 
the  Wagama  (October,  1916),  105,650 
bags;  the  American  (October  23,  1916), 
124,212  bags;  the  Santa  Cecilia  (Novem- 
ber 2,  1916),  105,500  bags,  and  the  Dakotan 
(January  6,  1917),  which  can-ied  136,387 
bags. 

Transport  Overseas 

To  bring  green  coffee  to  the  consuming 
markets,  both  steamships  and  sailing  ves- 
sels are  used,  although  the  latter  have  al- 
most wholly  given  way  to  the  speedier  and 
more  capacious  modern  steamers.  Because 
of  its  large  consumption,  a  constant  stream 
of  vessels  is  always  on  the  way  to  the  mar- 
kets of  the  United  States.  The  majority 
of  these  unload  at  New  York,  which  in  1920 
received  about  fifty-nine  percent  of  all  the 
coffee  imported  into  this  country.  New 
Orleans  came  next,  with  about  twenty -five 
percent;  and  San  Francisco  third,  with 
about  twelve  percent. 

The  approximate  time  consumed  in 
transporting  green  coffee  overseas  from  the 
principal  producing  countries  to  the  United 
States  by  freight  steamships  is  shown  in 
the  table  in  the  next  column. 

In  some  cases,  that  of  Guadeloupe,  for 
instance,  the  vessels  stop  at  a  number  of 
ports,  and  this  lengthens  the  time.  This 
is  also  true  of  vessels  running  on  the  west 
coast  of  Central  America  and  of  those  from 
Aden. 

During  the  World  "War,  one  shipment  of 
Timor  coffee  consumed  three  and  a  half 
years  coming  from  Java  to  New  York.  It 
was  aboard  the  German  steamship  Bris- 
bane, which  cleared  from  Batavia,  July  4, 
1914,  and  fearing  capture,  took  refuge  in 
Goa,  Portuguese  India,  where  it  lay  until 
Portugal  joined  the  Allies.  Then  the  Por- 
tuguese seized  the  vessel,  and  turned  it 
over  to  the  British,  who  moved  it  to  Bom- 
bay. Here  the  cargo  was  finally  tran- 
shipped to  the  City  of  Adelaide,  reaching 
New  York  in  January,  1918,  three  and  a 
half  years  after  the  coffee  left  Batavia. 

Java  Coffee  '' Ex-Sailing  Ships" 

Up  to  1915  it  was  the  custom  to  ship  con- 
siderable Java  coffee  to  New  York  in  slow- 
going  sailing  vessels  of  the  type  in  favor 
a  hundred  years  ago.     Java  coffees  "ex- 


Transportation  Time  fob  Coffee^ 

liio  tie  Janeiro  to  New  York It  to  10  days 

Santos  ' 14  to  18  " 

Kahia  "       "         "   17  " 

Victoria  "       "         " 19  " 

Maraeaibo  "       "         *"   10  " 

I»uei-to  Cabello  "       "         "   10  " 

La  Guaira  "       "         "   8  " 

Oosta  Riea  "       "         "   10  " 

Salvador 18  " 

Mexico  "       "         "   0  •• 

Guatemala  ''       "         "   11  " 

( I'nerto 

Barrios) 

Colombia  "       "         "   10  " 

Haiti  ■'       "         "   7  ■' 

Porto  Rico  "       "         ''   o  " 

Guadeloupe  "      "        "   10  " 

Hawaii  "       "         "   28  " 

(viaP.  C.) 

Java  "       "         "   30  '■ 

(via  Suez) 

Sumatra  "       "         "   30  " 

(via  Suez) 

Singaiwre  "       "         "   3.5  " 

(via  Suez) 

India  "       "         "   35  " 

(via  Suez) 

Aden  "       "         "   4.5  " 

(via  Suez) 

Porto  Rico  "    New  Orleans.  . .  7  " 

Guadeloupe  "      "         "         ...  10  " 

Haiti  "       "         "...  7  " 

Guatemala  "       "         "         ...  8  " 

Costa  Rica  "       "        "         ,  _  7  " 

Colomloia  ><       »         «           _  _  G  " 

Mexico  "       "         »  4  " 

Salvador  "       "        "         ...  15  " 

Guatemala  "  San  Francisco . .  10  *' 

Costa  Rica  "       "         "           ..  18  " 

Salvador  "       '"         "           . .  14  " 

Mexico  "I'         '1           ^  8  " 

Hawaii  •;        •'         "            .  .  g  '• 

Singapore  "       "         "           •  •  30 

India  "       "        "           •  •  33 

1  The  American  Legion  and  the   Southern   Cross,  of 
the    Munson    Line,    make    the    journey    from    Rio    de 

Janeiro    to    New  York    in    eleven    days.  These  are 

freight-and-passenger    vessels,    and    have  carried    as 
many  as  5,000  bags  of  coffee  at  one  time. 


sailing  ships"  always  commanded  a  pre- 
mium because  of  the  natural  sweating  they 
experienced  in  transit.  Attempts  to  imi- 
tate this  natural  sweating  process  by  steam- 
heating  the  coffees  that  reached  New  York 
by  the  faster-going  steamship  lines,  and  in- 
terference therewith  by  the  pure-food  au- 
thorities, caused  a  falling  oft*  in  the  demand 
for  "light,"  "brown,"  or  "extra  brown" 
Dutch  East  Indian  growths ;  and  gradually 
the  picturesque  sailing  vessels  were  seen  no 
more  in  New  York  harbor.  At  the  end 
they  were  mostly  Norwegian  barks  of  the 
type  of  the  Gaa  Paa. 

It  usually  took  from  four  to  five  months 
to  make  the  trip  from  Paclang  or  Batavia 


BUYING  AND  SELLING  GREEN  COFFEPJ 


317 


Unloading  Java   Coffee   from   a   Sailing   Vessel  at  a  Bi'.ooklyn  Dock 
The  ship  is  the  Gaa  Paa,  which  made  the  voyage  from  Padang  in  five  months  in  1912 


to  New  York.  Crossing:  the  Equator  twice, 
first  ill  the  Indian  Ocean,  then  in  the  South 
Atlantic,  the  trip  was  more  than  equal  to 
circumnavigating  the  earth  in  our  latitude. 
In  the  hold  of  the  vessel  the  cargo  under- 
went a  sweating  that  gave  to  the  coffee  a 
rare  shade  of  color  and  that,  in  the  opinion 
of  coffee  experts,  greatly  enhanced  its  flavor 
and  body.  The  captain  always  received  a 
handsome  gratuity  if  the  coffee  turned  ' '  ex- 
tra brown." 

The  demand  for  sweated,  or  brown,  Javas 
probably  had  its  origin  in  the  good  old  days 
when  the  American  housewife  bought  her 
coffee  green  and  roasted  it  herself  in  a 
skillet  over  a  quick  fire.  Coffee  slightly 
brown  was  looked  upon  with  favor;  for 
every  good  housewife  in  those  days  knew 
that  green  coffee  changed  its  color  in  aging, 
and  that  of  course  aged  coffee  was  best. 

And  so  it  came  about  that  Java  coffees 
were  preferably  shipped  in  slow-going 
Dutch  sailing  vessels,  because  it  was  de- 
sirable to  have  a  long  voyage  under  the 
hot  tropical  sun  suitably  to  sweat  the  cof- 
fee on  its  way  to  market  and  to  have  it  a 
handsome  brown  on  arrival.  The  sweating 
frequently  produced  a  musty  flavor  which, 
if  not  too  pronounced,  was  highly  prized 


by  experts.  When  the  ship  left  Padang  or 
Batavia  the  hatches  were  battened  down, 
not  to  be  opened  again  until  New  York 
harbor  was  reached. 

Many  of  the  old-style  Dutch  sailing  ves- 
sels were  built  somewhat  after  the  pattern 
of  the  Goed  Vrouw,  which  Irving  tells  us 
was  a  hundred  feet  long,  a  hundred  feet 
wide,  and  a  hundred  feet  high.  Sometimes 
she  sailed  forward,  sometimes  backward, 
and  sometimes  sideways.  After  dark,  the 
lights  were  put  out,  all  sail  was  taken  in, 
and  all  hands  turned  in  for  the  night. 

The  last  of  the  coffee-carrying  sailing 
vessels  to  reach  the  United  States  was  the 
bark  Padang,  which  arrived  in  New  York 
on  Christmas  day,  1914. 

Handling  Coffee  at  New  York 

The  handling  of  the  cargoes  of  coffee 
when  they  arrive  at  their  destination  is  a 
source  of  wonder  to  the  layman.  There  is 
probably  no  better  place  to  study  the  han- 
dling of  coffee  than  in  New  York  City  — 
the  world's  largest  coffee  center.  Millions 
of  bags  of  coffee  pass  into  consumption 
every  year  through  its  docks,  and  scarcely 
a  day  goes  by  when  there  are  not  one  or 
more    ships    discharging    coffee    upon    the 


318 


ALL     ABOUT     COFFEE 


The  Bush  Terminal  System  of  Docks  and  Warehouses 

Much  of  the  green  coffee  received  in  New  York  is  discharged  and  stored  here,  at  one  of  the  most  modern 
waterfront  and  terminal  developments  in  the  world 


Airplane  View  of  New  York  Dock  Company's    Piers   and    Warehouses 

This  is  the  Fulton  Street  sectioh  of  the  Brooklyn  waterfront,  where  more  than  half  the  coffee  received  in 
New  York  is  unloaded.     The  storage  warehouses  are  to  be  seen  back  of  the  piers 

RECEIVING  PIERS  FOR  COFFEE  AT  NEW  YORK 


BUYING  AND  SELLING  GREEN  COFFEE 


319 


docks  lining  the  Brooklyn  shore,  the  center 
of  the  coffee-warehouse  district  for  New 
York.  In  1921,  the  New  York  Dock  Com- 
pany alone  had  159  bonded  warehouses 
with  a  storage  capacity  of  some  65,000,000 
cubic  feet;  and  34  piers,  the  longest  meas- 
uring 1,193  feet  and  containing  more  than 
175,000  square  feet.  These  piers  have  a 
total  deck  space  of  sixty-one  and  a  half 
acres.  The  wharfage  distance  is  more  than 
nine  and  a  third  miles.  More  than  twenty 
steamship  lines  berth  their  vessels  there 
regularly,  and  many  of  them  are  coffee 
ships.  The  warehouses  have  direct  connec- 
tions with  all  the  principal  railway  trunk 
lines  running  into  the  New  York  district ; 
and  the  whole  property  of  the  company 
stretches  along  the  waterfront  opposite 
lower  Manhattan  for  about  two  and  one- 
half  miles. 

Although  coffee  is  admitted  to  the  United 
States  free  of  duty,  it  is  subject  to  prac- 
tically the  same  formalities  as  dutiable 
goods.  Before  the  cargo  can  be  "broken 
out,"  a  government  permit  to  *'land  and 
deliver"  must  be  placed  in  the  hands  of 
the  customs  inspector  on  the  dock.  This 
done,  the  ship's  samples,  which  consist  of 
the  samples  sent  by  the  exporter  to  the  im- 
porter, are  taken  to  the  United  States  ap- 


praiser's office  for  inspection,  and  are  then 
delivered  to  the  importer's  representative. 
Meanwhile  the  shipping  documents  cover- 
ing the  cargo,  including  bills  of  lading  and 
consular  invoices,  have  been  sent  to  the  post 
office  for  delivery  to  banks  and  bankers' 
agents,  who  check  and  deliver  them  to  the 
customs  officers  for  entry.  The  govern- 
ment requires  that  this  entry  shall  be  made 
within  forty-eight  hours  of  the  vessel's  ar- 
rival, else  the  cargo  will  be  stored  in  a 
United  States  bonded  warehouse  under 
what  is  known  as  ''general  order"  which 
makes  the  consignee  liable  for  storage  and 
cartage  charges. 

When  a  coffee  ship  arrives  in  New  York, 
not  much  time  is  lost  in  discharging  the 
cargo.  As  soon  as  the  vessel  is  securely 
moored  to  the  pier,  and  the  government's 
permission  to  ''land  and  deliver"  is  se- 
cured, the  hatches  are  removed,  the  coffee- 
is  hauled  out  of  the  hold  by  block  and 
tackle  and  swung  off  in  slings  to  the  pier, 
where  dock  laborers  carry  the  bags  to  their 
proper  places.  If  each  cargo  consisted  of 
one  consignment  to  a  single  importer,  and 
contained  only  one  variety  of  coffee,  un- 
loading would  be  a  comparatively  simple 
affair.  In  general  practise,  however,  the 
cargoes  consist  of  a  large  number  of  con- 


Unloadixg  Coffee  at  One  of  the  Covered  Piers  of  the  New  York  Dock  Company 


320 


ALL     ABOUT     COFFEE 


Storing  Coffee  by  Marks  and  Chops 


lIoisTiXG    Coffee   iato   the-  Storage    \Yabxhouses   Adjoining   the    Brooklyn    1'iers 
RECEIVING  AND   STORING  COFFEE  AT  NEW  YORK 


BUYING  AND  SELLING  GREEN  COFFEE 


321 


signments  and  a  variety  of  grades,  necessi- 
,tating  a  careful  sorting  as  unloading  pro- 
gresses. Accordingly,  even  before  the  un- 
loading begins,  the  dock  is  chalked  off  into 
squares,  each  square  having  a  number,  or 
symbol,  representing  a  particular  consign- 
ment. As  the  bags  come  up  out  of  the 
hold,  the  foreman  of  the  laborers,  who  has 
a  key  to  the  brand  marks  on  the  bags,  in- 
dicates where  each  bag  is  to  be  placed. 
Coffee  to  be  reshipped,  either  by  lighter  or 
rail,  is  heaped  in  piles  by  itself  until  loaded 
on  to  the  lighters  or  freight  cars. 

The  next  step  is  to  transfer  the  cargo  to 
the  warehouse,  and  to  separate  eaeh  con- 
signment according  to  the  various  kinds  of 
coffee  making  up  the  invoices.  When  the 
importer  gives  his  orders  to  store,  he  sends 
also  a  list  of  the  different  kinds  of  coffees 
in  his  consignment,  called  "chops"  by  the 
trade,  with  directions  how  to  divide  the 
shipment.  To  do  this,  the  floor  of  the 
warehouse  is  chalked  off  into  squares,  as 
was  done  on  the  dock;  but  now  the  num- 
bers, or  symbols,  in  each  space  indicate 
the  chops  in  each  invoice,  or  consignment. 

The  importer  naturally  is  eager  to  sam- 
ple the  newly  arrived  coffee.  Sampling  is 
generally  done  by  trained  warehouse  em- 
ployees, Avho  are  equipped  with  coffee 
triers,  sampling  instruments  resembling 
apple-corers,  which  they  thrust  into  the 
bags.     The  instrument  is  hollow,  and  the 


Tester  at  Work,  Bush  Terminal,  New  York 


Loading  Lighters,  Bush  Docks,  New  York 

coffee  flows  iiito  the  hand  of  the  sampler, 
who  places  each  sample  in  a  paper  bag 
which  is  marked  to  indicate  the  chop.  The 
total  sample  of  each  chop  usually  consists 
of  about  ten  pounds  of  coffee,  which  the 
importer  compares  "Vi'^tti  the  exporter's 
sample. 

When  sampling  for  trade  delivery,  about 
two-thirds  of  the  bags  in  "a  chop  are  tried. 
But  when  sampling  for  delivery  on  Coffee 
Exchange  contract,  every  bag  must  be 
tested,  and  care  taken  that  each  chop  is 
uniform  in  color,  kind,  and  quality.  Coffee 
for  Exchange  delivery  must  be  stored  in 
a  warehouse  licensed  by  the  Exchajige; 
and  the  warehouseman  is  responsible  for 
the  uniformity  of  grade  of  each  chop. 

When  approximately  ninety  percent  of 
the  cargo  has  been  unloaded  and  stored, 
the  warehouse  issues  what  has  become 
known  as  the  "last  bag  notice."  In  the 
majority  of  cases  the  coffee  has  been  sold 
before  arrival ;  and  on  receipt  of  the  last 
bag  notice,  the  importer  can  transfer  own- 
ership of  the  coffee  and  save  interest.  j 

In  a  cargo  of  75,000  to  100,000  bags  of 
coffee  that  have  been  hurriedly  loaded  in 
the  producing  country  and  unloaded  at 
destination  in  equal  haste,  a  small  portion 
of  the  cargo  is  almost  certain  to  be  dam- 
aged. Generally  the  damage  is  slight.  If 
a  bag  is  torn  or  stained,  the  coffee  is  placed 
in  a  new  bag.     If  the  contents  have  become 


322 


ALL     ABOUT     COFFEE 


The  New  Terminal  System  on  Staten  Island 

On  the  left  are  three  piers  of  the  Pouch  Terminal  at   Clifton;   on   the  right,   four  of  the  American  Dock 
Terminal  at  Tompkinsville ;  and  between  these  are   thirteen    piers    of    the    new    Municipal    Terminal 


mildewed,  the  damaged  portion  is  taken  to 
a  warehouse  for  reconditioning;  while  the 
sound  coffee  is  thoroughly  aired  to  remove 
the  odor  and  is  then  placed  in  a  clean  bag. 
The  reconditioned  lot  is  put  into  a  separate 
package  and  forwarded  to  the  buyer  with 
a  "reconditioning  statement"  that  shows 
what  has  been  done. 

Bags  that  have  become  torn  in  transit, 
and  parts  of  their  contents  spilled,  are 
called  "slacks."  These  are  weighed  as 
they  arrive  on  the  dock  by  a  licensed  pub- 
lic weigher;  and  a  sufficient  quantity  of 
the  coffee  remaining  on  the  floor  of  the 
ship's  hold  is  put  into  the  bag  to  make  it 
of  the  proper  weight.     The  expense  of  re- 


conditioning and  rebagging  is  generally 
borne  by  the  marine  insurance  companies. 
When  the  entire  cargo  is  unloaded,  and  the 
slacks  and  bad-order  bags  are  weighed  and 
marked,  the  warehouseman  tallies  up  the 
records  of  his  clerks,  and  renders  a  cor- 
rected chop  list  to  the  consignee. 

Electric  Tractors  mid  Trailers 

Another  district  along  the  water  front  of 
Brooklyn  where  coffee  is  discharged  in 
large  quantities  is  that  between  Thirty- 
third  and  Forty-fourth  Streets,  south 
Brooklyn,  occupied  by  the  Bush  Terminal 
Stores.  This  plant  is  laid  out  with  rail- 
road spurs  on  every  pier,  so  that  its  own 


Motor  Tractor  Moving  Coffee  at  the  Bush  Terminal  Docks,   Brooklyn 


BUYING  AND  SELLING  GREEN  COFFEE 


323 


transfer  cars,  or  the  cars  of  the  railroads 
running  out  of  New  York,  can  be  run  into 
the  sheds  of  the  docks  where  coffee  is  be- 
ing discharged  from  the  ships.  The  meth- 
ods employed  by  the  Bush  Terminal  are 
similar  to  those  just  described,  except  that 
all  the  coffee  is  handled  by  electrically- 
manipulated  cars  or  trucks,  in  some  in- 
stances the  powerful  little  tractors  haul- 
ing many  "trailers"  to  various  parts  of 
the  yards. 

Handling  Charges  at  New  York 

Before  the  World  War,  it  cost  approxi- 
mately one-half  cent  a  bag  to  handle  green 
coffee  from  the  vessel  to  warehouse  and  in 
storage  in  New  York.  The  rate  advanced 
nearly  one  hundred  percent  in  the  latter 
part  of  1919,  then  dropped  slightly,  al- 
though it  is  still  (1922)  above  the  pre-war 
price.  Other  handling  charges  are  shown 
in  the  following  tabulation : 

Coffee   Handling   Charges   at  New   Yoek 

Pre-war  prices  Present  prices 

Cents  per  bag  Cents  per  bag 

(132  lbs.)  (132  lbs.) 

Storage  3  to  4  5  to  8 

Labor    3  to  4  5  to  8 

Sampling  for  damage     1  1 

Cleaning  15  20 

Dumping  and  mixing  10  15 

Dumping   and   airing  10  15 

Shoveling  and  airing  10  15 
Transferring  c  o  ff  e  e 

from  floor  to  floor.     4  8 

Marking 1  1 

Labor  at  vessel $9perM  $12.50  to  $15  per  M 

The  warehousemen  in  1919  charged  four 
cents  per  bag  for  loading  into  railroad  cars. 
This  charge  was  discontinued  in  1921.  The 
cost  of  weighing  increased  from  two  and 
one-half  cents  per  bag  in  1914  to  four  and 
one-half  cents  in  1919,  and  then  dropped 
to  the  present  price  of  three  to  three  and 
one-half  cents.  Other  handling  charges  at 
the  port  of  New  York  are : 

Other  Handling  Charges,  1922 

Cents  per  bag 
(132  lbs.) 

Drawing  samples,  each  10  lbs 17  to  20 

Grading  for  variation 4 

Matching  in    12 

Reducing  or  evening  off  slack 9 

Transferring  to  new  bag 10 

Trucking  to  weigher  in  store 3 

Collecting   and   preparing   sweep- 
ings      25 

Delivering    sample    below    Canal 

Street 75 

Each  additional  sample 10  to  15 

New    bags 15 

Old   bags 6 


Unloading  Coffee  with  Modern  Conveyor,  New 
Orleans 

A  plan  intended  to  cut  down  handling 
costs  in  New  York,  and  to  expedite  de- 
liveries, was  inaugurated  by  the  National 
Coffee  Eoasters  Association  at  the  begin- 
ning of  1920.  The  Association  formed  a 
freight-forwarding  bureau,  and  invited 
members  to  have  their  coffee  shipments 
handled  through  the  bureau.  The  charges 
for  forwarding  direct  importations  are  two 
cents  per  bag.  Cartage  charges  vary  from 
six  to  eighteen  cents  per  hundred  pounds. 
Claims  are  handled  without  charge. 

The  Seven  Stages  of  Transportation 

The  foregoing  story  has  taken  the  reader 
through  the  seven  most  direct  routes  that 
lead  from  the  plantation  to  the  roaster: 
first,  from  the  patio  to  the  railroad  or 
river ;  then  to  the  city  of  export ;  into  the 
warehouses  there;  then  into  the  steamers; 
out  of  them,  and  upon  the  wharf  at  the 
port  of  destination;  from  the  wharf  into 
the  warehouses;  and,  finally,  from  the 
warehouses  to  the  roasting  rooms.  It  ^vill 
be  understood  that  in  some  instances  where 
the  plantation  is  hidden  away  in  the  moun- 
tains, it  is  necessary  to  relay  the  coffee; 
and  again,  at  this  end,  the  coffee  is  very 
often  transhipped.  In  such  cases,  moref 
handlings  are  required. 

Handling  Coffee  at  New  Orleans 

Coffee  ships  are  unloaded  in  New  Or- 
leans, the  second  coffee  port  in  the  United 


324 


ALL     ABOUT     COFFEE 


Unloading  a  Coffee  Ship  by  Block  and  Tackle  at  the  Port  of  New  Orleans 


In  Foreground  —  Loading  Coffee  by  Means  of  an     Automatic     Traveling-Belt     Conveyor,     on 

Government   Barges   for   St.   Louis 


COFFEE-HANDLING  SCENES  ON  THE  WHARVES  AT  NEW  ORLEANS 


BUYING  AND  SELLING  GREEN  COFFEE 


325 


■^mum 


^llPllpHMP 


m'"i- — !»-.,.iiii 

Showing  How  Coffee  Is  Stored  Undeb  Steel-Covered   Sheds  at  New  Orleans 


States,  in  about  the  same  general  manner 
as  in  New  York,  with  the  important  ex- 
ception that  the  block-and-taekle  system 
for  transferring  the  bags  from  the  ship  to 
the  dock  has  been  largely  supplanted  by 
the  automatic  traveling-belt  conveyor  sys- 
tem. Another  notable  feature  is  New  Or- 
leans' steel-roofed  piers,  whereon  the  coffee 
can  be  stored  until  ready  for  shipment  to 
the  interior.  Because  of  the  class  of  la- 
bor —  mostly  negro  —  employed  in  unload- 
ing ships,  New  Orleans  has  found  it  ex- 
pedient to  retain  the  old  flag  system  to  in- 
dicate the  part  of  the  pier  where  each  mark 
of  coffee  is  to  be  piled  as  taken  from  the 
vessel.  These  little  flags  vary  in  shape, 
color  and  printed  pattern,  each  represent- 
ing a  particular  lot  of  coffee,  and  they  are 
firmly  fixed  at  the  part  of  the  pier  where 
those  bags  should  be  stacked.  Trained 
checkers  read  the  marks  on  the  bags  as  the 
laborers  carry  them  past,  and  tell  the  car- 
rier where  the  bag  should  be  placed.  To 
the  illiterate  laborers  the  checker's  cries 
of  "blue  check,"  "green  ball,"  "red 
heart,"  "black  hand,"  and  the  like,  are 
more  understandable  than  such  indications 
as  letters  or  numbers. 

Handling  Coffee  at  San  Francisco 

San  Francisco  ranks  third  in  the  list  of 
United  States  coffee  ports,  having  received 


its  greatest  development  in  the  four  years 
of  the  World  War,  when  the  flow  of  Cen- 
tral American  coffees  was  largely  diverted 
from  Hamburg  to  the  Californian  port. 
In  the  course  of  these  four  years,  the  an- 
nual volume  of  coffee  imports  increased 
from  some  380,000  bags  to  more  than 
1,000,000  bags  in  1918.  The  bulk  of  these 
importations  came  from  Central  America, 
though  some  came  from  Hawaii,  India,  and 
Brazil  and  other  South  American  coun- 
tries. Because  of  its  improved  unloading 
and  distributing  facilities,  San  Francisco 
claims  to  be  able  to  handle  a  cargo  of  cof- 
fee more  rapidly  than  either  New  York  or 
New  Orleans. 

Handling  Central  American  coffees  in 
San  Francisco  is  distinctly  different  from 
the  business  in  Brazils.  In  order  to  secure 
the  Central  American  planter's  crops,  the 
importers  find  it  necessary  to  finance  his 
operations  to  a  large  extent.  Conse- 
quently, the  Central  American  trade  is  not 
a  simple  matter  of  buying  and  selling,  but 
an  intricate  financial  operation  on  the  part 
of  the  San  Francisco  importers.  Prac- 
tically all  the  coffee  coming  in  is  either  on 
consignment,  or  is  already  sold  to  estab- 
lished coffee-importing  houses.  Brokers 
do  not  deal  direct  with  the  exporters ;  and 
practically  none  of  the  roasters  now  import 
direct. 


326 


ALL    ABOUT    COFFEE 


Discharging  Coffee  from  a  Steamer  Just  Arrived  from  Central  America 


How  A  Large  Cargo  of  Coffee  Is  Handled  on  the  Pier  as  It  Is  Unloaded  from  the  Ship 
UNLOADING  AND  STORING  COFFEE  AT  SAN  FRANCISCO 


BUYING  AND  SELLING  GREEN  COFFEE 


327 


In  recent  years  San  Francisco  has 
adopted  the  practise  of  buying  a  large 
part  of  her  coffee  on  the  * '  to  arrive ' '  basis ; 
that  is  the  purchase  has  been  made  before 
the  coffee  is  shipped  from  the  producing 
country,  or  while  in  transit.  This  practise 
applies,  of  course,  only  to  well  known 
marks  and  standard  grades.  Coffee  that 
has  not  been  sold  before  arrival  in  San 
Francisco  is  generally  sampled  on  the  docks 
-during  unloading,  although  this  is  some- 
times postponed  until  the  consignment  is 
in  the  warehouse.  It  is  then  graded  and 
priced,  and  is  offered  for  sale  by  samples 
through  brokers. 

San  Francisco  is  better  equipped  with 
modern  unloading  machinery  and  other  ap- 
paratus than  either  New  Orleans  or  New- 
York,  even  more  liberal  use  being  made 
there  than  in  New  Orleans  of  the  automatic- 
belt,  conveyors  both  for  transferring  the 
bags  from  the  ships  to  the  docks  and  for 
stacking  them  in  high  tiers  on  the  pier. 
Another  notable  feature  of  the  modern 
coffee  docks  is  that  the  newer  ones  are  of 
steel  and  concrete  and,  as  in  New  Orleans, 
are  covered  to  protect  the  coffee  from  wind 
and  storm, 

Europe's  Great  Coffee  Markets 

Europe  has  three  great  coffee-trading 
markets  —  Havre,  Hamburg,  and  Antwerp. 
Rotterdam  and  Amsterdam  are  also  im- 
portant coffee  centers,  but  rank  far  below 
the  others  named.  In  point  of  volume  of 
stocks,  Havre  led  the  world  before  the  war ; 
while  in  respect  to  commercial  transac- 
tions, it  ranked  second,  with  New  York 
first.  In  pre-war  days,  the  largest  part 
of  the  world's  visible  supply  of  coffee  was 
stored  in  the  Havre  bonded  warehouses,  be- 
ing available  for  shipment  to  any  part  of 
Europe  on  short  notice,  or  even  to  the 
United  States  in  emergencies.  Even  dur- 
ing the  World  War,  this  French  port  re- 
mained a  powerful  factor  in  international 
coffee  trading.  Coffee  trading  in  Havre, 
both  exchange  and  ' '  spot ' '  transactions,  fol- 
lows about  the  same  general  lines  as  in  New 
York  and  the  other  great  coffee  markets. 
Coffee  ' '  futures ' '  are  dealt  in  on  the  Havre 
Botirse. 

Green  coffee  is  sold  in  London  by  auc- 
tion in  Mincing  Lane.  On  arrival,  it  is 
stored  in  bonded  warehouses,  and  is  re- 
leased for  domestic  use  only  when  customs 
duty  at  the  rate  of  four  and  one-half  pence 


One  of  the  Modern  Devices  Lotu  i.n  6a.n  1-kan- 
cisco  FOR  Handling  Green  Coffee 

per  pound  has  been  paid.  The  bulk  of  the 
coffee  comes  in  parchment  on  consignment; 
and  before  sale,  it  must  be  hulled  and  sorted 
in  the  milling  establishments,  most  of  which 
are  on  the  banks  of  the  Thames. 

The  auctions  are  held  four  times  a  week, 
usually  on  Tuesday,  Wednesday,  Thurs- 
day, and  Friday.  The  sales  are  advertised 
in  the  market  papers  —  chief  among  which 
is  the  Public  Ledger — and  also  by  the 
auctioneers,  who  issue  catalogs  of  their  of- 
ferings. A  few  hours  before  the  beginning 
of  the  sale,  samples  are  laid  out  for  inspec- 
tion by  prospective  buyers,  who  may  cup- 
test  them  if  they  desire.  The  actual  sell- 
ing is  done  by  competitive  cash  bidding,  the 
highest  bidder  becoming  the  owner.  Two 
classes  of  brokers  do  the  bidding,  one  for 
home  trade  and  the  other  for  exporters. 

Home  trade  takes  about  a  tenth  of  the 
coffee,  the  remainder  being  sold  for  export. 
If  the  coffee  is  bought  for  re-export,  it  can 
be  transferred  to  the  shipping  port,  still  in 
bond,  and  shipped  out  of  the  country  with- 
out paying  duty.  During  the  World  War, 
auctions  were  held  about  twice  a  week ;  but 
after  the  signing  of  the  armistice  in  Novem- 
ber 1918,  the  London  traders  resumed  the 
four  times  a  week  practise.    • 


328 


ALL  ABOUT  COFFEE 


Coffee  Auction  Samples  on  Display  at  Amsterdam 


Green  Coffee  Stored  on  the  Docks  at  Havre,  France 
HANDLING  GREEN  COFFEE  AT  TWO  EUROPEAN  PORTS 


BUYING  AND  SELLING  GREEN  COFFEE 


329 


►    Coffee  Exchanges  and  Trading  Methods 

Green-coffee  buyers  in  the  large  import- 
ing centers  of  the  United  States  and 
Europe  recognize  two  distinct  markets  in 
their  operations.  One  of  these  is  called  the 
"spot"  market;  because  the  importers, 
brokers,  jobbers,  and  roasters  trading  there 
deal  in  actual  coffee  in  warehouses  in  the 
consuming  country.  In  New  York  the  spot 
market  is  located  in  the  district  of  lower 
Wall  Street,  which  includes  a  block  or  two 
each  side  on  Front  and  Water  Streets 
Here,  coffee  importers,  coffee  roasters,  cof- 
fee dealers,  and  coffee  brokers  conduct 
their  "street"  sales. 

The  other  market  is  designated  as  the 
"futures"  market;  and  the  trading  is  not 
concerned  with  actual  coffee,  but  with  the 
purchase  or  sale  of  contracts  for  future  de- 
livery of  coffee  that  may  still  be  on  the  trees 
in  the  producing  country.  Futures,  or 
"options"  as  they  are  frequently  called, 
are  dealt  in  only  on  a  coffee  exchange. 
The  principal  exchanges  are  in  New  York, 
Havre,  and  Hamburg.  New  Orleans  and 
San  Francisco  exchange  dealers  trade  on 
their  local  boards  of  trade. 

Coffee-exchange  contracts  are  dealt  in 
just  like  stocks  and  bonds.  They  are 
settled  by  the  payment  of  the  difference,  or 
"margin";  and  the  option  of  delivering 
actual  coffee  is  seldom  exercised.  Gener- 
ally, the  operations  are  either  in  the  nature 
of  ordinary  speculation  on  margin  or 
for  the  legitimate  purpose  of  effecting 
"hedges"  against  holdings  or  short  sales 
of  actual  coffees. 

The  New  York  Coffee  and  Sugar  Ex- 
change —  the  most  important  in  the  world, 
because  of  the  volume  of  its  business  — 
deals  in  all  coffees  from  North,  South,  and 
Central  America,  the  West  Indies  and  the 
East  Indies  (except  those  of  the  Robusta 
variety)  and  uses  Type  No.  7  as  the  basis 
for  •  all  Exchange  quotations.  All  other 
types  are  judged  in  relation  to  it.  In  de- 
termining the  number  of  a  type,  the  coffee 
is  graded  by  the  number  of  imperfections 
contained  in  it. 

These  imperfections  are  black  beans, 
broken  beans,  shells,  immature  beans 
("quakers"),  stones,  and  pods.  For 
counting  the  imperfections,  the  black  bean 
has  been  taken  as  the  basis  unit,  and  all  im- 
perfections, no  matter  what  they  may  be, 
are  calculated  in  terms  of  black  beans,  ac- 


New  York  Coffee  and  Sugar  Exchange 

The  building  fronts  on  Hanover  Square  aud  ex- 
tends through  to  Beaver  Street.  The  exchange 
rooms  are  indicated  bj'  the  arched  windows  on 
the  second  floor.  The  rest  of  the  building  is 
devoted  to  offices.  The  exchange  was  founded 
in  1881,  and  was  the  first  national  coffee 
trading  organization  in  the  world. 


330 


ALL     ABOUT     COFFEE 


The  Coffee  Pit  in  the  New  York  Coffee  and  Sugar  Exchange 


coMing  to  a  scale,  which  ;4s  practically  as 
follows:         - 

Black-Bean  Scale 

3  shells   equalT 1  black  bean 

5  "quakers"    equal 1  " 

5  broken  beans  equal :. .  .1  " 

1  pod   equals 1 

1  medium  size  stone  equals 1  '* 

2  small  stones  equal 1  " 

1  large  stone  equals 2  to  3  " 

By  this  scale  a  coffee  containing  no  im- 
perfections would  be  classified  as  Type  No. 
1.  The  test  is  made  on  one-pound  samples. 
If  a  sample  shows  six  black  beans,  or  equiv- 
alent imperfections,  it  is  graded  as  No.  2 ; 
if  thirteen  black  beans,  as  No.  3 ;  if  twenty- 
nine  black  beans,  as  No.  4;  if  sixty  black 
beans,  as  No.  5 ;  if  one  hundred  and  ten 


black  beans,  as  No.  6,  and  if  more  than  one 
hundred  and  ten  black  beans,  as  No.  7  or 
No.  8.  These  two  are  graded  by  compari- 
son with  recognized  exchange  types.  Cof- 
fees grading  lower  than  No.  8  are  not  ad- 
missible to  this  country. 

The  quotation  relationship  of  other  types 
with  the  basic  Rio  No.  7  is  shown  in  the 
table  below. 

By  this  scale  one  can  determine  that  when 
Rio  No.  7  is  quoted  at  17.10,  Rio  No.  2  is 
18.60,  Santos  No.  3,  19.10,  and  Bogota  No.  5, 
18.10.  The  quotations  are  on  the  pound 
and  cents  basis. 

In  the  spot  market,  a  trader  may  also  buy 
or  sell  coffee  "to  arrive";  that  is,  a  con- 
signment that  is  aboard  ship  on  the  way  to 
the  market.    Coffee  is  shipped  to  New  York 


SCALE  OF  QUOTATION  RELATIONSHIP 


Brazilian  Coffee  —  Not  Santos 
Type 
No.  1  — 

No.  2  —  : 
No.  3  — 
No.  4  — 

No.  5  — 
No.  6 
No.  7 

No.  8- 


•  180  points  above 

-150  points  above 

120  points  above 

90  points  above 

60  iwints  above 

-  30  points  above 
■  Basis 

-  50  points  below 


Santos  Coffee 
Type 
■No.  1 — ^260  points  above 
No.  2  —  230  points  above 
No.  3  —  200  points  above 
No.  4  — 150  points  above 
No.  5  — 100  points  above 
No.  6 —   50  i)oanits  above 
No.  7  —  Basis 
No.  8  —  50  poinits  below 
point   is   tlie   hundredth   part   of 


Other  Kinds  —  Not  Brazilian 
Tj-pe 
No.  1  —  300  points  above 
No.  2  —  250  points  above 
No.  3  —  200  points  aoove 
No.  4  — 150  points  above 
No.  5  —  100  points  above 
No.  6 —   50  points  above 
No.  7  —  Basis 
No.  8  —  50  points  below 
a   cent 


BUYING  AND  SELLING  GREEN  COFFEE 


331 


I 


either  on  a  consignment  basis  and  sold  for 
a  commission,  or  it  may  have  been  bought 
in  the  shipping  port  and  be  already  the 
property  of  an  importer.  When  shipped 
on  consignment,  a  wholesaler  usually  buys 
on  the  in-store  contract,  which  provides  that 
the  purchaser  must  take  delivery  at  the 
warehouse,  though  he  is  generally  given  a 
m.onth"s  storage  privilege  before  removal 
of  the  coffee.  The  practise  among  New 
York  importers  at  present  is  to  buy  coffee 
on  either  the  basis  of  F.  0.  B.  delivery 
steamer  at  loading  port,  or  delivery  C.  &  F. 
(cost  and  freight),  or  C.  I.  F.  (cost,  in- 
surance, and  freight),  port  of  destination. 
Payment  is  made  by  letter  of  credit  drawn 
on  a  New  York  or  London  bank,  entitling 
i]a.e  exporter  to  draw  at  ninety  days'  sight 
against  the  shipping  documents,  so  that  the 
shipment  will  be  in  the  hands  of  the  pur- 
chaser long  before  the  draft  is  made.  Fre- 
quently a  jobber  acts  as  his  own  importer  of 
Brazil  coffee,  buying  direct  from  the  ex- 
porter without  utilizing  the  agency  of  a 
broker  or  a  regular  importing  firm. 

Brazil  coffee  is  bought  with  the  stipula- 
tion that  differences  between  samples  and 
the  coffee  actually  delivered  may  be  ad- 


justed either  on  "Brazil  grading,"  ''half 
difference,"  or  "full  difference";  and  with 
the  further  provision  that,  if  the  delivery  is 
a  full  type  higher  or  lower  than  specified  in 
the  contract,  the  entire  shipment  may  be  re- 
jected. Under  the  "Brazil  grading"  pro- 
vision, the  buyer  must  accept  delivery  if  the 
coffee  is  better  than  the  next  lower  type, 
even  though  not  up  to  the  type  ordered; 
and  if  the  coffee  is  of  a  higher  type  than 
contracted  for,  he  need  not  pay  premium 
for  it.  In  buying  on  the  '  *  half  difference ' ' 
or  "full  difference"  basis,  the  buyer  is  en- 
titled to  payment  for  half  the  difference  or 
the  full  difference,  respectively,  for  any  un- 
dergrading,  or  must  pay  the  seller  accord- 
ingly if  there  is  any  overgrading.  When 
a  buyer  specifies  special  features  of  de- 
scription, in  addition  to  type,  some  sellers 
protect  themselves  against  claims  for  dif- 
ference on  this  score  by  inserting  in  the 
contract  a  clause  to  the  effect  that  the  de- 
scription is  given  in  good  faith,  but  is  not 
guaranteed  by  the  seller. 

How  the  New  York  Exchange  Functiofis 

When  the  New  York  Coffee  Exchange 
was  incorporated  in  1881,  its  charter  stated 


CABLEGRAMS 


FUTURE  DELIVERIES  OF  COFFEE 

CLOSING  PRICE5^  OPENING  PRICES  RINGS  If  MARGINS    S.'-'^S,INO  PRICEjl 

BID      ASKEO        BID       ASKED  Mini  1I9PA.M.    t.oPM.       BId'"^  A^ED   Hairw 

'/3'?N  ■>"*  -^i-i-S     f^li-  -^;';.v      JAN. 


9 

-Jii  N 

■■'-/.■:  f 

L!±  ■'■' 

if  ,v 

.J  f  -f 

sale:s 


■i  us ri'^jxs 


TWO   OF  THE   COFFEE   EXCHANGE  BLACKBOARDS 

The  one  on  the  right  is  a  record  of  transactions  in  the  coffee  pit.  As  soon  as  a  trade  is  made,  it  is  noted 
in  the  proper  column  on  the  lower  part,  the  entry  showing  the  time  of  the  transaction,  the  number 
of  "250-pound  bag  lots,"  and  the  price.  The  left-hand  board  gives  Santos  and  Rio  future  quotations. 
For  a  detailed  description  of  these  and  other  exchange  quotation  boards,  see  page  457 


332 


ALL     ABOUT     COFFEE 


its  purposes  to  be  "to  provide,  regulate  and 
maintain  a  suitable  building,  room  or  rooms 
for  the  purchase  and  sales  of  coffees  and 
other  similar  grocery  articles  in  the  city 
of  New  York,  to  adjust  controversies  be- 
tween members,  to  inculcate  and  establish 
just  and  equitable  principles  in  the  trade, 
to  establish  and  maintain  uniformity  in  its 
rules,  regulations  and  usages,  to  adopt 
standards  of  classification,  to  acquire,  pre- 
serve and  disseminate  useful  and  valuable 
business  information,  and  generally  to  pro- 
mote the  above  mentioned  trade  in  the  city 
of  New  York,  increase  its  amount,  and  aug- 
ment the  facilities  with  which  it  may  be 
conducted. 

In  the  promotion  of  trade  at  New  York 
the  Exchange  has  been  highly  successful. 
From  time  to  time  it  has  been  criticized ; 
and,  more  than  once,  coffee  traders  in  the 
East  and  in  the  West  have  raised  a  ques- 
tion as  to  its  value  to  non-speculating 
members.  There  are  those  who  believe  it 
serves  a  useful  purpose,  and  others  who  call 
it  a  huge  pool  room.  To  say  that,  on  the 
whole,  it  is  not  of  benefit  to  the  trade 
would  be  untrue.  As  one  of  its  champions 
pointed  out  in  1914,  when  it  shut  down  for 
a  period  of  four  months  on  account  of  the 
World  War : 

The  ability  to  discount  the  future  is  a  neces- 
sity, and  demands  the  facilities  that  a  unit  of 
centralization  like  the  Exchange  affords.  There 
is  no  difference  between  a  purchase  of  coffee 
and  one  of  a  future  month  on  options. 

The  experience  gained  here  and  abroad 
demonstrates  that  any  check  placed  upon  such 
dealings  is  detrimental,  with  far-reaching 
effects  upon  the  whole  body  of  the  trade.  Un- 
questionably tlie  Exchange  is  a  powerful  factor 
as  a  regulator  of  extremes  in  the  market. 

Tlie  experience  gained  in  Germany,  where  an 
embargo  was  placed  upon  transactions  in  fu- 
tures, is  illuminating.  The  disastrous  effects 
were  so  plain  that  the  authorities  were  forced 
to  abandon  their  objections  and  permit  a  re- 
sumption of  the  business  along  the  old  lines. 

But  a  good  thing  can  be  abused,  and  the 
opportunity  to  gamble  in  options  availed  of  by 
so  many  is  the  increment  that  disturbs  the  legiti- 
macy of  the  market  and  creates  the  opposition 
to  the  whole  proposition.  When  the  Exchange 
is  ready  to  insist  that  every  transaction  in 
futures  must  be  a  legitimate  one,  and  that  every 
trader  under  its  jurisdiction  using  the  facili- 
ties of  the  Exchange  is  made  to  realize  that 
any  operations  that  are  purely  of  a  gambling 
nalture  will  subject  him  to  severe  discipline,  then 
the  Coffee  Exchange  will  begin  to  stem  the  tide 
of  an  ever-growing  opposition  by  the  general 
public. 

The  New  York  State  legislative  committee 
on    speculations    in    securities    and    com- 


COnZl  AFLOAT  FOR  UHiTi  ';  STATES   ,. 


K'u U'A--^  C^P-i  ^'^^'foo  7foo \?ioooc 


'^r    :C>00 


wmmmmwiSM 


'■■VM  ^Kr>iiuj:.-3t.K^  y^-  3iji 


The  "Coffee  Afloat"  Blackboard 

modifies  had  the  following  to  say  on  the 
Coffee  Exchange  in  its  report  to  Governor 
Charles  E.  Hughes  in  1909  : 

It  [the  Coffee  Exchange]  was  established  in 
order  to  supply  a  daily  market  where  coffee 
could  be  bought  and  sold  and  to  fix  quotations 
therefor,  in  distinction  from  the  former  method 
of  alternate  glut  and  scarcity,  with  wide  varia- 
tions in  price  —  in  short,  to  create  stability  and 
certainty  in  trading  in  an  important  article  of 
commerce.  This  it  has  accomplished ;  and  it 
has  made  New  York  the  most  important  pri- 
mary coffee  market  in  the  United  States.  But 
there  has  been  recently  introduced  a  non-com- 
mercial factor  known  as  "valorization,"  a  gov- 
ernmental scheme  of  Brazil,  by  which  the  public 
treasury  has  assumed  to  purchase  and  hold  a 
certain  percentage  of  the  coffee  grown  there, 
in  order  to  prevent  a  decline  of  the  price.  This 
has  created  abnormal  conditions  in  the  coffee 
trade. 

All  transactions  must  be  reported  by  the 
seller  to  the  superintendent  of  the  Exchange, 
with  an  exact  statement  of  the  time  and  terms 
of  delivery.  The  record  shows  that  the  average 
annual  sales  in  the  past  five  years  liave  been 
in  excess  of  16,000,000  bags  of  130  pounds  each. , 

Contracts  may  be  transferred  or  offset  by 
voluntary  clearings  by  groups  of  members. 
There  is  no  general  clearing  system."  There  is 
a  commendable  rule  providing  that,  in  ease  of 
a  "corner,"  the  officials  may  fix  a  settlement 
price  for  contracts  to  avoid  disastrous  failures. 

The  original  initiation  fee  was  $250. 
Seats  on  the  Exchange  once  sold  for  as  low 
as  $110.  In  January,  1916,  there  was  a 
^ale  at  $3,000;  in  October,  1916,  there  was 


=  Since   changed, 
elation. 


There    is    now    a    Clearing    Asso- 


BUYING  AND  SELLING  GREEN  COFFEE 


333 


a  sale  for  $5,000;  in  April,  1921,  three 
seats  were  sold  for  $5,500  each ;  but  the 
record  price  of  $8,600  was  paid  in  1919. 
Seats  are  now  (1922)  worth  about  $6,000. 

The  Exchange  includes  in  its  membership 
323  brokers,  importers,  dealers,  and 
roasters.  Membership  is  passed  upon  by  a 
committee  on  membership ;  but  any  one 
twenty-one  years  old,  resident  or  non-resi- 
dent, of  good  character  and  commercial 
standing,  is  eligible  when  proposed  and  sec- 
onded by  Exchange  members.  The  com- 
mittee refers  the  application  with  its  recom- 
mendation to  the  board  of  managers,  which 
takes  a  ballot.  The  adverse  vote  of  one- 
third  of  all  votes  cast  rejects. 

The  Exchange  elects  annually  a  presi- 
dent, a  vice-president,  and  a  treasurer,  who 
perform  the  usual  duties  of  Exchange  of- 
ficers. The  real  governing  body  is  the 
board  of  managers,  consisting  of  the  presi- 
dent, vice-president,  treasurer,  and  twelve 
other  members.  This  governing  board, 
meeting  monthly,  appoints  the  necessary 
subordinate  officers  and  employees,  and 
fixes  their  compensation,  and  may  "sum- 
mon before  them  any  officer  or  member  for 
any  purpose  whatsoever. ' '  It  appoints  the 
secretary  of  the  Exchange  from  among  its 
own  number,  a  superintendent  of  the  Ex- 
■change,  and  the  numerous  committees 
which  are  in  active  charge  of  specified  ac- 
tivities. It  also  licenses  the  necessary  cof- 
fee graders,  warehousemen,  weighmasters, 
and  samplers  of  the  Exchange. 

A  brief  discussion  of  the  duties  of  the 
superintendent  and  the  various  committees 
will  help  to  explain  the  methods  of  the  Ex- 
change market.  The  superintendent,  under 
the  direction  of  the  board  of  managers,  has 
charge  of  the  details  of  its  work  and  of  that 
of  the  various  committees.  He  keeps  all  the 
books  and  documents  of  the  Exchange ;  col- 
lects and  pays  over  to  the  treasurer  all 
moneys  due  the  Exchange  not  otherwise 
provided  for;  receives,  deposits,  and  pays 
over  all  margins  on  coffee  contracts;  has 
active  charge  of  the  Exchange  rooms  and 
the  bulletin  board;  and  manages  and  ap- 
points, with  the  consent  of  the  board  of 
managers,  the  assistants  needed  to  perform 
the  details  of  the  work  under  his  charge. 

One  of  the  functions  of  the  Exchange  is 
to  grade  and  to  classify  coffee,  in  which  it . 
takes  every  possible  precaution.     The  rules 
provide   for  eight   standard   grades;    and 


only  licensed  graders  are  permitted  to  pass 
upon  the  product  handled  on  the  Exchange. 
There  are  twenty-five  of  these  graders ;  one 
of  whom  is  appointed  as  a  supervisor  of 
types,  to  provide  fresh  standards  and  to 
' '  maintain  them  as  nearly  as  possible  on  an 
equality."  When  these  standards  are  ap- 
proved by  the  board  and  the  Exchange, 
they  remain  in  force  for  a  year. 

"When  coffee  is  received  at  a  licensed 
warehouse,  two  official  graders  are  chosen, 
one  by  the  buyer  and  one  by  the  seller. 
These  graders  receive  four  cents  a  ba^  if 
employed  by  a  member;  and  eight  cents 
a  bag,  if  employed  by  a  non-member. 

If  the  graders  disagree,  their  differences 
are  referred  to  the  board  of  coffee  arbitra- 
tors, consisting  of  ten  experts  appointed  by 
the  board  of  managers.  The  superintend- 
ent selects  by  lot  three  of  these  arbitrators, 
who  decide  on  the  basis  of  the  samples  sub- 
mitted, but  will  not  make  a  decision  lower- 
ing the  grade  below  that  of  the  lowest  sub- 
mitted nor  higher  than  the  highest.  If  the 
disputants  do  not  change  the  grading  to 
come  within  the  arbitrators'  findings,  the 
samples  are  sent  to  the  entire  board  of  ar- 
bitrators, exclusive  of  those  who  may  have 
been  the  original  graders,  and  final  decision 
is  made  by  majority  vote.  As  soon  as  the 
coffee  is  graded,  a  certificate  is  issued 
stating  the  grades,  and  bearing  the  signa- 
tures of  the  superintendent  and  graders. 
This  certificate  is  conclusive  evidence  of  the 
grade  as  far  as  the  parties  involved  are  con- 
cerned, for  the  subsequent  twelve  months. 
The  buyer  receives  the  original,  and  the 
seller  a  duplicate. 

The  rules  provide  that  weights  decided 
upon  at  the  initial  delivery  are  good  during 
the  life  of  the  grading  certificate  for  re-de- 
livery, with  definite  allowances  to  the  re- 
ceiver, on  re-delivery,  of  a  quarter  of  a 
pound  a  bag  a  month,  instead  of  having  to 
re-weigh  and  re-sample  for  every  separate 
delivery,  as  formerly. 

As  claims  and  trade  controversies  oc- 
casionally arise,  the  Exchange  has  provided 
means  for  their  peaceful  settlement.  The 
board  of  managers  elects  annually  an  ar- 
bitration committee  of  five  members,  who 
swear  to  decide  disputes  fairly.  This  is 
the  only  committee  on  the  Exchange  that 
has  power  to  adjudicate  disputes  between 
members  and  non-members;  and  its  ser- 
vices must  be  sought  by  the  disputants,  who 


334 


ALL    ABOUT     COFFEE 


must  agree  to  abide  by  its  decision.  An 
adjudication  committee  of  seven  is  an- 
nually chosen  from  the  membership  by  the 
managers,  to  adjust  all  claims  and  contro- 
versies between  members  arising  out  of 
any  merchandise  transaction,  "if  notice  in 
writing  of  such  claim  or  controversy,  and 
of  the  intention  to  demand  an  adjudication 
thereon,  be  served  by  either  party  thereto 
within  ten  days  from  the  ascertainment 
thereof." 

Within  three  days  of  the  serving  of  this 
notice,  each  disputant  selects  an  Exchange 
member  as  his  adjudicator;  and  these  two 
name  the  third,  who  must  be  a  member  of 
the  adjudicating  committee.  Even  this 
decision  may  be  appealed  to  the  board  of 
managers,  which,  if  it  finds  the  grounds  of 
appeal  good  (as  decided  by  majority  vote), 
appoints  an  appeal  committee  of  five,  of 
whom  three  must  be  members  of  the  board. 
This  last  com.mittee's  decision  is  final.  No 
new  testimony  bearing  on  the  case  may  be 
introduced  after  the  ease  has  been  closed  by 
the  adjudicators.  Arbitration  is  voluntary 
with  both  parties;  while  adjudication  is 
compulsory  upon  the  application  of  either. 

Ajiother  committee  of  trade  importance 
is  the  spot  quotation  committee  of  five 
Exchange  members.  Each  day  at  two 
o'clock,  except  on  Saturday,  when  it  meets 
at  11 :45,  this  committee  by  a  majority 
vote  establishes  the  official  daily  market 
quotation  of  No.  7  coffee.  There  is  like- 
wise a  committee  on  quotations  of  futures. 
This  committee  of  five  meets  daily  "im- 
mediately after  the  first  call  and  at  the  close 
of  the  Exchange  and  reports  to  the  superin- 
tendent the  tone  and  price  of  the  contract 
market,  to  be  posted  on  the  blackboard  and 
transmitted  to  other  Exchanges  and  com- 
mercial bodies." 

A  committee  of  five  on  trade  and  statis- 
tics has  the  important  function  of  reporting 
to  the  board  as  to  regulations  for  the  ' '  pur- 
chase, sale,  transportation  and  custody  of 
merchandise,"  and  it  attempts  to  establish 
uniformity  in  such  matters  between  differ- 
ent markets.  It  has  charge  also  of  "all 
matters  pertaining  to  the  supply  of  news- 
papers, market  reports,  telegraphic  and 
statistical  information  for  the  use  of  the 
Exchange.  In  the  early  80 's  the  Exchange 
abolished  the  old  method  of  keeping  coffee 
statistics,  and  the  basis  then  adopted  has 
since  been  accepted  by  all  the  large  coffee 
.markets  of  the  world. ' ' 


The  minimum  rates  of  commission  on 
coffee  "per  contract  of  250  bags,  for  mem- 
bers of  the  Exchange  residing  in  the  United 
States,  are  based  upon  a  price ' '  as  follows, 
quoting  from  the  Exchange  bylaws  adopted 
June  8,  1920 : 

Coffee  Exchange  Commission  Rates 
(Per  contract  of  250  bags) 

Floor 
Commission    brokerage 
for  buying    for  buying 
or  selling    or  selliag 

Below  10  cents $6.25  $1.50 

10  cents  up  to  19.99  cents.         7.50  1.75 

20  cents  and  above 10.00  2.00 

For  non-members  residing  within  the  United 
States,  double  the  above  rates  of  commission 
shall  be  charged. 

For  members  and  non-members  residing  out- 
side of  the  United  States  a  commission  of  $2.50 
shall  be  charged  in  addition  to  the  above  rates. 

Whenever  before  thirty  minutes  after  the 
close  of  the  exchange  a  member  gives  to  another 
member  for  clearance  purchases  and  sales  of 
contracts  corresponding  in  all  respects  except  as 
to  price,  made  during  the  day  by  himself  or  for 
his  account  tchen  present  on  the  floor  of  the 
Exchange,  a  charge  for  each  contract  shall  be 
made  equal  to  the  corresponding  tloor  broker- 
age rate  for  buying  and  selling,  in  addition  to 
any  floor  brokerage  incurred. 

Members  procuring  business  for  other  mem- 
bers may,  by  agreement,  be  entitled  to  one-half 
the  commission  rates  for  non-members  prescribed 
in  this  Section,  less  the  corresponding  broker- 
age charge,  whether  paid  or  not. 

When  a  transferable  notice  is  given  or  re- 
ceived by  a  customer  in  fulfillment  of  a  con- 
tract the  brokerage  in  that  case  shall  be  not 
less  than  one-half  of  the  corresponding  buying 
or  selling  commission  prescribed  in  Section  103. 

Other  committees  are  the  finance  com- 
mittee (two)  to  audit  bills  and  claims 
against  the  Exchange,  to  direct  deposits 
and  investments,  and  to  audit  the  monthly 
and  yearly  accounts  of  the  treasurer ;  a  law 
committee  (three),  to  deal  with  matters  of 
legislation;  a  membership  and  floor  com- 
mittee (five)  ;  and  a  nominating  committee 
(five).  Organized  as  above  outlined,  and 
with  a  well  established  code  of  trade  rules, 
the  Exchange  annually  transacts  a  large 
number  of  sales  in  a  business-like  way. 

There  is  considerable  trading  in  future 
contracts;  and  a  standard  form  has  been 
adopted  by  the  Exchange.  No  future  con- 
tracts are  valid  unless  they  are  made  in  the 
following  form : 

Brazilian  Coffee  —  Not  Santos 

Office  of 

New  York 19 

Sold  for  M 

To  M 

Thirty-two  thousand  five  hundred  pounds  in 
about  250  bags  coffee,  growth  of  North,  South 


BUYING  AND  SELLING  GREEN  COFFEE 


335 


or  Central  America,  West  Indies  or  East  Indies, 
excepting  coffee  Icnown  as  "Robusta,"  and  also 
any  coffee  of  new  or  unknown  growth,  deliver- 
able from  licensed  warehouse  in  the  port  of  New 

York,  between  the  first  and  last  days  of 

next,  inclusive.  The  delivery  within  such  time 
to  be  at  seller's  option,  upon  a  notice  to  buyer 
of  either  five,  six  or  seven  days,  as  may  be 
prescribed  by  the  trade  rules.  The  coffee  to  be 
of  any  grade,  from  No.  8  to  No.  1  inclusive  (no 
coffee  to  grade  below  No.  8)  provided  the  aver- 
age grade  of  Brazilian  coffees  shall  not  be 
above  No.  3.  Nothing  in  this  contract,  how- 
ever, shall  be  construed  as  prohibiting  a  de- 
livery averaging  above  No.  3  at  the  No.  3  grade. 

At  the  rate  of cents  per  pound 

for  No.  7,  with  additions  or  deductions  for 
other  grades  according  to  the  rates  of  the  New 
York  Coft'ee  and  Sugar  Exchange,  Inc.,  existing 
on  the  afternoon  of  the  day  previous  to  the  date 
of  the  notice  of  delivery.  Either  party  to  have 
the  right  to  call  for  margins  as  the  variations 
of  the  market  for  like  deliveries  may  warrant, 
which  margins  shall  be  kept  good. 

This  contract  is  made  in  view  of,  and  in  all 
respect  subject  to  the  rules  and  conditions 
established  by  the  New  York  Coffee  and  Sugar 
Exchange,  Inc.,  and  in  full  accordance  with 
section  102  of  the  by-'laws. 

Brokers 
Across  the  face  is  the  following : 
For   and   in    consideration    of    one   dollar    to 

in  hand  paid,  receipt 

whereof  is  hereby  acknowledged,   

accept  this  contract  with  all  its  obligations  and 

conditions. 

All  deliveries  on  such  future  contracts 
must  be  made  from  licensed  warehouses. 
There  is  a  separate  "to  arrive  contract"; 
but  this  likewise  requires  delivery  at  a 
licensed  warehouse,  unless  the  buyer  and 
the  seller  have  a  mutual  understanding'  to 
deliver  the  coffee  from  dock  or  ex-ship. 
Margins  to  protect  the  contract  may  be 
called  for  by  either  party.  The  largest  de- 
posit for  margins  was  made  in  1904,  when 
$22,661,710  was  deposited  with  the  superin- 
tendent as  required  by  the  Exchange  rules. 

The  basic  grade  in  a  future  sale  is  No. 
7 ;  but  variations  are  provided  as  follows : 
30  points  for  Rio,  Victoria,  and  Bahia  of  all 
grades  between  7  and  1,  and  of  50  points 
between  7  and  8 ;  50  points  is  allowed  on 
Santos  and  all  other  coffees  except  between 
grades  1  and  2  and  2  and  3  Santos,  which 
are  allowed  30  points.  Thus  the  buyer  and 
the  seller  when  entering  upon  a  transaction 
know  exactly  what  the  difference  will  be 
between  the  standard  No.  7  and  the  coffee 
that  can  be  delivered.  The  right  to  deliver 
any  grade  in  a  future  transaction  has  done 
much  to  lessen  the  probability  of  corners  in 
coffee ;  but  this  protection  is  further  given 


by  the  stringent  rule  that  the  maximum 
fluctuations  on  the  Exchange  can  be  only 
two  cents  a  pound  on  coffee  in  one  day  and 
one  cent  on  sugar.  If  greater  changes 
should  threaten,  the  Exchange  operations 
would  automatically  cease. 

False  or  fictitious  sales  are  prohibited, 
and  all  contracts  must  be  reported  to  the 
superintendent.  All  contracts  are  binding 
and  call  for  actual  delivery. 

The  future  contract,  besides  being  used 
for  the  delivery  of  coffee  during  stated 
months  in  the  future  at  a  given  price,  is 
also  used  for  hedging  purposes.  As  in  the 
grain  and  cotton  markets,  dealers  protect 
themiselves  against  price  fluctuations  by 
hedging  in  the  future  market.  Importers, 
for  instance,  when  purchasing  coffee 
abroad,  frequently  sell  an  equal  amount  for 
future  delivery  on  the  Exchange.  When 
the  time  for  delivery  arrives,  it  is  simply  a 
question  of  calculation  of  the  market  con- 
ditions whether  it  is  more  advantageous  to 
repurchase  the  sales  made  as  a  hedge,  or  as 
a  kind  of  insurance  to  protect  themselves 
against  loss,  and  free  the  coffee  so  engaged,, 
or  to  make  delivery  of  the  coffee  as  it 
comes  in. 

Tlie  board  of  managers  has  power  to  close- 
the  Exchange  or  to  suspend  trading  on 
such  days  or  parts  of  days  as  would  in  their 
judgment  be  for  the  Exchange's  best  in- 
terest. 

The  Clearing  Association  is  a  recent  out- 
growth of  the  Exchange,  and  is  composed 
exclusively  of  Exchange  members.  Every 
member  has  to  bring  his  contracts  up  tO' 
market  closing  every  night,  either  by  mak- 
ing a  deposit  with  the  Association  to  cover 
his  balances,  or  by  withdrawing  in  case  he 
should  be  over.  Members  deposit  $15,000' 
at  the  time  of  joining  as  a  guaranty  fund ; 
and  if  the  surplus  is  not  sufficient  to  take 
care  of  balances,  the  bylaws  provide  for  the 
levying  of  assessments. 

The  daily  quotations  on  the  coffee  ex-^ 
changes  of  New  York,  Havre,  and  (before 
the  war)  of  Hamburg,  determined  to  a 
large  extent  the  price  of  green  coffee  the 
world  over.  The  prices  prevailing  on  the 
New  York  Coffee  and  Sugar  Exchange  are 
studied  by  coffee  traders  in  all  countries, 
the  fluctuations  being  reflected  in  foreign 
markets  as  the  reports  come  from  the 
United  States.  Quotations  are  cabled  from 
one  great  market  to  another;  and  as  each 
must  heed  those  of  the  others  to  some  ex- 
tent, the  coffee  trade  thus  obtains  a  world 


336 


ALL     ABOUT     COFFEE 


price,  and  the  effect  on  supply  and  demand 
is  universal  rather  than  local,  as  would  be 
the  case  if  quotations  were  not  exchanged. 
In  1921  the  Exchange  adopted  an  amend- 
ment to  the  trade  rules,  and  abolished  the 
one  day  transferable  notice  for  both  coffee 
and  sugar. 

Foreign  Coffee  Quotations 

Brazil  coffee  cable  quotations  are  the  mar- 
ket prices,  in  Rio  or  Santos,  of  ten  kilo- 
grams of  coffee,  the  price  being  stated  in 
milreis,  the  monetary  unit  of  Brazil  money. 
The  basic  grade  of  coffee  at  Rio  is  the  No.  7 
of  the  New  York  Coffee  Exchange;  and  at 
Santos,  the  international  standard  of  good 
average  ("g.  a.")  Santos.  One  kilogram 
(often  written  kilo,  or  abbreviated  to  K.) 
is  equal  to  two  and  one-fifth  pounds;  and 
the  ten-kilogram  standard  of  quantity  is, 
therefore,  equivalent  to  twenty-two  pounds, 
or  just  one-sixth  of  a  standard  Brazil  bag. 

The  money  value  is  not  so  simple,  since 
Brazilian  paper  currency  is  unstable;  and 
the  milreis  quotation  means  nothing  unless 
it  is  considered  in  connection  with  the  rate 
of  exchange  for  the  same  day,  i.  e.,  the  cur- 
rent gold  value  of  the  milreis.  This  gold 
value  is  always  given  with  the  daily  quota- 
tions from  Brazil,  and  is  expressed  in  Brit- 
ish pence.  The  par  value  of  the  milreis 
(1000  reis)  is  54.6  cents  (gold)  of  United 
States  money;  but  its  present  actual  value 
is  only  about  15  cents,  and  it  has  been  as 
low  as  1114  cents.  Our  dollar  sign  is  used 
to  denote  milreis,  placing  it  after  the  whole 
number,  and  before  the  fractional  part  ex- 
pressed in  one-thousandths.  Thus,  814  mil- 
reis would  be  written  8$250  RS. 

Suppose,  for  example,  a  Rio  quotation  is 
given  at  8$400,  with  exchange  at  7l^  d. 
This  means  that  22  pounds  of  coffee  have  a 
gold  value  of  63  British  pence  (8.4  x  7i/^  = 
63.0),  or  5/3,  as  the  Englishman  would 
write  it,  which  is  equal  to  $1.27 1/2>  making 
the  coffee  worth  5.8  cents  per  pound.  Of 
course  the  person  familiar  with  Brazil 
quotations  will  not  need  to  make  this  re- 
duction to  the  pound-cent  term  in  order  to 
understand  the  figures.  They  will  have 
a  proper  relative  meaning  to  him  in  their 
original  form;  and  it  must  not  be  over- 
looked that  it  is  in  this  form  only  that  they 
express  correctly  the  value  of  the  coffee  in 
Brazil.  It  may  make  a  great  difference  to 
the  Brazilian  planter  or  exporter  whether 
an  increased  gold  value  of  his  coffee  arises 
1;hrough   a  higher  milreis  bid  or  an  ap- 


preciated exchange,  simply  on  account  of 
local  currency  considerations.  That  is  to 
say,  the  purchasing  power  of  a  milreis  in 
Brazil  will  not  necessarily  vary  exactly  as 
the  rate  of  exchange  on  London. 

London  quotations  are  made  in  shillings 
and  pence,  on  one  hundredweight  (cwt)  of 
coffee.  This  "cwt"  is  not  100  pounds  but 
112  pounds,  one  twentieth  of  the  English 
ton  (our  long  ton)  of  2,240  pounds.  And 
in  all  English  coffee  statistics  the  coffee 
quantities  are  expressed  in  this  ton.  A 
London  quotation  of  30/9  (30  shillings 
and  9  pence)  for  example,  is  equivalent  to 
$7.44  for  112  pounds  of  coffee,  or  6.64  cents 
per  pound  at  the  normal  rate  of  exchange, 
$4.80  to  $4.86  the  pound  sterling. 

At  Havre,  the  coffee  price  is  given  in 
francs,  on  a  quantity  of  50  kilograms.  This 
is  110  pounds  and  almost  as  much,  there- 
fore, as  the  British,  cwt.  In  normal  times 
the  franc  is  equal  to  19.3  cents.  A  French 
quotation  of  37i/^,  for  instance,  means, 
therefore,  $7.19  for  110  pounds  of  coffee, 
or  6.53  cents  per  pound. 

The  Hamburg  quotation  (formerly  from 
Brazil  per  fifty  kilos)  is  made  on  one 
pound  German,  equal  to  %  kilogram,  and 
is  expressed  in  pfennigs.  One  pfennig  is 
one-hundredth  of  a  mark,  and  the  mark 
once  was  equal  to  23.8  cents.  A  G-erman 
quotation  of,  say,  31,  means,  therefore,  7.38 
cents  (31  x  .238  =  7.378)  for  1.1  pounds,  or 
6.71  cents  per  pound. 

Three  Kinds  of  Brokers 

In  the  coffee  trade  there  are  three  kinds 
of  brokers  —  floor,  spot,  and  cost  and 
freight. 

Floor  brokers  are  those  who  buy  and  sell 
options  on  the  Coffee  Exchange  for  a  fixed 
consideration  per  lot  of  250  bags.  The  cof- 
fee commission  rate  put  into  effect  June  8, 
1920,  for  round  term  (buying  and  selling) 
by  the  New  York  Coffee  Exchange  was  as 
f  oUows : 

Commission   Rate  on  250   Bags 
(For  Round  Term  —  Buying  and  Selling) 

Up  to  9.99c  10c  to  19.99c  20c  &  up 

per  lb.  per  lb.  per  lb. 

Members    $12.50  $15.00  $20.00- 

Non-members    25.00  30.00  40.00 

Foreign    members    17.50  20.00  25.00 

Foreign  non-members  .  30.00  35.00  45.00 
Floor  brokerage — 

Buying    or    selling.  .  .      1.50  1.75  2.00 

There  is  at  present  (1922)  a  stamp  tax 
of  two  cents  on  each  hundred  dollars  value, 
or  fraction  thereof,  figured  on  each  sepa- 
rate lot. 


ALL     ABOUT     COFP'-EE 


Su.N-Cruixc  TiiK  ^VA^lll^   «.iMi  n    iiKANs  ON   Ckment  Duying   Patios 


I 


Near  View  of  Heavily  Laden  Tkees  Ready  for  the  Pickkks 
TYPICAL  COFFEE  SCENES  IN  COSTA  RICA 


BUYING  AND  SELLING  GREEN  COFFEE 


337 


• 


Spot  brokers  are  those  who  deal  in  actual 
coifee,  selling  from  jobber  to  jobber,  or 
representing  out-of-town  houses;  the  seller 
paying  a  commission  of  about  fifteen  cents 
a  bag  in  small  lots,  and  half  of  one  percent 
in  large  lots. 

Cost  and  freight  brokers  represent 
Brazilian  accounts,  and  generally  receive 
a  brokerage  of  one  and  one-quarter  percent. 
On  out-of-town  business,  they  usually  split 
the  commission  with  the  out-of-town  or 
local"  brokers.  The  out-of-town  brokers 
'sometimes,  however,  deal  direct  with  the  im- 
porter. All  brokers  except  floor  brokers 
are  sometimes  called  "street  brokers." 
Most  of  the  large  New  York,  New  Orleans, 
and  San  Francisco  brokerage  houses  also 
do  a  commission  business,  handling  one  or 
more  Brazilian  or  other  coffee-producing- 
country  accounts. 

Important  Rulings  Affecting  Coffee  Trading 

The  United  States  have  no  coffee  law  as 
they  have  a  tea  law  —  prescribing  "purity, 
quality  and  fitness  for  consumption"  — 
but  buyers  and  sellers  of  green  coffees  are 
required  to  observe  certain  well  defined 
federal  rules  and  regulations  relating  spe- 
cifically to  coffee.  Up  to  the  year  1906, 
when  the  Pure  Food  and  Drugs  Act  be- 
came law,  the  green  coffee  trade  was  practi- 
cally unhampered;  and  several  irregulari- 
ties developed,  calling  into  existence 
federal  laws  that  were  designed  to  pro- 
tect the  consumer  against  trade  abuses,  and 
at  the  same  time  to  raise  the  standards  of 
coffee  trading. 

Under  these  regulations  it  is  illegal  to  im- 
port into  this  country  a  coffee  that  grades 
below  a  No.  8  Exchange  type,  which  gener- 
ally contains  a  large  proportion  of  sour  or 
damaged  beans,  known  in  the  trade  as 
"black  jack,"  or  damaged  coffee,  as  found 
in  ' '  skimmings. "  "  Black  jack  "  is  a  term 
applied  to  coffee  that  has  turned  black  dur- 
ing the  process  of  curing,  or  in  the  hold  of  a 
ship  during  transportation;  or  it  may  be 
due  to  a  blighting  disease. 

Another  ruling  is  intended  to  prevent  the 
sale  of  artificially  "sweated"  coffee,  which 
has  been  submitted  to  a  steaming  process  to 
give  the  beans  the  extra-brown  appearance 
of  high  grade  East  Indian  and  Mocha  cof- 
fees which  have  been  naturally  "sweated" 
in  the  holds  of  sailing  vessels  during  the 
long  journey  to  American  ports.  Up  to  the 
time  that  the  Pure  Food  and  Drugs  Act 
went  into  effect,  artificial  "sweating"  was 


resorted  to  by  some  coffee  firms ;  and  out  of 
that  practise  grew  a  suit  ^  that  resulted  in  a 
federal  court  decision  sustaining  the  Pure 
Food  Act,  and  classifying  the  practise  as 
adulteration  and  misbranding. 

The  Act  also  is  intended  to  prevent  the 
sale  of  coffees  under  trade  names  that  do 
not  properly  belong  to  them.  For  example, 
only  coffees  grown  on  the  island  of  Java 
can  properly  be  labeled  and  sold  as  Javas ; 
coffees  from  Sumatra,  Timor,  etc.,  must  be 
sold  under  their  respective  names.  Food 
Inspection  Decision  No.  82,  which  limited 
the  use  of  the  term  Java  to  coffee  grown  on 
the  island  of  Java,  was  sustained  in  a  ser- 
vice and  regulatory  announcement  issued  in 
January,  1916.  Likewise  the  name  Mocha 
may  be  used  only  for  coffees  of  Arabia. 
Before  the  pure-food  law  was  enacted,  it 
was  frequently  the  custom  to  mix  Bourbon 
Santos  with  Mocha  and  to  sell  the  blend  as 
Mocha.  Also,  Abyssinian  coffees  were 
generally  known  in  the  trade  as  Longberry 
Mocha,  or  just  straight  Mocha ;  and  Suma- 
tra growths  were  practically  always  sold  as 
Javas.  Traders  used  the  names  of  Mocha 
and  Java  because  of  the  high  value  placed 
upon  these  coffees  by  consumers,  who,  be- 
fore Brazil  dominated  the  market,  had 
practically  no  other  names  for  coffee. 

One  of  the  most  celebrated  coffee  cases 
under  the  Pure  Food  Act  was  tried  in 
Chicago,  February,  1912.  The  question 
was,  whether  in  view  of  the  long-standing 
trade  custom,  it  was  still  proper  to  call  an 
Abyssinian  coffee  (Longberry  Mocha) 
Mocha.  The  defendant  was  charged  with 
misbranding,  because  he  sold  as  Java  and 
Mocha  a  coffee  containing  Abyssinian  cof- 
fee. The  court  decided  that  the  product 
should  be  called  Abyssinian  Mocha ;  *  but 
since  then,  general  acceptance  has  obtained 
of  the  government's  viewpoint  as  expressed 
in  F.  I.  D.  No.  91,  which  was  that  only  cof- 
fee grown  in  the  province  of  Yemen  in 
Arabia  could  properly  be  known  ms  Mocha 
coffee. 

Another  important  ruling,  concerning 
coffee  buyers  and  sellers,  prohibits  the  im- 
portation of  green  coffees  coated  with  lead 
chromate,  Prussian  blue,  and  other  sub- 
stances, to  give  the  beans  a  more  stylish  ap- 
pearance than  they  have  normally.  Such 
"polished"  coffees  find  great  favor  in  the 

^  Tea  and  Coffee  Trade  Jour.,  1911  (vol.  xx :  no.  4: 
p.  284). 

*  Tea  and  Coffee  Trade  Jour.,  July,  1911  (vol.  xxiil : 
no.  1  ;  p.  28). 


338 


ALL     ABOUT     COFFEE 


European  markets,  but  are  now  denied  ad- 
mittance here. 

The  Board  of  Food  and  Drug  Inspection 
decided  in  1910  against  a  trade  custom  that 
had  prevailed  until  then  of  calling  Minas 
coifee  Santos  when  shipped  through  Santos, 
instead  of  Rio.^ 

.For  years  a  practise  obtained  of  re- 
bagging  certain  Central  American  growths 
in  New  York.  In  this  way  Bucaramangas 
frequently  were  transformed  into  Bogotas, 
Rios  became  Santos,  Bahias  and  Victorias 
were  sold  as  Rios,  and  the  misbranding  of 
peaberry  was  quite  common.  A  celebrated 
case  grew  out  of  an  attempt  by  a  New  York 
coffee  importer  and  broker  to  continue  one 
of  these  practises  after  the  Pure  Food 
Act  made  it  a  criminal  offense.  The  de- 
fendants, who  were  found  guilty  of  con- 
spiracy, and  who  were  fined  three  thousand 
dollars  each,  mixed,  re-packed  and  sold 
under  the  name  P.  A.  L.  Bogota,  a  well 
known  Colombian  mark,  eighty-four  bags 
of  washed  Caracas  coffee.*' 

After  an  exchange  of  views  with  the 
United  States  Board  of  Food  and  Drug  In- 
spection, the  New  York  Coffee  Exchange  de- 
cided that,  after  June  1,  1912,  it  would 
abolish  all  grades  of  coffee  under  the  Ex- 
change type  No.  8. 

The  practise  in  Holland  of  grading 
Santos  coffees  —  by  selecting  beans  most 
like  Java  beans,  and  polishing  and  color- 
ing them  to  add  verisimilitude  —  known  as 
"manipulated  Java,"  became  such  a  nuis- 
ance in  1912  that  United  States  consuls  re- 
fused to  certify  invoices  to  the  United 
States  unless  accompanied  by  a  declaration 
that  the  produce  was  ''pure  Java,  neither 
mixed  with  other  kinds  nor  counterfeited. ' ' 

The  United  States  Bureau  of  Chemistry 
ruled  in  February,  1921,  that  Coffea  ro- 
husta  could  not  be  sold  as  Java  coffee,  or 
under  any  form  of  labeling  which  tended 
either  directly  or  indirectly  to  create  the 
impression  that  it  was  Coffea  arabica,  so 
long  and  favorably  known  as  Java  coffee. 
This  was  in  line  with  the  Department  of 
Agriculture's  previous  definition  that  cof- 
fee was  the  seed  of  the  Coffea  arabica  or 
Coffea  lib  erica,  and  that  Java  coffee  was 
Coffea  arabica  from  Java.  Coffea  robusta 
was  barred  from  deliveries  on  the  New 
York  Coffee  Exchange  in  1912. 


*  Tea  and  Coffee  Trade  Jour.,  Nov.,  1910  (vol.  xix : 
no.  5  :  p.  380). 

'  Tea  and  Coffee  Trade  Jour.,  Nov.,  1914  (vol.  xxv  ; 
no.  5  :  p.  397 J. 


During  the  greater  part  of  the  year  1918, 
the  United  States  government  assumed  vir- 
tually full  control  of  coffee  trading.  It 
was  a  war-time  measure,  and  was  intended 
to  prevent  speculation  in  coffee  contracts 
and  freight  rates,  to  cut  down  the  number 
of  vessels  carrying  coffee  to  this  country  so 
as  to  provide  more  ships  for  transporting 
food  and  soldiers  to  Europe,  and  to  put  the 
coffee  merchants  on  rations  during  the 
stress  of  war.  On  February  4,  1918,  im- 
porters and  dealers  were  placed  under 
license ;  and  two  days  later,  rules  were  is- 
sued through  the  Food  Administration  fix- 
ing the  maximum  price  for  coffee  for  the 
spot  month  in  the  "futures"  markets  at 
eight  and  a  half  cents,  prohibiting  dealers 
from  taking  more  than  normal  pre-war  pro- 
fits, or  holding  supplies  in  excess  of  ninety 
days'  requirements,  and  greatly  limiting 
re-sales.  On  May  8,  the  United  States  Ship- 
ping Board  fixed  the  ' '  official ' '  freight  rate 
from  Rio  de  Janeiro  to  New  York  at  one 
dollar  and  fifty  cents  per  bag,  which,  with- 
out control,  had  risen  to  as  high  as  four 
dollars  and  more,  as  compared  with  the 
ordinary  rate  of  thirty-five  cents  before  the 
war.  On  Janiiary  12,  1919,  two  months 
after  the  armistice  was  signed,  the  rules 
were  withdrawn,  and  the  coffee  trade  was 
left  to  carry  on  its  business  under  its  own 
direction. 

Sanie  Well  Known  Green  Coffee  Marks 

Practically  every  bag  of  good  quality 
green  coffee  is  imprinted  with  a  brand 
which  indicates  by  whom  it  was  shipped. 
These  imprints  are  known  in  the  trade  as 
"green  coffee  marks."  Many  of  them, 
through  long  usage,  have  become  celebrated 
in  international  trade.  One  of  the  most 
famous  was  HLOG.  This  stood  for 
"Heaven's  Light  Our  Guide,"  and  was 
owned  by  John  O'Donohue's  Sons.  For 
many  years  it  was  used  on  Mocha  coffee, 
but  it  is  now  out  of  existence.  Other  well- 
known  Mocha  marks  are  M  R  (Maurice 
Ries)  with  the  figure  of  a  camel,  a  star,  or 
deer's  head  between  the  letters;  L  F 
or  L  B  (Livierato  Freres)  ;  C  F  or  C  B 
(Caracanda  Freres). 

Bogota  marks  includes  PAL  (in  tri- 
angle) Bogota  (P.  A.  Lopez  &  Co.)  ; 
Camelia ;  Pinzon  &  Co. ;  Salazar ;  A  0  L 
(in  triangle)  Bogota;  and  Carmencita 
Manizales  Excelso  (Steinwender,  Stoff- 
regen  &  Co.). 

Among  the  best  known  Medellin  marks 


BUYING  AND  SELLING  GREEN  COFFEE 


339 


rTmrn 


J  A  &  CO. 


°       ROSEBUD 


iiiiiiiiiiiiiMiiiiiirnT 


J  A  &  CO. 


'°      BOURBONA 


ARONCO 


E.S.C 

KXCELSO 


DON  CARLOS 
Medelun 

EXCELSO 


s? 


vl-AQ. 


% 


MKDELLIN 
MXaiLSO 


fedi  Li'  O  C^ 


LONGBEHRY 


CF 

SHORTBERRY 


NOSSACK 


BOGOT/X 


CF 


SHORTBERRY 


SIONS 
BOURBNS 


PAN 

IRADH  MARK 


tJEC&C 

R  G  E 

FANCY 

L 
VlvNEZlJKLA 


w 

SANTOS 


LF 


iiiiiiiiiiiiii 


w 

BOGOTA 


SHORT 
BERRY 


mI^r 


iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiitTnT 


i\/r  :^^  n 


I mil 


M 


E 


LA  lUMBLA 

BANCO  LOPirZ 

CX)IX)M1MA 


CARMENCITA 

MANIZALES 
EXCELSO 


COGOLLO 
COLOMBLV 


SOME  WELL  KNOWN  GREEN-COFFEE  MARKS 


340 


ALL     ABOUT     COFFEE 


are  FAC  &  H  (F.  A.  Correa  &  Sons)  :  PEC 
&  C  (Pedro  Estrado  Co.)  ;  LMT  &  C  (Louis 
M.  Torro  &  Co.)  ;  A  &  C  (A.  Angel  &  Co.)  ; 
ECS  Medellin  Exeelso  (Eppens,  Smith 
Co.)  ;  Balzacbro  Medellin  Exeelso  (Balzac 
Bros.)  ;  La  Rambla  (Banco  Lopez)  ;  and 
Don  Carlos  Medellin  Exeelso  ( Stein wender, 
Stoffregen  &  Co.). 

Caracas  marks  show  J  P  P  &  H  (Juan 
Pablo  Perez  &  Sons)  ;  HLB  &  C  (H.  L. 
Boulton  &  Co.)  ;  FST  &  C  (Filipe  S.  Toledo 
&  Co.)  ;  JLG  (J.  L.  Garrondona)  ;  and 
many  others.  Kolster  (Kolster  &  Co.)  is  a 
well  known  Puerto  Cabello  mark. 

Maracaibos  bear  numerous  marks,  chief 
among  which  are:  M  &  C  (Menda  &  Co.)  ; 
Cogollo  (Cogollo  &  Co.)  ;  Fossi  (Fossi  & 
Co.)  ;  B  M  &  C  (Breur.  Moller  &  Co.)  ; 
B  &  C  (Blohm  &  Co.)  ;  FST  &  C  (Filipe  S. 
Toledo  &  Co.)  ;  V  D  R  &  C   (Van  Dessel, 


Rodo  &  Co.)  ;  and  J  E  C  &  C  over  R  G  E 
(J.  E.  Carret&  Co.). 

A  prominent  Mexican  mark  is  P  A  N 
(Rafael  del  Castillo  &  Co.). 

Brazil  coffee  is  usually  marked  merely 
with  the  initials  of  the  firm  or  bank 
financing  the  shipment.  Some  representa- 
tive Brazilian  marks  are :  Aronco  (in 
rectangle)  Brazil;  J  A  &  Co  (in  rectangle) 
Brazil  Rosebud;  J  A  &  Co  (in  rectangle) 
Brazil  Bourbona  —  all  used  by  J.  Aron  & 
Company;  S  S  C  (in  circle)  Rio;  S  S  C  (in 
triangle)  Santos;  both  used  by  Stein- 
wender,  Stoffregen  &  Co. ;  Sions  M/M 
Bourbns  (Sion  &  Co.)  ;  and  Nossack 
V  S  S  C  (in  swastika),  used  by  Nossack 
&  Co. 

There  are  hundreds  of  other  marks.  In 
most  countries  they  change  so  often  that  one 
rarely  stands  out  above  the  rest. 


Chapter  XXIV 
GREEN    AND    ROASTED    COFFEE    CHARACTERISTICS 

The  trade  values,  bean  characteristics,  and  cup  merits  of  the  leading 
coffees  of  commerce,  with  a  '' Complete  Reference  Table  of  the  Prin- 
cipal Kinds  of  Coffee  Grown  in  the  World"  —  Appearance,  aroma, 
and  flavor  in  cup-testing  —  How  experts  test  coffee  —  A  typical 
sample-roasting  and  cup-testing  outfit 


MORE  than  a  hundred  different 
kinds  of  coffee  are  bought  and 
sold  in  the  United  States.  All  of 
them  belong  to  the  same  botanical  genus, 
and  practically  all  to  the  same  species,  the 
Coffea  arabica ;  but  each  has  distinguishing 
characteristics  which  determine  its  com- 
mercial value  in  the  eyes  of  the  importers, 
roasters,  and  distributers. 

The  American  trade  deals  almost  exclu- 
sively in  Coffea  arabica,  although  in  the 
latter  years  of  the  "World  War  increasing 
quantities  of  robusta  and  liberica  growths 
were  imported,  largely  because  of  the 
scarcity  of  Brazilian  stocks  and  the  im- 
provement in  the  preparation  methods, 
especially  in  the  case  of  robustas.  Con- 
siderable quantities  of  robusta  grades  were 
sold  in  the  United  States  before  1912,  but 
trading  in  them  fell  off  when  the  New  York 
Coffee  and  Sugar  Exchange  prohibited  their 
delivery  on  Exchange  contracts  after 
March  1,  1912. 

All  coffees  used  in  the  United  States  are 
divided  into  two  general  groups.  Brazils 
and  Milds.  Brazils  comprise  those  coffees 
grown  in  Sao  Paulo,  Minas  Geraes,  Rio  de 
Janeiro,  Bahia,  Victoria,  and  other  Brazil- 
ian states.  The  Milds  .include  all  coffees 
grown  elsewhere.  In  1921  Brazils  made  up 
about  three-fourths  of  the  world's  total 
consumption.  They  are  regarded  by  Amer- 
ican traders  as  the  ''price"  coffees,  while 
Milds  are  considered  as  the  "quality" 
grades. 


Brazil  coffees  are  classified  into  four  great 
groups,  which  bear  the  names  of  the  ports 
through  which  they  are  exported;  Santos, 
Rio,  Victoria,  and  Bahia.  Santos  coffee  is 
grown  principally  in  the  state  of  Sao 
Paulo ;  Rio,  in  the  state  of  Rio  de  Janeiro 
and  the  state  of  Minas  Geraes ;  Victoria,  in 
the  state  of  Espirito  Santo;  and  Bahia  in 
the  state  of  Bahia.  All  of  these  groups 
are  further  subdivided  according  to  their 
bean  characteristics  and  the  districts  in 
which  they  are  produced. 

Brazil  Coffee  Characteristics 

Santos.  Santos  coffees,  considered  as  a 
whole,  have  the  distinction  of  being  the 
best  grown  in  Brazil.  Rios  rank  next,  Vic- 
torias coming  third  in  favor,  and  Bahias 
fourth.  Of  the  Santos  growths  the  best  is 
that  known  in  the  trade  as  Bourbon,  pro- 
duced by  trees  grown  from  Mocha  seed 
(Coffea  arabica)  brought  originally  from 
the  French  island  colony  of  Bourbon  (now 
Reunion)  in  the  Indian  Ocean.  The  true 
Bourbon  is  obtained  from  the  first  few 
crops  of  Mocha  seed.  After  the  third  or 
fourth  year  of  bearing,  the  fruit  gradually 
changes  in  form,  yielding  in  the  sixth  year 
the  flat-shaped  beans  which  are  sold  under 
the  trade  name  of  Flat  Bean  Santos.  By 
that  time,  the  coffee  has  lost  most  of  its 
Bourbon  characteristics.  The  true  Bourbon 
of  the  first  and  second  crops  is  a  small  bean, 
and  resembles  the  Mocha,  but  makes  a  much 
handsomer    roast    with    fewer    "quakers". 


341 


342 


ALL    ABOUT     COFFEE 


VENLZULLA 


/ ■ lft.rot\>ba 

'  PARAMrnA  ] ..^ 


^  ■  PARAtlrBA  «i,„o«''' 

Moceio 


PERU 


^elloHori/on|-«,.'^yVi(;[oria 
/   5A0  PAULO    A      _/:'^ 


Co^ee  Map  of  Brazil 

Showing  the  Principal  Coffee- 
Producing  States  and 
Shipping  Ports 


The  Bourbons  grown  in  the  Campinas  dis- 
trict often  have  a  red  center. 

As  regards  flavor,  a  good  Bourbon  Santos 
is  considered  the  best  coffee  for  its  price, 
and  is  the  most  satisfactory  low-cost  blend- 
ing coffee  to  be  obtained.  It  is  used  with 
practically  any  of  the  high-priced  coffees 
to  reduce  the  cost  of  the  blend.  When 
properly  made,  this  coffee  produces  a  drink 
that  is  smooth  and  palatable,  without  tang 
or  special  character,  and  is  suitable  to  the 
average  taste.  When  aged,  Bourbon  Santos 
decreases  in  acidity,  and  increases  some- 
what in  size  of  bean. 

The  Santos  coffee  described  as  Flat  Bean 
usually  has  a  smooth  surface,  varying  in 
size  from  small  to  large  bean,  and  in  color 
from  a  pale  yellow  to  a  pale  green.  The 
cup  has  a  good  and  smooth  body  of  neutral 
character,  and  the  bean  can  be  used 
straight  or  in  a  blend  with  practically  any 
Mild  coffee. 

Another  Santos  growth,  known  in  the 
trade  as  Harsh  Santos,  grows  near  the 
boundary  between  Sao  Paulo  and  Minas 
Geraes.      It   often   has   some  of   the   Rio 


characteristics,  and  commands  a  lower  price 
than  other  Santos  coffees. 

Some  trade  authorities  are  of  the  opinion 
that  Santos  coffees  are  an  exception  to  the 
rule  that  most  green  coffees  improve  with 
age.  They  argue  that  careful  cup-testing 
will  reveal  that  a  new  crop  Santos  is  to  be 
preferred  to  an  old  crop. 

Rios.  Rio  coffee  is  not  generally  liked  in 
the  United  States,  though  in  former  years 
it  had  some  following  even  in  the  better 
trade.  The  demand  for  all  grades  of  Rios 
has  been  decreasing,  Santos  taking  their 
place  in  the  United  States.  Rio  coffee  has 
a  peculiar,  rank  flavor.  It  has  a  heavy, 
pungent,  and  harsh  taste  which  traders  do 
not  consider  of  value  either  in  straight 
coffee  or  in  blends.  However,  its  low  price 
recommends  it  to  some  packers,  and  it  is 
often  found  in  the  cheapest  brands  of 
package  coffees  and  also  in  many  com- 
pounds. In  color,  the  bean  runs  from  light 
green  to  dark  green;  but  when  it  is  stored 
for  any  length  of  time  —  a  common  practise 
in  the  past  —  the  color  changes  to  a  golden 
yellow;  and  the  coffee  is  then  known  as 


COFFEE   CHARACTERISTICS 


343 


BouRBOx  Sa:xtos  Beans  —  Roasted 

golden  Eio.     The  bean  also  expands  with 
age. 

All  Rio  coffee  is  described  by  the  name 
Rio;  but  the  American  trade  recognizes 
eight  different  grades,  designated  by  num- 
erals from  one  to  eight.  These  grades  are 
determined  by  standards  adopted  by.  the 
New  York  Coffee  and  Sugar  Exchange,  and 
are  classified  by  the  number  of  imperfec- 
tions found  in  the  chops  exported.  No.  1 
Rio  contains  no  imperfections,  such  as 
black  beans,  shells,  stones,  broken  beans, 
pods  or  immature  beans  ("quakers"). 
Such  a  chop  is  rarely  found.  No.  2  has  six 
imperfections.  No.  3  has  thirteen.  No.  4  has 


twenty-nine.  No.  5  has  sixty,  No.  6  has  one 
hundred  and  ten.  No.  7  has  two  hundred, 
and  No.  8  has  about  four  hundred,  although 
on  the  Exchange  these  last  two  are  graded 
by  standard  types. 

Victorias.  Up  to  about  the  year  1917, 
Victoria  coffees  were  held  in  even  less  favor 
by  American  traders  than  were  Rios.  As  a 
rule  the  bean  was  large  and  punky,  of  a 
dark  brown  or  dingy  color,  and  its  flavor 
was  described  as  muddy.  Then,  the  coffee 
growers  began  to  introduce  modern  ma- 
chinery for  handling  the  crops,  with  the 
result  that  the  character  of  the  produce  has 
been  much  improved,  and  the  demand  for  it 
has  been  steadily  growing.  Many  roasters 
who  formerly  used  Rios  straight  for  their 


Flat  and  Bourbon  Santos  Beans  —  Roasted 


Rio  Beans  —  Roasted 

lower  grades,  have  changed  to  Victorias,  not 
only  to  improve  the  appearance  of  the 
roast,  but  to  soften  the  harsh  drinking 
qualities  of  the  low-grade  Rios. 

Bahias.  Until  recent  years  Bahia  coffee 
has  been  decidedly  unpopular  in  the  United 
States,  largely  because  of  its  peculiar  smoky 
flavor,  due  to  drying  the  coffee  by  means 
of  wood  fires,  instead  of  by  the  usual  sun 
method.  This  practise  has  been  abandoned ; 
Bahia  coffee  has  shown  a  marked  improve- 
ment in  quality ;  and  importations  into  the 
United  States  have  increased.  The  Bahia 
coffee  produced  in  the  Chapada  district  is 
considered  to  be  the  best  of  the  group.  The 
bean  is  light-colored  and  of  fair  size.  Other 
types  are  Caravella  and  Nazareth,  both  of 


344 


ALL    ABOUT     COFFEE 


COFFEE    CHARACTERISTICS 


345 


which  are  below  the  standards  demanded 
by  the  majority  of  the  American  trade. 

Maragogipe.  This  is  a  variety  of  Coffea 
ardbica  first  observed  growing  near  the 
town  of  Maragogipe  on  All  Saints  Bay, 
county  of  Maragogipe,  Bahia,  Brazil,  where 
it  is  called  Coffea  indigena.  The  green 
bean  is  of  huge  size,  and  varies  in  color 
from  green  to  dingy  brown.  It  is  the 
largest  of  all  coffee  beans,  and  makes  an 
elephantine  roast,  free  from  quakers,  but 
woody  and  generally  disagreeable  in  the 
cup.  However,  Dr.  P.  J.  S.  Cramer  of  the 
Netherlands  government's  experimental 
garden  in  Bangelan,  Java,  regards  it  very 
highly,  referring  to  it  as  "the  finest  coffee 
known",  and  as  having  "a  highly  devel- 
oped, splendid  flavor."  This  coffee  is  now 
fpund  in  practically  all  the  producing  coun- 
tries, and  shows  the  characteristics  of  the 
other  coffees  produced  in  the  same  soil. 

The  Characteristics  of  Mild  Coffees 

Among  the  Mild  coffees  there  is  a  much 
greater  variation  in  characteristics  than  is 
found  among  the  Brazilian  growths.  This 
is  due  to  the  differences  in  climate,  altitude, 
and  soil,  as  well  as  in  the  cultural,  process- 
ing, storage,  and  transportation  methods 
employed  in  the  widely  separated  countries 
in  which  Milds  are  produced. 

Mild  coffees  generally  have  more  body, 
more  acidity,  and  a  much  finer  aroma  than 
Brazils ;  and  from  the  standpoint  of  quality 
they  are  far  more  desirable  in  the  cup.  As  a 
rule  they  have  also  better  appearance,  or 
"style",  both  in  the  green  and  in  the  roast, 
due  to  the  fact  that  greater  care  is  exercised 
in  picking  and  preparing  the  higher  grades. 
Milds  are  important  for  blending  purposes, 
most  of  them  possessing  distinctive  individ- 
ual characteristics,  which  increase  their 
value  as  blending  coffees. 

Not  All  Coffees  Improve  with  Age 

Although  it  has  long  been  held  that  green 
coffee  improves  with  age,  and  there  is  little 
doubt  that  this  is  true  in  so  far  as  roasting 
merits  are  concerned ;  the  question  has  been 
raised  among  coffee  experts  as  to  whether 
age  improves  the  drinking  qualities  of  all 
coffees  alike. 

Rio  coffees  should  improve  with  age,  as 
they  are  naturally  strong  and  earthy.  Age 
might  be  expected  to  soften  and  to  mellow 
them  and  others  having  like  characteristics. 
If,  however,  the  coffee  is  mild  in  cup 
quality  in  the  first  instance,  then  it  may  be 


asked  if  age  does  not  weaken  it  so  that  in 
time  it  must  become  quite  insipid.  Several 
years  ago,  a  New  York  coffee  expert  pointed 
out  that  this  was  what  happened  to  Santos 
coffees.  The  new  crop,  he  said,  was  always 
a  more  pleasant  and  enjoyable  drink  than 
the  old  crop,  because  it  was  a  more  pro- 
nounced mild  coffee  in  the  cup. 

Mexicans.  Considering  those  coffees 
grown  nearest  the  American  market  first, 
we  come  to  the  coffees  of  Mexico.  All 
coffees  grown  in  this  republic  are  known  as 
Mexicans.  They  are  further  divided  ac- 
cording to  the  states  and  districts  in  which 
they  are  produced,  and  as  to  whether  they 
are  prepared  according  to  the  wet  or  the  dry 
method.  The  types  best  known  in  the  Am- 
erican market  are  Coatepec,  Huatusco, 
Orizaba,  Cordoba,  Oaxaca,  and  Jalapa.  The 
lesser  known  are  the  Uruapan,  Michoacan, 
Colima,  Chiapas,  Triunfo,  Tapachula, 
Sierra,  Tabasco,  Tampico,  and  Coatza- 
coalcos.  Some  of  these  are  rarely  seen  in 
the  markets  of  the  United  States. 

The  coffee  most  cultivated  in  Mexico  is 
supposed  to  have  come  from  Mocha  seed. 
Of  this  species  is  the  Oaxaca  coffee,  which 
is  valued  because  of  its  sharp  acidity  and 
excellent  flavor,  two  qualities  that  make  it 
desirable  for  blending.  The  bean  of  the 
Sierra  Oaxaca  (common  unwashed)  is  not 
large,  nor  is  the  appearance  stylish.  The 
Pluma  Oaxaca  (washed)  coffee,  however,  is 
a  fancy  bean  an^good  for  blending  pur- 
poses. 

Coatepec  coffees  are  among  the  finest 
grown  in  Mexico,  and  take  rank  with  the 
world's  best  grades.  They  are  quite  acidy, 
but  have  a  desirable  flavor;  and  when 
blended  with  coffees  like  Bourbon  Santos, 
make  a  satisfactory  cup. 

The  Orizaba,  Huatusco,  and  Jalapa 
growths  resemble  Coatepecs,  of  which  they 
are  neighbors  in  the  state  of  Vera  Cruz. 
They  are  thin  in  body  but  are  stylish 
roasters,  and  have  a  good  cup  qualities.  As 
a  class  they  do  not  possess  the  heavy  body 
and  acidity  of  genuine  Coatepecs.  Some 
Huatuscos  are  exceptions.  Orizaba  is  su- 
perior to  Jalapa.  Chiapas  and  Tapachula 
coffees  are  generally  more  like  Guatemalan 
growths  than  any  others  produced  in 
Mexico,  which  is  natural  in  view  of  the 
proximity  of  the  districts  to  the  northern 
boundary  of  Guatemala.  The  Sierra,  Tam- 
pico, Tabasco,  and  Coatzacoalcos  coffees  are 
uncertain  in  quality;  mostly  they  are  low 


346 


ALL     ABOUT     COFFEE 


COFFEE    CHARACTERISTICS 


347 


grade,  some  of  them  frequently  possessing 
a  ground}',  flat,  or  Eio-y  flavor. 

Cordoba  coffees  lack  the  acidity  and  tang 
of  the  Oaxacas,  but  make  a  handsome  roast. 
They  are  considered  too  neutral  to  form 
the  basis  of  a  blend,  but  can  be  used  to 
balance  the  tang  of  other  grades. 

Central  Americans.  Central  American 
coffee  is  the  general  trade  name  applied  to 
the  growths  produced  in  Guatemala,  Hon- 
duras, Salvador,  Nicaragua,  Costa  Rica,  and 
Panama,  the  countries  comprising  Central 
America. 

Guatemala.  This  country  sends  the 
largest  quantity  to  the  United  States,  and 
also  produces  the  best  average  grades  of 
the  Central  American  districts.  Guate- 
malas  are  mostly  washed  and  are  very 
stylish.  The  bean  has  a  w^axy,  bluish  color. 
It  splits  open  when  roasting  and  shows  a 
white  center.  Low-grown  Guatemalas  are 
thin  in  the  cup,  but  the  coffees  grown  in 
the  mountainous  districts  of  Coban  and 
Antigua  are  quite  acidy  and  heavy  in  body. 
Some  Cobans  border  on  bitterness  be- 
cause of  the  extreme  acidity.  The  Antiguas 
are  medium,  flinty  beans ;  Avhile  Cobans  are 
larger.  Both  grades  are  spicy  and  aro- 
matic in  the  cup,  and  are  particularly  good 
blenders.  Properly  roasted  to  a  light  cin- 
namon color,  and  blended  with  a  high- 
grade  combination,  Cobans  make  one  of  the 
most  serviceable  coffees  on  the  American 
market. 

Guatemalas  are.  generally  classified  as 
noted  in  the  Complete  Reference  Table. 


Mexican  Beans  —  Roasted 


Guatemala   Beans  —  Roasted 

Honduras.  While  the  upland  coffee  of 
Honduras  is  of  good  quality,  the  general 
run  of  the  country's  production  seldom 
brings  as  high  a  price  as  Santos  of  equal 
grade.  Nearly  all  Honduras  coffee  con- 
sists of  small,  round  berries,  bluish  greeu 
in  color.  Very  little  of  this  growth  comes 
to  the  United  States;  the  bulk  of  the  ex- 
ports going  to  Europe,  where  it  commands 
a  high  price,  especially  in  France. 

Salvador.  Salvador  coffee  is  inferior  to 
Guatemala's  product,  grade  for  grade. 
Only  a  small  proportion  is  washed;  and 
the  bulk  of  the  crops  is  ''naturals";  that 
is,  unwashed.  The  bean  is  large  and  of  fair 
average  roast.  The  washed  grades  are 
fancy  roasters,  with  very  thin  cup.  The 
largest  part  of  the  production  goes  to 
Europe;  some  twenty-five  percent  of  the 
exports  are  brought  into  the  United  States 
through  San  Francisco. 

Nicaragua.  The  ordinary  run  of  Nica- 
ragua coffee  (the  naturals)  is  looked  upon 
in  the  United  States  as  being  of  low  qual- 
ity, though  the  w^ashed  coffees  from  the 
Matagalpa  district  have  plenty  of  acid  in 
the  cup  and  usually  are  fine  roasters. 
Matagalpa  beans  are  large  and  blue-tinged. 
Germany,  Great  Britain,  and  France  take 
about  all  the  Honduras  coffee  exported, 
only  about  six  percent  of  the  total  coming 
to  the  United  States.  These  coffees  are 
described  more  in  detail  in  the  Complete 
Reference  Table. 


348 


ALL     ABOUT     COFFEE 


Costa  Rica.  Good  grades  of  Costa 
Rican  coffee,  such  as  are  grown  in  the  Car- 
tago,  San  Jose,  Alajuela,  and  Grecia  dis- 
tricts at  high  altitudes,  are  highly  esteemed 
by  blenders.  They  are  characterized  by 
their  fine  flavor,  rich  body,  and  sharp 
acidity.  It  is  frequently  declared  that 
some  of  these  coffees  are  often  acidy  enough 
to  sour  cream  if  used  straight.  Due  to 
careless  methods  of  handling,  sour  or 
"hidey"  beans  are  sometimes  found  in 
chops  of  Costa  Ricans  from  the  lowlands. 

Panama.  Panama  grows  coffee  only  for 
domestic  use,  and  consequently  it  is  little 
known  in  foreign  markets.  The  bean  is  of 
average  size  and  tends  toward  green  in 
color.  In  the  cup  it  has  a  heavy  body  and 
a  strong  flavor.  The  coffee  grown  in  Bo- 
quette  Valley  is  considered  to  be  of  fine 
quality,  due  no  doubt  to  the  care  given  in 
cultivation  by  the  American  and  English 
planters  there. 

South  America 

Colombians.  Colombia  produces  some 
of  the  world's  finest  coffees,  of  which  the 
best  known  are  Medellins,  Manizales,  Bo- 
gotas,  Bucaramangas,  Tolimas,  and  Cucu- 
tas.  Old-crop  Colombians  of  the  higher 
grades,  when  mellowed  with  age,  have 
many  of  the  characteristics  of  the  best  East 
Indian  coffees,  and  in  style  and  cup  are 
difficult  to  distinguish  from  the  Mandhel- 
ings  and  the  Ankolas  of  Sumatra.  Such 
coffees  are  scarce  on  the  American  market, 
practically  all  the  shipments  coming  to  the 
United  States  being  new  crop  and  lacking 
some  of  the  qualities  of  the  mellowed  beans. 
Compared  with  Santos  coffee,  good  grade 
Colombians  give  one-fourth  more  liquor  to 
a  given  strength  with  better  flavor  and 
aroma.  They  are  classed  and  graded  as 
noted  in  the  Complete  Reference  Table. 

Medellins  are  a  fancy  mountain-grown 
coffee,  and  are  esteemed  for  their  good 
qualities.  The  beans  vary  in  size,  and  the 
color  ranges  from  light  to  dark  green, 
making  a  rather  rough  roast.  In  the  cup 
they  have  a  fine,  rich,  distinctive  flavor, 
and  in  the  American  grading  are  regarded 
as  the  best  of  the  Colombian  commercial 
growths. 

Manizales  rank  next  to  Medellins,  and 
have  nearly  the  same  characteristics. 

Bogotas  of  good  grade  are  noted  for  their 
acidity,  body,  and  flavor.  When  the  acidity 
is  tempered  with  age,  the  coffee  can  be 
drunk  "straight"  which  can  not  be  done 


Bogota    (Colombia)    Beans  —  Roasted 

with  many  other  growths.  The  Bogota 
green  bean  ranges  from  a  blue-green  bean 
to  a  fancy  yellow.  It  is  long,  and  gener- 
ally has  a  sharp  turn  in  one  end  of  the 
center  stripe.  It  is  a  smooth  roaster,  and 
has  a  rich  mellow  flavor. 

Bucaramangas,  grown  in  the  district  of 
that  name,  are  regarded  favorably  in  the 
American  markets  as  good  commercial  cof- 
fees for  blending  purposes;  the  naturals 
have  heavy  body,  but  lack  acidity  and  de- 
cided flavor,  and  are  much  used  to  give 
"back-bone"  t-o  blends.  The  fancies  some- 
times push  the  superior  East  Indian 
growths  hard  for  first  place. 

Tolimas  are  considered  a  good  grade 
average  coffee,  and  are  characterized  by  a 
fair-sized  bean,  attractive  style,  and  good 
cup  quality. 

Cucuta  coffees,  though  grown  in  Colom- 
bia, are  generally  classified  among  the 
Maracaibos  of  Venezuela,  because  they  are 
mostly  shipped  from  that  port.  They  are 
described,  accordingly,  with  the  Venezuelan 
coffees. 

Venezuela.  The  coffees  of  Venezuela 
are  generally  grouped  under  the  heads  of 
Caracas,  Puerto  Cabello,  and  Maracaibo, 
the  names  of  the  ports  through  which  they 
are  exported.  Each  group  is  further  sub- 
divided by  the  names  of  the  districts  in 
which  the  principal  plantations  lie.  La 
Guaira  coffee  includes  that  produced  in  the 
vicinity  of  Caracas  and  Cumana. 

Caracas  coffee  is  one  of  the  best  known 
in  the  American  market.  The  washed 
Caracas   is  in   steady   demand '  in   France 


COFFEE    CHARACTERISTICS 


349 


aud  Spain.  The  bean  is  bluish  in  color, 
somewhat  short,  and  of  a  uniform  size.  The 
liquor  has  a  rather  light  body.  Some  light- 
blue  washed  Caracas  coffees  are  very  de- 
sirable, and  have  a  peculiar  flavor  that  is 
quite  pleasant  to  the  educated  palate. 
Caracas  chops  rarely  hold  their  style  for 
any  length  of  time,  as  the  owners  usually 
are  not  willing  to  dry  properly  and  thor- 
oughly before  milling.  When,  however, 
the  price  is  right,  American  buyers  will  use 
some  Caracas  chops  instead  of  Bogotas.  At 
equal  prices  the  latter  have  the  preference, 
as  they  have  more  body  in  the  cup.  Puerto 
Cabello  and  Cumana  coffees  are  valued  just 
below  Caracas.  They  are  grown  at  a  lower 
altitude,  and  are  somewhat  inferior  in 
flavor. 

Not  less  than  one-third  of  Puerto  Cabello 
coffees  come  across  the  thirty-mile  gulf  to 
the  westward  from  the  port  of  Tucacas,  in 
a  little  steamer  called  the  Barquisimento, 
which  is  famous  all  along  the  coast  as  the 
''cocktail  shaker."  C.  H.  Stewart'  solemnly 
asserts  that  "Barky"  can  do  the  "shim- 
ray"  when  lying  at  anchor  in  quiet  waters. 

Merida  and  Tachira  coffees  are  con- 
sidered the  best  of  the  Maracaibo  grades, 
Tovars  and  Trujillos  being  classed  as  lower 
in  trade  value.  Though  Cucuta  coffee  is 
grown  in  the  Colombian  district  of  that 
name,  it  is  largely  shipped  through  Mara- 
caibo :  and  hence  is  classed  among  the 
IMaracaibo  types.     It  ranks  with  Meridas 

^  Stewart,  C.  H.  "The  Coffee  Status  of  Venezuela." 
Tea  and  Coffee  Trade  Jour.  Jan.  1922  (vol.  xlii  :  no.  1  : 
pp.  29-35.) 


MARACAino  Beans  —  Roasted 


and  fine  grade  Boeonos,  and  somewhat  re- 
sembles the  Java  bean  in  form  and  roast, 
but  is  decidedly  different  in  the  cup. 
Washed  Cucutas  are  noted  for  their  large 
size,  roughness,  and  waxy  color.  They  make 
a  good-appearing  roast,  splitting  open,  and 
showing  irregular  white  centers.  New- 
crop  beans  are  sometimes  sharply  acid, 
though  they  mellow  with  age  and  gain  in 
body. 

Until  recent  years,  Tachira  coffee  was 
always  sold  as  Cucuta;  but  now  there  is  a 
tendency  to  ship  it  under  the  name  Tach- 
ira-Venezuela,  while  true  Cucuta  is  marked 
Cucuta-Colombia.  Tachiras  closely  re- 
semble the  true  Cucutas,  grade  for  grade. 
Up  to  about  1905  the  coffees  grown  near 
Salazar,  in  Colombia,  came  to  market  under 
the  name  of  Salazar;  but  since  then,  they 
have  been  included  among  the  Cucuta 
grades  and  are  sold  under  that  name. 

The  state  of  Tachira  lies  next  to  the 
Colombian  boundary,  and  its  mountains 
produce  much  fine  washed  coffee.  This 
has  size  and  fair  style,  as  a  rule,  but  does 
not  possess  cup  qualities  to  make  it  much 
sought.  It  ages  well  and,  being  of  good 
body,  the  old  crops,  other  things  being 
equal,  frequently  bring  a  tidy  premium. 

The  Rubio  section  of  Tachira  produces  the 
best  of  its  washed  coffees.  Here  are  several 
of  the  largest  and  best-equipped  estates  in 
all  Venezuela.  Washed  when  fresh,  the  cof- 
fees from  these  estates  are  usually  sold 
somewhat  under  the  fancy  Caracas;  but 
the  trillados  of  the  Tachira  rank  with  the 
best  of  the  country,  owing  to  their  large 
bean,  solid  color,  and  good  quality.  They 
roast  well,  and  cup  with  good  body,  though 
not  much  character.  Good  Tachira  trilla- 
dos are  sold  on  the  same  basis  as  the  Cu- 
cutas, which  they  resemble. 

The  Meridas  are  raised  at  higher  alti- 
tudes than  Cucutas,  and  good  grades  are 
sought  for  their  peculiarly  delicate  flavor 
—  which  is  neither  acidy  nor  bitter  —  and 
heavy  body.  They  rank  as  the  best  by  far 
of  the  Maracaibo  type.  The  bean  is  high- 
grown,  of  medium  size,  and  roundish.  It 
is  well  knit,  and  brings  the  highest  price 
while  it  still  holds  its  bluish  style,  as  it 
then  retains  its  delicate  aroma  and  char- 
acter. The  trillados  of  Merida  run  un- 
evenly. 

Tovars  rank  between  Trujillos  and  Ta- 
chiras. They  are  fair  to  good  body  without 
acidity;  make  a  duller  roast  than  Cucutas, 


350 


ALL     ABOUT     COFFEE 


but  contain  fewer  quakers.  They  are  used 
for  blending  with  Bourbon  Santos.  Bo- 
conos  are  light  in  color  and  body.  They 
are  of  two  classes;  one  a  round,  small  to 
medium,  bean ;  and  the  other  larger  and 
softer.  Their  flavor  is  rather  neutral,  and 
they  are  frequently  used  as  fillers  in 
blends.  Trujillos  lack  acidity  and  make  a 
dull,  rough  roast,  unless  aged.  They  are 
blended  with  Bourbon  Santos  to  make  a 
low-priced  palatable  coffee.  Some  coffees 
of  merit  are  produced  at  Santa  Ana,  Monte 
Carmelo,  and  Bocono  in  Trujillo. 

Other  South  American  Countries 

The  coffees  from  other  South  American 
countries,  even  where  there  is  an  appre- 
ciable production,  are  not  important  fac- 
tors in  international  trade.  The  coffee  of 
Ecuador,  shipped  through  the  port  of 
Guayaquil,  goes  mostly  to  Chile,  a  com- 
paratively small  quantity  being  exported 
to  the  United  States.  The  bean  is  small  to 
medium  in  size,  pea-green  in  color,  and 
not  desirable  in  the  cup.  The  coffee  is 
about  equal  to  low-grade  Brazil,  and  is  used 
principally  as  a  filler.  Peru  produces  an 
ever-lessening  quantity  of  coffee,  the  bulk 
of  the  exports  in  pre-war  years  going  to 
Germany,  Chile,  and  the  United  Kingdom. 
It  is  a  low-altitude  growth,  and  is  con- 
sidered poor  grade.  The  bean  ranges  from 
medium  to  bold  in  size,  and  from  bluish  to 
yellow  in  color.  Bolivia  is  an  unimportant 
factor  in  the  international  coffee  trade, 
most  of  its  exports  going  to  Chile.  The 
chief  variety  produced  is  called  the  Yunga, 
which  is  considered  to  be  of  superior 
quality ;  but  only  a  small  quantity  is  grown. 
Guiana's  coffee  trade  is  insignificant.  The 
three  best-known  types  are  the  Surinam, 
Demerara,  and  Cayenne,  named  after  the 
ports  through  which  they  are  shipped. 

The  West  Indies 

Coffee  either  is,  or  can  be,  grown  prac- 
tically everywhere  in  the  West  Indies ;  but 
the  chief  producing  districts  are  found  on 
the  islands  of  Porto  Rico,  Haiti  (and 
Santo  Domingo),  Jamaica,  Guadeloupe,  and 
Curasao.  Coffees  coming  from  these 
islands  are  generally  known  by  the  name 
of  the  country  of  production,  and  may  be 
further  identified  by  the  names  of  the  dis- 
tricts in  which  they  are  grown. 

Porto  Rico.  Since  the  United  States 
took  possession  of  Porto  Rico,  soil  experts 
have  endeavored  to  raise  the  quality  of  the 


coffee  grown  there,  especially  the  lower 
grades,  which  had  peculiarly  wild  char- 
acteristics. Today,  the  superior  grades  of 
Porto  Rican  coffees  rank  among  the  best 
growths  known  to  the  trade.  The  bean  is 
large,  uniform,  and  stylish;  ranging  in 
color  from  a  light  gray-blue  to  a  dark 
green-blue.  Some  of  these  are  artificially 
colored  for  foreign  markets.  The  coffee 
roasts  well,  and  has  a  heavy  body,  similar 
to  the  fanciest  Mexicans  and  Colombians. 
Its  cup  is  not  as  rich,  but  it  makes  a  good 
blend.  Porto  Rican  coffees  command  a 
higher  price  in  France  than  in  the  United 
Stiites,  w^hich  accounts  for  the  larger  pro- 
portion of  exports  to  Europe,  excepting 
when  the  French  market  was  cut  off  during 
the  World  War. 

Jamaica.  Jamaica  produces  two  distinct 
types  of  coffee,  the  highland  and  the  low- 
land growths.  Among  the  first-named  is 
the  celebrated  Blue  Mountain  coffee,  which 
has  a  well  developed  pale  blue-green  bean 
that  makes  a  good-appearing  roast  and  a 
pleasantly  aromatic  cup.  It  is  frequently 
compared  with  the  fancy  Cohans  of  Guate- 
mala. The  lowland  coffee  is  a  poorer  grade, 
and  consists  largely  of  a  mixture  of  differ- 
ent growths  produced  on  the  plains.  It  is 
a  fair-sized  bean,  green  to  yellow  in  the 
"natural",  and  blue-green  when  washed. 
In  the  cup  it  has  a  grassy  flavor,  but  is  flat 
when  drunk  with  cream.  It  is  used  chiefly 
as  a  filler  in  blends,  and  for  French  roasts. 

Haiti  and  Santo  Domingo.  The  coffees 
of  these  two  republics  have  like  character- 
istics, being  grown  on  the  same  island  and 
in  about  the  same  climatic  and  soil  condi- 
tions. Careless  cultivation  and  preparation 
methods  are  responsible  for  the  generally 
poor  quality  of  these  coffees.  When  prop- 
erly grown  and  cured,  they  rank  well  with 
high-grade  washed  varieties,  and  have  a 
rich,  fairly  acid  flavor  in  the  cup.  The 
bean  is  blue-green,  and  makes  a  handsome 
roast. 

Guadeloupe.  Guadeloupe  coffee  is  dis- 
tinguishable by  its  green,  long,  and  slightly 
thick  bean,  covered  by  a  pellicle  of  whitish 
silvery  color,  which  separates  from  the  bean 
in  the  roast.    It  has  excellent  cup  qualities. 

Martinique.  This  island  formerly  pro- 
duced a  coffee  closely  resembling  the 
Guadeloupe;  but  no  coffee  is  now  grown 
there,  though  some  Guadeloupe  growths  are 
shipped  from  Martinique,  and  bear  its 
name. 


COFFEE    CHARACTERISTICS 


351 


I 


Other  West  Indian  Islands.  Among 
the  other  West  Indian  islands  producing 
small  quantities  of  coffee  are  Cuba,  Trini- 
dad, Dominica,  Barbados,  and  Curagao, 
The  growths  are  generally  good  quality, 
bearing  a  close  resemblance  to  one  another. 
In  the  past,  Cuba  produced  a  fine  grade; 
but  the  industry  is  now  practically  extinct. 

Asia 

Arabia.  For  many  generations  Mocha 
coffee  has  been  recognized  throughout  the 
world  as  the  best  coffee  obtainable;  and 
until  the  pure  food  law  went  into  effect 
in  the  United  States,  other  high-grade 
coffees  were  frequently  sold  by  American 
firms  under  the  name  of  Mocha.  Now,  only 
coffees  grown  in  Arabia  are  entitled  to  that 


Mocha  Beans  —  Roasted 

valuable  trade  name.  They  grow  in  a  small 
area  in  the  mountainous  regions  of  the 
southwestern  portion  of  the  Arabian  penin- 
sula, in  the  province  of  Yemen,  and  are 
known  locally  by  the  names  of  the  districts 
in  which  they  are  produced.  Commercially 
they  are  graded  as  follows :  Mocha  Extra, 
for  all  extra  qualities;  Mocha  No.  1,  con- 
sisting of  only  perfect  berries;  No.  1-A, 
containing  some  dust,  but  otherwise  free  of 
imperfections ;  No.  2,  showing  a  few  broken 
beans  and  quakers;  No.  3,  having  a  heavier 
percentage  of  brokens  and  quakers  and  also 
some  dust. 

Mocha  beans  are  very  small,  hard,  round- 
ish, and  irregular  in  form  and  size.  In 
color,  they  shade  from  olive  green  to  pale 


yellow,  the  bulk  being  olive  green.  The 
roast  is  poor  and  uneven;  but  the  coffee's 
virtues  are  shown  in  the  cup.  It  has  a  dis- 
tinctive winy  flavor,  and  is  heavy  with 
acidity  —  two  qualities  which  make  a 
straight  Mocha  brew  especially  valuable  as 
an  after-dinner  coffee,  and  also  esteemed 
for  blending  with  fancy,  mild,  washed 
types,  particularly  East  Indian  growths. 

As  in  other  countries,  the  coffees  grown 
on  the  highlands  in  Yemen  are  better  than 
the  lowland  growths.  As  a  rule,  the  low 
altitude  bean  is  larger  and  more  oblong 
than  that  grown  in  the  highlands,  due  to  its 
quicker  development  in  the  regions  where 
the  rainfall,  though  not  great,  is  more 
abundant. 

While  Mocha  coffees  are  known  commer- 
cially by  grade  numbers,  the  planters  and 
Arabian  traders  also  designate  them  by  the 
name  of  the  district  or  province  in  which 
each  is  grown.  Among  the  better  grades 
thus  labeled  are,  the  Yaffey,  the  Anezi,  the 
Mattari,  the  Sanani,  the  Sharki,  and  the 
Haimi-Harazi.  For  the  poorer  grades, 
these  names  are  used :  Remi,  Bourai,  Shami, 
Yemeni,  and  Maidi.  Of  these  varieties,  the 
Mattari,  a  hard  and  regular  bean,  pale  yel- 
low in  color,  commands  the  highest  price, 
with  the  Yaffey  a  close  second.  Harazi 
coffee  heads  the  market  for  quantity  coupled 
with  general  average  of  quality. 

Indian  and  Ceylon.  Coffees  from  India 
and  Ceylon  are  marketed  almost  exclusively 
in  London,  little  reaching  the  American 
trade.  Of  the  Indian  growths,  Malabars, 
grown  on  the  western  slope  of  the  Ghaut 
mountains,  are  classed  commercially  as  the 
best.  The  bean  is  rather  small  and  blue- 
green  in  color.  In  the  cup  it  has  a  distinc- 
tive strong  flavor  and  deep  color.  Mysore 
coffee  ranks  next  in  favor  on  the  English 
market.  It  is  mountain  grown,  and  the 
bean  is  large  and  blue-green  in  color. 
Tellicherry  is  another  good  grade  coffee, 
closely  resembling  Malabar,  Coorg  (Kurg) 
coffee  is  an  inferior  growth.  It  is  lowland 
type,  and  in  the  cup  is  thin  and  flat.  The 
bean  is  large  and  flat,  and  tends  toward 
dark  green  in  color.  Travancore  is  an- 
other lowland  growth,  ranking  about  with 
Coorg,  and  has  the  same  general  character- 
istics. See  the  Complete  Reference  Table 
for  details. 

Ceylon,  although  it  once  was  one  of  the 
world's  most  important  producers,  has  been 
losing  ground  as  a  coffee-producing  country 


352 


ALL     ABOUT     COFFEE 


since  1890.  Ceylon  coffees  are  classified 
commercially  as  "native",  "plantation", 
and  "mountain".  The  native  is  a  poor- 
grade,  lowland  growth,  with  large  flat  bean 
and  low  cup  quality.  The  plantation,  so 
named  because  more  carefully  cultivated  on 
highland  plantations,  is  a  stylish  roaster, 
and  gives  a  rich  flavor  and  strong  fragrance 
in  the  cup.  The  mountain,  grown  at  high 
altitudes,  is  a  small,  steel-blue  bean,  and  is 
considered  by  British  traders  as  equal  to 
the  best  varieties  grown  anywhere.  It  was 
formerly  shipped  to  Aden  to  be  mixed  with 
Mocha. 


French  Indo-China.  The  coffee  of 
French  Indo-China  is  highly  prized  in 
France,  where  the  bulk  of  the  exports  goes. 
The  coffee  tree  grows  well  in  the  provinces 
of  Tonkin,  Annam,  Cambodia,  and  Cochin- 
China.  Tonkin  is  the  largest  producer,  and 
grows  the  best  varieties.  In  the  cup,  Ton- 
kin coffee  is  thought  by  French  traders  to 
compare  favorably  with  Mocha.  Of  the 
several  varieties  of  Coffea  arahica  grown  in 
Indo-China,  the  Grand  Bourhon,  Bourbon 
rond,  and  the  Bourhon  Le  Roy,  are  the  best 
known.  The  first-named  is  a  large  bean  of 
good  quality;  the  second  is  a  small,  round 


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Coffee  Map 

of 

Africa  and 
Arabia 

Showing   the  Principal  Coffee- 
Producing  Countries  on  the  Con- 
tinent and  Adjacent  Islands. 

Copyright  1922  by 
The  Tea  and  Coffee  Trade  Journal  Co. 


!abY55IN/A    U!;>^|j^vo-i 
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A  L  L    A  BO  I'  T    C  O  FFE  E 


J  A  V  A 

(Washed) 


S  U  BTA  T  r  a 
(Mandheling) 


ARABIAN 

(Mocha) 


COLOMBIAN 
(Bogota) 


GUATEMALA 
(Washed) 


MEXICAN 
(Washed) 


COSTA    RICA 
(Washed) 


SANTOS 
(Peaberry) 


VENEZUELA 

(Maracaibo) 


S  A  S  i   c>  vT 
(Flat  Bean) 


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a  A  i\   i  O  S 
(Bourbon) 


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(Natural) 


PRINCIPAL  VARIETIES  OF  GREEN  COFFEE  BEANS. 
NATURAL  SIZE  AND  COLOR 


L..„„ ,.,„.. 

^Htill  smaller  bean  of  fair  cup  quality. 

I 


COFFEE    CHARACTERISTICS 


353 


f 


Africa 

Abyssinia.  The  coffee  grown  in  Abys- 
nia  is  classified  commercially  into  two 
varieties:  Harari,  which  is  grown  princi- 
ally  in  the  district  around  Harar;  and 
byssinian,  produced  mainly  in  the  prov- 
ces  of  Kaffa,  Sidamo,  and  Guma.  Harari 
ffee  is  the  fruit  of  cultivated  trees ;  while 
byssinian  comes  from  wild  trees.  The 
first-named  produces  a  long  and  well-shaped 
berry,  and  is  often  referred  to  as  Longberry 
Harari.  The  bean  is  larger  than  the  Mocha, 
but  similar  in  general  appearance.  Its 
color  shades  from  blue-green  to  yellow. 
Good  grades  of  Harari  have  cup  character- 
istics resembling  Mocha,  and  by  some  are 
preferred  to  Mocha,  because  of  their  winier 
cup  flavor.  The  Abyssinian  coffee  is  con- 
sidered much  inferior  to  Harari ;  and  chops 
generally  contain  many  imperfections.  The 
bean  is  dark  gray  in  color.  Little  Abyssin- 
ian coffee  comes  to  the  United  States. 

Many  other  African  countries  produce 
coffee;  but  little  of  it  ever  reaches  the 
North  American  market.  Uganda,  in 
British  East  Africa,  grows  a  good  grade  of 
robusta  coffee  which  is  valued  on  the  Lon- 
don market.  Liberian  coffee,  grown  on  the 
west  coast,  used  to  be  mixed  with  Bourbon 
Santos  to  some  extent;  but  it  is  generally 
considered  low  grade,  although  it  makes  a 
handsome,  elephantine  roast.  The  product 
of  Guinea  is  a  very  small  bean,  half-way 
between  a  peaberry  and  a  flat  bean,  and 
has  a  dingy  brown  color.  It  is  considered 
worthless  as  a  drink.  A  medium-sized, 
strong-flavored  bean  that  is  rich  in  the  cup, 
is  grown  in  the  African  Congo  district.  In 
Angola  a  fair  quantity  of  coffee  is  pro- 
duced. In  the  cup  it  has  a  strong  and 
pungent  flavor,  but  lacks  smoothness  and 
aroma.  Zanzibar  produces  a  pleasing  coffee 
in  very  limited  quantities.  The  bean  is 
medium  size,  and  regular  in  shape.  Mozam- 
bique's coffee  is  greenish  in  color,  of 
medium  size,  and  mellow.  The  production 
is  small.  Madagascar  produces  an  insignifi- 
cant quantity  for  export,  although  the  coffee 
is  considered  fair  average,  with  rich  flavor, 
and  considerable  fragrance.  Bourbon 
coffee,  grown  on  the  island  of  Reunion, 
commands  a  high  price  in  the  French  mar- 
ket, where  practically  all  exports  go.  It  is 
a  small,  flinty  bean,  and  gives  a  rich  cup 
and  fragrance. 


Washed  Java  Beans  —  Roasted 

East  Indian  Islands 

Some  of  the  coffees  from  the  East  Indian 
islands  rank  among  the  best  in  the  world, 
particularly  those  from  Sumatra.  East 
India  coffees  are  distinguished  by  their 
smooth,  heavy  body  in  the  cup,  the  fancy 
grades  giving  an  almost  syrupy  richness. 

Java.  Java  coffees  are  generally  of  a 
smaller  bean  than  those  from  Sumatra, 
and  are  not  considered  as  high  grade.  The 
bulk  of  the  new-crop  growths  have  a  grassy 
flavor  which  most  people  find  unpleasant 
when  drunk  straight.  Under  the  old  cul- 
ture system,  coffee  was  bought  by  the 
government,  and  held  in  godowns  from 
two  to  three  years,  until  it  had  become 
mellow  with  age.  In  late  years,  this  system 
has  been  abandoned;  and  the  planters  now 
sell  their  product  as  they  please,  and  in 
most  cases  without  mellowing,  excepting  as 
they  age  during  the  long  sea  voyage  from 
Batavia  to  destination.  Before  the  advent 
of  large  fleets  of  steamers  in  the  East  In- 
dian trade,  the  coffee  was  brought  to  Amer- 
ica in  sailing  vessels  that  required  from 
three  to  four  months  for  the  trip.  During 
the  voyage,  the  coffee  went  through  a 
sweating  process  which  turned  the  beans 
from  a  light  green  to  a  dark  brown,  and 
considerably  enhanced  their  cup  values. 
The  sweating  was  due  to  the  coffee  being 
loaded  while  moist,  and  then  practically 
sealed  in  the  vessel's  hold  during  all  its  trip 
through  the  tropical  seas.  As  a  conse- 
quence, the  cargo  steamed  and  foamed ;  and 
as  a  rule,  part  of  the  coffee  became  moldy, 


354 


ALL     ABOUT     COFFEE 


COFFEE   CHARACTERISTICS 


355 


the  damage  seldom  extending  more  than  an 
inch  or  two  into  the  mats.  Sweated  coffees 
commanded  from  three  to  five  cents  more 
than  those  that  came  in  "pale". 

Before  the  Java  coffee  trade  began  to 
decline  in  the  latter  part  of  the  nineteenth 
century,  Coffea  arabica  was  grown  abund- 
antly throughout  the  island.  Each  resi- 
dency had  numerous  estates,  and  their 
names  were  given  to  the  coffees  produced. 
The  best  coffees  came  from  Preanger,  Cheri- 
bon,  Buitenzorg,  and  Batavia,  ranking  in 
merit  in  the  order  named.  All  Java  coffees 
are  known  commercially  either  as  private 
growth,  or  as  blue  bean  washed,  the  former 
being  cured  by  either  the  washing  or  the 
dry  hulling  method,  while  the  latter  are 
washed.  Private  growths  are  usually  a 
pale  yellow,  the  bean  being  short  and  round 
and  slightly  convex.  It  makes  a  handsome 
even  roast,  showing  a  full  white  stripe. 
The  washed  variety  is  a  pale  blue-green, 
the  bean  closely  resembling  the  private 
growth  in  form  and  roast.  These  coffees 
have  a  distinctive  character  in  the  cup  that 
is  much  dift'erent  from  any  other  coffee 
grown.    Their  liquor  is  thin. 

All  the  better  known  coffees  of  Java, 
which  are  designated  by  the  districts  in 
which  they  are  grown,  are  listed  in  the 
Complete  Reference  Table.  Coffee  from 
few  of  the  many  districts  comes  to  the 
North  American  market.  Among  those  that 
are  sold  in  the  United  States  are  the  Kadoe 
and  Semarang,  both  of  which  are  small, 
yellowish  green;  and  the  Malang,  a  green, 
hard  bean  which  makes  a  better  roast  than 
Kadoe  and  Semarang,  but  is  inferior  to 
them  in  the  cup. 

Sumatra.  Sumatra  has  the  reputation 
of  producing  some  of  the  finest  and  highest- 
priced  coffees  in  the  world,  such  as  Mand- 
heling,  Ankola,  Ayer  Bangles,  Padang  In- 
terior, and  Palembang.  Mandheling  coffee 
is  a  large,  brownish  bean  which  roasts  dull, 
but  is  generally  free  from  quakers.  It  is 
very  heavy  in  body,  and  has  a  unique 
flavor  that  easily  distinguishes  it  from  any 
other  growth.  The  Ankola  bean  is  shorter 
and  better-appearing  than  Mandheling,  but 
otherwise  bears  a  close  resemblance.  Its 
flavor  is  only  slightly  under  Mandheling; 
and,  like  that  coffee,  is  recommended  for 
blending  with  the  best  grades  of  Mocha. 
While  the  Ayer  Bangles  bean  is  somewhat 
larger  than  the  other  two  just  mentioned, 
it  is  not  so  dark  brown  in  color,  and  is  not 
quite  so  heavy  in  body;  the  flavor  is  very 


delicate.  These  three  growths  are  known  in 
the  trade  as  the  "Fancies"  and  are  con- 
sidered the  best  of  Sumatra's  production. 

The  Sumatra  coffee  best  known  to  the 
American  trade  is  the  Padang  Interior, 
which  is  shipped  through  the  port  of 
Padang  on  Sumatra 's  west  coast.  The  bean 
is  irregular  in  form  and  color,  and  makes 
a  dull  roast.  However,  the  flavor  is  good, 
although  it  lacks  the  richness  of  the  Fancies, 
Another  celebrated  coffee  grown  on  the  west 
coast  is  the  Boekit  Gompong,  grown  on  the 
estate  of  that  name  near  Padang.  It  is  a 
high-grade  coffee,  making  a  handsome 
roast,  and  possessing  a  delicate  flavor.  The 
foregoing  coffees  are  produced  on  what  were 
formerly  termed  government  estates,  and 
during  the  heyday  of  government  control 
were  sold  by  auction  and  came  mostly  to 
the  United  States. 

Among  the  private  estate  coffees,  Corin- 
chies  take  first  rank  for  quality,  some 
traders  saying  that  they  are  the  best  in 
international  commerce.  They  closely  re- 
semble Ankolas,  but  range  a  cent  or  two 
lower  in  price.  Next  in  order  of  merit  is 
Timor  coffee,  grown  on  the  island  of  that 
name.  It  is  not  as  attractive  in  appear- 
ance, roast,  or  cup  quality  as  the  Corinchie, 
A  grade  below  Timors  is  Boengie  coffee, 
which  is  seldom  seen  on  the  North  American 
market.  Kroe  coffee  is  better  known  and 
more  widely  used  in  the  United  States.  The 
bean  is  large,  but  has  an  attractive  appear- 
ance. Kroes  are  of  heavy  body,  of  some- 
what groundy  flavor  when  new  crop,  and 
are  good  roasters  and  blenders.  Other  East 
Indian  coffees  are  Teagals,  Balis,  and 
Macassars,  all  of  which  are  second-rate 
growths  as  compared  with  the  bulk  of 
Sumatras,  grade  for  grade.  The  Macassars 
are  produced  in  the  district  of  that  name  on 
island  of  Celebes.  The  best  coffee  grown  in 
Celebes  comes  from  the  province  of  Menado, 
and  is  known  by  that  name.  It  is  thought 
to  be  of  a  superior  quality,  and  commands 
a  high  price  in  Europe. 

The  Pacific  Islands 

The  Philippine  Islands  have  not  figured 
in  international  coffee  trade  since  1892,  al- 
though in  preceding  years  the  Philippines 
exported  several  million  pounds  of  an  aver- 
age good  grade  of  coffee.  While  coffee  is 
one  of  the  shade  trees  used  by  householders 
in  Guam,  none  of  the  fruit  is  exported. 
Coffee  production  is  an  unimportant  in- 
dustry in  Samoa,  Australia,  New  Guinea, 


356 


ALL    ABOUT     COFFEE 


New  Caledonia,  and  other  Pacific  islands, 
and  none  is  grown  for  export. 

Hawaii.  Since  the  beginning  of  the 
twentieth  century  the  Hawaiian  islands 
have  taken  a  position  of  increasing  import- 
ance, shipping  some  two  million  pounds  of 
good  quality  coffee  to  the  United  States, 
their  biggest  customer.  Coffee  grows  to 
some  extent  on  all  the  islands  of  the  group, 
but  fully  ninety-five  percent  is  raised  in  the 
districts  of  Kona,  Puna,  and  Hamakua  on 
the  main  island  of  Hawaii.  All  Hawaiian 
coffee  is  high  grade ;  and  is  generally  large 
bean,  blue-green  in  color  when  new  crop, 
and  yellow-brown  when  aged.  It  makes  a 
handsome  roast,  and  has  a  fine  flavor  that 
is  smooth  and  not  too  acid.  It  blends  well 
with  any  high-grade  mild  coffee.  Kona 
coffee,  grown  in  the  district  of  that  name, 
commands  the  highest  price.  Old-crop  Kona 
coffee  is  said  by  some  trade  authorities  to 
be  equal  to  either  Mocha  or  Old  Govern- 
ment Java. 

Appearance,  Aroma,  and  Flavor  in  Cup- 
Testing 

Before  the  beginning  of  the  twentieth 
century,  practically  all  the  coffees  bought 
and  sold  in  the  United  States  were  judged 
for  merit  simply  by  the  appearance  of  the 
green  or  of  the  roasted  bean.  Since  that 
time,  the  importance  of  testing  the  drinking 
qualities  has  become  generally  recognized; 
and  today  every  progressive  coffee  buyer 
has  his  sample-roasting  and  testing  outfit 
with  which  to  carry  out  painstaking  cup 
tests.  Both  buyers  and  sellers  use  the  cup 
test,  the  former  to  determine  the  merits  of 
the  coffee  he  is  buying,  and  the  latter  to 
ascertain  the  proper  value  of  the  chop  un- 
der consideration.  Frequently  a  test  is 
made  to  fix  the  relative  desirability  of 
various  growths  considered  as  a  whole, 
using  composite  samples  that  are  supposed 
to  give  representation  to  an  entire  crop. 

The  first  step  in  testing  coffee  is  to  com- 
pare the  appearance  of  the  green  bean  of  a 
chop  with  a  sample  of  known  standard 
value  for  that  particular  kind  of  coffee. 
The  next  step  is  to  compare  the  appearance 
when  roasted.  Then  comes  the  appearance 
and  aroma  test,  when  it  is  ground;  and 
finally,  the  most  difficult  of  all,  the  trial 
of  the  flavor  and  aroma  of  the  liquid. 

Naturally  the  tester  gives  much  care  to 
proper  roasting  of  the  samples  to  be  exam- 
ined. He  recognizes  several  different  kinds 
of  roasts   which  he   terms   the    light,   the 


medium,  the  dark,  the  Italian,  and  the 
French  roasts,  all  of  which  vary  in  the 
shadings  of  color,  and  each  of  which  gives  a 
different  taste  in  the  cup.  The  careful 
tester  watches  the  roast  closely  to  see 
whether  the  beans  acquire  a  dull  or  bright 
finish,  and  to  note  also  if  there  are  many 
quakers,  or  off-color  beans.  When  the 
proper  roasting  point  is  reached,  he  smells 
the  beans  while  still  hot  to  determine  their 
aroma.  In  some  growths  and  grades,  he 
will  frequently  smell  of  them  as  they  cool 
off,  because  the  character  changes  as  the 
heat  leaves  them,  as  in  the  case  of  many 
Maracaibo  grades. 

After  roasting,  the  actual  cup-testing  be- 
gins. Two  methods  are  employed,  the  blind 
cup  test,  in  which  there  is  no  clue  to  the 
identity  of  the  kind  of  coffee  in  the  cup ; 
and  the  open  test,  in  which  the  tester  knows 
beforehand  the  particular  coffee  he  is  to 
examine.  The  former  is  most  generally 
employed  by  buyers  and  sellers;  although 
a  large  number  of  experts  who  do  not  let 
their  knowledge  interfere  with  their  judg- 
ment, use  the  open  method. 

In  both  systems  the  amount  of  ground 
coffee  placed  in  the  cup  is  carefully 
weighed  so  that  the  strength  will  be  stand- 
ard. Generally,  the  cups  are  marked  on  the 
bottom  for  identification  after  the  examina- 
tion. Before  pouring  on  the  hot  water  to 
make  the  brew,  the  aroma  of  the  freshly 
ground  coffee  is  carefully  noted  to  see  if  it 
is  up  to  standard.  In  pouring  the  water, 
care  is  exercised  to  keep  the  temperature 
constant  in  the  cups,  so  that  the  strength 
in  all  will  be  equal.  When  the  water  is 
poured  directly  on  the  grounds,  a  crust  or 
scum  is  formed.  Before  this  crust  breaks, 
the  tester  sniffs  the  aroma  given  off;  this 
is  called  the  wet-smell,  or  crust,  test,  and  is 
considered  of  great  importance. 

Of  course,  the  taste  of  the  brew  is  the 
most  important  test.  Equal  amounts  of 
coffee  are  sipped  from  each  cup,  the  tester 
holding  each  sip  in  his  mouth  only  long 
enough  to  get  the  full  strength  of  the  flavor. 
He  spits  out  the  coffee  into  a  large  brass 
cuspidor  which  is  designed  for  the  purpose. 
The  expert  never  swallows  the  liquor. 

Cup-testing  calls  for  keenly  developed 
senses  of  sight,  smell,  and  taste,  and  the 
faculty  for  remembering  delicate  shadings 
in  each  sense.  By  sight,  the  coffee  man 
judges  the  size,  shape,  and  color  of  the 
green  and  roasted  bean,  which  are  import- 


tant  factors  in  determinino:  commercial 
values.  He  can  tell  also  whether  the  coffee 
is  of  the  washed  or  unwashed  variety,  and 
whether  it  contains  many  imperfections 
such  as  Quakers,  pods,  stones,  brokens,  off- 
colored  beans,  and  the  like.  By  his  sense 
of  smell  of  the  roast  and  of  the  brew,  he 
jj:auges  the  strength  of  the  aroma,  which 
also  enters  into  the  valuation  calculation. 
His  palate  tells  him  many  things  about  a 
coffee  brew  —  if  the  drink  has  body  and  is 
smooth,  rich,  acidy,  or  mellow;  if  it  is 
winy,  neutral,  harsh,  or  Rioy;  if  it  is 
musty,  groundy,  woody,  or  grassy;  or  if  it 
is  rank,  hidey  (sour),  muddy,  or  bitter. 
These  are  trade  designations  of  the  differ- 
ent shades  of  flavor  to  be  found  in  the  vari- 
ous coffees  coming  to  the  North  American 
market :  and  each  has  an  influence  on  the 
price  at  which  they  will  be  sold. 


COFFEE    CHARACTERISTICS 


357 


The  up-to-date  cup-tester  requires  special 
equipment  to  get  the  best  results.  A  typical 
installation  consists  of  a  gas  sample-roasting 
outfit,  employing  at  least  a  single  cylinder 
holding  about  six  ounces  of  coffee,  and  per- 
haps a  battery  of  a  dozen  or  more ;  an  elec- 
tric grinding  mill;  a  testing  table,  with  a 
top  that  can  be  revolved  by  hand ;  a  pair  of 
accurately  adjusted  balance  scales;  one  or 
more  brass  kettles ;  a  gas  stove  for  heating 
water;  sample  pans;  many  china  or  glass 
cups;  silver  spoons;  and  a  brass  cuspidor 
that  stands  waist  high  and  is  shaped  like  an 
hour  glass. 

Since  the  World  War,  there  have  been 
some  notable  changes  in  the  buying  of 
coffees,  particularly  in  European  markets. 
For  example,  the  old  idea  of  buying  fancy 
coffees  at  fancy  prices  is  probably  gone  for 
good  in  Europe. 


Tyi'ical  .Sa.mim.k-Koasting  axu  Cup-Testing  Outfit 


In  the  middle  of  the  picture  is  a  standard  revolving  table  (3i^  feet  in  diameter),  with  scale  mounted 
over  the  center  and  with  a  "Mitchell  Tray"  for  holding  one  cup  independent  of  the  table-top  move- 
ment There  are  two  cuspidors,  a  double  kettle  outfit,  a  6-cylinder  sample  roaster  and  a  motor-driven 
sample  grinder;  also  a  set  of  .sample  separator  sieves  in  the  overhead  rack,  a  bag  sampler  (lymg  on 
the  lower  shelf  of  the  counter),  and  some  coffee  crushers  (one  on  the  end  of  the  counter  and  one  on 
tlio  revolving   table) 


358 


COMPLETE   REFERENCE   TABLE 

OF 

THE  PRINCIPAL  KINDS  OF  COFFEE  GROWN  IN  THE  WORLD 

Together  with  Their  Trade '  Values  and  Cup  Characteristics 

t,  indicates  town  or  trading  center ;  m  n,    market   name ;    d,    district    or    state. 


Grand    Division 


North  America 


Country 


Mexico 


Shipping  Ports 


Vera  Cruz 

on  Gulf  of  aiex, 


State,    or   District, 

Market  Names  and 

Gradings 


Mexicans 


Puerto  Mexico 
on  Gulf  of  Mex, 


Salina    Cruz 
on  Pacific 

Coatzacoalcos 
(Puerto  Mexico) 
on  Gulf  of  Mex, 


Acapulco 
on  Pacific 

Manzanillo 
on  Pacific 


Do. 


Vera  Cruz,  d 
Coatepec,  m  n 
(pro.,  co-at-e-pec) 

Huatusco,   t 
(pro.,  wha-toos-co) 


Orizaba,  t 

Jalapa,  t 
(pro.,  ha-Iap-a) 

Cordoba,   t 


Tabasco,  d  &  m  n 
Coatzacoalcos,  t  & 


Chiapas,   d 

Soconusco,  t,  m  n 

or 
Tapachula,  t,  m  n 


Oaxaca,  d,  m  n  &,  t 
(pr.,  wah-hock-ah) 
Sierra  Oaxaca, 
(common  -   un- 
washed) 
Pluma  Oaxaca 
( hidalgo- 
washed  ) 

Guerrero,  d 
Sierra,  m  n 

Mi(^hoacan,  d 
Uruapan,  t 


Colima,  d,  m  n  &  t 


Trade  Values  and  Cup 
Characteristics 


In  general:  Mexicans  are 
mild  or  mellow.  The 
green  beans  are  greenish 
to  yellow  (when  aged) 
and  of  large  size.  The 
washed  coffees  make  a 
handsome  roast,  showing 
pronounced  white  central 
stripe.  In  the  cup  they 
have  a  full  rich  body, 
'fine  acidity,  and  a  won- 
derful   bouquet. 

Acid,  of  excellent  heavy 
and  rich  flavor;  fine  for 
blending. 

Fine  appearing  washed 
coflPee;  next  to  Coatepec 
for  acid  and  blending 
qualities. 

Regarded  as  next  to  Hua- 
tusco ;  good  cup  quality. 

Stylish  roaster;  frequent- 
ly light  body. 

Xeutral,  smooth  in  flavor, 
without  acid  tang;  good 
body. 

Of  uncertain  (Character ; 
many  of  them  Rio-y,  flat, 
and  groundy.  Unsatis- 
factory in  the  cup. 

Resembles  Guatemala  cof- 
fees ;  smooth  in  charac- 
acter,  and  without  decid- 
ed tang. 


Small  bean ;  excellent 
quality,  sharply  acid,  fine 
flavor,  but  not  stylish  in 
appearance.  The  Pluma 
is  a  very  fancy  bean  cof- 
fee, also  acid  and  fine  for 
blending. 


Inferior  in  quality ;  low 
growth  and  woody. 

A  superior  coffee,  but  not 
produced  in  commercial 
quantity. 

Very  like  Uruapan. 


COMPLETE  REFERENCE  TABLE 


359 


<Jrand    Division 

Country 

Shipping  Ports 

State,    or   District, 

Market  Names  and 

Gradings 

Trade  Values  and  Cup 
Characteristics 

North    America 

Mexico 

Vera  Cruz 

Puebla,  d 

Low-grade  mountain  cof- 

{Cont'd) 

(Cont'd) 

Sierra,  m  n 

fee. 

Tampico 

Tamaulipas,  d 
Tampico,  to  n  &  / 

Tepic 

An  inferior  grade.         • 

So  called  "Mexican  Mo- 
cha." Raised  for  local 
consumption.  Not  a  com- 
mercial factor. 

Classes  for  all  Mexicans 

1.   Commons  (customary  or  natural).  2.   Washed 

(W.I.  P.)     3.   Caracolillo  (peaberry.) 

Central  America 

Guatemala 

Puerto  Barrios  and 
r.ivingston 

on    Caribbean 

Guatemala 

In  general:  Guatemalas 
are  mild  or  mellow  and 
mostly  washed.  The 
green  beans  are  greenish 
to  yellow  (when  aged), 
and  of  large  size.  The 
mountain  -  grown  coffees 
make  a  handsome  roast, 
are  of  full  heavy  body  and 
excellent  cup  quality.  The 
lower-altitude  coffees  are 
light  in  cup,  but  flavory. 

Ocos, 

Cob&n,  t  &  m  n 

Waxy,  bluish  bean  ;  hand- 

Champerico,   and 

some  uniform   roast  with 

San   Jose 

white  center.  Heavy  body. 

on  Pacific 

fine  acidity. 

Belize 

Alta  Verapaz,  d 

Gray-blue  bean ;  fine  mel- 

(Br. Honduras) 

Sehenaju,  t 
Antigua,  d 
Costa  Cuca,  d 
Costa  Grande,  d 
Barberena,  d 
Tumbador,  d 
Costa  de  Cucho,  d 
Chicacao  Xolhuitz,  d 
Pochuta  Malacatan, 

d 
San  Marcos,  d 
Chuva.  d 
Escuintla,  d 
San  Vincente,  d 
Pacaya,  d 
Moran.  d 
Amatitlan,  d 
Palmar,  d 
Motagua,  d 

low  flavor.     See  Belize. 
Medium       flinty       bean ; 
lighter   in   body ;    flavory, 
acid. 

Classes     for     All     Gua- 
temalas 
Most     Guatemalas     are 
washed  and  may  be  clas- 
sified as  follows : 

1.  Small  flinty  bean,  ex- 
tremely acid  and  flavory, 
produced  in  the  highest 
altitudes  of  the  Antigua, 
Moran,  and  Amatitlan 
districts. 

2.  Waxy,  bluish  bean, 
flinty,  but  large  roast; 
heavy  body  with  fine  acid- 
ity. Produced  in  the 
mountainous  regions  of 
the  Cobiln,  Costa  Cuca, 
Tumbador,  and  Chuva 
districts. 

3.     Waxy,  bluish  bean,  handsome  uniform  roast, 

heavy-bodied   but   non-acid   coffees   produced   in 

almost  every  district  of  the  republic  at  an  alti- 

■ 

ture  of  from  2,000  to  3.000  feet. 

4.     Stylish,    green    bean,    handsome    large    uni- 

form roast,  very  white  center,  mild  cupping  cof- 

fees produced  practically  everywhere  in  the  re- 

public at  an  altitude 

at  from  1,.500  to  2,500  feet. 

360 


ALL    ABOUT    COFFEE 


Grand    Division 

Country 

Shipping  Ports 

State,    or  District, 

Market  Names  and 

Gradings 

Trade  Values  and  Cup 
Characteristics 

Central  America 

Guatemala 

5.     The  lower  altitudes  of  the  various  districts 

(Cont'd) 

(Cont'd) 

produce   either   medium   bean,   neutral   cupping, 
colory    coffees,   or    the    Bourbon    type   of   small 

British    Honduras 

Belize 

bean,  greenish  coffee. 

Belize,  m  n 

A  Coban  coffee  from  the 

Alta   Verapaz   district  in 

Guatemala. 

Honduras 

Trujillo  and 

Honduras 

In  general:  Honduras  cof- 

Puerto Cortes 

Santa  Barbara,  d 

fees    are    small,    rounded, 

on  Caribbean 

Copan,  d 
Cortez,  d 

and  bluish-green.  They 
are  of  a  hard  flinty  char- 

Amapala 

La  Paz,  d 

acter;   make  a  fair  roast 

on  Pacific 

Choluteca,  d 
El  Paraiso,   d 

and  are  neutral  in  flavor. 
While  the  upland  grades 
are  of  good  quality,  the 
run  of  the  country's  pro- 
duction seldom  brings  as 
high  a  price  as  Santos  of 
equal  grade. 

Salvador 

Acajutla 

Salvador 

In  general:  Salvador's  cof- 

La Union 

Usulutan,  d 

fees  are  mostly  inferior  in 

La   Libertad 

La  Libertad,  d 
Santa  Ana,  d 
Santa  Tecla,  d 
La  Paz,  d 
Ahuachapan,  d 
Juayua,  d 

Santiago  de  Maria,  d 
Sonsonate,  d 
San  Miguel,  d 
San  Salvador,  d 
San  Vincente,  d 
Cuseatlan,  d 
Morazan,  d 
Cabanas,  d 
Chalatenango,  d 
La  Union,  d 

quality  to  those  of  Gua- 
temala. The  bulk  of  the 
crop  is  natui-al  unwashed. 
Green  beans  are  smooth 
and  handsome  and  make 
a  cinnamon  roast.  Flavor 
is  neutral.  Useful  mainly 
as  a  filler.  The  washed 
coffee  is  a  fancy  roaster, 
with  a  very  thin  cup. 

Classes  and  Gradings  for 
All  Salvador s:  Washed 

1.  Flinty,  colory,  green- 
ish to  bluish  bean,  fine 
white  centered  roasters, 
extremely  stylish  coffees 
with  full-bodied  cup 
merit. 

2.     Grayish  green  to 

bluish  green  neutral-cup- 

ping  coffees. 

Unleashed 

1.     Screened,  large  bean,  fine  roaster. 

2.     Average  run,  unscreened,  so-called   Current 

Unwashed.     All  unwashed  coffees  vary  greatly 

in   cup  merit,   much   the   same   as   with   Santos 

Nicaragua 

Corinto 

coffees. 

Nicaragua 

In  general:     The  washed 

on  Pacific 

coffees  of  Nicaragua  have 
merit,  and  are  fine  roast- 
ers;  but  the  naturals, 
comprising  the  bulk  of  the 
crop,  are  of  ordinary 
quality. 

San  Juan  del 

Matagalpa,  d 

Large,     handsome,     blue. 

Norte  (Grey town) 

washed  bean,  making  fan- 

on Caribbean 

cy  roast  with  plenty  of 
acid  in  the  cup. 

COMPLETE  REFERENCE  TABLE 


361 


i- 

State,    or   District, 

Grand    Division 

Country 

Shipping  Ports 

Market  Names  and 
Gradings 

Trade  Values  and  Cup 
Characteristics 

Central  America 

Nicaragua 

Jinotega,  d 

(Cont'd) 

(Cont'd) 

Los  Pueblos,  d 
Los  Altos,  d 

:, 

Classes  for 

All  yicaraguas: 

. 

1.     Large,    handsome,    pale    greenish    to    blue. 

washed  coffee  of  the  Matagalpa  district,  often 

showing  fancy  roast  and  acidly  full-bodied  cup. 

2.     Washed  coffees  of  the  lower  regions ;  small 

in   size,   but  greenish,  colory,   fine  roasters  and 

neutral  cupping. 

' 

3.     Unwashed  coffee    (bulk  of  the  output)    the 

merit    of    which    depends    entirely    on    the    re- 

spective crop.     Often  a  large  proportion  of  the 

crop  is   mild   cupping  and   as  desirable  as   any 

- 

other  unwashed  coffee ;  while  another  crop  may 

1 

Costa   Rica 

Puerto   Limon 

produce  a  large  quantity  of  Rio-flavored  coffees. 

' 

Costa  Rica 

In  general:   The   high-al- 

: 

on  Caribbean 

Cartago,  d 

titude     coffees     of    Costa 

i 

Punta  Arenas 

San  Jos6,  d 

Rica    are    blue-greenish, 

s 

: 
[ 

on  Pacific 

Alajuela,  d 
Greeia,  d 
Tres  Rios.  d 
Heredia,  d 

large,  rich  in  body,  of  fine, 
mild  flavor,  sharply  acid, 
and  superior  for  blending 
purposes.  These  coffees 
are  famous  for  their  fine 
preparation  and  careful 
screening.  The  lower  re- 
gions produce  coffees  of 
more  n  e  u  t  r  a  1-cupping 
qualities. 

■ 

Panama 

Panama   City 

Panama 
Chiriqui,   d 
Boquete,  m  n 

In  general:  The  green 
bean  is  of  average  size, 
greenish  in  color.  In  the 
cup  it  has  a  heavy  body 
and  a  strong  flavor. 
Grown  chiefly  for  domes- 
tic consumption.  Xot  a 
commercial  factor. 

West  Indies 

Cuba 

Havana 

Cuba 

In  general:     Cuban  coffee 

(Greater    An- 

Santiago 

Oriente.  d 

is   of   good   quality.     The 

tilles) 

Guatanamo,   t 
Santa  Clara,  d 
Pinar  del   Rio,  d 

Vuelta  Abaja,  m  n 

bean  is  of  medium  size, 
light  green,  and  makes  a 
uniform  roast.  The  flavor 
resembles  the  fine  washed 
coffees  of  Santo  Domingo. 
Not  commercially  impor- 
tant. 

Haiti 

Port  au  Prince 

Haiti 

In  general:    The  Haitian 

Cap   Haitien 

St.  Marc,  d 
Gonaive,  d 
Cap  Haitien,  d 
Jacmel.  d 
Les  Cayes,   d 
Jeremie,  d 

washed  coffee  is  a  blue 
bean  and  makes  an  at- 
tractive roast.  It  has  a 
rich,  fairly  acid,  mildly- 
sweet  flavor :  of  average 
quality.  The  naturals  are 
used  extensively  for 
French  roasts. 

362 


ALL    ABOUT    COFFEE 


State,    or   District, 

Grand    Division 

Country 

Shipping  Ports 

Market  Names  and 
Gradings 

Trade  Values  and  Cup 
Characteristics 

West  Indies 

Santo  Domingo 

Santo   Domingo 

Santo  Domingo 

In    general:     Santo    Do- 

(Greater An- 

Porto Plata 

Cape,  m  n 

mingo    coffee    is    a    large, 

tilles) 

Mocha,  d 

flat,  pointed,  greenish- 

(Cont'd) 

Santiago,  d 
Porto  Plata,  d 
Bani,  d 
Barahona,  d 

yellow   bean.      The   high- 
grown   washed  is  of  good 
body  and  fair  flavor.    The 
low   grade   is   strong,   ap- 
proaching   Rio    in    flavor. 
The    natural    coffees    are 
used  extensively  for 
French  roasts. 

Jamaica    (British) 

Kingston 

Jamaica 

Classes : 

Blue    Mountain 
(high-grown) 

Settlers'     (ordina- 
ry,     or      plain- 
grown  ) 

In  general:    Jamaica  cof- 
fee   is   bluish-green   when 
washed,  and  green  to  yel- 
low when  patio-dried.   The 
washed  high-grown  makes 
a  fancy  roast,  and  is  rich, 
full    and    mellow    in    the 
cup.     The  ordinary  plain- 
grown  makes  a  bright 
roast,    and    has    a    fairly 
good    cup    quality.      The 
naturals   are   used   exten- 
sively  for  French   roasts. 

Porto  Rico  (U.  S.) 

San  Juan 

Porto  Rico 

In  general:      Porto   Rico 

Ponce 

Sierra   Luquillo, 

coffee    is    a    large,    hand- 

Mayaguez 

m  n 

some,   washed  bean,   light 

Arecibo 

Yauco,  d,  t  &  m  n 

gray-blue  to  dark  greenish 

Aguadilla 

Ciales,  d  &  t 
Cayey,  d  &  t 
Utuado,  d  &  t 
Lares,  d  &  t 
Moca,  d  &  t 
Adjuntas,   d  &  t 
Las  Larias,  d  &  t 
Maricao,  d  &  t 
San    Sebastian,  d 

&  t 
Mayaguez,  d  &  t 
Ponce,  d  &  t 

blue  in  color,  and  makes 
a    fancy   roast   without 
Quakers.     Strong  or  heavy 
body  ;  peculiar  flavor  sim- 
ilar to  a  washed  Caracas, 
but  smoother. 

Classes     for     All     Porto 
Ricos 

Caracolillo,  a  round  bean 
peaberry ;  Primero,  a  su- 
perior grade  of  good  size 

picked ;     Segundo,     second     grade,     inferior    to 

Primero  in  size  and  color ;  Trillo,  lowest  grade. 

British  West  Indies 

sold  locally. 

( Lesser     An- 

tilles) 

Antigua 

Saint  John 

Antigua 

In    general:      While    the 

Dominica 

Portsmouth 

Dominica    (SoufriOre) 

quantity   grown   is  small, 

Barbados 

Bridgetown 

Barbados      ' 

the  coffee  is  of  good  qual- 

Trinidad 

Port  of  Spain 

Trinidad 

ity,  and  includes  ten  dif- 

Tobago 

Scarborough 

Tobago 

ferent     varieties.     That 
grown  in  Barbados  is  sim- 
ilar to  that  of  Martinique, 
but  a  larger  bean.     This 
group  is  not  an  important 
commercial  factor. 

4 

COMPLETE  REFERENCE  TABLE 


363 


^^mGrand    Division 

Country 

Shipping  Ports 

State,    or   District, 

Market  Names  and 

Grading  a 

Trade  Values  and  Cup 
Characteristics 

^^■W'est  Indies 

Guadeloupe 

Pointe-a-Pitre 

Guadeloupe 

In  general:     The  Guade- 

H^     (Lesser   An- 

(French) 

Classes : 

loupe  cofifee  bean  is  glossy, 

^^            tilles) 

1. — Bonifieur,     or 

hard,    long,    and    has    an 

(Conrd) 

Caf6    Lustre 
(glossy) 
2.— Habitant,     or 
Caf6  plus  Pelli- 
cule    (with  pel- 
licles) 

even  green  color,  some- 
what grayish.  It  is  of 
excellent  quality.  The 
Saints  bean  is  superior. 
The  Ordinary  is  a  smaller, 
rounder,    curved    bean. 

^^B 

Guadeloupe    coffees    are 

^H' 

mostly  sold  as  Martinique. 

^K' 

Martinique 

Fort-de-France 

Martinique 

In  general:    The  Martin- 

1 

(French) 

Grades : 

Fine  Green 
Common  Green 
Good    Commercial 
Common     " 
Picked        " 
Common 

ique  bean  is  green,  long, 
somewhat  thick,  and  is 
usually  shipped  in  the  sil- 
ver skin.  It  is  of  fine 
quality,  but  commercially 
unimportant.  Guadeloupe 
coffees  are  not  infrequent- 
ly sold  as  Martinique. 

1 

Curagao    (Dutch) 

Willemstad 

Curagao 

In  general:  The  Curagao 
coffee  bean  is  small,  of 
light  color  and  flavor.  It 
makes  a  bright  cinnamon 
roast ;  useful  as  a  filler. 

^HrSoutb  America 

Colombia 

Puerto  Colombia 
(Sa  vanilla) 

Bai-ranquilla 

Cartagena 

Santa  Marta 
on  Atlantic 

Buenaventura 
Tumaco 
on  the  Pacific 

Colombians,  m  n 

In  general:  The  Colom- 
bian coffee  bean  is  green- 
ish, yellow,  and  brown, 
depending  on  age,  and  is 
rich  and  mild  in  the  cup. 
The  fancy  grades  compare 
favorably  with  the  world's 
best  growths.  They  pro- 
duce   one-quarter    more 

B 

liquor  of  given  strength 
than    Santos   coffees,   and 

^^■' 

possess  much  finer  flavor 

^B 

and  aroma. 

^B 

Antioquia,  d 

Light     to     dark     green ; 

1 

Medellin,  t'&  m  n 

handsome  roasters  ;  not  as 
smooth  as  some  Central 
American  types,  but  best 
of  Colombians ;  fine  fla- 
vor and  body. 

^B 

Caldas,  d 

Similar    to    Medellins    in 

* 

Manizales,  t  &tn  n 

cup  quality,  but  not  as 
heavy-bodied  or  as  acid. 

Jerico 

A  favorably  regarded  Co- 
lombian. 

^. 

Magdalena,  d 

Full,   solid,   blue,   washed 

\ 

Santa  Marta,  t  & 
m  n 

Cundinamarca,    d 
Bogota,  t  Si.  m  n 

bean,  making  a  fancy 
roast,  but  too  acid  to  be 
used  straight. 

The  green  bean  is  blue- 
green  to  fancy  yellow  and 
Java  brown,  depending  on 
age ;  long,  with  a  sharp 
turn  in  one  end  of  the 
center   stripe.      It    makes 

364 


ALL    ABOUT    COFFEE 


State,    or   District, 

Grand    Division 

Country 

Shipping  Ports 

Market  Names  and 
Gradings 

Trade  Values  and  Cup 
Characteristics 

South    America 

Colombia 

a  smooth  roast.    The  fan- 

(Conrd) 

(Cont'd) 

Cauca,  t  &  mn 

Santander,  d 

Bucaramanga,  t  & 
m  n 

Cucuta,   t  &  m  n 

Ocana,   t 
Savanilla,    m   n 

Tolima,  d 
Ibague,  t 
Honda,  t 

Classes  for 

cy    has    a    rich,    mellow 
flavor. 

Sometimes  sold  as  imita- 
tion   Bogota    or    Bucara- 
manga ;    but    inferior    in 
appearance,      roast,      and 
drink. 

Large    bean,    spongy    and 
open,  making  a  dull  Java- 
style  roast.    The  naturals 
lack    acidity    and    flavor ; 
but    have   a    heavy    body. 
The  fancies  are  almost  the 
equals  of  fine  Javas  and 
Sumatras. 

Attractive    in    style    and 
cup.     (See  Venezuela.) 

Sometimes  sold  as  an  im- 
itation  Bogota   or    Buca- 
ramanga ;   but  inferior  in 
appearance  and  cup. 

Fair  size  bean,  attractive 
in  style  and  cup. 

All  Colombians: 

Cafe    Trillado     (natural    or    sun    dried),    Caf6 

Lavado  (washed). 

Gradings  for  All  Colombians: 
Excelso    (excellent),   fantasia    (excelso  and  ex- 
tra),   extra    (extra),    primera    (first),   segunda 
(second),  caracol    (peaberry),  monstruo    (large 
and    deformed),    consumo     (defective),    pasilla 

Venezuela 

La  Guaira 

(siftings). 

Venezuela 

In  general:    The  coffee  of 

Puerto  Cabello 

Venezuela  is  greenish-yel- 

Maracaibo 

Caracas,   d 

low  to  yellow  ;  large  bean, 
ranging  next  to  Santos  in 
quality   and   price.     It  is 
mild  or  mellow  in  the  cup. 
The  unwashed,  or  trillado, 
comprises  the  bulk  of  the 
crop. 

Short,    bluish    bean,    uni- 

Puerto Cabello,  d 

form  in  color,  and  making 
a    light    cinnamon,  roast, 
but     containing     quakers. 
The    natural    has    a    fair 
cup  quality.     The  washed 
gives    the   best   results   in 
roast  and  cup. 

The  washed  is  a  handsome 
bean,  but  inferior  in   fla- 
vor to  Caracas.     The  un- 
washed    is     flinty ;     fair 
roast,  no  special  merit  in 
cup. 

COMPLETE  REFERENCE  TABLE 


365 


Irand    Division 


South    America 
(Conrd) 


Country 


Venezuela 

(Cont'd) 


British  Guiana 


Dutch  Guiana 
(Surinam) 


French  Guiana 
(Cayenne) 


Shipping  Ports 


Georgetown 
Paramaribo 

Cayenne 


State,    or   District, 

Market  Names  and 

Gradings 


Cumana,  d 

Coro,  d 

Trujillo,  d  &  m  n 

Santa  Ana 
Monte   Carmelo 
Bocono 

Merida,  d  &  m  n 


Tovar,  m  n 


Tachira.   m  n 
(San  Cristobal) 


Cucuta,    t  &m  n 
Salazar,  »i  n 


Angostura 


Carupano 


Demerara,  m  n 


Surinam,  m  n 


Cayenne,  m  n 


Trade  Values  and  Cup 
Characteristics 


Valued  just  below  Cara- 
cas. 

Valued  a  trifle  below  Rio 
of  the  same  grade. 

A  low  grade,  making  a 
dull  rough  roast. 

Light  in  color  and  body. 

Light  in  color  and  body. 

Light  in  color  and  body ; 
neutral  flavor.  Two 
classes. 

The  best  of  the  Maracai- 
bos.  The  washed  makes 
a  good  roast,  and  has  a 
peculiar  delicate  flavor 
much  prized  by  experts. 
It  ranks  among  the 
world's  best. 

Ranks  between  Trujillos 
and  Tachiras.  Fair  to 
good  body  ;  without  acid- 
ity. Used  as  filler  in 
blends. 

Formerly  sold  as  Cucuta, 
to  which  it  is  nearest  in 
quality,  appearance,  and 
flavor. 

Grown  in  Colombia.  Re- 
sembles Java  bean  in  form 
and  roast.  The  natural 
makes  a  full  roast.  The 
washed  is  a  stylish,  large 
bean,  a  beautiful  roaster, 
splitting  open  with  irreg- 
ular white  center ;  sharp- 
ly acid  in  the  cup. 

A  small  bean,  light  in 
color  and  body,  without 
much  weight  or  character. 

A  low  grade  valued  at 
about  the  same  as  a 
Brazil  coflfee  of  similar 
grade. 

In  general:  Not  a  com- 
mercial factor. 

In  general:  The  produc- 
tion is  limited  and  com- 
mercially unimportant. 

In  general:  Similar  to 
Martinique.  The  produc- 
tion is  limited  and  com- 
mercially unimportant. 


366 


ALL    ABOUT    COFFEE 


Grand    Division 


South    America 
(Cont'd) 


Country 


Shipping  Ports 


Brazil 


Santos 


Rio  de  Janeiro 


State,    or   District, 

Market  Names  and 

Gradings 


Trade  Values  and  Cup 
Characteristics 


Brazils,  m  n 


Sao  Paulo,  d 


Classes : 

Bourbon   Santos, 


In  general:  The  coffees 
of  Brazil,  which  are  gen- 
erally known  in  the  trade 
as  "Brazils"  (to  distin- 
guish them  from  "Milds," 
the  higher  grades),  are 
the  "price"  coffees  of  the 
world.  Brazil  produces 
about  70%  of  the  world's 
supply. 

The  largest  coffee  district, 
producing  between  50% 
and  60%  of  the  world's 
supply. 

Small  bean,  resembling 
Mocha,  but  making  a 
handsomer  roast  with 
fewer  quakers.  In  color 
it  varies  from  dark  to 
light  green,  and  from  yel- 
low to  a  pale  straw,  often 
with  a  red  center.  True 
Bourbons  are  first  crop 
beans.  In  the  cup  tbey 
are  smooth  and  palatable 
without  tang. 

Smooth  surface,  small  to 
large,  pale  green  and 
greenish-yellow  to  pale 
yellow.  It  is  a  sixth  year 
crop  of  Bourbon  Santos. 
Good  full  smooth  body. 
Used  straight  and  in  com- 
bination with  all  milds. 


Mocha-Seed    San-  A   grade   of  Bourbon   de- 
tos,  m  n  signed  as  a  substitute  for 

true  Mocha  on  the  Euro- 
pean markets. 


Flat     Bean     San 
tos,  m  n 


Campinas,   d   &   t 


The  oldest  coffee  district 
in  Sao  Paulo.  There  are 
136   others. 


Gradings  for  All  Sao  Paulo: 
1 — Fine  4 — ^Regular 

2 — Superior  5 — Ordinary 

3— Good  6— Escolha 


Minas    Geraes 
Rio,  m  n 


Various  shades  of  green, 
medium  to  large.  Pecu- 
liar pungent  flavor  and 
aroma. 


Gradings  for  All  Rios: 
(N.  Y.  Coffee  Exchange) 


1 — No  imperfections 
2 — 6  imperfections 
3 — 13  imperfections 
4 — 29  imperfections 
5 — 60  imperfections 

(On  Havre  Exchange) 
Washed — Inferior  and  ordinary 
Unwashed — Superior,  1st  good,  1st  regular,  1st 
ordinary,  2nd  good,  2nd  ordinary. 


6 — 110  imperfections 
7 — About    200    imper- 
fections 
8 — About    400    imper- 
fections 


COMPLETE  REFERENCE  TABLE 


367 


hand    Division 


Jouth    Amorica 
{Cont'd) 


Country 


Brazil 

(Confd) 


Ecuador 


Peru 


Shipping  Ports 


Victoria 


Ba)iia 


Ceara 


Guayaquil 


Callao 
Mollendo 


Bolivia 


I 
I 


Argentina 


State,    or   District, 

Market  Names  and 

Gradings 


Espirito  Santo,  d 
Victoria,   t 
Capitania,  m  n 

Babia,  d,  t,  &  m  n 

Chapada,  t  &  m  n 


Caravellas,   t  & 
m  n 

Nazareth,  t  &  m  n 


Maragogipe,    t 
m  n 


Ceara,   t 
Cuaruaru,  m  n 


Large,  dingy-green  or 
brown  bean  making  a 
roast  free  from  quakers 
but  muddy  in  the  cup. 

Low  grade,  having  a  pe- 
culiar smoky  flavor. 

Light-colored,  fair-sized 
bean ;  attractive  roast,, 
but  no  cup  character. 

Similar  to  Chapada. 


Ecuador 


Peru 

Choquisongo,  d 
Cajamarca,    d 
Perene,   d 
Paucartambo,  d 
Chauchamayo,  d 
Huanuaco,  d 
Pacasmayo,  d 


Bolivia 
La  Paz,  d 

Apolobamba,  * 
Yungas,  tn  n 
Cochabamba,   d 
Santa    Cruz,    d 
Sara 
Vela  SCO 
Chiquitos 
Cordillera 
El  Beni,  d 
Chuquisca,  d 


Argentina 
Salta,  d 
Jujuy,  d 


Trade  Values  and  Cup 
Characteristics 


Small    bean,     fair 
undesirable  cup. 


roasts 


A  variety  of  Coff^a  ara~ 
bica;  large  bean,  elephan- 
tine roast,  woody  in  the- 
cup. 

Small,  flinty,  green  bean  ;. 
value  like  Santos  of  the 
same  grade. 

In  general:  The  Ecuador 
coffee  bean  is  small,  pea- 
green  in  color,  and  not 
high  grade.  It  resembles 
Ceara,  and  when  old 
makes  a  bright  roast.  It 
is  poor  in  cup  quality  and 
useful  only  as  a  filler. 
Not  an  important  com- 
mercial factor. 

In  general:  The  green 
coffee  bean  of  Peru  ranges 
from  medium  to  bold  in 
size,  and  from  bluish  to 
yellow  in  color.  The 
highland  variety  has  been 
compared  with  the  high- 
grade  Mexicans,  but  the 
lowland  growths  are  not 
favorably  regarded.  Un- 
important commercially. 

In  general:  Bolivia's  cof- 
fee, though  of  superior 
quality  and  sometimes 
compared  favorably  with 
Arabian  growths,  is  an 
unimportant  factor  in  in- 
ternational coffee  trading. 


In  general:  Argentina's 
coffee  is  grown  chiefly  for 
home  consumption.  Un- 
important commercially. 


368 


ALL    ABOUT    COFFEE 


Grand    Division 

Country 

Shipping  Ports 

State,    or   District, 

Market  Names  and 

Gradings 

Trade  Values  and  Cup 
Characteristics 

South    America 

Paraguay 

Paraguay 

In    general:      Paraguay's 

(Cont'd) 

Altos,   d 
Asuncion,  d 

coffee  is  all   marketed  in 
Asuncion,  where  it  is  sold 
as  Brazilian  coffee.     It  is 
not    commercially    impor- 
tant. 

Asia 

Arabia 

Aden 
Hodeida 
Maidi 
Leheya 

Mocha 

In  general:     Arabian,  or 
Mocha,    beans    are    very 
small,  hard,  round,  irreg- 
ular in  form  and  size ;  in 
color,  olive  green  shading 
off   to   pale   yellow.     The 
roast  is  poor  and  irregu- 
lar.   In  the  cup  they  have 
a   unique   acid   character, 

# 

Yemen 

Mattari,   d 
(Mohtari) 

Yaffey,  d 

Sharki,  d 
(Shergi) 

Sanani,   d 

Haimi-Harazi,  d 
(Hemi  or  Heimah) 

Anezi,  d 
(Anisi) 

Sharsh,  d 
Menakha,   d 

heavy     body ;     in     flavor, 
smooth  and  delicious. 

From      the     Beni-Mattar 
country ;      the     best ;      a 
yellow-green     translucent 
bean. 

From  the  Yaffey  country 
near  Taiz  ;  second  best. 

A  long  light  yellow  bean, 
from      the      east,      "Esh 
Shark"  a  superior  Mocha 
with  a  rich  full  body. 

From  the  Sanaa  region ; 
a   green   bean.     A   grade 
lower   than   Sharki. 

A     quality     green     bean 
from     a     mountain     near 
Mattari. 

From   the   El   Anz   coun- 
try. Pale  yellow  and  very 
hard. 

Superior  qualities  of  the 
above     due     to     different 

Hifash,  d 

Remi,   d 
(Reimah) 

Bourai,   d 
(Bura) 

Shami,    d 

Yemeni,  d 
(Taizi) 

Maidi,  d 

Abyssinia    (Africa) 
Harar,  d 

methods  of  curing. 

A    poorer    grade,    reddish 
bean,   from   Djebel   Remi. 

A      poorer     grade      from 
Djebel  Boura. 

A  poorer  grade  from  the 
north  ;   Esh  Sham. 

A  poorer  grade  from  the 
south;   El  Yemen. 

A  poorer  grade  from  the 
port  of  Maidi. 

Formerly  known  as  Long- 
berry     Mocha,     but     still 
shipped  through  Aden  via 
Jibuti.    See  Africa — Abys- 
sinia. 

COMPLETE  REFERENCE  TABLE 


369 


rand    Division 

I 

Country 

Shipping  Ports 

State,    or   District, 

Market  Names  and 

Gradings 

Trade  Values  and  Cup 
Characteristics 

<sia 

iConfd) 

i. 

Arabia 

(Cont'd) 

India 

Madras 

Calicut 

Mangalore 

Tellicherry 

Tuticorin 

Bombay 

1 
Gradings  for  All  Mochas: 
Mocha  Extra — For  all  extra  qualities  as  Yaffey, 
Anezi,    Matari,    Sharki.      Mocha    No.    1 — For 
Anezi,    Matari,    Sharki ;    only    perfect    berries. 
No.  lA,   same  as   No.   1,  but  with   some  dust. 
Mocha     No.     2 — Some     broken     and     quakers. 
Mocha  No.  3 — Broken,  quakers  and  dust.     Ma- 
graohe — Triage  or  screenings. 

r 

Indias,  m  n 

In  general:     The  Indian 
coffee    bean    is    small    to 
large    and    blue-green    in 
color.     In  the  cup  it  has 
a  distinctive  strong  flavor 
and  deep  color. 

Mysore,  d 
Mysore,  t 

Mountain  -  grown,     large, 
blue-green     bean,     heavy 
body. 

Madras,   d 
Malabar,  m  n 
(Wynaad) 

Nilgiri,  d 

Nilgiris,  m  n 

Madura,   d 
(Palni  Hills) 

Salem,   d 
(Shevaroys) 

Coimbatore,  d 

Tellicherry,  d 

Coorg    (or  Kurg),  d 

Travancore,  d 

Cochin,  d 
Cochin,  m  n 

Bombay,  d 
Kanara 

Bengal,  d 
Chittagong 

Assam 
South  Sylhet 

Small     bean,     solid     and 
meaty ;     handsome    roast, 
peculiar  rich  flavor. 

Small  to  large  bean  with 
slight  acidity  in  the  cup ; 
plantation  Ceylon  charac- 
ter. 

No    marked    characteris- 
tics. 

Same  as  Nilgiris 

Same  as  Nilgiris 

A  good   grade  resembling 
Malabar ;   somewhat  sim- 
ilar to  Nilgiris. 

A  large,  flat,  dark  green 
bean,  thin  in  the  cup ;  a 
lowland  variety. 

Similar  to  Nilgiris. 

A  native  cherry. 

Commercially       unimpor- 
tant. 

Commercially       unimpor- 
tant. 

Commercially       unimpor- 
tant. 

Commercially       unimpor- 
tant. 

Burma 

Rangoon 

Burma 
Tavoy,  d 

Classes  f 
1 — Native  cherry    (si 
2 — Plantation  (washc 
Sizes:    Nos.  1,  2  an< 

Large  spongy  bean  ;  gras- 
sy cup.     Not  a  commer- 
cial factor. 

or  All  Indias: 

in  dried  and  then  hulled) 

'd) 

i  3 ;  Peaberry  and  Triage 

370 


ALL    ABOUT    COFFEE 


Grand    Division 

Country 

Shipping  Ports 

State,    or  District, 

Market  Names  and 

Gradings 

Trade  Values  and  Cup 
Characteristics 

Asia 

Ceylon 

Colombo 

Ceylon 

In  general:    Cevlon's  cof- 

(Cont'd) 

Gampola,  d 
Dumbara,  d 
Kotmale,  d 
Pussellawa,  d 

fees  are  no  longer  the  com- 
mercial factor  they  were 
before  the  coffee  blight 
practically  destroyed  the 
industry.  Those  left, 
however,  still  retain  much 
of  their  original  charac- 
ter, the  hill-grown  washed 
being    unique    in    appear- 

.  ance  and  flavor.  In  the 
old  days  they  were  classed 
as  native,  or  plain-grown, 
plantation,  mountain,  and 

1  Liberian. 

Malay    States 

Penang 

Straits     Liberian, 

In    general:      The    coffee 

(British) 

(Georgetown) 

m  n 

from  the  Malay  States  1» 

Singapore 

Straits      Robusta, 
m  n 

Perak,  d 

Selangor,    d 
Negri-Sembilan,  d 

Bali,  d  &  m  n 
Timor,  d  &  m  n 

mostly  Liberian  and  Ro- 
busta and  is  not  impor- 
t  a  n  t  commercially,  al- 
though the  Robusta  va- 
riety ,  promises  to  become 
an  important  factor. 

Most  important  of  the 
Federated    States  coff^ees. 

Native   state   coffee. 

Nine  states  Federation 
district  coffees. 

From  the  island  in  Neth- 
erlands  East    Indies. 
(See  p.  374.) 

From  the  island  in  Neth- 
erlands East  Indies. 
(See  p.  374.) 

French    Indo-China 

Haiphong 

Indo-China,  m  n 
Tonkin 
Annam 
Cambodia 
Cochin-China 

In  general:  The  coffees 
of  French  Indo-China, 
while  comparatively  new, 
give  promise :  but  as  yet 
are  not  commercially  im- 
portant. The  original 
arahica  plantings  have 
been  succeeded  by  liherica 
and  robusta  growths. 

Malay      Archi- 

Sunda  Islands 

East  Indies,  m  n 

In  general:    Included   in. 

pelago 

Netherlands    East 
Indies 

this  group  are  the  best- 
known  coffees  from  Suma- 
tra, Java,  Timor,  Celebes, 
etc. 

1 

Sumatra 

Padang 

Kroe  (West  Coast) 

Batavia    (Java) 

Sumatra 

In  general:  Included) 
among  the  coffees  of  Su- 
matra are  several  that  are 
conceded  to  be  the  finest 
the  world  produces.  The 
green  beans  are  large,  uni- 
form, and  vary  in  color 
from  pale  straw  to  deep- 
mahogany.  They  have  a 
smooth,   heavy   body,   the 

COMPLETE  REFERENCE  TABLE 


371 


Grand    Division 


Malay     Archi- 
pelago 
(Cont'd) 


Country 


Netherlands  East 

Indies 
Sumatra 

(Cont'd) 


Padang 

Kroe  (West  Coast) 

Batavia    (Java) 


Shipping  Ports 


State,    or   District, 

Market  Names  and 

Gradings 


Padang,  d  &  t 
Mandheling,    m    n 


I 


Ankola,  m  n 


Siboga,  m  n 


Ayer  Bangles,  m  n 


Corinchie,  m  n 


Interior,  m  n 
Painan 

Liberlan,  m  n 
Kroe,  t  &  m  it 

Lahat,  t  &  m  n 


Trade  Values  and  C«p 
Characteristics 


fancies  possessing  an  al- 
most syrupy  richness. 
They  are  graded  as  Pri- 
vate Estate  (washed  or 
dry  hulled)  and  Blue 
Bean  (washed). 

"The  best  coffee  in  the 
world" ;  also  the  highest- 
priced.  Formerly  a  Gov- 
ernment coffee.  Yellow  to 
brown,  large-sized  bean ; 
dull  roast,  but  free  from 
Quakers.  It  is  of  heavy 
body,  exquisite  flavor  and 
aroma. 

Formerly  a  Government 
coffee.  Large  fat  bean, 
making  a  dull  roast. 
Second  only  to  Mandhel- 
ings ;  it  has  a  heavy  body 
and  rich,  musty  flavor. 

A  harder  bean  Ankola ; 
sometimes  called  Private 
Estate  Ankola. 

Formerly  a  Government 
coffee.  L<arge  even  bean, 
light  brown  color.  Rank- 
ing with  Mandheling  and 
Ankola  :  of  a  delicate  fla- 
vor  but    not   much    body. 

Formerly  a  native  culti- 
vation. The  bean  is  large, 
handsome,  brown  in  color. 
It  makes  an  attractive 
roast.  Good  body,  plenty 
of  bitter  acid,  delicious 
flavor. 

Formerly  all  Government 
coffee.  The  true  type  of 
Old  Government  Java. 
Poor  roast,  good  cup. 

Formerly  a  Government 
coffee.  ^lixed  green  and 
brown  beans ;  poor  i-oast. 
Heavy  bmly,  pungent  fla- 
vor. Grades  next  to  In- 
terior. 

Formerly  all  Government 
coffee.     Coffea  liherica. 

Formerly  a  native  culti- 
vated coffee.  Large  even 
bean,  fine  roast,  heavy 
body,  somewhat  groundy 
flavor. 

Former  native  cultiva- 
tion. Smaller  than  Kroe ; 
good  roaster,  flat  cup. 


372 


ALL    ABOUT    COFFEE 


Grand    Division 

Country 

Shipping  Ports 

State,    or   District, 

Market  Names  and 

(Jradings 

Trade  Values  and  Cup 
Characteristics 

Malay     Archi- 
pelago 
(Vont'd) 

Netherlands      East 

Indies 
Sumatra 

(Cont'd) 

Padang 

Kroe(W6stCk)ast) 
Batavia    (Java) 

Palembang,  t  & 
m  n 

Indrapoera,     t     & 
m  n 

Benkoelen,    t    & 
in  n 

Libaya,  m  n 

Boekit    Gompong, 
m  n 

Kagoe  Kaleh,  m  n 

Batang  Baros,  m  n 

Telok      Goenoeng, 
m  n 

Aker   Gedang,  m  n 

Former    Private    Estates. 
Smaller  than  the  Padang 
bean ;   light   color,   strong 
cup. 

Former    Private    Estates. 
An   inferior  grade  of  Su- 
matra. 

Formerly   a   native   culti- 
vation.     Good   roast   and 
cup. 

Formerly   a   native   culti- 
vation. 

Formerly    a    Private    Es- 
tate.    A       perfect   coffee, 
of     heavier     body      than 
Mandheling,    good    roast ; 
very  delicate  flavor. 

Formerly    a    Private    Es- 
tate. 

Formerly    a    Private    Es- 
tate. 

Formerly    a    Private    Es- 
tate. 

Formerly    a    Private    Es- 
tate.      Small   bean,   good 
roast,   fine  flavor. 

Soerian,  to  n 
Liki,  TO  n 

Loebor       Sampir, 

TO  n 
Soengei,  to  n 
Landei,  to  n 
Ramboetan,  to  n 
Giadoeng      Batoe, 

m  n 

Merapi,  to  n 

Si   Barasap,   to   h 
Laboe  Raya,  m  n 

Formerly    a    Private    Es- 
tate.     Large    bean,     fine 
roast,    good    cup.      Ranks 
next  to  Boekit  Gompong. 

Formerly    a    Private    Es- 
tate.     Fine    roast,    light 
cup.      It    ranks    next    to 
Soerian. 

Formerly    a    Private    Es- 
tate. 

Former  Private  Estate. 
Former  Private  Estate. 
Former  Private  Estate. 
Former  Private  Estate. 

Formerly    a    Private    Es- 
tate.     Large    bean,    good 
roast,  good  cup. 

Formerly    a    Private    Es- 
tate. 

Formerly    a    Private    Es- 
tate.     Large    bean,    good 
roast,  good   cup. 

/ 

Balawau-Deli 
Panai 

East   Coast 
Deli,  d 

Bintangmariah,    d 
Oelakmedan,   d 
Panai,  d 

These     coffees     are    com- 
paratively    new.        They 
partake    of    the    qualities 
common     to    the    general 
run  of  Sumatras  without 
distinguishing     character- 
istics. 

COMPLETE  REFERENCE  TABLE 


373 


(irand    Division 


Malay     Archi- 
pelago 
(Cont'd) 


Country 


Shipping  Ports 


Netherlands      East 
Indies    (Cont'd) 
Java 


Batavia 


State,   or  District, 

Market  Names  and 

Gradings 


Java,  m  n 


Preanger,  d 
Cheribon,  d 
Kadoe,  d 

Semarang,    d 
Malang,   d 

Bantam,  t  &  m  n 

Buitenzorg,     t    & 
m  n 

Krawang,   t  &mn 

Tegal,  t  &  m,  n 

Banjoemas,     t    & 
m  n 

Pekalongan,    t    & 
m  n 

Baquilan,  t  &  m  n 
Japara,  t  &  m  n 
Surakarta,  f  &mn 


Jogjakarta,     t    & 
m  n 

^ladiun,  t  &  m  n 


Rembang.  t  &  m  n 
Surabaya,  t  &m  n 
Kediri,  t  &  in  n 

Pasuruan,  t  &m  n 


Trade  Values  and  Cup 
Characteristics 


In  general:  Java  coffees 
do  not  compare  with  Su- 
matras  in  quality.  They 
are  smaller  in  the  bean, 
with  a  grassy  flavor  in  the 
cup.  Blue  to  pale  yellow, 
short  round  bean.  The 
washed  makes  a  good 
smooth  roast,  light  in  the 
cup. 

Best  of  the  Java  growths. 

Ranks  next   to   Preanger. 

Small  yellowish-green 
shelly  bean  ;  light  in  cup. 

Ranks  next  to  Kadoe  in 
roast  and  cup  quality. 

Hard  green  bean ;  better 
roaster  than  the  above, 
but  inferior  in  cup  quali- 

ity. 

Medium-sized  yellowi-sh 
bean. 

One  of  the  best  of  the 
Javas. 

Irregular  bean  ;  fair  roast- 
er ;   fair  cup. 

One  of  the  best  of  the 
Java  growths. 

M  e  d  i  u  m-s  i  z  e  d  bean  ; 
creamy  and  fragrant  in 
the  cup. 

With  characteristics  like 
Pasuruan. 

No  marked  characteris- 
tics. 

Bean  light  in  weight  and 
color ;    cup   neutral. 

Large  bean,  handsome 
roast, .  creamy  body,  aro- 
matic flavor  in  the  cup. 

Similar  to   Surakarta. 


Yellow  bean,  light  in 
weight  and  body,  but 
good  cup. 

Similar   to   Kadoe. 

Similar   to   Kadoe. 

Small  hard  bean ;  good 
drinker. 

Brown,  uniform  bean ; 
fragrant   in    cup. 


374 


ALL    ABOUT    COFFEE 


Grand    Division 


Country 


Shipping  Ports 


Malay     Archi- 
pelago 
iConrd) 


Netherlands  East 

Indies 
Java 

(Cont'd) 


Batavia 


Bali    (Dutch) 

Timor     (Dutch 
Portuguese) 

Celebes    (Dutch) 


Singaraja      (Boele- 
leng) 

Kupang 


Moluccas    (Dutch) 

Borneo 

British   North 

Sarawak 

Dutch 


New  Guinea 
(Dutch) 


Menado 


Macassar 


Bonthain 


Ternate 

Sandakan 

Kuching 

Banjermasin 


Ternate 

(Moluccas) 
Dorey 


State,    or   District, 

Market  Names  and 

Gradings 


Probolingo,     t     & 
m  n 

Bejreki,   t  Sc  m  n 


Banjoewangi,   t  & 
m  n 

Pamanukin,    t    & 
m  n 

Robusta,  m  n 


Trade  Values  and  Cup 
Characteristics 


Small    hard    bean ;    poor 
roast. 

Bold    yellow    bean ;     full 
body  and  flavor. 

Heavy  bean ;   rich   flavor. 


Bali,  m  n 
Timor,   m  n 
Celebes,  m  n 


Minahassa,  tn  n 

Boengie,    m    n 

Bonthain,  m  n 

Sindjai,  m  n 
Boengie,  m  n 
Borneo,  m  n 

New  Guinea,  m  n 


A   Liberian   growth. 

Small,  yellowish  -  green, 
round  bean ;  quality  ap- 
proximately that  of  mid- 
dling Arabian,  ranking  a 
little  under  good  average 
Santos.  Natural,  poor 
roast.  Washed,  good 
roast.     Fair   cup. 

Fair-size  bean  of  little 
merit.      Poor   roast. 

Medium  bean  of  good 
quality. 

In  general:  With  the  ex- 
ception of  the  Minahassa 
product,  the  coffees  grown 
in  the  Celebes  have  little 
merit  and  are  of  incon- 
siderable importance. 

Large,  deep-yellow  bean, 
making  a  handsome  roast, 
and  having  an  aromatic 
cup. 

Inferior  in  appearance, 
but  fair  roast  and  cup 
quality. 

Medium,  flat,  reddish 
bean,  poor  roast ;  unde- 
sirable cup. 

Not  commercially  impor- 
tant. 

Superior  to  the  Java 
arabica. 

In  general:  The  coffees 
of  Borneo  are  mostly  Li- 
berian growths  and  are 
not  a  trade  factor. 

In  general:  These  coffees 
are  of  the  mild  variety, 
but  the  production  is  com- 
mercially unimportant. 


Melanesia 

New  Caledonia 

Noumea 

New   Caledonia 

A     fair     Robusta     coffee, 

(France) 

La  Foa 

but    commercially    unim- 

New Hebrides 

portant. 

(Great      Britain 

and  France) 

Efate 

Vila 

New  Hebrides 

A   fair   coffee,   but  not   a 
trade  factor. 

COMPLETE  REFERENCE  TABLE 


375 


(Jrand    Division 

Countrj^ 

Shipping  Ports 

State,   or  District, 

Market  Names  and 

Gradings 

Trade  Values  and  Cup 
Characteristics 

Micronesia 

Samoan    Islands 
Tutuila 

Fiji    (British) 
Vita  Leva 

Tonga       ( Friendly 
Islands) 
Tongatabu 

Pago  Pago  (U.  S.) 
Suva 

Nukualofa 

Samoa 
Fiji 

Tonga 

Commercially       unimpor- 
tant. 

Medium-sized  green  bean ; 
grassy  cup.     Not  a  trade 
factor. 

For     local     consumption 
only. 

Philippine      Isl- 
ands   (U.  S.) 

Luzon 

Manila 

Manila 
La  Laguna.  d 
Batangas,  d 
Cavite,  d 
Benguet,  d 
Lepanto,  d 
Bontoc,  d 

In    general:     Manila,    or 
Philippine,    coflfee    is    not 
an  important  trade  factor. 
The  bean  is  medium  size, 
grayish-green  in  color, 
having  fine  aroma  and  ex- 
cellent   flavor.      It    com- 
pares favorably  with 
Costa    Rica    and    Guate- 
mala. 

Panay 

Iloilo 

Panay 

No    marked     characteris- 
tics. 

Cebu 

Cebu      . 

Cebu 

No     marked     characteris- 
tics. 

Palawan 

Puerto  Princessa 

Palawan 

No     marked     characteris- 
tics. 

Mindanao 

Zamboanga 

Zamboanga 

Large   bean ;    thin   liquor. 

Marianas  or  La- 
drone    Islands 

Guam    (U.   S.) 

Apra 

Guam 

No  production  for  export. 

Oceania 
Polynesia 

Hawaiian  Islands 
(U.  S.) 

Honolulu    (Oahua) 

Hilo 

Kailua 

Hawaiian,  wi  n 

Kona,  d 

Puna,   d 
Olaa,  d 
Hamakua,   d 

Maui,  d 
Oahu,  d 
Kauai,  d 

In     general:       Hawaiian 
coffee    is    a    large    bean,, 
blue-green    to   yellow- 
brown  in  color ;  handsome 
roaster,     fine     smooth 
flavor. 

Large,    blue,    flinty    bean, 
mildly       acid ;       striking 
character. 

Quality  good  but  quantity 
small. 

Quality  good  but  quantity 
small. 

Quality  good  but  quantity 
small. 

Production    small. 

Production    small. 

Production    small. 

Society  Islands 
( French ) 

Papeete 

Tahiti 

A   fair  coffee,   but   not  a 
trade  factor. 

376 


ALL    ABOUT    COFFEE 


Grand    Division 


Australia 


Africa 


Country 


Queensland 


Egypt 


Shipping  Ports 


Cairns 

Mackay 

Brisbane 


Alexandria 


Anglo-Egyptian 
Sudan 


Eritrea    (Italy) 


Somaliland 
French 


Suakin 
Alexandria 
(Egypt) 


Massowah 


Jibuti 


British 


Italian 


Abyssinia 


State,    or   District, 

Market  Names  and 

Gradings 


Queensland 
Mackay,  d 


Trade  Values  and  Cup 
Characteristics 


Egyptian,  m  n 


Berbera 
Zeila 

Mukdishu 


Jibuti      (French 

Somaliland) 
Zeila 


Berbera       (British 
Somaliland) 


Nubian,   m  n 


Berber,    d 


In  general:  The  coffee  is 
from  Ceylon  or  Coorg 
seed  and  is  for  local  con- 
sumption. Not  a  com- 
mercial factor. 


In  general:  Coffees  from 
the  upper  Nile  region,. 
Kaffa  Land,  Anglo-Egyp- 
tian Sudan,  and  Nubia 
are  generally  spoken  of 
as  Egyptians.  They  have 
some  Mocha  characteris- 
tics, but  are  not  impor- 
tant commercially. 

Small,  flinty,  pale-green,, 
oval  bean  ;  heavy  body  ; 
rich  flavor. 

Some  superior  drinking 
coffees  come  from  this  dis- 
trict. 


Abyssinian,  to  n  1''^^  coffee  is  of  the  Abys- 
sinian type,  but  the  out- 
put is  not  an  important 
trade  factor. 


Harar,  d,  t 

Abyssinian,    to    n 


Massowah 
trea) 


(Eri- 
A.deu    (Arabia) 


Harar,  d,  t 

Abyssinian,    m  n 

Benadir,  d  &  m  n 


Harar,  d,  t 

Abyssinian,    m  n 


Harar,  d,  t 
Harari,  to  n 


Dire-Daona,  t 


These  coffees  are  not 
grown  in  French  Somali- 
land, but  come  from  Abys- 
sinia to  Jibuti  and  Aden 
for  export  to  Europe  and. 
America.     See  Abyssinia. 

Grown,  as  above,  in  Abys- 
sinia. 

Abyssinian  type,  but  not 
an  important  trade  fac- 
tor. 

In  general:  The  Harari 
coffee"  is  more  carefully 
cultivated  and  cured  than 
the  Abyssinian,  which  is- 
its  inferior. 

The  original  Mocha  Long- 
berry.  Large,  long  blue- 
green  to  yellow  bean. 
(Graded  No.  1  or  No.  2, 
according  to  size)  roast- 
ing with  few  Quakers, 
similar  to  Mocha,  having 
an  excellent  flavor  but  not 
quite   so  delicate. 

Railway  trading  center 
for  Harari  and  Abyssin- 
ian coffees. 


I 


COMPLETE  REFERENCE  TABLE 


377 


Grand    Division 


Africa 

(Cont'd) 


Abyssinia 

(Confd) 


Country 


Kenya   Colony 
(Formerly    Brit- 
ish East  Africa) 

Uganda      Protecto- 
rate   (British) 


Zanzibar  Protecto- 
rate   (British) 

Tanganyika  Terri- 
tory ( formerly 
German  East 
Africa ) 

Nyasaland  Protec- 
torate    (British) 


Rhodesia  (British) 


Portuguese     East 
Africa 


Natal     (British) 


Angola    (Portugal) 


Belgian  Congo 


French  Congo 


Shipiiing   Ports 


State,    or   District, 

Market  Names  and 

Gradings 


Mombasa 


Mombasa 


Zanzibar 


Dar-es-Salaam 


C  h  i  n  d  e  (Portu- 
guese East  Afri- 
ca) 

Beira  (Portuguese 
East   Africa) 

Mozambique 


Durban 


Loanda 


Banana 


Loango 
Libreville 


A-byssinia 
Kaffa,  d 
(Gomara) 


Bonga,  t 

Jimma,  d 
Jiren,   t 

Shoa,    d 

Adis-Abeba.    t 


Nairobi,  d  &,  t 
Kikuyu 
Kyambu 

Uganda 

Bunganda,  d 


Zanzibar 

East    Africa,  m  ; 

or 
Tanganyika,     m 


Nyasaland 

Shire    Highlands,    d 
Blantyre,  d 

Rhodesia 


Mozambique 


Natal 


Angola 


Encoje,  d,  m  n 


Congo,  m  n 
Equator,   d 
Aruwimi,  d 
Bangala.  d 
Lake  Leopold, 


Loango,  d,  m  n 


Trade  Values  and  Cup 
Characteristics 


The  native  coffee  grown 
wild  in  this  district  has 
little  commercial  impor- 
tance. The  bean  is  dark 
gray,  and  it  has  a  groundy 
flavor. 

Trading  center  for  Abys- 
sinia. 

Trading  center  for  Abys- 
sinia. 

Mostly  Abyssinian 

growths  are  exported  from 
this  trading  center  to 
Harar  or  Dire-Daoua. 

Having  Mysore  character- 
istics with  a  touch  of 
Mocha  flavor. 

Oreenish-gray  to  light- 
brown  Robusta.  Poor  to 
fairly   good  liquor. 

Medium-sized  bean ;  full 
body,   pleasing   flavor. 

Not  a  commercial  factor. 


Some  high-grown  and  of 
fine  quality.  Not  a  com- 
mercial  factor. 

For  local  consumption. 
Not  a  trade  factor. 

Medium-sized  greenish 
bean,  heavy  body ;  mild 
and  mellow  in  the  cup. 

Large,  light-brown  Libe- 
rian  growth.  Not  a  trade 
factor. 

Medium-size  bean,  brown- 
ish color,  strong  in  the 
cup. 

Light  weight,  dark  brown 
Robusta ;  strong  in  the 
cup. 

In  general:  The  coffees 
of  the  Belgian  Congo  are 
mostly  Liberian  and  Ro- 
busta growths.  There  is 
produced  a  medium-sized 
bean,  making  a  handsome 
roast  and  having  a  rich 
cup. 

Formerly  Encoje  from 
Angola.  Inferior  to  Li- 
berian. 


378 


ALL    ABOUT    COFFEE 


Grand    Division 

Country 

Shipping  Ports 

State,    or   District, 

Market  Names  and 

Gradtngs 

Trade  Values  and  Cup 
Characteristics 

Africa 

(Cont'd) 

Nigeria    (British) 

Lagos 

Nigeria 

Commercially  unimpor- 
tant. 

Gold  Coast 
(British) 

Accra 

Gold  Coast 

Not  a  commercial  factor. 

Liberia 

Monrovia 

Liberian,    m  n 

Large,  brown  bean ;  big, 
handsome  roaster ;  strong 
in  cup. 

Sierra  Leone 
(British) 

Freetown 

Sierra  Leone 

C  stenophylla,  a  native 
growth.  Not  a  trade  fac- 
tor. 

French  Guinea 

Konakry 

Guinea,  m  n 

Commercially  unimpor- 
tant. 

Portuguese   Guinea 

Bissao 

Guinea,   m  n 

Commercially  unimpor- 
tant. 

Comoro  Islands 
(French) 

Maroni 

Comoro,   m  n 

A  wild  natural  caffein- 
free  coffee  (C  humbol- 
tiana)  ;  also  found  in 
Madagascar.  Not  a  com- 
mercial  factor. 

Madagascar 
(French) 

Tamatave 

Madagascar 

Light-green  liberica  and 
roiusta  bean ;  full  rich 
flavor. 

Reunion,     formerly 
Bourbon 
(French) 

St.  Denis 

Bourbon,  m  n 

Nearest  to  Mocha  in  char- 
acter (q.  v.).  Round  and 
pointed  bean,  pale  green 
or  pale  yellow.  Not  a 
trade   factor. 

Mauritius 
(British) 

Port  Louis 

Mauritius 

Similar  to  Bourbon.  Me- 
dium light  green,  full 
body,  mild  and  mellow 
flavor.  Not  a  trade  fac- 
tor. 

Chapter  XXV 

b^ACTORY  PREPARATION  OF  ROASTED  COFFEE 

Coffee  roasting  as  a  business  —  Wholesale  coffee-roasting  machinerg 

—  Separating,  milling,  and  mixing  or  blending  green  cdffee,  and 
roasting  by  coal,  coke,  gas,  and  electricity  —  Facts  about  coffee  roast- 
ing —  Cost  of  roasting  —  Green-coffee  shrinkage  table  —  "Dry''  and 
"ivet"  roasts  —  On  roasting  coffee  efficiently  —  A  typical  coal 
roaster  —  Cooling  and  stoning  —  Finishing  or  glazing  —  Blending 
roasted  coffees  —  Blends  for  restaurants  —  Grinding  and  packaging 

—  Coffee  additions  and  fillers  —  Treated  coffees,  and  dry  extracts 


(HE  coffee  bean  is  not  ready  for  bev- 
erage purposes  until  it  has  been 
properly  "manufactured",  that  is, 
roasted,  or  "cooked".  Only  in  this  way 
^ean  all  the  stimulating,  flavoring,  and  aro- 
matic principles  concealed  in  the  minute 
cells  of  the  bean  be  extracted  at  one  time. 
An  infusion  from  green  coffee  has  a  de- 
cidedly unpleasant  taste  and  hardly  any 
color.  Likewise,  an  underdone  roast  has  a 
disagreeable  "grassy"  flavor;  while  an 
overdone  roast  gives  a  charred  taste  that  is 
unpalatable  to  the  average  citizen  of  the 
United  States. 

Coffee  Roasting  as  a  Business 

In  spite  of  the  generally  admitted  fact 
that  freshly  roasted  coffee  makes  the  best 
infusion,  most  of  the  coffee  used  today  is 
not  roasted  at  or  near  the  place  where  it  is 
brewed,  but  in  factories  that  are  provided 
with  special  equipment  for  the  roasting  of 
coffee  in  a  wholesale  way.  The  reasons  for 
this  are  various,  partly  relating  to  the  mere 
economy  of  buying  and  manufacturing  on 
a  large  scale,  and  partly  relating  to  the 
trained  skill  that  is  needed  both  for  select- 
ing suitable  green  coffees  to  make  a  satis- 
factory blend,  and  for  the  roasting  work 
itself.  The  proportion  of  consumers  (in- 
cluding restaurants  and  hotels)  who  roast 
their  own  coffee  is  so  small  as  to  be  neglig- 
ible, at  least  in  the  United  States.     The 


average  person  who  buys  coffee  today,  for 
brewing  use,  never  sees  green  coffee  at  all, 
unless  as  an  "educational  exhibit"  in  some 
dealer's  display  window. 

The  reasons  just  mentioned,  which  have 
made  coffee  roasting  a  real  business,  all 
tend,  of  course,  to  make  the  roasting  estaJb- 
lishments  of  large  size;  but  this  tendency  is 
offset  by  the  problem  of  distributing  the 
roasting  coffee  so  that  it  will  reach  the 
ultimate  consumer  in  good  condition. 
Roasting  enterprises  on  a  comparatively 
small  scale  (not  by  consumers,  but  by  suffi- 
ciently expert  dealers)  would  probably  be 
much  more  numerous  on  account  of  the 
"fresh-roast"  argument,  except  for  the 
fact  that  coffee-roasting  machines  can  not 
be  installed  so  easily  as  the  grinding  mills, 
meat-choppers,  and  slicing  machines,  that 
find  extended  use  in  small  stores.  The 
steam,  smoke,  and  chaff  given  off  by  the 
coffee  as  it  is  roasted  must  be  disposed  of 
by  an  outdoor  connection,  without  annoy- 
ing the  neighbors  or  creating  a  fire  hazard. 

From  these  general  remarks,  it  can  easily 
be  seen  that  the  size  of  individual  roasting 
establishments  will  vary  greatly,  according 
to  the  skill  of  the  proprietor  in  meeting  the 
disadvantages  of  working  on  either  the 
smallest  or  the  largest  scale.  A  wholesale 
plant  may  be  considered  to  be  one  in  which 
coffee  is  roasted  in  batches  of  one  bag  or 
more  at  a  time;  and  with  this  definition, 


379 


380 


ALL     ABOUT     COFFEE 


FACTORY    PREPARATION 


381 


nearly  all  the  roasting  in  the  United  States 
is  done  in  a  wholesale  way. 

For  many  years  the  regular  factory  ma- 
chines have  been  of  a  size  suitable  for  roast- 
ing two  bags  of  cotfee  at  a  time;  but 
roasters  of  larger  size  have  recently  come 
into  considerable  use. 

Plants  treating  from  fifty  to  a  hundred 
and  fifty  bags  per  day  are  the  most  com- 
mon; but  the  daily  capacity  runs  up 
;o  a  thousand  bags  or  more.  The  minimum 
cost  of  equipping  a  plant  is  somewhere  be- 
tween five  thousand  dollars  and  ten  thou- 
sand dollars.  The  individual  machines 
are  of  standard  construction;  but  the  ar- 
rangement in  a  particular  building,  espe- 
cially for  the  larger  plants,  is  worked  out 
with  great  care  and  with  numerous  special 
features,  so  that  the  goods  can  be  handled 
from  start  to  finish  with  minimum  expense 
for  floor  space,  labor,  power,  etc. 

The  practical  coffee  roaster  locates  his 
roasting  room  in  the  top  floor  of  his  fac- 
tory building,  where  light  and  ventilation 
are  generally  best.  He  usually  has  a  large 
skylight  in  the  roof,  directly  over  the  roast- 
ing equipment.    In  addition  to  the  advan- 


tage as  regards  good  light  and  the  con- 
venient discharge  of  smoke,  steam,  and 
odors,  through  the  roof,  the  top-story  loca- 
tion makes  it  possible  to  send  the  roasted 
coffee  by  gravity  through  the  various  bins 
which  may  be  needed  in  connection  with 
subsequent  operations,  such  as  grinding, 
and  for  temporary  storage  before  the  final 
packaging  and  shipping. 

Wholesale  Coffee-Roasting  Machinery 

The  indispensable  coffee  operations  are 
roasting  and  cooling;  and  in  practically  all 
United  States  plants  the  cooling  is  followed 
by  ' '  stoning ' '.  This  is  an  air-suction  opera- 
tion that  effects,  aided  by  gravity,  the  re- 
moval of  any  stones  or  other  hard  material 
that  would  damage  the  grinding  mill.  The 
best  commercial  cleaning  and  grading  of 
the  green  coffee  has  usually  left  in  every 
bag  a  few  small  stones.  These  can  be  got 
rid  of  better  after  the  coffee  is  roasted ;  be- 
cause it  is  then  not  only  lighter,  but  more 
bulky. 

Besides  these  three  operations  of  roast- 
ing, cooling,  and  stoning,  the  plant  may 
have  machinery  for  treating  the  coffee  both 


Milling-Machine  Connections  for  a  Two-Roastee  Plant 


382 


ALL     ABOUT     COFFEE 


FACTORY    PREPARATION 


383 


before  it  is  roasted  and  after  it  leaves  the 
stoner. 

Treatment  of  the  green  coffee  in  roast- 
ing establishments  is  of  less  importance 
now  than  in  years  gone  by;  first,  because 
most  coffees  now  come  to  market  more  per- 
fectly graded  and  cleaned  than  formerly; 
and  second,  because  the  whole-bean  appear- 
ance of  the  coffee  has  become  of  less  ac- 
count, as  wholesale  grinding  operations 
have  increased.  Nevertheless,  many  plants 
consider  it  highly  important  to  have  a 
separator  for  grading  the  coffee  closely  as 
regards  the  size  of  the  beans  —  and  par- 
ticularly for  the  separation  of  round  beans, 
or  "peaberry"  —  as  well  as  milling  ma- 
chinery for  making  the  coffee  as  clean  as 
possible  before  it  is  roasted.  One  green 
coffee  operation  that  has  lost  none  of  its 
old-time  importance,  but  on  the  contrary  is 
more  needed  as  the  plants  increase  in 
size,  is  the  mixing  of  different  varieties 
of  coffee  —  in  proportions  that  have  been 
decided  on  by  sample  tests  —  so  as  to  get  a 
uniform  blend. 

The  mixer  does  not  blend  the  various 
i-offees  any  more  surely  than  a  good  roaster 
cylinder  will  do  it,  but  treats  batches  of 
much  larger  size.  This  means  saving  a 
great  amount  of  labor  that  would  be  neces- 
sary for  putting  the  desired  quantity  of 
component  coffees  into  each  individual 
roaster.  '  ~ 

A  proper  installation  of  green  coffee  ma- 
chinery requires  various  bins  of  ample 
capacity,  and  bucket  elevators  by  which  the 
coffee  can  be  sent  without  manual  labor 
from  one  operation  to  another.  In  modern 
plants,  all  the  bins  and  elevators  are  con- 
structed of  metal.  The  separator,  with  its 
bins  and  elevator,  may  be  installed  inde- 
pendently of  the  rest  of  the  plant,  the 
graded  coffee  ])eing  all  bagged  up  again  and 
treated  as  new  raw  stock  —  some  of  it  to  be 
lield  for  later  use,  or  perhaps  sold  again 
unroasted.  The  milling  machine  and  the 
mixer,  however,  are  usually  so  placed  and 
connected  that  the  coffee  can  be  sent  from 
one  to  the  other,  and  to  the  roaster  feed 
hoppers,  without  any  manual  labor. 

When  the  roaster  sells  his  product  in 
package  form  ready  for  the  consumer,  he 
will  have  a  packaging  department  in  which 
are  grinding,  weighing,  labeling,  and  pack- 
ing machines  and  equipment.  In  some  of 
the  more  progressive  plants,  particularly  in 
the  United  States,  all  the  packing  units  are 
incorporated  in  one  machine,  so  that  the 
different  steps  in  the  work  are  carried  on 


Green-Coffee-Mixer  Connections 

To  operate  at  full  capacity,  without  using  the 
story  above  as  well  as  below  the  mixer,  requires  a 
bucket  elevator  and  three  bins,  each  holding  a  full 
mixing  batch.  The  above  diagram  explains  this 
setting.  The  mixed  coffee  in  the  discharge  bin 
is  either  drawn  out  into  bags  or  sent  by  an  ele- 
vator to  a  milling  machine  or  direct  to  the  coffee 
roasters.  A  batch  ready  for  mixing  can  always  be 
accumulated  in  the  feed  bin  while  the  previous 
batch   is  being  mixed   or  discharged. 

The  fan  is  usually  hung  to  the  ceiling  over  the 
mixer  as  indicated,  and  connected  to  the  suction 
box  by  a(l-inj  round  pipe.  The  fan  oritlet  can  be 
carried  directly  out-of-doors;  but  the  dusty  dis- 
charge is  objectionable  in  most  installations,  and 
this  pipe  is  usually  carried  to  a  dust  collector  from 
the  top  of. .which  the  roof  outlet  is  connected. 

automatically  and  in  one  continuous 
operation. 

The  efficient  roaster-executive  equips  his 
entire  plant  with  approved  labor-saving 
devices.  In  the  better  establishments,  the 
coffee  is  carried  along  by  mechanical  con- 
veyors through  all  the  operations  from  the 
fir.st  cleaning  machine  to  the  final  pack- 
aging. 

Separating 

,  As  already  mentioned,  a  machine  fre- 
quently found  in  wholesale  plants  is  the 
separator,  or  grader.  This  apparatus^ 
which  is  the  same  in  principle  in  all  coun- 
tHes,  but  varies  in  size  and  form  according 
to  local  requirements,  consists  of  a  series  of 
perforated  screens.  The  perforations  differ 
in  size;  and  as  the  coffee  is  shaken  on  them, 
the  small  beans  drop  through  the  holes,  the 
larger  ones  passing  across  the  screen  and 
dropping  into  a  receptacle  or  chute  ready 
for  the  next  operation.     The  screens  nre 


384 


ALL    ABOUT     COFFEE 


FACTORY    PREPARATION 


385 


made  to  grade  the  beans  into  large  and 
small  peaberry ;  large,  medium,  and  small 
flat  beans;  brokens;  and  other  commercial 
sizes.  The  average  separator  will  grade 
fifteen  to  twenty  bags  of  coffee  in  an  hour. 

Milling 

Milling  machines,  for  cleaning  the  green 
coffee,  operate  on  practically  the  same  prin- 
ciple the  world  over,  varying  in  capacity 
and  details  of  construction.  A  popular 
type  used  in  the  United  States  has  two 
metal  cylinders,  one  set  within  the  other, 
and  revolving  in  opposite  directions.  The 
inner  cylinder  is  ribbed  with  flanges,  and 
the  outer  one  is  lined  with  wire  cloth.  As 
these  cylinders  revolve,  the  beans  pass  be- 
tween them  rubbing  against  themselves 
and  the  rough  sides  of  the  cylinders.  This 
action  serves  to  remove  dirt  and  other  for- 
eign matter  that  may  be  clinging  to  the 
beans,  and  also  gives  them  an  attractive 
polish.  An  exhaust  fan  sucks  away  the  dirt 
milled  off  in  the  process.  This  type  of  ma- 
chine will  mill  about  forty  bags  of  green 
coffee  in  an  hour. 

Mixing  or  Blending  Green  Coffee 

Most  roasters  blend  the  different  types 
of  coffee  while  green.  Some  blend  them 
after  they  have  been  roasted  separately. 
When  blended  before  roasting,  the  coffees 
are  mixed  by  a  machine  built  especially  for 
that  purpose.    The  mixing  machine  in  gen- 


eral use  in  all  countries  consists  of  a  large 
metal  cylinder  which,  in  wholesale  opera- 
tions, is  revolved  by  the  factory's  general 
power  plant  or  by  a  separate  motor.  The 
cylinder  is  equipped  on  the  inside  with  sets 
of  reverse-screw  mixing  flanges  that  tumble 
the  beans  around  until  they  are  thoroughly 
blended ;  and  there  is  usually  a  fan  attach- 
ment to  remove  dust.  This  operation  serves 
also  to  smooth  down  and  to  polish  the  sur- 
faces of  the  beans,  which  adds  to  the  style 
of  the  coffee  when  roasted.  The  average 
blending  machine  will  mix  from  ten  to 
twenty  bags  of  coffee  at  a  time.  The  actual 
mixing  requires  less  than  five  minutes,  but 
a  longer  period  is  needed  for  feeding  and 
discharging.  This  is  the  last  of  the  so- 
called  "green-coffee  operations".  The  next 
step  is  roasting. 

Roasting  hy  Coal,  Coke,  Gas,  and 
Electricity 

Coffee  is  roasted  commercially  in  cylinder 
or  ball  receptacles  revolving  in  heated 
chambers,  the  degree  of  heat  reaching  about 
420°  Fahr.  The  cylinder  type  of  roaster 
is  invariably  used  in  the  United  States; 
while  both  the  cylinder  and  the  ball  types 
are  popular  in  England,  France,  Germany, 
Holland,  and  other  foreign  countries. 

Each  roaster-man  has  his  own  opinion 
about  the  fuel  that  gives  the  best  result, 
and  throughout  the  world  the  choice  lies  be- 
tween anthracite  coal,  coke,  and  gas ;  though 


An  English  Four-Machine  Gas  Coffee-Roasting  Plant 
The  equipment  includes  three  Morewood  indirect-flame,  and  one  quick  direct-flame  machines 


386 


ALL     ABOUT     COFFEE 


hard  wood  is  frequently  used  in  countries 
where  other  fuels  are  not  available  or  not 
economical.  Electric  heat  has  been  tried 
for  commercial  roasting  in  Germany 
(1906),  in  England  (1909),  and  in  the 
United  States  (1918)  ;  but  the  experi- 
menters have  always  found  the  cost  of  elec- 
tric fuel  to  be  prohibitive  in  competition 
with  coal  and  gas.  An  electric  roaster  was 
demonstrated  at  the  Food  Conservation 
Show  in  New  York,  in  1918,  at  a  time  when 
the  federal  government  was  urging  the 
necessity  of  conserving  coal  as  a  war 
economy  measure.  The  inventor  claimed 
that  his  machine  w^ould  reduce  roasting 
cost,  improve  the  flavor  and  the  aroma,  and 
maintain  a  constant  and  easily  controlled 
heat.  He  declared  also  that  when  roasted 
in  his  devices,  less  coffee  was  required  for 
brewing. 

An  expert  coffee-roasting-machinery  man 
who  has  been  working  on  the  development 
of  a  practical  electric  roaster  says  that  if  it 
were  possible  to  bake  the  coffee  in  an  oven, 
just  as  the  baker  does  his  bread,  the  fuel 
cost  would  then  compare  favorably  with 
that  of  gas  or  coal.  It  is  because  the  heat 
chamber  must  have  an  exhaust  to  release 
the  chaff  and  smoke  that  the  use  of  electric- 
ity to  replace  the  heat  loss  proves  prohibi- 
tive when  compared  with  coal  or  gas. 


In  all  types  of  coal  and  coke  burning 
roasters,  the  cylinders  are  heated  by  a  fire 
underneath ;  while  in  gas  roasters,  the  flame 
may  be  underneath  or  within  the  cylinder 
itself.  Roasters  in  which  the  heat  is  within 
the  cylinder  are  known  as  direct-flame  or 
inner-heated  machines.  All  three  systems 
are  used  in  the  United  States  and  Europe. 

Facts  About  Coffee  Roasting 

The  modern  commercial  roasting  outfit  is 
as  near  fool-proof  as  human  genius  has 
been  able  to  devise.  The  more  advanced 
types  are  almost  automatic  in  operation, 
and  are  designed  to  insure  uniformity  of 
roasts.  In  such  machines  the  green  coffee 
is  conveyed  to  the  roasting  cylinder  by 
means  of  bucket  elevators,  which  pour  the 
beans  into  a  feed  hopper.  From  the  feed 
hopper,  the  coffee  is  dumped  through  the 
opening  in  the  front  head-piece  into  the 
cylinder.  The  cylinder  is  perforated,  and 
has  inside  flanges  which  keep  tossing  the 
coffee  about  while  the  cylinder  revolves,  so 
that  the  coffee  will  not  burn  during  the 
roasting  process. 

To  roast  coffee  by  coal  or  coke  usually 
requires  from  twenty-five  to  thirty  min- 
utes, depending  on  the  moisture-content  of 
the  beans;  whether  they  are  spongy  or 
flinty;  whether  a  light,  medium,  or  dark 


German  Gas  Coffee-Roasting  Plant  Equipped  with  Ideal-Rapid  Machines 


I 


FACTORY    PREPARATION 


387 


French  Gas  Coffee-Roasting  Plakt  Equipped  with  Modebne  Machines 


roast  is  desired;  and  on  the  skill  of  the 
operator.  Gas  roasting  requires  from  fif- 
teen to  twenty  minutes.  The  quicker  the 
roast,  the  better  the  coffee,  is  the  opinion  of 
many  trade  leaders,  one  of  whom'  says: 

It  is  a  growing  belief  tliat  in  roasts  of  stiort 
duration  the  largest  percentage  of  the  aromatic 
properties  is  retained.  A  slow  roast  has  the  ef- 
fect of  baking  and  does  not  give  full  develop- 
ment ;  also,  slow  roasts  seldom  produce  bright 
roasts,  and  they  usually  make  the  coffee  hard 
instead  of  brittle,  even  when  the  color  standard 
has  been  attained. 

While  coffees  of  widely  varying  degrees 
of  moisture  require  somewhat  different 
treatment,  the  consensus  of  opinion  is  that 
the  best  results  are  obtained  from  a  slow 
fire  at  the  beginning,  until  some  of  the 
moisture  has  been  driven  off,  when  the 
stronger  application  of  heat  may  be  given 
for  development.  An  intense  heat  in  the 
beginning  often  results  in  "tipping",  or 
charring,  the  little  germ  at  the  end,  the 
most  sensitive  part  of  the  bean. 

Scorched  beans  have  been  caught  at  some 
point  in  the  cylinder,  often  in  a  bent 
flange.  Burning  on  one  face,  sometimes 
called  "kissing  the  cheeks",  is  caused  by 
the  too  rapid  revolution  of  the  cylinder,  so 
that  some  of  the  coffee  "carries  over".  In 
the  best  practise,  crowding  of  cylinders  is 
avoided;  many  roasters  making  it  a  rule 

iWilhelm,  R.  C.  Tea  and  Coffee  Trade  Jour.,  1916 
(vol.  xxxi :  no.  5:  p.  429). 


not  to  exceed  ninety  percent  of  the  rated 
capacity  of  the  cylinder. 

Those  operating  gas  roasters  may  effect  a 
fuel  economy  by  running  a  low  grade  coffee 
in  the  cylinder  after  the  last  roast  has  been 
drawn  and  the  gas  extinguished;  five  min- 
utes' revolution  absorbs  the  heat  and  drives 
off  a  proportion  of  moisture.  The  coffee, 
which  may  then  be  left  in  the  cylinder,  re- 
quires less  time  and  fuel  in  the  morning, 
and  the  roast  is  finished  while  the  cylinder 
is  warming  up.  Double  roasting  brightens 
a  roast,  but  is  a  detriment  to  the  cup  qual- 
ity. A  dull  roasting  coffee  may  be  im- 
proved by  revolving  the  green  coffee  in  a 
cylinder  without  heat  for  twenty  minutes, 
Avhich  has  the  effect  of  milling. 

The  use  of  a  small  amount  of  water  upon 
roasts  gives  better  control  by  checking  the 
roast  at  the  proper  point  — the  crucial  time 
of  its  greatest  heat;  also,  it  swells  and 
brightens  the  coffee,  and  tends  to  close  the 
outer  pores.  "While  the  addition  of  water 
is  open  to  abuse,  few  roasters  have  soaked 
their  coffees  enough  to  offset  the  natural 
shrinkage  as  much  as  three  or  four  percent. 
Such  practise  would  result  greatly  to  the 
detriment  of  the  cup  quality. 

There  is  no  universal  standard  for  the 
degree  to  which  coffee  should  be  roasted. 
In  the  United  States,  there  are  demands 
for  all  degrees;  from  the  light  roast,  in 
favor  in  England,  to  the  extremely  dark 
roast  in  vogue   in  France,   Italy,  Brazil, 


388 


ALL     ABOUT     COFFEE 


Turkey,  and  in  the  producing  countries. 
The  North  American  trade  recognizes  these 
different  roasts:  light,  cinnamon,  medium, 
high,  city,  full  city,  French,  and  Italian. 
The  city  roast  is  a  dark  bean,  while  full 
city  is  a  few  degrees  darker.  In  the  French 
roast,  the  bean  is  cooked  until  the  natural 
oil  appears  on  the  surface;  and  in  the 
Italian,  it  is  roasted  to  the  point  of  actual 
carbonization,  so  that  it  can  be  easily 
powdered.  Germany  likes  a  roast  similar 
to  the  French  type ;  while  Scandinavia  pre- 
fers the  high  Italian  roast. 

In  the  United  States,  the  lighter  roast  is 
favored  on  the  Pacific  coast;  the  darkest,  in 
the  South ;  and  a  medium-colored  roast,  in 
the  Eastern  states.  The  cinnamon  roast  is 
most  favored  by  the  trade  in  Boston. 

While  coffee  roasting  in  the  United 
States  usually  takes  from  fifteen  to  thirty 
minutes,  depending  on  the  fuel  and  the 
machine  employed,  manufacturers  of  gas 


machines  on  the  German  market  claim  to 
roast  it  in  superior  fashion  in  from  three 
and  a  half  to  ten  minutes.'  This  subject  is 
discussed  more  in  detail  in  chapter 
XXXIV. 

Coffee  loses  weight  during  the  roasting 
process,  the  loss  varying  according  to  the 
degree  of  roasting  and  the  nature  of  the 
bean.  Coffee  roasters  figure,  however,  that 
the  average  loss  is  sixteen  percent  of  the 
weight  of  the  green  bean.  It  has  been  esti- 
mated that  one  hundred  pounds  of  coffee 
in  the  cherry  produces  twenty-five  pounds 
in  the  parchment ;  that  one  hundred  pounds 
in  parchment  produces  eighty-four  pounds 
of  cleaned  coffee;  and  that  one  hundred; 
pounds  of  cleaned  coffee  produces  eighty- 
four  pounds  roasted. 

During  the   roasting  process  the  coffee 
undergoes  a  great  chemical  change.  After 

-  Willcox,  O.  W.     Tea  and  Coffee  Trade  Jour.,  1914 
(vol.  xxvi :  no.  2:  p.  38). 


7 


Jumbo  Coffee  Roaster,  in  the  Akbuckle  Coffee-Roasting  Plant,  New  York 

There  are  four  of  these  machines.  The  cylinders  are  twelve  feet  in  diameter,  six  feet  deep,  and  can  roast 
5,000  pounds  of  coffee  every  half-hour.  The  hard-coal  brick  furnace  is  seen  at  the  left,  from  which  a 
blower  forces  the  heated  air  through  a  pipe  into  the  revolving  cylinder  of  coffee.  The  coffee  is  fed 
from  above  and  is  emptied  into  the   cooling  pans   beneath 


I 


FACTORY    PREPARATION 


389 


Ax  Eight-Cylinder  Gas  Coffee-Roasting  Plant 
A   view   of   Reid,   Murdoch   &  Co.'s   roasting   room,    Chicago,    equipped    with   Monitor   machines 


it  has  been  in  the  cylinder  a  short  time,  the 
color  of  the  bean  becomes  a  yellowish 
brown,  which  gradually  deepens  as  it 
cooks.  Likewise,  as  the  beans  become 
heated,  they  shrivel  up  until  about  half 
done,  or  at  the  "developing"  point.  At 
this  stage,  they  begin  to  swell,  and  then 
"pop  open",  increasing  tifty  percent  in 
bulk."  This  is  when  the  experienced  roaster- 
man  turns  on  all  the  heat  he  can  command 
to  finish  the  roasting  as  quickly  as  possible. 

"Dry"  and  "Wet"  Roasts 

At  frequent  intervals,  he  thrusts  his 
"trier"  —  an  instrument  shaped  somewhat 
like  an  elongated  spoon  —  into  the  cylinder, 
and  takes  out  a  sample  of  coffee  to  com- 
pare with  his  type  sample.  When  the 
coffee  is  done,  he  shuts  off  the  heat  and 
checks  the  cooking  by  reducing  the  tem- 
perature of  the  coffee  and  of  the  cylinder 
as  quickly  as  can  be  done.  In  the  wet  roast 
method  he  will  spray  the  coffee,  while  the 
cylinder  is  still  revolving,  with  three  to 
four  quarts  of  water  to  every  130  pounds 
of  coffee.  In  the  dry  method  he  depends 
altogether  upon  his  cooling  apparatus. 

Roasters  generally  are  not  in  favor  of  the 


'  Zinsmeister.    L..    G. 
1914   (vol.  xxvii :  no. 


Tea   and   Coffee  Trade  Jour.; 
',:  pp.  558  -  562). 


excessive  watering  of  coffee  in  and  after  the 
roasting  process  for  the  purpose  of  reduc- 
ing shrinkage.  "Heading"  the  coffee,  or 
checking  the  roast  before  turning  it  out  of 
the  roasting  cylinder,  is  quite  another  mat- 
ter and  is  considered  legitimate.  Where 
coffees  are  watered  in  the  cylinder  at  the 
close  of  the  roast  to  reduce  the  shrinkage, 
it  is  possible  to  get  back  only  about  four 
percent  of  the  shrinkage  by  such  treatment 
and  the  practise  is  frowned  upon  by  the 
best  roasters. 

Generally  speaking,  water  is  turned  into 
the  roasting  cylinder  to  quench  the  roast. 
The  amount  varies  with  the  style  of  ma- 
chine, whether  gas  or  coal.  Usually  the 
water  turns  to  steam,  and  the  result  is  not 
an  absorption  of  the  water  but  a  momen- 
tary checking  of  the  roast  with  a  tendency 
to  swell  and  to  brighten  the  coffee.  This  is, 
comparatively  speaking,  a  "dry  roast", 
but  not  an  absolutely  dry  roast.  It  is 
doubtful  if  more  than  one  percent  of 
American  coffee  roasters  employ  an  abso- 
lutely "dry"  roast —  it  does  not  give  satis- 
factory results.  The  word  has  been 
abused  for  advertising  purposes.  Of  course, 
a  dry  roasted  coffee  is  a  better  article  for 
making  a  satisfactory  beverage  than  one 
that  has  been  soaked  with  water;  but  the 


390 


ALL     ABOUT     COFFEE 


Upper-Story  View  of  a  Jubilee  Plant,  Showing  Roaster,  Cooler,  and  Stoneb 

Equipment 

The  parts  under  roasting-room   floor  are  shown   in  the   illustration   below 


Lower-Stoky  View  of  the  Same  Plant  from  About  the  Same  Angle 

Showing  connection  from  floor  hopper  to  stoner  on  the    left,    and    suspended    bucket-elevator    boot    with 

four-bag   dump   hopper   on   the   right 


COMPLETE  GAS  COFFEE-PLANT  INSTALLATION 


FACTORY    PREPARATION 


391 


i 


word  "dry"  must  be  given  a  definite  mean- 
ing, which  the  trade  generally  will  agree 
to  uphold,  if  it  is  to  have  any  real  meaning 
or  value  to  the  consumer.  Until  some 
standard  for  roasted  coffee  shall  be  estab- 
lished, it  is  to  be  feared  the  term  "dry 
roast"  will  continue  to  be  used  for  coffee 
roasted  by  almost  any  other  process. 

The  Bureau  of  Chemistry  held  a  hearing 
in  1914  at  Washington,  at  which  the  ques- 
tion of  a  ruling  on  watering  coffees  was 
discussed.  The  trade  was  well  represented, 
but  no  agreement  w^as  reached.  It  was 
deemed  inadvisable  to  make  a  definite  rule 
on  the  watering  of  coffee;  because  the 
water  content  can  not  be  controlled,  as  the 
bean  starts  to  absorb  moisture  as  soon  as  it 
leaves  the  roaster. 


On  Roasting  Coffee  Efficiently 
A.  L.  Burns,  New  York,  is  well  qualified 
to  speak  on  this  subject.     He  says: 

Roasting  coffee  is  not  so  difficult  a  matter  as  is 
often  claimed  by  operators  and  "experts"  who 
seek  thus  to  magnify  their  importance ;  but  it 
is  nevertheless  a  process  about  which  a  great 
deal  may  be  learned  in  the  school  of  practical 
experience.  With  one  of  our  modern  machines 
anybody  with  ordinary  intelligence  and  nerve 
can  take  off  a  roast  after  one  trial  which  would 
pass  muster  in  many  establishments,  but  that 
same  person  applying  himself  to  the  roasting 
job  for  a  week  will  either  be  turning  out  vastly 
better  roasts  or  will  have  demonstrated  that  he 
never  can  excel  as  a  roasterman. 

Modern  coffee  roasting  machines  provide  for 
easy  control  of  the  heat  (from  coal,  coke,  or  gas 
fuel),  for  constantly  mixing  the  coffee  in  such 
a  manner  that  the  heat  is  transmitted  uniformly 
to  the  entire  batch,  for  carrying  away  all  steam 
and  smoke  rapidly,  for  easy  testing  of  the  prog- 
ress of  the  roast,  and  for  immediate  discharge 
when  desired.  The  operator's  problem  therefoi-e 
is  the  regulation  of  the  heat  and  deciding  just 
when  the  desired  roasting  has  been  accom- 
plished. 

If  all  coffees  were  alike,  roasting  would  soon 
be  almost  automatic.  In  some  plants  most  of 
the  work  is  on  one  uniform  grade  or  blend.  But 
coffees  which  vary  greatly  in  moisture-content, 
in  flinty  or  spongy  nature,  and  in  various  other 
characteristics,  will  puzzle  the  operator  until  he 
establishes  a  personal  acquaintance  with  them 
in  various  combinations  in  repeated  roasting 
operations.  The  roasterman  therefore  must  be 
able  to  observe  closely,  to  draw  sensible  conclu- 
sions, and  to  remember  what  he  learns.  Roast- 
ing coffee  is  work  of  a  .sort  which  anybody  can 
do,  which  a  few  people  can  do  really  well,  and 
no  one  so  well  but  that  further  improvement  is 
possible. 

There  is  no  absolute  standard  of  what  the  best 
roasting  results  are.  Some  dealers  want  the 
coffee  beans  swelled  up  to  the  bursting  point, 
while  others  would  object  to  so  .showy  a  develop- 
ment.    Some  care  nothing  at  all  about  appear- 


BuRNs  Jubilee  G.\s  Roaster 

ance  as  compared  with  cup  value,  while  others 
insist  on  a  bright  style  even  at  some  sacrifice  of 
quality.  Business  judgment  must  decide  what 
goods  can  be  sold  most  profitably. 

The  loss  of  coffee  in  weight  in  the  roasting 
operation,  or  shrinkage  as  it  is  called,  is  a  mat- 
ter which  offers  opportunities  for  false  claims  of 
advantage  in  roasting  processes.  Anybody  can 
see  that  if  just  as  good  roasted  coffee  could  be 
produced  with  a  lessened  shrinkage  there  would 
be  a  chance  for  a  decided  increase  in  profits. 
It  is  a  sort  of  finding-money  proposition  which 
always  turns  out  to  be  too  good  to  be  true. 
The  purpose  of  roasting  coffee  is  to  produce  an 
article  entirely  different  from  green  coffee,  which 
is  accomplished  mainly  by  driving  out  moisture. 
If  coffee  is  roasted  thoroughly,  inside  as  well  as 
outside,  so  as  td  give  the  greatest  roasted  coffee 
value,  it  must  sustain  a  proper  loss  in  weight 
which  there  is  no  legitimate  way  to  avoid.  The 
amount  of  shrinkage  varies  a  great  deal  with  the 
kind  of  coffee  and  its  age,  also  with  the  kind  of 
roasting  desired. 

Adding  a  little  water  to  the  coffee  at  the  end 
of  the  operation  has  the  advantage  of  checking 
the  roast  at  the  desired  point  and  helping  to 
swell  and  brighten  the  coffee,  but  it  is  a  practice 
which  is  sometimes  abused  by  soaking  the  coffee 
with  water  so  as  to  reduce  the  shrinkage.  This 
is  done  either  dishonestly,  to  steal  coffee  which 
belongs  to  somebody  else,  or  foolishly;  for  the 
heavier  coffee  has  a  lessened  cup  value  which 
more  than  counterbalances  the  apparent  gain. 

A  Typical  Coal  Roaster 

A  typical  United  States  coal  roaster  is 
shown  in  the  accompanying  cut.    It  is  the 


392 


ALL     ABOUT     COFFEE 


latest  form  of  that  type  of  Burns  machine 
which  requires  a  brickwork  setting.  The 
picture  shows  the  roaster  ready  to  operate, 
except  for  smoke  pipe  and  power  connec- 
tions. 

The  front  of  the  machine  shown  has  a 
east-iron  plate  having  brackets  which  sup- 
port the  cylinder  front  bearing,  and  double 


Burns  Coal  Roaster  avith  Brickwork  Setting 

fire  doors  below  for  the  furnace  and  the 
ashpit.  The  movable  part  of  the  roaster  is 
hidden  by  the  front  head,  a  heavy  casting 
which  stands  still  except  when  moved  by 
hand  through  a  half-turn  for  feeding  and 
discharging. 

The  cylinder  is  driven  by  gears  at  the 
back,  revolving  constantly  at  uniform 
speed.  The  inside  of  the  cylinder  is  ar- 
ranged with  reverse-spiral  flanges  which 
mix  the  coffee  perfectly  and  make  uneven 
roasting  impossible ;  and  they  discharge 
promptly  every  grain  of  coffee  when  the 
front-head  opening  is  turned  to  the  lower 
position.  The  roaster  is  generally  operated 
with  coal  fuel,  but  can  be  used  with  gas  by 
installing  a  suitable  burner  under  the 
cylinder. 


Cost  Card  for  Roasters 

Showing   the   value  added   to   the   cost   of  green   coffee   by 

roasting 

By  A.   C.  Aborn 

Basis:     16  percent  Shrinkage. 


H    cent  a   pound   for   Roasting! 


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26.79 

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35.12 

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10.27 

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26.93 

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35.27 

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10.42 

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18.75 

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27.08 

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35.42 

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10.57 

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27.23 

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10.86 

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9.V2 

11.01 

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27.83 

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36.16 

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19.64 

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11.61 

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19.94 

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28.27 

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36.61 

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20.09 

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40.03 

Open  Pebfobated  Cylinder  with  Flexible  Back  Head 


FACTORY    PREPARATION^ 


393 


A  GREEN  COFFEE  SHRINKAGE  TABLE 

Showing  shrinkage  in  roasting  of  raw  coffee  in  quantities  from  sixty  pounds  up  to 

three  hundred  pounds,  and  at  six  different  shrinkage  percentages 

Compiled  by  R.  C.  Wilhelm,  New  York 


RAW 

n% 

13% 

14% 

15% 

16% 

17% 

RAW 

12% 

13% 

14% 

15%    16%    17% 

RAW 

12%     13%     14%     15% 

16%     17% 

60 

52H 

52X 

51H 

51 

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140 

123K 

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119      117*6   116J^ 

220 

193*6    191*4    1893^  187 

1841   182*6 

61 

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53 

52^ 

51« 

51« 

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141 

124 

122M 

121« 

119'i   118*6   117 

221 

194'^  192K   190      1871 

1851   183*6 

62 

54  "^2 

54 

53K 

52H 

52 

51^2 

142 

125 

123*6 

122 

120'i   119.*i  117« 

222 

195'f  193!<   191      1881 

186*4  ma 

63 

55^ 

54*i 

54 

53>S 

53 

52K 

143 

1255^ 

124*6 

123 

121*6   120      118?^ 

223 

1963^   194      1911   189*6 

1871  185 

64 

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HH 

55 

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53 

144 

126^i 

125K 

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197      195      1921   190'6 

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65 

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127*6 

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123X   12151   120'^ 

225 

198      1951   193'i   1913^ 

139      1861 

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58 

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128*6 

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125*6 

124      122«    nU 

226 

199      196'6    194'^  192 

1891   187!4 

67 

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147 

129*< 

128 

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125      123*6   122 

227 

1991   197'6    1953i  193 

1901   188*6 

68 

59^ 

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148 

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2001   198*1    196      1931 

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149 

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229 

201 '2    199>i   197      1941 

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70 

61^ 

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60M 

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58M 

58 

150 

132 

130*6 

129 

127*6    126       124*6 

230 

202*^  200      198      195*6 

193*4    191 

71 

62 'i 

61« 

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133 

131« 

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128*i   126»1   125!^ 

231 

203'^  201       1981    196*6 

1943^   192 

72 

63H 

B2H 

62 

61 

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152 

133M 

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129«   127H   126>i 

232 

204      202      199'6    197 

195      192*4 

73 

64« 

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62M 

62 

61K 

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153 

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133 

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130      128>^   127 

233 

205      2021  20031   198 

1951   1933i 

74 

65 

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63 

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154 

135*6 

134 

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131       129J^  127^1 

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206      203 '6   201      199 

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2061   204*4   202      1991 

197*4    195 

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132*6   131       129*6 

236 

207*6   205      203      200*6 

198      196 

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135 

133*6   132      130K 

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199      1961 

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200      197*4 

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159 

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239 

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213      210'2   208      2051 

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160      158      156 

268 

236      233      230-4   228 

225      222 

109 

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1601   1581   1561 

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165K 

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270 

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2261   224 

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169 

167 

165 

1633^  1613i   159!i 

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239      237      234      231 

228      226 

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101 

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170      168      166 

280 

246-4   2431   241      238 

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237      234 

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2S13<  2483< 

394 


ALL     ABOUT     COFFEE 


considerable  surface,  or  all  kept  moving, 
and  have  at  the  same  time  a  lot  of  air 
forced  through  it.  Otherwise,  there  will  be 
some  darkening  and  over-development  of 


Trying  the  Roast 

Cooling  and  Stoning 

"Coffee  which  leaves  the  roaster  beauti- 
fully uniform  in  appearance",  says  A.  L. 
Bums,  "may  lose  all  uniformity  by  de- 
layed or  inadequate  cooling.  Separated 
beans  of  coffee  will  cool  off  by  themselves; 
but  when  heaped  together,  the  inner  part 
of  the  mass  will  get  hotter  and  even  take 
fire.   .    .    .     Coffee  must  be  spread  over  a 


MoiS'iTOR  Gas  Roaster 

part  of  the  coffee,  and  a  loss  of  the  uniform- 
ity which  is  the  first  requirement  of  good 
roasting. ' ' 

The  cooling  apparatus  consists  of  a  mov- 
able, box-like  metal  car  which  can  be 
brought  up  to  the  front  of  the  roaster  to 
the  revolving  cylinders.  The  car  has  a  per- 
forated false  bottom,  to  which  is  attached  a 
powerful  exhaust-fan  system  that  sucks  the 
heat  out  of  the  coffee.     In  large  plants, 


A  Group  of  Roasting-Rooji  Accessoiues 


FACTORY    PREPARATION 


395 


Dumping  the  Roast  in  a  Coal  Roasti-ng  Plant 

The  roasted  coffee  is  being  turned  into  The  cooling  car,  equipped  with  a  swinging  "flexarm"  that  keeps 
it  always  in  connection  with  a  suspended  header  pipe;  the  cooling  being  started  as  soon  as  the  coffee 
leaves  the  roaster.     The  cooled  coffee,  by  tipping  the  box,  goes  into  a  floor  hopper 


Utilizing  two  or  more  floors,  the  tilting-type 
cooling  car  is  favored.  This  car  permits 
instant  discharge  through  an  opening  in 
the  floor  into  a  receiving  tank  suspended 
from  the  ceiling  below  and  connected  with 
the  stoning  apparatus.  Recently,  a  flex- 
ible-arm cooler  has  been  invented  that  pro- 
vides full  fan  suction  to  a  cooler  car  at  all 
points  in  its  track  travel  from  the  roaster 
to  the  emptying  position. 

The  stoner,  an  essential  part  of  the  mod- 
ern roasting  plant,  has  for  its  function  the 
removal  of  stones  and  other  foreign  matter 
of  which  the  green-coffee  operations  have 
failed  to  get  rid.  The  stoner  is  usually 
built  in  direct  combination  v^ith  the  cool- 
ing equipment,  and  does  its  w^ork  by  means 
of  a  gravity  separation  in  an  upward-mov- 
ing column  of  air.  The  coffee  passes  into 
the  suction  boot  of  the  stoner,  either  di- 
rectly from  the  cooler  box  or  from  a  floor 
hopper  into  which  the  cooler  dumps,  and  is 
carried  up  the  stoner  pipe,  or  ''riser",  by 
an  air  current  of  ample  power  which  can 
be  accurately  regulated.  This  insures  the 
carrying  up  of  coffee  only,  the  stones  re- 
maining at  the  bottom  of  the  machine  and 
being    dumped    at   intervals    into    a   pan 


underneath.  The  coffee,  passing  up  the 
riser  pipe,  is  delivered  into  a  large  **  stoner 
hopper"  which  is  usually  hung  to  the  ceil- 
ing of  the  roasting  room.  The  correct  con- 
struction of  this  hopper  is  of  great 
importance,  as  the  coffee  must  be  deposited 
completely  without  breakage,  and  the  air 
must  pass  on  through  the  suction  fan  carry- 
ing nothing  except  bits  of  loose  chaff. 

A  different  type  of  cooler  is  in  the  form 
of  an  upright  cylinder,  consisting  of  two 
metal  perforated  drums,  one  set  within  the 
other.  The  inner  drum  is  sufficiently  small 
to  allow  the  coffee  to  move  freely  between 
the  drums.  Inside  the  smaller  one  is  an 
exhaust  pipe  which  draws  the  heat  and 
chaff  out  of  the  coffee.  This  device  is  rec- 
ommended for  use  only  in  connection  with 
wet  roasted  coffee. 

Still  another  type  consists  of  a  single 
perforated  cylinder  set  horizontal  with  the 
floor,  and  revolving  alongside  of  an  exhaust 
box  which  sucks  out  the  heat  and  chaff  as 
the  coffee  is  tumbled  about  in  the  cylinder. 
A  rocking  type,  that  is  not  generally  em- 
ployed, is  constructed  on  the  principle  of 
the  screen  used  by  housebuilders  to  sepa- 
rate   coarse  sand    from   the   fine,    and   is 


ILL     ABOUT     COFFEE 


A  Four-Bag  Coffee  Finisher 

pivoted  at  the  middle  so  that  it  can  be 
rocked  end  to  end. 

Finishing  or  Glazing 

Finishing  whole-bean  roasted  coffee,  by 
giving  it  a  friction  polish  while  it  is  still 
moist,  using  a  glaze  solution  or  water  only, 
is  a  practise  not  harmful  if  the  proper  solu- 
tions are  employed.  Roasted  coffee  dulls  in 
ordinary  handling,  and  it  is  claimed  that 
coating  not  only  improves  its  appearance, 
but  serves  also  to  preserve  the  natural 
flavor  and  aroma  of  the  bean.  A  machine 
having  flat-sided  wooden  cylinders  with 
ventilated  heads,  and  operated  two-thirds 
full  of  coffee  so  as  to  get  an  effective  rolling 
motion,  is  generally  employed.  Coatings 
composed  of  sugar  and  eggs  are  popular, 
but  their  use  should  be  stated  on  the  label. 

Coffee  roasters  are  divided  on  this  ques- 
tion of  coffee-coating.  The  best  thought  of 
the  trade  is  undoubtedly  opposed  to  the 
practise  when  it  is  done  to  conceal  in- 
feriority or  abnormally  to  reduce  shrinkage. 
Some  New  York  coffee  roasters,  who  made 
a  thorough  investigation  of  the  matter, 
found  coating  coffee  with  a  wholesome  ma- 
terial not  injurious  and  the  coated  coffee 
better  in  the  cup.  Dr.  Harvey  "W.  "Wiley 
found,  in  the  celebrated  Ohio  case  against 
Arbuckle  Brothers,  that  coating  coffee  with 
sugar  and  eggs  produced  beneficial  results, 
and  that  the  coating  preserved  the  bean. 
The  Bureau  of  Chemistry  has  never  issued 
any  ruling  on  the  subject  of  coating  coffee. 

-^-        Blending  Roasted  Coffee 

After  cooling  and  stoning,  unless  it  is  to 
be  polished  or  glazed,  the  coffee  is  ready 


for  grinding  and  packing  if  it  has  been 
blended  in  the  green  state.  Otherwise,  the 
next  step  will  be  to  mix  the  different  varie- 
ties before  grinding,  although  .some  packers 
blend  the  different  kinds  after  they  have 
been  ground.  To  mix  whole-bean  roasted 
coffee  without  hurting  its  appearance  is 
rather  difficult,  and  there  is  no  regular  ma- 
chine for  such  work. 

Rarely  is  a  single  kind  of  coffee  drunk 
straight.    The  common  practise  in  all  coun- 


rffYfff 


4/6 


Burns  Sample-Coffee  Roaster 


tries  is  to  mix  different  varieties  having 
opposing  characteristics  so  as  to  obtain  a 
smoother  beverage.  This  is  called  blending, 
a  process  that  has  attained  the  standing  of 
an  art  in  the  United  States.  Most  package 
coffees  are  blends.  In  addition  to  other 
qualities,  the  practical  coffee  blender  must 
have  a  natural  aptitude  for  the  work.  He 
must  also  have  long  experience  before  he 
becomes  proficient,  and  must  be  acquainted 
with  the  different  properties  of  all  the  cof- 
fees grown,  or  at  least  of  those  that  come  to 
his  market.  Furthermore,  he  must  know 
the  variations  in  characteristics  of  current 
crops ;  for  in  most  coffees  no  two  crops  are 
equal  in  trade  values.    Innumerable  blends 


FACTORY    PREPARATIOX 


/ 


397 


ire  possible  with  more  than  a  hundred  dif- 
"rent  coffees  to  draw  upon. 

A  blend  may  consist  of  two  or  more  kinds 
of  coffee,  but  the  general  practise  is  to  em- 
ploy several  kinds;  so  that,  if  at  any  time 
one  can  not  be  obtained,  its  absence  from 
the  blend  will  not  be  so  noticeable  as  would 
be  the  case  if  only  two  or  three  kinds  were 
used. 

In  blending  coffees,  consideration  is  given 
first  to  the  shades  of  flavor  in  the  cup  and 
next  to  price.  The  blender  describes  flavors 
as,  acidy,  bitter,  smooth,  neutral,  flat,  wild, 
grassy,  groundy,  sour,  fermented,  and 
hidey ;  and  he  mixes  the  coffees  accordingly 
to  obtain  the  desired  taste  in  the  cup.  Nat- 
urally the  wild,  sour,  groundy,  fermented, 
and  hidey  kinds  are  avoided  as  much  as 
possible.  Coffees  with  a  Rio  flavor  are  used 
only  in  the  cheaper  blends. 

Generally  speaking,  a  properly  balanced 
blend  should  have  a  full  rich  body  as  a 
basis ;  and  to  this  should  be  added  a  growth 


to  give  it  some  acid  character,  and  one  to 
give  it  increased  aroma. 

Personal  preference  is  the  determining 
factor  in  making  up  a  blend.  Some  blenders 
prefer  a  coffee  with  plenty  of  acid  taste; 
while  others  choose  the  non-acid  cup.  For 
the  first-named  kind,  the  blender  will  mix 
together  the  coffees  that  have  an  acidy  char- 
acteristic; while  for  a  non-acidy  blend,  he 
will  mix  an  acidy  growth  with  one  having 
a  neutral  fiavor. 

Coffees  can  be  divided  into  four  great 
classes,  the  neutral-flavored,  the  sweet,  the 
acidy,  and  the  bitter.  All  East  Indian  cof- 
fees, except  Ceylons,  Malabars,  and  the 
other  Hindoostan  growths,  are  classified  as 
bitter,  as  are  old  brow^n  Bucaramangas, 
brown  Bogotas,  and  brown  Santos.  The 
acid  coffees  are  generally  the  new-crop 
washed  varieties  of  the  western  hemisphere, 
such  as  Mexicans,  Costa  Ricas,  Bogotas, 
Caracas,  Guatemalas,  Santos,  etc.  How- 
ever, the  acidity  may  be  toned  down  by  age 


Lambert  Economic  Coffee-Roasting    Outfit  for  Coal  Fire 

This  is  a  self-contained  plant  for  one  or  two  bags,  and  comprises  a  roaster,  rotary  cooler,  elevator  feed 
hopper,  electric  motor,  and  stoning  and  chaffing  attachments.     It  may  be  equipped  for  gas 


398 


ALL     ABOUT     COFFEE 


so  that  they  become  sweet  or  sweet-bitter. 
Red  Santos  is  generally  a  sweet  coffee,  and 
is  prized  by  blenders.  High-grade  washed 
Santo  Domingo  and  Haiti  coffees  are  sweet 
both  when  new  crop  and  when  aged. 

Practical  coffee  blenders  do  not  mix  two 
new-crop  acid  coffees,  or  two  old-crop  bitter 
kinds,  unless  their  bitterness  or  acidity  is 
counteracted  by  coffees  with  opposite 
flavors.  One  blender  insists  that  every 
blend  should  contain  three  coffees. 

Some  Bourbon  and  flat-beaned  Santos 
coffees  are  better  when  new,  and  some  are 


Challenge  Pulverizer 

better  when  old;  but  a  blend  of  fine  old- 
crop  coffee  with  a  snappy  new-crop  coffee 
gives  a  better  result  than  either  separately. 
A  new-crop  Bourbon  and  an  old  yellow 
flat  bean  make  a  better  blend  than  a  new- 
crop  flat  bean  and  an  old-crop  Bourbon. 
Probably  the  very  best  result  in  a  low- 
priced  blend  may  be  obtained  by  using 
one-half  old-crop  Bourbon  Santos  with  one- 
half  new-crop  Haiti  or  Santo  Domingo  of 
the  cheaper  grades. 

Typical  low-priced  coffee  blends  in  the 
United  States  may  be  made  up  of  a  good 
Santos,  possibly  a  Bourbon,  and  some  low- 
cost  Mexican,  Central  American,  Colom- 
bian, or  Venezuelan  coffee,  the  Santos 
counteracting  these  acidy  Milds. 

Groing  next  higher  in  the  scale  of  price, 
fancy  old  Bourbon  Santos  is  used  with  one- 
third  fancy  old  Cucuta  or  a  good  Trujillo. 

For  a  blend  costing  about  five  cents  more 
a  pound  retail,  one-third  fancy  old  Cucuta 
or  Merida  i«  blended  with  fancy  old  Bour- 
bon Santos. 


Monitor  Coffee-Granulating  Machine 

The  highest-priced  blend  may  contain 
two-thirds  of  a  fine  private  estate  Sumatra 
and  one-third  Mocha  or  Longberry  Harari. 

Alfred  W.  McCann,  while  advertising 
manager  for  Francis  H.  Leggett  &  Co.,  New 
York,  in  1910,  evolved  a  new  coffee  distinc- 
tion based  on  the  argument  that  certain 
coffees  like  Mochas,  Mexicans,  Bourbons, 
and  Costa  Ricas  were  developed  in  the  cup 


Coles  No.  22  Grinding  Mill 


FACTORY    PREPARATION 


399 


through  the  action  on  them  of  cream  or 
milk ;  while  others,  such  as  Bogotas,  Javas, 
Maracaibos,  etc.,  flattened  out  when  cream 
or  milk  was  added.  He  argued,  accord- 
ingly, that  breakfast  coffees  should  be  made 
up  from  the  former,  but  that  the  latter 
should  not  be  used  except  for  after-dinner 
coffees,  to  be  drunk  black."  William  B. 
Harris,  then  coffee  expert  for  the  United 
States  Department  of  Agriculture,  took 
issue  with  Mr.  McCann,  claiming  that  if  a 
coffee  is  watery  and  lacks  body,  it  will  not 
take  kindly  to  milk  or  cream,  not  because 
the  chemical  action  of  milk  or  cream  flat- 
tens it  out,  but  because  there  is  nothing 
there  in  the  first  place.  The  strength  of 
the  brew  being  equal,  all  coffees  will  take 
cream  or  milk,  Mr.  Harris  held.^ 

M.  J.  McGarty  said  in  1915  that  he  had 
tried  out  many  coffees  in  the  cup,  and 
could  not  see  that  adding  milk  made  any 
difference.  However,  he  found  that  some- 
times a  line  of  coffees  will  contain  a  sample 
that  flattens  out  at  the  drinking  point  (the 
point  where  the  boiling  water  has  cooled 
to   permit  of  its   being    drunk)  ;    and   he 


*  Tea  and  Coffee  Trade  Jour.,  1910  (vol.  xviii :  no. 
2:  p.  161 ;  and  no.  4  :  p.  319). 

^  Ten  and  Coffee  Trade  Jour.,  1910  (vol.  xviii:  no. 
8  :  p.  242). 


Monitor  Steel-Cut  Grinder,  Separator,  and 
Chaffer 

thought  this  was  what  Mr.  McCann  had  in 
mind,  as,  by  adding  milk  to  such  a  coffee, 
it  was  brought  back  to  the  drinking  point. 
In  other  words,  it  was  Mr.  McGarty 's  opin- 
ion that,  in  blending  coffees,  those  coffees 
which  hold  their  own  from  the  start,  or 
boiling  point,  until  they  become  cold,  or 
even  improve  right  through,  are  more  de- 
sirable for  blending  purposes;  and  that 
those  that  are  best  at  the  drinking  point 
should  be  given  the  preference." 

Coffee  Blends  for  Restav rants 

William  B.  Harris^  believes  that  the  cof- 
fee of  prime  importance  in  preparing  res- 
taurant blends  is  Bogota.  He  advises  the 
use  of  a  full-bodied  Bogota  and  an  acid 
Bourbon  Santos  in  the  proportion  of  three- 
fourths  Bogota  to  one-fourth  Santos. 
Blends  may  also  be  made  up  from  combina- 
tions of  Bogota,  Mexicans,  and  Guatemalas. 

According  to  Mr.  Harris,  the  average 
blend  of  good  coffee  when  made  up,  two 
and  one-half  pounds  of  coffee  to  five  gallons 
of  water,  will  produce  a  liquor  of  good  color 
and  strength.  For  many  hotels,  however, 
this  may  not  answer,  as  it  is  not  heavy 
enough.  More  coffee  must  then  be  used,  or 
ten  percent  of  chicory  added.  A  blend 
with  chicory  can  be  made  by  using  two- 
thirds  Bogota,  one-third  Bourbon  Santos, 


Burns  No.  12  Grinding  Mill 
Designed  for  hotel  and  restaurant  trade 


°  Tea  and  Coffee  Trade  Jour.,  1915  (vol.  xxviii :  pp. 
415-416). 

'  "Making  Coffoe  for  the  Consumer",  Tea  and  Coffee 
Trade  Jour.,  1914  (vol.  xxvi :  pp.  335-338). 


400 


ALL     ABOUT     COFFEE 


and  ten  percent  chicory.  No  steward, 
hotel  man,  or  restaurant  man  should,  how- 
ever, advertise  "coffee"  on  his  menu,  and 
then  serve  a  drink  employing  chicory;  be- 
cause, while  there  is  no  federal  law  against 
such  a  practise,  there  are  state  laws  against 
it.  Chicory  is  all  right  in  its  place;  and 
many  prefer  a  drink  made  from  coffee  and 
chicory ;  but  such  a  drink  can  not  properly 
be  called  coffee. 

Hotel  men  should  purchase  their  coffee 
in  the  bean,  and  do  their  own  grinding. 
Then  they  need  never  have  cause  to  com- 
plain that  their  coffee  man  deceived  them, 
or  that  some  salesman  misled  them.  The 
hotel  steward  wishing  to  furnish  his 
patrons  with  a  heavy-bodied  coffee,  par- 
ticularly a  black  after-dinner  coffee,  ivith- 
out  chicory,  will  use  three,  four,  or  even 
four  and  one-half  pounds  of  ground  coffee 
to  five  gallons  of  water. 

With  so  wide  a  choice  of  coffees  to 
choose  from,  a  coffee  blender  can  make  up 
many  combinations  to  meet  the  demands  of 
his  trade.  Probably  no  two  blenders  use 
exactly  the  same  varieties  in  exactly  the 
same  proportions  to  make  up  a  blend  to  sell 
at  the  same  price.  However,  they  all  fol- 
low the  same  general  principles  laid  down 
in  the  foregoing  flavor  classification  of  the 
world's  coffees. 

Grinding  and  Packaging  Coffee 

Unless  the  coffee  is  to  be  sold  in  the  bean, 
it  is  sent  to  the  grinding  and  packing  de- 
partment, to  be  further  prepared  for  the 
consumer.  Since  the  federal  food  law  has 
been  in  effect,  the  public  has  gained  con- 


The  Ideal  Steel-Cut  IMill 

fidence  in  ground  and  bean  coffee  in  pack- 
ages; and  today  a  large  part  of  the  coffee 
consumed  in  the  United  States  is  sold  in 
one  and  two  pound  cartons  and  cans,  al- 
ready blended  and  ready  for  brewing. 

A  progressive  coffee-packing  house  may 
have  three  different  styles  of  grinding  ma- 
chines ;  one  called  the  granulator  for  turn- 


CABTONS 
TOP    SEALED 


FILLED    XNO  WEIGHED  tMPTV   CARTON   OM  BLOCK 

BOTTOM  SEALED 

Blow -err  c.iuTa' 


tMPTV  CARTON  eeiT' 


/ 

FLAT  CARTON  SUPPLY 


flUS.0  CARTONS  UNDER  PRESSUR| 


Johnson  Carton-Filling.  Weighing,  and  Sealing  Machine 


FACTORY    PREPARATIOX 


401 


ing  out  the  so-called  "steel-cut"  coffee;  the 
second,  a  pulverizer  for  making  a  really 
fine  grind;  and  the  third,  a  grinding  mill 
for  general  factory  work  and  producing  a 
medium-ground  coffee. 

Commercial  coffee-grinding  machines  are 
alike  in  principle  in  all  countries,  the  beans 
being  crushed  or  broken  between  toothed 
or  corrugated  metal  or  stone  members,  one 
revolving  and  the  other  being  stationary. 
While  all  grinding  machines  are  alike  in 
principle,  they  may  vary  in  capacity  and 
design.  The  average  granulator  will  turn 
out  about  five  hundred  pounds  of  "steel- 
cut"  coffee  in  an  hour;  the  pulverizer, 
from  seventy-five  to  two  hundred  pounds; 
and  the  average  grinding  mill  from  five 
hundred  to  six  hundred  pounds.  Some  types 
of  grinding  machines  have  chaff-removing 
attachments  to  remove,  by  air  suction,  the 
chaff  from  the  coffee  as  it  is  being  ground. 

A  large  number  of  trade  terms  for  desig- 
nating different  grinds  of  coffee  are  used  in 
the  United  States,  some  of  them  meaning 
the  same  thing,  while  similar  names  are 
sometimes  contradictory.  A  canvass  of  the 
leading  American  coffee  packers  in  1917' 
discovered  that  there. were  fifteen  terms  in 
use,  and  that  there  were  thirty-four  dif- 
ferent meanings  attached  to  them.  For  the 
term  ' '  fine ' '  there  were  five  different  defini- 
tions; "medium"  had  five;  "coarse", 
seven;    "pulverized",    four;    "steel-cut". 


*  "Coflfee-Making     Questionnaire",     Tea    and    Coffee 
Trade  Jour.,  1917  (vol.  xxx :  no.  1 :  pp.  31  -  34). 


seven;  "ground",  two;  "powdered",  one; 
' '  percolator ' ',  two ;  ' '  steel-cut-chaff-re- 
moved", one;  "Turkish  ground",  one; 
while  "granulated",  "Greek  ground", 
"extra  fine",  "standard",  and  "regular" 
were  not  defined.. 

The  term  "steel-cut"  is  generally  under- 
stood to  mean  that  in  the  grinding  process 
the  chaff  has  been  removed  and  an  approxi- 
mate uniformity  of  granules  has  been 
obtained  by  sifting.  The  term  does  not 
necessarily  mean  that  the  grinding  mills 
have  steel  burrs.  In  fact,  most  firms  em- 
ploy burrs  made  of  cast-iron  or  of  a  com- 
position metal  known  as  "burr  metal", 
because  of  its  combined  hardness  and 
toughness. 

The  "steel-cut"  idea  is  another  of  those 
sophistries  for  which  American  advertising 
methods  have  been  largely  responsible  in 
the  development  of  the  package-coffee  busi- 
ness in  the  United  States.  The  term  "steel- 
cut"  lost  all  its  value  as  an  advertising 
catchword  for  the  original  user  when  every 
other  dealer  began  to  use  it,  no  matter  how 
the  ground  coffee  was  produced.  When  the 
public  has  been  taught  that  coffee  should 
be  "steel-cut",  it  is  hard  to  sell  it  ground 
coffee  unless  it  is  called  "steel-cut";  al- 
though a  truer  education  of  the  consumer 
would  have  caused  him  to  insist  on  buying 
whole  bean  coffee  to  be  ground  at  home. 

"Steel-cut"  coffee,  that  is,  a  medium- 
ground  coffee  with  the  chaff  blown  out,  does 
not  compare  in  cup  test  with  coffee  that 
has  been  more  scientifically  ground  and  not 


...  SMYSEU     PACKAtiE-MAKI.\G-AND-FlLLING     MACHINE    AT    Till:    AkLU  (.  KLL    i'LA.NT.    .\K\V    YOKK 

This  machine  was  invented  by  Henry  E.  Smyser  of  Philadelphia,  who  secured  the  first  patent  in  1880, 
but  it  has  been  much  improved  by  the  Arbuckle  engineers?.  The  half  shown  on  the  left  makes  the 
•  one-pound  paper  bags  complete,  including:  the  separate  lining  of  parchment,  fills  the  bag,  automaficallv 
mserts  a  premium  list  at  the  same  time,  packs  it  down,  seais  it.  and  delivers  it  on  a  short  conveyor  to 
the  other  half  (shown  on  the  right)  where  the  package  is  wrapped  in  the  outside  glassine  paper  and 
pushed  out  on  k  table  for  the  girls  to  put  into  shipping  cases 


402 


ALL     ABOUT     COFFEE 


Machine  for  Automatically  Tacking  Coffee  in  Cartons 

Five   distinct   operations  are   performed   by   the   units  comprising  this  Pneumatic  installation,  viz.,  carton- 
feedingr,    bottom-sealing,    Iming,    weighing   and    top-sealing 


given  the  chaff  removal  treatment  that  is 
largely  associated  in  the  public  mind  with 
the  idea  of  the  steel-cut  process. 

According  to  the  results  of  the  trade  can- 
vass previously  referred  to,  it  would  appear 
that  the  terms  most  suited  to  convey  the 
right  idea  of  the  different  grades  of  grind- 
ing, and  likely  to  be  acceptable  to  the 
greatest  number,  would  be  "coarse"  (for 
boiling,  and  including  all  the  coarser 
grades);  "medium"  (for  coffee  made  in 
the  ordinary  pot,  including  the  so-called 
"steel-cut")  ;  "fine"  (like  granulated 
sugar,  and  used  for  percolators)  ;  "very 
fine"  (like  cornmeal,  and  used  for  drip  or 
filtration  methods)  ;  "powdered"  (like 
flour,  and  used  for  Turkish  coffee). 

Coffee  begins  to  lose  its  strength  imme- 
diately after  roasting,  the  rate  of  loss  in- 
creasing rapidly  after  grinding.  In  a  test 
carried  out  by  a  Michigan  coffee  packer,' 
it  was  discovered  that  a  mixture  of  a  very 
fine  with  a  coarse  grind  gives  the  best  re- 
sults in  the  cup.  It  was  also  determined 
that  coarse  ground  coffee  loses  its  strength 
more  rapidly  than  the  medium  ground; 
while  the  latter  deteriorates  more  quickly 
than  a  fine  ground ;  and  so  on,  down  the 
scale.  His  conclusions  were  that  the  most 
satisfactory  grind  for  putting  into  pack- 
ages that  are  likely  to  stand  for  some  time 
before  being  consumed  is  a  mixture  con- 
sisting of  about  ninety  percent  finely 
ground  coffee  and  ten  percent  coarse.    His 


■  King,  John   E.,  Tea  and   Coffee  Trade  Jour.,  1917 
(vol.  xxxiii :  no.  6:  pp.  552  -  555). 


theory  is  that  the  fine  grind  supplies  suffi- 
ciently high  body  extraction ;  the  coarse, 
the  needful  flavor  and  aroma.  On  this  ir- 
regular grind  a  United  States  patent  (No. 
14,520)  has  been  granted,  in  which  the 
inventor  claims  that  the  ninety  percent  of 
fine  eliminates  the  interstices  —  that  allow 
too  free  ventilation  in  a  coarse  ground  cof- 
fee—  and  consequently  prevents  the  loss 
of  the  highly  volatile  constituents  of  the 
ten  percent  of  coarse-ground  particles,  and 
at  the  same  time  gives  a  full-body  ex- 
traction. 

Making  and  Filling  Containers 

As  stated  before,  a  large  proportion  of 
the  coffee  sold  in  the  United  States  is  put 
up  into  packages,  ready  for  brewing.  Such 
containers  are  grouped  under  the  name  of 
the  material  of  which  they  are  made ;  such 
as  tin,  fiber,  cardboard,  paper,  wood, 
and  combinations  of  these  materials,  such 
as  a  fiber  can  with  tin  top  and  bottom. 
Generally,  coffee  containers  are  lined  with 
chemically  treated  paper  or  foil  to  keep  in 
the  aroma  and  flavor,  and  to  keep  out  mois- 
ture and  contaminating  odors. 

As  the  package  business  grew  in  the 
United  States,  the  machinery  manufac- 
turers kept  pace ;  until  now  there  are  ma- 
chines that,  in  one  continuous  operation, 
open  up  a  "flat"  paper  carton,  seal  the 
bottom  fold,  line  the  carton  with  a  protect- 
ing paper,  weigh  the  coffee  as  it  comes 
down  from  an  overhead  hopper  into  the 
carton,  fold  the  top  and  seal  it,  and  then 
wrap   the  whole  package  in   a  waxed   or 


FACTORY    PREPARATION 


403 


paraffined  paper,  delivering  the  package 
ready  for  shipment  without  having  been 
touched  by  a  human  hand  from  the  first 
operation  to  the  last.  Such  a  machine  can 
put  out  fifteen  to  eighteen  thousand  pack- 
ages a  day. 

Another  type  of  machine  automatically 
manufactures  two  and  three-ply  paper  cans 
such  as  are  used  widely  for  cereal  packages. 
It  winds  the  ribbons  of  heavy  paper  in  a 
spiral  shape,  automatically  gluing  the 
papers  together  to  make  a  can  that  will  not 
permit  its  contents  to  leak  out.  The  ma- 
chine turns  out  its  product  in  long  cylin- 
ders, like  mailing  tubes,  which  are  cut  into 
the  desired  lengths  to  make  the  cans.  The 
paper  or  tin  tops  and  bottoms  are  stamped 
out  on  a  punch  press. 

Coffee  cans  are  generally  filled  by  hand ; 
that  is,  the  can  is  placed  under  the  spout 
of  an  automatic  filling  and  weighing  ma- 
chine by  an  operator  who  slips  on  the  cover 


when  the  can  is  properly  filled.  The  weigh- 
ing machine  has  a  hopper  which  lets  the 
coffee  down  into  a  device  that  gauges  the 
correct  amount,  say  a  pound  or  two  pounds, 
and  then  pours  it  into  the  can.  The  ma- 
chine weighs  the  can  and  its  contents,  and 
if  they  do  not  show  the  exact  predetermined 
weight,  the  device  automatically  operates 
to  supply  the  necessary  quantity.  After 
weighing,  the  can  is  carried  on  a  traveling 
belt  to  the  labeling  machine,  where  the  label 
is  automatically  applied  and  glued.  Then 
the  can  is  put  through  a  drying  compart- 
ment to  make  the  label  stick  quickly. 

Paper  bags  are  filled  much  the  same  way 
as  the  tin  and  the  fiber  cans.  In  fact,  some 
packers  fill  their  paper  and  fiber  cartons 
by  the  same  system ;  although  the  tendency 
among  the  largest  companies  is  to  instal  the 
complete  automatic  packaging  equipment, 
because  of  its  speed  and  economy  in  pack- 
aging.   Frequently,  the  weighing  machines 


Complete  Coffee-Cartoning  Outfit  in  Operation 

The  girl  is  feeding  the  "flats"  into  an  Improved  Johnson  bottom -sealer.     The  carton   travels  to  a  Scott 
weigher  on  the  right  and  thence  to  the  top-sealer  on  the  left 


404 


ALL     ABOUT     COFFEE 


Three  Types  of  Automatic  Coffee-Weigiiikg  Machines 
Left  —  Duplex    net    weigher.        Center  —  Pneumatic  cross-weight  machine.       Right  —  Scott  net  weigher 


are  used  in  filling  wooden  and  fiber  drums 
holding  twenty-five,  fifty,  and  one  hundred 
pounds  of  coffee,  to  be  sold  in  bulk  to  the 
retailer. 

Cojfee  Additions  and  Fillers 

In  all  large  coffee-consuming  countries, 
coffee  additions  and  fillers  have  always 
been  used.  Large  numbers  of  French, 
Italian,  Dutch,  and  German  consumers  in- 
sist on  having  chicory  with  their  coffee,  just 
as  do  many  Southerners  in  the  United 
States. 

The  chief  commercial  reason  for  using 
coffee  additions  and  fillers  is  to  keep  down 
the  cost  of  blends.  For  this  purpose,  chic- 
ory and  many  kinds  of  cooked  cereals  are 
most  generally  used;  while  frequently 
roasted  and  ground  peas,  beans,  and  other 
vegetables  that  will  not  impair  the  flavor 
or  aroma  of  the  brew,  are  employed  in  for- 
eign countries.  Before  Parliament  passed 
the  Adulterant  Act.  some  British  coffee 
men  used  as  fillers  cacao  husks,  acorns,  figs, 
and  lupins,  in  addition  to  chicory  and  the 
other  favorite  fillers. 

Up  to  the  year  1907,  when  the  United 
States  Food  and  Drugs  Act  became  effec- 
tive, chicory  and  cereal  additions  were 
widely  used  by  coffee  packers  and  retailers 
in  this  country.  With  the  enforcement  of 
the  law  requiring  the  label  of  a  package  to 
state  when  a  filler  is  employed,  the  use  of 
additions  gradually  fell  off  in  most  sec- 
tions. 


In  botanical  description  and  chemical 
composition  chicory,  the  most  favored  addi- 
tion^ has  no  relationship  with  coffee.  When 
roasted  and  ground,  it  resembles  coffee  in 
appearance ;  but  it  has  an  entirely  different 
flavor.  However,  many  coffee-drinkers  pre- 
fer their  beverage  when  this  alien  flavor 
has  been  added  to  it. 

Treated  Coffees  and  Dry  Extracts 

The  manufacture  of  prepared,  or  refined, 
coffees  has  become  an  important  branch  of 
the  business  in  the  United  States  and 
Europe.  Prepared  coffees  can  be  divided 
into  two  general  groups :  treated  coffees, 
from  which  the  caffein  has  been  removed  to 
some  degree;  and  dry  coffee  extracts  (solu- 
ble coffee),  which  are  readily  dissolved  in  a 
cup  of  hot  or  cold  water. 

To  decaffeinate  coffee,  the  most  common 
practise  is  to  make  the  green  beans  soft  by 
steaming  under  pressure,  and  then  to  apply 
benzol  or  chloroform  or  alcohol  to  the  soft- 
ened coffee  to  dissolve  and  to  extract  the 
caffein.  Afterward,  the  extracting  solvents 
are  driven  out  of  the  coffee  by  re-steaming. 
However,  chemists  have  not  yet  been  able 
to  expel  all  the  caffein  in  treating  coffee 
commercially,  the  best  efforts  resulting  in 
from  0.3  to  0.07  percent  remaining.  After 
treatment,  the  coffee  beans  are  then  roasted, 
packed,  and  sold  like  ordinary  coffee. 

In  manufacturing  dry  coffee  extract  in 
the  form  of  a  powder  that  is  readily  soluble 
in  water,  the  general  method  is  to  extract 


FACTORY    PREPARATION 


405 


VaCUU.M     DkU.\I    DllIEIi 


Vacuum  drum  drier.  No.  1  size ;  diameter  of 
drum,  12  inches ;  length,  20  inches ;  used  for 
converting  coffee  extract  and  other  liquids  into 
dry  powder  form.  This  is  the  smallest  size, 
and  was  developed  for  drying  smaller  quantities 
of  liquids  than  could  be  handled  economically 
in  the  larger  sizes.  To  provide  accessibility  of 
the  interior  for  cleansing,  the  outer  casing  may 
be  moved  back  on  the  track  of  the  bedplate  (as 
shown  in  the  cut),  so  that  free  access  may  be 
had  to  the  drum  and  interior  of  the  casing. 


Rapid-Circulation   Kvapo  .ato.: 

Used  to  concentrate  coffee  extracts  and  other 
liquids.  The  tubes  are  easily  reached  through 
the  open  door  for  cleansing.  Interitar  of  the 
vapor  body  is  reached  through  a  manhole. 


Vac u ON 


Oust 

COUl.E,CTO« 


KNIF6 


Spi^eaocr 


^    Ofsr 

MATeiei/\u 


JS) 


Keau    \  ikw    of    Dkum    InUEH 

Vacuum  drum  dryer.  No.   1   size ;   rear  view, 
showing  outer  casing  rolled  back  from  the  drum. 


uiQooie  Poiv»r- 

Cros.s-Section  of  Vacuum  Drier 

This  shows  the  Interior  arrangement  and 
principle  of  operation.  The  drawing  represents 
a  larger  size  than  the  photograph,  and  while 
the  arrangement  of  some  parts  is  slightly  dif- 
ferent, the  principle  of  operation  is  the  same. 


UNITS  USED  IN  THE  MANUFACTURE  OF  SOLUBLE  COFFEE 


406 


ALL    ABOUT     COFFEE 


the  drinking  properties  from  ground 
roasted  coffee  by  means  of  water,  and  to 
evaporate  the  resulting  liquid  until  only 
the  coffee  powder  is  left.  Several  methods 
have  been  developed  and  patented  to  pre- 
vent the  valuable  flavor  elements  from 
being  evaporated  with  the  water. 

A  typical  dry  -  coffee  -  extract  -  making 
equipment  consists  of  a  battery  of  per- 
colators, or  "leachers",  a  vacuum  evapo- 
rating device,  and  a  vacuum  drier.  The 
leachers  do  not  differ  materially  from  the 
ordinary  restaurant  percolators,  a  battery 
usually  including  from  three  to  seven  units, 
each  charge  of  water  going  through  all  the 
percolations.  The  resulting  heavy  liquid 
then  goes  to  the  evaporator  to  be  concen- 
trated into  a  thick  liquor.  The  evaporator 
consists  of  a  horizontal  cylindrical  vapor 
compartment  connected  with  an  inclined 
cylindrical  steam  chest  in  which  are  nu- 
merous tubes,  or  flues,  that  occupy  almost 
the  whole  chest.  These  tubes  are  heated  by 
steam.  The  coffee  liquor  is  passed  through 
the  tubes  at  high  speed  and  thrown  with 
great  force  against  a  baffle  plate  at  the 
opening  to  the  vapor  chest.  The  vapor 
passes  around  the  baffle  plate  to  a  separa- 
tor. The  liquor  drops  to  the  lower  part  of 
the  steam-chest  (which  is  free  from  tubes), 
and  is  ready  to  be  drawn  out  for  the  next 
process,  the  drying. 

At  this  stage,  the  extract  is  a  heavily 
concentrated  syrup  and  is  ready  to  be  con- 
verted into  powder.  This  is  done  in  the 
vacuum  drier,  which  consists  of  a  hollow 
revolving  drum  surrounded  by  a  tightly 
sealed  cast-iron  casing.  The  drum  is  heated 


by  steam  injected  into  its  interior,  and 
is  revolved  in  a  high  vacuum.  In  opera- 
tion, a  coating  of  coffee  liquor  is  applied 
automatically,  by  means  of  a  special  device, 
to  the  outside  of  the  drum.  The  liquor  is 
taken  by  gravity  from  the  reservoir  con- 
taining the  liquid  supply  and  is  forced  up- 
ward by  means  of  a  pump  into  the  liquid 
supply  pan,  directly  under  the  drum,  with 
sufficient  pressure  to  cause  the  liquid  to 
adhere  to  the  drum,  the  excess  liquor  over- 
flowing from  the  pan  into  the  reservoir. 
The  coating  on  the  drum  is  controlled  or 
regulated  by  a  spreader.  The  heat  and  the 
vacuum  reduce  the  extract  to  a  dry  powder 
in  less  than  one  revolution  of  the  drum. 
As  the  drum  completes  three-quarters  of  a 
turn,  a  scraper  knife  removes  the  coffee 
powder,  which  is  delivered  to  a  receiver 
below  the  drum.  Modern  vacuum-drum 
driers  have  a  capacity  of  from  twenty-five 
to  five  hundred  pounds  of  dry  soluble  coffee 
per  hour. 

C.  W.  Trigg  and  W,  A.  Hamor  were 
granted  a  patent  in  the  United  States  in 
1919  on  a  new  process  for  making  an 
aromatized  coffee  extract.  In  this  process, 
the  caffeol  of  the  coffee  is  volatilized  and  is 
then  brought  into  contact  with  an  absorb- 
ing medium  such  as  is  used  in  the  extrac- 
tion of  perfumes.  The  absorbing  medium 
is  then  treated  with  a  solvent  of  the  caffeol, 
and  the  solution  is  separated  from  the 
petrolatum.  Then  the  coffee  solution  is 
concentrated  to  an  extract  by  evaporation ; 
after  which,  the  extract  and  the  caffeol  are 
combined  into  a  soluble  coffee.  Five  addi- 
tional patents  were  granted  on  this  same 
process  in  1921. 


Chapter  XXVI 
WHOLESALE     MERCHANDISING     OF     COFFEE 

Roic  coffees  are  sold  at  wholesale  —  The  wholesale  salesman's  place 
in  merchandising  —  Some  coffee  costs  analyzed  —  Handy  coffee-sell- 
ing chart  —  Terms  and  credits  —  About  package  coffees  —  Various 
types  of  coffee  containers  —  Coffee  package  labels  —  Coffee  package 
economies  —  Practical  grocer  helps  —  Coffee  sampling  —  Premium 
method  of  sales  promotion 


COFFEE  is  sold  at  wholesale  in  the 
United  States  chiefly  by  about  4,000 
wholesale  grocers,  who  handle  also 
many  other  items  of  food ;  and  by  roasters, 
who  make  a  specialty  of  preparing  the 
green  coffee  for  consumption,  and  who  fea- 
ture either  bulk  or  trade-marked  package 
goods. 

Much  the  largest  proportion  of  the 
wholesale  coffee  trade  today  is  made  up  of 
roasted  coffees,  though  some  wholesalers 
still  sell  the  green  bean  to  retail  distrib- 
U.ters  who  do  their  own  roasting.  Most  of 
the  roasted  coffee  sold  is  ground ;  although 
in  some  parts  of  the  United  States  there  is 
at  present  a  growing  consumer  demand  for 
coffee  in  the  bean.  Of  the  coffee  sold  in 
trade-marked  packages  in  1919  in  the 
United  States,  about  seventy-five  percent 
was  ground  ready  for  brewing. 

The  larger  wholesale  houses  generally 
■confine  their  operations  to  the  section  of 
the  country  in  which  they  are  located,  but 
■some  of  the  biggest  coffee-packing  firms 
seek  national  distribution.  In  both  cases, 
l)ranch  houses  are  usually  established  at 
strategic  points  to  facilitate  the  serving  of 
retail  customers  with  freshly  roasted  cof- 
fee at  all  times. 

In  recent  years,  too,  it  has  become  a  gen- 
eral practise  for  the  home  offices,  or  main 
headquarters,  to  advertise  their  product  in 
magazines,  newspapers,  street  cars,  and  by 
mail  and  on  billboards;  while  the  branches 
rsolicit  trade  in  their  territories  by  means 


of  traveling  salesmen,  local  newspaper  ad- 
vertisements, booklets,  circulars,  and  dem- 
onstrations at  food  shows. 

The  Wholesale  Salesman 

The  traveling  salesman  is  probably  the 
most  effective  agency  in  securing  the  re- 
tailer's orders  for  coffee.  A  good  coffee 
salesman  not  only  sells  coffee,  but  he 
teaches  his  customer  how  he  can  best  build 
up  and  hold  his  coffee  trade.  He  acquaints 
the  retailer  with  all  the  talking  points 
about  the  coffee  he  handles,  how  to  feature 
it  in  store  displays  and  advertisements, 
how  to  stage  demonstrations  and  to  work 
up  special  sales. 

If  he  is  a  good  salesman,  he  does  not  per- 
mit the  merchant  to  buy  more  coffee  than 
he  can  dispose  of  while  it  is  still  fresh. 
And  he  shows  the  dealer  the  folly  of  han- 
dling too  many  brands  of  package  coffees. 
If  he  sells  coffee  in  bulk,  the  efficient  sales- 
man has  also  a  sound  working  knowledge 
of  blending  principles,  and  is  able  to  sug- 
gest the  kinds  of  coffee  to  blend  to  suit  the 
particular  requirements  of  each  grocer's 
trade.  In  short,  he  takes  an  intelligent  in- 
terest in  his  customer's  business,  and  co- 
operates with  him  in  building  up  a  local 
coffee  trade. 

Some  Coffee  Costs  Analyzed 

In  estimating  the  price  at  which  he  must 
sell  his  coffee  to  make  a  fair  profit,  the 
wholesale  coffee  merchant  has  many  items 


407 


408 


ALL     ABOUT     COFFEE 


of  expense  to  consider.  To  the  cost  of  the 
green  coffee  he  must  add :  the  cost  of  trans- 
portation to  his  plant;  the  loss  in  shrink- 
age in  roasting,  which  ranges  from  fifteen 
to  twenty  percent;  packaging. costs,  if  he 
is  a  packer;  the  items  of  expense  in  doing 
business,  such  as  wages  and  salaries,  ad- 
vertising, buying  and  selling,  freight,  ex- 
press, warehouse  and  cartage,  postage  and 
office  supplies,  telephone  and  telegraph, 
credit  and  collection;  and  the  fixed  over- 
head charges  for  interest,  heat,  light, 
power,  insurance,  taxes,  repairs,  equip- 
ment, depreciation,  losses  from  bad  debts, 
and  miscellaneous  items.^  The  average 
loss  for  bad  debts  among  grocers  in  1916 
was  0.03  percent  of  the  total  sales,  accord- 
ing to  the  director  of  business  research, 
Harvard  University,  who  estimated  also 
that  the  common  figure  for  credit  and  col- 
lection expense  was  0.06  percent.  The  to- 
tal cost  of  doing  business  has  been  esti- 
mated as  ranging  between  twelve  and 
twenty  percent  of  the  total  annual  sales, 
so  that  a  hag  of  green  coffee  costing  $16  in 
New  York  or  New  Orleans  costs  the  coffee 
packer  in  the  Middle  West  from  $22.33  to 
$24.56,  according  to  the  expense  of  carry- 
ing on  his  business. 

Terms  and  Credits 

Wholesale  coffee  trade  contract  terms 
and  credits  are  not  dissimilar  from  those  in 
other  lines  of  commerce.  The  wholesaler 
helps  the  retailer  finance  his  business  to  the 
extent  of  granting  him  thirty  to  sixty  days 
in  which  to  pay  his  bill,  offering  him  a 
cash  discount  if  the  invoice  is  paid  within 
ten  days  of  date  of  sale.  Until  recent 
years,  these  terms  were  frequently  abused, 
the  customer  demanding  much  longer 
credits  and  often  taking  a  ten-day  cash  dis- 
count after  thirty  or  more  days  had 
elapsed.  This  abuse  was  particularly  prev- 
alent from  1907  to  1913,  when  coffee  prices 
were  low  and  competition  was  especially 
keen.2  In  addition,  the  retailers  often  de- 
manded special  deliveries  of  supplies, 
which  added  to  the  wholesalers '  costs ;  and 
some  retailers  refused  to  pay  the  cost  of 
cartage  from  the  cars  to  their  stores. 

With  the  coming  of  high  prices  after  the 
close  of  the  World  War,  the  wholesalers 
showed    a   tendency   to   tighten   up    their 

1  Ach,  F.  J..  Tea  and  Coffee  Trade  Jour.,  1912,  1919 
(vol.  xxiii  :  no.  4:  pp.  133-135;  vol.  xxxvi :  no.  4: 
pp.  344  -  345). 

'  Gillies,  E.  J.,  Tea  and  Coffee  Trade  Jour.,  1913 
(vol.  XXV :  pp.  574-576). 


credit  and  discount  terms,  the  National 
Coffee  Roasters  Association  especially  rec- 
ommending thirty  days'  credit,  or  at  most 
sixty  days,  and  a  maximum  cash  discount 
rate  of  two  percent. 

Another  trade  abuse  which  has  been  cor- 
rected almost  altogether  was  the  practise  of 
"selling  coffee  to  be  billed  as  shipped"; 
that  is,  the  wholesaler  held  coffee  on  order, 
and  billed  only  when  delivered,  even  though 
several  weeks  or  months  had  passed  before 
shipment. 

Adout  Package  Coffees 

Since  the  beginning  of  the  twentieth  cen- 
tury, the  sale  of  coffee  in  packages  has  in- 
creased steadily  until  now  (1922)  this 
form  of  distribution  competes  strongly  with 
bulk  coffee  sales.  While  bulk  coffee  is  still 
preferred  in  some  eastern  sections  of  the 
United  States,  coffee  packers  are  making 
deep  inroads  there,  to  the  extent  that  prac- 
tically all  high  and  medium  grade  retailers 
feature  package  coffees,  either  under  their 
own  brand  name,  or  that  of  a  coffee  spe- 
cialty house. 

The  prime  requisite  for  success  in  any 
package  coffee  is  the  composition  of  the 
blend.  One  of  the  leaders  in  the  field, 
which  we  will  call  Y,  is  said  to  be  com- 
posed of  Bogota,  Bourbon  Santos,  and  Mex- 
ican. In  March,  1922,  it  was  being  sold  at 
retail  in  New  York  for  42  cents.  A  com- 
peting brand,  which  we  will  call  Z,  is  said 
to  be  a  blend  of  Bogota  and  Bourbon 
Santos.  It  was  being  sold  at  retail  in  New 
York,  at  the  same  period  for  the  same  price. 
Simultaneously,  in  the  retail  stores  of  a 
well  known  chain  system,  a  bulk  blend  com- 
posed of  sixty  percent  Bourbon  Santos  and 
forty  percent  Bogota  was  to  be  had  loose 
for  29  cents. 

The  second  important  factor  that  con- 
tributes to  package  coffee  success  is  the 
container.  It  must  be  of  such  a  character 
as  will  best  preserve  the  freshness  —  the 
flavor  and  the  aroma  of  the  coffee  —  until 
it  reaches  the  consumer. 

Package  coffee  has  not  yet  won  universal 
favor.  Some  of  the  arguments  used  against 
it  are:  that  the  price  is  generally  higher 
than  the  same  grade  in  bulk;  that  it  leads 
to  price-cutting  by  stores  that  can  afford  to 
sell  it  at  about  cost  as  a  leader  for  other 
articles;  that  the  margin  of  profit  is  fre- 
quently too  close  for  some  retailers:  that 
when  the  market  advances,  some  packers 
change  their  blends  to  keep  down  cost  and 


ALL    ABOUT    COFFEE 


o 


o 


w 
z 


m 
c 

O 

o 


WHOLESALE    MERCHANDISING 


409 


Coffee-Selling  Chart 

By  a.  J.  Daxxemilleu 
Showing  Prices  to  Be  Obtained  to  Realize  Certain  Percents  on  Sales  of  Roasted  Coffee 


Cost  Roasted 

SrPacked  10% 

11% 

12% 

13% 

14% 

15% 

16% 

17% 

18% 

19% 

20% 

21% 

22% 

23% 

24% 

25% 

4 

4.44 

4.50 

4.55 

4.61 

4.67 

4.72 

4.77 

4.82 

4.88 

4.94 

5.00 

5.07 

5.13 

5.20 

5.26 

5.33 

4}^ 

5.00 

5.06 

5.12 

5.18 

5.24 

5.30 

5.36 

5.43 

5.49 

5.57 

5.63 

5.7.0 

5.77 

5.84 

5.91 

6.00 

5 

5.55 

5.62 

5.68 

5.75 

5.82 

5.89 

5.96 

6.03 

6.10 

6.18 

6.25 

6.33 

6.42 

6.50 

6.55 

6.68 

syi 

6.11 

6.18 

6.25 

6.33 

6.41 

6.49 

6.57 

6.65 

6.72 

6.80 

6.88 

6.97 

7.06 

7.15 

7.24 

7.33 

6 

6.67 

6.74 

6.81 

6.89 

6.97 

7.06 

7.15 

7.24 

7.33 

7.42 

7.50 

7.60 

7.70 

7.80 

7.90 

8.00 

eyi 

7.23 

7.31 

7.38 

7.47 

7.55 

7.84 

7.74 

7.84 

7.94 

8.03 

8.13 

8.24 

8.33 

8.45 

8.56 

8.67 

7 

7.78 

7.87 

7.95 

8.05 

8.15 

8.25 

8.35 

8.45 

8.54 

8.65 

8.75 

8.86 

8.96 

9.09 

9.21 

9.33 

1V2 

8.34 

8.43 

8.52 

8.62 

8.72 

8.83 

8.93 

9.04 

9.15 

9.26 

9.30 

9.50 

9.63 

9.75 

9.87 

10.00 

8 

8.89 

8.99 

9.09 

9.20 

9.31 

9.42 

9.53 

9.65 

9.76 

9.88 

10.00 

10.13 

10.26 

10.39 

10.53 

10.67 

iVi 

9.45 

9.55 

9.66 

9.77 

9.87 

9.99 

10.12 

10.25 

10.37 

10.40 

10.63 

10.76 

10.90 

11.04 

11.19 

11.33 

9 

10.00 

10.12 

10.23 

10.35 

10.47 

10.59 

10.72 

10.85 

10.98 

11.12 

11.25 

11.40 

11.54 

11.70 

11.85 

12.00 

9"^ 

10.56 

10.68 

10.80 

10.92 

11.04 

11.17 

11.31 

11.45 

11.59 

11.73 

11.88 

12.03 

12.18 

12.34 

12.51 

12.67 

10 

11.11 

11.24 

11.37 

11.49 

11.63 

11.77 

11.90 

12.05 

12.20 

12.34 

12.50 

12.66 

12.82 

12.98 

13.16 

13.33 

lOJ^ 

11.66 

11.81 

11.93 

12.07 

12.21 

12.36 

12.49 

12.65 

12.81 

12.95 

13.12 

13.29 

13.46 

13.63 

13.81 

14.00 

11 

12.22 

12.37 

12.50 

12.64 

12.85 

12.95 

13.08 

13.26 

13.43 

13.57 

13.75 

13.93 

14.10 

14.28 

14.47 

14.67 

115^ 

12.77 

12.93 

13.07 

13.21 

13.37 

13.54 

13.68 

13.86 

14.03 

14.19 

14.38 

14.56 

14.74 

14.93 

15.13 

15.33 

12 

13.33 

13.49 

13.64 

13.79 

13.95 

14.12 

14.28 

14.46 

14.65 

14.81 

15.00 

15.19 

15.38 

15.58 

15.79 

16.00 

12J^ 

13.89 

14.05 

14.21 

14.37 

14.53 

14.71 

14.88 

15.06 

15.24 

15.43 

15.63 

15.83 

16.02 

16.23 

16.45 

16.67 

13 

14.44 

14.62 

14.78 

14.93 

15.11 

15.30 

15.47 

15.66 

15.85 

16.05 

16.25 

16.45 

16.67 

16.87 

17.10 

17.33 

\IV2 

15.00 

15.18 

15.33 

15.51 

15.69 

15.88 

16.07 

16.27 

16.46 

16.67 

16.88 

17.08 

17.31 

17.53 

17.76 

18.00 

14 

15.55 

15.73 

15.90 

16.08 

16.28 

16.48 

16.67 

16.84 

17.07 

17.28 

17.50 

17.72 

17.95 

18.17 

18.40 

18.67 

14^^ 

16.11 

16.29 

16.48 

16.65 

16.86 

17.05 

17.26 

17.47 

17.68 

17.90 

18.13 

18.35 

18.59 

18.83 

19.07 

19.33 

15 

16.66 

16.85 

17.05 

17.23 

17.44 

17.65 

17.85 

18.07 

18.29 

18.51 

18.75 

18.98 

19.23 

19.48 

19.74 

20.00 

15J4 

17.23 

17.43 

17.61 

17.80 

18.03 

18.22 

18.45 

18.67 

18.90 

19.13 

19.38 

19.61 

19.87 

20.12 

20.39 

20.67 

16 

17.78 

17.98 

18.18 

18.38 

18.60 

18.83 

19.05 

19.28 

19.51 

19.75 

20.00 

20.25 

20.51 

20.77 

21.05 

21.33 

16^ 

18.33 

18.54 

18.75 

18.97 

19.18 

19.41 

19.64 

19.88 

20.12 

20.38 

20.63 

20.88 

21.16 

21.42 

21.70 

22.00 

17 

18.89 

19.10 

19.33 

19.52 

19.76 

20.01 

20.24 

20.48 

20.73 

21.99 

21.25 

21.51 

21.78 

22.07 

22.36 

22.67 

171^ 

19.44 

19.66 

19.89 

20.10 

20.35 

20.59 

20.83 

21.08 

21.34 

21.60 

22.88 

22.15 

22.43 

22.72 

23.03 

23.33 

18 

20.00 

20.22 

20.45 

20.67 

20.93 

21.18 

21.43 

21.69 

21.95 

22.22 

22.50 

22.78 

23.05 

23.37 

23.68 

24.00 

18J^ 

20.55 

20.79 

21.02 

21.24 

21.51 

21.77 

22.02 

22.29 

22.56 

22.84 

23.13 

23.42 

23.70 

24.02 

24.34 

24.67 

19 

21.11 

21.35 

21.59 

21.84 

22.09 

22.36 

22.62 

22.90 

23.17 

23.45 

23.75 

24.05 

24.34 

24.67 

25.00 

25.33 

19^ 

21.66 

21.91 

22.16 

22.41 

22.68 

22.95 

23.21 

23.50 

23.78 

24.07 

24.38 

24.68 

24.99 

25.32 

25.66 

26.00 

20 

22.22 

22.47 

22.73 

22.99 

23.25 

23.54 

23.81 

24.11 

24.39 

24.68 

25.00 

25.31 

25.64 

25.97 

26.32 

26.67 

20  K2 

22.77 

23.03 

23.30 

23.55 

23.83 

24.14 

24.40 

24.70 

25.00 

25.30 

25.63 

25.94 

26.28 

26.61 

26.97 

27.33 

21 

23.33 

23.60 

23.87 

24.14 

24.42 

24.70 

25.00 

25.30 

25.62 

25.92 

26.25 

26.58 

26.92 

27.26 

27.63 

28.00 

21^ 

23.88 

24.16 

24.43 

24.71 

25.00 

25.29 

25.59 

25.90 

26.22 

26.54 

26.88 

27.22 

27.56 

27.91 

28.28 

28.67 

22 

24.44 

24.72 

25.00 

25.28 

25.58 

25.92 

26.19 

26.51 

26.83 

27.16 

27.50 

27.86 

28.10 

28.56 

28.94 

29.33 

22^ 

24.99 

25.29 

25.57 

25.85 

26.16 

26.47 

26.78 

27.12 

27.44 

27.78 

28.13 

28.48 

28.85 

29.22 

29.61 

30.00 

23 

25.55 

25.85 

26.14 

26.42 

26.74 

27.06 

27.38 

27.71 

28.06 

28.38 

28.75 

29.11 

29.48 

29.86 

30.26 

30.67 

23^ 

26.11 

26.41 

26.70 

27.00 

27.32 

27.66 

27.97 

28.32 

28.66 

29.00 

29.38 

29.76 

30.12 

30.51 

30.92 

31.33 

24 

26.67 

26.97 

27.26 

27.58 

27.90 

28.24 

28.57 

28.92 

29.27 

29.62 

30.00 

30.38 

30.77 

31.17 

31.58 

32.00 

2454 

27.22 

27.54 

27.84 

28.15 

28.49 

28.83 

29.16 

29.52 

29.88 

30.24 

30.63 

31.02 

31.41 

31.81 

32.24 

32.67 

25 

27.78 

28.09 

28.41 

28.73 

29.07 

29.41 

29.76 

30.12 

30.49 

30.86 

31.25 

31.65 

32.05 

32.47 

32.90 

33.33 

Note,  for  Example:    Coffee  costing   13.50  per  100  pounds    (see  first  column),'  to  realize  17%  on  sales,  must  bring  16.27; 
which    really    represents    21%    on    cost 


to  maintain  the  advertised  price ;  and  that, 
when  packed  ground,  there  is  a  rapid  loss 
of  flavor,  aroma,  and  strength. 

Friends  of  package  coffees  point  to  the 
saving  in  time  in  handling  in  th^  store; 
to  the  fact  that  the  contents  of  a  package 
are  not  contaminated  by  odors  or  dirt ;  that 
the  blends  are  prepared  by  experts  and  are 
always  uniform ;  that  the  coffee  is  always 
properly  roasted ;  and,  in  the  case  of  pack- 
age ground  coffee,  properly  ground;  that 
the  brand  names  are  widely  and  consis- 
tently advertised ;  and  that  the  retailer  has 
the  benefit  of  the  packer's  co-operation  in 
building  up  sales  campaigns,  by  means  of 
booklets  and  local  advertising. 

Various  Types  of  Coffee  Containers 

Five  types  of  containers  are  used  for 
packing  coffee,  namely,  cardboard  cartons, 
paper  bags,  fiber  or  paper  cans,  tin  cans, 
and  composite  (tin  and  fiber)  cans  and 
packages.  Fiber  packages  include  paraffin- 
lined  as  well  as  those  that  have  been  chem- 


ically treated  with  other  water-proof  and 
flavor-retaining  substances. 

The  carton  is  popular,  because  it  takes 
up  less  room  in  storage  and  in  shipment  to 
the  packing  plant,  and  also  because  the  la- 
bel can  be  printed  directly  on  the  package. 
Another  economy  feature  is  its  adaptability 
to  the  automatic  packaging  machine,  which 
transforms  it  from  a  flat  sheet  into  a 
wrapped  and  sealed  package  of  coffee. 
Moisture-proof  and  flavor-retaining  inner 
liners  and  outside  wrappers  are  generally 
used  to  prevent  rapid  deterioration  of  the 
coffee's  strength  and  aroma. 

Paper  bags  are  the  least  expensive  con- 
tainers to  be  obtained;  and  when  lined 
with  foil  or  prepared  paper,  they  are  con- 
sidered to  be  satisfactory.  Like  the  car- 
ton, the  label  can  be  printed  directly  on 
the  bag.  They  also  lend  themselves  to  close 
packing  in  shipping  cases. 

Another  popular  type  of  container  is  the 
paper,  or  fiber,  can  which  is  made  of  fiber 
board  with  a  slip  cover.     Fiber  cans  are 


410 


ALL     ABOUT     COFFEE 


also  made  with  tin  tops  and  bottoms,  the 
metal  parts  supplying  a  measure  of  rigid- 
ity to  the  package.  These  composite  pack- 
ages are  made  round,  square,  oblong,  or 
cylindrical. 

Paraffined  containers  are  characterized 
by  an  outer  covering  of  glossy  paraffin,  and 
are  made  in  various  shapes.  In  some 
makes,  the  paraffin  is  forced  into  the  pores 
of  the  paper  base,  making  for  added  flavor- 
retaining  and  moisture-proof  properties. 
In  this  type  of  package  the  label  may  also 
be  printed  direct  on  the  package. 

In  recent  years,  vacuum  packed  coffee 
has  won  great  favor,  first  in  the  West  and 
latterly  in  the  East.  Tin  cans  are  used. 
Vacuum  sealing  machines  close  the  con- 
tainers at  the  rate  of  forty  to  fifty  a  min- 
ute. Private  tests  by  responsible  coffee 
men  are  said  to  have  shown  that  coffee  in 
the  bean  or  ground,  when  vacuum  packed, 
retains  its  freshness  for  a  longer  period 
than  when  packed  by  any  other  method. 

Labels 

Coffee  packers  must  give  due  attention 
to  certain  well  defined  laws  bearing  on 
package  labels.  Before  the  Federal  Pure 
Food  Act  went  into  effect  on  January  1, 
1907,  many  coffee  labels  bore  the  magic 
names  of  ''Mocha"  and  "Java,"  when  in 
fact  neither  of  those  two  celebrated  coffees 
were  used  in  the  blend.  Even  mixtures 
containing  a  large  percentage  of  chicory, 
or  other  addition,  were  labeled  "Pure 
Mocha  and  Java  Coffee."  The  enactment 
of  the  pure  food  law  ended  this  practise, 
making  it  compulsory  that  the  label  should 
state  either  the  actual  coffees  used  in  the 
blend,  or  a  brand  name,  together  with  the 
name  of  either  the  packer  or  the  distributer. 
When  chicory  or  other  addition  is  used, 
the  fact  must  be  stated  in  clear  type  di- 
rectly following  the  brand  name.  The 
reading  matter  on  the  label  should  contain 
facts  only,  and  should  not  bear  extravagant 
claims  of  superior  quality  or  of  methods 
of  preparing  or  packing  that  have  not  been 
followed. 

Coffee  Packaging  Economies 

During  the  United  States'  participation 
in  the  World  War,  tin  became  practically 
unobtainable,  and  coffee  packers  turned  to 
paper  and  fiber  containers  as  substitutes  in 
packaging  nearly  all  grades.  In  this  war 
period,  commercial  economy  became  a  fet- 
ish in  the  business  world ;  and  coffee  pack- 


ers worked  to  save  not  only  material,  but 
shipping  space,  labor,  and  time.  Paper 
and  fiber  containers  proved  to  be  not  only 
practical  but  economical  packages.  Be- 
cause of  their  war-time  experience,  many 
packers  changed  permanently  to  square 
and  oblong  containers.  They  found  these 
containers  could  be  packed  "solid"  in 
shipping  cases,  leaving  no  unfilled  space 
between  packages  as  is  the  case  with  cylin- 
drical cans;  also,  smaller  shipping  cases 
could  be  used.  As  a  further  measure  of 
economy,  several  packers  changed  from  the 
square  "  knocked-down  "  paper  or  fiber  car- 
ton to  the  oblong  carton  that  is  made  up, 
filled,  and  sealed  by  automatic  machinery 
from  a  flat,  printed  sheet  of  cardboard. 
This  type  of  container  is  generally  lined  or 
wrapped  with  a  moisture-proof  and  flavor- 
retaining  paper. 

There  has  been  a  tendency  in  recent 
years  to  standardize  coffee  packages  as  a 
means  of  working  out  packaging  and  ship- 
ping economies.  One  of  the  leading  Amer- 
ican proponents  ^  of  standardization  said : 

One  of  the  first  arguments  raised  against 
standardization  is  that  it  eliminates  individual- 
ity, and  individuality  is  one  of  the  big  guns 
covering  the  front  line  trenches  in  the  war  of 
competition.  The  folly  of  recommending  that 
every  one-pound  cofCee  carton,  for  instance, 
should  be  of  exactly  the  same  size  and  shape  is 
immediately  apparent;  but  let  us  not  confuse 
such  unification  w^ith  standardization. 

Assuming  that  a  pound  of  coffee  may  be  safely 
contained  in  seventy-two  cubic  inches,  we  find 
that  a  carton  three  inches  thick  by  four  inches 
wide  by  six  inches  high  will  serve  our  purpose; 
and,  as  an  illustration  of  extremes,  a  carton 
three  inches  thick  by  three  inches  wide  by  eight 
inches  high,  or  one  [carton]  two  inches  thick  by 
six  inches  wide  by  six  inches  high,  will  each 
have  exactly  the  same  cubical  contents.  In  fact, 
there  is  an  almost  infinite  variety  of  combina- 
tions of  dimensions  which  will  contain  substan- 
tially seventy-two  cubic  inches. 

As  an  example  of  how  coffee  packages 
can  be  standardized  this  authority  cites  the 
following  sizes  of  flat-sheet  containers  and 
their  respective  dimensions  and  capacities : 


Size 
lib. 

V2  lb. 

%lb. 


Thick  and  Wide 

Inches 

2%by4y2 

2%  by  3% 

lA  by  26/8 


High 
Inches 

4y2 


Contents 

Cubic  Ins. 

73.83 

36.91 

18.46 


The  advantages  claimed  for  these  pack- 
ages are  that  each  is  well  proportioned  and 
makes  a  good  selling  appearance;  each 
bears  a  direct  relation  to  the  other  two ;  and 
all  may  be  handled  with  uniformly  good 

»  Wellman,  C.  P.,  Tea  and  Coffee  Trade  Jour.,  1918 
(vol.  xxxiv  :  no.  6:  p.  560). 


WHOLESALE    MERCHANDISING 


411 


COFFEE 


(»«^^XXXX 


i-f 


/8 


13 


20 


Zl 


VARIOUS  TYPES  OF  COFFEE  CONTAINERS 

This  Group  of  Leading  Tbade-Marked  Coffees  Illustrates  the  Wide  Variance  in  Styles  of 
Containers  Used  by  Coffee-Roasters.    The  Packages  Shown  Are  as  Follows  : 

1  —  Double  carton.  2,  3  —  Cartons.  4  —  Fiber  sides,  tin  top  and  bottom,  friction  cover.  5  —  Vacuum 
tin  can.  6  —  Fancy  paper  bag.  7  —  Machine-wrapped  paper  package.  8  —  Fancy  pai)er  bag.  9  — 
Carton  with  patented  opening  and  closing  device.  10  —  Wrapped  paper  package.  11  —  Tin  can  with 
slip  cover.  12  —  All-fiber  can  with  slip  cover.  13  —  Tin  can  with  slip  cover.  14  —  Lithographed 
tin  can  with  friction  cover.  15,  16  —  Tin  cans  with  slip  covers.  17 — Squat  tin  can.  18 — Napa- 
cau.     19,  20,  21  —  Vacuum  tin  cans 


412 


ALL    ABOUT     COFFEE 


results  on  the  same  set  of  standardized 
packaging  machinery.  One  size  of  ship- 
ping case,  instead  of  three,  may  be  used  to 
hold  exactly  the  same  number  of  pounds 
of  coffee,  regardless  of  whether  shipped  in 
one-pound,  half-pound,  or  quarter-pound 
cartons.  For  smaller  dealer  assortments, 
any  two,  or  all  three  sizes  also  exactly  fit 
the  following  standard  shipping  cases : 

For  36  lbs.,  IS'/s"  by  I61/2"  by  12%"  high 
For  54  lbs.,  isys"  by  I61/2"  by  lOys"  high 

This  standardization  of  packages  and 
shipping  containers  results  in  a  lower  cost 
of  containers  and  a  smaller  stock  to  carry, 
with  attendant  reductions  in  details  in  pur- 
chasing and  billing  departments,  in  inven- 
tories, and  in  many  other  overhead  expense 
factors. 

Practical  Grocer  Helps 

Wholesale  coffee  merchandising  does  not 
properly  end  with  the  delivery  of  a  ship- 
ment of  coffee  to  a  retailer.  The  progres- 
sive wholesaler  knows  that  it  is  to  his  best 
interest  to  help  that  grocer  sell  his  coffee 
as  quickly  as  possible ;  to  make  a  good  profit 
on  a  quick  turnover;  and  to  dispose  of  it 
before  the  coffee  has  deteriorated. 

Practical  co-operation  between  wholesaler 
and  retailer  is  one  of  the  most  important 
factors  in  coffee  merchandising.  In  these 
days  of  keen  and  unremitting  competition, 
neither  agency  can  stand  alone  for  long. 
The  progressive  wholesaler  does  not  sell  a 
retailer  a  poorer  quality  of  coffee  for  any 
particular  grade  than  his  trade  calls  for, 
and  he  does  not  load  him  up  with  more 
than  can  be  disposed  of  while  still  fresh. 
He  gauges  the  capacity  and  facilities  of 
each  retail  customer,  and  then  gives  him 
practical  help  to  keep  the  stock  moving. 

The  packer  of  branded  coffees  helps  by 
advertising  to  the  consumer  in  magazines 
and  newspapers,  always  featuring  the  name 
of  his  brands;  and  he  supplies  the  grocer 
with  educational  pamphlets  and  booklets 
on  the  growing,  preparation,  and  merits  of 
coffee  in  general,  with  an  added  fillip  about 
the  desirability  of  his  particular  brand. 
Through  his  salesmen  the  packer  shows  the 
grocer  how  to  display  the  coffee  on  the 
counter  and  in  the  window,  and  often  sup- 
plies him  with  placards  and  cut-outs  fea- 
turing his  brand.  He  co-operates  in  stag- 
ing special  coffee  demonstrations  in  the 
store ;  instructs  the  retailer  in  the  impor- 
tance of  teaching  his  clerks  how  to  talk  and 
to  sell  coffee  intelligently ;  and  how  to  pre- 


pare advertising  copy  for  his  local  news- 
paper, so  as  to  get  the  fullest  measure  of 
profit  from  the  wholesaler's  national  or 
sectional  advertising. 

Coffee  Sampling 

The  sampling  method  of  creating  a  de- 
mand for  merchandise  has  been  tried  in  the 
wholesale  coffee  trade,  only  to  be  abandoned 
by  the  majority  of  packers.  With  other 
and  more  satisfactory  ways  of  creating  con- 
sumer interest,  promiscuous  sampling  was 
found  to  be  too  expensive,  in  view  of  the 
comparatively  small  returns.  One  indict- 
ment against  sampling  is  that  it  does  not 
make  any  more  impression  on  the  average 
person  than  does  an  advertisement  that  ap- 
pears only  once,  and  is  then  abandoned. 
Wideawake  merchants  have  learned  that 
the  public's  memory  is  exceedingly  short; 
and  that  they  must  keep  "hammering" 
with  advertisements  to  establish  and  to 
maintain  a  demand  for  their  products. 

It  would  seem  that  the  logical  place  for 
sampling  is  in  the  retailer's  store,  espe- 
cially in  connection  with  demonstrations. 
Many  progressive  grocers  stimulate  inter- 
est in  their  coffees  by  serving,  on  special 
demonstration  days,  small  cups  of  freshly 
brewed  coffee,  giving  the  customer  a  small 
sample  of  the  brand  or  blend  used,  to  be 
taken  home  to  see  if  the  same  pleasing  re- 
sults can  be  obtained  there  also.  Gen- 
erall}^  this  form  of  sampling,  when  properly 
conducted,  has  shown  a  larger  percentage 
of  returns  than  any  other  method. 

Premium  Method  of  Sales  Promotion 

For  many  years,  the  premium  method  of 
sales  promotion  has  been  an  important  fac- 
tor in  wholesale  coffee  merchandising,  as 
weU  as  in  retail  distribution.  The  pre- 
mium system  has  been  characterized  as  a 
form  of  advertising ;  and  many  coffee  pack- 
ers and  wholesalers  prefer  to  spend  their 
advertising  appropriations  in  that  way 
rather  than  in  transitory  printed  advertise- 
ments in  newspapers  and  general  maga- 
zines. 

While  certain  forms  of  the  system  have 
been  legislated  out  of  existence  in  some 
states,  friends  of  the  plan  claim  that  it  is 
a  true  profit-sharing  method  which  ' '  blesses 
both  him  that  gives  and  him  that  takes"; 
and  that  it  is  an  advanced  and  legitimate 
means  of  promoting  business,  when  prop- 
erly conducted.  They  assert  that  it  is  a 
system  of  sales  promotion  whereby  the  ad- 


WHOLESALE    MERCHANDISING 


413 


vertising  expense,  plus  a  large  percentage 
of  the  profits  of  the  business  stimulated 
thereby,  is  automatically  returned  to  the 
dealer  buyer,  without  increasing  cost  or 
lowering  the  quality  of  the  product  so  ad- 
vertised ;  that  it  eliminates  advertising 
waste  by  producing  a  given  volume  of  sales 
for  a  given  expenditure  of  money ;  that  it 
reduces  the  cost  of  advertising  by  prompt- 
ing a  continuous  series  of  purchases  at  one 
advertising  expense ;  that  it  promotes  cash 
payments  and  discourages  credit  business. 
Premium  users  claim  that  the  force  of  a 
printed  advertisement  is  often  spent  in 
stimulating  the  first  purchase;  while  to  se- 
cure a  premium,  the  purchaser  must  con- 
tinue to  buy  the  commodity  carrying  the 
premium,  or  trade  with  the  giver  of  the 
premium  until  merchandise  of  a  stipulated 
value  or  quantity  has  been  purchased. 

In  general  practise,  the  premium-giving 
cofi^ee  packer  or  wholesaler  may  either  offer 
the  retailer  an  inducement  in  the  form  of 
a  desirable  store  fixture,  household  article, 
or  item  for  his  personal  use ;  or  he  may 
offer  it  to  the  consumer  through  the  re- 
tailer. 

The  methods  of  giving  the  premium  are 
numerous.     To  the  retailer  he  mav  give  the 


article  outright  with  each  purchase  of  a 
stipulated  quantity  of  his  coffee ;  or  he  may 
offer  it  as  a  prize  to  the  retail  distributer 
selling  the  most  coffee  in  a  certain  period 
in  a  specified  territory.  Frequently  the 
premium  is  of  such  value  that  the  whole- 
saler can  not  give  it  with  any  quantity  of 
coffee  a  distributer  can  dispose  of  in  a  short 
time;  so  he  issues  coupons  or  certificates 
with  each  purchase,  permitting  the  retailer 
to  redeem  the  premium  when  he  has  saved 
the  required  number.     Or,  the  retailer  may  ^ 

get  the  pgrmium  with  the  first  purchase  by     "v   ' 
paying  the  difference  in  cash. 

In  giving  premiums  to  consumers,  the 
wholesaler  follows  the  same  general  plan 
used  with  retailers,  except  that  in  most 
cases  the  coupons  are  packed  with  the  oof- 
fee  and  are  redeemable  at  the  retailer's 
store.  Sometimes,  however,  the  consumer 
sends  the  coupons  or  certificates  to  the 
wholesaler,  getting  the  premium  direct 
from  him.  In  another  phase  of  the  pre- 
mium system,  the  retailer  works  independ- 
ently of  the  wholesaler,  buying  and  giving 
away  his  own  premiums  to  promote  or  to 
hold  trade  for  his  store.  This  phase  is  ex- 
plained in  the  chapter  on  retail  coffee  mer- 
chandising. 


414 


ALL     ABOUT     COFFEE 


LUHRS,   OF   roUGIIKEEPSIE,   X.   Y.,   FEATURES   FRESHLY    ROASTED    COFFEE    IN    HiS    WINDOW 

Smoke  from  the  roasters  is  blown  into  street  through  tlie  coffee  pot  hanging  over  the  door 


Johnson,  of  Red  Oak,  Iowa,  Roasts  Before  the  Customer 
Showing   a   Royal   roasting   and   grinding   equipment 

FRESH  ROASTED-COFFEE  IDEA  IN  RETAIL  MERCHANDISING 


RETAIL  MERCHANDISING  OF  ROASTED  COFFEE 

Hoiv  coffees  are  sold  at  retail  —  The  place  of  the  grocer,  the  tea 
and  coffee  dealer,  the  chain  store,  and  the  wagon-route  distributer 
in  the  scheme  of  distribution  —  Starting  in  the  retail  coffee  busi- 
ness —  Small  roasters  for  retail  dealers  —  Model  coffee  depart- 
ments -^  Creating  a  coffee  trade  —  Meeting  competition  —  Splitting 
nickels  —  Figuring  costs  .and  profits  —  A  credit  policy  for  retailers  — 
Premiums 


COFFEE  is  sold  at  retail  in  the  United 
States  through  seven  distinct  chan- 
nels of  trade;  the  independent  retail 
grocers  (about  350,000)  handling  about 
forty  percent  of  the  1,300,000,000  pounds 
sold  annually ;  and  the  other  sixty  percent 
being  sold  by  chain  stores,  mail-order 
houses,  house-to-house  wagon-route  distrib- 
uters, specialty  tea  and  coffee  stores,  de- 
partment stores,  and  drug  stores.  Since  the 
beginning  of  the  twentieth  century,  the  in- 
dependent grocers'  monopoly  in  retail  cof- 
fee-merchandising has  been  dwindling  at  a 
rate  that  has  seriously  alarmed  those  in- 
terests and  their  friends. 

B.  C.  Casanas  of  New  Orleans,  address- 
ing a  convention  of  the  National  Associa- 
tion of  Retail  Grocers  in  the  United  States, 
in  1916,  said  that  the  wholesale  coffee  roast- 
ers of  the  country  had  invested  in  their 
business  $60,000,000 ;  and  that  $135,000,000 
worth  of  roasted  coffee  was  sold  by  them 
every  year. 

Considering  the  methods  of  merchandis- 
ing, the  seven  retail  distributing  agencies 
may  be  grouped  into  three  distinct  classes. 
The  first  class  would  comprise  the  inde- 
pendent grocer,  the  chain  store,  the  depart- 
ment store,  the  drug  store,  and  the  special- 
ty store,  all  of  which  maintain  stores  where 
the  consumer  comes  to  buy.  The  second 
class  takes  in.  the  mail-order  house,  which 
solicits  orders  and  delivers  its    coffee    by 


mail,  and  sometimes  by  freight  or  express. 
The  third  class  covers  the  wagon-route 
dealer,  who  goes  from  house  to  house  seek- 
ing trade,  and  delivers  his  coffee  on  order 
at  regular  periods  direct  to  the  consumer 
in  the  home.  As  an  inducement  to  con- 
tracting for  large  quantities  to  be  delivered 
in  weekly  or  bi-weekly  periods,  the  house- 
to-house  dealer  generally  gives  some  house- 
hold article,  or  the  like,  as  a  premium  to 
establish  good-will  and  to  retain  the  trade 
of  his  customers. 

New  impetus  was  given  to  the  method  of 
selling  coffee  by  mail  when  the  parcel  post 
system  was  adopted  by  the  federal  govern- 
ment in  1912 ;  and  since  then  this  plan  has 
become  an  important  factor  in  retail  coffee- 
merchandising.  Generally,  the  mail-order 
houses  confine  their  sales  efforts  to  agricul- 
tural districts  and  small  towns,  soliciting 
trade  by  catalogs,  by  circular  letters,  and 
by  advertisements  in  local  newspapers,  and 
in  magazines  which  circulate  chiefly  among 
dwellers  in  rural  districts. 

The  majority  of  wagon-route  distributers 
depend  upon  the  lure  of  their  premiums, 
and  on  personal  calls,  to  develop  and  to 
hold  their  coffee  trade.  The  leading  wagon- 
route  companies,  sometimes  called  "pre- 
mium houses",  maintain  offices  and  plants 
in  large  cities  adjacent  to  the  territories  to 
which  they  confine  their  sales  efforts.  At 
strategic  points,  they  have  district  agents 


415 


416 


ALL     ABOUT     COFFEE 


who  engage  the  wagon  men  that  do  the 
actual  soliciting  of  orders  and  that  deliver 
the  coffee.  All  wagon-route  companies 
handle  other  products  besides  coffee,  spe- 
cializing in  tea,  spices,  extracts,  and  such 
household  goods  as  soap,  perfumes,  and 
other  toilet  requisites  that  promise  a  quick 
sale  and  frequent  re-orders.  Some  of  their 
competitors  complain  that  they  handle  only 
the  more  profitable  lines,  leaving  the  inde- 
pendent local  grocer  to  supply  the  house- 
keeper with  the  items  on  which  the  margin 
of  profit  is  comparatively  small. 

Wagon-route  coffee-retailing  began  to 
make  itself  felt  seriously  about  the  year 
1900.  At  first,  the  premiums  usually  con- 
sisted of  a  cup  and  saucer  with  the 
first  order,  the  customer  being  led  to  con- 
tinue buying  until  at  least  a  full  set  of 
dishes  had  been  acquired.  Later,  the  range 
of  premiums  was  expanded ;  until  today 
the  wagon  man  offers  several  hundred  dif- 
ferent articles  that  can  be  used  in  the  home 
or  for  personal  wear  or  adornment.     Prac- 


tically all  the  leading  wagon-route  concerns 
favor  the  advance  premium  method;  that 
is,  a  special  canvasser  induces  a  consumer 
to  contract  for  a  large  quantity  of  coffee 
and  other  products  in  return  for  receiving 
the  premium  at  once,  though  the  coffee  is 
delivered  only  as  the  customer  wants  it, 
generally  two  pounds  every  two  weeks.  The 
wagon  man  delivers  the  coffee,  and  is  usual- 
ly held  responsible  for  the  customer  fulfill- 
ing the  agreement,  and  is  expected  to  se- 
cure repeat  orders  with  other  premiums. 

The  importance  of  the  wagon-route  plan 
of  coffee-retailing  is  shown  by  the  fact  that 
in  1921  there  were  six  hundred  houses  of 
this  kind  in  the  United  States;  and  it  was 
estimated  that  they  distributed  eight  per- 
cent of  the  total  amount  of  the  coffee  con- 
sumed in  the  country.  The  biggest  com- 
pany was  capitalized  at  $16,000,000,  and 
operated  eleven  hundred  wagons.  Most  of 
the  wagon-route  concerns  were  operating  in 
the  central  states,  practically  one-third  of 
them  covering  the  states  of  Illinois,  Wis- 


A  Premium  Tea  and  Coffee  Dealer's  Display  Room 

This  is  the  headquarters  store  of  the  Geo,  F.  Hellkk  Co..  Easton,  Pa.,  a  successful  wagon  coffee  distributer. 
The  premium  merchandise  is  shown  in  the  foreground  :  the  sales  counter,  coffee  mill,  and  display  of  teas, 
coffees,  extracts,  spices,  etc.,  being  in  the  right  background 


RETAIL    MERCHANDISING 


417 


i 


lf©p§i 


ilSI  %>iitfl 


'&,»  ,  ^lt,t 


-iiiBa-;|j{i; 


.UK    M. 


1 


Typical   Chain-Stoke    IXTEiauu   Kquii'ment 


•This  is  the  Atlantic  &  Pacific  Co.'s  store  in   Rhinebeclj,  New  York. 

in  the  United  States 


There  are  nearly  5,000  other  stores  like  it 


r 


eonsin,  Indiana,  and  Iowa.  Pennsylvania 
is  also  a  wagon-route-dealer  center. 

The  premiiiin  wagon-route  distributers 
have  an  organization  called  the  National 
Retail  Tea  and  Coffee  Merchants'  Associa- 
tion. It  is  composed  of  126  members  —  all 
of  whom  use  premiums — who  operate  over 
two  thousand  wagons.  The  largest  single 
wagon-route  operator  is  the  Jewel  Tea 
Company  of  Chicago.  The  members  of  this 
organization  claimed  to  have  served  more 
than  2,000,000  families  in  1920. 

In  the  chain-store  system  of  merchandis- 
ing we  see  the  opposite  extreme  of  coffee 
retailing.  The  wagon-route  man  features 
his  delivery  service ;  while  in  the  chain- 
store  plan,  all  customers  must  pay  cash  and 
carry  home  their  parcels.  Though  the  ear- 
liest established  chain  stores  gave  premi- 
ums, the  practise  has  now  been  generally 
abandoned.  Roasting,  blending,  and  pack- 
ing coffee  in  a  large  central  plant,  the 
chain-store  operator  advertises  that  he  can 
«ell  coffee  at  a  price  lower  than  his  compet- 
itors. As  a  rule,  only  one  grade  of  coffee 
is  offered  for  sale.  While  it  is  generally  a 
good  medium  value,  many  consumers  pre- 
fer better  quality  and  go  to  the  indepen- 
dent grocer  for  it.  Others  patronize  the 
grocer  because  of  his  convenient  delivery 


service,  and  because  he  gives  credit  on  pur- 
chases. Chain-store  organizations  seem  to 
be  growing  rapidly,  however ;  the  largest  of 
the  chains,  the  Great  Atlantic  &  Pacific  Tea 
Co.,  reporting  in  1921  that  it  had  nearly 
five  thousand  branches  throughout  the 
country'-,  which  sell  40,000,000  pounds  of 
coffee  annually.  This  chain  has  a  capitali- 
zation of  $12,000,000,  and  in  1920  sold 
$225,000,000  worth  of  groceries,  as  com- 
pared with  $154,718,124  in  the  preceding 
year.  This  company  opens  about  five  hun- 
dred new  stores  every  year. 

The  chain-store  men  are  organized  in  the 
National  Chain  Store  Grocers  Association, 
having  thirty  members,  representing  12,000 
stores,  operating  in  eighteen  states.  It  is 
estimated  that  there  are  fifty  responsible 
chain-store  grocery  organizations  in  the 
United  States,  representing  about  30,000 
stores.  The  chain-store  grocer  turns  his 
stock  over  from  twelve  to  twenty-five  times 
a  year,  sells  for  cash,  makes  no  deliveries, 
and  claims  to  save  the  consumer  an  average 
of  fifteen  percent  in  buying.  These  stores 
do  business  on  a  net  margin  not  exceeding 
three  percent  on  sales,  as  against  the  aver- 
age retail  grocer's  thirty  percent,  while 
their  average  gross  cost  of  doing  business 
has  been  stated  as  between  thirteen  and 


418 


ALL     ABOUT     COFFEE 


one-half  percent  (lowest)  and  eighteen  and 
one-half  percent  (highest). 

According  to  Alfred  H.  Beckmann, 
secretary-treasurer  of  the  National  Chain 
Store  Grocers'  Association/  "Public  appre- 
ciation of  the  chain  grocery  store  is  rapidly 
growing.  Ten  years  ago  it  was  estimated 
that  chain  stores  in  what  is  known  as  the 
Metropolitan  district  of  New  York  did 
about  123^  percent  of  the  volume  of  busi- 
ness in  their  line,  while  today  it  is  esti- 
mated at  about  fifty  percent". 

It  is  estimated  that  the  fifty-odd  chain 
store  organizations  in  the  United  States 
distribute  through  their  30,000  stores  270,- 
000,000  pounds  of  coffee  a  year,  or  about 
twenty  percent  of  the  total  amount  con- 
sumed in  the  United  States. 

Starting  in  the  Retail  Coffee  Business 

When  taking  up  the  retail  merchandising 
of  coffee,  the  practical  grocer  learns  all  he 
can  about  the  popular  grades  to  be  had  in 
the  principal  markets,  and  how  the  coffees 
are  grown,  roasted,  blended,  and  ground. 
He  also  ascertains  the  best  methods  of 
brewing,  testing  out  each  grade  and  kind 
on  his  own  table,  if  he  does  not  have  test- 
ing facilities  in  his  store.  He  studies  the 
relative  trade  values  of  different  varieties 
of  coffee,  and  the  requirements  of  his  par- 
ticular clientele. 

An  interesting  analysis  of  some  250  gro- 
cery stores  in  the  United  States^  made  in 
1919,  showed  that  twenty-nine  percent  of 
the  dealers  bought  all  their  coffee  from 
wholesale  grocers,  forty-eight  percent .  ex- 
clusively from  roasters  and  specialty  whole- 

^  Tea  and  Coffee  Trade  Jour.,  1922  (vol.  xlii :  no.  1  : 
pp.   75,   76). 

2  Bureau  of  Business  Research,  Harvard  University. 


7^ 


JSJ'i    --_    _    _ 


A 
-  1^ 


-J 


{-     COFFEE 

:j    AND  TEA 
I  DEP'T 


I 


2JJ^i 


-\FRONT/- 


WINDOW 


The   Familiar  A  &  P  Store   Front 


Layout  for  Coffee  and  Tea  Department 

salers,  ten  percent  got  over  one-half  of 
their  coffee  from  wholesale  grocers,  and 
thirteen  percent  bought  less  than  one-half 
from  the  wholesale  grocery  houses. 

There  are  two  fundamental  plans  on 
which  a  retailer  builds  a  successful  coffee 
business  —  by  buying  coffee  already  roasted, 
and  by  buying  it  green  and  roasting  it 
in  the  store.  Each  plan  has  its  advantages;; 
but  its  practicability  depends  upon  condi- 
tions in  different  localities. 

Beyond  acquiring  a  general  talking^ 
knowledge  about  coffees,  the  retailer  buy- 
ing his  stocks  roasted  in  bulk  or  package 
form  does  not  generally  need  the  intimate 
knowledge  of  his  goods  required  by  the 
grocer  who  roasts  his  own  coffee.  If  he 
grinds  the  coffee  for  his  customers  he  must 
know  the  type  of  grind  best  suited  to  the- 
way  the  coffee  is  to  be  brewed,  and  must 
be  able  to  tell  the  best  brewing  method. 

The  practical  grocer  who  makes  up  his 
own  blend  is  acquainted  with  blending- 
principles  and  methods.  While  he  can  not 
expect  to  be  as  expert  as  the  large  whole- 
sale blender,  he  should  know  that  green 
coffees  are  generally  classified  by  blenders^ 
in  five  great  divisions;  (1)  Brazils,  includ- 
ing Santos,  Bourbon  and  flat  bean,  Rios, 
Victorias,  and  Bahias;  (2)  Washed  milds, 
embracing,  as  of  the  most  commercial 
value,  Bogotas,  Bucaramangas,  Guate- 
malas,  Mexicans,  Costa  Ricans,  Maracaibos, 
and  Meridas;  (3)  Unwashed  milds,  such  as: 
Maracaibos,    Bucaramangas,    La   Guairas,. 


RETAIL    MERCHANDISING 


419 


One  of  the  Retail  Coffee-Roasting  Stations  in  Southern  California 


Close-up  of  the  Miniature  Manufacturing  Plant,  Showing  the  Roasting  and  GftiNDiNG 

Equipment 

APPLYING  THE  SPECIALIST  IDEA  TO  COFFEE  MERCHANDISING 

The  Pacific  Stores  Co.,  I>08  Angeles,  cutting  out  deliveries,  premiums,  and  solicitors,  has  built  up  a  busi- 
ness of  more  than  100  bags  of  coffee  daily,  selling  direct  to  the  consumer  in  a  chain  of  100  booths 
patterned  after  the  country-roadside  gasoline  stations;  each  one  having  its  own  roaster 


420 


ALL     ABOUT     COFFEE 


Self-Contaimkd  Monitor  Gas  Roaster,  Cooler, 
AND  Stoker 

and  Mexicans;  (4)  Javas,  Sumatras,  and 
Padangs;  (5)  Mocha,  and  Harari. 

It  has  been  found  by  experience  that  a 
good  assortment  for  the  average  retailer  to 
carry  consists  of  Santos,  because  of  price; 
a  natural  unwashed  Maracaibo  or  Bu- 
caramanga,  because  of  full  body  and  gen- 
eral blending  values;  and  a  washed  coffee, 
preferably  a  Bogota,  which  gives  quality 
and  character  to  a  blend.  In  stocking  up 
with  these  coffees,  the  practical  merchant 
avoids  Santos  with  a  strong  or  Rioy  flavor, 
bitter  or  "hidey"  Maracaibos,  and  acidy 
or  thin  Bogotas/ 

A  grocer  equipped  with  these  coffees  has 
the  Santos  for  his  low-priced  seller.  For  his 
medium  grade  he  blends  Santos  and  Mara- 
caibo, half-and-half.  The  next  higher 
grade  is  made  up  of  one-third  each  of  the 
three  coffees ;  while  the  best  blend  consists 
either  of  half-and-half  Bogota  and  Mara- 
caibo, or  three-quarters  Bogota  and  one- 
quarter  Maracaibo. 

The  chief  advantage  of  these  three  cof- 
fees is  that  they  blend  well  in  any  way  they 
are  mixed;  and  the  dealer  with  a  little  ex- 
perience, and  working  with  the  two  neces- 
sary ideas  in  mind  —  satisfactory  coffee  and 
price  —  can  make  up  various  combinations. 

In  view  of  the  fact  that  the  United  States 
imports  coffee  from  more  than  a  hundred 
different  sections  of  the  world,  and  that 
there  are  wide  variations  in  flavor  among 
the  coffees  produced  in  each  of  the  hun- 
dred, it  is  easy  to  understand  that  the  blen- 

"  Uuryee,  P.  S.  Tea  and  Coffee  Trade  Jour.,  1911 
<vol.  xxi:  no. '2:  pp.  106-110). 


der  has  an  almost  unlimited  supply  from 
w^hich  to  make  up  a  blend  with  a  distinc- 
tive individuality.  Practically  all  coffee 
importers,  and  most  wholesalers,  are  thor- 
oughly acquainted  with  the  relative  trade 
values  of  the  different  coffees,  and  help 
their  eustoniers  make  up  desirable  blends. 

Small  Boasters  for  Retail  Dealers 
While  the  wholesale  coffee  roaster  is  ob- 
liged to  instal  a  large  and  somewhat  com- 
plex equipment,  the  retailer  must  use  a 
small,  compact,  self-contained  unit  that 
does  not  take  up  much  space  in  his  store, 
and  that  is  easily  operated.  Retail  roast- 
ing machines  are  constructed  on  the  same 
general  principle  as  the  wholesale  roaster. 
The  roasting  cylinder  is  generally  revolved 
by  electric  power,  and  the  heat  is  derived 
from  gas  or  gasoline  fuel.  Cooling  is  by  air 
suction  in  a  box  attached  to  the  roaster. 
The  capacities  of  the  machines  range  from 
ten  to  three  hundred  pounds,  the  operating 
cost  running  from  approximately  eight 
cents  per  hundred  pounds  for  gas  fuel  and 
ten  cents  for  electric  power.  The  roasters 
cost  from  three  hundred  dollars  for  the 
smaller  sizes,  to  fifteen  hundred  for  the 
one-bag  type ;  and  to  two  thousand  or  three 
thousand  dollars  for  the  two-bag  type. 

One  coffee-roaster-machinery  manufac- 
turer has  recently  brought  out  a  gas-fired, 
electrically  operated  fifty-pound  miniature 
coffee-roasting  plant  designed  for  retail 
stores,  which  comprises  a  roaster,  a  rotary 
cooler,  and  a  stoning  device,  that  sells  for 
six  hundred  and  fifty  dollars. 


Royal  Gas  Coffee  Roaster  for  Retail  Stores 


RETAIL    MERCHANDISING 


421 


Retail  coffee  roasting:  is  similar  to  the 
wholesale  operation.  When  the  cylinder 
has  become  heated,  the  green  coffee  is  run 
in  and  allowed  to  roast  in  the  revolving 
cylinder  for  about  half  an  hour.  If  the 
coffee  is  the  average  green  kind,  the  full 
heat  may  be  applied  at  once ;  but  if  old  and 
dry,  a  lesser  degree  is  used.  When  the 
roast  begins  to  snap,  the  flame  is  turned 
lower  to  allow  the  beans  to  cook  through 
evenly ;  and  when  nearly  done,  it  is  almost 
extinguished.  During  the  operation,  the 
roasterman,  who  may  be  the  proprietor  or 
a  clerk  delegated  to  the  work,  frequently 
"samples"  the  coffee  by  taking  out  a  small 
quantity  with  his  "trier"  and  comparing 
the  color  of  the  roast  with  a  type  sample. 
When  the  colors  match  exactly,  the  coffee 
is  dumped  automatically  into  the  cooler  box 
just  below  the  cylinder  opening ;  and  when 
sufficiently  cooled  off,  is  ready  for  grinding 
to  order. 

A  large  number  of  retailers  roast  coffee 
in  their  stores;  and  the  most  successful 
find  that  besides  being  able  to  make  a  fea- 
ture of  freshly  roasted  coffee,  they  can  save 
money  and  increase  their  sales.  One  pro- 
gressive grocer  found  that  he  was  able  to 
get  eighty-eight  pounds  of  roasted  coffee 
out  of  one  hundred  pounds  of  green  coffee, 
as  compared  with  the  wholesaler's  eighty- 
four  pounds ;  that  he  could  buy  green  cof- 
fee at  a  closer  price  than  roasted ;  and  that 
it  cost  him  less  for  labor,    fuel,    overhead, 


BuENS  Half-Bag  Gas   Koastino,   Coolixo,  and 
Stoning  Outfit 


Lambert   Junior  (Jas    IJoasting,   Cooling,   and 
Stoning  Outiit  luu  Uetail  Stores 
(Capacity  fifty  pounds) 

and  similar  items,  than  it  did  the  wholesale 
roaster  to  turn  out  a  roast.* 

A  chain  of  coffee  specialty  stores  in 
which  the  coffee  is  roasted  fresh  every  day 
was  started  in  California  about  the  year 
1916 ;  and  according  to  reports,  it  met  with 
almost  instant  success.  In  this  system,  the 
proprietor  buys  the  green  coffee  in  large 
quantities,  and  it  is  roasted  in  each  of  his 
specialty  stores,  which  are  located  in  pub- 
lic markets,  store  windows,  and  alongside 
heavily  traveled  highways.  The  roasting 
machinery  is  invariably  set  up  in  front  of 
the  store  where  passers-by  can  easily  see  it 
in  operation  —  and  also  smell  the  coffee 
roasting.  Four  years  after  starting  the 
first  store,  there  were  fifty  in  operation 
along  the  Pacific  Coast,  doing  an  annual 
business  of  about  $600,000,  some  units  tak- 
ing in  more  than  $7,000  a  month. 

♦Findlay,  Paul.  Tea  and  Coffee  Trade  Jour.,  1916 
(vol.  XXX  :  no.  1:  pp.  72-74). 


422 


ALL     ABOUT     COFFEE 


Model  Coffee  Departments 
Authorities  generally  agree  that  a  well 
laid  out  coffee  department  not  only  in- 
creases a  grocer's  coffee  business,  but 
speeds  up  sales  in  other  departments  as 
well.  Coffee  lovers,  and  they  are  legion  in 
the  United  States,  are  inclined  to  "shop 
around ' '  for  a  coffee  that  suits  their  taste ; 
and  when  they  have  found  the  store  that 
sells  it,  they  buy  their  other  groceries  there 
also.  Another  argument  advanced  in  fav- 
or of  a  coffee  department  is  that  coffee  pays 
more  money  into  the  retailer's  cash  drawer 
than  any  other  grocery  item.^ 

Most  successful  retail  coffee  merchandis- 
ers establish  the  coffee  department  near 
the  entrance  to  the  store,  where  it  can  be 
seen  through  a  window  hy  passers-by,  es- 
pecially if  there  is  an  ornamental  roasting 
and  grinding  equipment.  It  has  been  found 
that  a  department  situated  at  the  left  of 
the  entrance  is  almost  certain  to  draw  at- 
tention   because    people    are    inclined    to 

»Atha,  F.  p.  Tea  and  Coffee  Trade  Jour.,  1919 
(vol.  xxxvii :  no.  ]  :  p.  50 ) . 


glance  in  that  direction  first.  Some  mer- 
chants, having  the  space,  erect  attractive 
booths,  designed  somewhat  like  the  familiar 
food-show  booths,  directly  in  front  of  the 
door,  after  the  fashion  of  department  stores 
when  holding  a  special  sale  on  a  certain  ar- 
ticle. Such  a  booth  is  generally  used  for 
demonstration  purposes,  and  is  decorated 
with  signs  and  possibly  with  bunting.  A 
permanent  department  is  usually  less  or- 
namental, but  still  attractive.  In  telling 
how  he  made  a  success  of  his  department, 
one  American  grocer  said  that  he  was  care- 
ful that  his  fixtures  were  not  so  ornamen- 
tal as  to  draw  attention  from  the  goods. 
While  the  decorations  were  always  attrac- 
tive, they  were  subordinated  sufficiently  to 
form  a  background  for  his  coffee  display. 
The  most  popular  layout  is  the  conven- 
tional counter  system  behind  which  the 
clerk  stands  to  serve  the  customer  on  the 
other  side.  There  are  many  advocates  of 
the  counter  that  is  built  into  the  shelving, 
believing  that  the  closer  the  customers  are 
brought  to  the  coffee,  the  more  they  will  be 


Faulder  and  Simplex  Gas  Roasters  in  an  English  Factory 
The  Faulder  (on  the  left)  is  a  28-lb.  indirect  machin  e.   and   the   Simplex   (also  28  lbs.   capacity)   is  of  the 

direct-flame,  quick-roaster  type 


RETAIL    MERCHANDISING 


Illustrating  tue  Coffee  Roasters  Used  by  the  Shop-Keefeus  ui  inAAcE 

These  machines  are  of  the  ball-cylinder  type,  and  use  gas  as  fuel;   the  cylinder  is  revolved  by  electric 
power.      Invariably  they  stand  where  they  can  be  seen  from   the  street 


inclined  to  buy.  This  system  also  makes 
for  cleanliness,  doing  away  with  the  pos- 
sibility of  the  runway  behind  the  counter 
becomino:  a  catch-all  for  dirt,  torn  paper, 
bits  of  wood,  and  the  like. 

The  modern  coffee  department  has  coun- 
ters divided  into  compartments  having 
glass  fronts.  This  type  serves  both  as  a 
storage  place  for  coffee  and  for  display 
purposes.  The  top  of  the  counter  is  used 
for  wrapping  up  parcels,  etc.,  and  also  for 
displaying  bulk  and  package  coffees.  In 
the  well  regulated  store,  the  counter  top  is 
never  used  for  storage,  all  stock  being  kept 
on  shelves  or  in  the  counter's  compart- 
ments. Good  merchants  find  that  cleanli- 
ness pays;  and  that  a  "littered  up"  store 
drives  away  desirable  custom.  The  wise 
proprietor  never  allows  a  clerk  to  weigh 
out  coffee  after  handling  cheese,  onions, 
and  other  odorous  articles,  without  first 
thoroughly  washing  his  hands.  He  knows 
that  few  food  products  in  his  store  will 
more  quickly  absorb  undesirable  odors  and 
flavors  than  coffee ;  and  consequently  he  is 
careful  to  protect  his  coffee  from  contami- 
nation. In  the  better  stores,  the  proprietor 
will  either  take  charge  of  the  coffee  depart- 


ment himself,  or  will  delegate  a  competent 
man  who  will  do  nothing  else. 

The  wide-awake  retail  coffee  roaster  al- 
ways features  his  roasting  machine,  which 
is  generally  highly  ornamental  and  draws 
attention  even  when  not  in  use.  Some  pro- 
gressive merchants  plan  to  roast  coffee  at 
noon  time  and  at  night,  when  homeward- 
bound  passers-by  are  hungry  and  are  par- 
ticularly susceptible  to  the  pungent  aroma 
of  roasting  coffee.  It  is  a  quite  common 
plan  for  the  retail  roaster  to  arrange  the 
exhaust  of  the  machine  so  that  the  full 
strength  of  the  odor  is  blown  into  the 
street. 

Creating  a  Coffee  Trade 

Because  of  steady  sales  and  quick  profits, 
there  is  keener  competition  in  retail  coffee- 
merchandising  than  in  other  food  products. 
But,  all  things  being  equal,  any  intelligent 
person  can  create  and  hold  a  profitable 
trade  if  he  follows  approved  business  meth- 
ods —  and  works.  The  best  practise  among 
coffee  merchants  shows  that  the  prime  es- 
sential is  good  coffee,  freshly  roasted  and 
ground.  After  that  comes  intelligent  and 
unremitting  sales-promotion  work. 


424 


ALL     ABOUT     COFFEE 


8MALL   Gekman   Roasters 

On  the  left  is  a  hand  roaster  for  wood  or  coal  fuel ; 
on  the  right  is  a  gas  machine. 

The  many  ingenious  trade-building  plans 
worked  out  successfully  by  grocers  in  all 
parts  of  the  country  are  too  numerous  to 
describe  in  a  book  of  this  character ;  but  the 
methods  cited  in  the  following,  all  of  which 
have  been  tested  in  actual  working  condi- 
tions, will  serve  to  indicate  the  fundamen- 
tals of  good  retail  coffee-sales  promotion. 

Among  the  chief  sales-winning  methods 
are  demonstrations  in  the  store,  at  local 
food  shows,  and  at  church  socials,  picnics 
or  functions,  judicious  sampling  either  in 
person  or  by  mail,  personal  canvassing 
from  house  to  house,  circularizing  by  mail, 
linking  up  window  displays  with  current 
happenings,  local  newspaper  and  outdoor 
poster  advertising,  and  selling  coffee  by  tel- 
ephone. Most  of  the  foregoing  plans  are 
worked  intermittently.  The  telephone, 
however,  is  a  most  important  sales  factor 


and  should  be  employed  constantly  and 
consistently.®  Many  successful  stores  con- 
sider the  telephone,  properly  used,  the 
greatest  single  sales-help  in  retail  coffee- 
merchandising. 

One  grocer  had  such  faith  in  this  method 
that  he  paid  half  the  annual  telephone  ren- 
tal for  a  large  number  of  his  best-paying 
customers.  Another  large  merchandiser 
put  in  an  individual  telephone  for  each  of 
his  salesmen,  who  called  up  his  regular  cus- 


PopuLAR  French  Retail  Roaster 
Employing    coal,    charcoal,    or    wood    fuel 


UNO  Cabinet  Gas  Roaster  with  Cooling  Unit 
A  popular  English  type 

tomers  each  day  to  suggest  articles  for  that 
day's  order,  always  of  course  mentioning 
their  ''superior  brand  of  coffee."  Tele- 
phoning is  the  next  step  to  personal  con- 
tact; and  if  tactfully  done,  is  considered  to 
be  even  more  advantageous,  "because  of  the 
time  it  saves  both  the  customer  and  the 
store  keeper. 

Coffee  demonstrations  in  st-ores  are  easily 
arranged,  in  most  cases.  The  main  consid- 
eration is  fresh  coffee  of  good  quality 
served  daintily  and  hot.  Lacking  a  coffee 
urn,    some    grocers    make  their  brews  in 

°  Weir,  Ross  W.     Tea  and  Coffee  Trade  Jour.,  1913 
(vol.   XXV  :   pp.   566-568). 


RETAIL    MERCHANDISING 


425 


large-size  home-service  coffee-making  de- 
vices. Those  most  advanced  in  the  correct 
lethod  of  brewing  use  the  drip  process.  It 
IS  generally  agreed  that  demonstrations 
should  not  be  held  too  often.  They  not  only 
'cut  into  profits,  but  lose  much  of  their  ad- 
vertising value.  Food-show  demonstra- 
tions require  more  elaborate  equipment, 
consisting  of  a  decorated  booth,  education- 
al booklets,  posters,  and  exhibits  of  differ- 
ent kinds  of  coffee,  both  green  and  roasted, 
whole  bean  and  ground.  Generally,  coffee 
packers  cooperate  with  retail  demonstra- 
tors by  supplying  gratis  the  coffee  to  be 
brewed,  if  the  names  of  their  brands  are 
suitably  displayed.  They  supply  also  pos- 
ters, signs,  samples,  and  booklets  for  free 
distribution. 

Window  displays  form  one  of  the  best 
means  of  advertising  at  the  command  of 
the  average  grocer,  and  one  of  the  least  ex- 
pensive. A  popular  coffee  display  consists 
of  a  series  of  educational  ' '  windows, ' ' 
starting  with  green  beans  in  the  bags  in 


which  they  are  shipped  from  the  growing 
country.  Generally  the  bags,  mats,  or  bun- 
dles are  obtained  from  the  wholesale  house, 
and  are  filled  almost  to  the  top  with  some 
inexpensive  stuffing,  the  green  coffee  being 
spread  over  the  top  to  give  the  appearance 
of  a  full  bag.  Pictures  showing  how  the 
coffee  is  grown,  harvested,  prepared,  and 
shipped,  are  frequently  used  in  such  a  dis- 
play. The  next  exhibit  consists  of  whole 
roasted  coffee  spread  thickly  over  the  win- 
dow floor  to  create  the  impression  of  bulk, 
accompanied  by  a  few  pans  of  green  coffee 
by  way  of  contrast,  and  with  pictures 
showing  scenes  in  coffee  roasting  plants.  A 
barrel,  lined  with  blue  paper,  and  lying  on 
its  side  with  roasted  coffee  beans  spilling 
out,  serves  as  a  centerpiece  for  such  a  dis- 
play. Following  this,  comes  a  coffee  pack- 
age window,  accompanied  by  pictures 
showing  how  coffee  is  roasted,  ground,  and 
packed.  This  completes  the  series;  but 
there  are  many  variations  that  have  proved 
successful  as  trade  builders. 


"the    pern    TE^  &COFFEg_CC 


Educational  Window  Exhibit 
This  window  won  first  prize  for  the  western   district   in    the    $2,000    window-trimming    contest    of    National 
Coffee  Week  in  1920.     Action  was  furnished  by  a  small  electric  pump,  which  kept  a  steady  stream  of  coffee 
flowing  from  a  coffee  pot  into  the  coffee  cup 


426 


ALL     A  B  OUT     COFFEE 


Meeting  Competition 

Since  the  advent  of  the  wagon-route  dis- 
tributer and  the  chain  store,  the  indepen- 
dent retail  grocer  has  been  faced  with  the 
problem  of  how  to  regain  at  least  a  fair 
measure  of  the  coffee  trade  he  has  lost.  The 
grocer  is  not  only  concerned  about  his  prof- 
its on  coffee  sales,  but  on  other  goods  as 
well;  for  a  trade  investigation  has  shown 
that  a  large  percentage  of  the  regular  cus- 
tomers of  the  retailer  are  held  to  the  store 
by  their  purchases  of  coffee  and  tea.  This 
means  that  if  coffees  and  teas  are  bought 
from  the  wagon-route  distributer  and  the 
chain  store,  the  balance  of  a  family's  order 
is  ''shopped  around." 

To  meet  this  competition,  the  best 
authorities  agree  that  'the  independent 
grocer  should  feature  coffee  in  every  prac- 
tical way,  such  as  soliciting  coffee  trade 
from  each  customer  that  enters  the  store ; 
give  up  offering  coffee  on  a  price  basis,  and 
make  up  his  own  blends  from  good  quality 
growths;  perhaps  make  up  his  own  brand 
and  push  it  at  every  opportunity;  display 
coffee  artistically,  with  frequent  changes  of 
layouts;  and  have  occasional  store  demon- 


strations. He  should  see  that  the  coffee  is 
roasted  properly,  and  that  it  is  always 
fresh;  that  the  selling  effort  is  not  ex- 
pended on  the  lowest-priced  blend,  but  on 
a  grade  that  can  be  recommended  for  cup 
merit.  This  should  be  a  leader,  but  a 
lower-price  coffee  could  be  carried  to  suit 
the  trade  that  buys  on  price.  Persistent 
efforts  should  be  made  to  educate  the  last- 
named  class  of  customers  to  use  the  better 
grades,  which  in  the  end  are  cheaper  and 
give  better  satisfaction.  In  short,  the 
grocer  should  work  consistently  to  establish 
a  vogue  for  his  leader  blend  on  the  basis  of 
merit. 

Profits  and  Costs 
Because  of  its  influence  on  other  grocery 
items,  coffee  can  often  be  sold  at  a  close 
margin  of  profit,  particularly  if  a  compet- 
itor's store  or  wagons  are  cutting  into  a 
grocer's  neighborhood  trade.  Twenty-five 
.  percent  is  recommended  as  a  reasonable 
gross  profit  on  coffee  in  most  cases,  al- 
though some  grocers  make  less,  and  not  a 
few  make  more;  the  range  being  usually 
from  twenty  to  thirty-nine  percent.  The 
independent  dealer  should  meet  chain -store 


A  Better-Class  Amehican  Grocery  Interior 
Showing  the  coffee  bins  in  orderly  array,  and  the  electric  coffee  grinder 


I 


RETAIL    MERCHANDISING 


427 


A  Prize- Winning  Wiauow  Disi'lay 

This  unusual  display  of  coffee-flavored  eatables  won  first  prize  for  the  southern  district  in  the  National 
Coffee  Week  window-trimming:  contest.  The  cakes,  pies,  tarts,  and  other  pastries  which  constituted 
the  main  feature  rested  in  a  bed  of  green  coffee.  The  customer's  interest  was  cleverly  attracted  to 
the  dealer's  brand  by  a  pyramid  of  large  coffee  cans  in  the  center  background  and  by  two  miniature 
dining-room    sets. 


•competition  in  coffee  on  a  price  basis,  mak- 
ing a  special  on  a  superior  grade  and  figur- 
ing to  get  not  more  than  three  cents  profit 
per  pound,  like  his  competitor.  A  bag  of 
roasted  coffee  will  bring  back  three  dollars 
gain,  and  the  cash  to  pay  for  another  —  and 
the  grocer  has  kept  his  customers,  ninety 
percent  of  whom,  theoretically,  will  have 
bought  their  other  food  supplies  from  him. 
As  a  matter  of  fact,  in  the  last  year  of  the 
World  "War  retailers  showed  a  tendency  to 
demand  cash  on  sales  of  all  grocery  items. 
This  practise  reduces  the  cost  of  operation 
and  allows  the  storekeeper  to  reduce  his 
prices.  A  large  number  of  grocers  charge 
a  small  percentage  of  the  total  sale  for 
credit  privileges,  and  five  or  ten  cents  for 
•each  delivery  below  a  certain  total  value  of 
the  purchase  price  of  the  articles  to  be  de- 
livered. As  a  result,  they  have  been  able 
to  meet  chain-store  competition.    Collective 


buying  has  also  been  a  factor  in  offsetting 
the  inroads  of  the  "chains." 

Splitting  Nickels 

One  of  the  reasons  advanced  for  the  loss 
of  coffee  trade  by  retail  grocers  is  that  they 
price  their  blends  in  "round  numbers", 
that  is  20,  25,  30,  or  40  cents;  while  their 
competitors  "split  nickels",  selling  their 
product  at  18,  23,  28,  or  38  cents. 

Most  of  the  retail  enterprises  in  other 
lines  of  trade  have  built  up  their  business 
on  the  penny-change  plan;  and  many  cof- 
fee men  believe  this  should  become  the  uni- 
versal merchandising  method  among  retail 
distributers  of  coffee.^ 

One  of  the  leading  advocates  of  "split- 
ting nickels"  has  worked  out  a  chart  to 
show  how  coffee  should  be  priced  to  make 
predetermined  profits.      (See  next  page.) 

'  McCreery,  R.  W.  Tea  and  Coffee  Trade  Jour..  1913 
(vol.  xxY  :  no.  6  :  pp.  603-604), 


428 


ALL     ABOUT     COFFEE 


Table  Showing  Pbofit  Percentage  on  Sales 


If  Your 

Coffee 

And 

You 

Sell 

At 

Costs 

2Sc. 

26c. 

27c. 

28c. 

29c. 

30c. 

31c. 

32c. 

33c. 

20c. 

20% 

23% 

26% 

28% 

31% 

33% 

35% 

37% 

39% 

20^c. 

18% 

21% 

24% 

26% 

29% 

31% 

33% 

35% 

37% 

21c. 

16% 

19% 

22% 

25% 

27% 

30% 

32^/o 

34% 

36% 

21J^c. 

14% 

17% 

20% 

23% 

25% 

28% 

30% 

32% 

34% 

22c. 

12% 

15% 

1«% 

21% 

24% 

26% 

29% 

31% 

33% 

22  ^c. 

10% 

13% 

16% 

19% 

22% 

25% 

27% 

29% 

3'1% 

23c. 

8% 

11% 

14% 

17% 

20% 

23% 

25% 

28% 

30% 

23140. 

6% 

9% 

13% 

16% 

19% 

^1% 

24% 

26% 

28% 

24c. 

47o 

7% 

11% 

14% 

17% 

20% 

22% 

25% 

27% 

24140. 

2% 

5% 

9% 

12% 

15% 

18% 

21% 

23% 

25% 

25c. 

0% 

3% 

7% 

10% 

13% 

16% 

19% 

21% 

24% 

25j^c. 

2% 

5% 

8% 

12% 

15% 

17% 

20% 

22% 

26c. 

0% 

3% 

7% 

10% 

13% 

16% 

18% 

21% 

26  ^c. 

1% 

5% 

8% 

11% 

14% 

17% 

19% 

27c. 

0% 

3% 

6% 

10% 

12% 

15% 

18% 

27^c. 

1% 

5% 

8% 

11% 

14% 

16% 

28c. 

0% 

3% 

6% 

9% 

12% 

15% 

Figuring  Costs  and  Profits 

While  the  cost  of  conducting  a  retail  gro- 
cery business  naturally  varies  according  to 
local  conditions  and  the  size  of  the  enter- 
prise, an  investigation  among  some  250 
stores  in  small  and  large  cities  made  in  1919 
by  the  Bureau  of  Business  Kesearch,  Har- 
vard University,  showed  that  the  average 
cost  was  fourteen  percent;  that  the  net 
profit  averaged  two  and  three -tenths  per- 
cent ;  and  that  stock  was  turned  about  sev- 
en times  a  year.  Gross  profits  ran  from 
ten  and  one-half  percent  to  twenty-six  and 
four-one-hundredths  percent  of  the  net 
sales,  the  most  typical  figure  being  sixteen 
and  nine-tenths  percent.  Sales  cost  formed 
the  largest  single  item  of  expense,  varying 
from  three  and  forty-one  hundredths  to 
nine  and  ninety-four  hundredths  percent, 
with  the  bulk  of  figures  showing  around 
one  and  eight-tenths  percent. 

According  to  advanced  business  practise 
the  cost  of  doing  business  should  be  based 
on  these  fourteen  points : 

1.  Charge  interest  on  the  net  amount  of  the 
total  investment  at  the  beginning  of  the  business 
year,  exclusive  of  real  estate. 

2.  Charge  rental  on  real  estate  or  buildings 
at  a  rate  equal  to  that  which  would  be  received 
if  renting  or  leasing  to  others. 

3.  Charge,  in  addition  to  what  is  paid  for 
hired  help,  an  amount  equal  to  what  the  pro- 
prietor's services  would  be  worth  to  others ;  also 
treat  in  lilie  manner  the  services  of  any  member 
of  the  family  employed  in  the  business  and  not 

*on  the  regular  payroll. 

4.  Charge  depreciation  on  all  goods  carried 
over  on  which  a  less  price  may  have  to  be  made 
because  of  damage  or  any  other  cause. 

5.  Charge  depreciation  on  buildings,  tools, 
fixtures,  or  anything  else  suffering  from  age  or 
wear  and  tear. 

6.  Charge  donations  and  subscriptions  paid. 

7.  Charge  all  fixed  expenses,  such  as  taxes, 
insurance,  water,  lights,  fuel,  etc. 

8.  Charge  all  incidental  expenses,  such  as 
drayage,  postage,  office  supplies,  livery  expenses 


of  horses  and  wagons,  telegrams  and  telephones,, 
advertising,  canvassing,  etc. 

9.  Charge  losses  of  every  character,  includ- 
ing goods  stolen,  or  sent  out  and  not  charged,, 
allowances  made  customers,  all  debts,  etc. 

10.  Charge  collection  expense. 

11.  Charge  any  other  expense. not  enumerated 
above. 

12.  When  it  is  ascertained  what  the  sum  of 
all  the  foregoing  items  amounts  to,  prove  it  by 
the  boolvS,  which  will  give  the  total  expense  for 
the  year;  divide  this  figure  by  the  total  of  sales. 
and  it  will  show  the  percent  which  it  has  cost 
to  do  business. 

13.  Taice  this  percent  and  deduct  it  from  the 
price  of  any  article  sold,  then  subtract  from  the 
remainder  what  it  cost  (invoice  price  and 
freight),  and  the  result  will  show  the  net  profit 
or  loss  on  the  article. 

14.  Go  over  the  selling  prices  of  the  various 
articles  and  see  what  are  profits ;  then  get  busy 
in  putting  your  selling  figures  on  a  profitable 
basis  and  talk  it  over  with  your  competitor  as 
well. 

A  Credit  Policy  for  Retailers 

While  the  minor  factors  governing  a. 
credit  policy  for  retailers  vary  with  local 
conditions,  the  fundamental  principles  are- 
alike everywhere,  and  should  have  the 
thoughtful  consideration  of  all  retail  dis- 
tributers of  coffee.  After  a  retail  grocery 
store  experience  of  twenty-five  years,  a  past 
president  of  the  National  Association  of  Re- 
tail Grocers  of  the  United  States'  found 
that  a  grocer  should  insist  upon  references 
and  a  thorough  investigation  of  every  new 
applicant  for  credit,  refusing  the  privilege 
when  the  prospective  customer  hesitates  to 
give  the  needed  information ;  that  he  should 
arrange  a  date  for  periodical  payments,  ex- 
plaining that  this  is  necessary  so  that  the 
storekeeper  can  arrange  to  meet  his  own 
bills,  which  will  enable  him  to  discount  his- 
invoices  and  to  sell  his  goods  cheaper ;  that 
statements  of  accounts  should  be  sent  out 
promptly  and  never  a  few  days  late;  that 
he  should  insist  on  payment  in  full  when 
due,  requesting  the  customer  to  call  if  an 
extension  of  time  is  asked;  that  he  should 
not  let  the  customers  decide  when  they  will 
pay  bills,  bearing  in  mind  that  the  possible- 
loss  of  a  few  customers  who  do  not  pay 
promptly  is  offset  by  the  advantages  of  cash 
when  promised ;  that  he  should  never  aban- 
don the  hope  of  collecting  an  old  account, 
but  should  try  the  method  of  sending  state- 
ments only  to  the  surest  customers,  sending 
a  clerk  for  the  collection  of  all  other  ac- 
counts; that  he  should  personally  examine- 

s  Schaefer,  J.  H.  Tea  and  Coffee  Trade  Jour.,  1917 
(vol.  xxxiii :  no.  1:  p.  72). 


KETAIL    MERCHANDISING 


429 


all  uncollected  accounts  every  month,  in- 
sisting on  a  reason  for  failure  to  pay;  that 
he  should  study  his  customers  and  not  trust 
those  who  give  a  bad  impression ;  that  he 
should  have  the  courage  to  say  "  No "  when 
necessary;  not  to  be  satisfied  with  merely 
a  financial  rating  on  a  credit  applicant,  but 
to  ascertain  his  general  reputation  and 
character;  and  to  help  to  eliminate  the 
"dead  beats"  by  giving  careful  attention 
to  all  requests  received  from  other  retailers 
for  credit  information. 

Premiums  for  Retailers 

House-to-house  dealers  are  the  largest 
users  of  premiums  among  coffee  distribu- 
ters. Most  of  them  operate  under  what  is 
known  as  the  advance-premium  method. 

The  plan  followed  by  house-to-house  deal- 
ers until  about  1910  was  to  issue  checks 
redeemable  in  premiums  after  a  certain 
amount  of  tea,  coffee,  or  other  products  had 
been  purchased.  This  practise  has  not  been 
entirely  abandoned;  but  in  most  instances, 
the  premium  is  now  handed  to  the  consum- 
er in  advance  of  the  initial  purchase,  in 
consideration  of  the  buyer's  promise  to  use 
a  stipulated  quantity  of  tea,  coffee,  or  other 
merchandise.   The  driver  of  the  wagon  gen- 


erally carries  a  portfolio  illustrating  nu- 
merous premium  items  redeemable  through 
the  purchase  of  varying  amounts  of  mer- 
chandise. 

Many  retail  coffee  stores  also  employ  pre- 
miums, using  both  the  old-style  and  "ad- 
vance" methods..  This  type  of  store,  how- 
ever, is  being  supplanted  by  the  chain  gro- 
cery store. 

Some  independent  retail  grocers  use  pre- 
miums to  a  limited  extent.  These  usually 
carry  a  small  line  of  premiums,  featuring 
a  piece  of  kitchenware,  or  other  inexpen- 
sive item,  with  bulk  coffee. 

It  is  significant  that  one  of  the  largest 
chain-store  organizations  in  the  United 
States  —  the  Great  Atlantic  &  Pacific  Tea 
Company  —  uses  few  premiums  today,  al- 
though its  business  was  founded  on  the  pre- 
mium idea. 

Trading  stamps,  which  are  sold  to  gro- 
cers and  other  merchants  by  firms  making 
a  specialty  of  this  form  of  premium-giving 
are  little  used  nowadays.  The  average  re- 
tail grocer  is  antagonistic  to  trading 
stamps,  as  a  result  of  the  methods  of  certain 
unscrupulous  stamp-dealers.  Legislation 
against  trading  stamps  is  in  effect  in  many 
states. 


An,  AjfEKicANizEi)   i; M.I. IS II  Grockk's  Shop 

Ernest  Carterls  store  at ^^St..  Albans^England,  ^operated  under  the  name  of  Thomas  Oakley  &  Co.,  has  a 
distinctly  American  atmospliere,^^ccounted*fo^^by  the  fact  that  the  fittings  were  supplied  by  an 
American  manufacturer,  the  Walker'Bin^Co.,  of  Penn  Yan,  N.  Y.  The  tea  and  coffee  department 
is  shown  in  the  foreground.     The  coffee  is  roasted   in   the  window 


430 


ALL     ABOUT     COFFEE 


SOME  PACKAGE  COFFEES  THAT  ADVERTISING  HAS  MADE  FAMOUS 


Chapter  XXVIII 
A    SHORT   HISTORY   OF    COFFEE    ADVERTISING 

Early  coffee  advertising  —  The  first  coffee  advertisement  in  1587 
was  frank  propaganda  for  the  legitimate  use  of  coffee  —  The  first 
printed  advertisement  in  English  —  The  first  neivpaper  advertise- 
ment — ■  Early  advertisements  in  colonial  America  —  Evolution  of 
advertising  —  Package  coffee  advertising  —  Advertising  to  the  trade 
—  Advertising  hy  means  of  newspapers,  magazines,  hill-hoards,  elec- 
tric signs,  motion  pictures,  demonstrations,  and  hy  samples — Adver- 
tising for  retailers  —  Advertising  hy  government  propaganda — The 
Joint  Coffee  Trade  publicity  campaign  in  the  United  States  —  Coffee 
advertising  efficiency 


IN  a  work  of  this  character  the  chapter 
on  advertising  must  of  necessity  be  in 
story  form.  It  may  tell  what  has  been 
accomplished  in  advertising  coffee,  and  per- 
haps point  the  way  to  greater  achievement. 
In  so  far  as  possible,  the  story  is  supple- 
mented by  illustrations,  which  here  tell  the 
story  even  better  than  words. 

Advertising  to  the  trade  or  the  consumer 
calls  for  expert  advice.  There  are  success- 
ful trade  journalists  who  are  competent  to 
supply  such  advertising  counsel;  and  new- 
comers in  the  field  should  consult  them 
first.  These  men  are  in  the  best  position 
to  suggest  the  means  for  successful  accom- 
plishment. They  know  the  men  who  are 
best  qualified  to  render  assistance  for  all 
media,  and  are  glad  to  recommend  those 
who  can  be  most  helpful. 

Jarvis  A,  Wood  has  said  that  advertis- 
ing is  causing  another  to  know,  to  remem- 
ber, and  to  do.  If  we  agree  with  this  ex- 
cellent definition,  then  the  first  coffee  ad- 
vertisers were  the  early  physicians  and 
writers  who  told  their  fellows  something 
about  the  berry  and  the  beverage  made 
from  it. 

Rhazes  and  Avicenna  told  the  story  in 
Latin,  and  appear  to  have  recommended  a 
coffee  decoction  as  a  stomachic,  as  far  back 


as  the  tenth  century.  Many  other  early 
physicians  refer  to  it.  Thus  it  was  that 
coffee  was  solemnly  introduced  to  the  con- 
sumer as  a  medicine.  The  first  step  made 
by  the  berry  from  the  cabinets  of  the  curi- 
ous, where  it  was  known  as  an  exotic  seed, 
was  into  the  apothecaries'  shops,  where  it 
was  sold  and  advertised  as  a  drug!  Next, 
the  coffee  drink  was  advertised  and  sold  by 
lemonade  venders;  then  by  the  proprietors 
of  the  coffee  houses  and  cafes;  and  finally 
the  coffee  merchant  sold  and  advertised  the 
green  and  roasted  bean. 

Rauwolf  told  the  Germans  about  it  in 
1582;  Abd-al-Kadir  wrote  hi§  famous  Ar- 
gument in  favor  of  the  legitimate  use  of 
coffee  in  Arabic  aljout  1587 ;  Alpini  car- 
ried the  news  to  Italy  in  1592;  English 
travelers  wrote  about  the  beverage  in  the 
sixteenth  and  seventeenth  centuries ;  French 
Orientalists  described  it  about  the  same 
time;  and  America  learned  about  it  long 
before  the  green  beans  were  offered  for 
sale  in  Boston  in  1670. 

Because  of  its  frank  propaganda  char- 
acter, Abd-al-Kadir 's  manuscript  may 
rightly  be  called  the  earliest  advertisement 
for  coffee.  The  author  was  a  lawyer-theo- 
logian, a  follower  of  Mahomet,  and  as  such 
was  eager  to  convince  his  contemporaries. 


431 


432 


ALL     ABOUT     COFFEE 


that  coffee  drinking  was  not  incompatible 
with  the  prophet's  law. 

Soon  the  news  of  the  day  became  the 
advertising  of  the  morrow.  In  1652  ap- 
peared the  first  printed  advertisement  for 
coffee  in  English.  It  was  in  the  form  of 
a  shop-bill,  or  handbill,  issued  by  Pasqua 
Rosee  from  the  first  London  coffee  house 
in  St.  Michael's  Alley,  Cornhill;  and  the 
original  is  preserved  in  the  British  Mu- 
seum. 

It  is  pictured  on  page  55,  chapter  X, 
and  is  worthy  of  close  examination.  It 
reads : 

The  Vertue  of  the  COFFEE  Drink 

First  publiquely  made  and  sold  in  England,  by 
Pasqua  Rosec. 

The  Grain  or  Berry  called  Coffee,  groweth 
upon  little  Trees,  only  in  the  Deserts  of  Arabia. 

It  is  brought  from  thence,  and  drunk  generally 
throughout  all  the  Grand  Seigniors  Dominions. 

It  is  a  simple  innocent  thing,  composed  into 
&  Drink,  by  being  dryed  in  an  Oven,  and  ground 
±0  Powder,  and  boiled  up  with  Spring  water,  and 
about  half  a  pint  of  it  to  be  drunk,  fasting  an 
hour  before,  and  not  Eating  an  hour  after,  and 
to  be  taken  as  hot  as  possibly  can  be  endured ; 
the  which  will  never  fetch  the  skin  ofC  the 
jmouth,  or  raise  any  Blisters,  by  reason  of  that 
Heat. 

The  Turks  drink  at  meals  and  other  times,  is 
usually  Water,  and  their  Dyet  consists  much  of 
Fruit,  the  Crudities  whereof  are  very  much  cor- 
rected by  this  Drink. 

The  quality  of  this  Drink  is  cold  and  Dry ; 
and  though  it  be  a  Dryer,  yet  it  neither  heats, 
iior  inflames  more  then  hot  Posset. 

It  so  closeth  the  Orifice  of  the  Stomack,  and 
fortifies  the  heat  within,  that  it's  very  good  to 
lielp  digestion,  and  therefore  of  great  use  to  be 
taken  about  3  or  4  a  Clock  afternoon,  as  well 
as  in  the  morning. 

It  much  quickens  the  Spirits,  and  makes  the 
Heart  Lightsome.  It  is  good  against  sore  Eys, 
and  the  better  if  you  hold  your  Head  over  it, 
and  take  in  the  Steem  that  way. 

It  suppresseth  Fumes  exceedingly,  and  there- 
fore good  against  the  Head-ach,  and  will  very 
much  stop  any  Defluxion  of  Rheums,  that  distil 
from  the  Head  upon  the  Stomack,  and  so  pre- 
vent and  help  Consumptions ;  and  the  Cough  of 
the  Lungs. 

It  is  excellent  to  prevent  and  cure  the  Dropsy, 
Gout,  and  Scurvy. 

It  is  known  by  experience  to  be  better  than 
any  other  Drying  Drink  for  People  in  years,  or 
Children  that  have  any  running  humors  upon 
them, -aSvthe  Kings  Evil,  &c. 

,  •  It  is  v^ry  good  to  prevent  Mis-carryings   In 
■Child-pearing  Women. 

It  as   a  most   excellent  Remedy   against   the 
Spleen,  Hypocondriack  Winds,  or  the  like. 
',  Ituwill  .prevent  Drowsiness,  and  make  one  fit 
for  business,   if  one  have  occasion  to    Watch; 


and  therefore  you  are  not  to  Drink  of  it  after 
Supper,  unless  you  intend  to  be  watchful,  for  It 
will  hinder  sleep  for  3  or  4  hours. 

It  is  observed  that  in  Turkey,  where  this  is 
generally  drunk,  that  they  are  not  troblcd  with 
the  Stone,  Gout,  Dropsie,  or  Scurvey,  and  that 
their  Skins  are  exceedingly  deer  and  ivhite. 

It  is  neither  Laxative  nor  Restringent. 

Made  and  sold  in  St.  MicJmels  Alley  in  Corn- 
hill,  by  Pasqua  Rosee,  at  the  Signe  of  his  own 
Head. 

The  noteworthy  thing  about  this  adver- 
tisement is,  that  in  comparison  with  the 
best  copy  of  today,  it  has  high  merit.  For 
this  early  advertisement  seems  to  have  em- 
bodied in  it  superbly  well  those  qualifica- 
tions which  modern  advertising  experts 
agree  are  essential  requirements  for  suc- 
cess—  measured  in  terms  of  sales  to  the 
consumer.    We  shall  return  to  it  later. 

The  first  newspaper  advertisement  for 
coffee  appeared  in  the  form  of  a  "reader" 
in  the  issue  of  The  Fublick  Adviser,  Lon- 
don, for  the  week  of  Tuesdav,  May  19,  to 
Tuesday,  May  26,  1657.  The  Puhlick  Ad- 
viser  was  a  weekly  pamphlet  partaking  of 
the  nature  of  a  commercial  news-letter. 
The  advertisement  was  sandwiched  be- 
tween a  reader  advertising  a  doctor  of 
physick  and  one  for  an  "artificer,"  the 
latter  being  a  ladies'  hair-dresser.  It  was 
as  follows: 

In  Bartholomeio  Lane  on  the  back  side  of  the 
Old  Exchange,  the  drink  called  Coffee,  (which 
is  a  very  wholesom  and  Physical  drink,  having 
many  excellent  vertues,  closes  the  Orifice  of  the 
Stomack,  fortifies  the  heat  within,  helpeth  Diges- 
tion, quickneth  the  Spirits,  maketh  the  heart 
lightsom,  is  good  agamist  Eye-sores,  Goughs,  or 
Colds,  Rhumes,  Consumptions,  .Head-ach,  Drop- 
sie, Gout,  Scurvy,  Kings  Evil,  and  many  others 
is  to  be  sold  both  in  the  morning,  and  at  three 
of  the  clock  in  the  afternoon. 

About  the  time  that  Pascal  opened  the 
first  coffee  house  in  Paris  in  1672,  the  Paris 
shopkeepers  began  to  advertise  coffee  by 
broadsides.  A  good  example  is  the  follow- 
ing,^ the  text  of  which  closely  resembles  the 
original  by  Pasqua  Rosee : 

The  most  excellent  Virtue  of  the  Berry  called 
Coffee. 

Coffee  is  a  Berry  wljlch  only  grows  in  the 
desert  of  Arabia,  from  whence  it  is  transported 
into  all  the  Dominions  of. the  Grand  Seigniour. 
which  being  drunk  dries  up  all  the  cold  and 
moist  humours,  disperses  the  wind,  fortifies  the 
Liver,  eases  the  dropsie  by  its  purifying  quality, 
'tis  a  Sovereign  medicine  against  the  itch,  and 
corruptions  of  the  blood,  refreshes  the  heart, 
and  the  vital  beatijng  thereof,  it  relieves  those 

1  Chamberlalne,  John,  translation,  London,  1685, 
from  Dufour's  Traitez  Nouveaux  et  Curieux  du 
Cafi,  du  Thi,  et  dti  Cliocolat. 


COFFEE  ADVERTISING 


433 


that  have  pains  in  their  Stomach,  and  cannot 
eat ;  rt  is  good  also  against  the  indispositions  of 
the  brain,  cold,  moist,  and  heavy,  the  steam 
which  rises  out  of  it  is  good  against  the  Rheums 
of  the  eyes,  and  drumming  in  the  ears:  'Tis 
excellent  also  against  the  shortness  of  the 
breath,  against  Rheums  which  trouble  the  Liver, 
and  the  pains  of  the  Spleen;  It  is  an  extra- 
ordinary ease  against  the  Worms :  After  having 
eat  or  drunk  too  much :  Nothing  is  better  for 
those  that  eat  much  Fruit. 

The  daily  use  hereof  in  a  little  while  will 
manifest  the  aforesaid  effect  to  those,  that  being 
indisposed  shall  use  it  from  time  to  time. 

The  following  are  typical  London  trade 
advertisements  of  1662  and  1663.  The 
first  is  from  the  Kingdom's  Intelligencer  of 
June  5,  166^,  and  reads  as  follows : 

At  the  Exchange  Ally  from  Cornhill  into 
Lumber  Street  neer  the  Conduit,  at  the  Musick- 
Room  belonging  to  the  Palsgrave's  Hall,  is  sold 
by  retayle  the  right  coffee  powder ;  likewise  that 
termed  the  Turkey  Berry,  well  cleansed  at  30d. 
per  pound.  .  .  the  East  India  berry  (so  called) 
of  the  best  sorts  at  20d.  per  pound,  of  which  at 
present  in  divers  places  there  is  very  bad,  which 
the  ignorant  for  cheapness  do  buy,  and  is  the 
chief  cause  of  the  now  bad  coffee  drunk  in  many 
plaies  (sic). 

The  Intelligencer  for  December  21,  1663, 
contained  the  following  advertisement : 

There  is  a  Parcel  of  Coffee-Berry  to  be  put 
to  publique  sale  upon  Wednesday,  the  23.  instant, 
at  6  a  clock  in  the  evening  at  the  Globe  Coffee- 
house at  the  end  of  St.  Bartholomew  Lane,  over 
against  the  North  Gate  of  the  Royall  Exchange. 
.  .  .  And  if  any  desire  to  be  further  informed 
they  may  repair  to  Mr.  Brigg,  Publique  Notary 
at  the  said  Globe  Coffee-house. 

Duf our 's  treatise  on  The  Manner  of  Mak- 
ing Coffee,  Tea  and  Chocolate,  published  in 
Lyons,  1684,  was  generally  regarded  as 
propaganda  for  the  beverage ;  and,  indeed, 
it  proved  an  excellent  advertisement,  being 
quickly  translated  into  English  and  several 
other  languages. 

In  1691  we  find  advertised  in  the  Livre 
Commode  of  Paris  a  portable  coffee-making 
outfit  to  fit  the  pocket. 

The  first  coffee  periodical.  The  New  and 
Curious  Coffee  House,  was  issued  at  Leip- 
zig by  Theophile  Georgi  in  1707,  being  a 
kind  of  house  organ  for  what  was,  perhaps, 
the  first  kaffee-klatsch ;  the  publisher-pro- 
prietor, however,  admitted  that  the  idea  of 
making  his  coffee  salon  a  resort  for  the 
literati  was  obtained  from  Italy. 

In  chapter  X  we  have  described  a  num- 
ber of  broadsides,  handbills,  and  pam- 
phlets having  to  do  with  the  introduction 
of  the  coffee  drink  into  London  between 
1652  and  1675.     The  advertising  student 


New  Coffee  Manufafftory. 

Highljr  BcctfTarf  in  this  City, 

Tilt,  luakriber  iofo-mi*,  ?H«r  fuhik  (hat  he 
h»^  provided  himfelf  vfr.h  proper  ;  leufi.s 
at  Ji  e»n<i-'erai»ie  expfnce,  Ho  hum,  grind  and 
tUiify  Cirt'cf  on  the  EurupcMH  P'»n,  I'o   «$    to 

jjiyc  general  fati  fjiQiwi;  tbl-  uitlul  M.inufic 
I0f¥  -v^ould  frfve  the  iiih».b:tlnti,  on  refiei3iaf}, 
cwnfivieuHle,  in  t.HjtaiUcc,  a>  it  i^  often  tliru' 
w«nt  ui  ktr-.w.*'4|,e  or  Cr.^i/,  inanag-tntfat  in- 
jutcd  and  f,j>Mlti  by  tfuil  n^t  tc  taiccli  fervantjj 
u  hsreas  one  m^k-inf  it  h'$  bu!i:T:l'i  to  fefve  the 
citiiwas  v^iih  co.1e«  icr.dy  preparCsl.woulJ  b«  abl« 
t^msfeffit  tetter  and  Icii  n  cheaper  xkin  It 
could  b«  bought  in  ih-^  g^aw,  bcfifici  hit  of 
timCf  wafte  an<t«x^nce.  ihis  uf,^frt»k.ng  in- 
yitfs  the  pul)l.c  to  try  the  expc{j'«erit,  as  it 
majr  be  >»J«d  in  pnti  ©f  imimis  fu«e»  i'lom.  one  to 
twenty  ^♦tfi^fif,  *eti  p»<kvd  tlijwa  eitort  for  Tea 
or  family  ufe, 'fa  «$  to  k*Cf>  pustd  im  twrsfire 
m#rith«,  »ni  ^^  cieur,  feroi  g  «ad  wdl^caSed, 
ixom.z  pmper  urecipf,  /iip{»%  at  Ko.  4,  Crcat 
£11^^  """■"'■  ^'•^-  f' 


First    Newspaper    Advertisement  Solely    fob 

Coffee  in  the  United  States 

'New  York  Daily  Advertiser,  February  9,  1790 

would  do  well  to  refer  to  them  because  they 
serve  to  show  how  completely  the  true 
merits  of  the  beverage  were  lost  sight  of  by 
those  who  urged  its  more  fantastic  claims. 
It  is  interesting  to  note,  however,  that  this 
early  copy  was  of  a  high  order  of  typo- 
graphical excellence;  indeed,  the  display 
letter  used  for  the  word  coffee  is  often  like 
that  found  in  copy  in  the  United  States 
two  hundred  and  fifty  years  after.  Also, 
it  should  be  noted  that  ''apt  ' illustra- 
tions's'  artful  aid"  was  first  employed  in 
1674.  Again,  note  this  curious  contrast. 
Two  hundred  and  sixty-nine  years  ago  all 
the  resources  of  advertising  were  being  laid 
under  contribution  to  make  propaganda 
for  coffee  as  the  great  cure  for  many  ail- 
ments of  which  nowadays  the  enemies  of 
coffee  would  have  us  believe  coffee  is  the 
cause !  Those  who  have  possessed  them- 
selves of  the  facts  about  coffee  know  that 
both  arguments  are  equally  fantastic. 

Coffee  was  mentioned  in  shop-keepers* 
announcements  appearing  in  the  Boston 
News  Letter  as  early  as  1714,  and  in  other 
newspapers  of  the  colonies  during  the 
eighteenth  century,  usually  being  offered 
for  sale  at  retail  with  strange  companions. 
In  1748  ''tea,  coffee,  indigo,  nutmegs, 
sugar,  etc.,"  were  advertised  for  sale  at  a 
shop  in  Dock  Square,  Boston.     The  follow- 


434 


ALL     ABOUT     COFFEE 


ing    advertisement    from    the    Columhian 
Centinel,  Boston,  April  26,  1794,  is  typical : 

GROCERIES  AT  NO.   44   CORNHILL 
Norton  and  Ilolyoke 
Respectfully  inform  their  friends  and  the  pub- 
lick,  that  they  have  for  sale,  at  their  Shop,  No. 
44  Cornhill,  formerly  the  Post-OfRce. 

A  GENERAL,  ASSORTMENT 
OF   GROCERIES 
among  which  are  the  following  articles : 
Teas,    Spices,    Coffee,    Cotton,    Indigo,    Starch, 
Chocolate,  Raisins,  Figs,  Almonds,  and  Olives ; 
West  India  Rum,  best  French  Brandy,  excellent 
Cherry   Wine,   pure   as   imported,   etc.,   etc.,   all 
which   they   will    sell    as  low    as    any   store   in 
Boston. 

Any  article  not  liked  will  he  taken  again,  and 
the  money  returned. 

It  appears  that  the  first  advertisement 
dealing  with  coffee  alone  was  published  in 
the  New  York  Daily  Advertiser  for  Feb- 
ruary 9,  1790;  and  this  was  primarily  an 
advertisement  of  a  wholesale  coffee  roasting 
factory  rather  than  an  advertisement  ol 
coffee  per  se. 

This  advertisement,  and  a  later  one  pub- 
lished in  Loudon's  New  York  Packet  for 
January  1,  1791,  also  of  a  coffee  manufac- 
tory, are  reproduced  herewith. 

Not  until  package  coffee  began  to  come 
into  vogue  in  the  sixties  was  there  any 
change  in  the  stereotyped  business-card 
form  followed  by  ail  dealers  in  coffee.  And 
even  then  the  monotony  was  varied  only 
by  inserting  the  brand  name,  such  as  * '  Os- 
born's  Celebrated  Prepared  Java  Coffee- 
Put  up  only  by  Lewis  A.  Osborn " ;  "  Gov- 
ernment coffee  in  tin  foil  pound  papers  put 
out  by  Taber  &  Place's  Rubia  Mills." 

Evolution  of  Coffee  Advertising 

Real  progress  in  coffee  advertising,  as  in 
publicity  for  other  lines  of  trade  and  in- 
dustry, began  in  the  United  States.  Here 
too,  it  has  been  brought  to  its  lowest  deg- 
radation and  to  its  highest  efficiency. 
The  entire  process  has  taken  something  less 
than  fifty  years. 

The  first  step  forward  was  the  picture 
handbill.  The  handbill,  or  dodger,  had 
been  common  enough  in  England  and  on 
the  Continent,  where,  for  upward  of  two 
hundred  years  it  had  served  as  an  adver- 
tising medium,  in  company  with  the  more 
robust  broadside,  and  in  competition  with 
the  pamphlet  and  newspaper.  It  remained 
for  America,  however,  to  glorify  the  hand- 
bill by  means  of  colored  pictures;  and  one 
of  the  earliest  and  best  specimens  of  the 


Coffee  Manufaflorjr.  ' 


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■■.'■■:[        ;  *      *.  «*•     ! 

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*     x,>c 

UER^AS  the  hu.'ning  »"«!grtn'*iojr..f  C  fiVe 
being  ♦<'Oiid  hij;Uiy  ittr<*flaiy  «  (vcvikcc 
town  in  Eurcpe  ♦or  •.!»( 
taist-i,  awd  for  thf  '"ui. 
O'lt  <M(!y  fi'lli  't  rnr<f 
ste  ulV.  but  fVfiy  p.Tft 
plying  <o  i«nr  Wfi!  S'q 
it  I*  rotten  injur'-'t  an. I  * 
ricncc  or     prf<j»rr  m 

CJfflcft  feri'antt.  —  Ti:  :    4,.r 

I  >  iVt  it  ii;>  on  the  Tu 

^C'fliry  urenfii    at   a  t  .  tr, 

mstk-  it  purr,  ^  n'^  iiul  ptcib:.,;  i«  «-»rfv  u-  pr-'yt 
diced  pcritm  ;  am^  ai  .t  i*"hc  natu'il  a»d  prrvj:  ng 
nioiivc  of  ll»c  hu!!  an  <ut  d,  to  iTi»k»  nfe  ul  cvtry 
♦rugai  iTirUmd  in  (^  vinjj  ti>-tr  i-  ipret!.  hy  mcarii 
moJt  a«i;pte(5  to  their  own  t  >ie  an!  Ltikfaili-n  — — 
A  kw  nj'imctit'  rrflfli.  «  maft  r«invi  >cc  e*<Ty  ju- 
oi:H>u*snd  liberal  th  ikihg  pcrlcn,  that  it  rati  he 
nadc  nuich  1  eUcramI  tltcaptr  t>f  «>uc  oukm|r  it  hi*. 
Liifinef*  t'>  acco:niiuK'ai«'  (ht  cit  z  vi»  Mitii  tf»t  iiiu<  li 
fimfomcd  article  oil  bftfr  piimfpirs  than  can  p  & 
\Ay  br  f!onc  by  faii.iUr*  leUi'm  having'  pro^wr  uj.n- 
fiU, Although  ihrmamif' ."larinjj  of  cfilT  C  app-sr<>  'o 
be  a  very  limp  c  burrirfi.  it  require*  a  coiTuWii-le 
deal  c>f*Cice&.  ;ttfn  i  >«  to  burn  h  Mell.fo  asr.-  make 
it  retain  in  proper  an  I  grnutne  »afle.  Thi»  can  t»< 
done  only  by  buriiiog  it  ..ver  a  fl  w  eoiil  firr,  n'»k- 
iiig  every  praii.  <>('  *  coppr  r  Ciluur,  ridding  it  of  JiII 
dull  and  chaff,  lu  z»  to  make  it  rrquire  bur  very 
J'rtie  clearing  ;  tbis  wiU  take  fite  larjjr  q»urtcr«  uf 
un'ttirnt  grain,  to  ii>2ks  one  Cp<  una  wtli  ilenn-d, 
but  it  will  go  rnuth  fartJif-  a;i  tdriiik  more  invitirp, 
being  ground  very  even  ar<d  ''<xi\it  ;  and  as  the  pram 
i$chofcn  of  the  heii  np-  qjaluy,  it  wili  atway«  be 
fupcrior  to  the  ran;  iJ  jrd  grejn,  being  •  f  a  nifliowr 
and  rich  flavcred  t^fle,  and  atnayt  worth  three- 
pence or  fatirpcnre  mnre  in  the  poutul  than  the 
tomn^on  green  ;  li.ii  l»eing  i'aldat  the  linafi price  of 
two  fiiiilings  and  threepence  per  pound,  a!l  umter 
the  haif  titi/cn  weight.  Allowance  wi'l  be  inade 
to  grocers  at  a  diHance,  a«  it  tannoi  faiiof  a  ready 
fjle.  Tt  may  b?  iiad  in  any  quirt  ity,  well  p«<  k«il 
d'T-n  in  narit'v  mrushcd  po*»  or  jira  of  any  fia<-, 
fa  3">  to  k-f)  f -r  fix  m-^nth*,  gowl,  ftrnsg,  and 
w  H  fi^v  rr'ri.  as  t!u-  rtrfl  hour  it  wj»  put  up,  with 
Circ  .a  kcepiMkj  ji  wril  cawrcd  from  the  air. 


}K  PRAISE  or  rOFn-E. 
WilHRK  dwell*  the  wretch,  beucath%hat  zone, 
Tucv-^ry  eiegance  in  knojcn  ; 
Wbof;  f»itl  nr-'er  f^lt  the  genial  fire. 
That  CoFlh k'i  fubtiit  tuoic*  luJpire. 
When  thou'rt  r>ifii»'<l  with  nicett  art. 
New  bfc  to  aii  thy  flrram*  impart, 
If-Cynthia*«  hand  she  t.ift  tfTumei, 
Atnlirofia  y!ri4»  to  ihy  per'utnes, 
7'hy  fragrant  bent  al.m«  IhaK  jrain. 
Each  RHBKL  to  thy  pen:'.-  HllGN. 

0*  This  may  l>e  alway*  had  at  the  FACTORY 
(•Aamn  ed  g»ol)  at  No  a.ji,  Q^itcn  Itreet,  nearly 
oppoHtethe  Governor'*. 

Kcw  York,  Dec.  ai,  1790.  6^ 


Early  Coffee  Advertising  in  United  States 
Printed  in  the  New  York  Packet,  January  1,  1791 


COFFEE  ADVERTISING 


435 


IS   CHEAPER   TO   BUY 
ARBUCKI^ES' 

EOASTED  Coffee 

In  One  Pound  Air-Tight  Packages, 

Th&n  to  Buy  Greea  Coffee  and  Roast  it  yourself. 

Bocause  four  iioumts  of  aebicklfV  Roasted  Coffee  will  go  as  far  u 
five  poumls  of  gii-i-ii  Coffee,  as  Coffee  loses  one-fifih  in  roasting  by  tiaad. 
Arbuckles'  Roasted  Cotfee  is  much  better,  hs  every  grain  is  evenly  roasted, 
thus  brittging  out  the  full  -strength  ami  aroma  of  "the  Coffee.  You  cannot 
loast  Coffee  projMTly  yourself. 


FiBST  Handbill  in  Colors  for  Package  Cofiee 
About  1872 

picture  handbill  is  the  Arbuckle  circular 
here  illustrated. 

Soon  the  handbill  copy  began  to  appear 
in  the  newspapers,  but  mostly  without  the 
illustrations.  Later  newspaper  develop- 
ments were  to  introduce  more  of  the  pic- 
ture element,  decorative  border,  and  de- 
sign. The  ideas  of  European  artists  were 
freely  drawn  upon,  but  put  to  so  utilitarian 
uses  that  their  originators  .would  scarce 
have  recognized  them. 

In  the  Ladies  Home  Journal  for  Decem- 
ber, 1888,  the  Great  London  Tea  Company, 
Boston,  an  early  mail-order  house,  adver- 
tised, "We  have  made  a  specialty  since 
1877  of  giving  premiums  to  those  who  buy 
tea  and  coffee  in  large  quantities. ' '  In  the 
same  issue,  there  was  an  advertisement  of 
Seal  Brand  and  Crusade  Brand  coffee  bv 
Chase  &  Sanborn,  Boston.  Dilworth  Bros., 
Pittsburgh,  were  also  among  the  early  users 
of  magazine  space. 

The  menace  of  the  cereil  coffee-substitute 
evil  had  grown  to  such  proportions  at  the 
beginning  of  the  twentieth  century,  that 
the  coffee  men  began  to  be  concerned  about 


it.  Misleading  and  untruthful  "substi- 
tute" copy  was  freely  accepted  by  nearly 
all  media.  The  package  labels  were  as 
bad,  if  not  worse.  With  the  advent  of  the 
pure  food  law  of  1906,  the  cereal  label 
abuse  was  reformed ;  but  not  until  the 
"truth  in  advertising"  movement  became 
a  power  to  be  reckoned  with,  nearly  ten 
years  later,  were  the  coffee  men  granted  a 
substantial  measure  of  protection  in  the 
magazines  and  newspapers.  Meanwhile, 
many  coffee  men,  lacking  organization  and 
a  knowledge  of  the  facts  about  coffee,  un- 
wittingly played  into  the  hands  of  the  sub- 
stitute-fakers by  publishing  unfortunate 
defensive  copy  which  made  confusion  worse 
confounded  in  the  consumer's  mind. 

At  one  time  there  were  nearly  one  hun- 
dred coffee-substitute  concerns  engaged  in 
a    bitter,    untruthful    campaign    directed 

A  Mistake  Many  Women  Make 

What  housewives  discovered  about 
roasting  coffee 

Many  years  ago,  a  great  many  women  used  to  roast  their 
own  coffee.  They  thought  it  was  cheaper  to  do  this.  They 
thought  every  time  they  bought  the  coffee  green  and  roasted 
it  themselves,  tfley  saved  money  for  their  famihes. 

Most  of  them  found  out  long  ago  thai  this  is  a  great  mis- 
take. Instead  of  being  cheaper  to  roast  coffee  by  hand  it 
actually  costs  more  in  the  end.    This  is  tlie  reason  why. 

Why  it  is  wasteful  to  roast  your  own  coffee 

Every  time  you  roast  four  pounds  of  coffee  you  lose  a 
whole  pound  !  One  quarter  of  the  weight  of  the  coffee  ab-' 
solutely  disappears.  Just  think  how  this  increases  the  cost 
of  the  coffee  you  are  actually  able  to  use. 

If  you  have  ever  tasted  any  coffee  that  was  roasted  by  hand 
you  know  how  different  it  is.  Even  the  best  cooks  adrnit  they 
have  no  luck  roasting  coffee.  Part  of  the  berries  are  burnt, 
part  are  still  green,  and  part  have  no  taste  at  all.  Once  in  a 
great  while  it  comes  out  as  it  should. 

Arbuckles'  Coffee  is  roasted  by  experts 

When  you  drink  Arbuckles'  Coffee  you  taste  the  difference' 
in  a  minute.  Every  grain  is  evenly  roasted.  You  get  just  the 
flavor  and  strength  you  want.  It  is  always  the  same.  This  is 
because  coffee  experts  roast  it  for  you,  in  specially  built  roasters. 

Coffee  roasted  by  hand  can  never  be  as  good  as  this.  As 
soon  as  you  taste  Arbuckles'  Coffee  you  know  wbxit  is  the. 
most  popular  coffee  in  America. 


Three  ways  to  make  good  coffee 


Ho» 


ake  boiled  coffee:  the  way  most 


cUan.  II 
just  the  I 
Allow  on 
ol  water, 
lor  the  pi 
toU    wat 


ofiec.  Be  sure  that  the  pot  i 
ve  your  coffee  ground  meJium  fint, 
ize  Arbuckles'  Grojnd  coffee  is. 
■  heaping  lablespoonful  to  each  cup 
spoonful  of  coffee 


lake  it  any  stronger. 
Percolator  coffee:- 


■thes 


X  method:  U«e 


The   dr 


Put  the  coffee  i 

Let   boil   until 

u    Irke.     Settle  wi 

method,   the    li 


r  colfec 


the  pot,  add 
just  the 
Klash  of 


nplest   way: 


ground  very  hue,  almost  to 
a  powder.  Use  only  half  a  lablespoonful  to 
a  cup,  wrth  an  extra  one  for  the  pot.  (flits 
rnelliod  requires  only  half  a»  much  coffee 
as  used  for  other  methods.)  Put  the  coffee 
111  a  piece  of  cUan  clieesecloth,  pour  boij. 
iii^  water  through  it  slowly — through  once 
only.  Be  sure  to  have  water  hoilini;.  1  his 
docs  not    make   as  stion^  coffee  ai  boiling 


a  medium  tine  ground  coffee  for  percolators, 
(just  the  size  Arbuckles'  Ground  coffee  is). 
Allow  a  lablespoonful  to  each  cup  of  coffee  and 
one  extra;  let  the  water  percolate  up  through 
the  coffee  until  it  is  just  the  right  strength. 
Making  coffee  this  way,  you  can  have  it  just 
as  mild  or  strong  a»  you  like,  and  you  can 
rely  upon  its  being  good  every  time. 

Vou  can  make  delicious  coffee  by  any  ol 
these  methods — coffee  your  husband  will  b* 
proud  of.  To  get  these  results  the  coffee  must 
be  right  and  must  always  be  the  same.  Ar* 
buckles'  Coffee  is  put  up  by  Arbuckle  Bros., 
the  greatest  coffee  mcrchania  in  the  world. 
Get  a  package  today  and  see  why  it  is  used 
in  over  a  million  homes. 


Arbuckle  Brothers,  >{ew  York 


Reverse  Side 


OF    THE    AfBUCKLE 

.  Colors)  of  1872 


Handbill    (in 


436 


ALL     ABOUT     COFFEE 


TM  &  mm  WARMOil 

No.  29  FRANKLIN  AVENUE,  near  4th  St., 


E3Sa7.A.13I-iISZZE31D   X058. 


THE  FRANKLIN  TEA  AND  COFFEE  WAREHOUSE  was  opened  for  the  sopplj  of 
Families  with  those  prime  necessaries,  Tea  and  Coffee,  and  each  month  has  witnessed  a  great 
accession  to  the  nunber  of  purchasers.  The  increasing  amount  of  patronage  with  which  I  have  been 
favored,  is  a  satisfactorj  testimonial  to  the  soundness  of  the  principles  upon  which  the  undertaking 
was  founded.  Those  principles  were  scrupulous  care  injecting  those  qualities  of  Tea  and  Coffee 
most  suitable  to  family  use,  an  economical  sjstem  of  management,  and  such  moderate  charges  as  can  onljr 
be  guaranteed  by  a  rigid  adherence  to  the  system  of  Cash  payments.  It  may  be  necessary  to  remind 
my  friends  and  the  public,  that  in  the  Tea  department  of  my  business,  a  very  critical  judgment,  the 
result  of  practical  experience,  is  indispensibly  necessary  in  order  to  ascertain  the  different  qualities. 

The  same  principle  is  rigidly  adhered  to  in  the  Coffee  depart- 
ment An  equal  amount  ot  tact  and  skill  is  required  in  order  to 
secure  for  the  customer  a  full,  rich,  mellow,  fine  flavored  Berry, 
from  which  alone  a  good  cup  of  this  delicious  beverage  can  be  ex- 
tracted. It  is  a  matter  of  importance!  that  the  fioasting  process 
should  be  so  conducted  as  to  prevent  the  escape  of  that  volatile  oil 
with  which  the  Berry  is  impregnated,  and  to  which  it  principally 
owes  its  tonic  and  other  medicinal  qualities.  My  arrangements  by 
Steam-power  for  roasting  and  grinding  Coffee,  cannot  be  surpassed 
by  any  establishment  we->t  of  New  Vork ;  and  my  knowledge  prac- 
tical ;  I  therefore  plede;e  myself  no  please  in  all  cases,  or  the  pack- 
ages may  be  returned. 

I  am  now  receiving  a  large  assortment  ot 
all  the  different  grades  of  GREEN  AND 
BLACK  TEAS,  selected  with  care  from  the 
principal  dealers  in  New  York,  which  I  am 
enabled  to  sell  for  Cash  at  such  prices  as 
must  give  satisfaction  to  every  one  who  will 
favor  me  with  a  trial 

JAMES  FORBES. 


NO.  29  FMKLIJS  AV. 


NEAR  FOURTH  STREET,  A  FEW  DOORS  WEST  OF  BROADWAY,  WITH  STEAM 
ENGINE  AND  COFFEE  MILLS  IN  THE  WINDOW. 

Frosli  Parched  and  Ground  Coffee  always  on  hand — Warranted. 


A  ST.  LOUIS  HANDBIIiL  OF  1854 


COFFEE  ADVERTISING 


437 


^rbuckles'Ariosa  Coffee 

■^     ^    COSTS  MORE  AND  IS  WORTH 
MORE  THAN  OTHER  BRANDS  OF  COFFEE 

WH  Y  ? 

tst.  It  is  made  from  green  coffee  of  higher  grade 
and  better  drinking  quality  ;  and  it  is  gjazed 
at  an-  actual  cost  to  us  of  thre^-eighths  of  a 
cent  per  pound. 

2d  Its  entire  strength  and  aroma  are  retained  by 
our  process  of  glazing  coffee.. 

3d.  The  ingredients  used  in  glazing  are  the  choicest 
eggs,  and  pure  confectioners'  "A"  sugar;  in 
testimony  of  this  fact,  see  our  affidavit  on 
each  package  of  cofl^ee  bearing  our  name. 

4th.  The  glazing  composed  of  eggs  and  sugar  not 
only  retains  the  full  strength  and  aroma  of 
our  coffee,  but  gives  to  it  a  richness  of  flavor 
unknown  to  other  coffees ;  besides  it  saves 
the  expense  of  eggs  used  in  settling  unglazed 
coffee. 

BEWARE  of  buying  low-grade  package  coffee 
falsely  purporting  to  be  made  of  Mocha,  Java 
and  Rio ;  this  being  a  cheap"  device,  em- 
ployed by  the  manufacturers,  to  deceive  un'vafy- 
consumers. 


ARBUCKLE  BROS..  COFFEE  CO., 

NEW   YORK. 

Advertising-Card  Copy,  1873 

against  coffee.  The  most  conspicuous  of- 
fender employed  the  principle  of  auto-sug- 
gestion and  found  a  goodly  number  of 
pseudo-physicians  and  bright  advertising 
minds  that  were  quite  willing  to  prostitute 
their  finest  talents  to  aid  him  in  attacking 
an  honorable  business. 

In  one  year  $1,765,000  was  spent  in 
traducing  the  national  beverage.  The  bur- 
den of  the  cereal-faker 's  song  was  that  cof- 
fee was  the  cause  of  all  the  ills  that  flesh 
is  heir  to,  and  that  by  stopping  its  use  for 
ten  daj'S  and  substituting  his  panacea, 
these  ills  would  vanish. 

Of  course,  there  were  many  people  (but 
they  were  the  minority)  who  knew  that  the 
caffein  content  of  coffee  was  a  pure,  safe 
stimulant  that  did  not  destroy  the  nerve 
cells  like  such  false  stimulants  as  alcohol, 
morphine,  etc.) ;  and  that  while  too  much 
could  be  ingested  from  abuse  of  any  bever- 
age containing  it,  nature  always  effected  a 
cure  when  the  abuse  was  stopped. 


However,  there  was  undoubtedly  created 
in  the  public  mind  a  suspicion,  that  threat- 
ened to  develop  into  a  prejudice,  and  that 
affected  otherwise  sane  and  normal  people, 
that  perhaps  coffee  was  not  good  for  them. 

Then  came  the  winter  of  the  coffee  men 's 
discontent.  Floundering  about  in  a  veri- 
table slough  of  cereal  slush,  without  secure 
foothold  or  a  true  sense  of  direction,  cof- 
fee advertising  went  miserably  astray  when 
its  writers  began  to  assure  the  public  that 
their  brands  were  guiltless  of  the  crimes 
charged  in  the  cereal  men's  indictment. 
In  this,  of  course,  they  unwittingly  aided 
and  abetted  the  cereal  fakers.  For  ex- 
ample, one  roaster-packer  advertised,  *  *  The 
harmful  ingredient  in  coffee  is  the  tannin- 
bearing  chaff,  which  our  roasting  and 
grinding     process     completely     removes." 


1^« 


'9^ 


sr 


IN  THE  >N 


O^^^ 


WS7? 

D  t.  \^  A  U  O  t   "  6°°''  ™P  °'  Coffee  is  a  most  important  thing. 

RFr  Al  IQF  '  y-  "-  H'UUBHUM'S  XXXX  you  win 

•-'  ^  V>  r\\J  'J^  have  it  every  time. 

P  C  (^  A  I    I  O  CZ    ■'  'S  made  of  carefully  selected  stock  by  a  large  and 

'^  ^—  ^^  •»  ^<J  w  Cm   experienced  house. 

P  p  /"^  A  I  I  Q  P*  of  a"  'he  Coffees  that  grow,  those  used  for  ■cLaUlUll'S 
D  L_  V>  M  U  O  ^  XXXX  (a  combination  of  several)  gives  the  finest  flavor 
with  fullest  strength,  at  least  cost. 

P  C  f^  A  I  I  O  Cr  by  the  peculiar  manner  of  roasting,  use  of  patent 
D  t.  \,J  M  kJ  O  ^L  apparatus  steam  power,  and  men  skilled  in  the 
business,  all  strength  and  delicious  qualities  are  perfectly  preserved. 
p  C7  (^  A  I  I  ^  Cr  ^''h  ^^^  respect  for  the  old  fashioned  method  of 
tJ  ^  x^  /A  \J  O  ^L  "parching,"  this,  in  keeping  with  the  age  of  improved 
methods  and  machinery  is  better  and  saves  the  housekeeper  labor,  annoyances, 
difference  in  shrinkage,  as  well  as  an  occasional  "over-done"  panfull. 
P  P  P  A  I  I  C  p  The  glazing  on  McLAUGHLIN'S  Coffee  does  the 
■— '  '—  V<*/^  \J  vJ  1_  settling  [saving  the  cost  of  eggs].  It  is  composed  of 
reclarified  sugar  and  corn  starch  and  is  perfectly  healthful.  This  glazing  also 
seals  the  pores  of  the  Coffee  and  preserves  the  strength  and  aroma  indefinitely. 

BECAUSE  Once  Tried— Always   Wanted. 

A  HANDSOME  PICTURE  CARD  IN  EVERY  PACKAGE  OF 

M'^LaugblJn'sXXXX  Roasted  Coffsa 

Sold  Only  In  1  Pound  Packages  and  Under  Our  Wrapper. 

W.    F.    MCLAUGHLIN    &    CO., 

IMPORTtRS  AND  ROASTERS  OF  COFFEES, 

82, 84, 86, 88,  90  &  92  S.  Water  St.,   CHICAGO. 

THIS  COFFEE  IS  SOLD  BY  ALL  ENTERPRISING  DEALERS 
ASK  YOUR  GROCER  FOR  IT. 

The  Coffee  used  in  McLaughlin's  XXXX  Packaare  is  the  same 

quality  that  is  sold  at  10  cts.  a  pound  higher  if  bought  in  bulk. 

•■^fi SAVE    THE    TEN    CENTS. a^ 


Handbill  Copy  of  the  Seventies 


438 


ALL     ABOUT     COFFEE 


Box-End  Sticker,  1833 

Scientific    research    has    since    proved    the 
fallacy  of  this  idea. 

Another  roaster  said,  "if  coffee  works 
havoc  with  your  nerves  and  digestion,  it  is 
because  you  are  not  using  a  fresh  roasted, 
thoroughly  cleaned,  correctly  cured  coffee. 
Our  method  of  preparing  gives  you  the 
strength  and  aroma  without  its  nerve- 
destroying  qualities."  A  well  known  cof- 
fee packer  advertised,  "Our  coffee  is  free 
from  the  dust  and  bitter  tannin  —  the  only 
injurious  property  in  coffee."  Still  an- 
other packer  informed  the  consumer  that 
"by  a  very  special  steel  cutting  process" 
he  sliced  the  coffee  beans  ' '  so  that  the  little 
cells  containing  the  volatile  oil  (the  food 
product)  are  not  broken." 

A  prominent  Chicago  packer  put  out  a 
new  brand  of  coffee  which  he  claimed  was 
"non-intoxicating,"  "poisonless,"  and  the 
"only  pure  coffee."  A  New  Yorker,  not 
to  be  out-done,  brought  out  a  coffee  that  he 
said  contained  all  the  stimulative  proper- 
ties, of  the  original  coffee  berries,  but  with 
every  trace  of  acid  removed,  every  unde- 
sirable element  eliminated.  "Also,"  he 
added  for  good  measure,  "this  coffee  may 
be  used  freely  without  harming  the  diges- 
tive organs  or  impairing  the  nervous  sys- 
tem." 

And  one  package-coffee  man  became  so 
exercised  over  cereal  competition  that  he 
brought  out  a  grain  "coffee"  of  his  own, 
which  he  actually  advertised  as  "the  near- 
est approach  to  coffee  ever  put  on  the  mar- 
ket, having  all  the  merits  without  any  ob- 
jectionable features,  strengthening  without 
stimulating,  satisfying  without  shattering 
the  nerves. ' ' 


And  so  history  again  repeated  itself  in 
America,  Five  hundred  years  after  the 
first  religious  persecution  of  the  drink  in 
Arabia,  we  find  it  being  persecuted  by  com- 
mercial zealots  in  the  United  States.  And 
even  in  the  house  of  its  friends,  coffee  was 
being  stabbed  in  the  back.  The  coffee  mer- 
chants themselves  presented  the  spectacle 
of  "knocking"  it  by  inference  and  in- 
nuendo. 

Something  had  to  be  done.  As  cereal 
drinks,  standing  on  their  own  feet,  the 
coffee  "substitutes"  would  have  attracted 
little  notice.  It  was  only  by  trading  on 
the  allegation  that  they  were  substitutes  for 
coffee  that  they  made  any  headway.  The 
original  offender  sold  his  product  as  "cof- 
fee," which  was  an  untruth,  as  he  later 
admitted  there  was  not  a -bean  of  coffee  in 
it.  He  boldly  advertised:  "Blank  coffee 
for  persons  who  can't  digest  ordinary 
coffee. " 

When  it  became  no  longer  possible  to 
perpetrate  an  untruth  on  the  package  label, 
there  still  remained  the  newspapers  and 
billboards.  For  years  before  fake-adver- 
tising laws  and  an  outraged  public  opinion 
made  recourse  to  these  no  longer  possible, 
it  was  a  common  practise  to  use  the  news- 
papers and  billboards  to  promote  the  idea 
that  here  was  a  different  coffee ;  and  in  this 
way  to  create  a  demand  for  a  package, 
which,  when  purchased,  was  found  to  tell 
a  different  story. 

As  late  as  1911,  one  of  our  most  respected 
New  York  dailies  was  carrying  an  adver- 
tisement calling  the  product  "coffee,"  al- 

FOOD- PRODUCTS -J^M 


CHASE    &    SANBORN 

OUR  COFFEES  HAVE  A  NATIONAL  REPUTATION  REPRESENTING  Tt 

SEAL  BRAND  COFFEE  l^^r<?oX'^'i^r.'^JJ;;i'.'°jKt.r;.';t'e'Ka^"i.V.7i„^ 

CRUSADE  BLEND 

TEST 


'INMT  OIIOWN. 


IDE  BLEND  5.:SJ"il;lS°l!°o'iVT5i3v;i?;.V,l,"r/ulW^£tJV1,'JT^^^ 

I  price     Al*iiyi  paehs.1  whole  routed  (ungr«>nd)  In  Mb.  kir-tiglit  p»relitn«Dt  pMkUM. 

CD  CC    We  Hre  eicliulrely  M  Import  ii>|  house,  •elllng  oi>Iy  to  JfAlers.  But  to  {Ueconnmers  kn  opiorluuitir 

.,„.  ^r.  v-n  i«D<lpnste(e.  und  /re^ty  m«)(a  1.4  jM>WH<Jo/ 'Srai  Ar'oK'f  Co/zVe.    AddreM  '        **' 

CHASE    A    SANBORN,    Ol     BROAD    ST..    BOSTON,    MASS. 

A  Chase  &  Sanborn  Advertisement,  1888 
As  printed  in  Haj-per's  and  Scribner's  Magazines 


COFFEE  ADVERTISING 


439 


though  fairness  demands  it  be  recorded 
that  the  coffee  part  of  the  announcement 
was  stricken  out  when  The  Tea  and  Coffee 
Trade  Journal  called  the  attention  of  the 
publisher  to  its  misleading  character.  This 
trade  paper,  from  its  start,  had  been  urging 
the  coffee  men  to  organize  for  defense. 
The  agitation  bore  fruit  at  last,  first  in  the 
starting  of  the  National  Coffee  Roasters, 
Association,  and  later  in  the  inception  of 
the  movement  that  resulted  in  the  interna- 
tional advertising  campaign  for  coffee  now 
in  progress  in  the  United  States. 

Meanwhile,  the  cereal  coffee-substitute 
had  been  thoroughly  discredited  by  govern- 
mental analysis,  although  even  today  news- 
paper publishers  are  to  be  found  here  and 
there  who  are  willing  to  ''take  a  chance'' 
with  public  opinion  and  who  will  admit  to 
their  advertising  columns  such  misleading 
statements  for  the  substitute,  as  "it  has  a 
coffee-like  flavor,  i' 

In  the  United  States  today,  coffee  adver- 
tising has  reached  a  high  plane  of  copy 
excellence.  Our  coffee  advertisers  lead  all 
nations.  The  educational  work  started  by 
The  Tea  and  Coffee  Trade  Journal,  fostered 
by  the  National  Coffee  Roasters  Associa- 
tion, and  developed  by  the  Joint  Coffee 
Trade  Publicity  Committee,  has  laid  low 
many  of  the  bugaboos  raised  by  the  cereal 
sinners.     The    coffee   men,   however,    have 


n 


Thcre'^ 


NO        (tGASOM 


m^ 


MGRVOUS  1 

OMG  BerreR-  it  H(\Kes 
You  uMCoMSCious  !' 

Vje  bCM'T    Kno\^i  -WHAT 
Ro^STeJi    CONTMMS,   \«E 
Cam't  THIMtC   Of-   ANY    RQVSoM 
WHX  You   SHOULb     tJRlMK 
)T     AMb   vMHAiT'^   fioRe.we 
bow'T   cpvp-e  J 

vkHM  MORt.bo  You  vmaajx 


^€^ 


AMb  r^EEL  lii<:g  this, 


aENRY  WARD  BEECHER, 


never  appeared  at  his  best  unless  fortified  with  a  cup  of  good  coffee.     His 

lecture  manager  gives  an  amusing  account  of  their  ingenious  efforts  to  get 

good  coffee  for  the  great  preacher  just  before  each  lecture,  and  states  that 

thete  was  ,1  marked 

difference   I 

tween    Mr. 

Beecher's 

lectures 

with 

coffee,  and 

those 

without. 


Qase&Saiibong 
Cofffises. 


A  Goldberg  Cartoon,  1910 


Newspaper  Copy  Used  by  Chase  and  Sanborn 
About  1900 


left  considerable  room  for  improvement. 
There  are  still  some  who  are  given  to  mak- 
ing exaggerated  claims  in  their  publicity, 
who  make  reflections  upon  competitors  in 
a  way  to  destroy  public  confidence  in  cof- 
fee, and  who  display  an  ignorance  of,  or  a 
lack  of  confidence  in,  their  product  by  con- 
tinuing to  claim  that  their  brands  do  not 
contain  what  they  assert  are  injurious  or 
worthless  constituents.  It  is  to  be  hoped 
that  in  time  these  abuses  will  yield  to  the 
further  enlightening  influence  of  the  trade 
press,  and  of  the  organizations  that  are 
continually  working  for  trade  betterment. 
Before  the  international  coffee  campaign 
started  in  1919,  the  National  Coffee  Roast- 
ers Association  promoted  two  national  cof- 
fee wrecks,  one  in  1914  and  another  in  1915, 
wherein  excellent  groundwork  was  done  for 
the  big  joint  coffee  trade  propaganda  that 
followed.  Some  original  research  also  was 
done  along  lines  of  proper  grinding  and 
correct  coffee  brewing.  A  better-coffee- 
making  committee,  under  the  direction  of 
Edward  Aborn  of  New  York,  rendered  yeo- 
man's service  to  the  cause.  Much  educa- 
tional work  was  done  in  schools  and  col- 
leges, among  newspaper  editors,  and  in  the 
trade.  This  campaign  was  the  first  co- 
operative publicity  for  coffee.  Among 
other  things,  it  put  a  nation-wide  emphasis 
on  iced  coffee  as  a  delectable  summer  drink 
and,  for  the  first  time,  stressed  the  correct 
making  of  the  beverage  by  drip  and  filtra- 


440 


ALL    ABOUT     COFFEE 


ADVERTI8IN6 

COFFEE  AND  COFFEE  SUBSTITUTES 

1911-1920 


4350.000 


300^000 


t50,000 


eoo,ooo 


150,000 


K)0. 000 


SQOOO 


(TOTALS    IN    THIRTY     LEAOmS     PUBLICATIONS     CHECKED) 

I9l£  1913  1914-  1915 [916 I9IT  1916 


19ao 


$350,000 


300,000 


eso.ooo 


ftOO.OOO 


IOO.0OO 


gOOPFK    SUBSTtTUTes  ■COFFEE 

Chart  Showing  Money  Spent  on  Advertising  Coffee  and  Substitutes 
Only  advertisements  printed  in  magazines  and  periodicals  are  considered  in  making  this  calculation 


tion  methods  instead  of  by  boiling,  which 
had  long  been  one  of  the  most  crying  evils 
of  the  business. 

Package  Coffee  Advertising 

Coffee  advertising  began  to  take  on  a 
distinctive  character  with  the  introduction 
of  Ariosa  by  John  Arbuckle  in  1873.  Some 
of  the  early  publicity  for  this  pioneer  pack- 
age coffee  appears  typographically  crude, 
judged  by  modern  standards :  but  the  copy 
itself  has  all  the  needful  punch,  and  many 
of  the  arguments  are  just  as  applicable  to- 
day as  they  were  a  half -century  ago.  Take 
the  handbill  copy  illustrated.  It  was  done 
in  three  colors,  and  the  argument  was  new 
and  most  convincing.  The  reverse  side 
copy  is  also  extremely  effective.  Note  the 
expert-roaster  argument  and  coffee-making 
directions ;  some  of  these  may  still  be  found 
in  current  coffee  advertising. 

Most  of  the  original  Arbuckle  advertis- 
ing was  by  means  of  circulars  or  broad- 
sides, although  some  newspaper  space  was 
employed.  Premiums  were  first  used  by 
John  Arbuckle  as  an  advertising  sales  ad- 
junct, and  they  proved  a  big  factor  in  put- 


ting Ariosa  on  the  map.  Mr.  Arbuckle 
created  the  kind  of  word-of -mouth  public- 
ity for  his  goods  that  is  the  most  difficult 
achievement  in  the  business  of  advertising. 
It  caused  so  deep  and  lasting  an  impres- 
sion, that  in  some  sections  it  has  persisted 
through  at  least  five  decades.  The  adver- 
tising moral  is:  Get  people  to  talk  your 
brand. 

Since  the  death  of  its  founder,  the  Ar- 
buckle copy  has  been  changed  to  fit  modern 
conditions.  That  it  has  kept  pace  with  all 
the  forward  movements  in  business  and  ad- 
vertising is  evident  from  the  specimens 
which  help  to  illustrate  this  chapter.  A 
significant  change  is  to  be  noted  in  the  fact 
that,  for  the  first  time  in  its  history,  ''the- 
greatest  coffee  business  in  the  world"  has 
adopted  a  policy  of  advertising  to  the  trade- 
as  well  as  to  the  consumer,  thus  giving  its 
publicity  a  well  rounded  character  which  it 
formerly  lacked. 

The  evolution  of  other  notable  package- 
coffees  is  also  shown  by  illustration.  Sev- 
eral concerns  blazed  new  trails  that  have 
since  been  picked  up  and  followed  by  com- 
peting brands. 


COFFEE  ADVERTISING 


441 


COFFEE 

PER    CAPITA    CONSUMPTION   IN  THE   UNITED  STATES 


(ftSS 

1670 

1675 

sac 

I6&5 

I89C 

1695 

1900 

90S 

1910 

1915 

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—  —  —  —a  YIAR   AVERASeS 


ADVERTISING 

leeo 

♦50,000 $100,000  »I50,000  »a00.000  4250,000  $30a000  4J5Q.O0(> 


COP FEE 

COFFEE    SUBSTITUTES 


V/////////////////////////////////////^^^^^ 


Charts  Showing  Per  Capita  Consumption  and  Coffee  and  Substitute  Advertising 


Among  the  many  long-established  adver- 
tised package-coffee  successes  may  be  men- 
tioned : 

Arbuckle's  Ynban  and  Ariosa;  Mc- 
Laughlin's XXXX;  Chase  &  Sanborn's 
Seal  Brand;  Dwinell-Wright 's  White 
House;  Weir's  Red  Ribbon;  B.  Fischer  & 
Company's  Hotel  Astor;  Brownell  & 
Field's  Autocrat;  Bour's  Old  Master; 
Scull's  Boscul;  Seeman  Brothers'  White 
Rose;  Blanke's  Faust;  Baker's  Barrington 
Hall;  Woolson  Spice  Company's  Golden 
Sun;  International  Coffee  Company's  Old 
Homestead;  Kroneberger 's  Old  Reserve; 
Western  Grocer  Company's  Chocolate 
Cream;  Leggett's  Nabob;  Clossett  &  Dev- 
er's  Golden  West;  R.  C.  Williams'  Royal 
Scarlet ;  Merchants  Coffee  Company 's  Ala- 
meda; Widlar  Company's  C.  W,  brand; 
Meyer  Bros.'  Old  Judge;  Nash-Smith  Tea 
and  Coffee  Company's  Wedding  Breakfast ; 
J.  A,  Folger  &  Company's  Gulden  Gate; 
Ennis  Hanley  Blackburn  Coffee  Company's 
Golden  Wedding;  M.  J.  Brandenstein  & 
Company's  M,  J,  B. ;  Hills  Brothers*  Red 
Can,  the  Young  &  Griffin  Coffee  Company's 


Franco-American,  and  the  Cheek-Neal  Cof- 
fee Company's  Maxwell  House. 

It  was  estimated  that  the  amount  of 
money  spent  by  the  larger  coffee  roasters 
upon  all  forms  of  publicity  in  the  United 
States  in  1920  was  about  $3,000,000. 

Charts  prepared  by  Charles  Coolidge 
Parlin  of  the  division  of  commercial  re- 
search of  the  Curtis  Publishing  Company, 
and  checked  by  the  Publishers'  Informa- 
tion Bureau,  show  the  advertising  for  cof- 
fee and  for  coffee  substitutes  in  thirty 
leading  publications  from  1911  to  1920; 
and  compare  the  advertising  for  coffee  and 
coffee  substitutes  in  1920  with  a  chart  of 
per  capita  consumption.  It  should  be 
noted  that  the  figures  exclude  all  other 
forms  of  advertising,  such  as  newspapers, 
bill-posting,  street-car  signs,  electric  signs, 
and  so  forth. 

Experience  has  proven  that  a  package 
coffee,  to  be  successful,  must  have  back  of 
it  expert  knowledge  on  buying,  blending, 
roasting,  and  packing,  as  well  as  an  effi- 
cient sales  force.  These  things  are  essen- 
tial:   (1)   a  quality  product;    (2)    a  good 


442 


ALL     ABOUT     COFFEE 


An  Effective  Cut-Out 

trade-mark  name  and  label;  (3)  an  efficient 
package.  With  these,  an  intelligently 
planned  and  carefully  executed  advertising 
and  sales  campaign  will  spell  success.  Such 
a  campaign  comprehends  advertising  di- 
rected to  the  dealer  and  to  the  consumer. 
It  may  include  all  the  approved  forms  of 
publicity,  such  as  newspapers,  magazines, 
billboards,  electric  signs,  motion  pictures, 
demonstrations,  and  samples.  One  phase 
of  trade  advertising  which  should  not  be 
overlooked  is  dealer  helps.  The  extent  to 
which  the  roaster-packer,  or  the  promoter 
of  a  new  package  coffee,  should  utilize  the 
various  advertising  media  or  go  into  dealer 
helps  must,  of  course,  depend  upon  the  size 
of  the  advertising  appropriation. 

Many  roaster-packers  supply  grocers 
handling  their  coffee  with  dealer  helps  in 
the  shape  of  weather-proof  metal  signs  for 
outside  display,  display  racks,  store  and 
window  display  signs,  cut-outs,  blotters, 
consumer    booklets,     newspaper     electros. 


stereopticon  slides,  moving  pictures,  dem- 
onstrations, samples,  etc.  Dealer  selling 
schemes  based  on  points  have  also  been 
found  helpful  in  promoting  sales; 

Advertising  to  the  Trade 

Until  a  comparatively  recent  date,  the 
green  coffee  importer,  selling  the  roasting 
trade,  has  not  realized  the  need  of  adver- 
tising. He  has  inclined  to  the  belief  that 
he  did  not  need  to  advertise,  because,  in 
most  instances,  green  coft'ee  is  not  sold  by 
the  mark;  and,  to  a  certain  extent,  price 
has  been  the  determining  factor. 

During  late  years,  however,  many  green 
coffee  firms  have  come  to  realize  that  there 
is  a  good-will  element  that  enters  into  the 
equation  which  can  be  fostered  by  the  in- 
telligent use  of  advertising  space  in  the 
coffee  roaster's  trade  journal.  Also,  a  few 
importers  are  now  featuring  trade  marks  in 
their  advertising,  thus  building  up  a  tan- 
gible trade-mark  asset  in  addition  to  good 
will. 

For  a  number  of  years  the  green  coffee 
trade  used  the  business  card  type  of  ad- 
vertisement; but  some  are  now  utilizing  a 
more  up-to-date  style  of  copy,  as  typified 
by  the  advertisements  of  Leon  Israel  & 
Brothers  and  W.  R.  Grace  &  Company. 
Specimens  of  other  green  coffee  advertis- 
ing of  the  better  kind  are  here  reproduced. 

Advertising  campaigns  in  behalf  of  pack- 
age coffees  can  not  be  fully  effective  with- 
out the  proper  use  of  trade  publications. 
Advertising  in  the  dealer's  paper  has  many 
advantages.  It  is  good  missionary  work 
for  the  salesman.  It  creates  confidence  in 
the  mind  of  the  dealer.  It  is  an  excellent 
means  for  demonstrating  to  the  retailer 
that  he  is  being  considered  in  the  scheme 
of  distribution  —  that  no  attempt  is  being 
made  to  force  the  goods  upon  him  through 
consumer  advertising  alone.  Trade-paper 
advertising  also  offers  the  packer  the  op- 
portunity to  acquaint  the  dealer  with  the 
selling  points  in  favor  of  the  brand  adver- 
tised, thus  saving  the  time  of  the  salesman. 
An  increasing  number  of  coffee  packers  are 
now  using  the  advertising  columns  of  trade 
papers,  and  some  typical  advertisements 
are  reproduced  herewith. 

Advertising  hy  Various  Mediums 

Billboard  and  other  outdoor  advertising, 
also  car  cards,  are  being  used  to  a  con- 
siderable extent  for  coffee  publicity. 
Painted  outdoor  signs  have  been  the  back- 


COFFEE  ADVERTISING 


443 


bone  of  one  middle-west  roaster's  campaign 
for  a  number  of  years.  Both  car  cards  and 
billboards  are  growing  in  popularity  be- 
cause they  enable  the  coffee  packer  to  re- 
produce his  package  in  its  natural  colors 
and  permit  also  of  striking  displays.  Such 
firms  as  Arbuckle  Brothers,  New  York ; 
Dayton  Spice  Mills,  Dayton,  Ohio;  W.  F. 
McLaughlin  &  Company,  Chicago ;  the 
Puhl-Webb  Company,  Chicago;  the  Bour 
Company,  Toledo;  B.  Fischer  &  Com- 
pany, New  York ;  and  the  Cheek-Neal  Cof- 
fee Company,  Nashville  and  New  York, 
are  consistent  users  of  this  character  of  ad- 
vertising. Electric  signs  also  have  proved 
effective  for  coffee  advertising.  Reproduc- 
tions of  some  characteristic  outdoor  and 
car-card  advertisements  are  to  be  found  in 
these  pages. 

Motion  pictures  are  a  comparatively  new 
development  in  coffee  advertising.  One  of 
the  first  coffee  roasters  to  adopt  this  plan 
of  publicity  was  S.  H.  Holstad  &  Company, 
Minneapolis.  The  film  used  depicted  the 
cultivation  and  preparation  of  coffee  for 
the  market,  also  the  complete  roasting  and 
packaging  operations.  The  A.  J.  Deer  Com- 
pany, manufacturers  of  coffee  mills  and 
roasters,  Hornell,  N.  Y.,  was  another  pio- 
neer in  the  use  of  coffee  films.  Jabez 
Burns  &  Sons,  coffee-machinery  manufac- 
turers, followed  with  an  educational  coffee 
picture.  The  National  Packaging  Machin- 
ery Company,  of  Boston,  is  another  concern 
that  has  utilized  films  for  advertising  pur- 


poses, showing  its  machines  in  operation  in 
a  coffee-packing  plant.  Many  roasters 
made  use  of  the  coffee  film  produced  by  the 
Joint  Coffee  Trade  Publicity  Committee. 

In  using  advertising  films,  it  is  customary 
for  the  roaster  to  arrange  for  a  showing  at 
one  or  more  theaters.  The  advertising  in 
the  local  papers  features  the  coffee  brands, 
also  the  name  of  the  local  dealer,  the  latter 
being  furnished  with  tickets  which  he  dis- 
tributes among  his  retail  customers.  There 
are  several  concerns  making  a  business  of 
supplying  commercial  films  and  of  getting 
distribution  for  them. 

Another  form  of  theater  publicity  is  that 
of  the  advertising  slide  —  stereopticon 
views  thrown  upon  the  screen  between  fea- 
ture pictures.  Many  packers  find  these 
are  effective  for  cultivating  the  dealer,  it 
being  customary  to  show  the  brand  name, 
together  with  that  of  the  local  distributer. 

Advertising  for  Retailers 
When  retailers  analyze  the  people  to 
whom  they  sell  coffee,  they  usually  find 
three  types.  First,  there  is  the  woman  who 
thinks  she  is  an  expert  judge  of  coffee,  but 
who  is  unable  to  find  anything  to  suit  her 
cultivated  taste.  Then  there  is  the  new 
housewife,  possibly  a  bride  of  a  few  months, 
who  knows  very  little  about  coffee,  but 
wants  to  find  a  good  blend  that  both  she 
and  her  husband  will  like.  The  third  is  the 
most  acceptable  class,  the  satisfied  people 
who  have  found  coffee  that  delights  them, 
day  after  day. 


"TV/TAXWELL  HOUSE" 
is  the  largest  selling 
brand  of  HighGrade  Cofiee 
in  the  United  States.  This 
demand  is  due  only  to 
perfect  quality — a  quality 
that  produces  such  a  de- 
licious aroma  that  only 
the  taste  of  "MAXWELL 
HOUSE  Coffee"  can  sat- 
isfy it  This  taste  and 
quality  are  always  the 
same — yesterday,  today, 
tomorrow.  Intensive  Na- 
tional Advertising  is  daily 
making  new  friends  for 
"MAXWELL  HOUSE," 
and  "MAXWELL 
HOUSE"  Quality  is 
holding  them. 


MAXWELL  HOUSE 

COFFEE 

CHEEK NEALCOFFEE  CO. 


W.R.GRACE  8  CO. 

NEW  YORK-  NEW  ORLEANS  -  SAN  FRANCISCO 

Coffee 


BUYING  OFFICES 
IN  ALL 
^,^      POOOUCINC 

'-<^  COUNTRIES 


>i*4%: 


How  Coffee  is  Advertised  to  the  Trade 
Left  to  right,  good  examples  of  green  coffee  publicity  —  center,    well-arranged    package -coffee    copy 


444 


ALL     ABOUT     COFFEE 


W.  Harry  Longe,  a  Texas  retailer,  has 
prepared  the  following  ' '  ready  made ' '  copy 
appeals  for  the  three  classes.  To  ''Mrs. 
Know-it-all-about-Coffee, "  this  style  has 
been  found  effective: 


Again,  possible  new  customers  may  listen 
to  this  appeal : 


IMPROVE  THE  COFFEE  AND  YOU  IM- 
PROVE THE  MEAL 

The  corner  of  the  table  that  holds  the  coffee 
urn  is  the  balancing  point  of  your  dinner.  If 
the  coffee  is  a  "little  off"  for  some  reason  or 
other — probably  it's  the  coffee's  own  fault — 
things  don't  seem  as  good  as  they  might ;  but 
when  it  is  "up  to  taste"  the  meal  is  a  pleasure 
from  start  to  finish.  If  the  "balancing  point" 
is  giving  you  trouble,  let  Any  Blend  Coffee 
properly  regulate  it  for  you.  35  cents,  three 
pounds  for  $1. 

ANY   TEA  &   COFFEE   COMPANY 


For  the  good  lady  who  is  anxious  to  find 
a  suitable  blend  of  coffee,  and  who  desires 
information,  this  is  a  good  appeal: 


A  SUCCESSFUL  SELECTION 
Of  the  coffee  that  goes  into  the  every-morning 
cup  will  arrive  on  the  day  when  Any  Blend  is 
first  purchased.  Many  homes  have  been  with- 
out such  a  success  now  for  a  long  time,  but,  of 
course,  they  didn't  know  of  Any  Blend — and 
even  now  it  is  hard  to  really  know  Any  Blend 
till  you  try  it.  That  is  why  we  seem  to  insist 
that  you  ask  for  an  introduction  by  ordering  a 
pound. 

ANY  BLEND  TEA  &  COFFEE  COMPANY 


Taking  both   classes   and   dealing   with 
them  alike : 


"BLENDED  TO  BALANCE" 

Is  a  good  descriptive  phrase  of  Any  Blend 
coffee,  for  care  is  taken  in  the  preparation  that 
the  strength  does  not  overpower  the  flavor.  The 
aim  of  the  blender  is  to  get  an  acceptable  and 
delightful  drinking  quality.  He  has  been  more 
than  successful,  as  you  will  see  when  you  try 
Any  Blend.     35  cents,  three  pounds  for  $1. 

ANY    TEA   &    COFFEE    COMPANY 


The  satisfied  class,  of  course,  is  not 
averse  to  making  a  change,  and  it  is  well, 
occasionally,  for  the  dealer  to  let  his  own 
satisfied  customers  know  he  still  believes  in 
his  goods.  The  argument  might  take  this 
form : 


A  SERVICE  THAT  SAVES 

Is  the  serving  of  Any  Blend,  when  coffee  is 
desired.  Any  Blend  saves  many  things.  It 
saves  worry;  for  it  is  always  uniform  in  flavor 
and  strength.  It  saves  time,  for  when  you 
order  Any  Blend  we  grind  it  just  as  fine  or 
just  as  coarse  as  your  percolator  or  pot  de- 
mands. Any  Blend  also  saves  expense,  because 
there  is  no  waste,  as  you  know  just  how  much 
to  use,  everj-  time,  to  make  a  certain  number 
of  cups.     35   cents,   three  pounds  for   $1. 

ANY   TEA  &   COFFEE   COMPANY 


TO  PROVE  YOUR  APPROVAL 

Of  Any  Blend  coffee,  you  are  asked  to  try 
just  one  pound.  We  know  you  will  like  it,  for 
it  is  blended  and  roasted  and  ground  as  an 
exceptional  coffee  should  be,  with  the  care  that 
a  good  coffee  demands.  Prove  to  yourself  that 
you  approve  of  this  method  of  preparing  cof- 
fee.    35  cents,  three  pounds  for  $1. 

ANY    TEA   &    COFFEE    COMPANY 


In  some  households  the  cook  is  permitted 
to  do  the  ordering,  and  usually  the  cook 
does  not  read  the  daily  papers  with  an  eye 
for  coffee  ads.  To  reach  this  individual 
through  her  mistress : 


CAN  YOU  NAME  YOUR  COFFEE? 

Or  is  it  one  of  those  many  unknown  brands 
that  comes  from  the  store  at  the  order  of  your 
cook?  Let  the  cook  do  the  ordering,  for  you 
are  lucky  if  you  have  one  you  can  rely  upon, 
but  tell  her  you  prefer  Any  Blend  to  the  No- 
Name  Blend  you  may  now  be  using.  Any  Blend 
has  one  distinct  advantage  over  all  others ;  it 
is  freshly  roasted.  Tell  the  kitchen-lady,  now, 
to  order  Any  Blend. 

ANY    TEA   &    COFFEE    COMPANY 


Advertising  hy  Government  Propaganda 

Advertising  coffee  by  government  propa- 
ganda has  been  indulged  in  with  more  or 
less  success  by  the  British  government  in 
behalf  of  certain, of  its  colonial  possessions; 
by  the  French  and  the  Dutch;  by  Porto 
Rico,  Costa  Eica,  Guatemala,  and  Brazil. 
The  markets  most  cultivated  have  been 
Italy,  France,  England,  Russia,  Japan,  and 
the  United  States. 

Great  Britain  began  the  development  of 
coffee  cultivation  in  its  colonies  in  1730. 
Parliament  first  reduced  the  inland  duties. 
In  many  ways  it  has  since  sought  to  en- 
courage British-grown  coffee,  building  up 
a  favoritism  for  it  that  is  still  reflected  in 
Mincing  Lane  quotations.  The  Netherlands 
government  did  the  same  thing  for  Java 
and  Sumatra;  and  France  rendered  a  sim- 
ilar service  to  her  own  colonies. 

Since  Porto  Rico  became  a  part  of  the 
United  States,  several  attempts  have  been 
made  by  the  island  government  and  the 
planters  to  popularize  Porto  Rico  coffee  in 
the  United  States.  Scott  Truxtun  opened 
a  government  agency  in  New  York  in  1905. 
Acting  upon  the  counsel  and  advice  of  the 
author,  he  prosecuted  for  several  years  a 
vigorous  campaign  in  behalf  of  the  Porto 


I 


COFFEE  ADVERTISING 


445 


Rico  Planters'  Protective  Association.  The 
method  followed  for  coffee  was  to  appoint 
official  brokers,  and  to  certify  the  genuine- 
ness of  the  product.  Owing  to  insufficient 
funds  and  the  number  of  different  products 
for  which  publicity  was  sought,  the  coffee 
campaign  was  only  moderately  successful. 

Mortimer  Remington,  formerly  with  the 
J.  Walter  Thompson  Company,  a  New  York 
advertising  agency,  was  appointed  in  1912 
commercial  agent  for  the  Porto  Rico  As- 
sociation, composed  of  island  producers  and 
merchants.  Some  effective  advertising  in 
behalf  of  Porto  Rico  coffee  was  done  in  tht 
metropolitan  district,  where  a  number  of 
high-class  grocers  were  prevailed  upon  to 
stock  the  product,  which  was  packed  under 
seal  of  the  association.  As  before,  however, 
the  other  products  handled  —  including 
cigars,  grape-fruit,  pineapples,  etc. — 
handicapped  the  work  on  coffee,  and  the 
enterprise  was  abandoned.  Subsequent  ef- 
forts })y  the  Washington  government  to 
assist  the  Porto  Ricans  in  evolving  a  prac- 
tical plan  to  extend  their  coffee  market  in 
the  United  States  came  to  naught  because 
of  too  much  ''politics." 

Beginning  with  the  Panama-Pacific  Ex- 
position in  San  Francisco  in  1915,  the  gov- 
ernment of  Guatemala  started  a  propa- 
ganda for  its  coffee  in  the  United  States; 
as  the  European  market,  which  had  up  till 
t"hen  absorbed  seventy-five  percent  of  its 
product,  was  closed  to  it,  owing  to  the 
World  War.  E.  H.  O'Brien,  a  coffee  broker 
of  San  Francisco,  directed  the  publicity. 
Some  full  pages  were  used  in  newspapers, 
but  the  main  efforts  were  directed  at  the 
coffee-roasting  trade.  The  campaign,  so 
far  as  it  went,  was  highly  successful. 

Costa  Rica  also  gave  special  encourage- 
ment to  coffee-trade  interests  that  offered 
to  expand  the  United  States  market  for 
Costa  Rica  coffee  during  the  World  War. 

For  many  years  Colombia  has  been  talk- 
ing of  making  propasranda  here  for  its  cof- 
fee, but  thus  far  nothing  of  a  constructive 
character  has  been  done. 

Sao  Paulo  began  in  1908  to  make  propa- 
ganda for  its  coffee  by  subsidizing  compan- 
ies and  individuals  in  consuming  countries 
to  promote  consumption  of  the  Brazil  prod- 
uct. A  contract  was  entered  into  between 
the  state  of  Sao  Paulo  and  the  coffee  firms 
of  E.  Johnston  &  Company  and  Joseph 
Travers  &  Son,  of  London,  to  exploit  Bra- 
zil coffee  in  the  United  Kingdom.     Similar 


contracts  were  made  with  coffee  firms  in 
other  European  countries,  notably  in  Italy 
and  France.  The  subsidies  were  for  five 
years  and  took  the  form  of  cash  and  coffee. 
The  English  company  was  known  as  the 
"State  of  Sao  Paulo  (Brazil)  Pure  Coffee 
Company,  Ltd."  Fifty  thousand  pounds 
sterling  was  granted  this  enterprise,  which 
roasted  and  packed  a  brand  known  as 
"Fazenda;"  promoted  demonstrations  at 
grocers'  expositions;  and  advertised  in 
somewhat  limited  fashion.  The  general 
effect  upon  the  consumption  of  coffee  in 
England  was  negligible,  however,  although 
at  one  time  some  five  thousand  grocers  were 
said  to  have  stocked  the  Fazenda  brand.  A 
feature  of  this  propaganda  was  the  use  of 
the  Tricolator  (an  American  device  since 
better  known  in  the  United  States)  to  in- 
sure correct  making  of  the  beverage.  Bra- 
zil also  made  propaganda  for  its  coffee  in 
Japan,  in  1915,  as  part  of  certain  under- 
takings involving  the  immigration  of  Jap- 
anese laborers  to  Brazil. 

The  Comite  Francais  du  Cafe  was 
formed  in  Paris  in  July,  1921,  to  co-op.er- 
ate  with  Brazil  in  an  enterprise  designed 
to  increase  the  consumption  of  coffee  in 
France. 

The  chief  fault  in  most  of  the  coffee  prop- 
agandas here  and  abroad  has  been  the 
doubtful  practise  of  subsidizing  particu- 
lar coffee  concerns  instead  of  spending  the 
funds  in  a  manner  designed  to  distribute 
the  benefits  among  the  trade  as  a  whole. 
This  mistake,  and  local  politics  in  the  pro- 
ducing countries,  have  made  for  ultimate 
failure.  A  notable  exception  is  the  latest 
propaganda  for  Brazil  coffee  in  the  United 
States,  where  all  the  various  interests,  the 
the  Sao  Paulo  government,  the  growers, 
exporters,  importers,  roasters,  jobbers,  and 
dealers,  have  co-operated  in  a  plan  of  cam- 
paign to  advertise  coffee  per  se,  and  not  to 
secure  special  privilege  to  any  individual, 
house,  or  group. 

Joint  Coffee  Trade  Publicity  Campaign 

Twenty  years  ago  the  author  began  an 
agitation  for  co-operative  advertising  by 
the  coffee  trade.  He  suggested  as  a  slogan, 
"Tell  the  truth  about  coffee;"  and  it  is 
gratifying  to  find  that  many  of  his  orig- 
inal ideas  have  been  embodied  in  the  pres- 
ent joint  coffee  trade  publicity  campaign, 
now  in  its  fourth  year. 


446 


ALL     ABOUT     COFFEE 


Theodore  Langgaard  de  Menezes 

The  coffee  roasters  at  first  were  slow  to 
respond  to  the  co-operative  advertising 
suggestion,  because  in  those  days  competi- 
tion was  more  unenlightened  than  now,  and 
therefore  more  ruthless.  It  needed  organi- 
zation to  bring  the  trade  to  a  better  under- 
standing of  the  benefits  certain  to  be  shared 
by  all  when  their  individual  interests  were 
pooled  in  a  common  cause.  Leaders  of  the 
best  thought  in  the  trade,  however,  were 
quick  to  realize  that  only  by  unite'd  effort 
was  it  possible  to  achieve  real  progress ;  and 
when  it  was  suggested  that  the  first  step 
was  to  organize  the  roasting  trade,  the 
idea  took  so  firm  a  hold  that  it  only  needed 
some  one  to  start  it  to  bring  together  in 
one  combination  the  keenest  minds  in  the 
business. 

The  coffee  roasters  organized  their  na- 
tional association  in  1911.  The  author  of 
this  work  urged  that  co-operative  advertis- 
ing based  upon  scientific  research  should  be 
done,  by  the  roasters  themselves  indepen- 
dently of  the  growers ;  but  it  was  found  im- 
practicable to  unite  diverging  interests  on 
such  an  issue,  and  so  the  leaders  of  the 
movement  bent  all  their  energies  toward 
promoting  a  campaign  that  would  be 
backed  jointly  by  growers  and  distributers, 


since  both  would  receive  equal  benefit  from 
any  resulting  increase  in  consumption. 
Brazil,  the  source  of  nearly  three-quarters 
of  the  world's  coffee,  was  the  logical  ally; 
and  an  appeal  was  made  to  the  planters  of 
that  country.  A  party  of  ten  leading  Uni- 
ted States  roasters  and  importers  visited 
Brazil  in  1912  at  the  invitation  of  the  fed- 
eral government. 

In  Brazil,  as  in  the  United  States,  prog- 
ress resulted  from  organization.  The 
planters  of  the  state  of  Soo  Paulo,  who 
produce  more  than  one-half  of  all  coffee 
used  in  the  United  States,  were  the  first  to 
appreciate  the  propaganda  idea.  After 
their  attempts  to  interest  the  national  gov- 
ernment failed,  the  Sao  Paulo  coffee  men 
founded  the  Sociedade  Promotora  da  De 
fesa  do  Cafe  (Society  to  Promote  the  De- 
fense of  Coffee),  and  persuaded  their  state 
legislature  to  pass  a  law  taxing  every  bag 
of  coffee  shipped  from  the  plantations  of 
that  state  in  a  period  of  four  years.  This 
tax,  amounting  to  one  hundred  reis  per  bag 
of  132  pounds,  or  about  two  and  one-half 
cents  United  States  money  at  even  ex- 
change rates,  is  collected  by  the  railroads 
from  the  shippers,  and  turned  over  to  the 
Sociedade. 

The  Brazilian  Society  sent  to  the  United 
States  a  special  envoy,  Theodore  Langgaard 
de  Menezes,  to  conclude  arrangements ;  and 
on  March  4,  1918,  in  New  York,  the  pact 
was  signed  whereby  Sao  Paulo  was  to  con- 
tribute to  the  publicity  campaign  in  the 
United  States  approximately  $960,000  at 
the  rate  of  $240,000  a  year  for  four  years;, 
and  the  members  of  the  trade  in  the  United 
States  were  to  contribute  altogether  $150,- 
000".  The  success  of  the  negotiations  was 
due  to  the  skilful  management  of  Ross  W,. 
Weir  in  the  United  States,  and  to  the  su' 
perior  salesmanship  of  Louis  R.  Gray,  the 
Arbuckle  representative  in  Brazil. 

Supervision  of  the  advertising  in  the 
United  States  was  delegated  to    five    men,. 

-  The  agreement  with  the  Sao  Paulo  planters  com- 
prehended their  furnishing  yearly  the  proceeds  of  a 
tax  of  100  reis  per  bag.  This  actually  amounted  to. 
$20,000  per  month  up  to  January,  1921.  During  1921, 
by  reason  of  a  short  crop  and  the  advance  rate  of 
exchange,  the  remittances  were  reduced  almost  half. 
In  January,  1922,  the  Sao  Paulo  legislature  on  peti- 
tion of  the  Sociedade  increased  the  tax  to  200  reis 
per  bag  to  run  for  3  years.  In  spite  of  this,  the 
probability  is  that  another  short  crop  and  a  con- 
tinued low  rate  of  exchange  will  keep  the  Brazil' 
contribution  in  1922  down  to  about  iflSO.OOO  net.  By 
November,  1921,  a  total  of  $671,000  was  expended  on. 
advertising.  Of  this,  $551,000  was  contributed  by 
the  planters  of  Sao  Paulo,  and  $120,000  by  the  coffet- 
trade  of  the   United   States. 


COFFEE  ADVERTISING 


447 


JOINT  COFFEE  TRADE  PUBLICITY  COMMITTEE  IN  UNITED  STATES 


448 


ALL    ABOUT     COFFEE 


I  Trade  Paper  Adverlisiag 


Chart  Showing  Plan  of  Advertising  Campaign 


representing  both  the  importing  and  roast- 
ing branches  of  the  trade,  and  designated 
as  the  Joint  Coffee  Trade  Publicity  Com- 
mittee of  the  United  States.  Three  of  these 
committeemen,  Ross  W.  Weir,  of  New  York ; 
F.  J.  Ach,  of  Dayton,  Ohio ;  and  George  S. 
Wright,  of  Boston,  are  roasters;  and  two, 
William  Bayne,  Jr.,  and  C.  H.  Stoffregen, 
both  of  New  York,  are  importers  and  job- 
bers, or  green-coffee  men.  The  committee 
organized  with  Mr.  Weir  as  chairman,  Mr. 
Wright  as  treasurer,  and  Mr,  Stoffregen  as 
secretary.  At  the  invitation  of  the  com- 
mittee, C.  W.  Brand  of  Cleveland,  tnen 
president  of  the  National  Coffee  Roasters 
Association,  attended  committee  meetings, 
and  assisted  in  determining  the  policies  of 
the  campaign.     Headquarters  were  estab- 


lished at  74  Wall  Street,  in  the  heart  of 
the  New  York  coffee  district,  with  Felix 
Coste  as  secretary-manager,  and  Allan  P. 
Ames  as  publicity  director.  N.  W.  Ayer 
&  Son,  advertising  agents  of  Philadelphia, 
who  had  engineered  the  plan  of  campaign 
from  the  start  of  the  movement  in  the  Na- 
tional Coffee  Roasters  Association,  handle 
the  advertising  account. 

Sao  Paulo's  contribution  to  the  adver- 
tising fund  is  sent  in  monthly  instalments 
to  the  Joint  Coffee  Trade  Publicity  Com- 
mittee under  an  agreement  that  it  shall  be 
expended  only  for  magazine  and  newspaper 
space. 

Supplementing  this  Brazilian  contribu- 
tion, is  the  fund  raised  by  voluntary  sub- 
scriptions   from    the    coffee    trade    of    the 


COFFEE  ADVERTISING 


449 


On.  bended  knees 
the  black  slaves  served 

COFFEE 


He  saved  the  last 

COFFEE 

plant- 


s  Alley— 

COFFEE 


^^  '*  *^  At 


h^^.         ■  **«  toa,,         "     And  -,^       *** 


'•"OW,"' 


^"cil,  ^, 


,  '-C^'-'-w.r.ri'^'- 


So  tv,_ 


COFFEE 


tA«  T»mm,:  mmJfr»mtk^Ymnk-"Co/f—!" 

CFFEE  IS  the  hghtinc  man's  dnnk.  It  did  its  bit  in  the 
vit  right  manfully.  In  the  camp,  on  the  march,  at  the 
front,  in  the  hut  and  hospital,  wherever  men  (ought  and  bled 
and  sufliered  and  died.— there  was  coffee. 

Ever  and  always  the  cry  was— coffee!  Because  it  fives 
cheer  and  oomfort.  and  courage.  It  is  toothing,  quieting,  sus- 
taining. The  Qred  man  calls  for  it.  Exhausted  nature  asks 
for  it  After;tbe  lesson  of  this  war,— who  sh^  say  that  coffee 
is  not  healthlul— and  needful  ? 

Be  thaolcAil  for  coffee— for  the  delight  of  it.  the  bertefit  of  it, 
the  real  down-nght  ^oodnees  of  it.  There  il  nothing  in  the 
world  you  would  mtfs  one-half  so  mu<  k  as  coMoe.— if  you  were 
suddenly  deprivecf  of.itl 

Indeed--ooffee  «  one  of  the  truest  and  "realesr"  of  hienda  that 
Nature  haa  gtven  to  men.  Lat  us  rejoice  in  it.  and.  revel  in  it 
L«t  usglory  m  the  charm  and  ftavor  and  piquancy  of  it  Let  us 
ttNBtour  frienda  in  it —  Here'ito  your  health  and /Mppinesa/" 

Cofiee—  the  Universal  drink 


EigKt  bells 

in  the  mid' watxii- 

COFFEE 

for  the  wheel  &^  lookouts 


lUST  t 


1  coffee  to  the  men  in  the  semce  and  watch 
I  %milB  These  brave  fellows  have  endured  long  hour* 
of  hard  labor  with  little  rest  They  have  forced  nature  to  the 
breaking  point 

Coffee  helped  them.  It  cheered  them  and  oomfoned  thonL 
Very  eften  .t  actually  susUmed  them.  Its  warmth  restwl  and 
steadied  them,  and  so  gave  them  new  courage  for  the  great 
tasks  ahead- 


You  1 


1  and  1 


every  dly  life,  waging  the  battle 
place  and  power  and  health 
And  you  Qnd  ooffea  a  real  help 


of  business,  striving  to 
—you  have  great  tasks, 
in  the  day's  work. 

And  the  joy  of  it— the  eharrn  of  it— the  delight  of  it  It 
greets  you  at  brvakfast— it  cheers  you  at  luncheon — tt  revivea 
you  at  dinner  And  very  often  regalec  you  at  the  late  supper. 
Truly— what  would  your  life  be  without  codite.' 

Cofiee—  the  Essential  drink. 


l^nir  Uncle  Sam 
provided  his  boys  with 

COFFEE 


BRAVE,  clean,  bihe.  sturdy  feUows,  they  were.  Clear  of 
eye,  steady  of  nerve,  strong  of  heart -splendid  physical 
tpecimena.  'The  flnest  soldiers  in  the  world",— has  been  said 
of  them.     And  they  prov«(f  It! 

Coffee  lovers,  they  were— almost  to  a  man.  Coffee  dnnking 
had  been  their  habit  all  their  lives.  They  were  prachcally 
Taised  on  it.  in  the  true  American  fashion.  And  they  were 
not  deprived  of  it  I 


A  moat  careful  diet  was  planned  in  order  to  marnuin  health  and 
strength  While  t>read  and  beans  and  beef  were  needful  there 
was  one  item  recognized  as  absolutely  indispensable — cofl^. 

So— whatever  else  they  had.  our  boys  had  their  coffee,— 
plenty  of  it,  four  rimes  a  dey '  It  cheered  and  comforted  and 
encouraged  them,  tt  helped  them  do  their  job.— and  do  it  well. 
Who  shall  say  how^i-ancfaport  ooffee  played  in  this  great  war  ^ 

Cofiee—  the  Essential  drink 


JOINT-COMMITTEE  MAGAZINE  AND  NEWSPAPER  COPY,  1919 


450 


ALL    ABOUT     COFFEE 


^^-e  have  bee. ^,,^^,^^^^^ 


'^e  ^^tms 


Wild  and  weird  were  our  old  delusions/ 

We  know  tM  truth  about 


CO 


\VTE.  marvel  at  our  old  super* 

W  stitions.  It  is  hard  to  believe 
now  that  more  than  30.000  women 
have  been  condemned  as  witcheaf 

Frenzy  and  prtjudice  mark  the 
development  of  progress  in  many 

popular  and  beneficial  of  all  bever- 
ages,—has  not  wholly  escaped. 

Despite  the  fact  that  food  faddists' 
and  temperamental  extremists  have 
assailed  coffee,  it  has  become  the 
universal  drink  of  this  great  level- 
There  can  be  ho  question  about' 
the  soothing,  nourishing,  invigor- 
attng  effects  of  good,  pure  coffee.  It 
lightens  fotigue,  sustains  energy  and 
aids  digestion. 


ir> 


Sao  Paulo,  Brazil,  in  the  greatest 
coffee-growing  district  in  the  world, 
is  one  of  the  healthiest  and  most 
progressive  cities  in  South  America. 

Coffee  wUl  ever  remain  the  pre- 
ferred drink  of  normal  minded, 
healthy  bodied  people  everywhere. 
Be  sure  you  drink  genuine  coffee. 
Its  flavor  cannot  be  imitated. 


COFFEP 


Coffee  is  r 

who  enjoy  t 
Good  coffee 
b«ne/icial 


heer  and  solace  of  aU 
e  good  things  of  life. 
1  moderation  must  be 


Dnnk  it— for  your  health's  sake. 


Time  was  when 
«"'e  affrighted  by  ir,"'  '°°^  •^"P'" 
Tl-ey  .bought  i,  „  ''""  "'  "-esun 
-"<"  O'eous"?'  '-'!•"''  »'  ".e 
^"y  fo^.  ^  *•  ="  know  dtffw. 

'^""■"^  has  been  in  us,  ,„  . 
'^''dithasnev^rh.  "" 

favor     R„,  .  ""■'^"PMd 


'fnluries. 

popular 

coffds  has 


esonie 

»'  «*'Tje  r,L?  "^  ""'""in. 


■SIGNIFICANT— "The  Ame 
Houaekeeper"   ^ys:— "Coffer 

to  the  aihng.    Coffee  ia  atim. 
but  net  depnmaing." 


"'fected  Who  bel,eve7har°  "'""'"'' 
<»<>«'•■  for  them.       "'^' ""=«  isn', 

"""'»ns  of  heai.K 

l«Ple  drink  coffee  lm^"°"^-  "°™=' 
'"  ""Oderation.    The, 

5'ONlriCANT-o^,..  ..  . 


They 


■"""y.  there  has  arisen  » 
""^'Cia.  products  wT,ch        '*'■■' 
"  ""   "•«  popu  a"w     r""""'^ 
I'ive  to  fill  ,,.'''  "'  coffee. 
■°  «"".e  work,  With  A„, 


lures  gift    7'  "" 'Po'ogist    i 
^ood.Il,^:f"--e,haty 


OOD  COFFEE  i^  Good  for  Youl      ,1"^     ~~~       ~~ — — — -. 

la^j-ipg  of  our  old  "bugaboos 

/        Some  real  facts  about  

COFFEE 

Time  has  d-spelled  many  old  .llu-       who  cannot  be  ^"^"^  -* ';;°;^ 

j__ I  _^  C^re        Fnr  (hOSe  WHO  Wanl  \0  live 


>^e  outgrow  our  old  foolish  fearr>- 


Time  has  dispelled  many  old  illu- 
Eioris.     Coal  was  once  condemned 


COFFEE 

People  once  were  afraid  of  the        v  , 
earn  engine,    "it  ^a,  ^^  up"  J^t        Z^'^'^  ^^^  ^"y  other.    Coffee  is  the 


"injurious' 
market  pli 


■  and  burned  openly  ii 


«eam  engine.  "It  will  bw'up^i;:;: 
»^jun,pthe.rack"-th,ysai^  bJ 
"e  all  know  better  „o„. 

TJme  has  disprove,  „^,„„,^ 
•^  Yet,  some  good  people  still 
•"■"ve  that  coffee  doesnV^l^.' 
--U.em.-a  popular  *,„,,„^ 
.«>"-r>db,compet,«„p^„^°"- 

There  are,  many  food  fads.  Som. 
think  they  can't  eat  k-J!^  ^^ 
"■ink  they  <an'.  _.       ""^^-sonie 

;;--",  no  fo^'t^rj::: 

to  "gieo  With  everybody, 
ryi^f-^^olk,  i,  more  healthful 
•^•-    't  .s  consumed  i„  gr„,„ 


mainstay  of  the  mf/Ab 

<loIgh°4rwrj  ■""'  '■'^•'^ 

onreal™t„  °    and  fed  them 

,     ™^  '=<^'*-  »"  Uiey  could  tlri^k.- 
four  times  a  day      a„h  ... 
much    ner,ousnes.''-am.      ,h. 
Germans  /  '  "• 

«X'  ^«t«'l'i!L°'"" "" 

.  .         ^      greatest   service  to  man 
|;"4a„dh,willpr„>,ay  _■ 

Brara  furnish^  ,h,e,^,  ' 

workJs  coffea"  ™  oi  the 

wi^'L"  '^"""  (^  """I  and  beol 

Ctior-.™""'""  "*'""• 

two  cenf«  p^  ^p^ 


Strange  things  are  ■ 

name  of  Health!     For  L 

'   "  e  earth  have  enjoyed 


n  centuries 


who  cannot  b. 

fears.     For  those  v 

and  do— and  dare— anu  a^^w—t^.--- 

Coffee  plays  its  part  in  the  homes 
of  the  millions.— three  times  a  day 

day.     Coffee  helped  to  win  the 

It  f«t  ■lufferine  Beleium.     In 


the  benefits  of  coffee.     .- - 

enlightened  day  coffee  is  sometimes 
declared  "injurious"— another  form 
of  Buperstition. 

There  are  many  kinds  of  food  that 

do  not  "agree"  under  some  conditions. 

These    are    matters  of   personal 

disability  and    require  professional 

treatment  and  advwe. 

Coffee  is  fix  weU  people  and  thow 

who  want  '~  -""  '""     P"  *«* 


lay.  oonoe  nci^^"  '" 
War.  It  fed  suffering  Belgi 
Holland,  coffee  is  alway  ' 
serve — and 


t  well.     For  i 


healthy. 

In  Brazil,  which  produces  three- 
fourths  of  the  worlds  coffee,  they 
drink  coffee  all  day  long.  And  the 
Brazilians  are  one  of  the  most 
robust  and  progressive  nations  m 
South  America. 

In  America  one  billion  pounds  of 
coffee  ate  consumed  every  year— This 
fact  speaks  for  itself  1 


SIGNIFICANT— /n  theae 
nmember  that  coffee  i»  t 
—coating  teaa  than  3  car 


9  of  high  living  e 


ncludiitg  cream  and  wgar. 


aGNIPICANT-..r/„„_    ,,  '"=««3P«cup. 


COFFEE  i.  the  I„du;;n.aW, 


Drink  G0FFEE"W  Remain. Well 


COPY  THAT  STRESSED  THE  HEALTHFULNESS    OF   COFFEE,    1919-1920 


COFFEE  ADVERTISING 


451 


PLANS    FOR    SCIENTIFIC    COFFEE    RESEARCH 


THE  COFFEE  CLUB 


BETTER  COFFEE  MAKING  DRIVE 

WIU  APPEAL  TO  DEALERS 


MANY  AWAIT 
FIRST  NEWS 
OF  RESEARCH 


fel?SS 


SSr^ 


ItMhnBltMit  THE  COrrCE  CLUB  n«M.   ni^ttmt  ol  A 
Th.  tw*  tt  THE  COFTKe  ClUB.  ■  Im*  c*  aM  •»«. 


TnmparmitSign  for  Dealer  Window* 


WILL  SUFFRAGE 
HELP  ANY? 


JOUEU'BUfUU 


The  Joint  Committee's  House  Organ 

United  States  on  the  basis  of  one  cent  per 
bag  handled  annually.  This  American 
fund  is  used  for  the  expenses  of  adminis- 
tration, for  educational  advertising  out- 
side of  magazine  and  newspaper  space,  and 
for  various  kinds  of  trade  promotion  and 
dealer  stimulation. 

The  first  advertising  appeared  in  April, 
1919,  in  306  leading  newspapers  in  182 
large  cities,  with  a  total  circulation  of  more 
than  16,000,000.  The  cities  chosen  repre- 
sented all  the  centers  of  wholesale  coffee 
distribution. 

Magazine  advertising  began  in  June  of 
the  same  year,  using  twenty-one  periodicals, 
all  of  national  circulation.  This  list  has 
been  changed  from  time  to  time  to  meet 
the  special  needs  of  the  campaign. 

More  than  fifty  grocery-trade  magazines 
have  carried  the  committee's  dealer  adver- 
tising, although  not  all  of  these  have  been 
used  continuously.  Every  part  of  the 
country  was  represented  on  the  trade-paper 
list. 

Full  pages  have  been  run  each  month  in 
nine  of  the  leading  national  medical  jour- 
nals. These  advertisements  were  written  by 
a  physician  of  national  reputation.  Under 
the  caption,  "The  Case  for  Coffee,"  these 


advertisements  have  discussed  the  proper- 
ties of  coffee  from  the  physiological  stand- 
point, and  have  asked  the  doctors  to  judge 
it  fairly. 

From  the  start  the  committee's  advertis- 
ing has  been  broadly  educational.  The 
properties  of  coffee  have  been  discussed; 
charges  against  coffee  have  been  answered. 
The  housekeeper  has  been  told  how  to  get 
the  best  results  from  the  coffee  she  buys; 
hotel  and  restaurant  proprietors  have  been 
reminded  that  many  of  them  owe  their 
prosperity  largely  to  a  reputation  for  serv- 
ing good  coffee ;  new  uses  have  been  exploi- 
ted for  coffee,  as  a  flavoring  agent  for  des- 
serts and  other  sweets;  employers  have 
been  taught  the  important  service  good 
coffee  may  render  in  increasing  the  comfort 
and  efficiency  of  their  working  forces. 

Magazine  and  newspaper  advertising  is 
only  the  nucleus  of  the  campaign.  The  ef- 
fect of  such  "white  space"  publicity  is  in- 
creased by  simultaneous  efforts  to  "mer- 
chandise" the  campaign,  to  stimulate  the 
interest  of  the  wholesale  and  retail  trade, 
to  encourage  private-brand  advertising,  and 
to  reach  the  consumer  by    other   kinds   of 


The  Case  For  Coffee 

Number  One 


As  monibois  of  wliat  lias 
Ikiii  praised  as  "the  most 
useful  profession  in  the 
world,"  you  arc  daily 
ealled  upon  to  advise  your 
patients,  to  allow  or  to  for- 
bid certain  articles  of  food 
or  drink,  acei>rding  fii-st  to 
your  scientific  knowledge, 
and  second  to  your  prac- 
tical experience.  You  arc 
regarded  as  scientific  men, 
hence  your  knowledge 
should  be  exact,  true,  tem- 
perate, neither  influenced 
by  heai-say  nor  shaded  by 
prejudice.  There  are  half- 
truths  in  medicine,  made 
clever  use  of  by  certain 
sophists,  whoso  motives  arc 
tinctured  with  conmiercial- 
ism.  Clever  effort  and 
subtle  appeal  may  distort 
fact  and  disturb  propor- 
tions. You  are  ealled  upon 
to  differentiate  in  diagno- 
sis. You  should  be  equally 
able  and  conscientious  in 
your  analysis  of  the  writ- 
ten" or  the  spoken  woiil. 
One  of  your  great  scholars 


lias  declared,  "There  is  no 
authority  in  medicine  but 
common  sense  and  proven 
fact" 

Take,  for  example,  llio 
case  of  COFFEE. 

You  arc  asked  to  rcg4rd 
it  as  a  "dangerous"  lever- 
age, and  you  have  been  in- 
fluenced perhaps  to  believe 
or  to  incline  to  the  opinion 
that'  the  accusations  and 
the  arguments  against  cof- 
fee are  rational  and  scien- 
tifically well-founded. 

But  to  \k  fair,  judicial, 
to  I>e  true  to  the  ideals  of 
your  profession,  you  owe  it 
to  yoiii-selves  and  to  your 
patients  to  consider  both 
sides  of  the  (|uestion,  to 
weigh  the  evidence,  to  sep- 
arate the  chaff  of  theory 
from  the  wheat  of  fact,  Iw- 
fore  you  judge — or  act. 

The  case'  for  COFFEE 
will  Ix"  prese^lted  in  suc- 
ceeding issitcif  of  Ibis  and 
other  nu'dical  journals. 


Ihtboductoby  Medical  -  Journal  Copy 


452 


ALL     ABOUT     COFFEE 


The  Case  For  Coffee 

NumbezJTwo 


The  Case  For  Coffee 


Number  Three 


As  a  rule  you  do  not  ab- 
solutely cut  off  flesh  pro- 
teins from  your  patients' 
diet.  Yet  certain  of  the  in- 
termediate and  end  prod- 
ucts of  protein  digestion 
are  virulently  toxia^  capa- 
ble of  producing  organic 
degeneration  (sclerosis) 
or  functional  disorder, 
neuralgia,  asthma,  urtica- 
ria, etc.  You  guard  against 
excess,  but  you  do  not  for- 
bid moderation.  That  cof- 
fee takea  in  excess  can 
induce  functional  manifes- 
tations, is  undeniable.  But 
that,  used  as  it  is  used  by 
98  per  cent,  of  individuals, 
toffee  can  or  does  exert  the 
harm  ascribed  to  it,  is  con- 
trary to  practical  experi- 
ence or  scientific  fact.  Egg 
protein  poisons  a  very 
small  number,  an  infinites- 
imal proportion  of  its  eat- 
ers. Why  not  condemn  for 
that  reason  the  use  of  eggs 
by  everybody?  Yet  this 
would  be  as  logical  and  as 
rational  as  to  attempt  to 
label  coffee  as  a  "danger- 
ous" drug!  Milk,  acting 
as  a  medium  for  the  trans- 


mission of  pathogenic  bac- 
teria, has  slain  many  a 
rictim  and  incapacitated 
many  more.  Yet  milk  is 
not  pronounced  anathema! 
The  fuel  value  of  sugar  is 
just  as  well  established  as 
the  fact  that  abuse  of  sugar 
is  productive  of  serious 
disease.  The  evil  action 
and  effect  of  flesh,  milk, 
eggs  or  sugar  taken  to  ex- 
cess can  be — has  been — 
demonstrated  in  laboratory 
and  clinic.  Not  so  in  the 
case  even  of  the  abuse  of 
COFFEE.  As  a  matter  of 
fact,  the  evil  effects  of 
COFFEE-^as  charged, 
can  be  —  as  a  rule — as- 
cribed to  other  causes  than 
the  actual  action  of  coffee 
itself.  Remember,  gentle- 
men, that  post  and  not 
propter  hoc,  has  alwaj's 
proven  to  be  a  stumbling 
block  in  the  progress  of 
scientific  medicine.  Con- 
sider coffee  from  the  view- 
point of  what  it  is  and 
what  it  does,  not  upon 
prejudicial  or  commercially 
influenced  criticism  or  hear- 
say.   More  anon. 


Half-truths  have,  from 
Galen's  time  or  before, 
handicapped  the  progress 
of  scientific  medicine.  The 
as.sumed  prejudicial  effects 
of  coffee  are  asciibed  to  its 
caffcin  content.  Caffein  as 
employed  as  a  drug  in 
theiapcutics  is  really  thein 
obtained,  not  from  coffee 
at  all,  but  from  old  tea 
leaves.  Caffein  and  thein 
are  said  to  be  chemically 
identical.  It  does  not  fol- 
low of  necessity  that  the 
physiological  action  of  ex- 
tracted thein  is  identical 
with  the  caffein  of  coffee 
prepared  as  a  beverage. 
According  to  Hutchinson, 
raw  Mocha  coffee  contains 
1.08  per  cent,  caffein  which 
is  reduced  to  0.82  per  cent, 
by  roasting.  Only  from  25 
to  35  per  cent,  of  coffee  in- 
fused goes  into  solution. 
The  average  quantity  of 
coffee  infusion  taken  at 
meal  time  or  otherwise,  is 
smaller  by  far  than  is  made 
to  appear  by  its  accusers. 
The  actual  dose  of  caffein, 
i.  e.  of  the  coffee  caffein  in 


such  infusion  is  also  much' 
less  than  is  made  to  appear 
by  its  critics.  Comparison 
between  the  dose  in  grains 
of  extracted  caffein  em- 
ployed as  a  cardiac  stimu- 
lant therapeutically,  and 
the  actual  amount  of  natu- 
ral caffein  in  infused  cof- 
fee, will  suggest  that  the 
dc','  of  caffein  in  coitce 
taken  as  a  beverage  is  en- 
tirely too  small  to  produce 
the  physiological  effects  as- 
cribed to  it.  'Too  often 
physicians  think  in  terms 
of  gross  instead  o?"in  terms 
of  net.  For  example,  many 
regard  egg  albumin  as 
practically  all  nutriment, 
whereas  in  fact  86  per  cent 
of  it  is  nothing  but  water  I 
"A  sense  of  proportion  is  a 
great  iconoclast."  The  fal- 
lacy of  perhaps  the  most 
used  argument  against  the 
reasonable  use  of  coffee  is 
thus  apparent. 

What,  as  a  matter  of  fact, 
is  the  action  of  coffee  when 
taken  as  a  beverage?  See 
next  issue. 


The  Case  For  Coffee 


Number  Four 


It  must  be  admitted  that 
until  very  recently  medical 
knowledge  of  the  actual 
dietetic  value  and  conse- 
quent therapeutic  worth  of 
various  foodstuffs  and  bev- 
erages, has  been  largely 
theoretical.  Hence,  the  op- 
ponents of  coffee  have  re- 
lied upon  arguments  based 
upon  supposed  facts  as- 
sumed to  have  been  estab- 
lished. For  example,  cof- 
fee has  been  regarded  as 
capable  of  interfering  with 
the  digestion  of  food  and 
inhibiting  the  elimination 
of  waste  material.  Vaguely 
.  expressed,  coffee  can  cause 
"biliousnes8,""dyspepsia," 
etc.  Fraser  has  stated  that 
caffein  of  coffee  favors  di- 
geation  rather  than  other- 
wise. Hutchinson  states 
that,  "As  regards  the  prac- 
tical inference  to  be  drawn 
from  these  experiments  and 
observations,  it  may  be  said 
that  in  health  the  disturb- 
ance    of    dizestion     pro- 

c«»rri«iii  IMS  br  ih 


duced  by  the  infused  bev- 
erages is  negligible."  He 
quotes  Roberts  as  suggest- 
ing that'  the  slight  slowing 
of  digestion  they  produce 
may  be  favorable  as  tend- 
ing to  compensate  for  too 
rapid  digestibility  which 
refinements  of  manufacture 
and  preparation  have  made 
characteristic  of  modern 
foods!  So  much  'for  an- 
other half-truth  so  much 
depended  upon  and  used  by 
coffee  critics.  Hutchinson 
also  states,  "the  question 
has  been  much  debated 
whether  or  not  caffein  les- 
sens the  waste  of  the  body." 
"Indeed,"  he  concludes, 
"all,  experiments  go  to 
prove  to  the  contrary, 
namely  that  caffein  tends  to 
mcreage  rather  than  dimin- 
ish tissue  waste." 

Another  fallacy  exposed 
— the  far-fetched  claim  that 
coffee  hinders  elimination 
and  lessens  the  removal  of 
products  of  digestive  waste. 


The  Case  For  Coffee 


Number  Five 


Physicians  realize  the 
difference  between  justifi- 
able use  and  reprehensible 
abuse — of  anything.  Ex- 
cessive use,  i.  e.,  abuse  of 
coffee  is  not  only  exceed- 
ingly uncommon,  but  also 
productive  of  no  really  se- 
rious effects. 

At  the  worst,  abuse  of 
coffee,  is  claimed — not 
shown,  to  produce  "nerv- 
ousness" or  "sleeplessness" 
or  "palpitatio n" — all 
sjTnptoms  of  functional 
disturbance,  which  in  the 
majority  of  cases  if  not  in 
all,  may  be  logically  and  ra- 
tionally ascribed  to  other 
factors  present  and  operat- 
ing. As  a  matter  of  fact, 
Hut*rtiinson — one  of  the 
best  dietetic  authorities — 
declares,  "Whilst  one  may 
fully  admit  the  importance 
of  the  part  played  by  tea 
and  coffee  in  the  produc- 
tion of  such  symptoms,  yet 
the  extent  to  which  they 
prevail  has  probably  been 
greatly  overestimated.  It 
certainly  seems  an  exagger- 
ation." Coffee  stimulates 
the  vital  centers  and  the 
brain  cortex.  It  is  an  ahti- 
dgte  for  opium_  poisoning. 


Respiratory  movements  are 
deeper,  the  heart  beats 
more  forcibly,  and  urinary 
secretion  is  increased  by 
coffee,  which  when  taken 
hot,  as  it  usuilly  is,  helps 
to  stimulate  peristalsis  and 
bring  about  bowel  evacua- 
tion. Coffee  has  always 
been  the  beverage  of  the  in- 
tellectual, of  the  soldier, 
sailor,  explorer,  the  man 
who  works  hard  either  with 
his  head  or  his  hands.  Cof- 
fee played  a  vitally  import- 
ant part  in  the  late  war. 
Coffee  serves  a  no  less  im- 
portant purpose  in  times  of 
peace.  Attempts  have 
been,  are  being  made,  to 
".substitute"*  other  things 
for  coffee.  But  the  med- 
ical profession  h'as  long  ago 
become  familiar  with  the 
motives  and  methods  of 
"substitution"  and  of  the 
"substitutor."  Isitnottrue 
that  most  of  criticism  or 
condemnation  of  coffee  is 
due  to  open  or  occult  efforts 
of  makers  of  "coffee  substi- 
tutes?" Physicians  should 
— and  usually  do — discrim- 
inate between  scientific 
facts  and  selfish  propa- 
ganda.   More  to  come. 


TELLING  THE  DOCTORS  THE  TRUTH  ABOUT  COFFEE,  1920 


COFFEE  ADVERTISING 


453 


publicity  recognized  as  essential  factors  in 
a  well  rounded  national  advertising  effort. 
These  activities  may  be  summarized  as  fol- 
lows : 

Information  Service:  This  department 
answers  inquiries  and  supplies  material 
for  household  editors,  and  for  newspaper 
and  magazine  writers.  Through  a  na- 
tional clipping  service,  it  keeps  in 
touch  with  all  published  matter  relating  to 
coffee.  Its  special  duty  is  to  answer  attacks 
on  coffee  and  the  coffee  trade.  Merchants 
and  dealers  make  it  a  practise,  when  they 
find  misleading  articles  or  editorials  in 
their  local  newspapers,  to  send  clippings  to 
the  committee 's  headquarters  to  be  handled 
lere  as  the  situation  warrants. 
Scientific  Coffee  Research.  Twenty- 
mo thousand,  five  hundred  dollars  of  the 


American  fund  have  been  appropriated 
thus  far  for  scientific  coffee  research  at  the 
Massachusetts  Institute  of  Technology.  The 
reports  of  this  research  will  be  distributed 
to  the  coffee  trade  throughout  the  country, 
and  should  prove  valuable  in  all  branches 
of  coffee  merchandising.  The  findings  will 
be  distributed  by  the  committee  to  schools 
and  colleges,  and  to  consumers  through  na- 
tional advertising. 

The  Coffee  Club.  This  organization 
was  established  for  the  purpose  of  educat- 
ing the  consumer  through  constructive 
team  work  by  the  roasters'  and  jobbers' 
salesman  and  the  retail  dealer.  Under  this 
plan,  the  committee  has  distributed  50,000 
transparent  signs  for  dealers '  windows,  and 
5,000  bronze  coffee-club  buttons  for  coffee 
salesmen.    By  reference  to  the  Coffee  Club 


FLAk/OR.  IT 

WITH 

COFFEE 

By 

Mn.  I<U  C.  B^tey  Allen 

Autlior  "Mn.  Allen'i  Cook  Book" 

Fouadn  "Mr^  AIW.  School  of  Cood  Cookery" 


Coffee 

an  aid  to 

Factory 
Efficiency 


The  experience  of  • 
manufacturing  < 
which  has  found  that 
good  coffee  served  free 
to  workmen  at  lunch 
time  payi  big  dtvidendt. 


r  COIKEE   TlUi>E   PL-BUCITY   COWU 

or  Tuc  United  Statu 


National  Comx  BoASTOts  Assocution 


COFFEE 

A    SAFE    STIMULANT 


mou  A  ttronT  ti  samucl 
c.  PRCSCOTT,  morcssoK  of 

ISDVSTItlAL  Blower  AKD 
DIUCCTOR  OF  THE  SCICK- 
TIFIC  COFFEE  RESEARCH.  AT 
THE  MASSACHUSETTS  IHSTI- 
TVTE      OF      TECHSOLQCr, 


Some  of  the  Joint  Committee's  Attractive  Booklets 


454 


ALL     ABOUT     COFFEE 


The  Case  For  Coffee 


Number  Six 


What  experienced  physi- 
cian can  or  will  deny  the 
power  and  influence  of  sug- 
gestion— auto  or  extra — 
upon  the  mind  and  body  of 
his  patients— or  himself? 
Such  suggestioa  influences- 
the  action  and  effect  of 
foods  as  well  as  drugs — one 
patient  cannot  eat  this ;  an- 
other can.  Certain,  pa- 
tients, provided  suggestion 
is  'Sufficiently  potent,  as- 
cribe l)enefit  to  medicine 
taken  that  is  purely  pla- 
cebo. Herein  may  be 
found  the  explanation  of 
the  harmful  effects  ascribed 
to  coffee,  by  the  exceed- 
ingly small  number  of  pe»> 
pie  who  claim  to  be  injur- 
iousfly  affected  by  it — as 
well  as  the  efforts  of  those 
who  are  selfishly  interested 
in  the  exploitation  of  coffee 
substitutes.  Those  who  are 
siisceptible  to  the  power  of 
suggestion,  respond  quickly 
to  oft-repeated  fallacy  or 
distorted  statement.     Eas- 


ily convinced  themselves, 
they  succeed  in  influencing 
others.  The  result  of  this 
is  a  collection  of  30-called 
clinical  evidence  that  is  apt 
to  influence  the  careless 
physician  who  does  not 
analj*ie  carefully,  who 
overlooks  the  importance 
of  post  non  propter  hoc  in 
the  Science  and  Art  of 
Medicine.  "He  gets  not  far 
in  medicine  who  takes  any- 
thing for  granted." 
Hence,  the  conscientious 
and  the  wise  doctor  should 
not  accept  without  analy- 
sis, nor  condemn  without 
reason. 

He  should  differentiate 
between  fallacy  and  fact,  in 
order  that  he  may  most 
efficiently  practice  the  art 
which  above  all  other  arts, 
demands  accurate  and  ex- 
act estimation  o^  the  rela- 
tion between  cause  and  ef- 
fect. Eschew  suggestions 
—hold  fast  to  facts.  See 
next  issue. 


The  Case  For  Coffee 


Number  Eight 


"Science,"  wrote  a  great 
scientist,  "has  neither 
reason  nor  excuse  for 
jumping  at  conclusions." 

Yet,  "jumping  at  con- 
clusions"— or  the  assump- 
tion of  fact  from  insuffi- 
ciently analyzed  evidence — 
has  more  than  anything 
else  retarded  the  progress 
of  practical  medicine. 

As.sumption,  for  exam- 
ple, that  uric  acid  is  the 
cause  of  rheumatism,  gout 
and  many  other  functional 
or  organic  disturbance  or 
disorder  of  body  organs  or 
tissues,  prevented  for 
years  the  recognition  of 
the  true  cause  of  such  con- 
ditions and  the  real  nature 
of  uric  acid,  indican,  etc. 

Attempts  therefore  to 
condemn  coffee  as  a  source 
of  uric  acid  or  metabolic 
waste  products,  whiff  given 
credence  in  the  past,, lose 
all  force  in  the  light  of 
present  knowledge.      Old- 


fangled dietaries  used  to 
proscribe  coffee — modern 
ones  allow  it  or  prescribe  it. 
We  formerly  forbade  sugar 
■and  carbohydrates  in  dia- 
betes mellitus.  Today, 
knowing  the  patient  can 
tolerate  these  in  modera- 
tion, we  allow  them  to  be 
so  taken.  There  was  a 
time,  when  all  water  or  liq- 
uid was  forbidden  during 
fevers.  We  used  to  bleed 
or  purge  secundum  artem 
for  so-called  "reasons"  ar- 
rived at  by  "jumping  at 
conclusions."  As  for  cof- 
fee, accused  upon  hearsay 
and  prejudice  of  being  a 
"dangerous  drug"  capable 
of  doing  considerable 
harm,  we  now  realize  and 
recognize  it  as  possessing 
definitely  beneficial  thera- 
peutic properties.  Let  no 
phj-sitian  condemii  or  for- 
bid coffee  unjustly  or  as  a 
result  of  "jumping  at  con- 
clusions." 
t     See  next  issue. 


The  Case  For  Coffee 


Number  Seven 


We  owe  to  Pavlov,  and 
other  eminent  seekers  after 
■physiological  truth,  the 
knowledge  of  the  value  of 
mental  stimulation  in  pro-, 
du^ng  the  so-called  "appe- 
tite* juice"  without  which 
gastric  digestion  cannot  be 
efficiently  performed. 
Hence  we  can  understand 
why  and  how,  to  most  indi- 
viduals, the  thought,  antici- 
pation and  odor  of  the 
morning  cup  of  coffee  is  of 
practical  value  in  bringing 
about  the  proper  enjoy- 
ment and  digestion  of  what 
is  or  should  be  the  most 
important  of  the  daily 
meals. 

"Without  coffee,"  wrote 
a  wise  doctor,  "breakfast  is 
a  meal  instead  of  an  insti- 
tution." The  craving  for 
the  matutinal  cup  of  coffee 
is  not  a  cry  of  the  body  for 
a  stimulating  drug,  not  the 
prompting  of  a  bad  habit. 
It  is  a  physiological  demand 
for  aid  in  the  performance 
of  normal  digestion. 


Nature  is  wise  in  her 
provision  of  coffee  to  begin 
the  first  meal  of  the  day,  to 
awaken  and  activate  diges- 
tive processes  made  dor- 
'mant  during  the  period  0^ 
the,  body's  lowest  vitality. 
Also  of  coffee  after  dinner 
to  assist  in  the  digestion  of 
the  heaviest  meal  when 
functions  are  depressed  as 
a  result  of  the  day's  strug- 
gle. If  coffee  be  a  habit — 
so  is  appetite.  One  is  al- 
most as  helpful  and  as  nec- 
essary to  the  average  indi- 
vidual as  is  the  other. 

Realizing  these  facts, 
physicians  will  be  slow  to 
condemn  or  to  forbid  the 
use  ot  coffee — in  modera- 
tion— Because  of  certain 
fallacies  or  half-trutlis, 
promulgated  by  those  who 
neither  analyze  nor  weigh 
the  evidence,  or  who  are  in- 
fluenced by  prejudice,  self- 
ish interest  or  exploitation 
of  substitutes  for"Nature's 
most  prized  beverage." 
More  anon. 


The  Case  For  Coffee 


Number  Nine 


Hippocrates  recognized  the 
influence  of  temperament 
in  the  production  of  symp- 
toms. It  is  often  said  that 
"as  a  nation  we  live  and 
work  and  play  upon  our 
nerves."_  To  "nervous- 
ness" is  ascribed  much  of 
the  functional  disturbance 
that  provides  physicians 
with  many  patients.  Why 
deny  the  fact  ?  -But  on  the 
other  hand,  wh^  attempt  to 
saddle  upon  certain  articles 
of  food  or  drink  the  onus  of 
inducing  "nervousness?" 
Take  coffee  for  example, 
accused  of  producing  nerv- 
ousness by  over-stimulation 
of  cardiac  or  cerebral  func- 
tions. Nervousness  is  a 
mental  phenomenon  mostly. 
Excessive  fatigue,  overuse 
of  muscles  or  mind,  over- 
work of  digestive  organs, 
Increased  mental  strain, 
worry,  insistence  upon 
brain  effort  in  spite  of  Na- 
ture's effort  to  rest  and  to 
recuperate,  impaired  nutri- 
tion favored  by  impure  or 

Co»nicUinobTtb« 


anemic  blood,  laden  with 
toxins  absorbed  as  a  result 
of  intestinal  stasis,  deficient 
oxidation  or  exercise,  ex- 
cessive use  of  vital  forces, 
all  these  are  upon  analysis 
the  causes  of  "nervous- 
ness." Yet  how  often  pa- 
tient and  physician  make 
or  attempt  to  make  coffee 
a  scapegoat  for  symptoms 
complained  of  I 

Analysis  of  symptoms,  of 
secretions,  and  excretions, 
of  habits,  will,  almost  with- 
out exception,  point  away 
from  coffee  and  toward 
some  more  rational  and  di- 
rect exciting  cause.  With- 
drawal of  coffee  does  not 
often  remedy  the  condition. 
Removal  of  the  real  causes, 
usually  permits  of  resump- 
tion of  the  use  of  coffee. 
Forbid  coffee  if  you  can 
convince  your  reason  that 
it  is  in  part  responsible. 
But  do  not  make  it  a  scape- 
goat to  excuse  or  avoid  get- 
ting at  the  real  cause. 

See  next  issue. 


MORE  MEDICAL  JOURNAL  COPY,  1920 


I 


COFFEE    ADVERTISING 


455 


in  national  magazine  and  newspaper  adver- 
tising, the  retailer  is  given  a  chance  to  tie 
up  with  the  campaign.  Membership  in  the 
■club  is  limited  to  those  who  are  contribut- 
ing to  the  publicity  fund,  and  to  their 
salesmen  and  customers.  The  club  pub- 
lishes a  monthly  bulletin  in  newspaper 
form,  giving  the  news  of  the  campaign. 
This  has  a  circulation  of  27,000  among 
wholesalers,  salesman,  and  dealers. 

Booklets.  The  committee  has  published 
six  booklets,  which  have  reached  a  total  cir- 
culation of  more  than  one  and  a  half  mil- 
lion copies.  These  booklets  are  sold  at  cost 
to  the  coffee  trade.  The  committee  reports 
that,  on  an  average,  one  hundred  requests 
for  them  are  received  daily  at  its  office 
from  consumers  in  different  parts  of  the 
■country,  and  that  the  booklets  are  the 
means  of  a  constant  campaign  of  educa- 
tion in  American  homes  and  schools. 

Braxd  Advertising.  The  committee  is 
constantly  making  efforts  to  increase  the 
amount  of  private  advertising  by  coffee 
roasters,  and  it  estimates  that  brand  ad- 
vertising has  increased  at  least  three  hun- 
dred percent  since  the  national  campaign 


began.  Reproductions  of  the  committee's 
advertisements,  proofs  of  advertising  elec- 
trotypes, and  copy  suggestions  are  circu- 
lated in  advance  to  all  roasters  and  to  a 
large  number  of  retailers,  by  means  of  the 
monthly  organ,  The  Coffee  Club. 

Coffee  Week.  During  the  week  of 
j\Iarch  29  to  April  4,  1920,  the  committee 
organized  and  financed  the  third  national 
coffee  week,  which  was  observed  by  retail- 
ers throughout  the  country.  The  feature 
of  this  week  was  a  window-trimming  con- 
test for  which  prizes  of  $2,000  were  distrib- 
uted among  several  hundred  grocers.  The 
contest  resulted  in  displays  of  coffee  in 
nearly  10,000  grocery  windows,  and  greatly 
increased  the  sale  and  consumption  of  cof- 
fee during  this  period. 

Motion  Pictures.  The  United  States 
fund  financed  the  production  and  distri- 
bution of  a  coffee  motion  picture,  128  prints 
of  which  were  sold  to  loasters,  who  exhibi- 
ted them  throughout  the  country.  This 
picture  was  shown  during  coffee  week  to 
more  than  six  hundred  theater  audiences, 
and  it  remains  in  the  possession  of  the 
trade  as  an  active  advertising  medium. 


en  the  clock 
"swings'round  to  four" 

OFFEE 


Right  at  the  peak  of  the  day's  duties 
it  pays  to  pause  for  a  chummy,  cheery 
cup  of  Coffee. 

It  is  a  stimulus  to  effort  in  the  office 
or  in  the  home — it  coaxes  cheerful 
spirits  and  clear-thinking  for  the  rest 
of  the  day. 

As  regularly  as  the  clock  swings 
'round  to  four,  drink  an  appetizing, 
reviving  cup  of  Coffee.  Not  very  far 
from  wherever  you  are,  there  is  a  cof- 
fee house,  soda  fountain,  restaurant 
or  hotel  which  makes  a  feature  of 
Afternoon  Coffee. 


Tt/«  atwtniumtM  li  rut  «f  M  v^ 


1 .  Keepyour  coffee  aii*  light 

2.  Measure  carefully' 

3.  Use  grounds  only  once 

4.  Use  boiling'w^aler 

5.  Serve  at  once 

6.  Scour  the  coffeepot 


COFFEE 

the  univevsal  (trink 


im 


COFFEE  ^  -the  univevrd drink 


Specimens  of  THE  1921  Magazine  and  Newspaper   Copy 


456 


ALL    ABOUT     COFFEE 


Prescribing 

vs. 

Proscribing 

BEFORE  you  prescribe  for  a  patient,  what  do  you  do?  You 
take  his  history;  you  examine  him  thoroughly;  you  note  the  , 
signs  and  symptoms,  and  back  in  your  head  you  interpret  those 
symptoms  in  terms  of  pathology;  you  eUminate  one  by  one  the 
possible  diseases  these  symptoms  may  indicate  until  you  arrive  at 
your  diagnosis.  Then  you  prescribe.  Good !  Why  shouldn't  the 
same  careful  reascining  and  analysis  be  applied  before  proscribing? 

If  this  were  done,  coffee  would  be  prescribed  rather  than  pro- 
scribed. Because  it  would  be  found  that  coffee  is  not  only  harmless 
in  at  least  ninety-eight  per  cent  of  your  cases,  but  really  offers 
itself  as  a  therapeutic  aid. 

Where  a  mild  cardiac  stimulant  is  indicated — prescribe  coffee; 
in  cases  of  muscular  and  mental  fatigue — prescribe  coffee ;  in  slug- 
gish peristalsis — prescribe  coffee;  as  an  antidote  for  certain 
poisons — prescribe  coffee ;  as  an  appetite  excitant  of  rare  influence 
— prescribe  a  cup  of  rich,  steaming  coffee. 

Coffee  drinking  is  a  pleasure,  and  to  deprive  your  patients  of 
the  zest  it  lends  to  eating,  in  sickness  and  in  health,  usually  is 
without  justification  in  fact.  Confirmation  of  this  is  found  in 
any  standard  work  on  dietetics. 


After  All,  the  Patient  Is  the 
One  Most  Concerjied 


THE  patient  is  the  sick  man. 
He  is  the  sufferer.  It  is  he 
who  seeks — and  expects — relief. 
He  is  the  one  most  concerned. 
What  do  you  do  for  him? 

You  diagnose,  you  prescribe,  and 
sometimes  you  proscribe  certain 
foods.  But  do  you  unreservedly 
rule  out  jor  every  case  eggs,  milk, 
tomatoes,  strawberries,  red  meat, 
and  dozens  of  other  foods  for 
which  some  few  people  have 
idiosyncrasies?  No!  You  first  de- 
termine what  foods,  if  any,  would 
be  harmful  in  each  particular  case, 
and  rule  accordingly. 

Then  why  issue,  as  is  too  fre- 
quently done,  a  sweeping  dictum 
against  coffee? 

As  you  know,  coffee  can  fre- 
quently be  enlisted  as  a  therapeutic 
aid.  It  is  a  mild  cardiac  stimulant; 
it  relieves  muscular  and  mental 
fatigue;  it  accelerates  peristalsis; 
is  mildly  laxative;  is  an  antidote 
for  certain  poisons ;  and  is  an  appe- 
tite excitant.  What  greater  stimu- 
lus to  appetite  is  there  than  the  rich 
aroma  of  steaming  coffee?  And 
maintaining  a  patient's  appetite  is 
important  1 


Dr.  Julius  Friedenwald  and  Dr. 
John  Ruhrah,  of  the  University  of 
Maryland  School  of  Medicine,  Bal- 
timore, in  their  joint  work,  "Diet  in 
Health  and  Disease,"  frequently 
include  coffee  in  the  breakfast 
dietaries;  and  Dr.  Torald  SoUman, 
of  Western  Reserve  University, 
Cleveland,  in  his  "Mamial  of  Phar- 
macology" says  coffee  "increases 
mental  and  physical  efficiency, 
psychical  stimulation,  comfort  and 
relief  from  muscular  and  mental 
fatigue  and  from  their  attendant 
unpleasant  sensations.  These  ef- 
fects may  be  useful  in  certain  con- 
ditions, as  in  those  exposed  to 
severe  hardship,  hunger,  fatigue, 
etc." 

We  believe  a  study  of  the  cases  in 
youi*.  own  practice  will  convince 
you  conclusively  that  there  are  few 
patients,  indeed,  for  whom  coffee  is 
contra-indicated.  We  believe  that 
such  a  study  will  convince  you,  too, 
that  coffee  can  be  enlisted  as  a 
beneficial  agent  bordering  on  the 
field  of  active  therapy. 

Why  impose  an  unnecessary  re- 
striction on  your  patients?  Why 
overlook  a  possible  therapeutic  aid  ? 


Facts  Would  Not  Justify 
Such  a  Decision 


A  PATIENT  clevetopea  a  rash 
■^  *■  after  an  injection  of  diph- 
theria antitoxin.  But  have  you 
stopped  using  antitoxin  in  diph- 
theria? Hardly,  because  you  know 
— you  realize — that  that  patient 
is,  perhaps  one  in  a  hundred;  and 
to  cut  antitoxin  from  your  list  of 
therapeutic  agents  because  of  an 
occasional  anaphylaxis  would  be  a 
decision  without  justification. 

Is  there  any  more  logic — is  there 
any  more  justification  in  taking 
the  joy  out  of  your  patient's  break- 
fast, as  you  do  when  you  pronounce 
"Cut  out  coffee!"  without  the  his- 
tory, the  etiology,  the  symptoma- 
tology, the  diagnosis  of  each  par- 
ticular case  pointing  conclusively, 
or  even  possibly,  to  coffee  as  a 
pathologic  irritant? 

Here  is  what  Professor  Samuel 
C.  Prescott,  head  of  the  Depart- 
ment of  Biology  and  Public  Health, 
Massachusetts  Institute  of  Tech- 
nology, sayg  of  caffein : — 


"For  the  great  majority  of  nor- 
mal individuals.it  is  a  mild  stimu- 
lant of  the  heart,  increases 
power  to  do  muscular  work,  in- 
creases concentration  of  mental 
effort  and  therefore  the  power  to 
do  more  brain  work.  It  is  not  fol- 
lowed, except  in  excessive  doses, 
by  undesirable  after-effects.  Our 
studies  lead  us  to  entire  agreement 
with  the  results  stated  by  HoUing- 
worth  that  when  taken  with  food 
in  moderate  amount,  caffein  is  not 
in  the  least  deleterious." 

That  case  management  which 
gives  relief  with  the  least  derange- 
ment of  the  patient's  normal  habits 
certainly  is  to  be  preferred  over 
that  which  upsets  his  daily  routine 
of  living.  Taking  coffee  from  the 
breakfast  of  the  vast  majority  of 
patients  is  adding  hardship  to 
illness. 

Is  it  necessary?  In  how  few 
cases  is  it  really  necessary?  Turn 
to  any  work  on  dietetics. 


Would  You  Prohibit  Your 
Patients  From  Bathing? 


THE  use  of  water  on  eczematous 
lesions  is  contra-indicated ;  but 
would  you,  because  of  that,  issue  a 
sweeping  ukase  to  your  patients 
enjoining  them  from  bathing? 

It  isn't  logical,  yeu  my,  0* 
course,  it  isn't!  Neither  is  jt  logir 
cal,  with  one  broad  stroke,  to 
scratch  coffee  from  the  dietary  of 
every  patient  regardless  of  hiji  ait 
ment,  just  because  it  may  be  der 
sirable  to  omit  coffee  from  the 
regimen  of  a  gouty  or  nephritic 
patient.  A  specific  measure  has 
thoughtlessly  been  extended  to  a 
general  dictum.  You're  right !  It 
isn't  logical ! 

Striking  coffee  unreservedly 
from  the  menu  of  your  patients  is 
imposing  an  unnecessary  hardship 
and  depriving  them  of  an  appetite 
excitant  of  pronounced  value. 


Furthermore,  in  ninety-eight  per 
cent  of  your  cases  you  are  thrust- 
ing aside  a  possible  therapeutic 
aid. 

Consultation  of  "Diet  in  Health 
and  Disease,"  the  joint  work  of 
Drs.  Julius  Friedenwald  and  John 
Ruhrah,  of  Baltimore,  tells  us  that 
coffee  "is  a  stimulant;  it  acta  di- 
rectly on  the  cerebral  centers, 
ftimulates  the  heart,  and  deepens 
respiration."  Are  reactions  such 
as  these  to  be  generally  avoided? 
Rather,  aren't  they,  generally 
speaking,  to  be  encouraged? 

Analyze  your  cases  today  and 
note  in  how  f ew-=— how  very  few — 
coffee  is  really  contra-indicated  by 
tiie  diagnosis ;  and  in  what  a  lar^Q 
■,r-a  very  large  percentage  tuft^ 
would  possibly  be  beneficial,  phy^ 
olqgically  or  psychologically. 


EDUCATING  THE  DOCTOR  IN  THE  FACTS  ABOUT  COFFEE,  192^ 


COFFEE  ADVERTISING 


45r 


New  Uses  for  Coffee,  An  important 
factor  in  increasing  consumption  has  been 
the  promotion  of  new  uses  for  coffee.  In 
winter,  this  has  taken  the  form  or  recipes 
and  suggestions  for  coffee  as  a  flavoring 
agent ;  and  in  warm  weather,  there  has  been 
a  publicity  drive  for  iced  coffee. 

Propaganda  Results      * 

The  joint  coffee  trade  publicity  cam- 
paign is  progressive.  New  features  are 
being  developed,  and  plans  are  laid  well  in 
idvance.  It  is  expected  that  the  reports 
the  scientific  research  will  furnish  fresh 
laterial  for  both  direct  and  indirect  ad- 
rertising. 

One   of   the    interesting   prospects   is   a 
3hool  exhibit,  demand  for  which  has  been 
jvealed  by  requests  from  a  large  number 
teachers,  principals,  and  school  superin- 
endents.  Efforts  to  increase  the  popularity 
)f  a  product  as  widely  used  as  coffee  sug- 
gest almost  unlimited  opportunities. 

The  campaign  has  brought  into  co-opera- 
tion producers  in  one  country,  and  manu- 
facturers and  distributers  in  another 
country,  several  thousand  miles  apart.  Its 
international  character,  and  also  the  fact 


that  it  deals  with  a  product  of  almost  uni- 
versal use,  may  account  for  the  attention 
this  campaign  has  received,  not  only  in  the 
United  States,  but  in  every  country  where 
advertising  is  a  business  factor. 

This  kind  of  coffee  publicity  has  given 
the  consumer  a  better  knowledge  of  coffee, 
and  broken  down  much  of  the  prejudice 
against  coffee  that  rested  upon  popular- 
misunderstanding  of  its  physiological  ef- 
fects. 

As  best  evidence  of  its  sincere  wish  to- 
give  the  public  the  whole  truth  about  coffee^ 
the  committee  points  to  the  fact  that  a 
portion  of  its  funds  is  being  used  to  finance 
the  scientific  investigation  at  the  Massachu- 
setts Institute  of  Technology. 

Felix  Coste,  the  secretary-manager  of  the 
campaign,  spends  much  of  his  time  travel- 
ing about  the  country  and  addressing  gath- 
erings of  coffee  wholesalers  and  dealers.. 
By  this  means,  and  by  continuous  circu- 
larization  and  correspondence,  the  trade  is 
kept  constantly  in  touch  with  the  develop- 
ments of  the  campaign. 

Although  Brazil  is  the  only  coffee-pro- 
ducing country  at  present  co-operating,  the 
advertising  has  treated  all  coffees  alike. 
Efforts  are  being  made  to  have  the  coffee 


^ow  to  make 
GOOD  COFFEE 


Keep  Your  Coffee  Air-tiskt 


Mcaaura  Carefully 
Um  GrooBds  0«lr  Once 
UteBoilinc  Water 

"X  IH*  <l«  CaiM  ML  Mm  <h^  1*1  Mh  ww>t  ao^ 
*t  friiwi  >«— WU  1— ttiH  tKH  rtn  ui  HHd. 
MTrMt  *«••,  k«  *m\  bMI  tmt  Mm) 

Serve  at  Once 
Scottr  the  Ceffee  Pot 


Wttk  EndiH$  April  U 


^^rve 


COFFEE 

vjfmyoumtertmn 

At  the  afternoon  card  party  or  in  Ibc 
evening  when  £ood  friends  call,  there 

Coffee.     It  U  •  beverage  that  every 

NFor  there  is  warmth  ant)  good  cheer 
as  welt  as  good  fellowship  in  a  cup  of 


Moreover.  Ii  may  be  served  with  cqtial 
^  propri«tx  with  the  lowbesi  sandwich 
or  the  daintiest  tweets.  And  it  is 
■I ways  in  good  taste  t 
The  phrase,  "I-cenaiitly'^id- 
hrvr'a-good-time."  has  a  familiar 


■  hostess  who  s 


COFFEE  -  the  uniyeml drink 


W*tk  Ending  Aprii  ilh 


Any  Time 
COFFEE^ime 


^ 


COFFEE 

'the  univerral  drink 


Wttk  Ending  Mtfrh  Ulh 


COFFEE 

-the  miveml  drink 


"I  drink  it 
every  afternoon 


COFFEE  -  the  univeml  in'nk 


Magazine  and  Newspaper  Advertising  Copy,  Spring  of  1922 


458 


ALL     A  B  OUT     COFFEE 


Z 

2  £ 

S  .22 
Vit. 

<< 

OS 
fiQ 


3S2 


<j 


#  # 


—  ™  2  2 

UJ  u->  S  — • 

:>  c>j  is 

2  op 


1—  oo 

La-  oo 

o  e 

o  J 

i=  o 

oc  >_ 

o  3J 

Q.  -a 

C3  E 


£^ 


'>-&-»-g-<K 


3       VI 
UiQ£ 


^V///////, 


'^^ 


in    c/5 


-'^^^^^ 


^y//////, 


■^^^^^S;i;i^-2 


^^ 


■V/////////Apm 


s::S^^^^^Sg^ 


^v//////y//y///z:^^^z^. 


^^^^^^i!"^ 


i^^^^^^^^^^^ 


i^^^^^ 


IJ: 


v/7///A^/y!^^/]^/7^^^ 


s^^^^^^^^Sspio 


^^^^^^^^^^^ 


i2^^^^^^^ 


.-^:^^^^^^^^^^^^::^^ 


COFFEE  ADVERTISING 


459 


|vnnousfl7fn  auit  Plarcs  in  thr  Historu  of  lltr 
fPorlii's  Trtvoritr  Brvrranr  ^ 


tShc  (froiuning  Achii\vcnient 


YUBAN 


The  Arbuckle  Suest  Coffee 
35 


Specimen  of  Early  Yuban  Copy 

growers  of  other  countries  contribute  on  a 
basis  proportionate  to  the  benefit  they  de- 
rive. Support  from  all  the  coffee  countries 
on  the  same  scale  as  that  on  which  the  pro- 
ducers of  Sao  Paulo  are  contributing 
would  almost  double  the  size  of  the  fund. 

Coffee  Advertising  Efficiency 

Reverting  to  the  original  advertisement 
for  coffee  in  English,  when  we  compare  it 
with  the  latest  examples  of  advertising  art, 
it  is  of  the  same  order  of  merit.  But  Pas- 
qua  Rosee  had  no  advertising  experts  to 
advise  him  and  no  precedents  to  follow. 
Pasqua  Rosee  was  a  native  of  Smyrna,  who 
was  brought  to  London  by  a  Mr.  Edwards, 
a  dealer  in  Turkish  merchandise,  to  whom 
he  acted  as  a  sort  of  personal  servant.  One 
of  his  principal  duties  was  the  preparation 
of  Mr.  Edwards'  morning  drink  of  Turkish 
coffee. 

"But  the  novelty  thereof,"  history  tells 
us,  '  *  drawing  too  much  company  to  him,  he 
[Mr.  Edwards]  allowed  his  said  servant, 
with  another  of  his  son-in-law,  to  sell  it 
publicly."  So  it  came  about  that  Pasqua 
Rosee  set  up  a  coffee  house  in  St.  Michael's 
Alley,  Cornhill. 

And  since  Pasqua  Rosee 's  idea,  naturally, 
was  to  acquaint  the  London  public  with  the 


virtues  and  delectable  qualities  of  the  prod- 
uct of  which  his  prospective  customers 
were  naturally  uniformed,  he  put  into  his 
advertisement  those  facts  and  arguments 
which  he  felt  would  be  most  likely  to  at- 
tract attention,  to  excite  interest,  and  to 
convince.  If  the  reader  will  glance  at 
Rosee 's  advertisement,  which  is  reproduced 
on  page  55,  he  will  be  struck  with  the  well- 
nigh  irresistible  charm  of  his  unaffected, 
j^traightforward  bid  for  patronage.  Hav- 
ing no  advertising  fetishes  to  warp  his 
judgment,  he  told  an  interesting  story  in 
a  natural  manner,  carrying  conviction.  It 
matters  not  that  some  of  the  virtues  attrib- 
uted to  the  drink  have  since  been  disal- 
lowed. He  believed  them  to  be  true.  Few 
there  were  in  those  days  who  knew  the  real 
'Hruth  about  coffee." 

Even  his  typographv,  unstudied  from 
the  standpoint  of  modern  "display,"  is 
attractive,  appropriate,  and  exceedingly 
pleasant  to  the  eye.  And  since  at  that  time 
there  was  no  cereal  substitute  or  other  bug- 
aboos to  contend  against,  and  to  hinder 
him  from  doing  the  simple,  obvious  thing 
in  advertising,  he  did  that  very  thing  — 
and  did  it  exceedingly  well. 


T^hen  men  rode  a  hundred  miles 
for  a  good  cup  of  coffee 


Yuban 


-i  *--*i 


j*^'*.* 


Historical  Association  in  Advektising 


460 


ALL     ABOUT     COFFEE 


PACKAGE-COFFEE  ADVERTISING  IN  1922 

Specimens  of  newspaper  copy  used  by  some  of  the  most  enterprising  package-coffee  advertisers,  East  and  West 


I 


COFFEE  ADVERTISING 


461 


In  fact,  in  the  historic  advertisement, 
Pasqua  Rosee  set  an  example  and  estab- 
lished a  copy  standard  which  had  a  very 
beneficial  effect  on  all  the  coffee  advertis- 
ing of  that  early  date.  This  vs^ill  be  evident 
from  a  glance  at  the  accompanying  exhib- 
its of  other  early  advertisements.  It  was 
not  until  the  days  of  so-called  ''modern" 
advertising  that  coffee  publicity  reached 
low-water  mark  in  efficiency  and  value.  In 
these  dark  days  most  coffee  advertisers  ig- 
nored the  principles  discovered  and  applied 
in  other  lines  of  grocery  merchandising. 
Instead  of  telling  their  public  how  good 
their  product  was,  they  actually  followed 
the  opposite  course,  and  warned  the  public 
against  the  dangers  of  coffee  drinking !  In- 
stead of  saying  to  the  public,  "Coffee  has 
many  virtues,  and  our  brand  is  one  of  the 
best  examples,"  their  text  said  in  effect, 
"Coffee  has  many  deleterious  properties; 
some,  or  most,  of  which  have  been  elimina- 
ted in  our  particular  brand." 

They  were,  for  the  most  part,  apostles 
of  negation. 

Hopeful  signs,  however,  are  multiplying 
that  this  condition  of  things  in  the  coffee 
industry  has  passed,  and  that  the  practise 


'How  I  Became 
Famous  For  My  Coffee" 


Mr.  Q^ni,  A,la  Yom 
t«  7ty  nil  C»ffm  7«.( 


'a 


lover*  of  coffee- the  best  coffM.    But  for 

La  Touraine  is  produced. 

yean  1  thought  that  only  at  fine  reitau- 
dehcious  coffee       Now  1  know  belter  be- 

Fouitd  Real  Coffee  Al  La.1 

A(  last.  1  have  coffee  that  my  fnends.  as 
LaTouratne,  The  Coffee- of  Good  Taxe,- 

The  Famou.  For<nula  Cuar^  ibe  QaaJilp 

reason  for  the  great  popularity  of  La 
Touraine.    It  n  a  fixed  njle  of  coffee  pro- 

Ihe  factory  must  ripdiy  conform  Ac- 
cording to  the  formula  the  fineai  kinds  of 
cnftee  are  used     These  are  carefully  aa- 

quaintancea.  who.  like  myself  have  gladly 
paid  any  price  to  Ect  good  coffee,  prefer  La 

full  of  rich  coffee-flavor  as  coffee  can  be 

A  DialiMclive  Thing  in  FU>»r 

output,  and  blended  together  m  a  way 
WhKh  insures  the  datmctive  flavor  of 
L^  Touraine,    ExparMnced  roaMmg  men 

are  brought  to  just  the  decree  of  coior 

all  enjoy  so  much,  and  it  i*  simply  due 
to  the  high  grade  kinds  of  coffee  m  ihe 

i»«Ml  oa  iW  La  Towaiae  Packaf« 

Ihe  La  Touraine  package  Buy  it  m  the 
then  get  the  richest  flavor  in  your  cup. 

'    m   ■y                      42c  per 

pound 

oumine 

"The  Coffee  of  Good  Taste" 


"It't  th€  B4ai»"—S*hcfJ,  hitndtd  attd  natltd  accordii/ig  fi 


f  J  La  Tomrautt  Fwmmit 


Emphasizing  the  Social-Distinction  Argument 


en,  ffomenan 

How  women  changed  their  minds 

about  an  "uncivir'  masculine  custom 


WHEN  coffee  first  became  popular  in 
England,  two  hundred  and  fifty  years 
ago,  it  w^s  considered  a  man's  drink. 

It  was  served  only  in,  coffee  houses  which  no 
woman  ever  dreamed  of  entering.  As  the  men 
bpcnt  more  and  more  time  in  the  coffee  houses. 
the  women  became  leaious  of  this  new.drink. 
They  claimed  if  was  "unsocial  and  uncivil." 

And  then  came  an  innovation.  The  lonely 
maidens  found  they  could  make  coffee  at  home. 

Ever  since  that  day,  women  have  striven  to 
make  coffee  that  will  satisfy  men's  idea  of  what 
coffee  should  be.  The  clever  hostess  knows 
that  good  coffee  expresses  the  w^irnicst,  (ricnd- 
best  kind  of  hospitality. 

When  Yuban  was  hrst  discoyerr 
rescr^i;  it  /or  tfiC  guests  a.id  fxici.    - 
eofffc  merchant.     But    everyone   «.ii.j   i:cs;cq    iu!wn 
wished  to  secure  it  for  himself.     The  fanK;-of..,it.,'8i)read 
s<f  quickly  that  at  last  YubajiWft?  offered  to  ih*  public. . 
-    Ever  since  that  time,  Yuban  has  .been  the  mosf  r-_>D 
uJar  coffee  whercverit  has  been  intro.' 
tng  arotna.  its  rich,  golden  Itquo^,  d'. 
tastes  it.    Yub^o  is  the  most  popular 
among  both  rrvcn  acd  wonicn 

If,. by  chance,  you  ha\' 
deligbtful^surpnse  awaits.  ■. 
.— youcjiii  Ji;rik  Vuhan  tc.     ■ 


Yuban 


Drawing  Upon  Histoby  fob  Social-Intercouese  Atmosphere 


462 


ALL    ABOUT     COFFEE 


of  telling  the  coffee  story  with  certitude 
will  soon  become  general. 

We  may  well  applaud  the  publicity  work 
of  all  coffee  advertisers  who  follow  where 
PaSqua  Rosee  led  —  those  who  tell  the  pub- 
lic how  good  coffee  is  tp  drink  and  how 
much  good  it  does  you  if  you  drink  it.  Con- 
sidering the  advertising  and  typographi- 
cal resources  available  to  the  modern  ad- 
vertiser, it  certainly  should  be  possible  for 
this  message  to  be  conveyed  to  the  public 
with  at  least  some  of  the  charm  of  the  first 
coffee  message. 

One  of  the  most  notable  examples  of  how 
to  advertise  coffee  well  is  that  set  by  Yuban 
coffee.  Unquestionably,  Yuban  is  dding  in 
a  thoroughly  up-to-date  and  appropriate 
fashion  what  Pasqua  Rosee  started  out  to 
do  in  1652. 

The  effect  on  those  who  give  only  a  su- 
perficial glance  at  a  Yuban  advertisement 
is  to  arouse  a  keen  desire  to  enjoy  a  cup 
of  Yuban  coffee.  To  induce  such  a  state  of 
mind  is,  of  course,  the  object  of  all  good 
advertising. 

Yuban  advertisements  have  utilized  two 
vital  principles  in  influencing  the  minds  of 


MANOR 
MUSC 

COFFEE < 

^ n '""""' 


Even  big, 
hustling 
Chicago 

paused  to  stare 
at  this 
scintillating 
night  display. 


consumers.  In  the  first  place,  they  have 
made  a  cup  of  coffee  seem  to  be  a  very 
delectable  drink.  In  the  second  place,  they 
have  made  the  serving  of  a  cup  of  coffee 
seem  to  be  of  the  greatest  social  value. 

One  does  not  see  in  a  Yuban  advertise- 
ment any  reference  to  the  ' '  removal  of  caf - 
fein",  or  to  Yuban 's  "freedom  from  de- 
fects common  to  other  coffees."  There  is 
no  reference  to  the  ill  effects  of  drinking 
ordinary  coffee.  Yuban  wastes  no  valuable 
space  in  unselling  coffee.  Instead,  the 
whole  intent,  effectively  carried  out,  is  to 
paint  an  enticing  picture  by  descriptive 
phraseology,  typographic  "manner",  and 
illustrative  treatment. 

Until  Yuban  came,  those  of  us  in  the 
coffee  trade  who  had  given  the  matter 
thought  had  often  wondered  why,  with  the 
wealth  of  material  available  to  writers  of 
coffee  advertisements,  so  little  had  been 
done  to  make  the  product  alluring  —  why 
so  little  had  been  done  to  give  atmosphere 
to  the  product.  So  many  interesting  things 
may  be  said  about  the  history  of  coffee ;  the 
spread  of  the  industry  through  various 
countries ;  how  Brazil  came  to  be  the  coffee- 
producing  country  of  the  world ;  how  coffee 
is  cultivated,  harvested,  and  shipped;  how 
it  is  stored,  roasted,  handled,  delivered  — 
in  short,  the  entire  process  by  which  cof- 
fee reaches  the  breakfast  table  from'  the 
plantations  of  the  tropics.  Yuban  made 
effective  use  of  this  material. 

Simply  to  tell  these  things  in  an  interest- 
ing, natural,  convincing  way  makes  coffee 
appear  as  a  healthful,  delicious  drink; 
whereas  the  negative,  defensive  sort  of  ad- 
vertising, that  plays  into  the  hands  of  the 
substitutes,  puts  coffee  in  the  wrong  light. 


.•:*^  m^i*^'^ 


'     ' —        An  Electric  Sign  that  Impressed  Chicago 
There  were  4,000  bulbs  in  this  advertisement,  which  measured  50  x  55  feet.     The  rental  was  $3,500  a  month 


COFFEE  ADVERTISING 


468 


i\ 


M 


cw 


BRAND. 


7?^ey  are  a////Fr^e  Coffee   """^^ 
rou  Get  t/jem  //?  //?e  Cap           ^ 

■ 

1 

IHlFUFdiliH 

« 

4 

THE     >VIDLAR   CO.              ^ 

-"-^ij^^^ 

The  private  coffee 
of  the  greatest 
coffee  merchant 


HOW  THREE  WELL  KNOWN  BRANDS  OF  COFFEE  HAVE  BEEN 
ADVERTISED   OUTDOORS 


464 


ALL    ABOUT     COFFEE 


ATTENTION-ATTRACTING  CAR  CARDS,  SPRING  OF  1922 


» 


COFFEE  ADVERTISING 


465 


\\      DELICIOUS 

ICED  COFFEE 

COOUNC.INViCORATINC-RtFRESHINO 


REFINED  COFFEE 


ICED  COFFEE 

Cotitjuers  Thirst  -  Rtlla^sa  Fatigum 


Aak    Tor 

RUSSELL'S 
NEW  YORK 

COFFXES 


Effective    Iced-Coiikk    Corv  -Adaitaule    fou    A^■Y  Bi!A>u 


When  one  reads  Yuban  advertisements, 
they  are  seen  to  be  an  entirely  acceptable 
and  appropriate  presentation  of  coffee 
merit  and  thoroughly  in  accord  with  the 
principles  of  good  advertising,  as  exempli- 
fied in  all  other  lines  of  trade.  The  wonder 
grows  why  so  many  coffee  advertisers  have 
been  content  to  remain  in  the  defensive, 
controversial  position  into  which  the  alarm- 
ist coffee-substitute  advertising  has  jock- 
eyed them. 

The  Yuban  advertisements  are  not  with- 
out their  faults;  errors  of  historical  facts 
can  be  found  in  them;  definitions  are 
sometimes  mixed;  some  of  the  drawings 
might  be  better;  but,  in  the  main,  the  copy 
is  convincing  and  praiseworthy. 

In  Yuban  advertisements  the  things  that 
have  been  so  long  left  undone  have  now 
been  done  in  a  masterful  way.  If  we  refer 
to  the  accompanying  illustrations,  we  can 
see  how  effectively  the  public  is  being  led 
to  realize  and  believe  in : 


1.  The  intrinsic  desirability  of  coffee  — 
the  actual  pleasure  to  be  derived  from  the 
act  of  partaking  of  it. 

2.  That  it  is  delightful  medium  for  so- 
cial intercourse  —  part  of  the  essential 
equipment  for  an  intimate  chat  or  more 
general  assemblage  of  friends. 

3.  That  its  proper  service  is  a  badge  of 
social  distinction  —  the  mark  of  a  success- 
ful hostess. 

These  three  thoughts,  dominant  in  Yu- 
ban advertising,  should  be  woven  into  the 
fabric  of  all  coffee  advertising.  For  with 
these  three  thoughts,  Arbuckle  Brothers 
have  blazed  the  trail  for  the  right  thing  in 
coffee  advertising. 

The  Yuban  case  has  been  so  largely  dwelt 
upon  here  because  it  sets  so  bright  and 
shining  an  example.  Much  that  is  praise- 
worthy in  it  and  more  along  the  same  lines 
is  true  of  White  House,  Hotel  Astor,  and 
Seal  Brand ;  but  the  copy  shown  will  illus- 
trate this  better  than  any  comment. 


l^LKDl'EA.N     AUVEKTI.SINU     XOVELTY     IN     JSeW     YORK 

The  absence  of  visible   wheels  aroused  much   curiosity   in   this   slow-moving  vehicle 


466 


ALL     ABOUT     COFFEE 


Chapter  XXIX 


THE  COFFEE  TRADE  IX  THE  UXITED  STATES 


The  coffee  business  started  by  Dorothy  Jones  of  Boston  —  Some 
early  sales  —  Taxes  imposed  by  Congress  in  war  and  peace  —  The 
first  coffee  plantation-machine,  coffee-roaster,  coffee-grinder,  and 
coffee-pot  patents  —  Early  trade  marks  for  coffee  —  Beginnings  of 
the  coffee  urn,  the  coffee  container,  and  the  soluble-coffee  business  — 
Statistics  of  distribution  of  coffee-roasting  establishments  in  the 
the  trade  from  the  eighteenth  century  to  the  twentieth 


IT  appears  from  the  best  evidence  obtain- 
able that  the  coffee  trade  of  the  United 
States  was  started  by  a  woman,  one  Dor- 
othy Jones  of  Boston.  At  least,  Dorothy 
Jones  was  the  first  person  in  the  colonies 
to  whom  a  license  was  issued,  in  1670,  to 
sell  coffee.  It  is  not  clear  whether  she  sold 
the  product  in  the  green  bean,  roasted, 
"garbled"    (ground),   or   "ungarbled". 

Soon  after  the  introduction  of  the  coffee 
drink  into  the  New  England,  New  York, 
and  Pennsylvania  colonies,  trading  began 
In  the  raw  product.  William  Penn  bought 
his  green  coffee  supplies  in  the  New  York 
market  in  1683,  paying  for  them  at  the  rate 
of  $4.68  a  pound.  Benjamin  Franklin  en- 
gaged in  the  retail  coffee  business  in  Phila- 
delphia, in  1740,  as  a  kind  of  side  line  to 
his  printing  business. 

**Tea,  coffee,  indigo,  nutmegs,  sugar  etc." 
were  being  advertised  for  sale  in  1748  at  a 
shop  in  Boston,  "under  the  vendue-room 
in  Dock-Square."  Coffee  was  also  to  be 
had  in  that  year  at  the  shop  of  Ebenezer 
Lowell  in  King  Street,  and  at  the  Sign  of 
the  Four  Sugar  Loaves  near  the  head  of 
Long  "Wharf. 

During  the  sway  of  the  coffee  houses,  cof- 
fee fell  from  $4.68  a  pound  to  40  cents  a 
pound  in  1750,  and  to  22  cents  a  pound 
just  before  the  Revolution.  As  the  war 
came  on,  however,  dealers  began  to  force 


up  prices  on  a  dwindling  market.  The 
situation  became  so  serious  that  in  January, 
1776,  the  Philadelphia  Commission  of  In- 
spection issued  a  fair-price  list,  setting  an 
arbitrary  price  of  eleven  pence  per  pound 
on  coffee  in  bag  lots.  Persons  found  vio- 
lating this  price  were  to  be  "exposed  to 
public  view  as  sordid  vultures  preying  on 
the  vitals  of  the  country." 

Despite  this  threat,  J.  Peters  in  Bethle- 
hem, Pennsylvania,  wrote  to  a  Philadelphia 
friend,  * '  I  cannot  purchase  any  coffee  with- 
out taking,  too,  one  bill  a  tierce  of  Claret 
&  Sour,  and  at  i6.8  per  gall.  ...  I  have 
been  trying  day  for  day,  &  never  could  get  a 
grain  of  Coffee  so  as  to  sell  it  at  the  lim- 
ited price  these  six  weeks.  It  may  be 
bought,  but  at  25/  per  lb. ' ' 

The  important  part  played  by  the  coffee 
houses  of  colonial  America,  beginning  with 
the  establishment  of  the  London  coffee 
house  in  Boston,  in  1689,  the  King's  Arms 
in  New  York  in  1696,  and  Ye  coffee  house 
in  Philadelphia  in  1700,  has  been  related. 

"Females"  of  ye  olde  Boston,  staging 
in  1777  a  "coffee  party"  which  rivaled  in 
a  small  way  the  famous  Tea  Party  in  1773, 
personally  chastised  a  profiteer  hoarder  of 
foodstuffs,  and  confiscated  some  of  his 
stock,  according  to  a  letter  from  Abigail 
Adams  to  her  distinguished  husband,  later 
second  president  of  the  United  States. 


467 


468 


ALL    ABOUT     COFFEE 


Writing  at  Boston,  under  date  of  July 
31,  1777,  Abigail  wrote  to  John,  then  at- 
tending the  Continental  Congress  at  Phila- 
delphia : 

There  is  a  great  scarcity  of  sugar  and  coffee, 
articles  which  the  female  part  of  the  state  is 
very  loath  to  give  up,  especially  whilst  they  con- 
sider the  great  scarcity  occasioned  by  the  mer- 
chants having  secreted  a  large  quantity.  It  is 
rumored  that  an  eminent  stingy  merchant,  who 
is  a  bachelor,  had  a  hogshead  of  coffee  in  his 
store,  which  he  refused  to  sell  under  6  shillings 
per  pound. 

A  number  of  females  —  some  say  a  hundred, 
some  say  more  —  assembled  with  a  cart  and 
trunk,  marched  down  to  the  warehouse,  and  de- 
manded the  keys. 

Upon  his  finding  no  quarter,  he  delivered  the 
keys,  and  they  then  opened  the  warehouse, 
hoisted  out  the  coffee  themselves,  put  it  into  a 
trunk,  and  drove  off.  A  large  concourse  of  men 
stood  amazed,  silent  spectators  of  the  whole 
transaction. 

In  1783  -  84  the  Congress  of  the  United 
States  considered  the  imposition  of  a  duty 
on  ''seven  classes  of  goods  consumed  by 
the  rich  or  in  general  use ;  liquors,  sugars, 
teas,  coffees,  cocoa,  molasses  and  pepper; 
the  tax  to  be  determined  by  the  yearly  im- 
ports. ' ' 

At  that  time  there  was  being  imported 
twelve  times  as  much  Bohea  tea  as  of  all 
others,  but  tea  consumption  was  only 
one-twelfth  pound  per  capita.  Total  tea 
imports  were  825,000  pounds.  "Low  as  was 
the  importation  of  tea",  says  John  Bach 
McMaster,  ' '  that  of  coffee  was  lower  still  by 
a  third.  Indeed,  it  was  scarcely  used  out- 
side of  the  great  cities."  The  average  an- 
nual coffee  imports  at  that  period  were 
200.000  pounds. 

Governor  Bowdoin  of  Massachusetts  in- 
troduced chicory  into  the  United  States  in 
1785. 

The  first  import  duty,  of  two  and  one- 
half  cents  a  pound,  was  levied  on  coffee  by 
the  United  States  in  1789.  The  principal 
sources  of  supply  up  to  that  time  were  the 
Dutch  East  Indies,  Arabia,  Haiti,  and  Ja- 
maica ;  and  most  of  the  business  was  in  the 
hands  of  Dutch  and  English  traders. 

What  is  thought  to  be  the  first  whole- 
sale coffee-roasting  plant  in  America  began 
operations  at  4  Great  Dock  (now  Pearl) 
Street,  New  York,  early  in  1790.  In  that 
same  year  the  first  American  advertisement 
for  coffee  appeared  in  the  New  York  Daily 
Advertiser.  A  second  "coffee  manufactory" 
started  up  at  232  Queen  (also  Pearl) 
Street,  New  York,  late  in  1790. 


In  the  same  year,  1790,  the  government 
increased  the  import  duty  on  coffee  to  four 
cents  a  pound.  In  1794  the  tax  was  raised 
to  five  cents  a  pound. 

In   George  Washington's  household  ac- 
count book  for  1793  appears  an  entry  show 
ing  a  purchase  of  coffee  from  Benjamin 
Dorsay,   a  Philadelphia  grocer,   for  eight 
dollars.     The  quantity  is  not  given. 

About  1804  Captain  Joseph  Ropes  in  the 
ship  Recovery,  of  Salem,  Mass.,  brought 
from  Mocha  the  first  cargo  of  coffee  and 
other  East  Indian  produce  in  an  Ameri- 
can bottom. 

The  first  cargo  of  Brazil  coffee,  consist- 
ing of  1,522  bags,  was  received  at  Salem, 
Mass.,  per  ship  Marquis  de  Someruelas  in 
1809.  Brazil's  total  production  that  year 
was  less  than  30,000  bags ;  but  by  1871  more 
than  2,000,000  bags  were  exported. 

Java  coffee  could  be  bought  on  the  Am- 
sterdam market  in  1810  for  42  to  46  cents. 
By  1812,  there  had  been  an  advance  to 
$1.08  per  pound.  Holland,  not  Brazil, 
ruled  the  world's  coffee  markets  in  those 
days. 

When  the  war  of  1812  made  necessary 
more  revenue,  imports  of  coffee  were  taxed 
ten  cents  a  pound.  A  war-time  fever  of 
speculation  in  tea  and  coffee  followed,  and 
by  1814  prices  to  the  consumer  had  ad- 
vanced to  such  an  extent  (coffee  was  45 
cents  a  pound)  that  the  citizens  of  Phila- 
delphia formed  a  non-consumption  associa- 
tion, each  member  pledging  himself  ' '  not  to 
pay  more  than  25  cents  a  pound  for  coffee 
and  not  to  consume  tea  that  wasn't  already 
in  the  country." 

The  coffee  duty  was  reduced  in  1816  to 
five  cents  a  pound ;  in  1830,  to  two  cents ;  in 
1831,  to  one  cent;  and  in  1832  coffee  was 
placed  on  the  free  list.  It  remained  there 
until  1861,  when  a  duty  of  four  cents  a 
pound  was  again  imposed  as  a  war-revenue 
measure.  This  was  increased  to  five  cents 
in  1862.  It  was  reduced  to  three  cents  in 
1871;  and  the  duty  was  repealed  in  1872. 
Coffee  has  remained  on  the  free  list  ever 
since. 

The  manufacture  of  machinery  required 
in  the  coffee  business  began  in  the 
eighteenth  century.  The  first  coffee-grinder 
patent  in  the  United  States  was  issued  to 
Thomas  Bruff,  Sr.,  in  1798.  The  first  United 
States  patent  on  an  improvement  on  a 
roaster  was  issued  to  Peregrine  Williamson 
of  Baltimore  in  1820.     The    first    United 


TRADE    IN    THE    UNITED    STATES 


469 


T.  BRUFF. 
Coffee  Mill 

Patented  Jan.  8  ,  179a 


First  Unitod  States  Coffee-Gri>'der  Patent 


States  patent  on  a  coffee-plantation  ma- 
chine, a  coffee  huller,  was  granted  to 
Nathan  Reed  of  Belfast,  Me.,  in  1822.  The 
first  United  States  coffee-maker  patent  was 
is.sued  to  Lewis  Martelley  of  New  York,  in 
1825. 

Charles  Parker,  of  Meriden,  Conn.,  be- 
gan work  on  the  original  Parker  coffee  mill 
in  1828. 

A  complete  English  coffee  roasting  and 
grinding  plant  was  installed  in  New  York 
City  by  James  Wild  in  1833  -  34. 

About  1840,  Central  America  began  mak- 
ing shipments  of  coffee  to  the  United  States. 

James  Carter,  of  Boston,  was  granted 
(1846)  a  United  States  patent  on  an  im- 
proved form  of  cylindrical  coffee  roaster, 
which  subsequently  was  largely  adopted  by 
the  trade  in  the  United  States,  being  pop- 
ularly known  as  the  Carter  "pull-out". 

The  Geo.  L.  Squier  Manufacturing  Co.  of 
Buffalo  began  in  1857  the  manufacture 
of  coffee-plantation  machinery.  Marcus 
Mason  invented  his  first  pulper  in  1860; 
but  the  manufacture  of  coffee-plantation 
machinery  under  the  firm  name  of  Marcus 
Mason  &  Co.  did  not  begin  in  the  United 
States  until  1873. 

The  first  paper-bag  factory  in  the  United 
States  to  make  bags  for  loose  coffee,  began 
operations  in  Brooklyn  in  1862. 

The  first  ground-coffee  package  was  put 
on  the  New  York  market  about  1860  -  63  by 
Lewis  A.  Osborn.  It  was  known  as  Os- 
bom's  Celebrated  Prepared  Java  Coffee  and 
was  later  exploited  by  Thomas  Reid  as  Os- 
born's  Old  Government  Java. 


In  1864,  Jabez  Burns  was  granted  a  pat- 
ent on  the  Burns  roaster  which  was  to  rev- 
olutionize the  coffee-roasting  business. 

In  1865,  John  Arbuckle  brought  out  in 
Pittsburgh  the  first  roasted  coffee  in  indi- 
vidual packages  "like  peanuts",  the  fore- 
runner of  the  Ariosa  package. 

In  1869,  B.  G.  Arnold  started  the  first 
big  speculation  in  coffee  and  for  ten  years 
thereafter  he  was  absolute  dictator  of  the 
American  coffee  trade. 

In  1869,  three  United  States  patents  on 
a  copper  coffee  urn  lined  with  block  tin 
were  granted  to  Elie  Moneuse  and  L.  Du- 
parquet  of  New  York. 

In  1870,  John  Gulick  Baker,  one  of  the 
founders  of  the  Enterprise  Manufacturing 
Company  of  Pennsylvania,  was  granted  a 
United  States  patent  on  a  coffee  grinder 
which  subsequently  became  one  of  the  most 
popular  store  mills. 

The  first  trade  mark  registered  for  coffee 
or  coffee  essence  bears  the  number  425, 
with  date  August  22,  1871,  first  use  1870, 
and  is  in  the  name  of  Butler,  Earhart  & 
Co.,  Columbus,  Ohio.  The  words  "essence 
of  coffee"  appeared  on  the  label.  The  next 
coffee  mark  was  registered  by  Butler,  Ear- 
hart  &  Co.,  October  3,  1871,  number  455, 
first  use,  1870.     It    consists   of   the    word 


ft 


J.  W    CARTER 
Coffee  Roaster. 


No.  4.849. 
Patented  Nov.  12.  1846. 


Carter's  Pull-Out  Roaster  Patent 


(T 


A 


^ 
i^ 


i 


470 


ALL    ABOUT     COFFEE 


"Buckeye"  with  a  branch  of  the  buckeye 
(horse-chestnut)  tree. 

The  next  registration  for  coffee  was  in 
the  name  of  John  Ashcrof t  of  Brooklyn. 
It  is  numbered  533,  and  the  date  is  Novem- 
ber 28,  1871.  It  consists  of  an  anchor  and 
chain  enclosing  a  star.  Ashcroft  registered 
also  a  design  of  a  coffee  pot  with  the  words 
"Mocha  Steam",  January  2,  1872. 

Today  there  are  nearly  three  thousand 
registered  trade-mark  names  used  for  coffee 
on  file  in  the  United  States  Patent  Office 
in  Washington. 

In  1873,  Ariosa,  the  first  successful  na- 
tional brand  of  package  coffee,  was 
launched  in  Pittsburg  by  John  Arbuckle. 

In  the  same  year,  1873,  the  first  United 
States  patent  on  a  coffee  substitute  was  is- 
sued to  E.  Dugdale  of  Griffin,  Ga. 


First  Registered  Trade  Mark  fos  Coffee,  1871 


In  1878,  Chase  &  Sanborn,  the  Boston 
coffee  roasters,  were  the  first  to  pack  and 
to  ship  roasted  coffee  in  sealed  cans.  A 
lead  seal  was  used  for  the  large  packages 
of  bulk  coffee;  the  smaller  sizes  being 
sealed  by  the  label,  which  was  made  to 
cover  the  body  of  the  can  and  to  reach  up 
over  the  slip  cover,  so  as  to  make  a  sealed 
package,  to  open  which  the  label  must  be 
broken. 

In  1878,  Jabez  Burns,  the  coffee-machin- 
ery man,  founded  the  Spice  Mill,  the  first 
publication  in  America  devoted  to  the  cof-  • 
fee  and  spice  trades. 

In  1879,  Charles  Halstead  brought  out 
the  first  metal  coffee  pot  with  a  china  in- 
terior. 

In  1880,  Henry  E.  Smyser,  of  Philadel- 
phia, invented  a  package-making-and-filling 
machine  for  coffee,  the  fore-runner  of  the 
weighing-and-packing  machine,  the  control 
of  which  later  on  by  John  Arbuckle  led  to 
the  coffee-sugar  war  with  the  Havemeyers. 
Smyser  was  superintendent  at  the  plant  of 
the  Weikel  &  Smith  Spice  Company,  Phila- 
delphia. Other  patents  on  weighing  and 
package-making  machines  were  granted  him 
in  1884,  1888,  and  1891.  In  1892,  he  began 
to  assign  his  patents  to  Arbuckle  Broth- 
ers, some  fifteen  in  all  being  granted  him 
from  1892  to  1898.    He  died  in  1899. 

The  year  1880  was  notable  for  the  many 
failures  in  the  American  coffee  trade,  as  a 
result  of  syndicate  planting  and  speculative 
buying  of  coffees  in  Brazil,  Mexico,  and 
Central  America. 

In  1881,  Steele  &  Price,  of  Chicago,  were 
the  first  to  introduce  to  the  trade  all-paper 
cans,  made  of  strawboard,  for  coffee. 

In  1881,  the  New  York  Coffee  Exchange 
was  incorporated,  beginning  business  the 
year  following  at  Beaver  and  Pearl  Streets. 
In  1885,  the  property  of  the  Exchange 
was  transferred  to  the  Coffee  Exchange  of 
the  City  of  New  York,  incorporated  by  spe- 
cial charter. 

In  1884,  the  Chicago  Liquid  Sack  Com- 
pany brought  out  the  first  combination 
paper   and  tin-end  containers   for  coffee. 

The  year  1887  -  88  was  marked  by  a  big 
boom  in  coffee,  the  total  sales  on  the  Coffee 
Exchange  amounting  to  47,868,750  bags. 
Between  July  1886  and  June  1887  prices 
advanced  1,485  points. 

In  1888,  the  Engelberg  Huller  Company 
of  Syracuse,  New  York,  began  the  manu- 
facture of  coffee-plantation  machinery. 


TRADE    IN    THE    UNITED    STATES 


471 


1 


\^m^Emm¥¥m 


MBUCKLE  BROTKERS,  NEW  YORK,  Nn  Yto 


The  Okigi.nal  Akbuckle  Coffee  Packages 


I.. ..„. 

^^^^eighing  Machine  Company,  Boston,  Mass. 
^^began  the  manufacture  of  machines  to 
weigh  coffee  into  cartons  and  other  pack- 
ages ;  and  in  1894,  installed  in  the  Chase  & 
Sanborn  plant  at  Boston  the  first  automatic 
weighing  machine  in  the  coffee  trade.  The 
New  England  concern  was  subsequently 
(1901)  succeeded  by  the  Automatic  "Weigh- 
ing Machine  Company  of  Newark,  N.  J. 

In  1893,  the  first  direct-flame  gas  coffee 
roaster  in  America  (Tupholme's  English 
machine)  was  installed  by  F.  T.  Holmes  at 
the  plant  of  the  Potter-Parlin  Company, 
New  York. 

In  1893,  Cirilo  Mingo,  of  New  Orleans, 
was  granted  a  United  States  patent  on  a 
method  of  aging  green  coffee  to  give  it  the 
characteristics  of  green  coffee  stored  in  a 
confined  space  for  a  long  period.  The  op- 
eration consisted  in  placing  layers  of  green 
coffee  between  dry  and  wet  empty  coffee 
bags,  and  permitting  the  beans  to  absorb 
eight  to  ten  percent  of  the  moisture  in  a 
period  extending  from  six  to  sixteen  hours. 
This  was  one  of  the  earliest  efforts  to  ma- 
ture and  age  green  coffee  in  the  United 
States. 

In  1894,  the  business  of  the  Pneumatic 
Scale  Corporation,  Norfolk  Downs,  Mass., 
had  its  start  in  Quiney,  Mass.  where  the 
first  pneumatic  weighing  machine  was  in- 
stalled by  the  Purity  Dried  Fruits  Cleans- 
ing Company.  In  1895,  the  Electric  Scale 
Company  was  organized  to  build  the  ma- 
chines, the  subsequent  development  of  this 
line  of  packaging  machinery  for  coffee  be- 


ing directed  by  the  Pneumatic  Scale  Cor- 
poration, Ltd.,  which  succeeded  it. 

In  1895,  Adolph  Kraut  introduced  the 
German-made  grease-proof  lined  paper 
bags  for  coffee  to  the  American  coffee  trade. 
That  same  year,  Thomas  M.  Royal,  of  Phil- 
adelphia, began  the  manufacture  in  the 
United  States  of  a  fancy  duplex-lined  paper 
bag  for  coffee. 

In  1896,  natural  gas  was  first  used  in  the 
United  States  as  a  fuel  for  roasting  coffee. 

In  1897,  Joseph  Lambert,  Vermont,  first 
introduced  to  the  coffee  trade  a  self-con- 
tained coffee  roasting  outfit  without  the 
brick  setting  required  until  then. 

In  1897,  the  Enterprise  Manufacturing 
Company  of  Pennsylvania  was  the  first 
regularly  to  employ  an  electric  motor  to 
drive  a  coffee  mill. 

The  overproduction  of  coffee  began  to 
be  so  serious  a  question  by  1898,  that  J.D. 
Olavarria,  a  distinguished  Venzuelan,  pro- 
posed a  plan  for  the  restriction  of  coffee 
cultivation  and  the  regulation  of  coffee  ex- 
ports from  countries  suffering  from  over- 
production. In  this  same  year,  the  bears 
forced  Rio  7's  down  to  four  and  one-half 
cents  on  the  New  York    Coffee   Exchange. 

In  1898,  Edward  Norton,  of  New  York, 
was  granted  a  United  States  patent  on  a 
vacuum  process  for  canning  foods,  subse- 
quently applied  to  coffee.  Others  followed. 
Hills  Brothers,  of  San  Francisco,  were  the 
first  to  pack  coffee  in  a  vacuum,  under  the 
Norton  patents,  in  1900.  M.  J.  Branden- 
stein  &  Company,  of  San  Francisco,  began 
to  pack  coffee  in  vacuum  cans  in  1914. 
Vacuum  sealing  machines  to  pack  coffee 
under  the  Norton  patents  are  now  made  by 
the  Perfect  Vacuum  Canning  Company  of 
New  York. 

About  1899,  Dr.  Sartori  Kato  of  Tokio, 
who  had  invented  a  soluble  tea  in  Japan, 
came  to  Chicago  and  produced  a  soluble 
coffee  (introduced  to  the  consumer  in  1901) 
on  which  he  was  granted  a  patent  in  1903. 
In  1906,  G.  "Washington  of  New  York,  an 
American  chemist  living  in  Guatemala 
City,  produced  a  refined  soluble  coffee 
which  was  put  on  the  United  States  market 
three  years  later.  The  full  story  of  soluble 
coffee  in  America  is  told  in  chapter  XXXI. 
(See  page  538.) 

The  first  gear-driven  electric  coffee  mill 
was  introduced  to  the  trade  by  the  Enter- 
prise Manufacturing  Company  of  Pennsyl- 
vania in  1900. 


472 


ALL    ABOUT     COFFEE 


In  1901,  there  appeared  in  New  York 
the  first  issue  of  The  Tea  and  Coffee  Trade 
Journal^  devoted  to  the  interests  of  the 
tea  and  coffee  trades. 

In  1900  -  01,  Santos  permanently  dis- 
placed Rio  as  the  world's  largest  source  of 
supply. 

In  1901,  the  American  Can  Company  be- 
gan the  manufacture  and  sale  of  tin  coffee 
cans  in  the  United  States.  In  this  year 
Landers,  Frary  &  Clark's  Universal  coffee 
percolator  was  granted  a  United  States  pat- 
ent; and  Joseph  Lambert,  of  Marshall, 
Mich.,  brought  out  one  of  the  earliest  ma- 
chines to  employ  gas  as  a  fuel  for  the  in- 
direct roasting  of  coffee.  It  was  in  1901, 
also,  that  F.  T.  Holmes  joined  the  Huntley 
Manufacturing  Company,  of  Silver  Creek, 
N.  Y.,  which  began  to  build  the  Monitor 
gas-fired  direct-flame  coffee  roasters. 

In  1902,  the  Coles  Manufacturing  Com- 
pany (Braun  Company,  successor)  and 
Henry  Troemner,  of  Philadelphia,  began 
the  manufacture  and  sale  of  gear-driven 
electric  coffee  grinders. 

As  a  result  of  the  agitation  for  some  way 
to  deal  with  the  overproduction  of  coffee, 
the  Pan-American  Congress,  meeting  in 
Mexico  City  in  1902,  called  an  international 
coffee  congress  for  New  York  in  the  fall  of 
that  same  year.  It  met  from  October  1 
to  October  30;  but  at  the  close,  the  prob- 
lem seemed  no  nearer  solution  than  at  the 
beginning.  In  1906,  Brazil  produced  its 
record-breaking  crop  of  20,000,000  bags, 
and  the  state  of  Sao  Paulo  inaugurated  a 
plan  to  valorize  coffee. 

In  1902,  the  first  fancy  duplex  paper  bag 
made  by  machinery  from  a  roll  of  paper 
was  produced  by  the  Union  Bag  &  Paper 
Corporation,  It  was  of  sulphite  fiber  in- 
side, and  glassine  outside;  a  style  after- 
ward reversed,  so  as  to  have  the  glassine 
the  inner  tube. 

In  1902,  the  Jagenberg  Machine  Com- 
pany, Inc.  (absorbed  by  the  Pneumatic 
Scale  Corporation  in  1921)  began  the  intro- 
duction to  the  trade  of  the  United  States  of 
a  line  of  German-made  automatic  packag- 
ing-and-labeling  machines  for  coffee.  Subse- 
quently, the  Johnson  Automatic  Sealer 
Company,  Battle  Creek,  Mich.,  became  well 
known  as  manufacturers  of  a  line  of  auto- 
matic adjustable  carton-sealing,  wax-wrap- 
ping machines,  package  conveyors,  and  au- 
tomatic scales.  Among  other  automatic 
weighers  that  have  figured  in  the  develop- 


ment of  the  coffee  business,  mention  should 
be  made  of  The  National  Packaging  Ma- 
chinery Company's  Scott  machine,  of 
E,  D,  Anderson's  Triumph,  and  of  Hoep- 
ner's  Unit  System. 

In  1903,  as  a  result  of  overproduction  in 
Brazil,  Santos  4's  dropped  to  three  and 
fifty-five  hundredths  cents  on  the  New  York 
Coffee  Exchange,  the  lowest  price  ever  re- 
corded for  coffee. 

In  1903,  also,  there  was  granted  the  first 
United  States  patent  on  an  electric  coffee 
roaster,  the  patentee  being  George  C.  Les- 
ter of  New  York. 

In  1904,  green  coffee  prices  on  the  New 
York  Coffee  Exchange  were  forced  up  to 
eleven  and  eighty-five  hundredths  cents  by 
a  speculative  clique  led  by  D,  J,  Sully. 

In  1905,  the  A.  J.  Deer  Co.,  Buffalo,  N. 
Y.  (now  of  Hornell,  N.  Y.)  began  the  sale 
of  its  Royal  electric  coffee  mills  direct  to 
dealers  on  the  instalment  plan,  revolution- 
izing the  former  practise  of  selling  coffee 
mills  through  hardware  jobbers. 

In  1905,  F.  A,  Cauchois  introduced  to 
the  trade  his  Private  Estate  coffee  maker,  a 
filtration  device  employing  Japanese  filter 
paper,  Finley  Acker,  of  Philadelphia,  ob- 
tained a  patent  the  same  year  on  a  side-per- 
foration percolator  employing  "porous  or 
bibulous  paper"  as  a  filtering  medium. 

In  1906,  H.  D.  Kelly,  of  Kansas  City, 
was  granted  a  United  States  patent  on  an 
urn  coffee  machine  employing  a  coffee  ex- 
tractor in  which  the  ground  coffee  was  con- 
tinually agitated  before  percolation  by  a 
vacuum  process. 

In  1907,  P.  E.  Edtbauer  (Mrs.  E.  Edt- 
bauer),  of  Chicago,  was  granted  a  United 
States  patent  on  a  duplex  automatic  weigh- 
ing machine,  the  first  simple,  fast,  accurate 
and  moderate-priced  machine  for  weighing 
coffee.     Eight  others  followed  up  to  1920. 

In  1907,  the  new  Pure  Food  and  Drugs: 
Act  came  into  force  in  the  United  States, 
making  it  obligatory  to  label  all  coffees  cor- 
rectly and  causing  many  trade  practises  to 
be  altered  or  thrown  into  the  discard.  Tlie 
most  important  rulings  that  followed  are 
referred  to  in  more  detail  in  chapter 
XXIII,  telling  how  green  coffees  are 
bought  and  sold. 

In  1908,  the  Porto  Rico  coffee  planters 
presented  a  memorial  to  the  Congress  ask- 
ing for  a  protective  tariff  of  six  cents  a 
pound  on  all  foreign  coffees.  Hawaii  and 
the  Philippines  also  were  to  have  benefited 


TRADE    IN    THE    UNITED    STATES 


473 


MAY     23, 

THt   MERCMANTS    ti 
OCCUPtEO  THIS  SrTE  FROM  ABO 
DCSTROYCD   BY  FIRE.  DCCEM.. 

HEREMTTTHr  ctJMMnTTES  orcmTtK^WHo  twfirfWW^ 

^ART  IN  THE  STIRRING  EVENTS  WHICH  LED  TO  THE  REVOLUTION 

HERE  ALSO  WA<i  DRArTED  BY  A  SPECIAL  COWVITTErXOMPOSr- 

Of  ISAAC  LOW.CH»mM*N.AL£XANDER  McDO^JGALl.J^MFS  PMANEAND 

JOHN  JAY  OE  THE  MEW  YORK  COMMITTEE  OE  CORRESPONDENCE. 

THE  EPOCH-MAtriNC  LETTER  Of  MAY  23, 1774,  WHICH  WAS  DISPATCHED 

TO  BOSTON  AND  IN  WHICH  APPEARS  THE  FOllOWING  STRIKING  SENTEM,-r 

"rf?OW  *  VIlTTtJOOS   MID  SPIRlTrD  UNION    (KVICH    M*t 

Rt    tXPCCTtD.  WHILE   THt    rCtBLt    trroSTS    Of    « 

rrw  Will  ONLY    PC  ATTEtlOtP   WITH    MISCMlEf  A  N  » 

DlSAPPO'KTMCNT  10  THEMSELVES,  AND  TRIJMPH   TO 

TWE  ADVERSARIES   Of  OUR    LIBERTY." 

FROM   THIS   RESULTED    THE  FIRST  CCKCRESS    OF 

THE-UNfTED  COLONIES  OF   NORTH    AMER1CA:hELD 

AT    PHflADELPHI  A.  SEPTEMBER    5.177*. 

AMONC  OTHER   NOTABLE    EVENTS  THAT  TOOK  PLACi 

IN  THE  MERCHANTS    COFFEE    HOUSE    WE'^E:- 

A  BANQUEriO  HIS  EXCELLENCY  THE  PRESIDENT  AND  TH^ 
HONOURABLE  MEMBERS  OF  CONGRESS"BY  CHAM^SER  r 
COMMERCE  OF  THE  STATE  OF  N  E  W  YORK.rEBRUARY  3, 17 

FECEPTION  TO  r-NER»L  WASHINGTON  ON  HIS  ARKtVAl  TO' 
IWUGURAtlCN  /S  FIRST  PRESIDENT  OF  THE  UN'TED  STft-'r' 
rr  AMERICA.UNDER  THE  NEW  COMSTITl'Tl  0  N,  BY  Hl& 
ZXCELLEr^CY  THE  COVERNOR.OrriCE^S  OF  STATE. HIS  HONOUR 
-HE  MAYOP.AND    DISTINGUISHED  CIT'ZENS.  AFRI  L  ?3. 178^;, 

HERS  ALSO  WERE  HELD   EARLY    MEETINGS  OF 
-  T    FOLLOWING   0RCANI7ATI0NS  AND    INSTITUTIONS:- 


ft 


TH;s  TABLET  WAS   ERECTED   BY 
r-VER  WALL  STREET  BUSINESS  MEN'S  ASS0CI4TI0' 
M  AY    2  3.  I  5  I  ■*,  ^ 


Merchants  Coffee  House  Tablet 

Bronze  marker,  placed  May  2.*?,  1914,  on  the  buildlnj? 
occupying  the   site  of  the  old  coflfee  house 

by  the  protection  asked  for.  The  Congress 
failed  to  grant  the  planters'  prayer.  This 
appeal  for  protection  was  repeated  in  1921, 
when  the  Congress  was  asked  to  place  a 
duty  of  five  cents  a  pound  on  all  foreign 
coffees. 

In  1908,  J.  C.  Prims,  of  Battle  Creek, 
Mich,  was  granted  a  United  States  patent 
on  a  corrugated  cylinder  improvement  for 
a  gas  and  coal  coffee  roaster  of  fifty  to  one 
hundred  and  thirty  pounds  capacity  de- 
signed for  retail  stores.  This  machine  was 
acquired  the  year  following  by  the  A.  J. 
Deer  Company,  and  was  re-introduced  to 
the  trade  as  the  Royal  roaster. 


In  1908,  Brazil's  valorization-of -coffee 
enterprise  was  saved  from  disaster  by  a 
combination  of  bankers  and  the  Brazil  Gov- 
ernment. A  loan  of  $75,000,000  was  placed, 
through  Hermann  Sielcken  of  New  York, 
with  banking  houses  in  England,  Germany, 
France,  Belgium,  and  America.  The  com- 
plete story  of  this  undertaking  is  told  in 
chapter  XXXI. 

In  1909,  Ludwig  Roselius  brought  to 
America  from  Germany  the  caffein-free  cof- 
fee which  for  several  years  had  been  manu- 
factured and  sold  in  Bremen  under  the 
Myer,  Roselius,  and  Wimmer  patent.  In 
1910,  the  product  was  first  sold  here  by- 
Merck  &  Company  under  the  name  of  De- 
kafa,  later  Dekofa,  and  in  1914,  by  the  Kaf- 
fee  Hag  Corporation  as  Kaffee  Hag. 

In  1911  all-fiber  parchment-lined  Damp- 
tite  cans  for  coffee  were  introduced  to  the 
trade  by  the  American  Can  Company. 

As  a  result  of  preliminary  meetings  of 
Mississippi  Valley  coffee  roasters  held  in  St. 
Louis  in  May  and  June,  1911,  when  the 
Coffee  Roasters  Traffic  and  Pure  Food  As- 
sociation was  organized,  a  national  associ- 
ation under  the  same  name  was  started  in 
Chicago,  November  16  - 17,  1911.  The  com- 
plete story  of  the  growth  of  this  most  im- 
portant coffee  trade  organization  in  the 
United  States  is  told  in  the  next  chapter. 

In  1912,  the  United  States  government, 
after  having  examined  into  the  valorization 
enterprise,  brought  suit  against  Hermann 
Sielcken,  et  al.,  to  force  the  sale  of  valorized 
coffee  stocks  held  in  this  country  under  the 
valorization  agreement. 

In  October,  1914,  the  first  national  coffee 
week  to  advertise  coffee  was  promoted  by 
the  National  Coffee  Roasters  Association. 

Merchants  Coffee  House  Memorial 

On  May  23,  1914,  the  Lower  Wall  Street 
Business  Men's  Association  unveiled  a 
bronze  memorial  tablet  set  in  the  wall  of 
the  nine-story  office  building  occupied  by 
the  Federal  Refining  Company  on  the  south- 
east corner  of  Wall  and  Water  Streets, 
the  former  site  of  the  Merchants'  coffee 
house.  This  is  the  building  where  The  Tea 
and  Coffee  Trade  Journal  had  its  offices  for 
nine  years  before  moving  to  79  Wall  Street. 

Seth  Low,  introduced  by  William  Bayne, 
Jr.,  president  of  the  Lower  Wall  Street 
Business  Men's  Association,  gave  an  inter- 
esting sketch  of  the  history  of  the  coffee 
house.    Abram  Wakeman,  secretary  of  the 


474 


ALL    ABOUT     COFFEE 


association,  spoke,  followed  by  Wilberforce 
Eames,  of  the  American  history  division  of 
the  New  York  Public  Library. 

After  the  flag  that  veiled  the  memorial 
tablet  had  been  drawn  aside,  attention  was 
called  to  a  bronze  chest  which  was  hermet- 
ically sealed,  and  in  which  had  been  placed 
papers  and  other  documents  reflecting  the 
life  of  New  York  today.  The  chest  was 
given  over  to  the  keeping  of  the  New  York 
Historical  Society,  with  the  understanding 
that  it  was  not  to  be  opened  until  1974, 
which  will  be  the  two-hundredth  anniver- 
sary of  the  union  of  the  Colonies. 

It  was  from  the  Merchants'  coffee  house 
that  the  letter  of  May  23,  1774,  was  written 
in  reply  to  the  Committee  of  Correspon- 
dence in  Boston,  The  letter  suggested  a 
** Congress  of  Deputies"  from  the  Colonies, 
and  called  for  a  "virtuous  and  spirited 
Union."  The  coffee  house  is  consequently 
regarded  as  the  birthplace  of  the  Union. 

Recent  Activities 

A  second  national  coffee  week  was  held 
in  October,  1915,  under  the  auspices  of  the 
National  Coffee  Boasters'  Association. 

In  1916,  the  Coffee  Exchange  of  the  City 
of  New  York  changed  its  name  to  the  New 
York  Coffee  and  Sugar  Exchange,  to  admit 
of  sugar  trading. 

In  1916,  the  National  Paper  Can  Com- 
pany of  Milwaukee  first  introduced  to  the 
trade  its  new  hermetically  sealed  all-paper 
can  for  coffee. 

In  1916,  Jules  Le  Page,  Darlington,  Ind., 
was  granted  two  United  States  patents  on 


cutting  rolls  to  cut  and  not  grind  or  crush 
corn,  wheat,  or  coffee.  This  idea  was  in- 
corporated in  the  Ideal  steel  cut  coffee  mill 
subsequently  marketed  by  the  B.  F.  Gump 
Company,  Chicago. 

In  1918,  the  World  War  caused  the 
United  States  government  to  place  coffee 
importers,  brokers,  jobbers,  roasters,  and 
wholesalers  under  a  war-time  licensing  sys- 
tem to  control  imports  and  prices. 

In  1918,  John  E.  King,  of  Detroit,  was 
granted  a  United  States  patent  on  an  ir- 
regular grind  of  coffee  consisting  of  coarse- 
ly grinding  ten  percent  of  the  product  and 
finely  grinding  ninety  percent. 

The  most  notable  event  of  the  year  1919 
was  the  inauguration  by  the  Brazil  plant- 
ers, in  co-operation  with  an  American  joint 
coffee  trade  publicity  committee,  of  the 
million-dollar  campaign  to  advertise  coffee 
in  the  United  States. 

In  1919,  as  a  result  of  frost  damage,  ana 
of  an  orgy  of  speculation  in  Brazil,  prices 
for  green  coffee  on  the  New  York  Exchange 
were  forced  to  the  highest  levels  since  1870  ; 
and  a  new  high  record  was  established  for 
futures,  twenty-four  and  sixty-five  hun- 
dredths cents  for  July  contracts. 

In  1919,  Floyd  W.  Robison,  of  Detroit, 
was  granted  a  United  States  patent  on  a 
process  for  aging  green  coffee  by  treating 
it  with  micro-organisms,  the  product  being 
known  as  Cultured  coffee. 

In  the  spring  of  1920,  there  was  held  the 
third  national  coffee  week,  this  time  under 
the  auspices  of  the  Joint  Coffee  Trade  Pub- 
licity Committee. 


Chapter  XXX 

DEVELOPMENT  OF  THE  GREEN  AND  ROASTED  COFFEE 
BUSINESS  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES 

A  brief  history  of  the  growth  of  coffee  trading  —  Notable  firms  and 
personalities  that  have  played  important  parts  in  green  coffee  in  the 
principal  coffee  centers  —  Green  coffee  trade  organizations  —  Growth 
of  the  wholesale  coffee-roasting  trade,  and  names  of  those  who  have 
made  history  in  it  —  The  National  Coffee  Boasters  Association  — 
Statistics  of  distribution  of  coffee-roasting  establishments  in  the 
United  States 


COFFEE  trading  in  the  American  col- 
onies probably  had  its  beginnings 
about  the  middle  of  the  seventeenth 
century.  Tea  seems  to  have  preceded  coffee 
as  an  article  of  merchandise.  Several  mer- 
chants in  the  New  England  and  New  York 
settlements  imported  small  quantities  of 
coffee  with  other  foodstuffs  toward  the  close 
of  the  seventeenth  century. 

The  early  supplies  of  the  green  bean 
were  brought  from  the  Dutch  East  Indies, 
Arabia,  Haiti,  and  Jamaica.  About  1787, 
the  French  opened  Mauritius  and  Bourbon 
to  American  ships,  which  then  began  to 
bring  back  coffee  and  tea  to  the  Atlantic- 
coast  cities.  Mocha  coffee  was  being  im- 
ported direct  in  American  bottoms  about 
1804.  Coffee  from  Brazil  was  first  im- 
ported by  the  United  States  in  1809.  Cen- 
tral America  began  shipping  coffee  to  the 
United  States  in  1840.  The  total  coffee  im- 
ports in  1876  were  339,789,246  pounds, 
valued  at  $56,788,997,  and  received  chiefly 
from  Brazil,  Haiti,  British  and  Dutch  East 
Indies,  the  West  Indies,  and  Mexico. 

New  York  early  became  the  leading 
green-coffee  market  of  the  country. 

There  was  a  number  of  large  importing 
merchants  in  New  York  in  1760,  nearly  all 
of  whom  brought  in  coffee.    Among  them 


were  Isaac  and  Nicholas  Gouverneur, 
Robert  Murray,  Walter  and  Samuel  Frank- 
lin, John  and  Henry  Cruger,  the  Living- 
stons, the  Beekmans,  Lott  &  Low,  Philip 
Cuyler,  Anthony  Van  Dam,  Hugh  and 
Alexander  Wallace,  Leonard  and  Anthony 
Lispenard,  Theophylact  Bache,  and  Wil- 
liam Walton. 

Some  early  green-coffee  prices  per  pound 
were  as  follows : 

1683  —  18s.  9d. ;  1743  —  5s. ;  1746  —  5s. ; 
1774— 9s.;  178r— 96s.  0.  T.;  1782  — 2s. 
Id.  0.  T. ;  1783  —  Is. ;  1789  — 10  cents. 

Leading  New  York  coffee  importers  in 
1786  were  Henry  Sheaff,  on  the  dock  be- 
tween Burling  Slip  and  the  Fly  Market; 
John  Rooney,  26  Cherry  Street;  William 
Eccles,  10  Hunters  Key;  Ludlow  &  Goold, 
47  Wall  Street;  Scriha,  Schroppel  &  Star- 
men,  17  Queen  Street ;  and  William  Taylor, 
Crane  Wharf. 

The  wholesale  coffee  roaster  appeared 
about  1790 ;  and  from  that  time  the  separa- 
tion between  the  green-coffee  trader  and 
the  coffee  roaster  became  more  marked.  In 
1794  the  principal  green-coffee  importers  in 


1  About  this  time,  the  country  was  flooded  with 
paper  money,  wortli  about  1  to  75,  forcing  the  price 
of  commodities  to  unheard-of  heights,  shoes  for  in- 
stance, being  sold  at   £20  per  pair. 


475 


476 


ALL     ABOUT     COFFEE 


Hermann  Sielcken  B.   G.  Arnold  F.   B.  Arnold  Joseph  Purcell 

Some  Departed  Dominant  Figures  in  the  >,'ew  York  Green   Coffee  Trade 


New  York  were :  Lawrence  &  Van  Zandt ; 
D.  Smith  &  Co.,  323  Pearl  Street ;  Gilchrist 
Dickinson,  17  Taylor's  Wharf;  Armstrong 
&  Barnewall,  129  Water  Street;  William 
Bo-\vne,  265  Pearl  Street;  Stephen  Cole  & 
Son,  26  Ferry  Street;  J.  S.  De  Lessert  & 
Co.,  123  Front  Street;  Joseph  Thebaud, 
262  Pearl  Street;  Nathaniel  Cooper  &  Co., 
38  Little  Dock  Street;  Coll.  M'Gregor,  28 
Wall  Street ;  David  Wagstaff,  137  Front 
Street;  Conkling  &  Lloyd,  15  Taylor's 
Wharf ;  and  S.  B.  Garrick,  Westphal  &  Co., 
43  Cherry  Street. 

The  leading  New  York  coffee  importers 
in  1848  were  Henry  and  William  Delafield, 
108  Front  Street ;  and  Des  Arts  &  Henser, 
78  Water  Street. 

There  were  seven  leading  New  York  cof- 
fee importers  in  1854,  as  follows :  Aymar  & 
Co.,  34  South  Street;  Henry  Coit  &  Son, 
43  South  Street;  Henry  Delafield,  129 
Pearl  Street;  Howland  &  Aspinwall,  54 
South  Street ;  Mason  &  Thompson,  33  Pearl 
Street ;  J.  L.  Phipps  &  Co.,  19  Cliff  Street ; 
and  Moses  Taylor  &  Co.,  44  South  Street. 

Following  the  so-called  ''consortium"  of 
1868,  the  ramifications  of  which  centered 
in  Frankfort-on-the-Main — its  speculations 
finally  ending  in  disaster  to  many  —  the 
green-coffee  trade  was  in  a  precarious  con- 
dition until  well  into  the  eighties.  ''Pre- 
viously," says  a  contemporary  writer,  "it 
had  been  the  safest  and  prettiest  of  all  co- 
lonial produce." 

About  1868,  "iron  steamers  began  to  be 
freely  availed  of  as  carriers  of  coffee;  and 
later  on,  the  telegraph  became  a  factor, 
rendering  the  business  more  exciting  and 
expensive ' '. 


Coft'ee  consumption  in  the  United  States 
had,  moreover,  increased  from  one  pound 
per  capita  in  1790  to  nine  pounds  per  ca- 
pita in  1882. 

1892  -  93  the  biggest  figure  in  the  world's 
coffee  trade  was  George  Kaltenbach,  a  Ger- 
man living  in  Paris,  whose  resources  were 
estimated  at  twelve  million  to  fifteen  mil- 
lion dollars,  and  whose  holdings  at  one  time 
were  said  to  be  one  million  bags.  He  was 
reported  to  have  made  $1,500,000  on  his 
coffee  corner.  In  September,  1892,  he 
bested  a  bull  clique  and  forced  prices  down 
to  twelve  cents.  Aided  by  three  other 
European  operators,  he  then  started  a  bull 
syndicate,  and  put  the  price  up  to  seven- 
teen cents.  The  story  of  this  corner,  and  of 
other  notable  coffee  booms  and  panics,  is 
told  in  more  detail  in  chapter  XXXI. ' 

Early  Days  of  the  Green  Coffee  Business. 

For  a  long  time  New  York  was  the  only 
important  entry  port  for  green  coffee.  Be- 
fore the  rise  of  New  Orleans  and  San  Fran- 
cisco, many  inland  coffee  roasters  and  gro- 
cers had  their  own  buyers  in  the  New  York 
market.  The  coffee  district  that  still  clings 
about  lower  Wall  Street  is  rich  in  memories 
of  by-gone  merchants  who  once  were  big 
factors  in  the  trade,  and  whose  names,  in 
many  instances,  have  been  handed  down 
from  generation  to  generation  in  the  busi- 
nesses that  have  survived  them. 

Any  reference  to  the  early  days  of  the 
green-coffee  importing,  jobbing,  and  bro- 
kerage business  in  New  York  would  not  be 
complete  without  mention  of  a  few  of  the 
pioneers : 

P.  C.  Meehan  is  eighty-four  years  old  at 
the  time  of  writing  (1922)  and  is  dean  of 


U.    S.    TRADE    HISTORY 


477 


James   H.    Taylor  H.   Simmonds  Edwin  H.  Peck  P.   C.   Meehan 

TuEiR  Association  with  the  New  York  Green  Coffee  Trade  Dates  Back  Neai.ly  Fifty  Years 


the  New  York  green-coffee  trade.  With 
James  H.  Briggs  he  formed  the  firm  of 
Briggs  &  Meehan.  This  later  became  Mee- 
han &  Schramm,  with  Arnold  Schramm. 
The  latter  withdrew,  and  the  firm  became 
Creighton,  Morrison  &  Meehan.  Finally, 
Mr.  ]\Ieehan  established  the  present  firm  of 
P.  C.  Meehan  &  Co. 

When  Mr.  Schramm  withdrew  from  the 
firm  of  Meehan  &  Schramm  he  founded  the 
house  of  Arnold  Schramm,  Inc.  Upon  his 
retirement,  this  was  succeeded  by  Sprague 
&  Rhodes,  the  firm  being  composed  of  Ben- 
jamin Rhodes  and  Irvin  A.  Sprague. 

Next  oldest  to  P.  C.  Meehan  in  the  New 
York  green-coffee  trade  is  Clarence  Creigh- 
ton, who  started  with  Youngs  &  Amman, 
later  C.  Amman  &  Co.,  then  Waite,  Creigh- 
ton &  ]\Iorrison,  then  Creighton,  Morrison 
&  Meehan.  Upon  the  breaking  up  of  this 
firm,  Mr.  Creighton  formed  a  partnership 
with  James  Ashland,  under  the  name  of 
Creighton  &  Ashland.  He  later  operated 
alone,  and  died  August  15,  1922. 

James  H.  Taylor  is  another  *' old-timer" 
who  is  still  active.  He  began  with  T.  T. 
Barr  &  Co.  Later,  with  F.  T.  Sherman,  he 
formed  the  firm  of  Sherman  &  Taylor. 
When  Mr.  Sherman  withdrew,  the  firm  be- 
came James  H.  Taylor  &  Co.  Mr.  Taylor 
is  now  with  Minford,  Lueder  &  Co.  He  has 
been  five  years  president,  eleven  years 
treasurer,  and  twenty-six  years  on  the 
board  of  governors  of  the  New  York  Coffee 
Excliange. 

One  of  the  most  honored  names  in  the 
green  coffee  trade  of  New  York  is  that  of 
Peck.  Edwin  H.  Peck  began,  at  the  age  of 
seventeen  years,  with  Hart  &  Howell,  but- 
ter and  cheese  merchants.    He  then  went  in 


the  same  business  for  himself.  Four  years 
later,  he  abandoned  this  to  go  into  the 
coffee  brokerage  business  with  his  brother, 
Walter  J.  Peck.  In  about  five  years,  the 
brothers  branched  into  the  coffee  importing 
and  jobbing  business  under  the  firm  name 
of  Edwin  H.  Peek  &  Co.  Later  it  was 
changed  to  the  present  style  of  E.  H.  &  W. 
J.  Peck.  Since  the  death  of  Walter  J.  Peck 
in  1909,  Edwin  H,  has  conducted  the  busi- 
ness. The  latter  was  a  member  of  the 
board  of  governors  of  the  New  York  Coffee 
Exchange  for  twelve  years,  and  has  been 
an  important  factor  in  the  upbuilding  of 
that  institution. 

William  D.  Mackey  began  with  Small 
Bros.  &  Co.  He  then  went  into  partner- 
ship with  C.  K.  Small  as  Mackey  &  Small. 
Later,  he  formed  the  firm  of  Arnold, 
Mackey  &  Co.  with  Francis  B.  Arnold.  The 
latter  dropped  out,  and  the  firm  became 
Mackey  &  Co.  He  is  now  operating  alone. 
Mr.  Mackey  was  another  of  the  incorpora- 
tors of  the  New  York  Coffee  Exchange. 

Alexander  H.  Purcell,  a  brother  of  Jo- 
seph Purcell,  entered  the  employ  of  Bowie 
Dash  &  Co.  as  a  boy.  From  there  he  went 
to  Williams,  Russell  &  Co.,  then  to  the 
Union  Coffee  Co.,  and  later  to  Hard  & 
Rand.  He  is  now  head  of  the  firm  of  Alex. 
H.  Purcell  &  Co. 

Robert  C.  Stewart  first  became  known 
with  Booth  &  Linsley.  He  later  went  with 
Joseph  J.  0  'Donohue  &  Sons,  leaving  there 
to  establish  the  present  firm  of  R.  C.  Stew- 
art &  Co. 

Another  old-timer,  Joseph  D.  Pickslay, 
may  be  seen  at  his  desk  in  Williams,  Rus- 
sell &  Co.'s  office  every  day,  although 
Frank    Williams,    who  began   with   Win- 


478 


ALL    ABOUT     COFFEE 


throp  G.  Ray  &  Co.,  and  Frank  C.  Russell, 
both  of  Williams,  Chapin  &  Russell,  and 
then  of  Williams,  Russell  &  Co.,  have 
passed  on.  Fred  P.  Gordon,  now  head  of 
Fred  P.  Gordon  &  Co.,  was  formerly  with 
Williams,  Russell  &  Co. 

The  Mitchell  brothers,  William  L.  and 
George,  forming  the  firm  of  Mitchell  Bros., 
have  been  familiar  Front  Street  figures  for 
many  years. 

A.  Wakeman,  "the  historian  of  the  cof- 
fee trade, "  as  he  is  often  called,  began  with 
Olendorf,  Case  &  Gillespie.  Later  he  went 
with  Thompson  &  Bowers,  and  then  became 
a  member  of  the  firm  of  Baiz  &  Wakeman. 
He  is  now  in  business  alone.  For  thirty- 
eight  years  Mr.  Wakeman  has  been  secre- 
tary of  the  Lov/er  Wall  Street  Business 
Men's  Association.  He  is  the  author  of 
History  and  Reminiscences  of  Lower  Wall 
Street  and  Vicinity. 

H.  Simmonds,  of  Simmonds  &  Bayne; 
later,  of  Simmonds  &  Newton ;  then,  of  the 
Brazil  Coffee  Co. ;  and  finally,  of  H.  Sim- 
monds &  Co.,  is  at  the  time  of  writing  one 
of  the  oldest  coffee  merchants  on  Front 
Street,  having  been  in  business  in  Balti- 
more and  New  York  for  more  than  fifty 
years.  He  has  a  desk  in  the  office  of  his 
son,  W.  Lee  Simmonds,  of  W.  Lee  Sim- 
monds &  Co. 

Bayne  is  another  well  known  Front 
Street  name.  The  firm  of  William  Bayne 
&  Co.  was  established  by  William  Bayne, 
Sr.,  in  Baltimore.  The  business  was  moved 
to  New  York  about  1885.  The  founder's 
three  sons,  William,  Jr.,  Daniel  K.,  and  L. 
P.,  entered  the  employ  of  the  firm  in  Balti- 
more,   and    moved    with  it  to  New    York, 


Daniel  K.  Bayne  became  associated  with 
Henry  Sheldon  &  Co.,  and  later  was  a  mem- 
ber of  Simmonds  &  Bayne.  He  then  re- 
turned to  William  Bayne  &  Co.  and  was 
senior  partner  at  the  time  of  his  death  in 
1915.  William  Bayne,  Jr.,  for  many  years 
one  of  the  governors  and  a  past-president 
and  vice-president  of  the  New  York'  Coffee 
Exchange,  and  his  brother,  L.  P.  Bayne, 
now  conduct  the  business. 

John  T.  Foley,  now  of  the  Commercial 
Coffee  Co.,  began  with  Kirkland  Bros. 
From  there  he  went  to  Ezra  Wheeler  &  Co., 
then  to  H.  W.  Banks  &  Co.,  Thompson, 
Shortridge  &  Co.,  and  William  Hosmer 
Bennett  &  Son. 

Joshua  Walker  formed  a  partnership 
with  James  Stewart  as  Stewart  &  Walker. 
Since  the  retirement  of  Mr.  Stewart  some 
years  ago,  Mr.  Walker  has  been  in  business 
alone. 

Three  other  veterans  of  the  trade  are  still 
in  the  harness :  Louis  Seligsberg,  formerly 
of  Wolf  &  Seligsberg,  is  now  alone ;  Henry 
Schaefer  has  been  at  the  head  of  S.  Gruner 
&  Co.  since  the  death  of  Siegfried  Gruner; 
Col.  William  P.  Roome,  who  operated  for 
some  time  as  Wm.  P.  Roome  &  Co.,  is  now 
head  of  the  coffee  department  of  Acker. 
Merrall  &  Condit  Co. 

Gregory  B.  Livierato,  who  founded  the 
business  of  Livierato  Bros,  at  Port  Said, 
with  branches  at  Aden  and  Marseilles,  and 
later  at  Hodeida  and  Harar.  entered  the 
green  coffee  trade  of  New  York  in  1855,  al- 
though his  L  F  Mocha  marks  had  been  in- 
troduced here  many  years  before.  He  re- 
mained here  for  eighteen  years,  returned  to 
his  home  in  Cephalonia,  Greece,    in    1904, 


G.    Kimball 
Boston 


James  C.  Russell 
New  York 


James  W.  Phyfe 
New  York 


C.  E.  Bickford 
San  Francisco 


Gbeen  Coffee  Trade  Builders  Who  Have  Passed  ox 


U.    S.    TRADE    HISTORY 


479 


I 


and  died  there  in  1905.    His  nephew,  B.  A. 

Livierato,  then  assumed  charge  of  the  New 
York  coffee  business,  which  in  1913  became 
the  Livierato-Kidde  Co.,  with  B.  A.  Livie- 
rato and  Frank  Kidde. 

Benjamin  Green  Arnold,  one-time  "cof- 
fee king,"  first  became  well  known  as  a 
member  of  Arnold,  Sturgess  &  Co.,  after- 
ward B,  G.  Arnold  &  Co.  Mr.  Arnold  was 
one  of  the  incorporators,  and  the  first  pres- 
ident, of  the  New  York  Coffee  Exchange. 
Francis  B.  Arnold,  with  Arnold,  Sturgess 
&  Co.,  later  of  Arnold,  Mackey  &  Co.,  after- 
ward Arnold,  Dorr  &  Co.,  was  a  son  of  Ben- 
jamin Greene  Arnold ;  and  to  him  and  to 
Major  John  R.  McNulty  belongs  a  great 
part  of  the  credit  for  the  organization  of 
the  New  York  Coffee  Exchange.  Major 
McNulty  was  with  Minford,  Thompson  & 
Co.,  and  then  formed  the  firm  of  J.  R.  Mc- 
Nulty &  Co. 

Bowie  Dash,  a  member  of  the  famous  Ar- 
nold-Kimball-Dash  triumvirate,  began  with 
Scott  &  Meiser,  later  Scott,  Meiser  &  Co., 
then  Scott  &  Dash,  afterward  Scott,  Dash 
&  Co.,  and  finally  Bowie  Dash  &  Co.  Other 
well  known  men  with  this  last  company 
were  L.  F.  Mason,  A.  C.  Foster,  S.  L,  Swa- 
zey,  L.  J.  Purdy,  and  John  B.  Overton. 

Then  there  were :  Rufus  G.  Story ;  Thom- 
as Minford,  Francis  Skiddy,  and  George  J. 
Nevers,  of  Skiddy,  Minford  &  Co.;  W.  D. 
Thompson,  of  Minford,  Thompson  &  Co.. 
later  L.  W.  Minford  &  Co.,  afterward  Min- 
ford, Lueder  &  Co.,  Thompson,  Shortridg3 
&  Co.,  later  Thompson  Bros.,  then  Thomp- 
son &  Davis;  John  Randall,  with  L.  W. 
Minford  &  Co.,  later  with  J.  C.  Runkle  & 


Co.;  Eugene  and  James  O 'Sullivan  of 
Eugene  0 'Sullivan  &  Co. 

The  following  names  figured  prominent- 
ly in  the  trade's  early  history:  Charles 
Maguire,  of  James  H.  Taylor  &  Co. ;  George 
F.  Gilman,  organizer  of  the  Great  Ameri- 
can Tea  Co.  and  of  the  Great  Atlantic  & 
Pacific  Tea  Co.;  H.  W.  Banks,  of  Reeve, 
Case  &  Banks,  afterward  of  Stanton,  Shel- 
don &  Co.,  later  Sheldon,  Banks  &  Co.,  and 
then  of  H.  W.  Banks  &  Co. ;  Henry  Shel- 
don, of  Stanton,  Sheldon  &  Co.,  later  Shel- 
don, Banks  &  Co.;  and  then  Henry  Shel- 
don &  Co. ;  "William  McCready,  with  Small 
Bros.  &  Co.,  later  with  H.  W.  Banks  &  Co., 
and  then  with  B.  H.  Howell,  Son  &  Co. , 
C.  R.  Blakeman,  with  Gross,  March  &  Co., 
afterward  with  Wm.  Scott's  Sons  &  Co.; 
William  Scott,  of  William  Scott  &  Sons, 
later  "Wm.  Scott's  Sons  &  Co.,  including 
George  W.  Vanderhoef,  who  later  succeed- 
ed to  the  business  under  the  name  of 
George  "W,  Vanderhoef  &  Co. ;  Christopher 
and  Leander  S.  Risley,  of  C.  Risley  &  Co. ; 
and  Charles  Naphew,  with  C.  Risley  & 
Co.,  later  with  Edwin  H.  Peck  &  Co. 

Another  group  of  old-timers  includes: 
William  Newbold,  with  Ezra  Wheeler  & 
Co.,  later  alone;  Augustus  Ireland,  with 
Ezra  Wheeler  &  Co.;  J.  M.  Edwards,  of 
Edwards  &  Maddux,  later  of  J.  M.  Ed- 
wards &  Co. ;  Frank  M.  Anthony,  of  J.  M. 
Edwards  &  Co.;  H.  Clay  Maddux,  one  of 
the  incorporators  of  the  New  York  Coffee 
Exchange,  of  Edwards  &  Maddux;  Baron 
Thomsen,  of  Thomsen  &  Co. ;  Gustave  Am- 
sinck.  of  G.  Amsinck  &  Co. ;  James  N.  Jar- 
vie,  with  Small  Bros.  &  Co.,  later  of  Ar- 


William  Bayne 
New  York 


George  W.  Grossman 
New  York 


George  Westfeldt 
New   Orleans 


Wm.  H.   Bennett 
New  York 


Their  Race  Is  Run,  Their  Course  Is  Done 


480 


ALL     ABOUT     COFFEE 


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Bg 

112  Front  Street,  New  York,  ix  1879 

A  group  of  oldtime  green  coffee  men,  including  R. 
C.  Stewart,  J.  D.  Picltslay,  Frank  Williams, 
Charks   P.   Chapin,   and   Fred   P.   Gordon 


buckle  •  Bros. ;  John  C.  Lloyd,  of  John  C. 
Lloyd  &  Co.,  afterward  with  Arbuckle 
Bros. ;  John  Small,  of  Smalls  &  Bacon,  la- 
ter Small  Bros.  &  Co. ;  Williamson  Bacon, 
of  Smalls  &  Bacon,  afterward  of  William- 
son Bacon  &  Co. ;  C.  K.  Small,  of  Mackey 
&  Small,  Anson  Wales  Hard  and  George 
Rand,  of  Hard  &  Rand;  Joseph  Purcell, 
first  of  W.  J.  Porter  &  Co.,  and  then  of 
Hard  &  Rand ;  Henry  F.  McCreery,  with 
O 'Shaughnessy  &  Sorley,  later  of  Hard  & 
Rand ;  William  Sorley  and  John  W. 
O 'Shaughnessy,  of  0 'Shaughnessy  &  Sor- 
ley, Mr.  0 'Shaughnessy  later  forming 
John  W.  0 'Shaughnessy  &  Co.,  and  Mr. 
Sorley  going  to  Hard  &  Rand.  Mr.  Sorley 
was  one  of  the  incorporators  of  the  New 
York  Coffee  Exchange. 

Special  mention  should  be  made  of : 
Kirkland  &  von  Sacks ;  A.  Kirkland,  one  of 
the  incorporators  of  the  New  York  Coffee 
Exchange,  with  Small  Bros.  &  Co.,  then 
with  W.  J.  Kirkland  as  Kirkland  Bros., 
and,  upon  the  dissolution  of  that  firm,  with 
F.  H.  Leggett  &  Co. ;  Thomas  Rutter  &  Co. ; 
Teacle  Wallace  Lewis,  with  Rowland,  Hum- 
phreys &  Co.,  later  head  of  the  coffee  de- 
partment of  Carter,  Macy  &  Co.,  and  still 
later,  head  of  T.  W.  Lewis  &  Co. ;  Abraham 
Sanger,  of  Sanger,  Beers  &  Fisher,  later 
Sanger  &  Wells;  J.  W.  Wilson  &  Co.; 
Dykes  &  Wilson ;  Peter,  John,  and  Joseph 
J.  0  'Donohue,  of  John  0  'Donohue  's  Sons ; 
Joseph  J.  0 'Donohue  &  Sons;  Otis  W. 
Booth,  of  Booth  &  Linsley ;  A.  G.  Hildreth : 
James  H.  Kirby,  of  B.  G.  Arnold    &    Co., 


later  of  Kirby,  Halstead  &  Chapin,  after- 
ward Kirby  &  Halstead ;  Major  Henry  D. 
Tyler ;  Thomas  H.  Messenger  &  Co. ;  Har- 
vey H.  Palmer,  of  H.  H.  Palmer  &  Co. ;  B. 
0.  Bowers,  of  Wilson  &  Bowers,  later 
Thompson  &  Bowers;  and  August  Haeuss- 
ler,  first  with  C.  Risley  &  Co.,  then  with  J. 
H.  Labaree  &  Co.,  and  finally  with  the 
green  coffee  department  of  Geo.  H.  McFad- 
den  &  Brother. 

John  Hanley,  with  Carey  &  Co.,  later  of 
Hanley  &  Kinsella,  St.  Louis;  Robert  C. 
Hewitt,  Jr.,  who  wrote  one  of  the  early 
books  on  coffee  {Coffee,  its  History,  Culti- 
vation, and  Uses,  1872),  of  Hewitt  &  Phyfe, 
later  Jas.  W.  Phyfe  &  Co. ;  James  W.  Phyfe 
of  Hewitt  &  Phyfe,  later  Jas.  W.  Phyfe  & 
Co. ;  Daniel  A.  Shaw,  of  Jas.  W.  Phyfe  & 
Co. ;  B.  Lahey,  of  Jas.  W.  Phyfe  &  Co. ;  and 
Winthrop  G.  Ray  &  Co. 

These  names,  too,  will  live  long  in  green 
coff'ee  history:  Reid,  Murdock  &  Fischer, 
New  York  and  Chicago ;  Charles  A.  and 
Watts  Miller,  and  David  Palmer,  of  D.  J. 
Ely  &  Co.,  formerly  D.  J.  &  Z.  S.  Ely  Co., 
New  York  and  Baltimore;  Harrv  Miller, 
with  D.  J.  Ely  &  Co.,  later  of  Miller  &  Wal- 
bridge ;  Augustus  Walbridge,  of  Smith  & 
Walbridge,  afterward  Augustus  M.  Wal- 
bridge, Inc. ;  Clarence  Smith,  of  M.  V.  R. 
Smith 's  Sons,  later  of  Smith  &  Walbridge ; 
Stevens,  Armstrong  &  Hartshorn,  later 
Stevens  &  Armstrong,  then  Stevens  Bros.  & 
Co.,  and  finally  Reamer,  Turner  &  Co.,  in- 
eluding  Abraham  Reamer,  Sr.,  and  William 
F.  Turner. 

Other  familiar  old-time  names  were : 
George  W.  Pritchard,  of  George  W.  Prit- 
chard  &  Sons ;  Dayton  &  Co. ;  Dimond    & 


At  87  Wall  Street,  N.  Y.,  Years  Ago 

Among  the  green  coffee  men  in  this  picture  are 
Clarence  Creighton,  John  Enright,  Chris  Arndt. 
W.  Lee  Simmonds,  John  Ashlin,  F.  Loderose, 
Julius  Steinwender,  and  Clinton  Whiting 


U.    S.    TRADE    HISTORY 


WALL  AND  FRONT  STREETS,   NEW  YORK,  SPRING  OF  1922 

Looking  up  Wall  Street  from  the  East  River.  The  first  cross  street  Is  Front;  beyond  are  to  be  seen  the  Mun- 
son.  Stock  Exchange,  and  Bankers'  Trust  Conipanj-'s  buildings,  with  Trinity  Church  marking  the  Broad- 
way gateway 


482 


ALL     A  B  OUT     COFFEE 


Lally,  later  Dimond  &  Gardes;  Arthur  W. 
Brown  ;  Robert  Russell,  of  Russell  &  Co. ;  J. 

F.  Pupke  and  Thomas  Reid,  of  Pupke  & 
Reid,  later  Eppens,  Smith  &  Wiemann, 
afterward  Eppens,  Smith  &  Co.,  with  Wil- 
liam H.  and  Frederick  P.  Eppens;  Joseph 
A.  O'Brien,  with  Pupke  &  Reid,  and  later 
in  business  for  himself;  R.  P.  McBride,  of 
the  Union  Pacific  Tea  Co. ;  Ripley  Ropes ; 
Saportas  Bros. ;  Mayer  Bros.  &  Co,  of  Ham- 
burg, with  Moses  G.  Hanauer,  manager, 
and  D.  K.  Young  and  Herman  Hanauer, 
salesmen ;  H.  M.  Humphreys,  with  J.  W. 
Doane  &  Co.,  later  with  Arbuckle  Bros. ; 
Henry  Nordlinger,  of  Henry  Nordlinger  & 
Co. ;  Charles  Campbell,  of  W.  R.  Grace  & 
Co. ;  D.  A.  DeLima,  of  D.  A.  &  J.  DeLima, 
lr*er  D.  A.  DeLima  &  Co.;  Henry  Kun- 
h'-,  dt  and  George  F.  Kuhlke,  of  Kunhardt 
&  Co. ;  Boulton,  Bliss  &  Dallett,  later  Bliss, 
Dallett  &  Co.,  general  managers  of  the  Red 
D  line  of  steamships ;  Prendergast  Bros. ; 
W.  B|.  and  George  W.  Crossman,  of  W.  H. 
Cros^rdan  &  Bros.,  later  Crossman  &  Siel- 
cken;%vith  Hermann  Sielcken,  afterward 
Sorenson  &  Nielson ;  F.  Probst  &  Co. ;  H. 
H.  Swift  &  Co. ;  J.  L.  Phipps  &  Co. ;  James 
Bennett  and  Joseph  Becker,  of  Bennett  & 
Becker;  and  Arnold,  Hines  &  Co.  (Dia- 
mond A  Mocha),  later  Arnold,  Cheney  & 
Company, 

Honorable  mention  should  be  accorded : 
Samuel  Wilde  (Old  Dutch  Mills)  ;  John 
Phoenix,  with  Husted,  Ferguson  &  Titus, 
later  of  J,  W,  Phoenix  &  Co, ;  H,  K.  Thur- 
ber,  of  H.  K,  &  F.  B,  Thurber  &  Co, ;  Mi- 
chael Barnicle,  with  Walter  Storm,  later 
Storm,  Smith  &  Co,,  then  Abbey,  Freeman 
&  Co.,  then  with  Husted,  Wetmore  &  Titus, 
and  finally  alone;  August  Stumpp,  of 
August  Stumpp  &  Co. ;  J.  K.  and  E.  B. 
Place ;  Beards  &  Cummings,  later  Beards  & 
Cottrell,  then  S.  S.  Beard  &  Co. ;  Philip  and 
Henry  Dater,  of  Philip  Dater  &  Co. ;  Hugh 
Edwards,  of  Edwards  &  Raworth ;  William 
Bennett,  of  Wm.  Hosmer  Bennett  &  Son; 
Kalman  Haas,  of  Haas  Bros. ;  J.  C.  Runkle 
&  Co. ;  Thomas  T.  Barr  and  Fred  T.  Sher- 
man, of  Barr,  Lally  &  Co.,  later  T.  T.  Barr 
&  Co.;  Henry  Hentz  &  Co.;  Elmenhorst  & 
Co.;  A.  S,  Lascelles  &  Co.;  D.  Henderson 
(Harry)  and  John  Wells,  of  Wells  Bros.; 

G.  Weyl  &  Co.,  later  Norton,  Weyl  &  Be- 
ven,  and  then  Weyl  &  Norton;  Warren  & 
Co. ;  J,  H,  Labaree  &  Co, ;  Schultz  &  Ruck- 
gaber;  Henry  Eyre;  Rowland,    Terry    & 


Humphreys,  later  Rowland  &  Humphreys; 
Bentley,  Benton  &  Co. ;  Winter  &  Smilie ; 
Weston  &  Gray;  John  S.  Wright,  one  of 
the  incorporators  of  the  New  York  Coffee 
Exchange,  of  Wright,  Hard  &  Co, ;  Watjen, 
Toel  &  Co.;  A,  Behrens  &  Co.;  "Steve" 
Matheson,  of  S.  Matheson,  Jr.  &  Co.;  C. 
Wessels  &  Bros.,  later  Wessels,  Kulen- 
kampff  &  Co.,  and  finally  Fromm  &  Co. ; 
Julius  Steinwender,  of  Steinwender,  Stoff- 
regen  &  Co. ;  Leon  Israel,  of  Leon  Israel  & 
Bros, ;  Herklotz,  Corn  &  Co, ;  Ponfold, 
Schuyler  &  Co.;  Maitland,  Phelps  &  Co,, 
later  Maitland,  Coppell  &  Co, ;  F,  H,  Leg- 
gett,  of  F,  H.  Leggett  &  Co.;  Carhart  & 
Brother;  George  W,  Flanders,  of  George 
W.  Flanders  &  Co.;  Jonas  P.  O'Brien; 
George  S.  Wallen,  of  George  S.  Wallen  & 
Co. ;  Charles  F.  Blake,  of  Blake  &  Bullard ; 
and  Martin  J.  Glynn,  of  McDonald  & 
Glynn  ,  later  Martin  J.  Glynn  &  Co.,  w^ho 
had  their  office  at  Front  Street  and  Old 
Slip  for  twenty -five  years. 

Three  other  names  closely  associated 
with  the  early  days  of  the  New  York  green- 
coffee  trade  were :  Glover,  Force  &  Co,, 
later  Waterbury  &  Force,  then  W.  H. 
Force  &  Co,,  and  finally  W.  S,  Force  &  Co,, 
weighers  and  forwarders;  Daniel  Reeve,  of 
Reeve  &  Van  Riper,  mixers  and  hullers; 
and  John  H.  Draper  &  Co.,  auctioneers. 

Growth  of  the  Leading  Coffee  Ports 

Twenty-two  years  ago,  when  the  century 
opened,  New  York  passed  over  her  docks  a 
total  of  676,000,000  pounds  of  coffee, 
which  represented  eighty-six  percent  of  the 
total  for  the  country.  In  1920,  juggling  the 
figures  a  little,  she  imported  767,000,000 
pounds,  which  was  fifty-nine  percent  of  the 
total.  While  she  was  thus  practically  mark- 
ing time,  she  watched  New  Orleans  run 
wild  with  an  increase  from  44,000,000 
pounds  to  380,000,000  pounds,  or  763  per- 
cent gain;  this  meaning  also  the  supplying 
of  twenty-nine  percent  of  the  country's  de- 
mands instead  of  five  percent,  while  San 
Francisco  in  the  same  time  jumped  from 
24,000,000  pounds  to  137,000,000  pounds, 
or  470  percent  gain,  her  share  of  the  total 
trade  now  being  ten"  percent  instead  of 
three  percent  in  1900,  These  gains,  how- 
ever, have  not  all  been  made  at  the  expense 
of  the  city  on  the  Hudson,  In  1900,  Balti- 
more was  a  close  rival  of  New  Orleans  and 
was  far  ahead  of  all  other  ports  except  New 
York;  but  a  decline  in  her  imports  began 


U.    S.    TRADE    HISTORY 


483 


IvOOKiNG  South  from  Wall  Street  into  the  Heart  ov  the  Green  Coffee  District 
On  the  left-hand  corner  is  Hard  &  Rand's,  opposite  Leon  Israel  &  Bros.'  building,  and  beyond  are  many 

other  leading  green  coffee  firms. 


LooKiNci  North  fro.m    Wall  Strkkt.     Here  a  Few  Well  K.now  .n  Coifee  Fir m.s  Are  Located 
The  trend  of  the  trade  is  south  from  Wall  St.  rather  than  north 

FRONT  STREET,  NEW  YORK'S  GREEN  COFFEE  DISTRICT,  IN  1922 


484 


ALL     ABOUT     COFFEE 


Imports  of  Coffee  at  Leading  Ports  of  Entry 

New  York  New  Orleans 
Pounds  Pounds 

1900       676,227,269  44,335,717 

1913       5o4,o71,449  263,382,962 

1914       633,400,209  308,008,145 

1915       758,160,133  307,868,932 

1916       814,394,074  308,513,290 

1917       932,098,113  274,989,692 

1918      779,025,781  219,330,461 

1918*     757.710,001  146,621,857 

1919*     804,177,446  356,608,477 

1920*     767,242,636  380,293,701 

1921*     790,559,919  331,036,770 

*Calt'nclar  years.     All  others  fiscal  years. 


IN  THE  United  States 


San  Francisco 
Pounds 

24,562,578 

36,067,073 

46,721,824 

45,844,060 

71,346,788 

97,821,069 

134,729,019 

130,178,288 

160,426,467 

137,043,281 

139,069,286 


Total  imports 
Pounds 

787,991,911 
863,130,757 
1,001,528,317 
1,118,690,524 
1,201,104,485 
1,319,870,802 
1,143,890,889 
1,052,201,501 
1,333,564,067 
1,297,439,310 
1,340,979,776 


about  1903,  and  was  so  swift,  that  five 
years  later  her  imports  were  almost  negli- 
gible. 

New  Orleans  began  her  advance  at  about 
the  same  time  that  Baltimore  began  to  fall 
off,  so  that  her  rise  to  a  place  of  importance 
as  a  coffee  port  has  been  practically  coinci- 
dent with  the  twentieth  century.  Her  first 
big  step  upward  was  in  1901,  from  44,000,- 
000  to  72,000,000  pounds,  and  was  followed 
by  another  the  next  year  to  115,000,000. 
Thereafter  there  was  a  steady  gain  to  213,- 
000,000  pounds  in  1906  and  to  301,000,000 
pounds  in  1910,  and  after  that  wide  fluctu- 
ations, especially  during  the  war.  In  1918, 
doubtless  because  of  the  draining  of  ship- 
ping to  the  North  Atlantic  service,  there 
was  a  heavy  slump ;  but  immediately  after 
the  war,  in  the  calendar  year  1919,  there 
was  a  big  jump  to  a  record  mark,  up  to  that 
time,  of  356,000,000  pounds.  This  was  fol- 
lowed by  the  record  of  380,000,000  pounds 
in  the  calendar  year  1920,  although  the 
1921  figure  of  331,036,770  shows  a  falling 
off  of  nearly  50,000,000  pounds. 

San  Francisco's  growth,  on  the  other 
hand,  is  of  recent  occurrence.  The  story  is 
told  farther  along  in  this  chapter,  how  the 
city  was  definitely  placed  on  the  coffee  map 
by  the  provision  of  adequate  shipping  fa- 
cilities to  Central  America.  The  outbreak 
of  the  war  in  Europe,  however,  which 
loosened  the  grip  of  European  nations  on 
the  coffee  crops  of  Central  America,  was 
the  prime  cause  of  San  Francisco's  rise  in 
the  coffee  world,  affording  her  an  opportu- 
nity of  which  she  had  the  enterprise  to  take 
full  advantage.  In  1913,  her  imports  were 
only  about  36,000,000  pounds,  at  which 
mark  they  had  stood  for  many  years. 
There  was  only  a  slight   gain   until    1916, 


when  71,000,000  pounds  were  recorded ;  but 
this  increased  to  97,000,000  pounds  in  1917, 
to  134,000,000  pounds  in  1918  (fiscal  year), 
and  to  160,000,000  pounds  in  the  calendar 
year  1919.  In  1920,  there  was  a  falling  off 
to  137,000,000  pounds,  and  it  may  be  that 
the  high  figure  reached  the  year  before  rep- 
resents about  the  maximum  that  her  natur- 
al market,  the  Pacific-coast  region,  can  well 
absorb. 

For  the  benefit  of  those  who  like  to  do 
their  own  interpreting  of  figures,  we  pre- 
sent in  the  table  at  the  top  of  this  page  the 
official  record  for  recent  years. 

The  leading  importers  of  Brazil  coffee  di- 
rect to  New  York  and  Baltimore  in  1894, 
as  compiled  by  William  H.  Force  &  Co., 
were  as  follows.  Included  in  this  list  are  a 
number  of  names  well  known  in  the  green 
and  roasted  coffee  trades  of  other  cities: 

Direct  Importers  of  Brazil  Coffee 
New  York,  189 Jf 

Bags 

Arbuckle  Bros 688,726 

W.  H.  Grossman  &  Bro 355.864 

Hard  &  Rand .345.541 

W.  F.  McLaughlin  &  Co 227.935 

J.  W.  Doane  &  Co 207,170 

Steinwender,  Stoffregen  Co 132,482 

J.  L.  Phipps  &  Co 54,617 

Dannemillers  &  Co 49,449 

E.  Levering  &  Co 47.322 

Aug.  Stumpp 44,959 

Thomson  &  Taylor  Spice  Co 44.017 

G.  Amsinck  &  Co 38,350 

E.  H.  &  W.  J.  Peck 33,278 

.7.  H.  Labaree  &  Co 32,071 

Fitch  &  Howland 31,515 

Shinkle.  Wilson  &  Kreis  Go 25.951 

C.  D.  Lathrop  &  Co 23.263 

Taylor  &  Levering 21,501 

Heinrich  Haase   18.976 

William  T.  Levering 18,796 

T.  G.  Lurman  &  Co 18,017 

Elmenhorst  &  Co 16,22] 


U.    S.    TRADE    HISTORY 


485 


Sprague.  Warnor  &  Co 14,856 

Sorver,  Damon  &  Co 14,675 

Sutton  &  Vansaut 13,957 

John  O'Donohue's  Sons 13,681 

Hoffman,  Lee  &  Co 13,598 

S.  K.  Alexander 12,805 

Eppens,  Smith  &  Wiemann  Co 12,719 

Haker  &  Young 11,906 

Ilanley  &  Kinsella  C.  &  S.  Co 11,318 

Durand  &  Kasper  Co 11.124 

Wm.  Schotten  &  Co 11,005 

C.  G.  Bullard  &  Co 10,653 

H.  W.  Banks  &  Co 10,351 

Ellis  Bros 10,282 

.lacol)  Baiz  9,146 

A.  Lueder  &  Co 8,492 

C.  F.  Pitt  &  Sons 8,262 

G.  F.  Gillman 7,927 

Bell.  Conrad  &  Co 6,528 

N.  Martin  &  Co 6,507 

J.  B.  O'Donolme  &  Co 6,102 

Steele.  Wedeles  Co 5,700 

G.  O.  Gordon 5,550 

Sherman  Bros.  &  Co 4,998 

F.  MacVeagh  &  Co 4,763 

Benedict  &  Co 4,717 

Chase  &  Sanhorn 4,505 

West  &  Melchers 4,500 

Mokaska  Mfg.  Co 4,013 

Haebler  &  Co 4.000 

Robt.  Crooks  &  Co 3,509 

M.  M.  Levy  &  Co 3,037 

J.  A.  Tolman  Co 3,004 

Tracy  &  Avery  Co 3,000 

Wells  Bros 2,800 

Ivirhy,  Halsted  &  Chapin  Co 2.754 

W.  M.  Hoyt  Co 2,252 

Gt.  A.  &  P.  Tea  Co 2.250 

Foote  &  Knevals 2,000 

L.  W.  Minford  &  Co 1,800 

Wm.  Bayne  &  Co 1 J55 

Indiana  Coffee  Co 1,650 

\V.  Is:.  Carson  &  Co 1,501 

Miller,  Smith  &  Co 1,500 

Rufus  Woods    1,498 

J.  G.  Flint 1,345 

Davenport  &  Morris 1,250 

Canada   1,140 

Westfeldt  Bros 1,000 

Edw.  W^esten  T.  &  S.  Co 800 

Corbln.  May  &  Co 750 

F.  Cannon  &  Co fil8 

Adam  Roth  Gro.  Co 500 

Scudder.  Gale  Gro.  Co 500 

.J.  IL  Taylor  &  Co 500 

Wm.  B.  Willson 500 

Dwinell.  W^right  &  Co 500 

Swift.  Billings  &  Co 500 

New  Orleans  Coffee  Co 500 

B.  Fischer  &  Co 401 

Smith  &  Sehipper 300 

riman.  T^wis  &  Co 281 

Ridenour.  Baker  Gro.  Co 250 

W.   IT.    Minor 250 

Nave  &  :\IcCord  Merc.  Co 202 

Skiddy.  Minford  &  Co 1^^ 

Rossbach  &  Bro 184 

L.  Wolff   149 

Reimers  &  Meyer 50 

W.  F.  Jackson 5 

Total 2.791,642 


Direct  Importers  of  Brazil  Coffee 
Baltimore,  189Jf 

Bags 

E.  Levering  &  Co 40,965 

T.  G.  Lurman  &  Co 29,325 

C.  M.  Stewart  &  Co 25,499 

Thornton  Rollins 21,436 

William  T.  Levering 15,884 

Steinwender,  Stoffregen 12,852 

W.  B.  Willson 11,540 

Hoffman,  Lee  &  Co 8,953 

Rufus  Woods 8,020 

P.  t.  George  &  Co 7,403 

Taylor  &  Levering 6,440 

Benedict  &  Co > 5,434 

Brazil  Trading  Co 2,666 

C.  F.  Pitt  &  Sons 2,505 

J.  W.  Doane  &  Co 2,500 

Enterprise  Coffee  Co 1,811 

H.  M.  Wagner  &  Co 504 

C.  D.  Lathrop  &  Co 503 

Mokaska  Manufacturing  Co 500 

Hanley  &  Kinsella  C.  &  S.  Co 500 

Shinkle,  Wilson  &  Kreis  Co 404 

G.  Amsinck  &  Co 400 

Indiana  Coffee  Co 251 

Total 206,355 

Early  Days  of  Green  Coffee  in  New  Orleans 

The  history  of  New  Orleans  as  a  coffee 
port  may  be  considered  as  beginning  with 
the  transfer  of  Louisiana  by  Napoleon  Bon- 
aparte to  the  United  States  in  1803.  In 
this  year,  according  to  Martin 's  History  of 
Louisiana,  New  Orleans  imported  1438 
bags  of  coffee  of  132  pounds  each.  In  the 
latter  part  of  the  eighteenth  century,  set- 
tlers in  large  numbers  had  crossed  the  Al- 
legheny Mountains  from  the  Atlantic  states 
into  the  valley  of  the  Ohio  River;  and 
their  crops  of  grain  and  provisions  were 
exported  by  means  of  cheaply  constructed 
rafts  and  boats,  which  were  floated  down 
the  river  to  New  Orleans,  where  they  were 
generally  broken  up  and  spld  for  use  as 
lumber  and  firewood  —  there  being,  at  that 
time,  no  power  available  for  propelling 
them  back  against  the  current  of  the  river. 

From  1803  until  1820,  on  account  of  the 
difficulty  of  navigating  upstream,  New  Or- 
leans imports  did  not  increase  as  rapidly  as 
exports.  In  1814,  however,  the  fir.st  crude 
steamboat  had  begun  to  carry  freight  on 
the  river;  and  by  1820,  the  supremacy  of 
New  Orleans  as  the  gateway  of  the  Missis- 
sippi Valley  had  been  for  the  time  estab- 
lished by  this  new  means  of  transportation. 
The  coffee-importing  business  flourished; 
and,  from  its  modest  beginning  in  1803, 
grew  to  531,236  bags  in  1857. 


486 


ALL    ABOUT     COFFEE 


By  this  time,  however,  New  Orleans  had 
begun  to  feel  the  competition  of  the  Erie 
Canal,  and  of  the  systems  of  east  and  west 
railroad  lines  which  had  been  in  the  course 
of  active  construction  during  the  preceding 
fifteen  years.  The  railroad  systems  which 
had  as  their  ports  Boston,  New  York,  Phil- 
adelphia, and  Baltimore,  entered  upon  a 
desperate  war  of  freight  rates,  each  in  the 
endeavor  to  establish  the  supremacy  of  its 
own  port.  As  the  building  of  railroads  had 
been  entirely  east  and  west,  and  no  large 
amount  of  capital  had  been  invested  in 
north  and  south  lines,  much  of  the  business 
of  the  valley  was  diverted  to  the  Atlantic 
ports,  apparently  never  to  return  to  New 
Orleans. 

In  1862,  on  account  of  the  blockade  of 
the  port,  not  a  bag  of  coffee  was  imported 
through  New  Orleans,  and  practically  none 
came  in  until  the  year  1866,  when  the 
small  amount  of  55,000  bags  was  the  total 
for  the  year.  At  about  this  time,  Boston 
and  Philadelphia  became  negligible  import- 
ing quantities;  the  business  of  Baltimore 
continued  to  be  quite  prosperous ;  and  New 
York  rapidly  increased  her  imports  and 
took  the  commanding  position. 


In  the  New  Orleans  Coffee  District 


New  Orleans  had  increased  her  coffee  im- 
ports to  250,000  bags  in  1871,  and  the  year- 
ly imports  continued  at  about  this  figure 
until  the  last  decade  of  the  century,  when 
the  business  began  to  expand.  The  imports 
had  reached  a  total  of  337,000  bags  in  1893- 
1894;  and  of  373,000  in  1896-97.  This 
was  the  beginning  of  a  new  era,  and  the 
coffee  business  of  New  Orleans  entered 
upon  the  period  of  its  greatest  growth.  Im- 
ports were  514,000  bags  in  1900-01,  and 
were  slightly  more  than  twice  that  by  1903- 
04.  In  1909  - 10  the  imports  had  again 
doubled,  and  had  reached  a  total  for  the 
twelve  months  ending  July  1,  1909,  of 
slightly  more  than  2,000,000  bags;  while 
the  figures  for  the  calendar  year  1909  to- 
taled 2,500,000  bags. 

Borino  &  Bro.,  77  Gravier  Street,  were 
the  largest  importers  of  coffee  in  New  Or- 
leans in  1869.  The  principal  importers  in 
1880  were  P.  Poursine  &  Co.,  Westfeldt 
Bros.,  Dymond  &  Gardes,  Schmidt  &  Zieg- 
ler,  J.  L.  Phipps  &  Co.,  Geo.  0.  Gordon  & 
Co.,  and  Smith  Bros. 

Shipments  were  by  sailing  vessels,  a  full 
cargo  being  about  5000  bags.  Fancy  grades, 
like  Golden  Rios,  washed  and  peaberries, 
were  shipped  in  double  bags.  Musty  coffees 
were  common,  and  every  bag  in  a  cargo 
was  sampled  for  must.  S.  Jackson  was  first 
to  issue  regular  manifests.  With  the  entry 
of  steamers  into  the  coffee  transport  busi- 
ness. New  Orleans  was  placed  at  a  disad- 
vantage as  steamer  rates  were  about  twenty 
cents  a  bag  higher  to  New  Orleans  than  to 
New  York,  and  imports  were  limited.  The 
subsequent  revival  of  the  business  was  due 
largely  to  Hard  &  Rand.  Being  unable  to 
obtain  steamer  rates  equal  to  those  quoted 
in  New  York,  Hard  &  Rand  chartered 
steamers  for  New  Orleans;  and  soon  the 
trade  began  to  offer  cost  and  freight  to  New 
Orleans,  and  the  business  grew  from  about 
350,000  bags  of  green  coffee  per  annum  to 
2,500,000  bags. 

One  of  the  best  remembered  names  in  the 
green  coffee  trade  of  New  Orleans  is  that 
of  Charles  Dittman  (1848-1920),  Avho  for 
nearly  fifty  years  was  one  of  the  leading 
coffee  commission  merchants  of  the  coun- 
try. Mr.  Dittman  entered  the  coffee  busi- 
ness with  Napier  &  Co.,  representing  E. 
Johnston  &  Co.,  of  Rio  de  Janeiro.  In  1875, 
upon  the  death  of  Mr.  Napier,  the  firm 
changed  to  Johnston,  Gordon  &  Co.,  later 
to  G.  0.  Gordon,  and  in  1886  to  the  Charles 


U.    S.    TRADE    HISTORY 


487 


A  Section  of  the  Gbeen  Coffee  District  of  New  Orleans 

Most  of  the  buildings  shown  here  are  occupied  by  green  coffee  importing  houses.     The  one  on  the  right 
with  the  balconies  is  the  old  Board  of  Trade  Building 


Dittmann  Co.  Since  his  death  in  1920,  the 
business  has  been  continued  by  F.  V.  Al- 
lain  and  Charles  Dittmann,  Jr. 

Green  Coffee  in  San  Francisco 

In  the  early  days  of  the  green  coffee  busi- 
ness in  San  Francisco  these  names  stood 
out  as  most  important  among  the  coffee  im- 
porters: Hellmann  Bros,  &  Co.,  Monte- 
alegre  &  Co.,  E.  L.  G.  S.  Steele  &  Co.,  and 
Urruella  &  Urioste. 

From  their  many  friends  in  Central 
America,  they,  and  others  in  their  line,  ob- 
tained small  consignments  that  were  bought 
by  the  roasters  according  to  their  imme- 
diate needs.  Often  as  many  as  five  or  six 
buyers  would  share  in  a  parcel  of  fifty 
bags,  as  they  were  not  in  the  custom  of  fil- 
ling up  the  larder  for  days  of  want.  There 
always  seemed  to  be  sufficient  for  every 
one,  and  bull  movements  and  corners  had 
not  then  become  the  vogue. 

Just  as  today,  the  mainstays  of  the  early 
San  Francisco  trade  were  coffees  produced 
in  Costa  Rica,  Salvador,  and  Guatemala,  al- 
though some  were  brought  from  the  Colima 
district  of  Mexico.  The  broker  had  a  com- 
paratively easy  job  in  selling  his  wares. 
Samples  of  the  lots  would  be  given  to  him 
in  carefully  sealed  glass  bottles,  and  usual- 


ly the  buyer  would  trust  his  discerning  eye 
to  judge  correctly  the  quality  of  the  goods, 
not  even  taking  the  trouble  to  uncork  the 
bottle.  Size,  color,  and  imperfections  would 
be  his  criterion. 

The  leading  coffee  importers  at  San 
Francisco  in  1875  were  B.  E.  Auger  &  Co., 
409  Battery ;  S.  A.  Carit  &  Co.,  405  Front 
Street ;  Hellman  Bros.  &  Co.,  525  Front 
Street :  Adolphe  Low  &  Co.,  208  California 
Street;  S.  C.  Merrill  &  Co.,  204  California 
Street;  Parrott  &  Co.,  306  California 
Street;  and  Urruella  &  Urioste,  405  Front 
Street. 

The  annual  consumption  of  green  coffee 
in  San  Francisco  in  the  early  eighties  was 
estimated  at  100,000  bags. 

A  marked  change  in  the  coffee  business 
of  San  Francisco  was  brought  about  by  the 
discovery  that  the  differences  in  the  taste 
of  coffees  could  not  be  accurately  detected 
from  their  color  or  from  the  size  of  bean. 
To  Clarence  E.  Bickford  belongs  the  credit 
of  having  discovered  the  cup  qualities  of 
high-grown  Central  American  coffees.  He 
was  employed  at  the  time  by  a  broker  named 
Hockhofler,  and  probably  did  not  realize 
what  far-reaching  effect  his  discovery 
would  have  on  the  future  of  San  Francis- 
co's coffee  trade;  but  no  other  factor   has 


488 


ALL     ABOUT     COFFEE 


contributed  so  much  to  its  growth.  When 
the  roasters  began  to  examine  coffees  for 
their  taste,  values  were  of  course  revolu- 
tionized. Antiguas,  and  other  high-grown 
coffees,  that  had  theretofore  been  penalized 
for  the  small  size  of  bean,  soon  brought  a 
premium,  and  have  ever  since  been  in  great 
demand,  it  goes  .without  saying  that  the 
new  classification  ,  was  of  material  assist- 
ance to  the  roasters  in  bettering  their  out- 
put, as  blending  was  th^n  put  on.  a  scien- 
tific basis. 

About  the  middle  of  the  nineties  San 
Francisco  began  to  function  as  a  distribut- 
ing center,  and  shipments  were  made  from 
there  to  St.  Loifis  and  Cincinnati.  The  se- 
lection of  coffees  on  their  oup  merit  M^as  un- 
doubtedly a  factor  of  considerable  import- 
ance in  creating  new  outlets ;  althoT|gh  it  is 
generally  conceded  that  the  winning  per- 
sonality of  C.  E.  Bickford  helped  consider- 
ably. Mr.  Bickford,  by  this  time,  had  suc- 
ceeded his  former  employer.  He  served  the 
trade  by  living  up  to  the  best  standards  of 
business  practise  until  his  death  in  1908; 
when  the  institution  he  founded  was  con- 


Califorxia  Street,  the  Coffee-Trading  Center 
OF  San   Francisco 


tinned  by  E.  H.  O'Brien  under  the  name 
of  C.  E.  Bickford  &  Co. 

San  Francisco  imported  175,293  bags  of 
coffee  in  1900.  Imports  had  grown  to  256,- 
183  bags  hy  1906 ;  and  the  following  were 
the  leading  importers,  as  taken  from  a  com- 
pilation by  C.  E.  Bickford  &  Co. : 

Importers  of  Coffee  by  Sea 
San  Francisco,  1906 

Bags 

Haas  Bros 38,947 

Otis,  McAllister  &  Co .34342 

.Tno.  T.  Wright 21J41 

Geo.  A.  Mooi*e  &  Co '  '  it'soI 

Castle   Bros 17^397 

Lastreto  &  Co :>*\  ..... .  Is'eOd 

Bloom  Bros [  14  372 

W.  R.  Grace  &  Co 14,143 

Baruch  &  Co 9,400 

Schwartz  Bros 7  310 

Dieckmann  &  Co 6*981 

H.  Hackfeld  &  Co.,  Ltd '..'.'.'.  4,460 

M.  J.  Brandenstein  &  Co 4,281 

Urioste  »&  Co 4081 

Goldtree,  X/iebes  &  Co 3,96'^ 

J.  Z.  Posadas s,9iiO 

Mohns-Frese  Com.  Co 3  714 

Welch  &  Co 3;385 

Thannhauser  &  Co 3,328 

E.  Mejia  [  2',965 

Hind,  Rolph  &  Co 2.814 

Hellmanii  Bros.  »&  Co 2^170 

Parrott  &  Co 2,137 

J.  A.  Folger  &  Co 2^094 

S.  L.  Jones  &  Co 2*042 

Ariza  &  Lombard 1^133 

Hamberger  -  Polhemus  Co lio96 

Theo.  H.  Davies  &  Co.,  Ltd 955 

Livierato  Freres 927 

J.  D.  Spreckels  &  Bros.  Co 828 

jMcCarthy  Bros 795 

W.  Loaiza  <&  Co 642 

Wm.  Halla 591 

H.  W.  Bnrmester 582 

Williams.  Diniond  &  Co 399 

M.  Phillips  &  Co 381 

Alexander  &  Baldwin 358 

London.  Paris  &  Am.  Bank,  Ltd 333 

P.  J.  Knudsen  Co 309 

Ballon  &  Cosgrove 300 

M.  Schweitzer  &  Co 300 

.Tohnson  -  Locke  Merc.  Co 270 

The  Lewin  -  Mej"er  Co 250 

Sperr.v  Flonr  Co 231 

Canadian  Bank  of  Commerce 200 

Porto  Rico  Coffee  Co 148 

McChesney  &  Sons 145 

Bowring  »Sk  Co 145 

China  &  Java  Export  Co 140 

John  Weissman 126 

Montealegre  &  Co 120 

W.  H.  Miller 109 

Maldonado  &  Co 105 

De  Fremery  &  Co 100 

Sundries   t583 

Total 256,183 


U.    S.    TRADE    HISTORY 


489 


Bird's  Eye  View  of  San  Fkancisco's  Coffee  District 


The  imports  of  green  coffee  at  San  Fran- 
cisco in  1914  - 15  amounted  to  about  400,- 
000  bags.  The  beginning  of  the  World  War 
was  almost  coincidental  with  an  energetic 
campaign  waged  by  San  Francisco  coffee 
interests  to  popularize  Central  American 
coffees,  an^  particularly  Guatemalas,  in 
this  country.  The  time  was  well  chosen,  as 
the  world's  exposition  at  San  Francisco  of- 
fered a  good  opportunity  to  acquaint  the 
public  with  the  fine  qualities  of  Guatemala 
growths.  Furthermore,  it  was  necessary  to 
create  new  markets  for  these  coffees,  which 
in  former  years  had  been  very  extensively 
used  in  Europe.  Figures  shQW  that  San 
Francisco's  efforts  were  crowned  with  suc- 
cess. In  1916,  the  importation  increased  by 
fifty  percent;  and  in  1917,  importations 
were  double  those  of  1915.  In  1918,  a  total 
of  nearly  1,000,000  bags  was  reached ;  and 
this  mark  was  passed  by  almost  200,000  in 
1919.  In  1920,  971,567  bags  were  imported. 

The  origin  of  San  Francisco's  fight  for 
control  of  Central  American    coffee    dates 


back  to  the  years  1908  to  1910,  when  the 
German  Kosmos  Line  was  fighting  the  Pa- 
cific Mail  for  the  Central  and  South 
American  shipping  business.  W.  R.  Grace 
&  Co.,  at  that  time,  were  already  the  heav- 
iest shippers  of  American  merchandise  to 
the  Latin-American  countries;  and  while 
their  own  steamers  were  not  touching  at 
Central  American  ports,  they  were  hand- 
ling merchandise  from  the  IJnited  States 
and  nitrates  from  the  South  American 
countries  in  their  own  bottoms,  and  were 
also  engaged  as  general  carriers  for  that 
trade.  The  fight  directed  by  the  Kosmos 
Line  against  the  Pacific  Mail,  which  at  that 
time  was  under  the  control  of  the  Southern 
Pacific  Company,  was  accordingly  directed 
against  the  Grace  interests  also,  so  far  as 
South  American  countries  were  concerned. 
The  fight  was  long  and  bitter,  and  costly  to 
both  sides.  At  times,  the  contenders  Of- 
fered to  take  freight,  not  only  without 
charge,  but  to  pay  the  shipper  a  premium 
for  the  privilege  of  carrying  his  freight. 


490 


ALL     ABOUT     COFFEE 


Differences  were  finally  settled  in  confer- 
ence; but  the  experience  taught  the  Amer- 
ican interests  that  they  could  survive  in 
any  territory  only  if  at  all  times  they  were 
able  to  provide  their  own  cargoes  for  their 
own  boats,  as  had  been  accoiiiplished  with 
nitrate  in  South  America.  J.  H.  Rosseter, 
the  Grace  manager,  who  later  became  well 
known  as  director  of  operations  of  the 
United  States  Shipping  Board  during  the 
war,  undertook  an  extended  trip  to  Central 
America  in  1912  to  study  the  situation  at 
close  range.  There  was  only  one  product 
of  Central  America  that  was  available  in 
cargo  quantities,  namely  coffee ;  and  natur- 
ally his  attention  was  drawn  to  the  possi- 
bility of  carrying  coffee  to  San  Francisco 
to  provide  return  cargoes  for  ships  of  the 
Pacific  Mail,  or  associated  lines,  carrying 
merchandise  for  the  Central  American 
countries. 

While  in  Guatemala,  Mr.  Rosseter  out- 
lined a  future  policy  in  regard  to  Cen- 
tral American  coffees;  the  basis  being  his 
firm  determination  that  coffees  grown  in 
Central  America,  and  logically  and  geo- 
graphically tributary  to  San  Francisco  dis- 
tribution, should  come  to  San  Francisco 
in  largely  increasing  quantities. 

Up  to  that  time  San  Francisco  had  re- 
ceived, on  an  average,  only  200,000  bags 
of  Central  American  coffee  annually  for 
the  ten  preceding  years ;  while  Europe  had 
received  about  1,500,000  bags  a  year.  The 
quantity  necessary  to  make  San  Francisco 
a  factor  would  call  for  an  importation,  on 
an  average,  of  750,000  bags  —  a  quantity 
almost  four  times  as  large  as  then  estab- 
lished. 

This  was  an  extremely  ambitious  under- 
taking, considering  the  conditions  then  pre- 
vailing in  Central  America.  European 
countries  were  firmly  entrenched  in  the 
coffee  business  in  Central  America,  with 
Germany  leading  in  Guatemala,  France  in 
Salvador  and  Nicaragua,  England  and 
France  contending  for  superiority  in  Costa 
Rica,  and  the  United  States  getting  only 
the  leavings. 

The  European  countries  held  their  po- 
sition in  the  Central  American  Coft'ee  trade 
by  liberal  financing,  and  a  thorough  knowl- 
edge of  the  varying  qualities  of  coffee  pro- 
duced on  the  different  plantations.  San 
Francisco,  the  only  important  port  in  the 
United  States  dealing  in  Central  American 
coffees,    had   neither   strong   financial    en- 


trenchment in  Central  America  nor  expert 
knowledge  of  coffee  quality.  Year  after 
year,  San  Francisco  merchants  had  depend- 
ed on  consignments  chosen  by,  the  con- 
signors. This  rendered  quality  selection  of 
coffees  by  the  importers  impossible. 

Rosseter,  being  primarily  a  steamship 
man,  tackled  the  proposition  from  the 
standpoint  of  transportation,  figuring  that 
if  he  could  establish  and  maintain  prefer- 
ential steamer  service  to  San  Francisco, 
and  steady  freight  rates,  a  great  step 
would  be  accomplished  toward  the  desired 
end.  This  led  to  his  interest  in  the  Pacific 
Mail  Company,  of  which  the  final  outcome 
was  his  present  position  as  vice-president 
of  the  reorganized  Pacific  Mail  Company, 
In  that  capacity  he  maintained,  practically 
throughout  the  entire  period  of  the  World 
War,  freight  rates  on  coffee  from  Central 
America  to  San  Francisco  that  gave  that 
Pacific  port  an  immediate  and  definite 
advantage. 

This  gave  merchants  in  San  Francisco 
the  chance  to  build  up  a  steady  trade,  and 
prevented  other  ports  in  the  United  States 
from  entering  into  serious  competition  with 
San  Francisco  as  a  distributing  point  for 
Central  American  coffees.  The  view  taken 
by  Rosseter  was  as  far-sighted  as  it  was 
broad.  He  argued  that  with  the  end  of 
the  war  there  would  be  no  strength  in  a 
scattering  distribution  of  Central  Ameri- 
can coffees  by  New  York,  New  Orleans,  and 
San  Francisco;' and  the  only  promise  of 
maintenance  of  the  business  for  the  United 
States  would  be  in  maintaining  unity  of 
distribution  in  one  port  of  the  United 
States,  namely  San  Francisco. 

The  first  year  open  to  European  compe- 
tition after  the  war  showed  that. San  Fran- 
cisco was  well  able  to  maintain  its  lead 
in  Central  American  coffees.  Today,  the 
mortgages  formerly  held  by  European  mer- 
chants on  the  native  coffee  plantations,  and 
the  control  thereby  of  the  produce  of  these 
plantations,  are  in  the  hands  of  American 
merchants;  and  what  is  more,  out  of  gen- 
eral merchandising  and  importing  by  mer- 
chants of  San  Francisco  there  have  devel- 
oped expert  coffee  departments  in  all  of 
the  larger  houses.  The  years  of  the  war 
brought  the  product  of  virtually  all  planta- 
tions in  Central  America  to  the  intimate 
knowledge  of  these  expert  coffee  depart- 
ments; and  today  the  advantage  that  Eu- 
rope  formerly   had  —  of  knowing  exactly 


U.    S.    TRADE    HISTORY 


491 


what  a  specific  plantation  produced  —  is 
possessed  by  San  Francisco  merchants. 

This  is  no  small  advantage  when  we  con- 
sider that  in  Guatemala  and  Costa  Rica, 
qualities  vary  from  plantation  to  planta- 
tion, and  that  often  on  adjoining  planta- 
tions there  is  from  three  to  five  cents  a 
pound  difference  in  quality,  from  the 
standpoint  of  cup  merit. 

One  can  not  buy  coffee  in  Central  Amer- 
ica as  in  Brazil,  as  these  countries  are  not 
highly  organized  commercially,  and  the  im- 
porters here  are  forced  to  assume  the  role 
of  the  Brazilian  commisario  and  banker. 
The  crop  has  to  be  financed  from  six  to 
nine  months  before  it  is  brought  to  the 
port;  and  the  securities  covering  such  ad- 
vances are  at  best  of  questionable  value, 
on  account  of  political  insecurity,  and  the 
ever-threatening  earthquakes,  and  the  un- 
certainty of  the  elements.  Distribution  of 
the  coffee  after  it  has  been  brought  to  San 
Francisco  also  involves  many  difficulties, 
notwithstanding  that  the  demand  is  good. 
This  will  be  better  realized  when  we  con- 
sider that  the  Pacific  coast,  from  Alaska 
to  Mexico,  and  eastward  as  far  as  the 
Eocky  Mountains,  embraces  a  population  of 
about  8,000,000,  whose  annual  consumption 
is  estimated  at  400,000  bags;  and  that,  as 
already  stated,  treble  that  quantity  was  im- 
ported to  San  Francisco  in  1919. 

In  1900,  ninety-nine  firms  were  engaged 
in  the  green  coffee  importing  business 
(some  were  roasters  also)  in  New  York; 
six  in  Philadelphia;  twenty-eight  in  San 
Francisco;  twelve  in  New  Orleans.  In 
1920,  there  were  two  hundred  and  sixteen 
in  New  York ;  thirty-one  in  San  Francisco ; 
fifteen  in  New  Orleans. 

Green  Coffee  Trade  Organizations 
Previous  to  the  organization  of  the 
roasters,  the  only  kind  of  coffee  organiza- 
tion in  this  country  of  more  than  local  im- 
portance was  the  New  York^  Coffee  Ex- 
change, which  came  into  existence  in  1881, 
the  organization  meeting  being  held  in  the 
offices  of  B.  G.  Arnold  &  Co.,  at  166  Pearl 
Street,  New  York.  The  Exchange  was  in- 
corporated December  7,  1881,  the  incor- 
porators being  Benjamin  Green  Arnold, 
Francis  B.  Arnold,  William  D.  Mackey, 
John  S.  Wright,  William  Sorley,  Joseph  A. 
O'Brien,  H.  Clay  Maddux,  C.  McCulloch 
Beecher,  Geo,  W.  Flanders,  and  John  R. 
McNulty.    B,  G.  Arnold  was  the  first  pres- 


ident. Soon  afterward,  rooms  were  rented 
and  fitted  up  for  trading  purposes  at  135 
Pearl  Street,  at  the  junction  of  Beaver  and 
Pearl  Streets,  and  only  two  blocks  away 
from  the  more  pretentious  structure  now 
housing  the  Coffee  Exchange.  Actual  trad- 
ing operations  did  not  begin  until  March 
7,  1882. 

The  New  York  Coffee  Exchange  was  the 
world's  first  coffee-trade  organization  of 
national  proportions.  Havre's  exchange 
was  inaugurated  in  1882,  under  the  name 
of  the  Coffee  Terminal  Market.  Five  years 
later,  coffee  exchanges  were  opened  in  Am- 
sterdam and  Hamburg;  while  the  ex- 
changes of  London,  Antwerp,  and  Rotter- 
dam did  not  come  into  existence  until  the 
year  1890.  The  exchange  in  Trieste,  Italy, 
was  organized  in  1905 ;  while  the  Coffee 
Trade  Association  of  London  was  started 
in  1916.  The  first  exchange  in  Santos  was 
started  in  1914. 

The  success  of  the  New  York  Coffee  Ex- 
change led  to  its  imitation  in  other  coffee 
ports  of  the  United  States.  Baltimore 
started  a  similar  organization,  early  in 
1883,  under  the  name  of  the  Baltimore  Cof- 
fee Exchange;  but  after  a  short  existence, 
it  petered  out.  New  Orleans  organized  a 
green  coffee  trading  association  in  1889, 
as  a  coffee  committee  of  the  Board  of 
Trade.  It  is  still  active.  The  Green  Cof- 
fee Association  of  New  Orleans,  Inc.,  which 
is  distinct  from  the  Coffee  Committee,  was 
established  January  7,  1920.  San  Fran- 
cisco did  not  have  a  trading  exchange  until 
1918,  in  which  year  the  Green  Ooffee  As- 
sociation of  the  San  Francisco  Chamber  of 
Commerce  began  operations. 

Growth  of  the  Coffee-Roasting  Trade 

The  wholesale  coffee  roasting  business  in 
the  United  States  seems  to  have  started  in 
the  closing  years  of  the  eighteenth  century. 
In  February,  1790,  a  ''new  coffee  manu- 
factory" began  business  at  4  Great  Dock 
Street,  New  York,  and  the  proprietor  an- 
nounced that  he  had  provided  himself  at 
considerable  expense  with  the  proper  uten- 
sils "to  burn,  grind  and  classify  coffee  on 
the  European  plan."  He  sold  the  freshly 
roasted  product  "in  pots  of  various  sizes 
from  one  to  twenty  weight,  well  packed 
down,  either  for  sea  or  family  use  so  as 
to  keep  good  for  twelve  months." 

A  second  roasting  plant  started  up  at 
232  Queen  Street,  New  York,  nearly  op- 


492 


ALL    ABOUT     COFFEE 


posite  the  governor's  house,  toward  the 
close  of  1790.  This  second  coffee  roasting 
plant  was  known  in  1794  as  the  City  Cof- 
fee Works.  James  Thompson  operated  a 
''coffee  manufactory"  at  25  Thames  Street 
in  1795.  In  this  year  there  was  also  the 
"Old  Ground  Coffee  Works"  in  Pearl 
Street,  formerly  Hanover  Square,  ''three 
doors  below  the  bank  at  number  110," 
operating  ' '  two  mills,  one  pair  French  burr 
stones"  but  no  orders  were  accepted  here 
for  less  than  six  pounds,  at  ' '  two  pence  ad- 
vanced from  the  roasting  loss." 

Other  coffee  manufactories  followed  in 
the  large  towns  of  the  new  states;  and,  al- 
ways, the  coffee  was  treated  "on  the 
European  plan."  This  meant  that  it  was 
"burnt  over  a  slow  coal  fire,  making  every 
grain  a  copper  color  and  ridding  it  all  of 
dust  and  chaff."  There  was  usually  a  dif- 
ference in  price  of  three  to  four  pence  a 
pound  between  the  green  and  roasted  prod- 
uct. Packages  of  roasted  coffee  under  the 
half-dozen  weight  were  sold  in  New  York 
in  1791  for  two  shillings  and  three  pence 
per  pound,  allowance  being  made  for  gro- 
cers at  a  distance.  In  those  days,  the  fav- 
orite container  was  a  narrow-mouthed  pot 
or  jar  of  any  size.  This  was  the  first  crude 
coffee  package.  In  retailing  the  product, 
cornucopias  made  of  newspapers,  or  any 
other  convenient  wrapping,  were  first  em- 
ployed ;  but,  with  the  introduction  of  paper 
bags  in  the  early  sixties,  the  housekeeper 
soon  became  educated  to  this  more  sanitary 
form  of  carry  package,  and  its  permanence 
was  quickly  assured. 

The  following  were  listed  in  Longworth  's 
Almanack  as  coffee  roasters  in  New  York  in 
1805 :  John  Applegate ;  Cornelius  Cooper ; 
Benjamin  Cutler,  104  Division  Street; 
George  Defendorf,  83  Chapel  Street;  Wil- 
liam Green;  Cornelius  Hassey,  14  Augustus 
Street;  Joseph  M'Ginley,  28  Moore  Street; 
John  W.  Shaw,  43  Oliver  Street;  John 
Sweeney,  Mulberry  Street;  Patience 
Thompson,  23  Thames  Street. 

Elijah  Withington  came  from  Boston  to 
New  York  in  1814.  He  set  up  a  coffee 
roaster  in  an  alley  behind  the  City  Hall 
and  engaged  a  big,  raw-boned  Irishman  to 
run  it.  This  was  the  beginning  of  a  coffee 
roasting  business  that  has  continued  until 
the  present  day.  Withington  dealt  in  Pad- 
ang  interiors,  Jamaica,  and  West  Indian 
coffees,  and  numbered   many   society    folk 


among  his  customers.  Withington 's  busi- 
ness removed  to  7  Dutch  Street  in  1829 : 
and  the  firm  became  Withington  &  Pine  in 
1830. 

The  roasted  coffee  business  in  New  York 
had  grown  to  such  proportions  in  1833  and 
gave  such  promise,  that  James  Wild  con- 
sidered it  a  good  investment  to  bring  over 
from  England  for  his  new  coffee  manufac- 
tory in  New  York  a  complete  power  ma- 
chinery equipment  for  roasting  and  grind- 
ing coffee.  There  was  also  an  engine  to 
run  it.  It*was  set  up  in  Wooster  Street  op- 
posite the  present  Washington  Square. 

Samuel  Wilde,  son  of  Joseph  Wilde,  of 
Dorchester,  Mass.,  came  to  New  York 
about  1840  to  make  his  fortune.  He  was  a 
young  man  with  vision ;  and  first  applied 
himself  with  diligence  to  the  hardware  and 
looking-glass  business.  When  he  found 
that  most  of  his  customers  were  theaters 
and  saloons,  his  religious  scruples  bade  him 
abandon  it,  which  he  did. 

Meanwhile,  in  1844,  Withington 's  pio- 
neer roasting  enterprise  had  admitted  Nor- 
man Francis  and  Amos  S.  Welch  as  gen- 
eral partners,  and  Samuel  and  Charles  C. 
Colgate  as  special  partners,  under  the  style 
of  Withington,  Francis  &  Welch.  It  so 
continued  until  1848,  when  Samuel  Wilde 
■ —  who  had  selected  the  coffee  business  as 
more  honorable  than  the  one  in  which  he 
started  —  was  admitted,  and  the  firm  be- 
came Withington  &  Wilde. 

Mr.  Withington  retired  in  1851,  and  Sam- 
uel Wilde  associated  with  him  in  the  busi- 
ness his  sons  Joseph  and  Samuel,  Jr.,  the 
title  becoming  Samuel  Wilde  &  Sons.  Sam- 
uel Wilde,  Sr.,  died  in  1862.  The  title 
then  became  Samuel  Wilde's  Sons.  Joseph 
Wilde  died  in  1878,  and  Samuel  Wilde,  Jr. 
in  1890,  the  business  being  left  to  and  con- 
tinuing with  a  younger  brother,  John,  from 
1878  to  1894,  when  John 's  son,  Herbert  W. 
Wilde,  became  a  member  of  the  firm,  which 
continues  the  old  title  at  466  Greenwich 
Street,  as  Samuel  Wilde's  Sons  Company, 
having  been  incorporated  in  1902.  John 
Wilde  died  in  1914. 

Another  grandson  of  Samuel  Wilde  is 
William  B.  Harris,  who  engaged  in  the  cof- 
fee roasting  business  in  Front  Street  from 
1904  to  1917.  From  1908  to  1918  he  acted 
as  coffee  expert  for  the  United  States  De- 
partment of  Agriculture.  William  B.  Har- 
ris is  a  son  of  Samuel  li.  Harris,  who  mar- 


U.    S.    TRADE    HISTORY 


PIONEERS  IN  .THE  ROASTED  COFFEE  BUSINESS  OF  NEW  YORK  CITY 

With  approximate  dates  of  their  entry  into  the  trade 


494 


ALL    ABOUT     COFFEE 


ried  a  daughter  of  Samuel.  Wilde,  and  who 
for  a  number  of  years  was  connected  with 
Samuel  Wilde's  Sons. 

Although  a  number  of  roasters  and 
grinders  for  family  use  were  patented  in 
the  United  States  in  the  first  half  of  the 
nineteenth  century,  the  coffee  merchants 
depended  almost  entirely  on  English  manu- 
facturers for  their  wholesale  equipment  un- 
til 1846,  when  James  W.  Carter  of  Boston 
brought  out  his  "pull-out"  roaster.  This 
machine,  and  others  like  it,  encouraged  the 
development  of  the  coffee-roastiiig  busi- 
ness, so  that  when  the  Civil  War  came,  cof- 
fee manufactories  were  well  scattered  over 
the  country.  The  demand  for  something 
better  in  coffee-machinery  equipment  was 
answered  by  Jabez  Burns  with  his  machine 
for  filling  and  discharging  without  mov- 
ing the  roasting  cylinder  from  the  fire. 

Among  the  early  grocery  concerns  in 
New  York  that  were  also  coft'ee  roasters 
were:  R.  C.  Williams  &  Co.,  starting  as 
Mott  &  Williams  in  1811,  changing  to  R.  S. 
Williams  &  Co.  in  1821,  to  Williams  &  Pot- 
ter in  1851,  and  to  its  present  title  in  1882 ; 
Acker,  Merrall  &  Condit  Co.,  founded  in 
1820;  Park  &  Tilford,  founded  in  1840; 
Austin,  Nichols  &  Co.,  founded  in  1855; 
and  Francis  H.  Leggett  &  Co.,  founded  in 
1870. 

There  were  twenty-one  ''coffee  roasters 
and  spice  factors"  in  New  York  in  184'8. 
Among  them  were :  Beard  &  Cummings. 
281  Front  Street;  Henry  B.  Blair,  129 
Washington  Street;  Colgate  Gilbert,  93 
Fulton  Street;  Wright  Gillies,  236  Wash- 
ington Street;  and  Withington,  Wilde  & 
Welch,  7  Dutch  Street.  In  this  year,  two 
coffee  importers,  fourteen  tea  importers, 
and  forty-one  tea  dealers  were  listed  in  the 
City  Directory. 

The  Directory  for  1854  listed  twenty- 
seven  coffee  roasters  and  spice  factors, 
among  them,  in  addition  to  the  above,  be- 
ing Peter  Haulenbeek,  328  Washington 
Street;  Levi  Rowley,  102  West  Street; 
William  J.  Stitt,  159  Washington  Street; 
and  George  W.  Wright,  79  Front  Street. 
In  those  days  not  all  the  wholesale  coffee 
factors  were  roasters;  there  was  much 
trade  roasting  by  a  few  large  plants. 

While  the  coffee-roasting  business  of 
Samuel  Wilde's  Sons  appears  to  be  the 
oldest  in  New  York,  having  descended  in  a 
practically  unbroken  line  from  1814,  sev- 


eral others  continued  considerably  past  the 
half -century  mark,  and  among  them  special 
mention  should  be  accorded  to :  Levi  Row- 
ley's  Star  Mills,  dating  back  to  1823; 
Beard  &  Cummings,  1834;  Wright  Gillies 
&  Bro.,  1840 ;  Loudon  &  Son,  the  Metropol- 
itan Mills,  1853;  and  the  Eppens  Smith 
Co.,  present  day  successors  of  Thomas 
Reid's  Globe  Mills  of  1855. 

The  Star  Mills  in  Duane  Street  became  a 
real  factor  in  the  wholesale  coffee-roasting 
business  on  Manhattan  Island  about  1823. 
At  a  later  date,  Levi  Rowley  secured  con- 
trol, and  under  his  able  direction  the  busi- 
ness flourished.  Benedict  &  Gaffney  bought 
the  Star  Mills  from  Rowley  in  1885.  A 
few  years  later  the  firm  became  Benedict 
&  Thomas,  then  Thomas  &  Turner,  and  fi- 
nally the  R.  G.  Thomas  Co.  R.  G.  Thomas 
sold  the  equipment  in  1920,  ending  the 
manufacturing  end  of  the  business  just 
about  a  century  from  the  time  it  started. 
Mr.  Thomas  is  now  with  Russell  &  Co.  Be- 
fore being  identified  with  the  Star  Mills, 
he  was  for  twenty  years  with  Packard  & 
James,  123  Maiden  Lane. 

While  still  a  lad  of  nineteen,  Wright 
Gillies  came  from  a  Newburgh  farm  in 
1838,  and  obtained  a  clerkship  in  a  tea 
store  in  Chatham  Street,  now  Chambers 
and  Duane  Street.  He  branched  out  for 
himself  in  the  tea  and  coffee  business  at 
232  Washington  Street  in  1840,  removing 
in  1843  to  236,  which  had  a  courtyard 
where  he  installed  a  horse-power  coffee 
roaster.  In  the  same  building,  over  the 
store,  lived  Thomas  McNeil  and  his  wife. 
Mr.  McNeil  afterward  became  a  member  of 
the  firm  of  Smith  &  McNeil,  proprietors  of 
the  Washington  Street  hotel'  and  restau- 
rant, for  many  years  one  of  New  York 
City's  landmarks. 

The  coffee  business,  thus  started  by 
Wright  Gillies,  is  still  conducted,  as  the 
Gillies  Coffee  Co.,  by  the  same  family  and 
at  practically  the  same  location;  and  it  is 
interesting  to  note  that  the  roasting  room 
still  has  the  original  arrangement,  partly 
below  the  street  level  but  with  the  machin- 
ery in  view  from  the  sidewalk.  This  ar- 
rangement was  characteristic  of  the  old 
roasting  establishments. 

James  W.  Gillies,  a  younger  brother, 
came  from  Newburgh  in  1848  to  assist  in 
the  enterprise.  Young  Gillies  superintend- 
ed the  horse-power  roaster  and   drove   the 


U.    S.    TRADE    HISTORY 


495 


1 

1 

3^ 

1 

"^        '»M%      ^,.       %.'^^ 

||^('%^ 

^ 

(iROUP  OF  OLD-TiiiE  New  York  Coffee  Roasters,  1892 

Standing,    left    to    rifrht.    W     11.    Eppens.    Fred    Reid.    unknown,    Julius    A.    Eppens,    Fred    Eppens.      Seated, 
left  to  right,  John  F.  Pupke,  Thomas  Reid,  Henry  Mayo,  Fred  Akers,  Alexander  Kirkland 


light  spring  delivery  cart.  Soon  the  firm 
became  Wright  Gillies  &  Bro.  Fires  visited 
the  business  in  1849  and  in  1858 ;  but  each 
time  it  arose  the  stronger  for  the  exper- 
ience. Wright  Gillies  retired  in  1884,  and 
James  W.  Gillies  assumed  entire  charge 
under  the  name  of  the  Gillies  Coffee  Co. 
He  continued  active  until  his  death  in 
1899.  The  business  was  incorporated  by 
his  children  under  the  same  name  in  1906. 

Edwin  J.  Gillies,  son  of  James  W.  Gil- 
lies, started  a  separate  coffee  b*usiness  at 
245  Washington  Street,  in  1882.  In  1883 
he  admitted  as  a  partner  James  H.  Schmel- 
zel,  a  fellow  Columbia  alumnus.  The  en- 
terprise was  successful  for  many  years, 
being  incorporated  under  the  title  of  Ed- 
win J.  Gillies  &  Co.,  Inc.  It  was  consoli- 
dated in  1915  with  the  business  of  Ross 
W.  Weir  &  Co.,  60  Front  Street,  Edwin  J. 
Gillies  becoming  a  vice-president  (with  L. 
S.  Cooper  also  vice-president)  of  the  cor- 
poration of  Ross  W.  Weir,  Inc. 

Burns  &  Brown  started  in  the  coffee 
roasting  business  in  1853  in  an  old  build- 


ing at  the  corner  of  Washington  and 
Chambers  Streets  for  which  they  paid  an 
annual  rental  of  one  thousand  dollars.  This 
was  the  beginning  of  the  Metropolitan 
Mills,  opposite  to  the  present  location  of 
Loudon  &  Son,  181  Chambers  Street,  the 
latest  successors  to  the  business.  Burns  & 
Brown  continued  for  two  years,  when  they 
failed,  and  Wright  Gillies  &  Bro.  suc- 
ceeded, and  put  in  Ebenezer  Welsh  as 
manager.  Later,  Wright  Gillies  &  Co.  sold 
out  the  plant  to  Capt.  Edward  C.  Russell, 
who  associated  with  him  his  son-in-law,  Ed- 
ward A.  Phelps,  Jr.  At  the  dissolution  of 
this  partnership  in  1870,  the  firm  became 
Trusdell  &  Phelps.  Mr.  Phelps  succeeded 
Trusdell,  and  sold  out  to  Loudon  &  Stell- 
wag  in  1877.  They  were  succeeded  by  Lou- 
don &  Johnson  in  1879.  and  this  firm  con- 
tinued until  1910,  when  James  D.  Johnson 
retired,  and  the  firm  of  Loudon  &  Son  took 
charge.  These  were  J.  Carlyle  Loudon  and 
his  son,  Howard  C.  Loudon,  who  died  in 
1911.  The  firm  name  of  Loudon  &  Son 
continues. 


496 


ALL     ABOUT     COFFEE 


One  of  the  most  vigorous  personalities  of 
the  sixties,  and  one  whose  influence  ex- 
tended well  into  this  generation,  was  Thom- 
as Reid.  Born  in  Bridgeport,  England,  he 
came  to  the  United  States  as  a  boy,  and 
started  his  business  career  as  a  grocer's 
clerk  in  Brooklyn.  Within  three  months 
after  landing,  he  bought  out  his  employer. 
He  entered  the  wholesale  coffee-roasting 
business  at  105  Murray  Street,  New  York, 
in  1855,  in  partnership  with  a  Mr.  Town- 
send  under  the  style  of  the  Globe  Mills, 
which  were  the  predecessors  of  the  Eppens 
Smith  Co.  now  in  "Warren  Street.  Jabez 
Burns,  inventor  of  the  Burns  coffee  roaster, 
before  this  a  teamster  for  Henry  Blair,  was 
at  one  time  bookkeeper  for  the  Globe  Mills. 
In  1864,  ]\Ir.  Burns  sold  to  the  Globe  Mills 
the  first  roasters  of  his  manufacture  —  two 
one-bag,  four-foot  machines  that  were  given 
a  place  alongside  of  four  of  the  old-style 
Carter  pull-outs. 

Mr.  Townsend  died  the  first  year  of  the 
Globe  Mills '  existence ;  and  Thomas  Reid 
continued  without  a  partner  until  1863, 
when  he  became  associated  with  John  F. 
Pupke,  as  Pupke  &  Reid.  The  business 
was  then  at  269  Washington  Street. 
Thomas  Reid  was  resourceful  and  enter- 
prising; also  he  had  vision.  He  saw  the 
day  of  package  coffee  coming,  and  nearly 
"beat"  John  Arbuckle  to  it.  As  early  as 
1861  we  find  him  advertising  in  the  City 
Directory,  ''spices  put  up  in  every  variety 
of  package. ' ' 

Lewis  A.  Osborn,  69  Warren  Street, 
New  York,  and  81  -  83  South  Water  Street, 
Chicago,  was  advertising  "  Osborn 's  Cele- 
brated Prepared  Java  Coffee  —  put  up  only 
by  Lewis  A.  Osborn"  in  1863  -  64.  Thomas 
Reid  appears  to  have  acquired  this  brand 
and  to  have  begun  its  exploitation  as  "  Os- 
born's  Old  Government  Java,"  a  ground 
package  coffee,  and  certainly  one  of  the 
earliest  package  coffees.  However,  this 
brand  never  attained  the  national  vogue 
achieved  by  John  Arbuckle 's  package  cof- 
fee, which  first  appeared  in  1865,  although 
the  name  Ariosa  was  not  given  it  until 
1873. 

Between  1855  and  1865  there  were  only 
half-a-dozen  wholesale  coffee  roasters  on 
Manhattan  Island,  and  Thomas  Reid  was 
their  leader.  Much  of  his  work  was  roast- 
ing for  the  trade,  and  this  undoubtedly  in- 
terfered with  the  logical  development  of  his 
package-coffee  ideas. 


The  firm  became  Pupke,  Reid  &  Phelps 
in  1882.  In  1885,  it  became  the  original 
Eppens-Smith  Co. ;  later,  the  Eppens, 
Smith  &  Wiemann  Co.,  and  lastly,  the  Ep- 
pens Smith  Co.  Thomas  Reid  was  vice- 
president  of  the  Eppens,  Smith  &  Wiemann 
Co.,  and  continued  in  that  position  until 
his  death  in  1902.  Julius  Eppens  is  the 
present  head  of  the  business. 

Other  package  coffees  of  the  sixties  were 
Government  coffee  put  out  by  Taber  & 
Place's  Rubia  Mills,  353-355  Washington 
Street,  in  ''tin  foil  pound  papers,"  and  L. 
Bruekmann  &  Co.'s  London  Club,  packed 
at  107  Warren  Street. 

Another  old-time  New  York  coffee-roast- 
ing business  is  that  of  Samuel  S.  Beard  & 
Co.  This  business  was  founded  in  1834  on 
Front  Street  by  Eli  Beard  (father  of  Sam- 
uel S.  Beard,)  and  W.  A.  Cummings  as 
Beard  &  Cummings.  In  1872,  the  firm 
moved  to  Duane  Street,  where  it  was  joined 
by  Messrs.  S.S.  Beard  and  Cottrell,  and  the 
new  firm  became  Beards  &  Cottrell.  Mr. 
Cottrell  retired  in  1883,  and  the  firm  be- 
came Samuel  S.  Beard  &  Co.  Upon  the 
death  of  S.  S.  Beard  in  1905,  James  H. 
Murray,  who  had  been  with  the  concern  for 
many  years,  became  head  of  the  house.  Mr. 
Murray  died  six  months  later.  The  busi- 
ness moved  in  1913  to  92  Front  Street, 
where  it  continues  as  a  stock  company,  with 
J.  R.  Westfal  as  manager. 

Austin  C.  Fitzpatrick,  well  known  among 
New  York  coffee  roasters,  is  a  graduate  of 
the  Thomas  Reid  school,  having  entered  the 
business  of  this  pioneer  roaster  in  1865.  He 
was  western  salesman  for  Pupke  &  Reid 
until  1871,  when  he  became  associated  with 
Rufus  G.  Story  under  the  firm  name  of  R. 
G.  Story  &  Co.  Later,  he  formed  a  part- 
nership with  Howard  E.  Case,  buying  out 
the  old  house  of  Beard  &  Howell.  When 
Mr.  Case  retired  in  1887,  the  firm  became 
A.  C.  Fitzpatrick  &  Co.  This  title  con- 
tinued for  twelve  years,  when  the  Knicker- 
bocker Mills  were  taken  over,  and  the  busi- 
ness was  incorporated  as  the  Knickerbocker 
Mills  Co.,  with  Mr.  Fitzpatrick  as  presi- 
dent. The  Knickerbocker  Mills,  acquired 
by  the  corporation,  had  been  founded  in 
1842  and  were  for  more  than  forty  years  at 
154  - 156  Chambers  Street.  The  business 
is  now  at  196  - 198  Chambers  Street. 

Many  of  the  pioneers  in  the  coffee  roast- 
ing business  of  this  country  were  men  who 
came  from  the  British  Isles  and  Germany, 


TRADE    HISTORY 


497 


Julius  A,  Eppens,  New  Youk 

A  notable  figure  from  the  latter  country 
was  Benedickt  Fischer,  who  knew  coffee  in 
Germany  before  coming  to  New  York  in  his 
nineteenth  year.  He  started  at  323  -  329 
Greenwich  Street,  near  Duane  Street,  in 
1859.  His  first  roaster  was  a  primitive  af- 
fair built  under  the  E.  J.  Hyde  patent  by 
the  Coffee  Roaster  &  Mill  Manufacturing 
Co.  of  Philadelphia.  It  was  turned  by 
hand  by  Fischer  and  his  helper.  This  wa? 
about  1862.  In  1864,  the  business  re- 
quired larger  quarters,  and  was  removed  to 
the  corner  of  Duane  and  Greenwich 
Streets.  A  new  plant  w^as  erected  at  the 
corner  of  Beach  and  Greenwich  Streets  in 
1894,  and  the  present  plant  w^as  erected  at 
the  corner  of  Franklin  and  Greenwich 
Streets  in  1906.  Upon  the  death  of  Bene- 
dickt Fischer  in  1903,  the  business  passed 
under  the  control  of  William  H.  Fischer, 
son  of  Benedickt,  and  Benedickt 's  son-in- 
law,  Charles  E.  Diefenthaler,  for  many 
years  associated  with  the  house.  At  pres- 
ent, the  company  is  a  corporation,  with 
C.  E.  Diefenthaler,  president ;  T.  F.  Diefen- 
thaler, vice-president  and  treasurer;  and 
T.  0.  Budenbach,  secretary. 

Bowie  Dash,  a  commanding  figure  in  the 
New  York  green  coffee  trade,  founded  the 
Holland  Coffee  Co.,  roasters,  in  1885.  He 
placed  H.  Bartow  in  charge.  Mr.  Dash 
himself  was  never  active  iu  the  affairs  of,, 
the    company.      J.    Bowie    Dash,     son     of 


Bowie  Dash,  entere{i  the  Holland  CbffeiB  Cov 
as  "a  boy.  Bowie  Dash  died  in  1894.  Mr. 
Bartow  left  the  Holland  Coffee  Co.  in  1897, 
and  J.  Bowie  Dash  became  president.  He 
sold  the  company  in  1917  to  S.  B.  Morri- 
son^ w^ho  consolidated  it  with  his  Esperanza 
Coffee  Co.  The  business  is  still  conducted 
as  the  Holland  Coffee  Co.,  with  Mr.  Morri- 
son as  president,  at  162  Front  Street. 

George  Fisher  was  a  well  known  coffee 
roaster  of  the  sixties.  He  began  in  the  old 
Hope  Mills,  71  Fulton  Street,  and,  at  the 
age  of  thirty,  entered  into  partnership  with 
D.  C.  Ripley,  establishing  the  Hudson 
Mills.  The  firm  became  Sanger,  Beers  & 
Fisher  in  1868 ;  Mr.  Fisher  retired  in 
1882 ;  and  died  in  1896. 

Peter  Haulenbeek  began  work  as  deliv- 
ery boy  in  a  grocery  store.  He  entered  the 
coffee  business  in  the  sixties  in  the  employ 
of  Wright  Gillies,  and  w^ent  into  the  whole- 
sale coffee-roasting  trade  under  his  own 
name  at  170  Duane  Street  in  1876.  His 
son,  John  W.  Haulenbeek,  Sr.,  came  into 
his  father's  business  in  1887.  Peter  Hau- 
lenbeek died  January  15,  1894,  and  the 
firm  name  was  changed  to  John  W.  Hau- 
lenbeek &  Co.  The  business  remained  in 
the  same  building  up  to  1916,  when  it  was 
moved  to  its  present  location  at  393  Green- 
wich Street.  John  W.  Haulenbeek,  Jr.,  of 
the  third  generation,  is  now  active  in  the 
business. 

A  leading  figure  in  the  sixties  was  James 
Browni,  who  started  as  an  engineer,  rose  to 
a  partnership,  and  retired  after  the  Civil 
War,  a  wealth v  man.  He  was  a  partner 
wdth  Thomas  Reid  in  the  old  Globe  Mills. 
He  was  also  associated  with  B.  Fischer  in 
the  firm  of  Fischer,  Kirby  &  Brown,  and 
established  the  firm  of  Brown  &  Scott  in 
Duane  Street,  where  Peter  Haulenbeek 
succeeded  to  the  business.  Afterward,  he 
continued  in  the  firms  of  Brown  &  Jones 
and  Bisland  &  Brown,  and  died  in  1898. 

Van  Loan,  Maguire  &  Gaffney  was  a  for- 
midable combination  in  the  coffee-roasting 
business  in  its  day.  Thomas  Van  Loan  was 
for  thirty  years  a  partner  in  the  firm  of 
W.  J.  Stitt  &  Co.  (William  J.  Stitt  was  in 
business  at  173  Washington  Street  in  the 
fifties).  Joseph  Maguire  was  a  practical 
spice  grinder.  Hugh  Gaffney  was  with 
Brown  &  Scott  until  the  firm  retired  in 
1879,  and  for  ten  years  thereafter  he  trav- 
eled for  B.  Fischer  &  Co.    Then  he  became 


498 


ALL    ABOUT     COFFEE 


Thomas   Van   Loan,   New   York 

a  member  of  the  firm  of  Benedict  &  Gaff- 
ney.  Ill  health  caused  his  temporary  re- 
tirement; but  he  returned  to  the  business 
in  1897  when  he  organized  the  firm  of  Van 
Loan,  Maguire  &  Gaffney.  Joseph  Maguire 
died  in  1904. 

Mr.  Gaffney  died  on  March  20,  1912,  and 
the  name  of  the  business  was  changed  to 
Van  Loan  &  Co.,  with  Thomas  Van  Loan 
as  the  head  of  the  business,  under  which 
name  and  management  it  still  continues  at 
64  North  Moore  Street. 

O'Donohue  is  a  well  known  name  in  the 
development  of  both  the  green  and  roasted 
coffee  trade  of  New  York  City.  John 
O'Donohue  was  a  leader  in  the  green  cof- 
fee business  in  1830.  It  was  John  0  'Dono- 
hue's  Sons  in  1873.  John  B.  O'Donohue, 
son  of  Peter  O'Donohue  and  grandson  of 
the  original  John,  after  leaving  John 
O'Donohue 's  Sons,  formed  a  partnership 
with  Eobert  C.  Stewart  (the  present  head 
of  R.  C.  Stewart  &  Co.)  to  engage  in  the 
green  coffee  jobbing  business  as  O'Donohue 
&  Stewart.  This  partnership  was  dissolved 
in  1893.  For  a  few  years,  John  0  'Donohue 
was  associated  with  the  coffee-roasting  firm 
of  Wing  Bros.  &  Hart.  About  1898,  he 
formed  the  O'Donohue  Coffee  Co.  at  284 
Front  Street.  In  1910,  this  was  consoli- 
dated with  the  Potter  Coffee  Co.  and  Ben- 


nett, Sloan  &  Co.  to  form  the  Potter,  Sloan, 
0  'Donohue  Co.  The  firm  dissolved  in  1915. 
Ellis  M.  Potter  came  to  New  York  from  the 
Potter-Parlin  Spice  Mills  in  Cincinnati. 
Mr.  0  'Donohue  died  in  1918. 

In  the  seventies  Frederick  Akers  was 
proprietor  of  the  oldest  and  best  known 
trade  roasting  establishment  in  New  York. 
The  plant  was  known  as  the  Atlas  Mills, 
and  was  at  17  Jay  Street.  Mr.  Akers  died 
in  1901.  The  same  year,  William  J.  Mor- 
rison and  Walter  B.  Boinest,  former  em- 
ployees of  Akers,  formed  a  partnership  to 
carry  on  the  same  kind  of  business  at  413 
Greenwich  Street.  It  is  still  at  that  ad- 
dress under  the  name  of  Morrison  & 
Boinest  Co. 

Col,  William  P.  Roome,  a  Chesterfieldian 
figure  among  New  York  coffee  roasters, 
came  into  the  trade  in  1876,  when  he  estab- 
lished the  firm  of  William  P.  Roome  &  Co., 
with  T.  L,  Vickers  as  partner.  In  the 
Civil  War  that  had  preceded,  young  Roome 
(he  was  then  nineteen)  had  distinguished 
himself  as  a  conspicuous  hero  of  the  Sixth 
Army  Corps,  having  entered  the  service  as 
a  second  lieutenant  in  the  Sixty-fifth  New 
York  Volunteers. 

William  P.  Roome  &  Co.  first  engaged 
in  the  importation  of  tea,  but  they  added 
coffee  to  the  business  in  1889.  Col.  Roome 
disposed  of  it  in  1903  to  assume  charge  of 
the  tea  and  coffee  department  of  the  Acker, 
Merrall  &  Condit  Company,  a  position 
which  he  still  holds. 

Frederick  A.  Cauchois,  another  pictur- 
esque figure  among  New  York  coffee  roast- 
ers, entered  the  trade  as  a  clerk  in  the  New 
York  office  of  Chase  &  Sanborn  in  1875. 
After  further  tutelage  under  Frank  Wil- 
liams in  the  coffee  brokerage  business,  he 
bought  the  old  Fulton  Mills  (Colgate  Gil- 
bert &  Co.,  1848),  in  Fulton  Street,  where 
he  did  some  of  the  most  original  advertising 
for  coffee  that  the  trade  has  seen.  His 
Private  Estate  coffee  in  little  burlap  bags, 
his  donkey  train  that  carried  the  bags  of 
green  coffee  through  the  streets  of  the  me- 
tropolis, his  system  of  delivering  fresh  cof- 
fee daily  to  the  grocery  trade,  and  his  Jap- 
anese paper  filter  device  to  insure  the 
proper  making  of  the  coffee,  made  him  fa- 
mous. He  brought  something  of  the  spirit 
of  the  old  English  coffee  house  to  America, 
and  incorporated  it  in  Keen's  Chop  House 
in  New  York.    He  died  in  1918. 


U.    S.    TRADE    HISTORY 


499 


The  business  of  Eussell  &  Co.  was 
founded  by  Robert  S.  Russell  &  Frank 
Smith  at  107  Water  Street  in  1875.  In 
1895,  S.  L.  Davis,  one  of  the  present 
owners,  formerly  with  Merrit  &  Ronald- 
son,  became  a  partner.  In  1900,  Frank  C. 
Russell,  son  of  the  senior  member,  was  ad- 
mitted to  a  partnership ;  and  upon  the 
death  of  his  father  in  1904,  he  and  Mr. 
Davis  became  owners  of  the  business. 

Ross  W.  Weir,  who,  in  addition  to  being 
a  successful  New  York  coffee  roaster,  has 
also  attained  prominence  as  president  of 
the  National  Coffee  Roasters  Association 
and  chairman  of  the  Joint  Coffee  Trade 
Publicity  Committee,  handling  the  million 
dollar  coffee  advertising  campaign,  was 
born  in  New  York  in  1859,  the  son  of  J.  B. 
Weir,  one  of  the  pioneer  forty-niners,  who 
at  one  time  was  engaged  in  the  export 
commission  business  in  San  Francisco. 

Mr.  Weir  began  his  business  career  as  a 
general  utility  boy  in  the  jobbing  grocery 
house  of  S.  H.  Williamson,  36  Broadway, 
New  York,  in  1875.  Then  he  was  a  clerk 
for  Park  &  Tilford,  office  man  with  Ar- 
buckle  Bros,  and  with  Geo.  C.  Chase  &  Co., 
tea  importers,  for  two  years,  afterward  be- 
ing admitted  to  a  junior  partnership.  In 
1886,  the  firm  of  Ross  W.  Weir  &  Co.  was 
formed  to  engage  in  the  roasting  of  coffee 
and  importing  and  jobbing  of  teas  at  105 
Front  Street.  In  1887,  the  business  was 
removed  to  58  -  60  Front  Street.  When  the 
corporation  of  Ross  W.  Weir,  Inc.  was 
formed  in  1915  to  take  over  the  business  of 
E.  J.  Gillies  &  Co.  Inc.,  Mr.  Weir  became 
president  and  treasurer  of  the  combined 
organization. 

Pioneer  Wholesale  Coffee  Roasters 

A  reference  to  other  pioneer^  in  the 
wholesale  coffee-roasting  trade  may  not  be 
amiss  here,  even  though  it  involves  a  repe- 
tition of  some  names  that  have  been  given 
special  mention  in  the  case  of  New  York. 
In  the  list  that  follows  are  included  the 
most  prominent  firms  and  the  best  known 
names  that  helped  make  roasted  coffee  his- 
tory in  the  United  States  in  the  nineteenth 
century,  particularly  from  1845  to  1900 : 

New  York.  The  most  prominent  firms 
in  the  business  in  New  York  in  the  sixties 
were:  Thomas  Reid  &  Co.,  Globe  Mills; 
Geo.  A.  Merwin  &  Co. ;  Levi  Rowley,  Star 
Mills;  A.  B.  Thorn;  Fischer  &  Lehmann, 
later    Fischer    &    Thurber,    and    Fischer, 


Col.  William  P.  Roome,  New  York 

Kirbv  &  Brown ;  Knickerbocker  &  Cooke ; 
A.  D.  Thurber ;  Wm.  J.  Stitt  &  Co. ;  Samuel 
Wilde's  Sons. 

In  the  seventies,  in  addition  to  most  of 
the  above  list,  there  were :  Pupke  &  Reid ; 
Arbuckle  Bros. ;  Edward  A.  Phelps,  Jr. ; 
Bonnett,  Schenck  &  Earle ;  Fischer  &  Lan- 
sing ;  J.  G.  Worth ;  Jackson  &  Co. ;  Charles 
Conway;  Neidlinger  &  Schmidt;  James  L. 
Arcularius;  S.  M.  Beard,  Sons  &  Co.  ; 
H.  K.  Thurber  &  Co.;  Wright  Gillies  & 
Bro. ;  Bennett  &  Becker ;  Great  American 
Tea  Co. ;  Brown  &  Scott. 

Between  1876  and  1900  the  following 
well  known  names  appeared  in  the  trade : 
Frederick  Akers ;  Eppens-Smith  Co.,  after- 
ward Eppens,  Smith  &  Wiemann  Co.,  and 
later  Eppens  Smith  Co. ;  B.  Fischer  &  Co. ; 
R.  P.  McBride;  Fitzpatrick  &  Case,  after- 
ward A.  C.  Fitzpatrick  &  Co. ;  Great  At- 
lantic &  Pacific  Tea  Co. ;  Loudon  &  John- 
son; Edwin  Scott;  Peter  Haulenbeek, 
afterward  Haulenbeek  &  Mitchell,  and 
Haulenbeek  Roasting  &  Milling  Co. ;  Joseph 
Stiner  &  Co. ;  Austin,  Nichols  &  Co. ;  Ben- 
nett, Sloan  &  Co. ;  Gillies  Coffee  Co. ;  Bene- 
dict &  Gaffney,  afterward  Van  Loan, 
Maguire  &  Gaffney ;  Ross  W.  Weir  &  Co. ; 


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ALL     A  B  OUT     COFFEE 


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U.    S.    TRADE    HISTORY 


501 


Union  Pacific  Tea  Co. ;  Hillis  Plantation 
Co. ;  Edwin  J,  Gillies  &  Co, ;  Jones  Bros.  ; 
Holland  Coffee  Co. ;  Samuel  Crooks  &  Co.  ; 
Benedict  &  Thomas. 

Boston.  Among  the  pioneers  in  the  cof- 
fee-roasting business  in  Boston  were :  N. 
Berry  &  Sons ;  Blanchard  &  Bro. ;  Carter, 
Mann  &  Co. ;  Noah  Davis  &  Co. ;  Dyer  & 
Co. ;  E.  Emerson ;  Flint  Bros.  &  Co. ;  eT.  T. 
&  N.  Glines;  Hay  ward  &  Co.;  Geo.  W.  Hig- 
gins  &  Co.;  Hill,  Dwinell  &  Co.;  H.  B. 
Newhall;  Eichardson  &  Lane;  N.  Robinson 
&  Co. ;  Russell  &  Fessenden ;  Stickney  & 
Poor;  E.  H.  Swett;  the  Tremont  Coffee  & 
Spice  Mills ;  Swain,  Earle  &  Co. ;  and  the 
Martin  L.  Hall  Co. 

Between  1876  and  1900  these  names  were 
among  those  added :  Shapleigh  Coffee  Co. ; 
Gilman  L.  Parker;  W.  S.  Quinby  &  Co.; 
Thomas  Wood  &  Co. 

Dwinell  &  Co.  and  Hayward  &  Co.  both 
engaged  in  the  coffee  roasting  business 
about  1845.  In  1876,  they,  James  F.  Dwi- 
nell, Martin  Hayward,  and  his  brother-in- 
law  George  C.  Wright,  joined  hands  under 
the  name  of  Dwinell,  Hayward  &  Co. 
In  1894,  Mr.  Hayward  having  pre- 
viously retired,  the  name  of  the  firm 
was  changed  to  Dwinell,  Wright  &  Co. 
Mr.  Dwinell  died  in  1898 ;  and  in  1899,  Mr. 
Wright  formed  a  Massachusetts  corpora- 
tion under  the  present  name,  Dwinell- 
Wright  Co.  George  C.  Wright  died,  1910, 
and  his  son,  George  S.  Wright,  who  had 
been  treasurer,  became  president.  A  grand- 
son, Warren  M.  Wright,  and  a  nephew,  G. 
E.  Crampton,  together  with  R.  O.  Miller 
and  Charles  H.  Holland,  are  active  in  the 
present  conduct  of  the  business. 

Caleb  Chase  with  Messrs.  Carr.and  Ray- 
mond founded  the  firm  of  Carr,  Chase  & 
Raymond  at  32  Broad  Street  in  1864.  The 
name  was  changed  to  Chase,  Raymond  & 
Ayer  in  1871.  James  S.  Sanborn,  who  had 
formerly  been  in  the  coffee  and  spice  trade 
at  Lewiston,  Me.,  with  a  branch  office  in 
Boston,  combined  with  Caleb  Chase  to 
form  Chase  &  Sanborn  in  1878.  Charles  D. 
Sias  was  admitted  to  the  firm  in  1882.  A 
Montreal  office  was  opened  in  1884. 
Charles  E.  Sanborn,  son  of  James  S.,  was 
admitted  in  1888.  James  S.  Sanborn  died 
in  1903,  and  Charles  E.  Sanborn  died  two 
years  later.    Charles  D.  Sias  died  in  1913. 

Swain,  Earle  &  Co.  were  established  about 
1868.    In  the  same  year,  Byron  T.  Thayer 


entered  the  employ  of  the  firm  as  a 
bookkeeper.  He  was  taken  into  partnership 
in  1884,  and  upon  the  death  of  Mr.  Earle, 
became  managing  partner.  In  1915,  he  was 
the  sole  surviving  partner  of  the  company. 
He  died  in  the  latter  part  of  1921 :  and  the 
business  was  absorbed  by  Alexander  H, 
Bill  &  Co.  in  January,  1922. 

Philadelphia,  The  following  were  the 
most  prominent  Philadelphia  coffee  roast- 
ers in  1861 :  Grever  &  Bro. ;  Henry  Hinkle ; 
William  Johnston ;  George  Kelly ;  Thornley 
&  Ryan ;  Thornley  &  Bro. ;  Vankorn,  Gug- 
genheimer  &  Co.;  D.  J.  Chapman;  Bohler 
&  Weikel;  Charles  Kroberger;  and  James 
R.  Webb  &  Son. 

Later  came :  Robert  J.  Rule  &  Bro. ;  G. 
Boyd  &  Co. ;  Nutrio  Mfg.  Co. ;  C.  J.  Fell  & 
Bro.;  R.  R.  &  A.  Deverall ;  C.  Thomas; 
William  H.  Cheetham,  Jr.;  Hill  &  Thorn- 
ley ;  George  Ogden  &  Co. ;  Weikel  &  Smith  ; 
and  Alexander  Sheppard. 

Between  1876  and  1900  these  names  ap- 
pear; Henry  A.  Fry  &  Co.;  Robert  Smith 
&  Sons ;  B.  S.  Janney,  Jr.  &  Co. ;  and  Wei- 
kel &  Smith  Spice  Co. 

Robert  Smith  came  as  a  country  lad  to 
Philadelphia,  and  drove  a  wagon  for  Jesse 
Thornley,  a  coffee  roaster.  In  a  few  years, 
he  had  secured  an  interest  in  the  firm ;  and 
in  1860,  the  name  was  changed  to  Thornley 
&  Smith.  Mr,  Thornley  died  in  1872,  and 
Mr.  Smith  bought  out  the  Thornley  inter- 
ests and  traded  as  Robert  Smith  until  1889. 
In  that  year,  he  admitted  his  eldest  son, 
Robert  A.  Smith,  into  the  firm,  which  be- 
came Robert  Smith  &  Son.  William  T., 
another  son,  was  admitted  in  1889,  the  firm 
name  being  changed  again  to  Robert  Smith 
&  Sons.  Robert  Smith,  Sr.,  retired  in  1902. 
In  the  same  year  his  youngest  son,  George 
H.  Smith,  was  admitted  to  the  firm,  and  it 
became  Robert  Smith's  Sons,  the  active 
members  being  William  T.  and  George  H. 
Smith. 

James  R.  Webb  established  the  coffee 
roasting  business  of  James  R.  Webb  &  Son 
in  1833.  It  was  taken  over  by  Alexander 
Sheppard  in  1870.  Later  it  became  Alex. 
Sheppard  &  Sons,  Inc.  Mr.  Sheppard  died 
in  1916,  and  the  business  has  been  con- 
ducted by  a  corporation  in  which  his  four 
children  are  the  principal  stockholders. 

Chicago.  Some  pioneers  in  the  Chicago 
trade  were:  Alfred  H.  Blackall;  Excelsior 
Mills  (Downer  &  Co.)  ;  Huntoon  &  Towner; 


502 


ALL     ABOUT     COFFEE 


W.  F.  McLaughlin ;  Knowles,  Cloyes  &  Co. ; 
Thomson  &  Taylor ;  H.  F.  Griswold ;  G.  M. 
Hall ;  John  L.  Davies  &  Co. ;  Bell,  Conrad 
&  Webster ;  Sprague,  "Warner  &  Co. ;  Lee  & 
Murbaeh ;  A.  Stephens  &  Co. ;  and  Whiting, 
Goeble  &  Co. 

In  the  period  between  1876  and  1900  the 
following  became  well  known:  Sprague, 
Warner  &  Griswold;  Reid,  Murdoch  & 
Fischer;  E.  B.  Millar  Spice  Co.;  Wm.  M. 
Hoyt  Co.;  Franklin  MacVeagh  &  Co.; 
Sherman  Bros.  &  Co. ;  H.  C.  &  C.  Durand ; 

A.  H.  Pratt ;  McNeil  &  Higgins  Co. ;  J.  H. 
Bell  &  Co.;  J.  H.  Conrad  &  Co.;  Steele- 
Wedeles  Co. ;  Krag-Reynolds  Co. ;  Arbuckle 
Bros.,  and  Puhl-Webb  Co. 

H.  C.  Durand  organized  the  wholesale 
grocery  house  of  Durand  &  Co.  in  1851. 
Calvin  Durand  entered  the  firm  in  1879, 
and  the  name  was  changed  to  H.  C.  &  C. 
Durand.  Adam  J.  Kaspar  began  to  work 
in  a  retail  grocery.  In  1875,  he  went  with 
the  wholesale  grocery  firm  of  James  For- 
sythe  &  Co.  and  two  years  later  with  H.  C. 
&  C.  Durand.  In  1894,  the  name  was 
changed  to  Durand  &  Kasper.  H.  C.  Dur- 
and died  in  1901,  and  Calvin  Durand  died 
in  1911.  Durand  &  Kasper  merged,  1921, 
with  Henry  Horner  &  Co.  and  McNeil  & 
Higgins  into  the  Wholesale  Grocers  Corpo- 
ration. 

Samuel  A.  Downer  founded  the  Excel- 
sior Mills  (Downer  &  Co.)  in  1853.  Sidney 
O.  Blair  entered  the  employ  of  the  com- 
pany in  1871.  E.  B.  Millar  &  Co.  took  over 
the  business  in  1878,  incorporating  under 
that  name  in  1882.  Mr.  Blair  retired  in 
1913,  and  W.  S.  Rice  was  elected  president. 
He  died  in  1918,  and  Mr.  Blair  was  re- 
elected president;  with  W.  C.  Shope,  vice- 
president  ;  and  C.  S.  Mauran,  secretary  and 
treasurer. 

In  the  spring  of  1862,  Albert  A.  Sprague 
came  to  Chicago  from  Vermont.     With  Z. 

B.  Stetson  he  formed  the  firm  of  Sprague 
&  Stetson,  wholesale  grocers.  Mr.  Stetson 
retired  the  following  year,  and  a  new  part- 
nership was  formed  with  Ezra  J.  Warner, 
under  the  name  of  Sprague  &  Warner.  In 
1864,  0.  S.  A.  Sprague,  a  young  brother  of 
the  senior  partner,  was  admitted  to  the 
firm,  which  was  reorganized  under  the 
style  of  Sprague,  Warner  &  Co.  Under  this 
name  it  has  since  continued.  About  the 
year  1876,  machinery  was  installed,  and  the 
roasting  of  coffee  began.  Oscar  Remmer 
entered  the  employ  of  the  company  in  1878 


at  the  age  of  16,  and  became  manager  of 
the  mill  department  in  1895.  In  1912,  he 
was  made  a  member  of  the  board  of  direc- 
tors, and  was  elected  vice-president  in  1919. 
0.  S.  A.  Sprague  died  in  1909,  Ezra  J. 
Warner  Sr.  in  1910,  and  Albert  A.  Sprague 
in  1915. 

In  1865,  A.  M.  Thomson,  at  that  time  a 
salesman  for  A.  H.  Blackall,  owner  of  the 
American  Mills,  arranged  with  a  Mr.  Berg 
and  a  Mr.  Davis  to  go  in  the  coffee-roasting 
business  with  him  as  Berg,  Thomson  & 
Davis.  After  a  year,  however,  the  name  be- 
came A.  M.  Thomson.  James  Thomson,  a 
brother,  came  into  the  firm  in  1868,  and  it 
was  then  called  A.  M.  &  James  Thomson. 
A  year  later,  it  became  A.  M.  Thomson 
again.  In  1872,  immediately  after  the  fire, 
Mr.  Taylor,  a  member  of  the  firm  of  Whit- 
ing &  Taylor,  joined  Mr.  Thomson  undei 
the  firm  name  of  Thomson  &  Taylor.  They 
continued  the  business  under  this  name 
about  ten  years,  until  it  was  incorporated 
in  1883  under  the  name  of  Thomson  & 
Taylor  Spice  Co.  Among  the  wholesale 
grocers  who  became  stockholders  at  that 
time  was  W.  S.  Warfield,  of  Quincy,  111., 
who,  in  1901,  with  his  son,  John  D.  War- 
field,  bought  most  of  Mr.  Thomson's  hold- 
ings and  obtained  a  controlling  interest. 
The  name  was  changed  in  1920  to  the 
Thomson  &  Taylor  Co. 

William  F.  McLaughlin  founded  the  firm 
of  W.  F.  McLaughlin  &  Co.  in  1865.  He 
died  in  1905;  and  the  business  was  incor- 
porated with  his  son,  George  D.,  as  presi- 
dent, and  another  son,  Frederick,  as  secre- 
tary and  treasurer. 

The  Puhl-Webb  Company,  founded, 
1882,  as  a  partnership  by  Thomas  J.  Webb 
and  John  Puhl,  was  incorporated  in  1896. 

St.  Louis.  The  following  were  among  the 
pioneer  coffee  firms  of  St.  Louis,  dating 
back  to  the  1860  -  70  decade :  James  H. 
Forbes ;  Flint,  Evans  &  Co. ;  Wm.  Schotten 
&  Co. ;  Fred  W.  Meyer ;  H.  &  J.  Menown ; 
Cavanaugh,  Rearick  &  Co.;  and  Frederick 
A.  Churchill  &  Co. 

From  1876  to  1900  there  were  added; 
Nash,  Smith  &  Co.;  Fink  &  Nasse  Co.; 
Hanley  &  Kinsella  Coffee  &  Spice  Co.; 
Flugel  &  Popp ;  C.  F.  Blanke  Tea  &  Coffee 
Co. ;  Steinwender,  Stoffregen  &  Co. ;  David 
G.  Evans  &  Co. ;  and  the  Aroma  Coffee  & 
Spice  Co. 

David  Nicholson  established  a  tea  and 
coffee  business  under  the    name    of    the 


U.    S.    TRADE    HISTORY 


503 


I 


Franklin  Tea  Warehouse  in  1853.  A  year 
later,  James  H.  Forbes,  born  in  Kinross, 
Scotland,  bought  out  Nicholson.  In  1857, 
A.  E.  Forbes,  his  son,  came  into  the  store 
after  school  hours,  and  was  admitted  to 
partnership  in  1870.  The  retail  end  of  the 
business  was  dropped  in  1880,  Robert  M., 
the  3'ounger  son  of  James  H.,  was  taken 
into  the  firm  a  few  years  after  A.  E. 
Forbes.  James  H.  Forbes  died  in  1890, 
and  the  business  has  since  been  carried  on 
by  his  sons  as  the  James  H.  Forbes  Tea  & 
Coffee  Co.  James  H.  Forbes  installed  the 
first  Burns  roaster  in  St.  Louis,  and  always 
claimed  to  have  been  the  first  man  to  roast 
coffee  in  the  middle  west. 

William  Schotten  began  his  roasting 
business  in  1862,  although  he  had  been  in 
the  grocery  business  since  1847.  A  short 
time  later,  a  brother,  Christian  Schotten, 
came  to  the  United  States  from  Germany 
and  was  admitted  to  partnership,  the  firm 
becoming  William  Schotten  &  Bro.  Chris- 
tian died  in  1866,  and  a  brother-in-law, 
Henry  Verborg,  was  admitted,  the  name 
being  changed  to  William  Schotten  &  Co. 
William  died  in  1874,  and  the  business  de- 
volved upon  his  eldest  son,  Hubertus.  In 
1878,  another  son,  Julius  J.,  was  taken  in 
at  the  age  of  17.  Hubertus  died  in  1897, 
and  Julius  became  manager  and  sole  pro- 
prietor. He  died  in  1919.  Since  that  time, 
his  son,  Jerome  J.,  has  carried  on  the  busi- 
ness, which  continues  under  the  name  of 
the  Wm.  Schotten  Coffee  Co. 

The  firm  of  David  G.  Evans  &  Co.  was 
founded  in  1856  by  David  G.  Evans  under 
the  style  of  Flint,  Evans  &  Co.,  changed  in 
1870  to  David  G.  Evans  &  Co.  David  G. 
Evans  died  in  1916,  and  the  nafne  of  the 
company  was  changed  in  1917,  to  the  Da- 
vid G.  Evans  Coffee  Co.,  with  Gwynne 
Evans,  a  son  of  David  G.,  as  president  of 
the  corporation. 

The  George  Nash  Grocery  Co.  bought 
the  Eagle  Coffee  and  Spice  Mills  from  the 
estate  of  Mathew  Hunt  in  1870.  About  this 
time  Michael  E.  Smith,  who  had  been  with 
the  concern  for  a  number  of  years,  was 
made  a  partner.  The  firm  was  incorpo- 
rated in  1887  as  the  Nash-Smith  Tea  & 
Coffee  Co.    George  Nash,  Sr.,  died  in  1910. 

Cincinnati.  Among  the  pioneer  coffee 
roasters  in  Cincinnati  were :  John  C.  Ap- 
penzeUer ;  Blook  &  Varwig ;  J.  Brock ;  Cin- 


cinnati Spice  Mills;  Eagle  Spice  Mills; 
Harrison  &  Wilson ;  Parker  &  Dixon ;  Kil- 
gour  &  Taylor;  J.  M.  Krout;  Succop  & 
Lips;  and  H.  R.  Droste. 

After  the  centennial  year  and  previous 
to  1900,  the  following  names  were  added: 
Potter  &  Parlin;  James  Heekin  &  Co.; 
Flugel  &  Popp ;  Utter,  Adams  &  Ellen ;  J. 
Henry  Koenig  &  Co. ;  F.  W.  Hinz ;  and  the 
Woolson  Spice  Co. 

D.  Y.  Harrison,  then  thirty-five  years 
old,  came  from  Newark,  N.  J.,  and  settled 
in  Cincinnati  in  1843,  opening  a  coffee 
roasting  business  as  Harrison  &  Wilson. 
He  used  an  old  pull-out  roaster  with  first 
a  negro,  and  then  a  horse-power  tread-mill, 
for  power.  A  few  years  later,  W.  H.  Har- 
rison, a  son  of  the  founder,  was  admitted  to 
the  firm,  the  name  at  that  time  being  Par- 
ker &  Harrison.  D.  Y.  Harrison  died  in 
1872.  Fire  totally  destroyed  the  plant  in 
1875.  W.  H.  Harrison  then  formed  a  part- 
nership with  J.  W.  Utter,  and  started  in 
again.  He  sold  out  to  his  partner  in  1883 
and  went  in  business  for  himself  as  W.  H. 
Harrison  &  Co.  D.  Y.  Harrison  is  said  to 
have  been  the  first  man  to  roast  coffee  west 
of  Pittsburg. 

The  Heekin  Company  was  established  in 
1870  by  James  Heekin  and  Barney  Corbett 
as  a  partnership  under  the  name  of  Cor- 
bett &  Heekin.  In  a  short  time,  Corbett 
died;  and  the  name  of  the  firm  was  then 
changed  to  James  Heekin  &  Co.  Alexander 
Stuart  was  admitted  to  the  partnership 
about  1883,  and  retired  four  years  later. 
James  J.  Heekin,  older  son  of  James  Hee- 
kin, was  admitted  to  partnership  in  1892. 
Charles  Lewis,  after  twenty  years'  experi- 
ence in  the  coffee  trade  in  Louisville,  Cin- 
cinnati, and  New  York,  was  admitted  to 
the  firm  in  1895.  James  Heekin  died  in 
1904.  Upon  his  death,  a  corporation  was 
formed  under  the  name  of  the  James  Hee- 
kin Company,  with  Charles  Lewis  as  pres- 
ident, continuing  until  he  retired  in  1919. 
In  this  year  a  new  corporation,  called  the 
Heekin  Company,  was  formed,  taking 
over  the  business  of  the  James  Heekin 
Co.  and  the  Heekin  Spice  Co.,  the  latter 
having  been  organized  in  1899.  James  J. 
Heekin  was  chosen  president  of  the  new 
company,  with  Albert  E.  Heekin,  vice- 
president  ;  and  Robert  E.  Heekin,  secretary 
and  general  manager. 


504 


ALL     ABOUT     COFFEE 


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U.    S.    TRADE    HISTORY 


505 


Louisville.  Pioneers  in  this  early  cen- 
ter of  coffee  roasting  in  the  south  were : 
Thornton  &  Hawkins;  Charles  J.  Bouche; 
H.  N.  Gage;  A.  Engelhard;  and  Jacob 
Zinsmeister. 

R.  J.  Thornton  &  Co.  were  founded  in 
1837  by  Richard  J.  Thornton  and  Thomas 
Hawkins,  as  Thornton  &  Hawkins.  Thorn- 
ton died  in  1860.  His  interests  remained, 
but  the  firm  changed  to  Hawkins  &  Thorn- 
ton. Hawkins  died  in  1877,  and  Mrs. 
Thornton,  having  purchased  the  Hawkins 
interest,  ran  the  business  as  R.  J.  Thorn- 
ton &  Co.  until  her  death  in  1885.  John 
Hayes,  her  son-in-law,  then  bought  the 
company;  and  when  he  died  in  1904,  his 
widow  ran  the  business  with  Thomas  A. 
Crawford  as  manager.  Mrs.  Hayes,  the 
last  of  the  Thornton  family,  died  in  1919, 
and  her  interests  were  sold  to  Crawford 
and  R.  H.  Dorn,  an  old  employee.  The  firm 
first  roasted  coffee  about  1846.  It  is  in- 
teresting to  note  that  the  plant  has  occu- 
pied the  present  site  since  its  founding, 
eighty-four  years  ago. 

Albert  Engelhard,  Sr.,  founded  in  1855 
a  wholesale  grocery  house  which  later  be- 
came A.  Engelhard  &  Sons,  Inc.  In  1879, 
George;  in  1882,  Victor  H. ;  and  in  1883, 
Albert,  Jr.;  all  sons  of  the  founder,  en- 
tered the  business.  Upon  moving  into 
larger  quarters  in  1890,  all  of  the  sons  were 
taken  in  as  partners.  Albert  Engelhard, 
Sr.,  retired  in  1892,  and  the  management 
was  assumed  bv  Victor  H.  The  business  in- 
creased rapidly,  and  in  1897  the  firm 
moved  to  its  present  location.  Incorporated 
in  1901,  the  wholesale  grocery  end  was 
abandoned  in  1903,  and  the  concern  be- 
came a  strictly  coffee,  tea,  and  spice  house. 
Victor  H.  Engelhard  died  in  19t8 ;  and  his 
sons,  Victor,  Jr.,  and  R.  W.  Engelhard, 
who  had  been  in  the  business  for  several 
years,  assumed  active  management.  Victor 
Engelhard,  Sr.,  was  prominent  in  coffee  af- 
fairs and  in  the  early  work  of  the  National 
Coffee  Roasters  Association. 

Jacob  Zinsmeister,  of  J.  Zinsmeister  & 
Sons,  was  another  old-time  Louisville  coffee 
man.  Before  he  started  roasting,  he  was  a 
big  factor  in  the  green  coffee  trade.  The 
business  was  established  in  1866  at  New 
Albany,  Tnd.,  by  Frank  Zinsmeister,  Sr., 
but  was  later  moved  to  Louisville.  Jacob 
Zinsmeister  was  taken  into  the  business  in 
1872,  and  the  name  was  changed  to  Frank 
Zinsmeister  &  Son.     He  is  still  active  in 


business,  although  he  has  turned  the  man- 
agement over  to  his  three  sons. 

New  Orleans.  Men  and  firms  active  in 
early  coffee  roasting  in  New  Orleans  were: 
Shaw's  Louisiana  Coffee  and  Spice  Mills ; 
Ruliff,  Clark  &  Co.;  R.  Poursini  &  Co.; 
and  Smith  &  McKenna, 

Between  1876  and  1900  were  added :  New 
Orleans  Coffee  Co. ;  Smith  Bros.  &  Co. ; 
Southern  Coffee  Polishing  Mills;  and  Cage 
&  Drew. 

Smith  Bros.  &  Co.  were  organized  in  1863 
as  Smith  &  McKenna.  Mr.  McKenna  died 
in  1872,  and  the  firm  name  was  changed  to 
Smith  Bros.  &  Co.  The  two  Smith  brothers 
died  in  1891,  and  1892.  About  1900,  the 
name  became  Smith  Bros.  &  Co.,  Ltd.,  and 
J.  B.  Sinnot,  who  had  been  employed  for  a 
number  of  years  by  the  firm,  gained  con- 
trol. The  company  failed  in  1913.  Mr. 
Sinnot  then  entered  the  coffee  brokerage 
business,  in  which  he  remained  until  his 
death  in  1917. 

Born  in  New  Orleans  in  1865,  Daniel  H. 
Hoffman  started  work  as  a  sample  clerk  in 
the  office  of  E.  P.  Cottraux,  who  was  at 
that  time  the  only  coffee  broker  in  New 
Orleans.  In  1887,  Mr.  Hoffman  started  in 
business  for  himself.  In  1894,  he  opened 
the  Southern  Coffee  Polishing  Mills,  which 
have  since  become  the  Southern  Coffee 
Mills,  Inc. 

W.  T.  Jones,  for  many  years  in  business 
as  a  coffee  broker  in  Keokuk,  Iowa, 
founded  the  New  Orleans  Coffee  Co.  in 
1890.    He  died  in  1919. 

R.  H.  Cage  and  J.  C.  Drew  organized  in 
1898  the  firm  of  Cage  &  Drew.  In  1900, 
they  established  the  Louisiana  Coffee  Mills 
under  the  name  and  style  of  Cage,  Drew  & 
Co.,  Ltd. 

Ben  C.  Casaiias  joined  the  New  Orleans 
Coffee  Co.  as  a  city  salesman,  and  later  be- 
came a  road  salesman.  He  withdrew  in 
1901  to  organize  the  Merchants  Coffee  Co. 
of  New  Orleans,  Ltd. 

San  Francisco.  Pioneer  coffee  roasters 
in  San  Francisco  were :  J.  A.  Folger  &  Co. ; 
Charles  Berhard;  H.  Gates;  D.  Ghirardelli 
&  Co. ;  E.  Loeven  &  Co. ;  Marden  &  Myrick ; 
Maine  &  Eckerenkotter ;  G.  Venard;  and 
Charles  Zwick. 

"  Between  1876  and  1900  the  following 
were  added :  A.  Schilling  &  Co. ;  W.  H. 
Miner ;  Siegfried  &  Brandenstein ;  George 
W.  Caswell. 


506 


ALL     ABOUT     COFFEE 


J.  A.  Folger  &  Co.  were  established  in 
1850  as  Wm.  H.  Bovee  &  Co.  A  few  years 
later,  the  name  became  Harden  &  Folger, 
Mr.  Folger  having  been  connected  with  the 
old  firm.  In  the  early  sixties  the  name  was 
changed  to  J.  A.  Folger  &  Co.  Two  em- 
ployees were  taken  into  the  firm  in  1878. 
These  were  A.  Schilling  and  a  Mr,  Lamb. 
The  company  was  now  called  Folger,  Schil- 
ling &  Co.  This  partnership  was  dissolved 
in  1881,  and  the  business  continued  as  J. 
A.  Folger  &  Co.  Mr.  Folger  died  in  1890, 
and  the  firm  was  then  incorporated  under 
the  same  name. 

Shortly  after  Folger,  Schilling  &  Co.  was 
dissolved,  A.  Schilling  and  George  Volk- 
man  formed  the  firm  of  A.  Schilling  &  Co. 
Mr.  Schilling  began  his  career  as  an  office 
boy  with  J.  A.  Folger  in  1871. 

M.  J.  Brandenstein  and  John  C.  Sieg- 
fried formed  a  co-partnership  under  the 
name  of  Siegfried  &  Brandenstein  in  1880, 
Mr.  Brandenstein  bought  out  his  partner 
in  1894,  and  took  in  his  brothers,  Manfred 
and  Edward,  the  firm  name  becoming  M. 
J.  Brandenstein  &  Co, 

George  W.  Caswell  started  in  the  retail 
tea  and  coffee  business  in  San  Francisco 
under  his  own  name  in  1885.  In  1898,  the 
business  became  wholesale  only.  It  was  in- 
corporated in  1901  as  the  George  W.  Cas- 
well Co.  The  company  took  over  the 
brands  and  travelling  organization  of 
Lievre,  Frick  &  Co.,  which  went  into  a  dis- 
solution of  partnership  in  1902. 

Milwaukee.  Prominent  among  early 
coffee  roasters  of  Milwaukee  were :  W.  &  J. 
G,  Flint ;  James  Eyan  &  Co. ;  J.  B.  Rey- 
nolds; Jewett  &  Sherman;  and  C.  E.  An- 
drews &  Co.  Later  we  find  added  the  Wm. 
Grossman  Co. 

J.  G.  Flint  and  Wyman  Flint  founded 
the  business  known  as  W.  &  J.  G.  Jlint  in 
1858.  J.  G.  Flint  bought  out  his  brother 
in  1880  and  continued  as  the  J.  G,  Flint 
Co.,  owner  of  the  Star  Coffee  and  Spice 
Mills.  He  died  in  1896.  The  business  was 
incorporated  in  1901  as  the  J.  G.  Flint  Co., 
with  W.  K.  Flint,  a  son  of  J.  G.,  as  presi- 
dent. The  Jewett  &  Sherman  Co.  took 
control  in  1911. 

Professor  Milo  P.  Jewett,  Professor  S,  S, 
Sherman,  and  his  brother,  "William  Sher- 
man, founded  the  firm  of  Jewett,  Sherman 
&  Co.  in  1867,  and  continued  under  that 
name  until  1875,  when  it  was  incorporated 


as  Jewett  &  Sherman  Co.,  with  Milo  P. 
Jewett  as  president,  and  Henry  B.  Sher- 
man, secretary  and  treasurer.  Professor 
S.  S.  Sherman  and  his  sons,  Fred  and  Hen- 
ry B,,  sold  out  their  interests  in  1878  and 
formed  a  new  business  in  Chicago  under 
the  name  of  Sherman  Bros.  &  Co.  William 
M.  Sherman  then  became  president  of  Jew- 
ett &  Sherman  Co.,  and  Charles  A.  Mur- 
dock,  a  nephew  of  S.  S.  and  William  Sher- 
man, was  made  secretary  and  treasurer. 
Mr,  Murdock  withdrew  in  1881  and  estab- 
lished the  C,  A.  Murdock  Mfg.  Co.  in  Kan- 
sas City.  In  that  same  year,  William  H. 
Sherman,  another  nephew,  became  a  stock- 
holder and  one  of  the  directors  of  Jewett 
&  Sherman  Co,  Dr.  Lewis  Sherman  suc- 
ceeded his  father  as  president  of  the  com- 
pany in  1891,  and  served  in  that  capacity 
until  his  death  in  1915,  when  he  was  suc- 
ceeded by  his  son,  Lewis  Sherman,  who  is 
president  of  the  company  at  the  present 
time  (1922).  John  Horter,  who  is  now 
secretary,  joined  the  business  in  1877. 

William  Grossman  started  in  the  whole- 
sale grocery  business  in  1886.  John  and 
Henry  Dahlman  were  admitted  to  partner- 
ship in  1889,  About  three  years  later,  the 
latter  closed  out  his  interests  to  J.  F.  W, 
Imbusch.  The  present  corporation  was  es- 
tablished in  1892  as  Wm.  Grossman  &  Co. 
The  firm  was  incorporated  August  1,  1916, 
as  the  Wm.  Grossman  Co.,  with  Wm.  Gross- 
man as  president,  George  A.  Grossman  as 
vice-president,  and  Paul  E.  Apel  as  secre- 
tary and  treasurer. 

Another  old-time  coffee  man  of  Milwau- 
kee was  Charles  A.  Clark,  who  had  been  in 
the  coffee  business  for  nearly  twenty  years 
before  he  organized  the  present  business  of 
Clark  &  Host  Co. 

Toledo.  The  pioneer  roasting  firms  here 
seem  to  have  been :  Warren  &  Bedwell ; 
and  J.  B.  Baldy  &  Co.  Later,  after  1876, 
we  find  added  the  Bour  Company,  and  the 
Woolson  Spice  Co. 

The  latter  company  was  founded  in  1882 
by  A.  M.  Woolson,,  who  up  to  that  time  had 
conducted  a  successful  retail  grocery  busi- 
ness for  several  years.  The  Woolson  Spice 
Co.  was  sold  to  H.  0.  Havemeyer  of  New 
York  in  1896,  the  reputed  sale  price  being 
$2,000,000.  A.  M.  Woolson  retired  from 
business  at  that  time.  Upon  the  death  of 
Mr.  Havemeyer,  the  company  passed  into 
the  hands  of  Hermann  Sielcken ;  and  when 


U.    S.    TRADE    HISTORY 


507 


QtMTmUk'EM,  ©HI©. 


Greb>-  Coffees  katuns^  advanced  lai^geLf  the.  fia&t 
meek,  lae  tf^uale  aiw-  /iricea  of  esoixu  voffec,  until 
fiutkeif-  notice,  as  foLLawA: 

Best  Mocha Coffee,  29  cts.  '^  ft. 


Best  Old  Gov't  Java. 

Pure  Java 

Fresh  Java 

Best  Rio 

Pure  Eio 

Dandilon 

Pure  West  India. 
No.  1  West  India. 
Union 


27 
24 
22 
21 
19 
16 
16 
•14 
12 


J^ofunc^  to  Le  fauai^d  uiitk  i^auf-  piAkef-  ofdeM, 
tite  i^niain, 

nj-Qiu^  Steafiectpdhf, 


Cleveland,  Oct.  Uth,  1M2. 


^.  ^te/Lketm  Si  ^an. 


Ground  Coffee  Price  List  of  1862 

he  died,  an  American  company  secured 
control. 

The  Bour  Company  was  incorporated  in 
1892,  following  a  partnership  which  had 
succeeded  to  a  small  business  concern  un- 
der the  name  of  the  Eagle  Spice  Company. 
The  principal  stockholders  were:  J.  IVE. 
Bour,  F.  G.  Kendrick,  and  Albro  Blodgett. 
Mr.  Blodgett  bought  the  Bour  interests  in 
1909  and  with  S.  W.  Beckley,  who  had 
been  sales  manager  for  a  numbep  of  years, 
acquired  practically  all  the  other  outside 
interests.  The  name  was  changed  in  1921 
to  the  Blodgett-Beckley  Co.,  the  officers 
being  Albro  Blodgett,  president,  S.  W. 
Beckley,  vice-president  and  manager,  and 
Henry  P.  Blodgett,  secretary  and  treasurer. 

Cleveland.  Pioneers  in  Cleveland 
were:  Smith  &  Curtis;  A.  Stephens  & 
Sons ;  John  H.  Ganse ;  and  W.  D.  Drake  & 
Co.  In  1870,  we  find  Edwards,  Townsend 
&  Co.;  Knight,  Eberman  &  Co.;  Talbot, 
Winslow  &  Co.;  Williams  &  Tait;  and 
Lemmon  &  Son,  added. 

Beards  &  Cummings,  coffee  roasters  of 
New  York  City,  established  a  branch  in 
Cleveland  under  the  management  of  Alvan 


Stephens  m  1855.  Later,  Stephens  took 
over  the  business  for  himself  and  changed 
the  name  to  Frisbie  &  Stephens.  In  1861 
Alvan 's  sons,  Henry  A.  and  Samuel  R., 
were  admitted  and  the  firm  became  A 
Stephens  &  Sons.  Alvan  Stephens  died  in 
1873,  and  Samuel  moved  to  Chicago  to 
open  a  branch.  He  died  in  1878.  Henry  A. 
continued  the  business  until  1881,  when 
Francis  Widlar  was  admitted  to  partner- 
ship, and  the  name  was  changed  to  Ste- 
phens &  Widlar.  Henry  A.  Stephens  died 
m  1897,  and  A.  L.  Somers,  H.  H.  Hewitt, 
and  p.  D.  Hudson,  all  old  employees,  were 
admitted,  and  the  firm  name  was  changed 
to  F.  Widlar  &  Co.  Carl  W.  Brand  a 
nephew  of  Francis  Widlar,  joined  the  com- 
pany in  1898.  Upon  the  death  of  his  uncle, 
the  business  was  incorporated  as  the  Wid- 
lar Co.,  and  Mr.  Brand  became  president 
in  1910. 

Pittsburgh.  Next  to  New  York,  Pitts- 
burg was  one  of  the  first  cities  to  forge  to 
the  front  as  a  coffee-roasting  center.  These 
are  the  firms  that  were  among  the  leaders 
m  the  period  between  1860  and  1870  •  Ar- 
buckles  &  Co. ;  W.  T.  Bown  &  Bro.  •  Dil- 
worth  Bros.;  Rinehart  &  Stevens;  T  C 
Jenkins  &  Bro. ;  Carter  Bros.  &  Co  •  J  S 
Dilworth  &  Co.;  Jesse  H.  Lippincott;" 
fc>hields  &  Boucher;  and  Ha  worth  &  Dew- 
hurst. 

Samuel  Young,  Samuel  Mahood,  and  E. 

B.  Mahood  formed  a  partnership  as  Young 
Mahood  &  Co.  in  1879.  E.  B.  Mahood  with- 
drew in  1890.  Samuel  Mahood  retired  in 
1906,  and  the  company  was  incorporated  as 
the  Young-Mahood  Company,  with  Samuel 
Young  as  president,  and  W.  James  Mahood 
as  vice-president  and  general  manager. 

Portland,  Oregon.  Early  roasters  in 
the  trade  of  this  city  were :  J.  F.  Jones;  H. 

C.  Hudson  &  Co. ;  Marden  &  Folger ;  Ver- 
dier  &  Closset;  and  Closset  &  Devers.' 

Joseph  and  Emile  Closset  formed  a  part- 
nership as  Closset  Bros,  in  1880.  A.  H. 
Devers,  who  had  been  a  salesman  with 
Folger,  Schilling  &  Co.,  San  Francisco,  and 
later  with  A.  Schilling  &  Co.,  bought  out 
Emile  Closset  in  1883,  and  the  firm  became 
Closset  &  Devers.  Joseph  Closset  died  in 
1915. 

Baltimore.  Pioneer  roasters  in  Balti- 
more  were:  Joseph  Braas;  Daniel  Many; 
George  Pearson ;  Sylvester  Ruth ;  and  John 
G.  Siegman.     These  were  quickly  followed 


508 


ALL     A  B  OUT     COFFEE 


by  Barclay  &  Hasson ;  Zoller  &  Little ;  Ben- 
jamin Berry;  Jesse  Lazear;  and  others. 

Later,  after  1876,  came:  E.  Levering  & 
Co.;  the  Enterprise  Coffee  Co.;  C.  D. 
jKenny;  J.  W.  Laughlin  &  Co.,  now  Le 
Morgan  Coffee  Co.;  and  the  Saxon  Coffee 
Company. 

Detroit.  In  Detroit  in  1860  -  70  were : 
Evans  &  Walker;  Farrington,  Campbell  & 
Co. ;  A.  R.  &  W.  F.  Linn ;  J.  H.  Riggs ;  and 
Palmer,  Warner  &  Co.  After  1876  were 
added  Sinclair,  Evans  &  Elliot;  Huber  & 
Stendel;  and  J.  A.  Parent  &  Co. 

Other  Cities.  Names  of  pioneer  roast- 
ers of  other  towns  in  1860  and  1870  were: 
George  Boardman,  Albany,  N.  Y. ;  Chu- 
buck  &  Saunders,  Binghamton,  N.  Y. ; 
George  W.  Hayward,  and  P.  J.  Ferris, 
Buffalo,  N.  Y. ;  Lorimore  Bros.,  and  George 
R.  Forrester,  Elmira,  N.  Y. ;  Hatch  & 
Jenks,  Jamestown,  N.  Y. ;  N.  B.  Beede, 
Newburgh,  N.  Y. ;  A.  F.  Booth,  Poughkeep- 
sie,  N.  Y.;  Ethridge,  Tuller  &  Co.,  Rome, 
N.  Y. ;  M.  N.  Van  Zandt  &  Co.,  L.  B.  Eddy 
&  Co.,  and  C.  T.  Moore,  Rochester,  N.  Y. ; 
Ostrander,  Loomis  &  Co.,  and  Jacob  Crouse 
&  Co.,  Syracuse,  N.  Y. ;  C.  H.  Garrison, 
Troy,  N.  Y. ;  Hinchman  &  Howard,  and  J. 
Griffiths  &  Co.,  Utica,  N.  Y. ;  B.  F.  Hoopes, 
Bloomington,  111.;  C.  P.  Farrell,  and 
Charles  Richards,  Peoria,  111. ;  Slemmons  & 
Conkling,  Springfield,  111. ;  Henry  Wales, 
Bridgeport,  Conn. ;  A.  B.  Gillett,  Wm. 
Boardman  &  Sons,  Hartford  Steam  Coffee 
&  Spice  Mills,  and  Park,  Fellowes  &  Co., 
Hartford,  Conn.;  Benj.  Peck  &  Kellum, 
and  Steele  &  Emery,  New  Haven,  Conn. ; 
W.  S.  Scull  &  Co.,  Camden,  N.  J. ;  Theo.  F. 
Johnson  &  Co.,  and  the  Pioneer  Mills, 
Newark,  N.  J. ;  Charles  A.  Dunham,  New 
Brunswick,  N.  J.;  James  Ronan  and  Wm. 
Dolton  &  Co.,  Trenton,  N.  J. ;  Butler,  Ear- 
hart  &  Co.,  Columbus,  Ohio;  C.  A.  Trent- 
man  &  Bro.,  and  J.  D.  Beach  &  Co.,  Day- 
ton, Ohio;  W.  &  S.  Stevens,  and  F.  C. 
Dietz,  Zanesville,  Ohio;  J.  E.  Tone,  Des 
Moines,  Iowa ;  H.  P.  Hess,  Cornell  &  Smith, 
and  E.  Warne,  Easton,  Pa. ;  E.  S.  Forster, 
Erie,  Pa. ;  Haehnlen  Bros.,  Harrisburg, 
Pa.;  D.  G.  Yuengling,  Pottsville,  Pa.;  A. 
G.  Zilmore  &  Co.,  Scranton,  Pa.;  Granger 
&  Co.,  Titusville,  Pa. ;  Huestis  &  Hamilton, 
and  B.  Trentman  &  Son,  Ft.  Wayne,  Ind. ; 
S.  Haraill  &  Co.,  Keokuk,  la.;  H.  H. 
Lee,  and  Maguire  &  Gillespie,  Indianap- 
olis,   Ind. ;   Joseph    Strong,    Terre   Haute, 


Ind.;  Curtis  &  Burnham,  Leavenwor|;h, 
Kan.;  Yates  &  Dudley,  Lexington,  Ky.;  A. 
Turner,  Wheeling,  W.  Va. ;  Granger  & 
Hodge,  and  Nathaniel  Crocker,  St.  Paul, 
Minn.;  W.  W.  Totten  &  Bro.,  Nashville, 
Tenn. ;  Henry  Burns,  Savannah,  Ga. ;  A. 
McFarland,  Springfield,  Mass.;  Alexander 
Wills  &  Co.,  Montreal,  Canada;  and  Peter 
Hendershot,  St.  Catherine,  Canada. 

Between  1876  and  1900,  many  other 
names  came  into  prominence,  and  among 
them  mention  should  be  made  of :  H.  Hul- 
man,  Terre  Haute,  Ind. :  A.  B.  Gates  & 
Co.,  and  Schnull  &  Krag,  Indianapolis, 
Ind.:  0.  W.  Pierce  Co.,  and  Geiger-Tin- 
ney  Co.,  Lafayette,  Ind. :  Twitchell,  Cham- 
plin  &  Co.,  Portland,  Me.;  Nave-McCord 
Mfg.  Co.,  Mokaska  Mfg.  Co.,  and  the  Mid- 
land Spice  Co.,  St.  Joseph,  Mo. ;  Beaham- 
Moffatt  Mfg.  Co.,  and  C.  A.  Murdock  &  Co., 
Kansas  City,  Mo.;  Clarke  Bros.  &  Co.,  T. 
S.  Grigor  &  Co.,  Consolidated  Coffee  Co., 
and  McCord,  Brady  Co.,  Omaha,  Neb. ;  Day- 
ton Spice  Mills  Co.,  and  Canby,  Ach  & 
Canby,  Dayton,  Ohio;  Ohio  Coffee  &  Spice 
Co.,  and  Butler,  Crawford  &  Co.,  Columbus, 
Ohio;  Bacon,  Stickney  &  Co.,  Albany, 
N.  Y.;  Charles  R.  Groff  Co.,  St.  Paul, 
Minn.;  John  G.  Schuler,  Covington,  Ky. ; 
J.  W.  Thomas  &  Son,  Nashville,  Tenn.; 
Geo.  F.  Hanley  &  Co.,  Los  Angeles,  Cal. ; 

C.  S.  Morey  Mercantile  Co.,  Denver,  Col.; 
and  W.  G.  Lown  Coffee  Co.,  Washington, 

D.  C. 

William  Boardman,  founder  of  Wm. 
Boardman  &  Sons  Co.,  Hartford,  Conn., 
be'gan  roasting  coffee  at  Wethersfield  in 
1841  with  a  hand-power  roaster,  using  wood 
for  fuel.  He  moved  his  plant  to  Hartford  in 
1850.  In  the  same  year,  his  son  Thomas 
J.,  after  serving  a  fifteen-year  apprentice- 
ship in  a  country  store,  entered  his  father 's 
employ.  Three  years  later,  he  and  his  bro- 
ther, William  F.  J.  Boardman,  were  admit- 
ted to  the  firm,  the  name  being  changed 
to  Wm.  Boardman  &  Sons.  Howard  F. 
Boardman,  a  son  of  Thomas  J.,  began 
working  in  the  business  in  1880,  and  was 
admitted  to  partnership  in  1888.  The  same 
year,  the  founder  died  and  William  F.  J. 
retired.  The  business  has  since  been  con- 
ducted by  Thomas  J.  and  Howard  F. 
Boardman. 

The  company  Was  incorporated  in  1898, 
and  John  Pepion  was  admitted.  The  pres- 
ident of  the  company,  Thomas  J.  Board- 
man,  is  at  the  time  of  writing  ninety  years 


U.    S.    TRADE    HISTORY 


.509 


old.  He  still  takes  a  very  active  interest  in 
the  business,  and  his  "cup  sense"  is  as 
acute  as  ever. 

The  0.  W.  Pierce  Company,  Lafayette, 
Ind.  was  founded  in  1847  by  Oliver  Web- 
ster Pierce,  Sr.  Except  for  three  years  in 
the  fifties,  when  the  firm  was  known  as 
Reynolds,  Hatcher  &  Pierce,  it  has  been 
known  as  the  O.  W.  Pierce  Company  since 
it  was  established.  The  company  was  in- 
corporated in  1905  with  O.  W.  Pierce,  Jr. 
as  its  head.  The  senior  Mr.  Pierce  died  in 
1921.  The  firm  first  roasted  coffee  in  1891. 
Prior  to  that  time  it  had  been  in  the 
wholesale  grocery  business. 

The  William  S.  Scull  Co.,  Camden,  N.  J., 
was  established  in  18.58  by  William  S.  Scull, 
whose  father  had  been  in  the  retail  tea  and 
coffee  business.  William  Scull  died  in  1916. 
H.  Newmark  founded  H.  Newmark  &  Co. 
in  Los  Angeles  in  1865.  He  retired  in  1886, 
and  Maurice  H.  Newmark  was  made  a  full 
partner.  The  present  name  is  M.  A.  New- 
mark  &  Co. 

In  1868,  Major  David  B.  Hamill  entered, 
as  junior  partner,  the  firm  of  S.  Hamill 
&  Co.,  Keokuk,  Iowa,  of  which  his  father, 
Smith  Hamill,  was  the  head.  Smith  Ham- 
ill died  in  1890,  and  David  B.  became  head 
of  the  firm.     He  died  in  1916. 

William  Tackaberry  was  a  junior  part- 
ner in  the  firm  of  S.  Hamill  &  Co.,  Keokuk, 
Iowa.  He  began  a  business  of  his  own  in 
the  same  city  in  1868.  Ten  years  later, 
he  moved  the  company  to  Sioux  City,  and 
continued  there  as  the  Wm.  Tackaberry  Co. 

Joel  0.  Cheek  began  traveling  for  the 
wholesale  grocery  house  of  Webb,  Hughes 
&  Co.,  Nashville,  Tenn.,  in  1873.  Later,  he 
was  admitted  to  partnership,  the  firm  be- 
coming Webb,  Cheek  &  Co.,  and  tten  Cheek, 
Norton  &  Neal.  He  formed  the  Nashville 
Coffee  &  Mfg.  Co.,  in  1899.  It  was  merged 
in  1901  into  the  Cheek-Neal  Coffee  Co. 

Jekiel  and  Isaac  E.  Tone  began  the  busi- 
ness of  Tone  Bros,  at  Des  Moines,  Iowa,  in 
March,  3  873,  with  one  roaster  and  one  spice 
mill.  The  business  was  incorporated  in 
1897.  Jekiel  Tone  died  in  1900,  and  Isaac 
E.  Tone  in  1916.  The  business  is  now 
(1922)  carried  on  by  W.  E.  and  Jay  E. 
Tone. 

Edward  Canby  began  business  in  Dayton, 
Ohio,  in  1875,  succeeding  the  firm  of  J.  D. 
Beach  &  Co.  He  retired  in  1886,  and  the 
business  was  left  in   charge   of   Frank   L. 


Canby  and  F.  J.  Ach,  The  latter  had  en- 
tered the  employ  of  Canby  in  1877.  He 
secured  an  interest  in  the  business  in  1882, 
and  became  a  partner  in  1890.  When  the 
company  was  incorporated  as  Canby,  Ach 
&  Canby  in  1904,  he  was  elected  president. 
Mr.  Ach  has  been  very  prominent  in  the 
affairs  of  the  National  Coffee  Roasters  As- 
sociation since  its  organization. 

Frank  J.  Geiger  began  in  the  tea,  coffee, 
and  spice  business  in  Lafayette,  Ind.,  un- 
der the  name  of  Culver  &  Geiger.  Mr. 
Culver,  who  had  never  been  active,  died  in 
1889,  and  in  1892  the  Geiger-Tinney  Com- 
pany was  formed  with  F.  J.  Geiger  as 
president.  The  plant  was  moved  to  Indian- 
apolis in  1901  with  William  L.  Horn  as 
vice-president,  and  Henry  C.  Tinney  as 
secretary  and  treasurer.  The  name  was 
changed  to  the  Geiger-Fishback  Co.  in  1912, 
and  Mr.  Geiger  retired.  Frank  S.  Fish- 
back  acquired  all  the  stock  of  the  company 
in  1918,  and  the  name  was  changed  to  the 
Fishback  Co.  with  F.  S.  Fishbaek,  presi- 
dent ;  John  S.  Fishback,  treasurer ;  and  F. 
C.  Fishback,  secretary. 

S.  Holstad  joined  the  Thomson  &  Taylor 
Spice  Co  of  Chicago  in  1892.  He  left  in 
1901  and  went  to  Minneapolis,  where  he 
became  a  member  of  the  firm  of  Atwood  & 
Holstad.  He  withdrew  in  1908  to  form 
the  firm  of  S.  Holstad  &  Co.,  with  Charles 
Ekelund  and  Alexander  W.  Kreiser  as 
partners.  After  the  withdrawal  of  Mr. 
Holstad  from  Atwood  &  Holstad,  Mr.  At- 
wood continued  as  Atwood  &  Co. 

F.  P.  Atha  began  work  as  a  coffee  sales- 
man with  Holman  &  Co.,  Terre  Haute,  Ind. 
He  went  to  San  Francisco  in  1899  and 
entered  the  employ  of  J.  A.  Folger  &  Co., 
and  introduced  Folger  products  east  of  the 
Rockies.  He  opened  the  Kansas  City 
branch  in  1907;  and  a  year  later,  he  was 
admitted  to  the  firm  and  made  vice-presi- 
dent and  general  manager. 

The  National  Coffee  Boasters  Association 
The  first  effort  to  organize  the  coffee 
roasters  of  the  United  States  dates  back  to 
1885,  when  several  St.  Louis  coffee  roasters 
came  together  in  a  kind  of  gentlemen's 
agreement  not  to  cut  the  price  of  roasting 
green  coffee,  which  had  declined,  owing  to 
ruthless  competition,  from  $1.00  to  10  cents 
a  bag.  The  various  parties  to  the  agree- 
ment posted  $500  checks  each  as  forfeits, 
not  to  violate  the  price  as  fixed.    After  one 


510 


ALL     ABOUT     COFFEE 


^      +j  bo  o  t-, . .  o 
"      . ,  —  bo  S  -w  oJ 

*"  ctf  t,  O)  m'S 


year,  a  check  was  cashed ;  but  the  principal 
claimed  his  lapse  was  clerical  and  not  in 
violation  of  the  agreement.  However,  as 
a  result  of  the  argument  that  followed,  the 
organization  was  disbanded. 

As  early  as  1900,  leaders  of  the  trade's 
best  thought  began  to  urge  the  need  of  a 
national  organization  among  coffee  roasters. 

As  a  result  of  informal  meetings  between 
men  like  Robert  M.  Forbes,  Julius  J.  Schot- 
ten,  Robert  Mey£r,  and  Messrs.  Roth  and 
Homeyer,  around  the  luncheon  table  in  St. 
Louis,  to  discuss  trade  abuses  and  bring 
about  better  trade  co-operation,  the  subject 
of  a  St.  Louis  organization  of  coffee  roast- 
ers began  to  be  agitated  about  1906.  It 
was  not  until  four  years  later,  however, 
that  the  idea  took  definite  form. 

On  September  14,  1910,  the  Traffic  As- 
sociation of  St.  Louis  Coffee  Importers  was 
organized,  starting  out  with  a  membership 
of  ten  firms,  its  chief  object  being  to  ob- 
tain an  adjustment  of  freight  rates  to  and 
from  St.  Louis  as  advantageous  as  those 
prevailing  for  Chicago  and  New  York. 

This  association  —  of  which  Robert 
Meyer  was  the  first  president,  and  H.  L. 
Homeyer,  vice-president,  J.  S.  Hart- 
man,  secretary,  and  G.  H.  Petring,  treas- 
urer —  was  the  forerunner  of  the  National 
Coffee  Roasters  Traffic  and  Pure  Food  As- 
sociation organized  in  1911  and  now  known 
as  the  National  Coffee  Roasters  Association. 

At  the  organization  meeting  of  the  na- 
tional association  twenty-six  coffee-roasting 
establishments  in  the  Mississippi  Valley 
were  represented  at  the  conference  held 
May  26  -  27  in  the  Planters  Hotel,  St.  Louis. 
The  objects  of  the  new  body  were  an- 
nounced in  the  constitution,  as: 

First:  To  foster  and  promote  a  feeling  of  fel- 
lowship and  good  will  among  its  members,  and 
on  broad  and  equitable  lines  to  advance  the 
welfare  of  the  coffee  trade  and  the  consumer. 

Second :  To  eliminate  or  minimize  abuses, 
methods  and  practises  inimical  to  the  proper 
conduct  of  business. 

Third :  To  assist  in  the  enactment  and  en- 
forcement of  uniform  pure  food  laws  which  in 
their  operations  shall  deal  justly  and  equitably 
with  the  rights  of  the  consumer  and  the  trade. 

The  association  started  with  these  officers : 
Julius  J.  Schotten,  St.  Louis,  President; 
M.  H.  Gasser,  Toledo,  vice-president ;  W.  E. 
Tone,  Des  Moines,  treasurer,  and  "W.  J.  H. 
Bown,  St.  Louis,  secretary. 

Meanwhile,  as  a  result  of  an  agitation 
started  by  The  Tea  and  Coffee  Trade  Jour- 


U.    S.    TRADE    HISTORY 


511 


nal,  a  meeting  of  New  York  and  eastern 
coffee  roasters  was  called  at  the  Fulton 
Club,  New  York,  October  27,  1911,  to  dis- 
cuss plans  for  a  national  organization.  M. 
H.  Gasser  attended  this  meeting,  and  told 
of  the  plan  of  the  western  roasters  to  or- 
ganize such  an  organization  at  a  meeting 
called  for  Chicago  the  following  month. 
The  promoters  of  the  eastern  organization 


Robert  Meyer,  St.  Louis 

First  president  of  the  Coffee  Roasters'  original  or- 
ganization 


subsequently  abandoned  their  efforts  in 
favor  of  the  western  group. 

At  the  first  convention  of  the  "National 
Coffee  Roasters  Traffic  and  Pure  Food  As- 
sociation, held  in  Chicago, November  16-17, 
1911,  all  the  foregoing  officers  were  retain- 
ed, the  office  of  second  vice-president  was 
created,  and  Frank  R.  Seelye  was  selected 
to  fill  it. 

That  the  organization  idea  was  popular 
among  the  roasters  was  evident  from  the 
fact  that  at  the  close  of  the  convention  it 
was  announced  that  the  membership  was 
then  seventy-one  firms  in  cities  as  far  east 
as  Virginia  and  as  far  west  as  Kansas  City. 
The  convention  demonstrated  that  the  as- 
sociation was  really  a  national  organization, 
which  quieted  suspicions  prevalent  in  some 


quarters  of  the  trade  in  the  east  that  it 
was  chiefly  a  Mississippi  Valley  unit. 

The  first  convention  is  remembered  prin- 
cipally because  of  Hermann  Sielcken's  de- 
fense of  the  Brazil  coffee  valorization  plan, 
which  was  then  the  big  question  of  the  cof- 
fee trade.  The  titles  of  some  of  the  other 
addresses  will  serve  to  indicate  how  the 
scope  of  the  association  had  enlarged  since 
its  organization  a  few  months  before :  ' '  An 
Attack  on  Valorization"  by  Thomas  J. 
Webb,  of  Chicago;  "Uniform  Food  Laws", 
by  W.  T.  Jones,  of  New  Orleans ;  ' '  Penny- 
Change  Systems,"  by  R.  W.  McCreery,  of 
Marshalltown,  la;  "Traffic  and  Freight 
Abuses,"  by  W.  E.  Tone,  of  Des  Moines; 
"Transportation  Problems,"  by  Carl  H. 
Stoffregen,  St.  Louis;  "Coffee  Publicity," 
by  F.  H.  Henrici,  of  Chicago;  "Coffee 
Roasters'  Costs  and  Accounting,"  by  F.  J. 
Ach,  Chicago.  The  first  convention  proved 
a  success,  and  attracted  attention. 

The  second  annual  convention,  held  in 
New  York,  November  13  - 15,  1912,  showed 
that  the  association  had  grown  to  a  mem- 
bership of  135  firms  located  in  all  parts  of 
the  country,  and  that  its  influence  had  ex- 
tended throughout  the  whole  trade.  Valo- 
rization continued  to  be  a  much  discussed 
subject,  Hermann  Sielcken  and  others 
again  defending  it  in  speeches;  but  the 
majority  of  the  association  seemed  opposed 
to  the  scheme.  Probably  the  most  import- 
ant feature  of  the  conventiort  was  the  re- 
port of  the  committee  of  nine  men  whx)  had 
visited  Brazil  to  investigate  conditions  there 
and  to  interest  the  Brazilian  coffee  growers 
in  an  advertising  campaign.  An  address 
on  this  subject  was  made  by  the  editor  of 
The  Tea  and  Coffee  Trade  Journal,  in 
which  he  suggested  a  plan  for  propaganda 
and  advocated  scientific  research  to  find  out 
the  truth  about  coffee. 

The  election  of  officers  resulted  in  the 
selection  of  F.  J.  Ach,  Dayton,  as  president ; 
Frank  R.  Seelye,  Chicago,  first  vice-presi- 
dent; Ross  W.  Weir,  New  York,  second 
vice-president;  and  Robert  Meyer,  St 
Louis,  treasurer. 

The  1912  convention  changed  the  name 
of  the  association  to  the  National  Coffee 
Roasters  Association,  dropping  the  words 
' '  Traffic  and  Pure  Food ' '  from  the  original 
title. 

The  third  convention,  which  was  held 
November  12  - 14,  1913,  in  Cincinnati,  dem- 


512 


ALL     ABOUT     COFFEE 


Julius  J.  Schotten  —  1911  - 12 


F.   J.   Acii  —  1912  - 14 


Ross   W.   WEiii  — 1914-3G 


Frank  K.  Seelye — 1910-17 


Ben  C.  Casanas  —  1917  -  IS 


Carl    W.    Brand  —  1918  -  21 


FORMER  PRESIDENTS,  NATIONAL  COFFEE  ROASTERS  ASSOCIATION 


U.    S.    TRADE    HISTORY 


513 


onstrated  that  the  scope  of  usefulness  of 
the  association  was  still  growing,  as  shown 
by  the  resolutions  which  approved  better 
coffee-making  publicity ;  favored  a  national 
coffee  day;  urged  the  appointment  of  in- 
spectors at  ports  of  entry  to  prevent  the 
importation  of  green  coffee  under  govern- 
ment standard  No.  8;  condemned  the  ex- 
cessive watering  of  coffee  and  all  coffee 
coatings;  and  provided  for  the  appoint- 
ment of  an  agent  to  visit  Brazil  to  furnish 
members  with  ''reliable"  reports  on  crop 
flowering. 

F,  J.  Ach  was  re-elected  president ;  Ross 
W.  Weir  succeeded  F.  R.  Seelye  as  first 
vice-president;  W.  T.  Jones  succeeded  Mr. 
"Weir  as  second  vice-president,  and  Rob- 
ert Meyer  was  retained  as  treasurer. 

Secretary  G.  W.  Toms,  who  had  been  ap- 
pointed in  April,  1913,  reported  that  the 
association  had  made  a  net  gain  of  thirteen 
members,  bringing  the  total  up  to  144. 

The  membership  of  the  association  had 
been  increased  by  twenty  names  when  the 
fourth  annual  convention  was  opened  in 
New  Orleans,  November  16  - 19,  1914,  mak- 
ing the  total  164. 

Better  coffee  making,  roasting  economies, 
a  national  coffee  week,  and  improved  meth- 
ods of  handling  green  coffee  in  ports  and 
warehouses,  were  the  principal  topics  con- 
sidered at  the  1914  meeting.  As  a  result 
of  the  discussions,  the  association  went  on 
record  in  its  resolutions  as  being  against 
the  misbranding  of  both  green  and  roasted 
coffee;  favored  the  creation  of  a  United 
States  board  of  coffee  experts ;  and  the  es- 
tablishment of  an  association  trade-mark 
bureau. 

For  the  ensuing  year  Ross  W.  Weir,  New 
York,  was  chosen  president;  J.  0. #Cheek, 
Nashville,  first  vice-president;  T.  F.  Hal- 
ligan,  Davenport,  second  vice-president; 
and  W.  T.  Morley,  Worcester,  treasurer. 

The  decision  to  get  together  on  a  compre- 
hensive national  publicity  campaign  in  the 
interest  of  coffee  was  the  outstanding  fea- 
ture of  the  fifth  annual  convention,  which 
was  held  in  St.  Louis,  November  8  - 11, 1915, 
in  the  same  room  in  the  Planters  Hotel  in 
which  the  association  was  organized  in  1911. 
From  a  body  of  twenty-six  roasters,  the  as- 
sociation had  grown  in  five  years  to  a  mem- 
bership of  201  firms  and  individuals. 

Among  the  more  important  things  done 
at  this  convention  was  the  decision  to  un- 


dertake a  practical  publicity  plan  to  ad- 
vertise coffee;  the  adoption  of  a  uniform 
cost-and-freight  contract;  the  proposal  to 
prepare  educational  matter  on  coffee  for 
the  schools;  and  the  recommendation  to 
employ  a  chemist  to  carry  on  research 
work.  There  were  spirited  discussions  also 
on  gas,  coal,  and  coke  as  roasting  fuels ;  on 
the  best  way  to  get  retailer  co-operation, 
and  Avhether  it  was  advisable  to  continue 
the  national  coffee  week  idea.  President 
Weir,  Vice-Presidents  Cheek  and  Halligan, 
and  Treasurer  Morley  were  re-elected. 

The  sixth  annual  convention,  held  in  At- 
lantic City,  November  14  - 17,  1916,  placed 
emphasis  on  research  into  grinding  and 
brewing;  on  plans  for  doing  something 
practical  to  help  grocers  regain  their  lost 
coffee  trade;  and  on  an  investigation  into 
the  scientific  costs  of  roasting.  The  ad- 
mittance of  green  coffee  and  allied  interests 
into  the  association  was  also  discussed,  and 
it  was  resolved  to  make  the  subject  an  order 
of  business  for  special  consideration  at  the 
next  convention. 

At  this  meeting  Frank  R.  Seelye,  Chicago, 
was  elected  president ;  Ben  C.  Casanas,  New 
Orleans,  first  vice-president;  J.  M.  McFad- 
den,  Dubuque,  second  vice-president;  and 
M.  H.  Gasser,  Toledo,  treasurer.  The  mem- 
bership was  reported  as  being  204,  showing 
a  net  increase  of  three  during  the  year. 

The  seventh  convention,  held  in  Chicago, 
November  14  - 15, 1917,  came  when  the  first 
movement  of  American  soldiers  to  Eu- 
ropean battlefields  was  begun,  and  patriot- 
ism was  the  keynote  of  the  meeting.  Be- 
cause of  the  stress  of  the  times,  the  program 
was  cut  to  two  days,  instead  of  the  three 
days  of  former  meetings. 

The  outstanding  features  of  the  conven- 
tion were:  the  decision  not  to  admit  green 
coffee  men  to  the  association;  the  decision 
to  establish  a  permanent  headquarters ;  the 
announcement  that  Brazil  was  then  col- 
lecting funds  for  its  part  in  the  national  ad- 
vertising campaign;  and  the  proposal  by 
John  E,  King,  Detroit,  that  the  term  ''lead 
number"  be  used  instead  of  "caffetannic 
acid",  which  he  asserted  was  a  misnomer. 
The  executive  committee  was  authorized  to 
employ  a  secretary-manager.  The  shorter 
terms  and  credits  idea  was  endorsed  by  the 
association. 

These  officers  were  elected  for  the  next 
year;  Ben  C.  Casanas,  New  Orleans,  presi- 


514 


ALL     ABOUT     COFFEE 


dent ;  S.  H.  Holstad,  Minneapolis,  first  vice- 
president;  Edward  Aborn,  New  York,  sec- 
ond vice-president;  M.  H.  Gassar,  Toledo, 
treasurer. 

The  influenza  epidemic,  w^hich  swept  the 
country  the  latter  part  of  1918,  caused  the 
postponement  of  many  business  and  public 
gatherings,  and  the  eighth  annual  roasters 
convention  did  not  assemble  until  Decem- 
ber 5-6,  in  Cleveland  —  at  only  ten  days ' 
notice.  Unlike  previous  occasions,  this  was 
in  reality  a  combined  convention  of  all 
roasted  and  green  coffee  men  in  the  trade, 
both  association  members  and  non-members. 
No  regular  program  was  followed,  the  meet- 
ing being  somewhat  in  the  character  of  a 
trade  conference. 

The  salient  features  of  the  convention 
were  the  decisions :  to  double  the  annual 
dues,  in  order  to  provide  for  a  paid  secre- 
tary-manager and  to  establish  permanent 
headquarters;  to  organize  a  spice  grinders' 
section ;  and  to  ask  the  government  to  re- 
move all  restrictions  on  coffee  trading.  The 
Food  Administration's  coffee  regulations 
came  in  for  severe  criticism. 

The  election  of  officers  resulted  in  Carl 
W.  Brand,  Cleveland,  becoming  president; 
Robert  M.  Forbes,  St.  Louis,  first  vice-presi- 
dent; J.  A.  Folger,  San  Francisco,  second 
vice-president;  and  Lewis  Sherman,  Mil- 
waukee, treasurer. 

The  ninth  convention  of  the  National 
Coffee  Roasters  Association  was  of  greater 
import  to  all  branches  of  the  coffee  trade 
than  any  that  had  preceded  it.  The  re- 
sults of  the  meeting  showed  the  association 
had  gone  far  since  the  organization  meeting 
in  St.  Louis  in  1911.  As  in  1916,  the  con- 
vention was  held  in  Atlantic  City, 
November  12  - 14,  1919,  and  drew  delegates 
from  as  far  west  as  San  Francisco  and 
Seattle. 

The  most  important  subjects  before  the 
meeting  were  the  reports  of  the  Joint  Coffee 
Trade  Publicity  Committee,  read  by  Ross 
W.  "Weir,  chairman,  and  Felix  Coste,  secre- 
tary-manager. The  committee  had  been  or- 
ganized during  the  year  to  carry  on  the 
national  coffee-advertising  campaign,  and 
announced  at  the  convention  its  publicity 
plans  for  the  next  year,  which  included  a 
national  coffee  week,  a  national  showing  of 
the  committee's  coffee  film,  and  the  issu- 
ance of  several  educational  booklets.  Other 
outstanding  features  included  the  descrip- 
tion of  how  the  association  planned  to  con- 


duct a  research  into  the  cost  of  doing  a 
wholesale  coffee-roasting  business,  the  in- 
vestigation to  be  made  by  Columbia  Uni- 
versity ;  addresses  attacking  the  meat  pack- 
ers '  invasion  of  the  coffee  roasting  and  dis- 
tributing field ;  a  paper,  and  discussions,  on 
shorter  terms  and  uniform  discounts;  the 
recommendation  to  employ  a  traveling  field 
secretary  who  would  hold  periodical  meet- 
ings with  local  branches;  and  the  condem- 
nation of  guaranteeing  prices  against  de- 
cline and  giving  advance  notices  of  changes 
of  prices. 

The  convention  unanimously  agreed  to 
the  re-election  of  President  Brand,  Vice- 
Presidents  Forbes  and  Folger,  and  Treas- 
urer Sherman. 

The  tenth  annual  meeting  was  held  in  St. 
Louis,  November  10-12,  1020.  Scientific 
cost  finding,  short  terms  and  discounts,  the 
national  advertising  campaign,  the  activi- 
ties of  the  N,  C.  R.  A.  freight-forwarding 
bureau,  and  laboratory-research  were  the 
main  topics  of  this  years'  gathering.  The 
membership  was  reported  to  be  310.  A  fea- 
ture of  the  meeting  was  the  first  industrial 
exhibit  by  twenty-five  supply  houses. 
Among  the  things  accomplished  w^ere : 

The  recommendation  that  members  co- 
operate in  determining  the  invisible  supply 
of  coffee  in  the  United  States  at  stated 
periods;  increasing  annual  dues  from  $50 
to  $60  for  members  having  $50,000  or  less 
capitalization,  and  from  $100  to  $120  for 
firms  having  more  than  $50,000  capital ;  re- 
stricting membership  to  purely  wholesale 
coffee  roasters  and  distributers;  and  offer- 
ing co-operation  to  hotel-men  and  restau- 
rant-keepers in  standardizing  and  improv- 
ing their  coffee  beverages. 

The  St.  Louis  meeting  was  notable  in 
violating  association  precedent  by  unani- 
mously electing  Carl  W.  Brand  president 
for  the  third  consecutive  term.  Other  of- 
ficers were :  J.  A.  Folger,  San  Francisco, 
first  vice-president,  R.  0.  Miller,  Chicago,, 
second  vice-president;  Charles  A.  Clark, 
Milwaukee,  treasurer. 

The  eleventh  annual  meeting,  held  in 
New  York,  November  1  -  3,  1921,  set  the 
high-water  mark  of  the  organization's  rec- 
ord of  achievement.  This  convention  took 
the  first  definite  steps  toward  the  amalga- 
mation of  the  green  and  roasted  coffee  in- 
terests in  one  association.  Brazil  sent  a 
delegation  of  coffee  men  to  invite  a  similar 
delegation  to  pay  a  return  visit  to  Brazil. 


I 


U.    S.    TRADE    HISTORY 


515 


Joel  O.  Cheek,  Nashville 
President  of  the  National  Coffee  Roasters  Associa- 
tion,   1922 

It  was  announced  also  that  Sao  Paulo  was 
about  to  double  its  tax  contribution  to  the 
national  advertising  campaign.  Among 
other  things  done,  were:  the  appropriation 
of  $1500  to  work  out  a  uniform  cost-ac- 
counting system  for  roasters;  the  recom- 
mendation that  coffee  importers  insist  upon 
the  use  of  American  ships  by  Brazilian  ex- 
porters; the  formulation  of  a  cost-and- 
freight  arbitration  contract  for  use  with 
Sao  Paulo  exporters ;  the  formation  of  a 
new  membership  class  roasting  up  to  6000 
bags  a  year ;  and  the  decision  to  make  a  na- 
tional campaign  to  put  the  selling  of  coffee 
on  a  uniform  thirty-days  credit,  two  per- 
cent cash  in  ten  days  basis.  Professor  S.  C. 
Prescott,  reporting  on  the  research  work 
being  done  at  the  Massachusetts  Institute 
of  Technology,  said  a  better  brew  of  coffee 
could  be  obtained  at  a  temperature  of  185 
degrees  than  at  the  boiling  point;  that 
glass,  china,  or  enameled-ware  pots  were  to 
be  preferred,  and  that  the  filtration  method 
is  superior  to  that  employed  in  the  pump- 
ing percolator. 

The  Industrial  Exposition  included  dis- 
plays by  twenty-eight  manufacturers  of  ma- 


chinery and  supplies,  and  was  voted  a  suc- 
cess. Many  of  the  exhibits  were  of  a  dis- 
tinctly educational  character. 

The  following  officers  were  elected  for 
1921  -  22 :  President,  Joel  0.  Cheek,  Nash- 
ville, Tenn. ;  first  vice-president,  Webster 
Jones,  San  Francisco;  second  vice-presi- 
dent, Joseph  E.  Maury,  Memphis,  Tenn.; 
treasurer,  Frank  Ennis,  Kansas  City. 

Coffee  Roaster  Statistics 
As  might  be  expected,  considering  the 
leading  place  that  New  York  holds  as  a 
port  of  entry  for  coffee,  the  roasting  and 
grinding  of  coffee  is  more  important  in  the 
eastern  section  of  the  country  than  in  any 
other.  But  there  are  many  establishments 
for  preparing  coffee  scattered  throughout 
the  south  and  the  middle  west,  and  the  busi- 
ness has  grown  to  considerable  proportions 
on  the  Pacific  coast.  New  York  state 
leads  in  number  of  establishments  and  is 
followed  by  Pennsylvania,  California,  Mis- 

COFFEE    AND    SPICE    ROASTING    AND    GRINDING 

Establishments  —  Census  of  1914 

Value  of 

States                    Xiimber    Capital  product 

Alabama    8         $155,000  $331,000 

California   43  3,619,000  9,584,000 

Colorado    9           445,000  1,168.000 

Connecticut 7           136,000  435,000 

Dist.  of  Col 5           294,000  428,000 

Florida    19           219.000  697.000 

Georgia    G             80.000  169,000 

Illinois     .34  8,1.59,000  22,045.000 

Indiana    12           941,000  1.790,000 

Iowa    14  1.752.000  3,804.000 

Kansas    6           144,000  396,000 

Kentucky     17          541,000  1,561,000 

Louisiana    17  1,657,000  4.241,000 

Maryland    14  1,643,000  4,393,000 

Massachusetts    ...  21  3,678,000  8,675,000 

Michigan   16           502,000  1,618,000 

INIinnesota   11  1,531,000  4,729.000 

Mississippi    5             27,000  94,000 

Missouri    37  6,152,000  14,299,000 

Nebraska     6          405.000  1,262,000 

New  Jersey    17           828,000  3,451.000 

New  York 136  9,910,000  31,675,000 

Ohio    35  6,578,000  13.312,000 

Oklahoma     6           191,000  7.57.000 

Oregon  9          757,000  2.050,000 

Pennsylvania    77  2,454.000  6.967,000 

Tennessee    7          465.000  1,648,000 

Texas    36          970,000  3,326.000 

Virginia   9          413.000  1,137,000 

Washington    25  1.023.000  2.237.000 

West  Virginia   ...  3             73.000  71,000 

Wisconsin   8          362.000  809,000 

Other  states  21          492.000  1.. 500.000 

Total 696    $56.i596.00O    $150,749,000 

souri,  Ohio,  and  Illinois.  The  chief  south- 
ern state  is  Texas,  followed  by  Louisiana 
and    Kentucky,    although    Maryland    and 


516 


ALL     ABOUT     COFFEE 


Louisiana  lead  in  value  of  product.  Mis- 
souri has  more  plants  than  any  other  state 
in  the  middle  west,  and  is  followed  by  Illi- 
nois, though  the  capital  invested  and  the 
value  of  the  output  are  much  greater  in 
the  latter  than  in  the  former. 

The  distribution  of  the  business  of  pre- 
paring coffee  is  shown  by  the  figures  of  the 
Census  Bureau,  which  reports  for  1914  a 
total  of  696  establishments  under  the  desig- 
nation "Coffee  and  spice,  roasting  and 
grinding."  It  was  found  to  be  necessary 
to    adopt    this    classification    inasmuch    as 


most  establishments  handle  both  coffee  and 
spices.  Of  the  696,  however,  658  had  cof- 
fee as  their  principal  product,  and  the  fig- 
ures may  thus  be  taken  as  indicating  fairly 
well  the  general  distribution  of  the  coffee- 
manufacturing  industry.  These  figures,  for 
the  various  states,  are  shown  on  page  515. 
Preliminary  figures  for  the  1919  census 
show  that  the  value  of  the  product  almost 
doubled  in  the  five  years  1914  - 19,  amount- 
ing to  $304,740,000  in  1919,  while  the  num- 
ber of  establishments  increased  from  696  to 
794,  of  which  769  specialize  in  coffee. 


Chapter  XXXI 
SOME  BIG  MEN  AND  NOTABLE   ACHIEVEMENTS 

B.  G.  Arnold,  the  first,  and  Hermann  Sielcken,  the  last  of  the 
American  '^coffee  kings"  —  John  Arbuckle,  the  original  package- 
coffee  man  —  Jahez  Burns,  the  man  who  revolutionized  the  roasted 
coffee  business  by  his  contributions  as  inventor,  manufacturer,  and 
writer  —  Coffee-trade  booms  and  panics  —  Brazil's  first  valorization 
enterprise  —  War-time  government  control  of  coffee  —  The  story  of 
soluble  coffee 


IN  the  history  of  the  coffee  trade  of  the 
United  States,  several  names  stand  out 
because  of  sensational  accomplishments, 
and  because  of  notable  contributions  made 
to  the  development  of  the  industry.  In 
green  coffee,  we  have  B.  G.  Arnold,  the 
first,  and  Hermann  Sielcken  the  last,  of  the 
"coffee  kings";  in  the  roasting  business, 
there  was  John  Arbuckle,  the  original  na- 
tional-package-coffee man;  and  in  the  cof- 
fee-roasting machinery  business,  Jabez 
Burns,  inventor,  manufacturer,  and  writer. 

The  First  ''Coffee  King" 

Benjamin  Green  Arnold  came    to    New 

York  from  Ehode  Island  in  1836  and  took 

If  . 

a  job  as  accountant  with  an  east-side  gro- 
f^er.  He  was  thrifty,  industrious,  and  kept 
his  own  counsel.  He  was  a  born  financial 
leader.  Fifteen  years  later  he  was  made 
a  junior  partner  in  the  firm.  By  1868,  the 
bookkeeper  of  1836  was  the  head  of  the 
business,  with  a  line  of  credit  amounting 
to  half  a  million  dollars  —  a  notable 
achievement  in  those  days. 

Mr.  Arnold  embarked  upon  his  big  specu- 
lation in  coffee  in  1869.  For  ten  years  he 
maintained  his  mastery  of  the  market,  and 
in  that  time  amassed  a  fortune.  It  is  re- 
lated that  one  year 's  operations  of  this  dar- 
ing trader  yielded  his  firm  a  profit  of  a  mil- 
lion and  a  quarter  of  dollars. 


Benjamin  Green  Arnold 

B.  G.  Arnold  was  the  first  president  of 
the  New  York  Coffee  Exchange.  He  was 
one  of  the  founders  of  the  Down  Town 
Association  in  1878.  The  president  of  the 
United  States  was  his  friend,  and  a  guest 


517 


518 


ALL     ABOUT     COFFEE 


at  his  luxurious  home.  But  the  high-price 
levels  to  which  Arnold  had  forced  the 
coffee  market  started  a  coffee-planting  fe- 
ver in  the  countries  of  production.  Almost 
before  he  knew  it,  there  was  an  overproduc- 
tion that  swamped  the  market  and  forced 
down  prices  with  so  amazing  rapidity  that 
panic  seized  upon  the  traders.  Few  that 
were  caught  in  that  memorable  coffee 
maelstrom  survived  financially. 

Arnold  himself  was  a  victim,  but  such 
was  the  man's  character  that  his  failure 
was  regarded  by  many  as  a  public  misfor- 
tune. Some  men  differed  with  him  as  to 
the  wisdom  of  promoting  a  coffee  corner, 
and  protested  that  it  was  against  public 
policy ;  but  Arnold 's  personal  integrity  was 
never  questioned,  and  his  mercantile  ability 
and  honorable  business  dealings  won  for 
him  an  affectionate  regard  that  continued 
after  his  fortune  had  been  swept  away. 

After  the  collapse  of  the  coffee  corner, 
Mr.  Arnold  resumed  business  with  his  son, 
F.  B.  Arnold.  He  died  in  New  York,  De- 
cember 10,  1894,  in  his  eighty-second  year. 
The  son  died  in  Rome  in  1906.  The  busi- 
ness which  the  father  founded,  however, 
continues  today  as  Arnold,  Dorr  &  Co.,  one 
of  the  most  honored  and  respected  names 
in  Front  Street. 

Hermann  Sielcken,  the  Last  Coffee  King 

If  B.  G.  Arnold  was  first  coffee  king, 
Hermann  Sielcken  was  last,  for  it  is  un- 
likely that  ever  again,  in  the  United  States, 
will  it  be  possible  for  one  man  to  achieve 
so  absolute  a  dictatorship  of  the  green 
coffee  business. 

There  never  was  a  coffee  romance  like 
that  of  Hermann  Sielcken 's.  Coming  to 
America  a  poor  boy  in  1869,  forty-five 
years  later,  he  left  it  many  times  a  million- 
aire. For  a  time,  he  ruled  the  coffee  mar- 
kets of  the  world  with  a  kind  of  autocracy 
such  as  the  trade  had  never  seen  before  and 
probably  will  not  see  again.  And  when, 
just  before  the  outbreak  of  the  World  War, 
he  returned  to  Germany  for  the  annual 
visit  to  his  Baden-Baden  estate,  from  which 
he  was  destined  never  again  to  sally  forth 
to  deeds  of  financial  prowess,  his  subse- 
quent involuntary  retirement  found  him  a 
huge  commercial  success,  where  B.  G. 
Arnold  was  a  colossal  failure.  It  was  the 
World  War  and  a  lingering  illness  that,  at 
the  end,  stopped  Hermann  Sielcken.  But, 
though  he  had  to  admit  himself  bested  by 


the  fortunes  of  war,  he  was  still  undefeated 
in  the  world  of  commerce.  He  died  in  his 
native  Germany  in  1917,  the  most  com- 
manding, and  the  most  cordially  disliked, 
figure  ever  produced  by  the  coffee  trade. 

Hermann  Sielcken  was  born  in  Hamburg 
in  1847,  and  so  was  seventy  years  old  when 
he  died  at  Baden-Baden,  October  8,  1917. 
He  was  the  son  of  a  small  baker  in  Ham- 
burg ;  and  before  he  was  twenty-one,  he 
went'  to  Costa  Rica  to  work  for  a  German 
firm  there.  He  did  not  like  Costa  Rica,  and 
within  a  year  he  went  to  San  Francisco, 
where,  with  a  knowledge  of  English  al- 
ready acquired,  he  got  a  job  as  a  shipping 
clerk.  This  was  in  1869.  A  wool  concern 
engaged  him  as  buyer,  and  for  about  six 
years  he  covered  the  territory  between  the 
Rockies  and  the  Pacific,  buying  wool.  On 
one  of  these  trips  he  was  in  a  stage-coach 
wreck  in  Oregon  and  nearly  lost  his  life. 
He  received  injuries  affecting  his  back 
from  which  he  never  fully  recovered,  and 
which  caused  the  stooped  posture  which 
marked  his  carriage  through  life  there- 
after. When  he  recovered,  he  came  to  New 
York  seeking  employment,  and  obtained  a 
clerical  position  with  L.  Strauss  &  Sons, 
importers  of  crockery  and  glassware.  In 
1880,  married  Josephine  Chabert,  whose 
father  kept  a  restaurant  in  Park  Place. 

Sielcken  had  learned  Spanish  in  Costa 
Rica,  and  this  knowledge  aided  him  to  a 
place  with  W.  H.  Grossman  &  Bro.  (W.  H. 
and  George  AY.  Grossman)  merchandise 
commission  merchants  in  Broad  Street.  He 
was  sent  to  South  America  to  solicit  con- 
signments for  the  Crossmans,  and  was  sur- 
prisingly successful.  For  six  or  eight 
months  every  South  American  mail  brought 
orders  to  the  house.  Then,  as  the  story 
goes,  his  reports  suddenly  ceased.  Weeks 
and  months  passed,  and  the  firm  heard 
nothing  from  him. 

The  Crossmans  speculated  concerning  his 
fate.  It  was  thought  he  might  have  caught 
a  fever  and  died.  It  was  almost  impossible 
to  trace  him ;  at  the  same  time  it  distressed 
them  to  lose  so  promising  a  representative. 
Giving  up  all  hope  of  hearing  from  him 
again,  they  began  to  look  around  for  some 
one  to  take  his  place.  Then,  one  morning, 
he  walked  into  the  office  and  said,  ''How 
do  you  do?"  just  as  if  he  had  left  them 
only  the  evening  before.  The  members  of 
the  firm  questioned  him  eagerly.     He    an- 


BIG    MEN    AXD    ACHIEVEMENTS 


519 


Hermann  Sielckex 

swered  some  of  their  questions ;  but  most  of 
them,  he  did  not.  Then  he  laid  a  package 
on  the  table. 

''Gentlemen",  he  said,  "I  have  given  a 
large  amount  of  business  to  you,  far  more 
than  you  expected,  as  the  result  of  my  trip. 
I  have  a  lot  more  business  which  I  can  give 
to  you.  It's  all  in  black  and  white  in  the 
papers  in  this  package.  I  think  any  per- 
son who  has  worked  as  hard  as  I  have,  and 
so  well,  deserves  a  partnership  in  this  firm. 
If  you  want  these  orders,  you  may  have 
them.  They  represent  a  big  pro^t  to  you. 
Good  work  deserves  proper  reward.  Look 
these  papers  over,  and  then  tell  me  if  you 
want  me  to  continue  with  you  as  a  member 
of  this  firm." 

After  the  Crossmans  had  looked  those 
papers  over  they  had  no  doubt  of  the  ad- 
visability of  taking  Sielcken  into  partner- 
ship. He  was  admitted  as  a  junior  in  1881  - 
82  and  became  a  full  partner  in  1885.  For 
more  than  twenty  years  Hermann  Sielcken 
was  the  human  dynamo  that  pushed  the 
firm  forward  into  a  place  of  world  prom- 
inence. He  was  the  best  informed  man  on 
coffee  in  two  continents ;  and  when,  in  1904, 
the  firm  name  was  changed  to  Grossman  & 
Sielcken  —  W.   H.    Grossman  having  died 


ten  years  before  —  he  was  well  prepared 
to  assert  his  rights  as  king  of  the  trade. 
He  proved  his  kingship  by  his  masterful 
handling  of  valorization  three  years  later. 

Sielcken  was  many  times  credited  with 
working  ''corners"  in  coffee;  but  he  would 
never  admit  that  a  corner  was  possible  in 
anything  that  came  out  of  the  ground ;  and 
to  the  end,  he  was  insistent  in  his  denials 
of  ever  having  cornered  coffee.  As  a  dar- 
ing trader,  he  won  his  spurs  in  a  sensa- 
tional tilt  with  the  Arbuckles  in  the  bull 
campaign  of  1887.  Because  of  this,  he  be- 
came one  of  the  most  feared  and  hated  men 
in  the  Goffee  Exchange.  For  a  while,  coffee 
did  not  offer  enough  play  for  his  tremen- 
dous energy  and  ambition.  He  embarked 
in  various  enterprises  —  among  them,  the 
steel  industry  and  railroads.  No  one  was 
too  big  for  Sielcken  to  cross  lances  with. 
He  bested  John  W.  Gates  in  a  titanic  fight 
in  American  Steel  and  Wire.  He  quarreled 
with  E.  H.  Harriman  and  George  J.  Gould 
over  the  possession  of  the  Kansas  Gity, 
Pittsburgh,  and  Gulf  Railroad,  now  known 
as  the  Kansas  City  Southern,  and,  backed 
by  a  syndicate  of  Hollanders,  obtained  con- 
trol. 

While  still  busy  with  the  Kansas  City 
Southern  enterprise  Sielcken  began  work 
on  the  coffee  valorization  scheme  that  he 
carried  to  a  successful  conclusion  in  spite 
of  the  law  of  supply  and  demand  and  the 
interference  of  the  Congress  of  the  United 
States.  Valorization  by  the  Sao  Paulo  gov- 
ernment, and  by  coffee  merchants,  having 
proved  a  failure ;  Sielcken  showed  how  it 
could  be  done  with  all  the  American  cof- 
fee merchants  eliminated  —  except  himself. 
In  this  way,  he  secured  for  himself  the 
opportunity  he  had  long  been  seeking  — 
the  chance  to  bestride  the  coffee  trade  like 
a  colossus.  The  story  is  told  farther  along 
in  this  chapter. 

When  his  partner,  George  W.  Grossman, 
died  in  1913,  it  was  discovered  that  the 
two  men  had  a  remarkable  contract.  Each 
had  made  a  will  giving  one  million  dollars 
to  the  other.  Then  Sielcken  bought  his  late 
partner's  interest  in  the  firm  for  $5,166,991. 

His  first  wife  having  died  at  Maria- 
halden,  his  home  in  Baden-Baden,  seven 
years  before,  Sielcken  married  at  Tessin, 
Germany,  in  1913,  Mrs.  Clara  AVendroth, 
a  widow  with  two  children,  and  the  daugh- 
ter of  the  late  Paul  Isenberg,  a  wealthy 
sugar  planter  of  the  Hawaiian  Islands.  At 


520 


ALL     ABOUT     COFFEE 


that  time  the  coffee  king  was  dividing  his 
time  between  the  Waldorf-Astoria,  New 
York,  which  he  called  his  American  home, 
and  his  wonderful  estate  in  the  fatherland. 
This  latter  was  a  two-hundred-acre  private 
park  containing  four  villas  and  a  marvelous 
bath-house  for  guests  besides  the  main 
villa;  a  rose-garden  in  which  were  culti- 
vated one  hundred  sixty-eight  varieties  on 
some  twenty  thousand  bushes;  a  special 
greenhouse  for  orchids;  and  landscaped 
grounds  calling  for  the  service  of  six  pro- 
fessional gardeners  and  forty  assistants. 
Here  he  delighted  to  entertain  his  friends. 
Frequently,  there  were  fifteen  to  twenty  of 
them  for  dinner  on  the  garden  terrace; 
and,  as  the  moon  came  up  through  the  tall 
hemlocks  and  shone  through  the  majestic 
pines  brought  from  Oregon,  a  full  military 
band  from  Heidelberg,  adown  the  hillside 
among  the  rose  trees,  mingled  its  music 
with  the  dinner  discussions.  There  was 
nothing  at  that  dinner  table  but  peace  and 
harmony,  although  every  language  in 
Europe  was  spoken;  for  Sielcken  knew 
them  all  from  his  youth.  Sometimes  he  en- 
tertained his  guests  with  stories  of  his  (Cali- 
fornia life,  and  sometimes  with  those  of 
shipwrecks  in  South  America. 

All  the  post-telegraph  boys  in  Baden 
knew  every  foot  of  the  sharply  winding 
road  up  the  Yburg  Strasse  to  Villa  Maria- 
halden;  and  the  guests  therein  have  count- 
ed more  than  eighty  cables  received,  and 
more  than  thirty  sent  in  a  single  day.  And 
those  daily  cable  messages  were  to  and 
from  all  quarters  of  the  globe,  and  to  and 
from  the  master,  who  handled  them  all, 
without  even  a  secretary  or  typewriter. 
Nowhere  in  the  entire  establishment  was 
there  even  an  appearance  of  business,  ex- 
cept as  the  messages  came  and  went  on  the 
highway.  Sielcken  manifested  his  great- 
est delight  in  showing  his  friends  his  or- 
chids, his  roses,  his  pigeons,  his  trout,  and 
his  trees. 

Like  Napoleon,  this  merchant  prince  re- 
quired only  five  hours  sleep.  It  was  his 
custom  to  go  to  bed  at  one  and  to  be  up  at 
six.  Did  he  wish  to  know  anything  that 
the  cables  did  not  bring  him,  he  jumped 
into  his  eighty-horse-power  Mercedes  with 
a  party  of  guests  and  was  off  with  the  sun- 
rise, down  the  Rhine  Valley,  on  his  way  to 
Paris  or  Hamburg ;  and  before  one  realized 
that  he  was  gone,  he  was  back  again. 


In  1913,  Sielcken  admitted  to  partner- 
ship in  his  firm  two  employees  of  long  ser- 
vice, John  S.  Sorenson  and  Thorlief  S.  B. 
Nielsen.  He  went  to  Germany  in  1914, 
shortly  before  the  beginning  of  the  World 
War,  and  remained  at  Mariahalden  until 
he  died  in  1917.  Sielcken  never  would  be- 
lieve that  war  was  possible  until  it  had 
actually  started.  Up  to  the  last  moment  in 
July,  1914,  he  was  cabling  his  New  York 
partner  that  there  would  probably  be  no 
hostilities.  He  lost  a  bet  of  'a  thousand 
pounds  made  with  a  visiting  Brazilian 
friend  a  few  days  before  war  was  declared. 
The  guest  believed  war  inevitable  and  won. 
A  few  days  before  Sielcken 's  death  the  old 
firm  was  dissolved  under  the  Trading  with 
the  Enemy  Act,  being  succeeded  by  the 
firm  of  Sorenson  &  Nielsen.  The  former 
had  been  with  the  business  thirty-four 
years,  and  the  latter  thirty-two  years.  The 
alien  property  custodian  took  over  Sielc- 
ken's  interest  for  the  duration  of  the  war. 

Rumors  in  1915  that  the  German  govern- 
ment M^as  extorting  large  sums  of  money 
from  Sielcken  brought  denials  from  his  as- 
sociates here.  After  the  war,  it  was  con- 
firmed that  no  such  extortions  took  place. 

Sielcken  always  claimed  American  citi- 
zenship. There  was  a  widely  circulated 
story,  never  proved,  that  he  tore  up  his 
citizenship  papers  in  1912  when  the  United 
States  government  began  its  suit  to  force 
the  sale  of  coffee  stocks  held  here  under  the 
valorization  agreement.  The  Supreme 
Court  of  California  in  1921  decided  that  he 
was  a  citizen,  and  his  interests  and  those  of 
his  widow,  amounting  to  $4,000,000,  held 
by  the  alien  property  custodian,  were 
thereupon  released  to  his  heirs.  It  appeared 
in  evidence  that  he  took  out  his  citizen- 
ship papers  in  San  Francisco  in  1873  -  74, 
but  lost  them  in  a  shipwreck  off  the  coast 
of  Brazil  in  1876.  The  San  Francisco  fire 
destroyed  the  other  records;  but  under  act 
of  legislature  re-establishing  them,  the  citi- 
zenship claim  was  declared  valid. 

Hermann  Sielcken  never  liked  the  title 
of  ' '  coffee  king. ' '  He  was  once  asked  about 
this  appellation,  and  turned  smartly  upon 
the  interviewer. 

"Nonsense,"  he  said.  "I  am  no  king.  I 
don't  like  the  term,  because  I  never  heard 
of  a  'king'  who  did  not  fail." 

Sielcken  had  no  use  for  titles.  T.  S.  B. 
Nielsen  says  that  at  a  dinner  party  in  Ger- 


BIG    MEN    AND    ACHIEVEMENTS 


521 


I 


many  in  1915  he  heard  Sielcken  explain  to 
a  large  number  of  guests  that  the  United 
States  was  the  best  country  because  there 
a  man  was  appraised  at  his  real  value. 
What  he  did,  and  how  he  lived,  counted  — 
not  birth  or  titles. 

While  his  greatest  achievement  was,  of 
course,  the  valorization  enterprise,  he 
played  a  not  unimportant  role  in  the  Have- 
meyer-Arbuckle  sugar-trust  fight.  He 
aided  the  late  Henry  0.  Havemeyer  to  se- 
cure control  of  the  Woolson  Spice  Co.  of 
Toledo  in  1896,  so  as  to  enable  the  Have- 
meyer's  to  retaliate  with  Lion  brand  cof- 
fee for  the  Arbuckles'  entrance  into  the 
sugar  business.  The  Woolson  Spice  Co. 
sold  the  Lion  brand  in  the  middle  west,  and 
the  American  Coifee  Co.  sold  it  in  the  east. 
That  was  the  beginning  of'  a  losing  price- 
war  that  lasted  ten  years.  At  the  end, 
Sielcken  took  over  the  Woolson  property  at 
a  price  considerably  lower  than  originally 
paid  for  it.  In  1919,  the  Woolson  Spice 
Co.  brought  suit  against  the  Sielcken  estate, 
alleging  a  loss  of  $932,000  on  valorization 
coffee  sold  to  it  by  Sielcken  just  after  the 
federal  government  began  its  suit  in  1912 
to  break  up  the  valorization  pool  in  the 
itnited  States.  The  Woolson  Spice  Co. 
paid  the  "market  price",  as  did  the  rest  of 
the  buyers  of  valorization  coffee ;  but  it  was 
charged  that  Sielcken,  as  managing  partner 
of  Crossman  &  Sielcken,  sold  the  coffee  to 
the  Woolson  Spice  Co.,  of  which  he  was 
president,  "at  artificially  enhanced  prices 
and  in  quantities  far  in  excess  of  its  legiti- 
mate needs,  concealing  his  knowledge  that 
before  the  plaintiff  could  use  the  coffee,  the 
price  would  decline."  Sielcken  collected 
for  the  coffee  sold  $3,218,666.    ^ 

When  the  United  States  government 
crossed  lances  with  Sielcken  in  1912  over 
the  valorization  scheme,  it  looked  for  a  time 
as  if  he  would  be  unhorsed.  But  men  and 
governments  were  all  the  same  to  Sielcken ; 
and  at  the  end  of  the  fight  it  was  discovered 
that  not  only  was  he  undefeated  —  for 
the  government  never  pressed  its  suit  to 
conclusion  —  but  that  his  prestige  as  king 
and  master  mind  of  the  coffee  trade  had 
gained  immeasurably  by  the  adventure. 

Hermann  Sielcken  typified  German  effi- 
ciency raised  to  the  nth  power.  He  was  a 
colossus  of  commerce  with  the  military 
alertness  of  a  Bismarck.  His  mental  proc- 
esses were  profound,  and  his  vision  was 
far-reaching.    He  was  a  resourceful  trader, 


an  austere  friend,  a  shrewd  and  uncompro- 
mising foe.  Physically,  he  was  a  big  man 
with  a  bull  neck  and  black,  piercing  eyes. 
His  policy  in  coffee  was  one  of  blood  and 
iron.  He  brooked  no  interference  with  his 
plans,  and  he  was  ruthless  in  his  methods 
of  dealing  with  men  and  governments. 
Usually  silent  and  uncommunicative,  occa- 
sionally he  exploded  under  stress;  and 
when  he  did  so,  there  was  no  mincing  of 
words.  He  knew  no  fear.  Newspaper  crit- 
icism annoyed  him  but  little;  and  he  had 
a  kind  of  contempt  for  the  fourth  estate  as 
a  whole,  although  he  knew  how  to  use  it 
when  it  suited  his  purpose.  He  avoided 
the  limelight,  and  never  courted  publicity 
for  himself.  Socially  he  was  a  princely 
host;  but  few  knew  him  intimately,  except 
perhaps  in  his  native  Germany. 

Sielcken 's  widow  was  married  in  New 
York,  February  11,  1922,  to  Joseph  M. 
Schwartz,  the  Russian  baritone  of  the  Chi- 
cago Opera  Company. 

The  Story  of  John  Arhuckle 

John  Arbuckle,  for  nearly  fifty  years  the 
honored  dean  of  the  American  coffee  trade, 
pioneer  package-coffee  man,  some  time  cof- 
fee king,  sugar  merchant,  philanthropist, 
and  typical  American,  came  from  fine, 
rugged  Scotch  stock.  He  was  the  son  of  a 
well-to-do  Scottish  woolen-mill  owner  in  Al- 
legheny, Pa.,  where  he  was  born,  July  11, 
1839.  He  often  said  he  was  raised  on  skim 
milk.  He  received  a  common  school  educa- 
tion in  Pittsburgh  and  Allegheny.  He  and 
Henry  Phipps,  the  coke  and  steel  head,  are 
said  to  have  occupied  adjoining  desks  in 
one  of  the  public  schools,  Andrew  Car- 
negie being  at  that  time  in  another  grade 
of  the  same  school.  He  had  a  strong  bent 
for  science  and  machinery;  and,  although 
he  chose  the  coffee  instead  of  the  steel  busi- 
ness for  his  career,  the  basis  of  his  success 
was  invention.  He  also  attended  Washing- 
ton and  Jefferson  College  at  Washington, 
Pennsylvania.' 

The  Arbuckle  business  was  founded  at 
Pittsburg,  in  1859,  when  Charles  Arbuckle, 
his  uncle  Duncan  McDonald,  and  their 
friend  William  Roseburg,  organized  the 
wholesale  grocery  firm  of  McDonald  &  Ar- 
buckle. One  year  later  John  Arbuckle,  the 
younger  brother  of  Charles  Arbuckle,  was 

1  Much  of  the  information  that  follows  is  from  an 
article  by  M.  E.  Goetzinger  in  the  Percolator,  Feb- 
ruary, 1921. 


522 


ALL     ABOUT     COFFEE 


admitted  to  the  firm,  and  the  firm  name 
was  changed  to  McDonald  &  Arbuckles. 
McDonald  and  Roseburg  retired  from  the 
firm  a  few  years  later,  leaving  the  business 
in  the  hands  of  the  two  youthful,  hopeful, 
and  energetic  brothers,  who  under  the  firm 
name  of  Arbuckles  &  Co.,  soon  made  their 
firm  one  of  the  important  wholesale  grocery 
houses  in  Pennsylvania.  Although  little 
thinking  at  the  time  that  their  greatest  suc- 
cess was  to  be  achieved  in  coffee,  and  that 
a  new  idea  of  one  of  the  partners  —  that  of 
marketing  roasted  coffee  in  original  pack- 
ages —  would  make  their  name  familiar  in 
every  hamlet  in  the  country,  yet  the  first 
two  entries  in  the  original  day-book  of 
McDonald  &  Arbuckles  record  purchases  of 
coffee. 

Prior  to  the  sixties,  coffee  was  not  gen- 
erally sold  roasted  or  ground,  ready  for  the 
coffee  pot.  Except  in  the  big  cities,  most 
housewives  bought  their  coffee  green,  and 
roasted  it  in  their  kitchen  stoves  as  needed. 
John  Arbuckle,  having  become  impressed 
with  the  wasteful  methods  and  unsatisfac- 
tory results  of  this  kitchen  roasting,  had 
already  begun  his  studies  of  roasting  and 
packaging  problems,  studies  that  he  never 
gave  up.  How,  first  to  roast  coffee  scientif- 
ically, and  then  to  preserve  its  freshness  in 
the  interval  between  the  roaster  and  the 
coffee  pot,  continued  to  be  an  absorbing 
study  until  his  death.  The  range  of  his 
work  may  be  illustrated  by  reference  to  his 
first  and  his  last  patents.  In  1868,  he  pat- 
ented a  process  of  glazing  coffee,  which  had 
for  its  object  the  preservation  of  the  flavor 
and  aroma  of  coffee  by  sealing  the  pores  of 
the  coffee  bean.  Thirty-five  years  later,  he 
patented  a  huge  coffee  roaster  in  which, 
more  closely  than  in  any  other  roaster,  he 
felt  he  could  approach  his  ideal  of  roasting 
coffee  —  that  ideal  being  to  hold  the  coffee 
beans  in  suspension  in  super-heated  air 
during  the  entire  roasting  process,  and  not 
to  allow  them  to  come  in  contact  with  a 
heated  iron  surface. 

By  1865,  John  Arbuckle  had  satisfied 
himself  that  a  carefully  roasted  coffee, 
packed  while  still  warm  in  small  individual 
containers,  would  measurably  overcome  the 
objections  to  selling  loose  coffee  in  a  roasted 
state.  So  in  that  year  (1865),  although  not 
without  the  misgivings  of  his  elder  brother, 
and  even  in  the  face  of  the  ridicule  of  com- 
petitors, who  derided  the  plan  of  selling 
roasted   coffee   "in   little  paper  bags  like 


peanuts",  Arbuckles  &  Co.  introduced  the 
new  idea,  namely,  roasted  coffee  in  original 
packages.  The  story  of  the  development  of 
that  simple  idea,  which  soon  spread  from 
coast  to  coast,  and  of  how  it  laid  the  foun- 
dations of  a  great  fortune,  is  one  of  the  ro- 
mances of  American  business. 

Although  Osborn's  Celebrated  Prepared 
Java  Coffee,  a  ground-coffee  package,  first 
put  on  the  New  York  market  by  Lewis  A. 
Osborn,  and  later  exploited  by  Thomas 
Reid  in  the  early  sixties,  appears  to  have 
been  the  original  package  coffee,  much  of 
the  fame  attached  to  the  name  of  Arbuckle 
comes  from  its  association  with  the  Ariosa 
coffee  package,  which  was  the  first  success- 
ful national  brand  of  package  coffee.  It 
was  launched  in  1873.  The  Ariosa  pre- 
mium list  (premiums  have  been  a  feature 
of  the  Arbuckle  business  since  1895)  in- 
cludes a  hundred  articles.  Almost  any- 
thing from  a  pair  of  suspenders  or  a  tooth- 
brush, to  clocks,  wringers,  and  corsets  may 
be  obtained  in  exchange  for  Ariosa  cou- 
pons. 

The  common  belief  that  the  name  Ariosa 
was  made  up  from  the  words  Rio  and  San- 
tos (said  to  be  the  component  parts  of  the 
original  blend)  is  erroneous.  It  was  arbi- 
trarily coined,  though  it  is  not  known  what 
considerations  prompted  it.  One  story  has 
it  that  the  "A"  stands  for  Arbuckle,  the 
"rio"  for  Rio,  and  the  "sa"  for  South 
America. 

Early  in  the  seventies,  the  great  business 
opportunities  of  New  York  City  had  at- 
tracted the  two  brothers,  and  a  branch  was 
established  in  New  York  in  charge  of  John 
Arbuckle,  the  main  business  in  Pittsburg 
being  left  in  the  care  of  his  brother  Charles. 
The  growth  of  the  New  York  branch  soon 
made  it  necessary  for  Charles  Arbuckle  to 
leave  the  Pittsburg  business  in  charge  of 
trusted  employees,  and  to  come  to  New 
York.  In  time,  the  coffee  business  of  the 
New  York  house  overshadowed  the  grocery 
lines ;  and  the  latter  were  abandoned  there, 
so  that  the  entire  energy  of  the  firm  in 
New  York  might  be  devoted  to  the  coffee 
business,  which  thenceforth  was  operated 
under  the  firm  name  of  Arbuckle  Bros. 
The  Arbuckle  coffee  business,  which  began 
with  a  single  roaster  in  1865,  had  eighty- 
five  machines  running  in  Pittsburg  and 
New  York  in  1881. 

Charles  Arbuckle  died  in  1891.  and  John 
Arbuckle  admitted  as  partners  his  nephew. 


BIG    MEX    AXD    ACHIEVEMENTS 


523 


John  Arbuckle 

William  Arbuckle  Jamison,  and  two  ■  em- 
ployees, William  V.  R,  Smith  and  James 
N.  Jarvie,  the  business  continuing  under 
the  former  name  of  Arbuckle  Bros.  The 
most  important  step  taken  by  the  firm 
while  thus  constituted  was  its  entrance 
into  the  sugar  refining  business  in  1896. 
That  entrance  had  to  be  forced  against  the 
bitterest  opposition  of  a  so-called  sugar 
trust,  and  brought  on  a  ''war"  signalized 
by  the  most  ruthless  cutting  of  prices  of 
both  coffee  and  sugar.  This  war  was  costly 
to  both  sides;  but  when  it  had  ended,  Ar- 
buckle Bros,  remained  unshaken  in  the  pre- 
eminence of  their  package-coffee  business 
and  had  acquired  also  great  publicity  and 
a  fine  trade  in  refined  sugar. 

Arbuckles  were  always  large  consumers 
of  sugar  in  connection  with  their  coffee 
glaze,  and  having  introduced  the  package 
sugar  idea  with  their  customers  some  years 
before,  they  at  last  made  up  their  minds  to 
refine  for  their  own  needs  and  thus  to  save 
the  profits  paid  to  "the  Havemeyers".  It 
is  generally  conceded  that  John  Arbuckle 's 
shrewdness  and  business  sagacity  in  having 
previously  acquired  the  Smyser  patents  on 
a  weighing  and  packing  machine,  and  his 
control  of  it,  really  led  to  the  coffee-sugar 


war.  "This  packing  machine",  said  the 
Spice  Mill,  when  Henry  E.  Smyser  died  in 
1899,  "puts  him  [Smyser]  with  the  great- 
est inventors  of  our  day." 

The  sugar  trust  met  the  Arbuckle  chal- 
lenge by  invading  the  coffee-roasting  field. 
This  they  accomplished  by  securing  a  con- 
trolling interest  for  $2,000,000  in  one  of 
the  largest  competing  roasting  plants  in 
the  country,  that  of  the  Woolson  Spice  Co., 
of  Toledo,  Ohio,  that  had  in  the  Lion 
brand,  a  ready-made  package  coffee  where- 
with to  fight  Ariosa.  The  re-organization 
of  the  Woolson  Spice  Co.  in  1897,  when  A. 
M.  Woolson  was  relieved  of  the  office  of 
president,  disclosed,  among  others,  the 
names  of  Hermann  Sielcken  in  close  jux- 
taposition to  that  of  H.  0.  Havemeyer  on 
the  board  of  directors.  Both  men  helped 
to  make  coffee-trade  history. 

The  trade  found  the  coffee-sugar  war  the 
all-absorbing  topic  for  several  years.  Hot 
debates  were  held  on  the  question  as  to 
whether,  on  one  hand,  the  Arbuckles  had 
the  right  to  enter  the  sugar-refining  busi- 
ness and,  on  the  other,  as  to  whether  the 
sugar-trust  had  a  right  to  retaliate.  The 
answer  seemed  to  be  "yes"  in  both  in- 
stances. 

In  two  years,  John  Arbuckle 's  model 
sugar  refinery  in  Brooklyn  was  turning  out 
package  sugar  at  the  rate  of  five  thousand 
barrels  a  day.  The  Woolson  Spice  Co.  was 
credited  with  spending  unheard-of  sums  of 
money  in  advertising  Lion  brand  coffee. 
The  eastern  newspaper  displays  alone  ex- 
ceeded anything  ever  before  attempted  in 
this  line.  However,  many  people  are  of 
the  opinion  that  it  was  a  tactical  error  on 
the  part  of  the  sugar  interests  to  spend  so 
much  money  advertising  a  Rio  coffee  in  the 
central  and  New  England  states,  while 
John  Arbuckle  was  confining  his  activities 
to  the  south  and  the  west,  where  there  al- 
ready existed  a  Rio  taste  among  consumers. 

The  legal  fight  which  the  Arbuckles  car- 
ried on  with  the  Havemeyers  for  the  con- 
trol of  the  sugar  business  in  this  celebrated 
coffee-sugar  war  is  said  to  have  cost  mil- 
lions on  both  sides. 

Eventually,  the  Havemeyers  were  glad 
to  be  relieved  of  their  coffee  interests,  but 
John  Arbuckle  continued  to  sell  both  coffee 
and  sugar. 

Mr.  Arbuckle  married  Miss  Mary  Alice 
Kerr  in  Pittsburg,  in  1868.  She  died  in 
1907      His  many  charities  included  boat 


524 


ALL     ABOUT     COFFEE 


trips  for  children,  luxurious  farm  vacations 
for  tired  wage-earners,  boat-raising  and 
life-saving  schemes,  a  low-priced  home  for 
working  girls  and  men  on  an  old  full- 
rigged  ship  dying  off  a  New  York  dock, 
which  he  called  his  ' '  Deep  Sea  Hotel, ' '  and 
a  vacation  enterprise  for  young  men  and 
young  women  at  New  Paltz,  N.  Y.,  which 
was  known  as  the  "Mary  and  John  Ar- 
buckle  Farm."  A  magazine  for  children, 
called  Sunshine,  was  another  benevolent 
enterprise  of  his. 

When  John  Arbuckle  died  at  his  Brook- 
lyn home,  March  27,  1912,  he  had  been  ill 
only  four  days.  The  New  York  Coffee  Ex- 
change closed  at  two  o'clock  the  day  fol- 
lowing, after  adopting  appropriate  resolu- 
tions and  appointing  a  committee  to  attend 
the  funeral.  His  estate  in  New  York  was 
valued  at  $33,000,000. 

W.  V.  R.  Smith  and  James  N.  Jarvie  re- 
tired from  the  firm  in  1906 ;  and  John  Ar- 
buckle and  his  nephew  W.  A.  Jamison  con- 
tinued it  as  sole  owners  and  partners  until 
Mr.  Arbuckle 's  death  in  1912.  Mr.  Ar- 
buckle died  childless  and  a  widower,  leav- 
ing as  his  only  heirs  his  two  sisters,  Mrs. 
Catherine  Arbuckle  Jamison  and  Miss 
Christina  Arbuckle.  Mrs.  Jamison  is  the 
widow  of  the  late  Robert  Jamison,  who  had 
been  a  prominent  drygoods  merchant  in 
Pittsburg.  William  A.  Jamison  is  her  eld- 
est and  only  living  son.  Following  the 
death  of  John  Arbuckle,  a  new  partnership 
was  formed  in  which  Mrs.  Jamison,  Miss 
Arbuckle,  and  Mr.  Jamison  became  the 
partners  and  owners,  and  that  partnership, 
without  change  of  name,  continues.  Prob- 
ably there  is  no  other  mercantile  establish- 
ment of  similar  size  in  the  country  that  is 
carried  on  as  a  partnership,  and  none 
which  after  more  than  sixty  years  is  so  ex- 
clusively owned  by  members  of  the  imme- 
diate family  of  its  founders. 

The  Arbuckle  business,  as  it  is  today,  is 
John  Arbuckle 's  best  monument.  All  that  it 
is  he  foresaw ;  for  behind  those  keen,  pene- 
trating eyes,  there  was  wonderful  vision. 
Simple  in  his  tastes;  democratic  in  his 
dress,  in  his  habits  and  his  speech ;  he  was 
one  of  the  most  approachable  of  our  first 
captains  of  industry.  Many  of  the  youn- 
ger generation  in  the  coffee  business  have 
found  inspiration  in  contemplating  John 
Arbuckle 's  achievements.  As  represented 
in  what  has  been  called  "the  world's  great- 
est coffee    business",    these    include    other 


package  coffees,  such  as  Yuban,  Arbuckle 's 
Breakfast,  Arbuckle 's  Drinksum,  and  Ar- 
buckle's  Certified  Java  and  Mocha.  The 
pioneer  Ariosa  brand  is  still  being  sold ;  al- 
though it  is  interesting  to  note  that  the  de- 
mand for  ground  Ariosa  is  increasing, 
marking  the  swing  of  the  pendulum  of  pub- 
lic taste  away  from  the  original  bean  pack- 
age to  the  so-called  "steel-cut,"  or  ground, 
coffee  package.  Will  it  swing  back  again, 
some  di&y  1  Many  coffee  men  believe  it  will. 
If  it  does,  good  old  Ariosa,  with  its  coating 
of  sugar  and  eggs,  will  no  doubt  be  on  the 
job  to  meet  it. 

Yuban  was  launched  in  the  fall  of  1913. 
It  is  a  high-grade  package  coffee,  whereas 
Ariosa  is  popular-priced.  In  addition  to 
the  package  coffee  business,  Arbuckle  Bros, 
have  many  other  activities.  They  deal  in 
green  coffee  as  well  as  roasted  coffee  in 
bulk.  The  wholesale  grocery  business  in 
Pittsburg  continues  under  the  old  name  of 
Arbuckles  &  Co.;  while  in  Chicago,  Ar- 
buckle Bros,  have  a  branch  equipped  with 
a  coffee-roasting-and-packaging  plant,  also 
spice-grinding  and  extract-manufacturing 
plants,  and  do  a  large  business  in  teas.  A 
branch  in  Kansas  City  distributes  the  prod- 
ucts manufactured  in  New  York  and  Chi- 
cago. In  Brazil,  offices  are  maintained  at 
Rio  de  Janeiro,  Santos,  and  Victoria,  as 
Arbuckle  &  Co.  In  Mexico,  Arbuckle  Bros, 
are  established  at  Jalapa,  with  branches  at 
Cordoba  and  Coatepec.  In  season,  the 
warehouses  and  hulling  plants  at  those 
points  employ  as  many  as  650  hands  pre- 
paring Mexican  coffee  for  shipment  to  New 
York. 

Arbuckle  Bros,  are  direct  importers  of 
green  coffee  on  a  large  scale,  and  are  known 
also  as  heavy  buyers  "on  the  street."  The 
roasting  capacity  of  their  Brooklyn  plant 
is  from  8,000  to  9,000  bags  per  day.  The 
cylinder  equipment  of  twenty-four  Burns 
roasters  is  supplemented  by  four  ' '  Jumbo ' ' 
roasters  of  Arbuckle  build,  each  capable  of 
roasting  thirty-five  bags  at  one  time.  The 
Ariosa  package  business  grew  from  the 
smallest  beginnings  to  more  than  800,000 
packages  per  day.  Individual  brands  have 
not  held  their  lead  of  late  years;  but  the 
volume  of  package-coffee  business  is  great- 
er than  ever.  Many  jobbers  now  pack 
brands  of  their  own,  besides  handling  the 
Arbuckle  brands. 

Distribution  of  roasted  coffees  outside 
Chicago  and  Kansas  City  is  accomplished 


BIG    MEN    AND    ACHIEVEMENTS 


525 


through  the  medium  of  more  than  oue  hun- 
dred stock  depots  in  as  many  different  ci- 
ties of  the  United  States. 

To  operate  the  world's  greatest  coffee 
business  is  no  small  undertaking ;  and  when 
this  is  coupled  with  an  important  sugar- 
refining  business  and  a  waterfront  ware- 
house-and-terminal  business,  plenty  of 
room  is  needed.  So  we  find  the  plant  along 
the  Brooklyn  waterfront  occupying  an 
area  of  a  dozen  city  blocks.  An  idea  of  the 
extent  and  diversity  of  the  activities  of  the 
plant  may  be  gained  from  a  brief  reference 
to  the  utilities,  and  the  trades,  and  even  the 
professions,  that  are  required  to  make  the 
wheels  go  round. 

To  ship  more  than  one  hundred  cars  of 
coffee  and  sugar  in  a  single  day  calls  for 
shipping  facilities  that  could  be  had  only 
by  organizing  a  railroad  and  waterfront 
terminal,  known  as  Jay  Street  Terminal, 
equipped  with  freight  station,  locomotives, 
tugboats,  steam  lighters,  car  floats,  and 
barges.  City  deliveries  of  coffee  and  sugar 
call  for  a  fleet  of  thirty-five  large  motor 
trucks  that  are  housed  in  the  firm's  own 
garage  and  kept  in  repair  in  their  own 
shops.  Although  motor  trucks  are  fast  re- 
placing the  faithful  horse;  and  the  time 
will  never  come  agJiin  when  Arbuckle  Bros, 
will  boast  of  their  stable  of  nearly  two  hun- 
dred horses  that  were  generally  acknowl- 
edged to  be  the  finest  string  of  draft  horses 
in  the  city,  some  fifty  or  sixty  of  their 
faithful  animals  still  are  in  harness ;  and  so 
the  stable,  with  blacksmith  shop,  harness 
shop,  and  wagon-repair  shops,  are  serving 
their  respective  purposes,  though  on  a  re- 
duced scale.  A  printing  shop  vibrates 
with  the  whirr  of  mammoth  printing  pres- 
ses turning  out  thousands  upon  thousands 
of  coffee-wrappers  and  circulars;  and 
doubtless  it  will  be  news  to  many  that  the 
first  three-color  printing  press  ever  built 
was  expressly  designed  and  built  for  Ar- 
buckle Bros.  Then  there  is  a  sunny  first- 
aid  hospital  on  top  of  the  Pearl  Street 
warehouse  where  a  physician  is  ever  ready 
to  relieve  sudden  illness  and  accidental  in- 
juries. On  the  eleventh  floor  there  is  a 
huge  dining  room  where  the  Brooklyn  cler- 
ical forces  get  their  noonday  lunches.  This 
feeding  of  the  inner  man  (and  woman)  is 
matched  by  the  power-house  where  twenty- 
six  large  steam  boilers  must  be  fed  their 
quota  of  coal.  In  the  winter  months,  when 
warmth  must  come  for  the  workers  as  well 


as  power  for  the  wheels,  the  coal  consump- 
tion runs  up  as  high  as  four  hundred  tons 
per  day. 

The  barrel  factory,  with  a  daily  capacity 
of  6,800  sugar  barrels,  is  located  about  a 
mile  away,  where  barrel  staves  and  heads 
are  received  from  the  firm's  own  stave  mill 
in  Virginia,  made  from  logs  cut  on  their 
own  timber  lands  in  Virginia  and  North 
Carolina.  A  more  self-contained  plant 
would  be  hard  to  imagine,  and  so  we  find 
that  even  the  last  activity  in  its  operations 
—  that  of  washing  and  drying  the  emptied 
sugar  bags  —  is  also  provided  for.  That  this 
is  "some  laundry"  goes  without  saying, 
when  it  is  recalled  that  in  the  busy  sugar 
season  the  firm  dumps  from  eight  to  ten 
thousand  bags  of  raw  sugar  per  day,  and 
that  these  bags  are  washed  and  dried  daily 
as  emptied.  A  huge  rotary  drier  of  the 
firm's  own  design  does  the  work  of  about 
three  miles  of  clothes  lines. 

Even  after  the  coffees  have  been  sold  and 
paid  for,  there  still  remains  an  important 
task,  and  that  is  to  redeem  the  signature 
coupons  which  the  consumers  cut  from  the 
packages  and  return  for  premiums.  Lest 
some  regard  this  as  an  insignificant  phase 
of  the  business,  it  may  be  stated  that  in  a 
single  year  the  premium  department  has 
received  over  one  hundred  and  eight  mil- 
lion coupons  calling  for  more  than  four 
million  premiums.  These  premiums  in- 
cluded 818,928  handkerchiefs;  261,000 
pairs  of  lace  curtains;  238,738  shears;  and 
185,920  Torrey  razors.  Finger  rings  are 
perennial  favorites,  and  so  insistent  is  the 
demand  for  the  rings  offered  as  premiums, 
that  Arbuckle  Bros,  are  regarded  as  the 
largest  distributors  of  finger  rings  in  the 
world.  One  of  their  premium  rings  is  a 
wedding  ring;  and  if  all  the  rings  of  this 
pattern  serve  their  intended  purpose,  it  is 
estimated  that  the  firm  has  assisted  at 
eighty  thousand  weddings  in  a  year. 

Turning  from  the  utilities  at  the  plant 
to  the  trades  and  professions  represented, 
other  than  the  trained  sugar  and  coffee 
workers,  the  following  are  constantly  em- 
ployed: physicians,  chemists,  mechanical 
engineers,  civil  engineers,  electrical  engi- 
neers, railroad  engineers  and  brakemen, 
steamboat  captains  and  engineers,  chauf- 
feurs, teamsters,  wagon-makers,  harness- 
makers,  machinists,  draughtsmen,  black- 
smiths, tinsmiths,  coppersmiths,  coopers, 
carpenters,    masons,    painters,    plumbers, 


526 


ALL     ABOUT     COFFEE 


riggers,  typesetters  and  pressmen,  and  last 
but  not  least,  the  chef  and  table  waiters. 

One  of  the  most  remarkable  things  about 
the  growth  of  this  business  enterprise  is 
that  it  is  not  the  result  of  buying  out,  or 
consolidating  with,  competitors;  but  has 
resulted  from  a  steady  wholesome  growth 
along  conservative  business  lines.  Consoli- 
dations are  often  desirable  and  effective; 
but  when  a  great  business  has  been  built 
without  any  such  consolidations,  the  con- 
clusion is  inevitable  that  somewhere  in  the 
establishment  there  must  have  been  a  cor- 
responding amount  of  wisdom,  foresight, 
energy,  and  honorable  business  dealing. 
Those  were  the  things  for  which  John  Ar- 
buckle  stood  firm,  and  for  which  he  will 
alwaj^s  be  remembered. 

Jabez  Burns,  Inventor,  Manufacturer, 
Writer 

Jabez  Burns  was  a  person  of  real  import- 
ance to  the  American  coffee  trade  from 
1864,  when  he  began  to  manufacture  his 
improved  roaster,  until  his  death,  at  the 
age  of  sixty-two,  in  1888.  His  success  de- 
pended more  on  unusual  character  than 
unusual  ability,  although  he  was  really 
gifted  as  regards  mechanical  invention.  He 
loved  to  acquire  practical  information,  and 
arrived  confidently  at  common-sense  con- 
clusions ;  and  he  exercised  a  wide  and  help- 
ful influence,  because  he  liked  to  give  ex- 
pression to  opinions  that  he  considered 
sound  and  useful. 

Mr.  Burns  was  born  in  London  in  1826. 
The  family  moved  soon  after  to  Dundee, 
Scotland,  and  came  to  New  York  in  1844. 
They  were  people  of  small  means  and  in- 
dependent thinking.  The  father,  William 
G.  Burns,  had  been  more  interested  in  the 
Chartist  social  movement  than  in  any 
settled  business  activity.  An  uncle,  also 
named  Jabez  Burns,  became  a  popular 
Baptist  preacher  in  London. 

The  first  winter  in  America  found  youth- 
ful Jabez  teaching  a  country  school  at  Sum- 
mit, N.  J.  Then  he  began  in  New  York 
(1844-45)  as  teamster  for  Henry  Blair,  a 
prosperous  coffee  merchant  who  attended  a 
little  "Disciples"  church  in  lower  Sixth 
Avenue  where  many  Scottish  families  con- 
gregated. There  also  Burns  met  Agnes 
Brown,  daughter  of  a  Paisley  weaver,  and 
married  her  in  1847.  A  brave  young  pair 
they  were,  who  found  all  sorts  of  odd  riches 
—  just  as  if  a  fast-growing  family  could 


somehow  make  up  for  a  slow-growing  in- 
come. There  were  hopes,  too,  that  the  con- 
trivances Burns  kept  inventing  might 
bring  wealth;  and  some  extra  money  did 
come  from  the  sale  of  early  patents,  includ- 
ing one  in  1858  for  the  Burns  Addometer, 
a  primitive  adding  machine. 

But  Mr.  Burns  had  continued  regularly 
in  the  employ  of  coffee  and  spice  firms,  and 
at  one  time  he  was  bookkeeper  for  Thomas 
Reid's  Globe  Mills.  He  advanced  slowly, 
because  he  lacked  real  trading  talent;  but 
he  was  learning  all  about  the  handling  of 
goods,  from  purchase  to  final  delivery;  and 
when  he  quit  bookkeeping  for  the  old 
Globe  Mills,  and  began  to  build  his  patent 
roaster,  he  could  advise  clients  reliably 
about  every  factory  detail. 

He  was  soon  looked  on  as  an  authority. 
He  wrote  some  articles  for  the  American 
Grocer,  a  series  on  "Food  Adulteration" 
being  reprinted ;  and  in  1878,  he  began  the 
quarterly  publication  of  his  thirty-two- 
page  Spice  Mill,  which  soon  became  a 
monthly,  and  gained  the  interested  atten- 
tion of  practically  the  entire  coffee  and 
spice  trade. 

Through  the  columns  of  this  paper,  in 
circulars,  by  letters,  and  in  a  pocket  volume 
called  the  Spice  Mill  Companion,  he  dis- 
tributed information  on  coffee,  spices,  and 
baking  powder,  and  gave  valuable  advice  to 
beginners  in  the  coffee-roasting  business. 
Not  a  few  coffee  roasters  were  started  on 
the  way  to  fortune  by  the  counsel  of  Jabez 
Burns.  He  died  in  New  York,  September 
16,  1888. 

Jabez  Burns  founded  the  business  of 
Jabez  Burns  &  Sons  in  1864,  beginning  the 
manufacture  of  his  patent  coffee  roaster  at 
107  Warren  Street,  New  York.  Since  then, 
there  have  been  four  removals.  In  Decem- 
ber, 1908,  the  business  moved^p  its  present 
uptown  location,  at  the  nofthwest  corner 
of  Eleventh  Avenue  and  Forty-third 
Street,  occupying  a  six-story  building 
which  was  doubled  in  size  in  1917.  This 
Burns  factory  has  been  referred  to  as  "the 
unique  coffee-machinery  workshop",  the 
greatest  establishment  of  its  kind  in  the 
United  States. 

.  Upon  the  death  of  its  founder  the  busi- 
ness was  continued;  first,  as  the  firm  of 
Jabez  Burns  &  Sons,  composed  of  his  sons, 
Jabez,  Robert,  and  A.  Lincoln  Burns;  and 
later,  in  1906,  incorporated  as  Jabez  Burns 
&  Sons,  Inc.,  with  Robert  Burns  as  presi- 


BIG    MEN    AND    ACHIEVEMENTS 


527 


Jabez  Burns 

dent,  Jabez  Burns  as  vice-president,  and 
A.  Lincoln  Burns  as  secretary  and  treas- 
urer. Jabez  Burns  died  August  6,  1908, 
The  present  officers  are :  Robert  Burns, 
president ;  A.  Lincoln  Burns,  vice-presi- 
dent ;  AVilliam  G.  Burns,  general  manager ; 
and  C.  H.  Maelachlan,  secretary  and  treas- 
urer. 

A.  Lincoln  Burns  succeeded  his  father  as 
editor  of  the  Spice  Mill.  "William  H.  Ukers 
was  made  editor  in  1902,  and  he  continued 
until  1904,  when  he  left  to  assume  editorial 
direction  of  The  Tea  and  Coffee  Trade 
Journal.  ♦ 

Coffee-Trade  Booms  and  Panics 

In  the  last  fifty  years  there  have  been 
many  spectacular  attempts  to  corner  the 
coffee  market  in  Europe  and  the  United 
States.  The  first  notable  occurrence  of  this 
kind  did  not  originate  in  the  trade  itself. 
It  took  place  in  1873,  and  was  known  as  the 
"Jay  Cooke  panic",  being  brought  about 
by  the  famous  panic  of  that  name  in  the 
stock  market. 

As  a  result  of  the  Jay  Cooke  failure,  it 
was  impossible  to  obtain  money  from  the 
banks.  Hence  buj-ers  were  forced  to  keep 
out  of  the  coffee  market;  and  as  a  conse- 
quence, the  price  for  Rios    dropped   from 


twenty-four  cents  to  fifteen  cents  in  the 
course  of  the  trading  period  of  one  day^. 

Another  interesting  development  during 
that  year  was  of  foreign  origin.  A  coffee 
syndicate  was  organized  in  Europe,  fin- 
anced by  the  powerful  German  Trading 
Company  of  Frankfort,  with  agencies  in 
London,  Rotterdam,  Antwerp,  and  Brazil. 
For  more  than  eight  years  this  proved  to 
be  a  highly  successful  undertaking,  largely 
controlling  the  principal  producing  and 
consuming  markets. 

As  far  as  the  American  coffee  trade  is 
concerned,  the  first  sensational  upheaval- 
took  place  in  1880-81.  This  period  wit- 
nessed the  collapse  of  the  first  great  coffee 
trade  combination  in  this  country  —  the 
so-called  "syndicate",  comprising  0.  G. 
Kimball,  B.  G.  Arnold,  and  Bowie  Dash, 
sometimes  known  as  the  "trinity". 

The  period  of  high  coffee  prices,  com- 
mencing in  1870,  had  greatly  stimulated 
production  in  many  Mild-coffee  producing 
countries,  as  well  as  in  Brazil,  and  as  a  con- 
sequence the  syndicate  found  its  burden  be- 
coming extremely  heavy  early  in  1880.  In 
January  of  that  year  our  visible  supply 
amounted  roughly  to  767,000  bags.  While 
this  was  reduced  to  about  740,000  bags  in 
July,  the  latter  likewise  proved  to  be  de- 
cidedly burdensome,  especially  as  another 
liberal  crop  was  beginning  to  move  in  pro- 
ducing countries.  The  excessive  volume  of 
supplies  was  especially  marked,  because 
distributing  trade  during  the  summer  was 
strikingly  dull,  as  the  majority  of  buyers 
were  holding  off,  in  view  of  the  prospective 
liberal  new  crops.  At  that  time  Java  cof- 
fee was  a  big  item  in  American  markets, 
whereas  Santos  was  just  about  beginning  to 
be  a  factor. 

The  syndicate  found  that  it  had  its  hands 
full  supporting  the  Brazil  grades,  and 
hence  had  to  let  the  Javas  go.  As  a  result, 
the  latter,  which  had  sold  at  twenty-four 
and  three-quarters  cents  in  January,  1880, 
fell  to  nineteen  and  one-half  cents  in  July, 
to  eighteen  cents  in  November  and  to  six- 
teen cents  in  December,  As  a  matter  of  fact, 
the  syndicate  was  practically  the  only 
buyer  of  Brazil  coffee  during  the  fall  of 
1880;  and  as  a  consequence,  Rios,  which 
had  started  the  year  at  fourteen  and  one- 

a- 

-  What  follows  on  "Trade  Brooms  and  Panics"  Is 
from  an  article  prepared,  under  the  authors  direc- 
tion, by  C.  K.  Trafton.  and  published  in  The  Tea  and 
Coffee  Trade  Journal,  Nov.,  1920  (vol.  xxxix :  no.  5  : 
p.  56«). 


528 


ALL     ABOUT     COFFEE 


half  to  sixteen  and  one-quarter  cents,  were 
down  to  twelve  and  three-quarters  cents  in 
December,  1880,  and  had  dropped  nine  and 
one-half  cents  when  the  break  in  the  market 
culminated  in  June,  1881. 

The  first  whispers  of  financial  troubles 
growing  out  of  these  adverse  conditions 
were  heard  in  October,  1880;  and  on  the 
27th  of  that  month  the  first  failure  was  an- 
nounced—  that  of  C.  Risley  &  Co.,  with 
liabilities  placed  at  $800,000  and  assets  at 
$400,000.  This  firm  had  been  doing  busi- 
ness in  the  local  market  for  about  thirty 
years.  The  efforts  of  the  receivers  to  dis- 
pose of  this  company's  large  stock  natural- 
ly served  to  accelerate  the  decline ;  and  the 
final  impetus  came  on  December  6,  when 
the  New  York  trade  heard  of  the  death, 
two  days  previously,  of  0.  G.  Kimball,  of 
Boston,  one  of  the  most  prominent  mer- 
chants there.  This  precipitated  the  big 
crash  of  December  7,  when  B.  G.  Arnold 
&  Co.,  the  largest  New  York  firm,  suspend- 
ed with  estimated  liabilities  of  $750,000  to 
$1,000,000.  The  official  statement  later 
placed  the  liabilities  at  $2,157,914,  and  as- 
sets at  $1,400,000,  of  which  $884,198  were 
secured.  Within  three  days  this  failure 
was  followed  by  the  suspension  of  Bowie 
Dash  &  Co.,  with  liabilities  estimated  at 
$1,400,000. 

For  weeks  thereafter  there  was  virtually 
no  market.  With  all  of  these  distress  hold- 
ings pressing  for  liquidation,  buyers,  as 
was  natural,  were  extremely  timid.  In  the 
meantime,  the  import  arrivals  showed  fur- 
ther enlargement  at  various  southern  ports, 
as  well  as  at  New  York.  Total  arrivals  at 
this  port  during  1881  were  almost  12,400,- 
000  pounds  heavier  than  for  the  preceding 
year.  The  growing  importance  of  Santos  as 
a  market  factor  was  demonstrated  by  the 
fact  that  shipments  from  there  in  1881 
were  1,198,625  bags,  compared  with  about 
628,900  bags  in  1876  -  77.  According  to  the 
best  informed  members  of  the  trade  at  that 
time,  the  losses  sustained  by  the  various 
firms  that  were  forced  to  the  wall  aggre- 
gated between  $5,000,000  and  $7,000,000. 

The  utterly  demoralized  conditions  pre- 
vailing while  this  collapse  was  in  progress, 
and  the  practical  elimination  of  a  market 
in  the  true  sense  of  the  word,  furnished  the 
principal  impetus  for  the  organization  of 
the  New  York  Coffee  Exchange.  At  that 
time,  the  Havre  market  was  the  only  one 
with  an  exchange.    The  local  body  was  or- 


ganized  in   December,    1881,    and   started 
business  in  March,  1882. 

The  Cable  Break  of  188Jf 

The  second  noteworthy  movement,  em- 
bracing an  advance  of  four  to  four  and  one- 
half  cents  and  a  recession  of  slightly  more 
than  three  cents,  covered  a  period  of  about 
eight  months  shortly  after  the  Exchange 
was  organized.  Various  local  and  out-of- 
town  firms  were  interested  in  the  bulge 
which  carried  Rio  coffee  in  this  market 
from  about  seven  cents  in  July,  1883,  up  to 
eleven  and  one-half  cents  late  in  November. 
By  the  middle  of  December,  the  price  had 
fallen  to  nine  and  one-quarter  cents,  the 
final  break  to  eight  and  one-quarter  cents 
occurring  late  in  March  of  the  following 
year.  At  that  time,  there  was  no  direct 
cable  communication  with  Brazil ;  and  as  a 
result  of  a  temporary  break  in  the  round- 
about service  by  way  of  Portugal,  the  New 
York  and  Baltimore  agents  of  the  Brazilian 
syndicate  were  unable  to  put  up  additional 
margins  in  this  market,  and  their  accounts 
were  closed  out.  This  happened  on  a  Sat- 
urday ;  and  by  the  following  Monday,  par- 
tial cable  remittances  arrived  and  all  ac- 
counts were  settled  in  full  with  interest 
from  Saturday  to  Monday. 

The  Great  Boom 

What  is  generally  described  as  "the 
great  boom"  of  the  coffee  trade  occurred  in 
1886  -  87,  and  had  its  inception  in  unsatis- 
factory crop  news  from  Brazil.  The  crop 
of  1887-1888,  it  was  estimated,  would  be  ex- 
tremely small ;  and  it  turned  out  to  be  only 
3,033,000  bags.  These  advices  and  low 
estimates  led  to  the  formation  of  a  "bull" 
clique,  comprising  operators  in  New  York, 
Chicago,  New  Orleans,  Brazil,  and  Europe, 
who  set  a  price  of  twenty-five  cents  for  De- 
cember contracts  as  their  goal.  Toward  the 
end  of  June,  1886,  when  this  campaign 
started,  No.  7  Rio  in  New  York  was  worth 
about  seven  and  one-half  cents,  with  June 
contracts  on  the  Exchange  quoted  at  seven 
and  sixty-five  hundredths  cents.  With 
Brazilian  crop  news  still  more  discourag- 
ing, the  advance  thereafter  was  almost  con- 
tinuous, and  on  June  1,  1887,  December 
contracts  sold  at  twenty-two  and  one-quar- 
ter cents  —  a  new  high  price  record,  that 
was  not  exceeded  for  thirty-two  years, 
when  twenty-four  and  sixty-five  hun- 
dredths cents  were  paid  for  July  contracts 


BIG    MEN    AND    ACHIEVEMENTS 


l-,„,  ..,„,..._ 

^Rnd  one-quarter  cents,  prices  suffered  an 
abrupt  reversal.  Ten  days  later  the  clos- 
ing price  for  December  was  twenty-one  and 
four-tenth  cents.  Then  the  real  crash  be- 
gan. On  Saturday,  June  11,  the  panic 
started  with  another  claim  of  cable  trouble ; 
and  in  the  short  session,  December  coffee 
broke  from  twenty  and  fifteen-hundredths 
to  eighteen  and  sixty-five  hundredths  cents, 
closing  at  a  loss  for  the  day  of  275  points. 
The  first  sale  of  December  on  Monday  was 
at  seventeen  and  four-tenths  cents,  or  125 
points  lower;  and  after  numerous  erratic 
variations,  the  price  broke  to  sixteen  cents, 
a  drop  of  six  and  one-quarter  cents  in  less 
than  two  weeks.  Business  on  that  day  was 
of  enormous  volume,  in  round  numbers 
412,000  bags ;  and  approximately  $1,500,000 
was  put  up  in  margins.  For  the  next  three 
days  the  decline  was  temporarily  halted, 
and  Deeember,  at  one  time,  was  up  three 
and  one-quarter  cents  from  the  bottom 
(nineteen  and  one-quarter  cents).  On 
June  17,  another  battle  commenced,  Decem- 
ber dropping  back  to  seventeen  cents.  Then 
came  a  rally  to  eighteen  and  one-tenth 
cents,  a  drop  to  sixteen  and  one-half  cents ; 
another  rally  to  eighteen  and  one-tenth, 
and,  on  June  24,  another  break  to  the  pre- 
vious low  level  of  sixteen  cents  for  Decem- 
ber. This  sharp  reversal  in  less  than  a 
month  was  traceable  largely  to  more  favor- 
able news  from  Brazil,  the  1888  -  89  crop 
being  estimated  at  6,827,000  bags. 

Following  a  rally  to  nineteen  and  six- 
tenths  cents  during  the  next  month  (July, 
1887),  the  pendulum  again  swung  down- 
ward. The  climax  came  with  the  culmina- 
tion of  the  "European  fiasco  "'of  the 
spring  of  1888.  Reports  were  received  that 
various  European  coffee  firms  had  failed; 
and  future  contracts  in  the  American  mar- 
ket sold  as  low  as  nine  cents  in  March. 

A  Famous  European  Bull  Campaign 

The  next  campaign  of  interest  lasted 
more  than  two  and  a  half  years.  In  Sep- 
tember, 1891,  there  was  a  corner  in  the 
local  market  which  forced  the  September 
price  up  to  seventeen  and  one-quarter 
cents.  George  Kaltenbach,  a  wealthy  spec- 
ulator living  in  Paris,  combining  with  three 
operators  in  Havre,  Hamburg,  and  Ant- 
werp, succeeded  in  breaking  the  corner, 
forcing  the  price  down  to  ten  and  eight- 


529 


tenths  cents.  They  then  changed  to  the 
bull  side,  buying  heavily  in  all  markets  of 
the  world.  This  was  continued  until  early 
in  1893,  bringing  the  price  back  to  fifteen 
cents.  Although  his  associates  then  re- 
turned to  the  bear  side,  Kaltenbach  kept 
on  buying;  and  aided  by  bad  crop  reports 
from  Brazil,  he  worked  the  price  up  as 
high  as  seventeen  and  seven-tenths  cents. 
At  one  time  it  was  said  that  his  profits  were 
more  than  one  million  dollars.  The  col- 
lapse of  this  deal  occurred  in  May,  1893, 
involving  thirty  firms  in  Hamburg,  Havre, 
and  Rotterdam.  As  Kaltenbach  could  not 
keep  his  large  New  York  holdings  mar- 
gined, they  were  thrown  on  the  market, 
bringing  about  a  sharp  break,  and  causing 
the  failure  of  his  New  York  agents,  T.  M. 
Barr  &  Co. 

The  present  era  of  large  crops  began  in 
1894,  Brazil's  production  for  1894-95 
being  placed  at  6,695,000. bags.  Neverthe- 
less, Guzman  Blanco,  a  former  president  of 
Venezuela,  then  living  in  Paris,  and  said  to 
be  worth  about  $20,000,000,  attempted  to 
run  a  corner  in  April,  1895.  He  bought 
200,000  bags  of  spot  coffee  in  Havre  ware- 
houses and  accumulated  a  big  line  of  fu- 
tures in  various  markets.  Assisted  by  re- 
ports of  cholera  in  Rio  and  some  reduction 
in  Brazilian  crops,  he  enjoyed  temporary 
success,  the  price  of  Rio  7s  in  New  York 
rising  to  fifteen  and  one-half  cents  in  Octo- 
ber, 1895.  Thereafter,  there  was  an  almost 
continuous  decline.  In  the  spring  of  1898, 
a  vigorous  bear  campaign  was  conducted, 
largely  in  the  form  of  market  letters;  and 
by  November,  Rio  7s  here  had  dropped  to 
four  and  one-half  cents. 

The  Buhonic  Plague  Boom 
The  so-called  "bubonic  plague  boom" 
halted  this  prolonged  downward  movement 
for  a  time  in  1899  - 1900.  The  boom  derived 
its  name  from  the  outbreak  of  bubonic 
plague  in  Brazil,  as  a  result  of  which  the 
ports  of  that  country  were  quarantined.  In 
addition,  Brazilian  steamers  arriving  at 
New  York  were  placed  in  quarantine;  and 
the  impossibility  of  unloading  their  ear- 
goes  caused  a  temporary  shortage.  As  a 
result,  prices  rose  from  four  and  one-quar- 
ter cents  in  September,  1899,  to  eight  and 
one-quarter  cents  in  July,  1900.  The 
quarantine  being  lifted,  the  bears  again  be- 
came aggressive;  and  by  April,  1901,  they 
had  forced  the  price  back  to  five  cents. 


530 


ALL    ABOUT     COFFEE 


There  was  another  short-lived  attempt  to 
establish  a  corner  in  September,  1901.  Re- 
ceipts at  Rio  and  Santos  had  been  running 
light,  encouraging  a  local  clique  embracing 
Skiddy,  Minford  &  Company ;  W.  H.  Cross- 
man  &  Bro. ;  and  Gruner  &  Company,  to 
endeavor  to  gain  control.  The  arrivals  at 
Brazilian  ports  suddenly  increased  to  the 
largest  volume  ever  known  up  to  that  time ; 
and,  with  vigorous  opposition  from  opera- 
tors in  Havre,  the  corner  here  was  speedily 
broken. 

The  opening  of  the  new  century  wit- 
nessed the  beginning  of  another  new  coffee 
era,  Santos  permanently  displacing  Rio  as 
the  world's  largest  source  of  supply.  The 
figures  for  1900  -  01  were :  Santos,  2,945,- 
000  bags ;  Rio,  2,413,000  bags. 

Huge  crops  then  became  a  regular  thing 
in  Brazil.  That  of  1901  -  02  was  far  in  ex- 
cess of  estimates,  being  15,000,000  bags; 
while  20,000,000  bags  were  produced  in 
1902-03.  As  a  result,  the  world's  coffee 
trade  became  completely  demoralized  for 
the  time  being.  In  August,  1902,  contracts 
for  July,  1903,  delivery  sold  at  six  and  one- 
tenths  cents.  By  June,  1903,  they  had 
fallen  to  three  and  fifty-five  hundredths 
cents,  the  lowest  price  ever  recorded  for 
coffee. 

The  Southern  Boom 

As  is  invariably  the  case  when  prices 
reach  extreme  levels,  either  high  or  low, 
the  pendulum  swung  back  rapidly  in  the 
other  direction.  Based  on  the  unpreceden- 
tedly  low  prices,  the  so-called  ''cotton 
crowd"  started  what  was  generally  known 
as  "the  southern  boom".  Various  cotton 
traders  in  New  York  and  the  South,  under 
the  leadership  of  D.  J.  Sully,  the  one-time 
"cotton  king",  and  ably  assisted  by  prom- 
inent local  coffee  firms,  became  extremely 
active  on  the  buying  side;  and  by  Feb- 
ruary, 1904,  they  had  forced  the  price  up 
to  eleven  and  eighty-five  hundredths  cents. 
This  figure,  the  highest  since  1896,  was 
reached  on  February  2,  which  proved  to 
be  another  day  of  enormous  speculative 
dealings,  involving  roundly  462,000  bags. 
This  marked  another  turning  point;  the 
three  succeeding  days  of  record-breaking 
operations  on  the  Exchange  witnessing  a 
break  of  roughly  two  cents.  Mr.  Sully 
went  on  a  vacation  on  February  3,  and  the 
Sielcken  interests  sold  on  a  large  scale. 
Business  for  that  day  was  placed  at  555,000 


bags,  closing  prices  being  about  one-half 
cent  lower.  This  brought  on  enormous  li- 
quidation by  western  bulls  on  the  follow- 
ing day,  approximately  500,000  bags.  As 
a  result,  prices  lost  twenty-five  to  sixty-five 
points  on  a  turn-over  of  about  642,000  bags. 
All  records  for  business  were  smashed  on 
the  following  day,  February  5.  The  offi- 
cial record  was  689,000  bags,  but  trade 
estimates  made  it  more  than  1,000,000  bags. 
On  that  day,  southern  interests  liquidated 
heavily,  causing  net  losses  of  eighty  to 
ninety  points.  Doubtless  the  break  would 
have  been  more  severe  had  it  not  been  for 
buying  by  the  Sielcken  people  and  several 
other  strong  interests  at  and  below  seven 
and  one-quarter  cents  for  September  con- 
tracts. 

The  Story  of  Valorization 

The  valorization,  or  equalization,  of  cof- 
fee originated  in  Brazil.  When  the  original 
plan  was  threatened  with  disaster,  Her- 
mann Sielcken  stepped  in  and  saved  the 
Brazil  planters  from  ruin;  the  Brazil  gov- 
ernment from  possible  revolution ;  and,  in- 
cidentally, won  fol*  himself  and  those  who 
were  his  partners  in  the  enterprise  much 
unenviable  notoriety. 

The  principle  of  valorization  is  generally 
conceded  to  be  economically  unsound,  be- 
cause it  encourages  overproduction.  And 
valorization  in  Brazil  would  have  been  a 
failure,  had  it  not  been  for  a  fortuitous 
combination  of  short  crops,  Hermann  Siel- 
cken's  genius,  and  the  World  War.  Be- 
cause of  the  lessons  learned  in  this  exper- 
ience, Brazil's  subsequent  valorization  en- 
terprises have  run  more  smoothly. 

A  rapidly  increasing  world  demand,  a 
wonderfully  fertile  soil,  and  cheap  labor 
kept  the  Brazil  coffee  industry  in  a  flourish- 
ing condition  nearly  to  the  close  of  1889. 
Coffee  consumption  was  increasing,  espe- 
cially in  the  United  States.  By  April  1890, 
the  average  import  price  per  pound  of  Rio 
No.  7  in  this  country  was  nineteen  cents; 
and  Brazil  was  supplying  only  about  half 
our  needs.  Virgin  soil  was  still  available 
in  Brazil,  and  immigration  furnished  all 
the  needful  labor.  Easy  profits  led  to  in- 
creased investment  and  careless  methods. 
Her  planters  were  drunk  with  prosperity. 
For  six  years,  nearly  all  the  three  million 
inhabitants  of  Sao  Paulo,  Brazil's  largest 
coffee  producing  state,  "entirely  gave  up 
planting  corn,  rice,  beans,  everything  they 


BIG    MEN    AND    ACHIEVEMENTS 


i 

^■^ded.  They  bought  them  because  coffee 
was  so  immensely  profitable  that  they  put 
all  their  labor  in  coffee." 

Brazil  had  been  going  through  a  period 
of  low  exchange.  Paper  money  fell  below 
par.  The  exaggerated  issues  of  it,  which 
provoked  the  collapse  of  exchange,  sudden- 
ly endowed  Brazil  with  an  abundant  cir- 
culation of  money.  Production  was  enor- 
mously stimulated.  New  undertakings 
sprang  up  on  every  hand.  Armies  of  agri- 
cultural laborers  were  recruited  in  Europe 
and  shipped  into  the  coffee  districts.  And 
then,  to  make  the  story  short,  supply  passed 
demand,  surplus  stocks  began  to  appear, 
prices  began  to  fall,  and  fell  until  they 
dropped  below  the  cost  of  production. 

It  was  in  1896  -  97,  when  the  new  trees 
came  into  bearing  by  the  tens  and  hundreds 
of  thousands,  that  Sao  Paulo's  folly  began 
to  tell.  By  October  of  that  year  the  price 
of  Rio  No.  7  in  New  York  had  fallen  to 
about  seven  cents.  The  decline  continued, 
until,  in  1903,  it  hung  around  five  cents. 
Then  began  the  winter  of  Sao  Paulo's  dis- 
content. Too  late,  the  state  government 
tried  by  taxing  new  coffee  estates,  to  force 
the  planters  to  raise  crops  to  supply  their 
own  necessities.     The  times  grew  harder. 

Mortgages  held  by  large  coffee  houses 
and  bankers  were  being  foreclosed.  The 
industry  was  passing  into  European  hands. 
The  smaller  planters  were  becoming  des- 
perate ;  and  desperation  is  only  a  step  from 
revolution.  The  government  of  the  state 
of  Sao  Paulo  knew  this;  and  to  save  the 
state,  it  finally  promised  it  would  buy  the 
next  coffee  crop,  and  would  hold  it  for  the 
planters  at  such  a  price  as  would  be  neces- 
sary to  continue  the  industry.  The  pro- 
tagonists of  this  plan  to  valorize  coffee  were 
Dr.  Jorge  Tibiriga,  Dr.  Augusto  Ramos, 
and  Dr.  Albuquerque  Lins. 

During  all  the  period  covering  Sao 
Paulo's  rise  and  fall  in  coffee,  the  financial 
genius  who  was  to  lead  her  again  into  the 
land  of  plenty  had  been  quietly  acquiring 
a  knowledge  of  her  problems  —  also,  the 
ability  to  make  money  out  of  their  solution. 

Valorization  was  undertaken  to  save  the 
coffee  industry.  Its  intent  was  good,  even 
if  the  theory  was  bad.  The  scheme  was  not 
new,  and  there  were  no  encouraging  prece- 
dents to  augur  its  success.  The  situation 
was  desperate  and  seemed  to  justify  the 
trial  of  a  desperate  remedy.     Sao  Paulo 


531 


attempted  to  carry  the  load;  but  her  re- 
sources were  insufficient. 

The  bumper  world  crop  of  19,090,000 
bags  in  1901  -  02  was  followed,  in  1906  -  07, 
with  another  extraordinary  yield  of  24,307,- 
000  bags,  of  which  Brazil  alone  produced 
20,192,000  bags.  To  make  good  its  promise 
to  the  planters,  ready  cash  was  needed; 
and  so  the  Sao  Paulo  government  sent  a 
special  commissioner  to  Europe  to  get  it. 
For  sixty  years  the  Rothschilds  had  acted 
as  Brazil's  bankers.  The  commissioner 
went  to  the  Rothschilds  first.  He  was  flatly 
refused.  After  that,  he  was  turned  down  by 
practically  every  bank  on  the  continent.  It 
looked  as  if  the  bankers  had  entered  into 
a  gentlemen's  agreement  to  make  it  unami- 
mous.  Then  the  commissioner  bethought 
himself  of  the  coffee  merchants;  and  that 
thought  naturally  suggested  Hermann 
Sielcken,  who,  singularly  enough,  happened 
to  be  conveniently  resting  at  nearby 
Baden-Baden.  In  August,  1906,  the  com- 
missioner waited  upon  Mr.  Sielcken  and 
begged  his  aid. 

It  was  Sielcken 's  hour  of  triumph.  For 
years  he  had  been  soliciting  Brazil.  Now 
the  tables  were  turned,  and  Brazil  was  ask- 
ing favors  of  Sielcken. 

The  rest  of  the  story  is  best  told  by 
Robert  Sloss,  who  wrote  it  for  World's 
Work  from  information  furnished  by  trade 
authorities  —  and  even  by  Mr.  Sielcken, 
himself,  in  various  speeches,  newspaper 
articles,  and  on  the  witness  stand.  It  is 
presented  here  with  certain  minor  correc- 
tions by  the  author : 

"Well,  what  do  you  want  me  to  do?"  asked 
Hermann  Sielcken  of  the  commissioner  from 
the  state  of  Sao  Paulo. 

"We  want  you  to  finance  for  us  five  to  eight 
million  bags  of  coffee,"  said  the  commissioner 
blandly. 

Here  was  an  adventure.  Here  was  a  proposi- 
tion to  lift  bodily  out  of  the  market  half  as 
much  coffee  as  the  world's  total  production  had 
averaged  for  the  ten  preceding  years  when  prices 
had  been  so  low.  Presumably,  if  this  were  done, 
prices  would  be  doubled.  But  Hermann  Sielcken 
shook  his  head. 

"No,"  he  said,  "there  is  not  the  slightest 
chance  for  it,  not  the  slightest."  And  then  he 
pointed  out  that  there  would  be  "no  financial 
assistance  coming  from  anywhere"  if  the  SSo 
Paulo  planters  kept  on  raising  such  ridiculously 
large  crops  of  coffee. 

The  commissioner  assured  him  that  the  pros- 
pect was  for  smaller  crops  in  future.  Hermann 
Sielcken  was  not  so  sure  about  it.  "At  a  price 
low  enough,"  he  mused,  "I  might  be  able  to  raise 
funds  to  pay  eighty  percent  on  a  value  of  seven 
cents  a  pound  for  Rio  No.  5." 


532 


ALL     ABOUT     COFFEE 


The  commissioner  was  dismayed.  His  govern- 
meii't  had  already  promised  to  take  coffee  from 
the  planters  at  about  a  cent  a  pound  above  the 
market,  and  the  market  then  stood  at  nearly 
eight  cents.  The  government  would  have  to  dig 
to  make  up  the  difference.  Hermann  Sielcken's 
terms  were  the  best  that  could  be  got,  however, 
and  the  commissioner  accepted  them. 

From  that  time  forth  Hermann  Sielcken  was 
the  head  of  the  movement.  He  approached  a 
few  large  coffee  merchants,  including  his  former 
rivals,  Arbuekle  Bix>thers,  and  drew  up  a  con- 
tract. The  merchants  agreed  to  advance  eighty 
percent  of  the  sum  required  to  buy  two  million 
bags  of  coffee  at  seven  cents  a  pound.  If  the 
market  went  above  seven  cents,  the  government 
was  to  make  no  purchases.  If  it  fell  below  seven 
cents,  the  government  was  to  make  good  the 
difference  to  the  merchants  by  cable. 

Before  the  season  was  well  advanced  the  un- 
expected happened.  Brazil  was  reaping  the  larg- 
est coffee  harvest  in  the  history  of  the  world. 
The  two  million  bags  of  coffee  purchased  by  the 
government  were  as  a  drop  in  a  bucket. 
Financed  by  Hermann  Sielcken,  Schroeder,  the 
great  London  banker,  and  a  few  prominent  Euro- 
pean merchants,  the  government  was  forced  to 
buy  almost  nine  million  bags.  Toward  the  end 
of  1907,  the  government  had  lifted  half  of  the 
world's  visible  supply  of  coffee,  but  the  market 
Sitood  only  a  trifle  above  six  cents  a  pound.  The 
government  was  practically  bankrupt. 

Hennann  Sielcken  now  enlisted  the  Roth- 
schilds on  his  side,  and  shifted  the  financial 
burden  from  the  shoulders  of  the  coffee  mer- 
chants to  those  of  the  Paris  bankers  and  their 
American  associates.  Then  the  Rothschilds  im- 
posed their  conditions  on  the  government  of 
Brazil.  A  national  law  was  passed  determining 
a  heavy  penalty  for  any  one  who  planted  a  new 
coffee  tree  in  Brazil.  The  government  guaran- 
teed that  not  more  than  nine  million  bags  of  the 
next  coffee  crop  and  not  more  than  ten  million 
bags  of  any  succeeding  crop  should  be  exported. 

By  the  end  of  1911,  the  coffee  market  stood 
well  above  thirteen  cents.  Here  was  a  rise  of 
more  than  one  hundred  percent  in  two  years, 
more  than  sixty  percent  in  six  months.  Evi- 
dently, valorization  coffee  in  the  hands  of  the 
bankers'  committee  had  become  a  gilt-edged  se- 
curiity.    But  how? 

During  the  five  crop  years  since  the  "plan" 
was  launched  on  the  heights  above  Baden,  nearly 
90,000.000  bags  of  coffee  had  been  raised  in  the 
world.  The  bankei"s'  committee  still  held  5,108,- 
000  bags  of  this.  At  the  highest  estimate,  con- 
sumption had  exceeded  production  by  only 
4,000,000  bags.  Here  was  a  shortage  of  only  a 
little  more  than  ten  percent  in  supply  as  against 
demand,  so  far  as  crops  go.  Yet  there  had  been 
a  rise  of  more  than  one  hundred  percent  in  two 
years  in  the  price  of  coffee  on  the  New  York 
Coffee  Exchange.  .  .  .  Upon  the  merchant's 
abdiity  to  deliver  coffee  on  the  New  York  Coffee 
Exchange  depends  the  price  of  coffee  in  the 
world.  That  explains  why  the  bankers'  com- 
mittee from  the  beginning  refused  absolutely  to 
sell  valorization  coffee  on  the  public  exchanges 
of  the  world.  In  Europe,  they  put  it  up  at  auc- 
tion; and  when  it  didn't  go,  it  was  bought  in 
for  them.  In  America,  they  announced  in  a 
printed  circular  that  valorization  coffee  would 
be   sold   only   on  condition   that   the  purchaser 


would  not  deliver  it  on  the  New  York  Coffee 
Exchange. 

Hermann  Sielcken  absolutely  refused  to  sell 
coffee  to  the  merchants  on  the  Exchange. 
Arbuekle  Brothers  kept  on  buying  coffee  heavily, 
as  if  they  would  corner  the  market.  They  resold 
the  coffee,  however,  at  private  sales,  exacting  a 
written  contract  from  the  buyer  that  he  would 
not  deliver  the  coffee  on  the  New  York  Coffee 
Exchange,  or  resell  it  to  any  one  that  would  so 
deliver  it.  The  Coffee  Exchange  began  an  in- 
vestigation, but  nothing  ever  came  of  it. 

Shortly  after  the  valorization  committee  had 
apparently  cleared  up  $25,000,000  in  one  year, 
the  restriction  as  to  the  delivery'  of  valorization 
coffee  on  the  New  Y^'ork  Coffee  Exchange  was 
officially  removed.  Yet  neither  from  Hermann 
Sielcken  nor  from  Arbuekle  Brothei-s.  it  is 
charged,  could  one  buy  any  coffee  to  deliver  for 
that  purpose.  In  1911,  coffee  rose  to  sixteen 
cents  per  pound. 

At  the  end,  it  was  found  that  the  com- 
mittee 's  holdings  had  been  marketed  at  the 
various  sales  on  a  basis,  for  Santos  4s, 
from  eight  and  five-eighths  cents  minimum, 
to  the  final  sale  here  forced  by  the  United 
States  government,  at  which  time  the  price 
realized  was  sixteen  and  three-quarter 
cents  for  Santos  4s,  and  fourteen  cents  for 
Rio  7s. 

The  one  fly  in  the  valorization  ointment 
was  Senator  G.  W.  Norris,  of  Nebraska, 
who  early  in  1911  called  for  a  congressional 
investigation  of  the  operations  of  the  valori- 
zation syndicate,  which  he  said  was  costing 
the  American  people  $35,000,000  a  year. 
The  attorney-general  was  instructed  to  re- 
port as  to  whether  or  not  there  was  a  coffee 
trust.  It  was  a  leisurely  investigation, 
which  encountered  many  snags  placed  in 
its  way  b}^  those  who  believed  it  would  be 
against  international  policy  to  question  too 
elo.sely  the  participation  of  the  Brazil  gov- 
ernment in  the  enterprise.  Politics  played 
no  inconsiderable  part  in  the  investigation, 
which  dragged  along  until  May  18,  1912, 
when  an  action  was  begun  in  the  Federal 
District  Court  for  the  southern  district  of 
New  York,  alleging  conspiracy  in  restraint 
of  trade  on  the  part  of  Hermann  Sielcken ; 
Bruno  Schroeder,  of  J.  Henry  Schroeder 
&  Co. ;  Edouard  Bunge ;  the  Vicomte  des 
Touches;  Dr.  Paulo  da  Silva  Prado;  Theo- 
dor  Wille ;  the  Societe  Generale ;  and  the 
New  York  Dock  Co. ;  also  praying  for 
injunction  and  receivership  of  the  valori- 
zation coffee  then  stored  in  the  United 
States,  and  amounting  to  746,539  bags. 
The  injunction  was  denied. 

Immediately  thereafter,  rumors  began 
to   circulate  that  the  government's  coffee 


BIG    MEN    AND    ACHIEVEMENTS 


533 


suit  would  never  be  tried.  The  Brazilian 
ambassador  threatened  diplomatic  inter- 
ference, and  Attorney-General  Wiekersham 
let  it  be  known  that  a  friendly  settlement 
might  be  effected.  Sielcken  boldly  chal- 
lenged the  authorities  to  prosecute  the  case, 
and  even  seemed  to  invite  criminal  pro- 
ceedings against  himself.  Saving  the  gov- 
ernment's face,  and  Brazil's  face,  at  one 
and  the  same  time,  proved  to  be  a  long  and 
tedious  process. 

Meanwhile,  Senator  Norris  introduced  in 
Congress  a  bill  designed  to  give  the  govern- 
ment power  to  seize  importations  of  coffee 
when  restraint  of  trade  was  proved.  It  was 
vigorously  opposed  by  many  prominent 
green-coffee  men  and  roasters;  but  in  Feb- 
ruary, 1913,  it  became  enacted  into  a  law. 
It  effectively  killed  all  future  valorization 
schemes  in  so  far  as  direct  participation  by 
this  country  is  concerned. 

About  December  1,  1912,  Attorney-Gen- 
eral Wiekersham  accepted  good-faith  assur- 
ances from  Mr.  Sielcken 's  attorney  —  who 
represented  also  the  Brazil  government  — 
and  agreed  that  if  the  valorization  coffee 
stored  here  was  sold  to  bona-fide  purchasers 
before  April  1,  1913,  the  government 's  suit 
would  be  dismissed.  In  May,  1913,  the 
attorney-general  of  the  new  Wilson  admin- 
istration, which  came  into  office  in  March 
of  that  year,  issued  a  statement  saying  that, 
good-faith  assurances  having  been  received 
from  the  Brazil  government  that  the  under- 
standing was  fulfilled  in  letter  and  spirit 
before  the  date  set  by  the  previous  attorney- 
general,  and  the  entire  amount  of  coftee  dis- 
posed of  to  eighty  dealers  in  thirty-three 
cities,  the  suit  would  be  dismissed. 

In  the  United  States  Senate  about  the 
same  time,  Senator  Norris  renewed  his 
attack  on  "the  international  coffee  trust". 
He  charged  that  the  coffee  sale  was  not  as 
represented,  but  merely  a  transfer,  and 
called  upon  the  Department  of  Justice  for 
the  facts,  with  names  of  the  alleged  pur- 
chasers. 

Attorney-General  McReynolds,  on  May  7, 
1913,  declined  to  send  to  the  Senate  the 
official  correspondence  in  regard  to  the 
Brazil  coffee-valorization  matter,  because  it 
was  "incompatible  with  the  public  inter- 
ests." He  did,  however,  send  other  papers 
on  the  subject.  The  secretary  of  state 
sent  copies  of  some  correspondence ;  but  the 
documents  were  not  made  public.  This 
ended  the  matter,  although  Senator  Norris 


called  for  a  congressional  investigation, 
charging  that  the  attorney-general  had  been 
handed  a  "gold  brick". 

Sielcken  contented  himself  with  remark- 
ing that  the  suit  was  a  mistake  in  the  first 
place,  and  that  it  was  a  foregone  conclusion 
the  government  would  be  defeated.  Also, 
he  offered  $5,000  to  any  one  who  could  ex- 
plain the  Norris  bill. 

Valorization,  then,  was  started  by  the 
state  of  Sao  Paulo  in  1905,  when  a  law  was 
passed  authorizing  the  state  to  enter  into 
an  agreement  with  the  other  Brazil  states 
and  the  federal  government  for  the  adop- 
tion of  measures  which  would  assure  the 
valorization  of  coffee  and  facilitate  a  propa- 
ganda abroad  for  increased  consumption. 

The  states  of  Sao  Paulo,  Minas  Geraes, 
and  Rio  de  Janeiro  proposed,  early  in  1906, 
to  withdraw  from  the  markets  such  quan- 
tities of  coffee  as  would  keep  down  exports 
and  maintain  profitable  prices.  The  plan 
comprehended  the  interested  states  borrow- 
ing about  $75,000,000  from  European  and 
United  States  bankers  with  which  to  buy 
up  the  surplus  coffee.  To  take  care  of  in- 
terest and  amortization,  a  tax  of  three 
francs  per  bag  of  132  pounds  (about  57 
cents)  was  to  be  levied  on  all  coffee  exports, 
collectable  at  Santos  and  Rio  de  Janeiro. 
Further  coffee-planting  was  to  be  checked 
by  enforcing  the  law  which  carried  a  tax 
sufficiently  high  to  operate  toward  re- 
striction. 

When  it  was  understood  that  Brazil's 
federal  government  would  not  endorse  the 
plan  in  toto,  it  was  abandoned  by  Rio  de 
Janeiro  and  Minas  Geraes.  However,  the 
state  of  Sao  Paulo  in  the  course  of  the  next 
two  years  borrowed  some  $30,000,00  on  its 
own  account  for  valorization  purposes,  ob- 
taining half  the  amount  direct  from  foreign 
banking  interests,  and  the  remainder, 
through  the  Brazilian  federal  government, 
from  London  sources. 

This  first  valorization  was  abandoned  in 
favor  of  the  Sielcken  plan,  which  the  fed- 
eral government  ratified  in  July,  1908.  By 
this  new  plan  Sao  Paulo  borrowed  $75,000,- 
000  from  the  syndicate  composed  of  Amer- 
ican, English,  German,  French,  and  Bel- 
gian bankers.  Out  of  this  it  repaid  the 
$30,000,000  loan.  The  1908  loan  was  to  ex- 
pire in  ten  years,  in  1919.  Under  the  plan 
of  the  new  loan,  it  was  agreed  that  certain 
amounts  of  the  valorized  coffee  should  be 
stored  as  collateral  in  warehouses  in  Nelv 


534 


ALL     ABOUT     COFFEE 


York  and  Europe  in  charge  of  a  committee 
of  seven,  who  were  authorized  to  sell  the 
coffee  in  the  market  in  specified  quantities 
and  at  prices  that  would  not  disturb  the 
price  of  other  coffees.  The  composition  of 
the  committee  was  as  follows:  Dr.  Fran- 
cisco Ferreira  Ramos,  of  Sao  Paulo  and 
Antwerp ;  who  was  succeeded  by  Dr.  Paulo 
da  Silva  Prado ;  the  Vicomte  des  Touches, 
of  Havre;  the  Societe  Generale,  of  Paris; 
the  firm  of  Theodor  Wille,  of  Hamburg; 
Hermann  Sielcken,  of  New  York ;  Edouard 
Bunge,  of  Antwerp;  and  Baron  Bruno 
Schroeder,  of  J.  Henry  Schroeder  &  Co., 
of  London. 

Brazil  agreed  to  purchase  10,000,000  bags 
and  to  hold  them  off  the  market  until  con- 
ditions warranted  their  sale.  It  was  also 
agreed  that  the  total  exports  of  unvalorized 
stocks  from  Brazil  would  be  restricted  to 
10,000,000  bags  for  1907-08,  and  to  10,- 
500,000  bags  for  1909  - 10.  In  addition,  a 
surtax  of  five  francs  gold  per  bag  (961/4 
cents)  was  placed  on  every  bag  exported  to 
pay  carrying  charges.  The  management 
of  the  government's  holdings  was  placed 
in  the  hands  of  the  international  commit- 
tee. This  committee  issued  bonds  which 
were  quickly  subscribed  for;  and  because 
of  its  efficient  handling  of  its  huge  hold- 
ings, prices  held  steady  in  spite  of  the  rec- 
ord-breaking Brazilian  crop  of  nearly 
20,192,000  bags  in  1906-07,  and  a  later 
one  in  1909  - 10  of  about  15,000,000  bags. 
Indeed,  there  was  an  advance  of  about  ten 
dollars  a  bag  between  1904  and  1911. 

•Valorization  had  the  effect  of  stabiliz- 
ing the  Brazil  market,  and  giving  the 
planters  and  allied  interests  the  assistance 
they  needed  to  ward  off  the  disaster  that 
threatened  them  through  overproduction. 
The  United  States  government  action  in 
1912  forced  the  sale  of  the  valorized  stocks 
held  in  this  country,  and  the  Congress 
passed  the  law  making  it  impossible  again 
to  offer  for  sale  in  America  stocks  of  coffee 
held  under  similar  valorization  agreements. 

The  coffee  situation  became  so  serious  in 
1913,  that  Sao  Paulo  again  entered  the 
money  market  for  another  loan,  borrowing 
$37,500,000  through  the  good  offices  of  the 
Brazilian  federal  government,  following 
this  up  two  years  later  with  another  loan 
of  $21,000,000.  According  to  a  semi-of- 
ficial statement  issued  in  Brazil  early  in 
1919,  the  status  of  valorization  at  that  time 
was  that  the  first  loan  of  $75,000,000  of 


1908,  had  been  entirely  liquidated,  and  the 
two  later  loans  were  greatly  reduced.  At 
the  same  time,  it  was  announced  by  the 
president  of  the  state  of  Sao  Paulo  that 
the  surtax  of  five  frances  would  be  with- 
drawn as  soon  as  the  liquidation  of  the 
loans  had  been  completed.  This  surtax, 
however,  is  still  in  effect.  In  1919,  the  Sao 
Paulo  government  proposed  advancing  the 
pauta,  or  export  duty,  very  materially.  A 
strong  protest  was  made  by  all  the  ex- 
porters; and  a  compromise  was  at  last  ef- 
fected by  which  the  proposed  increase  in 
the  pauta  was  canceled,  and  the  existing 
surtax  of  five  francs  per  bag  continued  as 
an  offset. 

The  valorization  project  just  described 
was  the  second  of  its  kind,  a  former  attempt 
having  proved  a  failure.  At  that  time 
(1870),  the  Brazilian  government  had  been 
a  large  purchaser  of  Rio  coffee,  buying  it 
in  lieu  of  exchange,  as  it  had  large  remit- 
tances to  make.  The  coffee  was  sold 
through  G.  Amsinck  &  Co.,  and  it  is  be- 
lieved that  heavy  losses  were  sustained. 

Since  the  Sielcken  valorization  enterprise, 
the  Brazilian  government  has  promoted 
two  more  valorizations,  one  in  1918,  an- 
other early  in  1922. 

War-Time  Government  Control  of  Coffee 

The  board  of  managers  of  the  New  York 
Coffee  and  Sugar  Exchange,  Inc.,  had  real- 
ized, late  in  1917,  that  war-time  govern- 
ment control  of  coffee  trading  was  likely 
in  view  of  the  government's  activities  in 
other  commodities.  To  guard  against  the 
danger  of  a  sudden  announcement  of  such 
action,  the  president  of  the  Exchange  was 
empowered  from  month  to  month,  at  each 
meeting  of  the  board,  to  suspend  trading 
at  any  time  that  conditions  warranted;  so 
that,  when  President  Wilson  announced,  on 
January  31,  1918,  that  all  dealers  in  green 
coffees  were  to  be  licensed,  the  Exchange 
was  fully  prepared.  Trading  was  suspen- 
ded pending  further  information,  and  ow- 
ing to  the  farsightedness  of  the  board  of 
managers,  all  danger  of  a  panic  in  the 
market  was  averted. 

By  1917,  the  allies  had  stopped  ship- 
ments of  coffee  to  Germany  through  neigh- 
bors who  had  been  her  sole  source  of  supply. 
Stocks  in  all  the  producing  countries  were 
accumulating,  and  Sao  Paulo  had  embarked 
on  another  valorization  scheme  to  protect 
her  planters.    The  markets  of  Europe  were 


BIG    MEX    AND    ACHIEVEMEXTS 


535 


itirely  controlled  by  the  governments ;  and 
le  United  States  was  practically  the  only 
ree  and  open  market.  The  market  here 
ms  steady  and  without  particular  anima- 
ion,  and  showed  none  until  the  end  of 
Tovember,  1917.  At  that  time,  speculation 
activities,  steamer  scarcity,  and  the  steady 
advance  in  freights,  became  decided  in- 
fluences in  the  market ;  and  prices  began  to 
advance. 

Freights  on  shipments  from  Brazil  had 
advanced  from  one  dollar  and  twenty 
cents  per  bag  early  in  the  year  to  un- 
heard-of prices;  and,  before  the  bubble 
burst,  had  reached  as  high  as  four  dollars 
per  bag.  With  this  steadily  advancing 
freight,  speculation  in  coffee  became  more 
active;  and  prices  naturally  began  to  rise. 
The  relative  cheapness  of  coffee  compared 
with  all  other  commodities;  the  fact  that 
coffee  here  had  shown  very  little  advance; 
the  prospect  of  an  early  peace;  the  large 
European  demand  to  follow;  were  favorite 
bull  arguments.  The  market  became  ex- 
cited; speculative  buying  was  general, 
every  one,  apparently,  wanted  to  buy 
coffee;  and  twenty  cents  per  pound  for 
Santos  4s  in  the  near  future  was  a  com- 
mon prediction. 

The  United  States  food  administrator 
had  shown  his  antipathy  to  uncontrolled 
exchange  operations  by  his  action  on  sugar, 
wheat,  corn,  and  other  commodities,  dealt 
in  on  the  exchanges;  consequently,  the 
proclamation  of  President  "Wilson  regard- 
ing coffee  was  not  a  surprise  to  thctee  who 
had  been  watching  the  situation  closely, 
especially  as  on  January  30,  1918  (the  day 
before  the  proclamation)  the  president  of 
the  Coffee  Exchange  was  summoned  by  tele- 
graph to  appear  in  Washington  to  discuss 
ways  for  a  proper  control  of  the  article,  and 
the  best  means  to  bring  about  such  control. 
As  a  result  of  this  summons,  a  committee 
of  the  entire  trade,  representing  the  Ex- 
change, the  green-coffee  dealers  and  im- 
porters, the  roasters,  and  the  brokers,  was 
appointed  by  the  Exchange  to  confer  with 
the  food  administrator  at  once,  in  order  to 
work  out  a  plan  whereby  the  business  could 
be  kept  going.  After  a  long  conference, 
rules  agreed  upon  were  approved  that  be- 
came the  basis  on  which  business  was  con- 
ducted until  the  withdrawal  of  all  regula- 
tions regarding  coffee  in  January,  1919. 
Much  trade  criticism  followed  the  publi- 
cation of  some  of  these  rules. 


George  W.  Lawrence,  president  of  the 
New  York  Coffee  and  Sugar  Exchange, 
was  called  to  Washington  on  February  28, 
1918,  to  take  charge  of  a  newly  created 
coffee  division  under  Theodore  F.  Whit- 
marsh,  chief  of  the  distribution  division  of 
the  food  administration.  In  this  position 
he  rendered  a  signal  service  to  the  trade  and 
to  his  country.  Although  subjected  to  a 
cross-fire  of  criticism  from  many  green  and 
roasted  coffee  interests,  he  never  wavered 
in  the  performance  of  his  full  duty ;  and  his 
good  judgment,  tact,  and  loyalty  to  Amer- 
ican ideals,  won  for  him  a  high  place  in 
the  regard  of  all  those  who  had  the  best 
interests  of  the  country  at  heart.  He  was 
ably  assisted  in  his  work  by  Walter  F. 
Blake,  of  Williams,  Russell  &  Company, 
New  York;  and  by  F.  T.  Nutt,  Jr.,  treas- 
urer of  the  New  York  Coffee  and  Sugar 
Exchange. 

A  coffee  advisory  board  was  appointed  in 
June  1918,  to  serve  as  a  go-between  for  the 
trade  and  the  food  administration.  Those 
who  served  on  this  committee  were :  Henry 
Schaefer,  of  S.  Gruner  &  Co.,  New  York, 
chairman;  Carl  H.  Stoffregen,  of  Stein- 
wender,  Stoffregen  &  Co.,  New  York,  sec- 
retary; and  William  Bayne,  Jr.,  of  William 
Bayne  &  Co.,  New  York;  S.  H.  Dorr,  of 
Arnold,  Dorr  &  Co.,  New  York;  A. 
Schierenberg,  of  Corn,  Schwarz  &  Co., 
New  York;  Leon  Israel,  of  Leon  Israel  & 
Bro.,  New  York;  Joseph  Purcell,  of  Hard 
&  Rand,  New  York;  B.  F.  Peabody,  of  T. 
Barbour  Brown  &  Co.,  New  York;  J.  D. 
Pickslay,  of  Williams,  Russell  &  Co.,  New 
York ;  Charles  L.  Meehan,  of  P.  C.  Meehan 
&  Co.,  New  York;  B.  C.  Casanas,  of  Mer- 
chants Coffee  Co.,  New  Orleans;  John  R. 
Moir,  of  Chase  &  Sanborn,  Boston;  and  B. 
Meyer,  of  Stewart,  Carnal  &  Co.,  New 
Orleans. 

Others  in  the  trade  who  served  the  food 
administration  during  the  period  of  the 
World  War  were  George  E.  Lichty,  presi- 
dent of  the  Black  Hawk  Coffee  &  Spice  Co., 
Waterloo,  Iowa;  and  Theodore  F.  Whit- 
marsh,  vice-president  and  treasurer  of 
Francis  H.  Leggett  &  Co.,  New  York. 

The  visible  supply  of  coffee  for  the 
United  States  on  January  1,  1918,  was 
2,887,308  bags.  The  world's  visible  supply 
was  given  as  10,012,000  bags;  but  to  be 
added  to  this  were  more  than  .3,000,000 
bags  held  by  the  Sao  Paulo  government. 
Thus  there  was  little  reason  to  fear  a  coffee 


536 


ALL     ABOUT     COFFEE 


shortage.  That  coffee  should  be  permitted, 
with  this  large  amount  in  view,  to  run  wild 
as  to  price,  was  certainly  not  the  intention 
of  the  food  administrator,  whose  purpose 
was  to  keep  foods  moving  to  the  United 
States  forces  and  allies,  and  as  far  as  pos- 
sible, to  keep  reasonable  prices  for  the 
United  States  consumers.  Steadily  advanc- 
ing prices  of  foods  meant  increasing  cost  of 
labor,  general  unrest,  and  a  difficult  situa- 
tion to  meet  at  a  period  when  the  situation 
as  a  whole  was  most  critical. 

Trouble  for  the  coffee  trade  was  immi- 
nent early  in  1918,  when  the  shipping 
board,  backed  by  experts,  decided,  or  at- 
tempted to  decide,  that  coffee  was  not  a 
food  product;  that  no  vessels  could  be  had 
for  its  transportation ;  and  that  it  must  be 
put  on  the  list  of  prohibited  or  restricted 
commodities,  Mr.  Hoover,  however,  in- 
sisted that  coffee  was  a  very  necessary  es- 
sential, and  that  tonnage  must  be  provided 
for  an  amount  sufficient  at  all  times  to  keej) 
the  visible  supply  for  the  United  States  up 
to  at  least  1,500,000  bags  of  Brazil  coffee; 
and  this  figure  was  ultimately  accepted  and 
carried  out  by  the  shipping  board. 

These  figures,  based  on  the  deliveries  of 
the  two  preceding  years,  and  with  dealers 
limited  to  ninety  days  stock  in  the  country, 
were  deemed  ample  to  care  for  all  require- 
ments. It  was  figured  that  by  November  1, 
1918,  the  freight  situation  would  be  re- 
lieved to  such  an  extent  by  the  new  vessels 
building,  that  the  amount  could  be  in- 
creased should  it  be  found  necessary.  The 
food  administration,  through  the  war  trade 
board,  offered  steamer  room  to  importers 
of  record  of  the  years  1916  -  17  at  $1.70  per 
bag.  The  first  few  vessels  were  promptly 
filled  on  a  basis  of  nine  and  one-quarter  to 
nine  and  five-eighths  cents,  c.  &  1,  for  San- 
tos 4s,  well  described.  About  the  same 
time,  our  army  and  navy  were  able  to  buy 
at  eight  to  eight  and  three-eighths  cents 
f.  0.  b.  Santos,  for  shipment  by  their  own 
vessels.  After  the  first  few  vessels  offered  by 
the  War  Trade  Board  were  filled,  the  trade 
became  indifferent.  The  warehouses  in 
Brazil  were  loaded  with  stocks;  vessels  to 
carry  coffee  were  assured  buyers  at  a  fixed 
rate  (profits  limited)  ;  and,  as  there  was  no 
apparent  reason  for  an  advance,  buyers 
were  willing  to  let  the  producing  countries 
carry  the  stock. 

The  last  week  in  June  brought  very  cold 
weather  in  Sao  Paulo,  and  cables  reported 


heavy  frost.  The  news  was  not  taken  seri- 
ously by  the  trade  at  large.  *  *  Frost  news ' ' 
from  Brazil  was  no  novelty,  and  in  the  past 
had  always  been  looked  upon  as  a  regular 
and  seasonable  method  of  bulling  the  mar- 
ket. This  year,  however,  the  frost  was  a 
fact,  and  the  market  began  to  move  upward 
with  surprising  speed.  Reports  of  the 
damage  to  the  trees  varied  from  forty  to 
eighty  per  cent.  Quotations  from  Santos 
advanced  two  cents  per  pound  in  as  many 
days.  United  States  buyers  were  not  dis- 
posed to  follow  the  advance;  offerings  of 
steamer  room  were  declined;  and  boats 
booked  for  coffee,  owing  to  the  lack  of  car- 
goes, were  transferred  elsewhere.  Mean- 
while the  market  continued  to  advance 
rapidly.  The  allies  were  holding  the  ene- 
my, and  peace  prospects  were  brighter. 
From  September  1  to  November  15,  the 
records  of  the  food  administration  showed 
very  small  purchases.  The  buyers  did  not 
believe  in  the  frost.  With  the  news  of  the 
armistice,  Brazil  markets  went  wild ;  and 
Santos  4s,  which  had  sold  at  eight  and  one- 
quarter  cents  in  May,  were  quoted  at  twen- 
ty and  one-half  cents  by  December  10. 

The  food  administration  had  decided,  on 
February  6,  1918,  after  consulting  the  com- 
mittee appointed  by  the  Exchange,  and  on 
their  advice  and  recommendation,  to  per- 
mit trading  in  futures  on  the  following 
plan :  a  fixed  maximum  price  of  eight  and 
one-half  cents  per  pound  for  the  spot 
month,  with  a  carrying  charge  not  to  ex- 
ceed fifteen  points  per  pound  for  delivery 
for  each  succeeding  month.  Thus  the  price 
for  March  delivery  was  fixed  at  eight  and 
one-half  cents,  while  July  delivery  could  be 
sold  at  nine  and  one-tenths  cents ;  but  when 
July  arrived,  it  became  the  spot  month, 
and  eight  and  one-half  cents  was  the  maxi- 
mum at  which  it  could  be  sold. 

This  rule  effectively  stopped  speculation, 
but  failed  to  work  out  satisfactorily  to  the 
trade.  Experience  proved  that  a  maximum 
fixed  price  at  which  coffee  could  be  traded 
in  would  have  produced  much  better  re- 
sults. Business  on  the  Exchange  followed 
its  usual  course,  and  the  customary  hedg- 
ing of  purchases  was  done  by  dealers.  The 
indifference  of  buyers,  already  referred  to, 
had  resulted  in  a  heavy  decrease  of  the 
United  States  visible  supply;  and  it  had 
shrunk  to  2,445,000  bags  on  September  1 ; 
to  2,173,098  bags  on  October  1 ;  to  1,857,260 
bags  on  November  1.     Included  in  these 


BIG    MEN    AND    ACHIEVEMENTS 


537 


amounts  were  at  least  500,000  bags,  held  in 
New  York  by  foreign  owners,  which  could 
not  be  sold;  and  of  the  balance  left,  there 
was  undoubtedly  a  liberal  amount  sold 
against  on  the  Exchange  for  future  deliv- 
ery. By  October,  the  situation  had  become 
acute.  Dealers  who  had  classified  them- 
selves as  jobbers  or  importers  had  gone  into 
the  retail  classification  in  order  to  evade 
the  limitations  of  profit  allowed  jobbers, 
and  were  limiting  their  sales  to  lots  of 
twenty-five  bags  or  fewer.  Dealers  who 
had  legitimately  hedged  their  holdings 
were  unable  to  buy  in. 

The  Exchange  officials  showed  no  dispo- 
sition to  relieve  the  situation ;  and  as  all 
prices  had  reached  the  maximum  price  for 
every  month  permitted,  the  food  adminis- 
tration, on  November  1,  1918,  ordered  the 
liquidation  of  all  contracts  outstanding, 
bought  or  sold,  by  not  later  than  November 
9.  This  was  done;  and  the  coffee  covered 
by  such  contracts  was  released  to  the  trade. 

The  regulations  governing  transactions 
on  the  Exchange  were  withdrawn  on  De- 
cember 5,  1918 ;  and,  after  a  long  argu- 
ment, the  Exchange  decided  to  reopen  for 
trading  on  December  26,  1918.  Opening 
transactions  amounted  to  25,000  bags  on  a 
basis  of  seventeen  and  one-half  cents  per 
pound  or  nine  cents  over  the  prices  at 
which  contracts  had  been  liquidated.  On 
December  28  the  price  had  declined  to  fif- 
teen and  one-half  cents.  In  the  opinion  of 
many  of  our  best  merchants,  the  Exchange 
should  have  been  closed  during  tHe  war,  as 
it  failed  to  be  of  any  real  service.  That  it 
was  operating  at  a  fixed  price  for  the  spot 
month  only,  made  it  of  no  value  to  the 
trade  during  this  period.  Of  its  loyalty  to 
the  government,  and  its  evident  desire  to 
assist  there  can  be  no  question;  but  its 
cheerful  acceptance  of  the  burdens  laid 
upon  it  proved  largely  futile. 

The  action  of  the  food  administration  in 
confining  the  coffee  business  solely  to  li- 
censed dealers  and  to  a  fixed  profit  on 
actual  cost;  in  limiting  dealers  to  ninety 
days  stock;  and  in  prohibiting  resales,  was 
the  cause  of  much  unjust  criticism.  The 
regulations  were  based  on  the  general  rules 
of  the  food  administration,  and  applied  to 
coffee  quite  as  equitably  as  did  the  regula- 
tions governing  other  food  commodities 
under  control  and  license.  As  a  matter  of 
fact,  they  were  much  less  rigorous  in  some 
ways  than    the    regulations    applying    to 


many  other  articles.  For  example,  ninety 
days  stock  based  on  sales  for  1916-17  was 
allowed  on  coffee.  There  was  no  other  ar- 
ticle on  the  food  list  to  which  this  liberality 
was  permitted.  A  forty  to  sixty  days  stock 
would  probably  be  found  to  be  the  maxi- 
mum permitted  to  be  carried  of  other  food 
products. 

The  general  proclamation  of  the  food  ad- 
ministration of  November  1,  1917,  de- 
clared : 

These  general  and  special  rules  and  regula- 
tions are  promulgated  by  the  President  to  ac- 
complish three  principal  objects,  \-iz :  1st,  to 
limit  the  prices  charged  by  every  licensee  "to  a 
reasonable  amount  over  expenses  and  forbid  the 
acquisition  of  speculative  profits  from  a  rising 
market" ;  2d,  to  keep  all  food  commodities  mov- 
ing in  as  direct  a  line  as  jpossible  and  with  as 
little  delay  as  practicable  to  the  consumer;  3d, 
to  limit  as  far  as  practicable  contracts  for  future 
delivery  and  dealing  in  future  contracts. 

From  the  foregoing  it  will  be  apparent 
that  a  profit  to  be  allowed  based  on  **  mar- 
ket value"  for  coffees  was  an  impossibility, 
unless  this  law  had  been  altered  to  allow  all 
licensees  of  other  commodities  to  share. 
Coffee  profits  were  fixed  by  the  food  ad- 
ministration on  the  advice  of,  and  with  ac- 
ceptance by,  the  coffee  committee.  They 
started  too  low ;  and  were  made  more  liber- 
al, when  the  first  figures  were  shown  to  be 
impossible.  George  W.  Lawrence  reports  a 
conversation  that  he  had  with  the  food  ad- 
ministrator on  this  particular  subject,  and 
that  was  characteristic  of  his  broadness. 
Mr.  Hoover  said,  "The  coffee  dealers  are 
comi)laining  of  the  profits  permitted  them. 
I  want  them  satisfied ;  and  if  the  profits  are 
not  reasonable,  I  shall  put  them  where  they 
will  be.  This  war  is  not  going  to  last  al- 
ways; and  at  its  conclusion  I  want  every 
American  merchant  in  a  position  to  be  able 
to  continue  his  business  and  be  no  worse 
off  than  when  the  war  started. ' ' 

Resales  were  prohibited,  or  limited  to 
one  transaction,  in  order  to  prevent  an  ac- 
cumulation of  profits,  that,  added  to  each 
transfer,  would  result  ultimately  in  higher 
prices  to  the  consumer. 

The  fixing  of  profit  based  on  cost,  and 
not  on  market  or  replacement  value,  is  a 
thing  that  is  impossible  in  normal  times. 
Carried  to  the  last  degree,  it  would  mean 
ruination ;  for  no  provision  is  made  for  de- 
clines in  the  market,  and  resulting  losses. 
As  a  war  measure  it  was  inevitable,  and  so 
endured.    In  normal  times  it  is  like  trying 


538 


ALL     ABOUT     COFFEE 


to  make  water  run  uphill.  With  a  united 
people,  it  worked;  but  one  can  not  have  a 
"World  War  always  to  unite  the  people.  It 
has  been  said  that  government  regulation 
of  coffees  caused  a  large  increase  in  price 
to  the  consumer.  This  would  be  hard  to 
prove.  The  trade,  generally,  that  refused 
to  buy  at  ten  to  twelve  cents  per  pound 
because  it  did  not,  or  would  not  believe  the 
reports  of  frost  damage,  and  thought  prices 
too  high,  was  frantically  bidding  up  to 
twenty  and  twenty-two  cents  for  4s  in 
March  and  April,  1919.  According  to  the 
ideas  of  some  enthusiasts,  fifty  cents  was 
not  an  impossibility.  Naturally  such  a 
bubble  must  burst  eventually.  Government 
control  had  nothing  to  do  with  such  natural 
conditions  as  frost,  or  as  the  buyers'  in- 
difference. Expansion  and  inflation  were 
in  the  air,  and  had  to  run  their  course.  The 
year  1920  brought  the  aftermath;  and  in 
the  deflation,  coffee,  with  all  other  commod- 
ities, went  down  to  prices  far  below  its  in- 
trinsic value.  The  expected  European  de- 
mand did  not  materialize;  the  interior 
buyer  was  overloaded  with  stock;  and  the 
losses  of  the  coffee  trade  in  1920  will,  it  is 
to  be  hoped,  never  be  repeated. 

The  Story  of  Soluble  Coffee 

For  nearly  two  decades,  many  coffee  men 
and  chemists  have  been  seeking  a  soluble 
coffee,  or  dried  coffee  extract,  that  would 
simplify  the  preparation  of  the  beverage. 
Thus  far,  all  the  products  that  have  ap- 
peared on  the  market  are  somewhat  defi- 
cient in  aroma  and  in  the  more  delicate 
flavors  of  coffee.  A  satisfying  average  cup 
of  coffee  can  be  prepared  from  the  better 
brands;  the  chief  advantages  of  which  are 
rapidity  of  preparation,  absence  of  any 
grounds,  and  uniformity  of  drink. 

Considerable  progress  has  been  made  in 
certain  directions;  enough  to  warrant  tel- 
ling here,  though  briefly,  the  story  of  sol- 
uble coffee  to  date. 

Some  there  are  among  trade  experts  and 
coffee  connoisseurs  who  maintain  soluble 
coffee  is  an  ignis  fatuus;  that  it  can  never 
be  manufactured  without  destroying  the 
aromatic  principle;  that  at  best  it  is  a  de- 
lusion and  a  snare.  Certainly,  many  ab- 
surd claims  have  been  made  for  some  of 
the  soluble  coffees  on  the  market.  However, 
there  are  others  that  are  not  without  their 
merits;  and  the  story  of  their  introduction 


to  the  trade  and  the  consuming  public  is 
entertaining  and  instructive. 

Dr.  Sartori  Kato,  a  Japanese  chemist,  of 
Tokio,  brought  a  soluble  tea  to  Chicago 
about  1899.  It  was  not  a  commercial  suc- 
cess ;  but  it  served  to  bring  him  in  touch 
with  some  coffee  men  and  chemists,  for 
whom  he  produced  a  soluble  coffee  in  the 
same  year.  A  company  was  organized  to 
promote  the  product.  It  was  called  the 
Kato  Coffee  Co.,  and  included,  in  addition 
to  Dr.  Kato;  Fillip  Kreissel,  a  chemist; 
W.  R.  Ruffner,  a  green-coffee  broker ;  and 
I.  D.  Richheimer,  a  coffee  roaster.  Kato's 
soluble  coffee  was  first  sold  to  the  public  at 
the  Pan-American  Exposition  in  1901.  The 
first  quantity  order  was  received  from  Cap- 
tain Baldwin  and  by  him  used  with  satis- 
faction on  the  Ziegler  Arctic  expedition. 
United  States  patents  on  a  coffee  concen- 
trate, and  process  for  making  the  same 
(soluble  coffee),  were  granted  to  Sartori 
Kato  of  Chicago,  assignor  to  the  Kato  Cof- 
fee Co.,  of  the  same  place,  on  August  11, 
1903. 

G.  Washington,  who  was  born  in  Bel- 
gium of  English  parents,  and  who  was 
living  temporarily  in  Guatemala  City,  in- 
vented about  1906,  a  soluble  coffee  that 
was  made  ready  for  the  market  in  1909. 

The  George  Washington  Coffee  Refining 
Co.  was  organized  in  1910  to  put  the 
Washington  product  on  the  market,  which 
it  did  first  under  the  name.  Red  E  coffee. 
This  was  later  changed  to  G.  Washington 's 
Prepared  Coffee,  as  an  alternative  to  Wash- 
ington's Coffee  Extract,  a  name  which  was 
favorably  regarded  by  all  except  certain 
authorities  at  the  national  capital.  Asso- 
ciated with  Mr.  Washington  at  the  start  of 
the  enterprise  were :  E.  Van  Etten,  former 
vice-president  of  the  New  York  Central 
Railroad ;  W.  J.  Arkell ;  Bartlett  Arkell,  of 
the  Beechnut  Packing  Co. ;  C.  M.  Warner, 
of  the  Warner  Sugar  Refining  Co. ;  and 
Charles  E.  Proctor,  of  the  Singer  Sewing 
Machine  Co. 

The  G.  Washington  Coffee  Refining  Com- 
pany has  its  coffee-roasting  and  preparing 
plant  in  Brooklyn;  but  its  process  is  a 
secret  one,  and  has  never  been  patented. 

F.  Lehnhoff  Wyld,  who  was  the  Wash- 
ingtons'  family  physician  when  they  lived 
in  Guatemala  City,  and  with  whom  Mr. 
Washington  had  discussed  his  work  in  sbl- 
ubk  coffee,  duplicated  the  Washington 
product  in  1913 ;  and,  with  E.  T.  Cabarrus, 


BIG   MEN    AND    ACHIEVEMEXTS 


539 


he  organized  the  Societe  du  Cafe  Soluble 
Belna,  Brussels,  Belgium,  to  put  on  the 
European  market  a  refined  soluble  coffee 
under  the  brand  name  Belna. 

Eight  or  ten  United  States  patents  have 
been  granted  on  soluble  coffees  that  have 
never  been  applied  commercially. 

Nowhere  has  soluble  coffee  met  with  such 
success  as  in  the  United  States,  where  a 
number  of  brands  followed  the  Kato  and 
G.  Washington  products.  Among  them, 
mention  should  be  made  of  the  C.  F. 
Blanke  Tea  &  Coffee  Company's  Magic 
Cup,  afterward  Fairy  Cup,  and  later, 
Faust  brand,  brought  out  in  1912;  the 
Baker  Importing  Co. 's  Barrington  Hall 
Soluble  Coffee,  brought  out  in  1917;  and 
the  Charles  G.  Hires  Co.'s  brand,  intro- 
duced to  the  trade  in  1918. 

It  was  the  "World  "War  that  brought  sol- 
uble coffee  to  the  front.  E,  F.  Holbrook, 
formerly  in  charge  of  the  coffee  section, 
subsistence  division.  United  States  "War  De- 
partment, said,  "The  use  of  mustard  gas 
by  the  Germans  made  it  one  of  the  most 
important  articles  of  subsistence  used  by 
the  army."  Early  in  the  war,  soluble  cof- 
fee was  added  to  the  reserve  ration,  three- 
quarters  of  an  ounce  being  considered  at 
first  the  proper  amount  per  ration.  After 
trying  to  put  it  up  in  sticks,  tablets,  cap- 
sules, and  other  forms,  it  was  determined 
that  the  best  method  was  to  pack  it  in  en- 
velopes. A  month  before  the  signing  of  the 
armistice,  the  New  York  depot  was  hotified 
that  after  January  1,  1919,  the  require- 
ments of  soluble  coffee  were  to  be  25,000 
pounds  per  day  in  addition  to  quantities 
packed  in  reserve  rations,  bringing  the  to- 
tal daily  output  to  42,500  pounds  per  day. 
Arrangements  were  made  to  have  the  total 
output    of    the    New    York    zone,    40,000 


pounds  per  day,  packed  in  quarter-ounce 
envelopes,  twenty-four  to  a  sealed  can. 

I.  D.  Richheimer,  promoter  of  the  orig- 
inal soluble  coffee  of  Kato  and  the  Kato 
patent,  organized  the  Soluble  Coffee  Co.  of 
America  in  1918,  to  supply  soluble  coffee 
to  the  American  army  overseas.  After  the 
armistice,  the  company  began  licensing 
other  merchants  under  the  Kato  patent  or 
offering  to  process  the  merchants'  own  cof- 
fee for  them  if  desired. 

"William  A.  Hamor  and  Charles  W. 
Trigg,  Pittsburgh,  assignors  to  John  E. 
King,  Detroit,  were  granted  a  United 
States  patent  in  1919  on  a  process  for  mak- 
ing a  new  soluble  coffee.  Their  process 
consists  in  bringing  the  volatilized  caffeol 
in  contact  with  a  petrolatum,  or  absorbing 
medium,  where  it  is  held  until  needed  for 
combination  with  the  evaporated  coffee  ex- 
tract. The  King  Coffee  Products  Corp.  of 
Detroit  was  organized  in  1920  to  manufac- 
ture this  product,  known  as  Minute  coffee, 
and  a  coffee  base  for  soft  drinks,  the  latter 
being  marketed  under  the  name  of  Coffee 
Pep.  Mr.  King  had  believed  for  many 
years  that  soluble  coffee  was  destined  to 
solve  many  of  the  vexations  of  the  coffee 
business,  and  had  been  experimenting  with 
the  idea  since  1906.  To  facilitate  his  in- 
vestigations,  he  established  a  fellowship  at 
the  Mellon  Institute  of  Industrial  Re- 
search, Pittsburgh,  in  1914,  in  charge  of 
Charles  "W.  Trigg.  This  chemically  con- 
trolled research  evolved  a  product  which, 
after  passing  through  the  laboratory  stage, 
was  placed  upon  a  small  unit  plan  basis, 
and  then  patented.  Five  additional  patents 
on  the  product  were  granted  Messrs.  Trigg 
and  David  S.  Pratt  in  1921;  and  all  were 
assigned  to  John  E.  King. 


540 


ALL    ABOUT     COFFEE 


til'  L^lrT^'^^^^-^-^^t  ij^ 


THE  EARLIEST  COFFEE  MANUSCRIPT,  1587 

Pages  from  the  Arabian  writing  by  Abd-al-Kadir,  photographed    for    this    work    in    the    Bibliothfeque    Na- 

tionale,  Paris. 


Chapter  XXXII 

A    HISTORY    OF    COFFEE    IX    LITERATURE 

The  romance  of  coffee,  and  its  influence  on  the  discourse,  poetry,  his- 
tory, drama,  philosophic  writing,  and  fiction  of  the  seventeenth  and 
eighteenth  centuries  and  on  the  luriters  of  today  —  Coffee  quips  and 
anecdotes 


ANY  study  of  the  literature  of  coffee 
comprehends  a  survey  of  selections 
from  the  best  thought  of  civilized 
nations,  from  the  time  of  Rhazes  (850  - 
922)  to  Francis  Saltus  Saltus.  We  have 
seen  in  chapter  III  how  Rhazes,  the  phy- 
sician-philosopher, appears  to  have  been 
the  first  writer  to  mention  coffee;  and  was 
followed  by  other  great  physicians,  like 
Bengiazlah,  a  contemporary,  and  Avicenna 
(980-1037). 

Then  arose  many  legends  about  coffee, 
that  served  as  inspiration  for  Arabian, 
French,  Italian,  and  English  poets. 

Sheik  Gemaleddin,  mufti  of  Mo4ha,  is 
said  to  have  discovered  the  virtues  of  cof- 
fee about  1454,  and  to  have  promoted  the 
use  of  the  drink  in  Arabia.  Knowledge  of 
the  new  beverage  was  given  to  Europeans 
by  the  botanists  Rauwolf  and  Alpini  to- 
ward the  close  of  the  sixteenth  century. 

The  first  authentic  account  of  the  origin 
of  coffee  was  written  by  Abd-al-Kadir  in 
1587.  It  is  the  famous  Arabian  manuscript 
commending  the  use  of  coffee,  preserved  in 
the  Bibliotheque  Nationale,  Paris,  and  cat- 
alogued as  ' '  Arabe,  4590. ' ' 

Its  title  written  in  Arabic  is  as  follows: 


ty^\ 


^ 


o<X^j. 


4  3  2  1 

which    is  pronounced    (reading  right    to 
left)  : 

omdat  as    safwa    fi    hall    al  kaliwa 


1  2  3 

or,  in  the  literary  style: 


omdatu    s    safwati    fi    hallu     '1    kahwati 
which  means  —  literally,    (the  correspond- 
ing words  being  underlined  and  numbered) 
"The    maintenance   of   purity    as 

i  2 

regards  the  legitimacy  of  coffee." 

3  4 

or,  more  freely,  "Argument  in  favor  of  the 
legitimate  use  of  coffee." 

oy^    kahwa,  is  the  Arabic  word  for 
coffee. 

The  author  is  Abd-al-Kadir  ibn  IMoham- 
mad  al  Ansari  al  Jazari  al  Hanbali.  That 
is,  he  was  named  Abd-al-Kadir,  son  of 
Mohammed. 

Ahd-al-Kadir  means  "slave  of  the  strong 
one"  (i.  e.,  of  God)  ;  while  al  Ansari  means 
that  he  was  a  descendant  of  the  Ansari 
i.  e.,  "helpers"),  the  people  of  Medina  who 
received  and  protected  the  Prophet  Mo- 
hammed after  his  flight  from  Mecca ;  al  Ja- 
zari means  that  he  was  a  man  of  Mesopota- 
mia ;  and  al  Hanhali  that  in  law  and  theo- 
logy he  belonged  to  the  well  known  sect,  or 
school,  of  the  Hanbalites,  so  called  after  the 
great  jurist  and  writer,  Ahmad  ibn  Han 
bal,  who  died  at  Bagdad  A.  H.  241  (A.  D. 
855).  The  Hanbalites  are  one  of  the  four 
great  sects  of  the  Sunni  Mohammedans. 

Abd-al-Kadir  ibn  Mohammed  lived  in 
the  tenth  eenturj'  of  the  Hegira  —  the  six- 
teenth of  our  era  —  and  wrote  his  book  in 
996  A.  H.,  or  1587  A.  D.  Coffee  had  then 
been  in  common  use  since  about  1450  A.  D. 
in  Arabia.    It  was  not  in  use  in  the  time  of 


.541 


542 


ALL     ABOUT     COFFEE 


the  Prophet,  who  died  in  632  A.  D. ;  but 
he  had  forbidden  the  drink  of  strong 
liquors  which  affect  the  brain,  and  hence 
it  was  argued  that  coffee,  as  a  stimulant, 
was  unlawful.  Even  today,  the  community 
of  the  Wahabis,  very  powerful  in  Arabia 
a  hundred  years  ago,  and  still  dominant  in 
part  of  it,  do  not  permit  the  use  of  coffee. 

Abd-al-Kadir 's  book  is  thought  to  have 
been  based  on  an  earlier  writing  by  Shihab- 
ad-Din  Ahmad  ibn  Abd-al-Ghafar  al  Mali- 
ki,  as  he  refers  to  the  latter  on  the  third 
page  of  his  manuscript ;  but  if  so,  this  pre- 
vious work  does  not  appear  to  have  been 
preserved.  La  Roque  says  Shihab-ad-Din 
was  an  Arabian  historian  who  supplied  the 
main  part  of  Abd-al-Kadir 's  story:  La 
Roque  refers  also  to  a  Turkish  historian. 

Research  by  the  author  has  failed  to  dis- 
close anything  about  Shihab-al-Din  save  his 
name  {al  Maliki  means  that  he  belonged  to 
the  Malikites,  another  of  the  four  great 
Sunni  sects),  and  that  he  wrote  about  a 
hundred  years  before  Abd-al-Kadir.  No 
copy  of  his  writings  is  known  to  exist. 

The  illustrations  show  the  title  page  of 
Abd-al-Kadir 's  manuscript,  the  first  page, 
the  third  page,  and  the  fly  leaf  of  the  cover, 
the  latter  containing  an  inscription  in 
Latin  made  at  the  time  the  manuscript  was 
first  received  or  classified.    It  reads : 

Omdat  al  safouat  fi  hall  al  cahuat. 
De  usu  legitimo  et  licito  potionis  quae  vulgo 
Cafe  nuncupatur.  Authore  Abdalcader  Ben  Mo- 
hammed al  Ansari.  Constat  hie  liber  capitibus 
septem,  et  ab  authore  editus  est  anno  hegirae  99G 
quo  anno  centum  et  viginti  annl  effluxerant  ex 
quo  huius  potionis  usus  in  Arabia  felice  in- 
valuerat. 

The  translation  of  the  Latin  is: 

Concerning  the  legitimate  and  lawful  use  of 
the  drink  commonly  known  as  oaf 6,  by  Abdal- 
cader Ben  Mohammed  al  Ansari.  The  book  is 
composed  in  seven  chapters  and  was  brought 
out  by  the  author  in  the  year  of  the  Hegira  996 
at  which  time  a  hundred  and  twenty  years  had 
passed  since  the  use  of  this  drink  had  become 
firmly  established  in  Arabia  FeUx. 

Coffee  in  Poetry 
The  Abd-al-Kadir  work  immortalized 
coffee.  It  is  in  seven  chapters.  The  first 
treats  of  the  etymology  and  significance  of 
the  word  cahouah  (kahwa),  the  nature  and 
properties  of  the  bean,  where  the  drink  was 
first  used,  and  describes  its  virtues.  The 
other  chapters  have  to  do  largely  with  the 
church  dispute  in  Mecca  in  1511,  answer 
the  religious  objectors  to  coffee,  and  con- 


clude with  a  collection  of  Arabic  verses 
composed  during  the  Mecca  controversy  by 
the  best  poets  of  the  time. 

De  Nointel,  ambassador  from  the  court 
of  Louis  XIV  to  the  Ottoman  Porte, 
brought  back  with  him  to  Paris  from  Con- 
stantinople the  Abd-al-Kadir  manuscript, 
and  another  by  Bichivili,  one  of  the  three 
general  treasurers  of  the  Ottoman  Empire. 
The  latter  work  is  of  a  later  date  than  the 
Abd-al-Kadir  manuscript,  and  is  con- 
cerned chiefly  with  the  history  of  the  intro- 
duction of  coffee  into  Egypt,  Syria,  Da- 
mascus, Aleppo,  and  Constantinople. 

The  following  are  two  of  the  earliest 
Arabic  poems  in  praise  of  coffee.  They  are 
about  the  period  of  the  first  coffee  persecu- 
tion in  Mecca  (1511),  and  are  typical  of 
the  best  thought  of  the  day : 

I?r  Praise  of  Coffee 
Translation  from  the  Arabic 

O  Coffee!  Thou  dost  dispel  all  cares,  thou  art 
the  object  of  desire  to  the  scholar. 

This  Is  the  beverage  of  the  friends  of  God;  it 
gives  health  to  those  in  its  service  who  strive 
after  wisdom. 

Prepared  from  the  simple  shell  of  the  berry. 
It  has  the  odor  of  musk  and  the  color  of  Ink. 

The  intelligent  man  who  empties  these  cups 
of  foaming  coffee,  he  alone  knows  truth. 

May  God  deprive  of  this  drink  the  foolish 
man  who  condemns  It  with  Incurable  obstinacy. 

Coffee  is  our  gold.  Wherever  it  is  served,  one 
enjoys  the  society  of  the  noblest  and  most  gen- 
erous men. 

0  drink!  As  harmless  as  pure  milk,  which 
differs  from  it  only  In  Its  blackness. 

Here  is  another,  rhymed  version  of  the 
same  poem : 

In  Praise  of  Coffee 
Translation  from  the  Arabic 

O    coffee!       Loved    and    fragrant    drink,    thou 

drivest  care  away. 
The  object  thou  of  that  man's  wish  who  studies 

night  and  day. 
Thou  yoothest  him,  thou  giv'st  him  health,  and 

God  doth  favor  those 
Who  walk   straight  on   in   wisdom's   way,   nor 

seek  their  own  repose. 
Fragrant  as  musk  thy  berry  is,  yet  black  as  ink 

In  sooth! 
And  he  who  sips  thy  fragrant  cup    can     only 

know  the  truth. 
Insensate  they  who,  tasting  not,  yet  vilify  its 

use; 
For  when  they  thirst  and  seek  Its  help,  God  will 

the  gift  refuse. 
Oh,  coffee  is  our  wealth!   for  see,  where'er  on 

earth  it  grows. 
Men  live  whose  aims  are  noble,  true  virtues 

who  disclose. 


COFFEE    IN    LITERATURE 


543 


Coffee  Companionship 
Translation  from  the  Arabic 

Come  and  enjoy  the  company  of  coffee  in  the 
places  of  Its  habitation;  for  the  Divine  Good- 
ness envelops  those  who  partake  of  its  feast. 

There  the  elegance  of  the  rugs,  the  sweetness 
of  life,  the  society  of  the  guests,  all  give  a  pic- 
ture of  the  abode  of  the  blest. 

It  Is  a  wine  which  no  sorrow  could  resist 
when  the  cup-bearer  presents  thee  with  the  cup 
which  contains  it. 

It  is  not  long  since  Aden  saw  thy  birth.  If 
thou  doubtest  this,  see  the  freshness  of  youth 
shining  on  the  faces  of  thy  children. 

Grief  is  not  found  within  its  habitations. 
Trouble  yields  humbly  to  its  power. 

It  is  the  beverage  of  the  children  of  God,  It 
is  the  source  of  health. 

It  is  the  stream  in  which  we  wash  away  our 
sorrows.  It  is  the  fire  which  consumes  oui 
griefs. 

Whoever  has  once  known  the  chafing-dish 
which  prepares  this  beverage,  will  feel  only 
aversion  for  wine  and  liquor  from  casks. 

Delicious  beverage,  its  color  is  the  seal  of 
its  purity. 

Reason  pronounces  favorably  on  the  lawful- 
ness of  it. 

Drink  of  it  confidently,  and  give  not  ear  to 
the  speech  of  the  foolish,  who  condemn  it  with- 
out reason. 

During  the  period  of  the  second  religious 
persecution  of  coffee  in  the  latter  part  of 
the  sixteenth  century,  other  Arabian  poets 
sang  the  praises  of  coffee.  The  learned 
Fakr-Eddin-Aboubeckr  ben  Abid  lesi  wrote 
a  book  entitled  The  Triumph  of  Coffee,  and 
the  poet-sheikh  Sherif-Eddin-Om^-ben- 
Faredh  sang  of  it  in  harmonious  verse, 
wherein,  discoursing  of  his  mistress,  he 
could  find  no  more  flattering  comparison 
than  coffee.  He  exclaims,  * '  She  has  made 
me  drink,  in  long  draughts,  the  fever,  or, 
rather,  the  coffee  of  love ! ' ' 

The  numerous  contributions  by  early 
travelers  to  the  literature  of  coffee  have  been 
mentioned  in  chronological  order  in  the 
history  chapters.  After  Rauwolf  and 
Alpini,  there  were  Sir  Antony  Sherley, 
Parry,  Biddulph,  Captain  John  Smith,  Sir 
George  Sandys,  Sir  Thomas  Herbert,  and 
Sir  Henry  Blount  in  England;  Tavernier, 
Thevenot,  Bernier,  P.  de  la  Roque,  and 
Galland  in  France;  Delia  Valle  in  Italy; 
Olearius  and  Niebhur  in  Germany;  Nieu- 
hoff  in  Holland,  and  others. 

Francis  Bacon  wrote  about  coffee  in  his 
Hist.  Vitae  et  Mortis  and  Sylva  Sylvarum, 
1623  -  27.  Burton  referred  to  it  in  his  "An- 
atomy of  Melancholy"  in  1632.  Parkinson 
described  it  in  his  Theatrum  Botanicum  in 
1640.    In  1652,  Pasqua  Rosee  published  his 


famous  handbill  in  London,  a  literary  effort 
as  well  as  a  splendid  first  advertisement. 

Faustus  Nairon  (Banesius)  produced  in 
Rome,  in  1671,  the  first  printed  treatise  de- 
voted solely  to  coffee.  The  same  year  Du- 
four  brought  out  the  first  treatise  in  French, 
This  he  followed  in  1684  with  his  work, 
The  manner  of  making  coffee,  tea,  and 
chocolate.  John  Ray  extolled  the  virtues 
of  coffee  in  his  Universal  Botany  of  Plants, 
published  in  London  in  1686.  Galland 
translated  the  Abd-al-Kadir  manuscript  in- 
to French  in  1699,  and  Jean  La  Roque  pub- 
lished his  Voyage  de  I'Arahie  Heureuse  in 
Paris  in  1715.  Excerpts  from  nearly  all 
these  works  appear  in  various  chapters  of 
this  work. 

Leonardus  Ferdinandus  Meisner  pub- 
lished a  Latin  treatise  on  coffee,  tea,  and 
chocolate  in  1721.  Dr.  James  Douglas  pub- 
lished in  London  (1727)  his  Arhor  yemensis 
friictiim  cofe  ferefis,  or  a  description  and 
history  of  the  Coffee  Tree.  This  work  laid 
under  contribution  many  of  the  Italian, 
German,  French,  and  English  scholars  men- 
tioned above ;  and  the  author  mentioned  as 
other  sources  of  information :  Dr.  Quincy, 
Pechey,  Gaudron,  de  Fontenelle,  Professor 
Boerhaave,  Figueroa,  Chabraeus,  Sir  Hans 
Sloane,  Langius,  and  Du  Mont. 

In  the  seventeenth  and  eighteenth  cen- 
turies, the  poets  and  dramatists  of  France^ 
Italy,  and  England  found  a  plentiful  sup- 
ply in  what  had  already  been  written  on 
coffee;  to  say  nothing  of  the  inspiration 
offered  by  the  drink  itself,  and  by  the 
society  of  the  cafes  of  the  period. 

French  poets,  familiar  with  Latin,  first 
took  coffee  as  the  subject  of-  their  verse. 
Vaniere  sang  its  praises  in  the  eighth  book 
of  his  Praedium  rusticum;  and  Fellon,  a 
Jesuit  professor  of  Trinity  College,  Lyons, 
wrote  a  didactic  poem  called,  Faha  Arabica, 
Carmen,  which  is  included  in  the  Poemata 
didascalica  of  d 'Olivet. 

Abbe  Guillaume  Massieu's  Carmen  Caf- 
faeum,  composed  in  1718,  has  been  referred 
to  in  chapter  III.  It  was  read  at  the 
Academy  of  Inscriptions.  One  of  the 
panegyrists  of  this  author,  de  Boze,  in  his 
Eloge  de  Massieu,  says  that  if  Horace  and 
Virgil  had  known  of  coffee,  the  poem  might 
easily  have  been  attributed  to  them;  and 
Thery,  who  translated  it  into  French,  says 
"it  is  a  pearl  of  elegance  in  a  rare  jewel 
case. ' ' 


544 


ALL     ABOUT     COFFEE 


The  following  translation  of  the  poem 
from  the  Latin  original  was  made  for  this 
work : 

Coffee 

A  Poem   by  Guillaume  Massieu  of  the  French 

Academy 

(A  literal  prose   translation  from   the   original   Latin 
in  the  British  Museum.) 

How  coffee  first  came  to  our  shores, 

What  the  nature  of  the  divine  drink  is,  what  its 

use, 
How  it  brings  ready  aid  to  man  against  every 

liind  of  evils, 
I  shall  here  begin  to  tell  in  simple  verse. 

You  soft-spoken  men,  who  have  often  tried  the 

sweetness  of  this  drink, 
If  it  has  never  deceived  your  wishes  or  mocked 

your  hopes 
With  its  empty  results,  be  propitious  and  lend 

a  willing  ear  to  our  song. 
And  may  you,  0  Phoebus,  kindly  be  present,  to 

acknowledge 
As  your  gift  the  power  of  herbs  and  healthful 

plants,  and  to 
Dispel  sad  diseases  from  cur  bodies;   for  they 

say  you  are 
The  author  of  this  blessing,  and  may  you  spread 

your 
Gifts   auiong  peoples,   and  everywhere   far  and 

wide  throughout  the  entire  world. 

Across  Libya  afar,  and  the  seven  mouths  of  the 

swollen  Nile, 
Where  Asia  most  joyfully  spreads  in  immense 

fields 
Rich  in  various  resources  and  filled  with  frag- 
rant woods, 
A  region  extends.    The  Sabeans  of  old  inhabited 

it. 
I  believe  indeed  Nature,  that  best  parent  of  all 

things, 
Loved  this  place  more  than  all  others  with  a 

tender  love. 
Here  the  air  of  Heaven  always  breathes  more 

mildly. 
The  sun  has  a  gentler  power ;  here  are  flowers 

of  a  different  clime; 
And  the  earth  with  fertile  bosom  brings  forth 

various  fruits. 
Cinnamon,  casia,  myrrh,  and  fragrant  thyme. 
Amid  the  resources  and  gifts   of  this  blessed 

land. 
Turned  to  the  sun  and  the  warm  south  winds, 
A  tree  spontaneously  lifts  itself  into  the  upper 

air. 
Growing  nowhere  else,  and  unknown  in  earlier 

centuries, 
By  no  means  great  in  size,  it  stretches  not  far 

its 
Spreading   branches,   nor  lifts   a  lofty   top   to 

heaven; 
But  lowly,  after  the  manner  of  myrtle  or  pliant 

broom, 
It  rises  from  the  ground.     Many   a   nut   bends 

Its  rich  branches. 
Small,  like  a  bean,  dark  and  dull  in  color. 
Marked  by  a  slight  groove  In  the  centre  of  its 

hull. 


To  transplant  this  growth  to  cur  own  fields 

Many  have  tried,  and  to  cultivate  it  with  great 
care. 

In  vain;  for  the  plant  has  not  reeponded  to  the 
zeal 

And  desires  of  the  planters,  and  has  rendered 
vain  their  long  labor; 

Before  day  the  root  of  the  tender  herb  has 
withered  away. 

Either  this  has  happened  through  fault  of  cli- 
mate, or  grudging 

Earth  refuses  to  furnish  fit  nourishment  to  the 
foreign  plant. 

Therefore  come  thou,  whoever  shall  be  possesed 
by  a  love  for  coffee. 

Do  not  regret  having  brought  the  healthful 
bean  from  the  far 

Remote  world  of  Arabia;  for  this  is  its  bounti- 
ful mother  country. 

The  soothing  draught  first  flowed  from  those 
regions  through  other 

Peoples;  thence  through  all  Europe  and  Asia, 
and  next  made  its  way  through  the  entire 
world. 

Therefore,  what  you  shall  know  to  be  sufficient 
for  your  needs. 

Do  you  prepare  long  beforehand;  let  it  be  your 
care  to  have  collected 

Yearly  a  copious  store,  and  providently  fill 
small  granaries. 

As  of  yore  the  farmer,  early  mindful  and  provi- 
dent of  the  future. 

Collected  crops  from  his  fields  and  garnered 
them  in  his  barns. 

And  turned  his  attention  to  the  coming  year. 

None  the  less,  meanwhile,  must  the  utensils  for 

coffee  be  cared  for. 
Let  not  vessels  suited  for  drinking  the  beverage 

be  lacking, 
And  a  pot,  whose  narrow  neck  should  be  topped 

by  a  small  cover 
And  whose  body  should  swell  gradually  into  an 

oblong  shape. 
When  these  things  shall  have  been  provided  by 

you,  let  your 
Next  care  be  to   roast    well    the    beans    with 

flames,  and  to  grind  them  when  roasted. 
Nor  should  the  hammer  cease  to  crush  them 

with  many  a  blow, 
Until  they  lay  aside  their  hardness,  and  when 

thoroughly  ground. 
Become    fine  powder;     which    forthwith    pack 

either  in  a  bag  or  a  box  made  for  such  uses. 
And  wrap  it  in  leather,  and  smear  it  over  with 

soft  wax,  lest 
Narrow  chinks  be  open,  or  hidden  channels. 
Unless  you  prevent   these,    by    a    secret    path 

gradually  small 
Particles  and  whatever  of  value  exists,  and  the 

entire  strength. 
Would  leave,  wasting  into  empty  air. 

There  is  also  a  hollow  machine,  like  a  small 
tower,  which  they 

Call  a  mill,  in  which  you  can  bruise  the  useful 
fruit  of  the 

Roasted  bean  and  crush  it  with  frequent  rub- 
bing; 


ALL     ABOUT     COFFEE 


Camel  Transport  Between  Harab  and  Dibe-Daoua,  Abyssinia 


SuKkDKYING    IN    La    LAGUNA,   rHILU'i'IiNE   ISLANUS 

COFFEE  SCENES  IN  THE  NEAR  AND  THE  PAR  EAST 


COFFEE    IN    LITERATURE 


545 


A  revolving  pivot  in  the  middle,  on  an  easy- 
wheel  turning, 

Twists  its  metal  joints  on  a  creaking  stem. 

The  top  of  the  wheel,  you  know,  Is  pierced  with 
an  ivory  handle 

Which  will  have  to  be  turned  by  hand,  through 
a  thousand  revolutions. 

And  through  a  thousand  circles  It  moves  the 
pivot. 

When  you  put  a  kernel  in,  you  will  turn  the 
handle  with  quick  hand  — 

No  delay  —  and  you  will  wonder  how  the  crack- 
ling kernel  is 

With  much  grinding  quickly  reduced  to  a 
powder. 

Once  only  the  lower  compartment  receives  on 
its  kindly  bosom 

The  crushed  grains,  which  are  placed  In  the 
very  depths  of  the  box. 

But  why  do  we  linger  over  these  less  important 
matters? 

Greater  things  call  us.  Then  is  It  time  to  drain 
the  sweet 

Draught,  either  under  the  new  light  of  the  early 
sun 

In  the  morning,  when  an  empty  stomach  de- 
mands food; 

Or,  when,  after  the  splendid  feasts  of  a  mag- 
nificent table 

The  overburdened  stomach  suffers  from  too 
heavy   load,  and 

Unequal  to  the  demands  made  upon  It,  seeks 
the  aid  of  external  heat. 

Then  come,  when  now  the  pot  grows  ruddy  in 
the  fire 

Crackling  beneath,  and  you  shall  behold  the 
liquid,  swelling  v 

With  mingled  powdered  coffee,  now  bubble 
around  the  brim. 

Draw  it  from  the  fire.  Unless  you  should  do 
this,  the  force  of 

The  water  would  break  forth  suddenly,  over- 
flowing, and  would 

Sprinkle  the  beverage  on  the  fire  beneath. 

Therefore,  let  no  such  accident  disturb  your 
joys. 

You  should  keep  watch  carefully  when  the 
water  no  longer 

Restrains  itself  and  bubbles  with  the  heat;  then 
return 

The  pot  to  the  fire  thrice  and  four  times,  until 
the  powdered 

Coffee  steams  in  the  midst  of  the  fire  and  blends 
thoroughly  with  the  surrounding  water. 

This   soothing  drink  ought  to  be  boiled   with 

skill,  to  be  drunk 
With   art  —  not  in   the  way  men  are   wont   to 

drink  other   beverages  — 
And   with    reason;    for   when   you   shall   have 

taken  it  steaming  from 
A  quick  fire,  and  gradually  all  the  dregs  have 

settled  to  the 
Very  bottom,  you  shall  not  drink  it  Impatiently 

at  one  gulp. 
But  rather,  sip  It  little  by  little,  and  between 

draughts 
Contrive  pleasant  delays;  and  sipping,  drain  it 

In  long  draughts. 
So  long  as  It  is  still  hot  and  burns  the  palate. 


For  then  it  is  better,  then  It  permeates  our  In- 
most bones,  and 

Penetrating  within  to  the  center  of  our  vitals 
and  our  marrow. 

It  pervades  all  our  body  with  Its  vivifying 
strength. 

Often  even  merely  inhaling  the  odor  with  their 
nostrils,  men 

Have  welcomed  It,  when  it  has  bubbled  up  from 
the  bottom. 

More  refreshing  than  the  breeze.  So  much 
pleasure  Is  there  In  a  delicious  odor. 

And  now  there  remains  awaiting  us  the  other 
part  of  our  task, 

To  make  known  the  secret  strength  of  the  di- 
vine draught. 

But  who  could  hope  to  understand  this  won- 
derful blessing 

Or  to  be  able  to  pursue  so  great  a  miracle  In 
verse? 

For  really,  when  coffee  has  quietly  glided  In- 
to your  body. 

Taking  itself  within,  It  sheds  a  vital  warmth 
through  your 

Limbs,  and  inspires  joyous  strength  In  your 
heart.     Then  If 

There  is  anything  undigested,  with  fire's  help, 
It  heats  the 

Hidden  channels,  and  loosens  the  thin  pores, 
through  which  the 

Useless  moisture  exudes,  and  seeds  of  diseases 
flee  from  all  your  veins. 

Wherefore  come,  O  you  who  have  a  care  for 

your  health! 
You,  whose  triple  chin  hangs  on  your  breast. 
Who  drag  your  heavy  stomach  of  great  bulk. 
It  Is  fltting  for  you,  first  of  all,  to  Indulge  in 

the   warm 
Beverage;    for  indeed  It  will   dry  the  hideous 

flow   of  moisture 
Which  oppresses  your  limbs,  and  sends  forth 

streams   of  perspiration  from  your  whole 

body. 
And  In  a  short  time,  the  swelling  of  your  fat 

belly  will 
Gradually  begin  to  decrease,  and  it  will  lighten 

your    members,    now    oppressed    by    their 

heavy  weight. 

O  happy  peoples,  on  whom  Titan,  rising,  looks 
with   his  first  light! 

Here,  a  rather  free  use  of  wine  has  never  done 
harm. 

Law  and  religion  forbid  us  to  quaff  the  flow- 
ing wine. 

Here  one  lives  on  coffee.  Here,  then,  flourish- 
ing with  joyous  strength 

One  pursues  life  and  knows  not  what  diseases 
are. 

Nor  that  child  of  Bacchus  and  companion  of 
high   living  —  Gout; 

Nor  what  innumerable  diseases  through  this 
union  are  ready  to  attack  our  world. 

Yet,  Indeed,  the  soothing  power  of  this  In- 
vigorating drink 

Drives  sad  cares  from  the  heart,  and  exhilar. 
ates  the  spirits. 


546 


ALL    ABOUT     COFFEE 


I  have  seen  a  man,  when  he  had  not  yet  drained 
a  mighty 

Draught  of  this  sweet  nectar,  walk  silently  with 
slow  gait, 

His  brow  sad,  and  forehead  rough  with  for- 
bidding wrinkles. 

This  same  man  who  had  hardly  bathed  his 
throat  with  the  sweet 

Drink  —  no  delay  —  clouds  fled  from  hia 
wrinkled  brow;  and 

He  took  pleasure  in  teasing  all  with  his  witty 
sayings. 

Nor  yet  did  he  pursue  any  one  with  bitter 
laughter.     For  this 

Harmless  drink  Inspires  no  desire  of  offending, 
the  venom 

Is  lacking,  and  pleasant  laughter  without  bit- 
terness pleases. 

And  in  the  entire  Eiast  this  custom  of  coffee 

drinking 
Has  been  accepted.     And,   now,   France;    you 

adopt  the  foreign  custom. 
So  that  public  shops,  one  after  the  other,  are 

opened  for 
Drinking  Coffee.    A  hanging  sign  of  either  ivy 

or  laurel  invites  the  passers-by. 
Hither   in   crowds  from   the  entire  city  they 

assemble,  and 
While  away  the  time  In  pleasant  drinking. 
And  when  once  the  feelings  have  grown  warm, 

acted  upon  by 
The  gentle  heat,  then  good-humored  laughter, 

and  pleasant 
Arguments   Increase.     General   gaiety   ensues, 

the  places  about  resound  with  joyous  ap- 
plause. 
But  never  does  the  liquid  Imbibed  overpower 

weary  minds,  but 
Rather,   if   ever   slumber  presses   their  heavy 

eyes  and  dulls 
The  brain;   and  their  strength,  blunted,  grows 

torpid  In  the 
Body,  coffee  puts  sleep  to  flight  from  the  eyes, 

and    slothful    inactivity    from    the    whole 

frame. 
Therefore  to  absorb  the  sweet  draught  would  be 

an  advantage 
For  those  whom  a  great  deal  of  long-continiieS 

labor  awaits 
And  those  who  need  to  extend  their  study  far 

into  the  night. 

And  here  I  shall  make  known  who  taught  the 
use  of  this  pleasant 

Drink;  for  its  virtue,  unknown,  has  lain  hid- 
den through  many 

Years;  and  reviewing,  I  shall  relate  the  mat- 
ter from  the  very  beginning. 

An  Arab  shepherd  was  driving  his  young  goats 
to  the  well-known 

Pastures.  They  were  wandering  through  lonely 
wastes  and  cropping 

The  grasses,  when  a  tree  heavy  with  many  ber- 
ries— never  seen  before — met  their  eyes. 

At  once,  as  they  were  able  to  reach  the  low 
branches,  they  began 

To  pull  off  the  leaves  with  many  a  nibble,  and 
to  pluck  the  tender 


Growth.    Its  bitterness  attracts.    The  shepherd,. 

not  knowing  this. 
Was  meanwhile  singing  on  the  soft  grass  and 

telling  the  story  of  his  loves  to  the  woods. 
But  when  the  evening  star,  rising,  warned  him 

to  leave  the  field. 
And  he  led  back  his  well-fed  flock  to  their  stalls,. 

he  perceived 
That  the  beasts   did  not  close  their  eyes  In^ 

sweet  sleep,  but 
Joyous  beyond  their  wont,  with  wonderful  de- 
light throughout  the 
Whole  night  jumped  about  with  wanton  leaps. 

Trembling  with  sudden 
Fear,  the  shepherd  stood  amazed;   and  crazed 

by  the  sound,  he 
Thought  these  things  were  being  done  through 

some   wicked  trick  of  a  neighbor,   or  by 

magic  art. 

Not  far  from  here  a  holy  band  of  brethren  had. 

built  their 
Humble  home  in  a  remote  valley;   their  lot  it 

was  to  chant 
Praises  of  God,  and  to  load  his  altars  with. 

fitting  gifts. 
Although  throughout  the  night  the  deep-tonedj 

bell  resounded 
With  great  din,  and  summoned  them  to  the 

sacred  temple,  often 
The  coming  of  dawn  found  them  lingering  on 

their  couches. 
Having  forgotten  to  rise  in  the  middle  of  the^ 

night. 
So  great  was  their  love  of  sleep! 

In  charge  of  the  sacred  temple,  revered  andi 
obeyed  by  his 

Willing  brethren,  was  the  master,  an  aged  man^. 
a  heavy  mass  of  white  hair  on  head  and 
chin. 

The  shepherd,  hastening,  came  to  him  and  told: 
him  the  story. 

Imploring  his  aid.  The  old  man  smiled  to  him- 
self; but 

He  agreed  to  go,  and  investigate  the  hidden 
cause   of   the   miracle. 

When  he  has  come  to  the  hills,  he  observes  the 
lambs,  together 

With  their  mothers,  gnawing  the  berries  of 
an  unknown  plant. 

And  cries,  "This  is  the  cause  of  the  trouble'" 
And  saying  no 

More,  he  at  once  picks  the  smooth  fruit  from 
the  heavily-laden 

Tree,  and  carries  it  home,  places  it,  when^ 
washed,  in  pure 

Water,  cooking  it  over  the  fire,  and  fearlessly 
drinks  a  large 

Cup  of  it.  Forthwith  a  warmth  pervades  his; 
veins,  a  living 

Force  is  diffused  through  his  limbs,  and  weari- 
ness is  dispelled  from  his  aged  body. 

Then,  at  length,  the  old  man  exulting  in  the 
blessing  thus  found. 

Rejoices,  and  kindly  shares  with  all  his 
brothers.    They  eagerly 

At  early  night-fall,  Indulge  in  pleasant  ban- 
quets and  drain  great  bowls. 


COFFEE    IN    LITERATURE 


547 


No  longer  Is  it  hard  for  them  to  break  off  sweet 
sleep  and  to  leave  their  soft  beds  as  for- 
merly. 

0  fortunate  ones!  whose  hearts  the  sweet 
draught  has  often 

Bathed.  No  sluggish  torpor  holds  their  minds, 
they  briskly 

Rise  for  their  prescribed  duties  and  rejoice  to 
outstrip  the  rays  of  the  first  light. 

You  also,  whose  care  it  is  to  feed  minds  with 

divine  eloquence 
And  to  terrify  with  your  words  the  souls  of  the 

guilty,  you  also 
Should  indulge  in  the  pleasant  drink;   for,  as 

you  know,  it 
Strengthens  weakness.     Keen  vigor  is  gained 

for  the  limbs  from 
This  source,  and  spreads   through    the    whole 

body.     From  this  source. 
Too,  shall  come  new  strength  and  new  power 

to  your  voice. 
You  also,    whom    oft   harmful   vapors   harass, 

whose    sick    brain    the    dangerous    vertigo 

shakes. 
Ah,  come!  In  this  sweet  liquid  Is  a  ready  medi- 
cine 
And  none  other  better  to  calm  undue  agitation. 
Apollo  planted  this  power  for  himself,  they  say. 
The  story  is  worthy  to  be  sung. 

Once  a  disease  most  deadly  to  life  assailed  the 

disciples  of 
.VlK)llo's   Mount.     It  spread  far  and   wide,  and 

attacked  the  bi^In  itself. 
Already  all  the  people  of  genius  were  suffering 

with  this 
Disease;  and  the  arts,  deserted,  were  languish- 
ing along  with 
The  workers.    Some  even  pretended  to  have  the 

disease,  and 
Assuming   feigned   suffering,   gave   themselves 

over  to  an  idle  life. 
Unpleasing  work  grew  distasteful,  and  deadly 

Inertia  increased 
Everywhere.    It  pleased  all,  now  released  from 

work  and  labors, 
To  indulge  in  care-free  quiet. 
Apollo,    full    of    indignation,    did    not    endure 

longer  that  the  deadly 
Contagion  of  such  easy  ruin  should  creep  over 

them  thus.    And, 
That  he  might  take  away  from  seers  all  means 

of  deception,  he 
Enticed  from  the  rich  bosom  of  the  earth  this 

friendly  plant. 
Than  which  no  other  is  more  ready  either  to 

refresh  for  work  the 
Mind  wearied   by    long    studies,    or    to    sooth 

troublesome  sorrows  of  the  head. 

O  plant,  given  to  the  human  race  by  the  gift  of 

the  Gods! 
No  other  out  of  the  entire  list  of  plants  has 

ever  vied  with  you. 
On  your  account  sailors  sail  from  our  shores 
And  fearlessly  conquer  the  threatening  winds, 

sandbanks  and 
Dreadful  rocks.    With  your  nourishing  growth 

you  surpass  dittany, 
Ambrosia,  and  fragrant  panacea.  Grim  diseases 

flee  from  you.     To 


You  trusting  health  clings  as  a  companion,  and 

also  the  merry 
Crowd,  conversation,  amusing  jokes,  and  sweet 

whisperings. 

The  poet  Belighi  toward  the  close  of  the 
sixteenth  century  composed  a  poem,  which, 
freely  translated,  runs : 

In  Damascus,  In  Aleppo,  In  great  Cairo, 

At  every  turn  is  to  be  found 

That  mild  fruit  which  gives  so  beloved  a  drink. 

Before  coming  to  court  to  triumph. 

There  this   seditious   disturber   of  the  world. 

Has,  by  Its  unparalleled  virtue. 

Supplanted  all  wines  from  this  blessed  day. 

Jacques  Delille  (1738  - 1813)  the  didactic 
poet  of  nature,  in  chant  vi  of  his  *' Three 
Reigns  of  Nature,  thus  apostrophizes  the 
"divine  nectar"  and  describes  its  prepara- 
tion: 

Divine  Coffee 
Translation  from  the  French 
A  liquid  there  is  to  the  poet  most  dear, 
'T  was  lacking  to  Virgil,  adored  by  Voltaire, 
'T  Is  thou,  divine  coffee,  for  thine  Is  the  art. 
Without  turning  the  head  yet  to  gladden  the 

heart. 
And  thus  though  my  palate  be  dulled  by  age. 
With  joy  I  partake  of  thy  dear  beverage. 
How  glad  I  prepare  me  thy  nectar  most  pre- 
cious. 
No  soul  shall  usurp  me  a  rite  so  delicious; 
On  the  ambient  flame  when  the  black  charcoal 

burns. 
The  gold  of  thy  bean  to  rare  ebony  turns, 
I  alone,  'gainst  the  cone,  wrought   with   fierce 

iron  teeth, 
Make  thy  fruitage  cry  out  with  Its  bltt«r-sweet 

breath; 
Till  charmed  with  such  perfume,  with  care  I 

entrust 
To  the  pot  on  my  hearth  the  rare  spice-laden 

dust: 
First  to  calm,  then  excite,    till    It   seethlngly 

whirls. 
With  an  eye  all  attenion  I  gaze  till  It  boils. 
At  last  now  the  liquid  comes  slow  to  repose; 
In  the  hot,  smoking  vessel  Its  wealth  I  depose, 
My  cup  and  thy  nectar;    from  wild  reeds  ex- 
pressed, 
America's  honey  my  table  has  blest; 
All  is  ready;    Japan's  gay  enamel  invites  — 
And  the  tribute  of   two   worlds    thy    prestige 

unites: 
Come,  Nectar  divine.  Inspire  thou  me, 
I  wish  but  Antigone,  dessert  and  thee; 
For  scarce  have  I  tasted  thy  odorous  steam, 
When  quick  from  thy  clime,  soothing  warmths 

round  me  stream. 
Attentive  my  thoughts  rise  and  flow  light  as 

air, 
Awaking  my  senses  and  soothing  my  care. 
Ideas  that  but  late  moved  so  dull  and  depressed. 
Behold,  they  come    smiling   in   rich   garments 

dressed! 
Some  genius  awakes  me,  my  course  Is  begun; 
For  I  drink  with  each  drop  a  bright  ray  of  the 

sun. 


548 


ALL     ABOUT     COFFEE 


Maumenet  addressed  to  Galland  the  fol- 
lowing verses: 

If  slumber,  friend,  too    near,    with    some    late 
glass  should  creep  — 
Dull,  poppy-perfumed  sleep  — 
If  a  too  fumous  wine  confounds  at  length  thy 
brain  — 
Take  coffee  then  —  this  juice  divine 
Shall  banish  sleep  and  steam  of  vap'rous  wine, 
And  with  its  timely  aid  fresh  vigor  thou  shalt 
find. 

Castel,  in  his  poem,  Les  Plant es  (The 
Plants)  could  not  omit  the  cotfee  trees  of 
the  tropics.  He  thus  addressed  them  in 
1811: 

Bright  plants,   the  favorites  of  Phoebus, 
In  these  climes  the  rarest  virtues  offer, 

Delicious  Mocha,  thy  sap,  enchantress, 
Awakens  genius,  outvalues  Parnasse! 

In  a  collection  of  the  Songs  of  Brittany 
in  the  Brest  library  there  are  many  stanzas 
in  praise  of  coffee.  A  Breton  poet  has 
composed  a  little  piece  of  ninety-six  verses 
in  which  he  describes  the  powerful  attrac- 
tion that  coffee  has  for  women  and  the  pos- 
sible effects  on  domestic  happiness.  The 
first  time  that  coffee  was  used  in  Brittany, 
says  an  old  song  of  that  country,  only  the 
nobility  drank  it,  and  now  all  the  common 
people  are  using  it,  yet  the  greater  part  of 
them  have  not  even  bread. 

A  French  poet  of  the  eighteenth  century 
produced  the  following : 

Lines  on  Coffee 
Translation   from   the  French 

Good  coffee  is  more  than  a  savory  cup. 

Its  aroma  has  power  to  dry  liquor  up. 

By  coffee  you  get  upon  leaving  the  table 

A  mind  full  of  wisdom,  thoughts  lucid,  nerves 
stable; 

And  odd  tho'  it  be,  't  is  none  the  less  true. 

Coffees  aid  to  digestion  permits  dining  anew. 

And  what  's  very  true,  tho'  few  people  know 
it. 

Fine  coffee  's  the  basis  of  every  fine  poet; 

For  many  a  writer  as  windy  as  Boreas 

Has  been  vastly  improved  by  the  drink  ever 
glorious. 

Coffee  brightens  the  dullness  of  heavy  phil- 
osophy. 

And  opens  the  science  of  mighty  geometry. 

Our  law-makers,  too,  when  the  nectar  imbibing. 

Plan  wondrous  reforms,  quite  beyond  the  de- 
scribing; 

The  odor  of  coffee  they  delight  in  inhaling. 

And  promise  the  country  to  alter  laws  ailing. 

From  the  brow  of  the  scholar  coffee  chases  the 
wrinkles, 

And  mirth  in  his  eyes  like  a  firefly  twinkles; 

And  he,  who  before  was  but  a  hack  of  old 
Homer, 


Becomes  an  original,  and  that  's  no  misnomer. 
Observe   the   astronomer   who   's   straining  his 

eyes 
In  watching  the  planets  which  soar  thro'  the 

skies; 
Alas,  all  those  bright  bodies  seem  hopelessly  far 
Till  coffee  discloses  his  own  guiding  star. 
But  greatest  of  wonders  that  coffee  effects 
Is  to  aid  the  news-editor  as  he  little  expects; 
Coffee  whispers  the  secrets  of  hidden  diplomacy. 
Hints  rumors  of  wars  and  of  scandals  so  racy. 
Inspiration  by  coffee  must  be  nigh  unto  magic. 
For  it  conjures    up    facts    that    are    certainly 

tragic; 
And  for  a  few  pennies,  coffee's  small  price  per 

cup, 
"Ye  editor's"  able  to  swallow  the  Universe  up. 

Esmenard  celebrated  Captain  de  Clieu's 
romantic  voyage  to  Martinique  with  the 
coffee  plants  from  the  Jardin  des  Plantes, 
in  some  admirable  verses  quoted  in  chap- 
ter II. 

Among  other  notable  poetic  flights  in 
praise  of  coffee  produced  in  France  men- 
tion should  be  made  of:  "L'Eloge  dii 
Cafe"  (Eulogy  of  Coffee)  a  song  in  twen- 
ty-four couplets,  Paris,  Jacques  Estienne, 
1711;  Le  Cafe  (Coffee),  a  fragment  from 
the  fourth  chant  (song)  of  La  Grandeur  de 
Dieu  dans  les  merveilles  de  la  Nature  (The 
Grandeur  of  God  in  the  Wonders  of 
Nature)  Marseilles;  Le  Cafe,  extract  from 
the  fourth  gastronomic  song,  by  Berchoux; 
''A  Mon  Cafe"  (To  My  Coffee),  stanzas 
written  by  Dueis;  Le  Cafe,  anonymous 
stanzas  inserted  in  the  Macedoine  Poetique, 
1824;  a  poem  in  Latin  in  the  Abbe  Oli- 
vier's  collection;  Xe  Bouquet  Blanc  et  le 
Bouquet  Noir,  poesie  en  quatre  chants;  Le 
Cafe,  C.  D.  Mery,  1837;  "Eloge  du 
Cafe,  S.  Melaye,  1852. 

Many  Italian  poets  have  sung  the  praises 
of  coffee.  L.  Barotti  wrote  his  poem,  II 
Gaffe  in  1681.  Giuseppe  Parini  (1729- 
1799),  Italy's  great  satirical  and  lyric  poet 
and  critic  of  the  eighteenth  century,  in  // 
Giorno  {The  Day),  gives  a  delightful  pen 
picture  of  the  manners  and  customs  of 
Milan's  polite  society  of  the  period.  Wil- 
liam Dean  Howells  quotes  as  follows  from 
these  poems  (his  own  translation)  in  his 
Modern  Italian  Poets.  The  feast  is  over, 
and  the  lady  signals  to  the  cavalier  that  it 
is  time  to  leave  the  table : 

Spring  to  thy  feet 
The  first  of  all,  and,  drawing  near  thy  lady, 
Remove  her  chair  and  offer  her  thy  hand. 
And  lead  her  to    the    other    room,    nor   suffer 
longer 


COFFEE    IX    LITERATURE 


549 


That  the  stale  reek  of  viands  shall  offend 

Her  delicate  sense.  Thee  with  the  rest  invites 

The  grateful  odor  of  the  coffee,  where 

It  smokes  upon  a  smaller  table  hid 

And  graced  with  Indian    webs.     The    redolent 

gums 
That  meanwhile  burn,  sweeten  and  purify 
The  heavy  atmosphere,  and  banish  thence 
All  lingering  traces  of  the  feast.    Ye  sick 
And    poor,    whom    misery    or   whom    hope,    per- 
chance! 
Has  guided  in  the  noonday  to  these  doors, 
Tumultuous,  naked,  and  unsightly  throng. 
With  mutilated  limbs  and  squalid  faces, 
In  litters  and  on  crutches  from  afar 
Comfort  yourselves,  and  with  expanded  nostrils 
Drink  in  the  nectar  of  the  feast  divine 
That  favourable  zephyrs  waft  to  you; 
But  do  not  dare  besiege  these  noble  precincts, 
Importunately  offering  her  that  reigns 
Within  your  loathsome  spectacle  of  woe! 
And  now,  sir,  't  is  your  office  to  prepare 
The  tiny  cup  that  then  shall  minister, 
Slow  sipped,  its  liquor  to  thy  lady's  lips; 
And  now  bethink  thee  whether  she  prefer 
The  boiling  beverage  much  or  little  tempered 
With  sweet;   or  if,  perchance,  she  likes  it  best. 
As  doth  the  barbarous  spouse,  then  when  she 

sits 
Upon  brocades  of  Persia,  with  light  fingers. 
The  bearded  visage  of  her  lord  caressing. 

This  is  from  II  Mezzogiorno  (Noon). 
The  other  three  poems,  rounding  out  The 
Day,  are  II  Mattino  {Morning) ,  II  Vespre 
(Evening),  and  La  Notte  (Night).  In  II 
Mattino,  Parini  .sings : 

Should  dreary  hypochondria's  woes  oppress 
thee. 

Should  round  thy  charming  limbs  in  too  great 
measure 

Thy  flesh  increase,  then  with  thy  lips  do  honor 

To  that  clear  beverage,  made  from  the  well- 
bronzed. 

The  smoking,  ardent  beans  Aleppo  sends  thee, 

And  distant  Mocha  too,  a  thousand  ship-loads; 

When  slowly  sipped  it  knows  no  rival. 

Belli 's  II  Caffe  supplie.s  a  partial  bibliog- 
raphy of  the  Italian  literature  on  coffee. 
There  are  many  poems,  some  of  them  put 
to  music.  As  late  as  1921,  there  were  pub- 
lished in  Bologna  some  advertising  verses 
on  coffee  by  G.  B.  Zecchini  with  music  by 
Cesare  Cantino. 

Pope  Leo  XIII,  in  his  Horatian  poem  on 
Frugality  composed  in  his  eighty-eighth 
year,  thus  verses  his  appreciation  of  coffee  : 

Last  comes  the  beverage  of  the  Orient  shore, 
Mocha,  far  off,  the  fragrant  berries  bore. 
Taste  the  dark  fluid  with  a  dainty  lip. 
Digestion  waits  on  pleasure  as  you  sip. 

Peter  Altenberg,  a  Vienna  poet,  thus 
celebrated  the  cafes  of  his  native  city: 


To  The  Coffee  House! 
When  you  are  worried,  have  trouble  of  one  sort 

or  another — to  the  coffee  house! 
When  she   did  not  keep  her  appointment,  for 

one  reason  or  other — to  the  coffee  house! 
When  your   shoes  are   torn  and   dilapidated — ■ 

coffee  house! 
When  your  income  is  four  hundred  crowns  and 

you  spend  five  hundred — coffee  house! 
You  are  a  chair  warmer  in  some  office,  while 

your  ambition  led  you  to  seek  professional 

honors — coffee  house! 
You  could  not  find  a  mate  to  suit  you — coffee 

house! 
You  feel  like  committing  suicide — coffee  housel 
You  hate  and  despise  human  beings,  and  at  the 

same   timd  you  can  not  be  happy  without 

them — coffee  house! 
You  compose  a  poem  which  you  can  not  inflict 

uix)n  friends  you  meet  in  the  street  —  coffee 

house! 
When  your  coal  scuttle  is  empty,  and  your  gas 

ration  exhausted — coffee  house! 
When  you  need  money  for  cigarettes,  you  touch 

the  head  waiter  in  the — coffee  house! 
When  you  are  locked  out  and  haven't  the  money 

to  pay  for  unlocking  the  house  door — coffee 

house! 
When  you  acquire  a  new  flame,  and  intend  pro- 
voking the  old  one,  you  take  the  new  one 

to  the  old  one's — coffee  house! 
When  you  feel  like  hiding  you  dive  Into  a — 

coffee  house! 
When  you   want   to   be   seen  in  a   new  suit — 

coffee  house! 
When  you  can  not  get  anything  on  trust  any- 
where else — coffee  house! 

English  poets  from  Milton  to  Keats  cele- 
brated coffee.  Milton  (1608-1674)  in  his 
Comus  thus  acclaimed  the  beverage: 

One  sip  of  this 
Will  bathe  the  drooping  spirits  in  delight 
Beyond  the  bliss  of  dreams. 

Alexander  Pope,  poet  and  satirist  ( 1688  - 
1744),  has  the  oft-quoted  lines: 

Coffee  which  makes  the  politician  wise. 
And  see  through  all  things  with  his  half-shut 
eyes. 

In  Carruthers'  Life  of  Pope,  we  read 
that  this  poet  inhaled  the  steam  of  coffee  in 
order  to  obtain  relief  from  the  headaches 
to  which  he  was  subject.  We  can  well  un- 
derstand the  inspiration  which  called  forth 
from  him  the  following  lines  when  he  was 
not  yet  twenty : 

As  long  as  Mocha's  happy  tree  shall  grow. 
While  berries  crackle,  or  while  mills  shall  go; 
While  smoking  streams  from  sliver  spouts  shall 

glide, 
Or  China's  earth  receive  the  sable  tide, 
While  coffee  shall  to  British  nymphs  be  dear. 
While  fragrant  steams  the  bended  head  shall 

cheer. 
Or  grateful  bitters  shall  delight  the  taste, 
So  long  her  honors,  name  and  praise  shall  last. 


550 


ALL     ABOUT     COFFEE 


Pope's  famous  Rape  of  the  Lock  grew 
out  of  coffee-house  gossip.  The  poem  con- 
tains the  passage  on  coifee  already  quoted : 

For  lo!  the   board   with    cups   and   spoons   Is 

crowned; 
The  berries  crackle  and  the  mill  turns  round; 
On  shining  altars  of  japan  they  raise 
The  silver  lamp:   the  fiery  spirits  blaze: 
From  silver  spouts  the  grateful  liquors  glide, 
Wliile  China's  earth  receives  the  smoking  tide. 
At  once  they  gratify  their  scent  and  taste. 
And  frequent  cups  prolong  the  rich  repast. 
Straight  hover  round  the  fair  her  airy  band; 
Some,  as  she  sipped,  the  fuming  liquor  fanned: 
Some  o'er  her  lap    their    careful    plumes    dis- 
played. 
Trembling,  and  conscious  of  the  rich  brocade. 
Coffee  (which  makes  the  politician  wise. 
And  see  through  all  things  with  his  half-shut 

eyes.) 
Sent  up  in  vapors  to  the  baron's  brain 
New  stratagems,  the  radiant  lock  to  gain. 

Pope  often  broke  the  slumbers  of  his  ser- 
vant at  night  by  calling  him  to  prepare  a 
cup  of  coffee;  but  for  regular  serving,  it 
was  his  custom  to  grind  and  to  prepare  it 
upon  the  table. 

William  Cowper's  fine  tribute  to  *'the 
cups  that  cheer  but  not  inebriate",  a 
phrase  which  he  is  said  to  have  borrowed 
from  Bishop  Berkeley,  was  addressed  to  tea 
and  not  to  coffee,  to  which  it  has  not  infre- 
quently been  wrongfully  attributed.  It  is 
one  of  the  most  pleasing  pictures  in  The 
Task. 

Cowper  refers  to  coffee  but  once  in  his 
writings.  In  his  Pity  for  Poor  Africans 
he  expresses  himself  as  "shocked  at  the  ig- 
norance of  slaves": 

I  pity  them  greatly,  but  I  must  be  mum 
For  how  could  we  do  without  sugar  and  rum? 
Especially  sugar,  so  needful  we  see; 
What!   Give  up  our  desserts,  our  coffee  and  tea? 

thus  contenting  himself,  like  many  others, 
with  words  of  pity  where  more  active  pro- 
test might  sacrifice  his  personal  ease  and 
comfort. 

Leigh  Hunt  (1784-1859),  and  John 
Keats  (1795-1834),  were  worshippers  at 
the  shrine  of  coffee;  while  Charles  Lamb, 
famous  poet,  essayist,  humorist,  and  critic, 
has  celebrated  in  verse  the  exploit  of  Cap- 
tain de  Clieu  in  the   following   delightful 


verses ; 


The  Coffee  Slips 


Whene'er  I  fragrant  coffee  drink, 
I  on  the  generous  Frenchman  think. 
Whose  noble  perseverance  bore 


The  tree  to  Martlnico's  shore. 

WTiUe  yet  her  colony  was  new. 

Her  Island  products  but  a  few; 

Two  shoots  from  off  a  coffee  tree 

He  carried  with  him  o'er  the  sea. 

Each  little  tender  coffee  slip 

He  waters  daily  in  the  ship. 

And  as  he  tends  his  embryo  trees. 

Feels  he  is  raising  'midst  the  seas 

Coffee  groves,  whose  ample  shade 

Shall  screen  the  dark  Creollan  maid. 

But  soon,  alas!  His  darling  pleasure 

In  watching  this  his  precious  treasure 

Is  like  to  fade — for  water  fails 

On  board  the  ship  in  which  he  sails. 

Now  all  the  reservoirs  are  shut. 

The  crew  on  short  allowance  put; 

So  small  a  drop  is  each  man's  share. 

Few  leavings  you  may  think  there  are 

To  water  these  poor  coffee  plants-  — 

But  he  supplies  their  grasping  wants, 

Even  from  his  own  dry  parched  lips 

He  spares  it  for  his  coffee  slips. 

Water  he  gives  his  nurslings  first. 

Ere  he  allays  his  own  deep  thirst. 

Lest,  if  he  first  the  water  sip, 

He  bear  too  far  his  eager  lip. 

He  sees  them  droop  for  want  of  more; 

Yet  when  they  reach  the  destined  shore. 

With  pride  the  heroic  gardener  sees 

A  living  sap  still  in  his  trees. 

The  islanders  his  praise  resound; 

Coffee  plantations  rise  around; 

And  Martinico  loads  her  ships 

With  produce  from  those  dear-saved  slips. 

In  John  Keat's  amusing  fantasy.  Cap 
and  Bells,  the  Emperor  Elfinan  greets 
Hum,  the  great  soothsayer,  and  offers  him 
refreshment : 

"You  may  have  sherry  in  silver,  hock  In  gold, 
or  glass'd  champagne 

.     .     .    what  cup  will  you  drain?" 

"Commander  of  the  Faithful!"  answered  Humi 
"In  preference  to  these,  I'll  merely  taste 
A  thimble-full  of  old  Jamaica  rum." 
"A  simple  boon,"  said  Elfinan;  "thou  mayst 
Have  Nantz,  with  which  my  morning  coffee's 
laced." 

But  Hum  accepts  the  glass  of  Nantz, 
without  the  coffee,  "made  racy  with  the 
third  part  of  the  least  drop  of  creme  de 
citron,  crystal  clear." 

Numerous  broadsides  printed  in  London, 
1660  to  1675,  have  been  referred  to  in 
chapter  X,  Few  of  them  possess  real  lit- 
erary merit. 

"Coffee  and  Crumpets"  has  been  much 
quoted.  It  was  published  in  Fraser's  Mag- 
azine, in  1837.  Its  author  calls  himself 
"Launcelot  Littledo".  The  poem  is  quite 
long,  and  only  those  portions  are  printed 


COFFEE    IN   LITERATURE 


551 


liere  that  refer  particularly  to  ''Yemen's 
fragrant  berry": 

Coffee  and  Ceumpets 

By  Launcelot  TAttledo  of  Pump  Court,  Temple, 
Barriater-at-law. 

There  's  ten  o'clock!    From  Hampstead  to   the 

Tower 
The  bells  are  chanting  forth  a  lusty  carol; 
"Wrangling,  with  Iron  tongues,  about  the  hour. 
Like  fifty  drunken  fishwives  at  a  quarrel; 
Cautious  policemen  shun  the  coming  shower; 
Thompson  and  Fearon  tap  another  barrel; 
"Dissolve  frigus,  lignum  super  foco. 
Large  reponens."   Now,  come  Orinoco! 

To  puff  away  an  hour,  and  drink  a  cup, 
A  brimming  breakfast-cup  of  ruddy  Mocha — 
Clear,  luscious,  dark,  like  eyes  that  lighten  up 
The  raven  hair,  fair  cheek,  and  bella  hoca 
Of  Florence  maidens.     I  can  never  sup 
Of  perlgourd,  but  (guai  a  chi  la  tocca!) 
I'm  doomed  to  Indigestion.    So  to  Bottle 
This  strife  eternal, — Betty,  bring  the  kettle! 

Coffee!    oh.  Coffee!   Faith,  it  is  surprising. 
*MId  all  the  poets,  good,  and  bad,  and  worse, 
Who've  scribbled   (Hock  or  Chian  eulogizing) 
Post  and  papyrus  with   "immortal  verse" — 
Melodiously  similltudlnising 
In  Sapphics  languid  or  Alcaics  terse        ^ 
No  one,  my  little  brown  Arabian  berry, 
Hath  sung  thy  praises — 'tis  surprising!   very! 

Were  I  a  poet  now,  whose  ready  rhymes, 
Like  Tommy  Moore's,  came  tripping  to  their 

places — 
Reeling  along  a  merry  troll  of  chimes. 
With  careless  truth, — a  dance  of  fuddled  Graces; 
Hear     it — Gazette,     Post,     Herald,     Standard, 

Times, 
I'd  write  an  epic!   Coffee  for  its  basis; 
Sweet    as    e'er    warbled    forth    from    cockney 

throttles 
Since  Bob  Montgomery's  or  Amos  Cottle's. 

Thou  sleepy-eyed  Chinese — enticing  siren, 
Pekoe!     the  Muse  hath  said  In  praise  of  thee, 
"That  cheers  but  not  inebriates";    and  Byron 
Hath  called  thy  sister  "Queen  of  Tears",  Bohea! 
And  he,  Anacreon  of  Rome's  age  of  Iron, 
Says,  how  untruly  "Quis  non  potius  te." 
While  coffee,  thou — bill-plastered  gables  say, 
Art  like  old  Cupid,  "roasted  every  day." 

I  love,  upon  a  rainy  night,  as  this  is, 
When  rarely  and  more  rare  the  coaches  rattle 
From  street  to  street,  to  sip  thy  fragrant  kis- 
ses; 
While  from  the  Strand  remote  some  drunken 

battle 
Far-faintly  echoes,  and  the  kettle  hisses 
Upon  the  glowing  hob.     No  tittle-tattle 
To  make  a  single  thought  of  mine  an  alien 
From  thee,  my  coffee-pot,  my  fount  Castallan. 

The  many  intervening  verses  cover  an 
unhappy  termination  to  an  otherwise  de- 
lightful ball.  He  is  sitting  with  his  charm- 
ing "Mary",  about  to  ask   her  to    be   his 


bride,  when  the  unfortunate  overturning  of 
a  glass  of  red  wine  into  her  white  satin 
gown,  at  the  same  time  overthrows  all  his 
dreams  of  bliss,  "for  the  shrew  displaces 
the  angel  he  adored",  and  he  resigns  him- 
self to  the  life  of  "a  man  in  chambers." 

'TIs  thus  I  sit  and  sip,  and  sip  and  think. 
And  think  and  sip  again,  and  dip  in  Eraser, 
A  health,  King  Oliver!    to  thee  I  drink: 
Long  may  the  public  have  thee  to  amaze  her. 
Like  Figaro,  thou  makest  one's  eyelids  wink. 
Twirling  on  practised  palm  thy  polished  razor — 
True  Horace  temper,  smoothed  on  attic  strop; 
Ah!      thou    couldst    "faire    la    barhe    a    tout 
VEurope." 

*  *    * 

Come,  Oliver,  and  tell  us  what  the  news  Is; 
An  easy  chair  awaits  thee — come  and  fill  't. 
Come,  I  invoke  thee,  as  they  do  the  muses. 
And  thou  shalt  choose  thy  tipple  as  thou  wilt. 
And  If  thy  lips  my  sober  cup  refuses. 
For  ruddier  drops  the  purple  grape  has  split. 
We  can  sing,  sipping  In  alternate  verses. 
Thy  drink  and  mine,  like  Corydon  and  Thyrsis. 

«    *    * 
Fill  the  bowl,  but  not  with  wine. 
Potent  port,  or  fiery  sherry; 
For  this  milder  cup  of  mine 
Crush  me  Yemen's  fragrant  berry. 

*  *    * 
Gentle  is  the  grape's  deep  cluster. 
But  the  wine's  a  wayward  child; 
Nectar  this!    of  meeker  lustre — 
This  the  cup  that  "draws  it  mild." 
Deeply  drink  Its  streams  divine — 
Fill  the  cup,  but  not  with  wine. 

Prior  and  Montague  inserted  the  follow- 
ing poetic  vignette  in  their  City  Mouse  and 
Country  Mouse,  written  in  burlesque  of 
Dryden's  Hind  and  Panther: 

Then  on  they  jogg'd;  and  since  an  hour  of  talk 
Might  cut  a  banter  on  the  tedious  walk. 
As  I  remember,  said  the  sober  mouse, 
I've  heard  much  talk  of  the  Wits'  Coffee-house; 
Thither,  says  Brindle,  thou  shalt  go  and  see 
Priests  supping  coffee,  sparks  and  poets  tea; 
Here  rugged  frieze,  there  quality  well  drest, 
These  baffling  the  grand  Senior,  those  the  Test, 
And  there  shrewd  guesses  made,  and  reasons 

given. 
That  human  laws  were  never  made  in  heaven; 
But,  above  all,  what  shall  oblige  thy  sight, 
And  fill  thy  eyeballs  with  a  vast  delight, 
Is  the  poetic  judge  of  sacred  wit. 
Who  does  i'  th'  darkness  of  his  glory  sit; 
And  as  the  moon  who  first  receives  the  light. 
With  which  she   makes   these   nether    regions 

bright. 
So  does  he  shine,  refiecting  from  afar 
The  rays  he  borrowed  from  a  better  star; 
For  rules,  which  from  Cornellle  and  Rapln  flow. 
Admired  by  all  the  scribbling  herd  below. 
From  French  tradition  while  he  does  dispense 
Unerring  truths,  't  is  schism,  a  damned  offense, 
To  question  his,  or  trust  your  private  sense. 


552 


ALL     ABOUT     COFFEE 


Geoffrey  Sephton,  an  English  poet  and 
novelist,  many  years  resident  in  Vienna, 
whose  fantastic  stories  and  fairy  tales  are 
well  known  in  Europe,  has  written  the  fol- 
lowing sonnets  on  coffee : 

To  THE  Mighty  Monarch,  King  Kauheei 
By  Geoffrey  Sephton 
I 
Away  with  opiates!     Tantalising  snares 
To  dull  the  brain  with  phantoms  that  are  not. 
Let  no  such  drugs  the  subtle  senses  rot 
With  visions   stealing  softly  unawares 
Into  the  chambers  of  the  soul.     Nightmares 
Ride  in  their  wake,  the  spirits  to  besot. 
Seek  surer  means  to  banish  haunting  cares: 
Place  on  the  board  the  steaming  Coffee-pot! 
O'er  luscious  fruit,  dessert  and  sparkling  flask, 
Let  proudly  rule  as  King  the  Great  Kauhee, 
For  he  gives  joy  divine  to  all  that  ask. 
Together  with  his  spouse,  sweet  Eau  de  Vie. 
Oh,  let  us  'neath  his  sovran  pleasure  bask. 
Come,  raise  the  fragrant  cup  and  bend  the  knee! 

II 
O  great  Kauhee,  thou  democratic  Lord, 
Born    'neath    the    tropic    sun    and   bronzed    to 

splendour 
In  lands  of  Wealth  and  Wisdom,  who  can  render 
Such  service  to  the  wandering  Human  Horde 
As  thou  at  every  proud  or  humble  board? 
Beside  the  honest  workman's  homely  fender, 
*Mid  dainty  dames  and  damsels  sweetly  tender, 
In  china,  gold  and  silver,  have  we  poured 
Thy  praise  and  sweetness.  Oriental  King. 
Oh,  how  we  love  to  hear  the  kettle  sing 
In  joy  at  thy  approach,  embodying 
The  bitter,  sweet  and  creamy  sides  of  life; 
Friend  of  the  People,  Enemy  of  Strife, 
Sons  of  the  Earth  have  born  thee  labouring. 

In  America,  too,  poets  have  sung  in 
praise  of  coffee.  The  somewhat  doubtful 
"kind  that  mother  used  to  make"  is 
celebrated  in  James  Whitcomb  Riley's 
classic  poem : 

Like  His  Mother  Used  To  Make2 
"Uncle  Jake's  Place,"  St.  Jo.,  Mo.,  1874. 

"I  was  born  in  Indiany,"  says  a  stranger,  lank 
and  slim, 

As  us  fellers  in  the  restaurant  was  kindo'  guy- 
in'  him. 

And  Uncle  Jake  was  slidin'  him  another  pun- 
kin  pie 

And  a'  extry  cup  o"   coffee,  with  a  twinkle  in 
his  eye — 

"I   was   born   in   Indiany — more'n   forty   years 
ago — 

And  I  hain't  ben  back  in  twenty — and  I'm  work- 
in'  back'ards  slew; 

But  I've  et  in  ever'  restarunt  twixt  here  and 
Santy  Fee, 

And  I  want  to  state  this  coffee  tastes  like  git- 
tin'  home,  to  me! 


^  Kauhee   (or  kahve)   is  the  Turkish  for  coffee. 

^  Copyright,  1913.  Used  by  special  permission  of 
the  publishers,  the  Bobbs-Merrill  Co.,  Indianapolis, 
Jnd. 


"Pour  us  out  another,  Daddy,"  says  the  feller, 

warmin'  up, 
A-speakin'  crost  a  saucerful,  as  Uncle  tuk  his 

cup — 
"When  I  see  yer  sign  out  yander,"  he  went  on, 

to  Uncle  Jake — 
'"Come  in  and  git  some  coffee  like  yer  mother 

used  to  make' — 
I   thought  of  my   old  mother,  and  the  Posey 

county  farm. 
And  me  a  little  kid  again,  a-hangin'  in  her  arm, 
As  she  set  the  pot  a-bilin',  broke  the  pggs  and 

poured  'em  in" — 
And  the  feller  kindo'  halted,  with  a  trimble  in 

his  chin; 
And  Uncle  Jake  he  fetched  the  feller's  coffee 

back,  and  stood 
As   solemn,   fer   a    minute,    as    a'    undertaker 

would; 
Then   he   sorto'   turned   and   tiptoed  to'rds   the 

kitchen  door — ^and  next, 
Here  comes  his  old  wife  out  with  him,  a-rubbin' 

of  her  specs — 
And  she  rushes  fer  the  stranger,  and  she  hol- 
lers out,  "It's  him!  — 
Thank  God  we've  met  him  comin'! — Don't  you 

know  yer  mother,  Jim?" 
And  the  feller,  as  he  grabbed  her,  says, — "You 

bet  I  hain't  forgot — 
But",  wipin'  of  his  eyes,  says  he,  "yer  coffee's 

mighty  hot!" 

One  of  the  most  delightful  coffee  poems 
in  English  is  Francis  Saltus  Saltus'  (d. 
1889)  sonnet  on  "the  voluptuous  berry", 
as  found  in  Flasks  and  Flagons : 

Coffee 

_YfiluEtuous  berry!     Where  may  mortals  find 
Nectari~^lvlne  lEaT  can  with  thee  compare. 
When,  having  dined,  we  sip  thy  essence  rare. 
And  feel  towards  wit  and  repartee  inclined? 

Thou  wert  of  sneering,  cynical  Voltaire, 
The  only  friend;  thy  power  urged  E'alzac's  mind 
To  glorious  effort;    surely  Heaven  designed 
Thy  devotees  superior  joys  to  share. 

Whene'er   I   breathe  thy  fumes,   'mid   Summer 

stars. 
The  Orient's  splendent  pomps  my  vision  greet. 
Damascus,  with  its  myriad  minarets,  gleams! 
I  see  thee,  smoking,  in  immense  bazaars, 
Or  yet,  in  dim  seraglios,  at  the  feet 
Of  blond  Sultanas,  pale  with  amorous  dreams! 

Arthur  Gray,  in  Over  the  Black  Coffee 
(1902)  has  made  the  following  contribution 
to  the  poetry  of  coffee,  with  an  unfortunate 
reflection  on  tea,  which  might  well  have 
been  omitted : 

Coffee 

0,  boiling,  bubbll«g)>  iberry,  bean! 
Thou  consort  of  :the  'kitchen  queen — 
Browned  and  ground  of  .every  feature, 
The  only  aromatic  ereature. 
For  which  we  long,  for  wfeich  we  feel, 
The  breath  of  i^orn,  ^h^  perfura^d  meal.. 


COFFEE    IN    LITERATURE 


553 


For  what  is  tea?     It  can  but  mean, 
Merely  the  mildest  go-between. 
Insipid  sobriety  of  thought  and  mind 
It  "cuts  no  figure" — we  can  find — 
Save  peaceful  essays,  gentle  walks. 
Purring  cats,  old  ladies'  talks — 

*     «     * 
But  coffee!  can  other  tales  unfold. 
Its  history's  written  round  and  bold — 
Brave  buccaneers  upon  the  "Spanish  Main", 
The  army's  march  across  the  lenght'ning  plain, 
The  lone  prospector  wandering  o'er  the  hill. 
The  hunter's  camp,  thy  fragrance  all  distill. 

So  here's  a  health  to  coffee!     Coffee  hot! 
A  morning  toast!     Bring  on  another  pot. 

The  Tea  and  Coffee  Trade  Journal  pub- 
lished in  1909  the  following  excellent  stan- 
zas by  William  A.  Price : 

Ax  Ode  to  Coffee 
Oh,  thou  most  fragrant,  aromatic  joy,  impugned, 

abused,  and  often  stormed  against, 
And  yet  containing  all  the  blissfulness  that  in 

a  tiny  cup  could  be  condensed! 
Give  thy  contemners  calm,  imperial  scorn — 
For  thou  wilt  reign  through  ages  yet  unborn! 

Some  ancient  Arab,  so  the  legend  tells,  first 
found   thee — may  his  memory  be   blest! 

The  worldwide  sign  of  brotherhood  today,  the 
binding  tie  between  the  East  and  West! 

Good  coffee  pleases  in  a  Persian  dell,     * 

And  Blackfeet  Indians  make  it  more  than  well. 

The  lonely  traveler  in  the  desert  range,  if  thou 
art  with  him,  smiles  at  eventide — 

The  sailor,  as  thy  perfume  bubbles  forth,  laughs 
at  the  ocean  as  it  rages  wide — 

And  where  the  camps  of  fighting  men  are  found 

Thy  fragrance  hovers  o'er  each  battleground. 

"Ude,  not  abuse,  the  good  things  of  this  life" 

that  is  a  motto  from  the  Prophet's  days, 

And,  dealing  with  thee  thus,  we  ne'er  shall 
come  to  troublous  times  or  parting  of  the 
ways. 

Comfort  and  solace  both  endure  with  thee, 

Rich,  royal  berry  of  the  coffee  tree! 

The  Nevj  York  Tribune  published  in 
1915  the  following  lines  by  Louis  Unter- 
meyer,  which  were  subsequently  included 
in  his  " and  Other  Poets. "^ 

Gilbert  K.  Chesterton  Rises  to  the  Toast 

OF  Coffee 

Strong  wine  it  is  a  mocker;  strong  wine  it  is  a 

beast. 
It  grips  you  when  It  starts  to  rise;    it  Is  the 

Fabled  Yeast. 
You  should  not  offer  ale  or  beer  from  hops  that 

are  freshly  picked, 
Nor  even  Benedictine  to  tempt  a  benedict. 
For  wine  has  a  spell  like  the  lure  of  hell,  and 

the  devil  has  mixed   the  brew; 
And  the  friends  of  ale  are  a  sort  of  pale  and 

weary,  witless  crew — 

» Copyright,  1916,  by  Henry  Holt  &  Co.,  New  York. 
Reprinted  by  permission. 


And  the  taste  of  beer  is  a  sort  of  a  queer  and 

undecided  brown — 
But,  comrades,  I  give  you  coffee — drink  it  up, 

drink  it  down. 
With  a  fol-de-rol-dol  and  a  fol-de-rol-dee,  etc. 

Oh,  cocoa's  the  drink  for  an  elderly  don  who 

lives  with  an  elderly  niece; 
And  tea  is  the  drink  for  studios  and  loud  and 

violent  peace — 
And  brandy's  the  drink  that  spoils  the  clothes 

when  the  bottle  breaks  in  the  trunk; 
But  coffee's  the  drink  that  is  drunken  by  men 

who  will  never  be  drunk. 
So,  gentlemen,  up  with  the  festive  cup,  where 

Mocha  and  Java  unite; 
It  clears   the  head   when   things   are   said   too 

brilliant  to  be  bright! 
It  keeps  the  stars  from   the  golden  bars   and 

the   lips   of   the   tipsy   town; 
So,  here's  to  strong,  black  coffee — drink  it  up, 

drink  it  down! 
With  a  fol-de-rol-dol  and  a  fol-de-rol-dee,  etc. 

The  American  breakfast  cup  is  celebrat- 
ed in  up-to-date  American  style  in  the  fol- 
lowing by  Helen  Rowland  in  the  New  York 
Evening  World: 

What  Every  Wife  Knows 

Give  me  a  man  who  drinks  good,  hot,  dark, 
strong  coffee   for  breakfast! 

A  man  who  smokes  a  good,  dark,  fat  cigar  after 
dinner! 

You  may  marry  your  milk-faddist,  or  your  anti- 
coffee  crank,  as  you  will! 

But  I  know  the  magic  of  the  coffee  pet! 

Let  me  make  my  Husband's  coffee — and  I  care 
not  who  makes  eyes  at  him! 

Give  me  two  matches  a  day — 

One  to  start  the  coffee  with,  at  breakfast,  and 
one  for  his  cigar,  after  dinner! 

And  I  defy  all  the  houris  in  Christendom  to 
light  a  new  flame  in  his  heart! 

Oh,  sweet  supernal  coffee-pot! 

Gentle  panacea  of  domestic  troubles, 

Faithful  author  of  that  sweet  nepenthe  which 

deadens  all  the  ills  that  married  folks  are 

heir  to. 
Cheery,      glittering,      soul-soothing,      warmed" 

hearted,  inanimate  friend! 
What  wife   can   fail   to   admit  the  peace   and 

serenity  she  owes  to  you? 
To  you,   who   stand   between    her   and   all   her 

early  morning  troubles — 
Between  her  and  the  before-breakfast  grouch- 
Between  her  and  the  morning-after  headache — 
Between  her  and  the  cold-gray-dawn  scrutiny? 
To  you,  who  supply  the  golden  nectar  that  stim- 
ulates the  jaded  masculine  soul. 
Soothes  the  shaky  masculine'  nerves,  stirs  the 

fagged  masculine  mind,  inspires  the  slow 

masculine  sentiment. 
And  starts  the  sluggish  blood  a-flowing  and  the 

whole  day  right! 

What  is  it,  I  ask  you,  when  he  comes  down  to 
breakfast  dry  of  mouth,  and  touchy  of  tem- 
per— 


554 


ALL    ABOUT     COFFEE 


That  gives  him  pause,  and  silences  that  scin- 
tillating barb  of  sarcasm  on  the  tip  of  his 

tongue, 
With  which  he  meant  to  Impale  you? 
It  is   the   sweet  aroma   of  the  coffee-pot — the 

thrilling  thought  of  that  nrst  delicious  sip! 

What  Is  it,  on  the  morning  after  the  club  dance, 

That  hides  your  weary,  little,  washed-out  face 
and  straggling,  uncurled  coiffure  from  his 
critical  eyes? 

It  Is  the  generous  coffee-pot,  standing  like  a 
guardian  angel  between  you  and  him! 

And  in  those  many  vital  psychological  mo- 
ments, during  the  honeymoon,  which  de- 
cide for  or  against  the  romance  and  happi- 
ness of  all  the  rest  of  married  life — 

Those  critical  before-breakfast  moments  when 
temperament  meets  temperament,  and  will 
meets  "won't" — 

What  is  it  that  halts  you  on  the  brink  of 
tragedy. 

And  distracts  you  from  the  temptation  to  an- 
swer back? 

It  Is  the  absorbing  anxiety  of  watching  the 
coffee  boil! 

What  is  it  that  warms  his  veins  and  soothes 
your  nerves. 

And  turns  all  the  world  suddenly  from  a  dismal 
gray  vale  of  disappointment  to  a  bright 
rosy  garden  of  hope — 

And  starts  another  day  gliding  smoothly  along 
like  a  new  motor  car? 

What  is  it  that  will  do  more  to  transform  a 
man  from  a  fiend  Into  an  angel  than  bap- 
tism In  the  River  Jordan? 

It  is  the  first  cup  of  coffee  in  the  morning! 

Coffee  in  Dramatic  Literature 

Coffee  was  first  "dramatized",  so  to 
speak,  in  England,  where  we  read  that 
€harles  II  and  the  Duke  of  Yorke  attended 
the  first  performance  of  Tarugo's  Wiles,  or 
the  Coffee  House,  a  comedy,  in  1667,  which 
Samuel  Pepys  described  as  ' '  the  most  ridic- 
ulous and  insipid  play  I  ever  saw  in  my 
life."  The  author  was  Thomas  St.  Serf.  The 
piece  opens  in  a  lively  manner,  with  a  re- 
quest on  the  part  of  its  fashionable  hero 
for  a  change  of  clothes.  Accordingly,  Ta- 
rugo  puts  off  his  "vest,  hat,  perriwig,  and 
sword,"  and  serves  the  guests  to  coffee, 
while  the  apprentice  acts  his  part  as  a 
gentleman  customer.  Presently  other 
"customers  of  all  trades  and  professions" 
come  dropping  into  the  coffee  house.  These 
are  not  always  polite  to  the  supposed  cof- 
fee-man; one  complains  of  his  coffee  being 
^'nothing  but  warm  water  boyl'd  with 
burnt  beans,"  while  another  desires  him  to 
bring  "chocolette  that's  prepar'd  with 
water,  for  I  hate  that  which  is  encouraged 
with  eggs."  The  pedantry  and  nonsense 
Tittered  by  a  "schollar"  character  is,  per- 


haps, an  unfair  specimen  of  coffee-house 
talk;  it  is  especially  to  be  noticed  that 
none  of  the  guests  ventures  upon  the 
dangerous  ground  of  politics. 

In  the  end,  the  coffee-master  grows  tired 
of  his  clownish  visitors,  saying  plainly, 
"This  rudeness  becomes  a  suburb  tavern 
rather  than  my  coffee  house ' ' ;  and  with  the 
assistance  of  his  servants  he  "thrusts  'em 
all  out  of  doors,  after  the  schollars  and 
customers  pay." 

In  1694,  there  was  published  Jean  Bap- 
tiste  Rosseau's  comedy,  Le  Caffe,  which  ap- 
pears to  have  been  acted  only  once  in  Paris, 
although  a  later  English  dramatist  says  it 
met  with  great  applause  in  the  French  cap- 
ital. Le  Caffe  was  written  in  Laurent's 
cafe,  which  was  frequented  by  Fontenelle, 
Houdard  de  la  Motte,  Dauchet,  the  abbe 
Alary  Boindin,  and  others.  Voltaire  said 
that  "this  work  of  a  young  man  without 
any  experience  either  of  the  world  of  let- 
ters or  of  the  theater  seems  to  herald  a  new 
genius. ' ' 

About  this  time  it  was  the  fashion  for  the 
coffee-house  keepers  of  Paris,  and  the  wait- 
ers, to  wear  Armenian  costumes;  for  Pas- 
cal had  builded  better  than  he  knew.  In 
La  Foire  Saint-Germain,  a  comedy  by  Dan- 
court,  played  in  1696,  one  of  the  principal 
characters  is  old  "Lorange,  a  coffee  mer- 
chant clothed  as  an  Armenian".  In  scene 
5,  he  says  to  Mile.  Mousset,  "a  seller  of 
house  dresses"  that  he  has  been  "a  nat- 
uralized Armenian  for  three  weeks." 

Mrs.  Susannah  Centlivre  (1667?  - 1723), 
in  her  comedy,  A  Bold  Stroke  for  a  Wife, 
produced  about  1719,  has  a  scene  laid  in 
Jonathan's  coft'ee  house  about  that  period. 
While  the  stock  jobbers  are  talking  in  the 
first  scene  of  act  II,  the  coffee  boys  are 
crying,  "Fresh  Coffee,  gentlemen,  fresh 
coffee?  .  .  .     Bohea  tea,  gentlemen?" 

Henry  Fielding  (1707-1754)  published 
The  Coffee-House  Politician,  or  Justice 
caught  in  his  own  trap,"  a  comedy,  in  1730. 

The  Coffee  House,  a  dramatick  Piece  hy 
James  Miller,  was  performed  at  the  Theater 
Royal  in  Drury  Lane  in  1737.  The  interior 
of  Dick's  coffee  house  figured  as  an  en- 
graved frontispiece  to  the  published  ver- 
sion of  the  play. 

The  author  states  in  the  preface  that 
"this  piece  is  partly  taken  from  a  comedy 
of  one  act  written  many  years  ago  in 
French  by  the  famous  Rosseau,  called  *Le 


COFFEE    IX    LITERATURE 


555 


Caffe',  which  met  with  great  applause  in 
Paris."  The  coffee  house  in  the  play  is 
conducted  by  the  Widow  Notable,  who  has 
■a  pretty  daughter  for  whom,  like  all  good 
mothers,  she  is  anxious  to  arrange  a  suit- 
able marriage. 

In  the  first  scene,  an  acrimonious  conver- 
sation takes  place  between  Puzzle,  the  Poli- 
tician, and  Bays,  the  poet,  in  which 
squabble  the  Pert  Beau  and  the  Solemn 
Beau,  and  other  habitues  of  the  place  take 
part.  Puzzle  discovers  that  a  comedian  and 
other  players  are  in  the  room,  and  insists 
that  they  be  ejected  or  forbidden  the  house. 
The  Widow  is  justly  incensed^  and  indig- 
nantly replies: 

Forbid  the  Players  my  House,  Sir!  Why,  Sir, 
I  get  more  by  them  in  a  Week  than  I  do  by  you 
In  seven  Years.  You  come  here  and  hold  a 
paper  in  your  hand  for  an  Hour,  disturb  the 
whole  Company  with  your  Politics,  call  for  Pen 
and  Ink,  Paper  and  Wax,  beg  a  Pipe  of  Tobacco, 
burn  out  half  a  Candle,  eat  half  a  Pound  of 
Sugar,  and  then  go  away,  and  pay  Two-pence 
for  a  Dish  of  Coffee.  I  could  soon  shut  up  my 
doors,  if  I  had  not  some  other  good  People  to 
make  amends  for  what  I  lose  by  such  as  you, 
Sir. 

All  join  the  Widow  in  scoffing  and  jeer- 
ing, and  exit  the  highly  discomfited  Puzzle. 
The  pretty  little  Kitty  tricks  her  mother 
with  the  aid  of  the  Player,  and  marries  the 
man  of  her  choice,  but  is  forgiven  when  he 
is  found  to  be  a  gentleman  of  the  Temple. 

The  play  is  in  one  act  and  has  several 
songs.  The  last  is  one  of  five  stanzas,  with 
music  ''set  by  Mr.  Caret:" 

Song 

What  Pleasures  a  Coffee-House  daily  bestows! 
To  read  and  hear  how  the  World  merrily  goes; 
To  laugh,  sing  and  prattle  of  This,  That,  and 

T'   other; 
And  be  flatter'd  and  ogl'd  and  kiss'd  too,  like 
Mother. 

Here  the  Rake,  after  Roving  and  Tipling  all 

Night, 
For   his   Groat   in   the   Morning  may   set   his 

Head  right. 
And  the  Beau,  who  ne'er  fouls  his  White  fingers 

with  Brass, 
May  have  his  Sixpen'  worth  of — Stare  In  the 

Glass. 

The  Doctor,  who'd  always  be  ready  to  kill. 
May  ev'ry  Day  here  take  his  Stand,  if  he  will; 
And  the  soldier,  who'd  bluster  and  challenge 

secure. 
May  draw  boldly  here,  for — we'll  hold  him  he's 

sure. 

The  Lawyer,  who's  always  In  quest  of  his  Prey, 
May  find  fools  here  to  feed  upon  every  Day; 


SONG. 
Set  l>7   Mr.  CARET. 


:f^,fjl!;.f,Tj,J%&rJ'  I  ^^- 


Whtt  PUtfmrei  m  C',J;rt-H»nft  Jsify  itfltvt! 
To  rt*d  a»d  htmr  b*w  ibt  jy»fU  mtrrify  gteti 
To  Ut^b,  fiwg^  mdfrmtle  tf  THh  Thn,  *ni  T«thn  \ 
And  bejUtttr%  *m4  ^d,  md  HfTd  /m,  bkt  BUthtr 

Htrt 

Song  from  "The  Coffee  House" 


And    the    sage    Politician,    in    Coffee-Grounds 

known, 
May  point  out  the  Fate  of  each  Crown  but — 

his  own. 

Then,  Gallants,  since  ev'rything  here  you  may 

find 
That  pleasures  the  Fancy  or  profits  the  Mind, 
Come  all,  and  take  each  a  full  Dish  of  Delight, 
And  crowd   up  our  Coffee-House  every  night. 

John  Timbs  tells  us  this  play  "met  with 
great  opposition  on  its  representation, 
owing  to  its  being  stated  that  the  charac- 
ters were  intended  for  a  particular  family 
(that  of  Mrs.  Yarrow  and  her  daughter) 
who  kept  Dick's,  the  coffee-house  which 
the  artist  had  inadvertently  selected  as  the 
frontispiece.  It  appears,"  Timbs  continues, 
"that  the  landlady  and  her  daughter  were 
the  reigning  toast  of  the  Templars,  who 
then  frequented  Dick's;  and  took  the  mat- 
ter up  so  strongly  that  they  united  to  con- 
demn the  farce  on  the  night  of  its  produc- 
tion; they  succeeded,  and  even  extended 
their  resentment  to  everything  suspected  to 
be  this  author's  (the  Rev.  James  Miller) 
for  a  considerable  time  after." 

Carlo  Goldoni,  who  has  been  called  the 
Moliere  of  Italy,  wrote  La  Bottega  di  Caffe, 
(The  Coffee  House),  a  naturalistic  com- 
edy of  bourgeois  Venice,  satirizing  scandal 
and  gambling,  in  1750.  The  scene  is  a  Vene- 
tian coffee  house  (probably  Florian's), 
where  several  actions  take  place  simultan- 
eously. Among  several  remarkable  studies 
is  one  of  a  prattling  slanderer,  Don  Mar- 
zio,  which  ranks  as  one  of  the  finest  bits  of 
original  character  drawing  the  stage  has 
ever  seen.  The  play  was  produced  in  En- 
glish by  the   Chicago   Theatre   Society   in 


556 


ALL    ABOUT     COFFEE 


1912.  Chatfield-Taylor*  thinks  Voltaire 
probably  imitated  La  Bottega  di  Caffe  in 
his  Le  Cafe,  ou  I'Ecossaise.  Goldoni  was  a 
lover  of  coffee,  a  regular  frequenter  of  the 
coffee  houses  of  his  time,  from  which  he 
drew  much  in  the  way  of  inspiration. 
Pietro  Longhi,  called  the  Venetian  Ho- 
garth, in  one  of  his  pictures  presenting  life 
and  manners  in  Venice  during  the  years  of 
her  decadence,  shows  Goldoni  as  a  visitor 
in  a  cafe  of  the  period,  with  a  female  men- 
dicant soliciting  alms.  It  is  in  the  collec- 
tion of  Professor  Italieo  Brass. 

Goldoni,  in  the  comedy  The  Persian 
Wife,  gives  us  a  glimpse  of  coffee  making 
in  the  middle  of  the  eighteenth  century.  He 
puts  these  words  into  the  mouth  of  Cur- 
cuma, the  slave : 

Here    Is    the    coffee,    ladies,    coffee    native    cf 

Arabia, 
And  carried  by  the  caravans  into  Ispahan. 
The   coffee   of  Arabia   is   certainly   always    the 

best. 
"While  putting  forth  its  leaves  on  one  side,  upon 

the  other  the  flowers  appear; 
Born  of  a   rich   soil,   it  wishes   shade,   or  but 

little  sun. 
Planted  every  three  years  is  this  little  tree  in 

the  surface  of  the  soil. 
The  fruit,  though  truly  very  small. 
Should  yet  grow  large  enough  to  become  some- 
what green. 
Later,  when  used,  it  should  be  freshly  ground. 
Kept  in  a  warm  and  dry  place  and  jealously 

guarded. 

*        *        * 

Rut  a   small  quantity  is  needed  to  prepare  it. 
Put  in  the  desired  quantity  and  do  not  spill  it 

over  the  fire: 
Heat  it  till  the  foam  rises,  then  let  it  subside 

again  away  from  the  fire; 
Do  this  seven  times  at  least,  and  coffee  is  made 

in  a  moment. 

In  1760  there  appeared  in  France  Le 
Cafe,  ou  I'Ecossaise,  comedie,  which  pur- 
ported to  have  been  written  by  a  Mr. 
Hume,  an  Englishman,  and  to  have  been 
translated  into  French.  It  was  in  reality 
the  work  of  Voltaire,  who  had  brought  out 
another  play,  Socrates,  in  the  same  manner 
a  short  time  before.  Le  Cafe,  was  translated 
into  English  the  same  year  under  the  title 
The  Coffee  House,  or  Fair  Fugitive.  The 
title  page  says  the  play  is  written  by  ''Mr. 
Voltaire"  and  translated  from  the  French. 
It  is  a  comedy  in  five  acts.  The  principal 
characters  are:  Fabrice,  a  good-natured 
man  and  the  keeper  of  the  coffee  house; 

<  Chatfleld-Taylor,  H.   C.   Goldoni.     New  York,   191S 
(p.   607). 


Constantia,  the  fair  fugitive;  Sir  William 
Woodville,  a  gentleman  of  distinction  un- 
der misfortune;  Belmont,  in  love  with 
Constantia,  a  man  of  fortune  and  interest; 
Freeport,  a  merchant  and  an  epitome  of 
English  manners;  Scandal,  a  sharper;  and 
Lady  Alton,  in  love  with  Belmont. 

//  Cnffe  di  Campagna,  a  play  with  music 
by  Galuppi,  appeared  in  Italy  in  1762. 

Another  Italian  play,  a  comedy  called  La 
Caffettiera  da  Spirito  was  produced  in 
1807. 

Hamilton,  a  play  by  Mary  P.  Hamlin 
and  George  Arliss,  the  latter  also  playing 
the  title  role,  was  produced  in  America  by 
George  C.  Tyler  in  1918.  The  first-act 
scene  is  laid  in  the  Exchange  coffee  house 
of  Philadelphia,  during  the  period  of 
Washington's  first  administration.  Among 
the  characters  introduced  in  this  scene  are 
James  Monroe,  Count  Tallyrand,  General 
Philip  Schuyler,  and  Thomas  Jefferson. 

The  authors  very  faithfully  reproduce 
the  atmosphere  of  the  coffee  house  of  Wash 
ington's  time.  As  Tallyrand  remarks, 
"Everybody  comes  to  see  everybody  at  the 
Exchange  Coffee  House  ...  It  is  club,  res- 
taurant, merchants'  exchange,  every- 
thing. ' ' 

The  Autocrat  of  the  Coffee  Stall,  a  play 
in  one  act,  by  Harold  Chapin,  was  pub- 
lished in  New  York  in  1921. 

Coffee  and  Literature  in  General 

An  interesting  book  might  be  written  on 
the  transformation  that  tea  and  coffee  have 
wrought  in  the  tastes  of  famous  literary 
men.  And  of  the  two  stimulants,  coffee 
seems  to  have  furnished  greater  refresh- 
ment and  inspiration  to  most.  However, 
both  beverages  have  made  civilization  their 
debtor  in  that  they  weaned  so  many  fine 
minds  from  the  heavy  wines  and  spirits  in 
which  they  once  indulged. 

Voltaire  and  Balzac  were  the  most  ardent 
devotees  of  coffee  among  the  French  liter- 
ati. Sir  James  Mackintosh  (1765-1832), 
the  Scottish  philosopher  and  statesman, 
was  so  fond  of  coffee  that  he  used  to  assert 
that  the  powers  of  a  man's  mind  would 
generally  be  found  to  be  proportional  to 
the  quantity  of  that  stimulant  which  he 
drank.  His  brilliant  schoolmate  and  friend, 
Robert  Hall  (1764-1831),  the  Baptist  min- 
ister and  pulpit  orator,  preferred  tea,  of 
which  he  sometimes  drank  a    dozen   cups. 


COFFEE    IN    LITERATURE 


557 


Cowper;  Parson  and  Parr,  the  famous 
Greek  scholars;  Dr.  Samuel  Johnson;  and 
William  Hazlitt,  the  writer  and  critic, 
were  great  tea  drinkers;  but  Burton,  Dean 
Swift,  Addison,  Steele,  Leigh  Hunt,  and 
many  others,  celebrated  coffee. 

Dr.  Charles  B.  Reed,  professor  in  the 
medical  school  of  Northwestern  University, 
says  that  coffee  may  be  considered  as  a  type 
of  substance  that  fosters  genius.  History 
seems  to  bear  him  out.  Coffee's  essential 
qualities  are  so  well  defined,  says  Dr. 
Reed,  that  one  critic  has  claimed  the  abil- 
ity to  trace  throughout  the  works  of  Vol- 
taire those  portions  that  came  from  coffee's 
inspiration.  Tea  and  coffee  promote  a  har- 
mony of  the  creative  faculties  that  permits 
the  mental  concentration  necessary  to  pro- 
duce the  masterpieces  of  art  and  literature. 

Voltaire  (1694-1778)  the  king  of  wits, 
was  also  king  of  coffee  drinkers.  Even  in 
his  old  age  he  was  said  to  have  consumed 
fifty  cups  daily.  To  the  abstemious  Balzac 
(1799-1850)  coffee  was  both  food  and 
drink. 

In  Frederick  Lawton  's  Balzac  we  ^ead : 
* '  Balzac  worked  hard.  His  habit  was  to  go 
to  bed  at  six  in  the  evening,  sleep  till 
twelve,  and,  after,  to  rise  and  write  for 
nearly  twelve  hours  at  a  stretch,  imbibing 
coffee  as  a  stimulant  through  these  spells  of 
composition. ' ' 

In  his  Treatise  on  Modern  Stimulants, 
Balzac  thus  describes  his  reaction  to  his 
most  beloved  stimulant : 


This  coffee  falls  into  your  stomach,  and 
straightway  there  is  a  general  commotion. 
Ideas  begin  to  move  like  the  battalions  of  the 
Grand  Army  on  the  battlefield,  and  the  battle 
takes  place.  Things  remembered  arrive  at  full 
gallop,  ensign  to  the  wind.  The  light  cavalry  of 
comparisons  deliver  a  magnificent  deploying 
charge,  the  artillery  of  logic  hurry  up  with 
their  train  and  ammunition,  the  shafts  of  wit 
start  up  like  sharpshooters.  Similes  arise,  the 
paper  is  covered  with  ink;  for  the  struggle 
commences  and  is  concluded  with  torrents  of 
black  water,  just  a;i  a  battle  with  powder. 

When  Balzac  tells  how  Doctor  Minoret, 
Ursule  Minoret 's  guardian,  used  to  regale 
his  friends  with  a  cup  of  "Moka,"  mixed 
with  Bourbon  and  Martinique,  which  the 
Doctor  insisted  on  personally  preparing  in 
a  silver  coffee  pot,  it  is  his  own  custom  that 
he  is  detailing.  His  Bourbon  he  bought 
only  in  the  rue  Mont  Blanc  (now  the 
chausse  d'Antin)  ;  the  Martinique,  in  the 
rue  des  Vielles  Audriettes;  the  Mocha,  at 


a  grocer's  in  the  rue  de  I'Universite.     It 
was  half  a  day's  journey  to  fetch  them. 

There  have  been  notable  contributions  to 
the  general  literature  of  coffee  by  French, 
Italian,  English,  and  American  writers. 
Space  does  not  permit  of  more  than  pass- 
ing mention  of  some  of  them. 

The  re-actions  of  the  early  French  and 
English  writers  have  been  touched  upon  in 
the  chapters  on  the  coffee  houses  of  old 
London  and  the  early  Parisian  coffee 
houses,  and  in  the  history  chapters  dealing 
with  the  evolution  of  coffee  drinking  and 
coffee  manners  and  customs. 

After  Dufour,  Galland,  and  La  Roque  in 
France,  there  were  Count  Rumford,  John 
Timbs,  Douglas  Ellis,  and  Robinson  in 
England;  Jardin  and  Franklin  in  France; 
Belli  in  Italy ;  Hewitt,  Thurber,  and  Walsh 
in  America. 

Mention  has  been  made  of  coffee  refer- 
ences in  the  works  of  Aubrey,  Burton,  Ad- 
dison, Steele,  Bacon,  and  D 'Israeli. 

Brillat-Savarin  (1755-1826)  the  great 
French  epicure,  knew  coffee  as  few  men  be- 
fore him  or  since.  In  his  historical  elegy, 
contained  in  Gastronomy  as  a  Fine  Art,  or 
the  Science  of  Good  Living,  he  exclaims : 

You  crossed  and  mitred  abbots  and  bishops 
who  dispensed  the  favors  of  Heaven,  and  you 
the  dreaded  templars  who  armed  yourselves  for 
the  extermination  of  the  Saracens,  you  knew 
nothing  of  the  sweet  restoring  influence  of  our 
modern  chocolate,  nor  of  the  thought-inspiring 
bean  of  Arabia — how  I  pity  you! 

0.  de  Gourcuff's  De  la  Cafe,  epitre  at- 
tribue  a  Senece,  is  deserving  of  honorable 
mention. 

An  early  French  writer  pays  this  tribute 
to  the  inspirational  effects  of  coffee : 

It  Is  a  beverage  eminently  agreeable,  inspir- 
ing and  wholesome.  It  is  at  once  a  stimulant, 
a  cephalic,  a  febrifuge,  a  digestive,  and  an  anti- 
soporific;  it  chases  away  sleep,  which  Is  the 
enemy  of  labor;  it  invokes  the  imagination, 
without  which  there  can  be  no  happy  inspira- 
tion. It  expels  the  gout,  that  enemy  of 
pleasure,  although  to  pleasure  gout  owes  its 
birth;  it  facilitates  digestion,  without  which 
there  can  be  no  true  happiness.  It  disposes 
to  gaiety,  without  which  there  is  neither 
pleasure  nor  enjoyment;  It  gives  wit  to  those 
who  already  have  It,  and  It  even  provides  wit 
(for  some  hours  at  least)  to  those  who  usually 
have  It  not.  Thank  heaven  for  Coffee,  for  see 
how  many  blessings  are  concentrated  In  the  In- 
fusion of  a  small  berry.  What  other  beverage 
in  the  world  can  compare  with  It?  Coffee,  at 
once  a  pleasure  and  a  medicine;  Coffee,  which 
nourishes  at  the  same  moment  the  mind,  body 


558 


ALL    ABOUT     COFFEE 


and  imagination.  Hail  to  thee!  Inspirer  of 
men  of  letters,  best  digestive  of  the  gourmand. 
Nectar  of  all  men. 

In  Bologna,  1691,  Angelo  Kambaldi  pub- 
lished Ambrosia  arabica,  caffe  discorso. 
This  work  is  divided  into  eighteen  sections, 
and  describes  the  origin,  cultivation,  and 
roasting  of  the  bean,  as  well  as  telling  how 
to  prepare  the  beverage. 

During  the  time  that  Milan  was  under 
Spanish  rule,  Cesare  Beccaria  directed  and 
edited  a  publication  entitled  II  Caffe,  which 
was  published  from  June  4,  1764,  to  May, 
1766, '  *  edited  in  Brescia  by  Giammaria  Riz- 
zardi  and  undertaken  by  a  little  society  of 
friends,"  according  to  the  salutatory.  Be- 
sides the  Marchese  Beccaria,  other  editors 
and  contributors  were  Pietro  and  Alexan- 
der Verri,  Baillon,  Visconti,  Colpani, 
Longhi,  Albertenghi,  Frisi,  and  Secchi.  The 
same  periodical,  with  the  same  editorial 
staff,  was  published  also  in  Venice  in  the 
Typografia  Pizzolato. 

Another  publication  called  II  Caffe,  de- 
voted to  arts,  letters,  and  science,  was  pub- 
lished in  Venice  in  1850  -  52.  Still  another, 
having  the  same  name,  a  national  weekly 
journal,  was  published  in  Milan,  1884-89. 

An  almanac,  having  the  title  II  Caffe, 
was  published  in  Milan  in  1829. 

A  weekly  paper,  called  II  Caffe  Pe- 
drocchi,  was  published  in  Padua  in  1846  - 
48.  It  was  devoted  to  art,  literature  and 
politics. 

A  publication  called  Coffee   and   Surro 
gates  (tea,  chocolate,  saffron,  pepper,  and 
other  stimulants)  was  founded  by  Profes- 
sor Pietro  PoUi,  in  Milan,  in  1885 ;  but  was 
short-lived. 

An  early  English  magazine  (1731)  con- 
tains an  account  of  divination  by  coffee- 
grounds.  The  writer  pays  an  unexpected 
visit,  and  ' '  surprised  the  lady  and  her  com- 
pany in  close  cabal  over  their  coffee,  the  in- 
terest very  intent  upon  one  whom,  by  her 
address  and  intelligence,  he  guessed  was  a 
tire  woman,  to  which  she  added  the  secret 
of  divining  by  coft'ee  grounds.  She  was  then 
in  full  inspiration,  and  with  much  solem- 
nity observing  the  atoms  around  the  cup; 
on  the  one  hand  sat  a  widow,  on  the  other  a 
maiden  lady.  They  assured  me  that  every 
cast  of  the  cup  is  a  picture  of  all  one 's  life 
to  come,  and  every  transaction  and  circum- 
stance is  delineated  with  the  exactest  cer- 
tainty. ' ' 


The  advertisement  used  by  this  seer  is 
quite  interesting: 

An  advise  is  hereby  given  that  there  has  late* 
ly  arrived  in  this  city  (Dublin)  the  famous  Mrs. 
Cherry,  the  only  gentlewoman  truly  learned  in 
the  occult  science  of  tossing  of  coffee  grounds; 
who  has  with  uninterrupted  success  for  some 
time  past  practiced  to  the  general  satisfaction 
of  her  female  visitants.  Her  hours  are  after 
prayers  are  done  at  St.  Peter's  Church,  until 
dinner. 

(N.  B.  She  never  requires  more  than  1  oz. 
of  coffee  from  a  single  gentlewoman,  and  so 
proportioned  for  a  second  or  third  person,  but 
not  to  exceed  that  number  at  any  one  time.) 

If  the  one  ounce  of  coffee  represented  her 
payment  for  reading  the  future,  the  charge 
could  not  be  considered  exorbitant ! 

English  writers  of  the  seventeenth  and 
eighteenth  centuries  were  noticeably  af- 
fected by  coffee,  and  the  coffee-houses  of 
the  times  have  been  immortalized  by  them ; 
and  in  many  instances  they  themselves 
were  immortalized  by  the  coffee  houses  and 
their  frequenters.  In  the  chapters  already 
referred  to  and  at  the  close  of  this  chapter^ 
will  be  found  stories,  quips,  and  anecdotes,, 
in  which  occur  many  names  that  are  now 
famous  in  art  and  literature. 

Modern  journalism  dates  from  the  publi- 
cation, April  12,  1709,  of  the  Tatler,  whose 
editor  was  Sir  Richard  Steele  (1672  - 1729) 
the  Irish  dramatist  and  essayist.  He  re- 
ceived his  inspiration  from  thfe  coffee 
houses;  and  his  readers  were  the  men  that 
knew  them  best.  In  the  first  issue  he  an- 
nounced : 

All  accounts  of  gallantry,  pleasure  and  enter- 
tainment shall  be  under  the  article  of  White's 
Coffee  House;  poetry  under  that  of  Will's  Cof- 
fee House;  learning  under  the  title  of  Grecian; 
foreign  and  domestic  news  you  will  have  from 
St  James's  Coffee  House,  and  what  else  I  shall 
on  any  other  subject  offer  shall  be  dated  from 
my  own  apartment. 

Steele's  Tatler  was  issued  three  times 
weekly  until  1711,  when  it  suspended  to  be 
succeeded  by  the  Spectator,  whose  princi- 
pal contributor  was  Joseph  Addison  (1672  - 
1719),  the  essayist  and  poet,  and  Steele's 
school-fellow. 

Sir  Richard  Steele  immortalized  the  Don 
and  Don  Saltero's  coffee  house  in  old  Chel- 
sea in  No.  34  of  the  Tatler,  wherein  he  tells 
us  of  the  necessity  of  traveling  to  know  the 
world,  by  his  journey  for  fresh  air,  no  far- 
ther than  the  village  of  Chelsea,  of  which 
he  fancied  that  he  could  give  an  immediate 


COFFEE    IN    LITERATURE 


559 


description  —  from  the  five  fields,  where  the 
the  robbers  lie  in  wait,  to  the  coffee  house, 
where  the  literati  sit  in  council.  But  he 
found,  even  in  a  place  so  near  town  as  this, 
that  there  were  enormities  and  persons  of 
eminence,  whom  he  before  knew  nothing  of. 
The  coffee  house  was  almost  absorbed  by 
the  museum,  Steele  says : 

When  I  came  into  the  coffee-house,  I  had  not 
time  to  salute  the  company,  before  my  eyes 
were  diverted  by  ten  thousand  glmcracks  round 
the  room,  and  on  the  ceiling.  When  my  first 
astonishment  was  over,  comes  to  me  a  sage  of 
thin  and  meagre  countenance,  which  aspect 
made  me  doubt  whether  reading  or  fretting  had 
made  it  so  philosophic;  but  I  very  soon  per- 
ceived him  to  be  that  sort  which  the  ancients 
call  "glngivistee",  in  our  language  "tooth- 
drawers".  I  immediately  had  a  respect  for  the 
man;  for  these  practical  philosophers  go  upon 
a  very  practical  hypothesis,  not  to  cure,  but  to 
take  away  the  part  affected.  My  love  of  man- 
kind made  me  very  benevolent  to  Mr.  Salter, 
for  such  is  the  name  of  this  eminent  barber  and 
antiquary. 

The  Don  was  famous  for  his  punch,  and 
for  his  skill  on  the  fiddle.  He  drew  teeth 
also,  and  wrote  verses ;  he  described  his  mu- 
seum in  several  stanzas,  one  of  which  is : 

Monsters   of  all   sorts   are   seen: 

Strange  things  in  nature  as  they  grew  so; 

Some  relicks  of  the  Sheba  Queen, 
And  fragments  of  the  fam'd  Bob  Crusoe. 

Steele  then  plunges  into  a  deep  thought 
why  barbers  should  go  farther  in  hitting 
the  ridiculous  than  any  other  set  of  men; 
and  maintains  that  Don  Saltero  is  de- 
scended in  a  right  line,  not  from  John  Tra- 
descant,  as  he  himself  asserts,  but  from  the 
memorable  companion  of  the  Knight  of 
,  Mancha.  Steele  certifies  to  all  the  worthy 
citizens  who  travel  to  see  the  Don 's  rarities, 
that  his  double-barreled  pistols,  targets, 
coats  of  mail,  his  sclopeta  (hand-culverin) 
and  sword  of  Toledo,  were  left  to  his  ances- 
tor by  the  said  Don  Quixote;  and  by  his 
ancestor  to  all  his  progeny  down  to  Saltero. 
Though  Steele  thus  goes  far  in  favor  of 
Don  Saltero 's  great  merit,  he  objects  to  his 
imposing  several  names  (without  his  li- 
cense) on  the  collection  he  has  made,  to  the 
abuse  of  the  good  people  of  England;  one 
of  which  is  particularly  calculated  to  de- 
ceive religious  persons,  to  the  great  scandal 
of  the  well-disposed  and  may  introduce 
heterodox  opinions.  (Among  the  curiosities 
presented  by  Admiral  Munden  was  a  coffin, 
containing  the  body  or  relics  of  a  Spanish 


saint,  who  had  wrought  miracles.)     Says 
Steele : 

He  shows  you  a  straw  hat,  which  I  know  to 
be  made  by  Madge  Peskad,  within  three  miles 
of  Bedford;  and  tells  you  "It  is  Pontius  Pilate'a 
wife's  chambermaid's  sister's  hat."  To  my 
knowledge  of  this  very  hat,  it  may  be  added 
that  the  covering  of  straw  was  never  used* 
among  the  Jews,  since  it  was  demanded  of  them 
to  make  bricks  without  it.  Therefore,  this  Is 
nothing  but,  under  the  specious  pretense  of 
learning  and  antiquities,  to  impose  upon  the 
world.  There  are  other  things  which  I  can  not 
tolerate  among  his  rarities,  as,  the  china  figure 
of  the  lady  in  the  glass-case;  the  Italian  engine,, 
for  the  imprisonment  of  those  who  go  abroad 
with  it;  both  of  which  I  hereby  order  to  be 
taken  down,  or  else  he  may  expect  to  have 
his  letters  patent  for  making  punch  superseded,, 
be  debarred  wearing  his  muff  next  winter,  or 
ever  coming  to  London  without  his  wife. 

Babillard  says  that  Salter  had  an  old 
grey  muff,  and  that,  by  wearing  it  up  to  his^ 
nose,  he  was  distinguishable  at  the  distance 
of  a  quarter  of  a  mile.  His  wife  was  none 
of  the  best,  being  much  addicted  to  scold- 
ing; and  Salter,  who  liked  his  glass,  if  he 
could  make  a  trip  to  London  by  himself,, 
was  in  no  haste  to  return. 

Don  Saltero 's  proved  very  attractive  as 
an  exhibition,  and  drew  crowds  to  the  cof- 
fee house.  A  catalog  was  published  of 
which  were  printed  more  than  forty  edi- 
tions. Smollett,  the  novelist,  was  among; 
the  donors.  The  catalog,  in  1760,  com- 
prehended the  following  rarities : 

Tigers'  tusks;  the  Pope's  candle;  the  skeleton 
of  a  Guinea-pig;  a  fly-cap  monkey,  a  piece  of 
the  true  Cross;  the  Four  Evangelists'  heads  cut 
out  on  a  cherry  stone;  the  King  of  Morocco's 
tobacco-pipe;  Mary  Queen  of  Scots'  pincushion; 
Queen  Elizabeth's  prayer-book;  a  pair  of  Nun's 
stockings;  Job's  ears,  which  grew  on  a  tree; 
a  frog  in  a  tobacco  stopper;  and  five  hundred 
more  odd  relics! 

The  Don  had  a  rival,  as  appears  by  A 
Catalogue  of  the  Rarities  to  he  seen  at 
Adam's,  at  the  Royal  Swan,  in  Kingsland- 
road,  leading  from  Shoreditch  Churchy 
1756.  Mr.  Adams  exhibited,  for  the  enter- 
tainment of  the  curious: 

Miss  Jenny  Cameron's  shoes;  Adam's  eldest 
daughter's  hat;  the  heart  of  the  famous  Bess 
Adams,  that  was  hanged  at  Tyburn  with  Law- 
yer Carr,  January  18,  1736-37;  Sir  Walter 
Raleigh's  tobacco  pipe;  Vicar  of  Bray's  clogs; 
engine  to  shell  green  peas  with;  teeth  that 
srew  In  a  fish's  belly;  Black  Jack's  ribs;  the 
very  comb  that  Abraham  combed  his  son  Isaac 
and  Jacob's  head  with;  Wat  Tyler's  spurs;  rope 


560 


ALL     ABOUT     COFFEE 


that  cured  Captain  Lowry  of  the  head-ach,  ear- 
ach,  tooth-ach,  and  belly-ach;  Adam's  key  of 
the  fore  and  back  door  of  the  Garden  of  Eden, 
■etc.,  etc. 

These  are  only  a  few  out  of  five  hundred 
other  equally  marvellous  exhibits. 

The  success  of  Don  Saltero  in  attracting 
visitors  to  his  coffee  house,  induced  the 
proprietor  of  the  Chelsea  bunhouse  to  make 
a  similar  collection  of  rarities,  to  attract 
customers  for  his  buns;  and  to  some  extent 
it  was  successful. 

In  the  first  number  of  the  Spectator,  Ad- 
dison says : 

There  is  no  place  of  general  resort  wherein 
I  do  net  often  make  my  appearance.  Sometimes 
I  am  seen  thrusting  my  head  into  a  round  of 
politicians  at  Will  s,  and  listening  with  great 
attention  to  the  narratives  that  are  made  in 
those  little  circular  audiences.  Sometimes  I 
smoke  a  pipe  at  Child's,  and  while  I  seem  at- 
tentive to  nothing  but  the  Postman,  overhear 
the  conversation  of  every  table  in  the  room.  I 
appear  on  Sunday  nights  at  St.  James'  coffee 
house,  and  sometimes  join  the  little  committee 
of  politics  in  the  inner  room  as  one  who  comes 
there  to  hear  and  improve.  My  face  is  likewise 
very  well  known  at  the  Grecian,  the  Cocoa 
Tree,  and  in  the  theatres  both  of  Drury  Lane 
and  the  Hay  Market.  I  have  been  taken  for  a 
merchant  upon  the  Exchange  for  above  these 
ten  years,  and  sometimes  pass  for  a  Jew  in  the 
assembly  of  stock  jobbers  at  Jonathan's;  in 
short,  wherever  I  see  a  cluster  of  people,  I  al- 
ways mix  with  them,  though  I  never  open  my 
lips,  but  in  my  own  club. 

In  the  second  number  he  tells  that : 

I  am  now  settled  with  a  widow  woman,  who 
has  a  great  many  children  and  complies  with 
my  humor  in  everything.  I  do  not  remember 
that  we  have  exchanged  a  word  together  for 
these  five  years;  my  coffee  comes  into  my 
chamber  every  morning  without  asking  for  it, 
if  I  want  fire  I  point  to  the  chimney,  if  water, 
to  my  basin;  upon  which  my  landlady  nods  as 
much  as  to  say  she  takes  my  meaning,  and  im- 
mediately obeys  my  signals. 

Three  of  Addison's  papers  in  the  Specta- 
ior  (Nos.  402,  481,  and  568)  are  humorous- 
ly descriptive  of  the  coffee  houses  of  the 
period.  No.  403  opens  with  the  remark 
that : 

The  courts  of  two  countries  do  not  so  much 
differ  from  one  another,  as  the  Court  and  the 
City,  in  their  peculiar  ways  of  life  and  conver- 
sation. In  short,  the  inhabitants  of  St.  James, 
notwithstanding  they  live  under  the  same  laws, 
and  speak  the  same  language,  are  a  distinct 
people  from  those  of  Cheapside,  who  are  like- 
wise removed  from  those  of  the  Temple  on  the 
one  side,  and  those  of  Smithfield  on  the  other, 
by  several  climates  and  degrees  in  their  way  of 
thinking  and  conversing  together. 


For  this  reason,  the  author  takes  a 
ramble  through  London  and  Westminster, 
to  gather  the  opinions  of  his  ingenious 
countrymen  upon  a  current  report  of  the 
king  of  France's  death. 

I  know  the  faces  of  all  the  principal  politi- 
cians within  the  bills  of  mortality;  and  as 
every  coffee-house  has  some  particular  states- 
man belonging  to  it,  who  is  the  mouth  of  the 
street  where  he  lives,  I  always  take  care  to 
place  myself  near  him,  in  order  to  know  his 
judgment  on  the  present  posture  of  affairs. 
And,  as  I  foresaw  the  above  rei)ort  would  i )!•()- 
duce  a  new  face  of  things  in  Europe,  and  many 
curious  speculations  in  our  British  coffee- 
houses, I  was  very  desirous  to  learn  the 
thoughts  of  our  most  eminent  politicians  on 
that  occasion. 

That  I  might  begin  as  near  the  fountain-head 
as  possible,  I  first  of  all  called  in  at  St.  James's, 
where  I  found  the  whole  outward  room  in  a 
buzz  of  politics;  the  speculations  were  but  very 
indifferent  towards  the  door,  but  grew  finer  as 
you  advanced  to  the  upper  end  of  the  room,  and 
were  so  much  improved  by  a  knot  of  theorists, 
who  sat  in  the  inner  room,  within  the  steams 
of  the  coffee-pot,  that  I  there  heard  the  whole 
Spanish  monarchy  disposed  of,  and  all  the  line 
of  Bourbons  provided  for  in  less  than  a  quarter 
of  an  hour. 

I  afterwards  called  in  at  Giles's,  where  I  saw 
a  board  of  French  gentlemen  sitting  upon  the 
life  and  death  of  their  grand  monarque.  These 
among  them  who  had  espoused  the  Whig  in- 
terest very  positively  affirmed  that  he  had  de- 
parted this  life  about  a  week  since,  and  there- 
fore, proceeded  without  any  further  delay  to 
the  release  of  their  friends  in  the  galleys,  and 
to  their  own  re-establishment;  but,  finding  they 
could  not  agree  among  themselves,  I  proceeded 
on  my  intended  progress. 

Upon  my  arival  at  Jenny  Man's  I  saw  an 
alert  young  fellow  that  cocked  his  hat  upon  a 
friend  of  his,  who  entered  just  at  the  same  time 
with  myself,  and  accosted  him  after  the  follow- 
ing manner:  "Well,  Jack,  the  old  prig  is  dead 
at  last.  Sharp's  the  word.  Now  or  never,  boy. 
Up  to  the  walls  of  Paris,  directly;"  with  several 
other  deep  reflections  of  the  same  nature. 

I  met  with  very  little  variation  in  the  politics 
between  Charing  Cross  and  Covent  Garden. 
And,  upon  my  going  into  Will's,  I  found  their 
discourse  was  gone  off,  from  the  death  of  the 
French  King,  to  that  of  Monsieur  Boileau,  Ra- 
cine, Corneille,  and  several  other  poets,  whom 
they  regretted  on  this  occasion  as  persons  who 
would  have  obliged  the  world  with  very  noble 
elegies  on  the  death  of  so  great  a  prince,  and 
so  eminent  a  patron  of  learning. 

At  a  coffee-house  near  the  Temple,  I  found  a 
couple  of  young  gentlemen  engaged  very  smart- 
ly in  a  dispute  on  the  succession  to  the  Spanish 
monarchy.  One  of  them  seemed  to  have  been 
retained  as  advocate  for  the  Duke  of  Anjou, 
the  other  for  his  Imperial  Majesty.  They  were 
both  for  regarding  the  title  to  that  kingdom  by 
the  statute  laws  of  England;   but  finding  them 


I 


COFFEE    IN    LITERATURE 


561 


going  out  of  my  depth,  I  pressed  forward  to 
Paul's  Churchyard,  where  I  listened  with  great 
attention  to  a  learned  man,  who  gave  the  com- 
pany an  account  of  the  deplorable  state  of 
France  during  the  minority  of  the  deceased 
king. 

I  then  turned  on  my  right  hand  into  Fish- 
street,  where  the  chief  politician  of  that  quar- 
ter, upon  hearing  the  news,  (after  having 
taken  a  pipe  of  tobacco,  and  ruminated  for 
some  time)  "If,'  says  he,  "the  King  of  France 
is  certainly  dead,  we  shall  have  plenty  of  mack- 
erel this  season:  our  fishery  will  not  be  dis- 
turbed by  privateers,  as  it  has  been  for  these 
ten  years  past."  He  afterwards  considered  how 
the  death  of  this  great  man  would  affect  cur 
pilchards,  and  by  several  other  remarks  in- 
fused a  general  joy  into  his  whole  audience. 

I  afterwards  entered  a  by-coffee-house  that 
stood  at  the  upper  end  of  a  narrow  lane,  where 
I  met  with  a  Nonjuror  engaged  very  warmly 
with  a  laceman  who  was  the  great  oupport  of 
a  neighboring  conventicle.  The  matter  in  de- 
bate was  whether  the  late  French  King  was 
most  like  Augustus  Caesar,  or  Nero.  The  con- 
troversy was  carried  on  with  great  heat  on 
both  sides,  and  as  each  of  them  looked  upon 
me  very  frequently  during  the  course  of  their 
debate,  I  was  under  some  apprehension  that 
they  would  appeal  to  me,  and  therefore  laid 
down  my  penny  at  the  bar  and  made  thfe  best 
of  my  way  to  Cheapside. 

I  here  gazed  upon  the  signs  for  some  time 
before  I  found  one  to  my  purpose.  The  first 
object  I  met  in  the  coffee-room  was  a  person 
who  expressed  a  great  grief  for  the  death  of 
the  French  King;  but  upon  his  explaining  him- 
self, I  found  his  sorrow  did  not  arise  from 
the  loss  of  the  monarch,  but  for  his  having 
sold  out  of  the  Bank  about  three  days  before 
he  heard  the  news  of  it.  Upon  which  a  haber- 
dasher, who  was  the  oracle  of  the  coffee-house, 
and  had  his  circle  of  admirers  about  him,  called 
several  to  witness  that  he  had  declared  his 
opinion,  above  a  week  before,  that  the  French 
King  was  certainly  dead;  to  which  he  added, 
that  considering  the  late  advices  we  had  re- 
ceived from  France,  it  was  impossible  that  it 
could  be  otherwise.  As  he  was  laying  these 
together,  and  debating  to  his  hearers  with 
great  authority,  there  came  a  gentlemen  from 
Garraway's,  who  told  us  that  there  were  sev- 
eral letters  from  France  just  come  in,  with 
advice  that  the  King  was  in  good  health,  and 
was  gone  out  a  hunting  the  very  morning  the 
post  came  away;  upon  which  the  haberdasher 
stole  off  his  hat  that  hung  upon  a  wooden 
peg  by  him,  and  retired  to  his  shop  with  great 
confusion.  This  intelligence  put  a  stop  to  my 
travels,  which  I  had  prosecuted  with  so  much 
satisfaction;  not  being  a  little  pleased  to  hear 
go  many  different  opinions  upon  so  great  an 
event,  and  to  observe  how  naturally,  upon  such 
ia  piece  of  news,  every  one  is  apt  to  consider 
It  to  his  particular  Interest  and  advantage. 

Johnson  wrote  in  his  Life  of  Addison 
concerning  the  Tatler  and  the  Spectator 
that  thev  were : 


Published  at  a  time  when  two  parties,  loud, 
restless  and  violent,  each  with  plausible  dec- 
larations, and  bcth  perhaps  without  any  dis- 
tinct determination  of  its  views,  were  agitating 
the  nation;  to  minds  heated  with  political  con- 
test they  supplied  cooler  and  more  inoffensive 
reflections.  .  .  .  They  had  a  i^erceptible  influ- 
ence on  the  conversation  of  the  time,  and 
taught  the  frolic  and  the  gay  to  unite  merri- 
ment with  decency,  effects  which  they  can  never 
wholly  lose. 

Harold  Routh  in  the  Cambridge  History 
of  Literature,  speaking  of  the  Spectator, 
says : 

It  surpassed  the  Tatler  in  style  and  in 
thought.  It  gave  expression  to  the  power  of 
commerce.  For  more  than  a  century  traders 
had  been  characterized  as  dishonest  and  ava- 
ricious, because  playwrights  and  pamphleteers 
generally  wrote  for  the  leisure  classes,  and 
were  themselves  too  poor  to  have  any  but  un- 
pleasant relations  with  men  of  business.  Now 
merchants  were  becoming  ambassadors  of  civ- 
ilization, and  had  developed  intellect  so  as  to 
control  distant  and,  as  it  seemed,  mysterious 
sources  of  wealth;  by  a  stroke  of  the  pen  and 
largely  through  the  coffee  houses  they  had 
come  to  know  their  own  importance  and  power. 

Samuel  Pepys  (1633-1703)  was  very 
fond  of  good  eating,  and  almost  daily  en- 
tries were  made  in  his  Diary  of  dinner  del- 
icacies that  he  had  enjoyed.  One  dinner, 
that  he  considered  a  great  success,  was 
served  to  eight  persons,  and  consisted  of 
oysters,  a  hash  of  rabbits,  a  lamb,  a  rare 
chine  of  beef ;  next  a  great  dish  of  roasting 
fowl  (''cost  me  about  30  s,")  a  tart,  then 
fruit  and  cheese.  ''My  dinner  was  noble 
enough  ...  I  believe  this  day's  feast  will 
cost  me  near  5  pounds."  But  it  will  be 
noted  that  coffee  was  not  mentioned  as  a 
part  of  the  menu. 

He  makes  countless  references  to  visits 
paid  to  this  and  that  coffee  house,  but  re- 
cords only  one  instance  of  actually  drink- 
ing coffee : 

Up  betimes  to  my  office,  and  thence  at  seven 
o'clock  to  Sir  G-.  Carteret,  and  there  with 
Sir  J.  Mlnnes  made  an  end  of  his  accounts,  but 
sfaid  not  to  dinner  my  Lady  having  made  us 
drink  our  morning  draft  there  of  several  wines, 
but  I  drank  nothing  but  some  of  her  coffee, 
which  was  poorly  made,  with  a  little  sugar 
In  It. 

This  note  which  he  considered  worthy  of 
record  was  certainly  not  inspired  by  the 
excellence  of  the  good  lady's  matutinal 
coffee. 

William  Cobbett  (1762-1835)  the  Eng- 
lish-American politician,  reformer,  and 
writer  on  economics,  denounced    coffee    a,5 


562 


ALL     ABOUT     COFFEE 


"slops";  but  he  was  one  of  a  remarkably 
small  minority.  Before  his  day,  one  of 
England's  greatest  satirists,  Dean  Swift, 
(1667-1745)  led  a  long  roll  of  literary  men 
who  were  devotees  of  coffee. 

Swift's  writings  are  full  of  references  to 
coffee;  and  his  letters  from  Stella  came  to 
him  under  cover,  at  the  St.  James  coffee 
house.  There  is  scarcely  a  letter  to  Esther 
(Vanessa)  Vanhomrigh  which  does  not  con- 
tain a  significant  reference  to  coffee,  by 
which  the  course  of  their  friendship  and 
clandestine  meetings  may  be  traced.  In  one 
dated  August  13,  1720,  written  while  trav- 
eling from  place  to  place  in  Ireland,  he 
says: 

We  live  here  In  a  very  dull  town,  every  val- 
uable creature  absent,  and  Cad  says  he  is  weary 
of  it,  and  would  rather  prefer  his  coffee  on  the 
barrenest  mountain  in  Wales  than  be  king 
here. 

A   fig  for  partridges   and   quails. 
Ye  dainties  I  know  nothing  of  ye; 

But  on  the  highest  mount  in  Wales, 
Would  choose  in  peace  to  drink  my  coffee. 

In  another  letter,  about  two  years  later, 
replying  to  one  in  which  Vanessa  has  re- 
proached him  and  begged  him  to  write  her 
soon,  he  advises: 

The  best  maxim  I  know  in  life,  is  to  drink 
your  coffee  when  you  can,  and  when  you  can- 
not, to  be  easy  without  it;  while  you  continue 
to  be  splenetic,  count  upon  it  I  will  always 
preach.  Thus  much  I  sympathize  with  you, 
that  I  am  not  cheerful  enough  to  write,  for, 
I  believe,  coffee  once  a  week  is  necessary,  and 
you  know  very  well  that  coffee  makes  us  se- 
vere, and  grave,   and  philosophical. 

These  various  references  to  coffee  are 
thought  to  have  been  based  upon  an  inci- 
dent in  the  early  days  of  their  friendship, 
when  on  the  occasion  of  the  Vanhomrigh 
family  journeying  from  Dublin  to  London, 
Vanessa  accidentally  spilt  her  coffee  in  the 
chimney-place  at  a  certain  inn,  which  Swift 
considered  a  premonition  of  their  growing 
friendship.  Writing  from  Clogher,  Swift 
reminds  Vanessa : 

Remember  that  riches  are  nine  parts  in  ten 
of  all  that  is  good  in  life,  and  health  is  the 
tenth — drinking  coffee  comes  long  after,  and 
yet  it  is  the  eleventh,  but  without  the  two 
former  you  cannot  drink  it  right. 

In  another  letter  he  writes  facetiously,  in 
memory  of  her  playful  badinage : 

I  long  to  drink  a  dish  of  coffee  in  the  slut- 
tery  and  hear  you  dun  me  for  a  secret,  and 
"Drink  your  coffee;  why  don't  you  drink  your 
coffee?" 


Leigh  Hunt  had  very  pleasant  things  to 
say  about  coffee,  giving  to  it  the  charm  of 
appeal  to  the  imagination,  which  he  said 
one  never  finds  in  tea.    For  example : 

Coffee,  like  tea,  used  to  form  a  refreshment 
by  itself,  some  hours  after  dinner;  it  is  now 
taken  as  a  digester,  right  upon  that  meal  or 
the  wine,  and  sometimes  does  not  even  close  it; 
or  the  digester  itself  is  digested  by  a  liquor  of 
some  sort  called  a  Chasse-Caf6  [coffee^chaser]. 
We  like  coffee  better  than  tea  for  taste,  but 
tea  "for  a  constancy."  To  be  perfect  in  point 
of  relish  (we  do  not  say  of  wholesomeness) 
coffee  should  be  strong  and  hot,  with  little 
milk  and  sugar.  It  has  been  drunk  after  this 
mode  in  some  parts  of  Europe,  but  the  public 
have  nowhere,  we  believe,  adopted  it.  The 
favorite  way  of  taking  it  at  a  meal,  abroad, 
is  with  a  great  superfluity  of  milk — very  prop- 
erly called,  in  France  caf6  au  lait  (coffee  to  the 
milk).  One  of  the  pleasures  we  receive  in 
drinking  coffee  is  that,  being  the  universal 
drink  in  the  East,  it  reminds  of  that  region 
of  the  "Arabian  Nights"  as  smoking  does  for 
the  same  reason;  though  neither  of  these  re- 
freshments, which  are  identified  with  Oriental 
manners,  is  to  be  found  in  that  enchanting 
work.  They  had  not  been  discovered  when  it 
was  written;  the  drink  then  was  sherbet.  One 
can  hardly  fancy  what  a  Turk  or  a  Persian 
could  have  done  without  coffee  and  a  pipe, 
any  more  than  the  English  ladies  and  gentle- 
men, before  the  civil  wars,  without  tea  for 
breakfast. 

In  his  old  age,  Immanuel  Kant,  the  great 
metaphysician,  became  extremely  fond  of 
coffee;  and  Thomas  de  Quincey  relates  a 
little  incident  showing  Kant's  great  eager- 
ness for  the  after-dinner  cup. 

At  the  beginning  of  the  last  year  of  his  life, 
he  fell  into  a  custom  of  taking,  immediately 
after  dinner,  a  cup  of  coffee,  especially  on 
those  days  when  it  happened  that  I  was  of  his 
party.  And  such  was  the  importance  that  he  at- 
tached to  his  little  pleasure  that  he  would  even 
make  a  memorandum  beforehand,  in  the  blank 
paper  book  that  I  had  given  him,  that  on  the 
next  day  I  was  to  dine  with  him,  and  conse- 
quently "that  there  was  to  be  coffee."  Some- 
times in  the  interest  of  conversation,  the  coffee 
was  forgotten,  but  not  for  long.  He  would  re- 
member and  with  the  querulousness  of  old  age 
and  infirm  health  would  demand  that  coffee  be 
brought  "upon  the  spot."  Arrangements  had  at- 
ways  been  made  in  advance,  however;  the  cof- 
fee was  ground,  and  the  water  was  boiling: 
and  in  the  very  moment  the  word  was  given, 
the  servant  shot  in  like  an  arrow  and  plunged 
the  coffee  into  the  water.  All  that  remained, 
therefore,  was  to  give  it  time  to  boil  up.  But 
this  trifling  delay  seemed  unendurable  to  Kant. 
If  it  were  said,  "Dear  Professor,  the  coffee  will 
be  brought  up  in  a  moment,"  he  would  say, 
"Will  be!  There's  the  rub,  that  it  only  will  be." 
Then  he  would  quiet  himself  with  a  stoical  air, 
and  say,  "Well,  one  can  die  after  all;   it  is  but 


COFFEE    IN    LITERATURE 


563 


dying;  and  In  the  next  world,  thank  God,  there 
Is  no  drinking  of  coffee  and  consequently  no 
waiting  for  it." 

When  at  length  the  servant's  steps  were 
heard  upon  the  stairs,  he  would  turn  round  to 
us,  and  joyfully  call  out:  "Land,  land!  my  dear 
friends,  I  see  land." 

Thackeray  (1811-1863)  must  have  suf- 
fered many  tea  and  coffee  disappointments. 
In  the  KicMeburys  on  the  Rhine  he  asks : 
"Why  do  they  always  put  mud  into  coff56 
aboard  steamers?  Why  does  the  tea  gen- 
erally taste  of  boiled  boots?" 

In  Arthur's,  A,  Neil  Lyons  has  preserved 
for  all  time  the  atmosphere  of  the  London 
coffee  stall.  "I  would  not,"  he  says,  ''ex- 
change a  night  at  Arthur 's  for  a  week  with 
the  brainiest  circle  in  London."  The  book 
is  a  collection  of  short  stories.  As  already 
recorded,  Harold  Chapin  dramatized  this 
picturesque  London  institution  in  The 
Autocrat  of  the  Coffee  Stall. 

In  General  Horace  Porter's  Campaign- 
ing with  Grant,  we  have  three  distinct  cof- 
fee incidents  within  fifty-odd  pages;  or  ex- 
plicitly, see  pages  47,  56,  101 ;  where,  deep 
in  the  fiercest  snarls  of  The  Wilderness 
campaign  we  are  treated  to: 

General  Grant,  slowly  sipping  his  coffee  .  .  . 
a  full  ration  of  that  soothing  army  beverage  .  . 
The  general  made  rather  a  singular  meal  pre- 
paratory to  so  exhausting  a  day  as  that  which 
was  to  follow.  He  took  a  cucumber,  sliced  It, 
poured  some  vinegar  over  it,  and  partook  of 
nothing  else  except  a  cup  of  strong  coffee  .  .  . 
The  general  seemed  in  excellent  spirits,  and 
was  even  inclined  to  be  jocose.  He  said  to  me, 
"We  have  just  had  our  coffee,  and  you  will  find 
some  left  for  you."  ...  I  drank  It  with  the  rel- 
ish of  a  shipwrecked  mariner. 

One  of  the  first  immediate  supplies  Gen- 
eral Sherman  desired  from  Wilmington,  on 
reaching  Fayetteville  and  lines  of  commu- 
nication in  March,  1865,  was,  expressly, 
coffee ;  does  he  not  say  so  himself,  on  page 
297  of  the  second  volume  of  his  Memoirs'! 

Still  more  expressly,  towards  the  close 
of  his  Memoirs,  and  among  final  recommen- 
dations, the  fruit  of  his  experiences  in  that 
whole  vast  war,  General  Sherman  says  this 
for  coffee: 

Coffee  has  become  almost  Indispensable, 
though  many  substitutes  were  found  for  It,  such 
as  Indian  corn,  roasted,  ground  and  boiled  as 
coffee,  the  sweet  potato,  and  the  seed  of  the 
okra  plant  prepared  in  the  same  way.  All  these 
were  used  by  the  people  of  the  South,  who  for 
years  could  procure  no  coffee,  but  I  noticed  that 
the  women  always  begged  of  us  real  coffee, 
which  seemed  to  satisfy  a  natural  yearning  or 


craving  more  powerful  than  can  be  accounted 
for  on  the  theory  of  habit.  Therefore  I  would 
always  advise  that  the  coffee  and  sugar  ration 
be  carried  along,  even  at  the  expense  of  bread, 
for  which  there  are  many  substitutes. 

George  Agnew  Chamberlain's  novel 
Home  contains  a  vivid  description  of  cof- 
fee-making on  an  old  plantation,  and 
could  only  have  been  written  by  a  devoted 
lover  of  this  drink.  Gerry  Lansing,  the 
American,  has  escaped  drowning  in  the 
river,  and  is  now  lost  in  the  Brazilian  for- 
est. He  finds  his  way  at  last  to  an  old 
plantation  house: 

A  stove  was  built  Into  the  masonry,  and  a 
cavernous  oven  gaped  from  the  massive  wall. 
At  the  stove  was  an  old  negress,  making  coffee 
with  shaky  deliberation  .  .  .  The  girl  and  the 
wrinkled  old  woman  made  him  sit  down  at  the 
table,  and  then  placed  before  him  crisp  rusks 
of  mandioc  flour  and  steaming  coffee  whose 
splendid  aroma  triumphed  over  the  sordidness 
of  the  scene  and  through  the  nostrils  reached 
the  palate  with  anticipatory  touch.  It  was 
sweetened  with  dark,  pungent  syrup  and  was 
served  black  in  a  capacious  bowl,  as  though  one 
could  not  drink  too  deeply  of  the  elixir  of  life. 
Gerry  ate  ravenously  and  sipped  the  coffee,  at 
first  sparingly,  then  greedily  .  .  .  Gerry  set 
down  the  empty  bowl  with  a  sigh.  The  rusks 
had  been  delicious.  Before  the  coffee  the  name 
of  nectar  dwindled  to  Impotency.  Its  elixir 
rioted  In  his  veins. 

In  the  Rosary,  Florence  L.  Barclay  has 
a  Scotch  woman  tell  how  she  makes  coffee. 
She  says: 

Use  a  jug — it  is  not  what  you  make  it  in;  it  is 
how  ye  make  It.  It  all  hangs  upon  the  word 
fresh — freshly  roasted — freshly  ground — water 
freshly  boiled.  And  never  touch  it  with  metal. 
Pop  it  into  an  earthenware  jug,  pour  In  your 
boiling  water  straight  upon  It,  stir  It  with  a 
wooden  spoon,  set  it  on  the  hob  ten  minutes  to 
settle;  the  grounds  will  all  go  to  the  bottom, 
though  you  might  not  think  It,  and  you  pour 
It  out,  fragrant,  strong  and  clear.  But  the  se- 
cret is,  fresh,  fresh,  fresh,  and  don't  stint  your 
coffee. 

Cyrus  Townsend  Brady's  The  Corner  in 
Coffee  is  "a  thrilling  romance  of  the  New 
York  coffee  market." 

Coffee,  Du  Barry,  and  Louis  XV  figure 
in  one  scene  of  the  story  of  The  Moat  with 
the  Crimson  Stains,  as  told  by  Elizabeth 
W.  Champney  in  her  Romance  of  the 
Bourbon  Chateaux.^  It  tells  of  the  Ger- 
man apprentice  Riesener,  who  assisted  his 
master  Oeben  in  designing  for  Louis  XV 
a   beautiful    desk   with   a    secret    drawer, 

*  Copyright,  1903,  by  G.  P.  Putnam's  Sons,  New 
York.  Used  by  courtesy  of  the  author  and  the  pub- 
lisher. 


564 


ALL     ABOUT     COFFEE 


which  it  took  ten  years  of  unremitting  in- 
dustry to  execute.  At  the  end,  Riesener 
was  to  be  accepted  by  his  master  as  a  part- 
ner and  a  son-in-law.  Little  Victoire,  who 
loved  to  sit  in  a  punt  and  trail  her  doll 
in  the  waters  of  the  Bievre  to  see  to  what 
color  its  frock  would  be  changed  by  the 
dyes  of  the  Gobelin  factory,  was  then  only 
five,  and  Madam  Oeben  twenty-three.  As 
the  years  rolled  by,  Riesener  grew  to  love 
the  mother  and  not  the  daughter,  who, 
meanwhile,  shot  up  into  a  slim  girl,  not  of 
her  mother's  beauty,  but  of  a  loveliness  all 
her  own.  Then  there  was  a  quarrel  because 
the  young  apprentice  thought  the  master 
should  have  resented  the  suggestion  of 
M.  Duplessis  that  his  wife  pose  in  the  nude 
for  the  statuettes  which  were  to  hold  the 
sconces  on  the  king's  desk;  and  Riesener 
left  in  a  fine  youthful  frenzy,  vowing  he 
would  never  return  while  the  maitre  lived. 
The  latter,  unable  to  complete  the  master- 
piece which  he  loved  more  than  anything 
else  on  earth,  sought  death,  and  perished 
in  the  crimson  waters  of  the  Bievre. 

The  maiire  had  no  enemies,  but  his  quar- 
rel with  Riesener  caused  a  fear  to  spring 
up  in  the  widow 's  heart  that  the  apprentice 
might  have  been  guilty  of  his  murder,  so 
she  refused  to  see  him  when,  hearing  of  his 
master's  death,  he  returned,  stricken  with 
remorse,  to  finish  the  desk.  On  it  were  the 
statuettes  modeled  in  perfect  likeness  of 
Mile,  de  Vaubernier,  a  wily  little  milliner 
of  Riesener 's  bohemian  set  who  had  taken 
this  way  to  bring  herself  to  the  attention 
of  Louis  XV.  The  ruse  was  successful ;  and 
after  the  acceptance  of  the  desk,  there  was 
installed  a  new  maitresse  en  titre,  the  no- 
torious Madame  Du  Barry,  erstwhile  the 
pretty_  milliner.  Mile,  de  Vaubernier. 

Later,  Madame  Du  Barry  sent  for  the 
now  famous  eheniste  (cabinet  maker)  ;  and, 
when  her  negro  page  Zamore  admitted  him, 
he  found  His  Majesty  Louis  XV  kneeling 
in  front  of  the  fireplace,  making  coffee  for 
her  while  she  laughed  at  him  for  scalding 
his  fingers.  He  had  been  summoned  to 
show  the  king  the  mechanism  of  the  secret 
drawer,  so  cunningly  concealed  in  the  king 's 
desk  that  no  one  could  find  it.  But  Riese- 
ner knew  not  the  secret  of  his  master,  who 
had  died  without  revealing  it.  Then  the 
red  revolution  came;  and  when  the  pretty 
pavilion  at  Louveciennes  was  sacked,  and 
its  costly  furniture  hurled  down  the  cliff 


to  the  Seine,  the  king's  desk,  shattered  al- 
most beyond  repair,  was  carried  to  the 
Gobelins'  factory  and  presented  to  Mme. 
Oeben  in  recognition  of  her  husband's 
workmanship.  Then  the  secret  compart- 
ment was  found  to  have  been  disclosed,  and 
Riesener  was  absolved  by  a  letter  therein, 
from  the  maitre,  who  intimated  he  was 
about  to  end  it  all  because  of  paralysis, 
Riesener  marries  the  widow  and  all  ends 
happily. 

James  Lane  Allen,  in  The  Kentucky 
WarNer,  tells  a  tale  of  the  Blue  Grass 
country  and  of  a  young  hero  who  wanders 
after  a  bird's  note  to  find  romance  and  the 
key  to  his  own  locked  nature.  Here  is  an 
incident  from  his  first  forest  adventure : 

There  was  one  tree  he  curiously  looked 
around  for,  positive  that  he  should  not  be  blind 
to  it  if  fortunate  enough  to  set  his  eyes  on  one 
— the  coffee  tree.  That  is,  he  felt  sure  he'd 
recognize  it  if  it  yielded  coffee  ready  to  drink, 
of  which  never  in  his  life  had  they  given  him 
enough.  Not  once  throughout  his  long 
troubled  experience  as  to  being  fed  had  he  been 
allowed  as  much  coffee  as  he  craved.  Once, 
when  younger,  he  had  heard  some  one  say  that 
the  only  tree  in  all  the  American  forests  that 
bore  the  name  of  Kentucky  was  the  Kentucky 
coffee  tree,  and  he  had  instantly  conceived  a  de- 
sire to  pay  a  visit  in  secret  to  that  corner  of 
the  woods.  To  take  his  cup  and  a  few  lumps 
of  sugar  and  sit  under  the  boughs  and  catch 
the  coffee  as  it  dripped  down  ...  No  one  to 
hold  him  back  ...  as  much  as  he  wanted  at 
last  .  .  .  The  Kentucky  coffee  tree — his  fav- 
orite In  Nature! 

John  Kendrick  Bangs  relates,  in  Coffee 
and  Repartee^,  some  amusing  skirmishes 
indulged  in  at  the  boarding-house  table,  be- 
tween the  Idiot  and  the  guests,  where  coffee 
served  the  purpose  of  enlivening  the  tilt : 

"Can't  I  give  you  another  cup  of  coffee?" 
asked  the  landlady  of  the  School  Master. 

"You  may,"  returned  the  School  Master, 
pained  at  the  lady's  grammar,  but  too  courteous 
to  call  attention  to  it  save  by  the  emphasis  with 
which  he  spoke  the  word  "may". 

Said  the  Idiot:  "You  may  fill  my  cup  too, 
Mrs.  Smithers." 

"The  coffee  is  all  gone,"  returned  the  land- 
lady, with  a  snap. 

"Then,  Mary,"  said  the  Idiot,  gracefully  turn- 
ing to  the  maid,  "you  may  give  me  a  glass  of 
ice  water.  It  is  quite  as  warm,  after  all,  as  the 
coffee  and  not  quite  so  weak." 

One  other  little  skit  remains  at  the  ex- 
pense of  Mrs.  Smithers'  coffee.  At  the 
breakfast  table,  where  the  air,  as  usual,  is 

« Copyright,  189S,  by  Harper  Bros.,  and  1921,  by 
John  Kendrick  Bangs.     Reprinted  by  permission. 


COFFEE    IN    LITERATURE 


565 


charged   with   repartee,  Mr.  Whitechoker, 
the  minister,  says  to  his  landlady: 

"Mrs.  Smithers,  I'll  have  a  dash  of  hot  water 
in  my  coffee,  this  morning.  Then  with  a  glance 
toward  the  Idiot,  he  added,  "I  think  it  looks 
like  rain." 

"Referring  to  the  coffee,  Mr.  Whitechoker?'' 
queried  the  Idiot.     .     .     . 

"Ah, — I  don't  quite  follow  you,"  replied  the 
Minister  with  some  annoyance. 

"You  said  something  looked  like  rain,  and  I 
asked  you  if  the  thing  referred  to  was  the  cof- 
fee, for  I  was  disposed  to  agree  with  you,"  said 
the  Idiot. 

"I  am  sure,"  put  in  Mrs.  Smithers,  "that  a 
gentleman  of  Mr.  Whiteehoker's  refinement 
would  not  make  any  such  Insinuation,  sir.  He 
is  not  the  man  to  quarrel  with  what  is  set  be- 
fore him." 

"I  must  ask  your  pardon.  Madam,"  returned 
the  Idiot  politely,  "I  hope  I  am  not  the  man  to 
quarrel  with  my  food,  either.  Indeed,  I  malie  it 
a  rule  to  avoid  unpleasantness  of  all  sorts,  par- 
ticularly with  the  weak,  under  which  category 
I  find  your  coffee." 

Coffee  Quips  and  Anecdotes 

Coffee  literature  is  full  of  quips  and 
anecdotes.  Probably  the  most  famous  cof- 
fee quip  is  that  of  Mme.  de  Sevigne,  who, 
as  already  told  in  chapter  XI,  was  wrong- 
fully credited  with  saying,  "Racine  and 
coffee  will  pass."  It  was  Voltaire  in  his 
preface  to  Irene  who  thus  accused  the  ami- 
able letter-writer;  and  she,  being  dead, 
could  not  deny  it. 

That  Mme.  de  Sevigne  was  at  one  time  a 
coffee  drinker  is  apparent  from  this  quota- 
tion from  one  of  her  letters :  ' '  The  cavalier 
believes  that  coffee  gives  him  warmth,  and 
I  at  the  same  time,  foolish  as  you  know  me, 
do  not  take  it  any  longer." 

La  Roque  called  the  beverage  "the  King 
of  Perfumes",  whose  charm  was  enriched 
when  vanilla  was  added. 

Emile  Souvestre  (1806-1854)  said: 
"Coffee  keeps,  so  to  say,  the  balance  be- 
tween bodily  and  spiritual  nourishment." 

Isid  Bourdon  said :  ' '  The  discovery  of 
coffee  has  enlarged  the  realm  of  illusion 
and  given  more  promise  to  hope." 

An  old  Bourbon  proverb  says:  "To  an 
old  man  a  cup  of  coffee  is  like  the  door 
post  of  an  old  house  —  it  sustains  and 
strengthens  him." 

Jardin  says  that  in  the  Antilles,  instead 
of  orange  blossoms,  the  brides  carry  a  spray 
of  coffee  blossoms;  and  when  a  woman  re- 
mains unmarried,  they  say  she  has  lost 
her  coffee  branch.  "We  say  in  France, 
that  she  has  coiffe  Sainte-Catherine. " 


Fontenelle  and  Voltaire  have  both  been 
quoted  as  authors  of  the  famous  reply  to 
the  remark  that  coffee  was  a  slow  poison: 
"I  think  it  must  be,  for  I've  been  drink- 
ing it  for  eighty-five  years  and  am  not  dead 
yet." 

In  Meidinger's  German  Grammar  the 
"slow-poison"  hon  mot  is  attributed  to 
Fontenelle. 

It  seems  reasonable  to  give  Fontenelle 
credit  for  this  hon  mot.  Voltaire  died  at 
eighty-four.  Fontenelle  lived  to  be  nearly 
a  hundred  years.  Of  his  cheerfulness  at 
an  advanced  age  an  anecdote  is  related.  In 
conversation,  one  day,  a  lady  a  few  years 
younger  than  Fontenelle  playfully  re- 
marked, "Monsieur,  you  and  I  stay  here 
so  long,  methinks  Death  has  forgotten  us." 
"Hush!  Speak  in  a  whisper,  madame, " 
replied  Fontenelle,  "tant  mieux!  (so  much 
the  better!)  don't  remind  him  of  us." 

Flaubert,  Hugo,  Baudelaire,  Paul  de 
Kock,  Theophile  Gauthier,  Alfred  de 
Musset,  Zola,  Coppee,  George  Sand,  Guy  de 
Maupassant,  and  Sarah  Bernhardt,  all 
have  been  credited  with  many  clever  or 
witty  sallies  about  coffee. 

Prince  Talleyrand  (1754-1839),  the 
French  diplomat  and  wit,  has  given  us  the 
cleverest  summing  up  of  the  ideal  cup  of 
coffee.  He  said  it  should  be  "Noir  comme 
le  diahle,  chaud  comme  Venfer,  pur  comme 
iin  ange,  doux  comme  I'amour."  Or  in 
English,  "black  as  the  devil,  hot  as  hell, 
pure  as  an  angel,  sweet  as  love." 

This  quip  has  been  wrongfully  attributed 
to  Brillat-Savarin.     Talleyrand  said  also: 

A  cup  of  coffee  lightly  tempered  with  good 
milk  detracts  nothing  from  your  intellect;  on 
the  contrary,  your  stomach  Is  freed  by  it,  and 
no  longer  distresses  your  brain;  it  will  not 
hamper  your  mind  with  troubles,  but  give  free- 
dom to  its  working.  Suave  molecules  of 
Mocha  stir  up  your  blood,  without  causing  ex- 
cessive heat;  the  organ  of  thought  receives 
from  it  a  feeling  of  sympathy;  work  becomes 
easier,  and  you  will  sit  down  without  distress 
to  your  principal  repast,  which  will  restore 
your  body,  and  afford  you  a  calm  delicious 
night. 

Among  coffee  drinkers  a  high  place  must 
be  given  to  Prince  Bismarck  (1815  - 1898). 
He  liked  coffee  unadulterated.  While  with 
the  Prussian  army  in  France,  he  one  day- 
entered  a  country  inn  and  asked  the  host 
if  he  had  any  chicory  in  the  house.  He 
had.     Bismarck  said:     "Well,  bring  it  to 


566 


ALL    ABOUT     COFFEE 


me;  all  you  have."  The  man  obeyed,  and 
handed  Bismarck  a  canister  full  of  chicory. 

"Are  you  sure  this  is  all  you  have?" 
demanded  the  chancellor. 

* '  Yes,  my  lord,  every  grain. ' ' 

* '  Then, ' '  said  Bismarck,  keeping  the  can- 
ister by  him,  ''go  now  and  make  me  a  pot 
of  coffee." 

This  same  story  has  been  related  of 
Frangois  Paul  Jules  Grevy  (1807-1891), 
president  of  France,  1879  - 1887.  Accord- 
ing to  the  French  story,  Grevy  never  took 
wine,  even  at  dinner.  He  was,  however, 
passionately  fond  of  coffee.  To  be  certain 
of  having  his  favorite  beverage  of  the  best 
quality,  he  always,  when  he  could,  prepared 
it  himself.  Once  he  was  invited,  with  a 
friend,  M.  Bethmont,  to  a  hunting  party 
by  M.  Menier,  the  celebrated  manufacturer 
of  chocolate,  at  Noisiel.  It  happened  that 
M.  Grevy  and  M.  Bethmont  lost  themselves 
in  the  forest.  Trying  to  find  their  way  out, 
they  stumbled  upon  a  little  wine  house,  and 
stopped  for  a  rest.  They  asked  for  some- 
thing to  drink.  M.  Bethmont  found  his 
wine  excellent ;  but,  as  usual,  Grevy  would 
not  drink.  He  wanted  coffee,  but  he  was 
afraid  of  the  decoction  which  would  be 
brought  him.  He  got  a  good  cup,  however, 
and  this  is  how  he  managed  it : 

' '  Have  you  any  chicory  ? "  he  said  to  the 
man. 

"Yes,  sir." 

"Bring  me  some." 

Soon  the  proprietor  returned  with  a 
small  can  of  chicory. 

"Is  that  all  you  have?"  asked  Grevy. 

"We  have  a  little  more." 

"Bring  me  the  rest." 

When  he  came  again,  with  another  can 
of  chicory,  Grevy  said: 

"You  have  no  more?" 

"No,  sir." 

"Very  well.  Now  go  and  make  me  a  cup 
of  coffee," 

As  already  told,  Louis  XV  had  a  great 
passion  for  coffee,  which  he  made  himself. 
Lenormand,  the  head  gardener  at  Versailles, 
raised  six  pounds  of  coffee  a  year  which 
was  for  the  exclusive  use  of  the  king.  The 
king 's  fondness  for  coffee  and  for  Mme.  Du 
Barry  gave  rise  to  a  celebrated  anecdote  of 
Louveciennes  which  was  accepted  as  true 
by  many  serious  writers.    It  is  told  in  this 


fashion  by  Mairobert  in  a  pam'phlet  scan- 
dalizing Du  Barry  in  1776 : 

His  Majesty  loves  to  make  his  own  coffee  and 
to  forsake  the  cares  of  the  government.  One 
day  the  coffee  pot  was  on  the  fire  and,  his 
Majesty  being  occupied  with  something  else, 
the  coffee  boiled  over.  "Oh  France,  take  care! 

Your  coffee  / le  camp!"  cried  the  beautiful 

favorite. 

Charles  Vatel  has  denied  this  story. 

It  is  related  of  Jean  Jacques  Rousseau 
that  once  when  he  was  walking  in  the 
Tuileries  he  caught  the  aroma  of  roasting 
coffee.  Turning  to  his  companion,  Ber- 
nardino de  Saint-Pierre,  he  said,  "Ah,  that 
is  a  perfume  in  which  I  delight ;  when  they 
roast  coffee  near  my  house,  I  hasten  to  open 
the  door  to  take  in  all  the  aroma."  And 
such  was  the  passion  for  coffee  of  this 
philosopher  of  Geneva  that  when  he  died, 
"he  just  missed  doing  it  with  a  cup  of  cof- 
fee in  his  hand", 

Barthez,  confidential  physician  of  Napol- 
eon the  first,  drank  a  great  deal  of  it,  freely, 
calling  it  "the  intellectual  drink," 

Bonaparte,  himself,  said:  "Strong  cof- 
fee, and  plenty,  awakens  me.  It  gives  me 
a  warmth,  an  unusual  force,  a  pain  that  is 
not  without  pleasure.  I  would  rather  suffer 
than  be  senseless." 

Edward  E.  Emerson''  tells  the  following 
story  of  the  Cafe  Procope.  One  day 
while  M.  Saint-Foix  was  seated  at  his  usual 
table  in  this  cafe  an  officer  of  the  king's 
body-guard  entered,  sat  down,  and  ordered 
a  cup  of  coffee,  with  milk  and  a  roll,  adding, 
"It  will  serve  me  for  a  dinner."  At  this, 
Saint-Foix  remarked  aloud  that  a  cup  of 
coffee,  with  milk  and  a  roll,  was  a  con- 
foundedly poor  dinner.  The  officer  remon- 
strated. Saint-Foix  reiterated  his  remark, 
adding  that  nothing  he  could  say  to  the 
contrary  would  convince  him  that  it  was 
not  a  confoundedly  poor  dinner.  There- 
upon a  challenge  was  given  and  accepted, 
and  the  whole  company  present  adjourned 
as  spectators  to  a  duel  which  ended  by 
Saint-Foix  receiving  a  wound  in  the  arm. 

' '  That  is  all  very  well, ' '  said  the  wounded 
combatant;  "but  I  call  you  to  witness, 
gentlemen,  that  I  am  still  profoundly  con- 
vinced that  a  cup  of  coffee,  with  milk  and 
a  roll,  is  a  confoundedly  poor  dinner. ' ' 

At  this  moment  the  principals  were  ar- 
rested  and   carried  before   the   Duke    de 


'  Beverages  Past  and  Present^  New  York,  copyright 
1908.   By  courtesy  of  G.  P.  Putnam's,  Sons,  Publishers, 


COFFEE    IN    LITERATURE 


567 


Dr.  Johnson's  Seat  at  the  Cheshire  Cheese 

Noailles,  in  whose  presence  Saint-Foix, 
without  waiting  to  be  questioned,  said: 

* '  Monseigneur,  I  had  not  the  slightest  in- 
tention of  offending  this  gallant  officer  who, 
I  doubt  not,  is  an  honorable  man ;  but  your 
excellency  can  never  prevent  my  asserting 
that  a  cup  of  coffee,  with  milk  and  a  roll, 
is  a  confoundedly  poor  dinner." 

"Why,  so  it  is,"  said  the  Duke. 

*  *  Then  I  am  not  in  the  wrong, ' '  persisted 
Saint-Foix ;  ' '  and  a  cup  of  coffee "  —  at 
these  words  magistrates,  delinquents,  and 
auditory  burst  into  a  roar  of  laughter,  and 
the  antagonists  forthwith  became  warm 
friends. 

Boswell  in  his  Life  of  Johnson  tells  a 
story  of  an  old  chevalier  de  Malte,  of 
ancienne  noblesse,  but  in  low  circumstances, 
who  was  in  a  coffee  house  in  Paris,  where 
was  also  ''Julien,  the  great  manufacturer 
-at  Gobelins,  of  fine  tapestry,  so  much  dis- 
tinguished for  the  figures  and  the  colours. 
The  chevalier's  carriage  was  very  old. 
Says  Julien  with  a  plebeian  insolence,  'I 
think,  sir,  you  had  better  have  your  carriage 
new  painted.' 

* '  The  chevalier  looked  at  him  with  indig- 
nant contempt,  and  answered: 

"  'Well,  sir,  you  may  take  it  home  and 
dye  it.' 

"All  the  coffee  house  rejoiced  at  Julien 's 
■confusion. ' ' 

Sydney  Smith  (1771-1845)  the  English 
clergyman  and  humorist,  once  said:  "If 
you  want  to  improve  your  understanding, 
drink  coffee ;  it  is  the  intellectual  beverage. ' ' 

Our  own  William  Dean  Howells  pays  the 
beverage  this  tribute:   "This  coffee  intoxi- 


cates without  exciting,  soothes  you  softly 
out  of  dull  sobriety,  making  you  think  and 
talk  of  all  the  pleasant  things  that  ever 
happened  to  you." 

The  wife  of  the  president  of  the  United 
States  prefers  coffee  to  tea.  Afternoon 
guests  at  the  White  House  may  be  refreshed, 
if- they  choose,  by  a  sip  of  tea.  But  while 
tea  is  on  tap  for  callers,  Mrs.  Harding  al- 
ways has  coffee  for  those  who,  like  herself, 
prefer  it. 

Old  London  Coffee-House  Anecdotes 

A  good-sized  volume  might  be  compiled 
of  the  many  anecdotes  that  have  been  writ- 
ten about  habitues  of  the  London  coffee 
houses  of  the  seventeenth  and  eighteenth 
centuries. 

Dr.  Samuel  Johnson  (1709-1784),  the 
lexicographer,  was  one  of  the  most  constant 
frequenters  of  the  coffee  houses  of  his  day. 
His  big,  awkward  figure  was  a  familiar 
sight  as  he  went  about  attended  by  his 
satellite,  young  James  Boswell,  who  was  to 
write  about  him  for  the  delight  of  future 
generations  in  his  marvelous  Life  of  John^ 
son.  The  intellectual  and  moral  peculiari- 
ties of  the  man  found  a  natural  expression 
in  the  coffee  house.  Johnson  was  fifty-four 
and  Boswell  only  twenty-three  when  the 
two  first  met  in  Tom  Davies'  book-shop  in 
Covent  Garden.  The  story  is  told  by  Bos- 
well with  great  particularity  and  charac- 
teristic naivete: 

Mr.  Davies  mentioned  my  name,  and  respect- 
fully Introduced  me  to  him.  I  was  much  agi- 
tated, and  recollecting  his  prejudice  against  the 
Scotch,  of  which  I  had  heard  so  much,  I  said 
to  Davies,  "Don't  tell  him  where  I  come  from." 
"From  Scotland,"  cried  Davies  roguishly.  "Mr. 
Johnson,"  said  I,  "I  do  Indeed  come  from  Scot- 
land, but  I  cannot  help  it."  I  am  willing  to 
flatter  myself  that  I  meant  this  as  a  light  pleas- 
antry to  sooth  and  conciliate  him,  and  not  as 
a  humiliating  abasement  at  the  expense  of  my 
country.  But  however  that  might  be,  this 
speech  was  somewhat  unlucky,  for  with  that 
quickness  of  wit  for  which  he  was  so  remark- 
able, he  seized  the  expression,  "come  from  Scot- 
land!" which  I  used  In  the  sense  of  being  of 
that  country;  and,  as  If  I  had  come  away  from 
it,  or  left  it,  he  retorted,  "That,  sir,  I  find  Is 
what  a  great  many  of  your  countrymen  cannot 
help." 

Nothing  daunted,  however,  Boswell  with- 
in a  week  called  upon  Johnson  in  his  cham- 
bers. This  time  the  doctor  urged  him  to 
tarry.  Three  weeks  later  he  said  to  him, 
* '  Come  to  me  as  often  as  you  can. ' '    With- 


568 


ALL     AJBOUT     COFFEE 


Original  Coffee  Room,  Old   Cock  Tavern 

in  a  fortnight  thereafter  Boswell  was  giv- 
ing the  great  man  a  sketch  of  his  own  life 
and  Johnson  was  exclaiming,  "Give  me 
your  hand ;  I  have  taken  a  liking  to  you. ' ' 

When  people  began  to  ask,  "Who  is  this 
Scotch  cur  at  Johnson 's  heels  ? ' '  Goldsmith 
replied :  ' '  He  is  not  a  cur ;  he  is  only  a  bur, 
Tom  Davies  flung  him  at  Johnson  in  sport, 
and  he  has  the  faculty  of  sticking." 

Thus  began  one  of  the  strangest  friend- 
ships, out  of  which  developed  the  most  de- 
lightful biography  in  all  literature.  Bos- 
well's  taste  for  literary  adventures,  and 
Johnson's  literary  vagrancy  met  in  a  com- 
panionship that  found  much  satisfaction  in 
the  bohemianism  of  the  inns  and  coffee 
houses  of  old  London.  Boswell  thus  de- 
scribes the  eccentric  doctor's  outlook  on 
this  mode  of  living: 

We  dined  today  at  an  excellent  inn  at  Chapel- 
House,  where  Mr.  Johnson  commented  on  Eng- 
lish coffee  houses  and  inns  remarking  that  the 
English  triumphed  over  the  French  in  one  re- 
spect, in  that  the  French  had  no  perfection  of 
tavern  life.  There  is  no  private  house,  (said 
he)  in  which  people  can  enjoy  themselves  so 
well,  as  at  a  capital  tavern.  Let  there  be  ever 
so  great  plenty  of  good  things,  ever  so  much 
grandeur,  ever  so  much  elegance,  ever  so  much 
desire  that  everybody  should  be  easy;  in  the 
nature  of  things  it  cannot  be:  there  must  al- 
ways be  some  degree  of  care  and  anxiety.  The 
master  of  the  house  is  anxious  to  entertain  his 
guests;  the  guests  are  anxious  to  be  agreeable 
to  him;  and  no  man,  but  a  very  impudent  dog 
indeed,  can  as  freely  command  what  is  in  an- 
other man's  house,  as  if  it  were  his  own. 
Whereas,  at  a  tavern,  there  is  a  general  free- 
dom from  anxiety.  You  are  sure  you  are  wel- 
come: and  the  more  noise  you  make,  the  more 
trouble  you  give,  the  more  good  things  you 
call  for,  the  welcomer  you  are.  No  servants 
will  attend  you  with  the  alacrity  which  waiters 
do,  who  are  incited  by  the  prospect  of  an  im- 
mediate reward  in  proportion  as  they  please. 
No,  Sir,  there  is  nothing  which  has  yet  been 
contrived  by  man,  by  which  so  much  happiness 
Is  produced  as  by  a  good  tavern  or  Inn.     He 


then  repeated,  with  great  emotion,  Shenstone's 
lines: 

"Whoe'er  has  travelld  life's  dull  round, 
Where'er  his  stages  may  have  been, 
May  sigh  to  think  he  still  has  found 
His  warmest  welcome   at  an  Inn." 

Patient  delving  into  Johnsoniana  is  re- 
warded with  many  anecdotes  about  the  mad 
doctor  philosopher  and  his  faithful  reporter 
who  delighted  in  translating  his  genius  to 
the  world. 

Boswell  was  a  wine-bibber,  but  Johnson 
confessed  to  being  ' '  a  hardened  and  shame- 
less tea  drinker."  When  Boswell  twigged 
him  for  abstaining  from  the  stronger  drink, 
the  doctor  replied:  "Sir,  I  have  no  objec- 
tion to  a  man's  drinking  wine  if  he  can  do 
it  in  moderation.  I  find  myself  apt  to  go  to 
excess  in  it  and  therefore,  after  having  been 
for  some  time  without  it,  on  account  of  ill- 
ness, I  thought  it  better  not  to  return  to 
it." 

Another  time  he  said  of  tea:  "What  a 
delightful  beverage  must  that  be  that 
pleases  all  palates  at  a  time  when  they  can 
take  nothing  else  at  breakfast." 


Fireplace  in  the  Coffee  Room  of  the  Old 
Cock  Tavern 


COFFEE    IN    LITERATURE 


569 


MoRNI^'G  Gossip  in  the  Coffee  Room  of  the  Old  Cock  Tavern 


In  his  early  days  Johnson  had  David 
Garrick  as  an  unwilling  pupil.  After  the 
actor  had  become  famous  and  his  prosperity 
had  turned  his  head,  he  was  wont  to  "put 
the  table  in  a  roar"  by  mimicking  the 
doctor's  grimaces.  There  is  a  story  that  on 
the  occasion  of  a  certain  dinner  party  where 
both  were  guests,  Garrick  indulged  in  a 
coarse  jest  on  the  great  man's  table  man- 
ners. After  the  merriment  had  subsided, 
Doctor  Johnson  arose  solemnly  and  said : 

''Gentlemen,  you  must  doubtless  suppose 
from  the  extreme  familiarity  with  which 
Mr.  Garrick  has  thought  fit  to  treat  me  that 
I  am  an  acquaintance  of  his;  but  I  can  as- 
sure you  that  until  I  met  him  here,  I  never 
saw  him  but  once  before  —  and  then  I  paid 
five  shillings  for  the  sight." 

A  certain  sycophant,  thinking  to  curry 
favor  with  Johnson,  took  to  laughing  loud 
and  long  at  everything  he  said.  Johnson's 
patience  at  last  became  exhausted,  and  after 
a  particularly  objectionable  outburst,  he 
turned  upon  the  boor  with : 

"Pray  sir,  what  is  the  matter?  I  hope 
I  have  not  said  anything  which  you  can 
comprehend ! ' ' 


Because  of  his  physical  and  mental  dis- 
abilities Dr.  Johnson  was  not  a  good  social 
animal.  Nevertheless,  when  it  pleased  his 
humor,  he  could  be  the  cavalier,  for  his 
mind  overcame  every  impediment. 

It  is  related  of  him  that  once  when  a 
lady  who  was  showing  him  around  her 
garden  expressed  her  regret  at  being  unable 
to  bring  a  particular  flower  to  perfection, 
he  arose  gallantly  to  the  occasion  by  taking 
her  hand  and  remarking: 

"Then,  madam,  permit  me  to  bring  per- 
fection to  the  flower!" 

Again,  when  Mrs.  Siddons,  the  great 
English  tragedienne,  called  upon  him  in  his 
chambers  and  the  servant  did  not  promptly 
bring  her  a  chair,  his  quick  wit  made  capi- 
tal of  the  incident  by  the  remark : 

* '  You  see,  madam,  wherever  you  go  there 
are  no  seats  to  be  had !" 

John  Thomas  Smith  in  his  Antiquarian 
Rambles  in  the  Streets  of  London  (1846), 
tells  an  amusing  incident  in  the  life  of  Sir 
George  Etherege,  the  playright,  who  hav- 
ing run  up  a  bill  at  Locket's  ordinary,  a 
coffee  house  much  frequented  by  dramatists 
of  the  period,  and  finding  himself  unable  to 


570 


ALL     ABOUT     COFFEE 


pay,  began  to  absent  himself  from  the 
place.  Mrs.  Locket  thereupon  sent  a  man 
to  dun  and  to  threaten  him  with  prosecu- 
tion if  he  did  not  pay.  Sir  George  sent  back 
word  that  if  she  stirred  a  step  in  the  mat- 
ter he  would  kiss  her.  On  receiving  this 
answer,  the  good  lady,  much  exasperated, 
called  for  her  hood  and  scarf,  and  told  her 
husband,  who  interposed,  that  ''she  would 
see  if  there  was  any  fellow  alive  who  would 
have  the  impudence — "  "Prithee!  my 
dear,  don 't  be  so  rash, ' '  said  her  husband ; 
"there  is  no  telling  what  a  man  may  do  in 
his  passion." 

Richard  Savage,  the  English  poet  and 
friend  of  Johnson,  who  included  him  in 
his  famous  Lives  of  the  Poets,  was  arrested 
for  the  murder  of  James  Sinclair  after  a 
drunken  brawl  in  Robinson's  coffee  house 
in  1727.  He  was  found  guilty,  but  nar- 
rowly escaped  the  death  penalty  by  the 
intercession  of  the  countess  of  Hertford. 
A  feature  of  his  trial  was  the  extraordinary 
charge  to  the  jury  of  Judge  Page,  who  for 
his  hard  words  and  his  love  of  hanging,  is 
damned  to  everlasting  fame  in  the  verse 
of  Pope.    The  charge  was: 

Gentlemen  of  the  jury!  You  are  to  consider 
that  Mr.  Savage  Is  a  very  great  man,  a  much 
gn'eater  man  than  you  or  I,  gentlemen  of  the 
jury;  that  he  wears  very  fine  clothes,  much  finer 
than  you  or  I,  gentlemen  of  the  Jury;  that  he 
has  an  abundance  of  money  In  his  pocket,  much 
more  money  than  you  or  I,  gentlemen  of  the 
jury;  but,  gentlemen  of  the  jury,  is  it  not  a 
very  hard  case,  gentlemen  of  the  jury,  that 
Mr.  Savage  should  therefore  kill  you  or  me, 
gentlemen  of  the  jury? 

Albert  V.  Lally^  has  made  a  collection  of 
old  coffee-house  anecdotes.  Among  them 
are  the  following: 

The  story  is  told  of  how  Sir  Richard  Steele 
In  Button's  Coffee  House  was  once  made  the 
umpire  In  an  amusing  difference  between  two 
unnamed  disputants.  These  two  were  arguing 
about  religion,  when  one  of  them  said:  "I 
wonder,  sir,  you  should  talk  of  religion,  when 
I'll  hold  you  five  guineas  you  can't  say  the 
Lord's  prayer."  "Done,"  said  the  other,  "and 
Sir  Richard  Steele  shall  hold  the  stakes."  The 
money  being  deposited  the  gentleman  began 
with,  "I  believe  In  God",  and  so  went  right 
through  the  creed.  "Well,"  said  the  other  when 
he  had  finished,  "I  didn't  think  he  could  have 
done  it." 

There  is  another  story  of  a  famous  judge,  Sir 
Nicholas  Bacon,  who  was  Importuned  by  a  crim- 
inal to  spare  his  life  on  account  of  kinship. 
"How  so,"  demanded  the  judge.   "Because  my 

»  The  Pot  and  Kettle,  Boston,  1920  (vol.  lii :  no.  2). 


name  is  Hog  and  yours  is  Bacon;  and  hog  and 
bacon  are  so  near  akin  that  they  cannot  be 
separated." 

"Ay,"  responded  the  judge  dryly,  "but  yop 
and  I  cannot  yet  be  kindred,  for  hog  is  not  ba- 
con until  it  is  well  hanged." 

On  another  occasion  a  nervous  barrister, 
pleading  before  this  same  judge,  began  with  re- 
peated references  to  his  "unfortunate  client." 
"Go  on,  sir,"  said  the  judge,  "so  far  the  Court 
is  with  you." 

Of  Jonathan  Swift  it  Is  related  that  a  gentle- 
man who  had  sought  to  persuade  him  to  accept 
an  Invitation  to  dinner  said,  in  way  of  special 
inducement,  "I'll  send  you  my  bill  of  fare." 
"Send  me  rather  your  bill  of  company,"  retorted 
Swift,  showing  his  appreciation  of  the  truth 
that  not  that  which  Is  eaten,  but  those  who  eat, 
form  the  more  important  part  of  a  good  dinner. 

On  the  occasion  when  the  "dreadful 
Judge  Jeffreys"  was  trying  Compton,  bis- 
hop of  London,  before  the  Court  of  High 
Commission,  that  prelate,  as  Campbell  re- 
lates in  his  Lives  of  the  Lord  Chancellors, 
complained  of  having  no  copy  of  the  in- 
dictment. Jeffreys  replied  to  this  excuse 
that  "all  the  coffee  houses  had  it  for  a  pen- 
ny." The  case  being  resumed  after  the 
lapse  of  a  week,  the  bishop  again  protested 
that  he  was  unprepared,  owing  to  his  con- 
tinued difficulty  in  obtaining  a  copy  of  the 
necessary  document.  Jeffreys  was  obliged 
once  more  to  adjourn  the  case,  and  in  so 
doing  offered  this  bantering  apology: 

"My  lord,"  said  he,  "in  telling  you  our 
commission  was  to  be  seen  in  every  coffee 
house,  I  did  not  speak  with  any  design  to 
reflect  on  your  lordship,  as  if  you  were  a 
haunter  of  coffee  houses.  I  abhor  the 
thoughts  of  it!" 

As  the  Judge  had  once  been  distinctly 
opposed  to  the  party  and  principles  which 
he  went  to  such  a  length  in  supporting,  so 
had  he  formerly  owed  something  to  the  very 
institution  against  which  his  last  blow  was 
directed.  Roger  North  relates  (and  Camp- 
bell repeats  the  story)  that,  "after  he  was 
called  to  the  bar,  he  used  to  sit  in  coffee 
houses  and  order  his  man  to  come  and  tell 
him  that  company  attended  him  at  his 
chamber;  at  which  he  would  huff  and  say, 
'let  them  stay  a  little,  I  will  come  present- 
ly, '  and  thus  made  a  show  of  business. ' ' 

John  Timbs,  in  his  Clubs  and  Club  Life 
in  London,  has  a  host  of  anecdotes  and 
stories  of  the  old  London  coffee  houses, 
among  them  the  following : 

Garraway's  noted  coffee-house,  situated  in 
Change-alley,  Cornhill,  had  a  threefold  celebrity; 


COFFEE    IN    LITERATURE 


571 


"His  Warmest  Welcome  at  an  Inn" 

The  George  Inn  of  today  has  retained  a  portion  of  its  old  galleries,  the  original  of  which  completely  sur- 
rounded the  courtyard  in  typical  "Dickens  Inn"  style.  The  visitor  can  imagine  Mr.  Pickwick  emerg- 
ing from  the  door  of  one  of  the  bedrooms  and  calling  into  the  yard  to  Sam  Weller.  In  the  old-fash- 
ioned coffee  room  on  the  ground  floor  one  may  still  lunch  and  dine  enclosed  in  high  bench  seats 


tea  was  first  sold  In  England  here;  It  was  a 
place  of  great  resort  in  the  time  of  the  South 
Sea  Bubble;  and  was  later  a  place  of  great  mer- 
cantile transactions.  The  original  proprietor 
was  Thomas  Garway,  tobacconist  and  coffee- 
man,  the  first  who  retailed  tea,  recommending 
it  as  a  cure  of  all  disorders. 

Ogilby,  the  compiler  of  the  Britannia.,  had  his 
standing  lottery  of  books  at  Mr.  Garway 's 
Coffee-house  from  April  7,  1673,  till  wholly 
drawn  off.  And,  in  the  "Journey  through  Eng- 
land," 1722,  Garraway's,  Robins's,  and  Joe's  are 
described  as  the  three  celebrated  coffee-houses: 
"In  the  first,  the  People  of  Quality,  who  have 
business  in  the  City,  and  the  most  considerable 
and  wealthy  citizens  frequent.  In  the  second 
the  Foreign  Banquiers,  and  often  even  Foreign 
Ministers.  And  in  the  third,  the  buyers  and 
sellers  of  stock." 

Wines  were  sold  at  Garraway's  In  1673,  "by 
the  candle",  that  is,  by  auction,  while  an  inch 
of  candle  burns.  In  the  Tatler,  No.  147,  we 
read:  "Upon  my  coming  home  last  night,  I 
found  a  very  handsome  present  of  French  wine, 
left  for  me,  as  a  taste  of  216  hogshead,  which 
are  to  be  put  on  sale  at  20  £  a  hogshead,  at 
Garraway's  Coffee-house,  in  Exchange  alley^'  etc. 
The  sale  by  candle  is  not,  however,  by  candle- 


light, but  during  the  day.  At  the  commence- 
ment of  the  sale,  when  the  auctioneer  has  read 
a  description  of  the  property,  and  the  conditions 
on  which  it  is  to  be  disposed  of,  a  piece  of 
candle,  usually  an  inch  long,  is  lighted,  and  he 
who  is  the  laat  bidder  at  the  time  the  light  goes 
out  is  declared  the  purchaser. 

Swift,  in  his  Ballad  on  the  South  Sea  Scheme, 
1721,  did  not  forget  Garraway's: 

There  is  a  gulf,  where  thousands  fell. 
Here  all  the  bold  adventurers  came, 

A  narrow  sound,  though  deep  as  hell, 
'Change  alley  is  the  dreadful  name. 

Subscribers  here  by  thousands  float, 

And  jostle  one  another  down. 
Each  paddling  In  his  leaky  boat. 

And  here  they  fish  for  gold  and  drown. 

Now  buried  in  the  depths  below, 
Now  mounted  up  to  heaven  again, 

They  reel  and  stagger  to  and  fro, 
At  their  wits'  end,  like  drunken  men. 

Meantime  secure  on  Garway  cliffs, 
A  savage  race,  by  shipwrecks  fed. 

Lie  waiting  for  the  founder'd  skiffs, 
And  strip  the  bodies  of  the  dead. 


572 


ALL    ABOUT     COFFEE 


Dr.  Jiio.  Radcliff,  who  was  a  rash  speculator 
in  the  South  Sea  Scheme,  was  usually  planted 
at  a  table  at  Garraway's  about  Exchange  time, 
to  watch  the  turn  of  the  market;  and  here  he 
was  seated  when  the  footman  of  his  powerful 
rival,  Dr.  Edward  Hannes,  came  into  Garraway's 
and  inquired  by  way  of  a  puff,  if  Dr.  H.  was 
there.  Dr.  Radcliff,  who  was  surrounded  with 
several  apothecaries  and  chirurgeons  that 
flocked  about  him,  cried  out,  "Dr.  Hannes  is 
not  here,"  and  desired  to  know  "who  wants 
him?"  The  fellow's  reply  was,  "such  a  lord 
and  such  a  lord;"  but  he  was  taken  up  with  the 
dry  rebuke,  "No,  no,  friend,  you  are  mistaken; 
the  Doctor  wants  those  lords."  One  of  Rad- 
cliff's  ventures  was  five  thousand  guineas  up- 
on one  South  Sea  project.  When  he  was  told 
at  Garraway's  that  'twas  all  lost,  "Why,"  said 
he,  "'tis  but  going  up  five  thousand  pair  of 
stairs  more."  "This  answer,"  says  Tom  Brown, 
"deserved  a  statue." 

Jonathan's  Coffee-house  was  another  Change- 
alley  coffee-house,  which  is  described  in  the 
Tatler,  No.  38,  as  "the  general  mart  of  stock- 
jobbers," and  the  Spectator,  No.  1,  tells  u^s  that 
he  "sometimes  passes  for  a  Jew  in  the  assembly 
of  stock-jobbers  at  Jonathan's,"  This  was  their 
rendezvous,  where  gambling  of  all  sorts  was 
carried  on,  notwithstanding  a  former  prohibi- 
tion against  the  assemblage  of  the  jobbers, 
issued  by  the  City  of  London,  which  prohibi- 
tion continued  unrepealed  until  1825. 

The  Spectator,  No.  16,  notices  some  gay  fre- 
quenters of  the  Rainbow  Coffee-house  in  Fleet 
Street:  "I  have  received  a  letter  desiring  me 
to  be  very  satirical  upon  the  little  muff  that  is 
now  in  fashion;  another  informs  me  of  a  pair 
of  silver  garters  buckled  below  the  knee,  that 
have  been  lately  seen  at  the  Rainbow  Coffee- 
house in  Fleet  Street." 

Mr.  Moncrieff,  the  dramatist,  used  to  tell  that 
about  1780,  this  house  was  kept  by  his  grand- 
father, Alexander  Moncrieff,  when  it  retained 
its  original  title  of  "The  Rainbow  Coffee- 
house." 

Nando's  Coffee-house  at  the  east  corner  of 
Inner  Temple-lane,  No.  17,  Fleet^Street,  by  some 
confused  with  Groom's  house,  No.  16,  was  the 
favourite  haunt  of  Lord  Thurlow  before  he 
dashed  into  law  practice.  M  this  coffee-house 
a  large  attendance  of  profe^isional  loungers  was 
attracted  by  the  fame  of  the  punch  and  the 
charms  of  the  landlady,  which,  with  the  small 
wits,  were  duly  admired  by  and  at  the  bar.  One 
evening,  the  famous  cause  of  Douglas  v.  the 
Duke  '~  Hamilton  was  the  topic  of  discussion, 
when  Thurlow  being  present,  it  was  ouggested, 
half  in  earnest,  to  appoint  him  junior  counsel, 
which  was  done.  This  employment  brought 
him  acquaintance  with  the  Duchess  of  Queens- 
berry,  who  saw  at  once  the  value  of  a  man  like 
Thurlow,  and  recommended  Lord  Bute  to  se- 
cure him  by  a  silk  gown. 

Dick's  Coffee-houye,  at  No.  8,  Fleet-street, 
(south  side,  near  Temple  Bar)  was  originally 
"Richard's",  named  from  Richard  Tomer,  or 
Turner,  to  whom  the  house  was  let  in  1680. 
Richard's  was  frequented  by  Cowper,  when  he 


lived  in  the  Temple.     In   his   own  account  of 
his  insanity,  Cowper  tells  n^:    . 

"At  breakfast  I  read  the  newspaper,  and  in 
it  a  letter,  which,  the  further  I  perused  it,  the 
more  closely  engaged  my  attention.  I  cannot 
now  recollect  the  purport  of  it;  but  before  I 
had  finished  it,  it  appeared  demonstratively 
true  to  me  that  it  was  a  libel  or  satire  upon 
me.  The  author  appeared  to  be  acquainted 
with  my  purpose  of  self-destruction,  and  to  have 
written  that  letter  on  purpose  to  secure  and 
hasten  the  execution  of  it.  My  mind,  probably, 
at  this  time  began  to  be  disordered;  however 
it  was,  I  was  certainly  given  to  a  strong  de- 
lusion. I  said  within  myself,  'Your  cruelty 
shall  be  gratified;  you  shall  have  your  revenge,' 
and  flinging  down  the  paper  in  a  fit  of  strong 
passion,  I  rushed  hastily  out  of  the  room;  di- 
recting my  way  towards  the  fields,  where  I 
intended  to  find  some  house  to  die  in;  or,  if 
not,  determined  to  poison  myself  in  a  ditch, 
where  I  could  meet  with  one  sufficiently  re- 
tired." 

Lloyd's  Coffee-house  was  one  of  the  earliest 
establishments  of  its  kind;  it  is  referred  to  in 
a  poem  printed  in  the  year  1700,  called  the 
Wealthy  Shopkeeper,  or  Charitaile  Christian: 

Now  to  Lloyd's  Coffee-house  he  never  fails, 
To  read  the  letters,  and  attend  the  sales. 

In  1710,  Steele  (Tatler,  No.  246)  dates  from 
Lloyd's  his  Petition  on  Coffee-house  Orators  and 
Newsvendors.  And  Addison,  in  Spectator,  April 
23,  1711,  relates  this  droll  incident:  "About  a 
week  since  there  happened  to  me  a  very  odd 
accident,  by  reason  of  one  of  these  my  papers 
of  minutes  which  I  had  accidentally  dropped  at 
Lloyd's  Coffee-house,  where  the  auctions  are 
usually  kept.  Before  I  missed  it,  there  were 
a  cluster  of  people  who  had  found  it,  and  were 
diverting  themselves  with  it  at  one  end  of  the 
coffee-house.  It  had  raised  so  much  laughter 
among  them  before  I  observed  what  they  were 
about,  that  I  had  net  the  courage  to  own  it. 
The  boy  of  the  coffee-house,  when  they  had 
done  with  it,  carried  it  about  in  his  hand,  ask- 
ing everybody  if  they  had  dropped  a  written 
paper;  but  nobody  challenging  it,  he  was 
ordered  by  those  merry  gentlemen  who  had  be- 
fore perused  it,  to  get  up  into  the  auction  pul- 
pit, and  read  it  to  the  whole  room,  that  if  any- 
body would  own  it  they  might.  The  boy  ac- 
cordingly mounted  the  pulpit,  and  with  a  very 
audible  voice  read  what  proved  to  be  minutes, 
which  made  the  whole  coffee-house  very  merry; 
some  of  them  concluded  it  was  written  by  a 
madman,  and  others  by  somebody  that  had  been 
taking  notes  out  of  the  Spectator.  After  it  was 
read,  and  the  boy  was  coming  out  of  the  pulpit, 
the  Spectator  reached  his  arm  out,  and  de- 
sired the  boy  to  given  it  him;  which  was  done 
according.  This  drew  the  whole  eyes  of  the 
company  upon  the  Spectator;  but  after  cast- 
ing a  cursory  glance  over  it,  he  shook  his  head 
twice  or  thrice  at  the  reading  of  it,  twisted  it 
into  a  kind  of  mateh,  and  lighted  his  pipe  with 
it.  'My  profound  silence,'  says  the  Spectator, 
"together  with  the  steadiness  of  my  countenance, 
and   the  gravity   of  my   behaviour   during   the 


COFFEE    IN    LITERATURE 


.573 


whole  transaction,  raised  a  very  loud  laugh  on 
all  sides  of  me;  but  as  I  had  escaped  all  suspi- 
cion of  being  the  author,  I  was  very  well  satis- 
fied, and  applying  myself  to  my  pipe  and  the 
Postman,  took  no  further  notice  of  anything 
that  passed  about  me.'  " 

The  Smyrna  Coffee-house  in  Pall  Mall,  was, 
in  the  reign  of  Queen  Anne,  famous  for  "that 
cluster  of  wise-heads"  found  sitting  every  even- 
ing from  the  left  side  of  the  fire  to  the  door. 
The  following  announcement  in  the  Taller,  No. 
78,  is  amusing:  "This  is  to  give  notice  to  all 
ingenious  gentlemen  in  and  about  the  cities  of 
London  and  Westminster,  who  have  a  mind  to 
be  instructed  in  the  noble  sciences  of  music, 
poetry  and  politics,  that  they  repair  to  the 
Smyrna  Coffee-house,  in  Pall  Mall,  betwixt  the 
hours  of  eight  and  ten  at  night,  where  they 
may  be  instructed  gratis,  with  elaborate  essays 
'by  word  of  mouth',  on  all  or  any  of  the  above- 
mentioned  arts." 

St.  James's  Coffee-house  was  the  famous  Whig 
coffee-liouse  from  the  time  of  Queen  Anne  till 
late  ia  the  reign  of  George  III.  It  was  the 
last  house  but  one  on  the  south-west  corner  of 
St.  James's  street,  and  is  thus  mentioned  in  No. 
1  of  the  Tatler:  "Foreign  and  Domestic  News 
you  will  have  from  St.  James's  Coffee-house." 
It  occurs  also  in  the  passage  quoted  previously 
from  the  Spectator.  The  St.  James's  was  much 
frequented  by  Swift;  letters  fcr  him  were  left 
here.  In  his  Journal  to  Stella  he  says:  "I  met 
Mr.  Harley,  and  he  asked  me  how  long  I  had 
learnt  the  trick  of  writing  to  myself?  He  had 
seen  your  letter  through  the  glass  case  at  the 
Coffee-house,  and  would  swear  it  was  my  hand. ' 

Elliott,  who  kept  the  coffee-house,  was,  en 
occasions,  placed  on  a  friendly  footing  with  his 
guests.  Swift,  in  his  Journal  to  Stella,  Novem- 
ber 19,  1710,  records  an  odd  instance  of  this 
familiarity:  "This  evening  I  christened  our 
coffee-man  Elliott's  child;  when  the  rogue  had 
a  most  noble  supper,  and  Steele  and  I  aat 
amongst  some  scurvy  company  over  a  bowl  of 
punch." 

In  the  first  advertisement  of  Lady  Mary 
Wortley  Montagu's  "Town  Eclogues,"  they  are 
stated  to  have  been  read  over  at  the  St.  James's 
Coffee-house,  when  they  were  considered  by  the 
general  voice  to  be  productions  of  a  Lady  of 
Quality.  From  the  proximity  of  the  house  to 
St.  James's  Palace,  it  was  much  frequented  by 
the  Guards;  and  we  read  of  its  being  no  uncom- 
mon circumstance  to  see  Dr.  Joseph  Warton  at 
breakfast  in  the  St.  James's  Coffee-house,  sur- 
rounded by  officers  of  the  Guards,  who  listened 
"With  the  utmost  attention  and  pleasure  to  his 
remarks. 

To  show  the  order  and  regularity  observed  at 
the  St.  James's,  we  may  quote  the  following  ad- 
vertisement, appended  to  the  Tatler.  No.  25; 
"To  prevent  all  mistakes  that  may  happen 
among  gentlemen  of  the  other  end  of  the  town, 
who  come  but  once  a  week  to  St.  James's  Coffee- 
house, either  by  miscalling  the  servants,  or  re- 
quiring such  things  from  them  as  are  not  prop- 
erly within  their  respective  provinces,  this  is 
to  give  notice  that  Kidney,  keeper  of  the  book- 
debts  of  the  outlying  customers,  and  observer 


of  those  who  go  off  without  paying,  having  re- 
signed that  employment,  is  succeeded  by  John 
Sowton;  to  whose  place  of  enterer  of  messages 
and  first  coffee-grinder,  William  Bird  is  pro- 
moted; and  Samuel  Burdock  comes  as  shoe- 
cleaner  in  the  room  of  the  said  Bird." 

But  the  St.  James's  is  more  memorable  as  the 
house  where  originated  Goldsmith's  celebrated 
poem,  "Retaliation."  The  pcet  belonged  to  a 
temporary  association  of  men  of  talent,  some  of 
them  members  of  the  Club,  who  dined  together 
occasionally  here.  At  these  dinners  he  was  gen- 
erally the  last  to  arrive.  On  one  occasion, 
when  he  was  later  than  usual,  a  whim  seized 
the  company  to  write  epitaphs  on  him  as  "the 
late  Dr.  Goldsmith",  and  several  were  thrown 
off  in  a  playful  vein.  The  only  one  extant  was 
written  by  Garrick,  and  has  been  preserved, 
very  probably,  by  its  pungency: 

Here    lies    poet    Goldsmith,    for  shortness 

called  Noll; 
He    wrote    like    an    angel,  but  talked  like 

poor  Poll. 

Goldsmith  did  not  relish  the  sarcasm,  es- 
pecially coming  from  such  a  quarter;  and,  by 
way  of  retaliation,  he  produced  the  famous 
poem,  of  which  Cumberland  has  left  a  very  in- 
teresting account,  but  which  Mr.  Forster,  in  his 
"Life  of  Goldsmith",  states  to  be  "pure  ro- 
mance". The  poem  itself,  however,  with  what 
was  prefixed  to  it  when  published,  sufficiently 
explains  its  own  origin.  What  had  formerly 
been  abrupt  and  strange  in  Goldsmith's  man- 
ners, had  now  so  visibly  increased,  as  to  be- 
come matter  of  increased  sport  to  such  as  were 
ignorant  of  its  cause;  and  a  proposition  made 
at  one  of  the  dinners,  when  he  was  absent,  to 
write  a  series  of  epitaphs  upon  him  (his  "coun- 
try dialect"  and  his  awkward  person)  was 
agreed  to,  and  put  in  practice  by  several  of  the 
guests.  The  active  aggressors  appear  to  have 
been  Garrick,  Doctor  Bernard,  Richard  Burke, 
and  Caleb  Whitefocrd.  Cumberland  says  he, 
too,  wrote  an  epitaph;  but  it  was  complimen- 
tary and  grave,  and  hence  the  grateful  return 
he  received.  Mr.  Forster  considers  Garrick's 
epitaph  to  indicate  the  tone  of  all.  This,  with 
the  rest,  was  read  to  Goldsmith  when  he  next 
appeared  at  the  St.  James's  Coffee-house, 
where  Cumberland,  however,  says  he  never 
again  met  his  friends.  But  "the  Doctor  was 
called  on  for  Retaliation,"  says  the  friend  who 
published  the  poem  with  that  name,  "and  at 
their  next  meeting  produced  the  following, 
which  I  think  adds  one  leaf  to  his  immortal 
wreath."  "  'Retaliation' ",  says  Sir  Walter 
Scott,  "had  the  effect  of  placing  the  author  en 
a  more  equal  footing  with  his  Society  than  he 
had  ever  before  assumed." 

Cumberland  s  account  differs  from  the  ver- 
sion formerly  received,  which  intimates  that 
the  epitaphs  were  written  before  Goldsmith 
arrived:  whereas  the  pun,  "the  late  Dr.  Gold- 
smith" appears  to  have  suggested  the  writing  of 
the  epitaphs.  In  the  "Retaliation",  Goldsmith 
has  not  spared  the  characters  and  fallings  of 
his  associates,  but  has  drawn  them  with  satire, 
at  once  pungent  and  good-humoured.  Garrick 
Is  smartly  chastised;  Burke,  the  Dinner-bell  of 
the  House  of  Commons,  is  not  let  off;  and  of  all 


574 


ALL     ABOUT     COFFEE 


the  more  distinguished  names  of  the  Club, 
Thomson,  Cumberland,  and  Reynolds  alone  es- 
cape the  lash  of  the  satirist.  The  former  is  not 
mentioned,  and  the  two  latter  are  even  dis- 
missed with  unqualified  and  affectionate  ap- 
plause. 

Still  we  quote  Cumberland's  account  of  the 
"Retaliation"  which  is  very  amusing  from  the 
closely  circumstantial  manner  in  which  the  in- 
cidents are  narrated,  although  they  have  so 
little  relationship  to  truth:  "It  was  upon  a  pro- 
posal started  by  Edmund  Burke,  that  a  party  of 
friends  who  had  dined  together  at  Sir  Joshua 
Reynolds's  and  my  house,  should  meet  at  the 
St.  James's  Coffee-house,  which  accordingly 
took  place,  and  was  repeated  occasionally  with 
much  festivity  and  good  fellowship.  Dr.  Ber- 
nard, Dean  of  Derry;  a  very  amiable  and  old 
friend  of  mine,  Dr.  Douglas,  since  Bishop  of 
Salisbury;  Johnson,  David  Grarrlck,  Sir  Joshua 
Reynolds,  Oliver  Goldsmith,  Edmund  and  Rich- 
ard Burke,  Hickey,  with  two  or  three  others, 
constituted  our  party.  At  one  of  these  meet- 
ings, an  idea  was  suggested  of  extemporary 
epitaphs  upon  the  parties  present;  pen  and  ink 
were  called  for,  and  Garrick,  offhand,  wrote  an 
epitaph  with  a  good  deal  of  humour,  upon  poor 
Goldsmith,  who  was  the  first  in  jest,  as  he 
proved  to  be  In  reality,  that  we  committed  to 
the  grave.  The  Dean  also  gave  him  an  epitaph, 
and  Sir  Joshua  Illuminated  the  Dean's  verses 
with  a  sketch  of  his  bust  in  pen  and  Ink,  inim- 
itably caricatured.  Neither  Johnson  nor  Bnirke 
wrote  anything,  and  when  I  perceived  that 
Oliver  was  rather  sore,  and  seemed  to  watch 
me  with  that  kind  of  attention  which  indi- 
cated his  expectation  of  something  in  the  same 
kind  of  burlesque  with  theirs;  I  thought  it 
time  to  press  the  joke  no  further,  and  wrote  a 
few  couplets  at  a  side-table,  which,  when  I  had 
finished,  and  was  called  upon  by  the  company 
to  exhibit,  Goldsmith,  with  much  agitation,  be- 
sought me  to  spare  him;  and  I  was  about  to 
tear  them,  when  Johnson  wrested  them  out  of 
my  hand,  and  in  a  loud  voice  read  them  at  the 
table.  I  have  now  lost  recollection  of  them, 
and,  in  fact,  they  were  little  worth  remember- 
ing; but  as  they  were  serious  and  complimen- 
tary, the  effect  upon  Goldsmith  was  the  more 
pleasing  for  being  so  entirely  unexpected.  The 
concluding  line,  which  was  the  only  otie  I  can 
call  to  mind,  was: 

All  mO'Urn  the  poet,  I  lament  the  man. 

"This  I  recollect,  because  he  repeated  it  sev- 
eral times,  and  seemed  much  gratified  by  it.  At 
our  next  meeting  he  produced  his  epitaphs 
.  .  .  and  this  was  the  last  time  he  ever  enjoyed 
the  company  of  his  friends." 

Will's  Coffee-house,  the  predecessor  of  But- 
ton's, and  even  more  celebrated  than  that  coffee- 
house, was  kept  by  William  Urwin.  It  first  had 
the  title  of  the  Red  Cow,  then  of  the  Rose,  and, 
we  believe,  is  the  same  house  alluded  to  in  the 
pleasant  story  in  the  second  number  of  the 
Tatler.  "Supper  and  friends  expect  we  at  the 
Rose." 

Dean  Lockier  has  left  this  life-like  picture  of 
his  Interview  with  the  presiding  genius  (Dry- 
den)  at  Will's. 


"I  was  about  seventeen  when  I  first  came  up 
to  town,"  says  the  Dean,  "an  odd-looking  boy, 
with  short  rough  hair,  and  that  sort  of  awk- 
wardness which  one  always  brings  up  at  first 
out  of  the  country  with  one.  However,  in  spite 
of  my  bashfulness  and  appearance,  I  used,  now 
and  then,  to  thrust  myself  into  Will's  to  have 
the  pleasure  of  seeing  the  most  celebrated  wits 
of  that  time,  who  then  resorted  thither.  The 
second  time  that  ever  I  was  there,  Mr.  Dryden 
was  speaking  of  his  own  things,  as  he  fre- 
quently did,  especially  of  such  as  had  been 
lately  published.  'If  anything  of  mine  is  good/ 
says  he,  '  'tis  'Mac-Flecno',  and  I  value  myself 
the  more  upon  it,  because  it  is  the  first  piece  of 
ridicule  written  in  heroics.'  On  hearing  this  I 
plucked  up  my  spirit  so  far  as  to  say,  in  a  voice 
but  just  loud  enough  to  be  heard,  'that  "Mac- 
Flecno"  was  a  very  fine  poem,  but  that  I  had 
not  imagined  it  to  be  the  first  that  was  ever 
writ  that  way.'  On  this,  Dryden  turned  short 
upon  me,  as  surprised  at  my  interposing;  asked 
me  how  long  'I  had  been  a  dealer  in  poetry'; 
and  added,  with  a  smile,  'Pray,  Sir,  what  Is  it 
that  you  did  imagine  to  have  been  writ  so  be- 
fore?'— I  named  Boileau's  'Lutrin'  and  Tasso- 
ni's  'Secchia  Rapita,'  which  I  had  read,  and 
knew  Dryden  had  borrowed  some  strokes  from 
each.  '  "lis  true,'  said  Dryden,  'I  had  forgot 
them.'  A  little  after,  Dryden  went  out,  and 
in  going,  spoke  to  me  again,  and  desired  me  to 
come  and  see  him  the  next  day.  I  was  highly 
delighted  with  the  invitation;  went  to  see  him 
accordingly;  and  was  well  acquainted  with  him 
after,  as  long  as  he  lived." 

Will's  Coffee-house  was  the  open  market  for 
libels  and  lampoons,  the  latter  named  from  the 
established  burden  formerly  sung  to  them: 

Lampone,  lampone,  camerada  lampone. 

There  was  a  drunken  fellow,  named  Julian, 
who  was  a  characterless  frequenter  of  Will's, 
and  Sir  Walter  Scott  has  given  this  account  of 
him  and  his  vocation: 

"Upon  the  general  practice  of  writing  lam- 
poons, and  the  necessity  of  finding  some  mode 
of  dispersing  them,  which  should  diffuse  the 
scandal  widely  while  the  authors  remained 
concealed,  was  founded  the  self-erected  office  of 
Julian,  Secretary,  as  he  called  himself,  to  the 
Muses.  This  person  attended  Will's,  the  Wits'" 
Coffee-house,  as  it  was  called;  and  dispersed 
among  the  crowds  who  frequented  that  place  of 
gay  resort  copies  of  the  lampoons  which  had 
been  privately  communicated  to  him  by  their 
authors.  'He  is  described,'  says  Mr.  Malone,  'as 
a  very  drunken  fellow,  and  at  one  time  was 
confined  for  a  libel.'  " 

Tom  Brown  describes  'a  Wit  and  a  Beau  set 
up  with  little  or  no  expense.  A  pair  of  red 
stockings  and  a  swordknot  set  up  one,  and 
peeping  once  a  day  in  at  Will's,  and  two  or 
three  second-hand  sayings,  the  other.' 

Pepys,  one  night,  going  to  fetch  home  hi» 
wife,  stopped  in  Covent  Garden,  at  the  Great 
Coffee-house  there,  as  he  called  Will's,  where- 
he  never  was  before:  "Where,"  he  adds,  "Dry- 
den, the  poet  (I  knew  at  Cambridge),  and  all 
the  Wits  of  the  town,  and  Harris  the  player. 


COFFEE    IN    LITERATURE 


575 


and  Mr.  Hoole  of  our  College.  And  had  I  had 
time  then,  or  could  at  other  times,  It  will  be 
good  coming  thither,  for  there,  I  perceive,  is 
very  witty  and  pleasant  discourse.  But  I  could 
not  tarry,  and,  as  it  was  late,  they  were  all 
ready  to  go  away." 

Addison  passed  each  day  alike,  and  much  in 
the  manner  that  Dryden  did.  Dryden  employed 
his  mornings  in  writing,  dined  en  famille,  and 
then  went  to  Will's,  "only  he  came  home  ear- 
lier o'  nights." 

Pope,  when  very  young,  was  Impressed  with 
such  veneration  for  Dryden,  that  he  persuaded 
some  friends  to  take  him  to  Will's  Coffee-house, 
and  was  delighted  that  he  could  say  that  he 
had  seen  Dryden.  Sir  Charles  Wogan,  too, 
brought  up  Pope  from  the  Forest  of  Windsor, 
to  dress  a  la  mode,  and  introduce  at  Will's 
Coffee-house.  Pope  afterwards  described  Dry- 
den as  "a  plump  man  with  a  down  look,  and 
not  very  conversible,"  and  Cibber  could  tell  no 
more  "but  that  he  remembered  him  a  decent  old 
man.  arbiter  of  critical  disputes  at  Will's." 
Prior  sings  of — 

The  younger  Stiles, 
Whom  Dryden  pedagogues  at  Will's! . 

Most  of  the  hostile  criticism  on  his  Plays, 
which  Dryden  has  noticed  In  his  various  Pre- 
faces, appear  to  have  been  made  at  his  favour- 
ite haunt,  Will's  Coffee-house. 

Dryden  is  generally  said  to  have  been  return- 
ing from  Will's  to  his  house  In  Gerard  Street, 
when  he  was  cudgelled  in  Rose  Street  by  three 
persons  hired  for  the  purpose  by  Wilmot,  Earl 
of  Rochester,  in  the  winter  of  1679.  The  as- 
sault, or  "the  Rose-alley  Ambuscade,"  certainly 
took  place;  but  It  is  not  so  certain  that  Dryden 
was  on  his  way  from  Will's,  and  he  then  lived 
in  Long-^cre,  not  Gerard  Street. 

It  is  worthy  of  remark  that  Swift  was  accus- 
tomed to  speak  disparagingly  of  Will's,  as  in 
his  "Rhapsody  on  Poetry:" 

Be  sure  at  Will's  the  following  day 

Lie  snug,  and  hear  what  critics  say; 

And  If  you  find  the  general  vogue 

Pronounces  you  a  stupid  rogue, 

Damns  all  your  thoughts  as  low  and  little; 

Sit  still,  and  swallow  down  your  spittle. 

Swift  thought  little  of  the  frequenters  of 
Will's:  he  used  to  say,  the  worst  conversation 
he  ever  heard  In  his  life  was  at  Will's  Coffee- 
house, where  the  wits  (as  they  were  called) 
used  formerly  to  assemble;  that  Is  to  say,  five 
or  six  men  who  had  writ  plays  or  at  least 
prologues,  or  had  a  share  In  a  miscellany,  came 
thither,  and  entertained  one  another  with  their 
trifling  composures,  In  so  Important  an  air  as 
if  they  had  been  the  noblest  efforts  of  human 
nature,  or  that  the  fate  of  kingdoms  depended 
on  them." 

In  the  first  number  of  the  Tatler,  poetry  Is 
promised  under  the  article  of  Will's  Coffee- 
house. The  place,  however,  changed  after  Dry- 
den's  time:  "you  used  to  see  songs,  epigrams, 
and  satires  In  the  hands  of  every  man  you  met, 
you  have  now  only  a  pack  of  cards;  and  in- 
stead of  the  cavils  about  the  turn  of  the  ex- 
pression, the  elegance  of  the  style,  and  the  like, 
the  learned  now  dispute  only  about  the  truth 


of  the  game."  "In  old  times,  we  used  to  sit 
upon  a  play  here,  after  It  was  acted,  but  now 
the  entertainment's  turned  another  way." 

The  Spectator  Is  sometimes  seen  "thrusting 
his  head  into  a  round  of  politicians  at  Will's, 
and  listening  with  great  attention  to  the  narra- 
tives that  are  made  in  these  little  circular  aud- 
iences." Then,  we  have  as  an  instance  of  no 
one  member  of  human  society  but  that  would 
have  some  little  pretension  for  some  degree  In 
It,  "like  him  who  came  to  Will's  Coffee-house 
upon  the  merit  of  having  writ  a  posie  of  a 
ring."  And,  "Robin,  the  porter  who  waits  at 
Will's,  Is  the  best  man  In  town  for  carrying  a 
billet:  the  fellow  has  a  thin  body,  swift  step, 
demure  looks,  sufficient  sense,  and  knows  the 
town." 

After  Dryden's  death,  in  1701,  Will's  contin- 
ued for  about  ten  years  to  be  still  the  Wits' 
Coffee-house,  as  we  see  by  Ned  Ward's  account, 
and  by  the  "Joux'ne.v  through  England"  in  1722. 

Pope  entered  with  keen  relish  into  society, 
and  courted  the  correspondence  of  the  town 
wits  and  coffee-house  critics.  Among  his  early 
friends  was  Mr.  Henry  Cromwell,  one  of  the 
cousinry  of  the  Protector's  family:  he  was  a 
bachelor,  and  spent  most  of  his  time  in  Lon- 
don; he  had  some  pretensions  to  scholarship 
and  literature,  having  translated  several  of 
Ovid's  Elegies,  for  Tonsons  Miscellany.  With 
Wycherly,  Gay,  Dennis,  the  popular  actors  and 
actresses  of  the  day,  and  with  all  the  frequen- 
ters of  Will's,  Cromwell  was  familiar.  He  had 
done  more  than  take  a  pinch  out  of  Dryden's 
snuff-box,  which  was  a  point  of  high  ambition 
and  honor  at  Will's;  he  had  quarrelled  with 
him  about  a  frail  poetess,  Mrs.  Elizabeth 
Thomas,  whom  Dryden  had  christened  Corlnna, 
and  who  was  also  known  as  Sappho.  Gay  char- 
acterized this  literary  and  eccentric  beau  as 

Honest,  hatless  Cromwell,  with  red  breeches: 

it  being  his  custom  to  carry  his  hat  In  his  hand 
when  walking  with  ladies.  What  with  ladies 
and  literature,  rehearsals  and  reviews,  and  crit- 
ical attention  to  the  quality  of  his  coffee  and 
Brazil  snuff,  Henry  Cromwell's  time  was  fully 
occupied  in  town.  Cromwell  was  a  dangerous 
acquaintance  for  Pope  at  the  age  of  sixteen  or 
seventeen,  but  he  was  a  very  agreeable  one. 
Most  of  Pope's  letters  to  his  friendo  are  ad- 
dressed to  him  at  the  Blue  Hall,  In  Great  Wild- 
street,  near  Drury  Lane,  and  others  to  "Widow 
Hambledon's  Coffee-house,  at  the  end  of  Prin- 
ces-street, near  Drury-lane,  London."  Cromwell 
made  one  visit  to  BInfield;  on  his  return  to 
London,  Pope  wrote  to  him,  "referring  to  the 
ladles  In  particular,"  and  to  his  favorite  coffee. 

Will's  was  the  great  resort  for  the  wits  of 
Dryden's  time,  after  whose  death  it  was  trans- 
ferred to  Button's.  Pope  describes  the  houses 
as  "opposite  each  other,  in  Russell-street,  Co- 
vent  Garden,"  where  Addison  established  Dan- 
iel Button,  In  a  new  house,  about  1712;  and  his 
fame,  after  the  production  of  Cato,  drew  many 
of  the  Whigs  thither.  Button  had  been  servant 
to  the  Countess  of  Warwick.  The  house  Is 
more  correctly  described  as  "over  against 
Tom's,  near  the  middle  of  the  south  side  of  the 
street." 


576 


ALL     ABOUT     COFFEE 


Addison  was  the  great  patron  of  Button's; 
but  it  is  said  that  when  he  suffered  any  vexa- 
tion from  his  Countess,  he  withdrew  from  But- 
ton's house.  His  chief  companions,  before  he 
married  Lady  Warwick,  were  Steele,  Budgell, 
Philips,  Carey,  Davenant,  and  Colonel!  Brett. 
He  used  to  breakfast  with  one  or  other  of  them 
in  St.  James's-place,  dine  at  taverns  with  them, 
then  to  Button's,  and  then  to  some  tavern 
again,  for  supper  in  the  evening;  and  this  was 
the  usual  round  of  his  life,  as  Pope  tells  us  in 
Spencer's  Anecdotes,  where  Pope  also  says: 
"Addison  usually  studied  all  the  morning,  then 
met  his  party  at  Button's,  dined  there,  and 
stayed  five  or  six  hours;  and  sometimes  far 
into  the  night.  I  was  of  the  company  for  about 
a  year,  but  found  it  too  much  for  me;  it  hurt 
my  health,  and  so  I  quitted  it.'  Again:  "There 
had  been  a  coldness  between  me  and  Mr.  Addi- 
son for  some  time,  and  we  had  not  been  in 
company  together  for  a  good  while  anywhere 
but  at  E'atton's  Coffee-house,  where  I  used  to 
see  him  almost  every  day." 

Here  Pope  is  reported  to  have  said  of  Patrick, 
the  lexicographer,  that  "a  dictionary-maker 
might  know  the  meaning  of  one  word,  but  not 
of  two  put  together." 

Button's  was  the  receiving  house  for  contrib- 
utions to  Tlie  Guardian,  for  which  purpose  was 
put  up  a  lien's  head  letter  box,  in  imitation  of 
the  celebrated  lion  at  Venice,  as  humorously 
announced.     Thus: 

"N.  B. — Mr.  Ironside  has,  within  five  weeks 
last  past,  muzzled  three  lions,  gorged  five,  and 
killed  one.  On  Monday  next  the  skin  of  the 
dead  one  will  be  hung  up,  in  terrorem,  at  But- 
ton's Coffee-house." 

*     *     * 

"I  intend  to  publish  once  every  week  the 
roarings  of  the  Lion,  and  hope  to  make  him 
roar  so  loud  as  to  be  heard  over  all  the  British 
nation.  I  have.  I  know  not  how.  been  driwn  i'l^-o 
tattle  of  myself,  more  majorum,  almost  the 
length  of  a  whole  Guardian.  I  shall  therefore 
fill  up  the  rem_aining  part  of  it  with  what  still 
relates  to  my  own  person,  and  my  correspon- 
dents. New  I  would  have  them  all  know  that  on 
the  20th  instant,  it  is  my  intention  to  erect  a 
Lion's  Head,  in  imitation  of  those  I  have  des- 
cribed in  Venice,  through  which  all  the  private 
commonwealth  is  said  to  pass.  This  head  is  to 
open  a  most  wide  and  voracious  mouth,  which 
shall  take  in  such  letters  and  papers  as  are  con- 
veyed to  me  by  my  correspondents,  it  being  my 
resolution  to  have  a  particular  regard  to  all 
such  matters  as  come  to  my  hands  through  the 
mouth  of  the  Lion.  There  will  be  under  it  a 
box,  of  which  the  key  will  be  in  my  own  custo- 
dy, to  receive  such  papers  as  are  dropped  into 
it.  Whatever  the  Lion  swallows  I  shall  digest 
for  the  use  of  the  publick.  This  head  requires 
■some  time  to  finish,  the  workmen  being  re- 
solved to  give  it  several  masterly  touches,  and 
to  represent  it  as  ravenoiis  as  possible.  It  will 
be  set  up  in  Button's  Coffee-house,  in  Covent 
•Garden,  who  is  directed  to  show  the  way  to  the 
Lion's  Head,  and  to  instruct  any  young  author 
how  to  convey  his  works  into  the  mouth  of  it 
with  safety  and  secrecy." 


"I  think  myself  obliged  to  acquaint  the  pub- 
lick,  that  the  Lion's  Head,  of  which  I  adver- 
tised them  about  a  fortnight  ago,  is  now 
erected  at  Button's  Coffee-house,  in  Russell- 
street,  Covent  Garden,  where  it  .  opens  its 
mouth  at  all  hours  for  the  reception  of  such 
intelligence  as  shall  be  thrown  into  it.  It 
is  reckoned  an  excellent  piece  of  workmanship, 
and  was  designed  by  a  great  hand  in  imitation 
of  the  antique  Egyptian  lion,  the  face  of  it 
being  compounded  out  of  that  of  a  lion  and 
a  wizard.  The  features  are  strong  and  well 
furrowed.  The  whiskers  are  admired  by  all  that 
have  seen  them.  It  is  planted  on  the  western 
side  of  the  Coffee-house,  holding  its  paws  un- 
der the  chin,  upon  a  box,  which  contains  every- 
thing that  he  swallows.  He  is,  indeed,  a  proper 
emblem  of  knowledge  and  action,  being  all  head 
and  paws." 

*     *     * 

"Being  obliged,  at  present,  to  attend  a  par- 
ticular affair  of  my  own,  I  do  empower  my 
printer  to  look  into  the  arcana  of  the  Lion, 
and  select  cut  of  them  such  as  may  be  of  pub- 
lick  utility;  and  Mr.  Button  is  hereby  author- 
ized and  commanded  to  give  my  said  printer 
free  ingress  and  egress  to  the  lion,  without  any 
hindrance,  let,  or  molestation  whatsoever,  until 
such  time  as  he  shall  receive  orders  to  the  con- 
trary. And,  for  so  doing,  this  shall  be  his  war- 
rant." 

Hs         #         :!: 

"My  Lion,  whose  jaws  are  at  all  times  open 
to  intelligence,  informs  me  that  there  are  a  few 
enormous  weapons  still  in  being;  but  that  they 
are  to  be  met  with  only  in  gaming  houses  and 
some  of  the  obscure  retreats  of  lovers,  in  and 
about  Drury-lane  and  Covent  Garden." 

"^■^is  metnoritle  Lion's  Head  was  tolerably 
well  carved:  through  the  mouth  the  letters 
were  dropped  into  a  till  at  Button's;  and  be- 
neath were  inscribed  these  two  lines  from  Mar- 
tial: 

Cervantur  magnis  isti  Cervicibus  ungues; 

Non  nisi  delicta  pascitur  ille  fera. 

The  head  was  designed  by  Hogarth,  and  is 
etched  in  Ireland's  "Illustrations' .  Lord  Ches- 
terfield is  said  to  have  once  offered  for  the 
Head  fifty  guineas.  From  Button's  it  was  re- 
moved to  the  Shakspeare's  Head  Tavern,  un- 
der the  Piazza,  kept  by  a  person  named  Tom- 
kyns;  and  in  1751,  was,  for  a  short  time,  placed 
in  the  Bedford  Ccffee-house  immediately  adjoin- 
ing the  Shakspeare,  and  there  employed  as  a 
letter-box  by  Dr.  John  Hill,  for  his  Inspector. 
In  1769,  Tomkyns  was  succeeded  by  his  waiter, 
Campbell,  as  proprietor  of  the  tavern  and  lion's 
head,  and  by  him  the  latter  was  retained  until 
November  8,  1804,  when  it  was  purchased  by 
Mr.  Charles  Richardson,  of  Richardson's  Hotel, 
for  17  £  10s.,  who  also  possessed  the  original 
sign  of  the  Shakspeare's  Head.  After  Mr. 
Richardson's  death  in  1827,  the  Lion's  Head 
devolved  to  his  son,  of  whom  it  was  bought  by 
the  Duke  of  Bedford,  and  deposited  at  Woburn 
Abbey,  where  it  still  remains. 

Pope  was  subjected  to  much  annoyance  and 
insult  at  Button's.  Sir  Samuel  Garth  wrote  to 
Gay,  that  everybody  was    pleased    with    Pope's 


COFFEE    IN    LITERATURE 


577 


//f'^a.rth  ^'/* 


J  rum.    tb( 


Srreto^MC/ftii. 


Alexander  Pope  at  Button's  Coffee  House  — 1730 
Prom   a   drawing   by   Hogarth.     The   man   opposite   the   seated   figure    is   thought   to   be    Pope 


Translation,  "but  a  few  at  Button's;"  to  which 
Gay  adds,  to  Pope,  "I  am  confirmed  that  at 
Button's  your  character  is  made  very  free  with, 
as  to  morals,  etc." 

Gibber,  in  a  letter  to  Pope,  says:  "When  you 
used  to  pass  your  hours  at  Button's,  you  were 
even  there  remarkable  for  your  satirical  itch  of 
provocation;  scarce  was  there  a  gentleman  of 
any  pretension  to  wit,  whom  your  unguarded 
temper  had  not  fallen  upon  in  some  biting  epi- 
gram, among  which  you  once  caught  a  pastoral 
Tartar,  whose  resentment,  that  your  punish- 
ment might  be  proportionate  to  the  smart  of 
your  poetry,  had  stuck  up  a  birchen  rod  In  the 
room,  to  be  ready  whenever  you  might  come 
within  reach  of  it;  and  at  this  rate  you  writ 
and  rallied  and  writ  on,  till  you  rhymed  your- 
self quite  out  of  the  coffee-house."  The  "pas- 
toral Tartar"  was  Ambrose  Philips,  who,  says 
Johnson,  "hung  up  a  rod  at  Button's,  with  which 
he  threatened  to  chastise  Pope." 

Pope,  in  a  letter  to  Crags,  thus  explains  the 
affair:  "Mr.  Philips  did  express  himself  with 
much  indignation  against  me  one  evening  at 
Button's  Coffee-house  (as  I  was  told),  saying 
that  I  was  entered  Into  a  cabal  with  Dean 
Swift  and  others,  to  write  against  the  Whig  In- 
terest, and  in  particular  to  undermine  his  own 


reputation  and  that  of  his  friends,  Steele  and 
Addison;  but  Mr.  Philips  never  opened  his  lips 
to  my  face,  on  this  or  any  like  occasion,  though 
I  was  almost  every  night  in  the  same  room 
with  him,  nor  ever  offered  me  any  indecorum. 
Mr.  Addison  came  to  me  a  night  or  two  after 
Philips  had  talked  in  this  Idle  manner,  and  as- 
sured me  of  his  disbelief  of  what  had  been  said, 
of  the  friendship  we  should  always  maintain, 
and  desired  I  would  say  nothing  further  of  It. 
My  Lord  Halifax  did  me  the  honour  to  stir  In 
this  matter,  by  speaking  to  several  people  to 
obviate  a  false  aspersion,  which  might  have 
done  me  no  small  prejudice  with  one  party. 
However,  Philips  did  all  he  could  secretly  to 
continue  to  report  with  the  Hanover  Club,  and 
kept  in  his  hands  the  subscriptions  paid  for  me 
to  him,  as  secretary  to  that  Club.  The  heads  of 
it  have  since  given  him  to  understand,  that 
they  take  It  ill;  but  (upon  the  terms  I  ought 
to  be  with  such  a  man)  I  would  not  ask  him 
for  this  money,  but  commissioned  one  of  the 
players,  his  equals,  to  receive  it.  This  Is  the 
whole  matter;  but  as  to  the  secret  grounds  of 
this  malignity,  they  will  make  a  very  pleasant 
history  when  we  meet." 

Another  account  says  that  the  rod  was  hung 
up  at  the  bar  of  Button's,  and  that  Pope  avoid- 


578 


ALL    ABOUT     COFFEE 


ed  it  by  remaining  at  home — "liis  usual  cus- 
tom." Pliilips  was  known  for  his  courage  and 
superior  dexterity  with  the  sword;  he  after- 
wards became  justice  of  the  peace,  and  used  to 
mention  Pope,  whenever  he  could  get  a  man  in 
authority  to  listen  to  him,  as  an  enemy  to  the 
Government. 

At  Button's  the  leading  company,  particularly 
Addison  and  Steele,  met  in  large  flowing  flaxen 
wigs.  Sir  Godfrey  Kneller,  too,  was  a  frequen- 
ter. 

The  master  died  in  1731,  when  in  the  Daily 
Advertiser,  October  5  appeared  the  following: 

"On  Sunday  morning,  died,  after  three  days'  ill- 
ness, Mr.  Button,  who  formerly  kept  Button's 
OofEee-house,  in  Russell-street,  Oovent  Garden: 
a  very  noted  house  for  wits,  being  the  place 
where  the  Lyon  produced  the  famous  Tatlers 
and  Spectators,  written  by  the  late  Mr.  Secre- 
tary Addison  and  Sir  Richard  Steele,  Knt., 
which  works  will  transmit  their  names  with 
honour  to  posterity ." 

Among  other  wits  who  frequented  Button's 
were  Swift,  Arbuthnot,  Savage,  Budgell,  Martin 
Folkes,  and  Drs.  Garth  and  Armstrong.  In 
1720,  Hogarth  mentions  "four  drawings  in  In- 
dian ink"  of  the  characters  at  Button's  Coffee- 
house. In  these  were  sketches  of  Arbuthnot, 
Addison,  Pope  (as  it  is  conjectured)  and  a  cer- 
tain Count  Viviani,  identified  years  afterwards 
by  Horace  Walpole,  when  the  drawings  came 
under  his  notice.  They  subsequently  came  into 
Ireland's  possession. 

Jemmy  Maclaine,  or  M'Clean,  the  fashionable 
highwayman,  was  a  frequent  visitor  at  Button's. 
Mr.  John  Taylor,  of  the  Sun  newspaper,  des- 
cribes Maclaine  as  a  tall,  showy,  good-looking 
man.  A  Mr.  Donaldson  told  Taylor  that,  ob- 
serving Maclaine  paid  particular  attention  to 
the  barmaid  of  the  Coffee-house,  the  daughter 
of  the  landlord,  he  gave  a  hint  to  the  father  of 
Maclaine's  dubious  character.  The  father  cau- 
tioned the  daughter  against  the  highwayman's 
addresses,  and  imprudently  told  her  by  whose 
advice  he  put  her  on  her  guard;  she  as  impru- 
dently told  Maclaine.  The  next  time  Donaldson 
visited  the  coffee-room,  and  sitting  in  one  of 
the  boxes,  Maclaine  entered,  and  in  a  loud  tone 
said,  "Mr.  Donaldson,  I  wish  to  spake  to  you 
in  a  private  room."  Mr.  D.  being  unarmed,  and 
naturally  afraid  of  being  alone  with  such  a 
man,  said,  in  answer,  that  as  nothing  could  pass 
between  them  that  he  did  not  wish  the  whole 
world  to  know,  he  begged  leave  to  decline  the 
Invitation.  "Very  well,"  said  Maclaine,  as  he 
left  the  room,  "we  shall  meet  again."  A  day 
or  two  after,  as  Mr.  Donaldson  was  walking 
near  Richmond,  in  the  evening,  he  saw  Mac- 
laine on  herseback;  but  fortunately,  at  that 
moment,  a  gentleman's  carriage  appeared  in 
view,  when  Maclaine  immediately  turned  his 
horse  towards  the  carriage,  and  Donaldson  hur- 
ried into  the  protection  of  Richmond  as  fast 
as  he  could.  But  for  the  appearance  of  the  car- 
riage, which  presented  better  prey,  it  is  pos- 
sible that  Maclaine  would  have  shot  Mr.  Don- 
aldson immediately. 

Maclaine's  father  was  an  Irish  Dean;  his 
brother  was  a  Calvinist  minister  in  great  es- 


teem at  the  Hague.  Maclaine  himself  had  been 
a  grocer  in  Welbeck-street,  but  losing  a  wife 
that  he  loved  extremely,  and  by  whom  he  had 
one  little  girl,  he  quitted  his  business  with  two 
hundred  pounds  in  his  pockets  which  he  soon 
spent,  and  then  took  to  the  road  with  only  one 
companion,  Plunket,  a  journeyman  apothecary. 
Maclaine  was  taken  in  the  autumn  of  1750, 
by  selling  a  laced  waistcoat  to  a  pawnbroker 
in  Monmouth-street,  who  happened  to  carry  it 
to  the  very  man  who  had  just  sold  the  lace. 
Maclaine  Impeached  his  companion,  Plunket, 
but  he  was  not  taken.  The  former  got  into 
verse:     Gray,  in  his  "Long  Story,"  sings: 

A  sudden  fit  of  ague  shook  him; 
He  stood  as  mute  as  poor  M'Lean. 

Button's  subsequently  became  a  private 
house,  and  here  Mrs.  Inchbald  lodged,  probably, 
after  the  death  of  her  sister,  for  whose  support 
she  practised  such  noble  and  generous  self- 
denial.  Mrs.  Inchbald's  income  was  now  172  £ 
a  year,  and  we  are  told  that  she  now  went  to 
reside  in  a  boarding-house,  where  she  enjoyed 
more  of  the  comforts  of  life.  Phillips,  the  pub- 
lisher, offered  her  a  thousand  pounds  for  her 
Memoirs,  which  she  declined.  She  died  in  a 
boarding-house  at  Kensington,  on  the  1st  of 
August,  1821,  leaving  about  6,000  £  judiciously 
divided  amongst  her  relatives.  Her  simple  and 
parsimonious  habits  were  very  strange.  "Last 
Thursday,"  she  writes,  "I  finished  scouring  my 
bedroom,  while  a  coach  with  a  coronet  and  two 
footmen  waited  at  my  door  to  take  me  an  air- 
ing." 

"One  of  the  most  agreeable  memories  con- 
nected with  Button's,"  says  Leigh  Hunt,  "is 
that  of  Garth,  a  man  whom,  for  the  sprightli- 
ness  and  generosity  of  his  nature,  it  is  a  pleas- 
ure to  name.  He  was  one  of  the  most  amiable 
and  intelligent  of  a  most  amiable  and  intelli- 
gent class  of  men — ^the  physicians." 

It  was  just  after  Queen  Anne's  accession  that 
Swift  made  acquaintance  with  the  leaders  of 
the  wits  at  Button's.  Ambrose  Philips  refers 
to  him  as  the  strange  clergyman  whom  the  fre- 
quenters of  the  Coffee-house  had  observed  for 
some  days.  He  knew  no  one,  no  one  knew  him. 
He  would  lay  his  hat  down  on  a  table,  and  walk 
up  and  down  at  a  brisk  pace  for  half  an  hour 
without  speaking  to  any  one,  or  seeming  to  pay 
attention  to  anything  that  was  going  forward. 
Then  he  would  snatch  up  his  hat,  pay  his 
money  at  the  bar,  and  walk  off,  without  having 
opened  his  lips.  The  frequenters  of  the  room 
had  christened  him  "the  mad  parson."  One 
evening,  as  Mr.  Addison  and  the  rest  were  ob- 
serving him,  they  saw  him  cast  his  eyes  several 
times  upon  a  gentleman  in  boots,  who  seemed 
to  be  just  come  out  of  the  country.  At  last. 
Swift  advanced  towards  this  bucolic  gentleman, 
as  if  intending  to  address  him.  They  were  all 
eager  to  hear  what  the  dumb  parson  had  to  say, 
and  immediately  quitted  their  seats  to  get  near 
him.  Swift  went  up  to  the  country  gentleman, 
and  in  a  very  abrupt  manner,  without  any  pre- 
vious salute,  asked  him,  "Pray,  Sir,  do  you 
know  any  good  weather  in  the  world?"  After 
staring  a  little  at  the  singularity  of  Swift's 
manner  and  the  oddity  of  the  question,  the 
gentleman  answered,  "Yes.  Sir.  I  thank  God  I 


COFFEE    IN    LITERATURE 


579 


remember  a  great  deal  of  good  weather  in  my 
time.' — "That  is  more,"  replied  Swift,  "than 
I  can  say;  I  never  remember  any  weather  that 
was  not  too  hot  or  too  cold,  too  wet  or  too  dry; 
but,  however  God  Almighty  contrives  it,  at  the 
end  of  the  year  'tis  all  very  well." 

Sir  Walter  Scott  gives,  upon  the  authority 
of  Dr.  Wall,  of  Worcester,  who  had  it  from 
Dr.  Arbuthnot  himself,  the  following  anecdote 
—  less  coarse  than  the  version  generally  told. 
Swift  was  seated  by  the  fire  at  Button's;  there 
was  sand  on  the  floor  of  the  coffee-room,  and 
Arbuthnot,  with  a  design  to  play  upon  this 
original  figure,  offered  him  a  letter,  which  he 
had  been  just  addressing,  saying  at  the  same 
time,  "There — sand  that" — "I  have  got  no  sand,' 
answered  Swift,  "but  I  can  help  you  to  a  little 
gravel."  This  he  said  so  significantly,  that 
Arbuthnot  hastily  snatched  back  his  letter,  to 
save  it  from  the  fate  of  the  capital  of  Lilliput 

Tom's  Coffee-house  in  Birchln-lane,  Cornhill, 
though  in  the  main  a  mercantile  resort,  ac- 
quired some  celebrity  from  its  having  been  fre- 
quented by  Garrick,  who,  to  keep  up  an  interest 
in  the  City,  appeared  here  about  twice  in  a 
winter  at  'Change  time,  when  it  was  the  ren- 
dezvous of  young  merchants. 

Hawkins  says:  "After  all  that  has  been  said 
of  Mr.  Garrick,  envy  must  own  that  he  owed 
his  celebrity  to  his  merit;  and  yet,  of  that  him- 
self so  diffident,  that  he  practiced  sundry  little 
but  innocent  arts,  to  insure  the  favour  of  the 
public:"  yet,  he  did  more.  When  a  rising  actor 
complained  to  Mrs.  Garrick  that  the  news- 
papers abused  him,  the  widow  replied,  "You 
should  write  your  own  criticisms;  David  al- 
ways did." 

One  evening.  Murphy  was  at  Tom's,  when 
Colley  Cibber  was  playing  at  whist,  with  an  old 
general  for  his  partner.  As  the  cards  were  dealt 
to  him,  he  took  up  every  one  in  turn,  and  ex- 
pressed his  disappointment  at  each  indifferent 
one.  In  the  progress  of  the  game  he  did  not 
follow  suit,  and  his  partner  said,  "What!  have 
you  not  a  spade,  Mr.  Cibber?"  The  latter,  look- 
ing at  his  cards,  answered,  "Oh  yes,  a  thou- 
sand;" which  drew  a  very  peevish  comment 
from  the  general.  On  which,  Cibber,  who  was 
shockingly  addicted  to  swearing,  replied,  "Don't 
be  angry,  for — I  can  play  ten  times  worse 
If  I  like." 

The  celebrated  Bedford  Coffee-house,  In  Co- 
vent  Garden,  once  attracted  so  much  attention 
as  to  have  published,  "Memoirs  of  the  Bedford 
Coffee-house,"  two  editions,  1751  and  1763.  It 
stood  "under  the  Piazza,  in  Covent  Garden,* 
in  the  north-west  corner,  near  the  entrance 
to  the  theatre,  and  has  long  ceased  to  exist. 

In  the  Connoisseur,  No.  1,  1754,  we  are  as- 
sured that  "this  Coffee-house  is  every  night 
crowded  with  men  of  parts.  Almost  every  one 
you  meet  is  a  polite  scholar  and  a  wit.  Jokes 
and  bon-mots  are  echoed  from  box  to  box :  every 
branch  of  literature  is  critically  examined,  and 
the  merit  of  every  production  of  the  press,  or 
performance  of  the  theatres,  weighed  and  de- 
termined." 


And  in  the  above-named  "Memoirs"  we  read 
that  "this  spot  has  been  signalized  for  many 
years  as  the  emporium  of  wit,  the  seat  of  critic- 
ism, and  the  standard  of  taste — Names  of  those 
who  frequented  the  house:  Foote,  Mr.  Fielding, 
Mr.  Woodward,  Mr.  Leone,  Mr.  Murphy,  Mopsy, 
Dr.  Arne.  Dr.  Arne  was  the  only  man  in  a 
suit  of  velvet  In  the  dog-days." 

Stacie  kept  the  Bedford  when  John  and  Henry 
Fielding,  Hogarth,  Churchill,  Woodward,  Lloyd, 
Dr.  Goldsmith  and  many  others  met  there  and 
held  a  gossiping  shilling  rubber  club.  Henry 
Fielding  was  a  very  smart  fellow. 

The  Inspector  appears  to  have  given  rise  to 
this  reign  of  the  Bedford,  when  there  was  placed 
here  the  Lion  from  Button's,  which  proved  so 
serviceable  to  Steele,  and  once  more  fixed  the 
dominion  of  wit  In  Covent  Garden. 

The  reign  of  wit  and  pleasantry  did  not, 
however,  cease  at  the  Bedford  at  the  demise  of 
the  Inspector.  A  race  of  punsters  next  suc- 
ceeded. A  particular  box  was  alloted  to  this 
occasion,  out  of  hearing  of  the  lady  of  the  bar, 
that  the  double  entendres,  which  were  some- 
times very  Indelicate,  might  not  offend  her. 

The  Bedford  was  beset  with  scandalous  nuis- 
ances, of  which  the  following  letter,  from 
Arthur  Murphy  to  Garrick,  April  10,  1768,  pre- 
sents a  pretty  picture: 

"Tiger  Roach  (who  used  to  bully  at  the  Bed- 
ford Coffee-house  because  his  name  was  Roach) 
is  set  up  by  Wilke's  friends  to  burlesque  Lut- 
trel  and  his  pretensions.  I  own  I  do  not  know 
a  more  ridiculous  circumstance  than  to  be  a 
joint  candidate  with  the  Tiger.  O'Brien  used 
to  take  him  off  very  pleasantly,  and  perhaps 
you  may,  from  his  representation,  have  some 
idea  of  this  important  wight.  He  used  to  sit 
with  a  half-starved  look,  a  black  patch  upon 
his  cheek,  pale  with  the  Idea  of  murder,  or 
with  rank  cowardice,  a  quivering  lip,  and  a 
downcast  eye.  In  that  manner  he  used  to  sit 
at  a  table  all  alone,  and  his  soliloquy,  inter- 
rupted now  and  then  with  faint  attempts  to 
throw  off  a  little  saliva,  was  to  the  following 
effect: — 'Hut!  hut!  a  mercer's  'prentice  with 
a  bag-wig; — d — n  my  s — 1,  if  I  would  not  skiver 
a  dozen  of  them  like  larks!  Hut!  hut!  I 
don't  understand  such  airs! — I'd  cudgel  him 
back,  breast  and  belly,  for  three  skips  of  a 
louse! — How  do  you  do,  Pat?  Hut!  hut!  God's 
blood — Larry,  I'm  glad  to  see  you;  'Prentices! 
a  fine  thing  indeed! — Hut!  hut!  How  do  you 
do,  Dominick! — D — n  my  s — 1,  what's  here  to 
do!'  These  were  the  meditations  of  this  agree- 
able youth.  F^om  one  of  these  reveries  he 
started  up  one  night,  when  I  was  there,  called  a 
Mr.  Bagnell  out  of  the  room,  and  most  heroic- 
ally stabbed  him  in  the  dark,  the  other  having 
no  weapon  to  defend  himself  with.  In  this  career, 
the  Tiger  persisted,  till  at  length  a  Mr.  Len- 
nard  brandished  a  whip  over  his  head,  and 
stood  in  a  menacing  attitude,  commanding  him 
to  ask  pardon  directly.  The  Tiger  shrank  from 
the  danger,  and  with  a  faint  voice  pronounced — 
'Hut!  what  signifies  it  between  you  and  me? 
Well!  well!  I  ask  your  pardon.'  'Speak  louder, 
Sir;  I  don't  hear  a  word  you  say.'  And  Indeed 
he  was  so  very  tall,  that  it  seemed  as  if  the 
sound,  sent  feebly  from  below,  could  not  as- 


580 


ALL     ABOUT     COFIEE 


cend  to  such  a  height.     This  is  the  hero  who 
is  to  figure  at  Brentford." 

Foote's  favourite  coffee-house  was  the  Bedford. 
He  was  also  a  constant  frequenter  of  Tom's, 
and  toolt  a  lead  in  the  Club  held  there,  and 
already  described. 

Dr.  Barrowby,  the  well-known  newsmonger 
of  the  Bedford,  and  the  satirical  critic  of  the 
day,  has  left  this  whole-length  sketch  of  Foote: 

"On©  evening  (he  says)  he  saw  a  young 
man  extravagantly  dressed  out  in  a  frock  suit 
of  green  and  silver  lace,  bag-wig,  sword,  bou- 
quet, and  point  ruffles,  enter  the  room  (at  the 
Bedford),  and  immediately  join  the  critical 
circle  at  the  upper  end.  Nobody  recognized 
him;  but  such  was  the  ease  of  his  bearing,  and 
the  point  of  humor  and  remark  with  which  he 
at  once  took  up  the  conversation,  that  his  pres- 
ence seemed  to  disconcert  no  one,  and  a  sort 
of  pleased  buzz  of  'who  is  he?'  was  still  going 
round  the  room  unanswered,  when  a  handsome 
carriage  stopped  at  the  door;  he  rose,  and 
quitted  the  room,  and  the  servants  announced 
that  his  name  was  Foote,  and  that  he  was  a 
young  gentleman  of  family  and  fortune,  a  stu- 
dent of  the  Inner  Temple,  and  that  the  carriage 
had  called  for  him  on  its  way  to  the  assembly 
of  a  lady  of  fashion".  Dr.  Barrowby  once  turned 
the  laugh  against  Foote  at  the  Bedford,  when 
he  was  ostentatiously  showing  his  gold  repeater, 
with  the  remark — 'Why,  my  watch  does  not  go!' 
'It  soon  will  go,'  quietly  remarked  the  Doctor. 
Young  Collins,  the  poet,  who  came  to  town  in 
1744  to  seek  his  fortune,  made  his  way  to  the 
Bedford,  where  Foote  was  supreme  among  the 
wits  and  critics.  Like  Foote,  Collins  was  fond 
of  fine  clothes,  and  walked  about  with  a  feather 
in  his  hat,  very  unlike  a  young  man  who  had 
not  a  single  guinea  he  could  call  his  own.  A 
letter  of  the  time  tell-?  us  that  "Collins  was  an 
acceptable  companion  everywhere;  and  among 
the  gentlemen  who  loved  him  for  a  genius,  may 
be  reckoned  the  Doctors  Armstrong,  Barrowby, 
Hill,  Messrs.  Quin,  Garrick,  and  Foote,  who  fre- 
quently took  his  opinions  upon  their  pieces 
before  they  were  seen  by  the  public.  He  was 
particularly  noticed  by  the  geniuses  who  fre- 
quented the  Bedford  and  Slaughter's  Coffee- 
houses." 

Ten  years  later  (1754)  we  find  Foote  again 
supreme  in  his  critical  corner  at  the  Bedford. 
The  regular  frequenters  of  the  room  strove  to 
get  admitted  to  his  party  at  supper;  and  others 
got  as  near  as  they  could  to  the  table,  as  the 
only  humor  flowed  from  Foote's  tongue.  The 
Bedford  was  now  in  its  highest  repute. 

Foote  and  Garrick  often  met  at  the  Bedford, 
and  many  and  sharp  were  their  encounters. 
They  were  the  two  great  rivals  of  the  day. 
Foote  usually  attacked,  and  Garrick,  who  had 
many  weak  points,  was  mostly  the  sufferer. 
Garrick,  in  early  life,  had  been  in  the  wine 
trade,  and  had  supplied  the  Bedford  with  wine; 
he  was  thus  described  by  Foote  as  living  in 
Durham-yard,  with  three  quarts  of  vinegar  in 
the  cellar,  calling  himself  a  wine-merchant. 
How  Foote  must  have  abused  the  Bedford  wine 
of  this  period! 


One  night,  Foote  came  into  the  Bedford, 
where  Garrick  was  seated,  and  there  gave  him 
an  account  of  a  most  wonderful  actor  he  had 
just  seen.  Garrick  was  on  the  tenters  of  sus- 
pense, and  there  Foote  kept  him  a  full  hour. 
Foote  brought  the  attack  to  a  close  by  ask- 
ing Garrick  what  he  thought  of  Mr.  Pitt's  his- 
trionic talents,  when  Garrick,  glad  of  the  re- 
lease, declared  that  if  Pitt  had  chosen  the  stage, 
he  might  have  been  the  first  actor  upon  it. 

Another  night,  Garrick  and  Foote  were  about 
to  leave  the  Bedford  together,  when  the  latter, 
in  paying  the  bill,  dropped  a  guinea;  and  not 
finding  it  at  once,  said,  "Where  on  earth  can 
it  be  gone  to?" — "Gone  to  the  devil,  I  think," 
replied  Garrick,  who  had  assisted  in  the  search. 
— "Well  said,  David!"  was  Foote's  reply,  "let 
you  alone  for  making  a  guinea  go  further  than 
anybody  else." 

Churchill's  quarrel  with  Hogarth  began  at  the 
shilling  rubber  club,  in  the  parlour  of  the  Bed- 
ford; when  Hogarth  used  some  very  insulting 
language  towards  Churchill,  who  resented  it  in 
the  Epistle.  This  quarrel  showed  more  venom 
than  wit.  "Never,"  says  Walpole,  "did  two  angry 
men  of  their  abilities  throw  mud  with  less 
dexterity." 

Woodward,  the  comedian,  mostly  lived  at  the 
Bedford,  was  intimate  with  Stacie,  the  land- 
lord, and  gave  him  his  (W.'s)  portrait,  with 
a  mask  In  his  hand,  one  of  the  early  pictures 
by  Sir  Joshua  Reynolds.  Stacie  played  an  ex- 
cellent game  at  whist.  One  morning  about  two 
o'clock,  one  of  the  waiters  awoke  him  to  tell 
him  that  a  nobleman  had  knocked  him  up,  and 
had  desired  him  to  call  his  master  to  play  a 
rubber  with  him  for  one  hundred  guineas. 
Stacie  got  up,  dressed  himself,  won  the  money, 
and  was  in  bed  and  asleep,  all  within  an  hour. 

After  Macklin  had  retired  from  the  stage,  in 
1754,  he  opened  that  portion  of  the  Piazza- 
houses,  in  Covent  Garden,  afterwards  known 
as  the  Tavistock  Hotel.  Here  he  fitted  up  a 
large  coffee-room,  a  theatre  for  oratory,  and 
other  apartments.  To  a  three-shilling  ordinary 
he  added  a  shilling  lecture,  or  "School  of  Ora- 
tory and  Criticism;"  he  presided  at  the  dinner 
table,  and  carved  for  the  company;  after  which 
he  played  a  sort  of  "Oracle  of  Eloquence." 
Fielding  has  happily  sketched  him  in  his 
"Voyage  to  Lisbon" :  "Unfortunately  for  the  fish- 
mongers of  London,  the  Dory  only  resides  in 
the  Devonshire  seas;  for  could  any  of  this  com- 
pany only  convey  one  to  the  Temple  of  luxury 
under  the  piazza,  where  Macklin,  the  high 
priest,  daily  serves  up  his  rich  offerings,  great 
would  be  the  reward  of  that  fishmonger." 

In  the  Lecture,  Macklin  undertook  to  make 
each  of  his  audience  an  orator,  by  teaching 
him  how  to  speak.  He  invited  hints  and  dis- 
cussions; the  novelty  of  the  scheme  attracted 
the  curiosity  of  numbers;  and  this  curiosity  he 
still  further  excited  by  a  very  uncommon  con- 
troversy which  now  subsisted,  either  in  imag- 
ination or  reality,  between  him  and  Foote,  who 
abused  one  another  very  openly — "Squire  Sam- 
my," having  for  his  purpose  engaged  the  Little 
Theatre  in  the  Haymarket. 


I 


COFFEE    IX    LITERATURE 


581 


Besides  this  personal  attack,  various  subjects 
were  debated  here  in  the  manner  of  the  Robin 
Hood  Society,  which  filled  the  Orator's  pocket, 
and  proved  his  rhetoric  of  some  value. 

Here  is  one  of  his  combats  with  Foote.     The 
subject  was  Duelling  in  Ireland,  which  Macklin 
had  illustrated  as  far  as  the  reign  of  Elizabeth. 
Foote  cried,  "Order;"  he  had  a  question  to  put. 
"Well,  Sir,"  said  Macklin,  "what  have  you  to 
say  on  this  subject,"    "I  think.  Sir'  said  Foote, 
"this  matter  might  be  settled  in  a  few  words. 
What   o'clock   is  it.   Sir?"     Macklin   could   not 
posoibly  see  what  the  clock  had  to  do  with  a 
dissertation  upon  Duelling,  but  gruffly  reported 
the   hour   to   be   half-past   nine.     "Very    well," 
said  Foote,"  about  this  time  of  the  night  every 
gentleman  in  Ireland  that  can  possibly  afford 
it  is  in  his  third  bottle  of  claret,  and  therefore 
in  a  fair  way  of  getting  drunk;  and  from  drunk- 
enness proceeds  quarrelling,  and  from  quarrell- 
ing, duelling,  and  so  there's  an  end  of  the  chap- 
ter."   The  company  were  much  obliged  to  Foote 
for  his  interference,  the  hour  being  considered; 
though  Macklin  did  not  relish  this  abridgment. 
The   success   of   Foote's   fun   upon   Macklin's 
Lectures,  led  him  to  establish  a  summer  enter- 
tainment  of  his   own  at   the   Haymarket.     He 
took  up  Macklin's  notion  of  applying  Greek  tra- 
gedy to  modern  subjects,  and  the  squib  was  so 
successful  that  Foote  cleared  by  it  500  £  in  five 
nights,  while  the  great  Piazza   Coffee-room   in 
Covent  Garden  was   shut   up,  and   Macklin   in 
the  Gazette  as  a  bankrupt. 

But  when  the  great  plan  of  Mr.  Macklin 
proved  abortive,  when  as  he  said  in  a  former 
prologue,  upon  a  nearly  similar  occasion — 
From  scheming,  fretting,  famine  and  despair, 
We  saw  to  grace  restor'd  an  exiled  player; 
when  the  town  was  sated  with  the  seemingly- 
concocted  quarrel  between  the  two  theatrical 
geniuses,  Macklin  locked  his  doors,  all  animosity 
was  laid  aside,  and  they  came  and  shook  hands 
at  the  Bedford;  the  group  resumed  their  ap- 
pearance, and,  with  a  new  master,  a  new  set 
cf  customers  was  seen. 

Tom  King's  Coffee-house  was  one  of  the  old 
night-houses  of  Covent  Garden  Market;  it  was 
a  rude  shed  immediately  beneath  the  portico 
of  St.  Paul's  Church,  and  was  one  "well  known 
to  all  gentlemen  to  whom  beds  are  unknown." 
Fielding  in  one  of  his  Prologues  says: 

What  rake  is  ignorant  of  King's  Coffee-house? 

It  is  in  the  background  of  Hogarth's  print 
of  Morning  where  the  prim  maiden  lady,  walk- 
ing to  church,  is  soured  with  seeing  two  fud- 
dled beaux  from  King's  Coffee-house  caressing 
two  frail  women.  At  the  door  there  is  a  drunk- 
en row,  in  which  swords  and  cudgels  are  the 
weapons^. 

Harwood's  Alumni  Etonenses,  p.  239,  in  the 
account  of  the  Boys  elected  from  Eton  to  King's 
College,  contains  this  entry:  "A.  D.  1713, 
Thomas  King,  born  at  West  Ashton,  in  Wilt- 
shire, went  away  scholar  in  apprehension  that 
his  fellowship  would  be  denied  him;  and  after- 
wards kept  that  Coffee-house  in  Covent  Gar- 
den, which  was  called  by  his  own  name." 

•See   Chapter  XXXIII. 


Moll  King  was  landlady  after  Tom's  death: 
she  was  witty,  and  her  house  was  much  fre- 
quented, though  it  was  little  better  than  a  shed. 
"Noblemen  and  the  first  beaux;'  said  Stacie, 
"after  leaving  Court  would  go  to  her  house  in 
full  dress,  with  swords  and  bags,  and  in  rich 
brocaded  silk  coats,  and  walked  and  conversed 
with  persons  of  every  description.  She  would 
serve  chimney-sweepers,  gardeners,  and  the 
market-people  in  common  with  her  lords  of  the 
highest  rank.  Mr.  Apreece,  a  tall  thin  man  in 
rich  dress,  was  her  constant  customer.  He 
was  called  Cadwallader  by  the  frequenters  of 
Moll's."  It  is  not  surprising  that  Moll  was  often 
fined  for  keeping  a  disorderly  house.  At  length, 
she  retired  from  business — and  the  pillory — to 
Hempstead,  where  she  lived  on  her  ill-earned 
gains,  but  paid  for  a  pew  in  church,  and  was 
charitable  at  appointed  seasons,  and  died  in 
peace  in  1747. 

The  Piazza  Coffee-house  at  the  north-eastern 
angle  of  Covent  Garden  Piazza,  appears  to 
have  originated  with  Macklin's;  for  we  read  in 
an  advertisement  in  the  Publick  Adviser, 
March  5,  1756;  "The  Great  Piazza  Coffee-room, 
in  Covent  Garden." 

The  Piazza  was  much  frequented  by  Sheridan; 
and  here  is  located  the  well-known  anecdote 
told  of  his  coolness  during  the  burning  of 
Drury-lane  Theatre,  in  1809.  It  is  said  that  as 
he  sat  at  the  Piazza,  during  the  fire,  taking 
some  refreshment,  a  friend  of  his  having  re- 
marked on  the  philosophical  calmness  with 
which  he  bore  his  misfortune,  Sheridan  replied: 

"A  man  may  surely  be  allowed  to  take  a  glass 
of  wine  by  his  own  fireside." 

Sheridan  and  John  Kemble  often  dined  to- 
gether at  the  Piazza,  to  be  handy  to  the  theatre. 
During  Kemble's  management,  Sheridan  had 
occasion  to  make  a  complaint,  which  brought 
a  "nervous"  letter  from  Kemble,  to  which  Sheri- 
dan's reply  is  amusing  enough.  Thus,  he 
writes:  "that  the  management  of  a  theatre  is 
a  situation  capable  of  becoming  troublesome, 
is  information  which  I  do  not  want,  and  a  dis- 
covery which  I  thought  you  made  long  ago." 
Sheridan  then  treats  Kemble's  letter  as  "a 
nervous  flight,"  not  to  be  noticed  seriously,  ad- 
ding his  anxiety  for  the  interest  of  the  theatre, 
and  alluding  to  Kemble's  touchiness  and  re- 
serve;  and  thus  concludes: 

"If  there  is  anything  amiss  in  your  mind 
not  arising  from  the  trouble someness  of  your 
situation,  it  is  childish  and  unmanly  not  to 
disclose  it.  The  frankness  with  which  I  have 
dealt  towards  you  entitles  me  to  expect  that  you 
should  have  done  so. 

"But  I  have  no  reason  to  believe  this  to  be 
the  case;  and  attributing  your  letter  to  a  dis- 
order which  I  know  ought  not  to  be  Indulged, 
I  prescribe  that  thou  shalt  keep  thine  appoint- 
ment at  the  Piazza  Coffee-house,  tomorrow  at 
five,  and,  taking  four  bottles  of  claret  instead 
of  three,  to  which  In  sound  health  you  might 
stint  yourself,  forget  that  you  ever  wrote  the 
letter,  as  I  shall  that  I  ever  received  it. 

"R.  B.  Sheridan." 


582 


ALL    ABOUT     COFFEE 


The  Piazza  facade,  and  interior,  were  of 
Gothic  design.  When  the  house  was  demolished, 
in  its  place  was  built  the  Floral  Hall,  after 
the  Crystal  Palace  model. 

The  Chapter  Coffee-house  was  a  literary  place 
of  resort  in  Paternoster  Row,  more  especially 
in  connection  with  the  Wittinagemot  of  the 
last  century.  A  very  interesting  account  of 
the  Chapter,  at  a  later  period  (1848)  is  given 
by  Mrs.  Gaskell. 

Goldsmith  frequented  the  Chapter,  and  always 
occupied  one  place,  which  for  many  years  after 
was  the  seat  of  literary  honor  there.  There 
are  leather  tokens  of  the  Chapter  Coffee-house 
in  existence. 

Child's  Coffee-house,  in  St.  Paul's  Church- 
yard, was  one  of  the  Spectator's  houses.  "Some- 
times," he  says,  "I  smoke  a  pipe  at  Child's  and 
whilst  I  seem  attentive  to  nothing  but  the  Post- 
man, overhear  the  conversation  of  every  table 
In  the  room."  It  was  much  frequented  by  the 
clergy;  for  the  Spectator,  No.  609,  notices  the 
mistake  of  a  country  gentleman  in  taking  all 
persons  in  scarfs  for  Doctors  of  Divinity,  since 
only  a  scarf  of  the  first  magnitude  entitles  him 
to  "the  appellation  of  Doctor  from  his  landlady 
and  the  Boy  at  Child's." 

Child's  was  the  resort  of  Dr.  Mea,d,  and  other 
professional  men  of  eminence.  The  Fellows 
of  the  Royal  Society  came  here.  Whiston  re- 
lates that  Sir  Hans  Sloane,  Dr.  Halley  and  he 
were  once  at  Child's  when  Dr.  H.  asked  him, 
W.,  why  he  was  not  a  member  of  the  Royal 
Society?  Whiston  answered,  because  they  durst 
not  choose  a  heretic.  Upon  which  Dr.  H.  said, 
if  Sir  Hans  Sloane  would  propose  him,  W.,  he. 
Dr.  H.,  would  second  it,  which  was  done  accord- 
ingly. 

The  propinquity  of  Child's  to  the  Cathedral 
and  Doctors'  Commons,  made  it  the  resort  of 
the  clergy,  and  ecclesiastical  loungers.  In  that 
respect,  Child's  was  superseded  by  the  Chapter, 
in  Paternoster   Row. 

The  London  Coffee-house  was  established  pre- 
vious to  the  year  1731,  for  we  find  of  it  the 
following  advertisement: 

"May,  1731. 

"Whereas,  it  is  customery  for  Coffee-houses 
and  other  Public-houses,  to  take  8s.  for  a  quart 
of  Arrack,  and  6s.  for  a  quart  of  Brandy  or 
Rum,  made  into  Punch: 

"This  is  to  give  notice. 

That  James  Ashley  has  opened  on  Ludgate 
Hill,  the  London  Coffee-house,  Punch-house, 
Dorchester  Beer  and  Welsh  Ale  Warehouse, 
where  the  finest  and  best  old  Arrack,  Rum  and 
French  Brandy  is  made  into  Punch,  with  the 
other  of  the  finest  ingredients — viz.,  A  quart  of 
Arrack  made  into  Punch  for  six  shillings;  and 
so  in  proportion  to  the  smallest  quantity,  which 
is  half-a-quartern  for  fourpence  half-penny.  A 
quart  of  Rum  or  Brandy  made  into  Punch  for 
four  shillings;  and  so  in  proportion  to  the 
smallest  quantity,  which  is  half-a-quartern  for 
fourpence  half-penny;  and  gentlemen  may  have 
It  as  soon  made  as  a  gill  of  Wine  can  be  drawn." 


The  premises  occupied  a  Roman  site;  for,  in 
1800,  in  the  rear  of  the  house,  in  a  bastion  of 
the  City  Wall,  was  found  a  sepulchral  monument 
dedicated  to  Claudina  Martina  by  her  husband, 
a  provincial  Roman  soldier;  here  also  were 
found  a  fragment  of  a  statue  of  Hercules  and  a 
female  head.  In  front  of  the  Coffee-house  im- 
mediately west  of  St.  Martin's  Church,  stood 
Ludgate. 

The  London  Coffee-house  was  noted  for  its 
publishers'  sales  of  stock  and  copyrights.  It 
was  within  the  rules  of  the  Fleet  prison;  and 
in  the  Coffee-house  were  "locked  up"  for  the 
night  such  juries  from  the  Old  Bailey  Sessions, 
as  could  not  agree  upon  verdicts.  The  house 
was  long  kept  by  the  grandfather  and  father 
of  Mr.  John  Leech,  the  celebrated  artist. 

A  singular  incident  occurred  at  the  London 
Coffee-house,  many  years  since:  Mr.  Brayley, 
the  topographer,  was  present  at  a  party  here, 
when  Mr.  Broadhurst,  the  famous  tenor,  by 
singing  a  high  note,  caused  a  wine-glass  on 
the  table  to  break,  the  bowl  being  separated 
from  the  stem. 

From  The  Kingdom's  Intelligencer,  a  weekly 
paper,  published  by  authority,  in  1662,  we  learn 
that  there  had  just  been  opened  a  "new  coffee- 
house," with  the  sign  of  the  Turk's  Head,  where 
was  sold  by  retail  "the  right  coffee-powder," 
from  4s.  to  6s.  8d.  per  pound;  that  pounded 
in  a  mortar,  2s;  East  Indian  berry.  Is.  6d.;  and 
the  right  Turkie  berry,  well  garbled,  at  3s. 
"The  ungarbled  for  lesse,  with  directions  how 
to  use  the  same."  Also  Chocolate  at  2s.  6d.  per 
pound;  the  perfumed  from  4s.  to  10s.;  "also, 
Sherbets  made  in  Turkie,  of  lemons,  roses  and 
violets  perfumed;  and  Tea,  or  Chaa,  according 
to  its  goodness.  The  house  seal  is  Morat  the 
Great.  Gentlemen  customers  and  acquaintan- 
ces are  (the  next  New  Year's  Day)  invited  to 
the  sign  of  the  Great  Turk  at  this  new  Coffee- 
house, where  Coffee  will  be  on  free  cost." 
Morat  figures  as  a  tyrant  in  Dryden's  "Aurung 
Zebe."  There  is  a  token  of  this  house,  with 
the  sultan's  head,  in  the  Beaufoy  collectionio. 

Another  token  in  the  same  collection,  is  of 
unusual  excellence,  probably  by  John  Roettier. 
It  has  on  the  obverse,  Morat  ye  Great  Men 
did  mee  call, — Sultan's  head;  reverse,  Where 
eare  I  came  I  conquered  all. — In  the  field.  Cof- 
fee, Tobacco,  Sherbet,  Tea,  Chocolate,  retail  in 
Exchange  Alee.  "The  word  Tea,"  says  Mr. 
Burn,  "occurs  on  no  other  tokens  than  those 
issued  from  'the  Great  Turk'  Coffee-house,  in 
Exchange  alley;"  in  one  of  its  advertisements, 
1662,  tea  is  from  6s.  to  60s.  a  pound. 

Competition  arose.  One  Constantino  Jennings 
in  Threadneedle-street,  over  against  St.  Christ- 
opher's Church,  advertised  that  coffee,  chocolate, 
sherbet,  and  tea,  the  right  Turkey  berry,  may 
be  had  as  cheap  and  as  good  of  him  as  is  any- 
where to  be  had  for  money;  and  that  people 
may  there  be  taught  to  prepare  the  said  liquors 
gratis. 

Pepys,  in  his  "Diary,"  tells,  September  25, 
1669,  of  his  sending  for  "a  cup  of  Tea,  a  China 
Drink,  he  had  not  before  tasted."  Henry  Ben- 
net,  Earl  of  Arlington,  about  1666,  introduced 


"  See  chapter  X. 


COFFEE    IN    LITERATURE 


583 


tea  at  Court.  And,  in  his  "Sir  Charles  Sedley's 
Mulberry  Garden,"  we  are  told  that  "he  who 
wished  to  be  considered  a  man  of  fashion  al- 
ways drank  wine-and-water  at  dinner,  and  a 
dish  of  tea  afterwards."  These  details  are  con- 
densed from  Mr.  Burn's  excellent  "Beaufoy 
Catalogue,"  2nd  edition,  1855. 

In  Gerard-street,  Soho,  also,  was  another 
Turk's  Head  Coffee-house,  where  was  held  a 
Turk's  Head  Society;  in  1777,  we  find  Gibbon 
writing  to  Garrick:  "At  this  time  of  year 
(August  14)  the  Society  of  the  Turk's  Head 
can  no  longer  be  addressed  as  a  corporate  body, 
and  most  of  the  individual  members  are  prob- 
ably dispersed:  Adam  Smith,  in  Scotland; 
Burke  in  the  shades  of  Beaconsfleld;  Fox,  the 
Lord  or  the  devil  knows  where." 

The  place  was  a  kind  of  headquarters  for  the 
Loyal  Association  during  the  Rebellion  of  1745. 
Here  was  founded  "The  Literary  Club"  and  a 
select  body  for  the  Protection  and  Encourage- 
ment of  Art.  Another  Society  of  Artists  met 
in  Peter's-court,  St.  Martin's-lane,  from  the  year 
1739  to  1769.  After  continued  squabbles,  which 
lasted  for  many  years,  the  principal  artists 
met  together  at  the  Turk's  Head,  where  many 
others  having  joined  them,  they  petitioned  the 
King  (George  III)  to  become  patron  of  a  Royal 
Academy  of  Art.  His  Majesty  consented;  and 
the  new  Society  took  a  room  in  Pali  Mall,  op- 
posite to  Market-lane,  where  they  remained 
until  the  King,  in  the  year  1771,  granted  them 
apartments  in  Old  Somerset  House. 

The  Turk's  Head  Coffee-house,  No.  142,  in  the 
Strand,  was  a  favourite  supping-house  with  Dr. 
Johnson  and  Boswell,  in  whose  Life  of  Johnson 
are  several  entries,  commencing  with  1763 — 
"At  night,  Mr.  Johnson  and  I  supped  in  a  pri- 
vate room  at  the  Turk's  Head  Coffee-house,  in 
the  Strand;  'I  encourage  this  house,'  said  he, 
'for  the  mistress  of  it  is  a  good  civil  woman, 
and  has  not  much  business'."  Another  entry 
is — "We  concluded  the  day  at  the  Turk's  Head 
Coffee-house  very  socially."  And,  August  3, 
1673 — "We  had  our  last  social  meeting  at  the 
Turk's  Head  Coffee-house,  before  my  setting 
out  for  foreign  parts." 

The  name  was  afterwards  changed  to  "The 
Turk's  Head,  Canada  and  Bath  Coffee-house," 
and  was  a  well  frequented  tavern  and  hotel. 

At  the  Turk's  Head,  or  Miles's  Coffee-house, 
New  Palace-yard,  Westminster,  the  noted  Rota 
Club  met,  founded  by  Harrington,  in  1659; 
where  was  a  large  oval  table,  with  a  passage 
in  the  middle,  for  Miles  to  deliver  his  coffee." 

For  many  years  previous  to  the  streets  of 
London  being  completely  paved,  "Slaughter's 
Coffee-house"  was  called  "The  Coffee-house  on 
the  Pavement."  Besides  being  the  resort  of 
artists,  Old  Slaughter's  was  the  house  of  call 
for  Frenchmen. 

St.  Martin's-lane  was  long  one  of  the  head- 
quarters of  the  artists  of  the  last  century.  "In 
the  time  of  Benjamin  West,"  says  J.  T.  Smith, 
"and  before  the  formation  of  the  Royal  Acad- 

"  See  chapter  X. 


emy,  Greek-street,  St.  Martin's-lane,  and  Gerard- 
street,  was  their  only  colony.  Old  Slaughter's 
Coffee-house,  in  St.  Martin's-lane,  was  their 
grand  resort  in  the  evenings,  and  Hogarth  was 
a  constant  visitor."  He  lived  at  the  Golden 
Head,  on  the  eastern  side  of  Leicester  Fields, 
in  the  northern  half  of  the  Sabloniere  Hotel. 
The  head  he  cut  out  himself  from  pieces  of 
cork,  glued  and  bound  together;  it  was  placed 
over  the  street-door.  At  this  time,  young  Ben- 
jamin West  was  living  In  chambers,  in  Bedford- 
street,  Covent  Garden,  and  had  there  set  up 
his  easel;  he  was  married  in  1765,  at  St.  Mar- 
tin's Church.  Roubiliac  was  often  to  be  found 
at  Slaughter's  in  early  life;  probably  before 
he  gained  the  patronage  of  Sir  Edward  Walpole, 
through  finding  and  returning  to  the  baronet 
the  pocket-book  of  bank-notes  which  the  young 
maker  of  monuments  had  picked  up  in  Vaux- 
hall  Gardens.  Sir  Edward,  to  remunerate  his 
integrity,  and  his  skill,  of  which  he  showed 
specimens,  promised  to  patronize  Roubiliac 
through  life,  and  he  faithfully  performed  this 
promise.  Young  Gainsborough,  who  spent  three 
years  amid  the  works  of  the  painters  in  St. 
Martin's-lane,  Hayman,  and  Cipriani,  who  were 
all  eminently  convival,  were,  in  all  probability, 
frequenters  of  Slaughter's.  Smith  tells  us  that 
Quin  and  Hayman  were  inseparable  friends,  and 
so  convival,  that  they  seldom  parted  till  day- 

Mr.  Cunningham  relates  that  here,  "in  early 
life,  Wilkie  would  enjoy  a  small  dinner  at  a 
small  cost.  I  have  been  told  by  an  old  fre- 
quenter of  the  house,  that  Wilkie  was  always 
the  last  dropper-in  for  dinner,  and  that  he  was 
never  seen  to  dine  in  the  house  by  daylight. 
The  truth  is,  he  slaved  at  his  art  at  home  till 
the  last  glimpse  of  daylight  had  disappeared." 

Haydon  was  accustomed,  in  the  early  days 
of  his  fitful  career,  to  dine  here  with  Wilkie. 
In  his  "Autobiography,"  in  the  year  1808,  Hay- 
don writes:  "This  period  of  our  lives  was  one 
of  great  happiness;  painting  all  day,  then  din- 
ing at  the  Old  Slaughter  Chop-house,  then  go- 
ing to  the  Academy  until  eight,  to  fill  up  the 
evening,  then  going  home  to  tea — that  blessing 
of  a  studious  man— talking  over  respective  ex- 
ploits, what  he,  Wilkie,  had  been  doing  and 
what  I  had  been  doing,  and,  then  frequently 
to  relieve  our  minds  fatigued  by  their  eight 
and  twelve  hours'  work,  giving  vent  to  the 
most  extraordinary  absurdities.  Often  have  we 
made  rhymes  on  odd  names,  and  shouted  with 
laughter  at  each  new  line  that  was  added. 
Sometimes  lazily  inclined  atter  a  good  dinner, 
we  have  lounged  about,  near  Drury  Lane  or 
Covent  Garden,  hesitating  whether  to  go  in, 
and  often  have  I  (knowing  first  that  there  was 
nothing  I  wished  to  see)  assumed  a  virtue  I 
did  not  possess,  and  pretending  moral  superior- 
ity, preached  to  Wilkie  on  the  weakness  of  not 
resisting  such  temptations  for  the  sake  of  our 
art  and  our  duty,  and  marched  him  off  to  his 
studies,  when  he  was  longing  to  see  Mother 
Goose." 

J.  T.  Smith  refers  to  Old  Slaughter's  as 
"formerly  the  rendezvous  of  Pope,  Dryden  and 
other  wits,  and  much  frequented  by  several 
eminently  clever  men  of  his  day." 


584 


ALL     ABOUT     COFFEE 


Thither  came  Ware,  the  architect,  who,  when 
a  little  sickly  boy,  was  apprenticed  to  a  chimney- 
sweeper, and  was  seen  chalking  the  street-front 
of  Whitehall,  by  a  gentleman  who  purchased 
the  remainder  of  the  boy's  time;  gave  him  an 
excellent  education;  then  sent  him  to  Italy, 
and,  upon  his  return,  employed  him,  and  In- 
troduced him  to  his  friends  as  an  architect. 
"Ware  was  heard  to  tell  this  story  while  he 
was  sitting  to  Roubiliac  for  his  bust.  Ware 
built  Chesterfield  House  and  several  other 
noble  mansions,  and  compiled  a  Palladio,  in 
folio;  he  retained  the  soot  in  his  skin  to  the 
day  of  his  death.  He  was  very  intimate  with 
Roubiliac,  who  was  an  opposite  eastern  neigh- 
bour of  Old  Slaughter's.  Another  architect, 
Gwynn,  who  competed  with  Mylne  for  design- 
ing and  building  Blackfriars  Bridge,  was  also 
a  frequent  visitor  at  Old  Slaughter's,  as  was 
Gravelot,  who  kept  a  drawing-school  in  the 
Strand,  nearly  opposite  to  Southampton-street. 

Hudson,  who  painted  the  Dilettanti  portraits; 
M'Ardell,  the  mezzotinto-scraper;  and  Luke  Sul- 
livan, the  engraver  of  Hogarth's  March  to 
Finchley,  also  frequented  Old  Slaughter's;  like- 
wise Theodore  Gardell,  the  portrait  painter, 
who  was  executed  for  the  murder  of  his  land- 
lady; and  Old  Moser,  keeper  of  the  Drawing 
Academy  in  Peter's-court. 

Parry,  the  Welsh  harper,  though  totally  blind, 
was  one  of  the  first  draught-players  in  England, 
and  occasionally  played  with  the  frequenters 
of  Old  Slaughter's;  and  here  in  consequence  of 
a  bet.  Roubiliac  introduced  Nathanial  Smith 
(father  of  John  Thomas),  to  play  at  draughts 
with  Parry;  the  game  lasted  about  half  an 
hour:  Parry  was  much  agitated,  and  Smith 
proposed  to  give  in;  but  as  there  were  bets  de- 
pending, it  was  played  out,  and  Smith  won. 
This  victory  brought  Smith  numerous  chal- 
lenges; and  the  dons  of  the  Barn,  a  public- 
house,  in  St.  Martin's-lane,  nearly  opposite  the 
church,  invited  him  to  become  a  member;  but 
Smith  declined.  The  Barn,  for  many  years, 
was  frequented  by  all  the  noted  players  of  chess 
and  draughts;  and  it  was  there  that  they  often 
decided  games  of  the  first  importance,  played 
between  persons  of  the  highest  rank. 

The  Grecian  Coffee-house,  Devereux-court, 
Strand,  (closed  in  1843)  was  named  from  Con- 
stantine,  of  Threadneedle  street,  the  Grecian 
who  kept  it.  In  the  Tatler  announcement,  all 
accounts  of  learning  are  to  be  "under  the  title 
of  the  Grecian;"  and,  in  the  Tatler,  No.  6: 
"While  other  parts  of  the  town  are  amused  with 
the  present  actions  (Marlborough's)  we  gener- 
ally spend  the  evening  at  this  table  (at  the 
Grecian)  in  inquiries  into  antiquity,  and  think 
anything  new,  which  gives  us  new  knowledge. 
Thus,  we  are  making  a  very  pleasant  entertain- 
ment to  ourselves  in  putting  the  actions  of 
Homer's  Iliad  into  an  exact  journal." 

The  Spectator's  face  was  very  well  known  at 
the  Grecian,  a  coffee-house  "adjacent  to  the 
law."  Occasionally  it  was  the  scene  of  learned 
discussion.  Thus  Dr.  King  relates  that  one 
evening,  two  gentlemen,  who  were  constant 
companions,  were  disputing  here,  concerning 
the  accent  of  a  Greek  word.     This  dispute  was 


carried  to  such  a  length,  that  the  two  friends 
thought  proper  to  determine  it  with  their 
swords;  for  this  purpose  they  stepped  into  Dev- 
ereux-court, where  one  of  them  (Dr.  King 
thinks  his  name  was  Fitzgerald)  was  run 
through  the  body,  and  died  on  the  spot. 

The  Grecian  was  Foote's  morning  lounge.  It 
was  handy,  too,  for  the  young  Templar,  Gold- 
smith, and  often  did  it  echo  with  Oliver's  bois- 
terous mirth;  for  "it  had  become  the  favourite 
resort  of  the  Irish  and  Lancashire  Templars, 
whom  he  delighted  in  collecting  around  him,  in 
entertaining  with  a  cordial  and  unostentatious 
hospitality,  and  in  occasionally  amusing  with 
his  flute,  or  with  whist,  neither  of  which  he 
played  very  well!"  Here  Goldsmith  occasion- 
ally wound  up  his  "Shoemaker's  Holiday"  with 
supper. 

It  was  at  the  Grecian  that  Fleetwood 
Shephard  told  this  memorable  story  to  Dr. 
Tancred  Robinson,  who  gave  Richardson  per- 
mission to  repeat  it.  "The  Earle  of  Dorset  was 
in  Little  Britain,  beating  about  for  books  to  his 
taste:  there  was  'Paradise  Lost'.  He  was  sur- 
prised with  some  passages  he  struck  upon,  dip- 
ping here  and  there  and  bought  it;  the  book- 
seller begged  him  to  speak  in  his  favour,  if  he 
liked  it,  for  they  lay  on  his  hands  as  waste 
paper.  .  .  .  Shephard  was  present.  My  Lord 
took  it  home,  read  it,  and  sent  it  to  Dryden, 
who  in  a  short  time  returned  it.  'This  man,' 
says  Dryden,  'cuts  us  all  out,  and  the  ancients, 
too!'" 

George's  Coffee-house,  No.  213,  Strand,  near 
Temple  Bar,  was  a  noted  resort  in  the  eigh- 
teenth and  nineteenth  centuries.  When  it  was  a 
coffee-house,  one  day,  there  came  in  Sir  James 
Lowther,  who  after  changing  a  piece  of  silver 
with  the  coffee-woman,  and  paying  twopence  for 
his  dish  of  coffee,  was  helped  into  his  chariot, 
for  he  was  very  lame  and  infirm,  and  went 
home:  some  little  time  afterwards,  he  returned 
to  the  same  coffee-house,  on  purpose  to  acquaint 
the  woman  who  kept  it,  that  she  had  given  him 
a  bad  half-penny,  and  demanded  another  in  ex- 
change tor  it.  Sir  James  had  about  £40,000 
per  annum. 

Shenstone,  who  found  "the  warmest  welcome 
at  an  inn,"  found  George's  to  be  economical. 
"What  do  you  think,"  he  writes,  "must  be  my 
expense,  who  love  to  pry  into  everything  of  the 
kind?  Why,  truly  one  shilling.  My  company 
goes  to  George's  Coffee-house,  where,  for  that 
small  subscription  I  read  all  pamphlets  under 
a  three  shillings'  dimension;  and  indeed,  any 
larger  would  not  be  fit  for  coffee-house  perusal." 
Shenstone  relates  that  Lord  Oxford  was  at 
George's,  when  the  mob,  that  were  carrying  his 
Lordship  in  effigy,  came  into  the  box  where  he 
was,  to  beg  money  of  him,  amongst  others;  this 
story  Horace  Walpole  contradicts,  adding  that 
he  supposes  Shenstone  thought  that  after  Lord 
Oxford  quitted  his  place  he  went  to  the  coffee- 
house to  learn  news. 

Arthur  Murphy  frequented  George's,  "where 
the  town  wits  met  every  evening."  Lloyd,  the 
law-student,  sings: 

By  law  let  others  toil  to  gain  renown! 
Florio's  a  gentleman,  a  man  o'  the  town. 


COFFEE    IN    LITERATURE 


585 


He  nor  courts  clients,  or  the  law  regarding, 
Hurries  from  Nando's  down  to  Covent  Garden. 
Yet,  he's  a  scholar;   mark  him  in  the  pit, 
With  critic  catcall  sound  the  stops  of  wit! 
Supreme  at  George's,  he  harangues  the  throng. 
Censor  of  style,  from  tragedy  to  song. 

The  Percy  Coffee-house,  Rathbone-place,  Ox- 
ford-street, no  longer  exists;  but  it  will  be  kept 
in  recollection  for  its  having  given  name  to  one 
of  the  most  popular  publications  of  its  class, 
namely,  the  "Percy  Anecdotes,"  by  Sholto  and 
Reuben  Percy,  Brothers  of  the  Benedictine 
Monastery  of  Mont  Benger,"  in  forty-four  parts, 
commencing  in  1820.  So  said  the  title  pages, 
but  the  names  and  the  locality  were  supposr. 
Reuben  Percy  was  Thomas  Byerly,  who  died  in 
1824;  he  was  the  brother  of  Sir  John  Byerley, 
and  the  first  editor  of  the  Mirror,  commenced 
by  John  Limbird,  in  1822.  Sholto  Percy  was 
Joseph  Clinton  Robertson,  who  died  in  1852; 
he  was  the  projector  of  the  Mechanics'  Maga- 
zine, which  he  edited  from  its  commencement 
to  his  death.  The  name  of  the  collection  of 
Anecdotes  was  not  taken,  as  at  the  time  sup- 
posed, from  the  popularity  of  the  "Percy 
Reliques, '  but  from  the  Percy  Coffee-house, 
where  Byerley  and  Robertson  were  accustomed 
to  meet  to  talk  over  their  joint  work.  The  idea 
was,  however,  claimed  by  Sir  Richard  Phillips, 
who  stoutly  maintained  that  it  originated  in  a 
suggestion  made  by  him  to  Dr.  Tilloch  and 
Mr.  Mayne,  to  cut  the  anecdotes  from  the  many 
years'  files  of  the  Star  newspaper,  of  which 
Dr.  Tilloch  was  the  editor;  and  Mr.  Byerley  as- 
sistant editor;  and  to  the  latter  overhearing 
the  suggestion,  Sir  Richard  contested,  might 
the  "Percy  Anecdotes"  be  traced.  They  were 
very  successful,  and  a  large  sum  was  realised 
by  the  work. 

Peele's  Coffee-house,  Nos.  177  and  178,  Fleet- 
street,  east  corner  of  Fetter-lane,  was  one  of  the 
coffee-houses  of  the  Johnsonian  period;  and 
here  was  long  preserved  a  portrait  of  Dr.  John- 
son, on  the  keystone  of  a  chimney-piece,  stated 
to  have  been  painted  by  Sir  Joshua  Reynolds. 
Peele's  was  noted  for  files  of  newspapers  from 
these  dates:  Gazette,  1759;  Times,  1780;  Morn- 
ing Chronicle,  1773;  Morning  Post,  1773;  Morn- 
ing Herald,  1784;  Morning  Advertiser,  1794; 
and  the  evening  papers  from  their  commence- 
ment.    The  house  is  now  a  tavern. 

Coffee  Literature  and  Ideals 

The  bibliography  at  the  end  of  this  work 
will  serve  to  indicate  the  nature  and  extent 
of  the  general  literature  of  coffee.  Not 
that  it  is  complete  or  nearly  so;  it  would 
require  twice  the  space  to  include  mention 
of  all  the  fugitive  bits  of  verse,  essays,  and 


miscellaneous  writings  in  newspapers,  and 
periodicals,  dealing  with  the  poetry  and  ro- 
mance, history,  chemistry,  and  physiolog- 
ical effects  of  coffee.  Only  the  early  works, 
and  the  more  notable  contributions  of  the 
last  three  centuries,  are  included  in  the  bib- 
liography ;  but  there  is  sufficient  to  enable 
the  student  to  analyze  the  lines  of  general 
progress. 

A  study  of  the  literature  of  coffee  shows 
that  the  French  really  internationalized  the 
beverage.  The  English  and  Italians  fol- 
lowed. With  the  advent  of  the  newspaper 
press,  coffee  literature  began  to  suffer  from 
its  competition. 

The  complexities  of  modern  life  suggest 
that  coffee  drinking  in  perfection,  the  es- 
thetics, and  a  new  literature  of  coffee  may 
once  more  become  the  pleasure  of  a  small 
caste.  Are  the  real  pleasures  of  life,  the 
things  truly  worth  while,  only  to  the  swift 
—  the  most  efficient ?  Who  shall  say?  Are 
not  some  of  us,  particularly  in  America, 
rather  prone  to  glorify  the  gospel  of  work 
to  such  an  extent  that  we  are  in  danger  of 
losing  the  ability  to  understand  or  to  en- 
joy anything  else? 

Granted  that  this  is  so,  coffee,  already 
recognized  as  the  most  grateful  lubricant 
known  to  the  human  machine,  is  destined 
to  play  another  part  of  increasing  import- 
ance in  our  national  life  as  a  kind  of  na- 
tional shock-absorber  as  well.  But  its  role 
is  something  more  than  this,  surely.  When 
life  is  drab,  it  takes  away  its  grayness. 
When  life  is  sad,  it  brings  us  solace.  When 
life  is  dull,  it  brings  us  new  inspiration. 
When  we  are  a-weary  it  brings  us  comfort 
and  good  cheer. 

The  lure  of  coffee  lies  in  its  appeal  to 
our  finer  sensibilities ;  and  signs  are  not 
wanting  that  that  pursuit  of  the  long,  sweet 
happiness  that  every  one  is  seeking  will 
lead  some  of  us  (even  in  big  bustling 
America)  into  footpaths  that  end  in  places 
where  coffee  will  offer  much  of  its  pristine 
inspiration  and  charm.  It  probably  will 
not  be  a  coffee  house  anything  like  that  of 
the  long  ago,  but  perhaps  it  will  be  a  kind 
of  modernized  coffee  club.    Why  not? 


586 


ALL     ABOUT     COFFEE 


A  COFFEE  HOUSE  IN  HOLLAND,  ABOUT  1650 

After  the  etching  by  J.  Beauvarlet  from  a  painting  by  Adriaen  Van  Ostade   (1610  -  1675),  which  is  said  to 
be  the  earliest  picture  of  a  coffee  house  in  western  Europe 


Chapter  XXXIII 

COFFEE    IN    RELATION    TO    THE    FINE    ARTS 

How  coffee  and  coffee  drinking  have  been  celebrated  in  painting, 
engraving,  sculpture,  caricature,  lithography,  and  music  —  Epics, 
rhapsodies,  and  cantatas  in  praise  of  coffee  —  Beautiful  specimens  of 
the  art  of  the  potter  and  the  silversmith  as  shown  in  the  coffee  service 
of  various  periods  in  the  world's  history  —  Some  historical  relics 


COFFEE  has  inspired  the  imagination 
of  many  poets,  musicians,  and  paint- 
ers. In  the  seventeenth  and  eight- 
eenth centuries  those  whose  genius  was 
dedicated  to  the  fine  arts  seem  to  have 
fallen  under  its  spell  and  to  have  pro- 
duced much  of  great  beauty  that  has  en- 
dured. To  the  painters,  engravers,  and 
caricaturists  of  that  period  we  are  particu- 
larly indebted  for  pictures  that  have  added 
greatly  to  our  knowledge  of  early  coffee 
customs  and  manners. 

Adriaen  Van  Ostade  (1610-1685),  the 
Dutch  genre  painter  and  etcher,  pupil  of 
Frans  Hals,  in  his  "Dutch  Coffee  House" 
(1650),  shows  the  genesis  of  the  coffee 
house  of  western  Europe  about  the  time 
it  still  partook  of  some  of  the  tavern  char- 
acteristics. Coffee  is  being  served  to  a 
group  in  the  foreground.  It  is  believed 
to  be  the  oldest  existing  picture  of  a  coffee 
house.  The  illustration  is  after  the  etch- 
ing by  J.  Beauvarlet  in  the  graphic  collec- 
tion at  Munich. 

William  Hogairth  (1697-1764),  the  fam- 
ous English  painter  and  engraver  of  satir- 
ical subjects,  chose  the  coffee  houses  of  his 
time  for  the  scenes  of  a  number  of  his  so- 
cial caricatures.  In  his  series, "Four  Times 
of  the  Day, ' '  which  throws  a  vivid  light  on 
the  street  life  of  London  of  the  period  of 
1738,  we  are  shown  Covent  Garden  at 
7:55  A.  M.  by  the  clock  on  St.  Paul's 
Church.    A  prim  maiden  lady  (said  to  have 


been  sketched  from  an  elderly  relation  of 
the  artist,  who  cut  him  out  of  her  will)  on 
her  way  home  from  early  service,  accom- 
panied by  a  shivering  foot-boy,  is  scandal- 
ized by  the  spectacle  presented  by  some 
roystering  blades  issuing  from  Tom  King's 
notorious  coffee  house  to  the  right.  The 
beaux  are  forcing  their  attentions  upon  the 
more  comely  of  the  market  women  in  the 
foreground.  Tom  King  was  a  scholar  at 
Eton  before  he  began  his  ignoble  career.  At 
the  date  of  this  picture,  it  is  thought  he  had 
been  succeeded  by  his  widow,  Moll  King, 
also  of  scandalous  repute. 

Scene  VI  of  the  "Rake's  Progress"  by 
Hogarth  is  laid  at  the  club  in  White's 
chocolate  (coffee)  house,  which  Dr.  Swift 
described  as  "the  common  rendezvous  of 
infamous  sharpers  and  noble  cullies."  The 
rake  has  lost  all  his  recently  acquired 
wealth,  pulls  off  his  wig  and  flings  himself 
upon  the  floor  in  a  paroxysm  of  fury  and 
execration.  In  allusion  to  the  burning  of 
White's  in  1733,  flames  are  seen  bursting 
from  the  wainscot,  but  the  pre-occupied 
gamblers  take  no  heed,  even  of  the  watch- 
man crying  *  *  Fire ! "  To  the  left  is  seated 
a  highwayman,  with  horse  pistol  and  black 
mask  in  a  skirt  pocket  of  his  coat.  He  is  so 
engrossed  in  his  thoughts  that  he  does  not 
notice  the  boy  at  his  side  offering  a  glass  of 
liquor  on  a  tray.  The  scene  well  depicts 
the  low  estate  to  which  White's  had  fallen. 
It  recalls  a  bit  of  dialogue  from  Farquhar  's 


587 


588 


ALL     ABOUT     COFFEE 


I.\    lllli   CLUJi  AT    WiUTE'S  COFFEE  HOTJSE,  1738 

From   a  painting  in   the  series,   "The  Raise's  Progress,"  by  William   Hogarth 


Beaux'  Stratagem  (act  III,  scene  2),  where 
Aimwell  snys  to  Gibbet,  who  is  a  highway- 
man : .' '  Pray,  sir,  ha  'nt  I  seen  your  face  at 
Will's  Coffee  House?"  "Yes  sir,  and  at 
White's,  too,"  answers  the  highwayman. 
After  the  fire,  the  club  and  chocolate 
house  were  removed  to  Gaunt 's  coffee 
house.  The  removal  was  thus  ahnounced  in 
the  Daihj  Post  of  May  3 : 

This  is  to  acquaint  all  noblemen  and  gentle- 
men that  Mr.  Arthur  having  had  the  misfortune 
to  be  burnt  out  of  White's  Chocolate  House  is 
removed  to  Gaunt's  Coffee  House,  next  the  St. 
James  Coffee  House  in  St.  James  Street,  where 
he  humbl.v  begs  they  will  favour  him  with  tlieir 
company  as  usual. 

Alessandro  Longhi  (1733  - 1813)  the  Ital- 
ian painter  and  engraver,  called  the  Vene- 
tian Hogarth,  in  one  of  his  pictures  pre- 
senting life  and  manners  in  Venice  during 
the  years  of  her  decadence,  shows  Goldoni, 
the  dramatist,  as  a  visitor  in  a  cafe  of  the 


period,  with  a  female  mendicant  soliciting 
alms. 

In  the  Louvre  at  Paris  hangs  the  "Petit 
Dejeuner"  by  Francois  Boucher  (1703- 
1770),  famous  court  painter  of  Louis  XV. 
It  shows  a  French  breakfast-room  of  the 
period  of  1744,  and  is  interesting  because 
it  illustrates  the  introduction  of  coffee  into 
the  home ;  it  shows  also  the  coffee  service  of 
the  time. 

In  Van  Loo's  portrait  of  Madame  de 
Pompadour,  second  mistress  and  political 
adviser  of  Louis  XV  of  France,  the  coffee 
service  of  a  later  period  of  the  eighteenth 
century  appears.  The  Nubian  servant  is 
shown  offering  the  marquise  a  demi-tasse 
which  has  just  been  poured  from  the  cov- 
ered oriental  pot  which  succeeded  the  orig- 
inal Arabian-Turkish  boiler,  and  was  much 
in  vogue  at  the  time. 

Coffee  and  Madame  du, Barry  (or  would 


COFFEE  AND  THE  ARTS 


589 


'iu.u  Kt.Nu  o  V  w.  I  i,K  House  in  Cuvem  (JakdkiN,  l,:',b 
From  a  paintlnjr  in  the  series,  "Four  Times  of  tlie  Day,"   by   William    Hogarth 


it  be  more  polite  to  say  Madame  du  Barry 
and  coffee?)  inspired  the  celebrated  paint- 
ing of  Madame  de  Pompadour's  successor 
in  the  affections  of  Louis  "the  well  be- 
loved." This  is  entitled  ''Madame  du 
Barry  at  Versailles",  and  in  the  Versailles 
catalog  it  is  described  as  painted    by   De- 


creuse  after  Drouais.  Decreuse  was  a  pupil 
of  Gros,  and  painted  many  of  the  histori- 
cal portraits  at  Versailles. 

Malcolm  C.  Salaman,  in  his  French  Color 
Prints  of  the  XVIII  Century,  referring  to 
Dagoty's  print  of  this  picture,  done  in 
1771,  says,  "the  original  has  been  attrib- 


590 


ALL     ABOUT     COFFEE 


"Petit  Dejeuner,"  by  Boucheb 

Showing'  the   home   coffee   service   of  the  period   of 
1744 

utedto  Francois  Hubert  Drouais,  but  there 
can  be  little  doubt  that  the  original  por- 
traiture was  from  the  hand  of  the  engraver 
(Dagoty),  as  the  style  is  far  inferior  to 
Drouais. ' '    He  thus  describes  it : 

Here  we  see  the  last  of  Louis  XV's  mistresses, 
sitting  in  lier  bedroom  in  tliat  alluring  retreat 
of  hers  at  Louveciennes,  near  the  woods  of 
Marly,  as  she  takes  her  cup  of  cofCee  from  her 
pet  attendant,  the  little  negro  boy,  Zamore,  as 
the  Prince  de  Conti  had  named  him,  all  brave 
in  red  and  gold.  Doubtless  she  is  expecting  the 
morning  visit  of  the  King,  no  longer  the  hand- 
some young  gallant,  but  old  and  leaden-eyed,  and 
puffy-cheeked ;  and  perhaps  it  will  be  on  this 
very  morning  that  she  will  wheedle  Louis,  in  a 
moment  of  extravagant  badinage,  into  appoint- 
ing the  negro  boy  to  be  Governor  of  the  Chateau 
and  Pavilion  of  Louveciennes  at  a  handsome 
salary,  just  as,  on  another  day,  she  playfully 
teased  the  jaded  old  sensualist  into  decorating 
with  the  cordon  bleu  her  cuisini&re  when  it  was 
triumphantly  revealed  to  him  that  the  dinner 
he  had  been  praising  with  enthusiastic  gusto 
was,  after  all,  the  work  of  a  woman  cook,  the 
very  possibility  of  which  he  had  contemptuously 
doubted.  But  as  we  look  at  these  two,  the  royal 
mistress  and  her  little  black  favorite,  we  forget 
the  "well  beloved"  and  his  voluptuous  pleasures 
and  indulgences,  for  in  the  shadows  we  see  an- 
other picture,  some  twenty  years  on,  when  the 
proud  unconscionable  beauty,  no  longer  reine  de 


la  main  gauche,  stands  before  the  dreaded 
Tribunal  of  the  Terror,  while  Zamore,  the  treach- 
erous, ungrateful  negro,  dismissed  from  his 
service  at  Louveciennes  and  now  devoted  to  the 
committee  of  public  safety,  and  one  of  her  im- 
placable accusers,  sends  her  shrieking  to  the 
guillotine. 

The  introduction  of  the  coffee  house 
into  Europe  was  memorialized  by  Franz 
Sehams,  the  genre  painter,  pupil  of  the 
Vienna  Academy,  in  a  beautiful  picture  en- 
titled ''The  First  Coffee  House  in  Vienna, 
1684,"  owned  by  the  Austrian  Art  Society. 
A  lithographic  reproduction  was  executed 
by  the  artist  and  printed  by  Joseph  Stoufs 
in  Vienna.  There  are  several  specimens  in 
the  United  States;  and  the  illustration 
printed  on  page  48  has  been  made  from  one 
of  these  in  the  possession  of  the  author. 

The  picture  shows  the  interior  of  the 
Blue  Bottle,  where  Kolschitzky  opened  the 
first  coffee  house  in  Vienna.  The  hero-pro- 
prietor stands  in  the  foreground  pouring  a 
cup  of  the  beverage  from  an  oriental  coffee 
pot,  and  another  is  suspended  from  the  cof- 
fee-house sign  that  hangs  over  the  fireplace. 
In  the  fire  alcove  a  woman  is  pounding 
coffee  in  a  mortar.  Men  and  women  in  the 
costumes  of  the  period  are  being  served 
coffee  by  a  Vienna  mddchen. 


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Coffee  Service  in  the  Home  of  Madame  de 
Pompadour  —  Painting  by  Van  Loo 


COFFEE  AND  THE  ARTS 


591 


Madame  Du  Babry  and  Her  Slave  Boy  Zamore  —  Painting  by  Decreuse 


The  painters  Marilhat,  Deseamps,  and  de 
Tournemine  have  pictured  cafe  scenes;  the 
first  in  his  ' '  Cafe  sur  une  route  de  Syrie ' ', 
which  was  shown  at  the  Salon  of  1844;  the 
second  in  his  ''Cafe  Turc",  which  figured 
at  the  Exposition  of  1855 ;  and  the  third  in 
his  "Cafe  en  Asia  Mineure",  which  re- 
ceived honors  at  the  Salon  of  1859,  and  at- 
tracted attention  at  the  Universal  Exposi- 
tion of  1867. 

A  decorative  panel  designed  for  the 
buffet  at  the  Paris  Opera  House  by  S.  Ma- 
zerolles  was  shown  at  the  Exposition  of 
1878.  A  French  artist,  Jacquand,  has 
painted  two  charming  compositions;  one 
representing  the  reading  room,  and  the 
other  the  interior/of  a  cafe. 

Many  German  artists  have  shown  coffee 
manners  and  customs  in  pictures  that  are 
now  hanging  in  well  known  European  gal- 
leries. Among  others,  mention  should  be 
made  of  C.  Schmidt's  "The  Sweets  Shop  of 
Josty  in  Berlin",  1845;  Milde's  "Pastor 
Rautenberg  and  His  Family  at  the  Coffee 
Table",  1833;  and  his  "Manager  Classen 
and  His  Family  at  the  Afternoon  Coffee 


Table",  1840;  Adolph  Menzel's  "Parisian 
Boulevard  Cafe",  1870;  Hugo  Meith's 
"Saturday  Afternoon  at  the  Coffee 
Table";  John  Philipp's  "Old  Woman  with 
Coffee  Cup";  Friedrich  Walle's  "After- 
noon Coffee  in  the  Court  Gardens  at  Mun- 
ich"; Paul  Meyerheim's  "Oriental  Coffee 
House";  and  Peter  Philippi's  (Dussel- 
dorf)  "Kaffeebesuch." 

At  the  Exposition  des  Beaux  Arts,  Salon 
of  1881,  there  was  shown  P.  A.  Ruffio's 
picture,  "Le  cafe  vient  au  secours  de  la 
Muse"  (Coffee  comes  to  the  aid  of  the 
Muse),  in  which  the  graceful  form  of  an 
oriental  ewer  appears. 

The  "Coffee  House  at  Cairo,"  a  canvas 
by  Jean  Leon  Gerome  (1824-1904)  that 
hangs  in  the  Metropolitan  Museum  of  Art, 
New  York,  has  been  much  admired.  It 
shows  the  interior  of  a  typical  oriental  cof- 
fee house  with  two  men  near  a  furnace  at 
the  left  preparing  the  beverage;  a  man 
seated  on  a  wicker  basket  about  to  smoke  a 
hooka ;  a  dervish  dancing ;  and  several  per- 
sons seated  against  the  wall  in  the  back- 
ground. 


592 


ALL     ABOUT     COFFEE 


COFFEE  AND  THE  ARTS 


593 


The  New  York  Historical  Society  ac- 
quired in  1907  from  Miss  Margaret  A.  In- 
crram  an  oil  painting  of  the  "Tontine  Cof- 
ce  House."  It  was  painted  in  Philadel- 
phia by  Francis  Guy,  and  was  sold  at  a 
laffle.  after  having  been  admired  by  Pres- 
ident John  Adams.  It  shows  lower  Wall 
Street  in  1796  - 1800,  with  the  Tontine  cof- 
fee house  on  the  northwest  corner  of  Wall 
and  Water  Streets,  where  its  more  famous 
predecessor,  the  Merchants  coffee  house, 
Avas  located  before  it  moved  to  quarters 
diagonally  opposite. 

Charles  P.  Gruppe's  (&.  1860)  painting 
showing  General  "Washington's  Official 
Welcome  to  New  York  by  City  and  State 
Otificials  at  the  Merchants  Coffee  House," 
April  23,  1789,  just  one  week  before  his 
inauguration  as  first  president  of  the 
United  States,  is  a  colorful  canvas  that 
has  been  much  praised  for  its  atmosphere 
and  historical  associations.  It  is  the  prop- 
erty of  the  author. 

The  art  museums  and  libraries  of  every 
country  contain  many  beautiful  water- 
colors,  engravings,  prints,  drawings,  and 
lithographs,  whose  creators  found  inspira- 
tion in  coffee.  Space  permits  the  mention 
of  only  a  few. 

.  T.  H.  Shepherd  has  preserved  for  us 
Button's,  afterward  the  Caledonien  cof- 
fee house,  Great  Russell  Street,  Covent 
Garden,  in  a  water-color  drawing  of  1857 ; 
Tom's  coffee  house,  17  Great  Russell  Street, 
Covent  Garden,  1857;  Slaughter's  coffee 
house  in  St.  Martin's  Lane,  1841;  also,  in 


4 

&      1 

i 

I 


"Kaffeebesuch" 

From  the  painting  by  Peter  PhiUppi 


"Coffee  Comes  to  the  4^id  of  Tirt:  Muse" 
From    the   painting  by   Rufflo 

1857,  the  Lion's  Head  at  Button's,  put  up 
by  Addison  and  now  the  property  of  the 
Duke  of  Bedford  at  Woburn. 

Hogarth  figures  in  the  Sam  Ireland  col- 
lection with  several  original  drawings  of 
frequenters  of  Button's  in  1730. 

Thomas  Rowlandson  (1756-1827)  the 
great  English  caricaturist  and  illustrator, 
has  given  us  several  fine  pictures  of  Eng- 
lish coffee-house  life.  His  "Mad  Dog  in  a 
Coffee  House"  presents  a  lively  scene;  and 
his  water-color  of  "The  French  Coffee 
House"  is  one  of  the  best  pictures  we  have 
of  the  French  coffee  house  in  London  as  it 
looked  during  the  latter  half  of  the  eigh- 
teenth century. 

During  the  campaign  in  France  in  1814, 
Napoleon  arrived  one  day,  unheralded,  in 
a  country  presbytery,  where  the  good  cure 
was  quietly  turning  his  hand  coffee-roaster. 
The  emperor  asked  him,  "What  are  you 
doing  there,  abbe?"  "Sire",  replied  the 
priest,  "I  am  doing  like  you.  I  am  burn- 
ing the  colonial  fodder."  Charlet  (1792- 
1845)  made  a  lithograph  of  the  incident. 

Several  French  poet-musicians  resorted 
to  music  to  celebrate  coffee.    Brittany  has 


594 


ALL     ABOUT     COFFEE 


its  own  songs  in  praise  of  coffee,  as  have 
other  French  provinces.  There  are  many 
e|)ics,  rhapsodies,  and  cantatas  —  and  even 
a  comic  opera  by  Meilhat,  music  by  Deffes, 
bearing  the  title,  Le  Cafe  du  Boi,  produced 
at  the  Theatre  Lyrique,  November  16,  1861. 
Fuzelier  wrote,  in  honor  of  coffee,  a  can- 
tata, set  to  music  by  Bernier.  This  is  the 
burden  of  the  poet 's  song : 

Ah  coffee,  what  climes  yet  unknown, 

Ignore  the  clear  fires  that  thy  vapors  inspire ! 

Thou  countest,  in  thy  vast  empire 

Those  realms  that  Bacchus'  reign  disown. 

Favored   liquid,   which   fills   all   my   soul   with 

delights, 
Thy  enchantments  to  life  happy  hours  persuade. 
We  vanquish  e'en  sleep  by  thy  fortunate  aid, 
Thou  hast  rescued   the  hours  sleep  would   rob 

from  our  nights. 
Favored    liquid    which    fills    all    my    soul    with 

delights, 
Thy  enchantments  to  life  happy  hours  persuade. 

Oh  liquid  that  I  love, 

Triumphant  stream  of  sable. 
E'en  for  the  gods  above, 

Drive  nectar  from  the  table. 
Make  thou  relentless  war 

Ou  treacherous  juices  sly, 
Let  earth  taste  and  adore 

The  sweet  calm  of  the  sky. 


Oh  liquid  that  I  love, 

Triumphant  stream  of  sable. 

E'en  for  the  gods  above. 

Drive  nectar  from  the  table. 

During  the  early  vogue  of  the  cafe  in 
Paris,  a  chanson,  entitled  Coffee,  repro- 
duced here,  was  set  to  music  with  accom- 
paniment for  the  piano  by  M.  H.  Colet,  a 
professor  of  harmony  at  the  Conservatoire. 
Printed  in  the  form  of  a  placard,  and  put 
up  in  cafes,  it  received  the  approbation  of, 
and  was  signed  by,  de  Voyer  d'Argenson, 
at  that  time  (1711)  lieutenant  of  police.  The 
poetry  is  not  irreproachable.  It  can  hardly 
be  attributed  to  any  of  the  well  known 
poets  of  the  time;  but  rather  to  one  of 
those  bohemian  rimesters  that  wrote  all  too 
abundantly  on  all  sorts  of  subjects.  It  is 
the  development  of  a  theory  concerning 
the  properties  of  coffee  and  the  best  method 
of  making  it.  It  is  interesting  to  note  that 
the  uses  of  advertising  were  known  and  ap- 
preciated in  Paris  in  1711 ;  for  in  the  chan- 
son there  appears  the  name  and  address  of 
one  Vilain,  a  merchant,  rue  des  Lombards, 
who  was  evidently  in  fashion  at  that  period. 
The  translation  of  the  stanza  reproduced 
is  as  follows : 


".Mad   Doo  is   a  Coffee  House"  —  Cakicature  by  Rowlandson 


COFFEE  AND  THE  ARTS 


595 


Napoleon  axd  the  Curb— Litiiograpii  by  Ciiarlet 


Coffee  —  A  Chanson 

If  you,  with  mind  untroubled, 

Would  flourish,  day  by  day, 
Let  each  day  of  the  seven 

Find  coffee  on  your  tray. 
It  will  your  frame  preserve  from  every  malady, 
Its  virtues  drive  afar,  la !  ia ! 
Migrain  and  dread  catarrh  —  ha  !  ha  ! 

Dull  cold  and  lethars>'. 

The  most  notable  contribution  to  the 
* '  music  of  coffee, ' '  if  one  may  be  permitted 
the  expression,  is  the  Coffee  Cantata  of 
Johann  Sebastian  Bach  (1685-1750)  the 
German  organist  and  the  most  modern  com- 
poser of  the  first  half  of  the  eighteenth 
century.  He  hymned  the  religious  senti- 
ment of  protestant  Germany;  and  in  his 
Coffee  Cantata  he  tells  in  music  the  protest 
of  the  fair  sex  against  the  libels  of  the  ene- 
mies of  the  beverage,  who  at  the  time  were 
actively  urging  in  Germany  that  it  should 
be  forbidden  women,  because  its  use  made 
for  sterility!    Later    on,    the    government 


surrounded  the  manufacture,  sale,  and  use 
of  coffee  with  many  obnoxious  restrictions, 
as  told  in  chapter  VIII. 

Bach's  Coffee  Cantata  is  No.  211  of  the 
Secular  Cantatas,  and  was  published  in 
Leipzig  in  1732.  In  German  it  is  known  as 
Schweigt  stille,  plaudert  nicht  (Be  silent, 
do  not  talk).  It  is  written  for  soprano, 
tenor,  and  bass  solos  and  orchestra.  Bach 
used  as  his  text  a  poem  by  Piccander.  The 
cantata  is  really  a  sort  of  one-act  operetta 
—  a  jocose  production  repesenting  the  ef- 
forts of  a  stern  parent  to  check  his  daugh- 
ter's propensities  in  coffee  drinking,  the  new 
fashioned  habit.  One  seldom  thinks  of 
Bach  as  a  humorist;  but  the  music  here  is 
written  in  a  mock-heroic  vein,  the  recita- 
tives and  arias  having  a  merry  flavor,  hint- 
ing at  what  the  master  might  have  done  in 
light  opera. 

The  libretto  shows  the  father  Schlen- 
drian,   or    Slowpoke,    trying    by    various 


596 


Cbant. 


ALL    ABOUT     COFFEE 
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COFFEE— A  CHANSON;     MUSIC  BY  COLET,  1711 


COFFEE  AND  THE  ARTS 


597 


threats  to  dissuade  his  daughter  from  fur- 
ther indulgence  in  the  new  vice,  and,  in  the 
end,  succeeding  by  threatening  to  deprive 
her  of  a  husband.  But  his  victory  is  only 
temporary.  When  the  mother  and  the 
grandmother  indulge  in  coffee,  asks  the 
final  trio,  who  can  blame  the  daughter? 

Bach  uses  the  spelling  coffee  —  not  kaffee. 
The  cantata  was  sung  as  recently  as  De- 
cember 18,  1921,  at  a  concert  in  New  York 
by  the  Society  of  the  Friends  of  Music,  di- 
rected by  Arthur  Bodanzky. 

Lieschen,  or  Betty,  the  daughter,  has  a 
delightful  aria,  beginning,  "Ah,  how  sweet 
coffee  tastes  —  lovelier  than  a  thousand  kis- 
ses, sweeter  far  than  muscatel  wine!"  the 
opening  bars  of  which  are  reproduced  on 
page  598. 

As  the  text  is  not  long,  it  is  printed  here 
in  its  entirety. 

CHARA CTERS 

Messenger  and  Nabkatob Tenor 

Slowpoke  Bass 

Betty,  daughter  to  Slowpoke Soprano 

Tenor  (Recitative)  :  Be  silent,  do  not  talk, 
but  notice  what  will  happen!  Here  comes  old 
Slowpoke  with  his  daughter  Betty.  He's 
grumbling  like  a  common  bear  —  just  listen  to 
what  he  says. 

(Enter  Slowpoke  muttering)  :  What  vexa- 
tious things  one's  children  are!  A  hundred 
thousand  naughty  ways !  What  I  tell  my  daugh- 
ter Betty  might  as  well  be  told  to  the  moon! 
(Enter  Betty.) 

Slowpoke  (Recitative)  :  You  naughty  child, 
you  mischievous  girl,  oh  when  can  I  have  my 
way  —  give  up  your  coffee ! 

Betty  :  Dear  father,  do  not  be  so  strict !  If 
I  can't  have  my  little  demi-tasse  of  coffee  three 
times  a  day,  I'm  just  like  a  dried  up  piece  of 
roast  goat! 

Betty  (Aria)  :  Ah!  How  sweet  coffee  tastes! 
Lovelier  than  a  thousand  kisses,  sweeter  far 
than  miiscatel  wine!  I  must  have  my  coffee, 
and  if  any  one  wishes  to  please  me,  let  him 
present  me  with  —  coffee! 

Slowpoke  (Recitative)  :  If  you  won't  give  up 
coffee,  young  lady,  I  won't  let  you  go  to  any 
wedding  feasts  —  I  won't  even  let  you  go 
walking ! 

Betty  :    O  yes !    Do  let  me  have  my  coffee ! 

Slowpoke  :  What  a  little  monkey  you  are, 
anyway!  I  will  not  let  you  have  any  whale- 
bone skirts  of  the  present  fashionable  size! 

Betty:    Oh,  I  can  easily  fix  that! 

Slowpoke  :  But  I  won't  let  you  stand  at  the 
window  and  watch  the  new  styles! 

Betty  :  That  does  n't  bother  me,  either.  But 
be  good  and  let  me  have  my  coffee ! 

Slowpoke  :  But  from  my  hands  you'll  get  no 
silver  or  gold  ribbon  for  your  hair! 

Betty  : .  Oh  well !  so  long  as  I  have  what  does 
satisfy  me! 


Statue  of  Kolsciiitzky  in  Vienna 

Slowpoke:  You  wretched  Betty,  you!  You 
won't  give  in  to  me? 

Slowpoke  (Air)  :  Oh  these  girls  —  what  ob- 
stinate dispositions  they  do  have!  They  cer- 
tainly are  not  easy  to  manage !  But  if  one  hits 
the  right  spot  —  oh  well,  one  may  succeed ! 

Slowpoke,  icith  an  air  of  being  sure  of  success 
this  time  (Recitative)  :  Now  please  do  what 
father  says. 

Betty  :     In  everything,  except  about  coffee. 

Slowpoke:  Well,  then,  you  must  make  up 
your  mind  to  do  without  a  husband. 

Betty:     Oh  —  yes?    Father,  a  husband? 

Six)WPOKE :    I  swear  you  can't  have  him  — 

Betty:  Till  I  give  up  coffee?  Oh  well  — 
coffee  —  let  it  be  forgotten  —  dear  father  —  I 
will  not  drink  — •  none ! 

Slowpoke  :     Then  you  can  have  one ! 

Betty  (Aria):  To-day,  dear  father  —  do  it 
to-day.  (He  goes  out.)  Ah,  a  husband!  Really 
this  suits  me  exactly !  When  they  know  I  must 
have  coffee,  why,  before  I  go  to  bed  to-night  I 
can  have  a  valiant  lover!     (Goes  out.) 

Tenor  (Recitative)  :  Now  go  hunt  up  old 
Slowpoke,  and  just  watch  him  get  a  husband 
for  his  daughter — for  Betty  is  secretly  making 
it  known  "that  no  wooer  may  come  to  the  house, 
unless  he  promises  me  himself,  and  has  it  put 
in  the  marriage  contract  that  he  will  allow  me 
to  make  coffee  whenever  I  will !" 


598 


ALL    ABOUT     COFFEE 


i«» 


Plaato  travereo. 
Lietchen. 


Contlnao.        gl^^^^-y— f-[^3j 


B  W  XSIX 

''Ah,  How  Sweet  Coffee  Tastes  —  Lovelier  Than  a  Thousand  Kisses,  Sweeter  Far  than 

Muscatel  Wine  !" 
Opening  bars    of   Betty's   aria   in    Bach's    Coffee   Cantata,  1732 


COFFEE  AND  THE  ARTS 


599 


The  Most  Beautifui,  Coffee  House  in  the  World 

The  Cafiffe  Pedrocchi  in  Padua,  Italy,  empire  period,  erected  by  the  poor  lemonade  vender  and  coffee  seller, 

Antonio  Pedrocchi. 


(Enter  Slowpoke  and  Betty,  singing  —  as 
■chorus  —  ^cith  Tenor.) 

Trio  :  The  cat  will  not  give  up  the  mouse, 
old  maids  continue  "coffee-sisters!"  —  the 
mother  loves  lier  drink  of  coffee  —  grandma,  too, 
is  a  coffee  fiend  —  icho  now  will  blame  the 
daughter ! 

Research  has  discovered  only  one  piece 
of  sculpture  associated  with  coffee  —  the 
statue  of  the  Austrian  hero  Kolschitz- 
ky,  the  patron  saint  of  the  Vienna  coffee 
houses.  It  graces  the  second-floor  corner 
of  a  house  in  the  Favoriten  Strasse,  where 
it  was  erected  in  his  honor  by  the  Coffee 
Makers'  Guild  of  Vienna.  The  great 
"brother-heart"  is  shown  in  the  attitude  of 
pouring  coffee  into  cups  on  a  tray  from  an 
oriental  service  pot. 

The  celebrated  Caffe  Pedrocchi,  the  cen- 
ter of  life  in  the  city  of  Padua,  Italy,  in 
the  early  part  of  the  nineteenth  century, 
is  one  of  the  most  beautiful  buildings 
erected  in  Italy.  Its  use  is  apparent  at 
first  glance.    It  was  begun  in  1816,  opened 


June  9,  1831,  and  completed  in  1842.  An- 
tonio Pedrocchi  (1776-1852),  an  obscure 
Paduan  coffee-house  keeper,  tormented  by 
a  desire  for  glory,  conceived  the  idea  of 
building  the  most  beautiful  coffee  house  in 
the  world,  and  carried  it  out. 

Artists  and  craftsmen  of  all  ages  since 
the  discovery  of  coffee  have  brought  their 
genius  into  play  to  fashion  various  forms 
of  apparatus  associated  with  the  prepara- 
tion of  the  coffee  drink.  Coffee  roasters 
and  grinders  have  been  made  of  brass,  sil- 
ver, and  gold;  coffee  mortars,  of  bronze; 
and  coffee  making  and  serving  pots,  of 
beautiful  copper,  pewter,  pottery,  porce- 
lain, and  silver  designs. 

In  the  Peter  collection  in  the  United 
States  National  Museum  there  is  to  be  seen 
a  fine  specimen  of  the  Bagdad  coffee  pot 
made  of  beaten  copper  and  used  for  mak- 
ing and  serving;  also,  a  beautiful  Turkish 
coffee  set.    In  the  Metropolitan  Museum  in 


600 


ALL     A B  OUT     COFFEE 


Coffee  Geinder  Set  with  Jewels 
In  the  Metropolitan  Museum  of  Art,  New  York 

New  York  there  are  some  beautiful  speci- 
mens of  Persian  and  Egyptian  ewers  in 
faience,  probably  used  for  coffee  service. 
Also,  in  American  and  continental  muse- 
ums are  to  be  seen  many  examples  of  seven- 
teenth-century German,  Dutch,  and  Eng- 
lish bronze  mortars  and  pestles  used  for 
"braying"  coffee  beans  to  make  coffee 
powder, 

A  very  beautiful  specimen  of  the  orien- 
tal coffee  grinder,  made  of  brass  and  teak- 
wood,  set  with  red  and  green  glass  jewels, 
and  inlaid  in  the  teakwood  with  ivory  and 
brass,  is  at  the  Metropolitan,  This  is  of 
Indo-Persian  design  of  the  nineteenth  cen- 
tury. 

The  Metropolitan  Museum  shows  also 
many  specimens  of  pewter  coffee  pots  used 
in  India,  Germany,  Holland,  Belgium, 
France,  Russia,  and  England  in  the  seven- 
teenth and  eighteenth  centuries. 

One  can  guess  at  the  luxuriousness  of  the 
coffee  pots  in  use  in  France  throughout  the 
eighteenth  century  by  noting  that  from 
March  20,  1754,  to  April  16,  1755, 
Louis  XV  bought  no  fewer  than  three  gold 
coffee  pots  of  Lazare  Duvaux,  They  had' 
carved  branches,  and  were  supplied  with 
** chafing  dishes  of  burnished  steel"  and 
lamps  for  spirits  of  wine.  They  cost,  re- 
spectively, 1,950, 1,536,  and  2,400  francs.  In 
the  "inventory  of  Marie- Josephe  de  Saxe, 
Dauphine  of  France",  we  note,  too,  a  "two 


cup  coffee  pot  of  gold  with  its  chafing  dish 
for  spirits  of  wine  in  a  leather  case." 

The  Italian  wrought-iron  eoffee  roaster 
of  the  seventeenth  century  was  often  a 
work  of  art.  The  specimen  illustrated  is 
rich  in  decorative  motifs  associated  with 
the  best  in  Florentine  art. 

Madame  de  Pompadour's  inventory  dis- 
closed a  ' '  gold  coffee  mill,  carved  in  colored 
gold  to  represent  the  branches  of  a  coffee 
tree."  The  art  of  gold,  which  sought  to 
embellish  everything,  did  not  disdain  these 
homely  utensils;  and  one  may  see  at  the 
Cluny  Museum  in  Paris,  among  many  mills 
of  graceful  form,  a  coffee  mill  of  engraved 
iron  dating  from  the  eighteenth  century, 
upon  which  are  represented  the  four  sea- 
sons. We  are  told,  however,  that  it  graced 
the  "sale  after  the  death  of  Mme.  de  Pom- 
padour", which,  of  course,  makes  it  much 
more  valuable, 

"The  tea  pot,  coffee  pot  and  chocolate 
pot  first  used  in  England  closely  resembled 
each  other  in  form",  says  Charles  James 
Jackson  in  his  Illustrated  History  of  Eng- 


Italian  Wrought-Ieon   Coffee  Roaster 
Courtesy  of  Edinon  Monthly 


COFFEE  AND  THE  ARTS 


601 


Tea    Pot,    1670 


Coffee  Pot,  1681 


Coffee  Pot,  1689 


Seventeenth-Century  Tea  Pots  and  Coffee  Pots 


lish  Plate,  ''each  being  circular  in  plan, 
tapering  towards  the  top,  and  having  its 
handle  fixed  at  a  right  angle  with  the 
spout. ' ' 

He  says  further : 

The  earliest  examples  were  of  oriental  ware 
and  the  form  of  these  was  adopted  by  the  Eng- 
lish plate  workers  as  a  model  for  others  of  silver. 
It  apparently  was  iiot  until  after  both  tea  and 
coffee  had  been  used  for  several  years  in  this 
country  [England]  that  the  tea  pot  was  made 
proportionately  less  in  height  and  greater  in 
diameter  than  the  coffee  pot.  This  distinction, 
which  was  probably  due  to  copying  the  forms  of 
Chinese  porcelain  tea  i)ots,  was  afterwards  main- 
tained, and  to  the  present  day  the  difference  be- 
tween the  tea  pot  and  the  coffee  pot  continued 
to  be  mainly  one  of  height. 

The  coffee  pot  illustrated  (1681)  former- 
ly belonged  to  the  East  India  Company, 
and  is  preserved  in  the  Victoria  and  Al- 
bert Museum.  It  is  almost  identical  with 
a  tea  pot  (1670)  in  the  same  museum,  ex- 
cept that  its  straight  spout  is  fixed  nearer 
to  the  base,  as  is  its  leather-covered  handle, 
which,  with  the  sockets  into  which  it  fits, 
forms  a  long  recurving  scroll  fixed  opposite 
to  and  in  line  with  the  spout.  Its  cover, 
which  is  hinged  to  the  upper  handle  socket, 
is  high  like  that  of  the  1670  teapot ;  but  in- 
stead of  the  straight  outline  of  that  cover, 
this  is  slightly  waved  and  surmounted  by 
a  somewhat  flat  button-shaped  knob.  En- 
graved on  the  body  is  a  shield  of  arms,  a 
chevron  between  three  crosses  fleury,  sur- 
rounded by  tied  feathers.    The  inscription 


is,  ''The  Guift  of  Richard  Sterne  Eq  to  ye 
Honorable  East  India  Compa." 

This  pot  is  nine  and  three-quarters 
inches  in  height  by  four  and  seven-eighths 
inches  in  diameter  at  the  base ;  it  bears  the 
London  hall-marks  of  1681  -  82  and  the 
maker's  mark  "G.  G."  in  a  shaped  shield, 
thought  by  Jackson  to  be  George  Gar- 
thorne's  mark. 

The  1689  coffee  pot  illustrated  is  the  prop- 
erty of  King  George  V.  It  bears  the  Lon- 
don hall-marks  of  1689  -  90,  and  the  mark 
of  Francis  Garthorne.  Its  tall,  round  body 
tapers  toward  the  top,  and  has  applied 
moldings  on  the  base  and  rim.  Its  spout 
is  straight  and  tapers  upward  to  the  level 
of  the  rim  of  the  pot.  Its  handle  is  of 
ebony,  crescent-shaped,  and  riveted  into 
two  sockets  fixed  at  a  right  angle  with  the 
spout.  The  lid  is  a  high  cone  surmounted 
by  a  small  vase-shaped  finial,  and  is  hinged 
to  the  upper  socket  of  the  handle.  On  no 
part  of  the  pot  is  there  any  ornamentation 
other  than  the  royal  cipher  of  King  Wil- 
liam III  and  Queen  Mary,  which  is  en- 
graved on  the  reverse  side  of  the  body.  This 
example,  which  measures  nine  inches  in 
height  to  the  top  of  its  cover,  resembles 
very  closely  in  form  the  East  India  Com- 
pany's tea-pot  just  referred  to;  but  as  tea- 
pots with  much  lower  bodies  appear  to  have 
come  into  fashion  before  1689,  this  pot  was 
probably  used  as  a  coffee  pot  from  the  first. 

The  1692  coffee  pot  of  lantern  shape  is 


602 


ALL     ABOUT     COFFEE 


the  property  of  H.  D.  Ellis,  and  has  its 
spout  curved  upward  at  the  top,  being  fur- 
nished with  a  small,  hinged  flap  and  a 
scroll-shaped  thumb-piece  attached  to  the 
rim  of  the  cover.  The  body  and  cover  were 
originally  quite  plain,  the  embossing  and 
chasing  with  symmetrical  rococo  decoration 
being  added  later,  probably  about  1740. 
Jackson  says  the  wooden  handle  is  not  the 
original  one,  which  was  probably  C- 
shaped.  The  pot  bears  the  usual  London 
hall-marks  for  the  year  1692  and  the 
maker's  mark  is  ''G  G"  upon  a  shaped 
shield,  a  mark  recorded  upon  the  copper 
plate  belonging  to  the  Goldsmiths'  com- 
pany, which  Mr,  Cripps  thinks  was  that  of 
George  Garthorne.  The  characteristics  of 
this  lantern  shaped  coffee  pot  are : 

1.  The  straight  sides,  so  rapidly  tapering  from 
tlie  base  upward  that  in  a  height  of  only  six 
inches  the  base  diameter  of  four  and  three- 
eighths  inches  tapers  to  a  diameter  of  no  more 
than  two  and  one-half  inches  at  the  rim. 

2.  The  nearly  straight  spout,  furnislied  with 
a  flap  or  shutter. 

3.  The  true  cone  of  the  lid. 

4.  The  thumb-piece,  which  is  a  familiar  fea- 
ture upon  the  tankards  of  .the  period. 


FOLKINGHAM  POT,  1715  -  IG 


5.  The  handle  fixed  at  right  angles  to  the 
spout. 

Mr.  Ellis,  in  a  paper  before  the  Society 
of  Antiquaries^  on  the  earliest  form  of  cof- 
fee pot,  says: 

If  coffee  was  first  introduced  into  this  country 
by  the  Turkey  merchants,  nothing  is  more  prob- 
able than  that  those  who  first  brought  the  berry, 
brought  also  the  vessel  in  which  it  was  to  be 
served.  Such  a  vessel  would  be  the  Turkish 
ewer  whose  shape  is  familiar  to  us,  the  same 
today  as  two  hundred  years  ago,  for  in  the  East 
things  are  slow  to  change.  And  throughout  the 
reign  of  the  second  Charles,  so  long  as  the  ex- 
tended use  of  coffee  in  the  houses  of  the  people 
was  retarded  by  the  opposition  of  the  Women 
of  England,  and  by  the  scarcely  less  powerful 
influence  of  the  King's  Court,  the  small  require- 
ments of  a  mere  handful  of  coffee-houses  would 
be  easily  met  by  the  importation  of  Turkish  ves- 
sels. Reference  to  the  coffee-house  keepers' 
tokens  in  the  Beaufoy  collection  in  the  Guildhall 
Museum  shows  that  many  of  the  traders  of 
1660  - 1675  adopted  as  their  trade  sign  a  hand 
pouring  coffee  from  a  pot.  This  pot  is  invariably 
of  the  Turkish  ewer  pattern.  It  is  true  that 
there  is  nothing  to  show  that  the  Turks  them- 
selves ever  served  coffee  from  the  ewer,  but  it  is 
scarcely  conceivable  that, the  English  coffee-house 
keepers  should  have  adopted  as  their  trade  sign, 
their  pictorial  advertisement,  so  to  speak,  a  ves- 
sel which  had  no  connection  with  the  commodity 
in  which  they  dealt,  and  which  would  convey  no 
meaning  associated  with  coffee  to  the  public. 
But  as  soon  as  the  extended  use  of  the  beverage 


Lantern  Coffee  Pot,  1692 


^Proceedings:  Second  Series,  1899  (vol.  xvii ; 
p.   390). 


no.  2; 


COFFEE  AND  THE  ARTS 


603 


Wastell  I'oT,  1720  -  21 

created  u  deinaud  which  stimulated  a  home 
manufacture  of  coffee-pots,  a  new  departure  is 
apparent.  The  undulating  outlines  beloved  by 
the  Orientals,  bowed  as  their  scimitars,  curvi- 
linear as  their  graceful  flowing  script,  do  not 
commend  themselves  to  the  more  severe  West- 
ern taste  of  the  period  which  had  then  declared 
its  preference  for  sweet  simplicity  in  silver- 
smiths' work,  such  as  we  see  in  the  basons,  cups, 
and  especially  the  flat-topped  tankards  of  that 
day.  The  beauty  of  the  straight  line  had  as- 
serted its  i>ower.  and  fashion  felt  its  sway. 
Such  was  the  feeling  that  produced  the  coffee-pot 
of  1092,  the  straight  lines  of  which  continued 
in  vogue  until  the  middle  of  the  following  cen- 
tury, when  a  re-action  in  favour  of  bulbous 
bodies  and  sei-i)entine  spouts  set  in. 

Some  of  the  more  notable  of  the  coffee- 
house-keepers' tokens  in  the  Guildhall 
Museum  were  photographed  for  this  work. 
They  are  described  and  illustrated  in 
chapter  X. 

There  are  illustrated  other  silver  coffee 
pots  in  the  Victoria  and  Albert  Museum, 
by  Folkingham  (1715  - 16),  and  by  Wastell 
(1720-21),  the  latter  pot  being  octagonal. 

There  is  illustrated  also  a  design  in  tiles 
that  were  let  into  the  wall  of  an  ancient 
coffee  house  in  Brick  Lane,  Spitalfields, 
known  as  the  "Dish  of  Coffee  Boy"  in  the 
catalog  of  the  collection  of  London  antiq- 
uities in  the  Guildhall  Museum.  Mr.  Ellis 
thinks  this   belongs    to    a    period    a  little 


earlier,  but  certainly  not  later,  than  1692; 
the  coffee  pot  represented  being  exactly  of 
the  lantern  shape.  It  is  an  oblong  sign  of 
glazed  Delft  tiles,  decorated  in  blue, 
brown,  and  yellow,  representing  a  youth 
pouring  coffee.  Upon  a  table,  by  his  side, 
are  a  gazette,  two  pipes,  a  bowl,  a  bottle, 
and  a  mug;  above,  on  a  scroll,  is,  "dish  of 
coffee  boy." 

Modifications  of  the  lantern  began  to  ap- 
pear with  great  rapidity  in  England.  In 
the  coffee  pot  of  Chinese  porcelain,  illus- 
trated, probably  made  in  China  from  an 
English  model  a  few  years  later  than  the 
1692  pot,  Mr.  Ellis  observes  that  "the  spout 
has  already  lost  its  straightness,  the  ex- 
treme taper  of  the  body  is  diminished,  and 
the  lid  betrays  the  first  tendency  to  depart 
from  the  straightness  of  the  cone  to  the 
curved  outline  of  the  dome. ' '    He  adds : 

These  variations  rapidly  intensified,  and  at 
the  commencement  of  the  eighteenth  century  we 
find  the  body  still  less  tapering  and  the  lid  has 
become  a  perfect  dome.  As  we  approach  the  end 
of  Queen  Anne's  reign  the  thumb  piece  disap- 
pears and  the  handle  is  no  longer  set  on  at  right 
angles  to  the  spout.  Through  the  reign  of 
George  I  but  little  modification  took  place,  save 
that  the  taper  of  the  body  became  less  and  less. 
In  the  Second  George's  time  we  find  the  taper 


"Dish  of  Coffee  Boy"  Design  in  Delft  Tiles 
1692 


604 


ALL     ABOUT     COFFEE 


Chinese  Porcelain  Coffee  Pot 
Late  seventeentli  century 


has  almost  entirely  disappeared,  so  that  the 
sides  are  nearly  parallel,  while  the  dome  of  the 
lid  has  been  flattened  down  to  a  very  low  eleva- 
tion above  the  rim.  In  the  second  quarter  of 
the  eighteenth  century  the  pear  shaped  coffee 
pot  was  the  vogue.  In  the  earlier  years  of 
George  III,  when  many  new  and  beautiful  de- 
signs in  silversmiths'  work  were  created,  a  com- 
plete revolution  in  coffee-pots  takes  place,  and 
the  flowing  outlines  of  the  new  pattern  recall 
the  form  of  the  Turkish  ewer,  which  had  been 
discarded  nearly  one  hundred  years  previously. 

The  evolution  is  shown  by  illustrations  of 
Lord  Swaythling's  pot  of  1731;  the  coffee 
jug  of  1736 ;  the  Vincent  pot  of  1738 ;  the 
Viscountess  Wolseley's  coffee  pot  of  copper 
plated  with  silver ;  the  Irish  coffee  pot  of 
1760 ;  and  the  silver  coffee  pots  of  1773  -  76 
and  of  1779-80  (see  illustrations  on  pages 
604,  605  and  607). 

There  are  illustrated  in  this  connection 
specimens  of  coffee  pots  in  stoneware  by 
Elers  (1700),  and  in  salt  glaze  by  Astbury, 
and  another  of  the  period  about  1725. 
These  are  in  the  department  of  British  and 
medieval  antiquities  of  the  British  Mu- 
seum, where  are  to  be  seen  also  some 
beautiful  specimens  of  coffee-service  pots  in 


Vincent  Pot,   Hall-marked,   London,    1738  Lord  Swaythling's  Pot,  1731 

Silver  Coffee  Pots,  Early  Eighteenth  Century 
From    Jackson's    "Ulustrated   History    of   English    Plate" 


COFFEE  AND  THE  ARTS 


605 


A  ScoFiELu  Pot  of  1779  -  80  Coffee  Juo,  173G 

SILVER  COFFEE  POTS  OF  THE  EIGHTEENTH  CENTURY 


606 


ALL     ABOUT     COFFEE 


Salt-Glaze    I'ot 
By  John  Astbury 


Salt-Glaze    Pot 
About    1725 


POTS  IN  POTTERY  AND  PORCELAIN  18TH  TO  20TH  CENTURIES 

1  —  Staffordshire;  2  —  English,  eighteen  to  twentieth  centuries;  3  —  English,  blue  printed  ware,  eigh- 
teenth to  nineteenth  centuries;  4  —  Leeds,  1760-1790;  5  —  Staffordshire,  nineteenth  to  twentieth 
centuries 


COFFEE  AND  THE  ARTS 


607 


:itiaej!idiMjii,&!'^- 


Silver  Coffee  Pots,  Late  Eighteenth  Century 
Left,  1776-77.     Right,  1773-4. 


Whieldon  ware,  and  in  Wedgwood's  jasper 
ware. 

Illustrated,  too,  are  some  beautiful 
examples  of  the  art  of  the  potter,  applied 
to  coffee  service,  as  found  in  the  Metropol- 
itan Museum,  where  they  have  been 
brought  from  many  countries.  Included 
are  Leeds  and  Staffordshire  examples  of 
the  eighteenth,  nineteenth,  and  twentieth 
centuries;  a  Sino-Lowestoft  pot  of  the 
eighteenth-nineteenth  centuries;  an  Italian 
(capodinionte)  pot  of  the  eighteenth  cen- 
tury; German  pots  of  the  eighteenth  and 
nineteenth  centuries;  a  Vienna  coffee  pot  of 
the  eighteenth  century;  a  French  {La 
Seine)  coffee  pot  of  1774-1793,  a  Sevres 
pot  of  1792-1804;  and  a  Spanish  eigh- 
teenth-century coffee  pot  decorated  in  cop- 
per luster. 

At  the  Metropolitan  may  be  seen  also 
Hatfield  and  Sheffield-plate  pots  of  the 
eighteenth  and  nineteenth  centuries;  and 
many  examples  of    silver    tea    and    coffee 


service  and  coffee  pots  by  American  silver- 
smiths. 

Silver  tea  pots  and  coffee  pots  were  few 
in  America  before  the  middle  of  the 
eighteenth  century.  Early  coffee-pot 
examples  were  tapering  and  cylindrical  in 
form,  and  later  matched  the  tea  pots  with 
swelling  drums, ,  molded  bases,  decorated 
spouts,  and  molded  lids  with  finials. 

From  notes  by  R.  T.  Haines  Halsey  and 
John  H.  Buck,  collected  by  Florence  N, 
Levy  and  woven  into  an  introduction  to 
the  Metropolitan  Museum's  art  exhibition 
catalog  for  the  Hudson-Fulton  celebration 
of  1909,  we  learn  that : 

The  first  silver  made  in  New  England  was 
probably  fashioned  by  English  or  Scotch  emi- 
grants who  had  served  their  time  abroad.  TJiey 
were  followed  by  craftsmen  who  were  either 
born  here,  or,  like  John  Hull,  arriving  at  an 
early  age,  learned  their  trade  on  this  side. 

In  England  it  was  required  that  every  master 
goldsmith  should  have  his  mark  and  set  it  upon 
his  work  after  it  was  assayed  and  marked  with 
the  king's  mark  (hall-mark)  testifying  to  the 
fineness  of  the  metal. 


608 


ALL     ABOUT     COFFEE 


SlNO-LOWESTOFT,   EIGHTEENTH  TO  NINETEENTH  CENTURIES 


Italian   Capodimoate,   Eighteenth    Centuky 


La  Seine,  1774  Sevres,  1792  German  1'ots,  Eighteenth  Century 

PORCELAIN  POTS  IN  THE  METROPOLITAN  MUSEUM,  NEW  YORK 


COFFEE  AND  THE  ARTS 


609 


The  Colonial  silversmiths  marked  their  wares 
with  their  initials,  with  or  without  emblems, 
placed  in  shields,  circles,  etc.,  \\-ithout  any  guide 
as  to  place  of  manufacture  or  date.  After  about 
1725  it  was  the  custom  to  use  the  surname,  with 
or  without  an  initial,  and  sometimes  the  full 
name.  Since  the  establishment  of  the  United 
States  the  name  of  the  town  was  often  added 
and  also  the  letters  D  or  C  in  a  circle,  probably 
meaning  dollar  or  coin,  showing  the  standard  or 
coin  from  which  the  wares  were  made. 

In  the  New  York  colony  there  were 
evolved  silver  tea  pots  of  a  unique  design, 
that  was  not  used  elsewhere  in  the  colonies. 
Mr.  Halsey  says  they  were  used  indiscrim- 
inately for  both  tea  and  coffee.  In  style 
they  followed,  to  a  certain  extent,  the  squat 
pear-shaped  tea  pots  of  the  period  of  1717- 
18  in  England,  but  had  greater  height  and 
capacity. 

The  colonial  silversmiths  wrought  many 
beautiful  designs  in  coffee,  tea,  and  choco- 
late pots.  Fine  specimens  are  to  be  seen  in 
the  Halsey  and  Clearwater  loan  collections 
in  the  Metropolitan  Museum.  Included  in 
the  Clearwater  collection  is  a  coffee  pot  by 
Pygan  Adams  (1712-1776)  ;  and  recently, 
there  was  added  a  coffee  pot  by  Ephraim 


Vienna  Coffee  Pot,  1830 

In  the  MetroDolitan  Museum  of  Art 


Spanish  Coffee  Pot,  Eighteenth  Century 
In  the  Metropolitan  Museum 

Brasher,  whose  name  appears  in  the  New 
York  City  Directory  from  1786  to  1805.  He 
was  a  member  of  the  Gold  and  Silver- 
smiths' Society,  and  he  made  the  die  for 
the  famous  gold  doubloon,  known  by  his 
name,  a  specimen  of  which  recently  sold  in 
Philadelphia  for  $4,000.  His  brother,  Ab- 
raham Brasher,  who  was  an  officer  in  the 
continental  army,  wrote  many  popular  bal- 
lads of  the  Eevolutionary  period,  and  was 
a  constant  contributor  to  the  newspapers. 

Judge  Clearwater's  collection  of  colonial 
silver  in  the  Metropolitan  Museum,  to 
which  he  is  constantly  adding,  is  a  magnifi- 
cent one;  and  the  coffee  pot  is  worthy  of 
it.  It  is  thirteen  and  one-half  inches  high, 
weighs  forty-four  ounces,  exclusive  of  the 
ebony  handle,  has  a  curved  body  and 
splayed  base,  with  a  godrooned  band  to  the 
base  and  a  similar  edge  to  the  cover.  The 
spout  is  elaborate  and  curved;  the  cover 
has  an  urn-shaped  finial ;  and  there  is  a  dec- 
oration of  an  engraved  medallion  sur- 
rounded by  a  wreath  with  a  ribbon  form- 
ing a  true  lover's  knot. 

In  the  Halsey  collection  is  shown  a  silver 
coffee  pot  by  Samuel  Minott,  and  several 
beautiful  specimens  of  the  handiwork  of 
Paul  Revere,  whose  name  is  more  often  con- 
nected with  the  famous  "midnight  ride" 
than  with  the  art  of  the  silversmith.    Of  all 


610 


ALL    ABOUT     COFFEE 


l'.\'   Samiu-l   ;\Iitiott 
Halsey   Collection 


By  Charles  Hatfield 

Metropolitan    Miis<.'um    of    Art 


By    Pygan    Adams 
Clearwater   Coileciion 


London  Pot,  1773-74  By  Jacob  Hurd  By  Paul  Revere 

FuoM  Francis  Hill  Bigelow's  "Histokic  Silver  of  the  Colonies" 


English  Sheffield  Plate  Coffee  Pots  and  Coffee  Urn,  Eighteenth  Century 
SILVER  COFFEE  POTS  IN  AMERICAN  COLLECTIONS 


COFFEE  AND  THE  ARTS 


611 


the  American  silversmiths,  Paul  Revere 
was  the  most  interesting.  Not  only  was  he 
a  silversmith  of  renown,  but  a  patriot, 
soldier,  grand  master  Mason,  confidential 
agent  of  the  state  of  Massachusetts  Bay, 
engraver,  picture-frame  designer,  and  die- 
sinker.  He  was  born  in  Boston  in  1735, 
and  died  in  1818.  He  was  the  most  famous 
of  all  the  Boston  silversmiths,  although  he 
is  more  widely  known  as  a  patriot.  He  was 
the  third  of  a  family  of  twelve  children, 
and  early  entered  his  father's  shop.  When 
only  nineteen,  his  father  died;  but  he  was 
able  to  carry  on  the  business.  The  engrav- 
ing on  his  silver  bears  witness  to  his  abil- 
ity. He  engraved  also  on  copper,  and  made 
many  political  cartoons.  He  joined  the  ex- 
pedition against  the  French  at  Crown 
Point,  and  in  the  war  of  the  Revolution  was 
a  lieutenant-colonel  of  artillery.  After  the 
close  of  the  war,  he  resumed  his  business  of 
a  goldsmith  and  silversmith  in  1783.  De- 
cidedly a  man  of  action,  he  well  played 
many  parts ;  and  in  all  his  manifold  under- 


tt) 

1 

^^HpIS  V\A 

Coffee  Pot  by  Wm.  Shaw  and  Wm.  Priest 

Made  for  Peter  Faneuil  (about  1751-52),  who  gave 
to  Boston  Faneuil  Hall,  called  the  cradle  of  Ameri- 
can liberty 


Poj  OF  Sheffield  I'late,  18th  Ce>tuky 
In  the  Metropolitan  Museum 


Silver  1'ot  by  Ephkaiji  J{rasiiek 
In  the  Clearwater  Collection,  Metropolitan  Museum 


612 


ALL     ABOUT     COFFEE 


French  Silver  Coffee  Pot 
Grand,  Prize,  Union  Centrale,  1886. 

takings  achieved  brilliant  success.  There 
clings,  therefore,  to  the  articles  of  silver 
made  by  him  an  element  of  romantic  and 
patriotic  association  which  endears  them  to 
those  who  possess  them. 

Eevere  had  a  real  talent  that  enabled 
him  to  impart  an  unwonted  elegance  to  his 
work,  and  he  was  famous  as  an  engraver  of 
the  beautiful  crests,  armorial  designs,  and 
floral  wreaths  that  adorn  much  of  his  work. 
His  tea  pots  and  coffee  pots  are  unusually 
beautiful. 

Eevere  coffee  pots  are  to  be  seen  in  the 
Boston  Museum  of  Fine  Arts  as  well  as  in 
the  Metropolitan  Museum  in  New  York. 
The  Boston  Museum  of  Fine  Arts  has  also 
a  coffee  pot  made  by  William  Shaw  and 
William  Priest  in  1751-52  for  Peter 
Faneuil,  the  wealthiest  Bostonian  of  his 
time,  who  gave  to  Boston  Faneuil  Hall, 
New  England's  cradle  of  American  liberty. 

Among  other  American  silversmiths  who 
produced  striking  designs  in  coffee  pots, 
mention  should  be  made  of  G-.  Aiken 
(1815)  ;  Garrett  Eoff  (New  York,  1785  - 
1850)  ;  Charles  Faris  (who  worked  in  Bos- 
ton about  1790)  ;  Jacob  Hurd  (1702  - 1758, 
known  in  Boston  as  Captain  Hurd)  ;  John 


McMullin  (mentioned  in  the  Philadelphia 
Directory  for  1796)  ;  James  Musgrave 
(mentioned  in  Philadelphia  directories  of 
1797,  1808,  and  1811)  ;  Myer  Myers  (ad- 
mitted as  freeman.  New  York,  1746 ;  active 
until  1790;  president  of  the  New  York 
Silversmiths  Society,  1786)  ;  and  Anthony 
Rasch  (who  is  known  to  have  worked  in 
Philadelphia,  1815). 

In  the  museums  of  the  many  historical 
societies  throughout  the  United  States  are 
to  be  seen  interesting  specimens  of  coffee 
pots  in  pewter,  Britannia  metal,  and  tin 
ware,  as  well  as  in  pottery,  porcelain,  and 
silver.    Some  of  these  are  illustrated. 

As  in  other  branches  of  art  during  the 
seventeenth  and  eighteenth  centuries,  the 
United  States  were  indebted  to  England, 
Holland,  and  France  for  much  of  the  early 
pottery  and  porcelain.  Elers,  Astbury, 
Whieldon,  Wedgwood,  their  imitators,  and 
the  later  Staffordshire  potters,  flooded  the 
American  market  with  their  wares.  Por- 
celain was  not  made  in  this  country  pre- 
vious to  the  nineteenth  century.  Decora- 
tive pottery  was  made  here,  however,  from 
an  early  period.  Britannia  ware  began  to 
take  the  place  of  pewter  in  1825 ;  and  the 


The  Green  Dragon  Tavern  Coffee  Ubn 


COFFEE  AND  THE  ARTS 


613 


By    an    unknown    silversmith 


By  Paul  Revere 


By  I'aul  Revere 


Coffee  Pots  by  American  Silversmiths 


introduction  of  japanned  tin  ware  and  pot- 
tery gradually  caused  the  manufacture  of 
pewter  to  be  abandoned. 

An  interesting  relic  is  in  the  collection  of 
the  Bostonian  Society.  It  is  a  coffee  urn  of 
Sheffield  ware,  formerly  in  the  Green  Dra- 
gon tavern,  which  stood  on  Union  Street 
from  1697  to  1832,  and  was  a  famous  meet- 
ing place  of  the  patriots  of  the  Revolu- 
tion. It  is  globular  in  form,  and  rests  on 
a  base ;  and  inside  is  still  to  be  seen  the 


cylindrical  piece  of  iron  which,  when 
heated,  kept  the  delectable  liquid  contents 
of  the  urn  hot  until  imbibed  by  the  fre- 
quenters of  the  tavern.  The  iron  bar  was 
set  in  a  zinc  or  tin  jacket  to  keep  such 
fire-place  ashes  as  still  clung  to  it  from 
coming  in  contact  with  the  coffee,  which 
w^as  probably  brewed  in  a  stew  kettle  be- 
fore being  poured  into  the  urn  for  serv- 
ing. The  Green  Dragon  tavern  site,  now 
occupied  by  a  business  structure,  is  owned 


Twentieth-Century  American  Coffee  Service 
The  Portsmouth  Pattern,  by  the  Gorham  Co. 


614 


ALL     ABOUT     COFFEE 


i)y  the  St.  Andrew's  Lodge  of  Freemasons 
of  Boston;  and  at  a  recent  gathering  of 
the  lodge  on  St.  Andrew's  Day,  the  urn 
was  exhibited  to  the  assembled  brethren. 

When  the  contents  of  the  tavern  were 
sold,  the  urn  was  bought  by  Mrs.  Eliza- 
beth Harrington,  who  then  kept  a  famous 
boarding-house  on  Pearl  Street,  in  a  build- 
ing owned  by  the  Quincy  family.  The 
house  was  razed  in  1847,  and  was  replaced 
by  the  Quincy  Block;  and  Mrs.  Harring- 
ton removed  to  High  Street,  and  from  there 
to  Chauncey  Place.  Some  of  the  promi- 
nent men  of  Boston  boarded  with  her  for 
many  years.  At  her  death,  the  urn  w^as' 
given  to  her  daughter,  Mrs.  John  R.  Brad- 
ford. It  was  presented  to  the  society  by 
Miss  Phebe  C.  Bradford,  of  Boston,  grand- 
daughter of  Mrs.  Elizabeth  Harrington. 

A  somewhat  similar  urn,  made  of  pewter, 
is  in  the  Museum  of  the  Maine  Historical 
Society  of  Portland,  Me. ;  another  in  the 
Museum  of  the  Essex  Institute  at  Salem, 
Mass. 


Among  the  many  treasured  relics  of 
Abraham  Lincoln  is  an  old  Britannia  coffee 
pot  from  which  he  was  regularly  served 
while  a  boarder  with  the  Rutledge  family 
at  the  Rutledge  inn  in  New  Salem  (now 
Menard) ,  111.  It  was  a  valued  utensil,  and 
Lincoln  is  said  to  have  been  very  fond  of 
it.     It  is  illustrated  on  page  690. 

The  pot  is  now  the  property  of  the  Old 
Salem  Lincoln  League,  of  Petersburg,  111., 
and  was  donated  to  it,  with  other  relics,  by 
Mrs.  Saunders,  of  Sisquoc,  Cal.,  the  only 
surviving  child  of  James  and  Mary  Ann 
Rutledge.  Mrs.  Rutledge  carefully  pre- 
served this  and  other  relics  of  New  Salem 
days ;  and  shortly  before  her  death  in  1878, 
she  gave  them  into  the  keeping  of  her 
daughter,  Mrs.  Saunders,  advising  her  to 
preserve  them  until  such  time  as  a  perma- 
nent home  for  them  would  be  provided  by 
a  grateful  people  back  at  New  Salem, 
where  they  were  associated  with  the  im- 
mortal Lincoln  and  his  tragic  romance 
with  her  daughter  Ann. 


Turkish  Coffee  Set,  Peter  Collection,  United  States  National  Museum,  Washington 


Chapter  XXXIV 

THE     EVOLUTION     OF     COFFEE     APPARATUS 

Showing  the  development  of  coffee-roasting,  coffee- grinding,  coffee- 
making,  and  coffee-serving  devices  from  the  earliest  time  to  the  pres- 
ent day  —  The  original  coffee  grinder,  the  first  coffee  roaster,  and 
the  first  coffee  pot  —  The  original  Fremh  drip  pot,  the  De  Belloy  per- 
colator—  Count  Rumford's  improvement  —  How  the  commercial 
coffee  roaster  was  developed  —  The  evolution  of  filtration  devices  — 
The  old  Carter'' pull-out"  roaster  —  Trade  customs  in  New  York  and 
St.  Louis  in  the  sixties  and  seventies  —  The  story  of  the  evolution  of 
the  Burns  roaster  —  How  the  gas  roaster  was  developed  in  France, 
Great  Britain,  and  the  United  States 


A  BOOK  could  be  written  on  the  sub- 
ject of  this  chapter.  We  shall  have 
to  be  content  to  touch  briefly  upon 
the  important  developments  in  the  devices 
employed.  The  changes  that  have  taken 
place  in  the  preparation  of  the  drink  itself 
will  be  discussed  in  chapter  XXXVI, 

In  the  beginning,  that  is,  in  Ethiopia, 
about  800  A.D.,  coffee  was  looked  upon  as 
a  food.  The  whole  ripe  berries,  beans  and 
hulls,  were  crushed,  and  molded  into  food 
balls  held  in  shape  with  fat.  Later,  the 
dried  berries  were  so  treated.  So  the  primi- 
tive stone  mortar  and  pestle  were  the 
original  coffee  grinder. 

The  dried  hulls  and  the  green  beans  were 
first  roasted,  some  time  between  1200  and 
1300,  in  crude  burnt  clay  dishes  or  in  stone 
vessels,  over  open  fires.  These  were  the 
original  roasting  utensils. 

Next,  the  coffee  beans  were  ground  be- 
tween little  millstones,  one  turning  above 
the  other.  Then  came  the  mill  used  by 
the  Greeks  and  Romans  for  grain.  This 
mill  consisted  of  two  conical  mill  stones, 
one  hollow  and  fitted  over  the  other,  speci- 
mens of  which  have  been  found  in  Pompeii. 
The  idea  is  the  same  as  that  employed  in 
the  most  modern  rnetal  grinder. 


Between  1400  and  1500,  individual  earth- 
enware and  metal  coffee-roasting  plates  ap- 
peared. These  were  circular,  from  four  to 
six  inches  in  diameter,  about  He  inch  thick, 
slightly  concave  and  pierced  with  smaU 
holes,  something  like  the  modern  kitchen 
skimmer.  They  were  used  in  Turkey  and 
Persia  for  roasting  a  few  beans  at  a  time 
over  braziers  (open  pans,  or  basins,  for 
holding  live  coals).  The  braziers  were  usu- 
ally mounted  on  feet  and  richly  orna- 
mented. 

About  the  same  time  we  notice  the  first 
appearance  of  the  familiar  Turkish  pocket 
cylinder  coffee  mill  and  the  original  Turk- 
ish ibrik,  or  coffee  boiler,  made  of  metal. 
Little  drinking  cups  of  Chinese  porcelain 
completed  the  service. 

The  original  coffee  boiler  was  not  unlike 
the  English  ale  mug  with  no  cover,  smaller 
at  the  top  than  at  the  bottom,  fitted  with 
a  grooved  lip  for  pouring,  and  a  long 
straight  handle.  They  were  made  of  brass, 
and  in  sizes  to  hold  from  one  to  six  tiny 
cupfuls.  A  later  improvement  was  of  the 
ewer  design,  with  bulbous  body,  collar  top, 
and  cover. 

The  Turkish  coffee  grinder  seems  to  have 
suggested  the  individual  cylinder  roaster 


615 


616 


ALL     ABOUT     COFFEE 


Oldkst  Coi-iEE  Grinder 


Ancient   Egyptian    mortar   and    pestle,   probably    used 
for  pounding  coffee 

which  later  (1650)  became  common,  and 
from  which  developed  the  huge  modern 
cylinder   commercial  roasting  machines. 

The  individual  coffee  service  of  early  civ- 
ilization first  employed  crude  clay  bowls  or 
dishes  for  drinking;  but  as  early  as  1350, 
Persian,  Egyptian,  and  Turkish  ewers, 
made  of  pottery,  were  used  for  serving.  In 
the  seventeenth  century,  ewers  of  similar 
pattern,  but  made  of  metal,  were  the  favor- 
ite coffee-serving  devices  in  oriental  coun- 
tries and  in  western  Europe. 

Between  1428  and  1448,  a  spice  grinder 
standing  on  four  legs  was  invented ;  and 
this  was  later  used  for  grinding  coffee.  The 
drawer  to  receive  the  ground  coffee  was 
added  in  the  eighteenth  century. 

Between  1500  and  1600,  shallow  iron 
dippers  with  long  handles  and  foot-rests. 
designed  to  stand  in  open  fires,  were  used 
in  Bagdad,  and  by  the  Arabs  in  Mesopo- 
tamia, for  roasting  coffee.  These  roasters 
had  handles  about  thirty-four  inches  long, 
and  the  bowls  were  eight  inches  in  diameter. 
They  were  accompanied  by  a  metal  stirrer 
(spatula)  for  turning  the  beans. 


Another  type  of  roaster  was  developed 
about  1600.  It  was  in  the  shape  of  an  iron 
spider  on  legs,  and  was  designed,  like  that 
just  described,  to  sit  in  open  fires.  At  this 
period  pewter  serving  pots  were  first  used. 

Between  1600  and  1632,  mortars  and 
pestles  of  wood,  iron,  brass,  and  bronze 
came  into  common  use  in  Europe  for  bray- 
ing the  roasted  beans.  For  several  cen- 
turies, coffee  connoisseurs  held  that  pound- 
ing the  beans  in  a  mortar  was  superior  to 
grinding  in  the  most  efficient  mill.  Pere- 
grine White's  parents  brought  to  America 
on  the  Mayflower,  in  1620,  a  wooden  mor- 
tar and  pestle  that  were  used  for  braying 
coffee  to  make  coffee  "powder." 

"When  La  Roque  speaks  of  his  father 
bringing  back  to  Marseilles  from  Constanti- 


TiiE  First  Coffee  Roaster,  About  1400 

nople  in  1644  the  instruments  for  making 
coffee,  he  undoubtedly  refers  to  the  indi- 
vidual devices  which  at  that  time  in  the 
Orient  included  the  roaster  plate,  the  cylin- 
der grinder,  the  small  long-handled  boiler, 
and  fenjeyns  ( find jans), the  little  porcelain 
drinking  cups. 


Grain  Mill  of  Greeks  and  Romans 
Also  used  for  grinding  coffee 


The  First  Cylinder  Roaster,  About  1650 

When  Bernier  visited  Grand  Cairo  about 
the  middle  of  the  seventeenth  century,  in 
all  the  city's  thousand-odd  coffee  houses  he 
found  but  two  persons  who  understood  the 
art  of  roasting  the  bean. 

About  1650,  there  was  developed  the  in- 
dividual cylinder  coffee  roaster  made  of 
metal,  usually  tin  plate  or  tinned  copper, 
suggested  by  the  original  Turkish  pocket 
grinder.  This  was  designed  for  use  over 
open  fires  in  braziers.  There  appeared 
about  this  time  also  a  combined  making- 
and-serving  metal  pot  which  was  undoubt- 
edly the  original  of  the  common  type  of 
pot  that  we  know  today. 

There  appeared  in  England  about  1660, 
Elford's  white  iron  machine  (sheet  iron 
coated  with  tin)   which  was  "turned  on  a 


EVOLUTION  OF  APPARATUS 


617 


HisTOiiicAL    Relics    in    the   Peter   Collection,   United  States  National  Museum 

Bagdad  coffee-roasting  pan  and  stirrer.  2  —  Iron  mortar  and  pestle  used  for  pounding  coffee.  3  —  Coffee 
mill  used  by  General  and  Mrs.  Washington.  4  —  Coffee-roasting  pan  used  at  Mt.  Vernon.  5  —  Bagdad 
coffee    pot    with    crow-bill    spout 


spit  by  a  jack.^  "  This  was  simply  a  larger 
size  of  the  individual  cylinder  roaster,  and 
was  designed  for  family  or  commercial  use. 
Modifications  were  developed  by  the  French 
and  Dutch.  In  the  seventeenth  century  the 
Italians  produced  some  beautiful  designs 
in  wrought-iron  coffee  roasters. 

Before  the  advent  of  the  Elford  machine, 
and  indeed,  for  two  centuries  thereafter, 
it  was  the  common  practise  in  the  home  to 
roast  coffee  in  uncovered  eartlienware  tart 
dishes,  old  pudding  pans,  and  fry  pans. 
Before  the  time  of  the  modern  kitchen 
stove,  it  was  usually  done  over  charcoal 
fires  without  flame. 

The  improved  Turkish  combination  coffee 
grinder  with  folding  handle  and  cup  recep- 

>  A  mechanical  contrivance  that  toolj  the  place  of 
a  boy. 


tacle  for  the  beans,  used  for  grinding, 
boiling,  and  drinking,  was  first  made  in 
Damascus  in  1665.  About  this  period,  the 
Turkish  coffee  set,  including  the  long-han- 
dled boiler  and  the  porcelain  drinking  cups 
in  brass  holders,  also  came  into  vogue. 

In  1665,  Nicholas  Book,  "living  at  the 
Sign  of  the  Frying  Pan  in  St.  Tulies 
street,"  London,  advertised  that  he  was 
"the  only  known  man  for  making  of  mills 
for  grinding  of  coffee  powder,  which  mills 
arc  sold  by  him  from  forty  to  forty-five 
shillings  the  mill." 

By  combining  the  long-handle  idea  con- 
tained in  the  Bagdad  roaster  Avith  that  of 
the  original  cylinder  roaster,  the  Dutch  per- 
fected a  small,  closed,  sheet-iron  cylinder- 
roaster  with  a  long  handle  that  permitted 
its   being   held   and    turned    in    open    fire 


618 


ALL     ABOUT     COFFEE 


places.  From  1670,  and  well  into  the  mid- 
dle of  the  nineteenth  century,  this  type 
of  family  roaster  enjoyed  great  favor  in 
Holland,  France,  England,  and  the  United 
States,  more  especially  in  the  country  dis- 
tricts. The  museums  of  Europe  and  the 
United  States  contain  many  specimens. 
The  iron  cylinder  measured  about  five 
inches  in  diameter,  and  was  from  six  to 
eight  inches  long,  being  attached  to  a  three 
or  four  foot  iron  rod  provided  with  a 
wooden  handle.  The  green  coffee  was  put 
into  the  cylinder  through  a  sliding  door. 
Balancing  the  roaster  over  the  blaze  by 
resting  the  end  of  the  iron  rod  projecting 
from  the  far  end  of  the  roasting  cylinder 
in  a  hook  of  the  usual  fire-place  crane,  the 
house-keeper  was  wont  slowly  to  revolve  the 
cylinder  until  the  beans  had  turned  the 
proper  color. 

Portable  coffee-making  outfits  to  fit  the 
pocket  were  much  in  vogue  in  France  in 
1691.  These  included  a  roaster,  a  grinder, 
a  lamp,  the  oil,  cups,  saucers,  spoons,  cof- 
fee, and  sugar.  The  roaster  was  first  made 
of  tin  plate  or  tinned  copper;  but  for  the 
aristocracy  silver  and  gold  were  used.  In 
1754,  a  white-silver  coffee  roaster  eight 
inches  long  and  four  inches  in  diameter 
was  mentioned  among  the  deliveries  made 
to  the  army  of  the  king  at  Versailles. 

Humphrey  Broadbent,  "the  London  cof- 
fee man"  wrote  in  1722: 

I  liold  it  best  to  roast  coffee  berries  in  an  iron 

Turkish  Coffee  Mill  vessel  full  of  little  holes,  made  to  turn  on  a  spit 

A  fine  specimen  in  the  Peter  collection,  United  States       ^''^''.  ^  cl^arcoal   fire,   keeping   them  oontinually 

National  Museum  turning,  and  sometimes  shaking  them  that  they 


Early  French  Wall  and  Table  Grinders 
Left,   seventeenth-century  coffee  grinder   in   the   Mus^e  de   la    Porte   de    Hal  —  Center,    wall    mill,    eighteenth 

century  —  Right,  iron  mill,  eighteenth  century 


m 


EVOLUTION  OF  APPARATUS 


619 


Bkonze  and  Brass  Moktars  of  the   Seventeenth    Century    Used    for    Making    Coffee    Powder 
Left,  bronze   (Germany) — Center,  brass   (England) — Right,  bronze  (Holland,  1632) 


do  not  burn,  and  when  they  are  taken  out  of 
the  vessel,  spread  'em  on  some  tin  or  iron  plate 
'till  the  vehemency  of  the  lieat  is  vanished ;  I 
would  recommend  to  every  family  to  roast  their 
own  coffee,  for  then  they  will  be  almost  secure 
from  having  any  damaged  berries,  or  any  art 
to  increase  the  weight,  which  is  very  injurious 
to  the  drinkers  of  coffee.  Most  persons  of  dis- 
tinction in  Holland  roast  their  own  berries. 

Between  1700  and  1800,  there  was  de- 
veloped a  type  of  small  portable  household 
stove  to  burn  coke  or  charcoal,  made  of 
iron  and  fitted  with  horizontal  revolving 
cylinders  for  coffee  roasting.  These  were 
provided  with  iron  handles  for  turning.  A 
modification  of  this  type  of  roaster  under 
a  three-sided  hood,  and  standing  on  three 
legs,  was  designed  to  sit  on  the  hearth  of 
open  fire-places,  close  to  the  fire  or  in  the 
smoldering  ashes.  Because  of  its  greater 
capacity,  it  was  probably  used  in  the  inns 
and  coffee  houses  for  roasting  large  batches. 
Still  another  type,  which  made  its  appear- 
ance late  in  the  eighteenth  century,  was  the 
sheet-iron  roaster  suspended  at  the  top  of 
a  tall,  iron,  box-like  compartment,  or  stove, 
in  which  the  fire  was  built.  This,  too,  was 
designed  to  ^roast  coffee  in  comparatively 
large  quantities.  In  some  examples  it  was 
provided  with  legs. 

Great  silver  coffee  pots  ("with  all  the 
utensils  belonging  to  them  of  the  same 
metal")  were  first  used  by  Pascal  at  St.- 
Germain's  fair  in  Paris  in  1672.  It  re- 
mained for  the  English  and  American  sil- 
versmiths to  produce  the  most  beautiful 
forms  of  silver  coffee  pots;  and  there  are 
some  notable  collections  of  these  in  Eng- 
land and  the  Uiiited  States. 


The  oriental  serving  pot  was  nearly  al- 
ways of  metal,  tall,  and,  in  old  models,  of 
graceful  curve,  with  a  slightly  twisted  orna- 
mental beak  in  the  form  of  an  S,  attached 
below  the  middle  of  the  vessel.  A  handle 
ornamented  in  the  same  way  formed  a  deco- 
rative balance. 

In  1692,  the  lantern  straight-line  coffee 
serving  pot  with  true  cone  lid,  thumb-piece, 
and  handle  fixed  at  right  angle  to  the  spout, 
was  introduced  into  England,  succeeding 
the  curved  oriental  serving  pot.  In  1700, 
coffee  pots  made  of  cheaper  metals,  like  tin 
and  Britannia  ware,  began  to  appear  on 
the  home  tables  of  the  people.  In  1701, 
silver  coffee  pots  appeared  in  England  hav- 
ing perfect  domes  and  bodies  less  tapering. 
Between  1700  and  1800,  silver,  gold,  and 
delicate  porcelain  serving  pots  were  the 
vogue  among  European  royalty. 


Early  American  Coffee  Roasters 

Both  the  cast-iron  spiders  and  the  long-handled  roas- 
ters were  used  in  open  fireplaces  previous  to 
1770 


620 


ALL     ABOUT     COFFEE 


In  1704,  Bull's  machine  for  roasting  cof- 
fee was  patented  in  England.  This  prob- 
ably marks  the  first  use  of  coal  for  com- 
mercial roasting. 

In  1710,  the  popular  coffee  roaster  in 
French  homes  was  a  dish  of  varnished  earth- 
enware. This  same  year  a  novelty  was 
introduced  in  France  in  the  shape  of  a 
fustian  (linen)  bag  for  infusing  ground 
coffee. 

By  1714,  the  thumb-piece  on  English 
serving  pots  had  disappeared,  and  the  han- 
dle was  no  longer  set  at  a  right  angle  to 
the  spout.  English  coffee-pot  bodies  showed 
a  further  modification  in  1725,  the  taper 
becoming  less  and  less. 

Coffee  grinders  were  so  common  in  France 
in  1720  that  they  were  to  be  had  for  a 
dollar  and  twenty  cents  each.  Their  de- 
velopment by  the  French  had  been  rapid 
from  the  original  spice  grinder.  At  first, 
they  were  known  as  coffee  mills ;  but  in  the 
eighteenth  century,  roasters  came  to  be 
known  by  that  name.  They  were  made  of 
iron,  retaining  the  same  principle  of  the 
horizontal  mill-stones  —  one  of  which  is 
fixed  while  the  other  moves  —  that  the  an- 
cients employed  for  grinding  wheat.  They 
'were  squat,  box-shaped  affairs,  having  in 
the  center  a  shank  of  iron  that  revolved 
upon  a  fixed,  corrugated  iron  plate.  There 
was  also  the  style  that  fastened  to  the  wall. 
At  first,  the  drawer  to  receive  ground  cof- 
fee was  missing,  but  this  was  supplied  in 
later  types.  Before  its  invention,  the 
ground  coffee  was  received  in   a  sack   of 


Roaster  with  Three- Sided  Hood 

It  succeeded  the  cast-iron  spider,  and  was  suspended 
from  a  crane,  or  stood  in  the  embers 


Roasting,  Making,  and  Serving  Devices 
■Rarly  seventeenth  century,  as  pictured  by  Dufour 

greased  leather,  or  in  one  treated  on  the 
outside  with  beeswax  —  probably  the  origi- 
nal of  the  duplex  paper  bag  for  conserving 
the  flavor. 

The  French  brought  their  innate  artistic 
talents  to  bear  upon  coffee  grinders,  just 
as  they  did  upon  roasters  and  serving  pots. 
In  many  instances  they  made  the  outer  parts- 
of  silver  and  of  gold. 

By  1750,  the  straight-line  serving  pot  in 
England  had  begun  to  yield  to  the  re- 
actionary movement  in  art  favoring  bulb- 
ous bodies  and  serpentine  spouts. 

About  1760,  French  inventors  began  to 
devote  themselves  to  improvements  in  cof- 
fee-making devices.  Donmartin,  a  Paris 
tinsmith,  in  1763,  invented  an  urn  pot  that 
employed  a  flannel  sack  for  infusing.  An- 
other infusion  device,  produced  the  same 
year  by  L'Aine,  also  a  tinsmith  of  Paris, 
was  known  as  a  diligence. 

A  complete  revolution  in  the  style  of 
English  serving  pots  took  place  in  1770, 


EVOLUTION  OF  APPARATUS 


621 


English  and  French  Coffee  Grinders 
Nineteenth  century 

with  a  return  to  the  flowing  lines  of  the 
Turkish  ewer ;  and  between  1800  and  1900, 
there  was  a  gradual  return  to  the  style  of 
serving  pot  having  the  handle  at  a  right 
angle  to  the  spout. 

In  1779,  Richard  Dearman  was  granted 
an  English  patent  on  a  new  method  of  mak- 
ing mills  for  grinding  coffee.  In  1798,  the 
first  American  patent  on  an  improved  cof- 
fee grinding  mill  -was  granted  to  Thomas 
Bruff,  Sr.  It  was  a  wall  mill,  fitted  with 
iron  plates,  in  which  the  coffee  was  ground 
between  two  circular  nuts,  three  inches 
broad  and  having  coarse  teeth  around  their 
centers  and  fine  shallow  teeth  at  the  edges. 

De  Belloy's  (or  Du  Belloy's)  coffee  pot 
appeared  in  Paris  about  1800.  It  was  first 
made  of  tin;  but  later,  of  porcelain  and 
silver  —  the  original  French  drip  pot.  This 
device  was  never  patented;  but  it  appears 
to  have  furnished  the  inspiration  for  many 
inventors  in  France,  England,  and  the 
United  States.  The  first  French  patent 
on  a  coffee  maker  was  granted  to  Denobe, 
Henrion,  and  Rouch  in  1802.  It  was  for 
a  "pharmacological-chemical  coffee-making 
device  by  infusion."  Charles  Wyatt  ob- 
tained a  patent  the  same  year  in  London 
on  an  apparatus  for  distilling  coffee.  The 
De  Belloy  pot  is  illustrated  on  page  622. 

In  1806,  Hadrot  was  granted  a  French 
patent  on  a  device  ' '  for  filtering  coffee  with- 
out boiling  and  bathed  in  air."  This  use 
of  the  word  filtering  was  misleading,  as  it 
was  many  times  after  in  French,  English, 


and  American  patent  nomenclature,  where 
it  often  meant  percolation  or  something 
quite  different  from  filtration.  True  per- 
colation means  to  drip  through  fine  inter- 
stices of  china  or  metal.  Filtration  means 
to  drip- through  a  porous  substance,  usually 
cloth  or  paper.  De  Belloy's  pot  was  a 
percolator.  So  was  Hadrot 's.  The  im- 
provement on  which  Hadrot  got  his  patent 
was  to  "replace  the  white  iron  filter  (sic) 
used  in  ordinary  filtering  pots  by  a  filter 
composed  of  hard  tin  and  bismuth"  and 
to  use  ' '  a  rammer  of  the  same  metal,  pierced 
with  holes."  The  rammer  was  designed  to 
press  down  and  to  smooth  out  the  powdered 
coffee  in  an  even  and  uniform  fashion.  ' '  It 
also,"  says  Hadrot  in  his  specification, 
' '  stops  the  derangement  which  boiling  water 
poured  from  a  height  can  produce.  It  is 
held  by  its  stem  a  half  inch  from  the  sur- 
face of  the  powder  so  that  it  receives  only 
the  action  of  the  water  which  it  divides  and 
facilitates  thus  the  extraction  which  it  must 
produce  in  each  of  the  particles." 

A  coffee  percolator  was  invented  in  Paris 
about  1806  by  Benjamin  Thompson,  F.R.S., 
an  American-British  scientist,  philanthrop- 
ist, and  administrator.  He  was  known  as 
Count  Rumford,  a  title  bestowed  on  him 
by  the  Pope.  Rumford 's  invention  was 
first  given  to  the  public  in  London  in  1812. 
He  has  gained  great  credit  for  his  device, 
because  of  an  elaborate  essay  that  he  wrote 
on  it  in  Paris  under  the  title  of  The  excel- 


Eighteenth-Century  Roaster 
Essex  Institute,  Salem,  Mass. 


622 


ALL     ABOUT     COFFEE 


The  Original  Feencjh  Drip  Pot 
Cafetidre  A  la  De  Belloy 

lent  qualities  of  coffee  and  the  art  of  mak- 
ing it  in  the  highest  perfection,  and  that 
he  caused  to  be  published  in  London  in 
1812.  It  was  a  simple  percolator  pot  pro- 
vided with  a  hot-water  jacket,  and  was  a 
real  improvement  on  the  French  drip  or 
percolator  coffee  pot  invented  by  De  Belloy, 
but  not  at  all  unlike  Hadrot's  patented  de- 
vice. Count  Rumford,  however,  was  a 
picturesque  character,  and  a  good  adver- 
tiser. He  is  generally  credited  with  the 
invention  of  the  coffee  percolator;  but  ex- 
amination of  his  device  shows  that,  strictly 
speaking,  the  De  Belloy  pot  was  just  as 
much  a  percolator,  and  apparently  ante- 
dated it  by  about  six  years. 

De  Belloy  employed  the  principle  of  hav- 
ing the  boiling  water  drip  through  the 
ground  coffee  when  held  in  suspension  by 
a  perforated  metal  or  porcelain  grid.    This 


is  true  percolation.  Hadrot  did  the  same 
thing  with  the  improvements  noted  above. 
Count  Rumford  in  his  essay  admits  that 
this  method  of  making  coffee  was  not  new, 
but  claims  his  improvement  was.  This  was 
to  provide  a  rammer  for  compressing  the 
ground  coffee  in  the  upper  or  percolating 
device  into  a  definite  thickness,  this  being 
accomplished  by  providing  the  perforated 
circular  tin  disk  water-spreader  that  rested 
on  the  ground  coffee  with  four  projections, 
or  feet,  that  kept  the  spreader  within  half 
an  inch  of  the  grid  holding  the  powder  in 
suspension  and  free  from  "agitation." 

His  argument  was  that  two-thirds  of  an 
inch  of  ground  coffee  should  be  leveled  and 
compressed  into  a  half-inch  thickness  be- 
fore the  boiling  water  was  introduced. 
Practically  the  same  result  was  achieved 
in  the  De  Belloy  and  Hadrot  pots,  also  pro- 
vided with  water-spreaders  and  pluggers, 
but  the  same  mathematical  exactitude  in 
the  matter  of  the  depth  of  the  ground  coffee 
before  the  percolation  started  was  not  as- 
sured. De  Belloy 's  spreader  did  not  have 
the  projections  on  the  under  side  upon 
which  Count  Rumford  laid  such  stress. 
Then  there  was  the  hot-water  jacket,  which 
was  an  improvement  on  Hadrot's  hot  air 
bath.  Inventors  that  followed  Rumford 
have  made  light  of  the  importance  that 
he  attached  to  scientific  accuracy  in  coffee- 
making;  but  it  is  interesting  to  note  how 
many  of  the  features  of  the  De  Belloy, 
Hadrot,  and  Rumford  pots  have  been  re- 
tained in  the  modern  complex  coffee  ma- 
chines, and  in  most  of  the  filtration  devices. 


Belgian,    Russian,    and   French    Pewter    Serving  Pots 
These  are  in  the  Metropolitan  Museum  and  are  of  nineteenth   century   design 


EVOLUTION  OF  APPARATUS 


623 


French  inventors  continued  to  apply 
themselves  to  coffee-roasting  and  coffee- 
making  problems,  and  many  new  ideas  were 
evolved.  Some  of  these  were  improved 
upon  by  the  Dutch,  the  Germans,  and  the 
Italians;  but  the  best  work  in  the  line  of 
improvements  that  have  survived  the  test 
of  time  was  done  in  England  and  the  United 
States. 

In  1815,  Sene  was  granted  a  French  pat- 
ent on  "a  device  to  make  coffee  without 
boiling."  In  1819,  Laurens  produced  the 
original  of  the  percolation  device  in  which 
the  boiling  water  is  raised  by  a  tube  and 
sprayed  over  the  ground  coffee.  The  same 
year  Morize,  a  Paris  tinsmith  and  lamp- 
maker,  followed  with  a  reversible,  double 
drip  pot  which  was  the  pioneer  of  all  the 
reversible  filtration  pots  of  Europe  and 
America.  Gaudet,  another  tinsmith,  in 
1820,  patented  an  improvement  on  the  per- 
colator idea,  that  employed  a  cloth  filter. 
By  1825,  the  pumping  percolator,  working 
by  steam  pressure  and  by  partial  vacuum, 
was  much  used  in  France,  Holland,  Ger- 
many, and  Austria. 

Meanwhile,  it  was  common  practise  to 
roast  coffee  in  England  in  "an  iron  pan  or 
in  hollow  cylinders  made  of  sheet  iron"; 
while  in  Italy,  the  practise  was  to  roast  it 
in  glass  flasks,  which  were  fitted  with  loose 
corks.  The  flasks  were  "held  over  clear 
fires  of  burning  coals  and  continually  agi- 
tated." Anthony  Schick  was  granted  an 
English  patent  in  1812,  on  a  method,  or 
process,  for  roasting  coffee ;  but  as  he  never 
filed  his  specifications,  we  shall  probably 
never  know  what  the  process  was.  The  cus- 
tom of  the  day  in  England  was  to  pound 
the  roasted  beans  in  a  mortar,  or  to  grind 
them  in  a  French  mill. 


Cor  NT  Rumford's  Percolator 

In  1822,  Louis  Bernard  Kabaut  was 
granted  an  English  patent  in  which  the 
French  drip  process  was  reversed  by  using 
steam  pressure  to  force  the  boiling  water 
upward  through  the  coffee  mass.  Casse- 
neuve,  a  Paris  tinsmith,  seems  to  have 
patented  practically  the  same  idea  in  France 
in  1824.  Casseneuve  employed  a  paper 
filter  in  his  machine. 

In  America,  a  United  States  patent  was 
granted  in  1813  to  Alexander  Duncan 
Moore  of  New  Haven  on  a  mill  ' '  for  grind- 
ing and  pounding  coffee."  This  was  fol- 
lowed by  a  patent  granted  to  Increase  Wil- 
son, of  New  London,  in  1818,  on  a  steel 
mill  for  grinding  coffee. 


I'EWTER  Pots  of  the  Seventeenth  and  Eighteenth  Centukies 
Left  to  right,  they  are  German,  Flemish,  English,  and   Dutch   specimens   In   the  Metropolitan   Museum 


624 


ALL     ABOUT     COFFEE 


Patent  Drawings  of  Early  French  Coffee  Makers 

Left    drip  pot  of  1806  —  Next  two,  Durant's  inner-tube  pot,  1827  —  Next  (fourth),  Gandais'  first  practicable 
'  percolator,    1827  —  Right,    Grandin   &   Crepeaux'   percolator,    1832 


In  1815,  Archibald  Kenrich  was  granted 
a  patent  in  England  on  "mills  for  grinding 
coffee." 

The  coffee  biggin,  said  to  have  been  in- 
vented by  a  Mr.  Biggin,  came  into  common 
use  in  England  for  making  coffee  about 
1817.  It  was  usually  an  earthenware  pot. 
At  first  it  had  in  the  upper  part  a  metal 
strainer  like  the  French  drip  pots.  Sus- 
pended from  the  rim  in  later  models  there 
was  a  flannel  or  muslin  bag  to  hold  the 
ground  coffee,  through  which  the  boiling 
water  was  poured,  the  bag  serving  as  a 
filter.  The  idea  was  an  adaptation  of  the 
French  fustian  infusion  bag  of  1711,  and 
of  other  eav\y  French  drip  and  filtration 
devices,  and  it  attained  great  popularity. 
Any  coffee  pot  with  such  a  bag  fitted  into 
its  mouth  came  to  be  spoken  of  as  a  coffee 
biggin.  Later,  there  was  evolved  the  metal 
pot  with  a  wire  .strainer  substituted  for  the 


cloth  bag.  The  coffee  biggin  still  retains 
its  popularity  in  England. 

AVhile  French  inventors  were  busy  with 
coffee  makers,  English  and  American  in- 
ventors were  studying  means  to  improve 
the  roasting  of  the  beans.  Peregrine  Wil- 
liamson, of  Baltimore,  was  granted  the  first 
patent  in  the  United  States  for  an  improve- 
ment on  a  coffee  roaster  in  1820.  In  1824, 
Richard  Evans  was  granted  a  patent  in 
England  for  a  commercial  method  of  roast- 
ing coffee,  comprising  a  cylindrical  sheet- 
iron  roaster  fitted  with  improved  flanges 
for  mixing;  a  hollow  tube  and  trier  for 
sampling  coffee  while  roasting ;  and  a  means 
for  turning  the  roaster  completely  over  to 
empty  it. 

The  next  year,  1825,  the  first  coffee-pot 
patent  in  the  United  States  was  granted  to 
Lewis  Martelley  of  New  York.  It  marked 
the  first  American  attempt  to  perfect  an 


Early  French  Filtration  Devices 

Xeft,    Casseneuve's    filter-paper    machine,    1824  —  Center,   Gaudet's  cloth-filter  pot,   1820  —  Rig-ht,   Raparlier's 

percolator 


EVOLUTION  OF  APPARATUS 


625 


Early  American  Coffee-Maker  Patents 

Left,  Waite  &  Sener's  Old  Dominion  pot  —  Right,  Ben- 
cini's  steam  condenser 

arrangement  to  condense  the  steam  and  the 
essential  oils  and  to  return  them  to  the 
infusion.  In  1838,  Antoni  Beneini,  of  Mil- 
ton, N.  C,  was  granted  a  similar  patent  in 
the  United  States.  Rowland,  in  1844,  and 
Waite  and  Sener,  in  their  Old  Dominion 
pot  of  1856,  tried  for  the  same  result, 
nameh',  the  condensation  of  the  steam  in 
upper  chambers. 

The  French  meantime  focused  on  coffee 
makers;  and  in  1827,  Jacques  Augustin 
Gandais,  a  manufacturer  of  plated  jewelry 
in  Paris,  produced  a  really  practicable 
pumping  percolator.  This  machine  had  the 
ascending  steam  tube  on  the  exterior.  The 
same  year,  1827,  Nicholas  Felix  Durant,  a 
manufacturer  in  Chalons-sur-Marne,  was 
granted  a  French  patent  on  a  percolator 
employing  for  the  first  time  an  inner  tube 
for  spraying  the  boiling  water  over  the 
ground  coffee. 

In  1828,  Charles  Parker,  of  Meriden. 
Conn.,  began  work  on  the  original  Parker 
coffee  mill,  which  later  was  to  bring  him 
fame  and  fortune. 

The  next  year,  1829,  the  first  French 
patent  on  a  coffee  mill  was  issued  to  Co- 
laux  &  Cie.  of  Molsheim. 

That  same  year,  1829,  the  fitablissements 
Lauzaune,  Paris,  began  to  make  hand- 
turned  iron-cylinder  coffee-roasting  ma- 
chines. 

In  1831,  David  Selden  was  granted  a 
patent  in  England  for  a  coffee-grinding 
mill  having  cones  of  cast  iron. 

The  first  Parker  coffee-grinder  patent  for 
a  household  coffee  and  spice  mill  was  issued 
in  the  United  States  in  1832  to  Edmund 


Parker  and  Herman  M.  White  of  Meriden, 
Conn.  The  Charles  Parker  Company's 
business  was  founded  the  same  year.  In 
1832  and  1833,  United  States  patents  were 
issued  to  Ammi  Clark,  of  Berlin,  Conn., 
also  on  improved  coffee  and  spice  mills  for 
home  use. 

Amos  Ransom,  Hartford,  Conn.,  was 
granted  a  United  States  patent  on  a  coffee 
roaster  in  1833. 

The  English  began  exporting  coffee-roast- 
ing and  coffee-grinding  machinery  to  the 
United  States  in  1833  -34. 

It  was  not  until  1836  that  the  first  French 
patent  was  issued  on   a  combined   coffee- 


Fbench  Coffee  Makers,  Nineteenth  Century 
1,  2  —  Improved  Franch  drip  pots.  ?>  —  Persian  de- 
sign. 4  —  De  Belloy  pot.  5  —  Russian  revers- 
ible pot.  6  —  New  filter  machine.  7  —  Glass 
filter  pot.  8  —  Syphon  machine.  9  —  Vienna 
Incomparable.  10 — Double  glass  "balloon"  de- 
vice 


626 


ALL    ABOUT     COFFEE 


A. D.  1824.  Feb.  28.  2f?  4907 
EVAN'S'  Specification. 


F     I     c 


/i  SBKBJ) 


FIG        6 


-K"    ; 


The  tnroUtd.  droMrin^  is  colored. 


F      I      C         5 


FIG         4 


.£ 2_ 


x:=o^ 


I 


F     I     C   .3 

G  -^ 


^ 


''X 
''SI? 


\e-%   z 


*^^ 


=^^==? 


Drawn,  an  Stone  "by  Walby  ^  Sons 


FIRST  ENGLISH  COMMERCIAL  COFFEE-ROASTER  PATENT,  1824 

Fig.  1  —  End  elevation.  Fig.  2  —  Front  sectional  view.  Fig.  3  —  Front  elevation,  showing  how  the  roasting 
cylinder  was  turned  completely  over  to  empty.  Fig.  4  —  The  examiner,  or  trier.  Fig.  ."5  —  Tube  (J) 
to  be  inserted  in  H  of  Fig.  6  to  prevent  escape  of  aroma 


EVOLUTIOX  OF  APPARATUS 


627 


Early  French  Coffee-Roasting  Machines 

1  —  Delephine's    coke   machine.      2  —  Bernard's   machine,   1841.     3  —  Circlet  for  same. 

machine 


Postulart's  gas 


roaster-and-grinder  to  FraiiQois  Rene  La- 
coux  of  Paris.  The  roaster  was  made  of 
porcelain,  because  the  inventor  believed 
that  metal  imparted  a  bad  taste  to  the 
beans  while  roasting. 

In  1839,  James  Vardy  and  Moritz  Platow 
were  granted  an  English  patent  on  a  kind 
of  urn  percolator  employing  the  vacuum 
process  of  coifee  making,  the  upper  vessel 
being  made  of  glass.  The  first  French  pat- 
ent on  a  glass  coffee-making  device,  using 
the  same  principle,  was  granted  to  Madame 
Vassieux,  of  Lyons,  in  1842.  These  were 
the  forerunners  of  the  double  glass  "bal- 
loons" for  making  coffee  which  later  on,  in 
the  early  part  of  the  twentieth  century, 
attained  much  vogue  in  the  United  States. 
They  were  verj^  popular  in  Europe  until 
the  latter  part  of  the  nineteenth  century. 


In  1839,  John  Rittenhouse,  of  Philadel- 
phia, was  granted  a  United  States  patent 
on  a  cast-iron  mill  designed  to  handle  the 
problem  of  nails  and  stones  in  grinding 
coffee.  His  improvement  was  intended  to 
prevent  injury  to  the  grinding  teeth  by 
stopping  the  machine. 

In  1840,  Abel  Stillman,  Poland,  N.  Y., 
was  granted  a  United  States  patent  on  a 
family  coffee  roaster  having  a  mica  window 
to  enable  the  operator  to  observe  the  coffee 
while  roasting.     (See  10,  page  630.) 

In  ]841,  William  Ward  Andrews  was 
granted  an  English  patent  on  an  improved 
coffee  pot  employing  a  pump  to  force  the 
boiling  water  upward  through  the  coffee, 
which  was  contained  in  a  perforated  cylin- 
der screwed  to  the  bottom  of  the  pot.  This 
was  Rabaut's  idea  of  nineteen  years  before. 


628 


ALL     ABOUT     COFFEE 


>l.lv 


^ 


^     H 


1 


EVOLUTION  OF  APPARATUS 


629 


We  find  it  again  repeated  in  the  United 
States  in  a  machine  which  appeared  on  the 
New  York  market  in  1906. 

In  1841,  Claude  Marie  Victor  Bernard, 
of  Paris,  was  granted  a  French  patent  on 
a  coffee  roaster,  which  was  an  improvement 
designed  to  bring  the  roasting  cylinder  and 
the  fire  in  closer  contact.  This  was  accom- 
plished, to  quote  the  quaint  language  of  the 
inventor,  by  applying  movable  legs  and  "by 
superimposing  a  sheet  iron  circlet  around 
the  edge  of  the  furnace  to  get  double  the 
quantity  of  heat  and  it  presents  so  much 
advantage  that  it  has  seemed  to  me  worthy 
of  being  patented."     (See  4,  page  627.) 

But  the  French  were  only  toying  with 
the  roaster,  because  roasting  in  France  was 
not  yet  a  separate  branch  of  business,  as  it 
had  become  in  England  and  the  United 
States,  where  keen  minds  were  already  at 
work  on  the  purely  commercial  coffee-roast- 
ing machine.  The  application  of  intensive 
thought  in  this  direction  was  destined  to 
bear  fruit  in  America  in  1846,  and  in  Eng- 
land in  1847. 

P'rench  inventive  genius  continued  to  oc- 
cupy itself  with  coft'ee  making,  and  in  the 
invention  of  Edward  Loysel  de  Santais, 
of  Paris,  in  1843,  produced  the  first  of  the 
ideas  that  were  later  incorporated  in  the 
hydrostatic  percolator  for  making  "two 
thousand  cups  of  coffee  an  hour"^  at  the 
exposition  of  1855,  and  that  has  since  been 
improved  upon  by  the  Italians  in  their 
rapid-filter  machines.  It  should  be  noted 
that  Loysel's  2,000  cups  were  probably 
demi-tasses.  The  modern  Italian  rapid-fil- 
ter machine  produces  about  1,000  large 
coffee  cups  per  hour. 

James  W.  Carter,  of  Boston,  was  granted 
a  United  States  patent  in  1846  on  his  "pull- 
out"  roaster;  and  this  was  the  machine 
most  generally  employed  for  trade  roasting 
in  America  for  the  next  twenty  years.  Car- 
ter did  not  claim  to  have  invented  the  com- 
bination of  cylindrical  roaster  and  furnace ; 
but  he  did  claim  priority  for  the  combina- 
tion, with  the  furnace  and  roasting  vessel, 
of  the  air  space,  or  chamber,  surrounding 
it,  "the  same  being  for  the  purpose  of 
preventing  the  too  rapid  escape  of  heat 
from  the  furnace  when  the  air  chamber's 
induction  and  eduction  air  openings  or  pas- 
sages are  closed." 

The  Carter  "pull-out,"  ^'as  so  called 
because    the    roasting    cylii/der    of    sheet 


iron  was  pulled  out  from  the  furnace  on  a 
shaft  supported  by  standards,  to  be  emp- 
tied or  to  be  refilled  from  sliding  doors  in 
its  ' '  sides. ' '  It  was  in  use  for  many  years 
m  such  old-time  plants  as  that  of  Dwinell- 
Wright  Company,  25  Haverhill  Street.  Bos- 
ton; by  James  H.  Forbes  and  William 
Schotten  in  St.  Louis;  and  by  D.  Y.  Harri- 
son in  Cincinnati. 

The  picture  of  a  roasting  room  with 
Carter  machines  in  operation,  reproduced 
here,  recalled  to  George  S.  Wright,  the 
present  head  of  the  Dwinell-Wright  Com- 
pany's business,  the  scene  as  he  saw  it  so 
many  times  when,  as  a  boy  of  ten  or  twelve, 
he  occasionally  spent  a  day  in  his  father's 
factory.  "The  only  difference  I  notice," 
he  wrote  the  author,  "is  that,  according  to 
my  recollection,  there  was  no  cooler  box 
to  receive  the  roasted  coffee,  which  was 
dumped  on  the  floor  where  it  was  spread  out 
three  or  four  inches  deep  with  iron  rakes 
and  sprinkled  with  a  watering  pot.  The 
contact  of  water  and  hot  coffee  caused  so 
much  steam  that  the  roasting  room  was  in 
a  dense  fog  for  several  minutes  after  each 
batch  of  coffee  was  drawn  from  the  fire." 

A.  E.  Forbes  also  thus  recalled  the  Car- 
ter machine  in  his  father's  factory  in  St. 
Louis  in  1853,  when  he  used  to  help  after 
school;  and  sometimes  ran  the  roasters, 
after  1857: 

It  was  bnrrel  shaped,  having  a  slide  the  full 
lenprth  of  one  side  to  fill  and  empty.  A  heavy- 
shaft  ran  through  the  centre,  resting  on  the  wall 
of  the  furnace  at  the  rear  end  and  on  an  upright 
about  eight  feet  from  the  front  wall.  The  fire 
was  about  sixteen  to  eighteen  inches  below  the 
cylinder  and  of  feoft  coal.  The  cylinder  was  not 
lierforated,  the  theory  being  to  keep  the  vapors 
from  escaping.^  This  of  course  was  erroneous. 
The  color  of  the  smoke  bursting  from  the  edge 
of  the  slide  was  our  medium  of  telling  when 
the  roasting  process  was  nearing  completion, 
and  often  the  cylinder  was  pulled  out  and  opened 
for  inspection  several  times  before  that  point 
was  reached.  When  just  right,  the  belt  was 
shifted  to  a  loose  pulley,  stopping  the  cylinder, 
which  was  pulled  off  the  fire.  A  handle  was  at- 
tached to  the  shaft,  the  slide  drawn,  and  the 
coffee  was  dumped  into  a  wooden  tray  which 
had  to  be  shoved  under  the  cylinder.  The  cof- 
fee was  stirred  around  in  the  tray  until  cool 
enough  to  sack. 

The  roaster  man  had  to  be  a  hiisky  in  those 
days  to  pick  up  a  sack  of  Rio  weighing  al)out 
one  hundred,  sixty  to  one  hundred,  seventy-five 
pounds   (not  a  hundred,  thirty-two  pounds^  as 


'  Jardin,  Edelestan.     Le  CaJHer  et  Le  Ca)6,  Paris, 
1895    (p.  290) 


'  In  his  patent  specification,  Mr.  Carter  said  on  this 
point :  "Small  holes  should  be  made  through  the 
roaster  In  sufficient  number  to  allow  of  the  escape 
of  the  vapors  and  volatile  matters  which  escape  from 
the  coffee  while  undergoing  the  process  of  being 
roasted." 


630 


ALL     ABOUT     COFFKE 


EARLY  ENGLISH  AND  AMERICAN  COFFEE  ROASTERS 

1,  2  —  English  charcoal  machines.  3,  5,  8  —  American  coal-stove  roasters.  4  —  Remington's  wheel-of- 
buckets  (American)  roaster,  1841.  6  — Wood's  roaster.  7  —  Hyde's  stove  roaster.  9  —  Reversible  stove 
roaster.     10 — Abel  Stillman's  stove  roaster 


now)  and  to  empty  it  in  the  cylinder.  We  had 
no  overhead  hoppers. 

Later  we  built  in  the  rear  and  put  in  two 
cylinders  of  the  Chris  Abele  type,  having  sta- 
tionary fronts  and  filling  and  emptying  from  the 
front  end.  We  still  used  soft  coal,  with  the  fire 
sixteen  to  eighteen  inches  under  the  cylinder. 

We  had  other  machines  made  locally  from  the 
Carter  pattern.  The  idea  of  the  tight  cylinder 
was  to  keep  out  smoke,  as  well  as  to  keep  in 
the  aroma.  I  think  we  were  the  first  to  use 
perforations,  because  I  remember  old  Jabez 
Burns  coming  along  after  we  put  in  one  of  his 


machines  and  remarking  on  it.  .  .  .  We  had  a 
kind  of  mechanical  genius  for  engineer  at  that 
time  (he  also  did  the  roasting)  and  he  conceived 
the  idea  that  we  ought  to  get  rid  of  the  moisture 
in  the  roasting  coffee  because  it  would  cook 
quicker.  When  the  holes  clogged  up,  he  put  in 
loose  pieces  of  wire  bent  at  the  ends  which  shook 
as  the  cylinder  revolved  and  kept  the  holes  open. 
Another  thing,  he  put  a  hole  in  the  cylinder 
head  and  a  stopper  with  a"  string  on  it  so  he 
could  get  out  a  few  grains  at  a  time  to  note  the 
progress  of  the  roasting  —  but  he  judged  mostly 
by  the  smoke. 


EVOLUTION  OF  APPARATUS 


631 


The  cooling  box  was  as  I  have  described  it, 
but  later  we  put  in  a  perforated  false  bottom 
which  let  out  some  chaff  and  small  stones. 

On  our  first  watering,  we  pulled  out  the  slide 
and  dashed  in  a  bucket  of  water,  then  closed  the 
slide  and  let  it  revolve  outside  the  furnace. 
This  was  hard  on  the  cylinder,  so  later  we  used 
the  sprinkling  can  and  put  on  water  sparingly. 

Once  we  had  a  party  that  wanted  to  put  in  a 
soapstone  lined  roaster,  and  another  near  us 
named  Salzgerber  patented  a  superheated-steam 
roaster  which  was  shaped  like  our  modern  milk 
bottle.  This  was  covered  with  asbestos  and 
worked  on  a  central  bearing  so  it  could  be  de- 
pressed for  emptying  and  elevated  for  filling. 
It  did  good  work. 

Mr.  Forbes'  recollections  of  the  early 
days  of  roasting  and  selling  coffee  at  retail 
in  St.  Louis  are  so  illuminating,  and  paint 
so  interesting  a  picture  of  the  period  that 
they  are  printed  here  to  illustrate  the  con- 
ditions that  prevailed  generally  at  the  time 
when  the  commercial  roasting  machine  of 
the  United  States  was  being  developed  into 
the  modern  type.    He  says  further : 

Selling  roasted  coffee  was  up-hill  work,  as 
every  one  roasted  coffee  in  the  kitchen  oven. 
People  were  buying,  say,  at  twenty  cents.  Our 
asking  twenty-five  cents  "roasted"  called  for  a 
lot  of  explanation  about  shrinkage,  tight  cylin- 
ders so  the  strength  and  flavor  could  not  get 
away,  etc. ;  while,  when  they  roasted  a  pound 
in  the  oven  the  flavor  scented  the  whole  house, 
thus  losing  so  much  strength  to  say  nothing  of 
the  unevenness  of  their  roasts — part  raw,  part 
roasted,  producing  an  unpleasant  taste.  An  oc- 
casional burned  roast  lat  home  helped  some. 
They  tell  of  a  man  who,  going  out  in  the  back 
yard  and  kicking  over  a  clod  by  accident,  un- 
covered some  burned  coffee.  He  called  to  his 
wife  and  wanted  an  explanation.  She  acknowl- 
edged she  had  burnt  it,  and  hid  it  so  he  would 
not  scold.  He  said,  "We  had  better  buy  it 
roasted  in  the  future  and  avoid  such  accidents." 

We  roasted  in  the  cellar.  We  had  an  elabo- 
rately polished  Reed  &  Mann  engine  in  one  win- 
dow, two  brass  hoppered  mills  in  the  other,  and 
our  boiler  was  under  the  sidewalk.  We  had  a 
mahogany4op  counter,  oil  paintings  on  the  wall, 
and  bin  fronts  of  Chinamen,  etc.,  done  by  the 
celebrated  artist.  Mat  Hastings  (now  dead)  ;  so 
you  see  we  started  right. 

The  fight  we  had  to  Introduce  roasted  coffee 
was  fierce.  Our  argument  was  on  the  saving  of 
fuel,  labor,  temper,  scorched  faces,  and  anything 
we  could  think  of.  We  talked  only  three  coffees, 
Rio,  Java,  and  Mocha.  When  Santos  began  to 
come,  it  was  hard  to  change  them  over  from 
the  rank  Rio  fiavor  to  the  more  mild  Santos. 
The  latter  they  claimed  did  not  have  the  rough 
taste.  They  missed  It  and  longed  for  the  wild 
tang  of  the  Rio. 

We  did  not  import,  but  bought  In  New  Orleans 
and  from  several  local  wholesale  grocers.  No 
one  delivered.  Shipments  were  f.  o.  b.  St.  Louis. 
Draying  and  packages  were  extra.  Coffee  was 
not  cleaned  or  stoned,  but  was  sold  as  it  came 
from  the  sack.  However,  we  did  not  use  any 
very  low  grades  then.    If  any  one  complained  of 


the  stones  hurting  their  mills,  we  advised  them 
to  buy  ground  coffee,  showing  how  it  kept  better 
ground  as  it  was  packed  tight,  whereas  the 
roasted  was  looser  and  the  air  could  get  through 
it.  It  was  fully  a  year  or  more  before  we  began 
to  sell  in  quantities  to  make  it  profitable.  In 
roasting  for  others,  we  got  a  cent  per  pound; 
and  after  awhile,  that  became  so  much  a  busi- 
ness it  paid  all  our  expenses.  We  were  the  first 
to  roast  coffee  by  steam  power  west  of  the 
MHssissippi  and  east  of  the  Rocky  Mountains. 

The  tea  department  helped  us  to  hold  out  until 
coffee  got  its  hold  on  the  public;  for  in  those 
days  every  one  used  tea  and  Insisted  on  having 
it  good.  Price  was  no  object  How  different 
now! 

Five  years  later  (1862)  J.  Nevison,  an  English- 
man, drifted  into  town  and  opened  at  85  North 
Fourth  Street.  He  got  out  a  very  bombastic 
circular  which  caused  us  to  put  out  the  one  I 
enclose  (illustration,  page  436).  Then  came  a 
party  named  Chllds ;  and  after  him,  Hugh  Men- 
own,  grand-uncle  of  the  present  Menown,  of 
Menown  &  Gregory;  and  Mat  Hunt;  all  passed 
over  to  the  Great  Majority.  After  the  Civil  War 
they  multiplied  pretty  fast,  coming  and  going 
until  now  we  have  nineteen  roasting  establish- 
ments in  the  city. 

The  late  Julius  J.  Schotten  also  wrote 
the  author  as  follows  concerning  the  days 
of  the  Carter  roaster  and  of  the  wholesale 
coffee-roasting  business  founded  by  "Wil- 
liam Schotten  in  1862: 

In  the  early  days,  everj'  wholesale  grocer  was 
selling  coffee ;  the  wholesale  grocer  controlled 
ninety  percent  of  the  trade  in  the  country.  It 
did  not  pay  the  coffee  roaster  to  have  men  on 
the  road  selling  coffee  in  those  days.  Such 
being  the  case,  seventy-five  percent  of  the  roast- 
ing done  by  the  coffee  roasters  was  job  roasting, 
at  one  cent  a  iwund. 

In  the  beginning  there  were  only  two  kinds  of 
roasted  coffee  known  to  the  trade  in  this  section 
of  the  countiy  (St.  Louis)  and  of  course  one  of 
these  brands  was  "Rio"  —  the  other,  "Java". 
The  former  was  a  genuine  Rio,  but  the  Java 
was  mostly  Jamaica  coffee. 

Roasted  coffee  then  was  packed  (for  cits' 
trade)  in  five  and  ten  pound  packages,  and  this 
size  package  seemed  to  supply  the  wants  of  the 
ordinary  grocer  for  a  week.  Occasionally  a 
twenty-five  pound  package,  and  in  a  few  In- 
stances as  much  as  fifty  pounds  of  one  grade 
was  sold  at  a  time. 

The  class  of  customers  the  coffee  roasters  sold 
in  those  days  were  the  smaller  merchants;  the 
larger  stores,  having  their  Ideas  as  to  quality, 
bought  their  coffees  green.  As  they  had  very 
little  sale  for  the  roasted,  they  would  send  a 
half-sack,  and  sometimes  a  whole  sack  to  have 
it  roasted.  It  took  a  number  of  years  to  Induce 
the  larger  grocers,  and  even  the  average  grocers, 
to  purchase  their  coffee  already  roasted. 

Coffees  were  ix>asted  in  the  old  style,  "pull- 
out"  roaster  cylinder.  That  is  to  say,  It  was 
necessary  to  stop  the  roaster  and  to  pull  out  the 
cylinder  to  sample  the  coffee  In  order  to  know 
when  to  take  the  coffee  off  the  fire.  When  the 
coffee  was  ready  to  take  off,  the  cylinder  was 
pulled  out  its  entire  length.    It  was  then  turned 


632 


ALL    ABOUT     COFFEE 


EARLY  FOREIGN  AND  AMERICAN  COFFEE-MAKINa  DEVICES 

■  English  adaptation  of  French  hoiler.  2  —  English  coffee  biggin.  .3  —  ImprovectyBiunifiOtd.  percolator.  4  — 
Jones's  exterior-tube  percolator.  5  —  Parker's  steam-fountain  coffee  maker.  6 '-;- Platow's  fllterer.  7  ^- 
Brain's  Vacuum,  or  pneumatic,  filter.  8  —  Bearfs  percolator.  9 — American  coffee  biggin.  10  —  cloth- 
bag  drip  pot.  11  —  Vienna  coffee  pot.  12  —  Le  B  run's  cafetifere.  13 — Reversible'Potsdam  cafetiere.  14, 
15  —  Gen.  Hutchinson's  percolator  and  urn.     16  —  Etruscan  biggin 


I 


EVOLUTION  OF  APPARATUS 


633 


over  ami  a  slide  nine  inciies  wide,  running  the 
full  length  of  the  cylinder,  was  opened  and  the 
contents  were  dumped  in  the  cooling  box.  When 
the  coffee  reached  the  cooling  box,  it  took  two 
men  with  hoes  or  wooden  shovels  to  stir  and 
turn  it  until  it  was  properly  cooled,  there  being 
no  cooling  arrangements  then  as  we  have 
nowadays. 

At  that  time  there  were  no  stonitig  or  sepa- 
rating machines ;  and  as  a  bag  of  the  ordinary 
green  Jamaica  coffee  contained  from  three  to  five 
pounds  of  stones  and  sticks,  it  was  necessary  to 
hand-pick  the  coffee  after  it  was  roasted. 

After  Carter,  the  next  United  States  cof- 
fee-roaster patent  was  granted  to  J.  R. 
Remington,  of  Baltimore,  on  a  roaster  em- 
ploying a  wheel  of  buckets  to  move  the 
green  coffee  beans  singly  through  a  charcoal 
heated  trough.  It  never  became  a  com- 
mercial success.     (See  4,  page  630.) 

In  1847-48,  William  and  Elizabeth  Da- 
kin  were  granted  patents  in  England  on  an 
apparatus  for  "cleaning  and  roasting  cof- 
fee and  for  making  decoctions."  The 
roaster  specification  covered  a  gold,  silver, 
platinum,  or  alloy-lined  roasting  cylinder 
and  traversing  carriage  on  an  overhead 
railway  to  move  the  roaster  in  and  out  of 
the  roasting  oven;  and  the  "decoction" 
specification  covered  an  arrangement  for 
twisting  a  cloth-bag  ground-coffee-container 
in  a  coffee  biggin,  or  applied  a  screw  mo- 
tion to  a  disk  within  a  perforated  cylinder 


containing  the  ground  coffee,  so  as  to 
squeeze  the  liquid  out  of  the  grounds  after 
infusion  had  taken  place. 

The  roaster  has  survived,  but  the  coffee 
maker  was  not  so  fortunate.  The  Dakin 
idea  was  that  coffee  was  injuriously  affected 
by  coming  in  contact  %vith  iron  during  the 
roasting  process.  The  roasting  cylinder 
was  enclosed  in  an  oven  instead  of  being 
directly  exposed  to  the  furnace  heat. 
The  apparatus  was  provided  also  with  a 
"taster,"  or  sampler,  the  first  of  its  kind, 
to  enable  the  operator  to  examine  the  roast- 
ing berries  without  stopping  the  machine. 
As  will  be  seen  by  referring  to  the  picture 
of  the  model  shown,  the  apparatus  was  in- 
genious and  not  without  considerable  merit. 
Dakin  &  Co.  are  still  in  existence  in  London, 
operating  a  machine  very  like  the  original 
model. 

In  1848,  Thomas  John  Knowlys  was 
granted  a  patent  in  England  on  a  per- 
forated roasting  cylinder  coated  with  en- 
amel. 

It  is  to  be  noted  in  passing  that  this 
idea  of  handling  the  green  bean  with  ex- 
treme delicacy,  evidently  obtained  from  the 
French,  was  never  taken  seriously  in  the 
United  States,  whose  inventors  chose  to 
handle  it  with  rough  courage. 


The  Dakin  Roasting  Machine  of  1848 


634 


ALL     ABOUT     COFFEE 


The  first  English  patent  on  a  cofEee 
grinder  was  granted  to  Luke  Herbert  in 
1848. 

In  1849,  Apoleoni  Pierre  Preterre,  of 
Havre,  was  granted  an  English  patent  on 
a  coffee  roaster  mounted  on  a  weighing 
apparatus  to  indicate  loss  of  weight  in 
roasting  and  automatically  stop  the  roast- 
ing process.  At  the  same  time  he  secured 
an  English  patent  on  a  vacuum  percolator, 
not  unlike  Durant's  of  1827. 

In  1849  also,  Thomas  R.  Wood,  of  Cin- 
cinnati, was  granted  a  United  States  patent 
on  a  spherical  coffee  roaster  for  use  on 
kitchen  stoves.  It  attained  considerable 
popularity  among  housewives  who  preferred 
to  do  their  own  roasting.  (See  6,  page  630.') 

In  1852,  Edward  Gee  secured  a  patent 
in  England  on  a  coffee  roaster  fitted  with 
inclined  flanges  for  turning  the  beans  while 
roasting. 

C.  W.  Van  Vliet,  of  Fishkill  Landing, 
N.  Y.,  was  granted  a  United  States  patent 
in  1855  on  a  household  coffee  mill  employ- 
ing upper  breaking  and  lower  grinding 
cones.  He  assigned  it  to  Charles  Parker  of 
Meriden,  Conn.  In  1860  -  61  several  United 
States  patents  were  granted  John  and  Ed- 
mund Parker  on  coffee  grinders  for  home 
use. 

In  1862,  E.  J.  Hyde,  of  Philadelphia,  was 
granted  a  United  States  patent  on  a  com- 
bined coffee-roaster  and  stove  fitted  with  a 
crane  on  which  the  roasting  cylinder  was 
revolved  and  swung  out  horizontally  for 
emptying  and  refilling.  This  machine 
proved  to  be  a  commercial  success.  Bene- 
dickt  Fischer  used  one  in  his  first  roasting 
plant  in  New  York.  It  is  still  being  manu- 
factured by  the  Bramhall  Deane  Company 
of  New  York. 

In  1864,  Jabez  Burns,  of  New  York,  was 
granted  a  United  States  patent  on  the  origi- 
nal Burns  coffee  roaster,  the  first  machine 
which  did  not  have  to  be  moved  away  from 


A  Globular  Stove  Roaster  of  1860 


Hyde's   Combined   Roaster  and    Stove 

the  fire  for  discharging  the  roasted  coffee, 
and  one  that  marked  a  distinct  advance  in 
the  manufacture  of  coffee-roasting  appa- 
ratus. It  was  a  closed  iron  cylinder  set 
in  brickwork.     (See  illustration,  page  635.) 

Jabez  Burns  had  been  a  student  of  coffee 
roasting  in  New  York  for  twenty  years  be- 
fore he  produced  the  machine  that  was  to 
revolutionize  the  coffee  business  of  the 
United  States.  He  had  brought  with  him 
from  England  a  knowledge  of  the  trade  in 
that  country,  where  he  first  began  his  busi- 
ness training  by  selling  Java  coffee  at  four- 
teen cents  and  Sumatra  at  eleven  cents 
to  hotels,  boarding-houses,  and  private 
families. 

Up  to  the  time  of  the  Civil  War,  the  con- 
trivances employed  for  roasting  coffee  in 
every  case  necessitated  the  removal  of  the 
roasting  apparatus  —  whether  pan,  globe, 
or  cylinder  —  from  the  fire.  The  process 
of  causing  coffee  to  discharge  from  the  end 
of  the  roasting  cylinder  at  the  pleasure  of 
the  operator  while  the  cylinder  was  still  in 
motion  was  new;  and  the  double  set  of 
flanges  to  produce  this  effect,  and  at  the 
same  time,  during  the  process  of  roasting, 
to  keep  the  coffee  equally  distributed  from 
end  to  end  of  the  cylinder,  was  new.  Some 
one  suggested  this  last  improvement  was 
simply  an  Archimedean  screw  placed  in  a 
cylinder,  but  Mr.  Burns  replied:  "It  is  a 
double  screw,  a  thing  never  suggested  by 
the  Archimedean  screw.  It  is,  in  fact,  a 
double  right  and  left  augur,  one  within  the 
other,  firmly  secured  together  and  also  to 
the  shell  or  cylinder,  and  when  the  cylinder 


EVOLUTION  OF  APPARATUS 


635 


revolves  the  desired  result  is  obtained  — 
the  idea  being  entirely  original." 

Mr.  Burns  had  watched  the  development 
of  the  coffee  business  from  the  time  when 
the  preparation  of  coffee  was  largely  con- 
fined to  the  home,  where  the  approved  roast- 
ing implements  were  hot  stones,  or  tiles, 
iron  plates,  skillets,  and  frying  pans.  Some 
of  these  were  still  in  use  twenty  years  after 
he  produced  his  first  machine ;  and  he  often 
said  that  coffee  evenly  roasted  by  such 
methods  was  just  as  good  as  if  done  by  the 
best  mechanical  device  ever  invented.  He 
also  said:  ''Coffee  can  be  roasted  in  very 
simple  machinery.  Some  of  the  best  we 
ever  saw  was  done  in  a  corn  popper.  Pat- 
ent portable  roasters  are  almost  as  numer- 
ous as  rat  traps  or  churns." 


I 


The  Obiginal  Burns  Roasteb,  1864 

He  early  saw  the  practise  of  domestic 
roasting  falling  into  disuse,  as  it  was  be- 
coming possible  to  supply  the  consumer 
with  roasted  coffee  for  only  a  trifle  more 
than  in  the  green  state,  with  all  the  labor 
and  annoyance  of  roasting  done  away  with 
—  a  talking  point  that  John  Arbuckle  was 
quick  to  seize  upon  in  his  first  Ariosa  adver- 
tising. 

In  almost  every  town  of  any  size  there 
were  concerns  engaged  in  the  roasting  busi- 
ness. Within  a  few  years,  Burns  machines 
were  placed  in  all  the  principal  roasting 
centers.  Pupke  &  Reid  in  New  York ;  Flint, 
Evans  &  Co  ,  and  James  H.  Forbes  in  St. 
Louis;  Arbuckles  &  Co.,  in  Pittsburgh;  the 


Weikel  &  Smith  Spice  Co.  in  Philadelphia; 
Theodore  F.  Johnson  &  Co.,  in  Newark; 
Evans  &  Walker  in  Detroit;  W.  &  J.  G. 
Flint  in  Milwaukee;  and  Parker  &  Harri- 
son in  Cincinnati,  were  among  his  first 
customers. 

It  is  said  that  in  1845  there  were  facili- 
ties in  and  around  New  York  to  roast  as 
much  coffee  as  was  then  consumed  in  Great 
Britain.  Steam  power  was  being  exten- 
sively used,  and  the  roasting  was  done  here 
for  a  large  part  of  the  country.  The  habit 
was  to  buy  roasted  coffee  from  the  coffee 
and  spice  mills  by  the  bag  or  larger  quan- 
tity for  country  consumption;  and  the 
grocers  and  small  tea  stores,  for  local  con- 
sumption, bought  from  twenty-five  pounds 
upward  at  a  time.  This  method  cheapened 
the  roasting  of  coffee  to  half  a  cent  a  pound ; 
and  then  good  profits  could  be  made,  for 
everything  was  cheap  in  those  days.  Even 
at  that,  it  would  have  been  impossible  for 
each  tea  dealer  to  have  roasted  his  own 
coffee  for  several  times  the  amount,  so  the 
practise  was  generally  adhered  to  all  over 
the  country. 

Jabez  Burns  wrote  in  1874 : 

It  is  preposterous  to  suppose  that  household 
roasting  will  be  continued  long  in  any  part  of 
this  country,  if  cofifee  properly  prepared  can  be 
had.  This  is  demonstrated  by  the  remarkable 
advances  made  in  Pittsburgh  and  other  places, 
where  only  a  few  years  ago  the  sales  were  chiefly 
in  green  coffee.  Now  the  amount  roasted  in 
Pittsburgh  alone  by  those  who  make  a  business 
of  it,  exceeds  the  entire  consumption  of  coffee 
of  any  kind  in  the  United  States  fifty  years 
ago.  lit  will  never  pay  for  small  stores  to  roast 
if  the  large  manufactories  will  do  the  work 
well,  and  if  they  will  not,  small  dealers  will  add 
pix)per  machinery,  and  will  eventually  become 
strong  competing  dealers.  By  doing  the  work 
with  proper  care  they  will  not  only  secure  a 
reputajtion  wath  large  sales  for  themselves,  but 
will  command  the  roasting  for  other  jwrties. 

Until  the  Burns  roaster  appeared,  coffee 
roasters  were  usually  cylinders  that  re- 
volved upon  an  axis;  the  other  devices  that 
were  tried  were  not  successful.  Jabez 
Burns  thus  describes  the  first  roaster  he 
ever  saw  at  Hull,  England : 

It  consisted  of  a  furnace,  open  at  the  top,  and 
a  perforated  cylinder  with  a  slide  door.  The 
axis,  or  shaft,  of  the  cylinaer  had  bearings  on 
a  frame  which  passed  outside  the  furnace,  while 
the  cylinder  went  down  into  the  fire  pit,  the  top 
of  which  could  be  covered  over.  In  this  posi- 
tion it  could  be  turned  by  means  of  a  crank  on 
the  end  of  a  shaft.  The  only  means  of  testing 
was  by  the  escape  of  the  steam  or  aroma,  which- 
ever pre<iominated,  passing  out  through  the  per- 
forations at  the  top ;  but  so  exi)ert  was  the 
operator  and  so  quick  to  detect  the  aroma,  that 


636 


ALL     ABOUT     COFFEE 


Burns  Granulating  Mill,  1872-74 

he  seldom  had  to  return  the  cylinder  to  the  fii-e 
to  produce  a  satisfactory  roast.  This  man 
roasted  fifty  pounds,  or  less  in  a  batch  for  a 
number  of  retail  stoi-es. 

Globes,  consisting  of  two  hemispheres,  made 
of  ca«it  iron  and  so  arranged  that  they  opened 
to  fill  and  discharge,  but  operated  substantially 
as  above,  only  with  the  method  of  lowering  into 
the  fi-re  changed  somewhat,  I  have  seen  in  use 
in  Scotland  in  1840.  They  were  called  French 
roasiters. 

In  this  country  a  few  years  ago  the  use  of  the 
long  sheet-iron  cylinder  was  almosit  universal, 
varying  only  in  the  metliod  of  placing  the  cylin- 
der over  the  fire — some  sideways  on  a  track, 
others  endwise,  sliding  on  a  long  shaft  or  by 
turning  on  a  crane,  in  either  case  causing  con- 
siderable labor  and  loss  of  time,  which  often  re- 
sulted in  the  hands  of  the  inexperienced  in  more 
or  less  spoiling  the  batch  of  coffee. 

From  his  expert  knowledge  of  coffee 
and  coffee-roasting  problems,  Jabez  Burns 
quickly  rose  to  a  commanding  position  in 
the  industry.  He  was  a  trade  teacher  and 
a  trade  builder.  He  had  very  definite  ideas 
on  roasting.    He  said : 

The  object  of  roasting  is  not  attained  until  all 
the  moisture  (water  of  vegetation)  is  driven  off. 
Roast  properly  —  uniformly  and  sufficiently  — 
and  you  will  get  all  the  aroma  there  is  in  the 
bean.  Coffees  of  various  kinds  can  not  be 
roasted  to  a  uniform  color.  Some  will  be  of  a 
light  shade  when  sufficiently  roasted  while 
others  will  have  to  be  roasted  dark  to  develop 
the  aroma.  Therefore^  appearance  alone  is  not 
a  proper  test.  Aroma-saving  devices  have  had 
their  day.  Coffee  is  of  no  use  unless  the  aroma 
is  fully  developed,  and  the  more  it  is  developed 
by  roasting  the  better  it  is.  What  passes  off  in 
the  roasting  process  can  not  be  saved  and  is  so 


small  that  if  all  of  it  in  the  country  could  be 
collected  and  freed  of  all  foreign  matter,  it 
would  not  weigh  an  ounce. 

Roast  coffee  over  a  slow  fire  so  that  it  will 
l>e  an  hour  before  it  has  the  color  of  roasted 
coffee,  and,  in  contrast,  produce  in  another  batch 
of  like  quantity  the  same  color  in  thirty  minutes, 
and  it  will  be  found  for  all  intended  purposes, 
either  to  grind,  sell  or  drink,  that  the  latter  will 
be,  beyond  all  comparison,  the  best.  Coffee 
should  be  roasted  uniform  and  as  quickly  as 
possible,  only  it  must  not  be  scorched  or  spotted, 
otherwise  it  will  have  a  bitter  burned  taste.  If 
roasted  pi-operly  it  will  very  considerably  in- 
crease its  bulk  and  will  l>e  plump,  swelled  out 
and  crisp ;  easily  crushed  in  the  hand  or  between 
the  fingers. 

In  his  Spice  Mill  Companion,  published 
in  1879,  Jabez  Burns  said  further  in  re- 
gard to  roasting: 

All  coffees  do  not  roast  alike;  some  will  be  a 
bright  light  color  when  done,  and  others  will  be 
dark  before  done.  There  are  two  infallible 
rules,  which  if  properly  appreciated  and  tried 
will  prove  to  be  practically  useful.  One  is, 
when  the  aroma  is  sufficiently  developed  to  pro- 
duce a  sharp,  cutting,  but  aromatic  sensation  in 
the  nose.  Those  who  practice  that  way  do  net 
need  to  see  the  roast.  The  other  rule  is  that 
when  a  berry  is  broken  it  is  crisp  and  uniform  in 
color  inside  and  out.  Those  who  are  accustomed 
to  this  method  may  be  good  coffee  roasters, 
albeit  they  may  not  have  any  nose  at  all.  But 
we  must  state  in  this  connection,  that  a  man 
who  has  no  smell  and  is  color  blind  "is  not  a  fit 
candidaite  for  the  coffee  roasting  profession ; 
and,  moreover,  we  affirm  that  any  person  who 
can  not  roast  coffee,  so  far  as  judgment  is  con- 
c-erned,  after  a  few  trials,  will  never  make  a 
good  operator. 

In  1867,  Jabez  Burns  was  granted  a 
United  States  patent  on  an  improved  cof- 
fee cooler,  mixer,  and  grinding  mill,  or 
granulator.  Another  granulator  patent 
was  issued  to  him  in  1872.  Mr.  Burns  had 
also  given  the  subject  of  cooling  coffees 
considerable  study,  and  his  cooler  was  the 
result.  He  argued  that  it  was  necessary  to 
cool  quickly.  Before  his  day,  various  meth- 
ods had  been  employed,  such  as  placing  the 
coffee  in  revolving  drums  covered  with  wire 
cloth.  Sometimes  a  draft  of  cold  air  was 
applied  to  the  cooling  drums,  and  the  dirt 
and  chaff  blown  through  the  wire  cloth. 
It  was  also  customary  in  wholesale  estab- 
lishments to  blow  cold  air  up  through  a 
perforated  bottom,  and  this  had  been  found 
effective  when  properly  applied.  The  Burns 
idea  was  to  cool  by  means  of  suction,  caus- 
ing a  downward  draft  through  the  coffee 
and  wire-cloth  bottomed  box,  which  was 
found  to  be  more  uniform  and  efficient  for 
cooling  purposes,  as  well  as. in  controlling 
smoke,  heat,  and  dust,  which  by  this  means 


L.. „„ 

^^Py  any  convenient  outlet. 
^f  On  the  subject  of  grinding,  likewise,  Mr. 
Burns  had  reached  some  definite  conclu- 
sions. The  French  and  English  lap  and 
wall  mills,  the  English  steel  mills,  and  the 
Swift  mills  were  all  used  in  the  United 
States.  Troemner's,  the  Enterprise,  and 
others  —  to  be  mentioned  later  in  chrono- 
logical order  —  were  extending  their  use  in 
a  retail  way;  but  Jabez  Burns  confined  his 
attention  to  a  practicable  mill  for  whole- 
sale grinding  establishments. 

For  manufacturing  purposes,  burstone 
mills  were  for  many  years  exclusively  em- 
ployed, especially  one  first  known  as  the 
Prentiss  &  Page,  and  later  as  the  Page  mill. 
There  was  a  time  when  all  the  coffee  estab- 
lishments in  New  York  sent  their  coffee 
to  Prentiss  &  Page  to  be  ground.  Some  of 
the  places  roasted  by  hand,  others  by  horse 
power ;  and  if  by  steam,  it  was  limited,  and 
they  did  not  have  enough  to  spare  for 
grinding. 

With  the  march  of  improvement,  bur- 
stone  mills  went  into  the  discard.  The  dif- 
ficulty lay  in  finding  men  experienced  in 
stone  dressing  to  run  them ;  and  the  demand 
grew  for  a  better  style  of  grinding  than 
could  be  'done  in  a  mill  out  of  face  and 
balance.  This  demand  was  met  in  an  alto- 
gether different  style  of  machine,  which 
for  twenty-five  years  was  well  known  as 
the  Barbor  mill.  It  was  for  improvements 
on  this  mill  that  Jabez  Burns  in  1867,  1872, 
and  1874  obtained  his  granulator  patents. 

The  mill  comprised  cutters  in  the  form 
of  an  iron  roller  running  in  near  contact 
with  a  concave,  also  of  iron,  and  a  revolv- 
ing cylinder  provided  with  sieves,  or  screens, 
that  received  the  ground  material,  rolled 
it  over  the  wire  surface,  sifting  out  the  fine 
and  discharging  the  coarse  automatically 
into  the  cutter,  to  be  again  manipulated 
until  it  was  fine  enough  to  pass  through  the 
meshes  of  the  screen. 

Jabez  Burns  patented  an  improved  form 
of  his  roaster  in  1881,  and  a  sample-coffee 
roaster  in  1883,  before  he  died  in  1888 ;  and 
since  that  time  his  sons,  who  continue  the 
business,  have  perfected  a  number  of  im- 
provements and  brought  out  new  machines 
which  will  be  referred  to  in  chronological 
order. 

James  H.  Nasoii;  of  Franklin,  Mass.,  was 
granted  a  United  States  patent  in  1865  on 
a  percolator  with  fluid  joints. 


EVOLUTION  OF  APPARATUS 


637 


Napier's  Vacuum  MAcniNE,  1840 

P.  H.  Vanderweyde,  of  Philadelphia,  was 
granted  United  States  patents  in  1866  on 
a  percolator  and  a  continuous  coffee-filter- 
ing machine. 

Raparlier  was  granted  a  French  patent 
on  a  pocket  coffee-making  device  in  1867. 
In  later  years,  his  invention  became  very 
popular  among  French  coffee  drinkers.  It 
was  one  of  the  early  practicable  forms  of 
double-glass-globe  filtration  devices. 

E.  B.  Manning  of  Middletown,  Conn., 
was  granted  his  first  patent  on  a  tea  and 
coffee  pot  in  1868.  Others  followed  in  1870 
and  1876.  In  the  latter  year,  John  Bowman 
brought  out  the  valve-type  percolator  which 
subsequently  attained  great  favor  in  Amer- 
ican households. 

Thomas  Smith  &  Son  (Elkington  &  Com- 
pany, Ltd.,  successors)  began  to  manufac- 
ture at  Glasgow,  Scotland,  about  1870,  the 
Napierian  vacuum  coft'ee  machine  which  had 
been  invented  in  1840  —  but  never  pat- 
ented —  by  Robert  Napier  of  the  celebrated 
firm  of  Clyde  shipbuilders.  This  machine 
makes  coffee  by  distillation  and  filtration. 
It  employs  a  metal  globe,  and  a  brewer  from 
which  the  coffee  is  syphoned  over  into  the 
globe  through  a  tube,  around  the  strainer- 
end  of  which,  as  it  rests  in  the  coffee  liquid 
in  the  brewer,  there  is  tied  a  filter  cloth. 
It  is  still  being  manufactured  by  Elkington 
&  Company. 

Thomas  Page,  a  New  York  millwright, 
began  the  manufacture  of  a  pull-out  coffee 


638 


ALL    ABOUT     COFFEE 


=^^^-^>ff'4^'«#^l%=:^_ 


German  Gas  and  Coal  Roasting  Machines 
Left,  Perf ekt  gas  roaster  —  Right,  Probat  coal  roaster 


roaster  similar  to  the  old  Carter  machine, 
.  in  1868.  Later,  Chris  Abele,  who  was  fore- 
man in  the  Page  shop,  succeeded  to  the 
business;  and  in  1882,  he  was  granted  a 
United  States  patent  on  an  improvement  on 
a  coffee  roaster  similar  to  the  original  Burns 
machine  (the  patent  had  then  expired) 
which  he  marketed  under  the  name  of 
Knickerbocker. 

German   Coffee  Machinery 

The  Germans  first  began  to  show  an  ac- 
tive interest  in  coffee  machinery  in  1860. 
In  that  year,  Alexius  Van  Gulpen,  of  Em- 
merich, produced  a  green-coffee  grader ;  and 
later  (1868),  in  partnership  with  J.  H. 
Lensing  and  Theodore  von  Gimborn,  be- 
gan the  manufacture  of  coffee-roasting 
machines.  From  this  start  there  developed 
in  Emmerich  quite  an  industry  in  coffee- 
machinery  building.  In  1870,  Alexius  Van 
Gulpen  introduced  to  the  German  trade  a 
globular  coffee  roaster  employing  wood  and 
coke  as  fuel  and  having  perforations  and 
an  exhauster.  Van  Gulpen  and  von  Gim- 
born are  the  two  names  most  often  met 
with  in  the  development  of  German  coffee- 
roasting  machinery. 

The  first  recorded  German  patent  on  a 
coffee  roaster  was  issued  to  G.  Tubermann  's 
Son  in  1877,  f or  "  a  coffee  burner  with  ver- 
tically adjusted  stirring  works."  German 
patents  were  issued  in  1878  to  R.  Muhlberg, 
of  Taucha,  for  coffee  roasters  with  movable 
partitions  and  "screw-shaped  declining 
walls."  Six  roaster  patents  were  issued  to 
other  inventors  in  1878-79. 


Peter  Pearson,  of  Manchester,  took  out 
a  German  patent  on  a  coffee-roasting  appa- 
ratus in  1880.  Fleury  &  Barker,  of  Lon- 
don, were  granted  a  coffee-roaster  patent  in 
Germany  in  1881. 

After  1870,  Van  Gulpen  devoted  himself 
to  the  cylinder  type  of  roaster,  on  which 
he  obtained  several  patents.  The  partner- 
ship between  Messrs.  Van  Gulpen,  Lensing 
and  von  Gimborn  was  dissolved  in  1906, 
They  were  succeeded  by  the  Emmerieher 
Maschinenfabrik  und  Eissengiesserei,  and 
Van  Gulpen  &  Co.  Van  Gulpen  died  in 
1920.  Among  his  inventions  were  a  circu- 
lar air  fan  to  supply  fresh  air  to  the  beans 
while  roasting;  a  fire-dampening  device; 
roasting  and  cooling  exhausters;  and  a 
"withdrawable"  mixer  remaining  inside  the 
cylinder  during  the  roasting  process,  but 
designed  to  be  withdrawn  at  the  end,  dis- 
charging the  contents  with  a  jerk  into  a 
circular  cooler.  These  improvements  are 
featured  in  Van  Gulpen  &  Co.'s  latest  Me- 
teor machine.  They  make  also  the  Typhoon 
and  Comet  machines,  and  a  line  of  globular 
roasters. 

A  dozen  coffee-roaster  patents  were  is- 
sued in  Germany  in  1880  -  82.  Among  them 
was  one  to  the  Emmerich  Machine  Factory 
and  Iron  Foundry,  Van  Gulpen,  Lensing 
&  von  Gimborn,  Emmerich,  in  1882. 

Numerous  coffee-cooling,  coffee-grinding, 
and  coffee-making  devices  were  patented  in 
Germany  from  1877  to  1885 ;  among  them 
Newstadt's  coffee-extract  machine  in  1882, 
safety  attachments,  rajjid  filters,  Vienna 
coffee  makers,  etc.     The  first  Vienna  coffee 


I 


EVOLUTION  OF  APPARATUS 


639 


maker  seems  to  have  been  patented  in  Ger- 
many in  1879. 

The  Emmerich  Machine  Factory  and  Iron 
Foundry  acquired  certain  Danish  and  Aus- 
trian coffee-roaster  patents  in  1881,  and  in 
1892  it  was  granted  a  German  patent  on  a 
ball  roaster.  In  the  eighties  this  concern 
began  the  manufacture  of  a  closed  ball,  or 
globular,  roaster  with  gas-heater  attach- 
ment. It  acquired,  in  1889,  the  rights  for 
Germany  to  manufacture  gas  roasters  under 
the  Dutch  Henneman  patents  of  1888.  In 
1892,  Theodore  von  Gimborn  was  granted 
French  and  English  patents  on  a  coffee 
roaster  employing  a  naked  gas  flame  in  a 
rotary  cylinder.  In  1897,  the  Emmericher 
concern  was  granted  a  German  patent  on 
an  automatic  circular  tipping  cooler  with 
power  drive.  Today,  this  factory  features 
the  Probat  and  Perfekt  roasters,  but  manu- 
factures a  general  line  of  cylinder  and  ball 
machines  for  coal,  coke,  and  gas. 

Among  others  engaged  in  the  manufac- 
ture of  coffee  machines  in  Germany  are  G. 
W,  Barth,  Ludwigsburg,  and  Ferd.  Gothot, 
Mulheim  on  Rhur.  The  latter  manufac- 
tures a  coke  or  gas  heated  quick-roaster 
known  as  the  Ideal-Rapid,  and  a  smaller 
hand-power  machine,  of  the  same  type, 
called  Favour. 

American,  French,  and  British  Machines 

In  1869,  :filie  Moneuse  and  L.  Duparquet, 
of  New  York,  were  granted  three  United 
States  patents  on  a  coffee  pot  or  urn  made 


of  sheet  copper  and  lined  with  pure  sheet 
block  tin.  These  patents  were  the  founda- 
tion of  the  successful  coffee-urn  business 
afterward  built  up  under  the  name  of  the 
Duparquet,  Huot  &  Moneuse  Co. 

Thomas  Smith  &  Son  (Elkington  &  Co., 
Ltd.,  successors)  began,  in  1870,  the  manu- 
facture of  the  Napierian  coffee-making 
machine  at  Glasgow,  Scotland.  This  was  a 
device  for  making  coffee  by  distillation, 
employing  a  metal  globe  syphon  and  brewer 
with  filter  cloth.  The  principle  was  subse- 
quently used  in  the  Napier-List  steam  coffee 
machine  for  ships  and  institutions,  patented 
in  England  in  1891. 

John  Gulick  Baker,  of  Philadelphia,  one 
of  the.  founders  of  the  Enterprise  Manu- 
facturing Co.  of  Pennsylvania,  was  granted 
a  United  States  patent  in  1870,  on  a  cof- 
fee grinder  introduced  to  the  trade  as  the 
Enterprise  Champion  No.  1  store  mill. 
Another  Baker  patent  was  granted  in 
1873,  and  this  became  known  as  the  En- 
terprise Champion  Globe  No.  0.  These 
mills  were  the  pioneer  machines  for  store 
use. 

In  1870,  Delphine,  Sr.,  of  Marourme, 
France,  was  granted  a  French  patent  on 
a  tubular  coffee  roaster  which  turned  over 
a  flame. 

In  the  sixties  and  seventies,  French  in- 
ventors became  quite  active  on  coffee-roaster 
improvements.  Many  patents  were  granted, 
and  quite  a  few  were  for  practical  small- 
capacity  machines  that  have  survived,  and 


Other  Gebman  Coffee  Roasters 
Left,    globular    machine — Right,    Meteor    quick-roasting  outfit 


640 


ALL     ABOUT     COFFEE 


are  in  use  today  in  France  and  on  the  conti- 
nent. Some  supplied  inspiration  for  in- 
ventors in  neighboring  countries.  Among 
the  more  notable  names,  mention  should  be 
made  of  Martin,  of  St.  Quentin,  who  pro- 
duced a  sheet-iron  cylinder  roaster  with 
"interior  gatherer"  in  1860;  Marchand,  of 
Paris,  ' '  fan  roaster  with  movable  fire  box, ' ' 
1866  and  1869;  Lauzaune,  Paris,  "rocking 
system  of  roasting  coffee  in  a  round  stove," 
1873 ;  Ittel's  glass  sphere,  Lyons,  1874 ;  and 
Marchand  and  IJignette,  Paris,  1877,  a 
ball  coffee  roaster. 

Evolution  of  the  Gas  Roaster 

According  to  the  patent  records,  Roure, 
of  Marseilles,  apnears  to  have  produced  the 
original  gas  coffee  roaster  in  1877."  The 
evolution  of  the  gas  roasting-machine  was 
as  follows : 

In  1879,  H.  Faulder,  of  Stockport,  Eng- 
land, obtained  an  English  patent  on  an 
external  air-blast  burner  applied  to  a  cylin- 
der gas  machine,  which  is  still  being  manu- 
factured by  the  Grocers  Engineering  and 
Whitmee,  Ltd.,  of  London.  Fleury  and 
Barker,  of  London,  followed  with  another 


Original  Enterprise  Mill 


Max  Thurmeij's  Quick  Gas  Roaster 

English  gas  machine  in  1880,  the  heat  being 
supplied  from  gas  jets  over  the  roasting 
cylinder.  In  1881,  Peter  Pearson,  of  Man- 
chester, produced  a  gas  roaster  which  con- 
sisted of  a  wire-gauze  cylinder  revolving 
under  a  metal  plate  heated  by  gas. 

Beeston  Tupholme,  of  London,  was 
granted  an  English  patent  in  1887,  on  a 
direct-flame  gas  roaster  which  he  assigned 
to  Joseph  Baker  &  Sons. 

Karel  F.  Henneman,  the  Hague,  Nether- 
lands, took  out  his  first  patent  on  the  Hen- 
neman direct-flame  gas  roaster  in  Spain 
in  1888 ;  and  the  following  year,  he  obtained 
patents  in  Belgium,  France,  and  England, 
His  United  States  patents  were  granted  in 
1893  -  95. 

Postulart  secured  a  patent  in  France  for 
a  gas  coffee  roaster  in  1888. 

The  Germans  also  began,  in  the  eighties, 
to  take  the  quick  gas  coffee  roaster  seri- 
ously. In  1889,  Carl  Alexander  Otto,  of 
Dresden,  secured  a  German  patent  on  a 
spiral  tubular  machine  to  roast  coffee  in 
three  and  a  half  minutes.  It  was  first 
manufactured  and  sold  by  Max  Thurmer, 
of  Dresden,  in  1891  -  93. 

The  subject  of  quick  roasting  has  greatly 
agitated  German  and  French  coffee  men. 
Otto  found  that  coffee  roasted  in  small 
quantities  (say  fifty  grams)  on  a  sample- 
roaster  produced  a  finer  flavor  and  aroma 
than  that  roasted  in  the  big  machines.    He 


A  L  L     A  HO IV     COV F  K  K 


inryr«i!iMifi'tJT*rfiirrTg^nTn< . 

LOADIiNO     COI-I'EE    ON    ZAMBOKKS    AT    lluDElUA 

These  boats  then  transfer  their  cargoes  to  steamships  lying  in   the  roads 


PicTUitESQiK  Camel  and  IJullock  Cahts 
Used   for  local  coffee   transport   In   Aden   and  Hqdeida 

PRIMITIVE  TRANSPORTATION  ^FETHODS  TN  ARABIA 


EVOLUTION  OF  APPARATUS 


641 


set  out  to  produce  a  machine  that  would 
roast  continuous  small  quantities  in  the 
shortest  time.  He  built  the  first  commer- 
cial machine  under  his  patent  in  1893.  It 
was  shown  at  the  International  Food  Ex- 
hibition in  Dresden  in  1894.  The  latest 
type  manufactured  by  Max  Thurmer,  Dres- 
den, in  which  firm  Otto  is  a  partner,  has  a 
spiral  five  meters  long  and  an  hourly  pro- 
duction of  about  450  pounds.  The  Thur- 
mer machine,  as  it  is  called,  has  been  sold 
to  the  trade  since  1914. 

Quick  roasting'  is  gone  in  for  quite  exten- 
sively in  Germany,  even  in  the  big  trade- 
roasting  plants,  where  machines  to  roast  in 
ten  to  seventeen  minutes  are  common.  Nat- 
ural, slow  cooling  is  most  necessary  with 
quick  roasting,  according  to  Thurmer.  On 
the  other  hand,  A.  Mottant,  of  Paris,  who 
also  manufactures  a  line  of  quick  gas-roast- 
ing machines,  called  Magic,  argues  that 
quick  cooling  is  essential  after  quick  roast- 
ing. Three  of  the  Mottant  machines  are 
illustrated  on  pages  642  and  644. 


Other  quick-roasting  machines  of  Ger- 
man make  are  the  Combinator,  Tornado, 
and  Rekord. 

In  a  lecture  before  the  Society  of  Medi- 
cal Officers  of  Health,  London,  October  24, 
1912,  William  Lawton  demonstrated  to  the 
satisfaction  of  his  audience  that  coffee  could 
be  roasted  in  3  minutes,  using  a  perforated 
gas-roaster  of  his  own  invention.* 

The  first  direct-flame  gas  coffee  roaster 
in  America  was  installed  in  the  plant  of 
the  Potter-Parlin  Co.,  New  York,  by  F.  T. 
Holmes,  in  1893.  This  was  Tupholme's 
machine,  patented  in  England  in  1887,  and 
in  the  United  States  in  1896-97.  The 
Potter-Parlin  Co.  subsequently  placed  the 
Tupholme  machines  throughout  the  United 
States  on  a  daily  rental  basis,  limiting  its 
leases  to  one  firm  in  a  city,  having  obtained 
the  exclusive  American  rights  from  the 
Waygood,  Tupholme  Co.,  now  the  Grocers 
Engineering  and  Whitmee,  Ltd. 

*  Tea  and  Coffee  Trade  Jour.,  1912  (vol.  xxiii  i  no. 
6:   p.  392). 


An  English  Gas  Cofbee-Uoasting  Plant 
The  machines  are  the  Morewood    (improved  Faulder)   sliding-burner  Indirect  type 


642 


ALL     ABOUT     COFFEE 


.    '  >Frendh  Globular  Roaster 

Natural  gas  was  first  used  in  the  United 
States  as  fuel  for  roasting  coffee  in  1896, 
when  it  was  introduced  under  coal  roasting 
cylinders  in  Pennsylvania  and  Indiana  by 
improvised  gas  burners. 

Edwin  Crawdey  and  W.  T.  Johnston, 
Newport,  Ky.,  assignors  to  the  Potter- 
Parlin  Co.,  New  York,  were  granted  four 
United  States  patents  on  gas  coffee-roasting 
machines. 

In  1897,  a  special  gas  burner,  not  to  be 
confused  with  the  direct-flame  machine, 
was  first  attached  to  a  regular  Burns  roaster 
in  the  United  States,  and  was  made  the 
basis  of  application  for  a  patent. 

In  1897-99,  David  B.  Fraser,  of  New 
York,  began  to  market  in  the  United  States 
a  central-heated  gas-fuel  machijie  with  an 
inner  wire-cloth  cylinder  to  keep  the  coffee 
from  dropping  into  the  flame,  developed 
under  United  States  patents  granted  to  Carl 
H.  Duehring,  of  Hoboken,  in  1897,  and  to 
D.  B.  Fraser  in  1899. 

M.  F.  Hamsley,  of  Brooklyn,  was  granted 
a  United  States  patent  on  an  improved 
direct-flame  gas  roaster  in  1898. 

Ellis  M.  Potter,  New  York,  was  granted 
in  1899,  a  United  States  patent  on  an  im- 
proved direct-flame  gas  roaster  in  which 
the  flame  w^as  spread  over  a  large  area  to 
avoid  scorching  and  to  insure  a  more  thor- 
ough and  uniform  roast.  In  the  Tupholme 
machine,  the  gas  flame  entered  at  one  end, 


and  the  smoke  and  flame  went  out  through 
a  stack  on  top.  In  the  Potter  machine,  the 
stack  was  put  on  the  end  opposite  the  gas 
intake,  with  a  fan  to  pull  the  flame  all  the 
way  through. 

The  Burns,  direct-flame  gas  roaster,  with 
patented  swing-gate  head  for  feeding  and 
discharging,  was  introduced  to  the  trade 
in  1900.  The  Burns  gas  sample-roaster 
followed. 

In  1901,  Joseph  Lambert,  of  Marshall, 
Mich.,  introduced  to  the  trade  one  of  the 
earliest  indirect  gas  roasting  machines. 

In  1901,  also,  T.  C.  Morewood,  of  Brent- 
ford, England,  was  granted  an  English 
patent  on  a  gas  roaster  fitted  with  a  sliding 
burner  and  a  removable  sampling  tube. 
This  machine  is  now  being  made  by  the 
Grocers  Engineering  and  Whitmee,  Ltd. 

In  the  same  year,  1901,  F.  T.  Holmes, 
formerly  with  the  Potter-Parlin  Co.,  joined 
the  Huntley  Manufacturing  Coi,  Silver 
Creek,  N.  Y.,  which  then  began  to  build  the 
Monitor  direct-flame  gas  coffee  roaster.  Mr. 
Holmes  still  further  improved  the  Tup- 
holme  idea  by  pitting  gas  burners  in  both 
ends  of  the  roasting  cylinder,  with  the  pipes 
bent  down  so  as  to  cause  the  gas  flame  to 
go  first  to  the  bottom  and  then  up  to  the 
stack  on  top.  This  improvement  w^as  never 
patented. 

The  Henneman  direct-flame  gas  roaster 
was  introduced  to  the  United  States  trade 
in  1905,  by  C.  A.  Cross  &  Co.,  wholesale 
grocers,  of  Fitchburg,  Mass.     It  was  mar- 


SiROCco  Machine  (French) 


EVOLUTION  OF  APPARATUS 


643 


English  Roasting  and  Grinding  Equipment 
Showing   one   168-pound    Simplex  gas   roaster,    with   a   Rapid  disk  grinding  machine  having  a   capacity  of  300 

to  400  pounds  per  hour 

keted  here  seven  years,  but  was  never  a 
great  success. 

In  1906,  F.  T.  Holmes  was  granted  a 
United  States  patent  on  a  coffee  roaster 
which  he  assigned  to  the  Huntley  Manu- 
facturing Co. 

J.  C.  Prims,  of  Battle  Creek,  Mich.,  was 
granted  a  United  States  patent  in  1908,  on 
a  corrugated  cylinder  improvement  for  a 
gas  and  coal  roaster  designed  for  retail 
stores.  The  A.  J.  Deer  Co.,  Hornell,  N.  Y., 
acquired  this  machine  in  1909,  and  began 
to  market  it  as  the  Royal  coffee  roaster. 
An  improvement  patented  in  1915  by  J.  C. 
Prims  was  assigned  to  the  A.  J.  Deer  Co. 

In  1915,  and  again  in  1919,  Jabez  Burns 
&  Sons,  New  York,  patented  theiri  Jubilee 
roaster,  an  inner-heated  machine  in  which 
the  gas  is  burned  inside  a  revolving  cylin- 
der in  a  combustion  chamber  protected  from 
direct  coffee  contact.  The  heat  is  deflected 
downward  and  thou  passes  upward  through 
the  coffee. 

In  1919,  William  Fullard  {d.  1921),  of 
Philadelphia,  was  granted  a  United  States 
patent  on   a   "heated   fresh   air  system" 


roaster,  in  which  the  fresh  air  is  forced  by 
an  electric  fan  through  a  pipe  to  a  set  of 
coils  over  gas,  coal,  or  oil  flame.  At  the 
top  of  the  coils  is  a  manifold,  the  hot  air 
being  forced  through  small  holes  to  circu- 
late in  and  around  a  regulation  perforated 
roasting  cylinder ;  the  vapors  and  spent  air 
are  then  drawn  into  an  overhead  exhaust 
pipe  that  connects  with  a  pipe  provided 
with  a  fresh-air  intake,  the  idea  being  to 
return  them  to  the  roasting  cylinder  after 
being  mixed  with  fresh  air  and  heated  in 
the  coils  as  before.  This  patent  has  not 
been  successfully  marketed  at  the  time  of 
writing.  The  purpose  is  to  roast  by  heated 
air  not  mixed  with  any  furnace  gases. 
Whether  this  can  be  done  with  sufficient 
fuel  economy,  and  whether  coffee  thus 
roasted  would  have  any  greater  value,  arc 
questions  that  are  raised  by  the  coffee  ex- 
perts. 

Coffee-Grinding  and  Coffee-Making 
Chronology 

To  return  to  our  coffee-grinding  and  cof- 
fee-making chronology,  it  is  to  be  noted 


644 


ALL     ABOUT     COFFEE 


Magic  Gas  Machine  (French) 

that  in  1875  -  76  -  78,  Turner  Strowbridge, 
of  New  Brighton,  Pa.,  was  granted  three 
United  States  patents  on  a  box  coffee  mill, 
first  made  by  Logan  &  Strowbridge,  later 
the  Logan  &  Strowbridge  Iron  Company, 
the  latter  being  succeeded  by  the  Wrights- 
ville  Hardware  Co.  in  1906. 

In  1878,  a  United  States  patent  was  is- 
sued to  Rudolphus  L.  Webb,  assignor  to 
Landers,  Frary  &  Clark,  New  Britain, 
Conn.,  on  an  improved  box  coffee  grinder 
for  home  use. 

In  1878,  and  in  1880,  United  States  pat- 
ents were  issued  to  John  C.  Dell  of  Phila- 
delphia on  a  store  coffee  mill. 

In  1879,  and  in  1880,  United  States  pat- 
-  ents  were  issued  to  Orson  W.  Stowe,  of  the 
Peck,   Stowe  &  Wilcox   Co.,  Southington, 
Conn.,  on  a  household  coffee  mill. 

In  1879,  Charles  Halstead,  of  New  York, 
was  granted  the  first  United  States  patent 
on  a  metal  coffee  pot  having  a  china  inte- 
rior.   It  was  an  infuser  for  home  use. 

In  1880,  coffee  pots,  with  tops  having 
muslin  bottoms  for  clarifying  and  strain- 
ing, were  first  made  in  the  United  States 
by  the  Duparquet,  Huot  &  Moneuse  Co.,  of 
New  York. 

The  name  Hungerford  first  appears  in 
the  United  States  patent  records  in  1880  - 
81,  in  connection  with  patents  granted  to 
G-.'w.  and  G.  S.  Hungerford  on  machines 
for  cleaning,  scouring,  and  polishing  coffee. 
In  1882,  the  Hungerfords,  father  and  son. 


brought  out  a  roaster.  This  machine  and 
the  one  patented  by  Chris  Abele,  of  New 
York,  already  referred  to,  were  construc- 
tions resulting  from  the  expiration  of  the 
original  Burns  patent  of  1864.  In  1881, 
Jabez  Burns  patented  the  improved  Burns 
roaster,  comprising  a  turn-over  front  head 
serving  for  both  feeding  and  discharging. 
Additional  United  States  coffee-roaster  pat- 
ents were  issued  to  G.  W.  Hungerford  in 
1887  -  89.  In  the  latter  year,  David  Fraser, 
who  came  to  the  United  States  from  Glas- 
gow in  1886,  established  the  Hungerford 
Co.,  succeeding  the  business  of  the  Hunger- 
fords,  and  later  being  granted  certain 
United  States  patents,  already  mentioned. 
In  1910,  the  Hungerford  Co.  business  was 
discontinued  in  New  York;  and  David  B. 
Fraser  moved  to  Jersey  City,  where  he 
continued  to  operate  as  the  Fraser  Manu- 
facturing Co.  This  business  was  discon- 
tinued in  1918. 

Chris  Abele  was  an  active  competitor  of 
the  Hungerfords  and  of  the  Fraser  Manu- 
facturing Co. ;  and  his  Knickerbocker  roast- 
er was  sold  over  a  wide  territory.  He  died 
in  1910 ;  and  his  son-in-law,  Gottfried  Bay, 
succeeded  to  the  business. 

In  1881,  the  Morgan  Brothers,  Edgar  H. 
and  Charles,  began  the  manufacture  of 
household  coffee  mills,  the  business  being 


Burns  Jubilee  Gas  Machine 


EVOLUTIOX  OF  APPARATUS 


645 


Double  Aromatic  Gas  Roastijxg  OuTtiT  (Frejnch) 


acquired  in  1885  by  the  Arcade  Manufac- 
turing Co.,  of  Freeport,  111.  The  latter 
concern  brought  out  the  first  pound  coffee 
mill  in  1889.  Its  mills  became  very  popu- 
lar in  the  United  States.  In  1900,  Charles 
Morgan  was  granted  a  United  States  patent 
on  a  glass- jar  coffee  mill,  with  removable 
glass  measuring  cup. 

In  1881,  Harvey  Ricker,  of  Brooklyn, 
later  of  Minneapolis,  introduced  to  the 
trade  in  the  United  States  a  ' '  minute  coffee 
pot"  and  urn  known  as  the  Boss,  the  name 
being  subsequently  changed  to  Minute.  He 
improved  and  patented  the  device  in  1901 
as  the  Half -Minute  coffee  pot.  It  is  a 
filtration  device  employing  a  cotton  sack 
with  a  thickened  bottom. 

In  1882,  Chris  Abele,  of  New  York,  pat- 
ented an  improvement  on  the  old-style 
Burns  roaster,  with  openings  cut  in  the 
front  plate.  It  was  known  as  the  Knicker- 
bocker. As  already  noted,  the  machine  was 
a  competitor  of  the  Hungerford  machine 
patented  the  same  year. 

In  1882,  a  German  patent  was  granted 
to  Emil  Newstadt,  of  Berlin,  on  one  of  the 
earliest  coffee-extract  machines. 


In  1883,  Jabez  Burns  was  granted  a 
United  States  patent  on  his  improved  sam- 
ple-coffee roaster. 

In  1884,  the  Star  coffee  pot,  later  known 
as  the  Marion  Harland,  was  introduced  to 
the  trade.  It  employed  a  wire-gauze  drip 
device,  called  a  "filter,"  which  was  fitted 
to  a  metal  pot.  It  was  extensively  adver- 
tised and  attained  considerable  popularity. 
The  same  year,  Finley  Acker,  of  Philadel- 
phia, brought  out  an  improved  coffee  pot 
for  family  trade.  Later,  he  produced  his 
Mo-Kof-Fee  pot  and  an  individual  porce- 
lain drip  pot  for  testing-table  use. 

In  1885,  F.  A.  Cauchois,  New  York, 
brought  out  an  improved  porcelain-lined 
urn. 

In  1887  -  88,  the  Etruscan  coffee  pot  was 
invented  and  put  on  the  market  by  the 
Etruscan  Coffee  Pot  Co.,  of  Philadelphia. 
It  employed  a  muslin  cylinder  with  metal 
ends  and  a  mechanism  for  combining  "agi- 
tation, distillation  and  infusion."  It  was 
not  unlike  the  Dakin  device  of  1848,  pre- 
viously mentioned. 

In  1890,  A.  Mottant,  Bar-le-Duc,  France, 
began  to  manufacture  a  line  of  coffee-roast- 


646 


ALL     ABOUT     COFFEE 


ing  machinery  which  included  vertical  ball- 
and-cylinder  machines,  using  wood,  coal, 
coke,  or  gas  for  fuel.  His  best  known  makes 
are  Magic  and  Sirocco  (see  page  642). 

Before  1895,  the  commercial  roaster  was 
little  used  in  France.  Since  then,  the  in- 
dustry has  developed,  but  without  displac- 
ing the  smaller  roaster  for  family  use.  Ball 
roasters  are  popular  wdth  shopkeepers,  espe- 
cially the  variety  manufactured  by  the 
fitablissements  Lauzaune  at  Paris,  and 
known  as  Aromatic,  being  equipped  with 
electric  motors.  This  firm  builds  also  a 
larger  machine  known  as  Moderne. 

Other  makes  of  roasters  that  have  at- 
tained prominence  in  France  are  the  Lam- 
bert, equipped  with  a  steam  condenser;  Van 
den  Brouck's,  having  the  roasting  cylinder 
lined  with  wire  gauze ;  and  Resson  's  machine 
for  wholesale  plants. 

The  French  led  off  with  glass-cylinder 
roasters  for  home  use  in  the  early  seven- 
ties. They  are  still  popular.  One  of  the 
developments  of  the  last  decade  was  known 
as  the  Bijou,  and  was  operated  by  clock 
work.  A  similar  automatic  machine,  made 
of  glass,  was  manufactured  and  sold  in  New 
York  in  1908  under  the  name  of  the  Home 
roaster.  As  late  as  1914,  an  American 
inventor  produced  a  home  roaster  for  use 
in  a  stove  hole.  This  device  had  a  stirrer 
in  the  cover  to  be  rotated  by  hand.  A  simi- 
lar device  was  sold  in  1917  under  the  name 
Savo.  Home  roasting,  however,  has  become 
a  lost  art  in  America. 


Lambert's    Victory   Gas    Machine 


In  1897,  Joseph  Lambert,  of  Vermont, 
began  the  manufacture  and  sale  in  Battle 
Creek,  Mich.,  of  the  Lambert  self-contained 
coffee  roaster  without  the  brick  setting  then 
required  for  coffee-roasting  machines.     In 

1900,  he  was  joined  by  A.  P.  Grohens.    In 

1901,  the  Lambert  Food  and  Machinery  Co. 
was  organized.  In  1904,  the  company  was 
re-organized.  Since  then,  many  improve- 
ments have  been  made  under  Mr.  Grohens' 
direction.  The  Lambert  gas  roaster,  one 
of  the  first  machines  employing  gas  as  fuel 
for  indirect  roasting,  dates  back  to  1901, 
as  previously  mentioned.  The  Economic 
roaster  is  Mr.  Grohens'  latest  development 
for  coal  or  coke  fuel.  It  is  a  compact  self- 
contained  equipment  operating  in  connec- 
tion with  a  new-type  rotary  cooler.  He  has 
also  recently  (1922)  brought  out  a  gas- 
fired,  electrically  operated  600-pound  Vic- 
tory roaster  and  a  fifty-pound  miniature 
coffee-roasting  plant  designed  for  retail 
stores. 

In  1897,  the  Enterprise  Manufacturing 
Co.  of  Pennsylvania  was  the  first  regularly 
to  employ  electric  motors  for  driving  com- 
mercial coffee  mills  by  means  of  belt-and- 
pulley  attachments. 

In  1898,  the  Hobart  Manufacturing  Co., 
of  Troy,  Ohio,  introduced  to  the  trade  an- 
other early  coffee  grinder  connected  with 
an  electric  motor  and  driven  by  belt-and- 
pulley  attachment. 

In  1900,  the  first  gear-driven  electric 
coffee  grinder  was  put  on  the  market  by 
the  Enterprise  Manufacturing  Co.  of  Penn- 
sylvania. 

In  1902,  the  Coles  Manufacturing  Co., 
(Braun  Co.,  successor)  and  Henry  Troem- 
ner,  of  Philadelphia,  began  the  manufacture 
and  sale  of  gear-driven  electric  coffee 
grinders. 

In  1905,  the  A.  J.  Deer  Co.,  Buffalo, 
N.  Y.,  (now  at  Hornell,  N.  Y.)  began  to 
sell  its  Royal  electric  coffee  mills  direct  to 
dealers  on  the  instalment  plan,  revolution- 
izing the  former  practise  of  selling  coffee 
mills  through  hardware  jobbers. 

In  1905,  H,  L.  Johnston  was  granted  a 
United  States  patent  on  a  coffee  mill.  He 
assigned  the  patent  to  the  Hobart  Manu- 
facturing Co. 

In  1900,  Charles  Lewis  was  granted  a 
United  States  patent  on  an  improved  re- 
versible filtration  coffee  pot  known  as  the 
Kin-Hee.  This  pot  has  since  been  further 
improved,  and  the  patent  rights  sold  in 
several   foreign   countries.      It   employs    a 


EVOLUTION   OF   APPARATUS 


647 


filter  cloth  in  place  of  the  metal  or  china 
strainer  used  in  the  French  drip  pot. 

In  1901,  Landers,  Frary  &  Clark's  im- 
proved Universal  percolator  was  patented 
in  the  United  States.  This  pot  has  proved 
to  be  one  of  the  most  popular  percolators 
on  the  American  market.  This  firm  brought 
out  the  Universal  Cafenoira,  a  double  glass 
filtration  device,  in  1916.  It  is  covered  by 
design  and  structural  patents  issued  in  1916 
and  1917. 

In  1900,  the  Burns  swing-gate  sample- 
roasting  outfit  was  patented  in  the  United 
States. 

In  1901,  Robert  Burns,  of  New  York,  was 
granted  two  United  States  patents  on  a 
coffee  roaster  and  cooler. 

In  1901,  Freidrich  Kuchelmeister,  Brux, 
Austria-Hungary,  was  granted  a  United 
States  patent  on  a  coffee  roaster  having  a 
double-walled  drum,  the  inner  being  of  wire 
gauze,  and  the  outer  of  solid  iron,  designed 
to  prevent  scorching  of  the  beans. 

In  1902,  W.  M.  Still  &  Sons,  London, 
were  granted  an  English  patent  on  a  steam 
coffee-making  machine  employing  twelve 
t)unees  of  coffee  to  the  gallon. 

In  1902,  T.  K.  Baker,  of  Minneapolis, 
was  granted  two  United  States  patents  on 
a  cloth-filter  coffee-making  device. 

In  1903,  A.  E.  Bronson,  Jr.,  assignor  to 
the  Bronson- Walton  Company,  Cleveland, 
Ohio,  was  granted  a  United  States  patent 
on  a  coffee  mill. 

In  1903,  John  Arbuckle  was  granted  a 
United  States  patent  on  a  coffee-roasting 
apparatus  employing  a  fan  to  force  the  hot 
fire  gases  into  the  roasting  cylinder.  From 
this  was  developed  the  Jumbo  roaster,  now 
used  in  the  Arbuckle  plant,  which  roasts 
ten  thousand  pounds  an  hour. 

Electric  Coffee-Roasting 

In  1903,  George  C.  Lester,  of  New  York, 
was  granted  a  United  States  patent  on  an 
electric  coffee  roaster,  that  is,  a  machine  to 
roast  by  electric  heat.  There  were  two 
cylinders,  the  inner  being  of  wire  gauze, 
and  the  outer  of  copper  and  asbestos.  Be- 
tween the  two,  four  electric  heaters  were 
placed. 

There  was  demonstrated  in  Germany,  in 
1906,  an  electric  coffee  roaster  employing  a 
number  of  resistance  coils,  consisting  of 
strips  of  Krupp  metal  two  and  one-half 
mm.  thick,  five  mm.;  broad,  and  thirteen 
and  one-half  mm.  long,  wound  on  porcelain 
tubes,  which  transmitted  the  heat  to  the 


One  of  the  Fikst  Electric  Coffee  Mills 

air  within  the  roasting  cylinder.  Analysis 
showed  that  coffee  electrically  roasted  con- 
tained more  substances  soluble  in  water  than 
that  roasted  by  coke,  as  well  as  considerably 
more  material  soluble  in  ether.  This  ma- 
chine was  invented  by  Captain  Carl  Moeg- 
ling  about  1900. 

Another  electric-fuel-machine  patent  was 
granted  in  the  United  States  to  Robert  H. 
Talbutt,  of  Baltimore,  in  1911.  This  ma- 
chine had  the  electric  heater  in  the  center 
of  the  roasting  cylinder.  An  electrically 
heated  machine  called  the  Ben  Franklin  was 
demonstrated  in  New  York  in  1918. 

In  1919,  Everett  T.  Shortt,  Dallas,  Tex., 
was  granted  a  United  States  patent  on  an 
electrical  roaster. 

Up  to  the  present  writing,  no  great  prog- 
ress has  been  made  in  the  United  States 
with  the  roasting  of  coffee  by  electric  heat. 

The  Phoenix  Electrical  Heating  Co. 
manufactured,  and  the  Uno  Company,  Ltd., 
of  London,  marketed  an  electricially  heated 
roaster  as  far  back  as  1909.  The  machine 
was  not  altogether  satisfactory,  even  to  the 
makers;  and  the  Uno  Company  is  now 
(1922)  experimenting  with  a  new  type  of 
electric  roaster  which  it  expects  will  remedy 
the  defects  of  the  early  machine.  The  1909 
roaster  was  made  of  two  concentric  cylin- 
ders revolving  around  a  set  of  fixed  heating 
elements,  consisting  of  a  series  of  spiral 


64.8 


ALL     ABOUT     COFFEE 


ExtiLisii  Electric-Fuel  Roaster 

wires  held  in  position  on  fireproof  clay  in- 
sulators, these  wires  being  assembled,  in- 
sulated, and  brought  out  through  the  fixed 
center  to  a  tei-minal,  or  a  set  of  terminals, 
at  one  end.  In  this  way,  no  contact 
brushes  or  rings  were  needed.  The  ma- 
chine had  a  sampling  device  at  one  end 
which  threw  out  a  few  berries  each  time  it 
w'as  operated.  It  was  not  possible  to  return 
these  sample  berries.  Such  an  arrangement 
appeared  necessary,  however,  unless  one  was 
prepared  to  have  the  heating  element  on  the 
outside  of  the  machine  and  to  pick  up  the 
current  by  means  of  rings  or  brushes. 
When  the  operator  became  accustomed  to 
the  coffee  he  was  roasting,  this  was  not  a 
matter  of  great  moment,  because  in  Eng- 
land, at  least,  the  average  coffee  roaster 
does  not  require  a  testing  sample  until  he 
is  about  ready  to  turn  out  and  to  cool 
the  roast. 

The  Uno  machine  had  a  capacity  of  seven 
pounds,  and  the  time  occupied  in  roasting 
was  from  eight  to  ten  minutes,  depending 


on  whether  the  roaster  had  been  freshly 
switched  on  or  had  been  running  for  a  few 
minutes.  The  w^attage  was  5,520,  The  con- 
sumption per  hundredweight  was  under 
thirteen  units.  The  makers  gave,  as  the 
most  economical  pressure  on  which  to  work, 
220  to  240  volts.  The  machine  was  operated 
for  eighteen  months  in  the  show  window  of 
a  London  retail  grocer. 

In  1921,  a  United  States  patent  was 
granted  to  Mark  T.  Seymour,  Stowe,  N.  Y., 
on  an  electric  coffee  and  peanut  roaster, 
which  has  the  heating  element  embedded  in 
a  cement-lined  cylinder  that  contains  a 
roasting  cage. 

In  1921,  Fred  J.  Kuhlemeir  and  Ralph 
J.  Quelle,  of  Burlington,  la.,  were  granted 
a  United  States  patent  on  a  small  house- 
hold coffee  roaster  electrically  equipped, 
and  roasting  by  electric  heat. 

Other  Machinery  Patents 

In  1903,  Luigi  Giacomini,  of  Florence, 
Italy,  was  granted  a  United  States  patent 
on  a  process  for  roasting  coffee. 


Be:n    Franklin    Electric    Coffee    Koaster 

In  1905,  A.  A.  Warner,  assignor  to 
Landers,  Frary  &  Clark,  New  Britain, 
Conn.,  was  granted  two  United  States  pat- 
ents on  a  coffee  mill.  -  '  -. 


EVOLUTION  OF  APPARATUS 


649 


In  1906,  Ludwig  Schmidt,  assignor  to  the 
Essmueller  Mill  Furnishing  Co.,  St.  Louis, 
was  granted  a  United  States  patent  on  a 
coffee  roaster.  This  company  and  the 
Keuter-Jones  Manufacturing  Co.,  also  of 
St.  Louis,  were  making  machines  similar  to 
the  original  Burns  model.  The  Reuter- 
Jones  Manufacturing  Co.,  in  1910,  brought 
out  a  self-contained  gas  roaster  called  the 
St.  Louis,  Jr.  In  1913,  at  a  receiver's  sale, 
A.  P.  Grohens,  of  the  Lambert  Machine 
Co.,  acquired  all  the  machinery  and  patent 
rights  of  the  Reuter-Jones  Manufacturing 
Company. 

In  1904,  J.  W.  Chapman  and  G.  W.  Koo- 
man,  assignors  to  Manning,  Bowman  &  Co., 
Meriden,  Conn.,  were  granted  a  United 
States  patent  on  a  coffee  or  tea  pot.  The 
same  year,  George  E.  Savage  and  G.  W. 
Hope  were  granted  two  United  States  pat- 
ents on  coffee  or  tea  pots,  also  assigned  to 
Manning,  Bowman  &  Co. 

In  1904,  Sigmund  Sternau,  J.  P.  Steppe, 
and  L.  Strassberger,  assignors  to  S.  Sternau 
&  Co.,  New  York,  were  granted  a  United 
States  patent  on  a  percolator.  Six  others 
were  granted  to  Charles  Nelson,  and  as- 
signed to  S.  Sternau  &  Co.,  in  1912  and 
1913,  for  a  percolator,  the  manufacture  and 
sale  of  which  w^ere  discontinued  in  1915. 

In  1905,  a  celebrated  case  was  decided  in 
Kansas  City  involving  litigation  betw^een 
William  E.  Baker,  of  Baker  &  Co.,  Minne- 
apolis, and  the  F.  A.  Buncombe  Manu- 
facturing Co.,  of  St.  Joseph,  Mo.,  over  Mr. 
Baker's  patent  rights  in  a  machine  to  pro- 
duce steel-cut  coffee.  The  suit  was  brought 
in  1903,  and  Mr.  Baker  contended  that  his 
patent  gave  him  the  exclusive  right  to  the 
"uniformity  of  granules  by  means  of  the 
sharply  dressed  mechanism ' '  and  by  the  use 
of  a  fan  for  blowing  away  the  silver  skins, 
produced  by  his  machine ;  while  the  defend- 
ant said  he  obtained  the  same  result  (steel- 
cut  coffee)  by  grading  the  granules  through 
screens  or  sieves.  The  defense  was  that 
Mr.  Baker's  process  was  not  a  discovery; 
because,  grinding  coffee  was  as  old  as  the 
world's  knowledge,  and  winnowing  the 
chaff  was  equally  ancient.  The  lower  court 
dismissed  the  bill,  because  the  ' '  patents  sued 
upon  are  devoid  of  patentable  invention"; 
and  the  United  States  Court  of  Appeals 
confirmed  the  decision. 

In  1905,  Frederick  A.  Cauchois,  of  New 
York,  brought  out  his  Private  Estate  coffee 
maker,  a  clever  combination  of  the  French 
drip  and  filter  iitocesses,  employing  a  thin 


Enterprise  Hand   Store  Mill 

layer  of  Japanese  paper  as  a  filtering  agent. 
The  same  year,  Finley  Acker,  of  Philadel- 
phia, was  granted  a  United  States  patent  on 
a  percolator  employing  two  cylinders,  per- 
forated on  the  sides,  with  a  sheet  of  perco- 
lator paper  placed  between  them  to  act  as 
a  filtering  medium. 

In  1906,  George  Savage  and  J.  W.  Chap- 
man, assignors  to  Manning,  Bowman  &  Co. 
of  Meriden,  Conn.,  were  granted  a  United 
States  patent  on  a  coffee  percolator. 

In  1906,  Alonzo  A.  Warner,  assignor  to 
Landers,  Frary  &  Clark,  New  Britain, 
Conn.,  was  granted  a  United  States  patent 
on  a  coffee  percolator. 

In  1906,  H.  D.  Kelly,  Kansas  City,  was 
granted  a  United  States  patent  on  the  Kel- 
lum  Automatic  coffee  urn,  employing  a  cof- 
fee extractor  in  w^hich  ground  coffee  is  con- 
tinually agitated  before  percolation  by  a 
vacuum  process.    Sixteen  patents  followed. 

In  1907,  Desiderio  Pavoni,  of  Milan, 
Italy,  w^as  granted  a  patent  in  Italy  for  an 
improvement  on  the  Bezzara  system  for 
preparing  and  serving  coffee  as  a  rapid  in- 
fusion of  a  single  cup,  first  introduced  in 


650 


ALL     ABOUT     COFFEE 


EVOLUTION  OF  APPARATUS 


651 


The  Ideale  Machine  (Center) 
Makes  150  Cups  of  Coffee  an 
Hour.  The  Machine  at  the 
Left  Makes  1,000  Cups  an  Hour 


A  Machine  of  the  Type  of 
THE  One  at  the  Right  will 
Produce  from  1,440  to  1,800 
Cups     of    Coffee    an     Hour 


Types  of  Italian  Rapid  Coffee-Making  Machines 


1903  - 1904.  It  is  known  as  the  Ideale  urn, 
and  makes  150  cups  per  hour.  Among 
other  Italian  rapid  coffee-making  machines 
which,  with  this  one,  have  attained  con- 
siderable prominence  in  Europe  and  South 
America,  mention  should  be  made  of  La 
Victoria  Arduino  made  by  Pier  Teresio 
Arduino,  of  Turin,  Italy,  introduced  in 
1909,  that  makes  1000  oups  per  hour.  It 
was  patented  in  the  United  States  in  1920. 
There  are,  also,  L'ltaliana  Sovereign  Filter 
Machine  (1440  cups  per  hour)  made  by 
Bossi,  Vernetti  &  Bartolini,  Turin,  (sub- 
sequently merged  with  La  Victoria  Ardu- 
ino -  Societa  Anonima)  ;  and  Jose  Baro's 
Express,  Buenos  Aires,  making  600  cups  an 
hour. 

In  1908,  A.  E.  White,  Chicago,  was 
granted  a  United  States  patent  on  a  coffee 
urn.  He  assigned  it  to  the  James  Heekin 
Co.,  of  Cincinnati. 

In  1908,  I.  D.  Richheimer,  Chicago,  in- 
troduced his  Tricolator  to  the  trade  and  the 
consumer.  This  is  an  aluminum  device  to 
fit  any  coffee  pot,  combining  French  drip 
and  filtration  ideas,  with  Japanese  paper 
as  the  filtration  medium. 

In  1908,  an  improved  type  of  Burns 
roaster  was  patented  in  the  United  States. 
The  improvement, consisted  of  an  open  per- 
forated cylinder  with  flexible  back-head  and 
balanced    front    bearing.      The    following 


year,  the  Burns  tilting  sample-roaster  for 
gas  or  electric  heating  units  was  patented. 

In  1909,  Frederick  A.  Cauchois,  of  New 
York,  was  granted  a  United  States  patent 
on  a  coffee  urn  fitted  with  a  centrifugal 
pump  for  repouring. 

In  1909,  C.  F.  Blanke,  of  St.  Louis,  was 
granted  two  United  States  patents  on  a 
china  coffee  pot  with  a  cloth  filter,  the  sides 
tightly,  and  the  bottom  loosely,  woven. 

In  1911,  Edward  Aborn,  of  New  York, 
was  granted  a  United  States  patent  on  his 
Make-Right  coffee-filter  device.  This  was 
later  incorporated  with  improvements  in  a 
Tru-Bru  coffee  pot,  on  which  he  was 
granted  another  patent  in  1920. 

In  1912,  John  E.  King,  of  Detroit,  was 
granted  a  United  States  patent  on  an  im- 
proved coffee  percolator  for  restaurants, 
employing  a  sheet  of  filter  paper  on  a  ring 
in  a  metal  basket;  the  ring  to  be  removed 
once  the  filter  paper  was  in  position  on  the 
perforated  bottom  plate  of  the  percolator 
basket. 

In  1913,  F,  F.  Wear,  Los  Angeles,  per- 
fected a  coffee-making  device  in  which  a 
metal  perforated  clamp  was  employed  to 
apply  a  filter  paper  to  the  under-side  of 
an  English  earthenware  adaptation  of  the 
French  drip  pot._ 

In  1912,  William  Lawton  demonstrated 
in  London  a  gas  coffee  roaster  of  his  own 


65^ 


ALL     ABOUT     COFFEE 


Showin(3  How  the  Italian  Rapid  Coffee  Machine  Works 

Left,  putting  coffee  in  the  filter  —  Center,  applying  filter  to  faucet  —  Right,  turning  on  water  and  steam  to 

malie  the  drink 


invention,  by  means  of  which  he  roasted 
coffee  "in  suspension"  to  a  light  brown 
color  in  three  minutes. 

Herbert  L.  Johnston,  assignor  to  the  Ho- 
bart  Electric  Manufacturing  Co.,  Troy, 
Ohio,  was  granted  a  United  States  patent 
on  a  machine  for  refining  coffee  in  1913. 

In  1914,  the  Phylax  coffee  maker,  em- 
bodying  an   improvement   on   the   French 


La  Victoria  Arduino  Mignonne 
An  electric  rapid  coffee  maker 


drip  principle,  w^as  introduced  to  the  trade. 
The  process  was  demonstrated  by  Benja- 
min H.  Calkin,  of  Detroit,  in  1921,  as  "an 
art  of  brewing  coffee." 

In  1914,  Robert  Burns,  assignor  to  Jabez 
Burns  &  Sons,  New  York,  was  granted  a 
United  States  patent  on  a  coffee-granulat- 
ing mill. 

In  1914  - 15,  Herbert  Gait,  of  Chicago, 
was  granted  three  United  States  patents  on 
the  Gait  coffee  pot,  made  of  aluminum,  and 
having  two  parts,  a  removable  cylinder  em- 
ploying the  French  drip  principle,  and  the 
containing  pot. 

In  1915,  the  Burns  Jubilee  (inner- 
heated)  gas  coffee  roaster  was  patented  in 
the  United  States  and  put  on  the  market. 

In  1915,  the  National  Coffee  Roasters 
Association  Home  coffee  mill,  employing  an 
improved  set  screw  operating  on  a  cog-and 
ratchet  principle,  was  introduced  to  the 
trade. 

In  1916,  a  United  States  patent  was 
granted  to  I.  D.  Richheimer,  Chicago,  for 
an  infuser  improvement  on  his  Tricolator. 

In  1916,  Saul  Blickman,  assignor  to  S. 
Blickman,  New  York,  was  granted  a  United 
States  patent  on  an  apparatus  for  making 
and  dispensing  coffee. 

In  1916,  Orville  W.  Chamberlain,  New 
Orleans,  was  granted  a  United  States  patent 
on  an  automatic  drip  coffee  pot. 

In  1916,  Jules  Le  Page,  Darlington,  Ind., 
obtained  two  United  States  patents  on  cut- 
ting rolls  to  cut  —  and  not  to  grind  or 
crush  —  corn,  wheat,  or  coffee.  These  were 
subsequently  incorporated  in  the  Ideal  steel- 
cut  coffee  mill  and  marketed  to  the  trade 
by  the  B.  F.  Gump-  Co.,  Chicago. 

In  1917,  Richard  A.  Greene  and  Wil- 
liam G.  Burns,  assignors  to  Jabez  Burns  & 


EVOLUTION  OF  APPARATUS 


653 


Sons,  New  York,  were  granted  patents  in 
the  United  States  on  the  Burns  flexible-arm 
cooler  (for  roasted  batches)  providing  full 
fan-suction  to  a  cooler  box  at  all  points  in 
its  track  travel. 

In  1919,  Joseph  F.  Smart,  assignor  to 
Landers,  Frary  &  Clark,  New  Britain, 
Conn.,  was  granted  a  United  States  patent 
on  a  percolator. 

In  1919,  Charles  Morgan,  assignor  to  the 
Arcade  Manufacturing  Co.,  Freeport,  111., 
was  granted  a  United  States  patent  on  an 
improved  grinding  mill. 

In  1919,  Edward  F.  Schnuck,  assignor  to 
Jabez  Burns  &  Sons,  New  York,  was 
granted  a  United  States  patent  on  an  im- 
provement for  a  gas  coffee  roaster.  In 
1920,  he  was  granted  a  United  States  patent 
on  an  improved  process  of  twice  cutting 
coffee  and  removing  the  chaff  after  each 
cutting. 

In  1920,  Natale  de  Mattel,  of  Turin, 
Italy,  was  granted  a  United  States  patent 
on  a   rapid   coffee-filtering   machine. 

In  1920,  Frederick  H.  Muller,  of  Chi- 
cago, was  granted  a  United  States  patent 
on  "an  art  of  making  coffee,"  and  on  an 
improved  apparatus  for  hotels  and  restau- 
rants, which  comprised  a  series  of  super- 
posed metal  containers,   or   cartridges,   of 


n    I 


fr 


!,-r 


The  N.  C.  K.  A.  Home  Coffee  Mill 


The  Manthey-Zorn  Rapid  Coffee  Infusee  A^•D 
Dispenser 

ground  coffee  placed  in  a  perforated  bucket 
designed  to  rest  in  a  coffee  urn,  the  cart- 
ridges being  lifted  out  as  the  boiling  water 
poured  on  them  sinks  with  the  drawing  off 
of  the  "decoction"  at  the  faucet. 

In  1920,  Alfredo  M.  Salazar,  of  New 
York,  was  granted  a  United  States  patent 
on  a  coffee  urn  in  which  the  coffee  is  made 
at  the  time  of  serving  by  using  steam  pres- 
sure to  force  the  boiling  water  through 
ground  coffee  held  in  a  cloth  sack  attached 
to  the  faucet. 

In  1920,  William  H.  Bruning,  Evans- 
ville,  Ind.,  was  granted  a  United  States 
patent  on  an  improved  French  drip  pot 
made  of  aluminum  and  provided  with  a 
vacuum  jacket  in  the  dripper  section,  and 
a  hot- water  jacket  in  the  serving  portion, 
to  keep  the  beverage  hot. 

In  1921,  the  Manthey-Zorn  Laboratories 
Co.,  of  Cleveland,  brought  out  a  rapid 
coffee-infuser  and  dispenser  employing  in 
the  infuser  a  centrifugal  to  make  an  ex- 
tract in  thirty-eight  seconds,  and  designed 
to  deliver  a  gallon  of  concentrated  liquid, 
or  coffee  base,  every  three  minutes.  The 
dispenser  automatically  combines  the  coffee 
base  with  boiling  water  in  a  differential 
faucet  in  the  proportion  desired,  usually 


654 


ALL     ABOUT     COFFEE 


The  Tricolette,  a  Paper-Filter   Device  for  a 
Single  Cup 

Above ;  in  position  on  cup  — ■  Below  ;  opened,  showing 
parts 

one  of  base  to  four  of  water.  The  dispenser 
serves  600  cups  per  hour.  An  additional 
faucet  may  be  added  which  will  double  the 
capacity. 

Among  foreign  coffee  makers  applying 
the  French  drip  principle,  the  Vienna  cof- 
fee-making machine,  known  in  the  United 
States  as  the  Bohemian  coffee  pot,  has  met 
with  much  favor  in  this  country.  Else- 
where it  is  known  as  the  Carlsbad.  It  is 
made  of  china,  and  the  European  manu- 
facturer has  a  patent  on  the  porcelain 
strainer,  or  grid,  which  is  provided  with 


slits  that  are  very  fine  on  the  inner  side  but 
that  widen  on  the  outer  side  to  permit  care- 
ful straining  and  to  facilitate  cleaning. 

Some  of  the  latest  developments  in  coffee 
apparatus  were  shown  at  the  industrial  ex- 
position at  the  National  Coffee  Roasters  As- 
sociation, held  in  New  York,  November 
1-3,  1921,  Among  items  of  distinction 
not  heretofore  included  in  this  work,  men- 
tion should  be  made  of:  an  American- 
French  coffee  biggin,  being  a  French  drip 
pot  made  of  American  porcelain  and  fitted 
with  a  muslin  strainer;  a  glass  urn-liner, 
intended  to  supplant  the  porcelain  liner; 
and  an  electric  repouring  pump,  designed 
to  be  attached  to  any  type  of  coffee  urn. 

Careful  research  of  the  records  of  the 
United  States  patent  office  discloses  that 
the  number  of  patents  relating  to  coffee  ap- 
paratus and  coffee  preparations,  issued 
from  1789  to  1921,  is  as  follows : 

United  States  Coffbie  Patents 

Devices  Patents 

Coffee  Mills   185 

Coffee-roasting  devices,  and.  improvements 

thereon    312 

Coffee-making  devices    835 

Coffee-cleaning,  hulling,   drying,  polishing, 

and  plantation  machinery  in  general 175 

Miscellaneous   patents    (for   coating,   glaz- 
ing, treated  coffees,  substitutes,  etc.)...  300 

Total 1,807 

It  must  be  borne  in  mind  that  there 
was  a  number  of  patents  granted  on  ma- 
chines that  were  intended  for,  and  used  for, 
coffee,  but  that  did  not  mention  coffee  in 
the  specifications.  Many  coffee  driers  were 
listed  as  "grain  driers,"  for  instance. 
Also,  many  excellent  devices  have  been 
made  that  were  never  patented. 


Chapter  XXXV 
WORLD'S     COFFEE     MANNERS     AND     CUSTOMS 

How  coffee  is  roasted,  prepared,  and  served  in  all  the  leading  civil- 
ized countries  —  The  Arabian  coffee  ceremony  —  The  present-day 
coffee  houses  of  Turkey  —  Twentieth-century  improvements  in 
Europe  and  the  United  States 


COFFEE  manners  and  customs  have 
shown  little  change  in  the  Orient  in 
the  six  hundred-odd  years  since  the 
coffee  drink  was  discovered  by  Sheik  Omar 
in  Arabia.  As  a  beverage  for  western 
peoples,  however,  and  more  particularly  in 
America,  there  have  been  many  improve- 
ments in  making  and  serving  it. 

A  brief  survey  of  the  coffee  conventions 
and  coffee  service  in  the  principal  countries 
where  coffee  has  become  a  fixed  item  in  the 
dietary  is  presented  here,  with  a  view  to 
show  how  different  peoples  have  adapted 
the  universal  drink  to  their  national  needs 
and  preferences. 

To  proceed  in  alphabetical  order,  and  be- 
ginning with  Africa,  coffee  drinking  is. in- 
dulged in  largely  in  Abyssinia,  Algeria, 
Egypt,  Portuguese  East  Africa,  and  the 
Union  of  South  Africa. 

Coffee  Manners  and  Customs  in  Africa 

In  Abyssinia  and  Somaliland,  among  the 
native  population,  the  most  primitive 
methods  of  coffee  making  still  obtain.  Here 
the  wandering  Galla  still  mix  their  pul- 
verized coffee  beans  with  fats  as  a  food 
ration,  and  others  of  the  native  tribes  favor 
the  kisher,  or  beverage  made  from  the 
toasted  coffee  hulls.  An  hour's  boiling  pro- 
duces a  straw-colored  decoction,  of  a 
slightly  sweetish  taste.  Where  the  Arabian 
customs  have  taken  root,  the  drink  is  pre- 
pared from  the  roasted  beans  after  the 
Arabian  and  Turkish  method.  The  white 
inhabitants  usually  prepare  and  serve  the 
beverage  as  in  the  homeland ;  so  that  it  is 
possible   to   obtain    it    after   the    English, 


French,  German,  Greek,  or  Italian  styles. 
Adaptations  of  the  French  sidewalk  cafe, 
and  of  the  Turkish  coffee  house,  may  be 
seen  in  the  larger  towns. 

In  the  equatorial  provinces  of  Egypt, 
and  in  Uganda,  the  natives  eat  the  raw 
berries ;  or  first  cook  them  in  boiling  water, 
dry  them  in  the  sun,  and  then  eat  them.  It 
is  a  custom  to  exchange  coffee  beans  in 
frTrTT^ly^ronting    ~ 

Individual  earthen  vessels  for  making 
coffee,  painted  red  and  yellow,  are  made  by 
some  of  the  native  tribes  in  Abyssinia,  and 
usually  accompany  disciples  of  Islam  when 
they  journey  to  Mecca,  where  the  vessels 
find  a  ready  sale  among  the  pilgrims,  most 
of  whom  are  coffee-devotees. 

Turkish  and  Arabian  coffee  customs  pre- 
vail in  Algeria  and  Egypt,  modified  to  some 
extent  by  European  contact.  The  Moorish 
cafes  of  Cairo,  Tunis,  and  Algiers  have  fur- 
nished inspiration  and  copy  for  writers, 
artists,  and  travelers  for  several  centuries. 
They  change  little  with  the  years.  The 
mazagran  —  sweetened  cold  coffee  to  which 
water  or  ice  has  been  added  —  originated 
in  Algeria.  It  probably  took  its  name  from 
the  fortress  of  the  same  name  reserved  to 
France  by  the  treaty  of  the  Tafna  in  1837. 
It  is  said  that  the  French  colonial  troops 
were  first  served  with  a  drink  made  from 
coffee  syrup  and  cold  water  on  marches 
near  Mazagran,  formerly  spelled  Masagran. 
Upon  their  return  to  the  French  capital, 
they  introduced  the  idea,  with  the  added 
fillip  of  service  in  tall  glasses,  in  their 
favorite  cafes,  where  it  became  known  as 
cafe  mazagran.    Variants  are  coffee  syrup 


655 


656 


ALL     ABOUT     COFFEE 


Moorish  Coffee  House  in  Algiers 

with  seltzer,  and  with  hot  water.  "This 
fashion  of  serving  coffee  in  glasses",  says 
Jardin,  "has  no  raison  d'etre,  and  nothing 
can  justify  abandoning  the  cup  for  coffee." 

In  the  principal  streets  and  public 
squares  of  any  town  in  Algeria  it  is  a  com- 
mon sight  to  find  a  group  of  Arabs  squat- 
ting about  a  portable  stove,  and  a  table  on 
which  cups  are  in  readiness  to  receive  the 
boiling  coffee.  The  thirsty  Arab  approaches 
the  dealer,  and  for  a  modest  sum  he  gets 
his  drink  and  goes  his  way;  unless  he  pre- 
fers to  go  inside  the  cafe,  where  he  may  get 
several  drinks  and  linger  over  them,  sitting 
on  a  mat  with  his  legs  crossed  and  smoking 
his  chibouque.  Indeed,  this  is  a  typical 
scene  throughout  the  Near  East,  where 
sheds  or  coffee  tents  —  sketches  of  the  more 
pretentious  coffee  houses  —  coffee  shops, 
and  itinerant  coffee-venders  are  to  be  met 
at  almost  every  turn. 

In  an  unpublished  work,  Baron  Antoine 
Eousseau  and  Th.  Roland  de  Bussy  have 
the  folloAving  description  of  a  typical  Moor- 
ish cafe  at  Algiers : 

■  We  entered  \Yithout  ceremony  into  a  narrow 
deep  cave,  decorated  with  the  name  of  the  oaf 6. 
On  the  right  and  on  the  left,  along  its  length, 
were  two  benches  covered  with  mats ;  notched 
cups,  tongs,  a  box  of  brown  sugar,  all  placed 
near  a  small  stove,  completed  the  furniture  of 
the  place.  In  the  evening,  the  dim  light  from 
a  lamp  hanging  from  the  ceiling  shows  the  indis- 
tinct figures  of  a  double  row  of  natives  listening 
to  the  nasal  cadences  of  a  band  who  play  a  piz- 
zicato accompaniment  on  small  three-stringed 
violins. 

Here,  as  in  Europe,  the  caf6s  are  the  provi- 
dential rendezvous  for  idlers  and  gossips,  ex- 
changes for  real-estate  brokers  and  players  at 
cards. 

Europeans  recently  arrived  frequent  them 
particularly.  Some  go  only  to  satisfy  their 
curiosity ;  others  out  of  an  inborn  scorn  for  the 
customs  of  civilization.  They  go  to  sleep  as 
Frenchmen,  they  awake  Mohammedans !  Their 
love  for  "Turkish  art"  only  leads  them  to  haunt 
the  native  shops  and  to  affect  oriental  poses. 

If  we  quit  for  a  moment  the  interior  of  the 


city  to  follow  between  two  hedgerows  of  mas- 
tics or  aloes,  one  of  those  capricious  paths  which 
lead  one,  now  up  to  the  summit  of  a  hill,  now 
to  the  depths  of  some  ravine,  very  soon  the  tones 
of  a  rustic  flute,  the  modulations  of  the  Djou- 
icak.  will  betray  some  cool  and  peaceful  retreat, 
some  rustic  cafe,  easily  recognized  by  its  facade, 
pierced  with  large  openings.  To  my  eyes,  noth- 
ing equals  the  charm  of  these  little  buildings 
scattered  here  and  there  along  the  edges  of  a 
stream,  sheltered  under  the  thick  foliage,  and 
constantly  enlivened  by  the  coming  and  going 
of  the  husbandmen  of  the  neighborhood. 

Certain  old  Moors  from  the  neighboring  dis- 
tricts, fleeing  the  noises  of  the  city,  are  the  faith- 
ful habitues  of  these  agreeable  retreats.  Here 
they  instal  themselves  at  dawn,  and  know  how 
to  enjoy  every  moment  of  their  day  with  tales 
of  their  travels  and  youthful  adventures,  and 
many  a  legend  for  which  their  imagination  taices 
all  the  responsibility. 

Gerome's  painting  of  the  "Coffee  House 
at  Cairo,"  which  hangs  in  the  Metropolitan 
Museum  of  Art,  New  York,  gives  one  a 
good  idea  of  the  atmosphere  of  the  Egyp- 
tian cafe.  The  preparation  and  service  is 
modified  Turkish-Arabian.  The  coffee  is 
ground  to  a  powder,  boiled  in  an  ibrik  with 
the  addition  of  sugar,  and  served  frothing 
in  small  cups.  Story-tellers,  singers,  and 
dancers    furnish    amusement    as    of   vore. 


Coffee  House  in  Cairo 


ALL     ABOUT     COFFEE 


HULLING  COFFEE   IN  ADEN,  ARABIA 


MANNERS  AND  CUSTOMS 


657 


f   \ 

fl 

V       ^ 

U^^^ 

ii.^..:^ 

1    'r  ' 

1 

Coffee  Service  at  a  Barber  Shop  in  Cairo 


The  Oriental  customs  have  not  changed 
much  in  this  respect.  Trolley  cars,  vic- 
torias, and  taxis  may  have  replaced  the 
donkeys  in  the  new  sections  of  the  larger 
Egyptian  cities ;  but  in  old  Alexandria  and 
Cairo,  the  approach  to  the  native  coffee 
house  is  as  dirty  and  as  odorous  as  ever. 
Coffee  is  always  served  in  all  business  trans- 
actions. Nowadays,  the  Egyptian  women 
chew  gum  and  the  men  smoke  cigarettes, 
French  department  stores  offer  bargain 
sales,  and  the  hotels  advertise  tea  dances ; 
but  the  Egyptian  coffee  drink  is  still  the 
tiny  cup  of  coffee  grounds  and  sugar  that 
it  was  three  hundred  years  ago,  when  sugar 
was  first  used  to  sweeten  coffee  in  Cairo. 

In  Portuguese  East  Africa,  the  natives 
prepare  and  drink  coffee  after  the  approved 
African  native  fashion,  but  the  white  popu- 
lation follows  European  customs.  In  the 
Union  of  South  Africa,  Dutch  and  English 
customs  prevail  in  making  and  serving  the 
beverage. 

Manners  and  Customs  in  Asia 

"Arabia  the  Happy"  deserves  to  be 
called  "the  Blest",  if  only  for  its  gift  of 
coffee  to  the  world.  Here  it  was  that  the 
virtues  of  the  drink  were  first  made  known  ; 
here  the  plant  first  received  intensive  cul- 
tivation. After  centuries  of  habitual  use 
of  the  beverage,  we  find  the  Arabs,  now  as 
then,  one  of  the  strongest  and  noblest  races 


of  the  world,  mentally  superior  to  most  of 
them,  generally  healthy,  and  growing  old  so 
gracefully  that  the  faculties  of  the  mind 
seldom  give  way  sooner  than  those  of  the 
body.  They  are  an  ever  living  earnest  of 
the  healthfulness  of  coffee. 

The  Arabs  are  proverbially  hospitable; 
and  the  symbol  of  their  hospitality  for  a 
thousand  years  has  been  the  great  drink  of 
democracy  —  coffee.  Their  very  houses  are 
built  around  the  cup  of  human  brother- 
hood. William  Wallace,'  writing  on 
Arabian  philosophy,  manners,  and  customs, 
says : 

The  principal  feature  of  an  Arab  house  is  the 
kahwah  or  coffee  room.  It  is  a  large  apartment 
spread  with  mats,  and  sometimes  furnished  with 
carpets  and  a  few  cushions.  At  one  end  is  a 
small  furnace  or  fireplace  for  preparing  coffee. 
In  this  room  the  men  congregate;  here  guests 
are  received,  and  even  lodged ;  women  rarely 
enter  it,  except  at  times  when  strangers  are  un- 
likely to  be  present.  Some  of  these  apartments 
are  very  spacious  and  supported  by  pillars ;  one 
wall  is  usually  built  transversely  to  the  compass 
direction  of  the  Ka'M  (sacred  shrine  of  Mecca). 
It  serves  to  facilitate  the  performance  of  prayer 
by  those  who  may  hapi>en  to  be  in  the  kahicah 
at  the  appointed  times. 

Several  rounds  of  coffee,  without  milk  or 
sugar,  but  sometimes  flavored  with  carda- 
mom seeds,  are  served  to  the  guest  at  first 
welcome ;  and  coffee  may  be  had  at  all  hours 


'  RncuclopecHa    Britannica, 

285). 


11th    Ed.    (vol.    11:   p. 


658 


ALL     ABOUT     COFFEE 


Ships  of  the  Desert  Laden  with  Coffee. 
Arabia 

between  meals,  or  whenever  the  occasion  de- 
mands it.  Always  the  beans  are  freshly 
roasted,  pounded,  and  boiled.  The  Arabs 
average  twenty -five  to  thirty  cups  (find- 
jans)  a  day.  Everywhere  in  Arabia  there 
are  to  be  found  cafes  where  the  beverage 
may  be  bought. 

Those  of  the  lower  classes  are  thronged 
throughout  the  day.  In  front,  there  is  gen- 
erally a  porch  or  bench  where  one  may  sit. 
The  rooms,  benches,  and  little  chairs  lack 
the  cleanliness  and  elegance  of  the  one-time 
luxurious  "caffinets"  of  cities  like  Damas- 
cus and  Constantinople,  but  the  drink  is 
the  same.  There  is  not  in  all  Yemen  a 
single  market  town  or  hamlet  where  one 
does  not  find  upon  some  simple  hut  the 
legend,  ''Shed  for  drinking  coffee". 

The  Arab  drinks  water  before  taking  cof- 
fee, but  never  after  it.  "Once  in  Syria", 
says  a  traveler,  "I  was  recognized  as  a 
foreigner  because  I  asked  for  water  just 
after  I  had  taken  my  coffee.  'If  you  be- 
longed here',  said  the  waiter,  'you  would 
not  spoil  the  taste  of  coffee  in  your  mouth 
by  washing  it  away  with  water.'  " 

It  is  an  adventure  to  partake  of  coffee 
prepared  in  the  open,  at  a  roadside  inn,  or 
khan,  in  Arabia  by  an  araba,  or  diligence 
driver.  He  takes  from  his  saddle-bag  the 
ever-present  coffee  kit,  containing  his  sup- 
ply of  green  beans,  of  which  he  roasts  just 
sufficient  on  a  little  perforated  iron  plate 
over  an  open  fire,  deftly  taking  off  the 
beans,  one  at  a  time,  as  they  turn  the  right 
color.  Then  he  pounds  them  in  a  mortar, 
boils  his  water  in  the  long,  straight-handled 
open  boiler,  or  ihrik  (a  sort  of  brass  mug 
or  jezveh),  tosses  in  the  coffee  powder, 
moving  the  vessel  back  and  forth  from  the 
fire  as  it  boils  up  to  the  rim;  and,  after 
repeating  this  maneuver  three  times,  pours 
the  contents  foaming  merrily  mto  the  little 
egg-like  serving  cups. 


Cafe  sultan,  or  kisher,  the  original  de- 
coction, made  from  dried  and  toasted  coffee 
hulls,  is  still  being  drunk  in  parts  of 
Arabia  and  Turkey. 

Coffee  in  Arabia  is  part  of  the,  ritual  of 
business,  as  in  other  Oriental  countries. 
Shop-keepers  serve  it  to  the  customer  before 
the  argument  starts.  Recently,  a  New  York 
barber  got  some  valuable  publicity  because 
he  regaled  his  customers  with  tea  and 
music.  It  was  "old  stuff".  The  Arabian 
and  Turkish  barber  shops  have  been  serv- 
ing coffee,  tobacco,  and  sweetmeats  to  their 
customers  for  centuries. 

For  a  faithful  description  of  the  ancient 
coffee  ceremony  of  the  Arabs,  which,  with 
slight  modification,  is  still  observed  in 
Arabian  homes,  we  turn  to  Palgrave.  First 
he  describes  the  dwelling  and  then  the 
ceremony : 

The  K'liawah  was  a  large  oblong  liall,  about 
twenty  feet  in  height,  fifty  in  length,  and  six- 
teen, or  thereabouts,  in  breadth ;  the  walls  were 
coloured  in  a  rudely  decorative  manner  with 
brown  and  white  wash,  and  sunk  here  and  there 
into  small  triangular  recesses,  destined  to  the 
reception  of  books,  though  of  these  Ghafil  at 
least  had  no  over-abundance,  lamps,  and  other 
such  like  objects.  The  roof  of  timber,  and  flat ; 
the  floor  was  strewed  with  fine  clean  sand,  and 
garnished  all  round  alongside  of  the  walls  with 
long  strips  of  carpet,  upon  which  cushions,  cov- 
ered with  faded  silk,  were  disposed  at  suitable 
intervals.  In  poorer  houses  felt  rugs  usually 
take  the  place  of  carpets. 

In  one  corner,  namely,  that  furthest  removed 
from  the  door,  stood  a  small  fireplace,  or,  to 
speak  more  exactly,  furnace,  formed  of  a  large 
square  block  of  granite,  or  some  other  hard 
stone,  about  twenty  inches  each  way ;  this  is  hol- 
lowed inwardly  into  a  deep  funnel,  open  above, 
and  communicating  below  with  a  small  horizon- 
tal tube  or  pipe-hole,  through  which  the  air 
passes,  bellows-driven,  to  the  lighted  charcoal 
piled  up  on  a  grating  about  half-way  inside  the 
cone.     In  this  manner  the  fuel  is  soon  brought 


An  Arabian  Coffee  House 


MANNERS  AND  CUSTOMS 


659 


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H^^^^^H 

HP^ 

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^^^H 

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fe 

■►^^^^^         ^^^^^^ 

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M^-M- 

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^^^^B 

Brewing  the   Guest's   Coffee  in   a   Mojiammkda.n    Home 


to  a  white  heat,  and  the  water  in  the  coffee-pot 
placed  upon  the  funnel's  mouth  is  readily 
brought  to  boll.  The  system  of  coffee  furnaces 
is  univei'sal  in  Djowf  and  Djebel  Shomer,  but 
in  Nejed  itself,  and  indeed  in  whatever  other 
yet  more  distant  regions  of  Arabia  I  visited  to 
the  south  and  e.'ist,  the  furnace  is  replaced  by 
an  open  fireplace  hollowed  in  the  ground  floor, 
with  a  raised  stone  border,  and  dog-irons  for  the 
fuel,  and  so  forth,  like  what  may  be  yet  seen 
in  Spain.  This  diversity  of  arrangement,  so  far 
as  Arabia  is  concerned,  is  due  to  the  greater 
abundance  of  fire- wood  in  the  south,  whereby  the 
inhabitants  are  enabled  to  light  up  on  a  larger 
scale;  whereas  throughout  the  Djowf  and  Djebel 
Shomer  wwxl  is  very  scarce,  and  the  only  fuel  at 
hand  is  bad  charcoal,  often  brought  from  a  con- 
siderable distance,  and  carefully  husbanded. 

This  corner  of  the  K'hawah  is  also  the  place 
of  distinction  whence  honour  and  coffee  radiate 
by  progressive  degrees  round  the  apartment,  and 
hereabouts  accordingly  sits  the  master  of  the 
house  himself,  or  the  guests  whom  he  moi'e  espe- 
cially delighteth  to  honour. 

On  the  broad  edge  of  the  furnace  or  fireplace, 
as  the  case  may  bo,  stands  an  ostentatious  range 
of  copper  coffee-pots,  varying  in  size  and  form. 
Here  in  the  Djowf  their  make  resembles  that  in 
vogue  at  Damascus :  but  in  Xejed  and  the  east- 
ern districts  they  are  of  a  different  and  much 
more  ornamental  fashioning,  very  tall  and 
(Slender,  with  several  ornamental  circles  and 
mouldings  in  elegant  relief,  besides  boasting  long 
beak-shaped  spouts  and  high  steeples  for  covers. 
The  number  of  these  utensils  is  often  extrava- 
gantly great.  I  have  seen  a  dozen  at  a  time  in 
a  row  by  one  fireside,  though  coffee-making  re- 
quires, in  fact,  only  three  at  most.    Here  in  the 


Djowf  five  or  six  are  considered  to  be  the  thing ; 
for  the  south  this  number  must  be  doubled ;  all 
this  to  indicate  the  riches  and  munificence  of 
their  owner,  by  implying  the  frequency  of  his 
guests  and  the  large  amount  of  coffee  that  he  is 
in  consequence  obliged  to  have  made  for  them. 

Behind  this  stove  sits,  at  least  in  wealthy 
houses,  a  black  slave,  whose  name  is  generally 
a  diminutive  in  token  of  familiarity  or  affection; 
in  the  present  case  it  was  Soweylim,  me  diminu- 
tive of  Salim.  His  occupation  is  to  make  and 
pour  out  the  coffee ;  where  there  is  no  slave  in 
the  family,  the  master  of  the  premises  himself, 
or  perhaps  one  of  his  sons,  performs  that  hos- 
pitable duty ;  rather  a  tedious  one,  as  we  shall 
soon  see. 

We  enter.  On  passing  the  threshold  it  is 
pi-ojier  to  say,  "BisniiUah,"  i.  e..  "  in  the  name  of 
God ;"  not  to  do  so  would  be  looked  on  as  a  bad 
augury  alike  for  him  who  enters  and  for  those 
within.  The  visitor  next  advances  in  silence, 
till  on  coming  about  half-way  across  the  room, 
he  gives  to  all  present,  but  looking  specially  at 
the  master  or  the  house,  the  customary  "Es- 
salamu'aleykuvi"  or  ''Peace  l>e  with  you,"  lit- 
erally, "on  you."  All  this  while  every  one  else 
in  tlie  room  has  kept  his  place,  motionless,  and 
without  saying  a  word.  But  on  receiving  the 
salaam  of  etiquette,  the  master  of  the  house 
rises,  and  if  a  strict  Wahhabee,  or  at  any  rate 
desirous  of  seeming  such,  replies  with  the  full- 
length  traditionary  formula.  "TF'  'nleykumu-8- 
snhlviu.  u'rnhwnV  Vllohi  ir'harakdtuh."  which 
is.  as  every  one  knows.  "And  with  (or,  on)  you 
be  peace,  and  the  mercy  of  God.  and  his  bless- 
ings." But  should  he  happen  to  be  of  anti- 
Wahhabee  tendencies  the  odds  are  that  he  will 
say    "Marhahi."    or    "Ahlan    ir,'    sahlan,"    i.    e., 


660 


ALL     ABOUT     COFFEE 


"welcome"'  or  "worthy,  and  pleasurable,"  or  the 
like ;  for  of  such  phrases  there  is  an  infinite,  but 
elegant  variety. 

All  present  follow  the  example  thus  given,  by 
rising  and  saluting.  The  guest  then  goes  up  to 
the  master  of  the  house,  who  has  also  made  a 
step  or  two  forwards,  and  places  his  open  hand 
in  the  palm  of  his  host's,  but  without  grasping 
or  shaking,  which  would  hardly  pass  for  decor- 
ous, and  at  the  same  time  each  repeats  once 
more  his  greeting,  followed  by  the  set  phrases 
of  polite  enquiry,  "How  are  you?"  "How  goes 
the  world  with  you?"  and  so  forth,  all  in  a  tone 
of  great  interest,  and  to  be  gone  over  three  or 
four  times,  till  one  or  other  has  the  discretion 
to  say  "i/7  hanidu  I'illah,"  "Praise  be  to  God",  or, 
in  equivalent  value,  "all  right,"  and  this  is  a 
signal  for  a  seasonable  diversion  to  the  cere- 
monious interrogatory. 

The  guest  then,  after  a  little  contest  of  cour- 
tesy, takes  his  seat  in  the  honoured  post  by  the 
fireplace,  after  an  apologetical  salutation  to  the 
black  slave  on  the  one  side,  and  to  his  nearest 
neighbour  on  the  other.  The  best  cushions  and 
newest  looking  carpets  have  been  of  course  pre- 
pared for  his  honoured  weight.  Shoes  or  sandals, 
for  in  truth  the  latter  alone  are  used  in  Arabia, 
are  slipped  off  on  the  sand  just  before  reaching 
the  carpet,  and  there  they  remain  on  the  floor 
close  by.  But  the  riding  stick  or  wand,  the  in- 
separable companion  of  every  true  Arab,  whether 
Bedouin  or  townsman,  rich  or  poor,  gentle  or 
simple,  is  to  be  retained  in  the  hand,  and  will 
serve  for  playing  with  during  the  pauses  of  con- 
versation, like  the  fan  of  our  great-grandmothers 
in  their  days  of  conquest. 

Without  delay  Soweylim  begins  his  prepara- 
tions for  coffee.  These  open  by  about  five 
minutes  of  blowing  with  the  bellows  and  ar- 
ranging the  charcoal  till  a  sufficient  heat  has 
been  produced.  Next  he  places  the  largest  of 
the  coffee-pots,  a  huge  machine,  and  about  two- 
thirds  full  of  clear  water,  close  by  the  edge  of 
the  glowing  coal-pit,  that  its  contents  may  be- 
come gradually  warm  while  other  operations  are 
in  progress.  He  then  takes  a  dirty  knotted  rag 
out  of  a  niche  in  the  wall  close  by,  and  having 
untied  it,  empties  out  of  it  three  or  four  hand- 
fuls  of  unroasted  coffee,  the  which  he  places  on 
a  little  trencher  of  platted  grass,  and  picks  care- 
fully out  any  blackened  grains,  or  other  non- 
homologous substances,  commonly  to  be  found 
intermixed  with  the  berries  when  purchased  in 
gross ;  then,  after  much  cleansing  and  shaking, 
he  pours  the  grain  so  cleansed  into  a  large  open 
iron  ladle,  and  places  it  over  the  mouth  of  the 
funnel,  at  the  same  time  blowing  the  bellows  and 
stirring  the  grains  gently  round  and  round  till 
they  crackle,  redden,  and  smoke  a  little,  but 
carefully  withdrawing  them  from  the  heat  long 
before  they  turn  black  or  charred,  after  the 
erroneous  fashion  of  Turkey  and  Europe ;  after 
which  he  puts  them  to  cool  a  moment  on  the 
grass  platter. 

He  then  sets  the  warm  water  in  the  large 
coffee-pot  over  the  fire  aperture,  that  it  may  be 
ready  boiling  at  the  right  moment,  and  draws  in 
close  between  his  own  trouserless  legs  a  large 
stone  mortar,  with  a  narrow  pit  in  the  middle, 
just  enough  to  admit  the  large  stone  pestle  of  a 
foot  long  and  an  inch  and  a  half  thick,  which 


he  now  takes  in  hand.  Next,  pouring  the  half- 
roasted  berries  into  the  mortar,  he  proceeds  to 
pound  them,  striking  right  into  the  narrow  hol- 
low with  wonderful  dexterity,  nor  ever  missing 
his  blow  till  the  beans  are  smashed,  but  not  re- 
duced into  powder.  He  then  scoops  them  out, 
now  reduced  to  a  sort  of  coarse  reddish  grit, 
very  unlike  the  fine  charcoal  dust  which  passes 
in  some  countries  for  coffee,  and  out  of  which 
every  particle  of  real  aroma  has  long  since  been 
burnt  or  ground. 

After  all  these  operations,  each  performed 
with  as  intense  a  seriousness  and  deliberate 
nicety  as  if  the  welfare  of  the  entire  Djowf  de- 
pended on  it,  he  takes  a  smaller  coffee-pot  in 
hand,  fills  it  more  than  half  with  hot  water  from 
the  lai'ger  vessel,  and  then  shaking  the  pounded 
coffee  into  it,  sets  it  on  the  fire  to  boil,  occa- 
sionally stirring  it  with  a  small  stick  as  the 
water  rises  to  check  the  ebullition  and  prevent 
overfiowing.  Nor  is  the  boiling  stage  to  be  long 
or  vehement :  on  the  contrary,  it  is  and  should 
be  as  light  as  possible.  In  the  interim  he  takes 
out  of  another  rag-knot  a  few  aromatic  seeds 
called  heyl,  an  Indian  product,  but  of  whose 
scientific  name  I  regret  to  be  wholly  ignorant, 
or  a  little  saffron,  and  after  slightly  pounding 
these  ingredients,  throws  them  into  the  simmer- 
ing coffee  to  improve  its  flavour,  for  such  an 
additional  spicing  is  held  indispensable  in  Arabia 
though  often  omitted  elsewhere  in  the  East. 
Sugar  would  be  a  totally  unheard  of  profana- 
tion. Last  of  all,  he  strains  off  the  liquor 
through  some  fibres  of  the  inner  palm-bark 
placed  for  that  purpose  in  the  jug-spout,  and 
gets  ready  the  tray  of  delicate  parti-coloured 
grass,  and  the  small  coffee  cups  ready  for  pour- 
ing out.  All  these  preliminaries  have  taken  up 
a  good  half-hour. 

Meantime  we  have  become  engaged  in  active 
conversation  with  our  host  and  his  friends.  But 
our  Sherarat  guide,  Suleyman,  like  a  ti'ue 
Bedouin,  feels  too  awkward  Avhen  among  towns- 
folk to  venture  on  the  upper  places,  though  re- 
peatedly invited,  and  accordingly  has  squatted 
down  on  the  sand  near  the  entrance.  Many  of 
Ghafil's  relations  are  present;  their  silver-deco- 
rated swords  proclaim  the  importance  of  the 
family.  Others,  too,  have  come  to  receive  us, 
for  our  arrival,  announced  before-hand  by  those 
we  had  met  at  the  entrance  pass,  is  a  sort  of 
event  in  the  town ;  the  dress  of  some  betokens 
poverty,  others  are  better  clad,  but  all  have  a 
very  polite  and  decorous  manner.  Many  a  ques- 
tion is  asked  about  our  native  land  and  town, 
that  is  to  say,  Syria  and  Damascus,  conform- 
ably to  the  disguise  already  adopted,  and  which 
it  was  highly  important  to  keep  well  up;  then 
follow  enquiries  regarding  our  journey,  our 
business,  what  we  have  brought  with  us,  about 
our  medicines,  our  goods  and  wares,  etc.,  etc. 
From  the  very  first  it  is  easy  for  us  to  perceive 
that  patients  and  purchasers  are  likely  to 
abound.  Very  few  travelling  merchants,  if  any, 
visit  the  Djowf  at  this  time  of  year,  for  one 
must  be  mad,  or  next  door  to  it,  to  rush  into 
the  vast  desert  around  during  the  heats  of  June 
and  July ;  I  for  one  have  certainly  no  intention 
of  doing  it  again.  Hence  we  had  small  danger 
of  competitors,  and  found  the  market  almost  at 
our  absolute  disposal. 


MANNERS  AND  CUSTOMS 


661 


But  before  a  quarter  of  an  hour  has  passed, 
and  while  blacky  is  still  roasting  or  pounding 
his  coffee,  a  tall  thin  lad,  Ghafll's  eldest  son, 
appears,  charged  with  a  large  circular  dish, 
grass-platted  like  the  rest,  and  throws  it  with 
a  graceful  jerk  on  the  sandy  tloor  close  before 
us.  He  then  produces  a  large  wooden  bowl  full 
of  dates,  bearing  in  the  midst  of  the  heap  a  cup 
full  of  melted  butter;  all  this  he  places  on  the 
circular  mat,  and  says,  "Semmoo,"  literally, 
"pronounce  the  Name'',  of  God,  understood ;  this 
means  "set  to  work  at  it."  Hereon  the  master 
of  the  house  quits  his  place  by  the  fireside  and 
seats  himself  on  the  sand  opposite  to  us ;  we 
draw  nearer  to  the  dish,  and  four  or  five  others, 
after  some  respectful  coyness,  join  the  circle. 
Every  one  then  picks  out  a  date  or  two  from  the 
juicy  half-amalgamated  mass,  dips  them  into  the 
butter,  and  thus  goes  on  eating  till  he  has  had 
enough,  when  he  rises  and  washes  his  hands. 

By  this  time  the  coffee  is  ready,  and  Sowey- 
lim  begins  his  round,  the  coffee-pot  in  one  hand ; 
the  tray  and  cups  on  the  otlher.  The  first 
pouring  out  he  must  in  etiquette  drink  himself, 
by  way  of  a  practical  assurance  that  there  is  no 
"death  in  the  pot ;"  the  guests  are  next  served, 
beginning  with  those  next  the  honourable  fire- 
side ;  the  master  of  the  house  receives  his  cup 
last  of  all.  To  refuse  would  be  a  positive  and 
unpardonable  insult :  but  one  has  not  much  to 
swallow  at  a  time,  for  the  coffee-cups,  or  finjans, 
are  about  the  size  of  a  large  egg-shell  at  most, 
and  are  never  more  than  half-filled.  This  is 
considered  essential  to  good  breeding,  and  a 
brimmer  would  here  imply  exactly  the  reverse 
of  what  it  does  in  Europe;  why  it  should  be  so 
I  hardly  know,  unless  perhaps  the  rareness  of 
cup-stands  or  "zarfs"  (see  Lane's  "Modern 
Egyptians")  in  Arabia,  though  these  implements 
are  universal  in  Egypt  and  Syria,  might  render 
an  over-full  cup  inconveniently  hot  for  the 
fingers  that  must  grasp  it  without  medium.  Be 
that  as  it  may,  "fill  the  cup  for  your  enemy"  is 
an  adage  common  to  all.  Bedouins  or  townsmen, 
throughout  the  Peninsula.  The  beverage  itself 
is  singularly  aromatic  and  refreshing,  a  real 
tonic,  and  very  different  from  the  black  mud 
sucked  by  the  Levantine,  or  the  watery  roast- 
bean  preparations  of  France.     When  the  slave 


Eably    Manner   of    Serving    Coffee,    Tea   and 
Chocolate 

From  a  drawing  in  Dufoiir's  Traites  Nouveaux  et  Curi- 
eiix  du  Cafe,  dti  The  et  du  Chocolat 


or  freeman,  according  to  circumstances,  presents 
you  with  a  cup,  he  never  fails  to  accompany  it 
with  a  "Semm',"  "say  the  name  of  God,"  nor 
must  you  take  it  without  answering  "Bismillah." 
Wlien  all  have  been  thus  served,  a  second 
round  is  poured  out,  but  in  inverse  order,  for 
the  host  this  time  drinks  first,  and  the  guests 
last.  On  special  occasions,  a  first  reception,  for 
instance,  the  ruddy  liquor  is  a  third  time  handed 
round ;  nay,  a  fourth  cup  is  sometimes  added. 
But  all  these  put  together  do  not  come  up  to 
one-fourth  of  what  a  European  imbibes  in  a 
single  draught  at  breakfast. 

For  a  more  recent  pen  picture  of  coffee 
manners  and  customs  in  Arabia,  we  turn  to 
Charles  M.  Daughty's  Travels  in  Arabia 
Deserta"^: 

Hirfa  ever  demanded  of  her  husband  towards 
which  part  should  "the  house"  be  built.  "Dress 
the  face".  Zeyd  would  an.s»wer.  "to  this  part", 
showing  her  with  his  hands  the  south,  for  if  his 
booth's  face  be  all  day  turned  to  the  hot  sun 
there  will  come  in  fewer  young  loitering  and 
I»arasitical  fellows  that  would  be  his  coffee- 
drinkers.  Since  the  sheukh.  or  heads,  alone  re- 
ceive their  tribes'  surra,  it  is  not  much  that  they 
should  be  to  the  arms  [of  his]  coffee-hosts.  I 
have  seen  Zeyd  avoid  fthem]  as  he  Siiw  them 
approach,  or  even  rise  ungraciously  upon  such 
men's  presenting  themselves  (the  half  of  every 
booth,  namely  the  men's  side,  is  at  all  times 
open,  and  any  enter  there  that  will,  in  the  free 


Native  Cafe,  Harar.  Abyssinia 


•London;  1888   (vol.  1:  pp.  222,  224K 


662 


ALL     ABOUT     COFFEE 


desert),  and  they  murmuring  he  tells  them, 
wellah,  his  affairs  do  call  him  forth,  adieu ;  he 
must  away  to  the  niejlis;  go  they  and  seek  the 
coffee  elsewhere.  But  were  there  any  sheykh 
with  them,  a  coffee  lord,  Zeyd  could  not  honestly 
choose  but  abide  and  serve  them  with  coffee ; 
and  if  he  be  absent  himself,  yet  any  sheykhli/ 
man  coming  to  a  shcykh's  tent,  coffee  must  be 
made  for  him,  except  he  gently  protest  "billah, 
he  would  not  drink."  Illrfa.  a  shcykh's  daugh- 
ter and  his  nigh  kinswoman,  was  a  faithful  mate 
to  Zeyd  in  all  his  sparing  policy. 

Our  menzil  now  standing,  the  men  step  over 
to  Zeyd's  coffee-fire,  if  the  sheykh  be  riot  gone 
forth  to  the  mejlis  to  drink  his  mid-day  cup 
there.  A  few  gathered  sticks  are  tlung  down 
beside  the  hearth ;  with  flint  and  steel  one 
stoops  and  strikes  (ire  in  tinder,  he  blows  and 
cherishes  those  seeds  of  the  cheerful  flame  in 
some  dry  camel-dung,  sets  the  burning  shred 
under  dry  straws,  and  powders  over  more  dry 
camel-dung.  As  the  fire  kindles,  the  sheykh 
reaches  for  his  dellal,  coffee  pots,  which  are 
carried  in.  the  fatya,  coffee-gear  basket;  this 
people  of  a  nomad  life  bestow  each  thing  of 
theirs  in  a  proper  hcyt ;  it  would  otherwise  be 
lost  in  their  daily  removings.  One  rises  to  go 
to  fill  up  the  pots  at  the  water-skins,  or  a  bowl 
of  water  is  handed  over  the  curtain  from  the 
woman's  side;  the  pot  at  the  fire,  Hirfa  reaches 


Nubian  Slave  Girl  with  Coffee  Service,  Persia 


over  her  litle  palm-ful  of  green  coffee  berries 
.  .  ,  These  are  I'oasted  and  brayed ;  as  all  is 
boiling  he  sets  out  his  little  cups,  fcnjeyl  (for 
fenjeyn).  When,  with  a  pleasant  gravity,  he  has 
unbuckled  his  giitia  or  cup-box,  we  see  the 
nomad  has  not  above  three  or  four  fenjeyns, 
wrapt  in  a  rusty  clout,  with  which  he  scours 
them  busily,  as  if  this  should  make  his  cups 
clean.  The  roasted  beans  are  pounded  amongst 
Arabs  with  a  magnanimous  rattle  —  and  (as  all 
their  labor)  rhythmical  —  in  brass  of  the  town, 
or  an  old  wooden  mortar,  gaily  studded  with 
nails,  the  work  of  some  nomad  smith.  The 
water  bubbling  in  the  small  dellal,  he  casts  in 
his  fine  coffee  ix)wder,  cl-hunn,  and  withdraws 
the  pot  to  simmer  a  moment.  From  a  knot  In 
his  kerchief  he  takes  then  a  head  of  cloves,  a 
piece  of  cinnamon  or  other  spice,  hnhar,  and 
braying  these  he  casts  their  dust  in  after.  Soon 
he  pours  out  some  hot  drops  to  essay  his  coffee ; 
if  the  taste  be  to  his  liking,  making  dexterously 
a  nest  of  all  the  cups  in  his  hand,  with  pleasant 
clattering,  he  is  ready  to  pour  out  for  all  the 
company,  and  begins  upon  his  right  hand ;  and 
first,  if  such  lie  present,  to  any  considerable 
sheykh  and  principal  persons.  The  fenjeyn 
kahwah  is  but  four  sips ;  to  fill  it  up  to  a  guest, 
as  in  the  northern  towns,  were  among  Bedouins 
an  injury,  and  of  such  bitter  meaning,  "This 
drink  thou  and  depart." 

Then  is  often  seen  a  contention  in  courtesy 
amongst  them,  especially  in  any  greater  assem- 
blies, who  shall  drink  first.  Some  man  that 
receives  the  fenjeyn  in  his  turn  will  not  drink 
yet  —  he  proffers  it  to  one  sitting  in  order  under 
him.  as  to  the  more  honourable ;  but  the  other 
putting  off  with  his  hand  will  answer  chhedcn, 
"Nay,  it  shall  never  be,  by  Ullah !  but  do  thou 
drink."  Thus  licensed,  the  humble  man  is 
despatched  in  three  sips,  and  hands  up  his  empty 
fenjeyn.  But  if  he  have  much  insisted,  by  this 
he  opens  his  willingness  to  be  reconciled  with 
one  not  his  friend.  That  neighbor,  seeing  the 
company  of  coffee-drinkers  watching  him,  may 
with  an  honest  grace  receive  the  cup,  and  let  it 
seem  not  willingly ;  but  an  hard  man  will  some- 
times rebut  the  other's  gentle  proffer. 

Some  may  have  taken  lower  seats  than  becom- 
ing their  sheykhly  blood,  of  which  the  nomads 
are  jealous ;  entering  untimely,  they  sat  down 
out  of  order,  sooner  than  trouble  all  the  com- 
pany. A  sheykh,  coming  late  and  any  business 
going  forward,  will  often  sit  far  out  in  the  as- 
sembly ;  and  show  himself  a  iwpular  i^rson  in 
this  kind  of  honourable  humility.  The  more 
inward  in  the  booth  is  the  higher  place ;  where 
also  is,  with  the  sheykhs,  the  seat  of  a  stranger. 
To  sit  in  the  loose  circuit  without  and  before 
the  tent,  is  for  the  common  sort.  A  tribesman 
arriving  presents  himself  at  that  part  or  a  little 
lower,  where  in  the  eyes  of  all  men  his  preten- 
sion will  b^  well  allowed ;  and  in  such  observ- 
ances of  good  nurture,  is  a  nomad  man's  honour 
among  his  tribesmen.  And  this  is  nigh  all  that 
serves  the  nomad  for  a  conscience,  namely,  that 
which  men  will  hold  of  him.  A  poor  person, 
approaching  from  behind,  stands  obscurely, 
wrapped  in  his  tattered  mantle,  with  grave  cere- 
monial, until  those  sitting  indolently  before  him 
in  the  saud  shall  vouchsafe  to  take  notice  of 
him  ;  then  they  rise  unwillingly,  and  giving  back 


MANNERS  AND  CUSTOMS 


663 


enlarge  the  coffee-circle  to  receive  him.  But  if 
Chere  arrive  a  sheykh,  a  coffee-host,  a  richard 
amongst  them  of  a  few  cattle,  all  the  coxcomh 
companions  within  will  hail  him  with  their 
pleasant  adulation  taad  henneyi,  "Step  thou  up 
hither." 

The  astute  Fukara  shettkh  surpass  all  men  In 
their  coffee-drinking  courtesy,  and  Zeyd  himself 
was  more  than  any  large  of  this  gentlemen-like 
imi>osture :  he  was  full  of  swaggering  com- 
placence and  compliments  to  an  humbler  i>erson. 
With  what  suavity  could  he  encourage,  and 
gently  too  compel  a  man,  and  rising  himself 
yield  him  parcel  of  another  man's  room !  In 
such  fashions  Zeyd  showed  himself  a  bountiful 
great  man,  who  indeed  was  the  greatest  niggard. 
The  cups  are  drunk  twice  about,  each  one  sip- 
ping after  other's  lips  without  misliking ;  to  the 
great  coffee  sheykhs  the  cup  may  be  filled  more 
times,  but  this  is  an  adulation  of  the  coffee- 
server.  There  are  some  of  the  Fukara  shcukh 
so  delicate  Sybarites  that  of  those  three  bitter 
sips,  to  draw  out  all  their  joyance,  twisting, 
turning,  and  tossing  again  the  cup,  they  could 
make  ten.  The  coffee-service  ended,  the  grounds 
are  poured  out  from  the  small  into  the  great 
store-pot  that  is  reserved  full  of  warm  water; 
with  the  bitter  lye  the  nomads  will  make  their 
next  bever,  and  think  they  spare  coffee. 

Here  is  an  Arabian  recipe^  for  making 
coffee  as  given  by  Kadhi  Hodhat,  the  best 
informed  man  of  his  time: 

Tadj  -  Eddin  -  Aid  -  Almaknab  -  ben  -  Yacoub  - 
Mekki  Molki,  chief  of  all  the  cantons  of  Hedjaz, 
(May  God  liave  mercy  on  him!)  I  learned  it 
when  once  in  his  company  at  the  time  of  the 
Holy  Feasts.  .  .  He  informed  me  that  nothing 
is  more  beneficial  than  to  drink  cold  water  be- 
fore coffee,  because  it  lessens  the  dryness  of  the 
coffee  and  thus  taken  it  does  not  cause  insomnia 
to  the  same  degree.  The  poet  did  not  forget  to 
explain  this  manner  of  taking  coffee : 

As  with  art  'tis  prepared,  one  should  drink  it 

with  art. 
The  mere  commonplace  drinks  one  absorbs  with 

free  heart ; 
But  this  —  once  with  care  from  the  bright  flame 

removed, 
And    the    lime    set    aside    that    its    value    has 

proved  — 
Take  it  first  in  deep  draughts,  meditative  and 

slow. 
Quit    it    now,    now    resume,    thus    imbibe   with 

gusto ; 
Wliile  charming  the  palate  it  burns  yet  enchants, 
In  the  hour  of  its  triumph  the  virtue  it  grants 
Penetratas  every  tissue;  its  powers  condense, 
Circulate  cheering  warmths,  bring  new  life  to 

each  sense. 
From    the    cauldron    profound    spiced    aromas 

unseen 
Mount  to  tease  and  delight  your  olfactories  keen, 
Tlie  while  you  inhale  with  felicity  fraught, 
The    enchanting    perfume    that    a    zephyr    has 

brought. 

Gone  are  the  "luxurious  and  magnifi- 


'  de  Sacy.  Baron  Anloine.  Isaac  Silvestre.     Chresto- 
mathie  Arabe.     Paris.   1S06,    (vol.   2). 


Persian  Coffee  Service,  1737 

cent"  coffee  houses  of  Constantinople  (if 
they  ever  existed — at  least  as  we  under- 
stand luxury  and  magnificence)  which  first 
brought  the  beverage  world-wide  fame; 
such  caffinets  as  the  one  pictured  by 
Thomas  Allom  and  described  by  the  Rev, 
Robert  Walsh,  in  Constantinople,  Illus- 
trated : 

The  caflSnet,  or  coffee-house,  is  something  more 
splendid,  and  the  Turk  expends  all  his  notions 
of  finery  and  elegance  on  this,  his  favorite  place 
of  indulgence.  The  edifice  is  generally  deco- 
rated in  a  very  gorgeous  manner,  supported  on 
pillars,  and  open  in  front.  It  is  surrounded  on 
the  inside  by  a  raised  platform,  covered  with 
mats  or  cushions,  on  which  the  Turks  sit  cross- 
legged.  On  one  side  are  musicians,  generally 
Greeks,  with  mandolins  and  tambourines,  acconi- 
panying  singers,  whose  melody  consists  in  voci- 
feration; and  the  loud  and  obstreperous  concert 
forms  a  strong  contrast  to  the  stillness  and 
taciturnity  of  Turkish  meetings.  On  the  op- 
posite side  are  men,  generally  of  a  respectable 
class,  some  of  whom  are  found  here  every  day, 
and  all  day  long,  dozing  under  the  double  in- 
fluence of  coffee  and  tobacco.  The  coffee  is 
served  in  very  small  cups,  not  larger  than  egg- 
cups,  grounds  and  all,  without  cream  or  sugar, 
and  so  black,  thick,  and  bitter  that  it  has  been 
aptly  compared  to  "stewed  soot".  Besides  the 
ordinary  chil>ouk  for  tobacco,  there  is  another 
implement,  called  narghillai.  used  for  smoking 


664 


ALL     ABOUT     COFFEE 


''3^^^BK 

9R 

In  A  Turkish  Coffee  House 

in  a  caffiuet,  of  a  more  elaborate  construction. 
It  consists  of  a  glass  vase,  filled  with  water,  and 
often  scented  with  distilled  rose  or  other  flowers. 
This  is  surmounted  with  a  silver  or  brazen  head, 
from  which  issues  a  long  flexible  tube;  a  pipe- 
bowl  is  placed  on  the  top,  and  so  constructed 
that  the  smolie  is  drawn,  and  comes  bubbling 
up  through  the  water,  cool  and  fragrant  to  the 
mouth.  A  peculiar  Tiind  of  tobacco,  grown  at 
Shiraz  in  Persia,  and  resembling  small  pieces 
of  cut  leather,  is  used  with  this  instrument. 

Certainly  there  never  was  any  such  thing 
as  a  coffee-house  architecture.  It  may  be 
that  up  to  the  time  of  Abdul  Hamid,  when 
money  was  more  plentiful  than  it  has  been 
for  the  past  fifty  years,  there  were  coffee 
houses  more  comfortably  appointed  than 
now  exist. 

The  coffee  house  in  a  modernized  form 
is,  however,  quite  as  numerous  in  Turkey 
as  in  the  days  of  Amurath  III  and  the 
notorious  Kuprili. 

H.  G.  Dwight*  writing  on  the  present 
day  Turkish  coffee  house,  says: 

There  are  thoroughfares  in  any  Turkish  city 
that  carry  on  almost  no  other  form  of  traffic. 
There  is  no  quarter  so  miserable  or  so  remote  as 
to  be  without  one  or  two.  They  -are  the  clubs 
of  the  poorer  classes.  Men  of  a  street,  a  trade, 
a  province,  or  a  nationality  —  for  a  Turkish 
coffee-house  may  also  be  Albanian,  Armenian. 
Greek,  Hebrew,  Kurd,  almost  anything  you 
please  —  meet  regularly  when  their  work  is  done, 
at  coffee-houses  kept  by  their  own  people.  So 
much  are  the  humbler  coffee-houses  frequented 
by  a  fixed  clientele  that  a  student  of  types  or 
dialects  may  realize  for  himself  how  truly  they 
used  to  be  called  Schools  of  Knowledge. 

The  arrangement  of  a  Turkish  coffee-house  is 
of  the  simplest.  The  essential  is  that  the  place 
should  provide  the  beverage  for  which  it  exists 
and  room  for  enjoying  the  same.  A  sketch  of  a 
coffee-shop  may  often  be  seen  on  the  street,  in 
a  scrap  of  shade  or  sunshine  according  to  the 
season,  where  a  stool  or  two  invite  the  passer-by 

*  Scribner's  Magazine,  1918  (vol.  liii :  no.  5 :  p. 
620)  ;  and  Dwight.  H.  G..  Constantinople,  Old  and 
New,  New  York,  1915.  Copyright  by  Charles  Scrib- 
Qer's  Sons. 


to  a  moment  of  contemplation.  Larger  estab- 
lishments, though  they  are  rarely  very  large, 
are  most  often  installed  in  a  room  longer  than 
it  is  wide,  having  as  many  windows  as  possible 
at  the  street  end  and  what  we  would  call  the 
bar  at  the  other.  It  is  a  bar  that  always  makes 
me  regret  I  do  not  etch,  with  its  pleasing  curves, 
its  high  lights  of  brass  and  porcelain  striking 
out  of  deep  shadow,  and  its  usually  picturesque 
kalwehji. 

You  do  not  stand  at  it.  You  sit  on  one  of  the 
benches  running  down  the  sides  of  the  room. 
They  are  more  or  less  comfortably  cushioned, 
though  sometimes  higher  and  broader  than  a 
foreigner  finds  to  his  taste.  In  that  case  you 
slip  oft"  your  shoes,  if  you  would  do  as  the 
Romans  do,  and  tuck  your  feet  up  under  you. 
A  table  stands  in  front  of  you  to  hold  your  cof- 
fee —  and  often  in  summer  an  aromatic  pot  of 
basil  to  keep  the  flies  away.  Chairs  or  stools 
are  scattered  about.  Decorative  Arabic  texts, 
sometimes  wonderful  prints,  adorn  the  walls. 
There  may  even  be  hanging  rugs  and  china  to 
entertain  your  eyes.    And  there  you  are. 

The  hnbit  of  the  coffee-house  is  one  that  re- 
quires a  certain  leisure.  You  must  not  bolt  cof- 
fee as  you  bolt  the  fire-waters  of  the  West, 
without  ceremony,  in  retreats  withdrawn  from 
the  public  eye.  Being  a  less  violent  and  a  less 
shameful  passion,  I  suppose,  it  is  indulged  in 
with  more  of  the  humanities.  The  etiquette  of 
the  coffee-house,  of  those  coffee-houses  which 
have  not  been  too  much  infected  by  Europe,  is 
one  of  their  most  characteristic  features.  Some- 
thing like  it  prevails  in  Italy,  where  you  tip  your 
hat  on  entering  and  leaving  a  caffe.  In  Turkey, 
however,  I  have  seen  a  new-comer  salute  one 
after  another  each  person  in  a  crowded  coffee- 
room,  once  on  entering  the  door  and  again  after 
taking  his  seat,  and  be  so  saluted  in  return — 
either  by  putting  the  right  hand  to  the  heart 
and  uttering  the  greeting  Merhabah,  or  by  mak- 
ing the  temennah,  that  triple  sweep  of  the  hand 
which  is  the  most  graceful  of  salutes.  I  have 
also  seen  an  entire  company  rise  upon  the  en- 
trance of  an  old  man,  and  yield  him  the  corner 
of  honor. 

Such  courtesies  take  time.  Then  you  must 
wait  for  your  coffee  to  be  made.  To  this  end 
coffee,  roasted  fresh  as  required  by  turning  in  an 


Roasting  Coffee  Befoke  a  Cafe,  Turkey 


i 


MANNERS  AND  CUSTOMS 


665 


Interio-^  of  a  Turkish  Caffinet,  Eai  ly  Nixeteej^th  Century — after  Allan 


iron  cylinder  over  a  fire  of  sticks  and  ground 
to  the  fineness  of  powder  in  a  brass  mill,  is  put 
Into  a  small  uncovered  brass  pot  with  a  long 
handle.  There  it  is  boiled  to  a  froth  three  times 
on  a  charcoal  brazier,  with  or  without  sugar 
as  yon  prefer.  But  to  desecrate  it  by  the  ad- 
mixture of  milk  is  an  unheard  of  sacrilege. 
Some  kahvehjis  replace  the  pot  in  the  embers 
wit'h  a  smart  rap  in  order  to  settle  the  grounds. 
You  in  the  meanwhile  smoke.  That  also  takes 
time,  particularly  if  you  "dx'ink"  a  narguileh, 
as  the  Turks  say.  This  is  familiar  enough  in  the 
West  to  require  no  great  description.  It  is  a 
big  carafe  with  a  metal  top  for  holding  tobacco 
and  a  long  coil  of  leather  tube  for  inhaling  the 
water-cooled  fumes  thereof.  The  effect  is  won- 
derfully soothing  and  innocent  at  first,  though 
wonderfully  deadly  in  the  end  to  the  novice. 
The  tobacco  used  is  not  the  ordinary  weed,  but 
a  much  coarser  and  stronger  one  called  tunbeki, 
which  comes  from  Persia.  The  same  sort  of 
tobacco  used  to  be  smoked  a  great  deal  in  shal- 
low red  earthenware  pipes  with  long  mouth- 
pieces. They  are  now  chiefly  seen  in  antiquity 
shops. 

When  your  coffee  is  ready  it  is  poured  into 
an  after-dinner  coffee-cup  or  into  a  miniature 
bowl,  and  brought  to  you  on  a  tray  with  a  glass 
of  water.  A  foreigner  can  almost  always  be 
spotted  by  the  manner  in  which  he  finally  par- 
takes of  these  rt  fresh ments.  A  Turk  sips  his 
water  first,  partly  to  prepare  the  way  ^jv  the 
coffee,  but  also  i.ecause  he  is  a  connoisseur  of 
the  former  liq^uid  as  other  men  are  of  stronger 
ones.  And  he  lift's  his  coffee-cup  by  the  saucer, 
whether  it  possess  a  ha:idle  or  no,  managing  the 
two  together  in  a  dexterous  way  of  his  own. 


The  current  price  for  all  this,  not  including  the 
water-pipe,  is  ten  paras  —  a  trifle  over  a  cent 

—  for  which  the  kahvehji  will  cry  you  "Bless- 
ing". More  pretentious  establishments  charge 
twenty  paras,  while  a  giddy  few  rise  to  a  piaster 

—  not  quite  five  cents  —  or  a  piaster  and  a  half. 
That,  however,  begins  to  look  like  extortion. 
And  mark  that  you  do  not  tip  the  waiter.  I  have 
often  been  surprised  to  be  charged  no  more  than 
the  tariff,  although  I  gave  a  larger  piece  to  be 
changed  and  it  was  perfectly  evident  that  I  was 
a  foreigner.  That  is  an  experience  which  rarely 
befalls  a  traveller  among  his  own  coreligionaries. 
It  has  even  happened  to  me,  which  is  rare* 
still,  to  be  charged  nothing  at  all,  nay,  to  be 
steadfastly  refused  when  I  persisted  in  at- 
tempting to  pay.  simply  because  I  was  a  for- 
eigner, and  therefore  a  guest. 

There  is  no  reason,  however,  why  .vou  should 
go  away  when  you  have  had  your  coffee  —  or 
your  glass  of  tea  —  and  your  smoke.  On  the 
contrary,  there  are  reasons  why  you  should 
stay,  particularly  if  you  happen  into  the  coffee- 
house not  too  long  after  sunset.  Then  coffee- 
houses of  the  most  local  color  are  at  their  best. 
Earlier  in  the  day  their  clients  are  likely  to  be 
at  work.  Later  they  will  have  disappeared 
altogether.  For  Constantinople  has  not  quite 
forgotten  the  habits  of  the  tent.  Stamboul,  ex- 
cept during  the  holy  month  of  Ramazan.  is  a 
deserted  city  at  night.  But  just  after  dark  i- 
is  full  of  a  life  which  an  outsider  is  often  con- 
tent simply  to  watch  through  the  lighted  win- 
dows of  coffee-rooms.  These  are  also  barber- 
shops, where  men  have  shaved  not  only  their 
chins,  but  different  parts  of  their  heads  accord- 
ing   to    their    "countries".      In    them    likewise 


668 


ALL     ABOUT     COFFEE 


Coffee  Making  in  Turkey 


sounding  of  the  minor  key.  It  pleases  me  to 
fancy  tliere  a  music  come  from  far  away  — 
from  unknown  river  gorges,  from  camp-fires 
,1,'limmering  on  great  plains.  Does  not  such 
darkness  breathe  through  it,  such  melancholy, 
such  haunting  of  elusive  airs?  There  are  flashes 
too  of  light,  of  song,  the  playing  of  shepherd's 
pipes,  the  swoop  of  horsemen  and  sudden  out- 
cries of  savagery.  But  the  note  to  which  it  all 
comes  back  is  the  monotone  of  a  primitive  life, 
like  the  day-long  beat  of  camel  bells.  And  more 
than  all,  it  is  the  mood  of  Asia,  so  rarely  pene- 
trated, which  is  neither  lightness  or  despair. 

There  are  seasons  in  the  year  when  these 
various  forms  of  entertainment  abound  more 
than  at  others,  as  Ramazan  and  the  two 
Bairams.  Throughout  the  month  of  Ramazan 
the  purely  Turkish  coffee-houses  are  closed  in 
the  daytime,  since  the  pleasures  which  they 
minister  may  not  then  be  indulged  in ;  but  they 
are  open  all  night.  It  is  during  that  one  month 
of  the  year  that  Karaghieuz,  the  Turkish 
shadow-show,  may  be  seen  in  a  few  of  the 
larger  coffee^hops.  The  Bairams  are  two  fes- 
tivals of  three  and  four  days  respectively,  the 
former  of  which  celebrates  the  close  of  Rama- 
zan, while  the  latter  corresponds  in  certain  re- 
spects to  the  Jewish  Passover.  Dancing  is  a 
particular  feature  of  the  coffee-houses  in 
Bairam.  The  Kurds,  who  carry  the  burdens  of 
Constantinople  on  their  backs,  are  above  all 
other  men  given  to  this  form  of  exercise  — 
though  the  Lazzes,  the  boatmen,  vie  with  them. 


checkers,  the  Persian  backgammon,  and  various 
games  of  long  narrow  cards  are  played.  They 
say  that  Bridge  came  from  Constantinople. 
Indeed,  I  believe  a  club  of  Pera  claims  the 
honor  of  having  communicated  that  passion  to 
the  Western  World.  But  I  must  confess  that  I 
have  yet  to  see  an  open  hand  in  a  coffee-house 
of  the  people. 

One  of  the  pleasantest  forms  of  amusement 
to  be  obtained  in  coffee-houses  is  unfortunately 
getting  to  be  one  of  the  rarest.  It  is  that  af- 
forded by  itinerant  story-tellers,  who  still  carry 
on  in  the  East  the  tradition  of  the  troubadours. 
The  stories  they  tell  are  more  or  less  on  the 
order  of  the  Arabian  Nights,  though  perhaps 
even  less  suitable  for  mixed  companies  —  which 
for  the  rest  are  never  found  in  coffee-shops. 
These  men  are  sometimes  wonderfully  clever  al 
character  monologue  or  dialogue.  They  collect 
their  pay  at  a  crucial  moment  of  the  action,  re- 
fusing to  continue  until  the  audience  has  testi- 
fied to  the  sincerity  of  its  interest  by  some  token 
more  substantial. 

Music  is  much  more  common.  There  are 
those,  to  be  sure,  who  find  no  music  in  the 
sounds  poured  forth  oftenest  by  a  gramophone, 
often  by  a  pair  of  gypsies  with  a  flaring  piiie 
and  two  small  gourd  drums,  and  sometimes  by 
an  orchestra  so-called  of  the  fine  lute  —  a  com- 
pany of  musicians  on  a  railed  dais  who  sing 
long  songs  while  they  play  on  stringed  instru- 
ments of  strange  curves.  For  myself  I  know 
too  little  of  music  to  tell  what  relation  the  re- 
current cadences  of  those  songs  and  their 
broken  rhythms  may  bear  to  the  antique  modes. 
But  I  can  listen,  as  long  as  musicians  will  per- 
form, to  those  infinite  repetitions,  that  insistent 


Street  Coffee  Vender  in  the  Levant,  1714 


MANNERS  AND  CUSTOMS 


667 


A  Coffee  House  in  Syria  —  after  Jardin 


One  of  these  dark  tribesmen  plays  a  little  violin 
like  a  poclielle,  or  two  of  them  perform  on  a 
l)ipe  and  a  big  drum,  while  the  others  dance 
round  them  in  a  circle,  sometimes  till  they  drop 
from  fatigue.  The  weird  music  and  the  [)ictur- 
esque  costumes  and  movements  of  the  dancers 
make  the  spectacle  one  to  be  remembered. 

Christian  coffee-houses  also  have  their  own 
festal  seasons.  These  coincide  in  general  with 
the  festivals  of  the  chui'ch.  But  every  quarter 
has  its  patron  saint,  the  saint  of  the  local 
church  or  of  the  local  holy  well,  whose  feast  is 
celebrated  by  a  three-day  panayiri.  The  street 
is  dressed  with  flags  and  strings  of  colored 
paper,  tables  and  chairs  line  the  sidewalk,  and 
libations  are  poured  forth  in  honor  of  the  holy 
person  commemorated.  For  this  reason,  and 
because  of  the  more  volatile  character  of  the 
Greek,  the  general  note  of  his  merrymaking  is 
louder  than  that  of  the  Turk.  One  may  even 
see  the  scandalous  spectacle  of  men  and  women 
dancing  together  at  a  Greek  panayiri.  The  in- 
strument which  sets  the  key  of  these  orgies  is 
the  lantema,  a  species  of  hand-organ  peculiar 
to  Constantinople.  It  is  a  hand-piano  rather,  of 
a  loud  and  cheerful  voice,  whose  Eurasian  har- 
monies are  enlivened  by  a  frequent  clash  of 
bells. 

What  first  made  coffee-houses  suspicious  to 
those  in  authority,  however,  is  their  true  re- 
source—the advantages  they  offer  for  meeting 
one's  kind,  for  social  converse  and  tlie  contem- 
plation of  life.  Ilenee  it  must  be  that  they  have 
so  happy  a"  tact  for  locality.  They  seek  shade, 
pleasant  c-orners.  open  squares,  the  prospect 
of  water  or  wide  landscapes.  In  Constantinople 
they  enjoy  an  infinite  choice  of  site,  so  huge  is 
the  extent  of  that  city,  so  broken  by  hill  and 
sea,  so  varied  in  its  spectacle  of  life.    The  com- 


monest type  of  city  coffee-room  looks  out  upon 
the  passing  world  from  under  a  grape-vine  or  a 
climbing  wistaria. 

Coffee-houses  of  distinction  are  to  be 
found  also  in  the  Place  of  the  Pines  over- 
looking the  Marble  Sea,  on  Giant's  Moun- 
tain, in  the  Landing  Place  of  the  Man- 
slayer,  and  along  the  rivers  that  flow  into 
the  Golden  Horn. 

Originally  the  Turkish  method  of  pre- 
paring coffee  was  the  Arabian  method,  and 
it  is  so  described  by  Mr.  Fellows  in  his 
Excursions  through  Asia  Minor: 

Each  cup  is  made  separately,  the  little  sauce- 
pan or  ladle  in  which  it  is  prepared  being  about 
an  inch  wide  and  two  deep ;  this  is  more  than 
half  filled  with  coffee,  finely  pounded  with  a 
pestle  and  mortar,  and  then  filled  up  with 
water ;  after  being  placed  for  a  few  seconds  on 
the  fire,  the  contents  are  poured,  or  rather 
shaken,  out  (being  much  thicker  than  chocolate) 
without  the  addition  of  cream  or  sugar,  into  a 
china  cup  of  the  size  and  shape  of  half  an  egg- 
shell, which  is  inclosed  in  one  of  ornamented 
metal  for  convenience  of  holding  in  the  hand. 

Later,  the  Turks  sought  to  improve  the 
method  by  adding  sugar  (a  concession  to 
the  European  sweet  tooth)  during  the 
boiling  process.  The  improved  Turkish 
recipe  is  as  follows: 

First  boil  the  water.  For  two  cups  of  the 
beverage  add  three  lumps  of  sugar  and  return 
the  boiler  to  the  fire.  Add  two  toaspoonfuls  of 
powdered  coffee,   stirring  well  and  let  the  pot 


668 


ALL     ABOUT     COFFEE 


boil  up  four  times.  Between  each  boiling  the 
pot  is  to  be  removed  from  the  fire  and  the  bot- 
tom tapped  gently  until  the  froth  on  the  top 
subsid.es.  After  the  last  boiling  pour  the  coffee 
first  into  one  cup  and  then  the  other,  so  as  to 
evenly  divide  the  froth. 

In    Syria    and    Palestine    the    Turkish- 
Arabian  methods  are  followed.    The  brazen 
dippers,    or   ihriks,   are 
used  for  boiling. 

In  the  Near  East, 
coffee  manners  and  cus- 
toms are  much  the  same 
today  as  they  were  fifty 
or  even  one  hundred 
years  ago.  Witness 
Damascus.  The  follow- 
ing pen  picture  of  the 
cafes  in  this  ancient 
city  was  written  in  1836 
to  accompany  the  draw- 
ing by  Bartlett  and 
Purser,  which  is  repro- 
duced here  ;  but  it  might 
have  been  written  in 
1922,  so  slight  have  been 
the  changes  in  the  set- 
ting or  the  spirit  of  the 
original  coffee  house 
that  S  h  e  m  s  i  first 
brought  to  Constanti- 
nople from  Damascus  in  1554.' 

The  Cafes  of  the  kind  represented  in  the 
plate  are,  perhaps,  the  greatest  luxury  that  a 
stranger  finds  in  Damascus.  Gardens,  kiosques. 
fountains,  and  groves  are  abundant  around 
every  Eastern  capital:  but  Cafes  on  the  very 
bosom  of  a  rapid  river,  and  bathed  by  its 
waves,  are  peculiar  to  this  ancient  city:  they 
are  formed  so  as  to  exclude  the  rays  of  the 
sun,  while  they  admit  the  breeze;  the  light 
roof  is  supported  by  slender  rows  of  pillars, 
and  the  building  is  quite  open  on  every  side. 

A  few  of  these  liouses  are  situated  in  the 
skirts  of  the  town,  on  one  of  the  streams, 
where  the  eye  rests  on  the  luxuriant  vegeta- 
tion of  garden  and  wood :  others  are  in  the 
heart  of  the  city :  a  flight  of  steps  conducts  to 
them  from  the  sultry  street,  and  it  is  delight- 
ful to  pass  in  a  few  moments  from  the  noisy, 
shadeless  thoroughfare,  where  you  see  only 
mean  gateways  and  the  gable-ends  of  edifices, 
to  a  cool,  grateful,  calm  place  of  rest  and  re- 
freshment, where  you  can  muse  and  meditate 
in  ease  and  luxury,  and  feel  at  every  moment 
the  rich  breeze  from  the  river.  In  two  or 
three  instances,  a  light  wooden  bridge  leads 
to  the  platform,  close  to  which,  and  almost  out 
of  it,  one  or  two  large  and  noble  trees  lift  the 
canopy  of  their  spreading  branches  and  leaves, 
more  welcome  at  noon-day  than  the  roofs  of 
fretted    gold    in    the    "Arabian    Nights."      The 


Cafetak 
Oriental  coffee- 
house keeper's 
costume 


high  pavilion  roof  and  the  pillars  are  all  con- 
structed of  wood:  the  floor  is  of  wood,  and 
sometimes  of  earth,  and  is  regularly  watered, 
and  raised  only  a  few  inches  above  the  level 
of  the  stream,  which  rushes  by  at  the  feet  of 
the  customer,  which  it  almost  bathes,  as  he 
sips  his  coffee  or  sherbet.  Innumerable  small 
seats  cover  the  floor,  and  you  take  one  of  these, 
and  place  it  in  the  position  you  like  best. 

Perhaps  you  wish  to  sit  apart  from  the 
crowd,  just  under  the  shadow  of  the  tree,  or 
in  some  favourite  corner  where  you  can  smoke, 
and  contemplate  the  motley  guests,  formed  into 
calm  and  solemn  groups,  who  wish  to  hold  no 
communion  with  the  Giaour.  There  is  ample 
food  here  for  the  observer  of  character,  cos- 
tume and  pretension :  the  tradesman,  the  me- 
chanic, the  soldier,  the  gentleman,  the  dandy, 
the  grave  old  man,  looking  wise  on  the  past 
and  dimly  on  the  future :  the  badge,  in  his 
green  turban,  vain  of  his  journey  to  Mecca, 
and  drawing  a  long  bow  in  his  tales  and  ad- 
ventures :  the  long  straight  pipe,  the  hookah 
with  its  soft  curling  tube  and  glass  vase,  are 
in  request :  but  the  poorer  argille  is  most  com- 
monly used. 

From  sunrise  to  set,  these  houses  are  never 
empty :  we  were  accustomed  to  visit  one  of 
them  early  every  morning,  before  breakfast, 
and  very  many  persons  were  already  there :  yet 
this  "balmy  hour  of  prime"  was  the  most  silent 
and  solitary  of  the  whole  day ;  it  was  the  coolest 
also :  the  rising  sun  was  glancing  redly  on  the 


»  Came,    John. 
1836  (p.  69). 


'jria,    the    Holy    Land.      London, 


Street   Coffee    Service   in    Constantinople 


MAXXERS  AXD  CUSTOMS 


669 


A  Riverside  Caie  in  Damascus,  Nineteenth  Century 
After  Bartlett  and  Purser 


waters :  there  was  as  yet  no  heat  in  the  air, 
and  the  little  cup  of  Mocha  coffee  and  the  pipe 
were  handed  by  an  attendant  as  soon  as  the 
stranger  was  seated.  His  favourite  Cafe  was 
the  one  represented  in  the  plate :  the  river  is 
the  Barrada.  the  ancient  Pharpar.  Never  was 
the  sound  of  many  waters  so  pleasant  to  the 
ear  as  in  Damascus :  the  air  is  filled  with  the 
sound,  with  which  no  clash  of  tongues,  rolling 
of  wheels,  march  of  footman  or  horsemen, 
mingle :  the  numerous  groups  who  love  to  re- 
sort here  are  silent  half  the  time;  and  when 
they  do  converse,  their  voice  is  often  "low, 
like  that  of  a  familiar  spirit,"  or  in  short  grave 
sentences  that  pass  quickly  from  the  ear. 

Yet  much,  very  much  of  the  excitement  of 
the  life  of  the  Turk  in  this  city,  is  absorbed 
in  these  coffee-houses :  they  are  his  opera,  his 
theatre,  his  conversazione :  soon  after  his  ej'es 
are  unclosed  from  sleep,  he  thinks  of  his  Caf6, 
and  forthwith  bends  his  way  there :  during  the 
day  he  looks  forward  to  pass  the  evening  on 
the  loved  floor,  to  look  on  the  waters,  on  the 
stars  above,  and  on  the  facfes  of  his  friends ; 
and  at  the  moonlight  falling  on  all.  Mahomet 
commiitted  a  grievous  error  in  the  omission  of 
coffee-houses  in  a  future  state :  had  he  ever 
seen  those  of  Damascus,  he  would  surely  have 
given  them  a  place  on  his  rivers  of  Paradise, 
persuaded  that  true  believers  must  feel  a 
melancholy  void  without  them. 

There  is  ,no  ornament  or  richness  about  these 
houses:  no  sofas,  mi rrofs,  or  drapery,  save  that 
afforded  by  a  few  evergreens  and  creepers :  the 


famous  silks  and  damasks  of  Damascus  have 
no  place  here ;  all  is  plain  and  homely ;  yet  no 
Parisian  Caf6,  with  its  beautiful  mirrors,  gild- 
ing, and  luxuriousness,  is  so  welcome  to  the 
imagination  and  senses  of  the  traveller.  After 
wandering  many  days  over  dry,  and  stony,  and 
desert  places,  where  the  lip  thirsted  for  the 
stream,  is  it  not  delicious  to  sit  at  the  brink 
of  a  wild,  impetuous  torrent,  to  gaze  on  its 
white  foam  and  breaking  waves,  till  you  can 
almost  feel  their  gush  in  every  nerve  and  fibre, 
and  can  bathe  your  very  soul  in  them.  And 
while  you  slowly  smoke  your  pipe  of  purest 
tobacco,  the  sands  of  the  desert,  and  their  burn- 
ing sun.  rise  again  before  you,  when  you 
prayed  for  even  the  shadow  of  a  cloud  on  your 
way.  The  banks  are  in  some  parts  covered 
with  wood,  whose  soft  green  verdure  contrasts 
beautifully  with  the  clear  torrent,  and  almost 
droops  into  its  bosom. 

Near  the  coffee-houses  are  one  or  two  cata- 
racts several  feet  high,  and  the  perpetual  sound 
of  their  fall,  and  the  coolness  they  spread 
around,  are  exquisite  luxuries  —  in  the  heat  of 
day,  or  in  the  dinmess  of  evening.  There  are 
two  or  three  Caf^s  constructed  somewhat  dif- 
ferently from  those  just  described :  a  low  gal- 
lery divides  the  platform  from  the  tide;  foun- 
tains play  on  the  floor,  which  is  furnished  with 
very  plain  sofas  and  cushions ;  and  music  and 
dancing  always  abound,  of  the  most  unrefined 
description. 

The  only  Intellectual  gratification  in  these 
places    is    afforded    by    the    Arab    story-tellers. 


670 


ALL     ABOUT     COFFEE 


among  whom  are  a  few  eminent  and  clever 
men :  soon  after  his  entrance,  a  group  begins 
to  form  around  the  gifted  man,  wlio,  after  a 
suitable  pause,  to  collect  hearers  or  whet  their 
expectations,  begins  his  story.  It  is  a  pic- 
turesque sight  —  of  the  Arab  with  his  wild  and 
graceful  gestures,  and  his  auditory,  hushed 
into  deep  and  child-like  attention,  seated  at  the 
edge  of  the  rushing  tide,  while  the  narrator 
moves  from  side  to  side,  and  each  accent  of 
his  distinct  and  musical  voice  is  heard  through- 
out the  Caf6.  The  building  directly  opposite  is 
another  house,  of  a  similar  kind  in  every  re- 
spect. There  are  a  few  small  Cafes,  more 
select  as  to  company,  where  the  Turkish  gentle- 
men often  go,  form  dinner  parties,  and  spend 
the  day. 

Night  is  the  propitious  season  to  visit  these 
places :  the  glare  of  the  sun,  glancing  on  the 
waters,  is  passed  away ;  the  company  is  then 
most  immeTOus,  for  it  is  their  favourite  hour ; 
the  lamps,  suspended  from  the  slender  pillars, 
are  lighted;  the  Turks,  in  the  various  and  bril- 
liant colours*  of  their  costume,  crowd  the  plat- 
form, some  standing  moveless  as  the  pillars  be- 
side them,  their  long  pipe  in  their  hand  — 
noble  specimens  of  humanity,  if  intellect 
breathed  within :  some  reclining  against  the 
rails,  others  seated  in  groups,  or  solitary  as  if 
buried  in  "lonely  thoughts  sublime";  while  the 
rush  of  the  falling  waters  is  sweeter  mus"ic 
than  that  of  the  pipe  and  the  guitar,  that 
faintly  strive  to  be  heard.  The  cataract  in  the 
plate  is  a  very  fine  one ;  on  its  foam  the  moon- 
light was  lovely :  we  passed  many  an  hour 
here  on  such  a  night,  the  clear  waters  of  the 
Pbarpar,  as  they  rolled  on,  refleotiing  eacn 
pillar,  each  Damascene  slowly  moving  by  in 
his  waving  garments.  The  glare  of  the  lamps 
mingled  strangely  with  the  moonlight,  /that 
rested  with  a  soft  and  vivid  glory  on  the 
waters,  and  fell  beneath  pillar  and  roof  on  the 
picturesque  groups  within. 

The  slender  brass  coffee  grinders  some- 
times serve  as  a  combination  utensil  in  the 
equipment  of  the  Turkish  officer.  Fre- 
quently they  are  made  of  silver.  They 
might  be  called  collapsible,  convertible  cof- 
fee kits,  as  they  are  made  to  serve  as  a  com- 
bination coffee  pot,  mill,  can,  and  cup. 
The  green  or  roasted  beans  are  kept  in 
the  lower  section.  It  takes  but  a  minute  to 
unscrew  the  apparatus.  To  make  a  cup  of 
coffee,  the  beans  are  dumped  out  and  three 
or  four  of  them  are  put  in  the  middle  sec- 
tion. The  steel  crank  is  fitted  over  the 
squared  rod  projecting  from  the  middle 
section,  which  revolves,  setting  in  motion 
the  grinding  apparatus  inside.  The  ground 
coffee  falls  into  the  bottom  section,  and 
water  is  added.  The  pot  i-s  placed  on  the 
fire,  and  the  contents  brought  to  a  boil. 
The  coffee  pot  serves  as  a  cup.  The  process 
requires  but  a  few  minutes.  The  cup  is 
rinsed  out,  the  beans  replaced,  the  utensils 
put  together,  the  whole  thing  is  slipped 


into  the  officer's  tunic,  and  he  goes  on,  re- 
freshed. 

In  Persia,  where  tea  is  mostly  drunk,  the 
Turkish-Arabian  methods  of  making  coffee 
are  followed.  In  Ceylon  and  India,  the 
same  applies  to  the  native  population,  but 
the  whites  follow  the  European  practise. 
In  India,  many  people  look  upon  coffee  as 
just  a  bonne  houche  —  a  ''chaser."  A  well 
known  English  tea  firm  has  had  some  suc- 
cess in  India  with  a  tinned  "French  cof- 
fee", which  is  a  blend  of  Indian  coffee  and 
chicory. 

European  methods  obtain  in  making  cof- 
fee in  China  and  Japan,  and  in  the  French 
and  Dutch  colonies.  Wh(5n  traveling  in  the 
Far  East  one  of  the  greatest  hardships  the 
coffee  lover  is  called  upon  to  endure  is  the 
European  bottled  coffee  extract,  which  so 
often  supplies  lazy  chefs  with  the  makings 
of  a  most  forbidding  cup  of  coffee. 

In  Java,  a  favorite  method  is  to  make  a 
strong  extract  by  the  French  drip  process 
and  then  to  use  a  spoonful  of  the  extract 
to  a  cup  of  hot  milk  —  a  good  drink  when 
the  extract  is  freshly  made  for  each  service. 

Coffee  Making  in  Europe 

In  Europe,  the  coffee  drink  was  first  sold 
by  lemonade  venders.  In  Florence  those 
who  sold  coffee,  chocolate,  and  other  bev- 
erages were  not  called  caffetieri  (coffee 
sellers)  but  limondji  (lemonade  venders). 
Pascal's  first  Paris  coffee  shop  served 
other  drinks  as  well  as  coffee ;  and 
Procope's  cafe  began  as  a  lemonade  shop. 
It  was  only  when  coffee,  which  was  an 
afterthought,  began  to  lead  the  other  bev- 
erages, that  he  gave  the  name  cafe  to  his 
whole  refreshment  place. 

Today,  nearly  every  country  in  Europe 
can  supply  the  two  extremes  of  coffee  mak- 
ing. In  Paris  and  Vienna,  one  may  find  it 
brewed  and  served  in  its  highest  perfec- 
tion; but  here  too  it  is  frequently  found 
as  badly  done  as  in  England,  and  that  is 
saying  a  good  deal.  The  principal  diffi- 
cultv  seems  to  be  in  the  chicory  flavor,  for 
which  long  years  of  use  has  cultivated  a 
taste,  with  most  people.  Now  coffee-and- 
chicory  is  not  at  all  a  bad  drink;  indeed 
the  author  confesses  to  have  developed  a 
certain  liking  for  it  after  a  time  in  France 
—  but  it  is  not  coffee.  In  Europe,  chicory 
is  not  regarded  as  an  adulterant  —  it  is  an 
addition,  or  modifier,  if  you  please.  And 
so  many  people  have  acquired  a  coffee-and- 
chicory  taste,  that  it  is  doubtful  if  they 
would  appreciate  a  real  cup  of  coffee  should 


MANNERS  AND  CUSTOMS 


671 


Coffee  al  Fresco  in  Jerusalem 


they  ever  meet  it.  This,  of  course,  is  a 
generalization ;  and  like  all  generalizations, 
is  dangerous,  for  it  is  possible  to  obtain 
good  coffee,  properly  made,  in  any  Euro- 
pean country,  even  England,  in  the  homes 
of  the  people,  but  seldom  in  the  hotels  or 
restaurants. 

Austria.  Coffee  is  made  in  Austria 
after  the  French  style,  usually  by  the  drip 
method  or  in  the  pumpmgf  pprcnlatnr  f|p- 
viT?e7^commonly  called  thp  Vipnm  cnfff^ 
machme.  The  restaurants  employ  a  large- 
size  urn  fitted  with  a  combination  metal 
sieve  and  cloth  sack.  After  the  ground 
coffee  has  infused  for  about  six  minutes,  a 
screw  device  raises  the  metal  sieve,  the  pres- 
sure forcing  the  liquid  through  the  cloth 
sack  containing  the  ground  coffee. 

Vienna  cafes  are  famous,  but  the  World 
"War  has  dinvned  their  glory.  It  used  to 
be  said  that  their  equal  could  not  be  found 
for  general  excellence  and  moderate  prices. 
From  half-past  eight  to  ten  in  the  morn- 
ing, large  numbers  of  people  were  wont  to 
breakfast  in  them  on  a  cup  of  coffee  or  tea, 
with  a  roll  and  butter.  Melange  is  with 
milk;  "brown"  coffee  is  darker,  and  a 
schivarzer  is  without  milk.  In  all  the  cafes 
the  visitor  "may  obtain  coffee,  tea,  liqueurs. 


ices,  bottled  beer,  ham,  eggs,  etc.  The  Cafe 
Schrangl  in  the  Graben  is  typical.  Then 
there  are  the  dairies,  with  coffee,  a  unique 
institution.  In  the  Prater  (public  park) 
there  are  many  interesting  cafes. 

Charles  J.  Rosebault  says  in  the  New 
York  Times: 

The  caf6  of  Vienna  has  been  imitated  all 
over  the  world  —  but  the  result  has  never 
failed  to  be  an  imitation.  The  nearest  approach 
to  the  genuine  in  my  experience  was  the  up- 
stairs room  of  the  old  Fleischnian  Cafe  in  New 
York.  That  was  because  the  average  New 
Yorker  knew  it  not  and  it  remained  sacred  to 
the  internationalists :  the  musicians,  artists, 
writers,  and  other  Bohemians  to  whom  had  been 
intrusted  the  secret  of  its  existence.  It  is  the 
spirit  that  counts,  and  it  was  the  spirit  of  its 
frequenters  that  made  the  Vienna  caf^.  It  was 
everj'man's  club,  and  everywoman's,  too.  where 
one  went  to  relax  and  forget  all  the  worries 
of  existence,  to  look  over  papers  and  magazines 
from  all  parts  of  the  world  and  printed  in 
every  known  language,  to  play  chess  or  skat 
or  taracq.  to  chat  with  friends  and  to  <lrink 
the  inimitable  Viennese  coffee,  the  fragrance 
of  which  can  no  more  be  described  than  the 
perfume  of  last  year's  violets. 

The  caff»  was  filled  after  the  noon  meal,  when 
busy  men  took  their  coffee  and  smoked ;  again 
around  five  o'clock,  when  all  the  world  and 
his  wife  paraded  along  the  Graben  and  the 
Kanitner    Strasse,    and    then    dropped    into    a 


672 


ALL     ABOUT     COFFEE 


Photograph  by  Burton  Holmes 

The  Cafe  Scheangl  in  the  Graben,  Vienna,  the  City  That  Coffee  Made  Famous 


favorite  cafe  for  coffee  or  chocolate  and  cakes 
—  horns  and  crescents  of  delicious  dough  filled 
with  jam  or,  possibly,  the  wonderful  Kugelhupf, 
in  comparison  with  which  our  sponge  is  like 
unto  lead :  finally  in  the  evening,  when  there 
were  family  parties  and  those  returning  from 
theatres  and  concerts  and  opera. 

"While  the  cafe  life  of  Vienna  has  been 
nearly  killed  by  the  World  War,  it  is  to 
be  hoped  that  time  will  restore  at  least 
something  of  its  former  glory.  In  spite  of 
the  stories  of  plundering  bands  of  Bolshe- 
vists that  in  the  latter  part  of  1921 
wrecked  some  of  the  better  known  places, 
we  read  that  Oscar  Straus,  composer  of 
The  CJiocolate  Soldier,  is  living  in  compara- 
tive luxury  in  Vienna,  and  spends  most  of 
his  time  in  the  cafes,  where  he  is  to  be 
found  usually  from  two  until  five  in  the 
afternoon  and  from  eleven  o'clock  at  night 
until  some  early  hour  of  the  morning  ' '  sur- 
rounded by  musicians  of  lesser  note  and 
wealth,  whom,  to  a  degree,  he  supports; 
also  with  him  being  many  of  the  leading 
composers,  librettists,  actors,  actresses,  and 
singers  of  Vienna." 

For  Vienna  coffee,  the  liquor  is  usually 
made  in  a  pumping  percolator  or  by  the 
drip  process.  In  normal  times  it  is  served 
two  parts  coffee  to  one  of  hot  milk  topped 
with  whipped  cream.  During  1914  - 18  and 
the  recent  post-war  period,  however,  the 


sparkling  crown  of  delicious  whipped 
cream  gave  way  to  condensed  milk,  and 
saccharine  took  the  place  of  sugar. 

Belgium.  In  Belgium,  the  French  drip 
method  is  most  generally  employed.  Chic- 
ory is  freely  used  as  a  modifier.  The 
greatest  coffee  drinker  among  reigning 
monarchs  is  said  to  be  the  King  of  the 
Belgians.  His  majesty  takes  a  cup  of  cof- 
fee before  breakfast,  after  breakfast,  at  his 
noonday  meal,  in  the  afternoon,  after  din- 
ner, and  again  in  the  evening. 

British  Isles.  In  the  British  Isles  cof- 
fee is  still  being  boiled ;  although  the  in- 
fusion, true  percolation  (drip),  and  filtra- 
tion methods  have  many  advocates.  A 
favorite  device  is  the  earthenware  jug  with 
or  without  the  cotton  sack  that  makes  it  a 
coffee  biggin.  When  used  without  the  sack, 
the  best  practise  is  first  to  warm  the  jug. 
For  each  pint  of  liquor,  one  ounce  (three 
dessert-spoonfuls)  of  freshly  ground  cof- 
fee is  put  in  the  pot.  Upon  it  is  poured 
freshly  boiling  water  —  three-fourths  of 
the  amount  required.  After  stirring  with 
a  wooden  spoon,  the  remaiinder  of  the  water 
is  poured  in,  and  the  pot  is  returned  to 
the  "hob"  to  infuse,  and  to  settle  for  from 
three  to  five  minutes.  Some  stir  it  a  sec- 
ond time  before  the  final  settling. 


MANNERS  AND  CUSTOMS 


673 


The  best  trade  authorities  stress  home- 
grinding,  and  are  opposed  to  boiling  the 
beverage.  They  advocate  also  its  use  as  a 
breakfast  beverage,  after  lunch,  and  after 
the  evening  meal. 

From  an  American  point  of  view,  the 
principal  defects  in  the  English  method  of 
making  coffee  lie  in  the  roasting,  handling, 
and  brewing.  It  has  been  charged  that 
the  beans  are  not  properly  cooked  in  the 
first  place,  and  that  they  are  too  often 
stale  before  being  ground.  The  English 
run  to  a  light  or  cinnamon  roast,  whereas 
the  best  American  practise  requires  a 
medium,  high,  or  city  roast.  A  fairly  high 
shade  of  brown  is  favored  on  the  South 
Downs  with  a  light  shade  for  Lancashire, 
the  West  Riding  of  Yorkshire,  and  the  south 
of  Scotland.  The  trade  demands,  for  the 
most  part,  a  ripe  chestnut  brown.  Whole- 
sale roasting  is  done  by  gas  and  coke  ma- 
chines; while  retail  dealers  use  mostly  a 
small  type  of  inner-heated  gas  machine. 
The  large  gas  machines  (with  capacities 
running  from  twenty -five  to  seven  hundred 
pounds)  have  external  air-blast  burners,  di- 
rect and  indirect  burners,  sliding  burners, 
etc.  The  best  known  are  the  Faulder  and 
Moorewood  machines.  In  the  Uno,  a  popu- 
lar retail  machine,  roasting  seven  to  four- 
teen pounds  at  a  time,  the  coffee  beans  are 
placed  in  the  space  between  outer  and 
inner  concentric  cylinders,  one  made  of 
perforated  steel,  and  the  other  of  wire 
gauze,  revolving  together.  A  gas  flame  of 
the  Bunsen  type  burns  inside  the  inner 
cylinder,  its  heat  traversing  the  outer,  or 
coffee  cylinder,  while  the  fumes  are  driven 
off  through  the  open  ends.  The  roasting 
coffee  may  be  viewed  through  a  mica  or 


Favorite  English  Coffee-Making  Method 


A  Cafe  of  Ye  Mecca  Company,, London 

wire-gauze  panel  inserted  in  the  wall  of 
the  outer  cylinder.  The  Faulder  machine 
has  an  external  flame,  a  capacity  of  from 
seven  to  fourteen  pounds;  and  there  are 
quick  gas  machines,  with  capacities  rang- 
ing from  three  pounds  to  two  hundred  and 
twenty-four  pounds,  for  the  retail  trade. 

In  recent  years  there  has  been  a  marked 
improvement  in  English  coffee  roasting, 
due  to  the  intelligent  study  brought  to 
bear  upon  the  subject  by  leaders  of  the 
trade's  thought,  and  by  the  retail  distribu- 
ter, who,  in  the  person  of  the  retail  grocer, 
is,  generally  speaking,  better  educated  to 
his  business  than  the  retail  grocer  in  any 
other  country.  Years  ago,  it  was  the  prac- 
tise to  use  butter  or  lard  to  improve  the 
appearance  of  the  bean  in  roasting;  but 
this  is  not  so  common  as  formerly. 

The  British  consumer,  however,  will  need 
much  instruction  before  the  national  char- 
acter of  the  beverage  shows  a  uniform  im- 
provement. While  the  coffee  may  be  more 
carefully  roasted,  better  ''cooked"  than  it 
was  formerly,  it  is  still  remaining  too  long 
unsold  after  roasting,  or  else  it  is  being 
ground  too  long  a  time  before  making. 
These  abuses  are,  however,  being  corrected ; 
and  the  consumer  is  everywhere  being 
urged  to  buy  his  coffee  freshly  roasted  and 
to  have  it  freshly  ground.  Another  factor 
has  undoubtedly  contributed  to  give  Eng- 
land a  bad  name  among  lovers  of  good 
coffee,  and  that  is  certain  tinned  ' '  coffees, ' ' 
composed  of  ground  coffee  and  chicory, 
mixtures  that  attained  some  vogue  for  a 
time  as  "French"  coffee.  They  found 
favor,  perhaps,  because  they  were  easily 
handled.  Package  coffees  have  not  been 
developed  in  England  as  in  America;  but 
there  is  a  more  or  less  limited  field  for 
them,  and  there  are  several  good  brands 
of  absolutely  pure  coffee  on  the  market. 


674 


ALL     ABOUT     COFFEE 


The  demi-tasse  is  a  popular  drink  after 
luncheon,  after  dinner,  and  even  during 
the  day,  especially  in  the  cities.  In  Lon- 
don, there  are  cafes  that  make  a  specialty 
of  it;  places  like  Peel's,  Groom's,  and  the 
Cafe  Nero  in  the  city;  also  the  shops  of 
the  London  Cafe  Co.,  and  Ye  Mecca  Co. 

While,  in  the  home,  it  is  customary  to 
steep  the  coffee;  in  hotels  and  restaurants 
some  form  of  percolating  apparatus,  ex- 
tractor, or  steam  machine  is  employed. 
There  are  the  Criterion  (employing  a  drip 
tray  for  making  coffee  in  the  Etzenberger 
style);  Fountain;  Platow;  Syphon  (Na- 
pier) ;  and  Verithing  extractors,  put  out  by 
Sumerling  &  Co.  of  London ;  and  the  well- 
known  J.  &  S.  rapid  coffee-making  machine, 
having  an  infuser,  and  producing  coffee 
by  steam  pressure,  manufactured  by  W.  M. 
Still  &  Sons,  Ltd.,  London. 

American  visitors  complain  that  coffee  in 
England  is  too  thick  and  syrupy  for  their 
liking.  Coffee  in  restaurants  is  served 
"white"  (with  milk),  or  black,  in  earthen, 


Geoom's  Coffee  House,  Fleet  Street,  London 


Cake   Monico.   Piccadilly   Circus,   London 

stone-ware,  or  silver  pots.  In  chain  restau- 
rants, like  Lyons'  or  the  A.  B.  C,  there  is 
to  be  found  on  the  tariff,  "hot  milk  with 
a  dash  of  coffee." 

As  to  the  boiling  method,  this  is  already 
generally  discredited  in  the  countries  of 
western  Europe.  The  steeping  method  so 
much  favored  in  England  may  be  respon- 
sible for  some  of  the  unkind  things  said 
about  English  coffee;  because  it  undoubt- 
edly leads  to  the  abuse  of  over-infusion,  so 
that  the  net  result  is  as  bad  as  boiling. 

The  vast  majority  of  the  English  people 
are,  however,  confirmed  tea  drinkers,  and 
it  is  extremely  doubtful  if  this  national 
habit,  ingrained  through  centuries  of  use 
of  "the  cup  that  cheers"  at  breakfast  and 
at  tea  time  in  the  afternoon  can  ever  be 
changed. 

As  already  mentioned  in  this  work,  the 
London  coffee  houses  of  the  seventeenth 
and  eighteenth  centuries  gave  way  to  a 
type  of  coffee  house  whose  mainstay  was 
its  food  rather  than  its  drink.  In  time, 
these  too  began  to  yield  to  the  changing 
influences  of  a  civilization  that  demanded 
modern  hotels,  luxurious  tea  lounges,^ 
smart  restaurants,  chain  shops,  tea  rooms, 
and  cafes  with  and  without  coffee.  A  cer- 
tain type  of  "coffee  shop,"  with  rough 
boarded  stalls,  sanded  floors  and  "private 
rooms,"  frequented  by  lower  class  work- 
ingmen,  were  to  be  found  in  England  for 
a  time ;  but  because  of  their  doubtful  char- 
acter, they  were  closed  up  by  the  police. 

Among  other  places  in  London  where 
coffee  may  be  had  in  English  or  continental 
style,  mention  should  be  made  of  the  Cafe- 


MANNERS  AND  CUSTOMS 


675 


I 


Gatti's,  in  The  Strand,  London 

Monico,  a  good  place  to  drop  in  for  a  coffee 
and  liqueur,  and  one  of  the  pioneers  of  the 
modern  restaurant;  Gatti's,  where  cafe 
filtre,  or  coffee  produced  by  the  filtration 
method,  is  a  specialty;  the  cosmopolitan 
Savoy  with  its  popular  tea  lounge  (teas, 
sixty  cents)  ;  the  Piccadilly  Hotel,  with  its 
Louis  XIV  restaurant  catering  to  refined 
and  luxurious  tastes;  the  Waldorf  Hotel, 
with  its  American  clientele  and  its  palm 
court  (teas,  thirty-six  cents)  ;  the  Cecil,  with 
its  palm  court  and  tea  balcony,  also  having 
a  special  attraction  for  Americans;  Lyons' 
Popular  Cafe  (iced  coffee,  twelve  cents) ; 
the  Trocadero  with  its  special  Indian  cur- 
ries prepared  by  native  cooks  once  each 
week;  the  Temple  Bar  restaurant,  an  at- 
tractive refectory  owned  by  the  semi- 
philanthropic  Trust-Houses,  Ltd.,  which 
runs  some  two  hundred  similar  establish- 
ments throughout  the  country,  serving 
alcoholic  drinks  but  stressing  non-intoxicat- 
ing beverages,  among  them  special  Mocha 
at  six  and  eight  cents  a  cup;  Slater's,  Ltd., 
catering  mostly  to  business  folk  in  the  city, 
there  being  about  a  score  of  restaurants 
and  tea  rooms  under  this  name  with  retail 
shops  attached :  the  British  Tea  Table  As- 
sociation, like  Slater's,  a  grown-up  sister 
of  the  olden  bun  shop  of  Queen  Victoria's 
day;  and  the  Kardomah  chain  of  cafes, 
where  one  is  reasonably  sure  to  get  a  satis- 
fying cup  of  coffee  and  a  cake. 

Supplementing  the  above,  Charles 
Cooper,  some  time  editor  of  the  Epicure 
and  The  Table,  has  prepared  for  this  work 


some  notes  on  the  evolution  of  the  old-time 
London  coffee  houses  into  the  present-day 
tea  rooms,  tea  lounges,  cafes,  and  restau- 
rants for  all  comers.  Mr,  Cooper  says  of 
the  transformation : 

The  old-fashioned  London  coffee-house  that 
flourished  forty  to  fifty  years  ago  has  within  the 
past  thirty  years  been  completely  extinguished 
by  the  modern  tea  rooms.  These  old-fashioned 
establishments  were  mainly  situated  in  and 
about  the  Strand  and  Fleet  Street,  the  neigh- 
borhood of  the  Inns  of  Court,  etc.  They  did 
not  sacrifice  much  to  outside  show  and  deco- 
ration. They  were  divided  into  boxes  or  pews, 
and  were  generally  speaking  clean  and  well 
ordered ;  the  prices  were  moderate,  and  the 
fare  simple  but  superlatively  good.  There  Is 
nothing  to  equal  it  now.  Chops  were  cooked 
in  the  grill.  The  tea  and  coffee  were  of  the 
best;  the  hams  were  York  hams  and  the  bacon 
the  best  Wiltshire ;  they  were  the  last  places 
where  real  buttered  toast  was  made.  The  art 
is  now  lost.  They  catered  exclusively  to  men ; 
and  their  clientele  consisted  of  journalists, 
artists,  actors,  men  from  the  Inns  of  Court, 
students,  et  al.  A  man  living  in  chambers 
could  breakfast  comfortably  at  one  of  these 
places,  and  read  all  the  morning  papers  at  his 
ease.  The  most  westerly  perhaps  of  the  old 
houses  was  Stone's  in  Panton  Street,  Hay- 
market,  which  has  recently  been  sold.  Groom's 
in  Fleet  Street,  where  a  good  cup  of  coffee  may 
still  be  had,  is  principally  frequented  by  bar- 
risters about  the  luncheon  hour.  They  are 
usually  men  who  lunch  lightly. 

The  tea  rooms,  as  I  have  said,  have  killed 
the  coffee  houses.  At  the  time  the  latter 
flourished,  there  were  no  facilities  in  London 
for  a  woman,  unattended  by  a  man,  to  obtain 
refreshment  beyond  a  weak  cup  of  tea  at  a 
few  confectioners'.  It  mattered  the  less  in  the 
days   when   the   girl   clerk   had   not   come   into 


Tea  Lounge  of  Hotel  Savoy.  London 


676 


ALL     ABOUT     COFFEE 


Lyons'  "Popular  Cafe,"  Piccadilly  —  One  of  Many  Operated  Under  That  Name 


Palm  Court  in  the  Waldorf  Hotel  —  A  Popular  Resort  for  American  Travelers 
TWO  POPULAR  PLACES  FOR.  COFFEE  IN  LONDON 


MANNERS  AND  CUSTOMS 


677 


beins-  When  the  field  of  women's  emploj'ment 
widened,  fresh  requirements  were  created  which 
the  coffee  shops  did  not  meet. 

The  tea  room  pioneers  in  London  were  the 
Aerated  Bread  Company,  familiarly  known  as 
the  A.  B.  C.  I  think  that  coffee  palaces  in 
provincial  industrial  centers  had  been  started ; 
but  as  part  of  a  temperance  propaganda,  to 
counteract  the  attractions  of  the  public  house. 
The  Aerated  Bread  Company  was  founded  about 
the  middle  of  the  past  century  for  the  manu- 
facture and  sale  of  bread  made  under  the  patent 
aerated  process  of  Dr.  Daugleish,  The  shops 
were  opened  for  the  sale  of  bread  to  the  public 
for  home  consumption ;  but  to  give  people  an 
opportunity  of  testing  it,  facilities  were  provided 
for  obtaining  a  cup  of  tea.  and  bread  and  but- 
ter, on  the  premises.  This  subsidiary  object 
became  in  a  short  time  the  most  important 
part  of  the  company's  business.  It  multi- 
plied its  shops,  enlarged  its  bill  of  fare  to 
include  cooked  foods ;  and  while,  nowadays,  the 
A.  B.  C.  and  its  rivals  cater  to  many  thousands 
daily,  I  doubt  if  anybody  ever  buys  a  loaf  to 
take  home. 

The  A.  B.  C.  has  many  competitors,  similar 
shops  having  been  started  by  Lyons,  Lipton, 
Slaters.  Express  Dairy  Company,  Cabin,  Pio- 
neer Cafes,   and  others.     Ex  uno  (Usee  omnes. 


Temple  Bar  Restaubant,  London 

The  fare  in  all  these  places  is  much  alike,  as 
are  the  general  equipment,  prices,  and  class  of 
customers.  They  cater  for  a  cheap  class  of 
business.  In  the  busy  centers  they  are  fre- 
quented mostly  by  young  men  and  girl  clerks 
and  shop  assistants,  by  women  in  town,  shop- 
ping, and  such-like  custom.  Young  employees 
oan  get  a  modest  mid-day  meal  at  a  price  to 
suit  a  shallow  pocket.  Before  the  war,  the 
ruling  price  for  a  cup  of  tea,  and  a  roll  and 
butter,  was  fourpence,  and  the  general  tariff 
in  proportion.  Nowadays,  the  war  has  run  up 
prices  at  least  fifty  percent.  During  the  worst 
times  of  food  control  the  fare  was  very  scanty 
and  very  unappetizing.  As  a  rule,  it  is  plain 
and  wholesome,  with  no  pretense  of  being 
recherche.  Tea  is  almost  always  very  good ; 
coffee  not  on  the  same  level.  Their  tea  rooms 
are  all  places  designed  for  small,  quick  meals; 
and  are  in  no  sense  lounges. 


Tea  Balcony  in  the  Hotel  Cecil,  London 

Lyons  have  refreshment-houses  of  different 
grades.  The  Popular  Caf§  is  a  cut  above  the 
tea  rooms,  and  so  are  the  Corner  Houses.  Two 
years  ago,  the  A.  B.  C.  amalgamated  with 
Buzard's,  an  old  established  confectioner's  in 
Oxford  Street  —  a  famous  cake-house. 

The  Monico  and  Gatti's  appeal  to  a  quite  dif- 
ferent class  from  that  catered  to  by  the  tea 
shops,  although  perhaps  not  to  what  Mrs.  Bof- 
fin would  call  ''the  highfliers  of  fashion"'  who 
frequent  the  lounges  of  the  fashionable  hotels. 
Gatti's  original  caf6  was  under  the  arches  of 
Charing  Cross  station. 

I  may  add  about  the  Savoy  that  it  was  an 
outcome  of  the  successful  Gilbert  and  Sullivan 


m 

^i 

t^ 

m 

H 

f| 

If 

i^ 

U'     «*r^'i 'iji.          . 

»s  — 

j^ 

1 
A. 

m 

Slater's,  a  Better-class  Chain  Shop,  London 


678 


ALL     ABOUT     COFFEE 


operas  of  the  seventies,  D'Oyly  Carte  having 
expended  some  of  his  profits  on  building  the 
hotel  on  a  piece  of  waste  ground  by  the  Savoy 
Theatre.  He  brought  over  M.  Ritz  from  Monte 
Carlo  to  manage  the  hotel  and  restaurant,  and 
Escoffier,  the  greatest  chef  of  the  day,  to  pre- 
side over  the  cuisine.  They  made  the  Savoy 
famous  for  its  dinners,  and  it  has  always  main- 
tained a  high  reputation,  although  Escoffier,  who 
has  now  retired,  ruled  later  at  the  Carlton ; 
and  Ritz,  at  the  hotel  in  Piccadilly  which  bears 
his  name. 

Bulgaria.  In  Bulgaria,  Arabian-Turk- 
ish methods  of  making  coffee  prevail.  The 
accompanying  illustration  shows  a  group 
in  a  caravan  of  the  faithful  on  the  annual 
pilgrimage  to  Mecca.  The  venerable  Mos- 
lem, who  is  ambitious  of  becoming  a  hadji, 
is  attended  by  his  guards,  distinguished  by 
their  fantastic  dress;  their  glittering 
golden-hafted  hanjars,  stuck  in  their  shawl 


St.  James's  Restaurant,  Piccadilly,  London 

girdles;  and  their  silver-mounted  pistols; 
the  grave  turban  replaced  by  a  many- 
tasseled  cap.  Their  accommodation  is  the 
stable  of  a  khan,  or  serai,  shared  with  their 
camel.  Their  refreshment  is  coffee,  thick, 
black  and  bitter,  served  by  the  khanji  in 
tiny  egg-shaped  cups. 

In  Denmark  and  Finland  coffee  is  made 
and  served  after  the  French  and  German 
fashion. 

France.  Were  it  not  for  the  almost  in- 
evitable high  roast  and  frequently  the  dis- 
concerting chicory  addition,  coffee  in 
France  might  be  an  unalloyed  delight  —  at 
least  this  is  how  it  appears  to  American 
eyes.  One  seldom,  if  ever,  tinds  coffee  im- 
properly brewed  in  France  —  it  is  never 
boiled. 

Second  only  to  the  United  States,  France 
consumes  about  two  million  bags  of  coffee 
annually.  The  varieties  include  coffee  from 


-  An  a.  B.  C.  Shop,  London 

the  East  Indies;  Mocha;  Haitian  (a  great 
favorite);  Central  American;  Colombian; 
and  Brazils. 

Although  there  are  many  wholesale  and 
retail  coffee  roasters  in  France,  home  roast- 
ing persists,  particularly  in  the  country 
districts.  The  little  sheet-iron  cylinder 
roasters,  that  are  hand-turned  over  an  iron 
box  holding  the  charcoal  fire,  find  a  ready 
sale  even  in  the  modern  department  stores 
of  the  big  cities.  In  any  village  or  city  in 
France  it  is  a  common  sight  on  a  pleasant 
day  to  find  the  householder  turning  his 


Halt  of  Caravanees  at  a  Sekaj.,  Bulgaria 


I 


MANNERS  AND  CUSTOMS 


679 


Cafe  de  la  Paix,  Where  Paris  Diu^ks  Its    Coffee    Outdoors 


roaster  on  the  curb  in  front  of  his  home. 
Emmet  G.  Beeson,  in  The  Tea  and  Coffee 
Trade  Journal  gives  us  this  vignette  of 
rural  coffee  roasting  in  the  south  of 
France : 

In  a  certain  town  in  the  soutti  of  France  I 
saw  an  old  man  with  an  outfit  a  little  larger 
than  the  home  variety,  a  machine  with  a  capa- 
citj'  of  about  ten  pounds.  Instead  of  a  cylinder 
in  which  to  roast  his  coffee,  he  had  perched  on 
a  sheet-iron  frame  a  hollow  round  ball  made  of 
sheet  iron.  In  the  top  of  this  ball  there  was  a 
little  slide  which  was  opened  by  the  means  of 
a  metal  tool.  In  the  sheet-iron  frame  he  had 
kindled  his  charcoal  fire.  Directly  in  front  of 
his  roaster  w-as  a  home-made  cooling  pan,  the 
sides  of  which  were  of  wood,  the  bottom  cov- 
ered with  a  fine  grade  of  wire  screening. 

On  this  particular  afternoon,  the  old  man  had 
taken  up  his  place  on  the  curb ;  and  a  big  black 
cat  had  taken  advantage  of  the  warmth  offered 
by  the  charcoal  fire  and  was  curled  up,  sleeping 
peacefully  in  the  pan  nearest  the  fire.  The 
old  man  paid  no  attention  to  the  cat.  but  went 
on  rotating  his  ball  of  coffee  and  puffing  away 
pensively  on  his  cigarette.  When  his  coffee  had 
become  blackened  and  burned,  and  blackened 
and  burned  it  was,  he  stopi^ed  rotating  the  ball, 
opened  the  slide  in  the  top,  turned  it  over,  and 
the  hot,  burned  coffee  rolled  out,  and  much  to 
his  delight,  on  the  sleeping  cat,  which  leaped 
out  of  the  pan  and  scampered  up  the  street  and 
into  a  hole  under  an  old  building. 

I  afterward  learned  that  this  old  fellow  made 
a  business  of  going  about  the  town  gathering 
up  coffee  froii!  the  houses  along  the  way  and 
roasting  it   at   a   few  sous  per  kilo,  much  the 


same    fashion   as   a   scissors   grinder   plies   his 
trade  in  an  American  town. 

Quite  a  few  grocers  roast  their  own  cof- 
fee in  crude  devices  much  like  those  de- 
scribed above ;  but  the  large  coffee  roasters 
are  gradually  eliminating  this  sort  of  pro- 
cedure. There  are  at  Havre  several  roast- 
ers, but  only  two  of  importance;  one  does 
a  business  of  about  two  hundred  and  fifty 
bags  a  day,  and  the  next  largest  has  a 
capacity  of  about  one  hundred  and  sixty 
bags  a  day.  In  Paris,  there  are  many  coffee 
roasters,  some  quite  large,  comparatively 
speaking,  one  having  a  capacity  of  about 
seven  hundred  and  fifty  bags  a  day.  Shop- 
keepers in  Paris  and  other  large  cities  roast 
their  coffee  fresh  daily.  The  machines  used 
are  of  the  ball  or  cylinder  type,  employing 
gas  fuel  and  turned  by  electric  power.  In- 
variablv  they  stand  where  they  may  be  seen 
from  the  street. 

Sample-roasters,  or  testing  tables,  in 
France  are  conspicuous  by  their  absence. 
Inquiry  regarding  this  subject  discloses 
that  coffee  is  sold  on  description ;  and  when 
the  French  trader  is  asked,  "How  do  you 
know  your  delivery  is  up  to  description 
so  far  as  cup  quality  is  concerned?"  he 
answers  that  this  is  arrived  at  from  the 
general  appearance  and  the  smiell  of  the 
coffee  in  the  green.  Perhaps  one  reason 
for  the  laxity  in  buying  cup  quality  may 


680 


ALL     ABOUT     COFFEE 


Sidewalk  Annex,  Cafe  de  la  Paix,  Paris,  with  Opera  House  in  Background  —  Summer  of  1918 


be  explained  by  the  fact  that  coffee  is 
roasted  very  high,  in  fact  it  is  burned 
almost  to  a  charred  state;  and  unless  the 
coffee  is  unusually  bad  in  character,  the 
burned  taste  eliminates  any  foreign  flavor 
it  may  have. 

The  fact  that  coffee  was,  and  still  is,  quite 
generally  sold  to  the  consumer  green,  ac- 
counts for  Central  American  coffees  taking 
first  place.  Style  takes  preference  over 
everything  else  when  it  comes  to  selling  to 
a  Frenchman. 

To  the  American  coffee  merchant  it 
seems  that  the  French  are  carrying  their 
artistic  tastes  to  an  unreasonable  extreme 
when  they  apply  them  to  coffee;  for  cof- 
fee is  grown  to  drink  and  not  to  look  at. 

Since  the  coming  of  the  large  coffee 
roaster,  who  delivers  roasted  coffee  right 
down  the  line  to  the  consumer,  Santos  has 
come  in  for  its  share  of  the  business.  The 
roasters  are  getting  good  results  out  of 
Santos  blends,  up  to  fifty  percent  and  sixty 
percent  with  West  Indian  and  Central 
American  coffees.  Rio  is  as  much  in  dis- 
favor in  France  as  it  is  in  the  United 
States,  perhaps  more  so. 

In  Brittany  the  demand  is  for  peaberry 
coffee,  no  matter  of  what  variety.  This 
comes  about  from  the  fact  that  the  people 
of  this  section  of  the   country  still  do  a 


great  deal  of  their  roasting  at  home,  and 
have  become  accustomed  to  the  use  of  pea- 
berry  coffee  because  they  do  not  have  the 
improved  hand  roasters,  and  still  do  a  great 
deal  of  their  roasting  in  pans  in  the  ovens 
of  their  stoves.  The  peaberry  coffee  rolls 
about  so  nicely  in  the  pan  that  they  get  a 
much  more  uniform  roast. 

Nearly  all  the  coffee  is  ground  at  home, 
which  is  not  a  bad  practise  for  the  con- 
sumer ;  but  perhaps  works  hardship  on  the 
dealer,  who  can  mix  some  grade  grinders 
into  his  blends  without  doing  them  any 
material  harm.  Where  coffee  mills  are  used 
in  the  stores,  they  are  of  the  Strong-Arm 
family  and  of  an  ancient  heritage.  To  get 
a  growl  out  of  the  grocer  in  France,  buy 
a  kilo  of  coffee  and  ask  him  to  grind  it. 

Package  coffee  and  proprietary  brands 
have  not  come  into  their  own  to  the  extent 
that  they  have  in  the  United  States,  al- 
though there  are  at  present  two  firms  in 
Paris  which  have  started  in  this  business 
and  are  advertising  extensively  on  bill- 
boards, in  street  ears,  and  in  the  subways. 
However,  most  coffee  is  still  sold  in  bulk. 
The  butter,  egg,  and  cheese  stores  of 
France  do  a  very  large  business  in  coffee. 
Prior  to  the  war  and  high  prices,  there 
were  some  very  large  firms  doing  a  premium 
business  in  coffee,  tea,  spices,  etc.     They 


MANNERS  AND  CUSTOMS 


681 


Cafe  de  la  Regence,  Paris,  Showing  the  Typical  Continental  Arrangement  of  Seals 


still  exist,  and  have  a  very  fine  trade ;  but 
since  the  high  prices  of  coffees  and  pre- 
miums, the  business  has  gone  down  very 
materially.  They  operate  by  the  wagon- 
route  and  solicitor  method,  just  as  some  of 
our  American  companies  do.  One  very 
large  firm  in  Paris  has  been  in  this  busi- 
ness for  more  than  thirty  years,  operating 
branches  and  wagons  in  every  town,  vil- 
lage, and  hamlet  in  France. 

The  consumption  of  coffee  is  increasing 
very  materially  in  France ;  some  say,  on 
account  of  the  high  price  of  wine,  others 
hold  that  coffee  is  simply  growing  in  favor 
with  the  people.  Among  the  masses, 
French  breakfast  consists  of  a  bowl  or  cup 
of  cafe  au  lait.  or  half  a  cup  or  bowl  of 
strong  black  coffee  and  chicory,  and  half  a 
cup  of  hot  milk,  and  a  yard  of  bread.  The 
workingman  turns  his  bread  on  end  and 
inserts  it  into  his  bowl  of  coffee,  allowing 
it  to  soak  up  as  much  of  the  liquid  as 
possible.  Then  he  proceeds  to  suck  this 
concoction  into  his  system.  His  approval 
is  demonstrated  by  the  amount  of  noise 
he  makes  in  the  operation. 

Among  the  better  classes,  the  breakfast 
is  the  same,  cafe  au  lait,  with  rolls  and 
butter,  and  sometimes  fruit.  The  brew  is 
prepared  by  the  drip,  or  true  percolator, 
method  or  by  filtration.  Boiling  milk  is 
poured  into  the  cup  from  a  pot  held  in 


one  hand  together  with  the  brewed  coffee 
from  a  pot  held  in  the  other,  providing  a 
simultaneous  mixture.  The  proportions 
vary  from  half-and-half  to  one  part  coffee 
and  three  parts  milk.  Sometimes,  the  serv- 
ice is  by  pouring  into  the  cup  a  little  cof- 
fee then  the  same  quantity  of  milk  and 
alternating  in  this  way  until  the  cup  is 
filled. 

Coffee  is  never  drunk  with  any  meal  but 
breakfast,  but  is  invariably  served  en  demi- 
tasse  after  the  noon  and  the  evening  meals. 
In  the  home,  the  usual  thing  after  luncheon 
or  dinner  is  to  go  into  the  salon  and  have 
your  demi-tasse  and  liqueur  and  cigarettes 
before  a  cosy  grate  fire.  A  Frenchman's 
idea  of  after-dinner  coffee  is  a  brew  that 
is  unusually  thick  and  black,  and  he  in^ 
variably  takes  with  it  his  liqueur,  no  matter 
if  he  has  had  a  cocktail  for  an  appetizer, 
a  bottle  of  red  wine  with  his  meat  course, 
and  a  bottle  of  white  wine  with  the  salad 
and  dessert  course.  When  the  demi-tasse 
comes  along,  with  it  must  be  served  his 
cordial  in  the  shape  of  cognac,  benedictine. 
or  creme  de  menthe.  He  can  not  conceive 
of  a  man  not  taking  a  little  alcohol  with 
his  after-dinner  coffee,  as  an  aid,  he  says, 
to  digestion. 

In  Normandy,  there  prevails  a  custom  in 
connection  with  coffee  drinking  that  is 
unique.     They  produce   in   this  province 


682 


ALL     ABOUT     COFFEE 


Cafe  de  la  Regence  in  1922 


great  quantities  of  what  is  known  as  cidre, 
made  from  a  particular  variety  of  apple 
grown  there  —  in  other  words,  just  plain 
hard  cider.  However,  they  distil  this  hard 
eider,  and  from  the  distillation  they  get  a 
drink  called  calvados. 

The  man  from  Normandy  takes  half  a 
cup  of  coffee,  and  fills  the  cup  with  cal- 
vados, sweetened  with  sugar,  and  drinks  it 
with  seeming  relish.  Ice-cold  coffee  will 
almost  sizzle  when  calvados  is  poured  into 
it.  It  tastes  like  a  corkscrew,  and  one  drink 
has  the  same  effect  as  a  crack  on  the  head 
with  a  hammer.  From  the  toddling  age 
up,  the  Norman  takes  his  calvados  and 
coffee. 

In  the  south  of  France  they  make  a  con- 
coction from  the  residue  of  grapes.  They 
boil  the  residue  down  in  water,  and  get  a 
drink  called  marc;  and  it  is  used  in  much 
the  same  way  as  the  Norman  in  the  north 
uses  calvados.  Then  there  is  also  the 
very  popular  summertime  drink  known  as 
mazagran,  which  in  that  region  means 
seltzer  water  and  cold  coffee,  or  what  Amer- 
icans might  call  a  coffee  highball. 

Making  coffee  in  France  has  been,  and 
always  will  be,  by  the  drip  and  the  filtra- 
tion methods.  The  large  hotels  and  cafes 
follow  these  methods  almost  entirely,  and 
so  does  the  housewife.  When  company 
comes,  and  something  unusual  in  coffee  is 
to  be  served,  Mr.  Beeson  says  he  has  known 
the  cook  to  drip  the  coffee,  using  a  spoon- 
ful of  hot  water  at  a  time,  pouring  it  over 


tightly  packed,  finely  ground  coffee,  allow- 
ing the  water  to  percolate  through  to  ex- 
tract every  particle  of  oil.  They  use  more 
ground  coffee  in  bulk  than  they  get  liquid 
in  the  cup,  and  sometimes  spend  an  hour 
producing  four  or  five  demi-tasses.  It  is 
needless  to  say  that  it  is  more  like  molasses 
than  coffee  when  ready  for  drinking. 

It  is  not  unusual  in  some  parts  of  France 
to  save  the  coffee  grounds  for  a  second  or 
even  a  third  infusion,  but  this  is  not  con- 
sidered good  practise. 

Von  Liebig's  idea  of  correct  coffee  mak- 
ing has  been  adapted  to  French  practise  in 
some  instances  after  this  fashion :  put  used 
coffee  grounds  in  the  bottom  chamber  of 
a  drip  coffee  pot.  Put  freshly  ground  cof- 
fee in  the  upper  chamber.  Pour  on  boil- 
ing water.  The  theory  is  that  the  old  cof- 
fee furnishes  body  and  strength,  and  the 
fresh  coffee  the  aroma. 

The  cafes  that  line  the  boulevards  of 
Paris  and  the  larger  cities  of  France  all 
serve  coffee,  either  plain  or  with  milk,  and 
almost  always  with  liqueur.  The  coffee 
house  in  France  may  be  said  to  be  the 
wine  house ;  or  the  wine  house  may  be  said 
to  be  the  coffee  house.  They  are  insep- 
arable. In  the  smallest  or  the  largest  of 
these  establishments  coffee  can  be  had  at 
any  time  of  day  or  night.  The  proprietor 
of  a  very  large  cafe  in  Paris  says  his  coffee 
sales  during  the  day  almost  equal  his  wine 
sales. 


MANNERS  AND  CUSTOMS 


683 


The  French,  young  or  old,  take  a  great 
deal  of  pleasure  in  sitting  out  on  the  side- 
walk in  front  of  a  cafe,  sipping  coffee  or 
liqueur.  Here  they  love  to  idle  away  the 
time  just  watching  the  passing  show. 

In  Paris,  there  are  hundreds  of  these 
cafes  lining  the  boulevards,  where  one  may 
sit  for  hours  before  the  small  tables  read- 
ing the  newspapers,  writing  letters,  or 
merely  idling.  In  the  morning,  from  eight 
to  eleven,  employees,  men-about-town, 
tourists,  and  provincials  throng  the  cafes 
for  cafe  an  lait.  The  waiters  are  coldly 
polite.  They  bring  the  papers,  and  brush 
the  table  —  twice  for  cafe  creme  (milk), 
and  three  times  for  cafe  complet  (with 
bread  and  butter). 

In  tlie  afternoon,  cafe  means  a  small 
cup  or  glass  of  cafe  noir,  or  cafe  nature. 
It  is  double  the  usual  amount  of  coffee 
dripped  by  percolator  or  filtration  device, 
the  process  consuming  eight  to  ten  minutes. 
Some  understand  cafe  noir  to  mean  equal 
parts  of  coffee  and  brandy  with  sugar  and 
vanilla  to  taste.  When  cafe  noir  is  mixed 
with  an  equal  quantity  of  cognac  alone  it 
becomes  cafe  gloria.  Cafe  mazagran  is 
also  much  in  demand  in  the  summer- 
time. The  coffee  base  is  made  as  for  cafe 
noir,  and  it  is  served  in  a  tall  glass  with 
water  to  dilute  it  to  one's  taste. 

Few  of  the  cafes  that  made  Paris  famous 
in  the  eighteenth  century  survive.  Among 
those  that  are  notable  for  their  coffee  serv- 
ice are  the  Cafe  de  la  Paix;  the  Cafe  de 


.   One  OF  TUB  Biard  Cafes 

There  are  about  200  of  these  coffee  and  wine  shops  in 
Paris.  They  are  frequented  mostly  by  laborers, 
clerks,  and  midinettes 


Restauiuvnt  Eeocope,  1922 
Successor  to  the  famous  "Cave"  of  1689 

la  Regence,  founded  in  1718 ;  and  the  Cafe 
Prevost,  noted  also  for  chocolate  after  the 
theater, 

GrERMANY,  Germany  originated  the 
afternoon  coffee  function  known  as  the 
kaffee-klatsch.  Even  today,  the  German 
family's  reunion  takes  place  around  the 
coffee  table  on  Sunday  afternoons.  In 
summer,  when  weather  permits,  the  family 
will  take  a  walk  into  the  suburbs,  and  stop 
at  a  garden  where  coffee  is  sold  in  pots. 
The  proprietor  furnishes  the  coffee,  the 
cups,  the  spoons  and,  in  normal  times,  the 
sugar,  two  pieces  to  each  cup ;  and  the 
patrons  bring  their  own  cake.  They  put 
one  piece  of  sugar  into  each  cup  and  take 
the  other  pieces  home  to  the  "canary  bird," 
meaning  the  sugar  bowl  in  the  pantry. 

Cheaper  coffee  is  served  in  some  gardens, 
which  conspicuously  display  large  signs  at 
the  entrance,  saying:  "Families  may  cook 
their  own  coffee  in  this  place,"  In  such 
a  garden,  the  patron  merely  buys  the  hot 
water  from  the  proprietor,  furnishing  the 
ground  coffee  and  cake  himself. 

"While  waiting  for  the  coffee  to  brew,  he 
may  listen  to  the  band  and  watch  the  chil- 
dren play  under  the  trees,  French  or 
Vienna  drip  pots  are  used  for  brewing. 

Every  city  in  Germany  has  its  cafes, 
spacious  places  where  patrons  sit  around 
small  tables,  drinking  coffee,  "with  or  with- 
out" turned  or  unturned,  steaming  or 
iced,  sweetened  or  unsweetened,  depending 
on  the  sugar  supply;  nibble,  at  the  same 
time,  a  piece  of  cake  or  pastry,  selected 
from  a  glass  pyramid;  talk,  flirt,  malign, 
yawn,  read,  and  smoke.    Cafes  are,  in  fact, 


684 


ALL     ABOUT     COFFEE 


public  reading  rooms.  Some  places  keep 
hundreds  of  daily  and  weekly  newspapers 
and  magazines  on  file  for  the  use  of  patrons. 
If  the  customer  buys  only  one  cup  of  cof- 
fee, he  may  keep  his  seat  for  hours,  and 
read  one  newspaper  after  another. 

Three  of  the  four  corners  of  Berlin's 
most  important  street  crossing  are  occupied 
by  cafes.  This  is  where  Unter  den  Linden 
and  Friedrichstrasse  meet.  On  the  south- 
west corner  there  is  Kranzler's  staid  old 
cafe,  a  very  respectable  place,  where  the 
lower  hall  is  even  reserved  for  non-smokers. 
On  the  southeast  corner  is  Cafe  Bauer, 
known  the  world  over.  However,  it  has 
seen  better  days.  It  has  been  outdistanced 
by  competitors.  On  the  northeast  corner 
is  the  Victoria,  a  new-style  place,  very 
bright,  and  less  staid.  There  no  room  is 
reserved  for  non-smokers,  for  most  of  the 
ladies,  if  they  do  not  themselves  smoke, 
will  light  the  cigars  for  their  escorts. 

Around  the  Potsdamer  Platz  there  is  a 
number  of  cafes.  Josty's  is  perhaps  the 
most  frequented  in  Berlin.  It  is  the  best 
liked  on  account  of  the  trees  and  terraces  in 
front.  Farther  to  the  west,  on  Kuerfuer- 
stendamm,  there  are  dozens  of  large  cafes. 


MoKNiNG  Coffee  in  Fro::<t  of  a  Boulevard  Cafe, 
Paris,  with  a  British  Background 


Intehioh,  Cafe  Bauer,  Berlin 

Some  of  the  cafes  are  meeting-places  for 
certain  professions  and  trades.  The  Ad- 
miral's cafe,  in  Friedrichstrasse,  for  in- 
stance, is  the  "artistes'  "  exchange.  All 
the  stage  folk  and  stars  of  the  tanbark  meet 
there  every  day.  Chorus  girls,  tumblers, 
ladies  of  the  flying  trapeze,  contortionists, 
and  bareback  riders  are  to  be  found  there, 
discussing  their  grievances,  denouncing 
their  managers,  swapping  their  diamonds, 
and  recounting  former  triumphs.  Cinema- 
makers  come  also  to  pick  out  a  cast  for  a 
new  film  play.  There  one  can  pick  out  a 
full  cast  every  minute. 

Then  there  is  the  Cafe  des  Westens  in 
Kuerfuerstendamm,  the  old  one,  where 
dreamers  and  poets  congregate.  It  is  called 
also  Cafe  Groessenwahn,  which  means  that 
persons  suffering  from  an  exaggerated  ego 
are  conspicuous  by  their  presence  and  their 
long  hair. 

At  almost  every  table  one  may  find  a 
poet  who  has  written  a  play  that  is  bound 
to  enrich  its  author  and  any  man  of  means 
who  will  put  up  the  money  to  build  a  new 
theater  in  which  to  produce  it. 

Saxony  and  Thuringia  are  proverbial 
hotbeds  of  coffee  lovers.  It  is  said  that  in 
Saxony  there  are  more  coffee  drinkers  to 
the  square  inch  and  more  cups  to  the  single 
coffee  bean  than  anywhere  else  upon  earth. 
The  Saxons  like  their  coffee,  but  seem  to  be 
afraid  it  may  be  too  strong  for  them.  So, 
when  over  their  cups,  they  always  make 
certain  they  can  see  bottom  before  raising 
the  steaming  bowl  to  the  lip. 

Von  Liebig's  method  of  making  coffee, 
whereby  three-fourths  of  the  quantity  to 
be  used  is  first  boiled  for  ten  or  fifteen 
minutes,  and  the  remainder  added  for  a 
six-minute  steeping  or  infusion,  is  relig- 
iously   followed    by    some    housekeepers. 


MANNERS  AND  CUSTOMS 


685 


I 


Cafe  Bauek,  Unteb  den  Linden,  Berlin 

Von  Liebig  advocated  coating  the  bean 
with  sugar.  In  some  families,  fats,  eggs, 
and  egg-shells  are  used  to  settle  and  to 
clarify  the  beverage. 

Coffee  in  Germany  is  better  cooked 
(roasted)  and  more  scientifically  prepared 
than  in  many  other  European  countries. 
In  recent  years,  during  the  World  War 
and  since,  however,  there  has  been  an  amaz- 
ing increase  in  the  use  of  coffee  substitutes, 
so  that  the  German  cup  of  coffee  is  not  the 
pure  delight  it  was  once. 

Greece.  Coffee  is  the  most  popular  and 
most  extensively  used  non-alcoholic  bev- 
erage in  Greece,  as  it  is  throughout  the 
Near  East.  Its  annual  per  capita  consump- 
tion there  is  about  two  pounds,  two-thirds 
of  the  supply  coming  via  Austria  and 
France,  Brazil  furnishing  direct  the  bulk 
of  the  remaining  third. 

Coffee  is  given  a  high  or  city  roast,  and 
is  used  almost  entirely  in  powdered  form. 
It  is  prepared  for  consumption  principally 
in  the  Turkish  demi-tasse  way.  Finely 
ground  coffee  is  used  even  in  making  ordi- 
nary table,  or  breakfast,  coffee.  In  private 
houses  the  cylindrical  brass  hand-grinders, 
manufactured  in  Constantinople,  are 
mostly  used.  In  many  of  the  coffee  houses 
in  the  villages  and  country  towns  through- 
out Greece  and  the  Levant,  a  heavy  iron 
pestle,  wielded  by  a  strong  man,  is  em- 
ployed to  pulverize  the  grains  in  a  heavy 
stone  or  marble  mortar;  while  the  poorer 
homes  use  a  small  brass  pestle  and  mortar, 
also  manufactured  in  Turkey.  ^ 

In  his  The  Greeks  of  the  Present  Day , 
Edmond  Francois  Valentin  About  says : 

The  coffee  which  is  drunk  In  all  the  Greek 
houses  rather  astonishes  the  travellers  who 
have  neither  seen  Turkey  nor  Algeria.    One  is 

•New  York,  185T   (p.  276). 


surprised  at  finding  food  in  a  cup  in  which  one 
expected  drink.  Yet  you  get  accustomed  to  this 
coffee-broth  and  end  by  finding  it  more  savourj-, 
lighter,  more  perfumed,  and  especially  more 
wholesome,  than  the  extract  of  coffee  you  drink 
in  France. 

Then  About  gives  the  recipe  of  his  serv- 
ant Petros,  who  is  "the  first  man  in  Athens 
for  coffee": 

The  grain  is  roasted  without  burning  it;  it 
is  reduced  to  an  impalpable  powder,  either  in 
a  mortar  or  in  a  very  close-grained  mill.  Water 
is  set  on  the  fire  till  it  boils  up ;  it  is  taken  off 
to  throw  in  a  spoonful  of  coffee,  and  a  spoon- 
ful of  pounded  sugar  for  each  cup  it  is  intended 
to  make ;  it  is  carefully  mixed ;  the  coffee  pot 
is  replaced  on  the  fire  until  the  contents  seem 
ready  to  boil  over;  it  is  taken  off,  and  set  on 
again ;  lastly  it  is  quickly  poured  into  the  cups. 
Some  coffee  drinkers  have  this  preparation 
boiled  as  many  as  five  times.  Petros  makes  a 
rule  of  not  putting  his  coffee  more  than  three 
times  on  the  fire.  He  takes  care  in  filling  the 
cups  to  divide  impartially  the  coloured  froth 
which  rises  above  the  coffee  pot ;  it  is  the  kai- 
maki  of  the  coffee.  A  cup  without  kaimaki  is 
disgraced. 

When  the  coffee  is  poured  out  you  are  at 
liberty  to  drink  it  boiling  and  muddy,  or  cold 
and  clear.  Real  amateurs  drink  it  without 
waiting.  Those  who  allow  the  sediment  to 
settle  down,  do  not  do  so  from  contempt,  for 
they  afterwards  collect  it  with  the  little  finger 
and  eat  it  carefully. 

Thus  prepared,  coffee  may  be  taken  without 
inconvenience  ten  times  a  day :  five  cups  of 
French  coffee  could  not  be  druHk  with  impunity 
every  day.  It  is  because  the  coffee  of  the  Turks 
and  the  Greeks  is  a  diluted  tonic,  arid  ours  is 
a  concentrated  tonic. 

I  have  met  at  Paris  many  people  who  took 
their  coffee  without  sugar,  to  imitate  the  Ori- 
entals. I  think  I  ought  to  give  them  notice, 
between  ourselves,  that  in  the  great  coffee- 
houses of  Athens,  sugar  is  always  presented 
with  the  coffee ;  in  the  khans  and  second-rate 
coffee-houses,  it  is  served  already  sugared;  and 
that  at  Smyrna  and  Constantinople,  it  has 
everywhere  been  brought  to  me  sugared. 


■■■■■■iniy^dMi  - 

5? 

X^     Kranzlcr         '.     1 

H  \ 

r 

wm 

pi 

Kbanzleb's,  Unteb  den  Linden,  Berlin 


686 


ALL     ABOUT     COFFEE 


Italy,  In  Italy  coffee  is  roasted  in  a 
wholesale  and  retail  way  as  well  as  in  the 
home.  French,  German,  Dutch,  and  Ital- 
ian machines  are  used.  The  full  city,  or 
Italian,  roast  is  favored.  There  are  cafes 
as  in  France  and  other  continental  coun- 
tries, and  the  drink  is  prepared  in  the 
French  fashion.  For  restaurants  and 
hotels,  rapid  filtering  machines,  first  de- 
veloped by  the  French  and  Italians,  are 
used.  In  the  homes,  percolators  and  filtra- 
tion devices  are  employed. 

The  De  Mattia  Brothers  have  a  process 
designed  to  conserve  the  aroma  in  roasting. 
The  Italians  pay  particular  attention  to 
the  temperature  in  roasting  and  in  the  cool- 
ing operation.  There  is  considerable  glaz- 
ing, and  many  coffee  additions  are  used. 

Like  the  French,  the  Italians  make  much 
of  cafe  au  lait  for  breakfast.  At  dinner, 
the  cafe  noir  is  served. 

Cafes  of  the  French  school  are  to  be 
found  along  the  Corso  in  Rome,  the  To- 
ledo in  Naples,  in  the  Galleria  Vittorio 
Emanuel  and  the  Piazza  del  Duomo  in 
Milan,  and  in  the  arcades  surrounding  the 
Piazza  de  San  Marco  in  Venice,  where 
Florian's  still  flourishes. 

Netherlands.  In  the  Netherlands,  too, 
the  French  cafe  is  a  delightful  feature  of 
the  life  of  the  larger  cities.  The  Dutch 
roast  coffee  properly,  and  make  it  well. 
The  service  is  in  individual  pots,  or  in 
demi-tasses  on  a  silver,  nickle,  or  brass 
tray,  and  accompanied  by  a  miniature 
pitcher  containing  just  enough  cream 
(usually  whipped),  a  small  dish  about  the 
size  of  an  individual  butter  plate  holding 
three  squares  of  sugar,  and  a  slender  glass 
of  water.  This  service  is  universal;  the 
glass  of  water  always  goes  with  the  coffee. 
It  is  the  one  sure  way  for  Americans  to 
get  a  drink  of  water.  It  is  the  custom  in 
Holland  to  repair  to  some  open-air  cafe  or 
indoor  coffee  house  for  the  after-dinner  cup 
of  coffee.  One  seldom  takes  his  coffee  in 
the  place  where  he  has  his  dinner.  These 
cafes  are  many,  and  some  are  elaborately 
designed  and  furnished.  One  of  the  most 
interesting  is  the  St.  Joris  at  the  Hague, 
furnished  in  the  old  Dutch  style.  The 
approved  way  of  making  coffee  in  Hol- 
land is  the  French  drip  method. 

Norway  and  Sweden.  French  and  Ger- 
man influences  mark  the  roasting,  grinding, 
preparing,  and  serving  of  coffee  in  Norway 
and  Sweden,  Generally  speaking,  not  so 
much  chicory  is  used,  and  a  great  deal  of 


whipped  cream  is  employed.  In  Norway, 
the  boiling  method  has  many  followers.  A 
big  (open)  copper  kettle  is  used.  This  is 
filled  with  water,  and  the  coffee  is  dumped 
in  and  boiled.  In  the  poorer-class  country 
homes,  the  copper  kettle  is  brought  to  the 
table  and  set  upon  a  wooden  plate.  The 
coffee  is  served  directly  from  the  kettle  in 
cups.  In  better-class  homes,  the  coffee  is 
poured  from  the  kettle  into  silver  coffee 
pots  in  the  kitchen,  and  the  silver  coffee 
pots  are  brought  to  the  table.  The  only 
thing  approaching  coffee  houses  are  the 
"coffee  rooms"  which  are  to  be  found  in 
Christiania.  These  are  small  one-room  af- 
fairs in  which  the  plainer  sorts  of  foods, 
such  as  porridge,  may  be  purchased  with 
the  coffee.  They  are  cheap,  and  are  largely 
frequented  by  the  poorer  class  of  students, 
who  use  them  as  places  in  which  to  study 
while  they  drink  their  coffee. 

In  Russia  and  Switzerland,  French  and 
German  methods  obtain.  Russia,  however, 
drinks  more  tea  than  coffee,  which  by  the 
masses  is  prepared  in  Turkish  fashion, 
when  obtainable.  Usually,  the  coffee  is 
only  a  cheap  "substitute."  The  so-called 
cafe  a  la  Russe  of  the  aristocracy,  is  strong 
black  coffee  fiavored  with  lemon.  Another 
Russian  recipe  calls  for  the  coffee  to  be 
placed  in  a  large  punch  bowl,  and  covered 
with  a  layer  of  finely  chopped  apples  and 
pears ;  then  cognac  is  poured  over  the  mass, 
and  a  match  applied. 

Roumania  and  Servia  drink  coffee  pre- 
pared after  either  the  Turkish  or  the 
French  style,  depending  on  the  class  of  the 
drinker  and  where  it  is  served.  Substitutes 
are  numerous. 

In  Spain  and  Portugal  the  French  type 
of  cafe  flourishes  as  in  Italy.  In  Madrid, 
some  delightful  cafes  are  to  be  found 
around  the  Puerto  del  Sol,  where  coffee 
and  chocolate  are  the  favorite  drinks.  The 
coffee  is  made  by  the  drip  process,  and  is 
served  in  French  fashion. 

Coffee  Manners  and  Customs  in  North 


The  introduction  of  coffee  and  tea  into 
North  America  effected  a  great  change  in 
the  meal-time  beverages  of  the  people. 
Malt  beverages  had  been  succeeded  by 
alcoholic  spirits  and  by  cider.  These  in 
turn  were  supplanted  by  tea  and  coffee. 

Canada.  In  Canada,  we  find  both 
French  and  English  influences  at  work  in 
the  preparation  and  serving  of  the  bever- 


MANNERS  AND  CUSTOMS 


687 


age;  ••  Yankee"  ideas  also  have  entered 
from  across  the  border.  Some  years  back 
(about  1910)  A.  McGill,  chief  chemist  of 
the  Canadian  Inland  Revenue  Department, 
suggested  an  improvement  upon  Baron  von 
Liebig's  method,  whereby  Canadians  might 
obtain  an  ideal  cup  of  coffee.  It  was  to 
combine  two  well-known  methods.  One  was 
to  boil  a  quantity  of  ground  coffee  to  get 
a  maximum  of  body  or  soluble  matter. 
The  other  was  to  percolate  a  similar  quan- 
tity to  get  the  needed  caffeol.  By  combin- 
ing the  decoction  and  the  infusion,  a  fin- 
ished beverage  rich  in  body  and  aroma 
might  be  had.  Most  Canadians  continue 
to  drink  tea,  however,  although  coffee  con- 
sumption is  increasing. 

Mexico.  In  Mexico,  the  natives  have  a 
custom  peculiarly  their  own.  The  roasted 
beans  are  pounded  to  a  powder'  in  a  cloth 
bag  which  is  then  immersed  in  a  pot  of  boil- 
ing water  and  milk.  The  vaquero,  however, 
pours  boiling  water  on  the  powdered  coffee 
in  his  drinking  cup,  and  sweetens  it  with  a 
brown  sugar  stick. 

Among  the  upper  elasses  in  Mexico  the 
following  interesting  method  obtains  for 
making  coffee : 

Roast  one  pound  until  the  beans  are  brown 
inside.  Mix  with  the  roasted  coffee  one  tea- 
spoonful  of  butter,  one  of  sugar,  and  a  little 
brandy.  Cover  with  a  thick  cloth.  Cool  for 
one  hour ;  then  grind.  Boil  one  quart  of  water. 
When  boiling,  put  in  the  coffee  and  remove  from 
fire  immediately.  Let  it  stand  a  few  hours,  and 
strain  through  a  flannel  bag,  and  keep  in  a 
stone  jar  until  required  for  use ;  then  heat 
quantity  required. 


Sidewalk  Cafe,  Lisbon 

United  States.  In  no  country  has  there 
been  so  marked  an  improvement  in  coffee 
making  as  in  the  United  States.  Although 
in  many  parts,  the  national  beverage  is  still 
indifferently  prepared,  the  progress  made 
in  recent  years  has  been  so  great  that  the 
friends  of  coffee  are  hopeful  that  before 
long  it  may  be  said  truly  that  coffee  mak- 
ing in  America  is  a  national  honor  and  no 
longer  the  national  disgrace  that  it  was  in 
the  past. 

Already,  in  the  more  progressive 
homes,  and  in  the  best  hotels  and  res- 
taurants, the  coffee  is  uniformly  good,  and 
the  service  all  that  it  should  be.  The  Amer- 
ican breakfast  cup  is  a  food-beverage  be^ 
T^artse-f^f  the  addlLlona  of  miiK  or  cream  and 
su'gar;  and  unhke~STrnTpF7~this  sam"e~g^- 
ercrCs  cup  serves  agani  as  a  necessary  part 


These  Cofi-ee  Tots  Are  Widely  Used  in  Sweden  fob  Boiling  Coffee 


Left,  copper  pot  with  wooden  handle  and  Iron  legs  designed  to  stand  In  the  coals  —  Center,  glass-globe  pot, 
for  stove  use,  enclosed  in  felt-lined  brass  cosey  —  Right,  hand-made  hammercd-brass  kettle  for  stove  use 


688 


ALL     ABOUT     COFFEE 


The  Coffee  Room  of  the  Hotel  Adolphus,  Dallas,  Texas 


Day-and-Night    Coffee  Room,  Rice  Hotel,  Houston,  Texas 


HOTEL  BARS  REPLACED  BY  COFFEE  ROOMS  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES 

One  effect  of  prohibition   has  been   to   lead   many   hotels   to  feature   their   coffee   service,   bringing  back    the 
modern  type  of  coffee  room  illustrated  above 


MANNERS  AND  CUSTOMS 


689 


of  thejnoonday  and  evenins^  meals  for  most 
people.  _ 

The  important  and  indispensable  part 
that  sugai-~plays  in  the  make-Up  ot  tiie 
American~x?nTroi  coifee  was  ably  set  forth 
by  Fred  Mason,  vice-president  of  the 
American  ~Siigar  Refining  Oo.,  wlien  he 
said :— "  '  — — — — 

The  cofifee  cup  and  the  sugar  bowl  are  insepa- 
rable table  companions.  Most  of  us  did  not 
realize  this  until  the  war  came,  with  its  at- 
tendant restrictions  on  everything  we  did,  and 
we  found  that  the  sugar  bowl  had  disappeared 
from  all  public  eating  places.  No  longer  could 
we  make  an  unlimited  number  of  trips  to  the 
sugar  bowl  to  sweeten  our  coffee ;  but  we  had 
t)0  be  content  with  what  was  doled  out  to  us 
with  scrupulous  care  —  a  quantity  so  small  at 
times  that  it  gave  only  a  hint  of  sweetness  to 
our  national  beverage. 

Then  it  was  that  we  really  appreciated  how 
indispensable  the  proper  amount  of  sugar  was 
to  a  good,  savory  cup  of  coffee,  and  we  missed 
it  as  much  as  we  would  seasoning  from  certain 
cooked  foods.  Secretly  we  consoled  ourselves 
with  the  promise  that  if  the  day  ever  came 
when  sugar  bowls  made  their  appearance  once 
inore,  filled  temptingly  with  the  sweet  granules 
that  were  "gone  but  not  forgotten,"  we  should 
put  an  extra  lump  or  an  additional  spoonful  of 
sugar  into  our  cofifee  to  help  us  forget  the  joy- 
less war  days. 

Since  sugar  is  so  necessary  to  our  enjoyment 
of  this  popular  beverage,  it  is  obvious  that  a 
considerable  part  of  all  the  sugar  we  consume 
must  find  its  way  into  the  national  cofifee  cup. 
The  stupendous  amount  of  40,000,000,000  cups 
of  cofifee  is  consumed  in  this  country  each  year. 
Taking  two  teaspoonfuls  or  two  lumps  as  a  fair 
average  per  cup,  we  find  that  about  800,000,000 
pounds  of  sugar,  almost  one-tenth  of  our  total 
annual  consumption,  are  required  to  sweeten 
Uncle  Sam's  cofifee  cup.  This  is  specially  sig- 
nificant when  one  considers  that,  with  the  single 
exception  of  Australia,  the  United  States  con- 
sumes more  sugar  per  capita  than  any  country 
on  earth. 

Sugar  adds  high  food  value  to  the  .stimula- 
tive virtues  of  coffee.  The  beverage  itself 
stimulates  the  mental  and  physical  powers, 
while  the  sugar  it  contains  is  fuel  for  the  body 
and  furnishes  it  with  energy.  Sugar  is  such  a 
concentrated  food  that  the  amount  used  by  the 
average  person  in  two  cups  of  cofifee  is  enough 
to  furnish  the  system  with  more  energy  than 
could  be  derived  from  40  oysters  on  the  half- 
shell. 

Sin£e.4l£ohibition,  the  average  citizen  is 
drinking  one  hundred  more  cups  of  cog.ee 
a  year  than  he  did  m  the  old  days;  and  a 
good  part  of  the  increase  is  attributed  to 
newly  formed  habits  of  drinking  coffee  be- 
tween  meals,  at  soda  fountainSj  in  ^pa  and 
coffee__shops,  at  hotels,  and  even  in  the 
homes!    TiTothel*  Words,  the  Increase  is  due 

■f  "Thp  Coffep  Cup  and  the  Sagar  Bowl."  Tea  and 
Coffee  Trade  Jour.,  1921   (vol.  x!i :  no.  6:  p.  809). 


to  coffee  drinking  that  directly  takes  the 
place  of  malt  and  spirituous  liquors.  There 
have  come  into  being  the  hotel  coffee  room ; 
the  custom  of  afternoon  coffee  drinking; 
and  free  coffee-service  in  many  factories^ 
stores,  and  offices. 

In  colonial  days,  must  or  ale  first  gave 
way  to  tea,  and  then  to  coffee  as  a  break- 
fast beverage.  The  Boston  ''tea  party" 
clinched  the  case  for  coffee;  but  in  the 
meantime,  coffee  was  more  or  less  of  an 
after-dinner  function,  or  a  between-meals 
drink,  as  in  Europe.  In  Washington's 
time,  dinner  was  usually  served  at  three 
o'clock  in  the  afternoon,  and  at  informal 
dinner  parties  the  company  "sat  till  sun- 
set—  then  coffee." 

In  the  early  part  of  the  nineteenth  cen- 
tury, coffee  became  firmly  intrenched  as 
the  one  great  American  breakfast  beverage ; 
and  its  security  in  this  position  would  seem 
to  be  unassailable  for  all  time. 
f  Today,  all  classes  in  the  United  States 
begin  and  end  the  day  with  coffee.  In  the 
home,  it  is  prepared  by  boiling,  infusion  or 
steeping,  percolation,  and  filtration ;  in  the 
hotels  and  restaurants,  by  infusion,  percola- 
tion, and  filtration.  The  best  practise 
favors  true  percolation  (French  drip),  or 
filtration. 

Steeping  coffee  in  American  homes  (an 
English  heirloom)  is  usually  performed  in 
a  china  or  earthenware  jug.  The  ground 
coffee  has  boiling  water  poured  upon  it 
until  the  jug  is  half  full.  The  infusion  is 
stirred  briskly.  Next,  the  jug  is  filled  by 
pouring  in  the  remainder  of  the  boiling 
water,  the  infusion  is  again  stirred,  then 
permitted  to  settle,  and  finally  is  poured 
through  a  strainer  or  filter  cloth  before 
serving. 

When  a  pumping  percolator  or  a  double 
glass  filtration  device  is  used,  the  water 
may  be  cold  or  boiling  at  the  beginning  as 
the  maker  prefers.  Some  wet  the  coffee 
with  cold  water  before  starting  the  brew- 
ing process. 

For  genuine  percolator,  or  drip  coffee, 
French  and  Austrian  china  drip  pots  are 
mostly  employed.  The  latest  filtration  de- 
vices are  described  in  chapter  XXXIV. 

The  Creole,  or  French  market,  coffee  for 
which  New  Orleans  has  long  been  famous 
is  made  from  a  concentrated  coffee  extract 
prepared  in  a  drip  pot.  First,  the  ground 
coffee  has  poured  over  it  sufficient  boiling 
water  thoroughly  to  dampen  it.  after  which 
further  additions  of  boiling  water,  a  table- 
spoonful  at  a  time,  are  poured  upon  it  at 


690 


ALL     ABOUT     COFFEE 


five  minute  intervals.  The  resulting  ex- 
tract is  kept  in  a  tightly  corked  bottle  for 
making  cafe  au  lait  or  cafe  noir  as  required. 
A  variant  of  the  Creole  method  is  to  brovm 
three  tablespoonfuls  of  sugar  in  a  pan,  to 
add  a  cup  of  water,  and  to  allow  it  to 
simmer  until  the  sugar  is  dissolved ;  to  pour 
this  liquid  over  ground  coffee  in  a  drip  pot, 
to  add  boiling  water  as  required,  and  to 
serve  black  or  with  cream  or  hot  milk,  as 
desired. 

In  New  Orleans,  coffee  is  often  served  at 
the  bedside  upon  waking,  as  a  kind  of  early 
breakfast  function. 

The  Philadelphia  Centennial  Exposition 
of  1876  served  to  introduce  the  Vienna  cafe 
to  America.  Fleisehmann's  Vienna  Cafe 
and  Bakery  was  a  feature  of  our  first  inter- 
national exposition.  Afterward,  it  was 
transferred  to  Broadway,  New  York,  where 
for  many  years  it  continued  to  serve  excel- 
lent coffee  in  Vienna  style  next  door  to 
Grace  Church. 

The  opportunity  is  still  waiting  for  the 
courageous  soul  who  will  bring  back  to  our 
larger  cities  this  Vienna  cafe  or  some 
Americanized  form  of  the  continental  or 
sidewalk  cafe,  making  a  specialty  of  tea, 
coffee,  and  chocolate. 

The  old  Astor  House  was  famous  for  its 
coffee  for  many  years,  as  was  also  Dorlon's 
from  1840  to  1922. 

Members  of  the  family  of  the  late  Colonel 
Roosevelt  began  to  promote  a  Brazil  coffee- 
house enterprise  in  New  York  in  1919.  It 
was  first  called  Cafe  Paulista,  but  it  is  now 
known  as  the  Double  R  coffee  house,  or 
Club  of  South  America,  with  a  Brazil 
branch  in  the  40  's  and  an  Argentine  branch 
on  Lexington  Avenue.  Coffee  is  made  and 
served  in  Brazilian  style ;  that  is,  full  city 
roast,  pulverized  grind,  filtration  made ; 
service,  black  or  with  hot  milk.  Sand- 
wiches, cakes,  and  crullers  are  also  to  be 
had. 

One  of  New  York's  newest  clubs  is  known 
as  the  Coffee  House.  It  is  in  West  Forty- 
fifth  Street,  and  has  been  in  existence  since 
December,  1915,  when  it  was  opened  with 
an  informal  dinner,  at  which  the  late 
Joseph  H.  Choate,  one  of  the  original  mem- 
bers, outlined  the  purpose  and  policies  of 
the  club. 

The  founders  of  the  Coffee  House  were 
convinced  —  as  the  result  of  the  high  dues 
and  constantly  increasing  formality  and 
discipline  in  the  social  clubs  in  New  York 
—  that  there  was  need  here  for  a  moderate- 
priced    eating   and   meeting   place,   which 


should  be  run  in  the  simplest  possible^way 
and  with  the  least ^ppssiBle  expense.    "*' 

At-  the: beginning  of  its  career,  the  club 
framed,  adopted,  and  has  ^ince  lived  up  to, 
a  most  ii^lorm^l  constitutjon:/ -No  officers, 
no  tliveries,  no  tips,  no  set  .speeches,  no 
charge  accounts,  no  RULES."   ^    • 

The  membership  is  made  up,  for  the  most 
part,  af  painters,  writers,  sculptors,  archi- 
tects, actors,  and,  members  of  other  profes- 
sions. 3Iembers  are  expected  to  pay  cash 
for  all  orders.  There,  are  no  proposals  of 
candidates  fpr  rilembership.  The  club  in- 
vites to  join  it  those  whom  it  believes  to  be 
in  sympathy  with  the  ideals  of  its  founders. 

The  method  of  preparing  coffee  for  indi- 
vidual service  in  the  Waldorf-Astoria,  New 
York,  which  has  been  adopted  by  many 
first-class  hotels  and  restaurants  that  do  not 
serve  urn-made  coffee  exclusively,  is  the 
French  drip  plus  careful  attention  to  all 
the  contributing  factors  for  making  coffee 
in  perfection,  and  is  thus  described  by  the 
hotel's  steward: 

A  French  china  drip  coffee  pot  is  used.  It 
is  Ivept  in  a  warm  heater ;  and  when  the  coffee 
is  ordered,  tliis  pot  is  scalded  with  hot  water. 
A  level  tablespoonful  of  coffee,  ground  to  about 
the  consistency  of  granulated  sugar,  is  put  into 
the  upper  and  percolator  part  of  the  coffee  pot. 
Fresh  boiling  water  is  then  poured  through  the 
coffee  and  allowed  to  percolate  into  the  lower 
part  of  the  pot.  The  secret  of  success,  accord- 
ing to  our  experience,  lies  in  having  the  coffee 
freshly  ground,  and  the  water  as  near  the  boil- 


Britannia  Coffee  Pot  from  Which  Abraham 
Lincoln  Was  Often  Served  in  New  Salem   , 
Its  story  is  told  on,  page  614 


MANNERS  AND  CUSTOMS 


691 


Coffee  Service,  Hotel  Astok,  New  York 

ing  point  as  possible,  all  during  the  process. 
For  this  reason,  the  coffee  pot  should  be  placed 
on  a  gas  stove  or  range.  The  quantity  of  cof- 
fee can  be  varied  to  suit  individual  taste.  We 
use  about  ten  percent  more  ground  coffee  for 
after  dinner  cups  than  we  do  for  breakfast 
Our  coffee  is  a  mixture  of  Old  Government  Java 
and  Bogota. 

C.  Scotty,  chef  at  the  Hotel  Ambassador, 
New  York,  thus  describes  the  method  of 
making  coffee  in  that  hostelry : 

In  the  first  place,  at  is  essential  that  the 
coffee  be  of  the  finest  quality  obtainable;  sec- 
ondly, better  results  are  obtained  by  using  the 
French  filterer,  or  coffee  bag. 

Twelve  ounces  of  .coffee  to  one  gallon  of  water 
for  breakfast. 

Sixteen  ounces  of  coffee  to  one  gallon  of  water 
for  dinner. 

Boiling  water  should  be  poured  over  the  coffee 
sifoned.  and  put  back  several  times.  We  do 
not  allow  the  coffee  grounds  to  remain  in  the 
urn  for  more  than  fifteen  to  twenty  minutes 
at  any  time. 

The  coffee  service  at  the  best  hotels  is 
usually  in  silver  pots  and  pitchers,  and  in- 
cludes the  freshly  made  coffee,  hot  milk  or 
cream  (sometimes  both),  and  domino  sugar. 

Within  the  last  year  (1921)  many  of  the 
leading  hotels,  and  some  of  the  big  railway 
systems,  have  adopted  the  custom  of  serv- 
ing free  a  demi-tasse  of  coffee  as  soon  as  the 
guest-traveler  seats  himself  at  the  break- 
fast table  or  in  the  dining  car.  "Small 
blacks,"  the  waiters  call  them,  or  "coffee 
cocktails,"  accordiiig  to  their  fancy. 

•At  the  Pequot  coffee  house,  91  Water 

Street,  New  York,  a  noon-day  restaurant  in 

the  heart  of  the  coffee  tradfe,  an  attempt  has 

Lbeen  made  to  introduce  something  of  the 

rold-time  coffee  house  atmosphere. 

The  Childs  chain  of  restaurants  recently 
began  printing  on  its  menus,  in  brackets 
before  each  item,  the  number  of  calories  as 
computed  by  an  expert  in  nutrition.    Coffee 


with  a  mixture  of  milk  and  cream  is  cred- 
ited with  eighty-five  calories,  a  well  known 
coffee  substitute  with  seventy  calories,  and 
tea  with  eighteen  calories.  The  Childs 
chain  of  92  restaurants  serves  40,000,000 
cups  of  coffee  a  year,  made  from  375  tons 
of  ground  coffee,  and  figuring  an  average 
of  53  cups  to  the  pound. 

The  Thompson  chain  of  one  hundred  res- 
taurants serves  160.000  cups  of  coffee  per' 
day,  or  more  than  58,000,000  cups  per  year. 

Cofee  Customs  in  South  America 
Argentine.  Coffee  is  very  popular  as  a 
beverage  in  Argentina.  Cafe  con  leche  — 
coffee  with  milk,  in  which  the  proportion  of 
coffee  may  vary  from  one-fourth  to  two- 
thirds —  is  the  usual  Argentine  breakfast 
beverage.  A  small  cup  of  coffee  is  generally 
taken  after  meals,  and  it  is  also  consumed 
to  a  considerable  extent  in  cafes. 

Brazil.  In  Brazil  every  one  drinks  cof- 
fee and  at  all  hours.  Cafes  making  a  spe- 
cialty of  the  beverage,  and  modeled  after 
continental  originals,  are  to  be  found 
a-plenty  in  Rio  de  Janeiro,  Santos,  and 
other  large  cities.  The  custom  prevails  of 
roasting  the  beans  high,  almost  to  car- 
bonization, grinding  them  fine,  and  then 
boiling  after  the  Turkish  fashion,  percolat- 
ing in  French  drip  pots,  steeping  in  cold 
water  for  several  hours,  straining  and  heat- 
ing the  liquid  for  use  as  needed,  or  filtering 
by  means  of  conical  linen  sacks  suspended 
from  wire  rings. 

The  Brazilian  loves  to  frequent  the  cafes 
and  to  sip  his  coffee  at  his  ease.    He  is  very 
continental  in  this  respect.    The  wide-open 
doors,  and  the  round-topped  marble  tables, 
with    their    small    cups    and    saucers    set 
around  a  sugar  basin,  make  inviting  pic- 
tures.   The  customer  pulls  toward  him  one 
of  the  cups  and  immediately  a  waiter  comes 
and  fills  it  with  coffee,  the  charge  for  which 
is  about  three  cents.    It  is  a  common  thing 
for  a  Brazilian  to  consume  one  dozen  to 
two  dozen  cups  of  black  coffee  a  day.     If 
one  pays  a  social  visit,  calls  upon  the  presi- 
dent of  the  Republic,  or  any  lesser  official, 
or  on  a  business  acquaintance,  it  is  a  signal 
for  an  attendant  to  serve  coffee.     Cafe  au 
lait  is  popular  in  the  morning ;  but  except 
for  this  service,  milk  or  cream  is  never  used. 
In  Brazil,  as  in  the  Orient,  coffee  is  a  sym- 
bol of  hospitality. 

In  Chile,  Paraguay  and  Uruguay,  very 
much  the  same  customs  prevail  of  making 
and  serving  the  beverage. 


692 


ALL     ABOUT     COFFEE 


Coffee  Drinking  in  Other  Countries 
In  Australia  and  New  Zealand,  Eng- 
lish methods  for  roasting,  grinding,  and 
making  coffee  are  standard.  The  beverage 
usually  contains  thirty  to  forty  percent 
chicory.  In  the  bush,  the  water  is  boiled  in 
a  billy  can.  Then  the  powdered  coffee  is 
added ;  and  when  the  liquid  comes  again  to 
a  boil,  the  coffee  is  done.  In  the  cities, 
practically  the  same  method  is  followed. 
The  general  rule  in  the  antipodes  seemfe  to 
be  to  "let  it  come  to  a  boil",  and  then  to 
remove  it  from  the  fire. 


In  Cuba  the  custom  is  to  grind  the  coffee 
fine,  to  put  it  in  a  flannel  sack  suspended 
over  a  receiving  vessel,  and  to  pour  cold 
water  on  it.  This  is  repeated  many  times, 
until  the  coffee  mass  is  well  saturated.  The 
first  drippings  are  repoured  over  the  bag. 
The  final  result  is  a  highly  concentrated  ex- 
tract, which  serves  for  making  cafe  au  lait, 
or  cafe  noir,  as  desired. 

In  Martinique,  coffee  is  made  after  the 
French  fashion.  In  Panama,  French  and 
American  methods  obtain;  as  also  in  the 
Philippines. 


Chapter  XXXVI  jf^"^ 


•h< 


PREPARATION       OF       THE       UNIVERSAL       BEVERAGE 


-^The  evolution  of  grinding  and  brewing  methods  —  Coffee  was  first  a 
food,  then  a  wine,  a  medicine,  a  devotional  refreshment,  ft  confection, 
and  finally  a  beverage  —  Brewing  by  boiling,  infusion,  percola- 
tion, and  filtration  —  Coffee  making  ^n  Europe  in^the  nineteenth 
century —^^Eurly  coffee  making^  in  ^  the  UniiedStaie^^^  Latest 
develbpmenfs  in  better  coffee  making  —  Various  aspects  of  scientific 
toffee  brewing  —  Advice  to  CQ^:ee  lo^m^^-mihoyii^t'6\J^i^^ 
h^uriOjmgJc&it  in  perf^ctionT" 


I 


THE  coffee  drink  has  had  a  curious 
evolution.  It  began^not  as  a  drink, 
but  as  a  food  ration.  Its  first  use 
as  a  drink  was  as  a  kind  of  wine.  Civiliza- 
tion knew  it  first  as  a  medicine.  At  one 
stage  of  its  development,  before  it  became 
generally  accepted  as  a  liquid  refreshment, 
the  berries  found  favor  as  a  confection.  As 
a  beverage,  its  use  probably  dates  back 
about  si^x  hundred  years. 

The  protein  and  fat  content,  that  is,  the 
food  value,  of  coffee,  so  far  as  civilized 
man  is  concerned,  is  an  absolute  waste. 
The  only  constituents  that  are  of  value  are 
those  that  are  water  soluble,  and  can  be 
extracted  readily  with  hot  water.  When 
coffee  is  properly  made,  as  by  the  drip 
method,  either  by  percolation  or  filtration, 
the  ground  coffee  comes  in  contact  with  the 
hot  water  for  only  a  few  minutes;  so  the 
major  portion  of  the  protein,  which  is  not 
only  practically  insoluble,  but  coagulates  on 
heating,  remains  in  the  unused  part  of  the 
coffee,  the  grounds.  The  coffee  bean  con- 
tains a  large  percent  of  protein  —  fourteen 
percent.  By  comparing  this  figure  with 
twenty-one  percent  of  protein  in  peas, 
twenty-three  percent  in  lentils,  twenty-six 
percent  in  beans,  twenty-four  percent  in 
peanuts,  about  eleven  percent  in  wheat 
flour,  and  less  than  nine  percent  in  white 


bread,  we  learn  how  much  of  this  valuable 
food  stuff  is  lost  with  the  coffee  grounds  \ 

Though  civilized  man  (excepting  the  in- 
habitants of  the  Isle  de  Groix  off  the  coast 
of  Brittany)  does  not  use  this  protein  con- 
tent of  coffee,  in  certain  parts  of  Africa  it 
has  been  put  to  use  in  a  very  ingenious 
and  effective  manner  "from  time  immemo- 
rial" down  to  the  present  day.  James 
Bruce,  the  Scottish  explorer,  in  his  travels 
to  discover  the  source  of  the  Nile  in  1768  - 
73,  found  that  this  curious  use  of  the  cof- 
fee bean  had  been  known  for  centuries. 
He  brought  back  accounts  and  specimens 
of  its  use  as  a  food  in  the  shape  of  balls 
made  of  grease  mixed  with  roasted  coffee 
finely  ground  between  stones. 

Other  writers  have  told  how  the  Galla,  a 
wandering  tribe  of  Africa  —  and  like  most 
wandering  tribes,  a  warlike  one  —  find  it 
necessary  to  carry  concentrated  food  on 
their  long  marches.  Before  starting  on 
their  marauding  excursions,  each  warrior 
equips  himself  with  a  number  of  food  balls. 
These  prototypes  of  the  modern  food  tablet 
are  about  the  size  of  a  billiard  ball,  and 
consist  of  pulverized  coffee  held  in  shape 
with  fat.  One  ball  constitutes  a  day's  ra- 
tion; and  although  civilized  man  might 
find  it  unpalatable,  from  the  purely  phys- 

*Frankel,  P.  Hulton,  Ph.D.  Tea  and  Coffee  Trade 
Jour.,  1917  (vol.  xxxli:  p.  142). 


693 


694 


ALL    ABOUT     COFFEE 


iological  standpoint  it  is  not  only  a  con- 
centrated and  efficient  food,  but  it  also  has 
the  additional  advantage  of  containing  a 
valuable  stimulant  in  the  caffein  content 
which  spurs  the  warrior  on  to  maximum 
effort.  And  so  the  savage  in  the  African 
jungle  has  apparently  solved  two  problems ; 
the  utilization  of  coffee 's  protein,  and  the 
production  of  a  concentrated  food. 

Further  research  shows  that  perhaps  as 
early  as  800  A.D.  this  practise  started  by 
crushing  the  whole  ripe  berries,  beans  and 
hulls,  in  mortars,  mixing  them  with  fats, 
and  rounding  them  into  food  balls.  Later, 
the  dried  berries  were  so  used.  The  in- 
habitants of  Groix,  also,  thrive  on  a  diet 
that  includes  roasted  coffee  beans. 

About  900,  a  kind  of  aromatic  wine  was 
made  in  Africa  from  the  fermented  juice 
of  the  hulls  and  pulp  of  the  ripe  berries '. 

Payen  says  that  the  first  coffee  drinkers 
did  not  think  of  roasting  but,  impressed  by 
the  aroma  of  the  dried  beans,  they  put  them 
in  cold  water  and  drank  the  liquor  satu- 
rated with  their  aromatic  principles. 
Crushing  the  raw  beans  and  hulls,  and 
steeping  them  in  water,  was  a  later  im- 
provement. 

It  appears  that  boiled  coffee  (the  name 
is  anathema  to-day)  was  invented  about 
the  year  1000  A.D.  Even  then,  the  beans 
were  not  roasted.  We  read  of  their  use  in 
medicine  in  the  form  of  a  decoction.  The 
dried  fruit,  beans  and  hulls,  were  boiled  in 
stone  or  clay  cauldrons.  The  custom  of 
using  the  sun-dried  hulls,  without  roasting, 
still  exists  in  Africa,  Arabia,  and  parts  of 
southern  Asia.  The  natives  of  Sumatra 
neglect  the  fruit  of  the  coffee  tree  and  use 
the  leaves  to  make  a  tea-like  infusion.  Jar- 
din  relates  that  in  Guiana  an  agreeable  tea 
is  made  by  drying  the  young  buds  of  the 
coffee  tree,  and  rolling  them  on  a  copper 
plate  slightly  heated.  In  Uganda,  the  na- 
tives eat  the  raw  berries ;  from  bananas  and 
coffee  they  make  also  a  sweet,  savory  drink 
which  is  called  menghai. 

About  1200,  the  practise  was  common  of 
making  a  decoction  from  the  dried  hulls 
alone.  There  followed  the  discovery  that 
roasting  improved  the  flavor.  Even  today, 
this  drink  known  as  Sultan  or  Sultana  cof- 
fee, cafe  a  la  sultane,  or  kisher,  continues 
in  favor  in  Arabia.  Credit  for  the  inven- 
tion of  this  beverage  has  been  wrongfully 
given  by  various  French  writers  to  Doctor 

^  See  chapter  III. 


Eably  Coffee  Making  in  Persia 

Showing  leather  bag  for  green  beans,  roasting  plate, 
grinder,  boiler,  and  serving  cups 

Andry,  director  of  the  Faculty  of  Medicine 
in  Paris.  Dr.  Andry  had  his  own  recipe 
for  making  cafe  a  la  sultane,  which  was  to 
boil  the  coffee  hulls  for  half  an  hour.  This 
gave  a  lemon-colored  liquid  which  was 
drunk  with  a  little  sugar. 

The  Oriental  procedure  was  to  toast  the 
hulls  in  an  earthenware  pot  over  a  charcoal 
fire,  mixing  in  with  them  a  small  quantity 
of  the  silver  skins,  and  turning  them  over 
until  they  were  slightly  parched.  The 
hulls  and  silver  skins,  in  proportions  of 
four  to  one,  were  then  thrown  into  boiling 
water  and  well  boiled  again  for  at  least  a 
half-hour.  The  color  of  the  drink  had 
some  resemblance  to  the  best  English  beer, 
La  Roque  assures  us,  and  it  required  no 
sweetening,  "there  being  no  bitterness  to 
correct."  This  was  still  the  coffee  drink 
of  the  court  of  Yemen,  and  of  people  of 
distinction  in  the  Levant,  when  La  Roque 
and  his  fellow-travelers  made  their  cele- 
brated voyage  to  Arabia  the  Happy  in 
1711  - 13. 

Some  time  in  the  thirteenth  century,  the 
practise  began  of  roasting  the  dried  beans, 
after  the  hulling  process.  This  was  done 
first  in  crude  stone  and  earthenware  trays, 
and  later  on  metal  plates,  as  described  in 
chapter  XXXIV.  A  liquor  was  made  from 
boiling  the  whole  roasted  beans.     The  next 


PREPARING  THE  BEVEHAGE 


69^ 


step  was  to  pound  the  roasted  beans  to  a 
powder  with  a  mortar  and  pestle;  and  the 
decoction  was  then  made  by  throwing  the 
powder  into  boiling  water,  the  drink  being 
swallowed  in  its  entirety,  grounds  and  all. 
It  was  a  decoction  for  the  next  four 
centuries. 

When  the  long-handled  Arabian  metal 
boiler  made  its  appearance  in  the  early 
part  of  the  sixteenth  century,  the  method 
of  preparation  and  service  had  much  im- 
proved. The  Arabs  and  the  Turks  had 
made  it  a  social  adjunct,  and  its  use  was 
no  longer  confined  to  the  physicians  and 
the  churchmen.  It  had  become  a  stimulat- 
ing refreshment  for  all  the  people ;  and  at 
the  same  time,  the  Arabians  and  the  Turks 
had  developed  a  coffee  ceremony  for  the 
higher  classes  which  was  quite  as  wonder- 
ful as  the  tea  ceremony  of  Japan. 

The  common  early  method  of  prepara- 
tion throughout  the  Levant  was  to  steep 
the  powder  in  water  for  a  day,  to  boil  the 
liquor  half  away,  to  strain  it,  and  to  keep 
it  in  earthen  pots  for  use  as  wanted.  In 
the  sixteenth  century,  the  small  coffee 
boiler,  or  ibrik,  caused  the  practise  to  be 
more  of  an  instantaneous  affair.  The  cof- 
fee was  ground,  and  the  powder  was 
dropped  into  the  boiling  water,  to  be  with- 
drawn from  the  fire  several  times  as  it 
boiled  up  to  the  rim.  While  still  boiling, 
cinnamon  and  cloves  were  sometimes  added 
before  pouring  the  liquid  off  into  the  find- 
jans,  or  little  china  cups,  to  be  served  with 
the  addition  of  a  drop  of  essence  of  amber. 
Later,  the  Turks  jadded  sugar  during  the 
boiling  process. 

From  the  first  simple  uncovered  ibrik 
there  was  developed,  about  the  middle  of 
the  seventeenth  century,  a  larger-size  cov- 
ered coffee  boiler,  the  forerunner  of  the 
modern  combination  brewing  and  serving 
pot.  This  was  a  copper-plated  kettle  pat- 
terned after  the  oriental  ewer  with  a  broad 
base,  bulbous  body,  and  narrow  neck. 
After  having  poured  into  it  one  and  a  half 
times  as  much  water  as  the  dish  (cup)  in 
which  the  drink  was  to  be  served  would 
hold,  the  pot  was  placed  on  a  lively  fire. 
When  the  water  boiled,  the  powdered  cof- 
fee was  tossed  into  the  pot;  and,  as  the 
Ifquid  boiled  up,  it  was  taken  from  the  fire 
and  returned,  probably  a  dozen  times. 
Then  the  pot  was  placed  in  hot  ashes  to 
permit  the  grounds  to  settle.  This  done, 
the  drink  was  served.    Dufour,  describing 


this  process  as  practised  in  Turkey   and 
Arabia,  says: 

One  ought  not  to  drink  coffee,  but  suck  it 
in  as  hot  as  one  can.  In  order  not  to  be 
burned,  it  is  not  necessary  to  place  the  tongue 
in  the  cup  but  hold  the  edge  against  the 
tongue  with  the  lips  above  and  below  it,  forcing 
it  so  little  that  the  edges  do  not  bear  down,  and 
then  suck  in ;  that  is  to  say,  swallow  it  sip  by 
sip.  If  one  is  so  delicate  he  can  not  stand  the 
bitterness,  he  can  temper  it  with  sugar.  It  is  a 
mistake  to  stir  the  coffee  in  the  pot,  the  grounds 
being  worth  nothing.  In  the  Levant  it  is  only 
the  scum  of  the  people  who  swallow  the 
grounds. 

La  Roque  says: 

Tlie  Arabians,  when  they  take  their  coffee  off 
the  fire,  immediately  wrap  the  vessel  in  a  wet 
cloth  which  fines  the  liquor  instantly,  makes  it 
cream  at  the  top  and  occasion  a  more  pungent 
steam,  which  they  take  great  pleasure  in  snuff- 
ing up  as  the  coffee  is  pouring  into  the  cups. 
They,  like  all  other  nations  of  the  East,  drink 
their  coffee  without  sugar. 

Some  of  the  Orientals  afterward  modi- 
fied the  early  coffee-making  procedure  by 
pouring  the  boiling  water  on  the  powdered 
coffee  in  the  serving  cups.  They  thus  ob- 
tained "a  foaming  and  perfumed  bev- 
erage," says  Jardin,  ''to  which  we  (the 
French)  could  not  accustom  ourselves  be- 
cause of  the  powder  which  remains  in  sus- 
pension. Nevertheless,  clarified  coffee  may 
be  obtained  in  the  Orient.  In  Mecca,  in 
order  to  filter  it,  they  strain  it  through 
stopples  of  dried  herbs,  put  into  the  open- 
ing of  a  jar." 

Sugar  seems  to  have  been  introduced  into 
coffee  in  Cairo  about  1625.  Veslingius 
records  that  the  coffee  drinkers  in  Cairo's 
three  thousand  coffee  houses  **did  begin  ^o 
put  sugar  in  their  coffee  to  correct  the  bit- 
terness of  it",  and  that  "others  made 
sugar  plums  of  the  coffee  berries".  This 
coffee  confection  later  appeared  in  Paris, 
and  about  the  same  time  (1700)  at  Mont- 
pellier  was  introduced  a  coffee  water,  "a 
sort  of  rosa-folis  of  an  agreeable  scent  that 
has  somewhat  of  the  smell  of  coffee 
roasted."  These  novelties,  however,  were 
designed  to  please  only  "the  most  nice  lov- 
ers of  coffee";  for  ennui  and  boredom  de- 
manded new  sensations  then  as  now. 

Boiling  continued  the  favorite  method  of 
preparing  the  beverage  until  well  into  the 
eighteenth  century.  Meanwhile,  we  leam 
from  English  references  that  it  was  the 
custom  to  buy  the  beans  of  apothecaries,  to 
dry  them  in  an  oven,  or  to  roast  them  in 
an  old  pudding  dish  or  frying  pan  before 


696 


ALL     ABOUT     COFFEE 


pounding  them  to  a  powder  with  mortar 
and  pestle,  to  force  the  powder  through  a 
lawn  sieve,  and  then  to  boil  it  with  spring 
water  for  a  quarter  of  an  hour.  The  fol- 
lowing recipe  from  a  rare  book  published 
in  London,  1662,  details  the  manner  of 
making  coffee  in  the  seventeenth  century: 

Coffee  Making  in    1662 

To  make  the  drink  that  is  now  much  used 
called  coffee. 

The  coffee-berries  are  to  be  bought  at  any 
Druggist,  about  three  shillings  the  pound ;  take 
what  quantity  you  please,  and  over  a  charcoal 
fire,  in  an  old  pudding-pan  or  frying-pan,  keep 
them  always  stirx-ing  until  they  be  quite  black, 
and  when  you  crack  one  with  your  teeth  that  it 
is  black  within  as  it  is  without ;  yet  if  you 
exceed,  then  do  you  wast6  the  Oyl,  which  only 
makes  the  drink ;  and  if  less,  then  will  it  not  de- 
liver its  Oyl,  which  must  make  the  drink ;  and 
if  you  should  continue  fire  till  it  be  white,  it 
will  then  make  no  coffee,  but  only  give  you  its 
salt.  The  Berry  prepared  as  above,  beaten  and 
forced  through  a  Lawn  Sive,  is  then  fit  for  use. 

Take  clean  water,  and  boil  one-third  of  it 
away  what  quantity  soever  it  be,  and  it  is  fit 
for  use.  Take  one  quart  of  this  prepared 
Water,  put  in  it  one  ounce  of  your  prepared 
coffee,  and  boil  it  gently  one-quarter  of  an  hour, 
and  it  is  fit  for  your  use ;  drink  one-quarter  of 
a  pint  as  hot  as  you  can  sip  it. 

In  England,  about  this  time,  the  coffee 
drink  was  not  infrequently  mixed  with 
sugar  candy,  and  even  with  mustard.  In 
the  coffee  houses,  however,  it  was  usually 
served  black,  without  sugar  or  milk. 

About  1660,  Nieuhoff,  the  Dutch  ambas- 
sador to  China,  was  the  first  to  make  a 
trial  of  coffee  with  milk  in  imitation  of  tea 
with  milk.  In  1685,  Sieur  Monin,  a  cele- 
brated doctor  of  Grenoble,  France,  first 
recommended  cafe  mi-  lait  as  a  medicine. 
He  prepared  it  thus:  Place  on  the  fire  a 
bowl  of  milk.  When  it  begins  to  rise, 
throw  in  to  it  a  bowl  of  powdered  coffee,  a 
bowl  of  moist  sugar,  and  let  it  boil  for 
some  time. 

We  read  that  in  1669  "coffee  in  France 
was  a  hot  black  decoction  of  muddy 
grounds  thickened  with  syrup." 

Angelo  Rambaldi  in  his  Anibrosia  Ara- 
hica  thus  describes  coffee  making  in  Italy 
and  other  European  countries  in  1691 : 

Description    of    the    Vase    for    Making    the 

Decoction,  Dose  of  Powder  and  of  the 

Water  Necessary  and  Time   of 

Boiling  It. 

Two  such  vessels  having  a  large  paunch  to 
reach  the  fire,  two  others  with  long  necks  and 
narrow,  with  a  cover  to  restrain  their  spirituous 
and  volatile  particles  which  when   thrown  ofiC 


by  the  heat  are  easily  lost.  These  vessels  are 
called  Ibriq  in  Arabia.  They  are  made  of 
copper  —  coated  with  white  outside  and  inside. 
We,  who  do  not  possess  the  art  of  making  them 
should  select  an  earth  vitriate,  sulphate  of 
copper,  or  any  other  material  adapted  for 
kitchen  ware :  it  might  even  be  of  silver. 

The  quantity  of  water  and  powder  has  no 
certain  rule,  by  reason  of  the  difference  of  our 
nature  and  tastes,  and  each  one  after  some 
experience  will  use  his  own  judgment  to  adjust 
it  to  his  desire  and  liking. 

Maronita  infused  two  ounces  of  powder  in 
three  litres  of  water.  Cotovico  in  his  voyage 
to  Jerusalem  affirms  that  he  has  observed  six 
ounces  of  the  former  to  20  litres  of  the  latter, 
boiled  until  it  was  reduced  to  half  the  quantity. 
Thevenot  asserts  that  the  Turks  in  three  cups 
of  water  are  contented  with  a  good  spoonful  of 
powder.  I  have  observed  however  that  in 
Africa,  France  and  England,  into  about  six 
ounces  of  water  (which  with  them  is  one  cup) 
a  dram  of  the  powder  is  infused  and  this  agrees 
with  my  taste  —  but  I  have  wished  at  times  to 
change  the  dose. 

Others  put  the  water  into  the  vase  and  when 
it  begins  to  boil  add  the  powder,  but  because 
it  is  full  of  spirit  at  the  first  contact  with  the 
heat  it  rises  and  boils  over  the  edge  of  the  vase. 
Take  it  away  from  the  fire  till  the  boiling 
ceases,  then  put  it  on  the  fire  again  and  let  it 
stay  a  short  time  boiling  with  the  cover  on : 
Stand  it  on  warm  ashes  until  it  settles,  after 
which  slowly  pour  a  little  of  the  decoction  into 
an  earthen  vessel,  or  one  of  porcelain  or  any 
other  kind,  as  hot  as  can  be  borne,  and  drink 
a  sip  •,  if  it  pleases  your  taste,  add  a  portion  of 
cardamom,  cloves,  nutmeg  or  cinnamon,  and 
dissolve  a  little  sugar  in  the  water ;  yet  because 
these  substances  will  alter  the  taste  of  this 
simple,  they  are  not  prized  by  many  experts. 

Modern  Arabia,  Bassa,  Turkey,  the  Great 
Orient,  those  who  are  travelling  or  in  the  army, 
infuse  the  powder  in  cold  water,  and  then 
boiling  it  as  directed  above,  beaf  witness  to  its 
efficacy.  All  times  are  opportune  to  take  this- 
salutary  drink  (beverage).  Among  the  Turks 
are  those  who  take  it  even  by  night,  nor  is 
there  a  bvisiness  meeting  or  conversation,  where 
coffee  is  not  taken.  Among  the  Great  it  would 
be  accounted  an  incivility,  if  with  smoke,  coffee 
were  not  offered :  and  no  one  in  the  day  is 
ashamed  to  frequent  the  bazaars  where  it  is 
sold.  When  I  was  in  London,  that  city  of  three 
million  people,  there  were  taverns  for  its  special 
use.  It  is  a  great  stimulant.  The  sober  take  it 
to  invigorate  the  stomach.  The  scrofulous  hated 
it  because  they  thought  it  stirred  up  the  bile  on 
an  empty  stomach  —  but  experience  proving  the 
contrary  enjoy  it  as  much  as  others. 

In  1702,  coffee  in  the  American  colonies 
was  being  used  as  a  refreshment  between 
meals,  "like  spirituous  liquors." 

It  was  in  1711  that  the  infusion  idea  in 
coffee  making  appeared  in  France.  It 
came  in  the  form  of  a  fustian  (cloth)  bag 
which  contained  the  ground  coffee  in  the 
coffee  maker,  and  the  boiling  water  was 
poured  over  it.     This  was  a  decided  French 


PREPARING  THE  BEVERAGE 


697 


novelty,  but  it  made  slow  headway  in  Eng- 
land and  America,  where  some  people  were 
still  boiling  the  whole  roasted  beans  and 
drinking  the  liquor. 

In  England,  as  early  as  1722,  there  arose 
a  conscientious  objector  to  boiled  coffee  in 
the  person  of  Humphrey  Broadbent,  a  cof- 
fee merchant  w^ho  wrote  a  treatise  on  the 
True  Way  of  Preparing  and  Making 
Coffee ',  in  which  he  condemned  the  ''silly" 
practise  of  making  coffee  by  "boiling  an 
ounce  of  the  powder  in  a  quart  of  water," 
then  common  in  the  London  coffee  houses, 
and  urging  the  infusion  method.  He  fa- 
vored the  following  procedure : 

Put  the  quantity  of  powder  you  intend,  into 
your  pot  (which  should  be  either  of  stone,  or 
silver,  being  much  better  than  tin  or  copper, 
which  takes  from  it  much  of  its  flavour  and 
goodness)  then  pour  boiling-hot  water  upon  the 
aforesaid  powder,  and  let  it  stand  to  infuse 
five  minutes  before  the  fire.  This  is  an  excellent 
way,  and  far  exceeds  the  common  one  of  boiling, 
but  whether  you  prepare  it  by  boiling  or  this 
way.  it  will  sometimes  remain  thick  and 
troubled,  after  it  is  made,  except  you  pour  in  a 
spoonful  or  two  of  cold  water,  which  immediate- 
ly precipitates  the  more  heavy  parts  at  the 
bottom,  and  makes  it  clear  enough  for  drinking. 

Some,  make  coffee  with  spring  water,  but  it  is 
not  so  good  as  river,  or  T/iawes-water.  because 
the  former  makes  it  hard,  and  distasteful,  and 
the  other  makes  it  smooth  and  pleasant,  lying 
soft  on  the  stomach.  If  you  have  a  desire  to 
make  good  coffee  in  your  families,  I  cannot 
conceive  how  you  can  put  less  than  two  ounce-^ 
of  powder  to  a  quart,  or  one  ounce  to  a  pint  of 
water;  some  put  two  ounces  and  a  quarter. 

By  1760,  the  decoction,  or  boiling,  meth- 
od in  France  had  been  generally  replaced 
by  the  infusion,  or  steeping,  method. 

In  1763,  Donmartin,  a  tinsmith  of  St. 
Bendit,  France,  invented  a  coffee  pot,  the 
inside  of  which  was  "filled  by  a  fine  sack 
put  in  in  its  entirety,"  and  which  had  a 
tap  to  draw  the  coffee.  Many  inventions 
to  make  coft'ee  sans  ebullition  (without  boil- 
ing) appeared  in  France  about  this  time; 
but  it  was  not  until  1800  that  De  Belloy's 
pot,  employing  the  original  French  drip 
method,  appeared,  signaling  another  step 
forward  in  coffee  making  —  percolation, 

De  Belloy  and  Count  Rumford 

De  Belloy's  pot  was  probably  made  of 
iron  or  tin,  afterward  of  porcelain;  and  it 
has  served  as  a  model  for  all  the  percola- 
tion devices  that  followed  it  for  the  next 
hundred  years.     It  does  not  seem  to  have 

'  Broadbent,  Humphrey.  The  Domestick  Coffee  Man, 
London,  1722. 


been  patented,  and  not  much  is  known  of 
the  inventor.  About  this  period,  it  was 
the  common  practise  in  England  to  boil 
coffee  in  the  good  old-fashioned  way,  and 
to  "fine"  (clarify)  it  with  isinglass.  This 
moved  Count  Rumford  (Benjamin  Thomp- 
son), an  American-British  scientist,  then 
living  in  Paris,  to  make  a  study  of  scien- 
tific coffee-making,  and  to  produce  an  im- 
proved drip  device  known  as  Rumford 's 
percolator.  He  has  been  generally  credited 
with  the  invention  of  the  percolator;  but, 
as  pointed  out  in  a  previous  chapter,  this 
honor  seems  to  be  De  Belloy's  and  not 
Rumford 's. 

Count  Rumford  embodied  his  observa- 
tions and  conclusions  in  a  verbose  essay  en- 
titled Of  the  excellent  qualities  of  coffee 
and  the  art  of  making  it  in  the  highest  per- 
fection, published  in  London  in  1812.  In 
this  treatise  he  describes  and  illustrates  the 
Rumford  percolator. 

Brillat-Savarin,  the  famous  French  gas- 
tronomist, who  also  wrote  on  coffee  in  his 
VJme  Meditation,  said  of  the  De  Belloy 
pot: 

I  have  tried,  in  the  course  of  time,  all 
methods  and  of  all  those  which  have  been 
suggested  to  me  up  to  today  (1825)  and  with  a 
full  knowledge  of  the  matter  in  hand,  I  prefer 
the  De  Belloy  method,  which  consists  of  pour- 
ing the  boiling  water  upon  the  coffee  which  has 
been  placed  in  the  vessel  of  porcelain  or  silver, 
pierced  with  very  small  holes.  I  have  attempted 
to  make  coffee  in  a  boiler  at  high  pressure, 
but  I  have  had  as  a  result  a  coffee  full  of 
extracts  and  bitterness  which  would  scrape  the 
throat  of  a  Cossack. 

Brillat-Savarin  had  something  also  to  say 
on  the  subject  of  grinding  coffee,  his  con- 
clusion being  that  it  was  "better  to  pound 
the  coffee  than  to  grind  it." 

He  refers  to  M.  Du  Belloy,  archbishop 
of  Paris,  "who  loved  good  things  and  was 
quite  an  epicure,"  and  says  that  Napoleon 
showed  him  deference  and  respect.  This 
may  have  been  Jean  Baptiste  De  Belloy, 
who,  according  to  Didot,  was  born  in  1709 
and  died  in  1808,  and,  it  is  thought  likely, 
was  the  inventor  of  the  De  Belloy  pot. 

Count  Rumford  was  born  in  Woburn, 
Mass.,  in  1753,  He  was  apprenticed  to  a 
storekeeper  in  Salem  in  1766.  He  became 
an  object  of  distrust  among  the  friends  of 
the  cause  of  American  freedom ;  and,  or 
the  evacuation  of  Boston  by  the  Royal 
troops  in  1776,  he  was  selected  by  Gov- 
ernor Wentworth  of  New  Hampshire  to 
carry  dispatches  to  England.   He  left  Eng- 


698 


ALL     ABOUT     COFFEE 


land  in  1802,  and  resided  in  France  from 
1804  until  his  death  in  1814.  In  1772,  he 
had  married,  or  rather,  as  he  put  it,  he 
was  married  by,  a  wealthy  widow,  the 
daughter  of  a  highly  respectable  minister 
and  one  of  the  first  settlers  at  Rumford, 
now  called  Concord,  New  Hampshire.  It 
was  from  this  town  that  he  took  his  title 
of  Rumford  when  he  was  created  a  Count 
of  the  Holy  Roman  Empire  in  1791.  His 
first  wife  having  died,  he  married  in  Paris, 
the  wealthy  widow  of  the  celebrated  chem- 
ist, Lavoisier ;  and  with  her  he  lived  an  ex- 
tremely uncomfortable  life  until  they 
agreed  to  separate. 

In  his  essay  on  coffee  and  coffee  making. 
Count  Rumford  gives  us  a  good  pen  pic- 
ture of  the  preparation  of  the  beverage  in 
England  at  the  beginning  of  the  nineteenth 
century.     He  says: 

Coffee  is  first  roasted  in  an  iron  pan,  or  in  a 
hollow  cylinder,  made  of  sheet  iron,  over  a 
hrisk  fire ;  and  when,  from  the  colour  of  the 
grain,  and  the  peculiar  fragrance  which  it  ac- 
quires in  this  process,  it  is  judged  to  be  suffi- 
ciently roasted,  it  is  taken  from  the  fire,  and 
suffered  to  cool.  When  cold  it  is  pounded  in  a 
mortar ;  or  ground  in  a  hand-mill  to  a  coarse 
powder,  and  preserved  for  use. 

Formerly,  the  ground  Coffee  being  put  into  a 
coffee-pot,  with  a  sufficient  quantity  of  water, 
the  coffee-pot  was  put  over  the  fire,  and  after 
the  water  had  been  made  to  boil  a  certain 
time,  the  coffee-pot  was  removed  from  the  fire, 
and  the  grounds  having  had  time  to  settle,  or 
having  been  fined  down  with  isinglass,  the 
clear  liquor  was  poured  off,  and  immediately 
served  up  in  cups. 

Count  Rumford  thought  it  a  mistake  to 
agitate  the  coffee  powder  in  the  brewing 
process,  and  in  this  he  agreed  with  De  Bel- 
loy.  His  improvement  on  the  latter 's  pot 
is  described  in  chapter  XXXIV.  He  was 
a  coffee  connoisseur;  and  as  such  was  one 
of  the  first  to  advocate  the  use  of  cream  as 
well  as  sugar  for  making  an  ideal  cup  of 
the  beverage.  He  refers,  though  not  by 
name,  to  De  Belloy's  percolation  method 
and  says,  ''Its  usefulness  is  now  univer- 
sally acknowledged. ' ' 

A  Few  Definitions 

Just  here,  in  order  to  assure  a  better  un- 
derstanding of  the  subject,  it  may  be  well 
to  clear  up  sundry  misconceptions  regard- 
ing the  words  percolation,  filtration,  decoc- 
tion, infusion,  etc.,  by  the  simple  expedient 
of  definition. 

A  decoction  is  a  liquid  produced  by  boil- 
ing a  substance  until  its  soluble  properties 
are  extracted.     Thus  the  coffee  drink  was 


first  a  decoction;  and  a  decoction  is  what 
one  gets  today  when  coffee  is  boiled  in  the 
good  old-fashioned  way  —  as  "mother  used 
to  make  it," 

Infusion  is  the  process  of  steeping  —  ex- 
traction without  boiling.  It  is  extraction 
accomplished  at  any  temperature  below 
boiling,  and  is  a  general  classification  of 
procedure  capable  of  sub-division.  As 
generally  and  correctly  applied,  it  is  the 
operation  wherein  hot  water  is  merely 
poured  upon  ground  coffee  loose  in  a  pot, 
or  in  a  container  resting  on  the  bottom  of 
the  pot.  In  the  strictest  sense  of  the  term, 
an  infusion  is  also  produced  by  percolation 
and  filtration,  when  the  water  is  not  boiled 
in  contact  with  the  coffee. 

Percolation  means  dripping  through  fine 
apertures  in  china  or  metal  as  in  De  Bel- 
loy's French  drip  pot. 

Filtration  means  dripping  through  a  por- 
ous substance,  usually  cloth  or  paper. 

Percolation  and  filtration  are  practically 
synonymous,  although  a  shade  of  distinc- 
tion in  their  meaning  has  arisen  so  that 
often  the  latter  is  considered  as  a  step  logi- 
cally succeeding  the. former.  Accomplish- 
ing extraction  of  a  material  by  permitting 
a  liquid  to  pass  slowly  through  it  is  in  fact 
percolation,  whereas  filtration  of  the  result- 
ant extract  is  effected  by  interposing  in 
its  path  some  medium  which  will  remove 
solid  or  semi-solid  material  from  it.  Cof- 
fee-making practise  has  in  itself  so  applied 
these  terms  that  each  is  considered  a  com- 
plete process.  Percolation  is  thus  applied 
when  the  infusion  is  removed  from  the 
grounds  immediately  by  dripping  through 
fine  perforations  in  the  china  or  metal  of 
which  the  device  is  constructed. 

True  percolation  is  not  produced  in  the 
pumping  "percolators"  in  which  the  heat- 
ed water  is  elevated  and  sprayed  over  the 
ground  coffee  held  in  a  metal  basket  in  the 
upper  part  of  the  pot,  the  liquor  being  re- 
circulated until  a  satisfactory  degree  of  ex- 
traction has  been  reached.  Rather,  the 
process  is  midway  between  decoction  and 
infusion,  for  the  weak  liquor  is  boiled  dur- 
ing the  operation  in  order  to  furnish  suffi- 
cient steam  to  cause  the  pumping  action. 

Filtration  is  accomplished  when  the 
ground  coffee  is  retained  by  cloth  or  paper, 
generally  supported  by  some  portion  of  the 
brewing  device,  and  extraction  effected  by 
pouring  water  on  the  top  of  the  mass,  per- 
mitting the  liquid  to  percolate  through,  the 
filtering  medium  retaining  the  grounds. 


PREPARING  THE  BEVERAGE 


699 


Patents  and  Devices 

From  the  beginning,  the  French  devoted 
more  attention  than  any  other  people  to 
coffee  brewing.  The  first  French  patent 
on  a  coffee  maker  was  granted  in  1802  to 
Denobe,  Henrion,  and  Ranch  for  "a  phar- 
macological-chemical coffee  making  device 
by  infusion." 

In  1802,  Charles  Wyatt  obtained  a  pat- 
ent in  London  on  an  apparatus  for  distill- 
ing coffee. 

The  first  French  patent  on  an  improved 
French  drip  pot  for  making  coffee  "by 
filtration  without  boiling"  was  granted  to 
Hadrot  in  1806.  Strictly  speaking,  this 
was  not  a  filtering  device,  as  it  was  fitted 
with  a  tin  composition  strainer,  or  grid. 
It  was  very  like  Count  Rumford's  per- 
colator announced  six  years  later,  as  will 
be  seen  by  comparing  the  two  in  chapter 
XXXIV. 

In  1815,  Sene  invented  in  France  his 
Cafetiere  Sene,  another  device  to  make 
coffee  "without  boiling." 

About  the  year  1817,  the  coffee  biggin 
appeared  in  England.  It  was  simply  a 
squat  earthenware  pot  with  an  upper,  mov- 
able, strainer  part  made  of  tin,  after  the 
French  drip  pot  pattern.  Later  models 
employed  a  cloth  bag  suspended  from  the 
rim  of  the  pot.  It  was  said  to  have  been 
invented  by  a  Mr.  Biggin;  and  Dr.  Mur- 
ray, of  dictionary  fame,  seems  to  have  be- 
come convinced  of  this  gentleman's  exist- 
ence, although  others  have  doubted  it  and 
thought  the  name  w^as  of  Dutch  origin,  the 
article  having  been  first  made  for  Holland. 
It  has  been  suggested  that,  in  all  probabil- 
ity, the  name  came  from  the  Dutch  word 
heggelin,  to  trickle,  or  run  down.  One 
thing  is  certain,  coffee  biggins  came  orig- 
inally from  France;  so  that  if  there  was  a 
Mr.  Biggin,  he  merely  introduced  them  into 
England.  The  coffee  biggin  with  which 
Americans  are  most  familiar  is  a  pot  con- 
taining a  flannel  bag  or  a  cylindrical  wire 
strainer  to  hold  the  ground  coffee  through 
which  the  boiling  water  is  poured.  The 
Marion  Harland  pot  was  an  improved 
metal  coffee  biggin.  The  Triumph  coffee 
filter  was  a  cloth-bag  device  which  made 
any  coffee  pot  a  biggin. 

In  1819,  Morize,  a  Paris  tinsmith,  in- 
vented a  double  drip,  reversible  coffee  pot. 
The  device  had  two  movable  "filters"  and 
was  placed  bottom  up  on  the  fire  until  the 


water  boiled,  when  it  was  inverted  to  let 
the  coffee  "filter"  or  drip  through. 

In  1819,  Laurens  was  granted  a  French 
patent  on  the  original  pumping-percolator 
device,  in  which  the  water  was  raised  by 
steam  pressure  and  dripped  over  the 
ground  coffee. 

In  1820,  Gaudet,  another  Paris  tinsmith, 
invented  a  filtration  device  that  employed 
a  cloth  strainer. 

In  1822,  Louis  Bernard  Rabaut  was 
granted  an  English  patent  on  a  coffee- 
making  device  in  which  the  usual  French 
drip  process  was  reversed  by  the  use  of 
steam  pressure  to  force  the  boiling  water 
upward  through  the  coff'ee  mass.  Case- 
neuve,  of  Paris,  was  granted  a  patent  on 
a  similar  device  in  France  in  1824. 

In  1825,  the  first  coffee-pot  patent  in  the 
United  States  was  granted  to  Lewis  Mar- 
telley  on  a  machine  ' '  to  condense  the  steam 
and  essential  oils  and  return  them  to  the 
infusion." 

In  1827,  the  first  really  practicable 
pumping  percolator,  as  we  understand  the 
meaning  today,  was  invented  by  Jacques- 
Augustin  Gandais.  a  manufacturer  of 
plated  jewelry  in  Paris.  The  boiling  wa- 
ter was  raised  through  a  tube  in  the  handle 
and  sprayed  over  the  ground  coffee  sus- 
pended in  a  filter  basket,  but  could  not  be 
returned  for  a  further  spraying. 

In  1827,  Nicholas  Felix  Durant,  a  manu- 
facturer of  Chalons-sur-Mame,  was  grant- 
ed a  French  patent  on  a  "percolator"  em- 
ploying, for  the  first  time,  an  inner  tube 
to  raise  the  boiling  water  for  spraying  over 
the  ground  coffee. 

In  1839,  James  Vardy  and  Moritz  Platow 
were  granted  an  English  patent  on  a  kind 
of  urn  "percolator",  or  filter,  employing 
the  vacuum  process  of  coffee  making,  the 
upper  vessel  being  made  of  glass. 

By  this  time,  the  pumping  percolator, 
working  by  steam  pressure  and  by  partial 
vacuum,  was  in  general  use  in  France,  Eng- 
land, and  Germany.  And  then  began  the 
movement  toward  the  next  stage  in  coffee 
making  —  filtration. 

About  this  time  (1840),  Robert  Napier 
(1791  -1876)  the  Scottish  marine  engineer, 
of  the  celebrated  Clyde  shipbuilding  firm 
of  Robert  Napier  &  Sons,  invented  a  vac- 
uum coffee  machine  to  make  coffee  by  dis- 
tillation and  filtration.  The  device  was 
never  patented:  but  thirty  years  later,  it 
was  being  made  in  the  works  of  Thomas 
Smith  &  Son  (Elkington  &  Co.,  Ltd.,  sue- 


700 


ALL    ABOUT     COFFEE 


--J& 


Napier   Vacuum   Coffee   Maker 

cessors)  under  the  direction  of  Mr.  Napier, 
the  aged  inventor.  The  device  consists  of 
a  silver  globe,  brewer  syphon,  and  strainer, 
as  illustrated.  It  operates  as  follows:  a 
half-cupful  of  water  is  put  into  the  globe, 
and  the  gas  flame  is  lighted.  The  dry  cof- 
fee is  put  into  the  receiver,  which  is  then 
filled  up  with  boiling  water.  This  will  at 
once  become  agitated,  and  will  continue  so 
for  a  few  minutes.  When  it  becomes  still, 
the  gas  flame  is  turned  down,  and  clear 


coffee  is  syphoned  over  into  the  globe 
through  the  syphon  tube,  on  the  end  of 
which,  as  it  rests  in  the  coffee  liquid,  there 
is  a  metal  strainer  covered  with  a  filter 
cloth. 

The  Napierian  coffee  machine  has  en- 
joyed great  popularity  in  England,  The 
principle  has  in  later  years  been  incor- 
porated in  the  Napier-List  steam  coffee  ma- 
chine for  use  in  hotels,  ships,  restaurants, 
etc.  Steam  is  used  as  a  source  of  heat,  but 
does  not  mix  with  the  coft'ee.  List's  patent 
is  for  an  improvement  on  the  Napierian 
system  and  was  granted  in  1891, 

It  is  related  that  shortly  before  he  died, 
old  Mr.  Napier,  at  the  termination  of  a 
dispute  in  Smith  &  Co.'s  factory  at  Glas- 
gow, where  the  device  was  being  made  un- 
der his  instruction,  said  to  old  Mr.  Smith : 


Napier-List  Steam  Coffee  Machine 


Showing     Method     of 
Operation 


FiNLEY  Acker's  Filter-Paper  Coffee  Pot 


"You  may  be  a  guid  silversmith,  but  I  am 
a  better  engineer." 

In  1841,  William  Ward  Andrews  was 
granted  an  English  patent  on  an  improved 
pot  employing  a  pump  to  force  the  boil- 
ing water  through  the  ground  coffee  while 
contained  in  a  perforated  cylinder  screwed 
to  the  bottom  of  the  pot. 

In  1842,  the  first  French  patent  on  a 
glass  coffee-making  device  was  granted  to 
Madame  Vassieux  of  Lyons. 

Following  this,  there  were  numerous  pat- 
ents issued  in  France  and  England  on  dou- 
ble glass-globe  coffee-making  devices. 
They  were  first  known  as  double  glass  bal- 
loons, and  most  of  them  employed  metal 
strainers. 

After  this,  there  were  many  "perco- 
lator" patents  in  France,  England,  and 
the  United  States,  some  of  which  were  for 
improved  forms  of  the  original  drip  meth- 
od of  the  De  Belloy  device.  Others  were 
for  the  type  of  machine  which  came  to  be 
known  as  "  per/?olators "  because  they  em- 
ployed the  principle  of  raising  the  heated 
water  and  spraying  it  over  the  ground 
coffee  in  continuous  fashion.     The  story  is 


PREPARING  THE  BEVERAGE 


701 


The  Kin-Hee  Pot  in  Operation 

told  in  chronological  order  in  the  chapter 
on  the  evolution  of  coffee  apparatus;  so  it 
is  not  necessary  to  repeat  it  here.  Numer- 
ous filtration  devices  also  were  produced 
abroad  and  in  the  United  States. 

Among  the  percolators,  those  of  Manning, 
Bowman  &  Co.,  and  of  Landers,  Frary  & 
Clark,  became  Avell  known  here.  In  the 
filtration  field,  the  following  attained  con- 
siderable distinction:  Harvey  Ricker's 
Half-Minute  pot,  employing  a  cotton  sack 
with  re-inforced  bottom,  introduced  about 
1881;  the  Kin-Hee  pot  of  1900;  Cauchois' 
Private  Estate  coffee  maker,  using  Japan- 
ese filter  paper,  introduced  in  1905 ;  Finley 
Acker's  percolator,  introduced  the  same 
year,  which  also  employed  a  filter  paper 
between  two  cylinders  having  side  perfora- 
tions; the  Tricolator,  1908;  King's  perco- 
lator, using  filter  paper,  in  1912;  and  the 
"Make-Right",  1911,  with  its  adaptation 
as  presented  in  the  Tru-Bru  pot  of  1920. 

The  Make-Right  was  the  invention  of 
Edward  Aborn,  New  York,  and  comprised 
two  telescoping  open  wire  frames,  or  bas- 
kets, with  a  flat  piece  of  muslin  between 


them.  In  the  Tru-Bru  pot,  the  same  idea 
was  employed,  except  that  the  wire  frames 
were  so  constructed  as  to  furnish  four  drip 
points  to  afford  better  distribution  on  the 
ground  coffee  and  to  lessen  the  time  of 
filtration.  There  was  also  a  porcelain  top, 
to  house  and  to  raise  the  filtration  device, 
above  the  brew  with  an  opening  through 
which  the  boiling  water  could  be  poured 
without  exposing  the  ground  coffee. 

Among  later  developments  of  the  gen- 
uine percolator  principle  that  have  attract- 


The  Tricolator  in  Operation 


King   Percolator,   as   Applied   to   a   Hotel  or 
Restaurant  Urn 

ed  attention  in  this  country,  mention  should 
be  made  of  the  Phylax  coffee  maker,  and 
the  Gait  pot. 

In  1914-16,  there  was  a  revival  of  in- 
terest in  the  Unit(>d  States  in  the  double 
glass-globe  method  of  making  coffee,  intro- 
duced into  France  as  "double  glass  bal- 


702 


ALL    ABOUT     COFFEE 


Three  Types  of  American  Coffee  Makers  in   Operation 
Left,   Blauke's   Cloth   Filter  —  Center,    Thylax  —  Right,    Gait   Vacuum    device 


loons"  in  the  first  half  of  the  nineteenth 
century.  American  ingenuity  produced 
several  clever  adaptations,  and  several  no- 
table filter  improvements.  Advertising  de- 
veloped a  great  demand  for  glass  perco- 
lators, as  they  were  first  called;  but  al- 
though five  attained  considerable  promi- 
nence, only  two  survived  and,  at  this  writ- 
ing, are  still  being  manufactured.  Both 
are  double  glass-globe  filters  employing  a 
spirit  lamp,  gas,  or  electricity  as  heating 
agents. 

Within  the  last  few  years,  it  has  become 
the  fashion  to  obtain  patents  in  the  United 
States  on  "the  art  of  brewing  coffee",  or 
the  "art  of  making  coffee".  Instances  are 
the  patents  issued  to  Messrs.  Calkin  and 
Muller.  In  the  Calkin  patent  (the  Phylax 
device  illustrated  at  the  top  of  this  page) 


REMOVABLE 
FILTER  TOP 


How  THE  Tru-Bru  Pot  Operates 


the  "art"  consists  in  controlling  the  flow 
of  the  boiling  water  by  means  of  the  num- 
ber and  spacing  of  the  holes  in  the  water- 
spreader,  so  as  to  restrict  the  volume  and 
the  speed,  to  effect  a  quick  initial  extrac- 
tion ;  and  then,  by  means  of  a  new  spacing 
of  holes  in  the  infuser,  retarding  the  drip 
"to  attain  a  prolonged  extraction  of  the 
tannin  and  other  elements  of  slow  extrac- 
tion and  combining  the  liquids  obtained 
during  the  initial  and  subsequent  stages  of 
the  brew  for  attaining  a  balanced  liquid 
extract." 

Muller's  "art"  (the  apparatus  is  de- 
scribed in  chapter  XXXIV)  consisted  in  so 
supplying  and  supporting  the  ground  cof- 
fee in  an  urn  that  it  is  never  again  sub- 
jected to  the  "decoction"  after  having 
been  exposed  to  the  air  and  steam  following 
the  first  application  of  the  water. 

In  1920,  William  G.  Goldsworthy,  San 
Francisco,  was  granted  a  United  States 
patent  on  a  process  for  preparing  the  beans 
for  making  the  beverage.  The  process  con- 
sisted of  grinding  the  raw  dried  beans; 
then  packing  the  ground  product  in  non- 
combustible  and  non-soluble  porous  con- 
tainers, which  ai*e  securely  closed  to  keep 
them  unimpaired  while  the  contained  coffee 
is  being  roasted ;  and,  after  cooling,  sealing 
them  with  gelatine.  To  brew,  container  and 
contents  are  dropped  into  a  cup  of  hot 
water. 

This  brief  review  of  the  evolution  of 
coffee  brews  shows  that  coffee  making 
started  with  boiling,  and  next  became  an 
infusion.     After  that,  the  best  practise  be- 


PREPARING  THE  BEVERAGE 


708 


COFFEE-MAKING  DEVICES  USED  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES 

-Marion  Ilarland  Pot:  2 — Univorsal  I'l-roolator:  3 — Oalt  Vacuum  Process  Coffee  Maker:  4 — Universal- 
Electric  TJrn ;  5 — English  Coffee  Biggin  (Langley  Ware):  6 — Universal  Cafenolra  (Glass  Filter):  7 — 
Vienna  (Bohemian  or  Carlsbad  (  Coffee  Machine;  8 — Tru-Bru  Pot;  9 — Tricolator ;  10 — Manning-Bowman 
Percolator;  11 — Blanke's  Sanitary  Coffee  Pot;  12 — Phylax  Coffee  Maker;  13 — Private-Estate  Coffee 
Maker  ;  14 — American  French  Drip  Pot ;  15 — Kln-Hee  Pot ;  16 — SIlex  Opalescent  Glass  Filter  ;  17 — 
B'rench  Drip  Pot   (Langley  Ware). 


704 


ALL    ABOUT     COFFEE 


came  divided  between  simple  percolation 
and  filtration,  which  have  continued  to  the 
present  time.  Boiling  has  also  continued 
to  find  advocates  in  every  country,  even  in 
the  United  States,  where  it  seems  to  die 
hard,  no  matter  how  much  is  done  to  dis- 
credit it.  Percolation  devices  are  sub- 
divided into  the  simple  drip  pots  and  the 
continuous  percolation  machines,  as  repre- 
sented by  numerous  complicated  and  high- 
priced  contrivances  on  the  market.  Grad- 
ually, however,  true  coffee  lovers  are  realiz- 
ing that  the  best  results  are  to  be  obtained 
through  simple  percolation  or  simple  filtra- 
tion. There  are  good  arguments  for  both 
methods. 

Coffee  Making  in  Europe  in  the  Nineteenth 
Century 

England.  We  have  noted  Count  Rum- 
ford's  efforts  to  reform  coffee  making  in 
England  in  the  early  part  of  the  nineteenth 
century.  Many  other  scientific  men  joined 
the  movement.  Among  them  was  Professor 
Donovan,  who  in  the  Dublin  Philosophical 
Journal  for  May,  1826,  told  of  his  experi- 
ments "to  ascertain  the  best  methods  for 
extracting  all  the  virtues  inherent  in  the 
berry."  The  Penny  Magazine  for  June  14, 
1834,  after  deploring  "the  straw-colored 
fluid  commonly  introduced  under  the  mis- 
nomer of  coffee  in  England",  thus  digests 
Professor  Donovan 's  findings : 

Mr.  Donovan  found,  that  what  we  shall  call 
the  medicinal  quality  of  coffee  resides  in  it 
independent  of  its  aromatic  flavor,  —  that  it  is 
possible  to  obtain  the  exhilarating  effect  of  the 
beverage  without  gratifying  the  palate,  —  and, 
on  the  other  hand,  that  all  the  aromatic  quality 
may  be  enjoyed  without  its  producing  any  effect 
upon  the  animal  economy.  His  object  was  to 
combine  the  two. 

The  roasting  of  coffee  is  requisite  for  the 
production  of  both  these  qualities ;  but,  to  secure 
them  in  their  full  degree,  it  is  necessary  to 
conduct  the  process  with  some  skill.  The  first 
thing  to  be  done  is  to  expose  the  raw  coffee  to 
the  heat  of  a  gentle  fire,  in  an  open  vessel, 
stirring  it  continually  until  it  assumes  a  yellow- 
ish colour.  It  should  then  be  roughly  broken.  — 
a  thing  very  easily  done.  —  so  that  each  berry 
is  divided  into  about  four  or  five  pieces,  when 
it  must  be  put  into  the  roasting  apparatus. 
This,  as  most  commonly  used,  is  made  of  sheet- 
iron,  and  is  of  a  cylindrical  shape :  it  no  doubt 
answers  the  purpose  well,  and  is  by  no  means  a 
costly  machine,  but  coffee  may  be  very  well 
roasted  in  a  common  iron  or  earthenware  pot, 
the  main  circumstances  to  be  observed  being 
the  degree  to  which  the  process  is  carried,  and 
the  prevention  of  partial  burning,  by  constant 
stirring.  One  of  the  requisites  for  having  good 
coffee  is  that  it  shall  have  been  recently  roasted. 


Coffee  should  be  ground  very  fine  for  use, 
and  only  at  the  moment  when  it  is  wanted,  or 
the  aromatic  flavour  will  in  some  measure  be 
lost.  To  extract  all  its  good  qualities,  the 
powder  requires  two  separate  and  somewhat 
opposite  modes  of  treatment,  but  which  do  not 
offer  any  difficulty  when  explained.  On  the  one 
hand,  the  fine  flavour  would  be  lost  by  boiling, 
while,  on  the  other,  it  is  necessary  to  subject 
the  coffee  to  that  degree  of  heat  in  order  to 
extract  its  medicinal  quality.  The  mode  of 
proceeding,  which,  after  many  experiments,  Mr. 
Donovan  found  to  be  the  most  simple  and 
efficacious  for  attaining  both  these  ends,  was  the 
following : — 

The  whole  water  to  be  used  must  be  divided 
into  two  equal  parts.  One  half  must  be  put  first 
to  the  coffee  "cold",  and  this  must  be  placed 
over  the  fire  until  it  "just  comes  to  a  boil", 
when  it  must  be  immediately  removed.  Allow- 
ing it  then  to  subside  for  a  few  moments  the 
liquid  must  be  poured  off  as  clear  as  it  will  run. 
The  remaining  half  of  the  water,  which  during 
this  time  should  have  been  on  the  fire,  must 
then  be  added  "at  a  boiling  heat"  to  the  grounds, 
and  placed  on  the  fire,  where  it  must  be  kept 
"boiling"  for  about  three  minutes.  This  will 
extract  the  medicinal  virtue,  and  if  then  the 
liquid  be  allowed  again  to  subside,  and  the  clear 
fluid  be  added  to  the  flrst  portion,  the  prepara- 
tion will  be  found  to  combine  all  the  good 
properties  of  the  berry  in  as  great  perfection 
as  they  can  be  obtained.  If  any  fining  ingredient 
is  used  it  should  be  mixed  with  the  powder  at 
the  beginning  of  the  process. 

Several  kinds  of  apparatus,  some  of  them  very 
ingenious  in  their  construction,  have  been  pro- 
posed for  preparing  coffee,  but  they  are  all 
made  upon  the  principle  of  extracting  only  the 
aromatic  flavour,  while  Professor  Donovan's 
suggestions  not  only  enable  us  to  accomplish 
that  desirable  object,  but  superadd  the  less  ob- 
vious but  equally  essential  matter  of  extracting 
and  making  our  own  all  the  medicinal  virtues. 

When  Webster  and  Parkes  published 
their  Encyclopedia  of  Domestic  Economy, 
London,  1844,  they  gave  the  following  as 
"the  most  usual  method  of  making  coffee 
in  England": 

Put  fresh  ground  coffee  into  a  coffee-pot,  with 
a  sufficient  quantity  of  water,  and  set  this  on 
the  fire  till  it  boils  for  a  minute  or  two ;  then 
remove  it  from  the  fire,  pour  out  a  cupful,  which 
is  to  be  returned  into  the  coffee-pot  to  throw 
down  the  grounds  that  may  be  fioating ;  repeat 
this,  and  let  the  coffee-pot  stand  near  the  fire, 
but  not  on  too  hot  a  place,  until  the  grounds 
have  subsided  to  the  bottom ;  in  a  few  minutes 
the  coffee  will  be  clear  without  any  other 
preparation,  and  may  be  poured  into  cups ;  in 
this  manner,  with  good  materials  in  sufficient 
quantity,  and  proper  care,  excellent  coffee  may 
be  made.  The  most  valuable  part  of  the  coffee 
is  soon  extracted,  and  it  is  certain  that  long 
boiling  dissipates  the  fine  aroma  and  flavour. 
Some  make  it  a  rule  not  to  suffer  the  coffee  to 
boil,  but  only  to  bring  it  just  to  the  boiling 
point;  but  it  is  said  by  Mr.  Donovan  that  it 


PREPARING  THE  BEVERAGE 


705 


requires  boiling  for  a  little  time  to  extract  the 
whole  of  the  bitter,  in  which  he  conceives  much 
of  the  exhilarating  qualities  of  the  coffee  reside. 

This  work  had  also  the  following  to  say 
on  the  clearing  of  coffee,  which  was  then  a 
much-mooted  question: 

The  clearing  of  coffee  is  a  circumstance  de- 
manding particular  attention.  After  the  heaviest 
parts  of  the  grounds  have  settled,  there  are  still 
tine  particles  suspended  for  some  time,  and  if 
the  coffee  be  poured  off  before  these  have  sub- 
sided, the  liquor  is  deficient  in  that  trans 
parency  which  is  one  test  of  its  perfection ;  for 
coffee  not  well  cleared  has  always  an  unpleasant 
bitter  taste.  In  general,  the  coffee  becomes  clear 
by  simply  remaining  quiet  for  a  few  minutes, 
as  we  have  stated;  but  those  who  are  anxious 
to  have  it  as  clear  as  possible  employ  some 
artificial  means  of  assisting  the  clearing.  The 
addition  of  a  little  isinglass,  hartshorn  shavings, 
skins  of  eels  or  soles,  white  of  eggs,  egg  shells, 
etc..  has  been  recommended  for  clearing;  but  it 
is  evident  that  these  substances,  to  produce  their 
effect,  which  is  upon  the  same  principle  as  the 
fining  of  beer  or  wine,  should  be  dissolved 
previously,  for  if  put  in  without,  it  would 
require  so  much  time  to  dissolve,  that  the 
flavour  of  the  coffee  would  vanish. 

Coffee-making  devices  of  this  period  in 
England,  in  addition  to  the  Rumford  type 
of  percolator  and  the  popular  coffee  biggin, 
included  Evans'  machine  provided  with  a 
tin  air-float  to  which  was  attached  a  filter 
bag  containing  the  coffee ;  Jones'  apparatus, 
a  pumping  percolator;  Parker's  steam- 
fountain  coffee  maker,  which  forced  the  hot 
water  upward  through  the  ground  coffee; 
Platow's  patent  filter,  previously  men- 
tioned, a  single  vacuum  glass  percolator  in 
combination  with  an  urn;  Brain's  vacuum 
or  pneumatic  filter  employing  a  ''muslin, 
linen  or  shamoy  leather  filter"  and  an  ex- 
hausting pump,  designed  for  kitchen  use; 
and  Palmer's  and  Beart's  pneumatic  filter- 
ing machines  of  similar  construction. 

Cold  infusions  were  common,  the  practise 
being  to  let  them  stand  overnight,  to  be 
filtered  in  the  morning,  and  only  heated, 
not  boiled. 

Coffee  grinding  for  these  various  types 
of  coffee  makers  was  performed  by  iron 
mills;  the  portable  box  mill  being  most 
favored  for  family  use.  "It  consisted  of  a 
square  box  either  of  mahogany  or  iron 
japanned,  containing  in  the  interior  a  hol- 
low cone  of  steel  with  sharp  grooves  on  the 
inside;  into  this  fits  a  conical  piece  of 
hardened  iron  or  steel  having  spiral  grooves 
cut  upon  its  surface  and  capable  of  being 
turned  round  by  a  handle."  There  was  a 
drawer  to  receive  the  finely  ground  coffee. 


Larger  wall-mills  employed  the  same  grind- 
ing mechanism. 

In  1855,  Dr.  John  Doran  wrote  in  his 
"Table  Traits": 

With  regard  to  the  making  of  coffee,  there 
is  no  doubt  that  the  Turkish  method  of  pound- 
ing the  coffee  in  a  mortar  is  infinitely  superior 
to  grinding  it  in  a  mill,  as  with  us.  But  after 
either  method  the  process  recommended  by  M. 
Soyer  may  be  advantageously  adopted;  namely, 
"Put  two  ounces  of  ground  coffee  into  a  stew- 
pan,  which  set  upon  the  fire,  stirring  the  coffee 
round  with  a  spoon  until  quite  hot,  then  pour 
over  a  pint  of  boiling  water;  cover  over  closely 
for  five  minutes,  pass  it  through  a  cloth,  warm 
again,  and  serve." 

From  observations  by  G.  W.  Poore,  M.D., 
London,  1883,  we  are  given  a  glimpse  of 
coffee  making  in  England  in  the  latter  part 
of  the  nineteenth  century.    He  said : 

"Those  who  wish  to  enjoy  really  good  coffee 
must  have  it  fresh  roasted.  On  the  Continent, 
in  every  well-regulated  household,  the  daily 
supply  of  coffee  is  roasted  every  morning.  In 
England  this  is  rarely  done. 

If  roasted  coffee  has  to  be  kept,  it  must  be 
kept  in  an  air-tight  vessel.  In  France,  coffee 
used  to  be  kept  in  a  wrapper  of  waxed  leather, 
which  was  always  closely  tied  over  the  con- 
tained coffee.  In  this  way  the  coffee  was  kept 
from  contact  with  any  air. 

The  Viennese  say  that  coffee  should  be  kept 
in  a  glass  bottle  closed  with  a  bung,  and  that 
coffee  should  on  no  account  be  kept  in  a  tin 
canister. 

The  coffee  having  been  roasted,  it  has  to  be 
reduced  to  a  coarse  powder  before  the  infusion 
is  made.  The  grinding  and  powdering  of  coffee 
should  be  done  just  before  it  is  wanted,  for  if 
the  whole  coffee  seeds  quickly  lose  their  aroma, 
how  much  more  quickly  will  the  aroma  be 
dissipated  from  coffee  which  has  been  reduced 
to  a  fine  powder?  Nothing  need  be  said  in  the 
matter  of  coffee  mills.  They  are  common 
enough,  varied  enough,  and  cheap  enough  to  suit 
all  tastes. 

To  insure  a  really  good  cup  of  coffee  atten- 
tion must  be  given  to  the  following  points : 

1.  Be  sure  that  the  coffee  is  good  in  quality, 
freshly  roasted,  and  fresh  ground. 

2.  Use  sufiicient  coffee.  I  have  made  some 
experiments  on  this  point,  and  I  have  come  to 
the  conclusions  that  one  ounce  of  coffee  to  a 
pint  of  water  makes  poor  coffee,  1%  ounces  of 
coffee  to  a  pint  of  water  makes  fairly  good 
coffee,  two  ounces  of  coffee  to  a  pint  of  water 
makes  excellent  coffee. 

3.  As  to  the  form  of  coffee  pot  I  have  noth- 
ing to  say.  The  varieties  of  coffee  machines 
are  very  numerous  and  many  of  them  are  use- 
less incumbrances.  At  the  best,  they  can  not  be 
regarded  as  absolutely  necessary.  The  Brazil- 
ians insist  that  coffee  pots  should  on  no  account 
be  made  of  metal,  but  that  porcelain  or  earthen- 
ware is  alone  permissible.  I  have  been  in  the 
habit  of  late  of  having  my  coffee  made  in  a 
common  jug  provided  with  a  strainer,  and  I 
believe  there  is  nothing  better. 


706 


ALL     ABOUT     COFFEE 


to 

Tl   m  -ri  M 

H  » 

0,M  >,  _ 

a  ci  a  I 

o  6  «  (p  o 

U         O   «  p 

e>  c  a  o  o 

C   0)   R 
*>   ftl  ® 

e  C  o>  ^  f" 
~!  o  >-(  ^  ■ 


PREPARING  THE  BEVERAGE 


707 


4.  Warm  the  jug,  put  the  coffee  into  it,  boil 
the  water,  and  pour  the  boiling  water  on  the 
coffee,  and  the  thing  is  done. 

5.  Coffee  must  not  be  boiled,  or  at  most  it 
must  be  allowed  just  to  "come  to  a  boil",  as 
cook  says.  If  violent  ebullition  lakes  place,  the 
aroma  of  the  coffee  is  dissipated,  and  the 
beverage  is  spoiled. 

The  most  economical  way  of  making  coffee  is 
to  put  the  coft'ee  into  a  jug  and  pour  cold  water 
upon  it.  This  should  be  done  some  hours  before 
the  coffee  is  wanted  —  over  night,  for  instance, 
if  the  coffee  be  required  for  breakfast.  The 
light  particles  of  coffee  will  imbibe  the  water 
and  fall  to  the  bottom  of  the  jug  in  course  of 
time.  When  the  coffee  is  to  be  used  stand  the 
jug  in  a  saucepan  of  water  or  a  bainmarie  and 
place  the  outer  vessel  over  the  fire  till  the 
water  contained  in  it  boils.  The  coffee  in  this 
way  is  gently  brought  to  the  boiling  point  with- 
out violent  ebullition,  and  we  get  the  maximum 
extract  without  any  loss  of  aroma. 

Always  make  your  coffee  strong.  Gai6  au  lait 
is  much  better  if  made  with  one-fourth  strong 
coffee  and  three-fourths  milk  than  if  made  half- 
and-lialf  with  a  weaker  coffee:  this  is  evident. 

It  is  a  mistake  to  sujDpose  that  coffee  can  not 
be  made  without  a  great  deal  of  costly  and 
cumbersome  apparatus. 

The  Continent.  Rossignon  has  given  us 
a  general  view  of  coffee  making  on  the  con- 
tinent of  Europe  in  the  middle  of  the  nine- 
teenth century.    He  says: 

Formerly  small  bags  of  baize  were  used  to 
percolate  coffee.  The  water  was  poured  on  the 
coffee,  and  when  they  were  new  the  coffee  per- 
colated through  them  was  pretty  good,  but  when 
they  had  been  used  a  few  times  they  became 
greasy  and  it  was  very  difficult  to  clean  them 
by  any  means.  The  greasy  baize  altered  the 
quality  of  the  coffee,  and  in  spite  of  all  efforts 


to  keep  it  clean  the  coffee  had  a  tarnished  ap- 
pearance very  disagreeable  to  the  view.  Very 
few  persons  use  them  at  present.  The  apparatus 
most  in  use  for  the  percolation  of  coffee  Is  a  tin 
coffee-pot  composed  of  two  parts.  The  upper 
one  has  a  filter  or  sieve  on  which  the  coffee 
powder  is  placed  and  through  which  the  filtered 
coffee  must  pass.  Boiling  water  is  poured  on  the 
coffee.  The  liquor  which  percolates  falls  in  the 
second  part.  Then  the  upper  part  is  removed 
and  the  coffee  is  ready  as  a  beverage.  There 
are  very  many  systems  of  coffee  pots.  One  of 
the  best  is  the  Russian  one.  which  consists  of 
a  receptacle  composed  of  two  parts  resembling 
two  halves  of  an  egg  screwed  together.  One 
part  contains  the  hot  water  and  the  other  the 
ground  coffee.  In  the  center  there  is  a  filter. 
Turning  the  pot  upside  down  the  percolation 
takes  place  very  slowly  and  no  aroma  is  lost. 

The  tin  plate  which  is  generally  used  to  make 
the  coffee  pot  has  many  drawbacks.  One  of 
them  is  the  dissolution  of  iron  which  takes 
place  after  it  has  been  used  for  a  short  time. 

The  quality  of  coffee,  as  a  beverage,  depends 
principally  on  the  degree  of  heat  of  the  water. 
Experience  has  shown  that  a  medium  class  of 
coffee  prepared  at  a  moderate  heat  gives  a  very 
good  liquor,  while  excellent  coffee  on  which 
l)oiling  water  has  been  poured  did  not  give  a 
very  good  liquor.  Therefore,  instead  of  pouring 
boiling  water  at  100° C.  in  a  porcelain  or  silver 
coffeepot,  those  who  desire  to  make  a  perfect 
coffee  must  use  water  heated  from  60°  to  75°C. 

France.  Also  about  the  middle  of  the 
nineteenth  century  the  French  naturalist, 
Du  Tour,  thus  describes  one  manner  of 
making  coffee  in  France : 

Let  the  powder  be  poured  into  the  coffee-pot 
filled  with  boiling  water,  in  the  proportion  of 
two  ounces  and  a  half  to  two  pounds,  or  two 
English    pints   of   water.     Let   the   mixture   be 


The  Duparquet  StiU's   machine 

Three  Well  Known  Makes  of  Labge  Cofte  Ubns 


The  Kellum 


708 


ALL     ABOUT     COFFEE 


stirred  with  a  spoon,  and  the  coffee-pot  be  soon 
talven  off  tlie  fire,  but  suffered  to  remain  closely 
shut,  for  about  at  least  two  hours,  on  the  warm 
ashes  of  a  wood  fire.  During  the  infusion  the 
liquor  should  be  several  times  agitated  by  a 
chocolate  frother,  or  something  of  the  same 
kind,  and  be  finally  left  for  about  a  quarter  of 
an  hour  to  settle. 

Cafe  au  lait  was  not  made  by  boiling 
coffee  and  milk  together,  -  as  milk  was  not 
proper  to  extract  the  coffee ;  the  coffee  was 
first  made  as  cafe  noir,  only  stronger;  as 
much  of  this  coffee  was  poured  in  the  cup 
as  was  required,  and  the  cup  was  then  filled 
up  with  hoUed  milk.  Cafe  a  la  creme  was 
made  by  adding  boiled  cream  to  strong  clear 
coffee  and  heating  them  together. 

In  France,  during  the  latter  part  of  the 
nineteenth  century,  coffee  was  roasted  over 
charcoal  fires  in  earthenware  dishes  or 
saucepans,  stirred  with  a  spatula  or  wooden 
spoon,  or  in  small  cylinder  or  globular 
roasters  of  iron.  Gas  roasting  was  also 
practised.  When  roasted  in  large  batches, 
the  beans  were  cooled  in  wicker  baskets, 
tossed  into  the  air.  The  grinding  was  pref- 
erably done  in  mortars  or  in  box  mills  of 
pyramid  shape  with  receiving  drawers, 
and  was  not  too  fine. 

The  usual  method  of  making  coffee  in 
France  among  the  better  classes  at  this  time 
was  by  means  of  improved  De  Belloy  drip 
devices,  double  glass  vacuum  filters,  pump- 
ing percolators  (double  circulation  devices), 
the  Eussian  egg-shaped  pots,  and  the 
Viennese  machines.  The  last-named  were 
metal  pumping  percolators  with  glass  tops, 
usually  swung  between  the  uprights  of  a 
carry  arrangement,  the  base  of  which  held  a 
spirit  lamp. 

Among  the  numerous  French  machines 
which  became  well  known  were:  Reparlier's 
glass  "filter";  Egrot's  steam  cloth-filter 
machine,  and  Malen's  percolator  appara- 
tus, both  designed  for  barracks  and  ships, 
where  previously  the  coffee  had  been  brewed 
in  soup  kettles;  Bouillon  Muller's  steam 
percolator;  Laurent's  whistling  coffee  pot,  a 
steam  percolator  which  announced  when 
the  coffee  was  ready;  Ed.  Loysel's  rapid 
filter,  a  hydrostatic  percolator;  and  those 
pots  to  which  Morize,  Lemare,  Grandin, 
Crepaux,  and  Gandais  gave  their  names. 

In  1892,  the  French  minister  of  war  di- 
rected that,  in  the  army  roasting  and  grind- 
ing operations,  the  coffee  chaff  should  no 
longer  be  thrown  away,  as  it  had  been  found 
that  it  was  rich  in  caffein  and  aroma  con- 
stituents. 


PoPULAB  German  Drip  Pot 

Coffee  a  la  minute,  which  appeared  in 
France  in  the  nineteenth  century,  was  made 
by  decoction  or  infusion  through  a  funnel 
pierced  with  holes  and  covered  inside  with 
blotting  paper,  or  a  woolen  strainer  cloth. 
This  system,  says  Jardin,  suggested  the 
economical  coffee  pot. 

A  popular  German  drip  coffee  maker  of 
the  late  nineteenth  century  employs  a  plug 
in  the  spout  which  provides  air  pressure  to 
hold  back  the  infusion  until  the  plug  is 
removed. 

Pierre  Joseph  Buc'Koz,  physician  to  the 
king  of  Poland,  in  1787,  made  a  business  of 
supplying  roasted  coffee  in  small  packets, 
each  sufficient  for  one  cup.  He  built  up 
quite  a  trade  until  one  day  he  was  caught 
substituting  roasted  rye  for  coffee.  This 
was  the  Buc'hoz  method  of  making  coffee, 
much  practised  by  the  lower  classes  because 
he  was  looked  upon  as  an  authority: 

Boil  the  water  in  a  coffee  pot.  When  it  boils, 
draw  it  from  the  fire  long  enough  to  add  an 
ounce  of  coffee  powder  to  a  pound  of  water. 
Stir  with  a  spoon.  Return  it  to  the  fire  and 
when  it  boils  move  it  back  somewhat  from  the 
heat  and  let  it  simmer  for  eight  minutes. 
Clarify  with  sugar  or  deer  horn  powder. 

Early  Coffee  Making  in  the  United  States 

The  coffee  drink  reached  the  colonies, 
first  as  a  beverage  for  the  well-to-do,  about 
1668.  When  introduced  to  the  general 
public  through  the  coffee  houses  about  1700, 
it  was  first  sipped  from  small  dishes  as  in 
England;  and  no  one  inquired  too  closely 
as  to  how  it  was  made.  When,  half  a  cen- 
tury later,  it  had  displaced  beer  and  tea  for 
breakfast,  its  correct  making  became  a 
matter  of  polite  inquiry.    It  was  not  until 


I 

^Brell  into  the  nineteenth  century  that  there 

^Rras  any  suggestion  of  scientific  interest,  and 

^^not  until  within  the  last  decade  was  any 

real    chemical    analysis    of    brewed    coffee 

undertaken   with   a   view   to   producing   a 

scientific  cup  of  the  beverage. 

At  first,  owing  to  the  great  distances,  and 
difficulties  surrounding  communications, 
between  the  colonies,  news  of  improvements 
in  coffee  makers  and  coffee  making  traveled 
slowly,  and  coffee  customs  brought  from 
Europe  by  the  early  settlers  became  habits 
that  were  not  easily  changed.  Some  of  the 
worst  have  clung  on,  ignoring  the  march  of 
improvement,  and  seem  as  firmly  entrenched 
in  suburban  and  rural  communities  today  as 
they  were  two  hundred  years  ago. 

Indeed,  despite  the  fact  that  the  United 
States  have  been  the  largest  consumer  of 
coffee  among  the  nations  for  nearly  half  a 
century,  it  is  only  within  the  last  ten  years 
that  coffee  properly  prepared  could  be  ob- 
tained outside  the  principal  cities.  Even 
today,  the  average  consumer  is  sadly  in 
need  of  education  in  correct  coffee  brewing. 
It  would  be  an  excellent  idea  if  all  the 
coffee  propaganda  funds  could  be  concen- 
trated on  a  study  of  this  one  phase  of  the 
coffee  question  for  several  years,  and  the 
recommendations  published  in  such  fashion 
as  firmly  to  fix  in  the  minds  of  the  rising 
generation  a  knowledge  of  correct  coffee 
brewing.  The  facts  of  the  case  are  that, 
generally  speaking,  coffee  is  still  prepared 
in  slovenly  fashion  in  the  average  American 
home.  However,  with  the  good  work  done 
in  recent  years  by  organized  trade  effort  to 
correct  this  abuse  of  our  national  beverage, 
signs  are  plentiful  that  the  time  is  not  far 
distant  when  a  lasting  reformation  in  coffee 
making  will  have  been  accomplished. 

In  colonial  times  the  coffee  drink  was 
mostly  a  decoction.  Esther  Singleton  tells 
us  that  in  New  Amsterdam  coffee  was 
boiled  in  a  copper  pot  lined  with  tin  and 
drunk  as  hot  as  possible  with  sugar  or  honey 
and  spices.  "Sometimes  a  pint  of  fresh 
milk  was  brought  to  the  boiling  point  and 
then  as  much  drawn  tincture  of  coffee  was 
added,  or  the  coffee  was  put  in  cold  water 
with  the  milk  and  both  were  boiled  together 
and  drunk.  Rich  people  mixed  cloves, 
cinnamon  or  sugar  with  ambergris  in  the 
coffee.""' 

Ground  cardamom  seeds  were  also  used 
to  flavor  the  decoction. 


PREPARING  THE  BEVERAGE 


709 


In  the  early  days  of  New  England,  the 
whole  beans  were  frequently  boiled  for 
hours  with  not  wholly  pleasing  results  in 
forming  either  food  or  drink '. 

In  New  Orleans,  the  ground  coffee  was 
put  into  a  tin  or  pewter  coffee  dripper,  and 
the  infusion  was  made  by  slowly  pouring  the 
boiling  water  over  it  after  the  French 
fashion.  The  coffee  was  not  considered 
good  unless  it  actually  stained  the  cup. 
This  method  still  obtains  among  the  old 
Creole  families. 

Boiling  coarsely  pounded  coffee  for  fifteen 
minutes  to  half  an  hour  was  common  prac- 
tise in  the  colonies  before  1800. 

In  the  early  part  of  the  nineteenth  cen- 
tury, the  best  practise  was  to  roast  the 
coffee  in  an  iron  cylinder  that  stood  before 
the  hearth  fire.  It  was  either  turned  by  a 
handle  or  wound  up  like  a  jack  to  go  by 
itself.  The  grinding  was  done  in  a  lap  or 
wall  mill ;  and  among  the  best  known  makes 
were  Kenrick's,  Wilson's,  Wolf's,  John 
Luther's,  George  W.  M.  Vandegrif t 's,  and 
Charles  Parker's  Best  Quality. 

To  make  coffee  "without  boiling"  the 
cookery  books  of  the  period  advised  the 
housewife  to  obtain  "a  biggin,  the  best  of 
which  is  what  in  France  is  called  a 
Grecque. ' ' 

In  1844,  the  Kitchen  Directory  mid  Amer- 
ican Housewife's  advice  on  the  subject  of 
coffee  making  was  the  following : 

Coffee  should  be  put  in  an  iron  pot  and  dried 
near  a  moderate  fire  for  several  hours  before 
roasting  (in  pot  over  hot  coals  and  stirring 
constantly).  It  is  sufficiently  roasted  when 
biting  one  of  the  lightest  colored  kernels — if 
brittle  the  whole  is  done.  A  coffee  roaster  is 
better  than  an  open  pot.  Use  a  tablespoonful 
ground  to  a  pint  of  boiling  water.  Boil  in  tin 
pot  twenty  to  twenty-five  minutes.  If  boiled 
longer  it  will  not  taste  fresh  and  lively.  Let 
stand  four  or  five  minutes  to  settle,  pour  off 
grounds  into  a  coffee  pot  or  urn.  Put  fish  skin 
or  isinglass  size  of  a  nine  pence  in  pot  when 
put  on  to  boil  or  else  the  white  and  shell  of 
half  an  egg  to  a  coaple  of  quarts  of  coffee. 
French  coffee  is  made  in  a  German  filter,  the 
water  is  turned  on  boiling  hot  and  one-third 
more  coffee  is  needed  than  when  boiled  in  the 
common  way. 

In  1856  the  Ladies'  Home  Magazine  (now 
the  Ladies'  Home  Journal)  printed  the  fol- 
lowing, which  fairly  sums  up  the  coffee 
making  customs  of  that  period : 

Coffee,  if  you  would  have  its  best  flavor, 
should  be  roasted  at  home ;  but  not  in  an  open 
pan,  for  this  permits  a  large  amount  of  aroma 
to  escape.  The  roaster  should  be  a  closed  sphere 


'Dutch  New  York,  1909    (p.  132). 


*  Earle.  Alice  Morse. 
New  England,  1909. 


Cuatoma  and  Fashions  in  Old 


710 


ALL     ABOUT     COFFEE 


or  cylinder.  The  aroma,  upon  which  the  good 
taste  of  the  coffee  depends,  is  only  developed  in 
the  berry  by  the  roasting  process,  which  also 
is  necessary  to  diminish  its  toughness,  and  fit 
it  for  grinding.  While  roasting,  coffee  loses 
from  fifteen  to  twenty-flve  percent  of  its  weight, 
and  gains  from  thirty  to  fifty  percent  in  bulk. 
More  depends  upon  the  proper  roasting  than 
upon  the  quality  of  the  coffee  itself.  One  or 
two  scorched  or  burned  berries  wilj  materially 
injure  the  flavor  of  several  cupfuls.  Even  a 
slight  overheating  diminishes  the  good  taste. 

The  best  mode  of  roasting,  where  it  is  done 
at  home,  is  to  dry  the  coffee  first,  in  an  open 
vessel,  until  its  color  is  slightly  changed.  This 
allows  the  moisture  to  escape.  Then  cover  it 
closely  and  scorch  it,  keeping  up  a  constant 
agitation,  so  that  no  portion  of  a  kernel  may  be 
unequally  heated.  Too  low  and  too  slow  a  heat 
dries  it  up  without  producing  the  full  aromatic 
flavor ;  while  too  great  heat  dissipates  the  oily 
matter  and  leaves  only  bitter  charred  kernels. 
It  should  be  heated  so  as  to  acquire  a  uniform 
deep  cinnamon  color,  and  an  oily  appearance, 
but  never  a  deep,  dark  brown  color.  It  then 
should  be  taken  from  the  fire  and  kept  closely 
covered  until  cold,  and  further  until  used. 
While  unroasted  coffee  improves  by  age,  the 
roasted  berries  will  very  generally  lose  their 
aroma  if  not  covered  very  closely.  The  ground 
stuff  kept  on  sale  in  barrels,  or  boxes,  or  in 
papers,  is  not  worthy  the  name  of  coffee. 

Coffee  should  not  be  ground  until  just  before 
using.  If  ground  over  night,  it  should  be 
covered ;  or,  what  is  quite  as  well,  put  into  the 
boiler  and  covered  with  water.  The  water  not 
only  retains  the  valuable  oil  and  other  aromatic 
elements,  but  also  prepares  it  by  soaking  for 
immediate  boiling  in  the  morning. 

If  the  coffee  pot  (the  "Old  Dominion",  of 
course,  for  in  a  common  boiler  this  process 
would  ruin  the  coffee  by  wasting  the  aroma)  be 
set  on  the  range  or  stove,  or  near  the  fire,  so 
as  to  be  kept  hot  all  night  preparatory  to  boil- 
ing in  the  morning,  the  beverage  will  be  found 
in  the  morning,  rich,  mellow,  and  of  a  most 
delicious  flavor. 

Coffee  used  at  supper  time  should  be  placed  on 
or  near  the  fire  immediately  after  dinner  and 
kept  hot  or  simmering  —  not  boiling  —  all  the 
afternoon. 

Try  this  method  if  you  wish  coffee  in  per- 
fection. 

Wood's  improved  coffee  roaster  is  acknowl- 
edged to  be  the  best  article  of  the  kind  now  in 
use. 

This  patent  coffee  roaster  has  been  improved 
by  the  introduction  of  a  triangular  flange  inside 
of  each  of  the  hemispheres,  as  seen  in  the  cut. 
Tliese  flanges,  as  the  roaster  is  turned,  catch 
the  coffee  and  throw  it  from  the  inner  surface, 
thus  insuring  a  perfect  uniformity  in  the  burn- 
ing. 

The  Woods  roaster  (1849)  and  the  Old 
Dominion  Coffee  Pot  (1856)  have  been 
referred  to  in  chapter  XXXIV. 

From  the  Encyclopedia  of  Practical 
Cookery,  we  learn  some  more  about  the 
customs  prevailing  "among  the  first  cooks 
in  the  country"  in  roasting  and  making 


coffee  in  the  United  States  about  the  middle 
of  the  nineteenth  century.     For  example: 

Roasting  Coffee  Beans 

Put  the  beans  in  the  roaster,  set  this  before  a 
moderate  fire,  and  turn  slowly  until  the  Coffee 
takes  a  good  brown  colour ;  for  this  it  should 
require  about  twenty-five  minutes.  Open  the 
cover  to  see  when  it  is  done.  If  l)rowned. 
transfer  it  to  an  earthen  jar,  cover  it  tightly, 
and  use  when  needed. 

Or  a  more  simple  plan,  and  even  more  effec- 
tual, is  to  take  a  tin  baking-dish,  butter  well 
the  bottom,  put  the  Coffee  in  it,  and  set  it  in  a 
moderate  oven  until  the  beans  take  a  strong 
golden  colour,  twenty  minutes  suflicing  for  this. 
Toss  them  frequently  with  a  wooden  spoon  as 
they  are  cooking. 

Another  plan  is  to  put  in  a  small  frying-pan 
1  lb.  of  raw  Coffee-beans  and  set  the  pan 
on  the  fire,  stirring  and  shaking  occasionally 
till  the  beans  are  yellow  ;  then  cover  the  frying- 
pan  and  shake  the  Coffee  about  till  it  is  a  dark 
brown.  Move  the  pan  off  the  fire,  keep  the  cover 
on,  and  when  the  beans  are  a  little  cool,  break 
an  egg  over  them  and  stir  them  until  they  are 
all  well  coated  with  the  egg.  Then  store  the 
Coffee  in  tins  or  jars  with  tight-fitting  lids, 
and  grind  it  as  wanted  for  use. 

Coffee  should  always  be  bought  in  the  bean 
and  ground  as  required,  otherwise  it  is  liable 
to  extensive  adulteration  with  chicory  (or 
succory)  ;  some  persons  like  the  addition,  but 
the  epicure  who  is  really  fond  of  Coffee  would 
not  admit  of  its  introduction. 

Making  Breakfast  Coffee. 

Allow  1  tablespoonful  of  Coffee  to  each  person. 
The  Coffee  when  ground  should  be  measured, 
put  into  the  Coffee-pot,  and  boiling  water  poured 
over  it  in  the  proportion  of  %  pint  to  each 
tablespoonful  of  Coffee,  and  the  pot  put  on  the 
fire ;  the  instant  it  boils,  take  the  pot  off,  un- 
cover it,  and  let  it  stand  a  minute  or  two ;  then 
cover  it  again,  put  it  back  on  the  fire,  and  let  it 
boil  up  again.  Take  it  from  the  fire  and  let  it 
stand  for  five  minutes  to  settle.  It  is  then  ready 
to  pour  out. 

This  work  recommended  as  among  the 
latest  and  best  devices  for  coffee  making, 
all  those  manufactured  or  sold  in  this 
country  by  Adams  &  Son;  the  English 
coffee  biggin;  General  Hutchinson's  coffee 
pot  and  urn,  combining  De  Belloy's  and 
Rumford's  ideas;  Le  Brun's  Cafetiere  for 
making  coffee  by  distillation  and  by  steam 
pressure,  passing  it  directly  into  the  cup: 
a  Vienna  coffee-making  machine,  and  a 
Russian  coffee  reversible  pot  called  the 
Potsdam. 

Among  two  score  of  coffee  recipes  for 
making  various  kinds  of  extracts,  ices, 
candies,  cakes,  etc.,  flavored  with  coffee, 
there  is  a  curious  one  for  coffee  beer,  the 
invention  of  Frenchman  named  Pluehart. 


I* 'The  ingredients  and  quantities  in  a  thous- 
and parts  are  —  Strong  coffee  300;  rum 
300 ;  syrup  thickened  with  gum  Senegal  65 ; 
alcoholic  extract  of  orange  peel  10;  and 
water  325."- 

"It  does  not  appear  to  have  reached  any 
important  degree  of  popularity",  adds  the 
editor. 

In  1861,  Godey's  Lady's  Book  and  Maga- 
zine noted  with  approval  the  growing  cus- 
tom of  hotel  and  restaurant  guests  to  order 
coffee  instead  of  wines  or  spirits  with  their 
dinners.  On  the  subject  of  "How  to  make 
a  cup  of  coffee ' '  it  had  this  to  say : 

Which  is  the  best  way  of  making  coffee?  In 
this  particular  notions  differ.  For  example,  the 
Turks  do  not  trouble  themselves  to  take  off  the 
bitterness  by  sugar,  nor  do  they  seek  to  disguise 
the  flavor  by  milk,  as  is  our  custom.  But  they 
add  to  each  dish  a  drop  of  the  essence  of  amber, 
or  put  a  couple  of  cloves  in  it.  during  the 
process  of  preparation.  Such  flavoring  would 
not.  we  opine,  agree  with  western  tastes.  If  a 
cup  of  the  very  best  coffee,  prepared  in  the 
highest  perfection  and  boiling  hot.  be  placed  on 
a  table  in  the  middle  of  a  room  and  suffered  to 
cool,  it  will,  in  cooling,  fill  the  room  with  its 
fragrance;  but  becoming  cold,  it  will  lose  much 
of  its  flavor.  Being  again  heated,  its  taste  and 
flavor  will  be  still  further  impaired,  and  heated 
a  third  time,  it  will  be  found  vapid  and 
nauseous.  The  aroma  diffused  through  the  room 
proved  that  the  coffee  has  been  deprived  of  its 
most  volatile  parts,  and  hence  of  its  agreeable- 
ness  and  virtue.  By  pouring  boiling  water  on 
the  coffee,  and  surrounding  the  containing  vessel 
with  boiling  water,  the  finer  qualities  of  the 
coffee  will  be  preserved. 

Boiling  coffee  in  a  coffee-pot  is  neither  econ- 
omical or  judicious,  so  much  of  the  aroma  be- 
ing wasted  by  this  method.  Count  Rumford  (no 
mean  authority)  states  that  one  pound  of  good 
Mocha,  when  roasted  and  ground,  will  make 
fifty-six  cups  of  the  very  best  coffee,  but  it 
must  be  ground  finely,  or  the  surfaces  of  the 
particles  only  will  be  acted  upon  by  the  hot 
water,  and  much  of  the  essence  will  be  left  in 
the  grounds. 

Ill  the  East,  coffee  Lsisaid  to  arouse,  exhilarate, 
and  keep  awake,  allaying  hunger,  and  giving  to 
the  weary  renewed  strength  and  vigor,  while  it 
imparts  a  feeling  of  comfort  and  repose.  The 
Arabians,  when  they  take  their  coffee  off  the 
fire,  wrap  the  vessel  in  a  wet  cloth,  which  fines 
the  liquor  instantly,  and  makes  it  cream  at  the 
top.  There  is  one  great  essential  to  be  observed, 
namely,  that  coffee  should  not  be  ground  before 
it  is  required  for  use.  as  in  a  powdered  state  its 
finer  qualities  evaporate. 

We  pass  over  the  usual  modes  of  making 
coffee,  as  being  familiar  to  every  lady  who 
presides  over  every  household :  and  content  our- 
selves with  the  most  modern  and  approved 
Parisian  methods,  though  we  may  add  that  a 
common  recipe  for  good  coffee  is  —  two  ounces 
of  coffee  and  one  quart  of  water.  Filter  or  boil 
ten  minutes,  and  leave  to  clear  ten  minutes. 

The  French  make  an  extremely  strong  coffee. 


PREPARING  THE  BEVERAGE 


711 


For  breakfast,  they  drink  one-third  of  the  infu- 
sion, and  two-thirds  of  hot  milk.  Tli€  caf4  noir 
used  after  dinner,  is  the  very  essence  of  the 
berry.  Only  a  small  cup  is  taken,  sweetened 
with  white  sugar  or  sugar-candy,  and  sometimes 
a  little  eau  de  vie  is  poured  over  the  sugar  in  a 
spoon  held  above  the  surface,  and  set  on  fire; 
or  after  it.  a  very  small  glass  of  liqueur,  called 
a  chasse-cafe,  is  immediately  drunk.  But  the 
best  method,  prevalent  in  France,  for  making 
coffee  (and  the  infusion  may  be  strong  or  other- 
wise as  taste  may  direct)  is  to  take  a  large 
coffee-pot  with  an  upper  receptacle  made  to  fit 
close  into  it.  the  bottom  of  which  is  perforated 
with  small  holes,  containing  in  its  interior  two 
movable  metal  strainers,  over  the  second  of 
which  the  powder  is  to  be  placed,  and  imme- 
diately under  the  third.  Upon  this  upper 
strainer  pour  boiling  water,  and  continue  to  do 
so  gently;  until  it  bubbles  up  through  the 
strainer:  then  shut  the  cover  of  the  machine 
close  down,  place  it  near  the  fire,  and  so  soon 
as  the  water  has  drained  through  the  coffee, 
repeat  the  operation  until  the  whole  intended 
quantity  be  passed.  No  finings  are  required. 
Thus  all  the  fragrance  of  its  perfume  will  be 
retained  with  all  the  balsamic  and  stimulating 
powers  of  its  essence.  This  is  a  true  Parisian 
mode,  and  voila!  a  cup  of  excellent  coffee. 

This  article  is  most  interesting  in  that  it 
shows  the  revolt  against  boiling  coffee  had 
started  in  the  United  States;  also  that  the 
importance  of  fine  grinding  was  being 
recognized  and  emphasized  by  the  leaders 
of  the  best  thought  of  the  nation. 

Probably  the  first  scientific  inquiry  into 
the  subject  of  coffee  roasting  and  brewing 
in  the  United  States  was  that  detailed  by 
August  T.  Dawson  and  Charles  M. 
Wetherill,  Ph.D.,  M.D.,  in  the  Journal  of 
the  Franklin  Institute  for  July  and  August, 
1855.    The  following  is  a  digest: 

There  are  two  classes  of  beverages:  1,  alco- 
holic, and  2,  nitrogenized.  Nitrogenized  foods 
are  effective  to  replace  the  substance  of  the 
different  organs  of  the  body  wasted  away  by  the 
process  of  vitality.    Coffee  is  one  of  these. 

Besides  the  tannin,  the  coffee  berry  contains 
two  substances,  one  the  nitrogenized  quality, 
caffeine,  which  is  about  one  per  cent  and  is  not 
altered  in  roasting,  and  the  other  a  volatile  oil 
which  is  developed  in  roasting  and  which  gives 
the  coffee  its  flavor.  Dr.  Julius  Lehman  (Liebig's 
Annales  LXXXVII.  205)  says  that  coffee  retards 
the  waste  tissues  of  the  body  and  diminishes  the 
amount  of  food  necessary  to  preserve  life.  This 
effect  is  due  to  the  oil.  Much  of  the  nutritive 
portion  of  coffee  is  lost  by  European  methods  of 
making. 

Good  coffee  is  very  rare.  Tliese  experiments 
were  made  to  ascertain  whether  a  potable 
coffee  could  not  be  offered  to  the  public  at  as 
low  a  price  as  the  raw  or  roasted  now  is.  In 
order  to  be  successful  we  needed  to  extract  a 
larger  portion  of  the  nutritive  substance  than 
Is  extracted  in  the  household.  The  experiments 
have  proved  vain. 


712 


ALL     ABOUT     COFFEE 


As  a  result  of  our  experiments  with  diCferent 
ways  of  roasting  and  brewing  coffee,  we  have 
found  the  following  plan  to  be  the  most  con- 
venient and  the  best:  the  coffee  will  taste  the 
same  every  time  and  it  will  taste  good.  If  a 
good  berry  be  properly  roasted  and  the  infu- 
sion be  of  the  proper  strength,  good  coffee  must 
result.  A  Mocha  berry  should  be  selected  and 
roasted  seven  or  eight  pounds  at  a  time  in  a 
cylindrical  drum.  After  roasting  it  should  be 
placed  in  a  stone  jar  with  a  mouth  three  inches 
in  diameter.  The  jar  should  be  closed  air-tight. 
This  will  furnish  two  cups  of  coffee  daily  for 
six  months.  A  quart  should  be  taken  from  the 
jar  at  a  time  and  ground.  The  ground  coffee 
should  be  kept  in  covered  glass  jars. 

The  best  coffee  pot  was  found  to  be  the  com- 
mon biggin  having  an  upper  compartment  with  a 
perforated  bottom  upon  which  to  place  the 
coffee.  To  make  one  cup  of  this  infusion,  place 
half  an  ounce  of  ground  coffee  in  the  upper 
compartment  and  six  fluid  ounces  of  water  into 
the  bottom.  Put  the  biggin  over  a  gas  lamp. 
After  three  minutes  the  water  will  boil.  When 
steam  appears,  take  the  biggin  from  the  fire  and 
pour  the  water  into  a  cup  and  thence  immedi- 
ately into  the  top  of  the  biggin  where  it  will 
extract  the  berry  by  replacement.  (Here  fol- 
lows an  experiment.) 

This  experiment  shows  that  loss  of  weight  is 
no  criterion  that  coffee  is  properly  roasted, 
neither  is  the  color  (by  itself)  nor  the  tempera- 
ture, nor  the  time. 

Next  we  experimented  to  ascertain  whether 
the  aroma  developed  by  roasting  coffee  and 
which  is  lost  might  not  be  collected  and  added 
to  the  coffee  at  pleasure.  An  attempt  was  made 
to  drive  the  volatile  oils  from  roasted  coffee  by 
steam  and  make  a  dried  extract  of  the  residual 
coffee  to  which  the  oils  were  to  be  later  added. 
Two  attempts  were  made  and  both  failed.  It 
appears  that  but  a  small  quantity  of  the  aroma 
is  lost  in  roasting  and  that  is  mixed  with  bad 
smelling  vapors  from  which  it  is  impossible 
to  free  it. 

Then  we  tried  to  make  a  potable  coffee  by 
making  an  aqueous  extract  of  raw  coffee, 
evaporating  to  dryness  and  roasting  the  residue. 
(Here  follows  the  experiment.) 

This  also  was  unsuccessful.  The  great 
trouble  here  is  a  dark  shiny  residue,  which, 
while  tasteless,  is  very  disagreeable  to  look  at. 
In  the  preparation  of  coffee  by  boiling,  two  and 
a  half  times  as  much  matter  is  extracted  as  by 
biggin. 

The  proper  method  of  roasting  coffee  is  as 
follows:  It  should  be  placed  in  a  cylinder  and 
turned  constantly  over  a  bright  fire.  When 
white  smoke  begins  to  appear,  the  contents 
should  be  closely  watched.  Keep  testing  the 
grains.  As  soon  as  a  grain  breaks  easily  at  a 
slight  blow,  at  which  time  the  color  will  be  a 
light  chestnut  brown,  the  coffee  is  done.  Cool 
it  by  lifting  some  up  and  dropping  it  back  with 
a  tin  cup.  If  it  be  left  to  cool  in  a  heap  there 
is  great  danger  of  over-roasting.  Keep  the 
coffee  only  in  air-tight  vessels.  Measure  the  in- 
fusions, a  half  ounce  of  coffee  to  six  ounces  of 
water  per  cup. 

All  "extracts  of  coffee"  are  worthless.  Most  of 
them  are  composed  of  burned  sugar,  chicory, 
carrots,  etc. 


In  1883,  an  authority  of  that  day, 
Francis  B.  Thurber,  in  his  book,  Coffee; 
from  Plantation  to  Cup,  which  he  dedicated 
to  the  railroad  restaurant  man  at  Pough- 
keepsie,  because  he  served  an  ''ideal  cup  of 
coffee",  came  out  strongly  for  the  good  old 
boiling  method  with  eggs,  shells  included. 
This  was  the  Thurber  recipe : 

Grind '  moderately  fine  a  large  cup  or  small 
bowl  of  coffee ;  break  into  it  one  egg  with  shell ; 
mix  well,  adding  enough  cold  water  to  thor- 
oughly wet  the  grounds  ;  upon  this  pour  one  pint 
of  boiling  water:  let  it  boil  slowly  for  ten  to 
fifteen  minutes,  according  to  the  variety  of 
coffee  used  and  the  fineness  to  which  it  is  ground. 
Let  it  stand  three  minutes  to  settle,  then  pour 
through  a  fine  wire-sieve  into  a  warm  coffee  pot ; 
this  will  make  enough  for  four  persons.  At 
table,  first  put  the  sugar  into  the  cup,  then  fill 
half-full  of  boiling  milk,  add  your  coffee,  and 
you  have  a  delicious  beverage  that  will  be  a 
revelation  to  many  poor  mortals  who  have  an 
indistinct  remembrance  of.  and  an  intense  long- 
ing for.  an  ideal  cup  of  coffee.  If  cream  can  be 
procured  so  much  the  better,  and  in  that  case 
boiling  water  can  be  added  either  in  the  pot  or 
cup  to  make  up  for  the  space  occupied  by  the 
milk  as  above ;  or  condejised  milk  will  be  found 
a  good  substitute  for  cream. 

In  1886,  however,  Jabez  Burns,  who  knew 
something  about  the  practical  making  of 
the  beverage  as  well  as  the  roasting  and 
grinding  operations,  said: 

Have  boiling  water  handy.  Take  a  clean  dry 
pot  and  put  in  the  ground  coffee.  Place  on  fire 
to  warm  pot  and  coffee.  Pour  on  sufficient  boil- 
ing water,  not  more  than  two-thirds  full.  As 
soon  as  the  water  boils  add  a  little  cold  water 
and  remove  from  fire.  To  extract  the  greatest 
virtue  of  coffee  grind  it  fine  and  pour  scalding 
water  over  it. 

John  Cotton  Dana,  of  the  Newark  Public 
Library,  says  he  remembers  how  in  his  old 
home  in  Woodstock,  Vt.,  they  had  always, 
in  the  attic,  a  big  stone  jar  of  green  coffee. 
This  was  sacred  to  the  great  feast  days. 
Thanksgiving,  Christmas,  etc.  Just  before 
those  anniversaries,  the  jar  was  brought 
forward  and  the  proper  amount  of  coffee 
was  taken  out  and  roasted  in  a  flat  sheet- 
iron  pan  on  the  top  of  the  stove,  being 
stirred  constantly  and  watched  with  great 
care.  "As  my  memory  seems  to  say  that 
this  was  not  constantly  done,"  says  Mr. 
Dana,  ''it  would  seem  that,  even  then,  my 
father,  who  kept  the  general  store  in  the 
village,  bought  roasted  coffee  in  Boston  or 
New  York." 

At  the  close  of  the  century,  there  were 
still  many  advocates  of  boiling  coffee;  but 
although  the  coffee  trade  was  not  quite  ready 
to  declare  its  absolute  independence  in  this 


PREPARIXG   THE    BEVERAGE 


713 


irection,  ^ere  were  many  leaders  who 
coldly  proclaimed  their  freedom  from  the 
)ld  prejudice.  Arthur  Gray,  in  his  Over 
ihe  Black  Coffee,  as  late  as  1902,  quoted 
rthe  largest  coffee  importing  house  in  the 

Inited  States"  as  advocating  the  use  of 
Bggs  and  egg-shells  and  boiling  the  mixture 
Per  ten  minutes. 

Latest  Developments  in  Better  Coffee 
Making 

Better  coffee  making  by  co-operative  trade 
effort  got  its  initial  stimulus  at  the  1912 
Bonvention  of  the  National  Coffee  Roasters 
Lssociation.  As  a  result  of  discussions  at 
that  meeting  and  thereafter,  a  Better 
Coffee  IVIaking  Committee  v/as  created  for 
ivestigation  and  research. 

The  coffee  trade's  declaration  of  inde- 
)endence  in  the  matter  of  boiled  coffee  was 
made  at  the  1913  convention  of  the  National 
Coffee  Roasters  Association,  when,  after 
hearing  the  report  of  the  Better  Coffee 
Making  Committee,  presented  by  Edward 
Aborn  of  New  York,  it  adopted  a  resolu- 
tion saying  that  the  recommendations  met 
with  its  approval  and  ordering  that  they  be 
printed  and  circulated. 

The  work  done  by  the  committee  included 
"the  first  chemical  analysis  of  brewed 
coffee  on  record",  a  study  of  grindings, 
and  a  comparison  of  the  results  of  four 
brewing  methods.  Its  conclusions  and 
recommendations  were  embodied  in  a  book- 
let published  by  the  National  Coffee 
Roasters  Association,  entitled  From  Tree  to 
Cup  ivith  Coffee,  and  were  as  follows  : 

Roasting 

The  Roaster  or  "Cofifee  Chef"  is  the  only  cook 
necessary  to  a  good  cup  of  coffee.  He  sends  it 
to  the  consumer  a  completely  cooked  product. 

In  the  roasting  process  the  berries  swell  up 
by  the  liberation  of  gases  within  their  sub- 
stance. The  aromatic  oils  contained  in  the  cells 
are  sufficiently  developed  or  "cooked",  and  made 
ready  for  instantaneous  solution  with  boiling 
water,  when  the  cells  are  thoroughly  opened  by 
grinding. 

The  roasting  principles  of  different  green 
coffees  vary.  Trained  study  and  a  nice  science 
in  timing  the  roast  and  manipulating  the  fire  is 
necessary  to  a  perfect  development  of  aroma 
and  flavor. 

The  drinking  quality  is  largely  dependent  upon 
the  experienced  knowledge  of  the  coffee  roaster 
and  his  scientific  methods  and  modern  ma- 
chinery, by  which  the  coffee  is  not  only  roasted, 
but  cleaned,  milled  and  completely  manufactured 
to  a  high  point  of  perfection. 

In  their  National  Association  work,  the  whole- 
sale roasters  are  giving  the  public  new  facts 


and  valuable  information,  from  scientific  re- 
searches, investigations,  etc. 

Grindixg.  The  roasted  berry  is  constructed 
of  fibrous  tissues  formed  into  tiny  cells  visible 
only  under  the  microscope,  which  are  the  "pack- 
ages" wherein  are  stored  the  whole  value  of 
coffee,  the  aromatic  oils.  Like  cutting  open  an 
orange,  the  grinding  of  coffee  is  the  opening 
of  surrounding  tissue  and  pulp,  and  the  finer  it 
is  cut  the  more  easily  are  the  "juices"  released. 

The  fibrous  tissue  itself  is  waste  material, 
yielding,  by  boiling  or  too  long  percolations,  a 
coflee  colored  liquid  which  is  fibrous  and  twangy 
in  taste,  has  no  aromatic  character,  and  con- 
tains undesirable  elements. 

The  true  strength  and  flavor  of  roasted  coffee 
is  ground  out,  not  boiled  out.  The  finer  coffee 
is  ground,  the  more  thoroughly  are  the  cells 
opened,  the  surfaces  multiplied,  and  the 
aromatic  oils  made  ready  for  separation  from 
their  husks.    Hence  it  follows  that: 

Coarse  ground  coffee  is  unopened  coffee  — 
coffee  thrown  away. 

The  finer  the  grind,  the  better  and  greater 
the  yield.  With  pulverized  coffee  (fine  as  corn 
meal)  the  fully  released  aromatic  oils  are 
instantaneously  soluble  with  boiling  water. 

In  ground  coffee  the  oils  are  standing  in 
"open  packages,"  escaping  into  the  air  and 
absorbing  moisture,  etc.,  necessitating  quick 
use  or  confinement  in  air  proof  and  moisture 
proof  protection. 

Brewing.  From  scientific  researches  by  the 
National  Coffee  Roasters'  Association,  includ- 
ing the  first  chemical  analysis  on  record  of 
brewed  coffee,  produced  by  various  brewing 
methods,  the  fundamental  principles  of  coffee 
making  have  been  clearly  established.  These 
principles  are  simple,  and  when  once  under- 
stood equip  any  person  to  intelligently  judge 
the  merits  and  defects  of  the  various  coffee 
making  devices  on  the  market.  They  constitute 
the  law  of  coffee  brewing,  and  may  be  stated 
as  follows: 

Correct  brewing  is  not  "cooking."  It  is  a 
process  of  extraction  of  the  already  cooked 
aromatic  oils  from  the  surrounding  fibrous 
tissue,  which  has  no  drinkable  value.  Boiling 
or  stewing  cooks  in  the  fibre,  which  should  be 
wholly  discarded  as  dregs,  and  damages  the 
flavor  and  purity  of  the  liquid.  Boiling  coffee 
and  water  together  is  ruin  and  waste. 

The  aromatic  oils,  constituting  the  whole 
true  flavor,  are  extracted  instantly  by  boiling 
water  when  the  cells  are  thoroughly  opened 
by  fine  grinding.  The  undesirable  elements, 
being  less  quickly  soluble,  are  left  in  the 
grounds  in  a  quick  contact  of  water  and  coffee. 
Tlie  coarser  the  grind  the  less  accessible  are 
the  oils  to  the  water,  thus  the  inability  to  get 
out  the  strength  from  coffee  not  finely  enough 
ground. 

Too  long  contact  of  water  and  coffee  causes 
twang  and  bitterness,  and  the  finer  the  grind 
the  less  the  contact  should  be.  The  infusion, 
when  brewed,  is  injured  by  being  boiled  or 
overheated.  It  is  also  damaged  by  being 
chilled,  which  breaks  the  fusion  of  oils  and 
water.  It  should  be  served  immediately,  or 
kept  hot,  as  in  a  double  boiler. 


714 


ALL     ABOUT     COFFEE 


Tests  show  that  water  under  the  boiling 
point,  212°,  is  inefficient  for  coffee  brewing, 
and  does  not  extract  the  aromatic  oils".  Used 
under  this  temperature,  it  is  a  sure  cause  of 
weak  and  insipid  flavor.  The  effort  to  make 
up  this  deficiency  by  longer  contact  of  coffee 
and  water,  or  repeated  pouring  through,  re- 
sults in  no  extraction  of  the  oils,  but  draws 
out  undesirable  elements,  such  as  coftoe-tannin. 
which  is  soluble  in  water  at  any  temperature 
and  is  governed  by  the  time  of  contact. 

Coffee-tannin,  which  is  not  the  commercial 
tannic  acid,  is  eliminated  to  practically  noth- 
ing in  the  quick  brewing  methods. 

The  chemical  analysis  of  brewed  coffee  shows 
the  following: 

Coffee  Tannin        Comparative 

per  Cup  Proportions 

Percolator  method,^  fine  gran.  2.90  grains  — ^— 

5  minutes'  steeping 
Boiling  Method,  medium     "        2.35       "  ' 

Steeping  Method,     "  "        2.31       "  ^— 

Filtration  (or  Drip)  Method  J    q  .^q       .. 
Pulverized  J 

Brewing  is  the  final  manufacturing  process 
of  coffee.  All  previous  perfection  is  dependent 
upon  it.  Like  food  products  which  lose  nutritive 
value  by  bad  cooking,  coffee  loses  its  best  values 
by  wrong  brewing.  Brewed  by  the  very  simple 
correct  methods,  it  is  an  unfailingly  clear, 
fragrant,  taste-charming  beverage,  universally 
loved  and  scientifically  approved. 

The  committee  made  a  further  report  in 
1914,  and  some  of  the  findings  were  subse- 
quently published  in  an  association  booklet 
called  The  Coffee  Book,  used  in  connection 
with  the  second  National  Coffee  Week  cam- 
paign in  1915.    In  it  were  these : 

Grinding  Definitions 


Powdered 
Like  —  flour 


Pulverised 

Like  —  not    coarser    than 

flne    corn    meal. 


Very   Fine  and   Fine 

Like  —  from  corn  meal  to 

line  granulated  sugar. 


Medium 

Like  —  coarse    granulated 

sugar. 

Also,  the  committee  emphasized  its  previ- 
ous findings,  particularly  this  one :  ' '  Filter 
bags  should  be  kept  in  cold  water  when  not 
in  use.  Drying  causes  decomposition. 
Keeps  sweet  if  kept  wet.  Use  muslin  for 
filter  bag  and  pulverized  granulation." 

The  association  brought  out  this  same 
year,  on  recommendation  of  the  committee, 
its  Home  coffee  mill,  an  "ideal  and  stand- 
ard coffee  mill  for  home  use."  It  was  a 
wall  mill  equipped  with  a  glass-front  metal 
hopper  and  employing  a  ratchet  spring-lock 
nut  and  double-action  grinders.  The  mill 
was  later  improved  with  an  all-glass  hopper 
and  a  tumbler  bracket.  More  than  20,000 
of  these  mills  have  been  sold. 


«  In  1921,  Professor  S.  C.  Prescott,  in  charge  of  the 
research  work  for  the  Joint  Coffee  Trade  Publicity 
Committee  at  the  Massachusetts  Institute  of  Tech- 
nology, said  that  a  brew  made  with  the  water  con- 
siderably below  the  boiling  point,  was  preferable. 

'  Meaning  the  pumping  percolator. 


At  the  suggestion  of  the  author,  the 
efficiency  of  nine  dift'erent  coffee-makinc 
devices  (including  boiling  and  drip  pots, 
pumping  percolators,  cloth  and  paper 
filters)  was  investigated  in  the  laboratories 
of  the  Mellon  Institute  of  Industrial  Re- 
search of  the  University  of  Pittsburgh  in 
1915;  and  Dr.  Raymond  F.  Bacon  sub- 
mitted a  report  that  showed  that  the  boiling 
method  produced  the  highest  percentage  of 
caffetannic  acid  and  caffein ;  the  French 
drip  process  the  lowest.  The  investigation 
disclosed  also  a  more  palatable  brew  at 
195°  to  200°  F.  than  at  the  boiling  point. 

Another  notable  contribution  to  the 
science  of  coffee  brewing  was  made  by  the 
Home  Economics  Laboratories  of  the  Univ- 
ersity of  Kansas  in  1916.  The  experiments 
extended  over  one  year.  They  showed  that 
strength  and  color  in  coffee  brews  are  in- 
dependent of  blend  and  price  and  are  most 
fully  obtained  by  pulverized  granulation, 
which  was  found  to  be  the  most  efficient ; 
that  the  consumer  pays  for  flavor  and  that 
filtration  yielded  the  best  brew.  The  French 
drip,  or  true  percolator,  did  not  figure  in 
these  experiments. 

At  the  1915  convention  of  the  National 
Coffee  Roasters  Association,  Mr.  Aborn  re- 
ported that  4,000  copies  of  the  committee's 
findings  on  grinding  and  brewing  had  been 
given  away;  and  the  facts  were  further 
circulated  in  2,000.000  booklets  issued  dur- 
ing two  years.  He  told  of  tests  which 
showed  that  while  there  might  be  reasons 
of  commercial  expediency  for  packing 
ground  coffee,  it  could  not  be  defended  as  a 
quality  principle;  also  that  plate-grinders 
produced  a  more  efficient  drawing  granula- 
tion than  roller  grinders,  and  that  the  idea 
that  the  steel-cut  process  eliminates  dirt 
was  an  absurdity,  as  **the  finest  ground 
coffee  is  not  dirt  but  coffee  in  its  most 
efficient  drawing  condition."  He  added,  ''I 
have  paid  no  attention  to  chaff  removal  in 
these  tests  as  the  uselessness  of  such  removal 
has  been  repeatedly  shown  up."  The  refer- 
ence here  was  to  his  1914  and  1913  reports, 
in  which  it  was  stated  that  "removing  the 
chaff  in  the  steel-cut  process  does  not  remove 
any  of  the  tannin,  and  for  this  purpose  the 
steel-cut  process  is  wholely  futile,  and  a 
wasteful  and  unnecessary  tax  upon  cost", 
and  that  "the  removal  of  the  chaff  appre- 
ciably affects  the  flavor  and  depreciates  the 
cup  value." 

This  report  repeated  previous  findings 
against  the  pumping  percolator  as  produe- 


PREPARING  THE  BEVERAGE 


715 


ing  an  inefficient  brew  and  beinsr  a  very 
faulty  utensil.  Mr.  Aborn  concluded  Lis 
report  by  saying: 

The  old  time  boiling  method  has  fewer  and 
fewer  defenders  and  holds  its  own  only  as  a 
superstition.  I  therefore  pass  it  over  as  a  dis- 
<?arded  issue  .  .  .  It  is  but  repetition  of 
former  reports  for  me  to  say  that  pulverized 
granulation  is  the  most  efficient  granulation ; 
that  it  assures  the  highest  quality  of  brew  and 
the  lowest  proportion  of  coffee  to  a  given 
strength ;  that  it  is  the  most  saving  and  most 
satisfying  grinding  for  all  to  use;  that  it  (the 
coffee)  must  be  fresh  ground;  that  the  filtration 
method  is  the  most  correct  in  fundamental  prin- 
ciples and  that  used  with  a  muslin  bag  it 
assures  the  consumer  coffee  of  the  purest,  finest 
flavored  quality,  highest  health  value  and  sure 
economy. 

The  campaign  of  education  was  continued 
•during  1916,  producing  encouraging  results 
among  schools,  colleges,  the  medical  fratern- 
ity, newspapers,  with  the  trade  and  the 
consumer.  It  marked  the  first  big  construc- 
tive work  combining  the  practical  and 
•scientific  phases  of  grinding  and  brewing 
methods.  In  his  report  at  the  1916  conven- 
tion of  the  National  Coffee  Roasters  Asso- 
ciation. Mr.  Aborn  reviewed  the  four  j-ears 
-work,  and  pointed  out  what  had  been  R2- 
-complished.  He  told  of  a  new  booklet,  to 
1)6  called  the  True  Book  on  Coffee  Grinding 
and  Brewing,  and  an  educational  exhibit 
"box  for  schools  about  to  be  issued.  Due  to 
opposition  which  developed  from  trade  in- 
terests that  were  putting  out  steel-cut  and 
■other  grinds  of  coffee  not  favored  by  the 
committee,  and  also  because  many  members 
thought  the  association  should  not  exploit 
any  particular  method  of  grinding  or  brew- 
ing, it  was  decided  to  make  no  further 
publication  of  the  coffee  grinding  and  brew- 
ing conclusions  of  the  committee  until  they 
Tiad  been  confirmed  by  laboratory  research. 

Boiling  and  filtration  tests  in  the  moun- 
tains of  the  Yellowstone  Park  by  W.  H. 
Aborn  in  1916  showed  that  the  limit  of 
coffee  brewing  was  reached  at  an  altitude 
of  nine  thousand  feet. 

At  the  1916  meeting,  Dr.  Floyd  W. 
Hobison  of  the  Detroit  Testing  Laboratories, 
read  a  notable  paper  entitled  "What  do  we 
know  about  coffee?,"  which  hailed  coffee 
as  a  food  product,  warned  the  roasters  to 
beware  of  half -facts,  and  urged  the  import- 
ance of  a  research  laboratory.  It  was  pub- 
lished and  given  distribution  by  the  asso- 
ciation. 

The  educational  exhibit  box  showing 
•samples  of  coffee  from  plantation  to  cup, 


including  five  different  grinds,  was  issued 
in  1917,  and  sold  for  one  dollar. 

The  Better  Coffee  Making  Committee 
also  published  in  this  year  a  booklet  entitled 
Coffee  Grinding  and  Brewing  in  which  it 
summarized  its  work  to  date,  and  presented 
its  special  plea  for  cotton-cloth  filters  as 
the  ideal  coffee-making  device. 

This  booklet  aroused  considerable  discus- 
sion, particularly  between  those  who  favored 
the  paper  filter  and  those  who,  with  Mr. 
Aborn,  believed  cotton  cloth,  such  as  muslin, 
to  be  the  most  efficient  strainer.  "Cotton", 
argued  Mr.  Aborn,  "is  an  ideal  sanitary 
strainer  because  it  contains  no  chemical  or 
questionable  manufacturing  element." 

It  was  pointed  out  by  Dr.  Floyd  W, 
Robison  that  while  cotton  cloth,  such  as 
muslin,  does  give  a  fairly  clear  coffee,  it  is 
not  so  clear  as  by  the  methods  where  a  filter 
paper  is  used.    He  said : 

Both  methods  have  serious  objectionable  feat- 
ures. Tlie  muslin  bag,  particularly,  is  decidedly 
unsanitary,  especially  when  used  in  restaurants 
and  hotels.  It  is  rarely  kept  clean,  and  one  who 
has  frequented  restaurants  and  many  hotel 
kitchens  knows  that  it  lends  itself  to  very  un- 
clean and  unsightly  methods  of  handling.  The 
food  inspector  has  to  check  this  up  perhaps  as 
often  as  any  one  feature  about  a  restaurant. 

The  objection  to  the  filter  paper  is  not  at  all 
on  the  ground  of  sanitation.  It  is  ideal  in  this 
respect.  The  claim  is  made,  and  at  least,  in 
part,  substantiated,  that  it  does  hold  back  valu- 
able features  of  the  brew. 

There  are  many  points  about  the  filter  that 
have  not  been  considered  at  all.  Mr.  Calkin  be- 
lieves that  the  very  best  type  of  filter  is  a  bed  of 
coffee  itself,  and  I  must  say  this  has  the  sanc- 
tion of  good  laboratory  experience. 


I.  D.  Richheimer 
cloth  filter,  said : 


attacking  the  cotton 


It  is  a  known  fact  that  the  fats  in  coffee  are 
very  dense  and  represent  twelve  to  fifteen 
percent  of  the  coffee  weight.  These  fats  —  due 
to  the  simplest  chemical  action  of  contact  with 
air,  moisture  and  continued  heat  —  begin  a  fer- 
mentation in  the  completed  beverage..  In  the 
cloth-filtering  process  —  due  to  the  rapid  passage 
of  water  through  grounds  almost  as  quickly  as 
poured  —  the  largest  percentage  of  fats  is  car- 
ried into  the  beverage.  Fat  being  lighter  than 
water  rises  to  the  top  of  water  if  given  a  certain 
amount  of  time  during  the  brewing  process. 
Were  there  no  fats  (which  ferment)  in  coffee 
there  would  be  no  need  for  placing  cloth-filtering 
material  under  water,  as  suggested,  to  keep 
them  from  becoming  sour. 

In  the  booklet  referred  to,  Mr.  Aborn 

Trade   Jour.,    1917    (vol.    xxxiii : 


•  Tea    and    Coffee 
no.   5 :   pp.   339-40). 


716 


ALL     ABOUT     COFFEE 


expressed  himself  as  follows  on  the  filtra- 
tion method: 

The  filtration  method  is  not  new,  but  well 
tried,  thoroughly  proven  and  long  used,  though 
often  incorrectly.  It  is  the  method  followed, 
more  or  less  correctly,  by  all  of  the  first-class 
hotels  in  the  world.  It  is  controlled  by  no  patent 
or  proprietary  device,  and  requires  a  most  in- 
expensive equipment.  For  a  perfect  result  it 
but  demands  an  accurate  adherence  to  simple 
but  vital  principles.  Deviations  from  these 
fundamentals,  though  apparently  slight,  cause 
failure.  When  they,  and  the  necessary  exact 
following  of  them,  are  clearly  understood,  any 
person,  even  a  small  child,  can  brew  cofCee  with 
unvarying  success. 

The  first  point  to  consider  in  filtration  is  the 
dimensions  of  the  filter  bag,  or  container  of  the 
ground  coffee,  in  relation  to  the  quantity  of 
coffee  used  and  the  granulation  of  same.  If 
the  filter  be  a  muslin  bag,  free  on  all  sides,  the 
filtering  surface  is  considerable  and  permits  the 
necessary  quick  passage  of  water  through  the 
grounds,  provided  the  bag  is  of  a  wide  enough 
diameter  as  to  prevent  too  great  a  depth  of 
grounds  through  which  the  water  cannot  quickly 
penetrate.  The  error  of  too  narrow  a  filter  is  a 
common  one.  It  causes  a  delayed  filtration, 
which  means  undesirably  long  contact  of  water 
and  coffee  and  also  the  cooling  of  the  liquid 
which  in  a  correct,  undelayed  filtration  is  smok- 
ing hot  at  completion.  The  bag  should  also  not 
be  too  long  or  be  allowed  to  hang  or  soak  in 
the  liquid.  A  filter  bag  set  tightly  into  a  pot 
against  its  sides,  thus  surrounded  with  im- 
penetrable walls,  is  greatly  reduced  in  filtering 
surface,  and  the  filtration  is  thereby  slackened. 

Tlie  filter  material  should  not  be  too  coarse  in 
texture,  like  cheese  cloth,  or  too  heavy  and 
impenetrable,  like  very  heavy  muslin.  A 
moderate  weight  muslin,  not  too  light,  is  effi- 
cient. 

The  degree  of  granulation  also,  of  course, 
affects  the  rate  of  flow.  The  coarser  the  grind 
the  faster  the  flow,  which  permits  a  larger 
quantity  of  coffee  to  a  given  diameter  of  filter 
bag. 

A  most  frequent  fault  in  the  use  of  the  filtra- 
tion method  is  the  failure  to  understand  the 
fine  degree  of  grinding  necessary  to  the  best 
results.  When  the  grind  is  not  sufficiently  fine 
the  extraction  is,  of  course,  weak.  A  fine  grind 
(like  fine  cornmeal)  is  essential.  It  does  not 
retard  the  flow  if  the  filter  is  of  right  dimen- 
sions. A  powdered  grind  (like  flour)  is  so  fine 
that  it  is  apt  to  "mat"  itself  into  a  resisting 
floor. 

Many  users  of  the  filtration  method  pour  the 
liquid  through  more  than  once.  This  gains 
some  added  color,  but  adds  undesirable  element, 
depreciates  flavor  and  is  especially  inadvisable 
when  the  grind  is  sufficiently  fine.  One  pouring 
only  is  recommended  for  the  best  results. 

The  chinaware,  or  glazed  earthenware  pot, 
sometimes  called  the  French  drip  pot,  with  a 
chinaware  or  earthenware  sieve  container  for 
the  grounds  at  the  top  through  which  the  water 
is  poured,  being  free  of  all  metal,  is  inviting  in 
purity  and  in  hygienic  merit.  Together  with 
the  filter  bag,  it  is  subject  to  the  above  remarks 
on  dimensions.     A  chinaware  sieve  cannot  be 


made  as  fine  as  a  metal  sieve  and  cannot  of 
course  hold  very  fine  granulation  as  can  cotton 
cloth.  More  coffee  for  a  given  strength  is, 
therefore,  required.  The  upper  container  should 
be  wide  enough,  for  a  given  quantity  of  coffee, 
as  to  allow  an  unretarded  flow,  and  the  more 
openings  the  strainer  contains  the  better. 

In  any  drip,  filtration  or  percolating  method 
the  stirring  of  the  grounds  causes  an  over-con- 
tact of  water  and  coffee  and  results  in  an  over- 
drawn liquor  of  injured  flavor.  If  the  water 
does  not  pass  through  the  grounds  readily,  the 
fault  is  as  above  indicated  and  cannot  be  cor- 
rected by  stirring  or  agitation.  Many  complaints 
of  bitter  taste  are  traced  to  this  error  in  the 
use  of  the  filtration  method. 

It  is  not  necessary  to  pour  on  the  water  in 
driblets.  The  water  may  be  poured  slowly,  hut 
the  grounds  should  be  kept  well  covered.  The 
weight  of  the  water  helps  the  fiow  downward 
through  the  grounds.  Care  should  be  taken  to 
keep  up  the  temperature  of  the  water.  Set  the 
kettle  back  on  the  stove  when  not  pouring.  If 
the  water  is  measured,  use  a  small  heated 
vessel,  which  fill  and  empty  quickly  without 
allowing  the  water  to  cool. 

In  1917,  The  Tea  and  Coffee  Trade  Jour- 
not  made  a  comparative  coffee-brewing  test 
with  a  regulation  coffee  pot  for  boiling,  a 
pumping  percolator,  a  double  glass  filtration 
device,  a  cloth-filter  device,  and  a  paper 
filter  device.  The  cup  tests  were  made  by 
E.  M.  Frankel,  Ph.D.;  and  William  B. 
Harris,  coffee  expert,  United  States  Depart- 
ment of  Agriculture.  The  brews  were 
judged  for  color,  flavor  (palatability, 
smoothness),  body  (richness),  and  aroma. 
The  test  showed  that  the  paper  filtration 
device  produced  the  most  superior  brew. 
The  cloth-filter,  glass-filter,  percolator,  and 
boiling  pot  followed  in  the  order  named. 

At  the  1917  convention  of  the  National 
Coffee  Roasters  Association,  John  E.  King, 
of  Detroit,  announced  that  laboratory  re- 
search which  he  had  had  conducted  for  him 
showed  that  the  finer  the  grind,  the  greater 
the  loss  of  aroma,  and  so  he  had  selected 
a  grind  containing  ninety  percent  of  very 
fine  coffee  and  ten  percent  of  a  coarser 
nature,  which  seemed  to  retain  the  aroma. 
He  subsequently  secured  a  United  States 
patent  for  this  grind.  Mr.  King  announced 
also  at  this  meeting  that  his  investigations 
showed  there  was  more  than  a  strong  likeli- 
hood that  the  much-discussed  caffetannic 
acid  did  not  exist  in  coffee  —  that  it  most 
probably  was  a  mixture  of  chlorogenic  and 
and  coffalic  acids. 

The  World  War  operated  to  interfere 
with  the  coffee  roasters '  plans  for  a  research 
bureau;  and  in  the  meantime  the  Brazil 
planters,    in    1919,    started    their    million- 


^H[- States,  co-operating  with  a  joint  committee 
^H  representing  the  green  and  roasted  coffee 
^^^  interests.  In  the  following  year  (June, 
1920),  this  committee  arranged  with  the 
Massachusetts  Institute  of  Technology  to 
start  scientific  research  work  on  coffee,  the 
literature  of  the  roasters'  Better  Coffee 
Making  Committee  being  turned  over  to  it ; 
and  the  Institute  began  to  "test  the  results 
of  the  committee's  work  by  purely  analyti- 
cal methods." 

The  first  report  on  the  research  work  at 
the  Massachusetts  Institute  of  Technology 
was  made  by  Professor  S.  C.  Prescott  to 
the  Joint  Coffee  Trade  Publicity  Commit- 
tee in  April,  1921.  The  committee  gave 
out  a  statement  saying  that  Prof.  Prescott 's 
report  stated  that  "caffein,  the  most  char- 
acteristic principle  of  coffee,  is,  in  the  mod- 
erate quantities  consumed  by  the  average 
coffee  drinker,  a  safe  stimulant  without 
harmful  after-effects. ' ' 

There  was  no  publication  of  experimental 
results ;  but  the  announced  findings  were,  in 
the  main,  a  confirmation  of  the  results  of 
previous  workers,  particularly  of  Holling- 
worth,  with  whose  statement,  that  ''caffein, 
when  taken  with  food  in  moderate  amount 

»is  not  in  the  least  deleterious,"  the  report 
was  quoted  as  being  in  entire  agreement. 

At  the  annual  convention  of  the  National 
Coffee  Roasters  Association,  November  2, 
1921,  Professor  Prescott  made  a  further 
report,  in  which  he  stated  that  investiga- 
tions on  coffee  brewing  had  disclosed  that 
coffee  made  with  water  between  185°  and 
200°  was  to  be  preferred  to  coffee  made  with 
the  water  at  actual  boiling  temperature 
(212°),  that  the  chemical  action  was  far 
less  vigorous,  and  that  the  resulting  infu- 
sion retained  all  the  fine  flavors  and  was 
freer  from  certain  bitter  or  astringent 
flavors  than  that  made  at  the  higher  tem- 
perature. Professor  Prescott  announced 
also  that  the  best  materials  for  coffee-making 
utensils  were  glass  (including  agate-ware, 
vitrified  ware,  porcelain,  etc.),  aluminum, 
nickel  or  silver  plate,  copper,  and  tin  plate, 
in  the  order  named*. 

The  Joint  Coffee  Trade  Publicity  Com- 
mittee's booklet  on  Coffee  and  Coffee  Mak- 
ing, issued  in  1921,  was  very  guarded  in  its 
observations  on  grinding  and  brewing.  It 
avoided  all  controversial  points,  but  it  did 

»  Tea  and  Cotfee  Trade  Jour.,  1921  (vol.  xli :  no.  5  : 
p.  688). 


PREPARING  THE  BEVERAGE 


717 


go  so  far  as  to  say  on  the  general  subject 
of  brewing : 

Chemists  have  analyzed  the  cofifee  bean  and 
told  us  that  the  only  part  of  it  which  should  go 
into  our  coffee  cups  for  drinking  is  an  aromatic 
oil.  This  aromatic  element  is  extracted  most 
efficiently  only  by  fresh  boiling  water.  The 
practice  of  soaking  the  grounds  in  cold  water, 
therefore,  is  to  be  condemned.  It  is  a  mistake 
also  to  let  the  water  and  the  grounds  boil  to- 
gether after  the  real  coft'ee  flavor  is  once  ex- 
tracted. This  extraction  takes  place  very  quick- 
ly, especially  when  the  coffee  is  ground  fine. 
The  coarser  the  granulation  the  longer  it  is 
necessary  to  let  the  grounds  remain  in  contact 
with  the  boiling  water.  Remember  that  flavor, 
the  only  flavor  worth  having,  is  extracted  by  the 
short  contact  of  boiling  water  and  coffee  grounds 
and  that  after  this  flavor  is  extracted,  the 
coffee  grounds  become  valueless  dregs. 

The  report  contained  also  the  following 
helpful  generalities  on  coffee  service  and 
the  various  methods  of  brewing  in  more  or 
less  common  use  in  the  United  States  in 
1921: 

Although  the  above  rules  are  absolutely  funda- 
mental to  good  Coffee  Making,  their  importance 
is  so  little  appreciated  that  in  some  households 
the  lifeless  grounds  from  the  breakfast  Coffee 
are  left  in  the  pot  and  resteeped  for  the  next 
meal,  with  the  addition  of  a  small  quantity  of 
fresh  coffee.  Used  coffee  grounds  are  of  no 
more  value  in  coffee  making  than  ashes  are  in 
kindling  a  fire. 

After  the  coffee  is  brewed  the  true  cofifee 
flavor,  now  extracted  from  the  bean,  should  be 
guarded  carefully.  When  the  brewed  liquid  is 
left  on  the  flre  or  overheated  this  flavor  is 
cooked  away  and  the  whole  character  of  the 
beverage  is  changed.  It  is  just  as  fatal  to  let 
the  brew  grow  cold.  If  possible,  coffee  should 
be  served  as  soon  as  it  is  made.  If  service  is 
delayed,  it  should  be  kept  hot  but  not  over- 
heated. For  this  purpose  careful  cooks  prefer  a 
double  boiler  over  a  slow  flre.  The  cups  should 
be  warmed  beforehand,  and  the  same  is  true 
of  a  serving  pot.  if  one  is  u.sed.  Brewed  coffee, 
once  injured  by  cooling,  cannot  be  restored  by 
reheating. 

Unsatisfactory  results  in  coffee  brewing  fre- 
quently can  be  traced  to  a  lack  of  care  in 
keeping  utensils  clean.  The  fact  that  the  coffee 
pot  is  used  only  for  coffee  making  is  no  excuse 
for  setting  it  away  with  a  hasty  rinse.  Coffee 
making  utensils  should  be  cleansed  after  each 
using  with  scrupulous  care.  If  a  percolator  is 
used  pay  special  attention  to  the  small  tube 
through  which  the  hot  water  rises  to  spray  over 
the  grounds.  Tliis  should  be  scrubbed  with  the 
wire-handled  brush  that  comes  for  the  purpose. 

In  cleansing  drip  or  fllter  bags  use  cool  water. 
Hot  water  "cooks  in"  the  coffee  stains.  After 
the  bag  is  rinsed  keep  it  submerged  in  cool 
water  until  time  to  use  it  again.  Never  let  it 
dry.  This  treatment  protects  the  cloth  from  the 
germs  in  the  air  which  cause  souring.  New 
fllter  bags  should  be  washed  before  using  to 
remove  the  starch  or  sizing. 


718 


ALL    ABOUT     C 


FFEE      If'^ 


Drip  (ok  Filter)  Coffee.  The  principle  be- 
liind  this  method  is  the  quiclc  contact  of  water 
at  full  boiling  point  with  coffee  ground  as  fine 
as  it  is  practical  to  use  it.  The  filtering  medium 
may  be  of  cloth  or  paper,  or  perforated  china- 
ware  or  metal.  The  fineness  of  the  grind  should 
be  regulated  by  the  nature  of  the  filtering 
medium,  the  grains  being  large  enough  not  to 
slip  through  the  perforations. 

The  amount  of  ground  coffee  to  use  may  vary 
from  a  heaping  teaspoonful  to  a  rounded 
tablespoonful  for  each  cup  of  coffee  desired, 
depending  upon  the  granulation,  the  kind  of 
apparatus  used  and  individual  taste.  A  general 
rule  is  the  finer  the  grind  the  smaller  the 
amount  of  dry  coffee  required. 

The  most  satisfactory  grind  for  a  cloth  drip 
bag  has  the  consistency  of  powdered  sugar  and 
shows  a  slight  grit  when  rubbed  between  thumb 
and  finger.  Unbleached  muslin  makes  the  best 
bag  for  this  granulation.  For  dripping  coffee 
reduced  to  a  powder,  as  fine  as  flour  or  confec- 
tioner's sugar,  use  a  bag  of  canton  flannel  with 
the  fuzzy  side  in.  Powdered  coffee,  however, 
requires  careful  manipulation  and  cannot  be 
recommended  for  everyday  household  use. 

Put  the  ground  coffee  in  the  bag  or  sieve. 
Bring  fresh  water  to  a  full  boil  and  pour  it 
through  the  coffee  at  a  steady,  gradual  rate  of 
flow.  If  a  cloth  drip  bag  is  used,  with  a  very 
finely  ground  coffee,  one  pouring  should  be 
enough.  No  special  pot  or  device  is  necessary. 
The  liquid  coffee  may  be  dripped  into  any  handy 
vessel  or  directly  into  the  cups.  Dripping  into 
the  coffee  cups,  however,  is  not  to  be  recom- 
mended unless  the  dripper  is  moved  from  cup  to 
cup  so  that  no  one  cup  will  get  more  than  its 
share  of  the  first  flow,  which  is  the  strongest 
and  best. 

The  brew  is  complete  when  it  drips  from  the 
grounds,  and  further  cooking  or  "heating  up" 
injures  the  quality.  Therefore,  since  it  is  not 
necessary  to  put  the  brew  over  the  fire,  it  is 
possible  to  make  use  of  the  hygienic  advantages 
of  a  glassware,  porcelain  or  earthenware  serv- 
ing pot. 

Boiled  (or  Steeped)  Coffee.  For  boiling  (or 
steeping)  use  a  medium  grind.  The  recipe  is  a 
rounded  tablespoonful  for  each  cup  of  coffee 
desired  or  —  as  some  cooks  prefer  to  remember 
it  —  a  tablespoonful  for  each  cup  and  "one  for 
the  pot."  Put  the  dry  coffee  in  the  pot  and  pour 
over  it  fresh  water  briskly  boiling.  Steep  for 
five  minutes  or  longer,  according  to  taste,  over 
a  low  fire.  Settle  with  a  dash  of  cold  water  or 
strain  through  muslin  or  cheesecloth  and  serve 
at  once. 

Percolated  Coffee.  Use  a  rounded  tablespoon- 
ful of  medium  fine  ground  coffee  to  each  cupful 
of  water.  The  water  may  be  poured  into  the 
percolator  cold  or  at  the  boiling  point.  In  the 
latter  case,  percolation  begins  at  once.  Let  the 
water  percolate  over  the  grounds  for  five  or  ten 
minutes  depending  upon  the  intensity  of  the 
heat  and  the  flavor  desired. 

In  response  to  a  request  by  the  author, 
Charles  W.  Trigg  has  contributed  the  fol- 
lowing discussion  of  coffee  making : 


Various  Aspects  of  Scientific  Coffee  Brewing 

Before  converting  it  into  the  beverage  form, 
coffee  must  be  carefully  selected  and  blended, 
and  skillfully  roasted,  in  order  thus  far  to 
assure  obtaining  a  maximum  efficiency  of  re- 
sults. No  matter  how  accurately  alf  this  be 
done,  improper  brewing  of  the  roasted  bean  will 
nullify  the  previous  efforts  and  spoil  the  drink ; 
for  roasted  coffee  is  a  delicate  material,  very 
susceptible  to  deterioration  and  of  doubtful 
worth  as  the  source  of  a  beverage  unless  prop- 
erly handled. 

There  probably  never  was  produced  a  drink 
which  so  fits  into  the  exacting  desires  of  the 
human  appetite  as  does  coffee.  Properly  pre- 
pared, it  is  a  delightful  beverage ;  but  incor- 
rectly made,  it  becomes  an  imposition  upon  the 
palates  of  mankind.  Sensitive  though  coffee  is 
to  improper  manipulation,  the  best  procedure 
for  brewing  it  is  also  the  easiest.  Cheap  coffee 
well  made  excels  good  coffee  poorly  made. 

Constituent  Concepts.  The  roasting  of  green 
coffee  causes  an  alteration  in  the  constitution 
of  its  constituents,  with  the  result  that  some 
of  the  compounds  present  therein  which  were 
originally  water-soluble  are  rendered  insoluble, 
and  some  which  were  insoluble  are  converted 
into  soluble  ones.  A  portion  of  the  original 
caffein  content  is  lost  by  sublimation.  Tlie 
aromatic  conglomerate,  caffeol,  is  formed,  and  a 
considerable  quantity  of  gas  is  produced,  a  por- 
tion of  which,  developing  pressure  in  the  cells 
of  the  beans,  pops,  or  swells,  them  so  as  to 
increase  the  size  of  each  individual  bean.  The 
constitutents  which  are  water-soluble  after  the 
torrefaction  may  be  generally  classified  as  heavy 
extractives  and  light  aromatic  materials.  The 
percentages  and  nature  of  these  materials  in 
the  roasted  coffee  will  vary  with  the  type  of 
coffee  and  with  the  roast  whicli  it  is  given.  In 
general,  and  in  particular  for  puit>oses  of  com- 
parison of  methods  of  brewing,  they  may— be 
considered  to  be  the  same  and  to  occur  in  about 
the  same  proportions  in  all  coffees. 

The  heavy  extractives  are  caffein.  mineral 
matter,  proteins,  caramel  and  sugars,  "caffe- 
tannic  acid",  and  various  organic  materials  of 
uncertain  composition.  Some  fat  will  also  be 
found  in  the  average  coffee  brew,  being  present 
not  by  virtue  of  being  water  soluble,  but  be- 
cause it  has  been  melted  from  the  bean  by  the 
hot  water  and  carried  along  with  the  solution. 

The  caffein  furnishes  the  stimulation  for 
which  coffee  is  generally  consumed.  It  has  only 
a  slightly  bitter  taste,  and  because  of  the  rela- 
tively small  percentage  in  which  it  is  present  in 
a  cup  of  coffee,,  does  not  contribute  to  the  cup 
value.  The  mineral  matter,  together  with  cer- 
tain decomposition  and  hydrolysis  products  of 
crude  fiber  and  chlorogenic  acid,  contribute  to- 
ward the  astringency  or  bitterness  of  the  cup. 
The  proteins  are  present  in  such  small  quantity 
that  their  only  role  is  to  raise  somewhat  the 
almost  negligible  food  value  "of  a  coffee  infusion. 
The  body,  or  what  might  be  called  the  licorice- 
like character  of  coffee,  is  due  to  the  presence 
of  bodies  of  a  glucosidic  nature  and  to  caramel. 

As  has  been  previously  pointed  out ".  the  term 
"caffetannic  acid"  is  a  misnomer :  for  the  sub- 


"  See  chapter  XVII. 


PREPARING  THE  BEVERAGE 


719 


Section  of  Roasted  Bean  Magnified  1,000  Times 


stances  which  are  called  by  this  name  are  in  all 
probability  mainly  coffalic  and  chlorogenic  acids. 
Neither  is  a  true  tannin,  and  they  evince  but 
few  of  the  characteristic  reactions  of  tanmc 
acid.  Some  neutral  coffees  will  show  as  high  a 
"caffetannic  acid"  content  as  other  acid-charac- 
tered ones.  Careful  work  by  Warmer  "  showed 
the  actual  acidities  of  some  East  Indian  coffees 
to  vary  from  0.013  to  0.033  per  cent.  These 
figures  may  be  taken  as  reliable  examples  of  the 
true  acid  content  of  coffee,  and  though  they 
seem  very  low,  it  is  not  at  all  incomprehensible 
rliat  the  acids  which  they  indicate  produce  the 
.icidity  in  a  cup  of  coffee.  They  probably  are 
mainly  volatile  organic  acids  together  with  other 
acidic-natured  products  of  roasting. 

We  know  that  very  small  quantities  of  acid 
are  readily  detected  in  fruit  juices  and  beer,  and 
that  variation  in  their  percentages  is  quickly 
noticed,  while  the  neutralization  of  this  small 
amount  of  acidity  leaves  an  insipid  drink.  Hence 
it  seems  quite  likely  that  this  small  acid  content 
gives  to  the  coffee  brew  its  essential  acidity. 
A  few  minor  experiments  on  neutralization 
have  proven  the  production  of  a  very  insipid 
beverage  by  thus  treating  a  coffee  infusion.  Sd 
rhat  the  acidity  of  certain  coffees  most  appar- 
I'litly  should  be  attributed  to  such  compounds, 
i-iithor  than  to  the  misnamed  "caffetannic  acid." 

The  light  aromatic  materials,  and  the  other 
substances  which  are  steam-distillable,  i.  e.. 
which  are  driven  off  when  coffee  is  concentrated 
I)y  l)oiIing.  are  the  main  determining  factors  in 
flie  individuality  of  coffees.  These  compounds, 
which  are  collectively  called  "caflfeol".  vary 
ureatly  in  the  percentages  present  in  different 
i)fl"ees,  and  thus  are  largely  responsible  for  our 
ability  to  distinguish  coffees  in  the  cup.  It  is 
these  compounds  which  supply  the  pleasingly 
aromatic  and  appetizing  odor  to  coffee. 

All  of  these  compounds,  with  the  possible  ex- 
ception of  the  proteins,  are  easily  soluble  in 
both  hot  and  cold  water.    The  fact  that  a  clear 

"  Pharm.  WeelcM.  voor  Nederl,  No.  13,  1899. 
Apoth.  Ztg.,  1899    (p.   14). 


coffee  extract  made  with  hot  water  does  not 
show  any  precipitate  immediately  upon  cooling, 
proves  that  cold  water  will  give  as  complete  an 
extraction  as  hot  water.  However,  speed  of 
extraction  is  materially  increased  with  rise  In 
temperature,  due  to  the  fact  that  the  rate  and 
degree  of  solubility  of  the  substances  in  water, 
and  the  diffusion  of  the  water  tJirough  the  cell 
walls  of  the  coffee,  are  accelerated.  Also,  the 
resistance  which  the  fat  content  of  the  bean 
offers  to  the  wetting  of  the  coffee,  and  the  per- 
sistency of  the  "enfleurage"  action  of  the  fat  in 
i-etaining  the  caffeol.  are  less  with  hot  than  with 
cold  water.  Accordingly,  the  speed  of  extrac- 
tion is  increased  by  using  hot  water,  and  the 
efficiency  of  extraction  procured  per  unit  time 
of  subjection  to  water  is  higher. 

Prolonged  contact  of  coffee  with  water  results 
in  the  hydrolysis  of  some  of  the  insoluble  ma- 
terials and  subsequent  extraction  of  the  sub- 
stances thus  formed.  The  rate  of  hydrolysis 
also  increases  with  temperature ;  and  as  these 
compounds  are  of  an  astringent  or  bitter  nature, 
the  solution  obtained  upon  boiling  coffee  is  nat- 
urally possessed  of  a  flavor  unpleasant  to  the 
palate  of  the  connoisseur.  Boiling  of  the  coffee 
infusion  after  it  has  been  removed  from  the 
grounds  also  has  a  deleterious  effect,  as  the  local 
overheating  of  the  solution  at  the  point  of  ap- 
plication of  the  heat  results  in  a  decomposi- 
tion, particularly  if  the  solution  be  converted 
into  steam  at  this  point,  leaving  a  thin  film  of 
solids  temporarily  exposed  to  the  destructive 
action  of  the  heat.  Some  of  the  more  delicate 
constituents  are  unfavorably  affected  by  such 
treatment,  and  undergo  hydrolysis  and  oxida- 
tion. The  products  thus  formed  are  thrown  into 
relief  in  the  flavor  by  the  loss  of  the  aromatic 
properties  through  steam  distillation  which  is 
incidental  to  boiling. 

It  is  a  well  known  fact  that  re-warming  a 
coffee  brew  has  a  unfavorable  effect  upon  it. 
This  is  probably  due  in  part  to  a  precipitation  of 
some  of  the  water-soluble  proteins  upon  stand- 
ing, and  their  subsequent  decomposition  when 
heat  is  applied  directly  to  them  in  reheating 
the  solution.  The  absorption  of  air  by  the  solu- 
tion upon  cooling,  with  attendant  oxidation, 
which  is  accentuated  by  the  application  of  heat 
in  re-warming,  must  also  be  considered,  as  well 
as  the  other  effects  of  boiling  as  set  forth,  and 
the  action  of  the  materials  of  which  the  coffee 
pot  is  constructed  upon  the  solution. 

Physical  Conception.  The  coffee  bean  is  com- 
posed of  a  large  number  of  cells  which  function 
as  natural  containers  and  retainers  of  coffee 
fat  and  of  the  aromatic  flavoring  substances.  In 
order  to  render  the  soluble  solids  fully  access- 
ible, the  resistance  which  these  cells  offer  to  the 
extracting  water  must  be  overcome  by  grinding 
so  as  to  break  open  all  of  them.  In  this  manner 
a  grind  is  obtained  which  will  give  a  maximum 
removal  of  the  heavy  extractives.  But  when  all 
of  the  cells  are  broken,  great  opportunity  is 
offered  for  the  escape  of  the  caffeol.  which  is 
further  enhanced  by  the  slight  heating  which 
usually  accompanies  .such  fine  grinding.  So 
much  caffeol  escapes  that  even  our  most  expert 
cup-testers  would  exi)erience  difficulty  in  identi- 
fying powdered  coffees  in  a  blind  test.     What 


720 


ALL     ABOUT     COFFEE 


cup-testers,  in  fact,  use  powdered  coflfees  for 
makiug  their  cup  selections? 

Consider  powdered  coffee,  compared  with 
freshly  ground  coffee  of  a  coarser  grind.  Neither 
the  former  nor  its  brew  possesses  the  amount  of 
characteristic  flavor  or  aroma,  attributable  to 
cafteol,  evidenced  by  the  latter.  3'he  explana- 
tion of  this  is  that  the  finer  the  grind,  the  more 
readily  accessible  are  the  soluble  constituents 
of  the  coffee  to  the  extracting  water.  Caffeol, 
however,  in  addition  to  being  water-soluble,  is 
extremely  fugacious,  so  that  when  the  grinding 
is  carried  to  such  a  fineness  that  every  cell  is 
broken,  the  greater  part  of  the  caffeol  volatilizes 
before  the  water  comes  into  contact  with  it.  It 
is  therefore  highly  desirable  that  a  grind  be 
used  wherein  all  of  the  cells  are  not  broken,  but 
a  grind  that  is  sufficiently  fine  to  permit  efficient 
extraction.  In  the  light  of  this  knowledge,  the 
grind  advocated  by  King"  seems  to  be  logical, 
for  with  it  —  though  neither  a  maximum  of  the 
non-volatile  extractives  nor  a  maximum  of 
caffeol  is  obtained  —  an  all-round  maximum  of 
cup  quality  is  procured. 

The  escape,  upon  grinding,  of  these  volatile 
aromatic  and  flavoring  constituents  which  lend 
individuality  to  coffees,  makes  it  essential  that 
the  roasted  beans  be  ground  immediately  prior 
to  extraction. 

Different  Methods  of  Extraction.  The  meth- 
ods employed  for  preparing  the  coffee  drink 
may  be  classified  under  the  general  headings  of 
boiling,  steeping,  percolation,  and  filtration. 
True  percolation  is  the  simple  process  known 
by  the  trade  as  filtration ;  but  in  this  classifica- 
tion, the  term  indicates  the  style  of  extraction 
exemplified  by  the  pumping  percolator. 

Boiled  coffee  is  usually  cloudy,  due  to  the  sus- 
pension of  fine  particles  resulting  from  the  dis- 
integration of  the  grounds  by  the  violence  of 
boiling.  The  usual  procedure  in  clarifying  the 
decoction  is  to  add  the  white  of  an  egg  or  some 
egg-shells,  the  albumen  of  which  is  coagulated 


"Tea  and  Coffee  Trade  Jour.,  1917  (vol.  xxxiii :  pp. 
552-55). 


Cross-section  of  Roasted  Coffee  Bean  Magni- 
fied 600  Times 


Coarse  Grind  Under  the  Microscope 

upon  the  fine  particles  by  the  heat  of  the  solu- 
tion, and  the  particles  thus  weighted  sink  to 
the  bottom.  Even  this  procedure,  requiring 
much  attention,  does  not  give  as  clear  a  solution 
as  some  of  the  other  extraction  procedures  em- 
ployed. The  conditions  to  which  coffee  is  sub- 
jected during  boiling  are  the  worst  possible,  as 
both  grounds  and  solution  undergo  hydrolysis, 
oxidation,  and ""  local-overheating,  while  the 
caffeol  is  steam-distilled  from  the  brew.  Many 
persons,  who  have  long  been  accustomed  to 
drinking  the  relatively  bitter  beverage  thus 
produced,  are  not  satisfied  by  coffee  made  in  any 
other  way ;  but  this  is  purely  a  perversion  oif 
taste,  for  none  of  the  properties  are  present 
which  make  coffee  so  prized  by  the  epicure. 

Steeping,  in  which  cold  water  is  added  to  the 
coffee,  and  the  mixture  brought  up  to  a  boil, 
does  not  subject  the  coffee  to  so  strenuous  con- 
ditions. Local  overheating  and  hydrolysis  occur, 
but  not  to  so  great  an  extent  as  in  boiling ;  and 
most  of  the  effects  of  oxidation  and  volatiza- 
tion  of  caffeol  are  absent.  However,  extraction 
is  rather  incomplete,  due  to  lack  of  thorough 
admixture  of  the  water  and  coffee. 

When  coffee  is  to  be  made  under  the  best 
conditions,  the  temperature  of  the  water  used 
and  of  the  extract  after  it  is  made  should  not 
fluctuate.  In  the  pumping  percolator,  as  in  the 
steeping  method,  the  temperature  varies  greatly 
from  the  time  the  extraction  is  started  to  the 
completion  of  the  operation.  This  is  deleterious. 
Also,  local  overheating  of  the  infusion  occurs  at 
the  point  of  application  of  the  heat :  and  because 
of  the  manner  in  which  the  water  is  brought 
into  contact  with  the  coffee,  the  degree  of 
extraction  shows  inefficiency.  Spraying  of  the 
water  over  the  coffee  never  permits  tiie  grounds 
to  be  completely  covered  with  water  at  any  one 
time,  and  the  opportunity  offered  for  channeling 
is  excessive.  The  principle  of  thorough  extrac- 
tion demands  that,  as  the  substance  being  ex- 
tracted becomes  progressively  more  exhausted, 
fresh  solvent  should  be  brought  into  contact 
with  it.    In  the  pumping  percolator  the  solution 


I 


PREPARING  THE  BEVERAGE 


721 


Medium  Grind  Undeb  the  Microscope 

pumped  over  the  grounds  becomes  more  concen- 
trated as  the  grounds  become  exhausted ;  so 
that  the  time  taken  to  reach  the  degree  of  ex- 
traction desired  is  longer,  and  an  appreciable 
amount  of  relatively  concentrated  liquor  is  re- 
tained by  the  grounds. 

The  simplest  procedure  to  follow  is  that  in 
which  boiling  water  is  poured  over  ground  coffee 
suspended  on  a  filtering  medium  in  such  a  man- 
ner that  the  extracting  water  will  slowly  pass 
through  the  coffee  and  be  received  in  a  con- 
taining vessel,  which  obviates  further  contact 
of  the  beverage  with  the  grounds.  The  water 
as  it  comes  into  contact  with  the  ground  coffee 
extracts  the  soluble  material,  and  the  solution 
is  removed  by  gravity.  Fresh  water  takes  its 
place ;  so  that,  if  the  filter  medium  be  of  the 
proper  fineness,  the  water  flows  through  at  the 
correct  rate  of  speed,  and  complete  extraction  is 
effected  with  the  production  of  a  clear  solution. 
Thus  a  maximum  extraction  of  desirable  mate- 
rials is  obtained  in  a  short  time  with  a  minimum 
of  hydrolysis,  oxidation,  and  loss  of  caffeol; 
and  if  the  infusion  be  consumed  at  once,  or  kept 
warm  in  a  contrivance  embodying  the  double- 
boiler  principle,  the  effects  of  local  overheating 
are  avoided.  Also,  with  the  use  of  an  appropri- 
ate filter,  a  finer  grind  of  coffee  can  be  used 
than  in  the  other  devices,  without  obtaining  a 
turbid  brew.  All  this  works  toward  the  produc- 
tion of  a  desirable  drink. 

There  are  several  devices  on  the  market, 
some  using  paper,  and  some  cloth,  as  a  filter, 
which  operate  on  this  principle  and  give  very 
good  coffee.  The  use  of  paper  presents  the 
advantage  of  using  a  new  and  clean  filter  for 
each  brew,  whereas  the  cloth  must  be  carefully 
kept  immersed  in  water  between  brews  to 
prevent  its  fouling. 

Contrivances  operating  on  the  filtration  prin- 
ciple have  been  designed  for  use  on  a  large 
scale  in  conjunction  with  coffee  urns,  and  have 
proven  quite  successful  in  causing  all  of  the 
water  to  go  slowly  through  the  coffee  without 
channeling,  thus  accomplishing  practically  com- 


plete extraction.  The  majority  of  urns  are  still 
operated  with  bags,  of  which  the  ones  with  sides 
of  heavier  material  than  the  bottom  obtain  the 
most  satisfactory  results,  as  the  majority  of  the 
water  must  pass  through  the  coffee  instead  of  out 
through  the  sides  of  the  bag.  Greatest  efllciency, 
when  bags  are  used,  is  obtained  by  repouring 
until  all  of  the  liquid  has  passed  twice 
through  the  coffee;  further  repouring  extracts 
too  much  of  the  astringent  hydrolysis  products. 
The  bags,  when  not  iu  use,  should  not  be  allowed 
to  dry  but  should  be  kept  in  a  jar  of  cold  water. 
The  urns  provided  with  water  jackets  keep  the 
brew  at  almost  a  constant  temperature  and 
avoid  the  deterioration  incident  to  temperature 
fluctuation. 

Composition  op  Beews.  The  real  tests  of  the 
comparative  values  of  different  methods  of 
brewing  are  the  flavor  and  palatibility  of  the 
drink,  in  conjunction  with  the  number  of  cups 
of  a  given  strength  which  are  produced,  or  the 
relative  strengths  of  brews  of  the  same  number 
of  cups  volume.  Chemical  analysis  has  not  yet 
been  developed  to  a  stage  where  the  results 
obtained  with  it  are  valuably  indicative.  Caffeol 
is  present  in  quantities  so  small  that  no  com- 
parative results  can  be  obtained.  "Caffetannic 
acid"  determinations  are  practically  meaning- 
less. This  compound  is  of  so  doubtful  a  com- 
position and  physiological  action,  and  the  meth- 
ods employed  for  its  determination  are  so  indefi- 
nite as  to  interpretation,  as  to  render  valueless 
any  attempts  at  comparison  of  relative  per- 
centages. The  only  accurate  analysis  which  can 
be  made  is  that  for  caffein. 

Much  advertising  emphasis  has  been  placed 
on  the  small  amount  of  caffein  extracted  by  some 
devices.  What  is  one  of  the  main  reasons  for 
the  consumption  of  coffee?  The  caffein  con- 
tained therein,  of  course.  So  that  if  one  device 
extracts  less  caffein  than  another,  that  fact 
alone  is  nothing  in  favor  of  the  former.  If  the 
consumer  does  not  want  caffein  in  his  drink 
there  are  caffein-free  coffees  on  the  market. 

The  coffee  liquor  acts  on  metals  in  such  a 
manner  as  to  lower  the  quality  of  the  drink,  so 


Fine-Meal    Grind    Under   the    Mickoscope 


722 


ALL    ABOUT     COFFEE 


that  metals  of  any  sort,  and  by  all  means,  irons, 
should  be  avoided  as  far  as  possible.  Instead, 
earthenware  or  glass,  preferably  a  good  grade 
of  the  former,  should  be  employed  as  far  as 
possible  in  the  construction  of  coffee-making 
devices. 

Of  the  various  metals,  silver,  aluminum, 
monel  metal,  and  tin  (in  the  order  named)  are 
least  attacked  by  coffee  infusions ;  and  besides 
these,  nickel,  copper,  and  well  enameled  iron 
(absolutely  free  from  pin  holes)  may  be  used 
without  much  danger  of  contamination.  Rings 
for  coffee-urn  bags  should  be  made  of  tinned 
copper,  monel  metal,  or  aluminum.  Even  if 
coffee  be  made  in  metal  contrivances,  the  recept- 
acles in  which  it  stands  should  be  made  of 
earthenware  or  of  glass. 

Painstaking  care  should  be  given  to  the 
preservation  of  the  coffee-makers  in  a  state  of 
cleanliness,  as  upon  this  depends  the  value  of  the 
brew.  Dirt,  fine  grounds,  and  fat  (which  will 
turn  rancid  quickly)  should  not  be  allowed  to 
collect  on  the  sides,  bottom,  or  in  angles  of  the 
device  difficult  of  access.  Nor  should  any 
source  of  metallic  or  exterior  contamination  be 
allowed  to  go  uneliminated. 

The  Perfect  Cup  of  Coffee 

Lovers  of  coffee  in  the  United  States  are 
in  a  better  position  to  obtain  an  ideal  cup 
of  the  beverage  than  those  in  any  other 
country.  While  imports  of  green  coffee 
are  not  so  carefully  guarded  as  tea  imports, 
there  is  a  large  measure  of  government 
inspection  designed  to  protect  the  consumer 
against  impurities,  and  the  Department  of 
Agriculture  is  zealous  in  applying  the  pure 
food  laws  to  insure  against  misbranding 
and  substitution.  The  department  has  de- 
fined coffee  as  "a  beverage  resulting  from 
a  water  infusion  of  roasted  coffee  and  noth- 
ing else." 

Today  no  reputable  merchant  would  think 
of  selling  even  loose  coffee  for  other  than 
what  it  is.  And  the  consumer  can  feel  that, 
in  the  case  of  package  coffee,  the  label  tells 
the  truth  about  the  contents. 

With  a  hundred  different  kinds  of  coffee 
coming  to  this  market  from  nineteen  coun- 
tries, so  many  combinations  are  possible, 
that  there  is  sure  to  be  a  straight  coffee  or 
a  hlend  to  suit  any  taste.  And  those  who 
may  have  been  frightened  into  the  belief 
that  coffee  is  not  for  them  should  do  a  little 
experimenting  before  exposing  themselves 
to  the  dangers  of  the  coffee-substitute  habit. 

Once  upon  a  time  it  was  thought  that  Java 
and  Mocha  were  the  only  worth-while  blend, 
but  now  we  know  that  a  Bogota  coffee  from 
Colombia,  and  a  Bourbon  Santos  from 
Brazil,  make  a  most  satisfying  drink.  And 
if  the  individual  seeker  should  happen  to 


be  a  caffein-sensitive,  there  are  coffees  so 
low  in  caffein  content,  like  some  Porto 
Ricans,  as  to  overcome  this  objection ;  while 
there  are  other  coffees  from  which  the 
caffein  has  been  removed  by  a  special  treat- 
ment. There  is  no  reason  why  any  person 
who  is  fond  of  coffee  should  forego  its  use. 
Paraphrasing  Makaroff,  Be  modest,  be  kind, 
eat  less,  and  think  more,  live  to  serve,  work 
and  play  and  laugh  and  love  —  it  is  enough ! 
Do  this  and  you  may  drink  coffee  without 
danger  to  your  immortal  soul. 

If  you  are  accustomed  to  buying  loose 
coffee,  have  your  dealer  do  a  little  experi- 
mental blending  for  you  until  you  find  a 
coffee  to  suit  your  palate.  Some  expert 
blends  are  to  be  found  among  the  leading 
package  brands.  But  you  really  can  not  do 
better  than  to  trust  your  case  to  a  first-class 
grocer  of  known  reputation.  He  will  guide 
you  right  if  he  knows  his  business;  and  if 
he  doesn't,  then  he  doesn't  know  his  busi- 
ness—  try  elsewhere.  Test  him  out  along 
this  line: 

Let  us  reason  together,  Mr.  Grocer.  Let 
us  consider  these  facts  about  coffee:  green 
coffee  improves  with  age?  Granted.  As 
soon  as  it  is  roasted,  it  begins  to  bse  in 
flavor  and  aroma?  Certainly.  Grinding 
hastens  the  deterioration?  Of  course. 
Therefore,  it  is  better  to  buy  a  small  quan- 
tity of  freshly  roasted  coffee  in  the  bean 
and  grind  it  at  the  time  of  purchase  or  at 
home  just  before  using?     Absolutely! 

If  your  grocer  re-acts  in  this  fashion,  he 
need  only  supply  you  with  a  quality  coffee 
at  fair  price  and  you  need  only  to  make  it 
properly  to  obtain  the  utmost  of  coffee 
satisfaction. 

Some  connoisseurs  still  cling  to  the  good 
old  two-thirds  Java  and  one-third  Mocha 
blend,  but  the  author  has  for  years  found 
great  pleasure  in  a  blend  composed  of  half 
Medellin  Bogota,  one-quarter  Mandheling 
' '  Java  ",  and  one-quarter  Mocha.  However, 
this  blend  might  not  appeal  to  another's 
taste,  and  the  component  parts  are  not 
always  easy  to  get.  The  retail  cost  (1922) 
is  about  fifty  cents. 

Another  pleasing  blend  is  composed  of 
Bogota,  washed  Maracaibo,  and  Santos, 
equal  parts.  This  should  retail  from  thirty 
to  thirty-five  cents.  Good  drinking  coffees 
are  to  be  had  for  prices  ranging  from  twen- 
ty-five to  thirty  cents.  In  the  stores  of  one 
of  the  large  chain  systems  an  excellent  blend 
composed  of  sixty  percent  Bourbon  Santos, 


PREPARING  THE  BEVERAGE 


728 


and  forty  percent  Bogota  is  to  be  had 
(1922)  for  29  cents.  All  these  figures 
apply,  of  course,  to  normal  times. 

If  you  are  epicurean,  you  will  want  to 
read  up  on,  and  to  try,  the  fancy  Mexicans, 
Cobans,  Sumatra  growths,  Meridas,  and 
some  from  the  "Kona  side"  of  Hawaii. 

In  preparing  the  perfect  cup  of  coffee, 
then,  the  coffee  must  be  of  good  grade,  and 
freshly  roasted.  It  should,  if  possible,  be 
ground  just  before  using.  The  author  has 
found  a  fine  grind,  about  the  consistency  of 
fine  granulated  sugar,  the  most  satisfactory. 
For  general  home  use,  a  device  that  employs 
filter  paper  or  filter  cloth  is  best;  for  the 
epicure  an  improved  porcelain  French 
percolator  (drip  pot)  or  an  improved  cloth 
filter  will  yield  the  utmost  of  coffee's  de- 
lights. Drink  it  black,  sweetened  or  un- 
sweetened, with  or  without  cream  or  hot 
milk,  as  your  fancy  dictates. 

It  should  be  remembered  that  to  make 
good  coffee  no  special  pot  or  device  is  neces- 
sary. Good  coffee  can  be  made  with  any 
china  vessel  and  a  piece  of  muslin.  But  to 
make  it  in  perfection  pains  must  be  taken 
with  every  step  in  the  process  from  roaster 
to  cup. 

Hollihgworth "  points  out  that  through 
taste  alone  it  is  impossible  to  distinguish 
between  quinine  and  coffee,  or  between 
apple  and  onion.  There  is  something  more 
to  coffee  than  its  caffein  stimulus,  its  ac- 
tion on  the  taste-buds  of  the  tongue  and 
mouth.  The  sense  of  smell  and  the  sense 
of  sight  play  important  roles.  To  get  all 
the  joy  there  is  in  a  cup  of  coffee,  it  must 
look  good  and  smell  good,  before  one  can 
pronounce  its  taste  good.  It  must  woo  us 
through  the  nostrils  with  the  wonderful 
aroma  that  constitutes  much  of  the  lure  of 
coffee. 

And  that  is  why,  in  the  preparation  of  the 
beverage,  the  greatest  possible  care  should 
be  observed  to  preserve  the  aroma  until  the 
moment  of  its  psychological  release.  This 
can  only  be  done  by  having  it  appear  at  the 
same  instant  that  the  delicate  flavor  is  ex- 
tracted—  roasting  and  grinding  the  bean 
much  in  advance  of  the  actual  making  of 
the  beverage  will  defeat  this  object.  Boiling 
the  extraction  will  perfume  the  house;  but 
the  lost  fragrance  will  never  return  to  the 
dead  liquid  called  coffee,  when  served  from 
the  pot  Avhence  it  was  permitted  to  escape. 

"  Hollingworth,  H.  L.  and  Poflfenherger,  A.  T.,  Jr. 
The  Sense  of  Taste,  1917   (p.  13). 


To  recapitulate,  with  an  added  word  on 
service,  the  correct  way  to  make  coffee  is  as 
follows : 

1.  Buy  a  good  grade  of  freshly  roasted 
coffee  from  a  responsible  dealer. 

2.  Grind  it  very  fine,  and  at  home,  just 
before  using. 

3.  Allow  a  rounded  tablespoonful  for 
each  beverage  cup. 

4.  Make  it  in  a  French  drip  pot  or  in 
some  filtration  device  where  freshly  boiling 
water  is  poured  through  the  grind  but  once. 
A  piece  of  muslin  and  any  china  receptacle 
make  an  economical  filter. 

5.  Avoid  pumping  percolators,  or  anj^ 
device  for  heating  water  and  forcing  it  re- 
peatedly through  the  grounds.  Never  boil 
coffee. 

6.  Keep  the  beverage  hot  and  serve  it 
"black"  with  sugar  and  hot  milk,  or  cream, 
or  both. 

Some  Coffee  Recipes 

"When  Mrs.  Ida  C.  Bailey  Allen  prepared 
a  booklet  of  recipes  for  the  Joint  Coffee 
Trade  Publicity  Committee,  she  introduced 
them  with  the  following  remarks  on  the  use 
of  coffee  as  a  flavoring  agent : 

Although  coffee  is  our  national  beverage, 
comparatively  few  cooks  realize  its  possibilities 
as  a  flavoring  agent.  Coffee  combines  delicious- 
ly  with  a  great  variety  of  food  dishes  and  is 
especially  adapted  to  desserts,  sauces  and 
sweets.  Tlius  used  it  appeals  particularly  to 
men  and  to  all  who  like  a  full-bodied  pro- 
nounced flavor. 

For  flavoring  purposes  coffee  should  be  pre- 
pared just  as  carefully  as  when  it  is  intended  for 
a  beverage.  The  best  results  are  obtained  by 
using  freshly  made  coffee,  but  when,  for  reasons 
of  economy,  it  is  desirable  to  utilize  a  surplus 
remaining  from  the  meal-time  brew,  care  should 
be  taken  not  to  let  it  stand  on  the  grounds  and 
become  bitter. 

When  introducing  made  coffee  into  a  recipe 
calling  for  other  liquid,  decrease  this  liquid  in 
proportion  to  the  amoiuit  of  coft'ee  that  has  .been 
added.  When  using  it  in  a  cake  or  in  cookies, 
instead  of  milk,  a  tablespoonful  less  to  the  cup 
should  be  allowed,  as  coffee  does  not  have  the 
same  thickening  properties. 

In  some  cases,  better  results  are  gained  if  the 
coffee  is  introduced  into  the  dish  by  scalding  or 
cooking  the  right  proportion  of  ground  coffee 
with  the  liquid  which  is  to  form  the  base.  By 
this  means  the  full  coffee  flavor  is  obtained,  yet 
the  richness  of  the  finished  product  is  not  im- 
paired by  the  introduction  of  water,  as  would 
be  the  case  were  the  infused  coffee  used.  This 
method  is  advisable  especially  for  various 
desserts  which  have  milk  as  a  foundation,  as 
those  of  the  custard  variety  and  certain  types 
of  Bavarian  Creams.  Ice  Cream,  and  the  like. 
The  right  proportion  of  ground  coffee,  which  is 


724 


ALL    ABOUT     COFFEE 


generally  a  tablespoonful  to  the  cup,  should  be 
combined  with  the  cold  milk  or  cream  in  the 
double-boiler  top  and  should  then  be  scalded 
over  hot  water,  when  the  mixture  should  be  put 
through  a  very  fine  strainer  or  cheese  cloth,  to 
remove  all  grounds. 

Coffee  can  be  used  as  a  flavoring  in  almost 
any  dessert  or  confection  where  a  flavoring 
agent  is  employed. 

On  iced  coffee  and  the  use  of  coffee  in 
summer  beverages  in  general,  Mrs.  Allen 
writes  as  follows : 

Iced  Coffee.  This  is  not  only  a  delicious 
summer  drink,  but  it  also  furnishes  a  mild 
stimulation  that  is  particularly  grateful  on 
a  wilting  hot  day.  It  may  be  combined  with 
fruit  juices  and  other  ingredients  in  a  variety 
of  cooling  beverages  which  are  less  sugary  and 
cloying  than  the  average  warm  weather  drink 
and  for  that  reason  it  is  generally  popular  with 
men. 

Coffee  that  is  to  be  served  cold  should  be 
made  somewhat  stronger  than  usual.  Brew  it 
according  to  your  favorite  method  and  chill 
before  adding  sugar  and  cream.  If  cracked 
ice   is   added   make   sure   the   coffee   is    strong 


enough  to  compensate  for  the  resulting  dilu- 
tion. Mixing  the  ingredients  in  a  shaker  pro- 
duces a  smoother  beverage  topped  with  an 
appetizing  foam. 

It  is  a  convenience,  however,  to  have  on 
hand  a  concentrated  syrup,  from  which  any 
kind  of  coffee-flavored  drink  may  be  concocted 
on  short  notice  and  without  the  necessity  of 
lighting  the  stove.  Coffee  left  over  from  meals 
may  be  used  for  the  same  purpose,  but  it 
should  be  kept  in  a  covered  glass  or  china 
dish  and  not  allowed  to  stand  too  long.  A 
coffee  syrup  made  after  the  following  recipe 
will  keep  indefinitely  and  may  be  used  as  a 
basis  for  many  delicious  iced  drinks : 

Coffee  Sybup.  Two  quarts  of  very  strong 
coffee;  3%  pounds  sugar.  The  coffee  should 
be  very  strong,  as  the  syrup  will  be  largely 
diluted.  The  proportion  of  a  pound  of  coffee 
to  one  and  three-fourths  quarts  of  water  will 
be  found  satisfactory.  This  may  be  made  by 
any  favorite  method,  cleared  and  strained,  then 
combined  with  the  sugar,  brought  to  boiling 
point,  and  boiled  for  two  or  three  minutes. 
It  should  be  canned  while  boiling,  in  sterilized 
bottles.  Fill  them  to  overfiowing  and  seal  as 
for  grape  juice  or  for  any  other  canned 
beverage. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY 


739 


EsTUDio  del  cafeto.  Anales  del  Institute  medico 
nacional,  1897,  111:139-144. 

Falsificatiox  du  cafe.  Annales  d'Hygi^ne,  1864, 
2.  ser.  XXII:  487-443. 

Fricke,  E.  Neuere  Kaffeeverfalschung.  Zeitschrift 
fiir  Medizinalbeamte,  1889,  11:178. 

GiHARDiN,  J.  Rapports  sur  un  cafe  avarie  par 
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CHEMISTRY 
Analysis,  General 

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Andalori,  Andre.  II  cafe  descritto  ed  esaminato. 
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740 


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BiNz,  C.  Beitrage  zur  Kenntniss  der  Kaffee- 
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Lendrich,  K.  and  Nottbohm,  E.  Verfahren  zur 
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Paul,  B.  H.  and  Cownley,  A.  J.  The  amount  of 
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Pfaff,  C.  H.  Ueber  die  Darstellung  des  Coffeins, 
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Polstorff,  Karl.  Ueber  das  A'orkommen  von 
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Stehle,  R.  L.  Caffeine,  the  alkaloid.  Tea  and 
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Sullivan,  A.  ly.  Determination  of  caffein  in  cof- 
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WiLLCox,  O.  W.  Coffee  and  caffein.  Tea  and  Cof- 
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Caffeol 

Bernheimer,  Oscar.  Zur  Kenntniss  der  Rostpro- 
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Bertrand,  G.  and  Weisweiller,  G.  Sur  la  com- 
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— Beitrag  zur  kenntniss  der  kaffeeoles  und  des 
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Greek  Coffee 
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Roasted   Coffee 

BuRMANsr,  J.  Recherches  chimiques  et  physiolo- 
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Ehrlich,  J.  In  a  cup  of  coffee.  A  consideration 
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Goblet,  L.    Analyses  comparees  d'un  cafe  torrefie 

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Gould,  R.  A.  The  gases  evolved  from  roasted  cof- 
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Lekdrich,  K.  and  Nottbohn,  E.  Ueber  den  Cof- 
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Lythgoe,  H.  Chemical  analyses  of  a  few  varieties 
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MoNARi,  A.  and  Scocciaxti,  L.  La  pyridine  dans 
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Trigg,  Charles  W.  Coffee  roasting.  Tea  and  Coffee 
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CHICORY 

Backer,  P.   La  culture  du  witloof.    Thielt,  1912:22. 

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BoRUTTAU,  H.  Die  physlologische  Wirkung  des 
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Fries,  M.  Praktische  Anleitung  zum  Kaffee 
Cichorienbau.   Stuttgart,  1886. 

Kaiks,  M.  G.  Chicory  growing.  Washington, 
1900:12. 

— Chicory  growing  as  an  addition  to  the  resources 
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Schmiedeberg,  Oswald.  Historische  und  experi- 
mentelle Untersuchungen  fiber  die  Zichorie  und 
den  Zichorienkaffee  in  diatetischer  und  gesund- 
heitlicher  Beziehung.  Archiv  fiir  Hygiene,  1912, 
LXXVI:  210-244. 

Weismann,  R.  Ueber  den  schadlicben  Einfluss 
von  Zichorienaufguss.  Aerztliche  Rundschau, 
1908,  XVIII:  183. 

Zellner,  H.  Zichorie.  Centralblatt  fiir  allgemeine 
Gesundheitspflege,  1908,  XXVII:  32-39. 

Chicory  in  Coffee 

CAtm:T.  Sur  I'examen  et  I'analyse  des  echantillons 
de  cafe-chicoree  et  de  cafe  moulu  saisis  chez 
divers  marchands  de  Constantine.  Annales 
d'Hygiene,  1873,  XI:  302-317. 

Chevallier,  a.  Notice  historique  et  chronologique 
sur  les  substances  qui  ont  6te  proposees  comme 
succedanees  du  cafe  et  sur  le  cafe-chicor^e  en 
particulier.  Moniteur  d'Hopitaux,  1853,  I:  1129, 
1161,  1171,  1185,  1193,  1217. 

Clouet,  J.  Du  cafe-chicoree;  empoisonnement  de 
quatre  personnes  par  I'usage  de  cette  denree. 
Mouvement  medicale,  1875,  XIII:  505. 

Forsey,  C.  B.  The  new  coffee  and  chicory  regu- 
lations.  Analyst,  1882,  VII:  159. 

GuiLLOT,  Camille.  La  chicoree  et  divers  produits 
de  substitution  du  cafe.  Lons-le-Saumer,  1911. 
352  pp. 

Lawall,  C.  H.  and  Formax  L.  The  detection  of 
chicory  in  decoctions  of  chicory  and  coffee. 
Journal  of  the  American  Pharmaceutical  Asso- 
ciation, 1914,  111:1669. 

Leebody,  J.  R.  Estimation  of  chicory  in  coffee. 
Chemical  News,  1874,  XXX:  243. 

Morik.  Quelques  reflexions  sur  un  des  moyens  em- 
ployes pour  determiner  la  presence  du  cafe 
chicoree  dans  le  cafe  normal.  Rouen,  1863.  5 
pp.  (Extrait  des  Memoires  de  I'Academie  de 
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746 


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NATAL 

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NICARAGUA 


Shedd,  W.  J.  The  story  of  Matagalpa  coffee.  Tea 
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PARAGUAY 

Coffee  growing  in  Paraguay.  Scientific  American 
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PORTO    RICO 

LiNCK,  J.  H.  Arbor  caffe  Lipsiae  florens.  Extrait 
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McClelland,  T.  B.  Restoring  Porto  Rico  coffee. 
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National  Coffee  Growers'  Association.  Some 
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Van  Leenhoff,  Johannes  W.  Coffee  planting  in 
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PORTUGUESE    COLONIES 

SociEDADE  DE  Geographiade  Lisboa.  Exposi^ao 
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SIERRA    LEONE 

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SOUTH     AMERICA 

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TRINIDAD 

Trinidad  coffee.  Royal  Botanic  Gardens,  Kew, 
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UGANDA 

Brown,  E.  and  Hunter,  H.  H.  Planting  in 
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Coffee  and  tea  from  Uganda.  Imperial  Insti- 
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UNITF.D    STATES 

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Kains,  M.  G.    Chicory  growing  as  an  addition  to 
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\-enezuela 

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Huntington,  L.  M.  The  story  of  Tachira  coffee. 
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ALL    ABOUT    COFFEE 


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BroiE,  G.  Report  on  the  ravages  of  the  bore  in 
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Camerok,  John.  Prevention  of  leaf  disease  in  cof- 
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Ernst,  Adolf.  Estudios  sobre  las  deformaciones, 
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Regional 

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Rose,  G.  F.  C.  Eenge  opmerkingen  naar  aanleid- 
ing  van  de  conclusive  van  de  neerderheid  der 
commissie  nit  de  Tweede  Kamer  der  Staten-Gen- 
eraal  over  de  nitkomsten  van  het  onderzoek  be- 
treffende  de  koffij  kultuur  op  Java.    1874.  39  pp. 

Suermondt,  G.,  and  London,  H.  H.  Correspon- 
dentie.  De  West-Java-Koffij-Cultuur-Maat- 
schappij  verdedigd  tegen  den  schrijver  van  de 
koloniale  kronijk  in  de  Economist.    1868.  15  pp. 

■ — West-Java-Koffij-Cultuur-Maatschappij  verde- 
digd   tegen    de    aanvallen    van    Volksblad    en 


Arnhemsche    Courant.      Amsterdam,    1865.      44 

pp. 
— West-Java-Koffij-Cultuur-Maatschappij.    Toege- 

licht.      Supplement    van    den   eersten   druk    met 

voorrede.   Amsterdam,  1865.     19  pp. 
Van  den  Berg,  Norbert  Pieter.  Koffieproductie  en 

koflSeuitvoer.   Batavia,  1884.   8  pp. 
Van  Vliet,  L.  Van  W.    De  koffij -enquete  in  ver- 

band    met    de    ontworpen  West-Java-Koffij-Cul- 

tuur-Maatschappij.     Amsterdam,   1871.     35   pp. 

LIBERIA 

Ellis,  George  W.    Coffee  industry  in  Liberia.  U.  S. 

Monthly  Consular  and  Trade  Reports,  1904,  No. 

291 : 21-22. 
Morren,  F.  W.    Cultuur  bereiding  en  handel  van 

Liberia  Koffie.    Amsterdam,  1894.    36  pp. 

MEXICO 

HiNOJOsA,  G.  Cultivo  del  cafe.  Mexico,  1883.  8  pp. 
(Mexico.   Ministro   de   Fomento.) 

Romero,  M.  Coffee  and  india  rubber  culture  in 
Mexico;  preceded  by  geographical  and  statis- 
tical notes  on  Mexico.    New  York,  1898.   416  pp. 

Terry,  L.  M.  Coffee  culture  in  Mexico.  Overland 
Monthly,  1901,  new  ser.  XXXVII:  702-709. 

netherlands 

Amsterdam.  Vereeniging  Voor  Den  Koffie  han- 
del. Statistiek  van  koffie  in  Nederland.  Amster- 
dam, 1914. 

Groeneveld,  J.  Tremijnzaken  in  koffie  te  Rotter- 
dam.   Rotterdam,  1893.    15  pp. 

Jacobson,  J.  "Ernstig  bedreigd"  "Opgeroepen," 
een  woord  naar  aanleiding  van  "Erustig  be- 
dreigd" door  den  heer  J.  Jacobson  en  de  daarop 
gevolgde  geschriften  van  de  heeren  G.  H.  Mees 
en  A.  Plate,  door  en  Nederlandes.  Amsterdam, 
1879.     12   pp. 

Jet's  over  de  koffij-veilingen  der  Nederlandsche 
Handel-  Maatschappij.   Rotterdam,  1847.   24  pp. 

Netherlands  (Kingdom)  Laws,  statutes,  etc. 
WiJ  Willem,  bij  de  gratie  Gods,  konig  der 
Nederlanden  .  .  .  enz.,  enz.,  enz.  Allen  den 
genen,  die  deze  zullen  zien.  .  .  .  salut!  doen  te 
weten:  Alzoo  wij,  tot  stijving  der  inkomsten  van 
den  staat,  noodzakelijk  geoordeeld  hebben,  dat 
de  koffij  binnen  ons  rijk  gebruikt  .  .  .  aan  eene 
belasting  op  de  consumptie  worde  onderworpen. 
's  Gravenhage,  18 — .    8  pp. 

Suermondt,  G.,  and  London,  H.  H.  West-Java- 
Koffij-Cultuur-Maatschappij.  Het  advys  der 
Kamer  van  Koophandel  te  Batavia,  de  Ond 
Koopman,  enz.  wederlegd.  Amsterdam,  1866.  127 
pp. 

Waanders,  F.  G.  van  B.  De  koffiemarkt.  2'he 
Hague,  1882.   27  pp. 

PORTO    RICO 

Porto  Rican  coffee.  Outlook,  Mar.  24,  1906, 
LXXXII:  632;  May  5,  1906,  LXXXIII:  46-47. 

United  States.  President,  1901-1909  (Roosevelt) 
Message  from  the  President  of  the  United  States 
relative  to  his  visit  to  the  island  of  Porto  Rico. 
Washington,  1906.  200  pp.  59th  Congress,  2d 
Session,  Senate  document  135.  Message,  dated 
Dec.  11,  1906,  accompanied  by  petitions  in  re- 
lation to  the  coffee  trade,  etc.,  and  losses  by  the 
hurricane  of  1899;  and  the  sixth  annual  report 
of  the  governor,  Beekman  Winthrop,  dated  Jidy 
1,  1906. 


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TONKIN 

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VALORIZATION 

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Journal,  1912,  XXII:  497-513. 
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— O  cafe,  sua  historia,  des  valorisacao  e  propa- 
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768 


ALL    ABOUT    COFFEE 


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vervanging  van  de  gedwongen  koffiecultuur  op 
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's  Gravenhage,  1890.     72  pp. 

WiLEMAN.  J.  P.  Unparalleled  valorization.  Tea 
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Wirtschafts-Zeitung,  1913,  IX:  237-243. 


INDEX 


Note.  As  this  is  a  book  about  coffee,  the  entries  in  the  Index  refer — unless  other- 
wise specified — to  that  general  subject,  and  more  particularly  to  Coffea  arahica;  other 
varieties  are  distinguished  by  their  scientific  or  trade  names.  Thus,  "Adulteration" 
refers  to  the  adulteration  of  coffee;  and  ''Adulterants,"  to  the  substances  used  for  that 
purpose. 

Abbreviations  Used 


hev.        signifies  beverage  d. 

hiog.  "        biography  hyb. 

C.  or  c.        ■'         coffee  iU. 

C.  "        Coffea  inv. 

chk.  "         coffee-house  newsp. 

keeper 


signifies  died 
"        hybrid 
"         illustration 
"         invention 
"         newspaper 


pat.       signifies  patent,  pat- 
entee 
per.  "        periodical 

pseud.  "         pseudonym 

q.  "         quoted 

V.  "        vessel,  ship 

Titles  of  books 


pamph.        "        pamphlet 

Italicized  words  are  either  scientific  terms  or  titles  of  publications.     . 

are  followed  by  the  name  of  the  author,  if  known;  other  publications  are  distinguished 
as  broadsides,  newspapers,  pamphlets,  or  periodicals. 

Geographical  names  are  distributed  under  various  topics,  such  as  ''Acreage," 
"Coffee  houses,"  "Consumption,"  "Cultivation,"  "Exports,"  "Imports,"  "Produc- 
tion," and  the  like. 


A  Mon  CafS,  Ducis 

Abbas,   wife  of 

Abbey,  Charlotte,   q 

Abbey,  Roswell.  pat 

Abbey,  Freeman  &  Co 

Abd-al-Kadir 14, 

Abd-al-Kadir  ms.  .31,  431,  542, 

— -Description 

Abele,  Chris,  pat 630,  638 

644,  645;  d.  (1910) 

Aheokutae,  G 

— -Java 

Abeokutae  x  liberica,  hyh 

Abigail    

Aborn.   A.   C,  q 

— ^Cost  card  for  roasters 

Aborn,   Edward 439,   514:, 

651,  701,  713,  714,  716,  q. 

Aborn,  W.  H 

About,  Edmond  F.  V.,  q 

Abraham 

Abyssinian   e 353,   376, 

Account   of   his  Journeys,   An, 

Olearius,  q 

Aeh  (chemist) 

Ach,   F.   J 488,   509,   511 

513,  q. 

Acidity,  percentages  in  c 

Acid  c.'s   

Acids    159, 

Acker,   Finley,  pat... 472,  645, 

649, 

Acker,    Merrall   &   Condit   Co., 

478,  494, 

Ackland,  James,  chk 

Acreage 

— Africa,  British  East 230, 

— Argentina   

— Australia   238, 

— Brazil  (sq.  miles) 

— Ceylon    236, 

— Ecuador 236, 

— Federated  Malay  States.  .238, 

— Guadeloupe     

— Guatemala    

— Guiana,  British   

—Haiti     220, 

— Hawaii    

— India 226,  227, 


548 
21 
177 
245 
482 
431 
543 
541 

641 
142 
216 
146 
13 

392 

715 
715 

685 

18 

377 

22 
186 

408 
719 
307 
168 

701 

498 
118 

285 
236 
284 
277 
283 
278 
284 
233 
219 
279 
281 
241 
282 


Acreage   (cont'd) 

— Jamaica   232,  281 

^Java    215 

— ^]L.eeward  Islands   282 

— Mauritius    285 

— Nyasaland    230,  285 

— Philippines 284 

—Porto  Rico    223 

—Salvador     219,  280 

— Uganda    230,  285 

— Venezuela   212 

— Yemen 230 

Adams     chk 559 

Adams,  Abigail,   q 467,  468 

Adams,    Isaac,   pat 245 

Adams,    .Tobn     110,   113,  593 

Adams,  Pygan 609 

Adams   &    Son 710 

Addison,  Joseph 75,  80,  84, 

557,  558,  560,  572, 

575,  576,  577,  578,  593 

Addison,  Life  of,  Johnson,  q...  561 

Adjudication   (N.  Y.  Exch.) .  .  .  334 

Adulterant    Act,    British 404 

Adulterants     .  . .  153,   169,  170,  404 

Adulteration 404 

—Italy    686 

— Reasons  for    170 

— U.  S.  law  affecting 410 

rulings  against 337 

Advertisements 

— Arbuckle's    (1861)     496 

—Boston    (1748)     467 

— Cauchois's   Private   Estate. .  498 
— Coffee-house 

Boston    112 

New  York  (1781) 119,  120 

—Coffee  mills    (1665) 617 

— Divination  by  coffee  grounds  558 

— First    (Abd-al-Kadir's,    1587)  431 

— First  American-newspaper.  . .  468 

— First  newspaper  (1657).. 56,  432 

—  —Of  coffee  onlv   ill 434 

— First  printed  (1652),  q..o4, 

432,  459,  461 

— London  coffee-house,  q 582 

— Newspaper  and  periodical 

432-434 

— Piazza  coffee  room,  q 581 


Advertisements   (cont'd) 

— Song  by  Zecchini 549 

- — ^Turks   Head  coffee  house. . .   582 

Advertising   431-465 

— Booklets    (J.   C.   T.   P.   C.) . .    455 

— Brands    455,  462-465 

— Early  history   431-434 

— Electric   signs    443 

— Evolution  of 434,  435 

— France    680 

— Government   propaganda    444-459 
—Injudicious    .  .435,   537,  438,  461 

— Joint  coffee  trade 439, 

445-459,  514,   515 

— Lantern  slides  443 

— Motion  pictures    443,  445 

— Package-coffee     440-443 

— Retail 443,  444 

— Trade    442 

— ^Trade  journalists  as  experts  431 

— ^United  States 434-465 

Advertising   charts    440,  441 

Advice  against  the  plague,  Har- 
vey       58 

Advisory  Board,  C.    (see  Gov't 
control) 

Afflnis,  C,  hyh 146 

Aga,   Soliman 33,     92 

-^ging 

-Artificial    157,  158,  471,  474 

—Natural 156,  157, 

167,  342,  345,  353 

Agriculture,  U.   S.   Dept 722 

Aigentliche    Beschreibung    der 

Raisis,  etc.,  Rauwolf,  q. . .     12 

Aiken.  G 612 

Akers,    Frederick 498,  499 

Alameda   (brand)    441 

Albanese 185 

Albertenghi    558 

Alcoholic  beverages 
— Coffee   replaces   In    Am.    col- 
onies      696 

— Sold  in  London  c.  houses. 61, 

78,     81 

Alcholism,  effect  of  c.  on 182 

Aldhabani  (see  Gemaleddin) 
Ale  iHves'  complaint  against  c. 

houses    (pamph) 72 


769 


770 


ALL    ABOUT    COFFEE 


Alexander,  S.  R 485 

Alexander   &    Baldwin 488 

Alhadrami,    Muhammed 16 

Al-Haitr4  {The  Continent), 

Khazes    11 

Alison.   Archibald 102 

Alkaloids  in  c 159,  160,  161 

All  Souls'  college,  Oxford 41 

Allain    F.  V 487 

Allanston,  q 179 

Allen,    q 159 

Allen,    Ida  C.    Bailey,   q 723 

Allen,   James   Lane,   q 564 

Allom,    Thomas 663 

Alpinl  (Alpinus),  Prospero..43, 

431,  541,  543  ;  q.  2,  12,  26,     41 
Alt    und   neu    Wien,    Bermann, 

q 51 

Altenberg,  Peter,  q 549 

Altitudes 

—Best    198.  200 

— Bolivia    236 

— Brazil    205 

— Colombia     208 

— Costa     Rica 225 

— Guatemala    219 

— Hawaii    239 

— Honduras    234 

— Indo-China,    French 237 

— Jamaica    233 

— Java    216 

—Mexico    222 

— ^Nicaragua     227 

— Peru    236 

—Salvador   217 

—Venezuela    212,  263 

— Yemen     231 

Alumini    Etmienses,    Harwood, 

q 581 

Amarilla,  0.,  hyh 140 

Ambor  (essence  of  )  in  c 695 

Ambergris  in  c 709 

Anibrosia    AraMca,    CaffH    Dis- 

corso,   Rambaldi.  .  .558,    q.  696 

American  Can   Co 472,  473 

Am.  Chem.  Journal,  q 165 

American  Coffee  Co 521 

American   Grocer,  per 526 

American  Hist'l   Register,   q..    126 
Am.   Journ.    Ophthalmology,   q.   182 

American  Legion,  v 316 

American  Mills 502 

American  Sugar  Refining  Co.  .  .    689 

Ames,    Allan    P 448 

Amman  &  Co.,  C 477 

Amsinck,     Gustave 479 

Amsinck  &  Co..  G 479,  484, 

485,   534 

Amurath  III 20,  664 

Amurath   IV 20,     38 

Analyst,  per,  q 165 

Anatomy   of   Melancholy,    The, 

Burton q.  543,      38 

Ancilloto,  Marco .      27 

" — "and    Other    Poets,    Unter- 

meyer,  q 553 

Anderson,   pat 247 

Anderson,  Adam,  q 72,  73.     74 

Anderson,  E.  D 472 

Anderson,  Mrs.   chk 86 

Andreas,  A.  T..  q 106 

Andrews,    William    Ward,    pat 

627,  700 

Andrews  &  Co.,  C.  E 506 

Andry,  Doctor .^94 

Anecdotes    565-o85 

— Addison,    Joseph 576 

— Bacon,    Sir    Nicholas 570 

— Bismarck   565,  570 

■ — Bonaparte,    Napoleon    .  .  .94,  593 

— Brillat-Savarin    565 

— Champmesl6     91 

-Gibber,    Colley 579 

- — ^Compton,  Bishop  of  London,  570 

— de  Sevigne,   Mme 91,  565 

— Dryden.   John 574,  575 

— Fontenelle 565 

— Foote,    Samuel 580,  581 

— Garrick,    David 569,  579,  580 

^Goldsmith,    Oliver 573,   574 

— Grevy,  Jules 566 

— Hannes    Dr 572 

— Hogarth,  William 580 

— Inchbald,   Mrs 576 

— Jeffreys,    Judge 570 


Anecdotes  (cont'd) 

— Johnson,  Samuel ...  567,  568,  569 

— Kant.   Immanuel 562 

— ^Kemble,  John 581 

— Ix)ndon    coffee-house    ....567-585 

—Louis  XIV  and  DuBarry 566 

— liowther.  Sir  James 584 

— Macklin,   Charles 580,  581 

—Milton,    John     584 

— Napier,    Robert 700 

—Page,  Judge 570 

— Phipps,    Sir    William Ill 

— Pope,   Alexander.  .  .575,  576, 

577,  578 

— Racine     91 

— Radcliff,   Dr 572 

—Roach.    Tiger 579,  580 

— Roubiliac    583 

— Saint-Foix     566,  567 

■ — Savage,   Richard 570 

— Sheridan,    Richard    Brinsley,  581 

^Sloane,    Sir  Hans 582 

^Steele,    Sir    Richard 570 

Swift,   Jonathan.  .  .570,   378,   57!) 

— Talleyrand,   Prince 565 

— Thurlow,     Lord 572 

—Voltaire   178,  565 

— Ware    (Brit,   architect) 584 

Anezi   c.  .  .  . 351,   368 

Angel   &    Co.,    A 340 

Angustifolia,   G.,  hyb 140 

Ankola  c 355,  371 

Annales,   Liebig,    q 711 

Annalcs    PoUtiques    et    Htt6r- 

aires,    per.,    q 175 

Annals    (of  Phila.),   q 120 

Annals   on  Applied  Biology,  q.  155 

Anne,    Queen     82 

AMn.ee  Litt^ratre,  q 6 

Anstead,  R.  B.,  q 155 

Anthony,    Frank    M 479 

Antiquarian     Rambles     in     the 

Streets   of  London,   Smith, 

q 569,   570 

Antiseptic,  C.  as  an 180,  182 

Apel,    Paul    E 506 

Apparatus    (see  Machinery) 

Appenzeller,   John    C 503 

Applegate.    John     492 

Apples  in  c.    (Russia) 686 

Apreece 581 

Araba    (driver) 658 

Arabia.     Description     of,     Nie- 

buhr,  q 22 

Arabian  Chrestomathy,  de  Sacy 

Q 2 

Arabian  c.    (see  Mocha) 

Arabian  Nights,   The 31 

Arabica,  C.   (see  note,  p.  769) 

Arbitration    (N.  Y.  Bxch.) 333 

Arbor    yemensis    fructum    cofe 

ferens,  etc..   The.   Douglas 

42,  543 

Arbuckle   advertising    462-465 

Arbuckle,    Charles 521,  522 

Arbuckle,   Christina    524 

Arbuckle,  John.  .440,  469,  470, 

496,    523,    524 ;    biog.    517, 

521;   d.    (1912)    524;   pat.  647 

Arbuckle,    John    (Mrs.)     523 

Arbuckle    Brothers.  .  .443,^470, 

480,    482,    499,    502,    522.    523 

— Coating   coffee 396 

—Plant    524-526 

- — Business 521-526 

Arbuckle  Farm    524 

Arbuckles,    The     519 

Arbuckles   &   Co 507,    522, 

524,  635 

Arbuthnot,  Dr 81,   84,   578,   579 

Arcade  Manufacturing  Co.  .645,  653 
Archives    of    Psychology,    q.  .  .    186 

Arcularius,    James   L 499 

Arding,  Dr.  Charles 118 

Arduino,  Pier  Teresio,  pat.  .  .  .    651 

Arias 220 

Ariosa  (brand)  .  .440,  441,  469, 

470,  524 

— Origin  of  name 522 

Ariza  &  Lombard 488 

Arkell,  Bartlett 538 

Arkell,    W.    J .    538 

-■Vrlington,    Earl    of 582 

Arliss,  George 130  ;  q.  556 


Armstrong.  Dr 578,  580 

479,    491,    518,    527  ;    biog.  517 
Arnold,  Francis  B.  . .  .477,  479, 

491,  518 
Arnold  &  Co.,  B.  G.  .  .479,  480 

491,  528 
Arnold,  Dorr  &  Co. .  .  479,   482,  518 

Arnold,  Hines  &  Co 482 

Arnold.  Mackey  &  Co.  .  .  .•.477,  479 

Arnold,  Sturgess  &  Co 479 

Arnoldiana,    0 142 

— Java    216 

Aroma 

— .Advertising  value,  retail.  .  .  .    423 

— Best  grinds  to  preserve. 719,  720 

— Cause  of 163,  165 

— Chaff  rich  in 708 

— Cup-testing   for 356 

— Preservation  of.  .  .  .170,  712,  717 

Aroma  Coffee  &  Spice  Co 502 

Aron  &  Co.,  J 340 

Arroba    (weight)     268 

Art  collections 

— Berlin    museums 46 

— 'Boston   Mus.   of  Fine  Arts .  .    612 

— Bostonian    Society 613 

— Ix)ndon 

Beaufoy   (Guildhall  Mus.) 

62,  582,  602 

British  Museum 604 

Guildhall    Museum.  .  .602,  603 

Armstrong  &   Bamewall 476 

Arne   Dr 579 

Arnold,    q 136 

Arnold,  Benjamin  Green,.. 469, 
Victoria    and    Albert    Mu- 
seum    601,  603 

— New  York 

Clearwater  (Met.  Mus...)   609 

Halsey    (Met.    Mus.) 609 

Metropolitan  Museum 

Pictures    591 

Service       artistic     and 

historical    .  .599,   600, 

607,  608,  612 

— Paris  :  Clunny  Museum 600 

— Portland:  Maine  Hist.  Soc.    614 

— Potsdam    museums 46 

— Salem    (Mass.)  :    Essex   Inst.  614 

— Sam    Ireland's 593 

— -Vienna:  Austrian  Art  Soc.    590 
— Washington 

Peter    (U.   S.   Nat'l  Mus.)    599 

Arthur,    chk 588 

Arthur's,    Lyons,    q 563 

Aniwimensis,  C 144 

— Java    216 

Ashcroft,  John,  pat 157 

— Trade  mark 470 

Ashland,     James 477 

Ashley,  James,  chk 582 

Astbury    604,  612 

Astor   Library 124 

Atha,  P.  P 509  ;  q.  422 

Athenae  Oxiensis  a  Wood,  q.  .      41 

Atlas    Mills 498 

Attal     (Arabian    bale*     266 

Atwood  &  Co 509 

Atwood  &  Holstad 509 

.\ubrey,  John .  . .  557  :  q.  40,  53, 

56,  59,     60 
Auctions 

— Amsterdam 44 

First     (1711) 213 

—London 327 

— Netherlands  E.   Indies 312 

Augagneuri,   C 147 

Auger  &  Co.,  B.  E 487 

Austin,   Nichols  &  Co 494,  499 

Australian     c 355,   376 

Autobiography,   Haydon,   q....   583 

Autocrat   (brand) 441 

Automatic    Weighing    Machine 

Co 470 

.4.vicenna  (Ibn  Sina)  .  .  .11.  17, 

431  ;   q.      12 

a   Wood,    Anthony,    q 41 

Ayduis 14 

Ayer  Bangles  c 355,  371 

Ayer  &  Son,  N.  W 448 

Aymar  &  Co 476 

Babillard,  q 559 

Bach,  Johann  Sebastian. 46  :  q. 

595-599 


IXDEX 


771 


Bache,    Tlieophylact 475 

Bacon,  Francis.  .  .  .543,  557  ;  q.     38 

Bacon,  Sir  Nicholas 570 

Bacon,    Raymond    F.,   q 714 

Bacon,    Williamson     480 

Bacon  &  Co.,  Williamson 480 

Bacon,   Stickney  &  Co 508 

Bacteria,   Effect  of  c.  on..  180,   181 

"Bad"    coffee 22 

Bagiiell   579 

Bass,    paper    (see    Containers) 

Bahias  (c.)    341,  343,  367 

Baillon    558 

Baiz,    .Tncob 485 

Unix  &   Wakeman 478 

Baker    (chemist)     q 165 

Baker.   .John   Gulick    pat.. 4(i9,  639 

15aker.  Ko^er 117 

Baker,  T.  K..  pat 647 

Baker.  William  K.,  pat 649 

Baker  &  Co 649 

Baker  &  Sons,  Joseph 640 

Baker  &  Younjf 485 

Baker    Importing   Co 539 

Baker  vs.  Uuncombe  (pat.  suit)    049 

Baldi,    q 184 

Baldwin,    Captain 538 

Baldy  &  Co..  .T.  B 506 

Bales,  Arabian 266,   268 

Balis    (c.)    355,  374 

Balliol  college,   Oxford 40,     41 

Ballot-box,   origin  of    60 

Ballon  &  Cosgrove 488 

Baltagi 22 

Balzac,  Honors  de...l02,  556; 

q.  557 

Balzac,   Lawton,   q 557 

Ban     26,     35 

Bananas    and    c.    (bev.) 694 

Banesius   (see  Nairon) 

Bangs,   John   Kendrick,   q 564 

Bank  of  New  York 120 

Bank  of   Pennsylvania,   ill.  .  .  .    129 

Banks,  H.  W 479 

Banks  &  Co.,  H.  W.  .478,  479,  485 

Baptized  by  Clement  VIII 26 

Barbados  e 351,  362 

Barbaro,   Angelo   Maria 28 

Barbor.    inv 637 

Barclay,    Florence    L.,    q 563 

Barclay   &   Hasson 508 

Barker,    pat 640 

Barmaids    75 

Barnardini,    q 186 

Barnes,  Dr.,  q 176 

Barnes,  Sir  Edward 237 

Barnlcle,   Michael 482 

Baro,   Jose :  . .  .    651 

Barotti,    L 548 

Barquisimento,    v 349 

Barr,  Thomas  T 482 

Barr  &  Co.,  T.  M 529 

Barr  &  Co.,  T.    T 477,  482 

Barr.    Lally    &    Co 482 

Barrington    Hall    (brand) 441 

Barrington         Hall         Soluble 

(brand)     539 

Barrowby.    Dr.    q 580 

Barth,   G.   W 639 

Barthez 566 

Bartlett    (artist)     668 

Bartow,   H 497 

Baruch  &  Co 488 

Batavia    c 355,  373 

Baudelaire    565 

Baukobensis,   C 21(5 

Bay.  Gottfried 644 

Bayne,  Daniel  K 478 

Bayne,  L.  P 478 

Bayne,     Jr.,     William .  .448,473 

478    535 

Bayne,  Sr.,  William .'  478 

Bayno    &    Co.,    William .    485 

Beach  &  Co.    J.  D 508,  509 

Beaham-Moffatt  Mfg.  Co 508 

Bean   broth,    Javanese 11 

Beans  as  friendly  tokens 655 

Beard.    Eli 496 

Beard,  Samuel  S 496 

Beard  &  Co..  Samuel  S...482,  496 
Beard   &  Cummings.  .482,   494, 

496,  507 

Beard   &  Howell 496 

Beard,   Sons  &  Co.,  S.  M 499 

Beards  &  Cottrell 482,  496 


Beaufoy   Catalogue,    Burn,    q.  . 

Beaumarchais    

Beauvarlet,    J 

Beccaria,    Cesare 30, 

Becker.  Joseph    

Beckley,    S.    W 

Beckmann,   Alfred   H.,   q 

Bedford,    Duke    of 576, 

Beecher,    C.    McCulloch 

Beede,  N.  B 

Beekmans,    The 

Bc'T,   q 

Beer,    Coffee 710, 

Beeson,    Emmet   G.,    q 

Begon    

Behrens  &  Co.    A 

Belcher,  Jonathan,  chk 

Belgians,  King  of 

Bell  &  Co.,  J.  H 

Bell,   Conrad  &  Co 

Bell.   Conrad  &  Webster 

Belli    549, 

Bello    (Bellus),    Onorio 

Belna  (brand)    

Bencini,    Antoni,   pat 

Benedicenti,  q 

Benedict  &  Co 

Benedict  &   Gaffney.  .494,   498, 

Benedict    &    Thomas 494, 

Bengalensis,    C    

Bengiazlah    17  ;    q. 

Bennet.    Henry    

Bennett,   J.    Hughes,    q 

Bennett,  James 

Bennett,    William 

Bennett  &   Becker 482, 

Bennett    &    Son,    William    Hos- 

mer 478, 

Bennett,    Schenek   &   Earle .... 

Bennett,  Sloan  &  Co 498, 

Bentley.  Benton  &  Co 

Berchoux     , 

Berg,    Thomson    &    Davis    .... 

Berhard,    Charles 

Berkeley,  Bishop 

Bermann,    M..    q 

Bernard,  Claude  M.  V.,  pat... 
Bernard   (Dean  of  Derry).573, 

Bernhardt,   Sarah 

Bernheimer,   q 

Bernier 31,  543,  594  ;  q. 

Berry   (see  Fruit) 

Berry,  Benjamin 

Berry   &   Sons,    N 

Berthier    

Berytus  (Beirut),  Bishop  of,  q.. . 

Besant,  Sir  Walter,  q 75, 

Bethmont    

Betrand,   q 

Better    C. -making    Com 

— Recommendations 713, 

Better    coffee-making    publicity 

— Favored  by  N.   C.    R,   A 

Beurre.   Cafe  avec 

Beverage 

— ^Buds    as    basis    

— Chemical  analysis 

—Consumption   in   U.    S 

— Definition,     U. .  &'.     Dep't    of 

Agrr 

— Discovery   (13th  century)  .  .  . 

— Evolution    of 

— Fruit  and  bananas   

— ^History,  early 1 

— Hull  and  pulp  as  basis 

— Husks  as  basis 

— Origin. 

—  — First  reliable  date  (1454) 

I>egendary     11,    13, 

Beveraf/es    Past    and    Present, 

Emerson,    q 

Bey.  Kair 

Bible     12, 

Biblioth&que    Nationale 

Bichivili,     q 

Bichivili    manuscript 

Bickford,    Clarence   E 487, 

Biokford  &  Co..  C.   B 

Biddulph,     William,    q 36, 

Biggin,     Coffee     

— Origin  of  name 

—  (See  also   Infusion  devices). 

Bill  &  Co.    Alexander  H 

Binz,  q 182. 


583 
94 
587 
558 
482 
507 
418 
593 
491 
508 
475 
182 
711 
679 
6 
482 
112 
672 
502 
485 
502 
557 
31 
539 
625 
186 
485 
499 
501 
14(i 
17 
582 
181 
482 
482 
499 

482 
499 
499 
482 
.548 
502 
505 
550 
51 
629 
574 
565 
163 
616 

508 
501 
102 
42 
78 
566 
163 
439 
715 

513 
683 

694 
714 
689 

722 
655 
693 
694 
1-23 
15 
26 

16 
16 

566 

71 

13 

16 

22 

542 

488 

488 

543 

624 


501 
183 


Biographie      Vniversellc,      Mi- 

chauds,   q 8 

Bishop,    J.    Leander,   q....lO'j,  115 

Bishop,   Nathaniel,   chk 109 

Bisland  &  Brown 497 

Bismarck,  Prince 565,  566 

Bitter    (see  Flavors). 

Bitter   e.'s    .397 

Bjorstjerne   Bjornson,   v 316 

Blackall,   Alfred    II .501,  502 

Blair.  Henry 496,  526 

Blair,  Henry  B 494 

Blair,  Sidney  0 502 

Blake,    Charles   F 482 

Blake,  Walter  F 535 

Blake  &  BuUard 482 

Blakeman,  C.  R 479 

Blanc,    Louis 103 

Blanchard    &    Bro 501 

Black  bean 329 

—Scale   330 

Black      broth,      Ijaeedemonian 

13,  36.  38,  40,     58 

Blanco,    Guzman 529 

Blaney,  Henry  R.,  q 110 

Blanke,  C.  F.,  pat -651 

Blanke    Tea    &    Coffee    Co..    C. 

F 502,  539 

Blending 396-400 

—Retail    418-421 

Blending    machinery 383,  385 

Blends    722,  723 

— French  preferences 680 

— Package  coffees 408 

— Restaurants    399 

Blickman,  Saul,  pat 652 

Bliss,   Dallett  &  Co 482 

Blodgett,  Albro 507 

Blodgett,  Henry  P 507 

Blodgett-Becklev  Co 507 

Blohm  &  Co.  .  .' 340 

Blook    &    Varwig    503 

Bloom,    Daniel,    chk 118 

Bloom    Bros 488 

Blossoir.s, 

— Bridal  flowers  in  Antilles...    565 

— Chemistry  of 155 

Blotting-paper   filters 708 

Blount,   Sir  Henry 40    .")4, 

543  :  q.  13;  38,     56 

Blue  Mountain  c .'!.".0,  362 

Blunt,   Anne,   chk 56 

Board  of  Experts  favored 513 

Boardman,    George 508 

Boardman,   Howard   F 508 

Boardman,  Thomas  J 508 

Boardman,    William 508 

Boardman,  William  F.  J 508 

Boardman  &  Sons,  Wm 508 

Boardman  &  Sons  Co..   Wm . .  .    508 

Boaz    IS 

Boconos  c ..349.   3.50,   365 

Bodanzky,  .Arthur 597 

Bodleian   library 53 

Boekit    Gompong    v 35,5,  372 

Boengie    c 355,  374 

Boerhaave,    Prof 543 

Bogotas    (c.)     348,  349,  363 

Bohler  &  Weikel 501 

Boiling, 

— Discussed     (Trigg) 720 

— N.  C.  R.  A.  recommendations  721 

Boindin    Abbie  Alarv 654 

Bojiiiest,'  Walter   B 498 

Btrnvian  c 350,  367 

Bon   12,  26.  35,     41 

Bonaparte,   Napoleon  ..  .94.  96, 

1 00,    48.5  :    r/.  566 

Bondzynski 185 

Bonifeur,  Cafe   ((Juadeloupo)  .  .    257 

Bonnard    98 

Bonnieri,    C 147 

— Caffein  content 161 

Bontius,  Jac.  q 2 

Book,   Nicholas,   inc 617 

Booker     6»- 

Booklets,  advertising 455- 

Booms, 

—Ceylon   (1845) 237 

— U.  S.   (1814) 468 

Booms  and  Panics .  .527-630 

Booth    A.  F 508 

Booth,  Otis  W 480 

Booth   &   Linsley 477,  480- 

Boquette    c 348,  361 


772 


ALL    ABOUT    COFFEE 


Borino   &  Bro 486 

Boscul  (brand)    441 

Bossi,   Vernetti  &  Bartolini . . .  651 

Boston    coffee  party    467,  468 

Boston  News  Letter,  newsp .  . .  433 

Boston    tea    party    ..106,   110.  689 
Boswell,  James.. 81,  89;  g.  567 

568,  583 
Botanical  description. .  .12,  26, 

41,  131-138,  248,  249 

— Classification    132 

— Species,  number  of 132 

— Microscopic    149-152 

Botanical    gardens     (see    Gar- 
dens). 

Botanists   disagree 132 

Botany  of  coffee 131-148 

Botteya     di     caffd      (comedy), 

Goldoni 28 

Bouche,  Ciarles  J 505 

Boucher,    Francois 588 

Boulton  &  Co.,  H.  L, 340 

Boulton,  Bliss  &  Dallett 482 

Bounties, 

— ^Guadeloupe 234 

— Australia   (proposed)    239 

Bour,    .T.    M 507 

Bour  Co 443,  506,  507 

Bourai   c 351,  368 

Bourbon  c 353,  378 

Bourbon,    Grand,    c 352,  353 

Bourbon    Le    Roy    c 352,  353 

Bourbon    rond    352,  353 

Bourbon-Santos  c   260, 

341,  342,  nm 

Bourdon,  Isid,  q 565 

Bourne,  H.   R.  Fox,   q 54 

Bovoe  &  Co.,  Wm.  H 506 

Bowdoin,  Gov.   (see  Chicory) .  .  468 

Bowers.  B.  0 480 

Bowman,   chk 53,  54 

Bowman,   John,   pat 637 

Bown,  W.  J.  H 510 

Bown  &  Bro..  W.  T 507 

Bowring  &  Co 488 

Boyd  &  Co.,  G 501 

Braas,  Joseph 507 

Brancho,    Joao    Alberto    C...  9 

Bradford,   Cornelius,   chk.. 119,  120 

Bradford,  John   B.    (Mrs.) 614 

Bradford,  Phebe  C 614 

Bradford,  William,  chk 127, 

128,  129 

Bradley,    Prof.    R 42 

Bradley,  Richard,  q 58 

Bradv,  Cyrus   Townsend 563 

Brad.y,  Dr.,  q 177 

Bramhall  Deane  Co 634 

Brand   advertising. ..  .455,   462-465 

Brand,  Carl  W 448,   507,  514 

Brandenburg,  Elector  of 45 

Brandenstein,  Edward 506 

Brandenstein.   M.   J 506 

Brandenstein,    Manfred 506 

Brandenstein  &  Co.,  M.  J.  .471, 

488,  506 

Brands 434,  435,  440,  441, 

462,  465,  469.  470,  474, 

496,    522-524.    538,  539 

Brasher,    Abraham 609 

Brasher.     Ephraim 609 

Brass,    Italico 556 

Braun    Co 646,  472 

Brayley    (topographer) 582 

Brazil  Coffee  Co 478 

Brazil  coffee  delegation 514 

Brazil-grading    331 

Brazil  Trading  Co 485 

Brazils   (c.)    341-345,  366 

Breakfast    (brand) 524 

Bregolini,   Ubaldo 27 

Brett.   Colonel 576 

Breur,  Holler  &  Co 340 

Brewing, 

— Altitude  limit  9,000  feet 715 

— Art  of 

Calkin's   patent    702 

Muller's   patent 702 

— Below  boiling  point. ..  .515, 

707,  714,  717 

—Care  in 723 

— Chemistry  of 168,  718-720 

—Clarifying    704,  705 

— Comparison  of  methods.  .720,  721 

—Evolution  of 702,  704 


Browing  (cont'd) 

-—Filtration  vs.  percolation.  .  .  515 

— Incorrect  methods  injurious.  179 

— N.  C.  R.  A.  recommendations  717 

— ^Research,  Un.  of  Kansas. . . .  714 

—Scientific     718-722 

— Thurber's  method 712 

Brewing     devices     (1760-1855) 

620-629 

—Acker's    (1884)    645 

— American    colonial    709 

— Andrews'    reversed    Fr.    drip 

(1841)     627 

—Best  materials 717,  721,  722 

— Blickman's   (1916)    652 

—Care    of 722 

— Casseneuve's     reversed      Fr. 

drip   623 

— Cauchois's        porcelain-lined 

urn 645 

—Cauchois's   centrifugal  pump  651 

— Chapman's  tea  or  coffee  pot  649 

— Chronology    (1879-1921) 

643-654 
— Combined   making  and   serv- 
ing pot 616 

— Comparative  test    (1915) .  . .  714 

(1017) 716 

■ — ^^Criterion     674 

■ — Earthenware,  painted  (Abys- 
sinia)       655 

— First   (boiler) 615,  616 

— Llrst   French   patent    (1802) 

621,  699 
—First    U.    S.    patent    (1825) 

469,   624,   625,  699 

— Fountain 674 

—German  patents   (1877-85)..  638 

— ^Levant    (1691) 696 

— Le   Brun's   Cafetiere    710 

— Manning's    combined    637 

— Martelley's  patent    (1825)..  699 

— Moneuse's  urn   (1869) 639 

— Muller's      Art      of      Making 

Coffee    653 

— Napier-List    machine    700 

— Parker's  steam-fountain  ....  705 

— Platow    674 

— Rabaut's    reversed    Fr.    drip 

(1822)     623 

— Savage's    tea    or    coffee    pot 

(1904)     649 

-^Sene's,       "without      boiling" 

(1815)     623 

— Still's      steam      coffee-maker 

(1902)     647 

— ^S.yphon    (Napier) 674 

— Verithing  (Summerling's)  .  .  .  674 

—White's  urn    (1908) 651 

- — Wyatt's     distillation     appar- 
atus    699 

Brewing  methods, 

— Abyssinia    655 

— American   colonies 708,  709 

— Arabia     658-663,  695 

— Australia    692 

—Austria    671,  672 

—Belgium    672 

— Brazil 091 

— .Bulgaria    678 

—Canada 686,  687 

—Ceylon     670 

—China    670 

—Cuba    692 

— Denmark 678 

—England  (1662)  696;  (1722) 

697;     (19th     cent.)  ..  .704-707 

—Europe    670-686 

-(19th  century)    704-708 

—Finland 678 

—France 678-683 

(1669)    696;    (1711-1812) 

696-698;    (19th  cent.) 

707,  708 

'Buc'hoz's    recipe    708 

— Germany    684,  685 

— Great  Britain 672-678 

— Greece     685 

—India   670 

— Italv 686,  696 

—Japan    670 

— Java    670 

—Levant  (1691) 696 

— Martinique    692 

—Mexico     687 


Brewing  methods  (cont'd) 

\ — Netherlands    

\ — New  Orleans 

) — ^New  York. 

/ Hotel  Ambassador 

Waldorf-Astoria     690, 

— New  Zealand 

— ^Oriental,  early 31,  694, 

— Paris   

— Panama  

— Persia   

— Philippines 

— Portugal 

— Scandinavia    

— Roumania   

— Russia 

— Servia 

— Spain 

— Switzerland    

—Turkey 31,  665,  667, 

— U.   S 687.  691.  709- 

Jabez   Burns'   method. . . . 

—Vienna    670,   671, 

Brewing  process 

— Goldsworthy's    (1920)    

Brews,   Composition   of    

Brief    and     merry    history     of 

Enffland,  q 

Brief      description,      etc.,      A, 

pamph.,    ill 70, 

Briggs,    James    H 

Briggs  &  Meehan 

Brillat-Savarin.  .  .  .565  ;  q.  557, 

Brisbane,  v 

British  E.  India  Co 75,  82, 

106, 

British  Pharmaceut.   Codex,  q. 

Broadbent,   Humphrey,   (/..29;^, 

618, 

Broadhurst,  (tenor) 

Broadside   Against    C,    A;    or, 

the     Marriage     of     the. 

Turk,  q.  ill 69, 

Broadsides  and  pamphlets.  .58, 

60,    61,    64,    66,    68,    69, 
71,    72.   432,   433, 

Brock,  J 

Brokers 

— Abyssinia 308, 

— Arabia    310, 

—New   York 336, 

—  (See  also  Dealers,  wholesale) 

Bronson,   Jr.,   A.   E.  pat 

Bronson,  Zenos,  pat 

Bronson-Walton  Co 

Brougier,     pat 

Brown,   Agnes 

Brown,  Arthur  W 

Brov/n,   James 

Brown.  Tom,  q .75,  572, 

Brown"  &  Jones 

Brown  &  Scott 497, 

Brownejohn.    William,   chk.... 

Browning,    Charles    H.    q 

Bruce,   James,   q 

Bruckman  &  CJo.,  L 

"Bruderherz"   (Kolschitsky)  .  . . 
Brnff,   Sr.,  Thomas,  pat... 468, 

Brflleau,    Cafe 

Bruuing,   Wiliam   H.,  pat 

Bruno.  Bishop  Joachim 

Bubonic-plague     boom      (1899- 

1901)     

Bucararamangas    (c.)    ....348, 

Buck,  John  H.,  q 

Buckeye  (brand) 

Buc'hoz,  Pierre  Joseph,  q 

Budan,    Baba    5, 

Budenbach,   T.    O 

Budgell     576, 

Buds,  beverage  from    

Buffon   

Buitzenzorg  c 355, 

Bukabensis.   C 

Bulfinch,  Charles 

Bullard  &  Co.,   C.   G 

Bullata,   C,  hyh 

Bulson,  A.  E.  J.,  q 

Bun    1,  3, 

Bun  safi    (cleaned  b^ans) ..... 

Buna    

Bunca 12, 

Buncha    

Bunchum 11,  12, 

Bunchy   


689,  690 


691 
691 
692 
695 
670 
692 
670 
692 
686 
686 


686 
686 
686 


•723 
712 
672 

702 

721 

77 

71 
477 
477 
697 
316 

601 
183 

697 

582 


70 


434 
503 

310 
312 
837 

647 
245 
647 
167 
526 
482 
497 
574 
497 
499 
118 
126 
693 
496 
51 
621 
106 
653 
9 

529 

364 

607 

470 

708 

225 

497 

578 

694 

98 

373 

146 

113 

485 

140 

182 

12 

266 

41 

25 

12 

25 

38 


IXDEX 


773 


Bunge,  Edouard 532,  534 

Bimn 3,  12,  17,     35 

Bunn,    El 662 

Bunnu    25,     38 

Burbank,  Luther 161 

Bureiius 

— Bus.  research  (see  Harvard) 

— Chemistry.   U.   S 144 

Burke,   Edmuiul    81,   574 

Burke,    Richard 573,  574 

Burman,    q 183 

Burmester.    H.    W 488 

Burn,   J.    H.,   q 62 

Burns,  A.  Lincoln.  .  .526,  527; 

<?.  391,  394 

Burns,  George,  chk 121 

Burns,    Henry    508 

Burns,  Jabez..494,  496,  630; 
Mog.  517,  526;  d.  (1888) 
526,  637  ;  pat.  469,  634, 
644,    645;    q.    634,    635, 

636,  637,   712 

— Starts  Spice  Millj  per 470 

Burns,    Jabez     (Mrs.) 526 

Burns.  Jr.,  Jabez 526,  527 

Bums,  Robert. .  .526,  527  ;  pat. 

647,  652 
Burns,  William  G.  .  .526,  527  ; 

pat.  652,  653 

Burns  &   Brown    495 

Burns  &  Sons,  Inc.,  Jabez....    526 

Burr,    Aaron    123 

Burstone  mills 637 

Burton,  Robert. .  .543,  557;  q. 

lo      38 
Bush  Terminal   Stores,   ill.  . .  '.  322 

Bute   Lord 572 

Butler.    Dr.,    q 179 

Butler,  Earhart  &  Co 469,  508 

Butler,  Crawford  &  Co 508 

Button,  chk 575,  578 

Buying, 

— Abyssinia 308,  310 

— Arabia    310,  312 

— Brazil 303-308 

— Netherlands  E.  Indies 312 

Buying    and    selling    green    c. 

303-312 

Byerl.y,  Thomas 585 

Byerley,  Sir  John 585 

Cabarets  a  caflfe 33 

—  {See  also  Coffee  houses) 

Cabarrus,  E.  T 538 

Cable-break  panic   (1884) 528 

Cadwallader,  pseud 581 

Cafe 

— a  la  cr&me    708 

— a  la  minute    708 

— au  lait    691,  696 

— avec   beurre    683 

— bonifleur    (Guadeloupe) 257 

^bruleau    ; 106 

— complet    683 

— con    l^che 691 

— de   luxe    (Guadeloupe) 257 

— en  parche    (Guadeloupe)    .  .  .  257 

— en  pergamino   (grade)    261 

— flltre    675 

— gloria     683 

— mazagran    92,  653,  682 

— melange     671 

—nature 683 

—sultan    658 

— sultane     694 

Ca,U,   The,   per 84 

Caf^,  literary,  artistic,  and 
commercial,      The,      per 

(French)     34 

CafMer  et  le  Cafe,  Le,  Jardin, 

ill,  q.  2,  6,  14,  31    32,  33,  629 
Caf^s 
— Berlin 
Admiral's 684 

—  — Bauer,    ill 684 

Des  Westens 684 

"Groessenwahn"     684 

Josty's   684 

Kranzler's   ill 684 

—  — Victoria    684 

— Hague,  The 

St.  Joris    686 

— Ix)ndon 

Gatti's,   ill 675,  677 

Kardomah  (chain)   675 


Cafes  (cont'd) 

^London  Cafe  Co 674 

Monico,    m 675,  677 

Nero 674 

Pioneer    677 

Popular 675,  677 

Ritz    678 

Trocadero    675 

— Naples 

Toledo 686 

—New    York 

—  — Fleischmann's 690 

■ — Paris 

Pais,  de  la 683 

Prevost    683 

R^gence,  de  la 683 

— Venice, 

—  — Florian's    686 

—  (See     also     Coffee     houses ; 

Hotels;   Restaurants ; 

Taverns) 
Cafes     chantants     (see    Coffee 

houses) 

Cafffe    3 

Caff?.,  ii '  Beil'i' '.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.  549 
Caffe,  II  (almanac,  1829) ...  558 
Caffd,  II    per     (1764-66) ..  .30,  558 

Caffd,  II     per   (1850-52) 558 

Caffd,  II    per     (1884-89) 558 

Caff?  Pedrocchd,  II   per    (1885)   558 

Caffearine 159 

Caffein 159,  161.  162,  166, 

167,  175,  176,   179,  182, 

437,  711,  718,  721 

— Analyses    for 172 

— Chaff  contains 708 

— Harmless  in  moderation....  717 
— Hollingworth's      experiments 

187,  188 

— Loss  in  roasting 167 

—Physiological  action    183-188 

— Robusta,   C 145 

— Solubility    .  . .  ; 160 

Caffein  content   (C.  arabica) . .   161 

Caffein-free    c.    ill 142,404 

—Artificial 161,   162,    163,  721 

— Natural   161,  162,  721 

Varieties    147 

Caffetannic  acid.  .158,  159,  166, 

174,  721 

— .\nalysis  for 173 

—Lead  number    514 

— Misnomer    716,   718,  719 

— Physiological  action    182 

Caffinets  (see  Coffee  houses) 

Caffeol    1H;{,    lti4,   719,  720 

— I'hysiological    action 183 

Caffeone    163 

Cage,   R.   U 505 

Cage    &    Drew 505 

Cage,  Drew  &  Co..   Ltd 505 

Cahoa 1,       2 

Cahouah   15 

Cahove    91 

Cahua 1,     38 

Cahne 1,       2 

Cahve    31 

Cahwa 45 

Caleb,   Negus    ' 5 

Calkin,  Benjamin  H.  pat. .  .652,  702 

Calorific  value  of  c 180 

Calvados 682 

Campaigning        vith        Orant, 

Porter,    q 563 

Campbell    (chemist)    q 163 

Campbell,  chk 576 

Campbell,  Charles 482 

Campbell's   Lives   of   the   Lord 

Chancellors,   q 570 

Campen,  Christopher,  q 12 

Canadian  Bank  of  Commerce..   488 

Canby,   Edward . 509 

Canby,   Frank   L 509 

Canby,   Ach   &   Canby 508,  509 

Candle,  Sales  by  571 

Canephora,  G 

— Botanical  description 145 

— Caffein   content 161 

— Ceylon 236 

—Java    216 

— Varieties 146 

Cannon  &  Co.,  F 485 

Canova 28,     29 

Cans   (see  Containers), 


Cantatas 

— Bach's,  q,  ill ."it^VoDO 

— Fuzelier's,  music  by  Bernier, 

q 594 

Cantino,    Cesare 549 

Caouhe    2 

Caova    2,  26,     41 

Caphe 1,     38 

Capodimonte  c.-pot 607 

Capitazias 306 

—  {See    Port-handling   charges) 

Capuchin,    Caf^ .683 

Caracanda  Frferes 338 

Caracas   c 348,  364 

Caracol   (grade)    261 

Caracollilo    (grade) 264 

Caramel    in    c 718 

("arazo.   Padre 225 

Carbohydrates    165 

Cardamom  in  c 657.  696,  709 

Caret,    q 555 

Carev   80,  576 

Carey  &  Co 480 

Cargoes 

—Damaged    321,  322 

— Record  (Brazil  to  U.  S.).315,  316 

Carhart  &  Bro 482 

Carit  &  Co.,   S.  A 487 

Carjat 103 

Carmen   Caffaeum,  Massieu    q. 

'543-547 

Carne,   John,   q 668-670 

Carnegie,    Andrew 521 

Carpenter,    Samuel 126 

Carr,  Chase  &  Raymond ."01 

('arret  &  Co.,   J.  E ;{40 

Carruthers    549 

Carson  &  Co.,  W.  K 485 

Carte,    D'Oyly 678 

Carter.  James,  pat 46& 

Carter,  James  W. . .  .494  ;  pat., 

q.  629 

Carter  Bros.  &  Co 507 

Carter,  Macy  &  Co 480 

Carter,  Mann  &  Co 501 

Cartons  (see  Containers). 
Casanas,  Ben.  C 505.  513, 

Case,  Howard  E '. . .'  496 

Caseneuve   pat 623,  699 

Casilla  (grade)    261 

Castel,  q 548 

Castle   Bros 488 

Caswell,   George  W .105,  506 

Caswell  Co.,  George  W 506 

Catalog,    Hudson-Fulton    Cele- 
bration,  q 607.  60$> 

Catalogue  of  the  Rarities  to  be 

seen  at  Adam's 55& 

Catalogtte  of  Traders'   Tokens, 

Burn,     q 62 

Catch   crops 203 

Caucliois,  Frederick  A.... 498, 

701  ;  pat,  472.  645.  649,  651 

Cauphe    38 

Cavanaugh,  Rearuck  &  Co ... .   502 

Cave    31 

Cavoah    2 

Cavee    2ft 

Cavekane    32 

Cazeneuve,   q 15^ 

Celebes    c 35."),  374 

Centlivre,  Susannah,  q 554 

Central   American    coffee 

— Siin     Francisco's     fight     for 

trade   489-491 

Central  Americans    (c.)...347, 

:i.-.i»-361 
Certified      Java      and      Mocha 

(brand) 524 

Ceylons    (c.)    351,  352,   370 

Chaa    (tea) 35 

Chal)ert,    Josephine 518 

Chabraeus     543 

Chaff 

— Removal  deprecated 714 

— Rich  in  caffein  and  aroma .  .   708 

Chain-stores     415,  417,  418 

Chamber    of    Commerce    (New 

York)    119,  120 

Chamberlain,    George    A.,    a. .   5(i;H 
Chamberlain,  Orville  W.,  pat. .   652 

Chamberlaine,    John,    q 432 

Champmesle   91 

Champney,  Elizabeth  W.,  q...   563 


774 


ALL    ABOUT    COFFEE 


Chaouah    1,2,     35 

Ghaova    41 

Chapin,    Harold 556,  563 

Chapman,  D.  J 501 

Chapman,   J.    W.,   put 649 

Character    of    a    coffee    house. 

The    (broadside)    (/ 06-68 

Characteristics 

— Complete  reference  table. 358-378 

• — (Governing    influences 156 

— Green  and  roasted 341-378 

— Leading  growths    (chart)  . .  .    191 

Charcoal,  C.  classed  as 20 

Charles  II.  .  .20,  41,  59,  71,  72, 

74,  82,  109,  554 
— Proclamation       against       c. 

houses 73 

Charlet    593 

Chase,   Caleb 501 

Chase  &  Co.,  Geo.  C 499 

Chase  &  Sanborn 435,  470, 

471.  485,  498,  501 

Chase.  Raymond  &  Ayer 501 

Chatfield-Taylor,  H.  C,  q 556 

Chatterton,  Thomas 80,  85,     88 

ChattopfidhySya     Virendranath 

q 1,        2 

Chaube    2,   25.     41 

Checking  the  roast 387,  391 

Cheek,  Joel  0 509,  513,  515 

Cheek-Neal  Coffee  Co 443,  509 

Cheek,  Norton  &  Neal 509 

Cheetham,  Jr.,  William  11...  501 
Chelsea  bunhouse  (London) .  .  560 
Chemical  analysis 

—Bean     171-173 

—Beverage 714 

Chemistry 155-173 

— U.   S'.  Bureau  of... 338,  391,  396 

Cheribon    c 355,  373 

Chess    in    c.    houses 90,  98,   104 

■Chesterfield,  Lord 576 

Chesterton,   Gilbert   K 553 

Chestnut,    q 155 

Chevalier,    Aug 142 

Cheyno,  George,  q 59 

Chiapas  c 345,   358 

Chibouk     663 

Chicago  Liquid  Sack  Co 471 

Chicago  Theatre  Society 555 

Chicory 

- — Botanical  description 170 

■ — Chemical  analysis 170 

— Extracts  of  c,  use  in ...  .  169 
— First  use  (Holland.  1750)  .  .  170 
—Introduced  into  U.  S.   (1785)    468 

• — Microscopic  exam 152,  153 

— Substitute    for    c 46 

Chicory    in    coffee 404 

— France 678 

— Great    Britain 673 

— Paris  and   Vienna 070,  671 

- — ^Scandinavia   686 

Children,    effect  on    177,   178 

Childs    (grocer,   St.  Louis) 631 

China  &  Java  Export  Co 488 

Chlorogenic    acid 718,  719 

Choate,  Joseph  H 690 

Chocolate 

— Discovery    of 12 

— Introduction  into  North  Am.  106 

— Prices,    London    (1662) 59 

— Sold  in  London   (1657) 56 

— Sold    in     London     c.     bouses 

41,  61,  78,  80 
Chocolate  Cream  (brand)  ....  441 
Chocolate    houses     (see    Coffee 

houses) 

Chocolate    pots 609 

Cholera,    effect    on 181 

Chops 

—Brazil    306 

— New  York •.  .    321 

Chrestomathie  Arahe,  de  Sacv. 

q 2.   17,  663 

Christian  beverage 26 

Chronology,    A    coffee 725-737 

Chubuck  &  Saunders 508 

Churchill   579,  580 

Churchill  &  Co.,  Frederick  A .  .    502 

Cibber,  Colley 579  :  q.  575,  577 

Cinnanaon   in   c 105.  696,  709 

Oinnamon    roast 388 

Cincinnati,  Society  of  the....  120 
CinciHBati  Spice  Mills 503 


Cipriani   84,  583 

dtp.  The,  q 86 

City   Coffee  Works 492 

at  If     Directory,     New      York 

(1848,  1854),  g 494 

—  (1861)    q 496 

City  Dock  Co.   (Santos,  Brazil)    303 

City,  roast    388 

Clarification    704,  705 

Clark    -Ammi,  pat 625 

Clark;  Charles  A 506,  514 

Clark  &  Host  Co 506 

Clarke  Bros.  &  Co 508 

Clay  bowls 016 

Cleaning  machinery ..  246,   248, 

257,   383,  385 

— Hungerford's   patents    644 

Clearing  Ass'n,  N.  Y.  Excli.331,  335 

Clearwater,    Judge ; 609 

Clement  VIII,  Pope 26 

Climate,   Best  for  c 198 

(ilosset,  Emile 507 

Ck'sset,   Joseph 507 

Closset  &  Devers 507 

Closset    Bros 507 

Cloves    in    c 090,   709 

Clubs 

— ^Boston 

^First Ill 

—  • — Merchants'     Ill 

— Ijondon 

Court  de  Bone  Compagnie     60 

Evolution  of 75 

— -  — Hanover     577 

Literary     583 

— London  coffee-house. 

— •  —Bread  Street 60 

—  — Devil    Tavern 60 

Friday  Street 60 

Mermaid    Tavern 60 

Rota   59,  60,  583 

—  • — Turk's  Head 81 

Turk's  Head  Society 583 

White's     87 

— New   York. 

—  — ^Coffee  House 690 

South  America 690 

- — Phila.,  supersede  c.  houses.  .    130 
Chihs  and  Club  Life  in  London, 

Timbs,    q 570-585 

Coal    roasting 385,  386 

Coarse  (see  Grinds). 

Coated     c.     Rulings      (U.     S.) 

against    337 

Coatepec    c 345.  358 

Coating    166,  396 

— Condemned  by  N.   C.  R.  X.  .    513 

— Reasons  for 170 

Coatzacoalcos    c 345,  358 

Coava    36 

Cohans    (c.) 347,  359 

Cobbett,  William,  q 561,  562 

Cochrane,  q 185 

Cocoa,  first  used  in  Europe...      25 

Coffa    2    30,     38 

Coffalic   acid    '.  .  . .    719 

Coffao    2 

Coffe    2 

Coffee,  Keable,  q 181.   182 

Coffee,    A    short    historical    ac- 
count of,  Bradley 42 

Coffee  and  Repartee,  Bangs,   q 

564,  565 

Coffee  Book,  The,  q 714 

Coffee  cantata.  Bach 46 

Coffee  Club    (U.   S.) 453 

Coffee   Club,   The,  per.,   q 177 

Ccffee  from  Plantation  to  Cup, 

Thurber.    q 182,  712 

Coffee   Grinding    and   Brewing, 

N.   C.   R.   A 715 

Coffee  house,  most  beautiful .  .  .    599 
Coffee     house.     The     (comedy) 

Rosseau     88 

Coffee  house.  The  neic  and  curi- 
ous,   per 45 

Coffee   house   or   newsmongers' 

hall,   (broadside) 68,     69 

Coffee-house  keepers,  London 
— Proposed    newspaper   monop- 
oly        74 

— Tokens,  ill...m,  62,   74,  89, 

582.  602,  603 

Coffee  houses 293 

— Advantages    72 


Coffee  houses   (cont'd) 

— Algeria    656 

—Arabia 658 

— -Augsburg,   first    (1713) 45 

— Berlin 

—  ■ — Arnoldi    45 

City  of  Rome 45 

English 45 

Falck's   (Jewish) 45 

First    (1721)     45 

— -  — Miercke    45 

Royal    45 

—  —Schmidt   45 

Widow   Doebbert's    45 

— Boston 108-113 

American    108,   111 

— •  — Auctions  held   in 112 

British   108 

Crown,   ill 108 

Exchange    112,  113 

First     108 

Green  Dragon,  ill.  .  .  .109, 

110,   111 

Gutteridge 108 

■ London 108,  116,  467 

North-End   112 

Royal  Exchange 112 

—  • — Stage   coaches   start   from 

110,   112 

Washington 110 

—Brazil    691 

— Cairo,     number     (17  th     cen- 
tury)       26 

— Chicago 

— •  — Exchange 106 

^Lake  Street 106 

Washington 106 

— Constantinople 663-667 

— •  — Prices  (1554) 19 

— Damascus    668-670 

First 19 

■ Gate  of   Salvation 19 

Roses    19 

— Egypt   656,  657 

— 'England 

First    (1650) 41,     53 

Decline 75 

— -—Ordered    suppressed.  .  .72,     73 

Proclamation    by    Charles 

II 73 

Proclamation    rescinded..      73 

— Europe,    first 27 

• — Exeter    ( Devon ) 

Mol's    42 

— I<>ance     33,  682.  684 

— Germany    683,  684 

First  (1675) 45 

— Hamburg,   first    (1675)  .....      45 

—Italy     27,     28 

I^irst    27,  686 

— Leipzig,   first    (1694) 45 

— London    53-89 

— ■ — Adam's   (and  museum)  .. . 

559,  560 

—  — Baker's     87 

Baltic 87 

Batson's     78 

Bedford 80,  84,  88, 

576,   579,   580 

—  — Blue    Hall 575 

—  — Bowman's    83 

—  —British,    ill 79,     86 

Button's,    ill 80,  81, 

83,  84,  570,  575,  576, 

577,   578,   579,   593 

—  — Caledonien,    ill 84,  593 

Chapter 78,  80,  88,  582 

Child's 78,  88,  560,  582 

—  —Cocoa-Tree   ...  78,  79,  87,  560 

—  —Decline    of 61,  62,  81, 

82,  674,  675 

Dick's,  ill 87,  88,  555,  572 

Dish  of  Coffee  Boy,  ill...   603 

Don  Saltero's,  iH..80,  86, 

88,  558 

Museum     559 

Edinburgh    Castle 75 

Farr's 54 

Fire  of  1666 61,     62 

— -^First    (1652).. 42,   53,  54,   293 

^Folly    (house-boat) 89 

Garra way's  (or  Garway's) 

ill 50,  77,  80,  83, 

561.  570,  571,  572 
Gaunt's    588 


INDEX 


775 


Coffee  houses  (cont'd) 
— London 

—  — George's    584, 

— ■  — Giles's 

Grecian,    »7/.  .  .61,   77,  80, 

85,  560, 

Groom's  

Hamlin's    

.Jacobs 

.Jamaica   

Jenny  Man's 

Jerusalem    

Joe's 

—  — Jonathan's.  .88,  554,    560, 

Little  Man's 79, 

Lloyd's,  ill 75,  80,  85, 

London    88, 

Man's    61, 

• — •  — Miles's    

Nando's     80,   88.   572, 

New    England    and    North 

and  South  American 

—  —New   Lloyd's 

New  Man's 

New    Slaughter's 

News  centers,   use  as.... 

North's     

Number    ( 1715) 

Old     Man's 77,  79, 

—  —Old    Slaughter's 

"On    the  Pavement" 

—  - — Rosee's   

Peele's    80,  88, 

■ — •  — "IVuny  universities"   .... 

—  — Percy 89, 

Piazza     80,  89, 

Piazza  coffee  room .  .  .  580, 

Kainbow    62,   77,  89, 

Reads    

—  ^Red  Tow 83, 

Robins's     

Robinson's 

Rochford's.   Mrs 

Rose 84, 

—  — Royal      Swan      (and     mu- 

seum )    

Second 

— •  — Shakespeare    

Slaughter's,  ill 80,  84, 

85.  580.  583,  584, 

Smyrna   .  . 79,  80,  89, 

Squire's    

—  — S'r.  James's. .  .75,   78    79. 

.    80.   88.  558, '560, 
562,   573,   574. 

Stone's   

Thomas's    

Tiltvard 

Tom"    King's 89, 

Tom's,  ill 80,  85,  575, 

576,  579,  580, 

Turk's  Head 56,  59, 

80,  81,  89,   582. 

Turk's  Head,  Canada  and 

Bath    

Virginia     

Welch    (Daniels) 

White's    ill 79,  87, 

558,  587, 

Burned    (1733) 

— ■  — Widow   Hambledon's 

Williams's    

Will's 77,  79,  80,  83, 

558.  560,   574,  575, 

Young    Man's 78,  79, 

— Marseilles,    first    (1671) 

— Mecca 

Opposition     

Relicensed   

— Milan 

Demetrio    

— Netherlands     44, 

— New  I']ngland 107- 

— New   Orleans 

— New  York 115- 

—  — Auctions  held  at 

Bank    121, 

Burns,  ill 117, 

^City    

— - — Civic  forums,  use  as.  .115, 

117,  118, 

Directorv,  use  as 

Double  R 

Exchange . .  .118, 

P'xchange  coffee  room .... 


585 
560 

584 

572 

78 

42 

S3 

560 

88 

571 

572 

88 

572 

582 

88 

583 

585 


86 

88 

84 

77 

78 

74 

88 

84 

583 

42 

585 

3 

585 

581 

581 

572 

74 

574 

63 

570 

79 

574 

559 
54 

84 

593 
573 

86 


588 

675 

84 

78 

581 

593 

583 

583 

83 

78 

588 

587 

575 

78 

588 
88 
32 

17 
18 

30 

686 
■113 
106 
124 
118 
124 
121 
119 

120 
120 
690 
119 
120 


Coffee  houses  (cont'd) 

Exchanges,  use  as. . .  .117, 

118,  119,   120,   123 

First     (1696) 116 

Decline     123 

Gentlemen's    Exchange...    118 

Keen   and  Lightfoot's 120 

— ^ — King's  Arms,  ill 116, 

117,     118,     121,  467 
Merchants,  ill... 115,  118, 

119,  122,   123,  593 
Birthplace     of     Union 

(1774)     474 

Congress     Of    Deputies 

Suggested    120 

Memorial  tablet  (1914) 

473,  474 
Organizations     meeting 

therein    120 

New     117,118 

New  England  and  Quebec,  121 

New   York 120 

Pequot    611 

Social  centers,  use  as.  .  .  .    115 

Tontine,  ill 120,  121, 

123,  593 

Whitehall     121 

— Nuremburg,  first   (1690) 45 

— Oxford 

—  — Jacob's    41,     53 

Jobson's 41 

—  — Tillyard's 41 

— Padua:  Pedrocchi,  ill. 29.  30,  599 

—Paris .91-104 

Alcazar    d'Hiver 98 

Anglais 103 

• — •  — Bonnards    98 

Beauvilliers'    102 

^  — Chartres     102 

Chat  Noir 104 

Concert  du  XIX  Si^cle.  ..      98 

■ ^^Concert    Europeen 98 

Des  Mille  Collonnes,  t».  .  .      99 

Development  of 94,     96 

Durand     104 

Dutch 103 

Eldorado    98 

—  — English     103 

— -  — Pevrier's    102 

First    (1672) 291,670 

Folies  Bobino 98 

Fov,     ill 97,  100 

Gaiety    98 

Grand  Commun 102 

Gregory's 93 

Guerbois     104 

Laurent 103,  554 

'Ijefevre's    96 

IjC  Gantois's   93 

Litteraire    103 

Madrid     103 

.Magny's 94,  96,   102 

Maire's     103 

Maison  Doree 103 

—  — Makara's    93 

Maliban's     93 

Mapinot 102 

Masse's     102 

M<5ot's    102 

Momus     100 

Number    of 93 

(1843)     94 

.Paix,  de  la 103 

Pascal's  (Fair  of  St.  Ger- 
main)       33,     92 

Paris,  ill 101,  103 

Procope,    ill... 94,  95,  98,  566 

Rambuteau    98 

Regence     96,     98 

Riche     103,  104 

Rocher   de    Cancale 104 

Rotonde    100,   102 

Roval   Drummer,  ill 94 

Stephen's     93 

Terre's     103 

—  — Tortoni     103 

Tour    d'Argent 94 

Trois    I'^eres    Provengaux,  102 

Vachette    102 

Venua's    102 

V^ry    102 

Voisin     103 

— Persia    21 

— Philadelphia 125-130 

Decline  of 130 


Coffee  houses  (cont'd) 

—  — Exchange    (proposed) ....  130 
— ^fe'cene   from    Hamilton, 

ill 556 

Exchanges,  use  as 128 

First     (1700) 126 

James 127 

Ix)ndon,  ill 125,  126 

— • Slave  auctions,  ill 128 

^Sunday    closing 129 

— Swearing,  gaming,  etc., 

prohibited     128 

lyondon    (2nd),  ill 127 

—  — Merchants    125,  129,  130 

Roberts'    127 

Social  centers,  use  as.  125,  130 

Ye  coffee  house.  .125,   126,  467 

— Post-office,  use  as 126 

—Portugal   686 

— Regensburg  :   first    (1689)  ...  45 

^Santo  Domingo,  first   (1738)  34 

—Spain     686 

— St.  Louis:  Ijeonhard's 105 

—Stuttgart:  first   (1712) 45 

— Turkev    32,  663-670 

Closed    20 

Reopened   21 

— Fnited  States  (1700) 708 

— Venice 

-ibbondanza 28 

—  — Angelo    Custode 28 

• — ■— Arabo-Piastrelle    28 

—  — Arco  Celeste 28 

Aurora  Piante  d'oro 28 

Buon    genio-Doge 28 

Coraggio-Speranza 28 

Dame    Venete 28 

—  — Ducca  di  Toscana 28 

—  — Florian,  ill 27.  28,   '29,  555 

Fontane  di   Diana 28 

Imperatore    Imperatrice 

della     Russia 28 

■ — •  ■ — Menegazzo   28 

Orf eo    28 

Pace   28 

Pitt.    I'eroe 28 

Ponte  dell'  Angelo 27 

Quadri    28 

Redentore    .  .  28 

Re  di  Francia 28 

Regina  d'Ungherla 28 

Spaderia    27 

Tamerlano 28 

Venezia    trionfante 28 

— Vienna   671,  672 

Blue   Bottle 50,  590 

—  — First    51,  590 

Kolschitzky's     50 

■ Mosee's,  Franz 51 

—  —Number  of  (1839) 52 

—  — Sacher    50 

—  — Schrangl    671 

Coffee  houses  vindicated, 

pamph,    q 71.  72 

Coffee,  Its  Histoni,  Cultivation 

and  Uses,  Hewitt 480 

Coffee  kings 

— First    (Germany) 47 

(U.    S.) 517 

—Last    (U.   S.) 518 

Coffee-makers'  guild  of  Vienna.  51 
Coffee  man's  granado.  The 

(Broadside)    66 

Coffee  palaces  (see  Coffee 

houses) 

Coffee  Pep  (brand) 539 

Coffee  pots  (see  Service) 

Coffee  Roaster  &  Mill  Mfg.  Co.,  497 

Coffee  Roasters  Traffic  and  Pure 

Food    Association 473 

Coffee  rooms  (Norway) 686 

Coffee  sevffle.   The   (broadside) 

q 64 

Coffee  shops   (houses),  London,  674 

Coffee-smellers    (Germany)  ....  47 
Coffee,  tea,  and  chocolate,  Con 

cerning  the  use  of,  Dufour,  34 
Coffee,  tea,  and  chocolate,  The 

manner  of  makiny,  Dufour,  34 

Coffee   tree,    Kentucky., 564 

Coffee  water  frosa-folis) 695 

Coffey 41 

Coffi 2 

Cognac  in  c 106,  686 

CogoUo   &   Co 340 


776 


ALL    ABOUT    COFFEE 


Coho    1,      2,     38 

Cohoo    2 

Cohove    91 

Cohu    2 

Colt  &  Son,  Henry 476 

Coke  roasting 385,  386 

Colaux  &  Cie.  pat 625 

Cole  &  Son,   Stephen 476 

Coles  Manufacturing  Co. .  .472,  646 

Colet   M.  H.,  q 594 

Colgate,  Charles  C 492 

Colgate,    Samuel 492 

Collection  of  Voyages  and 

I'ravels,  A,  q 23 

Collins,    William 580 

Coloring  substances 170 

Colombians   (c.) .  .348-350,  363,  364 

Colpani   558 

Columbia    University 186 

ColumMan  Centinel,  nexcap.  q. .   434 

Oolumnaris,    C,    hyh 140 

Comity  Francjais  du  Caf^ 445 

Commaille,   q 165 

Commercial  Ass'n,  Santos 314 

Commercial  coffee   chart 191 

Commercial  Coffee  Co 478 

Commercial    Organic   Analysis, 

q 159 

Commissario 303,  304, 

305,  306,  312,  491 
Commissions 

— New   Yorlc 334,  336 

— Santos 304 

Committee    of    Correspondence 

120,  474 
Committee     of     One     Hundred 

(1774)     120 

Commonwealth  and  c 54,     59 

Competition,  retail 426 

Complet,  Cafe    683 

Compton    (Bishop  of  London).    570 

Condorcet   94 

Confectionery,  C 695 

Confessions,  Rousseau 102 

Congensis,   G 147 

Congensis  var.  Chalotii 147 

Congensis  x  Vgandae,  hyt 146 

Congo,  Belgian,  c 353,  377 

Congo  coffee,   caffein  content..    161 

Congress  of  Deputies 120 

Conkling  &  Lloyd 476 

Con  16che,  Cafe 691 

Connoisseur  (London)  per,  q.  579 
Conopios,  Nathaniel ....  40,  41,  43 
Conquest  of  Qranada,  Dryden's 

(censured  by  Rota) 60 

Conrad  &  Co.,  J.  H 502 

Consolidated   Coffee  Co 508 

Consortium  of  1868 476 

Constantine,    George,    chk.    61, 

84,  584 
—  {See  Jennings,  George) 
Constantinople,  Illustrated, 

Walsh,   q 663,  664 

Constantinople   in    1657,    Rela- 
tion of  a  Journey  to    Ro- 

lamb,  q 23 

Constantinople,    Old    and  New; 

Dwight,    q 664-667 

Constituents  of  c.  Valuable...    693 
Constitutional     Antiquities     of 
Sparta    and    Athens,    Gil- 
bert,   q 40 

Consume    (grade) 261 

Consumption 285-302 

— Argentina    ...279,  286,  287,  291 

— Australia    286,  287,  291 

— Balkan   States 290 

— Belgium   285,  287 

— Canada     286,  287 

— Chile    286,  287,  291 

—Colombia 278 

— Cuba    286,  287,  291 

— Denmark    287,  290 

— Europe  (19th  Century).. 295,  296 

— Federated  Malay  States 284 

— France    285,  287,  290 

Average   annual 678 

—Germany 285,  287,  290 

— Great  Britain 285,  287 

— Guiana,  French 279 

—Italy    285,  287,  290 

— Mexico     280 

— Netherlands    285,  287,  290 

—New  Zealand 285,  287,  291 


Consumption    (cont'd) 

—Norway    287,  290 

— Peru    278 

— Portugal   (1919) 290 

—Russia 285,  287,  291 

— Salvador  280 

— San  Francisco 487 

— Scandinavia    285,  290 

—Spain 285,  287,  290 

—Sweden 287,  290 

— Switzerland  ..285,  287,  290,  291 

—Table  of  World 287 

— Tea  and  c.  comparisons. 288,  289 
— Union  of  South  Africa.. 286, 

287,  291 

—United    States 106,285, 

287,  288,  293,  294 

Popularity    explained. . . .   106 

Prohibition  ;  effect  on 689 

World^war  ;   effect   on ...  .    297 

— Venezuela     278 

Consumption  per  capita 

— Foreign    countries 288-290 

— Groix,   Island  of 176 

— Tables 288 

— United    States 298,  299,  476 

—  • — ^Methods  of  computing...  302 
Containers 402-404,   408- 

412,  470,  471 

— First  paper  and  tin-end 471 

— First  strawboard  (1881)...  471 
— Leather  bags,  greased  (1710)  620 
— Pots  of  various  sizes   (1790) 

491,  492 

— Standardizing    410 

— ^Vacuum     471 

Conti,  Prince  de 590 

Contracts     329,  331 

— Cost-and-freight    513,  515 

— In-store 331 

— N.  Y.  Exchange 333-335 

— To  arrive 335 

Controversies 

■ — England 64-74 

— Cammercial,  U.  S 438 

— Medical,    Eng 58,     59 

— Political,  Eng.   (1666-72)    72, 

73,     76 

—  {See  also  Opposition  ;  Coffee 

houses) 

Conway,     Charles 499 

Cooling    381,  636,  641 

Cooling  machinery 394,  395 

Cooling  machines 

- — Burns's  ilexible-arm.  .  .  .652,  653 
• — Emmerich  automatic  (1897),  639 
— German  patents   (1877-85)  .  .    638 

— Grohens's    rotary 646 

Cook,  O.F..q 202.  223 

Cooper.   Charles,   q 675 

Cooper,   Cornelius 492 

Cooper,   L.   S 495 

Cooper  &  Co.,  Nathaniel 476 

Coorg  c 351 ,  379 

Copha    1,   2,     38 

Cophie 56,     58 

Cophy    56 

Coppee,    F^angois 565 

Cordoba  c 347,  358 

Corinchies  c 355,  371 

Comer  in  Coffee,  The,  Brady.  .    563 
.Corners 
— Arnold's    (1869-1881)  ..  .517,  518 

—Blanco's    (1895) 529 

— 'Kaltenbach's    (1891-92)  .476,  529 

—United    States    (1901) 530 

Cornpoppers  for   roasting 635 

Correa  &  S'ons,  F.  A 338 

Corbett.    Barney 503 

Corbett  &  Heekin 503 

Corbin,  May  &  Co 485 

Corinna  (Mrs.  E.  Thomas)  ....    575 

Cornell  &  Smith 508 

Cost  card  for  roasters 392 

Cost   analysis 407,  408 

—Retail    418 

Cost  and  freight  brokers.  .336,  337 
Cost  and  profits,  retail.  .  .  .426,  427 

—Chart     428 

Costa  Ricas  (c.) 348.  361 

Coste,  Felix 448,  457,  514 

Cotovicus 32,  696  ;  q.  .  .      20 

Cottraux,   E.   P 505 

Cottrell 496 

Couha    2 


Couguet,  Dr.  A.,  g 26 

Coventry,  Sir  William,  q 72 

Cowhe 2 

Cowha 2 

Cowper,  William    88,  557  ; 

q 550,  572 

Cradle  of  Am.   liberty 293 

Cramer,  P.  J.  S.,  q.  .  .135,  138, 

140,  142,  144,  146,  147,  345 

Crampton,  G.  E 501 

Crawford,  Thomas  A 505 

Crawley,  Edwin,  pat 642 

Cream  in  c 399,  698 

Cr^bilon    94 

Credit   policy,   retail 428,  429 

Creighton,   Clarence 477 

Creighton  &  Ashland 477 

Creighton,  Morrison  &  Meehan,  477 

Creme,   Caf6  a  la 708 

Crepaux    708 

Cripps,    q 602 

Crispe,  Sir  Nicholas 54 

Crocker,  Nathaniel 508 

Cromwell,    Henry 575 

Cromwell,    Oliver 72 

Crooks  &  Co.,  Robert 485 

Crooks  &  Co.,   Samuel 501 

Cross  &  Co.,  C.  A 642 

Grossman,  George  W.. 482,  518,  519 

Grossman,  W.  H 482,   518,  519 

Grossman  &  Bro.,  W.  H 482, 

484,  518,  530 
Grossman  &  Sielcken.482,  519,  521 
Crossman-Sieleken    contract...    519 

Crouse  &  Co.,  Jacob 508 

Cruger,  Henry 475 

Cruger,  John 475 

Crusade  (brand) 435 

Cubans    (c.) 351,  361 

Cucutas    (c.) 348,  349,  364 

Cuchaletto    (chocolate) 107 

• — Sold  in  Boston    (1670) 107 

Culapius,   S.  pseud,  q 181 

Culbreth,    q 181 

Cultivation   197-243 

— Crop  maturity 138 

—Early     197 

Spread    of 5.  6,  7,  8,       9 

—  (see  also  Propagation) 
Cultivation    (geographical) 

— Abyssinia    1 

— Africa,   British  Central 9 

— Africa,  British  East 9 

— Amazonas    (began  1752)  ....        9 

— .Angola    229 

— Arabia    2,  5,  230,  231 

Began    (A.   D.   575) 5,  230 

— Argentina   236 

— Australia    9,  238,  239 

— Bolivia 236 

— Bourbon    (Reunion) 9 

— Brazil    9,   74,     75 

204-208,  275 

Profits    (1900) 205 

— California,    Southern 9 

—Celebes  (began  1750)  .9,  217,  283 
— Ceylon 236,  237 

—  ■ — Begun    by    Arabs    (before 

1505)    6,     43 

Begun    by    Dutch    (1658), 

6,     43 

—  —Systematic     (1690) 282 

— Colombia    208-212 

— Costa  Rica 9,  135,  225,  280 

— Cuba    9,  231,  232 

— Dominican  Republic 232 

— Ecuador    236 

— Federated   Malay   States 238 

— Fiji   Islands 243 

— France    6 

— Guadeloupe    233,  234 

—Guam    242,  243 

— Guatemala 9,  135,  219,  220 

— Guiana,  British.  ..  .235,  236,  279 
— Guiana,    Dutch.  ..  .235,  236,  279 

— Guiana,    French 235.  236 

— Haiti    ; .  . .  9,  220 

— Hawaii    9,  239,  241 

• — Honduras    234 

— Honduras,    British 234,  235 

— Indo-China,  French 9,  237 

—India 5,  9,  225-227,  282 

— Jamaica    9,  74,  233 

— Java    9,  43,  74,  213,  293 

—Liberia    230 


INDEX 


777 


jltivation  (cont'd) 

-Martinique   6,  7,  8,  9,  233 

-Mexico 9,  220,  221,  222,  280 

-U.    S.    Interest 221 

" — Netherlands 5,         6 

— Netherlands  E.  Indies. . .  .6, 

213-217,  283 

— New  Caledonia   243 

—Nicaragua     227 

—Panama 235 

—Para    9 

— I'araguay    236 

—Peru 236 

--Philippines 9,  241,  242 

—Porto    Rico 9,  222,   223,  225 

— Queensland 9 

— Kio   de  Janeiro 9 

—Salvador 217,  219,  279 

- — Santo   Domingo    9 

—Sao    Paulo    205-208 

— South  America   (first) 279 

— Straits    Settlements 238 

— Sumatra    216,  217,  283 

—Tahiti    243 

—Tobago    234 

• — ^Tonkin    9 

— Trinidad    234 

—Uganda   230 

— United    States 9 

—Venezuela     9,  212,  213,  277 

— West  Indies 9 

— Western  Hemisphere   (first) .   294 

Cultured    (brand) 474 

Culver   &   Geiger 509 

Cumberland,  q 573,  574 

Cummings,  W.  A 496 

Cunningham     583 

Cup  of  c,  or  c.  in  ita  colours, 

A  (broadside),? 64 

Cup-testing    356,  357 

— «an    Francisco 487,  488 

Curagoa   c    Sol,   363 

Cure-all 58 

Cure  for  drunkenness 58,     61 

Curiosities  of  Literature, 

D'Israeli,    a    41 

Curtis  &  Burnham 508 

Curtis  Publishing  Co .   441 

Cushing,   q 179 

Customs   and  Fashions  in   Old 

New  England,  Earle,  q. . . .   709 
Cu«tom-house    procedure.    New 

York    319 

Cutler,    Benjamin 492 

Cu.vler,    Philip 475 

C.  W.  (brand) 441 

Cyrill,    Patriarch 40,     41 

da  Ponte,   Lorenzo 28 

D.ngoty 589,  590 

Dahlman,  Henry 506 

Dahlman,  John ' 506 

Dailif  Post  (Lond.)   newsp.  q..    588 

Dakin,    Elizabeth    pat 633 

Dakin,  William,  pat 633 

Dakin  &  Co 633 

Dakotan,    v 316 

D'Alembert,    q 3 

Dally,    Gifford 128 

Dana.  John  Cotton,  q 712 

Dancourt,    q 554 

Daney,  Sidney,  q 8 

Daniel,  chk 78 

Dannemiller,  A.  J.,  q 409 

— Coflfce-selling  chart 409 

Dannemillers  &  Co 484 

Danton,  George  Jaques 94,     98 

Danvers'  Letters,  q 2 

d'Argenson,  De  Voyer 594 

Dark    roast 356,  387 

Darouf   (Arabian  bale) 266 

d'Arvieux,   Chevalier,   q 2 

Dash,    Bowie 479,  497,  527 

Dash,  J.  Bowie 497 

Dash  &  Co.,  Bowie.  .  .469,  477,  528 

Dater,     Henry 482 

Dater,     Philip 482 

Dater  &  Co.,  Philip 482 

Dauchet    554 

Daudet,  Alphonse 103 

Daughty,  Charles,  M..  q 661-663 

Daugleish,  Dr 677 

Dauphine  of  Prance 600 

Davenant,  Sir  William 80,   576 

Davenport  &  Morris 485 


David    13 

Davies,  Tom 567,  568 

Da  vies  &  Co.,  John  L 502 

Davies  &  Co.,  Ltd.,  Theo.  H 488 

Davis,   S.   L 499 

Davis  &  Co.,  Noah 501 

Dawson,  August  T.,  q 711,  712 

Dayton  &  Co 480 

Dayton  Spice  Mills 443 

Dayton   Spice  Mills  Co 508 

De  Belloy,  Jean  Baptiste,  inc. . 

94,  621,  622,  697,  698 

de  Boze,  q 543 

de  Bussy,  Th.  Roland,  q 656 

de  Chirac 6 

de  Clieu,  Mathieu  Gabriel... 6, 

7,  8,  233,  550 

— Memorial  to 9 

— Verses   about 8 

— Voyage  to  Martinique 6,       7 

De    Constantinople    a    Bombay, 

Lettres,  Delia  Valle,  q 12 

de  Coverley,   Sir  Roger 86 

De  L^remery  &  Co 488 

de  Goncourt,  Jules 102,  103 

de  Gourcufif,   0 557 

de  Jour,  Rouill6 8 

de  .Jussieu,  Antoine 6 

De  la  Cat6,  de  Gourcuff 557 

de  la  Motte.  Houdard 554 

De  Lancey  house.  New  York. . .   121 

de  Lannay,  Count 47 

de  Laval,  Pyrard,  q 2 

de  I'Ecluse,  Charles 31 

De  Dessert  &  Co.,  J.  S 476 

De   Lima,   D.   A 482 

De  Lima,  D.  A.  &  J 482 

De  Lima  &  Co..  D.  A 482 

De  Luxe,  Caf6   (Guadeloupe) . .   257 

de  Mattel,  Natale,  pat 653 

De  Mattia,  pat 166 

De  Mattia  Bros 686 

de   Maupassant,   Guy 565 

de  Alere,  Mile 91 

de  Monteith.  Fulbert,  q 22 

de  Musset,  Alfred 98,  102, 

565  ;  q.  103 

de  Noailles,  Duke 567 

de  Nointel 542 

De  Quincey,  Thomas,  q 562 

de  Pompadour,  ill 588,  600 

de  Rabutin-Chantal,  Marie....      91 
de  Sacy,  Baron  Antoine  Isaac 

Silvestre,  17  ;  (? 2,  663 

De     Saluberrima     Cahue     seu 

Cafe,  etc.,  Nairon 16 

de  Santais,  Edward  Loysel,  pat.  629 

De   Sarlo,   q 186 

de  Saxe,  Marie-Josephe 600 

de  Sgvigne,  Madame 91,  565 

de  Thevenot,  Jean 31,     91 

de    Tournemine 591 

de  Wildman,  M.  E.,  ? 132 

Dealers,  Wholesale 

— New  Orleans 486.  487 

— New  York 475-482 

Dearman,    Richard,    pat 621 

Decaffeinated  (see  Caflfein-free) 
Declaration   of  Independence..    Ill 

Decoction   defined 698 

Decreuse 589 

Deep  Sea  Hotel  (Arbuckle's)  .  .   524 

Deer  Co.,  A.  J 443,  472, 

473,  643,  646 

Defendorf,    George 492 

Deffes    594 

Defoe,  Daniel 80  ;  <?.  78,     79 

Dehio     186 

del  Castillo  &  Co.,  Rafael 340 

Delafleld.    Henry 476 

Delafleld.  William 476 

Delille.   Jacques,   q 547 

Dell,  John  C,  pat 644 

Delia    Valle,     Pierre     (Pietro) 

543  ;  q.  2,  12,     27 

Delphine,   Sr.,  pat 639 

Demidoff,  Prince 103 

Democracy,  Coffee  and.. 20,  21, 

54,  72,  75,  293 

— Am.   colonies 107 

— Boston    Ill 

— ^England    59 

— France    100 

—Italy    28 

Demonstrations,   etc..    Store.  . .   425 


Dennis    575 

Denobe,  pat 621 

Deodorant    58,  -ISO 

Department    stores 415 

Des  Arts  &  Henser 476 

Des    Dames    du    Temps    Jadia, 

Villon,    q 13a 

Descamps    591 

Desmoulins,    Camille 94,  100 

Desserts,   recipes 723,  724 

Destree,    q 186 

Desvigncs,    pat 157 

Detroit  Testing  Laboratories. .   715 

Developing    point 389 

Deverall,  R.U.  &  A 501 

Devers,  A.  H 507 

Deicevrei.  C 142 

— Java    214 

Diarrhea,  effect  of  c.  on 181 

Diary,  Jourdain,   q 1 

Diary  and  Correspondence, 

Evelyn,  q 40 

Dickinson,  Gilchrist 476 

Dictionary,  d'Alembert,  q 3 

Dictionary,  d'Arvieux,  q 2 

Dictionary  of  Applied   Chemis- 
try,   q 164 

Dictionary,  Neto  English,  Mur- 
ray, q 1 

Dictionary,  Universal,  q. 176 

Diderot,  Denis 94  ;  <?.  96,     98 

Dieekmann  &  Co 488 

Diefenthaler,   Charles   E 497 

Diefenthaler,  T.   F 497 

Dietl    186 

Dietz,    F.    C 508 

Digestion,  effect  of  c.  on..  175. 

177,   178-180 
Diligence    (infusion   device) . . .   620 

Dilworth  &  Co.,  J.  S 507 

Dilworth    Bros 435,  507 

Dimond  &  Gardes 482 

Dimond    &    Lally 480,  482 

Direct-flame  roasting 386,  641 

Discovery  of  c.  (see  Origin) 
Diseases  and  pests... 147,  148, 

152,  203,  204 

— C.-berry    beetle 203 

— <:.-leaf    miner 147,  203 

— Eel-worm    disease 204 

-Fungoid    147,   148,  203 

— Hemdleia    vastatrix 148, 

152,  203 

— Insects    203 

— Leaf  blight 

^^Ceylon 203,  236,  237. 

282,   283 

Dominican  Rep 281 

Hawaii  (1855) 241 

—  —India    226 

Philippines    (1889) 242 

— PellicuUiria   tokeroga 148 

— Root  disease 148,  204 

— Sphaerostilhe  fiavida 204 

— Spot  of  leaf  and  fruit 148 

D'Israeli,  1 557  ;  q.  41, 

53,  72,     91 
Distillation  devices 

—Napier-List  (1891) 639 

—Napierian   (1870) 639 

— Napier's  vacuum   (1840)....   637 

— Wyatt's  patent   (1802) 621 

Ditson,  Thomas,  pat 245 

Dittman    Charles. 486 

Dittman,   Jr.,   Charles 487 

Dittman  Co.,  Chas 486,  487 

Divination  by  coffee  grounds..   558 

Divorce,  C.  and 22 

Doane  &  Co.,  J.  W.  .  .482,  484,  485 

Dolton  &  Co.,  Wm 508 

Domestick  Coffee  Man,   Broad- 
bent,  q ...293,  697 

Dominguez,    Andres 221 

Donaldson     578 

Donovan,  Prof.,  q 704 

Donmartin,  inv 620,  69 1 

Donns,   q ^° 

Doolittle.  q 167 

Doran,  John,  q <  05 

Dorn,   R.  H 50o 

Dorr.  S.  H 53.5 

Dorsay,    Benjamin 468 

Dorset,  Earl  of 584 

Double  roasting 387 


778 


ALL     ABOUT     COFFEE 


Douglas,  James  (Bishop  of  Sal- 
isbury)     42,  543,  574 

Downer,  Samuel  A 502 

Downer  &  Co 501,  502 

DowntoAvn     Association,     New 

York    517 

Drake,  Samuel  Gardner,  q.  108,  116 

Drake  &  Co..  W.   D 507 

Dramatic  Literature,  C.  in. .554-556 

Draper  &  Co..  John  H 482 

Dressing  machinery 245 

Drew,    J.    C 505 

Drink  (see  Beverage) 

Drinksum    (brand) 524 

Droste,  H.  R 503 

Drouais,  Francois  Hubert .  .  589,  599 

Drug  stores,  C.  sold  in 415 

Drums  (see  Containers) 
Drupes       (see      also      Botany; 

Fruit)    136 

Dry  method 136,  249,  251 

Drv    roast 389,  391 

Dryden,  John.  .  .00    77,  78,  80, 

84,  574,  575,  583,  584 

Drying .251 

Drying   grounds 251,  254 

Drying   machinery 254,  255 

Du   Barry,   Madame,   tll....Q2, 

563,  566,  588 

Du  Belloy,  Archbishop 697 

Du  Mont 543 

Du  Tour,  q 707,  708 

Dubard,  Prof.,  q 147 

Dublin    Philosophical    Journal^ 

per.,    q 704 

Duels 548 

Duehring,  Carl  H.,  pat 642 

Dufour,  Philippe  Sylvestre.  .34, 
432,  543.  557;  q.  2,  11,  13, 

74,  98 

Dugdale,    E 470 

Dumant,  Pierre  Etienne  Louis, 

q 13 

Duncan    James,  q 59 

Duncombe  Mfg.  Co..  F.  A 649 

Dunham,  Charles  A 508 

Dunks,    John 118 

Duparquet,    L^    pat 469,  639 

Duparquet,     Huot    &    Moneuse 

Co 639,  644 

Durand,  Calvin 502 

Durand.   H.    C 502 

Durand,   H.   C.  &  C 502 

Durand  &  Co 502 

Durand  &  Kasper 502 

Durand  &  Kasper  Co 485 

Durant,     Nicholas     Felix,     pat. 

625,  634,  699 

Durieux    Elizabeth 178 

Duryee,  P.   S.,  q 420 

Dutch  (see  Netherlands) 
Dutch  New  York,  Singleton,   q. 

105,    115,    125,  709 
Duties,  Export 

— Angola    268 

— Sao  Paulo 315 

Duties,   Import 

— Abyssinia    310 

— Belgium,  removed   (1904)...  296 

—England  (1692,  1732) 74 

—United     States 296,  468 

Porto   Rico   requests 472 

(See  also  Ghronoloyy) 

Dwight,   H.   G.,   q 664-667 

Dwinell.  James  F 501 

Dwinell   &    Co 501 

Dwinell,   Hayward  &  Co 501 

Dwinell,  Wright  &  Co 485,  501 

Dwinell- Wright  Co 501,  629 

DyhoKsM,  C 144 

—Java    216 

Di/bowski   X   excelsa,   Jiyb 146 

D.ver  &  Co 501 

Dykes  &   Wilson 480 

Dymond  &  Gardes 486 

Eagle  Coffee  and  Spice  Mills..  503 

Eagle  Spice  Co 507 

Eagle  Spice  Mills 503 

Eames,    Wilberf orce 474 

Earle,  Alice  Morse,  q.  .:...-..  .  709 
Early  History  of  Coffee  Houses 
in  England,  The,  Robin- 
son,  q 11 

East  Indies   (c.) 350,  370-374 


Eating   coffee...  180,    615    655, 

693,  694 

Eccles,  William 475 

Eckert.    q 164 

Eckliardt,    pat 167 

Ecuador s  (c.) 350,  367 

Eddv  &  Co.,  L.  B 508 

Eder,  q 179 

Edmond    102 

Edtbauer,  P.  E.   (Mrs.  E.)   pat.  472 

Educational    exhibits 715 

Edwards,   Daniel 53,  54,   459 

Edwards,  Hugh 482 

Edwards,   J.   M 479 

Edwards  &  Co.,  J.  M 479 

Edwards  &  Maddux 479 

Edwards   &   Raworth 482 

Edwards,  Townsend  &  Co 507 

Ekelund.    Charles 509 

Electric    motors 471,  646 

Electric    roasting 386 

Electric  Scale   Co 471 

Electric    signs 443 

Elephant    (grade) 258 

Elers     604,  612 

Elford,    chk 83 

Elford,    inv 616,  617 

Elford  the  younger,  q 61 

"Elixir  of  life" 174 

Elkington  &  Co.  Ltd .  .  637,  639,  699 

Elliott,    chk 573 

Ellis,   Douglas 557 

Ellis,  H.  D.,  q 602,  603,  604 

Ellis    Bros 485 

Elmenhorst  &  Co 482 

Ely  &  Co.    D.  J 480 

Ely  &  Co.,   D.  J.  &  Z.   S 480 

Emerson,    E.  . 501 

Emerson.    Edward   R.,   q 566 

Emmerich      Machine      Factory 

and   Iron   Foundry,   pat. 

638,  639 

Emo,    Angelo 27 

En  pergamino  (grade) 261 

Encyclopedia,   Diderot 98 

Encyclopedia  Britannica,  g. .11, 

200,  657 
Encyclopedia  der  Therapie,  q.  .  185 
Encyclopedia        of        Domestic 

Economy,    q 704 

Encyclopedia        of       Practical 

Cookery,   q 710 

Engelberg,  Evaristo  C,  pat. .  .  .    247 

Engelberg.  Huller  Co 247,  471. 

Engelhard,     Albert 505 

Engelhard,  Jr.,  Albert 505 

Engelhard,    George 505 

Ensrelhard,  R.  W 505 

Engelhard,  Victor  H 505 

Engelhard,  Jr.,  Victor  H 505 

P'ngelhard  &  S'ons,  Inc.,  A.  .  .  .    505 

English,   Dr.     q 180 

English    c.-pots    (1714-70)  .  620,  621 
English     Factories     in     India, 

Poster,  q 2 

Ennis,  Frank 515 

Ensaccador 304 

Enterprise  Coffee    Co 485,  508 

Enterprise     Mfg.     Co.     of    Pa. 

469,  471,  639,   646 

Eoff.  Garrett 612 

Epicure,  per 675 

Eppens,   Frederick   P 482 

Eppens,   William    H 482 

Eppens,   Smith  &  Co 482 

Eppens,    Smith   &  Wiemann .  .  .    482 
Eppens    Smith  &  Wiemann  Co. 

485,  496,  499 

Eppens  Smith  Co 494,  496,  499 

Bppens-Smith  Co. 496,  499 

Erdmann,    q 163,  183 

Erecta,  C,  hyb 140 

Esau    13 

Escoffler  (chef) 678 

Escott,    q 87 

Esmenard 548  ;  q.       8 

Esperanza   Coffee   Co 497 

Essential  oil 163,  164 

Essmueller  Mill  Furnish'g  Co.  .    649 

Estienne,  Jacques 548 

Estrado  &  Co.,  Pedro.  . 340 

Etablissements    Lauzaune    (see 

Lauzaune) 
Etherege,  Sir  George 569,  570 


Ethridge,  Tuller  &  Co 508 

Etiquette 

— Arabia 658-663 

— 'Paris    (17th    century)......      91 

— Turkey    664-670 

—  (See  also  Manners  and  Customs) 

Etruscan    Coffee   Pot   Co 645 

Etymology    1,2,3,     27 

"European  fiasco"   (1888) 529 

Evans,  pat 158 

Evans,   David   G 503 

ICvans,  G Wynne 503 

Evans,  Richard,  pat 624 

Evans  &  Co.,  David  G..  .  .502,  503 

Evans   &   Walker 508,  635 

Evelyn,  John,  q 2,     40 

Evening   World,   New    York     q. 

553,  554 

Ewe    160 

Ewell,    q 165 

Ex-sailing  ships 316 

Excellent  Qualities  of  Coffee 
and  the  Art  of  Making 
It,  The,  Rumf ord .  .  .  621,  622 

Excelsa,    C 142 

— French  Indo-China 237 

— Java    217 

Excelsa  x  liberica,  hyb 146 

Excelsior  Mills 501,  502 

Excelso    (grade) 261 

Excessive  use,  effect  of 179 

Exchange,    Foreign 336 

Exchanges,  Coffee 329-337 

— Amsterdam    296,  491 

—Antwerp 296,  491 

■ — 'Baltimore    491 

— Hamburg 296,  329,  491 

— .Havre 296,   329,  491 

—London 296,  491 

— New  York 329-337,  471,  491 

Change    of   name 474 

Clearing    Ass"n 331,  335 

Contract    321 

Functions     331-338 

—  —Incorporated  (1881) 471 

— -  — Initiation   fee 332 

Membership 333 

Organized    (1881) 528 

— ■• — Reincorporated    (1885)...    471 

Rio  gradings 343 

Robusta  dealings  pro- 
hibited        341 

Seats.    Sales   of 332.333 

—  — Wartime  suspension.  .  .534-537 

— New'   Orleans 491 

— Rotterdam   296,  491 

—Royal    (New  York,   1752)...    120 

• — San  Francisco 491 

— Santos 306,  308,  491 

— Trieste    296,  491 

Excursions  through  Asia-Minor, 

Fellows,    q 667,  668 

Experimental       gardens       (see 

Gardens). 

Exports    276,  277 

— Abyssinia   ....228,  229,  276, 

284,  285 

— Aden    (1921) 276 

— Africa.   British  East 276,  285 

— Arabia 282 

— Borneo,   Brit.   North 276,  284 

—Brazil 190,  275-277,  295 

First  (1770) 204 

—  —Largest   (1906-07) 275 

— Central  America,  first  te   U. 

S 469 

—-Ceylon    (1741-1900) 283 

First  (1721) 236 

Largest    (1873) 237 

— ^Colombia 192,  276,  278 

— Costa  Rica 193,  276,  280 

— ^Cuba 233,  282 

— Dominican    Republic. ..  .194, 

233,   276,  281 

— Ecuador 276,  278 

— Federated  Malay  States 284 

—France  (1921) 290 

— Germany  (1920)  ^ 290 

—Gold  Coast    (1916-17) 276 

—Grenada    (1916) 282 

— Guadeloupe .  234,  276,  282 

— Guatemala    192,   276,  280 

—Guiana .276,  279 

— Haiti 194,  276,  281 


INDEX 


779 


ExDorts  (cont'd) 

—Hawaii    194,  241,  276,  284 

— Honduras     276,  280 

—India   195,  276,  282 

— Indo-China,    French 237 

— Jamaica    193,  276.  281 

—Java    283,  294 

• — Loeward  Islands 282 

— Mauritius    285 

— Mexico    .  .  193,  220.  276.  2S(l.  2.S1 

— Netlierlands    290 

- — Netherlands  E.  Indies.  .  .195, 

276,  283,  295 

— Xew   Caledonia 243 

— Nicaragua    276,  280 

— Nigeria 276,  285 

— Nvasaland   276,  285 

—rem    276,    278,  279 

— Philippines    242,  284 

— Porto  Rico   .  .  .194,  222,  276,  281 

—Portugal    290 

• — Producing  countries   (table)  .  276 

— K<>union    276,  285 

—Salvador    193,   276.  279,  280 

—Santos    (1900-01 ) 472 

— Sarawak    284 

— Sierra    Leone 285 

— Somali  Coast  (French) .  .276.  285 

— Somaliland    276,  285 

—Straits   Settlements 238,  284 

—St.   Vincent    (1917 ) 282 

— Sumatra    283 

— Tobago    282 

—Trinidad    282 

— T'nited  States 301.  302 

— Venezuela 190,  276-278 

Extra  (grade) 261 

Extracts.  Coffee 169,  670,  712 

—First  U.  S.  trademark 469 

Eyre,  Henry 482 

Ffil)a  Arahica,   Carmen,   Fellon  543 

Fair-price  list   (Phila.,  1776)..  467 

Fairy  Cup  (brand) 539 

Fakr-Eddin-Aboubeckr  ben  A  bid 

lesi    543 

Fancies  (Sumatra)    355 

Faneuil  Hall,  Boston 612 

Fanouil,  Peter 612 

Fantasia    (grade) 261 

Fantastic  claims  for  c .58,  433 

— Advertising     439 

Faris,  Charles 612 

Farqiihar,  q 587 

Farr,   .Tames,   chk 53,   54,  62 

Farrell    C.  P 508 

Farrington,  Campbell  &  Co.  .  .  .  508 

Fat   content   in   c 164,  693 

715,  718,  719 

— Ivoss  in  roasting 167 

"Father  of  English  C.  houses," 

(Blount)    56 

Fatigue,  effect  of  c.  on 186 

Faulder,  H.,  pat 640 

Fauiice  process,  pat 160 

Faust    (brand) 441,  .^39 

Fauvel.   q 176 

Fazenda    (brand) 445 

Fazendas  (see  Plantations). 

Fazendeiros    258,   303,  304 

Federal  Sugar  Refining  Co.  123,  473 

Fell  &  Bro.,  C.  J 501 

Fellon    543 

Fellows,    q 667 

Fondler-Stiiber  method 172 

Fenjeyl  (see  Fludjan). 
Fen.iyn   (see  Findjan). 

Fere,    q 186 

Fermentation 254 

Fermented  (see  Flavors). 

Ferrari,   Marv,   chk .118,  119 

Ferris,  P.  J 508 

Fertilizers 

— Ashes 201 

— Chemical    determination  .  155,  156 

— ^Coffee    pulp 156 

Fertilizing    202 

—Salvador 219 

Fiber,  crude 718 

Fidelity  Trust  Co 112 

Fielding,   Henry..  .80,  89,  554, 

579,  580 

Fielding.  John 579 

Figueroa   543 


Filter  bags,  care  of.  .  .707,  714, 

715,  717 

Filter  paper 715 

Filtration 

— Definition    698 

—Methods    715.   716.  721 

— N.  C,  R.  A.  recommendations  718 

Filtration  devices 

— Acker's   "percolator"    (1905)  701 

—Baker's  cloth   (1902) 647 

— Beart's  pneumatic 705 

— Blanke's  cloth    (1909) O.^l 

—Boss  ( 1881) 645 

— ^Brain's    vacuum 705 

— Caseneuve's   paper    (1824)  .  .  623 

Reversed  Fr.   drip    (1824)  699 

— Double    glass 637,  701.  702 

■ — Egrot's  ste-am  cloth 708 

— Evans's    tin    air-float 705 

— Gaudet's    cloth 623,  699 

— Half-Minute   645 

■ — King's,  for  restaurants 651 

"Percolator"    701 

— Kin-Hee    646.  647 

— Make-Right    651,  701 

--Minute    645 

- — Napier's  vacuum    ill 637. 

699,  700 

— Parker's    pneumatic 705 

— Platow's  vacuum  glass 705 

— Private  Estate 649,  701 

— Rapnrlier's    pocket 637 

— Rapid   (see  Rapid) 

— Salazar's  steam-pressure  urn  653 

■ — Tricolator 445,  651, 

652,  701 

— Tricolette,  ill 654 

— Tru-Bru     651,  701 

— Vanderweyde's    "continuous"  637 

— Wear's  patent 651 

Filtre,    Cafe     675 

Finch,  William,  q 36 

Findjans 31,    36,    616,    661,  662 

Findlay.    Paul,    q 421 

Fine;    Very   fine    (see   Grinds). 
Fine   Arts,    C.    in    relation    to 

587-614 

Fines     (England) 59 

Fin-ion    (see  Findjans) 

Finishing    machinery 396 

Finjans   (see  Findjans) 

Fink  &  Nasse  Co 502 

Finney    Samuel 126 

First 

— Authoritative    treatise 27 

— Comprehensive      treatise      in 

German,  Meisner's  (1721)  46 

— Description  in  print 26 

—Mention    by    European.  ..  .5.  541 

— Printed  mention 25.  45 

America   105 

lEngland   35 

As  "Cofife" •■•>6 

Europe 12 

France    31 

— Printed    treatise 543 

— Written     mention     in     Mass. 

(1670)     107 

Fischer,    B 497 

Fischer.    Benedickt,    634 ;    biof/.  497 

Fischer.    Emil 160 

Fischer,    William   H 497 

Fischer  &  Co.,  B 443,  485, 

497,  499 

Fischer  &  Lansing 499 

Fischer  &  Ijehmann 499 

Fischer  &  Thurber 499 

Fischer,    Kirby  &  Brown .  .  497,  499 

Fishback,  F.  C 509 

Fishback,  Frank  S 509 

Fishl)ack,  John   S 509 

Fishback  Co 509 

Fisher.    George 497 

Fitch  &  Ilowland 484 

Fitzgerald     584 

Fitzpatrick.    Austin   C 496 

Fitzpatrick  &  Case 499 

liMtzpatrick  &  Co.,  A.  C...496,  499 

Flanders.    Geo.   W 482,  491 

Flanders  &  Co.,  Geo.  W 482 

I'Tnnnel  sack  used  for  Infusion  620 

Flasks  and  Flayons,  Saltus,  q.  552 
Flat    (see  Flavors), 
nat-bean   Santos  C...260,  341, 

342,  366 


Flats,  1st,  2d,  3d  (grades) 

Flaubert,  Gustave 

Flavoring,   Use  in 723, 

Flavors   

Fleury,  pat. 

Fleury  &  Barker,  pat 

Flint,  Austin  B.,  q 

niut,   .L   G 485, 

Flint,    W.   K 

Jlint.    AVyman .  .    

mint,  AV.  &  J.  G 506, 

Flint  Bros.  &  Co 

nint  Co.,  J.  G 

Flint,  Evans  &  Co 502,  .503, 

Floor  brokers 336, 

Flora  de   las  Antillas,  Tussac, 

q 

Florian,    chk 27, 

—  (See  Francesconi). 

Flower,    Henry 

Flugel  &  Popp 502, 

Foley.  John  T 

Folger,  J.  A 

Folger  &  Co.,  J.  A... 488,  505, 

506, 

Folger,   Schilling  &  Co 506, 

Folkes.    Martin 

Folkingham    

Fontenelle  .94,  98,  543,  554  ;  q. 
Food  Administration.'  U.  S. 

—  (See  Government  Control) 
Food    and    Dietetics,    Hutchin- 
son,   q 

Food  and  Drugs  Act,  U.  S 

Food  and  drugs  inspection.  .  .  . 

Food  conservation  show 

Food  use 136,  615,  655, 

Food  value 174,   180,   711, 

— L'.   S.   Army 

Food  Values,  Locke,  q 

Foote,   Samuel 85,  89,   579, 

580.  581. 

Foote  &   Knevals 

Forbes.   A.    E 503:    q.   629. 

Forbes,  James  H 502,  503, 

629. 

Forbes.  Robert  M 503,  510, 

Force  &  Co.,  W.   H 

Force   &   Co.,    W.    S 

Force  &  Co.,  William  H 

Formaleoni     Vincenzo 

Forrester.  George  R 

Forster.   q 

Forster's  Life  of  Ooldsmith,  q. 

Forster.  E.  S 

Forsvthe  &  Co..   James 

Fossi  &  Co 

Foster,  q 

Foster,   A.    C 

Fowler,  John  A.,  q 

Fox    

I'^rancesconi,    Floriono 

Francis,    Norman 

F'ranco-American   (brand) 

Francois,   Damame 

Frankel.    E.    M 

Frankel,   F.    Hulton.    o'....180. 

Franklin.   Alfred,    a "...  7. 

Franklin    Benjamin 94,98, 

126, 

Franklin,    Samuel 

Franklin,    Walter 

Franklin  Tea  Warehouse 

I"''ras?r,    q 

Eraser,  David  B..  pat 642, 

Eraser  Manufacturing  Co 

Frederick  the  Great 45  ;  q. 

Frederick  William  I 

Frederlcq,     q 

Freeman,  W.  G.,  q 

Freight  forwarding  bureau.  .  . . 

Freig.it  rates 

--Brazil    to    U.    S.     (1917-18) 

53.5, 

— Wartime   

French     Color    Prints    of     the 
Xrill     Century,      Sala- 

man,  q 

French  Companv  of  the  Indies 
French  Revolution  ...  100,  102. 

French  roast ;  .356. 

Freund  

Fricke.  E.,  q..  . 

/"^isbie  &  Stephens 

F'risi  


258 
565 
724 
397 
640 
638 
176 
506 
506 
506 
635 
.-.01 
506 
635 
337 

8 

28 

126 
503 
478 
514 

509 
507 
578 
603 
565 


179 
404 
338 
386 
693 
712 
539 
180 

584 
485 
631 

635 
514 
482 
482 
484 
27 
508 
159 
.573 
508 
502 
340 
o 

479 
269 
583 

27 
492 
441 

34 
716 
693 
557 

467 
475 
475 
503 
179 
644 
644 
4P 
45 
184 
183 
323 


536 
338 


589 
9 
29rf 
388 
158 
161 
507 
558 


780 


ALL     ABOUT     COFFEE 


From  Tree  to  Cup  xcith  Coffee, 

N.    C.    R.   A.,   q 713,  714 

Fromm  &  Co 482 

Fruit 

— Beverages   from 15,  694 

— Food    use 15,    693,  694 

Frj-  &  Co..   Henry  A 501 

Fryer,   q 2 

Fuels    385,  386 

—Coal , 620 

—Electricity     647,  648 

—Gas 640,  643 

—  — Natural    642 

Full   city   roast 388 

Full    difference 331 

Fullard,    William,   pat 643 

Fulton    Mills 498 

Funk,   C.   q 180 

Fustian   bag  used  for  infusion  620 

Future  of  coffee 585 

Futures  market   (New  York)..    329 
Fuzelier,   q 594 

G.    G.     (hall    mark;    See    Gar-  . 
thorn,   G.) 

Gaa  Paa,   v 316 

Gabriel.    Angel 15,  23 

— Jjegend    38 

Gaflfney,    Hugh 497,  498 

Gage,   H.   N 505 

Gainsborough,   Thomas 84,  583 

Galen    11 

Galla  (see  Eating  coffee). 
Galland,  Antoine.  .31,  543,  548, 

557  ;  q.  2.  12,  16,  20,  22 

OallienU,  C 147 

— Caffein   content 161 

Gait,   Herbert,   pat 652 

Galuppi 556 

Gambetta    96 

Gandais,  J.  A.,  pat.     625,  699,  708 

Ganse,  John  H 507 

Garair    (Arabian   bale) 266 

Garden,    Theodore 85,  584 

Gardens 
— Botanical 

Amsterdam 6,  44 

Arabia,    royal 34 

Paris  (Jardin  des  plantes)  6 

Martinique     (Jardin    Des- 

clieux)     9 

— Experimental 

Bangelan    (Java) 138, 

146,  345 

Camayenne    (Fr.    Guinea)  146 

Indo-Ciina,  French 237 

Java    43,  215 

— Pleasure  (New  York)  .  .  .121, 

123,  124 

Cherry    124 

Contoit's    124 

New  York 124 

^Niblo's,   ill 121,  124 

Ranelagh   124 

^Sans    Souci 124 

—  — Vauxhall,    ill 123,  124 

— Tea   (London) 80,  82,  83 

Adam  and  Eve 83 

Bagnigge   Wells 83 

Bayswater 83 

■ Canonbury    House 83 

Copenhagen    House 83 

Cuper's     82 

Dog  and  Duck 83 

Highbury     83 

Hornsey 83 

^Jews'  Harp 83 

Marylebone    82 

New  Spring  Gardens 82 

Ranelagh,  ill 81,  82,  83 

Spring  Gardens    82 

—  —Vauxhall,  ill 81,  82 

White  Conduit  House 83 

Garrick,  David 80    81,  85, 

88,    569,   574,    579,    580, 

583  ;  q.  573 

Garrick,    David    (Mrs.) 579 

Garrick.  Westphal  &  Co.,  S.  B.  476 

Garrison,  C.   H 508 

Garrondona,  J.  L 340 

Garth,    Sir    Samuel 576,  578 

Garthorne     Francis 601 

Garthorne,  George 601,  602 

Garway    (see  Garraway). 

Gas     roasting 385,  386 


Gaskell,    Mrs 582 

Gasser,  M.   H...510,   511,  513,  514 
Oaatronomy    as    a    Fine    Art, 

Brillat-Savarin,  q 557 

Gates,  H 505 

Gates,   John  W 519 

Gates  &  Co.,  A.  B 508 

Gaudet,    pat 623,  699 

Gaudron    543 

Gautier,  Th6ophile 98,   102,  565 

Gazette,   London,   newsp 585 

Uaeette  de  France,  per.  q 8 

Gay,    John,    q 575,  577 

Gee,  Edward,  pat 634 

Geiger,   Frank  J 509 

Geiger-rishback    Co 509 

Geiger-Tinney    Co 508,  509 

Gelabert,   Jos6  Antonio 9 

Gemaleddin,     Sheik 16,  541 

Genius  fostered  by  c 557 

Geographical    distribution.  .189-195 

George  III 106    117,  583 

George    V 601 

George  &  Co.,  P.  T 485 

Georgi,    Theophilo 45,  433 

Gephart,  q 180 

Gerard,    (French;  minister)  ....    130 

German  Trading  Co 527 

Germicidal  properties 180 

Germination    5,  138 

Gerfime,  Jean  Leon 591,  656 

Ghiradelli  &  Co.,  D.  . 505 

Giacomini,    Luigi,   pat 648 

Gibbon,  Edward 81,  583 

Gilbert,  Colgate 494 

Gilbert   &   Co..   Colgate 498 

Gillet,    Frfere 144 

Gillett,   A.  B 508 

Gilies,   E.  J.,   q 408 

Gillies,  James  W 495  •,Mog.  494 

Gillies,    Wright 497  ;    Mog.  494 

Gillies  &  Bro.,  Wright 494, 

495    499 

Gillies  &  Co.  Inc.,  E.  J 495,' 

499,  501 

Gillies  Coffee  Co 494,  495,  499 

Gilman,    George    F 479,  485 

Gimborn,  Theo.  von.. 638;  pat.  639 

Glazes  and  coatings 170 

Glazing 

■ — Arbuckle's  patent 522 

—Effects 167 

— Italy    686 

— Machinery    396 

Glines,  J.  T.  &  N 501 

Globe  Mills 496,  497,  499,  526 

Gloria,  Cafe 683 

Glover,  Force  &  Co 482 

Glyceral  as  sweetening 165 

Glynn,  Martin  J 482 

Glynn  &  Co.,  Martin  J 482 

Godey's  Lady's  Book,  per.,  q..   711 

Goed   Vrouw,   v 317 

Goetzinger,  M.  E.,  q 521 

Gold  and  Silversmiths'  Soc 609 

Golden  Gate  (brand) 441 

Golden  Sun  (brand) 441 

Golden   Wedding    (brand) 441 

Golden  West  (brand) 441 

Goldoni    Carlo.  .  .28,  555,  588; 

q.  556 
Goldsmith,  Oliver.  .  .80.  81,  85, 

88,    568,    574,    579,    582,  584 

— "Retaliation" 573 

Goldtree,  Liebes  &  Co 488 

Goldsworthy,   William   G.,   pat.  702 
Ooodhousekeeping,  per.,  q.  175, 

176,  182 

Gomez,  Juan  Antonio 9,  221 

Gordon,  Douglas,  pat 248 

Gordon,  Fred  P 478 

Gordon,  G.  0 485,  486 

Gordon,   John,   pat 246 

Gordon  &  Co.,  Fred  P 478 

Gordon  &  Co.,  Geo.  0 486 

Gordon  &  Co.,  John 246 

Gorter    q 156,   159,   160 

Gothout    Ferd 639 

Gottlieb" 185 

Gould    (chemist),    q 167,  168 

Gould,  George  J 519 

Gouverneur,    Isaac 475 

Gouverneur,  Nicholas 475 

Gourewitscli,  q 176 


Gout,   strange  remedy  for .... 

Government    (brand) 

Government    control,    Wartime 
338,   474,   534- 
Government  Monopoly 

— Java 213, 

— Netherlands  E.  Ind..44,  283, 
Grace  &  Co.,  W.  R.  .442,  482, 

488, 
Grade.    Basic     (N.    Y.    Exch.) 

329, 

Graders    (N.   Y.  Exch.) 

(trades 

— Colombia    

— Mocha   

- — New  York 

— Porto  Rico 

— Sao  Paulo   

— U.  S.    (prohibited) 

Grading 

— Brazil 304, 

—Hand 

—Machinery    246-248,  258, 

— Machine  (Van  Gulpen's) .... 

— ^New    York    Exchange 

— ^Santos 

Grafe,   q 

Grafting  (see  Propagation). 
Griige   (see  Peaberry). 

Graham,    q 

Gram,    pat 

Grand  concern  of  England  ex- 
plained, pampli 

Grandin     

Granger  &  Co 

Granger  &  Hodge 

Grant,  U.   S 

Grassy  (see  Flavors). 

Gray,  Arthur,  q 552,  553, 

Gray,  Louis  R 

Gray,   Thomas 

Great  American  Tea  Co.  .  .479, 
Great   Atlantic   &   Pacific   Tea 

Co 417.  479,  485, 

— Premiums  

Great  Boom  (see  Booms)  .  .528, 

Great  London  Tea  Co 

Greeks     of    the    Present    Day, 

About,    q 

Green,   William 

Green  coffee  marks,  ill 338, 

Green   Dragon   c.    urn 613, 

Greene,  Ricliard  A.,  pat.  .  .652, 

Greenwood,  Paul 

Gregory,  chk 

Grenier,  Dufougeret 

Grever  &  Bro 

Grevy.  Francois  Paul  Jules.  .  .  . 

Griebel,    q 

Griffiths  &  Co..   J 

Grigor  &  Co..  T.  S 

Grinding 

— Arabia 658- 

— Australia    

— Greece  

— Household 

—  — England..  .695,   696,   704, 

Greece    

United  States 

—Steel    cut 

— New  Zealand 

Grinding  and  packing 167, 

Grinding  machinery.  .  .400-402, 

615- 

— Chronology   643- 

■ — Commercial 

—  ■ — Burstone  Mills 

—  — Fi'ance  

—Greece 

— Household 615- 

—  — Ilrst  French  patent 

Grinding  machines 

— Household 

Book's    (1665) 

Bronson's  patent  (1903). 

^Bruflf's   patent    (1798) . . . 

Clark's  hand-^mill   (1832). 

Colaux's  patent    (1829).. 

Dearman's  patent    (1779) 

Electric  (first,  1897) 

— ■  — First  English  patent 

—  —First  U.  S.  patent.  .  .468, 

Herbert's  patent  (1848) . . 

^Kenrich's  mill  (1815) . . , 


182 
434 

■538 

214 
312 

489 

335 
333 
258 
260 
351 
329 
264 
2(i(t 
337 

306 
258 
383 
638 
333 
304 
164 


153 

158 


708 
508 
508 
563 

713 

446 

80 

499 

499 
429 
529 
435 

685 

492 

340 

614 

653 

71 

93 

9 

501 

566 

159 


508 

•662 
692 
685 

705 
685 
711 
714 
692 
168 

654 
654 

637 
680 
685 
■620 
625 


617 
647 
621 
625 
625 
621 
471 
634 
621 
634 
624 


INDEX 


781 


Grinding  m.achines   {cont'd) 

-Lacoux'    combined   roaster 

and    grinder 625,  627 

Moore's  mill    (1813) 623 

—  — Morgan's  glass-jar  mill .  .   645 

Hand  mills 644,  645 

N.    C.    R.    A.    Home   Mill 

(1915),   ill 652,  714 

Parker's  hand  mill  (1832)   625 

Rittenhouse's   hand-mill..   627 

Selden's  hand-mill  (1831)   625 

Stillman's  "mica  window"  627 

Stowe's  hand  mill 644 

Strowbridge's  box  mill...    644 

^Turkish  combination 670 

Van   Vliet's  hand  mill...   634 

Webb's  box  mill  (1878)..   644 

Wilson's  steel  mill  (1818)   623 

— Retail 

Dell's   store  mill 644 

—  — Morgan's  patent  (1919)..   653 
— Wholesale 

Barbor  mill 637 

Burns's  granulator.  .  .637,  652 

—  — Ideal  steel-cut  mill  (1916)   652 

—  — ^Knickerbocker     (1882) . .  .   645 

Grinds    401,  402 

^-Coarse  and  fine  compared. . .    167 
—Comparative  test    (1917) . . .   716 

— Definitions    714 

— Greek  preferences 685 

— Irregular      (King's      patent) 

167,  402    474,  716 

Griswold,  H.  F 502 

Grocer    helps 412 

Grocers  Engineering  and  Whit- 

mee,  Ltd 640,  641,  642 

Grocers,  Retail,  no.  in  U.  S. . .   415 

Grocery    stores 422,  423 

■ — Model  c.  departments.  .  .415,  418 

Groff  &  Co.,  Charles  R 508 

Grohens,   A.   P 646,  649 

Gros     589 

Gross,  March  &  Co 479 

Grossman,   George  A 506 

Grossman,  William 506 

(irossman  &  Co..  William 506 

(irossman    Co.,    Wm 506 

Groundy  (see  Flavors). 

Growth's,  French  preferences..   680 

(iruner.    Siegfried 478 

Gruner  &  Co 530 

Gruner   &    Co.,    S 478 

Gruppe.  Charles  P 593 

Giiadeloupes   (c.) 350,  363 

Guam  c 355,  375 

Guardian  (Lond.)  per... 80;  q.  576 

Guardiola,   Jos6,   pat 247 

Guatemalas    (c.) 347,  359,  360 

Guildhall   museum 62,  602 

Guillasse,  Dr.,  q 181 

Guineas  (c.) 353.  378 

(iump  Company,  B.  F 474,  652 

Gntteridge,  Mary,  cftfc 108 

Gutteridge,    Robert,    chk 108 

Guy,  Francis   593 

G.  "     Washington's       Prepared 

(brand)     538 

Gwynn   (architect) 584 

Haas,  Kalman 482 

Unas   Bros 482,  488 

Haase,    Heinrich 484 

Habit-forming;  c  is  not...  176.  186 

Habitat    133,  291 

Hacendado   Mex.   El.    q 156 

Haciendas    (see  Plantations) 

Hackfleld  &  Co..,   Ltd.,   H 488 

Haddon,    q 159 

Hadrot,    pat 621,  622,  699 

Haebler  &  Co 485 

Haehnlen  Bros 508 

Haeussler,    August 480 

Hagar   18 

Hahnemann.  Samuel,  q 175 

Haimi-Harazi  c 351,  368 

Haitis    (c.) 350,  362 

Hakimani    17 

Hakluy t  Society 1,       2 

Half   difference 321 

Halifax,    Lord 577 

Hall,   G.  M 502 

Hall,  I.  W.,  <? 184 

Hall,  Robert  (Rev.) 556 

Hall  &  Co.,  Martin  L 501 


Halla,    Wm 488 

Halley,    Dr 582 

Halligan,  T.  P 513 

Hallmarks    601,  602,  607 

Hals,  Frans 587 

Halsey,  R.  T.  Haines 607,  609 

Halstead,    Charles,   pat 470,  644 

Hamakua    c 356,  375 

Hamberger-Polhemus    Co 488 

Hamill,   David  B 509 

Hamill,  Smith 509 

Hamill  &  Co.,  S 508,  509 

Hamilton  Alexander..  130;  duel.   123 

Hamilton,  Duke  of 572 

Hamlin,  Mary  P 130  ;  q.  556 

Hamor,  W.  A.,  pat 406,  539 

Hamsley,  M.  F.,  pat 642 

Hanauer,  Herman 482 

Hanauer,  Moses  G 482 

Hanausek,    q 147,   159 

Handbills 432-435 

— First    (Rosee's,    1652) 54 

Handbook   of   Medical   Science, 

q. 182 

Handhuch  der  Physiologic,  q. . .   Ill 

Hanley,  John 480 

Hanley  &  Co.,  Geo.  F 508 

Hanley  &  Kinsella 480 

Hanlev   &   Kinsella   Coffee   and 

'Spice    Co 485,  502 

Hannes,  Edward 572 

Harari  c 3,53,  376 

Harari    longberry    c 353 

Hard,  Anson  Wales 480 

Hard  &  Rand 477,  480,  484 

— Pacific  Mail  strs.   chartered.    486 
Harding,  Warren  G.   (Mrs.)  .  .  .    567 

Hare,    q 183 

Hargreaves,  C.  F.,  pat 247 

Harkness,  q 176 

Harley     573 

Harnack    158 

Harper's  Weekly,  q 16 

Harriman,  B.  H 519 

Harrington,    Elizabeth 614 

Harrington,  James 60 

Harris    (actor) 574 

Harris,  Benj 108 

Harris,  Samuel  L 492 

Harris,  Wm.  B 399,  492,  716 

Harrison,  D.  Y 503,  629 

Harrison,  W.  H 503 

Harrison  &  Co.,  W.  H 503 

Harrison  &  Wilson '503 

Harsh  Santos  c 341 

Hartford  Steam  Coffee  &  Spice 

Mills    508 

Hartwich.    q 147 

Hart  &  Howell 477 

Harvard  University 
—Bureau      of      Business      Re- 
search   418,  428 

Harvest    time 249,  250 

Harvey,   Eliab 40 

Harvey,  Gideon,  q 58 

Harvey,  William 40 

Harwood 581 

Hassey,  Cornelius 492 

Hatch  &  Jenks 508 

Hatches,  Major,  chk 112 

Hatfield   c.   pots 607 

Hatton.    Edward,    q 54 

Haulenbeek,  Jr.,  John  W 497 

Haulenbeek,    Sr.,   John   W 497 

Haulenbeek.  Peter 494.  497,  499 

Haulenbeek  &  Co.,  .John  W 497 

Haulenbeek   &   Mitchell 499 

Haulenbeek  Roasting  &  Milling 

Co 499 

Havemeyer,  Henry  O.. 506,  521,  528 

Havemeyers,    The 470 

Hawaiian    c 355,  375 

Hawk.   Philip   B..   q 177,  182 

Hawkins,    Sir   John,    q 579 

Hawkins,  Thomas 50.i 

Hawkins    &    Thornton 505 

Haworth   &   Dewhurst 507 

Haydon    84,  583 

Have,    do    la 31 

Hayes.   John    (and   Mrs.) 505 

Hayman    583 

Hayward.  George  W 508 

Havward,   Martin 501 

Havward  &  Co 501 

Hazlitt.   Carew  W.,  q 28 

Hazlitt,   William 5o7 


Heading 389 

Health,  Effect  on 174-188 

— Favorable 23,  38,  42,  72, 

557,  558,  562 

— Unfavorable    38,  46 

Health  and  Longevity  through 
Rational    Diet,    Lorand, 

q 182 

Heart,  Effect  on 181 

Hubert 94 

Hedging 329,  335 

Heekin,  Albert  E 503 

Heekin,  James 503 

Heekin,  James  J 503 

Heekin,  Robert  E 503 

Heekin  &  Co.,  James 503 

Heekin  Co 503 

Heekin  Co.,  James 503,  651 

Heekin  Co.,  James  J 503 

Heekin   Spice  Co 503 

Hekem,  chk 19 

Hekteon,    q 178 

Helen  (of  Troy) 12 

Hellmann  Bros.  &  Co 487,  488 

Hellsten,    q 186 

Henckel,  James,  pat 245 

Hendershot,    Peter 508 

Henneman,  Karel  F.,  pat.. 639,  640 

Henrici,    P.    H 511 

Henrion,  pat 621 

Henry  IV 60 

Hentz  &   Co.,   Henry 482 

Herald,  New  York,  newsp.,  q..   185 

Herald  of  Health,  per.  q 181 

Herbert,   Luke,  pat 634 

Herbert,  Sir  Thomas.  1,  2,  543; 

q 38 

Herklotz,   Corn  &  Co 482 

Hemileia  vastatrix  (see  Diseases) 

Hertford,  Countess  of 570 

Hess,  H.  P 508 

Hev/itt,   Jr.,    Robert 557 

Hewitt,  Jr.,  Robert  C 480 

Hewitt,  H.  H 507 

Hewitt  &  Phyfe 480 

Hickey     574 

Hidey  (see  Flavors) 

High  roast 388 

Higgins  &  Co.,  Geo.  W 501 

Hignette,   pat 640 

Hildreth,  A.  G 480 

Hill,   John    (Dr.) 576,  580 

Hill  Bros 471 

Hill,  Dwinell  &  Co 501 

Hill  &  Thornley 501 

Hlllis  Plantation  Co 501 

Hinchman  &  Howard 508 

Hind,  Rolph  &  Co 488 

Hinkle,  Henry 501 

Hinz,    F.    W 503 

Hippocrates 11,     12 

Hire  Co.,  Charles  G 539 

Hires'  Soluble   (brand) 539 

Hirsch,  q 186 

Historia  Vitae  et  Mortis,  Ba- 
con,  q 38,  543 

History  and  Antiquities  of  the 
City   of   Boston,    Drake, 

q 108 

History  and  Reminiscences  of 
Lower  Wall  Stret,  Wake- 
man 478 

Histwical     and     chronological 
deduction   of   the   oHgin 
of  commerce,  Anderson.     72 
History  of  Am.  Manufactures, 

Bishop,  9 105.  115,   125 

History   of   Literature,   Routh, 

q 561 

History    (of  Phila.),   Scharf  & 

Westcott,  q 126 

Hlasiwetz,  q 1,59,  165 

Hobart  Electric  Mfg.  Co... 646,  652 

Ilobart  Mfg.  Co 646 

Hobson-Jobson,    q 1,       2 

Iloch.   q 186 

Hodges,     Alderman 53,     54 

Hodges,  Dr 58 

Hodhat,    Kadhi,   q 663 

Hoepner    472 

Hoffman,   Daniel  H 505 

Hoffman,  Lee  &  Co 485 

Hogarth.  William.. 80,  84,  576, 

578.  579,  581,  583,  587,  593 

Holbrook,   E.   F 539 

Holland  (see  Netherlands) 


782 


ALL    ABOUT    COFFEE 


Holland,    Charles    II 501 

Holland  Coffw  Co 497,  501 

Hollingworth,  II.  L.,  9.176,  185,   186 
— Caffiein  investigations.  ..  187,   188 

Ilolman  &  Co. 509 

Holmes,   F.   T...471,   472,   641, 

642;  pat.  643 

Holstad,  S 509 

Holstad,    S.    II 514 

Holstad  &  Co.,  S 509 

Holstad  &  Co.,  S.  H 443 

Home,  Chamberlain,   q 563 

Home  Economics   Ijuboratorles, 

Un.  of  Kansas 714 

Home,  Life  oj,  Mackenzie,  q...      86 

Homer 12 

Homeyer,  H.  L 510 

Honduras   c 347,  360 

Honey  in  c 105 

Hookah   668 

Hoole 575 

Hoopes,   B.    P 508 

Hoover,  Herbert 536,  537 

Hope,   G.    W.,  pat 649 

Horace     543 

Horn,  William   L 509 

Horner  &  Co.,  Henry 502 

Horter,   John 506 

Hotel  Astor  (brand) 441.  465 

Hotels 
— London 

—  — Cecil,  ill 675 

—  — Piccadilly    675 

■ — ■  — Richardson's    576 

— ■  — Sabloniere    583 

—  —Savoy,    ill 675,  677 

—  —Tavistock 580 

—  —Waldorf,   ill 675 

— New  York  • 

—  • — Ambassador 691 

— •  — Astor  House 690 

—  —City    121 

Waldorf-Astoria    690,  691 

— Philadelphia 

— •  — Mansion    House 130 

Houghton,   q 40 

Houghton's    collection     (1698), 

q 54 

House-boat  coffee  house 89 

Howard,     q 159 

Howell,  James 40  ;  g.     58 

Howell,   Son  &  Co.,   B.   H 479 

Howells,  William  Dean,  q.  548, 

549,  567 

Rowland  &  Aspinwall 476 

Hoyt  &  Co.,  W.  M 485,  502 

Huatusco    c 345,  358 

Huber    &    Stendel '508 

Hubner,    pat 162 

Hudson,  D.  D 507 

Hudson,    Thomas 84,  584 

Hudson  &  Co.,  11.  C 507 

Hudson-P^ilton    celebration ....    607 

Hudson  Mills 497 

Huestis  &  Hamilton 508 

Hughes,    Charles   E 332 

Hugo,  Victor 98,  565 

Hull,     John 607 

Hulling  machinery.  .  .245,  246, 

247,  248,  255,  256 
— Bucket  and  bt-am  crusher ....  260 

— Costa     Kica 264 

— First  U.  S.  patent 245,  469 

— Smout's     257 

Hulls,   beverage  from 655, 

—  (See  Husks)  658,  694 

Hulls  and  pulp,  beverage  from     15 

Hulman,    H 508 

HumholUana,  G 147 

— Caffein   content 161 

Hume  (pseud,  of  Voltaire)  ....    556 

Humphrey,    chk 121 

Humphreys.    H.    M 482 

Humphry   (appr.  to  Bowman)  .      54 

Hungerford,  G.  S.,  pat 644 

Hungerford,  G.  W.,  pat 644 

Hungerford     Co 644 

Hunt,  Leigh.  .550,  557  ;  q.  562,  578 

Hunt,    Mathew 503,  631 

Huntington.   L.  M.,   q 155 

Huntley  Mfg.  Co 248,  472, 

642,  643 

Huntoon   &   Towner 501 

Hurd,    Jacob 612 

Husks,  beverage  from. 26,   156,  231 
~(8ee  Hulls) 


Husted,   Ferguson  &  Titus 482 

liutchins,    John,    chk 116,  117 

Hutchinson,    chk 109 

Hutchinson,    Edward 112 

Hutchinson,    Gov 109 

Hutchinson,    Jonathan,    g..l75, 

177,  179 
Hutchinson,    Woods,    (/.  ...176, 

177,   180 

Hybrids 138,   140,   146,  236 

Ilvde,   chk 122 

Hyde,   E.   J.,   pat 634 

Hydrolysis    719 

Ibrik,    (boiler).  ..31,   615,   656, 

658,  668,  695,  696 
Ibriq   (see  Ibrik). 

Iced    c 724 

Ichtoglan    22 

Ideals,  Coffee 585 

Illustrated  History  of  English 
Plate,    Jackson,    q.    601, 

602,  603 

Imbusch,  J.  P.  W 506 

Importers 

— Baltimore  (Brazil  c,  1804)  .  485 
^New  Orleans  (no.,  1900-20).  491 
— New  York 475-482 

—  — ^Brazil   c.    (1894) 484 

Number  (1900-20) 491 

— Phila.    (number    1900-20)  ...    491 

— U.  S.,  Brazil  branches 304 

— 'S'an    Francisco 487,  488 

Number  (1900-20) 491 

— (See  Dealers,  Wholesale). 
Importing  ports 

■ — Amsterdam 327 

— Antwerp    327 

— Baltimore    482,  484 

— Hamburg     327 

— Havre    327 

— New  Orleans 296,   482,  484 

— New  York L'96,  476,  482,  484 

— Rotterdam    327 

— San  Francisco 296,  482,  484 

Imports 

— Aden     (for    re-export) 282 

— Argentine   (1019) 291 

— Australia   239,  291 

— Austria-Hungary    (1913-17).    290 

— Ceylon     282 

— Chile    (1920) 291 

— Cuba 281,    282,  291 

—Denmark  (1921) 290 

— Fed.  Malay  States  (1920)  .  .  .   284 

—Finland  (1921) 290 

— France    32    33,  290,  291 

— Germany  (1920) .  .  .' 290 

—Italy    290 

— Martinique    282 

— Netherlands 290,  294 

Early    43,  44,  291 

— New  Orleans 482,  484-487 

— New  York  (1881) 528 

(1900-20)    480,  484 

— New  Zealand    (1920) 291 

—Norway  (1921) 290 

— Panama     280 

— Portugal   (1919) 290 

— San  J^'rancisco 325,  482, 

484,  488,   489 

—Spain     (1920) 290 

—Straits  Settlements  (1920)  .  .    284 

— Sweden    (1921) 290 

— Union   of   So.    Africa    (1920)    291 

—United    States 296,299-302 

Brazil  c 296.  468,  475 

—  — ^Early 468,  475 

First  in  Am.  vessels 468 

Value    (1919-21) 299-302 

— Venice,  early 27 

Impotence,  C.  and 23,  46,     71 

Inchbald,    Mrs 578 

Indiana    Coffee    Co 485 

Indias    (c.) 351,  369 

Indigena,  C.   (Maragogipe)  ....    345 

Indirect  flame 642,  646 

Indo-China  c 352,  370,  371 

Industrial  exhibition  (1921)..  654 
Influence     des     caf^s     sur     les 

moeurs    politiques,    Sal- 

vandy,  q 100 

Influence  of  Alcohol  and  Other 
Drugs  on  Fatigue, 
Rivers,  q 186 


Infusion,  defined 698 

Infusion  devices 

— Bencini's  condenser  (1838)  .  .    625 

—Biggin   (1817) 624,  699, 

710,  712 

— Dakin's  cloth-bag 633,  645 

— Denobe's        pharmacological- 
chemical     (1802) .. .621,  699 
— Donmartin's       flannel       sack 

(1763)    620,  697 

— ^Duparquet's  muslin  strainer.    644 

—Etruscan    (1887-88) 645 

— First  Prencli  (1711)  .  .  .  .696,  097 
— Halstead's  china-lined  metal.  644 
— L'Aine's  Diligence  (1763)...  620 
■ — Martelley's  condenser ..  .624,  625 
— Rapid  (see  Rapid) 
—Old  Dominion  (1856) ..  .625,  710 
— Rowland's  condenser   (1844),  625 

— Triumph    699 

Ingram,  Margaret  A 593 

Inner-heated  roasting  machines,  386 

Insomnia  caused  by  c 176 

Inspector,  London,   per 579 

Inspectors  at  ports  of  entry 

—Favored  by  N.  C.  R.  A 513 

In-store  contract 331 

Intellectual  drink,   The 566 

Intelligence,  per,  q 59 

International    Coflfee    Congress 

(1902)     472 

Internationalized  by  French,  C.,  585 
Introduction,  beverage 

—Aleppo  (1532) 19 

— ^American  colonies   (1668)...   708 

— Arabia    11,     12 

— Austria   (1693) 49 

—Cairo  (1510) 16 

— Constantinople    (1517)...  19,  291 

— Damascus   (1530) 19 

— England    (1637) 35-42 

— Europe    (1615) 25-30 

— France  (1644) 31-34 

— Germany   (1670) 45-47 

—Italy  ^1615) 25,     26 

— London    58 

— Marseilles    (1644) 31,  291 

— Mecca  (1470-1500) 16 

— Medina  (1470-1500) 16 

—Netherlands    (1616) 43-44 

— New  York   (1668) 115-124 

— North  America  (1660-70)  105-113 

—Oxford  (1637) 40 

—Paris    (1657) 31,     91 

— Philadelphia  ( 1682) '. '. '. '.  .125-130 

— Venice    (1615) 25,  291 

— Vienna  (1693) 49-52 

Invisible  supply  (N.  C.  R.  A.) .   514 

Ireland,  Augustus 479 

Ireland,    Sam 81,  576,  578,  593 

Irregular  grind.  King's  patent, 

167,  402,  716 
Irrigation 

— Abyssinia    197 

— Arabia    197,  231 

— Mexico 222 

Irving,  Washington,  q 317 

Isenberg,  Paul " 519 

Ishmael 18 

Israel,    Leon 482,  532 

Israel  &  Bros.,  Leon 442,  482 

Italian  roast 356,  388 

Ittel,   pat 640 

Jackson,  Charles  James,  9.600, 

601,  602 

Jackson,   S 486 

Jackson,  W.  F 485 

Jackson   &   Co 499 

Jacob,  chk 41,  42,  53 

Jacquand  591 

Jaeckle,  q 163 

Jagenberg  Machine  Co.,  Inc .  . .    472 

Jalapa     c 345,  358 

Jamaica    c 350,  362 

James,  James,  chk 127 

James,    Mrs.,   chk. 127 

Jamison,  Catherine  Arbuckle.  .    524 

Jamison,   Robert 524 

Jamison,  Wm.  Arbuckle ...  523,  524 

Janney,  Jr.  &  Co.,  B.  S 501 

JardAn  Desclieux,  Inauguration 

de,  q 9 


INDEX 


783 


.Tardiu  Desclieux,  Fort  de 

France , 9 

.Tardln  dos  plantes,  Paris 6 

Jardiii,  Ed^lestan,  q 2,  3, 

6,  14,  16,  27,  32,  557, 

565,  629,  695,  708 

.Tarvie,  James  N 479,  523,  524 

Java  c 353,  355,  373,  374 

Jaiise 50 

Jay  Cooke  panic 527 

Ji'fFcrson,  'J'homas 130 

JoEfrejs,    Jiid,ii;e 570 

Jenlvins  &  Bro.,  T.  C 507 

Jennings,   Constantino,   chk.Ql,  582 
—  iSee  Constantine,  George) 

Jewel   Tea   Co 417 

Jewett  &  Sherman 506 

Jewett,  Sherman  &  Co 506 

Jobson,  Cirques,  chk 41 

Johns.    Benjamin,   chk 112 

Johnson.  James   D 495 

Johnson,  Lije  of,  Boswell.  q..  .  567 
Johnson,    Samuel... 80.  81,  88, 
89,  557,  567,  568,  569, 

574,  577,  583,  585;  q.  561 

Johnson  &  Co.,  Theo.  F.  .  .508,  635 

Johnson  Automatic  Sealer  Co.  .  472 

Johnson-Ijocke  Merc.  Co 488 

Johnston,  Herbert  L.,  pa^.  .646,  652 

Johnston,  W.  T.,  pat 642 

Johnston,    William    501 

Johnston  &  Co.,  E 445,  486 

Johnston,  Gordon  &  Co 486 

Joint    Coffee    Trade    Publicity 

Committee    439,443, 

445-459,  474 

— Booklets    455 

— ^Brewing 717,  718 

—Coffee  Club 453,  455 

— Information    service 453 

— Membership    448 

— Organized    (1919) 474,514 

— Program    514 

—Recipes     723,  724 

■ — fe'cientiflc  research 453,  457 

Jones,    Dorothy 107,  108,  467 

Jones,   J.    F 507 

Jones,  W.  T 505,  511,  513 

Jones,    Webster 515 

Jones  &  Co.,  S.  L 488 

Jones  Bros 501 

Jonson,     Ben 60 

Joseph,   chk 93 

Joseph  Andrews,  Fielding 80 

Joteyko,    q 186 

Joubort   96 

Jourdain,   John,   q 1,  2 

Journal  Am.  Chevi.  Soc,  q.l55,  160 
Journal  Am.  Med.  Ass'n,  per.,  q. 

175,  185 

Journal  d'  Antoine  Galland,  q.  2 
Journal  of  Assoc.  Agric.  Chem., 

per.,  q 169 

Journal  of  the  Franklin  Insti- 
tute, q 711,  712 

Journal  of  the  Oen.  Assetnbly 
of  the  Colony  of  New  York 

(1709),  q 117 

Journal  of  Pharmach^l.,  per.,  q.  184 

Journal,   Revett,   q 2 

Journey  through  England, 

Mackay 75 

Julian,    sec.   to   the  Muses....  574 

Julien    (of  Gobelins) . 567 

Jurgens,    pat 167 

Kadoe   c .  .355,  373 

Kaffa 3 

Kaffa    coffee 228,  229 

Kaffoe  Hag  Corp 473 

Kaffeeklatsch    (first).. 45,  433.  683 

Kaffee-sieder   50,  51 

Kahoueh   3 

Kahua 3 

Kahvedjibachi     20,  22 

Kahveji 665 

Kahwa     3 

Kahwah    15 

Kahwah    (coffee-room) ...  .657, 

658,  662 

Kahwe 45 

Kair   Bey 17 

Kaldi    14,  15 

Kaltenbach,  George 476,  529 

Kant,    Immanuel 562 


Kaspar,  Adam  J 

Kato,    Sartori 471, 

Kato    Coffee    Co 

Kavah   

Kaveh   

Kaveh  kanes 

—  (See  also  Coffee  houses) 

Kavveghi    

Kawih 

Keable,  B.  B.,  q 181, 

Keats,    John 549  ;   q. 

Keen,    William,   chk 

Keen's   Chop   House 

Kellv,    George 

Kell.v,  H.  D.,  pat 472, 

Kemble.    John 

Kendrick,  F.  G 

Kenny,    C.    D 

Kenrich,  Archibald,  pat 

Kentucky   coffee  tree 

Kenttu:ky  Warbler,  The,  Allen, 

q 

Kerr.  Mary   Alice 

Khawah    (see  Kahwah) 
Kickleburys  on  the  Rhine, 

Thackeray,  q 

Kidde,     Frank 

Kidneys,  effect  on 175, 

Kilgour  &  Taylor 

Kimball,    O.    G 527, 

King     Dr.,    q 

King,  John  B 513,  539,  701 

720;  pat.  167,  474, 
651  ;  q.  168,  402, 

—  (See  also  Irregular  grind) 

King,  Moll,  chk 581, 

King,   Thomas,   chk 

King,  Tom,  chk 

King  Coffee  Products  Corp.  .  . . 
King    of    American    breakfast 

table    

King  of  perfumes 

Kingdom's  Intelligencer,  Lon- 
don, per.,  q 433, 

Kipfel    

Kirby,   James   H 

Kirby  &  Halstead 

Kirby,  Halstead  &  Chapin 

Kirb.r,  Halstead  &  Chapin  Co. . 

Kirkland,  A 

Kirkland,    W.    J 

Kirkland  &  von  Sacks 

Kirkland  Bros 478, 

Kisher    231,  266,  655, 

- — ^Method  of  preparing , 

Kissing  the  cheeks 

Kitchen,    James,    chk 

Kitchen  Directory  and  Ameri- 
can Hausenife,  q 

Kneller.    Sir   Godfrey 

Knickerbocker  &  Cooke 

Knickerbocker  Mills 

Knickerbocker  Mills  Co 

Knight,   Eberman  &  Co 

Knowles,  Cloyes  &  Co 

Knowlys,  Thomas  John.  put... 

Knudsen  &  Co.,  P.  J 

Koch,    q 

Kock.  Paul  de 

Koenig  &  Co.,  J.  Henry 

Kohwah    

Kolschitzky,  Franz  George,  chk. 
49,  50,  51, 

— Introduces  c  to  Vienna 

— Portrait,  ill 

— Statue    ill 50, 

— Wife  (Ursula) 

Kolster  &  Co 

Kona  c 356. 

Kooman,  G.  W.,  pat 

Koran,   q 15, 

Kosmos   Line 

Kraepelin,    q 

Krag-Reynolds    Co 

Kraut,     Adolph 

Kreiser,   Alexander  W 

Krelssel,    Fillip 

Kroberger,  Charles _._. 

Kroe    c 355, 

Krout,  J.  M 

Krull,    pat 

Krupp  A.  G.  Grusonwerk.  Fried. 

Kuchelmeister,  F..  pat 

Kuhlemelr,  Fred  J.,  pat 

Kuhlke,    George    F 


502 

538 

538 

2 

1 

17 

22 
11 
182 
550 
120 
498 
501 
649 
581 
507 
508 
624 
564 

564 
523 


563 

479 
181 
503 
528 
584 


716 

587 
581 
587 
539 

107 
565 

582 
50 
480 
480 
480 
485 
480 
480 
480 
480 
658 
694 
387 
130 

709 
578 
499 
496 
496 
507 
502 
633 
488 
186 
565 
503 
12 


590 
50 
51 
599 
51 
340 
375 
649 
20 
489 
186 
502 
471 
509 
W.\S 
501 
371 
503 
247 
247 
647 
648 
482 


Kunliardt,    Henrv 482 

Kunhardt  &  Co 482 

Kuprili,  Grand  Vizier... 20,  21 

49,  71,  664 

Labaree  &  Co.,  J.  H..480.  482,  484 

Labeling   machinery 403 

Uibels,  law  affecting 410 

IwTbor 

— Angola    268 

— Arabia     266 

— Arbuckle     business. 524,  525,  526 
— Brazil    ..207,  260,  261,  203, 

445,  530,  531 

— Colombia     260 

— Guadeloupe     233 

— Guatemala    219 

— Guianas 236 

— Honduras    234 

— Java  269,  271 

— Mexico    263,  264 

— Nicaragua     264 

— Netherlands  E.   I.  ..283,  293,  294 

— Salvador    217 

— Sumatra     269 

— Venezuela    263 

— West  Indies    293 

I^acedaemonian       (see       Black 

broth)    13 

La    Chauss^e '.     94 

Ija  Coux,   Francois  Ren^,  pat..    627 

La    Guaira    c 348 

La  Roque,  Jean 31 ,  32,  34, 

543,    557  :    q.    5     15,    33, 
197,    245,    542,    565,    616, 

694,  695 

La  Seine  c.-pot 607 

Lactation,   Effect  on 177,  178 

Ladies     Home     Journal,     per. 

177;  q.  709 
Ladies  Home  Magazine,  per.,  q. 

709,  710 

Lahey,    B 480 

L'Aine,  inv 620 

I^it.   Caf6  au    691,  696 

I^lly,  Albert  \.,  q 570 

Lamb,   Charles,    q 550 

Lamb   (Folger,  Schilling  &  Co.)    506 

Lambert,  Joseph    042.  646. 

471.  472 
Lambert  Food  &  Machinery  Co.  646 
I^mbert  Machine  Co.   ........    649 

Lamboray,    C 144 

Lancet,  per.,  q 179 

Lanrtanabileo,    q 181 

Landers,  Frary  &  Clark.  .  .472, 

644,  647,  648,  649,  653,  701 

Langfeld     186 

Langius     543 

I.iantern    Slides 443 

Lantern-shaped  c.-pot 602, 

603.    604,  619 

Lapicque,    q 184  • 

Larousse,    q 91 

lyascelles  &  Co.,  A.  S 482 

I/ast-bag    notice.    New    York.  .    321 

Lastreto    &    Co 488 

Lathrop  &  Co.,  C.  D 484,  485 

Laud,    Archbishop    41 

Laughlin  &  Co.,   J.   W 508 

Laurens,    pat 623,  694 

Laurent,  Emil   144 

LaurentU,  G.    (robusta) .. .142.   144 

Laurentii  Oillet,  C 142 

Laurina,    0.    hyb 138 

Lauzaune,  pat 640 

Lauzaune,    Btablissements    625,  646 

Lavado    (grade)     261 

I^wrencp,  George  W 535.  537 

Lawrence  &  Van  Zandt 476 

Lawton,  Frederick,  q 557 

Lawton,   William,   inr.    ...641,  651 

Lazear,  Jesse 508 

I,<ead    number    159,  513 

Leaf-blight    («ee    Diseases) 
Leaves,  beverage  from    .  .  .  133.  694 

l^  Candlot,  chk 93 

Le  Conte,  q 178 

Le  Gantois,  chk 93 

Ij^  Morgan   Coffee   Co 508 

Le  Page,   Jules,   pat 474,  652 

Ijeclerc    96 

T>ee,    H.    H 508 

T^e  &  Murbach    502 

I^ech,     John 582 

Lefevre   96 


784 


ALL    ABOUT    COFFEE 


L6gal     ^^ 

Legendary  origin    (see  Origin)  341 

Leffcett     &     Co.,     Francis     H. 
i^eggett     «  ^^g    ^g^    ^g2,   494 

Legislative    com.    on    specula- 

tions,    N.    Y 322 

Lehmann,   Julius,   q 70,  186 

Lemare    708 

Lemierre 94 

Lemmon   &   Son    g07 

Lemon  in  c.   (Russia) 68b 

Lemonade    venders     o '0 

—  (See  also  Pedling) 

Lensing,  J.  H orf» 

Leo  XIII,   Pope,   q 549 

Leone    oTy 

Leopold,    Emperor    49 

Lepper,    q 145 

L'Estrange  •  •  •   „°% 

Lester,  George  C,  pat.  .  .  .472,  647 
Lettre  sur  I'Origine  et  le  Pro- 

gres  du  Cafe,  Galland,  q..      1^ 

Leven    loo 

I.«vering,   William  T 484,  485 

Levering   &   Co.,    E.    484,    485,    o08 

Levinthal,   q •    lo5 

Levy,  Florence  N.,  g •    607 

Levy  &  Co.,  M.  M 485 

Lewin-Meyer    Co 48» 

Lawis,  Charles 503  ;  pat.  64b 

Lewis,   Teacle   Wallace    480 

Lewis  &  Co.,  T.  W 480 

Liberian    c ood,  d7» 

lAherica,   C.  .  ,  „    ^  . . 

—Allied  Species 142,  144 

— Botanical    description.  .  .140,  142 

— Colombia     211 

— Dutch   Guiana    236 

— Federated  Malay  States 238 

— French     Indo-China     2d7 

— Guadeloupe 234 

—Java    215,  216 

—Liberia    229 

— .  — Trees    to    acre 2d0 

—Netherlands    E.    I.    (1920)  .  .    283 

— 'United  States  imports 341 

Liberty    Boys    120 

Licenses 

— Boston 

Coffee-house 108 

First,   Dorothy   Jones ....  107 

— England 

— ■  — Coffee-house    59 

— •  — First  royal  warrant 59 

—France    (first,    1692)    ; 34 

—Germany    46,  293 

^Mecca,    coffee-house    18 

— Philadelphia,  coffee-house ...  18 
• — United   States 

—  -First  (1670)    467 

Wartime  (1917-18)    ..338,  334 

— Wurttemberg 47 

Lichty,  George  E 535 

Lidgerwood,  John,  pat 246 

Lidgerwood,  Wm.  Van  V.,  pat. 

246,  247 

Lidgerwood  Mfg.  Co.,  Ltd 246 

Liebig,    Baron    von    682,    684, 

685,  687  ;  q.  711 

Liebreich,    q 185 

Lievre,   Friclc  &  Co 506 

Liife  of  Addison,  Johnson,  q. .  .  561 
Life  of  Home,  Mackenzie,  q..  .  86 
Life  of  Johnson,  Boswell,   q. .  .   567 

Light  roast 356,  387,  388 

Lightfoot,   Alexander,   chk.....    120 

Lilly    (astrologer)     69 

Limbird,    John     585 

Limonaji 670 

Linn,  A.  R.  &  W.  F 508 

Lins,  Albuquerque 531 

Linschoten's  travels,  ill.,  43  ;  q. 

35,     37 

Lion  (brand)    523 

Lion's  head  (Button's  c.  house) 

ill 80,    576,  593 

Livre   Commode    (Paris,   1691)   433 

Llppincott,  Jesse  H 507 

Llspenard,     Anthony      475 

Lispenard,   Leonard    475 

Literature  of  coffee    541-585 

Literature,    Influence   of   c.    on 

552,  556 

— England 60,     81 

—Paris  .  .  .94,  96,  98,  100,  102,  103 


Littledo,   L.   pseud.,   q 550, 

Lives  of  Eminent  Men.  Aubrey, 

q 

Lives  of  the  Lord  Chancellors, 

Campbell,  q 

Lives  of  the  Poets,  Johnson.. 

Livierato,     B.     A 

Livierato,  Gregory  B 

Livierato    Frferes    (Bros.)    338, 
478, 

Livlerato-Kidde   Co 

Livingstons,  The 

Lloyd,  the  law-student. 579  ;  q. 

Lloyd,  Edward,   c/ifc 85, 

Lloyd,  John  C 

Lloyd  &  Co.,  John  C 

Lloyd's   (London)    

— Register   of   shipping 

Loading,    Santos    312, 

Loaiza  &  Co.,  W 

Loclie    (chemist)    q 

Locket,  Mrs.,  chic 

Lockier,    Dean,    q 

Lockwood,    Dr.,    q 

Lockyer,  Capt&in 

Loeven   &   Co.,    E 

Loew,    Oscar,    q 

Logan   &    Strowbridge    

Logan  &  Strowbridge  Iron  Co. 
London 

—Fire    (1666)    61,   62,   74, 

—  —(1748)   ill 76, 

London,    Paris    &    Am.    Bank, 

Ltd 

London    Pleasure    Gardens    of 

the     18th    Century,     The, 

Wroth,     q 

Long,  Mary,  chk 

Long,  William,  chU 

Longe,  W.  Harry 

Longevity,   Effect  of  c.  on.... 

Longhi,    Alessandro 

Longhi,     Pietro 556, 

Lopez,  Pedro   

Lopez  &  Co.,  P.  A 

Lorand,    q 

Lorimore    Bros 

Lorraine,   Prince  of    

Lott  &  Low   

Loudon,     Howard    C 

Loudon,    J.    Carlyle    

Loudon  &  Johnson 495, 

Loudon  &  Son    

Loudon   &    Stellwag    

Louis  XIII    

Louis  XIV    6,   33,   91, 

Louis  XV 8,  92,  94,  563, 

Love,    N.,    q 

Low,    Seth    

IjOw  &  Co.,  Adolphe 

Ix)well,  EJbenezer 

Lower    Wall    St.    Bus.    Men's 

Lown  Coffee'  Co!,  W.  G.   .  .  .  .  .  . 

Lowther,  Sir  James 

I^yal   Association    (London)  .  . 
Lubricant   to  human   machine. 

Ludlow  &  Goold 

Ludolphus,  q 

Lueder  &  Co.,  A 

Lure  of  coffee 

Lurman  &  Co.,  T.  G 484, 

Lusk,  q 

Luttrell     

Lyman,  John  Chester,  pat 

Lyons,  A.  Neil,  q 

Lytton,  Lord    


551 

40 

570 
570 
479 
478 

488 
479 
475 
584 

86 
480 
480 
120 

85 
314 
488 
180 
570 
574 
176 
120 
505 
156 
644 
644 

83 
83 

488 


82 

56 

56 

444 

178 

588 

558 

220 

338 

182 

508 

49 

475 

495 

495 

499 

495 

495 

91 

92 

566 

175 

473 

487 

487 

473 
508 
584 
583 
385 
475 
5 
485 
585 
485 
180 
579 
245 
563 
102 


Macassars     (c.) 355,  374 

Macaulay,  Thomas  B.  q 75,     77 

Macedoine  Poetique  (1824) ....   548 
Machinery 

— Evolution    of    615-634 

— History   of  Manufacture  468-474 

Mackay    75  ;    q.     79 

Mackey,  William  D 477,  491 

Mackey  &  Co 477 

Mackey  &  Small 477,  480 

Mackintosh,   Sir  James    556 

Macklin,    Charles    89,    580,  581 

Maclachlan,   C.   H 527 

Maclaine,    Jemmy     578 

Macrocarpa,  G 146 

MacVeagh  &  Co.,  Franklin  485,  502 

Madagascar    c 353,  378 

Madagascar,  G 146 


Madagascariensis,  G 146 

Maddux,  H.  Clay   479,  491 

Magic  Cup    (brand)    539 

Maguire,  Charles 479 

Maguire,     Joseph     497,  498 

Maguire    &    Gillespie     508 

Mahomet     (See    also    Moham- 
med)          38 

Mahood,  E.  B 507 

Mahood,   Samuel    507 

Mahood,  W.  James 507 

Maidi    c 351,  368 

Mail-order  houses   415 

Maine  &  Eckerenkotter   505 

Mairobert,  q 566 

Maitland,    Coppell    &    Co 482 

Maltland,  Phelps  &  Co 482 

Makara,  chk 93 

Makonnen,  Ras    310 

Malabars     (c.) 351,  369 

Malang    c 355,  373 

Malaria,   Effect  of  c.   on 181 

Maldonado  &  Co 488 

Maliban.  chk 93 

Mallet,  J.  W.,  « 176 

Malone,  q 61,  574 

Man,    Alexander,    chk 59,     88 

Mandelsloh,  Joh.  A.  von  q 45 

Mandheling    c 355,  371 

Manet,  Edouard   103,  104 

Manipulated  Java 338 

Manizales  c 348,  364 

Manner  of  Making  C,  Tea  and 

Chocolate,    Dufour 543 

Manners  and  Customs 655-692 

— Abyssinia    655 

—Africa    655-657 

- — Africa,    Portuguese    E 657 

— Algeria     655,  656 

—Arabia 657-663 

— Argentina    691 

—Asia    657-663 

— Brazil    691 

— Chile    691 

—Constantinople.  .19,    22,    23, 

663-670 
— Damascus    (c.-house)     .  .  .668-670 

— England    (c.-house) 60,   75-89 

—Egypt     655-657 

—France 33,  680-683 

-Germany   683-685 

—Italy    686 

— London    (c.-house)     73 

— Mexico     687 

— Netherlands    686 

—New   Orleans    690 

— North   America    686-691 

— Norway    686 

—Oriental,  Early   ..17,  19,  22,     23 

— Paraguay    691 

—Paris.. 91,   96,  98,   100,   102, 

103.    104.    554,  683 

— Persia     (c.-house) 22 

— Philadelphia     (c.-house)  ....    128 

—Saxony    684 

— Somaliland   63.") 

—Sweden    686 

— Thuringia     684 

—Turkey    20,    27,    36,    38,    663-670 

— Uganda     65."; 

—United  States 687-691 

— Uruguay      691 

—Vienna  (c.-house)  .  .562,  671,  672 
—  (See  also  Coffee  houses) 

Manning,   E.  B.,  pat 637 

Manning,  Bowman  &  Co.  ..649,   701 
Manthey-Zorn    Laboratories.  .  .    633 

Mantsaka  c,  ill 142 

Manual  of  Pharmacology,  Soil- 
man,  q 182 

Manufacture,   U.    S 298 

Many,  Daniel 507 

Marac     682 

Maracaibo   c 348,  349,  365 

Maragogipe    c 345,  367 

Maragogipe,  G.,  hyi 140 

—India     227 

Marat   94 

Marchand,  pat 640 

M'Ardell     (mezzotinter) 84,  584 

Marden  &  Folger   506,   507 

Marden  &  Myrick   503 

Margins 329,  333,  333 

Mariahalden     519,  320 

Marie  Antoinette 96 

Marilhat    591 


INDEX 


785 


Marion   Harland  c.-pot.  .  .  .645,  699 

Market  names 191 

—  (AS'ee  also  Characteristics) 

Marlborougii,    Earl   of 109 

Marmontel    98 

^larquis  de  Someruelas,  v 468 

Marshall      q 183 

Martelley,  Lewis,  pat 624,  699 

Martin,    pat    485,640 

Martin  &  Co.,  N 485 

Martinique   c 350,  363 

Martinique,     Utstoire     de     la, 

Daney,   q 8 

Martinique,  La,  Pardon,   q....        8 

Marvell   60 

Mary,    Qneen    601 

Mason,    Fred     689 

Mason,    L.    F 479 

Mason,  Marcus,  po«...246,  248,  469 

Mason  &  Co.,  Marcus 248,  469 

Mason    &   Thompson    476 

Mason   machines    264 

Masons,    Grand    Lodge    110 

Masons,   St.   Andrew's  Lodge.  .    Ill 
Mass.  Inst,  of  Technology 

— Scientific   research 453, 

457,   515,   714,   717 
Massieu,    Abb6    Guillaume,     q. 

14.  544 

Matagalpa    c 347,  360 

Materia    Medica    and    Pharma- 
cology, Culbreth,   q 181 

Materia  Medica,  Pharmacy  and 

Therapeutics,   Potter,    q...    181 
Materia    Medica,    Therapeutics 
and     Pharmacology,     But- 
ler,    q 179 

Matheson,   S 482 

Matheson.   Jr.   &  Co.,   S 482 

Mattari     c 351,  368 

Mattel,  q 180 

^Maumenet.     q 548 

Mauran.  C.   S 502 

Mauritimia,    C,    138,  146 

— Caffein  content 147,  161 

Maury,  Joseph  E 515 

Maximilian    Frederick,   Elector, 

q 47 

Maxwell,  q 165 

Maxwell  House    (brand)    441 

Mayer  Bros.  &  Co 482 

Mayflower,    v 108,  616 

— Mortar  and  pestle,  ill 105 

Mayne   585 

Mavot    96 

Mazagran,  Cafe 92,  655,  682 

Mazerolles,  S 591 

McBride.  R.  P 482,  499 

McCann.  Alfred  W 398,  399 

McCarthy   Bros    488 

McChesney  &  Sons 488 

McClean,  .Jemmy   (see  Maclaine) 

McCord.  Brady  Co 508 

McCreadv,  William 479 

McCreerv,  Henry  F 480 

McCreerv,  R.  W 511:  q.  427 

McI>onald,    Duncan    521,  522 

McDonald    &    Ar buckle    521 

McDonald  &  Arbuckles 522 

McDonald  &  Glynn 482 

AicFadden,    J.    M 513 

McFadden  &  Bro.,  George  H. .  .    480 

McFarland,  A 508 

McGartv.  M.  J 399 

McGill.    A.,    <7 687 

McKlnnon,    William    245 

McKinnon   &  Co.,   Ltd.,   Wm...    245 

McLaughlin,  Frederick 502 

McLaughlin,  George  D 502 

McLaughlin,  William  F 502 

McT>aiighlin  &  Co.,  W.   F..443,  502 

McLaughlin   &  Co.,   W.   H 484 

MoMaster,  John  Bach,  g 468 

McMullin,    John    612 

McNeil  &  Higgins 502 

McNeil  &  Higgins  Co 502 

McNeil,   Thomas    494 

McNulty,  John  R 479,  491 

McNulty  &  Co.,  J.  R 479 

McReynolds,    Attorney   General  533 

Meacock.  James,  pat 245 

Mead,  Dr 582 

Meal  Market.  New  York 119 

Meat-packers  in  c.  trade 514 

^fechanie's  Magazine,  London     585 
Medellins    (c.)     348,  364 


Medical  Netcs,  per,  q.,   183 

Medical  Record,  per,  q., 185 

Medical  Times,  per,  q 176 

Medicinal  properties  of  c.  .  .12, 
26,  27,  38,  45,  56,  58,  71. 

72,  175-188 

— Due  to  caffein  content 182 

Medicine 

— C.    first   used  as    693 

— Cafe   au   lait   used   as    696 

Meditations,  Brillat-Savarin,  q.  697 
Aledium    (see  Grinds) 

Medium  roast   356,  388 

Meehan,   Charles   L 535 

Meehan,    P.    C 476,  477 

Meehan  &  Co.,  P.  C 477 

Meehan  &  Schramm   477 

Meidinger,  q 565 

Meilhat   594 

Meisner,    Leonhard    Ferdinand 

46,  543 

Meith,  Hugo 591 

Mejia,     E 488 

Melange,  Cafe    671 

Melaye,    S 548 

Mellon    Inst,   of  Industrial  Re- 
search       714 

Memoirs,  Diderot    98 

Memoirs,  Sherman,  q 563 

Menado    c 355,  374 

Menda  &  Co 340 

Mendel,   q 185 

Menezes,  T.  Langaard  de,  ill..   446 

Mengai    694 

Menico 28 

Menier     566 

Mcnospenna,  C,  hyh 138 

Menown,  Hugh 631 

Menown,    H.    &    J 502 

Menown  &  Gregory 631 

Men's  Answer  to  Women's  Pe- 

titio-n.    The,    pamph 71 

Menslichen  Oenusmittel,  q.   .  .  .    147 
Mental  and  Motor  Efliciency 

— Elfect  of  caffein  on 186 

— Effect    of    tea    on    186 

Menzel,    Adolph     591 

Merchants  Coffee  Co.  of  N.  O., 

Ltd 005 

Merchants      Exchange       (New 

York)     123 

Merck    &    Co 473 

Mercure  de  France,  q 8 

Meridas   (c.)    349,  365 

Merrill    &    Co.,    S.    C 487 

MeiTitt    &    Ronaldson    499 

Merwin  &  Co.,  Geo.  A 499 

Mery,    C.    D 548 

M<^ssenger  &  Co.,  Thomas  H. .  .    480 

Metchnikoff,    q 178 

Metropolitan    Mills    494,  495 

Mexicans   (c.)    345,  338,  359 

Meyer    (chemist)     164 

Meyer,  B 535 

Meyer,  Fred  W 502 

Meyer.  Robert 510,  511,  513 

Meyerheim,  Paul 591 

M'Ginlev,  Joseph 492 

M'Gregor,  Coll 476 

Michaud,  I.  F.  and  L.  G.,  g..       8 

Michelet,    q 98 

Microscopy  of  c 149-153 

— Analysis,  value 152 

Microscopy  of  Vegetable  Foods, 

Winton,  q 150 

Midland    Spice    Co 508 

Mllde     591 

Milds    (market   name) 341,  345 

—  (See    also   Characteristics) 

Milk  in  coffee 38,  58,  399,  665 

— Effect  of 178 

— First      used      by      Nleuhoff 

(1660)     696 

Millar   &   Co.,    E,    B 502 

Millar  Spice  Co.,  E.  B 502 

Miller,    Chas.    A 480 

Miller,    Harry    480 

Miller,    Rev.    James.  ..  .555,    q.  554 

Miller,    R.    0 501,514 

Miller,     Watts     480 

Miller,     W.     H 488 

Miller  &   Walbridge    480 

Miller,    Smith    &    Co 485 

Milling  (see  also  Cleaning)...   383 

Milreis    336 

Milton,    John 60  ;?.  549 


Minor,  W.  H. 505 

Miner\'a,   v 128 

Minford,  Thomas    479 

Minford  &  Co.,  L.  W 479,  485 

Minford,  Lueder  &  Co.   ...477,  479 

Minford.  Thompson  &  Co 479 

Mingo,   Cirilo,   pat 471 

Minkowski    185 

Minor,    W.    H 485 

Minott,   Samuel 609 

Minute    (brand)     539 

Minute,   Caf6  a  la    708 

Mirror,   London,   per 585 

Misbranding 

— Condemned  by  N.  C.  R.  A..  .    513 

—Rulings    (U.    S.)     337,338 

Mitchell,  George   478 

Mitchell,   William   L 478 

Mitchell  Bros 478 

Mixing    (see   Blending) 

Mixtures,  Strange  c 56,     57 

Moat  With  the  Crimson  Stains, 

The,  Champney,   q 563,  564 

Mocengio     27 

Mocha  C...230,  351,  353,  368,  369 

Mocha  longberry  c 228 

Mocha-seed    Bourbon-Santos    c. 

341,  366 
Mocha-seed  Santos  (grade) . . .  260 
Modern  Italian  Poets,  Howells, 

q 548,  549 

Moegling,  Carl,  inv 647 

Mogeneti,   C.    (caffein  content) 

147,  161 
Mohammed..  14,  15,  19,  20,  38,     54 

Mohammed    IV... 49,    50,     91 

Mohedano,  Jose  Antonio   9 

Mohns-Frese    Com.    Co 488 

Moir,  John  R 535 

Mokaska   Mfg.   Co 485,  508 

Mokkae,   C,   hyl) 138 

Molded    beans    170 

Molke    9 

Molmenti,  Pompeo,  q 27,     28 

Moncrieff    (dramatist)     572 

Moncrieff,   Alexander,   chk 572 

Moneuse,    Elie,,    pat 469,639 

Monin,   Sieur,  q 696 

Monitor     machines     248 

Monk,    General     59,     69 

Monkey   coffee    136 

Monroe,  James    (Pres.) 113 

Monstruo    (grade)     261 

Montagu,    Lady    Mary    Wortley  573 

Montague,  q 551 

Monte    Carmelo    c 350,365 

Montealegre  &  Co 487,  488 

Montesquieu     100 

Montuori,   q 176 

Moore,  Alexander  Duncan,  pat.  623 

Moore,   C.  T 508 

Moore,  Dr.,  q 179 

Moore  &  Co.,  Geo.  A 488 

Mopsy    579 

Moreas.  Jean,   chk 102 

Morewood,    T.   C,    pat 642 

Morev  Mercantile  Co.,  C.  S 508 

Morgan,  Charles  644 ;  pat.  645,  653 

Morgan,  Edward  H 644 

Morgan   Brothers    644 

Morize,  pat 623,  699,  708 

Morley,  W.  T 513 

Morning      Advertiser,      Lond., 

newsp 585 

Morning     Chronicle,     London, 

neiffsp 585 

Morning  Herald,  Lond.,  newsp.  585 
Morning)  Post,  Lond.,  newsp .  .  585 
Morosini,   Gianfrancesco    ...  26 

Morrison,    S.    B 497 

Morrison,    Wm.    J 498 

Morrison    &    Boinest    Co 498 

Morton,  Robert    69 

Mosely,  Dr.   Benjamin,  q 2,     38 

Moser     (artist)      584 

Mosso,   TJgoUno,  q 186 

Most   excellent   virtues   of   the 

mulberry       called       coffee 

(1671)     34 

Mother    (grade)     258 

Mother  of  caf^s    (Vienna) ....     50 

Motion  pictures 443,  455,  '514 

Mott    &    Williams    494 

Mottant,    A 641,  645 

Muddiman    59 

Mudlford    58 


786 


ALL    ABOUT    COFFEE 


Muhlberg,  R.  pat. 

Muller,  Frederick  H.,  pat.  1)53, 

Muiiden,    Admiral 86, 

Murdock,    Charles    A 

Murdock   &   Co.,   C.    A 

Murdock  Mfg.   Co.,   C.   A 

Murg<'r,    Henry    

Murphy,    Arthur    584 ;    q. 

Murray,  Sir  James 690  ;  q. 

Murray,    James    H 

Murray,    Robert    

Murtn,  ■  C,    hi/b 

Musgrave,   .Tames    

Music.  C.  in 593 

Music  in  coffiee  houses 656, 

^  666.  667, 

Mustapha,    Kara    49, 

Mustard  in  c 58, 

Myer.    pat 162, 

Myers.    Myer    

Mylne  (architect)    

Mysore  c 351, 

Myrtle   c.    (Mexico) 

Nabob    (brand) 

Nairon,  Antoine  Faustus.  .  .16, 
27, 

Nakhel  douin   (pnlm)    

Nalpasse,  Valentin,   q 175, 

176,   177. 
Names     for     c.     (English     and 

foreign)    1,   2, 

Names  of  places    (see  Note,   p. 

769) 

Nancy    (tea  ship)   v 

Naphew,    Charles 

Napier,    Robert,   tnv .  . 637,  699, 

Napier   &   Co 

Napier  &   Sons,   Robert 

Narcotism,   Effect  of  c.  on.... 

Narghil   (palm)    

Narghillai    663,  664,  665, 

—  (Also  nargile,  narguileh) 
Nash    Grocery   Co.,   George.  .  .  . 

Nash,   Smith   &  Co 

Nas.h-Smith  Tea  &  Coffee  Co .  . 
Nashville  Coffee  &  Mfg.  Co ... . 

Nason,  James  H.,  pat 

Nat'l    .\ss'n    of   Retail    Grocers 

of  the  U.  S 

Nat'l      Chain      Store     Grocers' 

Ass'n    417, 

National   coffee   day 

Nat'l  C.  Roasters  Ass'n.  .  .  .323, 
439,  448,   473,   474,  509- 
— Better   c.    making   com... 713- 
— Brewing    recommendations .  . 

• — Conventions    512- 

— Dues    

• — Freight  forwarding  bureau .  . 

— Home   mill 

— Industrial    Expositions.  .514, 
515, 

— Membership    511- 

National     C.     Roasters     Traffic 

and  Pure  Food  Ass'n.  510, 

National    Coffee    Week.... 439, 

455    473,   474, 

Nat'l  Packaging  Machinery  Co. 

443, 

Nat'l    Retail    Tea    and    Coffee 

Merchants'    Ass'n 

National  Review,  per,  q 

Nature,    Cafe 

Nature    of    the    Drink    Kauhi, 

The,  Pocoke's  trans,  q.  12, 

Nature,  quality  and  most  excel- 

.  lent     virtues     of     c.     The 

(broadside),    ill 69, 

Navarre,    Francisco    Xavier..9, 

Nave  &  McCord  Merc.  Co 

Nave-McCord  Mfg.  Co 

Negro  plot    (New  York,   1737). 

Neidlinger   &    Schmidt 

Nelson,    Charles,   pat 

Nepenthe    

Nervous  system.  Effect  of  c.  on 
174, 
Netherlands  E.  India  Co ....  43, 
44.  283.  291, 
Netherlands  West  India  Co . .  . 
Neutral    (see  Flavors) 

Never s,   George   J.  . 

Nevill    

Nevison,   J 


638 
702 
559 
506 
.508 
506 
98 
579 
1 
496 
475 
138 
612 
-599 

669 
50 
696 
473 
612 
584 
369 
222 

441 

543 
266 

179 

3 


120 
479 

700 
486 
699 
181 
266 


503 
502 
503 
509 
637 


428 

418 
513 

515 
-717 
717 
-515 
514 
323 
652 

654 
•514 

511 

514 

472 

417 

74 

683 

38 


70 
225 
485 
508 
118 
499 
649 

12 


175 

294 

105 

479 

60 

631 


New   and   curimis   coffee-house, 

etc.,    The,    per 45,  433 

New    Caledonia    c 358,  374 

New   Guinea   c 355,  374 

Netc  Discoveries,  etc.,  Paschius, 

q. 13 

New  England  Automatic  Weigh- 
ing  Machine   Co 471 

Newbold,  William 479 

Newell,    pat 246 

Newhall,  H.  B 501 

Newmark,    H 509 

Newmark,   Maurice    II 509 

Newmark  &  Co.,  H 509 

Newmark  &  Co.,  M.  A 509 

New  Orleans  Coffee  Co.  .  .  .485,  505 

New  uses  for  c 457 

New    View    of   London    (1708), 

Hatton    54 

New   York 

— ^Coffee  and  Sugar  Exchange 
(See  Exchanges) 

—Daily  Advertiser,  q 434,  468 

—Dock  Co 319,  532 

- — Gazette,  per.,  q 118 

• — 'Historical    Soc 474,   591 

— Hospital    124 

— Journal,  per  (1775)   q 115 

— Stock  and  Exchange  Board.  .    123 
News    from    the    coffee     house 

(broadside),    q.,   ill 68,     69 

Newstadt.  Emil,  pat 645 

Niblo,  William,  chk 121,   124 

- — (See  also  Gardens) 

Nioaraguas    (c.)    347,   360,   361 

Nicholson,    David 502 

Niemuhr,  Karstens  .  .  .  .543  ;  q.      22 

Nielsen,  Thorlief  S.  B 520 

Niessen,  von,  pat 158,  167 

Nieuhoff 543,  696 

Niles,    G.    M.,    q 175 

Nonnenbruch,     q 185 

Nonnenbruch,  q 185 

Norrtlinger,    Henry 482 

Nordlinger  &  Co.,  Henry 482 

Norrls    G.    W 532,   533 

North,    Roger,    q 72,  570 

Norton,  Edward 471 

Norton,  Weyl  &  Beven 482 

Norton  &  Holyoke 434 

Nossach    &    Co 340 

Notes   and  Queries    per,  q.  .  .  .        1 

Nurseries   .' 200,  205 

Nutmeg  in  c 69(5 

Nutrio    Mfg.    Co 501 

Nutt,   Jr.,   F.   T 535 

Oaxaca     c 345,  358 

Oberholtzer,    Ellis   Paxson.   q.  .    125 

O'Brien      579 

O'Brien,  E.  H 455,   488 

O'Brien,   Jonas   P 482 

O'Brien.  Joseph  A 482,  491 

Oceana,'  Harrington 60' 

O'Donohue,  Charles  A 123 

O'Donohue,    John 480,  498 

O'Donohue,  John  B 123,  498 

O'Donohue,  Joseph  J 480 

O'Donohue,  Peter 480,   498 

O'Donohue  &  Co.,   J.  B 485 

O'Donohue  &  Sons,   John 480 

O'Donohue   &    Sons,    Joseph    .1. 

477.  480 

O'Donohue  &   Stewart 498 

O'Donohue  Coffee  Co 498 

O'Donohue's  Sons    John... 338, 

485,  498 
Oelschlager    (see  Olearius) 
Of  the  Excellent  Qualities,  etc., 

Rumford,  q 697,   698 

Ogden  &  Co.,  George 501 

Ogilby    571 

Ohio  Coffee  &  Spice  Co 508 

Oils.    Coffee 164,  711,   712 

O'Krassa,    R.    F.    E.,    pat..  247,   248 

Olavarria,    J.    D 471 

Old  Dutch  Mills 482 

Old  Ground  Coffee  W^orks 492 

Old  Judge  (brand) 441 

Old   Homestead    (brand) ......    441 

Old  Master   (brand) 441 

Old  Reserve   (brand) 441 

Oldys.  W411iam,  q 53 

Olearius   Adam,  q.  .  . .  ■■  .22,  45,  543 
Olendorf,   Case  &  Gillespie 478 


Olivier.    Abbe    548 

Omar,  Sheik 13,   14,  655 

Opera  :     Le  Gaf6  du  Roi,  Meil- 

J)at  and  Deffes 594 

Opposition 
— Commercial 

—  — England    64,  74 

— Medical 

Cairo 19 

—  • — Germany 46 

Marseilles 32,  33 

Mecca   17 

— Political 

Constantinople    293 

England  (c.  houses  I  .  .  .72,  293 

iProclamation,     Charles 

II 73 

Germany 46,  47 

Ix>iidon     293 

— Religious 

Cairo    19 

Constantinople 20,  21 

—  — Mecca    17,  18 

—  — Venice    29 

—  (/See  also  Controversies  :  Cof- 

fee houses) 

Options   329 

Orange  juice,  peel,  in  c 106 

Ordinaries   (see  Taverns) 

O'Reilly,    Count,     q 222 

Orf/anon  salutis    (1657),    Rum- 

sey's,    q 56,  58 

Oriental  Trip,  Mandelsloh.  q.  .  .  45 
Origin   of   c..5,   11.   13-16.  541-542 

Orizaba    c 345,  3.58 

Orleans,  Regent  of 96,  98 

Osborn,    Lewis   A....  434,   469, 

496.  522 
Osborn's    Celebrated    Prepared 

Java  (brand)    ...434,  469. 

496,  522 

Oseretzkowsky,    q 186 

O'Shaughnessv,   John    W 480 

O'Shaughnessy  &  Co.,  John  W.  480 

O'Shaughnessy  &   Sorley 480 

Ostrander,  Loomis  &  Co 508 

O'Snllivan,  Eugene 479 

O'Sullivan,     .Tames .  479 

O'Sullivan  &  Co.,  Eugene 479 

Otis,  James 110,  HI 

Otis,   McAllister  &  Co 488 

Otter     V 127 

Otto,  Carl  Alexander,  pat.  .640,  641 

Outlandish    drink 59 

Orer  the  Blaek  Coffee,  Gray.  g.  713 

Overton.    John    B 479 

Ovington,    q 2 

Oxford    Coffee   Club 41 

Oxford,  Lord 584 

Pacific  Mail  Co 489,  490 

Package  coffees 

— Advantages,   disadvantages 

.     408,  409 

— Deterioration    168 

—Early    (U.   S.) 469,  470,   522 

— First  crude    (1791) 49i,  492 

— Prance     680 

— Great    Britain 673 

I'ackaging    economies 410,  412 

Packaging  machinery .  .383,  402-404 

— United   States  patents 470 

Packard  &  James 494 

Padang.    v .    317 

Padang    Interior    c. 355,  371   , 

Page,    Judge,    q 570 

Page,  Thomas,  pat 637 

Painter,  John  (see  Paynter) 

Pal,    q 184  ' 

I'alaces,  C.  (see  Coffee  houses) 

Paladino,    q 159 

Palais   Royal    (Paris) 96,  102 

Palambang    c 355,  .372 

Palatability  aid  to  digestion.  .    180 

Palgrave,  q 658-661 

Palmer,     David 480 

Palmer,    Harvey    H 480 

Palmer  &  Co.,  H.  H 480 

Palmer.  Warner  &  Co 508 

Paludanus,  Bernard  Ten  Broeke, 

q 2,  35,     41 

Pamela,   Richardson 80 

Pamphlets   (see  Broadsides) 

Panamas    (c.)     348,361 

Pan-American    Congress    472 


INDEX 


787 


I'anlcs,    V.    S 52,8-530 

—  (Nee  also  Booms  and  panics) 

Paiitor,   William,   ijat 245 

rnra<lise  Lost,  Milton 584 

I'arche,  Cafe  en   (Guadeloupe)  .    25" 

I'archmeut 136,  138,   149,   150 

Pardon,  q 8 

Parent  &  Co.,  J.  A 508 

Parini.    Cuiseppe.    a 548,   540 

I'ark,   Fellowes  &  Co.  .  .  f 508 

Park    &    Tilford 494,  499 

Parker,    Charles,    inv 469,  625 

Parker.   Edmund,   pat 625,  636 

Parker,  Gilman  L 501 

Parker.    .Tohn,    pat 634 

Parker    &   Dixon 503 

Parker  &  Harrison    503,   635 

Parker    Co.,    Charles    625 

Park<"s.    If 704 

Parkinson,    John    534;    q.     41 

Parlin.  Charles  Coolidge 441 

Parmentier 8 

Parr 557 

Parrott  &  Co 487.  488 

Parry    (Welsh  harper)    85.  584 

Parry    543  ;   q.      36 

Parson     557 

Pascal,    f7/fc...33,  92,  94.  554, 

619,  670;  q.  432 

Paschius,   George,   q 13 

Patents,  U.  S 654 

Patrick     (lexicographer) 576 

Patterson,     Robert     W.,    q....    106 

Pavoni,  Desiderio,  pat 649 

Pawinski,    q. 185 

I'ayen.     q 694 

Paynter.  Jonathan 53,     54 

I'eabody,  B.  F 535 

Peaberry    136,  249 

— Botanical     description 149 

Peaberries,  1st  and  2d  (grades)    258 

Pears  in   c.    (Russia) 686 

Pearson.    George 507 

Pearson,    Peter,    pat 638.640 

Pechey     543 

Peck,  Edwin  H 477 

Peck,  Walter  J 477 

Peck,  E.  H.  &  W.  J 477,  484 

Peck  &  Co..  Edwin  H 477,  479 

Peck  &  Kellum.  Benj 508 

Peck.    Stowe  &   Wilcox   Co 644 

Pcdlinir 

Constantinople 21 

—  Florence    670 

—  Italy    27,   29,  670 

^Padua    29 

— Paris    92,  93,  94,     96 

— Vienna     51 

Pedrocchi.    Antonio,    chk.  .  .29,  599 
I'eeling  {see  Hulling) 
Pellictilaria  tokeroga    (see  Dis- 
eases) 

Pemberton.    Join     128,  129 

Penn,  .Tohn 127,  129 

Penn,  Letitia    128 

Penn.    William.  .105,   115,  125, 

126,  467 
rennsylvania    Gazette,    neirsp. 

q 126,  127 

Pennsylvania    Journal,    nevsp. 

127,  128 

Penny-cJiange  plan 427 

Penny  Mai/azinr.  per.,  q 704 

Penny    universities 73 

I'eonage   [see  I>abor) 

Pepion,  John 508 

Pepys,  Samuel,  q 59.  554, 

561,  574,   582 

Percolator,    The   per.,    q 521 

Percolators 

— Acker's    Mo-Kof-Fee 645 

testing-ta1)le 649 

— ' — two    cylinder    (1905)....    645 
— .\ndrews"s   pumping    (1841).    700 

— Bohemian    654 

— Bouillon  Muller's  steam 708 

— Bowman's  valve-type   (1876)    637 
— Bruning's      vacuum      jacket 

(1920)     653 

— Cafetifere  Sen^   (1815) 699 

— Carlsbad    654 

— Chamberlain's  automatic.  .  .  .    652 

— De  Belloy's   (1800) 621, 

622,  697,   708 
— De   Santais'    hydrostatic    .  .  .    029 


Percolators   (eont'il) 

— Durant's  pumping    025.  699 

— ^First  French  patent    (1806),  699 

—Gait    (1914) 652,  701 

^Gandais'  pumping    625,  699 

— German   (plug  in  spout) ....    708 

— Glass  "balloons" 627 

— Hadrofs   "filter"    621,  699 

— Half-minute    (1881) 701 

— Hutchinson's    710 

— Jones's  pumping 704 

— ^^Kellum    (1906) 649 

— Kin-Hee     (1900) 701 

—Laurens'   pumping    623.  699 

— Laurent's  steam  "whistling,"  708 

— Malen's  '. 708 

— Marion  Harland 645,  696 

— Mo-Kof-Fee    (Acker's) 645 

— Morize's  reversible  .  .  .  .623,  699 
— J*BSon's  tluid-joint  (1865)..  637 
— Nelson's  patents  (1912-13)  .  .    649 

— Phylax    (1914) 652,701,702 

— Potsdam    710 

— Preterre's  vacuum  (1849) .  . .    634 

— Pumping    discussed 714,   715 

. (first.    1819)     623 

— Rabauts  reversed  (1822) 699 

— Raparlier's  glass  "filter"...  708 
— Reversible  double  drip  ....  (523 
— Rumford's     (1806-12) .  .  .621, 

622,  623.  697,  698 

— Rumford    type 705 

— Russian    egg-shaped 708 

— Savage's  patent    (1906)     ...    649 

— Smart's  patent    (1919) 653 

—Star  (1886) 645 

— Sternau's  patent    (1904)    ...    649 

— T'niversal    (1901) 647 

— Vanderweyde's  patent  (1866)  637 
— Vard.v's  vacuum  urn .  .  .  627.  699 
— Vassieux'  glass  (1842).. 627,  700 

— Vienna    638,  639 

— Viennese    type 708 

— Warner's   patent    (1906) 649 

Percolation 

— Defined 621,  698 

— Discussed    (Trigg) 720,  721 

— N.  C.  R.  .\.  recommendations.   718 

Percy,    Reuben,    pseud 585 

Percy.    Sholto.   pseud 585 

Perez  &  Sons.  Juan  Pablo 340 

Perfect  cup  of  c 721-723 

Perfect   Vacuum  Canning  Co..    471 

Perfumed   c 59,  695 

Pergamino,    Cafe   en    (grade)  .  .    261 

Perieri,  C 146 

Persecution    (se^e   Opposition) 
Persian  letters,  Montesquieu,  q.  109 

Perus  (c.)    350,  367 

Pests    (see  Diseases) 

Peters,    J.,    q 467 

Petit,  q 12 

Petring.   G.   H 510 

Pett.v.  Sir  William 60 

Pharmaceutical  Journal,  per,  q.   156 
Phurmaeeutiee  RationaUs,  Wil- 
lis,  q 58 

Pharmacological-chemical  brew- 
ing   device 699 

Pharmacology.  Cushing,  q 179 

Pharmacology  of  c 174-188 

Phelps.   Jr..   Edward   A 495,  499 

Philadelphia  Commission  of  In- 
spection         467 

Pbilidor    96,     98 

Philipp.    .Tohn 591 

Philippines     (c.)      355.  375 

PhiliDs.  Ambrose.  .80.  576.  577,   5T8 

Phillipi.  Peter 591 

Phillips.  Sir  Richard 578,  .585 

Phillips  &  Co.,  M 488 

Philology  (see  Etymology) 

Phipps.    Sir    William Ill 

Phipps  &  Co..  J.  L.  .  .476.  482. 

484.  486 

Phoenix.  .To'in 482 

Phoenix  &  Co..  J.  W 482 

Phoenix  FOlectrical  Heating  Co.  647 

Phvfe.  James  W 480 

Phvfe  &  Co.,  Jas.  W 480 

Phonetic   difficulties 1 

Physimie    f^acrfe.    on    Histoire 
Xaturelle     de     la     liihle, 

Scheuzer.     q 13,     16 

Piccander,    q 595 


Picking   c 

— Coloml)ia 

Pickslay,    Joseph    D 477, 

Pictures 

— Afternoon  in  the  court  gar- 
dens,   Munich,    Walle's.  .  . 

— Afternoon  at  the  cofCee  table, 
Meith's    

— Button's  coffee  liouse,  Shep- 
herd's,   ill 

— Cafe  en  Asie  Mineure.  De 
Ternamine's   

■ — Cafe  sur  un  route  de  Syrie. 
Marilhat's  .  .  .  .  ,^. 

— Cafe  Turc.  Descamp's 

— Coffee  comes  to  the  aid  of 
the  Muse,   Ruffle's,  ill 

— Coffee  house  at  Cairo.  Ge- 
rome's,    ill 591. 

— Decorative  panel  for  Paris 
House,    MazeroUes' 

— Dutch  coffee  house  of  1650. 
Van    Ostade's,   ill 

— I<Mrst  coffee  house  in  Vienna. 
Schams',  ill 

— Four  times  of  the  day.  Ho- 
garth's, ill 

— French  coffee  house,  Row- 
landson's    

— Goldoni  in  a  Venetian  cafe, 
Ijonghi's,     ill 

• — Kaffeebesuch.    Phillipi's,    ill. 

— ^Lion's  head  at  Button's, 
Shepherd's,    ill 

— Mad  dog  in  a  coffee  house, 
Rowlandson's.    ill 

— Manager  Classen  and  his 
family,    Mllde's 

- — Mme.  de  Pompadour.  Van 
I^oo's,    ill 

— Mme.  Du  Barry  at  Versailles. 
Decreuse's,  ill 589, 

— Napoleon  and  the  cur^,  Char- 
let's,    ill 

— Old  woman  with  coffee  cup, 
Philipp's     

— Oriental  coffee  house,  Meyer- 
helm's    

— ^Parisian  boulevard  cafe,  Men- 
zel's 

^Pastor  Rautenberg  and  his 
Family.   Milde's 

— P(>tit  dejeuner,  Boucher's, 
ill 

— Rake's  progress,  Hogarth's. 
ill 

■ — Slaughter's  coffee  house, 
STiepherd's,  ill 

— S'weets  shop  of  Josty  in  Ber- 
lin.   Schmidt's 

— Tom's  coffee  house,  Shep- 
herd's, ill 

- — Tontine  coffee  house.  Guy's.  . 

— -Washington's  official  welcome 
to  New  York,  Gruppe's.  ill. 

Pictures,  C.  In 587- 

Pieree,  Jr.,  O.  W 

Pierce,  Sr.,  Oliver  Webster .... 

Pierce  &  Co..  O.  W 

Piers,  steel-roofed    (N.  O.).... 

Pilcher,  q 

Pinzou   &   Co 

Pioneer     Mills 

Pique,    R.,    q 

Piron      

Pitt,     William 

Pitt  &  Sons.  C.  F 

Place,   E.   B 

Place.   J.    K 

I'laces.  names  of  (see  Note,  p. 
769) 

I'lnntation    machinery 245- 

— Brazil    

— Salvador   

Plantation  machines 

— (itnirdlola  drier 

— Planet    Junior 

Plantation    prei)a ration.  ...... 

— .\rabia 

I'lantation    processes 245- 

— .V)),vssinia    •• 

— Angola    I  ....  . 

-Arabia    245,  264,  266. 

— iirazil    258- 

— Colombia 


250 
260 
533 


591 

591 

593 

591 

591 
591 

591 

656 

591 

587 

590 

587 

593 


588 
591 


591 
593 
591 
388 
590 
593 
591 
591 
591 
591 
588 
587 
593 
591 


593 
593 


593 
593 
509 
509 
509 
325 
184 
338 
508 
1.-16 
94 
580 
485 
482 
482 


■248 
20T 
217 

255 
•207 
201 
197 
■271 
26S 
26.S 
26S 
261 
260 


788 


ALL     ABOUT     COFFEE 


riantation  processfs  (cont'd) 

— Guatemala    263 

— Haiti    264 

— Java   268,  269,  271 

— Mexico 263 

— Netherlands   E.    Indies.  .268, 

269,  271 

— Nicaragua     264 

— Porto    Rico     264 

—Salvador 263 

^Sumatra     268,  269 

— Venezuela    261,  263 

Plantations 

— Abyssinia,  yield  per  acre.  .  .  .    228 

— -Vngola 

Cazengo   230 

— Australia,  yield  per  acre.  .  .  .  239 
— Brazil    (fazendas) 

Araqua     208 

Azevado,  L.  de  0 208 

—  - — Cafeeria   Sao   I'aulo 208 

Capital  invested 207 

do  Val,  F.  S 208 

Dumont,  ill 205,  208,  258 

Ellis,   Alfredo. 208 

Irmaos,    Alves    208 

Oliveira    208 

Principal    208 

Ribeirao  Preto,  ill 208 

Sao   Martinho    208 

Sao  Paulo  Coffee  Co 208 

Schmidt    208,  258 

— Ceylon,  first  British  (1825)  .  237 
— ^Colombia    211,  212 

—  - — Namay    212 

— Cuba,    number 282 

— Guadeloupe,  yield  per  acre..    233 

— Hawaii,  yield  per  acre 241 

— India 

Cannon's    Baloor 227 

Iloskahn    227 

— •  — iMylemoney    227 

— -  — Santaverre     227 

— •  — Sumplgay    Kahn    227 

Yield  per  acre 227 

— Java 

—  — Jakatra    44 

Kedawoeng  estate    6 

Typical,    A 269,  271 

■ — Mexico 

Orduna     220 

— Porto   Rico 

Capital  invested 223 

Yield  per  acre 223,  225 

—Salvador,  first   (1876) 217 

— Sumatra 

— • — Gadoeng  Batoe,  ill 217 

— Venezuela    (haciendas) 

—  • — Altamira,  ill 212 

Carmen,   ill 213 

■ Yield  per  acre    213 

Planting     (see    also     Propaga- 
tion)     200 

Plants  of  Egypt,  Alpini, 26 

Plants,   Roasting,  ill 379, 

381,    383,    385 

Platow.    Moritz,   pat 627,  699 

Piatt,  Jr.,  James,  q 1 

Plays 

— Autocrat  of  the  Coffee  Stall, 

The,  Chapin    556,  563 

— Beaux'  Stratagem,  Parquhar, 

1 587,  588 

— Bold  Stroke  for  a   Wife,  A, 

Centlivre,   q 554 

— Boston,  first  performed  in..  Ill 
— Bottega  di  Oaffd,  La,  Goldoni  555 
• — Cafe:     ou,     I'Ecossaise,     Le, 

Voltaire    556 

— Caffe,  Le,  Rosseau 554,  555 

— Caffd       di      Campagna,      Jl, 

Galuppi     556 

- — CaffettiSra  da  Spirito,  La, . .  556 
— Coffee  House,  The,  Rosseau.  88 
— Coffee  House:  or.  Pair  Pugi- 

tive,  The,  Voltaire,  q 556 

— Coffee-House  Politician,  The, 

Fielding,     q 554,  555 

— Devin  du  Village,  Rousseau . .   102 

— "English    comedy,"    q 61 

— Poire  St.  Oermain,  La,  Dan- 
court    (1696),    q 554 

— Hamilton,    Hamlin    and    Ar- 

llss,  q.,m 556 

— Persian  Wife,   The,  Goldoni, 

q 556 


I'lays   {cont'd) 

— Socrates,  Voltaire 556 

— Tartigo's  Wiles;  or,  the  Cof- 
fee House,  St.  Serf,  q.  .  .  .    554 
Pleasure   gardens    (see    Gardens) 

Pletzer,    q 185 

I'luehart,    inv 710 

Plunket    (highwayman)     578 

Pneumatic    Scale    Corp. ...471,  472 
Pneumatic   Scale  Corp.,   Ltd...    471 

Pocoke,   Edward,   q 12,     38 

Pods     329 

Poemata  DidasoaUa,  d'Olivet .  .    543 

Poems 

— "As   long   as  Mocha's   happy 

tree,"  Pope's,  </ 549 

— Ballad     of    the    South    Sea 

Scheme,  Swift,  q 571 

— Bouquet  Blanc  et  le  Bouquet 

Noir,  Le,  Mery    548 

— Cafe,    Le    (anon.)     548 

— Cafe,  Le,  Berchoux 548 

—Caffd,  II.   Barotti    548 

— Cap    and  Bells,   Keats,    q.  .  .    550 
■ — Carmen    Caffaeum,    Massieu, 

q 14,    544-547 

— at)/  Mouse  and  Country 
Mouse,  Prior  and  Mont- 
ague, q. 551 

— Coffee,  Saltus,   q 552 

— Coffee -a  Chanson  (music  by 

Colet),  ill 594,  595 

— Coffee  and  Crumpets,  "Little- 
do,"    q 550,  551 

— C.  Companion  (from  Ara- 
bic),  q 543 

— Coffee   Slips,    The,    Hood,    q.  550 

— Comus,  Milton,  q 549 

— de  Clieu,  Esmenard,   g ....  8,   548 
—Flog6  du  Caf6,  L'Estienne.  .    548 
— Frugality,  Pope  Leo  XIII,  q.  549 
— Gilbert  K.    Chesterton  Rises 
to    the    Toast    of    C,    Un- 

termeyer,  q 553 

— Oiorno,  II,  Parini,  q.   .  .  .548,  549 
— Grandeur   de   Dieu    dans    les 
Merveilles    de    la    Nature, 

La, 548 

— In      Praise      of      C.       (from 

Arabic),    q 542 

— Like    His    Mother     Used    to 

Make,  Riley,  q 552 

— Lines  (appended  to  broad- 
side)   Morton,  ill 69 

— Lines  on   C,    (from    French)  .    548 

— Long  Story,  A,  Grav,   q 576 

—Ode  to   Coffee,  Price,   q 553 

— Over  the  Black  Coffee,  Gray, 

q 552,  553 

— Pity     for     Poor     Africans, 

Cowper,   q 550 

■ — Plantes,  Les,  Castel,  q 348 

■ — Rape  of  the  Lock,   Pope.    q.  550 
— Recipe  for  Making   C,  Hod- 
hat,    q 663 

- — Royal  Drummer  (Paris)  <?...      96 
— Rules   and   orders   of   the   G. 

house     (broadside)     q.    60,     61 
— Song  from  The  Coffee  House, 

Fielding,  q.,  ill 555 

— Three  Reigns  of  Nature,  De- 

lille,    q 547 

— To     the     Mighty     Monarch, 

King  Kauhee,   Sephton,    q.  552 
— 3'o   the  Coffee  House,  Alten- 

burg,    q 549 

■ — To  Pasqua  Rosve,   q 54 

— (Unnamed),  Belighi    547 

—  (Unnamed),   Lloyd,   q 584 

— Verses,    Maumenet,    q 548 

— Wealthy      Shopkeeper :      or. 

Charitable  Christian,  q..  .  .    572 
— What    Every    Wife    Knoios, 

Rowland,     q 553-554 

Poetry,  C.  in    542-554 

Poffenberger,  Jr.,  A.  T.,  q 723 

Poison,  C.  a 58,  174 

Polislied    C,    rulings     (U.    S.) 

337,  338 
Polishing  machinery  247,  248.  257 
Political      liberty ;      England's 

won  in  coffee  houses    ....      74 

Polities,    C.    and    59,     62 

Polli,     Pietro     558 

I'ollitzer,  q 176 

Polstorff,    K 159,  160 


Ponfold.    Schuyler   &   Co 482 

Poore,   G.   W.,  q 705,  707 

Pop   open    389 

Pope,    Alexander    78,    80,    81,    575, 
576,  577,  578,  583 ;  q.  549,  550 

— Life  of,  Carruthers,   q 549 

Popularity  of  c.  in  U.  S.  ;  rea- 
sons for 106 

Portable    c.    making    devices 

—French    (1691-1754)     618 

— Turkish    615,    616,  617 

Portable  grinding  machines.  .  .    685 

Portal,    Antoine,    q 58 

Porthandling   charges 

— Brazil     306,  315 

— New    York    323 

Porthandling  methods,  U.   S...   513 

Porter,    David    (Capt.) 112 

Porter,   David   D.    (Admiral)  .  .    112 

Porter.    Horace,    Gen.    q 56.'{ 

Porter  &  Co..  W.  J 480 

Porto  Rico  Coffee  Co 488 

I'orto  Rico  Planters'  Protective 

Ass'n     444,  445 

Porto    Ricos    (c.)     350,362 

Posadas,  J.  Z 488 

Postman,   London,   per 560 

Postulart.    pat 640 

Pot  and  Kettle,  The,  Lally,   q    570 

Potter,    imt 167 

Potter,    Dr..    q 181 

Potter,  Ellis  M 498;  pat.  642 

Potter    &    Parlin    503 

Potter    Coffee     Co 498 

Potter-Parlin   Co.    ...471,   641,  642 

l^ottei'- Parlin   Spice   Mills 498 

Potter.    Sloan,    O'Donohue    Co.  498 

Pounding  c 697,  705 

Poursine   &   Co.,   P 486 

Poursini  &  Co.,  R 505 

Powdered    (see   Grinds) 

Power,   q 155 

Power-Chestnut  method  ....  172 
Prado,  Paulo  da  Silva  .  .  .  532,  534 
Praedium  Rusticunv,  Vaniere.  .    543 

Pratt,   A.    H 502 

Pratt,    David    S.,    pat 3.39 

Preanger   c 355,  373 

I>regnancy,  Effect  of  c.  on ... .  177 
I'remium     for     early     shipping 

(Santos)     314 

Premium    distribution,   retail.  .    429 

Premiums    412,  413 

— Arbuckle    522,  525 

Prendergast   Bros 482 

Prentiss  &  Page   637 

Prepared    Coffee    404 

Prescott,  Prof.  S.  C.  515,  714  ; 

q.   'ill 
Preterre,   Apoleoni  P.,  pat....    634 

Price,    William    A.,    q 553 

Prices 

— Advance  notice  of  change.  .  .    514 

— Beverage 

— ■  — Constantinople    665 

—  — London    675,  677 

-—(1662)     582 

—  —  —(1677)     73 

—Blends,  retail,  U.  S.    (1922) 

722,  723 
—Green 

American  colonies  ...467,  475 

Amsterdam  (1810-12)    ...   468 

England     (1719)     74 

New  York    (1670)    105 

—  —  — (1683)      125 

— (1898)     471 

—  —  — (1903)     472 

—  —  —(1919)     474 

—  — Netherlands    (early)    ....      44 

Netherlands  E.  Indies 312 

• — •  — United    States 

—  —  — Early     475 

—  —  —(1814)     468 

—  —  —(1880-93)     527,530 

.  —  (1911)     532 

.—(1913)     538 

—  —  —(1921)     299,330 

—  —  —Wartime    536-53S 

— Guaranteeing 514 

— Roasted 

New  York    (1791)    492 

— Roasting    (1885)     509 

Prideaux,    W.    F.,    q 1,       2 

Priest,    William    612 

Primera  (grdde)    261 


INDEX 


789 


Primero   (grade)    264 

Prims.   J.  C,  pat 473,  643 

Prior    89;    g.    551,  575 

Pritchard,    George    W 480 

Pritcliard  &   Sons,   Geo.   W 480 

Private  Estate  (brand)    496 

Private   estates 

—Java    214,  215 

— Netlicrlands    E.    Indies.. 283,  312 

Probst  &  Co.,  F 482 

Proceedinys,    Sorivtn    of    Anti- 
quaries   (1889),    q 602,  603 

Procope,     Francois,    chk 94 

I'roctor,  Cliarles  E 538 

I'roducing    countries,    leading.    191 
Production 

— Abvssinia    284 

—Africa,   Britisli  E 229,  285 

,    German    E.    (1913) 229 

—Angola  (1913)    229 

—Arabia     282 

— Arfrentina   27j 

— Australia    284 

—  Holivia    279 

— IJrazil     273,     275,  277 

—  —(1850)    205 

—  —(1887-1902)     528-O30 

—  —(1903,    1906)     472 

(1906-07)     o34 

—Santos  passes  Rio  (1900-01)    530 
—Cape   Verde    Islands    (1916)    229 

—Celebes 217,  283 

—Ceylon    236,    282,  283 

—Chile    279 

._Colombia     211,  278 

— Congo.   Belgian    22J 

—Costa   Rica    225,  280 

—Cuba    282 

— Dominican    Republic     281 

— I':cuador    278 

-Eritrea    (1918)     229 

—  Federated  .Malay   States    .  .  .    284 

— (Jold     Coast      28o 

—Guadeloupe    281,  282 

—Guam    ..    284 

—Guatemala     219,    225,280 

— Guiana,   British   and    French  2<9 

Dutch    236,  279 

—Haiti    220,  2S1 

—Hawaii     239,  284 

-Honduras     234,  280 

British    235,  280 

— India    282 

— .Jamaica    281 

-.Java   215,  283 

—Liberia     (1917)      229 

--Madagascar    (1918)     229 

■ — Martinique    282 

— ^Mauritius      285 

—Mexico    280,   281 

— Netherlands  E.  Indies 283 

— Nicaragua     280 

— Nigeria    28o 

— Nyasaland     285 

— Oaxaca    (Mex.)    220 

—Panama    235.  280 

—Paraguay     236,  279 

—Peru     278 

— Philippines   284 

— Porto    Rico    281 

— Reunion    (Bourbon)    285 

—Salvador    225,    279,  280 

— Sierra  Leone    285 

—Somali    Coast    (French) 285 

— Somaliland    (Fr.  and  It.) ...    229 

—  —(British)      285 

— St.  Thomas  and  Princes  I.'s  229 

—Sumatra    217 

—Uganda     229,   285 

— Uruguay    279 

— Venezuela     212 

— World     (1883-1921)      273 

—  —  (1901-02)     531 

(Statistical    Table)     274 

Production    and    Consumption 

273-285 
Prohibition,   U.   S. 
— Effect    on    consumption    288,  689 
Prolongation    of    Life,    Metch- 

nikoff,   q 178 

Propagation 

—Cuttings     138,  200 

—Grafting    200 

—Seeds    138,  200 

Arabia    231 

Proteins  in   c 693,  718,   719 


I'roteins  (cont'd) 

— Dearth  in  beverage   180 

Provang    56 

Pruning     133,     202,  203 

— Angola     230 

Publick    Adviser^    per,    q,    ill. 

56,  432,  581 
Public  Ledger,  London,  per. . .  327 
Publicity.  National  campaign .  513 
Publishers'  Information  Bureau  441 

Puerto  Cabello  c 348,  364 

Puhl,  John   302 

Puhl-Webb    Co 502 

Pulp,  uses   136,  156 

Pulping     250,   251 

Pulping    machinery    245,    246,    247, 
248,  252,   254 

Puna    c 356,  375 

Pupke,  John  F 482,  496 

Pupke  &  Reid.  .  .482,  496,  499,  635 

Pupke,    Reid   &    Phelps 496 

Purcell,  Alexander  H 477 

Purcell,    Joseph    477,    480,  535 

Purcell  &  Co.,  Alex.  II 477 

Purser     (artist)     668 

Purchas  his  pilgrimes,  q 36 

Purchas,  Samuel 36 

Purdy,   L.   J 479 

Pure     Food     and     Drugs     Act 

337,   338,  410,   472,  722 
Ptirin   Bodies    of   Food   Stuffs, 

Hall,    q 184 

Purity  Dried  Fruits  Cleansing 

Co 471 

Purpurescens,    C,    hyh 140 

Pyriform  c.-pot    604 

Pythagoras     18 


Qahvah    2 

Qahwah 1 

Quadri,     Giorgio 28 

Quakers    (imperfections) 329 

Quarry,  Col 126 

Queen  Anne 82 

Queen    Mary    601 

Queensberrv,  Duchess  of 572 

Quelle,  Ralph  J.,  pat 648 

Quick  roast 387,  388 

Quillou,    C 146 

— Java    216 

Quilloiiensls,    C 146 

Quin,   James 580,  583 

Quinby  &  Co.,  W.  S 501 

Quincy.     Dr 543 

Quotation  relationship   (table),  330 
Quotations 

— Dailv   how  determined 335 

—Foreign    336 

Raljaut,    L.    B.,    pat.. 623,  627,  699 

Racine    91,  565 

Radcliffe,     John 77,  572 

Rainfall   requirements    198 

Raleigh.   Sir  Walter 42 

Rambaldi,  Angelo 558  ;  q.  696 

Ramcnu's  Xephcir,  Diderot,  q.  .      96 

Ramos,    August© 531 

RamcfS,  Francisco  F 534 

Ramponaux,  Jean,  chk 94,     96 

Rand,  George 480 

Randall.   John 479 

Ranelagh   (see  Gardens) 

Ransom,  Amos,   pat 625 

Raparlier,   pat 637 

Rape  of  the  lock.  Pope    80 

Rapid-filtration  devices 

-de  Mattel's  patent   (1920)..   653 

—Express 651 

— Italiana    Sovereign,    L 651 

— J.    &    S.    (Still's) 674 

— Victoria  Arduino,  La,   (1909- 

20)     651 

Rapid-infusion  devices 

— Bezzara    system 649,  651 

— Ideale.  ill 651 

— Malthe.v-Zorn    centrif 653,  654 

Rapid-percolation  device 

— Ijovsel's    hydrostatic    708 

Rasch,    Anthony 612 

Rasis  ad  Almans    (see  Rhazes^ 
Rauv/olf.  Leonhard 43.  45, 

431,  541,  543  ;  q.  2,   12,     25 

Rav,  John 42,  543 

Ray  &  Co.,  Winthrop  G...478, 

479,  480 


Razi,  El  (see  Rhazes) 
Ready  and  easy  way  to  estab- 
lish    a     free     common- 
wealth, Milton 60 

Reamer,  Sr.,  Abraham 480 

Reamer,  Turner  &  Co 480 

Rebagging 

— New   York 322,  338 

—Santos    304,  306 

Rebellious  antidote  (broadside) 

q 58 

Recipes,   desserts,   etc 723,  724 

Reconditioning     322 

Recovery,  v 468 

Red  Can    (brand) 441 

Red  D  Line 482 

Red  E   (brand) 538 

Red  pottage 13 

Red    Ribbon    (brand) 441 

Reed,    Charles 127 

Reed,  Charles  B.,  q 557 

Reed,  Nathan,  pat 245,  469 

Reeve,    Daniel 482 

Reeve  &  Van  Riper 482 

Reeve,  Case  &  Banks 479 

Re-exports 

— lyondon    327 

—United  States  (1921) ..  .299, 

301,  302 
Refining  device 
— Johnston's  patent   (1913)...    652 

Reichert,    E.   T.,    q 183 

Reid,   TJiomas 469,    482, 

494,  496,  497,  522,  526 

Reid   &   Co.,   Thomas 499 

Reid,  Murdoch  &  Fischer.  .480,  502 

Reiger,     q 184,  185 

Reimers  &  Meyer 485 

Religious  associations 

—Christian    26 

-Mohammedan    ...  15    16,   17,     22 

Remi  c 351,  368 

Remington,  J.  R.,  pat 633 

Remington,  Mortimer 445 

Remmer,   Oscar 502 

Renan    102 

Renovating 158 

Renshaw.   William,  chk 130 

Rentschler,     q 161 

Repassing  machine 252 

Research,  Scientific 

— Brewing,     comparative     test 

714.  716 
— Dawson        and        Wetherill 

(1855) 711,  712 

— Grinds,    comparative   test.  .  .    716 

— ^University  of  Kansas 714 

— Mass.    liist.    of    Technology 

515,  716-718 

—Mellon   Institute 539 

— N.  C.  R.  A 513-515,  539, 

713-718 

— Prescott    515    714,   716-718 

— Robison 715 

—Trigg 539 

Restaurants 

— Ijondon 

A,  B,  C  (chain),  ill.  .G74,  677 

—  — Brit.  Tea  Table  Ass'n 675 

Buzard's  cake  house 677 

Cabin   67T 

—  — ^Carlton     678 

Corner  Houses    (chain)..   677 

Express   Dairy   Co 677 

Groom's,    ill 674 

Lipton's 677 

Lyons    (chain),  ill... 674, 

675,  677 
Peel's   674 

—  —Slater's    675,  677 

Temple  Bar.  ill 675 

Trust-houses,    Ltd 675 

Ye  Mecca  Co.,  iU 674 

— 'New  York 

Childs  (chain) 691 

-Dorlon's 69C> 

. Thompson  (chain) 691 

Restrepo,    Dr.,    q 181 

Retailing 415-429 

— ^Blending 722 

— Channels  of  distribution.  .  .  .   415 

Ifctaliation,  Goldsmith 573,  574 

Reuter-.Tones   Mfg.   Co 649 

Revere,   Paul... 110,   609,   611; 

biog.  612,  613 


790 


ALL    ABOUT    COFFEE 


Revett.   William,  q 2 

Revolution 

— American    110,    125,128 

--^French 100,  102,  293 

Revolution,    C.    and 18,    20,     31 

— (See    also    Democracy :    rolitica) 

Rewards 50,     51 

Reynolds,   J.   B 506 

Reynolds,  Sir  Joshua... 81,  88, 

574,  580,  585 
Remolds,  Hatcher  &  Pierce...   509 

Rhazes,   q 11,   12,  25,   481,   541 

Rheumatism,    remedy 182 

Rhodes.  Benjamin 477 

Rice.  W.  S .">02 

Richards.  Charles 508 

Richardson,    Charles.. 80,    570; 

q.   584 

Richardson    &   Lane 501 

Richelieu.    Dulte    of 96,     98 

Richheimer,  I.  D 538,  539; 

pat.   651,   652  ;   q.   715 

Richter.    q 159 

Ricker.  Harvey 701  ;  pat.  645 

Ridenour.  Baker  Gro.  Co 485 

Rieehelmann,   q 159 

Ries,    Maurice 338 

Riggs,   .1.   H 508 

Riley,  James  Whitcomb.  q 552 

Rinehart  &   Stevens 507 

Rios    (c.)    :'.41,   343.   366 

Ripley.    D.   C 497 

Risiey,    Christopher 479 

Rislev.  Leander  S 479 

Risiey  &  Co.,  C 479.  4S0,   528 

Ritteuhouse,   John,   pat 627 

Ritz    678 

Rivarol    98 

Rivers 186;  g.   187 

Roach,   Tiger 579 

Roasters 

— Baltimore     507,   508 

—Boston 501 

— Chicago    501,   502 

— Cleveland    507 

— Detroit    508 

— 'Douisville    505 

— Milwaukee    506 

—New   Orleans 505 

^New  York  (1790-94) 475,  476 

—  — (1S05-.1922)      492-501 

- — Philadelphia     501 

— Pittsburgh     507 

— San    Francisco 505,   506 

—St    Louis V^02.   503 

—Toledo    506.  507 

— Other  cities 508,  509 

— United    States 492-509 

—  (See  also  Dealers,   wholesale) 
Roasting 

— Arabia 658-662 

— Australia    692 

— Great    Britain 673 

(18th   century) 695,  696 

19th    century) . .704.    705,    707 

— France    679 

- — Greece   685 

— Netherlands    686 

— Now  Zealand 692 

—United   States 709,    710,  712 

Roasting,    Chemistrv   of...  165- 

167,  388,  389 

Roasting   economies    513 

Roasting,  Household 

— ^Decline    of 635 

— Devices 

^Braziers     61 5 

Clay  dishes 615 

—  — Corn-poppers 635 

Cylinder 619 

Earthenware    615,  620 

Extemi>orized    ..617,   635, 

695,  696 

Glass  flasks    (Italy) 623 

Iron    dippers,    spiders....    616 

Metal  plates 615 

Stirrers    (spatulae) ($16 

Roasting  machinery.  .  .381-386, 

61.5-654 

—Coal    891,  392 

— Development    of 629 

— Direct-flame    386 

— French     678-680 

—  — ^Glass    cylinder 646 

^-Gas     380,    640-643 


Roasting  machinery    (cntit'd) 

— German  (1860-1897) 688,  639 

— -Imports  from   Gt.    Brit 625 

— Indirect-flame    642,  64(! 

— Inner-heated    386 

—Retail     420,  421 

— Sample    (France) 679 

— Wholesale, 

JBurus,    J. ;    ImDrovements 

684-637,  644 

—  — 'French  patents 639,  640 

— ■ — German  patent,  first 683 

• — - — Fullard's  heated  fresh  air  643 

— ■ — Steam-power    631,  635 

Roasting  machines 

— Household 

—  ^Bernard's  c.vlinder   (1841)  629 

-Bull's    coal    (1704) 620 

Elford's  white  iron  (1660) 

616,  617 
'Gee's    (1852) 634 

—  —Home   (1908) 646 

Hvde's  combined  (1862)  .  .  684 

Ittel's  glass  sphere  (1874)  640 

Kuhlemann's    electric    .  .  .  648 

Lacoux's   combined.  .  .625,  627 

Lauznune's  cylinder 

(1829)     625 

Lauzaune's  "rocking" 

(1873)     640 

Lawton's    perforated,    gas 

a912)     641 

Jjawton's  quick  gas  (1912) 

651,  652 
'Marchand's     fan     roaster 

(1866)     640 

—  — Martin's    cylinder    (1860)  640 
Preterre's  weighing 

(1849)     634 

Ransom's   (1833) 625 

Remington's       wheel       of 

buckets    633 

^Savo   (1917) 646 

Schick's  method   (1812)..  623 

^Williamson's   (1820) 624 

— ■ — W^ood's   spherical    (1849) 

634,  710 
—Retail 

—  — Lambert's  50-pound 646 

—  ^Lester's  electric    (1903)..  647 

Moegling's  electric   (1906)  647 

Sales   promotion   value.  .  .  428 

Seymour's  electric   (1921)  648 

St.    Louis,   Jr 649 

—  — Talbutt's  electric   (1911).  647 

—  — Uno      electric      (1909-20) 

647,  648 

Warner's  mill   (1905) 648 

—Sample  roasting 

Burns 642 

Improved    (1883) 645 

^Swing-gate    (1900) 647 

—  —  — Tilting    (1909) 651 

— Wholesale 646 

Arbuckle's  first  (1903)...  647 

Aromatic  (electric  power)  646 

Burns    Balanced-front 

(1908)     651 

--Coal    391,  392 

Direct-flame    (1900)...  642 

First  patent  (1864) ...  684 

Special  gas  (1897) 642 

^Carter  Pull  out   (1846) 

469,  629 

Combination    (quick  gas).  641 

Comet     638 

(irawlev    patents 642 

Dakin   (1848)    688 

Delphine    tubular     (1870)  639 

Economic 646 

Evans    cylindrical    (1824)  624 

Faulder   640,  673 

First  direct  flame   (U.  S.)  471 

Fleury  gas   (1880-81)   638,  640 

Eraser  gas   (1897-98) 642 

Giacomini  process    (1903)  648 

Ilamsley  direct-flame 

(1898)     642 

Ilenneman  direct-flame 

(1888)    640,  642,  643 

—  — Holmes  patent    (1906)...  643 

Ilungerford  patent  (1882)  644 

Hyde  combined  (1802)  .  .  .  634 

Ideal-Rapid    639 

Johnston  patent  (1905)..  646 


Roasting   machines    (cont'd) 

Jubilee    (H»1.5-19 (148.   6")-' 

Jumbo    522,    524,  647 

Knickerbocker    688,  644 

Knowlys's  cylinder  (1848)    633 

'Kuchelmeister    drum 647 

Lambert  indirect-flame 

(1901)    (542.   646 

Self-contained    646 

Lambert  (l^ench) 646 

Magic   646 

Marchand  ball    (1877)...    640 

Meteor    638 

Moderne     646 

— • — Monitor  direct-flame 042 

— •  ■ — Morewood      sliding-burner 

(1901)    642,  673 

—  — Muhlberg  patents  (1878).    638 

—  — Otto  spiral-tubular  (1889) 

640,  641 

-Page  Pull-out  (1868)  637,  688 

Pearson    p:jteuts 638.   04(» 

Perfekt     639 

—  — Postulart  gas    (1888) 640 

Potter  direct-flame  (1899)    642 

Probat    639 

—  — Rekord  (quick  gas) 641 

Resson    646 

Royal     (1905) 643,646 

-= Schmidt  patent  (1906)  .  . .    649 

Schnuck  gas    (1919) 653 

Shortt  electric    (1919)...    647 

Sirocco    641,  646 

Thurmer  quick-gas    (1891- 

93)    640,  641 

Tornado  quick-gas 641 

Tubermann    (1877)  ......    638 

Tupholme  direct-flame 

(1887)    640,  641 

—  — Typhoon     638 

Uno     673 

Van   den    Brouck   cylinder  646 

von   Gumborn   g)is    (1892t    639 

Van  Gulpen   (1870) 638 

Roasting  methods 

— Automatic    control 166 

— Better  C. -making  com.  .  .713,  714 
— Burns,  Jabez  ;  views  on ...  .  636 
— Butter;   use  in   Gt.   Brit....    673 

—Early    694,  695 

— ^Electric     386 

— Goldsworthy's  process 702 

^Lard  ;  use  in  Gt.  Brit 673  ' 

— N.itural  gas 642 

— Quick  vs.  slow 040,   641 

Roasting  plants 

— France     679 

— United  States 

Arbuckle .  .524,  525 

First  and  second 468 

— New  Yorli 

—  — Number  (1914-1919)  515,  516 
Early  (1790-95) 491 

—  — Number  (1855-56) 496 

Roasting  trade 

— France    678,  679 

— Italy    686 

—United    States.  .879-400,    491-515 

Beginning    of 522 

Methods  and  prices  (1845)    685 

Retail 418 

St.  Ivouis   (1857) 629-633 

Roasts 356 

— ^Brazilian  preferences 691 

— British  preferences 673 

— French  preferences 680 

— Greek  preferences 685 

— Italian  preferences 686 

Roberts,  Mrs.,  chk 127 

Rohertson,   Joseph  C 585 

Robespierre    94    96,  102 

Robinson   Crusoe,  Defoe    .....      80 

Robinson,    Dr.,    q 176 

Robinson,    Edward    Forbes 

557 ;    11,   54,   56    59, 

62,  72,  73,   107 

Robinson,    Tancred 584 

Robinson  &  Co.,  N 501 

Robison,    Floyd    W.,    pa*..  158, 

474  ;  q.  715 
Robusta,  C. 

— ^Botanical  description 144 

— Ceylon     . 236 

— Cup-tests     145 

— Guadeloupe 234 


INDEX 


791 


Robuttta,  C.  (cont'd) 

— India   

— Indo-China,    French 

— Java    215, 

— Netlierlands  E.   Indies 

— New   Caledonia 

— New     Yorlt,     Exchange     ex- 
cludes   '^20, 

■ — Sumatra    

■ — ^Trees  :    heiarht    (Java) 

:  yield  (Java) 

— T'fianda    

— ^United  States,  imports 

— Varieties 

]{f)bii8ta-achtif/en  ( robusta-like) 

Itobusta  hybrid    (Ceylon)    .  .  .  . 

Robusta    X    Maragooipe.    hi/b.. 

Rochester,   Earl   of 

Uodney.  William 

Koe.    Sir    T..    q 

Koettier.    John G2, 

Uoffers,   clik 

Rolamb.    Nicholas,    q 

Uollins.  Thornton 

Roiuancc   (if    Trade,   Bourne,    q. 

Romero,    q 

Ronan.  " Jimes 

RoodbcssUjc,  C.    (Java)    

Koome.  I^uke,  chk 

Roome.  William  P 478, 

Roome  &  Co.,   William  P.  .478, 
Rooney,  John 

Roosevelt  family 

Ropes,  Joseph    

Ropes,    Ripley 

Koque.   P.   de  la 31, 

Rosary,  The.  Barclay,   q 

Rosebault,    Charles    J.,    q 

Rosel)urg,    William    521. 

Rost'e,   Pasqiia 42,    43,   53, 

54,  58    69,  462.  543  :  q. 

— Handbill.   Ul 459, 

Roselius,    Ludwig,    pat ...  .1Q2, 

Ross.  C.    J.,   q 

Rossbach   &   Bro 

Rosseau.  Jean  Baptiste  .  .  .  .88, 

Rosseter,  J.  H 

Rossi,     q 

Rossijrnon,    q 

Rossini    

Rota   {see  Clubs,  C. -house) 

Rath    

Roth  Grocery  Co.,  .Vdam 

Rothschildr,     

Roubiliac 84,  583, 

Rouch.  pat 

Roure,   pat 

Rousseau.  Baron  Antoine.  q... 

Rousseau.  J.   J 94.  98.   102. 

Ronth.    Harold,   q 

Rowland,     pat 

Rowland.    Helen,    q 553, 

Rowland  &  Humphreys 

Rowland.  Humphreys  &  I'o.  .  .  . 
Rowhind.  Terry  &  Humphreys. 

R(*wlandson.    Thomas 75, 

Rowley.    Levi 494, 

Roxbury    "hourlles" 

Royal   Excliange  Lloyd's 

Royal  Exchanjie   (Ijondon)  .... 
Roval    Exchange     (New    York. 

1752)     

Royal    Scarlet    (brand) 

Roval    Society 

Roval.  Thomas  M 

Rubia  Mills 434, 

Ruffio.    P.    A 

Rnffner,  W.   R 

Rule  &  Bro..  Robert  J 

RulifT.  Clark  &  Co 

Rulings   (U.   S.) 337. 

Rumford     Count,    inv 557. 

621,  622,  699,  704:  biosi. 
697  :  q. 

Rumsey.  Walter,  q 

Runkle  &  Co..  J.  C 479. 

Rupert.    Prince 

Russ<'ll.  Edward  C 

Russell.   Frank  C 478. 

Russell.    Robert 

Rnssell,   Robert   S 

Russell  &  Co 482.  494. 

Russell   &    Fessenden 

Ruth    

Ruth    Svlvester 


Rutter  &  Co..  Thomas 480 

227      Ryan  &  Co.,   James 506 

237 

216  Saccharin   in   c 165 

283     Saffron  in  c 660 

243      Saint-Foix   566,  567 

Saint-Victor    102 

338      Salaman.   Malcolm  C.   q 589 

217  Salant,    q 184 

215  Salazar,  Alfredo  M.,  pat 653 

216  Salazar  c 349,  365 

353      Sales    by    candle 571 

341     Salesmanship   407 

146  Sales  promotion 

216     — Retail    423-426 

236     — Wholesale    412,  413 

146     Saltero,  Don 559,  560 

575     Saltus,  Francis  S 541  ;  q.  552 

126     Salvadors    (c.)    347.300 

2  Salvandy,  Narcisse-Aehille,  q..  .    100 

582     Samoa     c 355,375 

121      Sample   distribution 412 

23      Samplers    (N.    Y.    Exch.)     333 

485  Sampling 

54  —Brazil  303,  304,  306 

198  — New  York 319,  321 

508  — San  Francisco 327 

216  — Santos.  .  .303,  304,  306,  312,  316 

118   Sanani  c 351,  368 

498  Sanborn,  Chas.  E 501 

498  Sanborn,  .Tames  S 501 

475  Sandys,  Sir  George 12,  38, 

690  543;    q.     36 

468     Sandys's   Travels,  q 36 

482     Sand,  George 565 

543     Sanger,    Abraham 480 

563  Sanger,   Beers  &  Fisher.  .  .480,  497 

671      Sanger  &  Wells 480 

522      Santa  Ana  c 350,  365 

Santa  Cecilia,  v 316 

432  Santo  Domingos    (c.)    .  .  .  ^350,  36^ 

461     Santos  c 341,  342,  366 

473      Saportas  Bros 482 

230  Saturday  Evening  Post,  per.,  q.  Ill 

485     Sauvage    c,    ill 142 

554      Savage    578 

490      Savage,  George  E.,  pat 649 

186     Savage.    Richard 570 

707     Saxe.    Marshall 98 

103     Saxon  Coffee  Co 508 

Sa.vre,  q 163,  164    166,   183 

510      Schadheli.    Sheik '..13,     14 

485     Schaefer,  Henry 478,   535 

531      S'chaefer,    J.    II..   q 428 

584      Schams,    Franz .590 

621      Schanne.  Alexandre,  q 102 

640      Scharf,    q 126 

650      Schemsi.    chk 19.    668 

566      Scheuzer,   J.    J.,   q 13,  16 

561      Schick.  Anthony.   .'K/f 023 

625     Schierenberg,  A.  . 535 

554      Schilling,  A 506 

482  Schilling  &  Co..   A... 505.   506,   507 

480      Schipano,   Mario 27 

482     Schittenhelm.  q 182 

593     Schmelzel,  .Tames  H 495 

499  Schmidt.     C 591 

110     Schmidt,  Francisco 208 

85  Schmidt.   Ludwig,   pat 649 

86  Schmidt   &   Ziegler 486 

Schmiedeberg    Dr.  O.'^wald.   q..    185 

120      Schnuck.   Edward  F.,   pat 653 

441      Schnull    &    Krag 508 

41  Schoepffwasser,   Ix)rentz,   pseud     45 

471  ??chool  of  Oratory.  Macklin's.  .    580 

496      Schools,  information  for 513 

591      Schools    of    the    wise 19 

538      Sc-hotten.    Christian 50B 

501      Schotten,    Hubertus 503 

505     Schotten.  Jerome  J 503 

338  Schotten.   Julius  J... 503,   510,  631 
Schotten.    William.  .  .503.    629, 

631.     633 
698      Schotten  &  Bro.,  William 503 

56  Schotten  &  Co..  Wm..  .485.  502,   503 

482      Schotten   Coffee  Co..   Wm 503 

69      Schramm.    Arnold 477 

49.5     Schramm.   Inc..   .Vrnold    477 

499      Schroefler.  Bruno -3-\  534 

482  Schn.eder  &  Co.,  J.  Henry. 532,  534 

499      Schuler.  John  G 508 

499      Schulte.   A.,  q 156 

501      Schultz  &  Ruckgaber 482 

13      Scbultze.  q 165 

507     Schnmaniana,   C 146 


Schumberg.  q 

Schurhoff,  q 

Schurtzkw  er     

Schwartz.    Joseph    M 

Schwartz    Bros 

Schweitzer  &  Co.,  M 

Scialdi     

Scolfleld,   Henry,  pat 

Scott,    Andrew,    q 

Scott,   Edwin 

Scott,  Sir  Walter.  9.  .573,  574, 

Scott,    William 

Scott   &    Dash 

Scott  &  Meiser 

Scott  &  Sons.  William 

Scott,  Dash  &  Co 

Scott,  Meiser  &  Co 

Scotfs  Sons  &  Co.,  William .  .  . 

S'cotty,  C.    (chef) 

Scriba.   Schroppel  &  Starmen.. 

Scribner's  Magazine,  q 

Scudder.   Gale  Gro.   Co 

Scull.    William    S 

Scull  &  Co..  W.  S 

Scull   Co..    William    S 

Sculpture,  C.   in 

Seal    (brand) 435.  441, 

Secchi    

Seelye,  Frank  R 511, 

Segundo    (grade)    261, 

Seidell,    q 

Seifert,   q 

Selby,  Thomas,   chk 

•Selden.   David,  pat 

Seligsberg,  Louis 

Selim  I 18,  19, 

Selling  chart 

Semarang    c 355, 

Sencial,  q 

Sen^,  pat 623.  625, 

Sense  of  Taste.  The.  Ilolling- 
worth  and  Poffenberger, 
Q 

Separating   machinery 

Sephton,  Geoffrey,  q 

Service,    C 

— Arabia 658-663, 

— Artistic  and  historic.  .  .  .599- 
614,  619,  620, 

^Britannia  ware,  etc 

Clay   bowls,   first 

English     c.-pots     (1714- 

70)    620, 

—  — Lantern   c.-pots 602, 

S&vres  c.-pots   

Sheffield-plate  c.-pots 

Silver  c.-pots  (18th  cent.) 

Sino-Lowestoft    c.-pot.  .  .  . 

— ^Ivondon  cafes  and  restau- 
rants    

— Oriental  c.-pots   •. 

— Netherlands    

— New    York    hotels 

— ^Paris    (Pascal's,    1672) 

—Turkish 602.  017.  621, 

Seren  Truths  to  Teach  the 
Young  in  Regard  to  Life 

and  fiex.  Abbey,  q 

S^vres  c.-pots 

Seymour,   Mark  T..  pat 

Shade,  C. -growing  under 

— .\  rabia 

— Guam     

— Guatemala    

— Hawaii    

— Reouirement«  

Shadli,  Shaomer  (sec  Schadell) 

Shaml  c ."iol, 

Shapleigh  Coffee  Co . 

.Vharkl  c 351, 

Shaw,   Daniel    A 

Shaw,   John    W 

Shaw.    Willi'im 

Shaw's    Ijouisinna    Coffee    and 

Spice  Mills 

Sheaff.    Henry 

Sheffield   plate   c.-i)ots    ■ 

Sheldon,  Henry 

Sheldon   &  Co  ,    He  >ry 478, 

Sheldon.  Banks  &  Co 

Shemsi.    chk.  ,  . ,  . , .19, 

Shenstone,    q 

Shephard.  Fleetwood,  q 

Shepherd,  T.  H 

Sheppard,  Alexander 


186 
185 
185 
521 
488 
488 

14 
247 

85 
499 
579 
479 
479 
479 
479 
479 
479 
479 
691 
475 
664 
485 
509 
508 
509 
599 
465 
558 
513 
264 
160 
185 
112 
625 
478 

49 
409 
373 
156 
699 


723 
383 
552 
31 
695 

621 
619 
616 

621 
619 
607 
607 
619 
607 

674 
619 
686 
691 
619 
695 


177 
607 
648 
133 
197 
242 
219 
241 
201 
2 
368 
501 
368 
480 
492 
612 

505 
475 
607 
479 
479 
479 
668 
584 
584 
593 
501 


792 


ALL     ABOUT     COFFEE 


.Sheppnrd  &   Sons,   Inc.,  Alex.  .  501 

Sherbet    562 

— r^Diulon  c.  houses  sell 61 

fe'heri(l:iii.  lUchard  Brinsley 

80  :  q.  581 
Sherif-Edflin-Omar-ben-Faredh, 

q 543 

Sherley,    Sir  Anthony 35,  543 

Sherman,    Fred 506 

Sherman,    Fred   T 477,  482 

Sherman,  Henry  B 506 

Sherman,   Lewis 506,  514 

Sherman,  Jr.,  I^ewis 506 

Sherman,    Milo    P 506 

Sherman,  S.  S 506 

Sherman,  William 506 

Sherman,   William  H 506 

Sherman,  William  M 506 

Sherman,  William  T.    (Gen.)..  563 

Sherman  &  Taylor 477 

Sherman  Bros.  &  Co .  .  485,  502,  506 

S'heiwbert,   John,    chk 126 

Shewbert,    Mrs.,    chk 126 

Shields  &  Boucher 50.7 

Shihftb-ad-Din  manuscript 542 

Shinkle,  Wilson  &  Kreis  Co. 

484,  485 

Shipping  Board,  U.   S 338 

Shipping    c 312-327 

— ^Brazil    306 

American  vessels 515 

—Colombia    314,  315 

— Iron   steamships    (1868) 476 

— Longest     voyage 316 

— Santos    312,  314 

— Time-table,   port  to  port.  .  .  .  316 

Shipping  ports,    principal 191 

Shope,   W.   C 502 

Shortt,  Everett  T.    pat 647 

Shrinkage    '. 389,  391 

— Roasting   388 

—Table  (green  c.)    393 

Shubert  (see  Shewbert) 

Sias,    Charles   D 501 

Siddons,  Mrs 569 

Siegfried,  John  C 506 

Siegfried  &  Brandenstein .  .  505,  506 

Siegman,   John   G 507 

Sielcken,   Hermann  ..  .473,  482, 

511,  518,  519,  520,  523, 

531  ;  Wog.  517.  521 

— ^Valorization    53()-534 

— .Woolson  Spice  Co 506 

Sielcken,   Hermann    (Mrs.)  ....  518 

Sielcken-Crossman    contract .  . .  519 

Sierra    c 345,  359 

Signs,  Coffee-house 

— ^London     602,  603 

Bowman's    54 

^Morat    (Amurath) 62 

— ■  — Rosee's 54 

^Soliman   62 

— New   York 117,  124 

King's  Arms 124 

Signs,  Grocers' 

— Lowell,  Ebenezer  (New  York)  467 

— Richards,  Smith   (New  York)  124 

Silver  c.-pots    619 

Silver    skin 136,  138 

Silversmiths,  American ....  609,  612 

Silversmiths    Society 612 

SimmDnds,  W.  Lee. 478 

Simmonds  &  Bayne 4'J'8 

Simmonds  &  Co.,  H 478 

Simmonds  &  Co.,  W.   Lee 478 

Simmonds  &  Newton 478 

Simon,   Jr.,  M.,  pat 167 

Simonds.    H 478 

Sinclair,  Evans  &  Elliot 508 

Singleton,  Esther,  q..lOo,  115,  709 

Slnnot,  J.  B 505 

Sino-Lowestoft  c.-pot 607 

Sion   &   Co 340 

Sir  Antoine  Shirlies   Trauelles, 

Parry,   q.,  ill 38 

Sirups   (see  Syrups) 

Sizing    (see  Grading)     258 

Skirtdv     Francis 479 

Skiddy,  Minford   &  Co 479, 

485,  530 

Skinner,  Cyriac 60 

"Skyscraper"   coffee  house. 112,  113 

Slacks    322 

Slave  auctions.  Phila.,  ill 128 

Slemmons  &  Conkling 508 


Sloane,    Sir   Hans 86,   543, 

Sloss,  Robert,  q 

Slow   roast 

Small,   C.   K 477, 

Staiall,  John 

Small  Bros.  &  Co 477.  479, 

Smalls   &   Bacon 

Smart,  Joseph  F.,  pat 

Smith,    Adam 81, 

Smith,    Clarence 

Smith,  Daniel,  chk 

Smith,  Frank 

Smith,    George    H 

Smith,  John.   (Capt.)   105,  543, 

q- 

Smith,  John  Thomas.  .  .583  ;  q. 

Smith,  Michael  E 

Smith,    Mrs.,    chk 

Smith.    Nathaniel 

Smith,   Robert 

Smith,  Robert  A 

Smith,    fe'ydney.   q 

Smith,  William  T 

Smith,   William   V.    R 523, 

Staith   &   Co.,    D 

Smith  «&  Co.,   Thomas 

Smith  &  Curtis 

Smith  &  McKenna 

Smith   &  McNeil 

Smith  &  Schipper 

Smith  &  Son,  Robert 

Smith  &  Son,  Thomas 637, 

639, 

Smith  &  Sons,  Robert 

Smith  Bros.  &  Co 

Smith    Bros 

Smith  Bros.   &  Co.   Ltd 

Smith's  Sons,  M.  V.  R 

Smith's  Sons.  Robert 

•Staioke  screens  (Guatemala)  .  .  . 

Smollett    

Smooth    (see   Flavors) 

Smout,  Jules,  pat 

Smyser,  Henry  L.  .  .  .523  ;  pat. 

Sobieranski.   q 

Sobieski,  King  John 

Sociedade  Promotora  da  De- 
f esa   do   Cafe 

Societe  de  Cafe  Soluble  Belna .  . 

Societe    Generale    532, 

Society  of  Antiquaries 

Societ.v  of  the  Friends  of  Music 

Soda   fountains 

Soils 

— Australia     

— 'Best    198, 

^Brazil 198, 

— ^Costa  Rica 

— 'Federated   Malay   States.  .  .  . 

— Venezuela 

iSoliman   Aga 

Soliraan    the   Great 18, 

Sollmann,   q 1 82, 

Soluble   coffee 404, 

— Brands    470,    538, 

— History  of 538, 

— Kato's   patent 

— Processes    

— U.    S".   Army  war  needs 

— Washington's    patent 

Soluble  Coffee  Co 

Somers.    A.    L 

Songs   of  Brittany    

Sons  of  Liberty 

Sorenson,  John  S 

Sorenson  &  Nielson 482, 

Sorley,    William 480, 

Sorting   machinery 

Sorver,  Damon  &  Co 

Soulie    

Soup,  Coffee 

Sour  (see  Flavors) 

South    Sea    bubble 571, 

Southern   boom    (1904) 

Southern  Coffee  Mills,  Inc.  . .  . 

Southern  Coffee  Polishing  Mills 

Southern    Cross,   v 

S'outhern  Pacific  Co 

Souvestre,    Emile,    q 

Spatula  (see  Roasting  ma- 
chinery)      

Specialty   stores 415, 

Spectator,   per 75,   80,    85, 

88,  o58,  573,  584  :  q.  86, 
87,  560,  561,  572,  575, 


582 
531 
387 
480 
480 
480 
480 
653 
583 
480 
129 
499 
501 

36 
569 
503 
119 
584 
501 
501 
567 
501 
524 
476 
700 
507 
505 
494 
485 
501 

699 
501 
505 
486 
505 
480 
501 
219 
559 

248 

470 

186 

49 

446 
539 
534 
602 
597 


238 
201 
205 
225 
238 
212 
91 
19 
183 
406 
539 
539 
471 
169 
539 
471 
539 
507 
548 
120 
520 
520 
491 
245 
485 
102 
177 


572 
530 
505 
505 
316 
489 
565 

ei6 
421 


582 


Spencer,   G.   L.,   q 165 

Sperry  Flour  Co 488 

Spice  Mill,  per 470,  520,  527 

Spice-Mill  Companion 427 

Splitting  nickels 427 

Spot  brokers 336,  337 

Spot    of  _  leaf    and    fruit     (see 

Spot  Marke't,  New  York .  .  .  329,  380 
Spot   quotation    committee    ( N. 

Y.  Bxch.) .    334 

Sprague,   Albert   A 502 

Sprague,   Irvin   A 477 

Sprague,   O.    S.   A 502 

Sprague  &   Rhodes 477 

Sprague  &  S^tetson 502 

Sprague    &    Warner 502 

Sprague,  Warner  &  Co.  .  .  .485,  502 
Sprague,  Warner  &  Griswold..  502 
Spreckels  &  Bros.  Co.,  J.  D.  .  .  488 
Spring  Garden    Iron   Works .  . .    245 

Spruce,   Richard,   q 200 

Squier,   George   L 246 

Squier  Mfg.   Co.,  Geo.   L. .  .  246, 

247,  469 
St.    Germain's    Fair    (see    Cof- 
fee   houses,    Paris) 

St.   Serf,  Thomas,  q 554 

Stachan,   John,    chk 119 

Stacie,  chk 579,  580  ;  q.  581 

Stadium  (circus).  New  York..  124 
Stage  coaches,  Boston.  ..  .110,  112 
Stamp  Act    (1765)  ...  120,   125,   128 

Stamps,  Trading 429 

Stanton.   Sheldon  &  Co 479 

Star  Coffee  and  Spice  Mills...    506 

Star,   London,  neicsp 585 

Star  Mills 494,  499 

S'tarhemberg,  Rudigor  v(iii..49,  50 
State  of  Sao  I'aulo   Pure  ('.   Co. 

Ltd 445 

Statistical  Ahstruct,  U.  S.,  q..    299 

Statue  of  Kolschitzky 599 

Steam  power  for  roasting.  .631,  635 

Steel-cut 401,   714 

■ — ^Baker-Duncombe  suit 649 

Steele,    Mrs.,    chk .  .    121 

Steele,    Sir    Richard 75,    80, 

84.    557.    570,    572,    576, 
577.    578,    579 ;    q.    558,  559 

Steele  &  Co.,  B.  L.  G.  S 487 

Steele  &  Emery 508 

Steele  &  Price 470 

Steele,  Wedeles  Co 485 

Steele-Wedeles  Co 502 

Steeping    720 

S'te.-Foix     94 

Steinwender,    Julius 482 

Steinwender,  Stoffregen 485 

Steinwender,    Stoffregen    &    Co. 

338,  340,  482,  502 
Steinwender,  Stoffregen  Co ....  484 
Stella    (Esther   Vanhomrigh)  .  .    562 

Stenhouse,    q 163 

Stenophylla,    C 216 

— ^Botanical  description 140 

StenophjiUa  x  Abeokiitar.  hyb.  146 
Stfiioiiliiflla  Paris,   C.....  ...  .    146 

Stephen,    chk 93 

Stephens,    Alvan 507 

Stephens,    Henry    A 507 

Steohens    Samuel  R 507 

Steohens"  &  Co.,  A .' 502 

Stephens  &  Sons,  A 507 

Stephens  &  Widlar 507 

Steppe,  J.  P.,  pat 649 

Sterility,    C.    and 23,     46 

Sternau,    Sigmund,    pat 649 

Sternau  &  Co.,  S 649 

Sterne,    Richard    601 

Stetson,    Z.    B 502 

Stevens,  Alfred 103 

Stevens,  Henry  B.,  pat 247 

Stevens,  W.  &  S 508 

Stevens  &  Armstrong 48t> 

Stevens     Armstrong    &    Harts- 
horn         480 

Stevens  Bros.  &  Co 480 

Stewart,  C.  H.,  q 349 

Stewart,  James   478 

Stewart,  Robert  C 477,  498 

Stewart  &  Co.,  CM 485 

Stewart  &  Co.,  R.  C 477 

Stewart   &   Walker 478 

Stickney    &    Poor 501 


INDEX 


793 


still  &  Sons,  \V.  M 647,  674 

Stillinan,  Abel,  pat 627 

Stiller   &    Co.,    Joseph 499 

Stitt.    Williaiii    J 494,497 

Stitt  &  Co..  W.  J 497,  499 

Stock  Excliaiij?e,  New  York.  .  .  .    122 
Stofffregeii,  Carl  H.  .  .448,  511,  535 

Stokes,    John 129 

Stoning  machinery.  .  .381,  394,  395 
Storage 

— ^Ilavro    327 

— Xew   York 319,  321 

— Santos 303 

— Venezuela   315 

Storia    di    VencHa    nella    Vita 
Privatu,    La,    Molmenti, 

Q 27 

Storm,  Walter 482 

Storm,    Smith  &  Co 482 

S'tory,    Rufus   G 479,  496 

Story  &  Co..  R.  G 496 

Story-tellers  in  c.  houses .  .  666,  669 

Stouf s,  Joseph 590 

Stowe,   Orson   W„  pat 644 

Strassberger,   Ij.,   pat 649 

Straus,    Oscar 672 

Strauss  &  Sons,  L 518 

Street  brokers 337 

Stringer,    Alary,    chk 56 

Strong,    Josepii 508 

Strowbridge,   Turner,   pat 644 

Stuart.  Alexander.  . 503 

Stump.    Aug 482,  484 

Stumpp  &  Co.,  August 482 

i<uakurcn8is,  G.   (Java) 216 

Substitute,  C,  advertising.  437,  438 

— Charts    440,  441 

Sul)stitute-fakers   435 

Substitutes 170 

— Harley    13,     46 

— ^Betony     74 

— Bocket 74 

— Cereal  (harmful  to  diabetics)   165 

— Chicory 46 

— Com    46 

— Figs,    dried    46 

— Russia 686 

— Saloop  (sassafras  and  sugar) 

73,     74 
— United  States  (Ist  patent) .  .   470 

— Wheat 46 

Succory    {see   Chicory) 

Succop    &    Liips 503 

Sucrose 165 

Suess-Oppenheimer,  Joseph.  ...      47 

Sugar  in   c 26    58,   91,   98, 

106,  667 
—Cairo    (first    use,    1625)    657,  695 

^Consumption     (U.    S.) 689 

— Great  Britain   (17th  cent...)    696 

— Greece 685 

— North    America 105 

Sugar    of    c 165 

Sugar  Trust  fight 521-523 

Sullivan,   Luke 85,  584 

Sully,    D.    J 530,   572 

Sultan.     Cafe     658 

Sultane,  Caf^ 694 

Sumatras   (c.)    355,  370-372 

Sumerling  &   Co 674 

Sun,  London,  newap 578 

8im,  New  York,  neicsp,  q 175 

Sunshine,    per 524 

Sutton   &  Vansant 485 

Swain.   Barle  &  Co 501 

S-waythling,    Lord 604 

Swazey,  S.  L 479 

Sweated     c 316,  817 

— Artificial    (U.    S.   rulings)...   337 

— Sailing  vessels 353 

Sweeney,  John 492 

Sweet  (see  Flavors) 

Sweet   c.  s    397 

Sweet-bitter  c.'s    397 

Swett,    E.    H 501 

Swift,  Jonathan 80,  84,  88, 

89.    557.    562     570,    573, 
577,    578,    579,    587 :    q. 

571,  575 

Swift  &  Co..  H.   II 482 

Swift,   Billings  &  Co 485 

Sylva  Sfflvanim-,  Bacon,  q..38,  543 

Syndicates 

— Arnold-Dash-Kimball   ...527,  528 

— German  Trading  Co 528 


Si/Ha,   The  Holy  Land,  Carne, 

Q 668-670 

%rups.  Coffee;  recipe  for 724 

Szekacs,    q 185 

Szyszka.    q 185 


Tabasco    c 345, 

Taber  &  Place 434, 

Table,  The,  per 

Table  Traits,  Doran,  q 

Tachiras     (c.)     349, 

Tackaberry,  William 

Tackaberry   Co.,   Wm 

Taine    

Talbot,    Winslow    &    Co 

Talbutt,  Robert  H.,  pat 

Talleyrand,  Prince 103  ;  q. 

Tampico  c 345, 

Tannin    160,   182, 

Tapachula   c 345, 

Tapperi,    David,   q 

Tapping  hands    (Arabia) 

Tatler,  per 75,  80,  85,  86, 

561,  572  ;  q.  558,  559,  571, 
573,    575. 

Tatlock,  q 

Tavernier 31,   543  ;   q. 

Taverns 

— Boston 

• — • — Blue    Anchor    (inn)     .... 

Bunch  of  Grapes 

— ■ — Cole's  (inn)    

First    

Green  Dragon 

Indian  Queen 109, 

King's   Hesul    

—  —Ship    

Sun    109, 

Red  Lyon  (inn) 

— London 

Barn    

Golden    

Locket's    Ordinary 

— •  — Mermaid    

Rose    

Shakespeare's   Head 

— New  York 

Atlantic  Garden  House, 

117, 

Black  Horse    

Fighting  Cocks 

Fraunces'    

.Jamaica  Pilot  Boat 

—  — King's   Head    

Queen's  Head    

White  Lion 

— Philadelphia    

Blue  Anchor    (first) 

—  —City    125,  128,  129, 

Globe  (inn)   

New  

Smith's  

Taxation 

— Arabia    

—England    (1714)    

— German.v 

Royal  monopoly    (1781).. 

— Porto   Rico    (exemptions) . . . 
— Sao    Paulo    (valorization).... 
— Turkey    

—  (Se  also  Duties:   Fines;  Li- 

censes ;   Pure  food,  etc.) 

Taylor,  C.  K.,  q 

Taylor,  James  H 

Tavlor,   John    

Taylor,  William   

Taylor  &  Co.,  James  H 477, 

479. 

Taylor  &  Co.,  Moses 

Taylor  &  Levering 484, 

Tea 

— Action  In  stomach 

— American  colonies 

Introduction     105, 

Stamp    act    (1765)    In- 
creases  consumption... 

Smuggled     from     Nether- 
lands     

— Antiquity    

— Canada  

— Discovery    

— Great  Britain 

Consumption  compared 

with  c 288, 


358 
496 
675 
705 
365 
509 
509 
102 
507 
647 
565 
359 
711 
358 
11 
312 


584 

159 

2 


109 
111 
109 
108 
613 
110 
109 
109 
110 
109 

584 
583 
569 
60 
56 
576 


121 
118 
118 
121 
118 
117 
119 
117 
125 
126 
130 
126 
129 
129 

231 
59 
47 
46 
222 
534 
20 


177 
477 
578 
475 

485 
476 
485 
35 
178 

106 

106 

106 
15 

687 
12 


289 


Tea   (cont'd) 

— Great  Britain 

— ■ — First. sold  in  London 

,    (1657)    56 

—  — Imports    (1700-571 75 

— • — Introducetl    at    Court....    582 
National  beverage    75 

—  — Preferred  to  c 674 

—  —Prices    (1662,   1714)    582 

Sold  in  c.  houses.. 61,  78,     80 

^Taxation    39 

■ — Eulogized  by  Mosely    38 

Johnson,  Sam'l 568 

— Europe  (first  used,  1610) ...      25 

— Literary  stimulus 557,  558 

— Mental  efliciency.  Effect  on..  186 
—Philadelphia    (introduction)  .    125 

—Russia    686 

—United  States 

— ■  — Consumption     per     capita 

^  (1783)    46S 

Consump.    comp.    with    c, 

288,  289 

Imports   (1783)    468 

Laws  affecting   337 

Tea   and    coffee   pots    609 

Tea  and  Coffee  Trade  Journal, 

per. .  .  138,  402  ;  q.  34,  147. 

155,     160,    161,    168,    175, 

176,    177,    178,    179,    180, 

181,    186,    387,    388,    399, 

410,    418,    421,    422,    427, 

439,    527,    553,    679.    689, 

„     .  693,  715,  717,   720 

— Begins  publication  (1901)...   472 

— Ukers      assumes      e<litorship 

,    <1904)       ^.  527 

— Urges    nat  I    organization    of 

roasters    511 

Tea  gardens   (see  Gardens) 
Tea   party    (see   Boston;    New 
York) 

Tea-rooms   (London)    675    677 

Teeth,  Effects  of  c.  on 175 

T'^^alf   (c.)    355,  373 

T'eh   (tea)    3.5 

Teixeira,  Pedro,  q 2 

Telephone  in  retail  stores.....  424 

Tellieherry   c 351,  339 

Temperance,  C.  and 61 

Tennent,  Robert  Bowman,  pat.    246 

Terminologv     168 

Terms  and  "credits 405,   513-515 

lerms  and  discounts    (Brazil).  306 

Terry,   Edward,   q 36 

Testing    (France)     679.  680 

Text  Hook  of  I'hysiologv,  Flint, 

'1 176 

Teyssonnier    146 

Thackera.v,  W.  M 103  ;   q.  563 

Thannhauser   &   Co 488 

Thayer,   Byron  T    50I 

Theatriim     botanicum,    Parkin- 
son     .343  :   q_     41 

Thebaud,  Joseph   476 

Thein     i^q 

Theobromin .  .  .    160 

Therapeutic   Gazette,  per.,  q..   176 

Thery,    q .543 

Thevenot    543 

Thomas,    C 501 

Thomas,   Elizabeth    575 

Thomas,    Gov 127 

Thomas,   R.   G . .'.    494 

Thomas    Co..    R.    G 494 

Thomas  &  Son,  J.   W 508 

Thomas   &   Turner    494 

Thompson,  Benjamin,   tnr. 621, 

q.  163 
—  (See  also  Rumford) 

Thompson,    Dr.,    q 159,  181 

Thompson,   .Tames    492 

Thompson,    .Tames    Henry,   pat.  246 

Thompson,    Patience    492 

Thompson,  W.   D 479 

Thompson  &  Bowers    478.  480 

Thompson    &    Davis 479 

Thompson   Bros 479 

Thompson   Co.,    J.    Walter 445 

Thompson,   Shortridge  &  Co. 

478,  479 

Thomsen  &  Co • 479 

Thomson,   .\.   M 502 

Thomson,  James   ,502 

Thomson,   .Tames    (poet) .'574 

Thomson,  A.  M.  &  .Tames 502 


794 


ALL    ABOUT     COFFEE 


Thomson  &  Taylor    502 

Thomson  &  Taylor  Co 502 

Thomson  &  Taylor  Spice  Co. 

484,  502,  509 

Thorn,  A.  B 499 

Thomlev,    Jesse    501 

Thornley    &    Bro 501 

Thornley  &  Ryan 501 

Thornton,    Richard    ,T.........   '505 

Thornton,  Richard  J.    (Mrs.)..    505 

Thornton  &   Co.,   B.  .T 505 

Thornton    &    Hawkins 505 

Thorpe,  q 159,   164 

Thousand  and  One  Hiyhts  (see 

Arabian  J^'iffhts) 
Three   Reigns    of   Nature,    De- 

lille.   q 547 

Thnni.   pat 158.   164 

Thumb-piece  on  English  c.  pots  620 

Thurlier.   A.   D 499 

Thnrber,   Francis  B 557  ; 

q.   182,   712 

TTiurber.  H.  K 482 

Thnrber  &  Co..  H.  K 499 

Thurber  &  Co..  H.  K.  &  F.  B..    482 

Thurlow.    Ix)rd    80,    88,   572 

Thurmer,    Max    640,  641 

TibiricS.    .Torge    531 

Times,  T..ondon,   netcsp. 5S5:   q.  175 
Times,  New  York,  newsp .  .671,  672 

Tilloch.    Dr 585 

Till.vard.  Arthur    41 

Timbs,    John..  557:    q.    58.    69. 

555,   570-585 

Timby,    pat.,    q 157 

Timor    c S55,  .376 

Tinned   coffee    (Great   Britain).  67.3 

Tinney.    Henry   C 509 

Tipping,    origin   of    74 

To   arrive    ;    330 

— San  Francisco    327 

Tobacco 

— In  c.  houses.. 42.  77.  78,  84,     98 

— Intoxication     182 

Todd,   Robert    118 

Togami,   K..    q 179 

Toledo  &  Co.,   Filipe  S 340 

Tolimas   (c.)    348,   364 

Tolman   Co..    J.   A 485 

Tomkyns,   chk    576 

Toms.   O.    W 513 

Tone,    Isaac   E 509 

Tone,    Jav   E 508,  509 

Tone.  Jekiel    509 

Tone,  W.  E .509,  510,  51 1 

Tone   Bros 509 

Tonkin   c 352,  370 

Tonti.   Lorenzo    1 22 

Torner.    Richard,    chk 572 

Torro  &  Co.,   Lonis  M 340 

Totten   &  Bro..   W.   W 508 

Touches.    Viconite    des....532,   534 

Tovars    (c.)    349.   350,   365 

Toiim   E'elogucs,  Montagu '573 

Townsend    496 

Tractors,   electric    (Bush  Co.).   322 
Tracy  &  Avery  Co 485 

Trnde 

—New    Orleans    485-487 

— OveniTortuction  disturbs 

(1898)      471 

— San    Francisco    487-491 

— Shifting  currents.  .293,    294, 

295.   296 

—United    States    475-.-15 

(1921)      299-302 

Aden    and    301 

Brazil  nnd   300 

— ^Tariff    pref erentials    .  .    296 

Booms    ...  468.  469 

Central   Am.    and 296,  300 

— •  — Cbronological     review  .  467-474 

Colombia  and    300 

Development     (1865-1922) 

297-299 

Mexico  and    301 

Netherlands  E.   Ind.   and.    301 

—  —Panic    (1880)    470 

Venezuela   and    300 

West  Indies  and    301 

Trade  »nd  Statistics  Committee 

(N.  Y.  Exch.1    334 

Trade  Marks,  V.  S...413,  469.  470 
Trade      names      of      c.'s      (see 

Characteristics) 


Trading    291-302 

— Amsterdam    (1040)    105 

— Brazil    295 

— Early    293 

— Europe    327-340 

— Germany    (begins    1670)....    293 

— Havre    327 

— Netherlands    293,  294 

:First  cargo  sold   (1640).  .      43 

—New   York    (early) 115 

— U.   S.   rulings    337.  338 

— San    Francisco    and    Central 

Am 325 

— Sweden    (begins    1674) 293 

Trading    stamps    429 

Traffic  Assn.  of  St.  Louis  Coffee 

Importers    (1910)     510 

Trafton,  C.  K.,  q 527 

TraitSs     Nouveaux    et   Gurieux 
du    CafS,    etc.,    Dufour,    q. 

2,  11,  432,  433 
Transhipping  ports,  Europe.  .  289 
Transportation,   Inland 

— Abyssinia    228,  229,  308.   310 

• — Arabia    266.  282.  293 

— Bolivia    279 

— Brazil    303 

— Central    America    308 

— Colombia    308,  316 

— Nicaragua     280 

— ^Venezuela     308 

Transportation,     Seven     stages 

of     323 

Travancore  c 351,  369 

Travels,    Herbert,    q 36 

Travels,   Rauwolf,    q 25 

Travels,  Teixeira.   q 2 

Travels  and  Adventure,  Smith, 

q 36 

Travels     in     Arabia     Deserts, 

Daughty,    q 661 

Travels    in    India    and    Persia, 

Delia    Valle    27 

Travels    of    Certayne    English- 
men,   etc..    The,   Biddulph, 

q.,    ill 36 

Travers  &  Son,  Joseph    445 

Treatise  in  Latin,  Meisner ....    543 
Treatise     an     Modern     Stimu- 
lants. Balzac,  q 557 

Tree.    Coffee 

— .\ge 203,  211    213,  222 

Salvador    '.....    219 

— Chemistry  of   1 55 

— Height    ..133,    142.202 

Arabia     231 

— Indigenous    to    Abyssinia .  .  1,       5 

■ — Origin     .5 

— Wood,    uses   for    138 

— Yield     136,   203 

—  — Bolivia     236 

Brazil      138 

1 'Colombia     211 

— ■ — Mexico 222 

Nicaragua     227 

Sao   Paulo    208 

Trees.   Coffee 

— -Number  of 

—  — Brazil     207,208 

Ecuador     236,   278 

Indo-China,    French     ....    237 

Guatemala     219 

■ — •  — P^rnn  mbuco     205 

— Sao    Paulo 205.   207,   208 

— Venezuela     212 

— Number   to    acre 201 

— ■ — Colombia     211 

Haiti     220 

Porto   Rico    223 

— •  — Venezuela     213 

Tremont  Coffee  &  Snice  Mills.    501 

Trentman    &   Bro..    C.    A 508 

Trentman  &  Son,  B 508 

Triage    (grade)     258 

Tribune,   New  York,   nfirsp..   ".   ."1.^3 
Tricolntor.  .168,  445,  651,  652,  701 

Tricolette 654 

Triers     321.  389 

Trigg,    C.    W.,    pat .  .  406.  539  ; 

q.    155,   174.   718-722 

Trillado    (grade)     260,263 

Trillo     (grade)     264 

Trinidad    c '.  .  ..''■"I.  362 

Triumph      of     C,     Fakr-Eddin- 

Aboubeckr     543 

Troemner,    Henry     646,  472 


Tru^  Way  of  Making  and  Pre- 
paring C,  Broadbent,  q. .  .   697 

Trujillos     (c.)     350,365 

Trusdell   &   Phelps    495 

"Truth    in    advertising"    move- 
ment       435 

Truxtun,    Scott    444 

Tubermann's    S'on,    G..   pat.  . . .   638 
Tupholme,    Beeston,    pat.  .  .  .  .  .   640 

Turguenieff     102 

Turkey    gruel    70 

Turkish    ewer    602,    603,   621 

Turkish    pocket    cylinder    mill. 

615,   610,  617 

Turner,    A 508 

Turner,    Robert,    ohk 109 

Turner     (or    Torner)     Richard, 

(.fijf 572 

Turner,    Wiiiiain  '  F .' '.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.  '.  480 

Tussac     8 

Twitchell.    Champlin   &  Co 508 

Tyler,    George    C '556 

Tyler,    Henry    D 480 

Typhoid  fever.  Effects  of  c.  on  181 

Typografla   Pizzolato    558 

Uganda    c 353,  377 

Ugandae,    C 146 

— Cevlon      236 

— Java    216 

Vnqandae  x  Conaensis,  hi/h.  .  . .    l->6 

Ukers,   William  H 527 

Ulman,  Lewis  &  Co 485 

lumber,  q 182 

Union  Bag  &  Paper  Corp 472 

Union  Coffee  Co 477 

Union  Pacific  Tea  Co 482,  501 

Universal     history     of    plants, 

Ray     42,  543 

University  of  Kansas 714 

ITniversitv  of  Pittsburgh   714 

Unloading     317-327 

—New  Orleans    32.3-325 

—New    York    317-323 

— San   Francisco    325-327 

Unloading  machinery    ....325,   327 

Uno   Co.,   Ltd 647 

Untermever,  Louis,   q 553 

Urioste  &   Co 488 

Urruella  &  Urioste    487 

Urwin.   William,    chk 84.  574 

U.   8.  Dispensatory,  q 164.  184 

I'ses  for  c.   New    457 

TTtter,   J.   W 503 

Utter,  Adams  &  Ellen    503 

Vacuum-packed    c 410 

— (see   also   Containers) 
Vacuum-packing,   Effect   of .  .  .  .    168 

Valenti.in.    q 2 

Valorization    (Brazil)    473,   530-534 

— N.  C.   R.  A .511 

— Norris,    Senator    532,   533 

—Sao  Paulo    295,  472.   53-t 

Surtax    315 

— Sielcken,   H 521,    531-534 

— IT.    S.    gov't    action     534 

Van    Cortlandt    museum    122 

Van   Dam.   Anthony    475 

Van  dan  Broeck    Pieter 43 

Van  den  Bosch.  Gov 214 

Van  Dessel,  Rodo  &  Co 340 

Van   Fssen    43 

Van  Btten.   E 538 

Van    Gulpen,    Alexius 246,638 

Van  GulDen  &  Co 638 

Van     Gulpen.     Lensing    &    von 

Gimborn    638 

Van    Linschooten,    Hans    Hugo 

(.Tohn  Huvgen),  q.,  ill.  ...      35 

Van  Loan.  Thomas    .497,  498 

Van    Loan   &   Co 498 

Van   Loan,   Maguire  &  Gaffnev 

497.   498,  499 

Van  Loo    588 

Van  Ommen.  Adrian    6,      43 

Van   Ostade,    .Vdriaen    44,   587 

Van   Outsbonrn    6 

Vnn   Vliet.  C.   W.,   pat 634 

Van  Zandt  &  Co.,  M.  N 508 

Vnncouver  239 

Vanderhoef.  George  W 479 

Vanderhoef  &  Co..  George  W. .  .  479 

Vanderwevde.  P.  H..  pat 637 

Vane.  Gov.  109 

Vanessa    (see  Vanhomrigh) 


INDEX 


795 


Vimliomrigh,  Esther 562 

VaiiifTc     543 

Aaukorn.    Gusgeiiheimer   &   Co.  501 

Vardy,   James,   pat    627,  699 

Variegata,   C,   hyb 140 

\'ariiar    43 

^■a8sieux.   Madame,  pat. .  .  .  627,  700 

Vatpl,    Charles,    q 566 

VaiiRhn.  X.  C,  q 176,  177 

Vauxhall  garden,   ill 81,  82,  83 

A'.'lloni.    (hk 103 

Venard.    G 505 

Vciictinn    Republic.    The     Haz- 

litt..     q 28 

Veneziielas  (c.)    348,  364,  365 

Verborg.    Ilenrv    503 

Acrdier  &  Closset 507 

Verlaine.  Paul   94 

%'(>iTi,     Alexander     558 

Verri.    Pietro    30,  558 

Vertu    and    use    of   c.    BradleA-, 

q 293 

Vesling    ( Veslinglus),    q....l2,  26 

Vickers.    T.    L 498 

Victoria    Arduino-Societa    Ano- 

jiima    65 1 

Victorias    (O    341.   343,  367 

Vic    prirve    d'autrefois    La, 

Franklin,  q fi 

Viehoever.    A....  160;    q.    144,  145 

\'ienna 

—Besieged  by  Turks    (1693)  .  .  49 

— CoflFee-makers'    guild    50 

Vienna^    liclntion    of    the    siege 

of,  Vulcaren,  q 50 

Villon,   Frazicois,   q 135 

Vilain    .')94 

Vincent   c.-pot 604 

Vintschgau   186 

Virey,    q 20 

Virgil     543 

Visconti     558 

Vitamins     ISO 

Vitamives,   The,  Funk,  q 180 

Viviani,    Count,    ill 578 

Voit,  Carl  V..  q 177.  179 

Volkman,    George    506 

Voltaire 94.  98.  178.  556, 

557  ;   q.   554.  565 
Voyaae  de  V  Arable  Heurett^e, 

Ux  Roque 543  ;   q.  15. 

31,  32,  34.  197 
Voi/af/e     into    the    Levant,    A. 

Blount,     q 38 

Vulcaren.   .Tohn   P.   A.,   q .50 

V.val,  John,  chk 109 

Wagama.     r 316 

Wagner    &   Co..    H.    M 485 

Wagon-route  distributers 

— TTnited    States    415.    416.  417 

— France    <>81 

WagstafP.   David    J  76 

Wahibis     542 

Waite,  pat 625 

Walte.  Creighton  &  Morrison.  .    477 

Wakeful   monastery    14 

Wakemau.   Abram  " 473.   4  78 

Walbridge.     Augustus     480 

Wall)ridge    Inc.,     Augustus    M.   -ISO 

Wales.     Henrv 508 

Walker.    John,    pat 245,  246 

Walker.    .Toshua    47S 

Walker    Sons    &   Co.     Ltd    246.   247 

Wall.     Dr ." 579 

Wallace,    Alexander    475 

Wallace,    Alfred    Russel,    q 200 

Wallace.  C.  Iv.  H.    (Mrs.),  q...    181 

Wallace.    Hugh    475 

Wallace,   John   William,   q 126 

Wallace,    William,    q 657 

Walle.     Friediich     591 

Wallen,    Geo.    S 482 

Wallen    &   Co.,    Geo    S 482 

Walpole     Sir    Edward    583 

Waliwle.     Horace.  .  .578.     580.584 
Walsh,  Rev.  Robert,  q.  557.  66.3-664 

Walton,  William   475 

W.anni  Rukula    C 144 

Ward,    Ned,    q .77,    84.  575 

Warden,  q 185 

Ware    (architect)     583.584 

Warfleld.    John    D 502 

Warfield     W.    S 502 

Warne.    E ."OS 

Warner,    Alonzo    A.,    pat.    648.  649 


Warner,   C.   M 538 

Warner,  Ezra  J 502 

Warnier,   q 164,    169,  719 

Warren    110 

Warren  &  Bed  well    506 

Warren  &  Co 482 

Warton    Joseph     573 

Warwick,    Lady    575,  576 

Waseana,  v 316 

Wash-brew   58 

Washed  V8.   Unwashed. ..  .250,  251 

Wa.shing  machinery    247 

Washington.  G..  pat 471,  538 

Washington,      George       (Gen.) 

120.  130,  468 
— ^Official  welcome,  New  Toi'k, 

ill 593 

Washington,   Martha    130 

Washington        Refining        Co., 

George     538 

Washington   and  Jefferson   col- 
lege       521 

Washington's  Prepared  C,  G. .    538 

Wastell   603 

Water     extract     168,   169 

Water   power,    Nicaragua 264 

Waterbury  &  Force    482 

Water-supply     requirements...    198 

Watering,  Excessive 513 

Watjen,  Toel  &  Co 482 

Watson,  q 126 

Wavgood,  Tupholme  Co 641 

Wear    F.  F..  pat 651 

Webb.  James  R 501 

Webb,  Rudolphus  L..  pat 644 

Webb,   Thomas   J 502,  511 

Webb  &  Son,  James  R 501 

Webl).  Cheek  &  Co 509 

Webb.  Hughes  &  Co 509 

Webb-Puhl     Co 443 

Webber,    q 1 86 

Webster,    q 704 

Webster.  Daniel HO 

Webster.   George    124 

Wedding    Breakfast    (brand)  .  .    441 

Wedgwood     607,  612 

Wedmeyer.  q 187 

Weighing  machinery 403,   471 

Weighmasters    (N.  Y.  Exch.)  .  .    333 

Weikel    &    Smith     501 

Weikel  &  Smith  Spice  Co.  470, 

501,  635 

Weir,   J.  B 499 

Weir,   Ross  W. .  .  466.  448.  490. 

511.  513.   514:  a.  424 

Weir  &  Co..  Ross  W 495.  499 

Weir.  Inc..  Ross  W 495.  499 

Weissmiin,   .Tohn    488 

Weisweiller.  q 163 

Weitzmann.    pat 15S 

Welch.  Amos  S 492 

Welch  &  Co 488 

Wellman.  C.  V..  q 410 

Wells.   D.   Henderson    482 

Wells.    John     •*  482 

Wells   Bros    482,   485 

Welsh.   Fbenezer    49.) 

Wendroth.  Clara 519 

Wessels   &   Bros.,   C 482 

Wessels.  Kulenkampff  &  Co 482 

West  Indies   (c.) 3.50,  351, 

361.  362.   363 

West  &  Melchers 485 

Westcott,    q 126 

Wcsten   T.  &  S.  Co.,  Edw 485 

Westfal.  J.   R 496 

Westfeldt   Bros 485,   486 

Weston  &  Grav 482 

Westphal.    pat 167 

Wet    method.  .  .136,    249.    252.   254 

Wet  roast    389.   391 

Wetherill.    Charles   M.,    q.    711.  712 

Wevl  &  Co..  G 482 

Wevl  &  Norton    4S2 

Wheeler   &   Co..    Ezra    478,   479 

Whieldon    607.  612 

White    coffee    674 

White.   A.    E.,   pat 651 

White.    Francis,    rhk 87 

White.  Herman  M..  pat 625 

White      Peregrine     616 

WhiteHouse  (brand)    ....441.  465 

White    Rose    (brand)     441 

Whitefoord.    Caleb    573 

Whiting  &  Taylor 502 

Whiting.  Goehle  &  Co 502 


Whitmarsli,     Theodore     F 535 

Wholesale  Grocers  Corp 502 

Wholesaling  roasted  c 407-413 

— Capital    invested,    U.    S 415 

— Sales,  annual,  U.  S 415 

Wholesome  advice  against  the 
abuse  of  hot  liquors.  Dun- 
win,    q 59 

Wickersham,   Att'ney   Gen 593 

Widlar,  Francis .507 

Widlar  &  Co.,  F r.07 

Widlar  Co .507 

Wi.U  Kawih n 

Wilcox,    O.    W.,    q 147 

Wild  (see  navors) 

Wild   c.    (Abyssinia)     .  .• 284 

Wild,   James    469,  492 

Wilde,   Herbert  W 492 

Wilde,    JoJin 492 

Wilde,    Joseph    492 

Wilde,  Samuel 482  :  biog.  492 

Wilde,  Jr.,  Samuel   492 

Wilde   &   Sons,    Samuel    492 

Wilde's  Sons,   Samuel    494,  499 

Wilde's  Sons  Co..  Samuel 492 

Wiley.  Harvey  W.,  g..l75,  176, 

180,  182,  396 

Wilhelm,   R.  C,  <? 387,  393 

Wilke    579 

Wilkie   583 

Willcox,  O.  W.,  q 161,  388 

Wille,  Theodor   532,  534 

William    III     601 

Williams,    Frank    477,  498 

Williams   &   Co..    R.    C 494 

Williams  &  Potter   494 

Williams    &    Taft     507 

Williams,    Chapin    &    Russell..    478 

Williams,   Dimmond  &  Co 488 

Williams,  Russell  &  Co 477, 

478,  535 

Williamson,    C.    G.,   ^ 62 

Williamson,  Peregrine,  pat.  468,  624 

Williamson.    S.    H 498 

Willis.  Thomas,   q 58 

Wills  &  Co..  Alexander    508 

Willson.  Wm.  B 485 

Wilson,   Increase,  pat 623 

Wilson,    Woodrow    534,  535 

Wilson  &  Bowers 480 

Wilson  &  Co..  J.  W 480 

Wimmer,    pat 162.. 473 

Windbreaks     201 

Window-displays    425 

Window-trimming  contest 455 

Wine 

— C.  classed  as 1,  17.     20 

— C.  a  substitute  for 15,     42 

— Made  from  fruit   15 

— Made  from  hulls  and  pulp.  .    693 

Wing  Bros.  &  Hart    498 

Winter.  IL.  pat 1.58.   167 

Winter  &  Smilie   482 

Winthrop.  Gov 109 

Win  ton.   Andrew   L..   q 150 

Wise,    Capt 128 

Withington.    Eli.1ah,    biog 492 

WithinL'ton  &  Pine   .  .  .  .' 492 

Withington  &  Wilde 492 

Withington.    Francis    &    Welch  492 
Withington.    Wilde   &    Welch .  .    494 

Witsen.    Nicolaas     6,     43 

Wittenagemott     582 

Wosran.   Sir  Charles    575 

Wolf  &    Seligsberg    478 

Wolff.  L 485 

Wolsele.v.     Viscountess     604 

Women  as  coffee  sellers 56 

Woiimi's    petition    aqainst    c.. 

The,    pamph..    ill 70.     71 

Wood.  Jr..  II.  C.  q 176.   185 

Wood,   .Tarvis   .\..   q 431 

Woods,     Rufus     485 

Wood.   Thomas  R..  pat 634 

Wood  &  Cr)..  Thomas 501 

Woodward    (actor)    579.   580 

Woolson.   A.   M 506.   523 

Woolson   Spice  Co 503.  506, 

521.  523 
World  War  effects 

— Arabia     268 

— Consumption    289 

— Gu^tenaala    ' 219 

—Mexico     222 

— T'nited  States  trade 531-538 

Imports    286 


L 


796 


ALL    ABOUT     COFFEE 


World  War  effects  (cont'd) 

— .  — San   Francisco    325 

—World  trade...  190-195,  294,  290 
World's   Commercial   Products, 

The,  Freeman,  q 133 

World's  Work,  per.  q 531,  532 

Worth,  J.  G 499 

Wright,    q 167 

Wright,   George  C 501 

Wright,   George  S 448,   501,  629 

Wright,  John  S 482,  491 

Wright,    John     T 488 

Wright,  Warren  M 501 

Wright    Hard  &  Co 482 

Wrightsville   Hardware   Co....    644 

Wroth,   Warwick,   q 82,     83 

Wurffbain   43 

Wurttemberg,  Duke  of 47 

Wyatt,  Charles,  pat 621,  699 


Wycherly    575 

Wyld,  F.  Lehnhoff   538 

XXXX    (brand)     44 

Yaffey   c 351,  368 

Yarro-w,  Mrs.,  ctik 555 

Yates  &  Dudley 508 

Yellow  fever,  effect  of  c.  on .  . .  182 

Yemeni    c 351,  368 

Yorke,    Duke   of    554 

Young,  Arthur,  q 100 

Young,  D.  K , 482 

Young.    Samuel    507 

Young!   Mahood  &  Co 507 

Young-Mahood   Co 507 

Youngs  &   Amman    477 

Yuban    (brand) 441,  462,  524 

Yuban  advertising 462-465 


Yuengling,  D.  G 508 

Yungas  c 350,  867 

Zamore   590 

Zamzam    18 

Zanzibar  c 353,  377 

Zarf  (cup-standj    661 

Zecchini,  G.  B 549 

Zenetz,  q 185 

Ziegler  Arctic   expedition 538 

Zilmore  &  Co.,  A.  G 508 

Zinmeister  Sr.,  Frank    505 

Zinsmeister,  Jacob    505 

Zinsmeister,  li.  G.,  q 389 

Zinmeister  &  Son,  Frank 505 

Zinmeister   &   Sons,   J 505 

Zola,    Emlle    103,  565 

Zoller  &  Little    508 

Zwaardecroon,  Henrious   6 

Zwick,    CiiaTles     505 


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