r
JAaCS! BURNS &. SONS
nth AVZ. & 43pd ST.
NEW YORK
AH About
Coffee
SUMMIT, NEW JE;RSET
NuW YORK
"cALL cABOUT
COFFEE
'I
By
WILLIAM H. 'UKERf, M. A.
Editor
THE TEA AND COFFEE TRADE JOURNAL
NEW YORK
THE TEA AND COFFEE TRADE JOURNAL COMPANY
^
Copyright 1922
BY f
THE TEA AND COFFEE TRADE JOURNAL COMPANY
New York
05
International Copyright Secured
All Rights Reserved in U. S. A. and
itrics
PRINTED IN U. S. A.
ALL ABO U T COFFEE
i
^.t.L^linu
COFFEE ARABICA ; LEAVES, FLOWERS AND FRUIT
Paintpd from nature by M. E. Eaton — Detail aketohes show anther, pistil, and section of corolla
To My Wife
HELEN DE GRAFF UKERS
PREFACE
SEVENTEEN years ago the author of this work made his first trip abroad to gather
material for a book on coffee. Subsequently he spent a year in travel among the
coffee-producing countries. After the initial surveys, correspondents were ap-
pointed to make researches in the principal European libraries and museums ; and this
phase of the work continued until April, 1922. Simultaneous researches were conducted
in American libraries and historical museums up to the time of the return of the final
proofs to the printer in June, 1922.
Ten years ago the sorting and classification of the material was begun. The actual
writing of the manuscript has extended over four years.
Among the unique features of the book are the Coffee Thesaurus ; the Coffee Chro-
nology, containing 492 dates of historical importance ; the Complete Reference Table of
the Principal Kinds of Coffee Grown in the World ; and the Coffee Bibliography, con-
taining 1,380 references.
The most authoritative works on this subject have been Robinson's The Early His-
tory of Coffee Houses in England, published in London in 1893; and Jardin's Le Cafe,
published in Paris in 1895. The author wishes to acknowledge his indebtedness to both
for inspiration and guidance. Other works, Arabian, French, English, German, and
Italian, dealing with particular phases of the subject, have been laid under contribution;
and where this has been done, credit is given by foot-note reference. In all cases where
it has been possible to do so, however, statements of historical facts have been verified by
independent research. Not a few items have required months of tracing to confirm or to
disprove.
There has been no serious American work on coffee since Hewitt's Coffee: Its His-
tory, Cultivation and Uses, published in 1872; and Thurber's Coffee from Plantation to
Cup, published in 1881. Both of these are now out of print, as is also Walsh's Coffee: Its
History, Classification and Description, published in 1893.
The chapters on The Chemistry of Coffee and The Pharmacology of Coffee
have been prepared under the author's direction by Charles W. Trigg, industrial fellow
of the Mellon Institute of Industrial Research.
The author wishes to acknowledge, with thanks, valuable assistance and numerous
courtesies by the officials of the following institutions :
British Museum, and Guildhall Museum, London ; Bibliotheque Nationale, Paris ;
Congressional Library, Washington ; New York Public Library, Metropolitan Museum of
Art, and New York Historical Society, New York; Boston Public Library, and Boston
Museum of Fine Arts ; Smithsonian Institution, Washington ; State Historical Museum,
Madison, Wis. ; Maine Historical Society, Portland ; Chicago Historical Society; New
Jersey Historical Society, Newark ; Harvard University Library ; Essex Institute, Salem,
Mass. ; Peabody Institute, Baltimore.
VII
\
Thanks and appreciation are due also to :
Charles James Jackson, London, for permission to quote from his Illustrated His-
tory of English Plate;
Francis Hill Bigelow, author ; and The Maemillan Company, publishers, for permis-
sion to reproduce illustrations from Historic Silver of the Colonies;
H. G. D wight, author; and Charles Scribner's Sons, publishers, for permission to
quote from Constantinople, Old and New, and from the article on "Turkish Coffee
Houses" in Scribner's Magazine;
Walter G. Peter, Washington, D. C, for permission to photograph and reproduce
pictures of articles in the Peter collection at the United States National Museum ;
Mary P. Hamlin and George Arliss, authors, and George C. Tyler, producer, for per-
mission to reproduce the Exchange coffee house setting of the first act of Hamilton;
Judge A. T. Clearwater, Kingston, N. Y. ; R. T. Haines Halsey, and Francis P.
Garvan, New York, for permission to publish pictures of historic silver coffee pots in
their several collections;
The secretaries of the American Chambers of Commerce in London, Paris, and
Berlin ;
Charles Cooper, London, for his splendid co-operation and for his special contribu-
tion to chapter XXXV;
Alonzo H. De Graff, London, for his invaluable aid and unflagging zeal in directing
the London researches;
To the Coffee Trade Association, London, for assistance rendered;
To G. J. Letliem, London, for his translations from the Arabic ;
Geoffrey Sephton, Vienna, for his nice co-operation;
L. P. de Bussy of the Koloniaal Institute, Amsterdam, Holland, for assistance ren-
dered ;
Burton Holmes and Blendon R. Campbell, New York, for courtesies;
John Cotton Dana, Newark, N. J.^ for assistance rendered;
Charles H. Barnes, Medford, Mass., for permission to publish the photograph of
Peregrine White's Mayflower mortar and pestle;
Andrew L. Winton, Ph.D.^ Wilton, Conn., for permission to quote from his The
Microscopy of Vegetable Foods in the chapter on The Microscopy of Coffee and to
reprint Prof. J. Moeller's and Tschirch and Oesterle's drawings;
F. Hulton Frankel, Ph.D., Edward M. Frankel, Ph.D., and Arno Viehoever, for
their assistance in preparing the chapters on The Botany of Coffee and The Microscopy
of Coffee;
A. L. Burns, New York, for his assistance in the correction and revision of chapters
XXV, XXVI, XXVII, and XXXIV, and for much historical information supplied in
connection with chapters XXX and XXXI ;
Edward Aborn, New York, for his help in the revision of chapter XXXVI;
George W. Lawrence, former president, and T. S. B. Nielsen, president, of the New
York Coffee and Sugar Exchange, for their assistance in the revision of chapter XXXI ;
Helio Lobo, Brazilian consul general, New York ; Sebastiao Sampaio, commercial at-
tache of the Brazilian Embassy, AVashington ; and Th. Langgaard de Menezes, American
representative of the Sociedade Promotora da Defeza do Cafe ;
Felix Coste, secretary and manager, the National Coffee Roasters Association; and
C. B. Stroud, superintendent, the New York Coffee and Sugar Exchange, for information
supplied and assistance rendered in the revision of several chapters;
VIII
F. T. Holmes, New York, for his help in the compilation of chronological and de-
scriptive data on coffee-roasting machiner}' ;
Walter Chester, New York, for critical comments on chapter XXVIII.
The author is especially indebted to the following, who in many ways have con-
tributed to the successful compilation of the Complete Reference Table in chapter XXIV,
and of those chapters having to do with the early history and development of the green
coffee and the wholesale coffee-roasting trades in the United States:
George S. "Wright, Boston; A. E. Forbes, William Fisher, Gwynne Evans, Jerome J.
Schotten, and the late Julius J. Schotten,, St. Louis; James H. Taylor, William Bayne,
Jr., A. J. Dannemiller, B. A. Livierato, S. A. Schonbrunn, Herbert Wilde, A. C. Fitzpat-
rick, Charles Meehan, Clarence Creighton, Abram Wakeman, A. H. Davies, Joshua
Walker, Fred P. Gordon, Alex. H. Purcell, George W. Vanderhoef, Col. William P.
Roome, W. Lee Simmonds, Herman Simmonds, W. H. Aborn, B. Lahey, John C. Lou-
don, J. R. Westfal, Abraham Reamer, R. C. Wilhelm, C. H. Stewart, and the late Au-
gust Haeussler, New York ; John D. Warfield, Ezra J. Warner, S. 0. Blair, and George
D. McLaughlin. Chicago ; W. H. Harrison, James Heekin, and Charles Lewis, Cincinnati ;
Albro Blodgett and A. M. Woolson, Toledo ; R, V. Engelhard and Lee G. Zinsmeister,
Louisville; E. A. Kahl, San Francisco; S. Jackson, New Orleans; Lewis Sherman, Mil-
waukee ; Howard F. Boardman, Hartford ; A. H. Devers, Portland, Ore. ; W. James
Mahood, Pittsburgh; William B. Harris, East Orange, N. J.
New York. June 17, 1922.
IX
C O X T E N T S
A COFFEE THESAURUS
i:ncoiiiiums and descriptive phrases applied to the plant, the berry, and the beverage. .Page xxvix
THE EVOLUTION OF A CUP OF COFFEE
Showing the various steps through which the bean passes from plantation to cup Page xxix
CHAPTER I
Dealing with the Etymology of Coffee
Origin and translation of the word from the Arabian into various languages — Views of many
writers ; Page 1
CHAPTER II
History of Coffee Propagation
A brief account of the cultivation of the coffee plant in the Old World, and of its introduction into
the New — A romantic coffee adventure Page 5
CHAPTER III
Early History of Coffee Drinking
Coffee in the Near East in the early centui'ies — Stories of its origin — Discovery by phyMcians
and adoption by the Church — Its spread through Arabia, Persia, and Turkey — Persecu-
tions and intolerances — Early coffee manners and customs Page 11
CHAPTER IV
Introduction of Coffee into Western Europe
When the three great temperance beverages, cocoa, tea, and coffee, came to Europe — Coffee first
mentioned by Rauwolf in 1582 — Early days of coffee in Italy — How Pope Clement VIII
haptizetl it and made it a triily Christian beverage — The first European coffee house, in
Venice, 1645 — The famous Caff 6 Florian — Other celebrated Venetian coffee houses of the
eighteenth century — The romantic story of Pedrocchi, tJie poor lemonade-vender, who built
the most beautiful coffee house in the world I'age 25-
CHAPTER V
The Beginnings of Coffee in France
What French travelers did for coffee — the introduction of coffee by P. de la Roque into Marseilles
in 1&44 — Tlie first commercial importation of coffee from Egypt — The first French coffee
house — Failure of the attempt by physicians of Marseilles to discredit coffee — Soli-
man Aga introduces coffee into Paris — Cabarets ft caffe — Celebrated works on coffee by
French writers Page 31
Xlll
CONTENTS
CHAPTER VI
The Introduction op Coffee into England
The first printed reference ito coffee in English — Early mention of coffee by noted English travelers
and writers — The Lacedaemonian "black broth" controversy — How Gonopios introduced
coffee drinking at Oxford^- The first English coffee house in Oxford — Two English botan-
ists on coffee Page 35
CHAPTER VII )
The Introduction op Coffee into Holland
How the enterprising Dutch traders captured the first world's market for coffee — Activities of
the Netherlands East India Company — The first coffee house at the Hague — The first public
auction at Amsterdam in 1711, when Java coffee brought forty-seven cents a pound, green
Page 43
CHAPTER VIII 'y-
The Introduction op Coffee into Germany
The contributions made by German travelers and writers to the literature of the early history
of coffee — The first coffee house in Hamburg opened by an English merchant — Famous
coffee houses of old Berlin — The first coffee periodical and the first kaffeeklatsch —
Frederick the Great's coffee roasting monopoly — Coffee persecutions — "Coffee-smellers" —
The first coffee king Page 45
CHAPTER IX
Telling How Coffee Came to Vienna
The romantic adventure of Franz George Kolsehitzky, who carried "a message to Garcia" through
the enemy's lines and won for himself the honor of being the first to teach the Viennese
the art of making coffee, to say nothing of falling heir to the supplies of the green beans
left behind by the Turks ; also the gift of a house from a grateful municipality, and a
statue after death — Affectionate regard in which "Brother-heart" Kolsehitzky is held as
the patron saint of the Vienna Eaffeesieder — Life in the early Vienna caf6s Page 49
/
CHAPTER X /
The Coffee Houses op Old London
One of the most picturesque chapters in the history of coffee — The first coffee house in London —
The first coffee handbill, and the first newspaper advertisement for coffee — Strange coffee
mixtures — Fantastic coffee claims — Coffee prices and coffee licenses — Coffee club of the
Rota — Early coffee-house manners and customs — Coffee-house keepers' tokens — Opposition
to the coffee house — "Penny universities" — Weird coffee substitutes — The proposed coffee-
house newspaper monopoly — Evolution of the club — Decline and fall of the coffee house —
Pen pictures of coffee-house life — Famous coffee houses of tihe seventeenth and eighteenth
centuries — Some Old World pleasure gardens — Locating the notable coffee houses. .Page 53
CHAPTER XI
History op the Early Parisian Coffee Houses
The introduction of coffee into Paris by ThSvenot in 1657 — How Soliman Aga established the
custom of coffee drinking at the court of Louis XIV — Opening of the first coffee houses —
How the French adaptation of the Oriental coffee house first appeared in the real French
caf6 of FrauQois Procoi)e - — Important part played by the coffee houses in the development
- of French literature and the stage — Their association with the Revolution and the found-
ing of the Republic — Quaint customs and patrons — Historic Parisian cafes Page 91
XIV
CONTENTS
CHAPTER XII
Introduction op Coffee into North America
Captain John Smith, founder of the Ck)lony of Virginia, is the first to bring to North America a
linowledge of coffee in 1607 — The coffee grinder on the Mayflower — Coffee drinking in 1668 —
William Penn's coffee purchase in 1683 — Coffee in colonial New England — The psychology
of the Boston "tea party," and why the United States became a nation of coffee drinkers in-
stead of tea drinkers, like England — The first coffee license to I>orothy Jones In 1670 — The
first coffee house in New England — Notable coffee houses of old Boston — A sky-scraper
coffee-house Page 105
CHAPTER XIII
History of Coffee in Old New York
The burghers of New Amsterdam begin to substitute coffee for "must," or heer, for breakfast in
1668 — William Penn makes his first purchase of coffee in the green bean from New York
merchants in 1683 — The King's Arms, the first coffee house — The historic Merchants,
sometimes called the "Birthplace of our Union" — The coffee house as a civic forum — The
Exchange, Whitehall, Burns, Tontine, and other celebrated coffee houses — The Vauxhall and
Ranelagh pleasure gardens Page 115
CHAPTER XIV
Coffee Houses of Old Philadelphia
Ye Coffee House, Philadelphia's first coffee house, opened about 1700 — The two London coffee
houses — The City tavern, or Merchants coffee house — How these, and other celebrated
resorts, dominated the social, political, and business life of the Quaker City in the eighteenth
century Page 125
CHAPTER XV
The Botany of the Coffee Plant -
Its complete classification by class, sub-class, order, family, genus, and species — How the Coffea
arabica grows, flowers, and bears — Other species and hybrids described — Natural caffein-
free coffee — Fungoid diseases of coffee Page 131
CHAPTER XVI
The Microscopy of the Coffee Fruit
How the beans may be examined under the microscope, and what is revealed — Structure of the
berry, the green, and the roasted beans — The coffee-leaf disease under the microscope —
Value of microscopic analysis in detecting adulteration Page 149
CHAPTER XVII
The Chemistry of the Coffee Bean -
By Charles W. Trigg.
Chemistry of the preparation and treajtment of the green bean — Artificial aging — Renovating
damaged coffees — Extracts — "Oaffetannic acid" — Caffein, caffein-f ree coffee — Caffeol —
Fats and oils — Carbohydrates — Roasting — Scientific aspects of grinding and packaging —
The coffee brew — Soluble coffee — Adulterants and substitutes — Official methods of anal-
ysis Page 155
XV
C O X T E X T S
(mAPTER XVIII
Pharmacology of the Coffee Deink .,
liy Charles IF. Trigg
General physiological action — Effect on chiklven — Effect on longevity — Behavior in the alimen-
tary rSgime — Place in dietary — Action on bacteria — Use in medicine — Physiological
,, action of "caffetannic acid" — Of caffeol — Of caflfein — Effect of caffein on mental and motor
efficiency — Conclnsions Page 174
CHAPTER XIX
The Commercial Coffees of the World
The geographical distribution of the coffees grown in North America, Centi-al America, South
America, tlie West India Islands, Asia, Africa, the Pacific Islands, and the Easit Indies —
A statistical study of tlie distribution of the principal kinds — A commercial coffee chart
of the world's leading growths, with market names and general trade characteristics
Page 189
CHAPTER XX
Cultivation of the Coffee Plant
The early days of coffee culture in Abyssinia and Arabia — Coffee cultivation in general — Soil.
climate, rainfall, altitude, propagation, prepairing the i^lantation, shade, w^ind breaks,
fertilizing, praning, catch crops, pests, and diseases — How coffee is grown around the
world — Cultivation in all the principal producing countries Page 197
CHAPTER XXI
Preparing Green Coffee for Market
Early Arabian methods of preparation — How primitive devices were replaced by modern methods
— A chronological story of the development of scientific plantation machinery, and the
part played by English and American inventors — The marvelous coffee package, one
of the most ingenious in all nature — How coffee is harvested — Picking — Preparation by
the drj- and the wet methods — Pulping — Fermentation and washing — Drying — Hulling,
or peeling, and polishing — Siting, or grading — Preparation methods of different countries
Page 245
CHAPTER XXII
The Production and Consumption of Coffee
A statistical study of world production of coffee by countries — Per capita figures of the leading
consuming countries — Coffee-consumption figures comi>ared with tea-consumption figures in
the United States and the United Kingdom t— Three centuries of coffee trading — Coffee
drinking in the United States, past and present — Reviewing the 1921 trade in the United
States Page 273
CHAPTER XXIII
How Green Coffees Are Bought and Sold
Buying coffee in the producing countries — Transi>orting coffee to the coaisuming markets — Some
recoi"d coffee cargoes shipped to th^ United States — Transport over seas — Java coffee
"ex-sailing vessels" — Handling coffee at New York, New Orleans, and San Francisco —
The coffee exchanges of Europe and the United States — ^Commission men and brokers —
Trade and exchange contracts for delivery — Important rulings affecting coffee trading —
Some well-known green coffee marks Page SOS
XVI
^
CONTEXTS
I
^M Greejsi and Roasted Coffee Characteristics '
' The trade values, bean characteristics, and cup merits of the leading coffees of commerce, with a
"Complete Reference Table of the Principal Kinds of Coffee Grown in the World" —
Appearance, aroma, and flavor in cup-testing — How experts test coffee — A typical sample-
roasting and cup-testing outfit Page 341 V
CHAPTER XXV /^
Factory Preparation op Roasted Coffee
Coffee roasting as a business — Wholesale coffee-roasting machinery — Separating, milling, and
mixing or blending green coffee, and roasting by coal, coke, gas, and electricity — Facts
about coffee roasting — Cost of roasting — Green-coffee shrinkage table — "Dry" and "wet"
roasts — On roasting coffee etficiently — A typical coal roaster — Cooling and stoning —
Finishing or glazing — Blending roasted coffees — Blends for restaurants — Grinding and
packaging — Coffee additions and fillers — Treated coffees, and dry extracts Page 379
CHAPTER XXVI
Wholesale Merchandising of Coffee
How coffees are sold at wholesale — The wholesale salesman's place in merchandising — Some
coffee costs analyzed — Handy coffee-selling chart — Terms and credits — About package
coffees — Various types of coffee containers — Coffee package labels — Coffee package
economies — Practical grocer helps — Coffee sampling — Premium method of sales promo-
tion , Page 407
CHAPTER XXVII
Retail Merchandising op Roasted Coffee
How coffees are sold at retail — The place of the grocer, the tea and coffee dealer, the chain
store, and the wagon-route distributer in the scheme of distribution — Starting in the retail
coffee business — Small roasters for retail dealers — Model coffee departments — Creating
a coffee trade — Meeting competition — Splitting nickels — Figuring costs and profits — A
credit policy for retailers — Premiums Page 415
CHAPTER XXVIII
A Short History of Coffee Advertising
Early coffee advertising — The first coffee advertisement in 1587 was frank propaganda for the
legitimate use of coffee — The first printed advertisement in English — The first newspaper
advertisement — Early advertisements in colonial America — Evolution of advertising —
Package coffee advertising — ^ Advertising to the trade — Advertising by means of news-
papers, magazines, bill-boards, electric signs, motion pictures, demonstrations, and by samples
— Advertising for retailers — Advertising by government propaganda — The Joint Coffee
Trade publicity campaign in the United States — Coffee advertising efficiency Page 431
CHAPTER XXIX
The Coffee Trade in the United States
The coffee business started by Dorothy Jones of Boston — Some early sales — Taxes imposed by
Congress in war and peace — The first coffee-plantation-machine, coffee-roaster, coffee-
grinder, and coffee-pot patents — Early trade marks for coffee — Beginnings of the coffee
urn, the coffee container, and the soluble-coffee business — Chronological record of the most
important events in the history of the trade from the eighteenth century to the twentieth
Page 4G7
XVII
i
CONTENTS
CHAPTER XXX
Development of the Green and Roasted Coffee
Business in the United States
A brief history of the growth of coffee trading — Notable firms and personalities that have played
important parts in green coffee in the principal coffee centers — Green coffee trade organ-
izations— Growth of the wholesale coffee- roasting trade, and names of those who have
made history in it — The National Coffee Roasters Association — Statistics of distribution of
coffee-roasting establishments in the United States Page 475
CHAPTER XXXI
Some Big Men and Notable Achievements
^ B. G. Arnold, the first, and Hermann Sielcken, the last of the American "coffee kings" — John
Arbuckle, the original package-coffee man — Jabez Bums, the man who revolutionized the
roasted-coffee business by his contributions as inventor, manufacturer, and writer — Ck>ffee
trade booms and panics — Brazil's first valorization enterprise — War-time government
control of coffee — The story of soluble coffee Page 517
CHAPTER XXXII
A History of Coffee in Literature
The romance of coffee, and its influence on the discourse, poetry, history, drama, philosophic
writing, and fiction of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries and on the writers of to-
day — Coffee quips and anecdotes Page 541
CHAPTER XXXIII
Coffee in Relation to the Fine Arts
How coffee and coffee drinking have been celebrated in painting, engraving, sculpture, caricature,
lithography, and music — Epics, rhapsodies, and cantatas in praise of coffee — Beautiful
specimens of the art of the potter and the silversmith as shown in the coffee service of
various periods in the world's history — Some historical relics Page 587
CHAPTER XXXIV
The Evolution of Coffee/ Apparatus
Showing the development of coffee-roasting, coffee-grinding, coffee-making, and coffee-serving de-
L
vices from the earliest time to the present day -^"The original coffee grinder, the first coffee
roaster, and the first coffee pot — T^e original French drip pot, the De Belloy percolator —
Count Rumford's improvement — How the commercial coffee roaster was developed — The
^y olution-jQf^ fi 1 tra tio n ,ii^^eg — The old Carter "pull-out" roaster — Trade customs in
New^iork ana ist. rSms in the sixties and seventies — The story of the evolution of the
Burns roaster — How the gas roaster was developed in France, Great Britain, and the
United States Page 615
CHAPTER XXXV
World's Coffee Manners and Customs
How coffee is roasted, prepared, and served in all the leading civilized countries — The Arabian
coffee ceremony — The present-day coffee houses of Turkey — Twentieith century improve-
ments in Europe and the United States Page 655
XVIII
CONTENTS
CHAPTER XXXVI -
Preparation of the Uniyersal Beverage
I he evolution of grinding and brewing methods —Coffee was first a food, then a wine, a medicine,
a devotional ref reshment> a confection, and finally a beverage — Brewing by boiling, infu-
sion, percolation, and filtration — Ck)ffee making in Enrope in the nineteenth century — Early
coffee making in the United States — Latest developments in better coffee making — Various
aspects of scientific coffee brewing — Advice to coffee lovers on how to buy coffee, and how
to make it in perfection Page 693
A COFFEE CHRONOLOGY
Giving dates and events of historical interest in legend, travel, literature, cultivation, plantation
treatment, trading, and In the preparation and use of coffee from the earliest time to the
present ' Page 725
A COFFEE BIBLIOGRAPHY
A list of references gathered from the principal general and scientific libraries — Arranged in
alphabetic order of topics Page 738
INDEX
Page 769
XIX
ILLUSTRATIONS
Color Plates
Facing paye
Cofifee branches, flowers, and fruit (painted
by Blendon Campbell) Frontispiece v
Coffea arabica; leaves, flowers, and fruit
(painted by M. E. Eaton) 1
Tlie coffee tree bears fruit, leaf, and blossom
at the same time 16
A close-up of ripe coffee berries 32
Coffee under the Stars and Stripes 144
Coffee scenes in British India 160
Picking and sacking coffee in Brazil 176
Mild-coffee culttire and preparation 192
. Facing page
Coffee scenes in Java 200
Coffee scenes in Sumatra 216
Coffee preparation in Central and South
America 248 M
Typical coffee scenes in Costa Rica 336 "
Principal varieties of green-coffee beans,
natural size and color 352
Coal-roasting plant, New York 408
Coffee scenes in the Near and Far East 544
Primitive transportation methods, Arabia . . 640
Hulling coffee in Aden, Arabia 656
Black and White Illustrations
rage
Coffee tree in flower 4
De Clieu and his coffee plant 7
Legendary discovery of coffee drink 10
Title page of Dufour's book 13
Frontispiece from Dufour's book 15
Turkish coffee house, 17th century 21
Serving coffee to a guest, Arabia 23
First printed reference to coffee 24
An 18th-century Italian coffee house 2()
Nobility in an early Venetian caff^ 27
Goldoni in a Venetian coffee house 28
Florian's famous coffee house 29
Title page of La Roque's work 82
Coffee tree as pictured by La Roque 32
Coffee branch in La Roque's work 33
First printed reference in English 37
Reference in Sherley's travels 39
References in Biddulph's travels 40
Mol's coffee house at Exeter 41
Reference in Sandys' travels 42
Richter's coffee house, Leipsic 40
Coffee house, Germany, 17th century 47
Kolschitzky in his Blue Bottle coffee house . . 48
First coffee house in Leopoldstadt. 50
Statue of Kolschitzky 51
First advertisement for coffee 55
First newspaper advertisement 57
Page
Coffee house, time of Charles II 60
London coffee house, 17th century 61
Coffee house, Queen Anne's time 62
Coffee-house keepers' tokens (plate 1) 63
A broadside of 1663 64
Coffee-house keepers' tokens (plate 2) 65
A broadside of 1667 68
A broadside of 1670 70
A broadside of 1672 70
A broadside of 1674 71
White's and Brooke's coffee houses 78
London coffee-house politicians 78
Great Fair on the frozen Thames 79
Lion's head at Button's 80
Trio of notables at Button's 81
Vauxhall Gardens on a gala night 82
Rotunda in Ranelagh Gardens 83
Garraway's coffee house 84
Button's coffee house 84
Slaughter's coffee house 85
Tom's coffee house 85
Lloyd's coffee house 86
Dick's coffee house 87
Grecian coffee house 87
Don Saltero's coffee house 88
British coffee house 88
French coffee house in London 89
XX
ILLUSTRATIONS
Pa<je
Raiuponaux' Royal Drummer ca fg 90
La Foire St.-Germaiu 92
Street coffee vender of Paris 92
Armenian decorations in Paris cafe 93
Corner of liistoric Caf6 de Procope 93
C4if6 de Procope, Paris 9.j
Cashier's desk in coffee liouse, Paris 9G
Caf6 Foy 97
Caf6 des Mille Colonnes 99
Caf 6 de Paris 101
Interior of a typical Parisian cafe 103
Chess at tlie Caf6 de la R^gence 104
Types of colonial coffee roasters 100
Early family coffee roaster 100
Historic relics, early New England 107
Maytlower "coffee grinder" 108
Crown coffee house, Boston lOS
Coffee devices, Massachusetts colony 109
Coft'ee devices of western pioneers 110
Coffee pots of oolouial days 110
Green Dragon tavern. Boston Ill
Metal coffee pots. New York colony 112
Exchange coffee house, Boston 113
President-elect Washington's official wel-
come at Merchants Coffee House 114
King's Arms coffee house, New York IIG
Burns coffee house 117
Merchants coffee house 119
Tontine coffee house 121
Tontine building of 1850 122
Xiblo's Garden 122
Coffee relics, Dutch New York 122
New York's Vauxhall Garden of 1803 123
Tavern and grocers' signs, old New York .... 124
Second London coffee house, Philadelphia . . 127
Selling slaves, old London coffee house 128
City tavern, Philadelphia 129
Coffee-house scene in "Hamilton" 130
Coffee tree, flowers and fruit 132
Germination of the coffee plant 133
Brazil coffee plantation in flower 134
f'offea arahica, Porto Rico 135
Coffea arahica, flower and fruit, Costa Rica. 135
Young Coffea arabica. Kona, Hawaii 136
Survivors of first Liberiau trees in Java .... 130
Coffea arabica in flower. Java 137
Liberian coffee tree, Lamoa, P. 1 138
Coffea congensis, 2J^ years old 138
Flowering of 5-year-old Coffea excelsa 139
Branches of Coffee excelsa 140
Coffea stenophylla 140
Near view of Coffea arahica berries 141
Wild caffein-f ree coffee tree 142
Coffee bean characteristios. 142
Coffea arabica berries 143
Rohusta coffee in flower 144
One-year-old rohusta estate 145
Paije
Coffea Quillou Cowers 146
Quillou coffee tree in blossom 147
Coffea L'gandae 148
Coffea arahica under the microscope 149
Cross-section of coffee bean 150
Cross- section of hull and bean 150
Epicarp and pericarp under microscope.... 151
Endocarp and endosperm under microscope. 152
Spermoderm under microscope 152
Tissues of embryo under microscope 152
Coffee-leaf disease under microscope 353
Green and roasted coffee under microscope. . 153
Green and roasted Bogota under microscope 154
Cross-section of endosperm 156
I'ortiou of the investing membrane , . 157
Structure of the green bean 157
Ground coffee under microscope 167
Coffee tree in bearing, Lamoa, P. 1 196
Early coffee implements 198
Ci-oss-section of mountain slope, Yemen 198
First steps in coffee-growing 199
Coffee nursery, Guatemala 200
Coffee under shade, Porto Rico 201
Boekit Gompong estate, Sumatm 202
Estate in Antioquia, Colombia 203
Weeding and harrowing, Sao Paulo 204
Fazenda Dumout, Sao Paulo 205
Fazenda Guatapara, Sao Paulo 206
Picking coffee, Sao Paulo 207
Intensive cultivation, Sao Paulo 207
Private railroad, Sao Paulo 208
Coffee culture in Sao Paulo 209
Heavily laden coffee tree, Bogota 210
Picking coffee, Bogota 211
Altamira Hacienda, Venezuela 212
Carmen Hacienda, Venezuela 213
Heavy fruiting, Coffea rohusta. Java 214
Road through coffee estate, Java 215
Native picking coffee, Sumatra 216
Administrator's bungalow, Java 216
Administrator's bungalow, Sumatra 217
Coffee culture in Guatemala 218
Indians picking coffee, Guatemala 219
Bungalow, coffee estate, Guatemala 220
Thirty-year-old coffee trees, Mexico 221
Mexican coffee picker. .' 222
Receiving coffee, Mexico 223
Heavily laden coffee tree, Porto Rico 224
Coffee cultivation, Costa Rloa 225
Picking Costa Rica coffee 226
Mountain coffee estate, Costa Rica 226
Mysore coffee estate 227
Coffee growing under shade, India 228
Coffee estate at Harar 229
Wild coffee near Adis Abeba 231
Mocjia coffee growing on terraces 232
Picking Blue Mountain Ijerries, Jamaica... 233
XXI
ILLUSTRATIONS
Page
Coffee pickers, Guadeloupe 234
Coffee in blossom, Panama 235
Robusta coffee, Cochin-Ghina 237
Bourbon trees, French Indo-Ohina 238
Picking coffee in Queensland 239
Coffee in bloom, Kona, Hawaii 240
Coffee at Hamakua, Hawaii 241
Coffee trees, South Kona, Hawaii 242
Plantation near Sagada, P. 1 243
Coffee preparation, Sao Paulo 244
Walker's original disk pulper 246
Early English coffee peeler 246
Group of English cylinder pulpers 247
Copper covers for pulper cylinders 248
Granada unpulped coffee separator 249
Hand-power double-disk pulper 249
Tandem coffee pulper 250
Horizontal coffee washer 251
Vertical coffee washer 251
Coban pulper, Venezuela 252
Niagara power coffee huller 252
British and American coffee driers 253
American Guardiola drier 254
Smout i>eeler and polisher 254
Smout peeler and polisher, exposed 255
O'Krassa's coffee drier 255
Six well-known huUers and separators 256
El Monarca coffee classifier 257
Hydro-electric installation, Guatemala 258
Preparing Brazil coffee for market 259
Working coffee on the drying flats 260
Fermenting and washing tanks, Sao Paulo. 260
Drying grounds, Fazenda Schmidt 261
Prei)aring Colombian coffee for market 262
Old-fashioned ox-power huller 263
Street-car coffee transport, Orizaba 264
Coffee on drying floors, Porto Rico 264
Sun-drying coffee 265
Drying patio, Costa Rica 266
Early Guardiola steam drier 266
Indian women cleaning Mocha coffee 267
Cleaning-and-grading machinery, Aden 268
Drying coffee at Harar 269
Preparing Java coffee for market 270
Coffee transport in Java 271
Meeting of Amsterdam coffee brokers, 1820. 291
Bill of public sale of coffee, 1790 292
Last sample before export, Santos 304
Stamping bags for export 304
Preparing Brazil coffee for export 305
Grading coffee at Santos 306
The test by the cups, Santos 306
New York importers' warehouse, Santos 307
Pack-mule transport in Venezuela 308
Coffee-carrying cart, Guatemala 308
Pack-oxen fording stream, Colombia 308
Coffee transport, Mexico and South America 309
Page
Donkey coffee-transport at Harar 310
Coffee camels at Harar 310
Selling coffee by tapping hands, Aden 310
Packing and transporting coffee, Aden 311
Coffee camel train at Hodeida 312
Methods of loading coffee, Santos 313
Coffee freighter, Cauca River, Colombia 314.
Coffee steamers on the Magdalena 314
Loading heavy cargo on Santa Cecilia 315
Unloading Java coffee from sailing vessel . . 317
Receiving piers for coffee. New York 318
Unloading coffee, covered pier. New York . . 319
Receiving and storing coffee, New York 320
Tester at work. Bush Terminal, New York. 321
Loading lighters, Bush Docks, Brooklyn... 321
New Terminal system on Staten Island 322
Motor tractor. Bush piers 322
Unloading with modern conveyor 323
Coffee handling. New Orleans piers 324
Coffee in steel -covered sheds, New Orleans. 325
Unloading and storing coffee, San Francisco 326
Modern device for handling green coffee .... 327
Handling green coffee at European ports. . . 328
New York Coffee and Sugar Exchange 329
Coffee section, Coffee and Sugar Exchange. . 330
Blackboards, Coffee Exchange 331
"Coffee afloat" blackboard 332
Well known green-coffee marks 339
Bourbon-Santos beans, roasted 343
Flat and Bourbon-Santos beans, roasted... 343
Rio beans, roasted 343
Mexican beans, roasted 347
Guatemala beans, roasted 347
Bogota (Colombia) beans, roasted 348
Maracaibo beans, roasted 349
Mocha benas, roasted 351
Washed Java beans, roasted. 353
Sample- roasting and cup- testing outfit 357
Modern gas coffee-roasting plant 380
Sixteen-cylinder coal roasting plant 382
Green-coffee separating and milling machines 384
English gas coffee-roasting plant 386
German gas coffee- roasting plant 386
French gas coffeenroasting plant 387
Jumbo coffee roaster, Arbuckle plant 388
Roasting plant of Reid, Murdoch & Co 389
Complete gas coffee-plant installation 390
Burns Jubilee gas roaster 391
Burns coal roaster 392
Open perforated cylinder with flexible back
head 392
Trying the roast 394
Monitor gas roaster 394
A group of roasting-room accessories 394
Dumping the roast 395
A four-bag coffee flnisher 396
Burns sample-coffee roaster 396
xxn
ILLUSTRATIONS
Page
Lambert coal coffee-roasting outfit 397
Coles No. 22 grinding mill 398
Monitor coffee-granulating machine 398
C'lallenge pulverizer 398
Burns No. 12 grinding mill 399
Monitor steel-cut grinder, separator, etc 399
Johnson carton-filling, weighing, and sealing
machine 400
Ideal steel -cut mill 400
Smyser package-making and filling machine 401
Automatic coffee-packing machine 402
Complete coffee-cartoning outfit 403
Automatic coffee-weighing machines 404
Units in manufacture of soluWe coffee 405
Tyi^s of coffee containers 411
Fresh-roasted-coffee idea in retailing 414
Premium tea and coffee dealer's display. . . . 416
Chain-store interior 417
Familiar A & P store front 418
Specialist idea in coffee merchandising 419
Monitor gas roaster, cooler, and stoner 420
Royal gas coffee roaster for retailers 420
Burns half-bag roaster, cooler, and stoner. 421
Lambert Jr. roasting outfit for retailers 421
Faulder and Simplex gas roasters 422
Coffee roasters used in Paris shops 423
Small German roasters 424
Popular French retail roaster 424
Uno cabinet gas roaster and cooler 424
Educational window exhibit 425
Better-class American grocery, interior 426
Prize-winning window display 427
Americanized English grocer's shop 429
Famous package coffees 430
First coffee advertisement in U. S 433
Coffee advertisement of 1790 434
First colored handbill for package coffee. . . 435
Reverse side of colored handbill 435
St. Louis handbill of 1854 436
Advertising-card copy, 1873 437
Handbill copy of the seventies 437
Box-end sticker, 1833 438
Chase & Sanborn advertisement, 1888 438
A Goldberg cartoon, 1910 439
Copy used by Chase & Sanborn, 1900 439
An effective cut-out 442
How coffee is advertised to the trade 443
Joint Coffee Trade Publicity Committee... 447
Magazine and newspaper copy, 1919 449
Copy that stressed helpfulness of coffee,
1919-20 450
Joint Committee's house organ 451
Introductory medical-journal copy 451
Telling the doctors the truth, 1920 452
Joint Committee's attractive booklets 453
More medical journal copy, 1920 454
Magazine and newspaper copy, 1921 455
Page
Educating the doctor, 1922 456
Magazine and newspaper copy, 1922 457
Specimen of early Yuban copy 459
Historical association in advertising 459
Package coffee advertising in 1922 460
The social distinction argument 461
Drawing upon history for atmosphere 461
An impressive electric sign, Chicago 462
How coffee is advertised outdoors 463
Attractive car cards, spring of 1922 464
Effective iced-coff ee copy 465
European advertising novelty, New York . . 465
Coenties Slip, in days of sailing vessels 466
First U. S. coffee-grinder patent 469
Carter's Pull-out roaster patent 469
First registered trade mark for coffee 470
Original Arbuckle coffee packages 471
Merchants coffee house tablet 473
Departed dominant figures in New York
green coffee trade 476
"Their association with New York green
coffee trade dates back nearly fifty years" 477
Green coffee trade-builders who have passed
on 478
"Their race is run, their course is done"'.. 479
112 Front Street, New York, 1879 480
At 87 Wall Street, New York, years ago 480
Wall and Front Streets, New York, 1922. . . 481
Front Street, New York, 1922 483
In the New Orleans coffee district 486
Green coffee district. New Orleans 487
California Street, San Francisco 488
San Francisco's coffee district 489
Pioneer coffee roasters. New York City 493
Oldtime New York coffee roasters 495
Pioneer coffee roasters of the North and
East, U. S 500
Pioneer coffee roasters of the South and
West, U. S 504
Ground coffee price list of 1862 507
Organization convention, N. C. R. A., 1911.. 510
Former presidents, N. C. R. A 512
Earliest coffee manuscript 540
Song from "The Coffee House" 555
Dr. Johnson's seat, the Cheshire Cheese 567
Original coffee room, old Cock Tavern 568
Morning gossip in the coffee room 569
"His Warmest Welcome at an Inn" 571
Alexander Pope at Button's, 1730 577
Dutch coffee house, 1650 (by Van Ostade) . . 586
White's coffee house, 1733 (by Hogarth).,. 588
Tom King's, 1738 (by Hogarth) 589
Petit Dejeuner (by Boucher) 590
Coffee service in the home of Madame de
Pompadour (by Van Loo) 590
Madame Du Barry (by Decreuse) 591
Coffee house at Cairo (by G6r6me) 592
XXIII
ILLUSTRATIONS
Page
Kaffeebesuch ( by Philippi) 593
Coffee comes to the aid of the Muse (by
Ruffio) 593
M«(l dog in a c-offee house (by Rowlaiidson ) 594
Napoleon and the cure (by Charlet) 595
Coffee, a chanson (music by Colet) 596
Statue of Kolschitzlvy 597
Betty's Aria, Bach's coffee cantata 598
Caf6 Pedrocdii, Padua 599
Coffee grinder set with jewels. 600
Italian wrought-iron coffee roaster 6(X)
Seventeenth-century tea and coffee pots... 601
Lantern coffee pot, 1692 602
Follvingham pot, 1715-16. 602
AVastell ]K>t. 1720-21 603
Dish of coffee-boy design, 1692 603
Cliinese porcelain coffee pot 604
Silver coffee pots, early 18th century 604
Silver coffee pots, 18th century 605
Pottery and porcelain pots 606
Silver coffee pots, late 18th century 607
Porcelain pots, Metropolitan Museum 608
Vienna coffee pot, 1830 609
Spanish coffee pot, 18th century 609
Silver coffee pots in American collections. . 610
Coffee pot by Wm. Shaw and Win. Priest. . 611
Pot of Sheffield plate, 18th century 611
Pot by Ephraim Brasher 611
French silver coffee i)ot 612
Green Dragon tavern coffee urn <j12
Coffee pots by American silversmiths ()13
Twentieth-century American coffee service. 613
Turkish coffee set, Peter collection 614
Oldest coffee grinder •. 616
Grain mill used by Greeks and Romans 616
First coffee roaster 616
First cylinder roaster, 1650 616
Historical relics, U. S. National Museum.. 617
Turkish coffee mill 618
Early French wall and table grinders 618
Bronze and brass mortars, 17th century. . . . 619
Early American coffee roasters 619
Roaster with three-sided hood 620
Roasitdng, making, and serving devices. 17th
century • 620
Englisli and French coffee grinders 621
Eighteenth-century roaster 621
Original French drip pot 621
Belgian. Russian, and French pewter pots. . 622
17th and 18th century pewter pots 623
Count Rumford's percolator 623
Drawings of early French coffee makers... 624
Early Fi'ench filtration devices 624
Early American coffee-maker patents...... 625
French coffee makers. 19th century 625
First ISnglish commercial roaster patent... 626
Early French coffee- roasting machines 627
Page
Battery of Carter pull-out machines 628
Early Englisli and American roasters 630
Early Englisli and American coffee-making
devices 632
Dakin roasting machine of 1848 633
Globe stove roaster of 1860 634
Hyde's combined roa.ster and stove 634
Original Burns roaster, 1864 635
Burns granulating mill, 1872-74 636
Napier's vacuum machine 637
German gas and coal roasting machines... 638
Other German coffee roasters 639
Original Enterprise mill 640
Max Thiirmer's quick gas roaster 640
An English gas coffee-roasting plant 641
Frencli globular roaster 642
Sirocco machine (French) 642
English roasting and grinding equipment.. 643
Magic gas machine (French) 644
Burns Jubilee gas machine 644
Double gas roasting outfit (French) 645
Lambert's Victory gas machine 646
One of the first electric mills 647
English electric-fuel roaster 648
Ben Franklin electric coffee roaster 648
Enterprise hand store mill 649
Latest types electric store mills 650
Italian rapid coffee-making machines 651
Working of Italian rapid machines 652
La Victoria Arduino Mignonne 652
N. C. R. A. Home coffee mill 653
Manthey-Zorn rapid infuser and dispenser. . 653
Tricolette, single-cup filter device 654
Moorish coffee house in Algiers 656
Coffee house in Cairo 656
Coffee service in Cairo barber shop 657
Coffee-laden camels, Arabia 658
Arabian coffee liouse 658
Mahommedan brewing coffee for guest 659
Native cafe, Harar 661
Early coffee, tea, and chocolate service 661
Nubian slave girl with coffee service 662
Persian coffee service, 1737 663
In a Turkish coffee house 664
Roasting coffee outside a Turkisli caf6 (>64
Turkish caffinet, early 19th century 665
Coffee-making in Turke.v 666
Street coffee vender in the Levant 666
A coffee house in Syria 667
Cafetan — garb of oriental caf6-keeper 668
Street coffee service in Constantinople 668
Riverside caf6 in Damascus 669
Coffee al fresco in Jerusalem 671
Caf§ Schrangl, Vienna 672
Favorite English way of making coffee 673
A caf§ of Ye Mecca Company, Loudon 673
Groom's coffee liouse, London 674
XXIV
ILLUSTRATIONS
Page
Caf6 Monico, Picadilly Circus, London 674
Gatti's, The Strand. London 675
Tea lounge, Hotel Savoy, London 675
Two popular places for coffee in London 676
Temple Bar restaurant, London 677
Tea balcony, Hotel Cecil, London 677
One of Slater's chain-shops, London 677
St. James's restaurant, Picadilly, London... 678
An A. B. C. shop. London 678
Halt of caravaners at a serai, Bulgaria. . . . 678
Cafe de la Paix, Paris 679
Sidewalk annex, Caf6 de la Paix 680
Caf^ de la R4gence, Paris 681
Cafe de hi Regence in 1922 682
One of the Biard cafgs, Paris 683
Restaurant Proeope, 1922 683
Morning coffee at a Boulevard caf6 684
Caf§ Bauer, Unter den Linden, Berlin 684
Cafe Bauer, exterior 685
Kranzler's Unter den Linden, Berlin 685
Swedish coffee boilers ; 687
Sidewalk caf6, Lisbon 687
Page
Coffee rooms replacing hotel bars, U. S 688
Britannia coffee pot — a Lincoln relic 690
Coffee service. Hotel Astor, New York 691
Early coffee making in Persia 694
Napier vacuum coffee maker 700
Xapier-List steam coffee machine 700
Finley Acker's filter-paper coffee pot 700
Kin-Hee pot in operation 701
Tricolator in operation 701
King percolator 701
Three American coffee-making machines in
operation 7(^
How the Tru-Bru pot operates 702
Coffee-making devices used in U. S 703
English hotel coffee-making machines 706
Well-known makes of large coffee urns 707
Popular German drip jtot 708
Section of roasted bean, magnified 719
Cross-section of roasted bean, magnified... 720
Coarse grind under the microscope 720
Medium grind under the microscope 721
Fine-meal grind under the mici-oscope 721
Portraits
Page
Ach, F. J 447, 512
Akers, Fred 495
Ames, Allan P 447
Arbuckle, John 523
Arnold, Benjamin Greene 476, 517
Arnold, F. B 476
Bayne, William 479
Bayne, William, Jr 447
Beard, Eli 493
Beard, Samuel 493
Bennett, William H 479
Bickford, C. E 478
Boardman, Thomas J 500
Board'man, William 500
Brand, Carl W 512
Brandenstein, M. J 504
Burns, Jabez 527
Cauby, Edward 500
Casanas, Ben C 512
CaucOiois. F. A 493
Chase, Caleb 500
Cheek, J. 0 504. 515
Clos-set, Joseph 504
Coste, Felix 447
Crossman, Geo. W 479
Devers, A. H 504
Dwinell, James F 500
Eppens, Fred. 495
Eppens, Julius A 495, 497
Eppens. W. H 493, 495
Page
Evans, David G. 504
Fischer, Benedickt 493
Flint, J. G 500
Folger, J. A., Jr 504
Folger, J. A., Sr 504
Forbes, A. E 504
Forbes, Jas. H 504
Geiger, Frank J 500
Gillies, Jas. W 493
Gillies, Wright 493
Grossman, William 500
Harrison, D. Y 500
Harrison, W. H 500
Haulenbeek, Peter 493
Hayward, Martin 500
Heekin, James 500
Jones, W. T 504
Kimball. O. G 478
Kinsella, W. J 504
Kirkland, Alexander 495
Kolschitzky, Franz George 50
McLaughlin, W. F 500
Mahood, Samuel 500
Mayo, Henry 495
Meehan, P. C 477
Menezes, Th. Langgaard de 446
Meyer, Robert 511
Peck, Edwin H 477
Phyfe, Jas. W 478
Pierce, O. W., Sr 500
XXV
ILLUSTRATIONS
Page
Pupke, John F 495
Purcell, Joseph 476
Reid, Fred 495
Reid, Thomas 493, 495
Roome, Ck)l. William P 499
Russell, James C 478
Sanborn, James S 500
Schilling, A 504
Schotten, Julius J 504, 512
Schotten, William 504
Seelye, Frank R 512
Sielcken, Hermann 476, 519
Simmonds, H 477
^innott, J. B 504
SiiBith, L. B 493
Smith, M. E 504
S'prague, Albert A 500
Page
Stephens, Henry A 500
Stoffregen, Charles 504
Stoflfregen, C. H 447
Taylor, James H 477
Thomson, A, M 500
Van Loan, Thomas 498
Weir, Ross W 447, 512
Westf eldt, George .' 479
Widlar, Francis 500
Wilde, Samuel 493
Withington, Elijah 493
Woolson, Alvin M 500
Wright, George C 500
Wright, George S 447
Young, Samuel 500
Zinsmeister, J 504
Maps, Charts, and Diagrams
Page
Map of London coffee-house district, 1748 ... 76
Formula for Caffein 160
Commercial coffee chart 191
Eiffel and Woolwortih towers in coffee 272
World's coffee cup and largest ship 275
Coffee exi>orts, 1850-1920 277
Coffee exports, 1916-1920 277
Brazil coffee exports, 1850-1920 278
World's coffee consumption, 1850 - 1920 286
Coffee imports, 1916-1920 286
World trend of consumption of tea and
coffee, 1860-1920 288
Coffee map of World (folded insert) facing 288
Pre-war annual average production of coffee
by continents 294
Pre-war annual average production of coffee
by countries 294
Pre-war average annual imports of coffee
into U. S. by continents 295
Page
Pre-war average annual imports of coffee
into U. S. by countries 295
Pre-war coffee-imports chart , 297
Pre-war consumption and price chart 297
Coffee map, Brazil 342
Coffee map, Sao Paulo, Minas, and Rio 344
Mild-coffee map, 1 346
Coffee map, Africa and Arabia 352
Mild-coffee map, 2 354
Complete reference table (21 pp.) 358
Plan of milling-machine connections 381
Plan of green-coffee-mixer connections 383
Layout for coffee and tea department 418
Chart, advertising of coffee and coffee sub-
stitutes, 1911-20 440
Charts, per capita consumption of coffee,
and coffee and substitute advertising 441
Chart, plan of advertising campaign 448
Chart, private-brand advertising, 1921 458
XXVI
A COFFEE THESAURUS
Encomiums and descriptive phrases applied to the plant, the berry,
and the beverage
The Plant
The precious plant
This friendly plant
Mocha's happy tree
The gift of Heaven
The plant with the jessamine - like flowers
The most exquisite perfume of Araby the blest
Given to the human race by the gift of the Gods
The Berry
The magic bean
The divine fruit
Fragrant berries
Rich, royal berry
Voluptuous berry
The precious berry
The healthful bean
The Heavenly berry
The marvelous berry
This all-healing berry
Yemen's fragrant berry
The little aromatic berry
Little brown Arabian berry
Thought-inspiring bean of Arabia
The smoking, ardent beans Aleppo sends
That wild fruit which gives so beloved a drink
The Beverage
Nepenthe
Festive cup
Juice divine
Nectar divine
Ruddy mocha
A man's drink
Lovable liquor
Delicious mocha
The magic drink
This rich cordial
Its stream divine
The family drink
The festive drink
Coffee is our gold
Nectar of all men
The golden mocha
This sweet nectar
Celestial ambrosia
The friendly drink
The cheerful drink
The essential drink
The sweet draught
The divine draught —
The grateful liquor
The universal drink
The American drink
The amber beverage
The convivial drink
The universal thrill
King of all perfumes
The cup of happiness
The soothing draught
Ambrosia of the Gods —
The intellectual drink
The aromatic draught
The salutary beverage
The good - fellow drink
The drink of democracy —
The drink ever glorious
Wakeful and civil drink
The beverage of sobriety — -
A psychological necessity^
The fighting man's drink -^'
Loved and favored drink
The symbol of hospitality —
This rare Arabian cordial
Inspirer of men of letters
The revolutionary beverage
Triumphant stream of sable
Grave and wholesome liquor"'^
The drink of the intellectuals—
A restorative of sparkling wit
Its color is the seal of its purity
The sober and wholesome drink
Lovelier than a thousand kisses — ,
This honest and cheering beverage
A wine which no sorrow can resist
The symbol of human brotherhood
At once a pleasure and a medicine
The beverage of the friends of God
The fire which consumes our griefs
Gentle panacea of domestic troubles
The autocrat of the breakfast table- —
The beverage of the children of God-
King of the American breakfast table
Soothes you softly out of dull sobriety
The cup that cheers but not inebriates*
Coffee, which makes the politician wise
Its aroma is the pleasantest in all nature
The sovereign drink of pleasure and health*
The indispensable beverage of strong nations
The stream in which we wash away our sorrows
The enchanting perfume that a zephyr has
brought
Favored liquid which fills all my soul with
delight
The delicious libation we pour on the altar of
friendship
This invigorating drink which drives sad care
from the heart
• First written about tea ; Improperly claimed to
have been written of coffee.
XXVII
EVOLUTION OF A CUP OF COFFEE
Showing the various steps through which
the hean passes from plantation to cup
1 Planting the seed in nursery
2 Transplanting into roAvs
3 Cultivating and pruning
4 Picking the cherries
5 Pulping
6 Fermenting
7 Washing
8 Drying in the parchment
9 Hulling
10 Polishing
11 Grading
12 Transporting to the seaport
13 Buying and selling for export
14 Transhipment overseas
15 Buying and selling at wholesale
16 Shipment to the point of manufacture
17 Separating
18 Milling
19 Mixing or blending
20 Roasting
21 Cooling and stoning
22 Buying and selling at retail
23 Grinding
24 ^Making the beverage
>r^
%^
*^.^
■%; ^^-^K^X
-W '^#
Chapter I
DEALING WITH THE ETYMOLOGY OF COFFEE
Origin and translation of the word from the Arabian into various
languages — Views of many writers
THE history of the word coffee involves
several phonetic difficulties. The
11^. European languages got the name of
^■e beverage about 1600 from the original
Ai-abic \^4^ qahwah, not directly, but
ihrough its Turkish form, kahveh. This was
the name, not of the plant, but the beverage
made from its infusion, being originally one
of the names employed for wine in Arabic.
Sir James Murray, in the New English
Dictionary, says that some have conjectured
that the wordjsAXoreign, perhaps, A frica.n,
word disguised, and have thought it con-
nected with the name Kaffa^ a^ tqwn^in^|hoaj
southwest Abyssinia, reputed native place
of the coffee plant, but that of this there is
no evidence, and the name qahwah is not
given to the berry or plant, which is called
* » hunn, the native name in Shoa be-
^* ing bun.
Contributing to a symposium on the
etymology of the word coffee in Notes and
Queries, 1909, James Piatt, Jr., said:
The Turkish form might have been written
kahv6, as its final h was never sounded at any
time. Sir James Murray draws attention to the
existence of two European types, one like the
French caU, Italian caffd, the other like the
English coffee, Dutch Icoffie. He explains the
vowel 0 in the second series as apparently rep-
resenting au, from Turkish ahv. This seems
unsupi>orted by evidence, and the v is already
represented by the ff, so on Sir James's assump-
tion coffee must stand for kahv-ve, which is
unlikely. The change from a to o, in my opin-
ion, is better accounted for as an imperfect
appreciation. The exact sound of a in Arabic
and other Oriental languages is that of the Eng-
lish short u, as in "cuff." This sound, so easy
to us, is a great stumbling-block to other nations.
I judge that Dutch koffie and kindred forms are
iniperfect attempts at the notation of a vowel
which the writers could not grasp. It is clear
that the French type is more correct. The Ger-
mans have corrected their koffee, which they
may have got from the Dutch, into kaffee. The
Scandinavian languages have adopted the
French form. Many must wonder how the hv
of the original so persistently becomes ff in the
European equivalents. Sir James Murray
makes no attempt to solve this problem.
Virendranath Chattopadhyaya, who also
contributed to the Notes and Queries sym-
posium, argued that the hw of the Arabic
qahwah becomes sometimes ff and some-
times only / or I) in European translations
because some languages, such as English,
have strong syllabic accents (stresses),
while others, as French, have none. Again,
he points out that the surd aspirate h is
heard in some languages, but is hardly au-
dible in others. Most Europeans tend to
leave it out altogether.
Col. W. F. Prideaux, another contribu-
tor, argued that the European languages
got one form of the w^ord coffee directly
from the Arabic qahwah, and quoted from
Hobson- Jobson in support of this :
Chaoua in 1598, Cahoa in IGIO, Cahue in 1G15 ;
while Sir Thomas Herbert (1638) expressly
states that "they drink (in Persia) ♦ * * above
all the rest, Coho or Gopha: by Turk and Arab
called Caphe and Cahua." Here the Persian,
Turkish, and Arabic pronunciations are clearly
differentiated.
Col. Prideaux then calls, as a witness to
the Anglo-Arabic pronunciation, one whose
evidence was not available when the Neiv
English Dictionary and Hobson- Jobson
articles were written. This is John Jour-
dain, a Dorsetshire seaman, whose Diary
was printed by the Hakluyt Society in 1905.
On May 28, 1609, he records that "in the
ALL ABOUT COFFEE
afternoone wee departed out of Hatch (Al-
Hauta, the capital of the Lahej district
near Aden), and travelled untill three in
the morninge, and then wee rested in the
plaine fields untill three the next dale,
neere unto a cohoo howse in the desert."
On June 5 the party, traveling from Hippa
(Ibb), "laye in the mountaynes, our
camells being wearie, and our selves little
better. This mountain is called Nasmarde
(Nakil Sumara), where all the cohoo
grows." Farther on was "a little village,
where there is sold cohoo and fruite. The
seeds of this cohoo is a greate marchandize,
for it is carried to grand Cairo and all
other places of Turkey, and to the Indias."
Prideaux, however, mentions that another
sailor, William Revett, in his journal
(1609) says, referring to Mocha, that "Sha-
omer Shadli (Shaikh 'Ali bin 'Omar esh-
Shadil) was the fyrst inventour for
drynking of eoffe, and therefor had in es-
teemation." This rather looks to Prideaux
as if on the coast of Arabia, and in the mer-
cantile towns, the Persian pronunciation
was in vogue ; whilst in the interior, where
Jourdain traveled, the Englishman repro-
duced the Arabic.
\ Mr. Chattopadhyaya, discussing Col. Pri-
^' deaux's views as expressed above, said:
Col. Prideaux may doubt "if the worthy mar-
iner, in entering the word in his log, was influ-
enced by the abstruse principles of phonetics
enunciated" by me, but he will admit that the
change from kahvah to coifee is a phonetic
change, and must be due to the operation of some
phonetic principle. The average man, when he
endeavours to write a foreign word in his own
tongue, is handicapped considerably by his in-
herited and acquired phonetic capacity. And,
in fact, if we take the quotations made in
"Hobson-Jobson," and classify the various forms
of the word coffee according tc the nationality
of the writer, we obtain very interesting results.
Let us take Englishmen and Dutchmen first.
In Danvers's Letters (IGll) we have both "colio
pots" and "coffao pots"; Sir T. Roe (1615) and
Terry (161G) have cohu; Sir T. Herbert (1638)
has coho and copha; Evelyn (1637), coffee;
Fryer (1673) coUo; Ovington (1690), coffee; and
Valentijn (1726), coffi. And from the two ex-
amples given by Col. Prideaux, we see that
Jourdain (1609) has cohoo, and Revett (1609)
has coffe.
To the above should be added the follow-
ing by English writers, given in Foster's
English Factories in India (1618-21,
1622 - 23, 1624 - 29) : eowha (1619), cowhe,
couha (1621),coffa (1628).
Let us now see what foreigners (chiefly
French and Italian) write. The earliest
European mention is by Rauwolf, who
knew it in Aleppo in 1573. He has the
form clmube. Prospero Alpini (1580) has
caova; Paludanus (1598) chaoua; Pyrard
de Laval (1610) cahoa; P. Delia Valle
(1615) cahue; Jac. Bontius (1631) caveah;
and the Journal d'Antoine Galland (1673)
cave. That is. Englishmen use forms of a
certain distinct type, viz., cohu, coho, coffao,
coffe, copha, coffee, which differ from the
more correct transliteration of foreigners.
In 1610 the Portuguese Jew, Pedro
Teixeira (in the Hakluyt Society's edition
of his Travels) used the word kavdh.
The inferences from these transitional
forms seem to be: 1. The word found its
way into the languages of Europe both
from the Turkish and from the Arabic. 2.
The English forms (which have strong
stress on the first syllable) have 6 instead
of a, and / instead of h. 3. The foreign
forms are unstressed and have no h. The
original v or w (or labialized u) is re-
tained or changed into /.
It may be stated, accordingly, that the
chief reason for the existence of two dis-
tinct types of spelling is the omission of
h in unstressed languages, and the conver-
sion of h into / under strong stress in
stressed languages. Such conversion often
takes place in Turkish ; for example, silah
dar in Persian (which is a highly stressed
language) becomes zilif dar in Turkish. In
the languages of India, on the other hand,
in spite of the fact that the aspirate is
usually very clearly sounded, the word
qafivah is pronounced kaiva by the less
educated elasses, owing to the syllables be-
ing equally stressed.
Now for the French viewpoint. Jardin '
opines that, as regards the etymology of the
word coffee, scholars are not agreed and
perhaps never will be. Dufour ' says the
word is derived from caouhe, a name given
by the Turks to the beverage prepared from
the seed. Chevalier d'Arvieux, French
consul at Alet, Savary, and Trevoux, in his '
dictionary, think that coffee comes from the
Arabic, but from the word cahoueh or qua-
weh, meaning to give vigor or strength, be-
cause, says d'Arvieux, its most general ef-
fect is to fortify and strengthen. Ta ver-
nier combats this opinion. Moseley attrib-
utes the origin of the word coffee to Kaffa.
Sylvestre de Sacy, in his Chrestomathie
'.Tardin. fidelestan. Le CafHer et le Caf4. Paris,
1895 (p. 55).
'Dufour, Philippe Sylvestre. TraiUs Nouveaux et
Gurieux du Cafi, du Th6, et du Ohocolat. Lyons^
ETYMOLOGY OP COFFEE
8
Arabe, published in 1806, thinks that the
word kahwa, synonymous with makli,
roasted in a stove, might very well be the
etymology of the word coffee. D'Alembert
in his encyclopedic dictionary, writes the
word caffe. Jardin concludes that what-
ever there may be in these various etymolo-
gies, it remains a fact that the word coffee
comes from an Arabian word, whether it be
kahua, kahoueh, kaffa or kahwa, and that
the peoples who have adopted the drink
have all modified the Arabian word to suit
their pronunciation. This is shown by
giving the word as written in various mod-
ern languages:
French, cafe; Breton, kafe; German,
kaffee (coffee tree, kaffeehaum) ; Dutch,
koffie (coffee tree, koffiehoonen) ; Danish,
kaffe; Finnish, kahvi; Hungarian, kave;
Bohemian, kava; Polish, kawa; Roumanian,
cafea; Croatian, kafa; Servian, kava; Rus-
sian, kophe; Swedish, kaffe; Spanish, cafe;
Basque, kaffia; Italian, caffe; Portuguese,
cafe; Latin (scientific), coffea; Turkisii,
kahue; Greek, kafeo; Arabic, qahwah (cof-
fee berry, hun) ; Persian, qehve (coffee ber-
ry, bun") ; Annamite, ca-phe; Cambodian,
kafe; Dukni*, bunbund^ ; Teluyan', kapri-
vittidu; Tamil*, kapi-kottai or kopi; Can-
areze\ kapi-bija; Chinese, kia-fey, teoutse;
Japanese, kelii; Malayan, kawa, koppi;
Abyssinian, bonn'; Foulak, legal cafe';
Sousou, houri caff'; Marquesan, kapi;
Chinook", kaufee; Volapuk, kaf; Esperanto,
kafva.
'Coffee covered with the skin is called boun, and
the eoftee-tree, boun-tree (aejar et boun).
*These four dialects are spoken in Hindustan.
''Notice must be taken of the similarity in the names
of coffee in Hindustan and Abyssinia, and of the name
of the coffee-tree as given by ancient authors.
"See note 3 above.
''Legal and Houri mean tree.
"North-.^merican Indian.
ALL ABOUT COFFEE
THE FAIRY BEAUTY OP' A COFFEE TREE IN FLOWER
Chapter II
HISTORY OF COFFEE PROPAGATION
A brief account of the cultivation of the coffee plant in the Old World
and its introduction into the Neiv — A romantic coffee adventure
THE history of the propagation of the
coffee plant is closely interwoven
with that of the early history of
coffee drinking, but for the purposes of this
chapter we shall consider only the story of
the inception and growth of the cultivation
of the coffee tree, or shrub, bearing the
seeds, or berries, from which the drink, cof-
fee, is made.
Careful research discloses that most au-
thorities agree that the coffee plant is indig-
enous to Abyssinia, and probably Arabia,
whence its cultivation spread throughout
the tropics. The first reliable mention of
the properties and uses of the plant is by
an Arabian physician toward the close of
the ninth century A. I)., and it is reason-
able to suppose that before that time the
plant was found growing wild in Abyssinia
and perhaps in Arabia. If it be true, as
Ludolphus writes,' that the Abyssinians
came out of Arabia into Ethiopia in the
early ages, it is possible that they may have
brought the coffee tree with them; but the
Arabians must still be given the credit for
discovering and promoting the use of the
beverage, and also for promoting the propa-
gation of the plant, even if they found it in
Abyssinia and brought it to Yemen.
Some authorities believe that the first cul-
tivation of coffee in Yemen dates back to
575 A. D., M'hen the Persian invasion put
an end to the P]thiopian rule of the negus
Caleb, who conquered the country in 525.
Certainly the discovery of the beverage
resulted in the cultivation of the plant in
Abyssinia and in Arabia; but its progress
Avas slow until the 15th and 16th centuries,
when it appears as intensively carried on
'r<a Uoquo, Jean.
I'arls, 17J(J.
Voyage de I' Arabic Heureuae.
in the Yemen district of Arabia. The
Arabians were jealous of their new found
and lucrative industry, and for a time suc-
cessfully prevented its spread to other
countries by not permitting any of the pre-
cious berries to leave the country unless
they had first been steeped in boiling water
or parched, so as to destroy their powers of
germination. It may be that many of the
early failures successfully to introduce the
cultivation of the coffee plant into other
lands was also due to the fact, discovered
later, that the seeds soon lose their germi-
nating power.
However, it was not possible to watch
every avenue of transport, with thousand.^
of pilgrims journeying to and from Mecca
every year ; and so there would appear to be
some reason to credit the Indian tradition
concerning the introduction of coffee culti-
vation into southern India by Baba Budan,
a Moslem pilgrim, as early as 1600, although
a better authority gives the date as 1695.
Indian tradition relates that Baba Budan
planted his seeds near the hut he built for
himself at Chickmaglur in the mountains
of Mysore, where, only a few years since,
the writer found the descendants of these
first plants growing under the shade of the
centuries-old original jungle trees. The
greater part of the plants cultivated by the
natives of Kurg and Mysore appear to have
come from the Baba Budan importation.
It was not until 1840 that the English be-
gan the cultivation of coffee in India. The
plantations extend now from the extreme
north of Mysore to Tuticorin.
Early Cidtivation by the Dutch
In the latter part of the 16th century,
German, Italian, and Dutch botanists and
5
6
ALL ABOUT COFFEE
travelers brought back from the Levant
considerable information regarding the
new plant and the beverage. In 1614 en-
terprising Dutch traders began to examine
into the possibilities of coffee cultivation
and coffee trading. In 1616 a coffee plant
was successfully transported from Mocha
to Holland. In 1658 the Dutch started the
cultivation of coffee in Ceylon, although
the Arabs are said to have brought the
plant to the island prior to 1505. In 1670
an attempt was made to cultivate coffee on
European soil at Dijon, France, but the
result was a failure.
In 1696, at the instigation of Nicolaas
Witsen, then burgomaster of Amsterdam,
Adrian Van Ommen, commander at Mala-
bar, India, caused to be shipped from Kan-
anur, Malabar, to Java, the first coffee
plants introduced into that island. They
were grown from seed of the Goffea arabica
brought to Malabar from Arabia. They
were planted by Governor-General Willem
Van Outshoorn on the Kedawoeng estate
near Batavia, but were subsequently lost
by earthquake and flood. In 1699 Henricus
Zwaardecroon imported some slips, or cut-
tings, of coffee trees from Malabar into
Java. These were more successful, and be-
came the progenitors of all the coffees of
the Dutch East Indies. The Dutch were
then taking the lead in the propagation of
the coffee plant.
In 1706 the first samples of Java coffee,
and a coffee plant grown in Java, were re-
ceived at the Amsterdam botanical gardens.
Many plants were afterward propagated
from the seeds produced in the Amsterdam
gardens, and these were distributed to
some of the best known botanical gardens
and private conservatories in Europe.
While the Dutch were extending the cul-
tivation of the plant to Sumatra, the
Celebes, Timor, Bali, and other islands of
the Netherlands Indies, the French were
seeking to introduce coffee cultivation into
their colonies. Several attempts were made
to transfer young plants from the Amster-
dam botanical gardens to the botanical gar-
dens at Paris; but all were failures.
In 1714, however, as a result of negotia-
tions entered into between the French gov-
ernment and the municipality of Amster-
dam, a young and vigorous plant about five
feet tall was sent to Louis XIV at the*
chateau of Marly by the burgomaster of
Amsterdam. The day following, it was
transferred to the Jardin des Plantes at
Paris, where it was received with appro-
priate ceremonies by Antoine de Jussieu,
professor of botany in charge. This tree
was destined to be the progenitor of most
of the coffees of the French colonies, as well
as of those of South America, Central
America, and Mexico,
The Romance of Captain Gabriel de Clieu
Two unsuccessful attempts were made to
transport to the Antilles plants grown from
the seed of the tree presented to Louis XIV ;
but the honor of eventual success was won
by a young Norman gentleman, Gabriel
Mathieu de Clieu, a naval officer, serving at
the time as captain of infantry at Martin-
ique. The story of de Clieu 's achievement
is the most romantic chapter in the history
of the propagation of the coffee plant.
His personal affairs calling him to
France, de Clieu conceived the idea of util-
izing the return voyage to introduce coffee
cultivation into Martinique. His first diffi-
culty lay in obtaining several of the plants
then being cultivated in Paris, a difficulty
at last overcome through the instrumental-
ity of M. de Chirac, royal physician, or, ac-
cording to a letter written by de Clieu
himself, through the kindly offices of a lady
of quality to whom de Chirac could give no
refusal. The plants selected were kept at
Rochefort by M. Begon, commissary of the
department, until the departure of de Clieu
for Martinique. Concerning the exact date
of de Clieu 's arrival at Martinique with the
coffee plant, or plants, there is much con-
fiict of opinion. Some authorities give the
date as 1720, others 1723. Jardin " suggests
that the discrepancy in dates may arise
from de Clieu, with praiseworthy persever-
ance, having made the voyage twice. The
first time, according to Jardin, the plants
perished ; but the second time de Clieu had
planted the seeds when leaving France and
these survived, "due, they say, to his hav-
ing given of his scanty ration of water to
moisten them. ' ' No reference to a preced-
ing voyage, however, is made by de Clieu
in his own account, given in a letter written
to the Annee Litteraire ^ in 1774. There is
also a difference of opinion as to whether
de Clieu arrived with one or three plants.
He himself says "one" in the letter re-
ferred to.
According to the most trustworthy data,
de Clieu embarked at Nantes, 1723. * He
''.Tardiii. firlelestan.
1895 (p. 102).
■KAnni^e fjitt^raire.
*r''ranklin, Alfred.
Paris, 1833,
Le Caf^ier et le GafS. Paris,
Paris, 1774 (vol. vi : p. 217).
'Lia Vie Privic d'4-tttrefoit.
COFFEE PROPAGATION
had installed his precious plant in a box
covered with a glass frame in order to ab-
sorb the rays of the sun and thus better to
retain the stored-up heat for cloudy
days. Among the passengers one man, en-
vious of the young officer, did all in his
power to wrest from him the glory of suc-
cess. Fortunately his dastardly attempt
failed of its intended effect.
"It is useless," writes de Clieu in his
letter to the A?inee lAtteraire, "to recount
I
Captain de Clieu Shares His Drinking Water
With the Cofj-ee Plant He Is Carrying
TO Martinique
in detail the infinite care that I was obliged
to bestow upon this delicate plant during a
long voyage, and the difficulties I had in
saving it from the hands of a man who,
basely jealous of the joy I was about to
taste through being of service to my coun-
try, and being unable to get this coffee
plant 3,wq,y frpm me, tprp pff a brai^ch,"
The vessel carrying de Clieu was a mer-
chantman, and many were the trials that
beset passengers and crew. Narrowly
escaping capture by a corsair of Tunis,
menaced by a violent tempest that threat-
ened to annihilate them, they finally en-
countered a calm that proved more appall-
ing than either. The supply of drinking
water was well nigh exhausted, and what
was left was rationed for the remainder of
the voyage.
"Water was lacking to such an extent,"
•says de Clieu, "that for more than a month
I was obliged to share the scanty ration of
it assigned to me with this my coffee plant
upon which my happiest hopes were
founded and which was the source of my
delight. It needed such succor the more in
that it was extremely backward, being no
larger than the slip of a pink." Many
stories have been written and verses sung
recording and glorifying this generous sac-
rifice that has given luster to the name of
de Clieu.
Arrived in Martinique, de Clieu planted
his precious slip on his estate in Precheur,
one of the cantons of the island; where,
says Raynal, "it multiplied with extraordi-
nary rapidity and success." From the
seedlings of this plant came most of the
eoft'ee trees of the Antilles. The first har-
vest was gathered in 1726.
De Clieu himself describes his arrival as
follows :
Arriving at home, iny first cure was to set out
my plant with great attention in the part of my
garden most favorahle to its growth. Although
keeping it in view, I feared many times that it
would be taken from me ; and I was at last
obliged to surround it with thorn bushes and to
establish a guard .about it until it arrived at
maturity . . . this precious plant which had
become still more dear to nie for the dangers it
had run and the cares it had cost me.
Thus the little stranger thrived in a dis-
tant land, guarded day and night by faith-
ful slaves. So tiny a plant to produce in
the end all the rich estates of the West
India islands and the regions bordering on
the Gulf of Mexico ! What luxuries, what
future comforts and delights, resulted from
this one small talent confided to the care of
a man of rare vision and fine intellectual
sympathy, fired by the spirit of real love
for his fellows! There is no instance in
the history of the French people of a good
deed done by stealth being of greater serv-
ice to humanity.
De Clieu thus describes the events that
fpjlowed last upon the introduction of
8
ALL ABOU
coffee into Martinique, with particular ref-
erence to the earthquake of 1727 :
Success exceeded my hopes. I gathered alx>iit
two pounds of seed which I distributed among
all those whom I thought most capable of giving
the plants the care necessary to their prosperity.
The first harvest was very abundant ; with the
second it was possible to extend the cultivation
prodigiously, but what favored multiplication,
most singularly, was the fact that two years
afterward all the cocoa trees of the country,
which were the resource and occupation of the
people, were uprooted and totally destroyed by
horrible tempests accompanied by an inundation
which submerged all the land where these trees
were planted, land which was at once made into
coffee plantations by the natives. These did
marvelously and enabled us to send plants to
Santo Domingo, Guadeloupe, and other adjacent
islands, where since that time they have been
cultivated with the greatest success.
By 1777 there were 18,791,680 coffee
trees in Martinique.
De Clieu was born in Anglequeville-sur-
Saane, Seine-Inferieure (Normandy), in
1686 or 1688." In 1705 he was a ship's
ensign; in 1718 he became a chevalier of
St. Louis; in 1720 he was made a captain
of infantry ; in 1726, a major of infantry ;
in 1733 he was a ship's lieutenant; in 1737
he became governor of Guadeloupe ; in 1746
he was a ship' captain ; in 1750 he was made
honorary commander of the order of St.
Louis ; in 1752 he retired with a pension of
6000 francs ; in 1753 he re-entered the naval
service; in 1760 he again retired with a
pension of 2000 francs.
In 1746 de Clieu, having returned to
France, was presented to Louis XV by the
minister of marine, Rouille de Jour, as ''a
distinguished officer to whom the colonies,
as well as France itself, and commerce
generally, are indebted for the cultivation
of coffee."
Reports to the king in 1752 and 1759 re-
call his having carried the first coffee plant
to Martinique, and that he had ever been
distinguished for his zeal and disinterested-
ness. In the Mercure de France, December,
1774, was the following death notice :
Gabriel d'Erchigny de Clieu, former Ship's
Captain and Honorary Commander of the Royal
and Military Order of Saint Louis, died in Paris
on the 30th of November in the 88th year of
his age.
A notice of his death appeared also in
the Gazette de France for December 5,
1774, a rare honor in both cases ; and it has
been said that at this time his praise was
again on every lip.
'Michaud, I. F. and L. G. Biographic Universelle.
Paris.
T COFFEE
One French historian, Sidney Daney,' ^
records that de Clieu died in poverty at
St. Pierre at the age of 97 ; but this must
be an error, although it does not anywhere
appear that at his death he was possessed
of much, if any, means. Daney says :
This generous man received as his sole recom-
pense for a noble deed the satisfaction of seeing
this plant for whose preservation he had shown
such devotion, prosper throughout the Antilles.
The illustrious de Clieu is among those to whom
Martinique owes a brilliant reparation.
Daney tells also that in 1804 there was
a movement in Martinique to erect a monu-
ment upon the spot where de Clieu planted
his first coffee plant, but that the under-
taking came to naught.
Pardon, in his La Martinique says :
Honor to this brave man! He has deserved
it from the people of two hemispheres. His
name is worthy of a place beside that of Par-
mentier who carried to France the potato of
Canada. These two men have rendered im-
mense service to humanity, and their memory
should never be forgotten — yet alas ! Are they
even remembered"?
Tussac, in his Flora de las Antillas, writ-
ing of de Clieu, says, "Though no monu-
ment be erected to this beneficent traveler,
yet his name should remain engraved in the
heart of every colonist."
In 1774 the Annee Litteraire published
a long poem in de Clieu 's honor. In the
feuilleton of the Gazette de France, April
12, 1816, we read that M. Donns, a wealthy
Hollander, and a coffee connoisseur, sought
to honor de Clieu by having painted upon- a
porcelain service all the details of his voy-
age and its happy results. "I have seen
the cups," says the writer, who gives many
details and the Latin inscription.
That singer of navigation, Esmenard, has
pictured de Clieu 's devotion in the follow-
ing lines :
Forget not how de Clieu with his light vessel's
sail,
Brought distant Moka's gift — that timid plant
and frail.
The waves fell suddenly, young zephyrs breathed
no more.
Beneath fierce Cancer's fires behold the fountain
store.
Exhausted, fails ; while now inexoi'able need
Makes her unpitying law — with measured dole
obeyed.
Now each soul fears to prove Tantalus torment
first.
De Clieu alone defies: While still that fatal
thirst.
Fierce, stifling, day by day his noble strength
devours,
"Daney, Sidney. .Hiatoirc de la Martinigue. Fort
Royal, 184G. ^
COFFEE PROPAGATION
9
And still a heaven of brass inflames the burning
hours.
With that refreshing draught his life he will not
cheer ;
But drop by drop revives the plant he holds
more dear.
Already as in dreams, he sees great brandies
grow,
One look at his dear plant assuages all his woe.
The only memorial to de Clieu in Mar-
tinique is tlie botanical garden at Fort de
France, which was opened in 1918 and dedi-
cated to de Clieu, ' ' whose memory has been
too long left in oblivion.'"
In 1715 coffee cultivation was first intro-
duced into Haiti and Santo Domingo.
Later came hardier plants from Martinique.
In 1715 - 17 the French Company of the
Indies introduced the cultivation of the
plant into the Isle of Bourbon (now Re-
union) by a ship captain named Dufou-
geret-Grenier from St. Malo. It did so
well that nine years later the island began
to export coffee.
The Dutch brought the cultivation of cof-
fee to Surinam in 1718. The first coffee
plantation in BraziTwas started at Para in
1723 with plants brought from French
Guiana, but it was not a success. The Eng-
lish brought the plant to Jamaica in 1730.
In 1740 Spanish missionaries introduced
coffee cultivation into the Philippines from
Java. In 1748 Don Jose Antonio Gelabert
introduced coffee into Cuba, bringing the
seed from Santo Domingo. In 1750 the
Dutch extended the cultivation of the plant
to the Celebes. Coffee was introduced into
Guatemala about 1750 - 60. The intensive
cultivation in Brazil dates from the efforts
begun in the Portuguese colonies in Para
and Amazonas in 1752. Porto Rico began
the cultivation of coffee about 1755. In
1760 Joao Alberto Castello Branco brought
''Innuguratiim du Jardin Deaclieux. Fort de France,
1918.
to Rio de Janeiro a coffee tree from Goa,
Portuguese India. The news spread that
the soil and climate of Brazil were particu-
larly adapted to the cultivation of coffee.
Molke, a Belgian monk, presented some
seeds to the Capuchin monastery at Rio in
1774. Later, the bishop of Rio, Joachim
Bruno, became a patron of the plant and
encouraged its propagation in Rio, Minas.
Espirito Santo, and Sao Paulo. The Span-
ish voyager, Don Francisco Xavier Na-
varro, is credited with the introduction of
coffee into Costa Rica from Cuba in 1779.
In Venezuela the industry was started near ~
Caracas by a priest, Jose Antonio Mohe-
dano, with seed brought from Martinique
in 1784.
Coffee cultivatinn in Mpyien h^^n in
1790, the seed being brought from the West
Indies. InJlSITLDon fjuan Antonio (lomex
mstitutel intensive cultivation in ihp Statpi
of Vexa^ruz. In 1825 the cultivation of
THe^ plant was begun in the Hawaiian
Islands with seeds from Rio de Janeiro.
As previously noted, the English began to
cultivate coffee in India in 1840. In 1852
coffee cultivation was begun in Salva-
dor with plants brought from Cuba. In
1878 the English began the propagation of
coffee in British Central Africa, but it was
not until 1901 that coffee cultivation was
introduced into British East Africa from
Reunion. In 1887 the French introduced
the plant into Tonkin, Indo-China. Coffee
growing in Queensland, introduced in 1896,
has been successful in a small way.
In recent years several attempts have
been made to propagate the coffee plant in
the southern United States, but without
success. It is believed, however, that the
topographic and climatic conditions in
southern California are favorable for its
cultivation.
10
ALL ABOUT COFFEE
Omar and the Marvelous Coffee Bird
Kaldi and His Dancing Goats
THE LEGENDARY DISCOVERY OF THE COFFEE DRINK
From drawings by a modern French artist
Chapter III
ARLY HISTORY OF COFFEE DRINKING
Coffee in the Near East in the early centuries — Stories of its origin
— Discovery by physicians and adoption by the Church — Its spread
through Arabia, Persia and Turkey — Persecutions and intolerances
— Early coffee manners and customs
THE coffee drink had its rise in the
classical period of Arabian medicine,
which dates from Rhazes (Abu Bakr
Muhammad ibn Zakariya El Razi) who fol-
lowed the doctrines of Galen and sat at the
feet of Hippocrates. Rhazes (850 - 922)
was the first to treat medicine in an ency-
clopedic manner, and, according to some
authorities, the first writer to mention
coffee. He assumed the poetical name of
Razi because he was a native of the city of
Raj in Persian Irak. He was a great
philosopher and astronomer, and at one
time was superintendent of the hospital at
Bagdad. He wrote many learned books on
medicine and surgery,' but his principal
work is Al-IIaiwi, or The Continent, a col-
lection of everything relating to the cure
of disease from Galen to his own time.
Philippe Sylvestre Dufour (1622 -87)\ a
French coffee merchant, philosopher, and
writer, in an accurate and finished treatise
on coffee, tells us (see the early edition of
the work translated from the Latin) that
the first writer to mention the properties
of the coffee bean under the name of hun-
chum was this same Rhazes, "in the ninth
century after the birth of our Saviour";
from which (if true) it would appear that
coffee has been known for upwards of 1000
^ars. Robinson^, however, is of the opinion
that hnnchum meant something else and
had nothing to do with coffee. Dufour,
himself, in a later edition of his Traitez
'Dufour. Philippe Sylvestro. Trait^n Nouveaux et
Curieux du Cajii, du Th6, et du Ghocolat. Lyons,
1684. (Titlo pago lias Traitez: elspwhore, Traitia.)
^'Robinson, Edward Forbos. The Early History of
Coffee Houses in England. Loudon, 1893.
Nouveaux et Curieux du Cafe (the Hague,
1693) is inclined to admit that bunchum
may have been a root and not coffee, after
all ; however, he is careful to add that there
is no doubt that the Arabs knew coffee as
far back as the year 800, Other, more
modern authorities, place it as early as the
sixth century.
Wiji Kawih is mentioned in a Kavi
(Javan) inscription A. D. 856; and it is
thought that the "bean broth" in David
Tapperi's list of Javanese beverages (1667 -
82) may have been coffee'.
While the true origin of coffee drinking
may be forever hidden among the mysteries
of the purple East, shrouded as it is in
legend and fable, scholars have marshaled
sufficient facts to prove that the beverage
was known in Ethiopia "from time imme-
morial," and there is much to add verisi-
militude to Dufour 's narrative. This first
, coffee merchant-prince, skilled in languages
and polite learning, considered that his
character as a merchant was not incon-
sistent with that of an author ; and he even
went so far as to say there were some things
(for instance, coffee) on which a merchant
could be better informed than a philoso-
pher.
Granting that by hnnchum Rhazes meant
coffee, the plant and the drink must have
been known to his immediate followers ; and
this, indeed, seems to be indicated by simi-
lar references in the writings of Avicenna
(Ibn Sina), the Mohammedan physician
and philosopher, who lived from 980 to
1037 A. D.
^Encyclopedia Britannica. 1910. (vol. xv : p. 291.)
11
12
ALL ABOUT COFFEE
Rhazes, in the quaint language of Du-
four, assures us that "hunchum (coffee)
is hot and dry and very good for the stom-
ach." Avicenna explains the medicinal
properties and uses of the coffee bean {hon
or hunn)^ which he, also, calls hunchum,
after this fashion:
As to the choice thereof, that of a lemon color,
light, ami of a good smell, Ls the best; the white
and the heavy is naught. It is hot and dry lu
the first degree, and, according to others, cold
in the tirst degree. It fortifies the members, it
(•loans the skin, and dries up the humidities that
are under it, and gives an excellent smell to all
the body.
The early Arabians called the bean and
the tree that bore it, himn; the drink,
hunchnm. A. Galland' (1646-1715), the
French Orientalist who first analyzed and
translated from the Arabic the Abd-al-
Kadir manuscript", the oldest document ex-
tant telling of the origin of coffee, observes
that Avicenna speaks of the hunn, or coffee ;
as do also Prospero Alpini and Veslingius
(Vesling). Bengiazlah, another great
physician, contemporary with Avicenna,
likewise mentions coffee; by which, says
Galland, one may see that we are indebted
to physicians for the discovery of coffee, as
well as of sugar, tea, and chocolate.
Rauwolf (d. 1596), German physician
and botanist, and the first European to
mention coffee, who became acquainted
with the beverage in Aleppo in 1573, tell-
ing how the drink was prepared by the
Turks, says:
In this same water they take a fruit called
Bunnu, which in its bigness, shape, and color
is almost like unto a bayberry, with two thin
shells surrounded, whieh, as they informed me,
are brought from the Indies; but as these in
themselves are, and have within them, two yel-
lowish grains in two distinct cells, and besides,
being they agree in their virtue, figure, looks,
and name with the Biinchum of Avicenna and
Bunca of Rasis ad Almans exactly: therefore
I take them to be the same.
In Dr. Edward Pocoke's translation (Ox-
ford, 1659) of The Nature of the Drink
Kauhi, or Coffee, and the Berry of which
it is Made, Described hy an Arabian Phisi-
tian, we read :
Btm is a plant in Yaman [Yemen], which is
planted in Adar, and groweth up and is gathered
in Ah. It is about a cubit high, on a stalk about
the thickness of one's thumb. It flowers white,
leaving a berry like a small nut, but that some-
■•Galland, Antoino. Lettrc sur I'Origine et le Progres
du Cnf6. Paris, 1690.
'The Ahd-al-Kadir mnnuscript is described and illus-
trated in chapter XXXII.
'Rauwolf, Leonhard. Aigcntliche beschreibung der
Raisis so er vor diser zeit gegen auffgang inn die
morgenlaender volbracht. Lauwingen, 1582-83,
times it is broad like a bean; and when it is'
peeled, parteth in two. The best of It is that
which is weighty and yellow; the worst, that
whieh is black. It is hot in the first degree, dry
in the second : it is usually reported to be cold
and dry, but it is not so; for it is bitter, and
whatsoever is bitter is hot. It may be that the
scorce is hot, and the Bun it selfe either of
equal] temperature, or cold in the first degree.
That which makes for its coldnesse is Its stip-
ticknesse. In summer it is by experience found
to conduce to the drying of rheumes, and fleg-
matick eoughes and distillations, and the opening
of obstructions, and the provocation of urin.
It is now known by the name of Kohioah. When
it is dried and thoroughly boyled, it allayes the
ebullition of the blood, is good against the small
jK)xe and measles, the bloudy pimples ; yet
causeth vertiginous headheach, and maketh lean
much, occasioneth waking, and the Emrods, and
asswageth lust, and sometimes breeds melan-
cliolly.
He that would drink it for livelinesse sake,
and to discusse slothfulnesse, and the other
properties that we have mentioned, let him use
nuich sweat meates with it, and oyle of pis-
taccioes, and butter. Some drink it with milk,
but it is an error, and such as may bring in
danger of the leprosy.
Dufour concludes that the coffee beans of
commerce are the same as the bunchum
(bunn) described by Avicenna and the
bunca (bunchum) of Rhazes. In this he
agrees, almost word for word, with Rau-
wolf, indicating no change in opinion
among the learned in a hundred years.
Christopher Campen thinks Hippocrates,
father of medicine, knew and administered
coffee.
Robinson, commenting upon the early
adoption of coffee into materia medica,
charges that it was a mistake on the part
of the Arab physicians, and that it origi-
nated the prejudice that caused coffee to be
regarded as a powerful drug instead of as
a simple and refreshing beverage.
Homer, the Bible, and Coffee
In early Grecian and Roman writings no
mention is made of either the coffee plant
or the beverage made from the berries.
Pierre (Pietro) Delia Valle' (1586-1652),
however, maintains that the nepenthe,
which Homer says Helen brought with her
out of Egypt, and which she employed as
surcease for sorrow, was nothing else but
coffee mixed with wine.* This is disputed
by M. Petit, a well known physician of
Paris, who died in 1687. Several later
British authors, among them, Sandys, the
'Delia Valle, Pierre (Pietro). De Constantinople a
Bombay, Lettres. 1615. (vol. i : p. 90.)
»"She mingled with the wine the wondrous juice of
a plant which banishes sadness and wrath from the
heart and brings with it forgetfulness of every woe,"
EARLY HISTORY OF COFFEE
13
])oet; Burton; and Sir Henry Blount, have
suggested the probability of coffee being the
"black broth" of the Lacedaemonians.
George Paschius, in his Latin treatise of
tlie New Discoveries Made since the Time
of the Ancients, printed at Leipsic in 1700,
T R A I T E Z
NouYcaux & curicujc
DU CAFE'.
D U THE'
E 1 D U
CHOCOLATE.
Ouvrageegdement necelTaire aux
Medecins , & a tous ceux qui
aiment leur fante.
PaiPHiLtPP fiSytvESTRB Dupour
e^ quoy on a adjoute dans cettc. Edition , la meil-
leure de toutes les metkodes , qui manquoit
a ce Livre j pour compojer '
L'JEXCELLENT OHOCOiATE.
Par Mi. St. D i s d i £ r.
Troifi^me Edition.
A LAHAYEi
Chez ADRIAN MOETJENS.Mar-
chand Librairc prez laCour , a la
LibraireFran9oi(e,
M, DG. XCHL
Title Page of Dufoub's Book, Edition of 1693
says he believes that coffee was meant by
the five measures of parched corn included
among the presents Abigail made to David
to appease his wrath, as recorded in the
Bible, 1 Samuel, xxv, 18. The Vulgate
translates the Hebrew words sein kali into
sata polentea, which signify wheat, roasted,
or dried by fire.
Pierre fitienne Louis Dumant, the Swiss
Protestant minister and author, is of the
opinion that coffee (and not lentils, as
others have supposed) was the red pottage
for which Esau sold his birthright; also
that the parched grain that Boaz ordered
to be given Ruth was undoubtedly roasted
coffee berries.
Dufour mentions as a possible objection
against coffee that "the use and eating of
beans were heretofore forbidden by Py-
thagoras," but intimates that the coffee
bean of Arabia is something different.
Scheuzer," in his Physique Sacree, says
"the Turks and the Arabs make with the
coffee bean a beverage which bears the same
name, and many persons use as a substitute
the flour of roasted barley. ' ' From this we
learn that the coffee substitute is almost as
old as coffee itself.
Some Early Legends
After medicine, the church. There are
several Mohammedan traditions that have
persisted through the centuries, claiming
for "the faithful" the honor and glory of
the first use of coffee as a beverage. One of
these relates how, about 1258 A. D., Sheik
Omar, a disciple of Sheik Abou'l hasan
Schadheli, patron saint and legendary
founder of Mocha, by chance discovered the
coffee drink at Ousab in Arabia, whither
he had been exiled for a certain moral
remissness.
Facing starvation, he and his followers
were forced to feed upon the berries grow-
ing around them. And then, in the words
of the faithful Arab chronicle in the Biblio-
theque Nationale at Paris, ' ' having nothing
to eat except coffee, they took of it and
boiled it in a sauce-pan and drank of the
decoction. ' ' Former patients in Mocha who
sought out the good doctor-priest in his
Ousab retreat, for physiic with which to
cure their ills, were given some of this de-
coction, with beneficial effect. As a result
of the stories of its magical properties, car-
ried back to the city. Sheik Omar was in-
vited to return in triumph to Mocha where
tile governor caused to be built a monastery
for him and his companions.
Another version of this Oriental legend
gives it as follows :
The dervish Hadji Omar was driven by his
enemies out of Mocha into the desert, where they
expected he would die of starvation. This un-
doubtedly would have occurred if he liad not
plucked up courage to taste some strange berries
which he found growing on a shrub. While they
seemed to be edible, they were very bitter ; and
*SchPuzer, .T. .T. Physique 8acr6e, ou Hiatoire
Naturelle de la Bible. Amsterdam, 1732, 1737.
14
ALL ABOUT COFFEE
he tried to improve tlie taste by roasting tliein.
He found, liowever, tliut tliey liad become very
hard, so he attempted to soften them with water.
The berries seemed to remain as hard as before,
but the iiquid turned brown, and Omar dranli
It on the chance that it contained some of the
nourishment from the berries. He was amazed
at how it refreshed him, enlivened his sluggish-
ness, and raised his drooping spirits. Later,
when he returned to Mocha, liis salvation was
considered a miracle. The beverage to wliich it
was due sprang into high favor, and Omar him-
self was made a saint.
A popular and much-quoted version of
Omar's discovery of coffee, also based upon
the Abd-al-Kadir manuscript, is the fol-
lowing:
In the year of the Ilegira C5(5, the moUah
Schadheli went on a pilgrimage to Mecca. Ar-
riving at the mountain of the Emeralds (Ousab),
he turned to his disciple Omar and said : "I shall
die in this place. When my soul has gone forth,
a veiled person will appear to you. Do not fail
to execute the command which he will give you."
The venerable Schadheli being dead, Omar saw
in the middle of the night a gigantic specter
covered by a white veil.
"Who are youV" he asked.
The phantom drew back his veil, and Omar
saw with surprise Schadheli himself, grown ten
cubits since his death. The mollah dug in the
ground, and water miraculously appeared. The
spirit of his teacher bade Omar fill a bowl with
the water and to proceed on his way and not to
stop till he reached the spot where the water
would stop moving.
"It is there," he added, "that a great destiny
awaits you."
Omar started his journey. Arriving at Mocha
in Yemen, he noticed that the water was im-
movable. It was here that he must stop.
The beautiful village of Mocha was then rav-
aged by the plague. Omar began to pray for the
sick and, as the saintly man was close to
Mahomet, many found themselves cured by his
prayers.
The plague meanwhile progressing, the daugh-
ter of the King of Mocha fell ill and her father
had her carried to the home of the dervish who
cured her. But as this young princess was of
rare beauty, after having cured her, the good
dervish tried to carry her off. The king did not
fancy this new kind of reward. Omar was
driven from the city and exiled on the mountain
of Ousab, with herbs for food and a cave for
a home.
"Oh, Schadheli, my dear master," cried the
unfortunate dervish one day ; "if the things
which happened to me at Mocha were destined,
was it worth the trouble to give me a bowl to
come here?"
To these just complaints, there was heard im-
mediately a song of incomparable harmony, and
a bird of marvelous plumage came to rest in a
tree. Omar sprang forward quickly toward the
little bird which sang so well, but then he saw
on the branches of the tree only flowers and
fruit. Omar laid hands on the fruit, and found
it delicious. . Then he filled his great pockets
with it and went back to his cave. As he was
preparing to boil a few herbs for his dinner, the
idea came to him of substituting for this sad
souj), some of his harvested fruit. From it he
obtained a savory and perfumed drink ; it was
coffee.
The Italian Journal of the Savants for
the year 1760 says that two monks, Scialdi
and Ayduis, were the first to discover the
properties of coffee, and for this reason be-
came the object of special prayers. "Was
not this Scialdi identical with the Sheik j|
Schadheli ? ' ' asks Jardin." 1
The most popular legend ascribes the dis-
covery of the drink to an Arabian herdsman
'in upper Egypt, or Abyssinia, who com-
plained to the abbot of a neighboring
monastery that the goats confided to his
care became unusually frolicsome after eat-
ing the berries of certain shrubs found near
their feeding grounds. The abbot, having
observed the fact, determined to try the
virtues of the berries on himself. He, too,
responded with a new exhilaration. Ac-
cordingly, he directed that some be boiled,
and the decoction drunk by his monks, who
thereafter found no difficulty in keeping
awake during the religious services of the
night. The abbe Massieu in his poem.
Carmen Caffaeum, thus celebrates the
event :
The monks each in turn, as the evening draws
near,
Drink 'round the great cauldron — a circle of
cheer !
And the dawn in amaze, revisiting that shore.
On idle l)eds of ease surprised them nevermore!
According to the legend, the news of the
"wakeful monastery" spread rapidly, and
the magical berry soon "came to be in re-
quest throughout the whole kingdom; and
in progress of time other nations and
provinces of the East fell into the use
of it."
The French have preserved the following
picturesque version of this legend :
A young goatherd named Kaldi noticed one
day that his goats, whose deportment up to that
time had been irreproachable, were abandoning
themselves to the most extravagant prancings.
1'he venerable buck, ordinarily so dignified and
solemn, bounded about like a young kid. Kaldi
attributed this foolish gaiety to certain fruits
of which the goats had been eating with delight.
The story goes that the poor fellow had a
heavy heart; and in the hope of cheering him-
self up a little, he thought he would pick and eat
of the fruit. The experiment succeeded mar-
velously. He forgot his troubles and became the
happiest herder in happy Arabia. When the
goats danced, he gaily made himself one of the
J^ardin, I5del,estan. Le Cafiier et le Caf6. Paris,
teARLY ttL^TORY OF COFFER
1.5
party, and entered into their fun witli admirable
spirit.
One day, a monk clianced to pass by and
stopiied in surprise to find a ball going on. A
score of goats were executing lively pirouettes
like a ladies' chain, wMle the buck solenuily
halan(('-fH\, and the herder went through the
ttgures of an eccentric i)astoral dance.
The astonished monk inquired the cause of this
saltatorial madness ; and Kaldi told him of his
precious discovery.
Now, this poor monk had a great sorrow ; he
always went to sleep in the middle of his
prayers; and he reasoned that Mohannned with-
Cats, JO v Tsi, * r 2J v CkJc o itA. i!^..
Arai! DiiiNKiNo ('okike; Chinaman, Tea; and
Indian, Cuocolatb
Frontispiece from Dufour's work
out doubt was revealing this marvelous fruit to
him to overcome his sleepiness.
Piety does not exclude gastronomic instincts.
Those of our good monk were more than ordi-
nary ; because he thought of drying and boiling
the fruit of the herder. This ingenious concoc-
tion gave us coffee. Immediately all the monks
of the realm made use of the drink, because It
encouraged them to pray and, perhaps, also be-
cause it was not disagreeable.
In those early days it appears that the
drink was prepared in two ways; one in
which the decoction was made from the
hull and the pulp surrounding the bean,
and the other from the bean itself. The
roasting process came later and is an im-
provement generally credited to the Per-
sians. There is evidence that the early
Mohammedan churchmen were seeking a
.substitute for the wine forbidden to them
by the Koran, when they discovered coffee.
The word for coffee in Arabic,* ga/ii^a/i, is
the same as one of those used for wine ; and
later on, when coffee drinking grew so pop-
ular as to threaten the very life of the
church itself, this similarity was seized
upon by the church-leaders to support their
contention that the prohibition against
wine applied also to cott'ee.
La Roque," writing in 1715, says that the
Arabian word cakouah signified at first
only wine; but later was turned into a
generic term applied to all kinds of drink.
' ' So there were really three sorts of coffee ;
namely, wine, including all intoxicating
liquors ; the drink made with the shells, or
cods, of the coffee bean; and that made
from the bean itself."
Originally, then, the coffee drink may
have been a kind of wine made from the
coffee fruit. In the coffee countries even
today the natives are very fond, and eat
freely, of the ripe coffee cherries, voiding
the seeds. The pulp surrounding the cof-
fee seeds (beans) is pleasant to taste, has
a sweetish, aromatic flavor, and quickly
ferments when allowed to stand.
Still another tradition (was the wish
father to the thought?) tells how the coffee
drink was revealed to Mohammed himseif
by the Angel Gabriel. Coffee's partisans
found satisfaction in a passage in the
Koran which, they said, foretold its adop-
tion by the followers of the Prophet:
'i'hey shall be given to drink an excellent wine,
sealed ; its seal is that of the musk.
The most diligent research does not carry
a knowledge of coffee back beyond the time
of Rhazes, two hundred years after Mo-
hammed ; so there is little more than specu-
lation or conjecture to support the theory
that it was known to the ancients, in Bible
times or in the days of The Praised One.
Our knowledge of tea, on the other hand,
antedates the Christian era. We know
also that tea was intensively cultivated
(
"La Roque, Jean. Voyage dans I'Arabie Heureuae,
de 1708 d nis, et TraiU HistoHque du Ca}6. Paris,
1715. (pp. 247, 251.)
16
ALL ABOUT COFFEE
and taxed under the Tang dynasty in
China, A. D. lU'.i, and that Arab traders
knew of it in tlie following century.
The First Reliable Coffee Date
About 1454 Sheik Gemaleddiii Abou Mu-
hammad Bensaid, mufti of Aden, sur-
named Aldhabhani, from Dhabhan, a small
town where he was born, became acquainted
with the virtues of coffee on a journey into
Abyssinia.'' Upon his return to Aden, his
health became impaired; and remembering
the coffee he had seen his countrymen
drinking in Abyssinia, he sent for some in
the hope of finding relief. He not only
recovered from his illness; but, because of
its sleep-dispelling qualities, he sanctioned
the use of the drink among the dervishes
"tliat they might spend the night in
prayers or other religious exercises with
tnore attention and presence of mind.""
It is altogether probable that the coffee
drink was known in Aden before the time
of Sheik Gemaleddin ; but the endorsement
of the very learned imam, whom science
and religion had already made famous, was
sufficient to start a vogue for the beverage
that spread throughout Yemen, and thence
to the far corners of the world. We read
in the Arabian manuscript at the Biblio-
theque Nationale that lawyers, students,
as well as travelers who journeyed at night,
artisans, and others, who worked at night,
to escape the heat of the day, took to drink-
ing coffee ; and even left off another drink,
then becoming popular, rhade from the
leaves of a plant called khat or cat {catha
edulis).
Sheik Gemaleddin was assisted in his
work of spreading the gospel of this the
first propaganda for coffee by one Mu-
haramed Alhadrami, a physician of great
reputation, born in Hadramaut, Arabia
Felix.
A recently unearthed and little known
version of coffee's origin shows how fea-
tures of both the Omar tradition and the
Gemaleddin story may be combined by a
professional Occidental tale- writer" :
Toward the middle of the fifteenth century,
a poor Arab was traveling in Abyssinia. Find-
ing himself weak and weary, he stopped near a
grove. For fuel wlierewith to cook his rice, he
cut down a tree that happened to be covered
with dried berries. His meal being cooked and
eaten, the traveler discovered that these half-
burnt berries were fragrant. He collected a
^^Adjam, by many writers wrongly rendered Persia.
"Scheuzer, ,T. J. Physique Sacrie, ou Histoire Nat-
urelle de la Bible. AmBterdam, 1732, 1737.
^*Harper'a Weekly. New Yorlc, 1911. (Jan. 21.)
number of them and, on crushing them with a
stone, found that the aroma was increased to a
great extent. While wondering at this, he acci-
dentally let tlie substance fall into an earthen
vessel that contained his scanty supply of water.
.V miracle ! The almost putrid water was puri-
Hctl. He brought it to his lips; it was fresh and
agreeable; and after a short rest the traveler so
far recovered his strength and energy as to be
able to resume his journey. The lucky Arab
gathered as many berries as he could, and hav-
ing arrived at Aden, informed the mufti of his
(lisc-overy. That worthy was an inveterate
opium-smoker, who had been slifliering for years
from the influence of the poisonous drug. He
tried an infusion of the roasted berries, and was
so delighted at the recovery of his former vigor
that in gratitude to the tree he called it cahuha
which in Arabic signifies "force".
Galland, in his analysis of the Arabian
manuscript, already referred to, that has
furnished us with the most trustworthy ac-
count of the origin of coffee, criticizes An-
toine Faustus Nairon, Maronite professor
of Oriental languages at Rome, who was the
author of the first printed treatise on coffee
only,"" for accepting the legends relating to
Omar and the Abyssinian goatherd. He
says they are unworthy of belief as facts of
history, although he is careful to add that
there is some truth in the story of the dis-
covery of coffee by the Abyssinian goats
and the abbot who prescribed the use of
the berries for his monks, "the Eastern
Christians being willing to have the honor
of the invention of coffee, for the abbot, or
prior, of the convent and his companions
are only the mufti Gemaleddin and Mu-
hammid Alhadrami, and the monks are the
dervishes. ' ' ^
Amid all these details, Jardin reaches
the conclusion that it is to chance we must
attribute the knowledge of the properties
of coffee, and that the coffee tree was trans-
ported from its native land to Yemen, as
far as Mecca, and possibly into Persia,
before being carried into Egypt.
Coffee, being thus favorably introduced
into Aden, it has continued there ever
since, without interruption. By degrees
the cultivation of the plant and the use of
the beverage passed into many neighbor-
ing places. Toward the close of the fif-
teenth century (1470 - 1500) it reached
Mecca and Medina, where it was intro-
duced, as at Aden, by the dervishes, and
for the same religious purpose. About
1510 it reached Grand Cairo in Egypt,
where the dervishes from Yemen, living in
a district by themselves, drank coffee on the
"*Nairon, Antoine Faustus. De Saluberrimd Cahue
seu Caf6 nuncupata Diacuraus. Rome, 1671.
A L L A H () i; T C O F F 1^: h
Eh
w
Eh
o
m
O
Q
EARLY HISTORY OF COFFEE
t
^■fhts they intended to spend in religious
Trevotion. They kept it in a large red
earthen vessel — eacli in turn receiving
it, respectfully, from their superior, in a
small bowl, which he dipped into the jar —
in the meantime chanting their prayers,
the burden of which was always: "There
is no God but one God, the true King,
whose power is not to be disputed."
After the dervishes, the bowl was passed
to lay members of the congregation. In this
way coffee came to be so associated with
tiie act of worship that "they never per-
formed a religious ceremony in public and
never observed any solemn festival with-
out taking coffee."
Meanwhile, the inhabitants of Mecca be-
came so fond of the beverage that, disre-
garding its religious associations, they
made of it a secular drink to be sipped
publicly in Icaveh kanes, the first coffee
houses. Here the idle congregated to drink
coffee, to play chess and other games, to
discuss the news of the day, and to amuse
themselves with singing, dancing, and
music, contrary to the manners of the rigid
Mahommedans, who were very properly
scanchilized by such performances. In Me-
dina and in Cairo, too, coffee became as
common a drink as in Mecca and Aden.
The First Coffee Persecution
At length the pious Mahommedans began
to disapprove of the use of coffee among
the people. For one thing, it made com-
mon one of the best psychology - adjuncts
of their religion ; also, the joy of life, that
it helped to liberate among those who fre-
quented the coffee houses, precipitated
.social, political, and religious arguments ;
and these frequently developed into dis-
turbances. Dissensions arose even among
the churchmen themselves. They divided
into camps for and against coffee. The
hiw of the Prophet on the subject of wine
was variously construed as applying to
loffee.
About this time (1511) Kair Bey was
governor of Mecca for the sultan of Egypt,
lie appears to have been a strict disci-
plinarian, but lamentably ignorant of the
actual conditions obtaining among his
people. As he was leaving the mosque one
evening after prayers, he was offended by
seeing in a corner a company of coffee
drinkers who were preparing to pass the
night in prayer. His first thought was
that they were drinking wine ; and great
was his astonishment when he learned what
vt
the liquor really was and how common was
its use throughout the city. Further in-
vestigation convinced him that indulgence
in this exhilarating drink must incline men
and women to extravagances prohibited by
law, and so he determined to suppress it.
First he drove the coffee drinkers out of
the mosque.
The next day, he called a council of
officers of justice, lawyers, physicians,
priests, and leading citizens, to whom he
declared what he had seen the evening be-
fore at the mosque; and, "being resolved
to put a stop to the coffee-house abuses, he
sought their advice upon the subject."
The chief count in the indictment was that
"in these places men and women met and
played tambourines, violins, and other
musical instruments. There were also
people who played chess, mankala, and
other similar games, for money ; and there
were many other things done contrary to
our sacred law — may God keep it from
all corruption until the day when we shall
all appear before him!""
The lawyers agreed that the coffee
houses needed reforming; but as to the
drink itself, inquiry should be made as to
whether it was in any way harmful to
mind or body; for if not, it might not be
sufficient to close the places that sold it.
It was suggested that the opinion of the
physicians be sought.
Two brothers, Persian physicians named
Ilakimani, and reputed the best in Mecca,
were summoned, although we are told they
knew more about logic than they did
about physic. One of them came into the
council fully prejudiced, as he had already
written a book against coffee, and filled
with concern for his profession, being fear-
ful lest the common use of the new drink
would make serious inroads on the prac-
tise of medicine. His brother joined with
him in assuring the assembly that the
plant hunn, from which coffee was made,
was "cold and dry" and so unwholesome.
When another physician present reminded
them that Bengiazlah, the ancient and re-
spected contemporary of Avicenna, taught
that it was "hot and dry," they made
arbitrary answer that Bengiazlah had in
mind another plant of the same name, and
that anyhow, it was not material; for, if
the coffee drink disposed people to things
forbidden by religion, the safest course for
^^de Sacy, Bnron Antolne Isaac Silvestre. Chreato-
nathie Arahc. Paris, 1806. (vol. il : p. 224.)
18
ALL ABOUT COFFEE
Mahommedans was to look upon it as un-
lawful.
The friends of coffee were covered with
confusion. Only the mufti S'poke out in
the meeting in its favor. Others, carried
away by prejudice or misguided zeal, af-
firmed that coffee clouded their senses. One
man arose and said it intoxicated like wine ;
which made every one laugh, since he could
hardly have been a judge of this if he had
not drunk wine, which is forbidden by the
Mohammedan religion. Upon being asked
whether he had ever drunk any, he was so
imprudent as to admit that he had, thereby
condemning himself out of his own mouth
to the bastinado.
The mufti of Aden, being both an officer
of the court and a divine, undertook, with
some heat, a defense of coffee; but he was
clearly in an unpopular minority. He
was rewarded with the reproaches and af-
fronts of the religious zealots.
So the governor had his way, and coffee
was solemnly condemned as thing forbid-
den by the law ; and a presentment
was drawn up, signed by a majority of
those present, and dispatched post-haste by
the governor to his royal master, the sultan,
at Cairo. At the same time, the governor
published an edict forbidding the sale of
coffee in public or private. The officers
of justice caused all the coffee houses in
Mecca to be shut, and ordered all the coffee
found there, or in the merchants' ware-
houses, to be burned.
Naturally enough, being an unpopular
edict, there were many evasions, and much
coffee drinking took place behind closed
doors. Some of the friends of coffee were
outspoken in their opposition to the order,
being convinced that the assembly had ren-
dered a judgment not in accordance with
the facts, and above all, contrary to the
opinion of the mufti who, in every Arab
community, is looked up to as the inter-
preter, or expounder, of the law. One man,
caught in the act of disobedience, besides
being severely punished, was also led
through the most public streets of the city
seated on an ass.
However, the triumph of the enemies of
coffee was short-lived; for not only did
the sultan of Cairo disapprove the "indis-
creet zeal" of the governor of Mecca, and
order the edict revoked; but he read him
a severe lesson on the subject. How dared
he condemn a thing approved at Cairo,
the capital of his kingdom, where there
were physicians whose opinions carried
more weight than those of Mecca, and who
had found nothing against the law in the
use of coffee? The best things might be
abused, added the sultan, even the sacred
waters of Zamzam, but this was no reason
for an absolute prohibition. The fountain,
or well, of Zamzam, according to the Mo-
hammedan teaching, is the same which
God caused to spring up in the desert to
comfort Hagar and Ishmael when Abraham
banished them. It is in the enclosure of
the temple at Mecca; and the Mohamme-
dans drink of it with much show of devo-
tion, ascribing great virtues to it.
It is not recorded whether the misguided
governor was shocked at this seeming pro-
fanity; but it is known that he hastened
to obey the orders of his lord and master.
The prohibition was recalled, and there-
after he employed his authority only to
preserve order in the coffee houses. The
friends of coffee, and the lovers of poetic
justice, found satisfaction in the governor's
subsequent fate. He was exposed as "an
extortioner and a public robber," and "tor-
tured to death," his brother killing him-
self to avoid the same fate. The two
Persian physicians who had played so mean
a part in the first coffee persecution, like-
wise came to an unhappy end. Being dis-
credited in Mecca they fled to Cairo,
where, in an unguarded moment, having
cursed the person of Selim I, emperor of
the Turks, who had conquered Egypt, they
were executed by his order.
Coffee, being thus re-established at
Mecca, met with no opposition until 1524,
when, because of renewed disorders, the
kadi of the town closed the coffee houses,
but did not seek to interfere with coffee
drinking at home and in private. His
successor, however, re-licensed them; and,
continuing on their good behavior since
then, they have not been disturbed.
In 1542 a ripple was caused by an order
issued by Soliman the Great, forbidding
the use of coffee; but no one took it seri-
ously, especially as it soon became known
that the order had been obtained "by
surprise" and at the desire of only one
of the court ladies "a little too nice in this
point."
One of the most interesting facts in the
history of the coffee drink is that wher-
ever it has been introduced it has spelled
je volution. It has been the world's most
radical dfink in that its function has al-
ways been to make people think. And
when the people began to think, they be-
EARLY HISTORY OF COFFEE
19
came dangerous to tyrants and to foes of
liberty of thought and action. Sometimes
the people became intoxicated with their
new found ideas; and, mistaking liberty
for license, they ran amok, and called
down upon their heads persecutions and
many petty intolerances. So history re-
peated itself in Cairo, twenty-three years
after the first Mecca persecution.
Coffee's Second Religious Persecution
Selim I, after conquering Egypt, had
brought- coffee to Constantinople in 1517.
The drink continued its progress through
Syria, and was received in Damascus
(about 1530), and in Aleppo (about 1532),
without opposition. Several coffee houses
of Damascus attained wide fame, among
them the Cafe of the Roses, and the Cafe
of the Gate of Salvation.
Its increasing popularity and, perhaps,
the realization that the continued spread of
the beverage might lessen the demand for
his services, caused a physician of Cairo
to propound (about 1523) to his fellows
this question :
What is your opinion concerning the liquor
called coffee which is drank in company, as heing
reckoned in the number of those we have free
leave to make use of, notwithstanding it is the
cause of no small disorders, that it flies up into
the head and is very pernicious to health? Is
it permitted or forbidden?
At the end he was careful to add, as
his own opinion (and without prejudice?),
that coffee was unlawful. To the credit of
the physicians of Cairo as a class, it should
be recorded that they looked with unsympa-
thetic eyes upon this attempt on the part
of one of their number to stir up trouble
for a valuable adjunct to their materia
medica, and so the effort died a-borning.
If the physicians were disposed to do
nothing to stop coffee's progress, not so
the preachers. As places of resort, the
coffee houses exercised an appeal that
proved stronger to the popular mind than
that of the temples of worship. This to
men of sound religious training was in-
tolerable. The feeling against coffee
smouldered for a time; but in 1534 it
broke out afresh. In that year a fiery
preacher in one of Cairo's mosques so
played upon the emotions of his congrega-
tion with a preachment against coffee,
claiming that it was against the law and
that those who drank it were not true Mo-
hammedans, that upon leaving the build-
ing a large number of his hearers, enraged,
threw themselves into the first coffee house
they found in their way, burned the coffee
pots and dishes, and maltreated all the
])ersons they found there.
Public opinion was immediately aroused ;
and the city was divided into two parties;
one maintaining that coffee was against
the law of Mohammed, and the other tak-
ing the contrary view. And then arose
a Solomon in the person of the chief jus-
tice, who summoned into his presence the
learned physicians for consultation. Again
the medical profession stood by its guns.
The medical men pointed out to the chief
justice that the question had already been
decided by their predecessors on the side
of coffee, and that the time had come to
put some check "on the furious zeal of
the bigots" and the "indiscretions of
ignorant preachers." Wihereupon, the
wise judge caused coffee to be served to the
whole company and drank some himself.
By this act he "re-united the contending
parties, and brought coffee into greater
esteem than ever."
Coffee in Constantinople
The story of the introduction of coffee
into Constantinople shows that it experi-
enced much the same vicissitudes that
marked its advent at Mecca and Cairo.
There were the same disturbances, the same
unreasoning religious superstition, the same
political hatreds, the same stupid inter-
ference by the civil authorities ; and yet, in
spite of it all, coffee attained new honors
and new fame. The Oriental coffee house
reached its supreme development in Con-
stantinople.
Although coffee had been known in Con-
stantinople since 1517, it was not until 1554
that the inhabitants became acquainted
with that great institution of early eastern
democracy — the coffee house. In that year,
under the reign of Soliman the Great, son
of Selim I, one Scherasi of Damascus and
one Hekem of Aleppo opened the first two
coffee houses in the quarter called Taktaca-
lah. They were wonderful institutions for
those days, remarkable alike for their fur-
nishings and their comforts, as well as for
the opportunity they afforded for social
intercourse and free discussion. Schemsi
and Hekem received their guests on "very
neat coiiches or sofas," and the admission
was the price of a dish of coffee — about
one cent.
Turks, high and low, took up the idea
with avidity. Coffee houses increased in
20
ALL ABOUT COFFEE
number. The deinaiid outstripped the
supply. In the seraglio itself special offi-
cers {kafivedjibachi) were commissioned to
prepare the coffee drink for the sultan.
Coffee was in favor witli all classes.
The Turks gave to the coffee houses the
name kahveh kancs {diver soria, Cotovicus
called them) ; and as they grew in popu-
larity, they became more and more luxu-
rious. There were lounges, richly carpeted;
and in addition to coffee, many other means
of entertainment. To these ' ' schools of the
wise" came the ''young men ready to enter
upon offices of judicature ; kadis from the
provinces, seeking re-instatement or new
appointments ; muderys, or professors ; of-
ficers of the seraglio; bashaws; and the
principal lords of the port," not to men-
tion merchants and travelers from all parts
of the then known world.
Coffee House Persecutions
About 1570, just when coffee seemed
settled for all time in the social scheme,
the imams and dervishes raised a loud wail
against it, saying the mosques were almost
empty, while the coffee houses were always
full. Then the preachers joined in the
clamor, affirming it to be a greater sin to
go to a coffee house than to enter a tavern.
The authorities began an examination ; and
the same old debate was on. This time,
however, appeared a mufti who was un-
friendly to coffee. The religious fanatics
argued that Mohammed had not even
known of coffee, and so could not have
used the drink, and, therefore, it must be
an abomination for his followers to do so.
Further, coffee was burned and ground to
charcoal before making a drink of it ; and
the Koran distinctly forbade the use of
charcoal, including it among the unsani-
tary foods. The mufti decided the ques-
tion in favor of the zealots, and coffee was
forbidden by law.
The prohibition proved to be more hon-
ored in the breach than in the observance.
Coffee drinking continued in secret, instead
of in the open. And when, about 1580,
Amurath III, at the further solicitation of
the churchmen, declared in an edict that
coffee should be classed with wine, and so
prohibited in accordance with the law of
the Prophet, the people only smiled, and
persisted in their secret disobedience. Al-
ready they were beginning to think for
themselves on religious as well as political
matters. The civil officers, finding it use-
less to try to suppress the custom, winked
at violations of the law; and, for a con-
sideration, permitted the sale of coffee pri-
vately, so that many Ottoman "speak-
easies" sprung up — places where coffee
might be had behind shut doors; shops
where it was sold in back-rooms.
This was enough to re-establish the cof-
fee houses by degrees. Then came a mufti
less scrupulous or more knowing than his
predecessor, who declared that coffee was
not to be looked upon as coal, and that the
drink made from it was not forbidden by
the law. There was a general renewal of
coffee drinking; religious devotees, preach-
ers, lawyers, and the mufti himself indulg-
ing in it, their example being followed by
the whole court and the city.
After this, the coffee houses provided a
handsome source of revenue to each suc-
ceeding grand vizier ; and there was no fur-
ther interference with the beverage until
the reign of Amurath IV, when Grand
Vizier Kuprili, during the war with Can-
dia, decided that for political reasons, the
coffee houses should be closed. His argu-
ment was much the same as that advanced
more than a hundred years later by Charles
II of England, namely, that they were hot-
beds of sedition. Kuprili was a military
dictator, with nothing of Charles's vacillat-
ing nature; and although, like Charles, he
later rescinded his edict, he enforced it,
while it was effective, in no uncertain
fashion. Kuprili was no petty tyrant. For
a first violation of the order, cudgeling was
the punishment; for a second offense, the
victim was sewn in a leather bag and thrown
into the Bosporus. Strangely enough,
while he suppressed the coffee houses, he
permitted the taverns, that sold wine for-
bidden by the Koran, to remain open.
Perhaps he found the latter produced a
less dangerous kind of mental stimulation
than that produced by coffee. Coffee, says
Virey, was too intellectual a drink for the
fierce and senseless administration of the
pashas.
Even in those days it was not possible
to make people good by law. Paraphrasing
the copy-book, suppressed desires will
arise, though all the world o'erwhelm thera,
to men's eyes. An unjust law was no more
enforceable in those centuries than it is in
the twentieth century. Men are humans
first, although they may become brutish
when bereft of reason. But coffee does not
steal away their reason ; rather, it sharpens
their reasoning faculties. As Galland has
truly said: "Coffee joins men, born for
EART.Y HISTORY OF COFFEE
21
Characteristic Scene in a Turkish Coffee House of the Seventeenth Century
society, in a more perfect union ; protesta-
tions are more sincere in being made at a
time when the mind is not clouded with
fumes and vapors, and therefore not easily
forgotten, which too frequently happens
when made over a bottle."
Despite the severe penalties staring them
in the face, violations of the law were plen-
tiful among the people of Constantinople.
Venders of the beverage appeared in the
market-'places with "large copper vessels
with fire under them ; and those who had
a mind to drink were invited to step into
any neighboring shop where every one was
welcome on such an account."
Later, Kuprili, having assured himself
that the coffee houses were no longer a
menace to his policies, permitted the free
use of the beverage that he had previously
forbidden.
Coffee and Coffee Houses in Persia
Some writers claim for Persia the dis-
covery of the coffee drink; but there is no
evidence to support the claim. There are,
however, sufficient facts to justify a belief
that here, as in Ethiopia, coffee has been
known from time immemorial — which is
a very convenient phrase. At an early date
the coffee house became an established insti-
tution in the chief towns. The Persians
appear to have used far more intelligence
than the Turks in liandling the political
phase of the coffee-house question, and so
it never became necessary to order them
suppressed in Persia.
The wife of Shah Abbas, observing that
great numbers of people were wont to
gather and to talk politics in the leading
coffee house of Ispahan, appointed a. mol-
22
ALL ABOUT COFFEE
lah — an eeclesiastix-'al teacher and ex-
pounder of the law — to sit there daily
to entertain the frequenters of the place
with nicely turned points of history, law,
and poetry. Heing a man of wisdom and
great tact, he avoided controversial ques-
tions of state ; and so politics were kept in
the background, lie proved a welcome visi-
tor, and was made much of by the guests.
This example was generally followed, and
as a result disturbances were rare in the
coffee houses of Ispahan.
Adam Olearius" (1599-1671), who was
secretary to the German Embassy that
traveled in Turkey in 1633 - 36, tells of
the great diversions made in Persian coffee
houses "by their poets and historians, who
are seated in a high chair from whence
they make speeches and tell satirical stories,
playing in the meantime with a little stick
and using the same gestures as our jug-
glers and legerdemain men do in England."
At court conferences conspicuous among
the shah's retinue were always to be seen
the "kahvedjibachi," or " coffee-pourers. "
Early Coffee Manners and Customs
Karstens Niebuhr" (1733-1815), the
Hanoverian traveler, furnishes the follow-
ing description of the early Arabian,
Syrian, and Egyptian coffee houses:
They are commonly large halls, having their
floors spread with mats, and illuminated at night
by a multitude of lamps. Being the only
theaters for the exercise of profane eloquence,
poor scholars attend here to amuse the people.
Select portions are read, e. g. the adventures of
Rustan Sal, a Persian hero. Some aspire to the
praise of invention, and compose tales and
fables. They walk up and down as they recite,
or assuming oratorial consequence, harangue
upon subjects chosen by themselves.
In one coffee house at Damascus an orator
was regularly hired to tell his stories at a fixed
hour; in other cases he was more directly de-
pendent upon the taste of his hearers, as at the
conclusion of his discourse, whether it had con-
sisted of literary topics or of loose and idle tales,
he looked to the audience for a voluntary con-
tribution.
At Aleppo, again, there was a man with a soul
above the common, who, being a per.son of dis-
tinction, and one that studied merely for his own
pleasure, had yet gone the round of'all the coffee
houses in the city to pronounce moral harangues.
In some coffee houses there were singers
and dancers, as before, and many came to
listen to the marvelous tales of the Thou-
sand and One Nights.
"Olearius. Adam. An Account of His Journeys.
London, 1669.
"Niebuhr, Karstens. Description of Arabia. Amster-
dam, 1774. (Heron trans., London, 1792; p. 266.)
In Oriental countrieii it was once the cus-
tom to offer a cup of "bad coffee," i.e.,
coffee containing poison, to those function-
aries or other persohs who had proven
themselves embarrassing to the authorities.
While coffee drinking started as a pri-
vate religious function, it was not long
after its introduction by the coffee houses
that it became secularized still more in the
homes of the people, although for centuries
it retained a certain religious significance.
Galland says that in Constantinople, at the
time of his visit to the city, there was no
house, rich or poor, Turk or Jew, Greek
or Armenian, where it was not drunk at
least twice a day, and many drank it
oftener, for it became a custom in every
house to offer it to all visitors; and it was
considered an incivility to refuse it.
Twenty dishes a day, per person, was not
an uncommon average.
Galland observes that "as much money
must be spent in the private families of
Constantinople for coffee as for wine at
Paris," and relates that it is as common
for beggars to ask for money to buy cof-
fee, as it is in Europe to ask for money to
buy wine or beer.
At this time to refuse or to neglect to
give coffee to their wives was a legitimate
cause for divorce among the Turks. The
men made promise when marrying never
to let their wives be without coffee. "That,"
says Fulbert de Monteith, "is perhaps more
prudent than to swear fidelity."
Another Arabic manuscript by Bichivili
in the Bibliotheque Nationale at Paris fur-
nishes us with this pen picture of the cof-
fee ceremony as practised in Constanti-
nople in the sixteenth century:
In all the great men's houses, there are ser-
vants whose business it ds only to take care of
the coffee ; and the head officer among them, or
he who has the inspection over all the rest, has
an apartment allowed him near the hall which
is destined for the reception of visitor-s. The
Turks call this officer Kavveghi, that is. Over-
seer or Steward of the Coffee. In the harem or
ladies' apartment in the seraglio, there are a
great many such officers, each having forty or
fifty Baltafiix under them, who, after they have
served a certain time in these coffee-houses, are
sure to be well provided for, either by an ad-
vantageous post, or a sufficient quantity of land.
In the houses of persons of quality likewise,
there are pages, called Itchogluns, who receive
the coffee from the stewards, and present it to
the company with surprising dexteritv and ad-
dress, as soon as the master of the faniily makes
a sign for that purpose, which is all the language
they ever speak to them. ... The coffee is
served on salvers without feet, made commonly
EARLY HISTORY OF COFFEE
23
Serving Cofiee to a Guest. — After a Drawing in an Early Edition of "Arabian Nights"
of painted or varnished wood, and sometimes
of silver. They hold from 15 to 20 china dishes
each ; and such as can afford it have these
dishes half set in silver . . . the dish may be
easily held with the thumb below and two fingers
on the upper edge.
In his Relation of a Journey to Constan-
tinople in 1657, Nicholas Rolamb, the Swe-
dish traveler and envoy to the Ottoman
Porte, gives us this early glimpse of cof-
fee in the home life of the Turks:"
This [coffee] is a kind of pea that grows in
l^fiupt, which the Turks pound and boil in water,
and take it for pleasure instead of brandy, sip-
ping it through the lips boiling hot, persuading
themselves that it consumes catarrhs, and pre-
vents the rising of vapours out of the stomach
into the head. The drinking of this coffee and
smoking tobacco (for tho' the use of tobacco
is forbidden on pain of death, yet it is used in
Constantinople more than any where by men
'"A Collection of Voyages and Travels. London,
1745. (vol. Iv: p. 690.)
as well as women, tho' secretly) makes up all
the pastime among the Turks, and is the only
thing they treat one another with; for which
reason all people of distinction have a particular
room next their own, built on purpose for it,
where there stands a jar of coffee continually
boiling.
It is curious to note that among several
misconceptions that were held by some of
the peoples of the Levant was one that
coffee was a promoter of impotence, al-
though a Persian version of the Angel
Gabriel legend says that Gabriel invented
it to restore the Prophet's failing metabo-
lism. Often in Turkish and Arabian litera-
ture, however, we meet with the sugges-
tion that coffee drinking makes for sterility
and barrenness, a notion that modern medi-
cine has exploded; for now we know that
coffee stimulates the racial instinct, for
which tobacco is a sedative.
24
ALL ABOUT COFFEE
tfililli^
C c
*- ~ ^ «^
•e
^M
a XT *-■ ^*
^ « >. ^ c c
£»• «• /V^ ^*• is tt ^ S ^ *i ii TZ *s
•"3 «=
C iO -T,i
«> -e c g o § s
-^ 5 *» *^ ^'^ •'^ ***
^ *b -5: .o
c »: «»
^ _ S « c _
cj .•« 13 :r ^ ^ fcv>J
^^ SS C «*" »3 »»
--11^1
Chapter IV
INTRODUCTION OF COFFEE INTO WESTERN EUROPE
When the three great temperance beverages, cocoa, tea, and coffee,
came to Europe — Coffee first mentioned by Rauivolf in 1582 —
Early days of coff'ee in Italy — How Pope. Clement VIILJbaptised it
and made it a truly Qhrisiicm beverage — The first European coffee
house, in Venice, 1645 — The famous Caffe Florian — Other cele-
brated Venetian coffee houses of the eighteenth century — The
romantic story of Pedrocchi, the poor lemonade-vender, who built the
most beautiful coffee house in the world
OF the Avorld's three great temperance
beverages, cocoa, tea, and coffee,
cocoa was the first to be introduced
into Europe, in lh28^hy the Spanish. It
was nearly a century later^ift-1 61^, that
the Dutch brought tea to Europe. Vene-
tian traders introduced coffee into Europe
in 1615.
Europe's first knowledge of coffee was
brought by travelers returning from the
Far East and the Levant. Leonhard Rau-
wolf started on his famous journey into the
Eastern countries from Marseilles in Sep-
tember, 1573, having left his home in
Augsburg, the 18th of the preceding May.
He reached Aleppo in November, 1573 ; and
returned to Augsburg, February 12, 1576.
He was the first European to mention cof-
fee; and to him also belongs the honor of
being the first to refer to the beverage in
print.
Rauwolf was not only a doctor of medi-
cine and a botanist of great renown, but
also official physician to the town of Augs-
burg. When he spoke, it was as one having
authority. The first printed reference to
coffee appears as chauhe in chapter viii of
Rauwolf 's Travels, which deals with the
manners and customs of the city of Aleppo,
The exact passage is reproduced herewith
as it appears in the original German edi-
tion of Rauwolf published at Frankfort
and Lauingen in 1582-83.
tion is as follows:
The transla-
If you have a mind to eat something or to
drinii other liquors, there is commonly an open
shop near it, where you sit down upon the
ground or carpets and drink together. Among
the rest they have a very good drink, by them
called Chauhe [coffee] that is almost as black
as ink, and very good in illness, chieti.v that of
the stomach ; of this they drink in the morning
early in open places before everybody, without
any fear or regard, out of China cups, as hot as
they can : they put it often to their lips but
drink but little at a time, and let it go round
as they sit.
In this same water they take a fruit called
Bunnu which In its bigness, shape and color is
almost like unto a bayberry, with two thin shells
surrounded, which, as they informed me, are
brought from the Indies; but as these in them-
selves are, and have within them, two yellowish
grains in two distinct cells, and besides, being
they agree in their virtue, figure, looks, and
name with the Bunchum of Avicenna, and Bunca
of Rasis ad Almans exactly; therefore I take
them to be the same, until I am better informed
by the learned. This liquor is very common
among them, wherefore there are a great many
of them that sell it. and others that sell the
berries, everywhere in their Batzars.
The Early Days of Coffee in Italy
It is not easy to determine just whvm the
use of coffee spread from Constantinople to
the western parts of Europe ; but it is more
than likely that the Venetians, because of
their close proximity to, and their great
25
26
ALL ABOUT COFFEli
trade with, the Levant, were the first
acquainted with it.
Prospero Alpini (Alpinus; 1553-1617),
a learned physician and botanist of Padua,
journeyed to P^^ypt in 1580, and brought
back news of coffee. He was the first to
print a description of the coffee plant and
drink in his trcatisi' The Vlanis of Kgypl,
written in Tjatin, and published in Venice,
1592. lie says:
I have seen this tree at Cairo, it being tlio
same tree that prodnces the frnit, so common in
Egypt, to which they giro tlie name hnn or hnn.
The Arabians and the Egyptians malie a sort
of decoction of it, which they drink instead of
wine; and it is sokl in all their public houses,
as wine Is with us. They call this drink caova.
The fruit of which they make it comes from
"Arabia the Happy," and the tree that I saw
looks like a spindle tree, but the leaves are
thicker, tougher, and greener. The tree is never
without leaves.
Alpini makes note of the medicinal quali-
ties attributed to the drink by dwellers in
the Orient, and many of these were soon
incorporated into Europe's materia medica.
Johann Vesling (Veslingius; 1598-
1649), a German botanist and traveler,
settled in Venice, where he became known
as a learned Italian physician. He edited
(1640) a new edition of Alpini 's work; but
earlier (1638) published some comments on
Alpini 's findings, in the course of which
he distinguished certain qualities found in
a drink made from the husks (skins) of
the coffee berries from those found in the
liquor made from the beans themselves,
which he calls the stones of the coffee fruit.
He says :
Not only in Egypt is coffee in much request,
but in almost all the other provinces of the
Turkish Empire. Whence it comes to pass that
it is dear even in the Levant and scarce among
the Europeans, who by that means are deprived
of a very wholesome liquor.
From this we may conclude that coffee
was not wholly unknown in Europe at that
time. Vesling adds that when he visited
Cairo, he found there two or three thousand
coffee houses, and that "some did begin to
put sugar in their coffee to correct the bit-
terness of it, and others made sugar-plums
of the berries."
Coffee, Baptized hy the Pope
Shortly after coffee reached Rome, ac-
cording to a much quoted legend, it was
again threatened with religious fanaticism,
which almost caused its excommunication
from Christendom. It ig rel$.te4 that eer-
Ax EuniTEENTii Centuuy Italian Coffee House
After Goldoni, by Zatta
tain priests appealed to Pope Clement VIII
(1535-1605) to have its use forbidden
among Christians, denouncing it as an in-
vention of Satan. They claimed that the
Evil One, having forbidden his followers,
the infidel Moslems, the use of wine — no
doubt because it was sanctified by Christ
and used in the Holy Communion — had
given them as a substitute this hellish black
brew of his which they called coffee. For
Christians to drink it was to risk falling
into a trap set by Satan for their souls.
It is further related that the pope, made
curious, desired to inspect this Devil's
drink, and had some brought to him. The
aroma of it was so pleasant and inviting
that the pope was tempted to try a cupful.
After drinking it, he exclaimed, "Why, this
Satan's drink is so delicious that it would
be a pity to let the infidels have exclusive
use of it. We shall fool Satan by baptizing
it, and making it a truly Christian bev-
erage. ' '
Thus, whatever harmfulness its oppo-
nents try to attribute to coffee, the fact
remains (if we are to credit the story) that
it has been baptized and proclaimed un-
harmful, and a "truly Christian beverage,"
by his holiness the pope.
The Venetians had further knowledge of
coffee in 1585, when Cianfrancesco Moro-
sini, city magistrate at Constantinople, re-
ported to the Senate that the Turks ' ' drink
a black water as hot as they can suffer it,
which is the infusion of a bean called cavee,
which is said to possess the virtue of stimu-
lating mankind."
Dr. A. Couguet, in an Italian review,
asserts that Europe's first cup of coffee
was sipped in Venice, toward the close of
COFFEE IN WESTERN EUROPE
27
the sixti'oiith eontury. He is of the opin-
ion that the first berries were imported by
Mocenjrio, who was called the pevcre, be-
cause he made a huge fortune trading- in
spices and others specialties of the Orient.
In Kilf) Pierre (Pietro) Delia Valle
(ir)8() - 1652), the well known Italian trav-
eler and author of Travels in India and
Persia, wrote a letter from Constantinople
to his friend Mario Schipano at Venice:
The Turks have a drink of black color, which
dnrinj? tho suinnier is very cooliii}?. whereas in
the winter it heats and warms the Itody, re-
maiiiiiiK always the same boverajje and not
changinj; its sui»stance. They swallow it hot
as it comes from the fire and they drink it in
lonj; draughts, not at dinner time, but as a
kind of dainty and sipped slowly while talking
with one's friends. One cannot find any meet-
ings among them where they drink it not. . . .
With this drink, whicli they call cahue, they
divert themselves in their conversations. . . .
It is made with the grain or fruit of a certain
tree called cahuc. . . . When I return I will
bring some with me and 1 will impart the knowl-
edge to the Italians.
Nobility in an Early Vknetian CAFFfe
From the Grevembroch collection in the Museo
CIvico
Delia Valle 's countrymen, however, were
in a fair way to become well acquainted
with the beverage, for already (1615) it
had been introduced into Venice. At first
it was used largely for medicinal purposes;
and high prices were charged for it. Ves-
ling says of its use in Europe as a medicine,
''the first step it made from the cabinets
of the curious, as an exotic seed, being into
the apothecaries' shops as a drug."
The first coffee house in Italy is said to
have been opened in 1645, but convincing
confirmation is lacking. In the beginning,
the beverage was sold with other drinks by
lemonade-venders. The Italian word aqua-
cedratajo means one who sells lemonade and
similar refreshments; also one who sells
coffee, chocolate, liquor, etc. Jardin says
the beverage was in general use throughout
Italy in 1645. It is certain, however, that
a coffee shop was opened in Venice in 1683
under the Procuratie Nuove. The famous
Gaffe Florian was opened in Venice by
Floriono Francesconi in 1720.
The first authoritative treatise devoted to
coffee only appeared in 1671. It was writ-
ten in Latin by Antoine Faustus Nairon
(1635-1707), Maronite professor of the
Chaldean and Syrian languages in the Col-
lege of Rome.
During the latter part of the seventeenth
century and the first half of the eighteenth,
the coffee house made great progress in
Italy. It is interesting to note that this
first European adaptation of the Oriental
coffee house was known as a caffe. The
double f is retained by the Italians to this
day, and by some writers is thought to
have been taken from coffea, without the
double f being lost, as in the case of the
French and some other Continental forms.
To Italy, then, belongs the honor of hav-
ing given to the Western world the real
coffee house, although the French and
Austrians greatly improved upon it. It was
not long after its beginning that nearly
every shop on the Piazza di San Marco in
Venice was a caffe \ Near the Piazza was
the Caffe della Ponte dell' Angelo, where
in 1792 died the dog Tabacchio, celebrated
by Vincenzo Formaleoni in a satirical eu-
logy that is a parody of the oration of
Ubaldo Bregolini upon the death of Angelo
Emo.
In the Caffe della Spaderia, kept by
Marco Ancilloto, some radicals proposed to
1 Molnipnti, Pompeo. La Btoria di Venezia nella
Vita Privata. Bergamo, 1908. (pt 3 : p. 245.)
28
ALL ABOUT COFFEE
open a rcadiiifr-room to encourage the
spread of liberal ideas. The inquisitors
sent a foot-soldier to notify the proprietor
that he should inform the first person en-
tering the room that he was to present him-
self before their tribunal. The idea was
thereupon abandoned.
Among other celebrated coffee houses
was the one called Menegazzo, from the
name of the rotund proprietor, Menico.
This place was much frequented by men
of letters ; and heated discussions were com-
GoLDONi IN A Venetian Caffe
From a painting by P. Longhi
mon there between Angelo Maria Barbaro,
Lorenzo da Ponte, and others of their time.
The coffee house gradually became the
common resort of all classes. In the morn-
ings came the merchants, lawyers, physi-
cians, brokers, workers, and wandering ven-
ders; in the afternoons, and until the late
hours of the nights, the leisure classes, in-
cluding the ladies.
For the most part, the rooms of the first
Italian caffe were low, simple, unadorned,
without windows, and only poorly illumi-
nated by tremulous and uncertain lights.
Within them, however, joyous throngs
passed to and fro, clad in varicolored gar-
ments, men and women chatting in groups
here and there, and always above the buzz
there were to be heard such choice bits of
scandal as made worthwhile a visit to the
coffee house. Smaller rooms were devoted
to gaming.
In the "little square" described by Gol-
doni ^ in his comedy The Coffee House,
where the combined barber-shop and gam-
bling house was located, Don Marzio, that
marvelous type of slanderous old romancer,
is shown as one typical of the period, for
Goldoni was a satirist. The other charac-
ters of the play were also drawn from the
types then to be seen every day in the
coffee houses on the Piazza.
In the square of St. Mark's, in the eigh-
teenth century, under the Procuratie Vec-
chie, were the caffe Re di Francia, Abbon-
danza, Pitt. I'eroe, Regina d'Uiigheria,
Orfeo, Redentore. Coraggio - Speranza,
Arco Celeste, and Quadri. The last-named
was opened in 1775 by Giorgio Quadri of
Corfu, who served genuine Turkish coffee
for the first time in Venice.
Under the Procuratie Nuove were to be
found the caffe Angelo Custode, Duca di
Toscana, Buon genio - Doge, Imperatore
Imperatrice della Russia, Tamerlano, Fon-
tane di Diana, Dame Venete, Aurora Piante
d'oro, Arabo - Piastrelle, Pace, Venezia
trionfante, and Florian.
Probably no coffee house in Europe ha.s
acquired so world-wide a celebrity as that
kept by Florian, the friend of Canova the
sculptor, and the trusted agent and ac-
quaintance of hundreds of persons in and
out of the city, who found him a mine of
social information and a convenient city
directory. Persons leaving Venice left
their cards and itineraries with him ; and
new-comers inquired at Florian 's for tid-
ings of those whom they wished to see,
"He long concentrated in himself a knowl-
edge more varied and multifarious than
that possessed by any individual before or
since," says Hazlitt^ who has given us
this delightful pen picture of caffe life in
Venice in the eighteenth century:
Venetian coffee was said to surpass all others,
and the article placed before his visitors by
Florian was the best in Venice. Of some of the
establishments as they then existed, Molmenti
lias supplied us with illustrations, in one of
which Goldoni the dramatist is represented as
a visitor, and a female mendicant is soliciting
alms.
So cordiftl -was the esteem of the great sculp-
tor Canova for him, that when Florian was
= Goldoni, Carlo. La Bottegn di Caffe. IToO.
=• Hazlitt, W. Carew. The Venetian Republic. Lon-
don, 1905. (vol. 2: pp. 1012-15.)
COFFEE IN WESTERN EUROPE
29
i
Flokian's Famous Cafkk in the Piazza di San Marco, Venice, Nineteenth Century
overtaken by gout, he made a model of his
leg. that the poor fellow might be spared the
anguish of fitting himself with boots. The
friendsliip had begun when Canova was enter-
ing on liis career, and he never forgot the
.substantial services which had been rendered
to him in the hour of need.
In later days, the Cafife Florian was under
the superintendence of a female chef, and the
waitresses used, in the case of certain visitors,
to fasten a liower in the button-hole, perhaps
allusively to the name. In the Piazza Itself
girls would do the same thing. A good deal of
hospitality is, and has ever been, dispensed at
Venice in the caf6s and restaurants, which do
service for the domestic hearth.
There were many other establishments de-
voted, more especially in the latest period of
Venetian independence, to the requirements of
those wlio desired such resorts for purposes of
conversation and gossip. These houses were
frequented by various classes of patrons — the
patrician, the politician, the soldier, the artist,
the old and the young — all had their special
haunts where the company and the tariff were
in accordance with the guests. The upper cir-
cles of male society — all above the actually
poor — gravitated hither to a man.
For the Venetian of all ranks the coffee house
was almost the last place visited on departure
from the city, and the first visited on his re-
turn. His domicile was the residence of his
wife and the repository of his possessions; but
only on exceptional occasions was it the scene
of domestic hospitality, and rare were the in-
stances when the husband and wife might be
seen abroad together, and when the former
would invite the lady to enter a cafe or a con-
fectioner's shop to partake of an ice.
The Caffe Florian has undergone man^^
changes, but it still survives as one of the
favorite caffe in the Piazza San Marco.
By 1775 coffee-house history had begun
to repeat itself in Venice. Charges of im-
morality, vice, and corruption, were pre-
ferred against the caffe; and the Council
of Ten in 1775, and again in 1776, directed
the Inquisitors of State to eradicate these
' ' social cankers. ' ' However, they survived
all attempts of the reformers to suppress
them.
The Caffe Pedrocchi in Padua was an-
other of the early Italian coffee houses that
became famous. Antonio Pedrocchi (1776-
1852) was a lemonade- vender who, in the
hope of attracting the gay youth, the stu-
dents of his time, bought an old house with
the idea of converting the ground floor
into a series of attractive rooms. He put
all his ready money and all he could borrow
into the venture, only to find there were
no cellars, indispensable for making ices
and beverages on the premises, and that the
walls and floors were so old that they
crumbled when repairs were started.
He was in despair ; but, nothing daunted,
he decided to have a cellar dug. What was
80
ALL ABOUT COt^FEE
his surprise to find the house was built
over the vault of an old church, and that
the vault contained considerable treasure.
The lucky proprietor found himself free to
continue his trade of lemonade-vender and
coffee-seller, or to live a life of ease. Being
a wise man, he adhered to his original plan ;
and soon his luxurious rooms became the
favorite rendezvous for the smart set of
his day. In this period lemonade and cof-
fee frequently went together. The Gaffe
Pedrocchi is considered one of the finest
pieces of architecture erected in Italy in
the nineteenth century. It was begun in
1816, opened in 1831, and completed in
1842.
Coffee houses were early established in
other Italian cities, particularly in Rome,
Florence, and Genoa.
In 1764, 11 Cajfe, a purely philosophical
and literary periodical, made its appear-
ance in Milan, being founded by Gount
Pietro Verri (1728-97). Its chief editor
was Gesare Beccaria. Its object was to
counteract the influence and superficiality
of the Arcadians. It acquired its title from
the fact that Gount Verri and his friends
were wont to meet at a coffee house in
Milan kept by a Greek named Demetrio. It
lived only two years.
Other periodicals of the same name ap-
peared at later periods.
■4
Chapter V
THE BEGINNINGS OF COFFEE IN FRANCE
What French travelers did for coffee — The introduction of coffee
hy P. de la Roque into Marseilles in 1644 — The first commercial
importation of coffee from Egypt — The first French coffee house —
Failure of the attempt hy physicians of Marseilles to discredit
coffee — Soliman Aga introduces coff'ee into Paris — Cabarets a
caffe — Celebrated works on coffee hy French writers
WE are indebted to three great French
travelers for much valuable knowl-
edge about coffee; and these gal-
lant gentlemen first fired the imagination
of the French people in regard to the bev-
erage that was destined to play so impor-
tant a part in the French revolution. They
are Tavernier (1605 - 89), Thevenot (1633 -
67), and Bernier (1625-88).
Then there is Jean La Roque (1661-
1745), who made a famous "Voyage to
Arabia the Happy" {Voyage de rArabie
Heureuse) in 1708 - 13 and to whose father,
P. de la Roque, is due the honor of having
brought the first coffee into France in 1644.
Also, there is Antoine Galland (1646 -
1715), the French Orientalist, first trans-
lator of the Arabian Nights and antiquary
to the king, who, in 1699, published an an-
alysis and translation from the Arabic of
the Abd-al-Kadir manuscript (1587), giv-
ing the first authentic account of the origin
of coffee.
Probably the earliest reference to coffee
in France is to be found in the simple
statement that Onorio Belli (Bellus), the
Italian botanist and author, in 1596 sent to
Charles de I'ficluse (1526 - 1609), a French
physician, botanist and traveler, "seeds
used by the Egyptians to make a liquid
they call cave.^"
P. de la Roque accompanied M. de la
Haye, the French ambassador, to Constan-
• Jardin, fidelestan. Le Caf&icr vt le Caji. I'aris,
1895. (p. 16 )
tinople; and afterward traveled into the
Levant. Upon his return to Marseilles in
1644, he brought with him not only some
coffee, but "all the little implements used
about it in Turkey, which were then looked
upon as great curiosities in France. ' ' There
were included in the coffee service some
findjans, or china dishes, and small pieces
of muslin embroidered with gold, silver,
and silk, which the Turks used as napkins.
Jean La Roque gives credit to Jean de
Thevenot for introducing coffee privately
into Paris in 1657, and for teaching the
French how to use coffee.
De Thevenot writes in this entertaining
fashion concerning the use of the drink :u
Turkey in the middle of the seventeenth
century :
They have another drink in ordinary use.
Tliey call it cahve and take it all hours of the
day. This drink is made from a berry roasted
in a pan or other utensil over the fire. They
pound it into a very fine powder.
When they wish to drink it, they take a boiler
made expressly for the purpose, which they call
an ibrik; and having filled it with water, they
let it boil. When it boils, they add to about
three cups of water a heaping spoonful of the
powder ; and when it boils, they remove it
quickly from the fire, or sometimes they stir it,
otherwise it would boil over, as it rises very
quickly. When it has boiled up thus ten or
twelve times, they pour it into porcelain cups,
which they place upon a platter of painted wood
and bring it to you thus boiling.
One must drink it hot, but in several instal-
ments, otherwise it is not good. One takes it in
31
32
ALL ABOUT COFFEE
little swallows ' for fear of burning one's self —
in such fashion that in a cavekane (so they call
the places where it is sold ready prepared), one
hears a plea.saiit little musical sucking sound.
. . . There are some who mix with it a small
quantity of cloves and cardamom seeds ; others
add sugar.
It was really out of curiosity that the
[)e()ple of France took to coffee, says Jar-
VO Y AG E
D E
L'ARABIE HEUREUSE.
PAR L OCEAN ORIENTAL,
5£ Ic Dctioit dc la Mcr Rouge. Fau par
Ics Fran^oji pout U premiere fbis, dans
les anncci 1708,170^^6^1710.
AVEC LA RELATION PA RTICULIERE
d'un Voyage fait du Pott de Mcka a laCour du
Roy d'Yemcn , dans la feconde Expedition dc$
annees 1711, 1711 & 1713.
UN ME MOIRE CONCERNANT L'ARERE
Sc le Fruit du Cafe , dfc (Te fur ks Obfervations
de ceux qui ont fait cc dernier Voyage. Et un
Traitc hiftonque de Toi igine & du progfcs du
Cafe, tant dans lAfie que dans 'Europe ; de Con
introduftion en France, & de rctiblmemcnt dc
fon ufagc a Paris.
A PARIS,
Chez A N D R E^ C A 1 L L F. A u, fur Ic Quay dcj
Auguftins, p;es la rue Pavec , a Saint Andre.
M D C C X V L
^vtc jipprobmon , ^& Privilege du R»y,
Title Page of La Roque's Work, 1716
din; "they wanted to know this Oriental
beverage, so much vaunted, although its
blackness at first sight was far from attrac-
tive."
About the year 1660 several merchants
of Marseilles, who had lived for a time in
the Levant and felt they were not able to
do without coffee, brought some coffee beans
home with them; and later, a group of
apothecaries and other merchants brought
in the first commercial importation of eof-
^ "Drop by drop they take it in," said Cotoviciis.
fee in bales from Egypt. The Lyons mer-
chants soon followed suit, and the use of
coffee became general in those parts. In
1671 certain private persons opened a cof-
fee house in Marseilles, near the Exchange,
which at once became popular with mer-
chants and travelers. Others started up,
and all were crowded. The people did not,
however, drink any the less at home. "In
fine," says La Roque, "the use of the bev-
erage increased so amazingly that, as was
inevitable, the physicians became alarmed,
"thinking it would not agree with the in-
habitants of a country hot and extremely
dry."
The age-old controversy was on. Some
sided with the physicians, others opposed
them, as at Mecca, Cairo, and Constanti-
nople; only here the argument turned
mainly on the medicinal question, the
Church this time having no part in the
dispute. "The lovers of coffee used the
physicians very ill when they met together,
Poj.^jS.
^^rh.re' Ail Cn/c dcj'sniii en.
.'ir/xhit j->ir h }7an%rcf.
' TA.-n^^U J-c,
The Coffee Tree as Pictured by La Roque in
His "Voyage de l'Arabie Heureuse"
and the physicians on their side threatened
the coft'ee drinkers with all sorts of dis-
eases. ' '
Matters came to a head in 1679, when
an ingenious attempt by the physicians of
ALL ABOUT COFFEE
A CLOSE-UP OF RIPE COFFEE BERRIES
«•■■
BEGINNINGS IN FRANCE
88
Marseilles to discredit coffee took the form
of having a young student, about to be ad-
mitted to the College of Physicians, dis-
pute before the magistrate in the town hall,
a question proposed by two physicians of
the Faculty of Aix, as to whether coffee was
or was not prejudicial to the inhabitants of
Marseilles.
The thesis recited that coffee had won
the approval of all nations, had almost
wholly put down the use of wine, although
it was not to be compared even with the
lees of that excellent beverage; that it was
a vile and worthless foreign novelty ; that
its claim to be a remedy against distempers
was ridiculous, because it was not a bean
but the fruit of a tree discovered by goats
and camels; that it was hot and not cold,
as alleged; that it burned up the blood,
and so induced palsies, impotence, and
leanness ; ' ' from all of which we must nec-
essarily conclude that coffee is hurtful to
the greater part of the inhabitants of Mar-
seilles. ' '
Thus did the good doctors of the Faculty
of Aix set forth their prejudices, and this
was their final decision upon coffee. Many
thought they overreached themselves in
their misguided zeal. They were handled
somewhat roughly in the disputation, which
disclosed many false reasonings, to say
nothing of blunders as to matters of fact.
The world had already advanced too far to
have another decision against coffee count
for much, and this latest effort to stop its
onward march was of even less force than
the diatribes of the Mohammedan priests.
The coffee houses continued to be as much
frequented as before, and the people drank
no less coffee in their homes. Indeed, the
indictment proved a boomerang, for con-
sumption received such an impetus that the
merchants of Lyons and Marseilles, for the
first time in history, began to import green
coffee from the Levant by the ship-load in
order to meet the increased demand.
Meanwhile, in 1669, Soliman Aga, the
Turkish ambassador from Mohammed IV to
the court of Louis XIV, had arrived in
Paris. He brought with him a considerable
quantity of coffee, and introduced the cof-
fee drink, made in Turkish style, to the
French capital.
The ambassador remained in Paris only
from July, 1669, to May, 1670, but long
enough firmly to establish the custom he
had introduced. Two years later, Pascal,
4 . AtyoM. tfp^s/U
A Coffee Branch With Flowers and Fruit
AS iLLUSTItATED IN La ROQUE'S "VoYAGE
DE L'ArABIE HeUREUSE"
an Armenian, opened his coffee-drinking
booth at the fair of St.-Germain, and this
event marked the beginning of the Parisian
coffee houses. The story is told in detail
in chapter XI.
The custom of drinking coffee having
become general in the capital, as well as
in Marseilles and Lyons, the example was
followed in all the provinces. Every city
soon had its coffee houses, and the beverage
was largely consumed in private homes. La
Roque writes: "None, from the meanest
citizen to the persons of the highest quality,
failed to use it every morning or at least
soon after dinner, it being the custom like-
wise to offer it in all visits."
"The persons of highest quality" en-
couraged the fashion of having cabarets a
caffe; and soon it was said that there could
be seen in France all that the East could
furnish of magnificence in coffee houses,
"the china jars and other Indian furniture
d4
ALL ABOUT COFFEE
being richer and more valuable than the
gold and silver with which they were lav-
ishly adorned."
In 1671 there appeared in Lyons a book
entitled The Most Excellent Virtues of the
Mulberry, Called Coffee, showing the need
for an authoritative work on the subject —
a need that was ably filled that same year
and in Lyons by the publication of Philippe
Sylvestre Dufour's admirable treatise,
Concerning the Use of Coffee, Tea, and
Chocolate. Again at Lyons, Dufour pub-
lished (1684) his more complete work on
The Manner of Making Coffee, Tea, and
Chocolate. This was followed (1715) by
the publication in Paris of Jean La Roque 's
Voyage de I' Arabic Heureuse, containing
the story of the author's journey to the
court of the king of Yemen in 1711, a de-
scription of the coffee tree and its fruit,
and a critical and historical treatise on its
first use and introduction to France.
La Roque 's description of his visit to the
king's gardens is interesting because it
shows the Arabs still held to the belief that
coffee grew only in Arabia. Here it is :
There was nothing remarkable in the King's
Gardens, except the great pains taken-to furnish
it with all the kinds of trees that are common
in the country ; amongst which there were the
cofifee trees, the finest that could be had. When
the deputies represented to the King how much
that was contrary to the custom of the Princes
of Europe (who endeavor to stock their gardens
chiefly with the rarest and most uncommon
plants that can be found) the King returned
them this answer: That he valued himself as
much upon his good taste and generosity as any
Prince in Europe ; the coffee tree, he told them,
was indeed common in his country, but it was
not tlie less dear to him upon that account ; the
perpetual verdure of it pleased him extremely;
and also the thoughts of its producing a fruit
which was nowhere else to be met with ; and
when he made a present of that that came from
his own Gardens, it was a great satisfaction to
him to be able to say that he had planted the
trees that produced it with his own hands.
The first merchant licensed to sell coffee
in France was one Damame Frangois, a
bourgeois of Paris, who secured the privi-
lege through an edict of 1692. He was
given the sole right for ten years to sell
coffees and teas in all the provinces and
towns of the kingdom, and in all territories
under the sovereignty of the king, and re-
ceived also authority to maintain a ware-
house.
To Santo Domingo (1738) and other
French colonies the caf6 was soon trans-
ported from the homeland, and thrived un-
der special license from the king.
In 1858 there appeared in France a leaf-
let-periodical, entitled The Cafe, Literary,
Artistic, and Commercial. Ch. Woinez, the
editor, said in announcing it: "The Salon
stood for privilege, the Caf6 stands for
equality." Its publication was of short
duration.
Chapter VI
THE INTRODUCTION OF COFFEE INTO ENGLAND
The first printed reference to coffee in English — Early mention of
coffee by noted English travelers and writers — The Lacedaemonian
''black broth'' controversy — How Conopios introduced coffee drink-
ing at Oxford — The first English coffee house in Oxford — Two
English botanists on coffee
ENGLISH travelers and writers of the
sixteenth and seventeenth centuries
were quite as enterprising as their
Continental contemporaries in telling about
the coffee bean and the coffee drink. The
first printed reference to coffee in English,
however, appears as chaoua in a note by
a Dutchman, Paludanus, in Linschoten's
Travels, the title of an English translation
from the Latin of a work first published in
Holland in 1595 or 1596, the English edi-
tion appearing in London in 1598. A re-
production made from a photograph of the
original work, with the quaint black-letter
German text and the Paludanus notation in
roman, is shown herewith.
Hans Hugo (or John Huygen) Van Lin-
sehooten (1563 - 1611) was one of the most
intrepid of Dutch travelers. In his de-
scription of Japanese manners and cus-
toms we find one of the earliest tea refer-
ences. He says:
Their manner of eating and drinking is : everie
man hatli a table alone, without table-clothes
or napkins, and eateth with two pieces of wood
like the men of Chino : they drinke wine of Rice,
wherewith they drink themselves drunke, and
after their meat they use a certain drinke, which
4s a pot with bote water, which they drinke
as bote as ever they may indure, whether it be
Winter or Summer.
Just here Bernard Ten Broeke Paludanus
(1550-1633), Dutch savant and author,
professor of philosophy at the University
of Leyden, himself a traveler over the four
quarters of the globe, inserts his note con-
taining the coffee reference. He says:
The Turks holde almost the same manner of
drinking of their Chaona \ which they make of
certalne fruit, which is like unto the Bakelaer ^
and by the Egyptians called Bon or Ban:' : they
take of this fruite one pound and a half, and
roast them a little in the fire and then sieth
them in twenty .pounds of water, till the half
be consumed away : this drinke they take every
morning fasting in their chambers, out of an
earthen pot, being verie bote, as we doe here
drinke aqiKwmnposita* in the morning : and they
say that it strengtheneth and maketh them
warme, breaketh wind, and openeth any stop-
ping.
Van Linsohooten then completes his tea
reference by saying:
Tlie manner of dressing their meat is alto-
gether contrarie unto other nations: the afore-
said warme water is made with the powder of
a certaine hearbe called Chaa, which is much
esteemed, and is well accounted among them.
The chaa is, of course, tea, dialect t'eh.
In 1599, *'Sir" Antony (or Anthony)
Sherley (1565 - 1630), a picturesque gentle-
man-adventurer, the first Englishman to
mention coffee drinking in the Orient, sailed
from Venice on a kind of self-appointed,
informal Persian mission, to invite the shah
to ally himself with the Christian princes
against the Turks, and incidentally, to pro-
mote English trade interests in the East.
The English government knew nothing of
the arrangement, disavowed him, and for-
bade his return to England. However, the
1 Misprinted thus in the original Dutch and here
Read Chaoua, i. e., Arabic qahwah.
* Laurel berry, of which the taste is bitter and
disagreeable. From Latin bacca lauri.
' Arabic, iunn ; coffee berries.
* Brandewijn in original Dutch.
35
3i5
ALL ABOUT COFFEE
expedition got t() Persia; and the account
of the voyage thither was written by Will-
iam Parry, one of the Sherley party, and
was published in London in 1601. It is
interesting because it contains the first
printed reference to coffee in English em-
ploying the more modem form of the word.
The original reference was photographed
for this work in the Worth Library of the
British Museum, and is reproduced here-
with on page 39.
The passage is part of an account of the
manners and customs of the Turks (who.
Parry says, are "damned infidells") in
Aleppo. It reads:
Tliey sit at tlieir meat (which is served to
them upon the ground) as Tailers sit upon their
stalls, crosse-legd ; for the most part, passing
the day in banqueting and carowsing, untill they
surfet, drinking a eertaine lifpior, which they
do call Coffc, which is made of seede nuich like
mustard seede, which will soone intoxicate the
braine like our Metheglin."
Another early English reference to coffee,
wherein the word is spelled "coffa", is in
Captain John Smith's book of Travels and
Adventure, published in 1603. He says of
the Turks : ' ' Their best drink is coff'a of a
graine they call coava.'^
This is the same Captain John Smith who
in 1607 became the founder of the Colony
of Virginia and brought with him to Amer-
ica probably the earliest knowledge of the
beverage given to the new Western world.
Samuel Purchas (1527-1626), an early
English collector of travels, in Purchas His
Pilgrimes, under the head of ' ' Observations
of William Finch, merchant, at Socotra"
(Sokotra — an island in the Indian Ocean)
in 1607, says of the Arab inhabitants :
Tlieir best entertainment is a china dish of
Coho, a blacke bitterisli drinke, made of a berry
like a baybei'ry, brought from Mecca, supped
off hot, good for the head and stomache."
Still other early and favorite English
references to coffee are those to be found in
the Travels of William Biddulph. - This
work was, published in 1609. It is entitled
The Travels of Certayne Englishmen in
Africa, Asia, etc. . . Begunne in 1600
and by some of them finished — this yeere
1608. These references are also reproduced
herewith from the black-letter originals
in the British Museum (see page 40).
Biddulph 's description of the drink, and
of the coffee-house customs of the Turks,
was the first detailed account to be written
by an Englishman. It also appears in
Purchas His Pilgrimes (1625). But, to
quote :
Tlieir most common drinke is Coffa, which is
a blacke kinde of drinke, made of a kind of
I'ulse like Pease, called Coaua; which being
grownd in the Mill, and boiled in water, they
drinke it as hot as they can suffer it ; which they
tinde to agree very well with them against their
crudities, and feeding on hearbs and rawe
meates. Other compounded drinkes they have,
called Sherbet, made of Water and Sugar, or
Hony, with Snow therein to make it coole; for
although the Countrey bee hot, yet they keepe
Snow all the yeere long to coole their drinke.
It is accounted a great curtesie amongst them
to give unto their frends when they come to
visit them, a Fin-ion or Scudella of Coffa, which
is more holesome than toothsome, for it causeth
good concoction, and driveth away drovvsinesse.
Some of them will also drinke Bersh or
Opium, which maketh them forget themselves,
and talk idely of Castles in the Ayre, as though
they saw Visions, and heard Revelations. Tlieir
Coffa liouses are more common than Ale-houses
in England ; but they use not so much to sit
in the houses, as on benches on both sides the
streets, neere unto a Coffa house, every man
with his Fin-ionful ; which being smoking
hot, they use to put it to their Noses & Eares,
and then sup it off by leasure, being full of
idle and Ale-house talke vk^hiles they are amongst
themselves drinking it ; if there be any news,
it is talked of there.
Among other early English references to
coffee we find an interesting one by Sir
George Sandys (1577 - 1644), the poet, who
gave a start to classical scholarship in Amer-
ica by translating Ovid's Metamorphoses
during his pioneer days in Virginia. In
1610 he spent a year in Turkey, Egypt, and
Palestine, and records of the Turks : '
Although they be destitute of Taverns, yet
have they their Coffa-houses, which something
resemble them. There sit they chatting most
of the day; and sippe of a drinke called Coffa
(of the berry that it is made of) in little China
dishes as hot as they can suffer it: blacke as
soote, and tasting not much unlike it (why not
that Wacke broth which was in use amongst
the Lacedemonians^) which helpeth, as they
say, digestion, and procureth alacrity : many of
the Cofta-men keeping beautiful! boyes, who
serve as stales to procure them customers.
Edward Terry (1590-1660), an English
traveler, writes, under date of 1616, that
many of the best people in India who are
strict in their religion and drink no wine
at all, "use a liquor more wholesome than
pleasant, they call coffee ; made by a black
Seed boyld in water, which turnes it almost
" Mead.
• Purchas His Pilgrimes.
London, 1625.
' Sandys, Sir George.
1673. (p. 66.)
Sandys' Travels. London,
INTRODUCTION INTO ENGLAND
87
46
£)ftl)e3ilanD5aptirt.
I
rr.rclohrs tuijctt \0c mcanc to goe ab;o<iD
tuto t1)c totunc 0; countnc, tbcp put tbcin off
Ui7]rn tbrp goc fo:tb, putting oti great IvpDc
l):ffrbc0,aijo r cinmg borne tbep put tbem off
aijiim, miD cnft tl)circloUc0\)pon tbctr fljotU*
set saiiQ as among ottiernatioiw it ui a gso
figl)t to fa men iwtb Uibitc nno pcaloU) bap;c
aiiD luliitc tiTtb,ta)itb tbem it to eaocmco the
6ltbufttbm;intbe U)0:[8, anD fixKe biNiU
inrancothci'uiaplo nwhe t5)cir bapjc aiiD
trtrtbblathc, fc: tb.u tbc tobite caufetb tbctr
(tricf,anotbc bUchc mahctb tbcm glafi. Ebc
ItUc cuSomc IS among tbe Uionir n, fo} n0
tbc>>gocab:eaDtbcpbduc tbfir Daugbterst
inapDca brfojc tbcni, ano tbcir men feruants
tome bebmfi,vu'.ncb m Spjignc ie cleanecon-
traric, raiD UJben tbcp arc great luitb rtjitec,
tbci' tr e tbctr girblcs fo bare about tbctti,tbat
men icculD tbtn^e tbcp Qjulu burlt , an&
U)bcn tbcp arc not luttb CbilDc , tijcp
locate tbcir gtrDIcs fo fl,ichc, tbat pou U)oulo
tbmhc tbcp luonlD fall from tbe ir boOicc,fap;
tngtbstL'i'ri-pincncc tbcp Co finCc, iftbcp
UoulD not Cce fo,tbcp fljoulo bauc eutll lucKe
iuitb tbfJr fruicr, ano pjcfcntip as fcone as
tbcp arc DeUttcreD of tbeirebilorn, inftfrD tf
. tbi.n(l>;n5 botb tU motber ana tbe cbilo iwtb
fomc f omfo:tablc meat, tbcp p;cfentlp UJaCb
tbeclwlDcmcoU) toater, aniifo;ntime giue
tbe mctbrr ^rp Utile to eate, anu tbat of no
great fubQance.SLbeir manner of eating an»
c:mhiiis 10: Cuetiem«t batb a table ^alonc,
iDittjout tablc-clotbcsoj naphtns,anOcatetb
iDitbtUJo ports of lDQji3,liUetbcmenofClii'
11.V, tbep D;mkc iuinc of Hice, tobcreimtb
tbep Dimh tbemfclurs D;unhe,an6 after tbcir
tncattbcp tfea rertatne Ojmkc, lubirbisa
pot tuitb bote toater , lublcb tbep ti:mKe as
botcaseuerttjepmapmourc, laijctberitbe
©amtcro} Summer.
^nnotjt .'^'''^ Turkcs holdc -alinoll the f.inic
D.I'ilJ. ' i^'^ncofdrinkinq; of their ^i;4*«/»,wlucli
• .' tlicy make of ccrtainc fruit, which is like
xntothc'SAli^/Aer ^ iiid by the Egyptians
called 5«fl or S4«; they takcof this huuc
one pound and a half, androall thcnia
little ill the fire, and then ficth theiu in
twentic poundcs of water, till the half
beconfuuiedatvay.- this dnnketliey take
ciierie uiorning/a'rtin^ in their chambers ,
out ofan earthen pot, being vcric liote,
as we doe here dr i nkc aqHacemftfitm i n the
morning: and tlicy fay that it flrcngthcn.
ethandmakcth tliem warmc, breakcth
\vind,sndopencfh aiiv ffoppinsj.
Ebc mannrt of Djeamg tbefr imat i& al«
togptljcr coittrartc twto otticr nation»:tl)t «u
ft^efiitt) tDonm tuater tsmafee tmtl Vtn po\»
tarofaccrtalne ftcacbcealkt> Chaa, tobicti
temutfjeOfftneft, anhts toll WMonte^of
Tht i^ookt.
among tbcm,anDal fittb ns a»t? of an? ccwt'
trnance oj babflitic bauc tbe faio toater Itcpt
foj tbcm m a ferret plire, aiio tbe gentlemen
make It tbemfelues, aiiD toben tbr? totU en-
tcrtamcanp of tbcir fnencs. tbrp giue bun
fome of tbat toamte luater to ojmkc: fo; tbe
pots toliercm tbep fietbit, ano uibcrcmlbc
bcarbc is kept, tuittj tbe eartben cups tobieb
tbcp D?uihc It «i . tbcp cttocmc as mucb of
tbem.os lucooeof Diamants.Uubies ano O'
tber precious Hones, ano tbep are not el!a>
mcOfo;tbe(r nciunes, but fo: tbctr oltmes,
ano fo; tbat tbcp tocre maoc bp a geD too;k-
man: anotoknotoanDlicepcfucbbptbem'
fclucs, tbep tahc great anO fpeciall care, as
alfo of fucb as arc tbe \xilctocrs of tbcm,
ano are fhilfiill in tbcm , as luitb t)s tbe
golofmttb p:ifetb ano tialuetb Glurr ano goto,
ano tbe ieVueltcrs all kinoes of pjccious
ttonrs: foiftbnrpotsicbppesbc ol^an olO
i eicellet U)o:hmasmahing,tbcparc tooitii
4 0; 5 tboufaO Cutats 0: mo;e ttjepcccc.SSIjt
iiing oiB\.wz,n oto giue fs:fucb a pot,bautn9
tb;(cfttt, 14 tboufano Ducats, ano a lapan
beuig a Cb;itliun in tbe tolon of Sacay^gaue
fo; fiub a pot 1 400 &ucats , anti pet It bao ?
pfcceo \jpon it . "Cbcp Doe liftetoifc eOcettv
mucb of onp picture 0; table, tobrrem ispain^
teoablachetrtr, o;ablncKebtrO. attOto^
ti]ep tooloeittsmaoc ofU]a3D,nnlbpanMi<
tlent % cuntng matttcr,tbep guie tobatfoctKt
pou iDill afUe fo: it. 3t bappenctb fome tunes
tt}at fucb a piitiire 10 folD fo; 3 st 4 tbetifano
Ducats ant) mo:e. Ebepalfoelttemcmucti
of a gooo rapier, mafic bp an olo anD cunnmg
inaifter.fwb a one manp times coftetb % oj *
4 tboufano Crotons tbe pcrce. Ebefe tbmgs
Doe tbcp hff epe anD cftcrmc fo; tbcir Jclods,
as W cftamc our Jetof Is t p;eaous flones*
llnDtobcntoc aftetijem \xA)v tbepcttarme
tl)emfo mucb .tbcp afKcbsagamc, Uibptoe
efttcmcfo UicU of our p;c£iaiis ftoncs f ietD«
els, U)t)trtbp tbcrc is not unv p;oftte to be
baD anD ferue to no ottjcr ufr, tbcit oirtp fo; a
fl)tU)c, 5 tbat tbcir tbliigs ferue to fome cnb.
Cbeir JufhceanDgoucnimcnt \i asfoU
Iotoctb:€bcir kings arc callcDlacuay, anD
'are abfolutclv Li^os of tbe lanD , nottott^'
ftanoingtbcp kocpcfo; tbemfelues asmn^
as IS neccifarp fo: tftcm anD tbctr ettate, ana
tbe rctt of tbcir lanD tbep ocupDc among 9'
tbers, tobtcb arc callcD Cunixus, ipbicb arc
like our Carles anD Duhe0:tbcfe are appoln*
teffbPtbeUmg, aitDbc taufctb tbcm to go'
ucnur t rule ttje lanD as it plctife tb blm: tbep
arc bouno to feme tijt iitng iis mcU in peace,
as (n toarres, at tbeir otonr c ott j c barges,
acc8;tKn3to tbcu: iiia.it^ nnotfic aunnent
laUits of Upan.^befc c^imuviis bane otbem
tjnDcrtlxwtsUcD lums, UJbubarcliUf our
&,o:ds
FIRST PRINTED REFERENCE TO COFFEE IN ENGLISH, 1598
It appears as Chaona (chaoua) Ju the second line of tbe roman text notation by Paludanus
38
ALL ABOUT COFFEE
into the same colour, but doth very little
alter the taste of the water [!], notwith-
standing it is very good to help Digestion,
to quicken the Spirits and to cleanse the
Blood."
In 1623, Francis Bacon (1561 - 1626), in
his Historia Vitae et Mortis says: "The
Turkes use a kind of herb which they cali
caphe"; and, in 1624, in his Sylva Syl-
varum ' (published in 1627, after his death) ,
he writes :
They have in Turkey a drink called coffa
made of a berry of the same name, as black as
soot, and of a strong scent, but not aromatical ;
which they take, beaten into powder, in water,
as hot as they can drink it: and they take it,
and sit at it in their coffa-houses, which are like
our taverns. This drink comforteth the brain
and heart, and helpeth digestion. Certainly this
berry coffa, the root and leaf betel, the leaf
tobacco, and the tear of poppy (opium) of which
the Turks are great takers (supposing it ex-
pelleth all fear), do all condense the spirits,'
and make them strong and aleger. But it seerofi-^
eth tli^y wei-e taken after several manners; for^
coffa and opium are taken down, tobacco but
in smoke, and betel is but champed in the mouth
with a little lime.
Robert Burton (1577-1640), English
philosopher and humorist, in his Anatomy
of Melancholy*' writes it 1632:
The Turkes have a drinke called coffa (for
they use no wine), so named of a bei*ry as blacke
as soot and as bitter (like that blacke drinke
which was in use amongst the Lacedemonians
and perhaps the same), which they sip still of,
and sup as warme as they can suffer ; they spend
much time in those coffa-houses, which are
somewhat like our Ale-houses or Taverns, and
there they sit, chatting and drinking, to drive
away the time, and to be merry together, be-
cause they find, by experience, that kinde of
drinke so used, helpeth digestion and procureth
alacrity.
Later English scholars, however, found
sufficient evidence in the works of Arabian
authors to assure their readers that coffee
sometimes breeds melancholy, causes head-
ache, and "maketh lean much." One of
these, Dr. Pocoke, (1659: see chapter TIT)
stated that, "he that would drink it for
livelinesse sake, and to discusse slothful-
nesse ... let him use much sweet
meates with it, and oyle of pistaceioes, and
butter. Some drink it with milk, but it is
an error, and such as may bring in danger
of the leprosy." Another writer observed
that any ill effects caused by coffee, unlike
• Bacon, Francis. Sylva Sylvarum. London, 1627.
(vol. v: p. 26.)
» Burton. Robert. The Anatomy o1 Melancholy.
Oxford, 1632. (pt. 2 : sec. 5 : p. 397.) This reference
does not appear m the earlier editions of 1621, 24, 28.
those of tea, etc., ceased when its use was
discontinued. In this connection it is in-
teresting to note that in 1785 Dr. Benjamin
Mosely, physician to the Chelsea Hospital,
member of the College of Physicians, etc.,
probably having in mind the popular idea
that the Arabic original of the word coffee
meant force, or vigor, once expressed the
hope that the coffee drink might return to
popular favor in England as "a cheap
substitute for those enervating teas and
beverages which produce the pernicious
habit of dram-drinking."
About 1628, Sir Thomas Herbert (1606 -
1681), En^ish traveler and writer, records
among his observations on the Persians
that:
"They drink above all the rest Coho or Copha :
by Turk and Arab called Caphe and Cahua: a
' drink imitating that in the Stigian lake, black,
thick, and bitter: destrain'd from Bunchi/,
liunnu, or Bay berries; wholesome, they say,
if hot, for it expels melancholy . . . but not so
Jimuch regarded for those good properties, as
•■■tfrom a Romance that it was invented and
brew'd by Gabriel . . . to' restore the decayed
radical 'Moysfcure of kind hearted Mahomet."
In 1634, Sir Henry Blount (1602-82),
sometimes referred to as "the father of the
English coffee house, ' ' made a journey on a
Venetian galley into the Levant. He was
invited to drink cauphe in the presence of
Amurath IV; and later, in Egypt, he tells
of being served the beverage again "in a
porcelaine dish". This is how he describes
the drink in Turkey : "
They have another drink not good at meat,
called Cauphe, made of a Berry as big as a
small Bean, dried in a Furnace, and beat to
Ponder, of a Soot-colour, in taste a little bit-
terish, that they seeth and drink as hot as may
be endured : It is good all hours of the day,
but especially morning and evening, when to
that purpose, they entertain themselves two or
three hours in Cauphe-houses, which in all Tur-
key abound more than Inns and Ale-houses with
us ; it is thought to be the old black broth used
so much by the Lacedemonians, and dryeth ill
Humours in the stomach, comforteth the Brain,
never causeth Drunkenness or any other Sur-
feit, and is a harmless entertainment of good
Fellowship; for there upon Scaffolds half a
yard high, and covered with Mats, they sit
Cross-leg'd after the Turkish manner, many
times two or three hundred together, talking,
and likely with some poor musick passing up
and down.
This reference to the Lacedaemonian black
broth, first by Sandys, then by Burton,
" Herbert. Sir T. Travels. London, ed. 1638.
(p. 241.)
" Blount. Sir Henry. A Voyage Into the Levant,
London. 1671.- (pp. 20, 21, 54, 55, 138, 1.39.)
INTRODUCTION INTO ENGLAND
39
«* o a ^ «^
rx ©
5: *- «j .c- XT
J=- J^ o o *-» ^
■" « ^ tn ir — >
p r: J3
5-> '• C
"^ 7: JC- 5! = o «-» c i; £;■ . - - B
3"^
■■t; ii -s*
?• ^ .t^ «^1
^
t;
r: -P o Q
= « "^
3 £*S
o « <2
c ja ;-
^ « I^
*- *j tfl
<*- ^^ JC-
a- 4^ 53
c « 2
"w ■" §
S" — -a
^ tj ?3
T". ,-rs f>> n
*-* B» S <-"
U
*"K ^ ^w Q .^ J. *^ v^ 4^ __
— --«*-• _ O f-% ^ <«■« '4M '«M .^^ »23
G-2 y
o at
te x^ S o "
,ij ,j --• — -•
r: Fi -^
« ■S.e U 1- t: s ^ ti w t-;
2. o 2 ^ G ~ "-f '•• — *" u:
tJI J^ f^ £l* iZ^ ^^ *-• -^ *^ ■"•
i^ t: — o' 2, = ft 3. ii ■- i^
•3 i:-. ^ .- V -rf.'^ a^E
r- ,- t-» 2 — ** •->. 2 *— "
— O »-• "i-^
S c Q r
n S" — n
0 w ?. >:
»-• B i tts
r w « "2
— ■ jj sZ
<^ o 2 S
1 ^ s <->
i ^ 5 fJ
,■; Si o »• ?!' p
3 E .":: ' *- —
o wti
C-' c
*: o — ti i: fa 3 o o s 4^ p., J- i_
"■-' iv s« " <-' iT. ■~c3 CI "S " ■ .s
S ts s; 5 '"" "^ "~ ij '-: tj -S* *^ K "-*
^ 5^ i? S
-S o Q
^ tstti
«
" ii .5 •*=• :? ii ^ r:
jl 8 » i^ :5 5 !r -S c -?? *^ '^
r -^
.'i3
S3
=^5 -^ =
« '-'* •-* "^ v:
J £■' ^ »^
1. n^
«» rt
a w
B B, S
O U> -M
rt ■" i:*- ^ w o " o 'ts rt ft '^ r>
x^-■-• rfs> r; tj s "^ ■*''■ li" Q •t:
r" 'i» «_. cj
z: tj "^
** il S «» tt
5 "5-5 g
= S 5 *=»
*i -i: '-* p«
« V: .J* - — »
? 3 g ??
<^ •-► X^ X>
^^^ *?. 3 ■"
t: « --Si
0 = 53
<*> 2 « x
U w A O
2 o « ".
-rJl <-• -Po
•^ <LJ .^ —
3 .iU" _o Ji "
tri «1 o --J
ti^ ^ F
n;
"" Br
tsr:
« .3
Ok «^
JO u
2>« ■ —
o o
^ , •• ^-« IW
*5 « § a So'^ =
U U S S r>
<^ :z 'cx
t: '^ zi
•i S *-'
O Q g ?^ 5
f, -• w w tj «^
* 3
-3 po 2' n •" S « "s
CJ t^ *^ J-M> *"• Q »-^ . ^
'^ iTS C5 ** ** f^ '-^ ••• • X, ■ ,-v .^*,
~ *■ .'5 J» -2^ if *"^ S
!K '^ ^ *^ -tS ♦rf g
3 e
iiS
" ^ S c 3 „
^^ ^ (_; o rj ej
5
SM
ir ^-: ^ 5 '» «••• s .3 S !:^ St " *='- -
— * x^. w r , ■ _ uj g t> jcr o &a s ° a- —
P. P 5 c-t^ -a ♦: ^ br ~» CO r-
silt
<-» 's c>
.J3 t;
f-r-J :=
,f^ 1* -is "F^ *i*k c3 ^ *-f
, tj o c^ -», ~; i- 5
3*" ''^ rt »r S »« "
•^ o r o •£: « =3 rr
3 r: •-• '^ ^ ■" 'Tl .-
'3' hi " o ** -S" c &'
tl x> S2 i-» "F? «• O O
^ T^ C4 tM t!^ X-^ £^
~»j"5tanaj3x:
o o 'S o — ' --^ ♦J «
o S ® S i^ *^ **'
-^ o t^ ^ jj cj '— *
t; S •"»■ at L. "^ '^
'^ ZZ Ki
O ' « tJ o
Co r- 2 2 '■'-
a —
B-9.
«J J5^ "* jj U
« E S 5
— • ~* c»
,. o ^»
*« =3
i; /O _, j:^ S"
.2 n-= s
** ^ i; S «» y „ „
C5 ^ojiSS-^^'-^
" « O li SI « O "^ i- --i «■> ,
^ *** i- -» ••-• '^ . »-fc i_t "t^ r:: f ^
t: ts 3
'» t; oi -^ t: S " w. u •*> J?. 3 « rr (5
fj o
^^ s rt « t^ — S" '■'« t- t- — ^
;o 3.2 « ^'^ ^ ~
tv
3 u> -^ a.^ B ta 3 S 3
«».ir c ** ** '•=
^*3.£:p5-S5aeg£l
53
•S a
>• •-• ^»
40 ALL ABOUT COFFEE
again by Blount, and concurred in by James Although it seems likely that coffee must
Howell (1595-1666), the first historio- have been introduced into England some-
grapher royal, gave rise to considerable time during the first quarter of the seven-
controversy among Englishmen of letters in teenth century, with so many writers and
later years. It is, of course, a gratuitous travelers describing it, and with so much
speculation. The black broth of the Lace- trading going on between the merchants
dsemonians was "pork, cooked in blood and of the British Isles and the Orient, yet the
seasoned with salt and vinegar."" first reliable record we have of its advent
Sl^eti; molt common o^tntie 10 Coi6,lTif)ul^ Coffa,
tea Uadtetnittof o;iritte maoe of afcino of fdulfe like peafe^
cofleoCotua; tD^ being atotxmo in tt)e milUanDbotleD in
imtet^ H^D^mSeitasbot astljep can fuffcc it; taljicl) t\)c^
ftmto agne tieri^Uieatinl!) tbem againtt tljcic auoities ano
iitetat onbeacb^anD catoemeates*
3it t0 occountcD a great cuttt&t amonsS tbem to giue bnto
tlieic f ccnos iDtjen i\)e^ tome to utat tbem,a ifm- ton o^ ^cut^el^
laofCofFa, lD^ut)tduto;etiolefometbant(Dt|irome)fo^ it cao^
fetl) SOD concoction , ano o^iuetb atnav o;»tD(ineaei
^ W^tit Cof{a^ottfe0 ace mo;e common t^mSk-^onttBrn
(i^nglami; butti^ bfenotfomu^tofit in V)t ^onttB us on
bencbe0 on botb Qoe^ tbe ftreets netce bnto a CoSi boufe, euec?
ttian tuitb W if tn*ton ful^ixibicl^beins rmotunsbot^ tf^e; bfe to
put itto ^eit nofes f eaceB, anb tlftn fnpitoff b^Ieadtce, being
fnllof iole anoiaie-boufetalbelubtled tije^ace amongtltt^em^
felues blinking of it ; if tbece be ani> nt\s)Sy it is talbeo of tljere^
Kefekences to Coffee as Found in Kiddulpii's Travels 1G04)
J From the black - letter original in the British Museum
William Harvey (1578-1657), the fa- is to be found in the Diary and Corre-
mous English physician who discovered the spondence of John Evelyn, F. B. S. ",
circulation of the blood, and his brother are under "Notes of 1637", where he says :
reputed to have used coffee before coffee Tiiere came in my time to tine college (Baliol,
houses came into vogue in London — this Oxford) one Natlianiel Conopios. out of Greece,
must have been previous to 1652. "I re- f™m Cyrill, the Patriarch of Constantinople,
TTiPmher" ^savs Anbrev" "be was wont to ^^'^^"' ''^turning many years after was made (as
^^™, ® 'J^^^ f ?V^^ ' ^f ^,^? T 1 ^ understand) Bishop of Smyrna. He was the
dnnke coffee ; which his brother Eliab did, first I ever saw drink cofCee ; which custom
before coffee houses were the fashion in came not into England till thirty years there-
London." Houghton, in 1701, speaks of a^t^i'-
"the famous inventor of the circulation of Evelyn should have said thirteen years
the blood. Dr. Harvey, who some say did after; for then it was that the first coffee
frequently use it." house was opened (1650).
"TTT-.u . r, . rr,. r. .: .■ . . .■ :■ Couoplos was a native of Crete, trained
** Gilbert. Gustav. The Conxtttuttonal Anttqmttes • ii, /-i i x. i tt i •
of Sparta and Athena. London. 1895. (p. 69.) m tile Lrreek ctiurch. He became pnmore
" Aubrev. John. Lives of Eminent Men. London,
1813. (vol. ii : pt. 2 : pp. 384 - 85.) " Works, (vol. iv : p. 389.)
INTRODUCTION INTO ENGLAND
41
Cyril], Patriarch of Constantinople.
''hen Cyrill was strangled by the vizier,
Jonopios fled to England to avoid a like
jarbarity. He came with credentials to
irchbishop Laud, who allowed him main-
'tenance in Balliol College.
It was observed that while he continued in
Balliol College he made the drink for his own
use called Coffey, and usually drank it every
morninj;:. heiiiR the first, as the antients of that
House have informed me, that was ever drank
in Oxon.^^
In 1640 John Parkinson (1567-1650),
English botanist and herbalist, published
Mol's Coffeie House, Exeter, England,
Now WouTii's Art KoOxMS
his Theatrnm Botanicum^% containing the
first botanical description of the coffee plant
"a Wood, Anthony. Athcnac Oxonicnaea. London,
1692. (vol. il: col. 058.)
" Parkinson. John. Theatruin Botanictim. London,
1640. (p. 1622.)
in English, referred to as ''Arbor Bon cum
sua Buna. The Turkes Berry Drinke".
His work being somewhat rare, it may be
of historical interest to quote the quaint
description here :
Alpinus, in his Booke of Egiptian plants, giv-
eth us a description of this tree, which as hee
saith, hee saw in the garden of a certain Cap-
taine of the lanissarics, which was brought out
of Arabia fclix and there planted as a rarity,
never seene growing in those places before.
Tlie tree, saith Alpinus, is somewhat like unto
the Evonymus Pricketimber tree, whose leaves
were thicker, harder, and greener, and always
abiding greene on the tree; the fruite is called
Buna and is somewhat bigger then an Hazell
Nut and longer, round also, and pointed at the
end, furroweti also on both sides, yet on one
side more conspicuous than the other, tha$ it
might be parted in two, in each side whereof
lyeth a small long white kernell, flat on that
side they joyne together, covered with a yellow-
ish skinne. of an acid taste, and somewhat bit-
ter withall and contained in a thinne shell, of
a darkish ash-color ; with these berries gen-
erally in Arabia and Egipt, and in other places
of the Turkes Dominions, they make a decoc-
tion or drinke. which is in the stead of Wine
to them, and generally sold in all their tappe
houses, called by the name of Caova; Paludatms
saith Chaova, and Ramcolflus Chaube.
This drinke hath many good physical prop-
erties therein ; for it strengtheneth a week
stomacke, helpeth digestion, and the tumors and
obstructions of the liver and spleene, being
drunke fasting for some time together.
In 1650, a certain Jew from Lebanon,
in some accounts Jacob or Jacobs by name,
in others Jobson ", opened "at the Angel
in the parish of St. Peter in the East",
Oxford, the earliest English coffee house
and "there it [coffee] was by some who
delighted in noveltie, drank". Chocolate
was also sold at this first coffee house.
Authorities differ, but the confusion as to
the name of the coffee-house keeper may
have arisen from the fact that there were
two — Jacobs, who began in 1650; and an-
other. Cirques Jobson, a Jewish Jacobite,
who followed him in 1654.
The drink at once attained great favor
among the students. Soon it was in such
demand that about 1655 a society of young
students encouraged one Arthur Tillyard,
' ' apothecary and Royalist, ' ' to sell ' ' coffey
publickly in his house against All Soules
College." It appears that a club composed
of admirers of the young Charles met at
Tillyard's and continued until after the
Restoration. This Oxford Coffee Club was
the start of the Royal Society.
" D'lsraeli. I. Curiosities of Literature. London,
1798. (vol. i : p. 345.)
42
ALL ABOUT COFFEE
Jacobs removed to Old Southhampton
Buildings, London, where he was in 1671.
Meanwhile, the first coffee house in Lon-
don had been opened by Pasqua Ros^e in
1652 ; and, as the remainder of the story of
coffee's rise iind fall in England centers
around the coffee houses of old London, we
shall reserve it for a separate chapter.
Uf course, the coffee-house idea, and the
use of coffee in the home, quickly spread
to other cities in Great Britain ; but all the
coffee houses were patterned after the Lon-
When the Bishop of Berytus (Beirut)
was on his way to Cochin China in 1666,
he reported that the Turks used coffee to
correct the indisposition caused in the
stomach by the bad water. "This drink,"
he says, "imitates the effect of wine , . .
has not an agreeable taste but rather bitter,
yet it is much used by these people for the
good effects they find therein."
In 1686, John Ray (1628-1704), one of
the most celebrated of English naturalists,
published his Universal History of Plants,
JUthough they be dcftitutc of Taucms,yct hauc they their
CofEhhoufes, which Ibmething refemble them. There fiifthey chatting moil of
the day; ^ fippe of a drinke called Coffii (of the berry that it is made of) in little
Ckmd diiibes, as hoc as they can futfer it : blacke as foote^nd tailing not much W
Iikeic<why.pot that blade broth which was invfeamongft the LucedemoniAns'^)
which helpeth,fe they (ay, digeftion,andprocureth alacrity: many of the Coffa-
DKolce^mgbcautiiuUboyeSjwhoienieasftalesto procure them cii^
Early English Reference to Coffee by Sib Gbx)rge Sandys
From the seventh edition of Sandys' Travels, London, 1673
don model. Mol's coffee house at Exeter,
Devonshire, which is pictured on page 41,
was one of the first coffee houses established
in England, and may be regarded as typical
of those that sprang up in the provinces.
It had previously been a noted club house ;
and the old hall, beautifully paneled with
oak, still displays the arms of noted mem-
bers. Here Sir Walter Ealeigh and con-
genial friends regaled themselves with
smoking tobacco. This was one of the first
places where tobacco was smoked in Eng-
land. It is now an art gallery.
notable among other things for being the
first work of its kind to extol the virtues of -
coffee in a scientific treatise.
R. Bradley, professor of botany at Cam-
bridge, published (1714) A Short Histori-
cal Account of Coffee, all trace of which
appears to be lost.
Dr. James Douglas published in London
(1727) his Arior Yemensis fructum Cofe
ferens; or, a description and History of
the Coffee Tree, in which he laid under
heavy contribution the Arabian and French
writers that had preceded him.
Chapter VII
THE INTRODUCTION OF COFFEE INTO HOLLAND
Hotv the enterprising Dutch traders captured the first world's
market for coffee — Activities of the Netherlands East India Com-
pany — The first coffee house at the Hague — The first public auction
at Amsterdam in 1711, when Java coffee brought forty-seven cents a
pound, green
THE Dutch had early knowledge of
coffee because of their dealings with
the Orient and with the Venetians,
and of their nearness to Germany, where
Rauwolf first wrote about it in 1582. They
were familiar with Alpini's writings on the
subject in 1592. Paludanus, in his coffee
note on Linschoten's Travels, furnished
further enlightenment in 1598.
The Dutch were always great merchants
and shrewd traders. Being of a practical
turn of mind, they conceived an ambition
to grow coffee in their colonial possessions,
so as to make their home markets head-
quarters for a world 's trade in the product.
In considering modern coffee-trading, the
Netherlands East India Company may be
said to be the pioneer, as it established in
Java one of the first experimental gardens
for coffee cultivation.
The Netherlands East India Company
was formed in 1602. As early as 1614,
Dutch traders visited Aden to examine into
the possibilities of coffee and coffee-trad-
ing. In 1616 Pieter Van dan Broeck
brought the first coffee from Mocha to
Holland. In 1640 a Dutch merchant, named
Wurffbain, offered for sale in Amsterdam
the first commercial shipment of coffee from
Mocha. As indicating the enterprise of
the Dutch, note that this was four years
before the beverage was introduced into
France, and only three years after Conopios
had privately instituted the breakfast coffee
cup at Oxford.
About 1650, Varnar, the Dutch minister
resident at the Ottoman Porte, published
a treatise on coffee.
When the Dutch at last drove the Por-
tuguese out of Ceylon in 1658, they began
the cultivation of coffee there, although the
plant had been introduced into the island
by the Arabs prior to the Portuguese in-
vasion in 1505. However, it was not until
1690 that the more systematic cultivation
of the coffee plant by the Dutch was under-
taken in Ceylon.
Regular imports of coffee from Mocha to
Amsterdam began in 1663. Later, supplies
began to arrive from the Malabar coast.
Pasqua Ros6e, who introduced the coffee
house into London in 1652, is said to have
made coffee popular as a beverage in Hol-
land by selling it there publicly in 1664.
The first coffee house was opened in the
Korten Voorhout, the Hague, under the
protection of the writer Van Essen ; others
soon followed in Amsterdam and Haarlem.
At the instigation of Nicolaas Witsen,
burgomaster of Amsterdam and governor of
the East India Company, Adrian Van Om-
men, commander of Malabar, sent the first
Arabian coffee seedlings to Java in 1696,
recorded in the chapter on the history of
coffee propagation. These were destroyed
by flood, but were followed in 1699 by a
second shipment, from which developed the
coffee trade of the Netherlands East Indies,
that made Java coffee a household word in
every civilized country.
48
44
ALL ABOUT COFFEE
A trial shipment of the coffee grown near
Batavia was received at Amsterdam in 1706.
also a plant for the botanical gardens. This
plant subsequently became the progenitor
of most of the coffees of the West Indies
and America.
The first Java coffee for the trade was
received at Amsterdam 1711. The ship-
ment consisted of 894 pounds from the
Jakatra plantations and from the interior
of the island. At the first public auction,
this coffee brought twenty-three and two-
thirds stuivers (about forty-seven cents)
per Amsterdam pound.
The Netherlands East India Company
contracted with the regents of Netherlands
India for the compulsory delivery of coffee ;
and the natives were enjoined to cultivate
coffee, the production thus becoming a
forced industry worked by government. A
"general system of cultivation" was intro-
duced into Java in 1832 by the government,
which decreed the employment of forced
labor for different products. Coffee - grow-
ing was the only forced industry that ex-
isted before this system of cultivation, and
it was the only government cultivation that
survived the abolition of the system in
1905 - 08, The last direct government in-
terest in coffee was closed out in 1918. From
1870 to 1874, the government plantations
yielded an average of 844,854 piculs * a
year; from 1875 to 1878, the average was
866,674 piculs. Between 1879 and 1883, it
rose to 987,682 piculs. From 1884 to 1888,
the average annual yield was only 629,942
piculs.
Holland readily adopted the coffee house ;
and among the earliest coffee pictures pre-
served to us is one depicting a scene in a
Dutch coffee house of the seventeenth cen-
tury, the work of Adriaen Van Ostade
(1610-1675), shown on page 586.
History records no intolerance of coffee
in Holland. The Dutch attitude was ever
that of the constructionist. Dutch inventors
and artisans gave us many new designs in
coffee mortars, coffee roasters, and coffee
serving - pots.
* A weight of from 1.33 to 140 pounds.
Chapter VIIj
THE INTRODUCTION OF COFFEE INTO GERMANY
The contributions made by German travelers and writers to the
literature of the early history of coffee — The first coffee house in
Hamburg opened by an English merchant — Famous coffee houses
of old Berlin — The first coffee periodical, and the first kaffee-
klatsch— Frederick the Great's coffee-roasting monopoly — Coffee
persecutions — ''Coffee-smellers" — The first coffee king
AS we have already seen, Leonhard
Rauvvolf, in 1573, made his memora-
ble trip to Aleppo and, in 1582, won
for Germany the honor of being the first
European country to make printed mention
of the coffee drink,
Adam Olearius (or Oelschlager) , a Ger-
man Orientalist (1599-1671), traveled ia
Persia as secretary to a German embassy
in 1633 - 36. Upon his return he published
an account of his journeys. In it, under
date of 1637, he says of the Persians:
They drink with their tobacco a certain blaclc
water, whicli they call cahwa, made of a fruit
brought out of Egypt, and which is in colour
like ordinary wheat, and in taste like Turkish
wheat, and is of the bigness of a little bean.
. . . The Persians think it allays the natural
heat.
In 1637, Joh. Albrecht von Mandelsloh,,
in his Oriental Trip, mentions "the black
water of the Persians called Kahwe", say-
ing ' ' it must be drunk hot. ' '
^ .Coffee drinking was introduced into Ger-
many about 1670. The drink appeared at
the court of the great elector of Branden-
burg in 1675. Northern Germany got its.
first taste of the beverage from London, an
English merchant opening the first coffee-
house in Hamburg in 1679 - 80. Regens-
burg followed in 1689 ; Leipsic, in 1694
Nuremberg, in 1696; Stuttgart, in 1712;.
Augsburg, in 1713; and Berlin, in 1721.
In that year (1721) King Frederick Will-
iam I granted a foreigner the privilege of
conducting a coffee house in Berlin free of
all rental charges. It was known as the
English coffee house, as was also the first
coffee house in Hamburg. And for many
years, English merchants supplied the
coffees consumed in northern Germany;
while Italy supplied southern Germany.
Other well known coffee houses of old
Berlin were, the Royal, in Behren Strasse;
that of the Widow Doebbert, in the Stech -
bahn ; the City of Rome, in Unter - den -
Linden; Amoldi, in Kronen Strasse;
Miercke, in Tauben Strasse, and Schmidt,
in Post Strasse.
Later, Philipp Falck opened a Jewish
coffee house in Spandauer Strasse. In the
time of Frederick the Great (1712-1786)
there were at least a dozen. coffee houses in
the metropolitan district of Berlin. In the
suburbs were many tents where coffee was
served.
The first coffee periodical, The New and
Curious Coffee House, was issued in Leipsic
in 1707 by Theophilo Georgi. The full title
was The New and Curious Coffee House,
formerly in Italy hut now opened in Ger-
many. First water debauchery. "City of
the Well." Brunnenstadt by Lorentz
Schoepfftvasser [draw-water] 1707. The
second issue gave the name of Georgi as the
real publisher. It was intended to be in
the nature of an organ for the first real
-German kaft'ee-klatsch. It was a chronicle
of the comings and goings of the savants
45
46
ALL ABOUT COFFEE
who frequented the "Tusculum" of a
well-to-do gentleman in the outskirts of
the city. At the beginning the master of
the house declared:
I know that the gentlemen here speak French,
Italian and other languages. I know also that
in many eoflfee and tea meetings it is considered
requisite that French be spoken. May I ask,
however, that he who calls upon me should use
no other language l)ut German. We are all
Germans, we are in Germany ; shall we not con-
duct ourselves like true Germans?
In 1721 Leonhard Ferdinand Meisner
published at Nuremberg the first compre-
hensive German treatise on coffee, tea, and
chocolate.
During the second half of the eighteenth
century coffee entered the homes, and be-
gan to supplant flour-soup and warm beer
at breakfast tables.
Meanwhile coffee met with some opposi-
tion in Prussia and Hanover. Frederick
the Great became annoyed when he saw
how much money was paid to foreign coffee
merchants for supplies of the green bean,
and tried to restrict its use by making
coffee a drink of the "quality". Soon all
the German courts had their own coffee
roasters, coffee pots, and coffee cups.
Many beautiful specimens of the finest
porcelain cups and saucers made in Meissen,
and used at court fetes of this period, sur-
vive in the collections at the Potsdam and
Berlin museums. The wealthy classes fol-
lowed suit; but when the poor grumbled
because they could not afford the luxury,
and demanded their coffee, they were told
in effect: "You had better leave it alone.
Anyhow, it's bad for you because it causes
sterility." Many doctors lent themselves
to a campaign against coffee, one of their
favorite arguments being that women using
the beverage must forego child-bearing.
Bach's Coffee Cantata^ (1732) was a
notable protest in music against such libels.
On September 13, 1777, Frederick issued
a coffee and beer manifesto, a curious docu-
ment, which recited:
It is disgusting to notice the increase in the
quantity of coffee used by my subjects, and the
amount of money that goes out of the country
in consequence. Everybody is using coffee. If
possible, this must be prevented. My people
must drink beer. His Majesty was brought up
on beer, and so were his ancestors, and his
officers. Many battles have been fought and
won by soldiers nourished on beer; and the
King does not believe that coffee-drinking sol-
diers can be depended upon to endure hardship
1 See chapter XXXII.
or to beat his enemies in case of the occurrence
of another- war.
For a time beer was restored to its
honored place ; and coffee continued to be a
luxury afforded only by the rich. Soon a
revulsion of feeling set in ; and it was found
that even Prussian military rule could not
enforce coffee prohibition. Whereupon, in
1781, finding that all his efforts to reserve
the beverage for the exclusive court circles,
the nobility, and the officers of his army,
were vain, the king created a royal mo-
nopoly in coffee, and forbade its roasting
except in royal roasting establishments. At
the same time, he made exceptions in the
cases of the nobility, the clergy, and govern -
ment officials; but rejected all applications
for coffee-roasting licenses from the com-
mon people. His object, plainly, was to
confine the use of the drink to the elect.
To these representatives of the cream of
Prussian society, the king issued special
licenses permitting them to do their own
roasting. Of course, they purchased their
supplies from the government; and as the
price was enormously increased, the sales
yielded Frederick a handsome income. In-
cidentally, the possession of a coffee-roast-
ing license became a kind of badge of
membership in the upper class. The poorer
classes were forced to get their coffee by
stealth; and, failing this, they fell back
Richteb's Coffee House in Leipsic
TEENTH Century
Seven-
upon numerous barley, wheat, corn,
chicory, and dried-fig substitutes, that soon
appeared in great numbers.
This singular coffee ordinance was known
as the "Declaration du Roi concernant la
INTRODUCTION INTO GERMANY
47
Coffee House in Germany — Middle of the Seventeenth Century
ve7ite du cafe hruU", and was published
January 21, 1781.
After placing the coffee regie (revenue)
in the hands of a Frenchman, Count de
Lannay, so many deputies were required to
make collections that the administration
of the law became a veritable persecution.
Discharged wounded soldiers were mostly
employed, and their principal duty was to
spy upon the people day and night, fol-
lowing the smell of roasting coffee when-
ever detected, in order to seek out those
who might be found without roasting
permits. The spies were given one-fourth
of the fine collected. These deputies made
themselves so great a nuisance, and became
so cordially disliked, that they were called
"coffee-smellers" by the indignant people.
Taking a leaf out of Frederick's book, the
elector of Cologne, Maximilian Frederick,
l)ishop of Miinster, (Duchy of Westphalia)
on February 17, 1784, issued a manifesto
which said :
To our great displeasure we have learned
that in our Duchy of Westphalia the misuse of
the coffee beverage has become so extended that
to counteract the evil we command that four
weeks after the publication of this decree no
one shall sell coffee roasted or not roasted un-
der a fine of one hundred dollars, or two years
in prison, for each offense.
Every coffee-roasting and coffee-serving place
shall he closed, and dealers and hotel-koepers
are to get rid of their coffee supplies in four
weeks. It is only permitted to obtain from the
outside coffee for one's own consumption in lots
of fifty pounds. House fathers and mothers
shall not allow their work people, especially
their washing and ironing women, to prepare
coffee, or to allow it in any manner under "a
penalty of one hundred dollars.
All officials and government employees, to
avoid a penalty of one hundred gold florins, are
called upon closely to follow and to keep -a
watchful eye over this decree. To the one who
reports such persons as act contrary to this
decree shall be granted one-half of the said
money fine with absolute silence as to his name.
This decree was solemnly read iq. the
pulpits, and was published besides in the
usual places and ways. There immediately
followed a course of 'Helling-ons", and
of "coffee-smellings", that led to many
bitter enmities and caused much unhappi-
ness in the Duchy of Westphalia. Appar-
ently the purpose of the archduke was to
prevent persons of small means from enjoy-
ing the drink, while those who could afford
to purchase fifty pounds at a time were to
be permitted the indulgence. As was to be
expected, the scheme was a complete failure.
While the king of Prussia exploited his
subjects by using the state coffee monopoly
as a means of extortion, the duke of Wiirt-
temberg had a scheme of his own. He sold
to Joseph Suess-Oppenheimer, an un-
scrupulous financier, the exclusive privilege
of keeping coffee houses in Wiirttemberg.
Suess-Oppenheimer "in turn sold the in-
dividual coffee-house licenses to the highest
bidders, and accumulated a considerate
fortune. He was the first ' ' coffee king. ' '
But coffee outlived all these unjust
slanders and cruel taxations of too paternal
governments, and gradually took its right-
ful pl^fee as one of the favorite beverages
of the German people." "
48
ALL ABOUT COFFEE
M
N
o
w
C
Chapter IX
TELLING HOW COFFEE CAME TO VIENNA
The romantic adventure of Franz George Kolschitsky, who carried
"a message to Garcia" through the enemy's lines and won for him-
self the honor of being the first to teach the Viennese the art of
making coffee, to say nothing of falling heir to the supplies of the
green beans left behind by the Turks; also the gift of a house from a
gratefid municipality, and a statue after death — Affectionate regard
in tvhich ^'brother-heart'' Kolschitsky is held as the patron saint of
the Vienna kaffeesieder — Life in the early Vienna cafes
AROMAA^TIC tale has been woven
around the introduction of coffee into
Austria. When Vienna was besieged
l)y the Turks in 1683, so runs the legend,
Franz George Kolschitzky, a native of
Poland, formerly an interpreter in the
Turkish army, saved the city and won for
himself undying fame, with coffee as his
principal reward.
It is not known whether, in the first siege
of Vienna by the Turks in 1529, the in-
vaders boiled coffee over their camp fires
that surrounded the Austrian capital; al-
though they might have done so, as Selim
I, after con([uering Egypt in 1517, had
brought with him to Constantinople large
stores of coffee as part of his booty. But
it is certain that when they returned to the
attack, 154 years later, they carried with
them a plentiful supply of the green beans.
Mohammed IV mobilized an army of
300,000 men and sent it forth under his
vizier, Kara Miistapha, (Kuprili's succes-
sor) to destroy Christendom and to conquer
Europe. Reaching Vienna July 7, 1683, the
army quickly invested the city and cut it
off from the world. Emperor Leopold had
escaped the net and was several miles away.
Nearby was the prince of Lorraine, with an
army of 33,000 Austrians, awaiting the
succor promised by John Sobieski, king of
Poland, and an opportunity to relieve the
besieged capital. Count Rudiger von Star-
hemberg, in command of the forces ' in
Vienna, called for a volunteer to carry a
message through the Turkish lines to hurry
along the rescue. He found him in the
person of Franz George Kolschitzky, who
had lived for many years among the Turks
and knew their language and customs.
On August 13, 1683, Kolschitzky donned
a Turkish iniiform, passed through the
enemy's lines and reached the Emperor's
army across the Danube. Several times he
made the perilous journey between the camp
of the prince of Lorraine and the garrison
of the governor of Vienna. One account
says that he had to swim the four interven-
ing arms of the Danube each time he per-
formed the feat. His messages did much
to keep up the morale of the city's de-
fenders. At length King John and his army
of rescuing Poles arrived and were consoli-
dated with the Austrians on the summit of
Mount Kahlenberg. It was one of the most
dramatic moments in history. The fate of
Christian Europe hung in the balance.
Everything seemed to point to the triumph
of the crescent over the cross. Once again
Kolschitzky crossed the Danube, and
brought back word concerning the, signals
that the prince of Lorraine and King Jflhn
49
50
ALL ABOUT COFFEE
Franz George Kolschitzky, Patron Saint of
Vienna Coffee Lovers
would give from Mount Kahlenberg to in-
dicate the beginning of the attack. Count
Starhemberg was to make a sortie at the
same time.
The battle took place September 12, and
thanks to the magnificent generalship of
King John, the Turks were routed. The
Poles here rendered a never - to - be - for-
gotten service to all Christendom. The
Turkish invaders fled, leaving 25,000 tents,
10,000 oxen, 5,000 camels, 100,000 bushels
of grain, a great quantity of gold, and
many sacks filled with coffee — at that time
unknown in Vienna. The booty was dis-
tributed; but no one wanted the coffee.
They did not know what to do with it;
that is, no one except Kolschitzky. He said,
•'If nobody wants those sacks, I will take
them", and every one was heartily glad
to be rid of the strange beans. But Kol-
schitzky knew what he was about, and he
soon taught the Viennese the art of prepar-
ing coffee. Later, he established the first
public booth where Turkish coffee was
served in Vienna.
This, then, is the story of how coffee was
introduced into Vienna, where was devel-
oped that typical Vienna caf6 which has
become a model for a large part of the
world. Kolschitzky is honored in Vienna
as the patron saint of coffee houses. His
followers, united in the guild of coffee
makers (kaffee-sieder), even erected a
statue in his honor. It still stands as part
of the facade of a house where the Kol-
schitzygasse merges into the Favoritengasse,
as shown in the accompanying picture.
Vienna is sometimes referred to as the
"mother of cafes". Caf6 Sacher is world-
renowned. Tart a la Sacher is to be found
in every cook-book. The Viennese have
their '' jause" every afternoon. When one
drinks coffee at a Vienna cafe one generally
has a kipfel with it. This is a crescent-
shaped roll — baked for the first time in the
eventful year 1683, when the Turks be-
sieged the city. A baker made these cres-
cent rolls in a spirit of defiance of the Turk.
Holding sword in one hand and kipfel in
the other, the Viennese would show them-
selves on top of their redoubts and chal-
lenge the cohorts of Mohammed IV.
Mohammed IV was deposed after losing
the battle, and Kara Mustapha was executed
for leaving the stores — particularly the
sacks of coffee beans — at the gates of
Vienna; but Vienna coffee and Vienna
kipfel are still alive, and their appeal is
not lessened by the years.
The hero Kolschitzky was presented with
a house by the grateful municipality; and
The First Coffee House in the Leopoldstadt
From a cut so titled in Bermann's Alt und Neu Wiett
there, at the sign of the Blue Bottle, ac-
cording to one account, he continued as a
coffee-house keeper for many years.^ This,
in brief, is the story that — although not
' Vulcaren. John Peter A.
of Vienna. 1684.
Relation of the Siege
1
HOW COFFEE CAME TO VIENNA
51
authenticated in all its particulars — is
seriously related in many books, and is
firmly believed throughout Vienna.
It seems a pity to discredit the hero of
so romantic an adventure ; but the archives
of Vienna throw a light upon Kolschitzky 's
later conduct that tends to show that, after
all, this Viennese idol's feet were of com-
mon clay.
It is said that Kolschitzky, after receiv-
ing the sacks of green coffee left behind by
the Turks, at once began to peddle the
beverage, from house to house, serving it in
little cups from a wooden platter. Later he
rented a shop in Bischof-hof. Then he
began to petition the municipal council,
that, in addition to the sum of 100 ducats
already promised him as further recogni-
tion of his valor, he should receive a house
with good will attached; that is, a shop in
some growing business section. "His peti-
tions to the municipal council", writes M.
Bermann *, ' ' are amazing examples of meas-
ureless self-conceit and the boldest greed.
He seemed determined to get the utmost
out of his own self-sacrifice. He insisted
upon the most highly deserved reward, such
as the Romans bestowed upon their Curtius,
the Lacedsemonians upon their Pompilius,
the Athenians upon Seneca, with whom he
modestly compared himself."
At last, he was given his choice of three
houses in the Leopoldstadt, any one of
them worth from 400 to 450 gulden, in
place of the money reward, that had been
fixed by a compromise agreement at 300
gulden. But Kolschitzky was not satisfied
with this; and urged that if he was to
accept a house in full payment it should
be one valued at not less than 1000 gulden.
Then ensued much correspondence and con-
siderable haggling. To put an end to the
acrimonious dispute, the municipal council
in 1685 directed that there should be deeded
over to Kolschitzky and his wife, Maria
Ursula, without further argument, the
house known at that time as 30 (now 8)
Haidgasse.
It is further recorded that Kolschitzky
sold the house within a year; and, after
many moves, he died of tuberculosis, Feb-
ruary 20, 1694, aged fifty-four years. He
was courier to the emperor at the time of
his death, and was buried in the Stefans-
freithof Cemetery.
* Bermann, M.
(p. 964.)
Alt und Neu Wien. Vienna, 1880.
Statue of Kolschitzky Erected by the
Coffee Makers Guild of Vienna
Kolschitzky 's heirs moved the coflfee
house to Donaustrand, near the wooden
Schlagbriicke, later known as Ferdinand's
briicke (bridge). The celebrated coffee
house of Franz Mosee (d. 1860) stood on
this same spot.
In the city records for the year 1700 a
house in the Stock-im-Eisen-Platz (square)
is designated by the words "allwo das erste
kaffeegewolhe" ("here was the first coffee
house"). Unfortunately, the name of the
proprietor is not given.
Many stories are told of Kolschitzky 's
popularity as a eoflPee-house keeper. He is
said to have addressed everyone as hruder-
herz (brother-heart) and gradually he
himself acquired the name bruderherz. A
portrait of Kolschitzky, painted about the
time of his greatest vogue, is carefully pre-
served by the Innungi der Wiener Kaffee-
sieder (the Coffee Makers' Guild of
Vienna) .
52
ALL A B OUT COFFEE
Even during the lifetime of the first
kaffee-sieder, a number of others opened
coffee houses and acquired some little fame.
Early in the eighteenth centurj^ a tourist
gives us a glimpse of the progress made by
coffee drinking and by the coffee-house
idea in Vienna. "We read :
The t'it.v of Vienna is filled witli coffee liouses,
where the novelists or those who Inisy them-
selves with the newspapers delight to meet, to
read the gazettes and discuss their contents.
Some of these houses have a better reputation
than others because such zeitungs-d actors
(newspaper dQ'ctors — an ironical title) gather
there to pass most unhesitating judgment on
the weightiest events, and to surpass all others
in their opinions concerning political matters
and considerations.
All this wins them such respect tliat many
congregate there because of them, and to enrich
their minds with inventions and foolishness
which thev innnediately run through the city to
bring to the ears of the said ])ersonalities. It
is^ impossil)le to believe what freedom is per-
mitted, in furnishing this gossip. They speak
without reverence not only of the doings of gen-
erals and ministers of state, but also mix them-
selves in the life of the Kaiser (Emperor) him-
self.
Vienna liked the coffee house so well that
by 1839 there were eighty of them in the
city proper and fifty more in the suburbs.
M
Chapter X
THE COFFEE HOUSES OF OLD LONDON
I
One of the most picturesque chapters in the history of coffee The
first coffee house in London — The first coffee handbill, and the first
newspaper advertisement for coffee— Strange coffee mixtures —
Fantastic coffee claims— Coffee prices and coffee licenses— Coffee
club of the Rota — Early coffee-house manners and customs —
Coffee-house keepers' tokens — Opposition to the coffee house —
''Penny universities'' — Weird coffee substitutes — The proposed
coffee-house newspaper monopoly — Evolution of the club — Decline
and fall of the coffee house — Pen pictures of coffee-house life —
Famous coffee houses of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries —
Some Old World pleasure gardens — Locating the notable coffee
houses
THE two most picturesque chapters in
the history of coffee have to do with
the period of the old London and
Paris coffee houses of the seventeenth and
eighteenth centuries. Much of the poetry
and romance of coffee centers around this
time.
"The history of coffee houses," says
D 'Israeli, "ere the invention of clubs, was
that of the manners, the morals and the
politics of a people." And so the history
of the London coffee houses of the seven-
teenth and eighteenth centuries is indeed
the history of the manners and customs of
the English people of that period.
The First London Co fee House
"The first coffee house in London",
says John Aubrey (1626-97), the Eng-
lish antiquary and folklorist, "was in St.
Michael's Alley, in Comhill, opposite to
the church, which was sett up by one . . .
Bowman (coachman to Mr. Hodges, a Tur-
key merchant, who putt him upon it) in
or about the yeare 1652. 'Twas about four
years before any other was sett up, and
that was by Mr. Farr. Jonathan Paynter,
over-against to St. Michael's Church, was
the first apprentice to the trade, viz., to
Bowman. ' ' *
Another account, for which we are in-
debted to William Oldys (1696 - 1761), the
bibliographer, relates that Mr. Edwards, a
London merchant, acquired the coffee habit
in Turkey, and brought home with him
from Ragusa, in Dalmatia, Pasqua Ros6e,
an Armenian or Greek youth, who prepared
the beverage for him. "But the novelty
thereof," says Oldys, "drawing too much
company to him, he allowed the said servant
with another of his son-in-law to set up
the first coffee house in London at St.
Michael's Alley, in Cornhill."
From this it would appear that Pasqua
Ros6e had as partner in this enterprise, the
Bowman, who, according to Aubrey, was^
coachman to Mr. Hodges, the son-in-law
of Mr. Edwards, and a fellow merchant
traveler.
Oldys tells us that Rosee and Bowman
soon separated. John Timbs (1801 - 1875),
another English antiquary, says they
quarreled, Rosee keeping the house, and his
* Manuscript in t\n' Boilloiaii Library.
53
54
ALL ABOUT COFFEE
partner Bowman obtaining leave to pitch
a tent and to sell the drink in St. Michael's
churchyard.
Still another version of this historic inci-
dent is to be found in Houghton's Collec-
tion, 1698. It reads :
It appears that a Mr. Danie' Edwards, an
English merchant of Smyrna, brought with him
to this conntry a Greek of the name of Pasqua,
in 16r)2, who made his coffee ; this Mr. Edwards
married one Alderman Ilodges's danghter, who
lived in Walbrook. and set up Pasqna for a cof-
fee man in a shed in the churchyard in St.
Michael. Cornhill, which is now a scrivener's
brave-house, when, having great custom, the
ale-sellers i)etitioned the Lord Mayor against
him, as being no freeman. This made Alderman
Hodges join his coachman, Bowman, who was
free, as Pasqua's partner; but Pasqua, for
some misdemeanor, was forced to run the coun-
try, and Bowman, by his trade and a contribu-
tion of 1000 sixpences, turned the shed to a
house. Bowman's apprentices were first, John
Painter, then Humphry, from whose wife I had
this account.
This account makes it appear that Ed-
wards was Hodges' son-in-law. Whatever
the relationship, most authorities agree that
Pasqua Rosee was the first to sell coffee
publicly, whether in a tent or shed, in Lon-
don in or about the year 1652. His original
shop-bill, or handbill, the first advertise-
ment for coffee, is in the British Museum,
and from it the accompanying photograph
was made for this work. It sets forth in
direct fashion : "The Vertue of the COF-
FEE Drink First publiquely made and
sold in England, by Pasqua Rosee ... in
St. Michaels Alley in Cornhill. ... at the
Signe of his own Head." '
H. R. Fox Bourne ' (about 1870) is alone
in an altogether different version of this
historic event. He says:
"In 1652 Sir Nicholas Crispe, a Levant
merchant, opened in London the first coffee
house known in England, the beverage be-
ing prepared by a Greek girl brought over
for the work,"
There is nothing to substantiate this
story; the preponderance of evidence is in
support of the Edwards - Rosee version.
Such then was the advent of the coffee
house in London, which introduced to Eng-
lish-speaking people the drink of de-
mocracy. Oddly enough, coffee and the
Commonwealth came in together. The
English coffee house, like its French con-
temporary, was the home of liberty.
» See also chapter XXVIII. '
' The Romance of Trade. London, (chap, ii ; p. 31.)
Robinson, who accepts that version of
the event wherein Edwards marries
Hodges 's daughter, says that after the part-
ners Rosee and Bowman separated, and
Bowman had set up his tent opposite Rosee,
a zealous partisan addressed these verses
"To Pasqua Rosee, at the Sign of his own
Head and half his Body in St. Michael's
Alley, next the first Coffee-Tent in Lon-
don":
Were not the fountain of my Tears
Each day exhausted by the steam
Of your Coffee, no doubt appears
But they would swell to such a stream
As could admit of no restriction
To see, poor Pasqua, thy Affliction.
What! Pasqua, you at first did broach
This Nectar for the publick Good,
Must you call Kitt down from the Coach
To drive a Trade he understood
No more than you did then your creed,
Or he doth now to write or read?
Pull Courage, Pasqua, fear no Harms
From the besieging Foe ;
Make good your Ground, stand to your Arms,
Hold out this summer, and then tho'
He'll storm, he'll not prevail — your Face *
Shall give the Coffee Pot the chace.
Eventually Pasqua Rosee disappeared,
some say to open a coffee house on the Con-
tinent, in Holland or Germany. Bowman,
having married Alderman Hodges 's cook,
and having also prevailed upon about a
thousand of his customers to lend him six-
pence apiece, converted his tent into a sub-
stantial house, and eventually took an
apprentice to the trade.
Concerning London's second coffee-
house keeper, James Farr, proprietor of the
Rainbow, who had as his most distinguished
visitor Sir Henry Blount, Edward Hatton'
says:
I find it recorded that one James Farr, a
barber, who kept the coffee-house which is now
the Rainbow, by the Inner Temple Gate (one of
the first in England), was in the year 1657,
prosecuted by the inquest of St. Dunstan's in
the West, for making and selling a sort of
liquor called coffe, as a great nuisance and
prejudice to the neighborhood, etc., and who
would then have thought London would ever
have had near three thousand such nuisances,
and that coffee would have been, as now, so
much drank by the best of quality and physi-
cians?
Hatton evidently attributed Farr's nuis-
ance to the coffee itself, whereas the present-
* Pasqua Rosee's sign. Kltt's (or Bowman's) sign
was a coffee pot.
* Ilatton, Edward. . New View of London. London.
1708. (vol. i: p. 30.)
COFFEE HOUSES OF OLD LONDON
55
4^^iiiSI
[ThcVevtucofthe COFFEE Drinkr
Firftpub!ic]uciy mad: and fold in England, by Ttifciti^ <Pofee,
TH E Grain or Berry called Coffecy groweth upon licdc Trees,
on ;y i n the Defeits of Arabia:
ic is brouglu from thence, anddmnk generally throughouc
all tlie Grand Seigniors Dominions.
I. is a fimple innocent thing, compofed into a Drijik, by being dry-
cd in snOven, and ground to Powder,and boiled up with Spring wa-
ter, and about half a pint of it to be drunk, fading an hour before .and
not Edting an hour after, and CO be taken as hot as pofsibly can be en-
dured ; chcvvhich will never fetch the skin offthe mouth,or raifc any
Blii>.:'rs,by rc:fon of chat Heat,
V The ru:ks drink 2t meals and other times, is ufually W'^ffr, and
their Dyec confill; much of Fr/4^ ^ the Crudities whereof arc very
much corrected by this Drink. ;■ 4^ Is
The quality of this Drink h cofd and Dryj and though it be a
Dryer^ yst it neither heats, 'nor inflames more then hot fojfet.
Ir fcTclofech the Orifice of the Stomack, and fortifies the heat wiih-
ns very good (o^help digeftionj and therefore of great u/e to be
bout 3 or4aCiockafternoon,as wcUas \n the morning.-
ucn quickens the Spirits^ and makes the Heart Ughtfwie,
. is goodagauift lore Eys, and the better if you hold your Head o-
er It, and rake in the Steem that way.
Ic lu'.preifeth Fumes exceedingly, and therefore good againftthc
Head~ach, an^i wiU very much flop any De fluxion of <l{heums, that diftil
from the Hrad upon the Stomachy and fo prevent and help Qonjumfti'
ons^a nd the Cough of the Lun^s,
It is excellent to prevent and cure the Vropfyy Gout, and Scuryy,
II is known l?y experience to be better then any other Drying
"DnuV^oxTeople in years, or CWirew that have any running humors u^-
cnx!tiCV[\yZS the Kings B\fiU &c.
It is very good to prevent Mif carryings in Qnli-hearing Women,
Jt is a moft excellent Remedy againft the Spleen ^ Hypoconclriac^,
TT/nt/y, or thelike.
It will prevent 'Dro'^fintfsy and make one fitforbiifines,if one have
occafion ro Watch-^ and therefore you are not to Drink of u after Supper^
unlets you intend to be watchful^^or it will hinder llecp for ) <jr 4 hours.
It is obferVed that in Turkey 3 Ti'here this is generally drunk, that they are
mt trolled leith the Stone , Gout , Dropjie , or ScurVey , a?id that their
Skins are exceeding deer and vhite. ^^£^
khnckhct Laxative not ^eflringent. ^8.
Made and Sold in St. Michaels Alley in Cornhilh by Pafqua T^hftty
at the Signc of lus own Head.
FIRST ADVERTISEMENT FOR COFFEE — 1652
Handbill used by Pasqua Rosf^e, who opened the first coffee house in London
From the original in the British Museum
56
ALL ABOUT COFFEE
ment* clearly shows it was in Farr's
chimney and not in the coffee.
Mention has already been made that Sii
Henry Blount w'as spoken of as "the fathei
of Enirlish coffee houses" and his claim to
this distinction would seem to be a valid
one, for his strong personality "stamped it
self upon the system." His favorite motto,
"Loqnendum est cum vulgo, sentiendum
cum sapientihus (the crowd may talk about
it; the wise decide it), says Robinson, "ex-
presses well their colloquial purpose, and
w'as natural enough on the lips of one whose
experience had been world wide. ' ' Aubrej
says of Sir Henry Blount, ' ' He is now neer
or altogether eighty yeares, his intellectuals
good still and body pretty strong."
Women played a not inconspicuous part
in establishing businesses for the sale of the
coffee drink in England, although the coffee
houses were not for both sexes, as in other
European countries. The London City
Quaeries for 1660 makes mention of "a she-
coffee merchant." Mary Stringar ran a
coffee house in Little Trinity Lane in 1669 ;
Anne Blunt was mistress of one of the
Turk's-Head houses in Cannon Street in
1672. Mary Long was the widow of Will-
iam Long, and her initials, together with
those of her husband, appear on a token
issued from the Rose tavern in Bridge
Street, Covent Garden. Mary Long's token
from the "Rose coffee house by the play-
house" in Covent Garden is shown among
the group of coffee-house keepers' tokens
herein illustrated.
The First Newspaper Advertisement
The first newspaper advertisement for
coffee appeared. May 26, 1657, in the Puh-
lich Adviser of London, one of the first
weekly pamphlets. The name of this pub-
lication was erroneously given as the Pub-
lick Advertiser by an early writer on coffee,
and the error has been copied by succeeding
writers. The first newspaper advertisement
was contained in the issue of the Puhlick
Adviser for the week of May 19 to May 26,
and read:
In Bartholometc Lane on the back side of the
Old Exchange, the drink called Coffee, (which
is a very wholsom and Physical drink, having
many excellent vei-tues. closes the Orifice of the
Stomack, fortifies the heat within, helpeth Di-
gestion, quickneth the Spirits, maketh the heart
lightsom, is good against Eye-sores, Ck>ughs, or
Colds, Rhumes, Consumptions, Head-ach, Drop-
» The prosecution came under the heading, "Pis-
orders and Annoys."
sie, Gout, Scurvy, Kings Evil, and many others
is to be sold both in the morning, and at three
of the clock in the afternoon.
Chocolate was also advertised for sale in
London this same year. The issue of the
Puhlick Adviser for June 16, 1657, con-
tained this announcement:
In Bishopgate Street, in Queen's Head Alley,
at a Frenchman's house is an excellent West
India drink called chocolate, to be sold, where
you may have it ready at any time, and also
unmade at reasonable rates.
Tea was first sold publicly at Garra way's
(or Garway's) in 1657.
Strange Coffee Mixtures
The doctors were loath to let coffee escape
from the mysteries of the pharmacopoeia
and become "a simple and refreshing bev-
erage" that any one might obtain for a
penny in the coffee houses, or, if preferred,
might prepare at home. In this they were
aided and abetted by many well-meaning
but misguided persons (some of them men
of considerable intelligence) who seemed
possessed of the idea that the coffee drink
was an unpleasant medicine that needed
something to take away its curse, or else
that it required a complex method of
preparation. Witness "Judge" Walter
Rumsey's Electuary of Cophy, which ap-
peared in 1657 in connection with a curious
work of his called Organon Salutis: an in-
strument to cleanse the stomach. ' The in-
strument itself was a flexible whale-bone,
two or three feet long, with a small linen
or silk button at the end, and was designed
to be introduced into the stomach to pro-
duce the effect of an emetic. The electuary
of coffee was to be taken by the patient
before and after using the instrument,
which the "judge" called his Provang.
And this was the "judge's" "new and
superior way of preparing coffee ' ' as found
in his prescription for making electuary of
cophy :
Take equal quantity of Butter and Sallet-oyle,
melt them well together, but not boyle them ;
Then stir re them well that they may incorpor-
ate together: Then melt therewith three times
as much Honey, and stirre it well together:
Then add thereunto powder of Turkish Cophie,
to make it a thick Electuary.
A little consideration will convince any
one that the electuary was most likely to
achieve the purpose for which it was recom-
mended.
' Rumsey (or Ramsey), W. Organon Salutis. LoU'
don, 1657.
COFFEE HOUSES OF OLD LONDON 57
_
TIiePublickAdvifer,
WEEKLY
CommunicsUin(* unto the whole
Nation the fcvcral Occafroni of all perfons
that arc any way concerned in matter of Buying and
iSelling, or in any kind of Impa)ymcnt, or deahnos
whaifoever^ according to the int«ntof the OFFICE
OF PUBLICK ADVICE newly fct up in
feveral places , in and about L4ff/ipff and rP^/-
mhfifr.
For the better Accommodation and Eafc of
the People , and the Univerfal Benefit of the
Commonwealth, in point of
PUBLICK I NTERCOURSE.
from Tuefda^ Maj r^ r# Ttn/Hdy May a5.
la B^rtholomem Lane on the back liJc of the Old
Exchange, the drink called Coffee^ ( yvhich is a very wHol-
form and Phyfical drink, havjng many excellent vertues,
clofes rhe.Orifice of the Stomack, fortifies the heat with-
m, helpcth Digeftion,qUJckncthihc Spirits, niakcth the
hitt hghtfom, is gcodagainft Eyc-furfS. Coughs, or
Colds/ Hhun^cs, Confumptions; Heid-ach, Dropfie,
Goac,.ScQrvy»Kings Evlland many others if to hrfofd
bothta the morning, and at three of the clock in ihe^ a(-^
ternooo*
xjittifcers*
ONc Mrs. Uffdel living at the fi^ of the Boot in Ful-
lers Rentsin//o/^»r;i, AttirethanJ DrefTcih Lidicf
and Gcntlt womcns Heads •, and tcawheth Maids to **
H:ads: TAct'; fV c refTiMS * '
till they br p*****^
THE FIRST NEWSPAPER ADVERTISEMENT FOR COFFEE — 1657
58
ALL ABOUT COFFEE
Another concoction invented by the
"jud^e" was known as "wash-brew", and
included oatmeal, powder of "cophie", a
pint of ale or any wine, ginger, honey, or
sugar to please the taste; to these ingre-
dients butter might be added and any
cordial powder or pleasant spice. It was to
be put into a tiannel bag and "so keep it at
pleasure like starch." This was a favorite
medicine among the common people of
Wales.
The book contained in a prefix an in-
teresting historical document in the shape
of a letter from James Howell (1595 - 1666)
the writer and historiographer, which read :
Touching coffee, I concurre with them in opin-
ion, who lioltl it to be that black-broth which
was us'd of old in Lacedemon, whereof the
Poets sing ; Surely it must needs be salutiferous,
because so many sagacious, and the wittiest
sort of Nations use it so much ; as they who
have conversed with Shashes and Turbants doe
well know. But, besides the exsiccant quality
it hath to dry up the crudities of the Stomach,
as also to comfort the Brain, to fortifle the
sight with its steem, and prevent Dropsies,
Gouts, the Scurvie, together with the Spleen
and Hypocondriacall windes (all which it doth
without any violance or distemper at all.) I
say, besides all these qualities, 'tis found al-
ready, that this Coffee-drink hath caused a
greater sobriety among the nations; for where-
as formerly Apprentices and Clerks with others,
used to take their mornings' draught in Ale,
Beer or Wine, which by the dizziness they cause
in the Brain, make many unfit for business,
they use now to play the Good-fellows in this
wakefull and civill drink : Therefore that
-worthy Gentleman, Mr. Mudiford*, who intro-
duced the practice hereof first to London, de-
serves much respect of the whole nation.
The coffee drink at one time was mixed
with sugar candy, and also with mustard.
In the coffee houses, however, it was usually
served black; "few people then mixed it
with either sugar or milk."
Fantastic Coffee Claims
One can not fail to note in connection
with the introduction of coffee into Eng-
land that the beverage suffered most from
the indiscretions of its friends. On the one
band, the quacks of the medical profession
sought to claim it for their own ; and, on
the other, more or less ignorant laymen
attributed to the 'drink such virtues as its
real champions among the physicians never
dreamed of. It was the favorite pastime
of its friends to exaggerate coffee 's merits ;
and of its enemies, to vilify its users. All
this furnished good ' ' copy ' ' for and against
* Also given as Sir James Muddiford, Murford, Mud-
ford, Moundeford, and Modyford,
the coffee house, which became the central
figure in each new controversy.
From the early English author who
damned it by calling it "more wholesome
than toothsome", to Pas(iua Rosee and his
contemporaries, who urged its more fan-
tastic claims, it was forced to make its way
through a veritable morass of misunder-
standing and intolerance. No harmless
drink in history has suffered more at hands
of friend and foe.
Did its friends hail it as a panacea, its
enemies retorted that it was a slow poison.
In France and in England there were those
who contended that it produced melancholy,
and those who argued it was a cure for the
same. Dr. Thomas Willis (1621-1673), a
distinguished Oxford physician whom An-
toine Portal (1742-1832) called "one of
the greatest geniuses that ever lived", said
he would sometimes send his patients to the
coffee house rather than to the apothecary's
shop. An old broadside, described later in
this, chapter, stressed the notion that if you
"do but this Rare ARABIAN cordial use,
and thou may'st all the Doctors Slops
Refuse."
As a cure for drunkenness its "magic''
power was acclaimed by its friends, and
grudgingly admitted by its foes. This will
appear presently in a description of the war
of the broadsides and the pamphlets. Coffee
was praised by one writer as a deodorizer.
Another (Richard Bradley), in his treatise
concerning its use with regard to the plague,
said if its qualities had been fully known
in 1665, "Dr. Hodges and other learned
men of that time would have recommended
it." As a matter of fact, in Grideon Har-
vey's Advice against the Plague, published
in 1665, we find, "coffee is commended
against the contagion."
This is howl the drink's sobering virtue
was celebrated by the author of the Rehelli-
ous Antidote :
Come, Frantick Fools, leave off your Drunken
fits.
Obsequious be and I'll recall your Wits,
From perfect Madness to a modest Strain
For farthings four I'll fetch you back again,
Enable all your mene with tricks of State,
Enter and sip and then attend your Fate;
Come Drunk or Sober, for a gentle Fee,
Come n'er so Mad, I'll your Physician be.
Dr. Willis, in his Pharmaceutice Ration-
alis (1674), was one of the first to attempt
to do justice to both sides of the coffee
question. At best, he thought it a some-
what risky beverage, and its votaries must,
COFFEE HOUSES OF OLD LONDON
59
some cases, be prepared to suffer languor
and even paralysis; it may attack the heart
and cause tremblings in the limbs. On the
other hand it may, if judiciously used,
prove a marvelous benefit; "being daily
drunk ii, wonderfully clears and enlightens
each part of the Soul and disperses all the
clouds of every Function."
It was a long time before recognition was
obtained for the truth about the "novelty
drink''; especially that, if there were any
beyond purely social virtues to be found in
coffee, they were "political rather than
medical."
Dr. James Duncan^ of the Faculty of
Montpellier, in his book Wholesome Advice
against the Abuse of Hot Liquors, done into
English in 1706, found coffee no more de-
serving of the name of panacea than that
of poison.
George Cheyne (1671-1743), the noted
British physician, proclaimed his neutral-
ity in the words, "I have neither great
praise nor bitter blame for the thing. * '
Coffee Prices and Coffee Licenses
Coffee, with tea and chocolate, was first
mentioned in the English Statute books in
1660, when a duty of four pence was laid
upon every gallon made and sold, "to be
paid by the maker. ' ' Coffee was classed by
the House of Commons with "other out-
landish drinks."
It is recorded in 1662 that "the right
coffee powder" was being sold at the Turk's
Head coffee house in Exchange Alley for
"4s. to 6s. 8d. per pound; that pounded in
a mortar, 2s ; East India berry. Is. 6d. ; and
the right Turkic berry, well garbled
[ground] at 3s. The ungarbled [in the
bean] for less with directions how to use
the same." Chocolate was also to be had
at "2s. 6d. the pound; the perfumed from
4s. to 10s,"
At one time coffee sold for five guineas a
pound in England, and even forty crowns
(about forty-eight dollars) a pound was
paid for it.
In 1663, all English coffee houses were
required to be licensed ; the fee was twelve
pence. Failure to obtain a license was
punished by a fine of five pounds for every
month's violation of the law. The coffee
houses were under close surveillance by
government officials. One of these was
Muddiman, a good scholar and an "arch
rogue ' ', who had formerly ' * written for the
Parliament" but who later became a paid
spy. L 'Estrange, who had a patent on
"the sole right of intelligence", wrote in
his Intelligencer that he was alarmed at the
ill effects of "the ordinary written papers
of Parliament's news . . . making
coffee houses and all the popular clubs
judges of those councils and deliberations
which they have nothing to do with at all."
The first royal warrant for coffee was
given by Charles II to Alexander Man, a
Scotsman who had followed General Monk
■to London, and set up in Whitehall. Here
he advertised himself as "coffee man to
Charles II."
Owing to increased taxes on tea, coffee,
and newspapers, near the end of Queen
Anne's reign (1714) coffee-house keepers
generally raised their prices as follows:
Coffee, two pence per dish; green tea, one
and a half pence per dish. All drams, two
pence per dram. At retail, coffee was then
sold for five shillings per pound ; while tea
brought from twelve to twenty-eight shill-
ings per pound.
Cofee Club of The Rota
"Coffee and Commonwealth", says a
pamphleteer of 1665, "came in together for
a Reformation, to make 's a free and sober
nation." The writer argues that liberty
of speech should be allowed, "where men
of differing judgements croud"; and he
adds, "that's a coffee-house, for where
should men discourse so free as there?"
Robinson's comments are apt:
Now perhaps we do not always connect the
ideas of sociableness and freedom of discussion
with the days of Puritan rule; yet it must be
admitted that something like geniality and
openness characterized what Pepys calls the
Coffee Club of the Rota. This "free and open
Society of ingenioiis gentlemen" was founded in
the year 1659 by certain members of the Re-
publican party, whose peculiar opinions had
been timidly expressed and not very cordially
tolerated under the Great Oliver. By the weak
Government that followed, these views were re-
garded with extreme dislike and with some
amount of terror.
"They met", says Aubrey, who was him-
self of their number, "at the Turk's Head
[Miles 's coffee house] in New Palace Yard,
Westminster, where they take water, at one
Miles 's, the next house to the staires, where
• was made purposely a large ovall table,
wdth a passage in the middle for Miles to
deliver his coffee."
Robinson continues :
This curious refreshment bar and the interest
with which the beverage Itself was regarded,
were quite secondary to the excitement caused
60
ALL ABOUT COFFEE
A Coffee House in the Time of Charles II
From a wood cut of 1674
by another novelty. When, after heated dis-
putation, a member desired to test tlie opinion
of the meeting, any particular point might, by
agreement, be put to the vote and then every-
thing depended upon "our wooden oracle," the
first balloting-box ever seen in England. Formal
methods of procedure and the intensely practi-
cal nature of the subjects discussed, combined
to give a real importance to this Amateur Par-
liament.
The Rota, or Coffee Club, as Pepys called
it, was essentially a debating society for the
rlissemi nation of repubjican opinions. It
was preceded only, in the reign of Henry
IV, by the club called La Court de Bone
Compagnie ; by Sir Walter Raleigh's Friday
Street, or Bread Street, club ; the club at the
Mermaid tavern in Bread Street, of which
Shakespeare, Beaumont, Fletcher, Raleigh,
Selden, Donne, et al., were members; and
"rare" Ben Jonson's Devil tavern club,
between Middle Temple Gate and Temple
Bar.
I The Rota derived its name from a plan.
Which it was designed to promote, for
onanging a certain number of members of
parliament annually by rotation. It was
y^ounded by James Harrington, who had
/painted it in fairest colors in his Oceana,
I that ideal commonwealth.
Sir "William Petty was one of its mem-
bers. Around the table, "in a room every
fivening as full as it could be crammed,"
says Aubrey, sat Milton ( ?) and Marveil,
Cyriac Skinner, Hamngton, Nevill, and
their friends, discussing abstract political
questions.
The Rota became famous for its literary
strictures. Among these was ' ' The censure
of the Rota upon Mr. Milton 's book entitled
The ready and easie way to establish a free
commonwealth" (1660) , although it is doubt-
ful if Milton was ever a visitor to this
"bustling coffee club." The Rota also
censured "Mr. Driden's Conquest of
Granada" (1673).
Early Coffee-House Manners and Customs
Among many of the early coffee-house
keepers there was great anxiety that the
coffee house, open to high and low, should
be conducted under such restraints as might
secure the better class of customers from
annoyance. The following set of regula-
tions in somewhat halting rhyme was dis-
played on the walls of several of the coffee
houses in the seventeenth century :
The Rules and Orders of the Coffee Housej.
Enter, Sirs, freely, but first, if you please,
Peruse our civil orders, which are these.
Jlrst, gentry, tradesmen, all are welcome hither,
And may without affront sit down together:
Pre-eminence of place none here should mind,
Rut take the next fit seat that he can find :
Nor need any. if finer persons come,
Rise up to assigue to them his room;
To limit men's expence, we think not fair,
But let him forfeit twelve-pence that shall
swear ;
He that shall any quarrel here begin.
Shall give each man 8 digU t' atone the sin;
COFFEE HOUSES OF OLD LONDON
61
And so shall he, whose compliments extend
So far to drink in coffee to his friend ;
Ij«»t noise of loud disputes he quite forhorne,
\() maudlin lovers here in corners mourn.
Hut all he brisk and talk, hut not too much,
On sacred things, let none presume to touch.
Nor profane Scripture, nor sawcily wrong
Affairs of state with an irreverent tongue :
Let mirth he innocent, and each man see
That all his jests without reflection be ;
To keep the house more quiet and from blame,
We banish hence cards, dice, and every game ;
Nor can allow of wagers, that exceed
Five shillings, which ofttimes much trouble
breed ;
Let all that's lost or forfeited be spent
In such good liquor as the house doth vent.
And customers endeavour, to their powers.
For to observe still, seasonable hours.
Lastly, let each man what he calls for pay.
And so you're welcome to come every day.
The early coffee houses were often up a
flight of stairs, and consisted of a single
large room with ' ' tables set apart for divers
topics." There is a reference to this in the
prologue to a comedy of 1681 (quoted by
Malone) :
In a coffee house just now among the rabble
I bluntly asked, which is the treason table?
This was the arrangement at Man's and
others favored by the wits, the literati, and
"men of fashionable instincts." In the
distinctly business coffee houses separate
rooms were provided at a later time for
mercantile transactions. The introduction
of wooden partitions — wooden boxes, as at
a tavern — was also of somewhat later date.
A print of 1674 shows five persons of dif-
ferent ranks in life, one of them smoking,
sitting on chairs around a coffee-house
table, on which are small basins, or dishes,
without saucers, and tobacco pipes, while
a coffee boy is serving coffee.
In the beginning, only coffee was dis-
pensed in the English coffee houses. Soon
chocolate, sherbert, and tea were added;
but the places still maintained their status
as social and temperance factors. Con-
stantine Jennings (or George Constantine)
of the Grecian advertised chocolate, sher-
bert and tea at retail in 1664 - 65 ; also
free instruction in the part of preparing
these liquors. "Drams and cordial waters
were to be had only at coffee houses newly
set up," says Elford the younger, writing
about 1689. While some few places added
ale and beer as early as 1669, intoxicating
liquors were not items of importance for
many years.
After the fire of 1666, many new coffee
houses were opened that were not limited
to a single room up a flight of stairs. Be-
cause the coffee-house keepers over-em-
phasized the sobering qualities of the coffee
drink, they drew many undesirable char-
acters from the taverns and ale houses after
the nine o'clock closing hour. These were
hardly calculated to improve the reputa-
tion of the coffee houses; and, indeed, the
decline of the coffee houses as a temperance
institution would seem to trace back to
CojpFiE House xests
A London Coffee House of the Seventeenth
Century
From a wood cut of the period
this attitude of false pity for the victims
of tavern vices, evils that many of the
coffee houses later on embraced to their
own undoing. The early institution was
unique, its distinctive features being un-
like those of any public house in England
or on the Continent. Later on, in the eigh-
teenth century, when these distinctive fea-
62
ALL ABOUT COFFEE
tures became obscured, the name coffee
house became a misnomer.
However, Robinson says, "the close in-
tercourse between the habitu6s of the coffee
house, before it lost anything of its gen-
erous social traditions and whilst the issue
of the struggle for political liberty was as
yet uncertain, was to lead to something
Coffee House, Queen Anne's Time — 1702-14
Showing coffee pots, coffee dishes, and coffee boy
more than a mere jumbling or huddling
together of opposites. The diverse ele-
ments gradually united in the bonds of
common sympathy, or were forcibly com-
bined by persecution from without until
there resulted a social, political and moral
force of almost irresistible strength."
Coffee-Eouse Keepers' Tokens
The great London fire of 1666 destroyed
some of the coffee houses; but prominent
among those i^iat survived was the Rain-
bow, whose proprietor, James Farr, issued
one of the earliest coffee-house tokens,
doubtless in grateful memory of his escape.
Farr's token shows an arched rainbow
emerging from the clouds of the "great
fire," indicating that all was well with
him, and the Rainbow still radiant. On
the reverse the medal was inscribed, "In
Fleet Street — His Half Penny."
A large number of these trade coins were
put out by coffee-house keepers and other
tradesmen in the seventeenth century as
evidence of an amount due, as stated there-
on, by the issuer to the holder. Tokens
originated because of the scarcity of small
change. They were of brass, copper, pew-
ter, and even leather, gilded. They bore
the name, address, and calling of the is-
suer, the nominal value of the piece, and
some reference to his trade. They were
readily redeemed, on presentation, at their
face value. They were passable in the im-
mediate neighborhood, seldom reaching
farther than the next street. C. G. William-
son writes :
Tokens are essentially deniooratic ; they would
never have been issued but for the indifterenee
of the Government to a public need ; and in
tJieni we have a remarkable instance of a people
forcing a legislature to comply with demands at
once reasonable and imperative. Taken as a
whole series, they are homely and quaint, want-
ing in beauty, but not without u curious domes-
tic art of their own.
Robinson finds an exception to the gen-
eral simplicity in the tokens^ issued by one
of the Exchange Alley houses. The dies
of these tokens are such as to have sug-
gested the skilled workmanship of John
Roettier. The most ornate has the head
of a Turkish sultan at that time famed for
his horrible deeds, ending in suicide; its
inscription runs:
Morat ye Great Men did mee call;
Where Eare I came I conquer'd all.
A number of the most interesting
coffee-house keepers' tokens in the Beau-
foy collection, in the Guildhall Museum
were photographed for this work, and are
shown herewith. It will be observed that
many of the traders of 1660-75 adopted
as their trade sign a hand pouring coffee
from a pot, invariably of the Turkish-
ewer pattern. Morat (Amurath) and Soli-
man were frequent coffee-house signs in
the seventeenth century.
J. H. Bum, in his Catalogue of Traders'
Tokens, recites that in 1672 "divers per-
sons who presumed ... to stamp, coin,
exchange and distribute farthings, half-
pence and pence of brass and copper'
were "taken into custody, in order to
COFFEE HOUSES OF OLD LONDON
63
Andrew Vincent
in Friday Street
Morat Ye Great Coffee House
in Kxchange Alley
Mary Long
in Russell Street
Robins' Coffee House
in Old Jewry
Union Coffee House
in Cornhill
James Farr, the Rainbow
In Fleet Street
Chapter Coffee House
in Paternoster Row
Sultaness Coffee House
in Cornhill
Achler Brocas
in Exeter
Morat Coffee House
in Exchange Alley
PLATE 1 — COFFEE-HOUSE KEEPERS' TOKENS OF THE 17TH CENTURY
Drawn for this work from the originals in the British Museum, and in the Beaufoy collection at the
Guildhall Museum
64
ALL ABOUT COFFEE
severe prosecution"; but upon submission,
their offenses were forgiven, and it was
not until the year 1675 that the private
token ceased to pass current.
A royal proclamation at the close of
1674 enjoined the prosecution of any who
should "utter base metals with private
stamps," or "hinder the vending of those
half pence and farthings which are pro-
vided for necessary exchange." After
this, tokens were issued stamped "neces-
sary change."
losition to the Coffee House
It is easy to see why the coffee houses
at once found favor among men of intel-
A Cup oh
O F E E
OR,
CoiFee in its Colqms.
7WiMmt<jtad«^d .
?uulf«d
r^^^w
ii.{>.p»»j.rfi».°ti'»~"r' ■
•w, SKl^i
w« luw fkM fMT WMteAi Jn
ta<l|TVdS*>
A Broadside of 1GG3
ligence in all classes. Until they came,
the average Englishman had only the tav-
ern as a place of common resort. But
here was a public house offering a non-in-
toxicating beverage, and its appeal was in-
stant and universal. As a meeting place
for the exchange of ideas it soon attained
wide popularity. But not without opposi-
tion. The publicans and ale-house keep-
ers, seeing business slipping away from
them, made strenuous propaganda against
this new social center; and not a few at-
tacks were launched against the coffee
drink. Between the Restoration and the
year 1675, of eight tracts written upon the
subject of the London coffee houses, four
have the words "character of a coffee
house" as part of their titles. The au-
thors appear eager to impart a knowledge
of the town's latest novelty, with which
many readers were unacquainted;
One of these early pamphlets (1662) was
entitled lite Coffee Scuffle, and professed
to give a dialogue between "a learned
knight and a pitifull pedagogue," and con-
tained an amusing account of a house
where the Puritan element was still in the
ascendant. A numerous company is pres-
ent, and each little group being occupied
with its own subject, the general effect is
that of another Babel. "While one is en-
gaged in ({noting the classics, another con-
fides to his neighbors how much he admires
Euclid ;
A third's for a lecture, a fourth a conjecture,
A fifth for a penny in the pound.
Theology is introduced. Mask balls and
plays are condemned. Others again dis-
cuss the news, and are deep in the store
of "mercuries" here to be found. One
cries up philosophy. Pedantry is rife, and
for the most part unchecked, when each
'prentice-boy "doth call for his coffee in
Latin" and all are so prompt with their
learned quotations that " 't would make
a poor Vicar to tremble."
The first noteworthy effort attacking the
coffee drink was a satirical broadside that
appeared in 1663. It was entitled A Cup
of Coffee: or, Coff'ee in its Colours. It said:
For men and Christians to turn Turks, and
tliink
T' excuse the Crime because 'tis in their drink,
Is more tlian Magick .
Pure English Apes ! Ye may, for ought I know.
Would it but mode, learn to eat Spiders too.
The writer wonders that any man should
prefer coffee to canary, and refers to the
days of Beaumont, Fletcher, and Ben
Jonson. He says :
They drank pure nectar as the gods drink too,
Sublim'd with rich Canary . .
shall then
These less than coffee's self, these coffee-men.
These sons of nothing, that can hardly make
Their Broth, for laughing how the jest doth
take ;
Yet grin, and give ye for the Vine's pure Blood
A loathsome potion, not yet understood,
Syrrop of soot, or Essence of old Shooes,
Dasht with Diurnals and the Books of news?
The author of A Cup of Coffee, it will
be seen, does not shrink from using epi-
thets.
COFFEE HOUSES OF OLD LONDOX
65
Richard Lione
in tlie Strand
Mary Stringar
in Little Trinity Lane
Richard Tart
in Gray Friars, Newgate Street
I
William Russell
in St. Bartholomew's Close, Smithfleld
John Marston
in Trumpington Street, Cambridge
Henry Muscut
opposite Brook House in Holborn
West Country Coffee House
in Lothebury
Thomas Outridge
in Carter Lane End, near Creed Lane
Ward's Coffee House
in Bread Street
Mansfield's Coffee House
in Shoe Lane
PLATE 2— COFFEE-HOUSE KEEPERS' TOKENS OF THE 17TH CENTURY
Drawn for this work from the originals in the British Museum, and in the Beaufoy collection at the
Guildhall Museum
66
ALL ABOUT COFFEE
The Coffee Man's Granado Discharged
upon the Maiden's Complaint Against
Coffee, a dialogue in verse, also appeared
in 1663.
The Character of a Coffee House, hy an
Eye and Ear Witness appeared in 1665.
It was a ten-page pamphlet, and proved to
be excellent propaganda for coffee. It is
so well done, and contains so much local
color, that it is reproduced here, the text
being copied from the original in the Brit-
ish Museum. The title page reads:
The
Character
OF A
COFFEE-HOUSE
wherein
Is contained a Description of the Persons
usually frequenting it, with their Dis-
course and Humors,
As Also
The Admirable Vertues of
COFFEE
By an Eye and Ear Witness
When Coffee once was vended here.
The Alc'ron shortly did appear,
For our Reformers were such Widgeons.
New Liquors brought in new Religions.
Printed in the Year, 1665.
the
The text and the arrangement of
body of the pamphlet are as follows :
The
Character
OF A
Coffee-House
the derivation of
A coffee-house
A Coffee-house, the learned hold
It is a place where Coffee's sold ;
This derivation cannot fail us,
For where Ale's vended, that's an Ale-house.
This being granted to be true,
'Tis meet that next the Signs we shew
Both where and how to find this house
Where men such cordial hroth carowse.
And if Culpepper woon some glory
In turning the Dispensatory
From Latin into English; then
Why should not all good English men
Give him much thanks who shews a cure
For all diseases men endure?
SIGNS : HOW TO
FIND IT OUT
As you along the streets do trudge.
To take the pains you must not grudge,
To view the Posts or Broomsticks where
The Signs of Liquors hanged are.
And if you see the great Moral
With Shash on's head instead of hat,
Or any Sultan in his dress,
Or picture of a Sultaness,
Or John's admir'd curled pate,
Or th' great Mogul in's Chair of State,
Or Constantine the Grecian,
Who fourteen years was th' onely man
That made Coffee for th' great Bashaw,
Although the man he never saw;
Or if you see a Coffee-cup
Fil'd from a Turkish pot, hung up
Within the clouds, and round it Pipes,
Wax Candles, Stoppers, these are types
And certain signs (with many more
Would be too long to write them 'ore,)
Which plainly do Spectators tell
That in that house they Coffee sell.
Some wiser than the rest (no doubt,)
Say they can by the smell find't out ;
In at a door (say they,) but thrust
Your Nose, and if you scent burnt Crust,
Be sure there's Coffee sold that's good.
For so by most 'tis understood.
Now being enter'd, there's no needing
Of complements or gentile breeding,
For you may seat you any where,
There's no respect of persons there ;
Then comes the Coffee-man to greet you,
With welcome Sir, let me entreat you.
To tell me what you'l please to have.
For I'm your humble, humble slave ;
But if you ask, what good does Coffee?
He'l answer, Sir, don't think I scoff yee.
If I affirm there's no disease
Men have that drink it but find ease.
THE VERTUES
OF COFFEE
Look, there's a man who takes the steem
In at his Nose, has an extreme
Worm in his pate, and giddiness.
Ask him and he will say no less.
There sitteth one whose Droptick belly
AVas hard as flint, now's soft as jelly.
There stands another holds his head
'Ore th' Co:i9'ee-pot, was almost dead
Even now with Rhume; ask him hee'l say
That all his Rhum's now past away.
See, there's a man sits now demure
And sober, was within this hour
Quite drunk, and comes here frequently.
For 'tis his daily Malady,
More, it has such reviving power
'Twill keep a man awake an houre,
Nay, make his eyes wide open stare
Both Sermon time and all the prayer.
Sir, should I tell you all the rest
O' th' cures 't has done, two hours at least
In numb'ring them I needs must spend.
Scarce able then to make an end.
Besides these vertues that's therein,
For any kind of Medicine,
The C ommonwealthr Kingdom I'd say.
Has mighty reason for to pray
That still Arabia may produce
Enough of Berry for it's use :
For't has such strange magnetick force,
That it draws after't great concourse
Of all degrees of persons, even
From high to low, from morn till even ;
Especially the "iober Party,
And News-mongers do drink't most hearty.
Here you'r not thrust into a Box
As Taverns do to catch the Fox,
But as from th' top of Pauls high steeple,
Th' whole City's view'd, even so all people
May here be seen ; no secrets are
At th' Court for Peace, or th' Camp for War,.
But straight they'r here disclos'd and known ;
Men in this Age so wise are grown.
Now (Sir) what profit may accrew
^BWith that he's loudly call'd upon
^B For Coffee, and then whip he's gone.
^Hthe company
^B Here at a Table sits (perplext)
A griping Usurer, and next
To him a gallant Furioso,
Then nigh to him a Virtuoso;
A Player then (full fine) sits down,
And close to him a Country Clown.
()' th' other side sits some Pragmatick,
And next to him some sly Phanatick.
THE SEVERAL
LIQUORS
The gallant he for Tea doth call,
The Usurer for nought at all.
The Pragmatick he doth intreat
That they will fill him some Beau-cheat,
The Virtuoso he cries hand me
Some Coffee mixt with Sugar-candy.
Phanaticus (at last) says come.
Bring me some Aromaticum.
The Player bawls for Chocolate,
All which the Bumpkin wond'ring at,
Cries, ho, my Masters, what d' ye speak,
D' ye call for. drink in Heathen Greek ?
Give me some good old Ale or Beer,
Or else I will not drink. I swear.
Then having charg'd their Pipes around,
THEIR DISCOURSE
They silence break ; First the profound
And sage Phanatique, Sirs what news?
Troth says the UsWer I ne'r use
To tip my tongue with such discourse,
. 'Twere news to know how to disburse
A summ of mony (makes me sad)
To get ought by't, times are so bad.
The other answers, truly Sir
You speak but truth, for I'le aver
They ne'r were worse ; did you not hear
What prodigies did late appear
At Xoririch. Ipsirich. Grantham, Gotam?
And though prophane ones do not not'em,
Yet we — Here th' Virtuoso stops
The current of his speech, with hopes
Quoth he. you will not tak'd amiss,
I say all's lies that's news like this,
For I have Factors all about
The Realm, so that no Stars peep out
That are unusual, much less these
Strange and unheard-of prodigies
You would relate, but they are tost
To me in letters by first Post.
At which the Furioso swears
Such chat as this offends his ears
It rather doth become this Age
To talk of bloodshed, fury, rage.
And t' drink stout healths in brim-fill'd Nogans.
To th' downfall of the Hogan Mogans.
With that the Player doffs his Bonnet,
And tunes his voice as if a Sonnet
Were to be sung; then gently says,
O what delight there is in Plays!
Sure if we were but all In Peace,
This noise of Wars and News would cease ;
All sorts of people then would club
Their pence to see a Play that's good.
You'l wonder all this while (perhaps)
The Ctirioso holds his chaps.
But he doth in his thoughts devise.
How to the rest he may seem wise ;
COFFEE HOUSES OF OLD LONDON 67
Yet able longer not to hold.
His tedious tale too must be told.
And thus begins. Sirs unto me
It reason seems that liberty
Of speech and words should be allow'd
Where men of differing judgements croud.
And that's a Coffee-house, for where
Should men discourse so free as there?
Coffee and Commonwealth begin
Both with one letter, both came in
Together for a Reformation,
To make's a free and sober Nation.
But now — With that Phanaticus
Gives him a nod. and speaks him thus.
Hold brother, I know your intent,
That's no dispute convenient
For this same place, truths seldome find
Acceptance here, they'r more confin'd
To Taverns and to Ale-house liquor.
Where men do vent their minds more quicker
If that may for a truth but pass
What's said, In vino Veritas.
With that up starts the Country Clown,
And stares about with threatening frown
As if he would even eat them all up.
Then bids the boy run quick and call up,
A Constable, for he has reason
To fear their Latin may be treason
But straight they all call what's to pay,
Lay't down, and march each several way.
THE COMPANY
At th' other table sits a Knight,
And here a grave old man ore right
Against his worship, then perhaps
That hy and by a Drawer claps
His bum close by them, there down squats
A dealer in old shoes and hats;
And here withouten any panick
Fear, dread or care a bold Mechanick.
THEIR DISCOURSE
The Knight (because he's so) he prates
Of matters far beyond their pates.
The grave old man he makes a bustle,
And his wise sentence in must justle.
Up starts th' Apprentice boy and he
Says boldly so and so't must be.
The dealer in old shoes to utter
His saying too makes no small sputter.
Then comes the pert mechanick blade,
And contradicts what all have said.
* * *
There by the fler-side doth sit,
One freezing in an Ague fit.
Another poking in't with th' tongs,
Still ready to cough up his lungs
Here sitteth one that's melancolick.
And there one singing in a frolick.
Each one hath such a prety gesture.
At Smithfield fair would yield a tester.
Boy reach a pipe cries he that shakes.
The songster no Tobacco takes.
Says he who coughs, nor do I smoak.
Then Monsieur Mopus turns his cloak
Off from his face, and with a grave
Majestick beck his pipe doth crave.
They load their guns and fall a smoaking
Whilst he who coughs sits by a choaking.
Till he no longer can abide.
And so removes from th' fier side.
Now all this while none calls to drink.
Which makes the Coffee hoy to think
68
ALL ABOUT COFFEE
Much they his pots should so enclose,
He cannot pass but tread on toes.
With that as he the Nectar fills
From pot to pot, some on't he spills
Upon the Songster. Oh cries he.
Pox, what dost do? thou'st burnt my knee;
No says the boy, (to make a bald
And blind excuse.) Sir Hvnll not scald.
With that the man lends him a cuff
O' th' ear, and whips away in snuff.
The other two, their pipes being out,
Says Monsieur Mopus I much doubt
My friend I wait for will not come.
But if he do, say I'm gone home.
Then says the Aguish man I must come
According to my wonted custome.
To give ye' a visit, although now
I dare not drink, and so adieu.
The boy replies, O Sir, however
You'r very welcome, we do never
Our Candles, Pipes or Fier grutch
To daily customers and such,
They'r Company (without expence,)
For that's sufficient recompence.
Here at a table all alone,
Sits (studying) a spruce youngster, (one
Wlio doth conceipt himself fully witty,
And's counted one o' th' wits o' th' City,)
Till by him (with a stately grace,)
A Spanish Don himself doth place.
Then (cap in hand) a brisk Monsieur
He takes his seat, and crowds as near
As possibly that he can come.
Then next a Dutchman takes his room.
The Wits glib tongue begins to chatter,
Though't utters more of noise than matter,
Yet 'cause they seem to mind his words.
His lungs more battle still affords
At last says he to Don, I trow
Ydu understand me? Sennor no
Says th' other. Here the Wit doth pause
A little while, then opes his jaws.
And says to Monsieur, you enjoy
Our tongue I hope? Non par ma foy,
Replies the Frenchm/m : nor you, Sir?
Says he to th' Dutchman, 7veen mynheer,
With that he's gone, and cries, why sho'd
He stay where tmfs not understood?
There in a place of his own chusing
(Alone) some lover sits a musing,
With arms across, and's eyes up lift,
As if he were of sence bereft.
Till sometimes to himself he's speaking,
Then sighs as if his heart were breaking.
Here in a comer sits a Phrantick,
And there stands by a frisking Antick,
Of all sorts some and all conditions
Even Vintners, Surgeons and Physicians.
The blind, the deaf, and aged cripple
Do here resort and Coffee tipple.
Now here (perhaps) you may expect
My Muse some trophies should erect
In high flown verse, for to set forth
The noble praises of its worth.
Truth is, old Poets beat their brains
To find out high and lofty strains
To praise the (now too frequent) use
Of the bewitching grapes strong juice,
Some have strain'd hard for to exalt
The liquor of our English Mault
Nay Don has almost crackt his nodle
Enough t' applaud his Caaco Caudle.
The Germans Mum, Teag's Usquebagh,
(Made him so well defend Tredagh,)
MethegUn, which the Brittains tope,
Hot Brandy wine, the Hogans hope.
Stout Meade which makes the Russ to laugh,
Spic'd Punch (in bowls.) the Indians quaff.
All these have had their pens to raise
Tliem Monuments of lasting praise,
Onely poor Coffee seems to me
No subject fit for Poetry
At least 'tis one that none of mine is.
So I do wave 't, and here write —
FINIS.
News from the Coffe House; in which
is shewn their several sorts of Passions ap-
NEWS from the COFFE-HOUSE;
In which is (hewn their fcvaral forts of Pairions,
Conuining Newes fiom all cm Nogjibour \amn!.
A POEM.
YOo tint 4eli«lit iii iv-,i j„j Mirth,
Aniiotn to bcBr imti N«w(,
Ai roam from «11 P»m of the Fteih,
Vmii. DMfj, Mil Tmltj, md J,w',
Ihe, know more Tbingi 'then ci
No Moitty ia the M'liiing-jMtufc
/I >«a,i tm h CO
Bdore tf« Ji.vp, ftlt tn Work
Tta^kai* who lladi kc Wion
Tbiy llMTt CM tdl yciritH the 7
iJCtaidlTlKiilaDmnfi
Wks M dU Cm D. tmim, u«
hmBffi Ita jovial Crete ;
Ob WhoMl givf tiM i^fTiitkji
k filhrma i,i taWlv teTI,
Am ftrongly d:il a voucli.
He Cufht % Shne! (.i Metkirel,
T!»tPtrlej'J.i;w7l.i.-4,
ntf„.,hK..,mV,. G,d\,i,mg,
Miiieof Mit-S >ctom-d Hoan,
Shell Coinfiu E.t.'"»l '*u-il *h .Lt
There*! neit! ing done ir. ill iht Wi r/,
Bw««vDevo(Nicht':i»bjr:<i ,
Into the tr.f ,.fa»/,.
WEUI tiiJitar Rhtt fM^<r tin
By An, n«i briri; Ibiwr,
*i C.f.-*wi// you'l find ■ Ml",
C— faitH/i fi-d .1 .«,
They1tti)|«ilierc. whit Itdy wire.
Oflite i» fftn/n too I'l^itf ;
WhSt W.fe.tBin Ibeii tnta favour r»f>
Whet fo«l diill bt 1 K-mhil
Ztty'i tell yc wbcn tier F«> Inn Xttie,
&fMl!Kifcij;'in, end Flotitilh,
Or m-Iks 7,*r^ JJ^ai, (hill be mi^
Olorth-Wirden ^ tie Pirifli.
'*>&>, trimti h) t. Cnw>l, for rbx,^ frt •>; ilii
Ttty lnow»hol)>«iiin Iimei i,no»
Be either made, or undone,
Trom great S!. fiwi-Jtrintn timt
And lloeile Kill at Clrtjn,.,
WhittnU uath great ei'l Gi.n;
And in that place, what Biajen-f.te
Doth mtti a Golden Cham.
At Sea their Knoia-ledee ii lo muth,
TleyHrowall Kotli and snel.ei,
Tl«y Unrn ,h Counci'li of t.'.t D.r.*,
More il,e= -hey kr»» Them^elrei ,
f. ho •[,! ni.l -el the ti'> ai lad.
They perlefily ran Omw
The? know a:! that it Gtini, t" Hun
To Dam yr, or to Save ye ;
There i, the C ''*i', and the Cfr,
TlwCa*"';. tTaaip, and hivit;
)&&. IheDtml:n5ill.reotCt..>./.,-,
S^ Tht tend Of nii/i:-,.-
5^^ "Til Cheaperfarr then Wine.
«)(v> Yoti ftiall. fciiow there, lehatFllltontwei
ij;i6> H»"l'<irT»igg,artCiirl'd,
y fci; Arf lor a Penny yoo flit|| ktall,
gj* All Novel* in (he WoHd
gg Doth Old and Yontif, and Gleat andSlMB,
CVqp And Kich, and faon, ymtl ftf :
Sf& Thavefori ktl t« tie Cafe *8,
gg^ Cone All an; >1A Uk. FMl .
C»iia!c. fafcv/n» ><«j. ^ahjkfnnsa. ji
A Broadside of 1667
peared in 1667. It was reprinted in 1672
as The Coffee House or Newsmongers'
Hall.
Several stanzas from these broadsides
have been much quoted. They serve to
throw additional light upon the manners
of the time, and upon the kind of conver-
sation met with in any well frequented
coffee house of the seventeenth century,
particularly under the Stuarts. They are
finely descriptive of the company char-
COFFEE HOUSES OF OLD LONDON
69
acteristics of the early coffee houses. The
fifth stanza of the edition of 1667, inimical
to the French, was omitted when the broad-
side was amended and reprinted in 1672,
the year that England joined with France
and again declared war on the Dutch. The
following' verses with explanatory notes
are from Timbs:
News from the Coffe House
You that delight in Wit and Mirth,
And long to hear such News,
As comes from all Parts of the Earth,
Dutch, Danes, and Turks, and Jews,
I'le send yee to a Rendezvouz,
Where it is smoaking new ;
Go hear it at a Coffe-house,
It cannot hut he true.
Tliere Battles and Sea-Fights are Fought,
And bloudy Plots display'd ;
They know more Things then ere was thought
Or ever was betray'd :
No Money in the Minting-house
Is halfe so Bright and New ;
And comming from a Coffe-house
It cannot hut he true.
Before the Navyes fall to Work,
They know who shall be Winner ;
They there can tell ye what the Turk
Last Sunday had to Dinner ;
Who last did Cut Du Ruitters " Corns,
Amongst his jovial Crew ;
Or Who first gave the Devil Horns,
Which cannot hut he true.
A Fisherman did boldly tell,
And strongly did avouch,
He Caught a Shoal of Mackarel,
That Parley'd all in Dutch,
And cry'd out Yaw, yaw, yaw Myne Here;
But as the Draught they Drew
They Stunck for fear, that Monck^'' was there.
Which cannot hut he true.
There's nothing done in all the World,
From M anarch to the Mouse
But every Day or Night 'tis hurld
Into the Coffe-house.
What Lillie^^ or what Booker^ can
By Art,, not bring about,
At Coffe-house you'l find a Man,
Can quickly find it out.
They know who shall in Times to come,
Be either made, or undone,
From great St. Peters street in Rome,
To Tumhull-street^^ in London;
* * *
They know all that is Good, or Hurt,
To Dam ye, or to Save ye;
There is the Colledge, and the Court,
The Country, Camp and Navie;
So great a Universitie,
I think there ne're was any ;
In which you may a Schoolar be
For spending of a Penny.
* * *
Here Men do talk of every Thing,
With large and liberal Lungs,
Like Women at a Gossiping,
With double tyre of Tongues;
They'l give a Broad-side presently,
Soon as you are in view.
With Stories that, you'l wonder at,
Which they will swear are true.
Tlie Drinking there of Chockalat,
Can make a Fool a Sophie :
'Tls thought the Turkish Mahomet
Was first Inspir'd with Coffe,
By which his Powers did Over-flow
The Land of Palestine :
Then let us to, the Coffe-house go,
'Tis Cheaper farr then Wine.
You shall know there, what Fashions are ;
How Perrywiggs are Curl'd ;
And for a Penny you shall heare,
All Novells in the World.
Both Old and Young, and Great and Small,
And Rich, and Poore, you'l see ;
Therefore let's to the Coffe All,
Come All away with Mee.
Finis.
Robert Morton made a contribution to
the controversy in Lines Appended to the
Nature, Quality and Most Excellent Ver-
ifies of Coffee in 1670.
There was published in 1672 A Broad-
side Against Coffee, or the Marriage of
the Turk, verses that attained consider-
able fame because of their picturesque in-
vective. They also stressed the fact that
Pasqua Ros^e's partner was a coachman,
» The Dutch admiral who, in June, 1667, dashed
into the Downs with a fleet of eighty "sail", and
many "flre-ships", blocljed up the mouths of the
Medway and Thames, destroyed the fortifications at
Sheerness. cut away the paltry defenses of booms and
chains drawn across the rivers, and got to Chatham,
on the one side, and nearly to Gravesend on the
other, the king having spent in debauchery the money
voted by Parliament for the proper support of the
English navy.
" General Monk and Prince Rupert were at this
time commanders of the English fleet.
" Lillie (Lilly) was the celebratefl astrologer of the
Protectorate, who earned great fame at that time by
predicting, in June, 1645, "if now we fight, a victory
stealeth upon us ;" a lucky guess, signally verified in
the King's defeat at Naseby. Lilly thenceforth always
saw the stars favourable to the Puritans.
" This man was originally a fishing-tackle maker in
Tower Street during the reign of Charles I ; but
turning enthusiast, he went about prognosticating
"the downfall of the King and Popery ;" and as he
and his predictions were all on the popular side, he
became a great man with the superstitious "godly
brethren" of that day.
1* Turnball, or TurnbuU - street, as it is still called,
had been for a century previous of infamous repute.
In Beaumont and Fletcher's play, the Knipht of the
Burning Pestle, one of the ladies who is undergoing
penance at the barber's, has her character sufliciently
pointed out to the audience, in her declaration, that
she had been "stolen from her friends in Turnball -
street."
70
ALL ABOUT COFFEE
N.taircQualicy, and Mofl: Ex'ccllcnc V'
or
COFFEE
crtucs
MKti ihmi k>r the
fhim rtiobchts »^ <lrv' becaufeO-
' -iid axnft, liiakcn ^hcn ^vr\ has*
M coU thm^* dulli the tK'sui n
tcrfii liung i)Ott d* SroiB* '■
^ h t ai,d di^ rfang^ flroigiithe
A Broadside of 1670
and imitated the broken English of the
Ragusan youth:
A Broad-side Against COFFEE ;
Ob, the
Mabbiage of the Turk
Coffee, a kind of Turkish Renegade,
Has late a match with Christian water made ;
At first l)etween them happen'd a Demur,
Yet joyn'd they were, but not without great stir;
* * *
Coffee was cold as Earth, Water as Thames,
And stood in need of recommending Flames;
* iti *
Coffee so brown as berry does appear,
Too swarthy for a Nymph so fair, so clear :
* * *
A Coachman was the first (here) Coffee made,
And ever since the rest drive on the trade;
Me no good Engalash! and sure enough.
He plaid the Quack to salve his Stygian stuff;
Ver boon for de stomach, de Cough, de Ptisick
And I believe him, for it looks like Physick.
Coffee a crust is charkt into a coal.
The smell and taste of the Mock China bowl ;
Where huflf and puff, they labour out their lungs,
Lest Dives-like they should bewail their tongues.
And yet they tell ye that it will not burn.
Though on the Jury Blisters you return ;
Whose furious heat does make the water rise.
And still through the Alembicks of your eyes.
Dread and desire, ye fall to't snap by snap,
As hungry Dogs do scalding porrige lap,
But to cure Drunkards it has got great Fame;
Posset or Porrige, will't not do the same?
Confusion huddles all into one Scene,
Like Noah's Ark, the clean and the unclean.
But now, alas! the Drench has credit got,
And he's no Gentleman that drinks it not ;
That such a Dwarf should rise to such a stature I
But Custom is but a remove from Nature.
A little Dish, and a large Coffee-house,
What is it, but a Mountain and a Mouse?
* * *
Mens humana novitatis avidissim^a.
And so it came to pass that coffee his-
tory repeated itself in England. Many
good people became convinced that coffee
was a dangerous drink. The tirades against
the beverage in that far-off time sound not
unlike the advertising patter employed by
some of our present-day coffee-substitute
manufacturers. It was even ridiculed by
being referred to as "ninny broth" and
"Turkey gruel."
A brief description of the excellent ver-
tues of that sober and wholesome drink
called coffee appeared in 1674 and proved
an able and dignified answer to the at-
tacks that had preceded it. That same year,
for the first time in history, the sexes di-
vided in a coffee controversy, and there
was issued The Women's Petition against
Coffee, representing to public consideration
the grand inconveniences accruing to their
A Broad-ride againft COFFEE; ,
Or, the
Marriage of the Turk. -x
■^'llFhE.i.i.n
^ lih t , ; jr 11
ii/f iThisMii
r rmadi; 'And boil
I ACo
Cr
All H. funtlouk y I t
. JnrUintoacjjl
'1 •» '
I, )'l
I
I'l.l lu(a» I t ,
S K I. ijf[\ t- 1 1 1
An' 1 <i.<fl.
;, I'L' diou-,h t-om
^■ur t'>ij'e i -vcxt U
Wh t ft.ll! HI
lie 1 ft
VVi I
L lltt c
An J yctt
rhouctioiiil-JuryBli » r
W lioie furijj heat does n^k« tl e Witcrn c,
\nA dtil iluougii ilw Atcmbicls of yaur cyn
0 eaJ ind dcHre, w f-'i' to i f lap I ) f lap,
'AshongryI>)j;i«oK-aldingp iii ip
Bjiiocir Dn nlad? It lia go«gc iF in ,
lPi>,r«o -Por??, wiiitnotdodnlmi >
CtiI I'm lit.i"j -tall idtoone S c i-
Xl ^M» All, hedcamndiUuiiclcw
iRurov, Va ' .hr Drench ha crd. ;;«
AnilKu jtjcn l-matitlntdiiik H»ut,
T in. 1 u /) r rt ouH r¥c to fi. H a Ibture '
B'ClH i til no\ fromNaluri:
A ii 'f D n f ft e V, m'c
\V , '
? („,J ,
II,
e<i!.Biit!i:vs%*(
,r.sta).
' L. JfiM Efits itf^a
A Broadside of 1672
COFFEE HOUSES OF OLD LOXDON
71
sex from the excessive use of the drying
and enfeebling Liquor, in which the ladies,
who had not been accorded the freedom of
the coffee houses in England, as was the
custom in France, Germany, Italy, and
other countries on the Continent, com-
plained that coffee made men as "unfruit-
ful as the deserts where that unhappy
berry is said to be bought." Besides the
more serious complaint that the whole race
was in danger of extinction, it was urged
that "on a domestic message a husband
would stop by the way to drink a couple
of cups of coffee."
This pamphlet is believed to have pre-
cipitated the attempt at suppression by
the crown the following year, despite the
prompt appearing, in 1674, of The Men's
Answer to the Women's Petition Against
Coffee, vindicating . . . their liquor, from
the undeserved aspersion lately cast upon
them, in their scandalous pamphlet.
The 1674 broadside in defense of coffee
was the first to be illustrated; and for all
its air of pretentious grandeur and occa-
sional bathos, it was not a bad rhyming
advertisement for the persecuted drink. It
was printed for Paul Greenwood and sold
"at the sign of the coffee mill and tobacco-
roll in Cloath-fair near West-Smithfield,
who selleth the best Arabian coffee powder
and chocolate in cake or roll, after the
Spanish fashion, etc." The following ex-
tracts will serve to illustrate its epic char-
acter :
When the sweet Poison of the Treacherous
Grape,
Had Acted on the world a General Rape ;
Drowning our very Reason and our Souls
In such deep Seas of large o'reflowing Bowls,
* * an
When Foggy Ale, leavying up mighty Trains
Of muddy Vapours, had besieg'd our Brains ;
* * *
Then Heaven in Pity, to Effect our Cure,
* * *
First sent amongst us this All-heaUng-Berry,
At once to make us both Sober and Merry.
Arabian Coffee, a Rich Cordial
To Purse and Person Beneficial,
Which of so many Vertues doth partake,
Its Country's called Felix for its sake.
From the Rich Chambers of the Rising Sun,
Where Arts, and all good Fashions first begun.
Where Earth with choicest Rarities is blest.
And dying Phoenix builds Her wondrous Nest;:
COFFEE arrives, that Grave and wholesome
Liquor,
That heals the Stomack, makes the Genius
quicker,
DESCRIPTh N
COFFEE
■^J*!,- INCOMPARABLE
'.*-jj^ EFFECTS
Wr^-^:t^i:
mil F HOUSE.
I b whi,.^ I. .. HA.n.VMVM.
A I ".udADsii'i; III It;, 1
The first one to be illustrated
Relieves the Memory, Revives the Sad.
* * *
Do but this Rare ARABIAN Cordial Use,
And thou may'st all the Doctors Slops Refuse.
Hush then, dull QUACKS, your Mountebanking
cease,
COFFEE'S a speedier Cure for each Disease;
How great its Vertues are, we hence may think.
The Worlds third Part makes it their common
Drink ;
In Breif, all you who Healths Rich Treasures
Prize,
And Court not Ruby Noses, or blear'd Eyes,
But own Sobriety to be your Drift.
And Love at once good Company and Thrift ;
To Wine no more make Wit and Coyn a
Trophy,
But come each Night and Fi-<>llique here in
Coffee.
•
An eight-page folio, the last argument
to be issued in defense of coffee before
Charles II sought to follow in the foot-
steps of Kair Bey and Kuprili, was issued
in the early part of 1675. It was entitled
Coffee Houses Vindicated. In answer to
the late published Character of a Coffee
House. Assertiiig from Reason, Experi-
ence and good Authors the Excellent Use
and physical Virtues of that Liquor. . . .
With the Grand Conveniency of such civil
Places of Resort and ingenious Conversa-
tion.
72
ALL ABOUT COFFEE
The advantage of a coffee house com-
pared with a " publiek-house " is thus set
forth:
First, In regard of easy expense. Being to
wait for or meet a friend, a tavern-reckoning
soon breeds a purse-consumption : in an ale
house, you must gorge yourself with pot after
pot . . . But here, for a penny or two, you
may spend two or three hours, have the shelter
of a house, the warmth of *a fire, the diversion
of company ; and conveniency, if you please, of
taking a pipe of tobacco ; and all this without
any grumbling or repining. Secondly. For so-
briety. It is grown, by the ill influences of I
know not what hydropick stars, almost a gen-
eral custom amongst us, that no bargain can
be drove, or business concluded between man
and man, hut it must be transacted at some
publick-house . . . where continual sippings
. . . would be apt to fly up into their brains,
and render them drowsy and indisposed . . .
whereas, having now the opportunity of a
coffee-house, they repair thither, take each
man a dish or two (so far from causing, that it
cures any dizziness, or disturbant fumes) : and
so, dispatching their business, go out more
sprightly about their affairs, than before. . . .
Lastly, For diversion . . . where can young
gentlemen, or shop-keepers, more innocently and
advantageously spend an hour or two in the eve-
ning than at a coffee-house? Where they shall
be sure to meet company, and, by the custom of
the house, not such as at other places stingy and
reserved to themselves, but free and communica-
tive, where every man may modestly begin his
story, and propose to, or answer another, as
he thinks fit. . . . So that, upon the whole
matter, spight of the idle sarcasms and paltry
reproaches thrown upon it, we may, with no
less truth than plainness, give this brief char-
acter of a well-regulated coffee-house, (for our
pen disdains to be an advocate for any sordid
holes, that assume that name to cloke the prac-
tice of debauchery,) that it is the sanctuary of
health, the nursery of temperance, the delight of
frugality, and academy of civility, and free-
school of ingenuity.
The Ale Wives' Complaint Against the
Coffee-houses, a dialogue between a vict-
ualer's wife and a coffee man, at difference
about spiriting away each other's trade,
also was issued in 1675.
As early as 1666, and again in 1672, we
find the government planning to strike a
blow at the coffee houses. By the year
1675, these "seminaries of sedition" were
much frequented by persons of rank and
substance, who, "suitable to our native
genius," says Anderson," "used great free-
dom therein with respect to the courts'
proceedings in these and like points, so
contrary to the voice of the people."
. In 1672, Charles II, seemingly eager to
emulate the Oriental intolerants that pre-
^* Anderson. Adam. Historical and Chronological
Deduction of the Origin of Commerce. London, 1787.
ceded him, determined to try his hand at
suppression. "Having been informed of
the great inconveniences arising from the
great number of persons that resort to
coffee-houses," the king "desired the Lord
Keeper and the Judges to give their opin-
ion in writing as to how far he might law-
fully proceed against them."
Roger North in his Examen gives the
full story; and D 'Israeli, commenting on
it, says, "it was not done without some
apparent respect for the British constitu-
tion." The courts affected not to act
against the law, and the judges were sum-
moned to a consultation ; but the five who-
met could not agree in opinion.
Sir William Coventry spoke against the
proposed measure. He pointed out that
the government obtained considerable
revenue from coffee, that the king himself
owed to these seemingly obnoxious places
no small debt of gratitude in the matter
of his own restoration; for they had been
permitted in Cromwell's time, when the
king's friends had used more liberty of
speech than "they dared to do in any
other." He urged, also, that it might be
rash to issue a command so likely to be
disobeyed.
At last, being hard pressed for a reply,
the judges gave such a halting opinion in
favor of the king's policy as to remind us
of the reluctant verdict wrung from the
physicians and lawyers of Mecca on the
occasion of coffee 's first persecution.'' ' ' The
English lawyers, in language which, for its
civility and indefiniteness, ' ' says Robinson,
"would have been the envy of their East-
em brethren," declared that:
Retailing coffee might be an innocent trade,
as it might be exercised; but as it is used nt
present, in the nature of a common assembly,
to discourse of matters of State, news and
great Persons, as they are Nurseries of Idle-
ness and Pragmaticalness, and hinder the ex-
pence of our native Provisions, they might be
thought common nuisances.
An attempt was made to mold public
opinion to a favorable consideration of the
attempt at suppression in The Grand Con-
cern of England explained, which w^as good
propaganda for his majesty's enterprise,
but utterly failed to carry conviction to
the lovers of liberty.
After much backing and filling, the king,
on December 23, 1675, issued a proclama-
tion which in its title frankly stated its
" See chapter III.
COFFEE HOUSES OF OLD LONDON
78
object — "foF the suppression of coffee
houses." It is here given in a somewhat
condensed form:
BY THE KING: A PROCLAMATION
^FOR THE SUPPRESSION OF
COFFEE HOUSES
Charles R.
Whereas it is most apparent that the multi-
tude of Coffee Houses of late years set up and
kept within this kingdom, the dominion of
Wales, and town of Berwick-upon-Tweed, and
the great resort of Idle and disaffected persons
to them, have produced very evil and dangerous
effects ; as well for that many tradesmen and
others, do herein mispend much of their time,
which might and probably would be employed
in and about their Lawful Calling and Affairs ;
but also, for that in such houses ....
divers false, malitious and scandalous reports
are devised and spread abroad to the Defama-
tion of his Majestie's Government, and to the
Disturbance of the Peace and Quiet of the
Realm ; his Majesty hath thought fit and neces-
sary, that the said Coffee Houses be (for the
future) Put down, and suppressed, and doth
. strictly charge and command all man-
ner of persons. That they or any of them do
not presume from and after the Tenth Day of
January next ensuing, to keep any Public Cof-
fee House, or to utter or sell by retail, in his,
her or their house or houses (to be spent or
consumed within the same) any Coffee, Choco
let, Sherbett or Tea, as they will answer the
contrary at their utmost perils . . . (all
licenses to be revoked).
Given at our Court at Whitehall, this third-
and-twentleth dajj of Dec, 1675, in the seven -
and-twentieth year of our Reign.
GOD SAVE THE KING.
And then a remarkable thing happened.
It is not usual for a royal proclamation
issued on the 29th of one month to be re-
called on the 8th day of the next ; but this
is the record established by Charles II.
The proclamation was made on December
23, 1675, and issued December 29, 1675.
It forbade the coffee houses to operate
after January 10, 1676, But so intense
was the feeling aroused, that eleven days
was sufficient time to convince the king
that a blunder had been made. Men of
all parties cried out against being deprived
of their accustomed haunts. The dealers
I in coffee, tea, and chocolate demonstrated
that the proclamation would greatly lessen
his majesty's revenues. Convulsion and
discontent loomed large. The king heeded
|the warning, and on January 8, 1676, an-
other proclamation was issued by which
the first proclamation was recalled.
In order to save the king's face, it was
solemnly recited that "His Gracious Maj-
esty," out of his "princely consideration
and royal compassion" would allow the re-
tailers of coffee liquor to keep open until
the 24th of the following June. But this
was clearly only a royal subterfuge, as
there was no further attempt at molesta-
tion, and it is extremely doubtful if any
was contemplated at the time the second
proclamation was promulgated.
"Than both which proclamations noth-
ing could argue greater guilt nor greater
weakness," says Anderson. Robinson re-
marks, "A battle for freedom of speech
was fought and won over this question at
a time when Parliaments were infrequent
and when the liberty of the press did not
exist, ' '
"Penny Universities"
"We read in 1677 that "none dare ven-
ture into the coffee houses unless he be
able to argue the question whether Parlia-
ment were dissolved or not."
All through the years remaining. in the
seventeenth century, and through most of
the eighteenth century, the London coffee
houses grew and prospered. As before
stated, they were originally temperance in-
stitutions, very different from the taverns
and ale houses. "Within the walls of the
coffee house there was always much noise,
much clatter, much bustle, but decency
was never outraged."
At prices ranging from one to two
pence per dish, the demand grew so great
that coffee-house keepers were obliged to
make the drink in pots holding eight or
ten gallons.
The seventeenth-century coffee houses
were sometimes referred to as the "penny
universities"; because they were great
schools of conversation, and the entrance
fee was only a penny. Two pence was the
usual price of a dish of coffee or tea, this
charge also covering newspapers and lights.
It was the custom for the frequenter to
lay his penny on the bar, on entering or
leaving. Admission to the exchange of
sparkling wit and brilliant conversation
was within the reach of all.
So great a Vniveraitie
I think there ne're was any ;
In which you may a Schoolar be
For spending of a Penny.
"Regular customers," we are told, "had
particular seats and special attention from
the fair lady at the bar, and the tea and
coffee boys."
74
ALL ABOUT COFFEE
It is believed that the-iiifidern custom
of tipping, and the wordQ^tip^ originated
in the coffee houses, where irequently hung
brass-bound boxes into which customers
were expected to drop coins for the ser-
vants. The boxes were inscribed "Jc) Ttt-
mxet Promptness'' and from the initial
letters of these words came "tip."
The National Review says, ' ' be^re 1715
the number of coffee houses in London was
reckoned at 2-000." Dufour, who wrote in
1683, declares, upon information received
from several persons who had staid in
London, that there were 3000 of these
places. However, 2000 is probably nearer
the fact.
In that critical time in English history,
when the people, tired of the misgovern-
ment of the later Stuarts, were most in need
of a forum where questions of great mo-
ment could be discussed, the coffee house
became a sanctuary. Here matters of
supreme political import were threshed out
and decided for the good of Englishmen
for all time. And because many of these
questions were so well thought out then,
there was no need to fight them out later.
England's great struggle for political
liberty was really fought and won in the
coffee house.
To the end of the reign of Charles II,
coffee was looked upon by the govern-
ment rather as a new check upon license
than an added luxury. After the revolu-
tion, the London coffee merchants were
obliged to petition the House of Lords
against new import duties, and it was not
until the year 1692 that the government,
"for the greater encouragement and ad-
vancement of trade and the greater impor-
tation of the said respective goods or mer-
chandises," discharged one half of the ob-
noxious tariff.
Weird Co/fee Substitutes
Shortly after the "great fire," coffee
substitutes began to appear. First came
a liquor made with betony, "for the sake
of those who could not accustom themselves
to the bitter taste of coffee." Betony is
a herb belonging to the mint family, and
its root was formerly employed in medi-
cine as an emetic or purgative. In 1719,
when coffee was 7s. a pound, came bocket,
later known as saloop, a decoction of sassa-
fras and sugar, that became such a favorite'
among those who could not afford tea or
coffee, that there were many saloop stalls
in the streets of London. It was also sold
at Read's coffee house in Fleet Street.
The Coffee Men Overreach Themselves
The coffee-house keepers had become so
powerful a force in the community in 1729
that they lost all sense of proportion; and
we find them seriously proposing to usurp
the functions of the newspapers. The vain-
glorious coffee men requested the govern-
ment to hand over to them a journalistic
monopoly; the argument being that the
newspapers of the day were choked with
advertisements, filled with foolish stories
gathered by ail-too enterprising news-
writers, and that the only way for the gov-
ernment to escape "further excesses occa-
sioned by the freedom of the press" and
to rid itself of "those pests of society, the
unlicensed newsvendors, " was for it to in-
trust the coffee men, as "the chief support-
ers of liberty" with the publication of a
Coffee House Gazette. Information for the
journal was to be supplied by the habitues
of the houses themselves, written down on
brass slates or ivory tablets, and called for
twice daily by the Gazette's representatives.
All the profits were to go to the coffee men
— including the expected increase of cus-
tom.
Needless to say, this amazing proposal
of the coffee-house masters to have the pub-
lic write its own newspapers met with the
scorn and the derision it invited, and noth-
ing ever came of it.
The increasing demand for coffee caused
the government tardily to seek to stimulate
interest in the cultivation of the plant in
"British colonial possessions. It was tried
out in Jamaica in 1730. By 1732 the ex-
periment gave such promise that Parlia-
ment, "for encouraging the growth of
coffee in His Majesty's plantations in
America," reduced the inland duty on cof-
fee coming from there, "but of none other,"
from two shillings to one shilling six pence
per pound. "It seems that the French at
Martinico, Hispaniola, and at the Isle de
Bourbon, near Madagascar, had somewhat
the start of the English in the new prod-
uct as had also the Dutch at Surinam, yet
none had hitherto been found to equal cof-
fee from Arabia, whence all the rest of
the world had theirs." Thus writes Adam
Anderson in 1787, somewhat ungraciously
seeking to damn England's business rivals
with faint praise. Java coffee was even
then in the lead, and the seeds of Bourbon-
COFFEE HOUSES OF OLD LONDON
75
Jantos were multiply ing rapidly in Bra-
ilian soil.
The British East India Company, how-
Bver, was much more interested in tea than
coffee. Having lost out to the French
ind Dutch on the "little brown berry of
Lrabia," the company engaged in so lively
propaganda for "the cup that cheers"
lat, whereas the annual tea imports from
[700 to 1710 averaged 800,000 pounds, in
[721 more than 1,000,000 pounds of tea
Jrere brought in. In 1757, some 4,000,000
^Jounds were imported. And when the cof-
fee house finally succumbed, tea, and not
coffee, was firmly intrenched as the na-
tional drink of the English people.
A movement in 1873 to revive the coffee
house in the form of a coffee ' ' palace, ' ' de-
signed to replace the public house as a
place of resort for working men, caused
the Edinburgh Castle to be opened in Lon-
don. The movement attained considerable
success throughout the British Isles, and
even spread to the United States.
Evolution of the Club
Every profession, trade, class, and party
had its favorite coffee house. ' ' The bitter
black drink called coffee," as Mr. Pepys
described the beverage, brought together
all sorts and conditions of men; and out
of their mixed association there developed
groups of patrons favoring particular
houses and giving them character. It is
easy to trace the transition of the group
into a clique that later became a club, con-
tinuing for a time to meet at the coffee
house or the chocolate house, but event-
ually demanding a house of its own.
Decline and Fall of the Coffee House
Starting as a forum for the commoner,
the coffee house soon became the plaything
of the leisure class ; and when the club was
evolved, the coffee house began to retro-
grade to the level of the tavern. And so
the eighteenth century, which saw the cof-
fee house at the height of its power and
popularity, witnessed also its decline and
fall. It is said there were as many clubs
at the end of the century as there were
coffee houses at the beginning.
For a time, when the habit of reading
newspapers descended the social ladder,
the coffee house acquired a new lease of
life. Sir Walter Besant observes:
They were then frequented by men who came,
not to talk, but to read ; the smaller tradesmen
and the better class of mechanic now came to
the cofifee-house. called for a cup of cofifee, and
with it the daily paper, which they could not
afford to take in. Every cofifee-house took three
or four papers ; there seems to have been in this
latter phase of the once social institution no
general conversation. The cofifee-house as a
place of resort and conversation gradually de-
clined ; one can hardly say why, except that all
human institutions do decay. Perhaps manners
declined; the leaders in literature ceased to be
seen there; the city clerk began to crowd in;
the tavern and the club drew men from the cof-
fee-house.
A few houses survived until the early
years of the nineteenth century, but the
social side had disappeared. As tea and
coffee entered the homes, and the exclusive
club house succeeded the democratic coffee
forum, the coffee houses became taverns
or chop houses, or, convinced that they had
outlived their usefulness, just ceased to be.
Pen Pictures of Coffee-House Life
From the writings of Addison in the
Spectator, Steele in the Tatler, Mackay in
his Journey Through England, Macaulay
in his history, and others, it is possible to
draw a fairly accurate pen-picture of life
in the old London coffee house.
In the seventeenth century the coffee
room usually opened off the street. At
first only tables and chairs were spread
about on a sanded floor. Later, this ar-
rangement was succeeded by the boxes, or
booths, such as appear in the Rowlandson
caricatures, the picture of the interior of
Lloyds, etc.
The walls were decorated with handbills
and posters advertising the quack medi-
cines, pills, tinctures, salves, and electu-
aries of the period, all of which might be
purchased at the bar near the entrance,
presided over by a prototype of the mod-
ern English barmaid. There were also
bills of the play, auction notices, etc., de-
pending upon the character of the place.
Then, as now, the barmaids were made
much of by patrons. Tom Brown refers
to them as charming "Phillises who invite
you by their amorous glances into their
smoaky territories."
Messages were left and letters received
at the bar for regular customers. Stella
was instructed to address her letters to
Swift, "under cover to Addison at the St.
James's coffee house." Says Macaulay:
Foreigners remarked that it was the coffee
house which specially distinguished London from
all other cities; that the coffee house was the
76
ALL ABOUT COFFEE
MAP SHOWING THE LOCATION OF MANY OF THE OLD LONDON
COFFEE HOUSES PREVIOUS TO THE FIRE OF 1748
COFFEE HOUSES OF OLD LONDOJl
jondoner's home, and that those who wished to
ind a gentleman commonly asked, not whether
the lived in Fleet Street or Chancery Lane, but
j-whether he frequented the Grecian or the Rain-
fcbow.
So every man of the upper or middle
classes went daily to his coffee house to
learn the news and to discuss it. The better
class houses were the meeting places of the
most substantial men in the community.
Every coffee house had its orator, who be-
came to his admirers a kind of "fourth
estate of the realm. ' '
Macaulay gives us the following picture
of the coffee house of 1685 :
Nobody was excluded from these places who
laid down his penny at the bar. Yet every
rank and profession, and every shade of reli-
gious and political opinion had its own head-
quarters.
There were houses near St. James' Park,
where fops congregated, their heads and shoul-
ders covered with black or flaxen wigs, not less
ample than those which are now worn by the
Chancellor and by the Speaker of the House of
Commons. The atmosphere was like that of a
perfumer's shop. Tobacco in any form than
that of richly scented snuff was held in abom-
ination. If any clown, ignorant of the usages
(if the house, called for a pipe, the sneers of the
whole assembly and the short answers of the
waiters soon convinced him that he had better
go somewhere else.
Nor, indeed, would he have far to go. For, in
general, the coffee-houses reeked with tobacco
like a guard room. Nowhere was the smoking
more constant than at Will's. That celebrated
house, situated between Covent Garden and Bow
street, was sacred to polite letters. There the
talk was about poetical justice and the unities
of place and time. Under no roof was a great-
er variety of figures to be seen. There were
earls in stars and garters, clergymen in cas-
socks and bands, pert Templars, sheepish lads
from universities, translators and index makers
in ragged coats of frieze. The great press was
to get near the chair where John Dryden sate.
In winter that chair was always in the warmest
nook by the fire ; in summer it stood in the bal-
cony. To bow to the Laureate, and to hear his
opinion of Racine's last tragedy, or of Bossu's
treatise on epic poetry, was thought a privilege
A pinch from his snuff-box was an honour suffl-
cient to turn the head of a young enthusiast.
There were coffee-houses where the first medi-
cal men might be consulted. Dr. John Rad-
cliffe. who, in the year 1685, rose to the largest
practice in London, came daily, at the hour
when the Exchange was full, from his house in
Bow street, then a fashionable part of the capi-
tal, to Garraway's, and was to be found, sur-
rounded by surgeons and apothecaries, at a par-
ticular table.
There were Puritan coffee-houses where no
oath was heard, and where lank-haired men
discussed election and reprobation through their
Boses; Jew coffee-houses, where dark-eyed
money changers from Venice and Amsterdam
greeted each other; and Popish coffee-houses.
77
where, as good Protestan^j believed, Jesuits
planned over their cups another great fire, and
cast silver bullets to shoot the King.
Ned Ward gives us this picture of the
coffee house of the seventeenth century.
He is describing Old Man's, Scotland
Yard:
We now ascended a pair of stairs, which
brought us into an old-fashioned room, where a
gaudy crowd of odoriferous Tom-Essences were
walking backwards and forwards, with their
hats in their hands, not daring to convert them
to their intended use lest it should put the fore
tops of their wigs into some disorder. We
squeezed through till we got to the end of the
room, where, at a small table, we sat down,
and observed that it was as great a rarity to
hear anybody call for a dish of politicians por-
ridge, or any other liquor, as it is to hear a
beau call for a pipe of tobacco; their whole
exercise being to charge and discharge their
nostrils and keep the curls of their i)eriwigs in
their proper order. The clashing of their snush-
box lids, in opening and shutting, made more
noise than their tongues. Bows and cringes of
the newest mode were here exchanged 'twixt
friend and friend with wonderful exactness.
They made a humming like so many hornets in
a country chimney, not with their talking, but
with their whispering over their new Minuets
and Bories, with the hands in their pockets, if
only freed from their snush-box. We now began
to be thoughtful of a pipe of tobacco, where-
upon we ventured to call for some instruments
of evaporation, which were accordingly brought
us, but with such a kind of unwillingness, as if
they would much rather been rid of our com-
pany ; for their tables were so very neat, and
shined with rubbing like the upper-leathers of
an alderman's shoes, and as brown as the top
of a country house-wife's cupboard. The floor
was as, clean swept as a Sir Courtly's dining
room, which made us look round to see if there
were no orders hung up to impose the forfeiture
of so much mop-money upon any person that
should spit out of the chimney-corner. Not-
withstanding we wanted an example to en-
courage us in our porterly rudeness, we ordered
them to light the wax candle, by which we
ignifled our pipes and blew about our whiffs ;
at which several Sir Foplins drew their faces
into as many peevish wrinkles as the beaux at
the Bow Street Coffee-house, near Covent
Garden, did when the gentleman in masquerade
came in amongst them, with his oyster-barrel
muff and turnip-buttons, to ridicule their fop-
eries.
In A Brief and Merry History of Great
Britain we read:
There is a prodigious number of Cofifee-
Houses in London, after the manner I have
seen some in Constantinople. These Coffee-
Houses are the constant Rendezvous for Men
of Business as well as the idle People. Besides
Coffee, there are many other Liquors, which
People cannot well relish at first. They smoak
Tobacco, game and read Papers of Intelligence;
here they treat of Matters of State, make
Leagues with Foreign Princes, break them again,
78
ALL ABOUT COFFEE
White's and Brookes', St. James's Street
and transact Affairs of the last Consequence to
the whole World. They represent these Coffee-
Houses as the most agreeable things in London,
and they are, in my Opinion, very proper Places
to find People that a Man has Business with,
or to pass away the Time a little more agree-
ably than he can do at home; but in other re-
spects they are loathsome, full of smoak, like
a Guard-Room, and as much crowded. I be-
lieve 'tis these Places that furnish the Inhabi-
tants with Slander, for there one hears exact
Account of everything done in Town, as if it
were but a Village.
At those Coffee-Houses, near the Courts, called
White's, St. James's, Williams's, the Conversa-
tion turns chiefly upon the Equipages, Essence,
Horse-Matches, Tupees, Modes and Mortgages ;
the Cocoa-Tree upon Bribery and Corruption,
Evil ministers, Errors and Mistakes in Govern-
ment : the Scotch Coflfee-Houses towards Char-
ing Cross, on Places and Pensions ; the Tiltyard
and Young Man's on Affronts, Honour, Satisfac-
tion, Duels and Rencounters. I was informed
that the latter happen so frequently, in this part
of the Town, that a Surgeon and a Sollicitor are
kept constantly in waiting ; the one to dress and
heal such Wounds as may be given, and the
other in case of Death to bring off the Survivor
with a Verdict of Se Devendendo or Man-
slaughter. In those Coffee-Houses about the
Temple the Subjects are generally on Causes,
Costs, Demurrers, Rejoinders and Exceptions;
Daniel's the Welch Coffee-House in Fleet Street,
on Births, Pedigrees and Descents; Child's and
the Chapter upon Glebes, Tithes, Advowsons.
Rectories and Lectureships ; North's Undue
Elections, False Polling, Scrutinies, etc. ; Ham-
lin's, Infant-Baptism, Lay-Ordination, Free-
will, Election and Reprobation ; Batson's, the
Prices of Pepper. Indigo and Salt-Petre; and
all those about the Exchange, where the Mer-
chants meet to transact their Affairs, are in a
perpetual hurry about Stock-Jobbing, Lying,
Cheating, Tricking Widows and Orphans, and
committing Spoil and Rapine on the Publick.
In the eighteenth century beer and wine
were commonly sold at the coffee houses
in addition to tea and chocolate. Daniel
Defoe, writing of his visit to Shrewsbury
in 1724, says, "I found there the most
coffee houses around the Town Hall that
ever I saw in any town, but when you
come into them they are but ale houses,
only they think that the name coffee house
gives a better air."
Speaking of the coffee houses of the city,
Besant says:
Rich merchants alone ventured to enter cer-
tain of the coffee houses, where they transacted
business more privately and more expeditiously
than on the Exchange. There were coffee houses
where officers of the army alone were found ;
where the city shopkeeper met his chums ; where
actors congregated; where only divines, only
lawyers, only physicians, only wits and those
who came to hear them were found. In all
alike the visitor put down his penny and went
in, taking his own seat if he was an habitue;
he called for a cup of tea or coffee and paid his
twopence for it ; he could call also, if he pleased,
for a cordial: he was expected to talk with his
neighbour whether he knew him or not. Men
went to certain coffee houses in order to meet
the well-known poets and writers who were to
be found there, as Pope went in search of Dry-
den. The daily papers and the pamphlets of
the day were taken in. Some of the coffee
houses, but not the more respectable, allowed
the use of tobacco.
Coffee House Politicians of the Seventeenth
Century
COFFEE HOUSES OF OLD LONDON
79
The Great Fair on the Frozen Tpiames — 1683
From a broadside entitled Wonders on the Deep. Figure 2 is the Duke of York's Coffee House
Mackay, in his Journey Through Eng-
land (1724), says:
We rise by nine, and those that frequent great
men's levees find entertainment at them till
eleven, or, as in Holland, go to tea-tables ; about
twelve the heau monde assemble in several cof-
fee or chocolate houses ; the best of which are
the Cocoatree and White's chocolate houses, St.
James', the Smyrna, Mrs. Rochford's and the
British coffee houses ; and all these so near one
another that in less than an hour you see the
company of them all. We are carried to these
places in chairs (or sedans), which are here
very cheap, a guinea a week, or a shilling per
hour, and your chairmen serve you for porters
to run on errands, as your gondolierg do at
Venice.
If it be fine weather we take a turn into the
park till two, when we go to dinner; and if it
be dirty, you are entertained at piequet or
basset at White's, or you may talk politics at
the Smyrna or St. James'. I must not forget to
tell you that the parties have their different
places, where, however, a stranger is always
well received; but a Whig will no more go to
the Ck)coatree than a Tory will be seen at the
Coffee House, St. James'.
The Scots go generally to the British, and a
mixture of all sorts go to the Smyrna. There
are other little coffee houses much frequented
in this neighborhood — Young Man's for officers ;
Old Man's for stock jobbers, paymasters and
courtiers, and Little Man's for sharpers. I
never was so confounded in my life as when I
entered into this last. I saw two or three
tables full at faro, and was surrounded by a
set of sharp faces that I was afraid would have
devoured me with their eyes. I was glad to
drop two or three half crowns at faro to get
off with a clear skin, and was overjoyed I so-
got rid of them.
At two we generally go to dinner; ordinaries
are not so common here as abroad, yet the
French have set up two or three good ones for
the convenience of foreigners in Suffolk street,
where one is tolerably well served ; but the gen-
eral way here is to make a party at the coffee
house to go to dine at the tavern, where we sit
till six, when we go to the play, except you are
invited to the table of some great man, which
strangers are always courted to and nobly en-
tertained.
Mackay writes that "in all the coffee
houses you have not only the foreign prints
but several English ones with foreign oc-
currences, besides papers of morality and
party disputes."
"After the play," writes Defoe, "the
best company generally go to Tom's and
Will's coffee houses, near adjoining, where
there is playing at piequet and the best of
conversation till midnight. Here you will
see blue and green ribons and stars sitting
familiarly and talking with the same free-
80
ALL ABOUT COFFEE
dom as if they had left their equality and
degrees of distance at home."
Before entering the coffee house every
one was recommended by the Tatler to
prepare his body with three dishes of
bohea and to purge his brains with two
pinches of snuff. Men had their coffee
houses as now they have their clubs —
sometimes contented with one, sometimes
belonging to three or four. Johnson, for
instance, was connected with St. James's,
the Turk's Head, the Bedford, Peele's, be-
sides the taverns which he frequented. Ad-
dison and Steele used Button's; Swift,
The Lion's Head at Button's Coffee House
Designed by Hogarth, and put up by Addison, 1713
From a water color by T. H. Shepherd
Button's, the Smyrna, and St. James's;
Dryden, Will's; Pope, Will's and Button's;
Goldsmith, the St. James's and the Chap-
ter; Fielding, the Bedford; Hogarth, the
Bedford and Slaughter's; Sheridan, the
Piazza; Thurlow, Nando 's. |
Some Famous Coffee Houses i
Among the famous English coffee houses
of the seventeenth - eighteenth century
period were St. James's, Will's, Garra-
way's. White's, Slaughter's, the Grecian,
Button's, Lloyd's, Tom's, and Don Sal-
tero 's.
St. James's was a Whig house frequented
by members of Parliament, with a fair
sprinkling of literary stars. Garra way's
catered to the gentry of the period, many
of whom naturally had Tory proclivities.
One of the notable coffee houses of
Queen Anne's reign was Button's. Here
Addison could be found almost every after-
noon and evening, along with Steele, Dave-
nant, Carey, Philips, and other kindred
minds. Pope was a member of the same
coffee house club for a year, but his inborn
irascibility eventually led him to drop out
of it.
At Button's a lion's head, designed by
Hogarth after the Lion of Venice, **a
proper emblem of knowledge and action,
being all head and paws," was set up to
receive letters and papers for the Guard-
ian". The Tatler and the Spectator were
born in the coffee house, and probably
English prose would never have received
the impetus given it by the essays of Addi-
son and Steele had it not been for coffee
house associations.
Pope's famous Rape of the Lock grew
out of coffee-house gossip. The poem itself
contains one charming passage on coffee."
Another frequenter of the coffee houses
of London, when he had the money to do
so, was Daniel Defoe, whose Rohinson Cru-
soe was the precursor of the English novel.
Henry Fielding, one of the greatest of all
English novelists, loved the life of the
more bohemian coffee houses, and was, in
fact, induced to write his first great novel,
Joseph Andrews, through coffee-house criti-
cisms of Richardson's Pamela.
Other frequenters of the coffee houses
of the period were Thomas Gray and Rich-
ard Brinsley Sheridan. Garri.^k was often
to be seen at Tom's in Birchin Lane, where
also Chatterton might have been found on
many an evening before his untimely death.
The London Pleasure Gardens
The second half of the eighteenth cen-
tury was covered by the reigns of the
Georges. The coffee houses were still an
important factor in London life, but were
influenced somewhat by the development
of gardens in which were served tea, choc-
olate, and other drinks, as well as coffee.
At the coffee houses themselves, while cof-
" More fully described in chapter XXXII.
" See chapter XXXII.
I
COFFEE HOUSES OF OLD LOXDOX
81
Jrom {!)( orcgiAal dra^wing hy HOCARTH in. ilt ColUdion. ofSam. .frdaTii .
A Trio of Notables at Button's in 1730
The figure in the cloak is Count Viviani; of the figures facing the reader, the draughts player is Dr.
Arbuthnot, and the figure standing is assumed to be Pope
^fee remained the favorite beverage, the
proprietors, in the hope of increasing their
patronage, began to serve wine, ale, and
other liquors. This seems to have been the
first step toward the decay of the coffee
house.
The coffee houses, however, continued to
be the centers of intellectual life. When
Samuel Johnson and David Garrick came
together to London, literature was tempo-
rarily in a bad way, and the hack writers
of the time dwelt in Grub Street.
It was not until after Johnson had met
with some success, and had established the
first of his coffee-house clubs at the Turk's
Head, that literature again became a fash-
ionable profession.
This really famous literary club met at
the Turk's Head from 1763 to 1783.
Among the most notable members were
Johnson, the arbiter of English prose;
Oliver Goldsmith; Boswell, the biographer;
Burke, the orator; Garrick, the actor; and
Sir Joshua Reynolds, the painter. Among
the later members were Gibbon, the his-
torian; and Adam Smith, the political
economist.
Certain it is that during the sway of the
English coffee house, and at least partly
through its influence, England produced
a better prose literature, as embodied alike
in her essays, literary criticisms, and nov-
els, than she ever had produced before.
The advent of the pleasure gaiden
brought coffee out into the open in Eng-
land; and one of the reasons why gardens,
such as Ranelagh and Vauxhall, began to
be more frequented than the coffee houses
:was that they were popular resorts for
women as well as for men. All kinds of
beverages were served in them; and soon
the women began to favor tea as an after-
noon drink. At least, the great develop-
ment in the use of tea dates from this
period; and many of these resorts called
themselves tea gardens.
82
ALL ABOUT COFFEE
The use of coffee by thip. time, however,
was well established in the homes as a
breakfast and dinner beverage, and such
consumption more than made up for any
loss sustained through the gradual de-
cadence of the coffee house. Yet signs of
the change in national taste that arrived
with the Georges were not wanting ; for the
active propaganda of the British East In-
dia Company was fairly well launched
during Queen Anne's reign.
The London pleasure gardens of the
eighteenth century were unique. At one
time there was a "mighty maze" of them.
Their season extended from April or May
to August or September. At first there
was no charge for admission, but Warwick
Wroth" tells us that visitors usually pur-
chased cheese cakes, syllabubs, tea, coffee
and ale.
The four best-known London gardens
were Vauxhall ; Marylebone ; Cuper 's,
where the charge for admission subse-
quently was fixed; at not less than a shill-
ing; and Ranelagh, where the charge of
half a crown included "the Elegant Ee-
gale" of tea, coffee, and bread and butter.
18 Wroth, Warwick. The. London Pleasure Oardena
of the 18th Century. London, 1896.
The pleasure gardens provided walks,
rooms for dancing, skittle grounds, bowl-
ing greens, variety entertainments, and
promenade concerts; and not a few places
were given over to fashionable gambling
and racing.
The Vauxhall Gardens, one of the most
favored resorts of pleasure-seeking Lon-
doners, were located on the Surrey side of
the Thames, a short distance east of Vaux-
hall Bridge. They were originally known
as the New Spring Gardens (1661), to dis-
tinguish them from the old Spring Gar-
dens at Charing Cross. They became fa-
mous in the reign of Charles II. Vauxhall
was celebrated for its walks, lit with thou-
sands of lamps, its musical and other per-
formances, suppers, and fireworks. High
and low were to be found there, and the
drinking of tea and coffee in the arbors
was a feature. The illustration shows the
garden brightly illuminated by lanterns
and lamps on some festival occasion. Cof-
fee and tea were served in the arbors.
The Ranelagh, "a place of public enter-
tainment," erected at Chelsea in 1742, was
a kind of Vauxhall under cover. The
principal room, known as the Rotunda, was
circular in shape, 150 feet in diameter, and
Vauxhall Gardens on a Gala Night
COFFEE HOUSES OF OLD LONDON
83
m^.
The Kotunda ix Kaxelagh Gardens With the Company at Breakfast — 1751
had an orchestra in the center and tiers
of boxes all around. Promenading and
taking refreshments in the boxes were the
principal divertisements. Except on gala
nights of masquerades and fireworks, only
tea, coffee, bread and butter were to be
had at Ranelagh.
In the group of gardens connected with
mineral springs was the Dog and Duck
(St. George's Spa), which became at last
a tea garden and a dancing saloon of
doubtful repute.
Still another division, recognized by
Wroth, consisted mainly of tea gardens,
among them Highbury Barn, The Canon-
bury House, Hornsey and Copenhagen
House, Bagnigge Wells, and White Con-
duit House. The two last named were the
classic tea gardens of the period. Both
were provided with "long rooms" in case
of rain, and for indoor promenades with
organ music. Then there were the Adam
and Eve tea gardens, with arbors for tea-
drinking parties, which subsequently be-
came the Adam and Eve Tavern and Cof-
fee House. Well known were the Bays-
water Tea Gardens and the Jews Harp
House and Tea Gardens. All these were
provided with neat, "genteel" boxes, let
into the hedges and alcoves, for tea and
coffee drinkers.
Locating the Notable Coffee Houses
Garraw'ay's, 3 'Change Alley, Cornhill,
was a place for great mercantile transac-
tions. Thomas Garway, the original pro-
prietor, was a tobacconist and coffee man,
who claimed to be the first that sold tea
in England, although not at this address.
The later Garra way's was long famous as
a sandwich and drinking room for sherry%
pale ale, and punch, in addition to tea and
coffee. It is said that the sandwich-maker
was occupied two hours in cutting and ar-
ranging the sandwiches for the day's con-
sumption. After the "great fire" of 1666
Garra way's moved into the same place in
Exchange Alley where Elford had been
before the fire. Here he claimed to have
the oldest coffee house in London ; but the
ground on which Bowman's had stood
was occupied later by the Virginia and the
Jamaica coffee houses. The latter was
damaged by the fire of 1748 which con-
sumed Garraway's and Elford 's (see map
of the 1748 fire).
Will's, the predecessor of Button's,
first had the title of the Red Cow, then of
84
ALL ABOUT COFFEE
Gakraway's Coffee House in 'Change Alley
Garway (or Garraway) claimed to have been first
to sell Tea in England
the Rose. It was kept by William Urwin,
and was on the north side of Russell Street
at the corner of Bow Street. "It was Dry-
den who made Will's coffee house the great
resort of the wits of his time." {Pope and
Spence.) The room in which the poet was
accustomed to sit was on the first floor ; and
his place was the place of honor by the
fireside in the winter, and at the corner of
the balcony, looking over the street, in fine
weather; he called the two places his win-
ter and his summer seat. This was called
the dining-room floor. The company did
not sit in boxes as subsequently, but at
various tables which were dispersed through
the room. Smoking was permitted in the
public room ; it was then so much in vogue
that it does not seem to have been consid-
ered a nuisance. Here, as in other similar
places of meeting, the visitors divided
themselves into parties; and we are told
by Ward that the young beaux and wits,
who seldom approached the principal
table, thought it a great honor to have a
pinch out of Dryden's snuff-box. After
Dry den's death Will's was transferred
to a house opposite, and became Button "s,
"over against Thomas's in Covent Gar-
den." Thither also Addison transferred
much company from Thomas's. Here
Swift first saw Addison. Hither also came
"Steele, Arbuthnot and many other wits
of the time. ' ' Button 's continued in vogue
until Addison's death and Steele's retire-
ment into Wales, after which the coffee
drinkers went to the Bedford, dinner par-
ties to the Shakespeare. Button's was
subsequently known as the Caledonien.
Slaughter's, famous as the resort of
painters and sculptors in the eighteenth
century, was situated at the upper end of
the west side of St. Martin's Lane. Its
first landlord was Thomas Slaughter, 1692.
A second Slaughter's (New Slaugh-
ter's) was established in the same street
in 1760, when the original Slaughter's
adopted the name of Old Slaughter's. It
was torn down in 1843 - 44. Among the
notables who frequented it were Hogarth ;
young Gainsborough ; Cipriani ; Haydon ;
Roubiliac ; Hudson, w^ho painted the Dilet-
tanti portraits; M'Ardell, the mezzotinto-
BuTTOx's Coffee House, Great Russell Street
Afterward it became the Caledonien
From a water color by T. H. Shepherd
^^r
COFFEE HOUSES OF OLD LONDON
85
Taper; Luke Sullivan, the engraver;
Gardell, the portrait painter; and Parry,
the Welsh harper.
Tom s, in Birchin Lane, Cornhill, though
in the main a mercantile resort, acquired
some celebrity from having been frequented
by Garrick, Tom's was also frequented
by Chatterton, as a place "of the best re-
sort." Then there was Tom's in Devereux
Court, Strand, and Tom 's at 17 Great Rus-
sell Street, Covent Garden, opposite But-
ton's, a celebrated resort during the reign
of Queen Anne and for more than a cen-
tury^ after.
The Grecian, Devereux Court, Strand,
was originally kept by one Constantine, a
Greek. From this hou^e Steele proposed
to date his learned articles in the Tatler;
it is mentioned in No. 1 of the Spectator,
and it was much frequented by Goldsmith.
The Grecian was Foote's morning lounge.
In 1843f the premises became the Grecian
Chambers, with a bust of Lord Devereux,
earl of Essex, over the door,
Lloyd's, Royal Exchange, celebrated for
its priority of shipping intelligence and
its marine insurance, originated with Ed-
Slaughter's Coffee House. St. Martin's Lane
It was taken down in 1843
From a water color by T. H. Shepherd, 1841
Tom's Coffee House, 17 Great Russell Street
Used as a coffee house until 1804 and razed in 1865
From a water color by T. H. Shepherd
ward Lloyd, who about 1688 kept a coffee
house in Tower Street, later in Lombard
Street corner of Abchurch Lane. It was
a modest place of refreshment for sea-
farers and merchants. As a matter of con-
venience, Edward Lloyd prepared "ships'
lists" for the guidance of the frequenters
of the coffee house. "These lists, which
were written by hand, contained,." accord-
ing to Andrew Scott, "an account of ves-
aeh which the underwriters who met there
were likely to have offered them for in-
surance." Such was the beginning of two
institutions that have since exercised a
dominant influence on the sea-carrying
trade of the whole world — the Royal Ex-
change Lloyd's, the greatest insurance in-
stitution in the world, and Lloyd's Regis-
ter of Shipping. Lloyd's now has 1400
agents in all parts of the world. It re-
ceives as many as 100,000 telegrams a year.
It records through its intelligence service
the daily movements of 11,000 vessels.
In the beginning one of the apartments
in the Exchange was fitted up as Lloyd's
86
ALL ABOUT COFFEE
Lloyd's Coffee House in the Royal Exchange, Showing the Subscrh'tion Uoom
coffee room. Edward Lloyd died in 1712.
Subsequently the coffee house was in
Pope's Head Alley, where it was called
New Lloyd's coffee house, but on Septem-
ber 14, 1784, it was removed to the north-
west corner of the Royal Exchange, where
it remained until the partial destruction of
that building by fire.
In rebuilding the Exchange there were
provided the Subscribers' or Underwriters'
room, the Merchants' room, and the Cap-
tains' room. The City, second edition,
1848, contains the following description of
this most famous rendezvous of eminent
merchants, shipowners, underwriters, in-
surance, stock and exchange brokers :
Here is obtained the earliest news of the
arrival and sailing of vessels, losses at sea, cap- .
tures, recaptures, engagements and other ship-
ping intelligence; and proprietors of ships and
freights are insured hy the underwriters. The
rooms are in the Venetian style with Roman
enrichments. At the entrance of the room are
exhibited the Shipping Lists, received from
Lloyd's agents at home and abroad, and afford-
ing particulars of departures or arrivals of '
vessels, wrecks, salvage, or sale of property ,
saved, etc. To the right and left are "Lloyd's
Books," two enormous ledgers. Right hand, '
ships "spoken with" or arrived at theii- destined
ports; left hand, records of wrecks, fires or
severe collisions, written in a fine Roman han.d
in "double lines." To assist the underwriters
in their calculations, at the end of the room is
an Anemometer, which registers the state of the
wind day and night ; attached is a rain gauge.
The British, Cockspur Street, "long a
house of call for Scotchmen," was fortun-
ate in its landladies. In 1759 it was kept
by the sister of Bishop Douglas, so well
known for his works against Lauder and
Bower, which may explain its Scottish
fame. At another period it was kept by
Mrs. Anderson, described in Mackenzie's
Life of Home as "a woman of uncommon
talents and the most agreeable conversa-
tion."
Don Saltero's, 18 Cheyne Walk, Chel-
sea, was opened by a barber named Salter
in 1695. Sir Hans Sloane contributed of
his own collection some of the refuse gim-
cracks that were to be found in Salter's
"museum." Vice-Admiral Munden, who
had been long on the coast of Spain, where
he had acquired a fondness for Spanish
titles, named the keeper of the house Don
Saltero, and his coffee house and museum
D6n Saltero 's.
Squire's was in Fulwood's Rents, Hol-
burn, running up to Gray's Inn. It was
one' of the receiving houses of the Spectator.
In No. 269 the Spectator accepts Sir Roger
de Coverley's invitation to "smoke a pipe
with him over a dish of coffee at Squire's.
As I love the old man, I take delight in
COFFEE HOUSES OF OLD LONDON
87
complying with everything that is agree-
able to him, and accordingly waited on him
to the coffee-house, where his venerable
figure drew upon us the eyes of the whole
room. He had no sooner seated himself
at the upper end of the high table, but he
called for a clean pipe, a paper of tobacco,
a dish of coffee, a wax candle and the ' Sup-
plement' (a periodical paper of that time),
with such an air of cheerfulness and good
humour, that all the boys in the coffee
room (who seemed to take pleasure in serv-
ing him) were at once employed on his
several errands, insomuch that nobody else
could come at a dish of tea until the Knight
had got all his conveniences about him."
Such was the coffee room in the Spectator's
day.
The Cocoa-Tree was originally a coffee
house on the south side of Pall Malll. When
there grew up a need for ''places. of resort
of a more elegant and refined character,"
chocolate houses came into vogue, and the
^
Interior of Dick's Coffee House
From the frontispiece to "The Coffee House-
dramatick Piece" (see chapter XXXII)
The (tKix lAX ('oijkk iloi si:. Devebeux Coi ht
It was closed in 1843. From a drawing dated 1809
Cocoa- Tree was the most famous of these.
It was converted into a club in 1746.
White's chocolate house, established by
Francis White about 1693 in St. James's
Street, originally open to any one as a
coffee house, soon became a private club,
composed of '*the most fashionable ex-
quisites of the town and court." In its
coffee-house days, the entrance was six-
pence, as compared with the average penny
fee of the other coffee houses. Escott re-
fers to White's as being "the one speci-
men of the class to which it belongs, of
a place at which, beneath almost the same
roof, and always bearing the same name,
whether as coft'ee house or club, the same
class of persons has congregated during
more than two hundred years."
Among hundreds of other coffee houses
that flourished during the seventeenth and
eighteenth centuries the following more
notable ones are deserving of mention:
Baker's, 58 'Change Alley, for nearly
half a century noted for its chops and
steaks broiled in the coffee room and eaten
hot from the gridiron; the Baltic, in
88
ALL ABOUT COFFEE
Don Saltero's Coffee House, Cheyne Walk
From a steel engraving in the British Museum
Threadneedle Street, the rendezvous of
brokers and merchants connected with the
Russian trade; the Bedford, "under the
Piazza, in Covent Garden," crowded every
night with men of parts and "signalized
for many years as the emporium of wit,
the seat of criticism and the standard of
taste"; the Chapter, in Paternoster Row,
frequented by Chatterton and Goldsmith;
Child's, in St. Paul's Churchyard, one of
the Spectator's houses, and much fre-
quented by the clergy and fellows of the
Royal Society; Dick's, in Fleet Street,
frequented by Cowper, and the scene of
Rousseau's comedietta, entitled The Coffee
House; St. James's, in St. James's Street,
frequented by Swift, Goldsmith, and Gar-
rick; Jerusalem, in Cowper 's Court, Corn-
hill, frequented by merchants and captains
connected with the commerce of China,
India, and Australia; Jonathan's, in
'Change Alley, described by the Tatler as
"the general mart of stock jobbers"; the
London, in Ludgate Hill, noted for its
publishers' sales of stock and copyrights;
Man's, in Scotland Yard, which took its.
name from the proprietor, Alexander Man,
and was sometimes known as Old Man's,
or the Royal, to distinguish it from Young
Man's, Little Man's, New Man's, etc.,
minor establishments in the neighborhood ;'*
Nando 's, in Fleet Street, the favorite
haunt of Lord Thurlow and many profes-
sional loungers, attracted by the fame of
the punch and the charms of the land-
lady; New England and North and
SouTPi American, in Threadneedle Street,
having on its subscription list representa-
tives of Barings, Rothschilds, and other
wealthy establishments; Peele's, in Fleet
Street, having a portrait of Dr. Johnson
said to have been painted by Sir Joshua
19 There were six places, all told, bearing the name
"Man's". Alexander Man was coffee maker to
William III.
'V\\\z ItiMTisii Coffee House
FN CbcKSPTjR Street
Prom a print published in 1770
I
COFFEE HOUSES OF OLD LONDON
89
The French Coffee House in London, Second Half of the Eighteenth Century
From the original water-color drawing by Thomas Rowlandson
Reynolds; the Percy, in Oxford Street,
the inspiration for the Percy Anecdotes;
the Piazza, in Covent Garden, where
Macklin fitted up a large coffee room, or
theater, for oratory, and Fielding and
Foote poked fun at him; the Rainbow, in
Fleet Street, the second coffee house opened
in London, having its token money; the
Smyrna, in Pall Mall, a "place to talk
politics," and frequented by Prior and
Swift; Tom King's, one of the old night
houses of Covent Garden Market, "well
known to all gentlemen to whom beds are
unknown"; the Turk's Head, 'Change
Alley, which also had its tokens; the
Turk's Head, in the Strand, which was a
favorite supping house for Dr. Johnson
and Boswell; the Folly, a coffee house on
a houseboat on the Thames, which became
quite notorious during Queen Anne's reign.
90
ALL ABOUT COFFEE
Chapter XI
HISTORY OF THE EARLY PARISIAN COFFEE HOUSES
i
The introduction of coffee into Paris by Thevenot in 1657 — How
Soliman Aga established the custom of coffee drinking at the court
of Louis XIV — Opening the first coffee houses — How the French
adaptation of the Oriental coffee house first appeared in the real
French cafe of Frangois Procope — The important part played by
the coffee houses in the development of French literature and the
stage — Their association with the Revolution and the founding of
the Republic — Quaint customs and patrons — Historic Parisian
cafes
IF we are to accept the authority of Jean
La Roque, "before the year 1669 coffee
had scarcely been seen in Paris, except
at M. Thevenot 's and at the homes of some
of his friends. Nor had it been heard of
except in the writings of travelers."
As noted in chapter V, Jean de Thevenot
brought coffee into Paris in 1657. One ac-
count says that a decoction, supposed to
have been coffee, was sold by a Levantine
in the Petit Chatelet under the name of
cohove or cahoue during the reign of Louis
XIII, but this lacks confirmation. Louis
XIV is said to have been served with coffee
for the first time in 1664.
Soon after the arrival, in July, 1669, of
the Turkish ambassador, Soliman Aga, it
became noised abroad that he had brought
with him for his own use, and that of his
retinue, great quantities of coffee. He
"treated several persons with it, both in
the court and the city." At length "many
accustomed themselves to it with sugar,
and others who found benefit by it could
not leave it off."
Within six months all Paris was talking
of the sumptuous coffee functions of the
ambassador from Mohammed IV to the
court of Louis XIV.
Isaac D 'Israeli best describes them in his
Curiosities of Literature:
On bended knee, the black slaves of the Am-
bassador, arrayed in the most gorgeous Orien-
tal costumes, served the choicest Mocha coffee
in tiny cups of egg-shell porcelain, hot. strong
and fragrant, poured out in saucers of gold and
silver, placed on embroidered silk doylies fringed
with gold bullion, to the grand dames, who flut-
tered their fans with many grimaces, bending
their piquant faces — ^be-rouged, be-powdered
and be-patched — over the new and steaming
beverage.
It was in 1669 or 1672 that Madame de
Sevigne (Marie de Rabutin-Chantal ;
1626-96), the celebrated French letter-
writer, is said to have made that famous
prophecy, "There are two things French-
men will never swallow — coffee and Ra-
cine 's poetry, ' ' sometimes abbreviated into,
"Racine and coffee will pass." "What Ma-
dame really said, according to one author-
ity, was that Racine was writing for
Champmesle, the actress, and not for pos-
terity; again, of coffee she said, "s'en
degoi'derait comme) d'un indigne favori
(People will become disgusted with it as
with an unworthy favorite).
Larousse says the double judgment was
wrongly attributed to Mme. de S6vign6.
The celebrated aphorism, like many others,
was forged later. Mme. de S6vign6 said,
"Racine made his comedies for the Champ-
mesle— not for the ages to come." This
was in 1672. Four years later, she said to
91
92
ALL ABOUT COFFEE
Coffee Was First Sold and Served Publicly in
THE Fair of St.-Germain
From a Seventeenth-Century Print
her daughter, "You have done well to quit
coffee. Mile, de Mere has also given it up. "
However it may have been, the amiable
letter-writer was destined to live to see
Frenchmen yielding at once to the lure of
coffee and to the poetical artifices of the
greatest dramatic craftsman of his day.
While it is recorded that coffee made
slow progress with the court of Louis XIV,
the next king, Louis XV, to please his
mistress, du Barry, gave it a tremendous
vogue. It is related that he spent $15,000
a year for coffee for his daughters.
Meanwhile, in 1672, one Pascal, an
Armenian, first sold coffee publicly in Paris.
Pascal, who, according to one account, was
brought to Paris by Soliman Aga, offered
the beverage for sale from a tent, which
was also a kind of booth, in the fair of St.-
Germain, supplemented by the service of
Turkish waiter boys, who peddled it among
the crowds from small cups on trays. The
fair was held during the first two months
of spring, in a large open plot Just inside
the walls of Paris and near the Latin
Quarter. As Pascal's waiter boys circu-
lated through the crowds on those chilly
days the fragrant odor of freshly made
coffee brought many ready sales of the
steaming beverage; and soon visitors to
the fair learned to look for the "little
black" cupful of cheer, or petit noir, a
name that still endures.
When the fair closed, Pascal opened a
small coffee shop on the Quai de I'ficole,
near the Pont Neuf; but his frequenters
were of a type who preferred the beers and
wines of the day, and coffee languished.
Pascal continued, however, to send his
waiter boys with their large 'coffee jugs,
that were heated by lamps, through the
streets of Paris and from door to door.
Their cheery cry of "cafe! cafe!'^ became
a welcome call to many a Parisian, who
later missed his petit noir w^hen Pascal gave
up and moved on to London, where coffee
drinking was then in high favor.
Lacking favor at court, coffee's progress
was slow. The French smart set clung to
its light wines and beers. In 1672, Maliban,
Street Coffee Vender of Paris ■ — Period, 1GT2
TO 1689 — Two Sous per Dish, Sugar
Included
EARLY PARISIAN COFFEE HOUSES
93
mother Armenian, opened a coffee house in
|he rue Bussy, next to the Metz tennis court
lear St.-Germain's abbey. He supplied
)bacco also to his customers. Later he
rent to Holland, leaving his servant and
>artner, Gregory, a Persian, in charge,
rregory moved to the rue Mazarine, to be
lear the Comedie Franqaise. He was suc-
^eded in the business by Makara, another
*ersian, who later returned to Ispahan,
Saving the coffee house to one Le Gantois,
Liege.
About this period there was a cripple
^oy from Candia, known as le Candiot, who
^egan to cry "coffee!" in the streets of
*aris. He carried with him a coffee pot
|if generous size, a chafing-dish, cups, and
11 other implements necessary to his trade.
le sold his coffee from door to door at two
)us per dish, sugar included.
A Levantine named Joseph also sold
)ffee in the streets, and later had several
)ffee shops of his own. Stephen, from
^\leppo, next opened a coffee house on Pont
lu Change, moving, when his business
.Many ok the Early Parisian Coffee Houses
Followed Pascal's Lead and Abfected
Armenian Decohations
From a Seventeenth-Century Print
A Corner of the Historic CafS de Procope
Showing Voltaire and Diderot in Debate
From a rare water color
prospered, to more pretentious quarters in
the rue St.-Andre, facing St. -Michael's
bridge.
All these, and others, were essentially the
Oriental style of coffee house of the lower
order, and they appealed principally to the
poorer classes and to foreigners. "Gentle-
men and people of fashion" did not care
to be seen in this type of public house.
But when the French merchants began to
set up, first at St.-Germain's fair, "spa-
cious apartments in an elegant manner,
ornamented with tapestries, large mirrors,
pictures, marble tables, branches for
candles, magnificent lustres, and serving
coffee, tea, chocolate, and other refresh-
ments", they were soon crowded with peo-
ple of fashion and men of letters.
In this way coffee drinking in public
acquired a badge of respectability. Pres-
ently there were some three hundred coffee
houses in Paris. The principal coffee men,
in addition to plying their trade in the city,
maintained coffee rooms in St.-Germain's
and St. -Laurence's fairs. These were fre-
quented by women as well as men.
94
ALL ABOUT COFFEE
The Progenitor of the Real Parisian Cafe
It was not until 1689, that there appeared
in Paris a real French adaptation of the
Oriental coffee house. This was the Cafe
de Procope, opened by Frangois Procope
(Procopio Cultelli, or Cotelli) who came
from Florence or Palermo. Procope was a
limonadier (lemonade vender) who had a
royal license to sell spices, ices, barley
water, lemonade, and other such refresh-
ments. He early added coffee to the list,
and attracted a large and distinguished
patronage.
Procope, a keen-witted merchant, made
his appeal to a higher class of patrons than
did Pascal and those who first followed him.
He established his caf6 directly opposite
the newly opened Com6die Frangaise, in
the street then known as the rue des
Fosses-St.-Germain, but now the rue de
I'Ancienne Comedie. A writer of the period
has left this description of the place : ' ' The
Cafe de Procope . . . was also called
the.Antre [cavern] de Procope, because it
was very dark even in full day, and
ill-lighted in the evenings ; and because you
often saw there a set of lank, sallow poets,
who had somewhat the air of apparitions. ' '
Because of its location, the Cafe de
Procope became the gathering place of
many noted French actors, authors, dram-
atists, and musicians of the eighteenth
century. It was a veritable literary salon.
Voltaire was a constant patron; and until
the close of the historic cafe, after an exist-
ence of more than two centuries, his marble
table and chair were among the precious
relics of the coffee house. His favorite
drink is said to have been a mixture of
coffee and chocolate. Eousseau, author and
philosopher; Beaumarchais, dramatist and
financier; Diderot, the encyclopedist; Ste.-
Foix, the abbe of Voisenon; de Belloy,
author of the Siege of Callais; licmierre,
author of Artaxerce; Crebillon; Piron; La
Chaussee; Fontenelle; Condorcet; and a
host of lesser lights in the French arts, were
habitues of Francois Procope 's modest
coffee saloon near the Comedie Frangaise.
Naturally, the name of Benjamin Frank-
lin, recognized in Europe as one of the
world's foremost thinkers in the days of the
American Revolution, was often spoken over
the coffee cups of Cafe de Procope; and
when the distinguished American died in
1790, this French coffee house went into
deep mourning "for the great friend of
republicanism." The walls, inside and out,
were swathed in black bunting, and the
statesmanship and scientific attainments of
Franklin were acclaimed by all frequenters.
The Caf6 de Procope looms large in the
annals of the French Revolution. During
the turbulent days of 1789 one could find
at the tables, drinking coffee or stronger
beverages, and engaged in debate over the
burning questions of the hour, such char-
acters as Marat, Robespierre, Danton,
Hebert, and Desmoulins. Napoleon Bona-
parte, then a poor artillery officer seeking
a commission, was also there. He busied
himself largely in playing chess, a favorite
recreation of the early Parisian coffee-
house patrons. It is related that Franqois
Procope once compelled young Bonaparte
to leave his hat for security while he sought
money to pay his coffee score.
After the Revolution, the Cafe de Pro-
cope lost its literary prestige and sank to
the level of an ordinary restaurant. During
the last half of the nineteenth century,
Paul Verlaine, bohemian, poet, and leader
of the symbolists, made the Cafe de Procope
his haunt ; and for a time it regained some
of its lost popularity. The Restaurant Pro-
cope still survives at 13 rue de I'Ancienne
Comedie.
History records that, with the opening of
the Caf^ de Procope, coffee became firmly
established in Paris. In the reign of Louis
XV there were 600 cafes in Paris. At the
close of the eighteenth century there were
more than 800. By 1843 the number had
increased to more than 3000.
The Development of the Cafes
Coffee's vogue spread rapidly, and many
cabarets and famous eating houses began
to add it to their menus. Among these
was the Tour d'Argent (silver tower),
which had been opened on the Qua! de la
Tournelle in 1582, and speedily became
Paris 's most fashionable restaurant. It
still is one of the chief attractions for the
epicure, retaining the reputation for its
cooking that drew a host of world leaders,
from Napoleon to Edward VII, to its quaint
interior.
Another tavern that took up coffee after
Procope, was the Royal Drummer, which
Jean Ramponaux established at the Cour-
tille des Porcherons and which followed
Magny's. His hostelry rightly belongs to-
the tavern class, although coffee had sli
EARLY PARISIAN COFFEE HOUSES
95
THE CAFE DE PROCOPE IN 1743
From an engraving by Bosredon
96
ALL ABOUT COFFEE
The Cashier's Counter in a Paris Coffee
House of 1782
From a drawing,' by Retif tie la Bretonne
prominent place on its menu. It became
notorious for excesses and low-class vices
during the reign of Louis XV, who was a
frequent visitor. Low and high were to be
found in Ramponaux's cellar, particularly
when some especially wild revelry was in
prospect. Marie Antoinette once declared
«he had her most enjoyable time at a wild
farandole in the Royal Drummer. Ram-
ponaux was taken to its heart by fashion-
able Paris; and his name was used as a
trade mark on furniture, clothes, and foods.
The popularity of Ramponaux's Royal
Drummer is attested by an inscription on
an early print showing the interior of the
cafe. Translated, it reads :
The pleasures of ease untroubled to taste,
The leisure of home to enjoy without haste,
Perhaps 'a few hours at Magny's to waste,
Ah, that was the old-fashioned way !
Today all our laborers, everyone knows.
Go running away ere the working hours
close.
And why? Tliey must be at Monsieur Ram-
ponaux' !
Behold, the new style of cafe!
When coffee houses began to crop up
rapidly in Paris, the majority centered in
the Palais Royal, "that garden spot of
beauty, enclosed on three sides by three
tiers of galleries," which Richelieu had
erected in 1636, under the name of Palais
Cardinal, in the reign of Louis XIII. It
became known as the Palais Royal in 1643 ;
and soon after the opening of the Cafe de
Procope, it began to blossom out with many
attractive coffee stalls, or rooms, sprinkled
among the other shops that occupied the
galleries overlooking the gardens.
Life In The Early Coffee Houses
Diderot tells in 1760, in his Bameau's
Nephew, of the life and frequenters of one
of the Palais Royal coffee houses, the
Regency {Cafe de la Regence) :
In all weathers, wet or fine, it is my practice
to go toward live o'clock in the evening to take
a turn in the Palais Roj^al. ... If the weather
is too cold or too wet I take shelter in the
Regency coffee house. There I amuse myself
by looking on while they play chess. No where
in the world do they play chess as skillfully as
in Paris and nowhere in Paris as they do a'
tliis coffee house ; 'tis here you see Legal the
profound, Philidor the subtle. Mayot the solid ;
here you see the most astounding moves, and
listen to the sorriest talk, for if a man be at
once a wit and a great chess player, like L'5gal,
he may also be a great chess player and a sad
simpleton, like Joubert and Mayot.
The beginnings of the Regency coffee
house are associated with the legend that
Lefevre, a Parisian, began peddling coft'ee
in the streets of Paris about the time Pro-
cope opened his cafe in 1689. The story
has it that Lefevre later opened a cafe near
the Palais Royal, selling it in 1718 to one
Leclerc, who named it the Cafe de la
Regence, in honor of the regent of Orleans,
a name that still endures on a broad sign
over its doors. The nobility had their
rendezvous there after having paid their
court to the regent.
To name the patrons of the Cafe de la
Regence in its long career would be to
outline a history of French literature for
more than two centuries. There was Phili-
dor the "greatest theoretician of the eigh-
teenth century, better known for his chess
than his music ' ' ; Robespierre, of the Revo-
lution, who once played chess with a girl —
disguised as a boy — for the life of her
lover; Napoleon, who was then noted more
for his chess than his empire-building pro-
pensities; and Gambetta, whose loud voice,
generally raised in debate, disturbed one,
EARLY PARISIAN COFFEE HOUSES
97
THE CAFfi FOY IN THE PALAIS RO YAL, 1789
From an engraving by Bosredon
98
ALL ABOUT COFFEE
chess player so much that he protested
because he could not follow his game.
Voltaire, Alfred de Musset, Victor Hugo,
Th6ophile Gautier, J. J. Rousseau, the
Duke of Richelieu, Marshall Saxe, Buffon,
Rivarol, Fontenelle, Franklin, and Henry
Murger are names still associated with
memories of this historic cafe. Marmontel
and Philidor played there at their favorite
game of chess. Diderot tells in his Memoirs
that his wife gave him every day nine sous
to get his coffee there. It was in this
establishment that he worked on his Encyc-
lopedia.
Chess is today still in favor at the
Regenee, although the players are not, as
were the earlier patrons, obliged to pay by
the hour for their tables with extra charges
for candles placed by the chess-boards.
The present Cafe de la Regenee is in the
rue St.-Honore, but retains in large meas-
ure its aspect of olden days.
Michelet, the historian, has given us a
rhapsodic pen picture of the Parisian cafes
under the regency :
Paris became one vast cafe. Conversation in
France was at its zenitli. Tliere were less
eloquence and rhetoric than in '89. With the
exception of Rousseau, there was no orator to
cite. The intangible flow of wit was as spon-
taneous as possible. For this sparkling out-
burst there is no doubt that honor should be
ascribed in part to the auspicious revolution
of the times, to the great event which created
new customs, and even modified human tempera-
ment — the advent of coffee.
Its effect was immeasurable, not being weak-
ened and neutralized as it is today by the
brutalizing influence of tobacco. They took
snuff, but did not smoke. Tlie cabaret was de-
throned, the ignoble cabaret, where, during the
reign of Louis XIV. the youth of the city rioted
amid wine-casks in the company of light women.
The night was less thronged with chariots.
Fewer lords found a resting place in the gutter.
The elegant shop, where conversation flowed, a
salon rather than a shop, changed and ennobled
its customs. The reign of coffee is that of tem-
perance. Coffee, the beverage of sobriety, a pow-
erful mental stimulant, which, unlike spirituous
liquors, increases clearness and lucidity ; coffee,
which suppresses the vague, heavy fantasies of
the imagination, which from the perception of
reality brings forth the sparkle and sunlight of
truth ; coffee anti-erotic. . . .
The three ages of coffee are those of modern
thought; they mark the serious moments of
the brilliant epoch of the soul.
Arabian coffee is the pioneer, even before 1700.
The beautiful ladies that you see in the fash-
ionable rooms of Bonnard. sipping from their
tiny cups — they are enjoying the aroma of
the finest coffee of Arabia. And of what are
they chatting? Of the seraglio, of Chardin, of
the Sultana's coiffure, of the Thousand and One
Nights (1704). They compare the ennui of
Versailles with the paradise of the Orient.
Very soon, in 1710 - 1720. commences the reign
of Indian coffee, abundant, popular, compara-
tively cheap. Bourbon, our Indian island, where
coffee was transplanted, suddenly realizes un-
heard-of happiness. This coffee of volcanic
lands acts as an explosive on the Regency and
the new spirit of things. This sudden cheer,
this laughter of the old world, these overwhelm-
ing flashes of wit, of which the sparkling verse
of Voltaire, the Persian Letters, give us a faint
idea ! Even the most brilliant books have not
succeeded in catching on the wing this airy
chatter, which comes, goes, flies elusively. This
is that spirit of ethereal nature which, in the
Thousand and One Nights, the enchanter con-
fined in his bottle. But what phial would have
withstood that pressure?
The lava of Bourbon, like the Arabian sand,
was unequal to the demand. The Regent rec-
ognized this and had coffee transported to the
fertile soil of our Antilles. T"lie strong coffee
of Santo Domingo, full, coarse, nourishing as
well as stimulating, sustained the adult popu-
lation of that period, the strong age of the en-
cyclopedia. It was drunk by Buffon, Diderot,
Rousseau, added its glow to glowing souls, its
light to the penetrating vision of the prophets
gathered in the cave of Procope. who saw at
the bottom of the black beverage the future rays
of '89. Danton, the terrible Danton. took sev-
eral cups of coffee before mounting the tribune.
'The horse must have its oats,' he said.
The vogue of coffee popularized the use
of sugar, which was then bought by the
ounce at the apothecary's shop. Dufour
says that in Paris they used to put so much
sugar in the coffee that "it was nothing
but a syrup of blackened water." The
ladies were wont to have their carriages
stop in front of the Paris cafes and to have
their coffee served to them by the porter
on saucers of silver.
Every year saw new cafes opened. When
they became so numerous, and competition
grew so keen, it was necessary to invent
new attractions for customers. Then was.
born the cafe chantant, where songs, mono-
logues, dances, little plays and farces (not
always in the best taste), were provided to
amuse the frequenters. Many of these
cafes chantants were in the open air along
the Champs-Elysees. In bad weather, Paris
provided the pleasure-seeker with the
Eldorado, Alcazar d'Hiver, Scala, Gaiete,
Concert du XIX^^ Si^cle, Folies Bobino,
Rambuteau, Concert Europeen, and count-
less other meeting places where one could
be served with a cup of coffee.
As in London, certain cafes were noted
for particular followings, like the military,
students, artists, merchants. The politi
EARLY PARISIAN COFFEE HOUSES
THE CAFfi DES MILLE COLONNES IX 1811
From an engraving by Bosredon
100
ALL ABOUT COFFEE
eians had their favorite resorts. Says
Salvandy :
These were senates in miniature ; here miglity
political questions were discussed ; here peace
and war were decided upon ; here generals were
brought to the bar of justice . . .distinguished
orators were victoriously refuted, ministers
heckled upon their ignorance, their incapacity,
their perfidy, their corruption. The cafe is in
reality a French institution ; in them we find
all these agitations and movements of men, the
like of which is unknown in the English tavern.
No government can go against the sentiment of
the caf6s. The Revolution took place because
they were for the Revolution. Napoleon reigned
because they were for glory. Tlae Restoration
was shattered, because they understood the
Charter in a different manner.
In 1700 appeared the Portefeuille Galant,
containing conversations of the caf6s.
The Cafes in the French Revolution
The Palais Royal coffee houses were
centers of activity in the days preceding
and following the Revolution. A picture
of them in the July days of 1789 has been
left by Arthur Young, who was visiting
Paris at that time :
The coffee houses present yet more singular
and astounding spectacles; they are not only
crowded within, but other expectant crowds are
at the doors and windows, listening d gorge
d4plogec to certain orators who from chairs or
tables harangue each his little audience; the
eagerness with which they are heard, and the
thunder of applause they receive for every
sentiment of more than common hardiness or
violence against the government, cannot easily
be imagined.
The Palais Royal teemed with excited
Frenchmen on the fateful Sunday of July
12, 1789. The moment was a tense one,
when, coming out of the Cafe Foy, Camille
Desmoulins, a youthful journalist, mounted
a table and began the harangue that pre-
cipitated the first overt act of the French
Revolution. Blazing with a white hot
frenzy, he so played upon the passions of
the mob that at the conclusion of his speech
he and his followers "marched away from
the Cafe on their errand of Revolution."
The Bastille fell two days later.
As if abashed by its reputation as the
starting point of the mob spirit of the
Revolution, Cafe Foy became in after years
a sedate gathering-place of artists and
literati. Up to its close it was distinguished
among other famous Parisian cafes for its
exclusiveness and strictly enforced rule of
"no smoking."
1 Salvandy, Naroissp-Achille. Influence des Caf48
sur lea Moeurs PoUtiqtiea.
Even from the first the Parisian cafes
catered to all classes of society ; and, unlike
the London coffee houses, they retained this
distinctive characteristic. A number of
them early added other liquid and substan-
tial refreshments, many becoming out-and-
out restaurants.
Coffee-House Customs and Patrons
Coffee's effect on Parisians is thus
decribed by a writer of the latter part of
the eighteenth century:
I think I may safely assert that it is to tlie
establishment of so many cafes in Paris that is
due the urbanity and mildness discernible upon
most faces. Before they existed, nearly every-
body passed his time at the cabaret, where even
business matters were discussed. Since their
establishment, people assemble to hear what is
going on, drinking and playing only in modera-
tion, and the consequence is that they are more
civil and polite, at least in appearance.
Montesquieu's satirical pen pictured in
his Persian Letters the earliest cafes as
follows :
In some of these liouses they talk news ; in
others, they play draughts. There is one where
they prepare the coffee in such a manner that
it inspires the drinkers of it with wit ; at least,
of all those who frequent it, there is not one
person in four who does not think he has more
wit after he has entered that house. But what
offends me in these wits is that they do not
make themselves useful to their country.
Montesquieu encountered a geometrician
outside a coffee house on the Pont Neuf,
and accompanied him inside. He describes
the incident in this manner:
I observe that our geometrician was received
there with the utmost ofRciousness, and that the
coffee house boys paid him much more respect
than two musqueteers who were in a corner of
the room. As for him, he seemed as if he
thought himself in an agreeable place ; for he
unwrinkled his brows a little and laughed, as if
he had not the least tincture of geometrician in
him. . . . He was offended at every start of wit,
as a tender eye is by too strong a light. ... At
last I saw an old man enter, pale and thin,
whom I knew to be a coffee house politician
before he sat down ; he was not one of those
who are never to be intimidated by disasters,
but always prophesy of victories and success;
he was one of those timorous wretches who are
always boding ill.
Cafe Momus and Caf6 Rotonde figure
conspicuously in the record of French
bohemianism. The Momus stood near the
right bank of the River Seine in rue des
Pretres St.-Germain, and was known as the
home of the bohemians. The Rotonde stood
on the left bank at the corner of the rue de
EARLY PARISIAN COFFEE HOUSES
101
THE CAFfi DE PARIS IN 1843
From an engraving by Bosredon
102
ALL ABOUT COFFEE
rficole de Medecine and the rue Haute-
feuille.
Alexandre Schanne has given us a
glimpse of bohemian life in the early cafes.
He lays his scene in the Cafe ]Rotonde, and
tells how a number of poor students were
wont to make one cup of coffee last the
coterie a full evening by using it to flavor
and to color the one glass of water shared
in common. He says :
Every evening, the first comer at the waiter's
inquiry, "What will you talie, sir?" never failed
to reply, "Nothing just at present, I am waiting
for a friend." The friend arrived, to be assailed
by the brutal question, "Have you any money?"
He would make a despairing gesture in the nega-
tive, and then add, loud enough to be heard by
the dame clu comptoir, "By Jove, no ; only fancy,
I left my purse on my console-table, with gilt
feet, in the purest Louis XV style. Ah ! what a
thing it is to be forgetful." He would sit down,
and the waiter would wipe the table as if he
had something to do. A third would come, who
was sometimes able to reply, "Yes, I have ten
sous." "Good !" we would reply ; "order a cup
of coffee, a glass and a water bottle ; pay and
give two sous to the waiter to secure his
silence." Tliis would be done. Others would
come and take their places beside us, repeating
to the waiter the same chorus, "We are with
this gentleman." Frequently we would be eight
or nine sitting at the same table, and only one
customer. Whilst smoking and reading the
papers we would, however, pass the glass and
bottle. When the water began to run short, as
on a ship in distress, one of us would have the
impudence to call out, "Waiter, some water !"
The master of the establishment, who understood
our situation, had no doubt given orders for us
to be left alone, and made his fortune without
our help. He was a good fellow and an intel-
ligent one, having subscribed to all the scientific
journals of Europe, which brought him the cus-
tom of foreign students.
Another cafe perpetuating the best tradi-
tions of the Latin Quarter was the Vaehette,
which survived until the death of Jean
Moreas in 1911. The Vaehette is usually
cited by antiquarians as a model of circum-
spection as compared with the scores of
cafes in the Quarter that were given up to
debaucheries. One writer puts it: "The
Vaehette traditions leaned more to scholar-
ship than sensuality."
In the late seventeenth and early eigh-
teenth centuries the Parisian cafe was truly
a coffee house ; but as many of the patrons
began to while away most of their waking
hours in them, the proprietors added other
beverages and food to hold their patron-
age. Consequently, we find listed among
the cafes of Paris some houses that are
more accurately described as restaurants,
although they may have started their
careers as coffee houses.
Historic Parisian Cafes
Some of the historic cafes are still thriv-
ing in their original locations, although the
majority have now passed into oblivion.
Glimpses of the more famous houses are to
be found in the novels, poetry, an'd essays
written by the French literati who patron-
ized them. These first-hand accounts give
insights that are sometimes stirring, often
amusing, and frequently revolting — such
as the assassination of St.-Fargeau in
Fevrier's low- vaulted cellar cafe in the
Palais Royal.
There is Magny 's, originally the haunt of
such literary men as Gautier, Taine, Saint-
Victor, Turguenieff, de Goncourt, Soulie,
Renan, Edmond. In recent years the old
Magny 's was razed, and on its site was built
the modem restaurant of the same name,
but in a style that has no resemblance to its
predecessor. Even the name of the street
has been changed, from rue Contrescarpe to
the rue Mazet.
Meot's, the Very, Beauvilliers', Mass^'s,
the Cafe Chartres, the Troi Freres Proven-
qaux, and the du Grand Commun, all situ-
ated in the Palais Royal, are cafes that
figured conspicuously in the French Revolu-
tion, and are closely identified with the
French stage and literature. Meot's and
Masse 's were the trysting places of the
Royalists in the days preceding the out-
break, but welcomed the Revolutionists
after they came in power. The Chartres
was notorious as the gathering place of
young aristocrats who escaped the guillo-
tine, and, thus made bold, often called their
like from adjoining caf6s to partake in some
of their plans for restoration of the empire.
The Trois Freres Provengaux, well known
for its excellent and costl/ dinners, is men-
tioned by Balzac, Lord Lytton, and Alfred
de Musset in some of their novels. The
Cafe du Grand Commun appears in
Rousseau's Confessions in connection with
the play Devin du Village.
Among the most famous of the cafes on
the Rue St. Honore were Venua's, patron-
ized by Robespierre and his companions of
the Revolution, and perhaps the scene of
the inhuman murder of Berthier and its
revolting aftermath ; the Mapinot, which has
gone down in cafe history as the scene of
the banquet to Archibald Alison, the 22-
EARLY PARISIAN COFFEE HOUSES
103
Interior of a Typical Parisian CAFfi of the Early Nineteenth Century
year-old historian; and Voisin's cafe,
around which still cling traditions of such
literary lights as Zola, Alphonse Daudet,
and Jules de Goncourt.
Perhaps the boulevard des Italiens had,
and still has, more fashionable cafes than
any other section of the French capital.
The Tortoni, opened in the early days of
the Empire by Velloni, an Italian lemonade
vender, was the most popular of the boule-
vard caf^s, and was generally thronged
with fashionables from all parts of Europe.
Here Louis Blanc, historian of the Revolu-
tion, spent many hours in the early days of
his fame. Talleyrand ; Rossini, the musi-
cian ; Alfred Stevens and Edouard Manet,
artists, are some of the names still linked
with the traditions of the Tortoni. Farther
down the boulevard were the Cafe Riche,
Maison Doree, Cafe Anglais, and the Cafe
de Paris. The Riche and the Doree, stand-
ing side by side, were both high-priced and
noted for their revelries. The Anglais,
which came into existence after the snuffing
out of the Empire, was also distinguished
for its high prices, but in return gave an
excellent dinner and fine wines. It is told
that even during the siege of Paris the
Anglais offered its patrons "such luxuries
as ass, mule, peas, fried potatoes, and cham-
pagne."
Probably the Cafe de Paris, which came
into existence in 1822, in the former home
of the Russian Prince Demidoff, was the
most richly equipped and elegantly con-
ducted of any cafe in Paris in the nine-
teenth century, Alfred de Musset, a fre-
quenter, said, ' ' you could not open its doors
for less than 15 francs."
The Cafe Litteraire, opened on boulevard
Bonne Nouvelle late in the nineteenth
century, made a direct appeal to literary
men for patronage, printing this footnote
on its menu : ' ' Every customer spending a
franc in this establishment is entitled to
one volume of any work to be selected from
our vast collection. ' '
The names of Parisian cafes once more or
less famous are legion. Some of them are :
The Cafe Laurent, which Rousseau was
forced to leave after writing an especially
bitter satire; the English cafe, in which
eccentric Lord Wharton made merry with
the Whig habitues; the Dutch cafe, the
haunt of Jacobites; Terre's, in the rue
Neuve des Pet its Champs, which Thackeray
described in The Ballad of Bouillahaisse;
Maire's, in the boulevard St.-Denis, which
dates back beyond 1850; the Caf6 Madrid,
in the boulevard Montmartre, of which
Carjat, the Spanish lyric poet, was an
attraction; the Caf6 de la Paix, in the
104
ALL ABOUT COFFEE
boulevard des Capucines, the resort of Sec-
ond Empire Imperialists and their spies ;
the Caf6 Durand, in the place de la Made-
leine, which started on a plane with the
high-priced Riche, and ended its career
early in the twentieth century; the Rocher
de Cancale, memorable for its feasts and
high-living patrons from all over Europe ;
the Cafe Guerbois, near the .rug, d^e, St.
Petersbourg, where Manet, the impres-
sionist, after many vicissitudes, won fame
for his paintings and held court for many
years ; the Chat Noir, on the rue Victor
Masse at Montmartre, a blend of cafe and
concert hall, which has since been imitated
widely, both in name and feature.
Chess Has Been a Favorite
Pastime at the CafS; de la
rfigence for t\vo hundred years
I
A I. L ABOUT COFFEE
r
COFFEE BRANCHES, FLOWERS, AND FRUIT
Showing the Berry in its Various Ripening Stages from Flower to CiiKituY
(luset: 1, green bean; 2, silver skin; i?, parohment ; 4, fruit pulj).)
Painted from life by Blendon Campbell
Chapter XII
INTRODUCTION OF COFFEE INTO NORTH AMERICA
Captain John Smith, founder of the Colony of Virginia, is the first
to bring to North America a knowledge of coffee in 1607 — The
coffee grinder on the Mayflower — Coffee drinking in 1668 — Wil-
liam Penn's coffee purchase in 1683 — Coffee in colonial New Eng-
land— The psychology of the Boston "tea party," and why the
United States became a nation of coffee drinkers instead of ti i
drinkers, like England — The first coffee license to Dorothy Jones i
1670 — The first coffee house in New England — Notable coffi ?
houses of old Boston — A sky-scraper coffee house
'-A
UNDOUBTEDLY the first to bring a
knowledge of coffee to North Amer-
ica was Captain John Smith, who
founded the Colony of Virgmia at James-
town in 1607. Captain Smith became fa-
miliar with coffee in his travels in Turkey.
Although the Dutch also had early knowl-
edge of coffee, it does not appear that the
Dutch West India Company brought any
of it to the first permanent settlement on
Manhattan Island (1624). Nor is there
any record of coffee in the cargo of the
Mayflower (1620), although it included a
wooden mortar and pestle, later used to
make "coffee powder."
In the period when New Yo^T^ ^^^^ T>Jp-«zl
AmstPrdanij and ^^^n^(^r■ Dnfpli r>r>mipanny
(1624-64), it is possible that coffee ma^v
have bppn import^H from Holland, where
it was being sold on the Amsterdam market
as early as 1640, and where regular sup-
plies of the green bean were being received
from Mocha in 1663; but positive proof is
lacking. The Dutch appear to have brought
tea across the Atlantic from Holland before
coffee. The English may have introduced
the coffee drink into the New York colony
between 1664 and 1673. The earliest refer-
ence to coffee in America is 1668 \ at which
• Singleton, Esther.
1909. (p. 132.)
Dutch New York. New York,
time a beverage made from the roasted
beans, and flavored with sugar or honey,
and cinnamon, was being drunk ii New
York.
,^Coffee first appears in the official lecords
oFthe New England colony in ifiTfL, in
1683, the year following William Penn's
settlement on the Delaware, we find him
buying supplies of coffee in the New York
market and paying for them at the rate of
eighteen shillings and nine pence per
pound.''
Coffee houses patterned after the English
and Continental prototypes were soon estab-
lished in all the colonies. Those of New-
York and Philadelphia are described in
separate chapters. The Boston houses are
described at the end of this chapter.
Norfolk, Chicago, St. Louis, and New
Orleans also had them. Conrad Leonhard 's
coffee /house at 320 Market Street. St.
Louis, was famous for its coffee and coffee
cake, from 1844 to 1905, when it became a
bakery and lunch room, removing in 1919
to Eighth and Pine Streets.
In the pioneer days of the great west,
coffee and tea were hard to get; and, in-
stead of them, teas were often made from
garden herbs, spicewood, sassafras-roots^
^ Bishop, J. Leander. A History of American Manu-
factures, 1608 to IfdO. New York, 1804. (Vol. 1; p.
259.)
105
106
ALL ABOUT COFFEE
and other shrubs, taken from the thickets '.
In 1839, in the city of Chicago, one of the
minor taverns was known as the Lake Street
coffee house. It was situated at the corner
of Lake and Wells Streets. A number of
hotels, which in the English sense might
more appropriately be called inns, met a
demand for modest accommodation *. Two
coffee houses were listed in the Chicago
Types of Colonial Coffee Roasters
The cylinder at the top of the picture was revolved
by hand in the fireplace; the skillets were set in
the smouldering ashes
directories for 1843 and 1845, the Wash-
ington coffee house, 83 Lake Street; and
the Exchange coffee house, Clarke Street
between La Salle and South Water Streets.
The oldtime coffee houses of New Orleans
W'Cre situated within the original area of the
city, the section bounded by the river, Canal
Street, Esplanade Avenue and Rampart
Street. In the early days most of the big
business of the city was transacted in the
coffee houses. The brideau, coffee with
orange juice, orange peel, and sugar, wdth
cognac burned and mixed in it, originated
in the New Orleans coffee house, and led to
its gradual evolution into the saloon.
How the United States Became a Nation
of Coffee Drinkers
Coffee, tea, and chocolate were introduced
into North America almost simultaneously
in the latter part of the seventeenth century.
In the first half of the eighteenth century,
tea had made such progress in England,
thanks to the propaganda of the British
East India Company, that, being moved to
extend its use in the colonies, the directors
turned their eyes first in the direction of
North America. Here, however, King
George spoiled their well-laid plans by his
« Patterson, Robert W. Early Society in Southern
Illinois. Chicago, 1881.
* Andreas, A. T. History of Chicago. Chicago,
unfortunate stamp act of 1765, which
caused the colonists to raise the cry of "no
taxation without representation."
Although the act was repealed in 1766,
the right to tax was asserted, and in 1767
was again used, duties being laid on paints,
oils, lead, glass, and tea. Once more the
colonists resisted ; and, by refusing to im-
port any goods of English make, so dis-
tressed the English manufacturers that
Parliament repealed every tax save that on
tea. Despite the growing fondness for the
beverage in America, the colonists preferred
to get their tea elsewhere to sacrificing their
principles and buying it from England. A
brisk trade in smuggling tea from Holland
was started.
In a panic at the loss of the most promis-
ing of its colonial markets, the British East
India Company appealed to Parliament for
aid, and was permitted to export tea, a
privilege it had never before enjoyed.
Cargoes were sent on consignment to
selected commissioners in Boston, New
York, Philadelphia, and Charleston. The
story of the subsequent happenings proper-
ly belongs in a book on tea. It is sufficient
here to refer to the climax of the agitation
against the fateful tea tax, because it is
undoubtedly responsible for our becoming
a nation of coffee drinkers instead of one
of tea drinkers, like England.
The Boston "tea party" of 1773, when
citizens of Boston, disguised as Indians,
boarded the English ships lying in Boston
harbor and threw their tea cargoes into the
' " X
■
f I
An Early Family Coffee Roaster
This machine, known in Holland as a "Coffee
Burner," was used late in the 18th century in
New England. It hung in the fireplace or stood
in the embers
INTRODUCTION INTO NORTH AMERICA
lOT
Historical Relics Associated With the Early Days of Coffee in New England
These exhibits are in the Museum of the Maine Historical Society at Portland. On the left is Kenrick's
Patent coffee mill. In the center is a Britannia urn with an iron bar for heating the liquid. The
bar was encased in a tin receptacle that hung inside the cover. On the right is a wall type of coffee
or spice grinder
ay, cast the die for coffee; for there and
then originated a subtle prejudice against
"the cup that cheers", which one hundred
and fifty years have failed entirely to over-
come. ^Meanwhile, the change wrought in
our social customs by this act, and those of
like nature following it, in the New York,
Pennsylvania, and Charleston colonies,
caused coffee to be crowned "king of the
American breakfast tahl^"^ and the sover-
eign drmir^f the American ppopTp" ^
Coffee in Colonial New England
The history of coffee in colonial New
England is so closely interwoven with the
story of the inns and taverns that it is
difficult to distinguish the genuine coffee
house, as it was known in England, from
the public house where lodgings and liquors
were to be had. The coffee drink had
strong competition from the heady wines,
the liquors, and imported teas, and conse-
quently it did not attain the vogue among
the colonial New Englanders that it did
among Londoners of the late seventeenth
and early eighteenth centuries.
Although New England had its coffee
houses, these were actually taverns where
coffee was only one of the beverages served
to patrons. "They were'^ gay« Rnhinson.
"generally meeting pla^ces_of_those_whQj^£re
conservative in — ffieir^ views ref^'arding
church and~slate7"^5emg_frignds of therul-
ing— a:difrinistration.' Sucir~persons were
terms 'Courtiers' by their adversaries, the
Dissenters and Republicans."
Most of the coffee houses were estab-
lished in Boston, the metropolis of the
Massachusetts Colony, and the social center
of New England. While Plymouth, Salem,
Chelsea, and Providence had taverns that
served coffee, they did not achieve the
name and fame of some of the more cele-
brated coffee houses in Boston
It is not definitely known when the first
coffee was brought in ; but it is reasonable
to suppose that it came as part of the
household supplies of some settler (prob-
ably between 1660 and 1670) , who had be-
come acquainted with it before leaving
England. Or it may have been introduced
by some British officer, who in London had
made the rounds of the more celebrated
coffee houses of the latter half of the seven-
teenth century.
The First Coffee License
According to early town records of Bos-
ton, Dorothy Jones was the first to be
licensed to sell "coffee and cuchaletto,"
the latter being the seventeenth-century
spelling for chocolate or cocoa. This license
is dated 1670, and is said to be the first
written reference to coffee in the Massa-
chusetts Colony. It is not stated whether
Dorothy Jones was a vender of the coffee
drink or of "coffee powder," as ground
coffee was known in the early days.
108
ALL ABOUT COFFEE
The Mayflowek "Coffee Grinder"
Mortar and pestle for "braying" coffee to make
coffee powder, brought over in the Mayflower
by tiie parents of Peregrine White
There is some question as to whether
Dorothy Jones was the first to sell coffee
as a beverage in Boston. Londoners had
known and drunk coffee for eighteen years
before Dorothy Jones got her coffee license.
British government officials were frequent-
ly taking ship from London to the Massa-
chusetts Colony, and it is likely that they
brought tidings and samples of the coffee
the English gentry had lately taken up.
No doubt they also told about the new-style
coffee houses that were becoming popular
in all parts of London. And it may be
assumed that their tales caused the land-
lords of the inns and taverns of colonial
Boston to add coffee to their lists of bever-
ages.
New England's First Coffee House
The name coffee house did not come into
use in New England until late in the seven-
teenth century. Early colonial records do
not make it clear whether the London coffee
house or the Gutteridge coffee house was the
first to be opened in Boston with that dis-
tinctive title. In all likelihood the London
is entitled to the honor, for Samuel Gardner
Drake in his History and Antiquities of the
City of Boston, published in 1854, says that
*'Benj. Harris sold books there in 1689."
Drake seems to be the only historian of
early Boston to mention the London coffee
house.
Granting that the London coffee house
was the first in Boston, then the Gutteridge
coffee house was the second. The latter
stood on the north side of State Street, be-
tM'een Exchange and Washington Streets,
and was named after Robert Gutteridge,
who took out an innkeeper's license in 1691.
Twenty-seven years later, his widow, Mary
Gutteridge, petitioned the town for a re-
newal of her late husband's permit to keep
a public coffee house.
The British coffee house, which became
the American coffee house when the crowm
officers and all things British became ob-
noxious to the colonists, also began its
career about the time Gutteridge took out
his license. It stood on the site that is now
Q& State Street, and became one of the most
widely known coffee houses in colonial New
England.
Of course, there were several inns and
taverns in existence in Boston long before
coffee and coffee houses came to the New
England metropolis. Some of these taverns
took up coffee when it became fashionable
in the colony, and served it to those patrons
who did not care for the stronger drinks.
The earliest known inn was set up by
Samuel Cole in Washington Street, midway
between Faneuil Hall and State Street.
Cole was licensed as a "comfit maker" in
1634, four years after the founding of
Boston ; and two years later, his inn was the
<f.
The Crown Coffee House, Boston
One of the first in New England to bear the dis-
tinctive name of coffee house; opened in 1711
and burned down in 1780
I
INTRODUCTION INTO NORTH AMERICA
109
r
Coffee Making and Serving Devices Used in the ^NlA.s^iAenLsEirs Colony
hese exhibits are in the Museum of the Essex Institute at Salem, Mass. Top row, left and right,
Britannia serving pots; center, Britannia table urn; bottom row, left end, tin coffee making pot;
center, Britannia serving pots; right end, tin French drip pot
temporary abiding place of the Indian chief
Miantonomoh and his red warriors, who
came to visit Governor Vane. In the fol-
lowing year, the Earl of Marlborough found
that Cole's inn was so "exceedingly well
governed," and afforded so desirable pri-
vacy, that he refused the hospitality of
Governor Winthrop at the governor's man-
sion.
Another popular inn of the day was the
Red Lyon, which was opened in 1637 by
Nicholas Upshall, the Quaker, who later
was hanged for trying to bribe a jailer to
pass some food into the jail to two
Quakeresses who were starving within.
Ship tavern, erected in 1650, at the
corner of North and Clark Streets, then on
the waterfront, was a haunt of British
government officials. The father of Gover-
nor Hutchinson was the first landlord, to
be succeeded in 1663 by John Vyal. Here
lived the four commissioners who were sent
to these shores by King Charles II to settle
the disputes then beginning between the
colonies and England.
Another lodging and eating place for the
gentlemen of quality in the first days of
Boston was the Blue Anchor, in Cornhill,
which was conducted in 1664 by Robert
Turner. Here gathered members of the
government, visiting officials, jurists, and
the clergy, summoned into synod by the
Massachusetts General Court. It is assumed
that the clergy confined their drinking to
coffee and other moderate beverages, leav-
ing the wines and liquors to their con-
freres.
Some Notable Boston Coffee Houses
In the last quarter of the seventeenth
century quite a number of taverns and
inns sprang up. Among the most notable
that have obtained recognition in Boston's
historical records were the King's Head, at
the corner of Fleet and North Streets; the
Indian Queen, on a passageway leading
from Washington Street to Hawley Street ;
the Sun, in Faneuil Hall Square, and the
Green Dragon, which became one of the
most celebrated coffee-house taverns.
The King's Head, opened in 1691, early
became a rendezvous of crown officers and
the citizens in the higher strata of colonial
society.
The Indian Queen also became a favorite
resort of the crown officers from Province
House. Started by Nathaniel Bishop about
1673, it stood for more than 145 years as
110
ALL ABOUT COFFEE
Coffee Devices that Figured in the Pioneering of the Great West
Photographed for this work in the Museum of the State Historical Society of Wisconsin. Left to right,
English decorated tin pot; coffee and spice mill from Lexington, Mass.; Globe roaster built by Rays
& Wilcox Co., Berlin, Conn., under Wood's patent; sheet brass coffee mill from Lexington, Mass.;
John Luther's coffee mill, Warren, R. I.; cast iron hopper mill
the Indian Queen, and then was replaced
by the Washington cotfee house, which be-
came noted throughout New England as the
starting place for the Roxbury "hourlies,''
the stage coaches that ran every hour from
Boston to nearby Roxbury.
The Sun tavern lived a longer life than
any other Boston inn. Started in 1690 in
Faneuil Hall Square, it was still standing
in 1902, according to Henry R. Blaney ; but
has since been razed to make way for a
modern skyscraper.
New-Emj^mid's Most Famous Coffee House
The Green Dragon, the last of the inns
that were popular at the close of the seven-
teenth century, was the most celebrated of
Boston's coffee-house taverns. It stood on
Union Street, in the heart of the town's
business center, for 135 years, from 1697
to 1832, and figured in practically all the
important local and national events during
its long career. Red-coated British soldiers,
colonial governors, bewigged crown ofificers,
earls and dukes, citizens of high estate, plot-
ting revolutionists of lesser degree, con-
spirators in the Boston Tea Party, patriots
and generals of the Revolution — all these
were wont to gather at the Green Dragon
to discuss their various interests over their
cups of coffee, and stronger drinks. In the
words of Daniel Webster, this famous
coffee-house tavern was the "headquarters
of the Revolution." It was here that
Warren, John Adams, J ames Otis,_aiid-P aul
ReveT'e met as a "wd>s ancTmeans com-
' "' to se^rnre-f^eedtmiliiJiJlie^miHcau
mi __
ftnlohies. HereT too, came members of the
Grand Lodge of Masons to hold their meet-
ings under the guidance of Warren, who
was the first grand master of the first
Masonic lodge in Boston. The site of the
old tavern, now occupied by a business
block, is still the property of the St. An-
Metal and China Coffee Pots Used in New England's Colonial Days
From the collection in the Museum of the Pocumtuck Valley Memorial Association, Deerfleld, Mass.
INTRODUCTION INTO NORTH AMERICA
111
The Green Dragon, the Center of Social and Political Life in Boston for 135 Years
This tavern figured in practically all the important national affairs from 1697 to 1832, and, according to
Daniel Webster, was the "headquarters of the Revolution"
drew 's Lodge of Free Masons. • The old
tavern was a two-storied brick structure
with a sharply pitched roof. Over its en-
trance hungr a sign bearing the figure of a
green dragon.
Patrons of the Green Dragon and the
British coffee house were decidedly opposed
in their views on the questions of the day.
While the Green Dragon was the gathering
piaf>Aj2^f t^Q pflt^^'^t^^ "^^"^inls^ thp_ British
was the rendezvous of the loyalists, and
frequent were the encounters hetwppn thp
patrons ol these two celebrated taverns. It
was in Llie British coft'ee house that James
Otis was so badly pummeled, after being
lured there by political enemies, that he
never regained his former brilliancy as an
orator.
It was there, in 1750, that some British
red coats staged the first theatrical enter-
tainment given in Boston, playing Otway's
Orphan. There, the first organization of
citizens to take the name of a club formed
the Merchants' Club in 1751. The member-
ship included ofiicers of the king, colonial
governors and lesser officials, military and
naval leaders, and members of the bar, with
a sprinkling of high-ranking citizens who
were staunch friends of the crown. How-
ever, the British became so generally dis-
liked that as soon as the king's troops
evacuated Boston in the Revolution, the
name of the coffee house was changed to the
American.
The Bunch of Grapes, that Francis
Holmes presided over as early as 1712, was
another hot-bed of politicians. Like the
Green Dragon over the way, its paJtjrous
included unconditional freedom ^<^e^--Qvg^
many coming from the British coffee house
when things became too hot for them in that
Tory atmosphere. The Bunch of Grapes
became the center of a stirring celebration
in 1776, w^hen a delegate from Philadelphia
read the Declaration of Independence from
the balcony of the inn to the crowd
assembled in the street below. So enthus-
iastic did the Bostonians become that, in
the excitement that followed, the inn was
nearly destroyed when one enthusiast built
a bonfire too close to its walls. Another
anecdote told of the Bunch of Grapes con-
cerns Sir "William Phipps, governor of
Massachusetts from 1692 - 94, who was
noted for his irascibility. He had his
favorite chair and window in the inn, and
in the accounts of the period it is written
that on any fine afternoon his glowering
countenance could be seen at the window
by the passersby on State Street.
112
ALL ABOUT COFFEE
After the beginning of the eighteenth
century the title of coffee house was applied
to a number of hostelries opened in Boston.
One of these was the Crown, which was
opened in the ' ' first house on Lon^g Wharf ' '
in 1711 by Jonathan Belcher, who later be-
came governor of Massachusetts, and still
later of New Jersey. The first landlord of
the Crown was Thomas Selby, who by trade
was a periwig maker, but probably found
the selling of strong drink and coffee more
profitable. Selby 's coffee house was also
used as an auction room. The Crown stood
until 1780, when it was destroyed in a fire
that swept the Long Wharf. On its site
now stands the Fidelity Trust Company at
148 State Street.
Another early Boston coffee house on
Statef Street was the Royal Exchange. How
long it had been standing before it was first
mentioned in colonial records in 1711 is
unknown. It occupied an ancient two-story
building, and was kept in 1711 by Benjamin
Johns. This coffee house became thp start-
ing place for stage coaches running between
Boston and New York._the first one leaving
SepJ-pmher 7, 'ITT^^'^Tn fhe ColumFian
Centinel of January 1, 1800, appeared an
advertisement in which it was said: ''New
York and Providence Mail Stage leaves
Major Hatches' Royal Exchange Coffee
House in State Street every morning at 8
o'clock."
In the latter half of the eighteenth cen-
tury the North-End coffee house was cele-
brated as the highest-class coffee house in
Boston. It occupied the three-storied brick
mansion which had been built about 1740
by Edward Hutchinson, brother of the
noted governor. It stood on the west side
of North Street, between Sun Court and
Fleet Street, and was one of the most
pretentious of its kind. An eighteenth
century writer, in describing this coffee-
house mansion, made much of the fact that
it had forty-five windows and was valued at
$4,500, a large sum for those days. During
the Revolution, Captain David Porter,
father of Admiral David D. Porter, was the
landlord, and under him it became cele-
brated throughout the city as a high-grade
eating place. The advertisements of the
North-End coffee house featured its "din-
ners and suppers — small and retired rooms
for small company — ' oyster suppers in the
nicest manner."
A "Skyscraper" Coffee House
The Boston coffee-house period reached
its height in 1808, when the doors of the
Exchange coffee house were thrown open
after three years of building. This struc-
Metai. Coffee Pots Used in the New York Colony
Left, tin coffee pot, dark brown, with "love apple" decoration In red, New Jersey Historical Society,
Newark; right, weighted bottom tin pot with rose decoration, private owner
IXTRODUCTrOX INTO NORTH AMERICA
113
Exchange Coffee House, Boston, 1808, Probably the 'Largest and Most Costly in the World
Juilt of stone, marble and brick, it stood seven stories high and cost $500,000. It was patterned after
Lloyd's of London, and was the center of marine intelligence In Boston
ire, situated on Congress Street near State
Street, was the skyscraper of its day, and
probably was the most ambitious coffee-
house project the world has known. Built
of stone, marble, and brick, it stood seven
stories high, and cost a half-million dollars.
Charles Bulfinch, America's most noted
architect of that period, was the designer.
Like Lloyd's coffee house in London, the
Exchange was the center of marine intelli-
gence, and its public rooms were thronged
all day and evening with mariners, naval
officers, ship and insurance brokers, who had
come to talk shop or to consult the records
of ship arrivals and departures, manifests,
charters, and other marine papers. The
first floor of the Exchange was devoted to
trading. On the next floor was the large
dining room, where many sumptuous ban-
quets were given, notably the one to Presi-
dent Monroe in July, 1817, which was at-
tended by former President John Adams,
and by many generals, commodores, gover-
nors, and judges. The other floors were
given over to living and sleeping rooms, of
which there were more than 200. The Ex-
change coffee house was destroyed by firf"
in 1818; and on its site was erected an-
other, bearing the same name, but having
slight resemblance to its predecessor.
114
ALL ABOUT COFFEE
Chapter XIII
HISTORY OF COFFEE IX OLD XEW YORK
I
The burghers of Neiv Amsterdam begin to substitute coffee for
"must," or beer, at breakfast in 1668 — William Penn makes his
first purchase of coffee in the green bean from New York merchants
in 1683 — The King's Arms, the first coffee house — The historic
Merchants, sometimes called the "Birth-place of our Union" — The
coffee house as a civic forum — The Exchange, Whitehall, Burns,
Tontine, and other celebrated coffee houses — The Vauxhall ayid
Ranelagh pleasure gardens
THE Dutch founders of New York
seem to have introduced tea into New
Amsterdam before they brought in
coffee. This was somewhere about the
middle of the seventeenth century. We find
it recorded that about 1668 the burghers
succumbed to coffee '. Coffee made its way
slowly, first in the homes, where it replaced
the "must", or beer, at breakfast. Choco-
late came about the same time, but was
more of a luxury than tea or coffee.
After the surrender of New York to the
British in 1674, English manners and cus-
toms were rapidly introduced. First tea,
and later coffee, were favorite beverages
in the homes. By 1683 New York had be-
come so central a market for the green
bean, that William Penn, as soon as he
found himself comfortably settled in the
Pennsylvania Colony, sent over to New
York for his coft'ee supplies ^ It was not
long before a social need arose that only
the London style of coffee house could fill.
The coffee houses of early New York,
like their prototypes in London, Paris, and
other old world capitals, were the centers
of the business, political and, to some ex-
tent, of the social life of the city. But they
never became the forcing-beds of literature
* Singleton, Esther.
133.)
' Bishop, J. Leander.
ufacture8, 1608 to 1860.
Dutch New York. 1909. (p.
A History of American Man-
New York.
that the French and English houses were,
principally because the colonists had no
professional writers of note.
There is one outstanding feature of the
early American coffee houses, particularly
of those opened in New York, that is not
distinctive of the European houses. The
colonists sometimes held court trials in the
long, or assembly, room of the early coffee
houses; and often held their general as-
sembly and council meetings there.
TJie Coffee House as a Civic Forum
The early coffee house was an important
factor in New York life. What the per-
petuation of this public gathering place
meant to the citizens is shown by a com-
plaint (evidently designed to revive the
declining fortunes of the historic Merchants
coffee house) in the New York Journal of
October 19, 1775, which, in part, said:
To the Inhabitants of New York :
It gives me concern, in this time of public
difficulty and danger, to find we have in tliis
city no place of daily general meeting, where we
might hear and communicate intelligence from
every quarter and freely confer with one another
on every matter that concerns us. Such a place
of general meeting is of very great advantage
in many respects, especially at such a time as
this, besides the satisfaction it affords and the
sociable disposition it has a tendency to keep up
among us, which was never more wanted than
at this time. To answer all these and many
other good and useful purposes, coffee houses
115
116
ALL ABOUT COFFEE
have been universally deemed the most conve-
nient places of resort, because, at a small ex-
pense of time or money, persons wanted may
be found and spoke with, appointments may be
made, current news heard, and whatever it most
concerns us to know. In all cities, therefore,
and large towns that I have seen in the British
dominions, sufficient encouragement has been
given to support one or more coffee houses in a
genteel manner. How comes it then that New
York, the most central, and one of the largest
and most prosperous cities in British America,
cannot support one coffee house? It is a scandal
to the city and its inhabitants to be destitute
of such a convenience for want of due encour-
agement. A coffee house, indeed, there is, a
very good and comfortable one, extremely well
tended and accommodated, but it is frequented
but by an inconsiderable number of people ; and
I have observed with surprise, that but a small
part of those who do frequent it, contribute any-
thing at all to the expense of it, but come in
and go out without calling for or paying any-
thing to the house. In all the coffee houses in
London, it is customary for every one that comes
in to call for at least a dish of coffee, or leave
the value of one, which is but reasonable, be-
cause when the keepers of these houses have
been at the expense of setting them up and pro-
viding all necessaries for the accommodation of
company, every one that comes to receive the
benefit of these conveniences ought to contribute
something towards the expense of them.
A Friend to the City.
New York's First Coffee House
Some chroniclers of New York's early
days are confident that the first cofi'ee house
in America was opened in New York; but
the earliest authenticated record they have
presented is that on November 1, 1696, John
Hutchins bought a lot on Broadway, be-
tween Trinity churchyard and what is now
Cedar Street, and there built a house, nam-
ing it the King's Arms. Against this rec-
ord, Boston can present the statement in
Samuel Gardner Drake's History and An-
tiquities of the City of Boston that Benj.
Harris sold books at the "London Coffee
House" in 1689.
The King's Arms was built of wood, and
had a front of yellow brick, said to have
been brought from Holland. The building
was tM^o stories high, and on the roof was
an "observatory," arranged with seats, and
New York's Pioneer Coffee House, the King's Arms, Opened in 1696
This view shows the garden side of the historic old house as It was conducted by John Hutchins, near
Trinity Church, on Broadway. The observatory may have been added later
COFFEE IN OLD NEW YORK
117
BuRXS Coffee House as It Appeared About the Middle of the Nineteenth Century
It stood for many years on Broadway, opposite Bowling Green, in the old De Lancey House, becoming
known in 1763 as the King's Arms, and later the Atlantic Garden House
commanding a fine view of the bay, the
river, and the city. Here the coffee-house
visitors frequently sat in the afternoons. It
is not shown in the illustration.
The sides of the main room on the lower
floor were lined with booths, which, for the
sake of greater privacy, were screened with
green curtains. There a patron could sip
his coffee, or a more stimulating drink, and
look over his mail in the same exclusiveness
affected by the Londoner of the time.
The rooms on the second floor were used
for special meetings of merchants, colonial
magistrates and overseers, or similar public
and private business.
The meeting room, as above described,
seems to have been one of the chief features
distinguishing a coffee house from a tavern.
Although both types of houses had rooms
for guests, and served meals, the coffee
house was used for business purposes by
permanent customers, while the tavern was
patronized more by transients. Men met at
the coffee house daily to carry on business,
and went to the tavern for convivial pur-
poses or lodgings. Before the front door
hung the sign of "the lion and the unicorn
fighting for the crown."
For many years the King's Arms was the
only coffee house in the city ; or at least no
other seems of sufficient importance to have
been mentioned in colonial records. For this
reason it w^s more frequently designated as
"the" coffee house than the King's Arms.
Contemporary records of the arrest of John
Hutchins of the King's Arms, and of Roger
Baker, for speaking disrespectfully of King
George, mention the King's Head, of which
Baker was proprietor. But it is generally
believed that this public house was a tavern
and not rightfully to be considered as a
coffee house. The White Lion, mentioned
about 1700, was also a tavern, or inn.
The New Coifee House
Under date of September 22, 1709, the
Journal of the General Assembly of the
Colony of New York refers to a conference
held in the "New Coffee House."
About this date the business section of the
city had begun to drift eastward from
Broadway to the waterfront ; and from this
I
118
ALL ABOUT COFFEE
fact it is assumed that the name "New
Coffee House" indicates that the King's
Arms had been removed from its original
location near Cedar Street, or that it may
have lost favor and have been superseded
in popularity by a newer coffee house. The
Journal does not give the location of the
"New" coffee house. Whatever the case
may be, the name of the King's Arms does
not again appear in the records until 1763,
and then it had more the character of a
tavern, or roadhouse.
The public records from 1709 up to 1729
are silent in regard to coffee houses in New
York. In 1725 the pioneer newspaper in
the city, the New York Gazette, came into
existence ; and four years later, 1729, there
appeared in it an advertisement stating
that ' ' a competent bookkeeper may be heard
of" at the "Coffee House." In 1730 an-
other advertisement in the same journal
tells of a sale of land by public vendue
(auction) to be held at the Exchange coffee
house.
The Exchange Coffee House
By reason of its name, the Exchange
Coffee House is thought to have been lo-
cated at the foot of Broad Street, abutting
the sea-wall and near the Long Bridge of
of that day. At that time this section was
the business center of the city, and here
was a trading exchange.
That the Exchange coffee house was the
only one of its kind in New York in 1732
is inferred from the announcement in that
year of a meeting of the conference com-
mittee of the Council and Assembly ' ' at the
Coffee House." In seeming confirmation of
this conclusion, is the advertisement in 1733
in the New York Gazette requesting the
return of "lost sleeve buttons to Mr. Todd,
next door to the Coffee House." The records
of the day show that a Robert Todd kept the
famous Black Horse tavern which was
located in this part of the city.
Again we hear of the Exchange coffee
house in 1737, and apparently in the same
location, where it is mentioned in an ac-
count of the "Negro plot" as being next
door to the Fighting Cocks tavern by the
Long Bridge, at the foot of Broad Street.
Also in this same year it is named as the
place of public vendue of land situated on
Broadway.
By this time the Exchange coffee house
had virtually become the city's official auc-
tion room, as well as the place to buy and
to drink coffee. Commodities of many
kinds were also bought and sold there, both
within the house and on the sidewalk be-
fore it.
The Mercha7its Coffee House
In the year 1750, the Exchange coffee
house had begun to lose its long-held
prestige, and its name was changed to the
Gentlemen's Exchange coffee house and
tavern. A year later it had migrated to
Broadway under the name of the Gentle-
mens' coffee house and tavern. In 1753 it
was moved again, to Hunter's Quay, which
was situated on what is now Front Street,
somewhere between the present Old Slip
and Wall Street. The famous old coffee
house seems to have gone out of existence
about this time, its passing hastened, no
doubt, by the newer enterprise, the Mer-
chants coffee house, which was to become
the most celebrated in New York, and, ac-
cording to some writers, the most historic
in America.
It is not certain just when the Merchants
coffee house was first opened. As near as
can be determined, Daniel Bloom, a mariner,
in 1737 bought the Jamaica Pilot Boat
tavern from John Dunks and named it the
Merchants coffee house. The building was
situated on the northwest corner of the
present Wall Street and Water (then
Queen) Street; and Bloom was its landlord
until his death, soon after the year 1750.
He was succeeded by Captain James Ack-
land, who shortly sold it to Luke Roome.
The latter disposed of the building in 1758
to Dr. Charles Arding. The doctor leased
it to Mrs. Mary Ferrari, who continued as
its proprietor until she moved, in 1772, to
the newer building diagonally across the
street, built by William Brownejohn, on the
southeast corner of Wall and Water Streets.
Mrs. Ferrari took with her the patronage
and the name of the Merchants coffee house,
and the old building was not used again as
a coffee house.
The building housing the original Mer-
chants coffee house was a two-story struc-
ture, wdth a balcony on the roof, which was
typical of the middle eighteenth century
architecture in New York. On the first
floor were the coffee bar and booths de-
scribed in connection with the King's Arms
coffee house. The second floor had the
typical long room for public assembly.
During Bloom's proprietorship the Mer-
chants coffee house had a long, hard struggle
COFFEE IN OLD NEW YORK
11&
Merchants Ck)FFEE House (at the Right) as It Appeared from 1772 to 1804
The original coffee house of this name was opened on the northwest corner of Wall and Water Streets
about 1737, the business being moved to the southeast corner in 1772
to win the patronage away from the Ex-
change coffee house, which was flourishing
at that time. But, being located near the
Meal Market, where the merchants were
wont to gather for trading purposes, it
gradually became the meeting place of the
city, at the expense of the Exchange coffee
house, farther down the waterfront.
Widow Ferrari presided over the original
Merchants coffee house for fourteen years,
until she moved across the street. She was
a, keen business woman. Just before she
was ready to open the new coffee house she
announced to her old patrons that she
would give a house-warming, at which
arrack, punch, wine, cold ham, tongue, and
other delicacies of the day would be served.
The event was duly noted in the news-
papers, one stating that ''the agreeable
situation and the elegance of the new house
liad occasioned a great resort of company
to it."
]\Irs. Ferrari continued in charge until
May 1, 1776, when Cornelius Bradford bo-
came proprietor and sought to build up the
patronage, that had dwindled somewhat
during the stirring days immediately pre-
ceding the Revolution. In his announce-
ment of the change of ownership, he said,
""Interesting intelligence will be carefully
collected and the greatest attention will be
given to the arrival of vessels, when trade
and navigation shall resume their former
channels." He referred to the complete
embargo of trade to Europe which the
colonists were enduring. When the Amer-
ican troops withdrew from the city during
the Revolution, Bradford went also, to
Rhinebeck on the Hudson.
During the British occupation, the Mer-
chants coffee house was a place of great
activity. As before, it was the center of
trading, and under the British regime it
became also the place where the prize ships
were sold. The Chamber of Commerce
resumed its sessions in the upper long room
in 1779, having been suspended since 1775.
The Chamber paid fifty pounds rent per
annum for the use of the room to Mrs.
Smith, the landlady at the time.
In 1781 John Stachan, then proprietor
of the Queen's Head tavern, became land-
lord of the Merchants coffee house, and he
promised in a public announcement *'to
pay attention not only as a Coffee House,
but as a tavern, in the truest; and to dis-
tinguish the same as the City Tavern and
Coffee House, with constant and best at-
tendance. Breakfast from seven to eleven ;
soups and relishes from eleven to half-past
120
ALL ABOUT COFFEE
one. Tea, coffee, etc., in the afternoon, as
in England." But when he began charging
sixpence for receiving and dispatching let-
ters by man-o'-war to England, he brought
a storm about his ears, and was forced to
give up the practise. He continued in
charge until peace came, and Cornelius
Bradford came with it to resume pro-
prietorship of the coffee house.
Bradford changed the name to the New
York coffee house, but the public continued
to call it by its original name, and the land-
lord soon gave in. He kept a marine list,
giving the names of vessels arriving and
departing, recording their ports of sailing.
He also opened a register of returning citi-
zens, "where any gentleman now resident
in the city," his advertisement stated,
"may insert their names and place of
residence." This seems to have been the
first attempt at a city directory. By his
energy Bradford soon made the Merchants
coffee house again the business center of the
city. When he died, in 1786, he was
mourned as one of the leading citizens.
His funeral was held at the coffee house
over M^iich he had fjresided so well.
The Merchants coffee house continued
to be the principal public gathering place
until it was destroyed by fire in 1804. Dur-
ing its existence it had figured prominently
in many of the local and national historic
events, too numerous to record here in de-
tail.
Some of the famous events were : The
reading of the order to the citizens, in 1765,
warning them to stop rioting against the
Stamp Act; the debates on the subject of
not accepting consignments of goods from
Great Britain ; the demonstration by the
Sons of Liberty, sometimes called the "Lib-
erty Boys," made before Captain Lockyer
of the tea ship Nancy which had been
turned away from Boston and sought to
land its cargo in New York in 1774; the
general meeting of citizens on May 19,
1774, to discuss a means of communicat-
ing with the Massachusetts colony to ob-
tain co-ordinated effort in resisting Eng-
land's oppression, out of which came the
letter suggesting a congress of deputies
from the colonies and calling for a "vir-
tuous and spirited Union ; ' ' the mass meet-
ing of citizens in the days immediately fol-
lowing the battles at Concord and Lexing-
ton in Massachusetts; and the forming of
the Committee of One Hundred to admin-
ister the public business, making the Mer-
chants coffee house virtually the seat of
government.
When the American Army held the city
in 1776, the coffee house became the resort
of army and navy officers. Its culminating
glory came on April 23, 1789, when Wash-
ington, the recently elected first presi-
dent of the United States, was officially
greeted at the coffee house by the governor
of the State, the mayor of the city, and the
lesser municipal officers.
As a meeting place for societies and
lodges the Merchants coffee house was long
distinguished. In addition to the purely
commercial organizations that gathered in
its long room, these bodies regularly met
there in their early days: The Society of
Arts, Agriculture and Economy; Knights
of Corsica ; New York Committee of Cor-
respondence; New Yori?: Marine Society;
Chamber of Commerce of the State of New
York; Lodge 169, Free and Accepted Ma-
sons; Whig Society; Society of the New
York Hospital; St. Andrew's Society; So-
ciety of the Cincinnati ; Society of the Sons
of St. Patrick; Society for Promoting the
Manumission of Slaves ; Society for the Re-
lief of Distressed Debtors; Black Friars
Society ; Independent Rangers ; and Federal
Republicans.
Here also came the men who, in 1784,.
formed the Bank of New York, the first
financial institution in the city; and here
was held, in 1790, the first public sale of
stocks by sworn brokers. Here, too, was
held the organization meeting of subscrib-
ers to the Tontine coffee house, which in a
few years was to prove a worthy rival.
Some Lesser Known Coffee Houses
Before taking up the story of the famous
Tontine coffee house it should be noted
that the Merchants coffee house had some
prior measure of competition. For four
years the Exchange coffee room sought toi
cater to the wants of the merchants around
the foot of Broad Street. It was located
in the Royal Exchange, which had beea
erected in 1752 in place of the old Ex-
change, and until 1754 had been used a»
a store. Then William Keen and Alex-
ander Lightfoot got control and started
their coffee room, with a ball room at-
tached. The partnership split up in 1756^
Lightfoot continuing operations until he
died the next year, when his widow tried t&
COFFEE IN OLD NEW YORK
121
The Toxtine Coffee House (Second Building at the Left), Opened in 1792
This is the original structure, northwest corner of Wall and Water Streets, which was succeeded about
1850 by a flve-story building (see page 122) that in turn was replaced by a modern office buildii.g
carry it on. In 1758 it had reverted into
its original character of a mercantile estab-
lishment.
Then there was the Whitehall coffee
house, which two men, named Rogers and
Humphreys, opened in 1762, with the an-
nouncement that "a correspondence is set-
tled in London and Bristol to remit by
every opportunity all the public prints and
pamphlets as soon as published; and there
will be a , weekly supply of New York,
Boston and other American newspapers."
This enterprise had a short life.
The early records of the city infrequent-
ly mention the Burns coffee house, some-
times calling it a tavern. It is likely that
the place was more an inn than a coffee
house. It was kept for a number of years
by George Burns, near the Battery, and
was located in the historic old De Lancey
house, which afterward became the City
hotel.
Burns remained the proprietor until
1762, when it was taken over by a Mrs.
Steele, who gave it the name of the King's
Arms. Edward Barden became the land-
lord in 1768. In later years it became
known as the Atlantic Garden house. Trai-
tor Benedict Arnold is said to have lodged
in the old tavern after deserting to the
enemy.
The Bank coffee house belonged to a
later generation, and had few of the char-
acteristics of the earlier coffee houses. It
was opened in 1814 by William Niblo, of
Niblo's Garden fame, and stood at the
corner of William and Pine Streets, at the
rear of the Bank of New York. The cof-
fee house endured for probably ten years,
and became the gathering place of a co-
terie of prominent merchants, who formed
a sort of club. The Bank coffee house be-
came celebrated for its dinners and dinner
parties.
Fraunces' tavern, best known as the
place where Washington bade farewell to
his army officers, was, as its name states,
a tavern, and can not be properly classed
as a coffee house. While coffee was served,
and there was a long room for gatherings,
little, if any, business was done there by
merchants. It was largely a meeting place
for citizens bent on a "good time."
Then there was the New England and
Quebec coffee house, which was also a
tavern.
122
ALL ABOUT COFFEE
The Tontine Building of 1850
Northwest corner of Wall and Water Streets; an
omnibus of the Broadway-Wall-Street Ferry
line is passing
The Tontine Coffee House
The last of the celebrated coffee houses
of New York bore the name, Tontine cof-
fee house. For several years after the
burning of the Merchants coffee house, in
1804, it was the only one of note in the
city.
Feeling that they should have a more
commodious coffee house for carrying on
their various business enterprises, some 150
merchants organized, in 1791, the Tontine
coffee house. This enterprise was based'
on the plan introduced into France in 1653
by Lorenzo Tonti, with slight variations.
According to the New York Tontine plan,
each holder's share reverted automatically
^
^ 1
^^H| ,4
ii.j#
^^
^^^^1^
^i^nji.
?r
-^1
--.^.
Stf'jf
to the surviving shareholders in the asso-
ciation, instead of to his heirs. There
were 157 original shareholders, and 203
shares of stock valued at £200 each.
The directors bought the house and lot
on the northwest corner of Wall and Water
Streets, where the original Merchants cof-
fee house stood, paying £1,970. They next
acquired the adjoining lots on Wall and
Water Streets, paying £2,510 for the for-
mer, and £1,000 for the latter.
The cornerstone of the new coffee house
was laid June 5, 1792 ; and a year later to
the day, 120 gentlemen sat down to a ban-
quet in the completed coffee house to cele-
brate the event of the year before. John
Hyde was the first landlord. The house
had cost $43,000.
NiBLo's Gakden,
Broadway and Pkince Street,
1828
Coffee Kelics of Dutch New York
Spice-grinder boat, coffee roaster, and coffee pots
at the Van Cortlandt Museum
A contemporary account of how the Ton-
tine coffee house looked in 1794 is supplied
by an Englishman visiting New York at
the time :
The Tontine tavern and coffee house is a
handsome large brick building; you ascend six
or eight steps under a portico, into a large pub-
lie room, which is the Stock Exchange of New
York, where all bargains are made. Here are
two books kept, as at Lloyd's [in London] of
every ship's arrival and clearance. This house
was built for the accommodation of the mer-
chants by Tontine shares of two hundred pounds
each. It is kept by Mr. Hyde, formerly a woolen
COFFEE IN OLD NEW YORK
123
i
.fc*— :■- ■ li aTKMiq^^
New York's Vauxiiall Garden of 1803
From an old print
draper in London. You can lodge and board
tliere at a common table, and you pay ten shil-
lin<?s currency a day, whether you dine out or
not.
The stock market made its headquarters
in the Tontine coffee house in 1817, and
the early organization was elaborated and
became the New York Stock and Exchange
Board. It was removed in 1827 to the
Merchants Exchange Building, where it re-
mained until that place was destroyed by
fire in 1835.
It was stipulated in the original articles
of the Tontine Association that the house
was to be kept and used as a coffee house,
and this agreement was adhered to up to
the year 1834, when, by permission of the
Court of Chancery, the premises were let
for general business-office purposes. This
change was due to the competition offered
by the Merchants Exchange, a short dis-
tance up Wall Street, which had been
opened soon after the completion of the
Tontine coffee house building.
As the city grew, the business-office quar-
ters of the original Tontine coffee house be-
came inadequate; and about the year 1850
a new five-story building, costing some $60,-
000, succeeded it. By this time the build-
ing had lost its old coffee-house character-
istics. This new Tontine structure is said
to have been the first real office building in
New York City. Today the site is occu-
pied by a large modern office building,
which still retains the name of Tontine,
It was owned by John B. and Charles A.
O'Donohue, well known New York coffee
merchants, until 1920, When it was sold
for $1,000,000 to the Federal Sugar Refin-
ing Company.
The Tontine coffee house did not figure
so prominently in the historic events of the
nation and city as did its neighbor, the
Merchants coffee house. However, it be-
came the Mecca for visitors from all parts
of the country, who did not consider their
sojourn in the city complete until they had
at least inspected what was then one of the
most pretentious buildings in New York.
Chroniclers of the Tontine coffee house al-
ways say that most of the leaders of the
nation, together with distinguished visitors
from abroad, had foregathered in the large
room of the old coffee house at some time
during their careers.
It was on the walls of the Tontine coffee
house that bulletins were posted on Hamil-
ton's struggle for life after the fatal duel
forced on him by Aaron Burr.
The changing of the Tontine coffee house
into a purely mercantile building marked
the end of the coffee-house era in New
124
ALL ABOUT COFFEE
York. Exchanges and office buildings had
come into existence to take the place of the
business features of the coffee houses ; clubs
were organized to take care of the social
functions; and restaurants and hotels had
sprung up to cater to the needs for bever-
ages and food.
New York's Pleasure Gardens
There was a fairly successful attempt
made to introduce the London pleasure-
garden idea into New York. First, tea
gardens were added to several of the tav-
erns already provided with ball rooms.
Then, on the outskirts of the city, were
opened the Vauxhall and the Eanelagh
gardens, so named after their famous Lon-
don prototypes. The first Vauxhall gar-
den (there were three of this name) was
on Greenwich Street, between "Warren and
Chambers Streets. It fronted on the North
River, affording a beautiful view up the
Hudson. Starting as the Bowling Green
garden, it changed to Vauxhall in 1750.
Ranelagh was on Broadway, between Du-
ane and Worth Streets, on the site where
later the New York Hospital was erected.
From advertisements of the period (1765 -
69) we learn that there were band concerts
twice a week at the Ranelagh. The gardens
were "for breakfasting as well as the eve-
ning entertainment of ladies and gentle-
men." There was a commodious hall in
the garden for dancing. Ranelagh lasted
twenty years. Coffee, tea, and hot rolls
could be had in the pleasure gardens at
any hour of the day. Fireworks were fea-
tured at both Ranelagh and Vauxhall gar-
dens. The second Vauxhall was near the
intersection of the present Mulberry and
Grand Streets, in 1798; the third was on
Bowery Road, near Astor Place, in 1803.
The Astor library was built upon its site
in 1853.
William Niblo, previously proprietor of
the Bank coffee house in Pine Street,
opened, in 1828, a pleasure garden, that
he named Sans Souci, on the site of a circus
building called the Stadium at Broadway
and Prince Street. In the center of the
garden remained the stadium, which was
devoted to theatrical performances of "a
gay and attractive character." Later, he
built a more pretentious theater that
fronted on Broadway. The interior of the
garden was "spacious, and adorned with
shrubbery and walks, lighted, with festoons
of lamps." It was generally known as
Niblo 's garden.
Among other well known pleasure gar-
dens of old New York were Contoit's, later
the New York garden, and Cherry gardens,
on old Cherry Hill.
Tavern and Grocers' Signs Used in Old New York
Left, Smith Richards, grocer and confectioner, "at the sign of the tea canister and two sugar loaves"
(1773) ; center, the King's Arms, originally Burns coffee house (1767) ; right, George Webster, Grocer,
"at the sign of the three sugar loaves"
Chapter XIV
COFFEE HOUSES OF OLD PHILADELPHIA
Ye Coffee House, Philadelphia's first coffee house, opened about
1700 — The two London coffee houses — The City tavern, or Mer-
chants coffee house — How these, and other celebrated resorts,
dominated the social, political, and business life of the Quaker City
in the eighteenth century
WILLIAM PENN is generally cred-
ited with the introduction of coffee
into the Quaker colony which he
founded on the Delaware in 1682. He also
brought to the "city of brotherly love"
that other great drink of human brother-
hood, tea. At first (1700), "like tea, cof-
fee was only a drink for the well-to-do,
except in sips. ' " As was the case in the
other English colonies, coffee languished
for a time while tea rose in favor, more
especially in the home.
Following the stamp act of 1765, and
the tea tax of 1767, the Pennsylvania Col-
ony joined hands with the others in a
general tea boycott ; and coffee received the
same impetus as elsewhere in the colonies
that became the thirteen original states.
The coffee houses of early Philadelphia
loom large in the history of the city and
the republic. Picturesque in themselves,
with their distinctive colonial architecture,
their associations also were romantic. Many
a civic, sociological, and industrial reform
came into existence in the low-ceilinged,
sanded-floor main rooms of the city's early
coffee houses.
For many years. Ye coffee house, the two
London coffee houses, and the City tavern
(also known as the Merchants coffee house)
each in its turn dominated the official and
social life of Philadelphia. The earlier
houses were the regular meeting places of
* Oberholtzer, Ellis Paxson. Philadelphia ; a his-
tory of the city and its people. Philadelphia, 1912.
(vol. i : p. 106.)
Quaker municipal officers, ship captains,
and merchants who came to transact pub-
lic and private business. As the outbreak
of the Revolution drew near, fiery colonials,
many in Quaker garb, congregated there to
argue against British oppression of the
colonies. After the Revolution, the leading
citizens resorted to the coffee house to dine
and sup and to hold their social functions.
When the city was founded in 1682, cof-
fee cost too much to admit of its being
retailed to the general public at coffee
houses, William Penn wrote in his Ac-
counts that in 1683 coffee in the berry
was sometimes procured in New York at
a cost of eighteen shillings nine pence the
pound, equal to about $4.68. He told also
that meals were served in the ordinaries
at six pence (equal to twelve cents), to wit:
"We have seven ordinaries for the enter-
tainment of strangers and for workmen
that are not housekeepers, and a good meal
is to be had there for six pence sterling."
With green coffee costing $4.68 a pound,
making the price of a cup about seventeen
cents, it is not likely that coffee was on
the menus of the ordinaries serving meals
at twelve cents each. Ale was the common
meal-time beverage.
There were four classes of public houses
— inns, taverns, ordinaries, and coffee
houses. The inn was a modest hotel that
supplied lodgings, food, and drink, the bev-
erages consisting mostly of ale, port, Ja-
maica rum, and Madeira wine. The tavern,
125
126
ALL ABOUT COFFEE
though accommodating guests with bed and
board, was more of a drinking place than a
lodging house. The ordinary combined the
characteristics of a restaurant and a board-
ing house. The coffee house was a preten-
tious tavern, dispensing, in most cases, in-
toxicating drinks as well as coffee.
Philadelphia's First Coffee House
The first house of public resort opened
in Philadelphia bore the name of the Blue
Anchor tavern, and was probably estab-
lished in 1683 or 1684; colonial records do
not state definitely. As its name indicates,
this was a tavern. The first coffee house
came into existence about the year 1700.
Watson, in one place in his Annals of the
city, says 1700, but in another 1702. The
earlier date is thought to be correct, and is
seemingly substantiated by the co-authors
Scharf and Westcott in their History ' of
the city, in which they say, * ' The first pub-
lic house designated as a coffee house was
built in Penn's time [1682-1701] by
Samuel Carpenter, on the east side of
Front Street, probably above Walnut
Street. That it was the first of its kind —
the only one in fact for some years —
seems to be established beyond doubt. It
was always referred to in old times as 'Ye
Coffee House.' "
Carpenter owned also the Globe inn,
which was separated from Ye coffee house
by a public stairway running down from
Front Street to Water Street, and, it is
supposed, to Carpenter's Wharf. The ex-
act location of the old house was recently
established from the title to the original
patentee, Samuel Carpenter, by a Phila-
delphia real-estate title-guarantee company,
as being between Walnut and Chestnut
Streets, and occupying six and a half feet
of what is now No. 137 South Front Street
and the whole of No, 139.
How long Ye coffee house endured is un-
certain. It was last mentioned in colonial
records in a real estate conveyance from
Carpenter to Samuel Finney, dated April
26, 1703. In that document it is described
as "That brick Messuage, or Tenement,
called Ye Coffee House, in the possession
of Henry Flower, and situate, lying and
being upon or before the bank of the Dela-
ware River, containing in length about
thirty feet and in breadth about twenty-
four."
The Henry Flower mentioned as the pro-
prietor of Philadelphia's first coffee house,
was postmaster of the province for a num-
ber of years, and it is believed that Ye
coffee house also did duty as the post-offiei'
for a time. Benjamin Franklin's Penn-
sylvania Gazette, in an issue published in
1734, has this advertisement:
All persons who are indebted to Henry Flower,
iQ/te postmaster of Pennsylvania, for Postage of
Letters or otherivise, are desir'd to pay the same
to Mm at the old Coffee House in Philadelphia.
Flower's, advertisement would indicate
that Ye coffee house, then venerable enough
to be designated as old, was still in exist-
ence, and that Flower was to be found
there. Franklin also seems to have been
in the coffee business, for in several issues
of the Gazette around the year 1740 he
advertised: "Very good coffee sold by the
Printer. ' '
The First London Coffee House
Philadelphia's second coffee house bore
the name of the London coffee house, which
title was later used for the resort William
Bradford opened in 1754. The first house
of this name was built in 1702, but there
seems to be some doubt about its location.
Writing in the American Historical Regis-
ter, Charles H. Browning says: "William
Rodney came to Philadelphia with Penn in
1682, and resided in Kent County, where
he died in 1708 ; he built the old London
coffee house at Front and Market Streets
in 1702." Another chronicler gives its lo-
cation as "above Walnut Street, either on
the east side of Water Street, or on Dela-
ware Avenue, or, as the streets are very
close together, it may have been on both.
John Shewbert, its proprietor, was a pa-
rishioner of Christ Church, and his estab*
lishment was largely patronized by Church
of England people." It was also the gath-
ering place of the followers of Penn and
the Proprietary party, while their oppo-
nents, the political cohorts of Colonel
Quarry, frequented Ye coffee house.
The first London coffee house resembled
a fashionable club house in its later years,
suitable for the "genteel" entertainments
of the well-to-do Philadelphians. Ye cof-
fee house was more of a commercial or
public exchange. Evidence of the gentility
of the London is given by John William
Wallace :
The appointments of the London Coffee House,
if we may infer what they were from the will
of Mrs. Shtitiert [Shewbert] dated November 27,
1751, were genteel. By that instrument she
IN OLD PHILADELPHIA
127
The Second London Coffee House, Opened in 1754 by William Bradford, the Printer
Up to the outbreak of the American Revolution, it was more frequented than any other tavern in the
Quaker city as a place of resort and entertainment, and was famous throughout the colonies v.^
makes bequest of two silver quax't tankards; a
silver cup ; a silver porringer ; a silver pepper
pot ; two sets of silver castors ; a silver soup
spoon ; a silver sauce spoon, and numerous
silver tablespoons, and tea spoons, with a silver
teapot.
One of the many historic incidents con-
nected with this old house was the visit
there by William Penn's eldest son, John,
in 1733, when he entertained the General
Assembly of the province on one day and
on the next feasted the City Corporation.
Roberts' Coffee House
Another house with some fame in the
middle of the eighteenth century was Rob-
erts' coffee house, which stood in Front
Street near the first London house. Though
its opening date is unknown, it is believed
to have come into existence about 1740.
In 1744 a British army officer recruiting
troops for service in Jamaica advertised
in the newspaper of the day that he could
be seen at the Widow Roberts' coffee house.
During the French and Indian War, when
Philadelphia was in grave danger of attack
by French and Spanish privateers, the citi-
zens felt so great relief when the British
ship Otter came to the rescue, that they
proposed a public banquet in honor of the
Otter's captain to be held at Roberts' cof-
fee house,.- For some unrecorded reasoii
the entertainment was not given ; probably
because the house was too small to accom-
modate all the citizens desiring to attend.
Widow Roberts retired in 1754.
The James Coffee House
Contemporary with Roberts ' coffee house
w^as the resort run first by Widow James,
and later by her son, James James. It
was established in 1744, and occupied a
large wooden building on the northwest
corner of Front and Walnut Streets. It
w^as patronized by Governor Thomas and
many of his political followers, and its
name frequently appeared in the news and
advertising columns of the Pennsylvania
Gazette.
The Second London Coffee House
Probably the most celebrated coffee house
in Penn's city was the one established by
William Bradford, printer of the Pennsyl-
vania Journal. It was on the southwest
corner of Second and Market Streets, and
was named the London coffee house, the
second house in Philadelphia to bear that
title. The building had stood since 1702,
when Charles Reed, later mayor of the
city, put it up on land which he bought
128
ALL ABOUT COFFEE
from Letitia Penn, daughter of William
Penn, the founder. Bradford was the first
to use the structure for coffee-house pur-
poses, and he tells his reason for entering
upon the business in his petition to the gov-
ernor for a license : ' ' Having been advised
to keep a Coffee House for the benefit of
merchants and traders, and as some people
may at times be desirous to be furnished
with other liquors besides coffee, your pe-
titioner apprehends it is necessary to have
the Governor's license." This would indi-
cate that in that day coffee was drunk as
a refreshment between meals, as were
spirituous liquors for so many years be-
fore, and thereafter up to 1920.
Selling Slaves at the Old London Coffee
House
Bradford's London coffee house seems to
have been a joint-stock enterprise, for in
his Journal of April 11, 1754, appeared
this notice: "Subscribers to a public cof-
fee house are invited to meet at the Court-
house on Friday, the 19th instant, at 3
o'clock, to choose trustees agreeably to the
plan of subscription."
The building was a three-story wooden
structure, with an attic that some historians
count as the fourth story. There was a
wooden awning one-story high extending
out to cover the sidewalk before the cof-
fee house. The entrance was on Market
(then known as High) Street.
The London coffee house was "the pul-
sating heart of excitement, enterprise, and
patriotism" of the early city. The most
active citizens congregated there — mer-
chants, shipmasters, travelers from other
colonies and countries, crown and provin-
cial officers. The governor and persons of
equal note went there at certain hours "to
sip their coffee from the hissing urn, and
some of those stately visitors had their
own stalls." It had also the character of
a mercantile exchange — carriages, horses,
foodstuffs, and the like being sold there at
auction. It is further related that the early
slave-holding Philadelphians sold negro
men, women, and children at vendue, ex-
hibiting the slaves on a platform set up
in the street before the coffee house.
The resort was the barometer of public
sentiment. It was in the street before this
house that a newspaper published in
Barbados, bearing a stamp in accordance
with the provisions of the stamp act, was
publicly burned in 1765, amid the cheers
of bystanders. It was here that Captain
Wise of the brig Minerva, from Pool, Eng-
land, who brought news of the repeal of the
act, was enthusiastically greeted by the
crowd in May, 1766. Here, too, for several
years the fishermen set up May poles.
Bradford gave up the coffee house when
he joined the newly formed Revolutionary
army as major, later becoming a colonel.
When the British entered the city in Sep-
tember, 1777, the officers resorted to the
London coffee house, which was much fre-
quented by Tory sympathizers. After the
British had evacuated the city, Colonel
Bradford resumed proprietorship ; but he
found a change in the public's attitude
toward the old resort, and thereafter its
fortunes began to decline, probably hast-
ened by the keen competition offered by the
City tavern, which had been opened a few
years before.
Bradford gave up the lease in 1780,
transferring the property to John Pember-
ton, who leased it to Grifford Dally. Pem-
berton was a Friend, and his scruples about
gambling and other sins are well exhibited
in the terms of the lease in which said
Dally "covenants and agrees and promises
that he will exert his endeavors as a Chris-
tian to preserve decency and order in said
house, and to discourage the profanation
of the sacred name of God Almighty by
cursing, swearing, etc., and that the house
I
IN OLD PHILADELPHIA
129
The City Tavern, Built i.n .17i;i. am> K.nuwn as iiii-: Mlkciiams Coiii-h lluttot
The tavern (at the left) was regarded as the largest inn of the colonies and stood next to the Bank of
Pennsylvania (center). From a print made from a rare Birch engraving
I
on the first day of the week shall always be
kept closed from public use. " It is further
covenanted that "under a penalty of ilOO
he will not allow or suffer any person to
use, or play at, or divert themselves with
cards, dice, back-gammon, or any other un-
lawful game."
It would seem from the terms of the
lease that what Pemberton thought were
ungodly things, were countenanced in other
coffee houses of the day. Perhaps the regu-
lations were too strict ; for a few years later
the house had passed into the hands of John
Stokes, who used it as dwelling and a store.
City Tavern or Merchants Coffee House
The last of the celebrated coffee houses
in Philadelphia was built in 1773 under
the name of the City tavern, which later
became known as the Merchants coffee
house, possibly after the house of the same
name that was then famous in New York.
It stood in Second Street near Walnut
Street, and in some respects was even more
noted than Bradford's London coffee house,
with which it had to compete in its early
days.
The City tavern was patterned after the
best London coffee houses; and when
opened, it was looked upon as the finest
and largest of its kind in America. It was
three stories high, built of brick, and had
several large club rooms, two of which were
connected by a wide doorway that, when
open, made a large dining room fifty feet
long.
Daniel Smith was the first proprietor,
and he opened it to the public early in 1774.
Before the Revolution, Smith had a hard
struggle trying to win' patronage from
Bradford's London coffee house, standing
only a few blocks away. But during and
after the war, the City tavern gradually
took the lead, and for more than a quar-
ter of a century was the principal gather-
ing place of the city. At first, the house
had various names in the public mind, some
calling it by its proper title, the City tav-
ern, other attaching the name of the pro-
prietor and designating it as Smith's tav-
ern, while still others used the title, the
New tavern.
The gentlefolk of the city resorted to
the City tavern after the Revolution as
they had to Bradford's coffee house before.
However, before reaching this high estate,
it once was near destruction at the hands
of the Tories, who threatened to tear it
180
ALL ABOUT COFFEE
down. That was when it was proposed to
hold a banquet there in honor of Mrs.
George Washington, who had stopped in
the city in 1776 while on the way to meet
her distinguished husband, then at Cam-
bridge in Massachusetts, taking over com-
mand of the American army. Trouble was
averted by Mrs. Washington tactfully de-
clining to appear at the tavern.
After peace came, the house was the
scene of many of the fashionable enter-
tainments of the period. Here met the
City Dancing Assembly, and here was held
the brilliant fete given by M. Gerard, first
accredited representative from France to
the United States, in honor of Louis XVI 's
birthday. Washington, Jefferson, Hamil-
ton, and other leaders of public thought
were more or less frequent visitors when
in Philadelphia.
The exact date when the City tavern be-
came the Merchants coffee house is un-
known. When James Kitchen became pro-
prietor, at the beginning of the nineteenth
century, it was so called. In 1806 Kitchen
turned the house into a bourse, or mercan-
tile exchange. By that time clubs and
hotels had come into fashion, and the cof-
fee-house idea was losing caste with the
elite of the city.
In the year 1806 William Renshaw
planned to open the Exchange coffee house
in the Bingham mansion on Third Street.
He even solicited subscriptions to the enter-
prise, saying that he proposed to keep a
marine diary and a registry of vessels for
sale, to receive and to forward ships' letter
bags, and to have accommodations for hold-
ing auctions. But he was persuaded from
the idea, partly by the fact that the Mer-
chants coffee house seemed to be satisfac-
torily filling that particular niche in the
city life, and partly because the hotel
business offered better inducements. He
abandoned the plan, and opened the Man-
sion House hotel in the Bingham residence
in 1807.
Exchange Coffee House Scene in "Hamilton"
In this setting for the first act of the play by Mary P. Hamlin and George Arliss, produced in 1918,
the scenic artist aimed to give a true historical Background, and combined the features of several
inns and coffee houses in Philadelphia, Virginia, and New England as they existed in Washington's
first administration
Chapter XV
HE BOTANY OF THE COFFEE PLANT
Its complete classification hy class, sub-class, order, family, genus,
and species — How the Coffea arahica groivs, flowers, and hears —
Other species and hybrids described — Natural caffein-free coffee —
Fungoid diseases of coffee
THE coffee tree, scientifically known
as Coffea arahica, is native to Abys-
sinia and Ethiopia, but grows well in
Java, Sumatra, and other islands of the
Dutch East Indies; in India, Arabia, equa-
torial Africa, the islands of the Pacific,
in Mexico, Central and South America, and
the AVest Indies. The plant belongs to the
large sub-kingdom of plants known scien-
tifically as the Angiosperms, or Angio-
spermcE, which means that the plant re-
produces by seeds which are enclosed in a
box-like compartment, known as the ovary,
at the base of the flower. The word Angio-
sperm is derived from two Greek words,
sperma, a seed, and aggeion, pronounced
angeion, a box, the box referred to being
the ovary.
This large sub-kingdom is subdivided in-
to two classes. The basis for this division
is the number of leaves in the little plant
which develops from the seed. The coffee
plant, as it develops from the seed, has two
little leaves, and therefore belongs to the
class Dicotyledonece. This word dicotyle-
donece is made up of the two Greek words,
di{s), two, and kotyledon, cavity or socket.
It is not necessary to see the young plant
that develops from the seed in order to
know that it had two seed leaves; because
the mature plant always shows certain
characteristics that accompany this condi-
tion of the seed.
In every plant having two seed leaves,
the mature leaves are netted-veined, which
is a condition easily recognized even by the
layman; also the parts of the flowers are
in circles containing two or five parts, but
never in threes or sixes. The stems of
plants of this class always increase in thick-
ness by means of a layer of cells known as
a cambium, which is a tissue that continues
to divide throughout its whole existence.
The fact that this cambium divides as long
as it lives, gives rise to a peculiar appear-
ance in woody stems by which we can, on
looking at the stem of a tree of this type
when it has been sawed across, tell the age
of the tree.
In the spring the cambium produces
large open cells through which large
quantities of sap can run ; in the fall
it produces very thick-walled cells, as there
is not so much sap to be carried. Because
these thin-walled open cells of one spring
are next to the thick-walled cells of the last
autumn, it is very easy to distinguish one
year's growth from the next; the marks so
produced are called annual rings.
We have now classified coffee as far as
the class; and so far we could go if w'e
had only the leaves and stem of the coffee
plant. In order to proceed farther, we
must have the flow^ers of the plant, as bo-
tanical classification goes from this point
on the basis of the flowers. The class
Dicotyledonecu is separated into sub-classes
according to whether the flower's corolla
(the showy part of the flower which ordi-
narily gives it its color) is all in one piece,
or is divided into a number of parts. The
coffee flower is arranged with its corolla
all in one piece, forming a tube-shaped ar-
rangement, and accordingly the coffee plant
131
132
ALL ABOUT COFFEE
The Coffee Tree, Showing Details of Flowers axd Fruit
From a drawing by Ch. Emonts in Jardin's Le Cafcier et Le Cafe
belongs to the sub-class Sympetalce, or
MetachlamydecE , which means that its pet-
als are united.
The next step in classification is to place
the plant in the proper division under the
sub-class, which is the order. Plants are
separated into orders according to their
varied characteristics. The coffee plant be-
longs to an order known as Buhiales. These
orders are again divided into families. Cof-
fee' is placed in the family Buhiacece, or
Madder Family, in which we find herbs,
shrubs or trees, represented by a few Amer-
ican plants, such as bluets, or Quaker
ladies, small blue spring flowers, common
to open meadows in northern United States ;
and partridge berries {Mitchella repens).
The Madder Family has more foreign
representatives than native genera, among
which are Coffea, Cinchona, and Ipecac-
uanha {Uragoga), all of which are of eco-
nomic importance. The members of this
family are noted for their action on the
nervous system. Coffee, as is well known,
contains an active principle known as
caffein which acts as a stimulant to the
nervous system and in small quantities is
very beneficial. Cinchona supplies us with
quinine, while Ipecacuanha produces ipe-
cac, which is an emetic and purgative.
The families are divided into smaller sec-
tions known as genera, and to the genus
Coffea belongs the coffee plant. Under this
genus Coffea are several sub-genera, and to
the sub-genus Eucoffea belongs our common
coffee, Coffea arabica. Coffea arahica is
the original or common Java coffee of com-
merce. The term "common" coffee may
seem unnecessary, but there are many other
species of coffee besides arahica. These
species have not been described very fre-
quently; because their native haunts are
the tropics, and the tropics do not always
offer favorable conditions for the study of
their plants.
All botanists do not agree in their classi-
fication of the species and varieties of the
coffea genus. M. E. de Wildman, curator
of the royal botanical gardens at Brussels,
in his Les Plantes Tropicales de Grande
Cidture, says the systematic division of
this interesting genus is far from finished;
in fact, it may be said hardly to be begun.
Coffea arahica we know best because of
the important role it plays in commerce.
Complete Classification of Coffee
Kingdom Vegetable
Sub-Kiiigdom Angiospermce
Class DicotyledonecB
Sub-class Sympetalce or Metaclilamydew
Order Ruhiales
Family RuMacece
Genus Coffea
Sub-genus Eucoffea
Species C. araiica
BOTANY OF COFFEE
138
CH .E/v\OMT
Details of the Germination of the Coffee Plant
From a drawing by Ch. Emonts in Jardin's Le Cafeier et Le Cafe
The coffee plant most cultivated for its
berries is, as already stated, Coffea arabica,
which is found in tropical regions, although
it can grow in temperate climates. Unlike
most plants that grow best in the tropics,
it can stand low temperatures. It requires
shade when it grows in hot, low-lying dis-
tricts; but when it grows on elevated land,
it thrives without such protection. Free-
man' says there are about eight recognized
species of coffea.
Coffea Arabica
Coffea arabica is a shrub with evergreen
leaves, and reaches a height of fourteen
to twenty feet when fully grown. The
shrub produces dimorphic branches, i. e.,
branches of two forms, known as uprights
and laterals. When young, the plants have
a main stem, the upright, which, however,
eventually sends out side shoots, the later-
als. The laterals may send out other later-
als, known as secondary laterals; but no
lateral can ever produce an upright. The
laterals are produced in pairs and are op-
posite, the pairs being borne in whorls
around the stem. The laterals are pro-
duced only while the joint of the upright,
to which they are attached, is young; and
if they are broken off at that point, the
1 Freeman, W. G. The World's Commercial Prod-
ucts. Boston, (p. 170.)
upright has no power to reproduce them.
The upright can produce new uprights
also; but if an upright is cut off, the later-
als at that position tend to thicken up.
This is very desirable, as the laterals pro-
duce the flowers, which seldom appear on
the uprights. This fact is utilized in prun-
ing the coffee tree, the uprights being cut
back, the laterals then becoming more pro-
ductive. Planters generally keep their
trees pruned down to about six feet.
The leaves are lanceolate, or lance-shaped,
being borne in pairs opposite each other.
They are three to six inches in length, with
an acuminate apex, somewhat attenuate at
the base, with very short petioles which are
united with the short interpetiolar stipules
at the base. The coffee leaves are thin, but
of firm texture, slightly coriaceous. They
are very dark green on the upper surface,
but much lighter underneath. The margin
of the leaf is entire and wavy. In some
tropical countries the natives brew a coffee
tea from the leaves of the coffee tree.
The coft'ee flowers are small, white, and
very fragrant, having a delicate character-
istic odor. They are borne in the axils of
the leaves in clusters, and several crops are
produced in one season, depending on the
conditions of heat and moisture that pre-
vail in the particular season. The diffor-
ent blossomings are classed as main blossom-
134
ALL ABOUT COFFEE
P5
o
o
I— I
<
Eh
H
o
Q
BOTANY OF COFFEE
185
ing and smaller blossomings. In semi-dry
high districts, as in Costa Rica or Guate-
mala, there is one blossoming season, about
March, and flowers and fruit are not found
together, as a rule, on the trees. But in
lowland plantations where rain is peren-
nial, blooming and fruiting continue prac-
tically all the year; and ripe fruits, green
fruits, open flowers, and flower buds are to
be found at the same time on the same
branchlet. not mixed together, but in the
order indicated.
The flowers are also tubular, the tube of
le corolla dividing into five white seg-
m. '''-ni^B-'A.
C<^^^^r:^
":'^,''™l
[4%? "
r- ■ ^^^
-^i^ngKil^
"Ik^sk" :*m
^f "J
>1
--■f' N^
,^1
1. ^
Pfc
%^M
^ ■
COFFEA ARABICA I'ORTO KiCO
ments. Dr. P. J. S. Cramer, chief of the
division of plant breeding. Department of
Agriculture, Netherlands India, says the
number of petals is not at all constant, not
even for flowers of the same tree. The
corolla segments are about one-half inch
in length, while the tube itself is about
three-eighths of an inch long. The anthers
of the stamens, which are five in number,
protrude from the top of the corolla tube,
together with the top of the two-cleft pistil.
The calyx, which is so small as to escape
notice unless one is aware of its existence,
is annular, with small, tooth-like indenta-
tions.
While the usual color of the coffee flower
is white, the fresh stamens and pistils may
have a greenish tinge, and in some culti-
vated species the corolla is pale pink.
The size and condition of the flowers are
entirely dependent on the weather. The
flowers are sometimes very small, very fra-
grant, and very numerous; while at other
times, when the weather is not hot and dry,
they are very large, but not so numerous.
Both sets of flowers mentioned above "set
fruit," as it is called; but at times, espe-
cially in a very dry season, they bear
flowers that are few in number, small, and
imperfectly formed, the petals frequently
being green instead of white. These flowers
do not set fruit. The flowers that open on
a dry sunny day show a greater yield of
fruit than those that open on a wet day, as
the first mentioned have a better chance
of being pollinated by the insects and the
wind. The beauty of a coffee estate in
flower is of a very fleeting character. One
day it is a snowy expanse of fragrant white
blossoms for miles and miles, as far as the
eye can see, and two days later it reminds
one of the lines from Villon's Des Dames
du Temps Jadis,
Where are the snows of yesterday?
The winter winds have blown them all away.
But here, the winter winds are not to
blame : the soft, gentle breezes of the per-
CoFFEA Ababica, Flower axu Fruit — Costa
Rka
petual summer have wrought the havoc,
leaving, however, a not unpleasing picture
of dark, cool, mossy green foliage.
The flowers are beautiful, but the eye of
the planter sees in them not alone beauty
and fragrance. He looks far beyond, and
in his mind's eye he sees bags and bags
186
ALL ABOUT COFFEE
Young Coffea Arabica Tkee at Kona, Hawaii
of green coffee, representing to him the
goal and reward of all his toil. After the
flowers droop, there appear what are com-
mercially known as the coffee berries. Bo-
tanically speaking, "berry" is a misnomer.
These little fruits are not berries, such as
are well represented by the grape ; but are
drupes, which are better exemplified by the
cherry and the peach. In the course of
six or seven months, these coffee drupes
develop into little red balls about the size
of an ordinary cherry; but, instead of
being round, they are somewhat ellipsoidal,
having at the outer end a small umbilicus.
The drupe of the coffee usually has two
loeules, each containing a little "stone"
(the seed and its parchment covering) from
which the coffee bean (seed) is obtained.
Some few drupes contain three, while
others, at the outer ends of the branches,
contain only one round bean, known as
the peaberry. The number of pickings
corresponds to the different blossomings
in the same season ; and one tree of the
species arabica may yield from one to
twelve pounds a year.
In countries like India and Africa, the
birds and monkeys eat the ripe coffee ber-
ries. The so-called "monkey coffee" of
India, according to Arnold, is the undi-
gested coffee beans passed through the ali-
mentary canal of the animal.
The pulp surrounding the coffee beans
is at present of no commercial importance.
Although efforts have been made at various
times by natives to use it as a food, its
flavor has not gained any great popularity,
and the birds are permitted a monopoly of
the pulp as a food. From the human
standpoint the pulp, or sarcocarp, as it is
scientifically called, is rather an annoyance,
as it must be removed in order to procure
the beans. This is done in one of two
ways. The first is known as the dry meth-
od, in which the entire fruit is allowed to
dry, and is then cracked open. The sec-
ond way is called the wet method; the
sarcocarp is removed by machine, and two
wet, slimy seed packets are obtained. These
packets, which look for all the world like
seeds, are allowed to dry in such a way that
fermentation takes place. This rids them
of all the slime; and, after they are thor-
oughly dry, the endocarp, the so-called
parchment covering, is easily cracked open
and removed. At the same time that the
parchment is removed, a thin silvery mem-
brane, the silver skin, beneath the parch-
ment, comes off, too. There are always
Survivors of the First Liberian Cofbee Trees
Introduced into Java in 1876
BOTANY OF COFFEE
137
^^■K'^^^'S
■jjjj
^^^^^^J^^^^^^H
Pf '^"t^^^^B
P^pr ^^^^1
j^B
BBS
^^^^^^t^w^^^B*^
^^^^^^^Hk^^S^B^ ^
COFFEA ARABICA IN FLOWER ON A JA\' A ESTATE
From a photograph made at I>ramaga, Preanger, Java, in 1907
138
ALL ABOUT COFFEE
LiBERiAX Coffee Tree at Lamoa, P. I.
small fragments of this silver skin to be
found in the groove of the coffee bean con-
tained within the parchment packet,
r We have said that the coffee tree yields
from one to twelve pounds a year, but of
course this varies with the individual tree
and also with the region. In some coun-
tries the whole year's yield is less than 200
pounds per acre, while there is on record
a patch in Brazil which yields about seven-
teen pounds to the tree, bringing the yield
per acre much higher.
The beans do not retain their vitality for
planting for any considerable length of
time; and, if they are thoroughly dried, or
are kept for longer than three or four
months, they are useless for that purpose.
It takes the seed about six weeks to ger-
minate and to appear above ground. Trees
raised from seed begin to blossom in about
three years ; but a good crop can not be ex-
pected of them for the first five or six
years. Their usefulness, save in excep-
tional cases, is ended in about thirty years.
The coffee tree can be propagated in a
way other than by seeds. The upright
branches can be used as slips, which, after
taking root, will produce seed-bearing lat-
erals. The laterals themselves can not be
used as slips. In Central America the na-
tives sometimes use coffee uprights for
fences and it is no uncommon sight to see
the fence posts "growing."
The wood of the coffee tree is used also
for cabinet work,- as it is much stronger
than many of the native woods, weighing
about forty-three pounds to the cubic foot,
having a crushing strength of 5,800 pounds
per square inch, and a breaking strength of
10,900 pounds per square inch.
The propagation of the coffee plant by
cutting has two distinct advantages over
propagation by seed, in that it spares the
expense of seed production, which is enor-
mous, and it gives also a method of hybrid-
ization, which, if used, might lead not only
to very interesting but also to very profit-
able results.
The hybridization of the coffee plant was
taken up in a thoroughly scientific manner
by the Dutch government at the experi-
mental garden established at Bangelan,
Java, in 1900. In his studies, twelve va-
rieties of Coffea arabica are recognized by
Dr. P. J. S. Cramer, namely :
Laurina, a hybrid of Coffea arahica with C.
mauritiana, having small narrow leaves, stiff,
dense branches, young leaves almost wliite, berry
long and narrow, and beans narrow and oblong.
Mnrta, having small leaves, dense branches,
beans as in the typical Coffea arabica, and the
plant able to stand bitter cold.
Menosperma, a distinct type, with narrow
leaves and bent-down branches resembling a
2 Tea and Coffee Trade Jour., 1018.
no. 4 )
(vol. XXXV :
Two-and-One-Half-Yeab-Old C. Congensis
BOTANY OF COFFEE
139
A HEAVY FLOWERING OF FIVE-YEAR-OLD COFFEA EXCELSA
This Is a comparatively new species, discovered in the Tcliad T>ake district of West Africa in 190r».
a small-beaned variety of Coffca liberica
It is
140
ALL ABOUT COFFEE
JBbanches of Cofpea Excels a Grown at the
Lamao Experiment Station, P. I.
willow, the berries seldom containing more tlian
one seed.
Mohka (Coffea MokkcB), having small leaves,
dense foliage, small round berries, small round
beans resembling split peas, and possessed of a
stronger flavor than Coffea arabica.
Purpurescens, a red-leaved variety, compar-
able with the red-leaved hazel and copper beech,
a little less productive than the Coffea arahka.
Variegata, having variegated leaves striped
and spotted with white.
Amarella, having yellow berries, comparable
with the white-fruited variety of the strawberry,
raspberry, etc.
Bullata, having broad, curled leaves ; stiflf,
thick, fragile branches, and round, fleshy ber-
ries containing a high percentage of empry
beans.
Angustifolia, a narrow-leaved variety, with
berries somewhat more oblong and, like the
foregoing, a poor producer.
Erecta, a variety that is sturdier than the
typical arabica, better suited to windy places,
and having a production as in the common
arabica.
Maragogipe, a well-defined variety with light
green leaves having colored edges; berries large,
broad, sometimes narrower in the middle ; a
C. Stenopiiylla, From Which Is Obtained the
Highland Coffee of Sierra Leone
light bearer, the whole crop sometimes being
reduced to a couple of berries per tree.'
Columruvris, a vigorous variety, sometimes
reaching a height of 25 feet, having leaves
rounded at the base and rather broad, but a
shy bearer, recommended for dry climates.
Coffea Stenophylla
Coffea arabica has a formidable rival in
the species stenophylla. The flavor of this
variety is pronounced by some as surpass-
ing that of arabica. The great disadvan-
tage of this plant is the fact that it re-
quires so long a time before a yield of any
value can be secured. Although the time
required for the maturing of the crop is
so long, when once the plantation begins
to yield, the crop is as large as that of
Coffea arahica, and occasionally somewhat
larger. The leaves are smaller than any
of the species described, and the flowers
bear their parts in numbers varying from
six to nine. The tree is a native of Sierra
Leone, where it grows wild.
Coffea Lib erica
The bean of Coffea arabica, although the
principal bean used in commerce, is not the
^ Dr. Cramer considers C. Maragogipe "the flnrst
coffee known ; it lias a higlily developed, splendid
flavor."
BOTANY OF COFFEE
Copyright, iyU9, by The Tea and Coffee Trade Journal
NEAR VIEW OF COFFEE BERRIES OF COFFEA ARABICA
142
ALL ABOUT COFFEE
Wild "Caffein-Free"' Coffee Tree
Mantsa'ka or Cafe Sauvofje — Madagascar
only one ; and it may not be out of place
here to describe briefly some of the other
varieties that are produced commercially.
Coffea liberica is one of these plants. The
quality of the beverage made from its ber-
ries is inferior to that of Coffea arahica,
but the plant itself offers distinct advan-
tages in its hardy growing qualities. This
makes it attractive for hybridization.
The Coffea liberica tree is much larger
and sturdier than the Coffea arahica', and
in its native haunts it reaches a height of
30 feet. It will grow in a much more tor-
rid climate and can stand exposure to
strong sunlight. The leaves are about twice
as long as those of arahica, being six to
twelve inches in length, and are very thick,
tough, and leathery. The apex of the
leaf is acute. The flowers are larger than
those of arahica, and are borne in dense
clusters. At any time during the season,
the same tree may bear flowers, white or
pinkish, and fragrant, or even green, to-
gether with fruits, some green, some ripe
and of a brilliant red. The corolla has
been known to have seven segments, though
as a rule it has five. The fruits are large,
round, and dull red; the pulps are not
juicy, and are somewhat bitter. Unlike
Coffea arahica, the ripened drupes do not
fall from the trees, and so the picking can
be delayed at the planter's convenience.
Among the allied Liberian species Dr
Cramer recognizes:
Abeokutae, having small leaves of a bright
green, flower buds often pink just before open-
ing (in Liberian coffee never), fruit smaller
with sharply striped red and yellow shiny skin,
and producing somewhat smaller beans than
Liberian coffee, but beans whose flavor and
taste are praised by brokers ;
Deivevrei. having curled edged leaves, stiff
branches, thick-skinned berries, sometimes pink
flowers, beans generally smaller than in C.
liberica, but of little interest to the trade :
Arnoldiana, a species near to Coffea Abeoku-
tae having darker foliage and the even colored
small berries :
Laurentii Gillet, a species not to be confused
with the V. Laurentii belonging to the robusta
coffee, but standing near to C. liberica, charac-
terized by oblong rather than thin-skinned ber-
ries ;
Excelsa, a vigorous, disease-resisting species
discovered in 1905 by Aug. Chevalier in West
Differentiating Characteristics of Coffee
Beans, in Cross-section
Col. I. Mature bean. Col. II. Embryo.
A. Gojfea arabica, R. Coffea rohusta, L. Coffea liberica
BOTANY OF COFFEE
143
144
ALL ABOUT COFFEE
Africa, in the region of tlie Chari River, not far
from Lake Tchad. The broad, dark-green leaves
have an under side of liglit green witli a bluish
tinge ; the flowers are large and white, borne in
axillary clusters of one to five ; the berries are
short and broad, in color crimson, the bean
smaller than rohusta, very like Mocha, but in
color a bright yellow like Uberica. The caffein
content of the coffee is high, and the aroma is
very pronounced ;
Dyboicskii, another disease-resisting variety
similar to excelsa, but having different leaf and
fruit characteristics ;
LanibOray, having bent gutter-like leaves, and
soft-skinned, oblong fruit ;
Wanni Riikula, having large leaves, a vigorous
growth, and small berries ;
Coffca arutmmensis, being a mixture of dif-
ferent types.
The last three types were received by Dr.
Cramer at Bangelan from Frere Gillet in
the Belgian Congo, and were still under
trial in Java in 1919.
Coffea Rohusta
Emil Laurent, in 1898, discovered a spe-
cies of coffee growing wild in Congo. This
was taken up by a horticultural firm of
Brussels, and cultivated for the market.
This firm gave to the coffee the name Coffea
rohusta, although it had already been given
the name of the discoverer, being known as
Coffea Laurentii. The plant diifers widely
from both arahica and liherica, being con-
siderably larger than either. The tree is
umbrella-shaped, due to the fact that its
branches are very long and bend toward
the ground.
The leaves of rohusta are much thinner
than those of liherica, though not as thin
as those of arahica. The tree, as a whole,
is a very hardy variety and even bears
blossoms when it is less than a year old.
It blossoms throughout the entire year, the
flowers having six-parted corollas. The
drupes are smaller than those of liherica;
but are much thinner skinned, so that the
coffee bean is actually not any smaller.
The drupes mature in ten months. Al-
though the plants bear as early as the first
year, the yield for the first two years is of
no account; but by the fourth year the
crop is large.
Amo Viehoever, pharmacognosist in
charge of the pharmacognosy laboratory of
the Bureau of Chemistry, United States
Department of Agriculture, has recently
RogusTA Coffee in Flower, Preangeb, Java
ALL ABOUT COFFEE
Coffee Estate in the Luquillo Mountains, Porto Rico
Jai'anksi: i,Ai!t)i!i:i:s I'UKi.Nd Coffee on Kona rSiiiE, Island of Hawaii
COFFEE UNDER THE STABS AND STRIPES
BOTANY OF COFFEE
145
One-Ykau-Ulu Kuhusta Estate, on Sumatra's West Coast
announced findings confirming Hartwich
which appear to permit of differentiation
between rohusta, arabica, and liherica*
These are mainly the peculiar folding of
the endosperm, showing quite generally a
distinct hook in the case of the rohusta cof-
fee bean. The size of the embryo, and es-
pecially the relation of the rootlet to hy-
pereotyl, wall be found useful in the dif-
ferentiation of the species Coffea arabica,
liherica, and rohusta (see cut, page 142).
Viehoever and Lepper carried on a series
•of cup tests of rohusta, the results as to
taste and flavor being distinctly favorable.*
They summarized their studies and tests
as follows:
The time when coffee could be limited to
beans obtained from plants of Coffea arabica
and Coffea Uberica has passed. Other species,
with qualities which make them desirable, even
in preference to the well reputed named ones,
have been discovered and cultivated. Among
them, the species or group of Coffea rohusta has
attained a great economic significance, and is
grown in increasing amounts. While it has, as
reports seem to indicate, not as yet been pos-
sible to obtain a strain that would be as de-
sirable in flavor as the old "standard" Coffea
*,Ioumnl of the A^nnciation of Official Agricultural
Chemists, ><ov. 15, 1921. (vol. v : no. 2 : pp. 274 -
•2S8.)
arabica, well known as Java or "Fancy Jav&"
coffee, its merits have been established.
The botanical origin is not quite cleared up,
and the classification of the varieties belonging
to the rohusta group deserves further study.
Anatomical means of differentiating rohusta
coft'ee from other species or groups, may be ap-
plied as distinctly helpful. ,
As is usual in most of the coffee species, caf-
fein is present. The amount appears to be, on
an average, somewhat larger (even exceeding
2.0 percent) than in the South American cof-
fee species. In no instance, however, did the
amount exceed the maximum limits observed in
coffee in general. .
Due to its rapid growth, early and prolific
yield, resistance to coffee blight, and many other
desirable qualities, Coffea rohusta has estab-
lished "its own". In the writers' judgment,
rohusta coffee deserves consideration and rec-
ognition.
Among the rohusta varieties, Coifea cane-
pJiora is a distinct species, well character-
ized by growth, leaves, and berries. The
branches are slender and thinner than
rohusta; the leaves are dark green and
narrower ; the flowers are often tinged with
red ; the unripe berries are purple, the ripe
berries bright red and oblong. The produce
is like rohusta, only the shape of the bean,
somewhat narrower and more oblong, makes
it look more attractive. Coffea canephora,
146
ALL ABOUT COFFEE
like C. robusta, seems better fitted to higher
altitudes.
Other canephora varieties include :
Madagascar, having small, slightly-
striped, bright red berries and small round
beans ;
Quilloucnsis, having dark green foliage
and reddish brown young leaves; and,
Stenophylla Paris, with purplish young
berries.
These last two named were under test at
the Bangelan gardens in 1919.
Among other allied rohusta species are:
Vgandce, whose produce is said to pos-
sess a better flavor than rohusta;
Bukobensis, different from Vgandce in
the color of its berries, which are a dark
red; and
Quillou, having bright red fruit, a cop-
per-colored silver skin, three pounds of
fruit producing one pound of market coffee.
Some people prefer Quillou to robusta be-
cause of the difference in the taste of the
roasted bean.
Some Interesting Hybrids
. The most popular hybrid belongs to a
crossing of liberica and arabica. Cramer
states that the beans of this hybrid make
an excellent coffee combining the strong
taste of the liberica with the fine flavor of
the old Government Java (arabica), adding:
The hybrids are not only of value to the
roaster, but also to the planter. They are vig-
orous trees, pi-actically free from leaf disease ;
they stand drought well and also heavy rains ;
they are not particular in regard to shade and
upkeep; never fail to give a fair and often a
rather heavy crop. The fruit ripens all the
year around, and does not fall so easily as in
the case of arabica.
Among other hybrids (many were still
under trial in 1919) may be mentioned:
Coffea excelsia x liberica; C. Abeokuta; x
liberica; C. Dybowskii x excelsa; C. steno-
phylla X Abeokutce; C. congensis x
Ugandce; C. Uganda; x congensis; and C.
robusta x Maragogipe.
There are many species of Coffea that
stand quite apart from the main groups,
arabica, robusta and liberica; but while
some are of commercial value, most of them
are interesting only from the scientific point
of view. Among the latter may be men-
tioned: Coffea bengalensis, C. Perieri, C.
mauritiana, C. macrocarpa, C. madagas-
cariensis, and C. schumanniana.
M. Teyssonnier, of the experimental gar-
den at Camayenne, French Guinea, West
Africa, has produced a promising species of
coffee known as affinis. It is a hybrid of
C. stenophylla with a species of liberica.
Coffea Quillou Flowers in Full Bloom
^Kd by Dr. Cramer are :
Coffea congensis, whose berry resembles
that of C. arahica, when well prepared for
the market being green or bluish ; and
Coffea congensis var. Chalotii, probably
a hybrid of C. congensis with C. canephora.
Caffein-free Coffee
Certain trees growing wild in the Comoro
Islands and Madagascar are known as
caffein-free coffee trees. Just whether they
are entitled to this classification or not is a
question. Some of the French and Ger-
man investigators have reported coffee from
these regions that was absolutely devoid of
caffein. It w^as thought at first that they
must represent an entirely new genus ; but
upon investigation, it was found that they
belonged to the genus Coffea, to which all
our common coffees belong. Professor
Dubard, of the French National Museum
and Colonial Garden, studied these trees
botanically and classified them as C. Gal-
lienii, C. Bonnieri, C. Mogeneti, and C.
Aiigag)tcuri. The beans of berries from
these trees were analyzed by Professor
Bertrand and pronounced caffein-free ; but
Labroy, in writing of the same coffee, states
that, while the bean is caffein-free, it con-
tains a very bitter substance, cafamarine.
BOTANY OF COFFEE
147
which makes the infusion unfit for use.
Dr. O. W. Willcox", in examining some
specimens of wild coffee from Madagascar,
found that the bean was not caffein-free;
and though the caffein content was low, it
was no lower than in some of the Porto
Rican varieties.
Hartwich' reports that Hanausek found
no caffein in C. mauritiana, C. humboltiana,
C. Gallienii, C. Bonnerii, and C. Mogeneti.
Fungoid Disease of Coffee
The coffee tree, like every other living
thing, has specific diseases and enemies, the
most common of which are certain fungoid
diseases where the mycelium of the fungus
grows into the tissue and spots the leaves,
eventually -causing them to fall, thus rob-
bing the plant of its only means of elabor-
ating food. Its most deadly enemy in the
insect world is a small insect of the lepidop-
terous variety, which is known as the coffee-
leaf miner. It is closely related to the
clothes moth and, like the moth, bores in its
larval stage, feeding on the mesophyl of
the leaves. This gives the leaves an appear-
ance of being shriveled or dried by heat.
There are three principal diseases, due
to fungi, from which the coffee plants
^The Tea and Cotfee Trade Jour., 1912. (vol. xxiii :
no. 3.)
'Die Menachlichen Oenusmittel, 1911. (p. 300.)
An Eighteen-Months'-Old Coffea Quiulou Tree in Blossom
148
ALL ABOUT COFFEE
suffer. The most common is known as the
leaf-blight fungus, Pellicularia tokeroga,
which is a slow-spreading disease, but one
that causes great loss. Although the fungus
does not produce spores, the leaves die and
dry, and are blown away, carrying with
them the dried mycelium of the fungus.
This mycelium will start to grow as soon
as it is supplied with a new moist coffee
leaf to nourish it. The method of getting
rid of this disease is to spray the trees in
seasons of drought.
It was a fungoid disease known as the
Hemileia vastatrix that attacked Ceylon's
coffee industry in 1869, and eventually
destroyed it. It is a microscopic fungus
whose spores, carried by the wind, adhere
to and germinate upon the leaves of the
coffee tree'.
Another common disease is known as the
root disease, which eventually kills the tree
by girdling it below the soil. It spreads
slowly, but seems to be favored by collec-
tions of decaying matter around the base
of the tree. Sometimes the digging of
ditches around the roots is sufficient to
protect it. The other common disease is
due to Stilhium flavidum, and is found only
in regions of great humidity. It affects
both the leaf and the fruit and is known
as the spot of leaf and fruit.
' See chapter XVI.
CoFFEA Uganda Bent Over by a Heavy Crop
Chapter XVI
HE MICROSCOPY OF THE COFFEE FRUIT
How the beans may be examined under the microscope, and what is
revealed — Structure of the berry, the green, and the roasted bean —
The coffee leaf disease under the microscope — Value of microscopic
analysis in detecting adulteration
THE microscopy of coffee is, on the
whole, more important to the planter
than to the consumer and the dealer ;
while, on the other hand, the microscopy is
of paramount importance to the consumer
and the dealer as furnishing the best means
of determining whether the product offered
is adulterated or not. Also, from this
spherical ; in the rare instances where three
seeds are found, the grains are angular.
The coffee bean with which the consumer
is familiar is only a small part of the fruit.
The fruit, which is the size of a small
cherry, has, like the cherry, an outer fleshy
portion called the pericarp. Beneath this is
a part like tissue paper, spoken of technic-
Mk
I 11
Fig. 331. Coffee (Coffea arahica). I — Cross-section of berry, natural size; Pk, outer pericarp;
Mk, endocarp ; Ek, spermoderm ; 8a, liard endosperm ; 8p, soft endosperm. II — Longitudinal
section of berry, natural size ; Dis, bordered disk ; 8e, remains of sepals ; Em, embryo. Ill-
Embryo, enlarged; cot, cotyledon; rad, radicle. (Tschircli and Oesterle.)
standpoint, the microscopy of the plant is
less important than that of the bean.
The Fruit and the Bean
The fruit, as stated in chapter XV, con-
sists of two parts, each one containing a
single seed, or bean. These beans are flat-
tened laterally, so as to fit together, except
in the following instances : in the peaberry,
where one of the ovules never develops, the
single ovule, having no pressure upon it, is
ally as the parchment, but known scientific-
ally as the endocarp. Next in position to
this, and covering the seed, is the so-called
spermoderm, which means the seed skin,
referred to in the trade as the silver skin.
Small portions of this silver skin are always
to be found in the cleft of the coffee bean.
The coffee bean is the embryo and its
food supply ; the embryo is that part of the
seed which, when supplied with food and
moisture, develops into a new plant. The
149
150
ALL ABOUT COFFEE
embryo of the coffee is very minute (Fig.
331, II, Em) '; and the greater part of the
seed is taken up by the food supply, con-
Fig. 332. Coffee. Cross section of bean
showing folded endosperm with hard
and soft tissues. x6. (Moeller)
sisting of hard and soft endosperm (Fig.
331, I and II, Sa, Sp). The minute em-
bryo consists of two small thick leaves, the
cotyledons (Fig. 331, III, cot), a short
stem, invisible in the undissected embryo,
and a small root, the radicle (Fig. 331, III,
rad).
Fruit Structure
In order to examine the structure of these
layers of the fruit under the microscope, it
is necessary to use the pericarp dry, as it
is not easily obtainable in its natural con-
dition. If desired, an alcoholic specimen
may be used, but it has been found that
the dry method gives more satisfactory re-
sults. The dried pericarp is about 0.5 mm
thick. Great difficulty is experienced in
cutting microtome sections of pericarp when
the specimen is embedded in paraffin, be-
cause the outer layers are soft and the
endocarp is hard, and the two parts of the
section separate at this point. To overcome
this, the sections might also be embedded in
celloidin. When the sections are satisfac-
tory, they may be stained with any of the
double stains ordinarily used in the study
of plant histology.
A section cut crosswise through the entire
fruit would present the appearance shown
in Fig. 333. The cells of the epicarp are
^These and all other numbered drawings in this
chapter are from Andrew L. Winton's The Microscopy
of Vegetable Foods, copyright 191G, and reprinted by
permission.
broad and polygonal, sometimes regularly
four-sided, about 15-35 fi broad. At in-
tervals along the surface of the epicarp are
stomata, or breathing pores, surrounded by
guard cells. The next layer of the pericarp
is the mesocarp (Figs. 333, 334, 335), the
cells of which are larger and more regular
in outline than the epicarp. The cells of
the mesocarp become as large as 100 fi
broad, but in the inner parts of the layer
they become very much flattened. Fibro-
vascular bundles are scattered through the
compressed cells of the mesocarp. The cell
walls are thick; and large, amorphous,
brown masses are found within the cell;
occasionally, large crystals are found in the
outer part of the layer. The fibrovascular
bundles consist mainly of bast and wood
fibers and vessels. The bast fibers are as
large as 1 mm long and 25 fi broad, with
fffb
ixpn9BSrS6a:
Fig. 333. Coffee. Cross section of hull
and bean. Pericarp consists of : 1, epi-
carp ; 2-3, layers of mesocarp, with 4,
flbro-vascular bundle ; 5, palisade layer ;
and 6, endocarp ; ss, spermoderm, con-
sists of 8, sclerenchyma, and 9, paren-
chyma ; End, endosperm (Tschirch and
Oesterle)
MICROSCOPY OF COFFEE
151
Fig. 334. Coflfee. Surface view of ep, epi-
carp, and p^ outer parenchyma of meso-
carp. xl60. (Moeller)
thick walls and very small lumina. Spiral
and pitted vessels are also present.
The layer next to this is a soft tissue,
parenchyma (Fig. 333, 5; Fig. 334, p).
The parenchyma, or palisade cells as they
are called, is a thin-walled tissue in which
the cells are elongated, from which fact
they receive their name. The walls of these
cells, though verj^ thin, are mucilaginous,
and capable of taking up large amounts of
water. They stain well with the aniline
stains.
The endocarp (Fig. 336) is closely con-
nected with the palisade layer and has thin-
walled cells that closely resemble, in all
respects, the endocarp of the apple. The
outer layer consists of thick-walled fibers,
which are remarkably porous (Fig. 333, 6;
Fig. 336) while the fibers of the inner layer
are thin-walled and run in the transverse
direction.
The Bean Structure
Spermoderm, or silver skin, is not diffi-
cult to secure for microscopic analysis ; be-
cause shreds of it remain in the groove of
the berry, and these shreds are ample for
examination. It can readily be removed
without tearing, if soaked in water for a
few hours. The spermoderm is thin enough
not to need sectioning. It consists of two
elements — sclerenchyma and parenchyma
cells. (Figs. 333, 337, st,p).
Sclerenchyma forms an uninterrupted
covering in the early stages of the seed ; but
Fig. 335. Coffee. Elements of pericarp in
surface view. p, parencliyma ; Itp,
parencliyma of fibro-vascular bundle ;
ft, bast fiber ; sp, spiral vessel. xl60.
(Moeller)
as the seed develops, surrounding tissues
grow more rapidly than the sclerenchyma,
and the cells are pushed apart and scattered.
The cells occurring in the cleft of the berry
are straight, narrow, and long, becoming as
long as 1 mm, and resemble bast fibers
somewhat. On the surface of the berry,
and sometimes in the cleft, there are found
smaller, thicker cells, which are irregular
in outline, club-shaped and vermiform
types predominating.
Parenchyma cells form the remainder of
the spermoderm; and these are partially
obliterated, so that the structure is not
easily seen, appearing almost like a solid
membrane. The raphe runs through the
parenchyma found in the cleft of the berry.
The endosperm (Figs. 333; 338) consist
of small cells in the outer part, and large
cells, frequently as thick as 100 /x, in the
inner part. The cell walls are thickened
and knotted. Certain of the inner cells
have mucilaginous walls which when treated
with water disappear, leaving only the
middle lamellae, which gives the section a
peculiar appearance. The cells contain no
starch, the reserve food supply being
stored cellulose, protein, and aleurone
grains. Various investigators report the
presence of sugar, tannin, iron, salts, and
caffein.
The embryo (Fig. 331, III) may be ob-
tained by soaking the bean in water for
several hours, cutting through the cleft and
carefully breaking apart the endosperm. If
152
ALL ABOUT COFFEE
Fig. 336. Coffee. Sclerenchyma fibers of
endocarp. xl60. (Moeller)
it is now soaked in diluted alkali, the
embryo protrudes through the lower end of
the endosperm. It is then cleared in alkali,
or in chloral hydrate. The cotyledons
shown have three pairs of veins, which are
slightly netted. The radicle is blunt and is
about % mm in length, while the cotyledons
are ^ mm long.
The Coffee-Leaf Disease
The coffee tree has many pests and dis-
eases; but the disease most feared by
planters is that generally referred to as the
coffee-leaf disease, and by this is meant the
fungoid Hemileia vastatrix, which as told in
Fig. 338. Coffee. Cross-section of outer
layers of endosperm, shiowing knotty
thickenings of cell walls. xl60.
(Moeller)
chapter XV, destroyed Ceylon's once pros-
perous coffee industry. As it has since been
found in nearly all coffee-producing coun-
tries, it has become a nightmare in the
dreams of all coffee planters. The micro-
scope shows how the spores of this dreaded
Fig. 339. Coffee. Tis-
sues of embryo in sec-
tion. xl60. (Moeller)
Fig. 337. Coffee. Spermoderm in surface view. at.
sclerenchyma ; p, compressed parencnyma. xlOO.
(Moeller)
fungus, carried by the winds upon a leaf
of the coffee tree, proceed to germinate at
the expense of the leaf; robbing it of its
nourishment, and causing it to droop and
to die. A mixture of powdered lime and
sulphur has been found to be an effective
germicide, if used in time and diligently
applied.
Value of Microscopic Analysis
The value of the microscopic analysis of
coffee may not be apparent at first sight;
but when one realizes that in many cases
the microscopic examination is the only way
to detect adulteration in coffee, its import-
ance at once becomes apparent. In many
instances the chemical analysis fails to get
at the root of the trouble, and then the only
method to which the tester has recourse is
the examination of the suspected material
under the scope. The mixing of chicory
MICROSCOPY OF COFFEE
153
^th coffee has in the past been one of the
)mmonest forms of adulteration. The
ucroscopic examination in this connection
Roasted date stones have been used as
adulterants, and these can be detected quite
readily with the aid of the microscope, as
Coffee Leaf Disease (Hemileia vastatrix)
1, under surface of affected leaf, x % ; 2, section through same showing mycelium, haustoria.
and a spore-cluster ; 3, a spore-cluster seen from below : 4, a uredospore ; 5, germinating
uredospore ; 6, appressorial swellings at tips of germ-tubes ; 7, infection through stoma of
leaf ; 8. teleutospores ; 9, teleutospore germinating with promycelium and sporidia ; 10, spori-
dia and their germination (2 after Zimmermann, 3 after Delacroix, 4-10 after Ward)
is the most reliable. The coffee grain will
have the appearance already described.
Microscopically, chicory shows numerous
thin-w^alled parenchymatous cells, lactifer-
ous vessels, and sieve tubes with transverse
plates. There are also present large vessels
with huge, well-defined pits.
they have a very characteristic microscopic
appearance. The epidermal cells are almost
oblong, while the parenchymatous cells are
large, irregular and contain large quantities
of tannin.
Adulteration and adulterants are con-
sidered more fully in chapter XVII.
Green and Roasted Coffee Under the Microscope
Green bean, showing the size and form of the cells
as well as the drops of oil contained within their
cavities. Drawn with the camera lucida, and
magnified 140 diameters.
A fragment of roasted coffee under the niicrcscope.
Drawn with the camera lucida, and magnifled
140 diameters.
154
ALL ABOUT COFFEE
Bogota, Gkeen
Longitudinal — Magnifled 200 diameters
Bogota, Green
Cross Section — Magnified 200 diameters
Bogota, Green
Tangential — Magnified 200 diameters
Bogota, Roasted
Tangential — Magnified 200 diameters
GREEN AND ROASTED BOGOTA COFFEE UNDER THE MICROSCOPE
These pictures serve to demonstrate that the coffee bean is made up of minute cells that are
not broken down to any extent by the roasting process. Note that the oil globules are more
prominent in the green than in the roasted product
Chapter XVII
&
Q
THE CHEMISTRY OF THE COFFEE BEAN
Chemistry of the preparation and treatment of the green hean —
Artificial aging — .Renovating damaged coffees — Extracts — ''Caf-
fetannic acid" — Caffein, caffein-free coffee — Caffeol — Fats and
oils — Carbohydrates — Roasting — Scientific aspects of grinding
and pacJiaging — The coffee brew — Soluble coffee — Adulterants
and substitutes — Official methods of analysis
By Charles W. Trigg
Industrial Fellow of the Mellon Institute of Industrial Research, Pittsburgh, 191G - 1920
WHEN the vast extent of the coffee
business is considered, together
with the intimate connection
which coffee has with the daily life of the
average human, the relatively small amount
of accurate knowledge which we possess re-
garding the chemical constituents and the
physiological action of coffee is productive
of amazement.
True, a painstaking compilation of all
the scientific and semi-scientific work done
upon coffee furnishes quite a compendium
of data, the value of which is not commen-
surate with its quantity, because of the
spasmodic nature of the investigations and
the non-conclusive character of the results
so far obtained. The following general sur-
vey of the field argues in favor of the pro-
mulgation of well-ordered and systematic
research, of the type now in progress at
several places in the United States, into the
chemical behavior of coffee throughout the
various processes to which it is subjected in
the course of its preparation for human
consumption.
Green Coffee
One of the few chemical investigations
of the growing tree is the examination by
Graf of flowers from 20-year-old coffee
trees, in which he found 0.9 percent caffein.
a reducing sugar, caffetannic acid, and
phytosterol. Power and Chestnut' found
0.82 percent caffein in air-dried coffee
leaves, but only 0.087 percent of the alka-
loid in the stems of the plant separated
from the leaves. In the course of a study"
instituted for the purpose of determining
the best fertilizers for coffee trees, it de-
veloped that the cherries in different stages
of growth show a preponderance of potash
throughout, w^hile the proportion of PgOg
attains a maximum in the fourth month
and then steadily declines.
Experiments are still in progress to as-
certain the precise mineral requirements
of the crop as well as the most suitable
stage at which to apply them. During the
first five months the moisture content un-
dergoes a steady decrease, from 87.13 per-
cent to 65.77 percent, but during the final
ripening stage in the last month there is a
rise of nearly 1 percent. This may ex-
plain the premature falling and failure to
ripen of the crop on certain soils, especially
in years of low rainfall. Malnutrition of
the trees may result also in the production
of oily beans.'
1 JoMr. Am. Chan. Soc, 1919 (vol. xli : p. 1306 K
- Anstead, R. D. Annals on Applied Biology, 1915
(vol. i: pp. 299-302).
* Huntington, L. M. Tea and Coffee Trade Jour.,
1917 (vol. xxxiii: p. 228).
155
156
ALL ABOUT COFFEE
The coffee berry comprises about 68 per-
cent pulp, 6 percent parchment, and 26
percent clean coffee beans. The pulp is
easily removed by mechanical means; but
in order to separate the soft, glutinous, sac-
charine parchment, it is necessary to resort
to fermentation, which loosens the skin so
that it may be removed easily, after which
the coffee is properly dried and aged.
There is first a yeast fermentation produc-
ing alcohol ; and then a bacterial action
giving mainly inactive lactic acid, which is
the main factor in loosening the parchment.
For the production of the best coffee, acetic
acid fermentation (which changes the color
of the bean) and temperature above 60°
should be avoided, as these inhibit subse-
quent enzymatic action.*
Various schemes have been proposed for
utilizing the large amount of pulp so ob-
tained in preparing coffee for market.
Most of these depend upon using the pulp
as fertilizer, since fresh pulp contains 2.61
percent nitrogen, 0.81 percent PaO.,, 2.38
percent potassium, and 0.57 percent cal-
cium. One procedure' in particular is
to mix pulp with sawdust, urine, and a
little lime, and then to leave this mixture
covered in a pit for a year before using.
In addition to these mineral matters, the
pulp also contains about 0.88 percent of
caffein and 18 to 37 percent sugars. Ac-
cordingly, it has been proposed" to extract
the caffein with chloroform, and the sugars
with acidulated water. The aqueous solu-
tion so obtained is then fermented to
alcohol. The insoluble portion left after
extraction can be used as fuel, and the re-
sulting ash as fertilizer.
The pulp has been dried and roasted for
use in place of the berry, and has been im-
ported to England for this purpose. It is
stated that the Arabs in the vicinity of
Jiddah discard the kernel of the coffee ber-
ries and make an infusion of the husk.'
Quality of green coffee is largely depend-
ent upon the methods used and the care
taken in curing it, and upon the conditions
obtaining in shipment and storage. True,
the soil and climatic conditions play a de-
terminative role in the creation of the
characteristics of coffee, but these do not
^ Gorter, Ann. (vol. ccclxxii : pp. 237-46).
Schulte, A. Z. Nahr. Oenussm. (vol. xxvii : pp.
209-25).
Loew, Oscar. Ann. Rep. P. R. Apr. Expt. Sta.,
1907 (pp. 41-55).
» Senclal. El Hacendado Mex. (vol. ix : p. 191).
'Pique, R. Bull. As-^oc. Chim. aucr. dist. (vol. xxiv :
pp. 1210-13).
'' Pharm. Jour., 1886 (vol. xvii : p. 656).
offer any greater opportunity for construc-
tive research and remunerative improve-
ment than does the development of methods
and control in the processes employed in
the preparation of green coffee for the mar-
ket.
Storage prior and subsequent to ship-
ment, and circumstances existing during
transportation, are not to be disregarded
as factors contributory to the final quality
of the coffee. The sweating of mules carry-
Cross-Section of the Endosperm or Hard
Structure of the Green Bean
ing bags of poorly packed coffee, and the
absorption of strong foreign aromas and
flavors from odoriferous substances stored
in too close proximity to the coffee beans,
are classic examples of damage that bear
iterative mention. Damage by sea water,
due more to the excessive moisture than to
the salt, is not so common an occurrence
now as heretofore. However, a cheap and
thoroughly effective means of ethically
renovating coffee which has been damaged
in this manner would not go begging for
commercial application.
That green coffee improves with age, is
a tenet generally accepted by the trade.
Shipments long in transit, subjected to the
effects of tropical heat under closely bat-
tened hatches in poorly ventilated holds,
have developed into much-prized yellow
matured coffee. Were it not for the large
capital required and the attendant prohibi-
tive carrying charges, many roasters would
permit their coffees to age more thoroughly
before roasting. In fact, some roasters do
indulge this desire in regard to a portion
of their stock. But were it feasible to treat
CHEMISTRY OF COFFEE
157
?ortiox of the investing membrane, showing
Its Structure
Drawn with the camera lucida, and magnified 140
diameters
and hold coffees long enough to develop
their attributes to a maximum, still the
exact conditions which would favor such
development are not definitely known.
What are the optimum temperature and
the correct humidity to maintain, and
should the green coffee be well ventilated
or not while in storage? How long should
coffee be stored under the most favorable
conditions best to develop it? Aging for
too long a period will develop flavor at the
expense of body; and the general cup effi-
qiency of some coffees will suffer if they
be kept too long.
The exact reason for improvement upon
aging is in no wise certain, but it is highly
probable that the changes ensuing are
somewhat analogous to those occurring in
the aging of grain. Primarily an unde-
fined enzymatic and mold action most likely
occurs, the nature of the enzymes and molds
being largely dependent upon the previous
treatment of the coffee. Along with this
are a loss of moisture and an oxidation, all
three actions having more evident effects
with the passage of time.
Artificial Aging
In consideration of the higher prices
which aged products demand, attempts
have naturally been made to shorten by
artificial means the time necessary for their
natural production. Some of these methods
depend upon obtaining the most favorable
conditions f6r acceleration of the enzyme
action ; others, upon the effects of micro-
organisms; and still others, upon direct
chemical reaction or physical alteration of
the green bean.
One of the first efforts toward artificial
maturing was that of Ashcroff , who argued
from the improved nature of coffee which
had experienced a delayed voyage. His
method consisted of inclosing the coffee in
sweat-boxes having perforated bottoms and
subjecting it to the sweating action of
steam, the boxes being enclosed in an oven
or room maintained at the temperature of
steam.
Timby" claimed to remove dusts, foreign
odors, and impurities, while attaining in a
few hours or days a ripening effect nor-
mally secured only in several seasons. In
this process, the bagged coffee is placed in
autoclaves and subjected to the action of
air at a pressure of 2 to 3 atmospheres and
a temperature of 40° to 100° F. The tem^
perature should seldom be allowed to rise
above 150° F. The pressure is then al-.
r^
Structure of the Green Bean
Showing thick-walled cells enclosing drops of oil
lowed to escape and a partial vacuum
created in the apparatus. This alteration
of pressure and vacuum is continued until
the desired maturation is obtained.
Desvignes" employs a similar procedure,
although he accomplishes seasoning by
»U. S. Pat., 113,832. April 18, 1871.
»U. S. Pat., 660,602, Oct. 30, 1900.
"French Pat., 379,036, Aug. 28, 1906.
158
ALL ABOUT COFFEE
treating the coffee also with oxygen or
ozone." First the coffee is rendered porous
by storage in a hot chamber, which is then
exhausted prior to admission of the oxygen.
The oxygen can be ozonized in the closed
vessel while in contact with the coffee.
Complete aging in a few days is claimed.
Weitzmann" adopts a novel operation,
by exposing bags of raw coffee to the action
of a powerful magnetic field, obtained with
two adjustable electro-magnets. The claim
that a maturation naturally produced in
several years is thus obtained in % to 2
hours is open to considerable doubt. A
process that is probably attended with more
commercial success is that of Gram" in
which the coffee is treated with gaseous
nitrogen dioxid.
By far the most notable progress in this
field, both scientifically and commercially,
has been made by Robison* with his "cul-
turing" method. Here the green coffee is
washed with water, and then inoculated
with selected strains of micro-organisms,
such as Ochraeceus or Aspergillus Wintii.
Incubation is then conducted for 6 to 7
days at 90° F. and 85 percent relative hu-
midity. Subsequent to this incubation, the
coffee is stored in bins for about ten days ;
after which it is tumbled and scoured.
With this process it is possible to improve
the cupping qualities of a coffee to a sur-
prising degree.
Renovating Damaged Coffees
Sophistication has often been resorted to
in order ostensibly to improve damaged or
cheap coffee. Glazing, coloring, and polish-
ing of the green beans was openly and
covertly practised until restricted by law.
The steps employed did not actually im-
prove the coffee by any means, but merely
put it into condition for more ready sale.
An apparently sincere endeavor to reno-
vate damaged coffee was made by Evans'°
when he treated it with an aqueous solu-
tion of sulphuric acid having a density of
10.5° Baume. After agitation in this solu-
tion, the beans were washed free from acid
and dried. In this manner discolorations
and impurities were removed and the
beans given a fuller appearance.
The addition of glucose, sucrose, lactose,
or dextrin to green coffees is practised by
"French Pat., 359,451, Nov. 15, 1905.
"British Pat., 26,905, Dec. 9, 1904.
"U. S. Pat., 843,530, Feb. 5, 1907.
"IT. S. Pat., 1,313.209, Aug. 12, 1919.
«U. S. Pat., 134,792, Jan. 14, 1873.
von Niessen'" and by Winter", with the ob-
ject of giving a mild taste and strong aroma
to "hard" coffees. The addition is accom-
plished by impregnating, with or without
the aid of vacuum, the beans with a mod-
erately concentrated solution of the sugar,
the liquid being of insufficient quantity to
effect extraction. When the solution has
completely disseminated through the ker-
nels, they are removed and dried. Upon
subsequent roasting, a decided amelioration
of flavor is secured.
Another method developed by von Nies-
sen'" comprises the softening of the outer
layers of the beans by steam, cold or warm
water, or brine, and then surrounding them
with an absorbent paste or powder, such as
china clay, to which a neutralizing agent
such as magnesium oxid may be added.
After drying, the clay can be removed by
brushing or by causing the beans to travel
between oppositely reciprocated wet cloths.
In the development of this process, von
Niessen evidently argued that the so-called
"caffetannic acid" is the "harmful" sub-
stance in coffee, and that it is concentrated
in the outer layers of the coffee beans.* If
these be his precepts, the question of their
correctness and of the efficiency of his
process becomes a moot one.
A procedure which aims at cleaning and
refining raw coffee, and which has been the
subject of much polemical discussion,'' is
that of Thum'\ It entails the placing of
the green beans in a perforated drum ; just
covering them with water, or a solution of
sodium chloride or sodium carbonate, at 65°
to 70° C. ; and subjecting them to a vigor-
ous brushing for from 1 to 5 minutes, ac-
cording to the grade of coffee being treated.
The value of this method is somewhat
doubtful, as it would not seem to accom-
plish any more than simple washing. In'
fact, if anything, the process is undesir-
able ; as some of the extractive matters
present in the coffee, and particularly eaf-
fein, will be lost. Both Freund'" and Har-
nack'" hold briefs for the product produced
by this method, and the latter endeavors
analytically to prove its merits ; but as his
experimental data are questionable, his con-
clusions do not carry much weight.
" British Pat., 7.427, Mar. 24, 1910.
"U. S. Pat., 997,431, July 11, 1911.
"British Pat., 28.087. Oct. 9, 1912.
French Pat., 449.343, Oct. 12, 1912.
"British Pat., 21,397. Sept. 26, 1907.
French Pat., 382,238. Sept. 26, 1907.
U. S, Pat., 982.902, Jan. 31, 1911.
^Pharm. Zentralhalle, 1915 (vol. Ivi : pp. 343-48).
'^ Munch. Med. Wochschr., (vol. Iviii : pp. 1868-72).-
^■The study of the acids of coffee has been
^^oduetive of much controversy and many
contradictory results, few of which possess
any value. The acid of coffee is generally
spoken of as "caifetannic acid." Quite a
few attempts have been made to determine
the composition and structure of this com-
pound and to assign it a formula. Among
them may be noted those of Allen " who
gives it the empirical formula Ci^Hj^sO^;
Hlasiwetz/' who represents it as (TisHisOg ;
Richter, as C^oHisOie ; Griebel," as
CisHo^Ojo, and Cazeneuve and Haddon/"
as CoiH2sOi4. It is variously supposed to
exist in coffee as the potassium, calcium, or
magnesium salt. In regard to the physical
appearance of the isolated substance there
is also some doubt, Thorpe'^ describing it
as an amorphous powder, and Howard''' as
a brownish, syrup-like mass, having a
slight acid and astringent taste.
The chemical reactions of "caffetannic
acid" are generally agreed upon. A dark
green coloration is given with ferric chlo-
rid; and upon boiling it with alkalies or
cHTute acids, caffeic acid and glucose are
formed. Fusion with alkali produces pro-
tocatechuie acid.
K. Gorter" has made an extensive and
accurate investigation into the matter, and
in reporting upon the same has made some
very pertinent observations. His claim is
that the name "caffetannic acid" is a mis-
nomer and should be abandoned. The so-
called "caffetannic acid" is really a mix-
ture which has among its constituents
chlorogenic acid (CgoH^gOio), which is not
a tannic acid, and coffalic acid. Tatlock
^ and Thompson"* have expressed the opinion
that roasted coffee contains no tannin, and
that the lead precipitate contains mostly
coloring matter. They found only 4.5 per-
cent of tannin (precipitable by gelatin or
" alkaloids) in raw coffee.
Hanausek"* demonstrated the presence of
oxalic acid in unripe beans, and citric acid
has been isolated from Liberian coffee. It
also has been claimed that viridic acid,
' C14H20O11, is present in coffee. In addi-
** Commercial Organic Analysis.
»A«n. Chem. Pharm . 1 S07 fvol. cxlii : p. 230).
" Inaugural Diss., Munich. 1903.
'^ Comptes Rertdus, 1807 (vol. cxxiv : p. 1458).
^ Diet. Avp. Chem., 15)13 (vol. v: p. 393).
"U. S. Dept. Agr. Bur. Chem. Bull. 105, 1907.
<P. 42).
^ Ann. (vol. cccviii : pp. 327-348).
Ibid. (vol. ccclxxH : pp. 237, 246).
Arch. Pharm. (vol. ccxlvii : pp. 184-196).
'^Jour. Soc. Chem., Ind.. 1910 (vol. xxlx : p. 138).
^"Z. Nahr. Gentissm. (vol. xxi : p. 295).
CHEMISTRY OF COFFEE
159
tion to these, the fat of coffee contains a
certain percentage of free fatty acids.
It is thus apparent that even in green
coffee there is no definite compound "caffe-
tannic acid," and there is even less likeli-
hood of its being present in roasted coffee.
The conditions, high heat and oxidation, to
which coffee is subjected in roasting would
suffice to decompose this hypothetical acid
if it wera present. ^-
In the method of analysis for caffetannic
acid (No. 24) given at the end of this chap-
ter, there are many chances of error,
although this procedure is the best yet de-
vised. Lead acetate forms three different
compounds with "caffetannic acid," so that
this reagent must be added with extreme
care in order to precipitate the compound
desired. The precipitate, upon forming,
mechanically carries down with it any fats
which may be present, and which are re-
moved from it only with difficulty. The
majority of the mineral salts in the solu-
tion will come down simultaneously. All
of the above-mentioned organic acids form
insoluble salts with lead acetate, and there
will also be a tendency toward precipita-
tion of certain of the components of cara-
mel, the acidic polymerization products of
acrolein, glycerol, etc., and of the proteins
and their decomposition products.
In view of this condition of uncertainty
in composition, necessity for great care in
manipulation, and ever-present danger of
contamination, the significance of "caffe-
tannic acid analysis" fades. It is highly
desirable that the nomenclature relevant to
this analytical procedure be changed to
one, such as "lead number," which will be
more truly indicative of its significance.
The Alkaloids of Coffee
In addition to caffein, the main alkaloid
of coffee, trigonellin — the methylbetaine
of nicotinic acid — sometimes known as
caffearine, has been isolated from coffee."
This alkaloid, having the formilla
C14H16O4N2, is also found in fenugreek,
Trigonella foenumrgrcecum, in various le-
guminous plants, and in the seeds of stro-
phanthus. When pure it forms colorless
needles melting at 140" C, and, as with all
alkaloids, gives a weak basic reaction. It is
very soluble in water, slightly soluble in.
alcohol, and only very slightly soluble in
31 Paladino, Oasietta, 1895 (vol. xxv : no. 1 : p. 104).
Forster & Rlechelmann, Zeitach. 6ffent. Chem.,
1897 (vol. lii: p. 129).
Polstorflf, K. Wallach-Featachrift, 1909 (pp. 569-
83).
160
ALL ABOUT COFFEE
ether, chloroform or benzol, so that it does
not contaminate the caffein in the deter-
mination of the latter. Its effects on the
body have not been studied, but they are
probably not very great, as Polstorff ob-
tained only 0.23 percent from the coffee
which he examined.
Caffein, thein, trimethylxanthin, or
C5H(CH3)3N40a, in addition to being in
the coffee bean is also found in guarana
leaves, the kola nut, mate, or Paraguay tea,
and, in small quantities, in cocoa. It is also
found in other parts of these plants besides
those commonly used for food purposes.
A neat test for detecting the presence of
caffein is that of A. Viehoever,"' in which
the caffein is sublimed directly from the
plant tissue in a special apparatus. The
presence of caffein in the sublimate is veri-
fied by observing its melting point, deter-
mined on a special heating stage used in
connection with a microscope. .
The chief commercial source of this alka-
loid is waste and damaged tea, from which
it is prepared by extraction with boiling
water, the tannin precipitated from the
solution with litharge, and the solution then
concentrated to crystallize out the caffein.
It is further purified by sublimation or re-
cpystallization from water. «Coffee chaff
and roaster-flue dust have been proposed as
sources for medicinal caffein, but the ex-
traction of the alkaloid from the former
has not proven to be a commercial success.
Several manufacturers of pharmaceuticals
are now extracting caffein from roaster-flue
dust, probably by an adaptation of the
Faunce"" process. The recovery of caffein
from roaster-flue gases may be facilitated
and increased by the use of a condenser
such as proposed Ewe."*
Pure caffein forms long, white, silky, flex-
ible needles, which readily felt together to
form light, fleecy masses. It melts at
^Private comninnioation.
M U. S. Pat, 716,878, Dec. 30, 1902.
»* Tea d Coffee Trade Jour., 1920 (vol. xxxvlii : pp.
321-22).
235 - 7° C. and sublimes completely at 178
C, though the sublinlation starts at 120 .
Salts of an iinstable nature are formed with
caffein by most acids. The solubility o!:
caffein as determined by Seidell is given
in Table I.
Table I — 'The Solubility of Caffein
\(
r,\
Solvent
Tempera-
ture of
Sp. Gr. of Solu-
Solvent tlon
Water 0.95)7 25
J]ther 0.716 25
Chloroform . . . 1.476 25
Acetone 0.809 30-1
Benzene 0.872 80-1
Benzaldehyde . 1.055 30-1
Amylacetate . . 0.860 30-1
Anmne 1.02 «0-l
Amyl alcohol.. 0.814 25
Acetic acid 1.055 21.5
Xylene 0 847 32.5
Toluene 0.862 25
Solubility:
Grm. Caf-
fein per 100
Grm. of
Saturated
Solution
2.14
0.27
11.0
2.18
1.22
11.62
0.72
22.89
0.49
2.44
1.11
0.57
Sp. Gr.
of Satu-
rated
Solu-
tion
0.832
0.875
1.087
0.862
1.080
0.810
0.847
0.801
The similarity between caffein and theo-
bromin (the chief alkaloid of cocoa), xan-
thin (one of the constituents of meat), and
uric acid, is shown by the accompanying
structural formulae.
These formulae show merely the relative
position occupied by caffein in the purin
group, and do not in any wise indicate, be-
cause of its similarity of structure to the
other compounds, that it has the same
physiological action. The presence and
position of the methyl groups (CH3) in
caffein is probably the controlling factor
which makes its action differ from the be-
havior of other members of the series. The
structure of these compounds was estab-
lished, and their syntheses accomplished, in
the course of various classic researches by
Emil Fischer.''
Gorter states that caffein exists in coffee
in combination with ehlorogenic acid as a
potassium chlorogenate, Ca^HaeOia,
K2(C8HjoO,N,)2-2H20, which he 'isolated
in colorless prisms. This compound is
water-soluble, but caffein can not be ex-
tracted from the crystals with anhydrous
^Jour. Amer. Chetn. Soc, 1907 (vol. xxix : p. 1091).
^* Ber., 1895 (vol. xxviii : p. 3137) ; 1899 (vol. xxxii :
p. 435); 1900 (vol. xxxiii : p. 3035).
CttjN— CO
OC C— Nn
XH,
.CH
CH3N — C-N^
Caffcm (their\)
HN — CO
I I
OC C— N<^"3
I II >"
CH3N— C— N
Thcobromin
HN.
-co
OC c —
^
CH
HN — C — N'^
Xanthin
MN— CO
I I
OC C~NH
HN— C — NH
Unc Acid
CO
Formula fob Caffein, Showing Its Relation to the Purin Group
.' ■ I ,-1
ALL ABOUT COFFEE
1(1(11, IKS l>A(i(ll ,\(; iOIlKK ON TllK 1 »i;\ 1 .N(i GkOUNDS
COFFEE SCENES IN BRITISH INDIA
■p
I
^^B Green
^Hoisture April 20th 8.75
Moisture Septemb, r 20tli 8.12
Ash 4.41
Oil 12.96
CaJfein 1.87
Caffein, dry basis 2.03
Crude fiber 20.70
I'rotein 9.50
Protein, dry basis 10.41
Water e.xtrnct 31.11
Specific gravity, 10 p rcent extract 1.0109
Bushelwt'ight 47.0
1,000 kernel weight ISO. 60
1,000 kernel weight, dry basis 119.1
Dextrose
■ffetannic acid 15.58
iility by titration apparent 1.50
CHEMISTRY OF COFFEE
Table II — Coffee Analyses
Santos
Roasted
3.75
6.45
4.49
13.76
1.81
14.75
12.93
30.30
1.0101
28.2
120.20
115.7
0.72
17.44
2.08
^^■||vents. To this behavior can probably
^^H attributed the difficulty experienced in
^^Blracting caffein from coffee with dry or-
^^nic solvents. However, the fact that a
small percentage can be extracted from the
green bean in this manner indicates that
some of the caffein content exists therein
in a free state. This acid compound of caf-
fein will be largely decomposed during the
process of torrefaction, so that in roasted
coffee a larger percentage will be present in
the free state. Microscopical examination
of the roasted bean lends verisimilitude to
this contention.
As may be seen in Table II " the caffein
content of coffee varies with the different
kinds, a fair average of the caffein content
being about 1.5 percent for C. arahica, to
which class most of our coffees belong.
However, aside from these may be men-
tioned C. canephora, which yields 1.97 per-
cent caffein ; C. mauritiana, which contains
0.07 percent of the alkaloid (less than the
average "caffein-free coffee") ; and C.
humhoUiana, which contains no caffein, but
a bitter principle, cafemarin. Neither do
the berries of C. Gallienii, C. Bonnieri, or
C. Mogeneti contain any caffein ; and there
has also been reported^' a "Congo coffee"
which contained no crystallizable alkaloid
whatever.
Apparently the variation in caffein con-
tent is largely due to the genus of the tree
from which the berry comes, but it is also
quite probable that the nature of the soil
and climatic conditions play an important
part. In the light of what has been accom-
plished in the field of agricultural research,
it does not seem improbable that a man
of Burbank's ability and foresight could
successfully develop a series of coffees pos-
" Willcox & Rentschler. Tea & Coffee Trade Jour.,
1910 (vol. six: p. 440).
■^ Pricke, E. Zeits. /. angew. Chemie, 1889 (pp.
121-122).
Padang
Green
8.78
8.05
4.23
12.28
1.56
1.69
21.92
12.62
13.68
30.83
1.0107
4o.2
167.30
154.1
Padang
Roasted
2.72
6.03
4.70
13.33
1.47
14.95
14.75
15.37
1.47
30.21
1.0104
27.8
151.35
147.2
0.81
16.93
2.00
Guate-
mala
Green
9.59
8.68
3.93
12.42
1.26
1.39
22.23
10.43
11.53
31.04
1.0105
52.2
189.20
171.0
Guate-
mala
Roasted
3.40
6.92
4.48
13.07
1.22
15.23
11.69
16.27
1.39
30.47
1.0104
27.2
165.80
160.1
0.54
17.13
2.13
Mocha
Green
9.06
8.15
4.20
14.04
1.61
1.44
22.46
8.56
9.41
31.27
1.0108
48.8
119.52
10i8.6
iV.ei
1.11
161
Mocha
Roasted
3.36
7.10
4.43
14.18
1.28
15.41
9.57
80.44
1.0108
30.2
100.00
96.6
0.46
16.89
1.87
sessed of all the cup qualities inherent in
those now used, but totally devoid of caf-
fein. Whether this is desirable or not is a
question to be considered in an entirely
different light from the possibility of its
accomplishment.
Table III — Caffein in Different Roasts
(ireen
Rio
1 68%
Santos
1.85%
1.72
1.66
1.66
Guatemala
1.82%
1.80
1.56
1.46
Cinnamon . . .
Medium
City
. .. 1.70
. . . 1.66
. . . 1.36
The variation in the caffein content of
coffee at different intensities of roasting,
as shown in Table III^ is, of course, pri-
marily dependent upon the original content
of the green, A considerable portion of the
caffein is sublimed off during roasting, thus
decreasing the amount in the bean. The
higher the roast is carried, the greater the
shrinkage ; but, as the analyses in the above
table show, the loss of caffein proceeds out
of proportion to the shrinkage, for the per-
centage of caffein constantly decreases with
the increase in color. If the roast be car-
ried almost to the point of carbonization,
as in the case of the "Italian roast," the
caffein content will be almost nil. This is
not a suitable coffee for one desiring an al-
most caffein-free drink, for the empyreu-
matic products produced by this excessive
roasting will be more toxic by far than the
caffein itself would have been.
Caffein-free Coffee
The demand for a caffein-free coffee may
be attributed to two causes, namely: the
objectionable effect which caffein has upon
neurasthenics; and the questionable adver-
tising of the "coffee-substitute" dealers,
who have by this means persuaded many
normal persons into believing that they are
decidedly sub-normal. As a result of this
demand, a variety of decaffeinated coffees
s* Willcox & Rentschler.
1911 (vol. XX : p. 355).
Tea d Coffee Trade Jour.,
162
ALL ABOUT COFFEE
have been placed on the market. Just why
the coffee men have not taken advantage of
naturally caffein-free coffees, or of the pos-
sibility of obtaining coffees low in caffein
content by chemical selection from the lines
now used, is a difficult question to answer.
In the endeavor to develop a commercial
decaffeinated coffee the first method of pro-
cedure was to extract the caffein from
roasted coffee. This method had its advan-
tages and its disadvantages, of which the
latter predominated. The caffein in the
roasted coffee is not as tightly bound chemi-
cally as in the green coffee, and is, there-
fore, more easily extracted. Also, the
structure of the roasted bean renders it
more readily penetrable by solvents than
does that of the green bean. However, the
great objection to this method arises from
the fact that at the same time as the caf-
fein is extracted, the volatile aromatic and
flavoring constituents of the coft'ee are re-
moved also. These substances, which are
essential for the maintenance of quality by
the coffee, though readily separated from
the caffein, can not be returned to the
roasted bean with any degree of certainty.
This virtually insurmountable obstacle
forced the abandonment of this mode of
attack.
In order to avoid this action, the atten-
tion of investigators was directed to extrac-
tion of the alkaloid in question from the
green bean. Because of the difficulty of
causing the solvent to penetrate the bean,
recourse to grinding resulted. This greatly
facilitated the desired extraction, but a
difficulty was encountered when the subse-
quent roasting was attempted. The irregu-
lar and broken character of the ground
green beans resisted all attempts to produce
practically a uniformly roasted, highly
aromatic product from the ground ma-
terial.
Avoidance of this lack of uniformity in
the product, and the great desirability to
duplicate the normal bean as far as pos-
sible, necessitated the development of a
method of extraction of the caffein from the
whole raw bean without a permanent al-
teration of the shape thereof. The close
structure of the green bean, and its conse-
quent resistance to penetration by solvents,
and the existence of the caffein in the bean
as an acid salt, which is not easily soluble,
offered resistance to successful extraction.
As a means of overcoming the difficulty
of structure, the beans were allowed to
stand in water in order to swell, or the cells
were expanded by treatment with steam, or
the beans were subjected to the action of
some "cellulose-softening acids," such as
acetic acid or sulphur dioxid. As a method
of facilitating the mechanical side of ex-
traction without deleterious effects, the
treatment of the coffee with steam under
pressure, as utilized in the patented proc-
ess of Myer, Eoselius, and Wimmer,*" is
probably the safest.
Many ingenious methods have been de-
vised for the ready removal of the caffein
from this point on. Several processes
employ an alkali, such as ammonium hy-
droxid, to free the caffein from the acid ; or
an acid, such as acetic, hydrochloric, or
sulphurous, is used to form a more soluble
salt of caffein. Other procedures effect the
dissociation of the caffein-acid salt by
dampening or immersion in a liquid and
subjecting the mass to the action of an
electric current.
The caffein is usually extracted from the
beans by benzol or chloroform, but a variety
of solvents may be employed, such as pe-
trolic ether, water, alcohol, carbon tetra-
chlorid, ethylene chlorid, acetone, ethyl
ether, or mixtures or emulsions of these.
After extraction, the beans may be steam
distilled to remove and to recover any resid-
ual traces of solvent, and then dried and
roasted. It is said" that by heating the
beans before bringing them into contact
with steam, not only is an economy of steam
effected, but the quality of the resultant
product is improved.
One clever but expensive method" of pre-
paring caffein-free coffee consists in heat-
ing the beans under pressure, with some
substance, such as sodium salicylate, with
the resultant formation of a more soluble
and more easil.y steam-distillable compound
of caffein. The beans are then steam dis-
tilled to remove the caffein, dried, and
roasted.
Another process of peculiar interest is
that of Hubner," in which the coffee beans
are well washed and then spread in layers
and kept covered with water at 15° C. until
limited germination has taken place, where-
upon the beans are removed and the caf-
fein extracted with water at 50° C. It is
claimed by the inventor that sprouting
serves to remove some of the caffein, but it
is quite probable that the process does noth-
*»U. S. Pat, 897,840. Sept. 1, 1908.
"British Pat., 144,988, March 19, 1920.
« French Pat., 412,550. Feb. 12, 1910.
«U. S. Pat., 947,577, Jan. 25, 1910.
CHEMISTRY OF COFFEE
163
ig more than aecoinplish simple aqueous
ttraction.
In the majority of these processes the
Ivor of the resultant product should be
iry similar to natural roasted coffee.
[owever, in the cases where aqueous ex-
raction is employed, other substances be-
jjdes caffein are removed that are replaced
the bean only with difficulty. The re-
iltant product accordingly is very likely
to have a flavor not entirely natural. On
the other hand, beans from which the caf-
fein is extracted with volatile solvents, if
the operation be conducted carefully,
should give a natural-tasting roast. Any
residual traces of the solvent left in the
bean are volatilized upon roasting.
Some of the caffein-free coffees on the
market show upon analysis almost as much
eaffein as the natural bean. Those manu-
factured b}' reliable concerns, however, are
virtually caffein-free, their content of the
alkaloid varying from 0.3 to 0.07 percent
as opposed to 1.5 percent in the untreated
coffee. Thus, although actually only caf-
fein-poor, in order to get the reaction of
one cup of ordinary coffee one would have
to drink an unusual amount of the brew
made from these coffees.
The Aromatic Principles of Coffee
To ascertain just what substance or sub-
stances give the pleasing and characteristic
aroma to coffee has long been the great
desire of both practical and scientific men
interested in the coffee business. This elu-
sive material has been variously called caf-
feol, caffeone, "the essential' oil of coffee,"
etc., the terms having'acquired an ambigu-
ij^ous and incorrect significance. It is now
f generally agreed that the aromatic con-
! stituent of coffee is not an essential oil, but
! a complex of compounds which usage has
causecPto be coITecHvery called "caffeol.','
These substances are not present in the,
green bean, but are produced during the
process of roasting. Attempts at identi-
fication and location of origin have been
numerous; and although not conclusive,
still have not proven entirely futile. One
of the first observations along this line was
that of Benjamin Thompson in 1812.
"This fragrance of coffee is certainly ow-
ing to the escape of a volatile aromatic
substance which did not originally exist as
such in the grain, but which is formed in
the process of roasting it." Later, Graham,
Stenhouse, and Campbell started on the
way to the identification of this aroma by
noting that "in common with all the valu-
able constituents of coffee, caffeone is found
to come from the soluble portion of the
roasted seed.""
Comparison of the aroma given off by
coffee during the roasting process with that
of fresh-ground roasted coffee shows that
the two aromas, although somewhat differ-
ent, may be attributed to the same sub-
stances present in different proportions in
the two cases. Recovery and identification
of the aromatic principles escaping from
the roaster would go far toward answering
the question regarding the nature of the
aroma. Bernheimer" reported water, caf-
fein, caffeol, acetic acid, quinol, methyla-
min, acetone, fatty acids and pyrrol in the
distillate coming from roasting coffee.
The caffeol obtained by Bernheimer in this
work was believed by him to be a methyl
derivative of saligenin. Jaeekle" examined
a similar product and found considerable
quantities of caffein, furfurol, and acetic
acid, together with small amounts of ace-
tone, ammonia, trimethylamin, and formic
acid. The caffeol of Bernheimer could not
be detected. Another substance was sepa-
rated also, but in too small a quantity to
permit complete identification. This sub-
stance consisted of colorless crystals, which
readily sublimed, melted at 115° to 117° C,
and contained sulphur. The crystals were
insoluble in water, almost insoluble in alco-
hol, but readily soluble in ether.
By distilling roasted coffee with super-
heated steam, Erdmann" obtained an oil
consisting of an indifferent portion of 58
percent and an acid portion of 42 percent,
consisting mainly of a valeric acid, prob-
ably alphamethylbutyric acid. The indif-
ferent portion was found to contain about
50 percent furfuryl alcohol, together with
a number of phenols. The fraction con-
taining the characteristic odorous constit-
uent of coffee boiled at 93° C. under 13
mm. pressure. The yield of this latter
principle was extremely small, only about
0.89 gram being procured from 65 kilos
of coffee.
Pyridin was also shown to be present in
•coffee by Betrand and Weisweiller*' and by
Sayre.*" As high as 200 to 500 milligrams
**J(jur. Chem. Soc, 1857 (vol. Ix : p. 34).
"Tl'tcn. Akad. Ber. (2 Abth.) (vol. Ixxxi : pp. 1032-
104.S).
Monatsh, f. Chem., 1880 (vol. i: p. 456).
** Zeita. f. Vntersuch. d. Nahr. u. Ocnussm., 1898
(vol. vii : pp. 457-472)
« Ber , 1901 (vol. xxxv : pp. 1846-1854).
<»Co»ipf. rend. (vol. clvii : pp. 212-13).
*» Bull. Pharm., 1916 (vol. xxx : pp. 276^-78).
164
ALL ABOUT COFFEE
of this toxic compound have been obtained
from 1 kilogram of freshly roasted coffee.
As stated above, the empyreumatic vola-
tile aromatic constituents of the coffee are
without question formed during and by the
roasting process. According to Thorpe/"
the most favorable temperature for devel-
opment of coffee odor and flavor is about
200° C. Erdmann claimed to have pro-
duced caffeol by gently heating together
caffetannic acid, caffein, and cane sugar.
Other investigators have been unable to
duplicate this work. Another authority,"
giving it the empirical formula CgHioOa,
states that it is produced during roasting,
probably at the expense of a portion of the
caffein. These conceptions are in the main
incomplete and inaccurate.
By means of careful work, Grafe" came
closer to ascertaining the origin of the fuga-
cious aromatic materials. His work with
normal, caffein-free coffee and with Thum's
purified coffee led him to state that a part
of these substances was derived from the
crude fiber, probably from the hemi-cellu-
lose of the thick endosperm cells. Sayre"
makes the most plausible proposal regard-
ing the origin of caffeol. He considers the
roasting of coffee as a destructive distilla-
tion process, summarizing the results,
briefly, as the production of furfuraldehyde
from the carbohydrates, acrolein from the
fats, catechol and pyrogallol from the tan-
nins, and ammonia, amins, and pyrrols
from the proteins. The products of roast-
ing inter-react to produce many compounds
of varying degrees of complexity and
toxicity.
The great difficulty which arises in the
attempt to identify the aromatic constit-
uents of coffee is that the caffeols of no two
coffees may be said to be the same. The
reason for this is apparent; for the green
coffees themselves vary in composition, and
those of the same constitution are not
roasted under identical conditions. There-
fore, it is not to be expected that the de-
composition products formed by the action
of the different greens would be the same.
Also, these volatile products occur in the
roasted coffee in such a small amount that
the ascertaining of their percentage rela-
tionship and the recognition of all that are
present are not possible with the methods
of analysis at present at our disposal.
Until better analytical procedures have
^ Diet. App. Chem., 1913 (vol. li : p. 99).
" [/. S. Dispensatory, 19th Ed, 1907 (p. 145).
^^Monatsh. f. Chem. (vol. xxxiii : pp. 1389-1406).
been developed we can not hope to estab-
lish a chemical basis for the grading ol'
coffees from this standpoint.
Coffee Oil and Fat
It is well to distinguish between the * ' cof-
fee oils," as they are termed by the trade,
and true coffee oil. In speaking of thi'
qualities of coffee, connoisseurs frequently
use erroneous terms, particularly when they
designate certain of the flavoring and aro-
matic constituents of coffee as "oils" or
"essential oils." Coffee does not contain
any essential oils, the aromatic constituent
corresponding to essential oil in coffee being
caffeol, a complex which is water-soluble, a
property not possessed by any true oil.
True, the oil when isolated from roasted
coffee does possess, before purification, con-
siderable of the aromatic and flavoring con-
stituents of coffee. They are, however, no
part of the coffee fat, but are held in it no
doubt by an enfleurage action in much the
same way that perfumes of roses, etc., are
absorbed and retained by fats and oils in
the commercial preparation of pomades and
perfumes. This affinity of the coffee oil for
caffeol assists in the retention of aromatic
substances by the whole roasted bean.
However, upon extraction of ground
roasted coffee with water, the caffeol shows
a preferential solubility in water, and is
dissolved out from the oil, going into the
brew.
The true oil of coffee has been investi-
gated to a fair degree and has been found
to be inodorous when purified. Analysis of
green and roasted coffees shows them to
possess between 12 percent and 20 percent
fat. Warnier" extracted ground unroasted
coffee with petroleum ether, washed the ex-
tract with water, and distilled off the sol-
vent, obtaining a yellow-brownish oil
possessing a sharp taste. From his exam-
ination of this oil he reported these con-
stants: d24_5, 0.942; refraction at 25°,
81.5 ; solidifying point, 6° to 5° ; melting
point, 8° to 9° ; saponification number,
177.5 ; esterification number, 166.7 ; acid
number, 6.2 ; acetyl number, 0 ; iodin num-
ber, 84.5 to 86.3. Meyer and Eckert" care-
fully purified coffee oil and saponified it
with LigO in alcohol. In the saponifiable
portion, glycerol was the only alcohol pres-
ent, the acids being carnaubic, 10 percent;
daturinic acid, 1 to 1.5 percent; palmitic
^^^Apoth.-Ztg. (vol. xxii: pp. 919-20).
Pharm. Weekbl., 1907 (vol. xxxvii).
^ Monatsh. f. Chem. (vol. xxxi : p. 1227).
^Ri<
CHEMISTRY OF COFFEE
165
id, 25 to 28 percent ; capric acid, 0.5 per-
cent ; oleic acid, 2 percent, and linoleic acid,
50 percent. The unsaponifiable wax
amounted to 21.2 percent,, was nitrogen-
free, gave a phytostearin reaction, and
saponification and oxidation indicated that
it was probably a tannol carnaubate. Von-
Bitto'" examined the fat extracted from the
inner husk of the coffee berry and found it
to be faint yellow in color, and to solidify
only gradually after melting. Upon analy-
sis, it showed : saponification value, 141.2 ;
palmitic acid, 37.84 percent, and glycerids
as tripalmitin, 28.03 percent.
Carbohydrates of the Coffee Berry
There has been considerable diversity of
opinion regarding the sugar of coffee. Bell
believed the sugar to be of a peculiar species
allied to melezitose, but Ewell,°" G. L. Spen-
cer, and others definitely proved the pres-
ence of sucrose in coffee. In fat-free coffee
6 percent of sucrose was found extractable
by 70 percent alcohol. Baker" claimed that
manno-arabinose, or manno-xylose, formed
one of the most important constituents of
the coffee-berry substance and yielded man-
nose on hydrolysis. Schultze and Maxwell
state that raw coffee contains galactan,
mannan, and pentosans, the latter present
to the extent of 5 percent in raw and 3 per-
cent in roasted coffee. By distilling coffee
with hydrochloric acid Ewell obtained fur-
furol equivalent to 9 percent pentose. He
also obtained a gummy substance which, on
hydrolysis, gave rise to a reducing sugar;
and as it gave mucic acid and furfurol on
oxidation, he concluded that it was a com-
pound of pentose and galactose. In un-
dressed Mysore coffee Commaille°' found
2.6 percent of glucose and no dextrin. This
claim of the presence of glucose in coffee
was substantiated by the work of Hlasi-
wetz,"" who resolved a caffetannie acid,
which he had isolated, into glucose and a
peculiar crystallizable acid, C8H8O4, which
he named caffeic acid.
The starch content of coffee is very low.
Cereals may readily be detected and identi-
fied in coffee mixtures by the presence and
characteristics of their starch, in view of
the fact that coffee (chicory, too) is prac-
tically free from starch. On this score it is
inadvisable for diabetics to use any of the
many cereal substitutes for coffee. It is
"Jour. Lnndw., 1904 (vol. Hi: p. 93).
"> Amer. Chem. Jour., 1892 (vol. xiv : p. 47.3).
"Analyst, 1902 (vol. xxvl : p. 116).
''Mon. 8ci. (vol. iii : no. 6: p. 779).
»»J. P. C, 1867 (p. 307).
pertinent to note in this connection that
persons suffering from diabetes may
sweeten their coffee with saccharin (I/2 to
1 grain per cup) or glycerol, thus obtaining
perfect satisfaction without endangering
their health.
The cellulose in coffee is of a very hard
and horny character in the green bean, but
it is made softer and more brittle during
the process of roasting. It is rather diffi-
cult to define under the microscope, par-
ticularly after roasting, even though the
chief characteristics of the cellular tissue
are more or less retained. Coffee cellulose
gives a blue color with sulphuric acid and
iodin, and is dissolved by an ammoniacal
solution of copper oxid. Even after roast-
ing, remnants of the silver skin are always
present, the structure of which, a thin
membrane with adherent, thick-walled,
spindle-shaped, hollow cells, is peculiar to
coffee.
The Chemistry of Roasting
The effect of the heat in the roasting of
coffee is largely evidenced as a destructive
distillation and also as a partial dehydra-
tion. At the same time, oxidizing and
reducing reactions probably occur within
the bean, as well as some polymerization
and inter-reactions.
A loss of water is to be expected as the
natural outcome of the application of heat ;
and analyses show that the moisture con-
tent of raw coffee varies from 8 to 14 per-
cent, while after roasting it rarely exceeds
3 percent, and frequently falls as low as
0.5 percent. The loss of the original water
content of the green bean is not the only
moisture loss ; for many of the constituents
of coffee, notably the carbohydrates, are de-
composed upon heating to give off water,
so that analysis before and after roasting is
no direct indication of the exact amount of
water driven off in the process. If it be
desired to ascertain this quantity accu-
rately, catching of the products which are
driven off and determination of their water
content becomes necessary.
The carbohydrates both dehydrate and
decompose. The result of the cjehydration
is the formation of caramel and related
products, which comprise the principal
coloring matters in coffee infusion. That
portion of the carbohydrates known as pen-
tosans gives rise to furfuraldehyde, one of
the important components of caffeol.
The effect of roasting upon the fat con-
tent of the beans is to reduce its actual
166
ALL ABOUT COFFEE
weight, but not to change appreciably the
percentage present, since the decrease in
quantity keeps pace fairly well with the
shrinkage. Some of the more volatile fatty
acids are driven off, and the fats break
down to give a larger percentage of free
fatty acids, some light esters, acrolein, and
formic acid. If the roast be a very heavy
one, or is brought up too rapidly, the iai
wall come to the surface, through breaking
of the fat cells, with a decided alteration in
the chemical nature of the fat and with
pronounced expansion and cracking.
Decomposition of the caffein acid-salt
and considerable sublimation of the caffein
also occur. The majority of the caffein un-
dergoes this volatilization unchanged, but
a portion of it is probably oxidized with the
formation of ammonia, methylamin, di-
methylparabanic acid, and carbon dioxid.
This reaction partly explains why the
amount of caffein recovered from the
roaster flues is not commensurate with the
amount lost from the roasting coffee; al-
though incomplete condensation is also an
important factor. Microscopic examination
of the roasted beans will show occasional
small crystals of caffein in the indentations
on the surface, where they have been de-
posited during the cooling process.
The compound, or compounds, known as
**caffetannic acid" are probably the source
of catechol, as the proteins are of am-
monia, amins, and pyrrols. The crude
fiber and other unnamed constituents of
the raw beans react analogously to similar
compounds in the destructive distillation of
wood, giving rise to acetone, various fatty
acids, carbon dioxid and other uncondens-
able gases, and many compounds of un-
known identity.
During the course of roasting and subse-
quent cooling these decomposition products
probably interact and polymerize to form
aromatic tar-like materials and other com-
plexes which play an important role among
the delicate flavors of coffee. In fact, it is
not unlikely that these reactions continue
throughout the storage time after roasting,
and that upon them the deterioration of
roasted coffee is largely dependent. Specu-
lation upon what complex compounds are
thus formed offers much attraction. A
notable one by Sayre"* postulates the reac-
tion between acrolein and ammonia to give
methyl pyridin, which in turn with fur-
furol forms furfurol vinyl pyridin. This
«» Trans. Kansas Acad. Sci., 1918 <vol. xxviil : pp.
136-141).
upon reduction would produce the alkaloid,
conin, traces of which have been found in
coffee.
Although furfuraldehyde is the natural
decomposition product of pentosans, fur-
furyl alcohol is the main furane body of
coffee aroma. This would indicate that
active reducing conditions prevail within
the bean during roasting; and the further
fact that carbon monoxid is given oft' dur-
ing roasting makes this seem quite prob-
able. If one admits that caffetannic acid
exists in the green bean; that upon oxida-
tion it gives viridic acid ; and that it is con-
centrated in the outer layers of the bean,
as certain investigators have claimed, then
there is chemical proof of the existence of
oxidizing conditions about the exterior of
the bean. In any event, however, the fact
that oxidizing conditions predominate on
the external portion of the bean is obvious.
Accordingly, our meager knowledge of the
chemistry of roasting indicates that while
the external layers of the roasting beans are
subjected to oxidizing conditions, reducing
ones exist in the interior. Future experi-
mentation will, no doubt, prove this to be
the case.
Attempts have been made to retain in
the beans the volatile products, which nor-
mally escape, both by coating previous to
roasting" and by conducting the process
under pressure."' However, the results so
obtained were not practical, since the cup
values were decreased in the majority of
cases;, and the physiological effects produced
were undesirable. In cases where the qual-
ity was improved, the gain was not suffi-
cient to recompense the roaster for the ad-
ditional expense and difficulty of operation.
Various persons have essayed to control
the roasting process automatically; but
the extreme variance in composition of
different coffees, the effect of changing
atmospheric conditions, and the lack of
constancy in the calorific power of fuels
have conspired to defeat the automatic
roasting machine." It is even doubtful
whether De Mattia's" process for roasting
until the vapors evolved produce a violet
color when passed into a solution of fuchsin
decolorized with sulphur dioxid is commer-
cially reliable.
81 Feitler, S. : Enj?. Pat., 19,84.5, Aug. 28, 1897.
«U. S. Pat., 33,453, Oct. 8. 1861.
U. S. Pat., 75.829, March 24. 1868,
U. S. Pat., 701,750, June 3, 1902.
«'U. S. Pat, 943, 238, Dec. 14. 1909.
«*U. S. Pat., 703,508, July 1, 1902.
U. S. Pat., 865,203, Sept. 3, 1907.
I
CHEMISTRY OF COFFEE
167
Many patents have been granted for the
treatment of coffees immediately prior to or
during roasting with the object of thus im-
proving the product. The majority of
These depend upon adding solutions of
sugar.'" calcium saccharate,"" or other carbo-
hydrates,*' and in the case of Eckhardt,""
of small percentages of tannic acid and fat.
In direct opposition to this latter practise,
urgens and Westphaf" apply alkali,
tensibly to lessen the "tannic acid" con-
^ ''L^k
if
tl Iff ^1
Grouxd Coffee Under the Microscope
tent. Brougier'" sprays a solution contain-
ing caifein upon the roasting berries ; and
Potter" roasts the coffee together with
chicory, effecting a separation at the end.
The exact effect which roasting with
sugars has upon the flavor is not well un-
derstood ;'but it is known that it causes the
beans to absorb more moisture, due to the
hygroscopicity of the caramel formed. For
inrstance, berries roasted with the addition
of glucose syrup hold an additional 7 per-
cent of water and give a darker infusion
than normally roasted coffee. When the
green coffee is glazed with cane sugar prior
to roasting, the losses during the process
are much higher than ordinarily, on ac-
count of the higher temperature required
to attain the desired results. Losses for
ordinary coffee taken to a 16-percent roast
are 9.7 percent of the original fat and 21.1
« Winter. H. : U. S. Pat., 997.4.31. Augr. 28, 1897.
'"Simon, M., Jr.: Ger. Pat.. 2.53.419. Feb. 19. 1911.
«' Von Niessen : British Pat., 7,417, Mar. 24, 1910.
•« Eng. Pat., 5.776, Mar. 19, 1895.
«»U. S. Pat, 832..322.
">Eng. Pat., 8.270, April 24, 1893.
«U. S. Pat., 994,785, June 13, 1911.
percent of the original caffein ; while for
"sugar glazed" coffee the losses were 18.3
percent of the original fat and 44.3 percent
of the original caffein, using 8 to 9 percent
sugar with Java coffee.
Grinding and Packaging
It is a curious fact that green coffee im-
proves upon aging, whereas after roasting
it deteriorates with time. Even when
packed in the best containers, age shows to
a disadvantage on the roasted bean. This
is due to a number of causes, among which
are oxidation, volatilization of the aroma,
absorption of moisture and consequent
hydrolysis, and alteration in the character
of the aromatic principles. Doolittle and
Wright''' in the course of some extensive ex-
periments found that roasted coffee showed
a continual gain in weight throughout 60
weeks, this gain being mostly due to mois-
ture ab.sorption. An investigation by
Gould" also demonstrated that roasted cof-
fee gives off carbon dioxid and carbon
monoxid upon standing. The latter, ap-
parently produced during roasting and
retained by the cellulffr structure of the
bean, diffuses therefrom; whereas the
former comes from an ante-roasting decom-
position of unstable compounds present.'*
The surface of the whole bean forms a
natural protection against atmospheric in-
fluences, and as soon as this is broken, de-
terioration sets in. On this account, coffee
should be ground immediately before ex-
traction if maximum efficiency is to be
obtained. The cells of the beans tend to
retain the fugacious aromatic principles to
a certain extent ; so that the more of these
which are broken in grinding, the greater
will be the initial loss and the more rapid
the vitiation of the coffee. It might, there-
fore, seem desirable to grind coarsely in
order to avoid this as much as possible.
However, the coarser the grind, the slower
and more incomplete will be the extraction.
A patent" has been granted for a grind
which contains about 90 percent fine coffee
and 10 percent coarse, the patentee's claim
being that in his "irregular grind" the
coarse coffee retains enough of the volatile
constituents to flavor the beverage, while
the fine coffee gives a very high extraction,
".4m. J. P^ar»»./l915 (vol. Ixxxvil : pp. 524-26).
" Orig. Com. 8th Intern. Cong. Appl. Chetn.
(Apprn ) (vol. xxvl : p. 389)
'♦ Ten d Coffee Trade Jour., 1920 (vol. xxxlx : pp.
318-19).
« King, J. E. : U. S. Pat. 1,263,434.
168
ALL ABOUT COFFEE
thus giving an efficient brew without sacri-
ficing individuality.
In packaging roasted coffee the whole
bean is naturally the best form to employ,
but if the coffee is ground first, King'"
found that deterioration is most rapid with
the coarse ground coffee, the speed decreas-
ing with the size of the ground particles.
He explains this on the ground of ' ' ventila-
tion"— the finer the grind, the closer the
particles pack together, the less the circula-
tion of air through the mass, and the
smaller the amount of aroma which is car-
ried away. He also found that glass makes
the best container for coffee, with the tin
can, and the foil-lined bag with an inner
lining of glassine, not greatly inferior.
Considerable publicity has been given
recently to the method of packing coffee in
a sealed tin under reduced pressure. While
thus packing in a partial vacuum undoubt-
edly retards oxidation and precludes escape
of aroma from the original package, it
would seem likely to hasten the initial vola-
tilizing of the aroma. Also, it would appear
from Gould's" work that roasted coffee
evolves carbon dioxid until a certain posi-
tive pressure is attained, regardless of the
initial pressure in the container. Accord-
ingly, vacuum-packing apparently enhances
decomposition of certain constituents of
coffee. "Whether this result is beneficial or
otherwise is not quite clear.
Brewing
The old-time boiling method of making
coffee has gone out of style, because the
average consumer is becoming aware of the
fact that it does not give a drink of maxi-
mum efficiency. Boiling the ground coffee
with water results in a large loss of aro-
matic principles by steam distillation, a
partial hydrolysis of insoluble portions of
the grounds, and a subsequent extraction of
the products thus formed, which give a bit-
ter flavor to the beverage. Also, the main-
tenance of a high temperature by the direct
application of heat has a deleterious effect
upon the substances in solution. This is
also true in the ease of the pumping perco-
lator, and any other device wherein the
solution is caused to pass directly into
steam at the point where heat is applied.
Warm and cold water extract about the
same amount of material from coffee; but
with different rates of speed, an increase
"Tea 4c Coffee Trade Jour., 1917 (vol. xxxiii : pp.
552-55).
■'■' hoc. cit. (see 73).
in temperature decreasing the time neces-
sary to effect the desired result.
It is a well known fact that rewarming a
coffee brew has an undesirable effect upon
it. This is very probably due to the pre-
cipitation of some of the water-soluble
proteins when the solution cools, and their
subsequent decomposition when heat is ap-
plied directly to them in reheating the solu-
tion. The absorption of air by the solution
upon cooling, with attendant oxidation,
which is accentuated by the application of
heat in rewarming, must also be considered.
It is likewise probable that when ap extract
of coffee cools upon standing, some of the
aromatic principles separate out and are
lost by volatilization.
The method of extracting coffee which
gives the most satisfaction is practised by
using a grind just coarse enough to retain
the individualistic flavoring components,
retaining the ground coffee in a fine cloth
bag, as in the urn system, or on a filter
paper, as in the Tricolator, and pouring
water at boiling temperature over the cof-
fee. During the extraction, a top should
be kept on the device to minimize volatiliza-
tion, and the temperature of the extract
should be maintained constant at about
200° F. after being made. Whether a re-
pouring is necessary or not is dependent
upon the speed with which the water passes
through the coffee, which in turn is con-
trolled by the fineness of the grind and of
the filtering medium.
The Water Extract
Although many analyses of the whole
coffee bean are available, but little work
has been reported upon the aqueous ex-
tracts. The total water extract of roasted
coffee varies from 20 to 31 percent in dif-
ferent kinds of coffee. The following
analysis of the extract from a Santos coffee
may be taken as a fair average example of
the water-soluble material.''
Table IV- — Analysis of Santos Coffee Extract
(Dry Basis)
Ether extract, fixed 1.06%
Total nitrogen 3.40%
Caffein 5.42%
Crude fiber 0.25%
Total ash 17.43%
Reducing sugar 2.70%
Caffetannic acid 15.33%
Protein 7.71%
It is difficult to make the trade ternis,
such as acidity, astringency, etc., used in
describing a cup of coffee, conform with the
'"Tea d Coffee Trade Jour., 1911 (vol. xx : p. 34)-
CHEMISTRY OF COFFEE
169
_emical meanings of the same terms,
owever, a fair explanation of the cause of
ime of these qualities can be made. Care-
1 work by Warnier" showed the actual
iidities of some East India coffees to be :
'ABLE V — Acidity of Some East India Coffees
ffee from Acid Content
Sindjai 0.033%
Timor 0.028%
' Bauthain 0.019%
^K Boengei 0.016%
^B Loewae 0.021%
^^" Waloe Pengenteu 0.018%
Kawi Redjo 0.015%
Palman Tjiasem 0.022%
Malang 0.013%
These figures may be taken as reliable
examples of the true acid content of coffee ;
and though they seem very low, it is not at
all incomprehensible that the acids which
they indicate produce the acidity in a cup
of coffee. They probably are mainly vola-
tile organic acids, together with other
acidic-natured products of roasting. "We
know that very small quantities of acids are
readily detected in fruit juices and beer,
and that variation in their percentage is
quickly noticed, while the neutralization of
this small amount of acidity leaves an in-
sipid drink. Hence, it seems quite likely
that this small acid content gives to the
coffee brew its essential acidity. A few
minor experiments on neutralization have
proven that a very insipid beverage is pro-
duced by thus treating a coffee infusion.
The body, or what might be called the
licorice-like character, of coffee, is due
conceivably to the presence of bodies of a
glucosidic nature and to caramel. Astrin-
gency, or bitterness, is dependent upon the
decomposition products of crude fiber and
chlorogenic acid, and upon the soluble min-
eral content of the bean. The degree to
which a coffee is sweet-tasting or not is, of
course, dependent upon its other charac-
teristics, but probably varies with the re-
ducing sugar content. Aside from the
effects of these constituents upon cup qual-
ity, the influence of volatile aromatic and
flavoring constituents is always evident in
the cup valuation, and introduces a con-
trolling factor in the production of an
individualistic drink.
Coffee Extracts
I The uncertainty of the quality of coffee
' brews as made from day to day, the incon-
^*Phnrm. WeekM. voor Nederl., 1899 (no. 13).
Apoth. Ztg., 1899 (p. 14).
venience to the housewife of conducting the
extraction, and the inevitable trend of the
human race toward labor-saving devices,
have combined their influences to produce a
demand for a substance which will give a
good cup of coffee when added to water.
This gave rise to a number of concentrated
liquid and solid ''extracts of coffee," which,
because of their general poor quality, soon
brought this type of product into disrepute.
This is not surprising; for these prepara-
tions were mainly mixtures of caramel and
carelessly prepared extracts of chicory,
roasted cereals, and cheap coffee.
Liquid extracts of coffee galore have ap-
peared on the market only soon to disap-
pear. Difficulty is experienced in having
them maintain their quality over a pro-
tracted period of time, primarily due to
the hydrolyzing action of water on the
dissolved substances. They also ferment
readily, although a small percentage of
preservative, such as benzoate of soda, will
halt spoilage.'"
So much trouble is not encountered with
coffee-extract powders — the so-called
"soluble" or "instant" coffees. The ma-
jority of these powdered dry extracts do,
however, show great affinity for atmos-
pheric moisture. Their hygroscopicity
necessitates packing and keeping them in
air-tight containers to prevent them run-
ning into a solid, slowly soluble mass.
The general method of procedure em-
ployed in the preparation of these powders
is to extract ground roasted coffee with
water, and to evaporate the aqueous solu-
tion to dryness with great care. The major
difficulty which seems to arise is that the
heat needed to effect evaporation changes
the character of the soluble material, at the
same time driving off some volatile con-
stituents which are essential to a natural
flavor. Many complex and clever processes
have been developed for avoiding these
difficulties, and quite a number of patents
on processes, and several on the resultant
product, have been allowed; but the com-
mercial production of a soluble coffee of
freshly-brewed-coffee-duplicating-power is
yet to be accomplished. However, there
are now on the market several coffee-extract
powders which dissolve readily in water,
giving quite a fair approximation of freshly
brewed coffee. The improvement shown
<^ Jour. Assoc. Off. Agri. Chem., 1920 (vol. ill: p.
501).
170
ALL ABOUT COFFEE
since they first appeared augurs well for
the eventual attainment of their ultimate
goal.
Adulterants and Substitutes
There would appear to be three reasons
why substitutes for coffee are sought — the
high cost, or absence, of the real product;
the acquiring of a preferential taste, by the
consumer, for the substitute; and the in-
jurious effects of coffee when used to excess.
Makers of coffee substitutes usually empha-
size the latter reason ; but many substitutes,
which are, or have been, on the market,
seem to depend for their existence on the
other two. Properly speaking, there are
scarcely any real substitutes for coffee.
The substances used to replace it are mostly
like it only in appearance, and barely simu-
late it in taste. Besides, many of them are
not used alone, but are mixed with real
coffee as adulterants.
The two main coffee substitutes are
chicory and cereals. Chicory, succory,
Cichorium Iniybus, is a perennial plant,
growing to a height of about three feet,
bearing blue flowers, having a long tap root,
and possessing a foliage which is sometimes
used as cattle food. The plant is cultivated
generally for the sake of its root, which is
cut into slices, kiln-dried, and then roasted
in the same manner as coffee, usually. with
the addition of a small proportion of some
kind of fat. The preparation and use of
roasted chicory originated in Holland,
about 1750. Fresh chicory'' contains about
77 percent water, 7.5 gummy matter, 1.1 of
glucose, 4.0 of bitter extractive, 0.6 fat, 9.0
cellulose, inulin and fiber, and 0.8 ash.
Pure roasted chicory" contains 74.2 percent
water-soluble material, comprised of 16.3
percent water, 26.1 glucose, 9.6 dextrin and
inulin, 3.2 protein, 16.4 coloring matter,
and 2.6 ash; and 25.8 percent insoluble
substances, namely, 3.2 percent protein, 5.7
fat, 12.3 cellulose, and 4.6 ash. The effect
of roasting upon chicory is to drive off a
large percentage of water, increasing the
reducing sugars, changing a large propor-
tion of the bitter extractives and inulin, and
forming dextrin and caramel as well as the
characteristic chicory flavor.
The cereal substitutes contain almost
every type of grain, mainly wheat, rye,
oats, buckwheat, and bran. They are pre-
pared in two general ways, by roasting the
» Blyth, Wynter. Foods. 1909 (p. 3.59>
»2 Petermann. Bied. Zentr., 1899 (vol. ii : p. 211).
grains, or the mixtures of grains, with or
Avithout the addition of such substances as
sugar, molasses, tannin, citric acid, etc., or
by first making the floured grains into a
dough, and then baking, grinding, and
roasting. Prior to these treatments, the
grains may be subjected to a variety of
other treatments, such as impregnation
with various compounds, or germination.
The effect of roasting on these grains and
other substitutes is the production of a
destructive distillation, as in the case of
coffee; the crude fiber, starches, and other
carbohydrates, etc., being decomposed, with
the production of a flavor and an aroma
faintly suggesting coffee.
The number of other substitutes and imi-
tations which have been employed are too
numerous to warrant their complete de-
scription; but it will prove interesting to
enumerate a few of the more important
ones, such as malt, starch, acorns, soya
beans, beet roots, figs, prunes, date stones,
ivory nuts, sweet potatoes, beets, carrots,
peas, and other vegetables, bananas, dried
pears, grape seeds, dandelion roots, rinds
of citrus fruits, lupine seeds, whey, pea-
nuts, juniper berries, rice, the fruit of the
wax palm, cola nuts, chick peas, cassia
seeds, and the seeds of any trees and plants
indigenous to the country in which the
substitute is produced.
Aside from adulteration by mixing sub-
stitutes with ground coffee, and an occa-
sional case of factitious molded berries, the
main sophistications of coffee comprise
coating and coloring the whole beans.
Coloring of green and roasted coffees is
practised to conceal damaged and inferior
beans. Lead and zinc chromates, Prussian
blue, ferric oxid, coal-tar colors, and other
substances of a harmful nature, have been
employed for this purpose, being made to
adhere to the beans with adhesives. As
glazes and coatings, a variety of substances
have been emplyyed, such as butter, mar-
garin, vegetable oils, paraffin, vaseline,
gums, dextrin, gelatin, resins, glue, milk,
glycerin, salt, sodium bicarbonate, vinegar,
Irish moss, isinglass, albumen, etc. It is
usually claimed that coating is applied to
retain aroma and to act as a clarifying
agent; but the real reasons are usually to
increase weight through absorption of
water, to render low-grade coffees more at-'
tractive, to eliminate by-products, and to
assist in advertising.
CHEMISTRY OF COFFEE
171
METHODS OF ANALYSIS OF COFFEES"
{Official and Tentative)
(Sole responsibility for any errors in compilation
printing of these metliods is assumed by the
kuthor.i
1^;
Green Coffee
, Macroscopic Examination — Tentative
A macroscopic exaniiuation is usually sufficient
) show the presence of excessive amounts of
black and blighted coffee beans, coffee hulls,
stones, and other foreign matter. These can be
iparated by hand-picking and determined gravi-
letrically.
Coloring Matters — Tentative
Shake vigorously 100 grams or more of the
iple with cold water or 70 percent alcohol by
>lume. Strain through a coarse sieve and
low to settle. Identify soluble colors in the
)lution and insoluble pigments in the sediment.
Roasted Coffee
Macroscopic Examination — Tentative
Artificial coffee beans are apparent from their
Sxact regularity of form. Roasted legumes and
lumps of chicory, when present in whole roasted
coffee, can be picked out and identified micro-
scopically. In the case of ground coffee, si>rinkle
some of the sample on cold water and stir
lightly. Fragments of pure coffee, if not over-
roasted, will float ; while fragments of chicory,
legumes, cereals, etc., will sink immediately,
I'hicory coloring the water a decided brown. In
all cases identify the particles that sink by
microscopical examination.
4. Preparation of Sample — Official
Grind the sample to pass through a sieve hav-
ing holes 0.5 mm. in diameter and preserve in a
tightly stoppered bottle.
r>. Moisture — Tentative
Dry 5 gi'ams of the sample at 105° - 110° C. for
5 hours and subsequent periods of an hour each
until constant weight is obtained. The same pro-
cedure may be used, drying in vacuo at the tem-
perature of boiling water. In the case of whole
coffee, grind rapidly to a coarse powder and
weigh at once portions for the determination
without sifting and without unnecessary ex-
posure to the air.
6. Soluble Solids — Tentative
Place 4 grams of the sample in a 200-cc. flask,
add water to the mark, and allow the mass to
infuse for eight hours, with occasional shaking ;
let stand IG hours longer without shaking, filter,
evaporate 50 cc. of filtrate to dryness in a flat-
bottomed dish, dry at 100° C, cool and weigh.
7. Ash — Official
Char a quantity of the substance, rei>resenting
al>out 2 grams of the dry material, and burn
until free of carbon at a low heat, not to exceed
dull redness. If a carbon-free ash can not be
obtained in this manner, exhaust the charred
mass with hot water, collect the insoluble resi-
due on a filter, burn till the ash is white or
nearly so. and then add the filtrate to the ash
and evaporate to dryness. Heat to low redness,
until ash is white or grayish white, and weigh.
^ Association of Official Agricultural Chemists.
Sept. 1920.
8. Ash Insoluble in Acid — Official
Boil the water-insoluble residue, obtained as
directed under 9, or the total ash obtained as
directed under 7, with 25 cc. of 10-perceut hydro-
chloric acid (sp. gr. 1.050) for 5 minutes, collect
the insoluble matter on a Gooch crucible or an
ashless filter, wash with hot water, ignite and
weigh.
9. Soluble and Insoluble Ash — Official
Heat 5 to 10 grams of the sample in a plati-
num dish of from 50 to 100 cc. capacity at 100°
C. until the water is expelled, and add a few
drops of pure olive oil and heat slowly over a
rtame until swelling ceases. Then place the dish
in a muffle and heat at low redness until a white
ash is obtained. Add water to the ash, in the
platinum dish, heat nearly to boiling, filter
through ash-free filter paper, and wash with hot
water until the combined filtrate and washings
measure to about 00 cc. Return the filter and
contents to the platinum dish, carefully ignite,
cool and weigh. Compute percentages of water-
insoluble ash and water-soluble ash.
10. Alkalinity of the Soluble Ash — Official
Cool the filtrate from 9 and titrate with N/10
hydrochloric acid, using methyl orange as an
indicator.
Express the alkalinity in terms of the number
of cc. of N/10 acid per 1 gram of the sample.
11. Soluble Phosphoric Acid in the Ash — Official
Acidify the solution of soluble ash, obtained in
9, with dilute nitric acid and determine phos-
phoric acid (PoOs). For percentages up to 5
use an aliquot corresponding to 0.4 gram of sub-
stance, for percentages between 5 and 20 use an
aliquot corresponding to 0.2 gram of substance,
and for percentages above 20 use an aliquot cor-
responding to 0.1 gram of substance. Dilute to
75 - 100 cc, heat in a water-bath to 60° - 65° C,
and for percentages below 5 add 20 - 25 cc. of
freshly filtered molybdate solution. For per-
centages between 5 and 20 add 30 - 35 cc. of
molybdate solution. For percentages greater
than 20 add sufficient iholybdate solution to in-
sure complete precii>itation. Stir, let stand in
the bath for about 15 minutes, filter at once,
wash once or twice with water by decantation,
using 25-30 cc. each time, agitate the precipi-
tate thoroughly and allow to settle; transfer to
the filter and wash with cold water until the
filtrate from two fillings of the filter yields a
pink color upon the addition of phenolphthalein
and one drop of the standard alkali. Transfer
the precipitate and filter to the beaker, or pre-
cipitating vessel, dissolve the precipitate in a
small excess of the standard alkali, add a few
drops of phenolphthalein solution, and titrate
with the standard acid.
12. Insoluble Phosphoric Acid in the Ash —
Official
Determine iihosphoric acid (P3O5) in the in-
soluble ash by the foregoing method.
13. Chlorids — Official
Moisten 5 grams of the substance in a plati-
num dish with 20 cc. of a 5-percent solution of
sodium carbonate, evaporate to dryness and
ignite as thoroughly as possible at a temperature
not exceeding dull redness. Extract with hot
water, filter and wash. Return the residue to
172
ALL ABOUT COFFEE
the platinum dish and ignite to an ash ; dissolve
In nitric acid, and add this solution to the
water extract. Add a linown volume of N/10
sliver nitrate In slight excess to the combined
solutions. Stir well, filter and wash the sliver
chlorld precipitate thoroughly. To the filtrate
and washings add 5 cc. of a saturated solution
of ferric alum and a few cc. of nitric acid.
Titrate the excess silver with N/10 ammonium
or potassium thlocyanate until a permanent light
brown color appears. Calculate the amount of
chlorln.
14. Caffein — The Fendler and Stiiber Method —
Tentative
Pulverize the coffee to pass without residue
through a sieve having circular openings 1 mm.
in diameter. Treat a 10-gram sample with 10
grams of 10-percent ammonium hydroxld and
200 grams of chloroform in a glass-stoppered
bottle and shake continuously by machine or
hand for one-half hour. Pour the entire con-
tents of the bottle on a 12.5-cm. folded filter,
covering with a watch glass. Weigh 150 grams
of the filtrate into a 250-cc. flask and evaporate
on the_ steam bath, removing the last chloroform
with a blast of air. Digest the residue with
80 cc. of hot water for ten minutes on a steam
bath with frequent shaking, and let cool. Treat
the solution with 20 cc. (for roasted coftee) or
10 cc. (for unroasted coffee) of 1-percent potas-
sium permanganate and let stand for 15 minutes
at room temperature. Add 2 cc. of 3-percent
hydrogen peroxid (containing 1 cc. of glacial
acetic acid in 100 cc). If the liquid is still red
or reddish, add hydrogen peroxid, 1 cc. at a
time, until the excess of potassium permanganate
is destroyed. Place the flask on the steam bath
for 15 minutes, adding hydrogen peroxid in
0.5-cc. portions until the liquid becomes no
lighter in color. Cool and filter into a separa-
tory funnel, washing with cold water. Extract
four times with 25 cc. of chloroform. Evaporate
the chloroform extract from a weighed flask
with aid of an air blast and dry at 100° C. to
constant weight (one-half hour is usually suffi-
cient). Weigh the residue as caffein and
calculate on 7.5 grams of coffee. Test the purity
of the residue by determining nitrogen and mul-
tiplying by 3.464 to obtain caffein.
15. Caffein — Power-Chestnut Method — Official
Moisten 10 grams of the finely powdered
sample with alcohol, transfer to a Soxhlet, or
similar extraction apparatus, and extract with
alcohol for 8 hours. (Care should be exercised
to assure complete extraction.) Transfer the
extract with the aid of hot water to a porcelain
dish containing 10 grams of heavy magnesium
oxdd in suspension in 100 cc. of water. (This
reagent should meet the U. S. P. requirements.)
Evaporate slowly on the steam bath with fre-
quent stirring to a dry, powdery mass. Rub the
residue with a pestle into a paste with boiling
water. Transfer with hot water to a smooth
filter, cleaning the dish with a rubber-tipped
glass rod. Collect the filtrate in a liter flask
marked at 250 cc. and wash with boiling water
until the filtrate reaches the mark. Add 10 cc. of
10-percent sulphuric acid and boil gently for 30
minutes with a funnel in the neck of the flask.
Cool and fllter through a moistened double paper
into a separatory funnel and wash with small
portions of 0.5-percent sulphuric acid. Extract
with six successive 25-cc. portions of chloro-
form. Wash the combined chloroform ex-
tracts in a separatory funnel with 5 cc. of
1-percent potassium hydroxld solution. Fil-
ter the chloroform into an Erlenmeyer flask.
Wash the potassium hydroxld with 2 portions
of chloroform of 10 cc. each, adding them to the
flask together with the chloroform washings of
the filter paper. Evaporate or disitil on the
steam bath to a small volume (10-15 cc.) , trans-
fer with chloroform to a tared, beaker, evaporate
carefully, dry for 30 minutes in a water oven,
and weigh. The purity of the residue can be
tested by determining nitrogen and multiplying
by the factor 3.464.
16. Crude Fiber — Official
Prepare solutions of sulphuric acid and sodium
hydroxld of exactly 1.25-percent strength, deter-
mined by titration. Extract a quantity of the
substance representing about 2 grams of the dry
material with ordinary ether, or use residue
from the determination of the ether extract.
To this residue in a 500-cc. flask add 200 cc.
of boiling 1.25-percent sulphuric acid ; connect
the flask with a reflux condenser, the tube of
which passes only a short distance beyond the
rubber stopper into the flask, or simply cover a
tall conical flask, which is well suited for this
determination, with a watch glass or short
stemmed funnel. Boil at once and continue boil-
ing gently for thirty minutes. A blast of air
conducted into the flask may serve to reduce the
frothing of the liquid. Filter through linen, and
wash with boiling water until the washings are
no longer acid ; rinse the substance back into
the flask with 200 cc. of the boiling 1.25-ipercent
solution of sodium hydroxld free, or nearly so,
of sodium carbonate ; boil at once and continue
boiling gently for thirty minutes in the same
manner as directed above for the treatment with
acid. Filter at once rapidly, wash with boiling
water until the washings are neutral. The last
filtration may be performed upon a Gooch
crucible, a linen filter, or a tared filter paper.
If a linen filter is used, rinse the crude fiber,
after washing is completed, into a flat-bottomed
platinum dish by means of a jet of water ;
evaporate to dryness on a steam bath, dry to
constant weight at 110° C, weigh, incinerate
completely, and weigh again. The loss in weight
is considered to be crude fiber. If a tared filter
paper is used, weigh in a weighing bottle. In
any case, the crude fiber after drying to con-
stant weight at 110° C, must be incinerated and
the amount of the ash deducted from the original
weight.
17. Starch — Tentative
Extract 5 grams of the finely pulverized
sample on a hardened filter with five successive
portions (10 cc. each) of ether, wash with small
portions of J>5-percent alcohol by volume until
a total of 200 cc. have passed through, place the
residue in a beaker with 50 cc. of water, im-
merse the beaker in boiling water and stir con-
stantly for 15 minutes or until all the starch is
gelatinized ; cool- to 55° C, add 20 cc. of malt
extract and maintain at this temperature for an
hour. Heat again to boiling for a few minutes,
cool to 55° C, add 20 cc. of malt extract and
maintain at this temperature for an hour or
until the residue treated with iodln shows no
CHEMISTRY OF COFFEE
173
l)lue color upon microscopic examination. Cool,
make up directly to 250 cc, and filter. Place
1100 cc. of the filtrate in a fiask with 20 cc. of
liydrochloric acid (sp. gr. 1.125) ; connect with a
loflux condenser and heat in a boiling water
bath for 2.5 hours. Cool, nearly neutralize with
sodium hydroxid solution, and make up to 500
cc. Mix the solution well, pour through a dry
filter and determine the dextrose In an aliquot.
Conduct a blank determination upon the same
volume of the malt extract as used upon the
sample, and correct the weight of reduced cop-
;r accordingly. The weight of the dextrose
Obtained multiplied by 0.90 gives the weight of
tarch.
|8. Sugars — Tentative
See original."'
19. Petroleum Ether Extract — Official
Dry 2 grams of coffee at 100° C, extract with
?troleum ether (boiling point 35° to 50° C.) for
IG hours, evaporate the solvent, dry the residue
It 100° C, cool, and weigh.
Total Aciditu — Tentative
Treat 10 grams of the sample, prepared as
lirected under 4, wdth 75 cc. of 80-percent alco-
hol by volume in an Erlenmeyer flask, stopper,
md allow to stand 16 hours, shaking occasion-
illy. Filter and transfer an aliquot of the
lltrate (25 cc. in the case of green coffee, 10 cc.
In the case of roasted coffee; to a beaker, dilute
|o about 100 cc. with water and titrate with
f/10 alkali, using phenolphthalein as an indi-
Bator. Express the result as the number of cc.
)f N/10 alkali required to neutralize the acidity
)f 100 grams of the sample.
21. Volatile Acidity — Tentative
Into a volatile acid apparatus introduce a few
glass beads, and over these place 20 grams of
the unground sample. Add 100 cc. of recently
boiled water to the sample, place a sufficient
quantity of recently boiled water in the outer
flask and distil until the distillate is no longer
acid to litmus paper. Usually 100 cc. of distillate
will be collected. Titrate the distillate with
N/10 alkali, using phenolphthalein as an indi-
cator. Express the result as the number of cc.
of N/10 alkali required to neutralize the acidity
of 100 grams of the sample.
Unofficial Methods
22. Protein
Determine nitrogen in 3 grams of the sample
by the Kjeldahl or Gunning method. This gives
the total nitrogen due to both the proteids and
the caCfein. To obtain the protein nitrogen, sub-
tract from the total nitrogen the nitrogen due to
caffein, obtained by direct determination on the
separated caffein or by calculation (caffein
divided by 3.464 gives nitrogen). Multiply by
0.25 to obtain the amount of protein.
23. Ten Percent Extract — McGill Method
Weigh into a tared flask the equivalent of 10
grams of the dried substance, add water until
the contents of the flask weigh 110 grams, con-
nect with a reflux condenser and heat, beginning
the boiling in 10 to 15 minutes. Boil for 1 hour,
cool for 15 minutes, weigh again, making up
any loss by the addition of water, filter, and
take the specific gravity of the filtrate at 15° C.
According to McGill, a 10-percent extract of
pure coffee has a specific gravity of 1.00986 at
15° C, and under the same treatment chicory
gives an extract with a specific gravity of
1.02821. In mixtures of coffee and chicory the
approximate percentage of chicory may be cal-
culated by the following formula :
(1.02821 — sp.gr.)
Percent of chicory = 100 •
0.01835
The index of refraction of the above solution
may be taken with the Zeiss immersion refrac-
tometer or with the Abbe refractometer.
With a 10-percent coffee extract, n^ 20° =
1.3377.
With a 10-percent chicory extract, n^ 20° =
1.3448.
Determinations of the solids, ash, sugar, nitro-
gen, etc., may be made in the 10-percent extract,
if desired.
24. Caffetannic Acid — Krug's Method^*
Treat 2 grains of the coffee with 10 cc. ol
water and digest for 36 hours ; add 25 cc. of 90-
percent alcohol and digest 24 hours more, filter,
and wash with 90-percent alcohol. The filtrate
contains tannin, caffein, color, and fat. Heat the
filtrate to the boiling point and add a saturated
solution of lead acetate. If this is carefully
done, a caffetannate of lead will be precipitated
containing 49 percent of lead. As soon as the
precipitate has become flocculent, collect on a
tared filter, wash with 90-percent alcohol until
free from lead, wash with ether, dry and weigh.
The precipitate multiplied by 0.51597 gives the
weight of the caffetannic acid.
"^ Association of Official Agricultural Chemists.
Sept., ]!)20.
"U. S. Dept. Agri., Div. of Chem. Bull. 13 (pt. 7:
p. 908).
Chapter XVIII
PHARMACOLOGY OF THE COFFEE DRINK
General physiological action — Effect on children — Effect on longev-
ity — Behavior in the alimentary regime — Place in dietary — Action
on bacteria — Use in medicine — Physiological action of " caff etannic
acid" — Of caffeol — Of caffein — Effect of caffein on mental and
motor efficiency — Conclusions
By Charles W. Trigg
Indnsti-ial Fellow of the Mellon Institute of Industrial Research, Pittsburgh, 191G-1920
THE published information regarding
the effects of coffee drinking on the
human system is so contradictory in
its nature that it is hazardous to make
many generalizations about the physiologi-
cal behavior of coffee. Most of the investi-
gations that have been conducted to date
have been characterized by incompleteness
and a failure to be sufficiently comprehen-
sive to eliminate the element of individual
-idiosyncrasy from the results obtained. Ac-
cordingly, it is possible to select statements
from literature to the effect either that cof-
fee is an ''elixir of life," or even a poison.
This is a deplorable state of affairs, nor
calculated to promote the dissemination of
accurate knowledge among the consuming
public, but it may be partly excused upon
the grounds that experimental apparatus
has not always been at the level of perfec-
tion that it now occupies. Also, to do jus-
tice to some of the able men who have
interested themselves in this problem, it
should be said that some of their results
were obtained in researches, distinguished
by painstaking accuracy, which have ef-
fected the establishment of the major reac-
tions of ingested coffee.
The Physiological Action of Coffee
Drinking of coffee by mankind may be
attributed to three causes : the demand for,
and the pleasing effects of, a hot drink (a
very small percentage of the coffee con-
sumed is taken cold), the pleasing reaction
which its flavors excite on the gustatory
nerve, and the stimulating effect which it
has upon the body. The flavor is due
largely to the volatile aromatic constit-
uents, "caffeol," which, when isolated, have
a general depressant action on the system;
and the stimulation is caused by the caffein.
The general and specific actions of these in-
dividual components, together with that of
the hypothetical "caffetannic acid," are
considered under separate headings.
Coffee may be considered a member of
the general class of adjuvant, or auxiliary,
foods to which other beverages and condi-
ments of negligible inherent food value be-
long. Its position on the average menu
may be attributed largely to its palatability
and comforting effects. However, the
medicinal value of coffee in the dietary and
per se must not be overlooked.
The ingestion o,f coffee infusion is always
followed by evidences of stimulation. It
acts upon the nervous system as a powerful
cerebro-spinal stimulant, increasing mental
activity and quickening the power of per-
ception, thus making the thoughts more
precise and clear, and intellectual work
easier without any evident subsegirent de-
pression. The muscles are^caused to con-
tract more vigorously, increasing their
working power without there being any
174
PHARMACOLOGY OF COFFEE
175
secondary reaction leading to a diminished
capacity for work. Its action upon the cir-
culation is somewhat antagonistic; for
hile it tends to increase the rate of the
eart by acting directly on the heart
uscle, it tends to decrease it by stimulat-
ing the inhibitory center in the medulla/
The effect on the kidneys is more marked,
he diuretic effect being shown by an in-
rease in water, soluble solids, and of uric
cid directly attributable to the caffein con-
ent of the coffee taken. In the alimentary
iract coffee seems to stimulate the oxyntic
ells and slightly to increase the secretion
of hydrochloric acid, as well as to favor in-
testinal peristalsis. It is difficult to accept
reports of coffee accomplishing both a de-
crease in metabolism and an increase in
body heat; but if the production of heat by
^Bithe demethylation of caffein to form uric
^Hftcid and a possible repression of perspira-
^Hpion by coffee be considered, the simultane-
^^Bus occurrence of these two physiological
^^■•eactions may be credited.
^L The disagreement of medical authorities
over the pliysiological effects of coffee is
quite pronounced. This may be observed
by a careful perusal of the following state-
ments made by these men. It will be no-
ticed that the majority opinion is that
coffee in moderation is not harmful. Just
how much coffee a person may drink, and
still remain within the limits of moderation
and temperance, is dependent solely upon
the individual constitution, and should be
decided from personal experience rather
than by accepting an arbitrary standard set
by some one who professes to be an author-
ity on the matter.
A writer in the British Homeopathic Re-
vieiv^ says that "the exciting effects of
coffee upon the nervous system exhibit
themselves in all its departments as a tem-
porary exaltation. The emotions are raised
in pitch, the fancies are lively and vivid,
benevolence is excited, the religious sense is
stimulated, there is great loquacity. . . .
The intellectual powers are stimulated,
both memory and judgment are rendered
more keen and unusual vivacity of verbal
expression rules for a short time." He
continues :
Hahnemann gives a characteristically careful
account of the coffee headache. If the quantity
of coffee taken he immoderately great and the
l>ody he very excitable and quite unused to cof-
fee, there occurs a semilateral headache from
the upper part of the parietal hone to the base
of the brain. The cerebml membranes of this
side also seem to be painfully sensitive, the
hands and feet becoming cold, and sweat ap-
pears on the brows and palms. The disposition
becomes irritable and intolerant, anxiety, trem-
bling and restlessness are apparent. ... I
have met with headaches of this type which
yielded readily to coffee and with many more
in which the indicated remedy failed to act until
the use of coffee as a beverage was abandoned.
The eyes and ears suffer alike from the super-
excitation of coffee. There is a characteristic
toothache associated with coffee.
In apparent contradiction of this opin-
ion, Dr. Valentin Nalpasse,' of the Faculty
of Medicine of Paris, states :
When coffee is properly made and taken in
moderation, it is a most valuable drink. It
facilitates the digestion because it produces a
local excitement. Its principal action gives clear
and stable imaginative power to the brain. By
doing that, it makes intellectual work easy, -and,
to a certain extent, regulates the functions of
the brain. The thoughts become more precise
and clear, and mental combinations are formed
with much greater rapidity. Under the influ-
ence of coffee, the memory is sometimes sur-
prisingly active, and ideas and words flow with
ease and elegance. . . . Many people abuse
coffee without feeling any bad effect.
Discussing the use and abuse of coffee,
I. N. Love* says :
The world has in the infusion of coffee one of
its most valuable beverages. It is a prompt
diffusible stimulant, antiseptic and encourager
of elimination. In season it supports, tides over
danger, helps the appropriate powers of the sys-
tem, whips up the flagging energies, enhances
the endurance ; but it is in no sense a food, and
for this reason it should be used temperately.
Also Dr. Jonathan Hutchinson' makes
the following weighty pronouncement :
In reference to my suggestion to give children
tea and coffee, I may explain that it is done ad-
visedly. There is probably no objection to their
use even at early ages. They arouse the duU,
calm the excitable, prevent headaches, and fit the
brain for work. They preserve the teeth, keep
them tight in their place, strengthen the vocal
chords, and prevent sore throat. To stigmatize
these invaluable articles of diet as "nerve stimu-
lants" is an erroneous expression, for they un-
doubtedly have a right to rank as nerve
nutrients.
But Dr. Harvey Wiley" comes forth with
evidence on the other side, saying:
The effects of the excessive use of coffee, tea,
and other natural caffein beverages is well
known. Although the caffein is combined in these
^Niles, G. M. Tea & Coffee Trade Jour., 1910
(vol. xix : no. 1 : p. 27).
"Through The Sun, New York, July 17. 1910.
' Annales PoUtiquea et Littirairea, through Tea, d
Coffee Trade Jour., 1906 (vol. x: p. 303).
*Jour. Am. Med. Assoc., 1891 (vol. xvl).
s The Times, London, Oct. 1, 1904 ; through Tea &
Coffee Trade Jour, 1911 (vol. xxl : p. 36).
« Oood Housekeeping, through Tea d Coffee Trade
Jour., 1912 (vol. xxiii : p. 237).
176
ALL ABOUT COFFEE
beverages naturally, and they are as a rule
taken at meal times, which mitigates the effects
of the caffein, they are recognized by every one
as tending to produce sleeplessness, and often
indigestion, stomach disorders, and a condition
which, for lack of a better term, is described
as nervousness. . . . The excessive drinking of
tea and coffee is acknowledged to be injurious
by practically all specialists.
Dr. V. C. Vaughn/ of the University of
Michigan, speaking of tea and coffee, ex-
presses this opinion :
I believe that caffein used as a beverage and
in moderation not only is harmless to the ma-
jority of adults, but is beneficial.
This verdict is upheld by the results of a
symposium" conducted by the Medical
Times, in which a large majority of the
medical experts participating, among whom
may be enumerated Drs. Lockwood, Wood,
Hollingworth, Robinson, and Barnes,
agreed that the drinking of coffee is not
harmful per se, but that over-indulgence is
the real cause of any ill effects. This is also
true of any ingested material.
Insomnia is a condition frequently at-
tributed to coffee, but that the authorities
disagree on this ground is shown by
Wiley's* contention, "We know beyond
doubt that the caffein (in coffee) makes a
direct attack on the nerves and causes in-
somnia." While Woods Hutchinson' ob-
serves :
Oddly enough, a cup of hot, weak tea or coffee,
with plenty of cream and sugar, will often help
you to sleep, for the grateful warmth and stimu-
lus to the lining of the stomach, drawing the
blood into it and away from the head, will pro-
duce more soothing effects than the small amount
of caffein will produce stimulating and wakeful
ones.
The writer has often had people remark
to him that while black coffee sometimes
kept them awake, coffee with, cream or
sugar or both made them drowsy.
In the course of experiments conducted
by Montuori and Pollitzer'" it was found
that coffee prepared by hot infusion when
given by mouth or hypodermically with the
addition of a small dose of alcohol proved
an efficient means of combating the perni-
cious effects of low temperatures. Coffee
prepared by boiling, and tea, showed nega-
tive effects.
The value of coffee as a strength-con-
server, and its function of increasing en-
■ ' Tea d Coffee Trade Jour., 1913 (vol. xxiv : p. 455).
» Tea & Coffee Trade Jour., 1912 (vol. xxiii : p.
356).
' Good Housekeeping, through Tea & Coffee Trade
Jour., 1915 (vol. xxviii : p. 533).
^'> Atti. accad. Lincei, 1915 (vol. xxiv: no. 2: pp.
543-48).
durance, morale, and healthfulness, was
demonstrated by the great stress which the
military authorities, in the late and in pre-
vious wars, placed upon furnishing the
soldiers with plenty of good coffee, particu-
larly at times when they were under the
greatest strain. Various articles" record
this fact; and these statements are further
borne out by the data given below in the
discussion of the physiological effects of
caffein, to which the majority of the stimu-
lating effects of coffee may be attributed.
According to Fauvel,'^ with a healthy
patient on a vegetable diet, chocolate and
coffee increase the excretion of purins,
diminishing the excretion of uric acid and
apparently hindering the precipitation of
uric acid in the organism. This diminu-
tion, however, was not due to retention of
uric acid in the organism.
"Habit-forming" is one of the adjectives
often used in describing coffee, but it is a
fact that coffee is much less likely than alco-
holic liquors to cause ill effects. A man
rarely becomes a slave of coffee ; and exces-
sive drinking of this beverage never pro-
duces a state of moral irresponsibility or
leads to the commission of crime. Dr. J. W.
Mallet," in testimony given before a Fed-
eral Court, stated that caffein and coffee
were not habit-forming in the correct sense
of the term. His definition of the expres-
sion is that the habit formed must be a
detrimental and injurious one — one which
becomes so firmly fixed upon a person form-
ing it that it is thrown off with great diffi-
culty and with considerable suffering,
continuous exercise. of the habit increasing
the demand for the habit-forming drug.
It is well known that the desire ceases in a
very short period of time after cessation of
use of caffein-containing beverages, so that
in that sense, coffee is not habit-forming.
It has been shown by Gourewitsch" that
the daily administration of coffee produces
a certain degree of tolerance, and that the
doses must be increased to obtain toxic re-
sults. Harkness" has been quoted as stat-
mg that "taken in moderation, coffee is one
of the most w^holesome beverages known.
It assists digestion, exhilarates the spirits,
and counteracts the tendency to sleep."
" Nalpasse, Dr. Valentin, loc. cit. (see 3).
Flint, Dr. Austin B. Text Book of Physiology.
Wood, H. C, Jr. Therapeutic Gazette, 1912 (vol.
xxxvi : p. 13).
^ Compt, rend. (vol. cxlviii : p. 1541).
" Tea & Coffee Trade Jour., 1914 (vol. xxvi : p.
5.39).
^*Arch. exp. Path. Pharm., 1907 (vol. Ivii : p. 214).
^^ Universal Dictionary, 1897 (vol. i: p. 1097).
ALL ABOUT COFFEE
Men and Women Laborers Picking Cofi-ee on a Sao Paulo Estate
¥
SACKING COFIEE IN A WAUEJIOUSE AT THE POBT OF SANTOS
PICKING AND SACKING COFFEE IN BRAZIL
PHARMACOLOGY OF COFFEE
177
Carl V. Voit," the German physiological
chemist, says this about coffee:
The effect of coffee is that we are bothered
[less by uupleasant experiences and become more
[able to conquer difficulties; therefore, for the
feasting rich, it makes intestinal work after a
meal le^^s evident and drives away the deadly
( ennui ; for the student it is a means to keep wide
awake and fresh ; for the worker it makes the
day's fatigue more bearable.
Dr. Brady" believes that the so-called
,harmfulness of coffee is mainly psychologi-
jcal, as evidenced by his expression, ''Most
I of the prejudice which exists against coffee
as a beverage is based upon nothing more
(than morbid fancy. People of dyspeptic
for neurotic temperament are fond of assum-
ing that coffee must be bad because it is so
good, and accordingly, denying themselves
the pleasure of drinking it."
The recounting of evidence, both pro and
con, relevant to the general effects of coffee
tcould continue almost ad infinitum, but the
fairest unification of the various opinions is
best quoted from Woods Hutchinson ' :
Somewhere from 1 to 3 percent of the com-
munity are distinctly injured or poisoned by
tea or coffee, even small amounts producing
burning of the stomach, palpitation of the heart,
headache, eruptions of the skin, sensations of
extreme nervousness, and so on ; though the re-
maining 97 i>ercent are not injured by them in
I any appreciable way if consumed in moderation.
So, if one is personally satisfied that he
belongs to the abnormal minority, and has
not been argued by fallacious reasoning
into his belief that coffee injures him, he
should either reduce his consumption of
coffee or let it alone. Even those most
vitally interested in the commercial side of
coffee will admit that this is the logical
procedure.
Effects of Coffee on Children
The same sort of controversy has raged
around the question of the advisability of
giving coffee to children as has occurred
regarding its general action. Dr. J.
Hutchinson"* advocates furnishing children
with coffee, while Dr. Charlotte Abbey"" is
strongly against such a practise, claiming
that use of caffein-containing beverages be-
fore the attainment of full growth will
weaken nerve power. Nalpasse" observes
" Handhuch der Physiologic, 1881 (vol. vi : p. 435).
"r/ie CoScc Club, 1921 (vol. i: p. 4).
" Saturday Evening Post, throujih Tea d Coffee
Trade Jour, 1914 ^vol. xxvii : p. 5St)).
*» hoc. cit. (see 5).
''Seven Truths to Teach the Young in Regard to
Life and Sex, No. 2.
** Loc. cit. (see 3).
that until fully developed the young are
immoderately excited by coffee ; and Hawk"
is of the opinion that to give such a stimu-
lant to an active school-child is both logi-
cally and dietetically incorrect. Dr.
Vaughn" advances this scientific argument
against the drinking of coffee by children
under seven years of age :
In proportion to body weight the young con-
tain more of the xanthin bases than adults.
They are already laden with these physiological
stimulants, and the additional dose given in tea
or coffee may be harmful.
In a study of the effects of coffee drink-
ing upon 464 school children, C. K, Tay-
lor'* found a slight difference in mental
ability and behavior, unfavorable to coffee.
About 29 percent of these children drank
no coffee ; 46 percent drank a cup a day ;
12 percent, 2 cups; 8 percent, 3 cups; and
the remainder, 4 or more cups a day. The
measurements of height, weight, and hand
strength also showed a slight advantage in
favor of the non-coffee drinkers. If these
results be talfen as truly representative,
their indication is obvious. However, it
seems desirable to repeat these experiments
upon other groups ; at the same time noting
carefully the factors of environment, and
other diet, before any criterion is made.
As a refutation to this experimental evi-
dence is the practical experience of the in-
habitants of the Island of Groix, off the
Brittany coast, whose annual consumption
of coffee is nearly 30 pounds per cxpita,
being ingested both as the roasted bean and
as an infusion. It is reported that many
of the children are nourished almost en-
tirely on coffee soup up to ten years of age,
yet the mentality and physique of the
populace does not fall below that of others
of the same stock and educational oppor-
tunities," "•
Pertinent in this connection is Hawk^s"*
statement that young mothers should re-
frain from the use of coffee, as caffein
stimulates the action of the kidneys and
tends to bring about a loss from the body
of some of the salts necessary to the de-
velopment of the unborn child as well as
for the proper production of milk during
the nursing period. The caffein of coffee
also increases the flow of milk, but the milk
produced is correspondingly dilute and a
later decreased secretion may be expected.
"Ladies' Home Journal, Dec, 1916 (p. 37).
'^ Loc. cit. (see 7).
^ Psych. Clin. (vol. vi : pp. 56-5S).
"Tea d Coffee Trade Jour., June, 1905 (p. 274).
178
ALL ABOUT COFFEE
Furthermore, some of the caffein of the
coffee may pass into the mother's milk, thus
reaching the child, so that the use of coffee
during the nursing period is undesirable on
this ground also." Naturally, the question
arises as to whether this arra^ignment is
purely theoretical or based upon analytical
and clinical data.
It is a difficult matter definitely to set
an age below which coffee should not be
drunk, as the time of reaching maturity
varies with climate and ancestral origin.
Yet, from a theoretical standpoint, chil-
dren before or during the adolescent period
should be limited to the use of a rather
small amount of tea and coffee as bever-
ages, as their poise and nerve control have
not reached a stage of development suffi-
cient to warrant the stimulation incident
to the consumption of an appreciable quan-
tity of caffein.
Coffee Drinking and Longevity
There are many who would have us be-
lieve that the use of coffee is only a means
toward the end of quickly reaching the
great beyond; but it is known that the
habitual coffee drinker generally enjoys
good health, and some of the longest-lived
people have used it from their earliest
youth without any apparent injury to their
health. Nearly every one has an acquaint-
ance who has lived to a ripe old age despite
the use of coffee. Quoting Metchnikoff'' :
In some cases centenarians have been much
addicted to the drinlving of coffee. The reader
will recall Voltaire's reply when his doctor de-
scribed the grave harm that comes from the
abuse of coffee, which acts as a real poison.
"Well", said Voltaire, "I have been poisoning
myself for nearly eighty years." There are cen-
tenarians who have lived longer than Voltaire,
and have drunk still more coffee. Elizabeth^
Dririeux, a native of Savoy, reached the age of 1
114. Her principal food was coffee, of which i
she took daily as many as forty small cups.
She was jovial and a boon table companion, and
used black coffee in quantities that would have
surprised an Arab. Her coffee-pot was always
on the fire, like the tea-pot in an English cot-
tage (Lejoncourt, p. 84; Chemin, p. 147).
The entire matter resolves itself into one
of individual tolerance, resistivity, and
constitution. Numerous examples of young
abstainers who have died and coffee
drinkers who have still lived on can be
found, and vice versa, the preponderance
of instances being in neither direction.
Bodies of persons killed by accident have
been painstakingly examined for physio-
" The Prolongation oj Life.
logical changes attributable to coffee; but
no difference between those of coffee and
of non-coffee drinkers (ascertained by care-
ful investigation of their life history)
could be discerned."' In the long run, it is
safe to say that the effect of coffee drinking
upon the prolongation or shortening of life
is neutral.
Coffee in the Alimentary Tract
When coffee is taken per os it passes di-.
rectly to the stomach, where its sole im-
mediate action is to dilute the previous
contents, just as other ingested liquids do.
Eventually the caffein content is absorbed
by the system, and from thence on a stimu-
lation is appareiit. Considerable conjec-
ture has occurred over the difference in the
effects of tea and coffee, the most feasible
explanation advanced being one appearing
in the London Lancet.'"
The caffein tannate of tea is precipitated by
weak acids, and the presumption is that it is
precipitated by the gastric juice and, therefore,
the caffein is probably not absorbed until it
reaches the alkaMne alimentary tract. In the
\case of coffee, however, in whatever form the
caffein may be present, it is soluble in both al-
kaline and acid liuids, and, therefore, the absorp-
tion of the alkaloid probably takes place in the
stomach.
This theory, if true, goes far toward ex-
plaining the more rapid stimulation of
coffee.
The statement has sometimes been made
that milk or cream causes the coffee liquid
to become coagulated when it comes into
contact with the acids of the stomach. This
is true, but does not carry with it the in-
ference that indigestibility accompanies
this coagulation. Milk and cream, upon
reaching the stomach, are coagulated by the
..gastric juice; but the casein product
formed is not indigestible. These liquids,
when added to coffee, are partially acted
upon by the small acid content of the brew,
so that the gastric juice action is not so
pronounced, for the coagulation was started
before ingestion, and the coagulable con-
stituent, casein, is more dilute in the cup
as consumed than it is in milk. Accord-
ingly, the particles formed by it in the
stomach will be relatively smaller and more
quickly and easily digested than milk per
se. It has been observed that coffee con-
taining milk or cream is not as stimulating
as black coffee. The writer believes that
^ Hekteon and LeConte.
» Through Tea & Coffee Trade Jour.. 1914 (vol.
xxvi : pp. 29 32).
PHARMACOLOGY OF COFFEE
179
m
is is probably due to mechanical inclusion .
caffein in the casein and fat particles,
d also to some adsorption of the alkaloid
by them. This would materially retard the
absorption of the caffein by the body,
spread the action over a longer period of
time, and hence decrease the maximum
stimulation attained.
In a few instances, a small fraction of
one percent of coffee users, there is a cer-
tain type of distress, localized chiefly in the
imentary tract, caused by coffee, which
n not be blamed upon the much-maligned
caffein. The irritating elements may be
generally classified as compounds formed
upon the addition of cream or milk to the
coffee liquor, volatile constituents, and
products formed by hydrolysis of the
fibrous part of the grounds. It may be
generally postulated that the main causa-
tion of this discomfort is due to substances
formed in the incorrect brewing of coffee,
the effect of which is accentuated by the
addition of cream or milk, when the condi-
tion of individual idiosyncrasy is present.
Without enlarging upon his reason, Lo-
rand'" concludes that neither tea nor coffee
is advisable for weak stomachs. Nalpasse,"
however, believes that coffee taken after
meals makes the digestion more perfect and
more rapid, augmenting the secretions, and
that it agrees equally well with people in-
clined to embonpoint and heavy eaters
whose digestion is slow and difficult.
Thompson^^ also observes that coffee drunk
in moderation is a mild stimulant to gastric
digestion.
Eder'^ reported, as the result of an in-
quiry into the action of coffee on the ac-
tivity of the stomachs of ruminants, that
coffee infusions produced a transitory in-
crease in the number and intensity of the
movements of the paunch, but that the in-
fluence exercised was very irregular.
An elaborate investigation of the action
of tea and coffee on digestion in the stomn,
ach was made by Fraser,^* in which hei
found that both retard peptic digestion, |
the former to a greater degree than the'
latter. The digestion of white of egg, ham,
salt beef, and roast beef was much less af-
fected than that of lamb, fowl, or bread.
Coffee seemed actually to aid the digestion
'» Old Age Deferred, 1910.
^^ Loc. cit. (see 3).
^Practical Dietetics, 1017 (p. 254).
^^ Zentr. Biochem Biophys, 1912 (vol. xili : p. 504).
^Jour. Anat. d Phyai., through Tea & Coffee Trade
Jour., 1913 (vol. XXV : p. 345).
of egg and ham. He attributed the retard-
ing effect to the tannic acid of the tea and
the volatile constituents of the coffee — the
caffein itself favoring digestion rather than
otherwise. Tea increased the production of
i gas in all but salt foods, whereas coffee did
' not. Coffee is, therefore, to be preferred in
cases of flatulent dyspepsia.
Hutchinson, in his Food and Dietetics,
opines :
As regards the practical inferences to be
drawn from experiences and observations, it may
be said that in health the disturbance of diges-
tion px'oduced by the infused beverages (tea and
coffee) is negligible. Roberts, indeed, goes so
far as to suggest that the slight slowing of di-
gestion which they produce may be favored
rather than otherwise, as tending to compensate
for too rapid digestibility which refinements of
manufacture and preparation have made char-
acteristic of modern foods.
Regarding increase in secretory activity,
Moore and Allanston"' report that in their
experience meat extracts, tea, caffein solu-
tion, and coffee call forth a greater gastric
secretion than does water, while with milk
the flow of gastric juice seems to be re-
tarded. Cushing'* and others support this
statement. This action is partially ex-
plained by Voit on the grounds that all
tasty foods increase gastric secretion, the
action being partly psychological; but
Cushing observed the same effects upon in-
troducing coffee directly into the stomachs
of animals.
In general, a moderate amount of coffee
stimulates appetite, improves digestion and
relieves the sense of plenitude in the stom-
ach. It increases intestinal peristalsis, acts
as a mild laxative, and slightly stimulates
seei:£tion._ofbile. Excessive use, however,
profoundly disturbs digestive function, and
promotes constipation and hemorrhoids."
There is much evidence to support the view
that "neither tea, coffee, nor chicory in
dilute solutions has any deleterious action
on the digestive ferments, although in
strong solutions such an action may be
manifest.'"' After conducting exhaustive
experiments with various types of coffee,
Lehmann'' concluded that ordinary coffee is
without effect on the digestion of the ma-
jority of sound persons, and may be used
with impunity.
^Lancet, Dec 2, 1911.
^^Pharmacology, 1913 (p. 258).
" Butler. Materia Medica, Therapeutics and Pharma-
cology, 1906 (p. 256).
»«Tognmi, K. Biochem. Zeit , 1908 (vol. ix : p. 453).
'» Munch. Med. Wochcnschr. (vol. Ix : pp. 281-85. 357-
61).
Naturwias. Umschau. d. Chem., Ztg. 1913 (p. 4).
Schxoeiz. Wochenachr. (vol. 11: pp. 490-92).
180
ALL ABOUT COFFEE
Coffee in the Dietary — Food Value
There are three things to be considered
in deciding upon the inclusion of a
substance in the dietary — palatability, di-
gestibility without toxicity or disarrange-
ment, and calorific value. Coffee is as
satisfactory from these viewpoints as any
other food product.
The palatability of a well-made cup of
good coffee needs no eulogizing; it speaks
for itself. It adds enormously to the at-
tractiveness of the meal, and to our ability
to eat with relish and appetite large
amounts of solid foods, without a subse-
quent uncomfortable feeling. Wiley^" says
that the feeling of drowsiness after a full
meal is a natural condition incidental to
the proper conduct of digestion, and that
to drive away this natural feeling with cof-
fee must be an interference with the normal
condition. However, if by so doing, we can
increase our over-all efficiency without ma-
terial harm to our digestive organs (and
we can and do), the procedure has much
in its favor both psychologically and
dietetically.
The fact that coffee favors digestion
without eventual disarrangement has been
demonstrated above. On the subject of the
relative agreement with the constitution of
foods of daily consumption. Dr. English"
said:
It is well known that there is no species of
diet which invariably suits all constitutions, nor
will that which is palatable and salutary at one
time be equally palatable and salutary at an-
other time to the same individual. I think the
most natural food provided for us is milk ; yet I
will engage to show twenty instances where milk
disagrees more than coffee.
Further in this regard, Hutchinson^"
considers that ninety percent of the "dys-
pepsias" attributed to coffee are due to
malnutrition, or to food simultaneously in-
gested, no disease known to the medical
profession being directly attributable to it.
No one cognizant of the facts will con-
tend that a cup of black coffee has any di-
rect food value ; but not so with the roasted
bean. This has quite an appreciable content
of protein and fat, both substances of high
calorific value. The inhabitants of the
Island of Groix eat the whole roasted coffee
bean in considerable quantity, and seem to
obtain considerable nourishment therefrom.
Also, the Galla, a wandering tribe of
*^ hoc. cit. (see 6).
■•1 Through Tea d Coffee Trade Jour., 1916 (vol.
XXX : p. 443).
*^Tea d Coffee Trade Jour., 1909 (vol. xvi : p. 271).
Africa, make large use of food balls, about
the size of billiard balls, consisting of pul-
verized coffee held in shape with fat. One
ball is said to contain a day's ration; and,
because of its food content and stimulating
power, serves to sustain them on long
marches of days' duration.
When an infusion, or decoction, of
roasted coffee is made, about 1.25 percent
of the extracted matter is protein, it being
accompanied by traces of dextrin and
sugar. The same dearth of extraction of
food materials occurs upon infusing coffee
substitutes. This small amount can have
but little dietetic significance. However,
upon addition of sugar and of milk or
cream, with their content of protein, fat,
and lactose, the calorific value of .the cup
of coffee rises. Lusk and Gephart" give
the food value of an ordinary restaurant
cup of coffee as 195.5 calories, and Locke"
gives it as 156.
Mattei"" found that 8 cc. of an infusion
of roaSited Mocha coffee of five-percent
strength suppressed incipient polyneuritis
in pigeons within a few hours' time. Their
weight did not improve, but otherwise they
were completely restored to health. How-
ever, in from four to six weeks after the
apparent cure, the symptoms rapidly re-
turned and the pigeons perished, with
symptoms of paralysis and cerebral com-
plications. The temporary cure was prob-
ably due to caffein stimulation and sec-
onciary actions of the volatile constituents
of coffee, which may be related to the vita-
mines; for it is not likely that the vita-
mines would withstand the heat of roasting.
If B-vitamine does occur in roasted coffee,
it is present only in traces.""
The inclusion of coffee in the average
dietary is warranted because of its evident
worth as an aid to digestion and for its as-
similating power, thus earning its charac-
terization as an "adjuvant food."
Action of Coffee on Bacteria
The employment of coffee as an aid to
sanitation has been but little considered.
Coffee, when freshly roasted and ground, is
deodorant, antiseptic, and germicidal,
probably due to the empyreumatic products
developed during the process of roasting.
An infusion of 0.5 percent inhibits the
growth of many pathogenic organisms, and
" Prankel. F. H. Tea & Coffee Trade Jour., 191C
(vol. xxxi : p. 446).
**Food Values, 1914 (p. 54).
**^ PoHclin., 1920 (no. 27: p. 1011).
"''Funk, C. The Vitamines, 1922 (p. 270).
PHARMACOLOGY OF COFFEE
181
those of 10 percent kill anthrax bacteria in
three hours, cholera spirilla in four hours,
and many other bacteria, including those
producing typhoid, in two to six days."
The maintenance of a low rate of contrac-
tion of typhoid fever has often been at-
tributed to drinking of coffee instead of
water, the action of the coffee being partly
due to the bactericidal effect of the caffeol
and partly to the boiling of the water be-
fore infusion. The stimulating tendency of
the caffein to sustain and to "tide over"
those of low vitalities is also evidenced.
Use of Coffee in Medicine
Coffee has been employed in medicinal
practise as a direct specific, as a preven-
tive, and as an antidote. The United States
Dispensatory*'' summarizes the uses of caf-
fein and coffee as follows :
Caffein is a valuable remedy in practical
medicine as a cerebral and cardiac stimulant
and as a diuretic. In undue somnolence, in ner-
vous headache, in narcotism, also, at times
when the exigencies of life require excessively
prolonged wakefulness, caffein may be used as
the most powerful agent known for producing
wakefulness. In a series of experiments,
J. Hughes Bennett found that within narrow
limits there is a direct physiological antagonism
lietween caffein and morphine. Coffee and caf-
fein in narcotic? poisoning are of value as a
means of keeping the patient awake, and of
stimulating the respiratory centres.
As a cardiac stimulant, caffein may be used
in any form of heart failure: the indications for
its use are those which call for the employment
of digitalis. It is superior to digitalis in never
disagreeing with the stomach, in having no dis-
tinctive cumulative tendency, and in the prompt-
ness of its action. It is pronouncedly inferior
to digitalis in the power and certainty of its
action, and in the permanence of its influence
once asserted. As a diuretic it is superior ; it is
very valuable in the treatment of cardiac drop-
sies, and is often useful in chronic BrighVs
disease when there is no irritation of the
kidneys.
On account of its tendency to produce wakeful-
ness, it is usually better to mass the doses early
in the day, at least six hours being left between
the last dose and the ordinary time for sleep.
From eight to fifteen grams (of caffein) may be
given in the course of a day in severe cases.
If tried, it would probably prove a useful drug
in cases of sudden collapse from various causes.
Good effects of coffee are recounted by
Thompson."
It removes the sensation of fatigue in the
muscles, and increases their functional activity;
it allays hunger to a limited extent ; it strength-
*° Potter. Materia Medica, Pharmacy and Thera^
peutics. 10th ed.. 1906 (n. 187).
Culbreth. Materia Medica and Pharmacology, 2nd
ed. (p. 520).
"Nineteenth ed. (p. 254).
«Loc. cit. (see 32).
ens the heart action; it acts as a diuretic,
and increases the excretion of urea ; it has a
mildly sudorific infiuence ; it counteracts ner-
vous exhaustion and stinuilates nerve centers.
It is used sometimes as a nervine in cases of
migraine, and there are many persons who can
sustain prolonged mental fatigue and strain
from anxiety and worry much better by the use
of strong black coffee. In low delirium, or when
the nervous system is overcome by the use of
narcotics or by excessive hemorrhage, strong
black coffee is serviceable to keep the patient
from falling into the drowsiness which soon
merges into coma. In such cases as much as
half a pint of strong black coffee may be in-
jected into the rectum.
Strong coffee with a little lemon juice or
brandy is often useful in overcoming a malarial
chill or a paroxysm of astlima. It is a useful
temporary cardiac stimulant for children suffer-
ing collapse.
Dr. Restrepo," of Medellin, Colombia,
claims to have cured many cases of chronic
malaria and related diseases with infusion
of green coffee, after quinine had failed.
Wallace" states that tincture of green cof-
fee is a natural and efficacious specific for
cholera, and that she knows of more than
a thousand cases of cholera and diarrhea
which have been treated with it without an
isolated case of failure. Landanabileo has
been quoted as using raw coffee infusion in
hepatic and nephritic diseases, venal and
hepatic colics, and in diabetes.
In the Civil War, surgeons utilized cof-
fee in allaying malarial fever and other
maladies with which they had to contend,
often under the most trying conditions,
and with severely limited means of combat-
ing disease.'" Its effect is to counteract the
depressant action of low and miasmatic
atmospheres, opening the secretions which
they have checked. Travelers from the
colder climes soon find that the fragrant
cup of coffee is a corrective to derange-
ments of the liver resulting from climatic
conditions."
Dr. Guillasse, of the French Navy, in a
paper on typhoid fever, says:
Coffee has given us unhoped for satisfaction,
and after having dispensed it we find, to our
great surprise, that its action is as prompt as it
is decisive. No sooner have our patients taken
a few tablespoonfuls of it, than their features
become relaxed and they come to their senses.
The next day the improvement is such that we
are tempted to look upon coffee as a specific
against typhoid fever. Under its infiuence the
stupor is dispelled, and the patient arouses from
"Keable. B. B. Coffee (p. 97).
"WaUace, Mrs. C. L. H. "Cholera: Its Cause and
Cure." The Herald of Health, through Tea d Coffee
Trade Jour., 1908 (vol. xiv : p. 22).
^ "S. Culaplus", Tea d Coffee Trade Jour., 1913
(vol. XXV : p. 239).
" Tea d Coffee Trade Jour., 1913 (vol. xxv : p. 458).
182
ALL ABOUT COFFEE
the state of somnolency in which he has been
since the invasion of the disease. Soon all the
functions take their natural course, and he
enters upon eonAalescence.°-
Also it has been reported that in extreme
cases of yellow fever, coffee has been used
most effectively by many physicians as the
main reliance after all other well known
remedies have been administered and
failed.
According to Lorand," the use of coffee
in gout is strictly prohibited by Umber and
Schittenhelm ; but he considered it a mis-
take absolutely to forbid coffee, as, when a
person has good kidneys, the small amount
of uric acid furnished by the caffein can
readih'- be eliminated. A curious remedy
for gout and rheumatism, the efficacy of
which the writer scouts, is said to be'* — a
pint of hot, strong, black coffee, which must
be perfectly pure, and seasoned with a tea-
spoonful of pure black pepper, thoroughly
mixed before drinking, and the preparation
taken just before going to bed. If this have
any value, it is probably purely psychologi-
cal in its function.
Several writers'' attribute amblyopia and
other affections of the sight to coffee and
chicory, without giving much conclusive
experimental data. Beer,°' a Vienna ocu-
list, however, held that the vapor from
pure, hot, freshly-made coffee is beneficial
,to the eyes.
Coffee and caff'ein are physiologically an-
tagonistic to the common narcotics, nico-
tine, morphine, opium, alcohol, etc., and
are frequently used as antidotes for these
poisons. Binz found that dogs that have
been stupified with alcohol could be awak-
ened with coffee. It may thus be prescribed
for hard drinkers to counteract the baleful
excitability produced by alcohol; in fact,
many topers taper off after a long debauch
with coffee containing small amounts of al-
coholic beverages. Considering its ability
to counteract the slow intoxication of to-
bacco, it may be inferred that coffee is
indispensable for hard smokers.
In general, the medicinal value of coffee
may be said to be directly attributable to
its caffein content, although its antiseptic
properties are dependent upon the volatile
aromatic constituents. Its function is to
•'■'2 Thnrber, F. B. Coffee from Plantation to Cup
(p. 182).
"^ Health and Lonrieviti) Through Rational Diet.
"* Keable. B. B. Coffee (p. 98).
== Bulson. A. E. J. Am. Jour. Opthal., 1905 (vol.
xxii : pp .00-64)
Handhool; of Medical Science (vol. Hi: d. 190i.-t
"•KealilP. B. B. Coffee (p. 98).
raise and to sustain vitalities which have
been lowered by disease or drugs. Al-
though some of the cures attributed to it
are probably purely traditional; still, it
must be admitted, that by utilizing its
stimulating qualities in many illnesses the
patient may be carried past the danger
point into convalescence.
Physiological Action of "Caffetannic
Acid"
It has been demonstrated in chapter XVII
that- there is no definite compound ' ' caffe-
tannic acid," and that the heterogeneous
material designated by this name does not
possess the properties of tanning. Further
substantiation of this contention, and more
evidence of the innocuous character of the
tannin-like compounds in coffee, are con-
tained in the testimony of Sollmann."
"Tannins precipitate proteins, gelatine,
and connective tissue, and thus act as
astringents, styptics, and antiseptics. The
different tannins are not equivalent in
these respects. Some (which are perhaps
misnamed) such as those of coffee and ipe-
cac, are practically non-precipitant. . . .
On the whole, one may say that the small
quantities of tannin ordinarily taken with
the food and drink are not injurious, but
that large quantities (excessive tea drink-
ing) are certainly deleterious. The tannin
of coffee is scarcely astringent, and, there-
fore, lacks this action," which is proven by
the fact that it does not precipitate pro-
teins.
"It has been claimed that 'caffetannic
acid' injuries the stomach walls, but there
is no evidence that this is so."'' Wiley,"
in reporting some of his experiments, says :
"Apparently the efforts to saddle the in-
jurious effects of coffee-drinking upon caf-
fetannic acid in any form in which it may
exist in the coffee-extract are not supported
by these recent data." The fact that tan-
nins retard intestinal peristalsis, whereas
coffee promotes this digestive action, lends
further proof to the non-existence of tannin
in coffee. These statements by eminent
authorities may be consolidated into the
verity that there is no tannin, in the true
sense of the term, in coffee: and that the
constituents of the coffee brew which have
been so designated are physiologically
harmless.
^- A Manual of Pharmacology (pp. 137. 215).
"Hawk. Philip B. Loc. cit. (see 22).
'* Good Housekeevinp. Oct.. 1917 (p. 144).
PHARMACOLOGY OF COFFEE
183
Physiological Action of Caffeol
The evidence regarding the physiological
action of caffeol is contradictory in many
cases. J. Lehmann found in 1853, that the
"erapyrenmatie oil of coffee, caffeorie," is
active ; but more recent investigations have
yielded results at variance with this.
Hare and Marshall"* believe that they
proved it to be active. E. T. Reichert,"
however, found it inactive in dogs, except-
ing in so far that, when given intraven-
ously, it mechanically interfered with the
circulation. With it Binz"' Avas able to pro-
duce in man only feeble nervous excite-
ment, with restlessness and increase in the
rate and depth of respirations.
The general effects, as summated by Soll-
mann"' are, for small closes, pleasant stimu-
lation ; increased respiration ; increased
heart rate, but fall of blood pressure ; mus-
cular restlessness ; insomnia ; perspiration ;
congestion; for large doses, increased peri-
stalsis and defecation : depression of respira-
tion and heart ; fall of blood pressure and
temperature; paralytic phenomena. It is
doubtful whether the quantities taken in
the beverage cause any direct central
stimulation.
Investigations have also been conducted
with the various known constituents of this
"coffee oil." Erdmann"* found that in
doses of between 0.5 and 0.6 gram per kilo
of body weight, furane-alcohol kills a rab-
bit by respiratory paralysis; and that the
symptoms of poisoning are a short primary
excitement, salivation, diarrhea, respira-
tory depression, continuous fall of the body
temperature, and death from collapse with
respiratory failure. In man, doses of from
0.6 to 1 gram of furane-alcohol increased
respiratory activity without producing
other symptoms.
However, man is not as susceptible to
these compounds as are the smaller animals.
But even if their relative susceptibility be
assumed to be the same, the lethal dose
given the rabbit is equivalent to giving a
140-pound man one dose containing the
furane-alcohol content of over 5,000 cups of
coffee. Thus, in view of the very apparent
minuteness of the quantity of this com-
pound present in one cup of coffee, together
with the fact that it is not cumulative in its
physiological action, the. importance of its
»«J/ed. News, 1886 (p. 52).
"J/ed. News. 1890 (n. 56).
'-Centr. In. Med.. 1900 (p. 21).
'^ Loc. cit. (see 57 1.
"^ Arch. Exper. Path. Phnrm.. 1902 (bd. 48).
toxic properties becomes very inconsequen-
tial to even the most profuse and inveterate
coffee drinkers.
Burmann" reported the volatile principle
to have a reducing action on the hemo-
globin; a depressing effect on the blood
pressure ; a depressant action on the central
nervous system, disturbing the cardiac
rhythm; and an action on the respiratory
centers, causing dyspnea. The report of
Sayre"" regarding the minimum lethal dose
of the concentrated combined active prin-
ciples of coffee obtained from dry distilla-
tion is, for frogs, administered intraperi-
toneally and subcutaneously, 0.03 cubic
centimeters per gram of body weight ; for
guinea pigs per stomach, 7.0 cc. per kilo-
gram of body weight, and administered in-
travenously and intraperitoneally, about
1.0 cc. per kilogram.
This evidence regarding the physiologi-
cal action of caffeol can not in any wise be
construed to indicate a harmfulness of cof-
fee. The percentage of these volatile sub-
stances in a cup of coffee infusion is so low
as to be relatively negligible in its action.
And, again, the caffein content of the brew,
as will be seen, tends to counteract any
possible desultory effects of the caffeol.
General Physiological Action of Caffein
More attention has been given to the
study of the physiological action of caffein'
than to that of the other individual con-
stituents of coffee. Since certain of the
effects of coffee drinking have been attribu-
ted to this alkaloid, a brief presentment
of the pharmacology of caffein will be given
as an exposition of the many statements
made regarding it. According to the Brit-
ish Pharmaceutical Codex"" :
Caffein exerts thi-ee important actions: (1) on
the central nervous system: (2) on muscles, in-
cluding cardiac: and (3) on the kidney. The
action on the central nervous system is mainly
ou that part of the hrain connected with psychi-
cal functions. It produces a condition of wake-
fulness and increased mental activity. The
interpretation of sensory impressions is more
perfect and correct, and thought becomes clearer
and quicker. With larger doses of caffein the
action extends from the psychical areas to the
motor area and to the cord, and the patient be-
comes at first restless and noisy, and later may
show convulsive movements.
Caffein facilitates the performance of all
forms of physical work, and actually increases
the total work which can be obtained from
"^ Bull. gen. therap. (vol. clxvl : p. 379).
Zentr. Biochem. Biophya. (vol. xvl : p. 79).
""Bull. Pharm.. 1916 (vol. xxx : pp. 276-78).
•^1907 (p. 176).
184
ALL ABOUT COFFEE
muscle. On the normal man, however, it is im-
possible to say how much of the action on the
muscle is central and how much peripheral, but,
as fatigue shows itself first by an action on the
center, it is probable that the action of eaffeiu
in diminishing fatigue is mainly central. Caf-
fein accelerates the pulse and slightly raises
blood pressure. It has no action in any way
resembling digitalis ; by increasing the irritabil-
ity of the cardiac muscle, its prolonged use
rather tends to fatigue than to rest the heart.
Caffein and its allies form a very important
group of diuretics. The urine is generally of a
lower specific gravity than normal, since it con-
tains a lesser proportion of salt and urea ; but
the total excretion of solids, both as regards
urea, uric acid, and salts, is increased. Caf-
fein, by exciting the medulla, produces an initial
vaso-constriction of the kidneys, which tends at
first to retard the flow of urine. So in recent
years, other drugs liave been introduced, allies
of caffein, which act like it on the kidneys, but
are without the stimulant action on the brain.
Theobromine is such a drug.
Another authority states that"^:
One of the most constant symptoms produced
in man by over-doses of caffein is excessive diu-
resis, and experiments made upon the lower ani-
mals show that caffein acts as a diuretic not
only by influencing the circulation, but also by
directly affecting the secreting cells, the proba-
bilities being in favor of the flrst of these
theories of action. According to Schroeder, not
only the water but also the solids of the urine
are increased.
The question whether caffein has an influ-
ence upon tissue changes and the consequent
nitrogenous elimination can not be considered as
distinctly answered, though the most probable
conclusion is that the action of caffein upon urea
elimination and upon general nutrition is not
direct or pronounced. While the therapeutic
dose of caffein is broken up in the body with
the formation of methylxanthin, ' which escapes
with the urine, the toxic dose is at least in
part eliminated by the kidney unchanged.
The metabolism of the methyl purins,
of which group caffein is a member, ap-
pears to vary with the quantity ingested.
The manner in which the methyl group is
liberated by the cell protoplasm is said"' to
determine the amount of stimulus which
the tissues receive from these substances.
The xanthin group is almost without any
excitatory action, and its metabolic end
products are constant. Perhaps the varia-
tion in the excretions of unchanged methyl-
purins is dependent upon the amount of
total reactive energy they invoke.
Baldi'" found that caffein in small doses
increases muscular excitability in dogs and
frogs. The spinal and muscular hyperic
excitability produced by caffein is, in his
«» D'. 8. Dispensatory, 19th ed. (p. 253).
"Hall. I. W. The Purin Bodies of Food Stuffs,
1904 (p. 98).
^* Terapia moderna, Dec, 1891.
opinion, due to the methyl groups attached
to the xanthin nucleus. Fredericq" states
that caffein increases the irritability of the
cardiac vagus and accelerates the appear-
ance of pseudofatigue of the vagus which
is produced by prolonged stimulation of the
nerve. The action of caffein on the mam-
malian heart has also been investigated by
Pilcher," who found that, following the
rapid intravenous injection of caffein, there
is an acute fall of blood pressure ; and with
a maximal quantity of caffein, 10 milli-
grams per kilogram, the cardiac volume
and the amplitude of the excursions are
usually unchanged. With larger quanti-
ties, the volume progressively increases and
the amplitude of the excursion decreases.
Salant" found that the intravenous injec-
tion of 15 to 25 milligrams of caffein per
kilogram in animals was followed by a fall
of blood pressure amounting to 7 to 35 per-
cent in most cases, which was transitory,
although in some animals it remained un-
changed. A moderate rise was rarely ob-
served. Caffein aids the action of nitrates,
acetanilid, ethyl alcohol and amyl alcohol,
and increases the toxicity of barium chlo-
rid. In a very thorough study of the
toxicity of caffein which he made with
Reiger," a greater toxicity of about 15 to
20 percent by subcutaneous injection than
by mouth, and but about one-half this
when injected peritoneally, was found.
Intramuscularly the toxicity is 30 percent
greater than subcutaneously. In making
the tests on animals, they found that in-
dividuality, season, age, species, and certain
pathological conditions caused variation in
the toxic effect of the administered caffein.
Low protein diet tends to decrease resist-
ance to caffein in dogs, and a milk or meat
diet does the same for growing dogs. Caf-
fein is not cumulative for the rabbit or dog.
As a result of experiments on the action
of caffein on the bronchiospasm caused by
peptone (Witte), silk peptone, B-imidoazo-
lyl-ethylamin. curare, vasodilation, and
mucarin, Pal" concluded that caffein stimu-
lates certain branches of the peripheral
sympathetic and is thus enabled to widen
the bronchi or remove bronchiospasm.
According to Lapicque'", caffein produces
a change in the excitability of the medulla
of the frog similar to that produced by rais-
^^ Arch, intern, physiol. (vol. xiii : pp. 107-14).
"/. Pharmachol. (vol. iii : p. 609).
"./. Pharmachol. (vol. iii: p. 468).
''* J. Pharmachol. (vol. Iii: p. 455).
" Wien. Deut. med. Wochenschr. (vol. xxxviii : pp.
1774 76).
" Comp. rend. soc. biol. (vol. Ixxiv : p. 32).
PHARMACOLOGY OF COFFEE
185
t
ing the temperature of the nerve centers.
Schiirhoff'' has pointed out that the con-
tinued use of large quantities of caffein will
produce cardiac irregularity and sleepless-
ness.
Cochrane" cited three cases where caffein
was hypodermically administered in cases
of acute indigestion, etc., and concluded
that the cases prove that caffein, or a com-
pound containing it as a synergist, does
indirectly make the injection of morphia a
safe proceeding, and directly increases the
force of the heart and arterial tension.
However, Wood'" found that medium doses
of caffein do not produce any marked rise
in blood pressure, and cause a reduction in
pulse rate. He attributes the contradictory
results which prior investigations gave, to
employment of unusually large doses and
to inaccurate experimental methods.
Caffein was found by Nonnenbruch and
Szyszka"" to have a slight action toward ac-
celerating the coagulation time of the blood,
being active over several hours. It inhibits
coagulation in vitrio. Its action in the body
apparently rests on an increase of the fibrin
ferment. There is no reason to believe that
the behavior is dependent on a toxic action,
but there is probably an action on the
spleen ; for in several rabbits from which
the spleen was removed, no action was
observed.
Experiments conducted by Levinthal"
gave no positive information as to the for-
mation of uric acid from caffein in the
human organism. The elimination of caf-
fein has also been studied by Salant and
Reiger"', who found that larger amounts of
caffein are demethylated in carnivora than
in herbivora, and resistance to caffein is
inversely as demethylation, caffein being
much more toxic in the former class. In a
similar investigation, Zenetz"^ observed that
caffein is very slightly eliminated from the
system by the kidneys, and that its action
on the heart is cumulative; therefore he
concludes that it is contra-indicated in all
renal diseases, in arterio-sclerosis, and in
cardiac affections secondary to them. The
inaccuracy of these conclusions regarding
the non-elimination of caffein and those of
" D. A. Apoth.-Ztg., 1911-12 (vol. xxxii : p. 4).
"J/ed. Record, N. Y., 1916 (vol. xxx : p. 68).
^Therap. Gazette. 1912 (vol. xxxvi : pp. 6-13).
" Deut. Arch. Klin. Med., 1920 (vol. cxxxiv : pp.
174-84).
"Z. phpsioi. Chem. (vol. Ixxvii : p. 259).
*> Bull. Bur. of Chem. (no. 157).
»» Pharm. J., Mar. 31, 1900, through Brit. Med. J..
Bpit., 1900 (vol. i: p. 35).
Albanese," Bondzynski and Gottlieb",
Leven'", Schurtzkwer", and Minkowski'', has
been shown by Mendel and Wardelf, who
point out that many of these experimenters
worked with dogs, in which the chief end-
product of purin metabolism is not uric
acid, but allantoin. They observe that the
increase in excretion of uric acid after the
addition of caffein to the diet seems to be
proportional to the quantity of caffein
taken, and equivalent to from 10 to 15 per
cent of the ingested caffein. The remainder
of the caffein is probably eliminated as
mono-methylpurins.
Regarding the alleged cumulative action
of caffein, Pletzer", Liebreich," Szekacs'^
Pawinski,"' and Seifert"* all concluded from
their investigations that the action of caf-
fein is usually of brief duration, and does
not have a cumulative effect, because of
its rapid elimination; so that there is no
danger of intoxication.
Dr. Oswald Schmiedeberg says:
Caffein is a means of refreshing bodily and
mental activity, so that this may be prolonged
when the condition of fatigue has already begun
to produce restraint, and to call for more severe
exertion of the will, a state which, as is well
known, is painful or disagreeable.
This advantageous effect, in conditions of
fatigue, of small quantities of caffein, as it is
commonly taken in coffee or tea, might, how-
ever, by continued use become injurious, if it
were in all cases necessarily exerted ; that is
to say, if by oaffein the muscles and nerves
were directly spurred on to increased activity.
This is not the case, however,- and just in this
lies the peculiarity of the effect in question.
The muscles and the simultaneously-acting
nerves only under the influence of caffein re-
spond more easily to the impulse of the will,
but do not develop spontaneous activity ; that
is, without the co-operation of the will.
The character of oaffein action makes plain
that these food materials do not injure the or-
ganism by their caffein content, and do not by
continued use cause any chronic form of illness.
According to Dr. Holl ing worth's"' deduc-
tions, caffein is the only known stimulant
that quickens the functions of the human
^ Arch. f. exper. Path. u. Pharmakol., 1895 (vol.
XXXV : p. 449).
^Ibid., 1895 (vol. xxxvi: p. 45). IMd , 1896 (vol.
xxxvii : p. 385).
'^ Arch, de physiol. norm, et path., 1868 (vol. i: p.
179).
*' Inaug. Diss., Konigsberg, 1882.
'^ Arch, f, exper. Path. u. Pharmakol, 1898 (vol.
xli: p. 375).
"''Jour. Am. Med. Assoc, 1917 (vol. Ixviii : pp. 1805-
07).
^Berliner Klin. Wochenschrift. 1889 (no. 40).
0^ Encijc. dcr Therapie, 1896 (vol. i).
"Pester, Med.-Chir. Presse, 1885 (no. 39).
Orrosi Hetilap, 1885 (nos. 32-33).
** Zeitschrift f. Klin. Med.. 1893 (vol. xxii').
" Mitt, aus der Wurzburger Med. Klinik, 1885
(vol. i).
"-Veto York Herald, Mar. 24. 1912.
186
ALL ABOUT COFFEE
body without a subsequent period of de-
pression. His explanation for this behavior
is that "caffein acts as a lubricator for the
nervous system, having an actual physical
action ^yhereby the nerves are enabled to
do their work more easily. Other stimu-
lants act on the nerves themselves, causing
a waste of energy, and consequently, ac-
cording to nature's law, a period of de-
pression follows, and the whole process
tends to injure the human machine." In
not a single instance during his experi-
ments at Columbia University did depres-
sion follow the use of caffein.
Of course, cafifein, like any other alka-
loid, if used to excess will prove harmful,
due to the over-stimulation induced by it.
However, taken in moderate quantities, as
in coffee and tea by normal persons, the
conclusions of Hirsch™ may be taken as cor-
rect, namely : caffein is a mild stimulant,
without direct effect on the muscles, the
effect resulting from its own destruction and
being temporary and transitory; it is not
a depressant either initially or eventually ;
and is not habit-forming but a true stimu-
lant, as distinguished from sedatives and
habit-forming drugs.
Caffein and Mental and Motor Efficiency
The literature on the influence of caffein
on fatigue has been summarized, and the
older experiments clearly pointed out, by
Rivers"'. A summary of the most important
researches Avhich have had as their object
the determination of the influence of caf-
fein on mental and motor processes has
been made by HolIingworth°*, from whose
monograph much of the following material
has been taken.
Increase in the force of muscular con-
tractions was demonstrated in 1892 by De
Sarlo and Barnardini"" for caffein and by
Kraepelin for tea. These investigators used
the dynamometer as a measure of the force
of contraction ; however, most of the sub-
sequent work on motor processes has been
by the ergographic method. Ugolino
Mosso™, Koch"\ Rossi'"; Sobieranski"'^
Hoch and Kraepelin,'"" Destree,'°° Benedi-
^ Tea & Coffee Trade Jour., 1914 (vol, xxvi : pp.
537-41).
»' The Influence of Alcohol and Other Drugs on
Fatigue.
98 "The Influence of Caffeine on Mental and Motor
Efficiency." Archives of Psychology, 1912 (no. 22).
^ Revista sper. di. Freniatria (vol. xviii : p. 1).
^ooArchiv. ital. de Biol.. 1893 (vol. xix : p. 241).
101 Inaug. Diss., Marburs. 1894.
^"^ Revista sper. di Freniatria. 1S94 Cvol. xx : D. 458).
w3 CentralU. f. Physiol., 1896 (vol. x : p. 126).
■^'>* Psychol. Arhrit.. 1S96 (vol. 1: p. 378).
^°^Jour. Med. de Brvxellcs, 1897.
centi,"'" Schumberg,"*' Hellsten/"' and Jo-
teyko,"*° have all observed a stimulating ef-
fect of caffein on ergographic performance.
Only one investigation of those reported by
Rivers failed to find an appreciable effect,
that of Oseretzkowsky and Kraepelin,""
while Fere"' affirms that the effect is only
an acceleration of fatigue.
In spite of the general agreement as to
the presence of stimulation there is some
dissension regarding whether only the
height of the contractions or their number
or both are affected. As might be expected
from the great diversity of methods em-
ployed, the quantitative results also have
varied considerably. Carefully controlled
experiments by Rivers and Webber"" "con-
firm in general the conclusion reached by ,
all previous workers that caffein stimulates ■
the capacity for muscular work; and it is
clear that this increase is not due to the
various psychical factors of interest, sen-
sory stimulation, and suggestion, which the
experiments were especially designed to ex-
clude. The greatest increase . . . falls,
however, far short of that described by
some previous w^orkers, such as Mosso ; and
it is probable that part of the effect de-
scribed by these workers was due to the fac-
tors in question."
Investigations of mental processes under
the influence of caffein have been much less
frequent, most notable among which are
those of Dietl and Vintschgau,"' Dehio,'"
Kraepelin and Hoch,"'' Ach,"' Lang-
f eld,"' and Rivers."' Kraepelin"" observes :
"We know that tea and coffee increase
our mental efficiency in a definite way, and
we use these as a means of overcoming men-
tal fatigue . . . In the morning these
drinks remove the last traces of sleepiness
and in the evening when we still have intel-
' lectual tasks to dispose of they aid in keep-
ing us awake. ' ' Their use induces a greater
briskness and clearness of thought, after
^'^ Moleschott's Untersuchungen, 1899 ^vol. xvi : p.
170).
-"' Archiv. f. Anat. u. Physiol. (Physiol. AMh,),
Suppl. Bd., 1899 (p. 289).
^'^ Skand. Arch. f. Physiol., 1904 (vol. xvi: p. 197).
109 Travaux du Lah. de Physiol. Inst. Solraii, 1904
(vol. vi: p. 361).
^"^^ Psychol. Arbeit., 1901 Cvol. iii : p. 617).
"1 C. R. de la Soc. de Biol. Paris, 1901 (pp. 593-
627).
^^-Op. at. (p. 38). (See 97.)
^'^^ PflUf/ers Archiv., 1877 (vol. xvi: p .316).
^^* Diss.. Dorpat.. 1887.
'-P Psychol. Arbeit., 1896 (vol. i: p. 431).
'-^^ Psychol. Arbeit.. 1901 Cpp. 203-289).
'^"Psychol. Rev., 1911 (vol. xviil : p. 424).
."^Op, at (see 97).
■ "» Ueber die Beeinfliissung einfacher vsvchischer Vor-
rjilngc diirch einige Arzeneimittel (p. 224).
PHARMACOLOGY OF COFFEE
187
^'hich secondary fatigue is either entirely
ibsent or is very slight.
Tendency toward habituation of the
jpyschic functions to caffein has been
[studied by Wedemeyer'™, who found
Hhat in the regular administration of it in /■
the course of four to five weeks there is a/
measurable weakening of its action on
psychic processes.
Rivers"', who seems to have been the first
to appreciate fully the genuine and prac-
tical importance of thoroughly controlling
'the psychological factors that are likely to
play a role in such experiments, concludes
that "caffein increases the capacity for both
muscular and mental work, this stimulating
action persisting for a considerable time
after the substance has been taken without
there being any evidence, with moderate
doses, of reaction leading to diminished
capacity for work, the substance thus really
diminishing and not merely obscuring the
effects of fatigue. ' '
Subsequent to these investigations was
that of Hollingworth'" which is at once the
most comprehensive, carefully conducted,
of individuals for a long period of time,
under controlled conditions; to study the
way in which this influence is modified by
such factors as the age, sex, weight, idio-
syncrasy, and previous caffein habits of the
subjects, and the degree to which it depends
on the amount of the dose and the time and
conditions of its administration ; and to in-
vestigate the influence of caffein on the gen-
eral health, quality and amount of sleep,
and food habits of the individual tested.
To obtain this information the chief tests
employed were the steadiness, tapping, co-
ordination, typewriting, color-naming, cal-
culations, opposites, cancellation, and dis-
crimination tests, the familiar size-weight
illusion, quality and amount of sleep, and
general health and feeling of well-being.
A brief review of the results of these tests
is given in the tabular summary.
From these Hollingworth concluded
that caffein influenced all the tests in a
given group in much the same way. The
effect on motor processes comes quickly and
is transient, while the effect on higher men-
tal processes comes more slowly and is more
Effect of Caffein ox Mental and Motor Processes
Schematic Summary of All Results
St. = Stimulation. 0:
Process
Motor speed
Coordination
Association
Xo effect. Ret. = Retardation.
PRIMARY effect
Small Medium Large
Doses
St.
0
Doses
St.
St.
Doses
St.
Ret.
St.
0
Ret.
Choice
General
Tests
1. Tapping
2. Three-hole
3. Typewriting
(a) Speed
(b) Errors
4. Color-naming
5. Opposites
6. Calculation
7. Discrimination reaction time
8. Cancellation
9. S-W illusion
10. Steadiness
11. Sleep quality Individual differences de-
12. Sleep quantity pending on body weight
13. General health and conditions of ad-
ministration
Secondary Action Time
Reaction Hours
None
None
.75 - 1.5
1 -1.5
Duration
in Hours
2-4
3-4
Fewer for all doses
St. St. St.
St. St. St.
St. St. St.
Ret. 0" St.
Ret. ? St.
0 0 0
Unsteadiness
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
Results show only in total
day"s work
2-2.5 3-4
2.5 - 3 Next day
2.5 Next day
,2-4 Next day
3 - 5 No data
1-3
2 ?
-4
and scientifically accurate one yet per-
formed. He employed an ample number of
subjects in his experimentation ; and both
his subjects, and the assistants who re-
corded the observations, were in no wise
cognizant of the character or quantity of
the dose of caffein administered, the other
experimental conditions being similarly
rigorous and extensive.
The purpose of his study was to deter-
mine both qualitatively and quantitatively
the effect of caffein on a wide range of
mental and motor processes, by studying
the performance of a considerable number
^ Arch. exp. Path. Pharm., 1920 (vol. Ixxxv : pp.
339-58) .
^^^Op. cit. (p. 50K (See 97.)
^^ Loc. cit. (see 95).
persistent. Whether this result is due to
quicker reaction on the part of motor-
nerve centers, or whether it is due to a
direct peripheral effect on the muscle tissue
is uncertain, but the indications are that
caffein has a direct action on the muscle
tissue, and that this effect is fairly rapid in
appearance. The two principal factors
which seem to modify the degree of caffein
influence are body weight and presence of
food in the stomach at the time of ingestion
of the caffein. In practically all of the
tests the magnitude of the caffein influence
varied inversely with the body weight, ^nd
was most marked when taken on an empty
stomach or without food substance. This
variance in action was also true for both
188
ALL ABOUT COFFEE
the quality and amount of sleep, and
seemed to be accentuated when taken on
successive days; but it did not appear to
depend on the age, sex, or previous caffein
habits of the individual. Those who had
given up the use of caffein-eontaining bev-
erages during the experiment did not re-
port any craving for the drinks as such, but
several expressed a feeling of annoyance at
not having some sort of a warm drink for
breakfast.
It is interesting to note that he also found
a complete absence of any trace of second-
ary depression or of any sort of secondary
reaction consequent upon the stimulation
which was so strikingly present in many of
the tests. The production of an increased
capacity for work was clearly demonstrated,
the same being a genuine drug effect, and
not merely the effect of excitement, interest,
sensory stimulation, expectation, or sugges-
tion. However, this study does not show
whether this increased capacity comes from
a new supply of energy introduced or ren-
dered available by the drug action, or
whether energy already available comes to
be employed more effectively, or whether
fatigue sensations are weakened and the in-
dividual's standard of performance thereby
raised. But they do show that from a
standpoint of mental and productive physi-
cal efficiency "the widespread consumption
of caffeinic beverages, even under circum-
stances in which and by individuals for
whom the use of other drugs is stringently
prohibited or decried, is justified."
Conclusion
Brief summarization of the information
available on the pharmacology of coffee in-
dicates that it should be used in modera-
tion, particularly by children, the permis-
sible quantity varying with the individual
and ascertainable only through personal
observation. Used in moderation, it will
prove a valuable stimulant increasing per-
sonal efficiency in mental and physical
labor. Its action in the alimentary regime
is that of an adjuvant food, aiding diges-
tion, favoring increased flow of the diges-
tive juices, promoting intestinal peristalsis,
and not tanning any portion of the diges-
tive organs. It reacts on the kidneys as a
diuretic, and increases the excretion of uric
acid, which, however, is not to be taken as
evidence that it is harmful in gout. Coffee
has been indicated as a specific for various
diseases, its functions therein being the
raising and sustaining of low vitalities. Its
effect upon longevity is virtually nil. A
small proportion of humans who are very
nervous may find coffee undesirable; but
sensible consumption of coffee by the aver-
age, normal, non-neurasthenic person will
not prove harmful but beneficial.
Chapter XIX
THE COMMERCIAL COFFEES OF THE WORLD
The geographical distribution of the coffees grown in North America,
Central America, South America, the West India Islands, Asia,
Africa, the Pacific Islands, and the East Indies — A statistical study
of the distribution of the principal kinds — A commercial coffee
chart of the world's leading growths, with market names and general
trade characteristics
A STUDY of the geographical distri-
bution of the coffee tree shows that
it is grown in well-defined tropical
limits. The coffee belt of the world lies
between the tropic of cancer and the tropic
of Capricorn. The principal coffee consum-
ing countries are nearly all to be found in
the north temperate zone, between the
tropic of cancer and the arctic circle.
The leading commercial coffees of the
world are listed in the accompanying com-
mercial coffee chart, which shows at a
glance their general trade character. The
cultural methods of the producing coun-
tries are discussed in chapter XX ; statistics
in chapter XXII ; and the trade character-
istics, in detail, in chapter XXIV, which
considers also countries and coffees not so
important in a commercial sense. Mexico
is the principal producing country in the
northern part of the western continent, and
Brazil in the southern part. In Africa, the
eastern coast furnishes the greater part of
the supply; while in Asia, the Netherlands
Indies, British India, and Arabia lead.
Within the last two decades there has
been an expansion of the production areas
in South America, Africa, and in southeast-
ern Asia : and a contraction in British India
and the Netherlands Indies.
The Shifting Coffee Currents of the World
Seldom does the coffee drinker realize
how the ends of the earth are drawn upon
to bring the perfected beverage to his lips.
The trail that ends in his breakfast cup, if
followed back, w^ould be found to go a
devious and winding way, soon splitting up
into half-a-dozen or more straggling
branches that would lead to as many widely
scattered regions. If he could mount to a
point where he could enjoy a bird's-eye
view of these and a hundred kindred trails,
he would find an intricate criss-cross of
streamlets and rivers of coffee forming a
tangled pattern over the tropics and reach-
ing out north and south to all civilized
countries. This would be a picture of the
coffee trade of the world.
It would be a motion picture, with the
rivulets swelling larger at certain seasons,
but seldom drying up entirely at any time.
In the main the streamlets and rivers
keep pretty much the same direction and
volume one year after another, but then
there is also a quiet shifting of these cur-
rents. Some grow larger, and other dimin-
ish gradually until they fade out entirely.
In one of the regions from which they
take their source a tree disease may
cause a decline; in another, a hurricane
may lay the industry low at one quick
stroke; and in still another, a rival crop
may drain away the life-blood of capital.
But for the most part, when times are
normal, the shift is gradual; for interna-
tional trade is conservative, and likes to run
where it finds a well-worn channel.
189
190
ALL ABOUT COFFEE
In recent times, of course, the big dis-
turbing element in the coffee trade was the
"World War. Whole countries were cut out
of the market, shipping was drained away
from every sea lane, stocks were piled high
in exporting ports, prices were fixed, im-
ports were sharply restricted, and the whole
business of coffee trading was thrown out
of joint. To what extent has the world
returned to normal in this trade? Were
the stoppages in trade merely temporary
suspensions, or are they to prove perma-
nent? How are the old, long-worn chan-
nels filling up again, now that the dams
have been taken away?
We are now far enough removed from
the war to begin to answer these questions.
We find our answer in the export figures of
the chief producing countries, which for the
most part are now available in detail for
one or two post-war years. These figures
are given in the tables below ; and for com-
parison, there are also given figures show-
ing the distribution of exports in 1913 and
in an earlier year near the beginning of the
century. These figures, of course, do not
necessarily give an accurate index to
normal trade ; as in any given year some
abnormal happening, such as an exception-
ally large crop or a revolution, may affect
exports drastically as compared with years
before and after. But normally the pro-
portions of a country's exports going to its
various customers are fairly constant one
year after another, and can be taken for
any given year as showing approximately
the coffee currents of that period.
The figures following are for the calendar
year unless the fiscal year is indicated.
Where figures could not be obtained from
the original statistical publications, they
have been supplied as far as possible from
consular reports.
Brazil. The war naturally increased the
dependence of Brazil on its chief customer,
and the proportion of the total crop coming
to this country since the war has continued
to be large. Shipments to United States
ports in 1920 represented about fifty-four
percent of the total exports. Figures for
that year indicate also that France and
Belgium were working back to their normal
trade; but that Spain, Great Britain, and
the Netherlands were taking much less
coffee than in the year just before the war.
Germany was buying strongly again, her
purchases of 72,000,000 pounds being about
half as much as in 1913. Shipments to
Italy were four times as heavy as in 1913.
The natural return to normal was much
interfered with by speculation and valor-
ization. Brazil seems to have come through
the cataclysmic period of the war in better
style than might have been expected.
Coffee Exports from Brazil
1900 1913 1920
Exported to Pounds Pounds Pounds
United States. .566,686,343 650,071,337 826,425,340
France 78,408, .S62 244,295,282 203,694,212
Great Britain. 6,442,739 32,559,715 9,597,378
Germany 235,131,881 246,767,144 72,196,934
Aus.-Hunsary . 71,696,556 134,495,310
Netherlands ..102,711,887 196,169,240 49,760,767
Italy 17,559,107 31,364,656 132,543,798
Spain 868,617 14,407,906 6,057,833
Belgium 41,500,638 58,858,562 42,309,469
Other countries. 59,432,882 145,896,327 181,796,919
Total 1,180,439,514 1,754,885,479 1,524,382,650
The 1900 figures are for the ports of Ric,
Santos, Bahia, and Victoria.
"Other countries" in 1913 included Ar-
gentina, 32,941,182 pounds; Sweden, 28,-
045,737 pounds; Cape Colony, 15,930,731
pounds; Denmark, 6,252,931 pounds. In
1920 they included Argentina, 37,736,498
pounds; Sweden, 51,026,591 pounds; Den-
mark, 18,764,483 pounds; Cape Colony,
26,936,653 pounds.
Venezuela. Venezuela's coffee trade was
deeply affected by the war; both because
the Germans were prominent in the in-
dustry, and because the regular shipping
service to Europe was discontinued. Large
amounts of coffee were piled up at the
ports and elsewhere ; and when the restric-
tions were swept away in 1919, an abnormal
exportation resulted. Although Germany
had been one of the chief buyers before the
war, Venezuela was by no means dependent
on the German market. In fact, her com-
bined shipments to France and the United
States, just before the war, were three times
as great as her exports to Germany. These
two countries took two-thirds of her total
exports in 1920. Spain and the Nether-
lands were also prominent buyers.
Coffee Exports from Venezuela
1906 1913 1920
Exported to Pounds Pounds Pounds
United States. 35,704,398 45,570,268 43,670,191
Prance 21,748,370 46,413,174 4,647,978
Germany 5,270.814 32,203,972 546,363
Aus. -Hungary . 289,851 3,015,723
Spain 3,133,012 7,372,839 15,210,756
Netherlands . . 28,549,920 2,903,806 1,836,209
Italy 315,293 2,805,948 719,850
Great Britain. . 404,720 98,796 1,518,175
Other countries 2,663,507 1,631,143 5,577,110
Total 98,079,885 142,015,669 73,726,632
Colombia. Colombian statistics of for-
eign trade are issued very irregularly, and
191
COMMERCIAL COFFEE CHART
The World's Leading Growths, with Market Names and General
Trade Characteristics
Grand Division
Country
Principal
Shipping Ports
Best Known
Market Names
Trade Characteristics
North
Mexico
Vera Cruz
Coa tepee
Greenish to yellow bean ;
America
Huatusco
Orizaba
mild flavor.
Central
Guatemahi
Puerto Barrios
Coban
Waxy, bluish bean ; mellow
America
Antigua
flavor.
Salvador
La Libertad
Santa Ana
Santa Tecla
Smooth, green bean ; neu-
tral flavor.
Kk'-
Costa Rica
I'uerto Limon
Costa Ricas
Blue-greenish bean ; mild
t
flavor.
^PtVest
Haiti
Cape Haitien
Haiti
Blue bean ; rich, fairly
If Indies
acid ; sweet flavor.
w
Santo Domingo
Santo Domingo
Santo Domingo
Flat, greenish-yellow bean ;
strong flavor.
Jamaica
Kingston
Blue Mountain
Bluish-green bean ; rich,
full flavor.
Porto Rico
Ponce
Porto Ricans
Gray-blue bean ; strong,
heavy flavor.
South
Colombia
Sa van ill a
Medellin
Greenish-yellow bean ; rich.
^ America
Manizales, Bogota
Bucaramanga
mellow flavor.
Venezuela
La Gualra
Merida
Greenish-yellow bean ; mild,
Maracaibo
Cucuta
Caracas
mellow flavor.
Brazil
Santos
Santos
Small bean ; mild flavor.
Rio de Janeiro
Rio
Large bean ; sti-ong cup.
Asia
Arabia
Aden
Mocha
Small, short, green to yel-
low bean ; unique, mild
flavor.
India
Madras
Mysore
Small to large, blue-green
Calicut
Coorg (Kurg)
bean ; strong flavor.
East India
Malay States
Penang (Geo't'n)
Straits
Liberian and Robusta
Islands
Singapore
Liberian, Robusta
growths from Malaysia.
Sumatra
Padang
Mandheling
Ankola
Ayer Bangles
Large, yellow to brown
bean ; heavy body ; ex-
quisite flavor.
Java
Batavia
Preanger
Cheribon, Kroe
Small, blue to yellow bean ;
light in cup.
Celebes
Menado
Macassar
Minahassa
Large, yellow bean ; aro-
matic cup.
Africa
Abyssinia
Jibuti
Harar
Abyssinia
Large, blue to yellow bean ;
very like Mocha.
Pacific
Hawaiian
Honolulu
Kona
Large, blue, flinty bean ;
Islands
Islands
Puna
mildly acid.
Philippines
Manila
Manila
Yellow and brown large
bean ; mild cup.
192
ALT. ABOUT COFFEE
no figures are available to afford compari-
son between pi*e-war and post-war trade.
The figures below, however, -will show the
comparative amounts of coffee going to the
chief buying countries at different periods.
From these it will be seen that, the countries
mainly interested in the trade in Colombian
coffee are those prominent in the trade in
other tropical American sections. England,
France, Germany, and the United States
took the great bulk of the exports. A con-
sular report written after the outbreak of
the war says :
Prior to the war the United States took about
seventy percent of Colombia's coffee crop ; tlie
remainder being about equally divided between
England. France, and Germany, with England
taking the largest share.
Coffee Exports fkom Colombia *
(Prom Barranquilla only)
1899 1905 1916
Exported to Pounds Pounds Pounds
•Great Britain. 22,573,828 7,268,429 442,026
France 6,873,722 496,120 1,685,454
Germany 9,348,028 8,568,131
United States. 17,991,500 43.518,704 134,292,858
Other countries 7,396,385 23,753,678
Total 56,787,078 67,247,769 160,174,016
* Tliese figures are taken from a consular report,
which gave statistics only for the port of Barran-
quilla and did not include the total shipments from
that port. Shipments from Cartagena, the only other
exporting port of any consequence, amounted to
7,836,505 pounds, destination not stated. The Bar-
ranquilla figures, in the absence of oflicial statistics,
can be taken as fairly representative of the total
trade so far as destination is concerned. They are
for fiscal years, ending June 30.
"Other countries" in 1916 included
Italy, 1,135,137 pounds ; Venezuela, 20,564,-
321 pounds; Dutch West Indies, 400,132
pounds.
Central America. The three largest pro-
ducing countries of Central America,
Guatemala, Salvador, and Costa Rica, w^ere
all closely linked to Germany by the coffee
trade before the war. German capital was
heavily invested in coffee plantations; Ger-
man houses had branches in the principal
cities ; and German ships regularly served
the chief ports. Accordingly, when the
Mockade became effective, these countries
were placed in a difficult position. But
fortunately for them, a special effort had
Ibeen made shortly before by Pacific-coast
interests in the United States to divert a
part of the coffee trade to San Francisco \
The market to the east being shut off, these
countries turned naturally to the north.
This trade with the United States has ap-
parently been firmly established, and there
lias not yet been much of a return to Ger-
man ports.
1 See chapter XXX.
Guatemala. Of the three countries
named, Guatemala was the most heavily
involved in German trade. In 1913 she
sent to Germany 53,000,000 pounds of
coffee, a fifth more than in 1900., Her ship-
ments of more than 10,000,000 pounds to
the United Kingdom were about the same
as at the beginning of the century. The
war turned both these currents into United
States ports, and they continued to tlow in
that direction through 1920. The figures
follow :
Coffee Exports from Guatemala
1900 191i3 1920
Exported to Pounds Pounds Pounds
Germany 44.416,064 53,232,910 452,206
United States . . . 14,057,120 21,188,444 78,226,508
United Kingdom. 11,467.680 10,666,604 2,341,217
Other countries.. 3,041,584 6,641.936 13,185,638
Total 72.982,448 91,729,894 94,205,569
"Other countries" in 1913 included Aus-
tria-Hungary, 4,205,400 pounds; Nether-
lands, 407,900 pounds. In 1920, they in-
cluded Netherlands, 10,355,625 pounds;
Sweden, 422,421 pounds; Norway, 57,408
pounds; Spain, 97,519 pounds; France,
27,956 pounds.
Salvador. Salvador is one. of the coun-
tries in which the publication of foreign-
trade statistics has been irregular in the
past, and none is available to show the full
trade in coffee at the beginning of the
century. A consular report gives figures
for the first half of 1900. The most recent
statistics show that the United States still
holds much of the trade gained during the
war, although Salvador is sending to Scan-
dinavian countries many millions of pounds
of her coffee that came to the United States
in wartime.
Coffee Exports from Salvador
1900 (1st 6mos.) 1913 1920
Exported to Pounds Pounds Pounds
United States. 6,700,101 10,779,655 46,262,256
France 22,948,712 15,955,920 6,686,714
Germany 6,607,892 12,120,133 813, 16Q
Great Britain. 4,396,465 3,415,187 4,226,061
Italy 4,322,003 9,538,976
Aus.-Hungary . 1,335,626 3,557,482
Belgium 210,834 5,508 3,104
Spain 24,799 377,729 364,296
Other countries 3,920 7,193,107 24,509,071
Total 46.550.352 62,943.697 82,^64,668
"Other countries" in 1913 included Nor-
way, 2,070,220 pounds; Sweden, 2,238,332
pounds; Netherlands, 738,694 pounds;
Chile, 609,441 pounds; Russia, 95,625
pounds; Denmark, 140,665 pounds. In
1920, they included Norway, 10,726,375
pounds; Chile, 1,772,346 pounds; Nether-
lands, 1,071,614 pounds ; Sweden, 9,635,947
pounds; Denmark, 1,061,772 pounds.
AL J. A HO r T COFFK K
A Fi.ouKisiiiNG Coffee Estate in Chiapas, Mexico
i..\1!oi;ei!S BRI^■GI^G ia the Day's I'ickings, 2seak Bogota, Columuia
l\[TT;D-rOFFEK rTT.TFRE A\D PKKPARATTON
WORLD'S COMMERCIAL COFFEES
L,» „..„..
man capital was heavily invested in Costa
^^ica before the war, and all three nations
^ftere interested in the coffee trade. For
^Tiany years England had maintained the
lead as a coffee customer, and shipments
continued in large volume after the war.
The following figures are for the crop year
ending September 30 :
Coffee Exports
1903
xported to Pounds
United States .. 6,388,236
Great Britain. 27,756,661
France 1.241,816
Germany 2.676,841
Other countries 147.925
193
tOM Costa Rica
1913
Pounds
1921
Pounds
1,625,866
23,464,827
741,548
2,581,055
288,521
14,137,605
13,418,527
313,538
376,649
1,155,066
28,701,817
29,401,385
i
Total 38,211,479
In 1900 total shipments were 35,496,055
pounds, of which 20,587,712 pounds went
to Great Britain; 8,874,014 pounds to the
United States; and 3,904,566 pounds to
Germany.
"Other countries" in 1903 included
Spain. 49,189 pounds; Italy, 4,104 pounds.
In 1921, they included Netherlands, 837,-
496 pounds : 'Spain, 308,308 pounds ; Chile,
9,259 pounds.
Mexico. Mexico has naturally sent most
of her coffee across the border into the
United States, and she continued to do so
during and after the war. But she had
worked up a very important trade with
Europe, chiefly with Germany ; and German
capital, and German planters and mer-
chants were prominent in the industry.
France and England also were interested
in the trade, and purchased annually sev-
eral million pounds. During the war, as
shown by the exports in its final year, this
trade almost entirely ceased, and the
United States and Spain remained as the
only consumers of Mexican coffee. Details
of the after-war trade are not yet available
in published statistics. In the following
table, 1900 and 1918 are calendar years,
and 1913 is a fiscal year.
Coffee Exports from Mexico
1900
. Exported to Pounds
United States. 28.882.954
Germany ..... 10,074,001
Aus.-Hunjrary . 163.934
Belgium 25,855
Spain . 546,132
France 3,927,294
Netherlands ... 220.607
Great Britain . 3,848,605
Cuba ...-...•.: 467;201
Italy , . 157,653
Other couptries
Total '. 48,314,236
1913
1918
Pounds
Pounds
28,012,655
23,816,044
10,461,382
30.864
39.722
184,941
6,184,494
4,482,011
46,296
2,170,669
37,921
171,527
347,758
655,073
46,469.292
30.172,065
In 1913 "other countries" included
Panama, 342,131 pounds; Canada, 276,567
pounds; Sweden, 3,079 pounds; British
Honduras, 33,179 pounds; Denmark, 112
pounds.
Jamaica. The French, more than any
other peoples in Europe, have cultivated a
taste for coffee from the West Indies; and
France normally has led all other countries
in shipments from the larger producing
islands, including Jamaica, although the
island is a British possession. In the
year before the war, France bought nearly
4,000,000 pounds of Jamaican coffee, more
than half the total production. In the year
1900-01 also she took about 4,000,000
pounds, leading all other countries. This
trade was very much cut down during the
war. but was not wiped out. As shown in
the figures for 1918, England largely took
the place of France in that year, and
Canada increased her purchases several
hundred percent.
Coffee Exports from Jamaica
1901 (fls.yr.)
1913
1918
Exported to
Pounds
Pounds
Pounds
Great Britain
. 1,849,456
671,440
6.919,808
Canada
109,536
263,872
1.819.328
United States
. 2,976.512
802,032
643,888
France
. 3,958,304
3,743,264
729.120
Aus. -Hungary
104,272
303,296
Cuba
114,800
Barbados . . .
226,464
26,992
Other countries 508,704
507,248
97.440
Total
. 9,621,584
6,517.616
10,236.576
"Other
countries ' '
in 1901
included
British West Indies, 316,512 pounds. In
1913, they included Netherlands, 125,216
pounds; is^rway, 28,896 pounds; Sweden,
70,224 pounds ; Italy, 46,592 pounds ; Aus-
tralia, 71,456 pounds.
Haiti. Prior to the taking over of the
administration of the customs of Haiti by
the United States, detailed statistics of the
exports are almost wholly lacking. France
took most of the annual production, con-
tinuing a trade that dated back to old
colonial times. An American consular
report says:
Before the war there was no market for Hai-
tian coffee in the United States, practically the
entire crop going to Europe, with France as the
largest consumer. However, there has been for
some time past a determined effort made to
create a demand in the United States, and this
is said to be meeting with ever-increasing suc-
cess.
The actual success achieved can be meas-
ured by the following figures for the fiscal
year ended September 30.,' 1920:
194
ALL ABOUT COFFEE
Coffee Exports from Haiti
Exported to Pounds
United States 27,647,077
France 23,921,083
Great Britain 39,583
Other countries 10,362,351
Total 61,970,094'
These figures do not include 6,322,167
pounds of coffee triage, or waste, of which
the United States took 2,028,352 pounds;
France, 1,491,507 pounds.
Dominican Republic. The comparatively
small production of the Dominican Repub-
lic was divided among the United States
and three or four European countries be-
fore the war. Since the war the exports
have been scattered among the former
customers in varying amounts. Germany
is again a buyer, although her purchases
have not come back to anything like the
pre-war level.
Coffee Exports from the Dominican Republic
1906 1913 1920
Exported to Pounds Pounds Pounds
United States. 564,291 506,456 529,831
France 569,215 1,248,418 454,165
Germany 1,562,193 327,843 69,224
Italy * 195,294 51,543
Cuba * 25,628 132,569
Great Britain. * 660 54,114
Other countries 221,028 8,154 70,220
Total 2,916,727 2,312,453 1,361,666
*No shipments, or included in "other countries."
"Other countries" in 1920 included only
the Netherlands.
PoRTO Rico. In spite of several attempts
on the part of Porto-Rican planters to
make their product popular in the markets
of the United States, the American con-
sumer has never found the taste of that
coffee to his liking. The big market for
the Porto-Rican product has been Cuba,
which has depended on her neighbor for
most of her supply. This demand takes a
large part of the annual crop, including
the lower grades. The better grades, be-
fore the war, went largely to Europe,
mostly to the Latin countries. During the
war, the Cuban mai-ket carried the Porto-
Rican planters through, although shipments
of considerable size continued to go to
France and Spain. Recovery of the pre-
war trade with Europe, however, has been
slow, Spain being the only country to take
over 1,000,000 pounds in 1920. Shipments
to that country totaled 3,472,204 pounds;
those to France, 900,868 pounds. Both
countries increased their purchases con-
siderably in 1921.
Coffee Exports from Porto Rico
1900-01 (fls.yr.) 1913 1921
Exported to Pounds Pounds Pounds
United States. 29,565 628,843 211,531
France 3,348,025 6,0'20,170 1,625,065
Spam 2,590,096 6,851,235 5,705,932
Aus.-Hungary . 386,158 6,729,726
Germany 493,891 876,315 363,993
Belgium 9,964 25,867 234 019
Italy 611,033 3,498,157 43,484
Netherlands . . 8,860 497,938 25 199
Sweden 32,390* 633,046 266,550
Cuba 4,633,538 23,179,690 21,135,397
Other countries 13,720 393,586 356.709
Total 12,157,240 49,334,573 29,967,879
* Includes Norway.
Hawaii. The war disarranged Hawaii's
coffee trade very little, as she had for many
years been shipping chiefly to continental
United States. Recently a considerable
trade with the Philippines has developed.
Coffee Exports from Hawaii
1901-02 (fls.yr.) 1913 1921
Exported to Pounds Pounds Pounds
United States. 1,082,994 3,393,009 4,183,046
Canada 77,900 10,200 11 355
Japan 24,155 49,167 23,950
Germany 2,100 1,612
Philippines ... * 932,640 747,700-
Other countries 23,349 49,179 13,070
Total 1,210,498 4,435, 807 4,979,121
*No exports, or included in "other countries."
Aden. Lying on the edge of the war
area and on the road to India, Aden felt
the full force of the disarrangement of
commercial traffic by the war. Ordinarily,.
Aden is not only the chief outlet for the
coffee of the interior of Arabia — the orig-
inal "Mocha" — but it is also the tranship-
ping point for large amounts from Africa
and India. The figures given below relate
for the most part to this transhipped
coffee. Exports of coffee from Aden go.
chiefly to the United Kingdom, France, and
the United States, and to other ports of
Arabia and Africa. Before the war no»
great proportion went to the Central
Powers. The following figures apply to
fiscal years ending March 31 :
Coffee Exports from Aden
1901 (fls.yr.) 1914 (fls.yr.) 1921 (fls.yr.)
Exported to Pounds Pounds Pounds
Great Britain. 1,563,632 696,976 466,928
United States. 2,412,368 4,300,128 2,507,344
France 3,789,296 2,975,840 814.016
Egypt 1,024,576 3,108,336
Arab. Gulf Pts. 860,160 852,320 606,592
Germany 247,184 465,136
Aus.-Hungary . 341,152 553,952
Italy 197,568 811,664 7,504
Br. Somaliland 280,224 23,408
♦Africa 337,344 2,390,640 292,880
Other countries 1,114,848 2,500,456 1,659,504
Total 12,168,352 15,570,520 9,463,104
•Including adjacent islands, but exclusive of British
territory.
"Other countries" in 1914 included
Australia, 222,320 pounds; Perim, 142,016
pounds; Zanzibar, 148,848 pounds; Mauri- J|
I
WORLD'S COMMERCIAL COFFEES
195
ius, 154,672 pounds; Seychelles, 116,704
founds; Sweden, 118,720 pounds; Norway,
^9,168 pounds ; Russia, 196,448 pounds. In
1921, they included Denmark, 120,624
pounds ; Spain, 124,208 pounds'; Massowah,
110,704 pounds.
British India. As India's trade before
le war was chiefly with the mother coun-
ry, with France, and with Ceylon, the
I'eturn to normal has been rapid. In the
rear following the war, these three cus-
)mers were again credited with the largest
^mounts exported from India, except for
lipments to Greece, W'hich took little before
le war. The following figures are for the
iscal years ending March 31 :
Coffee Exports from British India
1901 (fla.yr.) 1914 (fls.yr.) 1920(fla.yr.)
Exported to Pounds Pounds Pounds
Jreat Britain. 15,678,768 10,343,536 8,138,144
Ceylon 1,088,528 l,428i,112 1,423,072
France 8,430.016 10 924,816 9,256,352
Belgium 617,792 1,021,664
Germany 126,560 1,033,088 25,312
Aus.-Hungary . 123,312 1,358,896 8,400
Italy 23,968 22,624 30.912
United States. 54,096 16,576
Turkey in Asia 232,176 501,984 986,720
♦Africa 118,272 113,344 619,696
Other countries 1,106,784 2,360,736 10,021,648
Total 27,600,272 29,108,800 30,526,832
♦Including adjacent islands.
"Other countries" in 1914 included
Netherlands, 238,560 pounds; Australia,
748,608 pounds; Bahrein Islands, 757,568
pounds. In 1920, they included Greece,
6,487,376 pounds; Australia, 481,152
pounds ; Bahrein Islands, 1,081,696 pounds ;
Aden and dependencies, 459,984 pounds;
other Arabian ports, 890,176 pounds.
Dutch East Indies. The war played
havoc with the coffee trade of the Dutch
East Indies, taking away shipping, closing
trade routes, and causing immense quanti-
ties of coffee to pile up in the warehouses.
When the war ended, this coffee was re-
leased; and trade was consequently again
abnormal, although in the opposite direc-
tion from that it took during war years.
The 1920 figures indicate that the trade is
working back into its old channels.
Coffee Exports from
Dutch East
Indies
1900
1913
1920t
Exported to
Pounds
Pounds
Pounds
Netherlands .
81,489,000
33,323,748*
*50,028,815
Great Britain
88,000
981,201
5,987,598
Prance
2,560,000
9,081,715*
5,410,582
Aus.-Hungary
1,153,000
996,988
Germany ....
71,000
997,715*
75,699
Egypt
5,494,000
104,868
1,418,313
United States
8,408,000
5,695,180
17,274,522
Singapore . . .
9,952,000
4,785,580
8,349,415
Other countries 2,965,000
7,831,732
10,475,509
Total
112,180,000
63,798,727
99,020,453
♦Includes shipments "for orders."
t These figures cover only Java and Madura.
"Other countries" in 1920 included,
Norway, 2,606,421 pounds ; Sweden, 728,580
pounds; Australia, 1,553,495 pounds;
British India, 1,912,541 pounds; Italy, 1,-
964,109 pounds; Denmark, 1,191,643
pounds ; Belgium, 166,092 pounds.
196
ALL ABOUT COFFEE
^*jt
M
COFFEE TREE IN BEARING AT THE GOVERNMENTAL EXPERIMENT
STATION AT LAMOA, NEAR MANILA, P. I.
Chapter XX
CULTIVATION OF THE COFFEE PLANT
The early days of coffee culture in Abyssinia and Arabia — Coffee
cultivation in general — Soil, climate, rainfall, altitude, propagation,
preparing the plantation, shade and wind breaks, fertilising, prun-
ing, catch crops, pests, and diseases — How coffee is grown around
the ivorld — Cidtivation in all the principal producing countries
^OR the beginnings of coffee culture
we must go back to the Arabian
colony of Harar in Abyssinia, for
lere it was, about the fifteenth century,
that the Arabs, having found the plant
growing wild in the Abyssinian^ highlands,
first gave it intensive cultivation. The com-
plete story of the early cultivation of cofl'ee
in the old and new worlds is told in chapter
II, which deals with the history of the
propagation of the coffee plant.
La iloque ^ was the first to tell how the
plant was cultivated and the berries pre-
pared for market in Arabia, where it was
brought from Abyssinia.
The Arabs raised it from seed grown in
nurseries, transplanting it to plantations
laid out in the foot-hills of the mountains,
to which they conducted the mountain
streams by ingeniously constructed small
channels to water the roots. They built
trenches three feet wide and five feet deep,
lining them with pebbles to cause the water
to sink deep into the earth with which the
trenches were filled, to preserve the mois-
ture from too rapid evaporation. These
were so constructed that the water could
be turned off into other channels when the
fruit began to ripen. In plantations ex-
posed to the south, a kind of poplar tree
was planted along the trenches to supply
needful shade.
La Roque noted that the coffee trees in
Yemen were planted in lines, like the apple
trees in Normandy; and that when they
^ La Roque, .lean. Voyage de I'AraMe Heureuae,
Paris. 17] 5. (p. 280.)
were much exposed to the sun, the shade
poplars were regularly introduced between
the rows.
Such cultivation as the plant received in
early Abyssinia and Arabia was crude and
primitive at best. Throughout the inter-
vening centuries, there has been little im-
provement in Yemen ; but modern cultural
methods obtain in the Harar district in
Abyssinia.
Like the Arabs in Yemen, the Harari
cultivated in small gardens, employing the
same ingenious system of irrigation from
mountain springs to water the roots of the
plants at least once a week during the dry
season. In Yemen and in Abyssinia the
ripened berries were sun-dried on beaten-
earth barbecues.
The European planters who carried the
cultivation of the bean to the Far East and
to America followed the best Arabian prac-
tise, changing, and sometimes improving
it, in order to adapt it to local conditions.
Cofee Cidtivation in General
Today the commercial growers of coffee
on a large scale practise intensive cultiva-
tion methods, giving the same care to pre-
paring their plantations and maintaining
their trees as do other growers of grains
and fruits. As in the more advanced
methods of arboriculture, every effort is
made to obtain the maximum production of
quality coffee consistent with the smallest
outlay of money and labor. Experimental
stations in various parts of the world are
constantly working to improve methods and
197
198
ALL ABOUT COFFEE
products, and to develop types that will
resist disease and adverse climatic condi-
tions.
While cultivation methods in the differ-
ent producing countries vary in detail of
practise, the principles are unchanging.
Where methods do differ, it is owing prin-
cipally to local economic conditions, such as
the supply and cost of labor, machinery,
fertilizers, and similar essential factors.
Implements Used in Early Arabian Coffee
Culture
1, Plow. 2 and 3, Mattocks. 4, Hatchet and sickle.
Top, Seeder implement
Soil. Rocky ground that pulverizes
easily — and, if possible, of volcanic origin
— is best for coffee; also, soil rich in de-
composed mold. In Brazil the best soil is
known as terra roxa, a topsoil of red clay
three or four feet thick with a gravel sub-
soil.
Climate. The natural habitat of the
coffee tree (all species) is tropical Africa,
Mhere the climate is hot and humid, and the
soil rich and moist, yet sufficiently friable
to furnish well drained seed beds. These
conditions must be approximated when the
tree is grown in other countries. Because
the trees and fruit generally can not with-
stand frost, they are restricted to regions
where the mean annual temperature is
about 70° F., with an average minimum
about 55°, and an average maximum of
about 80°. Where grown in regions subject
to more or less frost, as in the northernmost
parts of Brazil's coffee-producing district,
which lie almost within the south temperate
zone, the coffee trees are sometimes frosted,
as was the case in 1918, when about forty
percent of the Sao Paulo crop and trees
suffered.
Generally speaking, the most suitable
climate for coffee is a temperate one within
the tropics; however, it has been success-
fully cultivated between latitudes 28° north
and 38° south.
Rainfall, Although able to grow satis-
factorily only on well drained land, the
coffee tree requires an abundance of water,
about seventy inches of rainfall annually,
and must have it supplied evenly through-
out the year. Prolonged droughts are
fatal ; while, on the other hand, too great a
supply of water tends to develop the wood
of the tree at the expense of the flowers and
fruit, especially in low-lying regions.
Altitude. Coffee is found growing in all
altitudes, from sea-level up to the frost-line,
which is about 6,000 feet in the tropics.
Rohusta and liberica varieties of coffee do
best in regions from sea-level up to 3,000
feet, while arabica flourishes better at the
higher levels.
Carvalho says that the coffee plant needs
sun, but that a few hours daily exposure is
sufficient. Hilly ground has the advantage
of offering the choice of a suitable exposure,
as the sun shines on it for only a part of
the day. Whether it is the early morning
or the afternoon sun that enables the plant
to attain its optimum conditions is a ques-
tion of locality.
In Mexico, Romero tells us, the highlands
of Soconusco have the advantage that the
sun does not shine on the trees during the
whole of the day. On the higher slopes of
Cross Section of Mountain Slope in Yemen, Arabia, Showing Coffee Terraces
These miniature plantations are found chiefly along the caravan route between Hodeida and Sanaa
COFFEE CULTIVATION
199
Cleauinu Virgin Fokest for a Coffee Estate in Mexico
Coffee Xubsery Under a Bamboo Roof in Colombia
THE FIRST STEPS IN COFFEE GROWING
200
ALL ABOUT COFFEE
the Cordilleras — from 2,500 feet above
sea-level — clouds prevail during the sum-
mer season, when the sun is hottest, and
are frequently present in the other seasons,
after ten o'clock in the morning. These
keep the trees from being exposed to the
heat of the sun during the whole of the day.
Perhaps to this circumstance is due the
superior excellence of certain coffees grown
in Mexico, Colombia, and Sumatra at an
altitude of 3,000 feet to 4,000 feet above
sea-level.
Richard Spruce, the botanist, in his notes
on South America, as quoted by Alfred
Russel Wallace," refers to "a zone of the
equatorial Andes ranging between 4,000
and 6,000 feet altitude, where the best
flavored coffee is grown."
Propagation. Coffee trees are grown
most generally from seeds selected from
trees of known productivity and longevity ;
although in some parts of the world propa-
gation is done from shoots or cuttings. The
seed method is most general, however, the
seeds being either propagated in nursery
beds, or planted at once in the spot where
the mature tree is to stand. In the latter
^Encyclopedia Britannica, 11 ed., Cambridge, 1910.
(vol. i: p. 118.)
case — called planting at stake — four or
five seeds are planted, much as corn is
sown ; and after germination, all but the
strongest plant are removed.
Where the nursery method is followed,
the choicest land of the plantation is
chosen for its site ; and the seeds are
planted in forcing beds, sometimes called
cold-frames. When the plants are to be
transplanted direct to the plantation, the
seeds are generally sown six inches apart
and in rows separated by the same distance,
and are covered with only a slight sprink-
ling of earth. When the plants are to be
transferred from the first bed to another,
and then to the plantation, the seeds are
sown more thickly; and the plants are
"pricked" out as needed, and set out in
another forcing bed.
During the six to seven weeks required
for the coffee seed to germinate, the soil
must be kept moist and shaded and thor-
oughly weeded. If the trees are to be
grown without shade, the young plants are
gradually exposed to the sun, to harden
them, before they begin their existence in
the plantation proper.
Considerable experimental work has been
done in renewing trees by grafting, notably
1
**--'^
w
^£j£^MIjL
^T!!i
Wi
WDSStk
■,My.'i:'r ..-
_ . •':.
^
^'■4'i
■BBmpH^^^I^^^
wk
SnH
' o- IH-^^^^
^
^/'
l,»'-\
■f"::^
]:^^^^' ~
1
«* v ■-
a
r^!9^^jM^^^^H
1 *• . »
•0^
~ "^^^^H^^^^HP^
^
i
m
1
' v^^^^^"
M
s»
H^frt*y^iiii*^iiifi II * "^ ii II '^mr
liMirilili
^,:_;
- 'v "'■-»' .J^
mf;w.i.,^m^ssz3k
mm
^wHH
.-i-.ki«i»-4
■IM^DKiikZa
« **•* '«. .
Coffee Tree Nursery, Panajabal, Pochuta, Guatemala
ALL ABOUT COFFEE
Drying Grounds and Factory in the Preanger Regency
--»=.- „-.-»; -mi
Native TKAMSFohx, Field to Factoky, at Duamaga, Neau liuiXEN/^ouu
COFFEE SCENES IN JAVA, NETHERLANDS EAST INDIES
COFFEE CULTIVATION
201
Coffee Growing Under Shade, Porto Rico
in Java ; but practically all commercial
planters follow the seed method.
Preparing the Plantation. Before
transplanting time has come, the plantation
itself has been made ready to receive the
young plants. Coffee plantations are gen-
erally laid out on heavily wooded and slop-
ing lands, most often in forests on moun-
tainsides and plateaus, where there is an
abundance of water, of which large quan-
tities are used in cultivating the trees and
in preparing the coffee beans for market.
The soil most suitable is friable, sandy, or
even gravelly, with an abundance of rocks
to keep the soil comparatively cool and well
drained, as well as to supply a source of
food by action of the weather. The ideal
soil is one that contains a large proportion
of potassium and phosphoric acid ; and for
that reason, the general practise is to burn
off the foliage and trees covering the land
and to use the ashes as fertilizer.
In preparing the soil for the new planta-
tion under the intensive cultivation method,
the surface of the land is lightly plowed,
and then followed up with thorough cul-
tivation. "When transplanting time comes,
which is when the plant is about a year old,
and stands from twelve to eighteen inches
high with its first pairs of primary
branches, the plants are set out in shallow
holes at regular intervals of from eight to
twelve, or even fourteen, feet apart. This
gives room for the root system to develop,
provides space for sunlight to reach each
tree, and makes for convenience in cultivat-
ing and harvesting. Liherica and robusta
type trees require more room than arahica.
When set twelve feet apart, which is the
general practise, with the same distance
maintained between rows, there are approxi-
mately four hundred and fifty trees to the
acre. In the triangle, or hexagon, system
the trees are planted in the form of an
equilateral triangle, each tree being the
same distance (usually eight or nine feet)
from its six nearest neighbors. This sys-
tem permits of 600 to 800 trees per acre.
Shade and Wind Breaks. Strong, chilly
winds and intensely hot sunlight are foes
of coffee trees, especially of the arahica
variety. Accordingly, in most countries it
is customary to protect the plantation with
wind-breaks consisting of rugged trees, and
to shade the coffee by growing trees of
other kinds between the rows. The shade
trees serve also to check soil erosion : and
in the case of the leguminous kinds, to
furnish nutriment to the soil. Coffee does
best in shade such as is afforded bv the silk
202
ALL ABOUT COFFEE
oak (Grevillea rohusta). In Shade in
Coffrf Culture {Bulletin 25, 1901, division
of botany, United States Department of
Agriculture), 0. F. Cook goes extensively
into this subject.
The methods emploj^ed in the care of a
coffee plantation do not differ materially
from those followed by advanced orchard-
ists in the colder fruit-belts of the world.
After the young plants have gained their
start, they are cultivated frequently, prin-
'cipally to keep out the weeds, to destroy
pests, and to aerate the earth. The imple-
ments used range from crude hand-plows to
horse-drawn cultivators..
Fertilizing. Comparatively little fer-
tilizing is done on plantations established
on virgin soil until the trees begin to bear,
which occurs when they are about three
years of age. Because the coffee tree takes
potash, nitrogen, and phosphoric acid from
the soil, the scheme of fertilizing is to
restore these elements. The materials used
to replace the soil-constituents consist of
stable manure, leguminous plants, coffee-
tree prunings, leaves, certain weeds, oil
cake, bone and fish meal, guano, wood
ashes, coffee pulp and parchment, and such
chemical fertilizers as superphosphate of
lime, basic slag, sulphate of ammonia,
nitrate of lime, sulphate of potash, nitrate
of potash, and similar materials.
The relative values of these fertilizers
depend largely upon local climate and soil
conditions, the supply, the cost, and other
like factors. The chemical fertilizers are
coming into increasing use in the larger and
more economically advanced producing
countries. Brazil, particularly, is showing
in late years a tendency toward their adop-
tion to make up for the dwindling supply
of the so-called natural manures. As the
coffee tree grows older, it requires a larger
supply of fertilizer.
Pruning. On the larger plantations,
pruning is an important part of the cul-
tivation processes. If left to their own
devices, coffee trees sometimes grow as high
as forty feet, the strength being absorbed
by the wood, with a consequent scanty pro-
duction of fruit. To prevent this undesir-
able result, and to facilitate picking, the
trees on the more modern plantations are
pruned down to heights ranging from six
to twelve feet. Except for pruning the
roots when transplanting, the tree is per-
mitted to grow until after producing its
first full crop before any cutting takes
place. Then, the branches are severely cut
back ; and thereafter, pruning is carried on
The Famous Boekit Gompong Estate, Near Padang, on Sumatra's West Coast
Showing the healthy, regrular appearance of well-cultivated coffee bushes, twenty-six years old.
note the line of feathery bamboo wind-breaks
Also
COFFEE CULTIVATION
203
Coffee Estate in Antioquia, Colombia, Showing Wind-Breaks
annually. Topping and pruning begin be-
tween the first and the second years.
Coffee trees as a rule produce full crops
from the sixth to the fifteenth year, al-
though some trees have given a paying crop
until twenty or thirty years old. Ordinarily
the trees bear from one-half pound to eight
pounds of coffee annually, although there
are accounts of twelve pounds being ob-
tained per tree. Production is mostly gov-
erned by the cultivation given the tree, and
by climate, soil, and location. When too
old to bear profitable yields, the trees on
commercial plantations are cut down to the
level of the ground; and are renewed by
permitting only the strongest sprout spring-
ing out of the stump to mature.
Catch Crops. On some plantations it
has become the practise to grow catch crops
between the rows of coffee trees, both as
a, means of obtaining' additional revenue
and to shade the young coffee plants. Corn,
beans, cotton, peanuts, and similar plant-s
are most generally used.
Pests and Diseases. The coffee tree, its
wood, foliage, and fruit, have their enemies,
chief among which are insects, fungi,
rodents (the "'coffee rat"), birds, squirrels.
and — according to Rossignon — elephants,
buffalo, and native cattle, which have a
special liking for the tender leaves of the
coffee plant. Insects and fungi are the
most bothersome pests on most plantations.
Among the insects, the several varieties of
borers are the principal foes, boring into
the wood of the trunk and branches to lay
larvae which sap the life from the tree.
There are scale insects whose excretion
forms a black mold on the leaves and
affects the nutrition by cutting' off the sun-
light. Numerous kinds of beetles, cater-
pillars, grasshoppers, and crickets attack
the coffee-tree leaves, the so-called "leaf-
miner" being especially troublesome. The
Mediterranean fruit fly deposits larvae
which destroy or lessen the worth of the
coffee berry by tunneling within and eating
the contents of the parchment. The coffee-
berry beetle and its grub also live within
the coffee berry.
Among the most destructive fungoid dis-
eases is the so-called Ceylon leaf disease,
which is caused by the Hemileia vastatrix, a
fungus related to the wheat rust. It was
this disease which ruined the coffee industry
in Ceylon, where it first appeared in 1869,
204
ALL ABOUT COFFEE
and since has been found in other coffee-
producing regions of Asia and Africa.
America has a similar disease, caused by the
Sphaerostilhe flavida, that is equally de-
structive if not vigilantly guarded against.
(See chapters XV and XVI.)
The coffee-tree roots also are subject to
attack. There is the root disease, prevalent
in all countries, and for wh'ch no cause
has yet been definitely assigned, although
it has been determined that it is of a
fungoid nature. Brazil, and some other
American coft'ee-producing countries, have
a serious disease caused by the eelworm,
and for that reason called the eelworm
disease.
Coffee planters combat pests and diseases
principally with sprays, as in other lines of
advanced arboriculture. It is a constant
battle, especially on the large commercial
plantations, and constitutes a large item on
the expense sheet.
Cultivation hy Countries
Coffee-cultivation methods vary some-
what in detail in the different producing
countries. The foregoing description covers
the underlying principles in practise
throughout the world; while the following
is intended to show the local variations
in vogue in the principal countries of
production, together with brief descriptions
of the main producing districts, the alti-
tudes, character of soil, climate, and other
factors that are peculiar to each country.
In general, they are considered in the order
of their relative importance as producing
countries.
Brazil. In Brazil, the Giant of South
America, and the world's largest coffee
producer, the methods of cultivation natur-
ally have reached a high point of develop-
ment, although the soil and the climat3
were not at first regarded as favorable.
The year 1723 is generally accepted as the
date of the introduction of the coft'ee plant
into Brazil from French Guiana. Coffee
planting was slow in developing, however,
until 1732, when the governor of the states
of Para and Maranhao urged its cultiva-
tion. Sixteen years later, there were 17,000
trees in Para. From that year on, slow
but steady progress was made ; and by 1770,
an export trade had been begun from the
port of Para to countries in Europe.
The spread of the industry began about
this time. The coffee tree was introduced
into the state of Rio de Janeiro in 1770.
From there its cultivation was gradually
Up-to-Date Weeding and Hakeowing, Sao Paulo
COFFEE CULTIVATION
205
Photograph by Courtesy of J. Aron & Co.
General View of Fazenda Uumont, Ribeirao Preto, Sao Paulo, Brazil
extended into the states of Sao Paulo, Minas
Geraes, Bahia, and Espirito Santo, which
have become the great coffee-producing sec-
tions of Brazil. The cultivation of the
plant did not become especially noteworthy
until the third decade of the nineteenth
century. Large crops were gathered in the
season of 1842 - 43 ; and by the middle of
the century, the plantations were producing
annually more than 2,000,000 bags.
Brazil's commercial coffee-growing region
has an estimated area of approximately
1,158,000 square miles, and extends from
the river Amazon to the southern border of
the state of Sao Paulo, and from the
Atlantic coast to the western boundary of
the state of Matto Grosso. This area is
larger than that section of the United
States lying east of the Mississippi River,
with Texas added. In every state of the
republic, from Ceara in the north to Santa
Catharina in the south, the coffee tree can
be cultivated profitably; and is, in fact,,
more or less grown in every state, if only
for domestic use. However, little attention
is given to coffee-growing in the north, ex-
cept in the state of Pernambuco, which has
only about 1,500,000 trees, as compared,
with the 764.000,000 trees of Sao Paulo in
1922.
The chief coffee-growing plantations in
Brazil are situated on plateaus seldom less
than 1,800 feet above sea-level, and ranging
up to 4,000 feet. The mean annual tem-
perature is approximately 70° F., rang-
ing from a mean of 60.8° in winter to a
mean of 72° in summer. The temperature
has been known, however, to register 32°
in winter and 97.7° in summer.
"While coffee trees will grow in almost
any part of Brazil, experience indicates
that the two most fertile soils, the terra
roxa and the massape, lie in the "coffee
belts." The terra roxa is a dark red earth,
and is practically confined to Sao Paulo,
and to it is due the predominant coffee
productivity of that state. Massape is a
yellow, dark red — or even black — soil,
and occurs more or less contiguous to the
terra roxa. With a covering of loose sand,
it makes excellent coffee land.
Brazil planters follow the nursery-propa-
gated method of planting, and cultivate,
prune, and spray their trees liberally.
Transplanting is done in the months from
November to February.
Coffee-growing profits. have shown a de-
cided falling off in Brazil in recent years.
In 1900 it was not uncommon for a coffee
estate to yield an annual profit of from 100
to 250 percent. Ten years later the average
returns did not exceed twelve percent.
In Brazil's coffee belt there are two sea-
sons — the wet, running from September
to March ; and the dry, running from April
to August. The coffee trees are in bloom
206
ALL ABOUT COFFEE
COFFEE CULTIVATIOX
207
from September to December. The blos-
soms last about four days, and are easily
beaten off by light winds or rains. If the
rains or winds are violent, the green berries
may be similarly destroyed ; so that great
damage may be caused by unseasonable
rains and storms.
The harvest usually begins in April or
May, and extends well into the dry season.
Even in the picking season, heavy rains
and strong winds — especially the latter —
may do considerable damage; for in Brazil
shade trees and wind-breaks are the excep-
tion.
Approximately twenty-five percent of the
Sao Paulo plantations are cultivated by
machinery, A type of cultivator very com-
mon is similar to the small corn-plow used
in the United States. The Planet Junior,
manufactured by a well known United
States agricultural-machinery firm, is the
most popular cultivator. It is drawn by a
small mule, with a boy to lead it, and a
man to drive and to guide the plow.
The preponderance of the coffee over
other industries in Sao Paulo is shown in
many ways. A few years ago the registra-
tion of laborers in all industries was about
450,000; and of this total, 420,000 were
employed in the production and transpor-
tation of coffee alone. Of the capital in-
vested in all industries, about eighty-five
percent was in coffee production and com-
merce, including the railroads that de-
pended upon it directly. An estimated
value of $482,500,000 was placed upon the
Copyright by Brown & Uawsui
Picking Coffee in Sao Paulo
plantations in the state, including land,,
machinery, the residences of owners, and
laborers' quarters.
In all Brazil, there are approximately
1,200,000,000 coffee trees. The number of
bearing coffee trees in Sao Paulo alone in-
creased from 735,000.000 in 1914-15 to:
834,000,000 'in 1917-18. The crop in 1917-
18 was 1,615,000,000 pounds, one of the
largest on record. In the agricultural vear
of 1922-23 there were 764,969,500 coffee
trees in bearing in Sao Paulo, and in Sao
Paulo, Minas, and Parana, 824,194,500.
Plantations having from 300,000 to 400,-
000 trees are common. One plantation near
Ribeirao Preto has 5,000,000 trees, and
requires an army of 6,000 laborers to work
y •: .1. A:, i: \ (V.
Intensive Cultivation METiions in the Kibeirao Preto District, Sao Paulo
208
ALL ABOUT COFFEE
It
1? ^
i^B^£
^- ■...•, !'■ ' ■ ^:'.^.dMM
^^H^^^^^HBHt'l^ JjTfl
Pliotograph by Courtesy of J. Aion k Co.
Private Railroad on a Sao Paulo Coffee Fazenda
Showing coffee trees and laborers' houses in the middle distance at right
it. Another planter owns thirty-two ad-
jacent plantations containing, in all, from
7,500,000 to 8,000,000 coffee trees and
gives employment to 8,000 persons. There
are fifteen plantations having more than
1,000,000 trees each, and five of these have
more than 2,000,000 trees each. In the
munieipalitv of Ribeirao Preto there were
30,000,000 trees in 1922.
The largest coffee plantations in the world
are the Fazendas Dumont and the Fazendas
Schmidt. The Fazendas Dumont were
valued, in 1915, in cost of land and im-
provements, at $5,920,007; and since those
figures were given out, the value of the
investment has much increased. Of the
various Fazendas Schmidt, the largest,
owned by Colonel Francisco Schmidt, in
1918 had 9.000.000 trees with an annual
yield of 200,000 bags, or 26,400,000 pounds,
of coffee. Other large plantations in Sao
Paulo with a million or more trees, are the
Companhia Agricola Fazenda Dumont, 2,-
420,000 trees; Companhia Sao Martinho,
2,300,000 trees ; Companhia Dumont, 2,000,-
000 trees : »Sao Paulo Coffee Company,
1,860,000 trees; Christiana Oxorio de
Oliveira. 1.790.000 trees; Companhia Guata.
para 1.550.000 trees; Dr. Alfredo Ellis,
1,271,000 trees; Companhia Agricola Ara-
qua, 1,200,000 trees; Companhia Agricola
Ribeirao Preto, 1,138,000 trees; Rodriguez
Alves Irmaos, 1,060,000 trees; Francisca
Silveira do Val, 1,050,000 trees; Luiza de
Oliveira Azevedo, 1,045,000 trees; and the
Companhia Cafeeria Sao Paulo, 1,000,000
trees.
The average annual yield in Sao Paulo is
estimated at from 1,750 to 4,000 pounds
from a thousand trees, while in exceptional
instances it is said that as much as 6,000
pounds per 1,000 trees have been gathered.^
Dift'erences in local climatic conditions, in
ages of trees, in richness of soil, and in the
care exercised in cultivation, are given as
the reasons for the wide variation.
The oldest coffee-growing district in Sao
Paulo is Campinas, There are 136 others.
Bahia coffee is not so carefully cultivated
and harvested as the Santos coffee. The
introduction of capital and modern methods
would do much for Bahia, which has the
advantage of a shorter haul to the New
York and the European markets.
On the average, something like seventy
percent of the world's coffee crop is grown
in Brazil, and two-thirds of this is produced
in Sao Paulo. Coffee culture in many dis-
tricts of Sao Paulo has been brought to the
point of highest development; and yet its
product is essentially a quantity, not a
quality, one.
Colombia. In Colombia^coffee is the
J2rineipal crop gro\\'n tor export It is
produced m nearly — aii — depSHments at
elevations ranging from 3,500 feet to 6,500
feet. Chief among the coffee-growing de-
partments are Antioquia (capital, Medel-
lin) ; Caldas (capital, Manizales) ; Mag-
daleuaL^(capitfil, Santa Marta) ; Sgntander
(capital, Bucaramanga) ; Tolima'~(' capital,
Ibague) ; and the Federal TPistric^ (capital,
Bogota). 'I'he department of Cundm'a-
marca produces a coffee that is counted one
of the best of Colombian grades. The finest
grades are grown in the foot-hills of the
Andes, in altitudes from 3,500 to 4,500 feet
above sea level.
COFFEE CULTIVATIOX
209
The Conducting Sluiceway at Guatapaea
The running water carries tlie picljecl coffee berries to pulpers and washing tanks
CuilEE ritlvl.NG AM) l-'lKLI) Tl!A.\Sl'OI!T
COFFEE CULTURE IN SAO PAULO, BRAZIL
210
ALL ABOUT COFFEE
o
<
O
O
o
EH
o
Q
COFFEE CULTIVATION
211
I'icKiNG Coffee on a LIogota Plantation
Methods of planting, cultivation, gather-
ing, and preparing the Colombian coffee
crop for the market are substantially those
that are common in all cofifee-producing
_eountries, although they differ in some small
particulars. About 700 trees are usually
planted to the acre, and native trees fur-
nish the necessary shade. The average
yield is one pound per tree per year.
While Coffea arabica has been mostly cul-
tivated in Colombia, as in the other coun-
tries of South America, the liherica variety
has not been neglected. Seeds of the
liherica tree were planted here soon after
1880, and were moderately successful.
Since 1900, more attention has been given
to liherica, and attempts have been made
to grow it upon banana and rubber planta-
tions, which seem to provide all the shade
protection that is needed. Liherica coffee
trees begin to bear in their third year.
From the fifth year, when a crop of about
650 pounds to the acre can reasonably be
expected, the productiveness steadily in-
creases until after fifteen or sixteen years,
when a maximum of over one thousand
pounds an acre is attained.
Antioquia is the largest coffee producing
department in the republic, and its coffee
is of the highest grade grown. Medellin,
the capital, where the business interests of
the industry are concentrated, is a hand-
some white city located on the banks of the
Aburra river, in a picturesque valley that
is overlooked by the high peaks of the
Andean range. It is a town of about
80,000 inhabitants, thriving as a manufac-
turing center, abundant in modern improve-
ments, and is the center of a coffee produc-
tion of 500,000 bags known in the market
as Medellin and Manizales. Another center
in this coffee region is the town of Mani-
zales, perched on the crest of the Andean
spurs to dominate the valley extending to
Medellin and the Cauca valley to the
Pacific. There-about many small coffee
growers are settled, and several hundred
thousand bags of the beans pass through
annually.
One of the interesting plantations of the
country was started a few years ago in a
remote region by an enterprising American
investor. It was located on the slopes of
the Sierra Nevada mountains 3,000 to 5,000
feet above sea-level, about twenty-five miles
from the city of Santa Marta. An extended
acreage of forest-covered land was acquired,
about 600 acres of which were cleared and
either planted in coffee or reserved for
pasturage and other kinds of agriculture.
212
ALL ABOUT COFFEE
When the plantation came to maturity, it
had nearly 300,000 trees. In 1919. there
were 425,000 trees producing 3,600 hun-
dred-weight of coffee.
A typical Colombian plantation is the
Namay, owned by one of the bankers of the
iBanco^de Colombia of Bogota. It is located
'a good half day's travel by rail and horse-
back from the city, about 5,000 feet above
the level of the sea. There are 1,000 acres
in the plantation, with 250,000 trees having
an ultimate productive capacity of nearly
2,000 bags a year. During crop times,
which are from May to July, about two
hundred families are needed on an estate
oi this size.
Venezuela. Seeds of the coffee plant
were brought into Venezuela from Marti-
nique in 1784 by a priest who started a
small plantation near Caracas. Five years
later, the first export of the bean was
made, 233 bags, or about 30,000 pounds.
Within fifty years, production had in-
creased to upward of 50,000,000 pounds
annually ; and by the end of the nineteenth
century, to more than 100,000,000 pounds.
Situated between the equator and the
twelfth parallel of north latitude, in the
world's coffee belt, this country has an
area equal to that of all the United States
east of the Mississippi river and north of
the Ohio and Potomac rivers, or greater
than that of France, Germany, and the
Netherlands combined — 599,533 square
miles.
The chain of the Maritime Andes, reach-
ing eastward across Colombia and Vene-
zuela, approaches the Caribbean coast in
the latter country. Along the slopes and
foot-hills of these mountains are produced
some of the finest grades of South American
coffee. Here the best coffee grows in the
tierra templada and in the lower part of the
tierra fria, and is known as the cafe de
tierra fria, or coffee of the cold, or high,
land. In these regions the equable climate,
the constant and adequate moisture, the
rich and well-drained soil, and the protect-
ing forest shade afford the conditions under
which the plant grows and thrives best. On
the fertile lowland valleys nearer the coast
grows the cafe de tierra caliente, or coffee
of the hot land.
Coffee growing has become the main
agricultural pursuit of the country. In
1839 it was estimated that there were 8,900
acres of land planted in coffee, and in 1888
there were 168,000,000 coffee trees in the
country on 346,000 acres of land. In the
opening years of the twentieth century not
far from 250,000 acres were devoted to this
cultivation, comprised in upward of 33,000
The long pipe crossing
On the Altamira Hacienda, Venezuela
the center of the picture is a water sluiceway bringing
coffee down from the hills
COFFEE CULTIVATION
213
\
}■ "
fe-_J^
i\
1 — -^ '^
._*.
- lA
' "^^"9
r
pr --1
"^
^.±..^.. r
, .», .
.':.-* '^*. ^ •'fi^^l '
^^
1
_ '1
!, F^^
HH^
■M
F
1
*1*^
f ^
p|*i
H
▲- . 4
*»- .
■"*
Carmen Hacienda, Fronting on the Escalante Kivek, Venezuela
plantations. The average yield per acre is
about 250 pounds. The trees are usually
planted from two to two and a quarter
meters apart, and this gives about 800 trees
to the acre. The triangle system is un-
knoAvn.
In this country, the coffee tree bears its
first crop when four or five years old. The
trees are not subject to unusual hazards
from the attacks of injurious insects and
animals or from serious parasitic diseases.
Nature is kind to them, and their only seri-
ous contention for existence arises from the
luxuriant tropical vegetation by which they
are surrounded. On the whole their culti-
vation is comparatively easy. On the best
managed estates there are not more than
1,000 trees to a fanegada — about one and
three-quarters acres of land — and it is
calculated that an average annual yield for
such a fanegada should be about twenty
quintals, a little more than 2,032 pounds of
merchantable coffee. It is to be noted,
however, that the average yield per tree
throughout Venezuela is low — not more
than four ounces.
There are no great coffee belts as in
Mexico and Central America. Many dis-
tricts are days' rides apart. The planta-
tions are isolated, and there is lacking a co-
operative spirit among the growers.
Methods of cultivating and preparing the
berry for the market are substantially those
that prevail elsewhere in South America.
Most plantations are handled in ordinary,
old-fashioned ways; but the better estates
employ machinery and methods of the most
advanced and improved character at all
points of their operation, from the planting
of the seed to the final marketing of the
berry.
Java. Java, the oldest coffee-producing
country in which the tree is not indigenous,
was producing a high-grade coffee long
before Brazil, Colombia, and Venezuela
entered the industry; and it held its
supremacy in the world's trade for many
years before the younger American pro-
ducing countries were able to surpass its
annual output. The first attempt to intro-
duce the plant into Java took place in 1696,
the seedlings being brought from Malabar
in India and planted at Kadawoeng, near
Batavia. Earthquake and flood soon de-
stroyed the plants; and in 1699 Henricus
Zwaardecroon brought the second lot of
seedings from Malabar. These became the
progenitors of all the arahica coffees of the
Dutch East Indies. The industry grew,
and in 1711 the first Java coffee was sold at
public auction in Amsterdam. Exports
amounted to 116,587 pounds in 1720; and
in 1724 the Amsterdam market sold 1,396,-
486 pounds of coffee from Java.
From the early part of the nineteenth
century up to 1905, cultivation was carried
on under a Dutch government monopoly —
214
ALL ABOUT COFFEE
PS
'^;:^-
^■^^>*-a*
•/:-^ - :<y^^-
^ ^ ^*-
6 y^^T -^M
^••;f r>^r:-i
u/, ■•^^.-. .4,
:'li. '".^ "''^'
\a ,^4,,' . "X -^'"^ ^
A Heavy Fruiting of Coifea Robusta in Java
excepting for the five years, 1811 - 16,
when the British had control of the island.
The government monopoly was first estab-
lished when Marshal Daendels, acting for
the crown of Holland, took control of the
islands from the Netherlands East India
Company. Before that time, the princes of
Preanger had raised all the coffee under
the provisions of a treaty made in the
middle of the eighteenth century, by which
they paid an annual tribute in coffee to the
company for the privilege of retaining
their land revenues. When the Dutch gov-
ernment recovered the islands from the.
British, the plantations, which had been per-
mitted to go to ruin, were put in order
again, and the government system re-estab-
lished.
A modification of the first monopoly plan
of the government was put into effect later
in the regime of Governor Van den Bosch,
^nd was maintained until into the twentieth
century. Under the Daendels plan, each
native family was required to keep 1000
coffee trees in bearing on village lands, and
to give to the government two-fifths of the
crop, delivered cleaned and sorted, at the
government store. The natives retained the
other three-fifths. Under the Van den
Bosch system, each family was required to
raise and care for 650 trees and to deliver
the crop cleaned and sorted to the govern-
ment stores at a fixed price. The govern-
ment then sold the coffee at public auctions
in Batavia, Padang, Amsterdam, or Rotter-
dam.
This method of fostering the new in-
dustry resulted in government control of
fully four-fifths of the area under the crop,
only the small balance being owned or
worked independently by private enter-
prise. For many years after the cultiva-
tion had been fully started, this condition
of the business persisted. Most of the pri-
vately-operated plantations had been in
existence before the government had set up
its monopoly system. Others were on the
estates of native princes who, in treating
with the Dutch, had been able to retain
some of their original sovereign rights.
While these plans worked well in encourag-
ing the industry at the outset, they were not
conducive to the fullest possibilities in pro-
duction. Forced labor on the government
plantations was naturally apt to be slow,
careless, and indifferent. Private owner-
ship and operation bettered this somewhat,
•^he private estates being able to show an-
nual yields of from one to two pounds per
tree as compared with only a little more
COFFEE CULTIVATION
215
than one-half pound per tree on govern-
ment-controlled estates.
In the course of time, the system of pri-
vate ownership gradually expanded beyond
that of the government; and before the end
of the nineteenth century, private owners
were growing and exporting more coffee
than did the Javanese government. The
government withdrew from the coffee busi-
ness in Java in 1905, and the last govern-
ment auction was held in June of that year.
The monopoly in Sumatra was given up in
1908. After that, however, coffee con-
tinued to be grown on government lands,
but in much less quantity than in the years
immediately preceding. The Dutch govern-
ment withdrew from all coffee cultivation
in 1918 - 19.
According to statistics, the ground under
cultivation for all kinds of coffee in Java
and the other islands of the Dutch East
Indies in 1919 was 142,272 acres, of which
112,138 acres were in Java. Of this area,
110.903 acres were planted with robust a,
15,314 acres with arabica, 4,940 with
liherica, and 11,115 with other varieties.
There were more than 400 European-
managed estates in 1915, covering a planted
area of about 209,000 acres. Three hun-
dred and thirty of these estates, represent-
ing 165,000 acres, were in Java. On that
island production in 1904 was 47,927,000
pounds; in 1905, 59,092,000 pounds; in
1906, 66,953,000 pounds; in 1907, 31,044,-
000 pounds ; 1908, 39,349,000 pounds. The
total crop in 1919 for all the Netherlands
East Indies was 97,361,000 pounds, as
against 140,764,800 pounds for 1918.
Intensive cultivation methods on the
European-operated plantations in Java
have been practised for many years; and
the Netherlands East Indies government
has long maintained experimental stations
for the purpose of improving strains and
cultivation methods.
In some parts of the island, especially in
the highlands, the climate and soil are ideal
for coffee culture. The robusta tree grows
satisfactorily even at altitudes of less than
1,000 feet in some regions ; but its bearing
life is only about ten years, as compared
with the thirty years of the arabica at
altitudes of from 3,000 to 4,000 feet. The
low-ground trees generally produce earlier
and more abundantly. On some of the
highland plantations, pruning is not prac-
tised to any great extent, and the trees
often reach thirty or forty feet in height.
This necessitates the use of ladders in pick-
lloAD TiiuouGU A Coffee Estate in East Java
216
ALL ABOUT COFFEE
Native Picking Coffee, Sumatha
ing; but frequently the yield per tree has
been from six to seven pounds.
Coffee is produced commercially in near-
ly every political district in Java, but the
bulk of the yield is obtained from East
Java, The names best known to European
and American traders are those of the
regencies of Besoeki and Pasoeroean ; be-
cause their coffees make up eighty-seven
percent of Java's production. Some of the
other better known districts are : Preanger,
Cheribon, Kadoe, Samarang, Soerabaya, and
Tegal.
The arabica variety has practically been
driven out of the districts below 3,500 feet
altitude by the leaf disease, and has been
succeeded by the more hardy robust a and
Uherica coffees and their hybrids. Illus-
trating the importance of robusta coffee,
Netherlands East India government in a
statement issued August, 1919, estimated
the area under cultivation on all islands as
follows: robusta, eighty-four percent;
arabica, five and one-half percent; liberica,
four and one-half percent. The balance,
six percent, was made up of scores of other
varieties, among the most important being
the canepliora, Ugandae, baukobensis, sua-
kurensis, Qwillou, stenophylla, and rood-
bessige. All of these are similar to robusta,
and are exported as robiista-achtigen
(robusta-like) . The liberica group includes
the excelsa, abeokuta, Dewevrei, arnoldi-
aiia, aruwimiensis, and Dybowskii.
Sumatra. Practically all the coffee dis-
tricts in Sumatra are on the west coast,
where the plant was first propagated early
in the eighteenth century. Padang, the
capital city, is the headquarters for
Sumatra coffee. With climate and soil
similar to Java, the island of Sumatra has
the added advantage that its land is not
"coffee moe'\ or coffee tired, as is the case
'aS.^'-'-yt
J
h
n
r
^m^Z^
^^
Mi
i^''"*^lBiS8B
- ■'^m^^
§>...^^
^^^^
''^^^M
^^■m
I.:-
1
''- «^ , ^^ ^wIB^^^BHh^"-
t ~"^w!lc_^^M
1^
W^^mf '
* ^
i,.
myi ■
^
- ■
in
mm
***—
—am
.7*„^. .-. .
- I
Palatial Bungalow of Administkator, Db vmaga, in the Preanger District, Java
A L I. ABO U T C O F 1^^ K E
"111 li\iL Sau.iau \i;,-,.skl Lc)A1)I.\(, ;.s f.vuA.s,, ICuau;
i.NTElUOl! OF A DLTCH CoI 1 KKCLLA^sI.NU FACTOUY, TADA-NLi
COFFEE SCENES IN SUMATRA, NETHERLANDS EAST INDIES
COFFEE CULTIVATION
217
Administkatoe's Bungalow on the Gadoeng Batoe Estate, Sumatra
in parts of Java. Some of the world's best
coffees are still coming from Sumatra; and
the island has possibilities that could make
it an important factor in production.
Sumatra produced 287,179 piculs of coffee
in 1920. The total production of all the
islands that year was 807,591 piculs.
The districts of Ankola, Siboga, Ayer
Bangles, Mandheling, Palembang, Padang,
and Benkoelen, on the west coast, have
some of the largest estates on the island;
and their products are well known in inter-
national trade. The east coast has recently
gone in for heavy plantings of rohusta.
As in Java, coifee for a century or more
was cultivated under the government-mo-
nopoly scheme. The compulsory system was
given up in this island in 1908, three years
after it was abandoned in Java.
Other East Indies. Coffee is grown in
several of the other islands in the Dutch
East Indian archipelago, chiefly on the
Celebes, Bali, Lombok, the Moluccas, and
Timor. Most of the estates are under
native control, and the methods of cultiva-
tion are not up to the standard of the
European-owned plantations on the larger
islands of Java and Sumatra. The most
important of these islands is Celebes, where
the first coffee plant was introduced from
Java about 1750, but where cultivation was
not carried on to any great extent until
about seventy-five years later. In 1822 the
production amounted to 10,000 pounds; in
1917, the yield was 1,322,328 pounds.
Salvador. Coffee, which is far and away
the most important crop in Salvador, con-
stitutes in value more than one-half the
total exports. It has been cultivated since
about 1852, when plants were brought from
Havana; but the development of the in-
dustry in its early years was not rapid.
The first large plantations were established
in 1876 in La Paz, and that department has
become the leading coffee-producing section
of the country.
The berry is grown in all districts that
have altitudes of from 1,500 to 4,000 feet.
Besides those of La Paz, the most produc-
tive plantations are in the departments of
Santa Ana, Sonsonate, San Salvador, San
Vincente, San Miguel, Santa Tecla, and
Ahuachapam. In contrast with several of
the adjoining Central American republics,
native Salvadoreans are the owners of most
of the coffee farms, very few having passed
into the hands of foreigners. The laborers
are almost entirely native Indians. A con-
siderable part of the work of cultivating
and preparing the berry for the market is
still done by hand; but in recent years
machinery has been set up on the large
estates and for general use in the receiving
centers.
218
ALL ABOUT COFFEE
Well Cultivated Young Coffee Tkees in Blossom
Entrance to a Finca in the Highlands
COFFEE CULTURE IN GUATEMALA
COFFEE CULTIVATION
219
It is estimated that now about 166,000
acres are under coffee, nearly all the land
in the country suitable for that purpose.
As in most other coffee-raising countries,
the trees begin bearing when they are two
or three years old, reach full maturity at
the age of seven or eight years, and con-
tinue to bear for about thirty years. In-
tensive cultivation and a more extensive
use of fertilizers have been urged as neces-
sary in order to increase the crop ; but, so
far, with not much effect, the importation
of fertilizer being still very small. Crop
gathering begins in the lowlands in No-
vember, and gradually proceeds into the
higher regions, month by month, until the
picking in the highest altitudes is finished
in the following March.
Guatemala. Guatemala began intensive
coffee growing about 1875. Coffee had been
known in the country in a small way from
about 1850, but now serious attention began
to be given to its cultivation, and it quickly
advanced to an industrial position of im-
portance. Within a generation it became
the great staple crop of the country.
Guatemala has an area of 48,250 square
miles, about the size of the state of Ohio.
Its population is about 2,000,000. Three
mountain ranges, intersecting magnificent
table lands, traverse the country from north
to south ; and there is the great coffee terri-
tory. The table lands are from 2,500 to
5,000 feet above sea-level, and have a tem-
perate climate most agreeable to the coffee
tree. On the lower heights it is necessary
to protect the young trees from the extreme
heat of the sun ; and the banana is most
approved for this purpose, since it raises
its own crop at the same time that it is
giving shade to its companion tree. On the
higher levels the plantations need protec-
tion from the cold north winds that blow
strongly across the country, especially in
December, January, and February. The
range of hills to the north is the best
protection, and generally is all sufficient.
When the weather becomes too severe, heaps
of rubbish mixed with pitch are thrown up
to the north of the fields of coffee trees and
set afire, the resultant dense smoke driving
down between rows of trees and saving
them from the frost.
Named in the order of their productivity,
the coffee districts are Costa Cuea, Costa
Grande, Barberena, Tumbador, Coban,
Costa de Cucho, Chicacao, Xolhuitz, Po-
IxDiANs Picking Coffee, Guatemala
chuta, Malacatan, San Marcos, Chuva,
Panan, Turgo, Escuintla, San Vincente,
Pacaya, Antigua, Moran, Amatitlan, Sumat-
an, Palmar, Zunil, and Motagua.
Estimates of coffee acreage vary. One
authority, too conservatively, perhaps, puts
the figure at 145,000. Another estimate is
260,000 acres. Under cultivation are from
70,000,000 to 100,000,000 trees from which
an annual crop averaging about 75,000,000
pounds is raised, and the exceptional
amounts of nearly 90,000,000 and 97,000,000
pounds have been harvested. Several
plantations of size can be counted upon for
an annual production of more than 1,000,-
000 pounds each.
Before the World War German interests
dominated the coffee industry, handling
fully eighty percent of the crop, and grow-
ing nearly half of it.
Planting and cultivation methods in
Guatemala are about the same as those
prevailing in other countries. The trees
are usually in flower in February, March,
and April, and the harvesting season ex-
tends from August to January, All work
on the plantation is done by Indian
laborers under a peonage system, families
working in companies : wages are small, but
sufficient, conditions of living being easy.
As elsewhere in these tropical and sub-
220
ALL ABOUT COFFEE
tropical countries, scarcity of labor is
severely felt, and is a grave obstacle to the
development of the industry in a land that
is regarded as particularly well adapted
to it.
Haiti. Haiti, the magic isle of the Indies,
has grown coffee almost from the beginning
of the introduction of the tree into the
western hemisphere. Its cultivation was
started there about 1715, but the trees were
largely permitted to fall into a wild natural
state, and little attention was given to them
or to the handling of the crop. Fertility of
soil, climate, and moisture are favorable,
and the advancement of the industry has
been retarded only by the political condi-
tions of the negro republic and a general
lack of industry and enterprise on the part
of the people.
Haiti is an island with three names.
Haiti is used to describe the island as a
whole, and to denote the Republic of Haiti,
which occupies the western third of its area.
The island is also known as Santo Domingo,
and San Domingo, names likewise applied
to the Dominican Republic which occupies
the eastern two-thirds of the land unit.
Plantations now existing in Haiti have
had, with rare exceptions, a life of more
than ten or twenty years. It is estimated
that they cover about 125,000 acres, with
about 400 trees to the acre.
When the French acquired the island in
1789, the annual production was 88,360,502
pounds. During the following century that
amount was not approached in any year,
the nearest to it being 72,637,716 pounds
in 1875. The lowest annual production 'was
20,280,589 pounds in 1818. The range dur-
ing the hundred years, 1789 - 1890, was,
with the exceptions noted, from 45,000,000
to 71,000,000 pounds.
Mexico. Opinions differ as to the exact
date when coffee was introduced into
Mexico. It is said to have been trans-
planted there from the West Indies near the
end of the eighteenth century. A story is
current that a Spaniard set out a few trees,
on trial, in southern Mexico, in 1800, and
that his experiments started other Mexican
planters along the same line. Coffee was
grown in the state of Vera Cruz early in
the nineteenth century; and the books of
the Vera Cruz custom house record that
1,101 quintals of coffee were exported
through that port during the years 1802,
1803, and 1805.
In the Coatepec district, which eventually
became famous in the annals of Mexican
coffee growing, trees were planted about the
year 1808. Local history says that seeds
were brought from Cuba by Arias, a part-
ner of the house of Pedro Lopez, owners of
the large hacienda of Orduna in Coatepec.
m
^y i
m '■-'
¥
T^ . -^^
■a
p.
B .|#.5
1 ■ '
:-%
3
WfmWKtlM^^kJSM
The Coffee Plakter's Life in Guatemala Is 0>'e of Pleasantness and Peace
I
COFFEE CULTIVATION
221
THiaTY-YEAK-OLD COFFEE TrEES, La EsPEIiANZA, HUATUSCO, MEXICO
The seeds were given to a priest, Andres
Dominfriiez, who sowed them near Teocelo.
When he had succeeded in starting seed-
lings, he gave them away to other planters
there-about. The plants thrived, and this
was the beginning of coffee cultivation in
that section of the country.
It was, however, nearly ten years later
before the cultivation was on a scale ap-
proaching industrial and commercial im-
portance. About 1816 or 1818 a Spaniard,
named Juan Antonio Gomez, introduced the
plant into the neighborhood of Cordoba,
This city, now on the line of the Mexican
and Vera Cruz Railroad, 200 miles from
Mexico City, and sixty miles from Vera
Cruz, is 2,500 feet above sea-level, and is
situated in the most productive tropical
region of the country.
Having been started in Coatepec and
Cordoba, the industry was centered for a
long time in the state of Vera Cruz. For
many years practically all the coffee
grown commercially in Mexico was pro-
duced in that state. Gradually the new
pursuit spread to the mountains in the
adjacent states of Oaxaca and Puebia,
where it was taken up by the Indians al-
most entirely, and is still followed by them,
but not on a large scale.
Although cultivation is now widely dis-
tributed in most of the more southern
states of the republic, the principal coffee
territory is still in Vera Cruz, where lie
the districts of Cordoba, Orizaba, Huat-
usco, and Coatepec. In the same region
are the Jalapa district, and the mountains
of Puebia, where a great deal of coffee is
grown. Farther south are the Oaxaca
districts on the mountain slopes of the
Pacific coast, and still farther south the
districts of the state of Chiapas. Planting
in the Pluma district in Oaxaca was begun
about fifty years ago, and it now produces
annually, in good years, nearly 1,000,000
pounds. The youngest district in this sec-
tion is Soconusco, one of the most prolific
in the republic, having been developed
within the last thirty years. The region is
near the border of Guatemala, and the
coffee is held by many to possess some of
the quality of the coffee of that country.
The influence of Guatemalan methods has
been felt also in its cultivation and hand-
ling, especially in increasing plantation
productiveness. On the gulf slope of
Oaxaca, there are plantations that annu-
ally produce 222,000 to 550,000 pounds.
Several United States companies have be-
come interested in coffee growing in this
222
ALL ABOUT COFFEE
state, and their output in recent years has
been put upon the market in St. Louis.
Two principal varieties of coffee are
recognized in Mexico. A sub-variety of
Coffea arabica is mostly cultivated. This
is an evergreen, growing only from five
to seven feet. It flourishes well at differ-
ent altitudes and in different climes, from
the temperate plains of Puebla to the hot,
damp, lower lands of Vera Cruz and
Oaxaca, and other Pacific-coast regions.
The range of elevation for it is from 1,500
to 5,000 feet, and it is satisfied with a
temperature as low as 55° or as high as
80°, with plenty of natural humidity or
with irrigation in the dry season. The
other variety is called the "myrtle" and
is widely grown, although not in large
quantities. It is distinguished from
arahica by the larger leaf of the tree and
by the smaller corolla of the flower. It is
a hardier plant than the arahica and will
stand the higher temperature of low alti-
tudes, thriving at an elevation of from 500
to 3,000 feet above sea-level. Mostly it is
cultivated in the Cordoba district.
It is claimed by many that the Mexican
coffee of best quality is grown in the
western regions of the table lands of
Colima and Michoacan, but only a small
quantity of that is available for export.
The ■ state of Michoacan is especially
favored by climate, altitude, soil, and sur-
roundings to produce coffee of exception-
ally high grade, and the Uruapan is con-
sidered to be its best.
Trees flower in January and March, and
in high altitudes as late as June or July.
Berries appear in July and are ripe for
gathering in October or November, the
picking season lasting until February.
Trees begin to yield when two or three
years old, producing from two to four
ounces. They reach full production, which
is about one and a half pounds, at the age
of six or seven years, though in the dis-
tricts of Chiapas, Michoacan, Oaxaca, and
Puebla, annual yields of three to five
pounds per tree have been reported.
Since the World War American buyers
have shown greater interest in the Tapa-
chula coffee grow^n in Chiapas.
Porto Rico. Coffee culture in Porto
Rico dates from 1755 or even earlier, hav-
ing been introduced from the neighboring
islands of Martinique and Haiti. Count
O'Reilly, writing of the island in the
v.
Mexicain Coffee Pickeu, Coatepec Distkict
eighteenth century, mentions that the
coffee exports for five years previous to
1765 amounted in value to $2,078. Old
records show that in 1770 there was a crop
of 700,000 pounds and that seems to be
the first evidence that the new industry
was growing to any noticeable propor-
tions. For a hundred years, at least, only
slow progress was made. In 1768 the king
of Spain issued a royal decree exempting
coffee growers on the island from the pay-
ment of taxes or charges for a period of
five years; but even that measure was not
materially successful in stimulating in-
terest and in developing cultivation.
Porto Rico is a good coffee-growing
country ; soil, climate, and temperature are
well adapted to the berry. The coffee belt
extends through the western half of the
island, beginning in the hills along the
south coast around Ponce, and extending
north through the center of the island
almost to Arecibo, near the west end of the
north coast. But some coffee is grown in
the other parts of the island, in sixty-four
of the sixty-eight municipalities. Mountain
sections are considered to be superior.
The largest plantations are in the region
which includes the municipalities of
Utuado, Adjuntas, Lares, Las Marias,
Yauco, Maricao, San Sebastian, Mayaguez,
Ciales, and Ponce. With the exception of
Ponce and Mayaguez, all these districts are
back from the coast ; but insular roads of
COFFEE CULTIVATION
223
recent construction make them now easily
accessible, and there is no point on the
island more than twenty miles distant
from the sea.
From the Sierra Luquillo range, which
rises to a height of 1,500 feet, and from
Yauco, Utuado, and Lares, come excellent
coffees ; and. on the whole, these are con-
sidered to be the best coffee regions of the
island. A fine grade of. coffee is also grown
in the Ciales district. Figures compiled
by the Treasury Department of the insular
government for the purpose of taxation
showed that for the tax year 1915-16
there were 167,137 acres of land planted
to coffee and valued at $10,341,592, an
average of .$61.87 per acre. In 1910,
there were 151,000 acres planted in coffee.
In 1916 there were more than 5,000 sep-
arate coffee plantations.
Originally the coffee trees of Porto Rico
were all of the arahica variety. In recent
years numerous others have been intro-
duced, until in 1917 there were more than
2,500 trees of new descriptions on the
island.
The virgin land in the interior of the
island is admirably adapted to the coffee
tree, and less labor is required to prepare
it for plantation purposes than in many
other coffee-growing countries. It is
cleared in the usual manner, and the trees
are planted about eight feet apart, an
average of 680 trees to the acre. The seeds
are planted in February; and if the seed-
lings are transplanted, that is done when
they are a year or a year and a half old.
The guama, a big strong tree of dense
foliage, is used for a wind-break on the
ridges; and the guava, for shade in the
plantation. Plow cultivation is generally
impossible on account of the lay of the
land, and only hoeing and spade work are
done. Pruning is carefully attended to as
the trees become full grown.
Flowering is generally in February and
March, or even later. Heavy rains in
April make a poor crop. Harvesting be-
gins in September and extends into Jan-
uary, during which time ten pickings are
made.
The average yield per acre is between
200 and 300 pounds; but expert authority
— Prof. O. F. Cook — in a statement made
to the Committee on Insular Affairs of the
United States House of Representatives, in
1900, held that under better cultural
methods the yield could be increased to
800 or 900 pounds per acre. One estima-
tor has calculated that an average planta-
Keceiving and Measuring the Ripe Bebbies fbom the Pickers, Mexico
224
ALL ABOUT COFFEE
COFFEE CULTIVATION
225
lion of 100 acres had cost its owner at the
end of six or seven years, the bearing age,
,i1)ont $13,100 with yields of 75 pounds per
ii'-re in the third and in the fourth years,
Li to pounds per acre in the fifth year, and
M) pounds in the sixth year, the income
: rom which would practically have met
•lie cost to that time. It is held by the
tue authority that an intensively culti-
tted, well-situated farm of selected trees,
bSO to the acre, should yield some 880
pounds of cleaned coffee to the acre.
Costa Rica. Costa Rica ranks next to
<luatemala and Salvador among the Cen-
tral American countries as a producer of
coffee, showing an average annual yield
ill recent years of 35,000,000 pounds as
nipared with Guatemala's 80,000,000
,iiid Salvador's 75,000,000 pounds. Nica-
i'a2"ua has an average annual production of
::0^000,000 pounds.
Coffee was introduced into Costa Rica
in the latter part of the eighteenth
century; one authority saying that the
plants were brought from Cuba in 1779
by a Spanish voyager, Navarro, and an-
other saying that the first trees were
])lanted several years later by Padre
Carazo, a Spanish missionary coming from
Jamaica. For more than a century six
big coffee trees standing in a courtyard
in the city of Cartago were pointed out to
visitors as the very trees that Carazo had
planted.
The coffee-producing districts are prin-
cipally on the Pacific slope and in the
central plateaus of the interior. Planta-
tions are located in the provinces of Car-
tago, Tres Rios, San Jose, Heredia, and
Alajuela. In the province of Cartago
are several extensive new estates on the
slope to the Atlantic coast. The San Jos4
and the Cartago districts are considered
by many to be the best naturally for the
coffee tree. The soil is an exceedingly rich
black loam made up of continuous layers
of volcanic ashes and dust from three to
fifteen feet deep. Preferable altitudes for
plantations range from 3,000 to 4,500 feet,
although a height of 5,000 feet is not out
of use and there are some estates that do
fairly well on levels as low as 1,500 feet.
India. Tradition has it that a Moslem
pilgrim in the seventeenth century
brought from Mecca to India the first
coffee seeds known in that country. They
were planted near a temple on a hill in
Mysore called Baba Budan, after the pil-
grim ; and from there the cultivation of
coffee gradually spread to neighboring
The Modern Iuea in CutiEK Culiivaxion, Costa Rica
226
ALL ABOUT COFFEE
Picking Costa Kica Coptee
districts. Aside from this legend, nothing
further is heard about coffee in India until
the early part of the nineteenth century,
when its existence there was confirmed by
the granting of a charter to Fort Gloster,
near Calcutta, authorizing that place to
become a coffee plantation.
Planting was begun on the flat land of
the plains, but the trees did not thrive.
Then the cultivation was extended to the
hills in southern India, especially in
Mysore, where better success was achieved.
The first systematic plantation was estab-
lished in 1840. For the most part, the
production has always been confined to
southern India in the elevated region near
the southwestern coast. The coffee district
comprises the landward slopes of the
"Western Ghats, from Kanara to Travan-
core.
About one-half of the coffee-producing
area is in Mysore; and other plantations
are in Kurg (Coorg), the Madras districts
of Malabar, and in the Nilgiri hills, those
regions having 86 percent of the whole
area under cultivation. Some coffee is
grown also in other districts in Madras,
principally in Madura, Salem, and Coim-
bator, in Cochin, in Travancore, and, on a
restricted scale, in Burma, Assam, and
Bombay. The area returned as under
coffee in 1885 was 237,448 acres; in 1896,
as 303,944 acres. Since then there has
been a progressive decrease on account of
damage from leaf diseases difficult to
combat, and by competition with Brazilian
coffee.
Coffee Estate in the Mountains of Costa Rica
COFFEE CULTIVATION
227
Bikd's-Eye View of a Coffee Estate in Mysore, India
New land that had just been planted
with icoffee in plantations reported for
1919 - 20 amounted to 7,012 acres ; while
the area abandoned was 8,725 acres, rep-
resenting a net decrease in cultivated area
of 1,713 acres.
Of the total area devoted to coffee cul-
tivation (126,919 acres), 49 percent was
in Mysore, which yielded 35 percent of
the total production ; ^vhile Madras, with
23 percent of the total area, yielded 38
percent of the production. The total pro-
duction for the year 1920 - 21 is reported as
26.902,471 pounds.
Yield varies throughout the country ac-
cording to the methods of cultivation and
the condition of the season. On the best
estates in a good season, the yield per
acre may be as high as 1,100 or 1,200
pounds, and on poor estates it may not be
over 200 or 300 pounds. The arabica
variety is chiefly cultivated. The rohusta
and Maragogipe have been tried, but with-
out much success.
A representative plantation is the San-
taverre in Mysore, comprising 400 acres,
at an elevation of from 4,000 to 4,500
feet, where the coffee trees, cultivated un-
der shade, produce from 100 to 250 tons
of coffee a year. Other prominent es-
tates in Mysore are Cannon's Baloor and
Mylemoney, the Hoskahn, and the Sum-
pigay Khan.
Nicaragua. Coffee trees will grow well
anywhere in Nicaragua, but the best loca-
tions have altitudes of from 2,000 to 3,000
feet above sea level. At such elevations
the yield varies from one pound to five
pounds per tree annually; but above or
below those, the average production dimin-
ishes to from one pound to one-half pound
a tree.
Lands most suitable for the berry are
on the Sierra de Managua, in Diriambe,
San Marcos, and Jinotega, and about the
base of the volcano Monbaeho near Gra-
nada. Good land is also found on the is-
land Omotepe in Lake Nicaragua, and
around Boaco in the department of Chon-
tales, where cultivation was begun in
1893.
There are also plantations in the vicin-
ity of Esteli and Lomati in the depart-
ment of Neuva Segovia. The most exten-
sive operations are in the departments of
Managua, Carazo, Matagalpa, Chontales,
and Jinotega, and from those regions the
annual crop has attained to such quantity
that it has become the chief agricultural
product of th& republic. Poor and costly
means of transportation on the Atlantic
slope have operated to retard the develop-
228
ALL ABOUT COFFEE
^jCM*Jb^& ^^^0^ffK^M^ftl^^^^^^^lHH^^EEHfli^^HH^^'! "^^b VHI
I
;7
Mmm
1
<
if -5'.
, ■ J "^^mm^-
»
Coffee Growing Undek Shade, Ubban Estate, India
ment of the industry there, even though
conditions of climate are not unfavorable.
Abyssinia. In the absence of any con-
clusive evidence to the contrary, the claim
that coffee was first made known to mod-
ern man by the trees on the mountains of
the northeastern part of the continent of
Africa may be accepted without reserve.
Undoubtedl.y the plant grew wild all
through tropical Africa: but its value as
an addition to man's dietary was brought
forth in Abyssinia.
Abyssinia,, while it may have given
coffee to the world, no longer figures as a
prime factor in supplying the world, and
now exports only a limited quantity.
There are produced in the country two
coffees known to the trade as Harari and
Abyssinian, the former being by far the
more important. The Harari is the fruit
of cultivated arahica trees grown in the
province of Harar, and mostly in the
neighborhood of the city of Harar, capital
of the province. The Abyssianian is the
fruit of wild arahica trees that grow
mainly in the provinces of Sidamo, Kaffa,
and Guma.
The coffee of Harar is known to the
trade as Mocha longberry or Abyssinian
longberry. Most of the plantations upon
which it is raised are owned by the na-
tive Hararis, Galla, and Abyssinians, al-
though there are a few Greek, German,
and French planters. The trees are
planted in rows about twelve or fifteen
feet apart, and comparatively little at-
tention is given to cultivation. Crops av-
erage two a year, and sometimes even five
in two years. The big yield is in Decem-
ber, January, and February. The aver-
age crop is about seventy pounds, and is
mostly from small plots of from fifty to
one hundred trees, there being no very
large plantations. All the coffee is
brought into the city of Harar, whence it
is sent on mule-back to Dire-Daoua on the
Franco-Ethiopian Railway, and from
there by rail to Jibuti. Some of it is ex-
ported directly from Jibuti, and the rest
is forwarded to Aden, in Arabia, for re-
exporting.
Abyssinian, or wild, coffee is also known
as Kaft'a coffee, from one of the districts
where it grows most abundantly in a state
of nature. This coffee has a smaller bean
and is less rich in aroma and flavor than
the Harari; but the trees grow in such
profusion that the possible supply, at the
minimum of labor in gathering, is prac-
tically unlimited. It is said that in south-
COFFEE CULTIVATION
229
western Alwssinia there are immense for-
ests of it that have never been encroached
upon except at the outskirts, where the
natives lazily pick up the beans that have
fallen to the ground. It is shelled where
it is found, in the most primitive fashion,
and goes out in a dirty, mixed condition.
Formerly, much of this Kaffa cotfee
was sent to market through Boromeda,
Ilarar, and Dire-Daoua. An average an-
nual crop was about 6,000 bags, or 800,000
pounds, of which something more than
one-half usually went through Harar. A
customs and trading station has lately
been established at Gambela, on the Sobat
Biver: and with the development of this
outlet, there has been a substantial and
increasing exploitation of the wild-coffee
plants since 1913. Large areas of land
have been cleared, with a view to cultiva-
tion, and attention is being given to im-
proved methods of harvesting and of pre-
paring the coffee for the market. At one
time a fair amount of coffee from this re-
gion went to Adis Abeba on the backs of
pack mules, a journey of thirty-five or
forty days, and then was carried to Jibuti,
nearly 500 miles, part of the way by rail.
Now practically all of it goes to Gambela,
thence by steamers to Khartum, and by
rail to the shipping-point at Port Sudan
on the Red Sea.
Other African Countries.. Practi-
cally every part of Africa seems to be
suitable for coffee cultivation, even
United South Africa, in the southern part
of the continent, producing 140,212
pounds in 1918. To name all the coun-
tries in which it is grown would be to
list nearly all the political divisions of
Africa. Among the largest producers are
the British East African Protectorate. 18,-
735,572 pounds in 1918; French Somali-
land, 11,222,736 pounds in 1917; Angola,
10,655,934 pounds in 1913; Uganda,
9,999, 84o pounds in 1918 ; former German
East Africa, 2,334,450 pounds in 1913;
Cape Verde Islands, 1,442,910 pounds in
1916; Madagascar, 707,676 pounds in
1918; Liberia, 761,300 pounds in 1917;
Eritrea, 728,840 pounds in 1918; St.
Thomas and Prince's Islands, 484,350
pounds in 1916; and the Belgian Congo,
375,000 pounds in 1917.
Angola. Coffee is Angola's second
product, and there are large areas of wild-
coffee trees. With a production of nearly
11,000,000 pounds, Angola ranks about
third in Africa as a coffee-growing coun-
try. The coffee is gathered and sold by
j^ssim^
;■ -:^-v*;>:/. *
I'
(»i
A Galla Coffee Gkower. and His Helper, in His Grove of Young Trees near Harab
230
ALL ABOUT COFFEE
the natives, and there are also several Eu-
ropean companies engaged in the coffee
business. The chief coffee belt extends
from the Quanza River northward to the
Kongo at an altitude of 1,500 to 2,500
feet. In the Cazengo valley the wild
trees are so thick that thinning out is the
only operation necessary to the planta-
tion-owner. When the trees become too
tall, they are simply cut off about two feet
above ground; and new shoots appear
from the trunks the following season.
The largest coffee plantation, owned by
the Companhia Agricola de Cazengo, pro-
duced in 1913, a record year, nearly 1,500
tons.
Liberia. Coffee is native to Liberia,
growing wild in the hinterland of the
negro republic, and in the natural state
the trees often attain a height of from
thirty to forty feet. Cultivated Liberian
coffee, Coffea liherica, has become a staple
of the civilized inhabitants of the country,
and is grown successfully in hot, moist
lowlands or on hills that are not much ele-
vated. On account of the size of the trees,
only about four hundred can be planted
to the acre. In recent years the native
Africans have been planting thousands of
trees in the district of Grand Cape Mount.
Coffee is grown in all parts of the repub-
lic, but chiefly in Grand Cape Mount and
Montserrado.
General Outlook in Africa. In the
African countries under control of Euro-
pean governments much recent progress
has been made in promoting coffee grow-
ing and in improving methods of cultiva-
tion.
British interests were reported in 1919
as having started a movement toward
reviving interest in the coffee growing
industry in the British possessions in
Africa. The report stated that Uganda,
in the East African Protectorate, had 21,-
000 acres under coffee cultivation, with
16,000 acres more in other -parts of the
Protectorate, and 1,300 acres in Nyasa-
land; also that there is no hope of an
immediate revival of the industry in Natal,
where it was killed twenty years ago by
various pests ; ' ' but it should certainly be
established in the warmer parts of Rhode-
sia ; and in the northern part of the Trans-
vaal an effort is being made to bring this
form of enterprise into practical ex-
istence."
Coffee growing possibilities in British
East Africa (Kenya Colony) are alluring,
according to reports from planters in that
region. Late in 1920, Major C. J. Ross,
a British government officer there, said
that "British East Africa is going to be
one of the leading coffee countries of the
world." Coffee grows wild in many parts
of the Protectorate, but the natives are
too lazy to pick even the wild berries.
On the more advanced plantations in all
parts of Africa the approved cultivation
methods of other leading countries are
carefully followed ; especial care being
given to weeding and pruning, because of
the rank growth of the tropics. On the
whole, however, little attention is given
to intensive methods.
Arabia. Whether the coffee tree was
first discovered indigenous in the moun-
tains of Abyssinia, or in the Yemen dis-
trict of Arabia, will probably always be
a matter of contention. Many writers
of Europe and Asia in the fifteenth cen-
tury, when coffee was first brought to the
attention of the people of Europe, agree
on Arabia; but there is good reason to be-
lieve the plant was brought to Arabia
from Abyssinia in the sixth century.
Once all the coffee of Arabia went to
the outside world through the port of
Mocha on the eastern coast of the Red
Sea. Mocha, which never raised any
coffee, is no longer of commercial impor-
tance; but its name has been permanently
attached to the coffee of this country.
Mocha {Moka, or Morkha) coffee (i. e.
Coffea arabica) is raised principally in
the vilayet of Yemen, a district of south-
eastern Arabia. Yemen extends from
the north, southerly along the line of the
Red Sea, nearly to the Gulf of Aden.
With the exception of a narrow strip of
land along the shores of the Red Sea, the
Strait of Bab-el-Man deb, and the Gulf of
Aden, it is a rugged, mountainous region,
in which innumerable small valleys at
high elevations are irrigated by waters
from the melting snows of the mountains.
Coffee can be successfully grown in any
part of Yemen, but its cultivation is con-
fined to a few widely scattered districts,
and the acreage is not large. The prin-
cipal coffee regions are in the mountains
between Taiz and Ibb, and between Ibb
and Yerim, and Yerim and Sanaa, on the
caravan route from Taiz to Sanaa; be-
COFFEE CULTIVATION
231
Wild Kaffa Coffee Trees Near Adis Abeba
tween Zabeed and Ibb, on the route from
Taiz to Zabeed; between Hajelah and
Menakha, on the route from Hodeida to
Sanaa, and in the wild mountain ranges
both to the north and south of that route ;
between Beit-el-Fakih and Obal; and be-
tween ]\Ianakha and Batham to the north
of Bajil. The plant does best at eleva-
tions ranging from 3,500 to 6,500 feet.
In the Yemen district, cotfee is gener-
ally grown in small gardens. Large plan-
tations, as they exist in other coffee-grow-
ing countries, are not seen in Arabia.
Many of these small farms may be parts
of a large estate belonging to some rich
tribal chief. The native Arabs do not use
coffee in the way it is used elsewhere in
the world. They drink kisher, a beverage
brewed from the husks of the berry and
not from the bean. Consequently, the en-
the crop goes into export. But bad con-
ditions of trade routes, political disturb-
ances, and small regional wars, absence of
good cultivation methods, and heavy tran-
sit taxes imposed by the government, have
combined to restrict the production of
Yemen coffee.
Land for the coffee gardens is selected
on hill-slopes, and is terraced with soil and
small walls of stone until it reaches up
like an amphitheater — often to a consider-
able height. The soil is well fertilized.
For sowing, the seeds are thoroughly dried
in ashes, and after being placed in the
ground, are carefully watched, watered,
and shaded. In about a year the shrub
has grown to a height of twelve or more
inches. Seedlings in that condition are
set out in the gardens in rows, about ten
to thirteen feet apart. The young trees
receive moisture from neighboring wells
or from irrigation ditches, and are shaded
by bananas.
At maturity the trees reach a height of
ten or fifteen feet. Since they never lose
all their leaves at one time, they appear
always green, and bear at the same time
flowers and fruits, some of which are still
green while others are ripe or approaching
maturity. Thus, in some districts, the
the trees are considered to have two or
even three crops a year. All the trees be-
gin to bear about the end of the third
year.
Cuba. Coffee can be grown in prac-
tically every island of the West Indies,
but owing to the state of civilization in
many of the lesser islands, little is pro-
duced for international trade, excepting
232
ALL ABOUT COFFEE
COFFEE CULTIVATION
233
in Jamaica, Guadeloupe, Haiti, the Do-
minican Republic, Trinidad, and Tobago.
In past years a considerable quantity of
good-quality coffee was produced in Cuba,
the annua] export in the decade of 1840
averaging 50,000,000 pounds. Severe hur-
ricanes, adverse legislation, the rise of
coffee-growing in Brazil, the increase in
cultivation of sugar and other more profit-
able crops, practically eliminated Cuba
from the international coffee-export trade.
Martinique. This is a name well
known to coffee men, the world over, as
the pioneer coffee-growing country of the
western hemisphere. Gabriel de Clieu in-
troduced the coffee plant to the island in
1723 by bringing it through many hard-
ships from France. For a time, coffee
flourished there, but now practically none
is grown. Such coffee as bears the name
Martinique in modern trade centers is pro-
duced in Guadeloupe, and is only shipped
through Martinique.
Jamaica. Coffee was introduced into
Jamaica in 1730 ; and so highly was it re-
garded as a desirable addition to the agri-
cultural resources of the island, that the
British Parliament in 1732 passed a spe-
cial act providing for the encouraging and
fostering of its cultivation. Later, it be-
came one of the great staples of the coun-
try. Disastrous floods in 1815, and the
gradual exhaustion of the best lands since
then, have brought about a decline of the
industry, which is now confined to a few
estates in the Blue Mountains and to scat-
tered "settler" or peasant cultivation in
the same districts but at lower altitudes.
The tree was formerly grown at all al-
titudes, from sea-level to 5,000 feet; but
the best height for it is about 4,500 feet.
Four parishes lead in coffee producing:
Manchester, with an area of 5,045 acres;
St. Thomas, with 2,315 acres; Clarendon,
with 2,172 acres ; St. Andrew, with 1,584
acres. Nine other parishes that raise
coffee have less than 1,000 acres each un-
der cultivation. There were 24,865 acres
devoted to coffee in 1900. In addition, it
was estimated that there were 80,000 acres
suitable for the cultivation, nearly all be-
ing owned by the government.
Dominican Republic. Coffee was once
the leading staple in the Dominican Re-
public as in the adjoining Haitian Repub-
lic; but in recent years cacao, sugar, and
tobacco have become the predominating
crops. Said to have the world's richest
and most productive soil, one-half of the
republic's area is particularly suited to
the cultivation of a good grade of coffee
of the highland type. But political and
industrial conditions have made for neg-
lect of its cultivation by efficient methods.
Lack of suitable roads has also militated
against the development of the coffee in-
dustry.
In spite of many drawbacks, it is to be
noted that, from the beginning of the
twentieth century, the coffee-growing area
has been gradually expanded until ex-
ports increased from less than 1,000,000
pounds to 5,029,316 pounds in 1918, al-
though in the next two years there was
a recession in the total exports to 1,358,-
825 pounds in 1920.
The principal plantations are in the
vicinity of the town of Moca and in the
■A.
'^VI^I^B '
'\
Cop/i'iShtoiH
HC.wSiteCo-
1
Picking Blue Mountain Berries, Jamaica
districts of Santiago, Bani, and Barahona.
Generally speaking, the methods of cul-
tivation in the Dominican Republic are
somewhat crude • as compared with the
practise in the larger countries of produc-
tion in Central America and South
America.
Guadeloupe, Guadeloupe has an area
of 619 square miles, and about one-third
of this area is under cultivation. About
15,000 acres are in coffee, giving employ-
ment to upward of 10.000 persons. The
average yield of a plantation of mature
trees is about 535 pounds to the acre.
234
ALL ABOUT COFFEE
In the early years of the industry in
Guadeloupe, production and export were
considerable. From old records it ap-
pears that in 1784 the exports amounted
to 7,500,000 pounds. During the closing
years of the eighteenth century the annual
exports were from 6,500,000 to 8,500,000
pounds, and in the beginning of the next
century they registered about 6,000,000
pounds. Toward the middle of the nine-
teenth century the growing of sugar cane
overtopped that of coffee in profit, and
many planters abandoned coffee. After
1884, with the decadence of the sugar in-
dustry, coffee was again favored, the gov-
ernment giving substantial encouragement
by paying bounties ranging from $15 to
$19 per acre for all new coffee plantations.
In recent years, considerable lib erica
and rohnsta have been planted in place of
the exhausted arahica.
Trinidad and Tobago. The islands of
Trinidad and Tobago are small factors in
international coffee trading. Coffee can
be grown almost any place on the islands;
but -its cultivation is confined principally
to' the districts of Maracas, Aripo, and
North Oropouche. Both the arahica and
the liberica varieties are grown.
Honduras. Soil, surface, and climate
in Honduras, as far as they relate to the
cultivation of coffee, are similar to those
of the adjoining regions of Central Amer-
ica. The tree grows in the uplands of the
interior, thriving best at an altitude of
from 1,500 to 4,000 feet. Scarcity of la-
bor and insufficient means of transporta-
tion have been the chief obstacles in the
way of the large development of the in-
dustry.
The departments of Santa Barbara,
Copan, Cortez, La Paz, Choluteca, and El
ParaisO have the principal plantations.
The ports of shipment are Truxillo and
Puerto Cortes. Annual production in re-
cent years has been about 5,000,000
pounds. In 1889 the United States im-
ported 3,322,502 pounds, but in 1915 its
importations fell away to 665,912 pounds.
British Honduras, British Honduras
has never undertaken to raise coffee on a
commercial scale despite the fact that
conditions are not unfavorable to its cul-
tivation. It has failed to produce enough
even for domestic consumption, importing
CoFFKE Pickers Returning from the Fields, Guadeloupe
COFFEE CULTIVATION
235
Three- Year-Old Coffee Trees in Blossom, Panama
most of what it has needed. Annual pro-
duction, as recorded in recent years, has
been upward of 10,000 pounds.
Panama. Panama presents a very fa-
vorable field for the growing of coffee.
The l)est district is situated in the uplands
of the district of Bugaba, where vast areas
of the best lands for coffee-growing exist,
and where climatic and other conditions
are most favorable to its growth.
No shade is required in this country ;
and the only cultivation consists of tliree
or four cleanings a year to keep down the
weeds, as no plowing, etc., are necessary.
Coffee matures from October to January.
Water power being abundant, it is used
for running all machinery.
The annual output of the province of
Chiriqui, which produces the bulk of the
coffee, is approximately 4.000 sacks of 100
pounds each; all of which is produced in
the Boquete district at present, as the
coffee planted in the Bugaba section is
still young and unproductive. The local
supply does not meet the domestic de-
mand; and instead of exporting, a -great
deal is imported from adjoining countries,
although there is a protective tariff of six
dollars per hundred pounds.
The Guianas. Coffee has had a precari-
ous existence in the Guianas. Plants are
said to have been brought by Dutch voy-
agers from Amsterdam in 1718 or 1720.
They flourished in the new habitat to
which they were introduced, and in 1725
were carried from- Dutch Guiana into the
district of Berbice in British Guiana and
into French Guiana. There the berry was
a considerable success for a time : Berbice
coffee especially acquiring a good reputa-
tion ; and when Demerara was settled,
coffee became a staple of that region.
236
ALL ABOUT COFFEE
Shortage of native labor, and the difficulty
of procuring cheap and capable workers
from outside the country, ultimately com-
pelled the practical abandonment of the
crop in all three sections, Dutch, French,
and British, In British Guiana it is now
grown mainly for domestic consumption,
and the same is true of French Guiana,
which also imports.
From the time of its introduction, about
1718, until about 1880, the only coffee
grown in Surinam, or Dutch Guiana, was
the Coffea arahica. It was not a boun-
tiful producer, and with labor scarce and
unreliable, its cultivation was expensive.
Therefore experiment was made with the
liherica plant. This proved to be very
satisfactory, growing luxuriantly, produc-
ing abundantly, and requiring minimum
labor in- care. In 1918 some 16,000,000
pounds were produced.
Ecuador. Though not of great com-
mercial importance, coffee in Ecuador
grows on both the mainland and on the
adjacent islands. The area planted to
coffee is estimated at 32,000 acres having
an aggregate of about 8,000,000 trees.
The trees blossom in December, and the
picking season is through April, May and
June. Coffee ranks third in value among
the exports of the country.
Peru. Although possessed of natural
coffee land and climate, little has been
done to develop the industry in Peru. A
finely flavored coffee grows at an altitude
of 7,000 feet, while that grown in the low-
lands along the Pacific coast is not so de-
sirable. Such small quantities as are
grown are cultivated in the mountain dis-
tricts of Choquisongo, Cajamarca, Perene,
Paucartambo, Chaucghamayo, and Huan-
ace. The Pacific-coast district of Paces-
mayo also grows a not unimportant crop.
Bolivia. Comparatively little attention
is given to coffee cultivation in Bolivia.
Agricultural methods are crude, and are
limited to cutting down weeds and under-
growth twice a year. The coffee is
planted in small patches, or as hedges
along the roads or around the fields of
other crops. The first crop is picked at
the end of one and a half or two years.
The trees bear for fifteen to twenty years.
The average yield is from three to eight
pounds per tree. The best grades of
coffee are grown at 2,000 to 6,000 feet
above sea level.
Coffee is cultivated in the departments
of La Paz, Cochabamba, Santa Cruz, El
Beni, and Chuquisca. In the department
of Santa Cruz there are plantations in
the provinces of Sara, Velasco, Chiquitos
and Cordillera. In the Yungas and the
Apolobamba districts of La Paz, its cul-
tivation reaches the greatest importance,
but even there is not of large proportions.
Chile, Paraguay, and Argentina.
Coffee is of minor, almost insignificant,
importance in the agriculture of Chile,
Paraguay, and Argentina. In Uruguay
the climate is altogether unsuitable for it.
Argentina and Paraguay each have
small growing districts. In the first
named, only the provinces of Salta and
Jujuy have, at the latest reports, a little
more than 3,000 acres under cultivation.
In Paraguay some householders have
grown coffee iji their yards solely for their
own use. In the Paraguayan district of
Altos, north of Asuncion, a small group
of plantations was started before the out-
break of the World War, and produced
about 300,000 pounds of coffee in a year.
Ceylon. Coffee planting in Ceylon
was an important industry for a century,
until the so-called Ceylon leaf disease at-
tacked the plantations in 1869, and a few
years later had practically destroyed all
the trees of the country. Although coffee
raising has continued since then, there has
been, especially since the beginning of the
twentieth century, a steady decline in
acreage. There were 4,875 acres under
cultivation in 1903, 2,433 acres in 1907,
1.389 in 1912, and 941.5 in 1919. Only
2,200 pounds were produced in 1917.
However, the climate and soil of Ceylon
seem adapted to coffee culture, and the
experimental stations at Peradeniya and
Anuradhapura have been experimenting
in recent years with rohusta, canepJiora,
TJgandae, and a rohusta hybrid for the
purpose of reviving the industry in the
country,
Ceylon is one of the oldest coffee-grow-
ing countries, the Arabs having experi-
mented with it there, according to legend,
long before the Portuguese seized the is-
land in 1505, The Dutch, who gained
control in 1658, continued the cultivation,
and in 1690 introduced more systematic
methods. They sent a few pounds in 1721
to Amsterdam, where the coffee brought a
higher price than Java or Mocha. How-
COFFEE CULTIVATION
237
RoBusTA Coffee Growing on the Suzannah Estate, Cociiin-China
ever, it was not until after the British
occupied the island in 1796, that coffee
growing was carried on extensively. The
first British-owned upland plantation was
started in 1825 by Sir Edward Barnes;
and for more than fifty years thereafter
coffee was one of the island's leading
products. An orgy of speculation in
coffee growing in Ceylon, in which
£5,000,000 sterling are said to have been
invested, culminated in 1845 in the burst-
ing of the coffee bubble, and hundreds
were ruined. The peak of the export
trade was reached in 1873, when 111,495,-
216 pounds of coffee were sent out of the
country. Even then, the plantations were
suffering severely from the leaf disease,
which had appeared in 1869 ; and by 1887,
the coffee tree had practically disappeared
from Ceylon. Ceylon's day in coffee was
a cycle of fifty-odd years.
French Indo-China. Coffee culture in
French Indo-China is a comparatively
small factor in international trade, al-
though production is on the increase, par-
ticularly from those plantations planted
to robiista, liherica, and excelsa varieties.
The average annual export for the five-
year period ended with 1918 was 516.978
pounds, nearly all of it going to France.
The first experiments with coffee grow-
ing were begun in 1887, near Hanoi in
Tonkin. The seeds were of the arabica
variety, brought from Reunion, and the
production from the first years was dis-
tributed throughout the country to foster
the industry. Eventually arahica was
found unsuitable to the soil and climate,
and experiments were begun with robusta
and other hardier types.
A survey of the industry of the coun-
try in 1916 showed that the plant was be-
ing successfully grown in the provinces
of Tonkin, Anam, and Cochin-China, and
that altogether there were about 1,000,000
trees in bearing. The plantations are
mostly in the foot-hills of the mountain
ranges or on the slopes, although a few
are located near the coast line at 1,000
feet, or even less, above sea-level.
The larger and more successful planta-
tions follow advanced methods of planting
and cultivating, while the government
maintains experimental stations for the
purpose of fostering the industry. It is
believed that French Indo-China in com-
ing years will assume an important po-
sition in the coffee trade of the world,
particularly as a source of supply for
France.
238
ALL ABOUT COFFEE
Federated Malay States, Including
Strait's Settlements. Rubber has been
the chief cause of the decline of coffee
industry in the Federated Malay States.
Since the closing years of the nineteenth
century coffee has been steadily on the
downward path in acreage and produc-
tion, with the possible exception of parts
of Straits Settlements, which in 1918 ex-
ported, mostly to England, some 3,500,000
pounds of good grade coffee. The other
sections of the federation shipped less
than 1,000,000 pounds.
In the early days, planters of the Malay
Peninsula knew little about proper meth-
ods of cultivating, and depended mostly
upon what they learned of the practises
in Ceylon, which, unfortunately for them,
were not at all suited to the Malay
country. They secured their best crops
from lowlands where peaty soil prevailed,
and eventually all the coffee grown on the
peninsula came from such regions.
Liberica is mostly favored, and is
grown with some success as an inter-crop
with cocoanuts and rubber. The rohusta
variety has also been introduced, but does
not seem to do as well as the liberica. Be-
tween 2,300 and 2,600 acres, according to
recent returns, have been under coffee as
a catch-crop with cocoanuts, out of a total
of 40,000 acres in cocoanut estates. One
planter has been reported as making quite
a success with this method of inter-crop-
ping for coffee, but it is not generally
approved.
There has been a general decline in
acreage, product, and exports since the
closing years of the nineteenth century,
until now the industry is regarded as prac-
tically at a stand-still and likely so to re-
main as long as rubber shall continue to
hold the commercially high position to
which it has attained. Unsatisfactory
prices realized for the crop, poor growth
of the trees in some localities, and the
gradual weakening of the trees under
rubber as they mature, are offered as the
principal explanations of this decrease in
acreage. Nearly all the Malay crop in
recent years has been grown in Selangor,
though Negri Sembilan, Pahang, and
Perak continue as factors in the trade.
Australia. Although Australia is a
prospective coffee-growing country of
large natural possibilities, the Australian
Year Book for 1921 states that Queensland
is the one state in which experiments have
been tried, and that in 1919 - 20 there
were only twenty-four acres under cul-
tivation. Queensland soils are of volcanic
origin, exceptionally rich, and support
Coffee Trees of the Bourbon Variety, French Indo-China
COFFEE CULTIVATION
239
Picking Coffee on a North Queensland Plantation
trees that are vigorous and prolific with
a bean of fine quality. The arabica is
chiefly cultivated, and the trees can be
successfully grown on the plains at sea-
level as well as up to a height of 1,500 or
2,000 feet. The trees mature earlier than
in some other countries. Planted in Jan-
uary, they frequently blossom in Decem-
ber of the next year, or a month later,
and yield a small crop in July or August;
that is, in about two years and a half from
the time of planting. The bean closely re-
sembles the choice Blue Mountain coffee
of Jamaica. For coffee cultivation the
labor cost is almost prohibitive.
As much as fifteen hundredweight of
beans per acre have been gathered from
trees in North Queensland; and for years
the average was ten hundredweight per
acre. After thirty years of cultivation,
no signs of disease have appeared. Af^
late as 1920, the government was propos-
ing to make advances of fourteen cents a
pound upon coffee in the parchment to
encourage the development of the indus-
try to a point where it would be possible
for local coffee growers to capture at least
the bulk of the commonwealth's import
coffee trade of 2,605,240 Rounds.
Coffee grows well in most all the islands
of the Pacific Ocean, and in some of them^
as in the Philippines and Hawaii, the in-
dustry in past years reached considerable
importance.
Hawaii. Coffee has been grown in
Hawaii since 1825, from plants brought
from Brazil. It has also been said that
seed was brought by Vancouver, the Brit-
ish navigator, on his Pacific exploration
voyage, 1791 - 94. Not, however, until
1845 was an official record made of the
crop, which was then 248 pounds. The
first plantations, started on the low levels,
near the sea, did not do well; and it was
not until the trees were planted' at eleva-
tions of from 1,000 to 3,000 feet above
sea-level that better returns were obtained.
Coffee is grown on all the islands of
the group, but nowhere to any great ex-
tent except on Hawaii, which produces
ninety-five percent of the entire crop. Next
in importance, though far behind, is the
island of Oahu. On Hawaii there are
four principal coffee districts, Kona,
Hamakua, Puna, and Olaa. About four-
fifths of the total output of the islands is
produced in Kona. At one time there
were considerable coffee afe^s in Maui
240
ALL ABOUT COFFEE
■v ^%.
V ■ *
V. •
..^^<.^^:^.^•:• ;:
^. ■ "'
'f'
C'j
.::/^V ^ '^'. ^ ,^ '■-
■. .' ■ ,
'■ ;.'■•
■-.-■v,' . .r:. ' * ■ •- -;v'
' .1*> ■
\'"'
■■•.■• ,(• - s' ■ .. •
C- «'~^' '.
'j!
•j ,«'- • • .**''•• . '' ■ '
- ■•
*--"
.
•
-- .*./v. '
-;■. •"' /. ' 'ft.. .," >--. , • ■
, ' >1
s, -
'J
'•T- "''•''
" "i V' ■' '■ C ' -"jtU'- 1 ' 4(f
,f\
— \ ' '*** I'X- -fe"# ■
'' .
■> "^ "' * ■ V. '"^ "' fi)-
}
■'•'■■■Vi,,; •-' .*'>'-
, «
■■■•\?.4 . «.'*
t ^
.^^^-.
•-,«; • v ^
I
COFFEE CULTIVATION
241
and Kauai, but sugar cane eventually
there took the place of coffee.
The Kona coffee district extends for
many miles along- the western slope of the
island of Hawaii and around famous
Kealakekua Bay. The soil is volcanic,
and even rocky; but coffee trees flourish
surprisingly well among the rocks, and
are said to bear a bean of superior
quality.
Coffee trees in Kona are planted prin-
cipally in the open, though sometimes they
are shaded by the native kukui trees.
They are grown from seed in nurseries;
and the seedlings, when one year old, are
transplanted in regular lines nine feet
apart. In two years a small crop is gath-
ered, yielding from five to twelve bags of
cleaned coft'ee per acre. At three years
of age the trees produce from eight to
twenty bags of cleaned coffee per acre,
and from that time they are fully ma-
tured. The ripening season is between
September and January, and there are
two principal pickings. Many of the
trees are classed as wild; that is, they are
not topped, and are cultivated in an ir-
regular manner and are poorly cared for;
but they yield 700 or 800 pounds per acre.
The fruit ripens very uniformly, and is
picked easily and at slight expense.
It is calculated that in the Hawaiian
group more than 250,000 acres of good
coffee land are available and about 200,-
000 acres more of fair quality. Com-
paratively little of this possible acreage
has been put to use. According to the
census of 1889, there were then 6,451 acres
devoted to coffee, having, young, and old,
3,225,743 bearing trees. The yield, in
that census year, was 2,297,000 pounds, of
which 2,112,650 pounds 'were credited to
Hawaii, the small remainder coming from
Maui, Oahu, Kauai, and Molokai.
A blight in 1855 - 56 set back the indus-
try, many plantations being ruined and
then given over to sugar cane. After the
blight had disappeared, the plantations
were re-established, and prosperity cou:
tinued for years. Following the Ameri-
can occupation of the islands in 1898,
came another period of depression. With
the loss of the protective tariff that had
existed, prices fell to an unremunerative
figure; and the more profitable sugar cane
was taken up again. After 1912, the in-
creased demand for coffee, with higher
prices, led again to hopes for the future
Coffee Growing Under Shade, Hamakua, H. I.
of the industry. Planting was encour-
aged; and it has been demonstrated that
from lands w^ell selected and intelligently
cultivated it is possible to have a yield of
from 1,200 to 2,100 pounds per acre.
Improvements have also been made in
pulping and milling facilities. Many of
the plantations are cultivated by Japanese
labor.
Exports of coffee from Hawaii to the
principal countries of the world in 1920
were 2,573,300 pounds.
Philippine Islands. Spanish mission-
aries from Mexico are said to have carried
the coffee plant to the Philippine Islands
in the latter part of the eighteenth cen-
tury. At first it was cultivated in the
province of La Laguna ; but afterward
other provinces, notably Batangas and
Cavite, took it up ; and in a short time the
industry was one of the most important
in the islands. The coffee was of the
arahica variety. In the middle of the
eighteenth century, and after, the indus-
try had a position of importance; several
provinces produced profitable crops that
contributed much to the wealth of the
communities where the berry was culti-
vated. In those days the city of Yipa was
an important trading center. In the
period of its prime Philippine coffee en-
joyed fine repute, especially in Spain,
Great Britain, and China (at Hong
Kong), those three countries being the
largest consumers. At one time — in
242
ALL ABOUT COFFEE
1883 and 1884 — the annual export was
16,000,000 pounds, which demonstrates
the importance of the industry at the peak
of its prosperity. The leaf blight ap-
peared on the island about 1889, causing
destruction from which there has not yet
been complete' recovery. The export of
3,086 pounds in 1917 shows the depths
into which the industry had fallen.
The Bureau of Agriculture at Manila
announced in 1915 that an effort was to
be made to re-habilitate the coffee indus-
try of the islands.. Nothing came of the
effort, which died a-borning. Since then,
several attempts to introduce disease-re-
sisting varieties of coffee from Java have
failed because of lack of interest on the
part of the natives.
Despite the misfortunes that have over-
whelmed it in the past and are now re-
tarding its growth, it is still believed that
the industry in these islands may be re-
habilitated. Conditions of soil and cli-
mate are favorable; land and labor are
cheap, abundant, and dependable: rail-
roads run into the best coffee regions, and
good cart roads are in process of construc-
tion. Some plantations of consequence
are still in existence, and serious consid-
eration is being given to their develop-
ment and to increasing their number,
Guam. Coffee is one of the commonest
wild plants on the little island of Guam.
It grows around the houses like shade
trees or flowering shrubs, and nearly every
family cultivates a small patch. Climate
and soil are favorable to it; and it flour-
ishes, with abundant crops, from the sea-
level to the tops of the highest hills. The
plants are set in straight rows, from three
and a half to seven feet apart, and are
shaded by banana trees or bv cocoanut
The Coffee Tbee Thrives in the Lava Soil of South Kona, Island of Hawaii
COFFEE CULTIVATION
243
Coffee Plantation Near Sagada, Bontoc Province, P. I.
leaves stuck in the ground. There is no
production for export, scarcely enough for
home consumption.
Other Pacific Islands. Other islands
of the Pacific do not loom large in coffee
growing, though New Caledonia gives
promise as a producer, exporting 1,248,-
024 pounds in 1916, most of which was
rohusta. Tahiti produces a fair coffee,
but in no commercial quantity. In the
Samoan group there are plantations, small
in number, in size, and in amount of pro-
duction. Several islands of 'the Fiji
group are said to be well adapted to coffee,
but little is grown there and none for
export.
244
ALL ABOUT COFFEE
Owner's Residence Adjoining Drying Grounds on One of the Large Estates
Drying Grounds, Fazenda Santa Adelaide, Kibeiuao Preto
COFFEE PREPARATION IN SAO PAULO, BRAZIL
Chapter XXI
RE PARING GREEX COFFEE FOR MARKET
Early Arabian methods of preparation- — Hoiv primitive devices were
replaced by modern methods — A chronological story of the develop-
ment of scientific plantation machinery, and the part played by Brit-
ish and American inventors — The marvelous coffee package, one
of the most ingenious in all nature — Hoiv coffee is harvested —
Picking — Preparation by the dry and the ivet methods — Pulping —
Fermentation and washing — Drying — Hulling, or peeling, and pol-
ishing— Sizing, or grading — Preparation methods of different
countries
LA ROQUE', in his description of the
ancient coffee culture, and the prepa-
ration methods as followed in Yemen,
says that the berries were permitted to dry
on the trees. When the outer covering be-
gan to shrivel, the trees were shaken, caus-
ing the fully matured fruits to drop upon
cloths spread to receive them. They were
next exposed to the sun on drying-mats,
after which they were husked by means of
wooden or stone rollers. The beans were
given a further drying in the sun, and then
were submitted to a winnowing process, for
which large fans were used.
Development of Plantation Machinery
The primitive methods of the original
Arab planters were generally followed by
the Dutch pioneers, and later by the
French, with slight modifications. As the
ultivation spread, necessity for more effec-
live methods of handling the ripened fruit
mothered invention's that soon began to
transform the whole aspect of the business.
Probably the first notable advance was in
curing, when the West Indian process, or
wet method, of cleaning the berries w^as
evolved.
About the time that Brazil began the
active cultivation of coffee, William Panter
' La Koque, Jean.
Paris, 1715 (r. 285).
Voyage dc I'Arahie Heureuae,
was granted the first English patent on a
"mill for husking coffee." This was in
1775. James Henckel followed with an
English patent, granted in 1806, on a coffee
drier, "an invention communicated to liim
by a certain foreigner." The first Amer-
ican to enter the lists was Nathan Reed of
Belfast, Me., who in 1822 was granted a
United States patent on a coffee huller.
Roswell Abbey obtained a United States
patent on a huller in 1825 ; and Zenos
Bronson, of Jasper County, Ga., obtained
one on another huller in 1829. In the next
few years many others followed.
John Chester Lyman, in 1834, was grant-
ed an English patent on a coffee huller em-
ploying circular wooden disks, fitted with
wire teeth. Isaac Adams and Thomas Dit-
son of Boston brought out improved hullers
in 1835 ; and James Meacock of Kingston,
Jamaica, patented in England, in 1845, a
self-contained machine for pulping, dress-
ing, and sorting coffee.
William McKinnon began, in 1840, the
manufacture of coffee plantation machinery
at the Spring Garden Iron Works, founded
by him in 1798 in Aberdeen, Scotland. He
died in 1873 ; but the business continues
as Wm. McKinnon & Co., Ltd.
About 1850 John Walker, one of the pio-
neer English inventors of coffee-plantation
245
246
ALL ABOUT COFFEE
Walker's Okiginal Disk Pulper, 1860
Much favored in Ceylon and India
machinery, brought out in Ceylon his
cylinder pulper for Arabian coffee. The
pulping surface was made of copper, and
was pierced with a half-moon punch that
raised the cut edges into half circles.
The next twenty years witnessed some of
the most notable advances in the develop-
ment of machinery for plantation treat-
ment, and served to introduce the inven-
tions of several men whose names will ever
be associated with the industry.
John Gordon & Co. began the manufac-
ture in London of the line of plantation
machinery still known around the world as
"Gordon make" in 1850; and John Gordon
was granted an English patent on his im-
proved coffee pulper in 1859.
Robert Bowman Tennent obtained Eng-
lish (1852) and United States (1853) pat-
ents on a two-cylinder pulper.
George L. Squier began the manufacture
of plantation machinery in Buffalo, N. Y.,
in 1857. He was active in the business until
1893, and died in 1910. The Geo. L. Squier
Manufacturing Co. still continues as one
of the leading American manufacturers of
coffee-plantation machinery.
Marcus Mason, an American mechanical
engineer in San Jose, Costa Rica, invented
(1860) a coffee pulper and cleaner which
became the foundation stone of the exten-
sive plantation-machinery business of Mar-
cus Mason & Co., established in 1873 at
Worcester, Mass.
John Walker was granted (1860) an
English patent on a disk pulper in which
the copper pulping surface was punched,
or knobbed, by a blind punch that raised
rows of oval knobs but did not pierce the
sheet, and so left no sharp edges. During
Ceylon's fifty years of coffee production,
the Walker machines played an important
part in the industry. They are still manu-
factured by Walker, Sons & Co., Ltd., of
Colombo, and are sold to other producing
countries.
Alexius Van Gulpen began the manufac-
ture of a green-coffee-grading machine at
Emmerich, Germany, in 1860,
Following Newell's United States patents
of 1857 - 59, sixteen other patents were is-
sued on various types of coffee-cleaning ma-
chines, some designed for plantation use,
and some for treating the beans on arrival
in the consuming countries.
James Henry Thompson, of Hoboken, and
John Lidgerwood were granted, in 1864, an
English patent on a coffee-hulling machine.
William Van Vleek Lidgerwood, American
charge d'affaires at Rio de Janeiro, was
granted an English patent on a coffee hull-
ing and cleaning machine in 1866. The
name Lidgerwood has long been familiar to
coffee planters. The Lidgerwood Manufac-
turing Co.,, Ltd., has its headquarters in
London, with factory in Glasgow. Branch
offices are maintained at Rio de Janeiro,
Campinas, and in other cities in coffee-
growing countries.
Probably the name most familiar to cof-
fee men in connection with plantation
Eaely English Coffee Peeleb
Largely used in India and Ceylon
GREEN COFFEE PREPARATION
247
Group of English Cylinder Coffee-Pulping Machines
lethods is Guardiola. It first appears in
the chronological record in 1872, when J.
Guardiola, of Chocola, Guatemala, was
granted several United States patents on
machines for pulping and drying coffee.
Since then, "Guardiola" has come to mean
a definite type of rotary drying machine
that — after the original patent expired —
was manufactured by practically all the
leading makers of plantation machinery.
Jose Guardiola obtained additional United
States patents on coffee hullers in 1886.
William Van Vleek Lidgerwood, Morris-
town, N. J., was granted an English patent
on an improved coffee pulper in 1875.
Several important cleaning and grading
machinery patents were granted by the
United States (1876-1878) to Henry B.
Stevens, who assigned them to the Geo. L.
Squier Manufacturing Co., Buffalo, N. Y.
One of them was on a separator, in which
the coffee beans were discharged from the
hopper in a thin stream upon an endless
■carrier, or apron, arranged at such an in-
clination that the. round beans would roll
by force of gravity down the apron, while
the flat beans would be carried to the top.
C. F. Hargreaves, of Eio de Janeiro, was
granted an English patent on machinery
for hulling, polishing, and separating cof-
fee, in 1879.
The first German patent on a coffee dry-
ing apparatus was granted to Henry Scol-
field, of Guatemala, in 1880.
In 1885 Evaristo Conrado Engelberg of
Piracicaba, Sao Paulo, Brazil, invented an
improved coffee huller which, three years
later, was patented in the United States.
The Engelberg Huller Co. of Syracuse,
N. Y., was organized the same year (1888)
to make and to sell Engelberg machines.
Walker Sons & Co., Ltd., began, in 1886,
experimenting in Ceylon with a Liberian
disk pulper that was not fully perfected
until twelve years later.
Another name, that has sinjce become al-
most as well known as Guardiola, appears
in the record in 1891. It is that of
O'Krassa. In that year R. F. E. O'Krassa
of Antigua, Guatemala, was granted an
English patent on a coffee pulper. Addi-
tional patents on washing, hulling, drying,
and separating machines were issued to Mr.
O'Krassa in England and in the United
States in 1900, 1908, 1911, 1912, and 1913.
The Fried. Krupp A. G. Grusonwerk,
Magdeburg-Buckau, Germany, began the
manufacture of coffee plantation machines
about 1892. Among others it builds coffee
pulpers and hulling and polishing machines
of the Anderson (Mexican) and KruU
(Brazilian) types.
248
ALL ABOUT COFFEE
Additional United States patents were
granted in 1895 to Marcus Mason, assignor
to Marcus Mason & Co., New York, on ma-
chines for pulping and polishing' coffee.
Douglas Gordon assigned patents on a cof-
fee pulper and a coffee drier to Marcus
Mason & Co. in 1904 - 05.
The names of Jules Smout, a Swiss, and
Don Roberto O'Krassa, of Guatemala, are
well known to coffee planters the world
over because of their combined peeling and
polishing machines.
The Huntley Manufacturing Co., Silver
Creek, N. Y., began in 1896 the manufac-
ture of the Monitor line of coffee-grading-
and-cleaning machines.
TJie Marvelous Coffee Package
It is doubtful if in all nature there is a
more cunningly devised food package than
the fruit of the coffee tree. It seems as if
Good Mother Nature had said : ' ' This gift
of Heaven is too precious to put up in any
ordinary parcel. I shall design for it a
casket w^orthy of its divine origin. And
the casket shall have an inner seal that
shall safeguard it from enemies, and that
shall preserve its goodness for man until
the day when, transported over the deserts
and across the seas, it shall be broken open
to be transmuted by the fires of friendship,
and made to yield up its aromatic nectar
in the Great Drink of Democracy."
To this end she caused to grow from the
heart of the jasmine-like flower, that first
herald of its coming, a marvelous berry
which, as it ripens, turns first from green
to yellow, then to reddish, to deep crimson,
and at last to a royal purple.
The coffee fruit is very like a cherry,
though somewhat elongated and having in
its upper end a small umbilicus. But mark
with what ingenuity" the package has been
constructed ! The outer wrapping is a thin,
gossamer-like skin which encloses a soft
pulp, sweetish to the taste, but of a mucila-
ginous consistency. This pulp in turn is
wrapped about the inner-seal — called the
parchment, because of its tough texture.
The parchment encloses the magic bean in
iiii]WWII^^i , I ^■i^^
r -^ ^
iirnTjiHiii iM
II ,il'!l'<ii III, I '
,5? 'T^'"'r^>'
^' Wlk
I ii I " I M ' I 'I I I II t
4 . - atii.ii....4 4l.I' '.
M II '" u^MHSr 1 1 I <<^^H ifl
'^^^1 1 ' I'll 1 7^fffiiii'''i I'li^^^^'
■ill-:.!-
■I! 1 1'. J .v^
Specimens of Copper Covers for Pulper Cylinders
For Arabian coffee (Coffea ardbica). 2 — For Liberian coffee {Coffea liberica). 3 — Also for Arabian..
4 — For; Coffea canephora. 5 — For Coffea robusta. 6 — For larger Arabian, and for Coffea Maragoyipe.
ALL ABOUT COFFEE
Dkyim, GituL ._^, I'LLPi^G House, and Fermentation Vats, Boa Vista. Brazil
Pulping House and 1<"^rmentation Tanks, Costa Rica
COFFEE PREPARATION IN CENTRAL AND SOUTH AMERICA
GREEN COFFEE PREPARATION
249
Its last wrapping, a delicate silver-colored
Bkin, not unlike fine spun silk or the sheer-
est of tissue papers. And this last wrap-
Iping is so tenacious, so true to its guardian-
I
Granada Unpulped Coffee Separator
Shown in combination witl] a Guatemala coffee pulper
ship function, that no amount of rough
treatment can dislodge it altogether; for
portions of it cling to the bean even into
the roasting and grinding processes.
Coffee is said to be "in the husk," or "in
the parchment," when the whole fruit is
dried; and it is called "hulled coffee" when
it has been deprived of its hull and peel.
The matter forming the fruit, called the
coffee berry, covers two thin, hard, oval
seed vessels held together, one to the other,
by their fiat sides. These seed vessels, when
broken open, contain the raw coffee beans
of commerce. They are usually of a round-
ish oval shape, convex on the outside, flat
inside, marked longitudinally in the center
of the flat side with a deep incision, and
wrapped in the thin pellicle known as the
silver skin. "When one of the two seeds
aborts, the remaining one acquires a greater
size, and fills the interior of the fruit, which
in that case, of course, has but one cellule.
This abortion is common in the arahica
variety, and produces a bean formerly
called grage coffee, but now more commonly
known as peaberry, or male berry.
The various coverings of the coffee beans
are almost always removed on the planta-
tions in the producing countries. Properly
to prepare the raw beans, it is necessary to
remove the four coverings — the outer skin,
the sticky pulp, the parchment, or husk,
and the closely adhering silver skin.
There are two distinct methods of treat-
ing the coffee fruits, or "cherries." One
process, the one that until recent years
was in general use throughout the world,
and is still in many producing countries,
is known as the dry method. The coffee
prepared in this way is sometimes called
"common," "ordinary," or 'natural," to
distinguish it from the product that has
been cleaned by the wet or washed method.
The wet method, or, as it is sometimes
designated, the "West Indian process"
(W.I.P.) is practised on all the large mod-
ern plantations that have a sufficient supply
of water.
In the wet process, the first step is called
pulping; the second is fermentation and
washing; the third is drying"; the fourth is
hulling or peeling; and the last, sizing or
grading. In the dry process, the first step
is drying ; the second hulling ; and the last,
sizing or grading.
Harvesting
The coffee cherry ripens about six to
seven months after the tree has flowered,
or blossomed; and becomes a deep pur-
plish-crimson color. It is then ready for
picking. The ripening season varies
throughout the world, according to climate
and altitude. In the state of Sao Paulo,
Brazil, the harvesting season lasts from
May to September ; while in Java, where
three crops are produced annually, harvest-
ing is almost a continuous process through-
out the year. In Colombia the harvesting
seasons are March and April, and Novem-
ber and December. In Guatemala the crops
are gathered from October through Decem-
ber ; in Venezuela, from November through
March. In Mexico the coffee is harvested
from November to January; in Haiti the
harvest extends from November to March ;
in Arabia, from September to March;
Hand-Power Double-Disk Pulper
250
ALL ABOUT COFFEE
in Abyssinia, from September through
November, In Uganda, Africa, there are
two main crops, one ripening in March and
the other in September, and picking is car-
ried on during practically every month
except December and January. In India
work. About thirty pounds is considered a
fair day 's work under good conditions. As
the baskets are filled, they are emptied at
a ''station" in that particular unit of the
plantation; or, in some cases, directly into
wagons that keep pace with the pickers.
Tandem Coffee Pulpee of English Make
Being a combination of a Bon-Accord-Valencia pulper with a Bon-Accord repassing machine
the fruit is ready for harvesting from Oc-
tober to January.
Picking
The general practise throughout the
world has been to hand-pick the fruit; al-
though in some countries the cherries are
allowed to become fully ripe on the trees,
and to fall to the ground. The introduc-
tion of the wet method of preparation, in-
deed, has made it largely unnecessary to
hand-pick crops; and the tendency seems
to be away from this practise on the larger
plantations. If the berries are gathered
promptly after dropping, the beans are not
injured, and the cost of harvesting is re-
duced.
The picking season is a busy time on a
large plantation. All hands join in the
work — men, women and children; for it
must be rushed. Over-ripe berries shrink
and dry up. The pickers, with baskets
slung over their shoulders, walk between the
rows, stripping the berries from the trees,
using ladders to reach the topmost
branches, and sometimes even taking imma-
ture fruit in their haste to expedite the
The coffee is freed as much as possible of
sticks, leaves, etc., and is then conveyed to
the preparation grounds.
A space of several acres is needed for the
various preparation processes on the larger
plantations; the plant including concrete-
surfaced drying grounds, large fermenta-
tion tanks, washing vats, mills, warehouses,
stables, and even machine shops. In Mex-
ico this place is known as the heneficio.
Washed and Unwashed Coffee
Where water is plenty, the ripe coffee
cherries are fed by a stream of water into
a pulping machine which breaks the outer
skins, permitting the pulpy matter envelop-
ing the beans to be loosened and carried
away in further washings. It is this wet
separation of the sticky pulp from the
beans, instead of allowing it to dry on them,
to be removed later with the parchment in
the hulling operation, that makes the dis-
tinction between washed and unwashed
coffees. Where water is scarce the coffees
are unwashed.
Either method being well done, does
washing improve the strength and flavor?
GREEN COFFEE PREPARATION
251
i
Opinions differ. The soil, altitude, climatic
influences, and cultivation methods of a
country give its coffee certain distinctive
drinking qualities. Washing immensely im-
proves the appearance of the bean ; it also
reduces curing costs. Generally speaking,
washed coffees will always command a pre-
mium over coffees dried in the pulp.
Whether coffee is washed or not, it has
to be dried ; and there is a kind of fermenta-
ion that goes on during washing and dry-
g, about which coffee planters have differ-
g ideas, just as tea planters differ over
the curing of tea leaves. Careful scientific
study is needed to determine how much, if
any, effect this fermentation has on the ulti-
mate cup value.
Preparation hy the Dry Method
The dry method of preparing the berries
is not only the older method, but is con-
sidered by some operators as providing a
distinct advantage over the wet process,
since berries of different degrees of ripeness
can be handled at the same time. However,
the success of this method is dependent
largely on the continuance of clear warm
weather over quite a length of time, which
can not always be counted on.
In this process the berries are spread in
a thin layer on open drying grounds, or
barbecues, often having cement or brick
surfaces. The berries are turned over sev-
eral times a day in order to permit the
sun and Avind thoroughly to dry all por-
tions. The sun-drying process lasts about
three weeks ; and after the first three days
Costa Rica Vertical Coffee Washer
of this period, the berries must be protected
from dews and rains by covering them with
tarpaulins, or by raking them into heaps
under cover. If the berries are not spread
out, they heat, and the silver skin sticks
to the coffee bean, and frequently discolors
it. When thoroughly dry, the berries are
stored, unless the husks (outer skin and
inner parchment) are to be removed at
once. Hot air, steam, and other artificial
drying methods take the place of natural
sun-drying on some plantations.
In the dry method, the husks are re-
moved either by hand (threshing and
Continuous Working Horizontal Coffee Washer
252
ALL ABOUT COFFEE
COBAN PULPEU IN TaCIIIKA, VENEZUELA
pounding in a mortar, on the smaller plan-
tations) or by specially constructed ma-
chinery, known as hulling machines.
The Wet Method — Pulping
The wet method of preparation is the
more modern form, and is generally prac-
tised on the larger plantations that have a
sufficient supply of water, and enough
money to instal the quite extensive amount
of machinery and equipment required. It
is generally considered that washing results
in a better grade of bean.
In this method the cherries are sometimes
thrown into tanks full of water to soak
about twenty-four hours, so as to soften
the outer skins and underlying pulp to a
condition that will make them easily remov-
able by the pulping machine — the idea
being to rub away the pulp by friction
without crushing the beans.
On the larger plantations, however, the
coffee cherries are dumped into large con-
crete receiving tanks, from which they are
carried the same day by streams of running
water directly into the hoppers of the pulp-
ing machines.
At least two score of different makes of
pulping machines are in use in the various
coffee-growing countries. Pulpers are made
in various sizes, from the small hand-
operated machine to the large type driven
by power; and in two general styles —
cylinder, and disk.
The cylinder pulper, the latest style —
suggesting a huge nutmeg-grater — con-
sists of a rotary cylinder surrounded with
a copper or brass cover punched with bulbs.
These bulbs differ in shape according to
the species, or variety, of coffee to be
treated — arabica, liherica, rohusta, cane-
phora, or what not. The cylinder rotates
against a breast with pulping edges set at
an angle. The pulping is effected by the
rubbing action of the copper cover against
the edges, or ribs, of the breast. The cher-
ries are subjected to a rubbing and rolling
motion, in the course of which the two
parchment-covered beans contained in the
majority of the cherries become loosened.
The pulp itself is carried by the cover and
is discharged through a pulp shoot, while
the pulped coffee is delivered through holes
on the breast. Cylinder machines vary in
capacity from 400 pounds (hand power)
to 4,800 pounds (motive power) per hour.
Some cylinder pulpers are double, being
equipped with rotary screens or oscillating
sieves, that segregate the imperfectly
pulped cherries so that they may be put
through again. Pulpers are also equipped
with attachments that automatically move
the imperfectly pulped material over into
a repassing machine for another rubbing.
Others have attachments partially to crush
the cherries before pulping.
The breasts in cylinder machines are
usually made with removable steel ribs ; but
in Brazil, Nicaragua, and other countries,
where, owing to the short season and scarc-
ity of labor, the planters have to pick,
simultaneously, green, ripe, and over-ripe
(dry) cherries, rubber breasts are used.
The disk pulper (the earliest type, hav-
ing been in use more than seventy years)
is the style most generally used in the
Dutch East Indies and in some parts of
Mexico. The results are the same as those
obtained with the cylindrical pulper. The
Niagara Power Coffee . Huller
GREEX COFFEE PREPARATION
253
McKinnon's Guardiola Coffee Drier
The Squier-Guardiola Coffee Drier, With Direct-Fire HEATEn
BRITISH AND AMERICAN COFFEE DRIERS — GUARDIOLA SYSTEM
There are numerous makes of cofifee driers based upon the original invention of Jos6 Guardiola of
Chocola, Guatemala. In the two illustrated above both direct-fire heat and steam heat
may be utilized
254
ALL ABOUT COFFEE
'
nm^
^^^j^f^y^' ,^ ^^^^BBiiiiiiiiiii" ^^
Another American Guardiola Drier
disk machine is made with one, two, three,
or four vertical iron disks, according to the
capacity desired. The disks are covered on
both sides with a copper plate of the same
shape, and punched with blind punches.
The pulping operation takes place between
the rubbing action of the blind punches, or
bulbs, on the copper plates and the lateral
pulping bars fitted to the side cheeks. As
in the cylinder pulper, the distance between
the surface of the bulbs and the pulping
bar may be adjusted to allow of any clear-
ance that may be required, according to
the variety of coffee to be treated.
Disk pulpers vary in capacity from 1,200
pounds to 14,000 pounds of ripe cherry
coffee per hour. They, too, are made in
combinations employing cylindrical sepa-
rators, shaking sieves, and repassing pulp-
ers, for completing the pulping of all
unpulped or partially pulped cherries.
Fermentation and Washing
The next step in the process consists in
running the pulped cherries into cisterns,
or fermentation tanks, filled with water,
for the purpose of removing such pulp as
was not removed in the pulping machine.
The saccharine matter is loosened by fer-
mentation in from twenty-four to thirty-
two hours. The mass is kept stirred up
for a short time ; and, in general practise,
the water is drawn off from above, the light
pulp floating at the top being removed at
the same time. The same tanks are often
used for washing, but a better practise is
to have separate tanks.
Some planters permit the pulped coffee
to ferment in water. This is called the wet
fermentation process. Others drain off the
water from the tanks and conduct the fer-
menting operation in a semi-dry state,
called the dry fermentation process.
The coffee bean, when introduced into the
fermentation tanks, is enclosed in a parch-
ment shell made slimy by its closely adher-
ing saccharine coat. After fermentation,
which not only loosens the remaining pulp
but also softens the membranous covering,
the beans are given a final washing, either
in washing tanks or by being run through
mechanical washers. The type of washing
machine generally used consists of a cylin-
drical tub having a vertical spindle fitted
with a number of stirrers, or arms, which,
in rotating, stir and lift up the parchment
coffee. In another type, the cylinder is
horizontal ; but the operation is similar.
Drying
The next step in preparation is drying.
The coffee, which is still "in the parch-
ment," but is now known as washed coffee,
is spread out thinly on a drying ground,
as in the dry method. However, if the
weather is unsuitable or can not be de-
pended upon to remain fair for the neces-
sary length of time, there are machines
which can be used to dry the coffee satis-
factorily. On some plantations, the drying
is started in the open and finished by ma-
chine. The machines dry the coffee in
twenty-four hours, while ten days are re-
quired by the sun.
The object of the drying machine is to
dry the parchment of the coffee so that it
The Smout Peeler and Polisher
GREEN COFFEE PREPARATION
255
a.
n
may be removed as readily as the skin on
a peanut; and this object is achieved in the
most approved machines by keeping a hot
current of air stirring through the beans.
One of the best-liked types, the Guardiola,
resembles the cylinder of a coffee-roasting
machine. It is made of perforated steel
plates in cylinder form, and is carried on a
hollow shaft through which the hot air is
circulated by a pressure fan. The beans
are rotated in the revolving cylinder; and
,s the hot air strikes the wet coffee, it
reates a steam that passes out through the
erforations of the cylinder. Within the
cylinder are compartments equipped with
winged plates, or ribs, that keep the coffee
constantly stirred up to facilitate the dry-
ing process. Another favorite is the
O'Krassa. It is constructed on the prin-
ciple just described, but differs in detail of
construction from the Guardiola, and is
able to dry its contents a few hours quicker.
Hot air, steam, and electric heat are all- em-
ployed in the various makes of coffee
driers. A temperature from 65° to 85°
centigrade is maintained during the drying
process.
When thoroughly dry, the parchment
can be crumbled between the fingers, and
the bean within is too hard to be dented by
finger nail or teeth.
Hulling, Peeling, and Polishing
The last step in the preparation process
is called hulling or peeling, both words ac-
curately describing the purpose of the
The Smout Peeler and Polisher, with Cylin-
der Open Showing Cone
operation. Some husking machines for
hulling or peeling parchment coffee are
polishers as well. This work may be done
on the plantation or at the port of shipment
just before the coffee is shipped abroad.
Sometimes the coffee is exported in parch-
ment, and is cleaned in the country of eon-
sumption ; but practically all coffee entering
the United States arrives without its parch-
ment.
Peeling machines, more accurately named
hullers, work on the principle of rubbing
the beans between a revolving inner cylin-
der and an outer covering of woven wire.
Machines of this type vary in construction.
Some have screw-like inner cylinders, or
turbines, others having plain cone-shaped
cores on which are knobs and ribs that rub
O'Kkassa's Coffee Drier Combined with Direct- Fire Heater
256
ALL ABOUT COFFEE
xn
o
o
<
'A
<
X/1
O
O
^^
►J
<
o
<
o
I— I
p^
:z;
o
:z;
GREEN COFFEE PREPARATION
257
the beans against one another and the outer
shell. Practically all types have sieve or
exhaust-fan attachments, which draw the
loosened parchment and silver skin into one
compartment, while the cleaned beans pass
into another.
Polishers of various makes are sometimes
used just to remove the silver skin and to
give the beans a special polish. Some coun-
tries demand a highly polished coffee ; and
) supph' this demand, the beans "are sent
ihrough another huller having a phosphor-
bronze cylinder and cone. Much Guade-
loupe coffee is prepared in this way, and is
known as cafe honifieur from the fact that
the polishing machine is called in Guade-
loupe the honifieur (improver). It is also
called cafe de luxe. Coffee that has not
received the extra polish is described as
habitant; while- coffee in the parchment is
known as cafe en parch e. Extra polished
coffee is much in demand in the London,
Hamburg, and other European markets.
A favorite machine for producing this kind
of coffee is the Smout combined peeler and
polisher, the invention of Jules Smout, a
Swiss. Don Roberto O'Krassa also has
produced " a highly satisfactory combined
peeler and polisher.
For hulling dry cherry coffee there are
several excellent makes of machines. In
one style, the hulling takes place between
a rotating disk and the casing of the ma-
chine. In another, it takes place between
a rotary drum covered with a steel plate
punched with vertical bulbs, and a chilled
iron hulling-plate with pyramidal teeth
cast on the plate. Both are adjustable to
different varieties of coffee. In still an-
other type of machine, the hulling takes
place between steel ribs on an ' internal
cylinder, and an adjustable knife, or hull-
ing blade, in front of the machine.
Sizing or Grading
The coffee bean is now clean, the proc-
esses described in the foregoing having re-
moved the outer skin, the saccharine pulp,
the parchment, and the silver skin. This
is the end of the cle'aning operations; but
THE GEO.LSOUIER MTG rn
BUFFALO n" USA
El Moxarca Coffee Classifier
258
ALL ABOUT COFFEE
Old ropo-diivu transmission on Finca Ona. Hydro-electric power plant on Finca Ona.
Hydro-Electric Installation on a Guatemala Finca
there are two more steps to be taken before
the coffee is ready for the trade of the
world — sizing and hand-sorting. These
two operations are of great importance;
since on them depends, to a large extent,
the price the coffee will bring in the market.
Sizing, or grading by sizes, is done in
modern commercial practise by machines
that automatically separate and distribute
the different beans according to size and
form. In principle, the beans are carried
across a series of sieves, each with perfora-
tions varying in size from the others; the
beans "passing through the holes of cor-
responding sizes. The majority of the ma-
chines are constructed to separate the beans
into five or more grades, the principal
grades being triage, third flats, second flats,
first flats, and first and second peaberries.
Some are designed to handle "elephant"
and "mother" sizes. The grades have local
nomenclature in the various countries.
After grading, the coffee is picked over
by hand to remove the faulty and discol-
ored beans that it is almost impossible to
remove thoroughly by machine. The higher
grades of coffee are often double-picked;
that is, picked over twice. When this is
done on a large scale, the beans are gen-
erally placed on a belt, or platform, that
moves at a regulated speed before a line
of women and children, who pick out the
undesirable T)eans as they pass on the mov-
ing belt. There are small machines of this
type built for one person, who operates the
belt mechanism by means of a treadle.
Preparation in the Leading Countries
The foregoing description tells in gen-
eral terms the story of the most approved
methods of harvesting, shelling, and clean-
ing the coffee beans. The following para-
graphs will describe those features of the
processes that are peculiar to the more im-
portant large producing countries and that
differ in details or in essentials from the
methods just outlined.
In the Western Hemisphere
Brazil. The operation of some of the
large plantations in Brazil, a number of
which have more than a million trees, re-
quires a large number and a great variety
of preparation machines and equipment.
Grenerally considered, the State of Sao
Paulo is better equipped with approved
machinery than any other commercial dis-
trict in the world.
In Brazil, coffee plantations are known
as fazendas, and the proprietors as fazen-
deiros, terms that are the equivalent of
"landed estates" and "landed proprie-
tors." Practically every fazenda in Brazil
of any considerable commercial importance
is equipped with the most modern of cof-
fee-cleaning equipment. Some of the
larger ones in the state of Sao Paulo, like
the Dumont and the Schmidt estates, are
provided with private railways connecting
the fazendas with the main railroad line
some miles away, and also have miniature
railway systems running through the fa-
zendas to move the coffee from one harvest-
ing and cleaning operation to another.
The coffee is carried in small cars that are
either pushed by a laborer or are drawn
by horse or mule.
Some of the larger fazendas cover thou-
sands of acres, and have several millions
of trees, giving the impression of an un-
ending forest stretching far away into the
horizon. Here and there are openings in
which buildings appear, the largest group
of structures usually consisting of those
making up the cafezale, or cleaning plant.
Nearby, stand the handsome "palaces" of
i
GREEX COFFEE PREPARATION
259
Picking Coffee on a Well Kept Fazenda
Manager's Residence on One of the Big Sao Paulo Fazendas
Photographs by Courtesy of J. Aron & Co.
Drying Grounds on a Modern Estate in Ribeirao Preto
MAKING BRAZIL COFFEE READY TO MARKET
260
ALL ABOUT COFFEE
Copyright hy
WoRKI^"G (. oiihr,_uA DkyiiNg Fla i s, Sao I'aulo
the fazendeiros; but not so close that the
coffee princes and their households will be
disturbed by the almost constant rumble
of machinery and the voices of the workers.
Brazilian fazendeiros follow the methods
described in the foregoing in preparing
their coffee for market, using the most mod-
ern of the equipment detailed under thb
story of the wet method of preparation.
On most of the fazendas the machinery is
operated by steam or electricity, the latter
coming more and more into use each year
in all parts of the coffee-growing region.
In some districts, however, far in the
interior, there are still to be found small
plantations where primitive methods of
cleaning are even now practised. Produc-
ing but a small quantity of coffee, possibly
for only local use, the cherries may be
freed of their parchment by macerating the
husks by hand labor in a large mortar. On
still another plantation, the old-time
bucket-and-beam crusher perhaps may be
in use.
This consists of a beam pivoted on an
upright upon which it moves freely up
and down. On one end of the beam is an
open bucket; and on the other, a heavy
stone. Water runs into the bucket until its
weight causes the stone end of the beam to
rise. When the bucket reaches the ground,
the water is emptied, and the stone crashes
down on the coffee cherries lying in a large
mortar.
The workers on some of the largest
Brazilian fazendas would constitute the
population of a small city — more than a
thousand families often finding continuous
employment in cultivating, harvesting,
cleaning, and transporting the coffee to
market. For the most part, the workers
are of Italian extraction, who have almost
altogether superseded the Indian and Negro
laborers of the early days. The workers
Fehmextixg and ■\VAs^I^'G Tanks on a Sao Paulo Fazenda
GREEX COFFEE PREPARATION
261
By Coiirtisy of J. Aroii k Co. »
Drying Grounds on Fazenua Schaiidt, the Largest in Brazil
live on the fazendas in quarters provided
by the fazendeiros, and are paid a weekly
or monthly wage for their services; or
they may enter upon a year's contract to
cultivate the trees, receiving extra pay for
picking and other work. Brazil in the past
has experimented with the slave system,
with government colonization, with co-
operative planting, with the harvesting sys-
tem, and with the share system. And some
features of all these plans — except slav-
ery, which was abolished in 1888 — are
still employed in various parts of the coun-
try, although the wage system predomi-
nates.
Brazil has six gradings for its Sao Paulo
coffees, which are also classified as
Bourbon Santos, Flat Bean Santos, and
Mocha-seed Santos. Rio coffees are graded
by the number of imperfections for New
York, and as washed and unwashed for
Havre. (See chapter XXIV.)
Colombia. Practically all the countries
of the western hemisphere producing cof-
fee in large quantities for export trade use
the eleaning-and-grading machines specified
in the first part of this chapter; and the
installation of the equipment is increasing
as its advantages become better known
In Colombia, now (1922), next to Brazil
the world's largest producer, the wet
method of preparing the coffee for market
is most generally followed, the drying proc-
esses often being a combination of sun and
drying machines. Many plantations have
their own hulling equipment ; but much of
the crop goes in the cherry to local com-
mercial centers where there are establish-
ments that make a specialty of cleaning
and grading the coffee.
The Colombia coffee crop is gathered
twice a year, the principal one in March
and April and the smaller one in Novem-
ber and December, although some picking
is done throughout the year. For this
labor native Indian and negro women are
preferred, as they are more rapid, skilful,
and careful in handling the trees. Con-
trary to the method in Brazil, where the
. tree at one handling is stripped of its en-
tire bearings, ripe and unripe fruit, here
only the fully ripened fruit is picked. That
necessitates going over the ground several
times, as the berries progressively ripen.
More time is consumed in this laborious
operation, but it is believed that thereby
a better crop of more uniform grade is ob-
tained and in the aggregate with less waste
of time and effort.
Colombian planters classify their coffees
as cafe trillado (natural or sun-dried),
cafe lav ado (washed), cafe en pergamino
(washed and dried in the parchment).
They grade them as excel so (excellent),
fantasia (excelso and extra), extra (extra),
primera, (first), segundo (second), caracol
(peaberry), monstruo (large and de-
formed), consumo (defective), and casilla
(sif tings).
Venezuela. Venezuela employs both the
dry and the wet methods of preparation,
producing both "washed" and ''commons"
262
ALL ABOUT COFFEE
GREEN COFFEE PREPARATION
263
m
d also, like Colombia, has a large part
of the coffee cleaned in the trading centers
of the various coffee districts. Dry, or un-
washed, coffees are known as trillado
(milled), and compose the bulk of the
country's output. Venezuela's plantation-
working forces are largely natives of Indian
descent and negroes, some of them coming
during harvesting season from adjoining
Colombia and returning there after the
picking is done. The resident workers
labor under a sort of peonage system which
is tacitly recognized by both employee and
employer, although no laws of peonage or
slavery have ever existed in Venezuela.
Under this system, the laborers live in little
colonies scattered over the haciendas, as
the coffee plantations are called in Vene-
zuela. Company stores keep them supplied
with all their wants. Modern plantation
machinery is very scarce; the ancient
method of hulling coffee in a circular
trough where the dried berries are crushed
by heavy wooden wheels drawn by oxen, is
still a common sight in Venezuela. In pre-
paring washed coffees, some planters fer-
ment the pulped coffee under water (wet
fermentation process) ; while others fer-
ment without water (dry fermentation).
The principal ports of shipments for
Venezuela coffees are La Guaira, Puerto
Cabello, and Maracaibo. Caracas, the capi-
tal, is five miles in an air line from the port
of La Guaira; but in ascending the three
thousand feet of altitude to the city the
railroad twists and turns among the moun-
tains for a distance of twenty-four miles.
By rail or motor the trip is one of much
charm and great beauty.
Salvador. The planters in Salvador
favor the dry method of coffee preparation ;
and the bulk of the crop is natural, or un-
washed.
Guatemala. Most Guatemalas are pre-
pared for market by the wet method. The
gathering of the crops furnishes employ-
ment for half the population. German and
American settlers have introduced the lat-
est improvements in modern plantation
machinery into Guatemala.
Mexico. In Mexico coffee is harvested
from November to January, and large
quantities are prepared by both the dry and
the wet methods, the latter being practised
on the larger estates that have the neces-
sary water supply and can afford the ma-
chinery. Here, too, one will find coffee
being cleaned by the primitive hand-mor-
tar and wind-winnowing method. Labor-
ers are mostly half-breeds and Indians.
Chinese coolies have been tried and found
This Old-Fa.shioned Huli.ixo Ma(iiim; Ls di'khatki- hy i)x I'owkh in Venezuela
264
ALL ABOUT COFFEE
Street Cak Cofi'Ee Tkanspokt in Okizaija,
Mexico
satisfactory, and some Japanese are util-
ized, though not largely.
Haiti. In Haiti the picking season is
from November to March. In recent years
better attention has been paid to cultural
and preparation methods ; and the product
is more favorably regarded commercially.
Large quantities are shipped to France and
Belgium ; and much of that sent to the
United States is reshipped to France, Bel-
gium, and Germany, where it is sorted by
hand. Both dry and wet methods are em-
ployed in Haiti.
Porto Rico. Here planters favor the wet
method of coffee preparation. The crop is
gathered from August to December. The
coffees are graded as caracollilo (peaberry),
primero (hand-picked), segundo (second
grade), trillo (low grade).
Nicaragua. The wet method of coffee
preparation is mostly favored in Nicaragua.
Many of the large plantations are worked
by colonies of Americans and Germans who
are competent to apply the abundant nat-
ural water power of the country to the
operation of modern coffee cleaning ma-
chinery.
Costa Rica. Costa Rica was one of the
first countries of the western world to use
coffee cleaning machinery. Marcus Mason,
an American mechanical engineer then
managing an iron foundry in Costa Rica,
invented three machines that would respec-
tively peel off the husk, remove the parch-
ment and pulp, and winnow the light refuse
from the beans.
The inventor gave his original demon-
stration to the planters of San Jose in 1860,
and duplicates were installed on all the
large plantations. In the course of the next
thirty years. Mason brought out other ma-
chines until he had developed a complete
line that was largely used on coffee plan-
tations in all parts of the world.
In the Eastern Hemisphere
Modern cleaning machinery and methods
of preparation are employed to some extent
in the large coffee-producing countries of
the eastern hemisphere, and do not differ
materially from those of the western.
Arabia. In Arabia the fruit ripens in
August or September, and picking con-
tinues from then until the last fruits ripen
late in the March following. The cherries,
as they are picked, are left to dry in the
sun on the house-top terrace or on a floor
of beaten earth. When they have become
partly dry, they are hulled between two
small stones, one of which is stationary,
while the other is worked by the hand
power of two men who rotate it quickly.
Further drying of the hulled berry follows.
It is then put into bags of closely woven
aloe fiber, lined with matting made of palm
leaves. It is next sent to the local market
at the foot of the mountain. There, on
regular market days, the Turkish or
Arabian merchants, or their representa-
tives, buy and dispatch their purchases by
camel train to Hodeida or Aden. The prin-
cipal primary market in recent years has
been the city of Beit-el-Fakih.
In Aden and Hodeida the bean is sub-
mitted to further cleaning by the principal
Coffee on the Drying Floors in Porto Rico
I
GREEX COFFEE PREPARATIOX
265
Raking Coffee on Drying Floors — Ciiuva District, Guatemala
Coffee Drying Patios, Hacienda Longa-Espana, Venezuela
SUN-DRYING COFFEE AMID SCENES OF RARE TROPICAL BEAUTY
266
ALL ABOUT COFFEE
A Drying 1'atio ox a Costa Kica Estate
foreign export houses to whom it has come
from the mountains in rather dirty condi-
tion. Indian women are the sole laborers
employed in these cleaning houses. First,
the coffee beans are separated from the dry
empty husks by tossing the whole into the
air from bamboo trays, the workers deftly
permitting the husks to fly off while the
beans are caught again in the tray. The
beans are then surface-cleaned by passing
them gently between two very primitive
grindstones worked by men. A third proc-
ess is the complete clearing of the bean
from the silver skin, and it is then ready
for the final hand picking. Women are
called into service again, and they pick out
the refuse husks, quaker or black, beans,
green or immature beans, white beans, and
broken beans, leaving the good beans to be
weighed and packed for shipment. The
cleaned beans are known as bun safi; the
husks become kisher. Some of the poorer
beans also are sold, principally to France
and to Egypt. Hand-power machinery is
used to a slight extent; but mostly the old-
fashioned methods hold sway.
The Yemen, or Arabian, bale, or package,
is unique. It is made up of two fiber wrap-
pers, one inside the other. The inside one
is called attal or darouf. It is made from
cut and plaited leaves of nakhel douin or
narghil, a species of palm. The outer cover-
ing, called garair, is a sack made of woven
aloe fiber. The Bedouins weave these
covers and bring them to the export mer-
chants at Aden and Hodeida. A Mocha
bundle contains one, two, or four fiber pack-
ages, or bales. When the bundle contains
one bale it is known as a half ; when it con-
tains two it is known as quarters ; and when
it contains four it is known as eighths.
Arabian coffee for Boston used to be packed
in quarters only; for San Francisco and
Photograph by R. C. Wilhelm.
Early Guardiola Steam Drier, "El Canida" Plantation, Costa Rica
GREEN COFFEE PREPARATION
267
INDIAN WOMEN CLEANING MOCHA COFFEE IN AN ADEN WAREHOUSE
There are four processes in cloaniag Mocha coffee. In order to separate the dried beans from the
broken hnlls these Momen (brought over from India) toss the beans in the air, very deftly permit-
ting the empty hulls to fly off. and catch the coffee beans on the bamboo trays. Then the coffee is
passed between two primitive grindstones, turned by men. After this grinding process the beans
are separated from the crushed outside hulls' and the loose silver skins. In the fourth process tlie
Indian women pick out by hand the remaining husks, the quakers, the immature beans, the white
beans and the broken beans. Being Mohammedans, their religion does not permit such little van-
ities as picture posing, which explains why their faces are covered and turned away from the
camera
268
ALL ABOUT COFFEE
New York, in quarters and eighths. The
longberry Abyssinian coffees were for-
merly packed in quarters only. Since the
"World War, however, there has been a
scarcity of packing materials, and packing
in quarters and eighths lias stopped. Now,
all Mocha, as well as Harar, coffee comes in
halfs. A half weighs eighty kilos, or 176
pounds, net — although a few exporters
ship "halfs" of 160 pounds.
Abyssinia. Little machinery is used in
the preparation of coffee in Abyssinia;
none, in preparing the coffee known as
Abyssinian, which is the product of wild
trees ; and only in a few instances in clean-
ing the Harari coffee, the fruit of cultivated
trees. Both classes are raised mostly by
natives, who adhere to the old-time dry
method of cleaning. In Harar, the coffee
is sometimes hulled in a wooden mortar;
but for the most part it is sent to the bro-
kers in parchment, and cleaned by primi-
tive hand methods after its arrival in the
trading centers.
Angola. In Angola the coffee harvest
begins in June, and it is often necessary for
the government to lend native soldiers to
the planters to aid in harvesting, as the
labor supply is insufficient. After picking,
the beans are dried in the sun from four-
teen to forty days, depending upon the
weather. After drying, they are brought
to the hulling and winnowing machines.
There are now about twenty-four of these
machines in the Cazengo and Golungo dis-
tricts, all manufactured in the United
States and giving satisfactory results.
They are operated by natives.
A condition adversely affecting the trade
has been the low price that Angola coffee
commands in European markets. The
cost of production per arroha (thirty-three
pounds) on the Cazengo plantations is
$1.23, while Lisbon market quotations aver-
age $1.50, leaving only twenty-seven cents
for railway transport to Loanda and ocean
freight to Lisbon. It has been unprofitable
to ship to other markets on account of the
preferential export duties. A part of the
product is now shipped to Hamburg, where
it is known as the Cajiengo brand. Next to
Mocha, the Cazengo coffee is the smallest
bean that is to be found in the European
markets.
Java and Sumatra. The coffee industry
in Java and Sumatra, as well as in the other
coffee-producing regions of the Dutch East
Indies, was begun and fostered under the
Cleaning and Grading Coffee uy Machinery in Aden
GREEN COFFEE PREPARATIOX
269
Duvx>;g Coffee in the Sun at the Custum-House, IIauak, AiiYbsiMA
paternal care of the Dutch govermnent ;
and for that reason, machine-cleaning has
always been a noteworthy factor in the mar-
keting of these coffees. Since the govern-
ment relinquished its control over the
so-called government estates, European
operators have maintained the standard of
preparation, and have adopted new equip-
ment as it was developed. The majority of
estates producing considerable quantities of
coffee use the same types of machinery as
their competitors in Brazil and other west-
ern countries.
In Java, free labor is generally em-
ployed ; while on the east coast of Sumatra
the work is done by contract, the workers
usually being bound for three years. In
both islands the laborers are mostly Java-
nese coolies.
Under the contract system, the worker is
subject to laws that compel him to work,
and prevent him from leaving the estate
until the contract period expires. Under
the free-labor system, the laborer works as
his whims dictate. This forces the estate
manager to cater to his workers, and to
build up an organization that will hold
together.
As an example of the working of the
latter system, this outline — by John A.
Fowler, United States trade commissioner
— of the organization of a leading estate in
Java will indicate the general practise in
vogue :
The manager of this estate has had full con-
ti-ol for twenty years and knows the "adat"
(tribal customs) of his jjeople and the individual
peculiarities of the leaders. This estate has been
described as having one of the most perfect
estate organizations in Java. It consists of two
divisions of 3,440 bouws (about G,048 acres in
all), of which 2,500 bouws are in rubber and
coffee and 550 in sisal ; the remainder includes
rice fields, timber, nurseries, bamboo, tealv, pas-
tures, villages, roads, canals, etc.
The foreign staff is under the supervision of
a general manager, and consists of the follow-
ing personnel: A chief garden assistant of sec-
tion 1, who has under him foiir section assist-
ants and a native staff; a chief garden assist-
ant of section 2, who has under him three sec-
tion assistants, an apprentice assistant, and a
native staff ; a chief factory assistant, who has
under him an assistant machinist, an apprentice
assistant, and a native staff: and, finally, a
bookkeeper. The term "garden"' means the area
under cidtivation.
The bookkeeper, a man of mixed blood, handles
all the general accounting, accumulating the re-
ports sent in by the various assistants. The
two chief garden assistants are resiK)nsible to
the manager for all work outside the factory
except the construction of new buildings, which
is in charge of the chief factory assistant. The
two divisions of the estate are subdivided into
seven agricultural sections, each section being
in full charge of an assistant. A section may
include coffee, rubber, sisal, teak, bamboo, a co-
agulation station and nurseries. The assistant's
270
ALL ABOUT COFFEE
Open-Air Drying Grounds on a West Java Estate
The beans are being turned by native Sudanese men and women
Interioe of a Modern Coffee Factory in East Java
Sliowing pulping machinery and fermentation tanks
PREPARING JAVA COFFEE FOR THE MARKET
GREEN COFFEE PREPARATION
271
duties include tlie supervision of road building
and repairs, building repairs, transportation,
paying tbe labor, and the supervision of section
accounts.
The factory includes a water-power plant de-
livering, through an American water wheel and
by cable, 250 horse-power to the main shafting,
an auxiliary steam plant of 150 horse-i>ower as
a reserve, a rubber mill, a coffee mill, three
sisal-stripping machines, smoke-houses, drying
fields and houses for sisal, drying floors and
houses for coffee, sorting rooms, blacksmith
shop, machine shop, brass-fitting foundry, pack-
ing houses, warehouses, and other equipment.
The factory is in charge of a first assistant, who
is a machinist, with a European staff consist-
ing of a machinist and an apprentice assistant.
The chief garden assistant is paid 350 to 400
florins, and the garden "assistants start at 200
florins per month, with graduated yearly in-
creases up to 300 florins per month ( florin =
$0.40). The chief factory assistant receives 300
florins, and the machinist and bookkeeper 250
florins each.
The mandoer in charge of the air and kiln
drying of coffee gets 25 florins per month, and
the mandoer at the coffee mill 20 florins, A
woman mandoer in cliarge of the coffee sorters
receives 0.50 florin per day and 0.01 florin each
for sewing the bags. This woman supervises
all the sorters, fixes their status, and inspects
their work. Unskilled labor (male) receives
0.40 florin per day in the coffee sheds, and the
women sorters are paid 0.50 florin per picul
of 136 pounds, measured before sorting. These
women are graded into three classes — those
who can sort 1 picul in a day, those who can
sort three-fourths of a picul, and those who can
sort but one-half of a picul in a day. Some of
these women become very expert in sorting, and
the quality of the output of a factory is largely
dependent on an ample supply of expert sorters.
Many years are required to develop an adequate
personnel for this department.
Coffee Transport in Java
272
ALL ABOUT COFFEE
© -»' ^ CiTl
I
THE WORLD'S COFFEE TOWER COMPARED WITH THE EIFFEL AND
WOOLWORTH TOWERS
The Woohvorth Building, the world's loftiest office structure, is 792 feet high from street to top of
■ tower ; its main section of 151 by 196 feet stretches up 386 feet, and its volume equals a total of
13,110,942 cubic feet. But a tower made of the year's supplj' of bags of green coffee (132 pounds
each) would equal 73,649,115 cubic feet, or nearly six times the bulk of the Woolworth Building.
In the same proportions it would rise 1,386 feet, with the lower section 260 by 340 feet and 670
feet high. Its dimensions would be nearly double those of the Woolworth Building in every direc-
tion. And the Eiffel Tower, reaching up 1,000 feet toward the sky would be lost in a tower made
of a year's bags of coffee. Such a tower would stand 1,425 feet high on a base area of 230 feet
square, the size of the Eiffel's first floor
Chapter XXII • '
THE PRODUCTION AND CONSUMPTION OF COFFEE
A statistical study of world production of coffee by countries — Per
capita figures of the leading consuming countries — Coffee-consump-
tion figures compared with tea-consumption figures in the United
States, and the United Kingdom — Three centuries of coffee trading
— Coffee drinking in the United States, past and present — Review-
ing the 1921 trade in the United States
THE world's yearly production of
coffee is on the average considerably
more than one million tons. If this
were all made up into the refreshing drink
we get at our breakfast tables, there would
be enough to supply every inhabitant of
the earth with some sixty cups a year,
representing a total of more than ninety
billion cups. In terms of pounds the an-
nual world output amounts to about two
and a quarter billions — an amount so
large that if it were done up in the fa-
miliar one-pound paper packages; and if
these packages were laid end to end in a
row; they would form a line long enough
to reach to the moon. If this average
yearly production were left in the sacks in
which the coffee is shipped, the total of
17,500,000 would be enough to form a
broad six-foot pavement reaching entirely
across the United States, upon which a
man could walk steadily for more than
five months at the rate of twenty miles a
day. This vast amount of coffee comes
very largely from the western hemisphere;
and about three-fourths of it, from a single
country. The production, shipment, and
preparation of this coffee, directly and in-
directly support millions of workers; and
many countries are entirely dependent on
it for their prosperity and economic well-
being.
During the crop year that ended June
30, 1921, this million-ton average was
considerably exceeded, though it did not
approach the record yield of all time in
the crop year 1906 - 07, when the total
amounted to almost 24,000,000 sacks; or,
in round numbers, 3,000,000,000 pounds.
As indicated by the Statistical Record
table, on page 274, Brazil produces more
than all the rest of the world put together.
Coffee growing, however, is general
throughout tropical countries, and in most
of them constitutes one of the leading in-
dustries. Yet in most cases, the actual
production of these countries can only be
estimated, as accurate figures, showing the
exact output, are seldom kept. But the
contribution which each country makes
to the total world traffic in coffee can be
determined by its export figures, which
are obtainable in reasonably accurate and
up-to-date form.* The table on page 276
gives the coffee export figures, in pounds,
for practically every country that pro-
duces coffee for sale outside its own bor-
ders. Figures are given for the latest
available year, and also for the average
of the last five years for which statistics
are to be obtained. The figures are taken
from official statistics, from the publica-
tions of the International Institute of
Agriculture of Rome, and from other au-
thoritative sources.
For the most part, these figures of ex-
portation are the only ones available to
indicate the actual coffee production in
273
274
ALL ABOUT COFFEE
o • o '^
iHr-lrHr-lrHr-lrirHr-lT-l ""' T-lr-l C^tH
;f i* ^ w
000
-. -. -. -.-.-. . coo
«0 tH Ci O CC >C C-i fC (X fC CO CO 0
1^1 Tt r-" tr 1* <?? O ?J c^J P oj t'- o
?S {2 ^_ tH CC t-; O <i C\ 0^ iiS fO P- P tH _.
rH 05 50' ■* Ci CO t4' t-T O tH t-^ t-' t-' CO t>- ?0
a2
>^
W
o
>^
Eh
w
03
o
»
o
<
Eh
t
EJ
gw
CSt-^lOiraCSOOSMHlOOC^JiM^rHOlNCS^DvtCO
QlOfOeOI«M<CarHO^t-i-(-«J4T}<t~.C)Ot-iMTHOcrt
■<TlftiHOOC^M^t^OOOilOC^}_rHC^lO-^C5fO »^05_,h '~1'> m W u^s^in -n^^Q^irarc U'Jn VJ C [^ o
05 o' O" O X" 0" C5 00 O" O" O f-T rH C^f ■^<~ CO' -^ tjT IC uf to CO ?D t-' t-" Oo' CC l>^ t-^ O OO r^ Ci Tf Tf L'l" c5 ?0
i-HrHrH l-lT-lrHrHT-lrHrHrHrHrHTHrH^rHrHrHrHrHrHrHrHr-trHC^lrHrHT-lrHrHiH
-w j3 W)
►=^ -t^ CO
flj - — ■
r -^
O 5^
, >_.^ — — _ ^ — ^_ O O &_ i (5 © ^ ^
h' iri c:' CO t-^ ■*' o" CO od ^ t-' cc t--" o Ci
'^(M'*C5C)t-Clt-t^05rHCO;PCCC5
lOSDOiO-^COWfO"
) CI 06
t- o
, o o
.00
1 Q o o o P S o
OX) ^ ^ ^V ^^ ^ ^V ^%s ^%, ^^ ^ ^V ^%, ^ ^. , ^ ^^ ^-^ , , '^ . ^^ ^-^ ^ ^V ^ ^^ , ^ ^ ^"^ , ■-^^ ^ ^-^ w vw.^
oj »n oi 00 M -"ti oi ■* M (^^ CD <» ?p ci o «D' ca ic cc' M t-- fo' i^' ® cf cc Ci t- 10 (m" iti w o ■*' cd -f -f co i-h
CO COCDeCl--Ol£^Ot--THCOCiOCCGOCCCOCCM*Q^'^LCOOO'ti'+'THQO'rH«Dt-TjHTHCC-l'C-)C;(XO
CDTHOCDTH®l>CDTt<_CO_^(NCCeOO_05POCO^, OOo5?0 0000»i^C^O^-«»AOOO
of co" M M c^ l^f c^^ M m'" •^'' ■<f •*'■<}<" w' CD w «o' ii3 i;d «D co^
O 0^0 q^___. _ _ -, -- -. -
•*' CO 00 c; 00" aH co co" of t-" of co co' »o" i£ 00 t^ co" cd 00"
:88888i88
' o o p o o o o o
I p q o p o.
" L^' ■^' of tH Ci rH
iP P
of of M^' t-' CC p' r^
C5 iH Tt 01 CD IC t-
^' ^^-' ^#J CO Uj w-i ^i^" s^^ '^M l"" UN ^^^ U'J «i^ iij yu I"" !;o W'J uu CD '-•J "T^ CM rn w^ T~l t-^l u^l "^ l-" ^^ 1^, m WJ tr,- I-—
t-OOPiCDOOOOrHTppLO^-rHplOCOOJCOOO'-'SrHohl^-CCpOOOIrHpiHTtiOlCDlCt-Pb--^
t--__ C0__ rH C0__ CO^ iq t^ P C0__ ■<*<_ Ol 00 00 rH la t-- 01 Tf 00^ rH oi 't Ci LO ^ rH 00 TtH t- rH O CC P rH 01 P P L..
cd" t-" I> t-" in CD CD cd" cd" cd" CD CD" p" b- OO" b- OO" 00 OO" © Ci P P o" P rH O p" p" P* rH CC tA m' P p" !>•' P"
rHrHrHrHrHrHrHrHrHrH
^ M kffl 0J_ P rH O^ ■* O^ 01_ 0D_^ p^ p b^ C0_^ P P_^ t-^ 00__ rH t-_^ S O -^^ t-^ 00 00_^ O rH »C rf CO CD^OC t-^ P CC^ p rH (M__
=iC5<OC>OpPOOOOOC>pOOOPPO
^f LO CD cc" b-^' t-^ P rH Qo" p" lA of CO" P* P LC P' L'i' O rn"
^•CpQOlOOCOCOPCCPOO't't-P-^ t-'O) CO CO LI
D P 00 -^ GO CC O P Ol O P 00 tH O) CO' O -^ W rH LC
' P P
OO
g PPPPPPPPPPPP
ti.2J^- ppopoopppppp
OjCjO OOOOOPPPPPOO
5 "« rt co" TjT lO" P" '*' of LO" co" cc" b-" b-" P rH Qo" '
r^9^ OipoOrHt-CpQOlOOCOOOCC
O g pq lo q >q rH O) CD P oq Ml (2 CO o P oi ^. w.-^ r-^ ^ . .'. ^^ . _. . , ^. . . , _. . ^ _ . _. . -. ._ ,^
Q^" ■*"■*" co" ■*" co" cd CO of TjH ■^' lo lo" ■*" K5 ifi -"i^" -*" ■* -*' ■*' \a •*' -*" -^f •*' ■<*' -i^" co" •*' -t td i6 -^ ■*' co' ^ oo' cd
8888
OO O P
8' rH co' oo" \6 p P ^" p' o' o' :o' b^
Xb-rHrHPrHCOb-OlOCOP
Tf<rHPPPb-Ob-L':i>-L'^-t'ti
5j ti >j 000000000000
cj cd ^H lit...
05 a) p
b-QOPOrHOJCC-^KJPb- 00. P O rH
OPOrHrHTHrHrHrHrHrHrHrH C^IO)
rH rH rH rH rH rH rH
PRODUCTION AND CONSUMPTION
275
THE WORLD'S COFFI^E CUP AND THE WORLD'S LARGEST SHIP
The statistical sharks talk of the 17,5GG,000 bags, or 2,318,712,000 pounds of coffee that the world
drinks every year ; but how many really appreciate what those huge figures mean? For instance, com-
puting 40 cups of beverage to the pound, there are more than 90,000,000,000 cups drunk annually, or
enough to fill a gigantic cup 4,000 feet in diameter and 40 feet deep, on which the "Majestic," the world's
largest ship, would appear floating approximately as shown in the drawing
the countries named. The following ad-
ditional data, however, will serve to show
the extent to which the coffee-raising in-
dustry has developed in most of these
countries, and in a few places of minor
importance not named in the table :
Brazil. The coffee industry of Brazil,
which has furnished seventy percent of
the world's coffee during the last ten
years, has developed in a century and a
half. Brazilian soil first made the ac-
quaintance of the coffee plant at Par4 in
1723. A small export trade to Europe
had developed by 1770, the year when the
first plantation was established in the
state of Rio de Janeiro, and from which
the country's great industry really dates.
Development at first was apparently slow,
as no exports are recorded until the be-
ginning of the nineteenth century; so that
the history of Brazil's coffee trade is a
matter entirely of the nineteenth and
twentieth centuries. Once started, how-
ever, the new line of export made rapid
progress. In 1800, the amount of coffee
exported was 1720 pounds, contained in
thirteen bags. Twenty years later, 12.-
896,000 pounds were shipped, the number
of bags being 97,498. Ten years later, in
1830, this amount had increased to 64,-
051,000 pounds; and in 1840, to 137,300,-
000 pounds. In 1852 - 53, the receipts for
shipment at the ports were double that
amount, 284,592,000 pounds; in 1860-61
they were 420,420,000 pounds; in 1870-
71 they had increased to 427,416,000
pounds ; in 1880 - 81 they were 764,945,000
pounds; in 1890-91, 739,654,000 pounds;
and at the beginning of this century,
1900-01, they were 1,504,424,000 pounds,
having passed the one billion-pound mark
in 1896-97. The highest point of coffee
receipts in the country's history was
reached in 1906-07 with 2,699,644,694
pounds; and since that year, the amount
ha,« staid at about one and one-half
276
ALL ABOUT COFFEE
Exports of Coffee from the Coffee-Producing Countries of the World
,\
Country Five-Year Average
South America: Tear Pounds Pounds
Brazil 1920 1,524,382,650 1,469,&49,180
Colombia 1920 190,901.953= 172,862,121
Venezuela 1920 73,726,632 110,174,946
Guiana, Br 1917 267,344 257,152
Guiana, Fr 1918 1,100 970
Guiana, D 1918 3,856 923,644<i
Ecuador 1919 3,729,413 5,843,033
Peru 1919 370,655 455,212
Central America :
Salvador 1920 82,864,668 78.953,339
Nicaragua 1920 15,345,398 23,243,865
Costa Rica 1921'' 29,401,683 28,667,262
Guatemala 1920 94,205,569 88,213,080
Honduras 1920^ 1,091,977 646,574
Mexico 1918 30,172,065 47,555,5141
West Indies :
Haiti 1920b 61,970,094e 54,308,959d
Dominican Republic 1920 1,361,666 3,497,866
Jamaica 1919 8,246,672 7,918,781
Porto Rico 1921 29,967,879' 30,033,4711 f
Trinidad & Tobago 1920 73,201 19,639
Martinique 1918 10.358 17,219
Guadeloupe 1918 2,144,855 1,594,146
Dutch East Indies 1920 99,020,4531 103,701,297h
Pacific Islands:
Br. North Borneo 1918 1,984 6,613
New Caledonia 1916 1,248.024 784,176
New Hebrides 1917 625,224 608,410g
Hawaii 1921 4,979,121' 4,244,479d'
Reunion 1918 3,527 26,455
Asia :
Aden (Arabia) 1921b 9,463,104 10,837,893
Br. India 1920b 30,526.832 23,767,744
French Indo-China 1918 79,145 516,978
Africa :
Eritrea 1918 728,840 315,698
Somaliland, Fr 1917 11,222,736 9,321,930
Somaliland, Br 1918 440,272 233,908
Somaliland, It 1918 3,747 3,306
Abyssinia 1917 17,324,223 12,744,406
German East Africa (former).. 1913 2,334,450 2,649,0471
Br. East African Protectorate.. 1918 18,735.572 8,397,541
Uganda 1918 9,999,845 5,076,091
Nyasaland 1918 122,796 92,593
Mayotte (including Comoro Is.) . 1914 3,306 660
Madagascar 1918 707,676 981,047
Angola 1913 10,655.934 10,459,724
Belgian Congo 1919 347,588 186,432b
Fr. Equatorial Africa 1916 48,060 47,046
Nigeria 1916 3,527 19,180
Ivory Coast 1918 66,358 49,162
Gold Coast 1917 660 220
French Guinea 1918 1,320 1,320
Spanish Guinea 1918 8,150 3,968b
St. Thomas & Prince's Is 1916 484,350 1,125,448
Liberia 1917 761,300
Cape Verde Islands 1916 1,442,910 1,100,095
a Crop yen-, ii Fiscal ye^r. c Inclurting small proportion of nnhiisked coffee. d Four-year averag:e. e Not
including 6,322,167 pounds "triage" or waste coffee, t Including shipments to continental United States.
K Two-year average, h Three-year average, i Java and Madura only
PRODUCTION AND CONSUMPTION
277
billion pounds. Further expansion in the
last fifteen years has been closely regu-
lated to prevent over-production.
It is estimated that the area in the
coffee-growing section suitable for coffee
raising covers 1,158,000 square miles, or
more than one-third the area of con-
tinental United States. The state of Sao
Paulo is the chief producing state, and
supplies practically half the world's
annual output. Most of this Sao Paulo
coffee is exported through the port of
Santos, which is consequently the leading
coffee port of the world. Besides Santos,
the ports of Rio de Janeiro and Victoria
are of much importance in the coffee
trade, although some twenty or thirty
million pounds are exported each year
through the port of Bahia, and smaller
amounts through various other ports. The
crop year of Brazil runs from July 1 to
June 30, the heaviest receipts for shipment
coming as a rule in the months of August,
September, and October of each year.
One-third of the season's crop is usually
received at ports of shipment before the
last of October, sometimes as early as the
latter part of September; one-half comes
in by the middle or last of November; and
/S/6 /S/7 /£>/e /0/S /SftO
CO/^/^/F£- £?r/^o/?7-^
(£361
/S^ /^60 /ff;^ /SSO /SSO /90O /SVO /S^'
1 — Coffee Exports, 1850-1920
This diagram shows the exports of the principal
coffee-producing countries, omitting Brazil
No. 21 — 1 Coffee Exports, 1916-1920
This diagram shows the exports of the leading^
coffee countries (except Brazil) in a period
covering most of the World War
two-thirds is usually received by the end
of January.
Venezuela. The coffee plant was intro-
duced into Venezuela in 1784, being
brought from Martinique; and the first
shipment abroad, consisting of 233 bags,
was made five years later. By 1830 - 31,
production had increased to 25,454,000
pounds; and in the next twenty years, it
more than trebled, amounting to 83,717,-
000 pounds in 1850 - 51. Since then, how-
ever, the increase has been much more
gradual. In 1881-82, 94,369,000 pounds
were produced; and about the same
amount, 95,170,000 pounds, in 1889-90.
Twentieth-century production has appar-
ently exceeded the hundred-million mark
on the average, although there are no
definite statistics beyond export figures.
These showed 86,950,000 pounds sent
abroad in 1904 - 05 ; 103,453,000 pounds in
278
ALL ABOUT COFFEE
1908 - 09 ; and 88,155,000 pounds in 1918 ;
the trade in the last-named year being cut
down by war conditions. In 1919, the
extraordinary amount of 179,414,815
pounds was exported, the high figure be-
ing due to the release of coffee stored
from previous years. It has been esti-
mated that domestic consumption of coffee
would amount to a maximum of 25,000,000
pounds yearly, but may be much less than
that. The United States and France have
in the past been Venezuela's best custo-
mers.
Colombia, Prior to 1912, the total
production of coffee in Colombia was
around 80,000,000 pounds annually, of
which some 3,000,000 or 4,000,000 pounds
were consumed in the country itself. But
in the last decade production has been
advancing rapidly, and the present pro-
duction is the heaviest in the history of
the country. The industry has practically
grown up in the last seventy years, the
exports for the decade 1852 - 53 to 1861 -
62 averaging only about 940,000 pounds;
in the decade following, about 5,700,000
pounds ; and, in the ten years from 1872 -
73 to 1881-82, about 12,600,000 pounds,
according to an unofficial compilation.
Exportations had advanced to about 47,-
000,000 pounds by 1895 ; and to 80,000,000
pounds by 1906. As large quantities of
Colombian coffee are shipped out through
Venezuela, and because of the lack of de-
tailed statistics in Colombia, the actual
exportation each year is not easy to
determine ; but the following figures, ob-
tained by a trade commissioner of the
United States, may be taken as a fairly
accurate estimate of exports from 1906 to
1918:
Columbian Coffee Exports
Year Sacks (138 lbs.)
1906 605,705
1907 -. -. .541,300
1908 577,900
1909 673,350
1910 543,000
1911 601.600
1912 888,800
1913 972,000
1914 983,000
1915 1,074,600
1916 1,153,000
1917 1,093,000
1918 1,102,000
Ecuador. Annual production in Ecua-
dor runs from 3,000,000 to 8,000,000
pounds, most of which is exported. The
/isffo /aeo /SP'O /^s^ /sao /se>o /s/a /s2o
^ooo\
/ffOO
/■^oo
<^ /200
I
^ 800
200
J~L_F
F^
f
No. 3 — Brazil's Coffee Exports, 1850-1920
Diiifiram based on -^-year avf^rages with quanti-
ties given in millions of pounds
greater part of the production is sent to
Chile and the United States. Production
has shown only a gradual increase since
the middle of the nineteenth century,
when planters began to give some atten-
tion to coffee cultivation. Exports were
about 87,000 pounds in 1855; 296,000
pounds in 1870; and 985,000 pounds in
1877. By the beginning of the present
century, production had reached 6,204,000
pounds; in 1905, it was estimated at
4,861,000 pounds ; and in 1910, at 8,682,000
pounds. Exports in 1912 were 6,101,700
pounds; and 7,671,000 pounds in 1918;
but there was a falling off to 3,729,000
pounds in 1919, Several years ago it was
estimated that the coffee trees numbered
8,000,000, planted on 32,000 acres.
Peru. Coffee is one of the minor prod-
ucts of Peru, and the country does not
occupy a place of importance in the inter-
national coffee trade. The larger part of
,the production is apparently consumed in
the country itself. Export figures indicate
that the industry is steadily declining.
Exports amounted to 2,267,000 pounds in
1905; to 1,618,000 pounds in 1908; and
in the five years ending with 1918, exports
averaged only 529,000 pounds; while fig-
PRODUCTION AND CONSUMPTION
279
ures for 1919 show that in that year thev
fell still lower, to 370,000 pounds. Pro-
duction is mainly in the coast lands.
British Guiana. The Guianas are the
site of the first coffee planting on the
continent of South America; and accord-
ing to some accounts, the first in the New
World. The plants were brought first into
Dutch Guiana, but there was no planting
in what is now British Guiana (then a
Dutch colony) until 1752. Twenty-six
years later, 6,041,000 pounds were sent to
Amsterdam from the two ports of De-
marara and Berbice; and after the colony
fell into the hands of the English in 1796,
cultivation continued to increase. Exports
amounted to 10,845,000 pounds in 1803;
and to more than 22,000,000 pounds in
1810. Then there was a falling off, and
the production in 1828 was 8,893,500
pounds and 3,308,000 pounds in 1836. In
1849 British Guiana exported only 109,-
600 pounds. For a long period thereafter
there was little production, and practi-
cally no exportation; exports in 1907, for
instance, amounting to only 160 pounds.
With the next year, however, a revival of
exportation began, and it has continued to
grow since then. In 1908, exports were
88,700 pounds; and for the succeeding
years, up to 1917, the following amounts
are recorded: 1909, 96,952 pounds; 1910,
108,378 pounds; 1911, 136,420 pounds;
1912, 144,845 pounds; 1913 , 89,376
pounds; 1914, 238,767 pounds; 1915,
172,326 pounds; 1916, 501,183 pounds;
1917, 267,344 pounds. In the last-named
year 4,953 acres were in coffee plantations.
French Guiana. This colony raises a
small amount of coffee for local consump-
tion, and exports a few hundred pounds;
but it is really an importing and not an
exporting colony. Coffee cultivation was
never of much importance, although in
1775 some 72,000 pounds were exported.
One hundred and eighty thousand pounds
were harvested in I860; and 132,000
pounds in 1870, mostly for local con-
■consumption.
Dutch Guiana. Regular shipments of
coffee from Dutch Guiana have been made
for two centuries, beginning — a few j^ears
after the plant was introduced — with a
shipment of 6,461 pounds to the mother
country in 1723. Seven years later, 472,-
000 pounds were shipped ; and in 1732 -
33 exportation reached 1,232,000 pounds.
Exports were averaging 16,900,000 pounds a
year by 1760 ; and reached almost 20,600,000
pounds in 1777. At the beginning of the
nineteenth century, they amounted to
about 17,000,000 pounds; but a few years
later fell off to some 7,000,000 pounds,
where they remained until about 1840;
after which they began again to decline.
Exportation had practically ceased by 1875,
only 1,420 pounds going out of the country,
although cultivation still continued, as evi-
denced by a production of 82,357 pounds
in that year. In 1890, production was onlj
15,736 pounds, and exports only 476
pounds; but since then there has been a
considerable increase. In 1900, production
amounted to 433,000 pounds, and exports
to 424,000 pounds. In 1908, 1,108,000
pounds were grown, of which 310,000
pounds were sent abroad; and in 1909, the
figures were 552,000 pounds produced and
405,000 pounds exported. No figures are
available for production in recent years;
but the exportation of 1,600,000 pounds in
1917 indicates that plantings have been
steadily growing.
Other South American Countries. Of
the other South American countries, Argen-
tina, Chile, and Uruguay are coffee-import-
ing countries; and the coffee-raising
industry of Paraguay, although more or
less promising, has yet to be developed. In
Argentina, a few hundred acres in the sub
tropical provinces of the north have been
planted to coffee; but coffee-growing will
always necessarily remain a very minor in
dustry. Many attempts have been made to
establish the industry in Paraguay, where
favorable conditions obtain, but only a few
planters have met with success. Their
product has all been consumed locally.
Bolivia has much land suitable for coffee
raising ; and it is estimated that production
has reached as high as 1,500,000 pounds a
year, but transportation conditions are such
as to hold back development for an indefi-
nite time. Small amounts are now exported
to Chile.
Salvador. Coffee was introduced into
Salvador in 1852, and immediately began to
spread over the country. Exports were
valued at more than $100,000 in 1865 ; and
by 1874-75 the amount exported had
reached 8,500,000 pounds. The first large
plantation was established in 1876; and
since then planting has continued, until
now practically all the available coffee
280
ALL A B OUT COFFEE
land has been taken up. The area in
plantations has been estimated at 166,000
acres, and the annual production at 50,000,-
000 to 75,000,000 pounds, of which some
5,000,000 pounds are consumed in the
country. Since the beginning of the present
century, exports have in general shown a
considerable increase, the figures for 1901
being 50,101,000 pounds ; for 1905, 64,480,-
000 pounds; for 1910, 62,764.000 pounds;
for 1915, 67,130,000 pounds ; and for 1920,
82,864,000 pounds.
GrUATEMALA. Cultivation of coffee in
Guatamala became of importance between
1860 and 1870. In 1860, exports were only
about 140,000 pounds; by 1863, they had
increased to about 1,800,000 pounds; and
by 1870, to 7,590,000 pounds. In 1880 - 81,
they amounted to 28,976,000 pounds ; and in
1883-84, to 40,406,000 pounds. Twenty
years later, they had doubled. In recent
years, exports have ranged between 75,-
000,000 and 100,000,000 pounds ; the years
from 1909 to 1918 showing the following
results, according to a consular report :
Guatemala's Coffee Exports
Cleaned Vnshelled
Year (pounds) (pounds)
1909 92,639,800 23,654,600
1910 50,717,600 19,671,700
1911 60,689,500 20,959,500
1912 14,329,800 60,837,500
1913 70,749,100 20,980,700
1914 71,136,800 14,999,600
1915 69,649,500 9,892,000
1916 85,057,000 3,015,800
1917 89,259,600 1,410,200
1918 77,842,800 511,500
Costa Eica. Coffee raising in Costa Rica
dates from 1779, when the plant was intro-
duced from Cuba. By 1845, the industry
had grown sufficiently to permit an expor-
tation of 7,823,000 pounds; and twenty
years later, 11,143,000 pounds were shipped.
Thereafter, production increased rapidly;
so that in 1874, the total exports were 32,-
670,000 pounds, and in 1884 they were more
than 36,000,000 pounds. In recent years,
the average production has been around
35,000,000 pounds. For the crop years
1916 - 17 to 1920 - 21 exports have been :
Costa Rica's Coffee Exports,
Year Pounds
1916 - 17 27,044,550
1917 - 18 25,246,715
191S - 19 30,784,184
1919 - 20 30,860,634
1920 - 21 29,401,683
Nicaragua. Production of coffee in
Nicaragua began between 1860 and 1870;
and in 1875, the yield was estimated at
1,650,000 pounds. By 1879-80, this had
increased to 3,579,000 pounds; and by
1889 - 90, to 8,533,000 pounds. In 1890 - 91
production was 11,540,000 pounds; and in
1907-08 it was estimated at more than
20,000,000 pounds. Ten years later, 25,-
000,000 pounds were produced; and the
crop of 1918 - 19 was estimated at about
30,000,000 pounds. Lack of transportation,
and excess of political troubles, have been
important factors in holding back develop-
ment.
Honduras. The coffee of Honduras is of
very good quality ; but production is small,
and the country is not an important factor
in international trade. Exports usually
run less than 1,000,000 pounds. The chief
obstacle to expansion is said to be lack of
transportation facilities.
British Honduras. This colony grows a
little coffee for its own use, but imports
most of what it needs. Production had
reached almost 50,000 pounds in 1904 ; but
the present average is only about 10,000
pounds, raised on scattering trees over about
1,000 acres.
Panama. A small amount of coffee, of
which occasionally as much as 200,000 or
250,000 pounds a year are exported, is
raised in the uplands of Panama, or is
gathered from wild trees. The industry
is not of great importance, and the country
imports considerable supplies, mostly from
the United States.
Mexico. A very good grade of coffee is
produced in Mexico; and it is said that
there is sufficient area of good coffee land
to take care of the demand of the world
outside of that supplied by Brazil. Pro-
duction, however, is limited, and to a large
extent goes to satisfy home needs, leaving
only about 50,000,000 pounds for export.
In spite of much government encourage-
ment in past years, coffee cultivation has
not made rapid progress, when we remem-
ber that the country became acquainted
with the plant as early as 1790. Not until
about 1870 did the country begin to become
important in the list of coffee-exporters;
but by 1878 - 79, shipments amounted to
about 12,000,000 pounds. This steadily in-
creased to 29,400,000 pounds in 1891-92.
Exports in recent years have averaged about
50,000,000 pounds; but in 1918 were only
PRODUCTION AND CONSUMPTION
281
30,000,000. Production has fluctuated
greatly. In the years preceding the troubled
revolutionary period, the total output was
estimated as follows: 1907, 45,000,000
pounds: 1908, 42,000,000 pounds; 1909,
81,000,000 pounds ; 1910, 70,000,000 pounds.
In the ten years preceding 1907, production
dropped as low as 22,000,000 pounds in
1902; and rose to 88,500,000 pounds in
1905. Next to the United States, Germany
was the chief buyer of Mexican coffee before
the war; although France and Great Brit-
ain also took several million pounds each.
Haiti. For well over a century Haiti has
been shipping tens of millions of pounds
of coffee annually; and the product is the
mainstay of the country's economic life.
In all that time, however, shipments have
maintained much the same level. The
country has been a coffee producer from the
early years of the eighteenth century, when
the plants began to spread from the orig-
inal sprigs in Guiana or Martinique. After
half a century of growth, exports had risen
to 885860,000 pounds in 1789 - 90, a mark
that has never again been reached. Since
then, exports have ranged between 40,000,-
000 and 80,000,000 pounds, keeping close to
the lower mark in recent years because of
European conditions. They were 38,000,000
pounds in 1856 ; 55,750,000 pounds in 1866 ;
and 52,300,000 pounds in 1876. They had
reached 84,028,000 pounds in 1887 - 88 ; but
fell back to 67,437,000 pounds in 1897 - 98 ;
and ten years later, were 63,848,000 pounds.
In 1917 - 18, they were only about two-
thirds that amount, or 42,100,000 pounds.
Some 8,000,000 pounds are consumed yearly
in the country itself. The coffee planta-
tions cover about 125,000 acres.
Dominican Republic. Coffee production
in the Dominican Republic ranges between
1,000,000 and 5,000,000 pounds, exports in
recent years averaging about 3,500,000
pounds. The quality of the coffee is good ;
but the plantations are not well cared for.
Until fifty years ago, the industry was in a
state of decline from a condition of former
importance; but it was revived, and by
1881 it supplied 1,400,000 pounds for ex-
port. The amount was 1,480,000 pounds
in 1888 ; 3,950,000 pounds in 1900 ; 1,540,-
000 pounds in 1909 ; and 4,870,000 pounds
in 1919. Blight, and disturbed political
conditions, have hampered development. In
normal times, Europe takes most of the
export.
Jamaica. Jamaica began to raise coffee
about -1730; and from that time on there
was a steady but slow increase in produc-
tion. Shipments amounted to about 60,000
pounds in 1752, and to about 1,800,000
pounds in 1775. At the beginning of the
new century, in 1804, exports of 22,000,000
pounds are recorded ; and in 1814 the figure
was 34,045,000 pounds. Then exports grad-
ually fell off, and in 1861 were only 6,700,-
000 pounds. They were 10,350,000 pounds
in 1874; and since then, have not varied
much from 9,000,000 or 10,000,000 pounds
a year. They were 9,363,000 pounds in
1900 ; 7,885,000 pounds in 1909 ; and 8,246,-
000 pounds in 1919. The acreage in coffee
remains fairly constant, being 24,865 in
1900 ; 22,275 in 1911 ; and 20,280 in 1917.
It is said that there are 80,000 acres of
good coffee land still uncultivated.
Porto Rico. The cultivation of coffee in
Porto Rico dates back to the middle of the
eighteenth century; but exportation does
not seem to have been much more than a
million pounds a year until the first years of
the nineteenth century. Between 1837 and
1840, the average exportation was about
10,000,000 pounds; and by 1865, this had
risen to 24,000,000 pounds. Ten years later,
it was 25,700,000 pounds. In recent years,
it has averaged about 37,000,000 pounds;
the 1921 figure, including shipments to
continental United States, being 29,968,000
pounds. Production since 1881 has been
between 30,000,000 and 50,000,000 pounds ;
the heaviest being in 1896 when the total
output was 62,628,337 pounds — the largest
figure in the island's history. The industry
was greatly damaged by a disastrous storm
in 1900, and was also adversely affected by
the European War,. as a large part of Porto
Rico's crop goes to Europe. Porto Rican
coffee has not been popular in the United
States, which takes only limited amounts.
Cuba is one of the island's best customers.
Guadeloupe. Coffee production in
Guadeloupe reached its highest point in
the latter part of the eighteenth century,
when more than 8,000,000 pounds were
raised. The figure was about 6,000,000 in
1808; but the output declined during the
succeeding decades, and forty years later
was only 375,000 pounds. The amount pro-
duced in 1885 was 986,000 pounds; and
282
ALL ABOUT COFFEE
there has been a gradual increase, so that
the crop has been large enough to permit
the exportation of 1,000,000 to 2,000,000
pounds, or more, since the beginning of the
present century. Exports in 1901 were
1,449,000 pounds; in 1908, 2,266,000
pounds ; and in 1918, 2,144,000 pounds.
Other West Indian Islands. Some little
coffee is gathered for home consumption in
many other West Indian islands, but little
is exported. The island of Martinique,
which is said to have seen the introduction
of the coffee plant into the western hemi-
sphere, does not now raise enough for its
own use. Cuba was formerly one of the
important centers of production; but for
various reasons the industry declined, and
for many years the country has imported
most of its coffee supply. A century ago,
the plantations numbered 2,067 ; and the
annual exportation amounted to 50,000,000
pounds. When the island became inde-
pendent, steps were taken to revive coffee
planting; and in 1907 there were 1,411
plantations and 3,662,850 trees, producing
6,595,700 pounds of coffee. The Cubans,
however, now find it convenient to obtain
their coffee from the neighboring island of
Porto Rico and from other sources ; and im-
portations have remained around 20,000,000
pounds a year. In Trinidad and Tobago,
exports have reached as high as 1,000,000
pounds a year ; but in recent times they have
fallen off heavily. St. Vincent exported 485
pounds in 1917, and Grenada, 251 pounds
in 1916. The Leeward Islands exported
1,415 pounds in 1917, and 2,946 pounds in
1916, the acreage being 274, the same as for
many years past.
Arabia. The home of the famous Mocha
coffee still produces considerable quantities
of that variety, although the output, com-
paratively speaking, is not large. The chief
district is the vilayet of Yemen ; and the
product reaches the outside world mainly
through the port of Aden, although before
the war much of this coffee was exported
through Hodeida. The port of Massowah,
in the last two or three years, has been
drawing some of the supply of Mocha for
export. No statistics are available to show
the production of Mocha coffee ; but an esti-
mate made by the oldest coffee merchant in
Aden places the average annual output at
45,000 bags of 176 pounds each, or 7,920,000
pounds. Although this is the only district
in the world that can produce the particular
grade of coffee known as Mocha, there is
little systematic cultivation, and large areas
of good coffee land are planted to other
crops to provide food for the natives. When
transportation facilities are provided, so
that this food can be imported, it is pre-
dicted that the output of Mocha coffee will
be doubled.
Aden is a great transhipping port for
coffee from Asia and Africa, and more than
half its exports are re-exports from points
outside of Arabia. The following figures
will show the proportion of Arabian coffee
coming into Aden for export as compared
with that from other producing sections :
Aden's Coffee Receipts for Re-Expoet
Imports 1916-17 1917-18 1918-19
from (pounds) (pounds) (pounds)
Abyssinia (via Jibuti) .4,529,280 6,174,896 4,337,760
Mocha and Ghizan ....3,555,104 6,562,752 3,075,024
Somaliland (British) .. 394,128 396,592 245,840
Straits Settlements . . . 672,224
Zanzibar and Pemba .. 92,512 795,312 764,288
All other countries ... 162,064 307,104 323,616
Total 9,405,312 14,236,656 8,746,528
British India. Cultivation of coffee was
begun systematically in India in 1840 ; and
twenty years later, the country exported
about 5,860,000 pounds. For the next eight
years the exports remained at about that
figure; but in 1859 they amounted to 11,-
690,000 pounds; and by 1864 they had
doubled, rising in that year to 26,745,000
pounds. They have continued at between
20,000,000 and 60,000,000 pounds ever
since, reaching their highest point in 1872
with 56,817,000 pounds. In recent years,
production and exportation have declined;
the exports in 1920 being only 30,526,832
pounds. The area under coffee has been
between 200,000 and 300,000 acres for fifty
years or more, reaching its highest point
in 1896, with 303,944 acres. Recently the
area has been slowly decreasing.
Ceylon. The island of Ceylon was form-
erly one of the important producers of
coffee; and the industry was a flourishing
one until about 1869, when a disease ap-
peared that in ten or fifteen years practi-
cally ruined the plantations. Production
has gone on since then, but at a steadily
declining rate. In late years, the island
has not produced enough for its own use,
and is now ranked as an importer rather
than as an exporter. It is said that system-
atic cultivation was carried on in Ceylon
by the Dutch as early as 1690; and ship-
ments of 10,000 to 90,000 pounds a year
PRODUCTIOX AND CONSUMPTION
I _
tury, exports in one year, 1741, going as
high as 370,000 pounds. The English took
the island in 1795, and thirty years later,
they began to expand cultivation. Exports
had risen to 12,400,000 pounds in 1836 ; and
they continued to increase to a high point
of 118,160,000 pounds in 1870; but in the
next thirty years they declined, until they
were only 1,147,000 pounds in 1900. The
total acreage in coffee at one time reached
as high as 340,000; but as the coffee trees
were att'ected by the leaf disease, this land
was turned to tea; and in 1917 there were
only 810 acres left in cotfee.
Dutch East Indies. The year 1699 saw
the importation from the Malabar coast of
India to Java of the cotfee plants which
were destined to be the progenitors of the
tens of millions of trees that have made the
Dutch East Indies famous for two hundred
years. Twelve years afterward, the first
trickle of the stream of coffee that has con-
tinued to flow ever since found its way
from Java to Holland, in a shipment of 894
pounds. About 216,000 pounds were ex-
ported in 1721; and soon thereafter, ship-
ments rose into the millions of pounds.
From 1721 to 1730 the Netherlands
East India Co. marketed 25,048,000 pounds
of Java coffee in Holland; and in the de-
cade following, 36,845,000 pounds. Ship-
ments from Java continued at about the
latter rate until the close of the century,
although in the ten years 1771 - 80 they
reached a total of 51,319,000 pounds. The
total sales of Java coffee in Holland for the
century were somewhat more than a quarter
of a billion pounds, which represented
pretty closely the amount produced.
With the beginning of the nineteenth
century, coffee production soon became
much heavier; and in 1825 Java exported,
of her own production, some 36,500,000
pounds, besides 1,360,000 pounds brought
from neighboring islands to which the cul-
tivation had spread. In 1855, the amount
was 168,100,000 pounds of Java coffee, and
4,080,000 pounds of coffee from the other
islands. This is the highest record for the
half-century following the beginning of the
regular reports of exports in 1825. From
1875 to 1879 the average annual yield was
152,184,000 pounds. In 1900, production
in Java was 84,184,000 pounds; in 1910,
it was 31,552,000 pounds, and in 1915 it
had jumped to 73,984,000 pounds.
283
On the west coast of Sumatra coffee was
regularly cultivated, according to one ac-
count, as early as 17-83 ; but it was not until
about 1800, that exportation began, with
about 270,000 pounds. By 1840, exports
were averaging 11,000,000 to 12,250,000
pounds per year. Ofificial records of pro-
duction date from 1852, in which year the
figures were 16,714,000 pounds. Five years
later the recorded yield was 25,960,000
pounds, the high-water mark of Sumatra
production. The total output in 1860 was
21,400,000 pounds; and 22,275,000 pounds
in 1870. The average from 1875 to 1879
was 17,408,000 pounds; and from 1895 to
1899, it was 7,589,000 pounds. The yield
was 5,576,000 pounds in 1900; 1,360,000
in 1910; and 7,752,000 in 1915.
In Celebes, the first plants were set out
about 1750 ; but seventy years later produc-
tion was only some 10,000 pounds. This
soon increased to half a million pounds;
and from 1835 to 1852 the yield ran between
340,000 and 1,768,000 pounds. From 1875
to 1879, production averaged 2,176,000
pounds; from 1885 to 1889, 2,747,000
pounds; and from 1895 to 1899, 707,000
pounds. In 1900, it was 680,000 pounds;
in 1910, 272,000 pounds ; and in 1915, 272,-
000 pounds.
Planting under government control,
largely wdth forced labor, has been the
special feature of coffee cultivation in the
Dutch East Indies. At first the govern-
ment exercised what was practically a
monopoly; but private planting was more
and more permitted ; and in the latter part
of the nineteenth century, the amount of
coffee produced on private plantations ex
ceeded that raised by the government. The
government has now entirely given up the
business of coffee production.
The total production of coffee in Java,
Sumatra, and Celebes, in 1920, in piculs of
136 pounds, was as follows :
Dutch East Indies' Coffee Production
Kind of Quantity Produced in
Coffee Java Sumatra Celebes Total
and Bali
(piculs) (piculs) (piculs) (piculs)
Liberica . 14,972 6,243 2,074 23,289
Java 16,312 24,291 70,621 111,224
Robusta .. 411,235 256,645 4,998 672,878
Total .. 442,519 287,179 77,693 807,391
Straits Settlements. Trade in coffee is
a transhipping trade, Singapore acting as a
284
ALL ABOUT COFFEE
clearing center for large quantities of
coffee from the neighboring islands. In
1920, the imports were 25,914,267 pounds;
and the exports, 26,856,000 pounds.
Federated Malay States. The acreage
in coffee in the Federated Malay States is
steadily declining. In 1903, coffee planta-
tions covered 22,700 acres; in 1913, 7,695
acres ; and in 1916, 4,312 acres. There was
formerly a considerable export ; but appar-
ently local production is now required for
home consumption, as in 1920 exports were
practically nothing, and about 9,800 pounds
were imported.
British Nortpe Borneo. Total exports of
coffee have reached as high as 50,000
pounds, which was the figure in 1904; but
they are much less now; being 5,973
pounds in 1915 ; 15,109 pounds in 1916 ; and
1,980 pounds in 1918.
Sarawak. Previous to 1912, the exporta-
tion of coffee from Sarawak was 20,000 to
45,000 pounds annually. In 1912, a coffee
estate of 300 acres was abandoned, and since
that time there have been no exports.
Philippines. Coffee raising was former-
ly one of the chief industries of the Philip-
pines; but it has now greatly declined,
partly because of the blight. Exports
reached their highest point in 1883, when
16,805,000 pounds were shipped. Since
then, they have fallen off steadily to noth-
ing; and the islands are now importers,
although still producing considerable for
their own use. The area still under cultiva-
tion in 1920 was 2,700 acres ; and the pro-
duction in that year was given as 2,710,000
pounds, as compared with 1,580,000 pounds
in 1919, and an average of 1,500,000 pounds
for the previous five years.
Guam. Coffee is a common plant on the
island but is not systematically cultivated.
There is no exportation, but a Navy De-
partment report says that the possible ex-
port is not less than seventy-five tons
annually.
Hawaii. A certain amount of coffee has
been produced in the Hawaiian Islands for
many years, exports being recorded as 49,-
000 pounds in 1861; as 452,000 pounds in
1870 ; and as 143,000 pounds in 1877. The
trees grow on all the islands ; but nearly all
the coffee produced is raised on Hawaii.
The trees are not carefully cultivated; but
the coffee has an excellent flavor. The-
amount of land planted to coffee is about
6,000 acres. The exports go mostly to con-
tinental United States. The exports are
increasing, the figures up to 1909 ranging
usually between 1,000,000 and 2,000,000
pounds, and now usually running between
2,000,000 and 5,000,000 pounds. Including
shipments to continental United States,
Hawaii exported 5,775,825 pounds in 1918 ;
3,649,672 pounds in 1919 ; 2,573,300 pounds
in 1920 ; and 4,979,121 pounds in 1921.
Australia. Queensland is the only state
of the Commonwealth in which coffee grow-
ing has been at all extensively tried; and
here the results have, up to the present
time, been far from satisfactory. The total
area devoted to this crop reached its highest
point in the season 1901 - 02 when an area
of 547 acres was recorded. The. area then
continuously declined to 1906 - 07, when it
was as low as 256 acres. In subsequent
seasons the area fluctuated somewhat; but,
on the whole, with a downward tendency.
In 1919 - 20, only 24 productive acres were
recorded, with a yield of 16,101 pounds.
The country is now listed among the con-
suming rather than the producing countries.
Abyssinia. This country, usually cred-
ited with being the original home of the
coffee plant, still has, in its southern part,
vast forests of wild coffee whose extent is
unknown, but whose total production is
believed to be immense. It is of inferior
grade, and reaches the market as ' ' Abyssin-
ian" coffee. There is also a large district
of coffee plantations producing a very good
grade called "Harari", which is considered
almost, if not quite, the equal of the
Arabian Mocha. This is usually shipped
to Aden for re-export. Abyssinia's coffee
reaches the outside world through three
different gate-ways ; and as the neighboring
countries, through which the produce passes,
also produce coffee, no accurate statistics
are available to show the country's annual
export. The total probably ranges from
10,000,000 to 20,000,000 pounds a year.
Coffee was shipped from Abyssinia to the
extent of 6,773,800 pounds in 1914, over
the Franco-Ethiopian railroad; 10,054,000
pounds in 1915; and 9,064,000 pounds in
1916. Export figures of the port of Mas-
sowah include a large amount of Abyssin-
ian coffee, but the proportion is unknown.
At this port 108,680 pounds of coffee were
exported in 1914; and 1,221,880 pounds in
1915. Abyssinian coffee exported by way of
the Sudan amounted to 232,616 pounds iiL
i
PRODUCTION AND CONSUMPTION
285
1914; to 140,461 pounds in 1915; and to
4,164,600 pounds in 1916.
British East African Protectorate.
The acreage in coffee has greatly increased
in recent years. It was estimated at 1,000
acres in 1911 ; and by 1916, it had grown
to 22,200 acres. Production, as shown by
the exports, has likewise increased greatly;
and exports in recent years have averaged
about 8,000,000 pounds a year. They were
10,984,000 pounds in 1917; and were 18,-
735,000 pounds in 1918.
Uganda Protectorate. The acreage in
coffee has been steadily increasing, as shown
bv the following figures: 1910, 697 acres;
1914, 19,278 acres ; 1916, 23,857 acres ; 1917,
22,745 acres. In 1909, 33,440 pounds of
coffee were produced ; and by 1918, this had
grown to 10,000,000 pounds. The average
for the five years, 1914-18, was 5,076,000
pounds.
Nyasaland Protectorate. Twenty-five
years ago, this colony exported coffee in
amounts ranging from 300,000 to more than
2,000,000 pounds. Production has now so
declined, that only 122,000 pounds were
exported in 1918 ; and the average for recent
years has been about 92,000 pounds. The
acreage in bearing in 1903 was 8,234; and
in 1917 it was 1,237.
Nigeria. Production has been falling off
in recent years. Exports were 35,000
pounds in 1896 ; 57,000 pounds in 1901 ; and
70,000 pounds in 1909. In 1916 and 1917,
however, they were only about 3,000
pounds.
Gold Coast. This colony formerly pro-
duced considerable coffee, exporting 142,000
pounds in 1896. There have been no
exports in recent years, except about 440
pounds in 1916, and 660 pounds in 1917.
SOMALILAND PROTECTORATE. ExpOrts of
coffee were more than 7,500,000 pounds in
1897, indicating a very extensive produc-
tion. But since then, there has been a
steady decline ; and in 1918 only about 440,-
000 pounds were shipped.
Somali Coast (French). Exports of
coffee from this colony amounted to more
than 5,000,000 pounds in 1902; and since
then, they have remained fairly steadily at
that figure, showing considerable increase
in late years. Total exports in 1917 were
11,200,000 pounds.
Italian Somaliland. Some coffee ap-
pears to be grown in this colony; but ex-
ports have been inconsiderable for many
years.
Sierra Leone. Production has been
steadily declining for twenty years. Ex-
ports were 33,376 pounds in 1903; 17,096
pounds in 1913 ; and 8,228 pounds in 1917.
Mauritius. In former times this island
was an important coffee producer, exports
in the early part of the nineteenth century
running as high as 600,000 pounds. To-day
there is practically no export, and only
about 30 acres are in bearing, producing
4,000 to 8,000 pounds a year.
Reunion. This island also was once a
notable grower of coffee. A century ago,
production was estimated as high as 10,-
000,000 pounds; and this rate of output
continued well through the nineteenth
century. In the present century, produc-
tion has fallen off; and only about 530,000
pounds were exported in 1909. The de-
crease has continued, so that the average in
recent years has been only about 25,000
pounds.
Coffee Consumption
Of the million or more tons of coffee
produced in the world each year, prac-
tically all — with the exception of that
which is used in the coffee-growing coun-
tries themselves — is consumed by the
United States and western Europe, the
British dominions, and the non-producing
countries of South America. Over that vast
stretch of territory beginning with western
Russia, and extending over almost the whole
of Asia, coffee is very little known. In the
consuming regions mentioned, moreover,
consumption is concentrated in a few coun-
tries, which together account for some
ninety percent of all the coffee that enters
the world's markets. These are, the United
States, which now takes more than one-half,
and Germany, France, Spain, Italy, Hol-
land, Belgium, Switzerland, and Scandi-
navia.
The United Kingdom stands out conspicu-
ously among the nations of western Europe
as a small consumer of coffee, the per
capita consumption in that country being
only about two-thirds of a pound each year.
France and Germany are by far the biggest
coffee buyers of Europe so far as actual
quantity is concerned; although some of
the other countries mentioned drink much
more coffee in proportion to the population.
The Mediterranean countries and the
286
ALL ABOUT COFFEE
COrrEE CONSUMPT/ON.
J»00 /SOO /a/O A9SO
No. 4 — Woklh's Coffee Consumption, 1850-1920
Diagram showing the relationship between the
leading coffee-consuming countries
Balkans are of only secondary importance
as coffee drinkers. Among the British
dominions, the Union of South Africa takes
much the largest amount, doubtless because
of the Dutch element in its population ;
while Canada, Australia, and New Zealand
show the influence of the mother country,
consumption per head in the last two being
no greater than in England.
In South America, Brazil, Bolivia, and
all the countries to the north, are coffee
producers. Of the southern countries, Ar-
gentina is the chief coffee buyer, with Chile
second. In the western hemisphere, how-
ever, the largest per capita coffee consumer
is the island of Cuba, which raises some
coffee of its own and imports heavily from
its neighbors.
The list of coffee-consuming countries in-
cludes practically all those that do not raise
coffee, and also a few that have some coff'ee
plantations, but do not grow enough for
their own use. These countries are listed
on page 287. Consumption figures can be
determined with fair accuracy by the im-
port figures; although in some countries,
where there is a considerable transit trade,
it is necessary to deduct export from import
figures to obtain actual consumption figures.
The import figures given are the latest avail-
able for each country named.
On account of the very wide fluctuations
in imports during the war and the period
following the war, per capita figures of
consumption are of only relative value, as
they have naturally changed radically in
recent years. For the most part, however,
the trade has about swung back to normal ;
and per capita figures based on the amounts
retained for consumption, as given in the
General Coffee Consumption Table, are
fairly close to those for the years before
the war. As per capita calculations must
take into account population as well as
amounts of coffee consumed; and as popu-
lation figures are usually estimates, the re-
sults arrived at by different authorities
are likely to vary slightly, although usu-
/S/6
/S/7
/9/8
/S/-9 /920
Coffee Imports, lUl<')-lt)2()
In this diagram a comparison is drawn between the
coffee imports of the leading consuming coun-
tries over a critical 5-year period
ally they are not far apart. In figuring
the per capita amounts in the table on
page 288, latest available estimates of popu-
lation have been used. The figures show
that the following are the ten leading-
PRODUCTION AND CONSUMPTION 287
General Coffee Consumption Table
Country Year
United States 1921a
Canada 1921c
Newfoundland 1920 c
United Kingdom 1921 »
France 1921 a
Spain 1920
Portugal 1919a
Belgium 1921 a
Holland 1921 a
Denmark 1921 a
Norway 1921 a
Sweden 1921 a
Finland 1921 a
Rnssiii 1916
Austria-Hungary (former) 1917
Austria 1921 e
Germany (former) 1913
Germany (present) 1921'
Poland 1920
Bulgaria 1914
Rumania 1919
Greece 19208
Switzerland 1921*
Italy 1920
Algeria 1920
Tunis 1920
Egypt 1921a
Union of So. Africa 1920
Northern Rhodesia 1920
Southern Rhodesia 1920
Mozambique 1919
Ceylon 1920
China 1920
Japan 1920
Philippines 1920
Canary Islands 1917
Cyprus 1918
Australia 1920c
New Zealand 1920
Cuba 1920c
Martinique 1918
Panama 1920
Argentina 1919
Chile 1920
Uruguay 19218
Paraguay 1920
Imports
Exports
Consumption
(pounds)
(pounds)
(pounds)
.,345,366,943 b
41,813,197b
1,303,553,746
17,517,353
20.349
17,497,004
46,813d
46.813
34.363,728 d
34,360,128
322.419.884
1,154,769
321,265,115
48,518,854
5,033
48,513,821
6,926,575
1,258,271
5,668,304
105.365,586
21,541,049
83,824.537
135.566.943
66,567,702
69,999,241
46,571,954
3,449,537
43,122,417
29,835,544
169,921
29,665,623
89,660.766
89,660.766
27,968,355
27.968,355
9,801,014
9,801,014
17,966,167
56,217
17,909,950
5,128,781
79,365
5,049,416
371.130,520
1,783,521
369,346,999
167.675.258
210,535
167,464,723
7,612,526
26,781
7,585,745
1,300,493
1,300.493
5,134,198
66,757
5.067.441
13,118,626
13,118.626
31,582,879
47,619
31.535,260
66,509,255
14,330
66,4^4,925
17,273,041
17,273,041
3,458,018
3,458.018
20,939,542
218,938
20,720,604
28,752,538
954,181b
27,798,357
43,880
8.263
35,617
325,900
10,064
315,836
111,614
78,973
32,641
1,853,537
2,240
1,851,297
613,217
297,663
315,554
684,826
684,826
3,475,530
26
3,475,504
529,104
529,104
451,880
451,880
2,502,429
263,4301
2.238,999
304,737
21,104
283,633
39,983,001
1,305
39,981,696
335,099
10,362
324,737
216,923
518
216,405
37,541,020
37,541,020
12,357,929
12,357,929
4,896,507
4,896,507
262,737
262,737
a Preliminary figures.
b Figures are for continental U. S. Imports include both foreign coffee and coffee from our Island posses-
sions. Exports include both foreign and domestic exports from continental U. S. and also exports to our
island possessions.
'•Fiscal year, d Entered for home consumption.
eFirst six months. Imports in 1920 were 6,042,808 pounds; exports 93,034 pounds.
f Eight months, May - December. k First eleven months.
h Exports of foreign coffee. Domestic exports were 48,463 pounds.
i Exports of foreign coffee. Domestic exports were 208,445 pounds.
288
ALL ABOUT COFFEE
countries in the per capita consumption of
coffee in pounds :
1. Sweden 15.25 6. Norway 10.95
2. Cuba 13.79 7. Holland 10.22
3. Denmark 13.19 8. Finland 8.25
4. United States. 12.09 9. Switzerland . 8.17
5. Belgium 11.06 10. France 7.74
The per capita consumption of the most
important coffee-consuming countries,
based on the large table, is given with the
1913 per capita figures for comparison :
Per Capita Coffee Consumption Table
Country Year Pounds Pds., 1913
United States 1921 12.09 8.90b
Canada 1921^ 1.93 2.17=
Newfoundland ..... 1920a o.l9 0.19"
United Kingdom . . . 1921 0.72 0.61b
France 1921 7.74 6.41
Spain 1920 2.33 1.64
Portugal 1919 0.86 1.16
Belgium 1921 11.06 12.27
Holland 1921 10.22 18.80
Denmark 1921 13.19 12.85
Norway 1921 10.95 12.29
Sweden 1921 15.25 13.41
Finland 1921 8.25 8.85
Russia 1916 0.05 0.16
Austria-Hungary . . . 1917 0.34 2.54
Germany 1921 4.10 5.43
Roumania 1919 0.29 1.04
Greece 1920 2.97 1.19
Switzerland 1921 8.17 6.48
Italy 1920 1.84 1.79
Egypt 1921 1.53 1.15
Union of So. Africa . 1920 S.SOd 4.19^
Ceylon 1920 0.43 0.36
China 1920 0.001 0.01
Japan 1920 0.01 0.0O4
Cuba 1920a 13.79 10.00
Argentina 1919 4.40 3.74
Chile 1920 3.06 3.04
Uruguay 1921 3.61 e
Paraguay 1920 0.26 ^
Australia 1920a 0.42 0.64
New Zealand 1920 0.24 0.29
a Fiscal year.
bFiscal year 1913.
cFiscal year ending March 31, 1914.
d Including both white and colored population.
eNot available.
Tea and Coffee in England and the U. S.
The rise of the United States as a coffee
consumer in the last century and a quarter
has been marked, not only by steadily in-
creased imports as the population of the
country increased, but also by a steady
growth in per capita consumption, show-
ing that the beverage has been continually
advancing in favor with the American peo-
ple. To-day it stands at practically its
highest point, each individual man, woman,
and child having more than 12 pounds a
year, enough for almost 500 cups, allotted
to him as his portion. This is four times
/sea /fft^ /ssa /sse> /&ao /^/o /&po
No. 6 — World's Consumption of Tea and
Coffee
Diagram showing their relationship, 1900-1920
as much as it was a hundred years ago;
and more than twice as much as it was in
the years immediately following the Civil
War. In general it is fifty percent more
than the average in the twenty years pre-
ceding 1897, in which year a new high level
of coffee consumption was apparently es-
tablished, the per capita figure for that year
being 10.12 pounds, which has been ap-
proximately the average since then.
Since the advent of country-wide pro-
hibition in the United States on July 1,
1919, about two pounds more coffee per
person, or 80 to 100 cups, have been con-
sumed than before. Part of this increase
is doubtless to be charged to prohibition;
but it is yet too early to judge fairly as
to the exact effect of "bone-dry" legisla-
PRODUCTIOA^ AND CONSUMPTION
289
tion on coffee drinking. The continued
growth in the use of coffee in the United
States has been in decided contrast to the
per capita consumption of tea, which is less
now than half a century ago.
In the United Kingdom, the reverse eon-
ilition prevails. Tea drinking there stead-
ily maintains a popularity which it has
enjoyed for centuries; while coffee appar-
ently makes no advance in favor. In this
respect, the country is sharply distin-
guished from its neighbors of western Eu-
rope, in many of w^hich coffee drinking has
been much heavier, considering the popu-
lation, even than in the United States.
The contrast between the tastes of the two
countries in beverages is shown clearly by
the per capita figures of tea and coffee
consumption for half a century, as they
appear in the table, next column.
Coffee Consumption in Europe
On the continent of Europe, however,
coffee enjoys much the same sort of popu-
larity that it does in the United States.
The leading continental coffee ports are
Hamburg, Bremen, Copenhagen, Amster-
dam, Rotterdam, Antwerp, Havre, Bor-
deaux, Marseilles, and Trieste ; and the na-
tionalities of these ports indicate pretty
well the countries that consume the most
coffee. The northern ports are tranship-
ping points for large quantities of coffee
going to the Scandinavian countries, as well
as importing ports for their own countries ;
and these countries have been among the
leading coffee drinkers, per head of popu-
lation, for many decades. Norway, for in-
stance, in 1876 was consuming about 8.8
pounds of coffee per person; Sweden, 5
pounds; and Denmark, 5.2 pounds. The
per capita consumption of various other
countries at about the same period^ 1875 to
1880, has been estimated as follows : Hol-
liand, 17.6 pounds ; Belgium, 9.1 pounds ;
Germany, 5.1 pounds; Austria-Hungary,
2.2 pounds; Switzerland, Q.Q pounds;
France, 3 pounds ; Spain, 0.2 pounds ; Por-
tugal, 0.7 pounds; and Greece, 1.6 pounds.
Today, the leading country of the world
in point of per capita consumption is
Sweden (15.25 pounds) ; but Holland held
that position for a long while. During the
World War the disturbance^ of trade cur-
rents, and the high price of coffee, greatly
reduced the amount of coffee drinking ; and
Tea and Coffee Consumption Pee Capita
Year United States United Kingdom
Cofifee Tea Coffee Tea
pounds pounds pounds pounds
1866 4.96 1.17 1.02 3.42
1867 5.01 1.09 1.04 3.68
1868 6.52 .96 1.00 3.52
1869 6.45 1.08 .94 3.63
1870 6.00 1.10 .98 3.81
1871 7.91 1.14 .97 3.92
1872 7.28 1.46 .98 4.01
1873 6.87 1.53 .99 4.11
1874 6.59 1.27 .96 4.23
1875 7.08 1.44 ,98 4.44
1876 7.33 1.35 .99 4.50
1877 6.94 1.23 .96 4.52
1878 6.24 1.33 .97 4.66
1879 7.42 1.21 .99 4.68
1880 8.78 1.39 .92 4.57
1881 8.25 1.54 .89 4.58
1882 8.30 1.47 .89 4.69
1883 8.91 1.30 .89 4.82
1884 9.26 1.09 .90 4.90
1885 9.60 1.18 .91 5.06
1886 9.36 1.37 .87 4.92
1887 8.53 1.49 .80 5.02
1888 6.81 1.49 .83 5.03
1889 9.16 1.25 .76 4.99
1890 7.77 1.32 .75 5.17
1891 7.»4 1.28 .76 " 5.36
1892 9.59 1.36 .74 5.43
1893 8.23 1.32 .69 5.40
1894 8.01 1.34 .68 5.51
1895 9.24 1.39 .70 5.65
1896 8.08 1.32 .69 5.75
1897 10.04 1.56 .68 5.79
1898 11.59 .93 .68 5.83
1899 10.72 .97 .71 5.95
1900 9.84 1.09 .71 6.07
1901 10.43 1.12 .76 6.16
1902 33.32 .92 .68 6.07
1903 10.80 1.27 .71 6.04
1904 11.67 1.31 .68 6.02
1905 11.98 1.19 .67 6.02
1906 9.72 1.06 .66 6.22
1907 11.15 .96 .67 6.26
1908 9.82 1.03 .66 6.24
1909 11.43 1.24 .67 6.37
1910 9.33 .89 .65 6.39
1911 9.29 1.05 .62 6.47
1912 9.26 1.04 .61 6.49
1913 8.90 .96 .61 6.68
1914 10.14 .91 .63 6.89
1915 10.62 .91 .71 6.87
1916 11.20 1.07 .66 6.56
1917 12.38 .99 1.02 6.03
1918 10.43 1.40 1.19 6.75
1919 9.13 .87 .76 8.43
1920 12.78 .84 .74 8.51
Figures for all except most recent years are taken
from the Stati8ti<-al Abstract publications of the two
countries. For the United States the figures given
apply to fiscal years ending June 30, and for the
United Kingdom to calendar years.
290
ALL ABOUT COFFEE
the Dutch took to drinking tea in consider-
able quantities.
France. Second only to the United
States, in the total amount of coffee con-
sumed, is France ; although that country
before the war occupied third place, being
passed by Grcrmany. Havre is one of the
great coffee ports of Europe ; and has a
coffee exchange organized in 1882, only a
short time after the Exchange in New York
began operations. France draws on all the
large producing regions for her coffee ; but
is especially prominent in the trade in the
West Indies and the countries around the
Caribbean Sea. Imports in 1921 (prelim-
inary) amounted to 322,419,884 pounds;
exports to 1,154,769 pounds; and net con-
sumption, to 321,265,115 pounds.
Germany. Hamburg is one of the world 's
important coffee ports ; and in normal times
coffee is brought there in vast amounts, not
only for shipment into the interior of Ger-
many, but also for transhipment to Scandi-
navia, Finland and Russia. Up to the out-
break of the war, Germany was the chief
coffee-drinking country of Europe. During
the blockade, the Germans resorted to sub-
stitutes; and after the war because of high
prices, there was still some consumption of
them. German coffee imports since the war
have not quite climbed back to their former
high mark; and the per capita consump-
tion, judged by these figures is still some-
what low. Importations amounted to
90,602,000 pounds in 1920. The amount of
total imports was 371,130,520 pounds in
1913; total exports, 1,783,521 pounds; and
net imports, 369,346,999 pounds.
Netherlands. Netherlands is one of the
oldest coffee countries of Europe, and for
centuries has been a great transhipping
agent, distributing coffee from her East
Indian possessions and from America
among her northern neighbors. Before
sending these coffee shipments aloner. how-
ever, she kept back enough plentifully to
supply her own people, so that for many
years before the war she led the world in
per capita consumption. As far back as
1867 - 76, coffee consumption was averaging
more than 13 pounds per capita. In the
year before the war, the average was 18.8
pounds. The blockade, and other abnormal
conditions during the war, threw the trade
off; and it is still subnormal. In 1920 the
net imports were about 96,000,000 pounds,
Avhich would give a per capita consump-
tion of about 14 pounds if it all went into-
consumption. But part of it was probably
stored for later exportation, as indicated
by the figures for 1921, which show heavy
exports and a c&nsequent lower figure for
consumption. Eighty per cent of the Neth-
erlands coffee trade is handled through
Amsterdam.
Consumption of coffee is now slowly
going back to normal, but the change in
source of imports — which before the war
came largely from Brazil but which war
conditions turned heavily toward the East
Indies — is still in evidence. Per capita
consumption of coffee in Holland up to the
outbreak of the war was as follows :
Coffee Consumption ?*:» Capita in Holland
Year
Pounds
Year
Pounds:
1847-56 ...
. 9.6
19()7 ....
14.9
1857-66 ...
. 7.1
1908 ....
14.8
1867-76 ...
. 18.3
1909 ....
. ... 16.7
1877-86 ...
. 16.7
1910 ....
.... 15.7
1887-96 ...
. 12.8
1311 ....
. ... 15.8
1897-1906 .
. 16.7
1912 ....
12.8
1906
. 17.2
1913 ....
. ... 18.8
Other Countries op Europe. Denmark^
Norway, and Sweden are all heavy coft'ee
drinkers. In 1921 Sweden had the highest
per capita consumption in the world, 15.25
pounds. Before the war, these three coun-
tries each consumed about as much per
capita as the United States does to-day, 12
to 13 pounds. The 1921 imports for con-
sumption! were as follows: Denmark, 43,-
122,417 pounds; Norway, 29,665,623
pounds; Sweden, 89,660,766 pounds. Aus-
tria-Hungary was formerly an important
buyer of coffee, large quantities coming
into the country yearly through Trieste.
Imports in 1913 totaled 130,951,000 pounds ;
and in 1912, 124,527,000 pounds. In 1917
the war cut down the total to 17,910,000
pounds net consumption. Finland shares
with her neighbors of the Baltic a strong
taste for coffee, importing, in 1921, 27,-
968,000 pounds, about 8.25 pounds per
capita. In the same year, Belgium had a
net importation of 83,824,000 pounds.
Spain, in 1920, consumed 48,513,821
pounds. Portugal, in 1919, imported 6.-
926,575 pounds; and exported 1,258,271
pounds, leaving 5,668,304 pounds for home
consumption. Coffee is not especially pop-
ular in the Balkan States and Italy; im-
portations into the last-named country in
1920 amounting to 66,494,925 pounds net.
Switzerland is a steady coffee drinker, con-
> The 1921 figures for all countries given are pre-
liminary.
PRODUCTION AND CONSUMPTION
291
;
IS \S
■0-
^:V^v-H,
:\'i
A Meeting of the Coffee Brokeks of Amsterdam, 1820
Reproduced from an old print
Sliming 31,535,260 pounds in 1921. Russia
was never fond of coffee ; and her total im-
ports in 1917, according to a compilation
made under Soviet auspices, were only
4,464,000 pounds.
Other Countries. The Union of South
Africa, in 1920, imported 27,798,000 pounds
net, or about 3.8 pounds per capita. Cuba
purchased 39,981,696 pounds in the fiscal
year 1920 ; Argentina, 37,541,000 pounds in
1919; Chile, 12,358,000 pounds in 1920;
Australia, 2,239,000 pounds in 1920; and
New Zealand, 283,633 pounds in that year.
Three Centuries of Coffee Trading
The story of the development of the
world's coffee trade is a story of about
three centuries. When Columbus sailed for
the new world, the coffee plant was un-
known even as near its original home as his
native Italy. In its probable birthplace in
southern Abyssinia, the natives had enjoyed
its use for a long time, and it had spread
to southwestern Arabia ; but the Mediter-
ranean knew nothing of it until after the
beginning of the sixteenth century. It then
crept slowly along the coast of Asia Minor,
through Syria, Damascus, and Aleppo,
until it reached Constantinople about 1554.
It became very popular ; coffee houses were
opened, and the first of many controversies
arose. But coffee made its way against all
opposition, and soon was firmly established
in Turkish territory.
In those deliberate times, the next step
westward, from Asia to Europe, was not
taken for more than fifty years. In general,
its introduction and establishment in
Europe occupied the whole of the seven-
teenth century.
The greatest pioneering work in coffee
trading was done by the Netherlands East
India Company, which began operations in
1602. The enterprise not only promoted the
spread of coffee growing in two hemi-
spheres ; but it was active also in introduc-
ing the sale of the product in many Euro-
pean countries.
Coffee reached Venice about 1615, and
Marseilles about 1644. The French began
importing coffee in commercial quantities
in 1660. The Dutch began to import
Mocha coffee regularly at Amsterdam in
1663 ; and by 1679 the French had devel-
oped a considerable trade in the berry be-
tween the Levant and the cities of Lyons
and Marseilles. Meanwhile, the coffee drink
had become fashionable in Paris, partly
through its use by the Turkish ambassador,
and the first Parisian cafe was opened in
1672. It is significant of its steady popu-
larity since then that the name cafe, which
is both French and Spanish for coffee, has
292
ALL ABOUT COFFEE
A". 179 o.
OOST-IN D ISCHE
COMPAGNIE.
5562 Baalcn Bruync Peeper
4:0000 (5 Canned in Fardcclen
8000 — Blankc Fouly
10000 — Bruine dico
gjooo ~ Ongcgaibulcerdc Fouly -
; 50000 — Nagelen
100000 - Cclloken Noten Muscaten
6000 ps Mannetgcs Noocen
500 — Ceconfytc dito
1 10000 (8 Sappanhout Blmaa's
1 0000 - dito Javas
179920 — Pocder Suiker
01875 - Thin Bankas
I ia4 — Cardamom Java's
688 - Langc Peeper
3515 - Cubebc of Staartpeeper
1 388 - Sago Mallax
4-547 ps llandrotcingcn op Vragt
1 5000 (I! Catoene Gaarcn Java's
760000 - CofFy Javas
2141 - Thee op \ragt
i- t3ctoinblielJ0ctcn lian be ii3cncialc jRfbtrdnnbfcfjc a?foc-
tionccrbc Oort^nbiKf)C (Connjmjnic / m Dfiijnbcnnij liaii
be SElicnticntn/ p:cfcntfciEn i^i be .niannbcn April en
May be.ie^ ^aa^^!^ '79^' "^ ^f fieipectibc lianicrcn/ m
t X>penijaat rt ticilcn/he naboljcnbe (i3ocbeien/ en bar
lin Dcibeelmgc in be feamcien / en ten baije al^ bolgb:
ZeflanH of Daft , np
den 19 yipril I Hen 77 jlpr-tl
1790 I i;90
1500 I 056
105000 C635O
2000 I 500
6950
8000 1 aooo
62500 1 15625
3910 650
1790.
1470
aiOGOo
4000
1000
'5375
1 25000
8 a 760
2250
400
35000
768
458
2350
45'78
200000
2141
100
85000
10000
1 79920
21875
356
230
"75
1388
2 -.en I
"375 1
Rm.tiltin
up Dimmer.
da^ dt» 59
,ip'U 179,
H„ , M,,
1790.
Do»4cnt/>lt
/4» 6 \U,
1790.
4OO'
356
580
26250
26250
26250
5fo
500
5-0
871
iSo
2 coo
2000
2625
'5'5V5
■5615
15626
170
6250
6250
III!
1 1 1 1 ^J
750
750
~
1
1
Als mccdc dc Gocdcrc
d." Rdpcclive Kjnicrcn a
vnn PjniculiLTcn, aangcliouJen Gocdcren en vcrdcre Rcftantcn en KIciniijIiccdcn, die by
handcn nioijrcn z^n
Dc lx)vcnna:indc B-unk- Peeper, C;innccl, Fouly, Nagelen , gcR(X)ke Nooten Nfusratcn en Mannetges Nooten,
worded Vcrkogt met een fiiLUnd tot den Ecrfle Maart 1791 Egtcr lx:lioud dc Conipagnic aan haar de Facultyt
tni dc Bruine PccjxT, welkc voor den EeiRc April 1790 nog mogt uordcn aangebragt, ten alien tyden te nn^en
\ crkoopcn ; en wordcn alle do ani.k;rc aangcflaagen Gocdercn , nict dc Gerclcr\eerde Schccpco aangcbragt {ca by hct
N:ijaar> Vcrkooi>billct vcrmdd) Vcrkogt ma eeo ftilftand tot den Eerfte Augustus 1790.
Tc Amftcrdam, by NICOLAAS BYL, op den Nicuwcndyk, D'tikkcr «n de Ooft-Iiufitbc Compigni
BILL OF PUBLIC SALE OF COFFEE, ETC., 1790
Reproduction of an advertisement by the Dutch East India Company
PRODUCTION AND CONSUI^IPTION
293
come to mean a general eating or drinking
place.
Active trading in coffee began in Ger-
many about 1670, and in Sweden about
1674.
Trading in coflfee in England followed
swiftly upon the heels of the opening of the
first coffee house in London in 1652. By
1700, the trade included not only exporting
and importing merchants, but wholesale
and retail dealers; the latter succeeding the
apothecaries who, up to then, had enjoyed a
kind of monopoly of the business.
Trade and literary authorities * on coffee
trading tell us that in the early days of the
eighteenth century the chief supplies of
coffee for England and western Europe
came from the East Indies and Arabia.
The Arabian, or — as it was more generally
known — Turkey berry, was bought first-
hand by Turkish merchants, who were ac-
customed to travel inland in Arabia Felix,
and to contract with native growlers.
It was moved thence by camel transport
through Judea to Grand Cairo, via Suez,
to be transhipped down the Nile to Alex-
andria, then the great shipping port for
Asia and Europe. By 1722, 60,000 to 70,-
000 bales of Turkish (Arabian) coffee a
year were being received in England, the
sale price at Grand Cairo being fixed by the
Bashaw, who "valorized" it according to
the supply. "Indian" coffee, which was
also grown in Arabia, was brought to
r Bettelfukere (Beit-el- fakih) in the moun-
tains of southwestern Arabia, where Eng-
lish, Dutch, and French factors went to buy
it and to transport it on camels to Moco
(Mocha), whence it was shipped to Europe
around the Cape of Good Hope.
In the beginning, "Indian" coffee was
inferior to Turkish coffee ; because it was
the refuse, or what remained after the
Turkish merchants had taken the best. But
after the European merchants began to
make their own purchases at Bettelfukere,
the character of the "Indian" product as
sold in the London and other European
; markets was vastly improved. Doubtless
the long journey in sailing vessels over
tropic seas made for better quality. It was
estimated that Arabia in this way exported
about a million bushels a year of "Turkish"
and "Indian" coffee.
1 Broadbent, Humphrey. The Domestick Coffee Man.
London. 1720.
Brndley, Richard. The vertu and use of coffee with
reqard to the plague and other infectious distempers.
London, 1721.
The coffee houses became the gathering
places for wits, fashionable people, and
brilliant and scholarly men, to whom they
afforded opportunity for endless gossip
and discussion. It was only natural that
the lively interchange of ideas at these
public clubs should generate liberal and
radical opinions, and that the constituted
authorities should look askance at them.
Indeed the consumption of coffee has been
curiously associated with movements of
political protest in its whole history, at least
up to the nineteenth century.
Coffee has promoted clear thinking and
right living wherever introduced. It has
gone hand in hand with the world's on-
ward march toward democracy.
As already told in this work, royal orders
closed the coffee houses for short periods in
Constantinople and in London ; Germany
required a license for the sale of the
beverage; the French Revolution was
fomented in coffee-house meetings ; and the
real cradle of American liberty is said to
have been a coffee hovise in New York. It
is interesting also to note that, while the
consumption of coffee has been attended by
these agitations for greater liberty for three
centuries, its production for three centuries,
in the Dutch East Indies, in the West
Indies, and in Brazil, was very largely in
the hands of slaves or of forced labor.
Since the spread of the use of coffee to
western Europe in the seventeenth century,
the development of the trade has been
marked, broadly speaking, by two features :
(1) the shifting of the weight of produc-
tion, first to the West Indies, then to the
East Indies, and then to Brazil; and (2)
the rise of the United States as the chief
coffee consumer of the world. Until the
close of the seventeenth century, the little
district in Arabia, w'hence the coffee beans
had first made their way to Europe, con-
tinued to supply the whole w^orld's trade.
But sprigs of coffee trees were beginning
to go out from Arabia to other promising
lands, both eastward and westward. As
previously related, the year 1699 was an
important one in the history of this expan-
sion, as it was then that the Dutch success-
fully introduced the coffee plant from Ara-
bia into Java. This started a Far Eastern
industry, whose importance continues to
this day, and also caused the mother coun-
try, Holland, to take up the role of one of
the leading coffee traders of the world,
294
ALL ABOUT COFFEE
which she still holds. Holland, in fact,
took to coffee from the very first. It is
claimed that the first samples were intro-
duced into that country from Mocha in
1616 — long before the beans were known in
England or France — and that by 1663,
regular shipments were being made. Soon
after the coffee culture became firmly es-
tablished in Java, regular shipments to the
mother country began, the first of these
Pbe-Wak Average Annual Production of
Coffee by Continents
Fiscal years: 1910-1914
Total pounds: 2,311,917,200
being a consignment of 894 pounds in 1711.
Under the auspices of the Netherlands East
India Co. the system of cultivating coffee
by forced labor was begun in the East In-
dian colonies. It flourished until well into
the nineteenth century. One result of this
colonial production of coffee was to make
Holland the leading coffee consumer per
capita of the world, consumption in 1913,
as recorded on page 290, having reached as
high as 18.8 pounds. It has long been one
of the leading coffee traders, importing and
exporting in normal times before the war
between 150,000,000 and 300,000,000 pounds
a year.
The introduction of the coffee plant into
the new world took place between 1715 and
1723, It quickly spread to the islands and
the mainland washed by the Caribbean.
The latter part of the eighteenth centur}^
saw tens of millions of pounds of coffee
being shipped yearly to the mother coun-
tries of western Europe ; and for decades,
the two great coffee trade currents of the
world continued to run from the West
Indies to France, England, Holland, and
Germany ; and from the Dutch East Indies
to Holland. These currents continued to
flow until the disruption of world trade-
routes by the World War; but they had
been pushed into positions of secondary im-
portance by the establishing of two new
currents, running respectively from Brazil
to Europe, and from Brazil to the United
States, which constituted the nineteenth
century's contribution to the history of the
world's coffee trade.
The chief feature of the twentieth cen-
tury's developments has been the passing
by the United States of the half-way mlark
in world consumption; this country, since
C-OST^ /?/C^
Pre- War Average Annual Production of
Coffee by Countries
Fiscal years: 1910-1914
Total pounds: 2,311,917,200
the second year of the World War, having
taken more than all the rest of the world
put together. The world's chief coffee
"stream," so to speak, is now from Santos
and Rio de Janeiro to New York, other
lesser streams being from these ports to
Havre, Antwerp, Amsterdam, and (in nor-
mal times) Hamburg; and from Java to
Amsterdam and Rotterdam. It is said that
a movement, fostered by Belgium and
Brazil, is under way to have Antwerp suc-
ceed Hamburg as a coffee port.
PRODUCTION AND CONSUMPTION
295
The rise of Brazil to the place of all-
important s^ource of the world's coffee was
•entirely a nin^eteentth oentury development.
When the coffee tree found its true home
in southern Brazil in 1770, it began at once
to spread widely over the area of excellent
soil; but there was little exportation for
thirty or forty years. By the middle of
the nineteenth century Brazil was con-
tributino; twice as much to the w^orld's com-
merce as her nearest competitor, the Dutch
East Indies, exports in 1852 -53 bein^
2,353,563 ba^s from Brazil and 1,190,543
Ij&gs from the Dutch East Indies. The
world's total that year was 4,567,000 bags,
so that Brazilian coffee represented about
one-half of the total. This proportion was
roughly maintained during the latter half
•of the nineteenth century, but has gradu-
\
Pke-Wak Average Annual Imports of Coffee
INTO THE United States by Continents
Fiscal years: 1910-1914
Total pounds: 899,339,327
:ally increased since then to its present
three-fourths.
The most important single event in the
history of Brazilian production was the
carrying out of the valorization scheme, by
which the State of Sao Paulo, in- 1906 and
1907,. purchased 8,474,623 bags of coffee,
and stored it in Santos, in New York, and
in certain European ports, in order to
stabilize the price in the face of very heavy
production. At the same time, a law was
passed limiting the exports to 10,000,000
bags per year. This law has since been
repealed. The story of valorization is told
more fully in chapter XXXI. The coffee
thus purchased by the state was placed in
the hands of an international committee,
which fed it into the world 's markets at
the rate of several hundred thousand bags
a year. Good prices were realized for all
coffee sold; and the plan was successful,
not only financially, but in the achievement
-cosr/i /?/c^
-l/\/SST /A/O/SS
Pre- War Average Annual Imports of Coffee
INTO THE United States by Countries
Fiscal years: 1910-1914
Total pounds: 899,339,327
of its main object, the prevention of the
ruin of planters through overproduction.
Another valorization campaign was
launched by Brazil in 1918, and a third in
1921. Early in 1918, the Sao Paulo gov-
ernment bought about 3,000,000 bags. Sub-
sequent events caused a sharp advance in
prices, and at one time it was said that
the holdings showed a profit of $60,000,000.
The Brazil federal government appointed
an official director of valorization, Count
Alexandre Sieiliano. A federal loan of
£9,000,000, with 4,535,000 bags of valorized
coffee as collateral, was placed in London
and New York in May, 1922.
European consumption during the -last
century has been marked by the growth, of
imports into France and Germany; these
being the two leading coffee drinkers of the
world, aside from the United States. Ger-
many held the lead in European consump-
tion during the whole of the nineteenth
296
ALL ABOUT COFFEE
Trend of European Coffee Consumption for Seventy Years
Year Germany France Holland Aus.-Hung. Belgium
(pounds) (pounds) (pounds) (pounds) (pounds)
1853 104,049,000 48,095,000 46,162,000 44,716,000' 41.270.000
1863 146.969,000 87.524,000 30.299.000 44,966.000 39,305,000
1873 215,822.000 98.841.000 79.562.000 71,111.000 49,874.00f)
1883. 251,706,000 150,468,000 130.380,000 74,145,000 62,846,0(JO
1893 269,.S81.000 152,203,000 75,562,000 79,438.000 52,046,000
19a3 403,070,000 246,122.000 78.328,000 104,200.000 51,859,000
1913 369,347,000 254,102,000 116,749,000 130,951,000 93,250,000
century, and also in this century until all
imports were stopped by the Allied navies;
although, in actual imports, Holland for
many years showed higher figures. Both
Holland and England have acted as dis-
tributers, re-exporting each year most of
the coffee which entered their ports. In
the last half-century, the chief consumers,
in the order named, have been Germany.
France, Holland, Austria-Hungary, and
Belgium. However, with the removal of
the duty on coffee in the last-named coun-
try in 1904, imports trebled; and Belgium
took third place. The table at the top of
this page shows the general trend of the
trade for the last seventy years.
Most of the coffee for these countries
has for many years been supplied by
Brazil, even Holland bringing in several
times as much from Brazil as from the
Dutch East Indies. Special features of the
European trade have been the organization,
in 1873, and successful operation, in Ger-
man}^, of the world's first international
syndicate to control the coffee trade; and
the opening of coffee exchanges in Havre
in 1882, in Amsterdam and Hamburg, in
] 887 ; in Antwerp, London, and Rotterdam,
in 1890 ; and in Trieste in 1905.
The advance of coffee consumption in the
United States, the chief coffee-consuming
country in the world, has taken place
through about the same period as the ad-
vance of production in Brazil, the chief
producing country ; but it has been far less
rapid. From 1790 to 1800, coffee imports
for consumption ranged from 3,500,000 to
32,000,000 pounds. The figures in the next
column show the net importations of coffee
into this country since the beginning of the
nineteenth century.
The chief source of supply, of course,
has been Brazil; and the commercial and
economic ties created by this immense cof-
fee traffic has knit the two countries closely
together. Brazil is probably more friendly
to the United States than any other South
American country, as shown by her action
in following this country into the World
War against Germany. She also grants the
United States certain tariff preferentials a.s
a recognition of the continued'policy of this
country of admitting coffee free of duty.
The chief port of entry of coffee into the
United States is New York, which for
decades has recorded entries amounting
from sixty to ninety percent of the coun-
try's total. Since 1902, New Orleans has
shown a big advance, and in 1910 imported
some thirty-five percent of the total. The
only other port of importance is San
Francisco, where imports have been in-
creasing in recent years because of the
growth of the trade in Central American
coffee.
Throughout the century and a third of
steady increase of importations of coffee.
Coffee Imports, United States, for 120 Years
l^et Imports
Year
Pounds
Year
Pounds
1800 a . .
8,792,472
1906 . . .
. 804,808,594
1811a ...
19,801,230
1907 . . .
. 935,678,412
1821a ...
11,886,063
1908 . . .
. 850.982.919
1830a ...
38.363,687
1909 . . .
. 1,006,975,047
184<^)a . . .
86.297,761
1910 . . .
. 813.442.972
1850
129.791.466
1911 ...
. 869.489,902
1860 . . . .
182,049,527
1912 . . .
. 880,838,776
1870 . . . .
231,173,574
1913 . . .
. 859.166.618
1880 . . .
440,128,838
1914 ...
. 991,953,821
1890 . . . .
490,161,900
1915 . . .
. 1,051,716,023
1900
748.800.771
1916 ...
. 1,131,730,672
1901 . . . .
809.036,029
1917 . . .
. 1,267.975.290
1902 . . . .
1,056,541.637
1918 ...
. 1.083.480.622
1903 . . .
867,385 063
1919 ...
. 968.297,668
1904 . . .
960 878 977
1920 . . .
. 1.364,252.073
1905 . . .
991,160.207
year ending Sept
1921 . . .
30; all (
. 1,309,010,452
a Fiscal
)ther years end
June 30.
Congress has for the most part permitted
its free entry; as a rule, resorting to taxa-
tion of "the poor man's breakfast cup"
only when in need of revenue for war pur-
poses. At times, the free entry has been
qualified ; but for the most part, coffee has
been free from the burden of customs
tariff.
PRODUCTIOX AND CONSUMPTIOX
297
The country's coffee trade before the
Civil War was without special incident;
but since that time, the continued growth
has brought about manipulations that have
often resulted in highly dramatic crises ;
organizations to exercise some sort of regu-
lation in the trade; the development of a
trade in substitutes ; the advance of the sale
of branded package coffee; the institution
of large advertising campaigns; and other
interesting features. These are treated more
in detail in chapters that follow.
Coifee Drinking in the United States
Is the United States using more coffee
than formerly, allowing for the increase in
population ? Of course there are sporadic
increases, in particular years and groups of
years, and they may indicate to the casual
observer that our coffee drinking is mount-
Uj'Oijjio t—r— 0OcOff>(Ji oo —
Ju«nt.1iiS2 WoooooooooooooOoo ffiff) S>V«lue
100 p-^ 1 I . I I I r— r-^ r— , 20
90 1^ 7^/ 'S
85 '-^ -/.^L , 17
80 r— — vy 1 V- '6
75 -i ^ ^-^ 15
70 -i 7^^ /^ 14
65 i / v-/ 13
feo '^y— ^/ — '^
50 l-J. 10
45 i-J- 9
40 -!-l 8
35—3 7
30 ,J. 6
25 ^'Ij- 5
20 ^ : 4
15 3
10 a
5 I
0 I I I I I I I I I I I I I 0
I'ke-War Ciiakt of Coffee Imports
Quantity and value of net imports of coffee into the
United States for the fiscal years 1851 to 1914
in five-year averages. Solid line represents
quantity, figures in million pounds on left side.
Dotted line represents value, figures in million
dollars on right side
ing rapidly. And then there is the steadily
growing import figure, double what it was
within the memory of a man still young.
looinoiooiooiooioo-^
iOu)*o vor-r-oooo<n<nOo-
Cents S2 ««ooooo0ooooooco50> 5}Ro«b;
l"7 • —
• /
16
15
14
13
le
II
10
9
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
1
16
15
14
13
12
II
10
9
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
f
0
>
\
1
i
/
\
/
\
\
/
\
1
\
/
\
/
1
/\
1
/
^
'
/
]
/
f
>
J
/
/
f
/
/
/-
/
/
^.'
\
f
—
1
/
\
/
''
*
/
/
\
1
/
\
/
/
1
1
r
I're-War Consumption and Price Chart
Import price and per capita consumption of coffee
in the United States for the fiscal years 1851
to 1914, in five-year averages. Solid line repre-
sents import price per pound. Dotted line
represents per capita consumption
But the apparent growth in any given
year is a matter of comparison with a near-
by year, and there are declines as well as
jumps; and, as for the gradual growth, it
must always be remembered that, according
to the Census Bureau, some 1,400,000 more
people are born into this country every
year, or enter its ports, than are removed
by death or emigration. At the present
rate this increase would account for abouu
17,000,000 pounds more coffee each year
than was consumed in the year before.
The question is : Do Mr. Citizen, or Mrs.
Citizen, or the little Citizens growing up
into the coffee-drinking age, pass his or her
or their respective cups along for a second
pouring where they used to be satisfied
with one, or do they take a cup in the
evening as well as in the morning, or do
they perhaps have it served to them at an
afternoon reception where they used to get
something else? In other words, is the
coffee habit becoming more intensive as
well as more extensive ?
There are plenty of very good reasons
why it should have become so in the last
298
ALL ABOUT COFFEE
twenty-five or thirty years ; for the improve-
ments in distributing, packing, and prepar-
ing coffee have been many and notable. It
is a far cry these days from the times when
the housewife snatched a couple of minutes
amid a hundred other kitchen duties to set
a pan oyer the fire to roast a handful of
green coffee beans, and then took two or
three more minutes to pound or grind the
crudely roasted product into coarse gran-
ules for boiling.
For a good many years, the keenest wits
of the coffee merchants, not only of the
United States but of Europe as well, have
been at work to refine the beverage as it
comes to the consumer's cup; and their
success has been striking. Now the con-
sumer can have his favorite brand not only
roasted but packed air-tight to preserve its
flavor ; and made up, moreover, of growths
brought from the four corners of the earth
and blended to suit the most exacting taste.
He can buy it already ground, or he can
have it in the form of a soluble powder ; he
^an even get it with the caffein element
ninety-nine percent removed. It is pre-
served for his use in paper or tin or fiber
boxes, with wrappings whose attractive de-
signs seem to add something in themselves
to the quality. Instead of the old coffee
pot, black with long service, he has modern
shining percolators and filtration devices;
with a new one coming out every little
while, to challenge even these. Last but not
least, he is being educated to make it
properly — tuition free.
It would be surprising, with these and
dozens of other refinements, if a far better
average cup of coffee were not produced
than was served forty years ago, and if the
coffee drinker did not show his apprecia-
tion by coming back for more.
As a matter of fact, the figures show that
he does come back for more. We do not
refer to the figures of the last two years,
which indeed are higher than those for
many preceding years, but to the only aver-
ages that are of much significance in this
connection ; namely, those for periods of
years going back half a century or more.
Five-year averages back to the Civil War
show increa.sing per capita consumption for
continental United States (see table).
It will be seen that the gain has been a
decided one, fairly steady, but not exactly
uniform. In the fifty years, John Doe has
not quite come to the point where he hands
FIVE-YEAK I'ER C.'APITA CONSUMPTION FIGURES
Five-year Per capita Five-year Per capita
Period Pounds Period Pounds
1867
-71
6.38
1897
-1901
10.52
1872
-76
7.03
1902
-06
11.50
1877-
■81
7.53
1907 ■
11
10.21
1882.
-86
9.09
1912-
■16
10.02
1887-
■91
8.07
1917-
■21
11.39
1802 -
mi
8.(i3
up his cup for a second helping and keeps
a meaningful silence. Instead, he stipu-
lates, "Don't fill it quite full; fill it about
five-sixths as full as it was before." That
is a substantial gain, and one that the next
fifty years can hardly be expected to dupli-
cate, in spite of the efforts of our coffee
advertisers, our inventors, and our vigor-
ous importers and roasters.
The most striking feature of this fifty-
year growth was the big step upward in
1897, when the per capita rose two pounds
over the year before and established an
average that has been pretty well main-
tained since. Something of the sort may
have taken place again in 1920, when there
was a three-pound jump over the year
before. If will be interesting to see whether
this is merely a jump or a permanent rise ;
whether our coffee trade has climbed to a
hilltop or a plateau.
In this connection it should be noted that
the government's per capita coffee figures
apply only to continental United States,
and that in computing them all the various
items of trade of the noncontiguous posses-
sions (not counting the Philippines, whose
statistics are kept entirely separate from
those of the United States proper) are care-
fully taken into account.
But for the benefit of students of coffee
figures it should be added that this method
does not result in a final figure except for
one year in ten. The reason is that between
censuses the population of the country is
determined only by estimates; and these
estimates (by the U. S. Bureau of the
Census) are based on the average increase
in the preceding census decade. The in-
crease between 1910 and 1920, for instance,
is divided by 120, the number of months
in the period, and this average monthly in-
crease is assumed to be the same as that
of the current year and of other years fol-
lowing 1920. Until new figures are obtained
in 1930, the monthly increase will continue
to be estimated at the same rate as the
increase from 1910 to 1920, or about 118,-
PRODUCTION AND CONSUMPTION
299
000. This figure will be used in computing
the per capita coffee consumption. But
when the 1930 figures are in, it may be
found that the estimates were too low or
too high, and the per capita figures for all
intervening years will accordingly be sub-
ject to revision. This will not amount to
much, probably five-hundredths of a pound
at most ; but it is evident that between 1920
and 1930 all per capita consumption figures
issued by the government are to be con-
sidered as provisional to that extent at least.
In the 1920 Statistical Abstract the gov-
ernment has revised its per capita coffee
and tea figures to conform to actual instead
of estimated population figures between
1910 and 1920, with the result that these
figures are slightly different from those
published in previous editions of the Ab-
stract. Figures from 1890 to 1910 have also
heen slightly changed, as they were orig-
inallv computed by using. population figures
as of June 1, w^hereas it is desirable to have
computations based on July 1 estimates to
make them conform to present per capita
figures.
Reviewing the 1921 Trade in the
United States
According to the latest available foreign
trade summaries issued by the government,
the United States bought more coffee in
1921 than in any previous calendar year of
our history, although the total imports did
not quite reach the highest fiscal-year mark.
Our purchases passed the 1920 mark by
more than 40,000,000 pounds and were
higher than those of two years ago by
a.500.000 pounds.
But this record was made only in actual
amounts shipped, as the value of imported
coffee was far below that of immediately
preceding years. Coffee values, however,
fell off less than the average values for all
imports, the decrease for coffee being
forty-three percent and for the country's
total imports fifty-two percent.
Exports of coffee were somewhat less in
quantity than in 1920, and about the same
as in 1919; although the value, like that of
imports, w^as considerably less than in either
previous year.
Re-exports of foreign coffee were con-
siderably below the 1920 mark, in both
quantity and value, and indeed were less
than in several years. The amount of tea
re-exported to foreign countries was only
about half that shipped out in 1920, show-
ing a continuation of the tendency of the
United States to discontinue its services as
a middleman, which raised the through
traffic in tea several million pounds during
the dislocation of shipping.
Actual figures of amounts and values of
gross coffee imports for the three calendar
years, 1919-1921, have been as follows:
Pounds Value
1921 1.340,979,776 $142,808,719
1920 1.297,439,310 252.450.651
1919 1.337.564.067 261.270,106
This represents a gain of three and three-
tenths percent over 1920 in quantity and of
only about one-fifth of one percent over
1919. The decrease in value in 1921 was
forty-three percent from the figures for
1920 and forty-five percent from those of
1919.
Domestic exports of coffee, mostly from
Hawaii and Porto Rico, amounted to 34,-
572,967 pounds valued at $5,895,606, as
compared with 36,757,443 pounds valued at
$9,803,574 in the calendar year 1920, or a
decrease of six percent in quantity and
forty percent in value. In 1919 domestic
exports were 34,351,554 pounds, having a
value of $8,816,581, practically the same in
quantity, but showing a falling off of thirty-
three percent in value.
Re-exports of foreign coffee amounted to
36,804,684 pounds in 1921, having a value
of $3,911,847, a decline of twenty-five per-
cent from the 49,144,691 pounds of 1920
and of fifty-four percent from the 81,129,-
691 pounds of 1919 ; whereas in point of
value there was a decrease of fifty-six per-
cent from 1920, which was $9,037,882, and
of eighty-eight percent from that of 1919,
which was $16,815,468.
The average value per pound of the
imported coffee, according to these figures,
works out at little more than half that of
either 1920 or 1919, illustrating the precipi-
tate drop of prices w^hen the depression
came on. The pound value in 1921 was
10.6c. ; for 1920, 19.4c. ; and for 1919, 19.5c.
These values are derived from the valua-
tions placed on shipments at the point of
export, the "foreign valuation" for which
the much discussed "American valuation"
is proposed as a substitute. They accord-
ingly do not take into account costs of
freisrht. insurance, etc.
It is interesting to note that the average
valuation of 10.6c. a pound for coffee
300
ALL ABOUT COFFEE
shipped during the calendar year is a sub-
stantial drop from the 13.12c. a pound that
was the average for the fiscal year 1921,
showing that the decline in values con-
tinued during the last half of the calendar
year.
Coffee imports in 1921 continued to run
in about the same well-worn channels as
in previous years, according to the figures
showing the trade with the producing coun-
tries. The United States, as heretofore,
drew almost its whole supply from its
neighbors on this side of the globe ; the
countries to the south furnishing ninety-
seven percent of the total entering our
ports. The three chief countries of South
America contributed eighty-five percent;
and the share of Brazil alone was sixty-two
and five-tenths percent.
Brazil's progress to her normal pre-war
position in our coffee trade is rather slow,
although she continues to show a gain in
percentage each year. Formerly we ob-
tained seventy percent to seventy-five per-
cent of our coffee from that country; but
war conditions, diverting nearly all of
Central America's production to our ports,
reduced the proportion to almost half. In
1919 this had risen to fifty-nine per cent, in
1920 it was somewhat over sixty percent,
and in 1921 it attained a mark of sixty-two
and five-tenths percent. The actual amount
shipped, which was 839,212,388 pounds hav-
ing a value of $77,186,271, was about seven
percent higher than in 1920, which was
785,810,689 pounds valued at $148,793,593 ;
and about the same percent higher than
that of 1919 — 787,312,293 pounds valued
at $160,038,196. Although the actual pound-
age showed an increase, it will be noted that
the value fell off almost one-half as com-
pared with 1920, and more than one-half
as compared with the year before.
The real feature of the year, and perhaps
the most interesting development in the
coffee trade of this country in recent years,
is the steady advance of Colombian coffee.
In the year before the war, we obtained
from our nearest South American neighbor
87,176,477 pounds of coffee valued at $11,-
381,675, which was about ten percent of our
total imports. In 1919, the first year after
the war, this amount was almost doubled,
being 150,483,853 pounds with a value of
$30,425,162. In 1920, there was a further
increase to 194,682,616 pounds valued at
$41,557,669, and in 1921 the high mark of
249,123,356 pounds valued at $37,322,305
was reached. This was a gain of twenty-
eight percent over 1920 shipments ; and,
although the value was less than in the year
before, the decrease was only ten percent
in a year when the average fall in value was
forty-three percent.
It will be news to many people interested
in the coffee trade that the value of Colom-
bian coffee now imported into the United
States is almost half the value of the
Brazilian coffee — $37,000,000 as compared
with $77,000,000. The number of pounds
imported is a little less than one-third the
Brazilian contribution; but at the present
rate of increase, it will pass the half mark
in a few years.
Colombia and Venezuela together now
supply considerably more than half as much
coffee as Brazil in value, and more than
one-third as much in quantity. The average
value of Colombian coffee in 1921 was about
fifteen cents a pound, as compared with
eleven cents for Venezuelan, nine cents for
Brazilian, ten cents for Central American,
and ten and six-tenths cents for total cof-
fee imports.
Shipments from Venezuela showed a drop
in quantity of nine percent as compared
with 1920 imports, being 59,783,303 pounds
valued at $6,798,709; in 1920 they were
65,970,954 pounds valued at $13,802,995;
and in 1919, they were 109,777,831 pounds
valued at $23,163,071.
The figures relating to imports from
Central America are of interest as showing
to what extent we are continuing tc hold
the trade of the war years, when nearly all
coffee shipped from that region came to the
United States. Although there has prob-
ably been a considerable swing back to the
trade with Europe, the 1921 figures show
that a large percent of the trade that this
country gained during the war is being
retained. Imports in 1921 were consider-
ably lower than in 1920 or in 1919, but were
still more than three times as heavy as in
1913, the last year of normal trade.
The displacement of Central America's
trade by the war, and the extent to which
it has so far returned to old channels, are
illustrated in the table of Imports into the
United States from Central America in
thB last nine years on page 301.
As Germany was very prominent in pre-
war trade, it is likely that more and more
coffee will be diverted from the United
PRODUCTION AND CONSUMPTION
301
Imports Into the United States from
Central America
Year Pounds Value
1913 36.326.440 $4,635,359
1914 44,896.856 5,465,893
1915 71,361.288 8,093,532
1916 111.259,125 12,775,921
1917 148.031.640 15,751,761
1918 195.259.628 19,234,198
1919 131.638,695 19.375,179
ir>20 159.204,341 30,388,567
1921 118,607,382 12,308,250
States as German imports gradually in-
crease to their old level.
Imports from Mexico in 1921 were
greater by thirty-eight percent than in 1920,
but were less than in 1919, and were still
much below the normal trade before the
war. The total was 26,895,034 pounds hav-
ing a value of $3,475,122, as compared with
19,519,865 pounds valued at $3,873,217 in
the year before, and with 29,567,469 pounds
valued at $5,434,884 in 1919. The imports
in 1913 were more than 40,000,000 pounds,
in 1914 more than 43,000,000 pounds, and
in 1915 more than 52,000,000 pounds.
West Indian coffees showed a gradual
settling back to pre-war figures, which
ranged from 3,000,000 to 12,000,000 pounds
annually, but which in 1918, the last year
of the war, leaped to 52,000,000 pounds.
In 1919 they amounted to 42,013,841
pounds valued at $7,575,051 ; and in 1920,
fell to 29,204,674 pounds valued at $5,711,-
993. In 1921 they continued to drop, the
total being 15,398,073 pounds valued at
$1,518,784, a decrease of forty-seven and
three-tenths percent in quantity.
The year under review showed practically
a return to normal for importations from
Aden, which up to 1917 ran about 3,000,000
pounds a year. In that year the full
effects of the war were felt in the Aden
district, and shipments of coffee to this
country dropped to 187,817 pounds. They
rose to 432,000 pounds in 1918; and in
1919, to 681,290 pounds valued at $141,391.
In 1920 there was a further rise to 889,633
pounds valued at $200,505; and in 1921
they amounted to 2,799,824 pounds valued
at $476,672. But this trade is of little
importance compared with that of the pro-
ducing countries of this hemisphere, being
less than one percent of our total imports.
Imports from the Dutch East Indies con-
tinued to decline, being fifty-five percent
less than in 1920. The total of 12,438,016
pounds, however, valued at $1,771,602, is
still two or three times the normal pre-war
importations.
Exports of coffee in 1921 — 33,389,805
pounds of green coffee valued at $5,590,318
and^l, 183,162 pounds of roasted valued at
$305,288 — were about the same as those of
the year before in quantity, although much
lower in value. The 1920 shipments were
34,785,574 pounds valued at $9,223,966 of
green coffee and 1,971.869 pounds of
roasted valued at $579,608.
In the re-export trade, shipments of
coffee were lower than in several years,
total amounts for 1921, 1920, and 1919 be-
ing 36,804,684 pounds, 49,144,091 pounds,
and 81,129,641 pounds, and total values
$3,911,847, $9,037,882, and $16,815,468.
Re-exports to France fell off from 16,-
760,977 pounds in 1920 to 11,429,952 in
1921. Mexico took 3,236,245 pounds as
compared with 9,892,639 in the previous
year, and Cuba also reduced her purchases
from 6,319,105 pounds to 2,831,109. Ship-
Pebcentage of Total, Coffee Imports Into United States
1919
, ^
From Quantity Value
rVntral America 9.80 7.40
Mexico 2.20 2.10
West Indies 3.10 2.90
Brazil 58.80 61.30
Colombia 11.20 11.60
Venezuela 8.20 8.90
Aden 0.05 0.05
Dutch East Indies 4.20 3.80
Other countries 2.45 1.95
Total 100.00 lOO.OO
1920
1921
Percentage of in-
crease (4-) or de-
crease ( — ) of
1921 imports com-
pared with 1920.
r
Quantity
^ r ~ ^
Value Quantity Value
Quantity
Value
12.30
12.00
8.80
8.60
— 25.50
— 50.00
1.50
1.50
2.00
2.40
-f 37.80
— 1O30
2.20
2.20
1.10
1.00
— 47.30
— 73.40
60.50
58.90
62.50
W.OO
-f 6.80
— 48.10
15.00
16.40
18.50
26.10
-f 28.00
— 10.20
5.10
5.10
4.40
4.80
— 9.30
— 50.70
0.07
0.08
0.20
0.30
4-214.80
-f 137.70
2.10
2.00
0.90
1.20
— 55.70
— 65.40
1.23
1.52
1.60
1.60
100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 + 3.40 — 43.40
302
ALL ABOUT COFFEE
ments to Denmark, 4,099,403 pounds, were
practically the same as in 1920, 3,951,166
pounds, as were also those to Germany,
3,200,158 pounds as compared with 2,917,-
773 in 1920.
In the trade of the two coffee-exporting
possessions of the United States, Hawaii
and Porto Rico, the 1921 figures show a
considerable increase in shipments from
Hawaii to continental United States and to
foreign countries, while exports from Porto
Rico fell off slightly.
Hawaii in 1921 sent 803,905 pounds
valued at $123,347 to foreign countries,
which compared with 687,597 pounds
valued at $200,180 in the year before, and
4,183,046 valued at $650,036 to continental
United States, as against 1,885,703 pounds
valued at $476,033 in the previous year.
Porto Rico 's crop, as usual, furnished the
bulk of the domestic exports of the United
States to foreign countries — 29,546,348
pounds valued at $5,027,741, as against
1920 exports of 31,321,415 pounds valued
at $8,455,908. Shipments from Porto Rico
to continental United States amounted to
211,531 pounds valued at $35,780, as
against 418,127 pounds valued at $118,663
in 1920.
Following are the figures of re-exports of
coffee by countries in the calendar year
1921:
Ke-Exports of Cofff:k from United States, 1921
Country Pounds
Belgium 2,717,949
Denmark 4.099,403
France 11,429,952
Germany 3.200.158
Greece 539,933
Netherlands 920,855
Norway 237,155
Sweden 1,935.641
Canada 1,037,628
Mexico 3,236,245
Cuba 2,831,109
Other Countries 4.618.f!56
Total 36,804,684
Per capita consumption of coffee in con-
tinental United States showed a slight in-
crease during the calendar year 1921 over
that of 1920, the figure being 12,09 pounds
as against 11.70 for the previous year. This,
calendar-year figure compares with the
fiscal-year figure of 12.21 pounds, indicat-
ing that imports during the last half of
1920 were somewhat heavier than during
the last half of 1921.
The various items for the two calendar
years 1920 and 1921 are shown as follows :
1921 1920
Calendar year. Calendar year,.
(pounds) (pounds)
(a) Total imports into
U. S 1,340,979,776 l,297,439,3ia
(b) Imports into non-
contiguous terri-
tory from foreign
countries 7,410 27
(c) (a) minus (b) ... 1,340,972,366 1,297,439,283
(d) Total exports from
U. S 34,572,967 36,757,443
(e) Exports from non-
contiguous terri-
tory to foreign
countries 30,363,098 32.028,832
(f) (d) minus (e) . . . 4,209,869 4,728,611
(g) Total re-exports from
U.S. 36,804,684 49,144,691
(h) Re-exports from non-
contiguous terri-
tory to foreign
countries 20,008
(i) (g) minus (li)... 36,804,684 49,124,683
(j) Imports Into con-
tinental U. S. from
non - contiguous
territory 4,394,577 2,303,830
(k) Exports to non-con-
tiguous territory
from continental
U. S 798,644 972,303
(1) (J) minus (k) . . . 3,595,933 1,331,527
Net consumption, con-
tinental U. S. : (c)
minus (f) minus
(i) plus (1) 1,303,553,746 1,244,917,516
Population, July 1 107,833,279 106,418,170
Per capita consumption,
1921 12.09 11.70
Chapter XXIU
HOW GREEN COFFEES ARE BOUGHT AND SOLI>
Buying coffee in the producing countries — Transporting coffee to
the consuming markets — Some record coffee cargoes shipped to the
United States — Transport over seas — Java coffee "ex-sailing ves-
sels"— Handling coffee at New York, New Orleans, and San Fran-
cisco — The coffee exchanges of Europe and the United States —
Commission men and brokers — Trade and exchange contracts for
delivery — Important rulings affecting coffee trading — Some well
known green coffee marks
IN moving green coffee from the planta-
tions to the consuming countries, the
shipments pass through much the same
trade channels as other foreign-grown food
products. In general, the coffee goes from
planter to trader in the shipping ports;
thence to the exporter, who sells it to an
importer in the consuming country; he in
turn passing it on to a roaster, to be pre-
pared for consumption. The system varies
in some respects in the different countries,
according to the development of economic
and transportation methods; but, broadly
considered, this is the general method.
Buying Coffee in the Producing Countries
The marketing of coffee begins when the
berries are swept up from the drying
patios, put in gunny sacks, and sent to the
ports of export to be sampled and shipped.
In Brazil, four-wheeled wagons drawn by
six mules, or two-wheeled carts carry it to
the nearest railroad or river.
Brazil, as the world's largest producer of
coffee, has the most highly developed buy-
ing system. Coffee cultivation has been the
chief agricultural pursuit in that country
for many years ; and large amounts of gov-
ernment and private capital have been in-
vested in growing, transportation, storage,
and ship-loading facilities, particularly in
the state of Sao Paulo.
The usual method in Brazil is for the^
fazendeJTf^ (-pogfep-grower) or the conu
nuftarin ('commission merchant) to load his
[ sKipments of coffee at an interior railroad
station. If his consignee is in Santos, he
generally deposits the bill of lading with
a bank and draws a draft, usually payable
after thirty days, against the consignee.
When the consignee accepts the draft, he
receives the bill of lading, and is then per-
jmitted to put the coffee in a warehouse.
Storing at Santos
At Santos most of the storing is done
in the steel warehouses of the City Dock
Company, a private corporation whose
warehouses extend for three miles along
the waterfront at one end of the town.
Railroad switches lead to these warehouses,
so that the coffee is brought to storage in
the same cars in which it was originally
loaded up-country. Tiio T^y^T-oVimigog f^y^
leased by commisarios. There are also
Tnany old warehouses, built of wood, still
operated in Santos, and to these the coffee
is transferred from the railroad station
either by mule carts or by automobile
trucks.
At the receiving warehouses, samples of
each bag are taken ; the tester, or sampler,
standing at the door with a sharp tool, re-
sembling a cheese-tester, which he thrusts.
303
304
ALL ABOUT COFFEE
The Last Sami'le Before Expokt, Santos
into the center of the bag as the men pass
liim with the bags of coffee on their heads,
removing a double handful of the contents.
The samples are divided into two parts;
one for the seller, and one that the com-
misario retains until he has sold the eon-
;signment of coffee covered by that particu-
lar lot of samples.
The Disappearing Ensaccador
I In the old days it was the custom every
morning for the ensaccadores, or baggers,
;and the exporters or their brokers, to visit
the commisarios' warehouses and to bar-
gain for lots of coffee made up by the
.commisario.
In the Santos market, until recent years,
the ensaccador, or coffee-bagger, often stood
(_J)etween the commisario and exporter.
When American importing houses began to
establish their own buying offices in the
Brazilian ports (about 1910) to deal direct
with the fazendeiro and the commisario,
the gradual elimination of the ensaccador
was begun. Today he has entirely disap-
peared from the Santos market, and is dis-
appearing from Rio de Janeiro, Bahia, and
Victoria.
Coffee reaches Santos in a mixed condi-
tion ; that is, it has not been graded, or
separated according to its various qualities.
This is the work of the commisario, who
puts each shipment into "lots" in new
^'official" bags, each of which bears a mark
stating that the contents are Sao Paulo
growth-. If the coffee is offered for sale
by the owner, the commisario will then put
it on the "street," the section of Santos
given over to coffee trading.
The commisario works with samples of
the coffee he has to offer and only puts
out one set at a time. He names his "ask-
ing" price, known locally as the pedido,
which is the maximum rate he expects to
get, but seldom receives. A set of samples
may be shown to twenty-five or thirty ex-
porting houses in a day, one at a time.
When the sample is in the hands of a firm
for consideration, no other exporter has
the right to buy the lot even at the pedido
price, and the commisario can not accept
other offers until he has refused the bid.
On the other hand, if a house refuses to
give up the samples, it is understood that
it is willing to pay the pedido price. The
firm first offering a price acceptable to the
commisario' s broker gets the lot, even
though other houses have offered the same
price.
When a lot is sold, the samples are
turned over to the successful bidder, and
he then asks the commisario for larger
samples for comparison with the first set.
Commisarios Make as High as Nine Percent
Having sold the coffee of a given planter,
the commisario often gets as much as nine
percent for his share of the transaction.
.Staju'ixg Bacis for Export, Santos
BUYING AND SELLING GREEN COFFEE
305
Coffee from the Fazendas is Deliveued at the Commissarios' Warehouses in Rio
Interior of a Santos Cleaning and Grading ^YAREHOUSE
PREPARING BRAZIL COFFEE FOR EXPORT
306
ALL ABOUT C0FFP:E
Gkadixg Coffee at ^Santos
Unless the bags have been furnished to the
planter at a good rental, the coffee must
be transferred to the commisario 's bags ;
and for this the planter pays a commission.
' Formerly the coffee, being rebagged by
the ensaccador, was manipulated in what is
called ligas; that is, mixing several neutral
grades from various lots to create an arti-
ficial grade ; or, more properly speaking, a
"type," desirable for trading on the New
York market.
Grading and Testing in Brazil
Having bought a lot of coffee, the ex-
porter's next step is to grade and to test it.
Grading is generally done in the morning
and late afternoon, the hours from one to
half-past four being devoted to making
offers. The afternoon grading is done by
sight. The morning examinations are more
thorough, some progressive exporting
houses even cup-testing the samples. Sam-
ples' are compared with house standards,
and with the requirements that have been
cabled from the home office in the consum-
ing country. Some of the coffee is roasted
to obtain a standard by which all ' ' chops ' '
(varieties) are then graded and marked ac-
cording to quality — fine, good, fair, or
pooc Quality is further classified by the
numerals from two to eight, which stand-
ards have been established on the New York
Coffee and Sugar Exchange, and are de-
scribed farther on in this chapter. Some
traders also, use the terms large or small
bean ; fair, good, or poor roasters ; soft or
hard bean; light or dark; and similar de-
scriptive terras.
When a lot is ready for shipment over-
seas, the commisario stamps each bag with
his identifying mark, to which the buyer or
exporter adds his brand. If the com-
m,isario is ordered before eleven in the
morning to ship a lot of coffee, he must be
paid before three in the afternoon of the
same day; if he receives the order after-
eleven, payment need not be made before-
three in the afternoon of the following day..
Generally the terms of sale are full settle-
ment in thirty days, less discount at the
rate of six percent per annum for the un-
expired time, if paid before the period of
grace is up. _,. ^, . ,
Dispatching and Capitazias
The exportei* collects his money by draw-
ing a draft against his client oh deposit of
bill of lading, cashing the draft through an
exchange broker who deducts his brokerage
fee. The exporter must obtain a consular
invoice, a shipping permit from both fed-
eral and state authorities, and pay an ex-
port tax, before the coffee goes aboard the
ship. This process is known as ''dispatch-
ing," while the dock company's charges
are known as capitazias.
In practically all coffee-growing sections
the small planter is helped financially by
the owners of processing plants or by the
exporting firms. The larger planters may
even obtain advances on their crops from
the importing houses in New York, Havre,.
Hamburg, or other foreign centers.
The Exchange at Santos
A new coffee exehange began business at
Santos on May 1, 1917, sitting with the
Coffee Brokers Board of Control. This.
H '^v
The Test by Cups, Santos
BUYING AND SELLING GREEN COFFEE
307
Where Coffees Are Sight-Graded Before Being Submitted to Cup Tests
Hand »& Raxd Building: First Floor, Storage; Second Floor, Offices
NEW YORK COFFEE IMPORTERS' MODEL ESTABLISHMENT AT SANTOS
308
ALL ABOUT COFFEE
Pack-Mule Transport in Venezuela
Board consists of five coffee brokers, four
elected annually at a general meeting of
the brokers of Santos, and one chosen an-
nually by the president of the state of
Sao Paulo. Among the duties of the Board
are the classification and valuation of cof-
fee, adjustment of differences, etc.
^ Transporting Coffee to Points of Export
Transportation methods from plantation
to shipside naturally vary with local topo-
graphical and economic conditions. In
Venezuela, the bulk of th.e coffee is trans-
ported by pack-mule from the plantations
and shipping towns to the head of the rail-
road system, and thence by rail to the
Catatumbo River, where it is carried in
small steamers down the river and across
Lake Maracaibo to the city of Maracaibo.
In Colombia, coffee is sent down the Mag-
dalena River aboard small steamers direct
to the seaboard. In Central America,
transportation is one of the most serious
problems facing the grower. The roads
are poor, and in the rainy season are some-
times deep with mud ; so much so that it
may require a week to drive a wagon-load
of coffee to the railroad or the river ship-
ping point.
Buying Coffee in Abyssinia
Coffee is generally grown in Abyssinia
by small farmers, who mostly finance them-
selves and sell the crop to native brokers,
who in turn sell it to representatives of
foreign houses in the larger trading cen
ters. Trading methods between farmer
and broker are not much more than the old
system of barter. In the southwestern sec-
tion, where the Abyssinian coffee grows
wild, transport to the nearest trading cen-
ter is by mule train, and not infrequently
Coffee-Carrying Cart, Guatemala
Coffee- Laden C)xen Fording Stream, Colombia
by camel back. In the Harar district, the
women of the farmers living near Harar
the market center, carry the coffee in long
shallow baskets on their heads to the na-
tive brokers. In the more remote places^
the coffee farmer waits for the broker to
call on him. From the town of Harar the
coffee is transported by mule or camel train
to Dire-Daoua, whence it is shipped by
rail to Jibuti, to be sent by direct steamers
to Europe, or across the Gulf of Aden to
Aden in Arabia.
Ten different languages are spoken in
Harar. In order successfully to engage in
the coffee business there, it is necessary
either to become proficient in all these
tongues, or to engage some one who is.
When the coffee is brought, partially
cleaned, into Harar by donkey or mule
BUYIXG AND SELLING GREEN COFFEE
309
Transporting Coffee by Mitleback in the City of Cucuta, Colombia
SchooiuT from Encontrados to Maracaibo One of the lake and river steamers
Coffee Cargo Carriers That Operate on Lake Maracaibo and Tributary Rivers
Donkey Transport Train for Coffee in .Mexico
COFFEE TRANSPORT IN MEXICO AND SOUTH AMERICA
310
ALL ABOUT COFFEE
Donkey Coffee Tkanspobt on the Way from
HARAR to DiRte-DAOUA
train, it is first taken to the open air
eustom-house (coffee exchange) in the cen-
ter of the town, where a ten-percent duty
(in coffee) is exacted by the local govern-
ment, and one Abyssinian dollar (fifty
cents) is added for every thirty-seven and
a half pounds, this latter being Ras Makon-
nen's share. As soon as the native dealer
has released to him what remains of his
shipment, he takes it out of the custom-
house enclosure and disposes of it through
the native brokers, who have their little
' ' office ' ' booths stretching in a long line up
the street just outside the custom-house
entrance.
There, a brokerage charge of one piaster
per bag is paid by the buyer, and the coffee
then becomes the property of the European
merchant. In some cases it is put through
a further cleaning process ; but usually it
is shipped to Jibuti or Aden uncleaned.
Arriving at Jibuti, there is a one-percent
ad valorem duty to pay. At Aden, there
is another tax of one anna (two cents) to
be paid to the British authorities.
Since 1914, however, Abyssinian coffee
has been exported largely through the
Sudan, a much shorter and less expensive
trip than that to Adis Abeba and Jibuti.
Now the coffee is carried by pack-train to
Gambela on the Sobat River ; and thence
by river steamer to Khartoum, where it is
loaded on railroad trains and sent to Port
Sudan on the Red Sea.
Buying Coffee in Arabia
Most of the coffee in Arabia is grown in
almost inaccessible mountain valleys by na-
tive Arabs, and is transported by camel
caravan to Aden or Hodeida, where it is
sold to agents of foreign importing houses.
Coffee Camels in the Custom-House. Harar
Selling Coffee at Aden by Tapping Hands
Under Cover
Mocha, once the principal exporting city
for coffee, was abandoned as a coffee port
early in the nineteenth centurj% chiefly be-
cause of the difficulty of keeping the road-
stead of the harbor free from sandbars.
In Aden there is a kind of open-air cof-
fee "exchange" (as in Harar) where the
camel trains unload their coffee from the
interior. The European coffee merchant
does not frequent it, but is represented by
native brokers, through whom all coffee
business is transacted. This native broker
is an important person, and one of the
most picturesque characters in Aden. He
receives a commission of one and a half
percent from both buyer and seller. Cer-
tain grades of coffee are purchasable only
in Maria Theresa dollars ; so a knowledge
of exchange values is essential to the
broker's calling.
BUYING AND SELLING GREEN COFFEE
311
PACKING AND TRANSPORTING COFFEE AT ADEN
312
ALL ABOUT COFFEE
In making coffee sales, the negotiations
between buyer and seller are carried on by-
means of finger taps under a handkerchief.
The would-be purchaser reaches out his
hand to the seller under cover of the cloth
and makes his bid in the palm of the
seller's hand by tapping his fingers. The
code is well understood by both. Its ad-
vantage lies in the fact that a possible
purchaser is enabled to make his bid in
the presence of other buyers without the
latter knowing what he is offering.
Buying Coffee in Netherlands India
In the Dutch East Indies cultivation of
Coff'ea arabica has diminished, the decay of
the industry beginning when Brazil and
Central America became the dominant fac-
tors in the green market. Not so many
years ago coffee growing and coffee trading
were virtually government monopolies.
Under government control each native fam-
ily was required to keep from six hundred
to a thousand coffee trees in bearing, and
to sell two-fifths of the crop to the govern-
ment. It was also compulsory to deliver
the coffee cleaned and sorted to the official
godowns, and to sell the crop at fixed
prices — nine to twelve florins per picul
previous to 1874, although forty to fifty
florins were ott'ered in the open market.
Later, the price was advanced ; until about
1900 the government paid fifteen florins
per picul for coffee in parchment. All
government coffee was sold at public auc-
tion in Batavia and Padang, these sales
being held four times a year in Batavia
and three times a year in Padang.
Coffee from private estates, not under
government control and operated by Euro-
pean corporations or individuals, has now
succeeded the government monopoly coffee.
Private-estate crops are sold by public ten-
der, usually on or about January 28 of
each year. If the owners do not get the
price they desire in Batavia or Padang,.
the coffee is sent to Amsterdam for dis-
posal. Some coffees always are sent to
Holland ; because the directors of the com-
pany get a commission on all sales there,
and also because the coffees are prepared
especially for the Dutch market. The
Hollander wants his coffee blue-green in
color.
Loading Coffee at Santos
In Brazil, when the coffee has been re-
bagged and marked by both the com-
misario and the exporter, the coffee is again
sampled. These samples are compared
Coffee Camel Train Arriving at the Hodeida Custom-IIouse from the Interior of Yemen
BUYIXG AND SELLING GREEN COFFEE
313
Loading by the Old-Style Hand-Labor Method
y
- 1 ^'^Hi^
1
hSjfW
^K
W^'W^
•
•
2
t"
E^r*
*i4^
^f]
K
StCtiW
A
S-1
P
Here the Autoaiatic Belt Pours Into the Hold a Continuous Stream of Bacs of Coffee
OLD AND NEW METHODS OF LOADING COFFEE AT SANTOS
314
ALL ABOUT COFFEE
A' Coffee FREiaHTEK on the Cauca River,
Colombia
with those by which the purchase was
made; and if right, the bags are turned
over to the dock-master, who sets his la-
borers to work loading ship. Two methods
are used at Santos. The old familiar style
of hand labor is still in evidence — men of
all nationalities, but largely Spaniards and
Portuguese, take the bags on their heads
and carry them in single file up the gang-
planks and into the hold of the ship. The
dock company, however, operates a huge
automatic loading machine, or belt, which
saves a great deal of time and labor. In
other Brazilian ports all loading is done by
manual labor.
Recently, at the suggestion of the Com-
mercial Association of Santos, the minister
of transport of Sao Paulo ordered that cof-
fees destined for legitimate traders should
be transported during four days of the
week, and those of a speculative nature
during the remaining two days. A pre-
mium of as much as five milreis a bag has
been paid by speculators in order to obtain
immediate transport.
Skipping Coffee from Colombia
As Colombia ranks next to Brazil in cof-
fee, a. brief description of its transporta-
tion methods, which are unique, should be
of interest to coffee shippers. A goodly
portion of Colombia's coffee exports comes
from the district around the little city of
Cucuta, whose official name is San Jose de
Cucuta. It is the capital of North San-
tander, is situated in a beautiful valley of
the Colombian Andes mountains that is
watered by several rivers, and is only about
a half-hour 's ride by motor from the Vene-
zuelan frontier.
Due to its geographical position, Cucuta
serves as the most convenient inland port
and commercial center for most of the de-
partment of North Santander. For the
same reason, it is forced to depend on
Maracaibo as its seaport, even though the
Venezuelan government has a number of
annoying laws controlling the commerce
thus conducted. The Colombian ports of
Baranquilla and Cartagena on the Atlantic
are too distant from Cucuta to be avail-
able; and a large part of the traffic would
have to be done on mule-back across one
of the most formidable ranges of the Co-
lombian Andes, involving high cost and de-
lay in transportation. Yet its frontier po-
sition makes it possible for Cucuta to have
important commercial relations with the
neighboring republic of Venezuela, and to
enjoy exceptional privileges from the Co-
lombian central government.
A cargo of coff'ee leaving Cucuta has to
go through the following steps on its way
to a foreign market :
1. From Cucuta, it travels thirty-five
miles by railroad to Puerto Villamizar, a
Colombian river port on the Zulia river.
2. At Puerto Villamizar it is loaded
into small, flat-bottomed, steel lighters that
are taken to Puerto Bncontrados by man
power. Puerto Bncontrados, belonging to
Venezuela, is on the Catatumbo river; and
the trip from Villamizar takes from two
to four days, depending on the depth of
water in the river. During high water,
river steamers are also used, and make the
trip in less than a day.
3. At Bncontrados the cargo is loaded
on river steamboats more or less of the
Mississippi river type, which take it to
Maracaibo, Venezuela. Coffee is also car-
ried to Maracaibo by small sailing vessels.
4. At Maracaibo it is taken by ocean
vessel, which either carries it direct to New
Coffee Steamers on the Magdalena,
Colombia
BUYING AND SELLING GREEN COFFEE
315
Oi.i> A.xu New Methods Employeu ix Loajiag Heavy Caugo ox the .Santa Cecilia
York or to Curacao, Dutch West Indies,
where it is transhipped to steamers plying
between New York and Curacao. It is ob-
vious that the many transhipments that
coffee coming from Cucuta has to undergo
greatly retard its arrival at a foreign port ;
and a cargo sometimes takes a month or
more to reach New York.
Coffee from Cucuta is stored in the Vene-
zuelan custom-house, from which it must
be shipped for export within forty-five
days, or the shipper runs the risk of hav-
ing it declared by the Venezuelan govern-
ment for cansumo (home consumption) at
a prohibitory tariff. AiTangements can be
made at considerable cost to have the cof-
fee talcen to a private warehouse ; but it is
no longer possible to make up the chops in
Maracaibo, as was done formerly with all,
the Cucutas. The Venezuelan customs will
not even allow the Maracaibo forwarding
agent the same chops, as a general rule.
Special permission must be obtained to
change any bags that are stained or dam-
aged. Schooners from Curacao have, in
the past, carried a great deal of the Colom-
bian coffee to Curagao.
Port Handling Charges in Brazil
It is almost impossible to list all the vari-
ous charges for the handling of coffee at
the port of shipment in Brazil, the figures
not being accessible to outsiders. Some
fi;gures, such as warehouse charges and va-
rious forms of tax, are obtainable, however.
For every bag of coffee which is in ware-
house over forty-eight hours from tlu; time
of its arrival from the railroad there is a
charge of two hundred reis (about five
cents). In Sao Paulo there is an export
tax of nine percent ad valorem levied by
the state, and in Rio the state tax is eight
and a half percent. Then there is a surtax
of five francs per bag in Santos, and of
three francs in Rio, which goes toward de-
fraying the expenses of valorization. For
every bag of coffee that passes over the
dock the dock company charges one hun-
dred reis (about two and a half cents).
Some Record Coffee Cargoes
With its superior loading and shipping
facilities Brazil has been able to send ex-
traordinarily large cargoes of coffee to the
United States since the development of
large modern freight-carrying steamships.
While 75,000 or 90,000 bag cargoes were of
common occurrence just prior to the out-
break of the World War, several shipments
of more than 100,000 bags were made in
the years 1915^ 1916, and 1917. Up to Jan-
uary, 1919, the record was held by the
316
ALL ABOUT COFFEE
steamship Bjornstjeriie Bjomson which un-
loaded 136,424 bags at New York on No-
vember 17, 1915. Other shipments of
more than 100,000 bags were by the Ros-
setti (December, 1900), 125,918 bags ; the
Wascana (March 3, 1915), 108,781 bags;
the Wagama (October, 1916), 105,650
bags; the American (October 23, 1916),
124,212 bags; the Santa Cecilia (Novem-
ber 2, 1916), 105,500 bags, and the Dakotan
(January 6, 1917), which can-ied 136,387
bags.
Transport Overseas
To bring green coffee to the consuming
markets, both steamships and sailing ves-
sels are used, although the latter have al-
most wholly given way to the speedier and
more capacious modern steamers. Because
of its large consumption, a constant stream
of vessels is always on the way to the mar-
kets of the United States. The majority
of these unload at New York, which in 1920
received about fifty-nine percent of all the
coffee imported into this country. New
Orleans came next, with about twenty -five
percent; and San Francisco third, with
about twelve percent.
The approximate time consumed in
transporting green coffee overseas from the
principal producing countries to the United
States by freight steamships is shown in
the table in the next column.
In some cases, that of Guadeloupe, for
instance, the vessels stop at a number of
ports, and this lengthens the time. This
is also true of vessels running on the west
coast of Central America and of those from
Aden.
During the World "War, one shipment of
Timor coffee consumed three and a half
years coming from Java to New York. It
was aboard the German steamship Bris-
bane, which cleared from Batavia, July 4,
1914, and fearing capture, took refuge in
Goa, Portuguese India, where it lay until
Portugal joined the Allies. Then the Por-
tuguese seized the vessel, and turned it
over to the British, who moved it to Bom-
bay. Here the cargo was finally tran-
shipped to the City of Adelaide, reaching
New York in January, 1918, three and a
half years after the coffee left Batavia.
Java Coffee '' Ex-Sailing Ships"
Up to 1915 it was the custom to ship con-
siderable Java coffee to New York in slow-
going sailing vessels of the type in favor
a hundred years ago. Java coffees "ex-
Transportation Time fob Coffee^
liio tie Janeiro to New York It to 10 days
Santos ' 14 to 18 "
Kahia " " " 17 "
Victoria " " " 19 "
Maraeaibo " " *" 10 "
I»uei-to Cabello " " " 10 "
La Guaira " " " 8 "
Oosta Riea " " " 10 "
Salvador 18 "
Mexico " " " 0 ••
Guatemala '' " " 11 "
( I'nerto
Barrios)
Colombia " " " 10 "
Haiti ■' " " 7 ■'
Porto Rico " " '' o "
Guadeloupe " " " 10 "
Hawaii " " " 28 "
(viaP. C.)
Java " " " 30 '■
(via Suez)
Sumatra " " " 30 "
(via Suez)
Singaiwre " " " 3.5 "
(via Suez)
India " " " 35 "
(via Suez)
Aden " " " 4.5 "
(via Suez)
Porto Rico " New Orleans. . . 7 "
Guadeloupe " " " ... 10 "
Haiti " " "... 7 "
Guatemala " " " ... 8 "
Costa Rica " " " , _ 7 "
Colomloia >< » « _ _ G "
Mexico " " » 4 "
Salvador " " " ... 15 "
Guatemala " San Francisco . . 10 *'
Costa Rica " " " .. 18 "
Salvador " '" " . . 14 "
Mexico "I' '1 ^ 8 "
Hawaii •; •' " . . g '•
Singapore " " " • • 30
India " " " • • 33
1 The American Legion and the Southern Cross, of
the Munson Line, make the journey from Rio de
Janeiro to New York in eleven days. These are
freight-and-passenger vessels, and have carried as
many as 5,000 bags of coffee at one time.
sailing ships" always commanded a pre-
mium because of the natural sweating they
experienced in transit. Attempts to imi-
tate this natural sweating process by steam-
heating the coffees that reached New York
by the faster-going steamship lines, and in-
terference therewith by the pure-food au-
thorities, caused a falling oft* in the demand
for "light," "brown," or "extra brown"
Dutch East Indian growths ; and gradually
the picturesque sailing vessels were seen no
more in New York harbor. At the end
they were mostly Norwegian barks of the
type of the Gaa Paa.
It usually took from four to five months
to make the trip from Paclang or Batavia
BUYING AND SELLING GREEN COFFEPJ
317
Unloading Java Coffee from a Sailing Vessel at a Bi'.ooklyn Dock
The ship is the Gaa Paa, which made the voyage from Padang in five months in 1912
to New York. Crossing: the Equator twice,
first ill the Indian Ocean, then in the South
Atlantic, the trip was more than equal to
circumnavigating the earth in our latitude.
In the hold of the vessel the cargo under-
went a sweating that gave to the coffee a
rare shade of color and that, in the opinion
of coffee experts, greatly enhanced its flavor
and body. The captain always received a
handsome gratuity if the coffee turned ' ' ex-
tra brown."
The demand for sweated, or brown, Javas
probably had its origin in the good old days
when the American housewife bought her
coffee green and roasted it herself in a
skillet over a quick fire. Coffee slightly
brown was looked upon with favor; for
every good housewife in those days knew
that green coffee changed its color in aging,
and that of course aged coffee was best.
And so it came about that Java coffees
were preferably shipped in slow-going
Dutch sailing vessels, because it was de-
sirable to have a long voyage under the
hot tropical sun suitably to sweat the cof-
fee on its way to market and to have it a
handsome brown on arrival. The sweating
frequently produced a musty flavor which,
if not too pronounced, was highly prized
by experts. When the ship left Padang or
Batavia the hatches were battened down,
not to be opened again until New York
harbor was reached.
Many of the old-style Dutch sailing ves-
sels were built somewhat after the pattern
of the Goed Vrouw, which Irving tells us
was a hundred feet long, a hundred feet
wide, and a hundred feet high. Sometimes
she sailed forward, sometimes backward,
and sometimes sideways. After dark, the
lights were put out, all sail was taken in,
and all hands turned in for the night.
The last of the coffee-carrying sailing
vessels to reach the United States was the
bark Padang, which arrived in New York
on Christmas day, 1914.
Handling Coffee at New York
The handling of the cargoes of coffee
when they arrive at their destination is a
source of wonder to the layman. There is
probably no better place to study the han-
dling of coffee than in New York City —
the world's largest coffee center. Millions
of bags of coffee pass into consumption
every year through its docks, and scarcely
a day goes by when there are not one or
more ships discharging coffee upon the
318
ALL ABOUT COFFEE
The Bush Terminal System of Docks and Warehouses
Much of the green coffee received in New York is discharged and stored here, at one of the most modern
waterfront and terminal developments in the world
Airplane View of New York Dock Company's Piers and Warehouses
This is the Fulton Street sectioh of the Brooklyn waterfront, where more than half the coffee received in
New York is unloaded. The storage warehouses are to be seen back of the piers
RECEIVING PIERS FOR COFFEE AT NEW YORK
BUYING AND SELLING GREEN COFFEE
319
docks lining the Brooklyn shore, the center
of the coffee-warehouse district for New
York. In 1921, the New York Dock Com-
pany alone had 159 bonded warehouses
with a storage capacity of some 65,000,000
cubic feet; and 34 piers, the longest meas-
uring 1,193 feet and containing more than
175,000 square feet. These piers have a
total deck space of sixty-one and a half
acres. The wharfage distance is more than
nine and a third miles. More than twenty
steamship lines berth their vessels there
regularly, and many of them are coffee
ships. The warehouses have direct connec-
tions with all the principal railway trunk
lines running into the New York district ;
and the whole property of the company
stretches along the waterfront opposite
lower Manhattan for about two and one-
half miles.
Although coffee is admitted to the United
States free of duty, it is subject to prac-
tically the same formalities as dutiable
goods. Before the cargo can be "broken
out," a government permit to *'land and
deliver" must be placed in the hands of
the customs inspector on the dock. This
done, the ship's samples, which consist of
the samples sent by the exporter to the im-
porter, are taken to the United States ap-
praiser's office for inspection, and are then
delivered to the importer's representative.
Meanwhile the shipping documents cover-
ing the cargo, including bills of lading and
consular invoices, have been sent to the post
office for delivery to banks and bankers'
agents, who check and deliver them to the
customs officers for entry. The govern-
ment requires that this entry shall be made
within forty-eight hours of the vessel's ar-
rival, else the cargo will be stored in a
United States bonded warehouse under
what is known as ''general order" which
makes the consignee liable for storage and
cartage charges.
When a coffee ship arrives in New York,
not much time is lost in discharging the
cargo. As soon as the vessel is securely
moored to the pier, and the government's
permission to ''land and deliver" is se-
cured, the hatches are removed, the coffee-
is hauled out of the hold by block and
tackle and swung off in slings to the pier,
where dock laborers carry the bags to their
proper places. If each cargo consisted of
one consignment to a single importer, and
contained only one variety of coffee, un-
loading would be a comparatively simple
affair. In general practise, however, the
cargoes consist of a large number of con-
Unloadixg Coffee at One of the Covered Piers of the New York Dock Company
320
ALL ABOUT COFFEE
Storing Coffee by Marks and Chops
lIoisTiXG Coffee iato the- Storage \Yabxhouses Adjoining the Brooklyn 1'iers
RECEIVING AND STORING COFFEE AT NEW YORK
BUYING AND SELLING GREEN COFFEE
321
signments and a variety of grades, necessi-
,tating a careful sorting as unloading pro-
gresses. Accordingly, even before the un-
loading begins, the dock is chalked off into
squares, each square having a number, or
symbol, representing a particular consign-
ment. As the bags come up out of the
hold, the foreman of the laborers, who has
a key to the brand marks on the bags, in-
dicates where each bag is to be placed.
Coffee to be reshipped, either by lighter or
rail, is heaped in piles by itself until loaded
on to the lighters or freight cars.
The next step is to transfer the cargo to
the warehouse, and to separate eaeh con-
signment according to the various kinds of
coffee making up the invoices. When the
importer gives his orders to store, he sends
also a list of the different kinds of coffees
in his consignment, called "chops" by the
trade, with directions how to divide the
shipment. To do this, the floor of the
warehouse is chalked off into squares, as
was done on the dock; but now the num-
bers, or symbols, in each space indicate
the chops in each invoice, or consignment.
The importer naturally is eager to sam-
ple the newly arrived coffee. Sampling is
generally done by trained warehouse em-
ployees, Avho are equipped with coffee
triers, sampling instruments resembling
apple-corers, which they thrust into the
bags. The instrument is hollow, and the
Tester at Work, Bush Terminal, New York
Loading Lighters, Bush Docks, New York
coffee flows iiito the hand of the sampler,
who places each sample in a paper bag
which is marked to indicate the chop. The
total sample of each chop usually consists
of about ten pounds of coffee, which the
importer compares "Vi'^tti the exporter's
sample.
When sampling for trade delivery, about
two-thirds of the bags in "a chop are tried.
But when sampling for delivery on Coffee
Exchange contract, every bag must be
tested, and care taken that each chop is
uniform in color, kind, and quality. Coffee
for Exchange delivery must be stored in
a warehouse licensed by the Exchajige;
and the warehouseman is responsible for
the uniformity of grade of each chop.
When approximately ninety percent of
the cargo has been unloaded and stored,
the warehouse issues what has become
known as the "last bag notice." In the
majority of cases the coffee has been sold
before arrival ; and on receipt of the last
bag notice, the importer can transfer own-
ership of the coffee and save interest. j
In a cargo of 75,000 to 100,000 bags of
coffee that have been hurriedly loaded in
the producing country and unloaded at
destination in equal haste, a small portion
of the cargo is almost certain to be dam-
aged. Generally the damage is slight. If
a bag is torn or stained, the coffee is placed
in a new bag. If the contents have become
322
ALL ABOUT COFFEE
The New Terminal System on Staten Island
On the left are three piers of the Pouch Terminal at Clifton; on the right, four of the American Dock
Terminal at Tompkinsville ; and between these are thirteen piers of the new Municipal Terminal
mildewed, the damaged portion is taken to
a warehouse for reconditioning; while the
sound coffee is thoroughly aired to remove
the odor and is then placed in a clean bag.
The reconditioned lot is put into a separate
package and forwarded to the buyer with
a "reconditioning statement" that shows
what has been done.
Bags that have become torn in transit,
and parts of their contents spilled, are
called "slacks." These are weighed as
they arrive on the dock by a licensed pub-
lic weigher; and a sufficient quantity of
the coffee remaining on the floor of the
ship's hold is put into the bag to make it
of the proper weight. The expense of re-
conditioning and rebagging is generally
borne by the marine insurance companies.
When the entire cargo is unloaded, and the
slacks and bad-order bags are weighed and
marked, the warehouseman tallies up the
records of his clerks, and renders a cor-
rected chop list to the consignee.
Electric Tractors mid Trailers
Another district along the water front of
Brooklyn where coffee is discharged in
large quantities is that between Thirty-
third and Forty-fourth Streets, south
Brooklyn, occupied by the Bush Terminal
Stores. This plant is laid out with rail-
road spurs on every pier, so that its own
Motor Tractor Moving Coffee at the Bush Terminal Docks, Brooklyn
BUYING AND SELLING GREEN COFFEE
323
transfer cars, or the cars of the railroads
running out of New York, can be run into
the sheds of the docks where coffee is be-
ing discharged from the ships. The meth-
ods employed by the Bush Terminal are
similar to those just described, except that
all the coffee is handled by electrically-
manipulated cars or trucks, in some in-
stances the powerful little tractors haul-
ing many "trailers" to various parts of
the yards.
Handling Charges at New York
Before the World War, it cost approxi-
mately one-half cent a bag to handle green
coffee from the vessel to warehouse and in
storage in New York. The rate advanced
nearly one hundred percent in the latter
part of 1919, then dropped slightly, al-
though it is still (1922) above the pre-war
price. Other handling charges are shown
in the following tabulation :
Coffee Handling Charges at New Yoek
Pre-war prices Present prices
Cents per bag Cents per bag
(132 lbs.) (132 lbs.)
Storage 3 to 4 5 to 8
Labor 3 to 4 5 to 8
Sampling for damage 1 1
Cleaning 15 20
Dumping and mixing 10 15
Dumping and airing 10 15
Shoveling and airing 10 15
Transferring c o ff e e
from floor to floor. 4 8
Marking 1 1
Labor at vessel $9perM $12.50 to $15 per M
The warehousemen in 1919 charged four
cents per bag for loading into railroad cars.
This charge was discontinued in 1921. The
cost of weighing increased from two and
one-half cents per bag in 1914 to four and
one-half cents in 1919, and then dropped
to the present price of three to three and
one-half cents. Other handling charges at
the port of New York are :
Other Handling Charges, 1922
Cents per bag
(132 lbs.)
Drawing samples, each 10 lbs 17 to 20
Grading for variation 4
Matching in 12
Reducing or evening off slack 9
Transferring to new bag 10
Trucking to weigher in store 3
Collecting and preparing sweep-
ings 25
Delivering sample below Canal
Street 75
Each additional sample 10 to 15
New bags 15
Old bags 6
Unloading Coffee with Modern Conveyor, New
Orleans
A plan intended to cut down handling
costs in New York, and to expedite de-
liveries, was inaugurated by the National
Coffee Eoasters Association at the begin-
ning of 1920. The Association formed a
freight-forwarding bureau, and invited
members to have their coffee shipments
handled through the bureau. The charges
for forwarding direct importations are two
cents per bag. Cartage charges vary from
six to eighteen cents per hundred pounds.
Claims are handled without charge.
The Seven Stages of Transportation
The foregoing story has taken the reader
through the seven most direct routes that
lead from the plantation to the roaster:
first, from the patio to the railroad or
river ; then to the city of export ; into the
warehouses there; then into the steamers;
out of them, and upon the wharf at the
port of destination; from the wharf into
the warehouses; and, finally, from the
warehouses to the roasting rooms. It ^vill
be understood that in some instances where
the plantation is hidden away in the moun-
tains, it is necessary to relay the coffee;
and again, at this end, the coffee is very
often transhipped. In such cases, moref
handlings are required.
Handling Coffee at New Orleans
Coffee ships are unloaded in New Or-
leans, the second coffee port in the United
324
ALL ABOUT COFFEE
Unloading a Coffee Ship by Block and Tackle at the Port of New Orleans
In Foreground — Loading Coffee by Means of an Automatic Traveling-Belt Conveyor, on
Government Barges for St. Louis
COFFEE-HANDLING SCENES ON THE WHARVES AT NEW ORLEANS
BUYING AND SELLING GREEN COFFEE
325
■^mum
^llPllpHMP
m'"i- — !»-.,.iiii
Showing How Coffee Is Stored Undeb Steel-Covered Sheds at New Orleans
States, in about the same general manner
as in New York, with the important ex-
ception that the block-and-taekle system
for transferring the bags from the ship to
the dock has been largely supplanted by
the automatic traveling-belt conveyor sys-
tem. Another notable feature is New Or-
leans' steel-roofed piers, whereon the coffee
can be stored until ready for shipment to
the interior. Because of the class of la-
bor — mostly negro — employed in unload-
ing ships, New Orleans has found it ex-
pedient to retain the old flag system to in-
dicate the part of the pier where each mark
of coffee is to be piled as taken from the
vessel. These little flags vary in shape,
color and printed pattern, each represent-
ing a particular lot of coffee, and they are
firmly fixed at the part of the pier where
those bags should be stacked. Trained
checkers read the marks on the bags as the
laborers carry them past, and tell the car-
rier where the bag should be placed. To
the illiterate laborers the checker's cries
of "blue check," "green ball," "red
heart," "black hand," and the like, are
more understandable than such indications
as letters or numbers.
Handling Coffee at San Francisco
San Francisco ranks third in the list of
United States coffee ports, having received
its greatest development in the four years
of the World War, when the flow of Cen-
tral American coffees was largely diverted
from Hamburg to the Californian port.
In the course of these four years, the an-
nual volume of coffee imports increased
from some 380,000 bags to more than
1,000,000 bags in 1918. The bulk of these
importations came from Central America,
though some came from Hawaii, India, and
Brazil and other South American coun-
tries. Because of its improved unloading
and distributing facilities, San Francisco
claims to be able to handle a cargo of cof-
fee more rapidly than either New York or
New Orleans.
Handling Central American coffees in
San Francisco is distinctly different from
the business in Brazils. In order to secure
the Central American planter's crops, the
importers find it necessary to finance his
operations to a large extent. Conse-
quently, the Central American trade is not
a simple matter of buying and selling, but
an intricate financial operation on the part
of the San Francisco importers. Prac-
tically all the coffee coming in is either on
consignment, or is already sold to estab-
lished coffee-importing houses. Brokers
do not deal direct with the exporters ; and
practically none of the roasters now import
direct.
326
ALL ABOUT COFFEE
Discharging Coffee from a Steamer Just Arrived from Central America
How A Large Cargo of Coffee Is Handled on the Pier as It Is Unloaded from the Ship
UNLOADING AND STORING COFFEE AT SAN FRANCISCO
BUYING AND SELLING GREEN COFFEE
327
In recent years San Francisco has
adopted the practise of buying a large
part of her coffee on the * ' to arrive ' ' basis ;
that is the purchase has been made before
the coffee is shipped from the producing
country, or while in transit. This practise
applies, of course, only to well known
marks and standard grades. Coffee that
has not been sold before arrival in San
Francisco is generally sampled on the docks
-during unloading, although this is some-
times postponed until the consignment is
in the warehouse. It is then graded and
priced, and is offered for sale by samples
through brokers.
San Francisco is better equipped with
modern unloading machinery and other ap-
paratus than either New Orleans or New-
York, even more liberal use being made
there than in New Orleans of the automatic-
belt, conveyors both for transferring the
bags from the ships to the docks and for
stacking them in high tiers on the pier.
Another notable feature of the modern
coffee docks is that the newer ones are of
steel and concrete and, as in New Orleans,
are covered to protect the coffee from wind
and storm,
Europe's Great Coffee Markets
Europe has three great coffee-trading
markets — Havre, Hamburg, and Antwerp.
Rotterdam and Amsterdam are also im-
portant coffee centers, but rank far below
the others named. In point of volume of
stocks, Havre led the world before the war ;
while in respect to commercial transac-
tions, it ranked second, with New York
first. In pre-war days, the largest part
of the world's visible supply of coffee was
stored in the Havre bonded warehouses, be-
ing available for shipment to any part of
Europe on short notice, or even to the
United States in emergencies. Even dur-
ing the World War, this French port re-
mained a powerful factor in international
coffee trading. Coffee trading in Havre,
both exchange and ' ' spot ' ' transactions, fol-
lows about the same general lines as in New
York and the other great coffee markets.
Coffee ' ' futures ' ' are dealt in on the Havre
Botirse.
Green coffee is sold in London by auc-
tion in Mincing Lane. On arrival, it is
stored in bonded warehouses, and is re-
leased for domestic use only when customs
duty at the rate of four and one-half pence
One of the Modern Devices Lotu i.n 6a.n 1-kan-
cisco FOR Handling Green Coffee
per pound has been paid. The bulk of the
coffee comes in parchment on consignment;
and before sale, it must be hulled and sorted
in the milling establishments, most of which
are on the banks of the Thames.
The auctions are held four times a week,
usually on Tuesday, Wednesday, Thurs-
day, and Friday. The sales are advertised
in the market papers — chief among which
is the Public Ledger — and also by the
auctioneers, who issue catalogs of their of-
ferings. A few hours before the beginning
of the sale, samples are laid out for inspec-
tion by prospective buyers, who may cup-
test them if they desire. The actual sell-
ing is done by competitive cash bidding, the
highest bidder becoming the owner. Two
classes of brokers do the bidding, one for
home trade and the other for exporters.
Home trade takes about a tenth of the
coffee, the remainder being sold for export.
If the coffee is bought for re-export, it can
be transferred to the shipping port, still in
bond, and shipped out of the country with-
out paying duty. During the World War,
auctions were held about twice a week ; but
after the signing of the armistice in Novem-
ber 1918, the London traders resumed the
four times a week practise. •
328
ALL ABOUT COFFEE
Coffee Auction Samples on Display at Amsterdam
Green Coffee Stored on the Docks at Havre, France
HANDLING GREEN COFFEE AT TWO EUROPEAN PORTS
BUYING AND SELLING GREEN COFFEE
329
► Coffee Exchanges and Trading Methods
Green-coffee buyers in the large import-
ing centers of the United States and
Europe recognize two distinct markets in
their operations. One of these is called the
"spot" market; because the importers,
brokers, jobbers, and roasters trading there
deal in actual coffee in warehouses in the
consuming country. In New York the spot
market is located in the district of lower
Wall Street, which includes a block or two
each side on Front and Water Streets
Here, coffee importers, coffee roasters, cof-
fee dealers, and coffee brokers conduct
their "street" sales.
The other market is designated as the
"futures" market; and the trading is not
concerned with actual coffee, but with the
purchase or sale of contracts for future de-
livery of coffee that may still be on the trees
in the producing country. Futures, or
"options" as they are frequently called,
are dealt in only on a coffee exchange.
The principal exchanges are in New York,
Havre, and Hamburg. New Orleans and
San Francisco exchange dealers trade on
their local boards of trade.
Coffee-exchange contracts are dealt in
just like stocks and bonds. They are
settled by the payment of the difference, or
"margin"; and the option of delivering
actual coffee is seldom exercised. Gener-
ally, the operations are either in the nature
of ordinary speculation on margin or
for the legitimate purpose of effecting
"hedges" against holdings or short sales
of actual coffees.
The New York Coffee and Sugar Ex-
change — the most important in the world,
because of the volume of its business —
deals in all coffees from North, South, and
Central America, the West Indies and the
East Indies (except those of the Robusta
variety) and uses Type No. 7 as the basis
for • all Exchange quotations. All other
types are judged in relation to it. In de-
termining the number of a type, the coffee
is graded by the number of imperfections
contained in it.
These imperfections are black beans,
broken beans, shells, immature beans
("quakers"), stones, and pods. For
counting the imperfections, the black bean
has been taken as the basis unit, and all im-
perfections, no matter what they may be,
are calculated in terms of black beans, ac-
New York Coffee and Sugar Exchange
The building fronts on Hanover Square aud ex-
tends through to Beaver Street. The exchange
rooms are indicated bj' the arched windows on
the second floor. The rest of the building is
devoted to offices. The exchange was founded
in 1881, and was the first national coffee
trading organization in the world.
330
ALL ABOUT COFFEE
The Coffee Pit in the New York Coffee and Sugar Exchange
coMing to a scale, which ;4s practically as
follows: -
Black-Bean Scale
3 shells equalT 1 black bean
5 "quakers" equal 1 "
5 broken beans equal :. . .1 "
1 pod equals 1
1 medium size stone equals 1 '*
2 small stones equal 1 "
1 large stone equals 2 to 3 "
By this scale a coffee containing no im-
perfections would be classified as Type No.
1. The test is made on one-pound samples.
If a sample shows six black beans, or equiv-
alent imperfections, it is graded as No. 2 ;
if thirteen black beans, as No. 3 ; if twenty-
nine black beans, as No. 4; if sixty black
beans, as No. 5 ; if one hundred and ten
black beans, as No. 6, and if more than one
hundred and ten black beans, as No. 7 or
No. 8. These two are graded by compari-
son with recognized exchange types. Cof-
fees grading lower than No. 8 are not ad-
missible to this country.
The quotation relationship of other types
with the basic Rio No. 7 is shown in the
table below.
By this scale one can determine that when
Rio No. 7 is quoted at 17.10, Rio No. 2 is
18.60, Santos No. 3, 19.10, and Bogota No. 5,
18.10. The quotations are on the pound
and cents basis.
In the spot market, a trader may also buy
or sell coffee "to arrive"; that is, a con-
signment that is aboard ship on the way to
the market. Coffee is shipped to New York
SCALE OF QUOTATION RELATIONSHIP
Brazilian Coffee — Not Santos
Type
No. 1 —
No. 2 — :
No. 3 —
No. 4 —
No. 5 —
No. 6
No. 7
No. 8-
• 180 points above
-150 points above
120 points above
90 points above
60 iwints above
- 30 points above
■ Basis
- 50 points below
Santos Coffee
Type
■No. 1 — ^260 points above
No. 2 — 230 points above
No. 3 — 200 points above
No. 4 — 150 points above
No. 5 — 100 points above
No. 6 — 50 i)oanits above
No. 7 — Basis
No. 8 — 50 poinits below
point is tlie hundredth part of
Other Kinds — Not Brazilian
Tj-pe
No. 1 — 300 points above
No. 2 — 250 points above
No. 3 — 200 points aoove
No. 4 — 150 points above
No. 5 — 100 points above
No. 6 — 50 points above
No. 7 — Basis
No. 8 — 50 points below
a cent
BUYING AND SELLING GREEN COFFEE
331
I
either on a consignment basis and sold for
a commission, or it may have been bought
in the shipping port and be already the
property of an importer. When shipped
on consignment, a wholesaler usually buys
on the in-store contract, which provides that
the purchaser must take delivery at the
warehouse, though he is generally given a
m.onth"s storage privilege before removal
of the coffee. The practise among New
York importers at present is to buy coffee
on either the basis of F. 0. B. delivery
steamer at loading port, or delivery C. & F.
(cost and freight), or C. I. F. (cost, in-
surance, and freight), port of destination.
Payment is made by letter of credit drawn
on a New York or London bank, entitling
i]a.e exporter to draw at ninety days' sight
against the shipping documents, so that the
shipment will be in the hands of the pur-
chaser long before the draft is made. Fre-
quently a jobber acts as his own importer of
Brazil coffee, buying direct from the ex-
porter without utilizing the agency of a
broker or a regular importing firm.
Brazil coffee is bought with the stipula-
tion that differences between samples and
the coffee actually delivered may be ad-
justed either on "Brazil grading," ''half
difference," or "full difference"; and with
the further provision that, if the delivery is
a full type higher or lower than specified in
the contract, the entire shipment may be re-
jected. Under the "Brazil grading" pro-
vision, the buyer must accept delivery if the
coffee is better than the next lower type,
even though not up to the type ordered;
and if the coffee is of a higher type than
contracted for, he need not pay premium
for it. In buying on the ' * half difference ' '
or "full difference" basis, the buyer is en-
titled to payment for half the difference or
the full difference, respectively, for any un-
dergrading, or must pay the seller accord-
ingly if there is any overgrading. When
a buyer specifies special features of de-
scription, in addition to type, some sellers
protect themselves against claims for dif-
ference on this score by inserting in the
contract a clause to the effect that the de-
scription is given in good faith, but is not
guaranteed by the seller.
How the New York Exchange Functiofis
When the New York Coffee Exchange
was incorporated in 1881, its charter stated
CABLEGRAMS
FUTURE DELIVERIES OF COFFEE
CLOSING PRICE5^ OPENING PRICES RINGS If MARGINS S.'-'^S,INO PRICEjl
BID ASKEO BID ASKED Mini 1I9PA.M. t.oPM. BId'"^ A^ED Hairw
'/3'?N ■>"* -^i-i-S f^li- -^;';.v JAN.
9
-Jii N
■■'-/.■: f
L!± ■'■'
if ,v
.J f -f
sale:s
■i us ri'^jxs
TWO OF THE COFFEE EXCHANGE BLACKBOARDS
The one on the right is a record of transactions in the coffee pit. As soon as a trade is made, it is noted
in the proper column on the lower part, the entry showing the time of the transaction, the number
of "250-pound bag lots," and the price. The left-hand board gives Santos and Rio future quotations.
For a detailed description of these and other exchange quotation boards, see page 457
332
ALL ABOUT COFFEE
its purposes to be "to provide, regulate and
maintain a suitable building, room or rooms
for the purchase and sales of coffees and
other similar grocery articles in the city
of New York, to adjust controversies be-
tween members, to inculcate and establish
just and equitable principles in the trade,
to establish and maintain uniformity in its
rules, regulations and usages, to adopt
standards of classification, to acquire, pre-
serve and disseminate useful and valuable
business information, and generally to pro-
mote the above mentioned trade in the city
of New York, increase its amount, and aug-
ment the facilities with which it may be
conducted.
In the promotion of trade at New York
the Exchange has been highly successful.
From time to time it has been criticized ;
and, more than once, coffee traders in the
East and in the West have raised a ques-
tion as to its value to non-speculating
members. There are those who believe it
serves a useful purpose, and others who call
it a huge pool room. To say that, on the
whole, it is not of benefit to the trade
would be untrue. As one of its champions
pointed out in 1914, when it shut down for
a period of four months on account of the
World War :
The ability to discount the future is a neces-
sity, and demands the facilities that a unit of
centralization like the Exchange affords. There
is no difference between a purchase of coffee
and one of a future month on options.
The experience gained here and abroad
demonstrates that any check placed upon such
dealings is detrimental, with far-reaching
effects upon the whole body of the trade. Un-
questionably tlie Exchange is a powerful factor
as a regulator of extremes in the market.
Tlie experience gained in Germany, where an
embargo was placed upon transactions in fu-
tures, is illuminating. The disastrous effects
were so plain that the authorities were forced
to abandon their objections and permit a re-
sumption of the business along the old lines.
But a good thing can be abused, and the
opportunity to gamble in options availed of by
so many is the increment that disturbs the legiti-
macy of the market and creates the opposition
to the whole proposition. When the Exchange
is ready to insist that every transaction in
futures must be a legitimate one, and that every
trader under its jurisdiction using the facili-
ties of the Exchange is made to realize that
any operations that are purely of a gambling
nalture will subject him to severe discipline, then
the Coffee Exchange will begin to stem the tide
of an ever-growing opposition by the general
public.
The New York State legislative committee
on speculations in securities and com-
COnZl AFLOAT FOR UHiTi '; STATES ,.
K'u U'A--^ C^P-i ^'^^'foo 7foo \?ioooc
'^r :C>00
wmmmmwiSM
'■■VM ^Kr>iiuj:.-3t.K^ y^- 3iji
The "Coffee Afloat" Blackboard
modifies had the following to say on the
Coffee Exchange in its report to Governor
Charles E. Hughes in 1909 :
It [the Coffee Exchange] was established in
order to supply a daily market where coffee
could be bought and sold and to fix quotations
therefor, in distinction from the former method
of alternate glut and scarcity, with wide varia-
tions in price — in short, to create stability and
certainty in trading in an important article of
commerce. This it has accomplished ; and it
has made New York the most important pri-
mary coffee market in the United States. But
there has been recently introduced a non-com-
mercial factor known as "valorization," a gov-
ernmental scheme of Brazil, by which the public
treasury has assumed to purchase and hold a
certain percentage of the coffee grown there,
in order to prevent a decline of the price. This
has created abnormal conditions in the coffee
trade.
All transactions must be reported by the
seller to the superintendent of the Exchange,
with an exact statement of the time and terms
of delivery. The record shows that the average
annual sales in the past five years liave been
in excess of 16,000,000 bags of 130 pounds each. ,
Contracts may be transferred or offset by
voluntary clearings by groups of members.
There is no general clearing system." There is
a commendable rule providing that, in ease of
a "corner," the officials may fix a settlement
price for contracts to avoid disastrous failures.
The original initiation fee was $250.
Seats on the Exchange once sold for as low
as $110. In January, 1916, there was a
^ale at $3,000; in October, 1916, there was
= Since changed,
elation.
There is now a Clearing Asso-
BUYING AND SELLING GREEN COFFEE
333
a sale for $5,000; in April, 1921, three
seats were sold for $5,500 each ; but the
record price of $8,600 was paid in 1919.
Seats are now (1922) worth about $6,000.
The Exchange includes in its membership
323 brokers, importers, dealers, and
roasters. Membership is passed upon by a
committee on membership ; but any one
twenty-one years old, resident or non-resi-
dent, of good character and commercial
standing, is eligible when proposed and sec-
onded by Exchange members. The com-
mittee refers the application with its recom-
mendation to the board of managers, which
takes a ballot. The adverse vote of one-
third of all votes cast rejects.
The Exchange elects annually a presi-
dent, a vice-president, and a treasurer, who
perform the usual duties of Exchange of-
ficers. The real governing body is the
board of managers, consisting of the presi-
dent, vice-president, treasurer, and twelve
other members. This governing board,
meeting monthly, appoints the necessary
subordinate officers and employees, and
fixes their compensation, and may "sum-
mon before them any officer or member for
any purpose whatsoever. ' ' It appoints the
secretary of the Exchange from among its
own number, a superintendent of the Ex-
■change, and the numerous committees
which are in active charge of specified ac-
tivities. It also licenses the necessary cof-
fee graders, warehousemen, weighmasters,
and samplers of the Exchange.
A brief discussion of the duties of the
superintendent and the various committees
will help to explain the methods of the Ex-
change market. The superintendent, under
the direction of the board of managers, has
charge of the details of its work and of that
of the various committees. He keeps all the
books and documents of the Exchange ; col-
lects and pays over to the treasurer all
moneys due the Exchange not otherwise
provided for; receives, deposits, and pays
over all margins on coffee contracts; has
active charge of the Exchange rooms and
the bulletin board; and manages and ap-
points, with the consent of the board of
managers, the assistants needed to perform
the details of the work under his charge.
One of the functions of the Exchange is
to grade and to classify coffee, in which it .
takes every possible precaution. The rules
provide for eight standard grades; and
only licensed graders are permitted to pass
upon the product handled on the Exchange.
There are twenty-five of these graders ; one
of whom is appointed as a supervisor of
types, to provide fresh standards and to
' ' maintain them as nearly as possible on an
equality." When these standards are ap-
proved by the board and the Exchange,
they remain in force for a year.
"When coffee is received at a licensed
warehouse, two official graders are chosen,
one by the buyer and one by the seller.
These graders receive four cents a ba^ if
employed by a member; and eight cents
a bag, if employed by a non-member.
If the graders disagree, their differences
are referred to the board of coffee arbitra-
tors, consisting of ten experts appointed by
the board of managers. The superintend-
ent selects by lot three of these arbitrators,
who decide on the basis of the samples sub-
mitted, but will not make a decision lower-
ing the grade below that of the lowest sub-
mitted nor higher than the highest. If the
disputants do not change the grading to
come within the arbitrators' findings, the
samples are sent to the entire board of ar-
bitrators, exclusive of those who may have
been the original graders, and final decision
is made by majority vote. As soon as the
coffee is graded, a certificate is issued
stating the grades, and bearing the signa-
tures of the superintendent and graders.
This certificate is conclusive evidence of the
grade as far as the parties involved are con-
cerned, for the subsequent twelve months.
The buyer receives the original, and the
seller a duplicate.
The rules provide that weights decided
upon at the initial delivery are good during
the life of the grading certificate for re-de-
livery, with definite allowances to the re-
ceiver, on re-delivery, of a quarter of a
pound a bag a month, instead of having to
re-weigh and re-sample for every separate
delivery, as formerly.
As claims and trade controversies oc-
casionally arise, the Exchange has provided
means for their peaceful settlement. The
board of managers elects annually an ar-
bitration committee of five members, who
swear to decide disputes fairly. This is
the only committee on the Exchange that
has power to adjudicate disputes between
members and non-members; and its ser-
vices must be sought by the disputants, who
334
ALL ABOUT COFFEE
must agree to abide by its decision. An
adjudication committee of seven is an-
nually chosen from the membership by the
managers, to adjust all claims and contro-
versies between members arising out of
any merchandise transaction, "if notice in
writing of such claim or controversy, and
of the intention to demand an adjudication
thereon, be served by either party thereto
within ten days from the ascertainment
thereof."
Within three days of the serving of this
notice, each disputant selects an Exchange
member as his adjudicator; and these two
name the third, who must be a member of
the adjudicating committee. Even this
decision may be appealed to the board of
managers, which, if it finds the grounds of
appeal good (as decided by majority vote),
appoints an appeal committee of five, of
whom three must be members of the board.
This last com.mittee's decision is final. No
new testimony bearing on the case may be
introduced after the ease has been closed by
the adjudicators. Arbitration is voluntary
with both parties; while adjudication is
compulsory upon the application of either.
Ajiother committee of trade importance
is the spot quotation committee of five
Exchange members. Each day at two
o'clock, except on Saturday, when it meets
at 11 :45, this committee by a majority
vote establishes the official daily market
quotation of No. 7 coffee. There is like-
wise a committee on quotations of futures.
This committee of five meets daily "im-
mediately after the first call and at the close
of the Exchange and reports to the superin-
tendent the tone and price of the contract
market, to be posted on the blackboard and
transmitted to other Exchanges and com-
mercial bodies."
A committee of five on trade and statis-
tics has the important function of reporting
to the board as to regulations for the ' ' pur-
chase, sale, transportation and custody of
merchandise," and it attempts to establish
uniformity in such matters between differ-
ent markets. It has charge also of "all
matters pertaining to the supply of news-
papers, market reports, telegraphic and
statistical information for the use of the
Exchange. In the early 80 's the Exchange
abolished the old method of keeping coffee
statistics, and the basis then adopted has
since been accepted by all the large coffee
.markets of the world. ' '
The minimum rates of commission on
coffee "per contract of 250 bags, for mem-
bers of the Exchange residing in the United
States, are based upon a price ' ' as follows,
quoting from the Exchange bylaws adopted
June 8, 1920 :
Coffee Exchange Commission Rates
(Per contract of 250 bags)
Floor
Commission brokerage
for buying for buying
or selling or selliag
Below 10 cents $6.25 $1.50
10 cents up to 19.99 cents. 7.50 1.75
20 cents and above 10.00 2.00
For non-members residing within the United
States, double the above rates of commission
shall be charged.
For members and non-members residing out-
side of the United States a commission of $2.50
shall be charged in addition to the above rates.
Whenever before thirty minutes after the
close of the exchange a member gives to another
member for clearance purchases and sales of
contracts corresponding in all respects except as
to price, made during the day by himself or for
his account tchen present on the floor of the
Exchange, a charge for each contract shall be
made equal to the corresponding tloor broker-
age rate for buying and selling, in addition to
any floor brokerage incurred.
Members procuring business for other mem-
bers may, by agreement, be entitled to one-half
the commission rates for non-members prescribed
in this Section, less the corresponding broker-
age charge, whether paid or not.
When a transferable notice is given or re-
ceived by a customer in fulfillment of a con-
tract the brokerage in that case shall be not
less than one-half of the corresponding buying
or selling commission prescribed in Section 103.
Other committees are the finance com-
mittee (two) to audit bills and claims
against the Exchange, to direct deposits
and investments, and to audit the monthly
and yearly accounts of the treasurer ; a law
committee (three), to deal with matters of
legislation; a membership and floor com-
mittee (five) ; and a nominating committee
(five). Organized as above outlined, and
with a well established code of trade rules,
the Exchange annually transacts a large
number of sales in a business-like way.
There is considerable trading in future
contracts; and a standard form has been
adopted by the Exchange. No future con-
tracts are valid unless they are made in the
following form :
Brazilian Coffee — Not Santos
Office of
New York 19
Sold for M
To M
Thirty-two thousand five hundred pounds in
about 250 bags coffee, growth of North, South
BUYING AND SELLING GREEN COFFEE
335
or Central America, West Indies or East Indies,
excepting coffee Icnown as "Robusta," and also
any coffee of new or unknown growth, deliver-
able from licensed warehouse in the port of New
York, between the first and last days of
next, inclusive. The delivery within such time
to be at seller's option, upon a notice to buyer
of either five, six or seven days, as may be
prescribed by the trade rules. The coffee to be
of any grade, from No. 8 to No. 1 inclusive (no
coffee to grade below No. 8) provided the aver-
age grade of Brazilian coffees shall not be
above No. 3. Nothing in this contract, how-
ever, shall be construed as prohibiting a de-
livery averaging above No. 3 at the No. 3 grade.
At the rate of cents per pound
for No. 7, with additions or deductions for
other grades according to the rates of the New
York Coft'ee and Sugar Exchange, Inc., existing
on the afternoon of the day previous to the date
of the notice of delivery. Either party to have
the right to call for margins as the variations
of the market for like deliveries may warrant,
which margins shall be kept good.
This contract is made in view of, and in all
respect subject to the rules and conditions
established by the New York Coffee and Sugar
Exchange, Inc., and in full accordance with
section 102 of the by-'laws.
Brokers
Across the face is the following :
For and in consideration of one dollar to
in hand paid, receipt
whereof is hereby acknowledged,
accept this contract with all its obligations and
conditions.
All deliveries on such future contracts
must be made from licensed warehouses.
There is a separate "to arrive contract";
but this likewise requires delivery at a
licensed warehouse, unless the buyer and
the seller have a mutual understanding' to
deliver the coffee from dock or ex-ship.
Margins to protect the contract may be
called for by either party. The largest de-
posit for margins was made in 1904, when
$22,661,710 was deposited with the superin-
tendent as required by the Exchange rules.
The basic grade in a future sale is No.
7 ; but variations are provided as follows :
30 points for Rio, Victoria, and Bahia of all
grades between 7 and 1, and of 50 points
between 7 and 8 ; 50 points is allowed on
Santos and all other coffees except between
grades 1 and 2 and 2 and 3 Santos, which
are allowed 30 points. Thus the buyer and
the seller when entering upon a transaction
know exactly what the difference will be
between the standard No. 7 and the coffee
that can be delivered. The right to deliver
any grade in a future transaction has done
much to lessen the probability of corners in
coffee ; but this protection is further given
by the stringent rule that the maximum
fluctuations on the Exchange can be only
two cents a pound on coffee in one day and
one cent on sugar. If greater changes
should threaten, the Exchange operations
would automatically cease.
False or fictitious sales are prohibited,
and all contracts must be reported to the
superintendent. All contracts are binding
and call for actual delivery.
The future contract, besides being used
for the delivery of coffee during stated
months in the future at a given price, is
also used for hedging purposes. As in the
grain and cotton markets, dealers protect
themiselves against price fluctuations by
hedging in the future market. Importers,
for instance, when purchasing coffee
abroad, frequently sell an equal amount for
future delivery on the Exchange. When
the time for delivery arrives, it is simply a
question of calculation of the market con-
ditions whether it is more advantageous to
repurchase the sales made as a hedge, or as
a kind of insurance to protect themselves
against loss, and free the coffee so engaged,,
or to make delivery of the coffee as it
comes in.
Tlie board of managers has power to close-
the Exchange or to suspend trading on
such days or parts of days as would in their
judgment be for the Exchange's best in-
terest.
The Clearing Association is a recent out-
growth of the Exchange, and is composed
exclusively of Exchange members. Every
member has to bring his contracts up tO'
market closing every night, either by mak-
ing a deposit with the Association to cover
his balances, or by withdrawing in case he
should be over. Members deposit $15,000'
at the time of joining as a guaranty fund ;
and if the surplus is not sufficient to take
care of balances, the bylaws provide for the
levying of assessments.
The daily quotations on the coffee ex-^
changes of New York, Havre, and (before
the war) of Hamburg, determined to a
large extent the price of green coffee the
world over. The prices prevailing on the
New York Coffee and Sugar Exchange are
studied by coffee traders in all countries,
the fluctuations being reflected in foreign
markets as the reports come from the
United States. Quotations are cabled from
one great market to another; and as each
must heed those of the others to some ex-
tent, the coffee trade thus obtains a world
336
ALL ABOUT COFFEE
price, and the effect on supply and demand
is universal rather than local, as would be
the case if quotations were not exchanged.
In 1921 the Exchange adopted an amend-
ment to the trade rules, and abolished the
one day transferable notice for both coffee
and sugar.
Foreign Coffee Quotations
Brazil coffee cable quotations are the mar-
ket prices, in Rio or Santos, of ten kilo-
grams of coffee, the price being stated in
milreis, the monetary unit of Brazil money.
The basic grade of coffee at Rio is the No. 7
of the New York Coffee Exchange; and at
Santos, the international standard of good
average ("g. a.") Santos. One kilogram
(often written kilo, or abbreviated to K.)
is equal to two and one-fifth pounds; and
the ten-kilogram standard of quantity is,
therefore, equivalent to twenty-two pounds,
or just one-sixth of a standard Brazil bag.
The money value is not so simple, since
Brazilian paper currency is unstable; and
the milreis quotation means nothing unless
it is considered in connection with the rate
of exchange for the same day, i. e., the cur-
rent gold value of the milreis. This gold
value is always given with the daily quota-
tions from Brazil, and is expressed in Brit-
ish pence. The par value of the milreis
(1000 reis) is 54.6 cents (gold) of United
States money; but its present actual value
is only about 15 cents, and it has been as
low as 1114 cents. Our dollar sign is used
to denote milreis, placing it after the whole
number, and before the fractional part ex-
pressed in one-thousandths. Thus, 814 mil-
reis would be written 8$250 RS.
Suppose, for example, a Rio quotation is
given at 8$400, with exchange at 7l^ d.
This means that 22 pounds of coffee have a
gold value of 63 British pence (8.4 x 7i/^ =
63.0), or 5/3, as the Englishman would
write it, which is equal to $1.27 1/2> making
the coffee worth 5.8 cents per pound. Of
course the person familiar with Brazil
quotations will not need to make this re-
duction to the pound-cent term in order to
understand the figures. They will have
a proper relative meaning to him in their
original form; and it must not be over-
looked that it is in this form only that they
express correctly the value of the coffee in
Brazil. It may make a great difference to
the Brazilian planter or exporter whether
an increased gold value of his coffee arises
1;hrough a higher milreis bid or an ap-
preciated exchange, simply on account of
local currency considerations. That is to
say, the purchasing power of a milreis in
Brazil will not necessarily vary exactly as
the rate of exchange on London.
London quotations are made in shillings
and pence, on one hundredweight (cwt) of
coffee. This "cwt" is not 100 pounds but
112 pounds, one twentieth of the English
ton (our long ton) of 2,240 pounds. And
in all English coffee statistics the coffee
quantities are expressed in this ton. A
London quotation of 30/9 (30 shillings
and 9 pence) for example, is equivalent to
$7.44 for 112 pounds of coffee, or 6.64 cents
per pound at the normal rate of exchange,
$4.80 to $4.86 the pound sterling.
At Havre, the coffee price is given in
francs, on a quantity of 50 kilograms. This
is 110 pounds and almost as much, there-
fore, as the British, cwt. In normal times
the franc is equal to 19.3 cents. A French
quotation of 37i/^, for instance, means,
therefore, $7.19 for 110 pounds of coffee,
or 6.53 cents per pound.
The Hamburg quotation (formerly from
Brazil per fifty kilos) is made on one
pound German, equal to % kilogram, and
is expressed in pfennigs. One pfennig is
one-hundredth of a mark, and the mark
once was equal to 23.8 cents. A G-erman
quotation of, say, 31, means, therefore, 7.38
cents (31 x .238 = 7.378) for 1.1 pounds, or
6.71 cents per pound.
Three Kinds of Brokers
In the coffee trade there are three kinds
of brokers — floor, spot, and cost and
freight.
Floor brokers are those who buy and sell
options on the Coffee Exchange for a fixed
consideration per lot of 250 bags. The cof-
fee commission rate put into effect June 8,
1920, for round term (buying and selling)
by the New York Coffee Exchange was as
f oUows :
Commission Rate on 250 Bags
(For Round Term — Buying and Selling)
Up to 9.99c 10c to 19.99c 20c & up
per lb. per lb. per lb.
Members $12.50 $15.00 $20.00-
Non-members 25.00 30.00 40.00
Foreign members 17.50 20.00 25.00
Foreign non-members . 30.00 35.00 45.00
Floor brokerage —
Buying or selling. . . 1.50 1.75 2.00
There is at present (1922) a stamp tax
of two cents on each hundred dollars value,
or fraction thereof, figured on each sepa-
rate lot.
ALL ABOUT COFP'-EE
Su.N-Cruixc TiiK ^VA^lll^ «.iMi n iiKANs ON Ckment Duying Patios
I
Near View of Heavily Laden Tkees Ready for the Pickkks
TYPICAL COFFEE SCENES IN COSTA RICA
BUYING AND SELLING GREEN COFFEE
337
•
Spot brokers are those who deal in actual
coifee, selling from jobber to jobber, or
representing out-of-town houses; the seller
paying a commission of about fifteen cents
a bag in small lots, and half of one percent
in large lots.
Cost and freight brokers represent
Brazilian accounts, and generally receive
a brokerage of one and one-quarter percent.
On out-of-town business, they usually split
the commission with the out-of-town or
local" brokers. The out-of-town brokers
'sometimes, however, deal direct with the im-
porter. All brokers except floor brokers
are sometimes called "street brokers."
Most of the large New York, New Orleans,
and San Francisco brokerage houses also
do a commission business, handling one or
more Brazilian or other coffee-producing-
country accounts.
Important Rulings Affecting Coffee Trading
The United States have no coffee law as
they have a tea law — prescribing "purity,
quality and fitness for consumption" —
but buyers and sellers of green coffees are
required to observe certain well defined
federal rules and regulations relating spe-
cifically to coffee. Up to the year 1906,
when the Pure Food and Drugs Act be-
came law, the green coffee trade was practi-
cally unhampered; and several irregulari-
ties developed, calling into existence
federal laws that were designed to pro-
tect the consumer against trade abuses, and
at the same time to raise the standards of
coffee trading.
Under these regulations it is illegal to im-
port into this country a coffee that grades
below a No. 8 Exchange type, which gener-
ally contains a large proportion of sour or
damaged beans, known in the trade as
"black jack," or damaged coffee, as found
in ' ' skimmings. " " Black jack " is a term
applied to coffee that has turned black dur-
ing the process of curing, or in the hold of a
ship during transportation; or it may be
due to a blighting disease.
Another ruling is intended to prevent the
sale of artificially "sweated" coffee, which
has been submitted to a steaming process to
give the beans the extra-brown appearance
of high grade East Indian and Mocha cof-
fees which have been naturally "sweated"
in the holds of sailing vessels during the
long journey to American ports. Up to the
time that the Pure Food and Drugs Act
went into effect, artificial "sweating" was
resorted to by some coffee firms ; and out of
that practise grew a suit ^ that resulted in a
federal court decision sustaining the Pure
Food Act, and classifying the practise as
adulteration and misbranding.
The Act also is intended to prevent the
sale of coffees under trade names that do
not properly belong to them. For example,
only coffees grown on the island of Java
can properly be labeled and sold as Javas ;
coffees from Sumatra, Timor, etc., must be
sold under their respective names. Food
Inspection Decision No. 82, which limited
the use of the term Java to coffee grown on
the island of Java, was sustained in a ser-
vice and regulatory announcement issued in
January, 1916. Likewise the name Mocha
may be used only for coffees of Arabia.
Before the pure-food law was enacted, it
was frequently the custom to mix Bourbon
Santos with Mocha and to sell the blend as
Mocha. Also, Abyssinian coffees were
generally known in the trade as Longberry
Mocha, or just straight Mocha ; and Suma-
tra growths were practically always sold as
Javas. Traders used the names of Mocha
and Java because of the high value placed
upon these coffees by consumers, who, be-
fore Brazil dominated the market, had
practically no other names for coffee.
One of the most celebrated coffee cases
under the Pure Food Act was tried in
Chicago, February, 1912. The question
was, whether in view of the long-standing
trade custom, it was still proper to call an
Abyssinian coffee (Longberry Mocha)
Mocha. The defendant was charged with
misbranding, because he sold as Java and
Mocha a coffee containing Abyssinian cof-
fee. The court decided that the product
should be called Abyssinian Mocha ; * but
since then, general acceptance has obtained
of the government's viewpoint as expressed
in F. I. D. No. 91, which was that only cof-
fee grown in the province of Yemen in
Arabia could properly be known ms Mocha
coffee.
Another important ruling, concerning
coffee buyers and sellers, prohibits the im-
portation of green coffees coated with lead
chromate, Prussian blue, and other sub-
stances, to give the beans a more stylish ap-
pearance than they have normally. Such
"polished" coffees find great favor in the
^ Tea and Coffee Trade Jour., 1911 (vol. xx : no. 4:
p. 284).
* Tea and Coffee Trade Jour., July, 1911 (vol. xxiil :
no. 1 ; p. 28).
338
ALL ABOUT COFFEE
European markets, but are now denied ad-
mittance here.
The Board of Food and Drug Inspection
decided in 1910 against a trade custom that
had prevailed until then of calling Minas
coifee Santos when shipped through Santos,
instead of Rio.^
.For years a practise obtained of re-
bagging certain Central American growths
in New York. In this way Bucaramangas
frequently were transformed into Bogotas,
Rios became Santos, Bahias and Victorias
were sold as Rios, and the misbranding of
peaberry was quite common. A celebrated
case grew out of an attempt by a New York
coffee importer and broker to continue one
of these practises after the Pure Food
Act made it a criminal offense. The de-
fendants, who were found guilty of con-
spiracy, and who were fined three thousand
dollars each, mixed, re-packed and sold
under the name P. A. L. Bogota, a well
known Colombian mark, eighty-four bags
of washed Caracas coffee.*'
After an exchange of views with the
United States Board of Food and Drug In-
spection, the New York Coffee Exchange de-
cided that, after June 1, 1912, it would
abolish all grades of coffee under the Ex-
change type No. 8.
The practise in Holland of grading
Santos coffees — by selecting beans most
like Java beans, and polishing and color-
ing them to add verisimilitude — known as
"manipulated Java," became such a nuis-
ance in 1912 that United States consuls re-
fused to certify invoices to the United
States unless accompanied by a declaration
that the produce was ''pure Java, neither
mixed with other kinds nor counterfeited. ' '
The United States Bureau of Chemistry
ruled in February, 1921, that Coffea ro-
husta could not be sold as Java coffee, or
under any form of labeling which tended
either directly or indirectly to create the
impression that it was Coffea arabica, so
long and favorably known as Java coffee.
This was in line with the Department of
Agriculture's previous definition that cof-
fee was the seed of the Coffea arabica or
Coffea lib erica, and that Java coffee was
Coffea arabica from Java. Coffea robusta
was barred from deliveries on the New
York Coffee Exchange in 1912.
* Tea and Coffee Trade Jour., Nov., 1910 (vol. xix :
no. 5 : p. 380).
' Tea and Coffee Trade Jour., Nov., 1914 (vol. xxv ;
no. 5 : p. 397 J.
During the greater part of the year 1918,
the United States government assumed vir-
tually full control of coffee trading. It
was a war-time measure, and was intended
to prevent speculation in coffee contracts
and freight rates, to cut down the number
of vessels carrying coffee to this country so
as to provide more ships for transporting
food and soldiers to Europe, and to put the
coffee merchants on rations during the
stress of war. On February 4, 1918, im-
porters and dealers were placed under
license ; and two days later, rules were is-
sued through the Food Administration fix-
ing the maximum price for coffee for the
spot month in the "futures" markets at
eight and a half cents, prohibiting dealers
from taking more than normal pre-war pro-
fits, or holding supplies in excess of ninety
days' requirements, and greatly limiting
re-sales. On May 8, the United States Ship-
ping Board fixed the ' ' official ' ' freight rate
from Rio de Janeiro to New York at one
dollar and fifty cents per bag, which, with-
out control, had risen to as high as four
dollars and more, as compared with the
ordinary rate of thirty-five cents before the
war. On Janiiary 12, 1919, two months
after the armistice was signed, the rules
were withdrawn, and the coffee trade was
left to carry on its business under its own
direction.
Sanie Well Known Green Coffee Marks
Practically every bag of good quality
green coffee is imprinted with a brand
which indicates by whom it was shipped.
These imprints are known in the trade as
"green coffee marks." Many of them,
through long usage, have become celebrated
in international trade. One of the most
famous was HLOG. This stood for
"Heaven's Light Our Guide," and was
owned by John O'Donohue's Sons. For
many years it was used on Mocha coffee,
but it is now out of existence. Other well-
known Mocha marks are M R (Maurice
Ries) with the figure of a camel, a star, or
deer's head between the letters; L F
or L B (Livierato Freres) ; C F or C B
(Caracanda Freres).
Bogota marks includes PAL (in tri-
angle) Bogota (P. A. Lopez & Co.) ;
Camelia ; Pinzon & Co. ; Salazar ; A 0 L
(in triangle) Bogota; and Carmencita
Manizales Excelso (Steinwender, Stoff-
regen & Co.).
Among the best known Medellin marks
BUYING AND SELLING GREEN COFFEE
339
rTmrn
J A & CO.
° ROSEBUD
iiiiiiiiiiiiiMiiiiiirnT
J A & CO.
'° BOURBONA
ARONCO
E.S.C
KXCELSO
DON CARLOS
Medelun
EXCELSO
s?
vl-AQ.
%
MKDELLIN
MXaiLSO
fedi Li' O C^
LONGBEHRY
CF
SHORTBERRY
NOSSACK
BOGOT/X
CF
SHORTBERRY
SIONS
BOURBNS
PAN
IRADH MARK
tJEC&C
R G E
FANCY
L
VlvNEZlJKLA
w
SANTOS
LF
iiiiiiiiiiiiii
w
BOGOTA
SHORT
BERRY
mI^r
iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiitTnT
i\/r :^^ n
I mil
M
E
LA lUMBLA
BANCO LOPirZ
CX)IX)M1MA
CARMENCITA
MANIZALES
EXCELSO
COGOLLO
COLOMBLV
SOME WELL KNOWN GREEN-COFFEE MARKS
340
ALL ABOUT COFFEE
are FAC & H (F. A. Correa & Sons) : PEC
& C (Pedro Estrado Co.) ; LMT & C (Louis
M. Torro & Co.) ; A & C (A. Angel & Co.) ;
ECS Medellin Exeelso (Eppens, Smith
Co.) ; Balzacbro Medellin Exeelso (Balzac
Bros.) ; La Rambla (Banco Lopez) ; and
Don Carlos Medellin Exeelso ( Stein wender,
Stoffregen & Co.).
Caracas marks show J P P & H (Juan
Pablo Perez & Sons) ; HLB & C (H. L.
Boulton & Co.) ; FST & C (Filipe S. Toledo
& Co.) ; JLG (J. L. Garrondona) ; and
many others. Kolster (Kolster & Co.) is a
well known Puerto Cabello mark.
Maracaibos bear numerous marks, chief
among which are: M & C (Menda & Co.) ;
Cogollo (Cogollo & Co.) ; Fossi (Fossi &
Co.) ; B M & C (Breur. Moller & Co.) ;
B & C (Blohm & Co.) ; FST & C (Filipe S.
Toledo & Co.) ; V D R & C (Van Dessel,
Rodo & Co.) ; and J E C & C over R G E
(J. E. Carret& Co.).
A prominent Mexican mark is P A N
(Rafael del Castillo & Co.).
Brazil coffee is usually marked merely
with the initials of the firm or bank
financing the shipment. Some representa-
tive Brazilian marks are : Aronco (in
rectangle) Brazil; J A & Co (in rectangle)
Brazil Rosebud; J A & Co (in rectangle)
Brazil Bourbona — all used by J. Aron &
Company; S S C (in circle) Rio; S S C (in
triangle) Santos; both used by Stein-
wender, Stoffregen & Co. ; Sions M/M
Bourbns (Sion & Co.) ; and Nossack
V S S C (in swastika), used by Nossack
& Co.
There are hundreds of other marks. In
most countries they change so often that one
rarely stands out above the rest.
Chapter XXIV
GREEN AND ROASTED COFFEE CHARACTERISTICS
The trade values, bean characteristics, and cup merits of the leading
coffees of commerce, with a '' Complete Reference Table of the Prin-
cipal Kinds of Coffee Grown in the World" — Appearance, aroma,
and flavor in cup-testing — How experts test coffee — A typical
sample-roasting and cup-testing outfit
MORE than a hundred different
kinds of coffee are bought and
sold in the United States. All of
them belong to the same botanical genus,
and practically all to the same species, the
Coffea arabica ; but each has distinguishing
characteristics which determine its com-
mercial value in the eyes of the importers,
roasters, and distributers.
The American trade deals almost exclu-
sively in Coffea arabica, although in the
latter years of the "World War increasing
quantities of robusta and liberica growths
were imported, largely because of the
scarcity of Brazilian stocks and the im-
provement in the preparation methods,
especially in the case of robustas. Con-
siderable quantities of robusta grades were
sold in the United States before 1912, but
trading in them fell off when the New York
Coffee and Sugar Exchange prohibited their
delivery on Exchange contracts after
March 1, 1912.
All coffees used in the United States are
divided into two general groups. Brazils
and Milds. Brazils comprise those coffees
grown in Sao Paulo, Minas Geraes, Rio de
Janeiro, Bahia, Victoria, and other Brazil-
ian states. The Milds .include all coffees
grown elsewhere. In 1921 Brazils made up
about three-fourths of the world's total
consumption. They are regarded by Amer-
ican traders as the ''price" coffees, while
Milds are considered as the "quality"
grades.
Brazil coffees are classified into four great
groups, which bear the names of the ports
through which they are exported; Santos,
Rio, Victoria, and Bahia. Santos coffee is
grown principally in the state of Sao
Paulo ; Rio, in the state of Rio de Janeiro
and the state of Minas Geraes ; Victoria, in
the state of Espirito Santo; and Bahia in
the state of Bahia. All of these groups
are further subdivided according to their
bean characteristics and the districts in
which they are produced.
Brazil Coffee Characteristics
Santos. Santos coffees, considered as a
whole, have the distinction of being the
best grown in Brazil. Rios rank next, Vic-
torias coming third in favor, and Bahias
fourth. Of the Santos growths the best is
that known in the trade as Bourbon, pro-
duced by trees grown from Mocha seed
(Coffea arabica) brought originally from
the French island colony of Bourbon (now
Reunion) in the Indian Ocean. The true
Bourbon is obtained from the first few
crops of Mocha seed. After the third or
fourth year of bearing, the fruit gradually
changes in form, yielding in the sixth year
the flat-shaped beans which are sold under
the trade name of Flat Bean Santos. By
that time, the coffee has lost most of its
Bourbon characteristics. The true Bourbon
of the first and second crops is a small bean,
and resembles the Mocha, but makes a much
handsomer roast with fewer "quakers".
341
342
ALL ABOUT COFFEE
VENLZULLA
/ ■ lft.rot\>ba
' PARAMrnA ] ..^
^ ■ PARAtlrBA «i,„o«'''
Moceio
PERU
^elloHori/on|-«,.'^yVi(;[oria
/ 5A0 PAULO A _/:'^
Co^ee Map of Brazil
Showing the Principal Coffee-
Producing States and
Shipping Ports
The Bourbons grown in the Campinas dis-
trict often have a red center.
As regards flavor, a good Bourbon Santos
is considered the best coffee for its price,
and is the most satisfactory low-cost blend-
ing coffee to be obtained. It is used with
practically any of the high-priced coffees
to reduce the cost of the blend. When
properly made, this coffee produces a drink
that is smooth and palatable, without tang
or special character, and is suitable to the
average taste. When aged, Bourbon Santos
decreases in acidity, and increases some-
what in size of bean.
The Santos coffee described as Flat Bean
usually has a smooth surface, varying in
size from small to large bean, and in color
from a pale yellow to a pale green. The
cup has a good and smooth body of neutral
character, and the bean can be used
straight or in a blend with practically any
Mild coffee.
Another Santos growth, known in the
trade as Harsh Santos, grows near the
boundary between Sao Paulo and Minas
Geraes. It often has some of the Rio
characteristics, and commands a lower price
than other Santos coffees.
Some trade authorities are of the opinion
that Santos coffees are an exception to the
rule that most green coffees improve with
age. They argue that careful cup-testing
will reveal that a new crop Santos is to be
preferred to an old crop.
Rios. Rio coffee is not generally liked in
the United States, though in former years
it had some following even in the better
trade. The demand for all grades of Rios
has been decreasing, Santos taking their
place in the United States. Rio coffee has
a peculiar, rank flavor. It has a heavy,
pungent, and harsh taste which traders do
not consider of value either in straight
coffee or in blends. However, its low price
recommends it to some packers, and it is
often found in the cheapest brands of
package coffees and also in many com-
pounds. In color, the bean runs from light
green to dark green; but when it is stored
for any length of time — a common practise
in the past — the color changes to a golden
yellow; and the coffee is then known as
COFFEE CHARACTERISTICS
343
BouRBOx Sa:xtos Beans — Roasted
golden Eio. The bean also expands with
age.
All Rio coffee is described by the name
Rio; but the American trade recognizes
eight different grades, designated by num-
erals from one to eight. These grades are
determined by standards adopted by. the
New York Coffee and Sugar Exchange, and
are classified by the number of imperfec-
tions found in the chops exported. No. 1
Rio contains no imperfections, such as
black beans, shells, stones, broken beans,
pods or immature beans ("quakers").
Such a chop is rarely found. No. 2 has six
imperfections. No. 3 has thirteen. No. 4 has
twenty-nine. No. 5 has sixty, No. 6 has one
hundred and ten. No. 7 has two hundred,
and No. 8 has about four hundred, although
on the Exchange these last two are graded
by standard types.
Victorias. Up to about the year 1917,
Victoria coffees were held in even less favor
by American traders than were Rios. As a
rule the bean was large and punky, of a
dark brown or dingy color, and its flavor
was described as muddy. Then, the coffee
growers began to introduce modern ma-
chinery for handling the crops, with the
result that the character of the produce has
been much improved, and the demand for it
has been steadily growing. Many roasters
who formerly used Rios straight for their
Flat and Bourbon Santos Beans — Roasted
Rio Beans — Roasted
lower grades, have changed to Victorias, not
only to improve the appearance of the
roast, but to soften the harsh drinking
qualities of the low-grade Rios.
Bahias. Until recent years Bahia coffee
has been decidedly unpopular in the United
States, largely because of its peculiar smoky
flavor, due to drying the coffee by means
of wood fires, instead of by the usual sun
method. This practise has been abandoned ;
Bahia coffee has shown a marked improve-
ment in quality ; and importations into the
United States have increased. The Bahia
coffee produced in the Chapada district is
considered to be the best of the group. The
bean is light-colored and of fair size. Other
types are Caravella and Nazareth, both of
344
ALL ABOUT COFFEE
COFFEE CHARACTERISTICS
345
which are below the standards demanded
by the majority of the American trade.
Maragogipe. This is a variety of Coffea
ardbica first observed growing near the
town of Maragogipe on All Saints Bay,
county of Maragogipe, Bahia, Brazil, where
it is called Coffea indigena. The green
bean is of huge size, and varies in color
from green to dingy brown. It is the
largest of all coffee beans, and makes an
elephantine roast, free from quakers, but
woody and generally disagreeable in the
cup. However, Dr. P. J. S. Cramer of the
Netherlands government's experimental
garden in Bangelan, Java, regards it very
highly, referring to it as "the finest coffee
known", and as having "a highly devel-
oped, splendid flavor." This coffee is now
fpund in practically all the producing coun-
tries, and shows the characteristics of the
other coffees produced in the same soil.
The Characteristics of Mild Coffees
Among the Mild coffees there is a much
greater variation in characteristics than is
found among the Brazilian growths. This
is due to the differences in climate, altitude,
and soil, as well as in the cultural, process-
ing, storage, and transportation methods
employed in the widely separated countries
in which Milds are produced.
Mild coffees generally have more body,
more acidity, and a much finer aroma than
Brazils ; and from the standpoint of quality
they are far more desirable in the cup. As a
rule they have also better appearance, or
"style", both in the green and in the roast,
due to the fact that greater care is exercised
in picking and preparing the higher grades.
Milds are important for blending purposes,
most of them possessing distinctive individ-
ual characteristics, which increase their
value as blending coffees.
Not All Coffees Improve with Age
Although it has long been held that green
coffee improves with age, and there is little
doubt that this is true in so far as roasting
merits are concerned ; the question has been
raised among coffee experts as to whether
age improves the drinking qualities of all
coffees alike.
Rio coffees should improve with age, as
they are naturally strong and earthy. Age
might be expected to soften and to mellow
them and others having like characteristics.
If, however, the coffee is mild in cup
quality in the first instance, then it may be
asked if age does not weaken it so that in
time it must become quite insipid. Several
years ago, a New York coffee expert pointed
out that this was what happened to Santos
coffees. The new crop, he said, was always
a more pleasant and enjoyable drink than
the old crop, because it was a more pro-
nounced mild coffee in the cup.
Mexicans. Considering those coffees
grown nearest the American market first,
we come to the coffees of Mexico. All
coffees grown in this republic are known as
Mexicans. They are further divided ac-
cording to the states and districts in which
they are produced, and as to whether they
are prepared according to the wet or the dry
method. The types best known in the Am-
erican market are Coatepec, Huatusco,
Orizaba, Cordoba, Oaxaca, and Jalapa. The
lesser known are the Uruapan, Michoacan,
Colima, Chiapas, Triunfo, Tapachula,
Sierra, Tabasco, Tampico, and Coatza-
coalcos. Some of these are rarely seen in
the markets of the United States.
The coffee most cultivated in Mexico is
supposed to have come from Mocha seed.
Of this species is the Oaxaca coffee, which
is valued because of its sharp acidity and
excellent flavor, two qualities that make it
desirable for blending. The bean of the
Sierra Oaxaca (common unwashed) is not
large, nor is the appearance stylish. The
Pluma Oaxaca (washed) coffee, however, is
a fancy bean an^good for blending pur-
poses.
Coatepec coffees are among the finest
grown in Mexico, and take rank with the
world's best grades. They are quite acidy,
but have a desirable flavor; and when
blended with coffees like Bourbon Santos,
make a satisfactory cup.
The Orizaba, Huatusco, and Jalapa
growths resemble Coatepecs, of which they
are neighbors in the state of Vera Cruz.
They are thin in body but are stylish
roasters, and have a good cup qualities. As
a class they do not possess the heavy body
and acidity of genuine Coatepecs. Some
Huatuscos are exceptions. Orizaba is su-
perior to Jalapa. Chiapas and Tapachula
coffees are generally more like Guatemalan
growths than any others produced in
Mexico, which is natural in view of the
proximity of the districts to the northern
boundary of Guatemala. The Sierra, Tam-
pico, Tabasco, and Coatzacoalcos coffees are
uncertain in quality; mostly they are low
346
ALL ABOUT COFFEE
COFFEE CHARACTERISTICS
347
grade, some of them frequently possessing
a ground}', flat, or Eio-y flavor.
Cordoba coffees lack the acidity and tang
of the Oaxacas, but make a handsome roast.
They are considered too neutral to form
the basis of a blend, but can be used to
balance the tang of other grades.
Central Americans. Central American
coffee is the general trade name applied to
the growths produced in Guatemala, Hon-
duras, Salvador, Nicaragua, Costa Rica, and
Panama, the countries comprising Central
America.
Guatemala. This country sends the
largest quantity to the United States, and
also produces the best average grades of
the Central American districts. Guate-
malas are mostly washed and are very
stylish. The bean has a w^axy, bluish color.
It splits open when roasting and shows a
white center. Low-grown Guatemalas are
thin in the cup, but the coffees grown in
the mountainous districts of Coban and
Antigua are quite acidy and heavy in body.
Some Cobans border on bitterness be-
cause of the extreme acidity. The Antiguas
are medium, flinty beans ; Avhile Cobans are
larger. Both grades are spicy and aro-
matic in the cup, and are particularly good
blenders. Properly roasted to a light cin-
namon color, and blended with a high-
grade combination, Cobans make one of the
most serviceable coffees on the American
market.
Guatemalas are. generally classified as
noted in the Complete Reference Table.
Mexican Beans — Roasted
Guatemala Beans — Roasted
Honduras. While the upland coffee of
Honduras is of good quality, the general
run of the country's production seldom
brings as high a price as Santos of equal
grade. Nearly all Honduras coffee con-
sists of small, round berries, bluish greeu
in color. Very little of this growth comes
to the United States; the bulk of the ex-
ports going to Europe, where it commands
a high price, especially in France.
Salvador. Salvador coffee is inferior to
Guatemala's product, grade for grade.
Only a small proportion is washed; and
the bulk of the crops is ''naturals"; that
is, unwashed. The bean is large and of fair
average roast. The washed grades are
fancy roasters, with very thin cup. The
largest part of the production goes to
Europe; some twenty-five percent of the
exports are brought into the United States
through San Francisco.
Nicaragua. The ordinary run of Nica-
ragua coffee (the naturals) is looked upon
in the United States as being of low qual-
ity, though the w^ashed coffees from the
Matagalpa district have plenty of acid in
the cup and usually are fine roasters.
Matagalpa beans are large and blue-tinged.
Germany, Great Britain, and France take
about all the Honduras coffee exported,
only about six percent of the total coming
to the United States. These coffees are
described more in detail in the Complete
Reference Table.
348
ALL ABOUT COFFEE
Costa Rica. Good grades of Costa
Rican coffee, such as are grown in the Car-
tago, San Jose, Alajuela, and Grecia dis-
tricts at high altitudes, are highly esteemed
by blenders. They are characterized by
their fine flavor, rich body, and sharp
acidity. It is frequently declared that
some of these coffees are often acidy enough
to sour cream if used straight. Due to
careless methods of handling, sour or
"hidey" beans are sometimes found in
chops of Costa Ricans from the lowlands.
Panama. Panama grows coffee only for
domestic use, and consequently it is little
known in foreign markets. The bean is of
average size and tends toward green in
color. In the cup it has a heavy body and
a strong flavor. The coffee grown in Bo-
quette Valley is considered to be of fine
quality, due no doubt to the care given in
cultivation by the American and English
planters there.
South America
Colombians. Colombia produces some
of the world's finest coffees, of which the
best known are Medellins, Manizales, Bo-
gotas, Bucaramangas, Tolimas, and Cucu-
tas. Old-crop Colombians of the higher
grades, when mellowed with age, have
many of the characteristics of the best East
Indian coffees, and in style and cup are
difficult to distinguish from the Mandhel-
ings and the Ankolas of Sumatra. Such
coffees are scarce on the American market,
practically all the shipments coming to the
United States being new crop and lacking
some of the qualities of the mellowed beans.
Compared with Santos coffee, good grade
Colombians give one-fourth more liquor to
a given strength with better flavor and
aroma. They are classed and graded as
noted in the Complete Reference Table.
Medellins are a fancy mountain-grown
coffee, and are esteemed for their good
qualities. The beans vary in size, and the
color ranges from light to dark green,
making a rather rough roast. In the cup
they have a fine, rich, distinctive flavor,
and in the American grading are regarded
as the best of the Colombian commercial
growths.
Manizales rank next to Medellins, and
have nearly the same characteristics.
Bogotas of good grade are noted for their
acidity, body, and flavor. When the acidity
is tempered with age, the coffee can be
drunk "straight" which can not be done
Bogota (Colombia) Beans — Roasted
with many other growths. The Bogota
green bean ranges from a blue-green bean
to a fancy yellow. It is long, and gener-
ally has a sharp turn in one end of the
center stripe. It is a smooth roaster, and
has a rich mellow flavor.
Bucaramangas, grown in the district of
that name, are regarded favorably in the
American markets as good commercial cof-
fees for blending purposes; the naturals
have heavy body, but lack acidity and de-
cided flavor, and are much used to give
"back-bone" t-o blends. The fancies some-
times push the superior East Indian
growths hard for first place.
Tolimas are considered a good grade
average coffee, and are characterized by a
fair-sized bean, attractive style, and good
cup quality.
Cucuta coffees, though grown in Colom-
bia, are generally classified among the
Maracaibos of Venezuela, because they are
mostly shipped from that port. They are
described, accordingly, with the Venezuelan
coffees.
Venezuela. The coffees of Venezuela
are generally grouped under the heads of
Caracas, Puerto Cabello, and Maracaibo,
the names of the ports through which they
are exported. Each group is further sub-
divided by the names of the districts in
which the principal plantations lie. La
Guaira coffee includes that produced in the
vicinity of Caracas and Cumana.
Caracas coffee is one of the best known
in the American market. The washed
Caracas is in steady demand ' in France
COFFEE CHARACTERISTICS
349
aud Spain. The bean is bluish in color,
somewhat short, and of a uniform size. The
liquor has a rather light body. Some light-
blue washed Caracas coffees are very de-
sirable, and have a peculiar flavor that is
quite pleasant to the educated palate.
Caracas chops rarely hold their style for
any length of time, as the owners usually
are not willing to dry properly and thor-
oughly before milling. When, however,
the price is right, American buyers will use
some Caracas chops instead of Bogotas. At
equal prices the latter have the preference,
as they have more body in the cup. Puerto
Cabello and Cumana coffees are valued just
below Caracas. They are grown at a lower
altitude, and are somewhat inferior in
flavor.
Not less than one-third of Puerto Cabello
coffees come across the thirty-mile gulf to
the westward from the port of Tucacas, in
a little steamer called the Barquisimento,
which is famous all along the coast as the
''cocktail shaker." C. H. Stewart' solemnly
asserts that "Barky" can do the "shim-
ray" when lying at anchor in quiet waters.
Merida and Tachira coffees are con-
sidered the best of the Maracaibo grades,
Tovars and Trujillos being classed as lower
in trade value. Though Cucuta coffee is
grown in the Colombian district of that
name, it is largely shipped through Mara-
caibo : and hence is classed among the
IMaracaibo types. It ranks with Meridas
^ Stewart, C. H. "The Coffee Status of Venezuela."
Tea and Coffee Trade Jour. Jan. 1922 (vol. xlii : no. 1 :
pp. 29-35.)
MARACAino Beans — Roasted
and fine grade Boeonos, and somewhat re-
sembles the Java bean in form and roast,
but is decidedly different in the cup.
Washed Cucutas are noted for their large
size, roughness, and waxy color. They make
a good-appearing roast, splitting open, and
showing irregular white centers. New-
crop beans are sometimes sharply acid,
though they mellow with age and gain in
body.
Until recent years, Tachira coffee was
always sold as Cucuta; but now there is a
tendency to ship it under the name Tach-
ira-Venezuela, while true Cucuta is marked
Cucuta-Colombia. Tachiras closely re-
semble the true Cucutas, grade for grade.
Up to about 1905 the coffees grown near
Salazar, in Colombia, came to market under
the name of Salazar; but since then, they
have been included among the Cucuta
grades and are sold under that name.
The state of Tachira lies next to the
Colombian boundary, and its mountains
produce much fine washed coffee. This
has size and fair style, as a rule, but does
not possess cup qualities to make it much
sought. It ages well and, being of good
body, the old crops, other things being
equal, frequently bring a tidy premium.
The Rubio section of Tachira produces the
best of its washed coffees. Here are several
of the largest and best-equipped estates in
all Venezuela. Washed when fresh, the cof-
fees from these estates are usually sold
somewhat under the fancy Caracas; but
the trillados of the Tachira rank with the
best of the country, owing to their large
bean, solid color, and good quality. They
roast well, and cup with good body, though
not much character. Good Tachira trilla-
dos are sold on the same basis as the Cu-
cutas, which they resemble.
The Meridas are raised at higher alti-
tudes than Cucutas, and good grades are
sought for their peculiarly delicate flavor
— which is neither acidy nor bitter — and
heavy body. They rank as the best by far
of the Maracaibo type. The bean is high-
grown, of medium size, and roundish. It
is well knit, and brings the highest price
while it still holds its bluish style, as it
then retains its delicate aroma and char-
acter. The trillados of Merida run un-
evenly.
Tovars rank between Trujillos and Ta-
chiras. They are fair to good body without
acidity; make a duller roast than Cucutas,
350
ALL ABOUT COFFEE
but contain fewer quakers. They are used
for blending with Bourbon Santos. Bo-
conos are light in color and body. They
are of two classes; one a round, small to
medium, bean ; and the other larger and
softer. Their flavor is rather neutral, and
they are frequently used as fillers in
blends. Trujillos lack acidity and make a
dull, rough roast, unless aged. They are
blended with Bourbon Santos to make a
low-priced palatable coffee. Some coffees
of merit are produced at Santa Ana, Monte
Carmelo, and Bocono in Trujillo.
Other South American Countries
The coffees from other South American
countries, even where there is an appre-
ciable production, are not important fac-
tors in international trade. The coffee of
Ecuador, shipped through the port of
Guayaquil, goes mostly to Chile, a com-
paratively small quantity being exported
to the United States. The bean is small to
medium in size, pea-green in color, and
not desirable in the cup. The coffee is
about equal to low-grade Brazil, and is used
principally as a filler. Peru produces an
ever-lessening quantity of coffee, the bulk
of the exports in pre-war years going to
Germany, Chile, and the United Kingdom.
It is a low-altitude growth, and is con-
sidered poor grade. The bean ranges from
medium to bold in size, and from bluish to
yellow in color. Bolivia is an unimportant
factor in the international coffee trade,
most of its exports going to Chile. The
chief variety produced is called the Yunga,
which is considered to be of superior
quality ; but only a small quantity is grown.
Guiana's coffee trade is insignificant. The
three best-known types are the Surinam,
Demerara, and Cayenne, named after the
ports through which they are shipped.
The West Indies
Coffee either is, or can be, grown prac-
tically everywhere in the West Indies ; but
the chief producing districts are found on
the islands of Porto Rico, Haiti (and
Santo Domingo), Jamaica, Guadeloupe, and
Curasao. Coffees coming from these
islands are generally known by the name
of the country of production, and may be
further identified by the names of the dis-
tricts in which they are grown.
Porto Rico. Since the United States
took possession of Porto Rico, soil experts
have endeavored to raise the quality of the
coffee grown there, especially the lower
grades, which had peculiarly wild char-
acteristics. Today, the superior grades of
Porto Rican coffees rank among the best
growths known to the trade. The bean is
large, uniform, and stylish; ranging in
color from a light gray-blue to a dark
green-blue. Some of these are artificially
colored for foreign markets. The coffee
roasts well, and has a heavy body, similar
to the fanciest Mexicans and Colombians.
Its cup is not as rich, but it makes a good
blend. Porto Rican coffees command a
higher price in France than in the United
Stiites, w^hich accounts for the larger pro-
portion of exports to Europe, excepting
when the French market was cut off during
the World War.
Jamaica. Jamaica produces two distinct
types of coffee, the highland and the low-
land growths. Among the first-named is
the celebrated Blue Mountain coffee, which
has a well developed pale blue-green bean
that makes a good-appearing roast and a
pleasantly aromatic cup. It is frequently
compared with the fancy Cohans of Guate-
mala. The lowland coffee is a poorer grade,
and consists largely of a mixture of differ-
ent growths produced on the plains. It is
a fair-sized bean, green to yellow in the
"natural", and blue-green when washed.
In the cup it has a grassy flavor, but is flat
when drunk with cream. It is used chiefly
as a filler in blends, and for French roasts.
Haiti and Santo Domingo. The coffees
of these two republics have like character-
istics, being grown on the same island and
in about the same climatic and soil condi-
tions. Careless cultivation and preparation
methods are responsible for the generally
poor quality of these coffees. When prop-
erly grown and cured, they rank well with
high-grade washed varieties, and have a
rich, fairly acid flavor in the cup. The
bean is blue-green, and makes a handsome
roast.
Guadeloupe. Guadeloupe coffee is dis-
tinguishable by its green, long, and slightly
thick bean, covered by a pellicle of whitish
silvery color, which separates from the bean
in the roast. It has excellent cup qualities.
Martinique. This island formerly pro-
duced a coffee closely resembling the
Guadeloupe; but no coffee is now grown
there, though some Guadeloupe growths are
shipped from Martinique, and bear its
name.
COFFEE CHARACTERISTICS
351
I
Other West Indian Islands. Among
the other West Indian islands producing
small quantities of coffee are Cuba, Trini-
dad, Dominica, Barbados, and Curagao,
The growths are generally good quality,
bearing a close resemblance to one another.
In the past, Cuba produced a fine grade;
but the industry is now practically extinct.
Asia
Arabia. For many generations Mocha
coffee has been recognized throughout the
world as the best coffee obtainable; and
until the pure food law went into effect
in the United States, other high-grade
coffees were frequently sold by American
firms under the name of Mocha. Now, only
coffees grown in Arabia are entitled to that
Mocha Beans — Roasted
valuable trade name. They grow in a small
area in the mountainous regions of the
southwestern portion of the Arabian penin-
sula, in the province of Yemen, and are
known locally by the names of the districts
in which they are produced. Commercially
they are graded as follows : Mocha Extra,
for all extra qualities; Mocha No. 1, con-
sisting of only perfect berries; No. 1-A,
containing some dust, but otherwise free of
imperfections ; No. 2, showing a few broken
beans and quakers; No. 3, having a heavier
percentage of brokens and quakers and also
some dust.
Mocha beans are very small, hard, round-
ish, and irregular in form and size. In
color, they shade from olive green to pale
yellow, the bulk being olive green. The
roast is poor and uneven; but the coffee's
virtues are shown in the cup. It has a dis-
tinctive winy flavor, and is heavy with
acidity — two qualities which make a
straight Mocha brew especially valuable as
an after-dinner coffee, and also esteemed
for blending with fancy, mild, washed
types, particularly East Indian growths.
As in other countries, the coffees grown
on the highlands in Yemen are better than
the lowland growths. As a rule, the low
altitude bean is larger and more oblong
than that grown in the highlands, due to its
quicker development in the regions where
the rainfall, though not great, is more
abundant.
While Mocha coffees are known commer-
cially by grade numbers, the planters and
Arabian traders also designate them by the
name of the district or province in which
each is grown. Among the better grades
thus labeled are, the Yaffey, the Anezi, the
Mattari, the Sanani, the Sharki, and the
Haimi-Harazi. For the poorer grades,
these names are used : Remi, Bourai, Shami,
Yemeni, and Maidi. Of these varieties, the
Mattari, a hard and regular bean, pale yel-
low in color, commands the highest price,
with the Yaffey a close second. Harazi
coffee heads the market for quantity coupled
with general average of quality.
Indian and Ceylon. Coffees from India
and Ceylon are marketed almost exclusively
in London, little reaching the American
trade. Of the Indian growths, Malabars,
grown on the western slope of the Ghaut
mountains, are classed commercially as the
best. The bean is rather small and blue-
green in color. In the cup it has a distinc-
tive strong flavor and deep color. Mysore
coffee ranks next in favor on the English
market. It is mountain grown, and the
bean is large and blue-green in color.
Tellicherry is another good grade coffee,
closely resembling Malabar, Coorg (Kurg)
coffee is an inferior growth. It is lowland
type, and in the cup is thin and flat. The
bean is large and flat, and tends toward
dark green in color. Travancore is an-
other lowland growth, ranking about with
Coorg, and has the same general character-
istics. See the Complete Reference Table
for details.
Ceylon, although it once was one of the
world's most important producers, has been
losing ground as a coffee-producing country
352
ALL ABOUT COFFEE
since 1890. Ceylon coffees are classified
commercially as "native", "plantation",
and "mountain". The native is a poor-
grade, lowland growth, with large flat bean
and low cup quality. The plantation, so
named because more carefully cultivated on
highland plantations, is a stylish roaster,
and gives a rich flavor and strong fragrance
in the cup. The mountain, grown at high
altitudes, is a small, steel-blue bean, and is
considered by British traders as equal to
the best varieties grown anywhere. It was
formerly shipped to Aden to be mixed with
Mocha.
French Indo-China. The coffee of
French Indo-China is highly prized in
France, where the bulk of the exports goes.
The coffee tree grows well in the provinces
of Tonkin, Annam, Cambodia, and Cochin-
China. Tonkin is the largest producer, and
grows the best varieties. In the cup, Ton-
kin coffee is thought by French traders to
compare favorably with Mocha. Of the
several varieties of Coffea arahica grown in
Indo-China, the Grand Bourhon, Bourbon
rond, and the Bourhon Le Roy, are the best
known. The first-named is a large bean of
good quality; the second is a small, round
; -V
CIP
cC7
PortSo-id
/
/
\
/
\
\
\ A
\
\
V>-
LGYPT
\
V
> ./
\
\
FRLNCH WCIST AfRlCA
! v NIGERIA ;^--
J \ I ! .-'\
\
Suaki'r\«
V ARABIA
\
I ANGLO EGYPTIAN r'(^^}Cl^"\JV£
SUDAN
I
/<SOI.D •.
•COASTV
K
Coffee Map
of
Africa and
Arabia
Showing the Principal Coffee-
Producing Countries on the Con-
tinent and Adjacent Islands.
Copyright 1922 by
The Tea and Coffee Trade Journal Co.
!abY55IN/A U!;>^|j^vo-i
^KEINYA • ^-
• /• r^r-, ^ ■ AM /COLOINY
ci .' BELGIAN ('uGA^
/ CONGO T'"^---!
•^ / -rcD azat\x\bar
BarvcinaY" \ .-'•, S\ ^^^- >Dar-«s-Salaan\
ANGOLA ^•"''"^•''Vv ^U <s { conoRO
i. fc^lS
1 t-K. ^ ^
^ LibrcvJIli
BarvcinaT
5t. Paul ^e Loan^al
-i^^M. i
inozambi<|
TamatavG
HAURITIUS
Port Lours^
5T DENIStJ)
REUNION
NATAL
)urbar\
Cape Towr\
A L L A BO I' T C O FFE E
J A V A
(Washed)
S U BTA T r a
(Mandheling)
ARABIAN
(Mocha)
COLOMBIAN
(Bogota)
GUATEMALA
(Washed)
MEXICAN
(Washed)
COSTA RICA
(Washed)
SANTOS
(Peaberry)
VENEZUELA
(Maracaibo)
S A S i c> vT
(Flat Bean)
If
#
^S^S^"
a A i\ i O S
(Bourbon)
RI O
(Natural)
PRINCIPAL VARIETIES OF GREEN COFFEE BEANS.
NATURAL SIZE AND COLOR
L..„„ ,.,„..
^Htill smaller bean of fair cup quality.
I
COFFEE CHARACTERISTICS
353
f
Africa
Abyssinia. The coffee grown in Abys-
nia is classified commercially into two
varieties: Harari, which is grown princi-
ally in the district around Harar; and
byssinian, produced mainly in the prov-
ces of Kaffa, Sidamo, and Guma. Harari
ffee is the fruit of cultivated trees ; while
byssinian comes from wild trees. The
first-named produces a long and well-shaped
berry, and is often referred to as Longberry
Harari. The bean is larger than the Mocha,
but similar in general appearance. Its
color shades from blue-green to yellow.
Good grades of Harari have cup character-
istics resembling Mocha, and by some are
preferred to Mocha, because of their winier
cup flavor. The Abyssinian coffee is con-
sidered much inferior to Harari ; and chops
generally contain many imperfections. The
bean is dark gray in color. Little Abyssin-
ian coffee comes to the United States.
Many other African countries produce
coffee; but little of it ever reaches the
North American market. Uganda, in
British East Africa, grows a good grade of
robusta coffee which is valued on the Lon-
don market. Liberian coffee, grown on the
west coast, used to be mixed with Bourbon
Santos to some extent; but it is generally
considered low grade, although it makes a
handsome, elephantine roast. The product
of Guinea is a very small bean, half-way
between a peaberry and a flat bean, and
has a dingy brown color. It is considered
worthless as a drink. A medium-sized,
strong-flavored bean that is rich in the cup,
is grown in the African Congo district. In
Angola a fair quantity of coffee is pro-
duced. In the cup it has a strong and
pungent flavor, but lacks smoothness and
aroma. Zanzibar produces a pleasing coffee
in very limited quantities. The bean is
medium size, and regular in shape. Mozam-
bique's coffee is greenish in color, of
medium size, and mellow. The production
is small. Madagascar produces an insignifi-
cant quantity for export, although the coffee
is considered fair average, with rich flavor,
and considerable fragrance. Bourbon
coffee, grown on the island of Reunion,
commands a high price in the French mar-
ket, where practically all exports go. It is
a small, flinty bean, and gives a rich cup
and fragrance.
Washed Java Beans — Roasted
East Indian Islands
Some of the coffees from the East Indian
islands rank among the best in the world,
particularly those from Sumatra. East
India coffees are distinguished by their
smooth, heavy body in the cup, the fancy
grades giving an almost syrupy richness.
Java. Java coffees are generally of a
smaller bean than those from Sumatra,
and are not considered as high grade. The
bulk of the new-crop growths have a grassy
flavor which most people find unpleasant
when drunk straight. Under the old cul-
ture system, coffee was bought by the
government, and held in godowns from
two to three years, until it had become
mellow with age. In late years, this system
has been abandoned; and the planters now
sell their product as they please, and in
most cases without mellowing, excepting as
they age during the long sea voyage from
Batavia to destination. Before the advent
of large fleets of steamers in the East In-
dian trade, the coffee was brought to Amer-
ica in sailing vessels that required from
three to four months for the trip. During
the voyage, the coffee went through a
sweating process which turned the beans
from a light green to a dark brown, and
considerably enhanced their cup values.
The sweating was due to the coffee being
loaded while moist, and then practically
sealed in the vessel's hold during all its trip
through the tropical seas. As a conse-
quence, the cargo steamed and foamed ; and
as a rule, part of the coffee became moldy,
354
ALL ABOUT COFFEE
COFFEE CHARACTERISTICS
355
the damage seldom extending more than an
inch or two into the mats. Sweated coffees
commanded from three to five cents more
than those that came in "pale".
Before the Java coffee trade began to
decline in the latter part of the nineteenth
century, Coffea arabica was grown abund-
antly throughout the island. Each resi-
dency had numerous estates, and their
names were given to the coffees produced.
The best coffees came from Preanger, Cheri-
bon, Buitenzorg, and Batavia, ranking in
merit in the order named. All Java coffees
are known commercially either as private
growth, or as blue bean washed, the former
being cured by either the washing or the
dry hulling method, while the latter are
washed. Private growths are usually a
pale yellow, the bean being short and round
and slightly convex. It makes a handsome
even roast, showing a full white stripe.
The washed variety is a pale blue-green,
the bean closely resembling the private
growth in form and roast. These coffees
have a distinctive character in the cup that
is much dift'erent from any other coffee
grown. Their liquor is thin.
All the better known coffees of Java,
which are designated by the districts in
which they are grown, are listed in the
Complete Reference Table. Coffee from
few of the many districts comes to the
North American market. Among those that
are sold in the United States are the Kadoe
and Semarang, both of which are small,
yellowish green; and the Malang, a green,
hard bean which makes a better roast than
Kadoe and Semarang, but is inferior to
them in the cup.
Sumatra. Sumatra has the reputation
of producing some of the finest and highest-
priced coffees in the world, such as Mand-
heling, Ankola, Ayer Bangles, Padang In-
terior, and Palembang. Mandheling coffee
is a large, brownish bean which roasts dull,
but is generally free from quakers. It is
very heavy in body, and has a unique
flavor that easily distinguishes it from any
other growth. The Ankola bean is shorter
and better-appearing than Mandheling, but
otherwise bears a close resemblance. Its
flavor is only slightly under Mandheling;
and, like that coffee, is recommended for
blending with the best grades of Mocha.
While the Ayer Bangles bean is somewhat
larger than the other two just mentioned,
it is not so dark brown in color, and is not
quite so heavy in body; the flavor is very
delicate. These three growths are known in
the trade as the "Fancies" and are con-
sidered the best of Sumatra's production.
The Sumatra coffee best known to the
American trade is the Padang Interior,
which is shipped through the port of
Padang on Sumatra 's west coast. The bean
is irregular in form and color, and makes
a dull roast. However, the flavor is good,
although it lacks the richness of the Fancies,
Another celebrated coffee grown on the west
coast is the Boekit Gompong, grown on the
estate of that name near Padang. It is a
high-grade coffee, making a handsome
roast, and possessing a delicate flavor. The
foregoing coffees are produced on what were
formerly termed government estates, and
during the heyday of government control
were sold by auction and came mostly to
the United States.
Among the private estate coffees, Corin-
chies take first rank for quality, some
traders saying that they are the best in
international commerce. They closely re-
semble Ankolas, but range a cent or two
lower in price. Next in order of merit is
Timor coffee, grown on the island of that
name. It is not as attractive in appear-
ance, roast, or cup quality as the Corinchie,
A grade below Timors is Boengie coffee,
which is seldom seen on the North American
market. Kroe coffee is better known and
more widely used in the United States. The
bean is large, but has an attractive appear-
ance. Kroes are of heavy body, of some-
what groundy flavor when new crop, and
are good roasters and blenders. Other East
Indian coffees are Teagals, Balis, and
Macassars, all of which are second-rate
growths as compared with the bulk of
Sumatras, grade for grade. The Macassars
are produced in the district of that name on
island of Celebes. The best coffee grown in
Celebes comes from the province of Menado,
and is known by that name. It is thought
to be of a superior quality, and commands
a high price in Europe.
The Pacific Islands
The Philippine Islands have not figured
in international coffee trade since 1892, al-
though in preceding years the Philippines
exported several million pounds of an aver-
age good grade of coffee. While coffee is
one of the shade trees used by householders
in Guam, none of the fruit is exported.
Coffee production is an unimportant in-
dustry in Samoa, Australia, New Guinea,
356
ALL ABOUT COFFEE
New Caledonia, and other Pacific islands,
and none is grown for export.
Hawaii. Since the beginning of the
twentieth century the Hawaiian islands
have taken a position of increasing import-
ance, shipping some two million pounds of
good quality coffee to the United States,
their biggest customer. Coffee grows to
some extent on all the islands of the group,
but fully ninety-five percent is raised in the
districts of Kona, Puna, and Hamakua on
the main island of Hawaii. All Hawaiian
coffee is high grade ; and is generally large
bean, blue-green in color when new crop,
and yellow-brown when aged. It makes a
handsome roast, and has a fine flavor that
is smooth and not too acid. It blends well
with any high-grade mild coffee. Kona
coffee, grown in the district of that name,
commands the highest price. Old-crop Kona
coffee is said by some trade authorities to
be equal to either Mocha or Old Govern-
ment Java.
Appearance, Aroma, and Flavor in Cup-
Testing
Before the beginning of the twentieth
century, practically all the coffees bought
and sold in the United States were judged
for merit simply by the appearance of the
green or of the roasted bean. Since that
time, the importance of testing the drinking
qualities has become generally recognized;
and today every progressive coffee buyer
has his sample-roasting and testing outfit
with which to carry out painstaking cup
tests. Both buyers and sellers use the cup
test, the former to determine the merits of
the coffee he is buying, and the latter to
ascertain the proper value of the chop un-
der consideration. Frequently a test is
made to fix the relative desirability of
various growths considered as a whole,
using composite samples that are supposed
to give representation to an entire crop.
The first step in testing coffee is to com-
pare the appearance of the green bean of a
chop with a sample of known standard
value for that particular kind of coffee.
The next step is to compare the appearance
when roasted. Then comes the appearance
and aroma test, when it is ground; and
finally, the most difficult of all, the trial
of the flavor and aroma of the liquid.
Naturally the tester gives much care to
proper roasting of the samples to be exam-
ined. He recognizes several different kinds
of roasts which he terms the light, the
medium, the dark, the Italian, and the
French roasts, all of which vary in the
shadings of color, and each of which gives a
different taste in the cup. The careful
tester watches the roast closely to see
whether the beans acquire a dull or bright
finish, and to note also if there are many
quakers, or off-color beans. When the
proper roasting point is reached, he smells
the beans while still hot to determine their
aroma. In some growths and grades, he
will frequently smell of them as they cool
off, because the character changes as the
heat leaves them, as in the case of many
Maracaibo grades.
After roasting, the actual cup-testing be-
gins. Two methods are employed, the blind
cup test, in which there is no clue to the
identity of the kind of coffee in the cup ;
and the open test, in which the tester knows
beforehand the particular coffee he is to
examine. The former is most generally
employed by buyers and sellers; although
a large number of experts who do not let
their knowledge interfere with their judg-
ment, use the open method.
In both systems the amount of ground
coffee placed in the cup is carefully
weighed so that the strength will be stand-
ard. Generally, the cups are marked on the
bottom for identification after the examina-
tion. Before pouring on the hot water to
make the brew, the aroma of the freshly
ground coffee is carefully noted to see if it
is up to standard. In pouring the water,
care is exercised to keep the temperature
constant in the cups, so that the strength
in all will be equal. When the water is
poured directly on the grounds, a crust or
scum is formed. Before this crust breaks,
the tester sniffs the aroma given off; this
is called the wet-smell, or crust, test, and is
considered of great importance.
Of course, the taste of the brew is the
most important test. Equal amounts of
coffee are sipped from each cup, the tester
holding each sip in his mouth only long
enough to get the full strength of the flavor.
He spits out the coffee into a large brass
cuspidor which is designed for the purpose.
The expert never swallows the liquor.
Cup-testing calls for keenly developed
senses of sight, smell, and taste, and the
faculty for remembering delicate shadings
in each sense. By sight, the coffee man
judges the size, shape, and color of the
green and roasted bean, which are import-
tant factors in determinino: commercial
values. He can tell also whether the coffee
is of the washed or unwashed variety, and
whether it contains many imperfections
such as Quakers, pods, stones, brokens, off-
colored beans, and the like. By his sense
of smell of the roast and of the brew, he
jj:auges the strength of the aroma, which
also enters into the valuation calculation.
His palate tells him many things about a
coffee brew — if the drink has body and is
smooth, rich, acidy, or mellow; if it is
winy, neutral, harsh, or Rioy; if it is
musty, groundy, woody, or grassy; or if it
is rank, hidey (sour), muddy, or bitter.
These are trade designations of the differ-
ent shades of flavor to be found in the vari-
ous coffees coming to the North American
market : and each has an influence on the
price at which they will be sold.
COFFEE CHARACTERISTICS
357
The up-to-date cup-tester requires special
equipment to get the best results. A typical
installation consists of a gas sample-roasting
outfit, employing at least a single cylinder
holding about six ounces of coffee, and per-
haps a battery of a dozen or more ; an elec-
tric grinding mill; a testing table, with a
top that can be revolved by hand ; a pair of
accurately adjusted balance scales; one or
more brass kettles ; a gas stove for heating
water; sample pans; many china or glass
cups; silver spoons; and a brass cuspidor
that stands waist high and is shaped like an
hour glass.
Since the World War, there have been
some notable changes in the buying of
coffees, particularly in European markets.
For example, the old idea of buying fancy
coffees at fancy prices is probably gone for
good in Europe.
Tyi'ical .Sa.mim.k-Koasting axu Cup-Testing Outfit
In the middle of the picture is a standard revolving table (3i^ feet in diameter), with scale mounted
over the center and with a "Mitchell Tray" for holding one cup independent of the table-top move-
ment There are two cuspidors, a double kettle outfit, a 6-cylinder sample roaster and a motor-driven
sample grinder; also a set of .sample separator sieves in the overhead rack, a bag sampler (lymg on
the lower shelf of the counter), and some coffee crushers (one on the end of the counter and one on
tlio revolving table)
358
COMPLETE REFERENCE TABLE
OF
THE PRINCIPAL KINDS OF COFFEE GROWN IN THE WORLD
Together with Their Trade ' Values and Cup Characteristics
t, indicates town or trading center ; m n, market name ; d, district or state.
Grand Division
North America
Country
Mexico
Shipping Ports
Vera Cruz
on Gulf of aiex,
State, or District,
Market Names and
Gradings
Mexicans
Puerto Mexico
on Gulf of Mex,
Salina Cruz
on Pacific
Coatzacoalcos
(Puerto Mexico)
on Gulf of Mex,
Acapulco
on Pacific
Manzanillo
on Pacific
Do.
Vera Cruz, d
Coatepec, m n
(pro., co-at-e-pec)
Huatusco, t
(pro., wha-toos-co)
Orizaba, t
Jalapa, t
(pro., ha-Iap-a)
Cordoba, t
Tabasco, d & m n
Coatzacoalcos, t &
Chiapas, d
Soconusco, t, m n
or
Tapachula, t, m n
Oaxaca, d, m n &, t
(pr., wah-hock-ah)
Sierra Oaxaca,
(common - un-
washed)
Pluma Oaxaca
( hidalgo-
washed )
Guerrero, d
Sierra, m n
Mi(^hoacan, d
Uruapan, t
Colima, d, m n & t
Trade Values and Cup
Characteristics
In general: Mexicans are
mild or mellow. The
green beans are greenish
to yellow (when aged)
and of large size. The
washed coffees make a
handsome roast, showing
pronounced white central
stripe. In the cup they
have a full rich body,
'fine acidity, and a won-
derful bouquet.
Acid, of excellent heavy
and rich flavor; fine for
blending.
Fine appearing washed
coflPee; next to Coatepec
for acid and blending
qualities.
Regarded as next to Hua-
tusco ; good cup quality.
Stylish roaster; frequent-
ly light body.
Xeutral, smooth in flavor,
without acid tang; good
body.
Of uncertain (Character ;
many of them Rio-y, flat,
and groundy. Unsatis-
factory in the cup.
Resembles Guatemala cof-
fees ; smooth in charac-
acter, and without decid-
ed tang.
Small bean ; excellent
quality, sharply acid, fine
flavor, but not stylish in
appearance. The Pluma
is a very fancy bean cof-
fee, also acid and fine for
blending.
Inferior in quality ; low
growth and woody.
A superior coffee, but not
produced in commercial
quantity.
Very like Uruapan.
COMPLETE REFERENCE TABLE
359
<Jrand Division
Country
Shipping Ports
State, or District,
Market Names and
Gradings
Trade Values and Cup
Characteristics
North America
Mexico
Vera Cruz
Puebla, d
Low-grade mountain cof-
{Cont'd)
(Cont'd)
Sierra, m n
fee.
Tampico
Tamaulipas, d
Tampico, to n & /
Tepic
An inferior grade. •
So called "Mexican Mo-
cha." Raised for local
consumption. Not a com-
mercial factor.
Classes for all Mexicans
1. Commons (customary or natural). 2. Washed
(W.I. P.) 3. Caracolillo (peaberry.)
Central America
Guatemala
Puerto Barrios and
r.ivingston
on Caribbean
Guatemala
In general: Guatemalas
are mild or mellow and
mostly washed. The
green beans are greenish
to yellow (when aged),
and of large size. The
mountain - grown coffees
make a handsome roast,
are of full heavy body and
excellent cup quality. The
lower-altitude coffees are
light in cup, but flavory.
Ocos,
Cob&n, t & m n
Waxy, bluish bean ; hand-
Champerico, and
some uniform roast with
San Jose
white center. Heavy body.
on Pacific
fine acidity.
Belize
Alta Verapaz, d
Gray-blue bean ; fine mel-
(Br. Honduras)
Sehenaju, t
Antigua, d
Costa Cuca, d
Costa Grande, d
Barberena, d
Tumbador, d
Costa de Cucho, d
Chicacao Xolhuitz, d
Pochuta Malacatan,
d
San Marcos, d
Chuva. d
Escuintla, d
San Vincente, d
Pacaya, d
Moran. d
Amatitlan, d
Palmar, d
Motagua, d
low flavor. See Belize.
Medium flinty bean ;
lighter in body ; flavory,
acid.
Classes for All Gua-
temalas
Most Guatemalas are
washed and may be clas-
sified as follows :
1. Small flinty bean, ex-
tremely acid and flavory,
produced in the highest
altitudes of the Antigua,
Moran, and Amatitlan
districts.
2. Waxy, bluish bean,
flinty, but large roast;
heavy body with fine acid-
ity. Produced in the
mountainous regions of
the Cobiln, Costa Cuca,
Tumbador, and Chuva
districts.
3. Waxy, bluish bean, handsome uniform roast,
heavy-bodied but non-acid coffees produced in
almost every district of the republic at an alti-
■
ture of from 2,000 to 3.000 feet.
4. Stylish, green bean, handsome large uni-
form roast, very white center, mild cupping cof-
fees produced practically everywhere in the re-
public at an altitude
at from 1,.500 to 2,500 feet.
360
ALL ABOUT COFFEE
Grand Division
Country
Shipping Ports
State, or District,
Market Names and
Gradings
Trade Values and Cup
Characteristics
Central America
Guatemala
5. The lower altitudes of the various districts
(Cont'd)
(Cont'd)
produce either medium bean, neutral cupping,
colory coffees, or the Bourbon type of small
British Honduras
Belize
bean, greenish coffee.
Belize, m n
A Coban coffee from the
Alta Verapaz district in
Guatemala.
Honduras
Trujillo and
Honduras
In general: Honduras cof-
Puerto Cortes
Santa Barbara, d
fees are small, rounded,
on Caribbean
Copan, d
Cortez, d
and bluish-green. They
are of a hard flinty char-
Amapala
La Paz, d
acter; make a fair roast
on Pacific
Choluteca, d
El Paraiso, d
and are neutral in flavor.
While the upland grades
are of good quality, the
run of the country's pro-
duction seldom brings as
high a price as Santos of
equal grade.
Salvador
Acajutla
Salvador
In general: Salvador's cof-
La Union
Usulutan, d
fees are mostly inferior in
La Libertad
La Libertad, d
Santa Ana, d
Santa Tecla, d
La Paz, d
Ahuachapan, d
Juayua, d
Santiago de Maria, d
Sonsonate, d
San Miguel, d
San Salvador, d
San Vincente, d
Cuseatlan, d
Morazan, d
Cabanas, d
Chalatenango, d
La Union, d
quality to those of Gua-
temala. The bulk of the
crop is natui-al unwashed.
Green beans are smooth
and handsome and make
a cinnamon roast. Flavor
is neutral. Useful mainly
as a filler. The washed
coffee is a fancy roaster,
with a very thin cup.
Classes and Gradings for
All Salvador s: Washed
1. Flinty, colory, green-
ish to bluish bean, fine
white centered roasters,
extremely stylish coffees
with full-bodied cup
merit.
2. Grayish green to
bluish green neutral-cup-
ping coffees.
Unleashed
1. Screened, large bean, fine roaster.
2. Average run, unscreened, so-called Current
Unwashed. All unwashed coffees vary greatly
in cup merit, much the same as with Santos
Nicaragua
Corinto
coffees.
Nicaragua
In general: The washed
on Pacific
coffees of Nicaragua have
merit, and are fine roast-
ers; but the naturals,
comprising the bulk of the
crop, are of ordinary
quality.
San Juan del
Matagalpa, d
Large, handsome, blue.
Norte (Grey town)
washed bean, making fan-
on Caribbean
cy roast with plenty of
acid in the cup.
COMPLETE REFERENCE TABLE
361
i-
State, or District,
Grand Division
Country
Shipping Ports
Market Names and
Gradings
Trade Values and Cup
Characteristics
Central America
Nicaragua
Jinotega, d
(Cont'd)
(Cont'd)
Los Pueblos, d
Los Altos, d
:,
Classes for
All yicaraguas:
.
1. Large, handsome, pale greenish to blue.
washed coffee of the Matagalpa district, often
showing fancy roast and acidly full-bodied cup.
2. Washed coffees of the lower regions ; small
in size, but greenish, colory, fine roasters and
neutral cupping.
'
3. Unwashed coffee (bulk of the output) the
merit of which depends entirely on the re-
spective crop. Often a large proportion of the
crop is mild cupping and as desirable as any
-
other unwashed coffee ; while another crop may
1
Costa Rica
Puerto Limon
produce a large quantity of Rio-flavored coffees.
'
Costa Rica
In general: The high-al-
:
on Caribbean
Cartago, d
titude coffees of Costa
i
Punta Arenas
San Jos6, d
Rica are blue-greenish,
s
:
[
on Pacific
Alajuela, d
Greeia, d
Tres Rios. d
Heredia, d
large, rich in body, of fine,
mild flavor, sharply acid,
and superior for blending
purposes. These coffees
are famous for their fine
preparation and careful
screening. The lower re-
gions produce coffees of
more n e u t r a 1-cupping
qualities.
■
Panama
Panama City
Panama
Chiriqui, d
Boquete, m n
In general: The green
bean is of average size,
greenish in color. In the
cup it has a heavy body
and a strong flavor.
Grown chiefly for domes-
tic consumption. Xot a
commercial factor.
West Indies
Cuba
Havana
Cuba
In general: Cuban coffee
(Greater An-
Santiago
Oriente. d
is of good quality. The
tilles)
Guatanamo, t
Santa Clara, d
Pinar del Rio, d
Vuelta Abaja, m n
bean is of medium size,
light green, and makes a
uniform roast. The flavor
resembles the fine washed
coffees of Santo Domingo.
Not commercially impor-
tant.
Haiti
Port au Prince
Haiti
In general: The Haitian
Cap Haitien
St. Marc, d
Gonaive, d
Cap Haitien, d
Jacmel. d
Les Cayes, d
Jeremie, d
washed coffee is a blue
bean and makes an at-
tractive roast. It has a
rich, fairly acid, mildly-
sweet flavor : of average
quality. The naturals are
used extensively for
French roasts.
362
ALL ABOUT COFFEE
State, or District,
Grand Division
Country
Shipping Ports
Market Names and
Gradings
Trade Values and Cup
Characteristics
West Indies
Santo Domingo
Santo Domingo
Santo Domingo
In general: Santo Do-
(Greater An-
Porto Plata
Cape, m n
mingo coffee is a large,
tilles)
Mocha, d
flat, pointed, greenish-
(Cont'd)
Santiago, d
Porto Plata, d
Bani, d
Barahona, d
yellow bean. The high-
grown washed is of good
body and fair flavor. The
low grade is strong, ap-
proaching Rio in flavor.
The natural coffees are
used extensively for
French roasts.
Jamaica (British)
Kingston
Jamaica
Classes :
Blue Mountain
(high-grown)
Settlers' (ordina-
ry, or plain-
grown )
In general: Jamaica cof-
fee is bluish-green when
washed, and green to yel-
low when patio-dried. The
washed high-grown makes
a fancy roast, and is rich,
full and mellow in the
cup. The ordinary plain-
grown makes a bright
roast, and has a fairly
good cup quality. The
naturals are used exten-
sively for French roasts.
Porto Rico (U. S.)
San Juan
Porto Rico
In general: Porto Rico
Ponce
Sierra Luquillo,
coffee is a large, hand-
Mayaguez
m n
some, washed bean, light
Arecibo
Yauco, d, t & m n
gray-blue to dark greenish
Aguadilla
Ciales, d & t
Cayey, d & t
Utuado, d & t
Lares, d & t
Moca, d & t
Adjuntas, d & t
Las Larias, d & t
Maricao, d & t
San Sebastian, d
& t
Mayaguez, d & t
Ponce, d & t
blue in color, and makes
a fancy roast without
Quakers. Strong or heavy
body ; peculiar flavor sim-
ilar to a washed Caracas,
but smoother.
Classes for All Porto
Ricos
Caracolillo, a round bean
peaberry ; Primero, a su-
perior grade of good size
picked ; Segundo, second grade, inferior to
Primero in size and color ; Trillo, lowest grade.
British West Indies
sold locally.
( Lesser An-
tilles)
Antigua
Saint John
Antigua
In general: While the
Dominica
Portsmouth
Dominica (SoufriOre)
quantity grown is small,
Barbados
Bridgetown
Barbados '
the coffee is of good qual-
Trinidad
Port of Spain
Trinidad
ity, and includes ten dif-
Tobago
Scarborough
Tobago
ferent varieties. That
grown in Barbados is sim-
ilar to that of Martinique,
but a larger bean. This
group is not an important
commercial factor.
4
COMPLETE REFERENCE TABLE
363
^^mGrand Division
Country
Shipping Ports
State, or District,
Market Names and
Grading a
Trade Values and Cup
Characteristics
^^■W'est Indies
Guadeloupe
Pointe-a-Pitre
Guadeloupe
In general: The Guade-
H^ (Lesser An-
(French)
Classes :
loupe cofifee bean is glossy,
^^ tilles)
1. — Bonifieur, or
hard, long, and has an
(Conrd)
Caf6 Lustre
(glossy)
2.— Habitant, or
Caf6 plus Pelli-
cule (with pel-
licles)
even green color, some-
what grayish. It is of
excellent quality. The
Saints bean is superior.
The Ordinary is a smaller,
rounder, curved bean.
^^B
Guadeloupe coffees are
^H'
mostly sold as Martinique.
^K'
Martinique
Fort-de-France
Martinique
In general: The Martin-
1
(French)
Grades :
Fine Green
Common Green
Good Commercial
Common "
Picked "
Common
ique bean is green, long,
somewhat thick, and is
usually shipped in the sil-
ver skin. It is of fine
quality, but commercially
unimportant. Guadeloupe
coffees are not infrequent-
ly sold as Martinique.
1
Curagao (Dutch)
Willemstad
Curagao
In general: The Curagao
coffee bean is small, of
light color and flavor. It
makes a bright cinnamon
roast ; useful as a filler.
^HrSoutb America
Colombia
Puerto Colombia
(Sa vanilla)
Bai-ranquilla
Cartagena
Santa Marta
on Atlantic
Buenaventura
Tumaco
on the Pacific
Colombians, m n
In general: The Colom-
bian coffee bean is green-
ish, yellow, and brown,
depending on age, and is
rich and mild in the cup.
The fancy grades compare
favorably with the world's
best growths. They pro-
duce one-quarter more
B
liquor of given strength
than Santos coffees, and
^^■'
possess much finer flavor
^B
and aroma.
^B
Antioquia, d
Light to dark green ;
1
Medellin, t'& m n
handsome roasters ; not as
smooth as some Central
American types, but best
of Colombians ; fine fla-
vor and body.
^B
Caldas, d
Similar to Medellins in
*
Manizales, t &tn n
cup quality, but not as
heavy-bodied or as acid.
Jerico
A favorably regarded Co-
lombian.
^.
Magdalena, d
Full, solid, blue, washed
\
Santa Marta, t &
m n
Cundinamarca, d
Bogota, t Si. m n
bean, making a fancy
roast, but too acid to be
used straight.
The green bean is blue-
green to fancy yellow and
Java brown, depending on
age ; long, with a sharp
turn in one end of the
center stripe. It makes
364
ALL ABOUT COFFEE
State, or District,
Grand Division
Country
Shipping Ports
Market Names and
Gradings
Trade Values and Cup
Characteristics
South America
Colombia
a smooth roast. The fan-
(Conrd)
(Cont'd)
Cauca, t & mn
Santander, d
Bucaramanga, t &
m n
Cucuta, t & m n
Ocana, t
Savanilla, m n
Tolima, d
Ibague, t
Honda, t
Classes for
cy has a rich, mellow
flavor.
Sometimes sold as imita-
tion Bogota or Bucara-
manga ; but inferior in
appearance, roast, and
drink.
Large bean, spongy and
open, making a dull Java-
style roast. The naturals
lack acidity and flavor ;
but have a heavy body.
The fancies are almost the
equals of fine Javas and
Sumatras.
Attractive in style and
cup. (See Venezuela.)
Sometimes sold as an im-
itation Bogota or Buca-
ramanga ; but inferior in
appearance and cup.
Fair size bean, attractive
in style and cup.
All Colombians:
Cafe Trillado (natural or sun dried), Caf6
Lavado (washed).
Gradings for All Colombians:
Excelso (excellent), fantasia (excelso and ex-
tra), extra (extra), primera (first), segunda
(second), caracol (peaberry), monstruo (large
and deformed), consumo (defective), pasilla
Venezuela
La Guaira
(siftings).
Venezuela
In general: The coffee of
Puerto Cabello
Venezuela is greenish-yel-
Maracaibo
Caracas, d
low to yellow ; large bean,
ranging next to Santos in
quality and price. It is
mild or mellow in the cup.
The unwashed, or trillado,
comprises the bulk of the
crop.
Short, bluish bean, uni-
Puerto Cabello, d
form in color, and making
a light cinnamon, roast,
but containing quakers.
The natural has a fair
cup quality. The washed
gives the best results in
roast and cup.
The washed is a handsome
bean, but inferior in fla-
vor to Caracas. The un-
washed is flinty ; fair
roast, no special merit in
cup.
COMPLETE REFERENCE TABLE
365
Irand Division
South America
(Conrd)
Country
Venezuela
(Cont'd)
British Guiana
Dutch Guiana
(Surinam)
French Guiana
(Cayenne)
Shipping Ports
Georgetown
Paramaribo
Cayenne
State, or District,
Market Names and
Gradings
Cumana, d
Coro, d
Trujillo, d & m n
Santa Ana
Monte Carmelo
Bocono
Merida, d & m n
Tovar, m n
Tachira. m n
(San Cristobal)
Cucuta, t &m n
Salazar, »i n
Angostura
Carupano
Demerara, m n
Surinam, m n
Cayenne, m n
Trade Values and Cup
Characteristics
Valued just below Cara-
cas.
Valued a trifle below Rio
of the same grade.
A low grade, making a
dull rough roast.
Light in color and body.
Light in color and body.
Light in color and body ;
neutral flavor. Two
classes.
The best of the Maracai-
bos. The washed makes
a good roast, and has a
peculiar delicate flavor
much prized by experts.
It ranks among the
world's best.
Ranks between Trujillos
and Tachiras. Fair to
good body ; without acid-
ity. Used as filler in
blends.
Formerly sold as Cucuta,
to which it is nearest in
quality, appearance, and
flavor.
Grown in Colombia. Re-
sembles Java bean in form
and roast. The natural
makes a full roast. The
washed is a stylish, large
bean, a beautiful roaster,
splitting open with irreg-
ular white center ; sharp-
ly acid in the cup.
A small bean, light in
color and body, without
much weight or character.
A low grade valued at
about the same as a
Brazil coflfee of similar
grade.
In general: Not a com-
mercial factor.
In general: The produc-
tion is limited and com-
mercially unimportant.
In general: Similar to
Martinique. The produc-
tion is limited and com-
mercially unimportant.
366
ALL ABOUT COFFEE
Grand Division
South America
(Cont'd)
Country
Shipping Ports
Brazil
Santos
Rio de Janeiro
State, or District,
Market Names and
Gradings
Trade Values and Cup
Characteristics
Brazils, m n
Sao Paulo, d
Classes :
Bourbon Santos,
In general: The coffees
of Brazil, which are gen-
erally known in the trade
as "Brazils" (to distin-
guish them from "Milds,"
the higher grades), are
the "price" coffees of the
world. Brazil produces
about 70% of the world's
supply.
The largest coffee district,
producing between 50%
and 60% of the world's
supply.
Small bean, resembling
Mocha, but making a
handsomer roast with
fewer quakers. In color
it varies from dark to
light green, and from yel-
low to a pale straw, often
with a red center. True
Bourbons are first crop
beans. In the cup tbey
are smooth and palatable
without tang.
Smooth surface, small to
large, pale green and
greenish-yellow to pale
yellow. It is a sixth year
crop of Bourbon Santos.
Good full smooth body.
Used straight and in com-
bination with all milds.
Mocha-Seed San- A grade of Bourbon de-
tos, m n signed as a substitute for
true Mocha on the Euro-
pean markets.
Flat Bean San
tos, m n
Campinas, d & t
The oldest coffee district
in Sao Paulo. There are
136 others.
Gradings for All Sao Paulo:
1 — Fine 4 — ^Regular
2 — Superior 5 — Ordinary
3— Good 6— Escolha
Minas Geraes
Rio, m n
Various shades of green,
medium to large. Pecu-
liar pungent flavor and
aroma.
Gradings for All Rios:
(N. Y. Coffee Exchange)
1 — No imperfections
2 — 6 imperfections
3 — 13 imperfections
4 — 29 imperfections
5 — 60 imperfections
(On Havre Exchange)
Washed — Inferior and ordinary
Unwashed — Superior, 1st good, 1st regular, 1st
ordinary, 2nd good, 2nd ordinary.
6 — 110 imperfections
7 — About 200 imper-
fections
8 — About 400 imper-
fections
COMPLETE REFERENCE TABLE
367
hand Division
Jouth Amorica
{Cont'd)
Country
Brazil
(Confd)
Ecuador
Peru
Shipping Ports
Victoria
Ba)iia
Ceara
Guayaquil
Callao
Mollendo
Bolivia
I
I
Argentina
State, or District,
Market Names and
Gradings
Espirito Santo, d
Victoria, t
Capitania, m n
Babia, d, t, & m n
Chapada, t & m n
Caravellas, t &
m n
Nazareth, t & m n
Maragogipe, t
m n
Ceara, t
Cuaruaru, m n
Large, dingy-green or
brown bean making a
roast free from quakers
but muddy in the cup.
Low grade, having a pe-
culiar smoky flavor.
Light-colored, fair-sized
bean ; attractive roast,,
but no cup character.
Similar to Chapada.
Ecuador
Peru
Choquisongo, d
Cajamarca, d
Perene, d
Paucartambo, d
Chauchamayo, d
Huanuaco, d
Pacasmayo, d
Bolivia
La Paz, d
Apolobamba, *
Yungas, tn n
Cochabamba, d
Santa Cruz, d
Sara
Vela SCO
Chiquitos
Cordillera
El Beni, d
Chuquisca, d
Argentina
Salta, d
Jujuy, d
Trade Values and Cup
Characteristics
Small bean, fair
undesirable cup.
roasts
A variety of Coff^a ara~
bica; large bean, elephan-
tine roast, woody in the-
cup.
Small, flinty, green bean ;.
value like Santos of the
same grade.
In general: The Ecuador
coffee bean is small, pea-
green in color, and not
high grade. It resembles
Ceara, and when old
makes a bright roast. It
is poor in cup quality and
useful only as a filler.
Not an important com-
mercial factor.
In general: The green
coffee bean of Peru ranges
from medium to bold in
size, and from bluish to
yellow in color. The
highland variety has been
compared with the high-
grade Mexicans, but the
lowland growths are not
favorably regarded. Un-
important commercially.
In general: Bolivia's cof-
fee, though of superior
quality and sometimes
compared favorably with
Arabian growths, is an
unimportant factor in in-
ternational coffee trading.
In general: Argentina's
coffee is grown chiefly for
home consumption. Un-
important commercially.
368
ALL ABOUT COFFEE
Grand Division
Country
Shipping Ports
State, or District,
Market Names and
Gradings
Trade Values and Cup
Characteristics
South America
Paraguay
Paraguay
In general: Paraguay's
(Cont'd)
Altos, d
Asuncion, d
coffee is all marketed in
Asuncion, where it is sold
as Brazilian coffee. It is
not commercially impor-
tant.
Asia
Arabia
Aden
Hodeida
Maidi
Leheya
Mocha
In general: Arabian, or
Mocha, beans are very
small, hard, round, irreg-
ular in form and size ; in
color, olive green shading
off to pale yellow. The
roast is poor and irregu-
lar. In the cup they have
a unique acid character,
#
Yemen
Mattari, d
(Mohtari)
Yaffey, d
Sharki, d
(Shergi)
Sanani, d
Haimi-Harazi, d
(Hemi or Heimah)
Anezi, d
(Anisi)
Sharsh, d
Menakha, d
heavy body ; in flavor,
smooth and delicious.
From the Beni-Mattar
country ; the best ; a
yellow-green translucent
bean.
From the Yaffey country
near Taiz ; second best.
A long light yellow bean,
from the east, "Esh
Shark" a superior Mocha
with a rich full body.
From the Sanaa region ;
a green bean. A grade
lower than Sharki.
A quality green bean
from a mountain near
Mattari.
From the El Anz coun-
try. Pale yellow and very
hard.
Superior qualities of the
above due to different
Hifash, d
Remi, d
(Reimah)
Bourai, d
(Bura)
Shami, d
Yemeni, d
(Taizi)
Maidi, d
Abyssinia (Africa)
Harar, d
methods of curing.
A poorer grade, reddish
bean, from Djebel Remi.
A poorer grade from
Djebel Boura.
A poorer grade from the
north ; Esh Sham.
A poorer grade from the
south; El Yemen.
A poorer grade from the
port of Maidi.
Formerly known as Long-
berry Mocha, but still
shipped through Aden via
Jibuti. See Africa — Abys-
sinia.
COMPLETE REFERENCE TABLE
369
rand Division
I
Country
Shipping Ports
State, or District,
Market Names and
Gradings
Trade Values and Cup
Characteristics
<sia
iConfd)
i.
Arabia
(Cont'd)
India
Madras
Calicut
Mangalore
Tellicherry
Tuticorin
Bombay
1
Gradings for All Mochas:
Mocha Extra — For all extra qualities as Yaffey,
Anezi, Matari, Sharki. Mocha No. 1 — For
Anezi, Matari, Sharki ; only perfect berries.
No. lA, same as No. 1, but with some dust.
Mocha No. 2 — Some broken and quakers.
Mocha No. 3 — Broken, quakers and dust. Ma-
graohe — Triage or screenings.
r
Indias, m n
In general: The Indian
coffee bean is small to
large and blue-green in
color. In the cup it has
a distinctive strong flavor
and deep color.
Mysore, d
Mysore, t
Mountain - grown, large,
blue-green bean, heavy
body.
Madras, d
Malabar, m n
(Wynaad)
Nilgiri, d
Nilgiris, m n
Madura, d
(Palni Hills)
Salem, d
(Shevaroys)
Coimbatore, d
Tellicherry, d
Coorg (or Kurg), d
Travancore, d
Cochin, d
Cochin, m n
Bombay, d
Kanara
Bengal, d
Chittagong
Assam
South Sylhet
Small bean, solid and
meaty ; handsome roast,
peculiar rich flavor.
Small to large bean with
slight acidity in the cup ;
plantation Ceylon charac-
ter.
No marked characteris-
tics.
Same as Nilgiris
Same as Nilgiris
A good grade resembling
Malabar ; somewhat sim-
ilar to Nilgiris.
A large, flat, dark green
bean, thin in the cup ; a
lowland variety.
Similar to Nilgiris.
A native cherry.
Commercially unimpor-
tant.
Commercially unimpor-
tant.
Commercially unimpor-
tant.
Commercially unimpor-
tant.
Burma
Rangoon
Burma
Tavoy, d
Classes f
1 — Native cherry (si
2 — Plantation (washc
Sizes: Nos. 1, 2 an<
Large spongy bean ; gras-
sy cup. Not a commer-
cial factor.
or All Indias:
in dried and then hulled)
'd)
i 3 ; Peaberry and Triage
370
ALL ABOUT COFFEE
Grand Division
Country
Shipping Ports
State, or District,
Market Names and
Gradings
Trade Values and Cup
Characteristics
Asia
Ceylon
Colombo
Ceylon
In general: Cevlon's cof-
(Cont'd)
Gampola, d
Dumbara, d
Kotmale, d
Pussellawa, d
fees are no longer the com-
mercial factor they were
before the coffee blight
practically destroyed the
industry. Those left,
however, still retain much
of their original charac-
ter, the hill-grown washed
being unique in appear-
. ance and flavor. In the
old days they were classed
as native, or plain-grown,
plantation, mountain, and
1 Liberian.
Malay States
Penang
Straits Liberian,
In general: The coffee
(British)
(Georgetown)
m n
from the Malay States 1»
Singapore
Straits Robusta,
m n
Perak, d
Selangor, d
Negri-Sembilan, d
Bali, d & m n
Timor, d & m n
mostly Liberian and Ro-
busta and is not impor-
t a n t commercially, al-
though the Robusta va-
riety , promises to become
an important factor.
Most important of the
Federated States coff^ees.
Native state coffee.
Nine states Federation
district coffees.
From the island in Neth-
erlands East Indies.
(See p. 374.)
From the island in Neth-
erlands East Indies.
(See p. 374.)
French Indo-China
Haiphong
Indo-China, m n
Tonkin
Annam
Cambodia
Cochin-China
In general: The coffees
of French Indo-China,
while comparatively new,
give promise : but as yet
are not commercially im-
portant. The original
arahica plantings have
been succeeded by liherica
and robusta growths.
Malay Archi-
Sunda Islands
East Indies, m n
In general: Included in.
pelago
Netherlands East
Indies
this group are the best-
known coffees from Suma-
tra, Java, Timor, Celebes,
etc.
1
Sumatra
Padang
Kroe (West Coast)
Batavia (Java)
Sumatra
In general: Included)
among the coffees of Su-
matra are several that are
conceded to be the finest
the world produces. The
green beans are large, uni-
form, and vary in color
from pale straw to deep-
mahogany. They have a
smooth, heavy body, the
COMPLETE REFERENCE TABLE
371
Grand Division
Malay Archi-
pelago
(Cont'd)
Country
Netherlands East
Indies
Sumatra
(Cont'd)
Padang
Kroe (West Coast)
Batavia (Java)
Shipping Ports
State, or District,
Market Names and
Gradings
Padang, d & t
Mandheling, m n
I
Ankola, m n
Siboga, m n
Ayer Bangles, m n
Corinchie, m n
Interior, m n
Painan
Liberlan, m n
Kroe, t & m it
Lahat, t & m n
Trade Values and C«p
Characteristics
fancies possessing an al-
most syrupy richness.
They are graded as Pri-
vate Estate (washed or
dry hulled) and Blue
Bean (washed).
"The best coffee in the
world" ; also the highest-
priced. Formerly a Gov-
ernment coffee. Yellow to
brown, large-sized bean ;
dull roast, but free from
Quakers. It is of heavy
body, exquisite flavor and
aroma.
Formerly a Government
coffee. Large fat bean,
making a dull roast.
Second only to Mandhel-
ings ; it has a heavy body
and rich, musty flavor.
A harder bean Ankola ;
sometimes called Private
Estate Ankola.
Formerly a Government
coffee. L<arge even bean,
light brown color. Rank-
ing with Mandheling and
Ankola : of a delicate fla-
vor but not much body.
Formerly a native culti-
vation. The bean is large,
handsome, brown in color.
It makes an attractive
roast. Good body, plenty
of bitter acid, delicious
flavor.
Formerly all Government
coffee. The true type of
Old Government Java.
Poor roast, good cup.
Formerly a Government
coffee. ^lixed green and
brown beans ; poor i-oast.
Heavy bmly, pungent fla-
vor. Grades next to In-
terior.
Formerly all Government
coffee. Coffea liherica.
Formerly a native culti-
vated coffee. Large even
bean, fine roast, heavy
body, somewhat groundy
flavor.
Former native cultiva-
tion. Smaller than Kroe ;
good roaster, flat cup.
372
ALL ABOUT COFFEE
Grand Division
Country
Shipping Ports
State, or District,
Market Names and
(Jradings
Trade Values and Cup
Characteristics
Malay Archi-
pelago
(Vont'd)
Netherlands East
Indies
Sumatra
(Cont'd)
Padang
Kroe(W6stCk)ast)
Batavia (Java)
Palembang, t &
m n
Indrapoera, t &
m n
Benkoelen, t &
in n
Libaya, m n
Boekit Gompong,
m n
Kagoe Kaleh, m n
Batang Baros, m n
Telok Goenoeng,
m n
Aker Gedang, m n
Former Private Estates.
Smaller than the Padang
bean ; light color, strong
cup.
Former Private Estates.
An inferior grade of Su-
matra.
Formerly a native culti-
vation. Good roast and
cup.
Formerly a native culti-
vation.
Formerly a Private Es-
tate. A perfect coffee,
of heavier body than
Mandheling, good roast ;
very delicate flavor.
Formerly a Private Es-
tate.
Formerly a Private Es-
tate.
Formerly a Private Es-
tate.
Formerly a Private Es-
tate. Small bean, good
roast, fine flavor.
Soerian, to n
Liki, TO n
Loebor Sampir,
TO n
Soengei, to n
Landei, to n
Ramboetan, to n
Giadoeng Batoe,
m n
Merapi, to n
Si Barasap, to h
Laboe Raya, m n
Formerly a Private Es-
tate. Large bean, fine
roast, good cup. Ranks
next to Boekit Gompong.
Formerly a Private Es-
tate. Fine roast, light
cup. It ranks next to
Soerian.
Formerly a Private Es-
tate.
Former Private Estate.
Former Private Estate.
Former Private Estate.
Former Private Estate.
Formerly a Private Es-
tate. Large bean, good
roast, good cup.
Formerly a Private Es-
tate.
Formerly a Private Es-
tate. Large bean, good
roast, good cup.
/
Balawau-Deli
Panai
East Coast
Deli, d
Bintangmariah, d
Oelakmedan, d
Panai, d
These coffees are com-
paratively new. They
partake of the qualities
common to the general
run of Sumatras without
distinguishing character-
istics.
COMPLETE REFERENCE TABLE
373
(irand Division
Malay Archi-
pelago
(Cont'd)
Country
Shipping Ports
Netherlands East
Indies (Cont'd)
Java
Batavia
State, or District,
Market Names and
Gradings
Java, m n
Preanger, d
Cheribon, d
Kadoe, d
Semarang, d
Malang, d
Bantam, t & m n
Buitenzorg, t &
m n
Krawang, t &mn
Tegal, t & m, n
Banjoemas, t &
m n
Pekalongan, t &
m n
Baquilan, t & m n
Japara, t & m n
Surakarta, f &mn
Jogjakarta, t &
m n
^ladiun, t & m n
Rembang. t & m n
Surabaya, t &m n
Kediri, t & in n
Pasuruan, t &m n
Trade Values and Cup
Characteristics
In general: Java coffees
do not compare with Su-
matras in quality. They
are smaller in the bean,
with a grassy flavor in the
cup. Blue to pale yellow,
short round bean. The
washed makes a good
smooth roast, light in the
cup.
Best of the Java growths.
Ranks next to Preanger.
Small yellowish-green
shelly bean ; light in cup.
Ranks next to Kadoe in
roast and cup quality.
Hard green bean ; better
roaster than the above,
but inferior in cup quali-
ity.
Medium-sized yellowi-sh
bean.
One of the best of the
Javas.
Irregular bean ; fair roast-
er ; fair cup.
One of the best of the
Java growths.
M e d i u m-s i z e d bean ;
creamy and fragrant in
the cup.
With characteristics like
Pasuruan.
No marked characteris-
tics.
Bean light in weight and
color ; cup neutral.
Large bean, handsome
roast, . creamy body, aro-
matic flavor in the cup.
Similar to Surakarta.
Yellow bean, light in
weight and body, but
good cup.
Similar to Kadoe.
Similar to Kadoe.
Small hard bean ; good
drinker.
Brown, uniform bean ;
fragrant in cup.
374
ALL ABOUT COFFEE
Grand Division
Country
Shipping Ports
Malay Archi-
pelago
iConrd)
Netherlands East
Indies
Java
(Cont'd)
Batavia
Bali (Dutch)
Timor (Dutch
Portuguese)
Celebes (Dutch)
Singaraja (Boele-
leng)
Kupang
Moluccas (Dutch)
Borneo
British North
Sarawak
Dutch
New Guinea
(Dutch)
Menado
Macassar
Bonthain
Ternate
Sandakan
Kuching
Banjermasin
Ternate
(Moluccas)
Dorey
State, or District,
Market Names and
Gradings
Probolingo, t &
m n
Bejreki, t Sc m n
Banjoewangi, t &
m n
Pamanukin, t &
m n
Robusta, m n
Trade Values and Cup
Characteristics
Small hard bean ; poor
roast.
Bold yellow bean ; full
body and flavor.
Heavy bean ; rich flavor.
Bali, m n
Timor, m n
Celebes, m n
Minahassa, tn n
Boengie, m n
Bonthain, m n
Sindjai, m n
Boengie, m n
Borneo, m n
New Guinea, m n
A Liberian growth.
Small, yellowish - green,
round bean ; quality ap-
proximately that of mid-
dling Arabian, ranking a
little under good average
Santos. Natural, poor
roast. Washed, good
roast. Fair cup.
Fair-size bean of little
merit. Poor roast.
Medium bean of good
quality.
In general: With the ex-
ception of the Minahassa
product, the coffees grown
in the Celebes have little
merit and are of incon-
siderable importance.
Large, deep-yellow bean,
making a handsome roast,
and having an aromatic
cup.
Inferior in appearance,
but fair roast and cup
quality.
Medium, flat, reddish
bean, poor roast ; unde-
sirable cup.
Not commercially impor-
tant.
Superior to the Java
arabica.
In general: The coffees
of Borneo are mostly Li-
berian growths and are
not a trade factor.
In general: These coffees
are of the mild variety,
but the production is com-
mercially unimportant.
Melanesia
New Caledonia
Noumea
New Caledonia
A fair Robusta coffee,
(France)
La Foa
but commercially unim-
New Hebrides
portant.
(Great Britain
and France)
Efate
Vila
New Hebrides
A fair coffee, but not a
trade factor.
COMPLETE REFERENCE TABLE
375
(Jrand Division
Countrj^
Shipping Ports
State, or District,
Market Names and
Gradings
Trade Values and Cup
Characteristics
Micronesia
Samoan Islands
Tutuila
Fiji (British)
Vita Leva
Tonga ( Friendly
Islands)
Tongatabu
Pago Pago (U. S.)
Suva
Nukualofa
Samoa
Fiji
Tonga
Commercially unimpor-
tant.
Medium-sized green bean ;
grassy cup. Not a trade
factor.
For local consumption
only.
Philippine Isl-
ands (U. S.)
Luzon
Manila
Manila
La Laguna. d
Batangas, d
Cavite, d
Benguet, d
Lepanto, d
Bontoc, d
In general: Manila, or
Philippine, coflfee is not
an important trade factor.
The bean is medium size,
grayish-green in color,
having fine aroma and ex-
cellent flavor. It com-
pares favorably with
Costa Rica and Guate-
mala.
Panay
Iloilo
Panay
No marked characteris-
tics.
Cebu
Cebu .
Cebu
No marked characteris-
tics.
Palawan
Puerto Princessa
Palawan
No marked characteris-
tics.
Mindanao
Zamboanga
Zamboanga
Large bean ; thin liquor.
Marianas or La-
drone Islands
Guam (U. S.)
Apra
Guam
No production for export.
Oceania
Polynesia
Hawaiian Islands
(U. S.)
Honolulu (Oahua)
Hilo
Kailua
Hawaiian, wi n
Kona, d
Puna, d
Olaa, d
Hamakua, d
Maui, d
Oahu, d
Kauai, d
In general: Hawaiian
coffee is a large bean,,
blue-green to yellow-
brown in color ; handsome
roaster, fine smooth
flavor.
Large, blue, flinty bean,
mildly acid ; striking
character.
Quality good but quantity
small.
Quality good but quantity
small.
Quality good but quantity
small.
Production small.
Production small.
Production small.
Society Islands
( French )
Papeete
Tahiti
A fair coffee, but not a
trade factor.
376
ALL ABOUT COFFEE
Grand Division
Australia
Africa
Country
Queensland
Egypt
Shipping Ports
Cairns
Mackay
Brisbane
Alexandria
Anglo-Egyptian
Sudan
Eritrea (Italy)
Somaliland
French
Suakin
Alexandria
(Egypt)
Massowah
Jibuti
British
Italian
Abyssinia
State, or District,
Market Names and
Gradings
Queensland
Mackay, d
Trade Values and Cup
Characteristics
Egyptian, m n
Berbera
Zeila
Mukdishu
Jibuti (French
Somaliland)
Zeila
Berbera (British
Somaliland)
Nubian, m n
Berber, d
In general: The coffee is
from Ceylon or Coorg
seed and is for local con-
sumption. Not a com-
mercial factor.
In general: Coffees from
the upper Nile region,.
Kaffa Land, Anglo-Egyp-
tian Sudan, and Nubia
are generally spoken of
as Egyptians. They have
some Mocha characteris-
tics, but are not impor-
tant commercially.
Small, flinty, pale-green,,
oval bean ; heavy body ;
rich flavor.
Some superior drinking
coffees come from this dis-
trict.
Abyssinian, to n 1''^^ coffee is of the Abys-
sinian type, but the out-
put is not an important
trade factor.
Harar, d, t
Abyssinian, to n
Massowah
trea)
(Eri-
A.deu (Arabia)
Harar, d, t
Abyssinian, m n
Benadir, d & m n
Harar, d, t
Abyssinian, m n
Harar, d, t
Harari, to n
Dire-Daona, t
These coffees are not
grown in French Somali-
land, but come from Abys-
sinia to Jibuti and Aden
for export to Europe and.
America. See Abyssinia.
Grown, as above, in Abys-
sinia.
Abyssinian type, but not
an important trade fac-
tor.
In general: The Harari
coffee" is more carefully
cultivated and cured than
the Abyssinian, which is-
its inferior.
The original Mocha Long-
berry. Large, long blue-
green to yellow bean.
(Graded No. 1 or No. 2,
according to size) roast-
ing with few Quakers,
similar to Mocha, having
an excellent flavor but not
quite so delicate.
Railway trading center
for Harari and Abyssin-
ian coffees.
I
COMPLETE REFERENCE TABLE
377
Grand Division
Africa
(Cont'd)
Abyssinia
(Confd)
Country
Kenya Colony
(Formerly Brit-
ish East Africa)
Uganda Protecto-
rate (British)
Zanzibar Protecto-
rate (British)
Tanganyika Terri-
tory ( formerly
German East
Africa )
Nyasaland Protec-
torate (British)
Rhodesia (British)
Portuguese East
Africa
Natal (British)
Angola (Portugal)
Belgian Congo
French Congo
Shipiiing Ports
State, or District,
Market Names and
Gradings
Mombasa
Mombasa
Zanzibar
Dar-es-Salaam
C h i n d e (Portu-
guese East Afri-
ca)
Beira (Portuguese
East Africa)
Mozambique
Durban
Loanda
Banana
Loango
Libreville
A-byssinia
Kaffa, d
(Gomara)
Bonga, t
Jimma, d
Jiren, t
Shoa, d
Adis-Abeba. t
Nairobi, d &, t
Kikuyu
Kyambu
Uganda
Bunganda, d
Zanzibar
East Africa, m ;
or
Tanganyika, m
Nyasaland
Shire Highlands, d
Blantyre, d
Rhodesia
Mozambique
Natal
Angola
Encoje, d, m n
Congo, m n
Equator, d
Aruwimi, d
Bangala. d
Lake Leopold,
Loango, d, m n
Trade Values and Cup
Characteristics
The native coffee grown
wild in this district has
little commercial impor-
tance. The bean is dark
gray, and it has a groundy
flavor.
Trading center for Abys-
sinia.
Trading center for Abys-
sinia.
Mostly Abyssinian
growths are exported from
this trading center to
Harar or Dire-Daoua.
Having Mysore character-
istics with a touch of
Mocha flavor.
Oreenish-gray to light-
brown Robusta. Poor to
fairly good liquor.
Medium-sized bean ; full
body, pleasing flavor.
Not a commercial factor.
Some high-grown and of
fine quality. Not a com-
mercial factor.
For local consumption.
Not a trade factor.
Medium-sized greenish
bean, heavy body ; mild
and mellow in the cup.
Large, light-brown Libe-
rian growth. Not a trade
factor.
Medium-size bean, brown-
ish color, strong in the
cup.
Light weight, dark brown
Robusta ; strong in the
cup.
In general: The coffees
of the Belgian Congo are
mostly Liberian and Ro-
busta growths. There is
produced a medium-sized
bean, making a handsome
roast and having a rich
cup.
Formerly Encoje from
Angola. Inferior to Li-
berian.
378
ALL ABOUT COFFEE
Grand Division
Country
Shipping Ports
State, or District,
Market Names and
Gradtngs
Trade Values and Cup
Characteristics
Africa
(Cont'd)
Nigeria (British)
Lagos
Nigeria
Commercially unimpor-
tant.
Gold Coast
(British)
Accra
Gold Coast
Not a commercial factor.
Liberia
Monrovia
Liberian, m n
Large, brown bean ; big,
handsome roaster ; strong
in cup.
Sierra Leone
(British)
Freetown
Sierra Leone
C stenophylla, a native
growth. Not a trade fac-
tor.
French Guinea
Konakry
Guinea, m n
Commercially unimpor-
tant.
Portuguese Guinea
Bissao
Guinea, m n
Commercially unimpor-
tant.
Comoro Islands
(French)
Maroni
Comoro, m n
A wild natural caffein-
free coffee (C humbol-
tiana) ; also found in
Madagascar. Not a com-
mercial factor.
Madagascar
(French)
Tamatave
Madagascar
Light-green liberica and
roiusta bean ; full rich
flavor.
Reunion, formerly
Bourbon
(French)
St. Denis
Bourbon, m n
Nearest to Mocha in char-
acter (q. v.). Round and
pointed bean, pale green
or pale yellow. Not a
trade factor.
Mauritius
(British)
Port Louis
Mauritius
Similar to Bourbon. Me-
dium light green, full
body, mild and mellow
flavor. Not a trade fac-
tor.
Chapter XXV
b^ACTORY PREPARATION OF ROASTED COFFEE
Coffee roasting as a business — Wholesale coffee-roasting machinerg
— Separating, milling, and mixing or blending green cdffee, and
roasting by coal, coke, gas, and electricity — Facts about coffee roast-
ing — Cost of roasting — Green-coffee shrinkage table — "Dry'' and
"ivet" roasts — On roasting coffee efficiently — A typical coal
roaster — Cooling and stoning — Finishing or glazing — Blending
roasted coffees — Blends for restaurants — Grinding and packaging
— Coffee additions and fillers — Treated coffees, and dry extracts
(HE coffee bean is not ready for bev-
erage purposes until it has been
properly "manufactured", that is,
roasted, or "cooked". Only in this way
^ean all the stimulating, flavoring, and aro-
matic principles concealed in the minute
cells of the bean be extracted at one time.
An infusion from green coffee has a de-
cidedly unpleasant taste and hardly any
color. Likewise, an underdone roast has a
disagreeable "grassy" flavor; while an
overdone roast gives a charred taste that is
unpalatable to the average citizen of the
United States.
Coffee Roasting as a Business
In spite of the generally admitted fact
that freshly roasted coffee makes the best
infusion, most of the coffee used today is
not roasted at or near the place where it is
brewed, but in factories that are provided
with special equipment for the roasting of
coffee in a wholesale way. The reasons for
this are various, partly relating to the mere
economy of buying and manufacturing on
a large scale, and partly relating to the
trained skill that is needed both for select-
ing suitable green coffees to make a satis-
factory blend, and for the roasting work
itself. The proportion of consumers (in-
cluding restaurants and hotels) who roast
their own coffee is so small as to be neglig-
ible, at least in the United States. The
average person who buys coffee today, for
brewing use, never sees green coffee at all,
unless as an "educational exhibit" in some
dealer's display window.
The reasons just mentioned, which have
made coffee roasting a real business, all
tend, of course, to make the roasting estaJb-
lishments of large size; but this tendency is
offset by the problem of distributing the
roasting coffee so that it will reach the
ultimate consumer in good condition.
Roasting enterprises on a comparatively
small scale (not by consumers, but by suffi-
ciently expert dealers) would probably be
much more numerous on account of the
"fresh-roast" argument, except for the
fact that coffee-roasting machines can not
be installed so easily as the grinding mills,
meat-choppers, and slicing machines, that
find extended use in small stores. The
steam, smoke, and chaff given off by the
coffee as it is roasted must be disposed of
by an outdoor connection, without annoy-
ing the neighbors or creating a fire hazard.
From these general remarks, it can easily
be seen that the size of individual roasting
establishments will vary greatly, according
to the skill of the proprietor in meeting the
disadvantages of working on either the
smallest or the largest scale. A wholesale
plant may be considered to be one in which
coffee is roasted in batches of one bag or
more at a time; and with this definition,
379
380
ALL ABOUT COFFEE
FACTORY PREPARATION
381
nearly all the roasting in the United States
is done in a wholesale way.
For many years the regular factory ma-
chines have been of a size suitable for roast-
ing two bags of cotfee at a time; but
roasters of larger size have recently come
into considerable use.
Plants treating from fifty to a hundred
and fifty bags per day are the most com-
mon; but the daily capacity runs up
;o a thousand bags or more. The minimum
cost of equipping a plant is somewhere be-
tween five thousand dollars and ten thou-
sand dollars. The individual machines
are of standard construction; but the ar-
rangement in a particular building, espe-
cially for the larger plants, is worked out
with great care and with numerous special
features, so that the goods can be handled
from start to finish with minimum expense
for floor space, labor, power, etc.
The practical coffee roaster locates his
roasting room in the top floor of his fac-
tory building, where light and ventilation
are generally best. He usually has a large
skylight in the roof, directly over the roast-
ing equipment. In addition to the advan-
tage as regards good light and the con-
venient discharge of smoke, steam, and
odors, through the roof, the top-story loca-
tion makes it possible to send the roasted
coffee by gravity through the various bins
which may be needed in connection with
subsequent operations, such as grinding,
and for temporary storage before the final
packaging and shipping.
Wholesale Coffee-Roasting Machinery
The indispensable coffee operations are
roasting and cooling; and in practically all
United States plants the cooling is followed
by ' ' stoning ' '. This is an air-suction opera-
tion that effects, aided by gravity, the re-
moval of any stones or other hard material
that would damage the grinding mill. The
best commercial cleaning and grading of
the green coffee has usually left in every
bag a few small stones. These can be got
rid of better after the coffee is roasted ; be-
cause it is then not only lighter, but more
bulky.
Besides these three operations of roast-
ing, cooling, and stoning, the plant may
have machinery for treating the coffee both
Milling-Machine Connections for a Two-Roastee Plant
382
ALL ABOUT COFFEE
FACTORY PREPARATION
383
before it is roasted and after it leaves the
stoner.
Treatment of the green coffee in roast-
ing establishments is of less importance
now than in years gone by; first, because
most coffees now come to market more per-
fectly graded and cleaned than formerly;
and second, because the whole-bean appear-
ance of the coffee has become of less ac-
count, as wholesale grinding operations
have increased. Nevertheless, many plants
consider it highly important to have a
separator for grading the coffee closely as
regards the size of the beans — and par-
ticularly for the separation of round beans,
or "peaberry" — as well as milling ma-
chinery for making the coffee as clean as
possible before it is roasted. One green
coffee operation that has lost none of its
old-time importance, but on the contrary is
more needed as the plants increase in
size, is the mixing of different varieties
of coffee — in proportions that have been
decided on by sample tests — so as to get a
uniform blend.
The mixer does not blend the various
i-offees any more surely than a good roaster
cylinder will do it, but treats batches of
much larger size. This means saving a
great amount of labor that would be neces-
sary for putting the desired quantity of
component coffees into each individual
roaster. ' ~
A proper installation of green coffee ma-
chinery requires various bins of ample
capacity, and bucket elevators by which the
coffee can be sent without manual labor
from one operation to another. In modern
plants, all the bins and elevators are con-
structed of metal. The separator, with its
bins and elevator, may be installed inde-
pendently of the rest of the plant, the
graded coffee ])eing all bagged up again and
treated as new raw stock — some of it to be
lield for later use, or perhaps sold again
unroasted. The milling machine and the
mixer, however, are usually so placed and
connected that the coffee can be sent from
one to the other, and to the roaster feed
hoppers, without any manual labor.
When the roaster sells his product in
package form ready for the consumer, he
will have a packaging department in which
are grinding, weighing, labeling, and pack-
ing machines and equipment. In some of
the more progressive plants, particularly in
the United States, all the packing units are
incorporated in one machine, so that the
different steps in the work are carried on
Green-Coffee-Mixer Connections
To operate at full capacity, without using the
story above as well as below the mixer, requires a
bucket elevator and three bins, each holding a full
mixing batch. The above diagram explains this
setting. The mixed coffee in the discharge bin
is either drawn out into bags or sent by an ele-
vator to a milling machine or direct to the coffee
roasters. A batch ready for mixing can always be
accumulated in the feed bin while the previous
batch is being mixed or discharged.
The fan is usually hung to the ceiling over the
mixer as indicated, and connected to the suction
box by a(l-inj round pipe. The fan oritlet can be
carried directly out-of-doors; but the dusty dis-
charge is objectionable in most installations, and
this pipe is usually carried to a dust collector from
the top of. .which the roof outlet is connected.
automatically and in one continuous
operation.
The efficient roaster-executive equips his
entire plant with approved labor-saving
devices. In the better establishments, the
coffee is carried along by mechanical con-
veyors through all the operations from the
fir.st cleaning machine to the final pack-
aging.
Separating
, As already mentioned, a machine fre-
quently found in wholesale plants is the
separator, or grader. This apparatus^
which is the same in principle in all coun-
tHes, but varies in size and form according
to local requirements, consists of a series of
perforated screens. The perforations differ
in size; and as the coffee is shaken on them,
the small beans drop through the holes, the
larger ones passing across the screen and
dropping into a receptacle or chute ready
for the next operation. The screens nre
384
ALL ABOUT COFFEE
FACTORY PREPARATION
385
made to grade the beans into large and
small peaberry ; large, medium, and small
flat beans; brokens; and other commercial
sizes. The average separator will grade
fifteen to twenty bags of coffee in an hour.
Milling
Milling machines, for cleaning the green
coffee, operate on practically the same prin-
ciple the world over, varying in capacity
and details of construction. A popular
type used in the United States has two
metal cylinders, one set within the other,
and revolving in opposite directions. The
inner cylinder is ribbed with flanges, and
the outer one is lined with wire cloth. As
these cylinders revolve, the beans pass be-
tween them rubbing against themselves
and the rough sides of the cylinders. This
action serves to remove dirt and other for-
eign matter that may be clinging to the
beans, and also gives them an attractive
polish. An exhaust fan sucks away the dirt
milled off in the process. This type of ma-
chine will mill about forty bags of green
coffee in an hour.
Mixing or Blending Green Coffee
Most roasters blend the different types
of coffee while green. Some blend them
after they have been roasted separately.
When blended before roasting, the coffees
are mixed by a machine built especially for
that purpose. The mixing machine in gen-
eral use in all countries consists of a large
metal cylinder which, in wholesale opera-
tions, is revolved by the factory's general
power plant or by a separate motor. The
cylinder is equipped on the inside with sets
of reverse-screw mixing flanges that tumble
the beans around until they are thoroughly
blended ; and there is usually a fan attach-
ment to remove dust. This operation serves
also to smooth down and to polish the sur-
faces of the beans, which adds to the style
of the coffee when roasted. The average
blending machine will mix from ten to
twenty bags of coffee at a time. The actual
mixing requires less than five minutes, but
a longer period is needed for feeding and
discharging. This is the last of the so-
called "green-coffee operations". The next
step is roasting.
Roasting hy Coal, Coke, Gas, and
Electricity
Coffee is roasted commercially in cylinder
or ball receptacles revolving in heated
chambers, the degree of heat reaching about
420° Fahr. The cylinder type of roaster
is invariably used in the United States;
while both the cylinder and the ball types
are popular in England, France, Germany,
Holland, and other foreign countries.
Each roaster-man has his own opinion
about the fuel that gives the best result,
and throughout the world the choice lies be-
tween anthracite coal, coke, and gas ; though
An English Four-Machine Gas Coffee-Roasting Plant
The equipment includes three Morewood indirect-flame, and one quick direct-flame machines
386
ALL ABOUT COFFEE
hard wood is frequently used in countries
where other fuels are not available or not
economical. Electric heat has been tried
for commercial roasting in Germany
(1906), in England (1909), and in the
United States (1918) ; but the experi-
menters have always found the cost of elec-
tric fuel to be prohibitive in competition
with coal and gas. An electric roaster was
demonstrated at the Food Conservation
Show in New York, in 1918, at a time when
the federal government was urging the
necessity of conserving coal as a war
economy measure. The inventor claimed
that his machine w^ould reduce roasting
cost, improve the flavor and the aroma, and
maintain a constant and easily controlled
heat. He declared also that when roasted
in his devices, less coffee was required for
brewing.
An expert coffee-roasting-machinery man
who has been working on the development
of a practical electric roaster says that if it
were possible to bake the coffee in an oven,
just as the baker does his bread, the fuel
cost would then compare favorably with
that of gas or coal. It is because the heat
chamber must have an exhaust to release
the chaff and smoke that the use of electric-
ity to replace the heat loss proves prohibi-
tive when compared with coal or gas.
In all types of coal and coke burning
roasters, the cylinders are heated by a fire
underneath ; while in gas roasters, the flame
may be underneath or within the cylinder
itself. Roasters in which the heat is within
the cylinder are known as direct-flame or
inner-heated machines. All three systems
are used in the United States and Europe.
Facts About Coffee Roasting
The modern commercial roasting outfit is
as near fool-proof as human genius has
been able to devise. The more advanced
types are almost automatic in operation,
and are designed to insure uniformity of
roasts. In such machines the green coffee
is conveyed to the roasting cylinder by
means of bucket elevators, which pour the
beans into a feed hopper. From the feed
hopper, the coffee is dumped through the
opening in the front head-piece into the
cylinder. The cylinder is perforated, and
has inside flanges which keep tossing the
coffee about while the cylinder revolves, so
that the coffee will not burn during the
roasting process.
To roast coffee by coal or coke usually
requires from twenty-five to thirty min-
utes, depending on the moisture-content of
the beans; whether they are spongy or
flinty; whether a light, medium, or dark
German Gas Coffee-Roasting Plant Equipped with Ideal-Rapid Machines
I
FACTORY PREPARATION
387
French Gas Coffee-Roasting Plakt Equipped with Modebne Machines
roast is desired; and on the skill of the
operator. Gas roasting requires from fif-
teen to twenty minutes. The quicker the
roast, the better the coffee, is the opinion of
many trade leaders, one of whom' says:
It is a growing belief tliat in roasts of stiort
duration the largest percentage of the aromatic
properties is retained. A slow roast has the ef-
fect of baking and does not give full develop-
ment ; also, slow roasts seldom produce bright
roasts, and they usually make the coffee hard
instead of brittle, even when the color standard
has been attained.
While coffees of widely varying degrees
of moisture require somewhat different
treatment, the consensus of opinion is that
the best results are obtained from a slow
fire at the beginning, until some of the
moisture has been driven off, when the
stronger application of heat may be given
for development. An intense heat in the
beginning often results in "tipping", or
charring, the little germ at the end, the
most sensitive part of the bean.
Scorched beans have been caught at some
point in the cylinder, often in a bent
flange. Burning on one face, sometimes
called "kissing the cheeks", is caused by
the too rapid revolution of the cylinder, so
that some of the coffee "carries over". In
the best practise, crowding of cylinders is
avoided; many roasters making it a rule
iWilhelm, R. C. Tea and Coffee Trade Jour., 1916
(vol. xxxi : no. 5: p. 429).
not to exceed ninety percent of the rated
capacity of the cylinder.
Those operating gas roasters may effect a
fuel economy by running a low grade coffee
in the cylinder after the last roast has been
drawn and the gas extinguished; five min-
utes' revolution absorbs the heat and drives
off a proportion of moisture. The coffee,
which may then be left in the cylinder, re-
quires less time and fuel in the morning,
and the roast is finished while the cylinder
is warming up. Double roasting brightens
a roast, but is a detriment to the cup qual-
ity. A dull roasting coffee may be im-
proved by revolving the green coffee in a
cylinder without heat for twenty minutes,
Avhich has the effect of milling.
The use of a small amount of water upon
roasts gives better control by checking the
roast at the proper point — the crucial time
of its greatest heat; also, it swells and
brightens the coffee, and tends to close the
outer pores. "While the addition of water
is open to abuse, few roasters have soaked
their coffees enough to offset the natural
shrinkage as much as three or four percent.
Such practise would result greatly to the
detriment of the cup quality.
There is no universal standard for the
degree to which coffee should be roasted.
In the United States, there are demands
for all degrees; from the light roast, in
favor in England, to the extremely dark
roast in vogue in France, Italy, Brazil,
388
ALL ABOUT COFFEE
Turkey, and in the producing countries.
The North American trade recognizes these
different roasts: light, cinnamon, medium,
high, city, full city, French, and Italian.
The city roast is a dark bean, while full
city is a few degrees darker. In the French
roast, the bean is cooked until the natural
oil appears on the surface; and in the
Italian, it is roasted to the point of actual
carbonization, so that it can be easily
powdered. Germany likes a roast similar
to the French type ; while Scandinavia pre-
fers the high Italian roast.
In the United States, the lighter roast is
favored on the Pacific coast; the darkest, in
the South ; and a medium-colored roast, in
the Eastern states. The cinnamon roast is
most favored by the trade in Boston.
While coffee roasting in the United
States usually takes from fifteen to thirty
minutes, depending on the fuel and the
machine employed, manufacturers of gas
machines on the German market claim to
roast it in superior fashion in from three
and a half to ten minutes.' This subject is
discussed more in detail in chapter
XXXIV.
Coffee loses weight during the roasting
process, the loss varying according to the
degree of roasting and the nature of the
bean. Coffee roasters figure, however, that
the average loss is sixteen percent of the
weight of the green bean. It has been esti-
mated that one hundred pounds of coffee
in the cherry produces twenty-five pounds
in the parchment ; that one hundred pounds
in parchment produces eighty-four pounds
of cleaned coffee; and that one hundred;
pounds of cleaned coffee produces eighty-
four pounds roasted.
During the roasting process the coffee
undergoes a great chemical change. After
- Willcox, O. W. Tea and Coffee Trade Jour., 1914
(vol. xxvi : no. 2: p. 38).
7
Jumbo Coffee Roaster, in the Akbuckle Coffee-Roasting Plant, New York
There are four of these machines. The cylinders are twelve feet in diameter, six feet deep, and can roast
5,000 pounds of coffee every half-hour. The hard-coal brick furnace is seen at the left, from which a
blower forces the heated air through a pipe into the revolving cylinder of coffee. The coffee is fed
from above and is emptied into the cooling pans beneath
I
FACTORY PREPARATION
389
Ax Eight-Cylinder Gas Coffee-Roasting Plant
A view of Reid, Murdoch & Co.'s roasting room, Chicago, equipped with Monitor machines
it has been in the cylinder a short time, the
color of the bean becomes a yellowish
brown, which gradually deepens as it
cooks. Likewise, as the beans become
heated, they shrivel up until about half
done, or at the "developing" point. At
this stage, they begin to swell, and then
"pop open", increasing tifty percent in
bulk." This is when the experienced roaster-
man turns on all the heat he can command
to finish the roasting as quickly as possible.
"Dry" and "Wet" Roasts
At frequent intervals, he thrusts his
"trier" — an instrument shaped somewhat
like an elongated spoon — into the cylinder,
and takes out a sample of coffee to com-
pare with his type sample. When the
coffee is done, he shuts off the heat and
checks the cooking by reducing the tem-
perature of the coffee and of the cylinder
as quickly as can be done. In the wet roast
method he will spray the coffee, while the
cylinder is still revolving, with three to
four quarts of water to every 130 pounds
of coffee. In the dry method he depends
altogether upon his cooling apparatus.
Roasters generally are not in favor of the
' Zinsmeister. L.. G.
1914 (vol. xxvii : no.
Tea and Coffee Trade Jour.;
',: pp. 558 - 562).
excessive watering of coffee in and after the
roasting process for the purpose of reduc-
ing shrinkage. "Heading" the coffee, or
checking the roast before turning it out of
the roasting cylinder, is quite another mat-
ter and is considered legitimate. Where
coffees are watered in the cylinder at the
close of the roast to reduce the shrinkage,
it is possible to get back only about four
percent of the shrinkage by such treatment
and the practise is frowned upon by the
best roasters.
Generally speaking, water is turned into
the roasting cylinder to quench the roast.
The amount varies with the style of ma-
chine, whether gas or coal. Usually the
water turns to steam, and the result is not
an absorption of the water but a momen-
tary checking of the roast with a tendency
to swell and to brighten the coffee. This is,
comparatively speaking, a "dry roast",
but not an absolutely dry roast. It is
doubtful if more than one percent of
American coffee roasters employ an abso-
lutely "dry" roast — it does not give satis-
factory results. The word has been
abused for advertising purposes. Of course,
a dry roasted coffee is a better article for
making a satisfactory beverage than one
that has been soaked with water; but the
390
ALL ABOUT COFFEE
Upper-Story View of a Jubilee Plant, Showing Roaster, Cooler, and Stoneb
Equipment
The parts under roasting-room floor are shown in the illustration below
Lower-Stoky View of the Same Plant from About the Same Angle
Showing connection from floor hopper to stoner on the left, and suspended bucket-elevator boot with
four-bag dump hopper on the right
COMPLETE GAS COFFEE-PLANT INSTALLATION
FACTORY PREPARATION
391
i
word "dry" must be given a definite mean-
ing, which the trade generally will agree
to uphold, if it is to have any real meaning
or value to the consumer. Until some
standard for roasted coffee shall be estab-
lished, it is to be feared the term "dry
roast" will continue to be used for coffee
roasted by almost any other process.
The Bureau of Chemistry held a hearing
in 1914 at Washington, at which the ques-
tion of a ruling on watering coffees was
discussed. The trade was well represented,
but no agreement w^as reached. It was
deemed inadvisable to make a definite rule
on the watering of coffee; because the
water content can not be controlled, as the
bean starts to absorb moisture as soon as it
leaves the roaster.
On Roasting Coffee Efficiently
A. L. Burns, New York, is well qualified
to speak on this subject. He says:
Roasting coffee is not so difficult a matter as is
often claimed by operators and "experts" who
seek thus to magnify their importance ; but it
is nevertheless a process about which a great
deal may be learned in the school of practical
experience. With one of our modern machines
anybody with ordinary intelligence and nerve
can take off a roast after one trial which would
pass muster in many establishments, but that
same person applying himself to the roasting
job for a week will either be turning out vastly
better roasts or will have demonstrated that he
never can excel as a roasterman.
Modern coffee roasting machines provide for
easy control of the heat (from coal, coke, or gas
fuel), for constantly mixing the coffee in such
a manner that the heat is transmitted uniformly
to the entire batch, for carrying away all steam
and smoke rapidly, for easy testing of the prog-
ress of the roast, and for immediate discharge
when desired. The operator's problem therefoi-e
is the regulation of the heat and deciding just
when the desired roasting has been accom-
plished.
If all coffees were alike, roasting would soon
be almost automatic. In some plants most of
the work is on one uniform grade or blend. But
coffees which vary greatly in moisture-content,
in flinty or spongy nature, and in various other
characteristics, will puzzle the operator until he
establishes a personal acquaintance with them
in various combinations in repeated roasting
operations. The roasterman therefore must be
able to observe closely, to draw sensible conclu-
sions, and to remember what he learns. Roast-
ing coffee is work of a .sort which anybody can
do, which a few people can do really well, and
no one so well but that further improvement is
possible.
There is no absolute standard of what the best
roasting results are. Some dealers want the
coffee beans swelled up to the bursting point,
while others would object to so .showy a develop-
ment. Some care nothing at all about appear-
BuRNs Jubilee G.\s Roaster
ance as compared with cup value, while others
insist on a bright style even at some sacrifice of
quality. Business judgment must decide what
goods can be sold most profitably.
The loss of coffee in weight in the roasting
operation, or shrinkage as it is called, is a mat-
ter which offers opportunities for false claims of
advantage in roasting processes. Anybody can
see that if just as good roasted coffee could be
produced with a lessened shrinkage there would
be a chance for a decided increase in profits.
It is a sort of finding-money proposition which
always turns out to be too good to be true.
The purpose of roasting coffee is to produce an
article entirely different from green coffee, which
is accomplished mainly by driving out moisture.
If coffee is roasted thoroughly, inside as well as
outside, so as td give the greatest roasted coffee
value, it must sustain a proper loss in weight
which there is no legitimate way to avoid. The
amount of shrinkage varies a great deal with the
kind of coffee and its age, also with the kind of
roasting desired.
Adding a little water to the coffee at the end
of the operation has the advantage of checking
the roast at the desired point and helping to
swell and brighten the coffee, but it is a practice
which is sometimes abused by soaking the coffee
with water so as to reduce the shrinkage. This
is done either dishonestly, to steal coffee which
belongs to somebody else, or foolishly; for the
heavier coffee has a lessened cup value which
more than counterbalances the apparent gain.
A Typical Coal Roaster
A typical United States coal roaster is
shown in the accompanying cut. It is the
392
ALL ABOUT COFFEE
latest form of that type of Burns machine
which requires a brickwork setting. The
picture shows the roaster ready to operate,
except for smoke pipe and power connec-
tions.
The front of the machine shown has a
east-iron plate having brackets which sup-
port the cylinder front bearing, and double
Burns Coal Roaster avith Brickwork Setting
fire doors below for the furnace and the
ashpit. The movable part of the roaster is
hidden by the front head, a heavy casting
which stands still except when moved by
hand through a half-turn for feeding and
discharging.
The cylinder is driven by gears at the
back, revolving constantly at uniform
speed. The inside of the cylinder is ar-
ranged with reverse-spiral flanges which
mix the coffee perfectly and make uneven
roasting impossible ; and they discharge
promptly every grain of coffee when the
front-head opening is turned to the lower
position. The roaster is generally operated
with coal fuel, but can be used with gas by
installing a suitable burner under the
cylinder.
Cost Card for Roasters
Showing the value added to the cost of green coffee by
roasting
By A. C. Aborn
Basis: 16 percent Shrinkage.
H cent a pound for Roasting!
•«'-J
-a'--)
13 --1
5J tj
a «J
0 'J
|fe
St
>■«-
§<».
rt-^
<s-c>.
r*;*-
0 -Ci.
r';*'
■s-^i.
!J
&;
■<o
K,
0
Cii
(0
te;
<0
•^
V]
_2
t^
C]
tft
^
■♦.. ■*^
11
%"%.
'^ s
"!? S
•1 s
"1 a
•5 a
"5 s
G '^
'0 tj
0 «j
0 (.»
0 !J
0 Hi
<:> ti
UU
uu
Uto
JoL>
uu
UL>
UO
ou
5
6.85
12
13.18
19
23.51
26
31.85
5%
6.99
12^
15.33
19%
23.66
26%
31.99
i'A
7.14
MVa
15.48
19/
23.81
26/
32.14
SH
7.29
12H
15.63
19%
23.96
26%
32.29
5J4
7.44
12/
15.77
19/
24.11
26/
32.44
5^
7.59
12^
15.92
19%
24.26
26%
32.59
53/4
7.74
12M
16.07
193/
24.40
26H
32.74
oVs
7.89
12?^
16.22
19%
24.55
26%
32.89
5
8.04
13
16.37
20
24.70
27
33.04
eVs
8.19
13/8
16.52
20%
24.85
27%
33.18
6%
8.33
13/
16.67
20/
25.00
27/
33.33
6H
8.48
UVs
16.82
20%
25.15
27%
33.48
eVi
8.63
13/
16.97
20/
25.30
27/
33.63
eVs
8.78
13?^
17.11
20%
25.45
27%
33.78
Wa
8.93
133/
17.26
20^
25.60
27H
33.93
6^8
9.08
13/8
17.41
20%
25.75
27%
34.08
7
9.23
14
17.56
21
25.89
28
34.23
7^8
9.37
14/8
17.71
21%
26.04
28%
34.38
TA
9.52
14/
17.86
21/
26.19
28/
34.52
Ty%
9.67
143^
18.01
21%
26.34
28%
34.67
7^
9.82
14/
18.15
21/
26.49
28/
34.82
TV%
9.97
14/8
18.30
21%
26.64
28%
34.97
TYa
10.12
UH
18.45
2m
26.79
2SM
35.12
y/i
10.27
14/8
18.60
21%
26.93
28%
35.27
8
10.42
15
18.75
22
27.08
29
35.42
8!/8
10.57
15/8
18.90
22%
27.23
29%
35.57
854
10.71
15/
19.05
22/
27.38
29/
35.71
i>Vi
10.86
15^
19.20
22%
27.53
29%
35.86
9.V2
11.01
15/
19.35
22/
27.68
29/
36.01
8^8
11.16
155/^
19.49
22%
27.83
29%
36.16
8M
11.31
15M
19.64
22M
27.98
29%
36.31
i%
11.46
15%
19.79
22y/s
28.13
29%
36.46
9
11.61
16
19.94
23
28.27
30
36.61
9/8
11.76
16%
20.09
23%
28.42
30%
36.76
9%
11.90
16/
20.24
23/
28.57
30/
36.90
Wi
12.05
165^
20.39
23%
28.72
30%
37.05
9/2
12.20
16/
20.54
23/
28.87
30/
37.20
Wi.
12.35
16H
20.68
23%
29.02
30%
37.35
934
12.50
163/
20.83
23?4
29.17
303/
37.50
9^
12.65
16%
20.98
23%
29.32
30%
37.65
10
12.80
17
21.13
24
29.46
31
37.80
10/8
12.95
17%
21.28
24%
29.61
31%
37.95
1054
13.10
17/
21.43
24/
29.76
31/
38.10
10^
13.24
17^
21.58
24%
29.91
31%
38.24
10/
13.39
17/
21.73
24/
30.06
31/
38.39
105^
13.54
175^
21.87
24%
30.21
31%
38.54
1034
13.69
17K
22.02
24M
30.36
313/
38.69
10%
13.84
17%
22.17
24%
30.51
31%
38.84
11
13.99
18
22.32
25
30.65
32
38.90
11^
14.14
18%
22.47
25%
30.80
32%
39.14
114
14.29
18/
22.62
25/
30.95
32/
39.29
11^8
14.43
183%
22.77
25%
31.10
32%
39.43
11/
14.58
18/
22.92
25/
31.25
32/
39.58
llfi
14.73
1.8%
23.07
25%
31.40
32%
39.73
1134
14.88
18^
23.21
2534
31.55
3234
39.88
11/8
15.03
18%
23.36
25%
31.70
32%
40.03
Open Pebfobated Cylinder with Flexible Back Head
FACTORY PREPARATION^
393
A GREEN COFFEE SHRINKAGE TABLE
Showing shrinkage in roasting of raw coffee in quantities from sixty pounds up to
three hundred pounds, and at six different shrinkage percentages
Compiled by R. C. Wilhelm, New York
RAW
n%
13%
14%
15%
16%
17%
RAW
12%
13%
14%
15% 16% 17%
RAW
12% 13% 14% 15%
16% 17%
60
52H
52X
51H
51
50!'2
49^^
140
123K
12m
120*6
119 117*6 116J^
220
193*6 191*4 1893^ 187
1841 182*6
61
iVi
53
52^
51«
51«
san
141
124
122M
121«
119'i 118*6 117
221
194'^ 192K 190 1871
1851 183*6
62
54 "^2
54
53K
52H
52
51^2
142
125
123*6
122
120'i 119.*i 117«
222
195'f 193!< 191 1881
186*4 ma
63
55^
54*i
54
53>S
53
52K
143
1255^
124*6
123
121*6 120 118?^
223
1963^ 194 1911 189*6
1871 185
64
56H
HH
55
54^4
53?i
53
144
126^i
125K
'23'4
122*^2 121 119)^
224
197 195 1921 190'6
1883i 188
65
57«
SB"-.
56
55H
54^-2
54
145
127*6
126^
124?i
123X 12151 120'^
225
198 1951 193'i 1913^
139 1861
66
58
57^2
58'i
56
55^2
S^H
146
128*6
127
125*6
124 122« nU
226
199 196'6 194'^ 192
1891 187!4
67
59
i%H
ilH
57
56«
55*6
147
129*<
128
126*^2
125 123*6 122
227
1991 197'6 1953i 193
1901 188*6
68
59^
59K
58^
57»i
57
56*6
148
1305<
128«
127«
125'1 124'^ 1225i
228
2001 198*1 196 1931
191*4 1891
69
60=^
60
59«
ay*
58
57«
149
131
129'i
128K
126J1 125X 123*1
229
201 '2 199>i 197 1941
19231 190
70
61^
61
60M
iiH,
58M
58
150
132
130*6
129
127*6 126 124*6
230
202*^ 200 198 195*6
193*4 191
71
62 'i
61«
61
60H
59^i
59
151
133
131«
129M
128*i 126»1 125!^
231
203'^ 201 1981 196*6
1943^ 192
72
63H
B2H
62
61
60*4
59«
152
133M
132«
130?4
129« 127H 126>i
232
204 202 199'6 197
195 192*4
73
64«
63^
62M
62
61K
60*6
153
I34?i
133
131^2
130 128>^ 127
233
205 2021 20031 198
1951 1933i
74
65
84^
63*^
63
62«
61*6
154
135*6
134
132*C'
131 129J^ 127^1
234
206 203 '6 201 199
196*4 194
75
68
65»
64!^
BZH
63
62«
155
136*6
134?^
133!<
13151 130)^ 128'1
235
2061 204*4 202 1991
197*4 195
76
67
66
65><
64^
63*^
63
156
137*^
135?i
134«
132*6 131 129*6
236
207*6 205 203 200*6
198 196
77
67H
67
66^
65^-2
64?^
64
157
138«
136*6
135
133*6 132 130K
237
208*6 2063i 2031 201*4
199 1961
78
68'^
68
67
66K
65^2
64^^
158
139
137*6
136
134K 13251 1313<
238
2093^ 207 204'2 202'i
200 197*4
79
69*^6
68M
68
67«
66^2
65^i
159
140
138!i
136?i
135!i 133*6 132
239
2103i 208 205'4 2033^
2001 1983i
80
70^
sn
68'i
68
67'i
66*6
160
140H
139H;
137*6
136 134*6 132?1
240
211 2081 208'^ 204
201*6 199
81
71«
70'4
69M
69
68
67M
161
141^
140
138'6
136'1 135X 133»1
241
212 2091 2073^ 2041
202*4 200
82
72K
71^4
70!^
69H
69
68
162
142*6
141
139«
137^1 136 134*6
242
213 210'2 208 2051
203 201
83
73
72!^
71H
70^
69?^
69
163
143*6
UW
140«
138*6 137 1353^
243
2131 21 r4 209 206*6
204 2011
84
74
735<
72H
71^4
70^
69?i
164
144«
U2H
141
139*4 1371 136
244
2141 2123i 210 207'i
205 202*4
85
74*^
74
73H
72K
71H
70*6
165
145«
143'^
1*2„
UOH 138*6 137
245
215*6 213 2101 2083^
2051 2033<
86
liH
74H
74
73!<
72?<
71*6
166
146
144*6
142«
141 139*6 137H
246
216-4 214 211-4 209
206*4 204
87
76^
liH
75
74
UH
72«
167
147
145K
143*6
142 140X 138*6
247
2173^ 215 212*4 210
207>i 205
88
77 >4
nil
75H
74*i
73»i
73
168
147^^
146«
144*6
1421 141 139^
248
218 216 213 211
208 206
89
78'6
nh
76^2
75H
74^
74
169
148?^
147
145-^
1431 142 1403^
249
219 2161 214*6 211^
2093^ 207
90
79^
UH
77^
76^
15H
75
170
149*6
148
146«
144*6 1423^ 141
250
220 217'6 215 212*4
210 207*i
91
80^
79X
78'<
77^
76^4
75*6
171
150*6
148?i
147
145M 1431 142
251
221 2183i 2151 2133i 2101 2083<
92
81
80
79«
78!^
77«
76*6
172
151«
I49*i
148
14651 144K 1421
252
222 219 2161 214
212 209
93
82
81
80
79
785<
n^
173
152«
150*6
148*i
147 145*^ 143*4
253
222^2 220 217*6 215
212*6 210
94
82«
81*^
80"^
80
79
78
174
153
151*6
149'i
148 146.'^ 144^
254
2233^ 221 218*6 216
213K 211
95
83H
82^
81 'i
iOH
79'i
79
175
154
152H
150*6
1481 147 1453^
255
2243i 222 2191 2161
2143^ 211!i
96
84^
83^
82*^
81 H
80^
79H
176
155
153
151«
149*6 1471 146
256
225 223 220 218
215 - 212
97
85^
84!^
83*^2
82^5
81^2
80*6
177
155?^
154
152K
150^2 1481 147
257
226 2231 221 2181
216 213
98
86^
KH
84^^
83!^
82 H
81*6
178
156H
154?i
153
151 « 149M 1471
258
227 224-4 222 219*6
2161 214
99
87 H
88H
85H
84)^
83»
82 *<
179
157*6
155H
154
152« 150*i 148*6
259
228 2253i 2221 220X
217*6 215
100
88 /•
87
86
85
84
83
180
158*6
156*6
154H
153 151K 149*6
260
229 226 224 221
218 218
101
89
87^4
86^
85^
84^
83*6
181
159H
157*6
155«
1531 152 150>i
261
2291 227 225 222
219 2161
102
89H
88'^
87*i
86H
85»i
84'i
182
160«
158K
156^2
1541 153 151
262
230^ 228 225*4 2221
220 217*i
103
90H
89H
88^
87^
86*^
85*5
183
161
I59>i
157*6
155*6 1531 152
263
231^2 229 226*i 223*4
221 2183<
104
91^
90^
89^
88^
87^
86*6
184
162
160
158«
156*6 154^ 1521
264
232 230 227 224
222 219
105
82^2
91^
90«
89H
88;^
87 *i
185
162^
161
159
157-"^ 1553^ 153*4
265
233 2301 228 225
2221 220
106
93^^
92K
91»
90K
89
88
186
163«
161^
160
158 1563^ 154*6
266
234 231*6 2281 226
223*4 2201
107
94!^
93!^
92
91
90
88H
187
164*6
162'4
160'i
159 157 1553^
267
235 2323i 229*4 227
2243i 221*4
108
95
94
93
9\H
90H
89M
188
165*6
163'i
161^
160 158 156
268
236 233 230-4 228
225 222
109
96
95
93H
92H
91^
90*6
189
166«
164*6
162^2
1601 1581 1561
269
2361 234 231 3i 228*6
226 2233<
110
96H
9Vi
94»i
93^
92^
91*i
190
167«
165K
163*6
161*6 159K 1571
270
237*4 235 232 229*6
2261 224
111
97H
9Vi
95"^
94^
93«
92H
191
168
166«
164*^
1623^ 160*6 158*6
271
238*6 2351 233 2303f
227*4 225
1 12
98^
9T^
96^2
95^
94>*
93
192
169
167
165
1633^ 1613i 159!i
272
239 237 234 231
228 226
1 13
99^
98M
97«
96
95
93*i
193
169'^
168
166
164 162 I603i
273
240 2371 2341 232
229 228!';
114
100H
99^
98
97
9i^
94^^
194
170'i
168'^
166'i
165 163 161
274
241 238-4 235-4 233
230 227*6
115
101^
100^2
99
97?^
98'i
95*6
195
171*6
169'i
167«
1651 1631 1611
275
242 2393i 236-4 2331
231 2283<
116
102
101
99'i
98^
97^
96H
196
172*6
170*6
168*6
166*6 1641 1621
276
243 240 2371 234*4
232 229
117
103
101 'i
100^2
99^
98^
97
197
173«
171-6
169*6
167*6 165*6 163*6
277
2431 241 2383i 235*4
2321 230
1 18
103'i
102^2
101^-2
100H
99
98
198
174«
172!^
170H
168^1 m'i 164'i
278
244*4 242 239 236*6
233*4 2301
119
104H
103^6
102i<
101
100
98"^
199
175
173H
171H
1693^ 1673^ 1653f
279
245*4 243 240 237
234*4 231*4
120
105^
104^2
103
102
101
99^
200
176
174
172
170 168 166
280
246-4 2431 241 238
2353f 232*4
121
106^
10S»
104
102H
101H
100*6
201
177
174«
173
1701 1681 1661
281
2473i 244-2 2411 2381
236 233'<
122
107'^
106
105
103^
102*6
101*6
202
177«
175H
173«
1711 1691 1671
282
248 245*4 242*6 239*6
237 234
123
108^
107
105'4
104^
103H
102
203
178«
176*6
174*6
172*4 170*6 168^
283
249 2463^ 2433^ 240*6
2371' 235
124
109
108
106^4
105^
104
103
204
179*4
177*6
175*6
173*6 171 -^ 169*1
284
250 247 244 241*6
238*4 2351
125
110
\QtH
107>'2
106H
105
103»i
205
180*6
178«
we'i
1743^ 1723^ 1705i
285
2501 248 245 2423i
2393^ 236^
126
111
109^
108
107
106
104*6
206
lOI^
179X
177«
175 173 171
286
251*6 249 246 243
240 237*4
127
lll'i
110^
109K
108
106H
105^
207
182«
180
178
176 174 1711
287
252-^ 2491' 2461 244
241 2383<
128
112^
111*^
110
109
107*6
106
208
183
181
179
1761 1741 1721
288
253*2 250-4 247*4 245
242 239
129
113h2
112«
111
109H
108^
107
209
184
181'i
179^
1771 175*6 173K
289
2543^ 251-4 248-^2 2451
2421 2391
130
114^
113
112
110^
109
108
210
184*1
182'i
180^
178*6 176*6 174'f
290
255 252-4 249-4 246*4
243*4 2401
131
USH
114
\n^
111»^
110
108H
21 1
185'i
183*6
181*6
179'i 1773i 175*^
291
256 2533i 2503i 2473i
244*4 241*4
132
116
115
113S
112
111
109*6
212
186*6
184*6
182*^
180 V 178 176
292
257 254 251 248 .
245*6 242*4
133
117
115'i
UiH
113
111K
110H
213
187*6
185*<
183H
181 179 1761
293
2571 255 252 249
2463^ 2433<
134
118
116^
V.iH>
114
112*6
111
214
188*^
186K
184
182 1791 177*6
294
258^ 256 253 250
247 244
135
118«i
W^
116
114f
1135<
112
215
189!i
187
185
1821 180*6 178*4
295
259-2 2561 2531' 2501
2471 2441
136
119^
118^
117
115^
114
113
216
190
188
185»i
183*6 181*6 1793^
296
260'i 257*4 254-2 251-6
248*4 245*4
137
120^
119M
117»i
116^
115
113»i
217
191
188H
186^
184*6 1823i 180
297
2613^ 258-4 255-4 252-4
249*4 246*4
138
121^
120
118^
117*4
116
114*6
218
191«
189'i
187*6
185*^ 183 181
298
262 2593i 256-6 253*4
250*4 247)4
139
122«
121
119^
118X
116«
115X
219
192«
190*6
188«
1863^ 184 1811
299
263 260 257-^ 254!<
2S13< 2483<
394
ALL ABOUT COFFEE
considerable surface, or all kept moving,
and have at the same time a lot of air
forced through it. Otherwise, there will be
some darkening and over-development of
Trying the Roast
Cooling and Stoning
"Coffee which leaves the roaster beauti-
fully uniform in appearance", says A. L.
Bums, "may lose all uniformity by de-
layed or inadequate cooling. Separated
beans of coffee will cool off by themselves;
but when heaped together, the inner part
of the mass will get hotter and even take
fire. . . . Coffee must be spread over a
MoiS'iTOR Gas Roaster
part of the coffee, and a loss of the uniform-
ity which is the first requirement of good
roasting. ' '
The cooling apparatus consists of a mov-
able, box-like metal car which can be
brought up to the front of the roaster to
the revolving cylinders. The car has a per-
forated false bottom, to which is attached a
powerful exhaust-fan system that sucks the
heat out of the coffee. In large plants,
A Group of Roasting-Rooji Accessoiues
FACTORY PREPARATION
395
Dumping the Roast in a Coal Roasti-ng Plant
The roasted coffee is being turned into The cooling car, equipped with a swinging "flexarm" that keeps
it always in connection with a suspended header pipe; the cooling being started as soon as the coffee
leaves the roaster. The cooled coffee, by tipping the box, goes into a floor hopper
Utilizing two or more floors, the tilting-type
cooling car is favored. This car permits
instant discharge through an opening in
the floor into a receiving tank suspended
from the ceiling below and connected with
the stoning apparatus. Recently, a flex-
ible-arm cooler has been invented that pro-
vides full fan suction to a cooler car at all
points in its track travel from the roaster
to the emptying position.
The stoner, an essential part of the mod-
ern roasting plant, has for its function the
removal of stones and other foreign matter
of which the green-coffee operations have
failed to get rid. The stoner is usually
built in direct combination v^ith the cool-
ing equipment, and does its w^ork by means
of a gravity separation in an upward-mov-
ing column of air. The coffee passes into
the suction boot of the stoner, either di-
rectly from the cooler box or from a floor
hopper into which the cooler dumps, and is
carried up the stoner pipe, or ''riser", by
an air current of ample power which can
be accurately regulated. This insures the
carrying up of coffee only, the stones re-
maining at the bottom of the machine and
being dumped at intervals into a pan
underneath. The coffee, passing up the
riser pipe, is delivered into a large ** stoner
hopper" which is usually hung to the ceil-
ing of the roasting room. The correct con-
struction of this hopper is of great
importance, as the coffee must be deposited
completely without breakage, and the air
must pass on through the suction fan carry-
ing nothing except bits of loose chaff.
A different type of cooler is in the form
of an upright cylinder, consisting of two
metal perforated drums, one set within the
other. The inner drum is sufficiently small
to allow the coffee to move freely between
the drums. Inside the smaller one is an
exhaust pipe which draws the heat and
chaff out of the coffee. This device is rec-
ommended for use only in connection with
wet roasted coffee.
Still another type consists of a single
perforated cylinder set horizontal with the
floor, and revolving alongside of an exhaust
box which sucks out the heat and chaff as
the coffee is tumbled about in the cylinder.
A rocking type, that is not generally em-
ployed, is constructed on the principle of
the screen used by housebuilders to sepa-
rate coarse sand from the fine, and is
ILL ABOUT COFFEE
A Four-Bag Coffee Finisher
pivoted at the middle so that it can be
rocked end to end.
Finishing or Glazing
Finishing whole-bean roasted coffee, by
giving it a friction polish while it is still
moist, using a glaze solution or water only,
is a practise not harmful if the proper solu-
tions are employed. Roasted coffee dulls in
ordinary handling, and it is claimed that
coating not only improves its appearance,
but serves also to preserve the natural
flavor and aroma of the bean. A machine
having flat-sided wooden cylinders with
ventilated heads, and operated two-thirds
full of coffee so as to get an effective rolling
motion, is generally employed. Coatings
composed of sugar and eggs are popular,
but their use should be stated on the label.
Coffee roasters are divided on this ques-
tion of coffee-coating. The best thought of
the trade is undoubtedly opposed to the
practise when it is done to conceal in-
feriority or abnormally to reduce shrinkage.
Some New York coffee roasters, who made
a thorough investigation of the matter,
found coating coffee with a wholesome ma-
terial not injurious and the coated coffee
better in the cup. Dr. Harvey "W. "Wiley
found, in the celebrated Ohio case against
Arbuckle Brothers, that coating coffee with
sugar and eggs produced beneficial results,
and that the coating preserved the bean.
The Bureau of Chemistry has never issued
any ruling on the subject of coating coffee.
-^- Blending Roasted Coffee
After cooling and stoning, unless it is to
be polished or glazed, the coffee is ready
for grinding and packing if it has been
blended in the green state. Otherwise, the
next step will be to mix the different varie-
ties before grinding, although .some packers
blend the different kinds after they have
been ground. To mix whole-bean roasted
coffee without hurting its appearance is
rather difficult, and there is no regular ma-
chine for such work.
Rarely is a single kind of coffee drunk
straight. The common practise in all coun-
rffYfff
4/6
Burns Sample-Coffee Roaster
tries is to mix different varieties having
opposing characteristics so as to obtain a
smoother beverage. This is called blending,
a process that has attained the standing of
an art in the United States. Most package
coffees are blends. In addition to other
qualities, the practical coffee blender must
have a natural aptitude for the work. He
must also have long experience before he
becomes proficient, and must be acquainted
with the different properties of all the cof-
fees grown, or at least of those that come to
his market. Furthermore, he must know
the variations in characteristics of current
crops ; for in most coffees no two crops are
equal in trade values. Innumerable blends
FACTORY PREPARATIOX
/
397
ire possible with more than a hundred dif-
"rent coffees to draw upon.
A blend may consist of two or more kinds
of coffee, but the general practise is to em-
ploy several kinds; so that, if at any time
one can not be obtained, its absence from
the blend will not be so noticeable as would
be the case if only two or three kinds were
used.
In blending coffees, consideration is given
first to the shades of flavor in the cup and
next to price. The blender describes flavors
as, acidy, bitter, smooth, neutral, flat, wild,
grassy, groundy, sour, fermented, and
hidey ; and he mixes the coffees accordingly
to obtain the desired taste in the cup. Nat-
urally the wild, sour, groundy, fermented,
and hidey kinds are avoided as much as
possible. Coffees with a Rio flavor are used
only in the cheaper blends.
Generally speaking, a properly balanced
blend should have a full rich body as a
basis ; and to this should be added a growth
to give it some acid character, and one to
give it increased aroma.
Personal preference is the determining
factor in making up a blend. Some blenders
prefer a coffee with plenty of acid taste;
while others choose the non-acid cup. For
the first-named kind, the blender will mix
together the coffees that have an acidy char-
acteristic; while for a non-acidy blend, he
will mix an acidy growth with one having
a neutral fiavor.
Coffees can be divided into four great
classes, the neutral-flavored, the sweet, the
acidy, and the bitter. All East Indian cof-
fees, except Ceylons, Malabars, and the
other Hindoostan growths, are classified as
bitter, as are old brow^n Bucaramangas,
brown Bogotas, and brown Santos. The
acid coffees are generally the new-crop
washed varieties of the western hemisphere,
such as Mexicans, Costa Ricas, Bogotas,
Caracas, Guatemalas, Santos, etc. How-
ever, the acidity may be toned down by age
Lambert Economic Coffee-Roasting Outfit for Coal Fire
This is a self-contained plant for one or two bags, and comprises a roaster, rotary cooler, elevator feed
hopper, electric motor, and stoning and chaffing attachments. It may be equipped for gas
398
ALL ABOUT COFFEE
so that they become sweet or sweet-bitter.
Red Santos is generally a sweet coffee, and
is prized by blenders. High-grade washed
Santo Domingo and Haiti coffees are sweet
both when new crop and when aged.
Practical coffee blenders do not mix two
new-crop acid coffees, or two old-crop bitter
kinds, unless their bitterness or acidity is
counteracted by coffees with opposite
flavors. One blender insists that every
blend should contain three coffees.
Some Bourbon and flat-beaned Santos
coffees are better when new, and some are
Challenge Pulverizer
better when old; but a blend of fine old-
crop coffee with a snappy new-crop coffee
gives a better result than either separately.
A new-crop Bourbon and an old yellow
flat bean make a better blend than a new-
crop flat bean and an old-crop Bourbon.
Probably the very best result in a low-
priced blend may be obtained by using
one-half old-crop Bourbon Santos with one-
half new-crop Haiti or Santo Domingo of
the cheaper grades.
Typical low-priced coffee blends in the
United States may be made up of a good
Santos, possibly a Bourbon, and some low-
cost Mexican, Central American, Colom-
bian, or Venezuelan coffee, the Santos
counteracting these acidy Milds.
Groing next higher in the scale of price,
fancy old Bourbon Santos is used with one-
third fancy old Cucuta or a good Trujillo.
For a blend costing about five cents more
a pound retail, one-third fancy old Cucuta
or Merida i« blended with fancy old Bour-
bon Santos.
Monitor Coffee-Granulating Machine
The highest-priced blend may contain
two-thirds of a fine private estate Sumatra
and one-third Mocha or Longberry Harari.
Alfred W. McCann, while advertising
manager for Francis H. Leggett & Co., New
York, in 1910, evolved a new coffee distinc-
tion based on the argument that certain
coffees like Mochas, Mexicans, Bourbons,
and Costa Ricas were developed in the cup
Coles No. 22 Grinding Mill
FACTORY PREPARATION
399
through the action on them of cream or
milk ; while others, such as Bogotas, Javas,
Maracaibos, etc., flattened out when cream
or milk was added. He argued, accord-
ingly, that breakfast coffees should be made
up from the former, but that the latter
should not be used except for after-dinner
coffees, to be drunk black." William B.
Harris, then coffee expert for the United
States Department of Agriculture, took
issue with Mr. McCann, claiming that if a
coffee is watery and lacks body, it will not
take kindly to milk or cream, not because
the chemical action of milk or cream flat-
tens it out, but because there is nothing
there in the first place. The strength of
the brew being equal, all coffees will take
cream or milk, Mr. Harris held.^
M. J. McGarty said in 1915 that he had
tried out many coffees in the cup, and
could not see that adding milk made any
difference. However, he found that some-
times a line of coffees will contain a sample
that flattens out at the drinking point (the
point where the boiling water has cooled
to permit of its being drunk) ; and he
* Tea and Coffee Trade Jour., 1910 (vol. xviii : no.
2: p. 161 ; and no. 4 : p. 319).
^ Ten and Coffee Trade Jour., 1910 (vol. xviii: no.
8 : p. 242).
Monitor Steel-Cut Grinder, Separator, and
Chaffer
thought this was what Mr. McCann had in
mind, as, by adding milk to such a coffee,
it was brought back to the drinking point.
In other words, it was Mr. McGarty 's opin-
ion that, in blending coffees, those coffees
which hold their own from the start, or
boiling point, until they become cold, or
even improve right through, are more de-
sirable for blending purposes; and that
those that are best at the drinking point
should be given the preference."
Coffee Blends for Restav rants
William B. Harris^ believes that the cof-
fee of prime importance in preparing res-
taurant blends is Bogota. He advises the
use of a full-bodied Bogota and an acid
Bourbon Santos in the proportion of three-
fourths Bogota to one-fourth Santos.
Blends may also be made up from combina-
tions of Bogota, Mexicans, and Guatemalas.
According to Mr. Harris, the average
blend of good coffee when made up, two
and one-half pounds of coffee to five gallons
of water, will produce a liquor of good color
and strength. For many hotels, however,
this may not answer, as it is not heavy
enough. More coffee must then be used, or
ten percent of chicory added. A blend
with chicory can be made by using two-
thirds Bogota, one-third Bourbon Santos,
Burns No. 12 Grinding Mill
Designed for hotel and restaurant trade
° Tea and Coffee Trade Jour., 1915 (vol. xxviii : pp.
415-416).
' "Making Coffoe for the Consumer", Tea and Coffee
Trade Jour., 1914 (vol. xxvi : pp. 335-338).
400
ALL ABOUT COFFEE
and ten percent chicory. No steward,
hotel man, or restaurant man should, how-
ever, advertise "coffee" on his menu, and
then serve a drink employing chicory; be-
cause, while there is no federal law against
such a practise, there are state laws against
it. Chicory is all right in its place; and
many prefer a drink made from coffee and
chicory ; but such a drink can not properly
be called coffee.
Hotel men should purchase their coffee
in the bean, and do their own grinding.
Then they need never have cause to com-
plain that their coffee man deceived them,
or that some salesman misled them. The
hotel steward wishing to furnish his
patrons with a heavy-bodied coffee, par-
ticularly a black after-dinner coffee, ivith-
out chicory, will use three, four, or even
four and one-half pounds of ground coffee
to five gallons of water.
With so wide a choice of coffees to
choose from, a coffee blender can make up
many combinations to meet the demands of
his trade. Probably no two blenders use
exactly the same varieties in exactly the
same proportions to make up a blend to sell
at the same price. However, they all fol-
low the same general principles laid down
in the foregoing flavor classification of the
world's coffees.
Grinding and Packaging Coffee
Unless the coffee is to be sold in the bean,
it is sent to the grinding and packing de-
partment, to be further prepared for the
consumer. Since the federal food law has
been in effect, the public has gained con-
The Ideal Steel-Cut IMill
fidence in ground and bean coffee in pack-
ages; and today a large part of the coffee
consumed in the United States is sold in
one and two pound cartons and cans, al-
ready blended and ready for brewing.
A progressive coffee-packing house may
have three different styles of grinding ma-
chines ; one called the granulator for turn-
CABTONS
TOP SEALED
FILLED XNO WEIGHED tMPTV CARTON OM BLOCK
BOTTOM SEALED
Blow -err c.iuTa'
tMPTV CARTON eeiT'
/
FLAT CARTON SUPPLY
flUS.0 CARTONS UNDER PRESSUR|
Johnson Carton-Filling. Weighing, and Sealing Machine
FACTORY PREPARATIOX
401
ing out the so-called "steel-cut" coffee; the
second, a pulverizer for making a really
fine grind; and the third, a grinding mill
for general factory work and producing a
medium-ground coffee.
Commercial coffee-grinding machines are
alike in principle in all countries, the beans
being crushed or broken between toothed
or corrugated metal or stone members, one
revolving and the other being stationary.
While all grinding machines are alike in
principle, they may vary in capacity and
design. The average granulator will turn
out about five hundred pounds of "steel-
cut" coffee in an hour; the pulverizer,
from seventy-five to two hundred pounds;
and the average grinding mill from five
hundred to six hundred pounds. Some types
of grinding machines have chaff-removing
attachments to remove, by air suction, the
chaff from the coffee as it is being ground.
A large number of trade terms for desig-
nating different grinds of coffee are used in
the United States, some of them meaning
the same thing, while similar names are
sometimes contradictory. A canvass of the
leading American coffee packers in 1917'
discovered that there. were fifteen terms in
use, and that there were thirty-four dif-
ferent meanings attached to them. For the
term ' ' fine ' ' there were five different defini-
tions; "medium" had five; "coarse",
seven; "pulverized", four; "steel-cut".
* "Coflfee-Making Questionnaire", Tea and Coffee
Trade Jour., 1917 (vol. xxx : no. 1 : pp. 31 - 34).
seven; "ground", two; "powdered", one;
' ' percolator ' ', two ; ' ' steel-cut-chaff-re-
moved", one; "Turkish ground", one;
while "granulated", "Greek ground",
"extra fine", "standard", and "regular"
were not defined..
The term "steel-cut" is generally under-
stood to mean that in the grinding process
the chaff has been removed and an approxi-
mate uniformity of granules has been
obtained by sifting. The term does not
necessarily mean that the grinding mills
have steel burrs. In fact, most firms em-
ploy burrs made of cast-iron or of a com-
position metal known as "burr metal",
because of its combined hardness and
toughness.
The "steel-cut" idea is another of those
sophistries for which American advertising
methods have been largely responsible in
the development of the package-coffee busi-
ness in the United States. The term "steel-
cut" lost all its value as an advertising
catchword for the original user when every
other dealer began to use it, no matter how
the ground coffee was produced. When the
public has been taught that coffee should
be "steel-cut", it is hard to sell it ground
coffee unless it is called "steel-cut"; al-
though a truer education of the consumer
would have caused him to insist on buying
whole bean coffee to be ground at home.
"Steel-cut" coffee, that is, a medium-
ground coffee with the chaff blown out, does
not compare in cup test with coffee that
has been more scientifically ground and not
... SMYSEU PACKAtiE-MAKI.\G-AND-FlLLING MACHINE AT Till: AkLU (. KLL i'LA.NT. .\K\V YOKK
This machine was invented by Henry E. Smyser of Philadelphia, who secured the first patent in 1880,
but it has been much improved by the Arbuckle engineers?. The half shown on the left makes the
• one-pound paper bags complete, including: the separate lining of parchment, fills the bag, automaficallv
mserts a premium list at the same time, packs it down, seais it. and delivers it on a short conveyor to
the other half (shown on the right) where the package is wrapped in the outside glassine paper and
pushed out on k table for the girls to put into shipping cases
402
ALL ABOUT COFFEE
Machine for Automatically Tacking Coffee in Cartons
Five distinct operations are performed by the units comprising this Pneumatic installation, viz., carton-
feedingr, bottom-sealing, Iming, weighing and top-sealing
given the chaff removal treatment that is
largely associated in the public mind with
the idea of the steel-cut process.
According to the results of the trade can-
vass previously referred to, it would appear
that the terms most suited to convey the
right idea of the different grades of grind-
ing, and likely to be acceptable to the
greatest number, would be "coarse" (for
boiling, and including all the coarser
grades); "medium" (for coffee made in
the ordinary pot, including the so-called
"steel-cut") ; "fine" (like granulated
sugar, and used for percolators) ; "very
fine" (like cornmeal, and used for drip or
filtration methods) ; "powdered" (like
flour, and used for Turkish coffee).
Coffee begins to lose its strength imme-
diately after roasting, the rate of loss in-
creasing rapidly after grinding. In a test
carried out by a Michigan coffee packer,'
it was discovered that a mixture of a very
fine with a coarse grind gives the best re-
sults in the cup. It was also determined
that coarse ground coffee loses its strength
more rapidly than the medium ground;
while the latter deteriorates more quickly
than a fine ground ; and so on, down the
scale. His conclusions were that the most
satisfactory grind for putting into pack-
ages that are likely to stand for some time
before being consumed is a mixture con-
sisting of about ninety percent finely
ground coffee and ten percent coarse. His
■ King, John E., Tea and Coffee Trade Jour., 1917
(vol. xxxiii : no. 6: pp. 552 - 555).
theory is that the fine grind supplies suffi-
ciently high body extraction ; the coarse,
the needful flavor and aroma. On this ir-
regular grind a United States patent (No.
14,520) has been granted, in which the
inventor claims that the ninety percent of
fine eliminates the interstices — that allow
too free ventilation in a coarse ground cof-
fee— and consequently prevents the loss
of the highly volatile constituents of the
ten percent of coarse-ground particles, and
at the same time gives a full-body ex-
traction.
Making and Filling Containers
As stated before, a large proportion of
the coffee sold in the United States is put
up into packages, ready for brewing. Such
containers are grouped under the name of
the material of which they are made ; such
as tin, fiber, cardboard, paper, wood,
and combinations of these materials, such
as a fiber can with tin top and bottom.
Generally, coffee containers are lined with
chemically treated paper or foil to keep in
the aroma and flavor, and to keep out mois-
ture and contaminating odors.
As the package business grew in the
United States, the machinery manufac-
turers kept pace ; until now there are ma-
chines that, in one continuous operation,
open up a "flat" paper carton, seal the
bottom fold, line the carton with a protect-
ing paper, weigh the coffee as it comes
down from an overhead hopper into the
carton, fold the top and seal it, and then
wrap the whole package in a waxed or
FACTORY PREPARATION
403
paraffined paper, delivering the package
ready for shipment without having been
touched by a human hand from the first
operation to the last. Such a machine can
put out fifteen to eighteen thousand pack-
ages a day.
Another type of machine automatically
manufactures two and three-ply paper cans
such as are used widely for cereal packages.
It winds the ribbons of heavy paper in a
spiral shape, automatically gluing the
papers together to make a can that will not
permit its contents to leak out. The ma-
chine turns out its product in long cylin-
ders, like mailing tubes, which are cut into
the desired lengths to make the cans. The
paper or tin tops and bottoms are stamped
out on a punch press.
Coffee cans are generally filled by hand ;
that is, the can is placed under the spout
of an automatic filling and weighing ma-
chine by an operator who slips on the cover
when the can is properly filled. The weigh-
ing machine has a hopper which lets the
coffee down into a device that gauges the
correct amount, say a pound or two pounds,
and then pours it into the can. The ma-
chine weighs the can and its contents, and
if they do not show the exact predetermined
weight, the device automatically operates
to supply the necessary quantity. After
weighing, the can is carried on a traveling
belt to the labeling machine, where the label
is automatically applied and glued. Then
the can is put through a drying compart-
ment to make the label stick quickly.
Paper bags are filled much the same way
as the tin and the fiber cans. In fact, some
packers fill their paper and fiber cartons
by the same system ; although the tendency
among the largest companies is to instal the
complete automatic packaging equipment,
because of its speed and economy in pack-
aging. Frequently, the weighing machines
Complete Coffee-Cartoning Outfit in Operation
The girl is feeding the "flats" into an Improved Johnson bottom -sealer. The carton travels to a Scott
weigher on the right and thence to the top-sealer on the left
404
ALL ABOUT COFFEE
Three Types of Automatic Coffee-Weigiiikg Machines
Left — Duplex net weigher. Center — Pneumatic cross-weight machine. Right — Scott net weigher
are used in filling wooden and fiber drums
holding twenty-five, fifty, and one hundred
pounds of coffee, to be sold in bulk to the
retailer.
Cojfee Additions and Fillers
In all large coffee-consuming countries,
coffee additions and fillers have always
been used. Large numbers of French,
Italian, Dutch, and German consumers in-
sist on having chicory with their coffee, just
as do many Southerners in the United
States.
The chief commercial reason for using
coffee additions and fillers is to keep down
the cost of blends. For this purpose, chic-
ory and many kinds of cooked cereals are
most generally used; while frequently
roasted and ground peas, beans, and other
vegetables that will not impair the flavor
or aroma of the brew, are employed in for-
eign countries. Before Parliament passed
the Adulterant Act. some British coffee
men used as fillers cacao husks, acorns, figs,
and lupins, in addition to chicory and the
other favorite fillers.
Up to the year 1907, when the United
States Food and Drugs Act became effec-
tive, chicory and cereal additions were
widely used by coffee packers and retailers
in this country. With the enforcement of
the law requiring the label of a package to
state when a filler is employed, the use of
additions gradually fell off in most sec-
tions.
In botanical description and chemical
composition chicory, the most favored addi-
tion^ has no relationship with coffee. When
roasted and ground, it resembles coffee in
appearance ; but it has an entirely different
flavor. However, many coffee-drinkers pre-
fer their beverage when this alien flavor
has been added to it.
Treated Coffees and Dry Extracts
The manufacture of prepared, or refined,
coffees has become an important branch of
the business in the United States and
Europe. Prepared coffees can be divided
into two general groups : treated coffees,
from which the caffein has been removed to
some degree; and dry coffee extracts (solu-
ble coffee), which are readily dissolved in a
cup of hot or cold water.
To decaffeinate coffee, the most common
practise is to make the green beans soft by
steaming under pressure, and then to apply
benzol or chloroform or alcohol to the soft-
ened coffee to dissolve and to extract the
caffein. Afterward, the extracting solvents
are driven out of the coffee by re-steaming.
However, chemists have not yet been able
to expel all the caffein in treating coffee
commercially, the best efforts resulting in
from 0.3 to 0.07 percent remaining. After
treatment, the coffee beans are then roasted,
packed, and sold like ordinary coffee.
In manufacturing dry coffee extract in
the form of a powder that is readily soluble
in water, the general method is to extract
FACTORY PREPARATION
405
VaCUU.M DkU.\I DllIEIi
Vacuum drum drier. No. 1 size ; diameter of
drum, 12 inches ; length, 20 inches ; used for
converting coffee extract and other liquids into
dry powder form. This is the smallest size,
and was developed for drying smaller quantities
of liquids than could be handled economically
in the larger sizes. To provide accessibility of
the interior for cleansing, the outer casing may
be moved back on the track of the bedplate (as
shown in the cut), so that free access may be
had to the drum and interior of the casing.
Rapid-Circulation Kvapo .ato.:
Used to concentrate coffee extracts and other
liquids. The tubes are easily reached through
the open door for cleansing. Interitar of the
vapor body is reached through a manhole.
Vac u ON
Oust
COUl.E,CTO«
KNIF6
Spi^eaocr
^ Ofsr
MATeiei/\u
JS)
Keau \ ikw of Dkum InUEH
Vacuum drum dryer. No. 1 size ; rear view,
showing outer casing rolled back from the drum.
uiQooie Poiv»r-
Cros.s-Section of Vacuum Drier
This shows the Interior arrangement and
principle of operation. The drawing represents
a larger size than the photograph, and while
the arrangement of some parts is slightly dif-
ferent, the principle of operation is the same.
UNITS USED IN THE MANUFACTURE OF SOLUBLE COFFEE
406
ALL ABOUT COFFEE
the drinking properties from ground
roasted coffee by means of water, and to
evaporate the resulting liquid until only
the coffee powder is left. Several methods
have been developed and patented to pre-
vent the valuable flavor elements from
being evaporated with the water.
A typical dry - coffee - extract - making
equipment consists of a battery of per-
colators, or "leachers", a vacuum evapo-
rating device, and a vacuum drier. The
leachers do not differ materially from the
ordinary restaurant percolators, a battery
usually including from three to seven units,
each charge of water going through all the
percolations. The resulting heavy liquid
then goes to the evaporator to be concen-
trated into a thick liquor. The evaporator
consists of a horizontal cylindrical vapor
compartment connected with an inclined
cylindrical steam chest in which are nu-
merous tubes, or flues, that occupy almost
the whole chest. These tubes are heated by
steam. The coffee liquor is passed through
the tubes at high speed and thrown with
great force against a baffle plate at the
opening to the vapor chest. The vapor
passes around the baffle plate to a separa-
tor. The liquor drops to the lower part of
the steam-chest (which is free from tubes),
and is ready to be drawn out for the next
process, the drying.
At this stage, the extract is a heavily
concentrated syrup and is ready to be con-
verted into powder. This is done in the
vacuum drier, which consists of a hollow
revolving drum surrounded by a tightly
sealed cast-iron casing. The drum is heated
by steam injected into its interior, and
is revolved in a high vacuum. In opera-
tion, a coating of coffee liquor is applied
automatically, by means of a special device,
to the outside of the drum. The liquor is
taken by gravity from the reservoir con-
taining the liquid supply and is forced up-
ward by means of a pump into the liquid
supply pan, directly under the drum, with
sufficient pressure to cause the liquid to
adhere to the drum, the excess liquor over-
flowing from the pan into the reservoir.
The coating on the drum is controlled or
regulated by a spreader. The heat and the
vacuum reduce the extract to a dry powder
in less than one revolution of the drum.
As the drum completes three-quarters of a
turn, a scraper knife removes the coffee
powder, which is delivered to a receiver
below the drum. Modern vacuum-drum
driers have a capacity of from twenty-five
to five hundred pounds of dry soluble coffee
per hour.
C. W. Trigg and W, A. Hamor were
granted a patent in the United States in
1919 on a new process for making an
aromatized coffee extract. In this process,
the caffeol of the coffee is volatilized and is
then brought into contact with an absorb-
ing medium such as is used in the extrac-
tion of perfumes. The absorbing medium
is then treated with a solvent of the caffeol,
and the solution is separated from the
petrolatum. Then the coffee solution is
concentrated to an extract by evaporation ;
after which, the extract and the caffeol are
combined into a soluble coffee. Five addi-
tional patents were granted on this same
process in 1921.
Chapter XXVI
WHOLESALE MERCHANDISING OF COFFEE
Roic coffees are sold at wholesale — The wholesale salesman's place
in merchandising — Some coffee costs analyzed — Handy coffee-sell-
ing chart — Terms and credits — About package coffees — Various
types of coffee containers — Coffee package labels — Coffee package
economies — Practical grocer helps — Coffee sampling — Premium
method of sales promotion
COFFEE is sold at wholesale in the
United States chiefly by about 4,000
wholesale grocers, who handle also
many other items of food ; and by roasters,
who make a specialty of preparing the
green coffee for consumption, and who fea-
ture either bulk or trade-marked package
goods.
Much the largest proportion of the
wholesale coffee trade today is made up of
roasted coffees, though some wholesalers
still sell the green bean to retail distrib-
U.ters who do their own roasting. Most of
the roasted coffee sold is ground ; although
in some parts of the United States there is
at present a growing consumer demand for
coffee in the bean. Of the coffee sold in
trade-marked packages in 1919 in the
United States, about seventy-five percent
was ground ready for brewing.
The larger wholesale houses generally
■confine their operations to the section of
the country in which they are located, but
■some of the biggest coffee-packing firms
seek national distribution. In both cases,
l)ranch houses are usually established at
strategic points to facilitate the serving of
retail customers with freshly roasted cof-
fee at all times.
In recent years, too, it has become a gen-
eral practise for the home offices, or main
headquarters, to advertise their product in
magazines, newspapers, street cars, and by
mail and on billboards; while the branches
rsolicit trade in their territories by means
of traveling salesmen, local newspaper ad-
vertisements, booklets, circulars, and dem-
onstrations at food shows.
The Wholesale Salesman
The traveling salesman is probably the
most effective agency in securing the re-
tailer's orders for coffee. A good coffee
salesman not only sells coffee, but he
teaches his customer how he can best build
up and hold his coffee trade. He acquaints
the retailer with all the talking points
about the coffee he handles, how to feature
it in store displays and advertisements,
how to stage demonstrations and to work
up special sales.
If he is a good salesman, he does not per-
mit the merchant to buy more coffee than
he can dispose of while it is still fresh.
And he shows the dealer the folly of han-
dling too many brands of package coffees.
If he sells coffee in bulk, the efficient sales-
man has also a sound working knowledge
of blending principles, and is able to sug-
gest the kinds of coffee to blend to suit the
particular requirements of each grocer's
trade. In short, he takes an intelligent in-
terest in his customer's business, and co-
operates with him in building up a local
coffee trade.
Some Coffee Costs Analyzed
In estimating the price at which he must
sell his coffee to make a fair profit, the
wholesale coffee merchant has many items
407
408
ALL ABOUT COFFEE
of expense to consider. To the cost of the
green coffee he must add : the cost of trans-
portation to his plant; the loss in shrink-
age in roasting, which ranges from fifteen
to twenty percent; packaging. costs, if he
is a packer; the items of expense in doing
business, such as wages and salaries, ad-
vertising, buying and selling, freight, ex-
press, warehouse and cartage, postage and
office supplies, telephone and telegraph,
credit and collection; and the fixed over-
head charges for interest, heat, light,
power, insurance, taxes, repairs, equip-
ment, depreciation, losses from bad debts,
and miscellaneous items.^ The average
loss for bad debts among grocers in 1916
was 0.03 percent of the total sales, accord-
ing to the director of business research,
Harvard University, who estimated also
that the common figure for credit and col-
lection expense was 0.06 percent. The to-
tal cost of doing business has been esti-
mated as ranging between twelve and
twenty percent of the total annual sales,
so that a hag of green coffee costing $16 in
New York or New Orleans costs the coffee
packer in the Middle West from $22.33 to
$24.56, according to the expense of carry-
ing on his business.
Terms and Credits
Wholesale coffee trade contract terms
and credits are not dissimilar from those in
other lines of commerce. The wholesaler
helps the retailer finance his business to the
extent of granting him thirty to sixty days
in which to pay his bill, offering him a
cash discount if the invoice is paid within
ten days of date of sale. Until recent
years, these terms were frequently abused,
the customer demanding much longer
credits and often taking a ten-day cash dis-
count after thirty or more days had
elapsed. This abuse was particularly prev-
alent from 1907 to 1913, when coffee prices
were low and competition was especially
keen.2 In addition, the retailers often de-
manded special deliveries of supplies,
which added to the wholesalers ' costs ; and
some retailers refused to pay the cost of
cartage from the cars to their stores.
With the coming of high prices after the
close of the World War, the wholesalers
showed a tendency to tighten up their
1 Ach, F. J.. Tea and Coffee Trade Jour., 1912, 1919
(vol. xxiii : no. 4: pp. 133-135; vol. xxxvi : no. 4:
pp. 344 - 345).
' Gillies, E. J., Tea and Coffee Trade Jour., 1913
(vol. XXV : pp. 574-576).
credit and discount terms, the National
Coffee Roasters Association especially rec-
ommending thirty days' credit, or at most
sixty days, and a maximum cash discount
rate of two percent.
Another trade abuse which has been cor-
rected almost altogether was the practise of
"selling coffee to be billed as shipped";
that is, the wholesaler held coffee on order,
and billed only when delivered, even though
several weeks or months had passed before
shipment.
Adout Package Coffees
Since the beginning of the twentieth cen-
tury, the sale of coffee in packages has in-
creased steadily until now (1922) this
form of distribution competes strongly with
bulk coffee sales. While bulk coffee is still
preferred in some eastern sections of the
United States, coffee packers are making
deep inroads there, to the extent that prac-
tically all high and medium grade retailers
feature package coffees, either under their
own brand name, or that of a coffee spe-
cialty house.
The prime requisite for success in any
package coffee is the composition of the
blend. One of the leaders in the field,
which we will call Y, is said to be com-
posed of Bogota, Bourbon Santos, and Mex-
ican. In March, 1922, it was being sold at
retail in New York for 42 cents. A com-
peting brand, which we will call Z, is said
to be a blend of Bogota and Bourbon
Santos. It was being sold at retail in New
York, at the same period for the same price.
Simultaneously, in the retail stores of a
well known chain system, a bulk blend com-
posed of sixty percent Bourbon Santos and
forty percent Bogota was to be had loose
for 29 cents.
The second important factor that con-
tributes to package coffee success is the
container. It must be of such a character
as will best preserve the freshness — the
flavor and the aroma of the coffee — until
it reaches the consumer.
Package coffee has not yet won universal
favor. Some of the arguments used against
it are: that the price is generally higher
than the same grade in bulk; that it leads
to price-cutting by stores that can afford to
sell it at about cost as a leader for other
articles; that the margin of profit is fre-
quently too close for some retailers: that
when the market advances, some packers
change their blends to keep down cost and
ALL ABOUT COFFEE
o
o
w
z
m
c
O
o
WHOLESALE MERCHANDISING
409
Coffee-Selling Chart
By a. J. Daxxemilleu
Showing Prices to Be Obtained to Realize Certain Percents on Sales of Roasted Coffee
Cost Roasted
SrPacked 10%
11%
12%
13%
14%
15%
16%
17%
18%
19%
20%
21%
22%
23%
24%
25%
4
4.44
4.50
4.55
4.61
4.67
4.72
4.77
4.82
4.88
4.94
5.00
5.07
5.13
5.20
5.26
5.33
4}^
5.00
5.06
5.12
5.18
5.24
5.30
5.36
5.43
5.49
5.57
5.63
5.7.0
5.77
5.84
5.91
6.00
5
5.55
5.62
5.68
5.75
5.82
5.89
5.96
6.03
6.10
6.18
6.25
6.33
6.42
6.50
6.55
6.68
syi
6.11
6.18
6.25
6.33
6.41
6.49
6.57
6.65
6.72
6.80
6.88
6.97
7.06
7.15
7.24
7.33
6
6.67
6.74
6.81
6.89
6.97
7.06
7.15
7.24
7.33
7.42
7.50
7.60
7.70
7.80
7.90
8.00
eyi
7.23
7.31
7.38
7.47
7.55
7.84
7.74
7.84
7.94
8.03
8.13
8.24
8.33
8.45
8.56
8.67
7
7.78
7.87
7.95
8.05
8.15
8.25
8.35
8.45
8.54
8.65
8.75
8.86
8.96
9.09
9.21
9.33
1V2
8.34
8.43
8.52
8.62
8.72
8.83
8.93
9.04
9.15
9.26
9.30
9.50
9.63
9.75
9.87
10.00
8
8.89
8.99
9.09
9.20
9.31
9.42
9.53
9.65
9.76
9.88
10.00
10.13
10.26
10.39
10.53
10.67
iVi
9.45
9.55
9.66
9.77
9.87
9.99
10.12
10.25
10.37
10.40
10.63
10.76
10.90
11.04
11.19
11.33
9
10.00
10.12
10.23
10.35
10.47
10.59
10.72
10.85
10.98
11.12
11.25
11.40
11.54
11.70
11.85
12.00
9"^
10.56
10.68
10.80
10.92
11.04
11.17
11.31
11.45
11.59
11.73
11.88
12.03
12.18
12.34
12.51
12.67
10
11.11
11.24
11.37
11.49
11.63
11.77
11.90
12.05
12.20
12.34
12.50
12.66
12.82
12.98
13.16
13.33
lOJ^
11.66
11.81
11.93
12.07
12.21
12.36
12.49
12.65
12.81
12.95
13.12
13.29
13.46
13.63
13.81
14.00
11
12.22
12.37
12.50
12.64
12.85
12.95
13.08
13.26
13.43
13.57
13.75
13.93
14.10
14.28
14.47
14.67
115^
12.77
12.93
13.07
13.21
13.37
13.54
13.68
13.86
14.03
14.19
14.38
14.56
14.74
14.93
15.13
15.33
12
13.33
13.49
13.64
13.79
13.95
14.12
14.28
14.46
14.65
14.81
15.00
15.19
15.38
15.58
15.79
16.00
12J^
13.89
14.05
14.21
14.37
14.53
14.71
14.88
15.06
15.24
15.43
15.63
15.83
16.02
16.23
16.45
16.67
13
14.44
14.62
14.78
14.93
15.11
15.30
15.47
15.66
15.85
16.05
16.25
16.45
16.67
16.87
17.10
17.33
\IV2
15.00
15.18
15.33
15.51
15.69
15.88
16.07
16.27
16.46
16.67
16.88
17.08
17.31
17.53
17.76
18.00
14
15.55
15.73
15.90
16.08
16.28
16.48
16.67
16.84
17.07
17.28
17.50
17.72
17.95
18.17
18.40
18.67
14^^
16.11
16.29
16.48
16.65
16.86
17.05
17.26
17.47
17.68
17.90
18.13
18.35
18.59
18.83
19.07
19.33
15
16.66
16.85
17.05
17.23
17.44
17.65
17.85
18.07
18.29
18.51
18.75
18.98
19.23
19.48
19.74
20.00
15J4
17.23
17.43
17.61
17.80
18.03
18.22
18.45
18.67
18.90
19.13
19.38
19.61
19.87
20.12
20.39
20.67
16
17.78
17.98
18.18
18.38
18.60
18.83
19.05
19.28
19.51
19.75
20.00
20.25
20.51
20.77
21.05
21.33
16^
18.33
18.54
18.75
18.97
19.18
19.41
19.64
19.88
20.12
20.38
20.63
20.88
21.16
21.42
21.70
22.00
17
18.89
19.10
19.33
19.52
19.76
20.01
20.24
20.48
20.73
21.99
21.25
21.51
21.78
22.07
22.36
22.67
171^
19.44
19.66
19.89
20.10
20.35
20.59
20.83
21.08
21.34
21.60
22.88
22.15
22.43
22.72
23.03
23.33
18
20.00
20.22
20.45
20.67
20.93
21.18
21.43
21.69
21.95
22.22
22.50
22.78
23.05
23.37
23.68
24.00
18J^
20.55
20.79
21.02
21.24
21.51
21.77
22.02
22.29
22.56
22.84
23.13
23.42
23.70
24.02
24.34
24.67
19
21.11
21.35
21.59
21.84
22.09
22.36
22.62
22.90
23.17
23.45
23.75
24.05
24.34
24.67
25.00
25.33
19^
21.66
21.91
22.16
22.41
22.68
22.95
23.21
23.50
23.78
24.07
24.38
24.68
24.99
25.32
25.66
26.00
20
22.22
22.47
22.73
22.99
23.25
23.54
23.81
24.11
24.39
24.68
25.00
25.31
25.64
25.97
26.32
26.67
20 K2
22.77
23.03
23.30
23.55
23.83
24.14
24.40
24.70
25.00
25.30
25.63
25.94
26.28
26.61
26.97
27.33
21
23.33
23.60
23.87
24.14
24.42
24.70
25.00
25.30
25.62
25.92
26.25
26.58
26.92
27.26
27.63
28.00
21^
23.88
24.16
24.43
24.71
25.00
25.29
25.59
25.90
26.22
26.54
26.88
27.22
27.56
27.91
28.28
28.67
22
24.44
24.72
25.00
25.28
25.58
25.92
26.19
26.51
26.83
27.16
27.50
27.86
28.10
28.56
28.94
29.33
22^
24.99
25.29
25.57
25.85
26.16
26.47
26.78
27.12
27.44
27.78
28.13
28.48
28.85
29.22
29.61
30.00
23
25.55
25.85
26.14
26.42
26.74
27.06
27.38
27.71
28.06
28.38
28.75
29.11
29.48
29.86
30.26
30.67
23^
26.11
26.41
26.70
27.00
27.32
27.66
27.97
28.32
28.66
29.00
29.38
29.76
30.12
30.51
30.92
31.33
24
26.67
26.97
27.26
27.58
27.90
28.24
28.57
28.92
29.27
29.62
30.00
30.38
30.77
31.17
31.58
32.00
2454
27.22
27.54
27.84
28.15
28.49
28.83
29.16
29.52
29.88
30.24
30.63
31.02
31.41
31.81
32.24
32.67
25
27.78
28.09
28.41
28.73
29.07
29.41
29.76
30.12
30.49
30.86
31.25
31.65
32.05
32.47
32.90
33.33
Note, for Example: Coffee costing 13.50 per 100 pounds (see first column),' to realize 17% on sales, must bring 16.27;
which really represents 21% on cost
to maintain the advertised price ; and that,
when packed ground, there is a rapid loss
of flavor, aroma, and strength.
Friends of package coffees point to the
saving in time in handling in th^ store;
to the fact that the contents of a package
are not contaminated by odors or dirt ; that
the blends are prepared by experts and are
always uniform ; that the coffee is always
properly roasted ; and, in the case of pack-
age ground coffee, properly ground; that
the brand names are widely and consis-
tently advertised ; and that the retailer has
the benefit of the packer's co-operation in
building up sales campaigns, by means of
booklets and local advertising.
Various Types of Coffee Containers
Five types of containers are used for
packing coffee, namely, cardboard cartons,
paper bags, fiber or paper cans, tin cans,
and composite (tin and fiber) cans and
packages. Fiber packages include paraffin-
lined as well as those that have been chem-
ically treated with other water-proof and
flavor-retaining substances.
The carton is popular, because it takes
up less room in storage and in shipment to
the packing plant, and also because the la-
bel can be printed directly on the package.
Another economy feature is its adaptability
to the automatic packaging machine, which
transforms it from a flat sheet into a
wrapped and sealed package of coffee.
Moisture-proof and flavor-retaining inner
liners and outside wrappers are generally
used to prevent rapid deterioration of the
coffee's strength and aroma.
Paper bags are the least expensive con-
tainers to be obtained; and when lined
with foil or prepared paper, they are con-
sidered to be satisfactory. Like the car-
ton, the label can be printed directly on
the bag. They also lend themselves to close
packing in shipping cases.
Another popular type of container is the
paper, or fiber, can which is made of fiber
board with a slip cover. Fiber cans are
410
ALL ABOUT COFFEE
also made with tin tops and bottoms, the
metal parts supplying a measure of rigid-
ity to the package. These composite pack-
ages are made round, square, oblong, or
cylindrical.
Paraffined containers are characterized
by an outer covering of glossy paraffin, and
are made in various shapes. In some
makes, the paraffin is forced into the pores
of the paper base, making for added flavor-
retaining and moisture-proof properties.
In this type of package the label may also
be printed direct on the package.
In recent years, vacuum packed coffee
has won great favor, first in the West and
latterly in the East. Tin cans are used.
Vacuum sealing machines close the con-
tainers at the rate of forty to fifty a min-
ute. Private tests by responsible coffee
men are said to have shown that coffee in
the bean or ground, when vacuum packed,
retains its freshness for a longer period
than when packed by any other method.
Labels
Coffee packers must give due attention
to certain well defined laws bearing on
package labels. Before the Federal Pure
Food Act went into effect on January 1,
1907, many coffee labels bore the magic
names of ''Mocha" and "Java," when in
fact neither of those two celebrated coffees
were used in the blend. Even mixtures
containing a large percentage of chicory,
or other addition, were labeled "Pure
Mocha and Java Coffee." The enactment
of the pure food law ended this practise,
making it compulsory that the label should
state either the actual coffees used in the
blend, or a brand name, together with the
name of either the packer or the distributer.
When chicory or other addition is used,
the fact must be stated in clear type di-
rectly following the brand name. The
reading matter on the label should contain
facts only, and should not bear extravagant
claims of superior quality or of methods
of preparing or packing that have not been
followed.
Coffee Packaging Economies
During the United States' participation
in the World War, tin became practically
unobtainable, and coffee packers turned to
paper and fiber containers as substitutes in
packaging nearly all grades. In this war
period, commercial economy became a fet-
ish in the business world ; and coffee pack-
ers worked to save not only material, but
shipping space, labor, and time. Paper
and fiber containers proved to be not only
practical but economical packages. Be-
cause of their war-time experience, many
packers changed permanently to square
and oblong containers. They found these
containers could be packed "solid" in
shipping cases, leaving no unfilled space
between packages as is the case with cylin-
drical cans; also, smaller shipping cases
could be used. As a further measure of
economy, several packers changed from the
square " knocked-down " paper or fiber car-
ton to the oblong carton that is made up,
filled, and sealed by automatic machinery
from a flat, printed sheet of cardboard.
This type of container is generally lined or
wrapped with a moisture-proof and flavor-
retaining paper.
There has been a tendency in recent
years to standardize coffee packages as a
means of working out packaging and ship-
ping economies. One of the leading Amer-
ican proponents ^ of standardization said :
One of the first arguments raised against
standardization is that it eliminates individual-
ity, and individuality is one of the big guns
covering the front line trenches in the war of
competition. The folly of recommending that
every one-pound cofCee carton, for instance,
should be of exactly the same size and shape is
immediately apparent; but let us not confuse
such unification w^ith standardization.
Assuming that a pound of coffee may be safely
contained in seventy-two cubic inches, we find
that a carton three inches thick by four inches
wide by six inches high will serve our purpose;
and, as an illustration of extremes, a carton
three inches thick by three inches wide by eight
inches high, or one [carton] two inches thick by
six inches wide by six inches high, will each
have exactly the same cubical contents. In fact,
there is an almost infinite variety of combina-
tions of dimensions which will contain substan-
tially seventy-two cubic inches.
As an example of how coffee packages
can be standardized this authority cites the
following sizes of flat-sheet containers and
their respective dimensions and capacities :
Size
lib.
V2 lb.
%lb.
Thick and Wide
Inches
2%by4y2
2% by 3%
lA by 26/8
High
Inches
4y2
Contents
Cubic Ins.
73.83
36.91
18.46
The advantages claimed for these pack-
ages are that each is well proportioned and
makes a good selling appearance; each
bears a direct relation to the other two ; and
all may be handled with uniformly good
» Wellman, C. P., Tea and Coffee Trade Jour., 1918
(vol. xxxiv : no. 6: p. 560).
WHOLESALE MERCHANDISING
411
COFFEE
(»«^^XXXX
i-f
/8
13
20
Zl
VARIOUS TYPES OF COFFEE CONTAINERS
This Group of Leading Tbade-Marked Coffees Illustrates the Wide Variance in Styles of
Containers Used by Coffee-Roasters. The Packages Shown Are as Follows :
1 — Double carton. 2, 3 — Cartons. 4 — Fiber sides, tin top and bottom, friction cover. 5 — Vacuum
tin can. 6 — Fancy paper bag. 7 — Machine-wrapped paper package. 8 — Fancy pai)er bag. 9 —
Carton with patented opening and closing device. 10 — Wrapped paper package. 11 — Tin can with
slip cover. 12 — All-fiber can with slip cover. 13 — Tin can with slip cover. 14 — Lithographed
tin can with friction cover. 15, 16 — Tin cans with slip covers. 17 — Squat tin can. 18 — Napa-
cau. 19, 20, 21 — Vacuum tin cans
412
ALL ABOUT COFFEE
results on the same set of standardized
packaging machinery. One size of ship-
ping case, instead of three, may be used to
hold exactly the same number of pounds
of coffee, regardless of whether shipped in
one-pound, half-pound, or quarter-pound
cartons. For smaller dealer assortments,
any two, or all three sizes also exactly fit
the following standard shipping cases :
For 36 lbs., IS'/s" by I61/2" by 12%" high
For 54 lbs., isys" by I61/2" by lOys" high
This standardization of packages and
shipping containers results in a lower cost
of containers and a smaller stock to carry,
with attendant reductions in details in pur-
chasing and billing departments, in inven-
tories, and in many other overhead expense
factors.
Practical Grocer Helps
Wholesale coffee merchandising does not
properly end with the delivery of a ship-
ment of coffee to a retailer. The progres-
sive wholesaler knows that it is to his best
interest to help that grocer sell his coffee
as quickly as possible ; to make a good profit
on a quick turnover; and to dispose of it
before the coffee has deteriorated.
Practical co-operation between wholesaler
and retailer is one of the most important
factors in coffee merchandising. In these
days of keen and unremitting competition,
neither agency can stand alone for long.
The progressive wholesaler does not sell a
retailer a poorer quality of coffee for any
particular grade than his trade calls for,
and he does not load him up with more
than can be disposed of while still fresh.
He gauges the capacity and facilities of
each retail customer, and then gives him
practical help to keep the stock moving.
The packer of branded coffees helps by
advertising to the consumer in magazines
and newspapers, always featuring the name
of his brands; and he supplies the grocer
with educational pamphlets and booklets
on the growing, preparation, and merits of
coffee in general, with an added fillip about
the desirability of his particular brand.
Through his salesmen the packer shows the
grocer how to display the coffee on the
counter and in the window, and often sup-
plies him with placards and cut-outs fea-
turing his brand. He co-operates in stag-
ing special coffee demonstrations in the
store ; instructs the retailer in the impor-
tance of teaching his clerks how to talk and
to sell coffee intelligently ; and how to pre-
pare advertising copy for his local news-
paper, so as to get the fullest measure of
profit from the wholesaler's national or
sectional advertising.
Coffee Sampling
The sampling method of creating a de-
mand for merchandise has been tried in the
wholesale coffee trade, only to be abandoned
by the majority of packers. With other
and more satisfactory ways of creating con-
sumer interest, promiscuous sampling was
found to be too expensive, in view of the
comparatively small returns. One indict-
ment against sampling is that it does not
make any more impression on the average
person than does an advertisement that ap-
pears only once, and is then abandoned.
Wideawake merchants have learned that
the public's memory is exceedingly short;
and that they must keep "hammering"
with advertisements to establish and to
maintain a demand for their products.
It would seem that the logical place for
sampling is in the retailer's store, espe-
cially in connection with demonstrations.
Many progressive grocers stimulate inter-
est in their coffees by serving, on special
demonstration days, small cups of freshly
brewed coffee, giving the customer a small
sample of the brand or blend used, to be
taken home to see if the same pleasing re-
sults can be obtained there also. Gen-
erall}^ this form of sampling, when properly
conducted, has shown a larger percentage
of returns than any other method.
Premium Method of Sales Promotion
For many years, the premium method of
sales promotion has been an important fac-
tor in wholesale coffee merchandising, as
weU as in retail distribution. The pre-
mium system has been characterized as a
form of advertising ; and many coffee pack-
ers and wholesalers prefer to spend their
advertising appropriations in that way
rather than in transitory printed advertise-
ments in newspapers and general maga-
zines.
While certain forms of the system have
been legislated out of existence in some
states, friends of the plan claim that it is
a true profit-sharing method which ' ' blesses
both him that gives and him that takes";
and that it is an advanced and legitimate
means of promoting business, when prop-
erly conducted. They assert that it is a
system of sales promotion whereby the ad-
WHOLESALE MERCHANDISING
413
vertising expense, plus a large percentage
of the profits of the business stimulated
thereby, is automatically returned to the
dealer buyer, without increasing cost or
lowering the quality of the product so ad-
vertised ; that it eliminates advertising
waste by producing a given volume of sales
for a given expenditure of money ; that it
reduces the cost of advertising by prompt-
ing a continuous series of purchases at one
advertising expense ; that it promotes cash
payments and discourages credit business.
Premium users claim that the force of a
printed advertisement is often spent in
stimulating the first purchase; while to se-
cure a premium, the purchaser must con-
tinue to buy the commodity carrying the
premium, or trade with the giver of the
premium until merchandise of a stipulated
value or quantity has been purchased.
In general practise, the premium-giving
cofi^ee packer or wholesaler may either offer
the retailer an inducement in the form of
a desirable store fixture, household article,
or item for his personal use ; or he may
offer it to the consumer through the re-
tailer.
The methods of giving the premium are
numerous. To the retailer he mav give the
article outright with each purchase of a
stipulated quantity of his coffee ; or he may
offer it as a prize to the retail distributer
selling the most coffee in a certain period
in a specified territory. Frequently the
premium is of such value that the whole-
saler can not give it with any quantity of
coffee a distributer can dispose of in a short
time; so he issues coupons or certificates
with each purchase, permitting the retailer
to redeem the premium when he has saved
the required number. Or, the retailer may ^
get the pgrmium with the first purchase by "v '
paying the difference in cash.
In giving premiums to consumers, the
wholesaler follows the same general plan
used with retailers, except that in most
cases the coupons are packed with the oof-
fee and are redeemable at the retailer's
store. Sometimes, however, the consumer
sends the coupons or certificates to the
wholesaler, getting the premium direct
from him. In another phase of the pre-
mium system, the retailer works independ-
ently of the wholesaler, buying and giving
away his own premiums to promote or to
hold trade for his store. This phase is ex-
plained in the chapter on retail coffee mer-
chandising.
414
ALL ABOUT COFFEE
LUHRS, OF roUGIIKEEPSIE, X. Y., FEATURES FRESHLY ROASTED COFFEE IN HiS WINDOW
Smoke from the roasters is blown into street through tlie coffee pot hanging over the door
Johnson, of Red Oak, Iowa, Roasts Before the Customer
Showing a Royal roasting and grinding equipment
FRESH ROASTED-COFFEE IDEA IN RETAIL MERCHANDISING
RETAIL MERCHANDISING OF ROASTED COFFEE
Hoiv coffees are sold at retail — The place of the grocer, the tea
and coffee dealer, the chain store, and the wagon-route distributer
in the scheme of distribution — Starting in the retail coffee busi-
ness — Small roasters for retail dealers — Model coffee depart-
ments -^ Creating a coffee trade — Meeting competition — Splitting
nickels — Figuring costs .and profits — A credit policy for retailers —
Premiums
COFFEE is sold at retail in the United
States through seven distinct chan-
nels of trade; the independent retail
grocers (about 350,000) handling about
forty percent of the 1,300,000,000 pounds
sold annually ; and the other sixty percent
being sold by chain stores, mail-order
houses, house-to-house wagon-route distrib-
uters, specialty tea and coffee stores, de-
partment stores, and drug stores. Since the
beginning of the twentieth century, the in-
dependent grocers' monopoly in retail cof-
fee-merchandising has been dwindling at a
rate that has seriously alarmed those in-
terests and their friends.
B. C. Casanas of New Orleans, address-
ing a convention of the National Associa-
tion of Retail Grocers in the United States,
in 1916, said that the wholesale coffee roast-
ers of the country had invested in their
business $60,000,000 ; and that $135,000,000
worth of roasted coffee was sold by them
every year.
Considering the methods of merchandis-
ing, the seven retail distributing agencies
may be grouped into three distinct classes.
The first class would comprise the inde-
pendent grocer, the chain store, the depart-
ment store, the drug store, and the special-
ty store, all of which maintain stores where
the consumer comes to buy. The second
class takes in. the mail-order house, which
solicits orders and delivers its coffee by
mail, and sometimes by freight or express.
The third class covers the wagon-route
dealer, who goes from house to house seek-
ing trade, and delivers his coffee on order
at regular periods direct to the consumer
in the home. As an inducement to con-
tracting for large quantities to be delivered
in weekly or bi-weekly periods, the house-
to-house dealer generally gives some house-
hold article, or the like, as a premium to
establish good-will and to retain the trade
of his customers.
New impetus was given to the method of
selling coffee by mail when the parcel post
system was adopted by the federal govern-
ment in 1912 ; and since then this plan has
become an important factor in retail coffee-
merchandising. Generally, the mail-order
houses confine their sales efforts to agricul-
tural districts and small towns, soliciting
trade by catalogs, by circular letters, and
by advertisements in local newspapers, and
in magazines which circulate chiefly among
dwellers in rural districts.
The majority of wagon-route distributers
depend upon the lure of their premiums,
and on personal calls, to develop and to
hold their coffee trade. The leading wagon-
route companies, sometimes called "pre-
mium houses", maintain offices and plants
in large cities adjacent to the territories to
which they confine their sales efforts. At
strategic points, they have district agents
415
416
ALL ABOUT COFFEE
who engage the wagon men that do the
actual soliciting of orders and that deliver
the coffee. All wagon-route companies
handle other products besides coffee, spe-
cializing in tea, spices, extracts, and such
household goods as soap, perfumes, and
other toilet requisites that promise a quick
sale and frequent re-orders. Some of their
competitors complain that they handle only
the more profitable lines, leaving the inde-
pendent local grocer to supply the house-
keeper with the items on which the margin
of profit is comparatively small.
Wagon-route coffee-retailing began to
make itself felt seriously about the year
1900. At first, the premiums usually con-
sisted of a cup and saucer with the
first order, the customer being led to con-
tinue buying until at least a full set of
dishes had been acquired. Later, the range
of premiums was expanded ; until today
the wagon man offers several hundred dif-
ferent articles that can be used in the home
or for personal wear or adornment. Prac-
tically all the leading wagon-route concerns
favor the advance premium method; that
is, a special canvasser induces a consumer
to contract for a large quantity of coffee
and other products in return for receiving
the premium at once, though the coffee is
delivered only as the customer wants it,
generally two pounds every two weeks. The
wagon man delivers the coffee, and is usual-
ly held responsible for the customer fulfill-
ing the agreement, and is expected to se-
cure repeat orders with other premiums.
The importance of the wagon-route plan
of coffee-retailing is shown by the fact that
in 1921 there were six hundred houses of
this kind in the United States; and it was
estimated that they distributed eight per-
cent of the total amount of the coffee con-
sumed in the country. The biggest com-
pany was capitalized at $16,000,000, and
operated eleven hundred wagons. Most of
the wagon-route concerns were operating in
the central states, practically one-third of
them covering the states of Illinois, Wis-
A Premium Tea and Coffee Dealer's Display Room
This is the headquarters store of the Geo, F. Hellkk Co.. Easton, Pa., a successful wagon coffee distributer.
The premium merchandise is shown in the foreground : the sales counter, coffee mill, and display of teas,
coffees, extracts, spices, etc., being in the right background
RETAIL MERCHANDISING
417
i
lf©p§i
ilSI %>iitfl
'&,» , ^lt,t
-iiiBa-;|j{i;
.UK M.
1
Typical Chain-Stoke IXTEiauu Kquii'ment
•This is the Atlantic & Pacific Co.'s store in Rhinebeclj, New York.
in the United States
There are nearly 5,000 other stores like it
r
eonsin, Indiana, and Iowa. Pennsylvania
is also a wagon-route-dealer center.
The premiiiin wagon-route distributers
have an organization called the National
Retail Tea and Coffee Merchants' Associa-
tion. It is composed of 126 members — all
of whom use premiums — who operate over
two thousand wagons. The largest single
wagon-route operator is the Jewel Tea
Company of Chicago. The members of this
organization claimed to have served more
than 2,000,000 families in 1920.
In the chain-store system of merchandis-
ing we see the opposite extreme of coffee
retailing. The wagon-route man features
his delivery service ; while in the chain-
store plan, all customers must pay cash and
carry home their parcels. Though the ear-
liest established chain stores gave premi-
ums, the practise has now been generally
abandoned. Roasting, blending, and pack-
ing coffee in a large central plant, the
chain-store operator advertises that he can
«ell coffee at a price lower than his compet-
itors. As a rule, only one grade of coffee
is offered for sale. While it is generally a
good medium value, many consumers pre-
fer better quality and go to the indepen-
dent grocer for it. Others patronize the
grocer because of his convenient delivery
service, and because he gives credit on pur-
chases. Chain-store organizations seem to
be growing rapidly, however ; the largest of
the chains, the Great Atlantic & Pacific Tea
Co., reporting in 1921 that it had nearly
five thousand branches throughout the
country'-, which sell 40,000,000 pounds of
coffee annually. This chain has a capitali-
zation of $12,000,000, and in 1920 sold
$225,000,000 worth of groceries, as com-
pared with $154,718,124 in the preceding
year. This company opens about five hun-
dred new stores every year.
The chain-store men are organized in the
National Chain Store Grocers Association,
having thirty members, representing 12,000
stores, operating in eighteen states. It is
estimated that there are fifty responsible
chain-store grocery organizations in the
United States, representing about 30,000
stores. The chain-store grocer turns his
stock over from twelve to twenty-five times
a year, sells for cash, makes no deliveries,
and claims to save the consumer an average
of fifteen percent in buying. These stores
do business on a net margin not exceeding
three percent on sales, as against the aver-
age retail grocer's thirty percent, while
their average gross cost of doing business
has been stated as between thirteen and
418
ALL ABOUT COFFEE
one-half percent (lowest) and eighteen and
one-half percent (highest).
According to Alfred H. Beckmann,
secretary-treasurer of the National Chain
Store Grocers' Association/ "Public appre-
ciation of the chain grocery store is rapidly
growing. Ten years ago it was estimated
that chain stores in what is known as the
Metropolitan district of New York did
about 123^ percent of the volume of busi-
ness in their line, while today it is esti-
mated at about fifty percent".
It is estimated that the fifty-odd chain
store organizations in the United States
distribute through their 30,000 stores 270,-
000,000 pounds of coffee a year, or about
twenty percent of the total amount con-
sumed in the United States.
Starting in the Retail Coffee Business
When taking up the retail merchandising
of coffee, the practical grocer learns all he
can about the popular grades to be had in
the principal markets, and how the coffees
are grown, roasted, blended, and ground.
He also ascertains the best methods of
brewing, testing out each grade and kind
on his own table, if he does not have test-
ing facilities in his store. He studies the
relative trade values of different varieties
of coffee, and the requirements of his par-
ticular clientele.
An interesting analysis of some 250 gro-
cery stores in the United States^ made in
1919, showed that twenty-nine percent of
the dealers bought all their coffee from
wholesale grocers, forty-eight percent . ex-
clusively from roasters and specialty whole-
^ Tea and Coffee Trade Jour., 1922 (vol. xlii : no. 1 :
pp. 75, 76).
2 Bureau of Business Research, Harvard University.
7^
JSJ'i --_ _ _
A
- 1^
-J
{- COFFEE
:j AND TEA
I DEP'T
I
2JJ^i
-\FRONT/-
WINDOW
The Familiar A & P Store Front
Layout for Coffee and Tea Department
salers, ten percent got over one-half of
their coffee from wholesale grocers, and
thirteen percent bought less than one-half
from the wholesale grocery houses.
There are two fundamental plans on
which a retailer builds a successful coffee
business — by buying coffee already roasted,
and by buying it green and roasting it
in the store. Each plan has its advantages;;
but its practicability depends upon condi-
tions in different localities.
Beyond acquiring a general talking^
knowledge about coffees, the retailer buy-
ing his stocks roasted in bulk or package
form does not generally need the intimate
knowledge of his goods required by the
grocer who roasts his own coffee. If he
grinds the coffee for his customers he must
know the type of grind best suited to the-
way the coffee is to be brewed, and must
be able to tell the best brewing method.
The practical grocer who makes up his
own blend is acquainted with blending-
principles and methods. While he can not
expect to be as expert as the large whole-
sale blender, he should know that green
coffees are generally classified by blenders^
in five great divisions; (1) Brazils, includ-
ing Santos, Bourbon and flat bean, Rios,
Victorias, and Bahias; (2) Washed milds,
embracing, as of the most commercial
value, Bogotas, Bucaramangas, Guate-
malas, Mexicans, Costa Ricans, Maracaibos,
and Meridas; (3) Unwashed milds, such as:
Maracaibos, Bucaramangas, La Guairas,.
RETAIL MERCHANDISING
419
One of the Retail Coffee-Roasting Stations in Southern California
Close-up of the Miniature Manufacturing Plant, Showing the Roasting and GftiNDiNG
Equipment
APPLYING THE SPECIALIST IDEA TO COFFEE MERCHANDISING
The Pacific Stores Co., I>08 Angeles, cutting out deliveries, premiums, and solicitors, has built up a busi-
ness of more than 100 bags of coffee daily, selling direct to the consumer in a chain of 100 booths
patterned after the country-roadside gasoline stations; each one having its own roaster
420
ALL ABOUT COFFEE
Self-Contaimkd Monitor Gas Roaster, Cooler,
AND Stoker
and Mexicans; (4) Javas, Sumatras, and
Padangs; (5) Mocha, and Harari.
It has been found by experience that a
good assortment for the average retailer to
carry consists of Santos, because of price;
a natural unwashed Maracaibo or Bu-
caramanga, because of full body and gen-
eral blending values; and a washed coffee,
preferably a Bogota, which gives quality
and character to a blend. In stocking up
with these coffees, the practical merchant
avoids Santos with a strong or Rioy flavor,
bitter or "hidey" Maracaibos, and acidy
or thin Bogotas/
A grocer equipped with these coffees has
the Santos for his low-priced seller. For his
medium grade he blends Santos and Mara-
caibo, half-and-half. The next higher
grade is made up of one-third each of the
three coffees ; while the best blend consists
either of half-and-half Bogota and Mara-
caibo, or three-quarters Bogota and one-
quarter Maracaibo.
The chief advantage of these three cof-
fees is that they blend well in any way they
are mixed; and the dealer with a little ex-
perience, and working with the two neces-
sary ideas in mind — satisfactory coffee and
price — can make up various combinations.
In view of the fact that the United States
imports coffee from more than a hundred
different sections of the world, and that
there are wide variations in flavor among
the coffees produced in each of the hun-
dred, it is easy to understand that the blen-
" Uuryee, P. S. Tea and Coffee Trade Jour., 1911
<vol. xxi: no. '2: pp. 106-110).
der has an almost unlimited supply from
w^hich to make up a blend with a distinc-
tive individuality. Practically all coffee
importers, and most wholesalers, are thor-
oughly acquainted with the relative trade
values of the different coffees, and help
their eustoniers make up desirable blends.
Small Boasters for Retail Dealers
While the wholesale coffee roaster is ob-
liged to instal a large and somewhat com-
plex equipment, the retailer must use a
small, compact, self-contained unit that
does not take up much space in his store,
and that is easily operated. Retail roast-
ing machines are constructed on the same
general principle as the wholesale roaster.
The roasting cylinder is generally revolved
by electric power, and the heat is derived
from gas or gasoline fuel. Cooling is by air
suction in a box attached to the roaster.
The capacities of the machines range from
ten to three hundred pounds, the operating
cost running from approximately eight
cents per hundred pounds for gas fuel and
ten cents for electric power. The roasters
cost from three hundred dollars for the
smaller sizes, to fifteen hundred for the
one-bag type ; and to two thousand or three
thousand dollars for the two-bag type.
One coffee-roaster-machinery manufac-
turer has recently brought out a gas-fired,
electrically operated fifty-pound miniature
coffee-roasting plant designed for retail
stores, which comprises a roaster, a rotary
cooler, and a stoning device, that sells for
six hundred and fifty dollars.
Royal Gas Coffee Roaster for Retail Stores
RETAIL MERCHANDISING
421
Retail coffee roasting: is similar to the
wholesale operation. When the cylinder
has become heated, the green coffee is run
in and allowed to roast in the revolving
cylinder for about half an hour. If the
coffee is the average green kind, the full
heat may be applied at once ; but if old and
dry, a lesser degree is used. When the
roast begins to snap, the flame is turned
lower to allow the beans to cook through
evenly ; and when nearly done, it is almost
extinguished. During the operation, the
roasterman, who may be the proprietor or
a clerk delegated to the work, frequently
"samples" the coffee by taking out a small
quantity with his "trier" and comparing
the color of the roast with a type sample.
When the colors match exactly, the coffee
is dumped automatically into the cooler box
just below the cylinder opening ; and when
sufficiently cooled off, is ready for grinding
to order.
A large number of retailers roast coffee
in their stores; and the most successful
find that besides being able to make a fea-
ture of freshly roasted coffee, they can save
money and increase their sales. One pro-
gressive grocer found that he was able to
get eighty-eight pounds of roasted coffee
out of one hundred pounds of green coffee,
as compared with the wholesaler's eighty-
four pounds ; that he could buy green cof-
fee at a closer price than roasted ; and that
it cost him less for labor, fuel, overhead,
BuENS Half-Bag Gas Koastino, Coolixo, and
Stoning Outfit
Lambert Junior (Jas IJoasting, Cooling, and
Stoning Outiit luu Uetail Stores
(Capacity fifty pounds)
and similar items, than it did the wholesale
roaster to turn out a roast.*
A chain of coffee specialty stores in
which the coffee is roasted fresh every day
was started in California about the year
1916 ; and according to reports, it met with
almost instant success. In this system, the
proprietor buys the green coffee in large
quantities, and it is roasted in each of his
specialty stores, which are located in pub-
lic markets, store windows, and alongside
heavily traveled highways. The roasting
machinery is invariably set up in front of
the store where passers-by can easily see it
in operation — and also smell the coffee
roasting. Four years after starting the
first store, there were fifty in operation
along the Pacific Coast, doing an annual
business of about $600,000, some units tak-
ing in more than $7,000 a month.
♦Findlay, Paul. Tea and Coffee Trade Jour., 1916
(vol. XXX : no. 1: pp. 72-74).
422
ALL ABOUT COFFEE
Model Coffee Departments
Authorities generally agree that a well
laid out coffee department not only in-
creases a grocer's coffee business, but
speeds up sales in other departments as
well. Coffee lovers, and they are legion in
the United States, are inclined to "shop
around ' ' for a coffee that suits their taste ;
and when they have found the store that
sells it, they buy their other groceries there
also. Another argument advanced in fav-
or of a coffee department is that coffee pays
more money into the retailer's cash drawer
than any other grocery item.^
Most successful retail coffee merchandis-
ers establish the coffee department near
the entrance to the store, where it can be
seen through a window hy passers-by, es-
pecially if there is an ornamental roasting
and grinding equipment. It has been found
that a department situated at the left of
the entrance is almost certain to draw at-
tention because people are inclined to
»Atha, F. p. Tea and Coffee Trade Jour., 1919
(vol. xxxvii : no. ] : p. 50 ) .
glance in that direction first. Some mer-
chants, having the space, erect attractive
booths, designed somewhat like the familiar
food-show booths, directly in front of the
door, after the fashion of department stores
when holding a special sale on a certain ar-
ticle. Such a booth is generally used for
demonstration purposes, and is decorated
with signs and possibly with bunting. A
permanent department is usually less or-
namental, but still attractive. In telling
how he made a success of his department,
one American grocer said that he was care-
ful that his fixtures were not so ornamen-
tal as to draw attention from the goods.
While the decorations were always attrac-
tive, they were subordinated sufficiently to
form a background for his coffee display.
The most popular layout is the conven-
tional counter system behind which the
clerk stands to serve the customer on the
other side. There are many advocates of
the counter that is built into the shelving,
believing that the closer the customers are
brought to the coffee, the more they will be
Faulder and Simplex Gas Roasters in an English Factory
The Faulder (on the left) is a 28-lb. indirect machin e. and the Simplex (also 28 lbs. capacity) is of the
direct-flame, quick-roaster type
RETAIL MERCHANDISING
Illustrating tue Coffee Roasters Used by the Shop-Keefeus ui inAAcE
These machines are of the ball-cylinder type, and use gas as fuel; the cylinder is revolved by electric
power. Invariably they stand where they can be seen from the street
inclined to buy. This system also makes
for cleanliness, doing away with the pos-
sibility of the runway behind the counter
becomino: a catch-all for dirt, torn paper,
bits of wood, and the like.
The modern coffee department has coun-
ters divided into compartments having
glass fronts. This type serves both as a
storage place for coffee and for display
purposes. The top of the counter is used
for wrapping up parcels, etc., and also for
displaying bulk and package coffees. In
the well regulated store, the counter top is
never used for storage, all stock being kept
on shelves or in the counter's compart-
ments. Good merchants find that cleanli-
ness pays; and that a "littered up" store
drives away desirable custom. The wise
proprietor never allows a clerk to weigh
out coffee after handling cheese, onions,
and other odorous articles, without first
thoroughly washing his hands. He knows
that few food products in his store will
more quickly absorb undesirable odors and
flavors than coffee ; and consequently he is
careful to protect his coffee from contami-
nation. In the better stores, the proprietor
will either take charge of the coffee depart-
ment himself, or will delegate a competent
man who will do nothing else.
The wide-awake retail coffee roaster al-
ways features his roasting machine, which
is generally highly ornamental and draws
attention even when not in use. Some pro-
gressive merchants plan to roast coffee at
noon time and at night, when homeward-
bound passers-by are hungry and are par-
ticularly susceptible to the pungent aroma
of roasting coffee. It is a quite common
plan for the retail roaster to arrange the
exhaust of the machine so that the full
strength of the odor is blown into the
street.
Creating a Coffee Trade
Because of steady sales and quick profits,
there is keener competition in retail coffee-
merchandising than in other food products.
But, all things being equal, any intelligent
person can create and hold a profitable
trade if he follows approved business meth-
ods — and works. The best practise among
coffee merchants shows that the prime es-
sential is good coffee, freshly roasted and
ground. After that comes intelligent and
unremitting sales-promotion work.
424
ALL ABOUT COFFEE
8MALL Gekman Roasters
On the left is a hand roaster for wood or coal fuel ;
on the right is a gas machine.
The many ingenious trade-building plans
worked out successfully by grocers in all
parts of the country are too numerous to
describe in a book of this character ; but the
methods cited in the following, all of which
have been tested in actual working condi-
tions, will serve to indicate the fundamen-
tals of good retail coffee-sales promotion.
Among the chief sales-winning methods
are demonstrations in the store, at local
food shows, and at church socials, picnics
or functions, judicious sampling either in
person or by mail, personal canvassing
from house to house, circularizing by mail,
linking up window displays with current
happenings, local newspaper and outdoor
poster advertising, and selling coffee by tel-
ephone. Most of the foregoing plans are
worked intermittently. The telephone,
however, is a most important sales factor
and should be employed constantly and
consistently.® Many successful stores con-
sider the telephone, properly used, the
greatest single sales-help in retail coffee-
merchandising.
One grocer had such faith in this method
that he paid half the annual telephone ren-
tal for a large number of his best-paying
customers. Another large merchandiser
put in an individual telephone for each of
his salesmen, who called up his regular cus-
PopuLAR French Retail Roaster
Employing coal, charcoal, or wood fuel
UNO Cabinet Gas Roaster with Cooling Unit
A popular English type
tomers each day to suggest articles for that
day's order, always of course mentioning
their ''superior brand of coffee." Tele-
phoning is the next step to personal con-
tact; and if tactfully done, is considered to
be even more advantageous, "because of the
time it saves both the customer and the
store keeper.
Coffee demonstrations in st-ores are easily
arranged, in most cases. The main consid-
eration is fresh coffee of good quality
served daintily and hot. Lacking a coffee
urn, some grocers make their brews in
° Weir, Ross W. Tea and Coffee Trade Jour., 1913
(vol. XXV : pp. 566-568).
RETAIL MERCHANDISING
425
large-size home-service coffee-making de-
vices. Those most advanced in the correct
lethod of brewing use the drip process. It
IS generally agreed that demonstrations
should not be held too often. They not only
'cut into profits, but lose much of their ad-
vertising value. Food-show demonstra-
tions require more elaborate equipment,
consisting of a decorated booth, education-
al booklets, posters, and exhibits of differ-
ent kinds of coffee, both green and roasted,
whole bean and ground. Generally, coffee
packers cooperate with retail demonstra-
tors by supplying gratis the coffee to be
brewed, if the names of their brands are
suitably displayed. They supply also pos-
ters, signs, samples, and booklets for free
distribution.
Window displays form one of the best
means of advertising at the command of
the average grocer, and one of the least ex-
pensive. A popular coffee display consists
of a series of educational ' ' windows, ' '
starting with green beans in the bags in
which they are shipped from the growing
country. Generally the bags, mats, or bun-
dles are obtained from the wholesale house,
and are filled almost to the top with some
inexpensive stuffing, the green coffee being
spread over the top to give the appearance
of a full bag. Pictures showing how the
coffee is grown, harvested, prepared, and
shipped, are frequently used in such a dis-
play. The next exhibit consists of whole
roasted coffee spread thickly over the win-
dow floor to create the impression of bulk,
accompanied by a few pans of green coffee
by way of contrast, and with pictures
showing scenes in coffee roasting plants. A
barrel, lined with blue paper, and lying on
its side with roasted coffee beans spilling
out, serves as a centerpiece for such a dis-
play. Following this, comes a coffee pack-
age window, accompanied by pictures
showing how coffee is roasted, ground, and
packed. This completes the series; but
there are many variations that have proved
successful as trade builders.
"the pern TE^ &COFFEg_CC
Educational Window Exhibit
This window won first prize for the western district in the $2,000 window-trimming contest of National
Coffee Week in 1920. Action was furnished by a small electric pump, which kept a steady stream of coffee
flowing from a coffee pot into the coffee cup
426
ALL A B OUT COFFEE
Meeting Competition
Since the advent of the wagon-route dis-
tributer and the chain store, the indepen-
dent retail grocer has been faced with the
problem of how to regain at least a fair
measure of the coffee trade he has lost. The
grocer is not only concerned about his prof-
its on coffee sales, but on other goods as
well; for a trade investigation has shown
that a large percentage of the regular cus-
tomers of the retailer are held to the store
by their purchases of coffee and tea. This
means that if coffees and teas are bought
from the wagon-route distributer and the
chain store, the balance of a family's order
is ''shopped around."
To meet this competition, the best
authorities agree that 'the independent
grocer should feature coffee in every prac-
tical way, such as soliciting coffee trade
from each customer that enters the store ;
give up offering coffee on a price basis, and
make up his own blends from good quality
growths; perhaps make up his own brand
and push it at every opportunity; display
coffee artistically, with frequent changes of
layouts; and have occasional store demon-
strations. He should see that the coffee is
roasted properly, and that it is always
fresh; that the selling effort is not ex-
pended on the lowest-priced blend, but on
a grade that can be recommended for cup
merit. This should be a leader, but a
lower-price coffee could be carried to suit
the trade that buys on price. Persistent
efforts should be made to educate the last-
named class of customers to use the better
grades, which in the end are cheaper and
give better satisfaction. In short, the
grocer should work consistently to establish
a vogue for his leader blend on the basis of
merit.
Profits and Costs
Because of its influence on other grocery
items, coffee can often be sold at a close
margin of profit, particularly if a compet-
itor's store or wagons are cutting into a
grocer's neighborhood trade. Twenty-five
. percent is recommended as a reasonable
gross profit on coffee in most cases, al-
though some grocers make less, and not a
few make more; the range being usually
from twenty to thirty-nine percent. The
independent dealer should meet chain -store
A Better-Class Amehican Grocery Interior
Showing the coffee bins in orderly array, and the electric coffee grinder
I
RETAIL MERCHANDISING
427
A Prize- Winning Wiauow Disi'lay
This unusual display of coffee-flavored eatables won first prize for the southern district in the National
Coffee Week window-trimming: contest. The cakes, pies, tarts, and other pastries which constituted
the main feature rested in a bed of green coffee. The customer's interest was cleverly attracted to
the dealer's brand by a pyramid of large coffee cans in the center background and by two miniature
dining-room sets.
•competition in coffee on a price basis, mak-
ing a special on a superior grade and figur-
ing to get not more than three cents profit
per pound, like his competitor. A bag of
roasted coffee will bring back three dollars
gain, and the cash to pay for another — and
the grocer has kept his customers, ninety
percent of whom, theoretically, will have
bought their other food supplies from him.
As a matter of fact, in the last year of the
World "War retailers showed a tendency to
demand cash on sales of all grocery items.
This practise reduces the cost of operation
and allows the storekeeper to reduce his
prices. A large number of grocers charge
a small percentage of the total sale for
credit privileges, and five or ten cents for
•each delivery below a certain total value of
the purchase price of the articles to be de-
livered. As a result, they have been able
to meet chain-store competition. Collective
buying has also been a factor in offsetting
the inroads of the "chains."
Splitting Nickels
One of the reasons advanced for the loss
of coffee trade by retail grocers is that they
price their blends in "round numbers",
that is 20, 25, 30, or 40 cents; while their
competitors "split nickels", selling their
product at 18, 23, 28, or 38 cents.
Most of the retail enterprises in other
lines of trade have built up their business
on the penny-change plan; and many cof-
fee men believe this should become the uni-
versal merchandising method among retail
distributers of coffee.^
One of the leading advocates of "split-
ting nickels" has worked out a chart to
show how coffee should be priced to make
predetermined profits. (See next page.)
' McCreery, R. W. Tea and Coffee Trade Jour.. 1913
(vol. xxY : no. 6 : pp. 603-604),
428
ALL ABOUT COFFEE
Table Showing Pbofit Percentage on Sales
If Your
Coffee
And
You
Sell
At
Costs
2Sc.
26c.
27c.
28c.
29c.
30c.
31c.
32c.
33c.
20c.
20%
23%
26%
28%
31%
33%
35%
37%
39%
20^c.
18%
21%
24%
26%
29%
31%
33%
35%
37%
21c.
16%
19%
22%
25%
27%
30%
32^/o
34%
36%
21J^c.
14%
17%
20%
23%
25%
28%
30%
32%
34%
22c.
12%
15%
1«%
21%
24%
26%
29%
31%
33%
22 ^c.
10%
13%
16%
19%
22%
25%
27%
29%
3'1%
23c.
8%
11%
14%
17%
20%
23%
25%
28%
30%
23140.
6%
9%
13%
16%
19%
^1%
24%
26%
28%
24c.
47o
7%
11%
14%
17%
20%
22%
25%
27%
24140.
2%
5%
9%
12%
15%
18%
21%
23%
25%
25c.
0%
3%
7%
10%
13%
16%
19%
21%
24%
25j^c.
2%
5%
8%
12%
15%
17%
20%
22%
26c.
0%
3%
7%
10%
13%
16%
18%
21%
26 ^c.
1%
5%
8%
11%
14%
17%
19%
27c.
0%
3%
6%
10%
12%
15%
18%
27^c.
1%
5%
8%
11%
14%
16%
28c.
0%
3%
6%
9%
12%
15%
Figuring Costs and Profits
While the cost of conducting a retail gro-
cery business naturally varies according to
local conditions and the size of the enter-
prise, an investigation among some 250
stores in small and large cities made in 1919
by the Bureau of Business Kesearch, Har-
vard University, showed that the average
cost was fourteen percent; that the net
profit averaged two and three -tenths per-
cent ; and that stock was turned about sev-
en times a year. Gross profits ran from
ten and one-half percent to twenty-six and
four-one-hundredths percent of the net
sales, the most typical figure being sixteen
and nine-tenths percent. Sales cost formed
the largest single item of expense, varying
from three and forty-one hundredths to
nine and ninety-four hundredths percent,
with the bulk of figures showing around
one and eight-tenths percent.
According to advanced business practise
the cost of doing business should be based
on these fourteen points :
1. Charge interest on the net amount of the
total investment at the beginning of the business
year, exclusive of real estate.
2. Charge rental on real estate or buildings
at a rate equal to that which would be received
if renting or leasing to others.
3. Charge, in addition to what is paid for
hired help, an amount equal to what the pro-
prietor's services would be worth to others ; also
treat in lilie manner the services of any member
of the family employed in the business and not
*on the regular payroll.
4. Charge depreciation on all goods carried
over on which a less price may have to be made
because of damage or any other cause.
5. Charge depreciation on buildings, tools,
fixtures, or anything else suffering from age or
wear and tear.
6. Charge donations and subscriptions paid.
7. Charge all fixed expenses, such as taxes,
insurance, water, lights, fuel, etc.
8. Charge all incidental expenses, such as
drayage, postage, office supplies, livery expenses
of horses and wagons, telegrams and telephones,,
advertising, canvassing, etc.
9. Charge losses of every character, includ-
ing goods stolen, or sent out and not charged,,
allowances made customers, all debts, etc.
10. Charge collection expense.
11. Charge any other expense. not enumerated
above.
12. When it is ascertained what the sum of
all the foregoing items amounts to, prove it by
the boolvS, which will give the total expense for
the year; divide this figure by the total of sales.
and it will show the percent which it has cost
to do business.
13. Taice this percent and deduct it from the
price of any article sold, then subtract from the
remainder what it cost (invoice price and
freight), and the result will show the net profit
or loss on the article.
14. Go over the selling prices of the various
articles and see what are profits ; then get busy
in putting your selling figures on a profitable
basis and talk it over with your competitor as
well.
A Credit Policy for Retailers
While the minor factors governing a.
credit policy for retailers vary with local
conditions, the fundamental principles are-
alike everywhere, and should have the
thoughtful consideration of all retail dis-
tributers of coffee. After a retail grocery
store experience of twenty-five years, a past
president of the National Association of Re-
tail Grocers of the United States' found
that a grocer should insist upon references
and a thorough investigation of every new
applicant for credit, refusing the privilege
when the prospective customer hesitates to
give the needed information ; that he should
arrange a date for periodical payments, ex-
plaining that this is necessary so that the
storekeeper can arrange to meet his own
bills, which will enable him to discount his-
invoices and to sell his goods cheaper ; that
statements of accounts should be sent out
promptly and never a few days late; that
he should insist on payment in full when
due, requesting the customer to call if an
extension of time is asked; that he should
not let the customers decide when they will
pay bills, bearing in mind that the possible-
loss of a few customers who do not pay
promptly is offset by the advantages of cash
when promised ; that he should never aban-
don the hope of collecting an old account,
but should try the method of sending state-
ments only to the surest customers, sending
a clerk for the collection of all other ac-
counts; that he should personally examine-
s Schaefer, J. H. Tea and Coffee Trade Jour., 1917
(vol. xxxiii : no. 1: p. 72).
KETAIL MERCHANDISING
429
all uncollected accounts every month, in-
sisting on a reason for failure to pay; that
he should study his customers and not trust
those who give a bad impression ; that he
should have the courage to say " No " when
necessary; not to be satisfied with merely
a financial rating on a credit applicant, but
to ascertain his general reputation and
character; and to help to eliminate the
"dead beats" by giving careful attention
to all requests received from other retailers
for credit information.
Premiums for Retailers
House-to-house dealers are the largest
users of premiums among coffee distribu-
ters. Most of them operate under what is
known as the advance-premium method.
The plan followed by house-to-house deal-
ers until about 1910 was to issue checks
redeemable in premiums after a certain
amount of tea, coffee, or other products had
been purchased. This practise has not been
entirely abandoned; but in most instances,
the premium is now handed to the consum-
er in advance of the initial purchase, in
consideration of the buyer's promise to use
a stipulated quantity of tea, coffee, or other
merchandise. The driver of the wagon gen-
erally carries a portfolio illustrating nu-
merous premium items redeemable through
the purchase of varying amounts of mer-
chandise.
Many retail coffee stores also employ pre-
miums, using both the old-style and "ad-
vance" methods.. This type of store, how-
ever, is being supplanted by the chain gro-
cery store.
Some independent retail grocers use pre-
miums to a limited extent. These usually
carry a small line of premiums, featuring
a piece of kitchenware, or other inexpen-
sive item, with bulk coffee.
It is significant that one of the largest
chain-store organizations in the United
States — the Great Atlantic & Pacific Tea
Company — uses few premiums today, al-
though its business was founded on the pre-
mium idea.
Trading stamps, which are sold to gro-
cers and other merchants by firms making
a specialty of this form of premium-giving
are little used nowadays. The average re-
tail grocer is antagonistic to trading
stamps, as a result of the methods of certain
unscrupulous stamp-dealers. Legislation
against trading stamps is in effect in many
states.
An, AjfEKicANizEi) i; M.I. IS II Grockk's Shop
Ernest Carterls store at ^^St.. Albans^England, ^operated under the name of Thomas Oakley & Co., has a
distinctly American atmospliere,^^ccounted*fo^^by the fact that the fittings were supplied by an
American manufacturer, the Walker'Bin^Co., of Penn Yan, N. Y. The tea and coffee department
is shown in the foreground. The coffee is roasted in the window
430
ALL ABOUT COFFEE
SOME PACKAGE COFFEES THAT ADVERTISING HAS MADE FAMOUS
Chapter XXVIII
A SHORT HISTORY OF COFFEE ADVERTISING
Early coffee advertising — The first coffee advertisement in 1587
was frank propaganda for the legitimate use of coffee — The first
printed advertisement in English — The first neivpaper advertise-
ment — ■ Early advertisements in colonial America — Evolution of
advertising — Package coffee advertising — Advertising to the trade
— Advertising hy means of newspapers, magazines, hill-hoards, elec-
tric signs, motion pictures, demonstrations, and hy samples — Adver-
tising for retailers — Advertising hy government propaganda — The
Joint Coffee Trade publicity campaign in the United States — Coffee
advertising efficiency
IN a work of this character the chapter
on advertising must of necessity be in
story form. It may tell what has been
accomplished in advertising coffee, and per-
haps point the way to greater achievement.
In so far as possible, the story is supple-
mented by illustrations, which here tell the
story even better than words.
Advertising to the trade or the consumer
calls for expert advice. There are success-
ful trade journalists who are competent to
supply such advertising counsel; and new-
comers in the field should consult them
first. These men are in the best position
to suggest the means for successful accom-
plishment. They know the men who are
best qualified to render assistance for all
media, and are glad to recommend those
who can be most helpful.
Jarvis A, Wood has said that advertis-
ing is causing another to know, to remem-
ber, and to do. If we agree with this ex-
cellent definition, then the first coffee ad-
vertisers were the early physicians and
writers who told their fellows something
about the berry and the beverage made
from it.
Rhazes and Avicenna told the story in
Latin, and appear to have recommended a
coffee decoction as a stomachic, as far back
as the tenth century. Many other early
physicians refer to it. Thus it was that
coffee was solemnly introduced to the con-
sumer as a medicine. The first step made
by the berry from the cabinets of the curi-
ous, where it was known as an exotic seed,
was into the apothecaries' shops, where it
was sold and advertised as a drug! Next,
the coffee drink was advertised and sold by
lemonade venders; then by the proprietors
of the coffee houses and cafes; and finally
the coffee merchant sold and advertised the
green and roasted bean.
Rauwolf told the Germans about it in
1582; Abd-al-Kadir wrote hi§ famous Ar-
gument in favor of the legitimate use of
coffee in Arabic aljout 1587 ; Alpini car-
ried the news to Italy in 1592; English
travelers wrote about the beverage in the
sixteenth and seventeenth centuries ; French
Orientalists described it about the same
time; and America learned about it long
before the green beans were offered for
sale in Boston in 1670.
Because of its frank propaganda char-
acter, Abd-al-Kadir 's manuscript may
rightly be called the earliest advertisement
for coffee. The author was a lawyer-theo-
logian, a follower of Mahomet, and as such
was eager to convince his contemporaries.
431
432
ALL ABOUT COFFEE
that coffee drinking was not incompatible
with the prophet's law.
Soon the news of the day became the
advertising of the morrow. In 1652 ap-
peared the first printed advertisement for
coffee in English. It was in the form of
a shop-bill, or handbill, issued by Pasqua
Rosee from the first London coffee house
in St. Michael's Alley, Cornhill; and the
original is preserved in the British Mu-
seum.
It is pictured on page 55, chapter X,
and is worthy of close examination. It
reads :
The Vertue of the COFFEE Drink
First publiquely made and sold in England, by
Pasqua Rosec.
The Grain or Berry called Coffee, groweth
upon little Trees, only in the Deserts of Arabia.
It is brought from thence, and drunk generally
throughout all the Grand Seigniors Dominions.
It is a simple innocent thing, composed into
& Drink, by being dryed in an Oven, and ground
±0 Powder, and boiled up with Spring water, and
about half a pint of it to be drunk, fasting an
hour before, and not Eating an hour after, and
to be taken as hot as possibly can be endured ;
the which will never fetch the skin ofC the
jmouth, or raise any Blisters, by reason of that
Heat.
The Turks drink at meals and other times, is
usually Water, and their Dyet consists much of
Fruit, the Crudities whereof are very much cor-
rected by this Drink.
The quality of this Drink is cold and Dry ;
and though it be a Dryer, yet it neither heats,
iior inflames more then hot Posset.
It so closeth the Orifice of the Stomack, and
fortifies the heat within, that it's very good to
lielp digestion, and therefore of great use to be
taken about 3 or 4 a Clock afternoon, as well
as in the morning.
It much quickens the Spirits, and makes the
Heart Lightsome. It is good against sore Eys,
and the better if you hold your Head over it,
and take in the Steem that way.
It suppresseth Fumes exceedingly, and there-
fore good against the Head-ach, and will very
much stop any Defluxion of Rheums, that distil
from the Head upon the Stomack, and so pre-
vent and help Consumptions ; and the Cough of
the Lungs.
It is excellent to prevent and cure the Dropsy,
Gout, and Scurvy.
It is known by experience to be better than
any other Drying Drink for People in years, or
Children that have any running humors upon
them, -aSvthe Kings Evil, &c.
, • It is v^ry good to prevent Mis-carryings In
■Child-pearing Women.
It as a most excellent Remedy against the
Spleen, Hypocondriack Winds, or the like.
', Ituwill .prevent Drowsiness, and make one fit
for business, if one have occasion to Watch;
and therefore you are not to Drink of it after
Supper, unless you intend to be watchful, for It
will hinder sleep for 3 or 4 hours.
It is observed that in Turkey, where this is
generally drunk, that they are not troblcd with
the Stone, Gout, Dropsie, or Scurvey, and that
their Skins are exceedingly deer and ivhite.
It is neither Laxative nor Restringent.
Made and sold in St. MicJmels Alley in Corn-
hill, by Pasqua Rosee, at the Signe of his own
Head.
The noteworthy thing about this adver-
tisement is, that in comparison with the
best copy of today, it has high merit. For
this early advertisement seems to have em-
bodied in it superbly well those qualifica-
tions which modern advertising experts
agree are essential requirements for suc-
cess— measured in terms of sales to the
consumer. We shall return to it later.
The first newspaper advertisement for
coffee appeared in the form of a "reader"
in the issue of The Fublick Adviser, Lon-
don, for the week of Tuesdav, May 19, to
Tuesday, May 26, 1657. The Puhlick Ad-
viser was a weekly pamphlet partaking of
the nature of a commercial news-letter.
The advertisement was sandwiched be-
tween a reader advertising a doctor of
physick and one for an "artificer," the
latter being a ladies' hair-dresser. It was
as follows:
In Bartholomeio Lane on the back side of the
Old Exchange, the drink called Coffee, (which
is a very wholesom and Physical drink, having
many excellent vertues, closes the Orifice of the
Stomack, fortifies the heat within, helpeth Diges-
tion, quickneth the Spirits, maketh the heart
lightsom, is good agamist Eye-sores, Goughs, or
Colds, Rhumes, Consumptions, .Head-ach, Drop-
sie, Gout, Scurvy, Kings Evil, and many others
is to be sold both in the morning, and at three
of the clock in the afternoon.
About the time that Pascal opened the
first coffee house in Paris in 1672, the Paris
shopkeepers began to advertise coffee by
broadsides. A good example is the follow-
ing,^ the text of which closely resembles the
original by Pasqua Rosee :
The most excellent Virtue of the Berry called
Coffee.
Coffee is a Berry wljlch only grows in the
desert of Arabia, from whence it is transported
into all the Dominions of. the Grand Seigniour.
which being drunk dries up all the cold and
moist humours, disperses the wind, fortifies the
Liver, eases the dropsie by its purifying quality,
'tis a Sovereign medicine against the itch, and
corruptions of the blood, refreshes the heart,
and the vital beatijng thereof, it relieves those
1 Chamberlalne, John, translation, London, 1685,
from Dufour's Traitez Nouveaux et Curieux du
Cafi, du Thi, et dti Cliocolat.
COFFEE ADVERTISING
433
that have pains in their Stomach, and cannot
eat ; rt is good also against the indispositions of
the brain, cold, moist, and heavy, the steam
which rises out of it is good against the Rheums
of the eyes, and drumming in the ears: 'Tis
excellent also against the shortness of the
breath, against Rheums which trouble the Liver,
and the pains of the Spleen; It is an extra-
ordinary ease against the Worms : After having
eat or drunk too much : Nothing is better for
those that eat much Fruit.
The daily use hereof in a little while will
manifest the aforesaid effect to those, that being
indisposed shall use it from time to time.
The following are typical London trade
advertisements of 1662 and 1663. The
first is from the Kingdom's Intelligencer of
June 5, 166^, and reads as follows :
At the Exchange Ally from Cornhill into
Lumber Street neer the Conduit, at the Musick-
Room belonging to the Palsgrave's Hall, is sold
by retayle the right coffee powder ; likewise that
termed the Turkey Berry, well cleansed at 30d.
per pound. . . the East India berry (so called)
of the best sorts at 20d. per pound, of which at
present in divers places there is very bad, which
the ignorant for cheapness do buy, and is the
chief cause of the now bad coffee drunk in many
plaies (sic).
The Intelligencer for December 21, 1663,
contained the following advertisement :
There is a Parcel of Coffee-Berry to be put
to publique sale upon Wednesday, the 23. instant,
at 6 a clock in the evening at the Globe Coffee-
house at the end of St. Bartholomew Lane, over
against the North Gate of the Royall Exchange.
. . . And if any desire to be further informed
they may repair to Mr. Brigg, Publique Notary
at the said Globe Coffee-house.
Duf our 's treatise on The Manner of Mak-
ing Coffee, Tea and Chocolate, published in
Lyons, 1684, was generally regarded as
propaganda for the beverage ; and, indeed,
it proved an excellent advertisement, being
quickly translated into English and several
other languages.
In 1691 we find advertised in the Livre
Commode of Paris a portable coffee-making
outfit to fit the pocket.
The first coffee periodical. The New and
Curious Coffee House, was issued at Leip-
zig by Theophile Georgi in 1707, being a
kind of house organ for what was, perhaps,
the first kaffee-klatsch ; the publisher-pro-
prietor, however, admitted that the idea of
making his coffee salon a resort for the
literati was obtained from Italy.
In chapter X we have described a num-
ber of broadsides, handbills, and pam-
phlets having to do with the introduction
of the coffee drink into London between
1652 and 1675. The advertising student
New Coffee Manufafftory.
Highljr BcctfTarf in this City,
Tilt, luakriber iofo-mi*, ?H«r fuhik (hat he
h»^ provided himfelf vfr.h proper ; leufi.s
at Ji e»n<i-'erai»ie expfnce, Ho hum, grind and
tUiify Cirt'cf on the EurupcMH P'»n, I'o «$ to
jjiyc general fati fjiQiwi; tbl- uitlul M.inufic
I0f¥ -v^ould frfve the iiih».b:tlnti, on refiei3iaf},
cwnfivieuHle, in t.HjtaiUcc, a> it i^ often tliru'
w«nt ui ktr-.w.*'4|,e or Cr.^i/, inanag-tntfat in-
jutcd and f,j>Mlti by tfuil n^t tc taiccli fervantjj
u hsreas one m^k-inf it h'$ bu!i:T:l'i to fefve the
citiiwas v^iih co.1e« icr.dy preparCsl.woulJ b« abl«
t^msfeffit tetter and Icii n cheaper xkin It
could b« bought in ih-^ g^aw, bcfifici hit of
timCf wafte an<t«x^nce. ihis uf,^frt»k.ng in-
yitfs the pul)l.c to try the expc{j'«erit, as it
majr be >»J«d in pnti ©f imimis fu«e» i'lom. one to
twenty ^♦tfi^fif, *eti p»<kvd tlijwa eitort for Tea
or family ufe, 'fa «$ to k*Cf> pustd im twrsfire
m#rith«, »ni ^^ cieur, feroi g «ad wdl^caSed,
ixom.z pmper urecipf, /iip{»% at Ko. 4, Crcat
£11^^ """■"'■ ^'•^- f'
First Newspaper Advertisement Solely fob
Coffee in the United States
'New York Daily Advertiser, February 9, 1790
would do well to refer to them because they
serve to show how completely the true
merits of the beverage were lost sight of by
those who urged its more fantastic claims.
It is interesting to note, however, that this
early copy was of a high order of typo-
graphical excellence; indeed, the display
letter used for the word coffee is often like
that found in copy in the United States
two hundred and fifty years after. Also,
it should be noted that ''apt ' illustra-
tions's' artful aid" was first employed in
1674. Again, note this curious contrast.
Two hundred and sixty-nine years ago all
the resources of advertising were being laid
under contribution to make propaganda
for coffee as the great cure for many ail-
ments of which nowadays the enemies of
coffee would have us believe coffee is the
cause ! Those who have possessed them-
selves of the facts about coffee know that
both arguments are equally fantastic.
Coffee was mentioned in shop-keepers*
announcements appearing in the Boston
News Letter as early as 1714, and in other
newspapers of the colonies during the
eighteenth century, usually being offered
for sale at retail with strange companions.
In 1748 ''tea, coffee, indigo, nutmegs,
sugar, etc.," were advertised for sale at a
shop in Dock Square, Boston. The follow-
434
ALL ABOUT COFFEE
ing advertisement from the Columhian
Centinel, Boston, April 26, 1794, is typical :
GROCERIES AT NO. 44 CORNHILL
Norton and Ilolyoke
Respectfully inform their friends and the pub-
lick, that they have for sale, at their Shop, No.
44 Cornhill, formerly the Post-OfRce.
A GENERAL, ASSORTMENT
OF GROCERIES
among which are the following articles :
Teas, Spices, Coffee, Cotton, Indigo, Starch,
Chocolate, Raisins, Figs, Almonds, and Olives ;
West India Rum, best French Brandy, excellent
Cherry Wine, pure as imported, etc., etc., all
which they will sell as low as any store in
Boston.
Any article not liked will he taken again, and
the money returned.
It appears that the first advertisement
dealing with coffee alone was published in
the New York Daily Advertiser for Feb-
ruary 9, 1790; and this was primarily an
advertisement of a wholesale coffee roasting
factory rather than an advertisement ol
coffee per se.
This advertisement, and a later one pub-
lished in Loudon's New York Packet for
January 1, 1791, also of a coffee manufac-
tory, are reproduced herewith.
Not until package coffee began to come
into vogue in the sixties was there any
change in the stereotyped business-card
form followed by ail dealers in coffee. And
even then the monotony was varied only
by inserting the brand name, such as * ' Os-
born's Celebrated Prepared Java Coffee-
Put up only by Lewis A. Osborn " ; " Gov-
ernment coffee in tin foil pound papers put
out by Taber & Place's Rubia Mills."
Evolution of Coffee Advertising
Real progress in coffee advertising, as in
publicity for other lines of trade and in-
dustry, began in the United States. Here
too, it has been brought to its lowest deg-
radation and to its highest efficiency.
The entire process has taken something less
than fifty years.
The first step forward was the picture
handbill. The handbill, or dodger, had
been common enough in England and on
the Continent, where, for upward of two
hundred years it had served as an adver-
tising medium, in company with the more
robust broadside, and in competition with
the pamphlet and newspaper. It remained
for America, however, to glorify the hand-
bill by means of colored pictures; and one
of the earliest and best specimens of the
Coffee Manufaflorjr. '
w
Otnvenis-i
n
f.
■ !«•
iitha(<i<
!'f n u til
nmrdi-
^ ! '.'..r t • ■
n r
!tl
■,.f\
Uut
l.^ 3'>-
strWfft will
\
la:
J . at
■■.'■■:[ ; * *. «*• !
'*
■*
■'
* x,>c
UER^AS the hu.'ning »"«!grtn'*iojr..f C fiVe
being ♦<'Oiid hij;Uiy ittr<*flaiy « (vcvikcc
town in Eurcpe ♦or •.!»(
taist-i, awd for thf '"ui.
O'lt <M(!y fi'lli 't rnr<f
ste ulV. but fVfiy p.Tft
plying <o i«nr Wfi! S'q
it I* rotten injur'-'t an. I *
ricncc or prf<j»rr m
CJfflcft feri'antt. — Ti: : 4,.r
I > iVt it ii;> on the Tu
^C'fliry urenfii at a t . tr,
mstk- it purr, ^ n'^ iiul ptcib:.,; i« «-»rfv u- pr-'yt
diced pcritm ; am^ ai .t i*"hc natu'il a»d prrvj: ng
nioiivc of ll»c hu!! an <ut d, to iTi»k» nfe ul cvtry
♦rugai iTirUmd in (^ vinjj ti>-tr i- ipret!. hy mcarii
moJt a«i;pte(5 to their own t >ie an! Ltikfaili-n — —
A kw nj'imctit' rrflfli. « maft r«invi >cc e*<Ty ju-
oi:H>u*snd liberal th ikihg pcrlcn, that it rati he
nadc nuich 1 eUcramI tltcaptr t>f «>uc oukm|r it hi*.
Liifinef* t'> acco:niiuK'ai«' (ht cit z vi» Mitii tf»t iiiu< li
fimfomcd article oil bftfr piimfpirs than can p &
\Ay br f!onc by faii.iUr* leUi'm having' pro^wr uj.n-
fiU, Although ihrmamif' ."larinjj of cfilT C app-sr<> 'o
be a very limp c burrirfi. it require* a coiTuWii-le
deal c>f*Cice&. ;ttfn i >« to burn h Mell.fo asr.- make
it retain in proper an I grnutne »afle. Thi» can t»<
done only by buriiiog it ..ver a fl w eoiil firr, n'»k-
iiig every praii. <>(' * coppr r Ciluur, ridding it of JiII
dull and chaff, lu z» to make it rrquire bur very
J'rtie clearing ; tbis wiU take fite larjjr q»urtcr« uf
un'ttirnt grain, to ii>2ks one Cp< una wtli ilenn-d,
but it will go rnuth fartJif- a;i tdriiik more invitirp,
being ground very even ar<d ''<xi\it ; and as the pram
i$chofcn of the heii np- qjaluy, it wili atway« be
fupcrior to the ran; iJ jrd grejn, being • f a nifliowr
and rich flavcred t^fle, and atnayt worth three-
pence or fatirpcnre mnre in the poutul than the
tomn^on green ; li.ii l»eing i'aldat the linafi price of
two fiiiilings and threepence per pound, a!l umter
the haif titi/cn weight. Allowance wi'l be inade
to grocers at a diHance, a« it tannoi faiiof a ready
fjle. Tt may b? iiad in any quirt ity, well p«< k«il
d'T-n in narit'v mrushcd po*» or jira of any fia<-,
fa 3"> to k-f) f -r fix m-^nth*, gowl, ftrnsg, and
w H fi^v rr'ri. as t!u- rtrfl hour it wj» put up, with
Circ .a kcepiMkj ji wril cawrcd from the air.
}K PRAISE or rOFn-E.
WilHRK dwell* the wretch, beucath%hat zone,
Tucv-^ry eiegance in knojcn ;
Wbof; f»itl nr-'er f^lt the genial fire.
That CoFlh k'i fubtiit tuoic* luJpire.
When thou'rt r>ifii»'<l with nicett art.
New bfc to aii thy flrram* impart,
If-Cynthia*« hand she t.ift tfTumei,
Atnlirofia y!ri4» to ihy per'utnes,
7'hy fragrant bent al.m« IhaK jrain.
Each RHBKL to thy pen:'.- HllGN.
0* This may l>e alway* had at the FACTORY
(•Aamn ed g»ol) at No a.ji, Q^itcn Itreet, nearly
oppoHtethe Governor'*.
Kcw York, Dec. ai, 1790. 6^
Early Coffee Advertising in United States
Printed in the New York Packet, January 1, 1791
COFFEE ADVERTISING
435
IS CHEAPER TO BUY
ARBUCKI^ES'
EOASTED Coffee
In One Pound Air-Tight Packages,
Th&n to Buy Greea Coffee and Roast it yourself.
Bocause four iioumts of aebicklfV Roasted Coffee will go as far u
five poumls of gii-i-ii Coffee, as Coffee loses one-fifih in roasting by tiaad.
Arbuckles' Roasted Cotfee is much better, hs every grain is evenly roasted,
thus brittging out the full -strength ami aroma of "the Coffee. You cannot
loast Coffee projMTly yourself.
FiBST Handbill in Colors for Package Cofiee
About 1872
picture handbill is the Arbuckle circular
here illustrated.
Soon the handbill copy began to appear
in the newspapers, but mostly without the
illustrations. Later newspaper develop-
ments were to introduce more of the pic-
ture element, decorative border, and de-
sign. The ideas of European artists were
freely drawn upon, but put to so utilitarian
uses that their originators .would scarce
have recognized them.
In the Ladies Home Journal for Decem-
ber, 1888, the Great London Tea Company,
Boston, an early mail-order house, adver-
tised, "We have made a specialty since
1877 of giving premiums to those who buy
tea and coffee in large quantities. ' ' In the
same issue, there was an advertisement of
Seal Brand and Crusade Brand coffee bv
Chase & Sanborn, Boston. Dilworth Bros.,
Pittsburgh, were also among the early users
of magazine space.
The menace of the cereil coffee-substitute
evil had grown to such proportions at the
beginning of the twentieth century, that
the coffee men began to be concerned about
it. Misleading and untruthful "substi-
tute" copy was freely accepted by nearly
all media. The package labels were as
bad, if not worse. With the advent of the
pure food law of 1906, the cereal label
abuse was reformed ; but not until the
"truth in advertising" movement became
a power to be reckoned with, nearly ten
years later, were the coffee men granted a
substantial measure of protection in the
magazines and newspapers. Meanwhile,
many coffee men, lacking organization and
a knowledge of the facts about coffee, un-
wittingly played into the hands of the sub-
stitute-fakers by publishing unfortunate
defensive copy which made confusion worse
confounded in the consumer's mind.
At one time there were nearly one hun-
dred coffee-substitute concerns engaged in
a bitter, untruthful campaign directed
A Mistake Many Women Make
What housewives discovered about
roasting coffee
Many years ago, a great many women used to roast their
own coffee. They thought it was cheaper to do this. They
thought every time they bought the coffee green and roasted
it themselves, tfley saved money for their famihes.
Most of them found out long ago thai this is a great mis-
take. Instead of being cheaper to roast coffee by hand it
actually costs more in the end. This is tlie reason why.
Why it is wasteful to roast your own coffee
Every time you roast four pounds of coffee you lose a
whole pound ! One quarter of the weight of the coffee ab-'
solutely disappears. Just think how this increases the cost
of the coffee you are actually able to use.
If you have ever tasted any coffee that was roasted by hand
you know how different it is. Even the best cooks adrnit they
have no luck roasting coffee. Part of the berries are burnt,
part are still green, and part have no taste at all. Once in a
great while it comes out as it should.
Arbuckles' Coffee is roasted by experts
When you drink Arbuckles' Coffee you taste the difference'
in a minute. Every grain is evenly roasted. You get just the
flavor and strength you want. It is always the same. This is
because coffee experts roast it for you, in specially built roasters.
Coffee roasted by hand can never be as good as this. As
soon as you taste Arbuckles' Coffee you know wbxit is the.
most popular coffee in America.
Three ways to make good coffee
Ho»
ake boiled coffee: the way most
cUan. II
just the I
Allow on
ol water,
lor the pi
toU wat
ofiec. Be sure that the pot i
ve your coffee ground meJium fint,
ize Arbuckles' Grojnd coffee is.
■ heaping lablespoonful to each cup
spoonful of coffee
lake it any stronger.
Percolator coffee:-
■thes
X method: U«e
The dr
Put the coffee i
Let boil until
u Irke. Settle wi
method, the li
r colfec
the pot, add
just the
Klash of
nplest way:
ground very hue, almost to
a powder. Use only half a lablespoonful to
a cup, wrth an extra one for the pot. (flits
rnelliod requires only half a» much coffee
as used for other methods.) Put the coffee
111 a piece of cUan clieesecloth, pour boij.
iii^ water through it slowly — through once
only. Be sure to have water hoilini;. 1 his
docs not make as stion^ coffee ai boiling
a medium tine ground coffee for percolators,
(just the size Arbuckles' Ground coffee is).
Allow a lablespoonful to each cup of coffee and
one extra; let the water percolate up through
the coffee until it is just the right strength.
Making coffee this way, you can have it just
as mild or strong a» you like, and you can
rely upon its being good every time.
Vou can make delicious coffee by any ol
these methods — coffee your husband will b*
proud of. To get these results the coffee must
be right and must always be the same. Ar*
buckles' Coffee is put up by Arbuckle Bros.,
the greatest coffee mcrchania in the world.
Get a package today and see why it is used
in over a million homes.
Arbuckle Brothers, >{ew York
Reverse Side
OF THE AfBUCKLE
. Colors) of 1872
Handbill (in
436
ALL ABOUT COFFEE
TM & mm WARMOil
No. 29 FRANKLIN AVENUE, near 4th St.,
E3Sa7.A.13I-iISZZE31D X058.
THE FRANKLIN TEA AND COFFEE WAREHOUSE was opened for the sopplj of
Families with those prime necessaries, Tea and Coffee, and each month has witnessed a great
accession to the nunber of purchasers. The increasing amount of patronage with which I have been
favored, is a satisfactorj testimonial to the soundness of the principles upon which the undertaking
was founded. Those principles were scrupulous care injecting those qualities of Tea and Coffee
most suitable to family use, an economical sjstem of management, and such moderate charges as can onljr
be guaranteed by a rigid adherence to the system of Cash payments. It may be necessary to remind
my friends and the public, that in the Tea department of my business, a very critical judgment, the
result of practical experience, is indispensibly necessary in order to ascertain the different qualities.
The same principle is rigidly adhered to in the Coffee depart-
ment An equal amount ot tact and skill is required in order to
secure for the customer a full, rich, mellow, fine flavored Berry,
from which alone a good cup of this delicious beverage can be ex-
tracted. It is a matter of importance! that the fioasting process
should be so conducted as to prevent the escape of that volatile oil
with which the Berry is impregnated, and to which it principally
owes its tonic and other medicinal qualities. My arrangements by
Steam-power for roasting and grinding Coffee, cannot be surpassed
by any establishment we->t of New Vork ; and my knowledge prac-
tical ; I therefore plede;e myself no please in all cases, or the pack-
ages may be returned.
I am now receiving a large assortment ot
all the different grades of GREEN AND
BLACK TEAS, selected with care from the
principal dealers in New York, which I am
enabled to sell for Cash at such prices as
must give satisfaction to every one who will
favor me with a trial
JAMES FORBES.
NO. 29 FMKLIJS AV.
NEAR FOURTH STREET, A FEW DOORS WEST OF BROADWAY, WITH STEAM
ENGINE AND COFFEE MILLS IN THE WINDOW.
Frosli Parched and Ground Coffee always on hand — Warranted.
A ST. LOUIS HANDBIIiL OF 1854
COFFEE ADVERTISING
437
^rbuckles'Ariosa Coffee
■^ ^ COSTS MORE AND IS WORTH
MORE THAN OTHER BRANDS OF COFFEE
WH Y ?
tst. It is made from green coffee of higher grade
and better drinking quality ; and it is gjazed
at an- actual cost to us of thre^-eighths of a
cent per pound.
2d Its entire strength and aroma are retained by
our process of glazing coffee..
3d. The ingredients used in glazing are the choicest
eggs, and pure confectioners' "A" sugar; in
testimony of this fact, see our affidavit on
each package of cofl^ee bearing our name.
4th. The glazing composed of eggs and sugar not
only retains the full strength and aroma of
our coffee, but gives to it a richness of flavor
unknown to other coffees ; besides it saves
the expense of eggs used in settling unglazed
coffee.
BEWARE of buying low-grade package coffee
falsely purporting to be made of Mocha, Java
and Rio ; this being a cheap" device, em-
ployed by the manufacturers, to deceive un'vafy-
consumers.
ARBUCKLE BROS.. COFFEE CO.,
NEW YORK.
Advertising-Card Copy, 1873
against coffee. The most conspicuous of-
fender employed the principle of auto-sug-
gestion and found a goodly number of
pseudo-physicians and bright advertising
minds that were quite willing to prostitute
their finest talents to aid him in attacking
an honorable business.
In one year $1,765,000 was spent in
traducing the national beverage. The bur-
den of the cereal-faker 's song was that cof-
fee was the cause of all the ills that flesh
is heir to, and that by stopping its use for
ten daj'S and substituting his panacea,
these ills would vanish.
Of course, there were many people (but
they were the minority) who knew that the
caffein content of coffee was a pure, safe
stimulant that did not destroy the nerve
cells like such false stimulants as alcohol,
morphine, etc.) ; and that while too much
could be ingested from abuse of any bever-
age containing it, nature always effected a
cure when the abuse was stopped.
However, there was undoubtedly created
in the public mind a suspicion, that threat-
ened to develop into a prejudice, and that
affected otherwise sane and normal people,
that perhaps coffee was not good for them.
Then came the winter of the coffee men 's
discontent. Floundering about in a veri-
table slough of cereal slush, without secure
foothold or a true sense of direction, cof-
fee advertising went miserably astray when
its writers began to assure the public that
their brands were guiltless of the crimes
charged in the cereal men's indictment.
In this, of course, they unwittingly aided
and abetted the cereal fakers. For ex-
ample, one roaster-packer advertised, * * The
harmful ingredient in coffee is the tannin-
bearing chaff, which our roasting and
grinding process completely removes."
1^«
'9^
sr
IN THE >N
O^^^
WS7?
D t. \^ A U O t " 6°°'' ™P °' Coffee is a most important thing.
RFr Al IQF ' y- "- H'UUBHUM'S XXXX you win
•-' ^ V> r\\J 'J^ have it every time.
P C (^ A I I O CZ ■' 'S made of carefully selected stock by a large and
'^ ^— ^^ •» ^<J w Cm experienced house.
P p /"^ A I I Q P* of a" 'he Coffees that grow, those used for ■cLaUlUll'S
D L_ V> M U O ^ XXXX (a combination of several) gives the finest flavor
with fullest strength, at least cost.
P C f^ A I I O Cr by the peculiar manner of roasting, use of patent
D t. \,J M kJ O ^L apparatus steam power, and men skilled in the
business, all strength and delicious qualities are perfectly preserved.
p C7 (^ A I I ^ Cr ^''h ^^^ respect for the old fashioned method of
tJ ^ x^ /A \J O ^L "parching," this, in keeping with the age of improved
methods and machinery is better and saves the housekeeper labor, annoyances,
difference in shrinkage, as well as an occasional "over-done" panfull.
P P P A I I C p The glazing on McLAUGHLIN'S Coffee does the
■— ' '— V<*/^ \J vJ 1_ settling [saving the cost of eggs]. It is composed of
reclarified sugar and corn starch and is perfectly healthful. This glazing also
seals the pores of the Coffee and preserves the strength and aroma indefinitely.
BECAUSE Once Tried— Always Wanted.
A HANDSOME PICTURE CARD IN EVERY PACKAGE OF
M'^LaugblJn'sXXXX Roasted Coffsa
Sold Only In 1 Pound Packages and Under Our Wrapper.
W. F. MCLAUGHLIN & CO.,
IMPORTtRS AND ROASTERS OF COFFEES,
82, 84, 86, 88, 90 & 92 S. Water St., CHICAGO.
THIS COFFEE IS SOLD BY ALL ENTERPRISING DEALERS
ASK YOUR GROCER FOR IT.
The Coffee used in McLaughlin's XXXX Packaare is the same
quality that is sold at 10 cts. a pound higher if bought in bulk.
•■^fi SAVE THE TEN CENTS. a^
Handbill Copy of the Seventies
438
ALL ABOUT COFFEE
Box-End Sticker, 1833
Scientific research has since proved the
fallacy of this idea.
Another roaster said, "if coffee works
havoc with your nerves and digestion, it is
because you are not using a fresh roasted,
thoroughly cleaned, correctly cured coffee.
Our method of preparing gives you the
strength and aroma without its nerve-
destroying qualities." A well known cof-
fee packer advertised, "Our coffee is free
from the dust and bitter tannin — the only
injurious property in coffee." Still an-
other packer informed the consumer that
"by a very special steel cutting process"
he sliced the coffee beans ' ' so that the little
cells containing the volatile oil (the food
product) are not broken."
A prominent Chicago packer put out a
new brand of coffee which he claimed was
"non-intoxicating," "poisonless," and the
"only pure coffee." A New Yorker, not
to be out-done, brought out a coffee that he
said contained all the stimulative proper-
ties, of the original coffee berries, but with
every trace of acid removed, every unde-
sirable element eliminated. "Also," he
added for good measure, "this coffee may
be used freely without harming the diges-
tive organs or impairing the nervous sys-
tem."
And one package-coffee man became so
exercised over cereal competition that he
brought out a grain "coffee" of his own,
which he actually advertised as "the near-
est approach to coffee ever put on the mar-
ket, having all the merits without any ob-
jectionable features, strengthening without
stimulating, satisfying without shattering
the nerves. ' '
And so history again repeated itself in
America, Five hundred years after the
first religious persecution of the drink in
Arabia, we find it being persecuted by com-
mercial zealots in the United States. And
even in the house of its friends, coffee was
being stabbed in the back. The coffee mer-
chants themselves presented the spectacle
of "knocking" it by inference and in-
nuendo.
Something had to be done. As cereal
drinks, standing on their own feet, the
coffee "substitutes" would have attracted
little notice. It was only by trading on
the allegation that they were substitutes for
coffee that they made any headway. The
original offender sold his product as "cof-
fee," which was an untruth, as he later
admitted there was not a -bean of coffee in
it. He boldly advertised: "Blank coffee
for persons who can't digest ordinary
coffee. "
When it became no longer possible to
perpetrate an untruth on the package label,
there still remained the newspapers and
billboards. For years before fake-adver-
tising laws and an outraged public opinion
made recourse to these no longer possible,
it was a common practise to use the news-
papers and billboards to promote the idea
that here was a different coffee ; and in this
way to create a demand for a package,
which, when purchased, was found to tell
a different story.
As late as 1911, one of our most respected
New York dailies was carrying an adver-
tisement calling the product "coffee," al-
FOOD- PRODUCTS -J^M
CHASE & SANBORN
OUR COFFEES HAVE A NATIONAL REPUTATION REPRESENTING Tt
SEAL BRAND COFFEE l^^r<?oX'^'i^r.'^JJ;;i'.'°jKt.r;.';t'e'Ka^"i.V.7i„^
CRUSADE BLEND
TEST
'INMT OIIOWN.
IDE BLEND 5.:SJ"il;lS°l!°o'iVT5i3v;i?;.V,l,"r/ulW^£tJV1,'JT^^^
I price Al*iiyi paehs.1 whole routed (ungr«>nd) In Mb. kir-tiglit p»relitn«Dt pMkUM.
CD CC We Hre eicliulrely M Import ii>| house, •elllng oi>Iy to JfAlers. But to {Ueconnmers kn opiorluuitir
.,„. ^r. v-n i«D<lpnste(e. und /re^ty m«)(a 1.4 jM>WH<Jo/ 'Srai Ar'oK'f Co/zVe. AddreM ' **'
CHASE A SANBORN, Ol BROAD ST.. BOSTON, MASS.
A Chase & Sanborn Advertisement, 1888
As printed in Haj-per's and Scribner's Magazines
COFFEE ADVERTISING
439
though fairness demands it be recorded
that the coffee part of the announcement
was stricken out when The Tea and Coffee
Trade Journal called the attention of the
publisher to its misleading character. This
trade paper, from its start, had been urging
the coffee men to organize for defense.
The agitation bore fruit at last, first in the
starting of the National Coffee Roasters,
Association, and later in the inception of
the movement that resulted in the interna-
tional advertising campaign for coffee now
in progress in the United States.
Meanwhile, the cereal coffee-substitute
had been thoroughly discredited by govern-
mental analysis, although even today news-
paper publishers are to be found here and
there who are willing to ''take a chance''
with public opinion and who will admit to
their advertising columns such misleading
statements for the substitute, as "it has a
coffee-like flavor, i'
In the United States today, coffee adver-
tising has reached a high plane of copy
excellence. Our coffee advertisers lead all
nations. The educational work started by
The Tea and Coffee Trade Journal, fostered
by the National Coffee Roasters Associa-
tion, and developed by the Joint Coffee
Trade Publicity Committee, has laid low
many of the bugaboos raised by the cereal
sinners. The coffee men, however, have
n
Thcre'^
NO (tGASOM
m^
MGRVOUS 1
OMG BerreR- it H(\Kes
You uMCoMSCious !'
Vje bCM'T Kno\^i -WHAT
Ro^STeJi CONTMMS, \«E
Cam't THIMtC Of- ANY RQVSoM
WHX You SHOULb tJRlMK
)T AMb vMHAiT'^ fioRe.we
bow'T cpvp-e J
vkHM MORt.bo You vmaajx
^€^
AMb r^EEL lii<:g this,
aENRY WARD BEECHER,
never appeared at his best unless fortified with a cup of good coffee. His
lecture manager gives an amusing account of their ingenious efforts to get
good coffee for the great preacher just before each lecture, and states that
thete was ,1 marked
difference I
tween Mr.
Beecher's
lectures
with
coffee, and
those
without.
Qase&Saiibong
Cofffises.
A Goldberg Cartoon, 1910
Newspaper Copy Used by Chase and Sanborn
About 1900
left considerable room for improvement.
There are still some who are given to mak-
ing exaggerated claims in their publicity,
who make reflections upon competitors in
a way to destroy public confidence in cof-
fee, and who display an ignorance of, or a
lack of confidence in, their product by con-
tinuing to claim that their brands do not
contain what they assert are injurious or
worthless constituents. It is to be hoped
that in time these abuses will yield to the
further enlightening influence of the trade
press, and of the organizations that are
continually working for trade betterment.
Before the international coffee campaign
started in 1919, the National Coffee Roast-
ers Association promoted two national cof-
fee wrecks, one in 1914 and another in 1915,
wherein excellent groundwork was done for
the big joint coffee trade propaganda that
followed. Some original research also was
done along lines of proper grinding and
correct coffee brewing. A better-coffee-
making committee, under the direction of
Edward Aborn of New York, rendered yeo-
man's service to the cause. Much educa-
tional work was done in schools and col-
leges, among newspaper editors, and in the
trade. This campaign was the first co-
operative publicity for coffee. Among
other things, it put a nation-wide emphasis
on iced coffee as a delectable summer drink
and, for the first time, stressed the correct
making of the beverage by drip and filtra-
440
ALL ABOUT COFFEE
ADVERTI8IN6
COFFEE AND COFFEE SUBSTITUTES
1911-1920
4350.000
300^000
t50,000
eoo,ooo
150,000
K)0. 000
SQOOO
(TOTALS IN THIRTY LEAOmS PUBLICATIONS CHECKED)
I9l£ 1913 1914- 1915 [916 I9IT 1916
19ao
$350,000
300,000
eso.ooo
ftOO.OOO
IOO.0OO
gOOPFK SUBSTtTUTes ■COFFEE
Chart Showing Money Spent on Advertising Coffee and Substitutes
Only advertisements printed in magazines and periodicals are considered in making this calculation
tion methods instead of by boiling, which
had long been one of the most crying evils
of the business.
Package Coffee Advertising
Coffee advertising began to take on a
distinctive character with the introduction
of Ariosa by John Arbuckle in 1873. Some
of the early publicity for this pioneer pack-
age coffee appears typographically crude,
judged by modern standards : but the copy
itself has all the needful punch, and many
of the arguments are just as applicable to-
day as they were a half -century ago. Take
the handbill copy illustrated. It was done
in three colors, and the argument was new
and most convincing. The reverse side
copy is also extremely effective. Note the
expert-roaster argument and coffee-making
directions ; some of these may still be found
in current coffee advertising.
Most of the original Arbuckle advertis-
ing was by means of circulars or broad-
sides, although some newspaper space was
employed. Premiums were first used by
John Arbuckle as an advertising sales ad-
junct, and they proved a big factor in put-
ting Ariosa on the map. Mr. Arbuckle
created the kind of word-of -mouth public-
ity for his goods that is the most difficult
achievement in the business of advertising.
It caused so deep and lasting an impres-
sion, that in some sections it has persisted
through at least five decades. The adver-
tising moral is: Get people to talk your
brand.
Since the death of its founder, the Ar-
buckle copy has been changed to fit modern
conditions. That it has kept pace with all
the forward movements in business and ad-
vertising is evident from the specimens
which help to illustrate this chapter. A
significant change is to be noted in the fact
that, for the first time in its history, ''the-
greatest coffee business in the world" has
adopted a policy of advertising to the trade-
as well as to the consumer, thus giving its
publicity a well rounded character which it
formerly lacked.
The evolution of other notable package-
coffees is also shown by illustration. Sev-
eral concerns blazed new trails that have
since been picked up and followed by com-
peting brands.
COFFEE ADVERTISING
441
COFFEE
PER CAPITA CONSUMPTION IN THE UNITED STATES
(ftSS
1670
1675
sac
I6&5
I89C
1695
1900
90S
1910
1915
i9ao
J3-
_
1
LBS
la
_
■
/
~j
J£
II
.
i
V
/
J\
^
I
1
I
t
t
-
-
1
c
1
JO.
i
>
s
/
r
^
\
/
/
^
T
9
X*
^
s
i
i
V
1
■ ~
-\
t
^
._
I
~
~
\
^
a
/
\
~
y
—
-
^
V
y
\
_
/
^
u
/•
\
1
S
t-
~
■~
~-
7
1
\
s
s
s
1
r
\
1
■■
■
'
"
~
— '
7
6
4
!S
t
s
r
s
f
-
~
~
— '
S
»j
f»
L
„
4-
4
_
~
—
_ii_
3
I
~
~
2
~
p
1
""
'
1
0
—
_
_
_
^
_
1
_
,
_
^
_
L
_
_
r—
0
— — — —a YIAR AVERASeS
ADVERTISING
leeo
♦50,000 $100,000 »I50,000 »a00.000 4250,000 $30a000 4J5Q.O0(>
COP FEE
COFFEE SUBSTITUTES
V/////////////////////////////////////^^^^^
Charts Showing Per Capita Consumption and Coffee and Substitute Advertising
Among the many long-established adver-
tised package-coffee successes may be men-
tioned :
Arbuckle's Ynban and Ariosa; Mc-
Laughlin's XXXX; Chase & Sanborn's
Seal Brand; Dwinell-Wright 's White
House; Weir's Red Ribbon; B. Fischer &
Company's Hotel Astor; Brownell &
Field's Autocrat; Bour's Old Master;
Scull's Boscul; Seeman Brothers' White
Rose; Blanke's Faust; Baker's Barrington
Hall; Woolson Spice Company's Golden
Sun; International Coffee Company's Old
Homestead; Kroneberger 's Old Reserve;
Western Grocer Company's Chocolate
Cream; Leggett's Nabob; Clossett & Dev-
er's Golden West; R. C. Williams' Royal
Scarlet ; Merchants Coffee Company 's Ala-
meda; Widlar Company's C. W, brand;
Meyer Bros.' Old Judge; Nash-Smith Tea
and Coffee Company's Wedding Breakfast ;
J. A, Folger & Company's Gulden Gate;
Ennis Hanley Blackburn Coffee Company's
Golden Wedding; M. J. Brandenstein &
Company's M, J, B. ; Hills Brothers* Red
Can, the Young & Griffin Coffee Company's
Franco-American, and the Cheek-Neal Cof-
fee Company's Maxwell House.
It was estimated that the amount of
money spent by the larger coffee roasters
upon all forms of publicity in the United
States in 1920 was about $3,000,000.
Charts prepared by Charles Coolidge
Parlin of the division of commercial re-
search of the Curtis Publishing Company,
and checked by the Publishers' Informa-
tion Bureau, show the advertising for cof-
fee and for coffee substitutes in thirty
leading publications from 1911 to 1920;
and compare the advertising for coffee and
coffee substitutes in 1920 with a chart of
per capita consumption. It should be
noted that the figures exclude all other
forms of advertising, such as newspapers,
bill-posting, street-car signs, electric signs,
and so forth.
Experience has proven that a package
coffee, to be successful, must have back of
it expert knowledge on buying, blending,
roasting, and packing, as well as an effi-
cient sales force. These things are essen-
tial: (1) a quality product; (2) a good
442
ALL ABOUT COFFEE
An Effective Cut-Out
trade-mark name and label; (3) an efficient
package. With these, an intelligently
planned and carefully executed advertising
and sales campaign will spell success. Such
a campaign comprehends advertising di-
rected to the dealer and to the consumer.
It may include all the approved forms of
publicity, such as newspapers, magazines,
billboards, electric signs, motion pictures,
demonstrations, and samples. One phase
of trade advertising which should not be
overlooked is dealer helps. The extent to
which the roaster-packer, or the promoter
of a new package coffee, should utilize the
various advertising media or go into dealer
helps must, of course, depend upon the size
of the advertising appropriation.
Many roaster-packers supply grocers
handling their coffee with dealer helps in
the shape of weather-proof metal signs for
outside display, display racks, store and
window display signs, cut-outs, blotters,
consumer booklets, newspaper electros.
stereopticon slides, moving pictures, dem-
onstrations, samples, etc. Dealer selling
schemes based on points have also been
found helpful in promoting sales;
Advertising to the Trade
Until a comparatively recent date, the
green coffee importer, selling the roasting
trade, has not realized the need of adver-
tising. He has inclined to the belief that
he did not need to advertise, because, in
most instances, green coft'ee is not sold by
the mark; and, to a certain extent, price
has been the determining factor.
During late years, however, many green
coffee firms have come to realize that there
is a good-will element that enters into the
equation which can be fostered by the in-
telligent use of advertising space in the
coffee roaster's trade journal. Also, a few
importers are now featuring trade marks in
their advertising, thus building up a tan-
gible trade-mark asset in addition to good
will.
For a number of years the green coffee
trade used the business card type of ad-
vertisement; but some are now utilizing a
more up-to-date style of copy, as typified
by the advertisements of Leon Israel &
Brothers and W. R. Grace & Company.
Specimens of other green coffee advertis-
ing of the better kind are here reproduced.
Advertising campaigns in behalf of pack-
age coffees can not be fully effective with-
out the proper use of trade publications.
Advertising in the dealer's paper has many
advantages. It is good missionary work
for the salesman. It creates confidence in
the mind of the dealer. It is an excellent
means for demonstrating to the retailer
that he is being considered in the scheme
of distribution — that no attempt is being
made to force the goods upon him through
consumer advertising alone. Trade-paper
advertising also offers the packer the op-
portunity to acquaint the dealer with the
selling points in favor of the brand adver-
tised, thus saving the time of the salesman.
An increasing number of coffee packers are
now using the advertising columns of trade
papers, and some typical advertisements
are reproduced herewith.
Advertising hy Various Mediums
Billboard and other outdoor advertising,
also car cards, are being used to a con-
siderable extent for coffee publicity.
Painted outdoor signs have been the back-
COFFEE ADVERTISING
443
bone of one middle-west roaster's campaign
for a number of years. Both car cards and
billboards are growing in popularity be-
cause they enable the coffee packer to re-
produce his package in its natural colors
and permit also of striking displays. Such
firms as Arbuckle Brothers, New York ;
Dayton Spice Mills, Dayton, Ohio; W. F.
McLaughlin & Company, Chicago ; the
Puhl-Webb Company, Chicago; the Bour
Company, Toledo; B. Fischer & Com-
pany, New York ; and the Cheek-Neal Cof-
fee Company, Nashville and New York,
are consistent users of this character of ad-
vertising. Electric signs also have proved
effective for coffee advertising. Reproduc-
tions of some characteristic outdoor and
car-card advertisements are to be found in
these pages.
Motion pictures are a comparatively new
development in coffee advertising. One of
the first coffee roasters to adopt this plan
of publicity was S. H. Holstad & Company,
Minneapolis. The film used depicted the
cultivation and preparation of coffee for
the market, also the complete roasting and
packaging operations. The A. J. Deer Com-
pany, manufacturers of coffee mills and
roasters, Hornell, N. Y., was another pio-
neer in the use of coffee films. Jabez
Burns & Sons, coffee-machinery manufac-
turers, followed with an educational coffee
picture. The National Packaging Machin-
ery Company, of Boston, is another concern
that has utilized films for advertising pur-
poses, showing its machines in operation in
a coffee-packing plant. Many roasters
made use of the coffee film produced by the
Joint Coffee Trade Publicity Committee.
In using advertising films, it is customary
for the roaster to arrange for a showing at
one or more theaters. The advertising in
the local papers features the coffee brands,
also the name of the local dealer, the latter
being furnished with tickets which he dis-
tributes among his retail customers. There
are several concerns making a business of
supplying commercial films and of getting
distribution for them.
Another form of theater publicity is that
of the advertising slide — stereopticon
views thrown upon the screen between fea-
ture pictures. Many packers find these
are effective for cultivating the dealer, it
being customary to show the brand name,
together with that of the local distributer.
Advertising for Retailers
When retailers analyze the people to
whom they sell coffee, they usually find
three types. First, there is the woman who
thinks she is an expert judge of coffee, but
who is unable to find anything to suit her
cultivated taste. Then there is the new
housewife, possibly a bride of a few months,
who knows very little about coffee, but
wants to find a good blend that both she
and her husband will like. The third is the
most acceptable class, the satisfied people
who have found coffee that delights them,
day after day.
"TV/TAXWELL HOUSE"
is the largest selling
brand of HighGrade Cofiee
in the United States. This
demand is due only to
perfect quality — a quality
that produces such a de-
licious aroma that only
the taste of "MAXWELL
HOUSE Coffee" can sat-
isfy it This taste and
quality are always the
same — yesterday, today,
tomorrow. Intensive Na-
tional Advertising is daily
making new friends for
"MAXWELL HOUSE,"
and "MAXWELL
HOUSE" Quality is
holding them.
MAXWELL HOUSE
COFFEE
CHEEK NEALCOFFEE CO.
W.R.GRACE 8 CO.
NEW YORK- NEW ORLEANS - SAN FRANCISCO
Coffee
BUYING OFFICES
IN ALL
^,^ POOOUCINC
'-<^ COUNTRIES
>i*4%:
How Coffee is Advertised to the Trade
Left to right, good examples of green coffee publicity — center, well-arranged package -coffee copy
444
ALL ABOUT COFFEE
W. Harry Longe, a Texas retailer, has
prepared the following ' ' ready made ' ' copy
appeals for the three classes. To ''Mrs.
Know-it-all-about-Coffee, " this style has
been found effective:
Again, possible new customers may listen
to this appeal :
IMPROVE THE COFFEE AND YOU IM-
PROVE THE MEAL
The corner of the table that holds the coffee
urn is the balancing point of your dinner. If
the coffee is a "little off" for some reason or
other — probably it's the coffee's own fault —
things don't seem as good as they might ; but
when it is "up to taste" the meal is a pleasure
from start to finish. If the "balancing point"
is giving you trouble, let Any Blend Coffee
properly regulate it for you. 35 cents, three
pounds for $1.
ANY TEA & COFFEE COMPANY
For the good lady who is anxious to find
a suitable blend of coffee, and who desires
information, this is a good appeal:
A SUCCESSFUL SELECTION
Of the coffee that goes into the every-morning
cup will arrive on the day when Any Blend is
first purchased. Many homes have been with-
out such a success now for a long time, but, of
course, they didn't know of Any Blend — and
even now it is hard to really know Any Blend
till you try it. That is why we seem to insist
that you ask for an introduction by ordering a
pound.
ANY BLEND TEA & COFFEE COMPANY
Taking both classes and dealing with
them alike :
"BLENDED TO BALANCE"
Is a good descriptive phrase of Any Blend
coffee, for care is taken in the preparation that
the strength does not overpower the flavor. The
aim of the blender is to get an acceptable and
delightful drinking quality. He has been more
than successful, as you will see when you try
Any Blend. 35 cents, three pounds for $1.
ANY TEA & COFFEE COMPANY
The satisfied class, of course, is not
averse to making a change, and it is well,
occasionally, for the dealer to let his own
satisfied customers know he still believes in
his goods. The argument might take this
form :
A SERVICE THAT SAVES
Is the serving of Any Blend, when coffee is
desired. Any Blend saves many things. It
saves worry; for it is always uniform in flavor
and strength. It saves time, for when you
order Any Blend we grind it just as fine or
just as coarse as your percolator or pot de-
mands. Any Blend also saves expense, because
there is no waste, as you know just how much
to use, everj- time, to make a certain number
of cups. 35 cents, three pounds for $1.
ANY TEA & COFFEE COMPANY
TO PROVE YOUR APPROVAL
Of Any Blend coffee, you are asked to try
just one pound. We know you will like it, for
it is blended and roasted and ground as an
exceptional coffee should be, with the care that
a good coffee demands. Prove to yourself that
you approve of this method of preparing cof-
fee. 35 cents, three pounds for $1.
ANY TEA & COFFEE COMPANY
In some households the cook is permitted
to do the ordering, and usually the cook
does not read the daily papers with an eye
for coffee ads. To reach this individual
through her mistress :
CAN YOU NAME YOUR COFFEE?
Or is it one of those many unknown brands
that comes from the store at the order of your
cook? Let the cook do the ordering, for you
are lucky if you have one you can rely upon,
but tell her you prefer Any Blend to the No-
Name Blend you may now be using. Any Blend
has one distinct advantage over all others ; it
is freshly roasted. Tell the kitchen-lady, now,
to order Any Blend.
ANY TEA & COFFEE COMPANY
Advertising hy Government Propaganda
Advertising coffee by government propa-
ganda has been indulged in with more or
less success by the British government in
behalf of certain, of its colonial possessions;
by the French and the Dutch; by Porto
Rico, Costa Eica, Guatemala, and Brazil.
The markets most cultivated have been
Italy, France, England, Russia, Japan, and
the United States.
Great Britain began the development of
coffee cultivation in its colonies in 1730.
Parliament first reduced the inland duties.
In many ways it has since sought to en-
courage British-grown coffee, building up
a favoritism for it that is still reflected in
Mincing Lane quotations. The Netherlands
government did the same thing for Java
and Sumatra; and France rendered a sim-
ilar service to her own colonies.
Since Porto Rico became a part of the
United States, several attempts have been
made by the island government and the
planters to popularize Porto Rico coffee in
the United States. Scott Truxtun opened
a government agency in New York in 1905.
Acting upon the counsel and advice of the
author, he prosecuted for several years a
vigorous campaign in behalf of the Porto
I
COFFEE ADVERTISING
445
Rico Planters' Protective Association. The
method followed for coffee was to appoint
official brokers, and to certify the genuine-
ness of the product. Owing to insufficient
funds and the number of different products
for which publicity was sought, the coffee
campaign was only moderately successful.
Mortimer Remington, formerly with the
J. Walter Thompson Company, a New York
advertising agency, was appointed in 1912
commercial agent for the Porto Rico As-
sociation, composed of island producers and
merchants. Some effective advertising in
behalf of Porto Rico coffee was done in tht
metropolitan district, where a number of
high-class grocers were prevailed upon to
stock the product, which was packed under
seal of the association. As before, however,
the other products handled — including
cigars, grape-fruit, pineapples, etc. —
handicapped the work on coffee, and the
enterprise was abandoned. Subsequent ef-
forts })y the Washington government to
assist the Porto Ricans in evolving a prac-
tical plan to extend their coffee market in
the United States came to naught because
of too much ''politics."
Beginning with the Panama-Pacific Ex-
position in San Francisco in 1915, the gov-
ernment of Guatemala started a propa-
ganda for its coffee in the United States;
as the European market, which had up till
t"hen absorbed seventy-five percent of its
product, was closed to it, owing to the
World War. E. H. O'Brien, a coffee broker
of San Francisco, directed the publicity.
Some full pages were used in newspapers,
but the main efforts were directed at the
coffee-roasting trade. The campaign, so
far as it went, was highly successful.
Costa Rica also gave special encourage-
ment to coffee-trade interests that offered
to expand the United States market for
Costa Rica coffee during the World War.
For many years Colombia has been talk-
ing of making propasranda here for its cof-
fee, but thus far nothing of a constructive
character has been done.
Sao Paulo began in 1908 to make propa-
ganda for its coffee by subsidizing compan-
ies and individuals in consuming countries
to promote consumption of the Brazil prod-
uct. A contract was entered into between
the state of Sao Paulo and the coffee firms
of E. Johnston & Company and Joseph
Travers & Son, of London, to exploit Bra-
zil coffee in the United Kingdom. Similar
contracts were made with coffee firms in
other European countries, notably in Italy
and France. The subsidies were for five
years and took the form of cash and coffee.
The English company was known as the
"State of Sao Paulo (Brazil) Pure Coffee
Company, Ltd." Fifty thousand pounds
sterling was granted this enterprise, which
roasted and packed a brand known as
"Fazenda;" promoted demonstrations at
grocers' expositions; and advertised in
somewhat limited fashion. The general
effect upon the consumption of coffee in
England was negligible, however, although
at one time some five thousand grocers were
said to have stocked the Fazenda brand. A
feature of this propaganda was the use of
the Tricolator (an American device since
better known in the United States) to in-
sure correct making of the beverage. Bra-
zil also made propaganda for its coffee in
Japan, in 1915, as part of certain under-
takings involving the immigration of Jap-
anese laborers to Brazil.
The Comite Francais du Cafe was
formed in Paris in July, 1921, to co-op.er-
ate with Brazil in an enterprise designed
to increase the consumption of coffee in
France.
The chief fault in most of the coffee prop-
agandas here and abroad has been the
doubtful practise of subsidizing particu-
lar coffee concerns instead of spending the
funds in a manner designed to distribute
the benefits among the trade as a whole.
This mistake, and local politics in the pro-
ducing countries, have made for ultimate
failure. A notable exception is the latest
propaganda for Brazil coffee in the United
States, where all the various interests, the
the Sao Paulo government, the growers,
exporters, importers, roasters, jobbers, and
dealers, have co-operated in a plan of cam-
paign to advertise coffee per se, and not to
secure special privilege to any individual,
house, or group.
Joint Coffee Trade Publicity Campaign
Twenty years ago the author began an
agitation for co-operative advertising by
the coffee trade. He suggested as a slogan,
"Tell the truth about coffee;" and it is
gratifying to find that many of his orig-
inal ideas have been embodied in the pres-
ent joint coffee trade publicity campaign,
now in its fourth year.
446
ALL ABOUT COFFEE
Theodore Langgaard de Menezes
The coffee roasters at first were slow to
respond to the co-operative advertising
suggestion, because in those days competi-
tion was more unenlightened than now, and
therefore more ruthless. It needed organi-
zation to bring the trade to a better under-
standing of the benefits certain to be shared
by all when their individual interests were
pooled in a common cause. Leaders of the
best thought in the trade, however, were
quick to realize that only by unite'd effort
was it possible to achieve real progress ; and
when it was suggested that the first step
was to organize the roasting trade, the
idea took so firm a hold that it only needed
some one to start it to bring together in
one combination the keenest minds in the
business.
The coffee roasters organized their na-
tional association in 1911. The author of
this work urged that co-operative advertis-
ing based upon scientific research should be
done, by the roasters themselves indepen-
dently of the growers ; but it was found im-
practicable to unite diverging interests on
such an issue, and so the leaders of the
movement bent all their energies toward
promoting a campaign that would be
backed jointly by growers and distributers,
since both would receive equal benefit from
any resulting increase in consumption.
Brazil, the source of nearly three-quarters
of the world's coffee, was the logical ally;
and an appeal was made to the planters of
that country. A party of ten leading Uni-
ted States roasters and importers visited
Brazil in 1912 at the invitation of the fed-
eral government.
In Brazil, as in the United States, prog-
ress resulted from organization. The
planters of the state of Soo Paulo, who
produce more than one-half of all coffee
used in the United States, were the first to
appreciate the propaganda idea. After
their attempts to interest the national gov-
ernment failed, the Sao Paulo coffee men
founded the Sociedade Promotora da De
fesa do Cafe (Society to Promote the De-
fense of Coffee), and persuaded their state
legislature to pass a law taxing every bag
of coffee shipped from the plantations of
that state in a period of four years. This
tax, amounting to one hundred reis per bag
of 132 pounds, or about two and one-half
cents United States money at even ex-
change rates, is collected by the railroads
from the shippers, and turned over to the
Sociedade.
The Brazilian Society sent to the United
States a special envoy, Theodore Langgaard
de Menezes, to conclude arrangements ; and
on March 4, 1918, in New York, the pact
was signed whereby Sao Paulo was to con-
tribute to the publicity campaign in the
United States approximately $960,000 at
the rate of $240,000 a year for four years;,
and the members of the trade in the United
States were to contribute altogether $150,-
000". The success of the negotiations was
due to the skilful management of Ross W,.
Weir in the United States, and to the su'
perior salesmanship of Louis R. Gray, the
Arbuckle representative in Brazil.
Supervision of the advertising in the
United States was delegated to five men,.
- The agreement with the Sao Paulo planters com-
prehended their furnishing yearly the proceeds of a
tax of 100 reis per bag. This actually amounted to.
$20,000 per month up to January, 1921. During 1921,
by reason of a short crop and the advance rate of
exchange, the remittances were reduced almost half.
In January, 1922, the Sao Paulo legislature on peti-
tion of the Sociedade increased the tax to 200 reis
per bag to run for 3 years. In spite of this, the
probability is that another short crop and a con-
tinued low rate of exchange will keep the Brazil'
contribution in 1922 down to about iflSO.OOO net. By
November, 1921, a total of $671,000 was expended on.
advertising. Of this, $551,000 was contributed by
the planters of Sao Paulo, and $120,000 by the coffet-
trade of the United States.
COFFEE ADVERTISING
447
JOINT COFFEE TRADE PUBLICITY COMMITTEE IN UNITED STATES
448
ALL ABOUT COFFEE
I Trade Paper Adverlisiag
Chart Showing Plan of Advertising Campaign
representing both the importing and roast-
ing branches of the trade, and designated
as the Joint Coffee Trade Publicity Com-
mittee of the United States. Three of these
committeemen, Ross W. Weir, of New York ;
F. J. Ach, of Dayton, Ohio ; and George S.
Wright, of Boston, are roasters; and two,
William Bayne, Jr., and C. H. Stoffregen,
both of New York, are importers and job-
bers, or green-coffee men. The committee
organized with Mr. Weir as chairman, Mr.
Wright as treasurer, and Mr, Stoffregen as
secretary. At the invitation of the com-
mittee, C. W. Brand of Cleveland, tnen
president of the National Coffee Roasters
Association, attended committee meetings,
and assisted in determining the policies of
the campaign. Headquarters were estab-
lished at 74 Wall Street, in the heart of
the New York coffee district, with Felix
Coste as secretary-manager, and Allan P.
Ames as publicity director. N. W. Ayer
& Son, advertising agents of Philadelphia,
who had engineered the plan of campaign
from the start of the movement in the Na-
tional Coffee Roasters Association, handle
the advertising account.
Sao Paulo's contribution to the adver-
tising fund is sent in monthly instalments
to the Joint Coffee Trade Publicity Com-
mittee under an agreement that it shall be
expended only for magazine and newspaper
space.
Supplementing this Brazilian contribu-
tion, is the fund raised by voluntary sub-
scriptions from the coffee trade of the
COFFEE ADVERTISING
449
On. bended knees
the black slaves served
COFFEE
He saved the last
COFFEE
plant-
s Alley—
COFFEE
^^ '* *^ At
h^^. ■ **« toa,, " And -,^ ***
'•"OW,"'
^"cil, ^,
, '-C^'-'-w.r.ri'^'-
So tv,_
COFFEE
tA« T»mm,: mmJfr»mtk^Ymnk-"Co/f—!"
CFFEE IS the hghtinc man's dnnk. It did its bit in the
vit right manfully. In the camp, on the march, at the
front, in the hut and hospital, wherever men (ought and bled
and sufliered and died.— there was coffee.
Ever and always the cry was— coffee! Because it fives
cheer and oomfort. and courage. It is toothing, quieting, sus-
taining. The Qred man calls for it. Exhausted nature asks
for it After;tbe lesson of this war,— who sh^ say that coffee
is not healthlul— and needful ?
Be thaolcAil for coffee— for the delight of it. the bertefit of it,
the real down-nght ^oodnees of it. There il nothing in the
world you would mtfs one-half so mu< k as coMoe.— if you were
suddenly deprivecf of.itl
Indeed--ooffee « one of the truest and "realesr" of hienda that
Nature haa gtven to men. Lat us rejoice in it. and. revel in it
L«t usglory m the charm and ftavor and piquancy of it Let us
ttNBtour frienda in it — Here'ito your health and /Mppinesa/"
Cofiee— the Universal drink
EigKt bells
in the mid' watxii-
COFFEE
for the wheel &^ lookouts
lUST t
1 coffee to the men in the semce and watch
I %milB These brave fellows have endured long hour*
of hard labor with little rest They have forced nature to the
breaking point
Coffee helped them. It cheered them and oomfoned thonL
Very eften .t actually susUmed them. Its warmth restwl and
steadied them, and so gave them new courage for the great
tasks ahead-
You 1
1 and 1
every dly life, waging the battle
place and power and health
And you Qnd ooffea a real help
of business, striving to
—you have great tasks,
in the day's work.
And the joy of it— the eharrn of it— the delight of it It
greets you at brvakfast— it cheers you at luncheon — tt revivea
you at dinner And very often regalec you at the late supper.
Truly— what would your life be without codite.'
Cofiee— the Essential drink.
l^nir Uncle Sam
provided his boys with
COFFEE
BRAVE, clean, bihe. sturdy feUows, they were. Clear of
eye, steady of nerve, strong of heart -splendid physical
tpecimena. 'The flnest soldiers in the world",— has been said
of them. And they prov«(f It!
Coffee lovers, they were— almost to a man. Coffee dnnking
had been their habit all their lives. They were prachcally
Taised on it. in the true American fashion. And they were
not deprived of it I
A moat careful diet was planned in order to marnuin health and
strength While t>read and beans and beef were needful there
was one item recognized as absolutely indispensable — cofl^.
So— whatever else they had. our boys had their coffee,—
plenty of it, four rimes a dey ' It cheered and comforted and
encouraged them, tt helped them do their job.— and do it well.
Who shall say how^i-ancfaport ooffee played in this great war ^
Cofiee— the Essential drink
JOINT-COMMITTEE MAGAZINE AND NEWSPAPER COPY, 1919
450
ALL ABOUT COFFEE
^^-e have bee. ^,,^^,^^^^^
'^e ^^tms
Wild and weird were our old delusions/
We know tM truth about
CO
\VTE. marvel at our old super*
W stitions. It is hard to believe
now that more than 30.000 women
have been condemned as witcheaf
Frenzy and prtjudice mark the
development of progress in many
popular and beneficial of all bever-
ages,—has not wholly escaped.
Despite the fact that food faddists'
and temperamental extremists have
assailed coffee, it has become the
universal drink of this great level-
There can be ho question about'
the soothing, nourishing, invigor-
attng effects of good, pure coffee. It
lightens fotigue, sustains energy and
aids digestion.
ir>
Sao Paulo, Brazil, in the greatest
coffee-growing district in the world,
is one of the healthiest and most
progressive cities in South America.
Coffee wUl ever remain the pre-
ferred drink of normal minded,
healthy bodied people everywhere.
Be sure you drink genuine coffee.
Its flavor cannot be imitated.
COFFEP
Coffee is r
who enjoy t
Good coffee
b«ne/icial
heer and solace of aU
e good things of life.
1 moderation must be
Dnnk it— for your health's sake.
Time was when
«"'e affrighted by ir,"' '°°^ •^"P'"
Tl-ey .bought i, „ ''"" "' "-esun
-"<" O'eous"?' '-'!•"'' »' ".e
^"y fo^. ^ *• =" know dtffw.
'^""■"^ has been in us, ,„ .
'^''dithasnev^rh. ""
favor R„, . ""■'^"PMd
'fnluries.
popular
coffds has
esonie
»' «*'Tje r,L? "^ ""'""in.
■SIGNIFICANT— "The Ame
Houaekeeper" ^ys:— "Coffer
to the aihng. Coffee ia atim.
but net depnmaing."
"'fected Who bel,eve7har° "'""'"''
<»<>«'•■ for them. "'^' ""=« isn',
"""'»ns of heai.K
l«Ple drink coffee lm^"°"^- "°™='
'" ""Oderation. The,
5'ONlriCANT-o^,.. .. .
They
■"""y. there has arisen »
""^'Cia. products wT,ch '*'■■'
" "" "•« popu a"w r""""'^
I'ive to fill ,,.''' "' coffee.
■° «"".e work, With A„,
lures gift 7' "" 'Po'ogist i
^ood.Il,^:f"--e,haty
OOD COFFEE i^ Good for Youl ,1"^ ~~~ ~~ — — — -.
la^j-ipg of our old "bugaboos
/ Some real facts about
COFFEE
Time has d-spelled many old .llu- who cannot be ^"^"^ -* ';;°;^
j__ I _^ C^re Fnr (hOSe WHO Wanl \0 live
>^e outgrow our old foolish fearr>-
Time has dispelled many old illu-
Eioris. Coal was once condemned
COFFEE
People once were afraid of the v ,
earn engine, "it ^a, ^^ up" J^t Z^'^'^ ^^^ ^"y other. Coffee is the
"injurious'
market pli
■ and burned openly ii
«eam engine. "It will bw'up^i;:;:
»^jun,pthe.rack"-th,ysai^ bJ
"e all know better „o„.
TJme has disprove, „^,„„,^
•^ Yet, some good people still
•"■"ve that coffee doesnV^l^.'
--U.em.-a popular *,„,,„^
.«>"-r>db,compet,«„p^„^°"-
There are, many food fads. Som.
think they can't eat k-J!^ ^^
"■ink they <an'. _. ""^^-sonie
;;--", no fo^'t^rj:::
to "gieo With everybody,
ryi^f-^^olk, i, more healthful
•^•- 't .s consumed i„ gr„,„
mainstay of the mf/Ab
<loIgh°4rwrj ■""' '■'^•'^
onreal™t„ ° and fed them
, ™^ '=<^'*- »" Uiey could tlri^k.-
four times a day a„h ...
much ner,ousnes.''-am. ,h.
Germans / ' "•
«X' ^«t«'l'i!L°'"" ""
. . ^ greatest service to man
|;"4a„dh,willpr„>,ay _■
Brara furnish^ ,h,e,^, '
workJs coffea" ™ oi the
wi^'L" '^""" (^ """I and beol
Ctior-.™""'"" "*'""•
two cenf« p^ ^p^
Strange things are ■
name of Health! For L
' " e earth have enjoyed
n centuries
who cannot b.
fears. For those v
and do— and dare— anu a^^w—t^.---
Coffee plays its part in the homes
of the millions.— three times a day
day. Coffee helped to win the
It f«t ■lufferine Beleium. In
the benefits of coffee. .- -
enlightened day coffee is sometimes
declared "injurious"— another form
of Buperstition.
There are many kinds of food that
do not "agree" under some conditions.
These are matters of personal
disability and require professional
treatment and advwe.
Coffee is fix weU people and thow
who want '~ -"" '"" P" *«*
lay. oonoe nci^^" '"
War. It fed suffering Belgi
Holland, coffee is alway '
serve — and
t well. For i
healthy.
In Brazil, which produces three-
fourths of the worlds coffee, they
drink coffee all day long. And the
Brazilians are one of the most
robust and progressive nations m
South America.
In America one billion pounds of
coffee ate consumed every year— This
fact speaks for itself 1
SIGNIFICANT— /n theae
nmember that coffee i» t
—coating teaa than 3 car
9 of high living e
ncludiitg cream and wgar.
aGNIPICANT-..r/„„_ ,, '"=««3P«cup.
COFFEE i. the I„du;;n.aW,
Drink G0FFEE"W Remain. Well
COPY THAT STRESSED THE HEALTHFULNESS OF COFFEE, 1919-1920
COFFEE ADVERTISING
451
PLANS FOR SCIENTIFIC COFFEE RESEARCH
THE COFFEE CLUB
BETTER COFFEE MAKING DRIVE
WIU APPEAL TO DEALERS
MANY AWAIT
FIRST NEWS
OF RESEARCH
fel?SS
SSr^
ItMhnBltMit THE COrrCE CLUB n«M. ni^ttmt ol A
Th. tw* tt THE COFTKe ClUB. ■ Im* c* aM •»«.
TnmparmitSign for Dealer Window*
WILL SUFFRAGE
HELP ANY?
JOUEU'BUfUU
The Joint Committee's House Organ
United States on the basis of one cent per
bag handled annually. This American
fund is used for the expenses of adminis-
tration, for educational advertising out-
side of magazine and newspaper space, and
for various kinds of trade promotion and
dealer stimulation.
The first advertising appeared in April,
1919, in 306 leading newspapers in 182
large cities, with a total circulation of more
than 16,000,000. The cities chosen repre-
sented all the centers of wholesale coffee
distribution.
Magazine advertising began in June of
the same year, using twenty-one periodicals,
all of national circulation. This list has
been changed from time to time to meet
the special needs of the campaign.
More than fifty grocery-trade magazines
have carried the committee's dealer adver-
tising, although not all of these have been
used continuously. Every part of the
country was represented on the trade-paper
list.
Full pages have been run each month in
nine of the leading national medical jour-
nals. These advertisements were written by
a physician of national reputation. Under
the caption, "The Case for Coffee," these
advertisements have discussed the proper-
ties of coffee from the physiological stand-
point, and have asked the doctors to judge
it fairly.
From the start the committee's advertis-
ing has been broadly educational. The
properties of coffee have been discussed;
charges against coffee have been answered.
The housekeeper has been told how to get
the best results from the coffee she buys;
hotel and restaurant proprietors have been
reminded that many of them owe their
prosperity largely to a reputation for serv-
ing good coffee ; new uses have been exploi-
ted for coffee, as a flavoring agent for des-
serts and other sweets; employers have
been taught the important service good
coffee may render in increasing the comfort
and efficiency of their working forces.
Magazine and newspaper advertising is
only the nucleus of the campaign. The ef-
fect of such "white space" publicity is in-
creased by simultaneous efforts to "mer-
chandise" the campaign, to stimulate the
interest of the wholesale and retail trade,
to encourage private-brand advertising, and
to reach the consumer by other kinds of
The Case For Coffee
Number One
As monibois of wliat lias
Ikiii praised as "the most
useful profession in the
world," you arc daily
ealled upon to advise your
patients, to allow or to for-
bid certain articles of food
or drink, acei>rding fii-st to
your scientific knowledge,
and second to your prac-
tical experience. You arc
regarded as scientific men,
hence your knowledge
should be exact, true, tem-
perate, neither influenced
by heai-say nor shaded by
prejudice. There are half-
truths in medicine, made
clever use of by certain
sophists, whoso motives arc
tinctured with conmiercial-
ism. Clever effort and
subtle appeal may distort
fact and disturb propor-
tions. You are ealled upon
to differentiate in diagno-
sis. You should be equally
able and conscientious in
your analysis of the writ-
ten" or the spoken woiil.
One of your great scholars
lias declared, "There is no
authority in medicine but
common sense and proven
fact"
Take, for example, llio
case of COFFEE.
You arc asked to rcg4rd
it as a "dangerous" lever-
age, and you have been in-
fluenced perhaps to believe
or to incline to the opinion
that' the accusations and
the arguments against cof-
fee are rational and scien-
tifically well-founded.
But to \k fair, judicial,
to I>e true to the ideals of
your profession, you owe it
to yoiii-selves and to your
patients to consider both
sides of the (|uestion, to
weigh the evidence, to sep-
arate the chaff of theory
from the wheat of fact, Iw-
fore you judge — or act.
The case' for COFFEE
will Ix" prese^lted in suc-
ceeding issitcif of Ibis and
other nu'dical journals.
Ihtboductoby Medical - Journal Copy
452
ALL ABOUT COFFEE
The Case For Coffee
NumbezJTwo
The Case For Coffee
Number Three
As a rule you do not ab-
solutely cut off flesh pro-
teins from your patients'
diet. Yet certain of the in-
termediate and end prod-
ucts of protein digestion
are virulently toxia^ capa-
ble of producing organic
degeneration (sclerosis)
or functional disorder,
neuralgia, asthma, urtica-
ria, etc. You guard against
excess, but you do not for-
bid moderation. That cof-
fee takea in excess can
induce functional manifes-
tations, is undeniable. But
that, used as it is used by
98 per cent, of individuals,
toffee can or does exert the
harm ascribed to it, is con-
trary to practical experi-
ence or scientific fact. Egg
protein poisons a very
small number, an infinites-
imal proportion of its eat-
ers. Why not condemn for
that reason the use of eggs
by everybody? Yet this
would be as logical and as
rational as to attempt to
label coffee as a "danger-
ous" drug! Milk, acting
as a medium for the trans-
mission of pathogenic bac-
teria, has slain many a
rictim and incapacitated
many more. Yet milk is
not pronounced anathema!
The fuel value of sugar is
just as well established as
the fact that abuse of sugar
is productive of serious
disease. The evil action
and effect of flesh, milk,
eggs or sugar taken to ex-
cess can be — has been —
demonstrated in laboratory
and clinic. Not so in the
case even of the abuse of
COFFEE. As a matter of
fact, the evil effects of
COFFEE-^as charged,
can be — as a rule — as-
cribed to other causes than
the actual action of coffee
itself. Remember, gentle-
men, that post and not
propter hoc, has alwaj's
proven to be a stumbling
block in the progress of
scientific medicine. Con-
sider coffee from the view-
point of what it is and
what it does, not upon
prejudicial or commercially
influenced criticism or hear-
say. More anon.
Half-truths have, from
Galen's time or before,
handicapped the progress
of scientific medicine. The
as.sumed prejudicial effects
of coffee are asciibed to its
caffcin content. Caffein as
employed as a drug in
theiapcutics is really thein
obtained, not from coffee
at all, but from old tea
leaves. Caffein and thein
are said to be chemically
identical. It does not fol-
low of necessity that the
physiological action of ex-
tracted thein is identical
with the caffein of coffee
prepared as a beverage.
According to Hutchinson,
raw Mocha coffee contains
1.08 per cent, caffein which
is reduced to 0.82 per cent,
by roasting. Only from 25
to 35 per cent, of coffee in-
fused goes into solution.
The average quantity of
coffee infusion taken at
meal time or otherwise, is
smaller by far than is made
to appear by its accusers.
The actual dose of caffein,
i. e. of the coffee caffein in
such infusion is also much'
less than is made to appear
by its critics. Comparison
between the dose in grains
of extracted caffein em-
ployed as a cardiac stimu-
lant therapeutically, and
the actual amount of natu-
ral caffein in infused cof-
fee, will suggest that the
dc',' of caffein in coitce
taken as a beverage is en-
tirely too small to produce
the physiological effects as-
cribed to it. 'Too often
physicians think in terms
of gross instead o?"in terms
of net. For example, many
regard egg albumin as
practically all nutriment,
whereas in fact 86 per cent
of it is nothing but water I
"A sense of proportion is a
great iconoclast." The fal-
lacy of perhaps the most
used argument against the
reasonable use of coffee is
thus apparent.
What, as a matter of fact,
is the action of coffee when
taken as a beverage? See
next issue.
The Case For Coffee
Number Four
It must be admitted that
until very recently medical
knowledge of the actual
dietetic value and conse-
quent therapeutic worth of
various foodstuffs and bev-
erages, has been largely
theoretical. Hence, the op-
ponents of coffee have re-
lied upon arguments based
upon supposed facts as-
sumed to have been estab-
lished. For example, cof-
fee has been regarded as
capable of interfering with
the digestion of food and
inhibiting the elimination
of waste material. Vaguely
. expressed, coffee can cause
"biliousnes8,""dyspepsia,"
etc. Fraser has stated that
caffein of coffee favors di-
geation rather than other-
wise. Hutchinson states
that, "As regards the prac-
tical inference to be drawn
from these experiments and
observations, it may be said
that in health the disturb-
ance of dizestion pro-
c«»rri«iii IMS br ih
duced by the infused bev-
erages is negligible." He
quotes Roberts as suggest-
ing that' the slight slowing
of digestion they produce
may be favorable as tend-
ing to compensate for too
rapid digestibility which
refinements of manufacture
and preparation have made
characteristic of modern
foods! So much 'for an-
other half-truth so much
depended upon and used by
coffee critics. Hutchinson
also states, "the question
has been much debated
whether or not caffein les-
sens the waste of the body."
"Indeed," he concludes,
"all, experiments go to
prove to the contrary,
namely that caffein tends to
mcreage rather than dimin-
ish tissue waste."
Another fallacy exposed
— the far-fetched claim that
coffee hinders elimination
and lessens the removal of
products of digestive waste.
The Case For Coffee
Number Five
Physicians realize the
difference between justifi-
able use and reprehensible
abuse — of anything. Ex-
cessive use, i. e., abuse of
coffee is not only exceed-
ingly uncommon, but also
productive of no really se-
rious effects.
At the worst, abuse of
coffee, is claimed — not
shown, to produce "nerv-
ousness" or "sleeplessness"
or "palpitatio n" — all
sjTnptoms of functional
disturbance, which in the
majority of cases if not in
all, may be logically and ra-
tionally ascribed to other
factors present and operat-
ing. As a matter of fact,
Hut*rtiinson — one of the
best dietetic authorities —
declares, "Whilst one may
fully admit the importance
of the part played by tea
and coffee in the produc-
tion of such symptoms, yet
the extent to which they
prevail has probably been
greatly overestimated. It
certainly seems an exagger-
ation." Coffee stimulates
the vital centers and the
brain cortex. It is an ahti-
dgte for opium_ poisoning.
Respiratory movements are
deeper, the heart beats
more forcibly, and urinary
secretion is increased by
coffee, which when taken
hot, as it usuilly is, helps
to stimulate peristalsis and
bring about bowel evacua-
tion. Coffee has always
been the beverage of the in-
tellectual, of the soldier,
sailor, explorer, the man
who works hard either with
his head or his hands. Cof-
fee played a vitally import-
ant part in the late war.
Coffee serves a no less im-
portant purpose in times of
peace. Attempts have
been, are being made, to
".substitute"* other things
for coffee. But the med-
ical profession h'as long ago
become familiar with the
motives and methods of
"substitution" and of the
"substitutor." Isitnottrue
that most of criticism or
condemnation of coffee is
due to open or occult efforts
of makers of "coffee substi-
tutes?" Physicians should
— and usually do — discrim-
inate between scientific
facts and selfish propa-
ganda. More to come.
TELLING THE DOCTORS THE TRUTH ABOUT COFFEE, 1920
COFFEE ADVERTISING
453
publicity recognized as essential factors in
a well rounded national advertising effort.
These activities may be summarized as fol-
lows :
Information Service: This department
answers inquiries and supplies material
for household editors, and for newspaper
and magazine writers. Through a na-
tional clipping service, it keeps in
touch with all published matter relating to
coffee. Its special duty is to answer attacks
on coffee and the coffee trade. Merchants
and dealers make it a practise, when they
find misleading articles or editorials in
their local newspapers, to send clippings to
the committee 's headquarters to be handled
lere as the situation warrants.
Scientific Coffee Research. Twenty-
mo thousand, five hundred dollars of the
American fund have been appropriated
thus far for scientific coffee research at the
Massachusetts Institute of Technology. The
reports of this research will be distributed
to the coffee trade throughout the country,
and should prove valuable in all branches
of coffee merchandising. The findings will
be distributed by the committee to schools
and colleges, and to consumers through na-
tional advertising.
The Coffee Club. This organization
was established for the purpose of educat-
ing the consumer through constructive
team work by the roasters' and jobbers'
salesman and the retail dealer. Under this
plan, the committee has distributed 50,000
transparent signs for dealers ' windows, and
5,000 bronze coffee-club buttons for coffee
salesmen. By reference to the Coffee Club
FLAk/OR. IT
WITH
COFFEE
By
Mn. I<U C. B^tey Allen
Autlior "Mn. Allen'i Cook Book"
Fouadn "Mr^ AIW. School of Cood Cookery"
Coffee
an aid to
Factory
Efficiency
The experience of •
manufacturing <
which has found that
good coffee served free
to workmen at lunch
time payi big dtvidendt.
r COIKEE TlUi>E PL-BUCITY COWU
or Tuc United Statu
National Comx BoASTOts Assocution
COFFEE
A SAFE STIMULANT
mou A ttronT ti samucl
c. PRCSCOTT, morcssoK of
ISDVSTItlAL Blower AKD
DIUCCTOR OF THE SCICK-
TIFIC COFFEE RESEARCH. AT
THE MASSACHUSETTS IHSTI-
TVTE OF TECHSOLQCr,
Some of the Joint Committee's Attractive Booklets
454
ALL ABOUT COFFEE
The Case For Coffee
Number Six
What experienced physi-
cian can or will deny the
power and influence of sug-
gestion— auto or extra —
upon the mind and body of
his patients— or himself?
Such suggestioa influences-
the action and effect of
foods as well as drugs — one
patient cannot eat this ; an-
other can. Certain, pa-
tients, provided suggestion
is 'Sufficiently potent, as-
cribe l)enefit to medicine
taken that is purely pla-
cebo. Herein may be
found the explanation of
the harmful effects ascribed
to coffee, by the exceed-
ingly small number of pe»>
pie who claim to be injur-
iousfly affected by it — as
well as the efforts of those
who are selfishly interested
in the exploitation of coffee
substitutes. Those who are
siisceptible to the power of
suggestion, respond quickly
to oft-repeated fallacy or
distorted statement. Eas-
ily convinced themselves,
they succeed in influencing
others. The result of this
is a collection of 30-called
clinical evidence that is apt
to influence the careless
physician who does not
analj*ie carefully, who
overlooks the importance
of post non propter hoc in
the Science and Art of
Medicine. "He gets not far
in medicine who takes any-
thing for granted."
Hence, the conscientious
and the wise doctor should
not accept without analy-
sis, nor condemn without
reason.
He should differentiate
between fallacy and fact, in
order that he may most
efficiently practice the art
which above all other arts,
demands accurate and ex-
act estimation o^ the rela-
tion between cause and ef-
fect. Eschew suggestions
—hold fast to facts. See
next issue.
The Case For Coffee
Number Eight
"Science," wrote a great
scientist, "has neither
reason nor excuse for
jumping at conclusions."
Yet, "jumping at con-
clusions"— or the assump-
tion of fact from insuffi-
ciently analyzed evidence —
has more than anything
else retarded the progress
of practical medicine.
As.sumption, for exam-
ple, that uric acid is the
cause of rheumatism, gout
and many other functional
or organic disturbance or
disorder of body organs or
tissues, prevented for
years the recognition of
the true cause of such con-
ditions and the real nature
of uric acid, indican, etc.
Attempts therefore to
condemn coffee as a source
of uric acid or metabolic
waste products, whiff given
credence in the past,, lose
all force in the light of
present knowledge. Old-
fangled dietaries used to
proscribe coffee — modern
ones allow it or prescribe it.
We formerly forbade sugar
■and carbohydrates in dia-
betes mellitus. Today,
knowing the patient can
tolerate these in modera-
tion, we allow them to be
so taken. There was a
time, when all water or liq-
uid was forbidden during
fevers. We used to bleed
or purge secundum artem
for so-called "reasons" ar-
rived at by "jumping at
conclusions." As for cof-
fee, accused upon hearsay
and prejudice of being a
"dangerous drug" capable
of doing considerable
harm, we now realize and
recognize it as possessing
definitely beneficial thera-
peutic properties. Let no
phj-sitian condemii or for-
bid coffee unjustly or as a
result of "jumping at con-
clusions."
t See next issue.
The Case For Coffee
Number Seven
We owe to Pavlov, and
other eminent seekers after
■physiological truth, the
knowledge of the value of
mental stimulation in pro-,
du^ng the so-called "appe-
tite* juice" without which
gastric digestion cannot be
efficiently performed.
Hence we can understand
why and how, to most indi-
viduals, the thought, antici-
pation and odor of the
morning cup of coffee is of
practical value in bringing
about the proper enjoy-
ment and digestion of what
is or should be the most
important of the daily
meals.
"Without coffee," wrote
a wise doctor, "breakfast is
a meal instead of an insti-
tution." The craving for
the matutinal cup of coffee
is not a cry of the body for
a stimulating drug, not the
prompting of a bad habit.
It is a physiological demand
for aid in the performance
of normal digestion.
Nature is wise in her
provision of coffee to begin
the first meal of the day, to
awaken and activate diges-
tive processes made dor-
'mant during the period 0^
the, body's lowest vitality.
Also of coffee after dinner
to assist in the digestion of
the heaviest meal when
functions are depressed as
a result of the day's strug-
gle. If coffee be a habit —
so is appetite. One is al-
most as helpful and as nec-
essary to the average indi-
vidual as is the other.
Realizing these facts,
physicians will be slow to
condemn or to forbid the
use ot coffee — in modera-
tion— Because of certain
fallacies or half-trutlis,
promulgated by those who
neither analyze nor weigh
the evidence, or who are in-
fluenced by prejudice, self-
ish interest or exploitation
of substitutes for"Nature's
most prized beverage."
More anon.
The Case For Coffee
Number Nine
Hippocrates recognized the
influence of temperament
in the production of symp-
toms. It is often said that
"as a nation we live and
work and play upon our
nerves."_ To "nervous-
ness" is ascribed much of
the functional disturbance
that provides physicians
with many patients. Why
deny the fact ? -But on the
other hand, wh^ attempt to
saddle upon certain articles
of food or drink the onus of
inducing "nervousness?"
Take coffee for example,
accused of producing nerv-
ousness by over-stimulation
of cardiac or cerebral func-
tions. Nervousness is a
mental phenomenon mostly.
Excessive fatigue, overuse
of muscles or mind, over-
work of digestive organs,
Increased mental strain,
worry, insistence upon
brain effort in spite of Na-
ture's effort to rest and to
recuperate, impaired nutri-
tion favored by impure or
Co»nicUinobTtb«
anemic blood, laden with
toxins absorbed as a result
of intestinal stasis, deficient
oxidation or exercise, ex-
cessive use of vital forces,
all these are upon analysis
the causes of "nervous-
ness." Yet how often pa-
tient and physician make
or attempt to make coffee
a scapegoat for symptoms
complained of I
Analysis of symptoms, of
secretions, and excretions,
of habits, will, almost with-
out exception, point away
from coffee and toward
some more rational and di-
rect exciting cause. With-
drawal of coffee does not
often remedy the condition.
Removal of the real causes,
usually permits of resump-
tion of the use of coffee.
Forbid coffee if you can
convince your reason that
it is in part responsible.
But do not make it a scape-
goat to excuse or avoid get-
ting at the real cause.
See next issue.
MORE MEDICAL JOURNAL COPY, 1920
I
COFFEE ADVERTISING
455
in national magazine and newspaper adver-
tising, the retailer is given a chance to tie
up with the campaign. Membership in the
■club is limited to those who are contribut-
ing to the publicity fund, and to their
salesmen and customers. The club pub-
lishes a monthly bulletin in newspaper
form, giving the news of the campaign.
This has a circulation of 27,000 among
wholesalers, salesman, and dealers.
Booklets. The committee has published
six booklets, which have reached a total cir-
culation of more than one and a half mil-
lion copies. These booklets are sold at cost
to the coffee trade. The committee reports
that, on an average, one hundred requests
for them are received daily at its office
from consumers in different parts of the
■country, and that the booklets are the
means of a constant campaign of educa-
tion in American homes and schools.
Braxd Advertising. The committee is
constantly making efforts to increase the
amount of private advertising by coffee
roasters, and it estimates that brand ad-
vertising has increased at least three hun-
dred percent since the national campaign
began. Reproductions of the committee's
advertisements, proofs of advertising elec-
trotypes, and copy suggestions are circu-
lated in advance to all roasters and to a
large number of retailers, by means of the
monthly organ, The Coffee Club.
Coffee Week. During the week of
j\Iarch 29 to April 4, 1920, the committee
organized and financed the third national
coffee week, which was observed by retail-
ers throughout the country. The feature
of this week was a window-trimming con-
test for which prizes of $2,000 were distrib-
uted among several hundred grocers. The
contest resulted in displays of coffee in
nearly 10,000 grocery windows, and greatly
increased the sale and consumption of cof-
fee during this period.
Motion Pictures. The United States
fund financed the production and distri-
bution of a coffee motion picture, 128 prints
of which were sold to loasters, who exhibi-
ted them throughout the country. This
picture was shown during coffee week to
more than six hundred theater audiences,
and it remains in the possession of the
trade as an active advertising medium.
en the clock
"swings'round to four"
OFFEE
Right at the peak of the day's duties
it pays to pause for a chummy, cheery
cup of Coffee.
It is a stimulus to effort in the office
or in the home — it coaxes cheerful
spirits and clear-thinking for the rest
of the day.
As regularly as the clock swings
'round to four, drink an appetizing,
reviving cup of Coffee. Not very far
from wherever you are, there is a cof-
fee house, soda fountain, restaurant
or hotel which makes a feature of
Afternoon Coffee.
Tt/« atwtniumtM li rut «f M v^
1 . Keepyour coffee aii* light
2. Measure carefully'
3. Use grounds only once
4. Use boiling'w^aler
5. Serve at once
6. Scour the coffeepot
COFFEE
the univevsal (trink
im
COFFEE ^ -the univevrd drink
Specimens of THE 1921 Magazine and Newspaper Copy
456
ALL ABOUT COFFEE
Prescribing
vs.
Proscribing
BEFORE you prescribe for a patient, what do you do? You
take his history; you examine him thoroughly; you note the ,
signs and symptoms, and back in your head you interpret those
symptoms in terms of pathology; you eUminate one by one the
possible diseases these symptoms may indicate until you arrive at
your diagnosis. Then you prescribe. Good ! Why shouldn't the
same careful reascining and analysis be applied before proscribing?
If this were done, coffee would be prescribed rather than pro-
scribed. Because it would be found that coffee is not only harmless
in at least ninety-eight per cent of your cases, but really offers
itself as a therapeutic aid.
Where a mild cardiac stimulant is indicated — prescribe coffee;
in cases of muscular and mental fatigue — prescribe coffee ; in slug-
gish peristalsis — prescribe coffee; as an antidote for certain
poisons — prescribe coffee ; as an appetite excitant of rare influence
— prescribe a cup of rich, steaming coffee.
Coffee drinking is a pleasure, and to deprive your patients of
the zest it lends to eating, in sickness and in health, usually is
without justification in fact. Confirmation of this is found in
any standard work on dietetics.
After All, the Patient Is the
One Most Concerjied
THE patient is the sick man.
He is the sufferer. It is he
who seeks — and expects — relief.
He is the one most concerned.
What do you do for him?
You diagnose, you prescribe, and
sometimes you proscribe certain
foods. But do you unreservedly
rule out jor every case eggs, milk,
tomatoes, strawberries, red meat,
and dozens of other foods for
which some few people have
idiosyncrasies? No! You first de-
termine what foods, if any, would
be harmful in each particular case,
and rule accordingly.
Then why issue, as is too fre-
quently done, a sweeping dictum
against coffee?
As you know, coffee can fre-
quently be enlisted as a therapeutic
aid. It is a mild cardiac stimulant;
it relieves muscular and mental
fatigue; it accelerates peristalsis;
is mildly laxative; is an antidote
for certain poisons ; and is an appe-
tite excitant. What greater stimu-
lus to appetite is there than the rich
aroma of steaming coffee? And
maintaining a patient's appetite is
important 1
Dr. Julius Friedenwald and Dr.
John Ruhrah, of the University of
Maryland School of Medicine, Bal-
timore, in their joint work, "Diet in
Health and Disease," frequently
include coffee in the breakfast
dietaries; and Dr. Torald SoUman,
of Western Reserve University,
Cleveland, in his "Mamial of Phar-
macology" says coffee "increases
mental and physical efficiency,
psychical stimulation, comfort and
relief from muscular and mental
fatigue and from their attendant
unpleasant sensations. These ef-
fects may be useful in certain con-
ditions, as in those exposed to
severe hardship, hunger, fatigue,
etc."
We believe a study of the cases in
youi*. own practice will convince
you conclusively that there are few
patients, indeed, for whom coffee is
contra-indicated. We believe that
such a study will convince you, too,
that coffee can be enlisted as a
beneficial agent bordering on the
field of active therapy.
Why impose an unnecessary re-
striction on your patients? Why
overlook a possible therapeutic aid ?
Facts Would Not Justify
Such a Decision
A PATIENT clevetopea a rash
■^ *■ after an injection of diph-
theria antitoxin. But have you
stopped using antitoxin in diph-
theria? Hardly, because you know
— you realize — that that patient
is, perhaps one in a hundred; and
to cut antitoxin from your list of
therapeutic agents because of an
occasional anaphylaxis would be a
decision without justification.
Is there any more logic — is there
any more justification in taking
the joy out of your patient's break-
fast, as you do when you pronounce
"Cut out coffee!" without the his-
tory, the etiology, the symptoma-
tology, the diagnosis of each par-
ticular case pointing conclusively,
or even possibly, to coffee as a
pathologic irritant?
Here is what Professor Samuel
C. Prescott, head of the Depart-
ment of Biology and Public Health,
Massachusetts Institute of Tech-
nology, sayg of caffein : —
"For the great majority of nor-
mal individuals.it is a mild stimu-
lant of the heart, increases
power to do muscular work, in-
creases concentration of mental
effort and therefore the power to
do more brain work. It is not fol-
lowed, except in excessive doses,
by undesirable after-effects. Our
studies lead us to entire agreement
with the results stated by HoUing-
worth that when taken with food
in moderate amount, caffein is not
in the least deleterious."
That case management which
gives relief with the least derange-
ment of the patient's normal habits
certainly is to be preferred over
that which upsets his daily routine
of living. Taking coffee from the
breakfast of the vast majority of
patients is adding hardship to
illness.
Is it necessary? In how few
cases is it really necessary? Turn
to any work on dietetics.
Would You Prohibit Your
Patients From Bathing?
THE use of water on eczematous
lesions is contra-indicated ; but
would you, because of that, issue a
sweeping ukase to your patients
enjoining them from bathing?
It isn't logical, yeu my, 0*
course, it isn't! Neither is jt logir
cal, with one broad stroke, to
scratch coffee from the dietary of
every patient regardless of hiji ait
ment, just because it may be der
sirable to omit coffee from the
regimen of a gouty or nephritic
patient. A specific measure has
thoughtlessly been extended to a
general dictum. You're right ! It
isn't logical !
Striking coffee unreservedly
from the menu of your patients is
imposing an unnecessary hardship
and depriving them of an appetite
excitant of pronounced value.
Furthermore, in ninety-eight per
cent of your cases you are thrust-
ing aside a possible therapeutic
aid.
Consultation of "Diet in Health
and Disease," the joint work of
Drs. Julius Friedenwald and John
Ruhrah, of Baltimore, tells us that
coffee "is a stimulant; it acta di-
rectly on the cerebral centers,
ftimulates the heart, and deepens
respiration." Are reactions such
as these to be generally avoided?
Rather, aren't they, generally
speaking, to be encouraged?
Analyze your cases today and
note in how f ew-=— how very few —
coffee is really contra-indicated by
tiie diagnosis ; and in what a lar^Q
■,r-a very large percentage tuft^
would possibly be beneficial, phy^
olqgically or psychologically.
EDUCATING THE DOCTOR IN THE FACTS ABOUT COFFEE, 192^
COFFEE ADVERTISING
45r
New Uses for Coffee, An important
factor in increasing consumption has been
the promotion of new uses for coffee. In
winter, this has taken the form or recipes
and suggestions for coffee as a flavoring
agent ; and in warm weather, there has been
a publicity drive for iced coffee.
Propaganda Results *
The joint coffee trade publicity cam-
paign is progressive. New features are
being developed, and plans are laid well in
idvance. It is expected that the reports
the scientific research will furnish fresh
laterial for both direct and indirect ad-
rertising.
One of the interesting prospects is a
3hool exhibit, demand for which has been
jvealed by requests from a large number
teachers, principals, and school superin-
endents. Efforts to increase the popularity
)f a product as widely used as coffee sug-
gest almost unlimited opportunities.
The campaign has brought into co-opera-
tion producers in one country, and manu-
facturers and distributers in another
country, several thousand miles apart. Its
international character, and also the fact
that it deals with a product of almost uni-
versal use, may account for the attention
this campaign has received, not only in the
United States, but in every country where
advertising is a business factor.
This kind of coffee publicity has given
the consumer a better knowledge of coffee,
and broken down much of the prejudice
against coffee that rested upon popular-
misunderstanding of its physiological ef-
fects.
As best evidence of its sincere wish to-
give the public the whole truth about coffee^
the committee points to the fact that a
portion of its funds is being used to finance
the scientific investigation at the Massachu-
setts Institute of Technology.
Felix Coste, the secretary-manager of the
campaign, spends much of his time travel-
ing about the country and addressing gath-
erings of coffee wholesalers and dealers..
By this means, and by continuous circu-
larization and correspondence, the trade is
kept constantly in touch with the develop-
ments of the campaign.
Although Brazil is the only coffee-pro-
ducing country at present co-operating, the
advertising has treated all coffees alike.
Efforts are being made to have the coffee
^ow to make
GOOD COFFEE
Keep Your Coffee Air-tiskt
Mcaaura Carefully
Um GrooBds 0«lr Once
UteBoilinc Water
"X IH* <l« CaiM ML Mm <h^ 1*1 Mh ww>t ao^
*t friiwi >«— WU 1— ttiH tKH rtn ui HHd.
MTrMt *«••, k« *m\ bMI tmt Mm)
Serve at Once
Scottr the Ceffee Pot
Wttk EndiH$ April U
^^rve
COFFEE
vjfmyoumtertmn
At the afternoon card party or in Ibc
evening when £ood friends call, there
Coffee. It U • beverage that every
NFor there is warmth ant) good cheer
as welt as good fellowship in a cup of
Moreover. Ii may be served with cqtial
^ propri«tx with the lowbesi sandwich
or the daintiest tweets. And it is
■I ways in good taste t
The phrase, "I-cenaiitly'^id-
hrvr'a-good-time." has a familiar
■ hostess who s
COFFEE - the uniyeml drink
W*tk Ending Aprii ilh
Any Time
COFFEE^ime
^
COFFEE
'the univerral drink
Wttk Ending Mtfrh Ulh
COFFEE
-the miveml drink
"I drink it
every afternoon
COFFEE - the univeml in'nk
Magazine and Newspaper Advertising Copy, Spring of 1922
458
ALL A B OUT COFFEE
Z
2 £
S .22
Vit.
<<
OS
fiQ
3S2
<j
# #
— ™ 2 2
UJ u-> S — •
:> c>j is
2 op
1— oo
La- oo
o e
o J
i= o
oc >_
o 3J
Q. -a
C3 E
£^
'>-&-»-g-<K
3 VI
UiQ£
^V///////,
'^^
in c/5
-'^^^^^
^y//////,
■^^^^^S;i;i^-2
^^
■V/////////Apm
s::S^^^^^Sg^
^v//////y//y///z:^^^z^.
^^^^^^i!"^
i^^^^^^^^^^^
i^^^^^
IJ:
v/7///A^/y!^^/]^/7^^^
s^^^^^^^^Sspio
^^^^^^^^^^^
i2^^^^^^^
.-^:^^^^^^^^^^^^::^^
COFFEE ADVERTISING
459
|vnnousfl7fn auit Plarcs in thr Historu of lltr
fPorlii's Trtvoritr Brvrranr ^
tShc (froiuning Achii\vcnient
YUBAN
The Arbuckle Suest Coffee
35
Specimen of Early Yuban Copy
growers of other countries contribute on a
basis proportionate to the benefit they de-
rive. Support from all the coffee countries
on the same scale as that on which the pro-
ducers of Sao Paulo are contributing
would almost double the size of the fund.
Coffee Advertising Efficiency
Reverting to the original advertisement
for coffee in English, when we compare it
with the latest examples of advertising art,
it is of the same order of merit. But Pas-
qua Rosee had no advertising experts to
advise him and no precedents to follow.
Pasqua Rosee was a native of Smyrna, who
was brought to London by a Mr. Edwards,
a dealer in Turkish merchandise, to whom
he acted as a sort of personal servant. One
of his principal duties was the preparation
of Mr. Edwards' morning drink of Turkish
coffee.
"But the novelty thereof," history tells
us, ' * drawing too much company to him, he
[Mr. Edwards] allowed his said servant,
with another of his son-in-law, to sell it
publicly." So it came about that Pasqua
Rosee set up a coffee house in St. Michael's
Alley, Cornhill.
And since Pasqua Rosee 's idea, naturally,
was to acquaint the London public with the
virtues and delectable qualities of the prod-
uct of which his prospective customers
were naturally uniformed, he put into his
advertisement those facts and arguments
which he felt would be most likely to at-
tract attention, to excite interest, and to
convince. If the reader will glance at
Rosee 's advertisement, which is reproduced
on page 55, he will be struck with the well-
nigh irresistible charm of his unaffected,
j^traightforward bid for patronage. Hav-
ing no advertising fetishes to warp his
judgment, he told an interesting story in
a natural manner, carrying conviction. It
matters not that some of the virtues attrib-
uted to the drink have since been disal-
lowed. He believed them to be true. Few
there were in those days who knew the real
'Hruth about coffee."
Even his typographv, unstudied from
the standpoint of modern "display," is
attractive, appropriate, and exceedingly
pleasant to the eye. And since at that time
there was no cereal substitute or other bug-
aboos to contend against, and to hinder
him from doing the simple, obvious thing
in advertising, he did that very thing —
and did it exceedingly well.
T^hen men rode a hundred miles
for a good cup of coffee
Yuban
-i *--*i
j*^'*.*
Historical Association in Advektising
460
ALL ABOUT COFFEE
PACKAGE-COFFEE ADVERTISING IN 1922
Specimens of newspaper copy used by some of the most enterprising package-coffee advertisers, East and West
I
COFFEE ADVERTISING
461
In fact, in the historic advertisement,
Pasqua Rosee set an example and estab-
lished a copy standard which had a very
beneficial effect on all the coffee advertis-
ing of that early date. This vs^ill be evident
from a glance at the accompanying exhib-
its of other early advertisements. It was
not until the days of so-called ''modern"
advertising that coffee publicity reached
low-water mark in efficiency and value. In
these dark days most coffee advertisers ig-
nored the principles discovered and applied
in other lines of grocery merchandising.
Instead of telling their public how good
their product was, they actually followed
the opposite course, and warned the public
against the dangers of coffee drinking ! In-
stead of saying to the public, "Coffee has
many virtues, and our brand is one of the
best examples," their text said in effect,
"Coffee has many deleterious properties;
some, or most, of which have been elimina-
ted in our particular brand."
They were, for the most part, apostles
of negation.
Hopeful signs, however, are multiplying
that this condition of things in the coffee
industry has passed, and that the practise
'How I Became
Famous For My Coffee"
Mr. Q^ni, A,la Yom
t« 7ty nil C»ffm 7«.(
'a
lover* of coffee- the best coffM. But for
La Touraine is produced.
yean 1 thought that only at fine reitau-
dehcious coffee Now 1 know belter be-
Fouitd Real Coffee Al La.1
A( last. 1 have coffee that my fnends. as
LaTouratne, The Coffee- of Good Taxe,-
The Famou. For<nula Cuar^ ibe QaaJilp
reason for the great popularity of La
Touraine. It n a fixed njle of coffee pro-
Ihe factory must ripdiy conform Ac-
cording to the formula the fineai kinds of
cnftee are used These are carefully aa-
quaintancea. who. like myself have gladly
paid any price to Ect good coffee, prefer La
full of rich coffee-flavor as coffee can be
A DialiMclive Thing in FU>»r
output, and blended together m a way
WhKh insures the datmctive flavor of
L^ Touraine, ExparMnced roaMmg men
are brought to just the decree of coior
all enjoy so much, and it i* simply due
to the high grade kinds of coffee m ihe
i»«Ml oa iW La Towaiae Packaf«
Ihe La Touraine package Buy it m the
then get the richest flavor in your cup.
' m ■y 42c per
pound
oumine
"The Coffee of Good Taste"
"It't th€ B4ai»"—S*hcfJ, hitndtd attd natltd accordii/ig fi
f J La Tomrautt Fwmmit
Emphasizing the Social-Distinction Argument
en, ffomenan
How women changed their minds
about an "uncivir' masculine custom
WHEN coffee first became popular in
England, two hundred and fifty years
ago, it w^s considered a man's drink.
It was served only in, coffee houses which no
woman ever dreamed of entering. As the men
bpcnt more and more time in the coffee houses.
the women became leaious of this new.drink.
They claimed if was "unsocial and uncivil."
And then came an innovation. The lonely
maidens found they could make coffee at home.
Ever since that day, women have striven to
make coffee that will satisfy men's idea of what
coffee should be. The clever hostess knows
that good coffee expresses the w^irnicst, (ricnd-
best kind of hospitality.
When Yuban was hrst discoyerr
rescr^i; it /or tfiC guests a.id fxici. -
eofffc merchant. But everyone «.ii.j i:cs;cq iu!wn
wished to secure it for himself. The fanK;-of..,it.,'8i)read
s<f quickly that at last YubajiWft? offered to ih* public. .
- Ever since that time, Yuban has .been the mosf r-_>D
uJar coffee whercverit has been intro.'
tng arotna. its rich, golden Itquo^, d'.
tastes it. Yub^o is the most popular
among both rrvcn acd wonicn
If,. by chance, you ha\'
deligbtful^surpnse awaits. ■.
.— youcjiii Ji;rik Vuhan tc. ■
Yuban
Drawing Upon Histoby fob Social-Intercouese Atmosphere
462
ALL ABOUT COFFEE
of telling the coffee story with certitude
will soon become general.
We may well applaud the publicity work
of all coffee advertisers who follow where
PaSqua Rosee led — those who tell the pub-
lic how good coffee is tp drink and how
much good it does you if you drink it. Con-
sidering the advertising and typographi-
cal resources available to the modern ad-
vertiser, it certainly should be possible for
this message to be conveyed to the public
with at least some of the charm of the first
coffee message.
One of the most notable examples of how
to advertise coffee well is that set by Yuban
coffee. Unquestionably, Yuban is dding in
a thoroughly up-to-date and appropriate
fashion what Pasqua Rosee started out to
do in 1652.
The effect on those who give only a su-
perficial glance at a Yuban advertisement
is to arouse a keen desire to enjoy a cup
of Yuban coffee. To induce such a state of
mind is, of course, the object of all good
advertising.
Yuban advertisements have utilized two
vital principles in influencing the minds of
MANOR
MUSC
COFFEE <
^ n '""""'
Even big,
hustling
Chicago
paused to stare
at this
scintillating
night display.
consumers. In the first place, they have
made a cup of coffee seem to be a very
delectable drink. In the second place, they
have made the serving of a cup of coffee
seem to be of the greatest social value.
One does not see in a Yuban advertise-
ment any reference to the ' ' removal of caf -
fein", or to Yuban 's "freedom from de-
fects common to other coffees." There is
no reference to the ill effects of drinking
ordinary coffee. Yuban wastes no valuable
space in unselling coffee. Instead, the
whole intent, effectively carried out, is to
paint an enticing picture by descriptive
phraseology, typographic "manner", and
illustrative treatment.
Until Yuban came, those of us in the
coffee trade who had given the matter
thought had often wondered why, with the
wealth of material available to writers of
coffee advertisements, so little had been
done to make the product alluring — why
so little had been done to give atmosphere
to the product. So many interesting things
may be said about the history of coffee ; the
spread of the industry through various
countries ; how Brazil came to be the coffee-
producing country of the world ; how coffee
is cultivated, harvested, and shipped; how
it is stored, roasted, handled, delivered —
in short, the entire process by which cof-
fee reaches the breakfast table from' the
plantations of the tropics. Yuban made
effective use of this material.
Simply to tell these things in an interest-
ing, natural, convincing way makes coffee
appear as a healthful, delicious drink;
whereas the negative, defensive sort of ad-
vertising, that plays into the hands of the
substitutes, puts coffee in the wrong light.
.•:*^ m^i*^'^
' ' — An Electric Sign that Impressed Chicago
There were 4,000 bulbs in this advertisement, which measured 50 x 55 feet. The rental was $3,500 a month
COFFEE ADVERTISING
468
i\
M
cw
BRAND.
7?^ey are a////Fr^e Coffee """^^
rou Get t/jem //? //?e Cap ^
■
1
IHlFUFdiliH
«
4
THE >VIDLAR CO. ^
-"-^ij^^^
The private coffee
of the greatest
coffee merchant
HOW THREE WELL KNOWN BRANDS OF COFFEE HAVE BEEN
ADVERTISED OUTDOORS
464
ALL ABOUT COFFEE
ATTENTION-ATTRACTING CAR CARDS, SPRING OF 1922
»
COFFEE ADVERTISING
465
\\ DELICIOUS
ICED COFFEE
COOUNC.INViCORATINC-RtFRESHINO
REFINED COFFEE
ICED COFFEE
Cotitjuers Thirst - Rtlla^sa Fatigum
Aak Tor
RUSSELL'S
NEW YORK
COFFXES
Effective Iced-Coiikk Corv -Adaitaule fou A^■Y Bi!A>u
When one reads Yuban advertisements,
they are seen to be an entirely acceptable
and appropriate presentation of coffee
merit and thoroughly in accord with the
principles of good advertising, as exempli-
fied in all other lines of trade. The wonder
grows why so many coffee advertisers have
been content to remain in the defensive,
controversial position into which the alarm-
ist coffee-substitute advertising has jock-
eyed them.
The Yuban advertisements are not with-
out their faults; errors of historical facts
can be found in them; definitions are
sometimes mixed; some of the drawings
might be better; but, in the main, the copy
is convincing and praiseworthy.
In Yuban advertisements the things that
have been so long left undone have now
been done in a masterful way. If we refer
to the accompanying illustrations, we can
see how effectively the public is being led
to realize and believe in :
1. The intrinsic desirability of coffee —
the actual pleasure to be derived from the
act of partaking of it.
2. That it is delightful medium for so-
cial intercourse — part of the essential
equipment for an intimate chat or more
general assemblage of friends.
3. That its proper service is a badge of
social distinction — the mark of a success-
ful hostess.
These three thoughts, dominant in Yu-
ban advertising, should be woven into the
fabric of all coffee advertising. For with
these three thoughts, Arbuckle Brothers
have blazed the trail for the right thing in
coffee advertising.
The Yuban case has been so largely dwelt
upon here because it sets so bright and
shining an example. Much that is praise-
worthy in it and more along the same lines
is true of White House, Hotel Astor, and
Seal Brand ; but the copy shown will illus-
trate this better than any comment.
l^LKDl'EA.N AUVEKTI.SINU XOVELTY IN JSeW YORK
The absence of visible wheels aroused much curiosity in this slow-moving vehicle
466
ALL ABOUT COFFEE
Chapter XXIX
THE COFFEE TRADE IX THE UXITED STATES
The coffee business started by Dorothy Jones of Boston — Some
early sales — Taxes imposed by Congress in war and peace — The
first coffee plantation-machine, coffee-roaster, coffee-grinder, and
coffee-pot patents — Early trade marks for coffee — Beginnings of
the coffee urn, the coffee container, and the soluble-coffee business —
Statistics of distribution of coffee-roasting establishments in the
the trade from the eighteenth century to the twentieth
IT appears from the best evidence obtain-
able that the coffee trade of the United
States was started by a woman, one Dor-
othy Jones of Boston. At least, Dorothy
Jones was the first person in the colonies
to whom a license was issued, in 1670, to
sell coffee. It is not clear whether she sold
the product in the green bean, roasted,
"garbled" (ground), or "ungarbled".
Soon after the introduction of the coffee
drink into the New England, New York,
and Pennsylvania colonies, trading began
In the raw product. William Penn bought
his green coffee supplies in the New York
market in 1683, paying for them at the rate
of $4.68 a pound. Benjamin Franklin en-
gaged in the retail coffee business in Phila-
delphia, in 1740, as a kind of side line to
his printing business.
**Tea, coffee, indigo, nutmegs, sugar etc."
were being advertised for sale in 1748 at a
shop in Boston, "under the vendue-room
in Dock-Square." Coffee was also to be
had in that year at the shop of Ebenezer
Lowell in King Street, and at the Sign of
the Four Sugar Loaves near the head of
Long "Wharf.
During the sway of the coffee houses, cof-
fee fell from $4.68 a pound to 40 cents a
pound in 1750, and to 22 cents a pound
just before the Revolution. As the war
came on, however, dealers began to force
up prices on a dwindling market. The
situation became so serious that in January,
1776, the Philadelphia Commission of In-
spection issued a fair-price list, setting an
arbitrary price of eleven pence per pound
on coffee in bag lots. Persons found vio-
lating this price were to be "exposed to
public view as sordid vultures preying on
the vitals of the country."
Despite this threat, J. Peters in Bethle-
hem, Pennsylvania, wrote to a Philadelphia
friend, * ' I cannot purchase any coffee with-
out taking, too, one bill a tierce of Claret
& Sour, and at i6.8 per gall. ... I have
been trying day for day, & never could get a
grain of Coffee so as to sell it at the lim-
ited price these six weeks. It may be
bought, but at 25/ per lb. ' '
The important part played by the coffee
houses of colonial America, beginning with
the establishment of the London coffee
house in Boston, in 1689, the King's Arms
in New York in 1696, and Ye coffee house
in Philadelphia in 1700, has been related.
"Females" of ye olde Boston, staging
in 1777 a "coffee party" which rivaled in
a small way the famous Tea Party in 1773,
personally chastised a profiteer hoarder of
foodstuffs, and confiscated some of his
stock, according to a letter from Abigail
Adams to her distinguished husband, later
second president of the United States.
467
468
ALL ABOUT COFFEE
Writing at Boston, under date of July
31, 1777, Abigail wrote to John, then at-
tending the Continental Congress at Phila-
delphia :
There is a great scarcity of sugar and coffee,
articles which the female part of the state is
very loath to give up, especially whilst they con-
sider the great scarcity occasioned by the mer-
chants having secreted a large quantity. It is
rumored that an eminent stingy merchant, who
is a bachelor, had a hogshead of coffee in his
store, which he refused to sell under 6 shillings
per pound.
A number of females — some say a hundred,
some say more — assembled with a cart and
trunk, marched down to the warehouse, and de-
manded the keys.
Upon his finding no quarter, he delivered the
keys, and they then opened the warehouse,
hoisted out the coffee themselves, put it into a
trunk, and drove off. A large concourse of men
stood amazed, silent spectators of the whole
transaction.
In 1783 - 84 the Congress of the United
States considered the imposition of a duty
on ''seven classes of goods consumed by
the rich or in general use ; liquors, sugars,
teas, coffees, cocoa, molasses and pepper;
the tax to be determined by the yearly im-
ports. ' '
At that time there was being imported
twelve times as much Bohea tea as of all
others, but tea consumption was only
one-twelfth pound per capita. Total tea
imports were 825,000 pounds. "Low as was
the importation of tea", says John Bach
McMaster, ' ' that of coffee was lower still by
a third. Indeed, it was scarcely used out-
side of the great cities." The average an-
nual coffee imports at that period were
200.000 pounds.
Governor Bowdoin of Massachusetts in-
troduced chicory into the United States in
1785.
The first import duty, of two and one-
half cents a pound, was levied on coffee by
the United States in 1789. The principal
sources of supply up to that time were the
Dutch East Indies, Arabia, Haiti, and Ja-
maica ; and most of the business was in the
hands of Dutch and English traders.
What is thought to be the first whole-
sale coffee-roasting plant in America began
operations at 4 Great Dock (now Pearl)
Street, New York, early in 1790. In that
same year the first American advertisement
for coffee appeared in the New York Daily
Advertiser. A second "coffee manufactory"
started up at 232 Queen (also Pearl)
Street, New York, late in 1790.
In the same year, 1790, the government
increased the import duty on coffee to four
cents a pound. In 1794 the tax was raised
to five cents a pound.
In George Washington's household ac-
count book for 1793 appears an entry show
ing a purchase of coffee from Benjamin
Dorsay, a Philadelphia grocer, for eight
dollars. The quantity is not given.
About 1804 Captain Joseph Ropes in the
ship Recovery, of Salem, Mass., brought
from Mocha the first cargo of coffee and
other East Indian produce in an Ameri-
can bottom.
The first cargo of Brazil coffee, consist-
ing of 1,522 bags, was received at Salem,
Mass., per ship Marquis de Someruelas in
1809. Brazil's total production that year
was less than 30,000 bags ; but by 1871 more
than 2,000,000 bags were exported.
Java coffee could be bought on the Am-
sterdam market in 1810 for 42 to 46 cents.
By 1812, there had been an advance to
$1.08 per pound. Holland, not Brazil,
ruled the world's coffee markets in those
days.
When the war of 1812 made necessary
more revenue, imports of coffee were taxed
ten cents a pound. A war-time fever of
speculation in tea and coffee followed, and
by 1814 prices to the consumer had ad-
vanced to such an extent (coffee was 45
cents a pound) that the citizens of Phila-
delphia formed a non-consumption associa-
tion, each member pledging himself ' ' not to
pay more than 25 cents a pound for coffee
and not to consume tea that wasn't already
in the country."
The coffee duty was reduced in 1816 to
five cents a pound ; in 1830, to two cents ; in
1831, to one cent; and in 1832 coffee was
placed on the free list. It remained there
until 1861, when a duty of four cents a
pound was again imposed as a war-revenue
measure. This was increased to five cents
in 1862. It was reduced to three cents in
1871; and the duty was repealed in 1872.
Coffee has remained on the free list ever
since.
The manufacture of machinery required
in the coffee business began in the
eighteenth century. The first coffee-grinder
patent in the United States was issued to
Thomas Bruff, Sr., in 1798. The first United
States patent on an improvement on a
roaster was issued to Peregrine Williamson
of Baltimore in 1820. The first United
TRADE IN THE UNITED STATES
469
T. BRUFF.
Coffee Mill
Patented Jan. 8 , 179a
First Unitod States Coffee-Gri>'der Patent
States patent on a coffee-plantation ma-
chine, a coffee huller, was granted to
Nathan Reed of Belfast, Me., in 1822. The
first United States coffee-maker patent was
is.sued to Lewis Martelley of New York, in
1825.
Charles Parker, of Meriden, Conn., be-
gan work on the original Parker coffee mill
in 1828.
A complete English coffee roasting and
grinding plant was installed in New York
City by James Wild in 1833 - 34.
About 1840, Central America began mak-
ing shipments of coffee to the United States.
James Carter, of Boston, was granted
(1846) a United States patent on an im-
proved form of cylindrical coffee roaster,
which subsequently was largely adopted by
the trade in the United States, being pop-
ularly known as the Carter "pull-out".
The Geo. L. Squier Manufacturing Co. of
Buffalo began in 1857 the manufacture
of coffee-plantation machinery. Marcus
Mason invented his first pulper in 1860;
but the manufacture of coffee-plantation
machinery under the firm name of Marcus
Mason & Co. did not begin in the United
States until 1873.
The first paper-bag factory in the United
States to make bags for loose coffee, began
operations in Brooklyn in 1862.
The first ground-coffee package was put
on the New York market about 1860 - 63 by
Lewis A. Osborn. It was known as Os-
bom's Celebrated Prepared Java Coffee and
was later exploited by Thomas Reid as Os-
born's Old Government Java.
In 1864, Jabez Burns was granted a pat-
ent on the Burns roaster which was to rev-
olutionize the coffee-roasting business.
In 1865, John Arbuckle brought out in
Pittsburgh the first roasted coffee in indi-
vidual packages "like peanuts", the fore-
runner of the Ariosa package.
In 1869, B. G. Arnold started the first
big speculation in coffee and for ten years
thereafter he was absolute dictator of the
American coffee trade.
In 1869, three United States patents on
a copper coffee urn lined with block tin
were granted to Elie Moneuse and L. Du-
parquet of New York.
In 1870, John Gulick Baker, one of the
founders of the Enterprise Manufacturing
Company of Pennsylvania, was granted a
United States patent on a coffee grinder
which subsequently became one of the most
popular store mills.
The first trade mark registered for coffee
or coffee essence bears the number 425,
with date August 22, 1871, first use 1870,
and is in the name of Butler, Earhart &
Co., Columbus, Ohio. The words "essence
of coffee" appeared on the label. The next
coffee mark was registered by Butler, Ear-
hart & Co., October 3, 1871, number 455,
first use, 1870. It consists of the word
ft
J. W CARTER
Coffee Roaster.
No. 4.849.
Patented Nov. 12. 1846.
Carter's Pull-Out Roaster Patent
(T
A
^
i^
i
470
ALL ABOUT COFFEE
"Buckeye" with a branch of the buckeye
(horse-chestnut) tree.
The next registration for coffee was in
the name of John Ashcrof t of Brooklyn.
It is numbered 533, and the date is Novem-
ber 28, 1871. It consists of an anchor and
chain enclosing a star. Ashcroft registered
also a design of a coffee pot with the words
"Mocha Steam", January 2, 1872.
Today there are nearly three thousand
registered trade-mark names used for coffee
on file in the United States Patent Office
in Washington.
In 1873, Ariosa, the first successful na-
tional brand of package coffee, was
launched in Pittsburg by John Arbuckle.
In the same year, 1873, the first United
States patent on a coffee substitute was is-
sued to E. Dugdale of Griffin, Ga.
First Registered Trade Mark fos Coffee, 1871
In 1878, Chase & Sanborn, the Boston
coffee roasters, were the first to pack and
to ship roasted coffee in sealed cans. A
lead seal was used for the large packages
of bulk coffee; the smaller sizes being
sealed by the label, which was made to
cover the body of the can and to reach up
over the slip cover, so as to make a sealed
package, to open which the label must be
broken.
In 1878, Jabez Burns, the coffee-machin-
ery man, founded the Spice Mill, the first
publication in America devoted to the cof- •
fee and spice trades.
In 1879, Charles Halstead brought out
the first metal coffee pot with a china in-
terior.
In 1880, Henry E. Smyser, of Philadel-
phia, invented a package-making-and-filling
machine for coffee, the fore-runner of the
weighing-and-packing machine, the control
of which later on by John Arbuckle led to
the coffee-sugar war with the Havemeyers.
Smyser was superintendent at the plant of
the Weikel & Smith Spice Company, Phila-
delphia. Other patents on weighing and
package-making machines were granted him
in 1884, 1888, and 1891. In 1892, he began
to assign his patents to Arbuckle Broth-
ers, some fifteen in all being granted him
from 1892 to 1898. He died in 1899.
The year 1880 was notable for the many
failures in the American coffee trade, as a
result of syndicate planting and speculative
buying of coffees in Brazil, Mexico, and
Central America.
In 1881, Steele & Price, of Chicago, were
the first to introduce to the trade all-paper
cans, made of strawboard, for coffee.
In 1881, the New York Coffee Exchange
was incorporated, beginning business the
year following at Beaver and Pearl Streets.
In 1885, the property of the Exchange
was transferred to the Coffee Exchange of
the City of New York, incorporated by spe-
cial charter.
In 1884, the Chicago Liquid Sack Com-
pany brought out the first combination
paper and tin-end containers for coffee.
The year 1887 - 88 was marked by a big
boom in coffee, the total sales on the Coffee
Exchange amounting to 47,868,750 bags.
Between July 1886 and June 1887 prices
advanced 1,485 points.
In 1888, the Engelberg Huller Company
of Syracuse, New York, began the manu-
facture of coffee-plantation machinery.
TRADE IN THE UNITED STATES
471
1
\^m^Emm¥¥m
MBUCKLE BROTKERS, NEW YORK, Nn Yto
The Okigi.nal Akbuckle Coffee Packages
I.. ..„.
^^^^eighing Machine Company, Boston, Mass.
^^began the manufacture of machines to
weigh coffee into cartons and other pack-
ages ; and in 1894, installed in the Chase &
Sanborn plant at Boston the first automatic
weighing machine in the coffee trade. The
New England concern was subsequently
(1901) succeeded by the Automatic "Weigh-
ing Machine Company of Newark, N. J.
In 1893, the first direct-flame gas coffee
roaster in America (Tupholme's English
machine) was installed by F. T. Holmes at
the plant of the Potter-Parlin Company,
New York.
In 1893, Cirilo Mingo, of New Orleans,
was granted a United States patent on a
method of aging green coffee to give it the
characteristics of green coffee stored in a
confined space for a long period. The op-
eration consisted in placing layers of green
coffee between dry and wet empty coffee
bags, and permitting the beans to absorb
eight to ten percent of the moisture in a
period extending from six to sixteen hours.
This was one of the earliest efforts to ma-
ture and age green coffee in the United
States.
In 1894, the business of the Pneumatic
Scale Corporation, Norfolk Downs, Mass.,
had its start in Quiney, Mass. where the
first pneumatic weighing machine was in-
stalled by the Purity Dried Fruits Cleans-
ing Company. In 1895, the Electric Scale
Company was organized to build the ma-
chines, the subsequent development of this
line of packaging machinery for coffee be-
ing directed by the Pneumatic Scale Cor-
poration, Ltd., which succeeded it.
In 1895, Adolph Kraut introduced the
German-made grease-proof lined paper
bags for coffee to the American coffee trade.
That same year, Thomas M. Royal, of Phil-
adelphia, began the manufacture in the
United States of a fancy duplex-lined paper
bag for coffee.
In 1896, natural gas was first used in the
United States as a fuel for roasting coffee.
In 1897, Joseph Lambert, Vermont, first
introduced to the coffee trade a self-con-
tained coffee roasting outfit without the
brick setting required until then.
In 1897, the Enterprise Manufacturing
Company of Pennsylvania was the first
regularly to employ an electric motor to
drive a coffee mill.
The overproduction of coffee began to
be so serious a question by 1898, that J.D.
Olavarria, a distinguished Venzuelan, pro-
posed a plan for the restriction of coffee
cultivation and the regulation of coffee ex-
ports from countries suffering from over-
production. In this same year, the bears
forced Rio 7's down to four and one-half
cents on the New York Coffee Exchange.
In 1898, Edward Norton, of New York,
was granted a United States patent on a
vacuum process for canning foods, subse-
quently applied to coffee. Others followed.
Hills Brothers, of San Francisco, were the
first to pack coffee in a vacuum, under the
Norton patents, in 1900. M. J. Branden-
stein & Company, of San Francisco, began
to pack coffee in vacuum cans in 1914.
Vacuum sealing machines to pack coffee
under the Norton patents are now made by
the Perfect Vacuum Canning Company of
New York.
About 1899, Dr. Sartori Kato of Tokio,
who had invented a soluble tea in Japan,
came to Chicago and produced a soluble
coffee (introduced to the consumer in 1901)
on which he was granted a patent in 1903.
In 1906, G. "Washington of New York, an
American chemist living in Guatemala
City, produced a refined soluble coffee
which was put on the United States market
three years later. The full story of soluble
coffee in America is told in chapter XXXI.
(See page 538.)
The first gear-driven electric coffee mill
was introduced to the trade by the Enter-
prise Manufacturing Company of Pennsyl-
vania in 1900.
472
ALL ABOUT COFFEE
In 1901, there appeared in New York
the first issue of The Tea and Coffee Trade
Journal^ devoted to the interests of the
tea and coffee trades.
In 1900 - 01, Santos permanently dis-
placed Rio as the world's largest source of
supply.
In 1901, the American Can Company be-
gan the manufacture and sale of tin coffee
cans in the United States. In this year
Landers, Frary & Clark's Universal coffee
percolator was granted a United States pat-
ent; and Joseph Lambert, of Marshall,
Mich., brought out one of the earliest ma-
chines to employ gas as a fuel for the in-
direct roasting of coffee. It was in 1901,
also, that F. T. Holmes joined the Huntley
Manufacturing Company, of Silver Creek,
N. Y., which began to build the Monitor
gas-fired direct-flame coffee roasters.
In 1902, the Coles Manufacturing Com-
pany (Braun Company, successor) and
Henry Troemner, of Philadelphia, began
the manufacture and sale of gear-driven
electric coffee grinders.
As a result of the agitation for some way
to deal with the overproduction of coffee,
the Pan-American Congress, meeting in
Mexico City in 1902, called an international
coffee congress for New York in the fall of
that same year. It met from October 1
to October 30; but at the close, the prob-
lem seemed no nearer solution than at the
beginning. In 1906, Brazil produced its
record-breaking crop of 20,000,000 bags,
and the state of Sao Paulo inaugurated a
plan to valorize coffee.
In 1902, the first fancy duplex paper bag
made by machinery from a roll of paper
was produced by the Union Bag & Paper
Corporation, It was of sulphite fiber in-
side, and glassine outside; a style after-
ward reversed, so as to have the glassine
the inner tube.
In 1902, the Jagenberg Machine Com-
pany, Inc. (absorbed by the Pneumatic
Scale Corporation in 1921) began the intro-
duction to the trade of the United States of
a line of German-made automatic packag-
ing-and-labeling machines for coffee. Subse-
quently, the Johnson Automatic Sealer
Company, Battle Creek, Mich., became well
known as manufacturers of a line of auto-
matic adjustable carton-sealing, wax-wrap-
ping machines, package conveyors, and au-
tomatic scales. Among other automatic
weighers that have figured in the develop-
ment of the coffee business, mention should
be made of The National Packaging Ma-
chinery Company's Scott machine, of
E, D, Anderson's Triumph, and of Hoep-
ner's Unit System.
In 1903, as a result of overproduction in
Brazil, Santos 4's dropped to three and
fifty-five hundredths cents on the New York
Coffee Exchange, the lowest price ever re-
corded for coffee.
In 1903, also, there was granted the first
United States patent on an electric coffee
roaster, the patentee being George C. Les-
ter of New York.
In 1904, green coffee prices on the New
York Coffee Exchange were forced up to
eleven and eighty-five hundredths cents by
a speculative clique led by D, J, Sully.
In 1905, the A. J. Deer Co., Buffalo, N.
Y. (now of Hornell, N. Y.) began the sale
of its Royal electric coffee mills direct to
dealers on the instalment plan, revolution-
izing the former practise of selling coffee
mills through hardware jobbers.
In 1905, F. A, Cauchois introduced to
the trade his Private Estate coffee maker, a
filtration device employing Japanese filter
paper, Finley Acker, of Philadelphia, ob-
tained a patent the same year on a side-per-
foration percolator employing "porous or
bibulous paper" as a filtering medium.
In 1906, H. D. Kelly, of Kansas City,
was granted a United States patent on an
urn coffee machine employing a coffee ex-
tractor in which the ground coffee was con-
tinually agitated before percolation by a
vacuum process.
In 1907, P. E. Edtbauer (Mrs. E. Edt-
bauer), of Chicago, was granted a United
States patent on a duplex automatic weigh-
ing machine, the first simple, fast, accurate
and moderate-priced machine for weighing
coffee. Eight others followed up to 1920.
In 1907, the new Pure Food and Drugs:
Act came into force in the United States,
making it obligatory to label all coffees cor-
rectly and causing many trade practises to
be altered or thrown into the discard. Tlie
most important rulings that followed are
referred to in more detail in chapter
XXIII, telling how green coffees are
bought and sold.
In 1908, the Porto Rico coffee planters
presented a memorial to the Congress ask-
ing for a protective tariff of six cents a
pound on all foreign coffees. Hawaii and
the Philippines also were to have benefited
TRADE IN THE UNITED STATES
473
MAY 23,
THt MERCMANTS ti
OCCUPtEO THIS SrTE FROM ABO
DCSTROYCD BY FIRE. DCCEM..
HEREMTTTHr ctJMMnTTES orcmTtK^WHo twfirfWW^
^ART IN THE STIRRING EVENTS WHICH LED TO THE REVOLUTION
HERE ALSO WA<i DRArTED BY A SPECIAL COWVITTErXOMPOSr-
Of ISAAC LOW.CH»mM*N.AL£XANDER McDO^JGALl.J^MFS PMANEAND
JOHN JAY OE THE MEW YORK COMMITTEE OE CORRESPONDENCE.
THE EPOCH-MAtriNC LETTER Of MAY 23, 1774, WHICH WAS DISPATCHED
TO BOSTON AND IN WHICH APPEARS THE FOllOWING STRIKING SENTEM,-r
"rf?OW * VIlTTtJOOS MID SPIRlTrD UNION (KVICH M*t
Rt tXPCCTtD. WHILE THt rCtBLt trroSTS Of «
rrw Will ONLY PC ATTEtlOtP WITH MISCMlEf A N »
DlSAPPO'KTMCNT 10 THEMSELVES, AND TRIJMPH TO
TWE ADVERSARIES Of OUR LIBERTY."
FROM THIS RESULTED THE FIRST CCKCRESS OF
THE-UNfTED COLONIES OF NORTH AMER1CA:hELD
AT PHflADELPHI A. SEPTEMBER 5.177*.
AMONC OTHER NOTABLE EVENTS THAT TOOK PLACi
IN THE MERCHANTS COFFEE HOUSE WE'^E:-
A BANQUEriO HIS EXCELLENCY THE PRESIDENT AND TH^
HONOURABLE MEMBERS OF CONGRESS"BY CHAM^SER r
COMMERCE OF THE STATE OF N E W YORK.rEBRUARY 3, 17
FECEPTION TO r-NER»L WASHINGTON ON HIS ARKtVAl TO'
IWUGURAtlCN /S FIRST PRESIDENT OF THE UN'TED STft-'r'
rr AMERICA.UNDER THE NEW COMSTITl'Tl 0 N, BY Hl&
ZXCELLEr^CY THE COVERNOR.OrriCE^S OF STATE. HIS HONOUR
-HE MAYOP.AND DISTINGUISHED CIT'ZENS. AFRI L ?3. 178^;,
HERS ALSO WERE HELD EARLY MEETINGS OF
- T FOLLOWING 0RCANI7ATI0NS AND INSTITUTIONS:-
ft
TH;s TABLET WAS ERECTED BY
r-VER WALL STREET BUSINESS MEN'S ASS0CI4TI0'
M AY 2 3. I 5 I ■*, ^
Merchants Coffee House Tablet
Bronze marker, placed May 2.*?, 1914, on the buildlnj?
occupying the site of the old coflfee house
by the protection asked for. The Congress
failed to grant the planters' prayer. This
appeal for protection was repeated in 1921,
when the Congress was asked to place a
duty of five cents a pound on all foreign
coffees.
In 1908, J. C. Prims, of Battle Creek,
Mich, was granted a United States patent
on a corrugated cylinder improvement for
a gas and coal coffee roaster of fifty to one
hundred and thirty pounds capacity de-
signed for retail stores. This machine was
acquired the year following by the A. J.
Deer Company, and was re-introduced to
the trade as the Royal roaster.
In 1908, Brazil's valorization-of -coffee
enterprise was saved from disaster by a
combination of bankers and the Brazil Gov-
ernment. A loan of $75,000,000 was placed,
through Hermann Sielcken of New York,
with banking houses in England, Germany,
France, Belgium, and America. The com-
plete story of this undertaking is told in
chapter XXXI.
In 1909, Ludwig Roselius brought to
America from Germany the caffein-free cof-
fee which for several years had been manu-
factured and sold in Bremen under the
Myer, Roselius, and Wimmer patent. In
1910, the product was first sold here by-
Merck & Company under the name of De-
kafa, later Dekofa, and in 1914, by the Kaf-
fee Hag Corporation as Kaffee Hag.
In 1911 all-fiber parchment-lined Damp-
tite cans for coffee were introduced to the
trade by the American Can Company.
As a result of preliminary meetings of
Mississippi Valley coffee roasters held in St.
Louis in May and June, 1911, when the
Coffee Roasters Traffic and Pure Food As-
sociation was organized, a national associ-
ation under the same name was started in
Chicago, November 16 - 17, 1911. The com-
plete story of the growth of this most im-
portant coffee trade organization in the
United States is told in the next chapter.
In 1912, the United States government,
after having examined into the valorization
enterprise, brought suit against Hermann
Sielcken, et al., to force the sale of valorized
coffee stocks held in this country under the
valorization agreement.
In October, 1914, the first national coffee
week to advertise coffee was promoted by
the National Coffee Roasters Association.
Merchants Coffee House Memorial
On May 23, 1914, the Lower Wall Street
Business Men's Association unveiled a
bronze memorial tablet set in the wall of
the nine-story office building occupied by
the Federal Refining Company on the south-
east corner of Wall and Water Streets,
the former site of the Merchants' coffee
house. This is the building where The Tea
and Coffee Trade Journal had its offices for
nine years before moving to 79 Wall Street.
Seth Low, introduced by William Bayne,
Jr., president of the Lower Wall Street
Business Men's Association, gave an inter-
esting sketch of the history of the coffee
house. Abram Wakeman, secretary of the
474
ALL ABOUT COFFEE
association, spoke, followed by Wilberforce
Eames, of the American history division of
the New York Public Library.
After the flag that veiled the memorial
tablet had been drawn aside, attention was
called to a bronze chest which was hermet-
ically sealed, and in which had been placed
papers and other documents reflecting the
life of New York today. The chest was
given over to the keeping of the New York
Historical Society, with the understanding
that it was not to be opened until 1974,
which will be the two-hundredth anniver-
sary of the union of the Colonies.
It was from the Merchants' coffee house
that the letter of May 23, 1774, was written
in reply to the Committee of Correspon-
dence in Boston, The letter suggested a
** Congress of Deputies" from the Colonies,
and called for a "virtuous and spirited
Union." The coffee house is consequently
regarded as the birthplace of the Union.
Recent Activities
A second national coffee week was held
in October, 1915, under the auspices of the
National Coffee Boasters' Association.
In 1916, the Coffee Exchange of the City
of New York changed its name to the New
York Coffee and Sugar Exchange, to admit
of sugar trading.
In 1916, the National Paper Can Com-
pany of Milwaukee first introduced to the
trade its new hermetically sealed all-paper
can for coffee.
In 1916, Jules Le Page, Darlington, Ind.,
was granted two United States patents on
cutting rolls to cut and not grind or crush
corn, wheat, or coffee. This idea was in-
corporated in the Ideal steel cut coffee mill
subsequently marketed by the B. F. Gump
Company, Chicago.
In 1918, the World War caused the
United States government to place coffee
importers, brokers, jobbers, roasters, and
wholesalers under a war-time licensing sys-
tem to control imports and prices.
In 1918, John E. King, of Detroit, was
granted a United States patent on an ir-
regular grind of coffee consisting of coarse-
ly grinding ten percent of the product and
finely grinding ninety percent.
The most notable event of the year 1919
was the inauguration by the Brazil plant-
ers, in co-operation with an American joint
coffee trade publicity committee, of the
million-dollar campaign to advertise coffee
in the United States.
In 1919, as a result of frost damage, ana
of an orgy of speculation in Brazil, prices
for green coffee on the New York Exchange
were forced to the highest levels since 1870 ;
and a new high record was established for
futures, twenty-four and sixty-five hun-
dredths cents for July contracts.
In 1919, Floyd W. Robison, of Detroit,
was granted a United States patent on a
process for aging green coffee by treating
it with micro-organisms, the product being
known as Cultured coffee.
In the spring of 1920, there was held the
third national coffee week, this time under
the auspices of the Joint Coffee Trade Pub-
licity Committee.
Chapter XXX
DEVELOPMENT OF THE GREEN AND ROASTED COFFEE
BUSINESS IN THE UNITED STATES
A brief history of the growth of coffee trading — Notable firms and
personalities that have played important parts in green coffee in the
principal coffee centers — Green coffee trade organizations — Growth
of the wholesale coffee-roasting trade, and names of those who have
made history in it — The National Coffee Boasters Association —
Statistics of distribution of coffee-roasting establishments in the
United States
COFFEE trading in the American col-
onies probably had its beginnings
about the middle of the seventeenth
century. Tea seems to have preceded coffee
as an article of merchandise. Several mer-
chants in the New England and New York
settlements imported small quantities of
coffee with other foodstuffs toward the close
of the seventeenth century.
The early supplies of the green bean
were brought from the Dutch East Indies,
Arabia, Haiti, and Jamaica. About 1787,
the French opened Mauritius and Bourbon
to American ships, which then began to
bring back coffee and tea to the Atlantic-
coast cities. Mocha coffee was being im-
ported direct in American bottoms about
1804. Coffee from Brazil was first im-
ported by the United States in 1809. Cen-
tral America began shipping coffee to the
United States in 1840. The total coffee im-
ports in 1876 were 339,789,246 pounds,
valued at $56,788,997, and received chiefly
from Brazil, Haiti, British and Dutch East
Indies, the West Indies, and Mexico.
New York early became the leading
green-coffee market of the country.
There was a number of large importing
merchants in New York in 1760, nearly all
of whom brought in coffee. Among them
were Isaac and Nicholas Gouverneur,
Robert Murray, Walter and Samuel Frank-
lin, John and Henry Cruger, the Living-
stons, the Beekmans, Lott & Low, Philip
Cuyler, Anthony Van Dam, Hugh and
Alexander Wallace, Leonard and Anthony
Lispenard, Theophylact Bache, and Wil-
liam Walton.
Some early green-coffee prices per pound
were as follows :
1683 — 18s. 9d. ; 1743 — 5s. ; 1746 — 5s. ;
1774— 9s.; 178r— 96s. 0. T.; 1782 — 2s.
Id. 0. T. ; 1783 — Is. ; 1789 — 10 cents.
Leading New York coffee importers in
1786 were Henry Sheaff, on the dock be-
tween Burling Slip and the Fly Market;
John Rooney, 26 Cherry Street; William
Eccles, 10 Hunters Key; Ludlow & Goold,
47 Wall Street; Scriha, Schroppel & Star-
men, 17 Queen Street ; and William Taylor,
Crane Wharf.
The wholesale coffee roaster appeared
about 1790 ; and from that time the separa-
tion between the green-coffee trader and
the coffee roaster became more marked. In
1794 the principal green-coffee importers in
1 About this time, the country was flooded with
paper money, wortli about 1 to 75, forcing the price
of commodities to unheard-of heights, shoes for in-
stance, being sold at £20 per pair.
475
476
ALL ABOUT COFFEE
Hermann Sielcken B. G. Arnold F. B. Arnold Joseph Purcell
Some Departed Dominant Figures in the >,'ew York Green Coffee Trade
New York were : Lawrence & Van Zandt ;
D. Smith & Co., 323 Pearl Street ; Gilchrist
Dickinson, 17 Taylor's Wharf; Armstrong
& Barnewall, 129 Water Street; William
Bo-\vne, 265 Pearl Street; Stephen Cole &
Son, 26 Ferry Street; J. S. De Lessert &
Co., 123 Front Street; Joseph Thebaud,
262 Pearl Street; Nathaniel Cooper & Co.,
38 Little Dock Street; Coll. M'Gregor, 28
Wall Street ; David Wagstaff, 137 Front
Street; Conkling & Lloyd, 15 Taylor's
Wharf ; and S. B. Garrick, Westphal & Co.,
43 Cherry Street.
The leading New York coffee importers
in 1848 were Henry and William Delafield,
108 Front Street ; and Des Arts & Henser,
78 Water Street.
There were seven leading New York cof-
fee importers in 1854, as follows : Aymar &
Co., 34 South Street; Henry Coit & Son,
43 South Street; Henry Delafield, 129
Pearl Street; Howland & Aspinwall, 54
South Street ; Mason & Thompson, 33 Pearl
Street ; J. L. Phipps & Co., 19 Cliff Street ;
and Moses Taylor & Co., 44 South Street.
Following the so-called ''consortium" of
1868, the ramifications of which centered
in Frankfort-on-the-Main — its speculations
finally ending in disaster to many — the
green-coffee trade was in a precarious con-
dition until well into the eighties. ''Pre-
viously," says a contemporary writer, "it
had been the safest and prettiest of all co-
lonial produce."
About 1868, "iron steamers began to be
freely availed of as carriers of coffee; and
later on, the telegraph became a factor,
rendering the business more exciting and
expensive ' '.
Coft'ee consumption in the United States
had, moreover, increased from one pound
per capita in 1790 to nine pounds per ca-
pita in 1882.
1892 - 93 the biggest figure in the world's
coffee trade was George Kaltenbach, a Ger-
man living in Paris, whose resources were
estimated at twelve million to fifteen mil-
lion dollars, and whose holdings at one time
were said to be one million bags. He was
reported to have made $1,500,000 on his
coffee corner. In September, 1892, he
bested a bull clique and forced prices down
to twelve cents. Aided by three other
European operators, he then started a bull
syndicate, and put the price up to seven-
teen cents. The story of this corner, and of
other notable coffee booms and panics, is
told in more detail in chapter XXXI. '
Early Days of the Green Coffee Business.
For a long time New York was the only
important entry port for green coffee. Be-
fore the rise of New Orleans and San Fran-
cisco, many inland coffee roasters and gro-
cers had their own buyers in the New York
market. The coffee district that still clings
about lower Wall Street is rich in memories
of by-gone merchants who once were big
factors in the trade, and whose names, in
many instances, have been handed down
from generation to generation in the busi-
nesses that have survived them.
Any reference to the early days of the
green-coffee importing, jobbing, and bro-
kerage business in New York would not be
complete without mention of a few of the
pioneers :
P. C. Meehan is eighty-four years old at
the time of writing (1922) and is dean of
U. S. TRADE HISTORY
477
James H. Taylor H. Simmonds Edwin H. Peck P. C. Meehan
TuEiR Association with the New York Green Coffee Trade Dates Back Neai.ly Fifty Years
the New York green-coffee trade. With
James H. Briggs he formed the firm of
Briggs & Meehan. This later became Mee-
han & Schramm, with Arnold Schramm.
The latter withdrew, and the firm became
Creighton, Morrison & Meehan. Finally,
Mr. ]\Ieehan established the present firm of
P. C. Meehan & Co.
When Mr. Schramm withdrew from the
firm of Meehan & Schramm he founded the
house of Arnold Schramm, Inc. Upon his
retirement, this was succeeded by Sprague
& Rhodes, the firm being composed of Ben-
jamin Rhodes and Irvin A. Sprague.
Next oldest to P. C. Meehan in the New
York green-coffee trade is Clarence Creigh-
ton, who started with Youngs & Amman,
later C. Amman & Co., then Waite, Creigh-
ton & ]\Iorrison, then Creighton, Morrison
& Meehan. Upon the breaking up of this
firm, Mr. Creighton formed a partnership
with James Ashland, under the name of
Creighton & Ashland. He later operated
alone, and died August 15, 1922.
James H. Taylor is another *' old-timer"
who is still active. He began with T. T.
Barr & Co. Later, with F. T. Sherman, he
formed the firm of Sherman & Taylor.
When Mr. Sherman withdrew, the firm be-
came James H. Taylor & Co. Mr. Taylor
is now with Minford, Lueder & Co. He has
been five years president, eleven years
treasurer, and twenty-six years on the
board of governors of the New York Coffee
Excliange.
One of the most honored names in the
green coffee trade of New York is that of
Peck. Edwin H. Peck began, at the age of
seventeen years, with Hart & Howell, but-
ter and cheese merchants. He then went in
the same business for himself. Four years
later, he abandoned this to go into the
coffee brokerage business with his brother,
Walter J. Peck. In about five years, the
brothers branched into the coffee importing
and jobbing business under the firm name
of Edwin H. Peek & Co. Later it was
changed to the present style of E. H. & W.
J. Peck. Since the death of Walter J. Peck
in 1909, Edwin H, has conducted the busi-
ness. The latter was a member of the
board of governors of the New York Coffee
Exchange for twelve years, and has been
an important factor in the upbuilding of
that institution.
William D. Mackey began with Small
Bros. & Co. He then went into partner-
ship with C. K. Small as Mackey & Small.
Later, he formed the firm of Arnold,
Mackey & Co. with Francis B. Arnold. The
latter dropped out, and the firm became
Mackey & Co. He is now operating alone.
Mr. Mackey was another of the incorpora-
tors of the New York Coffee Exchange.
Alexander H. Purcell, a brother of Jo-
seph Purcell, entered the employ of Bowie
Dash & Co. as a boy. From there he went
to Williams, Russell & Co., then to the
Union Coffee Co., and later to Hard &
Rand. He is now head of the firm of Alex.
H. Purcell & Co.
Robert C. Stewart first became known
with Booth & Linsley. He later went with
Joseph J. 0 'Donohue & Sons, leaving there
to establish the present firm of R. C. Stew-
art & Co.
Another old-timer, Joseph D. Pickslay,
may be seen at his desk in Williams, Rus-
sell & Co.'s office every day, although
Frank Williams, who began with Win-
478
ALL ABOUT COFFEE
throp G. Ray & Co., and Frank C. Russell,
both of Williams, Chapin & Russell, and
then of Williams, Russell & Co., have
passed on. Fred P. Gordon, now head of
Fred P. Gordon & Co., was formerly with
Williams, Russell & Co.
The Mitchell brothers, William L. and
George, forming the firm of Mitchell Bros.,
have been familiar Front Street figures for
many years.
A. Wakeman, "the historian of the cof-
fee trade, " as he is often called, began with
Olendorf, Case & Gillespie. Later he went
with Thompson & Bowers, and then became
a member of the firm of Baiz & Wakeman.
He is now in business alone. For thirty-
eight years Mr. Wakeman has been secre-
tary of the Lov/er Wall Street Business
Men's Association. He is the author of
History and Reminiscences of Lower Wall
Street and Vicinity.
H. Simmonds, of Simmonds & Bayne;
later, of Simmonds & Newton ; then, of the
Brazil Coffee Co. ; and finally, of H. Sim-
monds & Co., is at the time of writing one
of the oldest coffee merchants on Front
Street, having been in business in Balti-
more and New York for more than fifty
years. He has a desk in the office of his
son, W. Lee Simmonds, of W. Lee Sim-
monds & Co.
Bayne is another well known Front
Street name. The firm of William Bayne
& Co. was established by William Bayne,
Sr., in Baltimore. The business was moved
to New York about 1885. The founder's
three sons, William, Jr., Daniel K., and L.
P., entered the employ of the firm in Balti-
more, and moved with it to New York,
Daniel K. Bayne became associated with
Henry Sheldon & Co., and later was a mem-
ber of Simmonds & Bayne. He then re-
turned to William Bayne & Co. and was
senior partner at the time of his death in
1915. William Bayne, Jr., for many years
one of the governors and a past-president
and vice-president of the New York' Coffee
Exchange, and his brother, L. P. Bayne,
now conduct the business.
John T. Foley, now of the Commercial
Coffee Co., began with Kirkland Bros.
From there he went to Ezra Wheeler & Co.,
then to H. W. Banks & Co., Thompson,
Shortridge & Co., and William Hosmer
Bennett & Son.
Joshua Walker formed a partnership
with James Stewart as Stewart & Walker.
Since the retirement of Mr. Stewart some
years ago, Mr. Walker has been in business
alone.
Three other veterans of the trade are still
in the harness : Louis Seligsberg, formerly
of Wolf & Seligsberg, is now alone ; Henry
Schaefer has been at the head of S. Gruner
& Co. since the death of Siegfried Gruner;
Col. William P. Roome, who operated for
some time as Wm. P. Roome & Co., is now
head of the coffee department of Acker.
Merrall & Condit Co.
Gregory B. Livierato, who founded the
business of Livierato Bros, at Port Said,
with branches at Aden and Marseilles, and
later at Hodeida and Harar. entered the
green coffee trade of New York in 1855, al-
though his L F Mocha marks had been in-
troduced here many years before. He re-
mained here for eighteen years, returned to
his home in Cephalonia, Greece, in 1904,
G. Kimball
Boston
James C. Russell
New York
James W. Phyfe
New York
C. E. Bickford
San Francisco
Gbeen Coffee Trade Builders Who Have Passed ox
U. S. TRADE HISTORY
479
I
and died there in 1905. His nephew, B. A.
Livierato, then assumed charge of the New
York coffee business, which in 1913 became
the Livierato-Kidde Co., with B. A. Livie-
rato and Frank Kidde.
Benjamin Green Arnold, one-time "cof-
fee king," first became well known as a
member of Arnold, Sturgess & Co., after-
ward B, G. Arnold & Co. Mr. Arnold was
one of the incorporators, and the first pres-
ident, of the New York Coffee Exchange.
Francis B. Arnold, with Arnold, Sturgess
& Co., later of Arnold, Mackey & Co., after-
ward Arnold, Dorr & Co., was a son of Ben-
jamin Greene Arnold ; and to him and to
Major John R. McNulty belongs a great
part of the credit for the organization of
the New York Coffee Exchange. Major
McNulty was with Minford, Thompson &
Co., and then formed the firm of J. R. Mc-
Nulty & Co.
Bowie Dash, a member of the famous Ar-
nold-Kimball-Dash triumvirate, began with
Scott & Meiser, later Scott, Meiser & Co.,
then Scott & Dash, afterward Scott, Dash
& Co., and finally Bowie Dash & Co. Other
well known men with this last company
were L. F. Mason, A. C. Foster, S. L, Swa-
zey, L. J. Purdy, and John B. Overton.
Then there were : Rufus G. Story ; Thom-
as Minford, Francis Skiddy, and George J.
Nevers, of Skiddy, Minford & Co.; W. D.
Thompson, of Minford, Thompson & Co..
later L. W. Minford & Co., afterward Min-
ford, Lueder & Co., Thompson, Shortridg3
& Co., later Thompson Bros., then Thomp-
son & Davis; John Randall, with L. W.
Minford & Co., later with J. C. Runkle &
Co.; Eugene and James O 'Sullivan of
Eugene 0 'Sullivan & Co.
The following names figured prominent-
ly in the trade's early history: Charles
Maguire, of James H. Taylor & Co. ; George
F. Gilman, organizer of the Great Ameri-
can Tea Co. and of the Great Atlantic &
Pacific Tea Co.; H. W. Banks, of Reeve,
Case & Banks, afterward of Stanton, Shel-
don & Co., later Sheldon, Banks & Co., and
then of H. W. Banks & Co. ; Henry Shel-
don, of Stanton, Sheldon & Co., later Shel-
don, Banks & Co.; and then Henry Shel-
don & Co. ; "William McCready, with Small
Bros. & Co., later with H. W. Banks & Co.,
and then with B. H. Howell, Son & Co. ,
C. R. Blakeman, with Gross, March & Co.,
afterward with Wm. Scott's Sons & Co.;
William Scott, of William Scott & Sons,
later "Wm. Scott's Sons & Co., including
George W. Vanderhoef, who later succeed-
ed to the business under the name of
George "W, Vanderhoef & Co. ; Christopher
and Leander S. Risley, of C. Risley & Co. ;
and Charles Naphew, with C. Risley &
Co., later with Edwin H. Peck & Co.
Another group of old-timers includes:
William Newbold, with Ezra Wheeler &
Co., later alone; Augustus Ireland, with
Ezra Wheeler & Co.; J. M. Edwards, of
Edwards & Maddux, later of J. M. Ed-
wards & Co. ; Frank M. Anthony, of J. M.
Edwards & Co.; H. Clay Maddux, one of
the incorporators of the New York Coffee
Exchange, of Edwards & Maddux; Baron
Thomsen, of Thomsen & Co. ; Gustave Am-
sinck. of G. Amsinck & Co. ; James N. Jar-
vie, with Small Bros. & Co., later of Ar-
William Bayne
New York
George W. Grossman
New York
George Westfeldt
New Orleans
Wm. H. Bennett
New York
Their Race Is Run, Their Course Is Done
480
ALL ABOUT COFFEE
^■■■liT^tti^LlJAMsll^^HHI
1^' ' T. ^,» ¥
p^^^^^^'
5 -S^
|i^- ^'
1
f
1'
™*5
Bg
112 Front Street, New York, ix 1879
A group of oldtime green coffee men, including R.
C. Stewart, J. D. Picltslay, Frank Williams,
Charks P. Chapin, and Fred P. Gordon
buckle • Bros. ; John C. Lloyd, of John C.
Lloyd & Co., afterward with Arbuckle
Bros. ; John Small, of Smalls & Bacon, la-
ter Small Bros. & Co. ; Williamson Bacon,
of Smalls & Bacon, afterward of William-
son Bacon & Co. ; C. K. Small, of Mackey
& Small, Anson Wales Hard and George
Rand, of Hard & Rand; Joseph Purcell,
first of W. J. Porter & Co., and then of
Hard & Rand ; Henry F. McCreery, with
O 'Shaughnessy & Sorley, later of Hard &
Rand ; William Sorley and John W.
O 'Shaughnessy, of 0 'Shaughnessy & Sor-
ley, Mr. 0 'Shaughnessy later forming
John W. 0 'Shaughnessy & Co., and Mr.
Sorley going to Hard & Rand. Mr. Sorley
was one of the incorporators of the New
York Coffee Exchange.
Special mention should be made of :
Kirkland & von Sacks ; A. Kirkland, one of
the incorporators of the New York Coffee
Exchange, with Small Bros. & Co., then
with W. J. Kirkland as Kirkland Bros.,
and, upon the dissolution of that firm, with
F. H. Leggett & Co. ; Thomas Rutter & Co. ;
Teacle Wallace Lewis, with Rowland, Hum-
phreys & Co., later head of the coffee de-
partment of Carter, Macy & Co., and still
later, head of T. W. Lewis & Co. ; Abraham
Sanger, of Sanger, Beers & Fisher, later
Sanger & Wells; J. W. Wilson & Co.;
Dykes & Wilson ; Peter, John, and Joseph
J. 0 'Donohue, of John 0 'Donohue 's Sons ;
Joseph J. 0 'Donohue & Sons; Otis W.
Booth, of Booth & Linsley ; A. G. Hildreth :
James H. Kirby, of B. G. Arnold & Co.,
later of Kirby, Halstead & Chapin, after-
ward Kirby & Halstead ; Major Henry D.
Tyler ; Thomas H. Messenger & Co. ; Har-
vey H. Palmer, of H. H. Palmer & Co. ; B.
0. Bowers, of Wilson & Bowers, later
Thompson & Bowers; and August Haeuss-
ler, first with C. Risley & Co., then with J.
H. Labaree & Co., and finally with the
green coffee department of Geo. H. McFad-
den & Brother.
John Hanley, with Carey & Co., later of
Hanley & Kinsella, St. Louis; Robert C.
Hewitt, Jr., who wrote one of the early
books on coffee {Coffee, its History, Culti-
vation, and Uses, 1872), of Hewitt & Phyfe,
later Jas. W. Phyfe & Co. ; James W. Phyfe
of Hewitt & Phyfe, later Jas. W. Phyfe &
Co. ; Daniel A. Shaw, of Jas. W. Phyfe &
Co. ; B. Lahey, of Jas. W. Phyfe & Co. ; and
Winthrop G. Ray & Co.
These names, too, will live long in green
coff'ee history: Reid, Murdock & Fischer,
New York and Chicago ; Charles A. and
Watts Miller, and David Palmer, of D. J.
Ely & Co., formerly D. J. & Z. S. Ely Co.,
New York and Baltimore; Harrv Miller,
with D. J. Ely & Co., later of Miller & Wal-
bridge ; Augustus Walbridge, of Smith &
Walbridge, afterward Augustus M. Wal-
bridge, Inc. ; Clarence Smith, of M. V. R.
Smith 's Sons, later of Smith & Walbridge ;
Stevens, Armstrong & Hartshorn, later
Stevens & Armstrong, then Stevens Bros. &
Co., and finally Reamer, Turner & Co., in-
eluding Abraham Reamer, Sr., and William
F. Turner.
Other familiar old-time names were :
George W. Pritchard, of George W. Prit-
chard & Sons ; Dayton & Co. ; Dimond &
At 87 Wall Street, N. Y., Years Ago
Among the green coffee men in this picture are
Clarence Creighton, John Enright, Chris Arndt.
W. Lee Simmonds, John Ashlin, F. Loderose,
Julius Steinwender, and Clinton Whiting
U. S. TRADE HISTORY
WALL AND FRONT STREETS, NEW YORK, SPRING OF 1922
Looking up Wall Street from the East River. The first cross street Is Front; beyond are to be seen the Mun-
son. Stock Exchange, and Bankers' Trust Conipanj-'s buildings, with Trinity Church marking the Broad-
way gateway
482
ALL A B OUT COFFEE
Lally, later Dimond & Gardes; Arthur W.
Brown ; Robert Russell, of Russell & Co. ; J.
F. Pupke and Thomas Reid, of Pupke &
Reid, later Eppens, Smith & Wiemann,
afterward Eppens, Smith & Co., with Wil-
liam H. and Frederick P. Eppens; Joseph
A. O'Brien, with Pupke & Reid, and later
in business for himself; R. P. McBride, of
the Union Pacific Tea Co. ; Ripley Ropes ;
Saportas Bros. ; Mayer Bros. & Co, of Ham-
burg, with Moses G. Hanauer, manager,
and D. K. Young and Herman Hanauer,
salesmen ; H. M. Humphreys, with J. W.
Doane & Co., later with Arbuckle Bros. ;
Henry Nordlinger, of Henry Nordlinger &
Co. ; Charles Campbell, of W. R. Grace &
Co. ; D. A. DeLima, of D. A. & J. DeLima,
lr*er D. A. DeLima & Co.; Henry Kun-
h'-, dt and George F. Kuhlke, of Kunhardt
& Co. ; Boulton, Bliss & Dallett, later Bliss,
Dallett & Co., general managers of the Red
D line of steamships ; Prendergast Bros. ;
W. B|. and George W. Crossman, of W. H.
Cros^rdan & Bros., later Crossman & Siel-
cken;%vith Hermann Sielcken, afterward
Sorenson & Nielson ; F. Probst & Co. ; H.
H. Swift & Co. ; J. L. Phipps & Co. ; James
Bennett and Joseph Becker, of Bennett &
Becker; and Arnold, Hines & Co. (Dia-
mond A Mocha), later Arnold, Cheney &
Company,
Honorable mention should be accorded :
Samuel Wilde (Old Dutch Mills) ; John
Phoenix, with Husted, Ferguson & Titus,
later of J, W, Phoenix & Co, ; H, K. Thur-
ber, of H. K, & F. B, Thurber & Co, ; Mi-
chael Barnicle, with Walter Storm, later
Storm, Smith & Co,, then Abbey, Freeman
& Co., then with Husted, Wetmore & Titus,
and finally alone; August Stumpp, of
August Stumpp & Co. ; J. K. and E. B.
Place ; Beards & Cummings, later Beards &
Cottrell, then S. S. Beard & Co. ; Philip and
Henry Dater, of Philip Dater & Co. ; Hugh
Edwards, of Edwards & Raworth ; William
Bennett, of Wm. Hosmer Bennett & Son;
Kalman Haas, of Haas Bros. ; J. C. Runkle
& Co. ; Thomas T. Barr and Fred T. Sher-
man, of Barr, Lally & Co., later T. T. Barr
& Co.; Henry Hentz & Co.; Elmenhorst &
Co.; A. S, Lascelles & Co.; D. Henderson
(Harry) and John Wells, of Wells Bros.;
G. Weyl & Co., later Norton, Weyl & Be-
ven, and then Weyl & Norton; Warren &
Co. ; J, H, Labaree & Co, ; Schultz & Ruck-
gaber; Henry Eyre; Rowland, Terry &
Humphreys, later Rowland & Humphreys;
Bentley, Benton & Co. ; Winter & Smilie ;
Weston & Gray; John S. Wright, one of
the incorporators of the New York Coffee
Exchange, of Wright, Hard & Co, ; Watjen,
Toel & Co.; A, Behrens & Co.; "Steve"
Matheson, of S. Matheson, Jr. & Co.; C.
Wessels & Bros., later Wessels, Kulen-
kampff & Co., and finally Fromm & Co. ;
Julius Steinwender, of Steinwender, Stoff-
regen & Co. ; Leon Israel, of Leon Israel &
Bros, ; Herklotz, Corn & Co, ; Ponfold,
Schuyler & Co.; Maitland, Phelps & Co,,
later Maitland, Coppell & Co, ; F, H, Leg-
gett, of F, H. Leggett & Co.; Carhart &
Brother; George W, Flanders, of George
W. Flanders & Co.; Jonas P. O'Brien;
George S. Wallen, of George S. Wallen &
Co. ; Charles F. Blake, of Blake & Bullard ;
and Martin J. Glynn, of McDonald &
Glynn , later Martin J. Glynn & Co., w^ho
had their office at Front Street and Old
Slip for twenty -five years.
Three other names closely associated
with the early days of the New York green-
coffee trade were : Glover, Force & Co,,
later Waterbury & Force, then W. H.
Force & Co,, and finally W. S, Force & Co,,
weighers and forwarders; Daniel Reeve, of
Reeve & Van Riper, mixers and hullers;
and John H. Draper & Co., auctioneers.
Growth of the Leading Coffee Ports
Twenty-two years ago, when the century
opened, New York passed over her docks a
total of 676,000,000 pounds of coffee,
which represented eighty-six percent of the
total for the country. In 1920, juggling the
figures a little, she imported 767,000,000
pounds, which was fifty-nine percent of the
total. While she was thus practically mark-
ing time, she watched New Orleans run
wild with an increase from 44,000,000
pounds to 380,000,000 pounds, or 763 per-
cent gain; this meaning also the supplying
of twenty-nine percent of the country's de-
mands instead of five percent, while San
Francisco in the same time jumped from
24,000,000 pounds to 137,000,000 pounds,
or 470 percent gain, her share of the total
trade now being ten" percent instead of
three percent in 1900, These gains, how-
ever, have not all been made at the expense
of the city on the Hudson, In 1900, Balti-
more was a close rival of New Orleans and
was far ahead of all other ports except New
York; but a decline in her imports began
U. S. TRADE HISTORY
483
IvOOKiNG South from Wall Street into the Heart ov the Green Coffee District
On the left-hand corner is Hard & Rand's, opposite Leon Israel & Bros.' building, and beyond are many
other leading green coffee firms.
LooKiNci North fro.m Wall Strkkt. Here a Few Well K.now .n Coifee Fir m.s Are Located
The trend of the trade is south from Wall St. rather than north
FRONT STREET, NEW YORK'S GREEN COFFEE DISTRICT, IN 1922
484
ALL ABOUT COFFEE
Imports of Coffee at Leading Ports of Entry
New York New Orleans
Pounds Pounds
1900 676,227,269 44,335,717
1913 5o4,o71,449 263,382,962
1914 633,400,209 308,008,145
1915 758,160,133 307,868,932
1916 814,394,074 308,513,290
1917 932,098,113 274,989,692
1918 779,025,781 219,330,461
1918* 757.710,001 146,621,857
1919* 804,177,446 356,608,477
1920* 767,242,636 380,293,701
1921* 790,559,919 331,036,770
*Calt'nclar years. All others fiscal years.
IN THE United States
San Francisco
Pounds
24,562,578
36,067,073
46,721,824
45,844,060
71,346,788
97,821,069
134,729,019
130,178,288
160,426,467
137,043,281
139,069,286
Total imports
Pounds
787,991,911
863,130,757
1,001,528,317
1,118,690,524
1,201,104,485
1,319,870,802
1,143,890,889
1,052,201,501
1,333,564,067
1,297,439,310
1,340,979,776
about 1903, and was so swift, that five
years later her imports were almost negli-
gible.
New Orleans began her advance at about
the same time that Baltimore began to fall
off, so that her rise to a place of importance
as a coffee port has been practically coinci-
dent with the twentieth century. Her first
big step upward was in 1901, from 44,000,-
000 to 72,000,000 pounds, and was followed
by another the next year to 115,000,000.
Thereafter there was a steady gain to 213,-
000,000 pounds in 1906 and to 301,000,000
pounds in 1910, and after that wide fluctu-
ations, especially during the war. In 1918,
doubtless because of the draining of ship-
ping to the North Atlantic service, there
was a heavy slump ; but immediately after
the war, in the calendar year 1919, there
was a big jump to a record mark, up to that
time, of 356,000,000 pounds. This was fol-
lowed by the record of 380,000,000 pounds
in the calendar year 1920, although the
1921 figure of 331,036,770 shows a falling
off of nearly 50,000,000 pounds.
San Francisco's growth, on the other
hand, is of recent occurrence. The story is
told farther along in this chapter, how the
city was definitely placed on the coffee map
by the provision of adequate shipping fa-
cilities to Central America. The outbreak
of the war in Europe, however, which
loosened the grip of European nations on
the coffee crops of Central America, was
the prime cause of San Francisco's rise in
the coffee world, affording her an opportu-
nity of which she had the enterprise to take
full advantage. In 1913, her imports were
only about 36,000,000 pounds, at which
mark they had stood for many years.
There was only a slight gain until 1916,
when 71,000,000 pounds were recorded ; but
this increased to 97,000,000 pounds in 1917,
to 134,000,000 pounds in 1918 (fiscal year),
and to 160,000,000 pounds in the calendar
year 1919. In 1920, there was a falling off
to 137,000,000 pounds, and it may be that
the high figure reached the year before rep-
resents about the maximum that her natur-
al market, the Pacific-coast region, can well
absorb.
For the benefit of those who like to do
their own interpreting of figures, we pre-
sent in the table at the top of this page the
official record for recent years.
The leading importers of Brazil coffee di-
rect to New York and Baltimore in 1894,
as compiled by William H. Force & Co.,
were as follows. Included in this list are a
number of names well known in the green
and roasted coffee trades of other cities:
Direct Importers of Brazil Coffee
New York, 189 Jf
Bags
Arbuckle Bros 688,726
W. H. Grossman & Bro 355.864
Hard & Rand .345.541
W. F. McLaughlin & Co 227.935
J. W. Doane & Co 207,170
Steinwender, Stoffregen Co 132,482
J. L. Phipps & Co 54,617
Dannemillers & Co 49,449
E. Levering & Co 47.322
Aug. Stumpp 44,959
Thomson & Taylor Spice Co 44.017
G. Amsinck & Co 38,350
E. H. & W. J. Peck 33,278
.7. H. Labaree & Co 32,071
Fitch & Howland 31,515
Shinkle. Wilson & Kreis Go 25.951
C. D. Lathrop & Co 23.263
Taylor & Levering 21,501
Heinrich Haase 18.976
William T. Levering 18,796
T. G. Lurman & Co 18,017
Elmenhorst & Co 16,22]
U. S. TRADE HISTORY
485
Sprague. Warnor & Co 14,856
Sorver, Damon & Co 14,675
Sutton & Vansaut 13,957
John O'Donohue's Sons 13,681
Hoffman, Lee & Co 13,598
S. K. Alexander 12,805
Eppens, Smith & Wiemann Co 12,719
Haker & Young 11,906
Ilanley & Kinsella C. & S. Co 11,318
Durand & Kasper Co 11.124
Wm. Schotten & Co 11,005
C. G. Bullard & Co 10,653
H. W. Banks & Co 10,351
Ellis Bros 10,282
.lacol) Baiz 9,146
A. Lueder & Co 8,492
C. F. Pitt & Sons 8,262
G. F. Gillman 7,927
Bell. Conrad & Co 6,528
N. Martin & Co 6,507
J. B. O'Donolme & Co 6,102
Steele. Wedeles Co 5,700
G. O. Gordon 5,550
Sherman Bros. & Co 4,998
F. MacVeagh & Co 4,763
Benedict & Co 4,717
Chase & Sanhorn 4,505
West & Melchers 4,500
Mokaska Mfg. Co 4,013
Haebler & Co 4.000
Robt. Crooks & Co 3,509
M. M. Levy & Co 3,037
J. A. Tolman Co 3,004
Tracy & Avery Co 3,000
Wells Bros 2,800
Ivirhy, Halsted & Chapin Co 2.754
W. M. Hoyt Co 2,252
Gt. A. & P. Tea Co 2.250
Foote & Knevals 2,000
L. W. Minford & Co 1,800
Wm. Bayne & Co 1 J55
Indiana Coffee Co 1,650
\V. Is:. Carson & Co 1,501
Miller, Smith & Co 1,500
Rufus Woods 1,498
J. G. Flint 1,345
Davenport & Morris 1,250
Canada 1,140
Westfeldt Bros 1,000
Edw. W^esten T. & S. Co 800
Corbln. May & Co 750
F. Cannon & Co fil8
Adam Roth Gro. Co 500
Scudder. Gale Gro. Co 500
.J. IL Taylor & Co 500
Wm. B. Willson 500
Dwinell. W^right & Co 500
Swift. Billings & Co 500
New Orleans Coffee Co 500
B. Fischer & Co 401
Smith & Sehipper 300
riman. T^wis & Co 281
Ridenour. Baker Gro. Co 250
W. IT. Minor 250
Nave & :\IcCord Merc. Co 202
Skiddy. Minford & Co 1^^
Rossbach & Bro 184
L. Wolff 149
Reimers & Meyer 50
W. F. Jackson 5
Total 2.791,642
Direct Importers of Brazil Coffee
Baltimore, 189Jf
Bags
E. Levering & Co 40,965
T. G. Lurman & Co 29,325
C. M. Stewart & Co 25,499
Thornton Rollins 21,436
William T. Levering 15,884
Steinwender, Stoffregen 12,852
W. B. Willson 11,540
Hoffman, Lee & Co 8,953
Rufus Woods 8,020
P. t. George & Co 7,403
Taylor & Levering 6,440
Benedict & Co > 5,434
Brazil Trading Co 2,666
C. F. Pitt & Sons 2,505
J. W. Doane & Co 2,500
Enterprise Coffee Co 1,811
H. M. Wagner & Co 504
C. D. Lathrop & Co 503
Mokaska Manufacturing Co 500
Hanley & Kinsella C. & S. Co 500
Shinkle, Wilson & Kreis Co 404
G. Amsinck & Co 400
Indiana Coffee Co 251
Total 206,355
Early Days of Green Coffee in New Orleans
The history of New Orleans as a coffee
port may be considered as beginning with
the transfer of Louisiana by Napoleon Bon-
aparte to the United States in 1803. In
this year, according to Martin 's History of
Louisiana, New Orleans imported 1438
bags of coffee of 132 pounds each. In the
latter part of the eighteenth century, set-
tlers in large numbers had crossed the Al-
legheny Mountains from the Atlantic states
into the valley of the Ohio River; and
their crops of grain and provisions were
exported by means of cheaply constructed
rafts and boats, which were floated down
the river to New Orleans, where they were
generally broken up and spld for use as
lumber and firewood — there being, at that
time, no power available for propelling
them back against the current of the river.
From 1803 until 1820, on account of the
difficulty of navigating upstream, New Or-
leans imports did not increase as rapidly as
exports. In 1814, however, the fir.st crude
steamboat had begun to carry freight on
the river; and by 1820, the supremacy of
New Orleans as the gateway of the Missis-
sippi Valley had been for the time estab-
lished by this new means of transportation.
The coffee-importing business flourished;
and, from its modest beginning in 1803,
grew to 531,236 bags in 1857.
486
ALL ABOUT COFFEE
By this time, however, New Orleans had
begun to feel the competition of the Erie
Canal, and of the systems of east and west
railroad lines which had been in the course
of active construction during the preceding
fifteen years. The railroad systems which
had as their ports Boston, New York, Phil-
adelphia, and Baltimore, entered upon a
desperate war of freight rates, each in the
endeavor to establish the supremacy of its
own port. As the building of railroads had
been entirely east and west, and no large
amount of capital had been invested in
north and south lines, much of the business
of the valley was diverted to the Atlantic
ports, apparently never to return to New
Orleans.
In 1862, on account of the blockade of
the port, not a bag of coffee was imported
through New Orleans, and practically none
came in until the year 1866, when the
small amount of 55,000 bags was the total
for the year. At about this time, Boston
and Philadelphia became negligible import-
ing quantities; the business of Baltimore
continued to be quite prosperous ; and New
York rapidly increased her imports and
took the commanding position.
In the New Orleans Coffee District
New Orleans had increased her coffee im-
ports to 250,000 bags in 1871, and the year-
ly imports continued at about this figure
until the last decade of the century, when
the business began to expand. The imports
had reached a total of 337,000 bags in 1893-
1894; and of 373,000 in 1896-97. This
was the beginning of a new era, and the
coffee business of New Orleans entered
upon the period of its greatest growth. Im-
ports were 514,000 bags in 1900-01, and
were slightly more than twice that by 1903-
04. In 1909 - 10 the imports had again
doubled, and had reached a total for the
twelve months ending July 1, 1909, of
slightly more than 2,000,000 bags; while
the figures for the calendar year 1909 to-
taled 2,500,000 bags.
Borino & Bro., 77 Gravier Street, were
the largest importers of coffee in New Or-
leans in 1869. The principal importers in
1880 were P. Poursine & Co., Westfeldt
Bros., Dymond & Gardes, Schmidt & Zieg-
ler, J. L. Phipps & Co., Geo. 0. Gordon &
Co., and Smith Bros.
Shipments were by sailing vessels, a full
cargo being about 5000 bags. Fancy grades,
like Golden Rios, washed and peaberries,
were shipped in double bags. Musty coffees
were common, and every bag in a cargo
was sampled for must. S. Jackson was first
to issue regular manifests. With the entry
of steamers into the coffee transport busi-
ness. New Orleans was placed at a disad-
vantage as steamer rates were about twenty
cents a bag higher to New Orleans than to
New York, and imports were limited. The
subsequent revival of the business was due
largely to Hard & Rand. Being unable to
obtain steamer rates equal to those quoted
in New York, Hard & Rand chartered
steamers for New Orleans; and soon the
trade began to offer cost and freight to New
Orleans, and the business grew from about
350,000 bags of green coffee per annum to
2,500,000 bags.
One of the best remembered names in the
green coffee trade of New Orleans is that
of Charles Dittman (1848-1920), Avho for
nearly fifty years was one of the leading
coffee commission merchants of the coun-
try. Mr. Dittman entered the coffee busi-
ness with Napier & Co., representing E.
Johnston & Co., of Rio de Janeiro. In 1875,
upon the death of Mr. Napier, the firm
changed to Johnston, Gordon & Co., later
to G. 0. Gordon, and in 1886 to the Charles
U. S. TRADE HISTORY
487
A Section of the Gbeen Coffee District of New Orleans
Most of the buildings shown here are occupied by green coffee importing houses. The one on the right
with the balconies is the old Board of Trade Building
Dittmann Co. Since his death in 1920, the
business has been continued by F. V. Al-
lain and Charles Dittmann, Jr.
Green Coffee in San Francisco
In the early days of the green coffee busi-
ness in San Francisco these names stood
out as most important among the coffee im-
porters: Hellmann Bros, & Co., Monte-
alegre & Co., E. L. G. S. Steele & Co., and
Urruella & Urioste.
From their many friends in Central
America, they, and others in their line, ob-
tained small consignments that were bought
by the roasters according to their imme-
diate needs. Often as many as five or six
buyers would share in a parcel of fifty
bags, as they were not in the custom of fil-
ling up the larder for days of want. There
always seemed to be sufficient for every
one, and bull movements and corners had
not then become the vogue.
Just as today, the mainstays of the early
San Francisco trade were coffees produced
in Costa Rica, Salvador, and Guatemala, al-
though some were brought from the Colima
district of Mexico. The broker had a com-
paratively easy job in selling his wares.
Samples of the lots would be given to him
in carefully sealed glass bottles, and usual-
ly the buyer would trust his discerning eye
to judge correctly the quality of the goods,
not even taking the trouble to uncork the
bottle. Size, color, and imperfections would
be his criterion.
The leading coffee importers at San
Francisco in 1875 were B. E. Auger & Co.,
409 Battery ; S. A. Carit & Co., 405 Front
Street ; Hellman Bros. & Co., 525 Front
Street : Adolphe Low & Co., 208 California
Street; S. C. Merrill & Co., 204 California
Street; Parrott & Co., 306 California
Street; and Urruella & Urioste, 405 Front
Street.
The annual consumption of green coffee
in San Francisco in the early eighties was
estimated at 100,000 bags.
A marked change in the coffee business
of San Francisco was brought about by the
discovery that the differences in the taste
of coffees could not be accurately detected
from their color or from the size of bean.
To Clarence E. Bickford belongs the credit
of having discovered the cup qualities of
high-grown Central American coffees. He
was employed at the time by a broker named
Hockhofler, and probably did not realize
what far-reaching effect his discovery
would have on the future of San Francis-
co's coffee trade; but no other factor has
488
ALL ABOUT COFFEE
contributed so much to its growth. When
the roasters began to examine coffees for
their taste, values were of course revolu-
tionized. Antiguas, and other high-grown
coffees, that had theretofore been penalized
for the small size of bean, soon brought a
premium, and have ever since been in great
demand, it goes .without saying that the
new classification , was of material assist-
ance to the roasters in bettering their out-
put, as blending was th^n put on. a scien-
tific basis.
About the middle of the nineties San
Francisco began to function as a distribut-
ing center, and shipments were made from
there to St. Loifis and Cincinnati. The se-
lection of coffees on their oup merit M^as un-
doubtedly a factor of considerable import-
ance in creating new outlets ; althoT|gh it is
generally conceded that the winning per-
sonality of C. E. Bickford helped consider-
ably. Mr. Bickford, by this time, had suc-
ceeded his former employer. He served the
trade by living up to the best standards of
business practise until his death in 1908;
when the institution he founded was con-
Califorxia Street, the Coffee-Trading Center
OF San Francisco
tinned by E. H. O'Brien under the name
of C. E. Bickford & Co.
San Francisco imported 175,293 bags of
coffee in 1900. Imports had grown to 256,-
183 bags hy 1906 ; and the following were
the leading importers, as taken from a com-
pilation by C. E. Bickford & Co. :
Importers of Coffee by Sea
San Francisco, 1906
Bags
Haas Bros 38,947
Otis, McAllister & Co .34342
.Tno. T. Wright 21J41
Geo. A. Mooi*e & Co ' ' it'soI
Castle Bros 17^397
Lastreto & Co :>*\ ..... . Is'eOd
Bloom Bros [ 14 372
W. R. Grace & Co 14,143
Baruch & Co 9,400
Schwartz Bros 7 310
Dieckmann & Co 6*981
H. Hackfeld & Co., Ltd '..'.'.'. 4,460
M. J. Brandenstein & Co 4,281
Urioste »& Co 4081
Goldtree, X/iebes & Co 3,96'^
J. Z. Posadas s,9iiO
Mohns-Frese Com. Co 3 714
Welch & Co 3;385
Thannhauser & Co 3,328
E. Mejia [ 2',965
Hind, Rolph & Co 2.814
Hellmanii Bros. »& Co 2^170
Parrott & Co 2,137
J. A. Folger & Co 2^094
S. L. Jones & Co 2*042
Ariza & Lombard 1^133
Hamberger - Polhemus Co lio96
Theo. H. Davies & Co., Ltd 955
Livierato Freres 927
J. D. Spreckels & Bros. Co 828
jMcCarthy Bros 795
W. Loaiza <& Co 642
Wm. Halla 591
H. W. Bnrmester 582
Williams. Diniond & Co 399
M. Phillips & Co 381
Alexander & Baldwin 358
London. Paris & Am. Bank, Ltd 333
P. J. Knudsen Co 309
Ballon & Cosgrove 300
M. Schweitzer & Co 300
.Tohnson - Locke Merc. Co 270
The Lewin - Mej"er Co 250
Sperr.v Flonr Co 231
Canadian Bank of Commerce 200
Porto Rico Coffee Co 148
McChesney & Sons 145
Bowring »Sk Co 145
China & Java Export Co 140
John Weissman 126
Montealegre & Co 120
W. H. Miller 109
Maldonado & Co 105
De Fremery & Co 100
Sundries t583
Total 256,183
U. S. TRADE HISTORY
489
Bird's Eye View of San Fkancisco's Coffee District
The imports of green coffee at San Fran-
cisco in 1914 - 15 amounted to about 400,-
000 bags. The beginning of the World War
was almost coincidental with an energetic
campaign waged by San Francisco coffee
interests to popularize Central American
coffees, an^ particularly Guatemalas, in
this country. The time was well chosen, as
the world's exposition at San Francisco of-
fered a good opportunity to acquaint the
public with the fine qualities of Guatemala
growths. Furthermore, it was necessary to
create new markets for these coffees, which
in former years had been very extensively
used in Europe. Figures shQW that San
Francisco's efforts were crowned with suc-
cess. In 1916, the importation increased by
fifty percent; and in 1917, importations
were double those of 1915. In 1918, a total
of nearly 1,000,000 bags was reached ; and
this mark was passed by almost 200,000 in
1919. In 1920, 971,567 bags were imported.
The origin of San Francisco's fight for
control of Central American coffee dates
back to the years 1908 to 1910, when the
German Kosmos Line was fighting the Pa-
cific Mail for the Central and South
American shipping business. W. R. Grace
& Co., at that time, were already the heav-
iest shippers of American merchandise to
the Latin-American countries; and while
their own steamers were not touching at
Central American ports, they were hand-
ling merchandise from the IJnited States
and nitrates from the South American
countries in their own bottoms, and were
also engaged as general carriers for that
trade. The fight directed by the Kosmos
Line against the Pacific Mail, which at that
time was under the control of the Southern
Pacific Company, was accordingly directed
against the Grace interests also, so far as
South American countries were concerned.
The fight was long and bitter, and costly to
both sides. At times, the contenders Of-
fered to take freight, not only without
charge, but to pay the shipper a premium
for the privilege of carrying his freight.
490
ALL ABOUT COFFEE
Differences were finally settled in confer-
ence; but the experience taught the Amer-
ican interests that they could survive in
any territory only if at all times they were
able to provide their own cargoes for their
own boats, as had been accoiiiplished with
nitrate in South America. J. H. Rosseter,
the Grace manager, who later became well
known as director of operations of the
United States Shipping Board during the
war, undertook an extended trip to Central
America in 1912 to study the situation at
close range. There was only one product
of Central America that was available in
cargo quantities, namely coffee ; and natur-
ally his attention was drawn to the possi-
bility of carrying coffee to San Francisco
to provide return cargoes for ships of the
Pacific Mail, or associated lines, carrying
merchandise for the Central American
countries.
While in Guatemala, Mr. Rosseter out-
lined a future policy in regard to Cen-
tral American coffees; the basis being his
firm determination that coffees grown in
Central America, and logically and geo-
graphically tributary to San Francisco dis-
tribution, should come to San Francisco
in largely increasing quantities.
Up to that time San Francisco had re-
ceived, on an average, only 200,000 bags
of Central American coffee annually for
the ten preceding years ; while Europe had
received about 1,500,000 bags a year. The
quantity necessary to make San Francisco
a factor would call for an importation, on
an average, of 750,000 bags — a quantity
almost four times as large as then estab-
lished.
This was an extremely ambitious under-
taking, considering the conditions then pre-
vailing in Central America. European
countries were firmly entrenched in the
coffee business in Central America, with
Germany leading in Guatemala, France in
Salvador and Nicaragua, England and
France contending for superiority in Costa
Rica, and the United States getting only
the leavings.
The European countries held their po-
sition in the Central American Coft'ee trade
by liberal financing, and a thorough knowl-
edge of the varying qualities of coffee pro-
duced on the different plantations. San
Francisco, the only important port in the
United States dealing in Central American
coffees, had neither strong financial en-
trenchment in Central America nor expert
knowledge of coffee quality. Year after
year, San Francisco merchants had depend-
ed on consignments chosen by, the con-
signors. This rendered quality selection of
coffees by the importers impossible.
Rosseter, being primarily a steamship
man, tackled the proposition from the
standpoint of transportation, figuring that
if he could establish and maintain prefer-
ential steamer service to San Francisco,
and steady freight rates, a great step
would be accomplished toward the desired
end. This led to his interest in the Pacific
Mail Company, of which the final outcome
was his present position as vice-president
of the reorganized Pacific Mail Company,
In that capacity he maintained, practically
throughout the entire period of the World
War, freight rates on coffee from Central
America to San Francisco that gave that
Pacific port an immediate and definite
advantage.
This gave merchants in San Francisco
the chance to build up a steady trade, and
prevented other ports in the United States
from entering into serious competition with
San Francisco as a distributing point for
Central American coffees. The view taken
by Rosseter was as far-sighted as it was
broad. He argued that with the end of
the war there would be no strength in a
scattering distribution of Central Ameri-
can coffees by New York, New Orleans, and
San Francisco;' and the only promise of
maintenance of the business for the United
States would be in maintaining unity of
distribution in one port of the United
States, namely San Francisco.
The first year open to European compe-
tition after the war showed that. San Fran-
cisco was well able to maintain its lead
in Central American coffees. Today, the
mortgages formerly held by European mer-
chants on the native coffee plantations, and
the control thereby of the produce of these
plantations, are in the hands of American
merchants; and what is more, out of gen-
eral merchandising and importing by mer-
chants of San Francisco there have devel-
oped expert coffee departments in all of
the larger houses. The years of the war
brought the product of virtually all planta-
tions in Central America to the intimate
knowledge of these expert coffee depart-
ments; and today the advantage that Eu-
rope formerly had — of knowing exactly
U. S. TRADE HISTORY
491
what a specific plantation produced — is
possessed by San Francisco merchants.
This is no small advantage when we con-
sider that in Guatemala and Costa Rica,
qualities vary from plantation to planta-
tion, and that often on adjoining planta-
tions there is from three to five cents a
pound difference in quality, from the
standpoint of cup merit.
One can not buy coffee in Central Amer-
ica as in Brazil, as these countries are not
highly organized commercially, and the im-
porters here are forced to assume the role
of the Brazilian commisario and banker.
The crop has to be financed from six to
nine months before it is brought to the
port; and the securities covering such ad-
vances are at best of questionable value,
on account of political insecurity, and the
ever-threatening earthquakes, and the un-
certainty of the elements. Distribution of
the coffee after it has been brought to San
Francisco also involves many difficulties,
notwithstanding that the demand is good.
This will be better realized when we con-
sider that the Pacific coast, from Alaska
to Mexico, and eastward as far as the
Eocky Mountains, embraces a population of
about 8,000,000, whose annual consumption
is estimated at 400,000 bags; and that, as
already stated, treble that quantity was im-
ported to San Francisco in 1919.
In 1900, ninety-nine firms were engaged
in the green coffee importing business
(some were roasters also) in New York;
six in Philadelphia; twenty-eight in San
Francisco; twelve in New Orleans. In
1920, there were two hundred and sixteen
in New York ; thirty-one in San Francisco ;
fifteen in New Orleans.
Green Coffee Trade Organizations
Previous to the organization of the
roasters, the only kind of coffee organiza-
tion in this country of more than local im-
portance was the New York^ Coffee Ex-
change, which came into existence in 1881,
the organization meeting being held in the
offices of B. G. Arnold & Co., at 166 Pearl
Street, New York. The Exchange was in-
corporated December 7, 1881, the incor-
porators being Benjamin Green Arnold,
Francis B. Arnold, William D. Mackey,
John S. Wright, William Sorley, Joseph A.
O'Brien, H. Clay Maddux, C. McCulloch
Beecher, Geo, W. Flanders, and John R.
McNulty. B, G. Arnold was the first pres-
ident. Soon afterward, rooms were rented
and fitted up for trading purposes at 135
Pearl Street, at the junction of Beaver and
Pearl Streets, and only two blocks away
from the more pretentious structure now
housing the Coffee Exchange. Actual trad-
ing operations did not begin until March
7, 1882.
The New York Coffee Exchange was the
world's first coffee-trade organization of
national proportions. Havre's exchange
was inaugurated in 1882, under the name
of the Coffee Terminal Market. Five years
later, coffee exchanges were opened in Am-
sterdam and Hamburg; while the ex-
changes of London, Antwerp, and Rotter-
dam did not come into existence until the
year 1890. The exchange in Trieste, Italy,
was organized in 1905 ; while the Coffee
Trade Association of London was started
in 1916. The first exchange in Santos was
started in 1914.
The success of the New York Coffee Ex-
change led to its imitation in other coffee
ports of the United States. Baltimore
started a similar organization, early in
1883, under the name of the Baltimore Cof-
fee Exchange; but after a short existence,
it petered out. New Orleans organized a
green coffee trading association in 1889,
as a coffee committee of the Board of
Trade. It is still active. The Green Cof-
fee Association of New Orleans, Inc., which
is distinct from the Coffee Committee, was
established January 7, 1920. San Fran-
cisco did not have a trading exchange until
1918, in which year the Green Ooffee As-
sociation of the San Francisco Chamber of
Commerce began operations.
Growth of the Coffee-Roasting Trade
The wholesale coffee roasting business in
the United States seems to have started in
the closing years of the eighteenth century.
In February, 1790, a ''new coffee manu-
factory" began business at 4 Great Dock
Street, New York, and the proprietor an-
nounced that he had provided himself at
considerable expense with the proper uten-
sils "to burn, grind and classify coffee on
the European plan." He sold the freshly
roasted product "in pots of various sizes
from one to twenty weight, well packed
down, either for sea or family use so as
to keep good for twelve months."
A second roasting plant started up at
232 Queen Street, New York, nearly op-
492
ALL ABOUT COFFEE
posite the governor's house, toward the
close of 1790. This second coffee roasting
plant was known in 1794 as the City Cof-
fee Works. James Thompson operated a
''coffee manufactory" at 25 Thames Street
in 1795. In this year there was also the
"Old Ground Coffee Works" in Pearl
Street, formerly Hanover Square, ''three
doors below the bank at number 110,"
operating ' ' two mills, one pair French burr
stones" but no orders were accepted here
for less than six pounds, at ' ' two pence ad-
vanced from the roasting loss."
Other coffee manufactories followed in
the large towns of the new states; and, al-
ways, the coffee was treated "on the
European plan." This meant that it was
"burnt over a slow coal fire, making every
grain a copper color and ridding it all of
dust and chaff." There was usually a dif-
ference in price of three to four pence a
pound between the green and roasted prod-
uct. Packages of roasted coffee under the
half-dozen weight were sold in New York
in 1791 for two shillings and three pence
per pound, allowance being made for gro-
cers at a distance. In those days, the fav-
orite container was a narrow-mouthed pot
or jar of any size. This was the first crude
coffee package. In retailing the product,
cornucopias made of newspapers, or any
other convenient wrapping, were first em-
ployed ; but, with the introduction of paper
bags in the early sixties, the housekeeper
soon became educated to this more sanitary
form of carry package, and its permanence
was quickly assured.
The following were listed in Longworth 's
Almanack as coffee roasters in New York in
1805 : John Applegate ; Cornelius Cooper ;
Benjamin Cutler, 104 Division Street;
George Defendorf, 83 Chapel Street; Wil-
liam Green; Cornelius Hassey, 14 Augustus
Street; Joseph M'Ginley, 28 Moore Street;
John W. Shaw, 43 Oliver Street; John
Sweeney, Mulberry Street; Patience
Thompson, 23 Thames Street.
Elijah Withington came from Boston to
New York in 1814. He set up a coffee
roaster in an alley behind the City Hall
and engaged a big, raw-boned Irishman to
run it. This was the beginning of a coffee
roasting business that has continued until
the present day. Withington dealt in Pad-
ang interiors, Jamaica, and West Indian
coffees, and numbered many society folk
among his customers. Withington 's busi-
ness removed to 7 Dutch Street in 1829 :
and the firm became Withington & Pine in
1830.
The roasted coffee business in New York
had grown to such proportions in 1833 and
gave such promise, that James Wild con-
sidered it a good investment to bring over
from England for his new coffee manufac-
tory in New York a complete power ma-
chinery equipment for roasting and grind-
ing coffee. There was also an engine to
run it. It*was set up in Wooster Street op-
posite the present Washington Square.
Samuel Wilde, son of Joseph Wilde, of
Dorchester, Mass., came to New York
about 1840 to make his fortune. He was a
young man with vision ; and first applied
himself with diligence to the hardware and
looking-glass business. When he found
that most of his customers were theaters
and saloons, his religious scruples bade him
abandon it, which he did.
Meanwhile, in 1844, Withington 's pio-
neer roasting enterprise had admitted Nor-
man Francis and Amos S. Welch as gen-
eral partners, and Samuel and Charles C.
Colgate as special partners, under the style
of Withington, Francis & Welch. It so
continued until 1848, when Samuel Wilde
■ — who had selected the coffee business as
more honorable than the one in which he
started — was admitted, and the firm be-
came Withington & Wilde.
Mr. Withington retired in 1851, and Sam-
uel Wilde associated with him in the busi-
ness his sons Joseph and Samuel, Jr., the
title becoming Samuel Wilde & Sons. Sam-
uel Wilde, Sr., died in 1862. The title
then became Samuel Wilde's Sons. Joseph
Wilde died in 1878, and Samuel Wilde, Jr.
in 1890, the business being left to and con-
tinuing with a younger brother, John, from
1878 to 1894, when John 's son, Herbert W.
Wilde, became a member of the firm, which
continues the old title at 466 Greenwich
Street, as Samuel Wilde's Sons Company,
having been incorporated in 1902. John
Wilde died in 1914.
Another grandson of Samuel Wilde is
William B. Harris, who engaged in the cof-
fee roasting business in Front Street from
1904 to 1917. From 1908 to 1918 he acted
as coffee expert for the United States De-
partment of Agriculture. William B. Har-
ris is a son of Samuel li. Harris, who mar-
U. S. TRADE HISTORY
PIONEERS IN .THE ROASTED COFFEE BUSINESS OF NEW YORK CITY
With approximate dates of their entry into the trade
494
ALL ABOUT COFFEE
ried a daughter of Samuel. Wilde, and who
for a number of years was connected with
Samuel Wilde's Sons.
Although a number of roasters and
grinders for family use were patented in
the United States in the first half of the
nineteenth century, the coffee merchants
depended almost entirely on English manu-
facturers for their wholesale equipment un-
til 1846, when James W. Carter of Boston
brought out his "pull-out" roaster. This
machine, and others like it, encouraged the
development of the coffee-roastiiig busi-
ness, so that when the Civil War came, cof-
fee manufactories were well scattered over
the country. The demand for something
better in coffee-machinery equipment was
answered by Jabez Burns with his machine
for filling and discharging without mov-
ing the roasting cylinder from the fire.
Among the early grocery concerns in
New York that were also coft'ee roasters
were: R. C. Williams & Co., starting as
Mott & Williams in 1811, changing to R. S.
Williams & Co. in 1821, to Williams & Pot-
ter in 1851, and to its present title in 1882 ;
Acker, Merrall & Condit Co., founded in
1820; Park & Tilford, founded in 1840;
Austin, Nichols & Co., founded in 1855;
and Francis H. Leggett & Co., founded in
1870.
There were twenty-one ''coffee roasters
and spice factors" in New York in 184'8.
Among them were : Beard & Cummings.
281 Front Street; Henry B. Blair, 129
Washington Street; Colgate Gilbert, 93
Fulton Street; Wright Gillies, 236 Wash-
ington Street; and Withington, Wilde &
Welch, 7 Dutch Street. In this year, two
coffee importers, fourteen tea importers,
and forty-one tea dealers were listed in the
City Directory.
The Directory for 1854 listed twenty-
seven coffee roasters and spice factors,
among them, in addition to the above, be-
ing Peter Haulenbeek, 328 Washington
Street; Levi Rowley, 102 West Street;
William J. Stitt, 159 Washington Street;
and George W. Wright, 79 Front Street.
In those days not all the wholesale coffee
factors were roasters; there was much
trade roasting by a few large plants.
While the coffee-roasting business of
Samuel Wilde's Sons appears to be the
oldest in New York, having descended in a
practically unbroken line from 1814, sev-
eral others continued considerably past the
half -century mark, and among them special
mention should be accorded to : Levi Row-
ley's Star Mills, dating back to 1823;
Beard & Cummings, 1834; Wright Gillies
& Bro., 1840 ; Loudon & Son, the Metropol-
itan Mills, 1853; and the Eppens Smith
Co., present day successors of Thomas
Reid's Globe Mills of 1855.
The Star Mills in Duane Street became a
real factor in the wholesale coffee-roasting
business on Manhattan Island about 1823.
At a later date, Levi Rowley secured con-
trol, and under his able direction the busi-
ness flourished. Benedict & Gaffney bought
the Star Mills from Rowley in 1885. A
few years later the firm became Benedict
& Thomas, then Thomas & Turner, and fi-
nally the R. G. Thomas Co. R. G. Thomas
sold the equipment in 1920, ending the
manufacturing end of the business just
about a century from the time it started.
Mr. Thomas is now with Russell & Co. Be-
fore being identified with the Star Mills,
he was for twenty years with Packard &
James, 123 Maiden Lane.
While still a lad of nineteen, Wright
Gillies came from a Newburgh farm in
1838, and obtained a clerkship in a tea
store in Chatham Street, now Chambers
and Duane Street. He branched out for
himself in the tea and coffee business at
232 Washington Street in 1840, removing
in 1843 to 236, which had a courtyard
where he installed a horse-power coffee
roaster. In the same building, over the
store, lived Thomas McNeil and his wife.
Mr. McNeil afterward became a member of
the firm of Smith & McNeil, proprietors of
the Washington Street hotel' and restau-
rant, for many years one of New York
City's landmarks.
The coffee business, thus started by
Wright Gillies, is still conducted, as the
Gillies Coffee Co., by the same family and
at practically the same location; and it is
interesting to note that the roasting room
still has the original arrangement, partly
below the street level but with the machin-
ery in view from the sidewalk. This ar-
rangement was characteristic of the old
roasting establishments.
James W. Gillies, a younger brother,
came from Newburgh in 1848 to assist in
the enterprise. Young Gillies superintend-
ed the horse-power roaster and drove the
U. S. TRADE HISTORY
495
1
1
3^
1
"^ '»M% ^,. %.'^^
||^('%^
^
(iROUP OF OLD-TiiiE New York Coffee Roasters, 1892
Standing, left to rifrht. W 11. Eppens. Fred Reid. unknown, Julius A. Eppens, Fred Eppens. Seated,
left to right, John F. Pupke, Thomas Reid, Henry Mayo, Fred Akers, Alexander Kirkland
light spring delivery cart. Soon the firm
became Wright Gillies & Bro. Fires visited
the business in 1849 and in 1858 ; but each
time it arose the stronger for the exper-
ience. Wright Gillies retired in 1884, and
James W. Gillies assumed entire charge
under the name of the Gillies Coffee Co.
He continued active until his death in
1899. The business was incorporated by
his children under the same name in 1906.
Edwin J. Gillies, son of James W. Gil-
lies, started a separate coffee b*usiness at
245 Washington Street, in 1882. In 1883
he admitted as a partner James H. Schmel-
zel, a fellow Columbia alumnus. The en-
terprise was successful for many years,
being incorporated under the title of Ed-
win J. Gillies & Co., Inc. It was consoli-
dated in 1915 with the business of Ross
W. Weir & Co., 60 Front Street, Edwin J.
Gillies becoming a vice-president (with L.
S. Cooper also vice-president) of the cor-
poration of Ross W. Weir, Inc.
Burns & Brown started in the coffee
roasting business in 1853 in an old build-
ing at the corner of Washington and
Chambers Streets for which they paid an
annual rental of one thousand dollars. This
was the beginning of the Metropolitan
Mills, opposite to the present location of
Loudon & Son, 181 Chambers Street, the
latest successors to the business. Burns &
Brown continued for two years, when they
failed, and Wright Gillies & Bro. suc-
ceeded, and put in Ebenezer Welsh as
manager. Later, Wright Gillies & Co. sold
out the plant to Capt. Edward C. Russell,
who associated with him his son-in-law, Ed-
ward A. Phelps, Jr. At the dissolution of
this partnership in 1870, the firm became
Trusdell & Phelps. Mr. Phelps succeeded
Trusdell, and sold out to Loudon & Stell-
wag in 1877. They were succeeded by Lou-
don & Johnson in 1879. and this firm con-
tinued until 1910, when James D. Johnson
retired, and the firm of Loudon & Son took
charge. These were J. Carlyle Loudon and
his son, Howard C. Loudon, who died in
1911. The firm name of Loudon & Son
continues.
496
ALL ABOUT COFFEE
One of the most vigorous personalities of
the sixties, and one whose influence ex-
tended well into this generation, was Thom-
as Reid. Born in Bridgeport, England, he
came to the United States as a boy, and
started his business career as a grocer's
clerk in Brooklyn. Within three months
after landing, he bought out his employer.
He entered the wholesale coffee-roasting
business at 105 Murray Street, New York,
in 1855, in partnership with a Mr. Town-
send under the style of the Globe Mills,
which were the predecessors of the Eppens
Smith Co. now in "Warren Street. Jabez
Burns, inventor of the Burns coffee roaster,
before this a teamster for Henry Blair, was
at one time bookkeeper for the Globe Mills.
In 1864, ]\Ir. Burns sold to the Globe Mills
the first roasters of his manufacture — two
one-bag, four-foot machines that were given
a place alongside of four of the old-style
Carter pull-outs.
Mr. Townsend died the first year of the
Globe Mills ' existence ; and Thomas Reid
continued without a partner until 1863,
when he became associated with John F.
Pupke, as Pupke & Reid. The business
was then at 269 Washington Street.
Thomas Reid was resourceful and enter-
prising; also he had vision. He saw the
day of package coffee coming, and nearly
"beat" John Arbuckle to it. As early as
1861 we find him advertising in the City
Directory, ''spices put up in every variety
of package. ' '
Lewis A. Osborn, 69 Warren Street,
New York, and 81 - 83 South Water Street,
Chicago, was advertising " Osborn 's Cele-
brated Prepared Java Coffee — put up only
by Lewis A. Osborn" in 1863 - 64. Thomas
Reid appears to have acquired this brand
and to have begun its exploitation as " Os-
born's Old Government Java," a ground
package coffee, and certainly one of the
earliest package coffees. However, this
brand never attained the national vogue
achieved by John Arbuckle 's package cof-
fee, which first appeared in 1865, although
the name Ariosa was not given it until
1873.
Between 1855 and 1865 there were only
half-a-dozen wholesale coffee roasters on
Manhattan Island, and Thomas Reid was
their leader. Much of his work was roast-
ing for the trade, and this undoubtedly in-
terfered with the logical development of his
package-coffee ideas.
The firm became Pupke, Reid & Phelps
in 1882. In 1885, it became the original
Eppens-Smith Co. ; later, the Eppens,
Smith & Wiemann Co., and lastly, the Ep-
pens Smith Co. Thomas Reid was vice-
president of the Eppens, Smith & Wiemann
Co., and continued in that position until
his death in 1902. Julius Eppens is the
present head of the business.
Other package coffees of the sixties were
Government coffee put out by Taber &
Place's Rubia Mills, 353-355 Washington
Street, in ''tin foil pound papers," and L.
Bruekmann & Co.'s London Club, packed
at 107 Warren Street.
Another old-time New York coffee-roast-
ing business is that of Samuel S. Beard &
Co. This business was founded in 1834 on
Front Street by Eli Beard (father of Sam-
uel S. Beard,) and W. A. Cummings as
Beard & Cummings. In 1872, the firm
moved to Duane Street, where it was joined
by Messrs. S.S. Beard and Cottrell, and the
new firm became Beards & Cottrell. Mr.
Cottrell retired in 1883, and the firm be-
came Samuel S. Beard & Co. Upon the
death of S. S. Beard in 1905, James H.
Murray, who had been with the concern for
many years, became head of the house. Mr.
Murray died six months later. The busi-
ness moved in 1913 to 92 Front Street,
where it continues as a stock company, with
J. R. Westfal as manager.
Austin C. Fitzpatrick, well known among
New York coffee roasters, is a graduate of
the Thomas Reid school, having entered the
business of this pioneer roaster in 1865. He
was western salesman for Pupke & Reid
until 1871, when he became associated with
Rufus G. Story under the firm name of R.
G. Story & Co. Later, he formed a part-
nership with Howard E. Case, buying out
the old house of Beard & Howell. When
Mr. Case retired in 1887, the firm became
A. C. Fitzpatrick & Co. This title con-
tinued for twelve years, when the Knicker-
bocker Mills were taken over, and the busi-
ness was incorporated as the Knickerbocker
Mills Co., with Mr. Fitzpatrick as presi-
dent. The Knickerbocker Mills, acquired
by the corporation, had been founded in
1842 and were for more than forty years at
154 - 156 Chambers Street. The business
is now at 196 - 198 Chambers Street.
Many of the pioneers in the coffee roast-
ing business of this country were men who
came from the British Isles and Germany,
TRADE HISTORY
497
Julius A, Eppens, New Youk
A notable figure from the latter country
was Benedickt Fischer, who knew coffee in
Germany before coming to New York in his
nineteenth year. He started at 323 - 329
Greenwich Street, near Duane Street, in
1859. His first roaster was a primitive af-
fair built under the E. J. Hyde patent by
the Coffee Roaster & Mill Manufacturing
Co. of Philadelphia. It was turned by
hand by Fischer and his helper. This wa?
about 1862. In 1864, the business re-
quired larger quarters, and was removed to
the corner of Duane and Greenwich
Streets. A new plant w^as erected at the
corner of Beach and Greenwich Streets in
1894, and the present plant w^as erected at
the corner of Franklin and Greenwich
Streets in 1906. Upon the death of Bene-
dickt Fischer in 1903, the business passed
under the control of William H. Fischer,
son of Benedickt, and Benedickt 's son-in-
law, Charles E. Diefenthaler, for many
years associated with the house. At pres-
ent, the company is a corporation, with
C. E. Diefenthaler, president ; T. F. Diefen-
thaler, vice-president and treasurer; and
T. 0. Budenbach, secretary.
Bowie Dash, a commanding figure in the
New York green coffee trade, founded the
Holland Coffee Co., roasters, in 1885. He
placed H. Bartow in charge. Mr. Dash
himself was never active iu the affairs of,,
the company. J. Bowie Dash, son of
Bowie Dash, entere{i the Holland CbffeiB Cov
as "a boy. Bowie Dash died in 1894. Mr.
Bartow left the Holland Coffee Co. in 1897,
and J. Bowie Dash became president. He
sold the company in 1917 to S. B. Morri-
son^ w^ho consolidated it with his Esperanza
Coffee Co. The business is still conducted
as the Holland Coffee Co., with Mr. Morri-
son as president, at 162 Front Street.
George Fisher was a well known coffee
roaster of the sixties. He began in the old
Hope Mills, 71 Fulton Street, and, at the
age of thirty, entered into partnership with
D. C. Ripley, establishing the Hudson
Mills. The firm became Sanger, Beers &
Fisher in 1868 ; Mr. Fisher retired in
1882 ; and died in 1896.
Peter Haulenbeek began work as deliv-
ery boy in a grocery store. He entered the
coffee business in the sixties in the employ
of Wright Gillies, and w^ent into the whole-
sale coffee-roasting trade under his own
name at 170 Duane Street in 1876. His
son, John W. Haulenbeek, Sr., came into
his father's business in 1887. Peter Hau-
lenbeek died January 15, 1894, and the
firm name was changed to John W. Hau-
lenbeek & Co. The business remained in
the same building up to 1916, when it was
moved to its present location at 393 Green-
wich Street. John W. Haulenbeek, Jr., of
the third generation, is now active in the
business.
A leading figure in the sixties was James
Browni, who started as an engineer, rose to
a partnership, and retired after the Civil
War, a wealth v man. He was a partner
wdth Thomas Reid in the old Globe Mills.
He was also associated with B. Fischer in
the firm of Fischer, Kirby & Brown, and
established the firm of Brown & Scott in
Duane Street, where Peter Haulenbeek
succeeded to the business. Afterward, he
continued in the firms of Brown & Jones
and Bisland & Brown, and died in 1898.
Van Loan, Maguire & Gaffney was a for-
midable combination in the coffee-roasting
business in its day. Thomas Van Loan was
for thirty years a partner in the firm of
W. J. Stitt & Co. (William J. Stitt was in
business at 173 Washington Street in the
fifties). Joseph Maguire was a practical
spice grinder. Hugh Gaffney was with
Brown & Scott until the firm retired in
1879, and for ten years thereafter he trav-
eled for B. Fischer & Co. Then he became
498
ALL ABOUT COFFEE
Thomas Van Loan, New York
a member of the firm of Benedict & Gaff-
ney. Ill health caused his temporary re-
tirement; but he returned to the business
in 1897 when he organized the firm of Van
Loan, Maguire & Gaffney. Joseph Maguire
died in 1904.
Mr. Gaffney died on March 20, 1912, and
the name of the business was changed to
Van Loan & Co., with Thomas Van Loan
as the head of the business, under which
name and management it still continues at
64 North Moore Street.
O'Donohue is a well known name in the
development of both the green and roasted
coffee trade of New York City. John
O'Donohue was a leader in the green cof-
fee business in 1830. It was John 0 'Dono-
hue's Sons in 1873. John B. O'Donohue,
son of Peter O'Donohue and grandson of
the original John, after leaving John
O'Donohue 's Sons, formed a partnership
with Eobert C. Stewart (the present head
of R. C. Stewart & Co.) to engage in the
green coffee jobbing business as O'Donohue
& Stewart. This partnership was dissolved
in 1893. For a few years, John 0 'Donohue
was associated with the coffee-roasting firm
of Wing Bros. & Hart. About 1898, he
formed the O'Donohue Coffee Co. at 284
Front Street. In 1910, this was consoli-
dated with the Potter Coffee Co. and Ben-
nett, Sloan & Co. to form the Potter, Sloan,
0 'Donohue Co. The firm dissolved in 1915.
Ellis M. Potter came to New York from the
Potter-Parlin Spice Mills in Cincinnati.
Mr. 0 'Donohue died in 1918.
In the seventies Frederick Akers was
proprietor of the oldest and best known
trade roasting establishment in New York.
The plant was known as the Atlas Mills,
and was at 17 Jay Street. Mr. Akers died
in 1901. The same year, William J. Mor-
rison and Walter B. Boinest, former em-
ployees of Akers, formed a partnership to
carry on the same kind of business at 413
Greenwich Street. It is still at that ad-
dress under the name of Morrison &
Boinest Co.
Col, William P. Roome, a Chesterfieldian
figure among New York coffee roasters,
came into the trade in 1876, when he estab-
lished the firm of William P. Roome & Co.,
with T. L, Vickers as partner. In the
Civil War that had preceded, young Roome
(he was then nineteen) had distinguished
himself as a conspicuous hero of the Sixth
Army Corps, having entered the service as
a second lieutenant in the Sixty-fifth New
York Volunteers.
William P. Roome & Co. first engaged
in the importation of tea, but they added
coffee to the business in 1889. Col. Roome
disposed of it in 1903 to assume charge of
the tea and coffee department of the Acker,
Merrall & Condit Company, a position
which he still holds.
Frederick A. Cauchois, another pictur-
esque figure among New York coffee roast-
ers, entered the trade as a clerk in the New
York office of Chase & Sanborn in 1875.
After further tutelage under Frank Wil-
liams in the coffee brokerage business, he
bought the old Fulton Mills (Colgate Gil-
bert & Co., 1848), in Fulton Street, where
he did some of the most original advertising
for coffee that the trade has seen. His
Private Estate coffee in little burlap bags,
his donkey train that carried the bags of
green coffee through the streets of the me-
tropolis, his system of delivering fresh cof-
fee daily to the grocery trade, and his Jap-
anese paper filter device to insure the
proper making of the coffee, made him fa-
mous. He brought something of the spirit
of the old English coffee house to America,
and incorporated it in Keen's Chop House
in New York. He died in 1918.
U. S. TRADE HISTORY
499
The business of Eussell & Co. was
founded by Robert S. Russell & Frank
Smith at 107 Water Street in 1875. In
1895, S. L. Davis, one of the present
owners, formerly with Merrit & Ronald-
son, became a partner. In 1900, Frank C.
Russell, son of the senior member, was ad-
mitted to a partnership ; and upon the
death of his father in 1904, he and Mr.
Davis became owners of the business.
Ross W. Weir, who, in addition to being
a successful New York coffee roaster, has
also attained prominence as president of
the National Coffee Roasters Association
and chairman of the Joint Coffee Trade
Publicity Committee, handling the million
dollar coffee advertising campaign, was
born in New York in 1859, the son of J. B.
Weir, one of the pioneer forty-niners, who
at one time was engaged in the export
commission business in San Francisco.
Mr. Weir began his business career as a
general utility boy in the jobbing grocery
house of S. H. Williamson, 36 Broadway,
New York, in 1875. Then he was a clerk
for Park & Tilford, office man with Ar-
buckle Bros, and with Geo. C. Chase & Co.,
tea importers, for two years, afterward be-
ing admitted to a junior partnership. In
1886, the firm of Ross W. Weir & Co. was
formed to engage in the roasting of coffee
and importing and jobbing of teas at 105
Front Street. In 1887, the business was
removed to 58 - 60 Front Street. When the
corporation of Ross W. Weir, Inc. was
formed in 1915 to take over the business of
E. J. Gillies & Co. Inc., Mr. Weir became
president and treasurer of the combined
organization.
Pioneer Wholesale Coffee Roasters
A reference to other pioneer^ in the
wholesale coffee-roasting trade may not be
amiss here, even though it involves a repe-
tition of some names that have been given
special mention in the case of New York.
In the list that follows are included the
most prominent firms and the best known
names that helped make roasted coffee his-
tory in the United States in the nineteenth
century, particularly from 1845 to 1900 :
New York. The most prominent firms
in the business in New York in the sixties
were: Thomas Reid & Co., Globe Mills;
Geo. A. Merwin & Co. ; Levi Rowley, Star
Mills; A. B. Thorn; Fischer & Lehmann,
later Fischer & Thurber, and Fischer,
Col. William P. Roome, New York
Kirbv & Brown ; Knickerbocker & Cooke ;
A. D. Thurber ; Wm. J. Stitt & Co. ; Samuel
Wilde's Sons.
In the seventies, in addition to most of
the above list, there were : Pupke & Reid ;
Arbuckle Bros. ; Edward A. Phelps, Jr. ;
Bonnett, Schenck & Earle ; Fischer & Lan-
sing ; J. G. Worth ; Jackson & Co. ; Charles
Conway; Neidlinger & Schmidt; James L.
Arcularius; S. M. Beard, Sons & Co. ;
H. K. Thurber & Co.; Wright Gillies &
Bro. ; Bennett & Becker ; Great American
Tea Co. ; Brown & Scott.
Between 1876 and 1900 the following
well known names appeared in the trade :
Frederick Akers ; Eppens-Smith Co., after-
ward Eppens, Smith & Wiemann Co., and
later Eppens Smith Co. ; B. Fischer & Co. ;
R. P. McBride; Fitzpatrick & Case, after-
ward A. C. Fitzpatrick & Co. ; Great At-
lantic & Pacific Tea Co. ; Loudon & John-
son; Edwin Scott; Peter Haulenbeek,
afterward Haulenbeek & Mitchell, and
Haulenbeek Roasting & Milling Co. ; Joseph
Stiner & Co. ; Austin, Nichols & Co. ; Ben-
nett, Sloan & Co. ; Gillies Coffee Co. ; Bene-
dict & Gaffney, afterward Van Loan,
Maguire & Gaffney ; Ross W. Weir & Co. ;
oOO
ALL A B OUT COFFEE
< '
m
C
I— (
■^
P
iz
P^
W
Eh
P^
o
O
Ul
P5
Eh
<
o
p^
O
O
P5
o
Ph
a-:; .r-S
.S • °
' K » r-l
~ § ® j;
.ti *
^ 0) ci ci ■?
U. S. TRADE HISTORY
501
Union Pacific Tea Co. ; Hillis Plantation
Co. ; Edwin J, Gillies & Co, ; Jones Bros. ;
Holland Coffee Co. ; Samuel Crooks & Co. ;
Benedict & Thomas.
Boston. Among the pioneers in the cof-
fee-roasting business in Boston were : N.
Berry & Sons ; Blanchard & Bro. ; Carter,
Mann & Co. ; Noah Davis & Co. ; Dyer &
Co. ; E. Emerson ; Flint Bros. & Co. ; eT. T.
& N. Glines; Hay ward & Co.; Geo. W. Hig-
gins & Co.; Hill, Dwinell & Co.; H. B.
Newhall; Eichardson & Lane; N. Robinson
& Co. ; Russell & Fessenden ; Stickney &
Poor; E. H. Swett; the Tremont Coffee &
Spice Mills ; Swain, Earle & Co. ; and the
Martin L. Hall Co.
Between 1876 and 1900 these names were
among those added : Shapleigh Coffee Co. ;
Gilman L. Parker; W. S. Quinby & Co.;
Thomas Wood & Co.
Dwinell & Co. and Hayward & Co. both
engaged in the coffee roasting business
about 1845. In 1876, they, James F. Dwi-
nell, Martin Hayward, and his brother-in-
law George C. Wright, joined hands under
the name of Dwinell, Hayward & Co.
In 1894, Mr. Hayward having pre-
viously retired, the name of the firm
was changed to Dwinell, Wright & Co.
Mr. Dwinell died in 1898 ; and in 1899, Mr.
Wright formed a Massachusetts corpora-
tion under the present name, Dwinell-
Wright Co. George C. Wright died, 1910,
and his son, George S. Wright, who had
been treasurer, became president. A grand-
son, Warren M. Wright, and a nephew, G.
E. Crampton, together with R. O. Miller
and Charles H. Holland, are active in the
present conduct of the business.
Caleb Chase with Messrs. Carr.and Ray-
mond founded the firm of Carr, Chase &
Raymond at 32 Broad Street in 1864. The
name was changed to Chase, Raymond &
Ayer in 1871. James S. Sanborn, who had
formerly been in the coffee and spice trade
at Lewiston, Me., with a branch office in
Boston, combined with Caleb Chase to
form Chase & Sanborn in 1878. Charles D.
Sias was admitted to the firm in 1882. A
Montreal office was opened in 1884.
Charles E. Sanborn, son of James S., was
admitted in 1888. James S. Sanborn died
in 1903, and Charles E. Sanborn died two
years later. Charles D. Sias died in 1913.
Swain, Earle & Co. were established about
1868. In the same year, Byron T. Thayer
entered the employ of the firm as a
bookkeeper. He was taken into partnership
in 1884, and upon the death of Mr. Earle,
became managing partner. In 1915, he was
the sole surviving partner of the company.
He died in the latter part of 1921 : and the
business was absorbed by Alexander H,
Bill & Co. in January, 1922.
Philadelphia, The following were the
most prominent Philadelphia coffee roast-
ers in 1861 : Grever & Bro. ; Henry Hinkle ;
William Johnston ; George Kelly ; Thornley
& Ryan ; Thornley & Bro. ; Vankorn, Gug-
genheimer & Co.; D. J. Chapman; Bohler
& Weikel; Charles Kroberger; and James
R. Webb & Son.
Later came : Robert J. Rule & Bro. ; G.
Boyd & Co. ; Nutrio Mfg. Co. ; C. J. Fell &
Bro.; R. R. & A. Deverall ; C. Thomas;
William H. Cheetham, Jr.; Hill & Thorn-
ley ; George Ogden & Co. ; Weikel & Smith ;
and Alexander Sheppard.
Between 1876 and 1900 these names ap-
pear; Henry A. Fry & Co.; Robert Smith
& Sons ; B. S. Janney, Jr. & Co. ; and Wei-
kel & Smith Spice Co.
Robert Smith came as a country lad to
Philadelphia, and drove a wagon for Jesse
Thornley, a coffee roaster. In a few years,
he had secured an interest in the firm ; and
in 1860, the name was changed to Thornley
& Smith. Mr, Thornley died in 1872, and
Mr. Smith bought out the Thornley inter-
ests and traded as Robert Smith until 1889.
In that year, he admitted his eldest son,
Robert A. Smith, into the firm, which be-
came Robert Smith & Son. William T.,
another son, was admitted in 1889, the firm
name being changed again to Robert Smith
& Sons. Robert Smith, Sr., retired in 1902.
In the same year his youngest son, George
H. Smith, was admitted to the firm, and it
became Robert Smith's Sons, the active
members being William T. and George H.
Smith.
James R. Webb established the coffee
roasting business of James R. Webb & Son
in 1833. It was taken over by Alexander
Sheppard in 1870. Later it became Alex.
Sheppard & Sons, Inc. Mr. Sheppard died
in 1916, and the business has been con-
ducted by a corporation in which his four
children are the principal stockholders.
Chicago. Some pioneers in the Chicago
trade were: Alfred H. Blackall; Excelsior
Mills (Downer & Co.) ; Huntoon & Towner;
502
ALL ABOUT COFFEE
W. F. McLaughlin ; Knowles, Cloyes & Co. ;
Thomson & Taylor ; H. F. Griswold ; G. M.
Hall ; John L. Davies & Co. ; Bell, Conrad
& Webster ; Sprague, "Warner & Co. ; Lee &
Murbaeh ; A. Stephens & Co. ; and Whiting,
Goeble & Co.
In the period between 1876 and 1900 the
following became well known: Sprague,
Warner & Griswold; Reid, Murdoch &
Fischer; E. B. Millar Spice Co.; Wm. M.
Hoyt Co.; Franklin MacVeagh & Co.;
Sherman Bros. & Co. ; H. C. & C. Durand ;
A. H. Pratt ; McNeil & Higgins Co. ; J. H.
Bell & Co.; J. H. Conrad & Co.; Steele-
Wedeles Co. ; Krag-Reynolds Co. ; Arbuckle
Bros., and Puhl-Webb Co.
H. C. Durand organized the wholesale
grocery house of Durand & Co. in 1851.
Calvin Durand entered the firm in 1879,
and the name was changed to H. C. & C.
Durand. Adam J. Kaspar began to work
in a retail grocery. In 1875, he went with
the wholesale grocery firm of James For-
sythe & Co. and two years later with H. C.
& C. Durand. In 1894, the name was
changed to Durand & Kasper. H. C. Dur-
and died in 1901, and Calvin Durand died
in 1911. Durand & Kasper merged, 1921,
with Henry Horner & Co. and McNeil &
Higgins into the Wholesale Grocers Corpo-
ration.
Samuel A. Downer founded the Excel-
sior Mills (Downer & Co.) in 1853. Sidney
O. Blair entered the employ of the com-
pany in 1871. E. B. Millar & Co. took over
the business in 1878, incorporating under
that name in 1882. Mr. Blair retired in
1913, and W. S. Rice was elected president.
He died in 1918, and Mr. Blair was re-
elected president; with W. C. Shope, vice-
president ; and C. S. Mauran, secretary and
treasurer.
In the spring of 1862, Albert A. Sprague
came to Chicago from Vermont. With Z.
B. Stetson he formed the firm of Sprague
& Stetson, wholesale grocers. Mr. Stetson
retired the following year, and a new part-
nership was formed with Ezra J. Warner,
under the name of Sprague & Warner. In
1864, 0. S. A. Sprague, a young brother of
the senior partner, was admitted to the
firm, which was reorganized under the
style of Sprague, Warner & Co. Under this
name it has since continued. About the
year 1876, machinery was installed, and the
roasting of coffee began. Oscar Remmer
entered the employ of the company in 1878
at the age of 16, and became manager of
the mill department in 1895. In 1912, he
was made a member of the board of direc-
tors, and was elected vice-president in 1919.
0. S. A. Sprague died in 1909, Ezra J.
Warner Sr. in 1910, and Albert A. Sprague
in 1915.
In 1865, A. M. Thomson, at that time a
salesman for A. H. Blackall, owner of the
American Mills, arranged with a Mr. Berg
and a Mr. Davis to go in the coffee-roasting
business with him as Berg, Thomson &
Davis. After a year, however, the name be-
came A. M. Thomson. James Thomson, a
brother, came into the firm in 1868, and it
was then called A. M. & James Thomson.
A year later, it became A. M. Thomson
again. In 1872, immediately after the fire,
Mr. Taylor, a member of the firm of Whit-
ing & Taylor, joined Mr. Thomson undei
the firm name of Thomson & Taylor. They
continued the business under this name
about ten years, until it was incorporated
in 1883 under the name of Thomson &
Taylor Spice Co. Among the wholesale
grocers who became stockholders at that
time was W. S. Warfield, of Quincy, 111.,
who, in 1901, with his son, John D. War-
field, bought most of Mr. Thomson's hold-
ings and obtained a controlling interest.
The name was changed in 1920 to the
Thomson & Taylor Co.
William F. McLaughlin founded the firm
of W. F. McLaughlin & Co. in 1865. He
died in 1905; and the business was incor-
porated with his son, George D., as presi-
dent, and another son, Frederick, as secre-
tary and treasurer.
The Puhl-Webb Company, founded,
1882, as a partnership by Thomas J. Webb
and John Puhl, was incorporated in 1896.
St. Louis. The following were among the
pioneer coffee firms of St. Louis, dating
back to the 1860 - 70 decade : James H.
Forbes ; Flint, Evans & Co. ; Wm. Schotten
& Co. ; Fred W. Meyer ; H. & J. Menown ;
Cavanaugh, Rearick & Co.; and Frederick
A. Churchill & Co.
From 1876 to 1900 there were added;
Nash, Smith & Co.; Fink & Nasse Co.;
Hanley & Kinsella Coffee & Spice Co.;
Flugel & Popp ; C. F. Blanke Tea & Coffee
Co. ; Steinwender, Stoffregen & Co. ; David
G. Evans & Co. ; and the Aroma Coffee &
Spice Co.
David Nicholson established a tea and
coffee business under the name of the
U. S. TRADE HISTORY
503
I
Franklin Tea Warehouse in 1853. A year
later, James H. Forbes, born in Kinross,
Scotland, bought out Nicholson. In 1857,
A. E. Forbes, his son, came into the store
after school hours, and was admitted to
partnership in 1870. The retail end of the
business was dropped in 1880, Robert M.,
the 3'ounger son of James H., was taken
into the firm a few years after A. E.
Forbes. James H. Forbes died in 1890,
and the business has since been carried on
by his sons as the James H. Forbes Tea &
Coffee Co. James H. Forbes installed the
first Burns roaster in St. Louis, and always
claimed to have been the first man to roast
coffee in the middle west.
William Schotten began his roasting
business in 1862, although he had been in
the grocery business since 1847. A short
time later, a brother, Christian Schotten,
came to the United States from Germany
and was admitted to partnership, the firm
becoming William Schotten & Bro. Chris-
tian died in 1866, and a brother-in-law,
Henry Verborg, was admitted, the name
being changed to William Schotten & Co.
William died in 1874, and the business de-
volved upon his eldest son, Hubertus. In
1878, another son, Julius J., was taken in
at the age of 17. Hubertus died in 1897,
and Julius became manager and sole pro-
prietor. He died in 1919. Since that time,
his son, Jerome J., has carried on the busi-
ness, which continues under the name of
the Wm. Schotten Coffee Co.
The firm of David G. Evans & Co. was
founded in 1856 by David G. Evans under
the style of Flint, Evans & Co., changed in
1870 to David G. Evans & Co. David G.
Evans died in 1916, and the nafne of the
company was changed in 1917, to the Da-
vid G. Evans Coffee Co., with Gwynne
Evans, a son of David G., as president of
the corporation.
The George Nash Grocery Co. bought
the Eagle Coffee and Spice Mills from the
estate of Mathew Hunt in 1870. About this
time Michael E. Smith, who had been with
the concern for a number of years, was
made a partner. The firm was incorpo-
rated in 1887 as the Nash-Smith Tea &
Coffee Co. George Nash, Sr., died in 1910.
Cincinnati. Among the pioneer coffee
roasters in Cincinnati were : John C. Ap-
penzeUer ; Blook & Varwig ; J. Brock ; Cin-
cinnati Spice Mills; Eagle Spice Mills;
Harrison & Wilson ; Parker & Dixon ; Kil-
gour & Taylor; J. M. Krout; Succop &
Lips; and H. R. Droste.
After the centennial year and previous
to 1900, the following names were added:
Potter & Parlin; James Heekin & Co.;
Flugel & Popp ; Utter, Adams & Ellen ; J.
Henry Koenig & Co. ; F. W. Hinz ; and the
Woolson Spice Co.
D. Y. Harrison, then thirty-five years
old, came from Newark, N. J., and settled
in Cincinnati in 1843, opening a coffee
roasting business as Harrison & Wilson.
He used an old pull-out roaster with first
a negro, and then a horse-power tread-mill,
for power. A few years later, W. H. Har-
rison, a son of the founder, was admitted to
the firm, the name at that time being Par-
ker & Harrison. D. Y. Harrison died in
1872. Fire totally destroyed the plant in
1875. W. H. Harrison then formed a part-
nership with J. W. Utter, and started in
again. He sold out to his partner in 1883
and went in business for himself as W. H.
Harrison & Co. D. Y. Harrison is said to
have been the first man to roast coffee west
of Pittsburg.
The Heekin Company was established in
1870 by James Heekin and Barney Corbett
as a partnership under the name of Cor-
bett & Heekin. In a short time, Corbett
died; and the name of the firm was then
changed to James Heekin & Co. Alexander
Stuart was admitted to the partnership
about 1883, and retired four years later.
James J. Heekin, older son of James Hee-
kin, was admitted to partnership in 1892.
Charles Lewis, after twenty years' experi-
ence in the coffee trade in Louisville, Cin-
cinnati, and New York, was admitted to
the firm in 1895. James Heekin died in
1904. Upon his death, a corporation was
formed under the name of the James Hee-
kin Company, with Charles Lewis as pres-
ident, continuing until he retired in 1919.
In this year a new corporation, called the
Heekin Company, was formed, taking
over the business of the James Heekin
Co. and the Heekin Spice Co., the latter
having been organized in 1899. James J.
Heekin was chosen president of the new
company, with Albert E. Heekin, vice-
president ; and Robert E. Heekin, secretary
and general manager.
504
ALL ABOUT COFFEE
<
m
Q
'A
m
P
W
O
O
xfl
r-i
m
<
o
O
o
O
= M I
: O"^
-«7 -
■ot; «
5^ S «
9 5?^:
I
U. S. TRADE HISTORY
505
Louisville. Pioneers in this early cen-
ter of coffee roasting in the south were :
Thornton & Hawkins; Charles J. Bouche;
H. N. Gage; A. Engelhard; and Jacob
Zinsmeister.
R. J. Thornton & Co. were founded in
1837 by Richard J. Thornton and Thomas
Hawkins, as Thornton & Hawkins. Thorn-
ton died in 1860. His interests remained,
but the firm changed to Hawkins & Thorn-
ton. Hawkins died in 1877, and Mrs.
Thornton, having purchased the Hawkins
interest, ran the business as R. J. Thorn-
ton & Co. until her death in 1885. John
Hayes, her son-in-law, then bought the
company; and when he died in 1904, his
widow ran the business with Thomas A.
Crawford as manager. Mrs. Hayes, the
last of the Thornton family, died in 1919,
and her interests were sold to Crawford
and R. H. Dorn, an old employee. The firm
first roasted coffee about 1846. It is in-
teresting to note that the plant has occu-
pied the present site since its founding,
eighty-four years ago.
Albert Engelhard, Sr., founded in 1855
a wholesale grocery house which later be-
came A. Engelhard & Sons, Inc. In 1879,
George; in 1882, Victor H. ; and in 1883,
Albert, Jr.; all sons of the founder, en-
tered the business. Upon moving into
larger quarters in 1890, all of the sons were
taken in as partners. Albert Engelhard,
Sr., retired in 1892, and the management
was assumed bv Victor H. The business in-
creased rapidly, and in 1897 the firm
moved to its present location. Incorporated
in 1901, the wholesale grocery end was
abandoned in 1903, and the concern be-
came a strictly coffee, tea, and spice house.
Victor H. Engelhard died in 19t8 ; and his
sons, Victor, Jr., and R. W. Engelhard,
who had been in the business for several
years, assumed active management. Victor
Engelhard, Sr., was prominent in coffee af-
fairs and in the early work of the National
Coffee Roasters Association.
Jacob Zinsmeister, of J. Zinsmeister &
Sons, was another old-time Louisville coffee
man. Before he started roasting, he was a
big factor in the green coffee trade. The
business was established in 1866 at New
Albany, Tnd., by Frank Zinsmeister, Sr.,
but was later moved to Louisville. Jacob
Zinsmeister was taken into the business in
1872, and the name was changed to Frank
Zinsmeister & Son. He is still active in
business, although he has turned the man-
agement over to his three sons.
New Orleans. Men and firms active in
early coffee roasting in New Orleans were:
Shaw's Louisiana Coffee and Spice Mills ;
Ruliff, Clark & Co.; R. Poursini & Co.;
and Smith & McKenna,
Between 1876 and 1900 were added : New
Orleans Coffee Co. ; Smith Bros. & Co. ;
Southern Coffee Polishing Mills; and Cage
& Drew.
Smith Bros. & Co. were organized in 1863
as Smith & McKenna. Mr. McKenna died
in 1872, and the firm name was changed to
Smith Bros. & Co. The two Smith brothers
died in 1891, and 1892. About 1900, the
name became Smith Bros. & Co., Ltd., and
J. B. Sinnot, who had been employed for a
number of years by the firm, gained con-
trol. The company failed in 1913. Mr.
Sinnot then entered the coffee brokerage
business, in which he remained until his
death in 1917.
Born in New Orleans in 1865, Daniel H.
Hoffman started work as a sample clerk in
the office of E. P. Cottraux, who was at
that time the only coffee broker in New
Orleans. In 1887, Mr. Hoffman started in
business for himself. In 1894, he opened
the Southern Coffee Polishing Mills, which
have since become the Southern Coffee
Mills, Inc.
W. T. Jones, for many years in business
as a coffee broker in Keokuk, Iowa,
founded the New Orleans Coffee Co. in
1890. He died in 1919.
R. H. Cage and J. C. Drew organized in
1898 the firm of Cage & Drew. In 1900,
they established the Louisiana Coffee Mills
under the name and style of Cage, Drew &
Co., Ltd.
Ben C. Casaiias joined the New Orleans
Coffee Co. as a city salesman, and later be-
came a road salesman. He withdrew in
1901 to organize the Merchants Coffee Co.
of New Orleans, Ltd.
San Francisco. Pioneer coffee roasters
in San Francisco were : J. A. Folger & Co. ;
Charles Berhard; H. Gates; D. Ghirardelli
& Co. ; E. Loeven & Co. ; Marden & Myrick ;
Maine & Eckerenkotter ; G. Venard; and
Charles Zwick.
" Between 1876 and 1900 the following
were added : A. Schilling & Co. ; W. H.
Miner ; Siegfried & Brandenstein ; George
W. Caswell.
506
ALL ABOUT COFFEE
J. A. Folger & Co. were established in
1850 as Wm. H. Bovee & Co. A few years
later, the name became Harden & Folger,
Mr. Folger having been connected with the
old firm. In the early sixties the name was
changed to J. A. Folger & Co. Two em-
ployees were taken into the firm in 1878.
These were A. Schilling and a Mr, Lamb.
The company was now called Folger, Schil-
ling & Co. This partnership was dissolved
in 1881, and the business continued as J.
A. Folger & Co. Mr. Folger died in 1890,
and the firm was then incorporated under
the same name.
Shortly after Folger, Schilling & Co. was
dissolved, A. Schilling and George Volk-
man formed the firm of A. Schilling & Co.
Mr. Schilling began his career as an office
boy with J. A. Folger in 1871.
M. J. Brandenstein and John C. Sieg-
fried formed a co-partnership under the
name of Siegfried & Brandenstein in 1880,
Mr. Brandenstein bought out his partner
in 1894, and took in his brothers, Manfred
and Edward, the firm name becoming M.
J. Brandenstein & Co,
George W. Caswell started in the retail
tea and coffee business in San Francisco
under his own name in 1885. In 1898, the
business became wholesale only. It was in-
corporated in 1901 as the George W. Cas-
well Co. The company took over the
brands and travelling organization of
Lievre, Frick & Co., which went into a dis-
solution of partnership in 1902.
Milwaukee. Prominent among early
coffee roasters of Milwaukee were : W. & J.
G, Flint ; James Eyan & Co. ; J. B. Rey-
nolds; Jewett & Sherman; and C. E. An-
drews & Co. Later we find added the Wm.
Grossman Co.
J. G. Flint and Wyman Flint founded
the business known as W. & J. G. Jlint in
1858. J. G. Flint bought out his brother
in 1880 and continued as the J. G, Flint
Co., owner of the Star Coffee and Spice
Mills. He died in 1896. The business was
incorporated in 1901 as the J. G. Flint Co.,
with W. K. Flint, a son of J. G., as presi-
dent. The Jewett & Sherman Co. took
control in 1911.
Professor Milo P. Jewett, Professor S, S,
Sherman, and his brother, "William Sher-
man, founded the firm of Jewett, Sherman
& Co. in 1867, and continued under that
name until 1875, when it was incorporated
as Jewett & Sherman Co., with Milo P.
Jewett as president, and Henry B. Sher-
man, secretary and treasurer. Professor
S. S. Sherman and his sons, Fred and Hen-
ry B,, sold out their interests in 1878 and
formed a new business in Chicago under
the name of Sherman Bros. & Co. William
M. Sherman then became president of Jew-
ett & Sherman Co., and Charles A. Mur-
dock, a nephew of S. S. and William Sher-
man, was made secretary and treasurer.
Mr, Murdock withdrew in 1881 and estab-
lished the C, A. Murdock Mfg. Co. in Kan-
sas City. In that same year, William H.
Sherman, another nephew, became a stock-
holder and one of the directors of Jewett
& Sherman Co, Dr. Lewis Sherman suc-
ceeded his father as president of the com-
pany in 1891, and served in that capacity
until his death in 1915, when he was suc-
ceeded by his son, Lewis Sherman, who is
president of the company at the present
time (1922). John Horter, who is now
secretary, joined the business in 1877.
William Grossman started in the whole-
sale grocery business in 1886. John and
Henry Dahlman were admitted to partner-
ship in 1889, About three years later, the
latter closed out his interests to J. F. W,
Imbusch. The present corporation was es-
tablished in 1892 as Wm. Grossman & Co.
The firm was incorporated August 1, 1916,
as the Wm. Grossman Co., with Wm. Gross-
man as president, George A. Grossman as
vice-president, and Paul E. Apel as secre-
tary and treasurer.
Another old-time coffee man of Milwau-
kee was Charles A. Clark, who had been in
the coffee business for nearly twenty years
before he organized the present business of
Clark & Host Co.
Toledo. The pioneer roasting firms here
seem to have been : Warren & Bedwell ;
and J. B. Baldy & Co. Later, after 1876,
we find added the Bour Company, and the
Woolson Spice Co.
The latter company was founded in 1882
by A. M. Woolson,, who up to that time had
conducted a successful retail grocery busi-
ness for several years. The Woolson Spice
Co. was sold to H. 0. Havemeyer of New
York in 1896, the reputed sale price being
$2,000,000. A. M. Woolson retired from
business at that time. Upon the death of
Mr. Havemeyer, the company passed into
the hands of Hermann Sielcken ; and when
U. S. TRADE HISTORY
507
QtMTmUk'EM, ©HI©.
Greb>- Coffees katuns^ advanced lai^geLf the. fia&t
meek, lae tf^uale aiw- /iricea of esoixu voffec, until
fiutkeif- notice, as foLLawA:
Best Mocha Coffee, 29 cts. '^ ft.
Best Old Gov't Java.
Pure Java
Fresh Java
Best Rio
Pure Eio
Dandilon
Pure West India.
No. 1 West India.
Union
27
24
22
21
19
16
16
•14
12
J^ofunc^ to Le fauai^d uiitk i^auf- piAkef- ofdeM,
tite i^niain,
nj-Qiu^ Steafiectpdhf,
Cleveland, Oct. Uth, 1M2.
^. ^te/Lketm Si ^an.
Ground Coffee Price List of 1862
he died, an American company secured
control.
The Bour Company was incorporated in
1892, following a partnership which had
succeeded to a small business concern un-
der the name of the Eagle Spice Company.
The principal stockholders were: J. IVE.
Bour, F. G. Kendrick, and Albro Blodgett.
Mr. Blodgett bought the Bour interests in
1909 and with S. W. Beckley, who had
been sales manager for a numbep of years,
acquired practically all the other outside
interests. The name was changed in 1921
to the Blodgett-Beckley Co., the officers
being Albro Blodgett, president, S. W.
Beckley, vice-president and manager, and
Henry P. Blodgett, secretary and treasurer.
Cleveland. Pioneers in Cleveland
were: Smith & Curtis; A. Stephens &
Sons ; John H. Ganse ; and W. D. Drake &
Co. In 1870, we find Edwards, Townsend
& Co.; Knight, Eberman & Co.; Talbot,
Winslow & Co.; Williams & Tait; and
Lemmon & Son, added.
Beards & Cummings, coffee roasters of
New York City, established a branch in
Cleveland under the management of Alvan
Stephens m 1855. Later, Stephens took
over the business for himself and changed
the name to Frisbie & Stephens. In 1861
Alvan 's sons, Henry A. and Samuel R.,
were admitted and the firm became A
Stephens & Sons. Alvan Stephens died in
1873, and Samuel moved to Chicago to
open a branch. He died in 1878. Henry A.
continued the business until 1881, when
Francis Widlar was admitted to partner-
ship, and the name was changed to Ste-
phens & Widlar. Henry A. Stephens died
m 1897, and A. L. Somers, H. H. Hewitt,
and p. D. Hudson, all old employees, were
admitted, and the firm name was changed
to F. Widlar & Co. Carl W. Brand a
nephew of Francis Widlar, joined the com-
pany in 1898. Upon the death of his uncle,
the business was incorporated as the Wid-
lar Co., and Mr. Brand became president
in 1910.
Pittsburgh. Next to New York, Pitts-
burg was one of the first cities to forge to
the front as a coffee-roasting center. These
are the firms that were among the leaders
m the period between 1860 and 1870 • Ar-
buckles & Co. ; W. T. Bown & Bro. • Dil-
worth Bros.; Rinehart & Stevens; T C
Jenkins & Bro. ; Carter Bros. & Co • J S
Dilworth & Co.; Jesse H. Lippincott;"
fc>hields & Boucher; and Ha worth & Dew-
hurst.
Samuel Young, Samuel Mahood, and E.
B. Mahood formed a partnership as Young
Mahood & Co. in 1879. E. B. Mahood with-
drew in 1890. Samuel Mahood retired in
1906, and the company was incorporated as
the Young-Mahood Company, with Samuel
Young as president, and W. James Mahood
as vice-president and general manager.
Portland, Oregon. Early roasters in
the trade of this city were : J. F. Jones; H.
C. Hudson & Co. ; Marden & Folger ; Ver-
dier & Closset; and Closset & Devers.'
Joseph and Emile Closset formed a part-
nership as Closset Bros, in 1880. A. H.
Devers, who had been a salesman with
Folger, Schilling & Co., San Francisco, and
later with A. Schilling & Co., bought out
Emile Closset in 1883, and the firm became
Closset & Devers. Joseph Closset died in
1915.
Baltimore. Pioneer roasters in Balti-
more were: Joseph Braas; Daniel Many;
George Pearson ; Sylvester Ruth ; and John
G. Siegman. These were quickly followed
508
ALL A B OUT COFFEE
by Barclay & Hasson ; Zoller & Little ; Ben-
jamin Berry; Jesse Lazear; and others.
Later, after 1876, came: E. Levering &
Co.; the Enterprise Coffee Co.; C. D.
jKenny; J. W. Laughlin & Co., now Le
Morgan Coffee Co.; and the Saxon Coffee
Company.
Detroit. In Detroit in 1860 - 70 were :
Evans & Walker; Farrington, Campbell &
Co. ; A. R. & W. F. Linn ; J. H. Riggs ; and
Palmer, Warner & Co. After 1876 were
added Sinclair, Evans & Elliot; Huber &
Stendel; and J. A. Parent & Co.
Other Cities. Names of pioneer roast-
ers of other towns in 1860 and 1870 were:
George Boardman, Albany, N. Y. ; Chu-
buck & Saunders, Binghamton, N. Y. ;
George W. Hayward, and P. J. Ferris,
Buffalo, N. Y. ; Lorimore Bros., and George
R. Forrester, Elmira, N. Y. ; Hatch &
Jenks, Jamestown, N. Y. ; N. B. Beede,
Newburgh, N. Y. ; A. F. Booth, Poughkeep-
sie, N. Y.; Ethridge, Tuller & Co., Rome,
N. Y. ; M. N. Van Zandt & Co., L. B. Eddy
& Co., and C. T. Moore, Rochester, N. Y. ;
Ostrander, Loomis & Co., and Jacob Crouse
& Co., Syracuse, N. Y. ; C. H. Garrison,
Troy, N. Y. ; Hinchman & Howard, and J.
Griffiths & Co., Utica, N. Y. ; B. F. Hoopes,
Bloomington, 111.; C. P. Farrell, and
Charles Richards, Peoria, 111. ; Slemmons &
Conkling, Springfield, 111. ; Henry Wales,
Bridgeport, Conn. ; A. B. Gillett, Wm.
Boardman & Sons, Hartford Steam Coffee
& Spice Mills, and Park, Fellowes & Co.,
Hartford, Conn.; Benj. Peck & Kellum,
and Steele & Emery, New Haven, Conn. ;
W. S. Scull & Co., Camden, N. J. ; Theo. F.
Johnson & Co., and the Pioneer Mills,
Newark, N. J. ; Charles A. Dunham, New
Brunswick, N. J.; James Ronan and Wm.
Dolton & Co., Trenton, N. J. ; Butler, Ear-
hart & Co., Columbus, Ohio; C. A. Trent-
man & Bro., and J. D. Beach & Co., Day-
ton, Ohio; W. & S. Stevens, and F. C.
Dietz, Zanesville, Ohio; J. E. Tone, Des
Moines, Iowa ; H. P. Hess, Cornell & Smith,
and E. Warne, Easton, Pa. ; E. S. Forster,
Erie, Pa. ; Haehnlen Bros., Harrisburg,
Pa.; D. G. Yuengling, Pottsville, Pa.; A.
G. Zilmore & Co., Scranton, Pa.; Granger
& Co., Titusville, Pa. ; Huestis & Hamilton,
and B. Trentman & Son, Ft. Wayne, Ind. ;
S. Haraill & Co., Keokuk, la.; H. H.
Lee, and Maguire & Gillespie, Indianap-
olis, Ind. ; Joseph Strong, Terre Haute,
Ind.; Curtis & Burnham, Leavenwor|;h,
Kan.; Yates & Dudley, Lexington, Ky.; A.
Turner, Wheeling, W. Va. ; Granger &
Hodge, and Nathaniel Crocker, St. Paul,
Minn.; W. W. Totten & Bro., Nashville,
Tenn. ; Henry Burns, Savannah, Ga. ; A.
McFarland, Springfield, Mass.; Alexander
Wills & Co., Montreal, Canada; and Peter
Hendershot, St. Catherine, Canada.
Between 1876 and 1900, many other
names came into prominence, and among
them mention should be made of : H. Hul-
man, Terre Haute, Ind. : A. B. Gates &
Co., and Schnull & Krag, Indianapolis,
Ind.: 0. W. Pierce Co., and Geiger-Tin-
ney Co., Lafayette, Ind. : Twitchell, Cham-
plin & Co., Portland, Me.; Nave-McCord
Mfg. Co., Mokaska Mfg. Co., and the Mid-
land Spice Co., St. Joseph, Mo. ; Beaham-
Moffatt Mfg. Co., and C. A. Murdock & Co.,
Kansas City, Mo.; Clarke Bros. & Co., T.
S. Grigor & Co., Consolidated Coffee Co.,
and McCord, Brady Co., Omaha, Neb. ; Day-
ton Spice Mills Co., and Canby, Ach &
Canby, Dayton, Ohio; Ohio Coffee & Spice
Co., and Butler, Crawford & Co., Columbus,
Ohio; Bacon, Stickney & Co., Albany,
N. Y.; Charles R. Groff Co., St. Paul,
Minn.; John G. Schuler, Covington, Ky. ;
J. W. Thomas & Son, Nashville, Tenn.;
Geo. F. Hanley & Co., Los Angeles, Cal. ;
C. S. Morey Mercantile Co., Denver, Col.;
and W. G. Lown Coffee Co., Washington,
D. C.
William Boardman, founder of Wm.
Boardman & Sons Co., Hartford, Conn.,
be'gan roasting coffee at Wethersfield in
1841 with a hand-power roaster, using wood
for fuel. He moved his plant to Hartford in
1850. In the same year, his son Thomas
J., after serving a fifteen-year apprentice-
ship in a country store, entered his father 's
employ. Three years later, he and his bro-
ther, William F. J. Boardman, were admit-
ted to the firm, the name being changed
to Wm. Boardman & Sons. Howard F.
Boardman, a son of Thomas J., began
working in the business in 1880, and was
admitted to partnership in 1888. The same
year, the founder died and William F. J.
retired. The business has since been con-
ducted by Thomas J. and Howard F.
Boardman.
The company Was incorporated in 1898,
and John Pepion was admitted. The pres-
ident of the company, Thomas J. Board-
man, is at the time of writing ninety years
U. S. TRADE HISTORY
.509
old. He still takes a very active interest in
the business, and his "cup sense" is as
acute as ever.
The 0. W. Pierce Company, Lafayette,
Ind. was founded in 1847 by Oliver Web-
ster Pierce, Sr. Except for three years in
the fifties, when the firm was known as
Reynolds, Hatcher & Pierce, it has been
known as the O. W. Pierce Company since
it was established. The company was in-
corporated in 1905 with O. W. Pierce, Jr.
as its head. The senior Mr. Pierce died in
1921. The firm first roasted coffee in 1891.
Prior to that time it had been in the
wholesale grocery business.
The William S. Scull Co., Camden, N. J.,
was established in 18.58 by William S. Scull,
whose father had been in the retail tea and
coffee business. William Scull died in 1916.
H. Newmark founded H. Newmark & Co.
in Los Angeles in 1865. He retired in 1886,
and Maurice H. Newmark was made a full
partner. The present name is M. A. New-
mark & Co.
In 1868, Major David B. Hamill entered,
as junior partner, the firm of S. Hamill
& Co., Keokuk, Iowa, of which his father,
Smith Hamill, was the head. Smith Ham-
ill died in 1890, and David B. became head
of the firm. He died in 1916.
William Tackaberry was a junior part-
ner in the firm of S. Hamill & Co., Keokuk,
Iowa. He began a business of his own in
the same city in 1868. Ten years later,
he moved the company to Sioux City, and
continued there as the Wm. Tackaberry Co.
Joel 0. Cheek began traveling for the
wholesale grocery house of Webb, Hughes
& Co., Nashville, Tenn., in 1873. Later, he
was admitted to partnership, the firm be-
coming Webb, Cheek & Co., and tten Cheek,
Norton & Neal. He formed the Nashville
Coffee & Mfg. Co., in 1899. It was merged
in 1901 into the Cheek-Neal Coffee Co.
Jekiel and Isaac E. Tone began the busi-
ness of Tone Bros, at Des Moines, Iowa, in
March, 3 873, with one roaster and one spice
mill. The business was incorporated in
1897. Jekiel Tone died in 1900, and Isaac
E. Tone in 1916. The business is now
(1922) carried on by W. E. and Jay E.
Tone.
Edward Canby began business in Dayton,
Ohio, in 1875, succeeding the firm of J. D.
Beach & Co. He retired in 1886, and the
business was left in charge of Frank L.
Canby and F. J. Ach, The latter had en-
tered the employ of Canby in 1877. He
secured an interest in the business in 1882,
and became a partner in 1890. When the
company was incorporated as Canby, Ach
& Canby in 1904, he was elected president.
Mr. Ach has been very prominent in the
affairs of the National Coffee Roasters As-
sociation since its organization.
Frank J. Geiger began in the tea, coffee,
and spice business in Lafayette, Ind., un-
der the name of Culver & Geiger. Mr.
Culver, who had never been active, died in
1889, and in 1892 the Geiger-Tinney Com-
pany was formed with F. J. Geiger as
president. The plant was moved to Indian-
apolis in 1901 with William L. Horn as
vice-president, and Henry C. Tinney as
secretary and treasurer. The name was
changed to the Geiger-Fishback Co. in 1912,
and Mr. Geiger retired. Frank S. Fish-
back acquired all the stock of the company
in 1918, and the name was changed to the
Fishback Co. with F. S. Fishbaek, presi-
dent ; John S. Fishback, treasurer ; and F.
C. Fishback, secretary.
S. Holstad joined the Thomson & Taylor
Spice Co of Chicago in 1892. He left in
1901 and went to Minneapolis, where he
became a member of the firm of Atwood &
Holstad. He withdrew in 1908 to form
the firm of S. Holstad & Co., with Charles
Ekelund and Alexander W. Kreiser as
partners. After the withdrawal of Mr.
Holstad from Atwood & Holstad, Mr. At-
wood continued as Atwood & Co.
F. P. Atha began work as a coffee sales-
man with Holman & Co., Terre Haute, Ind.
He went to San Francisco in 1899 and
entered the employ of J. A. Folger & Co.,
and introduced Folger products east of the
Rockies. He opened the Kansas City
branch in 1907; and a year later, he was
admitted to the firm and made vice-presi-
dent and general manager.
The National Coffee Boasters Association
The first effort to organize the coffee
roasters of the United States dates back to
1885, when several St. Louis coffee roasters
came together in a kind of gentlemen's
agreement not to cut the price of roasting
green coffee, which had declined, owing to
ruthless competition, from $1.00 to 10 cents
a bag. The various parties to the agree-
ment posted $500 checks each as forfeits,
not to violate the price as fixed. After one
510
ALL ABOUT COFFEE
^ +j bo o t-, . . o
" . , — bo S -w oJ
*" ctf t, O) m'S
year, a check was cashed ; but the principal
claimed his lapse was clerical and not in
violation of the agreement. However, as
a result of the argument that followed, the
organization was disbanded.
As early as 1900, leaders of the trade's
best thought began to urge the need of a
national organization among coffee roasters.
As a result of informal meetings between
men like Robert M. Forbes, Julius J. Schot-
ten, Robert Mey£r, and Messrs. Roth and
Homeyer, around the luncheon table in St.
Louis, to discuss trade abuses and bring
about better trade co-operation, the subject
of a St. Louis organization of coffee roast-
ers began to be agitated about 1906. It
was not until four years later, however,
that the idea took definite form.
On September 14, 1910, the Traffic As-
sociation of St. Louis Coffee Importers was
organized, starting out with a membership
of ten firms, its chief object being to ob-
tain an adjustment of freight rates to and
from St. Louis as advantageous as those
prevailing for Chicago and New York.
This association — of which Robert
Meyer was the first president, and H. L.
Homeyer, vice-president, J. S. Hart-
man, secretary, and G. H. Petring, treas-
urer — was the forerunner of the National
Coffee Roasters Traffic and Pure Food As-
sociation organized in 1911 and now known
as the National Coffee Roasters Association.
At the organization meeting of the na-
tional association twenty-six coffee-roasting
establishments in the Mississippi Valley
were represented at the conference held
May 26 - 27 in the Planters Hotel, St. Louis.
The objects of the new body were an-
nounced in the constitution, as:
First: To foster and promote a feeling of fel-
lowship and good will among its members, and
on broad and equitable lines to advance the
welfare of the coffee trade and the consumer.
Second : To eliminate or minimize abuses,
methods and practises inimical to the proper
conduct of business.
Third : To assist in the enactment and en-
forcement of uniform pure food laws which in
their operations shall deal justly and equitably
with the rights of the consumer and the trade.
The association started with these officers :
Julius J. Schotten, St. Louis, President;
M. H. Gasser, Toledo, vice-president ; W. E.
Tone, Des Moines, treasurer, and "W. J. H.
Bown, St. Louis, secretary.
Meanwhile, as a result of an agitation
started by The Tea and Coffee Trade Jour-
U. S. TRADE HISTORY
511
nal, a meeting of New York and eastern
coffee roasters was called at the Fulton
Club, New York, October 27, 1911, to dis-
cuss plans for a national organization. M.
H. Gasser attended this meeting, and told
of the plan of the western roasters to or-
ganize such an organization at a meeting
called for Chicago the following month.
The promoters of the eastern organization
Robert Meyer, St. Louis
First president of the Coffee Roasters' original or-
ganization
subsequently abandoned their efforts in
favor of the western group.
At the first convention of the "National
Coffee Roasters Traffic and Pure Food As-
sociation, held in Chicago, November 16-17,
1911, all the foregoing officers were retain-
ed, the office of second vice-president was
created, and Frank R. Seelye was selected
to fill it.
That the organization idea was popular
among the roasters was evident from the
fact that at the close of the convention it
was announced that the membership was
then seventy-one firms in cities as far east
as Virginia and as far west as Kansas City.
The convention demonstrated that the as-
sociation was really a national organization,
which quieted suspicions prevalent in some
quarters of the trade in the east that it
was chiefly a Mississippi Valley unit.
The first convention is remembered prin-
cipally because of Hermann Sielcken's de-
fense of the Brazil coffee valorization plan,
which was then the big question of the cof-
fee trade. The titles of some of the other
addresses will serve to indicate how the
scope of the association had enlarged since
its organization a few months before : ' ' An
Attack on Valorization" by Thomas J.
Webb, of Chicago; "Uniform Food Laws",
by W. T. Jones, of New Orleans ; ' ' Penny-
Change Systems," by R. W. McCreery, of
Marshalltown, la; "Traffic and Freight
Abuses," by W. E. Tone, of Des Moines;
"Transportation Problems," by Carl H.
Stoffregen, St. Louis; "Coffee Publicity,"
by F. H. Henrici, of Chicago; "Coffee
Roasters' Costs and Accounting," by F. J.
Ach, Chicago. The first convention proved
a success, and attracted attention.
The second annual convention, held in
New York, November 13 - 15, 1912, showed
that the association had grown to a mem-
bership of 135 firms located in all parts of
the country, and that its influence had ex-
tended throughout the whole trade. Valo-
rization continued to be a much discussed
subject, Hermann Sielcken and others
again defending it in speeches; but the
majority of the association seemed opposed
to the scheme. Probably the most import-
ant feature of the conventiort was the re-
port of the committee of nine men whx) had
visited Brazil to investigate conditions there
and to interest the Brazilian coffee growers
in an advertising campaign. An address
on this subject was made by the editor of
The Tea and Coffee Trade Journal, in
which he suggested a plan for propaganda
and advocated scientific research to find out
the truth about coffee.
The election of officers resulted in the
selection of F. J. Ach, Dayton, as president ;
Frank R. Seelye, Chicago, first vice-presi-
dent; Ross W. Weir, New York, second
vice-president; and Robert Meyer, St
Louis, treasurer.
The 1912 convention changed the name
of the association to the National Coffee
Roasters Association, dropping the words
' ' Traffic and Pure Food ' ' from the original
title.
The third convention, which was held
November 12 - 14, 1913, in Cincinnati, dem-
512
ALL ABOUT COFFEE
Julius J. Schotten — 1911 - 12
F. J. Acii — 1912 - 14
Ross W. WEiii — 1914-3G
Frank K. Seelye — 1910-17
Ben C. Casanas — 1917 - IS
Carl W. Brand — 1918 - 21
FORMER PRESIDENTS, NATIONAL COFFEE ROASTERS ASSOCIATION
U. S. TRADE HISTORY
513
onstrated that the scope of usefulness of
the association was still growing, as shown
by the resolutions which approved better
coffee-making publicity ; favored a national
coffee day; urged the appointment of in-
spectors at ports of entry to prevent the
importation of green coffee under govern-
ment standard No. 8; condemned the ex-
cessive watering of coffee and all coffee
coatings; and provided for the appoint-
ment of an agent to visit Brazil to furnish
members with ''reliable" reports on crop
flowering.
F, J. Ach was re-elected president ; Ross
W. Weir succeeded F. R. Seelye as first
vice-president; W. T. Jones succeeded Mr.
"Weir as second vice-president, and Rob-
ert Meyer was retained as treasurer.
Secretary G. W. Toms, who had been ap-
pointed in April, 1913, reported that the
association had made a net gain of thirteen
members, bringing the total up to 144.
The membership of the association had
been increased by twenty names when the
fourth annual convention was opened in
New Orleans, November 16 - 19, 1914, mak-
ing the total 164.
Better coffee making, roasting economies,
a national coffee week, and improved meth-
ods of handling green coffee in ports and
warehouses, were the principal topics con-
sidered at the 1914 meeting. As a result
of the discussions, the association went on
record in its resolutions as being against
the misbranding of both green and roasted
coffee; favored the creation of a United
States board of coffee experts ; and the es-
tablishment of an association trade-mark
bureau.
For the ensuing year Ross W. Weir, New
York, was chosen president; J. 0. #Cheek,
Nashville, first vice-president; T. F. Hal-
ligan, Davenport, second vice-president;
and W. T. Morley, Worcester, treasurer.
The decision to get together on a compre-
hensive national publicity campaign in the
interest of coffee was the outstanding fea-
ture of the fifth annual convention, which
was held in St. Louis, November 8 - 11, 1915,
in the same room in the Planters Hotel in
which the association was organized in 1911.
From a body of twenty-six roasters, the as-
sociation had grown in five years to a mem-
bership of 201 firms and individuals.
Among the more important things done
at this convention was the decision to un-
dertake a practical publicity plan to ad-
vertise coffee; the adoption of a uniform
cost-and-freight contract; the proposal to
prepare educational matter on coffee for
the schools; and the recommendation to
employ a chemist to carry on research
work. There were spirited discussions also
on gas, coal, and coke as roasting fuels ; on
the best way to get retailer co-operation,
and Avhether it was advisable to continue
the national coffee week idea. President
Weir, Vice-Presidents Cheek and Halligan,
and Treasurer Morley were re-elected.
The sixth annual convention, held in At-
lantic City, November 14 - 17, 1916, placed
emphasis on research into grinding and
brewing; on plans for doing something
practical to help grocers regain their lost
coffee trade; and on an investigation into
the scientific costs of roasting. The ad-
mittance of green coffee and allied interests
into the association was also discussed, and
it was resolved to make the subject an order
of business for special consideration at the
next convention.
At this meeting Frank R. Seelye, Chicago,
was elected president ; Ben C. Casanas, New
Orleans, first vice-president; J. M. McFad-
den, Dubuque, second vice-president; and
M. H. Gasser, Toledo, treasurer. The mem-
bership was reported as being 204, showing
a net increase of three during the year.
The seventh convention, held in Chicago,
November 14 - 15, 1917, came when the first
movement of American soldiers to Eu-
ropean battlefields was begun, and patriot-
ism was the keynote of the meeting. Be-
cause of the stress of the times, the program
was cut to two days, instead of the three
days of former meetings.
The outstanding features of the conven-
tion were: the decision not to admit green
coffee men to the association; the decision
to establish a permanent headquarters ; the
announcement that Brazil was then col-
lecting funds for its part in the national ad-
vertising campaign; and the proposal by
John E, King, Detroit, that the term ''lead
number" be used instead of "caffetannic
acid", which he asserted was a misnomer.
The executive committee was authorized to
employ a secretary-manager. The shorter
terms and credits idea was endorsed by the
association.
These officers were elected for the next
year; Ben C. Casanas, New Orleans, presi-
514
ALL ABOUT COFFEE
dent ; S. H. Holstad, Minneapolis, first vice-
president; Edward Aborn, New York, sec-
ond vice-president; M. H. Gassar, Toledo,
treasurer.
The influenza epidemic, w^hich swept the
country the latter part of 1918, caused the
postponement of many business and public
gatherings, and the eighth annual roasters
convention did not assemble until Decem-
ber 5-6, in Cleveland — at only ten days '
notice. Unlike previous occasions, this was
in reality a combined convention of all
roasted and green coffee men in the trade,
both association members and non-members.
No regular program was followed, the meet-
ing being somewhat in the character of a
trade conference.
The salient features of the convention
were the decisions : to double the annual
dues, in order to provide for a paid secre-
tary-manager and to establish permanent
headquarters; to organize a spice grinders'
section ; and to ask the government to re-
move all restrictions on coffee trading. The
Food Administration's coffee regulations
came in for severe criticism.
The election of officers resulted in Carl
W. Brand, Cleveland, becoming president;
Robert M. Forbes, St. Louis, first vice-presi-
dent; J. A. Folger, San Francisco, second
vice-president; and Lewis Sherman, Mil-
waukee, treasurer.
The ninth convention of the National
Coffee Roasters Association was of greater
import to all branches of the coffee trade
than any that had preceded it. The re-
sults of the meeting showed the association
had gone far since the organization meeting
in St. Louis in 1911. As in 1916, the con-
vention was held in Atlantic City,
November 12 - 14, 1919, and drew delegates
from as far west as San Francisco and
Seattle.
The most important subjects before the
meeting were the reports of the Joint Coffee
Trade Publicity Committee, read by Ross
W. "Weir, chairman, and Felix Coste, secre-
tary-manager. The committee had been or-
ganized during the year to carry on the
national coffee-advertising campaign, and
announced at the convention its publicity
plans for the next year, which included a
national coffee week, a national showing of
the committee's coffee film, and the issu-
ance of several educational booklets. Other
outstanding features included the descrip-
tion of how the association planned to con-
duct a research into the cost of doing a
wholesale coffee-roasting business, the in-
vestigation to be made by Columbia Uni-
versity ; addresses attacking the meat pack-
ers ' invasion of the coffee roasting and dis-
tributing field ; a paper, and discussions, on
shorter terms and uniform discounts; the
recommendation to employ a traveling field
secretary who would hold periodical meet-
ings with local branches; and the condem-
nation of guaranteeing prices against de-
cline and giving advance notices of changes
of prices.
The convention unanimously agreed to
the re-election of President Brand, Vice-
Presidents Forbes and Folger, and Treas-
urer Sherman.
The tenth annual meeting was held in St.
Louis, November 10-12, 1020. Scientific
cost finding, short terms and discounts, the
national advertising campaign, the activi-
ties of the N, C. R. A. freight-forwarding
bureau, and laboratory-research were the
main topics of this years' gathering. The
membership was reported to be 310. A fea-
ture of the meeting was the first industrial
exhibit by twenty-five supply houses.
Among the things accomplished w^ere :
The recommendation that members co-
operate in determining the invisible supply
of coffee in the United States at stated
periods; increasing annual dues from $50
to $60 for members having $50,000 or less
capitalization, and from $100 to $120 for
firms having more than $50,000 capital ; re-
stricting membership to purely wholesale
coffee roasters and distributers; and offer-
ing co-operation to hotel-men and restau-
rant-keepers in standardizing and improv-
ing their coffee beverages.
The St. Louis meeting was notable in
violating association precedent by unani-
mously electing Carl W. Brand president
for the third consecutive term. Other of-
ficers were : J. A. Folger, San Francisco,
first vice-president, R. 0. Miller, Chicago,,
second vice-president; Charles A. Clark,
Milwaukee, treasurer.
The eleventh annual meeting, held in
New York, November 1 - 3, 1921, set the
high-water mark of the organization's rec-
ord of achievement. This convention took
the first definite steps toward the amalga-
mation of the green and roasted coffee in-
terests in one association. Brazil sent a
delegation of coffee men to invite a similar
delegation to pay a return visit to Brazil.
I
U. S. TRADE HISTORY
515
Joel O. Cheek, Nashville
President of the National Coffee Roasters Associa-
tion, 1922
It was announced also that Sao Paulo was
about to double its tax contribution to the
national advertising campaign. Among
other things done, were: the appropriation
of $1500 to work out a uniform cost-ac-
counting system for roasters; the recom-
mendation that coffee importers insist upon
the use of American ships by Brazilian ex-
porters; the formulation of a cost-and-
freight arbitration contract for use with
Sao Paulo exporters ; the formation of a
new membership class roasting up to 6000
bags a year ; and the decision to make a na-
tional campaign to put the selling of coffee
on a uniform thirty-days credit, two per-
cent cash in ten days basis. Professor S. C.
Prescott, reporting on the research work
being done at the Massachusetts Institute
of Technology, said a better brew of coffee
could be obtained at a temperature of 185
degrees than at the boiling point; that
glass, china, or enameled-ware pots were to
be preferred, and that the filtration method
is superior to that employed in the pump-
ing percolator.
The Industrial Exposition included dis-
plays by twenty-eight manufacturers of ma-
chinery and supplies, and was voted a suc-
cess. Many of the exhibits were of a dis-
tinctly educational character.
The following officers were elected for
1921 - 22 : President, Joel 0. Cheek, Nash-
ville, Tenn. ; first vice-president, Webster
Jones, San Francisco; second vice-presi-
dent, Joseph E. Maury, Memphis, Tenn.;
treasurer, Frank Ennis, Kansas City.
Coffee Roaster Statistics
As might be expected, considering the
leading place that New York holds as a
port of entry for coffee, the roasting and
grinding of coffee is more important in the
eastern section of the country than in any
other. But there are many establishments
for preparing coffee scattered throughout
the south and the middle west, and the busi-
ness has grown to considerable proportions
on the Pacific coast. New York state
leads in number of establishments and is
followed by Pennsylvania, California, Mis-
COFFEE AND SPICE ROASTING AND GRINDING
Establishments — Census of 1914
Value of
States Xiimber Capital product
Alabama 8 $155,000 $331,000
California 43 3,619,000 9,584,000
Colorado 9 445,000 1,168.000
Connecticut 7 136,000 435,000
Dist. of Col 5 294,000 428,000
Florida 19 219.000 697.000
Georgia G 80.000 169,000
Illinois .34 8,1.59,000 22,045.000
Indiana 12 941,000 1.790,000
Iowa 14 1.752.000 3,804.000
Kansas 6 144,000 396,000
Kentucky 17 541,000 1,561,000
Louisiana 17 1,657,000 4.241,000
Maryland 14 1,643,000 4,393,000
Massachusetts ... 21 3,678,000 8,675,000
Michigan 16 502,000 1,618,000
INIinnesota 11 1,531,000 4,729.000
Mississippi 5 27,000 94,000
Missouri 37 6,152,000 14,299,000
Nebraska 6 405.000 1,262,000
New Jersey 17 828,000 3,451.000
New York 136 9,910,000 31,675,000
Ohio 35 6,578,000 13.312,000
Oklahoma 6 191,000 7.57.000
Oregon 9 757,000 2.050,000
Pennsylvania 77 2,454.000 6.967,000
Tennessee 7 465.000 1,648,000
Texas 36 970,000 3,326.000
Virginia 9 413.000 1,137,000
Washington 25 1.023.000 2.237.000
West Virginia ... 3 73.000 71,000
Wisconsin 8 362.000 809,000
Other states 21 492.000 1.. 500.000
Total 696 $56.i596.00O $150,749,000
souri, Ohio, and Illinois. The chief south-
ern state is Texas, followed by Louisiana
and Kentucky, although Maryland and
516
ALL ABOUT COFFEE
Louisiana lead in value of product. Mis-
souri has more plants than any other state
in the middle west, and is followed by Illi-
nois, though the capital invested and the
value of the output are much greater in
the latter than in the former.
The distribution of the business of pre-
paring coffee is shown by the figures of the
Census Bureau, which reports for 1914 a
total of 696 establishments under the desig-
nation "Coffee and spice, roasting and
grinding." It was found to be necessary
to adopt this classification inasmuch as
most establishments handle both coffee and
spices. Of the 696, however, 658 had cof-
fee as their principal product, and the fig-
ures may thus be taken as indicating fairly
well the general distribution of the coffee-
manufacturing industry. These figures, for
the various states, are shown on page 515.
Preliminary figures for the 1919 census
show that the value of the product almost
doubled in the five years 1914 - 19, amount-
ing to $304,740,000 in 1919, while the num-
ber of establishments increased from 696 to
794, of which 769 specialize in coffee.
Chapter XXXI
SOME BIG MEN AND NOTABLE ACHIEVEMENTS
B. G. Arnold, the first, and Hermann Sielcken, the last of the
American '^coffee kings" — John Arbuckle, the original package-
coffee man — Jahez Burns, the man who revolutionized the roasted
coffee business by his contributions as inventor, manufacturer, and
writer — Coffee-trade booms and panics — Brazil's first valorization
enterprise — War-time government control of coffee — The story of
soluble coffee
IN the history of the coffee trade of the
United States, several names stand out
because of sensational accomplishments,
and because of notable contributions made
to the development of the industry. In
green coffee, we have B. G. Arnold, the
first, and Hermann Sielcken the last, of the
"coffee kings"; in the roasting business,
there was John Arbuckle, the original na-
tional-package-coffee man; and in the cof-
fee-roasting machinery business, Jabez
Burns, inventor, manufacturer, and writer.
The First ''Coffee King"
Benjamin Green Arnold came to New
York from Ehode Island in 1836 and took
If .
a job as accountant with an east-side gro-
f^er. He was thrifty, industrious, and kept
his own counsel. He was a born financial
leader. Fifteen years later he was made
a junior partner in the firm. By 1868, the
bookkeeper of 1836 was the head of the
business, with a line of credit amounting
to half a million dollars — a notable
achievement in those days.
Mr. Arnold embarked upon his big specu-
lation in coffee in 1869. For ten years he
maintained his mastery of the market, and
in that time amassed a fortune. It is re-
lated that one year 's operations of this dar-
ing trader yielded his firm a profit of a mil-
lion and a quarter of dollars.
Benjamin Green Arnold
B. G. Arnold was the first president of
the New York Coffee Exchange. He was
one of the founders of the Down Town
Association in 1878. The president of the
United States was his friend, and a guest
517
518
ALL ABOUT COFFEE
at his luxurious home. But the high-price
levels to which Arnold had forced the
coffee market started a coffee-planting fe-
ver in the countries of production. Almost
before he knew it, there was an overproduc-
tion that swamped the market and forced
down prices with so amazing rapidity that
panic seized upon the traders. Few that
were caught in that memorable coffee
maelstrom survived financially.
Arnold himself was a victim, but such
was the man's character that his failure
was regarded by many as a public misfor-
tune. Some men differed with him as to
the wisdom of promoting a coffee corner,
and protested that it was against public
policy ; but Arnold 's personal integrity was
never questioned, and his mercantile ability
and honorable business dealings won for
him an affectionate regard that continued
after his fortune had been swept away.
After the collapse of the coffee corner,
Mr. Arnold resumed business with his son,
F. B. Arnold. He died in New York, De-
cember 10, 1894, in his eighty-second year.
The son died in Rome in 1906. The busi-
ness which the father founded, however,
continues today as Arnold, Dorr & Co., one
of the most honored and respected names
in Front Street.
Hermann Sielcken, the Last Coffee King
If B. G. Arnold was first coffee king,
Hermann Sielcken was last, for it is un-
likely that ever again, in the United States,
will it be possible for one man to achieve
so absolute a dictatorship of the green
coffee business.
There never was a coffee romance like
that of Hermann Sielcken 's. Coming to
America a poor boy in 1869, forty-five
years later, he left it many times a million-
aire. For a time, he ruled the coffee mar-
kets of the world with a kind of autocracy
such as the trade had never seen before and
probably will not see again. And when,
just before the outbreak of the World War,
he returned to Germany for the annual
visit to his Baden-Baden estate, from which
he was destined never again to sally forth
to deeds of financial prowess, his subse-
quent involuntary retirement found him a
huge commercial success, where B. G.
Arnold was a colossal failure. It was the
World War and a lingering illness that, at
the end, stopped Hermann Sielcken. But,
though he had to admit himself bested by
the fortunes of war, he was still undefeated
in the world of commerce. He died in his
native Germany in 1917, the most com-
manding, and the most cordially disliked,
figure ever produced by the coffee trade.
Hermann Sielcken was born in Hamburg
in 1847, and so was seventy years old when
he died at Baden-Baden, October 8, 1917.
He was the son of a small baker in Ham-
burg ; and before he was twenty-one, he
went' to Costa Rica to work for a German
firm there. He did not like Costa Rica, and
within a year he went to San Francisco,
where, with a knowledge of English al-
ready acquired, he got a job as a shipping
clerk. This was in 1869. A wool concern
engaged him as buyer, and for about six
years he covered the territory between the
Rockies and the Pacific, buying wool. On
one of these trips he was in a stage-coach
wreck in Oregon and nearly lost his life.
He received injuries affecting his back
from which he never fully recovered, and
which caused the stooped posture which
marked his carriage through life there-
after. When he recovered, he came to New
York seeking employment, and obtained a
clerical position with L. Strauss & Sons,
importers of crockery and glassware. In
1880, married Josephine Chabert, whose
father kept a restaurant in Park Place.
Sielcken had learned Spanish in Costa
Rica, and this knowledge aided him to a
place with W. H. Grossman & Bro. (W. H.
and George AY. Grossman) merchandise
commission merchants in Broad Street. He
was sent to South America to solicit con-
signments for the Crossmans, and was sur-
prisingly successful. For six or eight
months every South American mail brought
orders to the house. Then, as the story
goes, his reports suddenly ceased. Weeks
and months passed, and the firm heard
nothing from him.
The Crossmans speculated concerning his
fate. It was thought he might have caught
a fever and died. It was almost impossible
to trace him ; at the same time it distressed
them to lose so promising a representative.
Giving up all hope of hearing from him
again, they began to look around for some
one to take his place. Then, one morning,
he walked into the office and said, ''How
do you do?" just as if he had left them
only the evening before. The members of
the firm questioned him eagerly. He an-
BIG MEN AXD ACHIEVEMENTS
519
Hermann Sielckex
swered some of their questions ; but most of
them, he did not. Then he laid a package
on the table.
''Gentlemen", he said, "I have given a
large amount of business to you, far more
than you expected, as the result of my trip.
I have a lot more business which I can give
to you. It's all in black and white in the
papers in this package. I think any per-
son who has worked as hard as I have, and
so well, deserves a partnership in this firm.
If you want these orders, you may have
them. They represent a big pro^t to you.
Good work deserves proper reward. Look
these papers over, and then tell me if you
want me to continue with you as a member
of this firm."
After the Crossmans had looked those
papers over they had no doubt of the ad-
visability of taking Sielcken into partner-
ship. He was admitted as a junior in 1881 -
82 and became a full partner in 1885. For
more than twenty years Hermann Sielcken
was the human dynamo that pushed the
firm forward into a place of world prom-
inence. He was the best informed man on
coffee in two continents ; and when, in 1904,
the firm name was changed to Grossman &
Sielcken — W. H. Grossman having died
ten years before — he was well prepared
to assert his rights as king of the trade.
He proved his kingship by his masterful
handling of valorization three years later.
Sielcken was many times credited with
working ''corners" in coffee; but he would
never admit that a corner was possible in
anything that came out of the ground ; and
to the end, he was insistent in his denials
of ever having cornered coffee. As a dar-
ing trader, he won his spurs in a sensa-
tional tilt with the Arbuckles in the bull
campaign of 1887. Because of this, he be-
came one of the most feared and hated men
in the Goffee Exchange. For a while, coffee
did not offer enough play for his tremen-
dous energy and ambition. He embarked
in various enterprises — among them, the
steel industry and railroads. No one was
too big for Sielcken to cross lances with.
He bested John W. Gates in a titanic fight
in American Steel and Wire. He quarreled
with E. H. Harriman and George J. Gould
over the possession of the Kansas Gity,
Pittsburgh, and Gulf Railroad, now known
as the Kansas City Southern, and, backed
by a syndicate of Hollanders, obtained con-
trol.
While still busy with the Kansas City
Southern enterprise Sielcken began work
on the coffee valorization scheme that he
carried to a successful conclusion in spite
of the law of supply and demand and the
interference of the Congress of the United
States. Valorization by the Sao Paulo gov-
ernment, and by coffee merchants, having
proved a failure ; Sielcken showed how it
could be done with all the American cof-
fee merchants eliminated — except himself.
In this way, he secured for himself the
opportunity he had long been seeking —
the chance to bestride the coffee trade like
a colossus. The story is told farther along
in this chapter.
When his partner, George W. Grossman,
died in 1913, it was discovered that the
two men had a remarkable contract. Each
had made a will giving one million dollars
to the other. Then Sielcken bought his late
partner's interest in the firm for $5,166,991.
His first wife having died at Maria-
halden, his home in Baden-Baden, seven
years before, Sielcken married at Tessin,
Germany, in 1913, Mrs. Clara AVendroth,
a widow with two children, and the daugh-
ter of the late Paul Isenberg, a wealthy
sugar planter of the Hawaiian Islands. At
520
ALL ABOUT COFFEE
that time the coffee king was dividing his
time between the Waldorf-Astoria, New
York, which he called his American home,
and his wonderful estate in the fatherland.
This latter was a two-hundred-acre private
park containing four villas and a marvelous
bath-house for guests besides the main
villa; a rose-garden in which were culti-
vated one hundred sixty-eight varieties on
some twenty thousand bushes; a special
greenhouse for orchids; and landscaped
grounds calling for the service of six pro-
fessional gardeners and forty assistants.
Here he delighted to entertain his friends.
Frequently, there were fifteen to twenty of
them for dinner on the garden terrace;
and, as the moon came up through the tall
hemlocks and shone through the majestic
pines brought from Oregon, a full military
band from Heidelberg, adown the hillside
among the rose trees, mingled its music
with the dinner discussions. There was
nothing at that dinner table but peace and
harmony, although every language in
Europe was spoken; for Sielcken knew
them all from his youth. Sometimes he en-
tertained his guests with stories of his (Cali-
fornia life, and sometimes with those of
shipwrecks in South America.
All the post-telegraph boys in Baden
knew every foot of the sharply winding
road up the Yburg Strasse to Villa Maria-
halden; and the guests therein have count-
ed more than eighty cables received, and
more than thirty sent in a single day. And
those daily cable messages were to and
from all quarters of the globe, and to and
from the master, who handled them all,
without even a secretary or typewriter.
Nowhere in the entire establishment was
there even an appearance of business, ex-
cept as the messages came and went on the
highway. Sielcken manifested his great-
est delight in showing his friends his or-
chids, his roses, his pigeons, his trout, and
his trees.
Like Napoleon, this merchant prince re-
quired only five hours sleep. It was his
custom to go to bed at one and to be up at
six. Did he wish to know anything that
the cables did not bring him, he jumped
into his eighty-horse-power Mercedes with
a party of guests and was off with the sun-
rise, down the Rhine Valley, on his way to
Paris or Hamburg ; and before one realized
that he was gone, he was back again.
In 1913, Sielcken admitted to partner-
ship in his firm two employees of long ser-
vice, John S. Sorenson and Thorlief S. B.
Nielsen. He went to Germany in 1914,
shortly before the beginning of the World
War, and remained at Mariahalden until
he died in 1917. Sielcken never would be-
lieve that war was possible until it had
actually started. Up to the last moment in
July, 1914, he was cabling his New York
partner that there would probably be no
hostilities. He lost a bet of 'a thousand
pounds made with a visiting Brazilian
friend a few days before war was declared.
The guest believed war inevitable and won.
A few days before Sielcken 's death the old
firm was dissolved under the Trading with
the Enemy Act, being succeeded by the
firm of Sorenson & Nielsen. The former
had been with the business thirty-four
years, and the latter thirty-two years. The
alien property custodian took over Sielc-
ken's interest for the duration of the war.
Rumors in 1915 that the German govern-
ment M^as extorting large sums of money
from Sielcken brought denials from his as-
sociates here. After the war, it was con-
firmed that no such extortions took place.
Sielcken always claimed American citi-
zenship. There was a widely circulated
story, never proved, that he tore up his
citizenship papers in 1912 when the United
States government began its suit to force
the sale of coffee stocks held here under the
valorization agreement. The Supreme
Court of California in 1921 decided that he
was a citizen, and his interests and those of
his widow, amounting to $4,000,000, held
by the alien property custodian, were
thereupon released to his heirs. It appeared
in evidence that he took out his citizen-
ship papers in San Francisco in 1873 - 74,
but lost them in a shipwreck off the coast
of Brazil in 1876. The San Francisco fire
destroyed the other records; but under act
of legislature re-establishing them, the citi-
zenship claim was declared valid.
Hermann Sielcken never liked the title
of ' ' coffee king. ' ' He was once asked about
this appellation, and turned smartly upon
the interviewer.
"Nonsense," he said. "I am no king. I
don't like the term, because I never heard
of a 'king' who did not fail."
Sielcken had no use for titles. T. S. B.
Nielsen says that at a dinner party in Ger-
BIG MEN AND ACHIEVEMENTS
521
I
many in 1915 he heard Sielcken explain to
a large number of guests that the United
States was the best country because there
a man was appraised at his real value.
What he did, and how he lived, counted —
not birth or titles.
While his greatest achievement was, of
course, the valorization enterprise, he
played a not unimportant role in the Have-
meyer-Arbuckle sugar-trust fight. He
aided the late Henry 0. Havemeyer to se-
cure control of the Woolson Spice Co. of
Toledo in 1896, so as to enable the Have-
meyer's to retaliate with Lion brand cof-
fee for the Arbuckles' entrance into the
sugar business. The Woolson Spice Co.
sold the Lion brand in the middle west, and
the American Coifee Co. sold it in the east.
That was the beginning of' a losing price-
war that lasted ten years. At the end,
Sielcken took over the Woolson property at
a price considerably lower than originally
paid for it. In 1919, the Woolson Spice
Co. brought suit against the Sielcken estate,
alleging a loss of $932,000 on valorization
coffee sold to it by Sielcken just after the
federal government began its suit in 1912
to break up the valorization pool in the
itnited States. The Woolson Spice Co.
paid the "market price", as did the rest of
the buyers of valorization coffee ; but it was
charged that Sielcken, as managing partner
of Crossman & Sielcken, sold the coffee to
the Woolson Spice Co., of which he was
president, "at artificially enhanced prices
and in quantities far in excess of its legiti-
mate needs, concealing his knowledge that
before the plaintiff could use the coffee, the
price would decline." Sielcken collected
for the coffee sold $3,218,666. ^
When the United States government
crossed lances with Sielcken in 1912 over
the valorization scheme, it looked for a time
as if he would be unhorsed. But men and
governments were all the same to Sielcken ;
and at the end of the fight it was discovered
that not only was he undefeated — for
the government never pressed its suit to
conclusion — but that his prestige as king
and master mind of the coffee trade had
gained immeasurably by the adventure.
Hermann Sielcken typified German effi-
ciency raised to the nth power. He was a
colossus of commerce with the military
alertness of a Bismarck. His mental proc-
esses were profound, and his vision was
far-reaching. He was a resourceful trader,
an austere friend, a shrewd and uncompro-
mising foe. Physically, he was a big man
with a bull neck and black, piercing eyes.
His policy in coffee was one of blood and
iron. He brooked no interference with his
plans, and he was ruthless in his methods
of dealing with men and governments.
Usually silent and uncommunicative, occa-
sionally he exploded under stress; and
when he did so, there was no mincing of
words. He knew no fear. Newspaper crit-
icism annoyed him but little; and he had
a kind of contempt for the fourth estate as
a whole, although he knew how to use it
when it suited his purpose. He avoided
the limelight, and never courted publicity
for himself. Socially he was a princely
host; but few knew him intimately, except
perhaps in his native Germany.
Sielcken 's widow was married in New
York, February 11, 1922, to Joseph M.
Schwartz, the Russian baritone of the Chi-
cago Opera Company.
The Story of John Arhuckle
John Arbuckle, for nearly fifty years the
honored dean of the American coffee trade,
pioneer package-coffee man, some time cof-
fee king, sugar merchant, philanthropist,
and typical American, came from fine,
rugged Scotch stock. He was the son of a
well-to-do Scottish woolen-mill owner in Al-
legheny, Pa., where he was born, July 11,
1839. He often said he was raised on skim
milk. He received a common school educa-
tion in Pittsburgh and Allegheny. He and
Henry Phipps, the coke and steel head, are
said to have occupied adjoining desks in
one of the public schools, Andrew Car-
negie being at that time in another grade
of the same school. He had a strong bent
for science and machinery; and, although
he chose the coffee instead of the steel busi-
ness for his career, the basis of his success
was invention. He also attended Washing-
ton and Jefferson College at Washington,
Pennsylvania.'
The Arbuckle business was founded at
Pittsburg, in 1859, when Charles Arbuckle,
his uncle Duncan McDonald, and their
friend William Roseburg, organized the
wholesale grocery firm of McDonald & Ar-
buckle. One year later John Arbuckle, the
younger brother of Charles Arbuckle, was
1 Much of the information that follows is from an
article by M. E. Goetzinger in the Percolator, Feb-
ruary, 1921.
522
ALL ABOUT COFFEE
admitted to the firm, and the firm name
was changed to McDonald & Arbuckles.
McDonald and Roseburg retired from the
firm a few years later, leaving the business
in the hands of the two youthful, hopeful,
and energetic brothers, who under the firm
name of Arbuckles & Co., soon made their
firm one of the important wholesale grocery
houses in Pennsylvania. Although little
thinking at the time that their greatest suc-
cess was to be achieved in coffee, and that
a new idea of one of the partners — that of
marketing roasted coffee in original pack-
ages — would make their name familiar in
every hamlet in the country, yet the first
two entries in the original day-book of
McDonald & Arbuckles record purchases of
coffee.
Prior to the sixties, coffee was not gen-
erally sold roasted or ground, ready for the
coffee pot. Except in the big cities, most
housewives bought their coffee green, and
roasted it in their kitchen stoves as needed.
John Arbuckle, having become impressed
with the wasteful methods and unsatisfac-
tory results of this kitchen roasting, had
already begun his studies of roasting and
packaging problems, studies that he never
gave up. How, first to roast coffee scientif-
ically, and then to preserve its freshness in
the interval between the roaster and the
coffee pot, continued to be an absorbing
study until his death. The range of his
work may be illustrated by reference to his
first and his last patents. In 1868, he pat-
ented a process of glazing coffee, which had
for its object the preservation of the flavor
and aroma of coffee by sealing the pores of
the coffee bean. Thirty-five years later, he
patented a huge coffee roaster in which,
more closely than in any other roaster, he
felt he could approach his ideal of roasting
coffee — that ideal being to hold the coffee
beans in suspension in super-heated air
during the entire roasting process, and not
to allow them to come in contact with a
heated iron surface.
By 1865, John Arbuckle had satisfied
himself that a carefully roasted coffee,
packed while still warm in small individual
containers, would measurably overcome the
objections to selling loose coffee in a roasted
state. So in that year (1865), although not
without the misgivings of his elder brother,
and even in the face of the ridicule of com-
petitors, who derided the plan of selling
roasted coffee "in little paper bags like
peanuts", Arbuckles & Co. introduced the
new idea, namely, roasted coffee in original
packages. The story of the development of
that simple idea, which soon spread from
coast to coast, and of how it laid the foun-
dations of a great fortune, is one of the ro-
mances of American business.
Although Osborn's Celebrated Prepared
Java Coffee, a ground-coffee package, first
put on the New York market by Lewis A.
Osborn, and later exploited by Thomas
Reid in the early sixties, appears to have
been the original package coffee, much of
the fame attached to the name of Arbuckle
comes from its association with the Ariosa
coffee package, which was the first success-
ful national brand of package coffee. It
was launched in 1873. The Ariosa pre-
mium list (premiums have been a feature
of the Arbuckle business since 1895) in-
cludes a hundred articles. Almost any-
thing from a pair of suspenders or a tooth-
brush, to clocks, wringers, and corsets may
be obtained in exchange for Ariosa cou-
pons.
The common belief that the name Ariosa
was made up from the words Rio and San-
tos (said to be the component parts of the
original blend) is erroneous. It was arbi-
trarily coined, though it is not known what
considerations prompted it. One story has
it that the "A" stands for Arbuckle, the
"rio" for Rio, and the "sa" for South
America.
Early in the seventies, the great business
opportunities of New York City had at-
tracted the two brothers, and a branch was
established in New York in charge of John
Arbuckle, the main business in Pittsburg
being left in the care of his brother Charles.
The growth of the New York branch soon
made it necessary for Charles Arbuckle to
leave the Pittsburg business in charge of
trusted employees, and to come to New
York. In time, the coffee business of the
New York house overshadowed the grocery
lines ; and the latter were abandoned there,
so that the entire energy of the firm in
New York might be devoted to the coffee
business, which thenceforth was operated
under the firm name of Arbuckle Bros.
The Arbuckle coffee business, which began
with a single roaster in 1865, had eighty-
five machines running in Pittsburg and
New York in 1881.
Charles Arbuckle died in 1891. and John
Arbuckle admitted as partners his nephew.
BIG MEX AXD ACHIEVEMENTS
523
John Arbuckle
William Arbuckle Jamison, and two ■ em-
ployees, William V. R, Smith and James
N. Jarvie, the business continuing under
the former name of Arbuckle Bros. The
most important step taken by the firm
while thus constituted was its entrance
into the sugar refining business in 1896.
That entrance had to be forced against the
bitterest opposition of a so-called sugar
trust, and brought on a ''war" signalized
by the most ruthless cutting of prices of
both coffee and sugar. This war was costly
to both sides; but when it had ended, Ar-
buckle Bros, remained unshaken in the pre-
eminence of their package-coffee business
and had acquired also great publicity and
a fine trade in refined sugar.
Arbuckles were always large consumers
of sugar in connection with their coffee
glaze, and having introduced the package
sugar idea with their customers some years
before, they at last made up their minds to
refine for their own needs and thus to save
the profits paid to "the Havemeyers". It
is generally conceded that John Arbuckle 's
shrewdness and business sagacity in having
previously acquired the Smyser patents on
a weighing and packing machine, and his
control of it, really led to the coffee-sugar
war. "This packing machine", said the
Spice Mill, when Henry E. Smyser died in
1899, "puts him [Smyser] with the great-
est inventors of our day."
The sugar trust met the Arbuckle chal-
lenge by invading the coffee-roasting field.
This they accomplished by securing a con-
trolling interest for $2,000,000 in one of
the largest competing roasting plants in
the country, that of the Woolson Spice Co.,
of Toledo, Ohio, that had in the Lion
brand, a ready-made package coffee where-
with to fight Ariosa. The re-organization
of the Woolson Spice Co. in 1897, when A.
M. Woolson was relieved of the office of
president, disclosed, among others, the
names of Hermann Sielcken in close jux-
taposition to that of H. 0. Havemeyer on
the board of directors. Both men helped
to make coffee-trade history.
The trade found the coffee-sugar war the
all-absorbing topic for several years. Hot
debates were held on the question as to
whether, on one hand, the Arbuckles had
the right to enter the sugar-refining busi-
ness and, on the other, as to whether the
sugar-trust had a right to retaliate. The
answer seemed to be "yes" in both in-
stances.
In two years, John Arbuckle 's model
sugar refinery in Brooklyn was turning out
package sugar at the rate of five thousand
barrels a day. The Woolson Spice Co. was
credited with spending unheard-of sums of
money in advertising Lion brand coffee.
The eastern newspaper displays alone ex-
ceeded anything ever before attempted in
this line. However, many people are of
the opinion that it was a tactical error on
the part of the sugar interests to spend so
much money advertising a Rio coffee in the
central and New England states, while
John Arbuckle was confining his activities
to the south and the west, where there al-
ready existed a Rio taste among consumers.
The legal fight which the Arbuckles car-
ried on with the Havemeyers for the con-
trol of the sugar business in this celebrated
coffee-sugar war is said to have cost mil-
lions on both sides.
Eventually, the Havemeyers were glad
to be relieved of their coffee interests, but
John Arbuckle continued to sell both coffee
and sugar.
Mr. Arbuckle married Miss Mary Alice
Kerr in Pittsburg, in 1868. She died in
1907 His many charities included boat
524
ALL ABOUT COFFEE
trips for children, luxurious farm vacations
for tired wage-earners, boat-raising and
life-saving schemes, a low-priced home for
working girls and men on an old full-
rigged ship dying off a New York dock,
which he called his ' ' Deep Sea Hotel, ' ' and
a vacation enterprise for young men and
young women at New Paltz, N. Y., which
was known as the "Mary and John Ar-
buckle Farm." A magazine for children,
called Sunshine, was another benevolent
enterprise of his.
When John Arbuckle died at his Brook-
lyn home, March 27, 1912, he had been ill
only four days. The New York Coffee Ex-
change closed at two o'clock the day fol-
lowing, after adopting appropriate resolu-
tions and appointing a committee to attend
the funeral. His estate in New York was
valued at $33,000,000.
W. V. R. Smith and James N. Jarvie re-
tired from the firm in 1906 ; and John Ar-
buckle and his nephew W. A. Jamison con-
tinued it as sole owners and partners until
Mr. Arbuckle 's death in 1912. Mr. Ar-
buckle died childless and a widower, leav-
ing as his only heirs his two sisters, Mrs.
Catherine Arbuckle Jamison and Miss
Christina Arbuckle. Mrs. Jamison is the
widow of the late Robert Jamison, who had
been a prominent drygoods merchant in
Pittsburg. William A. Jamison is her eld-
est and only living son. Following the
death of John Arbuckle, a new partnership
was formed in which Mrs. Jamison, Miss
Arbuckle, and Mr. Jamison became the
partners and owners, and that partnership,
without change of name, continues. Prob-
ably there is no other mercantile establish-
ment of similar size in the country that is
carried on as a partnership, and none
which after more than sixty years is so ex-
clusively owned by members of the imme-
diate family of its founders.
The Arbuckle business, as it is today, is
John Arbuckle 's best monument. All that it
is he foresaw ; for behind those keen, pene-
trating eyes, there was wonderful vision.
Simple in his tastes; democratic in his
dress, in his habits and his speech ; he was
one of the most approachable of our first
captains of industry. Many of the youn-
ger generation in the coffee business have
found inspiration in contemplating John
Arbuckle 's achievements. As represented
in what has been called "the world's great-
est coffee business", these include other
package coffees, such as Yuban, Arbuckle 's
Breakfast, Arbuckle 's Drinksum, and Ar-
buckle's Certified Java and Mocha. The
pioneer Ariosa brand is still being sold ; al-
though it is interesting to note that the de-
mand for ground Ariosa is increasing,
marking the swing of the pendulum of pub-
lic taste away from the original bean pack-
age to the so-called "steel-cut," or ground,
coffee package. Will it swing back again,
some di&y 1 Many coffee men believe it will.
If it does, good old Ariosa, with its coating
of sugar and eggs, will no doubt be on the
job to meet it.
Yuban was launched in the fall of 1913.
It is a high-grade package coffee, whereas
Ariosa is popular-priced. In addition to
the package coffee business, Arbuckle Bros,
have many other activities. They deal in
green coffee as well as roasted coffee in
bulk. The wholesale grocery business in
Pittsburg continues under the old name of
Arbuckles & Co.; while in Chicago, Ar-
buckle Bros, have a branch equipped with
a coffee-roasting-and-packaging plant, also
spice-grinding and extract-manufacturing
plants, and do a large business in teas. A
branch in Kansas City distributes the prod-
ucts manufactured in New York and Chi-
cago. In Brazil, offices are maintained at
Rio de Janeiro, Santos, and Victoria, as
Arbuckle & Co. In Mexico, Arbuckle Bros,
are established at Jalapa, with branches at
Cordoba and Coatepec. In season, the
warehouses and hulling plants at those
points employ as many as 650 hands pre-
paring Mexican coffee for shipment to New
York.
Arbuckle Bros, are direct importers of
green coffee on a large scale, and are known
also as heavy buyers "on the street." The
roasting capacity of their Brooklyn plant
is from 8,000 to 9,000 bags per day. The
cylinder equipment of twenty-four Burns
roasters is supplemented by four ' ' Jumbo ' '
roasters of Arbuckle build, each capable of
roasting thirty-five bags at one time. The
Ariosa package business grew from the
smallest beginnings to more than 800,000
packages per day. Individual brands have
not held their lead of late years; but the
volume of package-coffee business is great-
er than ever. Many jobbers now pack
brands of their own, besides handling the
Arbuckle brands.
Distribution of roasted coffees outside
Chicago and Kansas City is accomplished
BIG MEN AND ACHIEVEMENTS
525
through the medium of more than oue hun-
dred stock depots in as many different ci-
ties of the United States.
To operate the world's greatest coffee
business is no small undertaking ; and when
this is coupled with an important sugar-
refining business and a waterfront ware-
house-and-terminal business, plenty of
room is needed. So we find the plant along
the Brooklyn waterfront occupying an
area of a dozen city blocks. An idea of the
extent and diversity of the activities of the
plant may be gained from a brief reference
to the utilities, and the trades, and even the
professions, that are required to make the
wheels go round.
To ship more than one hundred cars of
coffee and sugar in a single day calls for
shipping facilities that could be had only
by organizing a railroad and waterfront
terminal, known as Jay Street Terminal,
equipped with freight station, locomotives,
tugboats, steam lighters, car floats, and
barges. City deliveries of coffee and sugar
call for a fleet of thirty-five large motor
trucks that are housed in the firm's own
garage and kept in repair in their own
shops. Although motor trucks are fast re-
placing the faithful horse; and the time
will never come agJiin when Arbuckle Bros,
will boast of their stable of nearly two hun-
dred horses that were generally acknowl-
edged to be the finest string of draft horses
in the city, some fifty or sixty of their
faithful animals still are in harness ; and so
the stable, with blacksmith shop, harness
shop, and wagon-repair shops, are serving
their respective purposes, though on a re-
duced scale. A printing shop vibrates
with the whirr of mammoth printing pres-
ses turning out thousands upon thousands
of coffee-wrappers and circulars; and
doubtless it will be news to many that the
first three-color printing press ever built
was expressly designed and built for Ar-
buckle Bros. Then there is a sunny first-
aid hospital on top of the Pearl Street
warehouse where a physician is ever ready
to relieve sudden illness and accidental in-
juries. On the eleventh floor there is a
huge dining room where the Brooklyn cler-
ical forces get their noonday lunches. This
feeding of the inner man (and woman) is
matched by the power-house where twenty-
six large steam boilers must be fed their
quota of coal. In the winter months, when
warmth must come for the workers as well
as power for the wheels, the coal consump-
tion runs up as high as four hundred tons
per day.
The barrel factory, with a daily capacity
of 6,800 sugar barrels, is located about a
mile away, where barrel staves and heads
are received from the firm's own stave mill
in Virginia, made from logs cut on their
own timber lands in Virginia and North
Carolina. A more self-contained plant
would be hard to imagine, and so we find
that even the last activity in its operations
— that of washing and drying the emptied
sugar bags — is also provided for. That this
is "some laundry" goes without saying,
when it is recalled that in the busy sugar
season the firm dumps from eight to ten
thousand bags of raw sugar per day, and
that these bags are washed and dried daily
as emptied. A huge rotary drier of the
firm's own design does the work of about
three miles of clothes lines.
Even after the coffees have been sold and
paid for, there still remains an important
task, and that is to redeem the signature
coupons which the consumers cut from the
packages and return for premiums. Lest
some regard this as an insignificant phase
of the business, it may be stated that in a
single year the premium department has
received over one hundred and eight mil-
lion coupons calling for more than four
million premiums. These premiums in-
cluded 818,928 handkerchiefs; 261,000
pairs of lace curtains; 238,738 shears; and
185,920 Torrey razors. Finger rings are
perennial favorites, and so insistent is the
demand for the rings offered as premiums,
that Arbuckle Bros, are regarded as the
largest distributors of finger rings in the
world. One of their premium rings is a
wedding ring; and if all the rings of this
pattern serve their intended purpose, it is
estimated that the firm has assisted at
eighty thousand weddings in a year.
Turning from the utilities at the plant
to the trades and professions represented,
other than the trained sugar and coffee
workers, the following are constantly em-
ployed: physicians, chemists, mechanical
engineers, civil engineers, electrical engi-
neers, railroad engineers and brakemen,
steamboat captains and engineers, chauf-
feurs, teamsters, wagon-makers, harness-
makers, machinists, draughtsmen, black-
smiths, tinsmiths, coppersmiths, coopers,
carpenters, masons, painters, plumbers,
526
ALL ABOUT COFFEE
riggers, typesetters and pressmen, and last
but not least, the chef and table waiters.
One of the most remarkable things about
the growth of this business enterprise is
that it is not the result of buying out, or
consolidating with, competitors; but has
resulted from a steady wholesome growth
along conservative business lines. Consoli-
dations are often desirable and effective;
but when a great business has been built
without any such consolidations, the con-
clusion is inevitable that somewhere in the
establishment there must have been a cor-
responding amount of wisdom, foresight,
energy, and honorable business dealing.
Those were the things for which John Ar-
buckle stood firm, and for which he will
alwaj^s be remembered.
Jabez Burns, Inventor, Manufacturer,
Writer
Jabez Burns was a person of real import-
ance to the American coffee trade from
1864, when he began to manufacture his
improved roaster, until his death, at the
age of sixty-two, in 1888. His success de-
pended more on unusual character than
unusual ability, although he was really
gifted as regards mechanical invention. He
loved to acquire practical information, and
arrived confidently at common-sense con-
clusions ; and he exercised a wide and help-
ful influence, because he liked to give ex-
pression to opinions that he considered
sound and useful.
Mr. Burns was born in London in 1826.
The family moved soon after to Dundee,
Scotland, and came to New York in 1844.
They were people of small means and in-
dependent thinking. The father, William
G. Burns, had been more interested in the
Chartist social movement than in any
settled business activity. An uncle, also
named Jabez Burns, became a popular
Baptist preacher in London.
The first winter in America found youth-
ful Jabez teaching a country school at Sum-
mit, N. J. Then he began in New York
(1844-45) as teamster for Henry Blair, a
prosperous coffee merchant who attended a
little "Disciples" church in lower Sixth
Avenue where many Scottish families con-
gregated. There also Burns met Agnes
Brown, daughter of a Paisley weaver, and
married her in 1847. A brave young pair
they were, who found all sorts of odd riches
— just as if a fast-growing family could
somehow make up for a slow-growing in-
come. There were hopes, too, that the con-
trivances Burns kept inventing might
bring wealth; and some extra money did
come from the sale of early patents, includ-
ing one in 1858 for the Burns Addometer,
a primitive adding machine.
But Mr. Burns had continued regularly
in the employ of coffee and spice firms, and
at one time he was bookkeeper for Thomas
Reid's Globe Mills. He advanced slowly,
because he lacked real trading talent; but
he was learning all about the handling of
goods, from purchase to final delivery; and
when he quit bookkeeping for the old
Globe Mills, and began to build his patent
roaster, he could advise clients reliably
about every factory detail.
He was soon looked on as an authority.
He wrote some articles for the American
Grocer, a series on "Food Adulteration"
being reprinted ; and in 1878, he began the
quarterly publication of his thirty-two-
page Spice Mill, which soon became a
monthly, and gained the interested atten-
tion of practically the entire coffee and
spice trade.
Through the columns of this paper, in
circulars, by letters, and in a pocket volume
called the Spice Mill Companion, he dis-
tributed information on coffee, spices, and
baking powder, and gave valuable advice to
beginners in the coffee-roasting business.
Not a few coffee roasters were started on
the way to fortune by the counsel of Jabez
Burns. He died in New York, September
16, 1888.
Jabez Burns founded the business of
Jabez Burns & Sons in 1864, beginning the
manufacture of his patent coffee roaster at
107 Warren Street, New York. Since then,
there have been four removals. In Decem-
ber, 1908, the business moved^p its present
uptown location, at the nofthwest corner
of Eleventh Avenue and Forty-third
Street, occupying a six-story building
which was doubled in size in 1917. This
Burns factory has been referred to as "the
unique coffee-machinery workshop", the
greatest establishment of its kind in the
United States.
. Upon the death of its founder the busi-
ness was continued; first, as the firm of
Jabez Burns & Sons, composed of his sons,
Jabez, Robert, and A. Lincoln Burns; and
later, in 1906, incorporated as Jabez Burns
& Sons, Inc., with Robert Burns as presi-
BIG MEN AND ACHIEVEMENTS
527
Jabez Burns
dent, Jabez Burns as vice-president, and
A. Lincoln Burns as secretary and treas-
urer. Jabez Burns died August 6, 1908,
The present officers are : Robert Burns,
president ; A. Lincoln Burns, vice-presi-
dent ; AVilliam G. Burns, general manager ;
and C. H. Maelachlan, secretary and treas-
urer.
A. Lincoln Burns succeeded his father as
editor of the Spice Mill. "William H. Ukers
was made editor in 1902, and he continued
until 1904, when he left to assume editorial
direction of The Tea and Coffee Trade
Journal. ♦
Coffee-Trade Booms and Panics
In the last fifty years there have been
many spectacular attempts to corner the
coffee market in Europe and the United
States. The first notable occurrence of this
kind did not originate in the trade itself.
It took place in 1873, and was known as the
"Jay Cooke panic", being brought about
by the famous panic of that name in the
stock market.
As a result of the Jay Cooke failure, it
was impossible to obtain money from the
banks. Hence buj-ers were forced to keep
out of the coffee market; and as a conse-
quence, the price for Rios dropped from
twenty-four cents to fifteen cents in the
course of the trading period of one day^.
Another interesting development during
that year was of foreign origin. A coffee
syndicate was organized in Europe, fin-
anced by the powerful German Trading
Company of Frankfort, with agencies in
London, Rotterdam, Antwerp, and Brazil.
For more than eight years this proved to
be a highly successful undertaking, largely
controlling the principal producing and
consuming markets.
As far as the American coffee trade is
concerned, the first sensational upheaval-
took place in 1880-81. This period wit-
nessed the collapse of the first great coffee
trade combination in this country — the
so-called "syndicate", comprising 0. G.
Kimball, B. G. Arnold, and Bowie Dash,
sometimes known as the "trinity".
The period of high coffee prices, com-
mencing in 1870, had greatly stimulated
production in many Mild-coffee producing
countries, as well as in Brazil, and as a con-
sequence the syndicate found its burden be-
coming extremely heavy early in 1880. In
January of that year our visible supply
amounted roughly to 767,000 bags. While
this was reduced to about 740,000 bags in
July, the latter likewise proved to be de-
cidedly burdensome, especially as another
liberal crop was beginning to move in pro-
ducing countries. The excessive volume of
supplies was especially marked, because
distributing trade during the summer was
strikingly dull, as the majority of buyers
were holding off, in view of the prospective
liberal new crops. At that time Java cof-
fee was a big item in American markets,
whereas Santos was just about beginning to
be a factor.
The syndicate found that it had its hands
full supporting the Brazil grades, and
hence had to let the Javas go. As a result,
the latter, which had sold at twenty-four
and three-quarters cents in January, 1880,
fell to nineteen and one-half cents in July,
to eighteen cents in November and to six-
teen cents in December, As a matter of fact,
the syndicate was practically the only
buyer of Brazil coffee during the fall of
1880; and as a consequence, Rios, which
had started the year at fourteen and one-
a-
- What follows on "Trade Brooms and Panics" Is
from an article prepared, under the authors direc-
tion, by C. K. Trafton. and published in The Tea and
Coffee Trade Journal, Nov., 1920 (vol. xxxix : no. 5 :
p. 56«).
528
ALL ABOUT COFFEE
half to sixteen and one-quarter cents, were
down to twelve and three-quarters cents in
December, 1880, and had dropped nine and
one-half cents when the break in the market
culminated in June, 1881.
The first whispers of financial troubles
growing out of these adverse conditions
were heard in October, 1880; and on the
27th of that month the first failure was an-
nounced— that of C. Risley & Co., with
liabilities placed at $800,000 and assets at
$400,000. This firm had been doing busi-
ness in the local market for about thirty
years. The efforts of the receivers to dis-
pose of this company's large stock natural-
ly served to accelerate the decline ; and the
final impetus came on December 6, when
the New York trade heard of the death,
two days previously, of 0. G. Kimball, of
Boston, one of the most prominent mer-
chants there. This precipitated the big
crash of December 7, when B. G. Arnold
& Co., the largest New York firm, suspend-
ed with estimated liabilities of $750,000 to
$1,000,000. The official statement later
placed the liabilities at $2,157,914, and as-
sets at $1,400,000, of which $884,198 were
secured. Within three days this failure
was followed by the suspension of Bowie
Dash & Co., with liabilities estimated at
$1,400,000.
For weeks thereafter there was virtually
no market. With all of these distress hold-
ings pressing for liquidation, buyers, as
was natural, were extremely timid. In the
meantime, the import arrivals showed fur-
ther enlargement at various southern ports,
as well as at New York. Total arrivals at
this port during 1881 were almost 12,400,-
000 pounds heavier than for the preceding
year. The growing importance of Santos as
a market factor was demonstrated by the
fact that shipments from there in 1881
were 1,198,625 bags, compared with about
628,900 bags in 1876 - 77. According to the
best informed members of the trade at that
time, the losses sustained by the various
firms that were forced to the wall aggre-
gated between $5,000,000 and $7,000,000.
The utterly demoralized conditions pre-
vailing while this collapse was in progress,
and the practical elimination of a market
in the true sense of the word, furnished the
principal impetus for the organization of
the New York Coffee Exchange. At that
time, the Havre market was the only one
with an exchange. The local body was or-
ganized in December, 1881, and started
business in March, 1882.
The Cable Break of 188Jf
The second noteworthy movement, em-
bracing an advance of four to four and one-
half cents and a recession of slightly more
than three cents, covered a period of about
eight months shortly after the Exchange
was organized. Various local and out-of-
town firms were interested in the bulge
which carried Rio coffee in this market
from about seven cents in July, 1883, up to
eleven and one-half cents late in November.
By the middle of December, the price had
fallen to nine and one-quarter cents, the
final break to eight and one-quarter cents
occurring late in March of the following
year. At that time, there was no direct
cable communication with Brazil ; and as a
result of a temporary break in the round-
about service by way of Portugal, the New
York and Baltimore agents of the Brazilian
syndicate were unable to put up additional
margins in this market, and their accounts
were closed out. This happened on a Sat-
urday ; and by the following Monday, par-
tial cable remittances arrived and all ac-
counts were settled in full with interest
from Saturday to Monday.
The Great Boom
What is generally described as "the
great boom" of the coffee trade occurred in
1886 - 87, and had its inception in unsatis-
factory crop news from Brazil. The crop
of 1887-1888, it was estimated, would be ex-
tremely small ; and it turned out to be only
3,033,000 bags. These advices and low
estimates led to the formation of a "bull"
clique, comprising operators in New York,
Chicago, New Orleans, Brazil, and Europe,
who set a price of twenty-five cents for De-
cember contracts as their goal. Toward the
end of June, 1886, when this campaign
started, No. 7 Rio in New York was worth
about seven and one-half cents, with June
contracts on the Exchange quoted at seven
and sixty-five hundredths cents. With
Brazilian crop news still more discourag-
ing, the advance thereafter was almost con-
tinuous, and on June 1, 1887, December
contracts sold at twenty-two and one-quar-
ter cents — a new high price record, that
was not exceeded for thirty-two years,
when twenty-four and sixty-five hun-
dredths cents were paid for July contracts
BIG MEN AND ACHIEVEMENTS
l-,„, ..,„,..._
^Rnd one-quarter cents, prices suffered an
abrupt reversal. Ten days later the clos-
ing price for December was twenty-one and
four-tenth cents. Then the real crash be-
gan. On Saturday, June 11, the panic
started with another claim of cable trouble ;
and in the short session, December coffee
broke from twenty and fifteen-hundredths
to eighteen and sixty-five hundredths cents,
closing at a loss for the day of 275 points.
The first sale of December on Monday was
at seventeen and four-tenths cents, or 125
points lower; and after numerous erratic
variations, the price broke to sixteen cents,
a drop of six and one-quarter cents in less
than two weeks. Business on that day was
of enormous volume, in round numbers
412,000 bags ; and approximately $1,500,000
was put up in margins. For the next three
days the decline was temporarily halted,
and Deeember, at one time, was up three
and one-quarter cents from the bottom
(nineteen and one-quarter cents). On
June 17, another battle commenced, Decem-
ber dropping back to seventeen cents. Then
came a rally to eighteen and one-tenth
cents, a drop to sixteen and one-half cents ;
another rally to eighteen and one-tenth,
and, on June 24, another break to the pre-
vious low level of sixteen cents for Decem-
ber. This sharp reversal in less than a
month was traceable largely to more favor-
able news from Brazil, the 1888 - 89 crop
being estimated at 6,827,000 bags.
Following a rally to nineteen and six-
tenths cents during the next month (July,
1887), the pendulum again swung down-
ward. The climax came with the culmina-
tion of the "European fiasco "'of the
spring of 1888. Reports were received that
various European coffee firms had failed;
and future contracts in the American mar-
ket sold as low as nine cents in March.
A Famous European Bull Campaign
The next campaign of interest lasted
more than two and a half years. In Sep-
tember, 1891, there was a corner in the
local market which forced the September
price up to seventeen and one-quarter
cents. George Kaltenbach, a wealthy spec-
ulator living in Paris, combining with three
operators in Havre, Hamburg, and Ant-
werp, succeeded in breaking the corner,
forcing the price down to ten and eight-
529
tenths cents. They then changed to the
bull side, buying heavily in all markets of
the world. This was continued until early
in 1893, bringing the price back to fifteen
cents. Although his associates then re-
turned to the bear side, Kaltenbach kept
on buying; and aided by bad crop reports
from Brazil, he worked the price up as
high as seventeen and seven-tenths cents.
At one time it was said that his profits were
more than one million dollars. The col-
lapse of this deal occurred in May, 1893,
involving thirty firms in Hamburg, Havre,
and Rotterdam. As Kaltenbach could not
keep his large New York holdings mar-
gined, they were thrown on the market,
bringing about a sharp break, and causing
the failure of his New York agents, T. M.
Barr & Co.
The present era of large crops began in
1894, Brazil's production for 1894-95
being placed at 6,695,000. bags. Neverthe-
less, Guzman Blanco, a former president of
Venezuela, then living in Paris, and said to
be worth about $20,000,000, attempted to
run a corner in April, 1895. He bought
200,000 bags of spot coffee in Havre ware-
houses and accumulated a big line of fu-
tures in various markets. Assisted by re-
ports of cholera in Rio and some reduction
in Brazilian crops, he enjoyed temporary
success, the price of Rio 7s in New York
rising to fifteen and one-half cents in Octo-
ber, 1895. Thereafter, there was an almost
continuous decline. In the spring of 1898,
a vigorous bear campaign was conducted,
largely in the form of market letters; and
by November, Rio 7s here had dropped to
four and one-half cents.
The Buhonic Plague Boom
The so-called "bubonic plague boom"
halted this prolonged downward movement
for a time in 1899 - 1900. The boom derived
its name from the outbreak of bubonic
plague in Brazil, as a result of which the
ports of that country were quarantined. In
addition, Brazilian steamers arriving at
New York were placed in quarantine; and
the impossibility of unloading their ear-
goes caused a temporary shortage. As a
result, prices rose from four and one-quar-
ter cents in September, 1899, to eight and
one-quarter cents in July, 1900. The
quarantine being lifted, the bears again be-
came aggressive; and by April, 1901, they
had forced the price back to five cents.
530
ALL ABOUT COFFEE
There was another short-lived attempt to
establish a corner in September, 1901. Re-
ceipts at Rio and Santos had been running
light, encouraging a local clique embracing
Skiddy, Minford & Company ; W. H. Cross-
man & Bro. ; and Gruner & Company, to
endeavor to gain control. The arrivals at
Brazilian ports suddenly increased to the
largest volume ever known up to that time ;
and, with vigorous opposition from opera-
tors in Havre, the corner here was speedily
broken.
The opening of the new century wit-
nessed the beginning of another new coffee
era, Santos permanently displacing Rio as
the world's largest source of supply. The
figures for 1900 - 01 were : Santos, 2,945,-
000 bags ; Rio, 2,413,000 bags.
Huge crops then became a regular thing
in Brazil. That of 1901 - 02 was far in ex-
cess of estimates, being 15,000,000 bags;
while 20,000,000 bags were produced in
1902-03. As a result, the world's coffee
trade became completely demoralized for
the time being. In August, 1902, contracts
for July, 1903, delivery sold at six and one-
tenths cents. By June, 1903, they had
fallen to three and fifty-five hundredths
cents, the lowest price ever recorded for
coffee.
The Southern Boom
As is invariably the case when prices
reach extreme levels, either high or low,
the pendulum swung back rapidly in the
other direction. Based on the unpreceden-
tedly low prices, the so-called ''cotton
crowd" started what was generally known
as "the southern boom". Various cotton
traders in New York and the South, under
the leadership of D. J. Sully, the one-time
"cotton king", and ably assisted by prom-
inent local coffee firms, became extremely
active on the buying side; and by Feb-
ruary, 1904, they had forced the price up
to eleven and eighty-five hundredths cents.
This figure, the highest since 1896, was
reached on February 2, which proved to
be another day of enormous speculative
dealings, involving roundly 462,000 bags.
This marked another turning point; the
three succeeding days of record-breaking
operations on the Exchange witnessing a
break of roughly two cents. Mr. Sully
went on a vacation on February 3, and the
Sielcken interests sold on a large scale.
Business for that day was placed at 555,000
bags, closing prices being about one-half
cent lower. This brought on enormous li-
quidation by western bulls on the follow-
ing day, approximately 500,000 bags. As
a result, prices lost twenty-five to sixty-five
points on a turn-over of about 642,000 bags.
All records for business were smashed on
the following day, February 5. The offi-
cial record was 689,000 bags, but trade
estimates made it more than 1,000,000 bags.
On that day, southern interests liquidated
heavily, causing net losses of eighty to
ninety points. Doubtless the break would
have been more severe had it not been for
buying by the Sielcken people and several
other strong interests at and below seven
and one-quarter cents for September con-
tracts.
The Story of Valorization
The valorization, or equalization, of cof-
fee originated in Brazil. When the original
plan was threatened with disaster, Her-
mann Sielcken stepped in and saved the
Brazil planters from ruin; the Brazil gov-
ernment from possible revolution ; and, in-
cidentally, won fol* himself and those who
were his partners in the enterprise much
unenviable notoriety.
The principle of valorization is generally
conceded to be economically unsound, be-
cause it encourages overproduction. And
valorization in Brazil would have been a
failure, had it not been for a fortuitous
combination of short crops, Hermann Siel-
cken's genius, and the World War. Be-
cause of the lessons learned in this exper-
ience, Brazil's subsequent valorization en-
terprises have run more smoothly.
A rapidly increasing world demand, a
wonderfully fertile soil, and cheap labor
kept the Brazil coffee industry in a flourish-
ing condition nearly to the close of 1889.
Coffee consumption was increasing, espe-
cially in the United States. By April 1890,
the average import price per pound of Rio
No. 7 in this country was nineteen cents;
and Brazil was supplying only about half
our needs. Virgin soil was still available
in Brazil, and immigration furnished all
the needful labor. Easy profits led to in-
creased investment and careless methods.
Her planters were drunk with prosperity.
For six years, nearly all the three million
inhabitants of Sao Paulo, Brazil's largest
coffee producing state, "entirely gave up
planting corn, rice, beans, everything they
BIG MEN AND ACHIEVEMENTS
i
^■^ded. They bought them because coffee
was so immensely profitable that they put
all their labor in coffee."
Brazil had been going through a period
of low exchange. Paper money fell below
par. The exaggerated issues of it, which
provoked the collapse of exchange, sudden-
ly endowed Brazil with an abundant cir-
culation of money. Production was enor-
mously stimulated. New undertakings
sprang up on every hand. Armies of agri-
cultural laborers were recruited in Europe
and shipped into the coffee districts. And
then, to make the story short, supply passed
demand, surplus stocks began to appear,
prices began to fall, and fell until they
dropped below the cost of production.
It was in 1896 - 97, when the new trees
came into bearing by the tens and hundreds
of thousands, that Sao Paulo's folly began
to tell. By October of that year the price
of Rio No. 7 in New York had fallen to
about seven cents. The decline continued,
until, in 1903, it hung around five cents.
Then began the winter of Sao Paulo's dis-
content. Too late, the state government
tried by taxing new coffee estates, to force
the planters to raise crops to supply their
own necessities. The times grew harder.
Mortgages held by large coffee houses
and bankers were being foreclosed. The
industry was passing into European hands.
The smaller planters were becoming des-
perate ; and desperation is only a step from
revolution. The government of the state
of Sao Paulo knew this; and to save the
state, it finally promised it would buy the
next coffee crop, and would hold it for the
planters at such a price as would be neces-
sary to continue the industry. The pro-
tagonists of this plan to valorize coffee were
Dr. Jorge Tibiriga, Dr. Augusto Ramos,
and Dr. Albuquerque Lins.
During all the period covering Sao
Paulo's rise and fall in coffee, the financial
genius who was to lead her again into the
land of plenty had been quietly acquiring
a knowledge of her problems — also, the
ability to make money out of their solution.
Valorization was undertaken to save the
coffee industry. Its intent was good, even
if the theory was bad. The scheme was not
new, and there were no encouraging prece-
dents to augur its success. The situation
was desperate and seemed to justify the
trial of a desperate remedy. Sao Paulo
531
attempted to carry the load; but her re-
sources were insufficient.
The bumper world crop of 19,090,000
bags in 1901 - 02 was followed, in 1906 - 07,
with another extraordinary yield of 24,307,-
000 bags, of which Brazil alone produced
20,192,000 bags. To make good its promise
to the planters, ready cash was needed;
and so the Sao Paulo government sent a
special commissioner to Europe to get it.
For sixty years the Rothschilds had acted
as Brazil's bankers. The commissioner
went to the Rothschilds first. He was flatly
refused. After that, he was turned down by
practically every bank on the continent. It
looked as if the bankers had entered into
a gentlemen's agreement to make it unami-
mous. Then the commissioner bethought
himself of the coffee merchants; and that
thought naturally suggested Hermann
Sielcken, who, singularly enough, happened
to be conveniently resting at nearby
Baden-Baden. In August, 1906, the com-
missioner waited upon Mr. Sielcken and
begged his aid.
It was Sielcken 's hour of triumph. For
years he had been soliciting Brazil. Now
the tables were turned, and Brazil was ask-
ing favors of Sielcken.
The rest of the story is best told by
Robert Sloss, who wrote it for World's
Work from information furnished by trade
authorities — and even by Mr. Sielcken,
himself, in various speeches, newspaper
articles, and on the witness stand. It is
presented here with certain minor correc-
tions by the author :
"Well, what do you want me to do?" asked
Hermann Sielcken of the commissioner from
the state of Sao Paulo.
"We want you to finance for us five to eight
million bags of coffee," said the commissioner
blandly.
Here was an adventure. Here was a proposi-
tion to lift bodily out of the market half as
much coffee as the world's total production had
averaged for the ten preceding years when prices
had been so low. Presumably, if this were done,
prices would be doubled. But Hermann Sielcken
shook his head.
"No," he said, "there is not the slightest
chance for it, not the slightest." And then he
pointed out that there would be "no financial
assistance coming from anywhere" if the SSo
Paulo planters kept on raising such ridiculously
large crops of coffee.
The commissioner assured him that the pros-
pect was for smaller crops in future. Hermann
Sielcken was not so sure about it. "At a price
low enough," he mused, "I might be able to raise
funds to pay eighty percent on a value of seven
cents a pound for Rio No. 5."
532
ALL ABOUT COFFEE
The commissioner was dismayed. His govern-
meii't had already promised to take coffee from
the planters at about a cent a pound above the
market, and the market then stood at nearly
eight cents. The government would have to dig
to make up the difference. Hermann Sielcken's
terms were the best that could be got, however,
and the commissioner accepted them.
From that time forth Hermann Sielcken was
the head of the movement. He approached a
few large coffee merchants, including his former
rivals, Arbuekle Bix>thers, and drew up a con-
tract. The merchants agreed to advance eighty
percent of the sum required to buy two million
bags of coffee at seven cents a pound. If the
market went above seven cents, the government
was to make no purchases. If it fell below seven
cents, the government was to make good the
difference to the merchants by cable.
Before the season was well advanced the un-
expected happened. Brazil was reaping the larg-
est coffee harvest in the history of the world.
The two million bags of coffee purchased by the
government were as a drop in a bucket.
Financed by Hermann Sielcken, Schroeder, the
great London banker, and a few prominent Euro-
pean merchants, the government was forced to
buy almost nine million bags. Toward the end
of 1907, the government had lifted half of the
world's visible supply of coffee, but the market
Sitood only a trifle above six cents a pound. The
government was practically bankrupt.
Hennann Sielcken now enlisted the Roth-
schilds on his side, and shifted the financial
burden from the shoulders of the coffee mer-
chants to those of the Paris bankers and their
American associates. Then the Rothschilds im-
posed their conditions on the government of
Brazil. A national law was passed determining
a heavy penalty for any one who planted a new
coffee tree in Brazil. The government guaran-
teed that not more than nine million bags of the
next coffee crop and not more than ten million
bags of any succeeding crop should be exported.
By the end of 1911, the coffee market stood
well above thirteen cents. Here was a rise of
more than one hundred percent in two years,
more than sixty percent in six months. Evi-
dently, valorization coffee in the hands of the
bankers' committee had become a gilt-edged se-
curiity. But how?
During the five crop years since the "plan"
was launched on the heights above Baden, nearly
90,000.000 bags of coffee had been raised in the
world. The bankei"s' committee still held 5,108,-
000 bags of this. At the highest estimate, con-
sumption had exceeded production by only
4,000,000 bags. Here was a shortage of only a
little more than ten percent in supply as against
demand, so far as crops go. Yet there had been
a rise of more than one hundred percent in two
years in the price of coffee on the New York
Coffee Exchange. . . . Upon the merchant's
abdiity to deliver coffee on the New York Coffee
Exchange depends the price of coffee in the
world. That explains why the bankers' com-
mittee from the beginning refused absolutely to
sell valorization coffee on the public exchanges
of the world. In Europe, they put it up at auc-
tion; and when it didn't go, it was bought in
for them. In America, they announced in a
printed circular that valorization coffee would
be sold only on condition that the purchaser
would not deliver it on the New York Coffee
Exchange.
Hermann Sielcken absolutely refused to sell
coffee to the merchants on the Exchange.
Arbuekle Brothers kept on buying coffee heavily,
as if they would corner the market. They resold
the coffee, however, at private sales, exacting a
written contract from the buyer that he would
not deliver the coffee on the New York Coffee
Exchange, or resell it to any one that would so
deliver it. The Coffee Exchange began an in-
vestigation, but nothing ever came of it.
Shortly after the valorization committee had
apparently cleared up $25,000,000 in one year,
the restriction as to the delivery' of valorization
coffee on the New Y^'ork Coffee Exchange was
officially removed. Yet neither from Hermann
Sielcken nor from Arbuekle Brothei-s. it is
charged, could one buy any coffee to deliver for
that purpose. In 1911, coffee rose to sixteen
cents per pound.
At the end, it was found that the com-
mittee 's holdings had been marketed at the
various sales on a basis, for Santos 4s,
from eight and five-eighths cents minimum,
to the final sale here forced by the United
States government, at which time the price
realized was sixteen and three-quarter
cents for Santos 4s, and fourteen cents for
Rio 7s.
The one fly in the valorization ointment
was Senator G. W. Norris, of Nebraska,
who early in 1911 called for a congressional
investigation of the operations of the valori-
zation syndicate, which he said was costing
the American people $35,000,000 a year.
The attorney-general was instructed to re-
port as to whether or not there was a coffee
trust. It was a leisurely investigation,
which encountered many snags placed in
its way b}^ those who believed it would be
against international policy to question too
elo.sely the participation of the Brazil gov-
ernment in the enterprise. Politics played
no inconsiderable part in the investigation,
which dragged along until May 18, 1912,
when an action was begun in the Federal
District Court for the southern district of
New York, alleging conspiracy in restraint
of trade on the part of Hermann Sielcken ;
Bruno Schroeder, of J. Henry Schroeder
& Co. ; Edouard Bunge ; the Vicomte des
Touches; Dr. Paulo da Silva Prado; Theo-
dor Wille ; the Societe Generale ; and the
New York Dock Co. ; also praying for
injunction and receivership of the valori-
zation coffee then stored in the United
States, and amounting to 746,539 bags.
The injunction was denied.
Immediately thereafter, rumors began
to circulate that the government's coffee
BIG MEN AND ACHIEVEMENTS
533
suit would never be tried. The Brazilian
ambassador threatened diplomatic inter-
ference, and Attorney-General Wiekersham
let it be known that a friendly settlement
might be effected. Sielcken boldly chal-
lenged the authorities to prosecute the case,
and even seemed to invite criminal pro-
ceedings against himself. Saving the gov-
ernment's face, and Brazil's face, at one
and the same time, proved to be a long and
tedious process.
Meanwhile, Senator Norris introduced in
Congress a bill designed to give the govern-
ment power to seize importations of coffee
when restraint of trade was proved. It was
vigorously opposed by many prominent
green-coffee men and roasters; but in Feb-
ruary, 1913, it became enacted into a law.
It effectively killed all future valorization
schemes in so far as direct participation by
this country is concerned.
About December 1, 1912, Attorney-Gen-
eral Wiekersham accepted good-faith assur-
ances from Mr. Sielcken 's attorney — who
represented also the Brazil government —
and agreed that if the valorization coffee
stored here was sold to bona-fide purchasers
before April 1, 1913, the government 's suit
would be dismissed. In May, 1913, the
attorney-general of the new Wilson admin-
istration, which came into office in March
of that year, issued a statement saying that,
good-faith assurances having been received
from the Brazil government that the under-
standing was fulfilled in letter and spirit
before the date set by the previous attorney-
general, and the entire amount of coftee dis-
posed of to eighty dealers in thirty-three
cities, the suit would be dismissed.
In the United States Senate about the
same time, Senator Norris renewed his
attack on "the international coffee trust".
He charged that the coffee sale was not as
represented, but merely a transfer, and
called upon the Department of Justice for
the facts, with names of the alleged pur-
chasers.
Attorney-General McReynolds, on May 7,
1913, declined to send to the Senate the
official correspondence in regard to the
Brazil coffee-valorization matter, because it
was "incompatible with the public inter-
ests." He did, however, send other papers
on the subject. The secretary of state
sent copies of some correspondence ; but the
documents were not made public. This
ended the matter, although Senator Norris
called for a congressional investigation,
charging that the attorney-general had been
handed a "gold brick".
Sielcken contented himself with remark-
ing that the suit was a mistake in the first
place, and that it was a foregone conclusion
the government would be defeated. Also,
he offered $5,000 to any one who could ex-
plain the Norris bill.
Valorization, then, was started by the
state of Sao Paulo in 1905, when a law was
passed authorizing the state to enter into
an agreement with the other Brazil states
and the federal government for the adop-
tion of measures which would assure the
valorization of coffee and facilitate a propa-
ganda abroad for increased consumption.
The states of Sao Paulo, Minas Geraes,
and Rio de Janeiro proposed, early in 1906,
to withdraw from the markets such quan-
tities of coffee as would keep down exports
and maintain profitable prices. The plan
comprehended the interested states borrow-
ing about $75,000,000 from European and
United States bankers with which to buy
up the surplus coffee. To take care of in-
terest and amortization, a tax of three
francs per bag of 132 pounds (about 57
cents) was to be levied on all coffee exports,
collectable at Santos and Rio de Janeiro.
Further coffee-planting was to be checked
by enforcing the law which carried a tax
sufficiently high to operate toward re-
striction.
When it was understood that Brazil's
federal government would not endorse the
plan in toto, it was abandoned by Rio de
Janeiro and Minas Geraes. However, the
state of Sao Paulo in the course of the next
two years borrowed some $30,000,00 on its
own account for valorization purposes, ob-
taining half the amount direct from foreign
banking interests, and the remainder,
through the Brazilian federal government,
from London sources.
This first valorization was abandoned in
favor of the Sielcken plan, which the fed-
eral government ratified in July, 1908. By
this new plan Sao Paulo borrowed $75,000,-
000 from the syndicate composed of Amer-
ican, English, German, French, and Bel-
gian bankers. Out of this it repaid the
$30,000,000 loan. The 1908 loan was to ex-
pire in ten years, in 1919. Under the plan
of the new loan, it was agreed that certain
amounts of the valorized coffee should be
stored as collateral in warehouses in Nelv
534
ALL ABOUT COFFEE
York and Europe in charge of a committee
of seven, who were authorized to sell the
coffee in the market in specified quantities
and at prices that would not disturb the
price of other coffees. The composition of
the committee was as follows: Dr. Fran-
cisco Ferreira Ramos, of Sao Paulo and
Antwerp ; who was succeeded by Dr. Paulo
da Silva Prado ; the Vicomte des Touches,
of Havre; the Societe Generale, of Paris;
the firm of Theodor Wille, of Hamburg;
Hermann Sielcken, of New York ; Edouard
Bunge, of Antwerp; and Baron Bruno
Schroeder, of J. Henry Schroeder & Co.,
of London.
Brazil agreed to purchase 10,000,000 bags
and to hold them off the market until con-
ditions warranted their sale. It was also
agreed that the total exports of unvalorized
stocks from Brazil would be restricted to
10,000,000 bags for 1907-08, and to 10,-
500,000 bags for 1909 - 10. In addition, a
surtax of five francs gold per bag (961/4
cents) was placed on every bag exported to
pay carrying charges. The management
of the government's holdings was placed
in the hands of the international commit-
tee. This committee issued bonds which
were quickly subscribed for; and because
of its efficient handling of its huge hold-
ings, prices held steady in spite of the rec-
ord-breaking Brazilian crop of nearly
20,192,000 bags in 1906-07, and a later
one in 1909 - 10 of about 15,000,000 bags.
Indeed, there was an advance of about ten
dollars a bag between 1904 and 1911.
•Valorization had the effect of stabiliz-
ing the Brazil market, and giving the
planters and allied interests the assistance
they needed to ward off the disaster that
threatened them through overproduction.
The United States government action in
1912 forced the sale of the valorized stocks
held in this country, and the Congress
passed the law making it impossible again
to offer for sale in America stocks of coffee
held under similar valorization agreements.
The coffee situation became so serious in
1913, that Sao Paulo again entered the
money market for another loan, borrowing
$37,500,000 through the good offices of the
Brazilian federal government, following
this up two years later with another loan
of $21,000,000. According to a semi-of-
ficial statement issued in Brazil early in
1919, the status of valorization at that time
was that the first loan of $75,000,000 of
1908, had been entirely liquidated, and the
two later loans were greatly reduced. At
the same time, it was announced by the
president of the state of Sao Paulo that
the surtax of five frances would be with-
drawn as soon as the liquidation of the
loans had been completed. This surtax,
however, is still in effect. In 1919, the Sao
Paulo government proposed advancing the
pauta, or export duty, very materially. A
strong protest was made by all the ex-
porters; and a compromise was at last ef-
fected by which the proposed increase in
the pauta was canceled, and the existing
surtax of five francs per bag continued as
an offset.
The valorization project just described
was the second of its kind, a former attempt
having proved a failure. At that time
(1870), the Brazilian government had been
a large purchaser of Rio coffee, buying it
in lieu of exchange, as it had large remit-
tances to make. The coffee was sold
through G. Amsinck & Co., and it is be-
lieved that heavy losses were sustained.
Since the Sielcken valorization enterprise,
the Brazilian government has promoted
two more valorizations, one in 1918, an-
other early in 1922.
War-Time Government Control of Coffee
The board of managers of the New York
Coffee and Sugar Exchange, Inc., had real-
ized, late in 1917, that war-time govern-
ment control of coffee trading was likely
in view of the government's activities in
other commodities. To guard against the
danger of a sudden announcement of such
action, the president of the Exchange was
empowered from month to month, at each
meeting of the board, to suspend trading
at any time that conditions warranted; so
that, when President Wilson announced, on
January 31, 1918, that all dealers in green
coffees were to be licensed, the Exchange
was fully prepared. Trading was suspen-
ded pending further information, and ow-
ing to the farsightedness of the board of
managers, all danger of a panic in the
market was averted.
By 1917, the allies had stopped ship-
ments of coffee to Germany through neigh-
bors who had been her sole source of supply.
Stocks in all the producing countries were
accumulating, and Sao Paulo had embarked
on another valorization scheme to protect
her planters. The markets of Europe were
BIG MEX AND ACHIEVEMEXTS
535
itirely controlled by the governments ; and
le United States was practically the only
ree and open market. The market here
ms steady and without particular anima-
ion, and showed none until the end of
Tovember, 1917. At that time, speculation
activities, steamer scarcity, and the steady
advance in freights, became decided in-
fluences in the market ; and prices began to
advance.
Freights on shipments from Brazil had
advanced from one dollar and twenty
cents per bag early in the year to un-
heard-of prices; and, before the bubble
burst, had reached as high as four dollars
per bag. With this steadily advancing
freight, speculation in coffee became more
active; and prices naturally began to rise.
The relative cheapness of coffee compared
with all other commodities; the fact that
coffee here had shown very little advance;
the prospect of an early peace; the large
European demand to follow; were favorite
bull arguments. The market became ex-
cited; speculative buying was general,
every one, apparently, wanted to buy
coffee; and twenty cents per pound for
Santos 4s in the near future was a com-
mon prediction.
The United States food administrator
had shown his antipathy to uncontrolled
exchange operations by his action on sugar,
wheat, corn, and other commodities, dealt
in on the exchanges; consequently, the
proclamation of President "Wilson regard-
ing coffee was not a surprise to thctee who
had been watching the situation closely,
especially as on January 30, 1918 (the day
before the proclamation) the president of
the Coffee Exchange was summoned by tele-
graph to appear in Washington to discuss
ways for a proper control of the article, and
the best means to bring about such control.
As a result of this summons, a committee
of the entire trade, representing the Ex-
change, the green-coffee dealers and im-
porters, the roasters, and the brokers, was
appointed by the Exchange to confer with
the food administrator at once, in order to
work out a plan whereby the business could
be kept going. After a long conference,
rules agreed upon were approved that be-
came the basis on which business was con-
ducted until the withdrawal of all regula-
tions regarding coffee in January, 1919.
Much trade criticism followed the publi-
cation of some of these rules.
George W. Lawrence, president of the
New York Coffee and Sugar Exchange,
was called to Washington on February 28,
1918, to take charge of a newly created
coffee division under Theodore F. Whit-
marsh, chief of the distribution division of
the food administration. In this position
he rendered a signal service to the trade and
to his country. Although subjected to a
cross-fire of criticism from many green and
roasted coffee interests, he never wavered
in the performance of his full duty ; and his
good judgment, tact, and loyalty to Amer-
ican ideals, won for him a high place in
the regard of all those who had the best
interests of the country at heart. He was
ably assisted in his work by Walter F.
Blake, of Williams, Russell & Company,
New York; and by F. T. Nutt, Jr., treas-
urer of the New York Coffee and Sugar
Exchange.
A coffee advisory board was appointed in
June 1918, to serve as a go-between for the
trade and the food administration. Those
who served on this committee were : Henry
Schaefer, of S. Gruner & Co., New York,
chairman; Carl H. Stoffregen, of Stein-
wender, Stoffregen & Co., New York, sec-
retary; and William Bayne, Jr., of William
Bayne & Co., New York; S. H. Dorr, of
Arnold, Dorr & Co., New York; A.
Schierenberg, of Corn, Schwarz & Co.,
New York; Leon Israel, of Leon Israel &
Bro., New York; Joseph Purcell, of Hard
& Rand, New York; B. F. Peabody, of T.
Barbour Brown & Co., New York; J. D.
Pickslay, of Williams, Russell & Co., New
York ; Charles L. Meehan, of P. C. Meehan
& Co., New York; B. C. Casanas, of Mer-
chants Coffee Co., New Orleans; John R.
Moir, of Chase & Sanborn, Boston; and B.
Meyer, of Stewart, Carnal & Co., New
Orleans.
Others in the trade who served the food
administration during the period of the
World War were George E. Lichty, presi-
dent of the Black Hawk Coffee & Spice Co.,
Waterloo, Iowa; and Theodore F. Whit-
marsh, vice-president and treasurer of
Francis H. Leggett & Co., New York.
The visible supply of coffee for the
United States on January 1, 1918, was
2,887,308 bags. The world's visible supply
was given as 10,012,000 bags; but to be
added to this were more than .3,000,000
bags held by the Sao Paulo government.
Thus there was little reason to fear a coffee
536
ALL ABOUT COFFEE
shortage. That coffee should be permitted,
with this large amount in view, to run wild
as to price, was certainly not the intention
of the food administrator, whose purpose
was to keep foods moving to the United
States forces and allies, and as far as pos-
sible, to keep reasonable prices for the
United States consumers. Steadily advanc-
ing prices of foods meant increasing cost of
labor, general unrest, and a difficult situa-
tion to meet at a period when the situation
as a whole was most critical.
Trouble for the coffee trade was immi-
nent early in 1918, when the shipping
board, backed by experts, decided, or at-
tempted to decide, that coffee was not a
food product; that no vessels could be had
for its transportation ; and that it must be
put on the list of prohibited or restricted
commodities, Mr. Hoover, however, in-
sisted that coffee was a very necessary es-
sential, and that tonnage must be provided
for an amount sufficient at all times to keej)
the visible supply for the United States up
to at least 1,500,000 bags of Brazil coffee;
and this figure was ultimately accepted and
carried out by the shipping board.
These figures, based on the deliveries of
the two preceding years, and with dealers
limited to ninety days stock in the country,
were deemed ample to care for all require-
ments. It was figured that by November 1,
1918, the freight situation would be re-
lieved to such an extent by the new vessels
building, that the amount could be in-
creased should it be found necessary. The
food administration, through the war trade
board, offered steamer room to importers
of record of the years 1916 - 17 at $1.70 per
bag. The first few vessels were promptly
filled on a basis of nine and one-quarter to
nine and five-eighths cents, c. & 1, for San-
tos 4s, well described. About the same
time, our army and navy were able to buy
at eight to eight and three-eighths cents
f. 0. b. Santos, for shipment by their own
vessels. After the first few vessels offered by
the War Trade Board were filled, the trade
became indifferent. The warehouses in
Brazil were loaded with stocks; vessels to
carry coffee were assured buyers at a fixed
rate (profits limited) ; and, as there was no
apparent reason for an advance, buyers
were willing to let the producing countries
carry the stock.
The last week in June brought very cold
weather in Sao Paulo, and cables reported
heavy frost. The news was not taken seri-
ously by the trade at large. * * Frost news ' '
from Brazil was no novelty, and in the past
had always been looked upon as a regular
and seasonable method of bulling the mar-
ket. This year, however, the frost was a
fact, and the market began to move upward
with surprising speed. Reports of the
damage to the trees varied from forty to
eighty per cent. Quotations from Santos
advanced two cents per pound in as many
days. United States buyers were not dis-
posed to follow the advance; offerings of
steamer room were declined; and boats
booked for coffee, owing to the lack of car-
goes, were transferred elsewhere. Mean-
while the market continued to advance
rapidly. The allies were holding the ene-
my, and peace prospects were brighter.
From September 1 to November 15, the
records of the food administration showed
very small purchases. The buyers did not
believe in the frost. With the news of the
armistice, Brazil markets went wild ; and
Santos 4s, which had sold at eight and one-
quarter cents in May, were quoted at twen-
ty and one-half cents by December 10.
The food administration had decided, on
February 6, 1918, after consulting the com-
mittee appointed by the Exchange, and on
their advice and recommendation, to per-
mit trading in futures on the following
plan : a fixed maximum price of eight and
one-half cents per pound for the spot
month, with a carrying charge not to ex-
ceed fifteen points per pound for delivery
for each succeeding month. Thus the price
for March delivery was fixed at eight and
one-half cents, while July delivery could be
sold at nine and one-tenths cents ; but when
July arrived, it became the spot month,
and eight and one-half cents was the maxi-
mum at which it could be sold.
This rule effectively stopped speculation,
but failed to work out satisfactorily to the
trade. Experience proved that a maximum
fixed price at which coffee could be traded
in would have produced much better re-
sults. Business on the Exchange followed
its usual course, and the customary hedg-
ing of purchases was done by dealers. The
indifference of buyers, already referred to,
had resulted in a heavy decrease of the
United States visible supply; and it had
shrunk to 2,445,000 bags on September 1 ;
to 2,173,098 bags on October 1 ; to 1,857,260
bags on November 1. Included in these
BIG MEN AND ACHIEVEMENTS
537
amounts were at least 500,000 bags, held in
New York by foreign owners, which could
not be sold; and of the balance left, there
was undoubtedly a liberal amount sold
against on the Exchange for future deliv-
ery. By October, the situation had become
acute. Dealers who had classified them-
selves as jobbers or importers had gone into
the retail classification in order to evade
the limitations of profit allowed jobbers,
and were limiting their sales to lots of
twenty-five bags or fewer. Dealers who
had legitimately hedged their holdings
were unable to buy in.
The Exchange officials showed no dispo-
sition to relieve the situation ; and as all
prices had reached the maximum price for
every month permitted, the food adminis-
tration, on November 1, 1918, ordered the
liquidation of all contracts outstanding,
bought or sold, by not later than November
9. This was done; and the coffee covered
by such contracts was released to the trade.
The regulations governing transactions
on the Exchange were withdrawn on De-
cember 5, 1918 ; and, after a long argu-
ment, the Exchange decided to reopen for
trading on December 26, 1918. Opening
transactions amounted to 25,000 bags on a
basis of seventeen and one-half cents per
pound or nine cents over the prices at
which contracts had been liquidated. On
December 28 the price had declined to fif-
teen and one-half cents. In the opinion of
many of our best merchants, the Exchange
should have been closed during tHe war, as
it failed to be of any real service. That it
was operating at a fixed price for the spot
month only, made it of no value to the
trade during this period. Of its loyalty to
the government, and its evident desire to
assist there can be no question; but its
cheerful acceptance of the burdens laid
upon it proved largely futile.
The action of the food administration in
confining the coffee business solely to li-
censed dealers and to a fixed profit on
actual cost; in limiting dealers to ninety
days stock; and in prohibiting resales, was
the cause of much unjust criticism. The
regulations were based on the general rules
of the food administration, and applied to
coffee quite as equitably as did the regula-
tions governing other food commodities
under control and license. As a matter of
fact, they were much less rigorous in some
ways than the regulations applying to
many other articles. For example, ninety
days stock based on sales for 1916-17 was
allowed on coffee. There was no other ar-
ticle on the food list to which this liberality
was permitted. A forty to sixty days stock
would probably be found to be the maxi-
mum permitted to be carried of other food
products.
The general proclamation of the food ad-
ministration of November 1, 1917, de-
clared :
These general and special rules and regula-
tions are promulgated by the President to ac-
complish three principal objects, \-iz : 1st, to
limit the prices charged by every licensee "to a
reasonable amount over expenses and forbid the
acquisition of speculative profits from a rising
market" ; 2d, to keep all food commodities mov-
ing in as direct a line as jpossible and with as
little delay as practicable to the consumer; 3d,
to limit as far as practicable contracts for future
delivery and dealing in future contracts.
From the foregoing it will be apparent
that a profit to be allowed based on ** mar-
ket value" for coffees was an impossibility,
unless this law had been altered to allow all
licensees of other commodities to share.
Coffee profits were fixed by the food ad-
ministration on the advice of, and with ac-
ceptance by, the coffee committee. They
started too low ; and were made more liber-
al, when the first figures were shown to be
impossible. George W. Lawrence reports a
conversation that he had with the food ad-
ministrator on this particular subject, and
that was characteristic of his broadness.
Mr. Hoover said, "The coffee dealers are
comi)laining of the profits permitted them.
I want them satisfied ; and if the profits are
not reasonable, I shall put them where they
will be. This war is not going to last al-
ways; and at its conclusion I want every
American merchant in a position to be able
to continue his business and be no worse
off than when the war started. ' '
Resales were prohibited, or limited to
one transaction, in order to prevent an ac-
cumulation of profits, that, added to each
transfer, would result ultimately in higher
prices to the consumer.
The fixing of profit based on cost, and
not on market or replacement value, is a
thing that is impossible in normal times.
Carried to the last degree, it would mean
ruination ; for no provision is made for de-
clines in the market, and resulting losses.
As a war measure it was inevitable, and so
endured. In normal times it is like trying
538
ALL ABOUT COFFEE
to make water run uphill. With a united
people, it worked; but one can not have a
"World War always to unite the people. It
has been said that government regulation
of coffees caused a large increase in price
to the consumer. This would be hard to
prove. The trade, generally, that refused
to buy at ten to twelve cents per pound
because it did not, or would not believe the
reports of frost damage, and thought prices
too high, was frantically bidding up to
twenty and twenty-two cents for 4s in
March and April, 1919. According to the
ideas of some enthusiasts, fifty cents was
not an impossibility. Naturally such a
bubble must burst eventually. Government
control had nothing to do with such natural
conditions as frost, or as the buyers' in-
difference. Expansion and inflation were
in the air, and had to run their course. The
year 1920 brought the aftermath; and in
the deflation, coffee, with all other commod-
ities, went down to prices far below its in-
trinsic value. The expected European de-
mand did not materialize; the interior
buyer was overloaded with stock; and the
losses of the coffee trade in 1920 will, it is
to be hoped, never be repeated.
The Story of Soluble Coffee
For nearly two decades, many coffee men
and chemists have been seeking a soluble
coffee, or dried coffee extract, that would
simplify the preparation of the beverage.
Thus far, all the products that have ap-
peared on the market are somewhat defi-
cient in aroma and in the more delicate
flavors of coffee. A satisfying average cup
of coffee can be prepared from the better
brands; the chief advantages of which are
rapidity of preparation, absence of any
grounds, and uniformity of drink.
Considerable progress has been made in
certain directions; enough to warrant tel-
ling here, though briefly, the story of sol-
uble coffee to date.
Some there are among trade experts and
coffee connoisseurs who maintain soluble
coffee is an ignis fatuus; that it can never
be manufactured without destroying the
aromatic principle; that at best it is a de-
lusion and a snare. Certainly, many ab-
surd claims have been made for some of
the soluble coffees on the market. However,
there are others that are not without their
merits; and the story of their introduction
to the trade and the consuming public is
entertaining and instructive.
Dr. Sartori Kato, a Japanese chemist, of
Tokio, brought a soluble tea to Chicago
about 1899. It was not a commercial suc-
cess ; but it served to bring him in touch
with some coffee men and chemists, for
whom he produced a soluble coffee in the
same year. A company was organized to
promote the product. It was called the
Kato Coffee Co., and included, in addition
to Dr. Kato; Fillip Kreissel, a chemist;
W. R. Ruffner, a green-coffee broker ; and
I. D. Richheimer, a coffee roaster. Kato's
soluble coffee was first sold to the public at
the Pan-American Exposition in 1901. The
first quantity order was received from Cap-
tain Baldwin and by him used with satis-
faction on the Ziegler Arctic expedition.
United States patents on a coffee concen-
trate, and process for making the same
(soluble coffee), were granted to Sartori
Kato of Chicago, assignor to the Kato Cof-
fee Co., of the same place, on August 11,
1903.
G. Washington, who was born in Bel-
gium of English parents, and who was
living temporarily in Guatemala City, in-
vented about 1906, a soluble coffee that
was made ready for the market in 1909.
The George Washington Coffee Refining
Co. was organized in 1910 to put the
Washington product on the market, which
it did first under the name. Red E coffee.
This was later changed to G. Washington 's
Prepared Coffee, as an alternative to Wash-
ington's Coffee Extract, a name which was
favorably regarded by all except certain
authorities at the national capital. Asso-
ciated with Mr. Washington at the start of
the enterprise were : E. Van Etten, former
vice-president of the New York Central
Railroad ; W. J. Arkell ; Bartlett Arkell, of
the Beechnut Packing Co. ; C. M. Warner,
of the Warner Sugar Refining Co. ; and
Charles E. Proctor, of the Singer Sewing
Machine Co.
The G. Washington Coffee Refining Com-
pany has its coffee-roasting and preparing
plant in Brooklyn; but its process is a
secret one, and has never been patented.
F. Lehnhoff Wyld, who was the Wash-
ingtons' family physician when they lived
in Guatemala City, and with whom Mr.
Washington had discussed his work in sbl-
ubk coffee, duplicated the Washington
product in 1913 ; and, with E. T. Cabarrus,
BIG MEN AND ACHIEVEMEXTS
539
he organized the Societe du Cafe Soluble
Belna, Brussels, Belgium, to put on the
European market a refined soluble coffee
under the brand name Belna.
Eight or ten United States patents have
been granted on soluble coffees that have
never been applied commercially.
Nowhere has soluble coffee met with such
success as in the United States, where a
number of brands followed the Kato and
G. Washington products. Among them,
mention should be made of the C. F.
Blanke Tea & Coffee Company's Magic
Cup, afterward Fairy Cup, and later,
Faust brand, brought out in 1912; the
Baker Importing Co. 's Barrington Hall
Soluble Coffee, brought out in 1917; and
the Charles G. Hires Co.'s brand, intro-
duced to the trade in 1918.
It was the "World "War that brought sol-
uble coffee to the front. E, F. Holbrook,
formerly in charge of the coffee section,
subsistence division. United States "War De-
partment, said, "The use of mustard gas
by the Germans made it one of the most
important articles of subsistence used by
the army." Early in the war, soluble cof-
fee was added to the reserve ration, three-
quarters of an ounce being considered at
first the proper amount per ration. After
trying to put it up in sticks, tablets, cap-
sules, and other forms, it was determined
that the best method was to pack it in en-
velopes. A month before the signing of the
armistice, the New York depot was hotified
that after January 1, 1919, the require-
ments of soluble coffee were to be 25,000
pounds per day in addition to quantities
packed in reserve rations, bringing the to-
tal daily output to 42,500 pounds per day.
Arrangements were made to have the total
output of the New York zone, 40,000
pounds per day, packed in quarter-ounce
envelopes, twenty-four to a sealed can.
I. D. Richheimer, promoter of the orig-
inal soluble coffee of Kato and the Kato
patent, organized the Soluble Coffee Co. of
America in 1918, to supply soluble coffee
to the American army overseas. After the
armistice, the company began licensing
other merchants under the Kato patent or
offering to process the merchants' own cof-
fee for them if desired.
"William A. Hamor and Charles W.
Trigg, Pittsburgh, assignors to John E.
King, Detroit, were granted a United
States patent in 1919 on a process for mak-
ing a new soluble coffee. Their process
consists in bringing the volatilized caffeol
in contact with a petrolatum, or absorbing
medium, where it is held until needed for
combination with the evaporated coffee ex-
tract. The King Coffee Products Corp. of
Detroit was organized in 1920 to manufac-
ture this product, known as Minute coffee,
and a coffee base for soft drinks, the latter
being marketed under the name of Coffee
Pep. Mr. King had believed for many
years that soluble coffee was destined to
solve many of the vexations of the coffee
business, and had been experimenting with
the idea since 1906. To facilitate his in-
vestigations, he established a fellowship at
the Mellon Institute of Industrial Re-
search, Pittsburgh, in 1914, in charge of
Charles "W. Trigg. This chemically con-
trolled research evolved a product which,
after passing through the laboratory stage,
was placed upon a small unit plan basis,
and then patented. Five additional patents
on the product were granted Messrs. Trigg
and David S. Pratt in 1921; and all were
assigned to John E. King.
540
ALL ABOUT COFFEE
til' L^lrT^'^^^^-^-^^t ij^
THE EARLIEST COFFEE MANUSCRIPT, 1587
Pages from the Arabian writing by Abd-al-Kadir, photographed for this work in the Bibliothfeque Na-
tionale, Paris.
Chapter XXXII
A HISTORY OF COFFEE IX LITERATURE
The romance of coffee, and its influence on the discourse, poetry, his-
tory, drama, philosophic writing, and fiction of the seventeenth and
eighteenth centuries and on the luriters of today — Coffee quips and
anecdotes
ANY study of the literature of coffee
comprehends a survey of selections
from the best thought of civilized
nations, from the time of Rhazes (850 -
922) to Francis Saltus Saltus. We have
seen in chapter III how Rhazes, the phy-
sician-philosopher, appears to have been
the first writer to mention coffee; and was
followed by other great physicians, like
Bengiazlah, a contemporary, and Avicenna
(980-1037).
Then arose many legends about coffee,
that served as inspiration for Arabian,
French, Italian, and English poets.
Sheik Gemaleddin, mufti of Mo4ha, is
said to have discovered the virtues of cof-
fee about 1454, and to have promoted the
use of the drink in Arabia. Knowledge of
the new beverage was given to Europeans
by the botanists Rauwolf and Alpini to-
ward the close of the sixteenth century.
The first authentic account of the origin
of coffee was written by Abd-al-Kadir in
1587. It is the famous Arabian manuscript
commending the use of coffee, preserved in
the Bibliotheque Nationale, Paris, and cat-
alogued as ' ' Arabe, 4590. ' '
Its title written in Arabic is as follows:
ty^\
^
o<X^j.
4 3 2 1
which is pronounced (reading right to
left) :
omdat as safwa fi hall al kaliwa
1 2 3
or, in the literary style:
omdatu s safwati fi hallu '1 kahwati
which means — literally, (the correspond-
ing words being underlined and numbered)
"The maintenance of purity as
i 2
regards the legitimacy of coffee."
3 4
or, more freely, "Argument in favor of the
legitimate use of coffee."
oy^ kahwa, is the Arabic word for
coffee.
The author is Abd-al-Kadir ibn IMoham-
mad al Ansari al Jazari al Hanbali. That
is, he was named Abd-al-Kadir, son of
Mohammed.
Ahd-al-Kadir means "slave of the strong
one" (i. e., of God) ; while al Ansari means
that he was a descendant of the Ansari
i. e., "helpers"), the people of Medina who
received and protected the Prophet Mo-
hammed after his flight from Mecca ; al Ja-
zari means that he was a man of Mesopota-
mia ; and al Hanhali that in law and theo-
logy he belonged to the well known sect, or
school, of the Hanbalites, so called after the
great jurist and writer, Ahmad ibn Han
bal, who died at Bagdad A. H. 241 (A. D.
855). The Hanbalites are one of the four
great sects of the Sunni Mohammedans.
Abd-al-Kadir ibn Mohammed lived in
the tenth eenturj' of the Hegira — the six-
teenth of our era — and wrote his book in
996 A. H., or 1587 A. D. Coffee had then
been in common use since about 1450 A. D.
in Arabia. It was not in use in the time of
.541
542
ALL ABOUT COFFEE
the Prophet, who died in 632 A. D. ; but
he had forbidden the drink of strong
liquors which affect the brain, and hence
it was argued that coffee, as a stimulant,
was unlawful. Even today, the community
of the Wahabis, very powerful in Arabia
a hundred years ago, and still dominant in
part of it, do not permit the use of coffee.
Abd-al-Kadir 's book is thought to have
been based on an earlier writing by Shihab-
ad-Din Ahmad ibn Abd-al-Ghafar al Mali-
ki, as he refers to the latter on the third
page of his manuscript ; but if so, this pre-
vious work does not appear to have been
preserved. La Roque says Shihab-ad-Din
was an Arabian historian who supplied the
main part of Abd-al-Kadir 's story: La
Roque refers also to a Turkish historian.
Research by the author has failed to dis-
close anything about Shihab-al-Din save his
name {al Maliki means that he belonged to
the Malikites, another of the four great
Sunni sects), and that he wrote about a
hundred years before Abd-al-Kadir. No
copy of his writings is known to exist.
The illustrations show the title page of
Abd-al-Kadir 's manuscript, the first page,
the third page, and the fly leaf of the cover,
the latter containing an inscription in
Latin made at the time the manuscript was
first received or classified. It reads :
Omdat al safouat fi hall al cahuat.
De usu legitimo et licito potionis quae vulgo
Cafe nuncupatur. Authore Abdalcader Ben Mo-
hammed al Ansari. Constat hie liber capitibus
septem, et ab authore editus est anno hegirae 99G
quo anno centum et viginti annl effluxerant ex
quo huius potionis usus in Arabia felice in-
valuerat.
The translation of the Latin is:
Concerning the legitimate and lawful use of
the drink commonly known as oaf 6, by Abdal-
cader Ben Mohammed al Ansari. The book is
composed in seven chapters and was brought
out by the author in the year of the Hegira 996
at which time a hundred and twenty years had
passed since the use of this drink had become
firmly established in Arabia FeUx.
Coffee in Poetry
The Abd-al-Kadir work immortalized
coffee. It is in seven chapters. The first
treats of the etymology and significance of
the word cahouah (kahwa), the nature and
properties of the bean, where the drink was
first used, and describes its virtues. The
other chapters have to do largely with the
church dispute in Mecca in 1511, answer
the religious objectors to coffee, and con-
clude with a collection of Arabic verses
composed during the Mecca controversy by
the best poets of the time.
De Nointel, ambassador from the court
of Louis XIV to the Ottoman Porte,
brought back with him to Paris from Con-
stantinople the Abd-al-Kadir manuscript,
and another by Bichivili, one of the three
general treasurers of the Ottoman Empire.
The latter work is of a later date than the
Abd-al-Kadir manuscript, and is con-
cerned chiefly with the history of the intro-
duction of coffee into Egypt, Syria, Da-
mascus, Aleppo, and Constantinople.
The following are two of the earliest
Arabic poems in praise of coffee. They are
about the period of the first coffee persecu-
tion in Mecca (1511), and are typical of
the best thought of the day :
I?r Praise of Coffee
Translation from the Arabic
O Coffee! Thou dost dispel all cares, thou art
the object of desire to the scholar.
This Is the beverage of the friends of God; it
gives health to those in its service who strive
after wisdom.
Prepared from the simple shell of the berry.
It has the odor of musk and the color of Ink.
The intelligent man who empties these cups
of foaming coffee, he alone knows truth.
May God deprive of this drink the foolish
man who condemns It with Incurable obstinacy.
Coffee is our gold. Wherever it is served, one
enjoys the society of the noblest and most gen-
erous men.
0 drink! As harmless as pure milk, which
differs from it only In Its blackness.
Here is another, rhymed version of the
same poem :
In Praise of Coffee
Translation from the Arabic
O coffee! Loved and fragrant drink, thou
drivest care away.
The object thou of that man's wish who studies
night and day.
Thou yoothest him, thou giv'st him health, and
God doth favor those
Who walk straight on in wisdom's way, nor
seek their own repose.
Fragrant as musk thy berry is, yet black as ink
In sooth!
And he who sips thy fragrant cup can only
know the truth.
Insensate they who, tasting not, yet vilify its
use;
For when they thirst and seek Its help, God will
the gift refuse.
Oh, coffee is our wealth! for see, where'er on
earth it grows.
Men live whose aims are noble, true virtues
who disclose.
COFFEE IN LITERATURE
543
Coffee Companionship
Translation from the Arabic
Come and enjoy the company of coffee in the
places of Its habitation; for the Divine Good-
ness envelops those who partake of its feast.
There the elegance of the rugs, the sweetness
of life, the society of the guests, all give a pic-
ture of the abode of the blest.
It Is a wine which no sorrow could resist
when the cup-bearer presents thee with the cup
which contains it.
It is not long since Aden saw thy birth. If
thou doubtest this, see the freshness of youth
shining on the faces of thy children.
Grief is not found within its habitations.
Trouble yields humbly to its power.
It is the beverage of the children of God, It
is the source of health.
It is the stream in which we wash away our
sorrows. It is the fire which consumes oui
griefs.
Whoever has once known the chafing-dish
which prepares this beverage, will feel only
aversion for wine and liquor from casks.
Delicious beverage, its color is the seal of
its purity.
Reason pronounces favorably on the lawful-
ness of it.
Drink of it confidently, and give not ear to
the speech of the foolish, who condemn it with-
out reason.
During the period of the second religious
persecution of coffee in the latter part of
the sixteenth century, other Arabian poets
sang the praises of coffee. The learned
Fakr-Eddin-Aboubeckr ben Abid lesi wrote
a book entitled The Triumph of Coffee, and
the poet-sheikh Sherif-Eddin-Om^-ben-
Faredh sang of it in harmonious verse,
wherein, discoursing of his mistress, he
could find no more flattering comparison
than coffee. He exclaims, * ' She has made
me drink, in long draughts, the fever, or,
rather, the coffee of love ! ' '
The numerous contributions by early
travelers to the literature of coffee have been
mentioned in chronological order in the
history chapters. After Rauwolf and
Alpini, there were Sir Antony Sherley,
Parry, Biddulph, Captain John Smith, Sir
George Sandys, Sir Thomas Herbert, and
Sir Henry Blount in England; Tavernier,
Thevenot, Bernier, P. de la Roque, and
Galland in France; Delia Valle in Italy;
Olearius and Niebhur in Germany; Nieu-
hoff in Holland, and others.
Francis Bacon wrote about coffee in his
Hist. Vitae et Mortis and Sylva Sylvarum,
1623 - 27. Burton referred to it in his "An-
atomy of Melancholy" in 1632. Parkinson
described it in his Theatrum Botanicum in
1640. In 1652, Pasqua Rosee published his
famous handbill in London, a literary effort
as well as a splendid first advertisement.
Faustus Nairon (Banesius) produced in
Rome, in 1671, the first printed treatise de-
voted solely to coffee. The same year Du-
four brought out the first treatise in French,
This he followed in 1684 with his work,
The manner of making coffee, tea, and
chocolate. John Ray extolled the virtues
of coffee in his Universal Botany of Plants,
published in London in 1686. Galland
translated the Abd-al-Kadir manuscript in-
to French in 1699, and Jean La Roque pub-
lished his Voyage de I'Arahie Heureuse in
Paris in 1715. Excerpts from nearly all
these works appear in various chapters of
this work.
Leonardus Ferdinandus Meisner pub-
lished a Latin treatise on coffee, tea, and
chocolate in 1721. Dr. James Douglas pub-
lished in London (1727) his Arhor yemensis
friictiim cofe ferefis, or a description and
history of the Coffee Tree. This work laid
under contribution many of the Italian,
German, French, and English scholars men-
tioned above ; and the author mentioned as
other sources of information : Dr. Quincy,
Pechey, Gaudron, de Fontenelle, Professor
Boerhaave, Figueroa, Chabraeus, Sir Hans
Sloane, Langius, and Du Mont.
In the seventeenth and eighteenth cen-
turies, the poets and dramatists of France^
Italy, and England found a plentiful sup-
ply in what had already been written on
coffee; to say nothing of the inspiration
offered by the drink itself, and by the
society of the cafes of the period.
French poets, familiar with Latin, first
took coffee as the subject of- their verse.
Vaniere sang its praises in the eighth book
of his Praedium rusticum; and Fellon, a
Jesuit professor of Trinity College, Lyons,
wrote a didactic poem called, Faha Arabica,
Carmen, which is included in the Poemata
didascalica of d 'Olivet.
Abbe Guillaume Massieu's Carmen Caf-
faeum, composed in 1718, has been referred
to in chapter III. It was read at the
Academy of Inscriptions. One of the
panegyrists of this author, de Boze, in his
Eloge de Massieu, says that if Horace and
Virgil had known of coffee, the poem might
easily have been attributed to them; and
Thery, who translated it into French, says
"it is a pearl of elegance in a rare jewel
case. ' '
544
ALL ABOUT COFFEE
The following translation of the poem
from the Latin original was made for this
work :
Coffee
A Poem by Guillaume Massieu of the French
Academy
(A literal prose translation from the original Latin
in the British Museum.)
How coffee first came to our shores,
What the nature of the divine drink is, what its
use,
How it brings ready aid to man against every
liind of evils,
I shall here begin to tell in simple verse.
You soft-spoken men, who have often tried the
sweetness of this drink,
If it has never deceived your wishes or mocked
your hopes
With its empty results, be propitious and lend
a willing ear to our song.
And may you, 0 Phoebus, kindly be present, to
acknowledge
As your gift the power of herbs and healthful
plants, and to
Dispel sad diseases from cur bodies; for they
say you are
The author of this blessing, and may you spread
your
Gifts auiong peoples, and everywhere far and
wide throughout the entire world.
Across Libya afar, and the seven mouths of the
swollen Nile,
Where Asia most joyfully spreads in immense
fields
Rich in various resources and filled with frag-
rant woods,
A region extends. The Sabeans of old inhabited
it.
I believe indeed Nature, that best parent of all
things,
Loved this place more than all others with a
tender love.
Here the air of Heaven always breathes more
mildly.
The sun has a gentler power ; here are flowers
of a different clime;
And the earth with fertile bosom brings forth
various fruits.
Cinnamon, casia, myrrh, and fragrant thyme.
Amid the resources and gifts of this blessed
land.
Turned to the sun and the warm south winds,
A tree spontaneously lifts itself into the upper
air.
Growing nowhere else, and unknown in earlier
centuries,
By no means great in size, it stretches not far
its
Spreading branches, nor lifts a lofty top to
heaven;
But lowly, after the manner of myrtle or pliant
broom,
It rises from the ground. Many a nut bends
Its rich branches.
Small, like a bean, dark and dull in color.
Marked by a slight groove In the centre of its
hull.
To transplant this growth to cur own fields
Many have tried, and to cultivate it with great
care.
In vain; for the plant has not reeponded to the
zeal
And desires of the planters, and has rendered
vain their long labor;
Before day the root of the tender herb has
withered away.
Either this has happened through fault of cli-
mate, or grudging
Earth refuses to furnish fit nourishment to the
foreign plant.
Therefore come thou, whoever shall be possesed
by a love for coffee.
Do not regret having brought the healthful
bean from the far
Remote world of Arabia; for this is its bounti-
ful mother country.
The soothing draught first flowed from those
regions through other
Peoples; thence through all Europe and Asia,
and next made its way through the entire
world.
Therefore, what you shall know to be sufficient
for your needs.
Do you prepare long beforehand; let it be your
care to have collected
Yearly a copious store, and providently fill
small granaries.
As of yore the farmer, early mindful and provi-
dent of the future.
Collected crops from his fields and garnered
them in his barns.
And turned his attention to the coming year.
None the less, meanwhile, must the utensils for
coffee be cared for.
Let not vessels suited for drinking the beverage
be lacking,
And a pot, whose narrow neck should be topped
by a small cover
And whose body should swell gradually into an
oblong shape.
When these things shall have been provided by
you, let your
Next care be to roast well the beans with
flames, and to grind them when roasted.
Nor should the hammer cease to crush them
with many a blow,
Until they lay aside their hardness, and when
thoroughly ground.
Become fine powder; which forthwith pack
either in a bag or a box made for such uses.
And wrap it in leather, and smear it over with
soft wax, lest
Narrow chinks be open, or hidden channels.
Unless you prevent these, by a secret path
gradually small
Particles and whatever of value exists, and the
entire strength.
Would leave, wasting into empty air.
There is also a hollow machine, like a small
tower, which they
Call a mill, in which you can bruise the useful
fruit of the
Roasted bean and crush it with frequent rub-
bing;
ALL ABOUT COFFEE
Camel Transport Between Harab and Dibe-Daoua, Abyssinia
SuKkDKYING IN La LAGUNA, rHILU'i'IiNE ISLANUS
COFFEE SCENES IN THE NEAR AND THE PAR EAST
COFFEE IN LITERATURE
545
A revolving pivot in the middle, on an easy-
wheel turning,
Twists its metal joints on a creaking stem.
The top of the wheel, you know, Is pierced with
an ivory handle
Which will have to be turned by hand, through
a thousand revolutions.
And through a thousand circles It moves the
pivot.
When you put a kernel in, you will turn the
handle with quick hand —
No delay — and you will wonder how the crack-
ling kernel is
With much grinding quickly reduced to a
powder.
Once only the lower compartment receives on
its kindly bosom
The crushed grains, which are placed In the
very depths of the box.
But why do we linger over these less important
matters?
Greater things call us. Then is It time to drain
the sweet
Draught, either under the new light of the early
sun
In the morning, when an empty stomach de-
mands food;
Or, when, after the splendid feasts of a mag-
nificent table
The overburdened stomach suffers from too
heavy load, and
Unequal to the demands made upon It, seeks
the aid of external heat.
Then come, when now the pot grows ruddy in
the fire
Crackling beneath, and you shall behold the
liquid, swelling v
With mingled powdered coffee, now bubble
around the brim.
Draw it from the fire. Unless you should do
this, the force of
The water would break forth suddenly, over-
flowing, and would
Sprinkle the beverage on the fire beneath.
Therefore, let no such accident disturb your
joys.
You should keep watch carefully when the
water no longer
Restrains itself and bubbles with the heat; then
return
The pot to the fire thrice and four times, until
the powdered
Coffee steams in the midst of the fire and blends
thoroughly with the surrounding water.
This soothing drink ought to be boiled with
skill, to be drunk
With art — not in the way men are wont to
drink other beverages —
And with reason; for when you shall have
taken it steaming from
A quick fire, and gradually all the dregs have
settled to the
Very bottom, you shall not drink it Impatiently
at one gulp.
But rather, sip It little by little, and between
draughts
Contrive pleasant delays; and sipping, drain it
In long draughts.
So long as It is still hot and burns the palate.
For then it is better, then It permeates our In-
most bones, and
Penetrating within to the center of our vitals
and our marrow.
It pervades all our body with Its vivifying
strength.
Often even merely inhaling the odor with their
nostrils, men
Have welcomed It, when it has bubbled up from
the bottom.
More refreshing than the breeze. So much
pleasure Is there In a delicious odor.
And now there remains awaiting us the other
part of our task,
To make known the secret strength of the di-
vine draught.
But who could hope to understand this won-
derful blessing
Or to be able to pursue so great a miracle In
verse?
For really, when coffee has quietly glided In-
to your body.
Taking itself within, It sheds a vital warmth
through your
Limbs, and inspires joyous strength In your
heart. Then If
There is anything undigested, with fire's help,
It heats the
Hidden channels, and loosens the thin pores,
through which the
Useless moisture exudes, and seeds of diseases
flee from all your veins.
Wherefore come, O you who have a care for
your health!
You, whose triple chin hangs on your breast.
Who drag your heavy stomach of great bulk.
It Is fltting for you, first of all, to Indulge in
the warm
Beverage; for indeed It will dry the hideous
flow of moisture
Which oppresses your limbs, and sends forth
streams of perspiration from your whole
body.
And In a short time, the swelling of your fat
belly will
Gradually begin to decrease, and it will lighten
your members, now oppressed by their
heavy weight.
O happy peoples, on whom Titan, rising, looks
with his first light!
Here, a rather free use of wine has never done
harm.
Law and religion forbid us to quaff the flow-
ing wine.
Here one lives on coffee. Here, then, flourish-
ing with joyous strength
One pursues life and knows not what diseases
are.
Nor that child of Bacchus and companion of
high living — Gout;
Nor what innumerable diseases through this
union are ready to attack our world.
Yet, Indeed, the soothing power of this In-
vigorating drink
Drives sad cares from the heart, and exhilar.
ates the spirits.
546
ALL ABOUT COFFEE
I have seen a man, when he had not yet drained
a mighty
Draught of this sweet nectar, walk silently with
slow gait,
His brow sad, and forehead rough with for-
bidding wrinkles.
This same man who had hardly bathed his
throat with the sweet
Drink — no delay — clouds fled from hia
wrinkled brow; and
He took pleasure in teasing all with his witty
sayings.
Nor yet did he pursue any one with bitter
laughter. For this
Harmless drink Inspires no desire of offending,
the venom
Is lacking, and pleasant laughter without bit-
terness pleases.
And in the entire Eiast this custom of coffee
drinking
Has been accepted. And, now, France; you
adopt the foreign custom.
So that public shops, one after the other, are
opened for
Drinking Coffee. A hanging sign of either ivy
or laurel invites the passers-by.
Hither in crowds from the entire city they
assemble, and
While away the time In pleasant drinking.
And when once the feelings have grown warm,
acted upon by
The gentle heat, then good-humored laughter,
and pleasant
Arguments Increase. General gaiety ensues,
the places about resound with joyous ap-
plause.
But never does the liquid Imbibed overpower
weary minds, but
Rather, if ever slumber presses their heavy
eyes and dulls
The brain; and their strength, blunted, grows
torpid In the
Body, coffee puts sleep to flight from the eyes,
and slothful inactivity from the whole
frame.
Therefore to absorb the sweet draught would be
an advantage
For those whom a great deal of long-continiieS
labor awaits
And those who need to extend their study far
into the night.
And here I shall make known who taught the
use of this pleasant
Drink; for its virtue, unknown, has lain hid-
den through many
Years; and reviewing, I shall relate the mat-
ter from the very beginning.
An Arab shepherd was driving his young goats
to the well-known
Pastures. They were wandering through lonely
wastes and cropping
The grasses, when a tree heavy with many ber-
ries— never seen before — met their eyes.
At once, as they were able to reach the low
branches, they began
To pull off the leaves with many a nibble, and
to pluck the tender
Growth. Its bitterness attracts. The shepherd,.
not knowing this.
Was meanwhile singing on the soft grass and
telling the story of his loves to the woods.
But when the evening star, rising, warned him
to leave the field.
And he led back his well-fed flock to their stalls,.
he perceived
That the beasts did not close their eyes In^
sweet sleep, but
Joyous beyond their wont, with wonderful de-
light throughout the
Whole night jumped about with wanton leaps.
Trembling with sudden
Fear, the shepherd stood amazed; and crazed
by the sound, he
Thought these things were being done through
some wicked trick of a neighbor, or by
magic art.
Not far from here a holy band of brethren had.
built their
Humble home in a remote valley; their lot it
was to chant
Praises of God, and to load his altars with.
fitting gifts.
Although throughout the night the deep-tonedj
bell resounded
With great din, and summoned them to the
sacred temple, often
The coming of dawn found them lingering on
their couches.
Having forgotten to rise in the middle of the^
night.
So great was their love of sleep!
In charge of the sacred temple, revered andi
obeyed by his
Willing brethren, was the master, an aged man^.
a heavy mass of white hair on head and
chin.
The shepherd, hastening, came to him and told:
him the story.
Imploring his aid. The old man smiled to him-
self; but
He agreed to go, and investigate the hidden
cause of the miracle.
When he has come to the hills, he observes the
lambs, together
With their mothers, gnawing the berries of
an unknown plant.
And cries, "This is the cause of the trouble'"
And saying no
More, he at once picks the smooth fruit from
the heavily-laden
Tree, and carries it home, places it, when^
washed, in pure
Water, cooking it over the fire, and fearlessly
drinks a large
Cup of it. Forthwith a warmth pervades his;
veins, a living
Force is diffused through his limbs, and weari-
ness is dispelled from his aged body.
Then, at length, the old man exulting in the
blessing thus found.
Rejoices, and kindly shares with all his
brothers. They eagerly
At early night-fall, Indulge in pleasant ban-
quets and drain great bowls.
COFFEE IN LITERATURE
547
No longer Is it hard for them to break off sweet
sleep and to leave their soft beds as for-
merly.
0 fortunate ones! whose hearts the sweet
draught has often
Bathed. No sluggish torpor holds their minds,
they briskly
Rise for their prescribed duties and rejoice to
outstrip the rays of the first light.
You also, whose care it is to feed minds with
divine eloquence
And to terrify with your words the souls of the
guilty, you also
Should indulge in the pleasant drink; for, as
you know, it
Strengthens weakness. Keen vigor is gained
for the limbs from
This source, and spreads through the whole
body. From this source.
Too, shall come new strength and new power
to your voice.
You also, whom oft harmful vapors harass,
whose sick brain the dangerous vertigo
shakes.
Ah, come! In this sweet liquid Is a ready medi-
cine
And none other better to calm undue agitation.
Apollo planted this power for himself, they say.
The story is worthy to be sung.
Once a disease most deadly to life assailed the
disciples of
.VlK)llo's Mount. It spread far and wide, and
attacked the bi^In itself.
Already all the people of genius were suffering
with this
Disease; and the arts, deserted, were languish-
ing along with
The workers. Some even pretended to have the
disease, and
Assuming feigned suffering, gave themselves
over to an idle life.
Unpleasing work grew distasteful, and deadly
Inertia increased
Everywhere. It pleased all, now released from
work and labors,
To indulge in care-free quiet.
Apollo, full of indignation, did not endure
longer that the deadly
Contagion of such easy ruin should creep over
them thus. And,
That he might take away from seers all means
of deception, he
Enticed from the rich bosom of the earth this
friendly plant.
Than which no other is more ready either to
refresh for work the
Mind wearied by long studies, or to sooth
troublesome sorrows of the head.
O plant, given to the human race by the gift of
the Gods!
No other out of the entire list of plants has
ever vied with you.
On your account sailors sail from our shores
And fearlessly conquer the threatening winds,
sandbanks and
Dreadful rocks. With your nourishing growth
you surpass dittany,
Ambrosia, and fragrant panacea. Grim diseases
flee from you. To
You trusting health clings as a companion, and
also the merry
Crowd, conversation, amusing jokes, and sweet
whisperings.
The poet Belighi toward the close of the
sixteenth century composed a poem, which,
freely translated, runs :
In Damascus, In Aleppo, In great Cairo,
At every turn is to be found
That mild fruit which gives so beloved a drink.
Before coming to court to triumph.
There this seditious disturber of the world.
Has, by Its unparalleled virtue.
Supplanted all wines from this blessed day.
Jacques Delille (1738 - 1813) the didactic
poet of nature, in chant vi of his *' Three
Reigns of Nature, thus apostrophizes the
"divine nectar" and describes its prepara-
tion:
Divine Coffee
Translation from the French
A liquid there is to the poet most dear,
'T was lacking to Virgil, adored by Voltaire,
'T Is thou, divine coffee, for thine Is the art.
Without turning the head yet to gladden the
heart.
And thus though my palate be dulled by age.
With joy I partake of thy dear beverage.
How glad I prepare me thy nectar most pre-
cious.
No soul shall usurp me a rite so delicious;
On the ambient flame when the black charcoal
burns.
The gold of thy bean to rare ebony turns,
I alone, 'gainst the cone, wrought with fierce
iron teeth,
Make thy fruitage cry out with Its bltt«r-sweet
breath;
Till charmed with such perfume, with care I
entrust
To the pot on my hearth the rare spice-laden
dust:
First to calm, then excite, till It seethlngly
whirls.
With an eye all attenion I gaze till It boils.
At last now the liquid comes slow to repose;
In the hot, smoking vessel Its wealth I depose,
My cup and thy nectar; from wild reeds ex-
pressed,
America's honey my table has blest;
All is ready; Japan's gay enamel invites —
And the tribute of two worlds thy prestige
unites:
Come, Nectar divine. Inspire thou me,
I wish but Antigone, dessert and thee;
For scarce have I tasted thy odorous steam,
When quick from thy clime, soothing warmths
round me stream.
Attentive my thoughts rise and flow light as
air,
Awaking my senses and soothing my care.
Ideas that but late moved so dull and depressed.
Behold, they come smiling in rich garments
dressed!
Some genius awakes me, my course Is begun;
For I drink with each drop a bright ray of the
sun.
548
ALL ABOUT COFFEE
Maumenet addressed to Galland the fol-
lowing verses:
If slumber, friend, too near, with some late
glass should creep —
Dull, poppy-perfumed sleep —
If a too fumous wine confounds at length thy
brain —
Take coffee then — this juice divine
Shall banish sleep and steam of vap'rous wine,
And with its timely aid fresh vigor thou shalt
find.
Castel, in his poem, Les Plant es (The
Plants) could not omit the cotfee trees of
the tropics. He thus addressed them in
1811:
Bright plants, the favorites of Phoebus,
In these climes the rarest virtues offer,
Delicious Mocha, thy sap, enchantress,
Awakens genius, outvalues Parnasse!
In a collection of the Songs of Brittany
in the Brest library there are many stanzas
in praise of coffee. A Breton poet has
composed a little piece of ninety-six verses
in which he describes the powerful attrac-
tion that coffee has for women and the pos-
sible effects on domestic happiness. The
first time that coffee was used in Brittany,
says an old song of that country, only the
nobility drank it, and now all the common
people are using it, yet the greater part of
them have not even bread.
A French poet of the eighteenth century
produced the following :
Lines on Coffee
Translation from the French
Good coffee is more than a savory cup.
Its aroma has power to dry liquor up.
By coffee you get upon leaving the table
A mind full of wisdom, thoughts lucid, nerves
stable;
And odd tho' it be, 't is none the less true.
Coffees aid to digestion permits dining anew.
And what 's very true, tho' few people know
it.
Fine coffee 's the basis of every fine poet;
For many a writer as windy as Boreas
Has been vastly improved by the drink ever
glorious.
Coffee brightens the dullness of heavy phil-
osophy.
And opens the science of mighty geometry.
Our law-makers, too, when the nectar imbibing.
Plan wondrous reforms, quite beyond the de-
scribing;
The odor of coffee they delight in inhaling.
And promise the country to alter laws ailing.
From the brow of the scholar coffee chases the
wrinkles,
And mirth in his eyes like a firefly twinkles;
And he, who before was but a hack of old
Homer,
Becomes an original, and that 's no misnomer.
Observe the astronomer who 's straining his
eyes
In watching the planets which soar thro' the
skies;
Alas, all those bright bodies seem hopelessly far
Till coffee discloses his own guiding star.
But greatest of wonders that coffee effects
Is to aid the news-editor as he little expects;
Coffee whispers the secrets of hidden diplomacy.
Hints rumors of wars and of scandals so racy.
Inspiration by coffee must be nigh unto magic.
For it conjures up facts that are certainly
tragic;
And for a few pennies, coffee's small price per
cup,
"Ye editor's" able to swallow the Universe up.
Esmenard celebrated Captain de Clieu's
romantic voyage to Martinique with the
coffee plants from the Jardin des Plantes,
in some admirable verses quoted in chap-
ter II.
Among other notable poetic flights in
praise of coffee produced in France men-
tion should be made of: "L'Eloge dii
Cafe" (Eulogy of Coffee) a song in twen-
ty-four couplets, Paris, Jacques Estienne,
1711; Le Cafe (Coffee), a fragment from
the fourth chant (song) of La Grandeur de
Dieu dans les merveilles de la Nature (The
Grandeur of God in the Wonders of
Nature) Marseilles; Le Cafe, extract from
the fourth gastronomic song, by Berchoux;
''A Mon Cafe" (To My Coffee), stanzas
written by Dueis; Le Cafe, anonymous
stanzas inserted in the Macedoine Poetique,
1824; a poem in Latin in the Abbe Oli-
vier's collection; Xe Bouquet Blanc et le
Bouquet Noir, poesie en quatre chants; Le
Cafe, C. D. Mery, 1837; "Eloge du
Cafe, S. Melaye, 1852.
Many Italian poets have sung the praises
of coffee. L. Barotti wrote his poem, II
Gaffe in 1681. Giuseppe Parini (1729-
1799), Italy's great satirical and lyric poet
and critic of the eighteenth century, in //
Giorno {The Day), gives a delightful pen
picture of the manners and customs of
Milan's polite society of the period. Wil-
liam Dean Howells quotes as follows from
these poems (his own translation) in his
Modern Italian Poets. The feast is over,
and the lady signals to the cavalier that it
is time to leave the table :
Spring to thy feet
The first of all, and, drawing near thy lady,
Remove her chair and offer her thy hand.
And lead her to the other room, nor suffer
longer
COFFEE IX LITERATURE
549
That the stale reek of viands shall offend
Her delicate sense. Thee with the rest invites
The grateful odor of the coffee, where
It smokes upon a smaller table hid
And graced with Indian webs. The redolent
gums
That meanwhile burn, sweeten and purify
The heavy atmosphere, and banish thence
All lingering traces of the feast. Ye sick
And poor, whom misery or whom hope, per-
chance!
Has guided in the noonday to these doors,
Tumultuous, naked, and unsightly throng.
With mutilated limbs and squalid faces,
In litters and on crutches from afar
Comfort yourselves, and with expanded nostrils
Drink in the nectar of the feast divine
That favourable zephyrs waft to you;
But do not dare besiege these noble precincts,
Importunately offering her that reigns
Within your loathsome spectacle of woe!
And now, sir, 't is your office to prepare
The tiny cup that then shall minister,
Slow sipped, its liquor to thy lady's lips;
And now bethink thee whether she prefer
The boiling beverage much or little tempered
With sweet; or if, perchance, she likes it best.
As doth the barbarous spouse, then when she
sits
Upon brocades of Persia, with light fingers.
The bearded visage of her lord caressing.
This is from II Mezzogiorno (Noon).
The other three poems, rounding out The
Day, are II Mattino {Morning) , II Vespre
(Evening), and La Notte (Night). In II
Mattino, Parini .sings :
Should dreary hypochondria's woes oppress
thee.
Should round thy charming limbs in too great
measure
Thy flesh increase, then with thy lips do honor
To that clear beverage, made from the well-
bronzed.
The smoking, ardent beans Aleppo sends thee,
And distant Mocha too, a thousand ship-loads;
When slowly sipped it knows no rival.
Belli 's II Caffe supplie.s a partial bibliog-
raphy of the Italian literature on coffee.
There are many poems, some of them put
to music. As late as 1921, there were pub-
lished in Bologna some advertising verses
on coffee by G. B. Zecchini with music by
Cesare Cantino.
Pope Leo XIII, in his Horatian poem on
Frugality composed in his eighty-eighth
year, thus verses his appreciation of coffee :
Last comes the beverage of the Orient shore,
Mocha, far off, the fragrant berries bore.
Taste the dark fluid with a dainty lip.
Digestion waits on pleasure as you sip.
Peter Altenberg, a Vienna poet, thus
celebrated the cafes of his native city:
To The Coffee House!
When you are worried, have trouble of one sort
or another — to the coffee house!
When she did not keep her appointment, for
one reason or other — to the coffee house!
When your shoes are torn and dilapidated — ■
coffee house!
When your income is four hundred crowns and
you spend five hundred — coffee house!
You are a chair warmer in some office, while
your ambition led you to seek professional
honors — coffee house!
You could not find a mate to suit you — coffee
house!
You feel like committing suicide — coffee housel
You hate and despise human beings, and at the
same timd you can not be happy without
them — coffee house!
You compose a poem which you can not inflict
uix)n friends you meet in the street — coffee
house!
When your coal scuttle is empty, and your gas
ration exhausted — coffee house!
When you need money for cigarettes, you touch
the head waiter in the — coffee house!
When you are locked out and haven't the money
to pay for unlocking the house door — coffee
house!
When you acquire a new flame, and intend pro-
voking the old one, you take the new one
to the old one's — coffee house!
When you feel like hiding you dive Into a —
coffee house!
When you want to be seen in a new suit —
coffee house!
When you can not get anything on trust any-
where else — coffee house!
English poets from Milton to Keats cele-
brated coffee. Milton (1608-1674) in his
Comus thus acclaimed the beverage:
One sip of this
Will bathe the drooping spirits in delight
Beyond the bliss of dreams.
Alexander Pope, poet and satirist ( 1688 -
1744), has the oft-quoted lines:
Coffee which makes the politician wise.
And see through all things with his half-shut
eyes.
In Carruthers' Life of Pope, we read
that this poet inhaled the steam of coffee in
order to obtain relief from the headaches
to which he was subject. We can well un-
derstand the inspiration which called forth
from him the following lines when he was
not yet twenty :
As long as Mocha's happy tree shall grow.
While berries crackle, or while mills shall go;
While smoking streams from sliver spouts shall
glide,
Or China's earth receive the sable tide,
While coffee shall to British nymphs be dear.
While fragrant steams the bended head shall
cheer.
Or grateful bitters shall delight the taste,
So long her honors, name and praise shall last.
550
ALL ABOUT COFFEE
Pope's famous Rape of the Lock grew
out of coffee-house gossip. The poem con-
tains the passage on coifee already quoted :
For lo! the board with cups and spoons Is
crowned;
The berries crackle and the mill turns round;
On shining altars of japan they raise
The silver lamp: the fiery spirits blaze:
From silver spouts the grateful liquors glide,
Wliile China's earth receives the smoking tide.
At once they gratify their scent and taste.
And frequent cups prolong the rich repast.
Straight hover round the fair her airy band;
Some, as she sipped, the fuming liquor fanned:
Some o'er her lap their careful plumes dis-
played.
Trembling, and conscious of the rich brocade.
Coffee (which makes the politician wise.
And see through all things with his half-shut
eyes.)
Sent up in vapors to the baron's brain
New stratagems, the radiant lock to gain.
Pope often broke the slumbers of his ser-
vant at night by calling him to prepare a
cup of coffee; but for regular serving, it
was his custom to grind and to prepare it
upon the table.
William Cowper's fine tribute to *'the
cups that cheer but not inebriate", a
phrase which he is said to have borrowed
from Bishop Berkeley, was addressed to tea
and not to coffee, to which it has not infre-
quently been wrongfully attributed. It is
one of the most pleasing pictures in The
Task.
Cowper refers to coffee but once in his
writings. In his Pity for Poor Africans
he expresses himself as "shocked at the ig-
norance of slaves":
I pity them greatly, but I must be mum
For how could we do without sugar and rum?
Especially sugar, so needful we see;
What! Give up our desserts, our coffee and tea?
thus contenting himself, like many others,
with words of pity where more active pro-
test might sacrifice his personal ease and
comfort.
Leigh Hunt (1784-1859), and John
Keats (1795-1834), were worshippers at
the shrine of coffee; while Charles Lamb,
famous poet, essayist, humorist, and critic,
has celebrated in verse the exploit of Cap-
tain de Clieu in the following delightful
verses ;
The Coffee Slips
Whene'er I fragrant coffee drink,
I on the generous Frenchman think.
Whose noble perseverance bore
The tree to Martlnico's shore.
WTiUe yet her colony was new.
Her Island products but a few;
Two shoots from off a coffee tree
He carried with him o'er the sea.
Each little tender coffee slip
He waters daily in the ship.
And as he tends his embryo trees.
Feels he is raising 'midst the seas
Coffee groves, whose ample shade
Shall screen the dark Creollan maid.
But soon, alas! His darling pleasure
In watching this his precious treasure
Is like to fade — for water fails
On board the ship in which he sails.
Now all the reservoirs are shut.
The crew on short allowance put;
So small a drop is each man's share.
Few leavings you may think there are
To water these poor coffee plants- —
But he supplies their grasping wants,
Even from his own dry parched lips
He spares it for his coffee slips.
Water he gives his nurslings first.
Ere he allays his own deep thirst.
Lest, if he first the water sip,
He bear too far his eager lip.
He sees them droop for want of more;
Yet when they reach the destined shore.
With pride the heroic gardener sees
A living sap still in his trees.
The islanders his praise resound;
Coffee plantations rise around;
And Martinico loads her ships
With produce from those dear-saved slips.
In John Keat's amusing fantasy. Cap
and Bells, the Emperor Elfinan greets
Hum, the great soothsayer, and offers him
refreshment :
"You may have sherry in silver, hock In gold,
or glass'd champagne
. . . what cup will you drain?"
"Commander of the Faithful!" answered Humi
"In preference to these, I'll merely taste
A thimble-full of old Jamaica rum."
"A simple boon," said Elfinan; "thou mayst
Have Nantz, with which my morning coffee's
laced."
But Hum accepts the glass of Nantz,
without the coffee, "made racy with the
third part of the least drop of creme de
citron, crystal clear."
Numerous broadsides printed in London,
1660 to 1675, have been referred to in
chapter X, Few of them possess real lit-
erary merit.
"Coffee and Crumpets" has been much
quoted. It was published in Fraser's Mag-
azine, in 1837. Its author calls himself
"Launcelot Littledo". The poem is quite
long, and only those portions are printed
COFFEE IN LITERATURE
551
liere that refer particularly to ''Yemen's
fragrant berry":
Coffee and Ceumpets
By Launcelot TAttledo of Pump Court, Temple,
Barriater-at-law.
There 's ten o'clock! From Hampstead to the
Tower
The bells are chanting forth a lusty carol;
"Wrangling, with Iron tongues, about the hour.
Like fifty drunken fishwives at a quarrel;
Cautious policemen shun the coming shower;
Thompson and Fearon tap another barrel;
"Dissolve frigus, lignum super foco.
Large reponens." Now, come Orinoco!
To puff away an hour, and drink a cup,
A brimming breakfast-cup of ruddy Mocha —
Clear, luscious, dark, like eyes that lighten up
The raven hair, fair cheek, and bella hoca
Of Florence maidens. I can never sup
Of perlgourd, but (guai a chi la tocca!)
I'm doomed to Indigestion. So to Bottle
This strife eternal, — Betty, bring the kettle!
Coffee! oh. Coffee! Faith, it is surprising.
*MId all the poets, good, and bad, and worse,
Who've scribbled (Hock or Chian eulogizing)
Post and papyrus with "immortal verse" —
Melodiously similltudlnising
In Sapphics languid or Alcaics terse ^
No one, my little brown Arabian berry,
Hath sung thy praises — 'tis surprising! very!
Were I a poet now, whose ready rhymes,
Like Tommy Moore's, came tripping to their
places —
Reeling along a merry troll of chimes.
With careless truth, — a dance of fuddled Graces;
Hear it — Gazette, Post, Herald, Standard,
Times,
I'd write an epic! Coffee for its basis;
Sweet as e'er warbled forth from cockney
throttles
Since Bob Montgomery's or Amos Cottle's.
Thou sleepy-eyed Chinese — enticing siren,
Pekoe! the Muse hath said In praise of thee,
"That cheers but not inebriates"; and Byron
Hath called thy sister "Queen of Tears", Bohea!
And he, Anacreon of Rome's age of Iron,
Says, how untruly "Quis non potius te."
While coffee, thou — bill-plastered gables say,
Art like old Cupid, "roasted every day."
I love, upon a rainy night, as this is,
When rarely and more rare the coaches rattle
From street to street, to sip thy fragrant kis-
ses;
While from the Strand remote some drunken
battle
Far-faintly echoes, and the kettle hisses
Upon the glowing hob. No tittle-tattle
To make a single thought of mine an alien
From thee, my coffee-pot, my fount Castallan.
The many intervening verses cover an
unhappy termination to an otherwise de-
lightful ball. He is sitting with his charm-
ing "Mary", about to ask her to be his
bride, when the unfortunate overturning of
a glass of red wine into her white satin
gown, at the same time overthrows all his
dreams of bliss, "for the shrew displaces
the angel he adored", and he resigns him-
self to the life of "a man in chambers."
'TIs thus I sit and sip, and sip and think.
And think and sip again, and dip in Eraser,
A health, King Oliver! to thee I drink:
Long may the public have thee to amaze her.
Like Figaro, thou makest one's eyelids wink.
Twirling on practised palm thy polished razor —
True Horace temper, smoothed on attic strop;
Ah! thou couldst "faire la barhe a tout
VEurope."
* * *
Come, Oliver, and tell us what the news Is;
An easy chair awaits thee — come and fill 't.
Come, I invoke thee, as they do the muses.
And thou shalt choose thy tipple as thou wilt.
And If thy lips my sober cup refuses.
For ruddier drops the purple grape has split.
We can sing, sipping In alternate verses.
Thy drink and mine, like Corydon and Thyrsis.
« * *
Fill the bowl, but not with wine.
Potent port, or fiery sherry;
For this milder cup of mine
Crush me Yemen's fragrant berry.
* * *
Gentle is the grape's deep cluster.
But the wine's a wayward child;
Nectar this! of meeker lustre —
This the cup that "draws it mild."
Deeply drink Its streams divine —
Fill the cup, but not with wine.
Prior and Montague inserted the follow-
ing poetic vignette in their City Mouse and
Country Mouse, written in burlesque of
Dryden's Hind and Panther:
Then on they jogg'd; and since an hour of talk
Might cut a banter on the tedious walk.
As I remember, said the sober mouse,
I've heard much talk of the Wits' Coffee-house;
Thither, says Brindle, thou shalt go and see
Priests supping coffee, sparks and poets tea;
Here rugged frieze, there quality well drest,
These baffling the grand Senior, those the Test,
And there shrewd guesses made, and reasons
given.
That human laws were never made in heaven;
But, above all, what shall oblige thy sight,
And fill thy eyeballs with a vast delight,
Is the poetic judge of sacred wit.
Who does i' th' darkness of his glory sit;
And as the moon who first receives the light.
With which she makes these nether regions
bright.
So does he shine, refiecting from afar
The rays he borrowed from a better star;
For rules, which from Cornellle and Rapln flow.
Admired by all the scribbling herd below.
From French tradition while he does dispense
Unerring truths, 't is schism, a damned offense,
To question his, or trust your private sense.
552
ALL ABOUT COFFEE
Geoffrey Sephton, an English poet and
novelist, many years resident in Vienna,
whose fantastic stories and fairy tales are
well known in Europe, has written the fol-
lowing sonnets on coffee :
To THE Mighty Monarch, King Kauheei
By Geoffrey Sephton
I
Away with opiates! Tantalising snares
To dull the brain with phantoms that are not.
Let no such drugs the subtle senses rot
With visions stealing softly unawares
Into the chambers of the soul. Nightmares
Ride in their wake, the spirits to besot.
Seek surer means to banish haunting cares:
Place on the board the steaming Coffee-pot!
O'er luscious fruit, dessert and sparkling flask,
Let proudly rule as King the Great Kauhee,
For he gives joy divine to all that ask.
Together with his spouse, sweet Eau de Vie.
Oh, let us 'neath his sovran pleasure bask.
Come, raise the fragrant cup and bend the knee!
II
O great Kauhee, thou democratic Lord,
Born 'neath the tropic sun and bronzed to
splendour
In lands of Wealth and Wisdom, who can render
Such service to the wandering Human Horde
As thou at every proud or humble board?
Beside the honest workman's homely fender,
*Mid dainty dames and damsels sweetly tender,
In china, gold and silver, have we poured
Thy praise and sweetness. Oriental King.
Oh, how we love to hear the kettle sing
In joy at thy approach, embodying
The bitter, sweet and creamy sides of life;
Friend of the People, Enemy of Strife,
Sons of the Earth have born thee labouring.
In America, too, poets have sung in
praise of coffee. The somewhat doubtful
"kind that mother used to make" is
celebrated in James Whitcomb Riley's
classic poem :
Like His Mother Used To Make2
"Uncle Jake's Place," St. Jo., Mo., 1874.
"I was born in Indiany," says a stranger, lank
and slim,
As us fellers in the restaurant was kindo' guy-
in' him.
And Uncle Jake was slidin' him another pun-
kin pie
And a' extry cup o" coffee, with a twinkle in
his eye —
"I was born in Indiany — more'n forty years
ago —
And I hain't ben back in twenty — and I'm work-
in' back'ards slew;
But I've et in ever' restarunt twixt here and
Santy Fee,
And I want to state this coffee tastes like git-
tin' home, to me!
^ Kauhee (or kahve) is the Turkish for coffee.
^ Copyright, 1913. Used by special permission of
the publishers, the Bobbs-Merrill Co., Indianapolis,
Jnd.
"Pour us out another, Daddy," says the feller,
warmin' up,
A-speakin' crost a saucerful, as Uncle tuk his
cup —
"When I see yer sign out yander," he went on,
to Uncle Jake —
'"Come in and git some coffee like yer mother
used to make' —
I thought of my old mother, and the Posey
county farm.
And me a little kid again, a-hangin' in her arm,
As she set the pot a-bilin', broke the pggs and
poured 'em in" —
And the feller kindo' halted, with a trimble in
his chin;
And Uncle Jake he fetched the feller's coffee
back, and stood
As solemn, fer a minute, as a' undertaker
would;
Then he sorto' turned and tiptoed to'rds the
kitchen door — ^and next,
Here comes his old wife out with him, a-rubbin'
of her specs —
And she rushes fer the stranger, and she hol-
lers out, "It's him! —
Thank God we've met him comin'! — Don't you
know yer mother, Jim?"
And the feller, as he grabbed her, says, — "You
bet I hain't forgot —
But", wipin' of his eyes, says he, "yer coffee's
mighty hot!"
One of the most delightful coffee poems
in English is Francis Saltus Saltus' (d.
1889) sonnet on "the voluptuous berry",
as found in Flasks and Flagons :
Coffee
_YfiluEtuous berry! Where may mortals find
Nectari~^lvlne lEaT can with thee compare.
When, having dined, we sip thy essence rare.
And feel towards wit and repartee inclined?
Thou wert of sneering, cynical Voltaire,
The only friend; thy power urged E'alzac's mind
To glorious effort; surely Heaven designed
Thy devotees superior joys to share.
Whene'er I breathe thy fumes, 'mid Summer
stars.
The Orient's splendent pomps my vision greet.
Damascus, with its myriad minarets, gleams!
I see thee, smoking, in immense bazaars,
Or yet, in dim seraglios, at the feet
Of blond Sultanas, pale with amorous dreams!
Arthur Gray, in Over the Black Coffee
(1902) has made the following contribution
to the poetry of coffee, with an unfortunate
reflection on tea, which might well have
been omitted :
Coffee
0, boiling, bubbll«g)> iberry, bean!
Thou consort of :the 'kitchen queen —
Browned and ground of .every feature,
The only aromatic ereature.
For which we long, for wfeich we feel,
The breath of i^orn, ^h^ perfura^d meal..
COFFEE IN LITERATURE
553
For what is tea? It can but mean,
Merely the mildest go-between.
Insipid sobriety of thought and mind
It "cuts no figure" — we can find —
Save peaceful essays, gentle walks.
Purring cats, old ladies' talks —
* « *
But coffee! can other tales unfold.
Its history's written round and bold —
Brave buccaneers upon the "Spanish Main",
The army's march across the lenght'ning plain,
The lone prospector wandering o'er the hill.
The hunter's camp, thy fragrance all distill.
So here's a health to coffee! Coffee hot!
A morning toast! Bring on another pot.
The Tea and Coffee Trade Journal pub-
lished in 1909 the following excellent stan-
zas by William A. Price :
Ax Ode to Coffee
Oh, thou most fragrant, aromatic joy, impugned,
abused, and often stormed against,
And yet containing all the blissfulness that in
a tiny cup could be condensed!
Give thy contemners calm, imperial scorn —
For thou wilt reign through ages yet unborn!
Some ancient Arab, so the legend tells, first
found thee — may his memory be blest!
The worldwide sign of brotherhood today, the
binding tie between the East and West!
Good coffee pleases in a Persian dell, *
And Blackfeet Indians make it more than well.
The lonely traveler in the desert range, if thou
art with him, smiles at eventide —
The sailor, as thy perfume bubbles forth, laughs
at the ocean as it rages wide —
And where the camps of fighting men are found
Thy fragrance hovers o'er each battleground.
"Ude, not abuse, the good things of this life"
that is a motto from the Prophet's days,
And, dealing with thee thus, we ne'er shall
come to troublous times or parting of the
ways.
Comfort and solace both endure with thee,
Rich, royal berry of the coffee tree!
The Nevj York Tribune published in
1915 the following lines by Louis Unter-
meyer, which were subsequently included
in his " and Other Poets. "^
Gilbert K. Chesterton Rises to the Toast
OF Coffee
Strong wine it is a mocker; strong wine it is a
beast.
It grips you when It starts to rise; it Is the
Fabled Yeast.
You should not offer ale or beer from hops that
are freshly picked,
Nor even Benedictine to tempt a benedict.
For wine has a spell like the lure of hell, and
the devil has mixed the brew;
And the friends of ale are a sort of pale and
weary, witless crew —
» Copyright, 1916, by Henry Holt & Co., New York.
Reprinted by permission.
And the taste of beer is a sort of a queer and
undecided brown —
But, comrades, I give you coffee — drink it up,
drink it down.
With a fol-de-rol-dol and a fol-de-rol-dee, etc.
Oh, cocoa's the drink for an elderly don who
lives with an elderly niece;
And tea is the drink for studios and loud and
violent peace —
And brandy's the drink that spoils the clothes
when the bottle breaks in the trunk;
But coffee's the drink that is drunken by men
who will never be drunk.
So, gentlemen, up with the festive cup, where
Mocha and Java unite;
It clears the head when things are said too
brilliant to be bright!
It keeps the stars from the golden bars and
the lips of the tipsy town;
So, here's to strong, black coffee — drink it up,
drink it down!
With a fol-de-rol-dol and a fol-de-rol-dee, etc.
The American breakfast cup is celebrat-
ed in up-to-date American style in the fol-
lowing by Helen Rowland in the New York
Evening World:
What Every Wife Knows
Give me a man who drinks good, hot, dark,
strong coffee for breakfast!
A man who smokes a good, dark, fat cigar after
dinner!
You may marry your milk-faddist, or your anti-
coffee crank, as you will!
But I know the magic of the coffee pet!
Let me make my Husband's coffee — and I care
not who makes eyes at him!
Give me two matches a day —
One to start the coffee with, at breakfast, and
one for his cigar, after dinner!
And I defy all the houris in Christendom to
light a new flame in his heart!
Oh, sweet supernal coffee-pot!
Gentle panacea of domestic troubles,
Faithful author of that sweet nepenthe which
deadens all the ills that married folks are
heir to.
Cheery, glittering, soul-soothing, warmed"
hearted, inanimate friend!
What wife can fail to admit the peace and
serenity she owes to you?
To you, who stand between her and all her
early morning troubles —
Between her and the before-breakfast grouch-
Between her and the morning-after headache —
Between her and the cold-gray-dawn scrutiny?
To you, who supply the golden nectar that stim-
ulates the jaded masculine soul.
Soothes the shaky masculine' nerves, stirs the
fagged masculine mind, inspires the slow
masculine sentiment.
And starts the sluggish blood a-flowing and the
whole day right!
What is it, I ask you, when he comes down to
breakfast dry of mouth, and touchy of tem-
per—
554
ALL ABOUT COFFEE
That gives him pause, and silences that scin-
tillating barb of sarcasm on the tip of his
tongue,
With which he meant to Impale you?
It is the sweet aroma of the coffee-pot — the
thrilling thought of that nrst delicious sip!
What Is it, on the morning after the club dance,
That hides your weary, little, washed-out face
and straggling, uncurled coiffure from his
critical eyes?
It Is the generous coffee-pot, standing like a
guardian angel between you and him!
And in those many vital psychological mo-
ments, during the honeymoon, which de-
cide for or against the romance and happi-
ness of all the rest of married life —
Those critical before-breakfast moments when
temperament meets temperament, and will
meets "won't" —
What is it that halts you on the brink of
tragedy.
And distracts you from the temptation to an-
swer back?
It Is the absorbing anxiety of watching the
coffee boil!
What is it that warms his veins and soothes
your nerves.
And turns all the world suddenly from a dismal
gray vale of disappointment to a bright
rosy garden of hope —
And starts another day gliding smoothly along
like a new motor car?
What is it that will do more to transform a
man from a fiend Into an angel than bap-
tism In the River Jordan?
It is the first cup of coffee in the morning!
Coffee in Dramatic Literature
Coffee was first "dramatized", so to
speak, in England, where we read that
€harles II and the Duke of Yorke attended
the first performance of Tarugo's Wiles, or
the Coffee House, a comedy, in 1667, which
Samuel Pepys described as ' ' the most ridic-
ulous and insipid play I ever saw in my
life." The author was Thomas St. Serf. The
piece opens in a lively manner, with a re-
quest on the part of its fashionable hero
for a change of clothes. Accordingly, Ta-
rugo puts off his "vest, hat, perriwig, and
sword," and serves the guests to coffee,
while the apprentice acts his part as a
gentleman customer. Presently other
"customers of all trades and professions"
come dropping into the coffee house. These
are not always polite to the supposed cof-
fee-man; one complains of his coffee being
^'nothing but warm water boyl'd with
burnt beans," while another desires him to
bring "chocolette that's prepar'd with
water, for I hate that which is encouraged
with eggs." The pedantry and nonsense
Tittered by a "schollar" character is, per-
haps, an unfair specimen of coffee-house
talk; it is especially to be noticed that
none of the guests ventures upon the
dangerous ground of politics.
In the end, the coffee-master grows tired
of his clownish visitors, saying plainly,
"This rudeness becomes a suburb tavern
rather than my coffee house ' ' ; and with the
assistance of his servants he "thrusts 'em
all out of doors, after the schollars and
customers pay."
In 1694, there was published Jean Bap-
tiste Rosseau's comedy, Le Caffe, which ap-
pears to have been acted only once in Paris,
although a later English dramatist says it
met with great applause in the French cap-
ital. Le Caffe was written in Laurent's
cafe, which was frequented by Fontenelle,
Houdard de la Motte, Dauchet, the abbe
Alary Boindin, and others. Voltaire said
that "this work of a young man without
any experience either of the world of let-
ters or of the theater seems to herald a new
genius. ' '
About this time it was the fashion for the
coffee-house keepers of Paris, and the wait-
ers, to wear Armenian costumes; for Pas-
cal had builded better than he knew. In
La Foire Saint-Germain, a comedy by Dan-
court, played in 1696, one of the principal
characters is old "Lorange, a coffee mer-
chant clothed as an Armenian". In scene
5, he says to Mile. Mousset, "a seller of
house dresses" that he has been "a nat-
uralized Armenian for three weeks."
Mrs. Susannah Centlivre (1667? - 1723),
in her comedy, A Bold Stroke for a Wife,
produced about 1719, has a scene laid in
Jonathan's coft'ee house about that period.
While the stock jobbers are talking in the
first scene of act II, the coffee boys are
crying, "Fresh Coffee, gentlemen, fresh
coffee? . . . Bohea tea, gentlemen?"
Henry Fielding (1707-1754) published
The Coffee-House Politician, or Justice
caught in his own trap," a comedy, in 1730.
The Coffee House, a dramatick Piece hy
James Miller, was performed at the Theater
Royal in Drury Lane in 1737. The interior
of Dick's coffee house figured as an en-
graved frontispiece to the published ver-
sion of the play.
The author states in the preface that
"this piece is partly taken from a comedy
of one act written many years ago in
French by the famous Rosseau, called *Le
COFFEE IX LITERATURE
555
Caffe', which met with great applause in
Paris." The coffee house in the play is
conducted by the Widow Notable, who has
■a pretty daughter for whom, like all good
mothers, she is anxious to arrange a suit-
able marriage.
In the first scene, an acrimonious conver-
sation takes place between Puzzle, the Poli-
tician, and Bays, the poet, in which
squabble the Pert Beau and the Solemn
Beau, and other habitues of the place take
part. Puzzle discovers that a comedian and
other players are in the room, and insists
that they be ejected or forbidden the house.
The Widow is justly incensed^ and indig-
nantly replies:
Forbid the Players my House, Sir! Why, Sir,
I get more by them in a Week than I do by you
In seven Years. You come here and hold a
paper in your hand for an Hour, disturb the
whole Company with your Politics, call for Pen
and Ink, Paper and Wax, beg a Pipe of Tobacco,
burn out half a Candle, eat half a Pound of
Sugar, and then go away, and pay Two-pence
for a Dish of Coffee. I could soon shut up my
doors, if I had not some other good People to
make amends for what I lose by such as you,
Sir.
All join the Widow in scoffing and jeer-
ing, and exit the highly discomfited Puzzle.
The pretty little Kitty tricks her mother
with the aid of the Player, and marries the
man of her choice, but is forgiven when he
is found to be a gentleman of the Temple.
The play is in one act and has several
songs. The last is one of five stanzas, with
music ''set by Mr. Caret:"
Song
What Pleasures a Coffee-House daily bestows!
To read and hear how the World merrily goes;
To laugh, sing and prattle of This, That, and
T' other;
And be flatter'd and ogl'd and kiss'd too, like
Mother.
Here the Rake, after Roving and Tipling all
Night,
For his Groat in the Morning may set his
Head right.
And the Beau, who ne'er fouls his White fingers
with Brass,
May have his Sixpen' worth of — Stare In the
Glass.
The Doctor, who'd always be ready to kill.
May ev'ry Day here take his Stand, if he will;
And the soldier, who'd bluster and challenge
secure.
May draw boldly here, for — we'll hold him he's
sure.
The Lawyer, who's always In quest of his Prey,
May find fools here to feed upon every Day;
SONG.
Set l>7 Mr. CARET.
:f^,fjl!;.f,Tj,J%&rJ' I ^^-
Whtt PUtfmrei m C',J;rt-H»nft Jsify itfltvt!
To rt*d a»d htmr b*w ibt jy»fU mtrrify gteti
To Ut^b, fiwg^ mdfrmtle tf THh Thn, *ni T«thn \
And bejUtttr% *m4 ^d, md HfTd /m, bkt BUthtr
Htrt
Song from "The Coffee House"
And the sage Politician, in Coffee-Grounds
known,
May point out the Fate of each Crown but —
his own.
Then, Gallants, since ev'rything here you may
find
That pleasures the Fancy or profits the Mind,
Come all, and take each a full Dish of Delight,
And crowd up our Coffee-House every night.
John Timbs tells us this play "met with
great opposition on its representation,
owing to its being stated that the charac-
ters were intended for a particular family
(that of Mrs. Yarrow and her daughter)
who kept Dick's, the coffee-house which
the artist had inadvertently selected as the
frontispiece. It appears," Timbs continues,
"that the landlady and her daughter were
the reigning toast of the Templars, who
then frequented Dick's; and took the mat-
ter up so strongly that they united to con-
demn the farce on the night of its produc-
tion; they succeeded, and even extended
their resentment to everything suspected to
be this author's (the Rev. James Miller)
for a considerable time after."
Carlo Goldoni, who has been called the
Moliere of Italy, wrote La Bottega di Caffe,
(The Coffee House), a naturalistic com-
edy of bourgeois Venice, satirizing scandal
and gambling, in 1750. The scene is a Vene-
tian coffee house (probably Florian's),
where several actions take place simultan-
eously. Among several remarkable studies
is one of a prattling slanderer, Don Mar-
zio, which ranks as one of the finest bits of
original character drawing the stage has
ever seen. The play was produced in En-
glish by the Chicago Theatre Society in
556
ALL ABOUT COFFEE
1912. Chatfield-Taylor* thinks Voltaire
probably imitated La Bottega di Caffe in
his Le Cafe, ou I'Ecossaise. Goldoni was a
lover of coffee, a regular frequenter of the
coffee houses of his time, from which he
drew much in the way of inspiration.
Pietro Longhi, called the Venetian Ho-
garth, in one of his pictures presenting life
and manners in Venice during the years of
her decadence, shows Goldoni as a visitor
in a cafe of the period, with a female men-
dicant soliciting alms. It is in the collec-
tion of Professor Italieo Brass.
Goldoni, in the comedy The Persian
Wife, gives us a glimpse of coffee making
in the middle of the eighteenth century. He
puts these words into the mouth of Cur-
cuma, the slave :
Here Is the coffee, ladies, coffee native cf
Arabia,
And carried by the caravans into Ispahan.
The coffee of Arabia is certainly always the
best.
"While putting forth its leaves on one side, upon
the other the flowers appear;
Born of a rich soil, it wishes shade, or but
little sun.
Planted every three years is this little tree in
the surface of the soil.
The fruit, though truly very small.
Should yet grow large enough to become some-
what green.
Later, when used, it should be freshly ground.
Kept in a warm and dry place and jealously
guarded.
* * *
Rut a small quantity is needed to prepare it.
Put in the desired quantity and do not spill it
over the fire:
Heat it till the foam rises, then let it subside
again away from the fire;
Do this seven times at least, and coffee is made
in a moment.
In 1760 there appeared in France Le
Cafe, ou I'Ecossaise, comedie, which pur-
ported to have been written by a Mr.
Hume, an Englishman, and to have been
translated into French. It was in reality
the work of Voltaire, who had brought out
another play, Socrates, in the same manner
a short time before. Le Cafe, was translated
into English the same year under the title
The Coffee House, or Fair Fugitive. The
title page says the play is written by ''Mr.
Voltaire" and translated from the French.
It is a comedy in five acts. The principal
characters are: Fabrice, a good-natured
man and the keeper of the coffee house;
< Chatfleld-Taylor, H. C. Goldoni. New York, 191S
(p. 607).
Constantia, the fair fugitive; Sir William
Woodville, a gentleman of distinction un-
der misfortune; Belmont, in love with
Constantia, a man of fortune and interest;
Freeport, a merchant and an epitome of
English manners; Scandal, a sharper; and
Lady Alton, in love with Belmont.
// Cnffe di Campagna, a play with music
by Galuppi, appeared in Italy in 1762.
Another Italian play, a comedy called La
Caffettiera da Spirito was produced in
1807.
Hamilton, a play by Mary P. Hamlin
and George Arliss, the latter also playing
the title role, was produced in America by
George C. Tyler in 1918. The first-act
scene is laid in the Exchange coffee house
of Philadelphia, during the period of
Washington's first administration. Among
the characters introduced in this scene are
James Monroe, Count Tallyrand, General
Philip Schuyler, and Thomas Jefferson.
The authors very faithfully reproduce
the atmosphere of the coffee house of Wash
ington's time. As Tallyrand remarks,
"Everybody comes to see everybody at the
Exchange Coffee House ... It is club, res-
taurant, merchants' exchange, every-
thing. ' '
The Autocrat of the Coffee Stall, a play
in one act, by Harold Chapin, was pub-
lished in New York in 1921.
Coffee and Literature in General
An interesting book might be written on
the transformation that tea and coffee have
wrought in the tastes of famous literary
men. And of the two stimulants, coffee
seems to have furnished greater refresh-
ment and inspiration to most. However,
both beverages have made civilization their
debtor in that they weaned so many fine
minds from the heavy wines and spirits in
which they once indulged.
Voltaire and Balzac were the most ardent
devotees of coffee among the French liter-
ati. Sir James Mackintosh (1765-1832),
the Scottish philosopher and statesman,
was so fond of coffee that he used to assert
that the powers of a man's mind would
generally be found to be proportional to
the quantity of that stimulant which he
drank. His brilliant schoolmate and friend,
Robert Hall (1764-1831), the Baptist min-
ister and pulpit orator, preferred tea, of
which he sometimes drank a dozen cups.
COFFEE IN LITERATURE
557
Cowper; Parson and Parr, the famous
Greek scholars; Dr. Samuel Johnson; and
William Hazlitt, the writer and critic,
were great tea drinkers; but Burton, Dean
Swift, Addison, Steele, Leigh Hunt, and
many others, celebrated coffee.
Dr. Charles B. Reed, professor in the
medical school of Northwestern University,
says that coffee may be considered as a type
of substance that fosters genius. History
seems to bear him out. Coffee's essential
qualities are so well defined, says Dr.
Reed, that one critic has claimed the abil-
ity to trace throughout the works of Vol-
taire those portions that came from coffee's
inspiration. Tea and coffee promote a har-
mony of the creative faculties that permits
the mental concentration necessary to pro-
duce the masterpieces of art and literature.
Voltaire (1694-1778) the king of wits,
was also king of coffee drinkers. Even in
his old age he was said to have consumed
fifty cups daily. To the abstemious Balzac
(1799-1850) coffee was both food and
drink.
In Frederick Lawton 's Balzac we ^ead :
* ' Balzac worked hard. His habit was to go
to bed at six in the evening, sleep till
twelve, and, after, to rise and write for
nearly twelve hours at a stretch, imbibing
coffee as a stimulant through these spells of
composition. ' '
In his Treatise on Modern Stimulants,
Balzac thus describes his reaction to his
most beloved stimulant :
This coffee falls into your stomach, and
straightway there is a general commotion.
Ideas begin to move like the battalions of the
Grand Army on the battlefield, and the battle
takes place. Things remembered arrive at full
gallop, ensign to the wind. The light cavalry of
comparisons deliver a magnificent deploying
charge, the artillery of logic hurry up with
their train and ammunition, the shafts of wit
start up like sharpshooters. Similes arise, the
paper is covered with ink; for the struggle
commences and is concluded with torrents of
black water, just a;i a battle with powder.
When Balzac tells how Doctor Minoret,
Ursule Minoret 's guardian, used to regale
his friends with a cup of "Moka," mixed
with Bourbon and Martinique, which the
Doctor insisted on personally preparing in
a silver coffee pot, it is his own custom that
he is detailing. His Bourbon he bought
only in the rue Mont Blanc (now the
chausse d'Antin) ; the Martinique, in the
rue des Vielles Audriettes; the Mocha, at
a grocer's in the rue de I'Universite. It
was half a day's journey to fetch them.
There have been notable contributions to
the general literature of coffee by French,
Italian, English, and American writers.
Space does not permit of more than pass-
ing mention of some of them.
The re-actions of the early French and
English writers have been touched upon in
the chapters on the coffee houses of old
London and the early Parisian coffee
houses, and in the history chapters dealing
with the evolution of coffee drinking and
coffee manners and customs.
After Dufour, Galland, and La Roque in
France, there were Count Rumford, John
Timbs, Douglas Ellis, and Robinson in
England; Jardin and Franklin in France;
Belli in Italy ; Hewitt, Thurber, and Walsh
in America.
Mention has been made of coffee refer-
ences in the works of Aubrey, Burton, Ad-
dison, Steele, Bacon, and D 'Israeli.
Brillat-Savarin (1755-1826) the great
French epicure, knew coffee as few men be-
fore him or since. In his historical elegy,
contained in Gastronomy as a Fine Art, or
the Science of Good Living, he exclaims :
You crossed and mitred abbots and bishops
who dispensed the favors of Heaven, and you
the dreaded templars who armed yourselves for
the extermination of the Saracens, you knew
nothing of the sweet restoring influence of our
modern chocolate, nor of the thought-inspiring
bean of Arabia — how I pity you!
0. de Gourcuff's De la Cafe, epitre at-
tribue a Senece, is deserving of honorable
mention.
An early French writer pays this tribute
to the inspirational effects of coffee :
It Is a beverage eminently agreeable, inspir-
ing and wholesome. It is at once a stimulant,
a cephalic, a febrifuge, a digestive, and an anti-
soporific; it chases away sleep, which Is the
enemy of labor; it invokes the imagination,
without which there can be no happy inspira-
tion. It expels the gout, that enemy of
pleasure, although to pleasure gout owes its
birth; it facilitates digestion, without which
there can be no true happiness. It disposes
to gaiety, without which there is neither
pleasure nor enjoyment; It gives wit to those
who already have It, and It even provides wit
(for some hours at least) to those who usually
have It not. Thank heaven for Coffee, for see
how many blessings are concentrated In the In-
fusion of a small berry. What other beverage
in the world can compare with It? Coffee, at
once a pleasure and a medicine; Coffee, which
nourishes at the same moment the mind, body
558
ALL ABOUT COFFEE
and imagination. Hail to thee! Inspirer of
men of letters, best digestive of the gourmand.
Nectar of all men.
In Bologna, 1691, Angelo Kambaldi pub-
lished Ambrosia arabica, caffe discorso.
This work is divided into eighteen sections,
and describes the origin, cultivation, and
roasting of the bean, as well as telling how
to prepare the beverage.
During the time that Milan was under
Spanish rule, Cesare Beccaria directed and
edited a publication entitled II Caffe, which
was published from June 4, 1764, to May,
1766, ' * edited in Brescia by Giammaria Riz-
zardi and undertaken by a little society of
friends," according to the salutatory. Be-
sides the Marchese Beccaria, other editors
and contributors were Pietro and Alexan-
der Verri, Baillon, Visconti, Colpani,
Longhi, Albertenghi, Frisi, and Secchi. The
same periodical, with the same editorial
staff, was published also in Venice in the
Typografia Pizzolato.
Another publication called II Caffe, de-
voted to arts, letters, and science, was pub-
lished in Venice in 1850 - 52. Still another,
having the same name, a national weekly
journal, was published in Milan, 1884-89.
An almanac, having the title II Caffe,
was published in Milan in 1829.
A weekly paper, called II Caffe Pe-
drocchi, was published in Padua in 1846 -
48. It was devoted to art, literature and
politics.
A publication called Coffee and Surro
gates (tea, chocolate, saffron, pepper, and
other stimulants) was founded by Profes-
sor Pietro PoUi, in Milan, in 1885 ; but was
short-lived.
An early English magazine (1731) con-
tains an account of divination by coffee-
grounds. The writer pays an unexpected
visit, and ' ' surprised the lady and her com-
pany in close cabal over their coffee, the in-
terest very intent upon one whom, by her
address and intelligence, he guessed was a
tire woman, to which she added the secret
of divining by coft'ee grounds. She was then
in full inspiration, and with much solem-
nity observing the atoms around the cup;
on the one hand sat a widow, on the other a
maiden lady. They assured me that every
cast of the cup is a picture of all one 's life
to come, and every transaction and circum-
stance is delineated with the exactest cer-
tainty. ' '
The advertisement used by this seer is
quite interesting:
An advise is hereby given that there has late*
ly arrived in this city (Dublin) the famous Mrs.
Cherry, the only gentlewoman truly learned in
the occult science of tossing of coffee grounds;
who has with uninterrupted success for some
time past practiced to the general satisfaction
of her female visitants. Her hours are after
prayers are done at St. Peter's Church, until
dinner.
(N. B. She never requires more than 1 oz.
of coffee from a single gentlewoman, and so
proportioned for a second or third person, but
not to exceed that number at any one time.)
If the one ounce of coffee represented her
payment for reading the future, the charge
could not be considered exorbitant !
English writers of the seventeenth and
eighteenth centuries were noticeably af-
fected by coffee, and the coffee-houses of
the times have been immortalized by them ;
and in many instances they themselves
were immortalized by the coffee houses and
their frequenters. In the chapters already
referred to and at the close of this chapter^
will be found stories, quips, and anecdotes,,
in which occur many names that are now
famous in art and literature.
Modern journalism dates from the publi-
cation, April 12, 1709, of the Tatler, whose
editor was Sir Richard Steele (1672 - 1729)
the Irish dramatist and essayist. He re-
ceived his inspiration from thfe coffee
houses; and his readers were the men that
knew them best. In the first issue he an-
nounced :
All accounts of gallantry, pleasure and enter-
tainment shall be under the article of White's
Coffee House; poetry under that of Will's Cof-
fee House; learning under the title of Grecian;
foreign and domestic news you will have from
St James's Coffee House, and what else I shall
on any other subject offer shall be dated from
my own apartment.
Steele's Tatler was issued three times
weekly until 1711, when it suspended to be
succeeded by the Spectator, whose princi-
pal contributor was Joseph Addison (1672 -
1719), the essayist and poet, and Steele's
school-fellow.
Sir Richard Steele immortalized the Don
and Don Saltero's coffee house in old Chel-
sea in No. 34 of the Tatler, wherein he tells
us of the necessity of traveling to know the
world, by his journey for fresh air, no far-
ther than the village of Chelsea, of which
he fancied that he could give an immediate
COFFEE IN LITERATURE
559
description — from the five fields, where the
the robbers lie in wait, to the coffee house,
where the literati sit in council. But he
found, even in a place so near town as this,
that there were enormities and persons of
eminence, whom he before knew nothing of.
The coffee house was almost absorbed by
the museum, Steele says :
When I came into the coffee-house, I had not
time to salute the company, before my eyes
were diverted by ten thousand glmcracks round
the room, and on the ceiling. When my first
astonishment was over, comes to me a sage of
thin and meagre countenance, which aspect
made me doubt whether reading or fretting had
made it so philosophic; but I very soon per-
ceived him to be that sort which the ancients
call "glngivistee", in our language "tooth-
drawers". I immediately had a respect for the
man; for these practical philosophers go upon
a very practical hypothesis, not to cure, but to
take away the part affected. My love of man-
kind made me very benevolent to Mr. Salter,
for such is the name of this eminent barber and
antiquary.
The Don was famous for his punch, and
for his skill on the fiddle. He drew teeth
also, and wrote verses ; he described his mu-
seum in several stanzas, one of which is :
Monsters of all sorts are seen:
Strange things in nature as they grew so;
Some relicks of the Sheba Queen,
And fragments of the fam'd Bob Crusoe.
Steele then plunges into a deep thought
why barbers should go farther in hitting
the ridiculous than any other set of men;
and maintains that Don Saltero is de-
scended in a right line, not from John Tra-
descant, as he himself asserts, but from the
memorable companion of the Knight of
, Mancha. Steele certifies to all the worthy
citizens who travel to see the Don 's rarities,
that his double-barreled pistols, targets,
coats of mail, his sclopeta (hand-culverin)
and sword of Toledo, were left to his ances-
tor by the said Don Quixote; and by his
ancestor to all his progeny down to Saltero.
Though Steele thus goes far in favor of
Don Saltero 's great merit, he objects to his
imposing several names (without his li-
cense) on the collection he has made, to the
abuse of the good people of England; one
of which is particularly calculated to de-
ceive religious persons, to the great scandal
of the well-disposed and may introduce
heterodox opinions. (Among the curiosities
presented by Admiral Munden was a coffin,
containing the body or relics of a Spanish
saint, who had wrought miracles.) Says
Steele :
He shows you a straw hat, which I know to
be made by Madge Peskad, within three miles
of Bedford; and tells you "It is Pontius Pilate'a
wife's chambermaid's sister's hat." To my
knowledge of this very hat, it may be added
that the covering of straw was never used*
among the Jews, since it was demanded of them
to make bricks without it. Therefore, this Is
nothing but, under the specious pretense of
learning and antiquities, to impose upon the
world. There are other things which I can not
tolerate among his rarities, as, the china figure
of the lady in the glass-case; the Italian engine,,
for the imprisonment of those who go abroad
with it; both of which I hereby order to be
taken down, or else he may expect to have
his letters patent for making punch superseded,,
be debarred wearing his muff next winter, or
ever coming to London without his wife.
Babillard says that Salter had an old
grey muff, and that, by wearing it up to his^
nose, he was distinguishable at the distance
of a quarter of a mile. His wife was none
of the best, being much addicted to scold-
ing; and Salter, who liked his glass, if he
could make a trip to London by himself,,
was in no haste to return.
Don Saltero 's proved very attractive as
an exhibition, and drew crowds to the cof-
fee house. A catalog was published of
which were printed more than forty edi-
tions. Smollett, the novelist, was among;
the donors. The catalog, in 1760, com-
prehended the following rarities :
Tigers' tusks; the Pope's candle; the skeleton
of a Guinea-pig; a fly-cap monkey, a piece of
the true Cross; the Four Evangelists' heads cut
out on a cherry stone; the King of Morocco's
tobacco-pipe; Mary Queen of Scots' pincushion;
Queen Elizabeth's prayer-book; a pair of Nun's
stockings; Job's ears, which grew on a tree;
a frog in a tobacco stopper; and five hundred
more odd relics!
The Don had a rival, as appears by A
Catalogue of the Rarities to he seen at
Adam's, at the Royal Swan, in Kingsland-
road, leading from Shoreditch Churchy
1756. Mr. Adams exhibited, for the enter-
tainment of the curious:
Miss Jenny Cameron's shoes; Adam's eldest
daughter's hat; the heart of the famous Bess
Adams, that was hanged at Tyburn with Law-
yer Carr, January 18, 1736-37; Sir Walter
Raleigh's tobacco pipe; Vicar of Bray's clogs;
engine to shell green peas with; teeth that
srew In a fish's belly; Black Jack's ribs; the
very comb that Abraham combed his son Isaac
and Jacob's head with; Wat Tyler's spurs; rope
560
ALL ABOUT COFFEE
that cured Captain Lowry of the head-ach, ear-
ach, tooth-ach, and belly-ach; Adam's key of
the fore and back door of the Garden of Eden,
■etc., etc.
These are only a few out of five hundred
other equally marvellous exhibits.
The success of Don Saltero in attracting
visitors to his coffee house, induced the
proprietor of the Chelsea bunhouse to make
a similar collection of rarities, to attract
customers for his buns; and to some extent
it was successful.
In the first number of the Spectator, Ad-
dison says :
There is no place of general resort wherein
I do net often make my appearance. Sometimes
I am seen thrusting my head into a round of
politicians at Will s, and listening with great
attention to the narratives that are made in
those little circular audiences. Sometimes I
smoke a pipe at Child's, and while I seem at-
tentive to nothing but the Postman, overhear
the conversation of every table in the room. I
appear on Sunday nights at St. James' coffee
house, and sometimes join the little committee
of politics in the inner room as one who comes
there to hear and improve. My face is likewise
very well known at the Grecian, the Cocoa
Tree, and in the theatres both of Drury Lane
and the Hay Market. I have been taken for a
merchant upon the Exchange for above these
ten years, and sometimes pass for a Jew in the
assembly of stock jobbers at Jonathan's; in
short, wherever I see a cluster of people, I al-
ways mix with them, though I never open my
lips, but in my own club.
In the second number he tells that :
I am now settled with a widow woman, who
has a great many children and complies with
my humor in everything. I do not remember
that we have exchanged a word together for
these five years; my coffee comes into my
chamber every morning without asking for it,
if I want fire I point to the chimney, if water,
to my basin; upon which my landlady nods as
much as to say she takes my meaning, and im-
mediately obeys my signals.
Three of Addison's papers in the Specta-
ior (Nos. 402, 481, and 568) are humorous-
ly descriptive of the coffee houses of the
period. No. 403 opens with the remark
that :
The courts of two countries do not so much
differ from one another, as the Court and the
City, in their peculiar ways of life and conver-
sation. In short, the inhabitants of St. James,
notwithstanding they live under the same laws,
and speak the same language, are a distinct
people from those of Cheapside, who are like-
wise removed from those of the Temple on the
one side, and those of Smithfield on the other,
by several climates and degrees in their way of
thinking and conversing together.
For this reason, the author takes a
ramble through London and Westminster,
to gather the opinions of his ingenious
countrymen upon a current report of the
king of France's death.
I know the faces of all the principal politi-
cians within the bills of mortality; and as
every coffee-house has some particular states-
man belonging to it, who is the mouth of the
street where he lives, I always take care to
place myself near him, in order to know his
judgment on the present posture of affairs.
And, as I foresaw the above rei)ort would i )!•()-
duce a new face of things in Europe, and many
curious speculations in our British coffee-
houses, I was very desirous to learn the
thoughts of our most eminent politicians on
that occasion.
That I might begin as near the fountain-head
as possible, I first of all called in at St. James's,
where I found the whole outward room in a
buzz of politics; the speculations were but very
indifferent towards the door, but grew finer as
you advanced to the upper end of the room, and
were so much improved by a knot of theorists,
who sat in the inner room, within the steams
of the coffee-pot, that I there heard the whole
Spanish monarchy disposed of, and all the line
of Bourbons provided for in less than a quarter
of an hour.
I afterwards called in at Giles's, where I saw
a board of French gentlemen sitting upon the
life and death of their grand monarque. These
among them who had espoused the Whig in-
terest very positively affirmed that he had de-
parted this life about a week since, and there-
fore, proceeded without any further delay to
the release of their friends in the galleys, and
to their own re-establishment; but, finding they
could not agree among themselves, I proceeded
on my intended progress.
Upon my arival at Jenny Man's I saw an
alert young fellow that cocked his hat upon a
friend of his, who entered just at the same time
with myself, and accosted him after the follow-
ing manner: "Well, Jack, the old prig is dead
at last. Sharp's the word. Now or never, boy.
Up to the walls of Paris, directly;" with several
other deep reflections of the same nature.
I met with very little variation in the politics
between Charing Cross and Covent Garden.
And, upon my going into Will's, I found their
discourse was gone off, from the death of the
French King, to that of Monsieur Boileau, Ra-
cine, Corneille, and several other poets, whom
they regretted on this occasion as persons who
would have obliged the world with very noble
elegies on the death of so great a prince, and
so eminent a patron of learning.
At a coffee-house near the Temple, I found a
couple of young gentlemen engaged very smart-
ly in a dispute on the succession to the Spanish
monarchy. One of them seemed to have been
retained as advocate for the Duke of Anjou,
the other for his Imperial Majesty. They were
both for regarding the title to that kingdom by
the statute laws of England; but finding them
I
COFFEE IN LITERATURE
561
going out of my depth, I pressed forward to
Paul's Churchyard, where I listened with great
attention to a learned man, who gave the com-
pany an account of the deplorable state of
France during the minority of the deceased
king.
I then turned on my right hand into Fish-
street, where the chief politician of that quar-
ter, upon hearing the news, (after having
taken a pipe of tobacco, and ruminated for
some time) "If,' says he, "the King of France
is certainly dead, we shall have plenty of mack-
erel this season: our fishery will not be dis-
turbed by privateers, as it has been for these
ten years past." He afterwards considered how
the death of this great man would affect cur
pilchards, and by several other remarks in-
fused a general joy into his whole audience.
I afterwards entered a by-coffee-house that
stood at the upper end of a narrow lane, where
I met with a Nonjuror engaged very warmly
with a laceman who was the great oupport of
a neighboring conventicle. The matter in de-
bate was whether the late French King was
most like Augustus Caesar, or Nero. The con-
troversy was carried on with great heat on
both sides, and as each of them looked upon
me very frequently during the course of their
debate, I was under some apprehension that
they would appeal to me, and therefore laid
down my penny at the bar and made thfe best
of my way to Cheapside.
I here gazed upon the signs for some time
before I found one to my purpose. The first
object I met in the coffee-room was a person
who expressed a great grief for the death of
the French King; but upon his explaining him-
self, I found his sorrow did not arise from
the loss of the monarch, but for his having
sold out of the Bank about three days before
he heard the news of it. Upon which a haber-
dasher, who was the oracle of the coffee-house,
and had his circle of admirers about him, called
several to witness that he had declared his
opinion, above a week before, that the French
King was certainly dead; to which he added,
that considering the late advices we had re-
ceived from France, it was impossible that it
could be otherwise. As he was laying these
together, and debating to his hearers with
great authority, there came a gentlemen from
Garraway's, who told us that there were sev-
eral letters from France just come in, with
advice that the King was in good health, and
was gone out a hunting the very morning the
post came away; upon which the haberdasher
stole off his hat that hung upon a wooden
peg by him, and retired to his shop with great
confusion. This intelligence put a stop to my
travels, which I had prosecuted with so much
satisfaction; not being a little pleased to hear
go many different opinions upon so great an
event, and to observe how naturally, upon such
ia piece of news, every one is apt to consider
It to his particular Interest and advantage.
Johnson wrote in his Life of Addison
concerning the Tatler and the Spectator
that thev were :
Published at a time when two parties, loud,
restless and violent, each with plausible dec-
larations, and bcth perhaps without any dis-
tinct determination of its views, were agitating
the nation; to minds heated with political con-
test they supplied cooler and more inoffensive
reflections. . . . They had a i^erceptible influ-
ence on the conversation of the time, and
taught the frolic and the gay to unite merri-
ment with decency, effects which they can never
wholly lose.
Harold Routh in the Cambridge History
of Literature, speaking of the Spectator,
says :
It surpassed the Tatler in style and in
thought. It gave expression to the power of
commerce. For more than a century traders
had been characterized as dishonest and ava-
ricious, because playwrights and pamphleteers
generally wrote for the leisure classes, and
were themselves too poor to have any but un-
pleasant relations with men of business. Now
merchants were becoming ambassadors of civ-
ilization, and had developed intellect so as to
control distant and, as it seemed, mysterious
sources of wealth; by a stroke of the pen and
largely through the coffee houses they had
come to know their own importance and power.
Samuel Pepys (1633-1703) was very
fond of good eating, and almost daily en-
tries were made in his Diary of dinner del-
icacies that he had enjoyed. One dinner,
that he considered a great success, was
served to eight persons, and consisted of
oysters, a hash of rabbits, a lamb, a rare
chine of beef ; next a great dish of roasting
fowl (''cost me about 30 s,") a tart, then
fruit and cheese. ''My dinner was noble
enough ... I believe this day's feast will
cost me near 5 pounds." But it will be
noted that coffee was not mentioned as a
part of the menu.
He makes countless references to visits
paid to this and that coffee house, but re-
cords only one instance of actually drink-
ing coffee :
Up betimes to my office, and thence at seven
o'clock to Sir G-. Carteret, and there with
Sir J. Mlnnes made an end of his accounts, but
sfaid not to dinner my Lady having made us
drink our morning draft there of several wines,
but I drank nothing but some of her coffee,
which was poorly made, with a little sugar
In It.
This note which he considered worthy of
record was certainly not inspired by the
excellence of the good lady's matutinal
coffee.
William Cobbett (1762-1835) the Eng-
lish-American politician, reformer, and
writer on economics, denounced coffee a,5
562
ALL ABOUT COFFEE
"slops"; but he was one of a remarkably
small minority. Before his day, one of
England's greatest satirists, Dean Swift,
(1667-1745) led a long roll of literary men
who were devotees of coffee.
Swift's writings are full of references to
coffee; and his letters from Stella came to
him under cover, at the St. James coffee
house. There is scarcely a letter to Esther
(Vanessa) Vanhomrigh which does not con-
tain a significant reference to coffee, by
which the course of their friendship and
clandestine meetings may be traced. In one
dated August 13, 1720, written while trav-
eling from place to place in Ireland, he
says:
We live here In a very dull town, every val-
uable creature absent, and Cad says he is weary
of it, and would rather prefer his coffee on the
barrenest mountain in Wales than be king
here.
A fig for partridges and quails.
Ye dainties I know nothing of ye;
But on the highest mount in Wales,
Would choose in peace to drink my coffee.
In another letter, about two years later,
replying to one in which Vanessa has re-
proached him and begged him to write her
soon, he advises:
The best maxim I know in life, is to drink
your coffee when you can, and when you can-
not, to be easy without it; while you continue
to be splenetic, count upon it I will always
preach. Thus much I sympathize with you,
that I am not cheerful enough to write, for,
I believe, coffee once a week is necessary, and
you know very well that coffee makes us se-
vere, and grave, and philosophical.
These various references to coffee are
thought to have been based upon an inci-
dent in the early days of their friendship,
when on the occasion of the Vanhomrigh
family journeying from Dublin to London,
Vanessa accidentally spilt her coffee in the
chimney-place at a certain inn, which Swift
considered a premonition of their growing
friendship. Writing from Clogher, Swift
reminds Vanessa :
Remember that riches are nine parts in ten
of all that is good in life, and health is the
tenth — drinking coffee comes long after, and
yet it is the eleventh, but without the two
former you cannot drink it right.
In another letter he writes facetiously, in
memory of her playful badinage :
I long to drink a dish of coffee in the slut-
tery and hear you dun me for a secret, and
"Drink your coffee; why don't you drink your
coffee?"
Leigh Hunt had very pleasant things to
say about coffee, giving to it the charm of
appeal to the imagination, which he said
one never finds in tea. For example :
Coffee, like tea, used to form a refreshment
by itself, some hours after dinner; it is now
taken as a digester, right upon that meal or
the wine, and sometimes does not even close it;
or the digester itself is digested by a liquor of
some sort called a Chasse-Caf6 [coffee^chaser].
We like coffee better than tea for taste, but
tea "for a constancy." To be perfect in point
of relish (we do not say of wholesomeness)
coffee should be strong and hot, with little
milk and sugar. It has been drunk after this
mode in some parts of Europe, but the public
have nowhere, we believe, adopted it. The
favorite way of taking it at a meal, abroad,
is with a great superfluity of milk — very prop-
erly called, in France caf6 au lait (coffee to the
milk). One of the pleasures we receive in
drinking coffee is that, being the universal
drink in the East, it reminds of that region
of the "Arabian Nights" as smoking does for
the same reason; though neither of these re-
freshments, which are identified with Oriental
manners, is to be found in that enchanting
work. They had not been discovered when it
was written; the drink then was sherbet. One
can hardly fancy what a Turk or a Persian
could have done without coffee and a pipe,
any more than the English ladies and gentle-
men, before the civil wars, without tea for
breakfast.
In his old age, Immanuel Kant, the great
metaphysician, became extremely fond of
coffee; and Thomas de Quincey relates a
little incident showing Kant's great eager-
ness for the after-dinner cup.
At the beginning of the last year of his life,
he fell into a custom of taking, immediately
after dinner, a cup of coffee, especially on
those days when it happened that I was of his
party. And such was the importance that he at-
tached to his little pleasure that he would even
make a memorandum beforehand, in the blank
paper book that I had given him, that on the
next day I was to dine with him, and conse-
quently "that there was to be coffee." Some-
times in the interest of conversation, the coffee
was forgotten, but not for long. He would re-
member and with the querulousness of old age
and infirm health would demand that coffee be
brought "upon the spot." Arrangements had at-
ways been made in advance, however; the cof-
fee was ground, and the water was boiling:
and in the very moment the word was given,
the servant shot in like an arrow and plunged
the coffee into the water. All that remained,
therefore, was to give it time to boil up. But
this trifling delay seemed unendurable to Kant.
If it were said, "Dear Professor, the coffee will
be brought up in a moment," he would say,
"Will be! There's the rub, that it only will be."
Then he would quiet himself with a stoical air,
and say, "Well, one can die after all; it is but
COFFEE IN LITERATURE
563
dying; and In the next world, thank God, there
Is no drinking of coffee and consequently no
waiting for it."
When at length the servant's steps were
heard upon the stairs, he would turn round to
us, and joyfully call out: "Land, land! my dear
friends, I see land."
Thackeray (1811-1863) must have suf-
fered many tea and coffee disappointments.
In the KicMeburys on the Rhine he asks :
"Why do they always put mud into coff56
aboard steamers? Why does the tea gen-
erally taste of boiled boots?"
In Arthur's, A, Neil Lyons has preserved
for all time the atmosphere of the London
coffee stall. "I would not," he says, ''ex-
change a night at Arthur 's for a week with
the brainiest circle in London." The book
is a collection of short stories. As already
recorded, Harold Chapin dramatized this
picturesque London institution in The
Autocrat of the Coffee Stall.
In General Horace Porter's Campaign-
ing with Grant, we have three distinct cof-
fee incidents within fifty-odd pages; or ex-
plicitly, see pages 47, 56, 101 ; where, deep
in the fiercest snarls of The Wilderness
campaign we are treated to:
General Grant, slowly sipping his coffee . . .
a full ration of that soothing army beverage . .
The general made rather a singular meal pre-
paratory to so exhausting a day as that which
was to follow. He took a cucumber, sliced It,
poured some vinegar over it, and partook of
nothing else except a cup of strong coffee . . .
The general seemed in excellent spirits, and
was even inclined to be jocose. He said to me,
"We have just had our coffee, and you will find
some left for you." ... I drank It with the rel-
ish of a shipwrecked mariner.
One of the first immediate supplies Gen-
eral Sherman desired from Wilmington, on
reaching Fayetteville and lines of commu-
nication in March, 1865, was, expressly,
coffee ; does he not say so himself, on page
297 of the second volume of his Memoirs'!
Still more expressly, towards the close
of his Memoirs, and among final recommen-
dations, the fruit of his experiences in that
whole vast war, General Sherman says this
for coffee:
Coffee has become almost Indispensable,
though many substitutes were found for It, such
as Indian corn, roasted, ground and boiled as
coffee, the sweet potato, and the seed of the
okra plant prepared in the same way. All these
were used by the people of the South, who for
years could procure no coffee, but I noticed that
the women always begged of us real coffee,
which seemed to satisfy a natural yearning or
craving more powerful than can be accounted
for on the theory of habit. Therefore I would
always advise that the coffee and sugar ration
be carried along, even at the expense of bread,
for which there are many substitutes.
George Agnew Chamberlain's novel
Home contains a vivid description of cof-
fee-making on an old plantation, and
could only have been written by a devoted
lover of this drink. Gerry Lansing, the
American, has escaped drowning in the
river, and is now lost in the Brazilian for-
est. He finds his way at last to an old
plantation house:
A stove was built Into the masonry, and a
cavernous oven gaped from the massive wall.
At the stove was an old negress, making coffee
with shaky deliberation . . . The girl and the
wrinkled old woman made him sit down at the
table, and then placed before him crisp rusks
of mandioc flour and steaming coffee whose
splendid aroma triumphed over the sordidness
of the scene and through the nostrils reached
the palate with anticipatory touch. It was
sweetened with dark, pungent syrup and was
served black in a capacious bowl, as though one
could not drink too deeply of the elixir of life.
Gerry ate ravenously and sipped the coffee, at
first sparingly, then greedily . . . Gerry set
down the empty bowl with a sigh. The rusks
had been delicious. Before the coffee the name
of nectar dwindled to Impotency. Its elixir
rioted In his veins.
In the Rosary, Florence L. Barclay has
a Scotch woman tell how she makes coffee.
She says:
Use a jug — it is not what you make it in; it is
how ye make It. It all hangs upon the word
fresh — freshly roasted — freshly ground — water
freshly boiled. And never touch it with metal.
Pop it into an earthenware jug, pour In your
boiling water straight upon It, stir It with a
wooden spoon, set it on the hob ten minutes to
settle; the grounds will all go to the bottom,
though you might not think It, and you pour
It out, fragrant, strong and clear. But the se-
cret is, fresh, fresh, fresh, and don't stint your
coffee.
Cyrus Townsend Brady's The Corner in
Coffee is "a thrilling romance of the New
York coffee market."
Coffee, Du Barry, and Louis XV figure
in one scene of the story of The Moat with
the Crimson Stains, as told by Elizabeth
W. Champney in her Romance of the
Bourbon Chateaux.^ It tells of the Ger-
man apprentice Riesener, who assisted his
master Oeben in designing for Louis XV
a beautiful desk with a secret drawer,
* Copyright, 1903, by G. P. Putnam's Sons, New
York. Used by courtesy of the author and the pub-
lisher.
564
ALL ABOUT COFFEE
which it took ten years of unremitting in-
dustry to execute. At the end, Riesener
was to be accepted by his master as a part-
ner and a son-in-law. Little Victoire, who
loved to sit in a punt and trail her doll
in the waters of the Bievre to see to what
color its frock would be changed by the
dyes of the Gobelin factory, was then only
five, and Madam Oeben twenty-three. As
the years rolled by, Riesener grew to love
the mother and not the daughter, who,
meanwhile, shot up into a slim girl, not of
her mother's beauty, but of a loveliness all
her own. Then there was a quarrel because
the young apprentice thought the master
should have resented the suggestion of
M. Duplessis that his wife pose in the nude
for the statuettes which were to hold the
sconces on the king's desk; and Riesener
left in a fine youthful frenzy, vowing he
would never return while the maitre lived.
The latter, unable to complete the master-
piece which he loved more than anything
else on earth, sought death, and perished
in the crimson waters of the Bievre.
The maiire had no enemies, but his quar-
rel with Riesener caused a fear to spring
up in the widow 's heart that the apprentice
might have been guilty of his murder, so
she refused to see him when, hearing of his
master's death, he returned, stricken with
remorse, to finish the desk. On it were the
statuettes modeled in perfect likeness of
Mile, de Vaubernier, a wily little milliner
of Riesener 's bohemian set who had taken
this way to bring herself to the attention
of Louis XV. The ruse was successful ; and
after the acceptance of the desk, there was
installed a new maitresse en titre, the no-
torious Madame Du Barry, erstwhile the
pretty_ milliner. Mile, de Vaubernier.
Later, Madame Du Barry sent for the
now famous eheniste (cabinet maker) ; and,
when her negro page Zamore admitted him,
he found His Majesty Louis XV kneeling
in front of the fireplace, making coffee for
her while she laughed at him for scalding
his fingers. He had been summoned to
show the king the mechanism of the secret
drawer, so cunningly concealed in the king 's
desk that no one could find it. But Riese-
ner knew not the secret of his master, who
had died without revealing it. Then the
red revolution came; and when the pretty
pavilion at Louveciennes was sacked, and
its costly furniture hurled down the cliff
to the Seine, the king's desk, shattered al-
most beyond repair, was carried to the
Gobelins' factory and presented to Mme.
Oeben in recognition of her husband's
workmanship. Then the secret compart-
ment was found to have been disclosed, and
Riesener was absolved by a letter therein,
from the maitre, who intimated he was
about to end it all because of paralysis,
Riesener marries the widow and all ends
happily.
James Lane Allen, in The Kentucky
WarNer, tells a tale of the Blue Grass
country and of a young hero who wanders
after a bird's note to find romance and the
key to his own locked nature. Here is an
incident from his first forest adventure :
There was one tree he curiously looked
around for, positive that he should not be blind
to it if fortunate enough to set his eyes on one
— the coffee tree. That is, he felt sure he'd
recognize it if it yielded coffee ready to drink,
of which never in his life had they given him
enough. Not once throughout his long
troubled experience as to being fed had he been
allowed as much coffee as he craved. Once,
when younger, he had heard some one say that
the only tree in all the American forests that
bore the name of Kentucky was the Kentucky
coffee tree, and he had instantly conceived a de-
sire to pay a visit in secret to that corner of
the woods. To take his cup and a few lumps
of sugar and sit under the boughs and catch
the coffee as it dripped down ... No one to
hold him back ... as much as he wanted at
last . . . The Kentucky coffee tree — his fav-
orite In Nature!
John Kendrick Bangs relates, in Coffee
and Repartee^, some amusing skirmishes
indulged in at the boarding-house table, be-
tween the Idiot and the guests, where coffee
served the purpose of enlivening the tilt :
"Can't I give you another cup of coffee?"
asked the landlady of the School Master.
"You may," returned the School Master,
pained at the lady's grammar, but too courteous
to call attention to it save by the emphasis with
which he spoke the word "may".
Said the Idiot: "You may fill my cup too,
Mrs. Smithers."
"The coffee is all gone," returned the land-
lady, with a snap.
"Then, Mary," said the Idiot, gracefully turn-
ing to the maid, "you may give me a glass of
ice water. It is quite as warm, after all, as the
coffee and not quite so weak."
One other little skit remains at the ex-
pense of Mrs. Smithers' coffee. At the
breakfast table, where the air, as usual, is
« Copyright, 189S, by Harper Bros., and 1921, by
John Kendrick Bangs. Reprinted by permission.
COFFEE IN LITERATURE
565
charged with repartee, Mr. Whitechoker,
the minister, says to his landlady:
"Mrs. Smithers, I'll have a dash of hot water
in my coffee, this morning. Then with a glance
toward the Idiot, he added, "I think it looks
like rain."
"Referring to the coffee, Mr. Whitechoker?''
queried the Idiot. . . .
"Ah, — I don't quite follow you," replied the
Minister with some annoyance.
"You said something looked like rain, and I
asked you if the thing referred to was the cof-
fee, for I was disposed to agree with you," said
the Idiot.
"I am sure," put in Mrs. Smithers, "that a
gentleman of Mr. Whiteehoker's refinement
would not make any such Insinuation, sir. He
is not the man to quarrel with what is set be-
fore him."
"I must ask your pardon. Madam," returned
the Idiot politely, "I hope I am not the man to
quarrel with my food, either. Indeed, I malie it
a rule to avoid unpleasantness of all sorts, par-
ticularly with the weak, under which category
I find your coffee."
Coffee Quips and Anecdotes
Coffee literature is full of quips and
anecdotes. Probably the most famous cof-
fee quip is that of Mme. de Sevigne, who,
as already told in chapter XI, was wrong-
fully credited with saying, "Racine and
coffee will pass." It was Voltaire in his
preface to Irene who thus accused the ami-
able letter-writer; and she, being dead,
could not deny it.
That Mme. de Sevigne was at one time a
coffee drinker is apparent from this quota-
tion from one of her letters : ' ' The cavalier
believes that coffee gives him warmth, and
I at the same time, foolish as you know me,
do not take it any longer."
La Roque called the beverage "the King
of Perfumes", whose charm was enriched
when vanilla was added.
Emile Souvestre (1806-1854) said:
"Coffee keeps, so to say, the balance be-
tween bodily and spiritual nourishment."
Isid Bourdon said : ' ' The discovery of
coffee has enlarged the realm of illusion
and given more promise to hope."
An old Bourbon proverb says: "To an
old man a cup of coffee is like the door
post of an old house — it sustains and
strengthens him."
Jardin says that in the Antilles, instead
of orange blossoms, the brides carry a spray
of coffee blossoms; and when a woman re-
mains unmarried, they say she has lost
her coffee branch. "We say in France,
that she has coiffe Sainte-Catherine. "
Fontenelle and Voltaire have both been
quoted as authors of the famous reply to
the remark that coffee was a slow poison:
"I think it must be, for I've been drink-
ing it for eighty-five years and am not dead
yet."
In Meidinger's German Grammar the
"slow-poison" hon mot is attributed to
Fontenelle.
It seems reasonable to give Fontenelle
credit for this hon mot. Voltaire died at
eighty-four. Fontenelle lived to be nearly
a hundred years. Of his cheerfulness at
an advanced age an anecdote is related. In
conversation, one day, a lady a few years
younger than Fontenelle playfully re-
marked, "Monsieur, you and I stay here
so long, methinks Death has forgotten us."
"Hush! Speak in a whisper, madame, "
replied Fontenelle, "tant mieux! (so much
the better!) don't remind him of us."
Flaubert, Hugo, Baudelaire, Paul de
Kock, Theophile Gauthier, Alfred de
Musset, Zola, Coppee, George Sand, Guy de
Maupassant, and Sarah Bernhardt, all
have been credited with many clever or
witty sallies about coffee.
Prince Talleyrand (1754-1839), the
French diplomat and wit, has given us the
cleverest summing up of the ideal cup of
coffee. He said it should be "Noir comme
le diahle, chaud comme Venfer, pur comme
iin ange, doux comme I'amour." Or in
English, "black as the devil, hot as hell,
pure as an angel, sweet as love."
This quip has been wrongfully attributed
to Brillat-Savarin. Talleyrand said also:
A cup of coffee lightly tempered with good
milk detracts nothing from your intellect; on
the contrary, your stomach Is freed by it, and
no longer distresses your brain; it will not
hamper your mind with troubles, but give free-
dom to its working. Suave molecules of
Mocha stir up your blood, without causing ex-
cessive heat; the organ of thought receives
from it a feeling of sympathy; work becomes
easier, and you will sit down without distress
to your principal repast, which will restore
your body, and afford you a calm delicious
night.
Among coffee drinkers a high place must
be given to Prince Bismarck (1815 - 1898).
He liked coffee unadulterated. While with
the Prussian army in France, he one day-
entered a country inn and asked the host
if he had any chicory in the house. He
had. Bismarck said: "Well, bring it to
566
ALL ABOUT COFFEE
me; all you have." The man obeyed, and
handed Bismarck a canister full of chicory.
"Are you sure this is all you have?"
demanded the chancellor.
* ' Yes, my lord, every grain. ' '
* ' Then, ' ' said Bismarck, keeping the can-
ister by him, ''go now and make me a pot
of coffee."
This same story has been related of
Frangois Paul Jules Grevy (1807-1891),
president of France, 1879 - 1887. Accord-
ing to the French story, Grevy never took
wine, even at dinner. He was, however,
passionately fond of coffee. To be certain
of having his favorite beverage of the best
quality, he always, when he could, prepared
it himself. Once he was invited, with a
friend, M. Bethmont, to a hunting party
by M. Menier, the celebrated manufacturer
of chocolate, at Noisiel. It happened that
M. Grevy and M. Bethmont lost themselves
in the forest. Trying to find their way out,
they stumbled upon a little wine house, and
stopped for a rest. They asked for some-
thing to drink. M. Bethmont found his
wine excellent ; but, as usual, Grevy would
not drink. He wanted coffee, but he was
afraid of the decoction which would be
brought him. He got a good cup, however,
and this is how he managed it :
' ' Have you any chicory ? " he said to the
man.
"Yes, sir."
"Bring me some."
Soon the proprietor returned with a
small can of chicory.
"Is that all you have?" asked Grevy.
"We have a little more."
"Bring me the rest."
When he came again, with another can
of chicory, Grevy said:
"You have no more?"
"No, sir."
"Very well. Now go and make me a cup
of coffee,"
As already told, Louis XV had a great
passion for coffee, which he made himself.
Lenormand, the head gardener at Versailles,
raised six pounds of coffee a year which
was for the exclusive use of the king. The
king 's fondness for coffee and for Mme. Du
Barry gave rise to a celebrated anecdote of
Louveciennes which was accepted as true
by many serious writers. It is told in this
fashion by Mairobert in a pam'phlet scan-
dalizing Du Barry in 1776 :
His Majesty loves to make his own coffee and
to forsake the cares of the government. One
day the coffee pot was on the fire and, his
Majesty being occupied with something else,
the coffee boiled over. "Oh France, take care!
Your coffee / le camp!" cried the beautiful
favorite.
Charles Vatel has denied this story.
It is related of Jean Jacques Rousseau
that once when he was walking in the
Tuileries he caught the aroma of roasting
coffee. Turning to his companion, Ber-
nardino de Saint-Pierre, he said, "Ah, that
is a perfume in which I delight ; when they
roast coffee near my house, I hasten to open
the door to take in all the aroma." And
such was the passion for coffee of this
philosopher of Geneva that when he died,
"he just missed doing it with a cup of cof-
fee in his hand",
Barthez, confidential physician of Napol-
eon the first, drank a great deal of it, freely,
calling it "the intellectual drink,"
Bonaparte, himself, said: "Strong cof-
fee, and plenty, awakens me. It gives me
a warmth, an unusual force, a pain that is
not without pleasure. I would rather suffer
than be senseless."
Edward E. Emerson'' tells the following
story of the Cafe Procope. One day
while M. Saint-Foix was seated at his usual
table in this cafe an officer of the king's
body-guard entered, sat down, and ordered
a cup of coffee, with milk and a roll, adding,
"It will serve me for a dinner." At this,
Saint-Foix remarked aloud that a cup of
coffee, with milk and a roll, was a con-
foundedly poor dinner. The officer remon-
strated. Saint-Foix reiterated his remark,
adding that nothing he could say to the
contrary would convince him that it was
not a confoundedly poor dinner. There-
upon a challenge was given and accepted,
and the whole company present adjourned
as spectators to a duel which ended by
Saint-Foix receiving a wound in the arm.
' ' That is all very well, ' ' said the wounded
combatant; "but I call you to witness,
gentlemen, that I am still profoundly con-
vinced that a cup of coffee, with milk and
a roll, is a confoundedly poor dinner. ' '
At this moment the principals were ar-
rested and carried before the Duke de
' Beverages Past and Present^ New York, copyright
1908. By courtesy of G. P. Putnam's, Sons, Publishers,
COFFEE IN LITERATURE
567
Dr. Johnson's Seat at the Cheshire Cheese
Noailles, in whose presence Saint-Foix,
without waiting to be questioned, said:
* ' Monseigneur, I had not the slightest in-
tention of offending this gallant officer who,
I doubt not, is an honorable man ; but your
excellency can never prevent my asserting
that a cup of coffee, with milk and a roll,
is a confoundedly poor dinner."
"Why, so it is," said the Duke.
* * Then I am not in the wrong, ' ' persisted
Saint-Foix ; ' ' and a cup of coffee " — at
these words magistrates, delinquents, and
auditory burst into a roar of laughter, and
the antagonists forthwith became warm
friends.
Boswell in his Life of Johnson tells a
story of an old chevalier de Malte, of
ancienne noblesse, but in low circumstances,
who was in a coffee house in Paris, where
was also ''Julien, the great manufacturer
-at Gobelins, of fine tapestry, so much dis-
tinguished for the figures and the colours.
The chevalier's carriage was very old.
Says Julien with a plebeian insolence, 'I
think, sir, you had better have your carriage
new painted.'
* ' The chevalier looked at him with indig-
nant contempt, and answered:
" 'Well, sir, you may take it home and
dye it.'
"All the coffee house rejoiced at Julien 's
■confusion. ' '
Sydney Smith (1771-1845) the English
clergyman and humorist, once said: "If
you want to improve your understanding,
drink coffee ; it is the intellectual beverage. ' '
Our own William Dean Howells pays the
beverage this tribute: "This coffee intoxi-
cates without exciting, soothes you softly
out of dull sobriety, making you think and
talk of all the pleasant things that ever
happened to you."
The wife of the president of the United
States prefers coffee to tea. Afternoon
guests at the White House may be refreshed,
if- they choose, by a sip of tea. But while
tea is on tap for callers, Mrs. Harding al-
ways has coffee for those who, like herself,
prefer it.
Old London Coffee-House Anecdotes
A good-sized volume might be compiled
of the many anecdotes that have been writ-
ten about habitues of the London coffee
houses of the seventeenth and eighteenth
centuries.
Dr. Samuel Johnson (1709-1784), the
lexicographer, was one of the most constant
frequenters of the coffee houses of his day.
His big, awkward figure was a familiar
sight as he went about attended by his
satellite, young James Boswell, who was to
write about him for the delight of future
generations in his marvelous Life of John^
son. The intellectual and moral peculiari-
ties of the man found a natural expression
in the coffee house. Johnson was fifty-four
and Boswell only twenty-three when the
two first met in Tom Davies' book-shop in
Covent Garden. The story is told by Bos-
well with great particularity and charac-
teristic naivete:
Mr. Davies mentioned my name, and respect-
fully Introduced me to him. I was much agi-
tated, and recollecting his prejudice against the
Scotch, of which I had heard so much, I said
to Davies, "Don't tell him where I come from."
"From Scotland," cried Davies roguishly. "Mr.
Johnson," said I, "I do Indeed come from Scot-
land, but I cannot help it." I am willing to
flatter myself that I meant this as a light pleas-
antry to sooth and conciliate him, and not as
a humiliating abasement at the expense of my
country. But however that might be, this
speech was somewhat unlucky, for with that
quickness of wit for which he was so remark-
able, he seized the expression, "come from Scot-
land!" which I used In the sense of being of
that country; and, as If I had come away from
it, or left it, he retorted, "That, sir, I find Is
what a great many of your countrymen cannot
help."
Nothing daunted, however, Boswell with-
in a week called upon Johnson in his cham-
bers. This time the doctor urged him to
tarry. Three weeks later he said to him,
* ' Come to me as often as you can. ' ' With-
568
ALL AJBOUT COFFEE
Original Coffee Room, Old Cock Tavern
in a fortnight thereafter Boswell was giv-
ing the great man a sketch of his own life
and Johnson was exclaiming, "Give me
your hand ; I have taken a liking to you. ' '
When people began to ask, "Who is this
Scotch cur at Johnson 's heels ? ' ' Goldsmith
replied : ' ' He is not a cur ; he is only a bur,
Tom Davies flung him at Johnson in sport,
and he has the faculty of sticking."
Thus began one of the strangest friend-
ships, out of which developed the most de-
lightful biography in all literature. Bos-
well's taste for literary adventures, and
Johnson's literary vagrancy met in a com-
panionship that found much satisfaction in
the bohemianism of the inns and coffee
houses of old London. Boswell thus de-
scribes the eccentric doctor's outlook on
this mode of living:
We dined today at an excellent inn at Chapel-
House, where Mr. Johnson commented on Eng-
lish coffee houses and inns remarking that the
English triumphed over the French in one re-
spect, in that the French had no perfection of
tavern life. There is no private house, (said
he) in which people can enjoy themselves so
well, as at a capital tavern. Let there be ever
so great plenty of good things, ever so much
grandeur, ever so much elegance, ever so much
desire that everybody should be easy; in the
nature of things it cannot be: there must al-
ways be some degree of care and anxiety. The
master of the house is anxious to entertain his
guests; the guests are anxious to be agreeable
to him; and no man, but a very impudent dog
indeed, can as freely command what is in an-
other man's house, as if it were his own.
Whereas, at a tavern, there is a general free-
dom from anxiety. You are sure you are wel-
come: and the more noise you make, the more
trouble you give, the more good things you
call for, the welcomer you are. No servants
will attend you with the alacrity which waiters
do, who are incited by the prospect of an im-
mediate reward in proportion as they please.
No, Sir, there is nothing which has yet been
contrived by man, by which so much happiness
Is produced as by a good tavern or Inn. He
then repeated, with great emotion, Shenstone's
lines:
"Whoe'er has travelld life's dull round,
Where'er his stages may have been,
May sigh to think he still has found
His warmest welcome at an Inn."
Patient delving into Johnsoniana is re-
warded with many anecdotes about the mad
doctor philosopher and his faithful reporter
who delighted in translating his genius to
the world.
Boswell was a wine-bibber, but Johnson
confessed to being ' ' a hardened and shame-
less tea drinker." When Boswell twigged
him for abstaining from the stronger drink,
the doctor replied: "Sir, I have no objec-
tion to a man's drinking wine if he can do
it in moderation. I find myself apt to go to
excess in it and therefore, after having been
for some time without it, on account of ill-
ness, I thought it better not to return to
it."
Another time he said of tea: "What a
delightful beverage must that be that
pleases all palates at a time when they can
take nothing else at breakfast."
Fireplace in the Coffee Room of the Old
Cock Tavern
COFFEE IN LITERATURE
569
MoRNI^'G Gossip in the Coffee Room of the Old Cock Tavern
In his early days Johnson had David
Garrick as an unwilling pupil. After the
actor had become famous and his prosperity
had turned his head, he was wont to "put
the table in a roar" by mimicking the
doctor's grimaces. There is a story that on
the occasion of a certain dinner party where
both were guests, Garrick indulged in a
coarse jest on the great man's table man-
ners. After the merriment had subsided,
Doctor Johnson arose solemnly and said :
''Gentlemen, you must doubtless suppose
from the extreme familiarity with which
Mr. Garrick has thought fit to treat me that
I am an acquaintance of his; but I can as-
sure you that until I met him here, I never
saw him but once before — and then I paid
five shillings for the sight."
A certain sycophant, thinking to curry
favor with Johnson, took to laughing loud
and long at everything he said. Johnson's
patience at last became exhausted, and after
a particularly objectionable outburst, he
turned upon the boor with :
"Pray sir, what is the matter? I hope
I have not said anything which you can
comprehend ! ' '
Because of his physical and mental dis-
abilities Dr. Johnson was not a good social
animal. Nevertheless, when it pleased his
humor, he could be the cavalier, for his
mind overcame every impediment.
It is related of him that once when a
lady who was showing him around her
garden expressed her regret at being unable
to bring a particular flower to perfection,
he arose gallantly to the occasion by taking
her hand and remarking:
"Then, madam, permit me to bring per-
fection to the flower!"
Again, when Mrs. Siddons, the great
English tragedienne, called upon him in his
chambers and the servant did not promptly
bring her a chair, his quick wit made capi-
tal of the incident by the remark :
* ' You see, madam, wherever you go there
are no seats to be had !"
John Thomas Smith in his Antiquarian
Rambles in the Streets of London (1846),
tells an amusing incident in the life of Sir
George Etherege, the playright, who hav-
ing run up a bill at Locket's ordinary, a
coffee house much frequented by dramatists
of the period, and finding himself unable to
570
ALL ABOUT COFFEE
pay, began to absent himself from the
place. Mrs. Locket thereupon sent a man
to dun and to threaten him with prosecu-
tion if he did not pay. Sir George sent back
word that if she stirred a step in the mat-
ter he would kiss her. On receiving this
answer, the good lady, much exasperated,
called for her hood and scarf, and told her
husband, who interposed, that ''she would
see if there was any fellow alive who would
have the impudence — " "Prithee! my
dear, don 't be so rash, ' ' said her husband ;
"there is no telling what a man may do in
his passion."
Richard Savage, the English poet and
friend of Johnson, who included him in
his famous Lives of the Poets, was arrested
for the murder of James Sinclair after a
drunken brawl in Robinson's coffee house
in 1727. He was found guilty, but nar-
rowly escaped the death penalty by the
intercession of the countess of Hertford.
A feature of his trial was the extraordinary
charge to the jury of Judge Page, who for
his hard words and his love of hanging, is
damned to everlasting fame in the verse
of Pope. The charge was:
Gentlemen of the jury! You are to consider
that Mr. Savage Is a very great man, a much
gn'eater man than you or I, gentlemen of the
jury; that he wears very fine clothes, much finer
than you or I, gentlemen of the Jury; that he
has an abundance of money In his pocket, much
more money than you or I, gentlemen of the
jury; but, gentlemen of the jury, is it not a
very hard case, gentlemen of the jury, that
Mr. Savage should therefore kill you or me,
gentlemen of the jury?
Albert V. Lally^ has made a collection of
old coffee-house anecdotes. Among them
are the following:
The story is told of how Sir Richard Steele
In Button's Coffee House was once made the
umpire In an amusing difference between two
unnamed disputants. These two were arguing
about religion, when one of them said: "I
wonder, sir, you should talk of religion, when
I'll hold you five guineas you can't say the
Lord's prayer." "Done," said the other, "and
Sir Richard Steele shall hold the stakes." The
money being deposited the gentleman began
with, "I believe In God", and so went right
through the creed. "Well," said the other when
he had finished, "I didn't think he could have
done it."
There is another story of a famous judge, Sir
Nicholas Bacon, who was Importuned by a crim-
inal to spare his life on account of kinship.
"How so," demanded the judge. "Because my
» The Pot and Kettle, Boston, 1920 (vol. lii : no. 2).
name is Hog and yours is Bacon; and hog and
bacon are so near akin that they cannot be
separated."
"Ay," responded the judge dryly, "but yop
and I cannot yet be kindred, for hog is not ba-
con until it is well hanged."
On another occasion a nervous barrister,
pleading before this same judge, began with re-
peated references to his "unfortunate client."
"Go on, sir," said the judge, "so far the Court
is with you."
Of Jonathan Swift it Is related that a gentle-
man who had sought to persuade him to accept
an Invitation to dinner said, in way of special
inducement, "I'll send you my bill of fare."
"Send me rather your bill of company," retorted
Swift, showing his appreciation of the truth
that not that which Is eaten, but those who eat,
form the more important part of a good dinner.
On the occasion when the "dreadful
Judge Jeffreys" was trying Compton, bis-
hop of London, before the Court of High
Commission, that prelate, as Campbell re-
lates in his Lives of the Lord Chancellors,
complained of having no copy of the in-
dictment. Jeffreys replied to this excuse
that "all the coffee houses had it for a pen-
ny." The case being resumed after the
lapse of a week, the bishop again protested
that he was unprepared, owing to his con-
tinued difficulty in obtaining a copy of the
necessary document. Jeffreys was obliged
once more to adjourn the case, and in so
doing offered this bantering apology:
"My lord," said he, "in telling you our
commission was to be seen in every coffee
house, I did not speak with any design to
reflect on your lordship, as if you were a
haunter of coffee houses. I abhor the
thoughts of it!"
As the Judge had once been distinctly
opposed to the party and principles which
he went to such a length in supporting, so
had he formerly owed something to the very
institution against which his last blow was
directed. Roger North relates (and Camp-
bell repeats the story) that, "after he was
called to the bar, he used to sit in coffee
houses and order his man to come and tell
him that company attended him at his
chamber; at which he would huff and say,
'let them stay a little, I will come present-
ly, ' and thus made a show of business. ' '
John Timbs, in his Clubs and Club Life
in London, has a host of anecdotes and
stories of the old London coffee houses,
among them the following :
Garraway's noted coffee-house, situated in
Change-alley, Cornhill, had a threefold celebrity;
COFFEE IN LITERATURE
571
"His Warmest Welcome at an Inn"
The George Inn of today has retained a portion of its old galleries, the original of which completely sur-
rounded the courtyard in typical "Dickens Inn" style. The visitor can imagine Mr. Pickwick emerg-
ing from the door of one of the bedrooms and calling into the yard to Sam Weller. In the old-fash-
ioned coffee room on the ground floor one may still lunch and dine enclosed in high bench seats
tea was first sold In England here; It was a
place of great resort in the time of the South
Sea Bubble; and was later a place of great mer-
cantile transactions. The original proprietor
was Thomas Garway, tobacconist and coffee-
man, the first who retailed tea, recommending
it as a cure of all disorders.
Ogilby, the compiler of the Britannia., had his
standing lottery of books at Mr. Garway 's
Coffee-house from April 7, 1673, till wholly
drawn off. And, in the "Journey through Eng-
land," 1722, Garraway's, Robins's, and Joe's are
described as the three celebrated coffee-houses:
"In the first, the People of Quality, who have
business in the City, and the most considerable
and wealthy citizens frequent. In the second
the Foreign Banquiers, and often even Foreign
Ministers. And in the third, the buyers and
sellers of stock."
Wines were sold at Garraway's In 1673, "by
the candle", that is, by auction, while an inch
of candle burns. In the Tatler, No. 147, we
read: "Upon my coming home last night, I
found a very handsome present of French wine,
left for me, as a taste of 216 hogshead, which
are to be put on sale at 20 £ a hogshead, at
Garraway's Coffee-house, in Exchange alley^' etc.
The sale by candle is not, however, by candle-
light, but during the day. At the commence-
ment of the sale, when the auctioneer has read
a description of the property, and the conditions
on which it is to be disposed of, a piece of
candle, usually an inch long, is lighted, and he
who is the laat bidder at the time the light goes
out is declared the purchaser.
Swift, in his Ballad on the South Sea Scheme,
1721, did not forget Garraway's:
There is a gulf, where thousands fell.
Here all the bold adventurers came,
A narrow sound, though deep as hell,
'Change alley is the dreadful name.
Subscribers here by thousands float,
And jostle one another down.
Each paddling In his leaky boat.
And here they fish for gold and drown.
Now buried in the depths below,
Now mounted up to heaven again,
They reel and stagger to and fro,
At their wits' end, like drunken men.
Meantime secure on Garway cliffs,
A savage race, by shipwrecks fed.
Lie waiting for the founder'd skiffs,
And strip the bodies of the dead.
572
ALL ABOUT COFFEE
Dr. Jiio. Radcliff, who was a rash speculator
in the South Sea Scheme, was usually planted
at a table at Garraway's about Exchange time,
to watch the turn of the market; and here he
was seated when the footman of his powerful
rival, Dr. Edward Hannes, came into Garraway's
and inquired by way of a puff, if Dr. H. was
there. Dr. Radcliff, who was surrounded with
several apothecaries and chirurgeons that
flocked about him, cried out, "Dr. Hannes is
not here," and desired to know "who wants
him?" The fellow's reply was, "such a lord
and such a lord;" but he was taken up with the
dry rebuke, "No, no, friend, you are mistaken;
the Doctor wants those lords." One of Rad-
cliff's ventures was five thousand guineas up-
on one South Sea project. When he was told
at Garraway's that 'twas all lost, "Why," said
he, "'tis but going up five thousand pair of
stairs more." "This answer," says Tom Brown,
"deserved a statue."
Jonathan's Coffee-house was another Change-
alley coffee-house, which is described in the
Tatler, No. 38, as "the general mart of stock-
jobbers," and the Spectator, No. 1, tells u^s that
he "sometimes passes for a Jew in the assembly
of stock-jobbers at Jonathan's," This was their
rendezvous, where gambling of all sorts was
carried on, notwithstanding a former prohibi-
tion against the assemblage of the jobbers,
issued by the City of London, which prohibi-
tion continued unrepealed until 1825.
The Spectator, No. 16, notices some gay fre-
quenters of the Rainbow Coffee-house in Fleet
Street: "I have received a letter desiring me
to be very satirical upon the little muff that is
now in fashion; another informs me of a pair
of silver garters buckled below the knee, that
have been lately seen at the Rainbow Coffee-
house in Fleet Street."
Mr. Moncrieff, the dramatist, used to tell that
about 1780, this house was kept by his grand-
father, Alexander Moncrieff, when it retained
its original title of "The Rainbow Coffee-
house."
Nando's Coffee-house at the east corner of
Inner Temple-lane, No. 17, Fleet^Street, by some
confused with Groom's house, No. 16, was the
favourite haunt of Lord Thurlow before he
dashed into law practice. M this coffee-house
a large attendance of profe^isional loungers was
attracted by the fame of the punch and the
charms of the landlady, which, with the small
wits, were duly admired by and at the bar. One
evening, the famous cause of Douglas v. the
Duke '~ Hamilton was the topic of discussion,
when Thurlow being present, it was ouggested,
half in earnest, to appoint him junior counsel,
which was done. This employment brought
him acquaintance with the Duchess of Queens-
berry, who saw at once the value of a man like
Thurlow, and recommended Lord Bute to se-
cure him by a silk gown.
Dick's Coffee-houye, at No. 8, Fleet-street,
(south side, near Temple Bar) was originally
"Richard's", named from Richard Tomer, or
Turner, to whom the house was let in 1680.
Richard's was frequented by Cowper, when he
lived in the Temple. In his own account of
his insanity, Cowper tells n^: .
"At breakfast I read the newspaper, and in
it a letter, which, the further I perused it, the
more closely engaged my attention. I cannot
now recollect the purport of it; but before I
had finished it, it appeared demonstratively
true to me that it was a libel or satire upon
me. The author appeared to be acquainted
with my purpose of self-destruction, and to have
written that letter on purpose to secure and
hasten the execution of it. My mind, probably,
at this time began to be disordered; however
it was, I was certainly given to a strong de-
lusion. I said within myself, 'Your cruelty
shall be gratified; you shall have your revenge,'
and flinging down the paper in a fit of strong
passion, I rushed hastily out of the room; di-
recting my way towards the fields, where I
intended to find some house to die in; or, if
not, determined to poison myself in a ditch,
where I could meet with one sufficiently re-
tired."
Lloyd's Coffee-house was one of the earliest
establishments of its kind; it is referred to in
a poem printed in the year 1700, called the
Wealthy Shopkeeper, or Charitaile Christian:
Now to Lloyd's Coffee-house he never fails,
To read the letters, and attend the sales.
In 1710, Steele (Tatler, No. 246) dates from
Lloyd's his Petition on Coffee-house Orators and
Newsvendors. And Addison, in Spectator, April
23, 1711, relates this droll incident: "About a
week since there happened to me a very odd
accident, by reason of one of these my papers
of minutes which I had accidentally dropped at
Lloyd's Coffee-house, where the auctions are
usually kept. Before I missed it, there were
a cluster of people who had found it, and were
diverting themselves with it at one end of the
coffee-house. It had raised so much laughter
among them before I observed what they were
about, that I had net the courage to own it.
The boy of the coffee-house, when they had
done with it, carried it about in his hand, ask-
ing everybody if they had dropped a written
paper; but nobody challenging it, he was
ordered by those merry gentlemen who had be-
fore perused it, to get up into the auction pul-
pit, and read it to the whole room, that if any-
body would own it they might. The boy ac-
cordingly mounted the pulpit, and with a very
audible voice read what proved to be minutes,
which made the whole coffee-house very merry;
some of them concluded it was written by a
madman, and others by somebody that had been
taking notes out of the Spectator. After it was
read, and the boy was coming out of the pulpit,
the Spectator reached his arm out, and de-
sired the boy to given it him; which was done
according. This drew the whole eyes of the
company upon the Spectator; but after cast-
ing a cursory glance over it, he shook his head
twice or thrice at the reading of it, twisted it
into a kind of mateh, and lighted his pipe with
it. 'My profound silence,' says the Spectator,
"together with the steadiness of my countenance,
and the gravity of my behaviour during the
COFFEE IN LITERATURE
.573
whole transaction, raised a very loud laugh on
all sides of me; but as I had escaped all suspi-
cion of being the author, I was very well satis-
fied, and applying myself to my pipe and the
Postman, took no further notice of anything
that passed about me.' "
The Smyrna Coffee-house in Pall Mall, was,
in the reign of Queen Anne, famous for "that
cluster of wise-heads" found sitting every even-
ing from the left side of the fire to the door.
The following announcement in the Taller, No.
78, is amusing: "This is to give notice to all
ingenious gentlemen in and about the cities of
London and Westminster, who have a mind to
be instructed in the noble sciences of music,
poetry and politics, that they repair to the
Smyrna Coffee-house, in Pall Mall, betwixt the
hours of eight and ten at night, where they
may be instructed gratis, with elaborate essays
'by word of mouth', on all or any of the above-
mentioned arts."
St. James's Coffee-house was the famous Whig
coffee-liouse from the time of Queen Anne till
late ia the reign of George III. It was the
last house but one on the south-west corner of
St. James's street, and is thus mentioned in No.
1 of the Tatler: "Foreign and Domestic News
you will have from St. James's Coffee-house."
It occurs also in the passage quoted previously
from the Spectator. The St. James's was much
frequented by Swift; letters fcr him were left
here. In his Journal to Stella he says: "I met
Mr. Harley, and he asked me how long I had
learnt the trick of writing to myself? He had
seen your letter through the glass case at the
Coffee-house, and would swear it was my hand. '
Elliott, who kept the coffee-house, was, en
occasions, placed on a friendly footing with his
guests. Swift, in his Journal to Stella, Novem-
ber 19, 1710, records an odd instance of this
familiarity: "This evening I christened our
coffee-man Elliott's child; when the rogue had
a most noble supper, and Steele and I aat
amongst some scurvy company over a bowl of
punch."
In the first advertisement of Lady Mary
Wortley Montagu's "Town Eclogues," they are
stated to have been read over at the St. James's
Coffee-house, when they were considered by the
general voice to be productions of a Lady of
Quality. From the proximity of the house to
St. James's Palace, it was much frequented by
the Guards; and we read of its being no uncom-
mon circumstance to see Dr. Joseph Warton at
breakfast in the St. James's Coffee-house, sur-
rounded by officers of the Guards, who listened
"With the utmost attention and pleasure to his
remarks.
To show the order and regularity observed at
the St. James's, we may quote the following ad-
vertisement, appended to the Tatler. No. 25;
"To prevent all mistakes that may happen
among gentlemen of the other end of the town,
who come but once a week to St. James's Coffee-
house, either by miscalling the servants, or re-
quiring such things from them as are not prop-
erly within their respective provinces, this is
to give notice that Kidney, keeper of the book-
debts of the outlying customers, and observer
of those who go off without paying, having re-
signed that employment, is succeeded by John
Sowton; to whose place of enterer of messages
and first coffee-grinder, William Bird is pro-
moted; and Samuel Burdock comes as shoe-
cleaner in the room of the said Bird."
But the St. James's is more memorable as the
house where originated Goldsmith's celebrated
poem, "Retaliation." The pcet belonged to a
temporary association of men of talent, some of
them members of the Club, who dined together
occasionally here. At these dinners he was gen-
erally the last to arrive. On one occasion,
when he was later than usual, a whim seized
the company to write epitaphs on him as "the
late Dr. Goldsmith", and several were thrown
off in a playful vein. The only one extant was
written by Garrick, and has been preserved,
very probably, by its pungency:
Here lies poet Goldsmith, for shortness
called Noll;
He wrote like an angel, but talked like
poor Poll.
Goldsmith did not relish the sarcasm, es-
pecially coming from such a quarter; and, by
way of retaliation, he produced the famous
poem, of which Cumberland has left a very in-
teresting account, but which Mr. Forster, in his
"Life of Goldsmith", states to be "pure ro-
mance". The poem itself, however, with what
was prefixed to it when published, sufficiently
explains its own origin. What had formerly
been abrupt and strange in Goldsmith's man-
ners, had now so visibly increased, as to be-
come matter of increased sport to such as were
ignorant of its cause; and a proposition made
at one of the dinners, when he was absent, to
write a series of epitaphs upon him (his "coun-
try dialect" and his awkward person) was
agreed to, and put in practice by several of the
guests. The active aggressors appear to have
been Garrick, Doctor Bernard, Richard Burke,
and Caleb Whitefocrd. Cumberland says he,
too, wrote an epitaph; but it was complimen-
tary and grave, and hence the grateful return
he received. Mr. Forster considers Garrick's
epitaph to indicate the tone of all. This, with
the rest, was read to Goldsmith when he next
appeared at the St. James's Coffee-house,
where Cumberland, however, says he never
again met his friends. But "the Doctor was
called on for Retaliation," says the friend who
published the poem with that name, "and at
their next meeting produced the following,
which I think adds one leaf to his immortal
wreath." " 'Retaliation' ", says Sir Walter
Scott, "had the effect of placing the author en
a more equal footing with his Society than he
had ever before assumed."
Cumberland s account differs from the ver-
sion formerly received, which intimates that
the epitaphs were written before Goldsmith
arrived: whereas the pun, "the late Dr. Gold-
smith" appears to have suggested the writing of
the epitaphs. In the "Retaliation", Goldsmith
has not spared the characters and fallings of
his associates, but has drawn them with satire,
at once pungent and good-humoured. Garrick
Is smartly chastised; Burke, the Dinner-bell of
the House of Commons, is not let off; and of all
574
ALL ABOUT COFFEE
the more distinguished names of the Club,
Thomson, Cumberland, and Reynolds alone es-
cape the lash of the satirist. The former is not
mentioned, and the two latter are even dis-
missed with unqualified and affectionate ap-
plause.
Still we quote Cumberland's account of the
"Retaliation" which is very amusing from the
closely circumstantial manner in which the in-
cidents are narrated, although they have so
little relationship to truth: "It was upon a pro-
posal started by Edmund Burke, that a party of
friends who had dined together at Sir Joshua
Reynolds's and my house, should meet at the
St. James's Coffee-house, which accordingly
took place, and was repeated occasionally with
much festivity and good fellowship. Dr. Ber-
nard, Dean of Derry; a very amiable and old
friend of mine, Dr. Douglas, since Bishop of
Salisbury; Johnson, David Grarrlck, Sir Joshua
Reynolds, Oliver Goldsmith, Edmund and Rich-
ard Burke, Hickey, with two or three others,
constituted our party. At one of these meet-
ings, an idea was suggested of extemporary
epitaphs upon the parties present; pen and ink
were called for, and Garrick, offhand, wrote an
epitaph with a good deal of humour, upon poor
Goldsmith, who was the first in jest, as he
proved to be In reality, that we committed to
the grave. The Dean also gave him an epitaph,
and Sir Joshua Illuminated the Dean's verses
with a sketch of his bust in pen and Ink, inim-
itably caricatured. Neither Johnson nor Bnirke
wrote anything, and when I perceived that
Oliver was rather sore, and seemed to watch
me with that kind of attention which indi-
cated his expectation of something in the same
kind of burlesque with theirs; I thought it
time to press the joke no further, and wrote a
few couplets at a side-table, which, when I had
finished, and was called upon by the company
to exhibit, Goldsmith, with much agitation, be-
sought me to spare him; and I was about to
tear them, when Johnson wrested them out of
my hand, and in a loud voice read them at the
table. I have now lost recollection of them,
and, in fact, they were little worth remember-
ing; but as they were serious and complimen-
tary, the effect upon Goldsmith was the more
pleasing for being so entirely unexpected. The
concluding line, which was the only otie I can
call to mind, was:
All mO'Urn the poet, I lament the man.
"This I recollect, because he repeated it sev-
eral times, and seemed much gratified by it. At
our next meeting he produced his epitaphs
. . . and this was the last time he ever enjoyed
the company of his friends."
Will's Coffee-house, the predecessor of But-
ton's, and even more celebrated than that coffee-
house, was kept by William Urwin. It first had
the title of the Red Cow, then of the Rose, and,
we believe, is the same house alluded to in the
pleasant story in the second number of the
Tatler. "Supper and friends expect we at the
Rose."
Dean Lockier has left this life-like picture of
his Interview with the presiding genius (Dry-
den) at Will's.
"I was about seventeen when I first came up
to town," says the Dean, "an odd-looking boy,
with short rough hair, and that sort of awk-
wardness which one always brings up at first
out of the country with one. However, in spite
of my bashfulness and appearance, I used, now
and then, to thrust myself into Will's to have
the pleasure of seeing the most celebrated wits
of that time, who then resorted thither. The
second time that ever I was there, Mr. Dryden
was speaking of his own things, as he fre-
quently did, especially of such as had been
lately published. 'If anything of mine is good/
says he, ' 'tis 'Mac-Flecno', and I value myself
the more upon it, because it is the first piece of
ridicule written in heroics.' On hearing this I
plucked up my spirit so far as to say, in a voice
but just loud enough to be heard, 'that "Mac-
Flecno" was a very fine poem, but that I had
not imagined it to be the first that was ever
writ that way.' On this, Dryden turned short
upon me, as surprised at my interposing; asked
me how long 'I had been a dealer in poetry';
and added, with a smile, 'Pray, Sir, what Is it
that you did imagine to have been writ so be-
fore?'— I named Boileau's 'Lutrin' and Tasso-
ni's 'Secchia Rapita,' which I had read, and
knew Dryden had borrowed some strokes from
each. ' "lis true,' said Dryden, 'I had forgot
them.' A little after, Dryden went out, and
in going, spoke to me again, and desired me to
come and see him the next day. I was highly
delighted with the invitation; went to see him
accordingly; and was well acquainted with him
after, as long as he lived."
Will's Coffee-house was the open market for
libels and lampoons, the latter named from the
established burden formerly sung to them:
Lampone, lampone, camerada lampone.
There was a drunken fellow, named Julian,
who was a characterless frequenter of Will's,
and Sir Walter Scott has given this account of
him and his vocation:
"Upon the general practice of writing lam-
poons, and the necessity of finding some mode
of dispersing them, which should diffuse the
scandal widely while the authors remained
concealed, was founded the self-erected office of
Julian, Secretary, as he called himself, to the
Muses. This person attended Will's, the Wits'"
Coffee-house, as it was called; and dispersed
among the crowds who frequented that place of
gay resort copies of the lampoons which had
been privately communicated to him by their
authors. 'He is described,' says Mr. Malone, 'as
a very drunken fellow, and at one time was
confined for a libel.' "
Tom Brown describes 'a Wit and a Beau set
up with little or no expense. A pair of red
stockings and a swordknot set up one, and
peeping once a day in at Will's, and two or
three second-hand sayings, the other.'
Pepys, one night, going to fetch home hi»
wife, stopped in Covent Garden, at the Great
Coffee-house there, as he called Will's, where-
he never was before: "Where," he adds, "Dry-
den, the poet (I knew at Cambridge), and all
the Wits of the town, and Harris the player.
COFFEE IN LITERATURE
575
and Mr. Hoole of our College. And had I had
time then, or could at other times, It will be
good coming thither, for there, I perceive, is
very witty and pleasant discourse. But I could
not tarry, and, as it was late, they were all
ready to go away."
Addison passed each day alike, and much in
the manner that Dryden did. Dryden employed
his mornings in writing, dined en famille, and
then went to Will's, "only he came home ear-
lier o' nights."
Pope, when very young, was Impressed with
such veneration for Dryden, that he persuaded
some friends to take him to Will's Coffee-house,
and was delighted that he could say that he
had seen Dryden. Sir Charles Wogan, too,
brought up Pope from the Forest of Windsor,
to dress a la mode, and introduce at Will's
Coffee-house. Pope afterwards described Dry-
den as "a plump man with a down look, and
not very conversible," and Cibber could tell no
more "but that he remembered him a decent old
man. arbiter of critical disputes at Will's."
Prior sings of —
The younger Stiles,
Whom Dryden pedagogues at Will's! .
Most of the hostile criticism on his Plays,
which Dryden has noticed In his various Pre-
faces, appear to have been made at his favour-
ite haunt, Will's Coffee-house.
Dryden is generally said to have been return-
ing from Will's to his house In Gerard Street,
when he was cudgelled in Rose Street by three
persons hired for the purpose by Wilmot, Earl
of Rochester, in the winter of 1679. The as-
sault, or "the Rose-alley Ambuscade," certainly
took place; but It is not so certain that Dryden
was on his way from Will's, and he then lived
in Long-^cre, not Gerard Street.
It is worthy of remark that Swift was accus-
tomed to speak disparagingly of Will's, as in
his "Rhapsody on Poetry:"
Be sure at Will's the following day
Lie snug, and hear what critics say;
And If you find the general vogue
Pronounces you a stupid rogue,
Damns all your thoughts as low and little;
Sit still, and swallow down your spittle.
Swift thought little of the frequenters of
Will's: he used to say, the worst conversation
he ever heard In his life was at Will's Coffee-
house, where the wits (as they were called)
used formerly to assemble; that Is to say, five
or six men who had writ plays or at least
prologues, or had a share In a miscellany, came
thither, and entertained one another with their
trifling composures, In so Important an air as
if they had been the noblest efforts of human
nature, or that the fate of kingdoms depended
on them."
In the first number of the Tatler, poetry Is
promised under the article of Will's Coffee-
house. The place, however, changed after Dry-
den's time: "you used to see songs, epigrams,
and satires In the hands of every man you met,
you have now only a pack of cards; and in-
stead of the cavils about the turn of the ex-
pression, the elegance of the style, and the like,
the learned now dispute only about the truth
of the game." "In old times, we used to sit
upon a play here, after It was acted, but now
the entertainment's turned another way."
The Spectator Is sometimes seen "thrusting
his head into a round of politicians at Will's,
and listening with great attention to the narra-
tives that are made in these little circular aud-
iences." Then, we have as an instance of no
one member of human society but that would
have some little pretension for some degree In
It, "like him who came to Will's Coffee-house
upon the merit of having writ a posie of a
ring." And, "Robin, the porter who waits at
Will's, Is the best man In town for carrying a
billet: the fellow has a thin body, swift step,
demure looks, sufficient sense, and knows the
town."
After Dryden's death, in 1701, Will's contin-
ued for about ten years to be still the Wits'
Coffee-house, as we see by Ned Ward's account,
and by the "Joux'ne.v through England" in 1722.
Pope entered with keen relish into society,
and courted the correspondence of the town
wits and coffee-house critics. Among his early
friends was Mr. Henry Cromwell, one of the
cousinry of the Protector's family: he was a
bachelor, and spent most of his time in Lon-
don; he had some pretensions to scholarship
and literature, having translated several of
Ovid's Elegies, for Tonsons Miscellany. With
Wycherly, Gay, Dennis, the popular actors and
actresses of the day, and with all the frequen-
ters of Will's, Cromwell was familiar. He had
done more than take a pinch out of Dryden's
snuff-box, which was a point of high ambition
and honor at Will's; he had quarrelled with
him about a frail poetess, Mrs. Elizabeth
Thomas, whom Dryden had christened Corlnna,
and who was also known as Sappho. Gay char-
acterized this literary and eccentric beau as
Honest, hatless Cromwell, with red breeches:
it being his custom to carry his hat In his hand
when walking with ladies. What with ladies
and literature, rehearsals and reviews, and crit-
ical attention to the quality of his coffee and
Brazil snuff, Henry Cromwell's time was fully
occupied in town. Cromwell was a dangerous
acquaintance for Pope at the age of sixteen or
seventeen, but he was a very agreeable one.
Most of Pope's letters to his friendo are ad-
dressed to him at the Blue Hall, In Great Wild-
street, near Drury Lane, and others to "Widow
Hambledon's Coffee-house, at the end of Prin-
ces-street, near Drury-lane, London." Cromwell
made one visit to BInfield; on his return to
London, Pope wrote to him, "referring to the
ladles In particular," and to his favorite coffee.
Will's was the great resort for the wits of
Dryden's time, after whose death it was trans-
ferred to Button's. Pope describes the houses
as "opposite each other, in Russell-street, Co-
vent Garden," where Addison established Dan-
iel Button, In a new house, about 1712; and his
fame, after the production of Cato, drew many
of the Whigs thither. Button had been servant
to the Countess of Warwick. The house Is
more correctly described as "over against
Tom's, near the middle of the south side of the
street."
576
ALL ABOUT COFFEE
Addison was the great patron of Button's;
but it is said that when he suffered any vexa-
tion from his Countess, he withdrew from But-
ton's house. His chief companions, before he
married Lady Warwick, were Steele, Budgell,
Philips, Carey, Davenant, and Colonel! Brett.
He used to breakfast with one or other of them
in St. James's-place, dine at taverns with them,
then to Button's, and then to some tavern
again, for supper in the evening; and this was
the usual round of his life, as Pope tells us in
Spencer's Anecdotes, where Pope also says:
"Addison usually studied all the morning, then
met his party at Button's, dined there, and
stayed five or six hours; and sometimes far
into the night. I was of the company for about
a year, but found it too much for me; it hurt
my health, and so I quitted it.' Again: "There
had been a coldness between me and Mr. Addi-
son for some time, and we had not been in
company together for a good while anywhere
but at E'atton's Coffee-house, where I used to
see him almost every day."
Here Pope is reported to have said of Patrick,
the lexicographer, that "a dictionary-maker
might know the meaning of one word, but not
of two put together."
Button's was the receiving house for contrib-
utions to Tlie Guardian, for which purpose was
put up a lien's head letter box, in imitation of
the celebrated lion at Venice, as humorously
announced. Thus:
"N. B. — Mr. Ironside has, within five weeks
last past, muzzled three lions, gorged five, and
killed one. On Monday next the skin of the
dead one will be hung up, in terrorem, at But-
ton's Coffee-house."
* * *
"I intend to publish once every week the
roarings of the Lion, and hope to make him
roar so loud as to be heard over all the British
nation. I have. I know not how. been driwn i'l^-o
tattle of myself, more majorum, almost the
length of a whole Guardian. I shall therefore
fill up the rem_aining part of it with what still
relates to my own person, and my correspon-
dents. New I would have them all know that on
the 20th instant, it is my intention to erect a
Lion's Head, in imitation of those I have des-
cribed in Venice, through which all the private
commonwealth is said to pass. This head is to
open a most wide and voracious mouth, which
shall take in such letters and papers as are con-
veyed to me by my correspondents, it being my
resolution to have a particular regard to all
such matters as come to my hands through the
mouth of the Lion. There will be under it a
box, of which the key will be in my own custo-
dy, to receive such papers as are dropped into
it. Whatever the Lion swallows I shall digest
for the use of the publick. This head requires
■some time to finish, the workmen being re-
solved to give it several masterly touches, and
to represent it as ravenoiis as possible. It will
be set up in Button's Coffee-house, in Covent
•Garden, who is directed to show the way to the
Lion's Head, and to instruct any young author
how to convey his works into the mouth of it
with safety and secrecy."
"I think myself obliged to acquaint the pub-
lick, that the Lion's Head, of which I adver-
tised them about a fortnight ago, is now
erected at Button's Coffee-house, in Russell-
street, Covent Garden, where it . opens its
mouth at all hours for the reception of such
intelligence as shall be thrown into it. It
is reckoned an excellent piece of workmanship,
and was designed by a great hand in imitation
of the antique Egyptian lion, the face of it
being compounded out of that of a lion and
a wizard. The features are strong and well
furrowed. The whiskers are admired by all that
have seen them. It is planted on the western
side of the Coffee-house, holding its paws un-
der the chin, upon a box, which contains every-
thing that he swallows. He is, indeed, a proper
emblem of knowledge and action, being all head
and paws."
* * *
"Being obliged, at present, to attend a par-
ticular affair of my own, I do empower my
printer to look into the arcana of the Lion,
and select cut of them such as may be of pub-
lick utility; and Mr. Button is hereby author-
ized and commanded to give my said printer
free ingress and egress to the lion, without any
hindrance, let, or molestation whatsoever, until
such time as he shall receive orders to the con-
trary. And, for so doing, this shall be his war-
rant."
Hs # :!:
"My Lion, whose jaws are at all times open
to intelligence, informs me that there are a few
enormous weapons still in being; but that they
are to be met with only in gaming houses and
some of the obscure retreats of lovers, in and
about Drury-lane and Covent Garden."
"^■^is metnoritle Lion's Head was tolerably
well carved: through the mouth the letters
were dropped into a till at Button's; and be-
neath were inscribed these two lines from Mar-
tial:
Cervantur magnis isti Cervicibus ungues;
Non nisi delicta pascitur ille fera.
The head was designed by Hogarth, and is
etched in Ireland's "Illustrations' . Lord Ches-
terfield is said to have once offered for the
Head fifty guineas. From Button's it was re-
moved to the Shakspeare's Head Tavern, un-
der the Piazza, kept by a person named Tom-
kyns; and in 1751, was, for a short time, placed
in the Bedford Ccffee-house immediately adjoin-
ing the Shakspeare, and there employed as a
letter-box by Dr. John Hill, for his Inspector.
In 1769, Tomkyns was succeeded by his waiter,
Campbell, as proprietor of the tavern and lion's
head, and by him the latter was retained until
November 8, 1804, when it was purchased by
Mr. Charles Richardson, of Richardson's Hotel,
for 17 £ 10s., who also possessed the original
sign of the Shakspeare's Head. After Mr.
Richardson's death in 1827, the Lion's Head
devolved to his son, of whom it was bought by
the Duke of Bedford, and deposited at Woburn
Abbey, where it still remains.
Pope was subjected to much annoyance and
insult at Button's. Sir Samuel Garth wrote to
Gay, that everybody was pleased with Pope's
COFFEE IN LITERATURE
577
//f'^a.rth ^'/*
J rum. tb(
Srreto^MC/ftii.
Alexander Pope at Button's Coffee House — 1730
Prom a drawing by Hogarth. The man opposite the seated figure is thought to be Pope
Translation, "but a few at Button's;" to which
Gay adds, to Pope, "I am confirmed that at
Button's your character is made very free with,
as to morals, etc."
Gibber, in a letter to Pope, says: "When you
used to pass your hours at Button's, you were
even there remarkable for your satirical itch of
provocation; scarce was there a gentleman of
any pretension to wit, whom your unguarded
temper had not fallen upon in some biting epi-
gram, among which you once caught a pastoral
Tartar, whose resentment, that your punish-
ment might be proportionate to the smart of
your poetry, had stuck up a birchen rod In the
room, to be ready whenever you might come
within reach of it; and at this rate you writ
and rallied and writ on, till you rhymed your-
self quite out of the coffee-house." The "pas-
toral Tartar" was Ambrose Philips, who, says
Johnson, "hung up a rod at Button's, with which
he threatened to chastise Pope."
Pope, in a letter to Crags, thus explains the
affair: "Mr. Philips did express himself with
much indignation against me one evening at
Button's Coffee-house (as I was told), saying
that I was entered Into a cabal with Dean
Swift and others, to write against the Whig In-
terest, and in particular to undermine his own
reputation and that of his friends, Steele and
Addison; but Mr. Philips never opened his lips
to my face, on this or any like occasion, though
I was almost every night in the same room
with him, nor ever offered me any indecorum.
Mr. Addison came to me a night or two after
Philips had talked in this Idle manner, and as-
sured me of his disbelief of what had been said,
of the friendship we should always maintain,
and desired I would say nothing further of It.
My Lord Halifax did me the honour to stir In
this matter, by speaking to several people to
obviate a false aspersion, which might have
done me no small prejudice with one party.
However, Philips did all he could secretly to
continue to report with the Hanover Club, and
kept in his hands the subscriptions paid for me
to him, as secretary to that Club. The heads of
it have since given him to understand, that
they take It ill; but (upon the terms I ought
to be with such a man) I would not ask him
for this money, but commissioned one of the
players, his equals, to receive it. This Is the
whole matter; but as to the secret grounds of
this malignity, they will make a very pleasant
history when we meet."
Another account says that the rod was hung
up at the bar of Button's, and that Pope avoid-
578
ALL ABOUT COFFEE
ed it by remaining at home — "liis usual cus-
tom." Pliilips was known for his courage and
superior dexterity with the sword; he after-
wards became justice of the peace, and used to
mention Pope, whenever he could get a man in
authority to listen to him, as an enemy to the
Government.
At Button's the leading company, particularly
Addison and Steele, met in large flowing flaxen
wigs. Sir Godfrey Kneller, too, was a frequen-
ter.
The master died in 1731, when in the Daily
Advertiser, October 5 appeared the following:
"On Sunday morning, died, after three days' ill-
ness, Mr. Button, who formerly kept Button's
OofEee-house, in Russell-street, Oovent Garden:
a very noted house for wits, being the place
where the Lyon produced the famous Tatlers
and Spectators, written by the late Mr. Secre-
tary Addison and Sir Richard Steele, Knt.,
which works will transmit their names with
honour to posterity ."
Among other wits who frequented Button's
were Swift, Arbuthnot, Savage, Budgell, Martin
Folkes, and Drs. Garth and Armstrong. In
1720, Hogarth mentions "four drawings in In-
dian ink" of the characters at Button's Coffee-
house. In these were sketches of Arbuthnot,
Addison, Pope (as it is conjectured) and a cer-
tain Count Viviani, identified years afterwards
by Horace Walpole, when the drawings came
under his notice. They subsequently came into
Ireland's possession.
Jemmy Maclaine, or M'Clean, the fashionable
highwayman, was a frequent visitor at Button's.
Mr. John Taylor, of the Sun newspaper, des-
cribes Maclaine as a tall, showy, good-looking
man. A Mr. Donaldson told Taylor that, ob-
serving Maclaine paid particular attention to
the barmaid of the Coffee-house, the daughter
of the landlord, he gave a hint to the father of
Maclaine's dubious character. The father cau-
tioned the daughter against the highwayman's
addresses, and imprudently told her by whose
advice he put her on her guard; she as impru-
dently told Maclaine. The next time Donaldson
visited the coffee-room, and sitting in one of
the boxes, Maclaine entered, and in a loud tone
said, "Mr. Donaldson, I wish to spake to you
in a private room." Mr. D. being unarmed, and
naturally afraid of being alone with such a
man, said, in answer, that as nothing could pass
between them that he did not wish the whole
world to know, he begged leave to decline the
Invitation. "Very well," said Maclaine, as he
left the room, "we shall meet again." A day
or two after, as Mr. Donaldson was walking
near Richmond, in the evening, he saw Mac-
laine on herseback; but fortunately, at that
moment, a gentleman's carriage appeared in
view, when Maclaine immediately turned his
horse towards the carriage, and Donaldson hur-
ried into the protection of Richmond as fast
as he could. But for the appearance of the car-
riage, which presented better prey, it is pos-
sible that Maclaine would have shot Mr. Don-
aldson immediately.
Maclaine's father was an Irish Dean; his
brother was a Calvinist minister in great es-
teem at the Hague. Maclaine himself had been
a grocer in Welbeck-street, but losing a wife
that he loved extremely, and by whom he had
one little girl, he quitted his business with two
hundred pounds in his pockets which he soon
spent, and then took to the road with only one
companion, Plunket, a journeyman apothecary.
Maclaine was taken in the autumn of 1750,
by selling a laced waistcoat to a pawnbroker
in Monmouth-street, who happened to carry it
to the very man who had just sold the lace.
Maclaine Impeached his companion, Plunket,
but he was not taken. The former got into
verse: Gray, in his "Long Story," sings:
A sudden fit of ague shook him;
He stood as mute as poor M'Lean.
Button's subsequently became a private
house, and here Mrs. Inchbald lodged, probably,
after the death of her sister, for whose support
she practised such noble and generous self-
denial. Mrs. Inchbald's income was now 172 £
a year, and we are told that she now went to
reside in a boarding-house, where she enjoyed
more of the comforts of life. Phillips, the pub-
lisher, offered her a thousand pounds for her
Memoirs, which she declined. She died in a
boarding-house at Kensington, on the 1st of
August, 1821, leaving about 6,000 £ judiciously
divided amongst her relatives. Her simple and
parsimonious habits were very strange. "Last
Thursday," she writes, "I finished scouring my
bedroom, while a coach with a coronet and two
footmen waited at my door to take me an air-
ing."
"One of the most agreeable memories con-
nected with Button's," says Leigh Hunt, "is
that of Garth, a man whom, for the sprightli-
ness and generosity of his nature, it is a pleas-
ure to name. He was one of the most amiable
and intelligent of a most amiable and intelli-
gent class of men — ^the physicians."
It was just after Queen Anne's accession that
Swift made acquaintance with the leaders of
the wits at Button's. Ambrose Philips refers
to him as the strange clergyman whom the fre-
quenters of the Coffee-house had observed for
some days. He knew no one, no one knew him.
He would lay his hat down on a table, and walk
up and down at a brisk pace for half an hour
without speaking to any one, or seeming to pay
attention to anything that was going forward.
Then he would snatch up his hat, pay his
money at the bar, and walk off, without having
opened his lips. The frequenters of the room
had christened him "the mad parson." One
evening, as Mr. Addison and the rest were ob-
serving him, they saw him cast his eyes several
times upon a gentleman in boots, who seemed
to be just come out of the country. At last.
Swift advanced towards this bucolic gentleman,
as if intending to address him. They were all
eager to hear what the dumb parson had to say,
and immediately quitted their seats to get near
him. Swift went up to the country gentleman,
and in a very abrupt manner, without any pre-
vious salute, asked him, "Pray, Sir, do you
know any good weather in the world?" After
staring a little at the singularity of Swift's
manner and the oddity of the question, the
gentleman answered, "Yes. Sir. I thank God I
COFFEE IN LITERATURE
579
remember a great deal of good weather in my
time.' — "That is more," replied Swift, "than
I can say; I never remember any weather that
was not too hot or too cold, too wet or too dry;
but, however God Almighty contrives it, at the
end of the year 'tis all very well."
Sir Walter Scott gives, upon the authority
of Dr. Wall, of Worcester, who had it from
Dr. Arbuthnot himself, the following anecdote
— less coarse than the version generally told.
Swift was seated by the fire at Button's; there
was sand on the floor of the coffee-room, and
Arbuthnot, with a design to play upon this
original figure, offered him a letter, which he
had been just addressing, saying at the same
time, "There — sand that" — "I have got no sand,'
answered Swift, "but I can help you to a little
gravel." This he said so significantly, that
Arbuthnot hastily snatched back his letter, to
save it from the fate of the capital of Lilliput
Tom's Coffee-house in Birchln-lane, Cornhill,
though in the main a mercantile resort, ac-
quired some celebrity from its having been fre-
quented by Garrick, who, to keep up an interest
in the City, appeared here about twice in a
winter at 'Change time, when it was the ren-
dezvous of young merchants.
Hawkins says: "After all that has been said
of Mr. Garrick, envy must own that he owed
his celebrity to his merit; and yet, of that him-
self so diffident, that he practiced sundry little
but innocent arts, to insure the favour of the
public:" yet, he did more. When a rising actor
complained to Mrs. Garrick that the news-
papers abused him, the widow replied, "You
should write your own criticisms; David al-
ways did."
One evening. Murphy was at Tom's, when
Colley Cibber was playing at whist, with an old
general for his partner. As the cards were dealt
to him, he took up every one in turn, and ex-
pressed his disappointment at each indifferent
one. In the progress of the game he did not
follow suit, and his partner said, "What! have
you not a spade, Mr. Cibber?" The latter, look-
ing at his cards, answered, "Oh yes, a thou-
sand;" which drew a very peevish comment
from the general. On which, Cibber, who was
shockingly addicted to swearing, replied, "Don't
be angry, for — I can play ten times worse
If I like."
The celebrated Bedford Coffee-house, In Co-
vent Garden, once attracted so much attention
as to have published, "Memoirs of the Bedford
Coffee-house," two editions, 1751 and 1763. It
stood "under the Piazza, in Covent Garden,*
in the north-west corner, near the entrance
to the theatre, and has long ceased to exist.
In the Connoisseur, No. 1, 1754, we are as-
sured that "this Coffee-house is every night
crowded with men of parts. Almost every one
you meet is a polite scholar and a wit. Jokes
and bon-mots are echoed from box to box : every
branch of literature is critically examined, and
the merit of every production of the press, or
performance of the theatres, weighed and de-
termined."
And in the above-named "Memoirs" we read
that "this spot has been signalized for many
years as the emporium of wit, the seat of critic-
ism, and the standard of taste — Names of those
who frequented the house: Foote, Mr. Fielding,
Mr. Woodward, Mr. Leone, Mr. Murphy, Mopsy,
Dr. Arne. Dr. Arne was the only man in a
suit of velvet In the dog-days."
Stacie kept the Bedford when John and Henry
Fielding, Hogarth, Churchill, Woodward, Lloyd,
Dr. Goldsmith and many others met there and
held a gossiping shilling rubber club. Henry
Fielding was a very smart fellow.
The Inspector appears to have given rise to
this reign of the Bedford, when there was placed
here the Lion from Button's, which proved so
serviceable to Steele, and once more fixed the
dominion of wit In Covent Garden.
The reign of wit and pleasantry did not,
however, cease at the Bedford at the demise of
the Inspector. A race of punsters next suc-
ceeded. A particular box was alloted to this
occasion, out of hearing of the lady of the bar,
that the double entendres, which were some-
times very Indelicate, might not offend her.
The Bedford was beset with scandalous nuis-
ances, of which the following letter, from
Arthur Murphy to Garrick, April 10, 1768, pre-
sents a pretty picture:
"Tiger Roach (who used to bully at the Bed-
ford Coffee-house because his name was Roach)
is set up by Wilke's friends to burlesque Lut-
trel and his pretensions. I own I do not know
a more ridiculous circumstance than to be a
joint candidate with the Tiger. O'Brien used
to take him off very pleasantly, and perhaps
you may, from his representation, have some
idea of this important wight. He used to sit
with a half-starved look, a black patch upon
his cheek, pale with the Idea of murder, or
with rank cowardice, a quivering lip, and a
downcast eye. In that manner he used to sit
at a table all alone, and his soliloquy, inter-
rupted now and then with faint attempts to
throw off a little saliva, was to the following
effect: — 'Hut! hut! a mercer's 'prentice with
a bag-wig; — d — n my s — 1, if I would not skiver
a dozen of them like larks! Hut! hut! I
don't understand such airs! — I'd cudgel him
back, breast and belly, for three skips of a
louse! — How do you do, Pat? Hut! hut! God's
blood — Larry, I'm glad to see you; 'Prentices!
a fine thing indeed! — Hut! hut! How do you
do, Dominick! — D — n my s — 1, what's here to
do!' These were the meditations of this agree-
able youth. F^om one of these reveries he
started up one night, when I was there, called a
Mr. Bagnell out of the room, and most heroic-
ally stabbed him in the dark, the other having
no weapon to defend himself with. In this career,
the Tiger persisted, till at length a Mr. Len-
nard brandished a whip over his head, and
stood in a menacing attitude, commanding him
to ask pardon directly. The Tiger shrank from
the danger, and with a faint voice pronounced —
'Hut! what signifies it between you and me?
Well! well! I ask your pardon.' 'Speak louder,
Sir; I don't hear a word you say.' And Indeed
he was so very tall, that it seemed as if the
sound, sent feebly from below, could not as-
580
ALL ABOUT COFIEE
cend to such a height. This is the hero who
is to figure at Brentford."
Foote's favourite coffee-house was the Bedford.
He was also a constant frequenter of Tom's,
and toolt a lead in the Club held there, and
already described.
Dr. Barrowby, the well-known newsmonger
of the Bedford, and the satirical critic of the
day, has left this whole-length sketch of Foote:
"On© evening (he says) he saw a young
man extravagantly dressed out in a frock suit
of green and silver lace, bag-wig, sword, bou-
quet, and point ruffles, enter the room (at the
Bedford), and immediately join the critical
circle at the upper end. Nobody recognized
him; but such was the ease of his bearing, and
the point of humor and remark with which he
at once took up the conversation, that his pres-
ence seemed to disconcert no one, and a sort
of pleased buzz of 'who is he?' was still going
round the room unanswered, when a handsome
carriage stopped at the door; he rose, and
quitted the room, and the servants announced
that his name was Foote, and that he was a
young gentleman of family and fortune, a stu-
dent of the Inner Temple, and that the carriage
had called for him on its way to the assembly
of a lady of fashion". Dr. Barrowby once turned
the laugh against Foote at the Bedford, when
he was ostentatiously showing his gold repeater,
with the remark — 'Why, my watch does not go!'
'It soon will go,' quietly remarked the Doctor.
Young Collins, the poet, who came to town in
1744 to seek his fortune, made his way to the
Bedford, where Foote was supreme among the
wits and critics. Like Foote, Collins was fond
of fine clothes, and walked about with a feather
in his hat, very unlike a young man who had
not a single guinea he could call his own. A
letter of the time tell-? us that "Collins was an
acceptable companion everywhere; and among
the gentlemen who loved him for a genius, may
be reckoned the Doctors Armstrong, Barrowby,
Hill, Messrs. Quin, Garrick, and Foote, who fre-
quently took his opinions upon their pieces
before they were seen by the public. He was
particularly noticed by the geniuses who fre-
quented the Bedford and Slaughter's Coffee-
houses."
Ten years later (1754) we find Foote again
supreme in his critical corner at the Bedford.
The regular frequenters of the room strove to
get admitted to his party at supper; and others
got as near as they could to the table, as the
only humor flowed from Foote's tongue. The
Bedford was now in its highest repute.
Foote and Garrick often met at the Bedford,
and many and sharp were their encounters.
They were the two great rivals of the day.
Foote usually attacked, and Garrick, who had
many weak points, was mostly the sufferer.
Garrick, in early life, had been in the wine
trade, and had supplied the Bedford with wine;
he was thus described by Foote as living in
Durham-yard, with three quarts of vinegar in
the cellar, calling himself a wine-merchant.
How Foote must have abused the Bedford wine
of this period!
One night, Foote came into the Bedford,
where Garrick was seated, and there gave him
an account of a most wonderful actor he had
just seen. Garrick was on the tenters of sus-
pense, and there Foote kept him a full hour.
Foote brought the attack to a close by ask-
ing Garrick what he thought of Mr. Pitt's his-
trionic talents, when Garrick, glad of the re-
lease, declared that if Pitt had chosen the stage,
he might have been the first actor upon it.
Another night, Garrick and Foote were about
to leave the Bedford together, when the latter,
in paying the bill, dropped a guinea; and not
finding it at once, said, "Where on earth can
it be gone to?" — "Gone to the devil, I think,"
replied Garrick, who had assisted in the search.
— "Well said, David!" was Foote's reply, "let
you alone for making a guinea go further than
anybody else."
Churchill's quarrel with Hogarth began at the
shilling rubber club, in the parlour of the Bed-
ford; when Hogarth used some very insulting
language towards Churchill, who resented it in
the Epistle. This quarrel showed more venom
than wit. "Never," says Walpole, "did two angry
men of their abilities throw mud with less
dexterity."
Woodward, the comedian, mostly lived at the
Bedford, was intimate with Stacie, the land-
lord, and gave him his (W.'s) portrait, with
a mask In his hand, one of the early pictures
by Sir Joshua Reynolds. Stacie played an ex-
cellent game at whist. One morning about two
o'clock, one of the waiters awoke him to tell
him that a nobleman had knocked him up, and
had desired him to call his master to play a
rubber with him for one hundred guineas.
Stacie got up, dressed himself, won the money,
and was in bed and asleep, all within an hour.
After Macklin had retired from the stage, in
1754, he opened that portion of the Piazza-
houses, in Covent Garden, afterwards known
as the Tavistock Hotel. Here he fitted up a
large coffee-room, a theatre for oratory, and
other apartments. To a three-shilling ordinary
he added a shilling lecture, or "School of Ora-
tory and Criticism;" he presided at the dinner
table, and carved for the company; after which
he played a sort of "Oracle of Eloquence."
Fielding has happily sketched him in his
"Voyage to Lisbon" : "Unfortunately for the fish-
mongers of London, the Dory only resides in
the Devonshire seas; for could any of this com-
pany only convey one to the Temple of luxury
under the piazza, where Macklin, the high
priest, daily serves up his rich offerings, great
would be the reward of that fishmonger."
In the Lecture, Macklin undertook to make
each of his audience an orator, by teaching
him how to speak. He invited hints and dis-
cussions; the novelty of the scheme attracted
the curiosity of numbers; and this curiosity he
still further excited by a very uncommon con-
troversy which now subsisted, either in imag-
ination or reality, between him and Foote, who
abused one another very openly — "Squire Sam-
my," having for his purpose engaged the Little
Theatre in the Haymarket.
I
COFFEE IX LITERATURE
581
Besides this personal attack, various subjects
were debated here in the manner of the Robin
Hood Society, which filled the Orator's pocket,
and proved his rhetoric of some value.
Here is one of his combats with Foote. The
subject was Duelling in Ireland, which Macklin
had illustrated as far as the reign of Elizabeth.
Foote cried, "Order;" he had a question to put.
"Well, Sir," said Macklin, "what have you to
say on this subject," "I think. Sir' said Foote,
"this matter might be settled in a few words.
What o'clock is it. Sir?" Macklin could not
posoibly see what the clock had to do with a
dissertation upon Duelling, but gruffly reported
the hour to be half-past nine. "Very well,"
said Foote," about this time of the night every
gentleman in Ireland that can possibly afford
it is in his third bottle of claret, and therefore
in a fair way of getting drunk; and from drunk-
enness proceeds quarrelling, and from quarrell-
ing, duelling, and so there's an end of the chap-
ter." The company were much obliged to Foote
for his interference, the hour being considered;
though Macklin did not relish this abridgment.
The success of Foote's fun upon Macklin's
Lectures, led him to establish a summer enter-
tainment of his own at the Haymarket. He
took up Macklin's notion of applying Greek tra-
gedy to modern subjects, and the squib was so
successful that Foote cleared by it 500 £ in five
nights, while the great Piazza Coffee-room in
Covent Garden was shut up, and Macklin in
the Gazette as a bankrupt.
But when the great plan of Mr. Macklin
proved abortive, when as he said in a former
prologue, upon a nearly similar occasion —
From scheming, fretting, famine and despair,
We saw to grace restor'd an exiled player;
when the town was sated with the seemingly-
concocted quarrel between the two theatrical
geniuses, Macklin locked his doors, all animosity
was laid aside, and they came and shook hands
at the Bedford; the group resumed their ap-
pearance, and, with a new master, a new set
cf customers was seen.
Tom King's Coffee-house was one of the old
night-houses of Covent Garden Market; it was
a rude shed immediately beneath the portico
of St. Paul's Church, and was one "well known
to all gentlemen to whom beds are unknown."
Fielding in one of his Prologues says:
What rake is ignorant of King's Coffee-house?
It is in the background of Hogarth's print
of Morning where the prim maiden lady, walk-
ing to church, is soured with seeing two fud-
dled beaux from King's Coffee-house caressing
two frail women. At the door there is a drunk-
en row, in which swords and cudgels are the
weapons^.
Harwood's Alumni Etonenses, p. 239, in the
account of the Boys elected from Eton to King's
College, contains this entry: "A. D. 1713,
Thomas King, born at West Ashton, in Wilt-
shire, went away scholar in apprehension that
his fellowship would be denied him; and after-
wards kept that Coffee-house in Covent Gar-
den, which was called by his own name."
•See Chapter XXXIII.
Moll King was landlady after Tom's death:
she was witty, and her house was much fre-
quented, though it was little better than a shed.
"Noblemen and the first beaux;' said Stacie,
"after leaving Court would go to her house in
full dress, with swords and bags, and in rich
brocaded silk coats, and walked and conversed
with persons of every description. She would
serve chimney-sweepers, gardeners, and the
market-people in common with her lords of the
highest rank. Mr. Apreece, a tall thin man in
rich dress, was her constant customer. He
was called Cadwallader by the frequenters of
Moll's." It is not surprising that Moll was often
fined for keeping a disorderly house. At length,
she retired from business — and the pillory — to
Hempstead, where she lived on her ill-earned
gains, but paid for a pew in church, and was
charitable at appointed seasons, and died in
peace in 1747.
The Piazza Coffee-house at the north-eastern
angle of Covent Garden Piazza, appears to
have originated with Macklin's; for we read in
an advertisement in the Publick Adviser,
March 5, 1756; "The Great Piazza Coffee-room,
in Covent Garden."
The Piazza was much frequented by Sheridan;
and here is located the well-known anecdote
told of his coolness during the burning of
Drury-lane Theatre, in 1809. It is said that as
he sat at the Piazza, during the fire, taking
some refreshment, a friend of his having re-
marked on the philosophical calmness with
which he bore his misfortune, Sheridan replied:
"A man may surely be allowed to take a glass
of wine by his own fireside."
Sheridan and John Kemble often dined to-
gether at the Piazza, to be handy to the theatre.
During Kemble's management, Sheridan had
occasion to make a complaint, which brought
a "nervous" letter from Kemble, to which Sheri-
dan's reply is amusing enough. Thus, he
writes: "that the management of a theatre is
a situation capable of becoming troublesome,
is information which I do not want, and a dis-
covery which I thought you made long ago."
Sheridan then treats Kemble's letter as "a
nervous flight," not to be noticed seriously, ad-
ding his anxiety for the interest of the theatre,
and alluding to Kemble's touchiness and re-
serve; and thus concludes:
"If there is anything amiss in your mind
not arising from the trouble someness of your
situation, it is childish and unmanly not to
disclose it. The frankness with which I have
dealt towards you entitles me to expect that you
should have done so.
"But I have no reason to believe this to be
the case; and attributing your letter to a dis-
order which I know ought not to be Indulged,
I prescribe that thou shalt keep thine appoint-
ment at the Piazza Coffee-house, tomorrow at
five, and, taking four bottles of claret instead
of three, to which In sound health you might
stint yourself, forget that you ever wrote the
letter, as I shall that I ever received it.
"R. B. Sheridan."
582
ALL ABOUT COFFEE
The Piazza facade, and interior, were of
Gothic design. When the house was demolished,
in its place was built the Floral Hall, after
the Crystal Palace model.
The Chapter Coffee-house was a literary place
of resort in Paternoster Row, more especially
in connection with the Wittinagemot of the
last century. A very interesting account of
the Chapter, at a later period (1848) is given
by Mrs. Gaskell.
Goldsmith frequented the Chapter, and always
occupied one place, which for many years after
was the seat of literary honor there. There
are leather tokens of the Chapter Coffee-house
in existence.
Child's Coffee-house, in St. Paul's Church-
yard, was one of the Spectator's houses. "Some-
times," he says, "I smoke a pipe at Child's and
whilst I seem attentive to nothing but the Post-
man, overhear the conversation of every table
In the room." It was much frequented by the
clergy; for the Spectator, No. 609, notices the
mistake of a country gentleman in taking all
persons in scarfs for Doctors of Divinity, since
only a scarf of the first magnitude entitles him
to "the appellation of Doctor from his landlady
and the Boy at Child's."
Child's was the resort of Dr. Mea,d, and other
professional men of eminence. The Fellows
of the Royal Society came here. Whiston re-
lates that Sir Hans Sloane, Dr. Halley and he
were once at Child's when Dr. H. asked him,
W., why he was not a member of the Royal
Society? Whiston answered, because they durst
not choose a heretic. Upon which Dr. H. said,
if Sir Hans Sloane would propose him, W., he.
Dr. H., would second it, which was done accord-
ingly.
The propinquity of Child's to the Cathedral
and Doctors' Commons, made it the resort of
the clergy, and ecclesiastical loungers. In that
respect, Child's was superseded by the Chapter,
in Paternoster Row.
The London Coffee-house was established pre-
vious to the year 1731, for we find of it the
following advertisement:
"May, 1731.
"Whereas, it is customery for Coffee-houses
and other Public-houses, to take 8s. for a quart
of Arrack, and 6s. for a quart of Brandy or
Rum, made into Punch:
"This is to give notice.
That James Ashley has opened on Ludgate
Hill, the London Coffee-house, Punch-house,
Dorchester Beer and Welsh Ale Warehouse,
where the finest and best old Arrack, Rum and
French Brandy is made into Punch, with the
other of the finest ingredients — viz., A quart of
Arrack made into Punch for six shillings; and
so in proportion to the smallest quantity, which
is half-a-quartern for fourpence half-penny. A
quart of Rum or Brandy made into Punch for
four shillings; and so in proportion to the
smallest quantity, which is half-a-quartern for
fourpence half-penny; and gentlemen may have
It as soon made as a gill of Wine can be drawn."
The premises occupied a Roman site; for, in
1800, in the rear of the house, in a bastion of
the City Wall, was found a sepulchral monument
dedicated to Claudina Martina by her husband,
a provincial Roman soldier; here also were
found a fragment of a statue of Hercules and a
female head. In front of the Coffee-house im-
mediately west of St. Martin's Church, stood
Ludgate.
The London Coffee-house was noted for its
publishers' sales of stock and copyrights. It
was within the rules of the Fleet prison; and
in the Coffee-house were "locked up" for the
night such juries from the Old Bailey Sessions,
as could not agree upon verdicts. The house
was long kept by the grandfather and father
of Mr. John Leech, the celebrated artist.
A singular incident occurred at the London
Coffee-house, many years since: Mr. Brayley,
the topographer, was present at a party here,
when Mr. Broadhurst, the famous tenor, by
singing a high note, caused a wine-glass on
the table to break, the bowl being separated
from the stem.
From The Kingdom's Intelligencer, a weekly
paper, published by authority, in 1662, we learn
that there had just been opened a "new coffee-
house," with the sign of the Turk's Head, where
was sold by retail "the right coffee-powder,"
from 4s. to 6s. 8d. per pound; that pounded
in a mortar, 2s; East Indian berry. Is. 6d.; and
the right Turkie berry, well garbled, at 3s.
"The ungarbled for lesse, with directions how
to use the same." Also Chocolate at 2s. 6d. per
pound; the perfumed from 4s. to 10s.; "also,
Sherbets made in Turkie, of lemons, roses and
violets perfumed; and Tea, or Chaa, according
to its goodness. The house seal is Morat the
Great. Gentlemen customers and acquaintan-
ces are (the next New Year's Day) invited to
the sign of the Great Turk at this new Coffee-
house, where Coffee will be on free cost."
Morat figures as a tyrant in Dryden's "Aurung
Zebe." There is a token of this house, with
the sultan's head, in the Beaufoy collectionio.
Another token in the same collection, is of
unusual excellence, probably by John Roettier.
It has on the obverse, Morat ye Great Men
did mee call, — Sultan's head; reverse, Where
eare I came I conquered all. — In the field. Cof-
fee, Tobacco, Sherbet, Tea, Chocolate, retail in
Exchange Alee. "The word Tea," says Mr.
Burn, "occurs on no other tokens than those
issued from 'the Great Turk' Coffee-house, in
Exchange alley;" in one of its advertisements,
1662, tea is from 6s. to 60s. a pound.
Competition arose. One Constantino Jennings
in Threadneedle-street, over against St. Christ-
opher's Church, advertised that coffee, chocolate,
sherbet, and tea, the right Turkey berry, may
be had as cheap and as good of him as is any-
where to be had for money; and that people
may there be taught to prepare the said liquors
gratis.
Pepys, in his "Diary," tells, September 25,
1669, of his sending for "a cup of Tea, a China
Drink, he had not before tasted." Henry Ben-
net, Earl of Arlington, about 1666, introduced
" See chapter X.
COFFEE IN LITERATURE
583
tea at Court. And, in his "Sir Charles Sedley's
Mulberry Garden," we are told that "he who
wished to be considered a man of fashion al-
ways drank wine-and-water at dinner, and a
dish of tea afterwards." These details are con-
densed from Mr. Burn's excellent "Beaufoy
Catalogue," 2nd edition, 1855.
In Gerard-street, Soho, also, was another
Turk's Head Coffee-house, where was held a
Turk's Head Society; in 1777, we find Gibbon
writing to Garrick: "At this time of year
(August 14) the Society of the Turk's Head
can no longer be addressed as a corporate body,
and most of the individual members are prob-
ably dispersed: Adam Smith, in Scotland;
Burke in the shades of Beaconsfleld; Fox, the
Lord or the devil knows where."
The place was a kind of headquarters for the
Loyal Association during the Rebellion of 1745.
Here was founded "The Literary Club" and a
select body for the Protection and Encourage-
ment of Art. Another Society of Artists met
in Peter's-court, St. Martin's-lane, from the year
1739 to 1769. After continued squabbles, which
lasted for many years, the principal artists
met together at the Turk's Head, where many
others having joined them, they petitioned the
King (George III) to become patron of a Royal
Academy of Art. His Majesty consented; and
the new Society took a room in Pali Mall, op-
posite to Market-lane, where they remained
until the King, in the year 1771, granted them
apartments in Old Somerset House.
The Turk's Head Coffee-house, No. 142, in the
Strand, was a favourite supping-house with Dr.
Johnson and Boswell, in whose Life of Johnson
are several entries, commencing with 1763 —
"At night, Mr. Johnson and I supped in a pri-
vate room at the Turk's Head Coffee-house, in
the Strand; 'I encourage this house,' said he,
'for the mistress of it is a good civil woman,
and has not much business'." Another entry
is — "We concluded the day at the Turk's Head
Coffee-house very socially." And, August 3,
1673 — "We had our last social meeting at the
Turk's Head Coffee-house, before my setting
out for foreign parts."
The name was afterwards changed to "The
Turk's Head, Canada and Bath Coffee-house,"
and was a well frequented tavern and hotel.
At the Turk's Head, or Miles's Coffee-house,
New Palace-yard, Westminster, the noted Rota
Club met, founded by Harrington, in 1659;
where was a large oval table, with a passage
in the middle, for Miles to deliver his coffee."
For many years previous to the streets of
London being completely paved, "Slaughter's
Coffee-house" was called "The Coffee-house on
the Pavement." Besides being the resort of
artists, Old Slaughter's was the house of call
for Frenchmen.
St. Martin's-lane was long one of the head-
quarters of the artists of the last century. "In
the time of Benjamin West," says J. T. Smith,
"and before the formation of the Royal Acad-
" See chapter X.
emy, Greek-street, St. Martin's-lane, and Gerard-
street, was their only colony. Old Slaughter's
Coffee-house, in St. Martin's-lane, was their
grand resort in the evenings, and Hogarth was
a constant visitor." He lived at the Golden
Head, on the eastern side of Leicester Fields,
in the northern half of the Sabloniere Hotel.
The head he cut out himself from pieces of
cork, glued and bound together; it was placed
over the street-door. At this time, young Ben-
jamin West was living In chambers, in Bedford-
street, Covent Garden, and had there set up
his easel; he was married in 1765, at St. Mar-
tin's Church. Roubiliac was often to be found
at Slaughter's in early life; probably before
he gained the patronage of Sir Edward Walpole,
through finding and returning to the baronet
the pocket-book of bank-notes which the young
maker of monuments had picked up in Vaux-
hall Gardens. Sir Edward, to remunerate his
integrity, and his skill, of which he showed
specimens, promised to patronize Roubiliac
through life, and he faithfully performed this
promise. Young Gainsborough, who spent three
years amid the works of the painters in St.
Martin's-lane, Hayman, and Cipriani, who were
all eminently convival, were, in all probability,
frequenters of Slaughter's. Smith tells us that
Quin and Hayman were inseparable friends, and
so convival, that they seldom parted till day-
Mr. Cunningham relates that here, "in early
life, Wilkie would enjoy a small dinner at a
small cost. I have been told by an old fre-
quenter of the house, that Wilkie was always
the last dropper-in for dinner, and that he was
never seen to dine in the house by daylight.
The truth is, he slaved at his art at home till
the last glimpse of daylight had disappeared."
Haydon was accustomed, in the early days
of his fitful career, to dine here with Wilkie.
In his "Autobiography," in the year 1808, Hay-
don writes: "This period of our lives was one
of great happiness; painting all day, then din-
ing at the Old Slaughter Chop-house, then go-
ing to the Academy until eight, to fill up the
evening, then going home to tea — that blessing
of a studious man— talking over respective ex-
ploits, what he, Wilkie, had been doing and
what I had been doing, and, then frequently
to relieve our minds fatigued by their eight
and twelve hours' work, giving vent to the
most extraordinary absurdities. Often have we
made rhymes on odd names, and shouted with
laughter at each new line that was added.
Sometimes lazily inclined atter a good dinner,
we have lounged about, near Drury Lane or
Covent Garden, hesitating whether to go in,
and often have I (knowing first that there was
nothing I wished to see) assumed a virtue I
did not possess, and pretending moral superior-
ity, preached to Wilkie on the weakness of not
resisting such temptations for the sake of our
art and our duty, and marched him off to his
studies, when he was longing to see Mother
Goose."
J. T. Smith refers to Old Slaughter's as
"formerly the rendezvous of Pope, Dryden and
other wits, and much frequented by several
eminently clever men of his day."
584
ALL ABOUT COFFEE
Thither came Ware, the architect, who, when
a little sickly boy, was apprenticed to a chimney-
sweeper, and was seen chalking the street-front
of Whitehall, by a gentleman who purchased
the remainder of the boy's time; gave him an
excellent education; then sent him to Italy,
and, upon his return, employed him, and In-
troduced him to his friends as an architect.
"Ware was heard to tell this story while he
was sitting to Roubiliac for his bust. Ware
built Chesterfield House and several other
noble mansions, and compiled a Palladio, in
folio; he retained the soot in his skin to the
day of his death. He was very intimate with
Roubiliac, who was an opposite eastern neigh-
bour of Old Slaughter's. Another architect,
Gwynn, who competed with Mylne for design-
ing and building Blackfriars Bridge, was also
a frequent visitor at Old Slaughter's, as was
Gravelot, who kept a drawing-school in the
Strand, nearly opposite to Southampton-street.
Hudson, who painted the Dilettanti portraits;
M'Ardell, the mezzotinto-scraper; and Luke Sul-
livan, the engraver of Hogarth's March to
Finchley, also frequented Old Slaughter's; like-
wise Theodore Gardell, the portrait painter,
who was executed for the murder of his land-
lady; and Old Moser, keeper of the Drawing
Academy in Peter's-court.
Parry, the Welsh harper, though totally blind,
was one of the first draught-players in England,
and occasionally played with the frequenters
of Old Slaughter's; and here in consequence of
a bet. Roubiliac introduced Nathanial Smith
(father of John Thomas), to play at draughts
with Parry; the game lasted about half an
hour: Parry was much agitated, and Smith
proposed to give in; but as there were bets de-
pending, it was played out, and Smith won.
This victory brought Smith numerous chal-
lenges; and the dons of the Barn, a public-
house, in St. Martin's-lane, nearly opposite the
church, invited him to become a member; but
Smith declined. The Barn, for many years,
was frequented by all the noted players of chess
and draughts; and it was there that they often
decided games of the first importance, played
between persons of the highest rank.
The Grecian Coffee-house, Devereux-court,
Strand, (closed in 1843) was named from Con-
stantine, of Threadneedle street, the Grecian
who kept it. In the Tatler announcement, all
accounts of learning are to be "under the title
of the Grecian;" and, in the Tatler, No. 6:
"While other parts of the town are amused with
the present actions (Marlborough's) we gener-
ally spend the evening at this table (at the
Grecian) in inquiries into antiquity, and think
anything new, which gives us new knowledge.
Thus, we are making a very pleasant entertain-
ment to ourselves in putting the actions of
Homer's Iliad into an exact journal."
The Spectator's face was very well known at
the Grecian, a coffee-house "adjacent to the
law." Occasionally it was the scene of learned
discussion. Thus Dr. King relates that one
evening, two gentlemen, who were constant
companions, were disputing here, concerning
the accent of a Greek word. This dispute was
carried to such a length, that the two friends
thought proper to determine it with their
swords; for this purpose they stepped into Dev-
ereux-court, where one of them (Dr. King
thinks his name was Fitzgerald) was run
through the body, and died on the spot.
The Grecian was Foote's morning lounge. It
was handy, too, for the young Templar, Gold-
smith, and often did it echo with Oliver's bois-
terous mirth; for "it had become the favourite
resort of the Irish and Lancashire Templars,
whom he delighted in collecting around him, in
entertaining with a cordial and unostentatious
hospitality, and in occasionally amusing with
his flute, or with whist, neither of which he
played very well!" Here Goldsmith occasion-
ally wound up his "Shoemaker's Holiday" with
supper.
It was at the Grecian that Fleetwood
Shephard told this memorable story to Dr.
Tancred Robinson, who gave Richardson per-
mission to repeat it. "The Earle of Dorset was
in Little Britain, beating about for books to his
taste: there was 'Paradise Lost'. He was sur-
prised with some passages he struck upon, dip-
ping here and there and bought it; the book-
seller begged him to speak in his favour, if he
liked it, for they lay on his hands as waste
paper. . . . Shephard was present. My Lord
took it home, read it, and sent it to Dryden,
who in a short time returned it. 'This man,'
says Dryden, 'cuts us all out, and the ancients,
too!'"
George's Coffee-house, No. 213, Strand, near
Temple Bar, was a noted resort in the eigh-
teenth and nineteenth centuries. When it was a
coffee-house, one day, there came in Sir James
Lowther, who after changing a piece of silver
with the coffee-woman, and paying twopence for
his dish of coffee, was helped into his chariot,
for he was very lame and infirm, and went
home: some little time afterwards, he returned
to the same coffee-house, on purpose to acquaint
the woman who kept it, that she had given him
a bad half-penny, and demanded another in ex-
change tor it. Sir James had about £40,000
per annum.
Shenstone, who found "the warmest welcome
at an inn," found George's to be economical.
"What do you think," he writes, "must be my
expense, who love to pry into everything of the
kind? Why, truly one shilling. My company
goes to George's Coffee-house, where, for that
small subscription I read all pamphlets under
a three shillings' dimension; and indeed, any
larger would not be fit for coffee-house perusal."
Shenstone relates that Lord Oxford was at
George's, when the mob, that were carrying his
Lordship in effigy, came into the box where he
was, to beg money of him, amongst others; this
story Horace Walpole contradicts, adding that
he supposes Shenstone thought that after Lord
Oxford quitted his place he went to the coffee-
house to learn news.
Arthur Murphy frequented George's, "where
the town wits met every evening." Lloyd, the
law-student, sings:
By law let others toil to gain renown!
Florio's a gentleman, a man o' the town.
COFFEE IN LITERATURE
585
He nor courts clients, or the law regarding,
Hurries from Nando's down to Covent Garden.
Yet, he's a scholar; mark him in the pit,
With critic catcall sound the stops of wit!
Supreme at George's, he harangues the throng.
Censor of style, from tragedy to song.
The Percy Coffee-house, Rathbone-place, Ox-
ford-street, no longer exists; but it will be kept
in recollection for its having given name to one
of the most popular publications of its class,
namely, the "Percy Anecdotes," by Sholto and
Reuben Percy, Brothers of the Benedictine
Monastery of Mont Benger," in forty-four parts,
commencing in 1820. So said the title pages,
but the names and the locality were supposr.
Reuben Percy was Thomas Byerly, who died in
1824; he was the brother of Sir John Byerley,
and the first editor of the Mirror, commenced
by John Limbird, in 1822. Sholto Percy was
Joseph Clinton Robertson, who died in 1852;
he was the projector of the Mechanics' Maga-
zine, which he edited from its commencement
to his death. The name of the collection of
Anecdotes was not taken, as at the time sup-
posed, from the popularity of the "Percy
Reliques, ' but from the Percy Coffee-house,
where Byerley and Robertson were accustomed
to meet to talk over their joint work. The idea
was, however, claimed by Sir Richard Phillips,
who stoutly maintained that it originated in a
suggestion made by him to Dr. Tilloch and
Mr. Mayne, to cut the anecdotes from the many
years' files of the Star newspaper, of which
Dr. Tilloch was the editor; and Mr. Byerley as-
sistant editor; and to the latter overhearing
the suggestion, Sir Richard contested, might
the "Percy Anecdotes" be traced. They were
very successful, and a large sum was realised
by the work.
Peele's Coffee-house, Nos. 177 and 178, Fleet-
street, east corner of Fetter-lane, was one of the
coffee-houses of the Johnsonian period; and
here was long preserved a portrait of Dr. John-
son, on the keystone of a chimney-piece, stated
to have been painted by Sir Joshua Reynolds.
Peele's was noted for files of newspapers from
these dates: Gazette, 1759; Times, 1780; Morn-
ing Chronicle, 1773; Morning Post, 1773; Morn-
ing Herald, 1784; Morning Advertiser, 1794;
and the evening papers from their commence-
ment. The house is now a tavern.
Coffee Literature and Ideals
The bibliography at the end of this work
will serve to indicate the nature and extent
of the general literature of coffee. Not
that it is complete or nearly so; it would
require twice the space to include mention
of all the fugitive bits of verse, essays, and
miscellaneous writings in newspapers, and
periodicals, dealing with the poetry and ro-
mance, history, chemistry, and physiolog-
ical effects of coffee. Only the early works,
and the more notable contributions of the
last three centuries, are included in the bib-
liography ; but there is sufficient to enable
the student to analyze the lines of general
progress.
A study of the literature of coffee shows
that the French really internationalized the
beverage. The English and Italians fol-
lowed. With the advent of the newspaper
press, coffee literature began to suffer from
its competition.
The complexities of modern life suggest
that coffee drinking in perfection, the es-
thetics, and a new literature of coffee may
once more become the pleasure of a small
caste. Are the real pleasures of life, the
things truly worth while, only to the swift
— the most efficient ? Who shall say? Are
not some of us, particularly in America,
rather prone to glorify the gospel of work
to such an extent that we are in danger of
losing the ability to understand or to en-
joy anything else?
Granted that this is so, coffee, already
recognized as the most grateful lubricant
known to the human machine, is destined
to play another part of increasing import-
ance in our national life as a kind of na-
tional shock-absorber as well. But its role
is something more than this, surely. When
life is drab, it takes away its grayness.
When life is sad, it brings us solace. When
life is dull, it brings us new inspiration.
When we are a-weary it brings us comfort
and good cheer.
The lure of coffee lies in its appeal to
our finer sensibilities ; and signs are not
wanting that that pursuit of the long, sweet
happiness that every one is seeking will
lead some of us (even in big bustling
America) into footpaths that end in places
where coffee will offer much of its pristine
inspiration and charm. It probably will
not be a coffee house anything like that of
the long ago, but perhaps it will be a kind
of modernized coffee club. Why not?
586
ALL ABOUT COFFEE
A COFFEE HOUSE IN HOLLAND, ABOUT 1650
After the etching by J. Beauvarlet from a painting by Adriaen Van Ostade (1610 - 1675), which is said to
be the earliest picture of a coffee house in western Europe
Chapter XXXIII
COFFEE IN RELATION TO THE FINE ARTS
How coffee and coffee drinking have been celebrated in painting,
engraving, sculpture, caricature, lithography, and music — Epics,
rhapsodies, and cantatas in praise of coffee — Beautiful specimens of
the art of the potter and the silversmith as shown in the coffee service
of various periods in the world's history — Some historical relics
COFFEE has inspired the imagination
of many poets, musicians, and paint-
ers. In the seventeenth and eight-
eenth centuries those whose genius was
dedicated to the fine arts seem to have
fallen under its spell and to have pro-
duced much of great beauty that has en-
dured. To the painters, engravers, and
caricaturists of that period we are particu-
larly indebted for pictures that have added
greatly to our knowledge of early coffee
customs and manners.
Adriaen Van Ostade (1610-1685), the
Dutch genre painter and etcher, pupil of
Frans Hals, in his "Dutch Coffee House"
(1650), shows the genesis of the coffee
house of western Europe about the time
it still partook of some of the tavern char-
acteristics. Coffee is being served to a
group in the foreground. It is believed
to be the oldest existing picture of a coffee
house. The illustration is after the etch-
ing by J. Beauvarlet in the graphic collec-
tion at Munich.
William Hogairth (1697-1764), the fam-
ous English painter and engraver of satir-
ical subjects, chose the coffee houses of his
time for the scenes of a number of his so-
cial caricatures. In his series, "Four Times
of the Day, ' ' which throws a vivid light on
the street life of London of the period of
1738, we are shown Covent Garden at
7:55 A. M. by the clock on St. Paul's
Church. A prim maiden lady (said to have
been sketched from an elderly relation of
the artist, who cut him out of her will) on
her way home from early service, accom-
panied by a shivering foot-boy, is scandal-
ized by the spectacle presented by some
roystering blades issuing from Tom King's
notorious coffee house to the right. The
beaux are forcing their attentions upon the
more comely of the market women in the
foreground. Tom King was a scholar at
Eton before he began his ignoble career. At
the date of this picture, it is thought he had
been succeeded by his widow, Moll King,
also of scandalous repute.
Scene VI of the "Rake's Progress" by
Hogarth is laid at the club in White's
chocolate (coffee) house, which Dr. Swift
described as "the common rendezvous of
infamous sharpers and noble cullies." The
rake has lost all his recently acquired
wealth, pulls off his wig and flings himself
upon the floor in a paroxysm of fury and
execration. In allusion to the burning of
White's in 1733, flames are seen bursting
from the wainscot, but the pre-occupied
gamblers take no heed, even of the watch-
man crying * * Fire ! " To the left is seated
a highwayman, with horse pistol and black
mask in a skirt pocket of his coat. He is so
engrossed in his thoughts that he does not
notice the boy at his side offering a glass of
liquor on a tray. The scene well depicts
the low estate to which White's had fallen.
It recalls a bit of dialogue from Farquhar 's
587
588
ALL ABOUT COFFEE
I.\ lllli CLUJi AT WiUTE'S COFFEE HOTJSE, 1738
From a painting in the series, "The Raise's Progress," by William Hogarth
Beaux' Stratagem (act III, scene 2), where
Aimwell snys to Gibbet, who is a highway-
man : .' ' Pray, sir, ha 'nt I seen your face at
Will's Coffee House?" "Yes sir, and at
White's, too," answers the highwayman.
After the fire, the club and chocolate
house were removed to Gaunt 's coffee
house. The removal was thus ahnounced in
the Daihj Post of May 3 :
This is to acquaint all noblemen and gentle-
men that Mr. Arthur having had the misfortune
to be burnt out of White's Chocolate House is
removed to Gaunt's Coffee House, next the St.
James Coffee House in St. James Street, where
he humbl.v begs they will favour him with tlieir
company as usual.
Alessandro Longhi (1733 - 1813) the Ital-
ian painter and engraver, called the Vene-
tian Hogarth, in one of his pictures pre-
senting life and manners in Venice during
the years of her decadence, shows Goldoni,
the dramatist, as a visitor in a cafe of the
period, with a female mendicant soliciting
alms.
In the Louvre at Paris hangs the "Petit
Dejeuner" by Francois Boucher (1703-
1770), famous court painter of Louis XV.
It shows a French breakfast-room of the
period of 1744, and is interesting because
it illustrates the introduction of coffee into
the home ; it shows also the coffee service of
the time.
In Van Loo's portrait of Madame de
Pompadour, second mistress and political
adviser of Louis XV of France, the coffee
service of a later period of the eighteenth
century appears. The Nubian servant is
shown offering the marquise a demi-tasse
which has just been poured from the cov-
ered oriental pot which succeeded the orig-
inal Arabian-Turkish boiler, and was much
in vogue at the time.
Coffee and Madame du, Barry (or would
COFFEE AND THE ARTS
589
'iu.u Kt.Nu o V w. I i,K House in Cuvem (JakdkiN, l,:',b
From a paintlnjr in the series, "Four Times of tlie Day," by William Hogarth
it be more polite to say Madame du Barry
and coffee?) inspired the celebrated paint-
ing of Madame de Pompadour's successor
in the affections of Louis "the well be-
loved." This is entitled ''Madame du
Barry at Versailles", and in the Versailles
catalog it is described as painted by De-
creuse after Drouais. Decreuse was a pupil
of Gros, and painted many of the histori-
cal portraits at Versailles.
Malcolm C. Salaman, in his French Color
Prints of the XVIII Century, referring to
Dagoty's print of this picture, done in
1771, says, "the original has been attrib-
590
ALL ABOUT COFFEE
"Petit Dejeuner," by Boucheb
Showing' the home coffee service of the period of
1744
utedto Francois Hubert Drouais, but there
can be little doubt that the original por-
traiture was from the hand of the engraver
(Dagoty), as the style is far inferior to
Drouais. ' ' He thus describes it :
Here we see the last of Louis XV's mistresses,
sitting in lier bedroom in tliat alluring retreat
of hers at Louveciennes, near the woods of
Marly, as she takes her cup of cofCee from her
pet attendant, the little negro boy, Zamore, as
the Prince de Conti had named him, all brave
in red and gold. Doubtless she is expecting the
morning visit of the King, no longer the hand-
some young gallant, but old and leaden-eyed, and
puffy-cheeked ; and perhaps it will be on this
very morning that she will wheedle Louis, in a
moment of extravagant badinage, into appoint-
ing the negro boy to be Governor of the Chateau
and Pavilion of Louveciennes at a handsome
salary, just as, on another day, she playfully
teased the jaded old sensualist into decorating
with the cordon bleu her cuisini&re when it was
triumphantly revealed to him that the dinner
he had been praising with enthusiastic gusto
was, after all, the work of a woman cook, the
very possibility of which he had contemptuously
doubted. But as we look at these two, the royal
mistress and her little black favorite, we forget
the "well beloved" and his voluptuous pleasures
and indulgences, for in the shadows we see an-
other picture, some twenty years on, when the
proud unconscionable beauty, no longer reine de
la main gauche, stands before the dreaded
Tribunal of the Terror, while Zamore, the treach-
erous, ungrateful negro, dismissed from his
service at Louveciennes and now devoted to the
committee of public safety, and one of her im-
placable accusers, sends her shrieking to the
guillotine.
The introduction of the coffee house
into Europe was memorialized by Franz
Sehams, the genre painter, pupil of the
Vienna Academy, in a beautiful picture en-
titled ''The First Coffee House in Vienna,
1684," owned by the Austrian Art Society.
A lithographic reproduction was executed
by the artist and printed by Joseph Stoufs
in Vienna. There are several specimens in
the United States; and the illustration
printed on page 48 has been made from one
of these in the possession of the author.
The picture shows the interior of the
Blue Bottle, where Kolschitzky opened the
first coffee house in Vienna. The hero-pro-
prietor stands in the foreground pouring a
cup of the beverage from an oriental coffee
pot, and another is suspended from the cof-
fee-house sign that hangs over the fireplace.
In the fire alcove a woman is pounding
coffee in a mortar. Men and women in the
costumes of the period are being served
coffee by a Vienna mddchen.
(
iiSM
^^^Bp?!^^^^"
9
^^^^
1
1
^r^'^K^^m
^HH^E^^^B^'
.1
lUj^' -\
KjH
kW^' m
hkH
wB^/^P
Sf^
M
Ki^T"
hH^^H
^^^
m
^^H
■
i^E^I
1
HH
Coffee Service in the Home of Madame de
Pompadour — Painting by Van Loo
COFFEE AND THE ARTS
591
Madame Du Babry and Her Slave Boy Zamore — Painting by Decreuse
The painters Marilhat, Deseamps, and de
Tournemine have pictured cafe scenes; the
first in his ' ' Cafe sur une route de Syrie ' ',
which was shown at the Salon of 1844; the
second in his ''Cafe Turc", which figured
at the Exposition of 1855 ; and the third in
his "Cafe en Asia Mineure", which re-
ceived honors at the Salon of 1859, and at-
tracted attention at the Universal Exposi-
tion of 1867.
A decorative panel designed for the
buffet at the Paris Opera House by S. Ma-
zerolles was shown at the Exposition of
1878. A French artist, Jacquand, has
painted two charming compositions; one
representing the reading room, and the
other the interior/of a cafe.
Many German artists have shown coffee
manners and customs in pictures that are
now hanging in well known European gal-
leries. Among others, mention should be
made of C. Schmidt's "The Sweets Shop of
Josty in Berlin", 1845; Milde's "Pastor
Rautenberg and His Family at the Coffee
Table", 1833; and his "Manager Classen
and His Family at the Afternoon Coffee
Table", 1840; Adolph Menzel's "Parisian
Boulevard Cafe", 1870; Hugo Meith's
"Saturday Afternoon at the Coffee
Table"; John Philipp's "Old Woman with
Coffee Cup"; Friedrich Walle's "After-
noon Coffee in the Court Gardens at Mun-
ich"; Paul Meyerheim's "Oriental Coffee
House"; and Peter Philippi's (Dussel-
dorf) "Kaffeebesuch."
At the Exposition des Beaux Arts, Salon
of 1881, there was shown P. A. Ruffio's
picture, "Le cafe vient au secours de la
Muse" (Coffee comes to the aid of the
Muse), in which the graceful form of an
oriental ewer appears.
The "Coffee House at Cairo," a canvas
by Jean Leon Gerome (1824-1904) that
hangs in the Metropolitan Museum of Art,
New York, has been much admired. It
shows the interior of a typical oriental cof-
fee house with two men near a furnace at
the left preparing the beverage; a man
seated on a wicker basket about to smoke a
hooka ; a dervish dancing ; and several per-
sons seated against the wall in the back-
ground.
592
ALL ABOUT COFFEE
COFFEE AND THE ARTS
593
The New York Historical Society ac-
quired in 1907 from Miss Margaret A. In-
crram an oil painting of the "Tontine Cof-
ce House." It was painted in Philadel-
phia by Francis Guy, and was sold at a
laffle. after having been admired by Pres-
ident John Adams. It shows lower Wall
Street in 1796 - 1800, with the Tontine cof-
fee house on the northwest corner of Wall
and Water Streets, where its more famous
predecessor, the Merchants coffee house,
Avas located before it moved to quarters
diagonally opposite.
Charles P. Gruppe's (&. 1860) painting
showing General "Washington's Official
Welcome to New York by City and State
Otificials at the Merchants Coffee House,"
April 23, 1789, just one week before his
inauguration as first president of the
United States, is a colorful canvas that
has been much praised for its atmosphere
and historical associations. It is the prop-
erty of the author.
The art museums and libraries of every
country contain many beautiful water-
colors, engravings, prints, drawings, and
lithographs, whose creators found inspira-
tion in coffee. Space permits the mention
of only a few.
. T. H. Shepherd has preserved for us
Button's, afterward the Caledonien cof-
fee house, Great Russell Street, Covent
Garden, in a water-color drawing of 1857 ;
Tom's coffee house, 17 Great Russell Street,
Covent Garden, 1857; Slaughter's coffee
house in St. Martin's Lane, 1841; also, in
4
& 1
i
I
"Kaffeebesuch"
From the painting by Peter PhiUppi
"Coffee Comes to the 4^id of Tirt: Muse"
From the painting by Rufflo
1857, the Lion's Head at Button's, put up
by Addison and now the property of the
Duke of Bedford at Woburn.
Hogarth figures in the Sam Ireland col-
lection with several original drawings of
frequenters of Button's in 1730.
Thomas Rowlandson (1756-1827) the
great English caricaturist and illustrator,
has given us several fine pictures of Eng-
lish coffee-house life. His "Mad Dog in a
Coffee House" presents a lively scene; and
his water-color of "The French Coffee
House" is one of the best pictures we have
of the French coffee house in London as it
looked during the latter half of the eigh-
teenth century.
During the campaign in France in 1814,
Napoleon arrived one day, unheralded, in
a country presbytery, where the good cure
was quietly turning his hand coffee-roaster.
The emperor asked him, "What are you
doing there, abbe?" "Sire", replied the
priest, "I am doing like you. I am burn-
ing the colonial fodder." Charlet (1792-
1845) made a lithograph of the incident.
Several French poet-musicians resorted
to music to celebrate coffee. Brittany has
594
ALL ABOUT COFFEE
its own songs in praise of coffee, as have
other French provinces. There are many
e|)ics, rhapsodies, and cantatas — and even
a comic opera by Meilhat, music by Deffes,
bearing the title, Le Cafe du Boi, produced
at the Theatre Lyrique, November 16, 1861.
Fuzelier wrote, in honor of coffee, a can-
tata, set to music by Bernier. This is the
burden of the poet 's song :
Ah coffee, what climes yet unknown,
Ignore the clear fires that thy vapors inspire !
Thou countest, in thy vast empire
Those realms that Bacchus' reign disown.
Favored liquid, which fills all my soul with
delights,
Thy enchantments to life happy hours persuade.
We vanquish e'en sleep by thy fortunate aid,
Thou hast rescued the hours sleep would rob
from our nights.
Favored liquid which fills all my soul with
delights,
Thy enchantments to life happy hours persuade.
Oh liquid that I love,
Triumphant stream of sable.
E'en for the gods above,
Drive nectar from the table.
Make thou relentless war
Ou treacherous juices sly,
Let earth taste and adore
The sweet calm of the sky.
Oh liquid that I love,
Triumphant stream of sable.
E'en for the gods above.
Drive nectar from the table.
During the early vogue of the cafe in
Paris, a chanson, entitled Coffee, repro-
duced here, was set to music with accom-
paniment for the piano by M. H. Colet, a
professor of harmony at the Conservatoire.
Printed in the form of a placard, and put
up in cafes, it received the approbation of,
and was signed by, de Voyer d'Argenson,
at that time (1711) lieutenant of police. The
poetry is not irreproachable. It can hardly
be attributed to any of the well known
poets of the time; but rather to one of
those bohemian rimesters that wrote all too
abundantly on all sorts of subjects. It is
the development of a theory concerning
the properties of coffee and the best method
of making it. It is interesting to note that
the uses of advertising were known and ap-
preciated in Paris in 1711 ; for in the chan-
son there appears the name and address of
one Vilain, a merchant, rue des Lombards,
who was evidently in fashion at that period.
The translation of the stanza reproduced
is as follows :
".Mad Doo is a Coffee House" — Cakicature by Rowlandson
COFFEE AND THE ARTS
595
Napoleon axd the Curb— Litiiograpii by Ciiarlet
Coffee — A Chanson
If you, with mind untroubled,
Would flourish, day by day,
Let each day of the seven
Find coffee on your tray.
It will your frame preserve from every malady,
Its virtues drive afar, la ! ia !
Migrain and dread catarrh — ha ! ha !
Dull cold and lethars>'.
The most notable contribution to the
* ' music of coffee, ' ' if one may be permitted
the expression, is the Coffee Cantata of
Johann Sebastian Bach (1685-1750) the
German organist and the most modern com-
poser of the first half of the eighteenth
century. He hymned the religious senti-
ment of protestant Germany; and in his
Coffee Cantata he tells in music the protest
of the fair sex against the libels of the ene-
mies of the beverage, who at the time were
actively urging in Germany that it should
be forbidden women, because its use made
for sterility! Later on, the government
surrounded the manufacture, sale, and use
of coffee with many obnoxious restrictions,
as told in chapter VIII.
Bach's Coffee Cantata is No. 211 of the
Secular Cantatas, and was published in
Leipzig in 1732. In German it is known as
Schweigt stille, plaudert nicht (Be silent,
do not talk). It is written for soprano,
tenor, and bass solos and orchestra. Bach
used as his text a poem by Piccander. The
cantata is really a sort of one-act operetta
— a jocose production repesenting the ef-
forts of a stern parent to check his daugh-
ter's propensities in coffee drinking, the new
fashioned habit. One seldom thinks of
Bach as a humorist; but the music here is
written in a mock-heroic vein, the recita-
tives and arias having a merry flavor, hint-
ing at what the master might have done in
light opera.
The libretto shows the father Schlen-
drian, or Slowpoke, trying by various
596
Cbant.
ALL ABOUT COFFEE
LE Ck¥t, avec accompacneiueul do [liano |K)r S. il. COLET, professrur (i'kuroouie au Cunscnaloire.
y^^'S ... 1
AUegro. S
riANO.
m^m
Si vous vou-lez sans pei-ne\ivre cu bun-ne san
j^44,^fj4:]^^
Sempre staccato
^*2 I U-4
' 4 4 4 S-
4 4 1
« » i t
ertt.
*=?
^^
cr««. «y
^^
csii
^
•<> r f
±
• le, Sept jour&de la ae • maj - nePre - nezdubonca - f^ It
1 r crcu
^^
1
t »
^S
^^
^^^^^
y=iE
# 0 § -M.
-^—^
•yy
i
4H^
g" ' p T-f^f p f I -f^ f-f
3E
Tous pr^-«er<-ve - ra
t r k i
De tQn4e ma-la - di • e, Sa ver-tu cbasse •
y^"-Hj
^
i
FTplt
^
poeoF
tres.
@
iTJ^^^-'^"^
i-i-it
^
^
r^F?^FF?T^TrT-rTTP:=F=^^
ra, L4,la,Mi-graineelflu-xi - OD,Don»doD,Rbumeei in^«!an-co - li - e.
tij^ lUiriTll p-b^^*TW
I »p
F^-=cd;=j
^
fct
^e
X
^
S
i
fes:
t £in.
(froc<4w <U TaBteMUtn ct CorJel. 90, nw « U lUry*)
COFFEE— A CHANSON; MUSIC BY COLET, 1711
COFFEE AND THE ARTS
597
threats to dissuade his daughter from fur-
ther indulgence in the new vice, and, in the
end, succeeding by threatening to deprive
her of a husband. But his victory is only
temporary. When the mother and the
grandmother indulge in coffee, asks the
final trio, who can blame the daughter?
Bach uses the spelling coffee — not kaffee.
The cantata was sung as recently as De-
cember 18, 1921, at a concert in New York
by the Society of the Friends of Music, di-
rected by Arthur Bodanzky.
Lieschen, or Betty, the daughter, has a
delightful aria, beginning, "Ah, how sweet
coffee tastes — lovelier than a thousand kis-
ses, sweeter far than muscatel wine!" the
opening bars of which are reproduced on
page 598.
As the text is not long, it is printed here
in its entirety.
CHARA CTERS
Messenger and Nabkatob Tenor
Slowpoke Bass
Betty, daughter to Slowpoke Soprano
Tenor (Recitative) : Be silent, do not talk,
but notice what will happen! Here comes old
Slowpoke with his daughter Betty. He's
grumbling like a common bear — just listen to
what he says.
(Enter Slowpoke muttering) : What vexa-
tious things one's children are! A hundred
thousand naughty ways ! What I tell my daugh-
ter Betty might as well be told to the moon!
(Enter Betty.)
Slowpoke (Recitative) : You naughty child,
you mischievous girl, oh when can I have my
way — give up your coffee !
Betty : Dear father, do not be so strict ! If
I can't have my little demi-tasse of coffee three
times a day, I'm just like a dried up piece of
roast goat!
Betty (Aria) : Ah! How sweet coffee tastes!
Lovelier than a thousand kisses, sweeter far
than miiscatel wine! I must have my coffee,
and if any one wishes to please me, let him
present me with — coffee!
Slowpoke (Recitative) : If you won't give up
coffee, young lady, I won't let you go to any
wedding feasts — I won't even let you go
walking !
Betty : O yes ! Do let me have my coffee !
Slowpoke : What a little monkey you are,
anyway! I will not let you have any whale-
bone skirts of the present fashionable size!
Betty: Oh, I can easily fix that!
Slowpoke : But I won't let you stand at the
window and watch the new styles!
Betty : That does n't bother me, either. But
be good and let me have my coffee !
Slowpoke : But from my hands you'll get no
silver or gold ribbon for your hair!
Betty : . Oh well ! so long as I have what does
satisfy me!
Statue of Kolsciiitzky in Vienna
Slowpoke: You wretched Betty, you! You
won't give in to me?
Slowpoke (Air) : Oh these girls — what ob-
stinate dispositions they do have! They cer-
tainly are not easy to manage ! But if one hits
the right spot — oh well, one may succeed !
Slowpoke, icith an air of being sure of success
this time (Recitative) : Now please do what
father says.
Betty : In everything, except about coffee.
Slowpoke: Well, then, you must make up
your mind to do without a husband.
Betty: Oh — yes? Father, a husband?
Six)WPOKE : I swear you can't have him —
Betty: Till I give up coffee? Oh well —
coffee — let it be forgotten — dear father — I
will not drink — • none !
Slowpoke : Then you can have one !
Betty (Aria): To-day, dear father — do it
to-day. (He goes out.) Ah, a husband! Really
this suits me exactly ! When they know I must
have coffee, why, before I go to bed to-night I
can have a valiant lover! (Goes out.)
Tenor (Recitative) : Now go hunt up old
Slowpoke, and just watch him get a husband
for his daughter — for Betty is secretly making
it known "that no wooer may come to the house,
unless he promises me himself, and has it put
in the marriage contract that he will allow me
to make coffee whenever I will !"
598
ALL ABOUT COFFEE
i«»
Plaato travereo.
Lietchen.
Contlnao. gl^^^^-y— f-[^3j
B W XSIX
''Ah, How Sweet Coffee Tastes — Lovelier Than a Thousand Kisses, Sweeter Far than
Muscatel Wine !"
Opening bars of Betty's aria in Bach's Coffee Cantata, 1732
COFFEE AND THE ARTS
599
The Most Beautifui, Coffee House in the World
The Cafiffe Pedrocchi in Padua, Italy, empire period, erected by the poor lemonade vender and coffee seller,
Antonio Pedrocchi.
(Enter Slowpoke and Betty, singing — as
■chorus — ^cith Tenor.)
Trio : The cat will not give up the mouse,
old maids continue "coffee-sisters!" — the
mother loves lier drink of coffee — grandma, too,
is a coffee fiend — icho now will blame the
daughter !
Research has discovered only one piece
of sculpture associated with coffee — the
statue of the Austrian hero Kolschitz-
ky, the patron saint of the Vienna coffee
houses. It graces the second-floor corner
of a house in the Favoriten Strasse, where
it was erected in his honor by the Coffee
Makers' Guild of Vienna. The great
"brother-heart" is shown in the attitude of
pouring coffee into cups on a tray from an
oriental service pot.
The celebrated Caffe Pedrocchi, the cen-
ter of life in the city of Padua, Italy, in
the early part of the nineteenth century,
is one of the most beautiful buildings
erected in Italy. Its use is apparent at
first glance. It was begun in 1816, opened
June 9, 1831, and completed in 1842. An-
tonio Pedrocchi (1776-1852), an obscure
Paduan coffee-house keeper, tormented by
a desire for glory, conceived the idea of
building the most beautiful coffee house in
the world, and carried it out.
Artists and craftsmen of all ages since
the discovery of coffee have brought their
genius into play to fashion various forms
of apparatus associated with the prepara-
tion of the coffee drink. Coffee roasters
and grinders have been made of brass, sil-
ver, and gold; coffee mortars, of bronze;
and coffee making and serving pots, of
beautiful copper, pewter, pottery, porce-
lain, and silver designs.
In the Peter collection in the United
States National Museum there is to be seen
a fine specimen of the Bagdad coffee pot
made of beaten copper and used for mak-
ing and serving; also, a beautiful Turkish
coffee set. In the Metropolitan Museum in
600
ALL A B OUT COFFEE
Coffee Geinder Set with Jewels
In the Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York
New York there are some beautiful speci-
mens of Persian and Egyptian ewers in
faience, probably used for coffee service.
Also, in American and continental muse-
ums are to be seen many examples of seven-
teenth-century German, Dutch, and Eng-
lish bronze mortars and pestles used for
"braying" coffee beans to make coffee
powder,
A very beautiful specimen of the orien-
tal coffee grinder, made of brass and teak-
wood, set with red and green glass jewels,
and inlaid in the teakwood with ivory and
brass, is at the Metropolitan, This is of
Indo-Persian design of the nineteenth cen-
tury.
The Metropolitan Museum shows also
many specimens of pewter coffee pots used
in India, Germany, Holland, Belgium,
France, Russia, and England in the seven-
teenth and eighteenth centuries.
One can guess at the luxuriousness of the
coffee pots in use in France throughout the
eighteenth century by noting that from
March 20, 1754, to April 16, 1755,
Louis XV bought no fewer than three gold
coffee pots of Lazare Duvaux, They had'
carved branches, and were supplied with
** chafing dishes of burnished steel" and
lamps for spirits of wine. They cost, re-
spectively, 1,950, 1,536, and 2,400 francs. In
the "inventory of Marie- Josephe de Saxe,
Dauphine of France", we note, too, a "two
cup coffee pot of gold with its chafing dish
for spirits of wine in a leather case."
The Italian wrought-iron eoffee roaster
of the seventeenth century was often a
work of art. The specimen illustrated is
rich in decorative motifs associated with
the best in Florentine art.
Madame de Pompadour's inventory dis-
closed a ' ' gold coffee mill, carved in colored
gold to represent the branches of a coffee
tree." The art of gold, which sought to
embellish everything, did not disdain these
homely utensils; and one may see at the
Cluny Museum in Paris, among many mills
of graceful form, a coffee mill of engraved
iron dating from the eighteenth century,
upon which are represented the four sea-
sons. We are told, however, that it graced
the "sale after the death of Mme. de Pom-
padour", which, of course, makes it much
more valuable,
"The tea pot, coffee pot and chocolate
pot first used in England closely resembled
each other in form", says Charles James
Jackson in his Illustrated History of Eng-
Italian Wrought-Ieon Coffee Roaster
Courtesy of Edinon Monthly
COFFEE AND THE ARTS
601
Tea Pot, 1670
Coffee Pot, 1681
Coffee Pot, 1689
Seventeenth-Century Tea Pots and Coffee Pots
lish Plate, ''each being circular in plan,
tapering towards the top, and having its
handle fixed at a right angle with the
spout. ' '
He says further :
The earliest examples were of oriental ware
and the form of these was adopted by the Eng-
lish plate workers as a model for others of silver.
It apparently was iiot until after both tea and
coffee had been used for several years in this
country [England] that the tea pot was made
proportionately less in height and greater in
diameter than the coffee pot. This distinction,
which was probably due to copying the forms of
Chinese porcelain tea i)ots, was afterwards main-
tained, and to the present day the difference be-
tween the tea pot and the coffee pot continued
to be mainly one of height.
The coffee pot illustrated (1681) former-
ly belonged to the East India Company,
and is preserved in the Victoria and Al-
bert Museum. It is almost identical with
a tea pot (1670) in the same museum, ex-
cept that its straight spout is fixed nearer
to the base, as is its leather-covered handle,
which, with the sockets into which it fits,
forms a long recurving scroll fixed opposite
to and in line with the spout. Its cover,
which is hinged to the upper handle socket,
is high like that of the 1670 teapot ; but in-
stead of the straight outline of that cover,
this is slightly waved and surmounted by
a somewhat flat button-shaped knob. En-
graved on the body is a shield of arms, a
chevron between three crosses fleury, sur-
rounded by tied feathers. The inscription
is, ''The Guift of Richard Sterne Eq to ye
Honorable East India Compa."
This pot is nine and three-quarters
inches in height by four and seven-eighths
inches in diameter at the base ; it bears the
London hall-marks of 1681 - 82 and the
maker's mark "G. G." in a shaped shield,
thought by Jackson to be George Gar-
thorne's mark.
The 1689 coffee pot illustrated is the prop-
erty of King George V. It bears the Lon-
don hall-marks of 1689 - 90, and the mark
of Francis Garthorne. Its tall, round body
tapers toward the top, and has applied
moldings on the base and rim. Its spout
is straight and tapers upward to the level
of the rim of the pot. Its handle is of
ebony, crescent-shaped, and riveted into
two sockets fixed at a right angle with the
spout. The lid is a high cone surmounted
by a small vase-shaped finial, and is hinged
to the upper socket of the handle. On no
part of the pot is there any ornamentation
other than the royal cipher of King Wil-
liam III and Queen Mary, which is en-
graved on the reverse side of the body. This
example, which measures nine inches in
height to the top of its cover, resembles
very closely in form the East India Com-
pany's tea-pot just referred to; but as tea-
pots with much lower bodies appear to have
come into fashion before 1689, this pot was
probably used as a coffee pot from the first.
The 1692 coffee pot of lantern shape is
602
ALL ABOUT COFFEE
the property of H. D. Ellis, and has its
spout curved upward at the top, being fur-
nished with a small, hinged flap and a
scroll-shaped thumb-piece attached to the
rim of the cover. The body and cover were
originally quite plain, the embossing and
chasing with symmetrical rococo decoration
being added later, probably about 1740.
Jackson says the wooden handle is not the
original one, which was probably C-
shaped. The pot bears the usual London
hall-marks for the year 1692 and the
maker's mark is ''G G" upon a shaped
shield, a mark recorded upon the copper
plate belonging to the Goldsmiths' com-
pany, which Mr, Cripps thinks was that of
George Garthorne. The characteristics of
this lantern shaped coffee pot are :
1. The straight sides, so rapidly tapering from
tlie base upward that in a height of only six
inches the base diameter of four and three-
eighths inches tapers to a diameter of no more
than two and one-half inches at the rim.
2. The nearly straight spout, furnislied with
a flap or shutter.
3. The true cone of the lid.
4. The thumb-piece, which is a familiar fea-
ture upon the tankards of .the period.
FOLKINGHAM POT, 1715 - IG
5. The handle fixed at right angles to the
spout.
Mr. Ellis, in a paper before the Society
of Antiquaries^ on the earliest form of cof-
fee pot, says:
If coffee was first introduced into this country
by the Turkey merchants, nothing is more prob-
able than that those who first brought the berry,
brought also the vessel in which it was to be
served. Such a vessel would be the Turkish
ewer whose shape is familiar to us, the same
today as two hundred years ago, for in the East
things are slow to change. And throughout the
reign of the second Charles, so long as the ex-
tended use of coffee in the houses of the people
was retarded by the opposition of the Women
of England, and by the scarcely less powerful
influence of the King's Court, the small require-
ments of a mere handful of coffee-houses would
be easily met by the importation of Turkish ves-
sels. Reference to the coffee-house keepers'
tokens in the Beaufoy collection in the Guildhall
Museum shows that many of the traders of
1660 - 1675 adopted as their trade sign a hand
pouring coffee from a pot. This pot is invariably
of the Turkish ewer pattern. It is true that
there is nothing to show that the Turks them-
selves ever served coffee from the ewer, but it is
scarcely conceivable that, the English coffee-house
keepers should have adopted as their trade sign,
their pictorial advertisement, so to speak, a ves-
sel which had no connection with the commodity
in which they dealt, and which would convey no
meaning associated with coffee to the public.
But as soon as the extended use of the beverage
Lantern Coffee Pot, 1692
^Proceedings: Second Series, 1899 (vol. xvii ;
p. 390).
no. 2;
COFFEE AND THE ARTS
603
Wastell I'oT, 1720 - 21
created u deinaud which stimulated a home
manufacture of coffee-pots, a new departure is
apparent. The undulating outlines beloved by
the Orientals, bowed as their scimitars, curvi-
linear as their graceful flowing script, do not
commend themselves to the more severe West-
ern taste of the period which had then declared
its preference for sweet simplicity in silver-
smiths' work, such as we see in the basons, cups,
and especially the flat-topped tankards of that
day. The beauty of the straight line had as-
serted its i>ower. and fashion felt its sway.
Such was the feeling that produced the coffee-pot
of 1092, the straight lines of which continued
in vogue until the middle of the following cen-
tury, when a re-action in favour of bulbous
bodies and sei-i)entine spouts set in.
Some of the more notable of the coffee-
house-keepers' tokens in the Guildhall
Museum were photographed for this work.
They are described and illustrated in
chapter X.
There are illustrated other silver coffee
pots in the Victoria and Albert Museum,
by Folkingham (1715 - 16), and by Wastell
(1720-21), the latter pot being octagonal.
There is illustrated also a design in tiles
that were let into the wall of an ancient
coffee house in Brick Lane, Spitalfields,
known as the "Dish of Coffee Boy" in the
catalog of the collection of London antiq-
uities in the Guildhall Museum. Mr. Ellis
thinks this belongs to a period a little
earlier, but certainly not later, than 1692;
the coffee pot represented being exactly of
the lantern shape. It is an oblong sign of
glazed Delft tiles, decorated in blue,
brown, and yellow, representing a youth
pouring coffee. Upon a table, by his side,
are a gazette, two pipes, a bowl, a bottle,
and a mug; above, on a scroll, is, "dish of
coffee boy."
Modifications of the lantern began to ap-
pear with great rapidity in England. In
the coffee pot of Chinese porcelain, illus-
trated, probably made in China from an
English model a few years later than the
1692 pot, Mr. Ellis observes that "the spout
has already lost its straightness, the ex-
treme taper of the body is diminished, and
the lid betrays the first tendency to depart
from the straightness of the cone to the
curved outline of the dome. ' ' He adds :
These variations rapidly intensified, and at
the commencement of the eighteenth century we
find the body still less tapering and the lid has
become a perfect dome. As we approach the end
of Queen Anne's reign the thumb piece disap-
pears and the handle is no longer set on at right
angles to the spout. Through the reign of
George I but little modification took place, save
that the taper of the body became less and less.
In the Second George's time we find the taper
"Dish of Coffee Boy" Design in Delft Tiles
1692
604
ALL ABOUT COFFEE
Chinese Porcelain Coffee Pot
Late seventeentli century
has almost entirely disappeared, so that the
sides are nearly parallel, while the dome of the
lid has been flattened down to a very low eleva-
tion above the rim. In the second quarter of
the eighteenth century the pear shaped coffee
pot was the vogue. In the earlier years of
George III, when many new and beautiful de-
signs in silversmiths' work were created, a com-
plete revolution in coffee-pots takes place, and
the flowing outlines of the new pattern recall
the form of the Turkish ewer, which had been
discarded nearly one hundred years previously.
The evolution is shown by illustrations of
Lord Swaythling's pot of 1731; the coffee
jug of 1736 ; the Vincent pot of 1738 ; the
Viscountess Wolseley's coffee pot of copper
plated with silver ; the Irish coffee pot of
1760 ; and the silver coffee pots of 1773 - 76
and of 1779-80 (see illustrations on pages
604, 605 and 607).
There are illustrated in this connection
specimens of coffee pots in stoneware by
Elers (1700), and in salt glaze by Astbury,
and another of the period about 1725.
These are in the department of British and
medieval antiquities of the British Mu-
seum, where are to be seen also some
beautiful specimens of coffee-service pots in
Vincent Pot, Hall-marked, London, 1738 Lord Swaythling's Pot, 1731
Silver Coffee Pots, Early Eighteenth Century
From Jackson's "Ulustrated History of English Plate"
COFFEE AND THE ARTS
605
A ScoFiELu Pot of 1779 - 80 Coffee Juo, 173G
SILVER COFFEE POTS OF THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY
606
ALL ABOUT COFFEE
Salt-Glaze I'ot
By John Astbury
Salt-Glaze Pot
About 1725
POTS IN POTTERY AND PORCELAIN 18TH TO 20TH CENTURIES
1 — Staffordshire; 2 — English, eighteen to twentieth centuries; 3 — English, blue printed ware, eigh-
teenth to nineteenth centuries; 4 — Leeds, 1760-1790; 5 — Staffordshire, nineteenth to twentieth
centuries
COFFEE AND THE ARTS
607
:itiaej!idiMjii,&!'^-
Silver Coffee Pots, Late Eighteenth Century
Left, 1776-77. Right, 1773-4.
Whieldon ware, and in Wedgwood's jasper
ware.
Illustrated, too, are some beautiful
examples of the art of the potter, applied
to coffee service, as found in the Metropol-
itan Museum, where they have been
brought from many countries. Included
are Leeds and Staffordshire examples of
the eighteenth, nineteenth, and twentieth
centuries; a Sino-Lowestoft pot of the
eighteenth-nineteenth centuries; an Italian
(capodinionte) pot of the eighteenth cen-
tury; German pots of the eighteenth and
nineteenth centuries; a Vienna coffee pot of
the eighteenth century; a French {La
Seine) coffee pot of 1774-1793, a Sevres
pot of 1792-1804; and a Spanish eigh-
teenth-century coffee pot decorated in cop-
per luster.
At the Metropolitan may be seen also
Hatfield and Sheffield-plate pots of the
eighteenth and nineteenth centuries; and
many examples of silver tea and coffee
service and coffee pots by American silver-
smiths.
Silver tea pots and coffee pots were few
in America before the middle of the
eighteenth century. Early coffee-pot
examples were tapering and cylindrical in
form, and later matched the tea pots with
swelling drums, , molded bases, decorated
spouts, and molded lids with finials.
From notes by R. T. Haines Halsey and
John H. Buck, collected by Florence N,
Levy and woven into an introduction to
the Metropolitan Museum's art exhibition
catalog for the Hudson-Fulton celebration
of 1909, we learn that :
The first silver made in New England was
probably fashioned by English or Scotch emi-
grants who had served their time abroad. TJiey
were followed by craftsmen who were either
born here, or, like John Hull, arriving at an
early age, learned their trade on this side.
In England it was required that every master
goldsmith should have his mark and set it upon
his work after it was assayed and marked with
the king's mark (hall-mark) testifying to the
fineness of the metal.
608
ALL ABOUT COFFEE
SlNO-LOWESTOFT, EIGHTEENTH TO NINETEENTH CENTURIES
Italian Capodimoate, Eighteenth Centuky
La Seine, 1774 Sevres, 1792 German 1'ots, Eighteenth Century
PORCELAIN POTS IN THE METROPOLITAN MUSEUM, NEW YORK
COFFEE AND THE ARTS
609
The Colonial silversmiths marked their wares
with their initials, with or without emblems,
placed in shields, circles, etc., \\-ithout any guide
as to place of manufacture or date. After about
1725 it was the custom to use the surname, with
or without an initial, and sometimes the full
name. Since the establishment of the United
States the name of the town was often added
and also the letters D or C in a circle, probably
meaning dollar or coin, showing the standard or
coin from which the wares were made.
In the New York colony there were
evolved silver tea pots of a unique design,
that was not used elsewhere in the colonies.
Mr. Halsey says they were used indiscrim-
inately for both tea and coffee. In style
they followed, to a certain extent, the squat
pear-shaped tea pots of the period of 1717-
18 in England, but had greater height and
capacity.
The colonial silversmiths wrought many
beautiful designs in coffee, tea, and choco-
late pots. Fine specimens are to be seen in
the Halsey and Clearwater loan collections
in the Metropolitan Museum. Included in
the Clearwater collection is a coffee pot by
Pygan Adams (1712-1776) ; and recently,
there was added a coffee pot by Ephraim
Vienna Coffee Pot, 1830
In the MetroDolitan Museum of Art
Spanish Coffee Pot, Eighteenth Century
In the Metropolitan Museum
Brasher, whose name appears in the New
York City Directory from 1786 to 1805. He
was a member of the Gold and Silver-
smiths' Society, and he made the die for
the famous gold doubloon, known by his
name, a specimen of which recently sold in
Philadelphia for $4,000. His brother, Ab-
raham Brasher, who was an officer in the
continental army, wrote many popular bal-
lads of the Eevolutionary period, and was
a constant contributor to the newspapers.
Judge Clearwater's collection of colonial
silver in the Metropolitan Museum, to
which he is constantly adding, is a magnifi-
cent one; and the coffee pot is worthy of
it. It is thirteen and one-half inches high,
weighs forty-four ounces, exclusive of the
ebony handle, has a curved body and
splayed base, with a godrooned band to the
base and a similar edge to the cover. The
spout is elaborate and curved; the cover
has an urn-shaped finial ; and there is a dec-
oration of an engraved medallion sur-
rounded by a wreath with a ribbon form-
ing a true lover's knot.
In the Halsey collection is shown a silver
coffee pot by Samuel Minott, and several
beautiful specimens of the handiwork of
Paul Revere, whose name is more often con-
nected with the famous "midnight ride"
than with the art of the silversmith. Of all
610
ALL ABOUT COFFEE
l'.\' Samiu-l ;\Iitiott
Halsey Collection
By Charles Hatfield
Metropolitan Miis<.'um of Art
By Pygan Adams
Clearwater Coileciion
London Pot, 1773-74 By Jacob Hurd By Paul Revere
FuoM Francis Hill Bigelow's "Histokic Silver of the Colonies"
English Sheffield Plate Coffee Pots and Coffee Urn, Eighteenth Century
SILVER COFFEE POTS IN AMERICAN COLLECTIONS
COFFEE AND THE ARTS
611
the American silversmiths, Paul Revere
was the most interesting. Not only was he
a silversmith of renown, but a patriot,
soldier, grand master Mason, confidential
agent of the state of Massachusetts Bay,
engraver, picture-frame designer, and die-
sinker. He was born in Boston in 1735,
and died in 1818. He was the most famous
of all the Boston silversmiths, although he
is more widely known as a patriot. He was
the third of a family of twelve children,
and early entered his father's shop. When
only nineteen, his father died; but he was
able to carry on the business. The engrav-
ing on his silver bears witness to his abil-
ity. He engraved also on copper, and made
many political cartoons. He joined the ex-
pedition against the French at Crown
Point, and in the war of the Revolution was
a lieutenant-colonel of artillery. After the
close of the war, he resumed his business of
a goldsmith and silversmith in 1783. De-
cidedly a man of action, he well played
many parts ; and in all his manifold under-
tt)
1
^^HpIS V\A
Coffee Pot by Wm. Shaw and Wm. Priest
Made for Peter Faneuil (about 1751-52), who gave
to Boston Faneuil Hall, called the cradle of Ameri-
can liberty
Poj OF Sheffield I'late, 18th Ce>tuky
In the Metropolitan Museum
Silver 1'ot by Ephkaiji J{rasiiek
In the Clearwater Collection, Metropolitan Museum
612
ALL ABOUT COFFEE
French Silver Coffee Pot
Grand, Prize, Union Centrale, 1886.
takings achieved brilliant success. There
clings, therefore, to the articles of silver
made by him an element of romantic and
patriotic association which endears them to
those who possess them.
Eevere had a real talent that enabled
him to impart an unwonted elegance to his
work, and he was famous as an engraver of
the beautiful crests, armorial designs, and
floral wreaths that adorn much of his work.
His tea pots and coffee pots are unusually
beautiful.
Eevere coffee pots are to be seen in the
Boston Museum of Fine Arts as well as in
the Metropolitan Museum in New York.
The Boston Museum of Fine Arts has also
a coffee pot made by William Shaw and
William Priest in 1751-52 for Peter
Faneuil, the wealthiest Bostonian of his
time, who gave to Boston Faneuil Hall,
New England's cradle of American liberty.
Among other American silversmiths who
produced striking designs in coffee pots,
mention should be made of G-. Aiken
(1815) ; Garrett Eoff (New York, 1785 -
1850) ; Charles Faris (who worked in Bos-
ton about 1790) ; Jacob Hurd (1702 - 1758,
known in Boston as Captain Hurd) ; John
McMullin (mentioned in the Philadelphia
Directory for 1796) ; James Musgrave
(mentioned in Philadelphia directories of
1797, 1808, and 1811) ; Myer Myers (ad-
mitted as freeman. New York, 1746 ; active
until 1790; president of the New York
Silversmiths Society, 1786) ; and Anthony
Rasch (who is known to have worked in
Philadelphia, 1815).
In the museums of the many historical
societies throughout the United States are
to be seen interesting specimens of coffee
pots in pewter, Britannia metal, and tin
ware, as well as in pottery, porcelain, and
silver. Some of these are illustrated.
As in other branches of art during the
seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, the
United States were indebted to England,
Holland, and France for much of the early
pottery and porcelain. Elers, Astbury,
Whieldon, Wedgwood, their imitators, and
the later Staffordshire potters, flooded the
American market with their wares. Por-
celain was not made in this country pre-
vious to the nineteenth century. Decora-
tive pottery was made here, however, from
an early period. Britannia ware began to
take the place of pewter in 1825 ; and the
The Green Dragon Tavern Coffee Ubn
COFFEE AND THE ARTS
613
By an unknown silversmith
By Paul Revere
By I'aul Revere
Coffee Pots by American Silversmiths
introduction of japanned tin ware and pot-
tery gradually caused the manufacture of
pewter to be abandoned.
An interesting relic is in the collection of
the Bostonian Society. It is a coffee urn of
Sheffield ware, formerly in the Green Dra-
gon tavern, which stood on Union Street
from 1697 to 1832, and was a famous meet-
ing place of the patriots of the Revolu-
tion. It is globular in form, and rests on
a base ; and inside is still to be seen the
cylindrical piece of iron which, when
heated, kept the delectable liquid contents
of the urn hot until imbibed by the fre-
quenters of the tavern. The iron bar was
set in a zinc or tin jacket to keep such
fire-place ashes as still clung to it from
coming in contact with the coffee, which
w^as probably brewed in a stew kettle be-
fore being poured into the urn for serv-
ing. The Green Dragon tavern site, now
occupied by a business structure, is owned
Twentieth-Century American Coffee Service
The Portsmouth Pattern, by the Gorham Co.
614
ALL ABOUT COFFEE
i)y the St. Andrew's Lodge of Freemasons
of Boston; and at a recent gathering of
the lodge on St. Andrew's Day, the urn
was exhibited to the assembled brethren.
When the contents of the tavern were
sold, the urn was bought by Mrs. Eliza-
beth Harrington, who then kept a famous
boarding-house on Pearl Street, in a build-
ing owned by the Quincy family. The
house was razed in 1847, and was replaced
by the Quincy Block; and Mrs. Harring-
ton removed to High Street, and from there
to Chauncey Place. Some of the promi-
nent men of Boston boarded with her for
many years. At her death, the urn w^as'
given to her daughter, Mrs. John R. Brad-
ford. It was presented to the society by
Miss Phebe C. Bradford, of Boston, grand-
daughter of Mrs. Elizabeth Harrington.
A somewhat similar urn, made of pewter,
is in the Museum of the Maine Historical
Society of Portland, Me. ; another in the
Museum of the Essex Institute at Salem,
Mass.
Among the many treasured relics of
Abraham Lincoln is an old Britannia coffee
pot from which he was regularly served
while a boarder with the Rutledge family
at the Rutledge inn in New Salem (now
Menard) , 111. It was a valued utensil, and
Lincoln is said to have been very fond of
it. It is illustrated on page 690.
The pot is now the property of the Old
Salem Lincoln League, of Petersburg, 111.,
and was donated to it, with other relics, by
Mrs. Saunders, of Sisquoc, Cal., the only
surviving child of James and Mary Ann
Rutledge. Mrs. Rutledge carefully pre-
served this and other relics of New Salem
days ; and shortly before her death in 1878,
she gave them into the keeping of her
daughter, Mrs. Saunders, advising her to
preserve them until such time as a perma-
nent home for them would be provided by
a grateful people back at New Salem,
where they were associated with the im-
mortal Lincoln and his tragic romance
with her daughter Ann.
Turkish Coffee Set, Peter Collection, United States National Museum, Washington
Chapter XXXIV
THE EVOLUTION OF COFFEE APPARATUS
Showing the development of coffee-roasting, coffee- grinding, coffee-
making, and coffee-serving devices from the earliest time to the pres-
ent day — The original coffee grinder, the first coffee roaster, and
the first coffee pot — The original Fremh drip pot, the De Belloy per-
colator— Count Rumford's improvement — How the commercial
coffee roaster was developed — The evolution of filtration devices —
The old Carter'' pull-out" roaster — Trade customs in New York and
St. Louis in the sixties and seventies — The story of the evolution of
the Burns roaster — How the gas roaster was developed in France,
Great Britain, and the United States
A BOOK could be written on the sub-
ject of this chapter. We shall have
to be content to touch briefly upon
the important developments in the devices
employed. The changes that have taken
place in the preparation of the drink itself
will be discussed in chapter XXXVI,
In the beginning, that is, in Ethiopia,
about 800 A.D., coffee was looked upon as
a food. The whole ripe berries, beans and
hulls, were crushed, and molded into food
balls held in shape with fat. Later, the
dried berries were so treated. So the primi-
tive stone mortar and pestle were the
original coffee grinder.
The dried hulls and the green beans were
first roasted, some time between 1200 and
1300, in crude burnt clay dishes or in stone
vessels, over open fires. These were the
original roasting utensils.
Next, the coffee beans were ground be-
tween little millstones, one turning above
the other. Then came the mill used by
the Greeks and Romans for grain. This
mill consisted of two conical mill stones,
one hollow and fitted over the other, speci-
mens of which have been found in Pompeii.
The idea is the same as that employed in
the most modern rnetal grinder.
Between 1400 and 1500, individual earth-
enware and metal coffee-roasting plates ap-
peared. These were circular, from four to
six inches in diameter, about He inch thick,
slightly concave and pierced with smaU
holes, something like the modern kitchen
skimmer. They were used in Turkey and
Persia for roasting a few beans at a time
over braziers (open pans, or basins, for
holding live coals). The braziers were usu-
ally mounted on feet and richly orna-
mented.
About the same time we notice the first
appearance of the familiar Turkish pocket
cylinder coffee mill and the original Turk-
ish ibrik, or coffee boiler, made of metal.
Little drinking cups of Chinese porcelain
completed the service.
The original coffee boiler was not unlike
the English ale mug with no cover, smaller
at the top than at the bottom, fitted with
a grooved lip for pouring, and a long
straight handle. They were made of brass,
and in sizes to hold from one to six tiny
cupfuls. A later improvement was of the
ewer design, with bulbous body, collar top,
and cover.
The Turkish coffee grinder seems to have
suggested the individual cylinder roaster
615
616
ALL ABOUT COFFEE
Oldkst Coi-iEE Grinder
Ancient Egyptian mortar and pestle, probably used
for pounding coffee
which later (1650) became common, and
from which developed the huge modern
cylinder commercial roasting machines.
The individual coffee service of early civ-
ilization first employed crude clay bowls or
dishes for drinking; but as early as 1350,
Persian, Egyptian, and Turkish ewers,
made of pottery, were used for serving. In
the seventeenth century, ewers of similar
pattern, but made of metal, were the favor-
ite coffee-serving devices in oriental coun-
tries and in western Europe.
Between 1428 and 1448, a spice grinder
standing on four legs was invented ; and
this was later used for grinding coffee. The
drawer to receive the ground coffee was
added in the eighteenth century.
Between 1500 and 1600, shallow iron
dippers with long handles and foot-rests.
designed to stand in open fires, were used
in Bagdad, and by the Arabs in Mesopo-
tamia, for roasting coffee. These roasters
had handles about thirty-four inches long,
and the bowls were eight inches in diameter.
They were accompanied by a metal stirrer
(spatula) for turning the beans.
Another type of roaster was developed
about 1600. It was in the shape of an iron
spider on legs, and was designed, like that
just described, to sit in open fires. At this
period pewter serving pots were first used.
Between 1600 and 1632, mortars and
pestles of wood, iron, brass, and bronze
came into common use in Europe for bray-
ing the roasted beans. For several cen-
turies, coffee connoisseurs held that pound-
ing the beans in a mortar was superior to
grinding in the most efficient mill. Pere-
grine White's parents brought to America
on the Mayflower, in 1620, a wooden mor-
tar and pestle that were used for braying
coffee to make coffee "powder."
"When La Roque speaks of his father
bringing back to Marseilles from Constanti-
TiiE First Coffee Roaster, About 1400
nople in 1644 the instruments for making
coffee, he undoubtedly refers to the indi-
vidual devices which at that time in the
Orient included the roaster plate, the cylin-
der grinder, the small long-handled boiler,
and fenjeyns ( find jans), the little porcelain
drinking cups.
Grain Mill of Greeks and Romans
Also used for grinding coffee
The First Cylinder Roaster, About 1650
When Bernier visited Grand Cairo about
the middle of the seventeenth century, in
all the city's thousand-odd coffee houses he
found but two persons who understood the
art of roasting the bean.
About 1650, there was developed the in-
dividual cylinder coffee roaster made of
metal, usually tin plate or tinned copper,
suggested by the original Turkish pocket
grinder. This was designed for use over
open fires in braziers. There appeared
about this time also a combined making-
and-serving metal pot which was undoubt-
edly the original of the common type of
pot that we know today.
There appeared in England about 1660,
Elford's white iron machine (sheet iron
coated with tin) which was "turned on a
EVOLUTION OF APPARATUS
617
HisTOiiicAL Relics in the Peter Collection, United States National Museum
Bagdad coffee-roasting pan and stirrer. 2 — Iron mortar and pestle used for pounding coffee. 3 — Coffee
mill used by General and Mrs. Washington. 4 — Coffee-roasting pan used at Mt. Vernon. 5 — Bagdad
coffee pot with crow-bill spout
spit by a jack.^ " This was simply a larger
size of the individual cylinder roaster, and
was designed for family or commercial use.
Modifications were developed by the French
and Dutch. In the seventeenth century the
Italians produced some beautiful designs
in wrought-iron coffee roasters.
Before the advent of the Elford machine,
and indeed, for two centuries thereafter,
it was the common practise in the home to
roast coffee in uncovered eartlienware tart
dishes, old pudding pans, and fry pans.
Before the time of the modern kitchen
stove, it was usually done over charcoal
fires without flame.
The improved Turkish combination coffee
grinder with folding handle and cup recep-
> A mechanical contrivance that toolj the place of
a boy.
tacle for the beans, used for grinding,
boiling, and drinking, was first made in
Damascus in 1665. About this period, the
Turkish coffee set, including the long-han-
dled boiler and the porcelain drinking cups
in brass holders, also came into vogue.
In 1665, Nicholas Book, "living at the
Sign of the Frying Pan in St. Tulies
street," London, advertised that he was
"the only known man for making of mills
for grinding of coffee powder, which mills
arc sold by him from forty to forty-five
shillings the mill."
By combining the long-handle idea con-
tained in the Bagdad roaster Avith that of
the original cylinder roaster, the Dutch per-
fected a small, closed, sheet-iron cylinder-
roaster with a long handle that permitted
its being held and turned in open fire
618
ALL ABOUT COFFEE
places. From 1670, and well into the mid-
dle of the nineteenth century, this type
of family roaster enjoyed great favor in
Holland, France, England, and the United
States, more especially in the country dis-
tricts. The museums of Europe and the
United States contain many specimens.
The iron cylinder measured about five
inches in diameter, and was from six to
eight inches long, being attached to a three
or four foot iron rod provided with a
wooden handle. The green coffee was put
into the cylinder through a sliding door.
Balancing the roaster over the blaze by
resting the end of the iron rod projecting
from the far end of the roasting cylinder
in a hook of the usual fire-place crane, the
house-keeper was wont slowly to revolve the
cylinder until the beans had turned the
proper color.
Portable coffee-making outfits to fit the
pocket were much in vogue in France in
1691. These included a roaster, a grinder,
a lamp, the oil, cups, saucers, spoons, cof-
fee, and sugar. The roaster was first made
of tin plate or tinned copper; but for the
aristocracy silver and gold were used. In
1754, a white-silver coffee roaster eight
inches long and four inches in diameter
was mentioned among the deliveries made
to the army of the king at Versailles.
Humphrey Broadbent, "the London cof-
fee man" wrote in 1722:
I liold it best to roast coffee berries in an iron
Turkish Coffee Mill vessel full of little holes, made to turn on a spit
A fine specimen in the Peter collection, United States ^''^''. ^ cl^arcoal fire, keeping them oontinually
National Museum turning, and sometimes shaking them that they
Early French Wall and Table Grinders
Left, seventeenth-century coffee grinder in the Mus^e de la Porte de Hal — Center, wall mill, eighteenth
century — Right, iron mill, eighteenth century
m
EVOLUTION OF APPARATUS
619
Bkonze and Brass Moktars of the Seventeenth Century Used for Making Coffee Powder
Left, bronze (Germany) — Center, brass (England) — Right, bronze (Holland, 1632)
do not burn, and when they are taken out of
the vessel, spread 'em on some tin or iron plate
'till the vehemency of the lieat is vanished ; I
would recommend to every family to roast their
own coffee, for then they will be almost secure
from having any damaged berries, or any art
to increase the weight, which is very injurious
to the drinkers of coffee. Most persons of dis-
tinction in Holland roast their own berries.
Between 1700 and 1800, there was de-
veloped a type of small portable household
stove to burn coke or charcoal, made of
iron and fitted with horizontal revolving
cylinders for coffee roasting. These were
provided with iron handles for turning. A
modification of this type of roaster under
a three-sided hood, and standing on three
legs, was designed to sit on the hearth of
open fire-places, close to the fire or in the
smoldering ashes. Because of its greater
capacity, it was probably used in the inns
and coffee houses for roasting large batches.
Still another type, which made its appear-
ance late in the eighteenth century, was the
sheet-iron roaster suspended at the top of
a tall, iron, box-like compartment, or stove,
in which the fire was built. This, too, was
designed to ^roast coffee in comparatively
large quantities. In some examples it was
provided with legs.
Great silver coffee pots ("with all the
utensils belonging to them of the same
metal") were first used by Pascal at St.-
Germain's fair in Paris in 1672. It re-
mained for the English and American sil-
versmiths to produce the most beautiful
forms of silver coffee pots; and there are
some notable collections of these in Eng-
land and the Uiiited States.
The oriental serving pot was nearly al-
ways of metal, tall, and, in old models, of
graceful curve, with a slightly twisted orna-
mental beak in the form of an S, attached
below the middle of the vessel. A handle
ornamented in the same way formed a deco-
rative balance.
In 1692, the lantern straight-line coffee
serving pot with true cone lid, thumb-piece,
and handle fixed at right angle to the spout,
was introduced into England, succeeding
the curved oriental serving pot. In 1700,
coffee pots made of cheaper metals, like tin
and Britannia ware, began to appear on
the home tables of the people. In 1701,
silver coffee pots appeared in England hav-
ing perfect domes and bodies less tapering.
Between 1700 and 1800, silver, gold, and
delicate porcelain serving pots were the
vogue among European royalty.
Early American Coffee Roasters
Both the cast-iron spiders and the long-handled roas-
ters were used in open fireplaces previous to
1770
620
ALL ABOUT COFFEE
In 1704, Bull's machine for roasting cof-
fee was patented in England. This prob-
ably marks the first use of coal for com-
mercial roasting.
In 1710, the popular coffee roaster in
French homes was a dish of varnished earth-
enware. This same year a novelty was
introduced in France in the shape of a
fustian (linen) bag for infusing ground
coffee.
By 1714, the thumb-piece on English
serving pots had disappeared, and the han-
dle was no longer set at a right angle to
the spout. English coffee-pot bodies showed
a further modification in 1725, the taper
becoming less and less.
Coffee grinders were so common in France
in 1720 that they were to be had for a
dollar and twenty cents each. Their de-
velopment by the French had been rapid
from the original spice grinder. At first,
they were known as coffee mills ; but in the
eighteenth century, roasters came to be
known by that name. They were made of
iron, retaining the same principle of the
horizontal mill-stones — one of which is
fixed while the other moves — that the an-
cients employed for grinding wheat. They
'were squat, box-shaped affairs, having in
the center a shank of iron that revolved
upon a fixed, corrugated iron plate. There
was also the style that fastened to the wall.
At first, the drawer to receive ground cof-
fee was missing, but this was supplied in
later types. Before its invention, the
ground coffee was received in a sack of
Roaster with Three- Sided Hood
It succeeded the cast-iron spider, and was suspended
from a crane, or stood in the embers
Roasting, Making, and Serving Devices
■Rarly seventeenth century, as pictured by Dufour
greased leather, or in one treated on the
outside with beeswax — probably the origi-
nal of the duplex paper bag for conserving
the flavor.
The French brought their innate artistic
talents to bear upon coffee grinders, just
as they did upon roasters and serving pots.
In many instances they made the outer parts-
of silver and of gold.
By 1750, the straight-line serving pot in
England had begun to yield to the re-
actionary movement in art favoring bulb-
ous bodies and serpentine spouts.
About 1760, French inventors began to
devote themselves to improvements in cof-
fee-making devices. Donmartin, a Paris
tinsmith, in 1763, invented an urn pot that
employed a flannel sack for infusing. An-
other infusion device, produced the same
year by L'Aine, also a tinsmith of Paris,
was known as a diligence.
A complete revolution in the style of
English serving pots took place in 1770,
EVOLUTION OF APPARATUS
621
English and French Coffee Grinders
Nineteenth century
with a return to the flowing lines of the
Turkish ewer ; and between 1800 and 1900,
there was a gradual return to the style of
serving pot having the handle at a right
angle to the spout.
In 1779, Richard Dearman was granted
an English patent on a new method of mak-
ing mills for grinding coffee. In 1798, the
first American patent on an improved cof-
fee grinding mill -was granted to Thomas
Bruff, Sr. It was a wall mill, fitted with
iron plates, in which the coffee was ground
between two circular nuts, three inches
broad and having coarse teeth around their
centers and fine shallow teeth at the edges.
De Belloy's (or Du Belloy's) coffee pot
appeared in Paris about 1800. It was first
made of tin; but later, of porcelain and
silver — the original French drip pot. This
device was never patented; but it appears
to have furnished the inspiration for many
inventors in France, England, and the
United States. The first French patent
on a coffee maker was granted to Denobe,
Henrion, and Rouch in 1802. It was for
a "pharmacological-chemical coffee-making
device by infusion." Charles Wyatt ob-
tained a patent the same year in London
on an apparatus for distilling coffee. The
De Belloy pot is illustrated on page 622.
In 1806, Hadrot was granted a French
patent on a device ' ' for filtering coffee with-
out boiling and bathed in air." This use
of the word filtering was misleading, as it
was many times after in French, English,
and American patent nomenclature, where
it often meant percolation or something
quite different from filtration. True per-
colation means to drip through fine inter-
stices of china or metal. Filtration means
to drip- through a porous substance, usually
cloth or paper. De Belloy's pot was a
percolator. So was Hadrot 's. The im-
provement on which Hadrot got his patent
was to "replace the white iron filter (sic)
used in ordinary filtering pots by a filter
composed of hard tin and bismuth" and
to use ' ' a rammer of the same metal, pierced
with holes." The rammer was designed to
press down and to smooth out the powdered
coffee in an even and uniform fashion. ' ' It
also," says Hadrot in his specification,
' ' stops the derangement which boiling water
poured from a height can produce. It is
held by its stem a half inch from the sur-
face of the powder so that it receives only
the action of the water which it divides and
facilitates thus the extraction which it must
produce in each of the particles."
A coffee percolator was invented in Paris
about 1806 by Benjamin Thompson, F.R.S.,
an American-British scientist, philanthrop-
ist, and administrator. He was known as
Count Rumford, a title bestowed on him
by the Pope. Rumford 's invention was
first given to the public in London in 1812.
He has gained great credit for his device,
because of an elaborate essay that he wrote
on it in Paris under the title of The excel-
Eighteenth-Century Roaster
Essex Institute, Salem, Mass.
622
ALL ABOUT COFFEE
The Original Feencjh Drip Pot
Cafetidre A la De Belloy
lent qualities of coffee and the art of mak-
ing it in the highest perfection, and that
he caused to be published in London in
1812. It was a simple percolator pot pro-
vided with a hot-water jacket, and was a
real improvement on the French drip or
percolator coffee pot invented by De Belloy,
but not at all unlike Hadrot's patented de-
vice. Count Rumford, however, was a
picturesque character, and a good adver-
tiser. He is generally credited with the
invention of the coffee percolator; but ex-
amination of his device shows that, strictly
speaking, the De Belloy pot was just as
much a percolator, and apparently ante-
dated it by about six years.
De Belloy employed the principle of hav-
ing the boiling water drip through the
ground coffee when held in suspension by
a perforated metal or porcelain grid. This
is true percolation. Hadrot did the same
thing with the improvements noted above.
Count Rumford in his essay admits that
this method of making coffee was not new,
but claims his improvement was. This was
to provide a rammer for compressing the
ground coffee in the upper or percolating
device into a definite thickness, this being
accomplished by providing the perforated
circular tin disk water-spreader that rested
on the ground coffee with four projections,
or feet, that kept the spreader within half
an inch of the grid holding the powder in
suspension and free from "agitation."
His argument was that two-thirds of an
inch of ground coffee should be leveled and
compressed into a half-inch thickness be-
fore the boiling water was introduced.
Practically the same result was achieved
in the De Belloy and Hadrot pots, also pro-
vided with water-spreaders and pluggers,
but the same mathematical exactitude in
the matter of the depth of the ground coffee
before the percolation started was not as-
sured. De Belloy 's spreader did not have
the projections on the under side upon
which Count Rumford laid such stress.
Then there was the hot-water jacket, which
was an improvement on Hadrot's hot air
bath. Inventors that followed Rumford
have made light of the importance that
he attached to scientific accuracy in coffee-
making; but it is interesting to note how
many of the features of the De Belloy,
Hadrot, and Rumford pots have been re-
tained in the modern complex coffee ma-
chines, and in most of the filtration devices.
Belgian, Russian, and French Pewter Serving Pots
These are in the Metropolitan Museum and are of nineteenth century design
EVOLUTION OF APPARATUS
623
French inventors continued to apply
themselves to coffee-roasting and coffee-
making problems, and many new ideas were
evolved. Some of these were improved
upon by the Dutch, the Germans, and the
Italians; but the best work in the line of
improvements that have survived the test
of time was done in England and the United
States.
In 1815, Sene was granted a French pat-
ent on "a device to make coffee without
boiling." In 1819, Laurens produced the
original of the percolation device in which
the boiling water is raised by a tube and
sprayed over the ground coffee. The same
year Morize, a Paris tinsmith and lamp-
maker, followed with a reversible, double
drip pot which was the pioneer of all the
reversible filtration pots of Europe and
America. Gaudet, another tinsmith, in
1820, patented an improvement on the per-
colator idea, that employed a cloth filter.
By 1825, the pumping percolator, working
by steam pressure and by partial vacuum,
was much used in France, Holland, Ger-
many, and Austria.
Meanwhile, it was common practise to
roast coffee in England in "an iron pan or
in hollow cylinders made of sheet iron";
while in Italy, the practise was to roast it
in glass flasks, which were fitted with loose
corks. The flasks were "held over clear
fires of burning coals and continually agi-
tated." Anthony Schick was granted an
English patent in 1812, on a method, or
process, for roasting coffee ; but as he never
filed his specifications, we shall probably
never know what the process was. The cus-
tom of the day in England was to pound
the roasted beans in a mortar, or to grind
them in a French mill.
Cor NT Rumford's Percolator
In 1822, Louis Bernard Kabaut was
granted an English patent in which the
French drip process was reversed by using
steam pressure to force the boiling water
upward through the coffee mass. Casse-
neuve, a Paris tinsmith, seems to have
patented practically the same idea in France
in 1824. Casseneuve employed a paper
filter in his machine.
In America, a United States patent was
granted in 1813 to Alexander Duncan
Moore of New Haven on a mill ' ' for grind-
ing and pounding coffee." This was fol-
lowed by a patent granted to Increase Wil-
son, of New London, in 1818, on a steel
mill for grinding coffee.
I'EWTER Pots of the Seventeenth and Eighteenth Centukies
Left to right, they are German, Flemish, English, and Dutch specimens In the Metropolitan Museum
624
ALL ABOUT COFFEE
Patent Drawings of Early French Coffee Makers
Left drip pot of 1806 — Next two, Durant's inner-tube pot, 1827 — Next (fourth), Gandais' first practicable
' percolator, 1827 — Right, Grandin & Crepeaux' percolator, 1832
In 1815, Archibald Kenrich was granted
a patent in England on "mills for grinding
coffee."
The coffee biggin, said to have been in-
vented by a Mr. Biggin, came into common
use in England for making coffee about
1817. It was usually an earthenware pot.
At first it had in the upper part a metal
strainer like the French drip pots. Sus-
pended from the rim in later models there
was a flannel or muslin bag to hold the
ground coffee, through which the boiling
water was poured, the bag serving as a
filter. The idea was an adaptation of the
French fustian infusion bag of 1711, and
of other eav\y French drip and filtration
devices, and it attained great popularity.
Any coffee pot with such a bag fitted into
its mouth came to be spoken of as a coffee
biggin. Later, there was evolved the metal
pot with a wire .strainer substituted for the
cloth bag. The coffee biggin still retains
its popularity in England.
AVhile French inventors were busy with
coffee makers, English and American in-
ventors were studying means to improve
the roasting of the beans. Peregrine Wil-
liamson, of Baltimore, was granted the first
patent in the United States for an improve-
ment on a coffee roaster in 1820. In 1824,
Richard Evans was granted a patent in
England for a commercial method of roast-
ing coffee, comprising a cylindrical sheet-
iron roaster fitted with improved flanges
for mixing; a hollow tube and trier for
sampling coffee while roasting ; and a means
for turning the roaster completely over to
empty it.
The next year, 1825, the first coffee-pot
patent in the United States was granted to
Lewis Martelley of New York. It marked
the first American attempt to perfect an
Early French Filtration Devices
Xeft, Casseneuve's filter-paper machine, 1824 — Center, Gaudet's cloth-filter pot, 1820 — Rig-ht, Raparlier's
percolator
EVOLUTION OF APPARATUS
625
Early American Coffee-Maker Patents
Left, Waite & Sener's Old Dominion pot — Right, Ben-
cini's steam condenser
arrangement to condense the steam and the
essential oils and to return them to the
infusion. In 1838, Antoni Beneini, of Mil-
ton, N. C, was granted a similar patent in
the United States. Rowland, in 1844, and
Waite and Sener, in their Old Dominion
pot of 1856, tried for the same result,
nameh', the condensation of the steam in
upper chambers.
The French meantime focused on coffee
makers; and in 1827, Jacques Augustin
Gandais, a manufacturer of plated jewelry
in Paris, produced a really practicable
pumping percolator. This machine had the
ascending steam tube on the exterior. The
same year, 1827, Nicholas Felix Durant, a
manufacturer in Chalons-sur-Marne, was
granted a French patent on a percolator
employing for the first time an inner tube
for spraying the boiling water over the
ground coffee.
In 1828, Charles Parker, of Meriden.
Conn., began work on the original Parker
coffee mill, which later was to bring him
fame and fortune.
The next year, 1829, the first French
patent on a coffee mill was issued to Co-
laux & Cie. of Molsheim.
That same year, 1829, the fitablissements
Lauzaune, Paris, began to make hand-
turned iron-cylinder coffee-roasting ma-
chines.
In 1831, David Selden was granted a
patent in England for a coffee-grinding
mill having cones of cast iron.
The first Parker coffee-grinder patent for
a household coffee and spice mill was issued
in the United States in 1832 to Edmund
Parker and Herman M. White of Meriden,
Conn. The Charles Parker Company's
business was founded the same year. In
1832 and 1833, United States patents were
issued to Ammi Clark, of Berlin, Conn.,
also on improved coffee and spice mills for
home use.
Amos Ransom, Hartford, Conn., was
granted a United States patent on a coffee
roaster in 1833.
The English began exporting coffee-roast-
ing and coffee-grinding machinery to the
United States in 1833 -34.
It was not until 1836 that the first French
patent was issued on a combined coffee-
Fbench Coffee Makers, Nineteenth Century
1, 2 — Improved Franch drip pots. ?> — Persian de-
sign. 4 — De Belloy pot. 5 — Russian revers-
ible pot. 6 — New filter machine. 7 — Glass
filter pot. 8 — Syphon machine. 9 — Vienna
Incomparable. 10 — Double glass "balloon" de-
vice
626
ALL ABOUT COFFEE
A. D. 1824. Feb. 28. 2f? 4907
EVAN'S' Specification.
F I c
/i SBKBJ)
FIG 6
-K" ;
The tnroUtd. droMrin^ is colored.
F I C 5
FIG 4
.£ 2_
x:=o^
I
F I C .3
G -^
^
''X
''SI?
\e-% z
*^^
=^^==?
Drawn, an Stone "by Walby ^ Sons
FIRST ENGLISH COMMERCIAL COFFEE-ROASTER PATENT, 1824
Fig. 1 — End elevation. Fig. 2 — Front sectional view. Fig. 3 — Front elevation, showing how the roasting
cylinder was turned completely over to empty. Fig. 4 — The examiner, or trier. Fig. ."5 — Tube (J)
to be inserted in H of Fig. 6 to prevent escape of aroma
EVOLUTIOX OF APPARATUS
627
Early French Coffee-Roasting Machines
1 — Delephine's coke machine. 2 — Bernard's machine, 1841. 3 — Circlet for same.
machine
Postulart's gas
roaster-and-grinder to FraiiQois Rene La-
coux of Paris. The roaster was made of
porcelain, because the inventor believed
that metal imparted a bad taste to the
beans while roasting.
In 1839, James Vardy and Moritz Platow
were granted an English patent on a kind
of urn percolator employing the vacuum
process of coifee making, the upper vessel
being made of glass. The first French pat-
ent on a glass coffee-making device, using
the same principle, was granted to Madame
Vassieux, of Lyons, in 1842. These were
the forerunners of the double glass "bal-
loons" for making coffee which later on, in
the early part of the twentieth century,
attained much vogue in the United States.
They were verj^ popular in Europe until
the latter part of the nineteenth century.
In 1839, John Rittenhouse, of Philadel-
phia, was granted a United States patent
on a cast-iron mill designed to handle the
problem of nails and stones in grinding
coffee. His improvement was intended to
prevent injury to the grinding teeth by
stopping the machine.
In 1840, Abel Stillman, Poland, N. Y.,
was granted a United States patent on a
family coffee roaster having a mica window
to enable the operator to observe the coffee
while roasting. (See 10, page 630.)
In ]841, William Ward Andrews was
granted an English patent on an improved
coffee pot employing a pump to force the
boiling water upward through the coffee,
which was contained in a perforated cylin-
der screwed to the bottom of the pot. This
was Rabaut's idea of nineteen years before.
628
ALL ABOUT COFFEE
>l.lv
^
^ H
1
EVOLUTION OF APPARATUS
629
We find it again repeated in the United
States in a machine which appeared on the
New York market in 1906.
In 1841, Claude Marie Victor Bernard,
of Paris, was granted a French patent on
a coffee roaster, which was an improvement
designed to bring the roasting cylinder and
the fire in closer contact. This was accom-
plished, to quote the quaint language of the
inventor, by applying movable legs and "by
superimposing a sheet iron circlet around
the edge of the furnace to get double the
quantity of heat and it presents so much
advantage that it has seemed to me worthy
of being patented." (See 4, page 627.)
But the French were only toying with
the roaster, because roasting in France was
not yet a separate branch of business, as it
had become in England and the United
States, where keen minds were already at
work on the purely commercial coffee-roast-
ing machine. The application of intensive
thought in this direction was destined to
bear fruit in America in 1846, and in Eng-
land in 1847.
P'rench inventive genius continued to oc-
cupy itself with coft'ee making, and in the
invention of Edward Loysel de Santais,
of Paris, in 1843, produced the first of the
ideas that were later incorporated in the
hydrostatic percolator for making "two
thousand cups of coffee an hour"^ at the
exposition of 1855, and that has since been
improved upon by the Italians in their
rapid-filter machines. It should be noted
that Loysel's 2,000 cups were probably
demi-tasses. The modern Italian rapid-fil-
ter machine produces about 1,000 large
coffee cups per hour.
James W. Carter, of Boston, was granted
a United States patent in 1846 on his "pull-
out" roaster; and this was the machine
most generally employed for trade roasting
in America for the next twenty years. Car-
ter did not claim to have invented the com-
bination of cylindrical roaster and furnace ;
but he did claim priority for the combina-
tion, with the furnace and roasting vessel,
of the air space, or chamber, surrounding
it, "the same being for the purpose of
preventing the too rapid escape of heat
from the furnace when the air chamber's
induction and eduction air openings or pas-
sages are closed."
The Carter "pull-out," ^'as so called
because the roasting cylii/der of sheet
iron was pulled out from the furnace on a
shaft supported by standards, to be emp-
tied or to be refilled from sliding doors in
its ' ' sides. ' ' It was in use for many years
m such old-time plants as that of Dwinell-
Wright Company, 25 Haverhill Street. Bos-
ton; by James H. Forbes and William
Schotten in St. Louis; and by D. Y. Harri-
son in Cincinnati.
The picture of a roasting room with
Carter machines in operation, reproduced
here, recalled to George S. Wright, the
present head of the Dwinell-Wright Com-
pany's business, the scene as he saw it so
many times when, as a boy of ten or twelve,
he occasionally spent a day in his father's
factory. "The only difference I notice,"
he wrote the author, "is that, according to
my recollection, there was no cooler box
to receive the roasted coffee, which was
dumped on the floor where it was spread out
three or four inches deep with iron rakes
and sprinkled with a watering pot. The
contact of water and hot coffee caused so
much steam that the roasting room was in
a dense fog for several minutes after each
batch of coffee was drawn from the fire."
A. E. Forbes also thus recalled the Car-
ter machine in his father's factory in St.
Louis in 1853, when he used to help after
school; and sometimes ran the roasters,
after 1857:
It was bnrrel shaped, having a slide the full
lenprth of one side to fill and empty. A heavy-
shaft ran through the centre, resting on the wall
of the furnace at the rear end and on an upright
about eight feet from the front wall. The fire
was about sixteen to eighteen inches below the
cylinder and of feoft coal. The cylinder was not
lierforated, the theory being to keep the vapors
from escaping.^ This of course was erroneous.
The color of the smoke bursting from the edge
of the slide was our medium of telling when
the roasting process was nearing completion,
and often the cylinder was pulled out and opened
for inspection several times before that point
was reached. When just right, the belt was
shifted to a loose pulley, stopping the cylinder,
which was pulled off the fire. A handle was at-
tached to the shaft, the slide drawn, and the
coffee was dumped into a wooden tray which
had to be shoved under the cylinder. The cof-
fee was stirred around in the tray until cool
enough to sack.
The roaster man had to be a hiisky in those
days to pick up a sack of Rio weighing al)out
one hundred, sixty to one hundred, seventy-five
pounds (not a hundred, thirty-two pounds^ as
' Jardin, Edelestan. Le CaJHer et Le Ca)6, Paris,
1895 (p. 290)
' In his patent specification, Mr. Carter said on this
point : "Small holes should be made through the
roaster In sufficient number to allow of the escape
of the vapors and volatile matters which escape from
the coffee while undergoing the process of being
roasted."
630
ALL ABOUT COFFKE
EARLY ENGLISH AND AMERICAN COFFEE ROASTERS
1, 2 — English charcoal machines. 3, 5, 8 — American coal-stove roasters. 4 — Remington's wheel-of-
buckets (American) roaster, 1841. 6 — Wood's roaster. 7 — Hyde's stove roaster. 9 — Reversible stove
roaster. 10 — Abel Stillman's stove roaster
now) and to empty it in the cylinder. We had
no overhead hoppers.
Later we built in the rear and put in two
cylinders of the Chris Abele type, having sta-
tionary fronts and filling and emptying from the
front end. We still used soft coal, with the fire
sixteen to eighteen inches under the cylinder.
We had other machines made locally from the
Carter pattern. The idea of the tight cylinder
was to keep out smoke, as well as to keep in
the aroma. I think we were the first to use
perforations, because I remember old Jabez
Burns coming along after we put in one of his
machines and remarking on it. . . . We had a
kind of mechanical genius for engineer at that
time (he also did the roasting) and he conceived
the idea that we ought to get rid of the moisture
in the roasting coffee because it would cook
quicker. When the holes clogged up, he put in
loose pieces of wire bent at the ends which shook
as the cylinder revolved and kept the holes open.
Another thing, he put a hole in the cylinder
head and a stopper with a" string on it so he
could get out a few grains at a time to note the
progress of the roasting — but he judged mostly
by the smoke.
EVOLUTION OF APPARATUS
631
The cooling box was as I have described it,
but later we put in a perforated false bottom
which let out some chaff and small stones.
On our first watering, we pulled out the slide
and dashed in a bucket of water, then closed the
slide and let it revolve outside the furnace.
This was hard on the cylinder, so later we used
the sprinkling can and put on water sparingly.
Once we had a party that wanted to put in a
soapstone lined roaster, and another near us
named Salzgerber patented a superheated-steam
roaster which was shaped like our modern milk
bottle. This was covered with asbestos and
worked on a central bearing so it could be de-
pressed for emptying and elevated for filling.
It did good work.
Mr. Forbes' recollections of the early
days of roasting and selling coffee at retail
in St. Louis are so illuminating, and paint
so interesting a picture of the period that
they are printed here to illustrate the con-
ditions that prevailed generally at the time
when the commercial roasting machine of
the United States was being developed into
the modern type. He says further :
Selling roasted coffee was up-hill work, as
every one roasted coffee in the kitchen oven.
People were buying, say, at twenty cents. Our
asking twenty-five cents "roasted" called for a
lot of explanation about shrinkage, tight cylin-
ders so the strength and flavor could not get
away, etc. ; while, when they roasted a pound
in the oven the flavor scented the whole house,
thus losing so much strength to say nothing of
the unevenness of their roasts — part raw, part
roasted, producing an unpleasant taste. An oc-
casional burned roast lat home helped some.
They tell of a man who, going out in the back
yard and kicking over a clod by accident, un-
covered some burned coffee. He called to his
wife and wanted an explanation. She acknowl-
edged she had burnt it, and hid it so he would
not scold. He said, "We had better buy it
roasted in the future and avoid such accidents."
We roasted in the cellar. We had an elabo-
rately polished Reed & Mann engine in one win-
dow, two brass hoppered mills in the other, and
our boiler was under the sidewalk. We had a
mahogany4op counter, oil paintings on the wall,
and bin fronts of Chinamen, etc., done by the
celebrated artist. Mat Hastings (now dead) ; so
you see we started right.
The fight we had to Introduce roasted coffee
was fierce. Our argument was on the saving of
fuel, labor, temper, scorched faces, and anything
we could think of. We talked only three coffees,
Rio, Java, and Mocha. When Santos began to
come, it was hard to change them over from
the rank Rio fiavor to the more mild Santos.
The latter they claimed did not have the rough
taste. They missed It and longed for the wild
tang of the Rio.
We did not import, but bought In New Orleans
and from several local wholesale grocers. No
one delivered. Shipments were f. o. b. St. Louis.
Draying and packages were extra. Coffee was
not cleaned or stoned, but was sold as it came
from the sack. However, we did not use any
very low grades then. If any one complained of
the stones hurting their mills, we advised them
to buy ground coffee, showing how it kept better
ground as it was packed tight, whereas the
roasted was looser and the air could get through
it. It was fully a year or more before we began
to sell in quantities to make it profitable. In
roasting for others, we got a cent per pound;
and after awhile, that became so much a busi-
ness it paid all our expenses. We were the first
to roast coffee by steam power west of the
MHssissippi and east of the Rocky Mountains.
The tea department helped us to hold out until
coffee got its hold on the public; for in those
days every one used tea and Insisted on having
it good. Price was no object How different
now!
Five years later (1862) J. Nevison, an English-
man, drifted into town and opened at 85 North
Fourth Street. He got out a very bombastic
circular which caused us to put out the one I
enclose (illustration, page 436). Then came a
party named Chllds ; and after him, Hugh Men-
own, grand-uncle of the present Menown, of
Menown & Gregory; and Mat Hunt; all passed
over to the Great Majority. After the Civil War
they multiplied pretty fast, coming and going
until now we have nineteen roasting establish-
ments in the city.
The late Julius J. Schotten also wrote
the author as follows concerning the days
of the Carter roaster and of the wholesale
coffee-roasting business founded by "Wil-
liam Schotten in 1862:
In the early days, everj' wholesale grocer was
selling coffee ; the wholesale grocer controlled
ninety percent of the trade in the country. It
did not pay the coffee roaster to have men on
the road selling coffee in those days. Such
being the case, seventy-five percent of the roast-
ing done by the coffee roasters was job roasting,
at one cent a iwund.
In the beginning there were only two kinds of
roasted coffee known to the trade in this section
of the countiy (St. Louis) and of course one of
these brands was "Rio" — the other, "Java".
The former was a genuine Rio, but the Java
was mostly Jamaica coffee.
Roasted coffee then was packed (for cits'
trade) in five and ten pound packages, and this
size package seemed to supply the wants of the
ordinary grocer for a week. Occasionally a
twenty-five pound package, and in a few In-
stances as much as fifty pounds of one grade
was sold at a time.
The class of customers the coffee roasters sold
in those days were the smaller merchants; the
larger stores, having their Ideas as to quality,
bought their coffees green. As they had very
little sale for the roasted, they would send a
half-sack, and sometimes a whole sack to have
it roasted. It took a number of years to Induce
the larger grocers, and even the average grocers,
to purchase their coffee already roasted.
Coffees were ix>asted in the old style, "pull-
out" roaster cylinder. That is to say, It was
necessary to stop the roaster and to pull out the
cylinder to sample the coffee In order to know
when to take the coffee off the fire. When the
coffee was ready to take off, the cylinder was
pulled out its entire length. It was then turned
632
ALL ABOUT COFFEE
EARLY FOREIGN AND AMERICAN COFFEE-MAKINa DEVICES
■ English adaptation of French hoiler. 2 — English coffee biggin. .3 — ImprovectyBiunifiOtd. percolator. 4 —
Jones's exterior-tube percolator. 5 — Parker's steam-fountain coffee maker. 6 '-;- Platow's fllterer. 7 ^-
Brain's Vacuum, or pneumatic, filter. 8 — Bearfs percolator. 9 — American coffee biggin. 10 — cloth-
bag drip pot. 11 — Vienna coffee pot. 12 — Le B run's cafetifere. 13 — Reversible'Potsdam cafetiere. 14,
15 — Gen. Hutchinson's percolator and urn. 16 — Etruscan biggin
I
EVOLUTION OF APPARATUS
633
over ami a slide nine inciies wide, running the
full length of the cylinder, was opened and the
contents were dumped in the cooling box. When
the coffee reached the cooling box, it took two
men with hoes or wooden shovels to stir and
turn it until it was properly cooled, there being
no cooling arrangements then as we have
nowadays.
At that time there were no stonitig or sepa-
rating machines ; and as a bag of the ordinary
green Jamaica coffee contained from three to five
pounds of stones and sticks, it was necessary to
hand-pick the coffee after it was roasted.
After Carter, the next United States cof-
fee-roaster patent was granted to J. R.
Remington, of Baltimore, on a roaster em-
ploying a wheel of buckets to move the
green coffee beans singly through a charcoal
heated trough. It never became a com-
mercial success. (See 4, page 630.)
In 1847-48, William and Elizabeth Da-
kin were granted patents in England on an
apparatus for "cleaning and roasting cof-
fee and for making decoctions." The
roaster specification covered a gold, silver,
platinum, or alloy-lined roasting cylinder
and traversing carriage on an overhead
railway to move the roaster in and out of
the roasting oven; and the "decoction"
specification covered an arrangement for
twisting a cloth-bag ground-coffee-container
in a coffee biggin, or applied a screw mo-
tion to a disk within a perforated cylinder
containing the ground coffee, so as to
squeeze the liquid out of the grounds after
infusion had taken place.
The roaster has survived, but the coffee
maker was not so fortunate. The Dakin
idea was that coffee was injuriously affected
by coming in contact %vith iron during the
roasting process. The roasting cylinder
was enclosed in an oven instead of being
directly exposed to the furnace heat.
The apparatus was provided also with a
"taster," or sampler, the first of its kind,
to enable the operator to examine the roast-
ing berries without stopping the machine.
As will be seen by referring to the picture
of the model shown, the apparatus was in-
genious and not without considerable merit.
Dakin & Co. are still in existence in London,
operating a machine very like the original
model.
In 1848, Thomas John Knowlys was
granted a patent in England on a per-
forated roasting cylinder coated with en-
amel.
It is to be noted in passing that this
idea of handling the green bean with ex-
treme delicacy, evidently obtained from the
French, was never taken seriously in the
United States, whose inventors chose to
handle it with rough courage.
The Dakin Roasting Machine of 1848
634
ALL ABOUT COFFEE
The first English patent on a cofEee
grinder was granted to Luke Herbert in
1848.
In 1849, Apoleoni Pierre Preterre, of
Havre, was granted an English patent on
a coffee roaster mounted on a weighing
apparatus to indicate loss of weight in
roasting and automatically stop the roast-
ing process. At the same time he secured
an English patent on a vacuum percolator,
not unlike Durant's of 1827.
In 1849 also, Thomas R. Wood, of Cin-
cinnati, was granted a United States patent
on a spherical coffee roaster for use on
kitchen stoves. It attained considerable
popularity among housewives who preferred
to do their own roasting. (See 6, page 630.')
In 1852, Edward Gee secured a patent
in England on a coffee roaster fitted with
inclined flanges for turning the beans while
roasting.
C. W. Van Vliet, of Fishkill Landing,
N. Y., was granted a United States patent
in 1855 on a household coffee mill employ-
ing upper breaking and lower grinding
cones. He assigned it to Charles Parker of
Meriden, Conn. In 1860 - 61 several United
States patents were granted John and Ed-
mund Parker on coffee grinders for home
use.
In 1862, E. J. Hyde, of Philadelphia, was
granted a United States patent on a com-
bined coffee-roaster and stove fitted with a
crane on which the roasting cylinder was
revolved and swung out horizontally for
emptying and refilling. This machine
proved to be a commercial success. Bene-
dickt Fischer used one in his first roasting
plant in New York. It is still being manu-
factured by the Bramhall Deane Company
of New York.
In 1864, Jabez Burns, of New York, was
granted a United States patent on the origi-
nal Burns coffee roaster, the first machine
which did not have to be moved away from
A Globular Stove Roaster of 1860
Hyde's Combined Roaster and Stove
the fire for discharging the roasted coffee,
and one that marked a distinct advance in
the manufacture of coffee-roasting appa-
ratus. It was a closed iron cylinder set
in brickwork. (See illustration, page 635.)
Jabez Burns had been a student of coffee
roasting in New York for twenty years be-
fore he produced the machine that was to
revolutionize the coffee business of the
United States. He had brought with him
from England a knowledge of the trade in
that country, where he first began his busi-
ness training by selling Java coffee at four-
teen cents and Sumatra at eleven cents
to hotels, boarding-houses, and private
families.
Up to the time of the Civil War, the con-
trivances employed for roasting coffee in
every case necessitated the removal of the
roasting apparatus — whether pan, globe,
or cylinder — from the fire. The process
of causing coffee to discharge from the end
of the roasting cylinder at the pleasure of
the operator while the cylinder was still in
motion was new; and the double set of
flanges to produce this effect, and at the
same time, during the process of roasting,
to keep the coffee equally distributed from
end to end of the cylinder, was new. Some
one suggested this last improvement was
simply an Archimedean screw placed in a
cylinder, but Mr. Burns replied: "It is a
double screw, a thing never suggested by
the Archimedean screw. It is, in fact, a
double right and left augur, one within the
other, firmly secured together and also to
the shell or cylinder, and when the cylinder
EVOLUTION OF APPARATUS
635
revolves the desired result is obtained —
the idea being entirely original."
Mr. Burns had watched the development
of the coffee business from the time when
the preparation of coffee was largely con-
fined to the home, where the approved roast-
ing implements were hot stones, or tiles,
iron plates, skillets, and frying pans. Some
of these were still in use twenty years after
he produced his first machine ; and he often
said that coffee evenly roasted by such
methods was just as good as if done by the
best mechanical device ever invented. He
also said: ''Coffee can be roasted in very
simple machinery. Some of the best we
ever saw was done in a corn popper. Pat-
ent portable roasters are almost as numer-
ous as rat traps or churns."
I
The Obiginal Burns Roasteb, 1864
He early saw the practise of domestic
roasting falling into disuse, as it was be-
coming possible to supply the consumer
with roasted coffee for only a trifle more
than in the green state, with all the labor
and annoyance of roasting done away with
— a talking point that John Arbuckle was
quick to seize upon in his first Ariosa adver-
tising.
In almost every town of any size there
were concerns engaged in the roasting busi-
ness. Within a few years, Burns machines
were placed in all the principal roasting
centers. Pupke & Reid in New York ; Flint,
Evans & Co , and James H. Forbes in St.
Louis; Arbuckles & Co., in Pittsburgh; the
Weikel & Smith Spice Co. in Philadelphia;
Theodore F. Johnson & Co., in Newark;
Evans & Walker in Detroit; W. & J. G.
Flint in Milwaukee; and Parker & Harri-
son in Cincinnati, were among his first
customers.
It is said that in 1845 there were facili-
ties in and around New York to roast as
much coffee as was then consumed in Great
Britain. Steam power was being exten-
sively used, and the roasting was done here
for a large part of the country. The habit
was to buy roasted coffee from the coffee
and spice mills by the bag or larger quan-
tity for country consumption; and the
grocers and small tea stores, for local con-
sumption, bought from twenty-five pounds
upward at a time. This method cheapened
the roasting of coffee to half a cent a pound ;
and then good profits could be made, for
everything was cheap in those days. Even
at that, it would have been impossible for
each tea dealer to have roasted his own
coffee for several times the amount, so the
practise was generally adhered to all over
the country.
Jabez Burns wrote in 1874 :
It is preposterous to suppose that household
roasting will be continued long in any part of
this country, if cofifee properly prepared can be
had. This is demonstrated by the remarkable
advances made in Pittsburgh and other places,
where only a few years ago the sales were chiefly
in green coffee. Now the amount roasted in
Pittsburgh alone by those who make a business
of it, exceeds the entire consumption of coffee
of any kind in the United States fifty years
ago. lit will never pay for small stores to roast
if the large manufactories will do the work
well, and if they will not, small dealers will add
pix)per machinery, and will eventually become
strong competing dealers. By doing the work
with proper care they will not only secure a
reputajtion wath large sales for themselves, but
will command the roasting for other jwrties.
Until the Burns roaster appeared, coffee
roasters were usually cylinders that re-
volved upon an axis; the other devices that
were tried were not successful. Jabez
Burns thus describes the first roaster he
ever saw at Hull, England :
It consisted of a furnace, open at the top, and
a perforated cylinder with a slide door. The
axis, or shaft, of the cylinaer had bearings on
a frame which passed outside the furnace, while
the cylinder went down into the fire pit, the top
of which could be covered over. In this posi-
tion it could be turned by means of a crank on
the end of a shaft. The only means of testing
was by the escape of the steam or aroma, which-
ever pre<iominated, passing out through the per-
forations at the top ; but so exi)ert was the
operator and so quick to detect the aroma, that
636
ALL ABOUT COFFEE
Burns Granulating Mill, 1872-74
he seldom had to return the cylinder to the fii-e
to produce a satisfactory roast. This man
roasted fifty pounds, or less in a batch for a
number of retail stoi-es.
Globes, consisting of two hemispheres, made
of ca«it iron and so arranged that they opened
to fill and discharge, but operated substantially
as above, only with the method of lowering into
the fi-re changed somewhat, I have seen in use
in Scotland in 1840. They were called French
roasiters.
In this country a few years ago the use of the
long sheet-iron cylinder was almosit universal,
varying only in the metliod of placing the cylin-
der over the fire — some sideways on a track,
others endwise, sliding on a long shaft or by
turning on a crane, in either case causing con-
siderable labor and loss of time, which often re-
sulted in the hands of the inexperienced in more
or less spoiling the batch of coffee.
From his expert knowledge of coffee
and coffee-roasting problems, Jabez Burns
quickly rose to a commanding position in
the industry. He was a trade teacher and
a trade builder. He had very definite ideas
on roasting. He said :
The object of roasting is not attained until all
the moisture (water of vegetation) is driven off.
Roast properly — uniformly and sufficiently —
and you will get all the aroma there is in the
bean. Coffees of various kinds can not be
roasted to a uniform color. Some will be of a
light shade when sufficiently roasted while
others will have to be roasted dark to develop
the aroma. Therefore^ appearance alone is not
a proper test. Aroma-saving devices have had
their day. Coffee is of no use unless the aroma
is fully developed, and the more it is developed
by roasting the better it is. What passes off in
the roasting process can not be saved and is so
small that if all of it in the country could be
collected and freed of all foreign matter, it
would not weigh an ounce.
Roast coffee over a slow fire so that it will
l>e an hour before it has the color of roasted
coffee, and, in contrast, produce in another batch
of like quantity the same color in thirty minutes,
and it will be found for all intended purposes,
either to grind, sell or drink, that the latter will
be, beyond all comparison, the best. Coffee
should be roasted uniform and as quickly as
possible, only it must not be scorched or spotted,
otherwise it will have a bitter burned taste. If
roasted pi-operly it will very considerably in-
crease its bulk and will l>e plump, swelled out
and crisp ; easily crushed in the hand or between
the fingers.
In his Spice Mill Companion, published
in 1879, Jabez Burns said further in re-
gard to roasting:
All coffees do not roast alike; some will be a
bright light color when done, and others will be
dark before done. There are two infallible
rules, which if properly appreciated and tried
will prove to be practically useful. One is,
when the aroma is sufficiently developed to pro-
duce a sharp, cutting, but aromatic sensation in
the nose. Those who practice that way do net
need to see the roast. The other rule is that
when a berry is broken it is crisp and uniform in
color inside and out. Those who are accustomed
to this method may be good coffee roasters,
albeit they may not have any nose at all. But
we must state in this connection, that a man
who has no smell and is color blind "is not a fit
candidaite for the coffee roasting profession ;
and, moreover, we affirm that any person who
can not roast coffee, so far as judgment is con-
c-erned, after a few trials, will never make a
good operator.
In 1867, Jabez Burns was granted a
United States patent on an improved cof-
fee cooler, mixer, and grinding mill, or
granulator. Another granulator patent
was issued to him in 1872. Mr. Burns had
also given the subject of cooling coffees
considerable study, and his cooler was the
result. He argued that it was necessary to
cool quickly. Before his day, various meth-
ods had been employed, such as placing the
coffee in revolving drums covered with wire
cloth. Sometimes a draft of cold air was
applied to the cooling drums, and the dirt
and chaff blown through the wire cloth.
It was also customary in wholesale estab-
lishments to blow cold air up through a
perforated bottom, and this had been found
effective when properly applied. The Burns
idea was to cool by means of suction, caus-
ing a downward draft through the coffee
and wire-cloth bottomed box, which was
found to be more uniform and efficient for
cooling purposes, as well as. in controlling
smoke, heat, and dust, which by this means
L.. „„
^^Py any convenient outlet.
^f On the subject of grinding, likewise, Mr.
Burns had reached some definite conclu-
sions. The French and English lap and
wall mills, the English steel mills, and the
Swift mills were all used in the United
States. Troemner's, the Enterprise, and
others — to be mentioned later in chrono-
logical order — were extending their use in
a retail way; but Jabez Burns confined his
attention to a practicable mill for whole-
sale grinding establishments.
For manufacturing purposes, burstone
mills were for many years exclusively em-
ployed, especially one first known as the
Prentiss & Page, and later as the Page mill.
There was a time when all the coffee estab-
lishments in New York sent their coffee
to Prentiss & Page to be ground. Some of
the places roasted by hand, others by horse
power ; and if by steam, it was limited, and
they did not have enough to spare for
grinding.
With the march of improvement, bur-
stone mills went into the discard. The dif-
ficulty lay in finding men experienced in
stone dressing to run them ; and the demand
grew for a better style of grinding than
could be 'done in a mill out of face and
balance. This demand was met in an alto-
gether different style of machine, which
for twenty-five years was well known as
the Barbor mill. It was for improvements
on this mill that Jabez Burns in 1867, 1872,
and 1874 obtained his granulator patents.
The mill comprised cutters in the form
of an iron roller running in near contact
with a concave, also of iron, and a revolv-
ing cylinder provided with sieves, or screens,
that received the ground material, rolled
it over the wire surface, sifting out the fine
and discharging the coarse automatically
into the cutter, to be again manipulated
until it was fine enough to pass through the
meshes of the screen.
Jabez Burns patented an improved form
of his roaster in 1881, and a sample-coffee
roaster in 1883, before he died in 1888 ; and
since that time his sons, who continue the
business, have perfected a number of im-
provements and brought out new machines
which will be referred to in chronological
order.
James H. Nasoii; of Franklin, Mass., was
granted a United States patent in 1865 on
a percolator with fluid joints.
EVOLUTION OF APPARATUS
637
Napier's Vacuum MAcniNE, 1840
P. H. Vanderweyde, of Philadelphia, was
granted United States patents in 1866 on
a percolator and a continuous coffee-filter-
ing machine.
Raparlier was granted a French patent
on a pocket coffee-making device in 1867.
In later years, his invention became very
popular among French coffee drinkers. It
was one of the early practicable forms of
double-glass-globe filtration devices.
E. B. Manning of Middletown, Conn.,
was granted his first patent on a tea and
coffee pot in 1868. Others followed in 1870
and 1876. In the latter year, John Bowman
brought out the valve-type percolator which
subsequently attained great favor in Amer-
ican households.
Thomas Smith & Son (Elkington & Com-
pany, Ltd., successors) began to manufac-
ture at Glasgow, Scotland, about 1870, the
Napierian vacuum coft'ee machine which had
been invented in 1840 — but never pat-
ented — by Robert Napier of the celebrated
firm of Clyde shipbuilders. This machine
makes coffee by distillation and filtration.
It employs a metal globe, and a brewer from
which the coffee is syphoned over into the
globe through a tube, around the strainer-
end of which, as it rests in the coffee liquid
in the brewer, there is tied a filter cloth.
It is still being manufactured by Elkington
& Company.
Thomas Page, a New York millwright,
began the manufacture of a pull-out coffee
638
ALL ABOUT COFFEE
=^^^-^>ff'4^'«#^l%=:^_
German Gas and Coal Roasting Machines
Left, Perf ekt gas roaster — Right, Probat coal roaster
roaster similar to the old Carter machine,
. in 1868. Later, Chris Abele, who was fore-
man in the Page shop, succeeded to the
business; and in 1882, he was granted a
United States patent on an improvement on
a coffee roaster similar to the original Burns
machine (the patent had then expired)
which he marketed under the name of
Knickerbocker.
German Coffee Machinery
The Germans first began to show an ac-
tive interest in coffee machinery in 1860.
In that year, Alexius Van Gulpen, of Em-
merich, produced a green-coffee grader ; and
later (1868), in partnership with J. H.
Lensing and Theodore von Gimborn, be-
gan the manufacture of coffee-roasting
machines. From this start there developed
in Emmerich quite an industry in coffee-
machinery building. In 1870, Alexius Van
Gulpen introduced to the German trade a
globular coffee roaster employing wood and
coke as fuel and having perforations and
an exhauster. Van Gulpen and von Gim-
born are the two names most often met
with in the development of German coffee-
roasting machinery.
The first recorded German patent on a
coffee roaster was issued to G. Tubermann 's
Son in 1877, f or " a coffee burner with ver-
tically adjusted stirring works." German
patents were issued in 1878 to R. Muhlberg,
of Taucha, for coffee roasters with movable
partitions and "screw-shaped declining
walls." Six roaster patents were issued to
other inventors in 1878-79.
Peter Pearson, of Manchester, took out
a German patent on a coffee-roasting appa-
ratus in 1880. Fleury & Barker, of Lon-
don, were granted a coffee-roaster patent in
Germany in 1881.
After 1870, Van Gulpen devoted himself
to the cylinder type of roaster, on which
he obtained several patents. The partner-
ship between Messrs. Van Gulpen, Lensing
and von Gimborn was dissolved in 1906,
They were succeeded by the Emmerieher
Maschinenfabrik und Eissengiesserei, and
Van Gulpen & Co. Van Gulpen died in
1920. Among his inventions were a circu-
lar air fan to supply fresh air to the beans
while roasting; a fire-dampening device;
roasting and cooling exhausters; and a
"withdrawable" mixer remaining inside the
cylinder during the roasting process, but
designed to be withdrawn at the end, dis-
charging the contents with a jerk into a
circular cooler. These improvements are
featured in Van Gulpen & Co.'s latest Me-
teor machine. They make also the Typhoon
and Comet machines, and a line of globular
roasters.
A dozen coffee-roaster patents were is-
sued in Germany in 1880 - 82. Among them
was one to the Emmerich Machine Factory
and Iron Foundry, Van Gulpen, Lensing
& von Gimborn, Emmerich, in 1882.
Numerous coffee-cooling, coffee-grinding,
and coffee-making devices were patented in
Germany from 1877 to 1885 ; among them
Newstadt's coffee-extract machine in 1882,
safety attachments, rajjid filters, Vienna
coffee makers, etc. The first Vienna coffee
I
EVOLUTION OF APPARATUS
639
maker seems to have been patented in Ger-
many in 1879.
The Emmerich Machine Factory and Iron
Foundry acquired certain Danish and Aus-
trian coffee-roaster patents in 1881, and in
1892 it was granted a German patent on a
ball roaster. In the eighties this concern
began the manufacture of a closed ball, or
globular, roaster with gas-heater attach-
ment. It acquired, in 1889, the rights for
Germany to manufacture gas roasters under
the Dutch Henneman patents of 1888. In
1892, Theodore von Gimborn was granted
French and English patents on a coffee
roaster employing a naked gas flame in a
rotary cylinder. In 1897, the Emmericher
concern was granted a German patent on
an automatic circular tipping cooler with
power drive. Today, this factory features
the Probat and Perfekt roasters, but manu-
factures a general line of cylinder and ball
machines for coal, coke, and gas.
Among others engaged in the manufac-
ture of coffee machines in Germany are G.
W, Barth, Ludwigsburg, and Ferd. Gothot,
Mulheim on Rhur. The latter manufac-
tures a coke or gas heated quick-roaster
known as the Ideal-Rapid, and a smaller
hand-power machine, of the same type,
called Favour.
American, French, and British Machines
In 1869, :filie Moneuse and L. Duparquet,
of New York, were granted three United
States patents on a coffee pot or urn made
of sheet copper and lined with pure sheet
block tin. These patents were the founda-
tion of the successful coffee-urn business
afterward built up under the name of the
Duparquet, Huot & Moneuse Co.
Thomas Smith & Son (Elkington & Co.,
Ltd., successors) began, in 1870, the manu-
facture of the Napierian coffee-making
machine at Glasgow, Scotland. This was a
device for making coffee by distillation,
employing a metal globe syphon and brewer
with filter cloth. The principle was subse-
quently used in the Napier-List steam coffee
machine for ships and institutions, patented
in England in 1891.
John Gulick Baker, of Philadelphia, one
of the. founders of the Enterprise Manu-
facturing Co. of Pennsylvania, was granted
a United States patent in 1870, on a cof-
fee grinder introduced to the trade as the
Enterprise Champion No. 1 store mill.
Another Baker patent was granted in
1873, and this became known as the En-
terprise Champion Globe No. 0. These
mills were the pioneer machines for store
use.
In 1870, Delphine, Sr., of Marourme,
France, was granted a French patent on
a tubular coffee roaster which turned over
a flame.
In the sixties and seventies, French in-
ventors became quite active on coffee-roaster
improvements. Many patents were granted,
and quite a few were for practical small-
capacity machines that have survived, and
Other Gebman Coffee Roasters
Left, globular machine — Right, Meteor quick-roasting outfit
640
ALL ABOUT COFFEE
are in use today in France and on the conti-
nent. Some supplied inspiration for in-
ventors in neighboring countries. Among
the more notable names, mention should be
made of Martin, of St. Quentin, who pro-
duced a sheet-iron cylinder roaster with
"interior gatherer" in 1860; Marchand, of
Paris, ' ' fan roaster with movable fire box, ' '
1866 and 1869; Lauzaune, Paris, "rocking
system of roasting coffee in a round stove,"
1873 ; Ittel's glass sphere, Lyons, 1874 ; and
Marchand and IJignette, Paris, 1877, a
ball coffee roaster.
Evolution of the Gas Roaster
According to the patent records, Roure,
of Marseilles, apnears to have produced the
original gas coffee roaster in 1877." The
evolution of the gas roasting-machine was
as follows :
In 1879, H. Faulder, of Stockport, Eng-
land, obtained an English patent on an
external air-blast burner applied to a cylin-
der gas machine, which is still being manu-
factured by the Grocers Engineering and
Whitmee, Ltd., of London. Fleury and
Barker, of London, followed with another
Original Enterprise Mill
Max Thurmeij's Quick Gas Roaster
English gas machine in 1880, the heat being
supplied from gas jets over the roasting
cylinder. In 1881, Peter Pearson, of Man-
chester, produced a gas roaster which con-
sisted of a wire-gauze cylinder revolving
under a metal plate heated by gas.
Beeston Tupholme, of London, was
granted an English patent in 1887, on a
direct-flame gas roaster which he assigned
to Joseph Baker & Sons.
Karel F. Henneman, the Hague, Nether-
lands, took out his first patent on the Hen-
neman direct-flame gas roaster in Spain
in 1888 ; and the following year, he obtained
patents in Belgium, France, and England,
His United States patents were granted in
1893 - 95.
Postulart secured a patent in France for
a gas coffee roaster in 1888.
The Germans also began, in the eighties,
to take the quick gas coffee roaster seri-
ously. In 1889, Carl Alexander Otto, of
Dresden, secured a German patent on a
spiral tubular machine to roast coffee in
three and a half minutes. It was first
manufactured and sold by Max Thurmer,
of Dresden, in 1891 - 93.
The subject of quick roasting has greatly
agitated German and French coffee men.
Otto found that coffee roasted in small
quantities (say fifty grams) on a sample-
roaster produced a finer flavor and aroma
than that roasted in the big machines. He
A L L A HO IV COV F K K
inryr«i!iMifi'tJT*rfiirrTg^nTn< .
LOADIiNO COI-I'EE ON ZAMBOKKS AT lluDElUA
These boats then transfer their cargoes to steamships lying in the roads
PicTUitESQiK Camel and IJullock Cahts
Used for local coffee transport In Aden and Hqdeida
PRIMITIVE TRANSPORTATION ^FETHODS TN ARABIA
EVOLUTION OF APPARATUS
641
set out to produce a machine that would
roast continuous small quantities in the
shortest time. He built the first commer-
cial machine under his patent in 1893. It
was shown at the International Food Ex-
hibition in Dresden in 1894. The latest
type manufactured by Max Thurmer, Dres-
den, in which firm Otto is a partner, has a
spiral five meters long and an hourly pro-
duction of about 450 pounds. The Thur-
mer machine, as it is called, has been sold
to the trade since 1914.
Quick roasting' is gone in for quite exten-
sively in Germany, even in the big trade-
roasting plants, where machines to roast in
ten to seventeen minutes are common. Nat-
ural, slow cooling is most necessary with
quick roasting, according to Thurmer. On
the other hand, A. Mottant, of Paris, who
also manufactures a line of quick gas-roast-
ing machines, called Magic, argues that
quick cooling is essential after quick roast-
ing. Three of the Mottant machines are
illustrated on pages 642 and 644.
Other quick-roasting machines of Ger-
man make are the Combinator, Tornado,
and Rekord.
In a lecture before the Society of Medi-
cal Officers of Health, London, October 24,
1912, William Lawton demonstrated to the
satisfaction of his audience that coffee could
be roasted in 3 minutes, using a perforated
gas-roaster of his own invention.*
The first direct-flame gas coffee roaster
in America was installed in the plant of
the Potter-Parlin Co., New York, by F. T.
Holmes, in 1893. This was Tupholme's
machine, patented in England in 1887, and
in the United States in 1896-97. The
Potter-Parlin Co. subsequently placed the
Tupholme machines throughout the United
States on a daily rental basis, limiting its
leases to one firm in a city, having obtained
the exclusive American rights from the
Waygood, Tupholme Co., now the Grocers
Engineering and Whitmee, Ltd.
* Tea and Coffee Trade Jour., 1912 (vol. xxiii i no.
6: p. 392).
An English Gas Cofbee-Uoasting Plant
The machines are the Morewood (improved Faulder) sliding-burner Indirect type
642
ALL ABOUT COFFEE
. ' >Frendh Globular Roaster
Natural gas was first used in the United
States as fuel for roasting coffee in 1896,
when it was introduced under coal roasting
cylinders in Pennsylvania and Indiana by
improvised gas burners.
Edwin Crawdey and W. T. Johnston,
Newport, Ky., assignors to the Potter-
Parlin Co., New York, were granted four
United States patents on gas coffee-roasting
machines.
In 1897, a special gas burner, not to be
confused with the direct-flame machine,
was first attached to a regular Burns roaster
in the United States, and was made the
basis of application for a patent.
In 1897-99, David B. Fraser, of New
York, began to market in the United States
a central-heated gas-fuel machijie with an
inner wire-cloth cylinder to keep the coffee
from dropping into the flame, developed
under United States patents granted to Carl
H. Duehring, of Hoboken, in 1897, and to
D. B. Fraser in 1899.
M. F. Hamsley, of Brooklyn, was granted
a United States patent on an improved
direct-flame gas roaster in 1898.
Ellis M. Potter, New York, was granted
in 1899, a United States patent on an im-
proved direct-flame gas roaster in which
the flame w^as spread over a large area to
avoid scorching and to insure a more thor-
ough and uniform roast. In the Tupholme
machine, the gas flame entered at one end,
and the smoke and flame went out through
a stack on top. In the Potter machine, the
stack was put on the end opposite the gas
intake, with a fan to pull the flame all the
way through.
The Burns, direct-flame gas roaster, with
patented swing-gate head for feeding and
discharging, was introduced to the trade
in 1900. The Burns gas sample-roaster
followed.
In 1901, Joseph Lambert, of Marshall,
Mich., introduced to the trade one of the
earliest indirect gas roasting machines.
In 1901, also, T. C. Morewood, of Brent-
ford, England, was granted an English
patent on a gas roaster fitted with a sliding
burner and a removable sampling tube.
This machine is now being made by the
Grocers Engineering and Whitmee, Ltd.
In the same year, 1901, F. T. Holmes,
formerly with the Potter-Parlin Co., joined
the Huntley Manufacturing Coi, Silver
Creek, N. Y., which then began to build the
Monitor direct-flame gas coffee roaster. Mr.
Holmes still further improved the Tup-
holme idea by pitting gas burners in both
ends of the roasting cylinder, with the pipes
bent down so as to cause the gas flame to
go first to the bottom and then up to the
stack on top. This improvement w^as never
patented.
The Henneman direct-flame gas roaster
was introduced to the United States trade
in 1905, by C. A. Cross & Co., wholesale
grocers, of Fitchburg, Mass. It was mar-
SiROCco Machine (French)
EVOLUTION OF APPARATUS
643
English Roasting and Grinding Equipment
Showing one 168-pound Simplex gas roaster, with a Rapid disk grinding machine having a capacity of 300
to 400 pounds per hour
keted here seven years, but was never a
great success.
In 1906, F. T. Holmes was granted a
United States patent on a coffee roaster
which he assigned to the Huntley Manu-
facturing Co.
J. C. Prims, of Battle Creek, Mich., was
granted a United States patent in 1908, on
a corrugated cylinder improvement for a
gas and coal roaster designed for retail
stores. The A. J. Deer Co., Hornell, N. Y.,
acquired this machine in 1909, and began
to market it as the Royal coffee roaster.
An improvement patented in 1915 by J. C.
Prims was assigned to the A. J. Deer Co.
In 1915, and again in 1919, Jabez Burns
& Sons, New York, patented theiri Jubilee
roaster, an inner-heated machine in which
the gas is burned inside a revolving cylin-
der in a combustion chamber protected from
direct coffee contact. The heat is deflected
downward and thou passes upward through
the coffee.
In 1919, William Fullard {d. 1921), of
Philadelphia, was granted a United States
patent on a "heated fresh air system"
roaster, in which the fresh air is forced by
an electric fan through a pipe to a set of
coils over gas, coal, or oil flame. At the
top of the coils is a manifold, the hot air
being forced through small holes to circu-
late in and around a regulation perforated
roasting cylinder ; the vapors and spent air
are then drawn into an overhead exhaust
pipe that connects with a pipe provided
with a fresh-air intake, the idea being to
return them to the roasting cylinder after
being mixed with fresh air and heated in
the coils as before. This patent has not
been successfully marketed at the time of
writing. The purpose is to roast by heated
air not mixed with any furnace gases.
Whether this can be done with sufficient
fuel economy, and whether coffee thus
roasted would have any greater value, arc
questions that are raised by the coffee ex-
perts.
Coffee-Grinding and Coffee-Making
Chronology
To return to our coffee-grinding and cof-
fee-making chronology, it is to be noted
644
ALL ABOUT COFFEE
Magic Gas Machine (French)
that in 1875 - 76 - 78, Turner Strowbridge,
of New Brighton, Pa., was granted three
United States patents on a box coffee mill,
first made by Logan & Strowbridge, later
the Logan & Strowbridge Iron Company,
the latter being succeeded by the Wrights-
ville Hardware Co. in 1906.
In 1878, a United States patent was is-
sued to Rudolphus L. Webb, assignor to
Landers, Frary & Clark, New Britain,
Conn., on an improved box coffee grinder
for home use.
In 1878, and in 1880, United States pat-
ents were issued to John C. Dell of Phila-
delphia on a store coffee mill.
In 1879, and in 1880, United States pat-
- ents were issued to Orson W. Stowe, of the
Peck, Stowe & Wilcox Co., Southington,
Conn., on a household coffee mill.
In 1879, Charles Halstead, of New York,
was granted the first United States patent
on a metal coffee pot having a china inte-
rior. It was an infuser for home use.
In 1880, coffee pots, with tops having
muslin bottoms for clarifying and strain-
ing, were first made in the United States
by the Duparquet, Huot & Moneuse Co., of
New York.
The name Hungerford first appears in
the United States patent records in 1880 -
81, in connection with patents granted to
G-.'w. and G. S. Hungerford on machines
for cleaning, scouring, and polishing coffee.
In 1882, the Hungerfords, father and son.
brought out a roaster. This machine and
the one patented by Chris Abele, of New
York, already referred to, were construc-
tions resulting from the expiration of the
original Burns patent of 1864. In 1881,
Jabez Burns patented the improved Burns
roaster, comprising a turn-over front head
serving for both feeding and discharging.
Additional United States coffee-roaster pat-
ents were issued to G. W. Hungerford in
1887 - 89. In the latter year, David Fraser,
who came to the United States from Glas-
gow in 1886, established the Hungerford
Co., succeeding the business of the Hunger-
fords, and later being granted certain
United States patents, already mentioned.
In 1910, the Hungerford Co. business was
discontinued in New York; and David B.
Fraser moved to Jersey City, where he
continued to operate as the Fraser Manu-
facturing Co. This business was discon-
tinued in 1918.
Chris Abele was an active competitor of
the Hungerfords and of the Fraser Manu-
facturing Co. ; and his Knickerbocker roast-
er was sold over a wide territory. He died
in 1910 ; and his son-in-law, Gottfried Bay,
succeeded to the business.
In 1881, the Morgan Brothers, Edgar H.
and Charles, began the manufacture of
household coffee mills, the business being
Burns Jubilee Gas Machine
EVOLUTIOX OF APPARATUS
645
Double Aromatic Gas Roastijxg OuTtiT (Frejnch)
acquired in 1885 by the Arcade Manufac-
turing Co., of Freeport, 111. The latter
concern brought out the first pound coffee
mill in 1889. Its mills became very popu-
lar in the United States. In 1900, Charles
Morgan was granted a United States patent
on a glass- jar coffee mill, with removable
glass measuring cup.
In 1881, Harvey Ricker, of Brooklyn,
later of Minneapolis, introduced to the
trade in the United States a ' ' minute coffee
pot" and urn known as the Boss, the name
being subsequently changed to Minute. He
improved and patented the device in 1901
as the Half -Minute coffee pot. It is a
filtration device employing a cotton sack
with a thickened bottom.
In 1882, Chris Abele, of New York, pat-
ented an improvement on the old-style
Burns roaster, with openings cut in the
front plate. It was known as the Knicker-
bocker. As already noted, the machine was
a competitor of the Hungerford machine
patented the same year.
In 1882, a German patent was granted
to Emil Newstadt, of Berlin, on one of the
earliest coffee-extract machines.
In 1883, Jabez Burns was granted a
United States patent on his improved sam-
ple-coffee roaster.
In 1884, the Star coffee pot, later known
as the Marion Harland, was introduced to
the trade. It employed a wire-gauze drip
device, called a "filter," which was fitted
to a metal pot. It was extensively adver-
tised and attained considerable popularity.
The same year, Finley Acker, of Philadel-
phia, brought out an improved coffee pot
for family trade. Later, he produced his
Mo-Kof-Fee pot and an individual porce-
lain drip pot for testing-table use.
In 1885, F. A. Cauchois, New York,
brought out an improved porcelain-lined
urn.
In 1887 - 88, the Etruscan coffee pot was
invented and put on the market by the
Etruscan Coffee Pot Co., of Philadelphia.
It employed a muslin cylinder with metal
ends and a mechanism for combining "agi-
tation, distillation and infusion." It was
not unlike the Dakin device of 1848, pre-
viously mentioned.
In 1890, A. Mottant, Bar-le-Duc, France,
began to manufacture a line of coffee-roast-
646
ALL ABOUT COFFEE
ing machinery which included vertical ball-
and-cylinder machines, using wood, coal,
coke, or gas for fuel. His best known makes
are Magic and Sirocco (see page 642).
Before 1895, the commercial roaster was
little used in France. Since then, the in-
dustry has developed, but without displac-
ing the smaller roaster for family use. Ball
roasters are popular wdth shopkeepers, espe-
cially the variety manufactured by the
fitablissements Lauzaune at Paris, and
known as Aromatic, being equipped with
electric motors. This firm builds also a
larger machine known as Moderne.
Other makes of roasters that have at-
tained prominence in France are the Lam-
bert, equipped with a steam condenser; Van
den Brouck's, having the roasting cylinder
lined with wire gauze ; and Resson 's machine
for wholesale plants.
The French led off with glass-cylinder
roasters for home use in the early seven-
ties. They are still popular. One of the
developments of the last decade was known
as the Bijou, and was operated by clock
work. A similar automatic machine, made
of glass, was manufactured and sold in New
York in 1908 under the name of the Home
roaster. As late as 1914, an American
inventor produced a home roaster for use
in a stove hole. This device had a stirrer
in the cover to be rotated by hand. A simi-
lar device was sold in 1917 under the name
Savo. Home roasting, however, has become
a lost art in America.
Lambert's Victory Gas Machine
In 1897, Joseph Lambert, of Vermont,
began the manufacture and sale in Battle
Creek, Mich., of the Lambert self-contained
coffee roaster without the brick setting then
required for coffee-roasting machines. In
1900, he was joined by A. P. Grohens. In
1901, the Lambert Food and Machinery Co.
was organized. In 1904, the company was
re-organized. Since then, many improve-
ments have been made under Mr. Grohens'
direction. The Lambert gas roaster, one
of the first machines employing gas as fuel
for indirect roasting, dates back to 1901,
as previously mentioned. The Economic
roaster is Mr. Grohens' latest development
for coal or coke fuel. It is a compact self-
contained equipment operating in connec-
tion with a new-type rotary cooler. He has
also recently (1922) brought out a gas-
fired, electrically operated 600-pound Vic-
tory roaster and a fifty-pound miniature
coffee-roasting plant designed for retail
stores.
In 1897, the Enterprise Manufacturing
Co. of Pennsylvania was the first regularly
to employ electric motors for driving com-
mercial coffee mills by means of belt-and-
pulley attachments.
In 1898, the Hobart Manufacturing Co.,
of Troy, Ohio, introduced to the trade an-
other early coffee grinder connected with
an electric motor and driven by belt-and-
pulley attachment.
In 1900, the first gear-driven electric
coffee grinder was put on the market by
the Enterprise Manufacturing Co. of Penn-
sylvania.
In 1902, the Coles Manufacturing Co.,
(Braun Co., successor) and Henry Troem-
ner, of Philadelphia, began the manufacture
and sale of gear-driven electric coffee
grinders.
In 1905, the A. J. Deer Co., Buffalo,
N. Y., (now at Hornell, N. Y.) began to
sell its Royal electric coffee mills direct to
dealers on the instalment plan, revolution-
izing the former practise of selling coffee
mills through hardware jobbers.
In 1905, H, L. Johnston was granted a
United States patent on a coffee mill. He
assigned the patent to the Hobart Manu-
facturing Co.
In 1900, Charles Lewis was granted a
United States patent on an improved re-
versible filtration coffee pot known as the
Kin-Hee. This pot has since been further
improved, and the patent rights sold in
several foreign countries. It employs a
EVOLUTION OF APPARATUS
647
filter cloth in place of the metal or china
strainer used in the French drip pot.
In 1901, Landers, Frary & Clark's im-
proved Universal percolator was patented
in the United States. This pot has proved
to be one of the most popular percolators
on the American market. This firm brought
out the Universal Cafenoira, a double glass
filtration device, in 1916. It is covered by
design and structural patents issued in 1916
and 1917.
In 1900, the Burns swing-gate sample-
roasting outfit was patented in the United
States.
In 1901, Robert Burns, of New York, was
granted two United States patents on a
coffee roaster and cooler.
In 1901, Freidrich Kuchelmeister, Brux,
Austria-Hungary, was granted a United
States patent on a coffee roaster having a
double-walled drum, the inner being of wire
gauze, and the outer of solid iron, designed
to prevent scorching of the beans.
In 1902, W. M. Still & Sons, London,
were granted an English patent on a steam
coffee-making machine employing twelve
t)unees of coffee to the gallon.
In 1902, T. K. Baker, of Minneapolis,
was granted two United States patents on
a cloth-filter coffee-making device.
In 1903, A. E. Bronson, Jr., assignor to
the Bronson- Walton Company, Cleveland,
Ohio, was granted a United States patent
on a coffee mill.
In 1903, John Arbuckle was granted a
United States patent on a coffee-roasting
apparatus employing a fan to force the hot
fire gases into the roasting cylinder. From
this was developed the Jumbo roaster, now
used in the Arbuckle plant, which roasts
ten thousand pounds an hour.
Electric Coffee-Roasting
In 1903, George C. Lester, of New York,
was granted a United States patent on an
electric coffee roaster, that is, a machine to
roast by electric heat. There were two
cylinders, the inner being of wire gauze,
and the outer of copper and asbestos. Be-
tween the two, four electric heaters were
placed.
There was demonstrated in Germany, in
1906, an electric coffee roaster employing a
number of resistance coils, consisting of
strips of Krupp metal two and one-half
mm. thick, five mm.; broad, and thirteen
and one-half mm. long, wound on porcelain
tubes, which transmitted the heat to the
One of the Fikst Electric Coffee Mills
air within the roasting cylinder. Analysis
showed that coffee electrically roasted con-
tained more substances soluble in water than
that roasted by coke, as well as considerably
more material soluble in ether. This ma-
chine was invented by Captain Carl Moeg-
ling about 1900.
Another electric-fuel-machine patent was
granted in the United States to Robert H.
Talbutt, of Baltimore, in 1911. This ma-
chine had the electric heater in the center
of the roasting cylinder. An electrically
heated machine called the Ben Franklin was
demonstrated in New York in 1918.
In 1919, Everett T. Shortt, Dallas, Tex.,
was granted a United States patent on an
electrical roaster.
Up to the present writing, no great prog-
ress has been made in the United States
with the roasting of coffee by electric heat.
The Phoenix Electrical Heating Co.
manufactured, and the Uno Company, Ltd.,
of London, marketed an electricially heated
roaster as far back as 1909. The machine
was not altogether satisfactory, even to the
makers; and the Uno Company is now
(1922) experimenting with a new type of
electric roaster which it expects will remedy
the defects of the early machine. The 1909
roaster was made of two concentric cylin-
ders revolving around a set of fixed heating
elements, consisting of a series of spiral
64.8
ALL ABOUT COFFEE
ExtiLisii Electric-Fuel Roaster
wires held in position on fireproof clay in-
sulators, these wires being assembled, in-
sulated, and brought out through the fixed
center to a tei-minal, or a set of terminals,
at one end. In this way, no contact
brushes or rings were needed. The ma-
chine had a sampling device at one end
which threw out a few berries each time it
w'as operated. It was not possible to return
these sample berries. Such an arrangement
appeared necessary, however, unless one was
prepared to have the heating element on the
outside of the machine and to pick up the
current by means of rings or brushes.
When the operator became accustomed to
the coffee he was roasting, this was not a
matter of great moment, because in Eng-
land, at least, the average coffee roaster
does not require a testing sample until he
is about ready to turn out and to cool
the roast.
The Uno machine had a capacity of seven
pounds, and the time occupied in roasting
was from eight to ten minutes, depending
on whether the roaster had been freshly
switched on or had been running for a few
minutes. The w^attage was 5,520, The con-
sumption per hundredweight was under
thirteen units. The makers gave, as the
most economical pressure on which to work,
220 to 240 volts. The machine was operated
for eighteen months in the show window of
a London retail grocer.
In 1921, a United States patent was
granted to Mark T. Seymour, Stowe, N. Y.,
on an electric coffee and peanut roaster,
which has the heating element embedded in
a cement-lined cylinder that contains a
roasting cage.
In 1921, Fred J. Kuhlemeir and Ralph
J. Quelle, of Burlington, la., were granted
a United States patent on a small house-
hold coffee roaster electrically equipped,
and roasting by electric heat.
Other Machinery Patents
In 1903, Luigi Giacomini, of Florence,
Italy, was granted a United States patent
on a process for roasting coffee.
Be:n Franklin Electric Coffee Koaster
In 1905, A. A. Warner, assignor to
Landers, Frary & Clark, New Britain,
Conn., was granted two United States pat-
ents on a coffee mill. - ' -.
EVOLUTION OF APPARATUS
649
In 1906, Ludwig Schmidt, assignor to the
Essmueller Mill Furnishing Co., St. Louis,
was granted a United States patent on a
coffee roaster. This company and the
Keuter-Jones Manufacturing Co., also of
St. Louis, were making machines similar to
the original Burns model. The Reuter-
Jones Manufacturing Co., in 1910, brought
out a self-contained gas roaster called the
St. Louis, Jr. In 1913, at a receiver's sale,
A. P. Grohens, of the Lambert Machine
Co., acquired all the machinery and patent
rights of the Reuter-Jones Manufacturing
Company.
In 1904, J. W. Chapman and G. W. Koo-
man, assignors to Manning, Bowman & Co.,
Meriden, Conn., were granted a United
States patent on a coffee or tea pot. The
same year, George E. Savage and G. W.
Hope were granted two United States pat-
ents on coffee or tea pots, also assigned to
Manning, Bowman & Co.
In 1904, Sigmund Sternau, J. P. Steppe,
and L. Strassberger, assignors to S. Sternau
& Co., New York, were granted a United
States patent on a percolator. Six others
were granted to Charles Nelson, and as-
signed to S. Sternau & Co., in 1912 and
1913, for a percolator, the manufacture and
sale of which w^ere discontinued in 1915.
In 1905, a celebrated case was decided in
Kansas City involving litigation betw^een
William E. Baker, of Baker & Co., Minne-
apolis, and the F. A. Buncombe Manu-
facturing Co., of St. Joseph, Mo., over Mr.
Baker's patent rights in a machine to pro-
duce steel-cut coffee. The suit was brought
in 1903, and Mr. Baker contended that his
patent gave him the exclusive right to the
"uniformity of granules by means of the
sharply dressed mechanism ' ' and by the use
of a fan for blowing away the silver skins,
produced by his machine ; while the defend-
ant said he obtained the same result (steel-
cut coffee) by grading the granules through
screens or sieves. The defense was that
Mr. Baker's process was not a discovery;
because, grinding coffee was as old as the
world's knowledge, and winnowing the
chaff was equally ancient. The lower court
dismissed the bill, because the ' ' patents sued
upon are devoid of patentable invention";
and the United States Court of Appeals
confirmed the decision.
In 1905, Frederick A. Cauchois, of New
York, brought out his Private Estate coffee
maker, a clever combination of the French
drip and filter iitocesses, employing a thin
Enterprise Hand Store Mill
layer of Japanese paper as a filtering agent.
The same year, Finley Acker, of Philadel-
phia, was granted a United States patent on
a percolator employing two cylinders, per-
forated on the sides, with a sheet of perco-
lator paper placed between them to act as
a filtering medium.
In 1906, George Savage and J. W. Chap-
man, assignors to Manning, Bowman & Co.
of Meriden, Conn., were granted a United
States patent on a coffee percolator.
In 1906, Alonzo A. Warner, assignor to
Landers, Frary & Clark, New Britain,
Conn., was granted a United States patent
on a coffee percolator.
In 1906, H. D. Kelly, Kansas City, was
granted a United States patent on the Kel-
lum Automatic coffee urn, employing a cof-
fee extractor in w^hich ground coffee is con-
tinually agitated before percolation by a
vacuum process. Sixteen patents followed.
In 1907, Desiderio Pavoni, of Milan,
Italy, w^as granted a patent in Italy for an
improvement on the Bezzara system for
preparing and serving coffee as a rapid in-
fusion of a single cup, first introduced in
650
ALL ABOUT COFFEE
EVOLUTION OF APPARATUS
651
The Ideale Machine (Center)
Makes 150 Cups of Coffee an
Hour. The Machine at the
Left Makes 1,000 Cups an Hour
A Machine of the Type of
THE One at the Right will
Produce from 1,440 to 1,800
Cups of Coffee an Hour
Types of Italian Rapid Coffee-Making Machines
1903 - 1904. It is known as the Ideale urn,
and makes 150 cups per hour. Among
other Italian rapid coffee-making machines
which, with this one, have attained con-
siderable prominence in Europe and South
America, mention should be made of La
Victoria Arduino made by Pier Teresio
Arduino, of Turin, Italy, introduced in
1909, that makes 1000 oups per hour. It
was patented in the United States in 1920.
There are, also, L'ltaliana Sovereign Filter
Machine (1440 cups per hour) made by
Bossi, Vernetti & Bartolini, Turin, (sub-
sequently merged with La Victoria Ardu-
ino - Societa Anonima) ; and Jose Baro's
Express, Buenos Aires, making 600 cups an
hour.
In 1908, A. E. White, Chicago, was
granted a United States patent on a coffee
urn. He assigned it to the James Heekin
Co., of Cincinnati.
In 1908, I. D. Richheimer, Chicago, in-
troduced his Tricolator to the trade and the
consumer. This is an aluminum device to
fit any coffee pot, combining French drip
and filtration ideas, with Japanese paper
as the filtration medium.
In 1908, an improved type of Burns
roaster was patented in the United States.
The improvement, consisted of an open per-
forated cylinder with flexible back-head and
balanced front bearing. The following
year, the Burns tilting sample-roaster for
gas or electric heating units was patented.
In 1909, Frederick A. Cauchois, of New
York, was granted a United States patent
on a coffee urn fitted with a centrifugal
pump for repouring.
In 1909, C. F. Blanke, of St. Louis, was
granted two United States patents on a
china coffee pot with a cloth filter, the sides
tightly, and the bottom loosely, woven.
In 1911, Edward Aborn, of New York,
was granted a United States patent on his
Make-Right coffee-filter device. This was
later incorporated with improvements in a
Tru-Bru coffee pot, on which he was
granted another patent in 1920.
In 1912, John E. King, of Detroit, was
granted a United States patent on an im-
proved coffee percolator for restaurants,
employing a sheet of filter paper on a ring
in a metal basket; the ring to be removed
once the filter paper was in position on the
perforated bottom plate of the percolator
basket.
In 1913, F, F. Wear, Los Angeles, per-
fected a coffee-making device in which a
metal perforated clamp was employed to
apply a filter paper to the under-side of
an English earthenware adaptation of the
French drip pot._
In 1912, William Lawton demonstrated
in London a gas coffee roaster of his own
65^
ALL ABOUT COFFEE
Showin(3 How the Italian Rapid Coffee Machine Works
Left, putting coffee in the filter — Center, applying filter to faucet — Right, turning on water and steam to
malie the drink
invention, by means of which he roasted
coffee "in suspension" to a light brown
color in three minutes.
Herbert L. Johnston, assignor to the Ho-
bart Electric Manufacturing Co., Troy,
Ohio, was granted a United States patent
on a machine for refining coffee in 1913.
In 1914, the Phylax coffee maker, em-
bodying an improvement on the French
La Victoria Arduino Mignonne
An electric rapid coffee maker
drip principle, w^as introduced to the trade.
The process was demonstrated by Benja-
min H. Calkin, of Detroit, in 1921, as "an
art of brewing coffee."
In 1914, Robert Burns, assignor to Jabez
Burns & Sons, New York, was granted a
United States patent on a coffee-granulat-
ing mill.
In 1914 - 15, Herbert Gait, of Chicago,
was granted three United States patents on
the Gait coffee pot, made of aluminum, and
having two parts, a removable cylinder em-
ploying the French drip principle, and the
containing pot.
In 1915, the Burns Jubilee (inner-
heated) gas coffee roaster was patented in
the United States and put on the market.
In 1915, the National Coffee Roasters
Association Home coffee mill, employing an
improved set screw operating on a cog-and
ratchet principle, was introduced to the
trade.
In 1916, a United States patent was
granted to I. D. Richheimer, Chicago, for
an infuser improvement on his Tricolator.
In 1916, Saul Blickman, assignor to S.
Blickman, New York, was granted a United
States patent on an apparatus for making
and dispensing coffee.
In 1916, Orville W. Chamberlain, New
Orleans, was granted a United States patent
on an automatic drip coffee pot.
In 1916, Jules Le Page, Darlington, Ind.,
obtained two United States patents on cut-
ting rolls to cut — and not to grind or
crush — corn, wheat, or coffee. These were
subsequently incorporated in the Ideal steel-
cut coffee mill and marketed to the trade
by the B. F. Gump- Co., Chicago.
In 1917, Richard A. Greene and Wil-
liam G. Burns, assignors to Jabez Burns &
EVOLUTION OF APPARATUS
653
Sons, New York, were granted patents in
the United States on the Burns flexible-arm
cooler (for roasted batches) providing full
fan-suction to a cooler box at all points in
its track travel.
In 1919, Joseph F. Smart, assignor to
Landers, Frary & Clark, New Britain,
Conn., was granted a United States patent
on a percolator.
In 1919, Charles Morgan, assignor to the
Arcade Manufacturing Co., Freeport, 111.,
was granted a United States patent on an
improved grinding mill.
In 1919, Edward F. Schnuck, assignor to
Jabez Burns & Sons, New York, was
granted a United States patent on an im-
provement for a gas coffee roaster. In
1920, he was granted a United States patent
on an improved process of twice cutting
coffee and removing the chaff after each
cutting.
In 1920, Natale de Mattel, of Turin,
Italy, was granted a United States patent
on a rapid coffee-filtering machine.
In 1920, Frederick H. Muller, of Chi-
cago, was granted a United States patent
on "an art of making coffee," and on an
improved apparatus for hotels and restau-
rants, which comprised a series of super-
posed metal containers, or cartridges, of
n I
fr
!,-r
The N. C. K. A. Home Coffee Mill
The Manthey-Zorn Rapid Coffee Infusee A^•D
Dispenser
ground coffee placed in a perforated bucket
designed to rest in a coffee urn, the cart-
ridges being lifted out as the boiling water
poured on them sinks with the drawing off
of the "decoction" at the faucet.
In 1920, Alfredo M. Salazar, of New
York, was granted a United States patent
on a coffee urn in which the coffee is made
at the time of serving by using steam pres-
sure to force the boiling water through
ground coffee held in a cloth sack attached
to the faucet.
In 1920, William H. Bruning, Evans-
ville, Ind., was granted a United States
patent on an improved French drip pot
made of aluminum and provided with a
vacuum jacket in the dripper section, and
a hot- water jacket in the serving portion,
to keep the beverage hot.
In 1921, the Manthey-Zorn Laboratories
Co., of Cleveland, brought out a rapid
coffee-infuser and dispenser employing in
the infuser a centrifugal to make an ex-
tract in thirty-eight seconds, and designed
to deliver a gallon of concentrated liquid,
or coffee base, every three minutes. The
dispenser automatically combines the coffee
base with boiling water in a differential
faucet in the proportion desired, usually
654
ALL ABOUT COFFEE
The Tricolette, a Paper-Filter Device for a
Single Cup
Above ; in position on cup — ■ Below ; opened, showing
parts
one of base to four of water. The dispenser
serves 600 cups per hour. An additional
faucet may be added which will double the
capacity.
Among foreign coffee makers applying
the French drip principle, the Vienna cof-
fee-making machine, known in the United
States as the Bohemian coffee pot, has met
with much favor in this country. Else-
where it is known as the Carlsbad. It is
made of china, and the European manu-
facturer has a patent on the porcelain
strainer, or grid, which is provided with
slits that are very fine on the inner side but
that widen on the outer side to permit care-
ful straining and to facilitate cleaning.
Some of the latest developments in coffee
apparatus were shown at the industrial ex-
position at the National Coffee Roasters As-
sociation, held in New York, November
1-3, 1921, Among items of distinction
not heretofore included in this work, men-
tion should be made of: an American-
French coffee biggin, being a French drip
pot made of American porcelain and fitted
with a muslin strainer; a glass urn-liner,
intended to supplant the porcelain liner;
and an electric repouring pump, designed
to be attached to any type of coffee urn.
Careful research of the records of the
United States patent office discloses that
the number of patents relating to coffee ap-
paratus and coffee preparations, issued
from 1789 to 1921, is as follows :
United States Coffbie Patents
Devices Patents
Coffee Mills 185
Coffee-roasting devices, and. improvements
thereon 312
Coffee-making devices 835
Coffee-cleaning, hulling, drying, polishing,
and plantation machinery in general 175
Miscellaneous patents (for coating, glaz-
ing, treated coffees, substitutes, etc.)... 300
Total 1,807
It must be borne in mind that there
was a number of patents granted on ma-
chines that were intended for, and used for,
coffee, but that did not mention coffee in
the specifications. Many coffee driers were
listed as "grain driers," for instance.
Also, many excellent devices have been
made that were never patented.
Chapter XXXV
WORLD'S COFFEE MANNERS AND CUSTOMS
How coffee is roasted, prepared, and served in all the leading civil-
ized countries — The Arabian coffee ceremony — The present-day
coffee houses of Turkey — Twentieth-century improvements in
Europe and the United States
COFFEE manners and customs have
shown little change in the Orient in
the six hundred-odd years since the
coffee drink was discovered by Sheik Omar
in Arabia. As a beverage for western
peoples, however, and more particularly in
America, there have been many improve-
ments in making and serving it.
A brief survey of the coffee conventions
and coffee service in the principal countries
where coffee has become a fixed item in the
dietary is presented here, with a view to
show how different peoples have adapted
the universal drink to their national needs
and preferences.
To proceed in alphabetical order, and be-
ginning with Africa, coffee drinking is. in-
dulged in largely in Abyssinia, Algeria,
Egypt, Portuguese East Africa, and the
Union of South Africa.
Coffee Manners and Customs in Africa
In Abyssinia and Somaliland, among the
native population, the most primitive
methods of coffee making still obtain. Here
the wandering Galla still mix their pul-
verized coffee beans with fats as a food
ration, and others of the native tribes favor
the kisher, or beverage made from the
toasted coffee hulls. An hour's boiling pro-
duces a straw-colored decoction, of a
slightly sweetish taste. Where the Arabian
customs have taken root, the drink is pre-
pared from the roasted beans after the
Arabian and Turkish method. The white
inhabitants usually prepare and serve the
beverage as in the homeland ; so that it is
possible to obtain it after the English,
French, German, Greek, or Italian styles.
Adaptations of the French sidewalk cafe,
and of the Turkish coffee house, may be
seen in the larger towns.
In the equatorial provinces of Egypt,
and in Uganda, the natives eat the raw
berries ; or first cook them in boiling water,
dry them in the sun, and then eat them. It
is a custom to exchange coffee beans in
frTrTT^ly^ronting ~
Individual earthen vessels for making
coffee, painted red and yellow, are made by
some of the native tribes in Abyssinia, and
usually accompany disciples of Islam when
they journey to Mecca, where the vessels
find a ready sale among the pilgrims, most
of whom are coffee-devotees.
Turkish and Arabian coffee customs pre-
vail in Algeria and Egypt, modified to some
extent by European contact. The Moorish
cafes of Cairo, Tunis, and Algiers have fur-
nished inspiration and copy for writers,
artists, and travelers for several centuries.
They change little with the years. The
mazagran — sweetened cold coffee to which
water or ice has been added — originated
in Algeria. It probably took its name from
the fortress of the same name reserved to
France by the treaty of the Tafna in 1837.
It is said that the French colonial troops
were first served with a drink made from
coffee syrup and cold water on marches
near Mazagran, formerly spelled Masagran.
Upon their return to the French capital,
they introduced the idea, with the added
fillip of service in tall glasses, in their
favorite cafes, where it became known as
cafe mazagran. Variants are coffee syrup
655
656
ALL ABOUT COFFEE
Moorish Coffee House in Algiers
with seltzer, and with hot water. "This
fashion of serving coffee in glasses", says
Jardin, "has no raison d'etre, and nothing
can justify abandoning the cup for coffee."
In the principal streets and public
squares of any town in Algeria it is a com-
mon sight to find a group of Arabs squat-
ting about a portable stove, and a table on
which cups are in readiness to receive the
boiling coffee. The thirsty Arab approaches
the dealer, and for a modest sum he gets
his drink and goes his way; unless he pre-
fers to go inside the cafe, where he may get
several drinks and linger over them, sitting
on a mat with his legs crossed and smoking
his chibouque. Indeed, this is a typical
scene throughout the Near East, where
sheds or coffee tents — sketches of the more
pretentious coffee houses — coffee shops,
and itinerant coffee-venders are to be met
at almost every turn.
In an unpublished work, Baron Antoine
Eousseau and Th. Roland de Bussy have
the folloAving description of a typical Moor-
ish cafe at Algiers :
■ We entered \Yithout ceremony into a narrow
deep cave, decorated with the name of the oaf 6.
On the right and on the left, along its length,
were two benches covered with mats ; notched
cups, tongs, a box of brown sugar, all placed
near a small stove, completed the furniture of
the place. In the evening, the dim light from
a lamp hanging from the ceiling shows the indis-
tinct figures of a double row of natives listening
to the nasal cadences of a band who play a piz-
zicato accompaniment on small three-stringed
violins.
Here, as in Europe, the caf6s are the provi-
dential rendezvous for idlers and gossips, ex-
changes for real-estate brokers and players at
cards.
Europeans recently arrived frequent them
particularly. Some go only to satisfy their
curiosity ; others out of an inborn scorn for the
customs of civilization. They go to sleep as
Frenchmen, they awake Mohammedans ! Their
love for "Turkish art" only leads them to haunt
the native shops and to affect oriental poses.
If we quit for a moment the interior of the
city to follow between two hedgerows of mas-
tics or aloes, one of those capricious paths which
lead one, now up to the summit of a hill, now
to the depths of some ravine, very soon the tones
of a rustic flute, the modulations of the Djou-
icak. will betray some cool and peaceful retreat,
some rustic cafe, easily recognized by its facade,
pierced with large openings. To my eyes, noth-
ing equals the charm of these little buildings
scattered here and there along the edges of a
stream, sheltered under the thick foliage, and
constantly enlivened by the coming and going
of the husbandmen of the neighborhood.
Certain old Moors from the neighboring dis-
tricts, fleeing the noises of the city, are the faith-
ful habitues of these agreeable retreats. Here
they instal themselves at dawn, and know how
to enjoy every moment of their day with tales
of their travels and youthful adventures, and
many a legend for which their imagination taices
all the responsibility.
Gerome's painting of the "Coffee House
at Cairo," which hangs in the Metropolitan
Museum of Art, New York, gives one a
good idea of the atmosphere of the Egyp-
tian cafe. The preparation and service is
modified Turkish-Arabian. The coffee is
ground to a powder, boiled in an ibrik with
the addition of sugar, and served frothing
in small cups. Story-tellers, singers, and
dancers furnish amusement as of vore.
Coffee House in Cairo
ALL ABOUT COFFEE
HULLING COFFEE IN ADEN, ARABIA
MANNERS AND CUSTOMS
657
f \
fl
V ^
U^^^
ii.^..:^
1 'r '
1
Coffee Service at a Barber Shop in Cairo
The Oriental customs have not changed
much in this respect. Trolley cars, vic-
torias, and taxis may have replaced the
donkeys in the new sections of the larger
Egyptian cities ; but in old Alexandria and
Cairo, the approach to the native coffee
house is as dirty and as odorous as ever.
Coffee is always served in all business trans-
actions. Nowadays, the Egyptian women
chew gum and the men smoke cigarettes,
French department stores offer bargain
sales, and the hotels advertise tea dances ;
but the Egyptian coffee drink is still the
tiny cup of coffee grounds and sugar that
it was three hundred years ago, when sugar
was first used to sweeten coffee in Cairo.
In Portuguese East Africa, the natives
prepare and drink coffee after the approved
African native fashion, but the white popu-
lation follows European customs. In the
Union of South Africa, Dutch and English
customs prevail in making and serving the
beverage.
Manners and Customs in Asia
"Arabia the Happy" deserves to be
called "the Blest", if only for its gift of
coffee to the world. Here it was that the
virtues of the drink were first made known ;
here the plant first received intensive cul-
tivation. After centuries of habitual use
of the beverage, we find the Arabs, now as
then, one of the strongest and noblest races
of the world, mentally superior to most of
them, generally healthy, and growing old so
gracefully that the faculties of the mind
seldom give way sooner than those of the
body. They are an ever living earnest of
the healthfulness of coffee.
The Arabs are proverbially hospitable;
and the symbol of their hospitality for a
thousand years has been the great drink of
democracy — coffee. Their very houses are
built around the cup of human brother-
hood. William Wallace,' writing on
Arabian philosophy, manners, and customs,
says :
The principal feature of an Arab house is the
kahwah or coffee room. It is a large apartment
spread with mats, and sometimes furnished with
carpets and a few cushions. At one end is a
small furnace or fireplace for preparing coffee.
In this room the men congregate; here guests
are received, and even lodged ; women rarely
enter it, except at times when strangers are un-
likely to be present. Some of these apartments
are very spacious and supported by pillars ; one
wall is usually built transversely to the compass
direction of the Ka'M (sacred shrine of Mecca).
It serves to facilitate the performance of prayer
by those who may hapi>en to be in the kahicah
at the appointed times.
Several rounds of coffee, without milk or
sugar, but sometimes flavored with carda-
mom seeds, are served to the guest at first
welcome ; and coffee may be had at all hours
' RncuclopecHa Britannica,
285).
11th Ed. (vol. 11: p.
658
ALL ABOUT COFFEE
Ships of the Desert Laden with Coffee.
Arabia
between meals, or whenever the occasion de-
mands it. Always the beans are freshly
roasted, pounded, and boiled. The Arabs
average twenty -five to thirty cups (find-
jans) a day. Everywhere in Arabia there
are to be found cafes where the beverage
may be bought.
Those of the lower classes are thronged
throughout the day. In front, there is gen-
erally a porch or bench where one may sit.
The rooms, benches, and little chairs lack
the cleanliness and elegance of the one-time
luxurious "caffinets" of cities like Damas-
cus and Constantinople, but the drink is
the same. There is not in all Yemen a
single market town or hamlet where one
does not find upon some simple hut the
legend, ''Shed for drinking coffee".
The Arab drinks water before taking cof-
fee, but never after it. "Once in Syria",
says a traveler, "I was recognized as a
foreigner because I asked for water just
after I had taken my coffee. 'If you be-
longed here', said the waiter, 'you would
not spoil the taste of coffee in your mouth
by washing it away with water.' "
It is an adventure to partake of coffee
prepared in the open, at a roadside inn, or
khan, in Arabia by an araba, or diligence
driver. He takes from his saddle-bag the
ever-present coffee kit, containing his sup-
ply of green beans, of which he roasts just
sufficient on a little perforated iron plate
over an open fire, deftly taking off the
beans, one at a time, as they turn the right
color. Then he pounds them in a mortar,
boils his water in the long, straight-handled
open boiler, or ihrik (a sort of brass mug
or jezveh), tosses in the coffee powder,
moving the vessel back and forth from the
fire as it boils up to the rim; and, after
repeating this maneuver three times, pours
the contents foaming merrily mto the little
egg-like serving cups.
Cafe sultan, or kisher, the original de-
coction, made from dried and toasted coffee
hulls, is still being drunk in parts of
Arabia and Turkey.
Coffee in Arabia is part of the, ritual of
business, as in other Oriental countries.
Shop-keepers serve it to the customer before
the argument starts. Recently, a New York
barber got some valuable publicity because
he regaled his customers with tea and
music. It was "old stuff". The Arabian
and Turkish barber shops have been serv-
ing coffee, tobacco, and sweetmeats to their
customers for centuries.
For a faithful description of the ancient
coffee ceremony of the Arabs, which, with
slight modification, is still observed in
Arabian homes, we turn to Palgrave. First
he describes the dwelling and then the
ceremony :
The K'liawah was a large oblong liall, about
twenty feet in height, fifty in length, and six-
teen, or thereabouts, in breadth ; the walls were
coloured in a rudely decorative manner with
brown and white wash, and sunk here and there
into small triangular recesses, destined to the
reception of books, though of these Ghafil at
least had no over-abundance, lamps, and other
such like objects. The roof of timber, and flat ;
the floor was strewed with fine clean sand, and
garnished all round alongside of the walls with
long strips of carpet, upon which cushions, cov-
ered with faded silk, were disposed at suitable
intervals. In poorer houses felt rugs usually
take the place of carpets.
In one corner, namely, that furthest removed
from the door, stood a small fireplace, or, to
speak more exactly, furnace, formed of a large
square block of granite, or some other hard
stone, about twenty inches each way ; this is hol-
lowed inwardly into a deep funnel, open above,
and communicating below with a small horizon-
tal tube or pipe-hole, through which the air
passes, bellows-driven, to the lighted charcoal
piled up on a grating about half-way inside the
cone. In this manner the fuel is soon brought
An Arabian Coffee House
MANNERS AND CUSTOMS
659
^^w^l
^^^r * t^ . i
i
H
^fl^l
^^KSk |>i i> '
H *»
H
^^■■W
H^^^^^H
HP^
^H
^^^H
mI
L .. g^^
fe
■►^^^^^ ^^^^^^
^^
M
^^^Bk^^v ' '^'^
P
'"f^'^^^i«H
HHI
C
M^-M-
..^
^^^^B
Brewing the Guest's Coffee in a Mojiammkda.n Home
to a white heat, and the water in the coffee-pot
placed upon the funnel's mouth is readily
brought to boll. The system of coffee furnaces
is univei'sal in Djowf and Djebel Shomer, but
in Nejed itself, and indeed in whatever other
yet more distant regions of Arabia I visited to
the south and e.'ist, the furnace is replaced by
an open fireplace hollowed in the ground floor,
with a raised stone border, and dog-irons for the
fuel, and so forth, like what may be yet seen
in Spain. This diversity of arrangement, so far
as Arabia is concerned, is due to the greater
abundance of fire- wood in the south, whereby the
inhabitants are enabled to light up on a larger
scale; whereas throughout the Djowf and Djebel
Shomer wwxl is very scarce, and the only fuel at
hand is bad charcoal, often brought from a con-
siderable distance, and carefully husbanded.
This corner of the K'hawah is also the place
of distinction whence honour and coffee radiate
by progressive degrees round the apartment, and
hereabouts accordingly sits the master of the
house himself, or the guests whom he moi'e espe-
cially delighteth to honour.
On the broad edge of the furnace or fireplace,
as the case may bo, stands an ostentatious range
of copper coffee-pots, varying in size and form.
Here in the Djowf their make resembles that in
vogue at Damascus : but in Xejed and the east-
ern districts they are of a different and much
more ornamental fashioning, very tall and
(Slender, with several ornamental circles and
mouldings in elegant relief, besides boasting long
beak-shaped spouts and high steeples for covers.
The number of these utensils is often extrava-
gantly great. I have seen a dozen at a time in
a row by one fireside, though coffee-making re-
quires, in fact, only three at most. Here in the
Djowf five or six are considered to be the thing ;
for the south this number must be doubled ; all
this to indicate the riches and munificence of
their owner, by implying the frequency of his
guests and the large amount of coffee that he is
in consequence obliged to have made for them.
Behind this stove sits, at least in wealthy
houses, a black slave, whose name is generally
a diminutive in token of familiarity or affection;
in the present case it was Soweylim, me diminu-
tive of Salim. His occupation is to make and
pour out the coffee ; where there is no slave in
the family, the master of the premises himself,
or perhaps one of his sons, performs that hos-
pitable duty ; rather a tedious one, as we shall
soon see.
We enter. On passing the threshold it is
pi-ojier to say, "BisniiUah," i. e.. " in the name of
God ;" not to do so would be looked on as a bad
augury alike for him who enters and for those
within. The visitor next advances in silence,
till on coming about half-way across the room,
he gives to all present, but looking specially at
the master or the house, the customary "Es-
salamu'aleykuvi" or ''Peace l>e with you," lit-
erally, "on you." All this while every one else
in tlie room has kept his place, motionless, and
without saying a word. But on receiving the
salaam of etiquette, the master of the house
rises, and if a strict Wahhabee, or at any rate
desirous of seeming such, replies with the full-
length traditionary formula. "TF' 'nleykumu-8-
snhlviu. u'rnhwnV Vllohi ir'harakdtuh." which
is. as every one knows. "And with (or, on) you
be peace, and the mercy of God. and his bless-
ings." But should he happen to be of anti-
Wahhabee tendencies the odds are that he will
say "Marhahi." or "Ahlan ir,' sahlan," i. e.,
660
ALL ABOUT COFFEE
"welcome"' or "worthy, and pleasurable," or the
like ; for of such phrases there is an infinite, but
elegant variety.
All present follow the example thus given, by
rising and saluting. The guest then goes up to
the master of the house, who has also made a
step or two forwards, and places his open hand
in the palm of his host's, but without grasping
or shaking, which would hardly pass for decor-
ous, and at the same time each repeats once
more his greeting, followed by the set phrases
of polite enquiry, "How are you?" "How goes
the world with you?" and so forth, all in a tone
of great interest, and to be gone over three or
four times, till one or other has the discretion
to say "i/7 hanidu I'illah," "Praise be to God", or,
in equivalent value, "all right," and this is a
signal for a seasonable diversion to the cere-
monious interrogatory.
The guest then, after a little contest of cour-
tesy, takes his seat in the honoured post by the
fireplace, after an apologetical salutation to the
black slave on the one side, and to his nearest
neighbour on the other. The best cushions and
newest looking carpets have been of course pre-
pared for his honoured weight. Shoes or sandals,
for in truth the latter alone are used in Arabia,
are slipped off on the sand just before reaching
the carpet, and there they remain on the floor
close by. But the riding stick or wand, the in-
separable companion of every true Arab, whether
Bedouin or townsman, rich or poor, gentle or
simple, is to be retained in the hand, and will
serve for playing with during the pauses of con-
versation, like the fan of our great-grandmothers
in their days of conquest.
Without delay Soweylim begins his prepara-
tions for coffee. These open by about five
minutes of blowing with the bellows and ar-
ranging the charcoal till a sufficient heat has
been produced. Next he places the largest of
the coffee-pots, a huge machine, and about two-
thirds full of clear water, close by the edge of
the glowing coal-pit, that its contents may be-
come gradually warm while other operations are
in progress. He then takes a dirty knotted rag
out of a niche in the wall close by, and having
untied it, empties out of it three or four hand-
fuls of unroasted coffee, the which he places on
a little trencher of platted grass, and picks care-
fully out any blackened grains, or other non-
homologous substances, commonly to be found
intermixed with the berries when purchased in
gross ; then, after much cleansing and shaking,
he pours the grain so cleansed into a large open
iron ladle, and places it over the mouth of the
funnel, at the same time blowing the bellows and
stirring the grains gently round and round till
they crackle, redden, and smoke a little, but
carefully withdrawing them from the heat long
before they turn black or charred, after the
erroneous fashion of Turkey and Europe ; after
which he puts them to cool a moment on the
grass platter.
He then sets the warm water in the large
coffee-pot over the fire aperture, that it may be
ready boiling at the right moment, and draws in
close between his own trouserless legs a large
stone mortar, with a narrow pit in the middle,
just enough to admit the large stone pestle of a
foot long and an inch and a half thick, which
he now takes in hand. Next, pouring the half-
roasted berries into the mortar, he proceeds to
pound them, striking right into the narrow hol-
low with wonderful dexterity, nor ever missing
his blow till the beans are smashed, but not re-
duced into powder. He then scoops them out,
now reduced to a sort of coarse reddish grit,
very unlike the fine charcoal dust which passes
in some countries for coffee, and out of which
every particle of real aroma has long since been
burnt or ground.
After all these operations, each performed
with as intense a seriousness and deliberate
nicety as if the welfare of the entire Djowf de-
pended on it, he takes a smaller coffee-pot in
hand, fills it more than half with hot water from
the lai'ger vessel, and then shaking the pounded
coffee into it, sets it on the fire to boil, occa-
sionally stirring it with a small stick as the
water rises to check the ebullition and prevent
overfiowing. Nor is the boiling stage to be long
or vehement : on the contrary, it is and should
be as light as possible. In the interim he takes
out of another rag-knot a few aromatic seeds
called heyl, an Indian product, but of whose
scientific name I regret to be wholly ignorant,
or a little saffron, and after slightly pounding
these ingredients, throws them into the simmer-
ing coffee to improve its flavour, for such an
additional spicing is held indispensable in Arabia
though often omitted elsewhere in the East.
Sugar would be a totally unheard of profana-
tion. Last of all, he strains off the liquor
through some fibres of the inner palm-bark
placed for that purpose in the jug-spout, and
gets ready the tray of delicate parti-coloured
grass, and the small coffee cups ready for pour-
ing out. All these preliminaries have taken up
a good half-hour.
Meantime we have become engaged in active
conversation with our host and his friends. But
our Sherarat guide, Suleyman, like a ti'ue
Bedouin, feels too awkward Avhen among towns-
folk to venture on the upper places, though re-
peatedly invited, and accordingly has squatted
down on the sand near the entrance. Many of
Ghafil's relations are present; their silver-deco-
rated swords proclaim the importance of the
family. Others, too, have come to receive us,
for our arrival, announced before-hand by those
we had met at the entrance pass, is a sort of
event in the town ; the dress of some betokens
poverty, others are better clad, but all have a
very polite and decorous manner. Many a ques-
tion is asked about our native land and town,
that is to say, Syria and Damascus, conform-
ably to the disguise already adopted, and which
it was highly important to keep well up; then
follow enquiries regarding our journey, our
business, what we have brought with us, about
our medicines, our goods and wares, etc., etc.
From the very first it is easy for us to perceive
that patients and purchasers are likely to
abound. Very few travelling merchants, if any,
visit the Djowf at this time of year, for one
must be mad, or next door to it, to rush into
the vast desert around during the heats of June
and July ; I for one have certainly no intention
of doing it again. Hence we had small danger
of competitors, and found the market almost at
our absolute disposal.
MANNERS AND CUSTOMS
661
But before a quarter of an hour has passed,
and while blacky is still roasting or pounding
his coffee, a tall thin lad, Ghafll's eldest son,
appears, charged with a large circular dish,
grass-platted like the rest, and throws it with
a graceful jerk on the sandy tloor close before
us. He then produces a large wooden bowl full
of dates, bearing in the midst of the heap a cup
full of melted butter; all this he places on the
circular mat, and says, "Semmoo," literally,
"pronounce the Name'', of God, understood ; this
means "set to work at it." Hereon the master
of the house quits his place by the fireside and
seats himself on the sand opposite to us ; we
draw nearer to the dish, and four or five others,
after some respectful coyness, join the circle.
Every one then picks out a date or two from the
juicy half-amalgamated mass, dips them into the
butter, and thus goes on eating till he has had
enough, when he rises and washes his hands.
By this time the coffee is ready, and Sowey-
lim begins his round, the coffee-pot in one hand ;
the tray and cups on the otlher. The first
pouring out he must in etiquette drink himself,
by way of a practical assurance that there is no
"death in the pot ;" the guests are next served,
beginning with those next the honourable fire-
side ; the master of the house receives his cup
last of all. To refuse would be a positive and
unpardonable insult : but one has not much to
swallow at a time, for the coffee-cups, or finjans,
are about the size of a large egg-shell at most,
and are never more than half-filled. This is
considered essential to good breeding, and a
brimmer would here imply exactly the reverse
of what it does in Europe; why it should be so
I hardly know, unless perhaps the rareness of
cup-stands or "zarfs" (see Lane's "Modern
Egyptians") in Arabia, though these implements
are universal in Egypt and Syria, might render
an over-full cup inconveniently hot for the
fingers that must grasp it without medium. Be
that as it may, "fill the cup for your enemy" is
an adage common to all. Bedouins or townsmen,
throughout the Peninsula. The beverage itself
is singularly aromatic and refreshing, a real
tonic, and very different from the black mud
sucked by the Levantine, or the watery roast-
bean preparations of France. When the slave
Eably Manner of Serving Coffee, Tea and
Chocolate
From a drawing in Dufoiir's Traites Nouveaux et Curi-
eiix du Cafe, dti The et du Chocolat
or freeman, according to circumstances, presents
you with a cup, he never fails to accompany it
with a "Semm'," "say the name of God," nor
must you take it without answering "Bismillah."
Wlien all have been thus served, a second
round is poured out, but in inverse order, for
the host this time drinks first, and the guests
last. On special occasions, a first reception, for
instance, the ruddy liquor is a third time handed
round ; nay, a fourth cup is sometimes added.
But all these put together do not come up to
one-fourth of what a European imbibes in a
single draught at breakfast.
For a more recent pen picture of coffee
manners and customs in Arabia, we turn to
Charles M. Daughty's Travels in Arabia
Deserta"^:
Hirfa ever demanded of her husband towards
which part should "the house" be built. "Dress
the face". Zeyd would an.s»wer. "to this part",
showing her with his hands the south, for if his
booth's face be all day turned to the hot sun
there will come in fewer young loitering and
I»arasitical fellows that would be his coffee-
drinkers. Since the sheukh. or heads, alone re-
ceive their tribes' surra, it is not much that they
should be to the arms [of his] coffee-hosts. I
have seen Zeyd avoid fthem] as he Siiw them
approach, or even rise ungraciously upon such
men's presenting themselves (the half of every
booth, namely the men's side, is at all times
open, and any enter there that will, in the free
Native Cafe, Harar. Abyssinia
•London; 1888 (vol. 1: pp. 222, 224K
662
ALL ABOUT COFFEE
desert), and they murmuring he tells them,
wellah, his affairs do call him forth, adieu ; he
must away to the niejlis; go they and seek the
coffee elsewhere. But were there any sheykh
with them, a coffee lord, Zeyd could not honestly
choose but abide and serve them with coffee ;
and if he be absent himself, yet any sheykhli/
man coming to a shcykh's tent, coffee must be
made for him, except he gently protest "billah,
he would not drink." Illrfa. a shcykh's daugh-
ter and his nigh kinswoman, was a faithful mate
to Zeyd in all his sparing policy.
Our menzil now standing, the men step over
to Zeyd's coffee-fire, if the sheykh be riot gone
forth to the mejlis to drink his mid-day cup
there. A few gathered sticks are tlung down
beside the hearth ; with flint and steel one
stoops and strikes (ire in tinder, he blows and
cherishes those seeds of the cheerful flame in
some dry camel-dung, sets the burning shred
under dry straws, and powders over more dry
camel-dung. As the fire kindles, the sheykh
reaches for his dellal, coffee pots, which are
carried in. the fatya, coffee-gear basket; this
people of a nomad life bestow each thing of
theirs in a proper hcyt ; it would otherwise be
lost in their daily removings. One rises to go
to fill up the pots at the water-skins, or a bowl
of water is handed over the curtain from the
woman's side; the pot at the fire, Hirfa reaches
Nubian Slave Girl with Coffee Service, Persia
over her litle palm-ful of green coffee berries
. . , These are I'oasted and brayed ; as all is
boiling he sets out his little cups, fcnjeyl (for
fenjeyn). When, with a pleasant gravity, he has
unbuckled his giitia or cup-box, we see the
nomad has not above three or four fenjeyns,
wrapt in a rusty clout, with which he scours
them busily, as if this should make his cups
clean. The roasted beans are pounded amongst
Arabs with a magnanimous rattle — and (as all
their labor) rhythmical — in brass of the town,
or an old wooden mortar, gaily studded with
nails, the work of some nomad smith. The
water bubbling in the small dellal, he casts in
his fine coffee ix)wder, cl-hunn, and withdraws
the pot to simmer a moment. From a knot In
his kerchief he takes then a head of cloves, a
piece of cinnamon or other spice, hnhar, and
braying these he casts their dust in after. Soon
he pours out some hot drops to essay his coffee ;
if the taste be to his liking, making dexterously
a nest of all the cups in his hand, with pleasant
clattering, he is ready to pour out for all the
company, and begins upon his right hand ; and
first, if such lie present, to any considerable
sheykh and principal persons. The fenjeyn
kahwah is but four sips ; to fill it up to a guest,
as in the northern towns, were among Bedouins
an injury, and of such bitter meaning, "This
drink thou and depart."
Then is often seen a contention in courtesy
amongst them, especially in any greater assem-
blies, who shall drink first. Some man that
receives the fenjeyn in his turn will not drink
yet — he proffers it to one sitting in order under
him. as to the more honourable ; but the other
putting off with his hand will answer chhedcn,
"Nay, it shall never be, by Ullah ! but do thou
drink." Thus licensed, the humble man is
despatched in three sips, and hands up his empty
fenjeyn. But if he have much insisted, by this
he opens his willingness to be reconciled with
one not his friend. That neighbor, seeing the
company of coffee-drinkers watching him, may
with an honest grace receive the cup, and let it
seem not willingly ; but an hard man will some-
times rebut the other's gentle proffer.
Some may have taken lower seats than becom-
ing their sheykhly blood, of which the nomads
are jealous ; entering untimely, they sat down
out of order, sooner than trouble all the com-
pany. A sheykh, coming late and any business
going forward, will often sit far out in the as-
sembly ; and show himself a iwpular i^rson in
this kind of honourable humility. The more
inward in the booth is the higher place ; where
also is, with the sheykhs, the seat of a stranger.
To sit in the loose circuit without and before
the tent, is for the common sort. A tribesman
arriving presents himself at that part or a little
lower, where in the eyes of all men his preten-
sion will b^ well allowed ; and in such observ-
ances of good nurture, is a nomad man's honour
among his tribesmen. And this is nigh all that
serves the nomad for a conscience, namely, that
which men will hold of him. A poor person,
approaching from behind, stands obscurely,
wrapped in his tattered mantle, with grave cere-
monial, until those sitting indolently before him
in the saud shall vouchsafe to take notice of
him ; then they rise unwillingly, and giving back
MANNERS AND CUSTOMS
663
enlarge the coffee-circle to receive him. But if
Chere arrive a sheykh, a coffee-host, a richard
amongst them of a few cattle, all the coxcomh
companions within will hail him with their
pleasant adulation taad henneyi, "Step thou up
hither."
The astute Fukara shettkh surpass all men In
their coffee-drinking courtesy, and Zeyd himself
was more than any large of this gentlemen-like
imi>osture : he was full of swaggering com-
placence and compliments to an humbler i>erson.
With what suavity could he encourage, and
gently too compel a man, and rising himself
yield him parcel of another man's room ! In
such fashions Zeyd showed himself a bountiful
great man, who indeed was the greatest niggard.
The cups are drunk twice about, each one sip-
ping after other's lips without misliking ; to the
great coffee sheykhs the cup may be filled more
times, but this is an adulation of the coffee-
server. There are some of the Fukara shcukh
so delicate Sybarites that of those three bitter
sips, to draw out all their joyance, twisting,
turning, and tossing again the cup, they could
make ten. The coffee-service ended, the grounds
are poured out from the small into the great
store-pot that is reserved full of warm water;
with the bitter lye the nomads will make their
next bever, and think they spare coffee.
Here is an Arabian recipe^ for making
coffee as given by Kadhi Hodhat, the best
informed man of his time:
Tadj - Eddin - Aid - Almaknab - ben - Yacoub -
Mekki Molki, chief of all the cantons of Hedjaz,
(May God liave mercy on him!) I learned it
when once in his company at the time of the
Holy Feasts. . . He informed me that nothing
is more beneficial than to drink cold water be-
fore coffee, because it lessens the dryness of the
coffee and thus taken it does not cause insomnia
to the same degree. The poet did not forget to
explain this manner of taking coffee :
As with art 'tis prepared, one should drink it
with art.
The mere commonplace drinks one absorbs with
free heart ;
But this — once with care from the bright flame
removed,
And the lime set aside that its value has
proved —
Take it first in deep draughts, meditative and
slow.
Quit it now, now resume, thus imbibe with
gusto ;
Wliile charming the palate it burns yet enchants,
In the hour of its triumph the virtue it grants
Penetratas every tissue; its powers condense,
Circulate cheering warmths, bring new life to
each sense.
From the cauldron profound spiced aromas
unseen
Mount to tease and delight your olfactories keen,
Tlie while you inhale with felicity fraught,
The enchanting perfume that a zephyr has
brought.
Gone are the "luxurious and magnifi-
' de Sacy. Baron Anloine. Isaac Silvestre. Chresto-
mathie Arabe. Paris. 1S06, (vol. 2).
Persian Coffee Service, 1737
cent" coffee houses of Constantinople (if
they ever existed — at least as we under-
stand luxury and magnificence) which first
brought the beverage world-wide fame;
such caffinets as the one pictured by
Thomas Allom and described by the Rev,
Robert Walsh, in Constantinople, Illus-
trated :
The caflSnet, or coffee-house, is something more
splendid, and the Turk expends all his notions
of finery and elegance on this, his favorite place
of indulgence. The edifice is generally deco-
rated in a very gorgeous manner, supported on
pillars, and open in front. It is surrounded on
the inside by a raised platform, covered with
mats or cushions, on which the Turks sit cross-
legged. On one side are musicians, generally
Greeks, with mandolins and tambourines, acconi-
panying singers, whose melody consists in voci-
feration; and the loud and obstreperous concert
forms a strong contrast to the stillness and
taciturnity of Turkish meetings. On the op-
posite side are men, generally of a respectable
class, some of whom are found here every day,
and all day long, dozing under the double in-
fluence of coffee and tobacco. The coffee is
served in very small cups, not larger than egg-
cups, grounds and all, without cream or sugar,
and so black, thick, and bitter that it has been
aptly compared to "stewed soot". Besides the
ordinary chil>ouk for tobacco, there is another
implement, called narghillai. used for smoking
664
ALL ABOUT COFFEE
''3^^^BK
9R
In A Turkish Coffee House
in a caffiuet, of a more elaborate construction.
It consists of a glass vase, filled with water, and
often scented with distilled rose or other flowers.
This is surmounted with a silver or brazen head,
from which issues a long flexible tube; a pipe-
bowl is placed on the top, and so constructed
that the smolie is drawn, and comes bubbling
up through the water, cool and fragrant to the
mouth. A peculiar Tiind of tobacco, grown at
Shiraz in Persia, and resembling small pieces
of cut leather, is used with this instrument.
Certainly there never was any such thing
as a coffee-house architecture. It may be
that up to the time of Abdul Hamid, when
money was more plentiful than it has been
for the past fifty years, there were coffee
houses more comfortably appointed than
now exist.
The coffee house in a modernized form
is, however, quite as numerous in Turkey
as in the days of Amurath III and the
notorious Kuprili.
H. G. Dwight* writing on the present
day Turkish coffee house, says:
There are thoroughfares in any Turkish city
that carry on almost no other form of traffic.
There is no quarter so miserable or so remote as
to be without one or two. They -are the clubs
of the poorer classes. Men of a street, a trade,
a province, or a nationality — for a Turkish
coffee-house may also be Albanian, Armenian.
Greek, Hebrew, Kurd, almost anything you
please — meet regularly when their work is done,
at coffee-houses kept by their own people. So
much are the humbler coffee-houses frequented
by a fixed clientele that a student of types or
dialects may realize for himself how truly they
used to be called Schools of Knowledge.
The arrangement of a Turkish coffee-house is
of the simplest. The essential is that the place
should provide the beverage for which it exists
and room for enjoying the same. A sketch of a
coffee-shop may often be seen on the street, in
a scrap of shade or sunshine according to the
season, where a stool or two invite the passer-by
* Scribner's Magazine, 1918 (vol. liii : no. 5 : p.
620) ; and Dwight. H. G.. Constantinople, Old and
New, New York, 1915. Copyright by Charles Scrib-
Qer's Sons.
to a moment of contemplation. Larger estab-
lishments, though they are rarely very large,
are most often installed in a room longer than
it is wide, having as many windows as possible
at the street end and what we would call the
bar at the other. It is a bar that always makes
me regret I do not etch, with its pleasing curves,
its high lights of brass and porcelain striking
out of deep shadow, and its usually picturesque
kalwehji.
You do not stand at it. You sit on one of the
benches running down the sides of the room.
They are more or less comfortably cushioned,
though sometimes higher and broader than a
foreigner finds to his taste. In that case you
slip oft" your shoes, if you would do as the
Romans do, and tuck your feet up under you.
A table stands in front of you to hold your cof-
fee — and often in summer an aromatic pot of
basil to keep the flies away. Chairs or stools
are scattered about. Decorative Arabic texts,
sometimes wonderful prints, adorn the walls.
There may even be hanging rugs and china to
entertain your eyes. And there you are.
The hnbit of the coffee-house is one that re-
quires a certain leisure. You must not bolt cof-
fee as you bolt the fire-waters of the West,
without ceremony, in retreats withdrawn from
the public eye. Being a less violent and a less
shameful passion, I suppose, it is indulged in
with more of the humanities. The etiquette of
the coffee-house, of those coffee-houses which
have not been too much infected by Europe, is
one of their most characteristic features. Some-
thing like it prevails in Italy, where you tip your
hat on entering and leaving a caffe. In Turkey,
however, I have seen a new-comer salute one
after another each person in a crowded coffee-
room, once on entering the door and again after
taking his seat, and be so saluted in return —
either by putting the right hand to the heart
and uttering the greeting Merhabah, or by mak-
ing the temennah, that triple sweep of the hand
which is the most graceful of salutes. I have
also seen an entire company rise upon the en-
trance of an old man, and yield him the corner
of honor.
Such courtesies take time. Then you must
wait for your coffee to be made. To this end
coffee, roasted fresh as required by turning in an
Roasting Coffee Befoke a Cafe, Turkey
i
MANNERS AND CUSTOMS
665
Interio-^ of a Turkish Caffinet, Eai ly Nixeteej^th Century — after Allan
iron cylinder over a fire of sticks and ground
to the fineness of powder in a brass mill, is put
Into a small uncovered brass pot with a long
handle. There it is boiled to a froth three times
on a charcoal brazier, with or without sugar
as yon prefer. But to desecrate it by the ad-
mixture of milk is an unheard of sacrilege.
Some kahvehjis replace the pot in the embers
wit'h a smart rap in order to settle the grounds.
You in the meanwhile smoke. That also takes
time, particularly if you "dx'ink" a narguileh,
as the Turks say. This is familiar enough in the
West to require no great description. It is a
big carafe with a metal top for holding tobacco
and a long coil of leather tube for inhaling the
water-cooled fumes thereof. The effect is won-
derfully soothing and innocent at first, though
wonderfully deadly in the end to the novice.
The tobacco used is not the ordinary weed, but
a much coarser and stronger one called tunbeki,
which comes from Persia. The same sort of
tobacco used to be smoked a great deal in shal-
low red earthenware pipes with long mouth-
pieces. They are now chiefly seen in antiquity
shops.
When your coffee is ready it is poured into
an after-dinner coffee-cup or into a miniature
bowl, and brought to you on a tray with a glass
of water. A foreigner can almost always be
spotted by the manner in which he finally par-
takes of these rt fresh ments. A Turk sips his
water first, partly to prepare the way ^jv the
coffee, but also i.ecause he is a connoisseur of
the former liq^uid as other men are of stronger
ones. And he lift's his coffee-cup by the saucer,
whether it possess a ha:idle or no, managing the
two together in a dexterous way of his own.
The current price for all this, not including the
water-pipe, is ten paras — a trifle over a cent
— for which the kahvehji will cry you "Bless-
ing". More pretentious establishments charge
twenty paras, while a giddy few rise to a piaster
— not quite five cents — or a piaster and a half.
That, however, begins to look like extortion.
And mark that you do not tip the waiter. I have
often been surprised to be charged no more than
the tariff, although I gave a larger piece to be
changed and it was perfectly evident that I was
a foreigner. That is an experience which rarely
befalls a traveller among his own coreligionaries.
It has even happened to me, which is rare*
still, to be charged nothing at all, nay, to be
steadfastly refused when I persisted in at-
tempting to pay. simply because I was a for-
eigner, and therefore a guest.
There is no reason, however, why .vou should
go away when you have had your coffee — or
your glass of tea — and your smoke. On the
contrary, there are reasons why you should
stay, particularly if you happen into the coffee-
house not too long after sunset. Then coffee-
houses of the most local color are at their best.
Earlier in the day their clients are likely to be
at work. Later they will have disappeared
altogether. For Constantinople has not quite
forgotten the habits of the tent. Stamboul, ex-
cept during the holy month of Ramazan. is a
deserted city at night. But just after dark i-
is full of a life which an outsider is often con-
tent simply to watch through the lighted win-
dows of coffee-rooms. These are also barber-
shops, where men have shaved not only their
chins, but different parts of their heads accord-
ing to their "countries". In them likewise
668
ALL ABOUT COFFEE
Coffee Making in Turkey
sounding of the minor key. It pleases me to
fancy tliere a music come from far away —
from unknown river gorges, from camp-fires
,1,'limmering on great plains. Does not such
darkness breathe through it, such melancholy,
such haunting of elusive airs? There are flashes
too of light, of song, the playing of shepherd's
pipes, the swoop of horsemen and sudden out-
cries of savagery. But the note to which it all
comes back is the monotone of a primitive life,
like the day-long beat of camel bells. And more
than all, it is the mood of Asia, so rarely pene-
trated, which is neither lightness or despair.
There are seasons in the year when these
various forms of entertainment abound more
than at others, as Ramazan and the two
Bairams. Throughout the month of Ramazan
the purely Turkish coffee-houses are closed in
the daytime, since the pleasures which they
minister may not then be indulged in ; but they
are open all night. It is during that one month
of the year that Karaghieuz, the Turkish
shadow-show, may be seen in a few of the
larger coffee^hops. The Bairams are two fes-
tivals of three and four days respectively, the
former of which celebrates the close of Rama-
zan, while the latter corresponds in certain re-
spects to the Jewish Passover. Dancing is a
particular feature of the coffee-houses in
Bairam. The Kurds, who carry the burdens of
Constantinople on their backs, are above all
other men given to this form of exercise —
though the Lazzes, the boatmen, vie with them.
checkers, the Persian backgammon, and various
games of long narrow cards are played. They
say that Bridge came from Constantinople.
Indeed, I believe a club of Pera claims the
honor of having communicated that passion to
the Western World. But I must confess that I
have yet to see an open hand in a coffee-house
of the people.
One of the pleasantest forms of amusement
to be obtained in coffee-houses is unfortunately
getting to be one of the rarest. It is that af-
forded by itinerant story-tellers, who still carry
on in the East the tradition of the troubadours.
The stories they tell are more or less on the
order of the Arabian Nights, though perhaps
even less suitable for mixed companies — which
for the rest are never found in coffee-shops.
These men are sometimes wonderfully clever al
character monologue or dialogue. They collect
their pay at a crucial moment of the action, re-
fusing to continue until the audience has testi-
fied to the sincerity of its interest by some token
more substantial.
Music is much more common. There are
those, to be sure, who find no music in the
sounds poured forth oftenest by a gramophone,
often by a pair of gypsies with a flaring piiie
and two small gourd drums, and sometimes by
an orchestra so-called of the fine lute — a com-
pany of musicians on a railed dais who sing
long songs while they play on stringed instru-
ments of strange curves. For myself I know
too little of music to tell what relation the re-
current cadences of those songs and their
broken rhythms may bear to the antique modes.
But I can listen, as long as musicians will per-
form, to those infinite repetitions, that insistent
Street Coffee Vender in the Levant, 1714
MANNERS AND CUSTOMS
667
A Coffee House in Syria — after Jardin
One of these dark tribesmen plays a little violin
like a poclielle, or two of them perform on a
l)ipe and a big drum, while the others dance
round them in a circle, sometimes till they drop
from fatigue. The weird music and the [)ictur-
esque costumes and movements of the dancers
make the spectacle one to be remembered.
Christian coffee-houses also have their own
festal seasons. These coincide in general with
the festivals of the chui'ch. But every quarter
has its patron saint, the saint of the local
church or of the local holy well, whose feast is
celebrated by a three-day panayiri. The street
is dressed with flags and strings of colored
paper, tables and chairs line the sidewalk, and
libations are poured forth in honor of the holy
person commemorated. For this reason, and
because of the more volatile character of the
Greek, the general note of his merrymaking is
louder than that of the Turk. One may even
see the scandalous spectacle of men and women
dancing together at a Greek panayiri. The in-
strument which sets the key of these orgies is
the lantema, a species of hand-organ peculiar
to Constantinople. It is a hand-piano rather, of
a loud and cheerful voice, whose Eurasian har-
monies are enlivened by a frequent clash of
bells.
What first made coffee-houses suspicious to
those in authority, however, is their true re-
source—the advantages they offer for meeting
one's kind, for social converse and tlie contem-
plation of life. Ilenee it must be that they have
so happy a" tact for locality. They seek shade,
pleasant c-orners. open squares, the prospect
of water or wide landscapes. In Constantinople
they enjoy an infinite choice of site, so huge is
the extent of that city, so broken by hill and
sea, so varied in its spectacle of life. The com-
monest type of city coffee-room looks out upon
the passing world from under a grape-vine or a
climbing wistaria.
Coffee-houses of distinction are to be
found also in the Place of the Pines over-
looking the Marble Sea, on Giant's Moun-
tain, in the Landing Place of the Man-
slayer, and along the rivers that flow into
the Golden Horn.
Originally the Turkish method of pre-
paring coffee was the Arabian method, and
it is so described by Mr. Fellows in his
Excursions through Asia Minor:
Each cup is made separately, the little sauce-
pan or ladle in which it is prepared being about
an inch wide and two deep ; this is more than
half filled with coffee, finely pounded with a
pestle and mortar, and then filled up with
water ; after being placed for a few seconds on
the fire, the contents are poured, or rather
shaken, out (being much thicker than chocolate)
without the addition of cream or sugar, into a
china cup of the size and shape of half an egg-
shell, which is inclosed in one of ornamented
metal for convenience of holding in the hand.
Later, the Turks sought to improve the
method by adding sugar (a concession to
the European sweet tooth) during the
boiling process. The improved Turkish
recipe is as follows:
First boil the water. For two cups of the
beverage add three lumps of sugar and return
the boiler to the fire. Add two toaspoonfuls of
powdered coffee, stirring well and let the pot
668
ALL ABOUT COFFEE
boil up four times. Between each boiling the
pot is to be removed from the fire and the bot-
tom tapped gently until the froth on the top
subsid.es. After the last boiling pour the coffee
first into one cup and then the other, so as to
evenly divide the froth.
In Syria and Palestine the Turkish-
Arabian methods are followed. The brazen
dippers, or ihriks, are
used for boiling.
In the Near East,
coffee manners and cus-
toms are much the same
today as they were fifty
or even one hundred
years ago. Witness
Damascus. The follow-
ing pen picture of the
cafes in this ancient
city was written in 1836
to accompany the draw-
ing by Bartlett and
Purser, which is repro-
duced here ; but it might
have been written in
1922, so slight have been
the changes in the set-
ting or the spirit of the
original coffee house
that S h e m s i first
brought to Constanti-
nople from Damascus in 1554.'
The Cafes of the kind represented in the
plate are, perhaps, the greatest luxury that a
stranger finds in Damascus. Gardens, kiosques.
fountains, and groves are abundant around
every Eastern capital: but Cafes on the very
bosom of a rapid river, and bathed by its
waves, are peculiar to this ancient city: they
are formed so as to exclude the rays of the
sun, while they admit the breeze; the light
roof is supported by slender rows of pillars,
and the building is quite open on every side.
A few of these liouses are situated in the
skirts of the town, on one of the streams,
where the eye rests on the luxuriant vegeta-
tion of garden and wood : others are in the
heart of the city : a flight of steps conducts to
them from the sultry street, and it is delight-
ful to pass in a few moments from the noisy,
shadeless thoroughfare, where you see only
mean gateways and the gable-ends of edifices,
to a cool, grateful, calm place of rest and re-
freshment, where you can muse and meditate
in ease and luxury, and feel at every moment
the rich breeze from the river. In two or
three instances, a light wooden bridge leads
to the platform, close to which, and almost out
of it, one or two large and noble trees lift the
canopy of their spreading branches and leaves,
more welcome at noon-day than the roofs of
fretted gold in the "Arabian Nights." The
Cafetak
Oriental coffee-
house keeper's
costume
high pavilion roof and the pillars are all con-
structed of wood: the floor is of wood, and
sometimes of earth, and is regularly watered,
and raised only a few inches above the level
of the stream, which rushes by at the feet of
the customer, which it almost bathes, as he
sips his coffee or sherbet. Innumerable small
seats cover the floor, and you take one of these,
and place it in the position you like best.
Perhaps you wish to sit apart from the
crowd, just under the shadow of the tree, or
in some favourite corner where you can smoke,
and contemplate the motley guests, formed into
calm and solemn groups, who wish to hold no
communion with the Giaour. There is ample
food here for the observer of character, cos-
tume and pretension : the tradesman, the me-
chanic, the soldier, the gentleman, the dandy,
the grave old man, looking wise on the past
and dimly on the future : the badge, in his
green turban, vain of his journey to Mecca,
and drawing a long bow in his tales and ad-
ventures : the long straight pipe, the hookah
with its soft curling tube and glass vase, are
in request : but the poorer argille is most com-
monly used.
From sunrise to set, these houses are never
empty : we were accustomed to visit one of
them early every morning, before breakfast,
and very many persons were already there : yet
this "balmy hour of prime" was the most silent
and solitary of the whole day ; it was the coolest
also : the rising sun was glancing redly on the
» Came, John.
1836 (p. 69).
'jria, the Holy Land. London,
Street Coffee Service in Constantinople
MAXXERS AXD CUSTOMS
669
A Riverside Caie in Damascus, Nineteenth Century
After Bartlett and Purser
waters : there was as yet no heat in the air,
and the little cup of Mocha coffee and the pipe
were handed by an attendant as soon as the
stranger was seated. His favourite Cafe was
the one represented in the plate : the river is
the Barrada. the ancient Pharpar. Never was
the sound of many waters so pleasant to the
ear as in Damascus : the air is filled with the
sound, with which no clash of tongues, rolling
of wheels, march of footman or horsemen,
mingle : the numerous groups who love to re-
sort here are silent half the time; and when
they do converse, their voice is often "low,
like that of a familiar spirit," or in short grave
sentences that pass quickly from the ear.
Yet much, very much of the excitement of
the life of the Turk in this city, is absorbed
in these coffee-houses : they are his opera, his
theatre, his conversazione : soon after his ej'es
are unclosed from sleep, he thinks of his Caf6,
and forthwith bends his way there : during the
day he looks forward to pass the evening on
the loved floor, to look on the waters, on the
stars above, and on the facfes of his friends ;
and at the moonlight falling on all. Mahomet
commiitted a grievous error in the omission of
coffee-houses in a future state : had he ever
seen those of Damascus, he would surely have
given them a place on his rivers of Paradise,
persuaded that true believers must feel a
melancholy void without them.
There is ,no ornament or richness about these
houses: no sofas, mi rrofs, or drapery, save that
afforded by a few evergreens and creepers : the
famous silks and damasks of Damascus have
no place here ; all is plain and homely ; yet no
Parisian Caf6, with its beautiful mirrors, gild-
ing, and luxuriousness, is so welcome to the
imagination and senses of the traveller. After
wandering many days over dry, and stony, and
desert places, where the lip thirsted for the
stream, is it not delicious to sit at the brink
of a wild, impetuous torrent, to gaze on its
white foam and breaking waves, till you can
almost feel their gush in every nerve and fibre,
and can bathe your very soul in them. And
while you slowly smoke your pipe of purest
tobacco, the sands of the desert, and their burn-
ing sun. rise again before you, when you
prayed for even the shadow of a cloud on your
way. The banks are in some parts covered
with wood, whose soft green verdure contrasts
beautifully with the clear torrent, and almost
droops into its bosom.
Near the coffee-houses are one or two cata-
racts several feet high, and the perpetual sound
of their fall, and the coolness they spread
around, are exquisite luxuries — in the heat of
day, or in the dinmess of evening. There are
two or three Caf^s constructed somewhat dif-
ferently from those just described : a low gal-
lery divides the platform from the tide; foun-
tains play on the floor, which is furnished with
very plain sofas and cushions ; and music and
dancing always abound, of the most unrefined
description.
The only Intellectual gratification in these
places is afforded by the Arab story-tellers.
670
ALL ABOUT COFFEE
among whom are a few eminent and clever
men : soon after his entrance, a group begins
to form around the gifted man, wlio, after a
suitable pause, to collect hearers or whet their
expectations, begins his story. It is a pic-
turesque sight — of the Arab with his wild and
graceful gestures, and his auditory, hushed
into deep and child-like attention, seated at the
edge of the rushing tide, while the narrator
moves from side to side, and each accent of
his distinct and musical voice is heard through-
out the Caf6. The building directly opposite is
another house, of a similar kind in every re-
spect. There are a few small Cafes, more
select as to company, where the Turkish gentle-
men often go, form dinner parties, and spend
the day.
Night is the propitious season to visit these
places : the glare of the sun, glancing on the
waters, is passed away ; the company is then
most immeTOus, for it is their favourite hour ;
the lamps, suspended from the slender pillars,
are lighted; the Turks, in the various and bril-
liant colours* of their costume, crowd the plat-
form, some standing moveless as the pillars be-
side them, their long pipe in their hand —
noble specimens of humanity, if intellect
breathed within : some reclining against the
rails, others seated in groups, or solitary as if
buried in "lonely thoughts sublime"; while the
rush of the falling waters is sweeter mus"ic
than that of the pipe and the guitar, that
faintly strive to be heard. The cataract in the
plate is a very fine one ; on its foam the moon-
light was lovely : we passed many an hour
here on such a night, the clear waters of the
Pbarpar, as they rolled on, refleotiing eacn
pillar, each Damascene slowly moving by in
his waving garments. The glare of the lamps
mingled strangely with the moonlight, /that
rested with a soft and vivid glory on the
waters, and fell beneath pillar and roof on the
picturesque groups within.
The slender brass coffee grinders some-
times serve as a combination utensil in the
equipment of the Turkish officer. Fre-
quently they are made of silver. They
might be called collapsible, convertible cof-
fee kits, as they are made to serve as a com-
bination coffee pot, mill, can, and cup.
The green or roasted beans are kept in
the lower section. It takes but a minute to
unscrew the apparatus. To make a cup of
coffee, the beans are dumped out and three
or four of them are put in the middle sec-
tion. The steel crank is fitted over the
squared rod projecting from the middle
section, which revolves, setting in motion
the grinding apparatus inside. The ground
coffee falls into the bottom section, and
water is added. The pot i-s placed on the
fire, and the contents brought to a boil.
The coffee pot serves as a cup. The process
requires but a few minutes. The cup is
rinsed out, the beans replaced, the utensils
put together, the whole thing is slipped
into the officer's tunic, and he goes on, re-
freshed.
In Persia, where tea is mostly drunk, the
Turkish-Arabian methods of making coffee
are followed. In Ceylon and India, the
same applies to the native population, but
the whites follow the European practise.
In India, many people look upon coffee as
just a bonne houche — a ''chaser." A well
known English tea firm has had some suc-
cess in India with a tinned "French cof-
fee", which is a blend of Indian coffee and
chicory.
European methods obtain in making cof-
fee in China and Japan, and in the French
and Dutch colonies. Wh(5n traveling in the
Far East one of the greatest hardships the
coffee lover is called upon to endure is the
European bottled coffee extract, which so
often supplies lazy chefs with the makings
of a most forbidding cup of coffee.
In Java, a favorite method is to make a
strong extract by the French drip process
and then to use a spoonful of the extract
to a cup of hot milk — a good drink when
the extract is freshly made for each service.
Coffee Making in Europe
In Europe, the coffee drink was first sold
by lemonade venders. In Florence those
who sold coffee, chocolate, and other bev-
erages were not called caffetieri (coffee
sellers) but limondji (lemonade venders).
Pascal's first Paris coffee shop served
other drinks as well as coffee ; and
Procope's cafe began as a lemonade shop.
It was only when coffee, which was an
afterthought, began to lead the other bev-
erages, that he gave the name cafe to his
whole refreshment place.
Today, nearly every country in Europe
can supply the two extremes of coffee mak-
ing. In Paris and Vienna, one may find it
brewed and served in its highest perfec-
tion; but here too it is frequently found
as badly done as in England, and that is
saying a good deal. The principal diffi-
cultv seems to be in the chicory flavor, for
which long years of use has cultivated a
taste, with most people. Now coffee-and-
chicory is not at all a bad drink; indeed
the author confesses to have developed a
certain liking for it after a time in France
— but it is not coffee. In Europe, chicory
is not regarded as an adulterant — it is an
addition, or modifier, if you please. And
so many people have acquired a coffee-and-
chicory taste, that it is doubtful if they
would appreciate a real cup of coffee should
MANNERS AND CUSTOMS
671
Coffee al Fresco in Jerusalem
they ever meet it. This, of course, is a
generalization ; and like all generalizations,
is dangerous, for it is possible to obtain
good coffee, properly made, in any Euro-
pean country, even England, in the homes
of the people, but seldom in the hotels or
restaurants.
Austria. Coffee is made in Austria
after the French style, usually by the drip
method or in the pumpmgf pprcnlatnr f|p-
viT?e7^commonly called thp Vipnm cnfff^
machme. The restaurants employ a large-
size urn fitted with a combination metal
sieve and cloth sack. After the ground
coffee has infused for about six minutes, a
screw device raises the metal sieve, the pres-
sure forcing the liquid through the cloth
sack containing the ground coffee.
Vienna cafes are famous, but the World
"War has dinvned their glory. It used to
be said that their equal could not be found
for general excellence and moderate prices.
From half-past eight to ten in the morn-
ing, large numbers of people were wont to
breakfast in them on a cup of coffee or tea,
with a roll and butter. Melange is with
milk; "brown" coffee is darker, and a
schivarzer is without milk. In all the cafes
the visitor "may obtain coffee, tea, liqueurs.
ices, bottled beer, ham, eggs, etc. The Cafe
Schrangl in the Graben is typical. Then
there are the dairies, with coffee, a unique
institution. In the Prater (public park)
there are many interesting cafes.
Charles J. Rosebault says in the New
York Times:
The caf6 of Vienna has been imitated all
over the world — but the result has never
failed to be an imitation. The nearest approach
to the genuine in my experience was the up-
stairs room of the old Fleischnian Cafe in New
York. That was because the average New
Yorker knew it not and it remained sacred to
the internationalists : the musicians, artists,
writers, and other Bohemians to whom had been
intrusted the secret of its existence. It is the
spirit that counts, and it was the spirit of its
frequenters that made the Vienna caf^. It was
everj'man's club, and everywoman's, too. where
one went to relax and forget all the worries
of existence, to look over papers and magazines
from all parts of the world and printed in
every known language, to play chess or skat
or taracq. to chat with friends and to <lrink
the inimitable Viennese coffee, the fragrance
of which can no more be described than the
perfume of last year's violets.
The caff» was filled after the noon meal, when
busy men took their coffee and smoked ; again
around five o'clock, when all the world and
his wife paraded along the Graben and the
Kanitner Strasse, and then dropped into a
672
ALL ABOUT COFFEE
Photograph by Burton Holmes
The Cafe Scheangl in the Graben, Vienna, the City That Coffee Made Famous
favorite cafe for coffee or chocolate and cakes
— horns and crescents of delicious dough filled
with jam or, possibly, the wonderful Kugelhupf,
in comparison with which our sponge is like
unto lead : finally in the evening, when there
were family parties and those returning from
theatres and concerts and opera.
"While the cafe life of Vienna has been
nearly killed by the World War, it is to
be hoped that time will restore at least
something of its former glory. In spite of
the stories of plundering bands of Bolshe-
vists that in the latter part of 1921
wrecked some of the better known places,
we read that Oscar Straus, composer of
The CJiocolate Soldier, is living in compara-
tive luxury in Vienna, and spends most of
his time in the cafes, where he is to be
found usually from two until five in the
afternoon and from eleven o'clock at night
until some early hour of the morning ' ' sur-
rounded by musicians of lesser note and
wealth, whom, to a degree, he supports;
also with him being many of the leading
composers, librettists, actors, actresses, and
singers of Vienna."
For Vienna coffee, the liquor is usually
made in a pumping percolator or by the
drip process. In normal times it is served
two parts coffee to one of hot milk topped
with whipped cream. During 1914 - 18 and
the recent post-war period, however, the
sparkling crown of delicious whipped
cream gave way to condensed milk, and
saccharine took the place of sugar.
Belgium. In Belgium, the French drip
method is most generally employed. Chic-
ory is freely used as a modifier. The
greatest coffee drinker among reigning
monarchs is said to be the King of the
Belgians. His majesty takes a cup of cof-
fee before breakfast, after breakfast, at his
noonday meal, in the afternoon, after din-
ner, and again in the evening.
British Isles. In the British Isles cof-
fee is still being boiled ; although the in-
fusion, true percolation (drip), and filtra-
tion methods have many advocates. A
favorite device is the earthenware jug with
or without the cotton sack that makes it a
coffee biggin. When used without the sack,
the best practise is first to warm the jug.
For each pint of liquor, one ounce (three
dessert-spoonfuls) of freshly ground cof-
fee is put in the pot. Upon it is poured
freshly boiling water — three-fourths of
the amount required. After stirring with
a wooden spoon, the remaiinder of the water
is poured in, and the pot is returned to
the "hob" to infuse, and to settle for from
three to five minutes. Some stir it a sec-
ond time before the final settling.
MANNERS AND CUSTOMS
673
The best trade authorities stress home-
grinding, and are opposed to boiling the
beverage. They advocate also its use as a
breakfast beverage, after lunch, and after
the evening meal.
From an American point of view, the
principal defects in the English method of
making coffee lie in the roasting, handling,
and brewing. It has been charged that
the beans are not properly cooked in the
first place, and that they are too often
stale before being ground. The English
run to a light or cinnamon roast, whereas
the best American practise requires a
medium, high, or city roast. A fairly high
shade of brown is favored on the South
Downs with a light shade for Lancashire,
the West Riding of Yorkshire, and the south
of Scotland. The trade demands, for the
most part, a ripe chestnut brown. Whole-
sale roasting is done by gas and coke ma-
chines; while retail dealers use mostly a
small type of inner-heated gas machine.
The large gas machines (with capacities
running from twenty -five to seven hundred
pounds) have external air-blast burners, di-
rect and indirect burners, sliding burners,
etc. The best known are the Faulder and
Moorewood machines. In the Uno, a popu-
lar retail machine, roasting seven to four-
teen pounds at a time, the coffee beans are
placed in the space between outer and
inner concentric cylinders, one made of
perforated steel, and the other of wire
gauze, revolving together. A gas flame of
the Bunsen type burns inside the inner
cylinder, its heat traversing the outer, or
coffee cylinder, while the fumes are driven
off through the open ends. The roasting
coffee may be viewed through a mica or
Favorite English Coffee-Making Method
A Cafe of Ye Mecca Company,, London
wire-gauze panel inserted in the wall of
the outer cylinder. The Faulder machine
has an external flame, a capacity of from
seven to fourteen pounds; and there are
quick gas machines, with capacities rang-
ing from three pounds to two hundred and
twenty-four pounds, for the retail trade.
In recent years there has been a marked
improvement in English coffee roasting,
due to the intelligent study brought to
bear upon the subject by leaders of the
trade's thought, and by the retail distribu-
ter, who, in the person of the retail grocer,
is, generally speaking, better educated to
his business than the retail grocer in any
other country. Years ago, it was the prac-
tise to use butter or lard to improve the
appearance of the bean in roasting; but
this is not so common as formerly.
The British consumer, however, will need
much instruction before the national char-
acter of the beverage shows a uniform im-
provement. While the coffee may be more
carefully roasted, better ''cooked" than it
was formerly, it is still remaining too long
unsold after roasting, or else it is being
ground too long a time before making.
These abuses are, however, being corrected ;
and the consumer is everywhere being
urged to buy his coffee freshly roasted and
to have it freshly ground. Another factor
has undoubtedly contributed to give Eng-
land a bad name among lovers of good
coffee, and that is certain tinned ' ' coffees, ' '
composed of ground coffee and chicory,
mixtures that attained some vogue for a
time as "French" coffee. They found
favor, perhaps, because they were easily
handled. Package coffees have not been
developed in England as in America; but
there is a more or less limited field for
them, and there are several good brands
of absolutely pure coffee on the market.
674
ALL ABOUT COFFEE
The demi-tasse is a popular drink after
luncheon, after dinner, and even during
the day, especially in the cities. In Lon-
don, there are cafes that make a specialty
of it; places like Peel's, Groom's, and the
Cafe Nero in the city; also the shops of
the London Cafe Co., and Ye Mecca Co.
While, in the home, it is customary to
steep the coffee; in hotels and restaurants
some form of percolating apparatus, ex-
tractor, or steam machine is employed.
There are the Criterion (employing a drip
tray for making coffee in the Etzenberger
style); Fountain; Platow; Syphon (Na-
pier) ; and Verithing extractors, put out by
Sumerling & Co. of London ; and the well-
known J. & S. rapid coffee-making machine,
having an infuser, and producing coffee
by steam pressure, manufactured by W. M.
Still & Sons, Ltd., London.
American visitors complain that coffee in
England is too thick and syrupy for their
liking. Coffee in restaurants is served
"white" (with milk), or black, in earthen,
Geoom's Coffee House, Fleet Street, London
Cake Monico. Piccadilly Circus, London
stone-ware, or silver pots. In chain restau-
rants, like Lyons' or the A. B. C, there is
to be found on the tariff, "hot milk with
a dash of coffee."
As to the boiling method, this is already
generally discredited in the countries of
western Europe. The steeping method so
much favored in England may be respon-
sible for some of the unkind things said
about English coffee; because it undoubt-
edly leads to the abuse of over-infusion, so
that the net result is as bad as boiling.
The vast majority of the English people
are, however, confirmed tea drinkers, and
it is extremely doubtful if this national
habit, ingrained through centuries of use
of "the cup that cheers" at breakfast and
at tea time in the afternoon can ever be
changed.
As already mentioned in this work, the
London coffee houses of the seventeenth
and eighteenth centuries gave way to a
type of coffee house whose mainstay was
its food rather than its drink. In time,
these too began to yield to the changing
influences of a civilization that demanded
modern hotels, luxurious tea lounges,^
smart restaurants, chain shops, tea rooms,
and cafes with and without coffee. A cer-
tain type of "coffee shop," with rough
boarded stalls, sanded floors and "private
rooms," frequented by lower class work-
ingmen, were to be found in England for
a time ; but because of their doubtful char-
acter, they were closed up by the police.
Among other places in London where
coffee may be had in English or continental
style, mention should be made of the Cafe-
MANNERS AND CUSTOMS
675
I
Gatti's, in The Strand, London
Monico, a good place to drop in for a coffee
and liqueur, and one of the pioneers of the
modern restaurant; Gatti's, where cafe
filtre, or coffee produced by the filtration
method, is a specialty; the cosmopolitan
Savoy with its popular tea lounge (teas,
sixty cents) ; the Piccadilly Hotel, with its
Louis XIV restaurant catering to refined
and luxurious tastes; the Waldorf Hotel,
with its American clientele and its palm
court (teas, thirty-six cents) ; the Cecil, with
its palm court and tea balcony, also having
a special attraction for Americans; Lyons'
Popular Cafe (iced coffee, twelve cents) ;
the Trocadero with its special Indian cur-
ries prepared by native cooks once each
week; the Temple Bar restaurant, an at-
tractive refectory owned by the semi-
philanthropic Trust-Houses, Ltd., which
runs some two hundred similar establish-
ments throughout the country, serving
alcoholic drinks but stressing non-intoxicat-
ing beverages, among them special Mocha
at six and eight cents a cup; Slater's, Ltd.,
catering mostly to business folk in the city,
there being about a score of restaurants
and tea rooms under this name with retail
shops attached : the British Tea Table As-
sociation, like Slater's, a grown-up sister
of the olden bun shop of Queen Victoria's
day; and the Kardomah chain of cafes,
where one is reasonably sure to get a satis-
fying cup of coffee and a cake.
Supplementing the above, Charles
Cooper, some time editor of the Epicure
and The Table, has prepared for this work
some notes on the evolution of the old-time
London coffee houses into the present-day
tea rooms, tea lounges, cafes, and restau-
rants for all comers. Mr, Cooper says of
the transformation :
The old-fashioned London coffee-house that
flourished forty to fifty years ago has within the
past thirty years been completely extinguished
by the modern tea rooms. These old-fashioned
establishments were mainly situated in and
about the Strand and Fleet Street, the neigh-
borhood of the Inns of Court, etc. They did
not sacrifice much to outside show and deco-
ration. They were divided into boxes or pews,
and were generally speaking clean and well
ordered ; the prices were moderate, and the
fare simple but superlatively good. There Is
nothing to equal it now. Chops were cooked
in the grill. The tea and coffee were of the
best; the hams were York hams and the bacon
the best Wiltshire ; they were the last places
where real buttered toast was made. The art
is now lost. They catered exclusively to men ;
and their clientele consisted of journalists,
artists, actors, men from the Inns of Court,
students, et al. A man living in chambers
could breakfast comfortably at one of these
places, and read all the morning papers at his
ease. The most westerly perhaps of the old
houses was Stone's in Panton Street, Hay-
market, which has recently been sold. Groom's
in Fleet Street, where a good cup of coffee may
still be had, is principally frequented by bar-
risters about the luncheon hour. They are
usually men who lunch lightly.
The tea rooms, as I have said, have killed
the coffee houses. At the time the latter
flourished, there were no facilities in London
for a woman, unattended by a man, to obtain
refreshment beyond a weak cup of tea at a
few confectioners'. It mattered the less in the
days when the girl clerk had not come into
Tea Lounge of Hotel Savoy. London
676
ALL ABOUT COFFEE
Lyons' "Popular Cafe," Piccadilly — One of Many Operated Under That Name
Palm Court in the Waldorf Hotel — A Popular Resort for American Travelers
TWO POPULAR PLACES FOR. COFFEE IN LONDON
MANNERS AND CUSTOMS
677
beins- When the field of women's emploj'ment
widened, fresh requirements were created which
the coffee shops did not meet.
The tea room pioneers in London were the
Aerated Bread Company, familiarly known as
the A. B. C. I think that coffee palaces in
provincial industrial centers had been started ;
but as part of a temperance propaganda, to
counteract the attractions of the public house.
The Aerated Bread Company was founded about
the middle of the past century for the manu-
facture and sale of bread made under the patent
aerated process of Dr. Daugleish, The shops
were opened for the sale of bread to the public
for home consumption ; but to give people an
opportunity of testing it, facilities were provided
for obtaining a cup of tea. and bread and but-
ter, on the premises. This subsidiary object
became in a short time the most important
part of the company's business. It multi-
plied its shops, enlarged its bill of fare to
include cooked foods ; and while, nowadays, the
A. B. C. and its rivals cater to many thousands
daily, I doubt if anybody ever buys a loaf to
take home.
The A. B. C. has many competitors, similar
shops having been started by Lyons, Lipton,
Slaters. Express Dairy Company, Cabin, Pio-
neer Cafes, and others. Ex uno (Usee omnes.
Temple Bar Restaubant, London
The fare in all these places is much alike, as
are the general equipment, prices, and class of
customers. They cater for a cheap class of
business. In the busy centers they are fre-
quented mostly by young men and girl clerks
and shop assistants, by women in town, shop-
ping, and such-like custom. Young employees
oan get a modest mid-day meal at a price to
suit a shallow pocket. Before the war, the
ruling price for a cup of tea, and a roll and
butter, was fourpence, and the general tariff
in proportion. Nowadays, the war has run up
prices at least fifty percent. During the worst
times of food control the fare was very scanty
and very unappetizing. As a rule, it is plain
and wholesome, with no pretense of being
recherche. Tea is almost always very good ;
coffee not on the same level. Their tea rooms
are all places designed for small, quick meals;
and are in no sense lounges.
Tea Balcony in the Hotel Cecil, London
Lyons have refreshment-houses of different
grades. The Popular Caf§ is a cut above the
tea rooms, and so are the Corner Houses. Two
years ago, the A. B. C. amalgamated with
Buzard's, an old established confectioner's in
Oxford Street — a famous cake-house.
The Monico and Gatti's appeal to a quite dif-
ferent class from that catered to by the tea
shops, although perhaps not to what Mrs. Bof-
fin would call ''the highfliers of fashion"' who
frequent the lounges of the fashionable hotels.
Gatti's original caf6 was under the arches of
Charing Cross station.
I may add about the Savoy that it was an
outcome of the successful Gilbert and Sullivan
m
^i
t^
m
H
f|
If
i^
U' «*r^'i 'iji. .
»s —
j^
1
A.
m
Slater's, a Better-class Chain Shop, London
678
ALL ABOUT COFFEE
operas of the seventies, D'Oyly Carte having
expended some of his profits on building the
hotel on a piece of waste ground by the Savoy
Theatre. He brought over M. Ritz from Monte
Carlo to manage the hotel and restaurant, and
Escoffier, the greatest chef of the day, to pre-
side over the cuisine. They made the Savoy
famous for its dinners, and it has always main-
tained a high reputation, although Escoffier, who
has now retired, ruled later at the Carlton ;
and Ritz, at the hotel in Piccadilly which bears
his name.
Bulgaria. In Bulgaria, Arabian-Turk-
ish methods of making coffee prevail. The
accompanying illustration shows a group
in a caravan of the faithful on the annual
pilgrimage to Mecca. The venerable Mos-
lem, who is ambitious of becoming a hadji,
is attended by his guards, distinguished by
their fantastic dress; their glittering
golden-hafted hanjars, stuck in their shawl
St. James's Restaurant, Piccadilly, London
girdles; and their silver-mounted pistols;
the grave turban replaced by a many-
tasseled cap. Their accommodation is the
stable of a khan, or serai, shared with their
camel. Their refreshment is coffee, thick,
black and bitter, served by the khanji in
tiny egg-shaped cups.
In Denmark and Finland coffee is made
and served after the French and German
fashion.
France. Were it not for the almost in-
evitable high roast and frequently the dis-
concerting chicory addition, coffee in
France might be an unalloyed delight — at
least this is how it appears to American
eyes. One seldom, if ever, tinds coffee im-
properly brewed in France — it is never
boiled.
Second only to the United States, France
consumes about two million bags of coffee
annually. The varieties include coffee from
- An a. B. C. Shop, London
the East Indies; Mocha; Haitian (a great
favorite); Central American; Colombian;
and Brazils.
Although there are many wholesale and
retail coffee roasters in France, home roast-
ing persists, particularly in the country
districts. The little sheet-iron cylinder
roasters, that are hand-turned over an iron
box holding the charcoal fire, find a ready
sale even in the modern department stores
of the big cities. In any village or city in
France it is a common sight on a pleasant
day to find the householder turning his
Halt of Caravanees at a Sekaj., Bulgaria
I
MANNERS AND CUSTOMS
679
Cafe de la Paix, Where Paris Diu^ks Its Coffee Outdoors
roaster on the curb in front of his home.
Emmet G. Beeson, in The Tea and Coffee
Trade Journal gives us this vignette of
rural coffee roasting in the south of
France :
In a certain town in the soutti of France I
saw an old man with an outfit a little larger
than the home variety, a machine with a capa-
citj' of about ten pounds. Instead of a cylinder
in which to roast his coffee, he had perched on
a sheet-iron frame a hollow round ball made of
sheet iron. In the top of this ball there was a
little slide which was opened by the means of
a metal tool. In the sheet-iron frame he had
kindled his charcoal fire. Directly in front of
his roaster w-as a home-made cooling pan, the
sides of which were of wood, the bottom cov-
ered with a fine grade of wire screening.
On this particular afternoon, the old man had
taken up his place on the curb ; and a big black
cat had taken advantage of the warmth offered
by the charcoal fire and was curled up, sleeping
peacefully in the pan nearest the fire. The
old man paid no attention to the cat. but went
on rotating his ball of coffee and puffing away
pensively on his cigarette. When his coffee had
become blackened and burned, and blackened
and burned it was, he stopi^ed rotating the ball,
opened the slide in the top, turned it over, and
the hot, burned coffee rolled out, and much to
his delight, on the sleeping cat, which leaped
out of the pan and scampered up the street and
into a hole under an old building.
I afterward learned that this old fellow made
a business of going about the town gathering
up coffee froii! the houses along the way and
roasting it at a few sous per kilo, much the
same fashion as a scissors grinder plies his
trade in an American town.
Quite a few grocers roast their own cof-
fee in crude devices much like those de-
scribed above ; but the large coffee roasters
are gradually eliminating this sort of pro-
cedure. There are at Havre several roast-
ers, but only two of importance; one does
a business of about two hundred and fifty
bags a day, and the next largest has a
capacity of about one hundred and sixty
bags a day. In Paris, there are many coffee
roasters, some quite large, comparatively
speaking, one having a capacity of about
seven hundred and fifty bags a day. Shop-
keepers in Paris and other large cities roast
their coffee fresh daily. The machines used
are of the ball or cylinder type, employing
gas fuel and turned by electric power. In-
variablv they stand where they may be seen
from the street.
Sample-roasters, or testing tables, in
France are conspicuous by their absence.
Inquiry regarding this subject discloses
that coffee is sold on description ; and when
the French trader is asked, "How do you
know your delivery is up to description
so far as cup quality is concerned?" he
answers that this is arrived at from the
general appearance and the smiell of the
coffee in the green. Perhaps one reason
for the laxity in buying cup quality may
680
ALL ABOUT COFFEE
Sidewalk Annex, Cafe de la Paix, Paris, with Opera House in Background — Summer of 1918
be explained by the fact that coffee is
roasted very high, in fact it is burned
almost to a charred state; and unless the
coffee is unusually bad in character, the
burned taste eliminates any foreign flavor
it may have.
The fact that coffee was, and still is, quite
generally sold to the consumer green, ac-
counts for Central American coffees taking
first place. Style takes preference over
everything else when it comes to selling to
a Frenchman.
To the American coffee merchant it
seems that the French are carrying their
artistic tastes to an unreasonable extreme
when they apply them to coffee; for cof-
fee is grown to drink and not to look at.
Since the coming of the large coffee
roaster, who delivers roasted coffee right
down the line to the consumer, Santos has
come in for its share of the business. The
roasters are getting good results out of
Santos blends, up to fifty percent and sixty
percent with West Indian and Central
American coffees. Rio is as much in dis-
favor in France as it is in the United
States, perhaps more so.
In Brittany the demand is for peaberry
coffee, no matter of what variety. This
comes about from the fact that the people
of this section of the country still do a
great deal of their roasting at home, and
have become accustomed to the use of pea-
berry coffee because they do not have the
improved hand roasters, and still do a great
deal of their roasting in pans in the ovens
of their stoves. The peaberry coffee rolls
about so nicely in the pan that they get a
much more uniform roast.
Nearly all the coffee is ground at home,
which is not a bad practise for the con-
sumer ; but perhaps works hardship on the
dealer, who can mix some grade grinders
into his blends without doing them any
material harm. Where coffee mills are used
in the stores, they are of the Strong-Arm
family and of an ancient heritage. To get
a growl out of the grocer in France, buy
a kilo of coffee and ask him to grind it.
Package coffee and proprietary brands
have not come into their own to the extent
that they have in the United States, al-
though there are at present two firms in
Paris which have started in this business
and are advertising extensively on bill-
boards, in street ears, and in the subways.
However, most coffee is still sold in bulk.
The butter, egg, and cheese stores of
France do a very large business in coffee.
Prior to the war and high prices, there
were some very large firms doing a premium
business in coffee, tea, spices, etc. They
MANNERS AND CUSTOMS
681
Cafe de la Regence, Paris, Showing the Typical Continental Arrangement of Seals
still exist, and have a very fine trade ; but
since the high prices of coffees and pre-
miums, the business has gone down very
materially. They operate by the wagon-
route and solicitor method, just as some of
our American companies do. One very
large firm in Paris has been in this busi-
ness for more than thirty years, operating
branches and wagons in every town, vil-
lage, and hamlet in France.
The consumption of coffee is increasing
very materially in France ; some say, on
account of the high price of wine, others
hold that coffee is simply growing in favor
with the people. Among the masses,
French breakfast consists of a bowl or cup
of cafe au lait. or half a cup or bowl of
strong black coffee and chicory, and half a
cup of hot milk, and a yard of bread. The
workingman turns his bread on end and
inserts it into his bowl of coffee, allowing
it to soak up as much of the liquid as
possible. Then he proceeds to suck this
concoction into his system. His approval
is demonstrated by the amount of noise
he makes in the operation.
Among the better classes, the breakfast
is the same, cafe au lait, with rolls and
butter, and sometimes fruit. The brew is
prepared by the drip, or true percolator,
method or by filtration. Boiling milk is
poured into the cup from a pot held in
one hand together with the brewed coffee
from a pot held in the other, providing a
simultaneous mixture. The proportions
vary from half-and-half to one part coffee
and three parts milk. Sometimes, the serv-
ice is by pouring into the cup a little cof-
fee then the same quantity of milk and
alternating in this way until the cup is
filled.
Coffee is never drunk with any meal but
breakfast, but is invariably served en demi-
tasse after the noon and the evening meals.
In the home, the usual thing after luncheon
or dinner is to go into the salon and have
your demi-tasse and liqueur and cigarettes
before a cosy grate fire. A Frenchman's
idea of after-dinner coffee is a brew that
is unusually thick and black, and he in^
variably takes with it his liqueur, no matter
if he has had a cocktail for an appetizer,
a bottle of red wine with his meat course,
and a bottle of white wine with the salad
and dessert course. When the demi-tasse
comes along, with it must be served his
cordial in the shape of cognac, benedictine.
or creme de menthe. He can not conceive
of a man not taking a little alcohol with
his after-dinner coffee, as an aid, he says,
to digestion.
In Normandy, there prevails a custom in
connection with coffee drinking that is
unique. They produce in this province
682
ALL ABOUT COFFEE
Cafe de la Regence in 1922
great quantities of what is known as cidre,
made from a particular variety of apple
grown there — in other words, just plain
hard cider. However, they distil this hard
eider, and from the distillation they get a
drink called calvados.
The man from Normandy takes half a
cup of coffee, and fills the cup with cal-
vados, sweetened with sugar, and drinks it
with seeming relish. Ice-cold coffee will
almost sizzle when calvados is poured into
it. It tastes like a corkscrew, and one drink
has the same effect as a crack on the head
with a hammer. From the toddling age
up, the Norman takes his calvados and
coffee.
In the south of France they make a con-
coction from the residue of grapes. They
boil the residue down in water, and get a
drink called marc; and it is used in much
the same way as the Norman in the north
uses calvados. Then there is also the
very popular summertime drink known as
mazagran, which in that region means
seltzer water and cold coffee, or what Amer-
icans might call a coffee highball.
Making coffee in France has been, and
always will be, by the drip and the filtra-
tion methods. The large hotels and cafes
follow these methods almost entirely, and
so does the housewife. When company
comes, and something unusual in coffee is
to be served, Mr. Beeson says he has known
the cook to drip the coffee, using a spoon-
ful of hot water at a time, pouring it over
tightly packed, finely ground coffee, allow-
ing the water to percolate through to ex-
tract every particle of oil. They use more
ground coffee in bulk than they get liquid
in the cup, and sometimes spend an hour
producing four or five demi-tasses. It is
needless to say that it is more like molasses
than coffee when ready for drinking.
It is not unusual in some parts of France
to save the coffee grounds for a second or
even a third infusion, but this is not con-
sidered good practise.
Von Liebig's idea of correct coffee mak-
ing has been adapted to French practise in
some instances after this fashion : put used
coffee grounds in the bottom chamber of
a drip coffee pot. Put freshly ground cof-
fee in the upper chamber. Pour on boil-
ing water. The theory is that the old cof-
fee furnishes body and strength, and the
fresh coffee the aroma.
The cafes that line the boulevards of
Paris and the larger cities of France all
serve coffee, either plain or with milk, and
almost always with liqueur. The coffee
house in France may be said to be the
wine house ; or the wine house may be said
to be the coffee house. They are insep-
arable. In the smallest or the largest of
these establishments coffee can be had at
any time of day or night. The proprietor
of a very large cafe in Paris says his coffee
sales during the day almost equal his wine
sales.
MANNERS AND CUSTOMS
683
The French, young or old, take a great
deal of pleasure in sitting out on the side-
walk in front of a cafe, sipping coffee or
liqueur. Here they love to idle away the
time just watching the passing show.
In Paris, there are hundreds of these
cafes lining the boulevards, where one may
sit for hours before the small tables read-
ing the newspapers, writing letters, or
merely idling. In the morning, from eight
to eleven, employees, men-about-town,
tourists, and provincials throng the cafes
for cafe an lait. The waiters are coldly
polite. They bring the papers, and brush
the table — twice for cafe creme (milk),
and three times for cafe complet (with
bread and butter).
In tlie afternoon, cafe means a small
cup or glass of cafe noir, or cafe nature.
It is double the usual amount of coffee
dripped by percolator or filtration device,
the process consuming eight to ten minutes.
Some understand cafe noir to mean equal
parts of coffee and brandy with sugar and
vanilla to taste. When cafe noir is mixed
with an equal quantity of cognac alone it
becomes cafe gloria. Cafe mazagran is
also much in demand in the summer-
time. The coffee base is made as for cafe
noir, and it is served in a tall glass with
water to dilute it to one's taste.
Few of the cafes that made Paris famous
in the eighteenth century survive. Among
those that are notable for their coffee serv-
ice are the Cafe de la Paix; the Cafe de
. One OF TUB Biard Cafes
There are about 200 of these coffee and wine shops in
Paris. They are frequented mostly by laborers,
clerks, and midinettes
Restauiuvnt Eeocope, 1922
Successor to the famous "Cave" of 1689
la Regence, founded in 1718 ; and the Cafe
Prevost, noted also for chocolate after the
theater,
GrERMANY, Germany originated the
afternoon coffee function known as the
kaffee-klatsch. Even today, the German
family's reunion takes place around the
coffee table on Sunday afternoons. In
summer, when weather permits, the family
will take a walk into the suburbs, and stop
at a garden where coffee is sold in pots.
The proprietor furnishes the coffee, the
cups, the spoons and, in normal times, the
sugar, two pieces to each cup ; and the
patrons bring their own cake. They put
one piece of sugar into each cup and take
the other pieces home to the "canary bird,"
meaning the sugar bowl in the pantry.
Cheaper coffee is served in some gardens,
which conspicuously display large signs at
the entrance, saying: "Families may cook
their own coffee in this place," In such
a garden, the patron merely buys the hot
water from the proprietor, furnishing the
ground coffee and cake himself.
"While waiting for the coffee to brew, he
may listen to the band and watch the chil-
dren play under the trees, French or
Vienna drip pots are used for brewing.
Every city in Germany has its cafes,
spacious places where patrons sit around
small tables, drinking coffee, "with or with-
out" turned or unturned, steaming or
iced, sweetened or unsweetened, depending
on the sugar supply; nibble, at the same
time, a piece of cake or pastry, selected
from a glass pyramid; talk, flirt, malign,
yawn, read, and smoke. Cafes are, in fact,
684
ALL ABOUT COFFEE
public reading rooms. Some places keep
hundreds of daily and weekly newspapers
and magazines on file for the use of patrons.
If the customer buys only one cup of cof-
fee, he may keep his seat for hours, and
read one newspaper after another.
Three of the four corners of Berlin's
most important street crossing are occupied
by cafes. This is where Unter den Linden
and Friedrichstrasse meet. On the south-
west corner there is Kranzler's staid old
cafe, a very respectable place, where the
lower hall is even reserved for non-smokers.
On the southeast corner is Cafe Bauer,
known the world over. However, it has
seen better days. It has been outdistanced
by competitors. On the northeast corner
is the Victoria, a new-style place, very
bright, and less staid. There no room is
reserved for non-smokers, for most of the
ladies, if they do not themselves smoke,
will light the cigars for their escorts.
Around the Potsdamer Platz there is a
number of cafes. Josty's is perhaps the
most frequented in Berlin. It is the best
liked on account of the trees and terraces in
front. Farther to the west, on Kuerfuer-
stendamm, there are dozens of large cafes.
MoKNiNG Coffee in Fro::<t of a Boulevard Cafe,
Paris, with a British Background
Intehioh, Cafe Bauer, Berlin
Some of the cafes are meeting-places for
certain professions and trades. The Ad-
miral's cafe, in Friedrichstrasse, for in-
stance, is the "artistes' " exchange. All
the stage folk and stars of the tanbark meet
there every day. Chorus girls, tumblers,
ladies of the flying trapeze, contortionists,
and bareback riders are to be found there,
discussing their grievances, denouncing
their managers, swapping their diamonds,
and recounting former triumphs. Cinema-
makers come also to pick out a cast for a
new film play. There one can pick out a
full cast every minute.
Then there is the Cafe des Westens in
Kuerfuerstendamm, the old one, where
dreamers and poets congregate. It is called
also Cafe Groessenwahn, which means that
persons suffering from an exaggerated ego
are conspicuous by their presence and their
long hair.
At almost every table one may find a
poet who has written a play that is bound
to enrich its author and any man of means
who will put up the money to build a new
theater in which to produce it.
Saxony and Thuringia are proverbial
hotbeds of coffee lovers. It is said that in
Saxony there are more coffee drinkers to
the square inch and more cups to the single
coffee bean than anywhere else upon earth.
The Saxons like their coffee, but seem to be
afraid it may be too strong for them. So,
when over their cups, they always make
certain they can see bottom before raising
the steaming bowl to the lip.
Von Liebig's method of making coffee,
whereby three-fourths of the quantity to
be used is first boiled for ten or fifteen
minutes, and the remainder added for a
six-minute steeping or infusion, is relig-
iously followed by some housekeepers.
MANNERS AND CUSTOMS
685
I
Cafe Bauek, Unteb den Linden, Berlin
Von Liebig advocated coating the bean
with sugar. In some families, fats, eggs,
and egg-shells are used to settle and to
clarify the beverage.
Coffee in Germany is better cooked
(roasted) and more scientifically prepared
than in many other European countries.
In recent years, during the World War
and since, however, there has been an amaz-
ing increase in the use of coffee substitutes,
so that the German cup of coffee is not the
pure delight it was once.
Greece. Coffee is the most popular and
most extensively used non-alcoholic bev-
erage in Greece, as it is throughout the
Near East. Its annual per capita consump-
tion there is about two pounds, two-thirds
of the supply coming via Austria and
France, Brazil furnishing direct the bulk
of the remaining third.
Coffee is given a high or city roast, and
is used almost entirely in powdered form.
It is prepared for consumption principally
in the Turkish demi-tasse way. Finely
ground coffee is used even in making ordi-
nary table, or breakfast, coffee. In private
houses the cylindrical brass hand-grinders,
manufactured in Constantinople, are
mostly used. In many of the coffee houses
in the villages and country towns through-
out Greece and the Levant, a heavy iron
pestle, wielded by a strong man, is em-
ployed to pulverize the grains in a heavy
stone or marble mortar; while the poorer
homes use a small brass pestle and mortar,
also manufactured in Turkey. ^
In his The Greeks of the Present Day ,
Edmond Francois Valentin About says :
The coffee which is drunk In all the Greek
houses rather astonishes the travellers who
have neither seen Turkey nor Algeria. One is
•New York, 185T (p. 276).
surprised at finding food in a cup in which one
expected drink. Yet you get accustomed to this
coffee-broth and end by finding it more savourj-,
lighter, more perfumed, and especially more
wholesome, than the extract of coffee you drink
in France.
Then About gives the recipe of his serv-
ant Petros, who is "the first man in Athens
for coffee":
The grain is roasted without burning it; it
is reduced to an impalpable powder, either in
a mortar or in a very close-grained mill. Water
is set on the fire till it boils up ; it is taken off
to throw in a spoonful of coffee, and a spoon-
ful of pounded sugar for each cup it is intended
to make ; it is carefully mixed ; the coffee pot
is replaced on the fire until the contents seem
ready to boil over; it is taken off, and set on
again ; lastly it is quickly poured into the cups.
Some coffee drinkers have this preparation
boiled as many as five times. Petros makes a
rule of not putting his coffee more than three
times on the fire. He takes care in filling the
cups to divide impartially the coloured froth
which rises above the coffee pot ; it is the kai-
maki of the coffee. A cup without kaimaki is
disgraced.
When the coffee is poured out you are at
liberty to drink it boiling and muddy, or cold
and clear. Real amateurs drink it without
waiting. Those who allow the sediment to
settle down, do not do so from contempt, for
they afterwards collect it with the little finger
and eat it carefully.
Thus prepared, coffee may be taken without
inconvenience ten times a day : five cups of
French coffee could not be druHk with impunity
every day. It is because the coffee of the Turks
and the Greeks is a diluted tonic, arid ours is
a concentrated tonic.
I have met at Paris many people who took
their coffee without sugar, to imitate the Ori-
entals. I think I ought to give them notice,
between ourselves, that in the great coffee-
houses of Athens, sugar is always presented
with the coffee ; in the khans and second-rate
coffee-houses, it is served already sugared; and
that at Smyrna and Constantinople, it has
everywhere been brought to me sugared.
■■■■■■iniy^dMi -
5?
X^ Kranzlcr '. 1
H \
r
wm
pi
Kbanzleb's, Unteb den Linden, Berlin
686
ALL ABOUT COFFEE
Italy, In Italy coffee is roasted in a
wholesale and retail way as well as in the
home. French, German, Dutch, and Ital-
ian machines are used. The full city, or
Italian, roast is favored. There are cafes
as in France and other continental coun-
tries, and the drink is prepared in the
French fashion. For restaurants and
hotels, rapid filtering machines, first de-
veloped by the French and Italians, are
used. In the homes, percolators and filtra-
tion devices are employed.
The De Mattia Brothers have a process
designed to conserve the aroma in roasting.
The Italians pay particular attention to
the temperature in roasting and in the cool-
ing operation. There is considerable glaz-
ing, and many coffee additions are used.
Like the French, the Italians make much
of cafe au lait for breakfast. At dinner,
the cafe noir is served.
Cafes of the French school are to be
found along the Corso in Rome, the To-
ledo in Naples, in the Galleria Vittorio
Emanuel and the Piazza del Duomo in
Milan, and in the arcades surrounding the
Piazza de San Marco in Venice, where
Florian's still flourishes.
Netherlands. In the Netherlands, too,
the French cafe is a delightful feature of
the life of the larger cities. The Dutch
roast coffee properly, and make it well.
The service is in individual pots, or in
demi-tasses on a silver, nickle, or brass
tray, and accompanied by a miniature
pitcher containing just enough cream
(usually whipped), a small dish about the
size of an individual butter plate holding
three squares of sugar, and a slender glass
of water. This service is universal; the
glass of water always goes with the coffee.
It is the one sure way for Americans to
get a drink of water. It is the custom in
Holland to repair to some open-air cafe or
indoor coffee house for the after-dinner cup
of coffee. One seldom takes his coffee in
the place where he has his dinner. These
cafes are many, and some are elaborately
designed and furnished. One of the most
interesting is the St. Joris at the Hague,
furnished in the old Dutch style. The
approved way of making coffee in Hol-
land is the French drip method.
Norway and Sweden. French and Ger-
man influences mark the roasting, grinding,
preparing, and serving of coffee in Norway
and Sweden, Generally speaking, not so
much chicory is used, and a great deal of
whipped cream is employed. In Norway,
the boiling method has many followers. A
big (open) copper kettle is used. This is
filled with water, and the coffee is dumped
in and boiled. In the poorer-class country
homes, the copper kettle is brought to the
table and set upon a wooden plate. The
coffee is served directly from the kettle in
cups. In better-class homes, the coffee is
poured from the kettle into silver coffee
pots in the kitchen, and the silver coffee
pots are brought to the table. The only
thing approaching coffee houses are the
"coffee rooms" which are to be found in
Christiania. These are small one-room af-
fairs in which the plainer sorts of foods,
such as porridge, may be purchased with
the coffee. They are cheap, and are largely
frequented by the poorer class of students,
who use them as places in which to study
while they drink their coffee.
In Russia and Switzerland, French and
German methods obtain. Russia, however,
drinks more tea than coffee, which by the
masses is prepared in Turkish fashion,
when obtainable. Usually, the coffee is
only a cheap "substitute." The so-called
cafe a la Russe of the aristocracy, is strong
black coffee fiavored with lemon. Another
Russian recipe calls for the coffee to be
placed in a large punch bowl, and covered
with a layer of finely chopped apples and
pears ; then cognac is poured over the mass,
and a match applied.
Roumania and Servia drink coffee pre-
pared after either the Turkish or the
French style, depending on the class of the
drinker and where it is served. Substitutes
are numerous.
In Spain and Portugal the French type
of cafe flourishes as in Italy. In Madrid,
some delightful cafes are to be found
around the Puerto del Sol, where coffee
and chocolate are the favorite drinks. The
coffee is made by the drip process, and is
served in French fashion.
Coffee Manners and Customs in North
The introduction of coffee and tea into
North America effected a great change in
the meal-time beverages of the people.
Malt beverages had been succeeded by
alcoholic spirits and by cider. These in
turn were supplanted by tea and coffee.
Canada. In Canada, we find both
French and English influences at work in
the preparation and serving of the bever-
MANNERS AND CUSTOMS
687
age; •• Yankee" ideas also have entered
from across the border. Some years back
(about 1910) A. McGill, chief chemist of
the Canadian Inland Revenue Department,
suggested an improvement upon Baron von
Liebig's method, whereby Canadians might
obtain an ideal cup of coffee. It was to
combine two well-known methods. One was
to boil a quantity of ground coffee to get
a maximum of body or soluble matter.
The other was to percolate a similar quan-
tity to get the needed caffeol. By combin-
ing the decoction and the infusion, a fin-
ished beverage rich in body and aroma
might be had. Most Canadians continue
to drink tea, however, although coffee con-
sumption is increasing.
Mexico. In Mexico, the natives have a
custom peculiarly their own. The roasted
beans are pounded to a powder' in a cloth
bag which is then immersed in a pot of boil-
ing water and milk. The vaquero, however,
pours boiling water on the powdered coffee
in his drinking cup, and sweetens it with a
brown sugar stick.
Among the upper elasses in Mexico the
following interesting method obtains for
making coffee :
Roast one pound until the beans are brown
inside. Mix with the roasted coffee one tea-
spoonful of butter, one of sugar, and a little
brandy. Cover with a thick cloth. Cool for
one hour ; then grind. Boil one quart of water.
When boiling, put in the coffee and remove from
fire immediately. Let it stand a few hours, and
strain through a flannel bag, and keep in a
stone jar until required for use ; then heat
quantity required.
Sidewalk Cafe, Lisbon
United States. In no country has there
been so marked an improvement in coffee
making as in the United States. Although
in many parts, the national beverage is still
indifferently prepared, the progress made
in recent years has been so great that the
friends of coffee are hopeful that before
long it may be said truly that coffee mak-
ing in America is a national honor and no
longer the national disgrace that it was in
the past.
Already, in the more progressive
homes, and in the best hotels and res-
taurants, the coffee is uniformly good, and
the service all that it should be. The Amer-
ican breakfast cup is a food-beverage be^
T^artse-f^f the addlLlona of miiK or cream and
su'gar; and unhke~STrnTpF7~this sam"e~g^-
ercrCs cup serves agani as a necessary part
These Cofi-ee Tots Are Widely Used in Sweden fob Boiling Coffee
Left, copper pot with wooden handle and Iron legs designed to stand In the coals — Center, glass-globe pot,
for stove use, enclosed in felt-lined brass cosey — Right, hand-made hammercd-brass kettle for stove use
688
ALL ABOUT COFFEE
The Coffee Room of the Hotel Adolphus, Dallas, Texas
Day-and-Night Coffee Room, Rice Hotel, Houston, Texas
HOTEL BARS REPLACED BY COFFEE ROOMS IN THE UNITED STATES
One effect of prohibition has been to lead many hotels to feature their coffee service, bringing back the
modern type of coffee room illustrated above
MANNERS AND CUSTOMS
689
of thejnoonday and evenins^ meals for most
people. _
The important and indispensable part
that sugai-~plays in the make-Up ot tiie
American~x?nTroi coifee was ably set forth
by Fred Mason, vice-president of the
American ~Siigar Refining Oo., wlien he
said :— " ' — — — —
The cofifee cup and the sugar bowl are insepa-
rable table companions. Most of us did not
realize this until the war came, with its at-
tendant restrictions on everything we did, and
we found that the sugar bowl had disappeared
from all public eating places. No longer could
we make an unlimited number of trips to the
sugar bowl to sweeten our coffee ; but we had
t)0 be content with what was doled out to us
with scrupulous care — a quantity so small at
times that it gave only a hint of sweetness to
our national beverage.
Then it was that we really appreciated how
indispensable the proper amount of sugar was
to a good, savory cup of coffee, and we missed
it as much as we would seasoning from certain
cooked foods. Secretly we consoled ourselves
with the promise that if the day ever came
when sugar bowls made their appearance once
inore, filled temptingly with the sweet granules
that were "gone but not forgotten," we should
put an extra lump or an additional spoonful of
sugar into our cofifee to help us forget the joy-
less war days.
Since sugar is so necessary to our enjoyment
of this popular beverage, it is obvious that a
considerable part of all the sugar we consume
must find its way into the national cofifee cup.
The stupendous amount of 40,000,000,000 cups
of cofifee is consumed in this country each year.
Taking two teaspoonfuls or two lumps as a fair
average per cup, we find that about 800,000,000
pounds of sugar, almost one-tenth of our total
annual consumption, are required to sweeten
Uncle Sam's cofifee cup. This is specially sig-
nificant when one considers that, with the single
exception of Australia, the United States con-
sumes more sugar per capita than any country
on earth.
Sugar adds high food value to the .stimula-
tive virtues of coffee. The beverage itself
stimulates the mental and physical powers,
while the sugar it contains is fuel for the body
and furnishes it with energy. Sugar is such a
concentrated food that the amount used by the
average person in two cups of cofifee is enough
to furnish the system with more energy than
could be derived from 40 oysters on the half-
shell.
Sin£e.4l£ohibition, the average citizen is
drinking one hundred more cups of cog.ee
a year than he did m the old days; and a
good part of the increase is attributed to
newly formed habits of drinking coffee be-
tween meals, at soda fountainSj in ^pa and
coffee__shops, at hotels, and even in the
homes! TiTothel* Words, the Increase is due
■f "Thp Coffep Cup and the Sagar Bowl." Tea and
Coffee Trade Jour., 1921 (vol. x!i : no. 6: p. 809).
to coffee drinking that directly takes the
place of malt and spirituous liquors. There
have come into being the hotel coffee room ;
the custom of afternoon coffee drinking;
and free coffee-service in many factories^
stores, and offices.
In colonial days, must or ale first gave
way to tea, and then to coffee as a break-
fast beverage. The Boston ''tea party"
clinched the case for coffee; but in the
meantime, coffee was more or less of an
after-dinner function, or a between-meals
drink, as in Europe. In Washington's
time, dinner was usually served at three
o'clock in the afternoon, and at informal
dinner parties the company "sat till sun-
set— then coffee."
In the early part of the nineteenth cen-
tury, coffee became firmly intrenched as
the one great American breakfast beverage ;
and its security in this position would seem
to be unassailable for all time.
f Today, all classes in the United States
begin and end the day with coffee. In the
home, it is prepared by boiling, infusion or
steeping, percolation, and filtration ; in the
hotels and restaurants, by infusion, percola-
tion, and filtration. The best practise
favors true percolation (French drip), or
filtration.
Steeping coffee in American homes (an
English heirloom) is usually performed in
a china or earthenware jug. The ground
coffee has boiling water poured upon it
until the jug is half full. The infusion is
stirred briskly. Next, the jug is filled by
pouring in the remainder of the boiling
water, the infusion is again stirred, then
permitted to settle, and finally is poured
through a strainer or filter cloth before
serving.
When a pumping percolator or a double
glass filtration device is used, the water
may be cold or boiling at the beginning as
the maker prefers. Some wet the coffee
with cold water before starting the brew-
ing process.
For genuine percolator, or drip coffee,
French and Austrian china drip pots are
mostly employed. The latest filtration de-
vices are described in chapter XXXIV.
The Creole, or French market, coffee for
which New Orleans has long been famous
is made from a concentrated coffee extract
prepared in a drip pot. First, the ground
coffee has poured over it sufficient boiling
water thoroughly to dampen it. after which
further additions of boiling water, a table-
spoonful at a time, are poured upon it at
690
ALL ABOUT COFFEE
five minute intervals. The resulting ex-
tract is kept in a tightly corked bottle for
making cafe au lait or cafe noir as required.
A variant of the Creole method is to brovm
three tablespoonfuls of sugar in a pan, to
add a cup of water, and to allow it to
simmer until the sugar is dissolved ; to pour
this liquid over ground coffee in a drip pot,
to add boiling water as required, and to
serve black or with cream or hot milk, as
desired.
In New Orleans, coffee is often served at
the bedside upon waking, as a kind of early
breakfast function.
The Philadelphia Centennial Exposition
of 1876 served to introduce the Vienna cafe
to America. Fleisehmann's Vienna Cafe
and Bakery was a feature of our first inter-
national exposition. Afterward, it was
transferred to Broadway, New York, where
for many years it continued to serve excel-
lent coffee in Vienna style next door to
Grace Church.
The opportunity is still waiting for the
courageous soul who will bring back to our
larger cities this Vienna cafe or some
Americanized form of the continental or
sidewalk cafe, making a specialty of tea,
coffee, and chocolate.
The old Astor House was famous for its
coffee for many years, as was also Dorlon's
from 1840 to 1922.
Members of the family of the late Colonel
Roosevelt began to promote a Brazil coffee-
house enterprise in New York in 1919. It
was first called Cafe Paulista, but it is now
known as the Double R coffee house, or
Club of South America, with a Brazil
branch in the 40 's and an Argentine branch
on Lexington Avenue. Coffee is made and
served in Brazilian style ; that is, full city
roast, pulverized grind, filtration made ;
service, black or with hot milk. Sand-
wiches, cakes, and crullers are also to be
had.
One of New York's newest clubs is known
as the Coffee House. It is in West Forty-
fifth Street, and has been in existence since
December, 1915, when it was opened with
an informal dinner, at which the late
Joseph H. Choate, one of the original mem-
bers, outlined the purpose and policies of
the club.
The founders of the Coffee House were
convinced — as the result of the high dues
and constantly increasing formality and
discipline in the social clubs in New York
— that there was need here for a moderate-
priced eating and meeting place, which
should be run in the simplest possible^way
and with the least ^ppssiBle expense. "*'
At- the: beginning of its career, the club
framed, adopted, and has ^ince lived up to,
a most ii^lorm^l constitutjon:/ -No officers,
no tliveries, no tips, no set .speeches, no
charge accounts, no RULES." ^ •
The membership is made up, for the most
part, af painters, writers, sculptors, archi-
tects, actors, and, members of other profes-
sions. 3Iembers are expected to pay cash
for all orders. There, are no proposals of
candidates fpr rilembership. The club in-
vites to join it those whom it believes to be
in sympathy with the ideals of its founders.
The method of preparing coffee for indi-
vidual service in the Waldorf-Astoria, New
York, which has been adopted by many
first-class hotels and restaurants that do not
serve urn-made coffee exclusively, is the
French drip plus careful attention to all
the contributing factors for making coffee
in perfection, and is thus described by the
hotel's steward:
A French china drip coffee pot is used. It
is Ivept in a warm heater ; and when the coffee
is ordered, tliis pot is scalded with hot water.
A level tablespoonful of coffee, ground to about
the consistency of granulated sugar, is put into
the upper and percolator part of the coffee pot.
Fresh boiling water is then poured through the
coffee and allowed to percolate into the lower
part of the pot. The secret of success, accord-
ing to our experience, lies in having the coffee
freshly ground, and the water as near the boil-
Britannia Coffee Pot from Which Abraham
Lincoln Was Often Served in New Salem ,
Its story is told on, page 614
MANNERS AND CUSTOMS
691
Coffee Service, Hotel Astok, New York
ing point as possible, all during the process.
For this reason, the coffee pot should be placed
on a gas stove or range. The quantity of cof-
fee can be varied to suit individual taste. We
use about ten percent more ground coffee for
after dinner cups than we do for breakfast
Our coffee is a mixture of Old Government Java
and Bogota.
C. Scotty, chef at the Hotel Ambassador,
New York, thus describes the method of
making coffee in that hostelry :
In the first place, at is essential that the
coffee be of the finest quality obtainable; sec-
ondly, better results are obtained by using the
French filterer, or coffee bag.
Twelve ounces of .coffee to one gallon of water
for breakfast.
Sixteen ounces of coffee to one gallon of water
for dinner.
Boiling water should be poured over the coffee
sifoned. and put back several times. We do
not allow the coffee grounds to remain in the
urn for more than fifteen to twenty minutes
at any time.
The coffee service at the best hotels is
usually in silver pots and pitchers, and in-
cludes the freshly made coffee, hot milk or
cream (sometimes both), and domino sugar.
Within the last year (1921) many of the
leading hotels, and some of the big railway
systems, have adopted the custom of serv-
ing free a demi-tasse of coffee as soon as the
guest-traveler seats himself at the break-
fast table or in the dining car. "Small
blacks," the waiters call them, or "coffee
cocktails," accordiiig to their fancy.
•At the Pequot coffee house, 91 Water
Street, New York, a noon-day restaurant in
the heart of the coffee tradfe, an attempt has
Lbeen made to introduce something of the
rold-time coffee house atmosphere.
The Childs chain of restaurants recently
began printing on its menus, in brackets
before each item, the number of calories as
computed by an expert in nutrition. Coffee
with a mixture of milk and cream is cred-
ited with eighty-five calories, a well known
coffee substitute with seventy calories, and
tea with eighteen calories. The Childs
chain of 92 restaurants serves 40,000,000
cups of coffee a year, made from 375 tons
of ground coffee, and figuring an average
of 53 cups to the pound.
The Thompson chain of one hundred res-
taurants serves 160.000 cups of coffee per'
day, or more than 58,000,000 cups per year.
Cofee Customs in South America
Argentine. Coffee is very popular as a
beverage in Argentina. Cafe con leche —
coffee with milk, in which the proportion of
coffee may vary from one-fourth to two-
thirds — is the usual Argentine breakfast
beverage. A small cup of coffee is generally
taken after meals, and it is also consumed
to a considerable extent in cafes.
Brazil. In Brazil every one drinks cof-
fee and at all hours. Cafes making a spe-
cialty of the beverage, and modeled after
continental originals, are to be found
a-plenty in Rio de Janeiro, Santos, and
other large cities. The custom prevails of
roasting the beans high, almost to car-
bonization, grinding them fine, and then
boiling after the Turkish fashion, percolat-
ing in French drip pots, steeping in cold
water for several hours, straining and heat-
ing the liquid for use as needed, or filtering
by means of conical linen sacks suspended
from wire rings.
The Brazilian loves to frequent the cafes
and to sip his coffee at his ease. He is very
continental in this respect. The wide-open
doors, and the round-topped marble tables,
with their small cups and saucers set
around a sugar basin, make inviting pic-
tures. The customer pulls toward him one
of the cups and immediately a waiter comes
and fills it with coffee, the charge for which
is about three cents. It is a common thing
for a Brazilian to consume one dozen to
two dozen cups of black coffee a day. If
one pays a social visit, calls upon the presi-
dent of the Republic, or any lesser official,
or on a business acquaintance, it is a signal
for an attendant to serve coffee. Cafe au
lait is popular in the morning ; but except
for this service, milk or cream is never used.
In Brazil, as in the Orient, coffee is a sym-
bol of hospitality.
In Chile, Paraguay and Uruguay, very
much the same customs prevail of making
and serving the beverage.
692
ALL ABOUT COFFEE
Coffee Drinking in Other Countries
In Australia and New Zealand, Eng-
lish methods for roasting, grinding, and
making coffee are standard. The beverage
usually contains thirty to forty percent
chicory. In the bush, the water is boiled in
a billy can. Then the powdered coffee is
added ; and when the liquid comes again to
a boil, the coffee is done. In the cities,
practically the same method is followed.
The general rule in the antipodes seemfe to
be to "let it come to a boil", and then to
remove it from the fire.
In Cuba the custom is to grind the coffee
fine, to put it in a flannel sack suspended
over a receiving vessel, and to pour cold
water on it. This is repeated many times,
until the coffee mass is well saturated. The
first drippings are repoured over the bag.
The final result is a highly concentrated ex-
tract, which serves for making cafe au lait,
or cafe noir, as desired.
In Martinique, coffee is made after the
French fashion. In Panama, French and
American methods obtain; as also in the
Philippines.
Chapter XXXVI jf^"^
•h<
PREPARATION OF THE UNIVERSAL BEVERAGE
-^The evolution of grinding and brewing methods — Coffee was first a
food, then a wine, a medicine, a devotional refreshment, ft confection,
and finally a beverage — Brewing by boiling, infusion, percola-
tion, and filtration — Coffee making ^n Europe in^the nineteenth
century —^^Eurly coffee making^ in ^ the UniiedStaie^^^ Latest
develbpmenfs in better coffee making — Various aspects of scientific
toffee brewing — Advice to CQ^:ee lo^m^^-mihoyii^t'6\J^i^^
h^uriOjmgJc&it in perf^ctionT"
I
THE coffee drink has had a curious
evolution. It began^not as a drink,
but as a food ration. Its first use
as a drink was as a kind of wine. Civiliza-
tion knew it first as a medicine. At one
stage of its development, before it became
generally accepted as a liquid refreshment,
the berries found favor as a confection. As
a beverage, its use probably dates back
about si^x hundred years.
The protein and fat content, that is, the
food value, of coffee, so far as civilized
man is concerned, is an absolute waste.
The only constituents that are of value are
those that are water soluble, and can be
extracted readily with hot water. When
coffee is properly made, as by the drip
method, either by percolation or filtration,
the ground coffee comes in contact with the
hot water for only a few minutes; so the
major portion of the protein, which is not
only practically insoluble, but coagulates on
heating, remains in the unused part of the
coffee, the grounds. The coffee bean con-
tains a large percent of protein — fourteen
percent. By comparing this figure with
twenty-one percent of protein in peas,
twenty-three percent in lentils, twenty-six
percent in beans, twenty-four percent in
peanuts, about eleven percent in wheat
flour, and less than nine percent in white
bread, we learn how much of this valuable
food stuff is lost with the coffee grounds \
Though civilized man (excepting the in-
habitants of the Isle de Groix off the coast
of Brittany) does not use this protein con-
tent of coffee, in certain parts of Africa it
has been put to use in a very ingenious
and effective manner "from time immemo-
rial" down to the present day. James
Bruce, the Scottish explorer, in his travels
to discover the source of the Nile in 1768 -
73, found that this curious use of the cof-
fee bean had been known for centuries.
He brought back accounts and specimens
of its use as a food in the shape of balls
made of grease mixed with roasted coffee
finely ground between stones.
Other writers have told how the Galla, a
wandering tribe of Africa — and like most
wandering tribes, a warlike one — find it
necessary to carry concentrated food on
their long marches. Before starting on
their marauding excursions, each warrior
equips himself with a number of food balls.
These prototypes of the modern food tablet
are about the size of a billiard ball, and
consist of pulverized coffee held in shape
with fat. One ball constitutes a day's ra-
tion; and although civilized man might
find it unpalatable, from the purely phys-
*Frankel, P. Hulton, Ph.D. Tea and Coffee Trade
Jour., 1917 (vol. xxxli: p. 142).
693
694
ALL ABOUT COFFEE
iological standpoint it is not only a con-
centrated and efficient food, but it also has
the additional advantage of containing a
valuable stimulant in the caffein content
which spurs the warrior on to maximum
effort. And so the savage in the African
jungle has apparently solved two problems ;
the utilization of coffee 's protein, and the
production of a concentrated food.
Further research shows that perhaps as
early as 800 A.D. this practise started by
crushing the whole ripe berries, beans and
hulls, in mortars, mixing them with fats,
and rounding them into food balls. Later,
the dried berries were so used. The in-
habitants of Groix, also, thrive on a diet
that includes roasted coffee beans.
About 900, a kind of aromatic wine was
made in Africa from the fermented juice
of the hulls and pulp of the ripe berries '.
Payen says that the first coffee drinkers
did not think of roasting but, impressed by
the aroma of the dried beans, they put them
in cold water and drank the liquor satu-
rated with their aromatic principles.
Crushing the raw beans and hulls, and
steeping them in water, was a later im-
provement.
It appears that boiled coffee (the name
is anathema to-day) was invented about
the year 1000 A.D. Even then, the beans
were not roasted. We read of their use in
medicine in the form of a decoction. The
dried fruit, beans and hulls, were boiled in
stone or clay cauldrons. The custom of
using the sun-dried hulls, without roasting,
still exists in Africa, Arabia, and parts of
southern Asia. The natives of Sumatra
neglect the fruit of the coffee tree and use
the leaves to make a tea-like infusion. Jar-
din relates that in Guiana an agreeable tea
is made by drying the young buds of the
coffee tree, and rolling them on a copper
plate slightly heated. In Uganda, the na-
tives eat the raw berries ; from bananas and
coffee they make also a sweet, savory drink
which is called menghai.
About 1200, the practise was common of
making a decoction from the dried hulls
alone. There followed the discovery that
roasting improved the flavor. Even today,
this drink known as Sultan or Sultana cof-
fee, cafe a la sultane, or kisher, continues
in favor in Arabia. Credit for the inven-
tion of this beverage has been wrongfully
given by various French writers to Doctor
^ See chapter III.
Eably Coffee Making in Persia
Showing leather bag for green beans, roasting plate,
grinder, boiler, and serving cups
Andry, director of the Faculty of Medicine
in Paris. Dr. Andry had his own recipe
for making cafe a la sultane, which was to
boil the coffee hulls for half an hour. This
gave a lemon-colored liquid which was
drunk with a little sugar.
The Oriental procedure was to toast the
hulls in an earthenware pot over a charcoal
fire, mixing in with them a small quantity
of the silver skins, and turning them over
until they were slightly parched. The
hulls and silver skins, in proportions of
four to one, were then thrown into boiling
water and well boiled again for at least a
half-hour. The color of the drink had
some resemblance to the best English beer,
La Roque assures us, and it required no
sweetening, "there being no bitterness to
correct." This was still the coffee drink
of the court of Yemen, and of people of
distinction in the Levant, when La Roque
and his fellow-travelers made their cele-
brated voyage to Arabia the Happy in
1711 - 13.
Some time in the thirteenth century, the
practise began of roasting the dried beans,
after the hulling process. This was done
first in crude stone and earthenware trays,
and later on metal plates, as described in
chapter XXXIV. A liquor was made from
boiling the whole roasted beans. The next
PREPARING THE BEVEHAGE
69^
step was to pound the roasted beans to a
powder with a mortar and pestle; and the
decoction was then made by throwing the
powder into boiling water, the drink being
swallowed in its entirety, grounds and all.
It was a decoction for the next four
centuries.
When the long-handled Arabian metal
boiler made its appearance in the early
part of the sixteenth century, the method
of preparation and service had much im-
proved. The Arabs and the Turks had
made it a social adjunct, and its use was
no longer confined to the physicians and
the churchmen. It had become a stimulat-
ing refreshment for all the people ; and at
the same time, the Arabians and the Turks
had developed a coffee ceremony for the
higher classes which was quite as wonder-
ful as the tea ceremony of Japan.
The common early method of prepara-
tion throughout the Levant was to steep
the powder in water for a day, to boil the
liquor half away, to strain it, and to keep
it in earthen pots for use as wanted. In
the sixteenth century, the small coffee
boiler, or ibrik, caused the practise to be
more of an instantaneous affair. The cof-
fee was ground, and the powder was
dropped into the boiling water, to be with-
drawn from the fire several times as it
boiled up to the rim. While still boiling,
cinnamon and cloves were sometimes added
before pouring the liquid off into the find-
jans, or little china cups, to be served with
the addition of a drop of essence of amber.
Later, the Turks jadded sugar during the
boiling process.
From the first simple uncovered ibrik
there was developed, about the middle of
the seventeenth century, a larger-size cov-
ered coffee boiler, the forerunner of the
modern combination brewing and serving
pot. This was a copper-plated kettle pat-
terned after the oriental ewer with a broad
base, bulbous body, and narrow neck.
After having poured into it one and a half
times as much water as the dish (cup) in
which the drink was to be served would
hold, the pot was placed on a lively fire.
When the water boiled, the powdered cof-
fee was tossed into the pot; and, as the
Ifquid boiled up, it was taken from the fire
and returned, probably a dozen times.
Then the pot was placed in hot ashes to
permit the grounds to settle. This done,
the drink was served. Dufour, describing
this process as practised in Turkey and
Arabia, says:
One ought not to drink coffee, but suck it
in as hot as one can. In order not to be
burned, it is not necessary to place the tongue
in the cup but hold the edge against the
tongue with the lips above and below it, forcing
it so little that the edges do not bear down, and
then suck in ; that is to say, swallow it sip by
sip. If one is so delicate he can not stand the
bitterness, he can temper it with sugar. It is a
mistake to stir the coffee in the pot, the grounds
being worth nothing. In the Levant it is only
the scum of the people who swallow the
grounds.
La Roque says:
Tlie Arabians, when they take their coffee off
the fire, immediately wrap the vessel in a wet
cloth which fines the liquor instantly, makes it
cream at the top and occasion a more pungent
steam, which they take great pleasure in snuff-
ing up as the coffee is pouring into the cups.
They, like all other nations of the East, drink
their coffee without sugar.
Some of the Orientals afterward modi-
fied the early coffee-making procedure by
pouring the boiling water on the powdered
coffee in the serving cups. They thus ob-
tained "a foaming and perfumed bev-
erage," says Jardin, ''to which we (the
French) could not accustom ourselves be-
cause of the powder which remains in sus-
pension. Nevertheless, clarified coffee may
be obtained in the Orient. In Mecca, in
order to filter it, they strain it through
stopples of dried herbs, put into the open-
ing of a jar."
Sugar seems to have been introduced into
coffee in Cairo about 1625. Veslingius
records that the coffee drinkers in Cairo's
three thousand coffee houses **did begin ^o
put sugar in their coffee to correct the bit-
terness of it", and that "others made
sugar plums of the coffee berries". This
coffee confection later appeared in Paris,
and about the same time (1700) at Mont-
pellier was introduced a coffee water, "a
sort of rosa-folis of an agreeable scent that
has somewhat of the smell of coffee
roasted." These novelties, however, were
designed to please only "the most nice lov-
ers of coffee"; for ennui and boredom de-
manded new sensations then as now.
Boiling continued the favorite method of
preparing the beverage until well into the
eighteenth century. Meanwhile, we leam
from English references that it was the
custom to buy the beans of apothecaries, to
dry them in an oven, or to roast them in
an old pudding dish or frying pan before
696
ALL ABOUT COFFEE
pounding them to a powder with mortar
and pestle, to force the powder through a
lawn sieve, and then to boil it with spring
water for a quarter of an hour. The fol-
lowing recipe from a rare book published
in London, 1662, details the manner of
making coffee in the seventeenth century:
Coffee Making in 1662
To make the drink that is now much used
called coffee.
The coffee-berries are to be bought at any
Druggist, about three shillings the pound ; take
what quantity you please, and over a charcoal
fire, in an old pudding-pan or frying-pan, keep
them always stirx-ing until they be quite black,
and when you crack one with your teeth that it
is black within as it is without ; yet if you
exceed, then do you wast6 the Oyl, which only
makes the drink ; and if less, then will it not de-
liver its Oyl, which must make the drink ; and
if you should continue fire till it be white, it
will then make no coffee, but only give you its
salt. The Berry prepared as above, beaten and
forced through a Lawn Sive, is then fit for use.
Take clean water, and boil one-third of it
away what quantity soever it be, and it is fit
for use. Take one quart of this prepared
Water, put in it one ounce of your prepared
coffee, and boil it gently one-quarter of an hour,
and it is fit for your use ; drink one-quarter of
a pint as hot as you can sip it.
In England, about this time, the coffee
drink was not infrequently mixed with
sugar candy, and even with mustard. In
the coffee houses, however, it was usually
served black, without sugar or milk.
About 1660, Nieuhoff, the Dutch ambas-
sador to China, was the first to make a
trial of coffee with milk in imitation of tea
with milk. In 1685, Sieur Monin, a cele-
brated doctor of Grenoble, France, first
recommended cafe mi- lait as a medicine.
He prepared it thus: Place on the fire a
bowl of milk. When it begins to rise,
throw in to it a bowl of powdered coffee, a
bowl of moist sugar, and let it boil for
some time.
We read that in 1669 "coffee in France
was a hot black decoction of muddy
grounds thickened with syrup."
Angelo Rambaldi in his Anibrosia Ara-
hica thus describes coffee making in Italy
and other European countries in 1691 :
Description of the Vase for Making the
Decoction, Dose of Powder and of the
Water Necessary and Time of
Boiling It.
Two such vessels having a large paunch to
reach the fire, two others with long necks and
narrow, with a cover to restrain their spirituous
and volatile particles which when thrown ofiC
by the heat are easily lost. These vessels are
called Ibriq in Arabia. They are made of
copper — coated with white outside and inside.
We, who do not possess the art of making them
should select an earth vitriate, sulphate of
copper, or any other material adapted for
kitchen ware : it might even be of silver.
The quantity of water and powder has no
certain rule, by reason of the difference of our
nature and tastes, and each one after some
experience will use his own judgment to adjust
it to his desire and liking.
Maronita infused two ounces of powder in
three litres of water. Cotovico in his voyage
to Jerusalem affirms that he has observed six
ounces of the former to 20 litres of the latter,
boiled until it was reduced to half the quantity.
Thevenot asserts that the Turks in three cups
of water are contented with a good spoonful of
powder. I have observed however that in
Africa, France and England, into about six
ounces of water (which with them is one cup)
a dram of the powder is infused and this agrees
with my taste — but I have wished at times to
change the dose.
Others put the water into the vase and when
it begins to boil add the powder, but because
it is full of spirit at the first contact with the
heat it rises and boils over the edge of the vase.
Take it away from the fire till the boiling
ceases, then put it on the fire again and let it
stay a short time boiling with the cover on :
Stand it on warm ashes until it settles, after
which slowly pour a little of the decoction into
an earthen vessel, or one of porcelain or any
other kind, as hot as can be borne, and drink
a sip •, if it pleases your taste, add a portion of
cardamom, cloves, nutmeg or cinnamon, and
dissolve a little sugar in the water ; yet because
these substances will alter the taste of this
simple, they are not prized by many experts.
Modern Arabia, Bassa, Turkey, the Great
Orient, those who are travelling or in the army,
infuse the powder in cold water, and then
boiling it as directed above, beaf witness to its
efficacy. All times are opportune to take this-
salutary drink (beverage). Among the Turks
are those who take it even by night, nor is
there a bvisiness meeting or conversation, where
coffee is not taken. Among the Great it would
be accounted an incivility, if with smoke, coffee
were not offered : and no one in the day is
ashamed to frequent the bazaars where it is
sold. When I was in London, that city of three
million people, there were taverns for its special
use. It is a great stimulant. The sober take it
to invigorate the stomach. The scrofulous hated
it because they thought it stirred up the bile on
an empty stomach — but experience proving the
contrary enjoy it as much as others.
In 1702, coffee in the American colonies
was being used as a refreshment between
meals, "like spirituous liquors."
It was in 1711 that the infusion idea in
coffee making appeared in France. It
came in the form of a fustian (cloth) bag
which contained the ground coffee in the
coffee maker, and the boiling water was
poured over it. This was a decided French
PREPARING THE BEVERAGE
697
novelty, but it made slow headway in Eng-
land and America, where some people were
still boiling the whole roasted beans and
drinking the liquor.
In England, as early as 1722, there arose
a conscientious objector to boiled coffee in
the person of Humphrey Broadbent, a cof-
fee merchant w^ho wrote a treatise on the
True Way of Preparing and Making
Coffee ', in which he condemned the ''silly"
practise of making coffee by "boiling an
ounce of the powder in a quart of water,"
then common in the London coffee houses,
and urging the infusion method. He fa-
vored the following procedure :
Put the quantity of powder you intend, into
your pot (which should be either of stone, or
silver, being much better than tin or copper,
which takes from it much of its flavour and
goodness) then pour boiling-hot water upon the
aforesaid powder, and let it stand to infuse
five minutes before the fire. This is an excellent
way, and far exceeds the common one of boiling,
but whether you prepare it by boiling or this
way. it will sometimes remain thick and
troubled, after it is made, except you pour in a
spoonful or two of cold water, which immediate-
ly precipitates the more heavy parts at the
bottom, and makes it clear enough for drinking.
Some, make coffee with spring water, but it is
not so good as river, or T/iawes-water. because
the former makes it hard, and distasteful, and
the other makes it smooth and pleasant, lying
soft on the stomach. If you have a desire to
make good coffee in your families, I cannot
conceive how you can put less than two ounce-^
of powder to a quart, or one ounce to a pint of
water; some put two ounces and a quarter.
By 1760, the decoction, or boiling, meth-
od in France had been generally replaced
by the infusion, or steeping, method.
In 1763, Donmartin, a tinsmith of St.
Bendit, France, invented a coffee pot, the
inside of which was "filled by a fine sack
put in in its entirety," and which had a
tap to draw the coffee. Many inventions
to make coft'ee sans ebullition (without boil-
ing) appeared in France about this time;
but it was not until 1800 that De Belloy's
pot, employing the original French drip
method, appeared, signaling another step
forward in coffee making — percolation,
De Belloy and Count Rumford
De Belloy's pot was probably made of
iron or tin, afterward of porcelain; and it
has served as a model for all the percola-
tion devices that followed it for the next
hundred years. It does not seem to have
' Broadbent, Humphrey. The Domestick Coffee Man,
London, 1722.
been patented, and not much is known of
the inventor. About this period, it was
the common practise in England to boil
coffee in the good old-fashioned way, and
to "fine" (clarify) it with isinglass. This
moved Count Rumford (Benjamin Thomp-
son), an American-British scientist, then
living in Paris, to make a study of scien-
tific coffee-making, and to produce an im-
proved drip device known as Rumford 's
percolator. He has been generally credited
with the invention of the percolator; but,
as pointed out in a previous chapter, this
honor seems to be De Belloy's and not
Rumford 's.
Count Rumford embodied his observa-
tions and conclusions in a verbose essay en-
titled Of the excellent qualities of coffee
and the art of making it in the highest per-
fection, published in London in 1812. In
this treatise he describes and illustrates the
Rumford percolator.
Brillat-Savarin, the famous French gas-
tronomist, who also wrote on coffee in his
VJme Meditation, said of the De Belloy
pot:
I have tried, in the course of time, all
methods and of all those which have been
suggested to me up to today (1825) and with a
full knowledge of the matter in hand, I prefer
the De Belloy method, which consists of pour-
ing the boiling water upon the coffee which has
been placed in the vessel of porcelain or silver,
pierced with very small holes. I have attempted
to make coffee in a boiler at high pressure,
but I have had as a result a coffee full of
extracts and bitterness which would scrape the
throat of a Cossack.
Brillat-Savarin had something also to say
on the subject of grinding coffee, his con-
clusion being that it was "better to pound
the coffee than to grind it."
He refers to M. Du Belloy, archbishop
of Paris, "who loved good things and was
quite an epicure," and says that Napoleon
showed him deference and respect. This
may have been Jean Baptiste De Belloy,
who, according to Didot, was born in 1709
and died in 1808, and, it is thought likely,
was the inventor of the De Belloy pot.
Count Rumford was born in Woburn,
Mass., in 1753, He was apprenticed to a
storekeeper in Salem in 1766. He became
an object of distrust among the friends of
the cause of American freedom ; and, or
the evacuation of Boston by the Royal
troops in 1776, he was selected by Gov-
ernor Wentworth of New Hampshire to
carry dispatches to England. He left Eng-
698
ALL ABOUT COFFEE
land in 1802, and resided in France from
1804 until his death in 1814. In 1772, he
had married, or rather, as he put it, he
was married by, a wealthy widow, the
daughter of a highly respectable minister
and one of the first settlers at Rumford,
now called Concord, New Hampshire. It
was from this town that he took his title
of Rumford when he was created a Count
of the Holy Roman Empire in 1791. His
first wife having died, he married in Paris,
the wealthy widow of the celebrated chem-
ist, Lavoisier ; and with her he lived an ex-
tremely uncomfortable life until they
agreed to separate.
In his essay on coffee and coffee making.
Count Rumford gives us a good pen pic-
ture of the preparation of the beverage in
England at the beginning of the nineteenth
century. He says:
Coffee is first roasted in an iron pan, or in a
hollow cylinder, made of sheet iron, over a
hrisk fire ; and when, from the colour of the
grain, and the peculiar fragrance which it ac-
quires in this process, it is judged to be suffi-
ciently roasted, it is taken from the fire, and
suffered to cool. When cold it is pounded in a
mortar ; or ground in a hand-mill to a coarse
powder, and preserved for use.
Formerly, the ground Coffee being put into a
coffee-pot, with a sufficient quantity of water,
the coffee-pot was put over the fire, and after
the water had been made to boil a certain
time, the coffee-pot was removed from the fire,
and the grounds having had time to settle, or
having been fined down with isinglass, the
clear liquor was poured off, and immediately
served up in cups.
Count Rumford thought it a mistake to
agitate the coffee powder in the brewing
process, and in this he agreed with De Bel-
loy. His improvement on the latter 's pot
is described in chapter XXXIV. He was
a coffee connoisseur; and as such was one
of the first to advocate the use of cream as
well as sugar for making an ideal cup of
the beverage. He refers, though not by
name, to De Belloy's percolation method
and says, ''Its usefulness is now univer-
sally acknowledged. ' '
A Few Definitions
Just here, in order to assure a better un-
derstanding of the subject, it may be well
to clear up sundry misconceptions regard-
ing the words percolation, filtration, decoc-
tion, infusion, etc., by the simple expedient
of definition.
A decoction is a liquid produced by boil-
ing a substance until its soluble properties
are extracted. Thus the coffee drink was
first a decoction; and a decoction is what
one gets today when coffee is boiled in the
good old-fashioned way — as "mother used
to make it,"
Infusion is the process of steeping — ex-
traction without boiling. It is extraction
accomplished at any temperature below
boiling, and is a general classification of
procedure capable of sub-division. As
generally and correctly applied, it is the
operation wherein hot water is merely
poured upon ground coffee loose in a pot,
or in a container resting on the bottom of
the pot. In the strictest sense of the term,
an infusion is also produced by percolation
and filtration, when the water is not boiled
in contact with the coffee.
Percolation means dripping through fine
apertures in china or metal as in De Bel-
loy's French drip pot.
Filtration means dripping through a por-
ous substance, usually cloth or paper.
Percolation and filtration are practically
synonymous, although a shade of distinc-
tion in their meaning has arisen so that
often the latter is considered as a step logi-
cally succeeding the. former. Accomplish-
ing extraction of a material by permitting
a liquid to pass slowly through it is in fact
percolation, whereas filtration of the result-
ant extract is effected by interposing in
its path some medium which will remove
solid or semi-solid material from it. Cof-
fee-making practise has in itself so applied
these terms that each is considered a com-
plete process. Percolation is thus applied
when the infusion is removed from the
grounds immediately by dripping through
fine perforations in the china or metal of
which the device is constructed.
True percolation is not produced in the
pumping "percolators" in which the heat-
ed water is elevated and sprayed over the
ground coffee held in a metal basket in the
upper part of the pot, the liquor being re-
circulated until a satisfactory degree of ex-
traction has been reached. Rather, the
process is midway between decoction and
infusion, for the weak liquor is boiled dur-
ing the operation in order to furnish suffi-
cient steam to cause the pumping action.
Filtration is accomplished when the
ground coffee is retained by cloth or paper,
generally supported by some portion of the
brewing device, and extraction effected by
pouring water on the top of the mass, per-
mitting the liquid to percolate through, the
filtering medium retaining the grounds.
PREPARING THE BEVERAGE
699
Patents and Devices
From the beginning, the French devoted
more attention than any other people to
coffee brewing. The first French patent
on a coffee maker was granted in 1802 to
Denobe, Henrion, and Ranch for "a phar-
macological-chemical coffee making device
by infusion."
In 1802, Charles Wyatt obtained a pat-
ent in London on an apparatus for distill-
ing coffee.
The first French patent on an improved
French drip pot for making coffee "by
filtration without boiling" was granted to
Hadrot in 1806. Strictly speaking, this
was not a filtering device, as it was fitted
with a tin composition strainer, or grid.
It was very like Count Rumford's per-
colator announced six years later, as will
be seen by comparing the two in chapter
XXXIV.
In 1815, Sene invented in France his
Cafetiere Sene, another device to make
coffee "without boiling."
About the year 1817, the coffee biggin
appeared in England. It was simply a
squat earthenware pot with an upper, mov-
able, strainer part made of tin, after the
French drip pot pattern. Later models
employed a cloth bag suspended from the
rim of the pot. It was said to have been
invented by a Mr. Biggin; and Dr. Mur-
ray, of dictionary fame, seems to have be-
come convinced of this gentleman's exist-
ence, although others have doubted it and
thought the name w^as of Dutch origin, the
article having been first made for Holland.
It has been suggested that, in all probabil-
ity, the name came from the Dutch word
heggelin, to trickle, or run down. One
thing is certain, coffee biggins came orig-
inally from France; so that if there was a
Mr. Biggin, he merely introduced them into
England. The coffee biggin with which
Americans are most familiar is a pot con-
taining a flannel bag or a cylindrical wire
strainer to hold the ground coffee through
which the boiling water is poured. The
Marion Harland pot was an improved
metal coffee biggin. The Triumph coffee
filter was a cloth-bag device which made
any coffee pot a biggin.
In 1819, Morize, a Paris tinsmith, in-
vented a double drip, reversible coffee pot.
The device had two movable "filters" and
was placed bottom up on the fire until the
water boiled, when it was inverted to let
the coffee "filter" or drip through.
In 1819, Laurens was granted a French
patent on the original pumping-percolator
device, in which the water was raised by
steam pressure and dripped over the
ground coffee.
In 1820, Gaudet, another Paris tinsmith,
invented a filtration device that employed
a cloth strainer.
In 1822, Louis Bernard Rabaut was
granted an English patent on a coffee-
making device in which the usual French
drip process was reversed by the use of
steam pressure to force the boiling water
upward through the coff'ee mass. Case-
neuve, of Paris, was granted a patent on
a similar device in France in 1824.
In 1825, the first coffee-pot patent in the
United States was granted to Lewis Mar-
telley on a machine ' ' to condense the steam
and essential oils and return them to the
infusion."
In 1827, the first really practicable
pumping percolator, as we understand the
meaning today, was invented by Jacques-
Augustin Gandais. a manufacturer of
plated jewelry in Paris. The boiling wa-
ter was raised through a tube in the handle
and sprayed over the ground coffee sus-
pended in a filter basket, but could not be
returned for a further spraying.
In 1827, Nicholas Felix Durant, a manu-
facturer of Chalons-sur-Mame, was grant-
ed a French patent on a "percolator" em-
ploying, for the first time, an inner tube
to raise the boiling water for spraying over
the ground coffee.
In 1839, James Vardy and Moritz Platow
were granted an English patent on a kind
of urn "percolator", or filter, employing
the vacuum process of coffee making, the
upper vessel being made of glass.
By this time, the pumping percolator,
working by steam pressure and by partial
vacuum, was in general use in France, Eng-
land, and Germany. And then began the
movement toward the next stage in coffee
making — filtration.
About this time (1840), Robert Napier
(1791 -1876) the Scottish marine engineer,
of the celebrated Clyde shipbuilding firm
of Robert Napier & Sons, invented a vac-
uum coffee machine to make coffee by dis-
tillation and filtration. The device was
never patented: but thirty years later, it
was being made in the works of Thomas
Smith & Son (Elkington & Co., Ltd., sue-
700
ALL ABOUT COFFEE
--J&
Napier Vacuum Coffee Maker
cessors) under the direction of Mr. Napier,
the aged inventor. The device consists of
a silver globe, brewer syphon, and strainer,
as illustrated. It operates as follows: a
half-cupful of water is put into the globe,
and the gas flame is lighted. The dry cof-
fee is put into the receiver, which is then
filled up with boiling water. This will at
once become agitated, and will continue so
for a few minutes. When it becomes still,
the gas flame is turned down, and clear
coffee is syphoned over into the globe
through the syphon tube, on the end of
which, as it rests in the coffee liquid, there
is a metal strainer covered with a filter
cloth.
The Napierian coffee machine has en-
joyed great popularity in England, The
principle has in later years been incor-
porated in the Napier-List steam coffee ma-
chine for use in hotels, ships, restaurants,
etc. Steam is used as a source of heat, but
does not mix with the coft'ee. List's patent
is for an improvement on the Napierian
system and was granted in 1891,
It is related that shortly before he died,
old Mr. Napier, at the termination of a
dispute in Smith & Co.'s factory at Glas-
gow, where the device was being made un-
der his instruction, said to old Mr. Smith :
Napier-List Steam Coffee Machine
Showing Method of
Operation
FiNLEY Acker's Filter-Paper Coffee Pot
"You may be a guid silversmith, but I am
a better engineer."
In 1841, William Ward Andrews was
granted an English patent on an improved
pot employing a pump to force the boil-
ing water through the ground coffee while
contained in a perforated cylinder screwed
to the bottom of the pot.
In 1842, the first French patent on a
glass coffee-making device was granted to
Madame Vassieux of Lyons.
Following this, there were numerous pat-
ents issued in France and England on dou-
ble glass-globe coffee-making devices.
They were first known as double glass bal-
loons, and most of them employed metal
strainers.
After this, there were many "perco-
lator" patents in France, England, and
the United States, some of which were for
improved forms of the original drip meth-
od of the De Belloy device. Others were
for the type of machine which came to be
known as " per/?olators " because they em-
ployed the principle of raising the heated
water and spraying it over the ground
coffee in continuous fashion. The story is
PREPARING THE BEVERAGE
701
The Kin-Hee Pot in Operation
told in chronological order in the chapter
on the evolution of coffee apparatus; so it
is not necessary to repeat it here. Numer-
ous filtration devices also were produced
abroad and in the United States.
Among the percolators, those of Manning,
Bowman & Co., and of Landers, Frary &
Clark, became Avell known here. In the
filtration field, the following attained con-
siderable distinction: Harvey Ricker's
Half-Minute pot, employing a cotton sack
with re-inforced bottom, introduced about
1881; the Kin-Hee pot of 1900; Cauchois'
Private Estate coffee maker, using Japan-
ese filter paper, introduced in 1905 ; Finley
Acker's percolator, introduced the same
year, which also employed a filter paper
between two cylinders having side perfora-
tions; the Tricolator, 1908; King's perco-
lator, using filter paper, in 1912; and the
"Make-Right", 1911, with its adaptation
as presented in the Tru-Bru pot of 1920.
The Make-Right was the invention of
Edward Aborn, New York, and comprised
two telescoping open wire frames, or bas-
kets, with a flat piece of muslin between
them. In the Tru-Bru pot, the same idea
was employed, except that the wire frames
were so constructed as to furnish four drip
points to afford better distribution on the
ground coffee and to lessen the time of
filtration. There was also a porcelain top,
to house and to raise the filtration device,
above the brew with an opening through
which the boiling water could be poured
without exposing the ground coffee.
Among later developments of the gen-
uine percolator principle that have attract-
The Tricolator in Operation
King Percolator, as Applied to a Hotel or
Restaurant Urn
ed attention in this country, mention should
be made of the Phylax coffee maker, and
the Gait pot.
In 1914-16, there was a revival of in-
terest in the Unit(>d States in the double
glass-globe method of making coffee, intro-
duced into France as "double glass bal-
702
ALL ABOUT COFFEE
Three Types of American Coffee Makers in Operation
Left, Blauke's Cloth Filter — Center, Thylax — Right, Gait Vacuum device
loons" in the first half of the nineteenth
century. American ingenuity produced
several clever adaptations, and several no-
table filter improvements. Advertising de-
veloped a great demand for glass perco-
lators, as they were first called; but al-
though five attained considerable promi-
nence, only two survived and, at this writ-
ing, are still being manufactured. Both
are double glass-globe filters employing a
spirit lamp, gas, or electricity as heating
agents.
Within the last few years, it has become
the fashion to obtain patents in the United
States on "the art of brewing coffee", or
the "art of making coffee". Instances are
the patents issued to Messrs. Calkin and
Muller. In the Calkin patent (the Phylax
device illustrated at the top of this page)
REMOVABLE
FILTER TOP
How THE Tru-Bru Pot Operates
the "art" consists in controlling the flow
of the boiling water by means of the num-
ber and spacing of the holes in the water-
spreader, so as to restrict the volume and
the speed, to effect a quick initial extrac-
tion ; and then, by means of a new spacing
of holes in the infuser, retarding the drip
"to attain a prolonged extraction of the
tannin and other elements of slow extrac-
tion and combining the liquids obtained
during the initial and subsequent stages of
the brew for attaining a balanced liquid
extract."
Muller's "art" (the apparatus is de-
scribed in chapter XXXIV) consisted in so
supplying and supporting the ground cof-
fee in an urn that it is never again sub-
jected to the "decoction" after having
been exposed to the air and steam following
the first application of the water.
In 1920, William G. Goldsworthy, San
Francisco, was granted a United States
patent on a process for preparing the beans
for making the beverage. The process con-
sisted of grinding the raw dried beans;
then packing the ground product in non-
combustible and non-soluble porous con-
tainers, which ai*e securely closed to keep
them unimpaired while the contained coffee
is being roasted ; and, after cooling, sealing
them with gelatine. To brew, container and
contents are dropped into a cup of hot
water.
This brief review of the evolution of
coffee brews shows that coffee making
started with boiling, and next became an
infusion. After that, the best practise be-
PREPARING THE BEVERAGE
708
COFFEE-MAKING DEVICES USED IN THE UNITED STATES
-Marion Ilarland Pot: 2 — Univorsal I'l-roolator: 3 — Oalt Vacuum Process Coffee Maker: 4 — Universal-
Electric TJrn ; 5 — English Coffee Biggin (Langley Ware): 6 — Universal Cafenolra (Glass Filter): 7 —
Vienna (Bohemian or Carlsbad ( Coffee Machine; 8 — Tru-Bru Pot; 9 — Tricolator ; 10 — Manning-Bowman
Percolator; 11 — Blanke's Sanitary Coffee Pot; 12 — Phylax Coffee Maker; 13 — Private-Estate Coffee
Maker ; 14 — American French Drip Pot ; 15 — Kln-Hee Pot ; 16 — SIlex Opalescent Glass Filter ; 17 —
B'rench Drip Pot (Langley Ware).
704
ALL ABOUT COFFEE
came divided between simple percolation
and filtration, which have continued to the
present time. Boiling has also continued
to find advocates in every country, even in
the United States, where it seems to die
hard, no matter how much is done to dis-
credit it. Percolation devices are sub-
divided into the simple drip pots and the
continuous percolation machines, as repre-
sented by numerous complicated and high-
priced contrivances on the market. Grad-
ually, however, true coffee lovers are realiz-
ing that the best results are to be obtained
through simple percolation or simple filtra-
tion. There are good arguments for both
methods.
Coffee Making in Europe in the Nineteenth
Century
England. We have noted Count Rum-
ford's efforts to reform coffee making in
England in the early part of the nineteenth
century. Many other scientific men joined
the movement. Among them was Professor
Donovan, who in the Dublin Philosophical
Journal for May, 1826, told of his experi-
ments "to ascertain the best methods for
extracting all the virtues inherent in the
berry." The Penny Magazine for June 14,
1834, after deploring "the straw-colored
fluid commonly introduced under the mis-
nomer of coffee in England", thus digests
Professor Donovan 's findings :
Mr. Donovan found, that what we shall call
the medicinal quality of coffee resides in it
independent of its aromatic flavor, — that it is
possible to obtain the exhilarating effect of the
beverage without gratifying the palate, — and,
on the other hand, that all the aromatic quality
may be enjoyed without its producing any effect
upon the animal economy. His object was to
combine the two.
The roasting of coffee is requisite for the
production of both these qualities ; but, to secure
them in their full degree, it is necessary to
conduct the process with some skill. The first
thing to be done is to expose the raw coffee to
the heat of a gentle fire, in an open vessel,
stirring it continually until it assumes a yellow-
ish colour. It should then be roughly broken. —
a thing very easily done. — so that each berry
is divided into about four or five pieces, when
it must be put into the roasting apparatus.
This, as most commonly used, is made of sheet-
iron, and is of a cylindrical shape : it no doubt
answers the purpose well, and is by no means a
costly machine, but coffee may be very well
roasted in a common iron or earthenware pot,
the main circumstances to be observed being
the degree to which the process is carried, and
the prevention of partial burning, by constant
stirring. One of the requisites for having good
coffee is that it shall have been recently roasted.
Coffee should be ground very fine for use,
and only at the moment when it is wanted, or
the aromatic flavour will in some measure be
lost. To extract all its good qualities, the
powder requires two separate and somewhat
opposite modes of treatment, but which do not
offer any difficulty when explained. On the one
hand, the fine flavour would be lost by boiling,
while, on the other, it is necessary to subject
the coffee to that degree of heat in order to
extract its medicinal quality. The mode of
proceeding, which, after many experiments, Mr.
Donovan found to be the most simple and
efficacious for attaining both these ends, was the
following : —
The whole water to be used must be divided
into two equal parts. One half must be put first
to the coffee "cold", and this must be placed
over the fire until it "just comes to a boil",
when it must be immediately removed. Allow-
ing it then to subside for a few moments the
liquid must be poured off as clear as it will run.
The remaining half of the water, which during
this time should have been on the fire, must
then be added "at a boiling heat" to the grounds,
and placed on the fire, where it must be kept
"boiling" for about three minutes. This will
extract the medicinal virtue, and if then the
liquid be allowed again to subside, and the clear
fluid be added to the flrst portion, the prepara-
tion will be found to combine all the good
properties of the berry in as great perfection
as they can be obtained. If any fining ingredient
is used it should be mixed with the powder at
the beginning of the process.
Several kinds of apparatus, some of them very
ingenious in their construction, have been pro-
posed for preparing coffee, but they are all
made upon the principle of extracting only the
aromatic flavour, while Professor Donovan's
suggestions not only enable us to accomplish
that desirable object, but superadd the less ob-
vious but equally essential matter of extracting
and making our own all the medicinal virtues.
When Webster and Parkes published
their Encyclopedia of Domestic Economy,
London, 1844, they gave the following as
"the most usual method of making coffee
in England":
Put fresh ground coffee into a coffee-pot, with
a sufficient quantity of water, and set this on
the fire till it boils for a minute or two ; then
remove it from the fire, pour out a cupful, which
is to be returned into the coffee-pot to throw
down the grounds that may be fioating ; repeat
this, and let the coffee-pot stand near the fire,
but not on too hot a place, until the grounds
have subsided to the bottom ; in a few minutes
the coffee will be clear without any other
preparation, and may be poured into cups ; in
this manner, with good materials in sufficient
quantity, and proper care, excellent coffee may
be made. The most valuable part of the coffee
is soon extracted, and it is certain that long
boiling dissipates the fine aroma and flavour.
Some make it a rule not to suffer the coffee to
boil, but only to bring it just to the boiling
point; but it is said by Mr. Donovan that it
PREPARING THE BEVERAGE
705
requires boiling for a little time to extract the
whole of the bitter, in which he conceives much
of the exhilarating qualities of the coffee reside.
This work had also the following to say
on the clearing of coffee, which was then a
much-mooted question:
The clearing of coffee is a circumstance de-
manding particular attention. After the heaviest
parts of the grounds have settled, there are still
tine particles suspended for some time, and if
the coffee be poured off before these have sub-
sided, the liquor is deficient in that trans
parency which is one test of its perfection ; for
coffee not well cleared has always an unpleasant
bitter taste. In general, the coffee becomes clear
by simply remaining quiet for a few minutes,
as we have stated; but those who are anxious
to have it as clear as possible employ some
artificial means of assisting the clearing. The
addition of a little isinglass, hartshorn shavings,
skins of eels or soles, white of eggs, egg shells,
etc.. has been recommended for clearing; but it
is evident that these substances, to produce their
effect, which is upon the same principle as the
fining of beer or wine, should be dissolved
previously, for if put in without, it would
require so much time to dissolve, that the
flavour of the coffee would vanish.
Coffee-making devices of this period in
England, in addition to the Rumford type
of percolator and the popular coffee biggin,
included Evans' machine provided with a
tin air-float to which was attached a filter
bag containing the coffee ; Jones' apparatus,
a pumping percolator; Parker's steam-
fountain coffee maker, which forced the hot
water upward through the ground coffee;
Platow's patent filter, previously men-
tioned, a single vacuum glass percolator in
combination with an urn; Brain's vacuum
or pneumatic filter employing a ''muslin,
linen or shamoy leather filter" and an ex-
hausting pump, designed for kitchen use;
and Palmer's and Beart's pneumatic filter-
ing machines of similar construction.
Cold infusions were common, the practise
being to let them stand overnight, to be
filtered in the morning, and only heated,
not boiled.
Coffee grinding for these various types
of coffee makers was performed by iron
mills; the portable box mill being most
favored for family use. "It consisted of a
square box either of mahogany or iron
japanned, containing in the interior a hol-
low cone of steel with sharp grooves on the
inside; into this fits a conical piece of
hardened iron or steel having spiral grooves
cut upon its surface and capable of being
turned round by a handle." There was a
drawer to receive the finely ground coffee.
Larger wall-mills employed the same grind-
ing mechanism.
In 1855, Dr. John Doran wrote in his
"Table Traits":
With regard to the making of coffee, there
is no doubt that the Turkish method of pound-
ing the coffee in a mortar is infinitely superior
to grinding it in a mill, as with us. But after
either method the process recommended by M.
Soyer may be advantageously adopted; namely,
"Put two ounces of ground coffee into a stew-
pan, which set upon the fire, stirring the coffee
round with a spoon until quite hot, then pour
over a pint of boiling water; cover over closely
for five minutes, pass it through a cloth, warm
again, and serve."
From observations by G. W. Poore, M.D.,
London, 1883, we are given a glimpse of
coffee making in England in the latter part
of the nineteenth century. He said :
"Those who wish to enjoy really good coffee
must have it fresh roasted. On the Continent,
in every well-regulated household, the daily
supply of coffee is roasted every morning. In
England this is rarely done.
If roasted coffee has to be kept, it must be
kept in an air-tight vessel. In France, coffee
used to be kept in a wrapper of waxed leather,
which was always closely tied over the con-
tained coffee. In this way the coffee was kept
from contact with any air.
The Viennese say that coffee should be kept
in a glass bottle closed with a bung, and that
coffee should on no account be kept in a tin
canister.
The coffee having been roasted, it has to be
reduced to a coarse powder before the infusion
is made. The grinding and powdering of coffee
should be done just before it is wanted, for if
the whole coffee seeds quickly lose their aroma,
how much more quickly will the aroma be
dissipated from coffee which has been reduced
to a fine powder? Nothing need be said in the
matter of coffee mills. They are common
enough, varied enough, and cheap enough to suit
all tastes.
To insure a really good cup of coffee atten-
tion must be given to the following points :
1. Be sure that the coffee is good in quality,
freshly roasted, and fresh ground.
2. Use sufiicient coffee. I have made some
experiments on this point, and I have come to
the conclusions that one ounce of coffee to a
pint of water makes poor coffee, 1% ounces of
coffee to a pint of water makes fairly good
coffee, two ounces of coffee to a pint of water
makes excellent coffee.
3. As to the form of coffee pot I have noth-
ing to say. The varieties of coffee machines
are very numerous and many of them are use-
less incumbrances. At the best, they can not be
regarded as absolutely necessary. The Brazil-
ians insist that coffee pots should on no account
be made of metal, but that porcelain or earthen-
ware is alone permissible. I have been in the
habit of late of having my coffee made in a
common jug provided with a strainer, and I
believe there is nothing better.
706
ALL ABOUT COFFEE
to
Tl m -ri M
H »
0,M >, _
a ci a I
o 6 « (p o
U O « p
e> c a o o
C 0) R
*> ftl ®
e C o> ^ f"
~! o >-( ^ ■
PREPARING THE BEVERAGE
707
4. Warm the jug, put the coffee into it, boil
the water, and pour the boiling water on the
coffee, and the thing is done.
5. Coffee must not be boiled, or at most it
must be allowed just to "come to a boil", as
cook says. If violent ebullition lakes place, the
aroma of the coffee is dissipated, and the
beverage is spoiled.
The most economical way of making coffee is
to put the coft'ee into a jug and pour cold water
upon it. This should be done some hours before
the coffee is wanted — over night, for instance,
if the coffee be required for breakfast. The
light particles of coffee will imbibe the water
and fall to the bottom of the jug in course of
time. When the coffee is to be used stand the
jug in a saucepan of water or a bainmarie and
place the outer vessel over the fire till the
water contained in it boils. The coffee in this
way is gently brought to the boiling point with-
out violent ebullition, and we get the maximum
extract without any loss of aroma.
Always make your coffee strong. Gai6 au lait
is much better if made with one-fourth strong
coffee and three-fourths milk than if made half-
and-lialf with a weaker coffee: this is evident.
It is a mistake to sujDpose that coffee can not
be made without a great deal of costly and
cumbersome apparatus.
The Continent. Rossignon has given us
a general view of coffee making on the con-
tinent of Europe in the middle of the nine-
teenth century. He says:
Formerly small bags of baize were used to
percolate coffee. The water was poured on the
coffee, and when they were new the coffee per-
colated through them was pretty good, but when
they had been used a few times they became
greasy and it was very difficult to clean them
by any means. The greasy baize altered the
quality of the coffee, and in spite of all efforts
to keep it clean the coffee had a tarnished ap-
pearance very disagreeable to the view. Very
few persons use them at present. The apparatus
most in use for the percolation of coffee Is a tin
coffee-pot composed of two parts. The upper
one has a filter or sieve on which the coffee
powder is placed and through which the filtered
coffee must pass. Boiling water is poured on the
coffee. The liquor which percolates falls in the
second part. Then the upper part is removed
and the coffee is ready as a beverage. There
are very many systems of coffee pots. One of
the best is the Russian one. which consists of
a receptacle composed of two parts resembling
two halves of an egg screwed together. One
part contains the hot water and the other the
ground coffee. In the center there is a filter.
Turning the pot upside down the percolation
takes place very slowly and no aroma is lost.
The tin plate which is generally used to make
the coffee pot has many drawbacks. One of
them is the dissolution of iron which takes
place after it has been used for a short time.
The quality of coffee, as a beverage, depends
principally on the degree of heat of the water.
Experience has shown that a medium class of
coffee prepared at a moderate heat gives a very
good liquor, while excellent coffee on which
l)oiling water has been poured did not give a
very good liquor. Therefore, instead of pouring
boiling water at 100° C. in a porcelain or silver
coffeepot, those who desire to make a perfect
coffee must use water heated from 60° to 75°C.
France. Also about the middle of the
nineteenth century the French naturalist,
Du Tour, thus describes one manner of
making coffee in France :
Let the powder be poured into the coffee-pot
filled with boiling water, in the proportion of
two ounces and a half to two pounds, or two
English pints of water. Let the mixture be
The Duparquet StiU's machine
Three Well Known Makes of Labge Cofte Ubns
The Kellum
708
ALL ABOUT COFFEE
stirred with a spoon, and the coffee-pot be soon
talven off tlie fire, but suffered to remain closely
shut, for about at least two hours, on the warm
ashes of a wood fire. During the infusion the
liquor should be several times agitated by a
chocolate frother, or something of the same
kind, and be finally left for about a quarter of
an hour to settle.
Cafe au lait was not made by boiling
coffee and milk together, - as milk was not
proper to extract the coffee ; the coffee was
first made as cafe noir, only stronger; as
much of this coffee was poured in the cup
as was required, and the cup was then filled
up with hoUed milk. Cafe a la creme was
made by adding boiled cream to strong clear
coffee and heating them together.
In France, during the latter part of the
nineteenth century, coffee was roasted over
charcoal fires in earthenware dishes or
saucepans, stirred with a spatula or wooden
spoon, or in small cylinder or globular
roasters of iron. Gas roasting was also
practised. When roasted in large batches,
the beans were cooled in wicker baskets,
tossed into the air. The grinding was pref-
erably done in mortars or in box mills of
pyramid shape with receiving drawers,
and was not too fine.
The usual method of making coffee in
France among the better classes at this time
was by means of improved De Belloy drip
devices, double glass vacuum filters, pump-
ing percolators (double circulation devices),
the Eussian egg-shaped pots, and the
Viennese machines. The last-named were
metal pumping percolators with glass tops,
usually swung between the uprights of a
carry arrangement, the base of which held a
spirit lamp.
Among the numerous French machines
which became well known were: Reparlier's
glass "filter"; Egrot's steam cloth-filter
machine, and Malen's percolator appara-
tus, both designed for barracks and ships,
where previously the coffee had been brewed
in soup kettles; Bouillon Muller's steam
percolator; Laurent's whistling coffee pot, a
steam percolator which announced when
the coffee was ready; Ed. Loysel's rapid
filter, a hydrostatic percolator; and those
pots to which Morize, Lemare, Grandin,
Crepaux, and Gandais gave their names.
In 1892, the French minister of war di-
rected that, in the army roasting and grind-
ing operations, the coffee chaff should no
longer be thrown away, as it had been found
that it was rich in caffein and aroma con-
stituents.
PoPULAB German Drip Pot
Coffee a la minute, which appeared in
France in the nineteenth century, was made
by decoction or infusion through a funnel
pierced with holes and covered inside with
blotting paper, or a woolen strainer cloth.
This system, says Jardin, suggested the
economical coffee pot.
A popular German drip coffee maker of
the late nineteenth century employs a plug
in the spout which provides air pressure to
hold back the infusion until the plug is
removed.
Pierre Joseph Buc'Koz, physician to the
king of Poland, in 1787, made a business of
supplying roasted coffee in small packets,
each sufficient for one cup. He built up
quite a trade until one day he was caught
substituting roasted rye for coffee. This
was the Buc'hoz method of making coffee,
much practised by the lower classes because
he was looked upon as an authority:
Boil the water in a coffee pot. When it boils,
draw it from the fire long enough to add an
ounce of coffee powder to a pound of water.
Stir with a spoon. Return it to the fire and
when it boils move it back somewhat from the
heat and let it simmer for eight minutes.
Clarify with sugar or deer horn powder.
Early Coffee Making in the United States
The coffee drink reached the colonies,
first as a beverage for the well-to-do, about
1668. When introduced to the general
public through the coffee houses about 1700,
it was first sipped from small dishes as in
England; and no one inquired too closely
as to how it was made. When, half a cen-
tury later, it had displaced beer and tea for
breakfast, its correct making became a
matter of polite inquiry. It was not until
I
^Brell into the nineteenth century that there
^Rras any suggestion of scientific interest, and
^^not until within the last decade was any
real chemical analysis of brewed coffee
undertaken with a view to producing a
scientific cup of the beverage.
At first, owing to the great distances, and
difficulties surrounding communications,
between the colonies, news of improvements
in coffee makers and coffee making traveled
slowly, and coffee customs brought from
Europe by the early settlers became habits
that were not easily changed. Some of the
worst have clung on, ignoring the march of
improvement, and seem as firmly entrenched
in suburban and rural communities today as
they were two hundred years ago.
Indeed, despite the fact that the United
States have been the largest consumer of
coffee among the nations for nearly half a
century, it is only within the last ten years
that coffee properly prepared could be ob-
tained outside the principal cities. Even
today, the average consumer is sadly in
need of education in correct coffee brewing.
It would be an excellent idea if all the
coffee propaganda funds could be concen-
trated on a study of this one phase of the
coffee question for several years, and the
recommendations published in such fashion
as firmly to fix in the minds of the rising
generation a knowledge of correct coffee
brewing. The facts of the case are that,
generally speaking, coffee is still prepared
in slovenly fashion in the average American
home. However, with the good work done
in recent years by organized trade effort to
correct this abuse of our national beverage,
signs are plentiful that the time is not far
distant when a lasting reformation in coffee
making will have been accomplished.
In colonial times the coffee drink was
mostly a decoction. Esther Singleton tells
us that in New Amsterdam coffee was
boiled in a copper pot lined with tin and
drunk as hot as possible with sugar or honey
and spices. "Sometimes a pint of fresh
milk was brought to the boiling point and
then as much drawn tincture of coffee was
added, or the coffee was put in cold water
with the milk and both were boiled together
and drunk. Rich people mixed cloves,
cinnamon or sugar with ambergris in the
coffee.""'
Ground cardamom seeds were also used
to flavor the decoction.
PREPARING THE BEVERAGE
709
In the early days of New England, the
whole beans were frequently boiled for
hours with not wholly pleasing results in
forming either food or drink '.
In New Orleans, the ground coffee was
put into a tin or pewter coffee dripper, and
the infusion was made by slowly pouring the
boiling water over it after the French
fashion. The coffee was not considered
good unless it actually stained the cup.
This method still obtains among the old
Creole families.
Boiling coarsely pounded coffee for fifteen
minutes to half an hour was common prac-
tise in the colonies before 1800.
In the early part of the nineteenth cen-
tury, the best practise was to roast the
coffee in an iron cylinder that stood before
the hearth fire. It was either turned by a
handle or wound up like a jack to go by
itself. The grinding was done in a lap or
wall mill ; and among the best known makes
were Kenrick's, Wilson's, Wolf's, John
Luther's, George W. M. Vandegrif t 's, and
Charles Parker's Best Quality.
To make coffee "without boiling" the
cookery books of the period advised the
housewife to obtain "a biggin, the best of
which is what in France is called a
Grecque. ' '
In 1844, the Kitchen Directory mid Amer-
ican Housewife's advice on the subject of
coffee making was the following :
Coffee should be put in an iron pot and dried
near a moderate fire for several hours before
roasting (in pot over hot coals and stirring
constantly). It is sufficiently roasted when
biting one of the lightest colored kernels — if
brittle the whole is done. A coffee roaster is
better than an open pot. Use a tablespoonful
ground to a pint of boiling water. Boil in tin
pot twenty to twenty-five minutes. If boiled
longer it will not taste fresh and lively. Let
stand four or five minutes to settle, pour off
grounds into a coffee pot or urn. Put fish skin
or isinglass size of a nine pence in pot when
put on to boil or else the white and shell of
half an egg to a coaple of quarts of coffee.
French coffee is made in a German filter, the
water is turned on boiling hot and one-third
more coffee is needed than when boiled in the
common way.
In 1856 the Ladies' Home Magazine (now
the Ladies' Home Journal) printed the fol-
lowing, which fairly sums up the coffee
making customs of that period :
Coffee, if you would have its best flavor,
should be roasted at home ; but not in an open
pan, for this permits a large amount of aroma
to escape. The roaster should be a closed sphere
'Dutch New York, 1909 (p. 132).
* Earle. Alice Morse.
New England, 1909.
Cuatoma and Fashions in Old
710
ALL ABOUT COFFEE
or cylinder. The aroma, upon which the good
taste of the coffee depends, is only developed in
the berry by the roasting process, which also
is necessary to diminish its toughness, and fit
it for grinding. While roasting, coffee loses
from fifteen to twenty-flve percent of its weight,
and gains from thirty to fifty percent in bulk.
More depends upon the proper roasting than
upon the quality of the coffee itself. One or
two scorched or burned berries wilj materially
injure the flavor of several cupfuls. Even a
slight overheating diminishes the good taste.
The best mode of roasting, where it is done
at home, is to dry the coffee first, in an open
vessel, until its color is slightly changed. This
allows the moisture to escape. Then cover it
closely and scorch it, keeping up a constant
agitation, so that no portion of a kernel may be
unequally heated. Too low and too slow a heat
dries it up without producing the full aromatic
flavor ; while too great heat dissipates the oily
matter and leaves only bitter charred kernels.
It should be heated so as to acquire a uniform
deep cinnamon color, and an oily appearance,
but never a deep, dark brown color. It then
should be taken from the fire and kept closely
covered until cold, and further until used.
While unroasted coffee improves by age, the
roasted berries will very generally lose their
aroma if not covered very closely. The ground
stuff kept on sale in barrels, or boxes, or in
papers, is not worthy the name of coffee.
Coffee should not be ground until just before
using. If ground over night, it should be
covered ; or, what is quite as well, put into the
boiler and covered with water. The water not
only retains the valuable oil and other aromatic
elements, but also prepares it by soaking for
immediate boiling in the morning.
If the coffee pot (the "Old Dominion", of
course, for in a common boiler this process
would ruin the coffee by wasting the aroma) be
set on the range or stove, or near the fire, so
as to be kept hot all night preparatory to boil-
ing in the morning, the beverage will be found
in the morning, rich, mellow, and of a most
delicious flavor.
Coffee used at supper time should be placed on
or near the fire immediately after dinner and
kept hot or simmering — not boiling — all the
afternoon.
Try this method if you wish coffee in per-
fection.
Wood's improved coffee roaster is acknowl-
edged to be the best article of the kind now in
use.
This patent coffee roaster has been improved
by the introduction of a triangular flange inside
of each of the hemispheres, as seen in the cut.
Tliese flanges, as the roaster is turned, catch
the coffee and throw it from the inner surface,
thus insuring a perfect uniformity in the burn-
ing.
The Woods roaster (1849) and the Old
Dominion Coffee Pot (1856) have been
referred to in chapter XXXIV.
From the Encyclopedia of Practical
Cookery, we learn some more about the
customs prevailing "among the first cooks
in the country" in roasting and making
coffee in the United States about the middle
of the nineteenth century. For example:
Roasting Coffee Beans
Put the beans in the roaster, set this before a
moderate fire, and turn slowly until the Coffee
takes a good brown colour ; for this it should
require about twenty-five minutes. Open the
cover to see when it is done. If l)rowned.
transfer it to an earthen jar, cover it tightly,
and use when needed.
Or a more simple plan, and even more effec-
tual, is to take a tin baking-dish, butter well
the bottom, put the Coffee in it, and set it in a
moderate oven until the beans take a strong
golden colour, twenty minutes suflicing for this.
Toss them frequently with a wooden spoon as
they are cooking.
Another plan is to put in a small frying-pan
1 lb. of raw Coffee-beans and set the pan
on the fire, stirring and shaking occasionally
till the beans are yellow ; then cover the frying-
pan and shake the Coffee about till it is a dark
brown. Move the pan off the fire, keep the cover
on, and when the beans are a little cool, break
an egg over them and stir them until they are
all well coated with the egg. Then store the
Coffee in tins or jars with tight-fitting lids,
and grind it as wanted for use.
Coffee should always be bought in the bean
and ground as required, otherwise it is liable
to extensive adulteration with chicory (or
succory) ; some persons like the addition, but
the epicure who is really fond of Coffee would
not admit of its introduction.
Making Breakfast Coffee.
Allow 1 tablespoonful of Coffee to each person.
The Coffee when ground should be measured,
put into the Coffee-pot, and boiling water poured
over it in the proportion of % pint to each
tablespoonful of Coffee, and the pot put on the
fire ; the instant it boils, take the pot off, un-
cover it, and let it stand a minute or two ; then
cover it again, put it back on the fire, and let it
boil up again. Take it from the fire and let it
stand for five minutes to settle. It is then ready
to pour out.
This work recommended as among the
latest and best devices for coffee making,
all those manufactured or sold in this
country by Adams & Son; the English
coffee biggin; General Hutchinson's coffee
pot and urn, combining De Belloy's and
Rumford's ideas; Le Brun's Cafetiere for
making coffee by distillation and by steam
pressure, passing it directly into the cup:
a Vienna coffee-making machine, and a
Russian coffee reversible pot called the
Potsdam.
Among two score of coffee recipes for
making various kinds of extracts, ices,
candies, cakes, etc., flavored with coffee,
there is a curious one for coffee beer, the
invention of Frenchman named Pluehart.
I* 'The ingredients and quantities in a thous-
and parts are — Strong coffee 300; rum
300 ; syrup thickened with gum Senegal 65 ;
alcoholic extract of orange peel 10; and
water 325."-
"It does not appear to have reached any
important degree of popularity", adds the
editor.
In 1861, Godey's Lady's Book and Maga-
zine noted with approval the growing cus-
tom of hotel and restaurant guests to order
coffee instead of wines or spirits with their
dinners. On the subject of "How to make
a cup of coffee ' ' it had this to say :
Which is the best way of making coffee? In
this particular notions differ. For example, the
Turks do not trouble themselves to take off the
bitterness by sugar, nor do they seek to disguise
the flavor by milk, as is our custom. But they
add to each dish a drop of the essence of amber,
or put a couple of cloves in it. during the
process of preparation. Such flavoring would
not. we opine, agree with western tastes. If a
cup of the very best coffee, prepared in the
highest perfection and boiling hot. be placed on
a table in the middle of a room and suffered to
cool, it will, in cooling, fill the room with its
fragrance; but becoming cold, it will lose much
of its flavor. Being again heated, its taste and
flavor will be still further impaired, and heated
a third time, it will be found vapid and
nauseous. The aroma diffused through the room
proved that the coffee has been deprived of its
most volatile parts, and hence of its agreeable-
ness and virtue. By pouring boiling water on
the coffee, and surrounding the containing vessel
with boiling water, the finer qualities of the
coffee will be preserved.
Boiling coffee in a coffee-pot is neither econ-
omical or judicious, so much of the aroma be-
ing wasted by this method. Count Rumford (no
mean authority) states that one pound of good
Mocha, when roasted and ground, will make
fifty-six cups of the very best coffee, but it
must be ground finely, or the surfaces of the
particles only will be acted upon by the hot
water, and much of the essence will be left in
the grounds.
Ill the East, coffee Lsisaid to arouse, exhilarate,
and keep awake, allaying hunger, and giving to
the weary renewed strength and vigor, while it
imparts a feeling of comfort and repose. The
Arabians, when they take their coffee off the
fire, wrap the vessel in a wet cloth, which fines
the liquor instantly, and makes it cream at the
top. There is one great essential to be observed,
namely, that coffee should not be ground before
it is required for use. as in a powdered state its
finer qualities evaporate.
We pass over the usual modes of making
coffee, as being familiar to every lady who
presides over every household : and content our-
selves with the most modern and approved
Parisian methods, though we may add that a
common recipe for good coffee is — two ounces
of coffee and one quart of water. Filter or boil
ten minutes, and leave to clear ten minutes.
The French make an extremely strong coffee.
PREPARING THE BEVERAGE
711
For breakfast, they drink one-third of the infu-
sion, and two-thirds of hot milk. Tli€ caf4 noir
used after dinner, is the very essence of the
berry. Only a small cup is taken, sweetened
with white sugar or sugar-candy, and sometimes
a little eau de vie is poured over the sugar in a
spoon held above the surface, and set on fire;
or after it. a very small glass of liqueur, called
a chasse-cafe, is immediately drunk. But the
best method, prevalent in France, for making
coffee (and the infusion may be strong or other-
wise as taste may direct) is to take a large
coffee-pot with an upper receptacle made to fit
close into it. the bottom of which is perforated
with small holes, containing in its interior two
movable metal strainers, over the second of
which the powder is to be placed, and imme-
diately under the third. Upon this upper
strainer pour boiling water, and continue to do
so gently; until it bubbles up through the
strainer: then shut the cover of the machine
close down, place it near the fire, and so soon
as the water has drained through the coffee,
repeat the operation until the whole intended
quantity be passed. No finings are required.
Thus all the fragrance of its perfume will be
retained with all the balsamic and stimulating
powers of its essence. This is a true Parisian
mode, and voila! a cup of excellent coffee.
This article is most interesting in that it
shows the revolt against boiling coffee had
started in the United States; also that the
importance of fine grinding was being
recognized and emphasized by the leaders
of the best thought of the nation.
Probably the first scientific inquiry into
the subject of coffee roasting and brewing
in the United States was that detailed by
August T. Dawson and Charles M.
Wetherill, Ph.D., M.D., in the Journal of
the Franklin Institute for July and August,
1855. The following is a digest:
There are two classes of beverages: 1, alco-
holic, and 2, nitrogenized. Nitrogenized foods
are effective to replace the substance of the
different organs of the body wasted away by the
process of vitality. Coffee is one of these.
Besides the tannin, the coffee berry contains
two substances, one the nitrogenized quality,
caffeine, which is about one per cent and is not
altered in roasting, and the other a volatile oil
which is developed in roasting and which gives
the coffee its flavor. Dr. Julius Lehman (Liebig's
Annales LXXXVII. 205) says that coffee retards
the waste tissues of the body and diminishes the
amount of food necessary to preserve life. This
effect is due to the oil. Much of the nutritive
portion of coffee is lost by European methods of
making.
Good coffee is very rare. Tliese experiments
were made to ascertain whether a potable
coffee could not be offered to the public at as
low a price as the raw or roasted now is. In
order to be successful we needed to extract a
larger portion of the nutritive substance than
Is extracted in the household. The experiments
have proved vain.
712
ALL ABOUT COFFEE
As a result of our experiments with diCferent
ways of roasting and brewing coffee, we have
found the following plan to be the most con-
venient and the best: the coffee will taste the
same every time and it will taste good. If a
good berry be properly roasted and the infu-
sion be of the proper strength, good coffee must
result. A Mocha berry should be selected and
roasted seven or eight pounds at a time in a
cylindrical drum. After roasting it should be
placed in a stone jar with a mouth three inches
in diameter. The jar should be closed air-tight.
This will furnish two cups of coffee daily for
six months. A quart should be taken from the
jar at a time and ground. The ground coffee
should be kept in covered glass jars.
The best coffee pot was found to be the com-
mon biggin having an upper compartment with a
perforated bottom upon which to place the
coffee. To make one cup of this infusion, place
half an ounce of ground coffee in the upper
compartment and six fluid ounces of water into
the bottom. Put the biggin over a gas lamp.
After three minutes the water will boil. When
steam appears, take the biggin from the fire and
pour the water into a cup and thence immedi-
ately into the top of the biggin where it will
extract the berry by replacement. (Here fol-
lows an experiment.)
This experiment shows that loss of weight is
no criterion that coffee is properly roasted,
neither is the color (by itself) nor the tempera-
ture, nor the time.
Next we experimented to ascertain whether
the aroma developed by roasting coffee and
which is lost might not be collected and added
to the coffee at pleasure. An attempt was made
to drive the volatile oils from roasted coffee by
steam and make a dried extract of the residual
coffee to which the oils were to be later added.
Two attempts were made and both failed. It
appears that but a small quantity of the aroma
is lost in roasting and that is mixed with bad
smelling vapors from which it is impossible
to free it.
Then we tried to make a potable coffee by
making an aqueous extract of raw coffee,
evaporating to dryness and roasting the residue.
(Here follows the experiment.)
This also was unsuccessful. The great
trouble here is a dark shiny residue, which,
while tasteless, is very disagreeable to look at.
In the preparation of coffee by boiling, two and
a half times as much matter is extracted as by
biggin.
The proper method of roasting coffee is as
follows: It should be placed in a cylinder and
turned constantly over a bright fire. When
white smoke begins to appear, the contents
should be closely watched. Keep testing the
grains. As soon as a grain breaks easily at a
slight blow, at which time the color will be a
light chestnut brown, the coffee is done. Cool
it by lifting some up and dropping it back with
a tin cup. If it be left to cool in a heap there
is great danger of over-roasting. Keep the
coffee only in air-tight vessels. Measure the in-
fusions, a half ounce of coffee to six ounces of
water per cup.
All "extracts of coffee" are worthless. Most of
them are composed of burned sugar, chicory,
carrots, etc.
In 1883, an authority of that day,
Francis B. Thurber, in his book, Coffee;
from Plantation to Cup, which he dedicated
to the railroad restaurant man at Pough-
keepsie, because he served an ''ideal cup of
coffee", came out strongly for the good old
boiling method with eggs, shells included.
This was the Thurber recipe :
Grind ' moderately fine a large cup or small
bowl of coffee ; break into it one egg with shell ;
mix well, adding enough cold water to thor-
oughly wet the grounds ; upon this pour one pint
of boiling water: let it boil slowly for ten to
fifteen minutes, according to the variety of
coffee used and the fineness to which it is ground.
Let it stand three minutes to settle, then pour
through a fine wire-sieve into a warm coffee pot ;
this will make enough for four persons. At
table, first put the sugar into the cup, then fill
half-full of boiling milk, add your coffee, and
you have a delicious beverage that will be a
revelation to many poor mortals who have an
indistinct remembrance of. and an intense long-
ing for. an ideal cup of coffee. If cream can be
procured so much the better, and in that case
boiling water can be added either in the pot or
cup to make up for the space occupied by the
milk as above ; or condejised milk will be found
a good substitute for cream.
In 1886, however, Jabez Burns, who knew
something about the practical making of
the beverage as well as the roasting and
grinding operations, said:
Have boiling water handy. Take a clean dry
pot and put in the ground coffee. Place on fire
to warm pot and coffee. Pour on sufficient boil-
ing water, not more than two-thirds full. As
soon as the water boils add a little cold water
and remove from fire. To extract the greatest
virtue of coffee grind it fine and pour scalding
water over it.
John Cotton Dana, of the Newark Public
Library, says he remembers how in his old
home in Woodstock, Vt., they had always,
in the attic, a big stone jar of green coffee.
This was sacred to the great feast days.
Thanksgiving, Christmas, etc. Just before
those anniversaries, the jar was brought
forward and the proper amount of coffee
was taken out and roasted in a flat sheet-
iron pan on the top of the stove, being
stirred constantly and watched with great
care. "As my memory seems to say that
this was not constantly done," says Mr.
Dana, ''it would seem that, even then, my
father, who kept the general store in the
village, bought roasted coffee in Boston or
New York."
At the close of the century, there were
still many advocates of boiling coffee; but
although the coffee trade was not quite ready
to declare its absolute independence in this
PREPARIXG THE BEVERAGE
713
irection, ^ere were many leaders who
coldly proclaimed their freedom from the
)ld prejudice. Arthur Gray, in his Over
ihe Black Coffee, as late as 1902, quoted
rthe largest coffee importing house in the
Inited States" as advocating the use of
Bggs and egg-shells and boiling the mixture
Per ten minutes.
Latest Developments in Better Coffee
Making
Better coffee making by co-operative trade
effort got its initial stimulus at the 1912
Bonvention of the National Coffee Roasters
Lssociation. As a result of discussions at
that meeting and thereafter, a Better
Coffee IVIaking Committee v/as created for
ivestigation and research.
The coffee trade's declaration of inde-
)endence in the matter of boiled coffee was
made at the 1913 convention of the National
Coffee Roasters Association, when, after
hearing the report of the Better Coffee
Making Committee, presented by Edward
Aborn of New York, it adopted a resolu-
tion saying that the recommendations met
with its approval and ordering that they be
printed and circulated.
The work done by the committee included
"the first chemical analysis of brewed
coffee on record", a study of grindings,
and a comparison of the results of four
brewing methods. Its conclusions and
recommendations were embodied in a book-
let published by the National Coffee
Roasters Association, entitled From Tree to
Cup ivith Coffee, and were as follows :
Roasting
The Roaster or "Cofifee Chef" is the only cook
necessary to a good cup of coffee. He sends it
to the consumer a completely cooked product.
In the roasting process the berries swell up
by the liberation of gases within their sub-
stance. The aromatic oils contained in the cells
are sufficiently developed or "cooked", and made
ready for instantaneous solution with boiling
water, when the cells are thoroughly opened by
grinding.
The roasting principles of different green
coffees vary. Trained study and a nice science
in timing the roast and manipulating the fire is
necessary to a perfect development of aroma
and flavor.
The drinking quality is largely dependent upon
the experienced knowledge of the coffee roaster
and his scientific methods and modern ma-
chinery, by which the coffee is not only roasted,
but cleaned, milled and completely manufactured
to a high point of perfection.
In their National Association work, the whole-
sale roasters are giving the public new facts
and valuable information, from scientific re-
searches, investigations, etc.
Grindixg. The roasted berry is constructed
of fibrous tissues formed into tiny cells visible
only under the microscope, which are the "pack-
ages" wherein are stored the whole value of
coffee, the aromatic oils. Like cutting open an
orange, the grinding of coffee is the opening
of surrounding tissue and pulp, and the finer it
is cut the more easily are the "juices" released.
The fibrous tissue itself is waste material,
yielding, by boiling or too long percolations, a
coflee colored liquid which is fibrous and twangy
in taste, has no aromatic character, and con-
tains undesirable elements.
The true strength and flavor of roasted coffee
is ground out, not boiled out. The finer coffee
is ground, the more thoroughly are the cells
opened, the surfaces multiplied, and the
aromatic oils made ready for separation from
their husks. Hence it follows that:
Coarse ground coffee is unopened coffee —
coffee thrown away.
The finer the grind, the better and greater
the yield. With pulverized coffee (fine as corn
meal) the fully released aromatic oils are
instantaneously soluble with boiling water.
In ground coffee the oils are standing in
"open packages," escaping into the air and
absorbing moisture, etc., necessitating quick
use or confinement in air proof and moisture
proof protection.
Brewing. From scientific researches by the
National Coffee Roasters' Association, includ-
ing the first chemical analysis on record of
brewed coffee, produced by various brewing
methods, the fundamental principles of coffee
making have been clearly established. These
principles are simple, and when once under-
stood equip any person to intelligently judge
the merits and defects of the various coffee
making devices on the market. They constitute
the law of coffee brewing, and may be stated
as follows:
Correct brewing is not "cooking." It is a
process of extraction of the already cooked
aromatic oils from the surrounding fibrous
tissue, which has no drinkable value. Boiling
or stewing cooks in the fibre, which should be
wholly discarded as dregs, and damages the
flavor and purity of the liquid. Boiling coffee
and water together is ruin and waste.
The aromatic oils, constituting the whole
true flavor, are extracted instantly by boiling
water when the cells are thoroughly opened
by fine grinding. The undesirable elements,
being less quickly soluble, are left in the
grounds in a quick contact of water and coffee.
Tlie coarser the grind the less accessible are
the oils to the water, thus the inability to get
out the strength from coffee not finely enough
ground.
Too long contact of water and coffee causes
twang and bitterness, and the finer the grind
the less the contact should be. The infusion,
when brewed, is injured by being boiled or
overheated. It is also damaged by being
chilled, which breaks the fusion of oils and
water. It should be served immediately, or
kept hot, as in a double boiler.
714
ALL ABOUT COFFEE
Tests show that water under the boiling
point, 212°, is inefficient for coffee brewing,
and does not extract the aromatic oils". Used
under this temperature, it is a sure cause of
weak and insipid flavor. The effort to make
up this deficiency by longer contact of coffee
and water, or repeated pouring through, re-
sults in no extraction of the oils, but draws
out undesirable elements, such as coftoe-tannin.
which is soluble in water at any temperature
and is governed by the time of contact.
Coffee-tannin, which is not the commercial
tannic acid, is eliminated to practically noth-
ing in the quick brewing methods.
The chemical analysis of brewed coffee shows
the following:
Coffee Tannin Comparative
per Cup Proportions
Percolator method,^ fine gran. 2.90 grains — ^—
5 minutes' steeping
Boiling Method, medium " 2.35 " '
Steeping Method, " " 2.31 " ^—
Filtration (or Drip) Method J q .^q ..
Pulverized J
Brewing is the final manufacturing process
of coffee. All previous perfection is dependent
upon it. Like food products which lose nutritive
value by bad cooking, coffee loses its best values
by wrong brewing. Brewed by the very simple
correct methods, it is an unfailingly clear,
fragrant, taste-charming beverage, universally
loved and scientifically approved.
The committee made a further report in
1914, and some of the findings were subse-
quently published in an association booklet
called The Coffee Book, used in connection
with the second National Coffee Week cam-
paign in 1915. In it were these :
Grinding Definitions
Powdered
Like — flour
Pulverised
Like — not coarser than
flne corn meal.
Very Fine and Fine
Like — from corn meal to
line granulated sugar.
Medium
Like — coarse granulated
sugar.
Also, the committee emphasized its previ-
ous findings, particularly this one : ' ' Filter
bags should be kept in cold water when not
in use. Drying causes decomposition.
Keeps sweet if kept wet. Use muslin for
filter bag and pulverized granulation."
The association brought out this same
year, on recommendation of the committee,
its Home coffee mill, an "ideal and stand-
ard coffee mill for home use." It was a
wall mill equipped with a glass-front metal
hopper and employing a ratchet spring-lock
nut and double-action grinders. The mill
was later improved with an all-glass hopper
and a tumbler bracket. More than 20,000
of these mills have been sold.
« In 1921, Professor S. C. Prescott, in charge of the
research work for the Joint Coffee Trade Publicity
Committee at the Massachusetts Institute of Tech-
nology, said that a brew made with the water con-
siderably below the boiling point, was preferable.
' Meaning the pumping percolator.
At the suggestion of the author, the
efficiency of nine dift'erent coffee-makinc
devices (including boiling and drip pots,
pumping percolators, cloth and paper
filters) was investigated in the laboratories
of the Mellon Institute of Industrial Re-
search of the University of Pittsburgh in
1915; and Dr. Raymond F. Bacon sub-
mitted a report that showed that the boiling
method produced the highest percentage of
caffetannic acid and caffein ; the French
drip process the lowest. The investigation
disclosed also a more palatable brew at
195° to 200° F. than at the boiling point.
Another notable contribution to the
science of coffee brewing was made by the
Home Economics Laboratories of the Univ-
ersity of Kansas in 1916. The experiments
extended over one year. They showed that
strength and color in coffee brews are in-
dependent of blend and price and are most
fully obtained by pulverized granulation,
which was found to be the most efficient ;
that the consumer pays for flavor and that
filtration yielded the best brew. The French
drip, or true percolator, did not figure in
these experiments.
At the 1915 convention of the National
Coffee Roasters Association, Mr. Aborn re-
ported that 4,000 copies of the committee's
findings on grinding and brewing had been
given away; and the facts were further
circulated in 2,000.000 booklets issued dur-
ing two years. He told of tests which
showed that while there might be reasons
of commercial expediency for packing
ground coffee, it could not be defended as a
quality principle; also that plate-grinders
produced a more efficient drawing granula-
tion than roller grinders, and that the idea
that the steel-cut process eliminates dirt
was an absurdity, as **the finest ground
coffee is not dirt but coffee in its most
efficient drawing condition." He added, ''I
have paid no attention to chaff removal in
these tests as the uselessness of such removal
has been repeatedly shown up." The refer-
ence here was to his 1914 and 1913 reports,
in which it was stated that "removing the
chaff in the steel-cut process does not remove
any of the tannin, and for this purpose the
steel-cut process is wholely futile, and a
wasteful and unnecessary tax upon cost",
and that "the removal of the chaff appre-
ciably affects the flavor and depreciates the
cup value."
This report repeated previous findings
against the pumping percolator as produe-
PREPARING THE BEVERAGE
715
ing an inefficient brew and beinsr a very
faulty utensil. Mr. Aborn concluded Lis
report by saying:
The old time boiling method has fewer and
fewer defenders and holds its own only as a
superstition. I therefore pass it over as a dis-
<?arded issue . . . It is but repetition of
former reports for me to say that pulverized
granulation is the most efficient granulation ;
that it assures the highest quality of brew and
the lowest proportion of coffee to a given
strength ; that it is the most saving and most
satisfying grinding for all to use; that it (the
coffee) must be fresh ground; that the filtration
method is the most correct in fundamental prin-
ciples and that used with a muslin bag it
assures the consumer coffee of the purest, finest
flavored quality, highest health value and sure
economy.
The campaign of education was continued
•during 1916, producing encouraging results
among schools, colleges, the medical fratern-
ity, newspapers, with the trade and the
consumer. It marked the first big construc-
tive work combining the practical and
•scientific phases of grinding and brewing
methods. In his report at the 1916 conven-
tion of the National Coffee Roasters Asso-
ciation. Mr. Aborn reviewed the four j-ears
-work, and pointed out what had been R2-
-complished. He told of a new booklet, to
1)6 called the True Book on Coffee Grinding
and Brewing, and an educational exhibit
"box for schools about to be issued. Due to
opposition which developed from trade in-
terests that were putting out steel-cut and
■other grinds of coffee not favored by the
committee, and also because many members
thought the association should not exploit
any particular method of grinding or brew-
ing, it was decided to make no further
publication of the coffee grinding and brew-
ing conclusions of the committee until they
Tiad been confirmed by laboratory research.
Boiling and filtration tests in the moun-
tains of the Yellowstone Park by W. H.
Aborn in 1916 showed that the limit of
coffee brewing was reached at an altitude
of nine thousand feet.
At the 1916 meeting, Dr. Floyd W.
Hobison of the Detroit Testing Laboratories,
read a notable paper entitled "What do we
know about coffee?," which hailed coffee
as a food product, warned the roasters to
beware of half -facts, and urged the import-
ance of a research laboratory. It was pub-
lished and given distribution by the asso-
ciation.
The educational exhibit box showing
•samples of coffee from plantation to cup,
including five different grinds, was issued
in 1917, and sold for one dollar.
The Better Coffee Making Committee
also published in this year a booklet entitled
Coffee Grinding and Brewing in which it
summarized its work to date, and presented
its special plea for cotton-cloth filters as
the ideal coffee-making device.
This booklet aroused considerable discus-
sion, particularly between those who favored
the paper filter and those who, with Mr.
Aborn, believed cotton cloth, such as muslin,
to be the most efficient strainer. "Cotton",
argued Mr. Aborn, "is an ideal sanitary
strainer because it contains no chemical or
questionable manufacturing element."
It was pointed out by Dr. Floyd W,
Robison that while cotton cloth, such as
muslin, does give a fairly clear coffee, it is
not so clear as by the methods where a filter
paper is used. He said :
Both methods have serious objectionable feat-
ures. Tlie muslin bag, particularly, is decidedly
unsanitary, especially when used in restaurants
and hotels. It is rarely kept clean, and one who
has frequented restaurants and many hotel
kitchens knows that it lends itself to very un-
clean and unsightly methods of handling. The
food inspector has to check this up perhaps as
often as any one feature about a restaurant.
The objection to the filter paper is not at all
on the ground of sanitation. It is ideal in this
respect. The claim is made, and at least, in
part, substantiated, that it does hold back valu-
able features of the brew.
There are many points about the filter that
have not been considered at all. Mr. Calkin be-
lieves that the very best type of filter is a bed of
coffee itself, and I must say this has the sanc-
tion of good laboratory experience.
I. D. Richheimer
cloth filter, said :
attacking the cotton
It is a known fact that the fats in coffee are
very dense and represent twelve to fifteen
percent of the coffee weight. These fats — due
to the simplest chemical action of contact with
air, moisture and continued heat — begin a fer-
mentation in the completed beverage.. In the
cloth-filtering process — due to the rapid passage
of water through grounds almost as quickly as
poured — the largest percentage of fats is car-
ried into the beverage. Fat being lighter than
water rises to the top of water if given a certain
amount of time during the brewing process.
Were there no fats (which ferment) in coffee
there would be no need for placing cloth-filtering
material under water, as suggested, to keep
them from becoming sour.
In the booklet referred to, Mr. Aborn
Trade Jour., 1917 (vol. xxxiii :
• Tea and Coffee
no. 5 : pp. 339-40).
716
ALL ABOUT COFFEE
expressed himself as follows on the filtra-
tion method:
The filtration method is not new, but well
tried, thoroughly proven and long used, though
often incorrectly. It is the method followed,
more or less correctly, by all of the first-class
hotels in the world. It is controlled by no patent
or proprietary device, and requires a most in-
expensive equipment. For a perfect result it
but demands an accurate adherence to simple
but vital principles. Deviations from these
fundamentals, though apparently slight, cause
failure. When they, and the necessary exact
following of them, are clearly understood, any
person, even a small child, can brew cofCee with
unvarying success.
The first point to consider in filtration is the
dimensions of the filter bag, or container of the
ground coffee, in relation to the quantity of
coffee used and the granulation of same. If
the filter be a muslin bag, free on all sides, the
filtering surface is considerable and permits the
necessary quick passage of water through the
grounds, provided the bag is of a wide enough
diameter as to prevent too great a depth of
grounds through which the water cannot quickly
penetrate. The error of too narrow a filter is a
common one. It causes a delayed filtration,
which means undesirably long contact of water
and coffee and also the cooling of the liquid
which in a correct, undelayed filtration is smok-
ing hot at completion. The bag should also not
be too long or be allowed to hang or soak in
the liquid. A filter bag set tightly into a pot
against its sides, thus surrounded with im-
penetrable walls, is greatly reduced in filtering
surface, and the filtration is thereby slackened.
Tlie filter material should not be too coarse in
texture, like cheese cloth, or too heavy and
impenetrable, like very heavy muslin. A
moderate weight muslin, not too light, is effi-
cient.
The degree of granulation also, of course,
affects the rate of flow. The coarser the grind
the faster the flow, which permits a larger
quantity of coffee to a given diameter of filter
bag.
A most frequent fault in the use of the filtra-
tion method is the failure to understand the
fine degree of grinding necessary to the best
results. When the grind is not sufficiently fine
the extraction is, of course, weak. A fine grind
(like fine cornmeal) is essential. It does not
retard the flow if the filter is of right dimen-
sions. A powdered grind (like flour) is so fine
that it is apt to "mat" itself into a resisting
floor.
Many users of the filtration method pour the
liquid through more than once. This gains
some added color, but adds undesirable element,
depreciates flavor and is especially inadvisable
when the grind is sufficiently fine. One pouring
only is recommended for the best results.
The chinaware, or glazed earthenware pot,
sometimes called the French drip pot, with a
chinaware or earthenware sieve container for
the grounds at the top through which the water
is poured, being free of all metal, is inviting in
purity and in hygienic merit. Together with
the filter bag, it is subject to the above remarks
on dimensions. A chinaware sieve cannot be
made as fine as a metal sieve and cannot of
course hold very fine granulation as can cotton
cloth. More coffee for a given strength is,
therefore, required. The upper container should
be wide enough, for a given quantity of coffee,
as to allow an unretarded flow, and the more
openings the strainer contains the better.
In any drip, filtration or percolating method
the stirring of the grounds causes an over-con-
tact of water and coffee and results in an over-
drawn liquor of injured flavor. If the water
does not pass through the grounds readily, the
fault is as above indicated and cannot be cor-
rected by stirring or agitation. Many complaints
of bitter taste are traced to this error in the
use of the filtration method.
It is not necessary to pour on the water in
driblets. The water may be poured slowly, hut
the grounds should be kept well covered. The
weight of the water helps the fiow downward
through the grounds. Care should be taken to
keep up the temperature of the water. Set the
kettle back on the stove when not pouring. If
the water is measured, use a small heated
vessel, which fill and empty quickly without
allowing the water to cool.
In 1917, The Tea and Coffee Trade Jour-
not made a comparative coffee-brewing test
with a regulation coffee pot for boiling, a
pumping percolator, a double glass filtration
device, a cloth-filter device, and a paper
filter device. The cup tests were made by
E. M. Frankel, Ph.D.; and William B.
Harris, coffee expert, United States Depart-
ment of Agriculture. The brews were
judged for color, flavor (palatability,
smoothness), body (richness), and aroma.
The test showed that the paper filtration
device produced the most superior brew.
The cloth-filter, glass-filter, percolator, and
boiling pot followed in the order named.
At the 1917 convention of the National
Coffee Roasters Association, John E. King,
of Detroit, announced that laboratory re-
search which he had had conducted for him
showed that the finer the grind, the greater
the loss of aroma, and so he had selected
a grind containing ninety percent of very
fine coffee and ten percent of a coarser
nature, which seemed to retain the aroma.
He subsequently secured a United States
patent for this grind. Mr. King announced
also at this meeting that his investigations
showed there was more than a strong likeli-
hood that the much-discussed caffetannic
acid did not exist in coffee — that it most
probably was a mixture of chlorogenic and
and coffalic acids.
The World War operated to interfere
with the coffee roasters ' plans for a research
bureau; and in the meantime the Brazil
planters, in 1919, started their million-
^H[- States, co-operating with a joint committee
^H representing the green and roasted coffee
^^^ interests. In the following year (June,
1920), this committee arranged with the
Massachusetts Institute of Technology to
start scientific research work on coffee, the
literature of the roasters' Better Coffee
Making Committee being turned over to it ;
and the Institute began to "test the results
of the committee's work by purely analyti-
cal methods."
The first report on the research work at
the Massachusetts Institute of Technology
was made by Professor S. C. Prescott to
the Joint Coffee Trade Publicity Commit-
tee in April, 1921. The committee gave
out a statement saying that Prof. Prescott 's
report stated that "caffein, the most char-
acteristic principle of coffee, is, in the mod-
erate quantities consumed by the average
coffee drinker, a safe stimulant without
harmful after-effects. ' '
There was no publication of experimental
results ; but the announced findings were, in
the main, a confirmation of the results of
previous workers, particularly of Holling-
worth, with whose statement, that ''caffein,
when taken with food in moderate amount
»is not in the least deleterious," the report
was quoted as being in entire agreement.
At the annual convention of the National
Coffee Roasters Association, November 2,
1921, Professor Prescott made a further
report, in which he stated that investiga-
tions on coffee brewing had disclosed that
coffee made with water between 185° and
200° was to be preferred to coffee made with
the water at actual boiling temperature
(212°), that the chemical action was far
less vigorous, and that the resulting infu-
sion retained all the fine flavors and was
freer from certain bitter or astringent
flavors than that made at the higher tem-
perature. Professor Prescott announced
also that the best materials for coffee-making
utensils were glass (including agate-ware,
vitrified ware, porcelain, etc.), aluminum,
nickel or silver plate, copper, and tin plate,
in the order named*.
The Joint Coffee Trade Publicity Com-
mittee's booklet on Coffee and Coffee Mak-
ing, issued in 1921, was very guarded in its
observations on grinding and brewing. It
avoided all controversial points, but it did
» Tea and Cotfee Trade Jour., 1921 (vol. xli : no. 5 :
p. 688).
PREPARING THE BEVERAGE
717
go so far as to say on the general subject
of brewing :
Chemists have analyzed the cofifee bean and
told us that the only part of it which should go
into our coffee cups for drinking is an aromatic
oil. This aromatic element is extracted most
efficiently only by fresh boiling water. The
practice of soaking the grounds in cold water,
therefore, is to be condemned. It is a mistake
also to let the water and the grounds boil to-
gether after the real coft'ee flavor is once ex-
tracted. This extraction takes place very quick-
ly, especially when the coffee is ground fine.
The coarser the granulation the longer it is
necessary to let the grounds remain in contact
with the boiling water. Remember that flavor,
the only flavor worth having, is extracted by the
short contact of boiling water and coffee grounds
and that after this flavor is extracted, the
coffee grounds become valueless dregs.
The report contained also the following
helpful generalities on coffee service and
the various methods of brewing in more or
less common use in the United States in
1921:
Although the above rules are absolutely funda-
mental to good Coffee Making, their importance
is so little appreciated that in some households
the lifeless grounds from the breakfast Coffee
are left in the pot and resteeped for the next
meal, with the addition of a small quantity of
fresh coffee. Used coffee grounds are of no
more value in coffee making than ashes are in
kindling a fire.
After the coffee is brewed the true cofifee
flavor, now extracted from the bean, should be
guarded carefully. When the brewed liquid is
left on the flre or overheated this flavor is
cooked away and the whole character of the
beverage is changed. It is just as fatal to let
the brew grow cold. If possible, coffee should
be served as soon as it is made. If service is
delayed, it should be kept hot but not over-
heated. For this purpose careful cooks prefer a
double boiler over a slow flre. The cups should
be warmed beforehand, and the same is true
of a serving pot. if one is u.sed. Brewed coffee,
once injured by cooling, cannot be restored by
reheating.
Unsatisfactory results in coffee brewing fre-
quently can be traced to a lack of care in
keeping utensils clean. The fact that the coffee
pot is used only for coffee making is no excuse
for setting it away with a hasty rinse. Coffee
making utensils should be cleansed after each
using with scrupulous care. If a percolator is
used pay special attention to the small tube
through which the hot water rises to spray over
the grounds. Tliis should be scrubbed with the
wire-handled brush that comes for the purpose.
In cleansing drip or fllter bags use cool water.
Hot water "cooks in" the coffee stains. After
the bag is rinsed keep it submerged in cool
water until time to use it again. Never let it
dry. This treatment protects the cloth from the
germs in the air which cause souring. New
fllter bags should be washed before using to
remove the starch or sizing.
718
ALL ABOUT C
FFEE If'^
Drip (ok Filter) Coffee. The principle be-
liind this method is the quiclc contact of water
at full boiling point with coffee ground as fine
as it is practical to use it. The filtering medium
may be of cloth or paper, or perforated china-
ware or metal. The fineness of the grind should
be regulated by the nature of the filtering
medium, the grains being large enough not to
slip through the perforations.
The amount of ground coffee to use may vary
from a heaping teaspoonful to a rounded
tablespoonful for each cup of coffee desired,
depending upon the granulation, the kind of
apparatus used and individual taste. A general
rule is the finer the grind the smaller the
amount of dry coffee required.
The most satisfactory grind for a cloth drip
bag has the consistency of powdered sugar and
shows a slight grit when rubbed between thumb
and finger. Unbleached muslin makes the best
bag for this granulation. For dripping coffee
reduced to a powder, as fine as flour or confec-
tioner's sugar, use a bag of canton flannel with
the fuzzy side in. Powdered coffee, however,
requires careful manipulation and cannot be
recommended for everyday household use.
Put the ground coffee in the bag or sieve.
Bring fresh water to a full boil and pour it
through the coffee at a steady, gradual rate of
flow. If a cloth drip bag is used, with a very
finely ground coffee, one pouring should be
enough. No special pot or device is necessary.
The liquid coffee may be dripped into any handy
vessel or directly into the cups. Dripping into
the coffee cups, however, is not to be recom-
mended unless the dripper is moved from cup to
cup so that no one cup will get more than its
share of the first flow, which is the strongest
and best.
The brew is complete when it drips from the
grounds, and further cooking or "heating up"
injures the quality. Therefore, since it is not
necessary to put the brew over the fire, it is
possible to make use of the hygienic advantages
of a glassware, porcelain or earthenware serv-
ing pot.
Boiled (or Steeped) Coffee. For boiling (or
steeping) use a medium grind. The recipe is a
rounded tablespoonful for each cup of coffee
desired or — as some cooks prefer to remember
it — a tablespoonful for each cup and "one for
the pot." Put the dry coffee in the pot and pour
over it fresh water briskly boiling. Steep for
five minutes or longer, according to taste, over
a low fire. Settle with a dash of cold water or
strain through muslin or cheesecloth and serve
at once.
Percolated Coffee. Use a rounded tablespoon-
ful of medium fine ground coffee to each cupful
of water. The water may be poured into the
percolator cold or at the boiling point. In the
latter case, percolation begins at once. Let the
water percolate over the grounds for five or ten
minutes depending upon the intensity of the
heat and the flavor desired.
In response to a request by the author,
Charles W. Trigg has contributed the fol-
lowing discussion of coffee making :
Various Aspects of Scientific Coffee Brewing
Before converting it into the beverage form,
coffee must be carefully selected and blended,
and skillfully roasted, in order thus far to
assure obtaining a maximum efficiency of re-
sults. No matter how accurately alf this be
done, improper brewing of the roasted bean will
nullify the previous efforts and spoil the drink ;
for roasted coffee is a delicate material, very
susceptible to deterioration and of doubtful
worth as the source of a beverage unless prop-
erly handled.
There probably never was produced a drink
which so fits into the exacting desires of the
human appetite as does coffee. Properly pre-
pared, it is a delightful beverage ; but incor-
rectly made, it becomes an imposition upon the
palates of mankind. Sensitive though coffee is
to improper manipulation, the best procedure
for brewing it is also the easiest. Cheap coffee
well made excels good coffee poorly made.
Constituent Concepts. The roasting of green
coffee causes an alteration in the constitution
of its constituents, with the result that some
of the compounds present therein which were
originally water-soluble are rendered insoluble,
and some which were insoluble are converted
into soluble ones. A portion of the original
caffein content is lost by sublimation. Tlie
aromatic conglomerate, caffeol, is formed, and a
considerable quantity of gas is produced, a por-
tion of which, developing pressure in the cells
of the beans, pops, or swells, them so as to
increase the size of each individual bean. The
constitutents which are water-soluble after the
torrefaction may be generally classified as heavy
extractives and light aromatic materials. The
percentages and nature of these materials in
the roasted coffee will vary with the type of
coffee and with the roast whicli it is given. In
general, and in particular for puit>oses of com-
parison of methods of brewing, they may— be
considered to be the same and to occur in about
the same proportions in all coffees.
The heavy extractives are caffein. mineral
matter, proteins, caramel and sugars, "caffe-
tannic acid", and various organic materials of
uncertain composition. Some fat will also be
found in the average coffee brew, being present
not by virtue of being water soluble, but be-
cause it has been melted from the bean by the
hot water and carried along with the solution.
The caffein furnishes the stimulation for
which coffee is generally consumed. It has only
a slightly bitter taste, and because of the rela-
tively small percentage in which it is present in
a cup of coffee,, does not contribute to the cup
value. The mineral matter, together with cer-
tain decomposition and hydrolysis products of
crude fiber and chlorogenic acid, contribute to-
ward the astringency or bitterness of the cup.
The proteins are present in such small quantity
that their only role is to raise somewhat the
almost negligible food value "of a coffee infusion.
The body, or what might be called the licorice-
like character of coffee, is due to the presence
of bodies of a glucosidic nature and to caramel.
As has been previously pointed out ". the term
"caffetannic acid" is a misnomer : for the sub-
" See chapter XVII.
PREPARING THE BEVERAGE
719
Section of Roasted Bean Magnified 1,000 Times
stances which are called by this name are in all
probability mainly coffalic and chlorogenic acids.
Neither is a true tannin, and they evince but
few of the characteristic reactions of tanmc
acid. Some neutral coffees will show as high a
"caffetannic acid" content as other acid-charac-
tered ones. Careful work by Warmer " showed
the actual acidities of some East Indian coffees
to vary from 0.013 to 0.033 per cent. These
figures may be taken as reliable examples of the
true acid content of coffee, and though they
seem very low, it is not at all incomprehensible
rliat the acids which they indicate produce the
.icidity in a cup of coffee. They probably are
mainly volatile organic acids together with other
acidic-natured products of roasting.
We know that very small quantities of acid
are readily detected in fruit juices and beer, and
that variation in their percentages is quickly
noticed, while the neutralization of this small
amount of acidity leaves an insipid drink. Hence
it seems quite likely that this small acid content
gives to the coffee brew its essential acidity.
A few minor experiments on neutralization
have proven the production of a very insipid
beverage by thus treating a coffee infusion. Sd
rhat the acidity of certain coffees most appar-
I'litly should be attributed to such compounds,
i-iithor than to the misnamed "caffetannic acid."
The light aromatic materials, and the other
substances which are steam-distillable, i. e..
which are driven off when coffee is concentrated
I)y l)oiIing. are the main determining factors in
flie individuality of coffees. These compounds,
which are collectively called "caflfeol". vary
ureatly in the percentages present in different
i)fl"ees, and thus are largely responsible for our
ability to distinguish coffees in the cup. It is
these compounds which supply the pleasingly
aromatic and appetizing odor to coffee.
All of these compounds, with the possible ex-
ception of the proteins, are easily soluble in
both hot and cold water. The fact that a clear
" Pharm. WeelcM. voor Nederl, No. 13, 1899.
Apoth. Ztg., 1899 (p. 14).
coffee extract made with hot water does not
show any precipitate immediately upon cooling,
proves that cold water will give as complete an
extraction as hot water. However, speed of
extraction is materially increased with rise In
temperature, due to the fact that the rate and
degree of solubility of the substances in water,
and the diffusion of the water tJirough the cell
walls of the coffee, are accelerated. Also, the
resistance which the fat content of the bean
offers to the wetting of the coffee, and the per-
sistency of the "enfleurage" action of the fat in
i-etaining the caffeol. are less with hot than with
cold water. Accordingly, the speed of extrac-
tion is increased by using hot water, and the
efficiency of extraction procured per unit time
of subjection to water is higher.
Prolonged contact of coffee with water results
in the hydrolysis of some of the insoluble ma-
terials and subsequent extraction of the sub-
stances thus formed. The rate of hydrolysis
also increases with temperature ; and as these
compounds are of an astringent or bitter nature,
the solution obtained upon boiling coffee is nat-
urally possessed of a flavor unpleasant to the
palate of the connoisseur. Boiling of the coffee
infusion after it has been removed from the
grounds also has a deleterious effect, as the local
overheating of the solution at the point of ap-
plication of the heat results in a decomposi-
tion, particularly if the solution be converted
into steam at this point, leaving a thin film of
solids temporarily exposed to the destructive
action of the heat. Some of the more delicate
constituents are unfavorably affected by such
treatment, and undergo hydrolysis and oxida-
tion. The products thus formed are thrown into
relief in the flavor by the loss of the aromatic
properties through steam distillation which is
incidental to boiling.
It is a well known fact that re-warming a
coffee brew has a unfavorable effect upon it.
This is probably due in part to a precipitation of
some of the water-soluble proteins upon stand-
ing, and their subsequent decomposition when
heat is applied directly to them in reheating
the solution. The absorption of air by the solu-
tion upon cooling, with attendant oxidation,
which is accentuated by the application of heat
in re-warming, must also be considered, as well
as the other effects of boiling as set forth, and
the action of the materials of which the coffee
pot is constructed upon the solution.
Physical Conception. The coffee bean is com-
posed of a large number of cells which function
as natural containers and retainers of coffee
fat and of the aromatic flavoring substances. In
order to render the soluble solids fully access-
ible, the resistance which these cells offer to the
extracting water must be overcome by grinding
so as to break open all of them. In this manner
a grind is obtained which will give a maximum
removal of the heavy extractives. But when all
of the cells are broken, great opportunity is
offered for the escape of the caffeol. which is
further enhanced by the slight heating which
usually accompanies .such fine grinding. So
much caffeol escapes that even our most expert
cup-testers would exi)erience difficulty in identi-
fying powdered coffees in a blind test. What
720
ALL ABOUT COFFEE
cup-testers, in fact, use powdered coflfees for
makiug their cup selections?
Consider powdered coffee, compared with
freshly ground coffee of a coarser grind. Neither
the former nor its brew possesses the amount of
characteristic flavor or aroma, attributable to
cafteol, evidenced by the latter. 3'he explana-
tion of this is that the finer the grind, the more
readily accessible are the soluble constituents
of the coffee to the extracting water. Caffeol,
however, in addition to being water-soluble, is
extremely fugacious, so that when the grinding
is carried to such a fineness that every cell is
broken, the greater part of the caffeol volatilizes
before the water comes into contact with it. It
is therefore highly desirable that a grind be
used wherein all of the cells are not broken, but
a grind that is sufficiently fine to permit efficient
extraction. In the light of this knowledge, the
grind advocated by King" seems to be logical,
for with it — though neither a maximum of the
non-volatile extractives nor a maximum of
caffeol is obtained — an all-round maximum of
cup quality is procured.
The escape, upon grinding, of these volatile
aromatic and flavoring constituents which lend
individuality to coffees, makes it essential that
the roasted beans be ground immediately prior
to extraction.
Different Methods of Extraction. The meth-
ods employed for preparing the coffee drink
may be classified under the general headings of
boiling, steeping, percolation, and filtration.
True percolation is the simple process known
by the trade as filtration ; but in this classifica-
tion, the term indicates the style of extraction
exemplified by the pumping percolator.
Boiled coffee is usually cloudy, due to the sus-
pension of fine particles resulting from the dis-
integration of the grounds by the violence of
boiling. The usual procedure in clarifying the
decoction is to add the white of an egg or some
egg-shells, the albumen of which is coagulated
"Tea and Coffee Trade Jour., 1917 (vol. xxxiii : pp.
552-55).
Cross-section of Roasted Coffee Bean Magni-
fied 600 Times
Coarse Grind Under the Microscope
upon the fine particles by the heat of the solu-
tion, and the particles thus weighted sink to
the bottom. Even this procedure, requiring
much attention, does not give as clear a solution
as some of the other extraction procedures em-
ployed. The conditions to which coffee is sub-
jected during boiling are the worst possible, as
both grounds and solution undergo hydrolysis,
oxidation, and "" local-overheating, while the
caffeol is steam-distilled from the brew. Many
persons, who have long been accustomed to
drinking the relatively bitter beverage thus
produced, are not satisfied by coffee made in any
other way ; but this is purely a perversion oif
taste, for none of the properties are present
which make coffee so prized by the epicure.
Steeping, in which cold water is added to the
coffee, and the mixture brought up to a boil,
does not subject the coffee to so strenuous con-
ditions. Local overheating and hydrolysis occur,
but not to so great an extent as in boiling ; and
most of the effects of oxidation and volatiza-
tion of caffeol are absent. However, extraction
is rather incomplete, due to lack of thorough
admixture of the water and coffee.
When coffee is to be made under the best
conditions, the temperature of the water used
and of the extract after it is made should not
fluctuate. In the pumping percolator, as in the
steeping method, the temperature varies greatly
from the time the extraction is started to the
completion of the operation. This is deleterious.
Also, local overheating of the infusion occurs at
the point of application of the heat : and because
of the manner in which the water is brought
into contact with the coffee, the degree of
extraction shows inefficiency. Spraying of the
water over the coffee never permits tiie grounds
to be completely covered with water at any one
time, and the opportunity offered for channeling
is excessive. The principle of thorough extrac-
tion demands that, as the substance being ex-
tracted becomes progressively more exhausted,
fresh solvent should be brought into contact
with it. In the pumping percolator the solution
I
PREPARING THE BEVERAGE
721
Medium Grind Undeb the Microscope
pumped over the grounds becomes more concen-
trated as the grounds become exhausted ; so
that the time taken to reach the degree of ex-
traction desired is longer, and an appreciable
amount of relatively concentrated liquor is re-
tained by the grounds.
The simplest procedure to follow is that in
which boiling water is poured over ground coffee
suspended on a filtering medium in such a man-
ner that the extracting water will slowly pass
through the coffee and be received in a con-
taining vessel, which obviates further contact
of the beverage with the grounds. The water
as it comes into contact with the ground coffee
extracts the soluble material, and the solution
is removed by gravity. Fresh water takes its
place ; so that, if the filter medium be of the
proper fineness, the water flows through at the
correct rate of speed, and complete extraction is
effected with the production of a clear solution.
Thus a maximum extraction of desirable mate-
rials is obtained in a short time with a minimum
of hydrolysis, oxidation, and loss of caffeol;
and if the infusion be consumed at once, or kept
warm in a contrivance embodying the double-
boiler principle, the effects of local overheating
are avoided. Also, with the use of an appropri-
ate filter, a finer grind of coffee can be used
than in the other devices, without obtaining a
turbid brew. All this works toward the produc-
tion of a desirable drink.
There are several devices on the market,
some using paper, and some cloth, as a filter,
which operate on this principle and give very
good coffee. The use of paper presents the
advantage of using a new and clean filter for
each brew, whereas the cloth must be carefully
kept immersed in water between brews to
prevent its fouling.
Contrivances operating on the filtration prin-
ciple have been designed for use on a large
scale in conjunction with coffee urns, and have
proven quite successful in causing all of the
water to go slowly through the coffee without
channeling, thus accomplishing practically com-
plete extraction. The majority of urns are still
operated with bags, of which the ones with sides
of heavier material than the bottom obtain the
most satisfactory results, as the majority of the
water must pass through the coffee instead of out
through the sides of the bag. Greatest efllciency,
when bags are used, is obtained by repouring
until all of the liquid has passed twice
through the coffee; further repouring extracts
too much of the astringent hydrolysis products.
The bags, when not iu use, should not be allowed
to dry but should be kept in a jar of cold water.
The urns provided with water jackets keep the
brew at almost a constant temperature and
avoid the deterioration incident to temperature
fluctuation.
Composition op Beews. The real tests of the
comparative values of different methods of
brewing are the flavor and palatibility of the
drink, in conjunction with the number of cups
of a given strength which are produced, or the
relative strengths of brews of the same number
of cups volume. Chemical analysis has not yet
been developed to a stage where the results
obtained with it are valuably indicative. Caffeol
is present in quantities so small that no com-
parative results can be obtained. "Caffetannic
acid" determinations are practically meaning-
less. This compound is of so doubtful a com-
position and physiological action, and the meth-
ods employed for its determination are so indefi-
nite as to interpretation, as to render valueless
any attempts at comparison of relative per-
centages. The only accurate analysis which can
be made is that for caffein.
Much advertising emphasis has been placed
on the small amount of caffein extracted by some
devices. What is one of the main reasons for
the consumption of coffee? The caffein con-
tained therein, of course. So that if one device
extracts less caffein than another, that fact
alone is nothing in favor of the former. If the
consumer does not want caffein in his drink
there are caffein-free coffees on the market.
The coffee liquor acts on metals in such a
manner as to lower the quality of the drink, so
Fine-Meal Grind Under the Mickoscope
722
ALL ABOUT COFFEE
that metals of any sort, and by all means, irons,
should be avoided as far as possible. Instead,
earthenware or glass, preferably a good grade
of the former, should be employed as far as
possible in the construction of coffee-making
devices.
Of the various metals, silver, aluminum,
monel metal, and tin (in the order named) are
least attacked by coffee infusions ; and besides
these, nickel, copper, and well enameled iron
(absolutely free from pin holes) may be used
without much danger of contamination. Rings
for coffee-urn bags should be made of tinned
copper, monel metal, or aluminum. Even if
coffee be made in metal contrivances, the recept-
acles in which it stands should be made of
earthenware or of glass.
Painstaking care should be given to the
preservation of the coffee-makers in a state of
cleanliness, as upon this depends the value of the
brew. Dirt, fine grounds, and fat (which will
turn rancid quickly) should not be allowed to
collect on the sides, bottom, or in angles of the
device difficult of access. Nor should any
source of metallic or exterior contamination be
allowed to go uneliminated.
The Perfect Cup of Coffee
Lovers of coffee in the United States are
in a better position to obtain an ideal cup
of the beverage than those in any other
country. While imports of green coffee
are not so carefully guarded as tea imports,
there is a large measure of government
inspection designed to protect the consumer
against impurities, and the Department of
Agriculture is zealous in applying the pure
food laws to insure against misbranding
and substitution. The department has de-
fined coffee as "a beverage resulting from
a water infusion of roasted coffee and noth-
ing else."
Today no reputable merchant would think
of selling even loose coffee for other than
what it is. And the consumer can feel that,
in the case of package coffee, the label tells
the truth about the contents.
With a hundred different kinds of coffee
coming to this market from nineteen coun-
tries, so many combinations are possible,
that there is sure to be a straight coffee or
a hlend to suit any taste. And those who
may have been frightened into the belief
that coffee is not for them should do a little
experimenting before exposing themselves
to the dangers of the coffee-substitute habit.
Once upon a time it was thought that Java
and Mocha were the only worth-while blend,
but now we know that a Bogota coffee from
Colombia, and a Bourbon Santos from
Brazil, make a most satisfying drink. And
if the individual seeker should happen to
be a caffein-sensitive, there are coffees so
low in caffein content, like some Porto
Ricans, as to overcome this objection ; while
there are other coffees from which the
caffein has been removed by a special treat-
ment. There is no reason why any person
who is fond of coffee should forego its use.
Paraphrasing Makaroff, Be modest, be kind,
eat less, and think more, live to serve, work
and play and laugh and love — it is enough !
Do this and you may drink coffee without
danger to your immortal soul.
If you are accustomed to buying loose
coffee, have your dealer do a little experi-
mental blending for you until you find a
coffee to suit your palate. Some expert
blends are to be found among the leading
package brands. But you really can not do
better than to trust your case to a first-class
grocer of known reputation. He will guide
you right if he knows his business; and if
he doesn't, then he doesn't know his busi-
ness— try elsewhere. Test him out along
this line:
Let us reason together, Mr. Grocer. Let
us consider these facts about coffee: green
coffee improves with age? Granted. As
soon as it is roasted, it begins to bse in
flavor and aroma? Certainly. Grinding
hastens the deterioration? Of course.
Therefore, it is better to buy a small quan-
tity of freshly roasted coffee in the bean
and grind it at the time of purchase or at
home just before using? Absolutely!
If your grocer re-acts in this fashion, he
need only supply you with a quality coffee
at fair price and you need only to make it
properly to obtain the utmost of coffee
satisfaction.
Some connoisseurs still cling to the good
old two-thirds Java and one-third Mocha
blend, but the author has for years found
great pleasure in a blend composed of half
Medellin Bogota, one-quarter Mandheling
' ' Java ", and one-quarter Mocha. However,
this blend might not appeal to another's
taste, and the component parts are not
always easy to get. The retail cost (1922)
is about fifty cents.
Another pleasing blend is composed of
Bogota, washed Maracaibo, and Santos,
equal parts. This should retail from thirty
to thirty-five cents. Good drinking coffees
are to be had for prices ranging from twen-
ty-five to thirty cents. In the stores of one
of the large chain systems an excellent blend
composed of sixty percent Bourbon Santos,
PREPARING THE BEVERAGE
728
and forty percent Bogota is to be had
(1922) for 29 cents. All these figures
apply, of course, to normal times.
If you are epicurean, you will want to
read up on, and to try, the fancy Mexicans,
Cobans, Sumatra growths, Meridas, and
some from the "Kona side" of Hawaii.
In preparing the perfect cup of coffee,
then, the coffee must be of good grade, and
freshly roasted. It should, if possible, be
ground just before using. The author has
found a fine grind, about the consistency of
fine granulated sugar, the most satisfactory.
For general home use, a device that employs
filter paper or filter cloth is best; for the
epicure an improved porcelain French
percolator (drip pot) or an improved cloth
filter will yield the utmost of coffee's de-
lights. Drink it black, sweetened or un-
sweetened, with or without cream or hot
milk, as your fancy dictates.
It should be remembered that to make
good coffee no special pot or device is neces-
sary. Good coffee can be made with any
china vessel and a piece of muslin. But to
make it in perfection pains must be taken
with every step in the process from roaster
to cup.
Hollihgworth " points out that through
taste alone it is impossible to distinguish
between quinine and coffee, or between
apple and onion. There is something more
to coffee than its caffein stimulus, its ac-
tion on the taste-buds of the tongue and
mouth. The sense of smell and the sense
of sight play important roles. To get all
the joy there is in a cup of coffee, it must
look good and smell good, before one can
pronounce its taste good. It must woo us
through the nostrils with the wonderful
aroma that constitutes much of the lure of
coffee.
And that is why, in the preparation of the
beverage, the greatest possible care should
be observed to preserve the aroma until the
moment of its psychological release. This
can only be done by having it appear at the
same instant that the delicate flavor is ex-
tracted— roasting and grinding the bean
much in advance of the actual making of
the beverage will defeat this object. Boiling
the extraction will perfume the house; but
the lost fragrance will never return to the
dead liquid called coffee, when served from
the pot Avhence it was permitted to escape.
" Hollingworth, H. L. and Poflfenherger, A. T., Jr.
The Sense of Taste, 1917 (p. 13).
To recapitulate, with an added word on
service, the correct way to make coffee is as
follows :
1. Buy a good grade of freshly roasted
coffee from a responsible dealer.
2. Grind it very fine, and at home, just
before using.
3. Allow a rounded tablespoonful for
each beverage cup.
4. Make it in a French drip pot or in
some filtration device where freshly boiling
water is poured through the grind but once.
A piece of muslin and any china receptacle
make an economical filter.
5. Avoid pumping percolators, or anj^
device for heating water and forcing it re-
peatedly through the grounds. Never boil
coffee.
6. Keep the beverage hot and serve it
"black" with sugar and hot milk, or cream,
or both.
Some Coffee Recipes
"When Mrs. Ida C. Bailey Allen prepared
a booklet of recipes for the Joint Coffee
Trade Publicity Committee, she introduced
them with the following remarks on the use
of coffee as a flavoring agent :
Although coffee is our national beverage,
comparatively few cooks realize its possibilities
as a flavoring agent. Coffee combines delicious-
ly with a great variety of food dishes and is
especially adapted to desserts, sauces and
sweets. Tlius used it appeals particularly to
men and to all who like a full-bodied pro-
nounced flavor.
For flavoring purposes coffee should be pre-
pared just as carefully as when it is intended for
a beverage. The best results are obtained by
using freshly made coffee, but when, for reasons
of economy, it is desirable to utilize a surplus
remaining from the meal-time brew, care should
be taken not to let it stand on the grounds and
become bitter.
When introducing made coffee into a recipe
calling for other liquid, decrease this liquid in
proportion to the amoiuit of coft'ee that has .been
added. When using it in a cake or in cookies,
instead of milk, a tablespoonful less to the cup
should be allowed, as coffee does not have the
same thickening properties.
In some cases, better results are gained if the
coffee is introduced into the dish by scalding or
cooking the right proportion of ground coffee
with the liquid which is to form the base. By
this means the full coffee flavor is obtained, yet
the richness of the finished product is not im-
paired by the introduction of water, as would
be the case were the infused coffee used. This
method is advisable especially for various
desserts which have milk as a foundation, as
those of the custard variety and certain types
of Bavarian Creams. Ice Cream, and the like.
The right proportion of ground coffee, which is
724
ALL ABOUT COFFEE
generally a tablespoonful to the cup, should be
combined with the cold milk or cream in the
double-boiler top and should then be scalded
over hot water, when the mixture should be put
through a very fine strainer or cheese cloth, to
remove all grounds.
Coffee can be used as a flavoring in almost
any dessert or confection where a flavoring
agent is employed.
On iced coffee and the use of coffee in
summer beverages in general, Mrs. Allen
writes as follows :
Iced Coffee. This is not only a delicious
summer drink, but it also furnishes a mild
stimulation that is particularly grateful on
a wilting hot day. It may be combined with
fruit juices and other ingredients in a variety
of cooling beverages which are less sugary and
cloying than the average warm weather drink
and for that reason it is generally popular with
men.
Coffee that is to be served cold should be
made somewhat stronger than usual. Brew it
according to your favorite method and chill
before adding sugar and cream. If cracked
ice is added make sure the coffee is strong
enough to compensate for the resulting dilu-
tion. Mixing the ingredients in a shaker pro-
duces a smoother beverage topped with an
appetizing foam.
It is a convenience, however, to have on
hand a concentrated syrup, from which any
kind of coffee-flavored drink may be concocted
on short notice and without the necessity of
lighting the stove. Coffee left over from meals
may be used for the same purpose, but it
should be kept in a covered glass or china
dish and not allowed to stand too long. A
coffee syrup made after the following recipe
will keep indefinitely and may be used as a
basis for many delicious iced drinks :
Coffee Sybup. Two quarts of very strong
coffee; 3% pounds sugar. The coffee should
be very strong, as the syrup will be largely
diluted. The proportion of a pound of coffee
to one and three-fourths quarts of water will
be found satisfactory. This may be made by
any favorite method, cleared and strained, then
combined with the sugar, brought to boiling
point, and boiled for two or three minutes.
It should be canned while boiling, in sterilized
bottles. Fill them to overfiowing and seal as
for grape juice or for any other canned
beverage.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
739
EsTUDio del cafeto. Anales del Institute medico
nacional, 1897, 111:139-144.
Falsificatiox du cafe. Annales d'Hygi^ne, 1864,
2. ser. XXII: 487-443.
Fricke, E. Neuere Kaffeeverfalschung. Zeitschrift
fiir Medizinalbeamte, 1889, 11:178.
GiHARDiN, J. Rapports sur un cafe avarie par
I'eau de mer et sur poudre destinee a remplacer
le cafe. Annales d'Hygiene, 1834, XI: 87-103.
Griebel, C. and Bergmaxn, E. Ueber eine neue
Kaffeeverfalschung. Zeitschrift fur Unter-
.suchung der Nahrungs- und Genussmittel, 1911,
XXI: 481 -484.
Harnack, E. Ueber die besonderen Eigenarten
des Kaffeegetrankes und das Thurmsche Ver-
fahren zur Kaffeereinigung und verbesserung.
Miinchener medizinische Woehenschrift, 1911*
LVIII: 1868-1872.
Harris, William B. Green and roast coffees, the
adulteration and misbranding thereof. Ameri-
can Grocer, 1913, Nov. 19, pp. 19-20.
Hesse, P. Ueber eine Kaffeefarbe. Zeitschrift fiir
Untersuchung der Nahrungs- und Genussmittel,
1911 XXI: 220.
Jammes, L. Le cafe torrefie, en grains, factice.
Revue d'Hygiene, 1890, XII : 1044-1050.
Mocha coffee. Scientific American, 1903,
LXXXIX: 81.
MuNiTA, V. Apuntes acerca de las adulteraciones
del cafe y medios para reconocerlas. La Gaceta
de Sanidad militar, 1883, IX: 286, 394.
XoTTBOHM, F. E. and Koch, E. Arsenhaltige
Kaffeeglasierungsmittel. Zeitschrift fiir Unter-
suchung der Nahrungs- und Genussmittel, 1911,
XXI: 288-290.
Ottolenghi, D. Sopra una frequente sofisticazione
del caffe in polyere. Atti della reale Accademia
dei Fisiocritici di Siena, 1903, 4. ser. XV: 381-389.
Parecer do commissao encarregada pela Sociedade
pharmaceutica lusitana de investigar se uma de-
terminada especie de cafe e prejudicial d saude
18.5. Also, Correio medica de Lisboa, 1874, III:
136, 147.
Ratjmer, E. vox. Beobachtungen iiber Kaffeeglas-
uren seit dem Inkrafttreten der Kaffeesteuer.
Zeitschrift fiir Untersuchung der Nahrungs-
und Genussmittel, 1911, XXI: 102-109.
Reiss, F. Ueber eine mechanische Verfalschung der
Kaffeesahne. Zeitschrift fiir Untersuchung der
Nahrungs- und Genussmittel, 1906, XI: 391-398.
SocciANTi, L. Caffe adulterafo con sostanze nocive.
Rivista d'Igiene e Sanita pubblica, 1895, VI:
497-499.
SoRMANi. Di un nuova falsificazione del caff^.
Giornale della reale Societa italiana d'Igiene,
1882, IV: 401.
Spencer, G. L. and Ewelt., E. E. Tea, coffee, and
cocoa preparations. U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.
Division of Chemistry. Bulletin, XIII, pt. 7.
Various "coffees." I>ancet, 1915, 11:1006.
VoGEL VON Ferheim, A. Zur Frage der Zulassig-
keit der Verwendung der sagenannten tauben
Oder Strohfeigen bei der Feigen Kaffeefabrika-
tiort. Oesterreichische Sanitatswesen, 1903, XV:
101-102.
fiECHMANN, F. Coffee and its adulterations,
school of Mines Quarterly, 1897-8, I: 8-15.
BOARD OF HEALTH REGULATIONS
bHNEiDER. Der Kaffee, als Gegenstand der medi-
fcinischen Polizei. Zeitschrift fiir die Staats-
i arzneikunde, 1829, IV: 303-327.
ScHiJTZE. Kaffee, Thee und Chocolade, als
Nahrungsmittel und in sanitats-polizeilicher
Hinsicht. Viertel jahrsschrift fiir gerichtliche
Medizin und offentliches Sanitatswesen, 1860,
XVII: 168-228.
Weitenweber, W. R. Medicinisch-poliseiliche
Bemerkungen iiber den Caffee. Medicinische
Jahribiicher des kaiserl. konigl. osterreichischen
Staates, 1848, LXVI: 42, 161.
BOTANICAL DESCRIPTION
CoFFEA stenophylla. Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew,
Bull, of Misc. Information, 1898:27.
Cook, Orator Fuller. Dimorphic branches in
tropical crop plants: cotton, coffee, cacao, the
Central American rubber tree, and the banana.
Washington, 1911. 64 pp. (U. S. Plant Industry
Bureau. Bulletin, 198.)
Dafert, Franz W. Mittheilung aus dem Land-
wirthschaftsinstitut des Staates Sao Faulo,
Brasilien. Der Nahrstoff des Kaffeebaumes.
Landw. Jahrb. 1894, XXIII :27-45.
Douglas, James. Lilium sarniense: or, a descrip-
tion of the Guernsay-lilly. To which is added
the botanical dissection of the coffee berry. Lon-
don, 1725. 59 pp.
LaRoque, Jean. Voyage de I'arabie heureuse,
par rOcean Oriental, & le d^troitde la Mer Rouge.
Fait par les Francois dans les annees 1708, 1709
and 1710. Avec la relation d'un voyage fait du
port de Moka a la cour du roy d'Yemen dans
la 2. Expedition des annees 1711, 1712 and 1713.
Un memoire concernant I'arbre et le fruit du
cafe. Paris, 1716. 403 pp. Also in English,
London, 1726.
La Roque. Gruendliche und sichere Nachricht
vom Cafee- und Cafee-Baum. Leipzig, 1717.
Liberian coffee. Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew,
Bull, of Misc. Information, 1895:296-299.
McClelland, T. B. The botany of coffee. Tea
and Coffee Trade Journal, 1912, XXII: 28-35,
Mariana, J. Les cafeiers; structure anatomique
de la feuille. Paris, 1908.
Natural caftein-free coffee. Tea and Coffee Trade
Journal, 1912, XXIII: 230-233.
Natural history of coffee, thee, chocolate, to-
bacco with a tract of elder and juniper berries.
London, 1682.
A New hybrid Ceylon coffee. Tea and Coffee
Trade Journal, 1916, XXX; 232-283.
S1.0ANE, Sir Hans. On the Bird the Cuntur of
Peru and on the Coffee Shrub. London. 1694.
WiLDEMAN, K. DE. Notcs sur quclqucs especes du
genre Coffea I-. Cong. Internat. d. botanique.
Actes, 1900, 1 : 221-238.
CHEMISTRY
Analysis, General
Allen, A. H. Commercial organic analysis. Loti-
don, 1892. (v. 3 pt. 2 contains a chapter on
vegetable alkaloids, including coffee.)
Andalori, Andre. II cafe descritto ed esaminato.
Messine, 1702.
Boussingault, J. B. J. D. Sur les inatieres sucr^es
contenues dans le fruit du cafeier. .\nn. Inst.
Nat. Agron., 1878-79, IV: 1-4.
Caffe di Gihasole: analisi chemiche, consigli ag-
ronomic!, etc. Padova, 1881.
Cofit:e and chicory. Science readers and dia-
grams. Ser. 6, no. 3.
Galeano, Joseph. II caffe, con piu diligenza esa-
minato. Palerme, 1674.
740
ALL ABOUT COFFEE
Griebel, C. Ueber den Kaffeegerbstoff. Munchen,
1903.
KoNiG, J. Chemie der menschlichen Nahrungs-
und Genussmittel. 4th ed. Berlin, 1904. See
V.2, index for KaflPee, Koife'in.
Locke, Edwin A. Food values. New York, 1911.
CoiFee analysed p. 54.
Ltthgoe, Hermann Charles. Report on tea and
coffee. Washington, 1905.
Marchand, N. L. Recherches organographiques et
organogdniques sur le Coffea arabica L. Paris,
1864.
Sestixi, J. II cafFe; lettura fatta nell' institutio
tecnico di Fochi. Firenze, 1868.
Standards of purity for food products. Tea, cof-
fee and cocoa products. U. S. Dept. of Agricul-
ture. Office of the Secretary. Circ. 19, p. 16.
Thorpe, Edward. Dictionary of applied chemistry.
London and New York, 1912. See pp. 97-103.
Wanklyn, James Alfred. Tea, coffee, and cocoa:
a practical treatise on the analysis of tea, coffee,
cocoa, chocolate, mat6 (Paraguay tea). Lonr-
don, 1874. 59 pp.
Warnier, W. L. a. Bijerage tot de kennis der
koffie, mededeeling uit het laboratorium van het
Kolonial museum te Haarlem. Amsterdam, 1899.
23 pp.
Weyrich, R. Ein Beitrag zur Chemie des Thees
und Kaffees. Dorpat, 1872.
Wiley, H. W. Coffee and tea. In his, 1001 Tests
of food, beverages and toilet accessories, pp.
10-18.
WiNTON, Andrew L. The piicroscopy of coffee.
In his. Microscopy of vegetable foods. New
York, 1916. 2 ed. pp. 427-438. Reprinted. Tea
and Coffee Trade Journal, XXI: 22-28.
Periodicals
Allen, A. H. Note on the examination of coffee.
Analyst, 1880, V:l-4.
Batj, a. The determination of oxalic acid in tea,
coffee, marmalade, vegetables and bread. Z.
Nahr. Genussm, 1920, 40: 50-66.
Bertrand, Gabriel. Sur la composition chimique
du caf6 de la Grande Comore. Comptes rendus
de I'Acad^mie des Sciences, 1901, CXXXII: 162-
164.
BiNz, C. Beitrage zur Kenntniss der Kaffee-
bestandtheile. Archiv fiir experimentelle Pa-
thologic und Pharmakologie, 1878, IX: 31-51.
BoTSCH, K. Zur Kenntniss der Saligeninderivate.
Monatshefte fiir Chemie (Sitzungs berichte der
Kaiserlichen Akademie der Wissenschaften)
1880, 1:621-623.
Canada (Dominion). Inland Revenue Depart-
ment Laboratory. Coffee: results of analvsis.
Ottawa, 1888. Bulletin, 3. 8 pp.; 1891, Bulletin,
-29. 19 pp.; 1892, Bulletin 31. 13 pp.
—Ground coffee: results of analysis. Ottawa, 1904,
Bulletin, 100. 7 pp.; 1909, Bulletin, 172. 37
pp.; 1910, Bulletin, 216. 22 pp.
Cazeneuve, p. and Haddon. Sur I'acide cafe-
tannique. Comptes rendus de I'Acad^mie des
Sciences, 1897, CXXI V : 1458-1460.
Chabaux, Charles. Sur I'acide chlorogenique.
Frequence et recherche de cet acide dans les
v^g6taux. Extraction de I'acide caf^ique et ren-
dement en I'acide cafdique de quelques plantes.
Journal de Pharmacie et de Chemie, 1900, 7. ser,
II : 292-298.
The Chemistry of a cup of coffee. Lancet, 1913,
II, no. 2: 1.563-1565. Reviewed In, Journal of
Economics, 1914, VI: 466-467; Literary Digest,
1914, XLVIII: 376-377.
Doolittle, R. E. and Wright, B. B. Some effects
of storage on coffee. American Journal of
Pharmacy, 1915, LXXXVII: 624-526.
Eiirlich, J. Coffee in the laboratory. Tea and
Coffee Trade Journal, 1916, XXX: 569^70.
Erni, H. The chemico-physiological relations of
tea, coffee and alcohol. Nashville Monthly Rec-
ord of Medical and Physical Science, 1858-9,
1:641-656.
Frankel, E. M. Coffee by-products. Tea and
Coffee Trade Journal, 1917, XXXIII: 43-i4.
— Coffee identification. The Tea and Coffee Trade
Journal, 1916, XXXI :158 159.
Frankel, F. Hulton. Calories in a cup of coffee.
Tea and Coffee Trade Journal, 1916, XXXI: 446-
447.
Geiser, M. Welche Bestandteile des Kaffees sind
die Trager der erregenden Wirkung? Archiv
fiir experimentelle Pathologic und Pharma-
kologie, 1905, LIII: 112-136.
GoRTER, K. Beitrage zur Kenntniss des Kaffees.
Annalen der Chemie, 1907, CCCLVIII: 327-348;
1908, CCCLIX: 217-244; 1910, CCCLXXII: 237-
246. Also, East Indies, Dutch. Dept. van Land-
bouw. Bulletins, 14, 33.
Graf, L. Ueber Bestandtheile der Kaffeesauen.
Zeitschrift fiir angewandete Chemie, 1901, pp.
1077-1082.
— Ueber den Zusammenhang von Coff6ingehalt und
Qualitat bei chinesischem Thee. Forschungs-
Berichte uber Lebensmittel, 1897, IV: 88.
GuiGuES, P. Note sur I'origine du caf6. Bulletin
des Sciences pharmacologiques, 1903, VII : 350-
357.
Hanausek, T. F. Bemerkung zu dem Aufsatz von
F. Netolitzky: Ueber das Vorkommen von
Krystallsandzellen im Kaffee. Zeitschrift fiir
Untersuchung der Nahrungs- und Genussmittel,
1911, XXI: 295.
— Die Entwickelungsgeschichte der Frucht und des
Samens von Coffea arabica L. Zietschrift fiir
Nahrungsmittel Untersuchung und Hygiene,
1890, IV: 237-257.
Harris, William B. Scientific study' of coffee.
Tea and Coffee Trade Journal, 1915, XXIX: 557-
658.
Hehner, O. An analysis of coffee leaves. Analyst,
1879, IV: 84.
Howard, C. D. Report on tea and coffee. U. S.
Chemistry Bureau. Bulletin, 1907, CV: 41-45.
Husson, C. £tude sur le cafe, le the, et les
chicories. Annales de Chimie et de Physique,
1879, 5. ser. XVI: 419-427.
Jaffa, M. E. Report on tea and coffee, 1910, with
list of references. U. S. Chemistry Bureau. Bul-
letin, 1911, CXXXVII: 105-108.
Lancet special analytical sanitary commission on
the composition and value of coffee extracts,
The. Lancet, 1894, II: 43-45.
Lepper, H. a. Report on coffee. Journal of tlie
Association of Official Agricultural chemists,
1920, 4:211-216.
Levesie, O. Beitrage zur Chemie des Kaffees.
Archiv der Pharmacie, 1876^ 3 ser. VIII: 294-
298.
Liebig, J. von. Chemistry of a cup of coffee. Every
Saturday, I: 135.
LooMis, H. M. Report on tea and coffee. Journal
of the Association of Official Agricultural
Chemist, 1920, 3:498-503.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
741
|Mason, G. and Savtni E. Experiments with coffee.
Staz. sper, agrar. ital., 1918, 51:413-4.
[azza, C. Suir esame batteriologico della polvere
che si trova negli spacci di caffe,, con speciale
riguardo al bacillo della tubercolosi. Rivista
d'Igiene e Sanita pubblica, 1897, ¥111:8-20.
'aladino, Pietro. Sopra un nuovo alcaloide con-
tenuto nel caif^. Gazette Chimica Italiana,
XXV: 104-110. Summarized in, Beilstein's
Organische Chemie, 1897, 111:888.
'AnET, S. A. Quelques r^sultats obtenus par
I'emploi du valerianate de caf^ine (th^se). Paris,
1874.
:'AYEN, finouARD. Memoirc sur le cafe. Comptes
vendus de I'Academie des Sciences, 1846, XXII:
724^732 5 XXIII: 8-15, 144-251.
[Pratt, David S. The microscopy of tea and cof-
fee. Tea and Coffee Trade Journal, 1915, XXIX:
419-421.
[Prescott, a. Chemistry of tea and coffee. Popular
Science Monthly, XX: 359.
jRoBiQUET, VON, and Boutrox. Ueber den Kafifee.
Annalen der Chemie, 1837, XXIII: 93-95.
loBisoN, Floyd W. What do we know about cof-
fee? Tea and Coffee Trade Journal, 1916,
XXXI: 656-562.
[Sayre, L. E. a pharmacologist on coffee. Tea
and Coffee Trade Journal, 1917, XXXII: 521-
527.
-Coffee, its standardization and application to
pharmacy. Merck's Report, 1907, XVI: 61-63.
Some new facts about coffee. The Tea and Coffee
Trade Journal, 1918, XXXV:436-437.
|Street, John Phillips. About hygienic coffees.
Tea and Coffee Trade Journal, 1916, XXXI:
52-54.
-Hvgienic coffee analyses. Tea and Coffee Trade
Journal, 1917, XXXIII: 42-43.
-Recent coffee analyses. Modern Hospital, 1916:
330-332. Reprinted in Tea and Coffee Trade
Journal. XXX: 570-572.
Tatlock, R. R. and Thomson, R. T. The analysis
and composition of coffee, chicory, and coffee
and chicory "essences." Journal of the Society
of Chemical Industries, 1910, XXIX: 138-140.
Trigg, Charles W. Caffetannic acid a bugaboo.
Tea and Coffee Trade Journal, 1917, XXXIII:
437-439.
—Coffee oil and fats. The Tea and Coffee Trade
Journal, 1918, XXXV: 230-231.
—Coffee carbohydrates. The Tea and Coffee
Trade Journal, 1919, XXXVI :246-247.
TusiNi, F. Sul riconoscimento delle varie specie di
grani di caffe, mediante la misurazione delle
cellule del reticolo albuminoideo e dello sper-
moderma. Archivio di Farmacologia speri-
mentale e Science alfini, 1903, II: 215-217.
Vautier, E. The wastes of coffee. Mitt. Lebensm.
Hyg., 1921, 12:35-37.
Van der Wolk, P. C. New researches into some
statistics of Coffea. Zeitschrift fiir induktive
Abstammungs- und Vererbungslehre, 1914, XI:
355-369,
Vlaanderen, C. L. and Mulder, G. J. Sauren des
Kaffee's. Jahresbericht der Chemie, 1868:261-
264.
Parkier, W. L. A. Contributions k la connaissance
du caf6. Recueil de Travaux chimiques du Pays-
Bas de la Belgique, 1899, 2. ser. 111:851-357.
'^iLLCox, O. W. Coffee aroma secret out. Tea and
Coffee Trade Journal, 1913, XXV: 343-344,
—Tannin in coffee. Tea and Coffee Trade Journal,
1913, XXV: 485.
WiLLCox, O. W. and Rentschi.er, M. J. Scientific
analysis of coffee. Tea and Coffee Trade Jour-
nal. 1910. XIX: 440-443; 1911, XX: 30-34, 109-
111, 194-195, 355-356.
Woodman, A. G. Report on tea, coffee, and cocoa
products, 1909. U. S. Chemistry Bureau. Bul-
letin, 1910, CXXXI I: 134^136.
Caffein
Clautriatj, G. Nature et signification des alca-
loides v^g^taux. Paris, 190?:113.
Dragendorff, Georg. Caffein und Theobromin. In
his, Die gerichtlich- chemische Ermittelung von
Giften, pp. 202-206.
Fendler, G, and STtJBER, W. Coffeinbestimmungen
im Kaffee. Zeitschrift fiir Untersuchung der
Nahrungs- und Genussmittel, 1914, XXVIII:
9-20.
Fischer, Emil. Ueber das Caffein. Berichte der
deutschen chemischen Gesellschaft, 1882, XV,
no. 5:29-37.
Frankel, E. M. Caffeine and theine. Tea and
Coffee Trade Journal, 1916, XXXI: 260.
French, J. M. Caffein, its sources and uses.
Merck's Archives, 1907, IX: 208.
JoBST, Carl. Thein identisch mit Caffein. Annalen
der Chemie, 1838, XXV: 63-66.
Langlois, p. Kola et cafeine. La Science Illus-
tree, July, 1890.
Lendrich, K. and Nottbohm, E. Verfahren zur
Bestimmung des Coffeins im Kaffee. Zeitschrift
fiir Untersuchung der Nahrungs- and Genus-
smittel, 1909, XVI: 241-265.
Paul, B. H. and Cownley, A. J. The amount of
caffeine in various kinds of coffee. Pharmaceu-
tical Journal, 1887, 3 ser. XVII: 565.
Pfaff, C. H. Ueber die Darstellung des Coffeins,
liber dessen charakteristische Eigenschaften und
dessen Mischung, iiber zwei Sauren im Kaffee,
so wie uber das sogenannte Kaffee-Griin. Neues
Jahrbuch der Chemie und Phvsik, 1831, 1:487-
503; 11:31-45.
Polstorff, Karl. Ueber das A'orkommen von
Betainen und von Cholin in Kaffein und Theo-
bromin enthaltenden Drogen. Chemisches Zen-
tralblatt, 1909, 5 ser. XIII: 2014-2015.
Stehle, R. L. Caffeine, the alkaloid. Tea and
Coffee Trade Journal, 1917, XXXTI: 46-47.
Sullivan, A. ly. Determination of caffein in cof-
fee, a comparison of the Hilger and Fricke
method with a modification of the Gomberg
method. Science, 1909, XXX: 255.
WiLLCox, O. W. Coffee and caffein. Tea and Cof-
fee Trade Journal, 1913, XXIV: 460-461.
Caffein-Free Coffee
Rabenhorst, W. and Varges, J. Koffeinfreier Kaf-
fee; enthalt der kaffeinfreie Kaffee fremde
chemische Bestandteile, insbesondere Ammoniak,
Benzol, Salzsaure, Schwefelsaure? Medizinische
Klinik, 1908, IV: 1612.
Salant, William, and Rieger, J. B. Elimination
of caffein: an experimental study of herbivora
and carnivora. U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.
Chemistry Bureau. Bulletin, CLVII.
Trigg, Charles W. About caffein-free coffee.
Tea and Coffee Trade Journal, 1918, XXXIV:
233.
Wlllcox, O. W. "Caffein-free'' coffee. Tea and
Coffee Trade Journal, 1911, XX: 116.
742
ALL ABOUT COFFEE
Caffeol
Bernheimer, Oscar. Zur Kenntniss der Rostpro-
ducte des Caffees. Monatshefte fiir Chemie (Sit-
zungsberichte der Kaiserlichen Akademie der
Wissenschaften) 1880, I: 456-457.
Bertrand, G. and Weisweiller, G. Sur la com-
position de I'essence de cafe; presence de la
pyridine. Comptes rendus de I'Acad^mie des
riciences, 1913, CLVII: 212-213. Also, Bulletin
des Sciences pharmacologiques, 1905, XII: 152.
Erdmakk, Ernst. Ueber das Kaffeol und die
Physlologische Wirkung des darin enthaltenen
Furfuralkohols. Archiv fUr experimentelle
Pathologic und Pharmakologie, 1902, XLVIII:
233-261. Also, Berichte der deutschen chemischen
Gesellschaft, 1902, XXXV: 1846.
— Beitrag zur kenntniss der kaffeeoles und des
darin enthaltenen furfuralkohols. Halle, 1902:46.
Grafe, V. Untersuchung iiber die Herkunft des
Kaffeols. Anzeizer der Kaiserlichen Akademie
der Wissenschaften, 1912, XLIX : 267-268.
Jaekle, H. Studien iiber die Produkte der Kaf-
feerostung ein Beitrage zur Kenntniss des sogen-
annte Kaffeearomas (Caffeol.) Zeitschrift fiir
Untersuchung der Nahrungs- und Genussmittel,
1898, 457-472.
Orlowski, a. Kilka slor o kawie palonej. (Ex-
tract of Coffee). Gazeta Lekarska, Warsaw,
1870, IX: 385-387.
The Caffeol in roasted coffee. Tea and Coffee
Trade Journal, 1913, XXIV: 241.
Trigg, Charles W. The aroma of coffee. Tea and
Coffee Trade Journal, 1918, XXXV: 87-39.
Greek Coffee
BiTTo, Bela von. Ueber die chemische Zusammen-
setzung der inneren Fruchtschale der Kaffee-
frucht. Jour. Landw. 111:93-95.
Herfeldt, E. and Stutzer, A. Untersuchungen
iiber den Gehalt der Kaffeebohnen an Fett,
■ Zucker und Kaffeegerbsaure. Zeitschrift fUr
angewandte Chemie, 1895, 469-471.
Meyer, H. and Eckert, A. Ueber das fette 01
und das Wachs der Kaffeebohnen. Summarized
in, Anzeiger der Kaiserlichen Akademie der
Wissenschaften, 1910, XLVII:320.
RocHLEDER, F. Notiz iibcr die Kaffeebohnen. An-
nalen der Chemie, 1844, L: 244-234; 1846, LIX:
300-310; 1852, I.XXXII: 194.
Trigg, Charles W. Aging green coffee. Tea and
CofiPee Trade Journal, 1920, XXXIX :440.
ZwENGER, C. and Siebert, S. Ueber das Vorkom-
men der Chinasaure in den Kaffeebohnen. An-
nalen der Chemie, 1861, 1 sup. pp. 77-85.
Roasted Coffee
BuRMANsr, J. Recherches chimiques et physiolo-
giques sur les principes nocifs du cafe torrefie.
Bulletin, general de Therapeutique, 1913,
CLXVI: 379-400;
Ehrlich, J. In a cup of coffee. A consideration
of the constituents of the roasted bean and of
the sugar, milk or cream that goes with it. Tea
and Coffee Trade Journal, 1916, XXX: 547-549.
Goblet, L. Analyses comparees d'un cafe torrefie
, par des procedes differents. Association Beige
des Chimistes. Bulletin, 1899, XIII: 172-173.
Gould, R. A. The gases evolved from roasted cof-
fee, their composition and origin. Eighth Inter-
national Congress of Applied Chemistry. Re-
port, 1912, XXVI: 389.
Lekdrich, K. and Nottbohn, E. Ueber den Cof-
feingehalt des Kaffees und den Coffeinverlust
beim Rosten des Kaffees. Zeitschrift fiir Unter-
suchung der Nahrungs- und Genussmittel, 1509,
XVII I: 299-308.
Lythgoe, H. Chemical analyses of a few varieties
of roasted coffee. Technology Quarterly, 1905,
XVII: 236-239.
MoNARi, A. and Scocciaxti, L. La pyridine dans
les produits de la torr6faction du caf6. Congrfes
international d'Hygiene et de Ddmographie.
Comptes rendus, 1894, VIII: pt. 4, 211. Also,
Archives italiennes de Biologic, 1895, XXIII:
68-70; Chemisches Zentralblatt, 1895, 1:750.
Trigg, Charles W. Coffee roasting. Tea and Coffee
Trade Journal, 1919, XXXVII: 170-172.
— Gases from roasted coffee. Tea and Coffee
Trade Journal, 1920, XXXIX: 318.
CHICORY
Backer, P. La culture du witloof. Thielt, 1912:22.
— De teelt van witloof. Thielt, 1911:23.
BoRUTTAU, H. Die physlologische Wirkung des
Absudes der gebrannten Zichorie. Medizinische
Klinik, 1907, III: 644-647.
Fries, M. Praktische Anleitung zum Kaffee
Cichorienbau. Stuttgart, 1886.
Kaiks, M. G. Chicory growing. Washington,
1900:12.
— Chicory growing as an addition to the resources
of the American farmer. Washington, 1898:52.
Schmiedeberg, Oswald. Historische und experi-
mentelle Untersuchungen fiber die Zichorie und
den Zichorienkaffee in diatetischer und gesund-
heitlicher Beziehung. Archiv fiir Hygiene, 1912,
LXXVI: 210-244.
Weismann, R. Ueber den schadlicben Einfluss
von Zichorienaufguss. Aerztliche Rundschau,
1908, XVIII: 183.
Zellner, H. Zichorie. Centralblatt fiir allgemeine
Gesundheitspflege, 1908, XXVII: 32-39.
Chicory in Coffee
CAtm:T. Sur I'examen et I'analyse des echantillons
de cafe-chicoree et de cafe moulu saisis chez
divers marchands de Constantine. Annales
d'Hygiene, 1873, XI: 302-317.
Chevallier, a. Notice historique et chronologique
sur les substances qui ont 6te proposees comme
succedanees du cafe et sur le cafe-chicor^e en
particulier. Moniteur d'Hopitaux, 1853, I: 1129,
1161, 1171, 1185, 1193, 1217.
Clouet, J. Du cafe-chicoree; empoisonnement de
quatre personnes par I'usage de cette denree.
Mouvement medicale, 1875, XIII: 505.
Forsey, C. B. The new coffee and chicory regu-
lations. Analyst, 1882, VII: 159.
GuiLLOT, Camille. La chicoree et divers produits
de substitution du cafe. Lons-le-Saumer, 1911.
352 pp.
Lawall, C. H. and Formax L. The detection of
chicory in decoctions of chicory and coffee.
Journal of the American Pharmaceutical Asso-
ciation, 1914, 111:1669.
Leebody, J. R. Estimation of chicory in coffee.
Chemical News, 1874, XXX: 243.
Morik. Quelques reflexions sur un des moyens em-
ployes pour determiner la presence du cafe
chicoree dans le cafe normal. Rouen, 1863. 5
pp. (Extrait des Memoires de I'Academie de
Caen.)
On the adulteration of chicory and coffee. Lancet,
1861, 11:18.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
743
COFFEE HOUSES
Brewster, H. Pomeroy. The coffee houses and
tea gardens of old London. Rochester, 1888.
Cafes de Paris par un flaneur patents. 1849.
Coffee public house, The. How to establish and
manage it. London, 1878. 34 pp.
Coffee stalls and taverns: hints on coffee stall
management. London, 1886. 40 pp.
CoLMAN, George, and Thohxtok, B. Survey of
the town. . . . Garraway's, Batson's St. Paul's,
and the Chapter coffee houses. In their, The
Connoisseur. Oxford. 1757, 1:1-10.
Dafert, F. W. Erfahrungen iiber rationellen Kaf-
feebau. Berlin, 1896. 36 pp. 2nd ed., 1899. 60 pp.
Delvau. Histoire anecdotique des caf^s et caba-
rets de Paris. 1861.
Hawes, C. W. Handbook to coffee taverns. Ux-
bridge, 1888. 17 pp.
Macaulay, T. B. (Coffee houses in the 17th and
18th centuries.) In his. History of England.
1:334-336.
Michel, Francisqtte, et Fournier, finouARD. His-
toire des hotelleries, cabarets et cafes. 1854.
REro, Thomas Wilson, ed. Traits and stories of
Ye Olde Cheshire Cheese. London, 1886. 183 pp.
RoBiKSON, Edward Forbes. Early history of coffee
houses in England. London, 1893. 240 pp.
Shelley, Charles Hexry. Inns and taverns of
old London. Boston, 1909. 366 pp.
—Old Paris. Boston, 1912.
Timbs, J. Clubs and club life in London, with
anecdotes of its famous coffee houses, hostelries
and taverns. London, 1866. 2v. 2nd ed., 1872. Iv.
544 pp.
Periodicals
Andrews, A. Coffee houses and their clubs in the
18th century. Colburn's New Monthly Magazine,
CVI:107.
Bethel Christian Mission, Providence. Annual
report. . . . constitution, by-laws, etc.
Buss, George. Kaffee und Kaffeehauser. Wes-
terman's Monatshefte, Sept. 1908: 805-821.
Coffee house movement. Chambers' Journal,
LVI:143.
Coffee house news. London Magazine, XX:563.
Coffee houses of old London The Tea and Cof-
fee Trade Journal, 1918, XXXV :1 16-125.
Coffee Houses of old New York. The Tea and
Coffee Trade Journal, 1920, XXXVIII :160-174.
Coffee Houses of old Philadelphia. The Tea and
Coffee Trade Journal, 1920, XXXVIII: 308-312.
Coffee houses of the Restoration. Tait, n. s.
XXII :104; Ecclesiastical Magazine, XXIV :500.
Coffee palaces. All-the-Year, LII:520.
Early Parisian coffee houses. The Tea and Coffee
Trade Journal, 1918, XXXV :526-534.
Fox, S. Coffee club movement in California.
Arena, XXXII:519.
Graham, R. Coffee houses as a counter action to
the saloon. Charities Review, 1:215.
Hall, E. H. Coffee taverns. Leisure Hour,
XXVIII :301.
Hill, E. Coffee and coffee houses. Gentleman's
Magazine, n. s. LXXI:47.
Holland and the cafe Krasnapolsky at Amster-
dam. Idler, 1899, XVI:31-39.
Hope, Lady. Coffee rooms for the people. Good
Words, XXI: 749, 844.
Howerth, I. W. Coffee house as a rival of the sa-
loon. American Magazine of Civics. VI: 589.
Humphreys, J. Coffee houses. St. James Maga-
zine, XLIII: 598.
Jarvis, a. W. Old London coffee houses. English
Illustrated Magazine, 1900, XXIII: 107-114.
Page, H. A. Coffee palaces. Good Words, XVIII:
678.
Rodenberg, J. Die kaffeehaeuser und clubs von
London. Unsere Zeitung, 1866, 11:177-265.
ScHMiTT, E, Volkskuechen und speiseanstalten
fuer arbeiter; Volkskaffeehaeuser. Handbook
der Architek, 4 theil, IV:116.
SiKEs, W. English coffee palaces. Lippincott's
Magazine, XXIV :728.
Some old London coffee houses. Cornhill Maga-
zine, LVI:527.
Stevens, J. A. Coffee houses of old New York.
Harper's Magazine, LXIV:481,
Sweetser, Arthur Lawrence. The coffee house
plan. Gunton's Magazine, 1901, XXI: 239-245.
Thomas, C. Edgar. Some London coffee houses.
Home Counties Magazine, 1911, XIII: 1-9, 91-
100.
Wagner, H. Shankstaetten und speisewirtschaften;
Kaffeehaeuser und restaurants. Handbook der
Architek, 4 theil, IV:116 pp.
CULTURE AND PREPARATION
General
American Coffee Growers' Association, Coffee
growing by proxy. New York, 1895. 30 pp.
Arnold, Edwin Lester Linden, Coffee: its cul-
tivation and profit. London, 1886. 270 pp.
BoERY, Pascal. Les plantes oleagineuses et leurs
produits; cacao, caf6. . . . Paris, 1888.
BouHGOiN d'Orli, P, H, F, Guide pratique de la
culture du caf^ier et du cacaoyer suivi de la
fabrication du chocolat. Paris, 1876.
Brougier, a. Der Kaft'ee, dessen Kultur und
Handel. 1897.
Brown, Alexander. The coffee planter's manual,
with which is added a variety of information use-
ful to planters, including the manuring of coffee
estates. Colombo, 1880. 246 pp.
Browne, D. J. On the cultivation of coffee.
Washington, 1859. 12 pp.
Burlamaqui, Frederico Leopoi-do Cesar. Mono-
graphia do cafeeiro e do cafe. jRio de Janeiro,
1860. 62 pp.
Camouilly. La plantation du caf6, en Nouvelie
Caledonia. Paris, 1899.
CiviNNi, G. D. Delle storiae naturae del caffe.
Firenze, 1731.
Cook, Orator Fuller. Shade in coffee culture.
Washington, 1901. 79 pp.
CuEVAS, Hilario. Estudio prdctico sobre el cultivo
del cafe. Mexico, 1895. 50 pp.
CuNHO, Agostino Rodriguez. De I'art de la culture
du caf6 et de sa propagation, Rio de Janeiro,
1844.
d'Orli, P. H, F. Bourgoin, Culture du cafe, etc.
Paris, 1874.
Fauchere, a. Culture pratique du caf^ier et pre-
paration du cafe. Paris, 1908. 198 pp.
Ferguson, John, The coffee planter's manual for
both the Arabian and Liberian species, Colombo,
1898. 312 pp.
Fuchs, M. Die geographische Verbreitung des
Kaffeebaume. Leipzig, 1886, 72 pp.
Garvens, Wilhelm. Kaffee: Kultur, Handel und
Bereitung im Produktionslande. 2 ed, Hannover,
1913, 45 pp.
744
ALL ABOUT COFFEE
Great Britain. Parliament, House of Commons.
First report from the Select committee on sugar
and coflfee planting, London, 1848 :8v.
—Supplement to the report. London, 1848. 198 pp.
Hanson, R. Culture and commerce of coflPee.
London, 1877.
Herrera, Rafael. Estudio sobre la producci6n del
cafe. Mexico, 1893. 141 pp.
Huntington, L. M. Origin of oily coffee beans.
The Tea and Coffee Trade Journal, 1917,
XXXIII: 228.
International Bureau of the American Repub-
lics, Washington, D. C. Coffee in America.
Methods of production and facilities for success-
ful cultivation in Mexico, the Central American
states, Brazil and other South American coun-
tries, and the West Indies. 1893. 36 pp.
Jacotot, a. La culture du cafe, son avenir dans
les colonies francaises. Parii, 1910. 191 pp.
Jimenez Nunez, Enrique. Medios prdctios para
evitar que las mieles de cafe infecten las aguas
de los rios. Guadalupe, 1902.
Jotapen, Jose. Cultivation and preparation of cof-
fee for the market. Aberdeen, 1915. 102 pp.
Jumelle, Henri. Plantes a Sucre, caf6, cacao, the,
mate. In his, Les cultures coloniales. Paris,
1913. V.3.
Kramers, J. G. Verslag omtrent de proeftuinen
en andere mededeelingen over koffie. Batavia,
1899-1904. 4v.
Laerne, C. F. Van Delden. Brazil and Java. Re-
port on coffee culture in America, Asia and
Africa, to H. E. the minister of the colonies.
London, 1885. 637 pp. Also in Dutch and French.
Lascelles, Arthur Rowley William. A treatise
on the nature and cultivation of coffee; with
some remarks on the management and purchase
of coffee estates. London, 1865. 71 pp.
Le Comte, C. E. a. Culture et production du caf^
dans les colonies. Paris, 1865.
Lecomte, Henrl Le cafe: culture, manipulation,
production. Paris, 1899. 342 pp.
LiEVANOj Indalecio. lustrucciou popular sobre
meteorolojia agricola, i especialmente sobre i\
afiil i el cafe. Bogota, 1868. 18 pp.
McClelland, T. B. Effect of different methods
of transplanting coffee. WasMnqton, 1917.
11 pp.
—Some profitable and unprofitable coffee lands
Washington, 1917. 13 pp.
McCuLLocH, R. William. Coffee-growing and its
preparation for market. Brisbane, Australia,
1893.
Madriz, F. J. Cultivo del cafe seu manual theorico-
pratico sobre beneficio de este frute con mayores
ventajas para al agricultor. Paris, 1869.
Meitzky, Jo.-Henry. De vario coffese potum pa-
randi modo. WittebergicB, 1788.
MiDDLETON, W. H. Manual of coffee planting.
Durban, 1866.
MiLHON. Dissertation sur le caffeyer. Montpellier.
1746.
MoNNEREAu, ^LLE. Le parfait indigotier; ou De-
scription de I'indigo. . . . ensemble un traite
sur la culture de cafe. Amsterdam and Mar-
seilles, 1765. 238 pp.
MoRREN, F. W. Die arbeiter auf einer Kaffee-
plantage. 1900.
— Werkzaamheden op eene koffieonderneming.
Handleiding voor opzichters bij de koffie-cul-
tuur. Amsterdam, 1896. 266 pp.
NicoL, R. A treatise on coffee, its properties and
the best mode of keeping and preparing it. 4th
ed. London, 1832.
Owen, T. C. First year's work on a coffee planta-
tion. Colombo, 1877. 55 pp.
Pierrot, £douard. Culture pratique et rationellc
du cafeier et preparation du grain pour la vente.
Paris, 1906. 95 pp.
RossiGNEN, Julio. Manual del cultivo del cafe,
etc., in la America Espanola. Paris. 1859.
SiMMONDs, P. L. Coffee and chicory, their culture.
chemical composition, preparation, etc. London
1864. 102 pp.
— Tropical agriculture. London, 1887. (pp. 27-79
deal with coffee.)
Tytlee, R. B. Prospects of coffee production.
Aberdeen, 1878.
Ugarte, Jose P. The cultivation and preparation
of coffee for the market. London, 1916. 124 ])p.
WiLDEMAN, Em. de. Lcs cafcicrs. Bruxelles, 1901.
— Les plantes tropicales de grande culture — cafe,
cacao, coca, vanilla, etc. Bruxelles, 1902. 304 pp.
Zimmermann, Albrecht. Over het enten van
kofiie volgens de methode van den Heer D. Butln
Schaap. Batavia, 1904. 54 pp.
Periodicals
AuBRY-LE-CoMTE. Culturc ct production du cafe
dans les colonies. Revue Mar. et Col., Oct., 1865,
Beugless, J. D. Coffee in its home. Overland
Monthly, 11:319.
Caswell, G. W. Coffee in our new islands. Over-
land Monthly, n. s. XXXII :459.
Coffee cultivation in the New World. Royal
Botanic Gardens, Kexo, Bull, of Misc. Informa-
tion, 1893: 821-325.
Cultivation and preparation of coffee. Great Brit-
ain. Imperial Institute, Bulletin, 1915, XIII:
260-296.
DE Vere, M. S. Culture and use of coffee. Harper's
Magazine, XLIV: 2.37.
Fesca, Max. Uber Kaffeekultur. Jour. Landw.
1897, XLV: 13-41.
Hagen, J. De Koffiecultuur. Onze Kol. Land-
bouw No. 7. 1914.
Hayward, C. B. Coffee and coffee culture. Scien-
tific American, 1904, XCI: 189, 194-195.
LiNNEAN Society. Proceedings, 1875-1880, contain
articles on coffee culture.
Loew, Oscar. Fermation of cacao and of coffee.
Porto Rico Agricultural Experiment Station.
Report, 1907. pp. 41-55.
Marcano, V. Essais d'agronomie tropicale. Ann.
sci. agron. 1891, 11:119-152.
Peatfield, J. J. Culture of coffee. Overland
Monthly, XIII: 323.
Host, Eugen C. Coffee growing. Scientific Amer-
ican Supplement, 1902, LIV:22189-22190.
ToRRENs, J. H. Hydro-electric installation on a
coffee plantation. General Electric Review, 1915.
XVIII: 219-222.
— Electricity on a coffee finca. The Tea and Cof-
fee Trade Journal, 1916, XXXI:418-421.
Regional
abyssinia
Southard, Addison E. The storj' of Abyssinia's
coffees. Tea and Coffee Trade Journal, 1918,
XXXIV: 212-215: 324-329.
AFRICA, northern
Riviere, Charles. Le cafeier dans I'Afrique du
nord. Paris, 1903.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
745
ANGOLA
Toffee cultivation in Angola. Royal Botanic
Gardens, Kew, Bull, of Misc. Information, 1894:
161-l(i3.
ABGENTIXE
'Argentine Republic. Departamento nacional de
tierras, colonias y agricultura. El caf6. (Coffea
arabica) Buenos Aires, 1896. 22 pp.
AUSTRALIA
[Jackson, Heniiy Vaughan. The cultivation of
coffee. Sydney, 1908. 8 pp. Reprinted from
Agricultural Gazette, June, 1908.
[Newport, H. Coffee cultivation in Queensland.
Philippine Agricultural Review, 1910, III:514r-
524. Also, Queensland Agricultural Journal,
1910, XXIV, pt. 6; XXV, pt. 1.
brazil
[Berthoule. La culture di cafeier au Bresil, com-
munication faite a la Soci6t6 nationale d'acclima-
tion de France. March 28, 1890.
Brazil and coffee. Souvenir of the Louisiana
purchase exposition. 1904. 28 pp.
Caffe, II: la coltivazione, la produzione, le imita-
zione, le falsilicazioni, il valore economico, il
fisiologico, appendice. Rio Janeiro, 1910. 98 pp.
Cruwell, G. a. and others. Brazil as a coffee-
growing country. Colombo, 1878. 150 pp.
;da Costa Santos, H. Consideracoes sobre o nosso
cafe. Rio Janeiro, 1881. 19 pp.
Dafert, F. W. De bemesting en het drogen van
kaffie in Brazilia. Amsterdam, 1898. 250 pp.
-iJber die gegenwartige Lage des Kaffeebaus in
Brazilien. Amsterdam, 1898. Also in English,
1900; French, Paris, 1900.
[Dahne, Eugenio. The story of Sao Paulo coffee
from plantation to cup. The Tea and Coffee
Trade Journal, 1915, XXV 111:127.
;de Oliveira, Luiz Torquato, Marques. Novo
methodo da plantacao fecundidade, durabilidade
estrumacao e conservacao do cafe e extinc^ao
das formigas, exposto em beneficio da agricultura
do Brasil e lugares cafeeiros, offerecido aos agri-
cultores. Rio de Janeiro, 1863. 30 pp.
Empire of Brazil at the World's industrial and
cotton centennial exposition of New Orleans,
The. New York, 1885. 71 pp.
Koebel, Rothery and Tweney, editors. Enciclo-
pedia de la America del sur. Agriculture, Brazil,
V. I; Sao Paulo, v. IV. London and Buenos Aires,
1913.
Laliere, Amour. Le caf6 dans I'^tat de Saint Paul
(Brasil). Paris, 1909. 417 pp.
MissoN, Iatis, and Tellez O. Cultivo y beneficio
del cafe en el Brazil: como se hacen en el estado
de Sao Paulo. Mexico, 1907. 30 pp.
O Fazendeiro; revista mensal de agricultura, in-
dustria e commercio, dedicada, especlalmente,
aos interesses da lavoura cafeeiro. Anno 1, Sao
Paulo, 1908.
Pacheco e Suva, Persio. Do cafe no o este de S.
Paulo. 8do Paulo, 1910. 64 pp.
Peckholt, Theodoro. Monographia do cafe. In
his, Historia das plantas alimentares e de gozo
do Brazil, v. 6. 1871-84.
Sao Paulo, Brazil. Secretaria da agricultura, com-
mercio e obras publicas. II caffS^. Brevi notizie
per Eugenio Leffevre. 1904. 68 pp.
ScHuuRiMAN, G. A. E. De koflSecultuur in Brazilie.
Amsterdam, 1901. 67 pp.
Smith, H. H. Brazil: Amazona and the coast..
(Special chapters on coffee) London, 1880.
— Culture of coffee in Brazil. Scribners Magazine,
XIX: 225. Penny Magazine, IX: 484.
Story of Sao Paulo coffee from plantation to cup.
Pan American Union. Bulletin, 191-5, XLI;
370-378.
Teixeira, C. O cafd do Brazil. Rio de Janeiro,
1883. 24 pp.
Ward. R. D. Visit to the Brazilian coffee country.
National Geographic Magazine, 1911, XXII:
908-931.
central AMERICA
Cater, R. W. Coffee in Central America. Cham-
bers' Journal, LXXVI:570.
Choussy, Felix. Cultivo racional del cafe en
centro America. San Salvador, 1917. 92 ])}).
Fox, Alvin. Coffee growing in Central America.
Simmons' Spice Mill, 1918, XLI: 420-421.
CEYLON
.\bbay, R. Culture of coffee in Ceylon. House-
holds Words, 111:109. Also, Nature, XIV: 375.
Cruwell, G. a. Liberian coffee in Ceylon. Co-
lombo, 1878.
Hull, E. C. P. Coffee planting in southern India
and Ceylon. London, 1877. 324 pp.
Keen, W. Coffee cultivation in Ceylon. London,
1871.
Lewis, G. C. Coffee planting in Ceylon. Colombo,
1855.
Sabonadiere, William. The coffee-planter of Cey-
lon. London, 1870. 216 pp.
^O fazendeiro de caf6 em Cevlao. Rio de Janerio,
1875, 196 pp.
Van Spall, P. W. A. Verslag over de koflBj en
kaneelkultuur op het eiland Ceijlon. Batavia,
1863.
COLOMBIA
Saenz, Nicolas. Memoria sobre el cultivo del
cafeto. Bogota, 1892. 65 pp. Also in French,
Bruxelles, 1894. 121 pp.
COSTA RICA
Calvo, J. B. Coffee, its origin and propagation,
its introduction and cultivation in Costa Rica.
American Republics Bureau. Monthly Bulletin.
1904, XVIII: 1-6; 111-115.
— Report on coffee with special reference to the
Costa Rican product. Bureau of American Re-
publics. Publications. Washington, 1901, 15 pp.
CosTA Rica. Government. Estudio ^ informe sobre
el cafe de Costa Rica. San Jose, 1900. 48 p]).
Field, Walter J. Coffee culture and prej)aration
in Costa Rica. The Tea and Coffee Trade Jour-
nal, 1908, XV; 13.
ScHROEDER, JoHN. Coffcc culturc In Costa Rica.
San Jos4, 1890. 4 pp.
CT'BA
BORRERO Y ECHEVERRIA, EsTEBAN. El Cafc. ApUUtcS
para una monografia. Habana, 1890. 46 pp.
Coffee grounds of Cuba. All-the-Year, XXIV:61.
Fernandez y Jimenez, Jose Maria. Agricultura
cubana. 3 ed. Habana, 1868. 69 pp.
Fox, Alvin. Coffee culture in Cuba and Porto
Rico. Simmons' Spice Mill, 1918, XLI :1856-1359.
HiLLMAN, Joseph. Coffee planting. Neic York,
1902. 16 pp.
Old Cuban coffee plantations. Harper's Weekly,
1908, LII:31.
EAST INDIES
Ahntzenius, G. Cultuur en volk. Beschouwingen
over de gouvernementskoffiecultuur op Java.
's Gravenhage, 1891. 158 pp.
746
ALL ABOUT COFFEE
Campbell, Doxald Maclaine. The industries of
Java: Coffee. In his, Java: past and present.
London, 1915. pp. 931-944.
Chalot, C. and Thillard, R. Le caf^ k Java.
1914.
Coffee enterprise in the East Indies. Royal
Botanic Gardens, Kew, Bull, of Misc. Informa-
tion, 1893:123-124.
Ceamer, p. J. S. Gegevens over de variabiliteit
van de in Nederlandsch-Indie verbouwde koflSe-
soorten. Batavia, 1913. 696 pp.
DuMONT, A. Consideraciones sobre el cultivo del
cafe en esta isla. Havana, 1823.
KoFFiECULTuuR. Tijdsch. voor Nederlandsch-Indie,
1901, ser. 2, V: 168-175.
Nederlakdsch-Indische maatschappij van nij'^er-
heid en landbouw. Handleiding voor de gouverne-
ments-koflBekultuur. Batavia, 1873. 56 pp.
Parkhtjest, E. T. Y. CoffeeJ of the Dutch East
Indies. The Tea and Coffee Trade Journal,
1918, XXXV: 316-322; 416-420; 1919, XXXVI:
22-27; 118-122.
Raedt Van Oldenbarnevelt, A. C. De koffie-cul-
tuur op Java, 's Oravenhage, 1898. 48 pp.
Smid, J. H. Handbook voor de kultuur der
koffie in Oost en West Indie. Mlddleburg , 1884.
112 pp.
Van Ermel, W. K. L. K. Some facts about coffee
in Palembang. Singapore, 1879. 16 pp.
Van Gohkom, K. W. Groote cultuur in Neder-
landsch Oostindie koffie. Haarlem. 1882.
federated MALAY STATES
Gallagher, Willlam John. Coffee robusta. Kuala
Lumpur, Federated Malay States, 1910. 7 pp.
Liberian coffee at the Straits Settlements (C.
Liberica bull.) Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew,
Bull, of Misc. information, 1888:261-263;
1890:107-108, 245-253.
Liberian coffee in the Malay native states. Royal
Botanic Gardens, Kew, Bull, of Misc. Informa-
tion, 1892:277-282.
FRENCH INDO-CHINA
Briggs, Lawrence P. The coffee of French Indo-
China. Tea and Coffee Trade Journal, 1917,
XXXIII: 118-123.
Cramer, P. J. S. Coffee plantations of Tonkin,
Philippine Agricultural Review, 1910, III; 94-
100.
Paris. President du syndicat des productions et
explorateurs de Tourane. Le cafe d'Annam;
etude pratique sur sa culture. Tourane, Annam,
1895. 95 pp.
GOLD COAST
Coffee cultivation at the Gold Coast. Royal
Botanic Gardens, Kew, Bull, of Misc. Informa-
tion, 1895:21-23; 1897:325-328.
GUADELOUPE
Coffee in Guadeloupe. The Tea and Coffee Trade
Journal, 1912, XXIII :445.
GUATEMALA
DiESELDORFF, E. P. Dcr Kaffecbaum. Praktische
Erfahrungen iiber seine Behandlung im nord-
lichen Guatemala. Berlin, 1908. 36 pp.
MoRREN, F. W. Koffiecultuur in Guatemale, met
aanteekeningen betreffende de overige cultures
de mijnen en den economischen toestand van
deze republiek. Amsterdam, 1899. 142 pp.
Parkhurst, E. T. Y. Coffee in Guatemala. Cali-
fornian Magazine, 11:742.
AuBLET, Fusee. Histoire des plantes de la Guy-
ane fran<;aise. Observations sur la culture du
caf6. Paris, 1775.
Guiana (British) Permanent exhibitions commit-
tee. Cacao and coffee industries. Leaflet 6. 1911.
12 pp.
HAWAII
Great Britain. Foreign Office. Report on coffee
culture in the Hawaiian Islands. London, 1897.
18 pp. (Diplomatic and Consular Reports. Mis-
cellaneous Series, no. 425.)
Hawaii. Board of Commissioners of Agricultuhi
AND Forestry. Culture of coffee. Hawaiian
Forester and Agriculturist, 1911, VIII, no. 10.
— Blight-resistant coffees. Hawaiian Forester and
Agriculturist, 1912, IX, no. 3.
Haywood, Wm. Coffee culture in the Hawaiian
Islands. Washington, 1898. 164 pp.
McChesney, J. M. The great coffee corner.
Hawaiian Forester and Agriculturist, 1911,
VIII: 206-21i.
McClelland, J, L. Coffee culture in Hawaii. Over-
land Monthly, 1903, n.s. XLI: 170-178.
United States Department of Agriculture. Di-
vision of Vegetable Physiology and Pathology.
Circular No. 16. Danger of introducing a Cen-
tral American coffee in Hawaii. Washington,
1898.
Whitnet, Henry Martyn. The Hawaiian coffee
planter's manual. Honolulu, 1894. 48 pp.
HAITI AND DOMINICAN REPUBLIC
Inoinac, G. B. Industrie agricole. Culture du
cafeier et preparation de la feve pour etre livree
au commerce. Port-au-Prince, 1840. 22 pp.
Laborie, p. J. The coffee planter of Saint Do-
mingo. Colombo, 1845. 204 pp.
— An abridgment of the coffee planter of Saint
Domingo. Madras, 1863. 83 pp.
Prestoe, H. Report on coffee cultivation in Do-
minica. Trinidad, 1875.
HONDURAS, BRITISH
Coffee cultivation in British Honduras. Royal
Botanic Gardens, Kew, Bull, of Misc. Informal-
tion, 1892:253-259.
INDIA
Anstead, R. D. Coffee, its cultivation and manur-
ing in South India. Bangalore, 1915. 3 pp.
Anderson, G. Coffee culture in Mysore. Banga-
lore, 1879.
Arnold, E. L. On the Indian hills, or coffee plant-
ing in Southern India. London, 1895. 350 pp.
Cultivation of coffee in India. Scientific Ameri-
can Supplement, 1900, L: 20620.
Culture of coffee in South Travancore. Fraser's
Magazine, XC:64.
Elliott, R. H. Planter in Mysore. London, 1871.
Elliot, Robert H. Gold, sport, and coffee planting
in Mysore. W estm,inster , 1894. 480 pp.
Experiences of a coffee planter in Southern India.
Erasers' Magazine, XVIX:703.
Coffee planting in Southern India. Spectator,
LV:664.
Hybrid coffee in Mysore. Royal Botanic Gardens,
Kew, Bull, of Misc. Information, 1898:30 and
207.
India. Statistical Department. The coffee crop
in Coorg. Simla, 1885.
— The cultivation of coffee in India. Simla, 1898,
6 pp.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
747
Shortt, John. A hand-book to coffee planting in
southern India. Madras, 1864. 182 pp.
Watson, J. D. Liberian coffee cultivation in Tavoy.
Tavoy, Burma, 1893. 5 pp.
JAVA {see EAST indies)
KAFFA
BiEBER, Frederi'ch J. Die Kaffee- und BaumwoUe-
Kultur in Kaffa. Zeitschrift fUr Kolonialpolitik,
Kolonialrecht und Kolonial-wirtschaft, l')08, X:
774-781.
KONGO FREE STATE
Maxuel pratique de la culture du cafeier et du
cacaoyer au Congo Beige. Ministere des colonies,
Bruxelles, 1908. 96 pp.
LAGOS
Coffee planting in I.agos. Royal Botanic Gar-
dens, Kelt', Bull, of Misc. Information, 1896:
77-79.
LIBERIA
BouTiLLY, V. Le cafeier de Liberia, sa culture et
sa manipulation. Paris, 1900. 137 pp.
Felle, W. Veeljarige waarnemingen en onder-
vindingen van een Liberia-koflSeplanter. 1894.
MoRREN, F. W. Cultuur bereiding en handel van
Liberia koffie. Amsterdam, 1894. 36 pp.
Morris, Sir Daniel. Notes on Liberian coffee, its
history and cultivation. Jamaica, 1881. 14 pp.
MADAGASCAR
Buis, J. L'Hemileia et I'avenir du cafeier a Mad-
agascar, et a la Reunion. 1907.
RiGAUD, A. Traite pratique de la culture du cafe
dans la region centrale de Madagascar. Paris,
1896. 102 pp.
MEXICO
Cook, J. D. American coffee culture in Mexico.
World Today, 1907, XII: 413-418.
Fox, Alvin. Coffee culture in southern Mexico.
Simmons' Spice Mill, 1918, XLI:1080-1081.
Gomez, Gabriel. Cultivo y beneftcio del cafe.
Mexico, 1894. 136 pp. Also in English.
LuDEWiG, H. Jaun. Veinte anos trabajos de col-
onizacion y el cultivo del cafeto en Soconusco.
Mexico, 1909. 53 pp.
MoNCADA, M. Xotas sobre el cultivo y beneficio del
cafe. Memorias v revista de la Sociedad cientifica
"Antonio Alzate," 1905-6, XXIII: 281-287.
Romero, Matias. Cultivo del cafe en la costa
meridional de Chiapas. 3 ed. Mexico, 1875. 240
pp.
— El cultivo del cafe en la republica mexicana. 2
ed. Mexico, 1893. 127 pp. Also in English, New
York, 1901. 74 pp.
— El estado de Oaxaca. Barcelona, 1886. 212 pp.
Terry, E. G. C. Near view of coffee in Mexico.
Pan American Union. Bulletin. 1914, XXXIX:
903-906.
Terry, h. M. Coffee culture in Mexico. Overland
Monthly, 1901, n. s. XXXVII : 702-709.
Torres, J. T. Ensayo experimental sobre el caf^
Mexico, 1876.
YoRBA, J. Mexican coffee culture. 2 ed. Mexico,
1895. 64 pp.
NATAL
Natal. Commission appointed to inquire into and
report upon matters relating to coffee cultiva-
tion in the colony. Report. Maritzburg, 1881.
6 pp.
Stainbank, H. E. Coffee in Natal; its culture and
preparation. London, 1874. 78 pp.
NICARAGUA
Shedd, W. J. The story of Matagalpa coffee. Tea
and Coffee Trade Journal, 1918, XXXIV: 118-
122,
PARAGUAY
Coffee growing in Paraguay. Scientific American
Supplement, 1914, LXXVIII: 340.
PORTO RICO
LiNCK, J. H. Arbor caffe Lipsiae florens. Extrait
factice des Ephem. Acad, naturae curiosorum.
1725. 7 pp.
McClelland, Thomas B. Suggestions on coffee
planting for Porto Rico. Porto Rico Agricul-
tural Experiment Station. Circular, no. 16. Also
in Spanish.
McClelland, T. B. Restoring Porto Rico coffee.
The Tea and Coffee Trade Journal, 1918,
XXXV:420-421.
National Coffee Growers' Association. Some
facts about Porto Rico coffee. 1913.
Van Leenhoff, Johannes W. Coffee planting in
Porto Rico. Mayaguez, 1904. 14 pp.
PORTUGUESE COLONIES
SociEDADE DE Geographiade Lisboa. Exposi^ao
colonial de algodao, borracha, cacau e cafe. 1906.
104 pp.
SIERRA LEONE
Highland coffee of Sierra Leone (Coffea steno-
phylla, C. Don). Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew,
Bull, of Misc. Information, 1896:189-191.
SOUTH AMERICA
Fox, Alvin. Liberian coffee in South America.
Simmons' Spice Mill, 1918, XLI:549-550.
TRINIDAD
Trinidad coffee. Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew,
Bull, of Misc. Information, 1888:129-133.
UGANDA
Brown, E. and Hunter, H. H. Planting in
L^ganda; coffee. Para rubber, cocoa. London,
1913. 176 pp.
Coffee and tea from Uganda. Imperial Insti-
tute. Bulletin. London, 1918, XVI.
Sjiall, W. Coffee cultivation in Uganda. Imperial
Institute. Bulletin. 1914, XII: 242-250.
UNITF.D STATES
Jones, A. C. Thea viridis, or Chinese tea plant,
and the practicability of its culture and manu-
facture in the United States. Also some remarks
on the cultivation of the coffee plant. Wash-
ington, 1877. 26 pp.
Kains, M. G. Chicory growing as an addition to
the resources of the American farmer. U. S.
Depart, of Agriculture. Div. of Botany. Bulle-
tin, no. 19. Washington, 1898.
\-enezuela
Ernst, A. El caf6 de Liberia 6n V6n6zuela. Cara-
cas, 1878.
Huntington, L. M. The story of Tachira coffee.
Tea and Coffee Trade Journal. 1917, XXXIII:
318-325.
Junta de aclimatacion cuestionario sobre el cultivo
del cafe. Caracas, 1895. 42 pp.
Pelacios, G. Delgado. Contribuci6n al estudio del
cafe en Venezuela. Caracas, 1895. 98 pp.
WEST indies
Lowndes, John. The coffee-planter; or, An essay
on the cultivation and manufacturing of that
article of West-India produce. London, 1807.
76 pp.
748
ALL ABOUT COFFEE
N1CHOLL8, H. A. A. Liberian cofPee in the West
Indies. London, 1881. 31 pp.
SOILS
Clarke, T. On the management of soils under
coffee in Madras. Madras Agricultural Exhibit.
Report. 1883.
Fauchere, A. Du choix du terrain dans la culture
du cafeier. Colonic de Madagascar and Depen-
dances. Bulletin economique, 1907, VII: 349-868.
Hughes, J. Ceylon coffee soils and manures.
London, 1879.
Kenxy, J. Tea, coffee, tobacco (manuring, etc.)
1910.
Kramers, J. G. Verslag omtrent grondanalyses
van koffietuinen. Batavia, 1902. 86 pp.
DISEASES AND ENEMIES
Aulmann, G. and La Baume, M. Die Faune der
deutcher Kolonien. Pt. 2. Die Schadlinge des
Kaffees. Berlin, 1911.
BuRCK, W. Over de oorzaken van den achteruit-
gang von de gouvernementskoffiecultuur op Java.
1896.
— Over de koffiebladziekte en de middelen cm haar
te bestrijden. Batavia, 1887:61.
BroiE, G. Report on the ravages of the bore in
coffee estates. Madras, 1869. 93 pp.
BossE. J. VON. Eenige beschouwingen omtrent de
oorzalten van den achterintgang von de kof-
fiecultuur der Sumatra's Westkust, etc. 's
Gravenhage, 1895.
Camerok, John. Prevention of leaf disease in cof-
fee; report of a visit to Coorg. 1899. 23 pp.
Cooke, M. C. Two coffee diseases. Popular Science
Review, XV:161.
Delacroix, Georges. Les maladies et les ennemis
des cafeiers. Paris, 1900. 212 pp.
Ernst, Adolf. Estudios sobre las deformaciones,
enfermedades y enemigos del arbol de cafe en
Venezuela. Caracas, 1878. 21 pp.
GoELDi, Emil August. Memoria sobre una en-
fermedad del cafeto en la provincia. Rio de Ja-
neiro, Brasil. Mexico, 1894. 118 pp.
Green, E. E. Observations on the green scale bug
in connection with the cultivation of coffee.
Colombo, 1886. 4 pp.
Harman, F. E. Report on coffee leaf miner dis-
ease. Mysore Government. Bangalore, 1880. 41
pp.
India. Mysore. Department oi Agriculture.
Short report of a tour made in Coorg during
February and March, 1914. (Green hug on cof-
fee.) 1914. 3 pp.
KoNiNGSBERGER, J. C. Dc dierlijkc vijanden der
koflSecultuur op Java. Batavia, 1897-1901. 2
pts.
KuYPERj J. Een fusicladium-ziekte op hevea. De
zilver-draad-ziekte der koffie in Suriname. De
gevolgen van keukenzout-houdend water voor
begieting en bespuiting. 1913.
Lemarie, Charles. Une maladie du cafeier.
Hanoi, 1899. 6 pp.
Massee, G. E. Coffee diseases of the New World,
Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, Bull, of Misc. In-
formation, 1909:387-341.
Mexico. Ministerio de Fomento, Colonizacion e
Industria. La fumagina y el pulgon de los cafe-
tos en la Republica Mexicana. 1897. 11 pp.
MissoN, Ltris, and Tellez, O. Cultivo y beneficio
del cafe en el Brasil: como se hacen en el estado
de Sao Paulo, por Luis Misson; y Plagas del
cafeto en Mexico, per O. Tellez. Mexico, 1907.
30 pp. (Mexico, 1867-republic. Comisidn de
Parasitologia Agricola. Circular 70.)
Neitner, J. The coffee tree and its enemies In
Ceylon. Colombo, 1880. 32 pp.
Peelen, H. J. E. Eenige opmerkingen omtrent de
koflie bladziekte. 1888.
Prins, H. J. De oeret-plaag in de koffietuinen op
Java. 1884.
Sadebeck, R. Beobachtungen und Bemerkungen
Uber die durch Hemileia vastatrix verursachte
Blattfleckenkrankheiten der Kaffeebaume. Mun-
chen, 1895. 9 pp.
Smith, Jared G. Two plant diseases in Hawaii.
Honohdu, 1904. 6 pp.
Thierry, A. J. Notes sur le greffage du cafeier,
du cacaoyer et du muscadier et la maladie
vermiculaire du cafeier. 1899. 77 pp. Reprinted
from Bulletin agricole de la Martinique.
Tins, H. J. De veret-plaag in de koffietuinen op
Java. Enschede, 1885. 86 pp.
Tonduz, Adolfo. Informe sobre la enfermedad del
cafeto. San Jos4 (Costa Rica), 1893. 28 pp.
Van Romunde, R. Koffiebladziekte en koffie kul-
tuur. 's Gravenhage, 1892. 92 pp.
Zacher, Fbiedrich. Die wichtigsten Krankheiten
und Schadlinge der tropischen Kulturpflanzen
und ihre Bekampfung. Hamburg, 1914.
Zimmermann, Albrecht. De nematoden der kof-
fiewortels. Batavia, 1898-1900. 2v.
Periodicals
Botanical Magazine, London, 1787-1904. Coffee
arabica, XXXII, Lab. 1303; CXXII, tab. 7475:
coffee benghalensis, LXXXII, tab. 4917; coffee
stenophylla, CXXII, tab. 7475; coffee travaca-
rensis, coffee trifiora, CX, tab. 6749.
Cook, Melville Thubston. The coffee leaf miner.
U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. Bureau of Ento-
mology. Bulletin, 1905, n. s. LII: 97-99.
Cook, M. T. and Horne, W. T. Coffee leaf miner
and other coffee pests. Santiago, 1905. 21 pp.
(Cuba, 1902-republic. Estacion central agron-
omica. Boletin 8. English and Spanish ed.)
Faber, F. C. von. Die Krankheiten und Schadlinge
des Kaffees. Centralblatt fiir Bakteriologie, Ab-
teilung 2. 1908, XXI: 97-117.
Fawcett, George L. Fungus diseases of coffee in
Porto Rico. Porto Rico Agricultural Experi-
ment Station. Bulletin 17.
Giard, a. Sur deux cochenilles nouvelles Orthe-
ziola fodiens nov. spec, et Rhizoecus Eloti nov.
spec, parasites des racines du cafeier a la
Guadeloupe. Comptes rendus de la Societe de
Biologic, 1897.
Goldi, E. A. Relatorio sobre a molestiado cafeeiro
na provincia do Rio de Janeiro. Archivos do
Museu Nacional do Rio de Janeiro, 1892, VIII:
7-121.
Mann, B. P. Coffee leaf miner. American Nat-
uralist, VI:332-596.
Marchal, Paul. Sur un nouvel ennemi du cafeier;
le "Xyleborus coffeae." Journal d'Agriculture
tropicale, 1909, IX: 227-228.
Morris, D. Coffee-leaf disease of Ceylon. Nature,
XX: 557.
MoRSTATT, Hermann Albert. Die Schadlinge und
Krankheiten des Kaffeebaumes in Ostafrika.
Zeitschrift fiir Land- und Forstwirtschaft in
Deutsch-Ostafrika, 1912, VIII, Juli.
Tea and coffee diseases. Royal gardens, Kew.
Bulletin, 1899, CLI-CLII: 89-133.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
749
Tucker, Elbert Stephex. Some miscellaneous
results of the work of the Bureau of Ento-
mology— IX. Xew breeding records of the cof-
fee-bean weevil. U. S. Dept. of Agriculture,
Bureau of Entomology. Bulletin, 1909, LXIV:
61-64.
Vak der Weele, H. W. Ein neuer javanischer
kaffeeschalding. Xyleborus coffeivorus nov.
spec. East Indies, Dutch. Department van
Landbouw. Bulletin, 1910, XXXV. Zoologie
5. pp. 1-6.
Zimmerman jf, Albrecht. De kanker (Rostel-
laziekte) van Coffea arabica. Buitenzorg, Java.
Jardin botanique. Mededeelingen uit 's Lands
plantentuin, 1900, XXXVII: 24-62.
GENERAL WORKS
Descriptive, Historical, Etc.
Abbal. L. Etude sur le cafe. Montpellier, 1885.
Abexdroth, G. F. De coflfea. Lipsice, 1825.
Ai.cott, Wii.mam Alexander. Tea and coffee. Bos-
tun, 1839. 174 pp.
Alves de Lima, J. C. Some revelations about the
cultivation, the commerce and the use of coffee.
Syracuse, N. Y., 1901, 16 pp.
Blount (Blunt), Sir Henry. An epistle in praise
of tobacco and coffee, prefixed to a little treatise
entitled Organum Salutis. London, 1657
Bontekos, C. Tractaat van het excellente kruyd
thee. I. Van de coffi. 's Oravenhage, 1679.
Brill, Marbuger. Dissertation sur le cafe. 1862.
Bdc'hoz, p. J. Dissertation sur le cafe. Parts,
1787.
Chevallier, Alphoxse. Du cafe, son historique,
son usage, son utilite, ses alterations, ses suc-
cedan6s et ses falsifications, etc. Paris, 1862.
63 pp.
Cornaillac, G. El cafe, la vainilla, el cacao y el
te, cultivo, preparacidn, exportacion, clasifica-
cion comercial, gastos, rendimiento. Barcelona,
1903. 480 pp.
Coubard uAulnay, G. E. Monographic du cafe, ou
manuel de I'amateur du cafe, ouvrage contenant
la description et la culture du caf^ier, I'histoire
du cafe, ses caractferes commerciaux, sa pre-
j)aration et ses proprietes. Paris, 1832.
Cripet, Dr. Histoire et physiologic du caf6.
Paris. 1846.
Delrue-Schrevens, L. Le caf6: etude historique
et commerciale. Tournai, 1886. 90 pp.
DE Vaux, Antoixe Alexis Francois, Cadet. Dis-
sertation sur le cafe; son historique, ses pro-
prietes, et le procede pour en obtenir la boisson
la plus agreable, etc. Paris, 1807. 119 pp.
Douglas, James. Arbor yemensis fructum cof^
ferens: or, A description and history of the cof-
fee tree. London, 1727. 60 pp.
DucHARTRE, P. Plantcs alimentaires. De I'usage
du cafe, du the, et du chocolat. Paris, 1865.
DuFOUR, Philippe S. Traitez nouveaux et curieux
du cafe, du the, et du chocolat. Lyons, 1671,
168i; La Haye, 1693.
Dumas, Leon. Le pays du cafe. 1885.
Eggerth, J. De coffea. Budce, 1833.
Ellis, John. An historical accoimt of coffee. Lon-
don, 1774. 71 pp.
6trexnes k tous les amateurs de cafe; contenant
I'histoire, la description, la culture, les pro-
prietes de ce vegetal. Paris, 1790. 2 pts. in 1 y.
Franklin, Alfred. La vie privee d'autrefois. Paris,
1893.
Fauchon, L. J. Sur le caf6, Paris, 1815.
Galland, a. De Torigine et du progrez du caf6.
Sur un manuscrit arabe de la Bibliotheque du
Roy. Paris, 1699.
Galland, Antoine. A treatise upon the origin of
coffee. London, 1695.
Gentil, M. Dissertation sur le caff6. 1787. 180 pp.
Georgius, J. C. S. De coffee. Tuhingw, 1752.
Girard, a. L. Les sucres, le caf6, le th6, le choco-
lat. Paris, 1907. 96 pp.
Gmelin, John George. Dissertation de coffee.
Tubingce, 1752.
Gray, Arthur, comp. Over the black coffee. New
York, 1902. 108 pp.
GuBiAN, J. M. A. Sur le caf6. Paris, 1814.
GuiLLOT, A. Le cafe. Toulon, 1883.
Hewitt, Robert, Jr. Coffee: its history, cultiva-
tion, and uses. New York, 1872. 102 ])p.
Houghton, John. Account of coffee, 1699.
Hull, E. C. P. Coffee, its physiology, history and
cultivation. Madras, 1865.
James, Robert. Treatise on tobacco, tea, coffee
and chocolate. London, 1745.
Jardin, Edelestan.* Le cafeier et le cafe, mono-
graphic historique, scientifique et commerciale
de cette rubiacee. Paris, 1895. 413 pp.
JoMAND, J. Du cafe. Paris, 1860.
Keable, B, B. Coffee from grower to consumer.
London, 1910. 120 pp.
Koebel, Rothery AND TwENEY, cditoTS. Enciclo-
pedia de la America del Sur. Coffee in South
America, v. II: 14. London and Buenos Aires.
1913.
Krajiers, J. G. Waarneraingen en beschouwingen
naar aanleiding van eene reis in de koffie. Ba-
tavia, 1898. 101 pp.
Kruger, John G. Gedanken, vom Kaffee, Thee
und Taback. 1743.
Labat, Le p. Traite de la culture du cafe, dans
un nouveau voyage aux iles de I'Amdrique.
Paris, 1722.
Lalou. Du cafe: son origine, le temps de sa
decouverte et celui ou I'on commence a en faire
usage. Rouen, 1843.
Law, W. The history of coffee, including a chap-
ter on chicory. London, 1850.
Le Ple, a. Le cafe: histoire, science, hygiene.
Rouen, 1877. 38 pp.
Lock, Charles George Warnford. Coffee: its cul-
ture and commerce in all countries. London,
1888. 264 pp.
Lodge, J. L. Coffee. Birmingham, 1894. 14 pp.
Maatschappij tot nut van't algemeen. Bijdragen
tot de kennis v£.n de voornaamste voortbrengselen
van Nederlandsch Indie. Amsterdam, 1860-61.
2v. II. De koffij.
Mace, C. Du caf6. Paris, 1858.
Marcus, C. J. De coffea. Leipzig, 1837.
Martinez, Emiliano. Memoria sobre el caf6; su
cultivo, beneficio, maquinas en uso, escojida, ex-
ijencias de los mercaaos, y otros conocimientos
utiles. 2 ed. Nueva Orleans, 1887. 61 pp.
Meyner. Trait6 sur le cafe. 1624.
MiEDAN, C. Du caf6. Paris, 1862.
Moreira, N. J. Breve considerafoes sobre historia
e cultura do cafeeiro e consume de seus
productes. Rio de Janeiro, 1873.
Nairon, Antoine Faustcs. De saluberrima potione
cahue, seu cafe nuncupata discursus. Romae^
1671.
•yot Edelestan as eUevohere in the volume.
750
ALL ABOUT COFFEE
—A discourse on coffee; its description and ver-
tues. (Tr, from Latin by C. B.) London, 1710,
Natur gemaessige Beschreibung der Coffee, etc.
Hamburg, 1684.
NiEBUHH, Kakstens. Dcscription de I'Arabie.
Amsterdam, 1774.
— Travels through Arabia performed. London,
1792.
Neubert, J. Der Kaffee. Wurzburff, 1838.
Novi tractatus de potu caph^; de chinensium th6;
et de chocolata. Geneva, 1699.
Oldmixon, Johk. Het Britannische ryk in Amer-
ika, zynde eene beschryving van de ontdekking,
bevolking, inwoonders, het klimaat, den koop-
handel, en tegenwoordigen staat van alle de
Britannische colonien, in dat gedeelte der
wereldt. Uit het Engelsch, als mede een omstan-
dig Berecht aangaande de koffy en koffy-plantery
uit het Fransch vertaald. Amsterdam, 1721. 2v.
Pan American Union. Coffee. Washington, D.
C. 1901.
Paulu, S. a treatise on tobacco, tea, coffee and
chocolate. . . . (tr. by Dr. James) London,
1746.
Penilleatt, Auguste. fitude sur le cafe, au point
de vue historique, physiologique, hygienique et
alimentaire. Paris, 1864. 90 pp.
Pennetier, G. Le cafe. Paris, 1878.
Peters, F. De potu cafB. Oiessw Hassorum, 1666.
Pringle, W. Science and coffee. Madras, 1897.
66 pp.
QuELTJS, DE. Histoire naturelle du cacao, et du
cafe, etc. Amsterdam, 1720.
Ramsey (Rumsey), Walter. Organum salutis; or
experiments on the virtue of coffee and tobacco.
London, 1657.
Raoul, j&douard Francois Armand. Culture du
cafeier, semis, plantations, taille, cueillette, de
pulpation, decorticage, ejjpedition, commerce,
espfeces et races. 2 ed. Paris, 1897. 251 pp.
Reichenbach, Anton Benedict. Der Kaffeebaum,
seine Verbreitung, Kulturgeschichte und natiir-
liche Beschaffenheit, der Kaffeehandel und die
Consumtion des Kaffee's, seine medicinische
Anwemdung, die Kaffeesurrogate und der Anbau
der gangbarsten Sorten. Berlin, 1867. 92 pp.
Rendle, a. B, and W. G. Freeman. Encyclo-
paedia Britannica. 11th ed. v.6: 646.
Robin, L. Memoire sur l6 cafe, sur sa culture, son
commerce, ses proprietes physiologiques, thera-
peutiques et alimentaires. Abbeville, 1864.
Roques, Joseph. Traite historique de I'origine et
de progres du cafe, tant dans I'Europe, de son
introduction en France et de I'^tablissement de
son usage a Paris. Paris, 1715.
RuMFORD, Count (Benjamin Thompson). Of the
excellent qualities of coffee, and the art of making
it in the highest perfection. Essay XVIII. pp.
155-207.
Splitzerber. Drey Tractate von Cafe, The und
Chocolate. Budissin, 1688.
Spon, J. De I'usage du caphe, du th6, et du
chocolat. Paris, 1671.
Tarr, a. De coffea. Pestini, 1836. Hungarian text.
Thompson, Benjamin. (See Rumford, Count.)
Thompson, William Gilman. Coffee. Composi-
tion; method of preparation; physiological ac-
tion; adulteration; substitutes. In his. Practical
dietetics, 1909. pp. 252-257.
Thurber, Francis Beatty. Coffee: from planta-
tion to cup. New York, 1881. 416 pp.
ToGNij M. Raccolta delle singolari qualita del
cafffe. Venetia, 1675.
Van DEN Berg, Norbert Pieter. Historical-statis-
tical notes on the production and consumption of
coffee. Batavia, 1880. 92 pp.
ViLARDEBO, J. El tabaco y el cafe. Barcelona,
1888. 142 pp.
Walsh, Joseph M. Coffee: its history, classifica-
tion and description. Philadelphia, 1894. 309 pp.
Welter, H. Essai sur I'histoire du cafe. Paris,
1868.
Periodicals
Ahlenius, Karl. Kaffe, te och rorsocker, deras
ursprungliga hem och viktigaste produktion-
somrMen. Ymer, 1903, XXIII :242-268.
Bannister, Richard. Sugar, coffee, tea and cocoa,
their origin, preparation, and uses. Journal of
the Society of Arts, XXXVIII: 1000-1014.
Branson, W. P. Coffee. Journal of the Society of
Arts, 1874, XXII: 456-461.
Coffee. Leisure Hour, 1882, XXXI: 45-48.
Coffee King. Chambers' Journal, LXXXII:23.
Coffee infusion. Medical Standard, 1913, XXXVI:
52-56.
DE JussiEu. Histoire du cafe. Histoire de 1' Acad-
emic Royal des Sciences, 1713; Memoires, 1716:
291.
Dewey, Stoddard. How coffee came to Paris. Eng-
lish Illustrated Magazine, 1898, XX: 812-315.
Ferris, W. M. Coffee. Nation, XXXIV: 192;
Leisure Hour, XXXI : 45.
GxTERiN, P. Le cafe. Revue Scientifique, 1908, ser.
5. X: 486-494.
Harris, William B. Some coffees of today. Good
Housekeeping, 1913, LVII: 264-268.
Herattd, Aug. Fred. Le cafe. Science et Nature,
Feb. 28, 1885, p. 209.
History and cultivation of coffee. Godey's Lady's
Book, LIV:51.
Hoffman, Paul. Aus dem ersten Jahrhundert des
Kaffees. Zeitschrift fiir Kulturgeschichte, 1901,
VIII: 405-441, IX: 90-104.
Jackson, J. R. Coffee. Nature, 11:126; Black-
wells' Magazine, LXXV: 86; Household Words,
V: 562; Penny Magazine, 1: 49.
Lesson, Rene-Primevere. Precis historique, bota-
nique, medical et agronomique sur le cafe. An-
nual Mar. et Col., 1820: 842.
Marshall, W. B. Coffee, its history and com-
merce; an outline. American Journal of Phar-
macy, 1902, LXXIV: 361-374.
Cm Kaffe, dess historica och anvandning. Hel-
sovannen, 1887, II : 157-163.
Pictorial History of coffee. The Tea and Coffee
Trade Journal, 1918, XXXIV :26-28; 124-127;
XXXV: 116-125; 526-584; 1919, XXXVI: 322-
324; 515-516; XXXVII: 140-145.
TucKERMANN, C. K. Coffcc drinking in eastern
Europe. North American Review, 1889,
CXLVIII: 643-645.
Ukers, William H. Better teas and coffees. Good
Housekeeping, 1911, LIII: 495-498. Reprinted,
Tea and Coffee Trade Journal, 1911, XXI:274r-
276.
— A talk on coffee. Good Housekeeping, 1908,
XLVI: 532-536.
— Tea and coffee economies. Joe Chappie's News
Letter, 1913, 1:9. Reprinted, Tea and Coffee
Trade Journal, 1913, XXV: 476-477.
World's drink. Review of Reviews, 1909, XXXIX:
109-110.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
751
LITERATURE, POETRY, ROMANCE
Lbd-el-Kader, Ansari Djezeri Hakbali. Des
preuves les plus fortes en faveur de la 16gitimit6
de I'usage du cafe, in chr^stomathie arabe, par
Sylvestre de Sacy. Paris, 1806.
Jarotti, L. II caffe (poem). Esprit des Journaux,
1681, 110-120.
Ilondeau. :fitrennes litteraires aux grands
hommes ou Tempire du cafe, poeme en 10 chants.
Paris, date unknown.
-L 'empire du cafe et le rapport de son influence
sur I'esprit les moeurs et I'economie animale,
poeme en 4 chants. Paris, 1824.
JouauET blanc et le bouquet noir, Le, poisie en 4
chants. 60 pp.
Jrady. Cyrus Townsend. A corner in coffee. New
York, 1904.
iFFEE die schonste Panacee, in einem Lobgedicht
uber die wunder bale Heikraft des nectarischen
Caffeetranks. 1775. 23 pp.
Character of a coffee house, with the symptoms of
a town-wit. London, 1673; in Harleian Miscel-
lany, VI:429.
iaracter of coffee and coffee houses. Hazlitt's
Handbook to Popular Literature, 1661.
OFFEE and crumpets; a poem. Erasers' Magazine,
XV:316.
OFFEE houses vindicated: in answer to the late
published character of a coffee house. London,
1675; also in Harleian Miscellany, "VI:433.
OFFEE scuifle; occasioned by a contest between a
learned knight and a pitifull pedagogue, with
the character of a coffee house. Printed and are
to be sold at the Salmon coffee house, neer the
stocks market, (London), 1662. Verses by Wool-
noth or Sir J. Langham and Evans, a school-
master.
DE GouRcuFF, O. Lc cafc, epitre attribu6 a Senece.
Nantes, 1883. 19 pp.
de Mery, C. Le cafe, poeme: accompagne de
documents historiques sur le cafe, sur son ori-
gine, sur son commerce et sur les peuples d'Ori-
ent qui font specialement usage du cafe. Rennes,
1837. 204 pp.
D'Israeli, Isaac. Curiosities of literature. Lon^
don, 1824. Contains article on, Introduction of
tea, coffee and chocolate, in which the following
items are mentioned: (1) An Arabic and English
pamphlet on The nature of the drink, kouhi or
coffee, pub. at Oxford, 1569; (2) A cup of cof-
fee, or coffee in its colours, a satirical poem
(quoted), 1663; (3) A broadside against coffee
or the marriage of the Turk (quoted), 1672;
(4) The women's petition against coffee, 1674.
Drumont, E. Les caf^s et les restaurants d'aut-
refois. Magasin Litt6raire, X:264.
Excellext virtue of that sober drink coffee. The.
Popular ballad of the 17th century. Broadsheet.
Geyer, E. E. An potus cafe dicti vestigia in
Hebraeos sacrae scripturae codice reperiantur?
Dissertation. Wittenhergioe, 1740.
GoLDONi, Carlo. La bottega di cafffe. Venice, 1750.
LAorERRE, J. N. Essai sur le cafe. Paris, 1818.
Le Page, Aug. Les cafes politiques et litteraires
de Paris. 1874.
Massieu, G. Carmen caffaeum. Paris, 1740.
Melaye, S. filoge du cafe, (A song.) Paris, 1852.
4 pp.
MtLLER, James. The coffee-house. A dramatick
piece. London, 1737. 88 pp.
Poem m Latin, A, on coffee; is found in the Abbe
Ohvier's, Collection of modern Latin poets; and
in, fitrennes a tous les amateurs du caf6, Parit,
1790, in which a French translation is printed
facmg the Latin text; also II cafffe, in Poemetti
Italiana, vol. 3, 1797.
Rebellious antidote: or a dialogue between coffee
and tea: verse, 1685.
RossEAU, J. B. Le caff6, comMie. 1695. 56 pp.
ScHOTEL, G. D. J. Letterkundige bijdragen tot de
geschiedenis van den tabak, de koffij en de thee.
's Gravenhage, 1848. 215 pp.
St. Serfe, Thobias. Taruga's wiles, or the coffee
house; a comedy. London, 1668.
Smyth, Philip. The coffee house; a characteristic
poem. London, 1795.
Steele, Sir Richard. On characters in coffee
houses. Spectator, No. 49.
Voltaire, F. M. A. de. The coffee-house; or. Fair
fugitive. A comedy. London, 1760.
Ward, Edward. The humours of a coffee house.
London, 1714.
MANUFACTURING PROCESSES
Brewing
Aborn, Edward. Better coffee making. Tea and
Coffee Trade Journal, 1912, Supplement to No. 6,
XXIII: 49-52; 1913, XXV: 568-674; 1919,
XXIX: 553-556.
—Better coffee for the army. The Tea and Coffee
Trade Journal, 1918, XXXV : 622-624.
—On boiling coffee. The Tea and Coffee Trade
Journal, 1919, XXXVI :48-49.
—Coffee-making developments. Tea and Coffee
Trade Journal, 1914, XXVII: 550-556.
— On coffee grinding and brewing. Yesterday, to-
day and tomorrow in better coffee making. Tea
and Coffee Trade Journal, 1916, XXXI: 670-
576.
Bacon, Raymond F. Efficiency of coffee-making
devices. Tea and Coffee Trade Journal, 1915,
XXIX: 427-429.
Best method of making coffee. Journal of Home
Economics, 1914, VI: 480-481.
Bonnette. Preparation du cafe en campagne.
filtre "en rognon" adapts a une marmite de
campement. Revue d'Hygi^ne, 1911, XXXIII:
459-462. Also, in Spanish, Revista de Sanidad
militar, 1911, ser. 3, 1:427-429.
BoYEs, E. How to obtain an ideal cup of coffee;
its cost and value. London, 1898. 16 pp.
Broadbent, Humphrey. The domestick coffee man,
shewing the true way of preparing and making
chocolate, coffee and tea. London, 1722.
Coffee making questionnaire. The Tea and Coffee
Trade Journal, 1917, XXXII :31-84.
DuFOUR, Philippe Sylvestre. Translation by John
Chamberlayne. The manner of making coffee,
tea, and chocolate. As it is used in most parts
of Europe, Asia, Africa and Spanish America.
Newlv done out of French and Spanish. London,
1685.' 116 pp.
Ellis, H. D. Notes on the earliest form of coffee-
pot. Preceedings of the Society of Antiquaries
of London, 1899, ser. 2, XVII: 390-394.
Forest, L. L'art de faire le caf6 du cuit a I'an-
cienne. Paris.
Frankel, E. M. Coffee making comparisons. Tea
and Coffee Trade Journal, 1917, XXXII: 336-
337.
752
ALL ABOUT COFFEE
Fraxkel, F. Hulton. Value of coffee brews. Tea
and Coflfee Trade Journal, 1917, XXXIII: 238.
Gentil, a. a, p. Dissertation sur le cafe et sur
les moyens propres a prevenir les effets qui re-
sultant de sa preparation, communement vicieuse,
et en rendre la boisson plus agreable et plus
salubre. Paris, 1797.
GiRAUD, A. Cafes de Paris, proc6des uniques pour
la preparation du cafe, glorias, grogs a I'araer-
icaine. Paris, 1853. 76 pp.
Harris, William B. Coffee making comparisons.
Tea and Coffee Trade Journal, 1917, XXXII:
336-337.
How to make a cup of coffee. Godey's Lady's
Book, LXIII: 107. Also, Sharpe's London
Magazine, XLIV: 259.
Massox, Ahb6. Le caf^, ses propri^tes, manifere
nouvelles de la preparer. Epernay, 1885. 24 pp.
Massox, p. Le parfait limonadier, ou la maniere
de preparer le th6, le caffe, le chocolat. Paris,
1705.
Meitzky, J. H. De vario coffeae potum parandi
modo. Wittebergioe, 1782.
T., C. DE. Cafe francais: recette economique.
Paris, 1824.
WiLHELM, R. C. "Drip" method the best. Tea and
Coffee Trade Journal, 1916, XXXI: 338-339.
WiLi-cox, O. W. About coffee-making methods.
Tea and Coffee Trade Journal, 1913, XXV: 618-
620.
Woodruff, Sybil. Standard strength in coffee
- brews. Tea and Coffee Trade Journal, 1916,
XXXI: 133-137.
World's largest coffee brewery. The Tea and Cof-
fee Trade Journal, 1919, XXXVI :230-233.
Glazing
Danxemiller, a. J. Coffee coating upheld. Tea
and Coffee Trade Journal, 1914, XXVII: 556-
557.
Harris, William B. Green and roast coffees, the
adulteration and misbranding thereof. American
Grocer, Nov. 19, 1913: 19-20.
Krzizan, R. Ueber Eiweiss-Kaffeeglasur. Zeit-
schrift fiir Nahrungs- und Genussmittel, 1906.
XII: 213-216.
ScHAER, E. Notizen liber die Firnisierung von
Kaffeebohnen. Zeitschrift fiir Untersuchung der
Nahrungs- und Genussmittel, 1906, XII: 60.
WiLLCox, O. W. Concerning glazed coffees. Tea
and Coffee Trade Journal, 1914, XXVI: 340-341
Miscellaneous
Cultured coffee activities. The Tea and Coffee
Trade Journal, 1921, XLI:456-458.
GiRAUD, A. Le cafe perfectionn6. Paris, 1846.
Harris, William B. Making coffee for the con-
sumer. Tea and Coffee Trade Journal, 1914,
XXVI: 335-338.
How soluble coffee is made. The Tea and Coffee
Trade Journal, 1921, XLI:162-166.
Preparation of coffee for use. Penny Magazine,
III: 228.
Walker, J. Handbook of coffee pulpers and pulp-
ing. Kandy, Ceylon, 1894: 36 pp.
Modifications, Caffein-Free, etc.
Daniels, Clinton K. Daniels' golden coffee. 1882,
3 pp.
Detoxication of coffee. Scientific American, Mar.
27, 1916, CXII: 292.
Non-Toxic coffee and tea. Scientific American.
Nov. 13, 1909, CI: 346.
WiMMER, K. Caffeinless coffee. Scientific Ameri-
can, Apr. 11, 1908, XCVIII: 258.
Polishing and Coloring
Halleux, Edmond. Le commerce des cafes avaries
colores ou enrobes. Annales des Falsifications,
1909, II, No. 7: 201-206.
MoRPURGO, G. Notizie suUa colorazione artificiale
del cafffe e sui mezzi scoprirla. Orosi, 1897,
XX: 397-403.
Raumer, E. von. Ueber den Nachweis kiinstlicher
Farbungen bei Rohkaffee. Forschungs-Berichte
fiber Lebensmittel, 1896. 111:333-338.
Sauvage, Edouard. Note sur les cafes verts lustres-
color6s. Leur role commercial. Annales des
Falsifications, 1910, 111:113-117.
Roasting and Grinding
AcH, F. J. Roasting costs and accounting. The
Tea and Coffee Trade Journal, 1912, XXIII:
133.
Brand. Carl W. Increased packing costs. The
Tea and Coffee Trade Journal, 1916, XXXI :567-
570.
Burns, A. Lincoln. Factorv efficiencv. The Tea
and Coffee Trade Journal,' 1912, XX'lII:30-.33.
Dausse. Manuel de I'amateur du cafe, ou I'art de
torrefier les cafes convenablement, base sui
I'analyse chemique. Paris, 1846.
Electric coffee roasting in Germanv. Electrical
World, 1906, XLVIII: 117-178..
Evolution of the coffee roaster. Tea and Coffee
Trade Journal, 1910, XVIII: 390-392.
Gillies, Edwin J. Getting a roasting profit. The
Tea and Coffee Trade Journal, 1912, XXIII:65-
68.
Holstad, S. H. Keeping tab on costs. The Tea
and Coffee Trade Journal, 1912, XXIII :68-70.
King, John E. Grinding and pacldng coffee. The
Tea and Coffee Trade Journal, 1917, XXXIII:
552-555.
Knowlton, H. S. Power installation of a coffee-
roasting and spicc-grinding plant. Electrical
World, 1905, XLV: 678-681.
McGarty, M. J. Scientific coffee roasting. The
Tea and Coffee Trade Journal, 1916, XXXI:
336-337.
TuRCQ Des Rosiers, Le. Le cafe: une revolution
dans ses proc^des de torrefaction. Paris, 1890.
WiLHELM, R. C. The color of the roast. The
Tea and Coffee Trade Journal, 1916, XXXI:
428-429.
Wright, George S. Automatic weighing tests.
The Tea and Coffee Trade Journal, 1915, XXIX:
568-570.
ZiNSMEisTER, Lee G. Roasting economies. Tea
and Coffee Trade Journal, 1914, XXVII: 558-
561; 1915, XXIX: 545-550.
MEDICINAL QUALITIES AND USES
As Antiseptic and Disinfectant
Barrier. Le cafe comme desinfectant. Journal de
Medecine et Pharmacie de I'Algerie, 1881, VI:
315-318.
Crane, W. H. and Friedlaxder, A. The antiseptic
qualities of coffee. American Medicine, 1903, VI:
403-407. M
Heim, L. Ueber den antiseptischen Werth dess/^
gerosteten Kaffees. Miinchener medicinische
Wochenschrift, 1886, XXXIV: 293-312.
Oppler. Der Kaffee als Antisepticum. Deutsche
militararztliche Zeitschrift, 1885, XIV: 567-577.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
753
Gexi:rai.
AiGNANT ou AiGKAN. Lc pFcstc mcdecin, avec un
traite du the, du caf6, en France. Paris, 1606.
B., W. Coffee, its origin, properties and virtues.
London, 1908.
Bi.EGNY, N. DE. Le bon usage du the, cafe et du
chocolat pour la prevention et la guerison des
maladies. Paris, 1687.
BouTEKoiJ, CoRXEii.i.E. Lc th^, le cafe, et le
chocolat. 1699.
Bradi.eV, Richard. The virtue and use of coifee,
with regard to the plague, and other infectious
distempers. London, 1721. 34 pp.
Brili.ie, L., and Dupre. E. fitude sur les cafes.
Communication a la Societ6 francaise d'hygifene.
Paris, 1889.
Ciiicou, T. Du cafe en hvgiene et en therapeutlque.
Paris, 1859.
Daupley, C. E. fitude sur le cafe; ses applications
h la medecine. Paris, 1867.
Eloy, Nicholas F. J. Question medico-politique,
si I'usage de cafe est avantageux a la sante, et
s'il peut se conciler avec le bien de I'etat dans
les provinces belgique. 1781.
FoNTAiKE. Hernie traite par I'infusion de cafe.
Paris, 1865.
Landahrhiico, Osmix. Nouvelles propri6tfes
therapeutiques du cafe vert dans les affections
du foie, les coliques hepatiques et le diab^tfe.
Montpellier, 1888.
I.EcoxTE, A. H. Emploi du cafe th^rapeutique.
Strasbourg, 1859.
Maori, D. Virtu del Kafe, bevanda introdotta
nuovamente nell' Italia. 2 ed. Roma, 1671, 16 pp.
Marvattd, Angel. Les boissons aromatiques. Le
cafe. In his, Les aliments d'epargne, Paris,
1874. 2 pt., pp. 292-320.
MiTNDAY (Mundy), Henry. Opera omnia —
Physica de acre vitali, esculentis, et potutentis,
cum appendice de pasergris in victu et choco-
latu, thea, coffea, tobaco. Leyden, 1885.
Petit, H. De la prolongation de la vie humaine
par le caf^. 2 6d. Paris, 1862.
RiCHET, Ch. Les poisons de I'intelligence, I'alcool.
le chloroforme, le haschich, I'opium, le cafe.
Paris, 1877.
Trifet, a. Du cafe, de ses effets sur I'homme.
Paris. 1847.
ViLi.EMus, A. Du cafe et de ses principales appli-
cations therapeutiques. Paris, 1875.
ViREV, J. J. Nouvelles consid6rations sur I'histoire
et les effets hygieniques du cafes et sur le genre
coffea. Paris, 1816.
Weiss, C. C. Coffee arabica nach seiner zerstorenden
Wirkung auf animalische Diinste als Schutzmittel
gegen Contagion vorschlagen. Friberg, 1832.
Periodicals
Alleged medicinal properties of the husk of the
coffee bean. The. Lancet, 1902, II: 944.
Balzac. Traite des excitants modernes. Alcool.
Sucre, the, cafe, tabac. Extrait fact, de la
Revue de Paris. 1852.
Beneficial effects of coffee as a drink. Review of
Reviews, 1906, XXXIII: 245-246.
Boltensteen, von. Zur Bewerkung des Kaffees
als Volksgenussmittel. Deutsche Arzte-Zeitung,
1905, 457-461.
Caron, D. A. Coffee and milk as a diet. Jour-
nal of Franklin Institute, LXIV:349.
Dalson, a. T., and Wetherill, C. M. Coffee as a
beverage. Journal of Franklin Inst. LX: 60-111.
DoMBROvsKi, I. F. Kofe i ycvo liechebniya svoista.
(Coffee and its medical properties.) Vracheb-
naya Gazeta, 1901, VIII: 733-736.
Dujardin-Beaumetz. On new cardiac medica-
ments. Therapeutic Gazette, 1884, n. s. V:444r-
449.
DusART, O. fitude critique sur Taction physiologi-
que et therapeutlque des medicaments dits an-
tideperditeurs : cafe, coca, etc. Tribune m^di-
cale, 1874, VII: 197-200.
English, W. Reply to objections against the use
of tea and coffee. Lancet, 1833-4, 11:76.
GoLiNER.' Ueber unschadlichen Kaffeegenuss.
Frauenarzt, 1906, XXI: 205.
Griswold, E. H. Coffee, its uses and medical
qualities. Southern Practitioner, 1882, IV: 269.
Hamilton, W. On the medical properties of the
coffee arabica. Pharmaceutical Journal, 1851,
X: 450-454.
Holland, J. W. Coffee as a preventive for ma-
larial diseases. Louisville Medical News, 1876,
I : 63-65.
HoRNEMANN, E. Kaffc-Sporgsmaalct. (Hygienic
value of coffee.) Hygieniske Meddelelser,
Kjbenhavn, 1864. IV: pt. 3, 286-310.
Medicinal properties of the husk of the coffee
bean. Scientific American Supplement, Mar. 7,
1903, LV: 22-123.
On the medical properties of coffea arabica. Phar-
maceutical Journal, X : 450-454.
Paul, J. On coffee, its medical, disinfectinjr, and
dietetic properties. New Jersey Medical Re-
porter, 1851-2, V: 265, 297.
RoQUEs, J. Note sur les proprietds m6dicales du
cafe. Bulletin general de Therapeutlque, 1835,
VIII: 289-294.
"S. CuLAPius." The healthfulness of coffee. Tea and
Coffee Trade Journal, 1913, XXV: 27-28, 129-130,
239-240, 345-346, 449-450; 1914, XXVI: 137-138.
SatTiBB. Tea and coffee as therapeutic substitutes
for coca and guarana. Ephemeris of Materia
Medica, 1884, II: 637-647.
Stutzer, a. Neues iiber die Wirkung der daraus
hergestellten Getranke in gesundheitlicher Bezie-
hung. Centralblatt fUr allgemeine Gesundheit-
spflege, 1892, XI: 145-151.
Weitenweber. W. R. Diatetischmedicinische Wiir-
digung des Caffees. Oesterreichische medicinische
Wochenschrift, 1845, pp. 1551, 1583.
— Therapeutische Abhandlung iiber den Caffee.
Medicinische Jahrbucher des kaiserl. konigl.
osterreichischen Staates. 1846. LVIII:1, 139.
PHYSIOLOGICAL EFFECTS
General Use and Misuse, Coffee-Habit, Etc.
Alcott, William Alexander. Tea and coffee:
their physical, intellectual, and moral effects on
the human system, rev. ed. Manchester, 1877.
31 pp. Also in German, Berlin, 1869.
Boehmer, G. R. Pr. . . . inessentiae coffeae in
novellis publicis nuper commendatae virtutem
inquirit. Wittebergae, 1782.
BoMBY, R. Le cafeisme. Paris, 1905.
Bona, G. Dalla. Dell' uso e dell' abuso del cafffe,
dissertazione storico-fisico-medica. Verona, 1761.
BouCARD, E. Du cafeisme ; contribution h une etude
synthetique. Paris, 1899.
Braeuninoeh, J. M. De potus cafffe usu et abusu.
Erfordiae, 1725.
Bruchman, Francis Ernest. A treatise on coffee
and a condemnation of its use, Brunswick, 1727.
754
ALL ABOUT COFFEE
Buc'hoz, p. J. Dissertation sur I'utilit^ et les bons
et mauvaises ^ffets du tabac, du caf6, du cacao
et du th^. Paris, 1775.
Calkins, A. Opium and opium appetite, with no-
tices of alcoholic beverages, Cannabis indica,
tobacco and coca, and tea and coffee, in their
hygienic aspects and pathologic relations. New
York, 1871.
Calvert, Esprit. An potus caf^ quotidianus val-
etudini tuendae vitae que producendse noxius?
Avenione, 1762.
Camerarius, E. Dissertationes tres, exhibentes. . .
III. Usum et abusum potum, "Thee," et "Caffe"
in his regionibus. Tubingae, 1694.
Cathomas, J. B. 1st der Kaffee und Teegenuss
gesundheitsschadlich ? St. Oallen, 1910.
Crothers, T. D. (Effects of the coffee habit.) In
his, Morphinism and narcomanias from other
drugs. 1902, pp. 303-305.
Davier de Breville, J. P. An a frequentiori potu
cafe vita brevior? Paris, 1715.
Debay, a. Les influences du chocolat, du the et
du caf6 sur I'economie humaine. Paris, 1864.
DE JussiEU, Joseph. Litteratis ne salubris coffeae
usus. Paris, 1741.
Deltel, fi. Du caf^ de ses effets physiologiques,
et de son emploi en therapeutique. Paris, 1851.
Duncan, Daniel. Wholesome advice against the
abuse of hot liquors, particularly coffee, tea,
chocolate, brandy and strong waters. London,
1706.
Garnier, a. Inaestio medica . . . discutienda in
Scholis Medicarum . . . Joanne-Francisco
Couthier, Praeside: An parisinio frequento potus
the, frequenti potu caffd salubrior? Paris, 1749.
4 pp.
Gayant, L. An a frequentiori potu cafe vita bre-
vior? Paris, 1715.
Germany. Kaiserliches Gesundheitsamt. Der
Kaffee; gemeinfassliche Darstellung der Gewin-
nung, Verwertung und Beurteilung des Kaffees
und seiner Ersatzstoffe. Berlin, 1903. 174 pp.
Gleditsch, J. G. De potus cofe abusu catalogum
morborum augente. Lipsiae, 1744.
Grimmann, J. N. De coffee potus usu noxio. 1730.
GiJNTHER, Leo. Der Caffee als Hausgetrank. Eine
Warnung. Leipzig, 1907.
Hahneman, S. a treatise on the effects of coffee.
Louisville, 1875.
Handbook of the medical sciences. Article on
coffee, V. Ill: p. 190.
HiLSCHERus, S. P. Pr. . . . de abusu potus caffee
in sexu sequiori. Jena, 1727.
Huss, M. Om kaffe, dess bruk och missbruk; en
folkskrift. Stockholm, 1865.
HussoN, C. Le cafe, la biere et le tabac. fitude
physiologique et chemique. Paris, 1879. 206 pp.
Klamann, Carl, publisher. Der Kaffee in seiner
heutigen Bedeutung als Nahrungs- und Genuss-
mittel. Hamburg, 1882. 48 pp.
Knoll, J. C. G. Lettre a un ami sur les operations
du caffe. Quedlinbowrg, 1752.
Lavedan, Antonio. Tratado de los usos, abusos
propriedades y virtudes del tabaco, caf6, te y
chocolate. Madrid, 1796. 237 pp.
Lemare-Piquet, de Honfleur. Etudes expdri-
mentales de medecin, contenant des observa-
tions sur Taction dynamique du cafe. Paris,
1864.
Linne, Carl von. Dissertatio medica, in qua potus
coffeae, leviter adumbratur. Upsaliae, 1761. 18
pp.
Lohand, Arnold. Coffee. In his. Health through
rational diet. Philadelphia, 1913. pp. 309-313.
Excerpts reprinted in, Tea and Coffee Trade
Journal, 1913, XXIV: 24-26.
— On other stimulants — tea, coffee, cocoa, tobacco:
their merits and disadvantages. In his. Old age
deferred, Philadelphia, 1910. pp. 362-367. Ex-
cerpts reprinted in. Tea and Coffee Trade Jour-
nal, 1911, XX: 188-190.
Mappus, M. De potu cafe. Argentorati, 1693.
Marchand, N. L. Recherches organographiques et
organogdniques sur le coffea arabica. L. Paris,
1864. 48 pp.
Masson, V. P. De I'usage et de Tabus du th6 et du
cafe. Paris, 1848.
Medicus, G. F. Anacrisis medico-historico-diaete-
tica de caffe et chocalate, etc., 1720.
Meisner, L. F. De caffe . . . anacrisis medico-
historico-diaetetica. Norimbergae, 1721.
Meplain, F. Du cafe, fitude de th6rapeutique
physiologique. Paris, 1868.
MiCHAELis, A. De koffie (Coffea arabica) als genot-
en geneesmiddel, naar hare botanische, dieete-
tische en geneeskrachtige eigenschappen. Am-
sterdam, 1894.
MosELEY, B. M. A treatise concerning the prop-
erties and effects of coffee. London, 1785. 69 pp.
Omout, R. Contribution a Tetude du cafeisme.
Montpellier, 1904.
Ottleben, F. B. De potus ex coffeae seminibus
parati noxio effectu. Helmstadii, 1870.
Plaz, a. G. De potus cofe abusu catalogum mor-
borum augente. Lipsiae, 1763. Also, in his, De
jucundis morborum causis, Lipsiae, 1754. pp. 20-
54.
Poore, G. V. Coffee and tea. London, 1883. 44 pp
Prozorovski, I. D. Vliyanie kofe i niekotorikh
yevo surrogatov na bolieznetvorniye nizshie or-
ganizml. (The effect of coffee and of some of its
substitutes upon pathogenic organisms.) St.
Petersburg, 1895.
Rambaldi, a. Ambrosia arabica, overo della salu-
tare bevanda cafe. Bologna, 1691.
Riant, Aime. Le caf6, le chocolat, le the. Paris,
1875. 160 pp.
Roche, A. Du cafe noir et de la cafeine au point
de vue de Taction physiologique et des applica-
tions a Thygiene. Montpellier, 1873.
Sabarthez, H. £tude physiologique du caf6.
Paris, 1870.
Saint-Arroman, a. De Taction du cafe, du th^,
et du chocolat sur la sant^, et de leur influence
sur Tintelligence et le moral de I'homme.
Bruxelles. 1845. Also in English, Philadelphia.
1846. 90 pp.
Saleeby, C. W. Tea, coffee, cocoa and tobacco. In
his. Health, strength and happiness, New York,
1908. pp. 190-203. Reprinted in. Tea and Cof-
fee Trade Journal, 1908, XV: 299-301
—Worry, drugs and drink. In his, Worry: the
disease of the age. New York, 1907. pp. 93-110.
Excerpts reprinted in. Tea and Coffee Trade
Journal, 1911, XX: 190-192.
Samuel, H. De usu et abusu potus coffee. Duis-
burgh ad Rhenum, 1747.
Schwarzkopf, S. A. Der Kaffee in Naturhistor-
ischer diaetetischer und medicinischer Hinsicht,
seine Bestandtheile, Anwendung, Wirkung und
Geschichte. Weimer, 1831.
Silvestri, Domenico. Dissertazione chimico-med-
ica sul caffe. Oenova, 1815.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
735
Sinclair, W. J. Beverages: tea, coffee, etc.
(Health lectures.) Manchester, 1881.
Smith, Hugh. An essay on the nerves ... to
which is added an essay on foreign teas, with
observations on mineral waters, coffee, and choc-
olate, etc. London, 1794.
Sparschuch, H. Potus coffeae leviter adumbratur.
Upsaliae, 1761.
Teifet, H. a. Histoire et physiologic du cafe. De
son action sur I'liomme a l'6tat de sant6 et a
r^tat de maladie. Paris, 1864.
V^AN DER Trappen, J. E. Specimen historico-
medicum de Coffea, etc. Trajecti ad Rhenum,
1843. 152 pp.
Weidenbusch, N, De noxis ex abusu potus caff6
in corpore humano. Moguntiae, 1769.
Weigl, J. Der Kaffeegenuss, eine Schadigung der
Leistungs- fahigheit. Miinchen, 1904.
— Kaffeetrinken und Gesundheit, 2 ed. Miinchen
1904.
Weitenweber, Wilhelm Rudolph. Der arabische
Kaffee, in naturgeschichtlicher, chemischer.
diatetischer und arztlicher Beziehung fiir aerzte
und nichtarzte geschildert. Prag, 1837. 130 pp.
ZiMMERMANN, Albrecht. Ecuigc pathologischc en
physiologische waarnemingen over koffic. Ba-
tavia, 1904. 105 pp.
Periodicals
Abd-Al-Kader Ansari Djezeri Hanbali. Auszug
aus dem Werke: Deutliche Darstellung liber den
erlaubten Gebrauch des Kaffee's; aus dem Ara-
bischen von von Sontheimer. Wissenschaftliche
Annalen der gesammten Heilkunde, 1834, XXIX:
129-160.
Abelin, J. and Perelstein, M. Ueber die fluch-
tigen Bestandteile des Kaffees. Miinchener
medicinische Wochenschrift, 1914, LXI : 867.
Amory, Robert. Coffee as a beverage: its use and
abuse. Boston Medical and Surgical Journal,
1909, CLX: 611-613. Also, Journal of Inebriety,
1910, XXXII: 23-27; Scientific American Sup-
plement, Jan. 1910, LXIX: 26-27.
^Balland, a. Les cafes. Annales d'Hygidne, 1904,
4 ser., II: 497-532.
I^Bardet, G. Un cas d'empoisonnement aigu par le
cafe. Bulletin general de Th6rapeutique, 1911,
CLXII: 56-59.
Jent, T. On the disorders produced by the use
of tea and coffee, with remarks on their treat-
ment. Lancet, 1843, I: 893.
|BoETTiCHER, J. G. Vcrtigo satis vehemens a nimio
potu coffee, aliisque in diaeta commissis errori-
bus. Acta physico-medica Academiae Caesareae
naturae curiosorum, etc. 1742, VI: 158-160.
Joruttau, H. Zur Frage der wirksamen Kaffee-
bestandteile. Zeitschrift fiir physikalische und
diatetische Therapie, 1908, XII: 138-145.
JouRET, O. Un nouveau cas de cafeisme chronique.
L'ficho medical du Nord, 1902, VI: 171-173.
Bram, I. The truth about coffee drinking. Medical
Summary, 1913, XXXV: 168-173.
Bridge, N. Coffee-drinking as a frequent cause of
disease. Association of American Physicians,
Transactions, 1893, VIII: 281-288.
Gabanes. Une 16gende sur le caf6. Journal de
Medecln de Paris, 1892, 2 ser., IV: 511. Also,
translated, Cincinnati Lancet-Clinic, 1893, n. s.
XXX: 13-17.
PCharakite, H. Coffee. Journal of the Medical
Society of New Jersey, 1911-2, VIII: 19-22.
Cheever, D. W. Properties of coffee. Atlantic
Monthly, 111:85.
Cole, J. On the deleterious effects produced by
drinking tea and coffee in excessive quantities.
Lancet, 1832-3, 11:274-478.
CoLLTTi, F. Suir azione del caffe. Gazzetta niedica
italiana, provincie venete, 1862, V:424, 429, 440,
458; 1863, VI: 20.
Combemale F. Quelques reflexions a propos d'un
cas de caf6isme chronique. Bulletin de la So-
ciety centrale de Medecine du Nord, 1900, 2 ser.,
IV: 77-87. Also, L'ficho medical du Nord, 1900,
IV: 97-100.
Commaille, a. fitude sur le caf6. Moniteur scien-
tifique, 1876, 3 ser., VI: 779-785.
CouGHLix, R. E. Use and abuse of coffee. New
York Medical Journal, 1911, XCIV: 283-285.
CouLiER. Note sur le caf6. Recueil de M6moires
de Medecine, de Chirurgie et de Pharmacie mil-
itaires, 1864, 3 ser., XI: 608-511.
Cretal, M. Un cas de cafeisme chronique. Bul-
letin de la Societe centrale de Medecine du Nord,
1901, 2 ser., V: 165-167. Also, L'£cho medical
du Nord, 1901, V:318.
CuRscHMANN, H. Eiu Fall von Kaffee-intoxica-
tion. Deutsche Klinik, 1873, XXV: 377-380.
Daniel, M. Die Schadlichkeit des Kaffees. Leip-
ziger medizinische Monatsschrift, 1907, XVI;
38-40.
DA Sn-VA, P. J. O caf6 e a saude publica. Cor-
reiro (O) medico de Lisboa, 1873-4, 111:282;
1874-5, IV: 27, 206.
Dorvault. Note pharmacologique sur le cafe et
la caf^ine. Bulletin g6n6ral de Therapeutique,
1850, XXXVIII: 498-502.
DupouY. De I'influence du cafe au point de vue
social et hygienique. M^decin, 1878, IV: no.
44, 1.
Fegraeus, E. Kaffee missbruket och folkhalian.
(The misuse of coffee and health.) Halsovanner,
1913, XXVIII: 257-261.
Fort, J. A. Des effets physiologiques du caf^;
d'apr^s des experiences faites sur I'auteur. Bul-
letin general de Th6rapeutique, 1883, CIV: 650-
554. Also, Comptes rendus de I'Acaddmie des
Sciences, 1883, XCVI: 793-796.
Frankel, F. Hulton. Coffee truly a food. The
Tea and Coffee Trade Journal, 1917, XXXII :142.
Gasparin. Sur le regime alimentaire des mineurs
beiges; influence remarquable du caf6. Bulletin
general de Therapeutique, 1850, XXXVIII: 380-
383. Also, Comptes rendus de 1' Academic des
Sciences, 1850, XXX: 397-403.
GiLLEs DE LA Tourette, and Gasxe. Sur I'intoxica-
tion chronique par le cafe. Bulletin et Memoires
de la Socidte m6dicale des Hopitaux, 1895, 3 ser.,
XII: 658-^66.
GouREwiTSCH, D. Ueber des Verhalten des Coffein
im Tierkorper mit Riicksicht auf die Ange-
wohnung. Archiv fiir experimentelle Pathologic
und Pharmakologie, 1907, LVII: 214-221.
GuELLioT, O. Du cafdisme chronique. Union med-
icale et scientiftque du Nord-Est, 1885, IX: 181,
221.
GuiMARAES, E. A, R. Sur Taction physiologique
du cafe. Comptes rendus de rAcademie des
Sciences, 1882, XCV: 1372-1374.
— Sur Taction physiologique et hygienique du caf^
Archives de Physiologic normale et pathologique,
1884, 3 ser., IV: 262-286.
— De Tusage et de Tabus du cafe. Archives dci
756
ALL ABOUT COFFEE
Physiologic nornialc et pathologique, 1883, 3
ser., 1:312-319.
GuiMAKAES, E. A. R. and Raposo, A. E. J. Ac^ao
physiologica e therapeutica do caf6. Gazeta
medica brazileira, 1882, I: 121, 179, 228, 275.
H., D. P. An effect of coffee. British Medical
Journal, 1910, 1:300.
Hahtwicii, C. Beitrage zur Kenntniss des Kaffees.
Zeitschrift fur Untersuchung der Nahrungs-
und Genussmittel, 1909, XVIII: 721-733.
Heinrich, J. B. Die Kaffefrage in ihrer volks-
hygienischen und volkswirtschaftlichen Bedeu-
tung. Medlzinische Klinik, 1906, 11:383-385.
Also, in Dutch, Geneeskundige Courant voor bet
Koningrijk der Nederlanden, 1907, LXI:321.
Helbich. Wypadki z naduzycia kawy. (On the
abuse of coffee.) Gazeta lekarska, 1870, IX:
257-262.
Hennig, C. Der Kaffee vom arztlichen Stand-
punkte. Memorabilien. Heilbroun, 1882, n. s., II:
217-221.
— Weitere Beige fiir das Schadliche des orientalis-
chen Kaffees betreffs Gesunder. Memorabilien.
Heilbroun, 1886, n. s., VI: 468.
Hueppe,'F. Ueber den Missbrauch von Kaffe, Blat-
ter fur Gesundheitspflege, 1906, VI: 121-126.
Jackson, S. On the influence upon health of the
introduction of tea and coffee in large propor-
tion into the dietary of children and the labour-
ing classes. American Medical Association,
Transactions, 1849, 11:635-644. Also, American
Journal of Medical Science, 1849, n. s., XVIII:
79-86.
Karo. Ueber den Kaffee. Archiv gemeinniitziger
physischer und medizinischer Kenntniss, 1788-9,
11:1, 584.
Leh-mann, Julius. Ueber den Kaffee als Getrank
in chemisch- physiologischer Hinsicht. Annalen
der Chemie, 1853, LXXXVII: 205-217. Also,
in English, Medical Examiner, 1854, X: 19, 98.
Lerebouixet, I^. Le caf6isme. Gazette hebdoma-
daire de M^decine et Chirurgie, 1885, 2 ser.,
XXII: 626-628.
Lewis, Charles. Educating the physician. The
Tea and Coffee Trade Journal, 1914, XXVII:
544-547.
LiEBiG, J. VON. Coffee. Pharmaceutical Journal,
1886, II. pt. 7, 412, 416. Also, in German, Zeit-
schrift fur gerichtliche Medicin, 1867, 111:78, 88.
Lloyd, John Uri. Concerning coffee. Tea and
Coffee Trade Journal, 1913, XXV: 555-560.
Love, I. N. Coffee; its use and abuse. Journal
of the American Medical Association, 1891,
XVI: 219-221.
Mendel, F. Die schadlichen Folgen des chronis-
chen Kaffeemissbrauchs. Berliner klinische
Wochenschrift, 1889, XXVI: 880-887.
NiLES, George M. A dietetist on coffee. Tea and
Coffee Trade Journal, 1910, XIX: 27-29.
^Some facts and fallacies about coffee. Gulf
States Journal of Medicine and Surgerv, 1910,
XVI: 352-357.
Nystrom, a. Foredrag ofver kaffe och the. Upsala
Lakareforeninge Forhandlingar, 1865-6, 1:129-
132.
Paolucci, F. Deir infusodi cafffe. II Raccoglitore
medico, 1882, 4 ser., XVIII: 531-541.
Papillon, G. E. Accidents coasecutifs a la sup-
pression brusque du cafe chez les cafeiques;
cafe et antipyrine. France medicale, 1899,
XLVI:753.
PouLET, V. Inconv^nients de I'usage des cafeiques.
Bulletin medical de Vosges, 1897-8, II, no. 45,
45-55.
Prescott, a. B. Coffee in comparison with tea.
Physician and Surgeon, Ann Arbor, 1880, II:
337-343.
Rabuteau. Sur un raoyen propre a annuler les
effets de I'alimentation insuffisante. Comptes
rendus de I'Academie des Sciences, 1870,
LXXXI: 426-428.
Richardson, H. The coffee habit. Dietetic and
Hygienic Gazette, 1906, XXII: 385-389.
RocH, M. La cafeisme chronique. Archives des
Maladies du Coeur, 1916. IX: 19-33. Also,
Revue medicale de la Suisse Romandc, 1914,
XXXIV: 217-219.
ScoHY. De Taction du cafe. Archives beiges de
Medecine militaires. 1857, XX: 183-189.
ScHtJRHOFF. 1st der maasvolle Gebrauch von Alko-
hol, Kaffee, Tabac usw. dem Menschen schadlich?
Deutsch - Amerikanische Apotheker - Zeitung,
1911-2, XXXII: 4.
Trigg, Charles W. Coffee's dietetic value. Tea
and Coffee Trade Journal; 1919, XXXVII: 270.
— Saccharin in tea and coffee. Tea and Coffee
Trade Journal, 1920, XXXVIII: 697.
Unzer, J. A. Vom Caffee. Der Arzt, 1769, II:
126-139.
Use of coffee as a beverage. Harper's Weekly, Jan.
21, 1911, LV: 26.
ViAUD. Le vertige stomacal et le cafeisme. Trib-
une medicale, 2 ser., XXIX: 928-930.
Wallace. On the decrease in use of coffee as a
beverage. Analyst, 1884, IX: 42-44. Also,
Polyclinic, 1883-4, I: 169.
Wesselhoeft, W. On the effects of coffee and
their remedy. Journal of Inebriety, 1909, XXXI:
176-182. Also, Boston Medical and Surgical
Journal, 1909, CLX: 608-611.
Wiley, Harvey W. Our national beverages. Tea
and Coffee Trade Journal, 1912, XXII, Supple-
ment to no. 6, 33-38.
—Temperance in tea and coffee drinking. Tea and
Coffee Trade Journal, 1910, XIX: 273-274.
WiLHiTE, p. A. Coffee and its effects. Trans-
actions of the South Carolina Medical Associa-
tion, 1882, XXXII: 83-86.
ZoBEL. Reflexionen iiber kaffeeinhaltige Genus-
smittel. Viertelj ahrsschrif t fiir die praktische
Heilkunde, 1858, 11:105-136.
Of Caffein-Free Coffee
Bertrand, Gabriel. Sur les cafes sans caf^ine.
Comptes rendus de I'Academie des Sciences,
1905. CXLI: 209-211. Also, Bulletin des Sci-
ences Pharmacologiques, 1905, XII: 152.
BoRDET, M. Sur un caf6 rendu inoffensif par la
decafeination. Bulletin general de Th6rapeu-
tique, 1910, CLIX: 770-773.
Chassevant, Allyre. Emploi du caf6 ddcafdin^
en therapeutique. Bulletin g^n^ral de Th6rapeu-
tique, 1912, CLXIV: 860-864.
Einfelut, W. Koffeinfreier Kaffee. Therapeu-
tische Neuheiten, 1909, IV: 83-86.
Glucksmann, S., and Gerini, C. Einige Unter-
suchungen iiber die physiologische Wirkung von
koffeinfreien kaffee. Zeitschrift fiir Unter-
suchung der Nahrungs- und Genussmittel, 1910.
XX: 100.
Harnack, E. Ueber den coffeinfreien Kaffee
Deutsche medlzinische Wochenschrift, 1908,
XXXIV: 1943-1946; 1909, XXXV: 254.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
757
KAKiaA.WA. Kommt dem koflfeinfreien Kaffee eine
diuretische Wirkung su? Archiv fiir Hvgiene,
1913, LXXXI: 43-47.
Lehmann, K. B. Die wirksamen und vvertvoUen
Bestandteile des Kaffeegetriinks mit besonderer
Berucksichtigung des koffeinfreien Kaflfees Hag.
Miinchner medizinische Wochenschrift, 1913,
LX: 281, 35T.
Lehmann, K. B., and Wiliielm, F. Besitzt das
Coffeon und die coffeinfreien Kaflfeesurrogate
eine kaffeeartige Wirkung. Archiv fiir Hygiene,
1898, XXXII: 310-326.
Lendrich, K., and Muhdfield, R. Coffeinfreier
Kaffee. Zeitschrift fiir Untersuchung der Nah-
rungs- und Genussmittel, 1908, XV: 705-715.
Merck's manual of the materia medica. 4th ed.
New York, 1911. Dekofa, pt. I, p. 28.
MuNz, p. Kaffeinfreier Kaffee, ein neues Genuss-
mittel. Arzt als Ersieher, 1908, IV: 40.
Reinsch. Kaffeinfreier Kaffee. Berichte des Stadt
Untersuchungs Amtes Altona, 1906.
ScHLEsiNGER, E. Zur Gesichtc des coffeinfreien
Kaffees. Deutsche medizinische Wochenschrift,
1908, XXXIV: 2228.
WiMMER, K. Ueber coffeinfreien Kaffee, ein neues
Genussmittel. Verhandlung der Gesellschaft
deutscher Naturforscher und Aerzte, 1909, pt.
2, 111-113.
Of Chewixg Coffee
Coffee-Chewing habit. Current Literature, 1903,
XXXIV: 496.
Of Different Constituents
Butler, George F. (Caffein). In his, Materia
Medica, therapeutics and pharmacology. 5th ed..
1906. pp. 256-259.
Hare, H. Amory. Physiological action of caffein.
In his. Practical therapeutics. 13th ed., 1909.
p. 142.
Henneguy, Louis-Felix. Cafeine. In his, Etude
physiologique sur Taction des poisons, pp. 85"
89. Inaugural dissertation, Montpellier, 1875.
Huchard, Henry. De la cafeine dans les affec-
tions du coeur. O. Bois, 1882.
Johannsen. tJber die Wirkungen des Kaffein.
Inaugural dissertation, Dorpat, 1869.
KuNKEL, A. J. Handbuch der Toxikologie. Jena.
1899. 2 V. See index: Coffein, Kaffee.
Leblond. fitude physiologique et therapeutique de
la cafeine. Paris, 1883. 173 pp.
Lewin, L. (Caffein poisoning.) In his, Traits de
toxicologic, 1903, pp. 690-692.
Meyer, Hans H. and Gottlieb, R. Pharmacology,
clinical and experimental, tr. by John T. Halsey.
Philadelphia and London, 1914. 604 pp. See in-
dex: Caffeine.
Parisot, E. :fitude physiologique de Taction de la
cafeine. Paris, 1890. 112 pp.
f Potter, S. O. L. Caffeina, caffeine. Physiological
action. Therapeutics. In his, Therapeutics, ma-
teria medica and pharmacy, 4th ed. 1912. pp. 186-
192.
Rivers, W. H. R. The influence of alcohol and
other drugs on fatigue. II. Caffeine. London.
1908. pp. 22-^50, 127-130.
ScHUTZKWER, Nachum. Das Coffein und sein Ver-
halten im Thierkorper. Inaugural dissertation,
Konigsherg, 1882. 25 pp. Also, Schmidt's
Jahrbucher, 1883, CXCVIII: 232-233.
VoiT, Carl. Untersuchung iiber die Wirkung des
Kaffee's auf den thierischen Organismus. In his,
Untersuchung iiber den Einfluss des Kochsalzes,
des Kaffee's und der Muskelbewegungen, Miin-
chen, 1860. pp. 67-147.
Weigl, J. Das Koffein. Leipzig, 1905.
WiLHELM, F. 1st das Coffeon an der Kaffeewirkung
beteiligt? Wiirzburg, 1895.
Periodicals
Albanese, Manfredi. Ueber die Bildung von 3-
Methyl-xanthin aus Coffein im thierischen Organ-
ismus. Berichte der deutschen cheniischen Gesell-
schaft, 1899, XXXII; no. 360, 2280-2282.
— Ueber das Verhalten des Coffeins und des Theo-
bromins im Organismus. Archiv fiir experi-
mentelle Pathologic und Pharmakologie, 1895.
XXXV: 449-466.
Albers, J. F. H. Ueber die eigenthiimliche Wir-
kung des Theinum und Coffeinuni citricum auf
den thierischen Korper. Deutsche Klinik, 1852,
IV: 577-579.
Aubert, H. Ueber den Coffeingehalt des Kaffee-
getrankes und iiber die Wirkungen des Coffeins,
Archiv fiir die gesammte Phvsiologie des Men-
schen und der Thiere, 1872, V: 589-628.
BiNZ, C. Beitrag zur Toxikologie des Coffeins.
Archiv fiir experimentelle Pathologic und Phar-
makologie, 1891, XXVIII: 197-200.
BoNDZYNSKi, St. and Gottlieb, R. Ueber Meth-
ylxanthin, ein Stoffwechselprodukt des Theo-
bromin und Coffein. Archiv fiir experimentelle
Pathologic und Pharmakologie, 1895, XXXVI:
45-55. Also, Berichte der deutschen chemischen
Gesellschaft, 1895, XXVIII: no. 221, 1113-1118.
Busquet, H. and Tiffeneau, M. Du role de la
cafeine dans Taction cardiaque du cafe. Comptes
rendus de TAcad^mie des Sciences, 1912, CLVs
362-365.
Cogswell, Charles. On the local action of poisons.
Lancet, 1852, No. 2:488-491.
Fere, Charles. Note sur Tinfluence de la theo-
bromine sur le travail. Comptes rendus de la
Soci6te de Biologic, 1901, 2. ser., Illr 593-594,
627-629.
Frankel, F. Hulton. Caffein as a body warmer.
Tea and Coffee Trade Journal, 1916, XXXI:
354-355.
Ganzer, E. Ueber ein neues Verfahren der Kaffee-
Entgiltung auf physikalischer Grundlage. Der
praktische Arzt, 1914, LIV: 152-175,
Gerbis, H. Vergiftung mit anilinolhaltigen Kaffee.
Aerztliche Sachverstandigen-Zeitung, 1913, XIX:
467.
Geraty, T. Poisoning by citrate of caffeine. Lan-
cet, 1889, I: 219.
GouGET, A. Coffee and tea poisoning. Journal of
Inebriety, 1908, XXX: 92-102.
Hanna, W. J. Chronic coffee poisoning. Occiden-
tal Medical Times, 1903, XVII: 148.
Hare, H. A. and Marshall, J. The physiological
effects of the empyreumatic oil of coffee or caf-
feon. Medical News, 1888, LII: 337-^39.
Haenack, E. Zur Frage nach der Schadlichkeit
des Kaffees. Deutsche medizinische Wochen-
schrift, 1907, XXXIII: 26-28.
Hollinoworth, H. L, Caffein as a stimulant. Tea
and Coffee Trade Journal, 1912, XXIII, Sup-
plement to No. 6 : 52-56.
loTEYKO, J. fitude physiologique et mathdmatique.
IX. Cafeine. Institut Solvay. Travaux de
Laboratoire, 1903, VI: 474-485.
Jacobj, C, and Golowinski. Ein Beitrag zur
Frage der verschiedenen Wirkung des Coffeins
auf Rana esculenta und Rana temporaria.
758
ALL ABOUT COFFEE
Archiv fiir experimentelle Pathologic und Phar-
makologie, 1908, Supplement, 286-298.
iCoscHLAKOFF. Bcobaclitungen liber die Wirkung
des citrone sauren CoflPein's. Virchow's Archiv
fiir pathologische Anatomie und Physiologic,
1864, XXXI: 436-443.
KvRZAK. Die Wirkungcn des KaffeinS auf Thicrc.
Schmidt's Jahrbucher, 1861, CIX: 172.
Kbuger, Martin. Ueber den Abbau des Caffcins
im Organismus des Hundes. Berichte der
deutschen chemischen Gesellschaft, 1899, XXXII,
No. 431, 2818.
■ — Ueber den Abbau des Caffeins im Organismus
des Kaninchens. Berichte der deutschen chem-
ischen Gesellschaft, 1899, XXXII, No. 488: 3836.
Laxgfeld, H. S. Tests with alcohol and caffeine.
Psychological Review, 1911, XVIII: 413, 424.
Levex, M. Action physiologique et m6dicamen-
teuse de la cafeine. Archives de Physiologic,
1869, I: 179-189.
Levinthal, Walter. Zum Abbau des Xanthins
und Coffeins im Organismus des Menschen. Zeit-
schrift fiir physiologische Chemie, 1912,
LXXVII: 259-279.
Maiy, Richard, and Andreasch, Rudolf. Studien
iiber Caffein und Theobromin. Monatshefte fiir
Chemie (Sitzungs-berichte der Kaiserlichen Aka-
demie der Wissenschaften), 1883, IV: 369-387.
Matthews, W. Observations on the use of coffee
as a cause of disease. Northwest Medical and
Surgical Journal, 1850-1, VII: 46-50.
Pardi. Ricerche intormo alia funzione spermato-
genetica negli animali avvelenati con caffe. Lo
Sperimentalc, LXV: 17-34.
Peset Cervera, V. Del envenenamiento por el cafe.
Genlo medico-quirurgico, 1877, XXIII: 670-673.
Petresco, Z. Sur Paction hypercinetique de la
cafeine a hautes doses ou doses therapeutiques.
Verhandlungen des X, internationalen medicini-
schcn Congresses, Berlin, 1890, II, pt. 4, 5-10.
Pilcher, J. D. Alcohol and caffeine: a study of
antagonism and synergism. Journal of Pharma-
cology and Experimental Therapeutics, 1911, III:
267-298.
Reichert, E. T. The action of caffein on tissue
metamorphosis and heat phenomena. New York
Medical Journal, 1890, LI: 456-459.
■ — The empyreumatic oil of coffee, or caffeone.
Medical News, 1890, LVI: 476-478.
RiBATJT, H. Influence de la cafeine sur la pro-
duction de chaleur chez I'animal. Comptes rendus
de la Societe de Biologic, 1901, LIII (2. ser..
Ill): 295-296.
Riegel, F. Ueber die therapeutische Verwendung
der Caffein-praparate. Wiener medizinische
Blatter, 1884, VII: 615-619. Also, Berlin klini-
sche Wochenschrift, 1884, XXI: 289.
Ruoh, J. T. Profound toxic effects from the drink-
ing of large amounts of strong coffee. Proceed-
ings of the Philadelphia County Medical Society,
1896, XVII: 195. Also, Medical and Surgical
Reporter, 1896, LXXV: 549; Quarterly Journal
of Inebriety, 1897, XIX: 62-64.
Salant, William, and Rieger, J. B. Elimination
and toxicity of caffein in nephrectomized rab-
bits. U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. Bureau of
Chemistry. Bulletin, 1913, CLXVI.
—Toxicity of caffein: an experimental study on
different species of animals. U. S. Dept. of Agri-
culture. Bureau of Chemistry. Bulletin, 1912,
CXLVIII.
ScHMiD, Julius. Der Abbau methylierter Xanthine.
Zeitschrift fiir physiologische Chemie, 1910.
LXVII: 156-160.
ScHMiEDEBERG, OswALD. Ucbcr die Verschieden-
heit der Coffein-wirkung an Rana temporaria L.
und Rana esculenta L. Archiv fiir experimen-
telle Pathologic und Pharmakologie, 1874, II:
62-69.
Stuhlmann, J. and Falck, C. P. Beitrage zur
Kenntniss der Wirkungcn des Kaffeins. Vir-
chow's Archiv fiir pathologische Anatomie und
Physiologic, 1857, XI: 324^383.
Stenstrom, Thor. tjber die Coffeinhyperglykamie.
Biochemische Zeitschrift, 1913, XLIX: 225-231
Sterrett, R. M. Coffee; a drug. Chicago Medical
Times, Jan. 1910, XLIII.
The True "poison in the coffee cup." Medical
Record, 1885, XXVII: 191.
Untersuchung einer vermutheten Vergiftung
durch Kaffce. Blatter fiir gcrichtliche Anthro-
pologic, 1862, XIII: 137-141.
Waentig, Percy. tJber den Gehalt des Kaffee-
getrankes an Koffein und die Verfahren zu seiner
Ermittelung. Arbeiten a. d. kaiserl. Gesundhcit-
samte, 1906, XXIII: 315-332.
Wedemeyer, T. Habituation of the psychic func-
tions to caffein. Arch., exp. Path. Phar., 1920,
85:339-58.
Weismann. Ein Fall von schweren Vergiftungs
erscheinungcn durch einmaligen unmassigen
Genuss von Kaffec. Zeitschrift fiir Bahn- und
Bahnkasscnarztc, 1906, I: 306.
Zexetz. Dangers of caffeine. Pharmaceutical
Journal, 1900, 4th ser., X: 333.
Of Green Coffee
Landarrahilco, O. Du cafe vert envisage au point
de vuc de ses applications therapeutiques dans
Ic traitcmcnt de la goutte, de la gravelle, des
coliques nephretiques et de la migraine. Mont-
pellier, 1866.
Perret, E. Sur I'extrait physiologique de cafe
vert. Bulletin general de Th6rapeutique, 1910,
CLX: 214-222.
Squibb. Fluid extract of green coffee. Ephemeris
of materia medica, 1884, II: 616-619.
Or Leaves of Coffee Tree
Ox the dried coffee leaf of Sumatra. Pharmaceu-
tical Journal, XIII: 207-209, 382-384.
Of Roasted Coffee
BuRMANX, J. Rechcrches chimiques ct physiolo-
giques sur les principes nocifs du cafe torrefie.
Bulletin general de Therapeutique, 1913, CLXVI:
379-400.
Grindel. Fortgesctzte Erfahrungen iiber den
rohcn Caffee. Journal der practischen Arzney-
kunde und Wundarzneykunst, 1809, XXIX, pt.
12, 11-30.
Offret. Observations sur Taction physiologique du
cafe, selon ses diverses torrefactions. Nantes,
1862.
Of Smoking Coffee
Schmidt. Ueber Caffee-Raucherung. Mittheilun-
gen aus dem Gebietc der Medicin Chirurgie und
Pharmacie, 1832, I: 217-220.
Traver, L. Insanity from smoking coffee. Medical
and Surgical Reporter, 1864-5, XII: 406.
Ox Children
Jacksox^, S. On the influence upon health of the
introduction of tea and coffee in large proportion
into the dietary of children and the labouring
classes. American Medical Association. Trans-
BIBLIOGRAPHY
759
actions, 1848, II: 635-644. Also, American Jour-
nal of Medical Science, 1849, n. s. XVIII: 79-86.
Taylor, C. K. E"ffects of coffee drinking on chil-
dren Psycliological Clinic, 1912-13, VI: 56-58.
Wn,i.iA3is, T. A. A case of psychasthenia in a
child aged two years, due to coffee drinking.
Archives of Pediatrics, 1910, XXVII: 778-782.
Also, Pacific Medical Journal, 1911, LIV: 221-
225.
On Different Organs and Systems
BLADDER
Becher, Carl. Coffein als Herztonicum und
Diureticum. Wiener Medizinische Blatter, 1884.
VII, columns, 639-644.
Besser. Die harnsaurevermehrende Wirkung des
Kaffees und der Methylxanthin beim Normalen
und Gichtkranken. Therapie der Gegenwart,
1909, n. s. XI: 321-327.
BoNDZYNSKi, St., and Gottlieb, R. tjber die Con-
stitution des nach Coffein und Theobromin im
Harne auftretenden Methylxanthins. Archiv fiir
experimentelle Pathologic und Pharmakologie.
1896, XXXAai: 385-388.
DuMONT, A. Experiences relative a I'influence du
caf^ sur Texcretion de I'uree urinaire. Revue
medicale, 1888, VII: 257-260.
Fauvel. Action du chocolat et du caf6 sur I'ex-
cretion urique. Comptes rendus de la Societe
de Biologic, 1908, LXIV: 854-856.
— Influence du chocolat et du cafe sur I'acide
urique. Comptes rendus de I'Acad^mie des
Sciences, 1906, CXLII: 1428-1430; 1909.
CXI.VIII: 1541-1544.
FuBiNi, S., and Ottolenghi. Influenza della caf-
feina e dell' infuso cafffe sulla quantita giorna-
liera di urea emessa dall' uomo colle urine.
Giornale della reale Accademia di Medicina di
rOrino, 1882, ser. 3, XXX: 570-574.
LoEwi, O. Ueber den Mechanismus der Coffein-
diurese. Archiv fiir experimentelle Pathologic
und Pharmakologie, 1905, LIII: 15-32.
Mendel, L. B. Caffein and uric acid. Tea and
Coffee Trade Journal, 1917, XXXIII: 142-145.
RosT, E. C. Ueber die Ausscheidung des Coffein
und Theobromin im Harn. Archiv fiir experi-
mentelle Pathologic und Pharmakologie, 1895,
XXXVI: 56-71.
Roux, E. Des variations dans la quantit6 d'uree
excretee avec une alimentation normale et sous
I'influence du the et du caf6. Comptes rendus de
r Academic des Sciences, 1873, LXXVII: 365-
367.
S., M. De I'emploi du caf6 comme diur^tique.
Bulletin general de Therapeutique, 1839, XVI:
144-148.
SciiiTTENHELM, Alfred. Zut Fragc der harn-
saurevermehrenden Wirkung von Kaffee und
Tee und ihrer Bedeutung in der Gichttherapie.
Therapeutische Monatshefte, 1910, XXIV: 113-
116.
ScHROEDER,W.voN. Ucbcr die diuretische Wirkung
des Coffeins und der zu derselben Gruppe
gehorenden Substanzen. Archiv fiir experimen-
telle Pathologic und Pharmakologie, 1887, XXIV:
85-108.
— Ueber die Wirkung des Coffeins als Diureticum.
Archiv fiir experimentelle Pathologic und Phar-
makologie, 1887, XXII: 39-61.
Wardei.l, Emma L. Caffein and uric acid. Tea
and Coffee Trade Journal, 1917, XXXIII: 142-
145.
circulation, HEART, ETC.
Archangelsky, C. T. Die Wirkung des Destillats
von Kaffee und von Thee auf Athmung und
Herz. Archives internationales de Pharmaco-
dynamic, 1900, VII: 405-424.
AuBERT, H., and Dehn, A. Ueber die Wirkungen
des Kaffees, des Fleischextractes und der Kali-
salze auf Hersthatigkeit und Blutdruck. Archiv
fur die gesammte Physiologic, 1874, IX: 115-
155.
Becher, Carl. Coffein als Herztonicum und
Diureticum. Wiener Medizinische Blatter, 1884,
VII, columns, 639-644.
Beco, Lucien, and Plumier, Leon. Action cardio-
vasculaire de quelques d6riv6s xanthiques. Jour-
nal de Physiologic et Pathologic g6n6rale, 1906,
VIII: 10-21.
BiNz, C. Die Wirkung des Destillats von Kaffee
und Thee auf Athmung und Herz. Centralblatt
fiir innere Medicin, 1900, XXI: 1169-1176.
Bock, Johannes. Ueber die Wirkung des Cof-
feins und des Theobromins auf das Herz. Archiv
fiir experimentelle Pathologic und Pharma-
kologie, 1900, XLIII: 367-399.
CouTY, GuiMARAEs, and NiOBEY. De Taction du
caf6 sur la composition du sang et les 6changes
nutritifs. Comptes rendus de I'Acaddmie des
Sciences, 1884, XCIX: 85-87.
CusHNY, A. R., and Van Naten, B. K. On the
action of caffeine on the mammalian heart.
Archives internationales de Pharmacodynamic,
1901, IX: 169-180.
Dumas, Adolphe. Bons cffets de la caf6ine dani
un cas de paralysie du coeur. Paris, 1886.
Fredericq, Henri. L'cxcitabilit6 du vague car-
diaque et ses modifications sous I'influence de la
cafeine. Archives internationales de Physiologic,
1913, XIII: 107-125.
Frknkel, Sophie. Kllnische Untersuchungen iiber
die Wirkung von Coffein, Morphium, Atropin,
Secale cormetum und Digitalis auf den arteriel-
len Blutdruck. Deutsches Archiv fiir kllnische
Medizin, 1890, XLVI: 542-582.
Furst. Die Gefahren des Kaffees bei Herz- und
Arterien-leiden. Deutsche medicinische Presse,
1905, IX: 91.
Hedbom, Karl. Ueber die Einwirkung verschie-
dener Stoffe auf das isolirte Saugethierherz.
Skandinavisches Archiv fiir Physiologic, 1899
IX: 1-72.
HucHARD, Henri. De la cafeine dans les affec-
tions du coeur. Bulletin g6n6ral de Therapeu-
tique, 1882, CIII: 145-154.
Landergren, E., and Tioehstedt, R. Studien iiber
die Blutvcrthcilung im Korper. Skandinavisches
Archiv fur Physiologic, 1892-3, IV: 241-280.
LoEB, Oswald. Ueber die Beeinflussung des Ko-
ronarkreislaufs durch einige Gifte. Archiv fiir
experimentelle Pathologic und Pharmakologie,
1904, LI: 64-83.
MiRANO, G. C. L'azione della caffeina sulla pres-
sione del pulso. La Riforma medica, 1906, XXI;
No. 38. Reviewed in, Biochemisches Centralblatt,
1906-7, V: 205.
Pachon, v., and Ferrot, E. Sur Taction cardio-
vasculaire du cafe vert, comparde a celle des
doses correspondantes de cafeine. Comptes
rendus de 1' Academic des Sciences, 1910, CL:
1703-1705.
Phillips, C. D. F., and Bradford, J. R. On the
action of certain drugs on the circulation and
760
ALL ABOUT COFFEE
secretion of the kidney. Journal of Physiology,
1887, VIII: 117-132.
PiLCiiEH, J. D. The action of caffeine on the mam-
malian heart. Journal of Pharmacology and
Experimental Therapeutics, 1912, III: 609-624
Rabe. The action of coronary vessels to drugs
Zeitschrift fiir experimentelle Pathologic, 1912,
XI: 175.
Reicheiit, E. T. Action de la cafeine sur la cir-
culation. Bulletin general de Therapeutique,
CXIX: 86. Also in English, Therapeutic Ga-
zette, 1890, n. s. VI: 294.
Santesson, C. G. Einige Versuche uber die Wir-
liung des Coffeins auf das Herz des Kaninchens.
Skandinavisches Archiv fiir Physiologic, 1901-2,
XII: 259-296.
SoLLMANN, T., and Pilcher, J. D. The actions of
caffeine on the mammalian circulation. Journal
of Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeu-
tics, 1911, III: 19-92.
Trzecieski, a. Ueber die Wirkung der Anti-
pyretica auf das Herz. II. Ueber die Wirkung
des Kaffeins und Theobromins auf das Herz.
Jahresbericht der Tiiierchemie, 1909, XXXIX:
1268.
Van Leeuwen, W. S. Quantitative pharmakologi-
sche Untersuchungen iiber die Reflexfunktionen
des Ruckenmarkes an WarmblUtern. Archiv fiir
die gesammte physiologic, 1913, CLIV: 307-342.
ViKCi, G. Azione della caffeina suUa pressione
sanguigna. Archivo di Farmacologia e Tera-
peutica, 1895, 8. Reviewed, Revue des Sciences
medicales, 1896, XLVII: 80.
digestive organs
BiKFAi.vi, Karl. Ueber die Einwirkung von Al-
cohol, Bier, Wein, Wasser von Borssik, schwar-
zem Kaffee, Tabak, Kochsalz und Alaun auf die
Verdauung. Jahresbericht der Thierchemie,
1885, XV: 273.
BuRiAN, Richard, and Sciiur, Heinrich. Ueber
die Stellung der Purinkorper im menschlichen
Stoffwechsel. Archiv fiir die gesammte Phy-
siologic, 1900, LXXX: 241-343.
Cramer. Ueber den Einfluss des Nikotins, des Kaf-
fees und des Thees auf die Verdauung. Miinch-
ener medizinische Wochenschrift, 1907, UV, pt.
1, 929-931, 988-991.
Eder, Max. Studien iiber den Wert und die Wirk-
ung des Kaffees auf die Tatigkeit der Wieder-
kauermagen. Inaugural Dissertation, Giessen,
1912. 88 pp. Summarized, Zentralblatt fiir
Biochemie und Biophysik, 1912, XIII: 504.
Farr, C. B., and Welker, W. H. The effect of
caffeine on nitrogenous excretion and partition.
American Journal of the Medical Sciences, 1912,
CXLIII: 411-415.
FiLEHNE, Wii.HELM. Ucbcr cinige Wirkungen des
Xanthins, des Caffeins und mehrerer mit ihnen
verwandter Korper. Archiv fiir Anatomic und
Physiologic, 1886, 72-91.
Gottlieb, R., and Magnus, R. Ueber die Besieh-
ungen der Nierencirculation zur Diurese. Archiv
fiir experimentelle Pathologic und Pharmakolo-
gie, 1901, XLV: 223-247.
GuiMARAES, E. A. R. De Taction du cafe sur la
consommation d'aliments azotes et hydrocar-
bones. Comptes rendus de la Societe de Biologic,
1883, ser. 7, V: 590-592.
GuiMARAEs, E. A. R., and Niobey. De Taction du
cafe sur la nutrition et sur la composition du
sang. Comptes rendus de la Societe de Biologic,
1883, ser. 7, IV: 546-550. Also, Comptes rendus
de I'Acad^mie de Sciences, 1884, XCIV: 85-87.
Hale, Worth. Influence of certain drugs upon
the toxicity of acetanilide and antipyrinc. Pub-
lic Health and Marine-Hospital Service of the
U. S. Hygienic Laboratory. Bulletin, No. 53,
p. 43, Experiments with caffeine citrate.
Heerleix, W. Das Coffei'n und das Kaffeedestillat
in ihrer Bezichung zum Stoffwechsel. Archiv
fiir die gesammte Physiologic, 1892, LII: 165-
185.
KoTAKEj Y. Ueber den Abbau des Coffeins durch
den Auszug aus der Rinderleber. Zeitschrift fiir
physologische Chemie, 1908, LVII: 378-381.
LiwscHiTz, O. Ueber den Einfluss des Kaffees auf
den Eiweis-stoffwechsel beim Menschen. Basel,
1914.
Marchand^ Eugene. Le cafe du lait est une soupe
au cuir. Revue de Therapeutique medico-chi-
rurgicale, 1873, 261.
Nagel. Die Wirkung des Cafe s auf eingcklemmte
Darmparthien. Allgemeiner Wiener medizinische
Zeitung, 1872, XVII: 391.
Nagasaki, S., and Matswuoka, Z. Ueber den Abbau
des Kaffeins und Theobromins durch den Rin-
derpankreas und Stierhodenauszug. Kyoto
Igaku-zashi, 1912, IX; H. 3. Summarized, Zen-
tralblatt fiir Biochemie und Biochemie und
Biophysik, 1912-13, XIV: 743.
Ogata, Masanori. Ueber den Einfluss der Genuss-
mittel und Magcnverdauung. Archiv fiir Hv-
giene, 1885, III: 204-214.
Pawlowsky, I. Ueber den Einfluss von Tee, Kaf-
fee und einigen alkoholischen Getranken auf die
quantitative Pepsinwirkung. Jahresbericht der
Thierchemie, 1903, XXXIII: 543.
PiNCussoHN, LuDWiG. Die Wirkung des Kaffees
und des Kakaos auf die Magansaftsekretion.
Miinchener medizinische Wochenschrift, 1906,
IvIII, pt. I, 1248-1249.
— Ueber das sekretionsfordernde Prinzip des
Kaffees. Zeitschrift fiir physikalische und dia-
tetische Therapie, 1907, XI: 261-263.
Rabuteau. Recherches sur Faction des cafeiques
sur la nutrition. Gazette medicale de Paris,
1870, XXV: 593. Also, Comptes rendus de la
Societe de Biologic, 1872, ser. 5, II: 77-81.
RiBAtJT, H. Influence de la cafeine sur Texcretion
azotee. Comptes rendus de la Societe de Bio-
logic, 1901, LIII, (ser. 2, III): 398-395.
Sasaki^ Takaoki. Experimentelle Untcrsuchvmgen
iiber den Einfluss des Tecs auf die Magensaft-
sekretion. Berliner klinische Wochenschrift,
1905, XUII: 1526-1528.
Schmiedeberg, Oswald. Vergleichende Unter-
suchungen iiber die pharmakologischen Wirk-
ungen einiger Purindcrivate. Berichte der
deutschen chemischen GescUschaft, 1901,
XXXIV, No. 395, 2550-2559.
Sciiultz-Schultzenstein, C. Versuche iiber den
Einfluss van Caffee- und Thee- Abkochungen
auf kiinstliche Verdauung. Zeitschrift fiir physio-
logische Chemie, 1893-4, XVIII: 131.
Story, W. Coffee as an absorbent. Lancet, 1873,
II: 617.
Togami, K. Ueber den Einfluss einiger Genussmit-
tel auf die Wirksamkeit der Verdauungsenzyme.
Biochemisches Zeitschrift, 1908, IX: 453-462,
Tyrode, M. V. Caffeine on the gastro-intestinal
tract. Boston Medical and Surgical Journal,
1911, CLXIV: 686.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
761
EYES AXU EARS
BuLsoK, A. E. Coffee amblyopia. American Jour-
nal of Ophthalmology, 1905, XXII: 55-64.
Crothers, T. D. Effects of coffee upon the eyes
and ears. In his, Disease of inebriety from al-
cohol, opium and other narcotic drugs. New
York, 1893. p. 309.
French, H. C. Coffee drinking and blindness.
N'orth American Review, 1888, CXLVII :584-585.
Hoi,Ai)AY, J. M. Coffee-drinking and blindness.
North American Review, CXLVII: 302.
WixG, P. B. Report of a case of toxic amblyopia
from coffee. Annals of Ophthalmology, 1903,
XII: 232-234.
I.ACTATIOK
Frankt,, J. Ueber die Anwendung von Kaffee bei
den Krankheiten der Siiuglinge. Wiener medi-
zinische Wochenschrift, 1872, XXII: 384.
OBmExxiKOFF, E. O vlijanii kofe na kolichestvo
i kolichestven sostave nioloka. (Influence of cof-
fee on lactation). St. Petersburg, 1871.
muscular system
Benedicenti, a. Ergographische Untersuchungen
iiber Kaffee, Thee, Mate, Guarana und Coca.
Moleschott's Untersuchungen zur Naturlehre,
1899, XVI: 170-186.
BuciiHEiM and Eisexmenger. Ueber den Einfluss
einiger Gifte auf die Zuckungscurve des Frosch-
muskels. III. Caffein. Beitrage zur Anatomic
und Physiologic, 1870, V: 113-118.
Destree, E. Effets immediats et tardifs de la
cafeine sur le travail. Journal medical de Brux-
elles, 1897, II: 231, 577.
Dreser, H. Ueber die Messung der durch pharma-
kologische Agentien Bedingten Veranderungen
der Arbeitsgrosse und der Elasticitatszustande
des Skeletsmuskels. Archiv fiir experimentelle
Pathologic und Physiologic, 1904, XVI: 139-221.
KoBERT, E. R. Ueber den Einfluss verschicdencr
pharmakologischer Agentien auf die Muskclsub-
stanz. Archiv fUr experimentelle Pathologic und
Pharmakologic, 1882, XV: 22-79.
I.usiNi, V. Biologischc und toxische Wirkung der
methylirten Xanthine insbesondere ihr Einfluss
auf die Muskelermiidung. L'Orosi, XXI: 257-
263.
Mosso, Ugoi.ino. Action des principes actifs de la
noix de kola sur la contraction musculairc. Ar-
chives italiennes de Biologic, 1893, XIX: 241-
256.
OsERETZKowsKY, A., and Kraepelix, E. Ueber die
Beeinflussung der Muskelleistung durch ver-
schiedene Arbeitsbedingungcn. V. Der Einfluss
von Alkohol un Coffein. Psychologische Arbei-
ten, 1901, III: 617-643.
Pasciikes, H., and Pal, J. Ueber die Muskelwirk-
ung des Coffeins, Theobromins und Xanthins.
Wiener medizinische Jahrbiicher, 1886, 611-617,
Raxsom, F. The action of caffeine on muscle.
Journal of Physiology, 1911, XLII: 144-155.
Rivers, W. H. R., and Webber, H. N. The action
of caffein on the capacity for muscular work.
Journal of Physiology, 1907-8, XXXVI: 33-47.
Rossi, Cesare. Rlccrche spcrimentali sulla fatica
dei muscoli umani. Caffcina. Rivista speri-
mentale di Freniartria, 1894, XX: 458-462.
Sackur. Ueber die todlichc Nachwirkung der
durch Kaffein crzengten Muskelstarrc. Virchow's
Archiv fiir pathologlschc Anatomic und Physio-
logic, 1895, CXLI: 479-484.
ScHUMBERG. Ucbcr die Bedeutung von Kola, Kaf-
fee, Thee, Mate und Alkohol fur die Leistung
der Muskeln. Archiv fur Anatomic und
Physiologic, 1899, 289-313.
SoBiERANSKi, W. Ucbcr den Einfluss der pharma-
kologischen Mittel auf die Muskelkraft der
Menschen. Gazeta Ickarska, 1896. Summarized,
Centralblatt fur Physiologic, 1896, X: 126,
Wood, H. C. The effects of caffeine on the circu-
latory and muscular systems. Therapeutic Ga-
zette, 1912, XXXVI, (ser, 3, XXVIII) : 6-13.
NERVOUS SYSTEM, BRAIX, ETC.
AcH, Nahziss. Ueber die Beeinflussung der Auf-
fossungsfahigkeit. Psychologische Arbeiten,
1901, III: 203-289.
Dehio, Heinrich. Untersuchungen iibcr den
Einfluss des Coffeins und Thees auf die Dauer
einfacher psychischer Vorgangc. Inaugural dis-
sertation, Dorpat, 1887. 55 pp.
DiETH, M. J., and Vixtschgau, M. vox. Das Ver-
haktcn der physiologischen Rcactionzelt untcr
dcm Einfluss von Morphium, Caffde und Wein,
Archiv fur gesammte Physiologic, 1878, XVI:
316-406.
Dixox, W. E. The paralysis of nerve cells and
nerve endings with special reference to the
alkaloid apocodeinc. Journal of Phvsiolojrv
1904, XXX: 97-131. '
HocH, August, and Kraepelix, E. Ucbcr die
Wirkung der Theebcstandthcllc auf korpcrliche
und gcistigc Arbeit. Psychologische Arbeiten,
1896, I: 378-488.
Hollixgworth, H. L. Influence of caffein on
mental and motor efficiency. Archives of
Psychology, 1912, XXII: 166, Jho, Therapeu-
tic Gazette, 1912, XXXVI: 1.
HoppE, I. Des effets de la coffelne sur le .syst^me
nerveux des anlmaux. L'£cho mddical, 1858, II:
449-460.
KioNKA, H. (Caffein and coffee as nerve poisons.)
Grundriss der Toxicologic, 1901 : 331-336,
Le Gbaxd, du Saulle, De I'insalubrit^ de I'atmos-
pherc des cafes et de son influence sur Ic d6-
vcloppcmcnt des maladies cerebrales. Gazette
des Hopitaux, 1861 ; also Academic des Sciences,
1861.
Leszyxsky, W. M. Coffee as a beverage and its
frequent deleterious effects upon the nervous
system; acute and chronic coffee poisoning.
Medical Record, 1901, LIX: 41-44.
McMakix, a. I>. Influence of coffee on brain
workers. Good Housekeeping, 1912, LIV:881-
882,
Paldaxus. Ein Paar Worte iibcr Kaffee als
Fiebermlttel und Medikament iibcrhaupt, Neucs
Archiv fiir medizinische Erfahrung, 1809, XI:
318-^22.
Petit, H. De Tcmploi preventif et curatlf du caf6,
notamment dans Ics congestions cdrdbralcs. Ga-
zette des Hopitaux, 1862, XXXV: 446.
De Sarlo, F., and Berxardixi, C. Ricerche sulla
circolazione ccrcbralc. I. Ischemlzzanti, Caffcici,
Rivista sperimcntalc di Freniatria, 1892,
XVIII: 8-14.
SwiRSKi, G. Ueber die Beeinflussung des Vagus-
centrums durch das Coffein. Archiv fiir ge-
sammte Physiologic, 1904, CIV: 260-292.
Williams, T, A, Coffee and the nervous system.
Medical Summary, 1912.
hespiratiox
.\rchaxoelsky, C. T. Die Wirkung des Destillats
von Kaffee und von Thee auf Athmung und Hers.
762
ALL ABOUT COFFEE
Archives Internationales de Pharmacodynamie,
1900, VII: 405-424.
BiNZ, C. Die Wirkung des Destillats von Kaffee
und Thee auf Athmung und Herz. Centralblatt
fur innere Medicin, 1900, XXI: 1169-1176.
CusHNY, A. R. The action of drugs on the respira-
tion. Proceedings of the Royal Society of Medi-
cine, 1912-3, VI, pt. 3: 130.
Edsall, D. L., and Means, J. H. The effect of
strychnine, caffeine, atropin and camphor on the
respiratory metabolism in normal human sub-
jects. Archives of Internal Medicine, 1914,
XIV: 89T-910.
Lehmann, K. B., and Rohrer, G. Besitzen die
fiiichtigen Bestandteile von Thee und Kaffee
eine Wirkung auf die Respiration des Men-
schen? Archiv flir Hygiene, 1902, XLIV: 203.
Ske, G., and Lapicque. Action de la cafeine sur
les fonctions motrices et respiratoires, a I'^tat
normal et a I'etat d'inanition. La Medicine mod-
erne, 1890, I: 228-234.
SUBSTITUTES
General
Bihra, Baron von. Der kaffee und seine surro-
gate. Munich, 1858.
Christ, J. L. Der neueste und beste deutsche Stell-
vertretter des indischen Caffe oder der Coffee
von Erdmandeln; zu Ersparung vieler Millionen
Geldes fiir Deutschland und langeren Gesund-
heit Tausender von Menschen. 2 ed. Frankfurt-
am Mayn, 1801.
Franke, Erwin. Kaffee, Kaffeekonserven und
Kaffeesurrogate. Wien, 1907. 221 pp.
FuEEJiAN, W. G. and Chandler, S. E. Coffee and
coffee substitutes. In their. The world's com-
mercial products. London, 1907. pp. 174-198.
Gerster, C. Kaffee und Kaffee-Surrogate. In ihrer,
Bedeutung fiir den praktischen Arzt. Berlin,
1894.
Gundrizer, R. F. O surrogatie kofe, prigotovly-
ayemom iz siemyan sinyavo lyupina (Lupinus
angustifolius L.) (On a substitute for coffee,
from the seeds of . . .) St. Petersburg, 1892.
Lehmann, K. Die Fabrikation des Surrogat kaf-
fees und des Tafelsenses. Wien, 1877. 128 pp.
Lociiner, N. F. De novis et exoticis Thee et Caf6
succedaneis. Noribergae, 1717.
Menier, E. J, Cafe: succedanes du cafe, cacao et
chocolat, coca et the mate. Paris, 1867. 24 pp.
(Jury report. Exposition Universelle de 1867, a
Paris.)
Trillich, Heinrich. Die kaffee surrogate. Murv-
chen, 1889.
Weiciiabdt, T. T. Succedaneorum coffeae in-
veniendorum regulas proponit. Lipsiae, 1774.
Periodicals
Acorn coffee. Pharmaceutical Journal, 1876, p.
772.
Basch, Albert. Rapport sur le caf^ de figue.
Societe de Geographic d' Alger et de I'Afrique
du Nord. Bulletin, 1901, VI: 604-607.
Boullier, G. De la pr6paration de la soupe
destinee a remplacer le cafe au reveil. Archives
de medecine et de Pharmacie militaires, 1903,
XLI: 465-473.
Brill, Harvey C. Ipel, a coffee substitute. The
Tea and Coffee Trade Journal, 1918, XXXV:
628-630.
Deridder. H. Sur un succedane du cafe. Archives
m^dicales beiges, 1896, 4 ser. VIII : 237-241,
Duchacek, F. Beitrage zur Kenntniss der chem-
ischen Zusammensetzung des Kaffees und der
Kaffee-Ersatztoffe. Zeitschrift fiir Untersuchung
der Nahrungs- und Genussmittel, 1904, VIII:
139-146.
Faber, E. E. Om kaffee, kaffesurrogater og kof-
feinfri kaffe. Ugeskrift for Laeger, 1909, LXXI:
841-847.
Graf, H. Ein neues Kaffee-Ersatzmittel. Deutsche
medicinische Presse, 1907, XI: 65-67.
GuiLLOT, C. fitude comparative sommaire des
principaux produits de substitution du caf6.
Gazette medicale de Paris, 1912, LXXXIII: 125.
Hanausek, T. F. Einige Bermerkungen zu den
Kapiteln Kaffee und Kaffee-Ersatzstoffe in den
Vereinbarungen. Apotheker - Zeitung, 1902,
XVII: 657.
Hanbury, Daniel. On the use of coffee leaves in
Sumatra. Pharmaceutical Journal, 1853, XIII:
207-209.
Kornauth, C. Beitrage zur chemischen und
mikroskopischen Untersuchung des Kaffee und
der Kaffeesurrogate. Mittheilungen aus dem
pharmaceutischen Institute und Laboratorium
fiir angewandte Chemie der Universitat Erlan-
gen, 1890, 111:1-56.
KoTSiN, M. B. Kofe i yevo surrogate (Coffee
and its substitutes.) Vestnik obshestvennoi
higieny, sudebnoi i prakticheskoi meditsiny, etc.,
1894, XXIII :pt. 2, 36, 156, 226.
NicoLAi, H. F. Der Kaffee und seine Ersatzmittel.
Deutsche Viertelj ahrsschrif t fur offentliche
Gesundheitspflege, 1901, XXXIII: 294-346, 502-
538.
NoTTBOHM, F. E. Verwendung von Steinnuss zur
Herstellung von Kaffeersatzmitteln. Zeitschrift
fiir Untersuchung der Nahrungs- und Genus-
smittel, 1913, XXV: pt. 3.
Oeller and Gerlach, von. Ueber die Einwirkung
von Gerstenkaffee und Malzkaffee auf das
Sehorgen. Therapeutische Monatshefte, 1912,
XXVI: 429-431.
Rampold. Ueber Kaffeesurrogate. Journal der
practischen Heilkunde, 1838, LXXXVII: pt. 4,
94-109.
RuEDY, J. Thee und Kaffee, deren Surrogate und
Falschungen. Blatter fur Gesundheitspflege,
1876, V: 183, 195, 203; 1877, VI: 19, 32, 42, 53.
Sale of dandelion coffee. Pharmaceutical Journal,
1860, 11:346-348, 357-358, 396.
Stenhouse, J. On the dried coffee leaf of Sumatra,
which is employed in that and some of the ad-
jacent islands as a substitute for tea or for the
coffee bean. Pharmaceutical Journal, 1854, XIII:
382-384.
Trillich, H. and Gockel, H. Beitrage zur Kenn-
tniss des Kaffees und der Kaffeesurrogate. Zeit-
schrift fiir Untersuchung der Nahrungs- und
Genussmittel, 1898, V: 101-106. ^ Zso, Forschungs-
Berichte iiber Lebensmittel, 1897, IV: 78; 1898,
V:101.
Weissman. Ueber Kornkaffee. Deutsche medizinis-
che Wochenschrift, 1903, XXIX: 20.
Woods, C. D. and Merrill, I^. H. Coffee substi-
tutes. Maine Agricultural Experiment Station.
Bulletin, LXV: 101-116.
Malt Coffee
DoEPMANN, F. Ueber Malzkaffee. Zeitschrift fiir
Untersuchung der Nahrungs- und Genussmittel,
1914, XXVII: 453-466.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
763
I
JuNGHAHN, A. Beitrage sur Chemle und Tech-
nologic des Malzkaffees. Vcrhandlung der Gesell-
schaft deutschcr Naturforscher und Aerzte,
1906, II, pt. 2, 382-386,
Trh-lich, H. Welche Mindcstforderungen slnd an
Malz fiir Malzkaffee zu stellen? Zcitschrift fiir
Untersuchung der Xahrungs- und Genussmittcl,
1903, X: 118-121.
TAXATION, JURISPRUDENCE, ETC.
Bordeaux. Chambre de Commerce. Rapport fait
k la Chambre par la Commission speciale chargee
d'etudier la question de la reduction des droits
sur les sucres et les cafes. Bordeaux, 1858. 27
pp.
— Second rapport fait a la Chambre par la Com-
mission speciale chargee d'etudier la question de
la reduction des droits sur les sucres et les
cafes. Bordeaux. 1859. 16 pp.
CoRRiE, Edgar. Letters on the subject of the
duties on coflFee. London, 1808. 61 pp.
Great Britain'. Statutes. Anno regni Georgii
III. Regis Quadragesimo nono. Cap. Ixi. An
act for making sugar and coffee of Martinique
and Mariegalante liable to duty on importation
as sugar and coffee not of the British planta-
tions. London, 1809 : pp. 437-438.
— Anno regni Georgii II Regis vicesimo quinto. An
act for encouraging the growth of coffee in His
Majesty's plantations in America. London, 1752:
pp. 723-734.
— Anno regni Georgii II Regis quinto. An act for
encouraging the growth of coffee in His Ma-
jesty's plantations in America. London, 1732:
pp. 411-415.
Larrixaga, Tulio. Brief of Honorable Tulio Lar-
rinaga, resident commissioner from Porto Rico
to the United States of America before the Com-
mittee on ways and means. Washington, 1908.
9 pp.
Madras. Statutes. The Madras coffee-stealing
prevention act, 1878. Madras, 1908. 9 pp.
Nelson, Kxute. Export duty on coffee and tea.
List of countries levying an export duty on cof-
fee and tea, with statistics from the annual re-
port on commerce and navigation for 1908.
Washington, 1909. 6 pp, U, S. 61st Congress,
1st session. Senate Document, 120.
Ordoxxaxtie, waar naar in de stad L'trecht en
Amersfoort, en in de vryheden van dien, by tax-
atie zal worden geheven de impost op de koffy,
cicers en thee. Utrecht, 1767. 6 pp.
Produce Clearixg House. Regulations for coffee
future delivery. London, 1888. 12 pp.
Vax Oosterwijk Bruyx", Pieter Adolf. Beschou-
wingen over eene belasting op koffij. Utrecht,
1803. 78 pp.
TRADE AND STATISTICS
Exchange Tables
MiJLLER, Victor R. Comparative tables showing
the parity of prices of Havre good average and
New York coffee exchange standard no. 7. New
York, 1887. 15 pp.
Seliosbero, Louis. Parity tables for quotations of
coffee and sugar on the various exchanges of
Europe, converted into American currency. Neve
York, 1891, 23 pp.
ZoBEL, Paul. Paritats-Tabellen zum Kaffee-Ter-
min-Markt nebst Schnellrechunungs Tabellen,
1907. Triest.
General
Belli, B. II caffe, il suo paese e la sua importanza.
Milano, 1910. 395 pp.
Bisio, G. II caff^. Le ioni date dal Prof. G. Bizio
alia Reale Scuola superiore di commercio, Ve-
nezia, 1870.
Brougier, a. Der Kaffee, dessen Kultur und
Handel, 1897.
Burns, Jabez. The "Spice mill" companion: a col-
lection of valuable information, original and se-
lected, suited to the requirements of the present
condition of the coffee and spice mill business.
New York, 1879. 102 pp.
DowLEH, J. S, O. & Co, Coffee calculator. Saint
Louis, 1907, 31 pp.
Ferguson, J. Production of tea and coffee in
British dependencies. London, 1896. 1 p.
FuRST, Max. Die Borse, ihre Enstehung und Ent-
wiciclung, ihre Einrichtung und ihre Geschafte.
Die Welthandelsguter Getreide, Kaffee, Zucker.
Leipzig, 1913.
International Bureau of the American Re-
publics. Coffee. Extensive information and sta-
tistics, Washington, 1901, 108 pp. Also, in
Spanish,
— Coffee. Reprint of an article from the Monthly
Bulletin of the International Bureau of Amer-
ican Republics, Nov. 1908. Washington, 1909,
11pp.
International Institute of Agriculture. Bureau
OF Statistics. Stocks visibles de f roment et farlne
de froment, de Sucre, de cafe, de coton et de
sole; 1903-12. Rome, 1914. 79 pp.
Schmedding, J. H. F. and Zonen, Coffee, Sta-
tistics running from 1884-1905. Amsterdam,
1901. 18 pp.
Schoffer, C, H, The coffee trade. New York,
1869. 58 pp,
Un^ited States. Bureau of Foreign Commerce.
Verslagen betreffende de cultuur en de bereiding
van koffie en het keplante en nog beschikbare
terrein voor dit product in Mexico, Centraal- &
Zuid-America en West-Indie. Amsterdam,
1889. 135 pp. In English, except introduction.
Reprinted from Reports from the consuls of the
United States, 1888, XXVIII, No. 98.
United States. Statistics Bureau. The world's
production and consumption of coffee, tea and
cacao in 1905. Washington, 1905. 206 pp. Re-
printed from Monthly Summary of Commerce
and Finance, July, 1905.
Van Delden Laerne, C. F. Brazil and Java. Re-
port on coffee-culture in America, Asia and
Africa, to H. E. the Minister of the Colonies.
London, 1885. 637 pp.
Periodicals
Bache, L. S. How the exchange works. The Tea
and Coffee Trade Journal, 1921, XLI:678-682.
Brand, Carl W. Co-operative competition. The
Tea and Coffee Trade Journal, 1914, XXVII:
534-540.
Calvo, J. B., and Delfino, A. E. Commission for
the study of the production, distribution and
consumption of coffee. International Bureau of
American Republics Monthly Bulletin, J 902,
XIII: 1317-1321.
Coffee. Statist, 1916, LXXXIII: 377-378.
Coffee and coffee trade. Hunt's Merchant's Mag-
azine, XXVII: 39; XLI: 165,
Coffee trade. Leisure Hour, XXIX :357,
Cotton-Coffee quotation record. Monthly, N. Y.
764
ALL ABOUT COFFEE
Crawford, J. History of coffee. Journal of the
Statistical Society/XV: 50.
Duke, J. S. CoflFee trade. De Bow's Commercial
Review, II: 303. Hunt's Merchant's Magazine,
1850, XXIII: 59, 172, 451.
El Cafetal, revista oficial mensuel dedicada ex-
clusivamente a la industria cafetera en todos su
ramos. New York, 1903.
Federal Reporter, for planters, grocers, confec-
tioners, canners and dealers in coffee, tea and
spice. New York. Current monthly.
Gardner, J. Coffee trade. Western Journal and
Civilian, VII: 301. Also, Hunt's Merchant's
Magazine, XIII: 273; J. Gardner Hunt's
Merchant's Magazine, XXV: 690; Living Age,
XXVII: 254.
— Production and consumption of coffee. Hunt's
Merchant's Magazine XXIV; 194.
Gill, W. K. Meeting coffee competition. The Tea
and Coffee Trade Journal, 1916, XXXI :238-239.
Graham, Harry Crttsen. Coffee. Production,
trade, and consumption by countries. U. S.
Dept. of Agriculture. Bureau of Statistics. Bul-
letin, 1912, LXXIX. 134 pp.
Great Britain. Commercial, Labour and Sta-
tistical Dept. Tea and coffee. Statement
"showing the imports of tea and coffee into the
principal countries of Europe and into the
United States: together with statistical tables
relating thereto for recent years as far as the
particulars can be stated." 1884-1900. House
of Commons, paper 351, 1900. 27 pp. House of
Commons paper 363, 1902. 42 pp.
Hangwitz, Julian. The world's coffee trade in
1898. Consular Reports, 1899, LX: 258-261,
Harris, William B. Coffee and the law. Tea and
Coffee Trade Journal, 1912, XXIII; Supplement
to No. 6: 41-44.
Heilprin, M. History of coffee. Nation, VI: 275.
Htjebner, G. G. Coffee market. Annals of the
American Academy, 1911, XXXVIII: 610-620.
International Bureau of the American Re-
publics. Bulletin. Washington, 1893— date. Con-
tains from time to time articles on coffee pro-
duction in the various Latin-American coun-
tries.
Kaffee verbrauch in den haupt sachlichsten Ll-n-
dern der Welt. Deutsche Handels-Archiv, 1901,
206-207.
Lecomte, H. La culture du cafe dans le monde.
La Geographic, 1901, III: 471-488. Also, in Fin-
nish, Geografiska Foreningens Tidskr., 1901,
XIII: 252-272.
Leech, C. J., & Co. Table of coffee statistics. An-
nual. London.
Lehy, Geoffrey B. Coffee distribution. The Tea
and Coffee Trade Journal, 1913, XXV:564-566.
Lewis, E. St. Elmo. Promoting coffee sales. The
Tea and Coffee Trade Journal, 1915, XXIX :539-
544.
Mahin, John Lee. Advertising coffee. The Tea
and Coffee Trade Journal, 1912, XXIII :56-58.
Mathews, Frederick C. Coffee advertising effici-
ency. The Tea and Coffee Trade Journal, 1912,
XXIII :38-40.
McCreery, R. W. The penny-change system. The
Tea and Coffee Trade Journal, 1911, XXI:462-
464.
Macfarlane, John J. Coffee and tea statistics.
The Tea and Coffee Trade Journal, 1916, XXXI:
329-333.
Merritt, E. a. The world's coffee. U. S. Consul's
report on commerce, 1883, No. 31, 125-147.
Nkw York. Coffee Exchange. Report. Annual.
New York.
Our coffee industry. Scientific American Supple-
ment, 1902, LIII: 21994.
Price, import, and consumption of coffee. De
Bow's Commercial Review, XX: 253.
Simmons' Spice Mill; devoted to the interests of
the coffee, tea and spice trades. Monthly. New
York.
Tea and coffee consumption. Current Literature,
1901, XXX: 298.
Tea and Coffee Trade Journal, The. For the tea,
coffee, spice and fine grocery trades. Monthly.
New York.
Ukers, William H. Advertising Brazil coffee.
Tea and Coffee Trade Journal, 1917, XXXII:
34-36.
— The right coffee propaganda. Tea and Coffee
Trade Journal, 1912, XXIII. Supplement to
No. 6: 21-28.
Ukers, William H., editor. Tea and coffee buyer's
guide. Annual. New York.
United States. State Department. Production
and consumption of coffee, etc. Message from
the president of the United States, transmitting
a report from the secretary of state, with ac-
companying papers, relative to the proceedings
of the International Congress for the Study of
the Production and Consumption of Coffee, etc,
Dec. 10, 1902. U. S. 57th Congress, 2nd session.
Senate document 35. 312 pp.
V^asco, G. Le cafe. Revue francaise de I'^tranger
et des colonies et exploration, 1900, XXV: 598-
603.
Weir, Ross W. Coffee hints for grocers. The Tea
and Coffee Trade Journal, 1913, XXV:566-568.
Westerfeld, Sol. Retailers' coffee problems. The
Tea and Coffee Trade Journal, 1917, XXXIII:
559-560.
World's coffee trade. The Tea and Coffee Trade
Journal, 1919, XXXVI :129-130.
Regional
BRAZIL
Alves de Lima, J. C. Solugoes sobre o commercio
de cafe. Sao Paulo, 1902. 38 pp.
Bolle, Karl. Sao Paulo das bedeutendste Kaffee-
gebeit der Welt. Deutsche Rundschau fiir Geo-
graphic, XXVIII: 66-77.
Bbazil. Ministerio de Fazenda. Direitos de ex-
portagao e sua cobranca. Bio de Janeiro, 1896.
11 pp.
Brazil. Servico de Estatistica Commercial. Sta-
tistics of imports and exports. The movement of
shipping, exchange and coffee in the republic
of the United States of Brazil. (Yearly.) Rio de
Janeiro.
Brazil and coffee; souvenir of the Louisiana pur-
chase expositi9n. 1904. 28 pp.
Brazil coffee in England. Bulletin of the Pan
American Union, 1915, XL: 514-515.
Brazilian coffee propaganda. The. Commercial
and Financial Chronicle, 1909, LXXXVIII:
1223-1224.
Brazilian Review, The: a weekly record of trade
and finance. Rio de Janeiro, 1907-1914.
Coffee crop of Brazil, The. Economist, 1909,
LXVIII: 1030-1031.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
765
I
Coffee exports from Brazil, 1898-1900. Monthly
Summarv of Commerce and Finance, 1900-1901:
2592-2593.
d'Anthouaud de Wasservas, a. Le cafe au Bresil.
Journal des liiconomistes, 1910, ser. 6, XXVII:
16-37.
DA SiLVA Telles, A. E. O cafe e o estado de S.
Paulo. Sao Paulo, 1900.. 60 pp.
Empire of Brazil at the World's industrial and
cotton centennial exposition of New Orleans,
The. New York, 1885. 71 pp.
Great Britaik. Foreigx Office. Brazil. Resum6
of a report published in the "Journal do Com-
mercio" of Rio de Janeiro on the production of
coffee in Brazil, with statistics respecting its
consumption in the United States. London, 1899.
7 pp. Diplomatic and Consular Reports, Mis-
cellaneous series, No. 512.
GrossIj Vincenzo. La crisi del cafffe e i progetti
per la fissazione del camblo al Brasile. Nuova
Antologia, CCVIII; (ser. 5, CXXIV): 484-494
Kaffeefrage in Brasilien, Die. Grenzboten, LXVI:
335-339.
Leiioy-Beaumei-. Paul. I.es droits sur le cafe.
Le Bresil, la France et nos colonies. L'ficono-
miste francais, XXVIII; no. 1: 101-108.
Moueira, Nicolac Joaquim. Brazilian coffee. Xezc
York, 1876. 11 pj).
N. I>ettres du Bresil. La question du caf6.
L'^conomiste francais, XXVIII, No. 1: 374-377.
PatpersoXj W. Morrisox. Brazil's coffee trade of
to-dav. The Tea and Coffee Trade Journal,
1918,' XXXV .323-324.
Pinto, Adolpho Augusto. The state of Sao
Paulo. Chicago, 1893. 14 pp.
Sao Paulo (state) Brazil. Secretaria de Com-
MERCio SE Obras Publicas. Estatistica especial
da lavoura de cafe nos municipios de Aracari-
guama, Atibala, Bananal, Pilar, Sertaozinho e
Redemp^ao. Sao Paulo. 1900. 33 pp. Supple-
niento do Boletin da Agricultura, 1900, ser.
1: VL
— Estatistica especial da lavoura de caf6 nos muni-
cipios de Apiahy, Batates. Caconde, Campos
Novos do Paranapanema, Dourado, Fartura,
Faxina, Itarare, Jaboticabal, Moc6ca, Monte-
Mor, Natividade, Nazareth, Pirassununga, Por-
to-Fel!z. Remedios da Ponte do Tiete, Sao Pedro
do Turvo. Sarapuhy, Serra Negra e Yporanga.
Sao Paulo, 1901. 177 pp. Supplemento do
Boletin da Agricultura, 1901, ser. 2: IV.
Seeger, Eugene. Coffee crop of Brazil. U. S. Con-
sular Reports, 1898, LVII, No. 218: 334-336.
Transporting Brazil coffee. Tea and Coffee Trade
Journal, 1917, XXXII: 214-224.
Ward, Robert De C. A visit to the Brazilian cof-
fee country. National Geographic Magazine,
1911, XXII: 908-931.
Williams, J. H. The Brazil coffee situation. The
Tea and Coffee Trade Journal, 1918, XXXV :221-
222.
WiNDELs, J. H. A coffee buyer's life in Brazil.
Tea and Coffee Trade Journal, 1916, XXX:
538-545.
COLOMBIA
Dickson, Spencer S. Colombia. Report on the
coffee trade of Colombia. London, 1903. 8 pp.
Great Britain. Foreign Office. Diplomatic and
Consular Reports, Miscellaneous series, No. 598.
COSTA RICA
Costa Rica. Contabilidad Nacional. Exporta-
cion de la cosecha de caf6.
Costa Rica. Departmento Nacional de Estadi-
STiCA. Diagrams de los promedios obtenidos en
la venta del cafd de Costa Rica en Londres en
los afios de 1890 a 1899. San Jos6, 1900.
— Exportaciones de cafe de la Repnbllca de Costa
Rica. San Jose, 1900. 14 pp. Alcance a La
Gaceta, 1900, No. 99.
— Fluctuaciones de los precios del caf6 en Ham-
burgo, 1880-1899. San Jose, 1900.
Costa Rica. Secretaria de Relaciones Extehiores.
Estudio e informe sobre el cafe de Costa Rica.
1900. 48 pp.
EAST INDIES
Dekker, Eduard Douwes. Max Havelaar; or The
coffee auctions of the Dutch Trading Company;
by Multaluli, (pseud.) ; trans, from the original
ms. by Baron Alphonse Nahuijs. Edinburgh,
1868.
A'erwanging van de gedwongen koffieteelt door
eene vrije volkskoffiecultuur. Tijdschrift voor
Nederlandsch-Indie new ser. 2, V: 252-261.
FINLAND
Granroth, Elias G. Om cafe och de inhemska
waxter, som plaga brukas i dess stalle. Abo,
1755. 18 pp.
FRANCE
Arrest du Conseil d'Estat du Roy, qui permet
aux directeurs interessez en I'armement du
vaisseaux la Paix, de vendre les balles de caff6
dont il est charge. Paris, 1720. 4 pp.
—Qui accorde a la Compagnie des Indes le privilege
exclusif de la vente du caff6. Paris, 1723. 4 pp.
— Pour la prise de possession par la Compagnie
des Indes du privilege de la vente exclusive du
caff6, sous le nom de Pierre le Sueur. PariSi
1723. 7 pp.
— Qui ordonne que les commis et employez de la
Compagnie des Indes pour I'exploitation des
privileges du tabac et du caf6, procederont aux
visites et executions au sujet des toiles et etoffes
des Indes et du Levant. Paris, 1723. 7 pp.
— Que declare commune en faveur des habitants de
Cayenne et de St. Domingue, la declaration du
27. Septembre 1735. Paris, 1735. 3 pp.
— Portant reglement sur les caffez provenant des
plantations et cultures des Isles Francoises de
i'Amerique. Paris, 1736. 4 pp.
Darolles, E. Le caf6 sur le march^ fran?aise.
Paris, 1885.
Declaration Du Roy, Qui regie la mani6re dont la
Compagnie des Indes fera I'exploitation de la
vente exclusive du caffe. Donnee a Versailles le
10. Octobre 1723. Paris, 1723. 15 pp.
— Concernant les cafez provenant des plantations
et culture de la Martinique et autres Isles
Fran(;'oises de I'Amerique. Donnee a Fontaine-
bleau le 27. Septembre 1732. Paris, 1732. 9 pp.
GERMANY
Schonfeld, Karl. Der Kaffee-Engrosshandel Ham-
burgs. Heidelberg, 1903. 135 pp.
GREAT BRITAIN
Great Britain. Board of Trade. Tea. and coffee,
1888, 1893, 1899-1900, 1903, 1908, 1910. Statistical
tables 3howing the consumption of tea and cof-
fee in the principal countries of Europe, in the
766
ALL ABOUT COFFEE
United States and in the principal British self-
government dominions, and also showing the
principal sources of supply. Parliament, House
of Commons. Reports and papers, 1889, No. 12;
1894, No. 329; 1900, No. 351; 1901, No. 363; 1903,
No. 304 (reprinted, London, 1905, 47 pp.) ; 1908,
No. 378 (reprinted, London, 1911, 53 pp.) ; 1911,
No. 275 (reprinted, London, 1911, 19 pp.).
Great Britain. Treasury Department. Copy of
diagrams showing the consumption from 1856 to
1888 of tea, coffee, cocoa, and chicory, of alco-
holic beverages, and of tobacco, compared with
the increase of population. London, 1889. House
of Commons, paper 121.
Lifebelt Coffee Company, Ltd. The statutory
meeting of the company. London, 1909. 2 pp.
Oberparleiter, K. Der Londener Kaffeemarkt.
1912.
GUIANA, DUTCH
Roef-Praatje, tusschen verscheiden persoonen,
over de tegenswoordige staat van Surinamen en de
laage prys der producten; waarin klaar aange-
toond word de verkeerde gewoontens, wegens
het verkoopen der coffy by inschryving, tot
merkelyk nadeel der bonders en geintresseer-
dens der Surinaamsche obligaties. Amsterdam,
1774. 175 pp.
HAWAII
Hawaii (Republic) Labor Commission. Report on
the coffee industry. Honolulu, 1895. 33 pp.
Hawaiian Islands. Department of Foreign Af-
fairs. The Hawaiian Islands, their resources,
agricultural, commercial and financial. Coffee,
the coming staple product. Honolulu, 1896. 95
pp. Also, Washington, 1897. 32 pp.
INDIA
Clifford, Frederick. Indian coffee: its present
production and future prospects. Journal of the
Society of Arts, 1887, XXXV: 519-534.
India. Commercial Intelligence Department.
Note on the production of coffee in India.
India. Statistical Department. Production of
coffee in India. 19 — .
Memminger, Lucien. The Indian coffee trade
crisis. The Tea and Coffee Trade Journal, 1917.
XXXII :506-510.
Schuitr'man, G. E. Eenige beschouwingen over
verkoop van gouvernements koffie in India. Rot-
terdam, 1877. 13 pp.
JAVA
KA'MERWijsHEro (Relating to forced native labor
in the island of Java) 1879. 31 pp. Reprint
from Algemeen Dagblad van Nederlandsche
Indie, Sept. 16, 18, 22, 24, 25, 1879.
De Koffiecultuur op Java. Tijdschrift voor
Nederlandsche Indie, new ser. 2, No. 5: 660-667.
Kuneman, J. De gouvernements koffie-cultuur op
Java, 's Gravenhage, 1890. 201 pp.
Rose, G. F. C. Eenge opmerkingen naar aanleid-
ing van de conclusive van de neerderheid der
commissie nit de Tweede Kamer der Staten-Gen-
eraal over de nitkomsten van het onderzoek be-
treffende de koffij kultuur op Java. 1874. 39 pp.
Suermondt, G., and London, H. H. Correspon-
dentie. De West-Java-Koffij-Cultuur-Maat-
schappij verdedigd tegen den schrijver van de
koloniale kronijk in de Economist. 1868. 15 pp.
■ — West-Java-Koffij-Cultuur-Maatschappij verde-
digd tegen de aanvallen van Volksblad en
Arnhemsche Courant. Amsterdam, 1865. 44
pp.
— West-Java-Koffij-Cultuur-Maatschappij. Toege-
licht. Supplement van den eersten druk met
voorrede. Amsterdam, 1865. 19 pp.
Van den Berg, Norbert Pieter. Koffieproductie en
koflSeuitvoer. Batavia, 1884. 8 pp.
Van Vliet, L. Van W. De koffij -enquete in ver-
band met de ontworpen West-Java-Koffij-Cul-
tuur-Maatschappij. Amsterdam, 1871. 35 pp.
LIBERIA
Ellis, George W. Coffee industry in Liberia. U. S.
Monthly Consular and Trade Reports, 1904, No.
291 : 21-22.
Morren, F. W. Cultuur bereiding en handel van
Liberia Koffie. Amsterdam, 1894. 36 pp.
MEXICO
HiNOJOsA, G. Cultivo del cafe. Mexico, 1883. 8 pp.
(Mexico. Ministro de Fomento.)
Romero, M. Coffee and india rubber culture in
Mexico; preceded by geographical and statis-
tical notes on Mexico. New York, 1898. 416 pp.
Terry, L. M. Coffee culture in Mexico. Overland
Monthly, 1901, new ser. XXXVII: 702-709.
netherlands
Amsterdam. Vereeniging Voor Den Koffie han-
del. Statistiek van koffie in Nederland. Amster-
dam, 1914.
Groeneveld, J. Tremijnzaken in koffie te Rotter-
dam. Rotterdam, 1893. 15 pp.
Jacobson, J. "Ernstig bedreigd" "Opgeroepen,"
een woord naar aanleiding van "Erustig be-
dreigd" door den heer J. Jacobson en de daarop
gevolgde geschriften van de heeren G. H. Mees
en A. Plate, door en Nederlandes. Amsterdam,
1879. 12 pp.
Jet's over de koffij-veilingen der Nederlandsche
Handel- Maatschappij. Rotterdam, 1847. 24 pp.
Netherlands (Kingdom) Laws, statutes, etc.
WiJ Willem, bij de gratie Gods, konig der
Nederlanden . . . enz., enz., enz. Allen den
genen, die deze zullen zien. . . . salut! doen te
weten: Alzoo wij, tot stijving der inkomsten van
den staat, noodzakelijk geoordeeld hebben, dat
de koffij binnen ons rijk gebruikt . . . aan eene
belasting op de consumptie worde onderworpen.
's Gravenhage, 18 — . 8 pp.
Suermondt, G., and London, H. H. West-Java-
Koffij-Cultuur-Maatschappij. Het advys der
Kamer van Koophandel te Batavia, de Ond
Koopman, enz. wederlegd. Amsterdam, 1866. 127
pp.
Waanders, F. G. van B. De koffiemarkt. 2'he
Hague, 1882. 27 pp.
PORTO RICO
Porto Rican coffee. Outlook, Mar. 24, 1906,
LXXXII: 632; May 5, 1906, LXXXIII: 46-47.
United States. President, 1901-1909 (Roosevelt)
Message from the President of the United States
relative to his visit to the island of Porto Rico.
Washington, 1906. 200 pp. 59th Congress, 2d
Session, Senate document 135. Message, dated
Dec. 11, 1906, accompanied by petitions in re-
lation to the coffee trade, etc., and losses by the
hurricane of 1899; and the sixth annual report
of the governor, Beekman Winthrop, dated Jidy
1, 1906.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
767
Van Leenhoff, Johannes W. The condition of
the coffee industry in Porto Rico. Mayaguez,
1904. 2 pp. Porto Rico Agricultural Experi-
ment Station. Circular No. 2.
Weyl, W. E. Labor conditions in Porto Rico.
U. S. Bureau of Labor. Bulletin, 1905, XI:
749-753.
SPAIN
Spanien. Bestimmungen iiber die Einfuhr von
Kaffee und Kakao aus Fernando Po. Deutsche
Handels-Archiv. 1901. 141.
TONKIN
'RoTTACH, Edmond. L'organisation economique de
rindochine et le cafe au Tonkin. Societe de
Geographic commerciale de Paris. Bulletin,
1913, XXXV: 643-660.
UNITED STATES
[American tea and coffee trade from 1847 to
1916. Tea and Coffee Trade Journal, 1917,
XXXIII: 28.
Coffee Exchange of the City of New York.
Annual Report.
Coffee trade of the United States. Chamber of
Commerce, New York. Annual Report 1908-
1909, pt. 1: 23-29.
fCoFFEE Trade of the United States for the past
six years. Tea and Coffee Trade Journal, 1917,
XXXIII: 326-329.
I Coffee Trade of the United States since 1821.
Tea and Coffee Trade Journal, 1918, XXXIV:
336-338.
Cunningham, E. S. Export of Mocha coffee to
the United States. U. S. Consular Reports,
1899, LXI : 625-628.
Our fastest growing coffee port, including han-
dling green coffee at San Francisco. The Tea
and Coffee Trade Journal, 1918, XXXIV :524-
528.
Renaissance of tea and coffee. The Tea and
P Coffee Trade Journal, 1919, XXXVI :218-229.
Sloss, R. New York coffee partv. Everybody's
Magazine. 1913, XXVIII: 772-783.
Tea, coffee, wines, etc.; consumption of tea, coffee,
wines, distilled spirits, and malt liquors in the
U. S. since 1870, per capita of population.
Washington 1896-1899. U. S. Agriculture Dept.
Yearbook, 1895: 552; 1896: 595; 1897: 754; 1898:
723.
United States. Bureau of Statistics. Imports of
coffee and tea. 1790-1896. Washington, 1896,
Also, Monthly Summary of Finance and Com'
merce, 1896, new ser. IV: 670-690.
Wakeman, Abram. History and reminiscences of
lower Wall St. and vicinity. New York, 1914.
216 pp.
VALORIZATION
Altschud, F. Die Kaffeevalorisation. Jahrbiich
fiir Gesetzgebubg, 1910, 2.
Attacking Brazil's coffee trust. Literarv Digest,
1912, XLIV: 1242-1244.
Brazil's failure to control the price. American
Geographic Society. Bulletin, 1909, XLI: 220-
222.
Campista, David. Valorisacao do cafe e Caixa de
conversao. Bio de Janeiro, 1906:63.
Chantland, Wili.iaji T. Valorization of coffee.
A detailed report of the transactions and facts
relating to the valorization of coffee. Washing-
ton, 1913. 15 pp. U. S. 63rd Congress, 1st ses-
sion. Senate Document, 36.
Coffee combine at bay. Tea and Coffee Trade
Journal, 1912, XXII: 497-513.
Coffee valorization and the Sherman law. Journal
of Political Economy, 1913, XXI: 162-163.
CoJTEE valorization scheme and the coming har-
vest, The. Economist, 1909, LXVIII: 910-911.
de Carvalho, J. C. O caf6 do Brazil, estudos a
favor da propaganda para a augmento do con-
sumo e valorisacao do cafe do Brazil no estran-
geiro. Rio de Janeiro, 1901. 41 pp.
— O cafe, sua historia, des valorisacao e propa-
ganda pada o augmento do consumo na Europa
o algodao, a industria da tecelagem do aleodao.
sua origem, appareicimento e desenvolvimento
na America do Sul. Conferencias publicas rea-
lissadas na s6de la Sociedade nacional de agri-
cultura. Rio de Janeiro, 1900. 53 pp.
Denis, Pierre. La crise du cafe au Bresil et la
valorisation. Revue politique et parlementaire,
1908, LVI: 494-520.
Ferreira Rangel, Sylvio. Valorisacao de caf6.
Rio de Janeiro, 1906, 18 pp. Also, A Lavoura,
IX: 81-90.
Ferrin, a. W. Brazilian plan of limiting ship-
ments. Moody's Magazine, 1912, XIII: 409-
414.
How the coffee trust has held its grip. Current
Literature, 1912, LIII: 52-54.
Huebner, G. G. Making green coffee prices. Tea
and Coffee Trade Journal, 1912. XXI: 442-449.
Hutchinson, Lincoln. Coffee valorization in
Brazil. Quarterly Journal of Economics, 1909,
XXIII: 528-535.
KuRTH, Hermann. Die Lage des Kaffeemarktes
und die Kaffeevalorisation. Inaugural disserta-
tion, Jena, 1907. 34 pp.
Laliere, a. La valorisation du cafe. Revue
economique internationale, Feb. 15-20, 1910, VII,
pt. 1: 816-350.
Levy, Maurice. La valorisation du cafe au Bresil.
Annales des Sciences politiques, 1908, XXIII:
586-603.
Macfarlane, John J. Coffee valorization an-
alysed. Tea and Coffee Trade Journal, 1910,
XiX: 103-110.
McKenna, W. E. Cause of advance in price.
Public, 1912, XV: 508.
Olavarria, I. A. Liga de los paises cafeteros.
Caracas, 1898. 20 pp.
Payen, £douard. Au Bresil: la valorisation du
cafe. Questions diplomatique et coloniales,
XXIV: 728-740.
Raising prices by destruction. Nation, 1909.
LXXXVIII: 520-521.
Ramos, F. Ferreira. La valorisation du caf^ au
Br&il. 1907.
Ratzka-Ernst, Clara. Welthandelsartikel und
ihre Preise. Eine Studie zur Preisbewegung und
Preisbildung. Der Zucker, der Kaffee und die
BaumwoUe. Munchen, 1912. 244 pp.
Schmidt, Fritz. Die Kaffeevalorisation. Jahr-
biicher fiir Nationalokonomie und Statistik,
1909, ser. 3, XXXVIII: 662-670.
SiELCKEN, Hermann. Coffee valorization ex-
plained. Tea and Coffee Trade Journal, 1911,
XXI: 471-481.
— A defense of valorization. Tea and Coffee Trade
Journal, 1912, XXIII, Supplement to no. 6: 17-21.
768
ALL ABOUT COFFEE
Sloss, R. Why coflfee costs twice as much. World's
Work, 1912, XXIV: 194-205.
Suit against the coffee trust. Nation, 1912, XCIV:
508-509.
Syndicat general de defense du cafe et des pro-
duits coloniaux. Bulletin, Paris, 1911, II: No. 6.
Theiss, Lewis Edwin. Why the price of coffee
increases. Showing how a few rich men, who
want to be richer, are pushing up the price of
coffee. Pearson's Magazine, 1911, XXVI: 456-
463.
TuRMANX, Max. Un etat qui fait du commerce.
Le Br^sil et la valorisation du cafe. La Revue
hebdomadaire, 1909, VIII: 450-470.
Ukers, William H. The great coffee corner. Sat-
urday Evening Post, 1909, CLXXXI: 5-7.
Valorizing coffee. Review of Reviews, 1912,
XLVI: 21-22.
Value of coffee. Current Literature, 1903, XXXV:
746-747.
Wessels, L. De opheffing van het monopolie en de
vervanging van de gedwongen koffiecultuur op
Java door een staatscultuur in vrijen arbeid.
's Gravenhage, 1890. 72 pp.
WiLEMAN. J. P. Unparalleled valorization. Tea
and Coffee Trade Journal, 1911, XX: 444-445.
ZuR Frage der Kaffee-Valorisation. Deutsche
Wirtschafts-Zeitung, 1913, IX: 237-243.
INDEX
Note. As this is a book about coffee, the entries in the Index refer — unless other-
wise specified — to that general subject, and more particularly to Coffea arahica; other
varieties are distinguished by their scientific or trade names. Thus, "Adulteration"
refers to the adulteration of coffee; and ''Adulterants," to the substances used for that
purpose.
Abbreviations Used
hev. signifies beverage d.
hiog. " biography hyb.
C. or c. ■' coffee iU.
C. " Coffea inv.
chk. " coffee-house newsp.
keeper
signifies died
" hybrid
" illustration
" invention
" newspaper
pat. signifies patent, pat-
entee
per. " periodical
pseud. " pseudonym
q. " quoted
V. " vessel, ship
Titles of books
pamph. " pamphlet
Italicized words are either scientific terms or titles of publications. .
are followed by the name of the author, if known; other publications are distinguished
as broadsides, newspapers, pamphlets, or periodicals.
Geographical names are distributed under various topics, such as ''Acreage,"
"Coffee houses," "Consumption," "Cultivation," "Exports," "Imports," "Produc-
tion," and the like.
A Mon CafS, Ducis
Abbas, wife of
Abbey, Charlotte, q
Abbey, Roswell. pat
Abbey, Freeman & Co
Abd-al-Kadir 14,
Abd-al-Kadir ms. .31, 431, 542,
— -Description
Abele, Chris, pat 630, 638
644, 645; d. (1910)
Aheokutae, G
— -Java
Abeokutae x liberica, hyh
Abigail
Aborn. A. C, q
— ^Cost card for roasters
Aborn, Edward 439, 514:,
651, 701, 713, 714, 716, q.
Aborn, W. H
About, Edmond F. V., q
Abraham
Abyssinian e 353, 376,
Account of his Journeys, An,
Olearius, q
Aeh (chemist)
Ach, F. J 488, 509, 511
513, q.
Acidity, percentages in c
Acid c.'s
Acids 159,
Acker, Finley, pat... 472, 645,
649,
Acker, Merrall & Condit Co.,
478, 494,
Ackland, James, chk
Acreage
— Africa, British East 230,
— Argentina
— Australia 238,
— Brazil (sq. miles)
— Ceylon 236,
— Ecuador 236,
— Federated Malay States. .238,
— Guadeloupe
— Guatemala
— Guiana, British
—Haiti 220,
— Hawaii
— India 226, 227,
548
21
177
245
482
431
543
541
641
142
216
146
13
392
715
715
685
18
377
22
186
408
719
307
168
701
498
118
285
236
284
277
283
278
284
233
219
279
281
241
282
Acreage (cont'd)
— Jamaica 232, 281
^Java 215
— ^]L.eeward Islands 282
— Mauritius 285
— Nyasaland 230, 285
— Philippines 284
—Porto Rico 223
—Salvador 219, 280
— Uganda 230, 285
— Venezuela 212
— Yemen 230
Adams chk 559
Adams, Abigail, q 467, 468
Adams, Isaac, pat 245
Adams, .Tobn 110, 113, 593
Adams, Pygan 609
Adams & Son 710
Addison, Joseph 75, 80, 84,
557, 558, 560, 572,
575, 576, 577, 578, 593
Addison, Life of, Johnson, q... 561
Adjudication (N. Y. Exch.) . . . 334
Adulterant Act, British 404
Adulterants . . . 153, 169, 170, 404
Adulteration 404
—Italy 686
— Reasons for 170
— U. S. law affecting 410
rulings against 337
Advertisements
— Arbuckle's (1861) 496
—Boston (1748) 467
— Cauchois's Private Estate. . 498
— Coffee-house
Boston 112
New York (1781) 119, 120
—Coffee mills (1665) 617
— Divination by coffee grounds 558
— First (Abd-al-Kadir's, 1587) 431
— First American-newspaper. . . 468
— First newspaper (1657).. 56, 432
— —Of coffee onlv ill 434
— First printed (1652), q..o4,
432, 459, 461
— London coffee-house, q 582
— Newspaper and periodical
432-434
— Piazza coffee room, q 581
Advertisements (cont'd)
— Song by Zecchini 549
- — ^Turks Head coffee house. . . 582
Advertising 431-465
— Booklets (J. C. T. P. C.) . . 455
— Brands 455, 462-465
— Early history 431-434
— Electric signs 443
— Evolution of 434, 435
— France 680
— Government propaganda 444-459
—Injudicious . .435, 537, 438, 461
— Joint coffee trade 439,
445-459, 514, 515
— Lantern slides 443
— Motion pictures 443, 445
— Package-coffee 440-443
— Retail 443, 444
— Trade 442
— ^Trade journalists as experts 431
— ^United States 434-465
Advertising charts 440, 441
Advice against the plague, Har-
vey 58
Advisory Board, C. (see Gov't
control)
Afflnis, C, hyh 146
Aga, Soliman 33, 92
-^ging
-Artificial 157, 158, 471, 474
—Natural 156, 157,
167, 342, 345, 353
Agriculture, U. S. Dept 722
Aigentliche Beschreibung der
Raisis, etc., Rauwolf, q. . . 12
Aiken. G 612
Akers, Frederick 498, 499
Alameda (brand) 441
Albanese 185
Albertenghi 558
Alcoholic beverages
— Coffee replaces In Am. col-
onies 696
— Sold in London c. houses. 61,
78, 81
Alcholism, effect of c. on 182
Aldhabani (see Gemaleddin)
Ale iHves' complaint against c.
houses (pamph) 72
769
770
ALL ABOUT COFFEE
Alexander, S. R 485
Alexander & Baldwin 488
Alhadrami, Muhammed 16
Al-Haitr4 {The Continent),
Khazes 11
Alison. Archibald 102
Alkaloids in c 159, 160, 161
All Souls' college, Oxford 41
Allain F. V 487
Allanston, q 179
Allen, q 159
Allen, Ida C. Bailey, q 723
Allen, James Lane, q 564
Allom, Thomas 663
Alpinl (Alpinus), Prospero..43,
431, 541, 543 ; q. 2, 12, 26, 41
Alt und neu Wien, Bermann,
q 51
Altenberg, Peter, q 549
Altitudes
—Best 198. 200
— Bolivia 236
— Brazil 205
— Colombia 208
— Costa Rica 225
— Guatemala 219
— Hawaii 239
— Honduras 234
— Indo-China, French 237
— Jamaica 233
— Java 216
—Mexico 222
— ^Nicaragua 227
— Peru 236
—Salvador 217
—Venezuela 212, 263
— Yemen 231
Alumini Etmienses, Harwood,
q 581
Amarilla, 0., hyh 140
Ambor (essence of ) in c 695
Ambergris in c 709
Anibrosia AraMca, CaffH Dis-
corso, Rambaldi. . .558, q. 696
American Can Co 472, 473
Am. Chem. Journal, q 165
American Coffee Co 521
American Grocer, per 526
American Hist'l Register, q.. 126
Am. Journ. Ophthalmology, q. 182
American Legion, v 316
American Mills 502
American Sugar Refining Co. . . 689
Ames, Allan P 448
Amman & Co., C 477
Amsinck, Gustave 479
Amsinck & Co.. G 479, 484,
485, 534
Amurath III 20, 664
Amurath IV 20, 38
Analyst, per, q 165
Anatomy of Melancholy, The,
Burton q. 543, 38
Ancilloto, Marco . 27
" — "and Other Poets, Unter-
meyer, q 553
Anderson, pat 247
Anderson, Adam, q 72, 73. 74
Anderson, E. D 472
Anderson, Mrs. chk 86
Andreas, A. T.. q 106
Andrews, William Ward, pat
627, 700
Andrews & Co., C. E 506
Andry, Doctor .^94
Anecdotes 565-o85
— Addison, Joseph 576
— Bacon, Sir Nicholas 570
— Bismarck 565, 570
■ — Bonaparte, Napoleon . . .94, 593
— Brillat-Savarin 565
— Champmesl6 91
-Gibber, Colley 579
- — ^Compton, Bishop of London, 570
— de Sevigne, Mme 91, 565
— Dryden. John 574, 575
— Fontenelle 565
— Foote, Samuel 580, 581
— Garrick, David 569, 579, 580
^Goldsmith, Oliver 573, 574
— Grevy, Jules 566
— Hannes Dr 572
— Hogarth, William 580
— Inchbald, Mrs 576
— Jeffreys, Judge 570
Anecdotes (cont'd)
— Johnson, Samuel ... 567, 568, 569
— Kant. Immanuel 562
— ^Kemble, John 581
— Ix)ndon coffee-house ....567-585
—Louis XIV and DuBarry 566
— liowther. Sir James 584
— Macklin, Charles 580, 581
—Milton, John 584
— Napier, Robert 700
—Page, Judge 570
— Phipps, Sir William Ill
— Pope, Alexander. . .575, 576,
577, 578
— Racine 91
— Radcliff, Dr 572
—Roach. Tiger 579, 580
— Roubiliac 583
— Saint-Foix 566, 567
■ — Savage, Richard 570
— Sheridan, Richard Brinsley, 581
^Sloane, Sir Hans 582
^Steele, Sir Richard 570
Swift, Jonathan. . .570, 378, 57!)
— Talleyrand, Prince 565
— Thurlow, Lord 572
—Voltaire 178, 565
— Ware (Brit, architect) 584
Anezi c. . . . 351, 368
Angel & Co., A 340
Angustifolia, G., hyb 140
Ankola c 355, 371
Annales, Liebig, q 711
Annalcs PoUtiques et Htt6r-
aires, per., q 175
Annals (of Phila.), q 120
Annals on Applied Biology, q. 155
Anne, Queen 82
AMn.ee Litt^ratre, q 6
Anstead, R. B., q 155
Anthony, Frank M 479
Antiquarian Rambles in the
Streets of London, Smith,
q 569, 570
Antiseptic, C. as an 180, 182
Apel, Paul E 506
Apparatus (see Machinery)
Appenzeller, John C 503
Applegate. John 492
Apples in c. (Russia) 686
Apreece 581
Araba (driver) 658
Arabia. Description of, Nie-
buhr, q 22
Arabian Chrestomathy, de Sacy
Q 2
Arabian c. (see Mocha)
Arabian Nights, The 31
Arabica, C. (see note, p. 769)
Arbitration (N. Y. Bxch.) 333
Arbor yemensis fructum cofe
ferens, etc.. The. Douglas
42, 543
Arbuckle advertising 462-465
Arbuckle, Charles 521, 522
Arbuckle, Christina 524
Arbuckle, John. .440, 469, 470,
496, 523, 524 ; biog. 517,
521; d. (1912) 524; pat. 647
Arbuckle, John (Mrs.) 523
Arbuckle Brothers. . .443,^470,
480, 482, 499, 502, 522. 523
— Coating coffee 396
—Plant 524-526
- — Business 521-526
Arbuckle Farm 524
Arbuckles, The 519
Arbuckles & Co 507, 522,
524, 635
Arbuthnot, Dr 81, 84, 578, 579
Arcade Manufacturing Co. .645, 653
Archives of Psychology, q. . . 186
Arcularius, James L 499
Arding, Dr. Charles 118
Arduino, Pier Teresio, pat. . . . 651
Arias 220
Ariosa (brand) . .440, 441, 469,
470, 524
— Origin of name 522
Ariza & Lombard 488
Arkell, Bartlett 538
Arkell, W. J . 538
-■Vrlington, Earl of 582
Arliss, George 130 ; q. 556
Armstrong. Dr 578, 580
479, 491, 518, 527 ; biog. 517
Arnold, Francis B. . . .477, 479,
491, 518
Arnold & Co., B. G. . .479, 480
491, 528
Arnold, Dorr & Co. . . 479, 482, 518
Arnold, Hines & Co 482
Arnold. Mackey & Co. . . .•.477, 479
Arnold, Sturgess & Co 479
Arnoldiana, 0 142
— Java 216
Aroma
— .Advertising value, retail. . . . 423
— Best grinds to preserve. 719, 720
— Cause of 163, 165
— Chaff rich in 708
— Cup-testing for 356
— Preservation of. . . .170, 712, 717
Aroma Coffee & Spice Co 502
Aron & Co., J 340
Arroba (weight) 268
Art collections
— Berlin museums 46
— 'Boston Mus. of Fine Arts . . 612
— Bostonian Society 613
— Ix)ndon
Beaufoy (Guildhall Mus.)
62, 582, 602
British Museum 604
Guildhall Museum. . .602, 603
Armstrong & Bamewall 476
Arne Dr 579
Arnold, q 136
Arnold, Benjamin Green,.. 469,
Victoria and Albert Mu-
seum 601, 603
— New York
Clearwater (Met. Mus...) 609
Halsey (Met. Mus.) 609
Metropolitan Museum
Pictures 591
Service artistic and
historical . .599, 600,
607, 608, 612
— Paris : Clunny Museum 600
— Portland: Maine Hist. Soc. 614
— Potsdam museums 46
— Salem (Mass.) : Essex Inst. 614
— Sam Ireland's 593
— -Vienna: Austrian Art Soc. 590
— Washington
Peter (U. S. Nat'l Mus.) 599
Arthur, chk 588
Arthur's, Lyons, q 563
Aniwimensis, C 144
— Java 216
Ashcroft, John, pat 157
— Trade mark 470
Ashland, James 477
Ashley, James, chk 582
Astbury 604, 612
Astor Library 124
Atha, P. P 509 ; q. 422
Athenae Oxiensis a Wood, q. . 41
Atlas Mills 498
Attal (Arabian bale* 266
Atwood & Co 509
Atwood & Holstad 509
.\ubrey, John . . . 557 : q. 40, 53,
56, 59, 60
Auctions
— Amsterdam 44
First (1711) 213
—London 327
— Netherlands E. Indies 312
Augagneuri, C 147
Auger & Co., B. E 487
Austin, Nichols & Co 494, 499
Australian c 355, 376
Autobiography, Haydon, q.... 583
Autocrat (brand) 441
Automatic Weighing Machine
Co 470
.4.vicenna (Ibn Sina) . . .11. 17,
431 ; q. 12
a Wood, Anthony, q 41
Ayduis 14
Ayer Bangles c 355, 371
Ayer & Son, N. W 448
Aymar & Co 476
Babillard, q 559
Bach, Johann Sebastian. 46 : q.
595-599
IXDEX
771
Bache, Tlieophylact 475
Bacon, Francis. . . .543, 557 ; q. 38
Bacon, Sir Nicholas 570
Bacon, Raymond F., q 714
Bacon, Williamson 480
Bacon & Co., Williamson 480
Bacon, Stickney & Co 508
Bacteria, Effect of c. on.. 180, 181
"Bad" coffee 22
Bagiiell 579
Bass, paper (see Containers)
Bahias (c.) 341, 343, 367
Baillon 558
Baiz, .Tncob 485
Unix & Wakeman 478
Baker (chemist) q 165
Baker. .John Gulick pat.. 4(i9, 639
15aker. Ko^er 117
Baker, T. K.. pat 647
Baker. William K., pat 649
Baker & Co 649
Baker & Sons, Joseph 640
Baker & Younjf 485
Baker Importing Co 539
Baker vs. Uuncombe (pat. suit) 049
Baldi, q 184
Baldwin, Captain 538
Baldy & Co.. .T. B 506
Bales, Arabian 266, 268
Balis (c.) 355, 374
Balliol college, Oxford 40, 41
Ballot-box, origin of 60
Ballon & Cosgrove 488
Baltagi 22
Balzac, Honors de...l02, 556;
q. 557
Balzac, Lawton, q 557
Ban 26, 35
Bananas and c. (bev.) 694
Banesius (see Nairon)
Bangs, John Kendrick, q 564
Bank of New York 120
Bank of Pennsylvania, ill. . . . 129
Banks, H. W 479
Banks & Co., H. W. .478, 479, 485
Baptized by Clement VIII 26
Barbados e 351, 362
Barbaro, Angelo Maria 28
Barbor. inv 637
Barclay, Florence L., q 563
Barclay & Hasson 508
Barker, pat 640
Barmaids 75
Barnardini, q 186
Barnes, Dr., q 176
Barnes, Sir Edward 237
Barnlcle, Michael 482
Baro, Jose : . . . 651
Barotti, L 548
Barquisimento, v 349
Barr, Thomas T 482
Barr & Co., T. M 529
Barr & Co., T. T 477, 482
Barr. Lally & Co 482
Barrington Hall (brand) 441
Barrington Hall Soluble
(brand) 539
Barrowby. Dr. q 580
Barth, G. W 639
Barthez 566
Bartlett (artist) 668
Bartow, H 497
Baruch & Co 488
Batavia c 355, 373
Baudelaire 565
Baukobensis, C 21(5
Bay. Gottfried 644
Bayne, Daniel K 478
Bayne, L. P 478
Bayne, Jr., William . .448,473
478 535
Bayne, Sr., William .' 478
Bayno & Co., William . 485
Beach & Co. J. D 508, 509
Beaham-Moffatt Mfg. Co 508
Bean broth, Javanese 11
Beans as friendly tokens 655
Beard. Eli 496
Beard, Samuel S 496
Beard & Co.. Samuel S...482, 496
Beard & Cummings. .482, 494,
496, 507
Beard & Howell 496
Beard, Sons & Co., S. M 499
Beards & Cottrell 482, 496
Beaufoy Catalogue, Burn, q. .
Beaumarchais
Beauvarlet, J
Beccaria, Cesare 30,
Becker. Joseph
Beckley, S. W
Beckmann, Alfred H., q
Bedford, Duke of 576,
Beecher, C. McCulloch
Beede, N. B
Beekmans, The
Bc'T, q
Beer, Coffee 710,
Beeson, Emmet G., q
Begon
Behrens & Co. A
Belcher, Jonathan, chk
Belgians, King of
Bell & Co., J. H
Bell, Conrad & Co
Bell. Conrad & Webster
Belli 549,
Bello (Bellus), Onorio
Belna (brand)
Bencini, Antoni, pat
Benedicenti, q
Benedict & Co
Benedict & Gaffney. .494, 498,
Benedict & Thomas 494,
Bengalensis, C
Bengiazlah 17 ; q.
Bennet. Henry
Bennett, J. Hughes, q
Bennett, James
Bennett, William
Bennett & Becker 482,
Bennett & Son, William Hos-
mer 478,
Bennett, Schenek & Earle ....
Bennett, Sloan & Co 498,
Bentley. Benton & Co
Berchoux ,
Berg, Thomson & Davis ....
Berhard, Charles
Berkeley, Bishop
Bermann, M.. q
Bernard, Claude M. V., pat...
Bernard (Dean of Derry).573,
Bernhardt, Sarah
Bernheimer, q
Bernier 31, 543, 594 ; q.
Berry (see Fruit)
Berry, Benjamin
Berry & Sons, N
Berthier
Berytus (Beirut), Bishop of, q.. .
Besant, Sir Walter, q 75,
Bethmont
Betrand, q
Better C. -making Com
— Recommendations 713,
Better coffee-making publicity
— Favored by N. C. R, A
Beurre. Cafe avec
Beverage
— ^Buds as basis
— Chemical analysis
—Consumption in U. S
— Definition, U. . &'. Dep't of
Agrr
— Discovery (13th century) . . .
— Evolution of
— Fruit and bananas
— ^History, early 1
— Hull and pulp as basis
— Husks as basis
— Origin.
— — First reliable date (1454)
I>egendary 11, 13,
Beveraf/es Past and Present,
Emerson, q
Bey. Kair
Bible 12,
Biblioth&que Nationale
Bichivili, q
Bichivili manuscript
Bickford, Clarence E 487,
Biokford & Co.. C. B
Biddulph, William, q 36,
Biggin, Coffee
— Origin of name
— (See also Infusion devices).
Bill & Co. Alexander H
Binz, q 182.
583
94
587
558
482
507
418
593
491
508
475
182
711
679
6
482
112
672
502
485
502
557
31
539
625
186
485
499
501
14(i
17
582
181
482
482
499
482
499
499
482
.548
502
505
550
51
629
574
565
163
616
508
501
102
42
78
566
163
439
715
513
683
694
714
689
722
655
693
694
1-23
15
26
16
16
566
71
13
16
22
542
488
488
543
624
501
183
Biographie Vniversellc, Mi-
chauds, q 8
Bishop, J. Leander, q....lO'j, 115
Bishop, Nathaniel, chk 109
Bisland & Brown 497
Bismarck, Prince 565, 566
Bitter (see Flavors).
Bitter e.'s .397
Bjorstjerne Bjornson, v 316
Blackall, Alfred II .501, 502
Blair. Henry 496, 526
Blair, Henry B 494
Blair, Sidney 0 502
Blake, Charles F 482
Blake, Walter F 535
Blake & BuUard 482
Blakeman, C. R 479
Blanc, Louis 103
Blanchard & Bro 501
Black bean 329
—Scale 330
Black broth, Ijaeedemonian
13, 36. 38, 40, 58
Blanco, Guzman 529
Blaney, Henry R., q 110
Blanke, C. F., pat -651
Blanke Tea & Coffee Co.. C.
F 502, 539
Blending 396-400
—Retail 418-421
Blending machinery 383, 385
Blends 722, 723
— French preferences 680
— Package coffees 408
— Restaurants 399
Blickman, Saul, pat 652
Bliss, Dallett & Co 482
Blodgett, Albro 507
Blodgett, Henry P 507
Blodgett-Becklev Co 507
Blohm & Co. . .' 340
Blook & Varwig 503
Bloom, Daniel, chk 118
Bloom Bros 488
Blossoir.s,
— Bridal flowers in Antilles... 565
— Chemistry of 155
Blotting-paper filters 708
Blount, Sir Henry 40 .")4,
543 : q. 13; 38, 56
Blue Mountain c .'!.".0, 362
Blunt, Anne, chk 56
Board of Experts favored 513
Boardman, George 508
Boardman, Howard F 508
Boardman, Thomas J 508
Boardman, William 508
Boardman, William F. J 508
Boardman & Sons, Wm 508
Boardman & Sons Co.. Wm . . . 508
Boaz IS
Boconos c ..349. 3.50, 365
Bodanzky, .Arthur 597
Bodleian library 53
Boekit Gompong v 35,5, 372
Boengie c 355, 374
Boerhaave, Prof 543
Bogotas (c.) 348, 349, 363
Bohler & Weikel 501
Boiling,
— Discussed (Trigg) 720
— N. C. R. A. recommendations 721
Boindin Abbie Alarv 654
Bojiiiest,' Walter B 498
Btrnvian c 350, 367
Bon 12, 26. 35, 41
Bonaparte, Napoleon .. .94. 96,
1 00, 48.5 : r/. 566
Bondzynski 185
Bonifeur, Cafe ((Juadeloupo) . . 257
Bonnard 98
Bonnieri, C 147
— Caffein content 161
Bontius, Jac. q 2
Book, Nicholas, inc 617
Booker 6»-
Booklets, advertising 455-
Booms,
—Ceylon (1845) 237
— U. S. (1814) 468
Booms and Panics . .527-630
Booth A. F 508
Booth, Otis W 480
Booth & Linsley 477, 480-
Boquette c 348, 361
772
ALL ABOUT COFFEE
Borino & Bro 486
Boscul (brand) 441
Bossi, Vernetti & Bartolini . . . 651
Boston coffee party 467, 468
Boston News Letter, newsp . . . 433
Boston tea party ..106, 110. 689
Boswell, James.. 81, 89; g. 567
568, 583
Botanical description. . .12, 26,
41, 131-138, 248, 249
— Classification 132
— Species, number of 132
— Microscopic 149-152
Botanical gardens (see Gar-
dens).
Botanists disagree 132
Botany of coffee 131-148
Botteya di caffd (comedy),
Goldoni 28
Bouche, Ciarles J 505
Boucher, Francois 588
Boulton & Co., H. L, 340
Boulton, Bliss & Dallett 482
Bounties,
— ^Guadeloupe 234
— Australia (proposed) 239
Bour, .T. M 507
Bour Co 443, 506, 507
Bourai c 351, 368
Bourbon c 353, 378
Bourbon, Grand, c 352, 353
Bourbon Le Roy c 352, 353
Bourbon rond 352, 353
Bourbon-Santos c 260,
341, 342, nm
Bourdon, Isid, q 565
Bourne, H. R. Fox, q 54
Bovoe & Co., Wm. H 506
Bowdoin, Gov. (see Chicory) . . 468
Bowers. B. 0 480
Bowman, chk 53, 54
Bowman, John, pat 637
Bown, W. J. H 510
Bown & Bro.. W. T 507
Bowring & Co 488
Boyd & Co., G 501
Braas, Joseph 507
Brancho, Joao Alberto C... 9
Bradford, Cornelius, chk.. 119, 120
Bradford, John B. (Mrs.) 614
Bradford, Phebe C 614
Bradford, William, chk 127,
128, 129
Bradley, Prof. R 42
Bradley, Richard, q 58
Bradv, Cyrus Townsend 563
Brad.y, Dr., q 177
Bramhall Deane Co 634
Brand advertising. .. .455, 462-465
Brand, Carl W 448, 507, 514
Brandenburg, Elector of 45
Brandenstein, Edward 506
Brandenstein. M. J 506
Brandenstein, Manfred 506
Brandenstein & Co., M. J. .471,
488, 506
Brands 434, 435, 440, 441,
462, 465, 469. 470, 474,
496, 522-524. 538, 539
Brasher, Abraham 609
Brasher. Ephraim 609
Brass, Italico 556
Braun Co 646, 472
Brayley (topographer) 582
Brazil Coffee Co 478
Brazil coffee delegation 514
Brazil-grading 331
Brazil Trading Co 485
Brazils (c.) 341-345, 366
Breakfast (brand) 524
Bregolini, Ubaldo 27
Brett. Colonel 576
Breur, Holler & Co 340
Brewing,
— Altitude limit 9,000 feet 715
— Art of
Calkin's patent 702
Muller's patent 702
— Below boiling point. .. .515,
707, 714, 717
—Care in 723
— Chemistry of 168, 718-720
—Clarifying 704, 705
— Comparison of methods. .720, 721
—Evolution of 702, 704
Browing (cont'd)
-—Filtration vs. percolation. . . 515
— Incorrect methods injurious. 179
— N. C. R. A. recommendations 717
— ^Research, Un. of Kansas. . . . 714
—Scientific 718-722
— Thurber's method 712
Brewing devices (1760-1855)
620-629
—Acker's (1884) 645
— American colonial 709
— Andrews' reversed Fr. drip
(1841) 627
—Best materials 717, 721, 722
— Blickman's (1916) 652
—Care of 722
— Casseneuve's reversed Fr.
drip 623
— Cauchois's porcelain-lined
urn 645
—Cauchois's centrifugal pump 651
— Chapman's tea or coffee pot 649
— Chronology (1879-1921)
643-654
— Combined making and serv-
ing pot 616
— Comparative test (1915) . . . 714
(1017) 716
■ — ^^Criterion 674
■ — Earthenware, painted (Abys-
sinia) 655
— First (boiler) 615, 616
— Llrst French patent (1802)
621, 699
—First U. S. patent (1825)
469, 624, 625, 699
— Fountain 674
—German patents (1877-85).. 638
— ^Levant (1691) 696
— Le Brun's Cafetiere 710
— Manning's combined 637
— Martelley's patent (1825).. 699
— Moneuse's urn (1869) 639
— Muller's Art of Making
Coffee 653
— Napier-List machine 700
— Parker's steam-fountain .... 705
— Platow 674
— Rabaut's reversed Fr. drip
(1822) 623
— Savage's tea or coffee pot
(1904) 649
-^Sene's, "without boiling"
(1815) 623
— Still's steam coffee-maker
(1902) 647
— ^S.yphon (Napier) 674
— Verithing (Summerling's) . . . 674
—White's urn (1908) 651
- — Wyatt's distillation appar-
atus 699
Brewing methods,
— Abyssinia 655
— American colonies 708, 709
— Arabia 658-663, 695
— Australia 692
—Austria 671, 672
—Belgium 672
— Brazil 091
— .Bulgaria 678
—Canada 686, 687
—Ceylon 670
—China 670
—Cuba 692
— Denmark 678
—England (1662) 696; (1722)
697; (19th cent.) .. .704-707
—Europe 670-686
-(19th century) 704-708
—Finland 678
—France 678-683
(1669) 696; (1711-1812)
696-698; (19th cent.)
707, 708
'Buc'hoz's recipe 708
— Germany 684, 685
— Great Britain 672-678
— Greece 685
—India 670
— Italv 686, 696
—Japan 670
— Java 670
—Levant (1691) 696
— Martinique 692
—Mexico 687
Brewing methods (cont'd)
\ — Netherlands
\ — New Orleans
) — ^New York.
/ Hotel Ambassador
Waldorf-Astoria 690,
— New Zealand
— ^Oriental, early 31, 694,
— Paris
— Panama
— Persia
— Philippines
— Portugal
— Scandinavia
— Roumania
— Russia
— Servia
— Spain
— Switzerland
—Turkey 31, 665, 667,
— U. S 687. 691. 709-
Jabez Burns' method. . . .
—Vienna 670, 671,
Brewing process
— Goldsworthy's (1920)
Brews, Composition of
Brief and merry history of
Enffland, q
Brief description, etc., A,
pamph., ill 70,
Briggs, James H
Briggs & Meehan
Brillat-Savarin. . . .565 ; q. 557,
Brisbane, v
British E. India Co 75, 82,
106,
British Pharmaceut. Codex, q.
Broadbent, Humphrey, (/..29;^,
618,
Broadhurst, (tenor)
Broadside Against C, A; or,
the Marriage of the.
Turk, q. ill 69,
Broadsides and pamphlets. .58,
60, 61, 64, 66, 68, 69,
71, 72. 432, 433,
Brock, J
Brokers
— Abyssinia 308,
— Arabia 310,
—New York 336,
— (See also Dealers, wholesale)
Bronson, Jr., A. E. pat
Bronson, Zenos, pat
Bronson-Walton Co
Brougier, pat
Brown, Agnes
Brown, Arthur W
Brov/n, James
Brown. Tom, q .75, 572,
Brown" & Jones
Brown & Scott 497,
Brownejohn. William, chk....
Browning, Charles H. q
Bruce, James, q
Bruckman & CJo., L
"Bruderherz" (Kolschitsky) . . .
Brnff, Sr., Thomas, pat... 468,
Brflleau, Cafe
Bruuing, Wiliam H., pat
Bruno. Bishop Joachim
Bubonic-plague boom (1899-
1901)
Bucararamangas (c.) ....348,
Buck, John H., q
Buckeye (brand)
Buc'hoz, Pierre Joseph, q
Budan, Baba 5,
Budenbach, T. O
Budgell 576,
Buds, beverage from
Buffon
Buitzenzorg c 355,
Bukabensis. C
Bulfinch, Charles
Bullard & Co., C. G
Bullata, C, hyh
Bulson, A. E. J., q
Bun 1, 3,
Bun safi (cleaned b^ans) .....
Buna
Bunca 12,
Buncha
Bunchum 11, 12,
Bunchy
689, 690
691
691
692
695
670
692
670
692
686
686
686
686
686
•723
712
672
702
721
77
71
477
477
697
316
601
183
697
582
70
434
503
310
312
837
647
245
647
167
526
482
497
574
497
499
118
126
693
496
51
621
106
653
9
529
364
607
470
708
225
497
578
694
98
373
146
113
485
140
182
12
266
41
25
12
25
38
IXDEX
773
Bunge, Edouard 532, 534
Bimn 3, 12, 17, 35
Bunn, El 662
Bunnu 25, 38
Burbank, Luther 161
Bureiius
— Bus. research (see Harvard)
— Chemistry. U. S 144
Burke, Edmuiul 81, 574
Burke, Richard 573, 574
Burman, q 183
Burmester. H. W 488
Burn, J. H., q 62
Burns, A. Lincoln. . .526, 527;
<?. 391, 394
Burns, George, chk 121
Burns, Henry 508
Burns, Jabez..494, 496, 630;
Mog. 517, 526; d. (1888)
526, 637 ; pat. 469, 634,
644, 645; q. 634, 635,
636, 637, 712
— Starts Spice Millj per 470
Burns, Jabez (Mrs.) 526
Burns. Jr., Jabez 526, 527
Bums, Robert. . .526, 527 ; pat.
647, 652
Burns, William G. . .526, 527 ;
pat. 652, 653
Burns & Brown 495
Burns & Sons, Inc., Jabez.... 526
Burr, Aaron 123
Burstone mills 637
Burton, Robert. . .543, 557; q.
lo 38
Bush Terminal Stores, ill. . . '. 322
Bute Lord 572
Butler. Dr., q 179
Butler, Earhart & Co 469, 508
Butler, Crawford & Co 508
Button, chk 575, 578
Buying,
— Abyssinia 308, 310
— Arabia 310, 312
— Brazil 303-308
— Netherlands E. Indies 312
Buying and selling green c.
303-312
Byerl.y, Thomas 585
Byerley, Sir John 585
Cabarets a caflfe 33
— {See also Coffee houses)
Cabarrus, E. T 538
Cable-break panic (1884) 528
Cadwallader, pseud 581
Cafe
— a la cr&me 708
— a la minute 708
— au lait 691, 696
— avec beurre 683
— bonifleur (Guadeloupe) 257
^bruleau ; 106
— complet 683
— con l^che 691
— de luxe (Guadeloupe) 257
— en parche (Guadeloupe) . . . 257
— en pergamino (grade) 261
— flltre 675
— gloria 683
— mazagran 92, 653, 682
— melange 671
—nature 683
—sultan 658
— sultane 694
Ca,U, The, per 84
Caf^, literary, artistic, and
commercial, The, per
(French) 34
CafMer et le Cafe, Le, Jardin,
ill, q. 2, 6, 14, 31 32, 33, 629
Caf^s
— Berlin
Admiral's 684
— — Bauer, ill 684
Des Westens 684
"Groessenwahn" 684
Josty's 684
Kranzler's ill 684
— — Victoria 684
— Hague, The
St. Joris 686
— Ix)ndon
Gatti's, ill 675, 677
Kardomah (chain) 675
Cafes (cont'd)
^London Cafe Co 674
Monico, m 675, 677
Nero 674
Pioneer 677
Popular 675, 677
Ritz 678
Trocadero 675
— Naples
Toledo 686
—New York
— — Fleischmann's 690
■ — Paris
Pais, de la 683
Prevost 683
R^gence, de la 683
— Venice,
— — Florian's 686
— (See also Coffee houses ;
Hotels; Restaurants ;
Taverns)
Cafes chantants (see Coffee
houses)
Cafffe 3
Caff?., ii ' Beil'i' '.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'. 549
Caffe, II (almanac, 1829) ... 558
Caffd, II per (1764-66) .. .30, 558
Caffd, II per (1850-52) 558
Caffd, II per (1884-89) 558
Caff? Pedrocchd, II per (1885) 558
Caffearine 159
Caffein 159, 161. 162, 166,
167, 175, 176, 179, 182,
437, 711, 718, 721
— Analyses for 172
— Chaff contains 708
— Harmless in moderation.... 717
— Hollingworth's experiments
187, 188
— Loss in roasting 167
—Physiological action 183-188
— Robusta, C 145
— Solubility . . . ; 160
Caffein content (C. arabica) . . 161
Caffein-free c. ill 142,404
—Artificial 161, 162, 163, 721
— Natural 161, 162, 721
Varieties 147
Caffetannic acid. .158, 159, 166,
174, 721
— .\nalysis for 173
—Lead number 514
— Misnomer 716, 718, 719
— Physiological action 182
Caffinets (see Coffee houses)
Caffeol 1H;{, lti4, 719, 720
— I'hysiological action 183
Caffeone 163
Cage, R. U 505
Cage & Drew 505
Cage, Drew & Co.. Ltd 505
Cahoa 1, 2
Cahouah 15
Cahove 91
Cahua 1, 38
Cahne 1, 2
Cahve 31
Cahwa 45
Caleb, Negus ' 5
Calkin, Benjamin H. pat. . .652, 702
Calorific value of c 180
Calvados 682
Campaigning vith Orant,
Porter, q 563
Campbell (chemist) q 163
Campbell, chk 576
Campbell, Charles 482
Campbell's Lives of the Lord
Chancellors, q 570
Campen, Christopher, q 12
Canadian Bank of Commerce.. 488
Canby, Edward . 509
Canby, Frank L 509
Canby, Ach & Canby 508, 509
Candle, Sales by 571
Canephora, G
— Botanical description 145
— Caffein content 161
— Ceylon 236
—Java 216
— Varieties 146
Cannon & Co., F 485
Canova 28, 29
Cans (see Containers),
Cantatas
— Bach's, q, ill ."it^VoDO
— Fuzelier's, music by Bernier,
q 594
Cantino, Cesare 549
Caouhe 2
Caova 2, 26, 41
Caphe 1, 38
Capodimonte c.-pot 607
Capitazias 306
— {See Port-handling charges)
Capuchin, Caf^ .683
Caracanda Frferes 338
Caracas c 348, 364
Caracol (grade) 261
Caracollilo (grade) 264
Caramel in c 718
("arazo. Padre 225
Carbohydrates 165
Cardamom in c 657. 696, 709
Caret, q 555
Carev 80, 576
Carey & Co 480
Cargoes
—Damaged 321, 322
— Record (Brazil to U. S.).315, 316
Carhart & Bro 482
Carit & Co., S. A 487
Carjat 103
Carmen Caffaeum, Massieu q.
'543-547
Carne, John, q 668-670
Carnegie, Andrew 521
Carpenter, Samuel 126
Carr, Chase & Raymond ."01
('arret & Co., J. E ;{40
Carruthers 549
Carson & Co., W. K 485
Carte, D'Oyly 678
Carter. James, pat 46&
Carter, James W. . . .494 ; pat.,
q. 629
Carter Bros. & Co 507
Carter, Macy & Co 480
Carter, Mann & Co 501
Cartons (see Containers).
Casanas, Ben. C 505. 513,
Case, Howard E '. . .' 496
Caseneuve pat 623, 699
Casilla (grade) 261
Castel, q 548
Castle Bros 488
Caswell, George W .105, 506
Caswell Co., George W 506
Catalog, Hudson-Fulton Cele-
bration, q 607. 60$>
Catalogue of the Rarities to be
seen at Adam's 55&
Catalogtte of Traders' Tokens,
Burn, q 62
Catch crops 203
Caucliois, Frederick A.... 498,
701 ; pat, 472. 645. 649, 651
Cauphe 38
Cavanaugh, Rearuck & Co ... . 502
Cave 31
Cavoah 2
Cavee 2ft
Cavekane 32
Cazeneuve, q 15^
Celebes c 35."), 374
Centlivre, Susannah, q 554
Central American coffee
— Siin Francisco's fight for
trade 489-491
Central Americans (c.)...347,
:i.-.i»-361
Certified Java and Mocha
(brand) 524
Ceylons (c.) 351, 352, 370
Chaa (tea) 35
Chal)ert, Josephine 518
Chabraeus 543
Chaff
— Removal deprecated 714
— Rich in caffein and aroma . . 708
Chain-stores 415, 417, 418
Chamber of Commerce (New
York) 119, 120
Chamberlain, George A., a. . 5(i;H
Chamberlain, Orville W., pat. . 652
Chamberlaine, John, q 432
Champmesle 91
Champney, Elizabeth W., q... 563
774
ALL ABOUT COFFEE
Chaouah 1,2, 35
Ghaova 41
Chapin, Harold 556, 563
Chapman, D. J 501
Chapman, J. W., put 649
Character of a coffee house.
The (broadside) (/ 06-68
Characteristics
— Complete reference table. 358-378
• — (Governing influences 156
— Green and roasted 341-378
— Leading growths (chart) . . . 191
Charcoal, C. classed as 20
Charles II. . .20, 41, 59, 71, 72,
74, 82, 109, 554
— Proclamation against c.
houses 73
Charlet 593
Chase, Caleb 501
Chase & Co., Geo. C 499
Chase & Sanborn 435, 470,
471. 485, 498, 501
Chase. Raymond & Ayer 501
Chatfield-Taylor, H. C, q 556
Chatterton, Thomas 80, 85, 88
ChattopfidhySya Virendranath
q 1, 2
Chaube 2, 25. 41
Checking the roast 387, 391
Cheek, Joel 0 509, 513, 515
Cheek-Neal Coffee Co 443, 509
Cheek, Norton & Neal 509
Cheetham, Jr., William 11... 501
Chelsea bunhouse (London) . . 560
Chemical analysis
—Bean 171-173
—Beverage 714
Chemistry 155-173
— U. S'. Bureau of... 338, 391, 396
Cheribon c 355, 373
Chess in c. houses 90, 98, 104
■Chesterfield, Lord 576
Chesterton, Gilbert K 553
Chestnut, q 155
Chevalier, Aug 142
Cheyno, George, q 59
Chiapas c 345, 358
Chibouk 663
Chicago Liquid Sack Co 471
Chicago Theatre Society 555
Chicory
- — Botanical description 170
■ — Chemical analysis 170
— Extracts of c, use in ... . 169
— First use (Holland. 1750) . . 170
—Introduced into U. S. (1785) 468
• — Microscopic exam 152, 153
— Substitute for c 46
Chicory in coffee 404
— France 678
— Great Britain 673
— Paris and Vienna 070, 671
- — ^Scandinavia 686
Children, effect on 177, 178
Childs (grocer, St. Louis) 631
China & Java Export Co 488
Chlorogenic acid 718, 719
Choate, Joseph H 690
Chocolate
— Discovery of 12
— Introduction into North Am. 106
— Prices, London (1662) 59
— Sold in London (1657) 56
— Sold in London c. bouses
41, 61, 78, 80
Chocolate Cream (brand) .... 441
Chocolate houses (see Coffee
houses)
Chocolate pots 609
Cholera, effect on 181
Chops
—Brazil 306
— New York •. . 321
Chrestomathie Arahe, de Sacv.
q 2. 17, 663
Christian beverage 26
Chronology, A coffee 725-737
Chubuck & Saunders 508
Churchill 579, 580
Churchill & Co., Frederick A . . 502
Cibber, Colley 579 : q. 575, 577
Cinnanaon in c 105. 696, 709
Oinnamon roast 388
Cincinnati, Society of the.... 120
CinciHBati Spice Mills 503
Cipriani 84, 583
dtp. The, q 86
City Coffee Works 492
at If Directory, New York
(1848, 1854), g 494
— (1861) q 496
City Dock Co. (Santos, Brazil) 303
City, roast 388
Clarification 704, 705
Clark -Ammi, pat 625
Clark; Charles A 506, 514
Clark & Host Co 506
Clarke Bros. & Co 508
Clay bowls 016
Cleaning machinery .. 246, 248,
257, 383, 385
— Hungerford's patents 644
Clearing Ass'n, N. Y. Excli.331, 335
Clearwater, Judge ; 609
Clement VIII, Pope 26
Climate, Best for c 198
(ilosset, Emile 507
Ck'sset, Joseph 507
Closset & Devers 507
Closset Bros 507
Cloves in c 090, 709
Clubs
— ^Boston
^First Ill
— • — Merchants' Ill
— Ijondon
Court de Bone Compagnie 60
Evolution of 75
— - — Hanover 577
Literary 583
— London coffee-house.
— • —Bread Street 60
— — Devil Tavern 60
Friday Street 60
Mermaid Tavern 60
Rota 59, 60, 583
— • — Turk's Head 81
Turk's Head Society 583
White's 87
— New York.
— — ^Coffee House 690
South America 690
- — Phila., supersede c. houses. . 130
Chihs and Club Life in London,
Timbs, q 570-585
Coal roasting 385, 386
Coarse (see Grinds).
Coated c. Rulings (U. S.)
against 337
Coatepec c 345. 358
Coating 166, 396
— Condemned by N. C. R. X. . 513
— Reasons for 170
Coatzacoalcos c 345, 358
Coava 36
Cohans (c.) 347, 359
Cobbett, William, q 561, 562
Cochrane, q 185
Cocoa, first used in Europe... 25
Coffa 2 30, 38
Coffalic acid '. . . . 719
Coffao 2
Coffe 2
Coffee, Keable, q 181. 182
Coffee, A short historical ac-
count of, Bradley 42
Coffee and Repartee, Bangs, q
564, 565
Coffee Book, The, q 714
Coffee cantata. Bach 46
Coffee Club (U. S.) 453
Coffee Club, The, per., q 177
Ccffee from Plantation to Cup,
Thurber. q 182, 712
Coffee Grinding and Brewing,
N. C. R. A 715
Coffee house, most beautiful . . . 599
Coffee house. The (comedy)
Rosseau 88
Coffee house. The neic and curi-
ous, per 45
Coffee house or newsmongers'
hall, (broadside) 68, 69
Coffee-house keepers, London
— Proposed newspaper monop-
oly 74
— Tokens, ill...m, 62, 74, 89,
582. 602, 603
Coffee houses 293
— Advantages 72
Coffee houses (cont'd)
— Algeria 656
—Arabia 658
— -Augsburg, first (1713) 45
— Berlin
— ■ — Arnoldi 45
City of Rome 45
English 45
Falck's (Jewish) 45
First (1721) 45
— - — Miercke 45
Royal 45
— —Schmidt 45
Widow Doebbert's 45
— Boston 108-113
American 108, 111
— • — Auctions held in 112
British 108
Crown, ill 108
Exchange 112, 113
First 108
Green Dragon, ill. . . .109,
110, 111
Gutteridge 108
■ London 108, 116, 467
North-End 112
Royal Exchange 112
— • — Stage coaches start from
110, 112
Washington 110
—Brazil 691
— Cairo, number (17 th cen-
tury) 26
— Chicago
— • — Exchange 106
^Lake Street 106
Washington 106
— Constantinople 663-667
— • — Prices (1554) 19
— Damascus 668-670
First 19
■ Gate of Salvation 19
Roses 19
— Egypt 656, 657
— 'England
First (1650) 41, 53
Decline 75
— -—Ordered suppressed. . .72, 73
Proclamation by Charles
II 73
Proclamation rescinded.. 73
— Europe, first 27
• — Exeter ( Devon )
Mol's 42
— I<>ance 33, 682. 684
— Germany 683, 684
First (1675) 45
— Hamburg, first (1675) ..... 45
—Italy 27, 28
I^irst 27, 686
— Leipzig, first (1694) 45
— London 53-89
— ■ — Adam's (and museum) .. .
559, 560
— — Baker's 87
Baltic 87
Batson's 78
Bedford 80, 84, 88,
576, 579, 580
— — Blue Hall 575
— — Bowman's 83
— —British, ill 79, 86
Button's, ill 80, 81,
83, 84, 570, 575, 576,
577, 578, 579, 593
— — Caledonien, ill 84, 593
Chapter 78, 80, 88, 582
Child's 78, 88, 560, 582
— —Cocoa-Tree ... 78, 79, 87, 560
— —Decline of 61, 62, 81,
82, 674, 675
Dick's, ill 87, 88, 555, 572
Dish of Coffee Boy, ill... 603
Don Saltero's, iH..80, 86,
88, 558
Museum 559
Edinburgh Castle 75
Farr's 54
Fire of 1666 61, 62
— -^First (1652).. 42, 53, 54, 293
^Folly (house-boat) 89
Garra way's (or Garway's)
ill 50, 77, 80, 83,
561. 570, 571, 572
Gaunt's 588
INDEX
775
Coffee houses (cont'd)
— London
— — George's 584,
— ■ — Giles's
Grecian, »7/. . .61, 77, 80,
85, 560,
Groom's
Hamlin's
.Jacobs
.Jamaica
Jenny Man's
Jerusalem
Joe's
— — Jonathan's. .88, 554, 560,
Little Man's 79,
Lloyd's, ill 75, 80, 85,
London 88,
Man's 61,
• — • — Miles's
Nando's 80, 88. 572,
New England and North
and South American
— —New Lloyd's
New Man's
New Slaughter's
News centers, use as....
North's
Number ( 1715)
Old Man's 77, 79,
— —Old Slaughter's
"On the Pavement"
— - — Rosee's
Peele's 80, 88,
■ — • — "IVuny universities" ....
— — Percy 89,
Piazza 80, 89,
Piazza coffee room . . . 580,
Kainbow 62, 77, 89,
Reads
— ^Red Tow 83,
Robins's
Robinson's
Rochford's. Mrs
Rose 84,
— — Royal Swan (and mu-
seum )
Second
— • — Shakespeare
Slaughter's, ill 80, 84,
85. 580. 583, 584,
Smyrna . . 79, 80, 89,
Squire's
— — S'r. James's. . .75, 78 79.
. 80. 88. 558, '560,
562, 573, 574.
Stone's
Thomas's
Tiltvard
Tom" King's 89,
Tom's, ill 80, 85, 575,
576, 579, 580,
Turk's Head 56, 59,
80, 81, 89, 582.
Turk's Head, Canada and
Bath
Virginia
Welch (Daniels)
White's ill 79, 87,
558, 587,
Burned (1733)
— ■ — Widow Hambledon's
Williams's
Will's 77, 79, 80, 83,
558. 560, 574, 575,
Young Man's 78, 79,
— Marseilles, first (1671)
— Mecca
Opposition
Relicensed
— Milan
Demetrio
— Netherlands 44,
— New I']ngland 107-
— New Orleans
— New York 115-
— — Auctions held at
Bank 121,
Burns, ill 117,
^City
— - — Civic forums, use as. .115,
117, 118,
Directorv, use as
Double R
Exchange . . .118,
P'xchange coffee room ....
585
560
584
572
78
42
S3
560
88
571
572
88
572
582
88
583
585
86
88
84
77
78
74
88
84
583
42
585
3
585
581
581
572
74
574
63
570
79
574
559
54
84
593
573
86
588
675
84
78
581
593
583
583
83
78
588
587
575
78
588
88
32
17
18
30
686
■113
106
124
118
124
121
119
120
120
690
119
120
Coffee houses (cont'd)
Exchanges, use as. . . .117,
118, 119, 120, 123
First (1696) 116
Decline 123
Gentlemen's Exchange... 118
Keen and Lightfoot's 120
— ^ — King's Arms, ill 116,
117, 118, 121, 467
Merchants, ill... 115, 118,
119, 122, 123, 593
Birthplace of Union
(1774) 474
Congress Of Deputies
Suggested 120
Memorial tablet (1914)
473, 474
Organizations meeting
therein 120
New 117,118
New England and Quebec, 121
New York 120
Pequot 611
Social centers, use as. . . . 115
Tontine, ill 120, 121,
123, 593
Whitehall 121
— Nuremburg, first (1690) 45
— Oxford
— — Jacob's 41, 53
Jobson's 41
— — Tillyard's 41
— Padua: Pedrocchi, ill. 29. 30, 599
—Paris .91-104
Alcazar d'Hiver 98
Anglais 103
• — • — Bonnards 98
Beauvilliers' 102
^ — Chartres 102
Chat Noir 104
Concert du XIX Si^cle. .. 98
■ ^^Concert Europeen 98
Des Mille Collonnes, t». . . 99
Development of 94, 96
Durand 104
Dutch 103
Eldorado 98
— — English 103
— - — Pevrier's 102
First (1672) 291,670
Folies Bobino 98
Fov, ill 97, 100
Gaiety 98
Grand Commun 102
Gregory's 93
Guerbois 104
Laurent 103, 554
'Ijefevre's 96
IjC Gantois's 93
Litteraire 103
Madrid 103
.Magny's 94, 96, 102
Maire's 103
Maison Doree 103
— — Makara's 93
Maliban's 93
Mapinot 102
Masse's 102
M<5ot's 102
Momus 100
Number of 93
(1843) 94
.Paix, de la 103
Pascal's (Fair of St. Ger-
main) 33, 92
Paris, ill 101, 103
Procope, ill... 94, 95, 98, 566
Rambuteau 98
Regence 96, 98
Riche 103, 104
Rocher de Cancale 104
Rotonde 100, 102
Roval Drummer, ill 94
Stephen's 93
Terre's 103
— — Tortoni 103
Tour d'Argent 94
Trois I'^eres Provengaux, 102
Vachette 102
Venua's 102
V^ry 102
Voisin 103
— Persia 21
— Philadelphia 125-130
Decline of 130
Coffee houses (cont'd)
— — Exchange (proposed) .... 130
— ^fe'cene from Hamilton,
ill 556
Exchanges, use as 128
First (1700) 126
James 127
Ix)ndon, ill 125, 126
— • Slave auctions, ill 128
^Sunday closing 129
— Swearing, gaming, etc.,
prohibited 128
lyondon (2nd), ill 127
— — Merchants 125, 129, 130
Roberts' 127
Social centers, use as. 125, 130
Ye coffee house. .125, 126, 467
— Post-office, use as 126
—Portugal 686
— Regensburg : first (1689) ... 45
^Santo Domingo, first (1738) 34
—Spain 686
— St. Louis: Ijeonhard's 105
—Stuttgart: first (1712) 45
— Turkev 32, 663-670
Closed 20
Reopened 21
— Fnited States (1700) 708
— Venice
-ibbondanza 28
— — Angelo Custode 28
• — ■— Arabo-Piastrelle 28
— — Arco Celeste 28
Aurora Piante d'oro 28
Buon genio-Doge 28
Coraggio-Speranza 28
Dame Venete 28
— — Ducca di Toscana 28
— — Florian, ill 27. 28, '29, 555
Fontane di Diana 28
Imperatore Imperatrice
della Russia 28
■ — • ■ — Menegazzo 28
Orf eo 28
Pace 28
Pitt. I'eroe 28
Ponte dell' Angelo 27
Quadri 28
Redentore . . 28
Re di Francia 28
Regina d'Ungherla 28
Spaderia 27
Tamerlano 28
Venezia trionfante 28
— Vienna 671, 672
Blue Bottle 50, 590
— — First 51, 590
Kolschitzky's 50
■ Mosee's, Franz 51
— —Number of (1839) 52
— — Sacher 50
— — Schrangl 671
Coffee houses vindicated,
pamph, q 71. 72
Coffee, Its Histoni, Cultivation
and Uses, Hewitt 480
Coffee kings
— First (Germany) 47
(U. S.) 517
—Last (U. S.) 518
Coffee-makers' guild of Vienna. 51
Coffee man's granado. The
(Broadside) 66
Coffee palaces (see Coffee
houses)
Coffee Pep (brand) 539
Coffee pots (see Service)
Coffee Roaster & Mill Mfg. Co., 497
Coffee Roasters Traffic and Pure
Food Association 473
Coffee rooms (Norway) 686
Coffee sevffle. The (broadside)
q 64
Coffee shops (houses), London, 674
Coffee-smellers (Germany) .... 47
Coffee, tea, and chocolate, Con
cerning the use of, Dufour, 34
Coffee, tea, and chocolate, The
manner of makiny, Dufour, 34
Coffee tree, Kentucky., 564
Coffee water frosa-folis) 695
Coffey 41
Coffi 2
Cognac in c 106, 686
CogoUo & Co 340
776
ALL ABOUT COFFEE
Coho 1, 2, 38
Cohoo 2
Cohove 91
Cohu 2
Colt & Son, Henry 476
Coke roasting 385, 386
Colaux & Cie. pat 625
Cole & Son, Stephen 476
Coles Manufacturing Co. . .472, 646
Colet M. H., q 594
Colgate, Charles C 492
Colgate, Samuel 492
Collection of Voyages and
I'ravels, A, q 23
Collins, William 580
Coloring substances 170
Colombians (c.) . .348-350, 363, 364
Colpani 558
Columbia University 186
ColumMan Centinel, nexcap. q. . 434
Oolumnaris, C, hyh 140
Comity Francjais du Caf^ 445
Commaille, q 165
Commercial Ass'n, Santos 314
Commercial coffee chart 191
Commercial Coffee Co 478
Commercial Organic Analysis,
q 159
Commissario 303, 304,
305, 306, 312, 491
Commissions
— New Yorlc 334, 336
— Santos 304
Committee of Correspondence
120, 474
Committee of One Hundred
(1774) 120
Commonwealth and c 54, 59
Competition, retail 426
Complet, Cafe 683
Compton (Bishop of London). 570
Condorcet 94
Confectionery, C 695
Confessions, Rousseau 102
Congensis, G 147
Congensis var. Chalotii 147
Congensis x Vgandae, hyt 146
Congo, Belgian, c 353, 377
Congo coffee, caffein content.. 161
Congress of Deputies 120
Conkling & Lloyd 476
Con 16che, Cafe 691
Connoisseur (London) per, q. 579
Conopios, Nathaniel .... 40, 41, 43
Conquest of Qranada, Dryden's
(censured by Rota) 60
Conrad & Co., J. H 502
Consolidated Coffee Co 508
Consortium of 1868 476
Constantine, George, chk. 61,
84, 584
— {See Jennings, George)
Constantinople, Illustrated,
Walsh, q 663, 664
Constantinople in 1657, Rela-
tion of a Journey to Ro-
lamb, q 23
Constantinople, Old and New;
Dwight, q 664-667
Constituents of c. Valuable... 693
Constitutional Antiquities of
Sparta and Athens, Gil-
bert, q 40
Consume (grade) 261
Consumption 285-302
— Argentina ...279, 286, 287, 291
— Australia 286, 287, 291
— Balkan States 290
— Belgium 285, 287
— Canada 286, 287
— Chile 286, 287, 291
—Colombia 278
— Cuba 286, 287, 291
— Denmark 287, 290
— Europe (19th Century).. 295, 296
— Federated Malay States 284
— France 285, 287, 290
Average annual 678
—Germany 285, 287, 290
— Great Britain 285, 287
— Guiana, French 279
—Italy 285, 287, 290
— Mexico 280
— Netherlands 285, 287, 290
—New Zealand 285, 287, 291
Consumption (cont'd)
—Norway 287, 290
— Peru 278
— Portugal (1919) 290
—Russia 285, 287, 291
— Salvador 280
— San Francisco 487
— Scandinavia 285, 290
—Spain 285, 287, 290
—Sweden 287, 290
— Switzerland ..285, 287, 290, 291
—Table of World 287
— Tea and c. comparisons. 288, 289
— Union of South Africa.. 286,
287, 291
—United States 106,285,
287, 288, 293, 294
Popularity explained. . . . 106
Prohibition ; effect on 689
World^war ; effect on ... . 297
— Venezuela 278
Consumption per capita
— Foreign countries 288-290
— Groix, Island of 176
— Tables 288
— United States 298, 299, 476
— • — ^Methods of computing... 302
Containers 402-404, 408-
412, 470, 471
— First paper and tin-end 471
— First strawboard (1881)... 471
— Leather bags, greased (1710) 620
— Pots of various sizes (1790)
491, 492
— Standardizing 410
— ^Vacuum 471
Conti, Prince de 590
Contracts 329, 331
— Cost-and-freight 513, 515
— In-store 331
— N. Y. Exchange 333-335
— To arrive 335
Controversies
■ — England 64-74
— Cammercial, U. S 438
— Medical, Eng 58, 59
— Political, Eng. (1666-72) 72,
73, 76
— {See also Opposition ; Coffee
houses)
Conway, Charles 499
Cooling 381, 636, 641
Cooling machinery 394, 395
Cooling machines
- — Burns's ilexible-arm. . . .652, 653
• — Emmerich automatic (1897), 639
— German patents (1877-85) . . 638
— Grohens's rotary 646
Cook, O.F..q 202. 223
Cooper. Charles, q 675
Cooper, Cornelius 492
Cooper, L. S 495
Cooper & Co., Nathaniel 476
Coorg c 351 , 379
Copha 1, 2, 38
Cophie 56, 58
Cophy 56
Coppee, F^angois 565
Cordoba c 347, 358
Corinchies c 355, 371
Comer in Coffee, The, Brady. . 563
.Corners
— Arnold's (1869-1881) .. .517, 518
—Blanco's (1895) 529
— 'Kaltenbach's (1891-92) .476, 529
—United States (1901) 530
Cornpoppers for roasting 635
Correa & S'ons, F. A 338
Corbett. Barney 503
Corbett & Heekin 503
Corbin, May & Co 485
Corinna (Mrs. E. Thomas) .... 575
Cornell & Smith 508
Cost card for roasters 392
Cost analysis 407, 408
—Retail 418
Cost and freight brokers. .336, 337
Cost and profits, retail. . . .426, 427
—Chart 428
Costa Ricas (c.) 348. 361
Coste, Felix 448, 457, 514
Cotovicus 32, 696 ; q. . . 20
Cottraux, E. P 505
Cottrell 496
Couha 2
Couguet, Dr. A., g 26
Coventry, Sir William, q 72
Cowhe 2
Cowha 2
Cowper, William 88, 557 ;
q 550, 572
Cradle of Am. liberty 293
Cramer, P. J. S., q. . .135, 138,
140, 142, 144, 146, 147, 345
Crampton, G. E 501
Crawford, Thomas A 505
Crawley, Edwin, pat 642
Cream in c 399, 698
Cr^bilon 94
Credit policy, retail 428, 429
Creighton, Clarence 477
Creighton & Ashland 477
Creighton, Morrison & Meehan, 477
Creme, Caf6 a la 708
Crepaux 708
Cripps, q 602
Crispe, Sir Nicholas 54
Crocker, Nathaniel 508
Cromwell, Henry 575
Cromwell, Oliver 72
Crooks & Co., Robert 485
Crooks & Co., Samuel 501
Cross & Co., C. A 642
Grossman, George W.. 482, 518, 519
Grossman, W. H 482, 518, 519
Grossman & Bro., W. H 482,
484, 518, 530
Grossman & Sielcken.482, 519, 521
Crossman-Sieleken contract... 519
Crouse & Co., Jacob 508
Cruger, Henry 475
Cruger, John 475
Crusade (brand) 435
Cubans (c.) 351, 361
Cucutas (c.) 348, 349, 364
Cuchaletto (chocolate) 107
• — Sold in Boston (1670) 107
Culapius, S. pseud, q 181
Culbreth, q 181
Cultivation 197-243
— Crop maturity 138
—Early 197
Spread of 5. 6, 7, 8, 9
— (see also Propagation)
Cultivation (geographical)
— Abyssinia 1
— Africa, British Central 9
— Africa, British East 9
— Amazonas (began 1752) .... 9
— .Angola 229
— Arabia 2, 5, 230, 231
Began (A. D. 575) 5, 230
— Argentina 236
— Australia 9, 238, 239
— Bolivia 236
— Bourbon (Reunion) 9
— Brazil 9, 74, 75
204-208, 275
Profits (1900) 205
— California, Southern 9
—Celebes (began 1750) .9, 217, 283
— Ceylon 236, 237
— ■ — Begun by Arabs (before
1505) 6, 43
Begun by Dutch (1658),
6, 43
— —Systematic (1690) 282
— Colombia 208-212
— Costa Rica 9, 135, 225, 280
— Cuba 9, 231, 232
— Dominican Republic 232
— Ecuador 236
— Federated Malay States 238
— Fiji Islands 243
— France 6
— Guadeloupe 233, 234
—Guam 242, 243
— Guatemala 9, 135, 219, 220
— Guiana, British. .. .235, 236, 279
— Guiana, Dutch. .. .235, 236, 279
— Guiana, French 235. 236
— Haiti ; . . . 9, 220
— Hawaii 9, 239, 241
• — Honduras 234
— Honduras, British 234, 235
— Indo-China, French 9, 237
—India 5, 9, 225-227, 282
— Jamaica 9, 74, 233
— Java 9, 43, 74, 213, 293
—Liberia 230
INDEX
777
jltivation (cont'd)
-Martinique 6, 7, 8, 9, 233
-Mexico 9, 220, 221, 222, 280
-U. S. Interest 221
" — Netherlands 5, 6
— Netherlands E. Indies. . . .6,
213-217, 283
— New Caledonia 243
—Nicaragua 227
—Panama 235
—Para 9
— I'araguay 236
—Peru 236
--Philippines 9, 241, 242
—Porto Rico 9, 222, 223, 225
— Queensland 9
— Kio de Janeiro 9
—Salvador 217, 219, 279
- — Santo Domingo 9
—Sao Paulo 205-208
— South America (first) 279
— Straits Settlements 238
— Sumatra 216, 217, 283
—Tahiti 243
—Tobago 234
• — ^Tonkin 9
— Trinidad 234
—Uganda 230
— United States 9
—Venezuela 9, 212, 213, 277
— West Indies 9
— Western Hemisphere (first) . 294
Cultured (brand) 474
Culver & Geiger 509
Cumberland, q 573, 574
Cummings, W. A 496
Cunningham 583
Cup of c, or c. in ita colours,
A (broadside),? 64
Cup-testing 356, 357
— «an Francisco 487, 488
Curagoa c Sol, 363
Cure-all 58
Cure for drunkenness 58, 61
Curiosities of Literature,
D'Israeli, a 41
Curtis & Burnham 508
Curtis Publishing Co . 441
Cushing, q 179
Customs and Fashions in Old
New England, Earle, q. . . . 709
Cu«tom-house procedure. New
York 319
Cutler, Benjamin 492
Cu.vler, Philip 475
C. W. (brand) 441
Cyrill, Patriarch 40, 41
da Ponte, Lorenzo 28
D.ngoty 589, 590
Dahlman, Henry 506
Dahlman, John ' 506
Dailif Post (Lond.) newsp. q.. 588
Dakin, Elizabeth pat 633
Dakin, William, pat 633
Dakin & Co 633
Dakotan, v 316
D'Alembert, q 3
Dally, Gifford 128
Dana. John Cotton, q 712
Dancourt, q 554
Daney, Sidney, q 8
Daniel, chk 78
Dannemiller, A. J., q 409
— Coflfce-selling chart 409
Dannemillers & Co 484
Danton, George Jaques 94, 98
Danvers' Letters, q 2
d'Argenson, De Voyer 594
Dark roast 356, 387
Darouf (Arabian bale) 266
d'Arvieux, Chevalier, q 2
Dash, Bowie 479, 497, 527
Dash, J. Bowie 497
Dash & Co., Bowie. . .469, 477, 528
Dater, Henry 482
Dater, Philip 482
Dater & Co., Philip 482
Dauchet 554
Daudet, Alphonse 103
Daughty, Charles, M.. q 661-663
Daugleish, Dr 677
Dauphine of Prance 600
Davenant, Sir William 80, 576
Davenport & Morris 485
David 13
Davies, Tom 567, 568
Da vies & Co., John L 502
Davies & Co., Ltd., Theo. H 488
Davis, S. L 499
Davis & Co., Noah 501
Dawson, August T., q 711, 712
Dayton & Co 480
Dayton Spice Mills 443
Dayton Spice Mills Co 508
De Belloy, Jean Baptiste, inc. .
94, 621, 622, 697, 698
de Boze, q 543
de Bussy, Th. Roland, q 656
de Chirac 6
de Clieu, Mathieu Gabriel... 6,
7, 8, 233, 550
— Memorial to 9
— Verses about 8
— Voyage to Martinique 6, 7
De Constantinople a Bombay,
Lettres, Delia Valle, q 12
de Coverley, Sir Roger 86
De L^remery & Co 488
de Goncourt, Jules 102, 103
de Gourcufif, 0 557
de Jour, Rouill6 8
de .Jussieu, Antoine 6
De la Cat6, de Gourcuff 557
de la Motte. Houdard 554
De Lancey house. New York. . . 121
de Lannay, Count 47
de Laval, Pyrard, q 2
de I'Ecluse, Charles 31
De Dessert & Co., J. S 476
De Lima, D. A 482
De Lima, D. A. & J 482
De Lima & Co.. D. A 482
De Luxe, Caf6 (Guadeloupe) . . 257
de Mattel, Natale, pat 653
De Mattia, pat 166
De Mattia Bros 686
de Maupassant, Guy 565
de Alere, Mile 91
de Monteith. Fulbert, q 22
de Musset, Alfred 98, 102,
565 ; q. 103
de Noailles, Duke 567
de Nointel 542
De Quincey, Thomas, q 562
de Pompadour, ill 588, 600
de Rabutin-Chantal, Marie.... 91
de Sacy, Baron Antoine Isaac
Silvestre, 17 ; (? 2, 663
De Saluberrima Cahue seu
Cafe, etc., Nairon 16
de Santais, Edward Loysel, pat. 629
De Sarlo, q 186
de Saxe, Marie-Josephe 600
de Sgvigne, Madame 91, 565
de Thevenot, Jean 31, 91
de Tournemine 591
de Wildman, M. E., ? 132
Dealers, Wholesale
— New Orleans 486. 487
— New York 475-482
Dearman, Richard, pat 621
Decaffeinated (see Caflfein-free)
Declaration of Independence.. Ill
Decoction defined 698
Decreuse 589
Deep Sea Hotel (Arbuckle's) . . 524
Deer Co., A. J 443, 472,
473, 643, 646
Defendorf, George 492
Deffes 594
Defoe, Daniel 80 ; <?. 78, 79
Dehio 186
del Castillo & Co., Rafael 340
Delafleld. Henry 476
Delafleld. William 476
Delille. Jacques, q 547
Dell, John C, pat 644
Delia Valle, Pierre (Pietro)
543 ; q. 2, 12, 27
Delphine, Sr., pat 639
Demidoff, Prince 103
Democracy, Coffee and.. 20, 21,
54, 72, 75, 293
— Am. colonies 107
— Boston Ill
— ^England 59
— France 100
—Italy 28
Demonstrations, etc.. Store. . . 425
Dennis 575
Denobe, pat 621
Deodorant 58, -ISO
Department stores 415
Des Arts & Henser 476
Des Dames du Temps Jadia,
Villon, q 13a
Descamps 591
Desmoulins, Camille 94, 100
Desserts, recipes 723, 724
Destree, q 186
Desvigncs, pat 157
Detroit Testing Laboratories. . 715
Developing point 389
Deverall, R.U. & A 501
Devers, A. H 507
Deicevrei. C 142
— Java 214
Diarrhea, effect of c. on 181
Diary, Jourdain, q 1
Diary and Correspondence,
Evelyn, q 40
Dickinson, Gilchrist 476
Dictionary, d'Alembert, q 3
Dictionary, d'Arvieux, q 2
Dictionary of Applied Chemis-
try, q 164
Dictionary, Neto English, Mur-
ray, q 1
Dictionary, Universal, q. 176
Diderot, Denis 94 ; <?. 96, 98
Dieekmann & Co 488
Diefenthaler, Charles E 497
Diefenthaler, T. F 497
Dietl 186
Dietz, F. C 508
Digestion, effect of c. on.. 175.
177, 178-180
Diligence (infusion device) . . . 620
Dilworth & Co., J. S 507
Dilworth Bros 435, 507
Dimond & Gardes 482
Dimond & Lally 480, 482
Direct-flame roasting 386, 641
Discovery of c. (see Origin)
Diseases and pests... 147, 148,
152, 203, 204
— C.-berry beetle 203
— <:.-leaf miner 147, 203
— Eel-worm disease 204
-Fungoid 147, 148, 203
— Hemdleia vastatrix 148,
152, 203
— Insects 203
— Leaf blight
^^Ceylon 203, 236, 237.
282, 283
Dominican Rep 281
Hawaii (1855) 241
— —India 226
Philippines (1889) 242
— PellicuUiria tokeroga 148
— Root disease 148, 204
— Sphaerostilhe fiavida 204
— Spot of leaf and fruit 148
D'Israeli, 1 557 ; q. 41,
53, 72, 91
Distillation devices
—Napier-List (1891) 639
—Napierian (1870) 639
— Napier's vacuum (1840).... 637
— Wyatt's patent (1802) 621
Ditson, Thomas, pat 245
Dittman Charles. 486
Dittman, Jr., Charles 487
Dittman Co., Chas 486, 487
Divination by coffee grounds.. 558
Divorce, C. and 22
Doane & Co., J. W. . .482, 484, 485
Dolton & Co., Wm 508
Domestick Coffee Man, Broad-
bent, q ...293, 697
Dominguez, Andres 221
Donaldson 578
Donovan, Prof., q 704
Donmartin, inv 620, 69 1
Donns, q ^°
Doolittle. q 167
Doran, John, q < 05
Dorn, R. H 50o
Dorr. S. H 53.5
Dorsay, Benjamin 468
Dorset, Earl of 584
Double roasting 387
778
ALL ABOUT COFFEE
Douglas, James (Bishop of Sal-
isbury) 42, 543, 574
Downer, Samuel A 502
Downer & Co 501, 502
DowntoAvn Association, New
York 517
Drake, Samuel Gardner, q. 108, 116
Drake & Co.. W. D 507
Dramatic Literature, C. in. .554-556
Draper & Co.. John H 482
Dressing machinery 245
Drew, J. C 505
Drink (see Beverage)
Drinksum (brand) 524
Droste, H. R 503
Drouais, Francois Hubert . . 589, 599
Drug stores, C. sold in 415
Drums (see Containers)
Drupes (see also Botany;
Fruit) 136
Dry method 136, 249, 251
Drv roast 389, 391
Dryden, John. . .00 77, 78, 80,
84, 574, 575, 583, 584
Drying .251
Drying grounds 251, 254
Drying machinery 254, 255
Du Barry, Madame, tll....Q2,
563, 566, 588
Du Belloy, Archbishop 697
Du Mont 543
Du Tour, q 707, 708
Dubard, Prof., q 147
Dublin Philosophical Journal^
per., q 704
Duels 548
Duehring, Carl H., pat 642
Dufour, Philippe Sylvestre. .34,
432, 543. 557; q. 2, 11, 13,
74, 98
Dugdale, E 470
Dumant, Pierre Etienne Louis,
q 13
Duncan James, q 59
Duncombe Mfg. Co.. F. A 649
Dunham, Charles A 508
Dunks, John 118
Duparquet, L^ pat 469, 639
Duparquet, Huot & Moneuse
Co 639, 644
Durand, Calvin 502
Durand. H. C 502
Durand, H. C. & C 502
Durand & Co 502
Durand & Kasper 502
Durand & Kasper Co 485
Durant, Nicholas Felix, pat.
625, 634, 699
Durieux Elizabeth 178
Duryee, P. S., q 420
Dutch (see Netherlands)
Dutch New York, Singleton, q.
105, 115, 125, 709
Duties, Export
— Angola 268
— Sao Paulo 315
Duties, Import
— Abyssinia 310
— Belgium, removed (1904)... 296
—England (1692, 1732) 74
—United States 296, 468
Porto Rico requests 472
(See also Ghronoloyy)
Dwight, H. G., q 664-667
Dwinell. James F 501
Dwinell & Co 501
Dwinell, Hayward & Co 501
Dwinell, Wright & Co 485, 501
Dwinell- Wright Co 501, 629
DyhoKsM, C 144
—Java 216
Di/bowski X excelsa, Jiyb 146
D.ver & Co 501
Dykes & Wilson 480
Dymond & Gardes 486
Eagle Coffee and Spice Mills.. 503
Eagle Spice Co 507
Eagle Spice Mills 503
Eames, Wilberf orce 474
Earle, Alice Morse, q. .:...-.. . 709
Early History of Coffee Houses
in England, The, Robin-
son, q 11
East Indies (c.) 350, 370-374
Eating coffee... 180, 615 655,
693, 694
Eccles, William 475
Eckert. q 164
Eckliardt, pat 167
Ecuador s (c.) 350, 367
Eddv & Co., L. B 508
Eder, q 179
Edmond 102
Edtbauer, P. E. (Mrs. E.) pat. 472
Educational exhibits 715
Edwards, Daniel 53, 54, 459
Edwards, Hugh 482
Edwards, J. M 479
Edwards & Co., J. M 479
Edwards & Maddux 479
Edwards & Raworth 482
Edwards, Townsend & Co 507
Ekelund. Charles 509
Electric motors 471, 646
Electric roasting 386
Electric Scale Co 471
Electric signs 443
Elephant (grade) 258
Elers 604, 612
Elford, chk 83
Elford, inv 616, 617
Elford the younger, q 61
"Elixir of life" 174
Elkington & Co. Ltd . . 637, 639, 699
Elliott, chk 573
Ellis, Douglas 557
Ellis, H. D., q 602, 603, 604
Ellis Bros 485
Elmenhorst & Co 482
Ely & Co. D. J 480
Ely & Co., D. J. & Z. S 480
Emerson, E. . 501
Emerson. Edward R., q 566
Emmerich Machine Factory
and Iron Foundry, pat.
638, 639
Emo, Angelo 27
En pergamino (grade) 261
Encyclopedia, Diderot 98
Encyclopedia Britannica, g. .11,
200, 657
Encyclopedia der Therapie, q. . 185
Encyclopedia of Domestic
Economy, q 704
Encyclopedia of Practical
Cookery, q 710
Engelberg, Evaristo C, pat. . . . 247
Engelberg. Huller Co 247, 471.
Engelhard, Albert 505
Engelhard, Jr., Albert 505
Engelhard, George 505
Ensrelhard, R. W 505
Engelhard, Victor H 505
Engelhard, Jr., Victor H 505
P'ngelhard & S'ons, Inc., A. . . . 505
English, Dr. q 180
English c.-pots (1714-70) . 620, 621
English Factories in India,
Poster, q 2
Ennis, Frank 515
Ensaccador 304
Enterprise Coffee Co 485, 508
Enterprise Mfg. Co. of Pa.
469, 471, 639, 646
Eoff. Garrett 612
Epicure, per 675
Eppens, Frederick P 482
Eppens, William H 482
Eppens, Smith & Co 482
Eppens, Smith & Wiemann . . . 482
Eppens Smith & Wiemann Co.
485, 496, 499
Eppens Smith Co 494, 496, 499
Bppens-Smith Co. 496, 499
Erdmann, q 163, 183
Erecta, C, hyb 140
Esau 13
Escoffler (chef) 678
Escott, q 87
Esmenard 548 ; q. 8
Esperanza Coffee Co 497
Essential oil 163, 164
Essmueller Mill Furnish'g Co. . 649
Estienne, Jacques 548
Estrado & Co., Pedro. . 340
Etablissements Lauzaune (see
Lauzaune)
Etherege, Sir George 569, 570
Ethridge, Tuller & Co 508
Etiquette
— Arabia 658-663
— 'Paris (17th century)...... 91
— Turkey 664-670
— (See also Manners and Customs)
Etruscan Coffee Pot Co 645
Etymology 1,2,3, 27
"European fiasco" (1888) 529
Evans, pat 158
Evans, David G 503
ICvans, G Wynne 503
Evans, Richard, pat 624
Evans & Co., David G.. . .502, 503
Evans & Walker 508, 635
Evelyn, John, q 2, 40
Evening World, New York q.
553, 554
Ewe 160
Ewell, q 165
Ex-sailing ships 316
Excellent Qualities of Coffee
and the Art of Making
It, The, Rumf ord . . . 621, 622
Excelsa, C 142
— French Indo-China 237
— Java 217
Excelsa x liberica, hyb 146
Excelsior Mills 501, 502
Excelso (grade) 261
Excessive use, effect of 179
Exchange, Foreign 336
Exchanges, Coffee 329-337
— Amsterdam 296, 491
—Antwerp 296, 491
■ — 'Baltimore 491
— Hamburg 296, 329, 491
— .Havre 296, 329, 491
—London 296, 491
— New York 329-337, 471, 491
Change of name 474
Clearing Ass"n 331, 335
Contract 321
Functions 331-338
— —Incorporated (1881) 471
— - — Initiation fee 332
Membership 333
Organized (1881) 528
— ■• — Reincorporated (1885)... 471
Rio gradings 343
Robusta dealings pro-
hibited 341
Seats. Sales of 332.333
— — Wartime suspension. . .534-537
— New' Orleans 491
— Rotterdam 296, 491
—Royal (New York, 1752)... 120
• — San Francisco 491
— Santos 306, 308, 491
— Trieste 296, 491
Excursions through Asia-Minor,
Fellows, q 667, 668
Experimental gardens (see
Gardens).
Exports 276, 277
— Abyssinia ....228, 229, 276,
284, 285
— Aden (1921) 276
— Africa. British East 276, 285
— Arabia 282
— Borneo, Brit. North 276, 284
—Brazil 190, 275-277, 295
First (1770) 204
— —Largest (1906-07) 275
— Central America, first te U.
S 469
—-Ceylon (1741-1900) 283
First (1721) 236
Largest (1873) 237
— ^Colombia 192, 276, 278
— Costa Rica 193, 276, 280
— ^Cuba 233, 282
— Dominican Republic. .. .194,
233, 276, 281
— Ecuador 276, 278
— Federated Malay States 284
—France (1921) 290
— Germany (1920) ^ 290
—Gold Coast (1916-17) 276
—Grenada (1916) 282
— Guadeloupe . 234, 276, 282
— Guatemala 192, 276, 280
—Guiana .276, 279
— Haiti 194, 276, 281
INDEX
779
ExDorts (cont'd)
—Hawaii 194, 241, 276, 284
— Honduras 276, 280
—India 195, 276, 282
— Indo-China, French 237
— Jamaica 193, 276. 281
—Java 283, 294
• — Loeward Islands 282
— Mauritius 285
— Mexico . . 193, 220. 276. 2S(l. 2.S1
— Netlierlands 290
- — Netherlands E. Indies. . .195,
276, 283, 295
— Xew Caledonia 243
— Nicaragua 276, 280
— Nigeria 276, 285
— Nvasaland 276, 285
—rem 276, 278, 279
— Philippines 242, 284
— Porto Rico . . .194, 222, 276, 281
—Portugal 290
• — Producing countries (table) . 276
— K<>union 276, 285
—Salvador 193, 276. 279, 280
—Santos (1900-01 ) 472
— Sarawak 284
— Sierra Leone 285
— Somali Coast (French) . .276. 285
— Somaliland 276, 285
—Straits Settlements 238, 284
—St. Vincent (1917 ) 282
— Sumatra 283
— Tobago 282
—Trinidad 282
— T'nited States 301. 302
— Venezuela 190, 276-278
Extra (grade) 261
Extracts. Coffee 169, 670, 712
—First U. S. trademark 469
Eyre, Henry 482
Ffil)a Arahica, Carmen, Fellon 543
Fair-price list (Phila., 1776).. 467
Fairy Cup (brand) 539
Fakr-Eddin-Aboubeckr ben A bid
lesi 543
Fancies (Sumatra) 355
Faneuil Hall, Boston 612
Fanouil, Peter 612
Fantasia (grade) 261
Fantastic claims for c .58, 433
— Advertising 439
Faris, Charles 612
Farqiihar, q 587
Farr, .Tames, chk 53, 54, 62
Farrell C. P 508
Farrington, Campbell & Co. . . . 508
Fat content in c 164, 693
715, 718, 719
— Ivoss in roasting 167
"Father of English C. houses,"
(Blount) 56
Fatigue, effect of c. on 186
Faulder, H., pat 640
Fauiice process, pat 160
Faust (brand) 441, .^39
Fauvel. q 176
Fazenda (brand) 445
Fazendas (see Plantations).
Fazendeiros 258, 303, 304
Federal Sugar Refining Co. 123, 473
Fell & Bro., C. J 501
Fellon 543
Fellows, q 667
Fondler-Stiiber method 172
Fenjeyl (see Fludjan).
Fen.iyn (see Findjan).
Fere, q 186
Fermentation 254
Fermented (see Flavors).
Ferrari, Marv, chk .118, 119
Ferris, P. J 508
Fertilizers
— Ashes 201
— Chemical determination . 155, 156
— ^Coffee pulp 156
Fertilizing 202
—Salvador 219
Fiber, crude 718
Fidelity Trust Co 112
Fielding, Henry.. .80, 89, 554,
579, 580
Fielding. John 579
Figueroa 543
Filter bags, care of. . .707, 714,
715, 717
Filter paper 715
Filtration
— Definition 698
—Methods 715. 716. 721
— N. C, R. A. recommendations 718
Filtration devices
— Acker's "percolator" (1905) 701
—Baker's cloth (1902) 647
— Beart's pneumatic 705
— Blanke's cloth (1909) O.^l
—Boss ( 1881) 645
— ^Brain's vacuum 705
— Caseneuve's paper (1824) . . 623
Reversed Fr. drip (1824) 699
— Double glass 637, 701. 702
■ — Egrot's ste-am cloth 708
— Evans's tin air-float 705
— Gaudet's cloth 623, 699
— Half-Minute 645
■ — King's, for restaurants 651
"Percolator" 701
— Kin-Hee 646. 647
— Make-Right 651, 701
--Minute 645
- — Napier's vacuum ill 637.
699, 700
— Parker's pneumatic 705
— Platow's vacuum glass 705
— Private Estate 649, 701
— Rapnrlier's pocket 637
— Rapid (see Rapid)
— Salazar's steam-pressure urn 653
■ — Tricolator 445, 651,
652, 701
— Tricolette, ill 654
— Tru-Bru 651, 701
— Vanderweyde's "continuous" 637
— Wear's patent 651
Filtre, Cafe 675
Finch, William, q 36
Findjans 31, 36, 616, 661, 662
Findlay. Paul, q 421
Fine; Very fine (see Grinds).
Fine Arts, C. in relation to
587-614
Fines (England) 59
Fin-ion (see Findjans)
Finishing machinery 396
Finjans (see Findjans)
Fink & Nasse Co 502
Finney Samuel 126
First
— Authoritative treatise 27
— Comprehensive treatise in
German, Meisner's (1721) 46
— Description in print 26
—Mention by European. .. .5. 541
— Printed mention 25. 45
America 105
lEngland 35
As "Cofife" •■•>6
Europe 12
France 31
— Printed treatise 543
— Written mention in Mass.
(1670) 107
Fischer, B 497
Fischer. Benedickt, 634 ; biof/. 497
Fischer. Emil 160
Fischer, William H 497
Fischer & Co., B 443, 485,
497, 499
Fischer & Lansing 499
Fischer & Ijehmann 499
Fischer & Thurber 499
Fischer, Kirby & Brown . . 497, 499
Fishback, F. C 509
Fishback, Frank S 509
Fishl)ack, John S 509
Fishback Co 509
Fisher. George 497
Fitch & Ilowland 484
Fitzgerald 584
Fitzpatrick. Austin C 496
Fitzpatrick & Case 499
liMtzpatrick & Co., A. C...496, 499
Flanders. Geo. W 482, 491
Flanders & Co., Geo. W 482
I'Tnnnel sack used for Infusion 620
Flasks and Flayons, Saltus, q. 552
Flat (see Flavors),
nat-bean Santos C...260, 341,
342, 366
Flats, 1st, 2d, 3d (grades)
Flaubert, Gustave
Flavoring, Use in 723,
Flavors
Fleury, pat.
Fleury & Barker, pat
Flint, Austin B., q
niut, .L G 485,
Flint, W. K
Jlint. AVyman . .
mint, AV. & J. G 506,
Flint Bros. & Co
nint Co., J. G
Flint, Evans & Co 502, .503,
Floor brokers 336,
Flora de las Antillas, Tussac,
q
Florian, chk 27,
— (See Francesconi).
Flower, Henry
Flugel & Popp 502,
Foley. John T
Folger, J. A
Folger & Co., J. A... 488, 505,
506,
Folger, Schilling & Co 506,
Folkes. Martin
Folkingham
Fontenelle .94, 98, 543, 554 ; q.
Food Administration.' U. S.
— (See Government Control)
Food and Dietetics, Hutchin-
son, q
Food and Drugs Act, U. S
Food and drugs inspection. . . .
Food conservation show
Food use 136, 615, 655,
Food value 174, 180, 711,
— L'. S. Army
Food Values, Locke, q
Foote, Samuel 85, 89, 579,
580. 581.
Foote & Knevals
Forbes. A. E 503: q. 629.
Forbes, James H 502, 503,
629.
Forbes. Robert M 503, 510,
Force & Co., W. H
Force & Co., W. S
Force & Co., William H
Formaleoni Vincenzo
Forrester. George R
Forster. q
Forster's Life of Ooldsmith, q.
Forster. E. S
Forsvthe & Co.. James
Fossi & Co
Foster, q
Foster, A. C
Fowler, John A., q
Fox
I'^rancesconi, Floriono
Francis, Norman
F'ranco-American (brand)
Francois, Damame
Frankel. E. M
Frankel, F. Hulton. o'....180.
Franklin. Alfred, a "... 7.
Franklin Benjamin 94,98,
126,
Franklin, Samuel
Franklin, Walter
Franklin Tea Warehouse
I"''ras?r, q
Eraser, David B.. pat 642,
Eraser Manufacturing Co
Frederick the Great 45 ; q.
Frederick William I
Frederlcq, q
Freeman, W. G., q
Freight forwarding bureau. . . .
Freig.it rates
--Brazil to U. S. (1917-18)
53.5,
— Wartime
French Color Prints of the
Xrill Century, Sala-
man, q
French Companv of the Indies
French Revolution ... 100, 102.
French roast ; .356.
Freund
Fricke. E., q.. .
/"^isbie & Stephens
F'risi
258
565
724
397
640
638
176
506
506
506
635
.-.01
506
635
337
8
28
126
503
478
514
509
507
578
603
565
179
404
338
386
693
712
539
180
584
485
631
635
514
482
482
484
27
508
159
.573
508
502
340
o
479
269
583
27
492
441
34
716
693
557
467
475
475
503
179
644
644
4P
45
184
183
323
536
338
589
9
29rf
388
158
161
507
558
780
ALL ABOUT COFFEE
From Tree to Cup xcith Coffee,
N. C. R. A., q 713, 714
Fromm & Co 482
Fruit
— Beverages from 15, 694
— Food use 15, 693, 694
Frj- & Co.. Henry A 501
Fryer, q 2
Fuels 385, 386
—Coal , 620
—Electricity 647, 648
—Gas 640, 643
— — Natural 642
Full city roast 388
Full difference 331
Fullard, William, pat 643
Fulton Mills 498
Funk, C. q 180
Fustian bag used for infusion 620
Future of coffee 585
Futures market (New York).. 329
Fuzelier, q 594
G. G. (hall mark; See Gar- .
thorn, G.)
Gaa Paa, v 316
Gabriel. Angel 15, 23
— Jjegend 38
Gaflfney, Hugh 497, 498
Gage, H. N 505
Gainsborough, Thomas 84, 583
Galen 11
Galla (see Eating coffee).
Galland, Antoine. .31, 543, 548,
557 ; q. 2. 12, 16, 20, 22
OallienU, C 147
— Caffein content 161
Gait, Herbert, pat 652
Galuppi 556
Gambetta 96
Gandais, J. A., pat. 625, 699, 708
Ganse, John H 507
Garair (Arabian bale) 266
Garden, Theodore 85, 584
Gardens
— Botanical
Amsterdam 6, 44
Arabia, royal 34
Paris (Jardin des plantes) 6
Martinique (Jardin Des-
clieux) 9
— Experimental
Bangelan (Java) 138,
146, 345
Camayenne (Fr. Guinea) 146
Indo-Ciina, French 237
Java 43, 215
— Pleasure (New York) . . .121,
123, 124
Cherry 124
Contoit's 124
New York 124
^Niblo's, ill 121, 124
Ranelagh 124
^Sans Souci 124
— — Vauxhall, ill 123, 124
— Tea (London) 80, 82, 83
Adam and Eve 83
Bagnigge Wells 83
Bayswater 83
■ Canonbury House 83
Copenhagen House 83
Cuper's 82
Dog and Duck 83
Highbury 83
Hornsey 83
^Jews' Harp 83
Marylebone 82
New Spring Gardens 82
Ranelagh, ill 81, 82, 83
Spring Gardens 82
— —Vauxhall, ill 81, 82
White Conduit House 83
Garrick, David 80 81, 85,
88, 569, 574, 579, 580,
583 ; q. 573
Garrick, David (Mrs.) 579
Garrick. Westphal & Co., S. B. 476
Garrison, C. H 508
Garrondona, J. L 340
Garth, Sir Samuel 576, 578
Garthorne Francis 601
Garthorne, George 601, 602
Garway (see Garraway).
Gas roasting 385, 386
Gaskell, Mrs 582
Gasser, M. H...510, 511, 513, 514
Oaatronomy as a Fine Art,
Brillat-Savarin, q 557
Gates, H 505
Gates, John W 519
Gates & Co., A. B 508
Gaudet, pat 623, 699
Gaudron 543
Gautier, Th6ophile 98, 102, 565
Gazette, London, newsp 585
Uaeette de France, per. q 8
Gay, John, q 575, 577
Gee, Edward, pat 634
Geiger, Frank J 509
Geiger-rishback Co 509
Geiger-Tinney Co 508, 509
Gelabert, Jos6 Antonio 9
Gemaleddin, Sheik 16, 541
Genius fostered by c 557
Geographical distribution. .189-195
George III 106 117, 583
George V 601
George & Co., P. T 485
Georgi, Theophilo 45, 433
Gephart, q 180
Gerard, (French; minister) .... 130
German Trading Co 527
Germicidal properties 180
Germination 5, 138
Gerfime, Jean Leon 591, 656
Ghiradelli & Co., D. . 505
Giacomini, Luigi, pat 648
Gibbon, Edward 81, 583
Gilbert, Colgate 494
Gilbert & Co.. Colgate 498
Gillet, Frfere 144
Gillett, A. B 508
Gilies, E. J., q 408
Gillies, James W 495 •,Mog. 494
Gillies, Wright 497 ; Mog. 494
Gillies & Bro., Wright 494,
495 499
Gillies & Co. Inc., E. J 495,'
499, 501
Gillies Coffee Co 494, 495, 499
Gilman, George F 479, 485
Gimborn, Theo. von.. 638; pat. 639
Glazes and coatings 170
Glazing
■ — Arbuckle's patent 522
—Effects 167
— Italy 686
— Machinery 396
Glines, J. T. & N 501
Globe Mills 496, 497, 499, 526
Gloria, Cafe 683
Glover, Force & Co 482
Glyceral as sweetening 165
Glynn, Martin J 482
Glynn & Co., Martin J 482
Godey's Lady's Book, per., q.. 711
Goed Vrouw, v 317
Goetzinger, M. E., q 521
Gold and Silversmiths' Soc 609
Golden Gate (brand) 441
Golden Sun (brand) 441
Golden Wedding (brand) 441
Golden West (brand) 441
Goldoni Carlo. . .28, 555, 588;
q. 556
Goldsmith, Oliver. . .80. 81, 85,
88, 568, 574, 579, 582, 584
— "Retaliation" 573
Goldtree, Liebes & Co 488
Goldsworthy, William G., pat. 702
Ooodhousekeeping, per., q. 175,
176, 182
Gomez, Juan Antonio 9, 221
Gordon, Douglas, pat 248
Gordon, Fred P 478
Gordon, G. 0 485, 486
Gordon, John, pat 246
Gordon & Co., Fred P 478
Gordon & Co., Geo. 0 486
Gordon & Co., John 246
Gorter q 156, 159, 160
Gothout Ferd 639
Gottlieb" 185
Gould (chemist), q 167, 168
Gould, George J 519
Gouverneur, Isaac 475
Gouverneur, Nicholas 475
Gourewitscli, q 176
Gout, strange remedy for ....
Government (brand)
Government control, Wartime
338, 474, 534-
Government Monopoly
— Java 213,
— Netherlands E. Ind..44, 283,
Grace & Co., W. R. .442, 482,
488,
Grade. Basic (N. Y. Exch.)
329,
Graders (N. Y. Exch.)
(trades
— Colombia
— Mocha
- — New York
— Porto Rico
— Sao Paulo
— U. S. (prohibited)
Grading
— Brazil 304,
—Hand
—Machinery 246-248, 258,
— Machine (Van Gulpen's) ....
— ^New York Exchange
— ^Santos
Grafe, q
Grafting (see Propagation).
Griige (see Peaberry).
Graham, q
Gram, pat
Grand concern of England ex-
plained, pampli
Grandin
Granger & Co
Granger & Hodge
Grant, U. S
Grassy (see Flavors).
Gray, Arthur, q 552, 553,
Gray, Louis R
Gray, Thomas
Great American Tea Co. . .479,
Great Atlantic & Pacific Tea
Co 417. 479, 485,
— Premiums
Great Boom (see Booms) . .528,
Great London Tea Co
Greeks of the Present Day,
About, q
Green, William
Green coffee marks, ill 338,
Green Dragon c. urn 613,
Greene, Ricliard A., pat. . .652,
Greenwood, Paul
Gregory, chk
Grenier, Dufougeret
Grever & Bro
Grevy. Francois Paul Jules. . . .
Griebel, q
Griffiths & Co.. J
Grigor & Co.. T. S
Grinding
— Arabia 658-
— Australia
— Greece
— Household
— — England.. .695, 696, 704,
Greece
United States
—Steel cut
— New Zealand
Grinding and packing 167,
Grinding machinery. . .400-402,
615-
— Chronology 643-
■ — Commercial
— ■ — Burstone Mills
— — Fi'ance
—Greece
— Household 615-
— — Ilrst French patent
Grinding machines
— Household
Book's (1665)
Bronson's patent (1903).
^Bruflf's patent (1798) . . .
Clark's hand-^mill (1832).
Colaux's patent (1829)..
Dearman's patent (1779)
Electric (first, 1897)
— ■ — First English patent
— —First U. S. patent. . .468,
Herbert's patent (1848) . .
^Kenrich's mill (1815) . . ,
182
434
■538
214
312
489
335
333
258
260
351
329
264
2(i(t
337
306
258
383
638
333
304
164
153
158
708
508
508
563
713
446
80
499
499
429
529
435
685
492
340
614
653
71
93
9
501
566
159
508
•662
692
685
705
685
711
714
692
168
654
654
637
680
685
■620
625
617
647
621
625
625
621
471
634
621
634
624
INDEX
781
Grinding m.achines {cont'd)
-Lacoux' combined roaster
and grinder 625, 627
Moore's mill (1813) 623
— — Morgan's glass-jar mill . . 645
Hand mills 644, 645
N. C. R. A. Home Mill
(1915), ill 652, 714
Parker's hand mill (1832) 625
Rittenhouse's hand-mill.. 627
Selden's hand-mill (1831) 625
Stillman's "mica window" 627
Stowe's hand mill 644
Strowbridge's box mill... 644
^Turkish combination 670
Van Vliet's hand mill... 634
Webb's box mill (1878).. 644
Wilson's steel mill (1818) 623
— Retail
Dell's store mill 644
— — Morgan's patent (1919).. 653
— Wholesale
Barbor mill 637
Burns's granulator. . .637, 652
— — Ideal steel-cut mill (1916) 652
— — ^Knickerbocker (1882) . . . 645
Grinds 401, 402
^-Coarse and fine compared. . . 167
—Comparative test (1917) . . . 716
— Definitions 714
— Greek preferences 685
— Irregular (King's patent)
167, 402 474, 716
Griswold, H. F 502
Grocer helps 412
Grocers Engineering and Whit-
mee, Ltd 640, 641, 642
Grocers, Retail, no. in U. S. . . 415
Grocery stores 422, 423
■ — Model c. departments. . .415, 418
Groff & Co., Charles R 508
Grohens, A. P 646, 649
Gros 589
Gross, March & Co 479
Grossman, George A 506
Grossman, William 506
(irossman & Co.. William 506
(irossman Co., Wm 506
Groundy (see Flavors).
Growth's, French preferences.. 680
(iruner. Siegfried 478
Gruner & Co 530
Gruner & Co., S 478
Gruppe. Charles P 593
Giiadeloupes (c.) 350, 363
Guam c 355, 375
Guardian (Lond.) per... 80; q. 576
Guardiola, Jos6, pat 247
Guatemalas (c.) 347, 359, 360
Guildhall museum 62, 602
Guillasse, Dr., q 181
Guineas (c.) 353. 378
(iump Company, B. F 474, 652
Gntteridge, Mary, cftfc 108
Gutteridge, Robert, chk 108
Guy, Francis 593
G. " Washington's Prepared
(brand) 538
Gwynn (architect) 584
Haas, Kalman 482
Unas Bros 482, 488
Haase, Heinrich 484
Habit-forming; c is not... 176. 186
Habitat 133, 291
Hacendado Mex. El. q 156
Haciendas (see Plantations)
Hackfleld & Co.., Ltd., H 488
Haddon, q 159
Hadrot, pat 621, 622, 699
Haebler & Co 485
Haehnlen Bros 508
Haeussler, August 480
Hagar 18
Hahnemann. Samuel, q 175
Haimi-Harazi c 351, 368
Haitis (c.) 350, 362
Hakimani 17
Hakluy t Society 1, 2
Half difference 321
Halifax, Lord 577
Hall, G. M 502
Hall, I. W., <? 184
Hall, Robert (Rev.) 556
Hall & Co., Martin L 501
Halla, Wm 488
Halley, Dr 582
Halligan, T. P 513
Hallmarks 601, 602, 607
Hals, Frans 587
Halsey, R. T. Haines 607, 609
Halstead, Charles, pat 470, 644
Hamakua c 356, 375
Hamberger-Polhemus Co 488
Hamill, David B 509
Hamill, Smith 509
Hamill & Co., S 508, 509
Hamilton Alexander.. 130; duel. 123
Hamilton, Duke of 572
Hamlin, Mary P 130 ; q. 556
Hamor, W. A., pat 406, 539
Hamsley, M. F., pat 642
Hanauer, Herman 482
Hanauer, Moses G 482
Hanausek, q 147, 159
Handbills 432-435
— First (Rosee's, 1652) 54
Handbook of Medical Science,
q. 182
Handhuch der Physiologic, q. . . Ill
Hanley, John 480
Hanley & Co., Geo. F 508
Hanley & Kinsella 480
Hanlev & Kinsella Coffee and
'Spice Co 485, 502
Hannes, Edward 572
Harari c 3,53, 376
Harari longberry c 353
Hard, Anson Wales 480
Hard & Rand 477, 480, 484
— Pacific Mail strs. chartered. 486
Harding, Warren G. (Mrs.) . . . 567
Hare, q 183
Hargreaves, C. F., pat 247
Harkness, q 176
Harley 573
Harnack 158
Harper's Weekly, q 16
Harriman, B. H 519
Harrington, Elizabeth 614
Harrington, James 60
Harris (actor) 574
Harris, Benj 108
Harris, Samuel L 492
Harris, Wm. B 399, 492, 716
Harrison, D. Y 503, 629
Harrison, W. H 503
Harrison & Co., W. H 503
Harrison & Wilson '503
Harsh Santos c 341
Hartford Steam Coffee & Spice
Mills 508
Hartwich. q 147
Hart & Howell 477
Harvard University
—Bureau of Business Re-
search 418, 428
Harvest time 249, 250
Harvey, Eliab 40
Harvey, Gideon, q 58
Harvey, William 40
Harwood 581
Hassey, Cornelius 492
Hatch & Jenks 508
Hatches, Major, chk 112
Hatfield c. pots 607
Hatton. Edward, q 54
Haulenbeek, Jr., John W 497
Haulenbeek, Sr., John W 497
Haulenbeek. Peter 494. 497, 499
Haulenbeek & Co., .John W 497
Haulenbeek & Mitchell 499
Haulenbeek Roasting & Milling
Co 499
Havemeyer, Henry O.. 506, 521, 528
Havemeyers, The 470
Hawaiian c 355, 375
Hawk. Philip B.. q 177, 182
Hawkins, Sir John, q 579
Hawkins, Thomas 50.i
Hawkins & Thornton 505
Haworth & Dewhurst 507
Haydon 84, 583
Have, do la 31
Hayes. John (and Mrs.) 505
Hayman 583
Hayward. George W 508
Havward, Martin 501
Havward & Co 501
Hazlitt. Carew W., q 28
Hazlitt, William 5o7
Heading 389
Health, Effect on 174-188
— Favorable 23, 38, 42, 72,
557, 558, 562
— Unfavorable 38, 46
Health and Longevity through
Rational Diet, Lorand,
q 182
Heart, Effect on 181
Hubert 94
Hedging 329, 335
Heekin, Albert E 503
Heekin, James 503
Heekin, James J 503
Heekin, Robert E 503
Heekin & Co., James 503
Heekin Co 503
Heekin Co., James 503, 651
Heekin Co., James J 503
Heekin Spice Co 503
Hekem, chk 19
Hekteon, q 178
Helen (of Troy) 12
Hellmann Bros. & Co 487, 488
Hellsten, q 186
Henckel, James, pat 245
Hendershot, Peter 508
Henneman, Karel F., pat.. 639, 640
Henrici, P. H 511
Henrion, pat 621
Henry IV 60
Hentz & Co., Henry 482
Herald, New York, newsp., q.. 185
Herald of Health, per. q 181
Herbert, Luke, pat 634
Herbert, Sir Thomas. 1, 2, 543;
q 38
Herklotz, Corn & Co 482
Hemileia vastatrix (see Diseases)
Hertford, Countess of 570
Hess, H. P 508
Hev/itt, Jr., Robert 557
Hewitt, Jr., Robert C 480
Hewitt, H. H 507
Hewitt & Phyfe 480
Hickey 574
Hidey (see Flavors)
High roast 388
Higgins & Co., Geo. W 501
Hignette, pat 640
Hildreth, A. G 480
Hill, John (Dr.) 576, 580
Hill Bros 471
Hill, Dwinell & Co 501
Hill & Thornley 501
Hlllis Plantation Co 501
Hinchman & Howard 508
Hind, Rolph & Co 488
Hinkle, Henry 501
Hinz, F. W 503
Hippocrates 11, 12
Hire Co., Charles G 539
Hires' Soluble (brand) 539
Hirsch, q 186
Historia Vitae et Mortis, Ba-
con, q 38, 543
History and Antiquities of the
City of Boston, Drake,
q 108
History and Reminiscences of
Lower Wall Stret, Wake-
man 478
Histwical and chronological
deduction of the oHgin
of commerce, Anderson. 72
History of Am. Manufactures,
Bishop, 9 105. 115, 125
History of Literature, Routh,
q 561
History (of Phila.), Scharf &
Westcott, q 126
Hlasiwetz, q 1,59, 165
Hobart Electric Mfg. Co... 646, 652
Ilobart Mfg. Co 646
Hobson-Jobson, q 1, 2
Iloch. q 186
Hodges, Alderman 53, 54
Hodges, Dr 58
Hodhat, Kadhi, q 663
Hoepner 472
Hoffman, Daniel H 505
Hoffman, Lee & Co 485
Hogarth. William.. 80, 84, 576,
578. 579, 581, 583, 587, 593
Holbrook, E. F 539
Holland (see Netherlands)
782
ALL ABOUT COFFEE
Holland, Charles II 501
Holland Coffw Co 497, 501
Hollingworth, II. L., 9.176, 185, 186
— Caffiein investigations. .. 187, 188
Ilolman & Co. 509
Holmes, F. T...471, 472, 641,
642; pat. 643
Holstad, S 509
Holstad, S. II 514
Holstad & Co., S 509
Holstad & Co., S. H 443
Home, Chamberlain, q 563
Home Economics Ijuboratorles,
Un. of Kansas 714
Home, Life oj, Mackenzie, q... 86
Homer 12
Homeyer, H. L 510
Honduras c 347, 360
Honey in c 105
Hookah 668
Hoole 575
Hoopes, B. P 508
Hoover, Herbert 536, 537
Hope, G. W., pat 649
Horace 543
Horn, William L 509
Horner & Co., Henry 502
Horter, John 506
Hotel Astor (brand) 441. 465
Hotels
— London
— — Cecil, ill 675
— — Piccadilly 675
■ — ■ — Richardson's 576
— ■ — Sabloniere 583
— —Savoy, ill 675, 677
— —Tavistock 580
— —Waldorf, ill 675
— New York •
— • — Ambassador 691
— • — Astor House 690
— —City 121
Waldorf-Astoria 690, 691
— Philadelphia
— • — Mansion House 130
Houghton, q 40
Houghton's collection (1698),
q 54
House-boat coffee house 89
Howard, q 159
Howell, James 40 ; g. 58
Howell, Son & Co., B. H 479
Howells, William Dean, q. 548,
549, 567
Rowland & Aspinwall 476
Hoyt & Co., W. M 485, 502
Huatusco c 345, 358
Huber & Stendel '508
Hubner, pat 162
Hudson, D. D 507
Hudson, Thomas 84, 584
Hudson & Co., 11. C 507
Hudson-P^ilton celebration .... 607
Hudson Mills 497
Huestis & Hamilton 508
Hughes, Charles E 332
Hugo, Victor 98, 565
Hull, John 607
Hulling machinery. . .245, 246,
247, 248, 255, 256
— Bucket and bt-am crusher .... 260
— Costa Kica 264
— First U. S. patent 245, 469
— Smout's 257
Hulls, beverage from 655,
— (See Husks) 658, 694
Hulls and pulp, beverage from 15
Hulman, H 508
HumholUana, G 147
— Caffein content 161
Hume (pseud, of Voltaire) .... 556
Humphrey, chk 121
Humphreys. H. M 482
Humphry (appr. to Bowman) . 54
Hungerford, G. S., pat 644
Hungerford, G. W., pat 644
Hungerford Co 644
Hunt, Leigh. .550, 557 ; q. 562, 578
Hunt, Mathew 503, 631
Huntington. L. M., q 155
Huntley Mfg. Co 248, 472,
642, 643
Huntoon & Towner 501
Hurd, Jacob 612
Husks, beverage from. 26, 156, 231
~(8ee Hulls)
Husted, Ferguson & Titus 482
liutchins, John, chk 116, 117
Hutchinson, chk 109
Hutchinson, Edward 112
Hutchinson, Gov 109
Hutchinson, Jonathan, g..l75,
177, 179
Hutchinson, Woods, (/. ...176,
177, 180
Hybrids 138, 140, 146, 236
Ilvde, chk 122
Hyde, E. J., pat 634
Hydrolysis 719
Ibrik, (boiler). ..31, 615, 656,
658, 668, 695, 696
Ibriq (see Ibrik).
Iced c 724
Ichtoglan 22
Ideals, Coffee 585
Illustrated History of English
Plate, Jackson, q. 601,
602, 603
Imbusch, J. P. W 506
Importers
— Baltimore (Brazil c, 1804) . 485
^New Orleans (no., 1900-20). 491
— New York 475-482
— — ^Brazil c. (1894) 484
Number (1900-20) 491
— Phila. (number 1900-20) ... 491
— U. S., Brazil branches 304
— 'S'an Francisco 487, 488
Number (1900-20) 491
— (See Dealers, Wholesale).
Importing ports
■ — Amsterdam 327
— Antwerp 327
— Baltimore 482, 484
— Hamburg 327
— Havre 327
— New Orleans 296, 482, 484
— New York L'96, 476, 482, 484
— Rotterdam 327
— San Francisco 296, 482, 484
Imports
— Aden (for re-export) 282
— Argentine (1019) 291
— Australia 239, 291
— Austria-Hungary (1913-17). 290
— Ceylon 282
— Chile (1920) 291
— Cuba 281, 282, 291
—Denmark (1921) 290
— Fed. Malay States (1920) . . . 284
—Finland (1921) 290
— France 32 33, 290, 291
— Germany (1920) . . .' 290
—Italy 290
— Martinique 282
— Netherlands 290, 294
Early 43, 44, 291
— New Orleans 482, 484-487
— New York (1881) 528
(1900-20) 480, 484
— New Zealand (1920) 291
—Norway (1921) 290
— Panama 280
— Portugal (1919) 290
— San J^'rancisco 325, 482,
484, 488, 489
—Spain (1920) 290
—Straits Settlements (1920) . . 284
— Sweden (1921) 290
— Union of So. Africa (1920) 291
—United States 296,299-302
Brazil c 296. 468, 475
— — ^Early 468, 475
First in Am. vessels 468
Value (1919-21) 299-302
— Venice, early 27
Impotence, C. and 23, 46, 71
Inchbald, Mrs 578
Indiana Coffee Co 485
Indias (c.) 351, 369
Indigena, C. (Maragogipe) .... 345
Indirect flame 642, 646
Indo-China c 352, 370, 371
Industrial exhibition (1921).. 654
Influence des caf^s sur les
moeurs politiques, Sal-
vandy, q 100
Influence of Alcohol and Other
Drugs on Fatigue,
Rivers, q 186
Infusion, defined 698
Infusion devices
— Bencini's condenser (1838) . . 625
—Biggin (1817) 624, 699,
710, 712
— Dakin's cloth-bag 633, 645
— Denobe's pharmacological-
chemical (1802) .. .621, 699
— Donmartin's flannel sack
(1763) 620, 697
— ^Duparquet's muslin strainer. 644
—Etruscan (1887-88) 645
— First Prencli (1711) . . . .696, 097
— Halstead's china-lined metal. 644
— L'Aine's Diligence (1763)... 620
■ — Martelley's condenser .. .624, 625
— Rapid (see Rapid)
—Old Dominion (1856) .. .625, 710
— Rowland's condenser (1844), 625
— Triumph 699
Ingram, Margaret A 593
Inner-heated roasting machines, 386
Insomnia caused by c 176
Inspector, London, per 579
Inspectors at ports of entry
—Favored by N. C. R. A 513
In-store contract 331
Intellectual drink, The 566
Intelligence, per, q 59
International Coflfee Congress
(1902) 472
Internationalized by French, C., 585
Introduction, beverage
—Aleppo (1532) 19
— ^American colonies (1668)... 708
— Arabia 11, 12
— Austria (1693) 49
—Cairo (1510) 16
— Constantinople (1517)... 19, 291
— Damascus (1530) 19
— England (1637) 35-42
— Europe (1615) 25-30
— France (1644) 31-34
— Germany (1670) 45-47
—Italy ^1615) 25, 26
— London 58
— Marseilles (1644) 31, 291
— Mecca (1470-1500) 16
— Medina (1470-1500) 16
—Netherlands (1616) 43-44
— New York (1668) 115-124
— North America (1660-70) 105-113
—Oxford (1637) 40
—Paris (1657) 31, 91
— Philadelphia ( 1682) '. '. '. '. .125-130
— Venice (1615) 25, 291
— Vienna (1693) 49-52
Invisible supply (N. C. R. A.) . 514
Ireland, Augustus 479
Ireland, Sam 81, 576, 578, 593
Irregular grind. King's patent,
167, 402, 716
Irrigation
— Abyssinia 197
— Arabia 197, 231
— Mexico 222
Irving, Washington, q 317
Isenberg, Paul " 519
Ishmael 18
Israel, Leon 482, 532
Israel & Bros., Leon 442, 482
Italian roast 356, 388
Ittel, pat 640
Jackson, Charles James, 9.600,
601, 602
Jackson, S 486
Jackson, W. F 485
Jackson & Co 499
Jacob, chk 41, 42, 53
Jacquand 591
Jaeckle, q 163
Jagenberg Machine Co., Inc . . . 472
Jalapa c 345, 358
Jamaica c 350, 362
James, James, chk 127
James, Mrs., chk. 127
Jamison, Catherine Arbuckle. . 524
Jamison, Robert 524
Jamison, Wm. Arbuckle ... 523, 524
Janney, Jr. & Co., B. S 501
JardAn Desclieux, Inauguration
de, q 9
INDEX
783
.Tardiu Desclieux, Fort de
France , 9
.Tardln dos plantes, Paris 6
Jardiii, Ed^lestan, q 2, 3,
6, 14, 16, 27, 32, 557,
565, 629, 695, 708
.Tarvie, James N 479, 523, 524
Java c 353, 355, 373, 374
Jaiise 50
Jay Cooke panic 527
Ji'fFcrson, 'J'homas 130
JoEfrejs, Jiid,ii;e 570
Jenlvins & Bro., T. C 507
Jennings, Constantino, chk.Ql, 582
— iSee Constantine, George)
Jewel Tea Co 417
Jewett & Sherman 506
Jewett, Sherman & Co 506
Jobson, Cirques, chk 41
Johns. Benjamin, chk 112
Johnson. James D 495
Johnson, Lije of, Boswell. q.. . 567
Johnson, Samuel... 80. 81, 88,
89, 557, 567, 568, 569,
574, 577, 583, 585; q. 561
Johnson & Co., Theo. F. . .508, 635
Johnson Automatic Sealer Co. . 472
Johnson-Ijocke Merc. Co 488
Johnston, Herbert L., pa^. .646, 652
Johnston, W. T., pat 642
Johnston, William 501
Johnston & Co., E 445, 486
Johnston, Gordon & Co 486
Joint Coffee Trade Publicity
Committee 439,443,
445-459, 474
— Booklets 455
— ^Brewing 717, 718
—Coffee Club 453, 455
— Information service 453
— Membership 448
— Organized (1919) 474,514
— Program 514
—Recipes 723, 724
■ — fe'cientiflc research 453, 457
Jones, Dorothy 107, 108, 467
Jones, J. F 507
Jones, W. T 505, 511, 513
Jones, Webster 515
Jones & Co., S. L 488
Jones Bros 501
Jonson, Ben 60
Joseph, chk 93
Joseph Andrews, Fielding 80
Joteyko, q 186
Joubort 96
Jourdain, John, q 1, 2
Journal Am. Chevi. Soc, q.l55, 160
Journal Am. Med. Ass'n, per., q.
175, 185
Journal d' Antoine Galland, q. 2
Journal of Assoc. Agric. Chem.,
per., q 169
Journal of the Franklin Insti-
tute, q 711, 712
Journal of the Oen. Assetnbly
of the Colony of New York
(1709), q 117
Journal of Pharmach^l., per., q. 184
Journal, Revett, q 2
Journey through England,
Mackay 75
Julian, sec. to the Muses.... 574
Julien (of Gobelins) . 567
Jurgens, pat 167
Kadoe c . .355, 373
Kaffa 3
Kaffa coffee 228, 229
Kaffoe Hag Corp 473
Kaffeeklatsch (first).. 45, 433. 683
Kaffee-sieder 50, 51
Kahoueh 3
Kahua 3
Kahvedjibachi 20, 22
Kahveji 665
Kahwa 3
Kahwah 15
Kahwah (coffee-room) ... .657,
658, 662
Kahwe 45
Kair Bey 17
Kaldi 14, 15
Kaltenbach, George 476, 529
Kant, Immanuel 562
Kaspar, Adam J
Kato, Sartori 471,
Kato Coffee Co
Kavah
Kaveh
Kaveh kanes
— (See also Coffee houses)
Kavveghi
Kawih
Keable, B. B., q 181,
Keats, John 549 ; q.
Keen, William, chk
Keen's Chop House
Kellv, George
Kell.v, H. D., pat 472,
Kemble. John
Kendrick, F. G
Kenny, C. D
Kenrich, Archibald, pat
Kentucky coffee tree
Kenttu:ky Warbler, The, Allen,
q
Kerr. Mary Alice
Khawah (see Kahwah)
Kickleburys on the Rhine,
Thackeray, q
Kidde, Frank
Kidneys, effect on 175,
Kilgour & Taylor
Kimball, O. G 527,
King Dr., q
King, John B 513, 539, 701
720; pat. 167, 474,
651 ; q. 168, 402,
— (See also Irregular grind)
King, Moll, chk 581,
King, Thomas, chk
King, Tom, chk
King Coffee Products Corp. . . .
King of American breakfast
table
King of perfumes
Kingdom's Intelligencer, Lon-
don, per., q 433,
Kipfel
Kirby, James H
Kirby & Halstead
Kirby, Halstead & Chapin
Kirb.r, Halstead & Chapin Co. .
Kirkland, A
Kirkland, W. J
Kirkland & von Sacks
Kirkland Bros 478,
Kisher 231, 266, 655,
- — ^Method of preparing ,
Kissing the cheeks
Kitchen, James, chk
Kitchen Directory and Ameri-
can Hausenife, q
Kneller. Sir Godfrey
Knickerbocker & Cooke
Knickerbocker Mills
Knickerbocker Mills Co
Knight, Eberman & Co
Knowles, Cloyes & Co
Knowlys, Thomas John. put...
Knudsen & Co., P. J
Koch, q
Kock. Paul de
Koenig & Co., J. Henry
Kohwah
Kolschitzky, Franz George, chk.
49, 50, 51,
— Introduces c to Vienna
— Portrait, ill
— Statue ill 50,
— Wife (Ursula)
Kolster & Co
Kona c 356.
Kooman, G. W., pat
Koran, q 15,
Kosmos Line
Kraepelin, q
Krag-Reynolds Co
Kraut, Adolph
Kreiser, Alexander W
Krelssel, Fillip
Kroberger, Charles _._.
Kroe c 355,
Krout, J. M
Krull, pat
Krupp A. G. Grusonwerk. Fried.
Kuchelmeister, F.. pat
Kuhlemelr, Fred J., pat
Kuhlke, George F
502
538
538
2
1
17
22
11
182
550
120
498
501
649
581
507
508
624
564
564
523
563
479
181
503
528
584
716
587
581
587
539
107
565
582
50
480
480
480
485
480
480
480
480
658
694
387
130
709
578
499
496
496
507
502
633
488
186
565
503
12
590
50
51
599
51
340
375
649
20
489
186
502
471
509
W.\S
501
371
503
247
247
647
648
482
Kunliardt, Henrv 482
Kunhardt & Co 482
Kuprili, Grand Vizier... 20, 21
49, 71, 664
Labaree & Co., J. H..480. 482, 484
Labeling machinery 403
Uibels, law affecting 410
IwTbor
— Angola 268
— Arabia 266
— Arbuckle business. 524, 525, 526
— Brazil ..207, 260, 261, 203,
445, 530, 531
— Colombia 260
— Guadeloupe 233
— Guatemala 219
— Guianas 236
— Honduras 234
— Java 269, 271
— Mexico 263, 264
— Nicaragua 264
— Netherlands E. I. ..283, 293, 294
— Salvador 217
— Sumatra 269
— Venezuela 263
— West Indies 293
I^acedaemonian (see Black
broth) 13
La Chauss^e '. 94
Ija Coux, Francois Ren^, pat.. 627
La Guaira c 348
La Roque, Jean 31 , 32, 34,
543, 557 : q. 5 15, 33,
197, 245, 542, 565, 616,
694, 695
La Seine c.-pot 607
Lactation, Effect on 177, 178
Ladies Home Journal, per.
177; q. 709
Ladies Home Magazine, per., q.
709, 710
Lahey, B 480
L'Aine, inv 620
I^it. Caf6 au 691, 696
I^lly, Albert \., q 570
Lamb, Charles, q 550
Lamb (Folger, Schilling & Co.) 506
Lambert, Joseph 042. 646.
471. 472
Lambert Food & Machinery Co. 646
I^mbert Machine Co. ........ 649
Lamboray, C 144
Lancet, per., q 179
Lanrtanabileo, q 181
Landers, Frary & Clark. . .472,
644, 647, 648, 649, 653, 701
Langfeld 186
Langius 543
I.iantern Slides 443
Lantern-shaped c.-pot 602,
603. 604, 619
Lapicque, q 184 •
Larousse, q 91
lyascelles & Co., A. S 482
I/ast-bag notice. New York. . 321
Lastreto & Co 488
Lathrop & Co., C. D 484, 485
Laud, Archbishop 41
Laughlin & Co., J. W 508
Laurens, pat 623, 694
Laurent, Emil 144
LaurentU, G. (robusta) .. .142. 144
Laurentii Oillet, C 142
Laurina, 0. hyb 138
Lauzaune, pat 640
Lauzaune, Btablissements 625, 646
Lavado (grade) 261
I^wrencp, George W 535. 537
Lawrence & Van Zandt 476
Lawton, Frederick, q 557
Lawton, William, inr. ...641, 651
Lazear, Jesse 508
I,<ead number 159, 513
Leaf-blight («ee Diseases)
Leaves, beverage from . . . 133. 694
l^ Candlot, chk 93
Le Conte, q 178
Le Gantois, chk 93
Ij^ Morgan Coffee Co 508
Le Page, Jules, pat 474, 652
Ijeclerc 96
T>ee, H. H 508
T^e & Murbach 502
I^ech, John 582
Lefevre 96
784
ALL ABOUT COFFEE
L6gal ^^
Legendary origin (see Origin) 341
Leffcett & Co., Francis H.
i^eggett « ^^g ^g^ ^g2, 494
Legislative com. on specula-
tions, N. Y 322
Lehmann, Julius, q 70, 186
Lemare 708
Lemierre 94
Lemmon & Son g07
Lemon in c. (Russia) 68b
Lemonade venders o '0
— (See also Pedling)
Lensing, J. H orf»
Leo XIII, Pope, q 549
Leone oTy
Leopold, Emperor 49
Lepper, q 145
L'Estrange • • • „°%
Lester, George C, pat. . . .472, 647
Lettre sur I'Origine et le Pro-
gres du Cafe, Galland, q.. 1^
Leven loo
I.«vering, William T 484, 485
Levering & Co., E. 484, 485, o08
Levinthal, q • lo5
Levy, Florence N., g • 607
Levy & Co., M. M 485
Lewin-Meyer Co 48»
Lawis, Charles 503 ; pat. 64b
Lewis, Teacle Wallace 480
Lewis & Co., T. W 480
Liberian c ood, d7»
lAherica, C. . , „ ^ . .
—Allied Species 142, 144
— Botanical description. . .140, 142
— Colombia 211
— Dutch Guiana 236
— Federated Malay States 238
— French Indo-China 2d7
— Guadeloupe 234
—Java 215, 216
—Liberia 229
— . — Trees to acre 2d0
—Netherlands E. I. (1920) . . 283
— 'United States imports 341
Liberty Boys 120
Licenses
— Boston
Coffee-house 108
First, Dorothy Jones .... 107
— England
— ■ — Coffee-house 59
— • — First royal warrant 59
—France (first, 1692) ; 34
—Germany 46, 293
^Mecca, coffee-house 18
— Philadelphia, coffee-house ... 18
• — United States
— -First (1670) 467
Wartime (1917-18) ..338, 334
— Wurttemberg 47
Lichty, George E 535
Lidgerwood, John, pat 246
Lidgerwood, Wm. Van V., pat.
246, 247
Lidgerwood Mfg. Co., Ltd 246
Liebig, Baron von 682, 684,
685, 687 ; q. 711
Liebreich, q 185
Lievre, Friclc & Co 506
Liife of Addison, Johnson, q. . . 561
Life of Home, Mackenzie, q.. . 86
Life of Johnson, Boswell, q. . . 567
Light roast 356, 387, 388
Lightfoot, Alexander, chk..... 120
Lilly (astrologer) 69
Limbird, John 585
Limonaji 670
Linn, A. R. & W. F 508
Lins, Albuquerque 531
Linschoten's travels, ill., 43 ; q.
35, 37
Lion (brand) 523
Lion's head (Button's c. house)
ill 80, 576, 593
Livre Commode (Paris, 1691) 433
Llppincott, Jesse H 507
Llspenard, Anthony 475
Lispenard, Leonard 475
Literature of coffee 541-585
Literature, Influence of c. on
552, 556
— England 60, 81
—Paris . . .94, 96, 98, 100, 102, 103
Littledo, L. pseud., q 550,
Lives of Eminent Men. Aubrey,
q
Lives of the Lord Chancellors,
Campbell, q
Lives of the Poets, Johnson..
Livierato, B. A
Livierato, Gregory B
Livierato Frferes (Bros.) 338,
478,
Livlerato-Kidde Co
Livingstons, The
Lloyd, the law-student. 579 ; q.
Lloyd, Edward, c/ifc 85,
Lloyd, John C
Lloyd & Co., John C
Lloyd's (London)
— Register of shipping
Loading, Santos 312,
Loaiza & Co., W
Loclie (chemist) q
Locket, Mrs., chic
Lockier, Dean, q
Lockwood, Dr., q
Lockyer, Capt&in
Loeven & Co., E
Loew, Oscar, q
Logan & Strowbridge
Logan & Strowbridge Iron Co.
London
—Fire (1666) 61, 62, 74,
— —(1748) ill 76,
London, Paris & Am. Bank,
Ltd
London Pleasure Gardens of
the 18th Century, The,
Wroth, q
Long, Mary, chk
Long, William, chU
Longe, W. Harry
Longevity, Effect of c. on....
Longhi, Alessandro
Longhi, Pietro 556,
Lopez, Pedro
Lopez & Co., P. A
Lorand, q
Lorimore Bros
Lorraine, Prince of
Lott & Low
Loudon, Howard C
Loudon, J. Carlyle
Loudon & Johnson 495,
Loudon & Son
Loudon & Stellwag
Louis XIII
Louis XIV 6, 33, 91,
Louis XV 8, 92, 94, 563,
Love, N., q
Low, Seth
IjOw & Co., Adolphe
Ix)well, EJbenezer
Lower Wall St. Bus. Men's
Lown Coffee' Co!, W. G. . . . . . .
Lowther, Sir James
I^yal Association (London) . .
Lubricant to human machine.
Ludlow & Goold
Ludolphus, q
Lueder & Co., A
Lure of coffee
Lurman & Co., T. G 484,
Lusk, q
Luttrell
Lyman, John Chester, pat
Lyons, A. Neil, q
Lytton, Lord
551
40
570
570
479
478
488
479
475
584
86
480
480
120
85
314
488
180
570
574
176
120
505
156
644
644
83
83
488
82
56
56
444
178
588
558
220
338
182
508
49
475
495
495
499
495
495
91
92
566
175
473
487
487
473
508
584
583
385
475
5
485
585
485
180
579
245
563
102
Macassars (c.) 355, 374
Macaulay, Thomas B. q 75, 77
Macedoine Poetique (1824) .... 548
Machinery
— Evolution of 615-634
— History of Manufacture 468-474
Mackay 75 ; q. 79
Mackey, William D 477, 491
Mackey & Co 477
Mackey & Small 477, 480
Mackintosh, Sir James 556
Macklin, Charles 89, 580, 581
Maclachlan, C. H 527
Maclaine, Jemmy 578
Macrocarpa, G 146
MacVeagh & Co., Franklin 485, 502
Madagascar c 353, 378
Madagascar, G 146
Madagascariensis, G 146
Maddux, H. Clay 479, 491
Magic Cup (brand) 539
Maguire, Charles 479
Maguire, Joseph 497, 498
Maguire & Gillespie 508
Mahomet (See also Moham-
med) 38
Mahood, E. B 507
Mahood, Samuel 507
Mahood, W. James 507
Maidi c 351, 368
Mail-order houses 415
Maine & Eckerenkotter 505
Mairobert, q 566
Maitland, Coppell & Co 482
Maltland, Phelps & Co 482
Makara, chk 93
Makonnen, Ras 310
Malabars (c.) 351, 369
Malang c 355, 373
Malaria, Effect of c. on 181
Maldonado & Co 488
Maliban. chk 93
Mallet, J. W., « 176
Malone, q 61, 574
Man, Alexander, chk 59, 88
Mandelsloh, Joh. A. von q 45
Mandheling c 355, 371
Manet, Edouard 103, 104
Manipulated Java 338
Manizales c 348, 364
Manner of Making C, Tea and
Chocolate, Dufour 543
Manners and Customs 655-692
— Abyssinia 655
—Africa 655-657
- — Africa, Portuguese E 657
— Algeria 655, 656
—Arabia 657-663
— Argentina 691
—Asia 657-663
— Brazil 691
— Chile 691
—Constantinople. .19, 22, 23,
663-670
— Damascus (c.-house) . . .668-670
— England (c.-house) 60, 75-89
—Egypt 655-657
—France 33, 680-683
-Germany 683-685
—Italy 686
— London (c.-house) 73
— Mexico 687
— Netherlands 686
—New Orleans 690
— North America 686-691
— Norway 686
—Oriental, Early ..17, 19, 22, 23
— Paraguay 691
—Paris.. 91, 96, 98, 100, 102,
103. 104. 554, 683
— Persia (c.-house) 22
— Philadelphia (c.-house) .... 128
—Saxony 684
— Somaliland 63.")
—Sweden 686
— Thuringia 684
—Turkey 20, 27, 36, 38, 663-670
— Uganda 65.";
—United States 687-691
— Uruguay 691
—Vienna (c.-house) . .562, 671, 672
— (See also Coffee houses)
Manning, E. B., pat 637
Manning, Bowman & Co. ..649, 701
Manthey-Zorn Laboratories. . . 633
Mantsaka c, ill 142
Manual of Pharmacology, Soil-
man, q 182
Manufacture, U. S 298
Many, Daniel 507
Marac 682
Maracaibo c 348, 349, 365
Maragogipe c 345, 367
Maragogipe, G., hyi 140
—India 227
Marat 94
Marchand, pat 640
M'Ardell (mezzotinter) 84, 584
Marden & Folger 506, 507
Marden & Myrick 503
Margins 329, 333, 333
Mariahalden 519, 320
Marie Antoinette 96
Marilhat 591
INDEX
785
Marion Harland c.-pot. . . .645, 699
Market names 191
— (AS'ee also Characteristics)
Marlborougii, Earl of 109
Marmontel 98
^larquis de Someruelas, v 468
Marshall q 183
Martelley, Lewis, pat 624, 699
Martin, pat 485,640
Martin & Co., N 485
Martinique c 350, 363
Martinique, Utstoire de la,
Daney, q 8
Martinique, La, Pardon, q.... 8
Marvell 60
Mary, Qneen 601
Mason, Fred 689
Mason, L. F 479
Mason, Marcus, po«...246, 248, 469
Mason & Co., Marcus 248, 469
Mason & Thompson 476
Mason machines 264
Masons, Grand Lodge 110
Masons, St. Andrew's Lodge. . Ill
Mass. Inst, of Technology
— Scientific research 453,
457, 515, 714, 717
Massieu, Abb6 Guillaume, q.
14. 544
Matagalpa c 347, 360
Materia Medica and Pharma-
cology, Culbreth, q 181
Materia Medica, Pharmacy and
Therapeutics, Potter, q... 181
Materia Medica, Therapeutics
and Pharmacology, But-
ler, q 179
Matheson, S 482
Matheson. Jr. & Co., S 482
Mattari c 351, 368
Mattel, q 180
^Maumenet. q 548
Mauran. C. S 502
Mauritimia, C, 138, 146
— Caffein content 147, 161
Maury, Joseph E 515
Maximilian Frederick, Elector,
q 47
Maxwell, q 165
Maxwell House (brand) 441
Mayer Bros. & Co 482
Mayflower, v 108, 616
— Mortar and pestle, ill 105
Mayne 585
Mavot 96
Mazagran, Cafe 92, 655, 682
Mazerolles, S 591
McBride. R. P 482, 499
McCann. Alfred W 398, 399
McCarthy Bros 488
McChesney & Sons 488
McClean, .Jemmy (see Maclaine)
McCord. Brady Co 508
McCreadv, William 479
McCreerv, Henry F 480
McCreerv, R. W 511: q. 427
McI>onald, Duncan 521, 522
McDonald & Ar buckle 521
McDonald & Arbuckles 522
McDonald & Glynn 482
AicFadden, J. M 513
McFadden & Bro., George H. . . 480
McFarland, A 508
McGartv. M. J 399
McGill. A., <7 687
McKlnnon, William 245
McKinnon & Co., Ltd., Wm... 245
McLaughlin, Frederick 502
McLaughlin, George D 502
McLaughlin, William F 502
McT>aiighlin & Co., W. F..443, 502
McLaughlin & Co., W. H 484
MoMaster, John Bach, g 468
McMullin, John 612
McNeil & Higgins 502
McNeil & Higgins Co 502
McNeil, Thomas 494
McNulty, John R 479, 491
McNulty & Co., J. R 479
McReynolds, Attorney General 533
Meacock. James, pat 245
Mead, Dr 582
Meal Market. New York 119
Meat-packers in c. trade 514
^fechanie's Magazine, London 585
Medellins (c.) 348, 364
Medical Netcs, per, q., 183
Medical Record, per, q., 185
Medical Times, per, q 176
Medicinal properties of c. . .12,
26, 27, 38, 45, 56, 58, 71.
72, 175-188
— Due to caffein content 182
Medicine
— C. first used as 693
— Cafe au lait used as 696
Meditations, Brillat-Savarin, q. 697
Aledium (see Grinds)
Medium roast 356, 388
Meehan, Charles L 535
Meehan, P. C 476, 477
Meehan & Co., P. C 477
Meehan & Schramm 477
Meidinger, q 565
Meilhat 594
Meisner, Leonhard Ferdinand
46, 543
Meith, Hugo 591
Mejia, E 488
Melange, Cafe 671
Melaye, S 548
Mellon Inst, of Industrial Re-
search 714
Memoirs, Diderot 98
Memoirs, Sherman, q 563
Menado c 355, 374
Menda & Co 340
Mendel, q 185
Menezes, T. Langaard de, ill.. 446
Mengai 694
Menico 28
Menier 566
Mcnospenna, C, hyh 138
Menown, Hugh 631
Menown, H. & J 502
Menown & Gregory 631
Men's Answer to Women's Pe-
titio-n. The, pamph 71
Menslichen Oenusmittel, q. . . . 147
Mental and Motor Efliciency
— Elfect of caffein on 186
— Effect of tea on 186
Menzel, Adolph 591
Merchants Coffee Co. of N. O.,
Ltd 005
Merchants Exchange (New
York) 123
Merck & Co 473
Mercure de France, q 8
Meridas (c.) 349, 365
Merrill & Co., S. C 487
MeiTitt & Ronaldson 499
Merwin & Co., Geo. A 499
Mery, C. D 548
M<^ssenger & Co., Thomas H. . . 480
Metchnikoff, q 178
Metropolitan Mills 494, 495
Mexicans (c.) 345, 338, 359
Meyer (chemist) 164
Meyer, B 535
Meyer, Fred W 502
Meyer. Robert 510, 511, 513
Meyerheim, Paul 591
M'Ginlev, Joseph 492
M'Gregor, Coll 476
Michaud, I. F. and L. G., g.. 8
Michelet, q 98
Microscopy of c 149-153
— Analysis, value 152
Microscopy of Vegetable Foods,
Winton, q 150
Midland Spice Co 508
Mllde 591
Milds (market name) 341, 345
— (See also Characteristics)
Milk in coffee 38, 58, 399, 665
— Effect of 178
— First used by Nleuhoff
(1660) 696
Millar & Co., E, B 502
Millar Spice Co., E. B 502
Miller, Chas. A 480
Miller, Harry 480
Miller, Rev. James. .. .555, q. 554
Miller, R. 0 501,514
Miller, Watts 480
Miller, W. H 488
Miller & Walbridge 480
Miller, Smith & Co 485
Milling (see also Cleaning)... 383
Milreis 336
Milton, John 60 ;?. 549
Minor, W. H. 505
Miner\'a, v 128
Minford, Thomas 479
Minford & Co., L. W 479, 485
Minford, Lueder & Co. ...477, 479
Minford. Thompson & Co 479
Mingo, Cirilo, pat 471
Minkowski 185
Minor, W. H 485
Minott, Samuel 609
Minute (brand) 539
Minute, Caf6 a la 708
Mirror, London, per 585
Misbranding
— Condemned by N. C. R. A.. . 513
—Rulings (U. S.) 337,338
Mitchell, George 478
Mitchell, William L 478
Mitchell Bros 478
Mixing (see Blending)
Mixtures, Strange c 56, 57
Moat With the Crimson Stains,
The, Champney, q 563, 564
Mocengio 27
Mocha C...230, 351, 353, 368, 369
Mocha longberry c 228
Mocha-seed Bourbon-Santos c.
341, 366
Mocha-seed Santos (grade) . . . 260
Modern Italian Poets, Howells,
q 548, 549
Moegling, Carl, inv 647
Mogeneti, C. (caffein content)
147, 161
Mohammed.. 14, 15, 19, 20, 38, 54
Mohammed IV... 49, 50, 91
Mohedano, Jose Antonio 9
Mohns-Frese Com. Co 488
Moir, John R 535
Mokaska Mfg. Co 485, 508
Mokkae, C, hyl) 138
Molded beans 170
Molke 9
Molmenti, Pompeo, q 27, 28
Moncrieff (dramatist) 572
Moncrieff, Alexander, chk 572
Moneuse, Elie,, pat 469,639
Monin, Sieur, q 696
Monitor machines 248
Monk, General 59, 69
Monkey coffee 136
Monroe, James (Pres.) 113
Monstruo (grade) 261
Montagu, Lady Mary Wortley 573
Montague, q 551
Monte Carmelo c 350,365
Montealegre & Co 487, 488
Montesquieu 100
Montuori, q 176
Moore, Alexander Duncan, pat. 623
Moore, C. T 508
Moore, Dr., q 179
Moore & Co., Geo. A 488
Mopsy 579
Moreas. Jean, chk 102
Morewood, T. C, pat 642
Morev Mercantile Co., C. S 508
Morgan, Charles 644 ; pat. 645, 653
Morgan, Edward H 644
Morgan Brothers 644
Morize, pat 623, 699, 708
Morley, W. T 513
Morning Advertiser, Lond.,
newsp 585
Morning Chronicle, London,
neiffsp 585
Morning Herald, Lond., newsp. 585
Morning) Post, Lond., newsp . . 585
Morosini, Gianfrancesco ... 26
Morrison, S. B 497
Morrison, Wm. J 498
Morrison & Boinest Co 498
Morton, Robert 69
Mosely, Dr. Benjamin, q 2, 38
Moser (artist) 584
Mosso, TJgoUno, q 186
Most excellent virtues of the
mulberry called coffee
(1671) 34
Mother (grade) 258
Mother of caf^s (Vienna) .... 50
Motion pictures 443, 455, '514
Mott & Williams 494
Mottant, A 641, 645
Muddiman 59
Mudlford 58
786
ALL ABOUT COFFEE
Muhlberg, R. pat.
Muller, Frederick H., pat. 1)53,
Muiiden, Admiral 86,
Murdock, Charles A
Murdock & Co., C. A
Murdock Mfg. Co., C. A
Murg<'r, Henry
Murphy, Arthur 584 ; q.
Murray, Sir James 690 ; q.
Murray, James H
Murray, Robert
Murtn, ■ C, hi/b
Musgrave, .Tames
Music. C. in 593
Music in coffiee houses 656,
^ 666. 667,
Mustapha, Kara 49,
Mustard in c 58,
Myer. pat 162,
Myers. Myer
Mylne (architect)
Mysore c 351,
Myrtle c. (Mexico)
Nabob (brand)
Nairon, Antoine Faustus. . .16,
27,
Nakhel douin (pnlm)
Nalpasse, Valentin, q 175,
176, 177.
Names for c. (English and
foreign) 1, 2,
Names of places (see Note, p.
769)
Nancy (tea ship) v
Naphew, Charles
Napier, Robert, tnv . . 637, 699,
Napier & Co
Napier & Sons, Robert
Narcotism, Effect of c. on....
Narghil (palm)
Narghillai 663, 664, 665,
— (Also nargile, narguileh)
Nash Grocery Co., George. . . .
Nash, Smith & Co
Nas.h-Smith Tea & Coffee Co . .
Nashville Coffee & Mfg. Co ... .
Nason, James H., pat
Nat'l .\ss'n of Retail Grocers
of the U. S
Nat'l Chain Store Grocers'
Ass'n 417,
National coffee day
Nat'l C. Roasters Ass'n. . . .323,
439, 448, 473, 474, 509-
— Better c. making com... 713-
— Brewing recommendations . .
• — Conventions 512-
— Dues
• — Freight forwarding bureau . .
— Home mill
— Industrial Expositions. .514,
515,
— Membership 511-
National C. Roasters Traffic
and Pure Food Ass'n. 510,
National Coffee Week.... 439,
455 473, 474,
Nat'l Packaging Machinery Co.
443,
Nat'l Retail Tea and Coffee
Merchants' Ass'n
National Review, per, q
Nature, Cafe
Nature of the Drink Kauhi,
The, Pocoke's trans, q. 12,
Nature, quality and most excel-
. lent virtues of c. The
(broadside), ill 69,
Navarre, Francisco Xavier..9,
Nave & McCord Merc. Co
Nave-McCord Mfg. Co
Negro plot (New York, 1737).
Neidlinger & Schmidt
Nelson, Charles, pat
Nepenthe
Nervous system. Effect of c. on
174,
Netherlands E. India Co .... 43,
44. 283. 291,
Netherlands West India Co . . .
Neutral (see Flavors)
Never s, George J. .
Nevill
Nevison, J
638
702
559
506
.508
506
98
579
1
496
475
138
612
-599
669
50
696
473
612
584
369
222
441
543
266
179
3
120
479
700
486
699
181
266
503
502
503
509
637
428
418
513
515
-717
717
-515
514
323
652
654
•514
511
514
472
417
74
683
38
70
225
485
508
118
499
649
12
175
294
105
479
60
631
New and curimis coffee-house,
etc., The, per 45, 433
New Caledonia c 358, 374
New Guinea c 355, 374
Netc Discoveries, etc., Paschius,
q. 13
New England Automatic Weigh-
ing Machine Co 471
Newbold, William 479
Newell, pat 246
Newhall, H. B 501
Newmark, H 509
Newmark, Maurice II 509
Newmark & Co., H 509
Newmark & Co., M. A 509
New Orleans Coffee Co. . . .485, 505
New uses for c 457
New View of London (1708),
Hatton 54
New York
— ^Coffee and Sugar Exchange
(See Exchanges)
—Daily Advertiser, q 434, 468
—Dock Co 319, 532
- — Gazette, per., q 118
• — 'Historical Soc 474, 591
— Hospital 124
— Journal, per (1775) q 115
— Stock and Exchange Board. . 123
News from the coffee house
(broadside), q., ill 68, 69
Newstadt. Emil, pat 645
Niblo, William, chk 121, 124
- — (See also Gardens)
Nioaraguas (c.) 347, 360, 361
Nicholson, David 502
Niemuhr, Karstens . . . .543 ; q. 22
Nielsen, Thorlief S. B 520
Niessen, von, pat 158, 167
Nieuhoff 543, 696
Niles, G. M., q 175
Nonnenbruch, q 185
Nonnenbruch, q 185
Norrtlinger, Henry 482
Nordlinger & Co., Henry 482
Norrls G. W 532, 533
North, Roger, q 72, 570
Norton, Edward 471
Norton, Weyl & Beven 482
Norton & Holyoke 434
Nossach & Co 340
Notes and Queries per, q. . . . 1
Nurseries .' 200, 205
Nutmeg in c 69(5
Nutrio Mfg. Co 501
Nutt, Jr., F. T 535
Oaxaca c 345, 358
Oberholtzer, Ellis Paxson. q. . 125
O'Brien 579
O'Brien, E. H 455, 488
O'Brien, Jonas P 482
O'Brien. Joseph A 482, 491
Oceana,' Harrington 60'
O'Donohue, Charles A 123
O'Donohue, John 480, 498
O'Donohue, John B 123, 498
O'Donohue, Joseph J 480
O'Donohue, Peter 480, 498
O'Donohue & Co., J. B 485
O'Donohue & Sons, John 480
O'Donohue & Sons, Joseph .1.
477. 480
O'Donohue & Stewart 498
O'Donohue Coffee Co 498
O'Donohue's Sons John... 338,
485, 498
Oelschlager (see Olearius)
Of the Excellent Qualities, etc.,
Rumford, q 697, 698
Ogden & Co., George 501
Ogilby 571
Ohio Coffee & Spice Co 508
Oils. Coffee 164, 711, 712
O'Krassa, R. F. E., pat.. 247, 248
Olavarria, J. D 471
Old Dutch Mills 482
Old Ground Coffee W^orks 492
Old Judge (brand) 441
Old Homestead (brand) ...... 441
Old Master (brand) 441
Old Reserve (brand) 441
Oldys. W411iam, q 53
Olearius Adam, q. . . . ■■ .22, 45, 543
Olendorf, Case & Gillespie 478
Olivier. Abbe 548
Omar, Sheik 13, 14, 655
Opera : Le Gaf6 du Roi, Meil-
J)at and Deffes 594
Opposition
— Commercial
— — England 64, 74
— Medical
Cairo 19
— • — Germany 46
Marseilles 32, 33
Mecca 17
— Political
Constantinople 293
England (c. houses I . . .72, 293
iProclamation, Charles
II 73
Germany 46, 47
Ix>iidon 293
— Religious
Cairo 19
Constantinople 20, 21
— — Mecca 17, 18
— — Venice 29
— (/See also Controversies : Cof-
fee houses)
Options 329
Orange juice, peel, in c 106
Ordinaries (see Taverns)
O'Reilly, Count, q 222
Orf/anon salutis (1657), Rum-
sey's, q 56, 58
Oriental Trip, Mandelsloh. q. . . 45
Origin of c..5, 11. 13-16. 541-542
Orizaba c 345, 3.58
Orleans, Regent of 96, 98
Osborn, Lewis A.... 434, 469,
496. 522
Osborn's Celebrated Prepared
Java (brand) ...434, 469.
496, 522
Oseretzkowsky, q 186
O'Shaughnessv, John W 480
O'Shaughnessy & Co., John W. 480
O'Shaughnessy & Sorley 480
Ostrander, Loomis & Co 508
O'Snllivan, Eugene 479
O'Sullivan, .Tames . 479
O'Sullivan & Co., Eugene 479
Otis, James 110, HI
Otis, McAllister & Co 488
Otter V 127
Otto, Carl Alexander, pat. .640, 641
Outlandish drink 59
Orer the Blaek Coffee, Gray. g. 713
Overton. John B 479
Ovington, q 2
Oxford Coffee Club 41
Oxford, Lord 584
Pacific Mail Co 489, 490
Package coffees
— Advantages, disadvantages
. 408, 409
— Deterioration 168
—Early (U. S.) 469, 470, 522
— First crude (1791) 49i, 492
— Prance 680
— Great Britain 673
I'ackaging economies 410, 412
Packaging machinery . .383, 402-404
— United States patents 470
Packard & James 494
Padang. v . 317
Padang Interior c. 355, 371 ,
Page, Judge, q 570
Page, Thomas, pat 637
Painter, John (see Paynter)
Pal, q 184 '
I'alaces, C. (see Coffee houses)
Paladino, q 159
Palais Royal (Paris) 96, 102
Palambang c 355, .372
Palatability aid to digestion. . 180
Palgrave, q 658-661
Palmer, David 480
Palmer, Harvey H 480
Palmer & Co., H. H 480
Palmer. Warner & Co 508
Paludanus, Bernard Ten Broeke,
q 2, 35, 41
Pamela, Richardson 80
Pamphlets (see Broadsides)
Panamas (c.) 348,361
Pan-American Congress 472
INDEX
787
I'anlcs, V. S 52,8-530
— (Nee also Booms and panics)
Paiitor, William, ijat 245
rnra<lise Lost, Milton 584
I'arche, Cafe en (Guadeloupe) . 25"
I'archmeut 136, 138, 149, 150
Pardon, q 8
Parent & Co., J. A 508
Parini. Cuiseppe. a 548, 540
I'ark, Fellowes & Co. . . f 508
Park & Tilford 494, 499
Parker, Charles, inv 469, 625
Parker. Edmund, pat 625, 636
Parker, Gilman L 501
Parker. .Tohn, pat 634
Parker & Dixon 503
Parker & Harrison 503, 635
Parker Co., Charles 625
Park<"s. If 704
Parkinson, John 534; q. 41
Parlin. Charles Coolidge 441
Parmentier 8
Parr 557
Parrott & Co 487. 488
Parry (Welsh harper) 85. 584
Parry 543 ; q. 36
Parson 557
Pascal, f7/fc...33, 92, 94. 554,
619, 670; q. 432
Paschius, George, q 13
Patents, U. S 654
Patrick (lexicographer) 576
Patterson, Robert W., q.... 106
Pavoni, Desiderio, pat 649
Pawinski, q. 185
I'ayen. q 694
Paynter. Jonathan 53, 54
I'eabody, B. F 535
Peaberry 136, 249
— Botanical description 149
Peaberries, 1st and 2d (grades) 258
Pears in c. (Russia) 686
Pearson. George 507
Pearson, Peter, pat 638.640
Pechey 543
Peck, Edwin H 477
Peck, Walter J 477
Peck, E. H. & W. J 477, 484
Peck & Co.. Edwin H 477, 479
Peck & Kellum. Benj 508
Peck. Stowe & Wilcox Co 644
Pcdlinir
Constantinople 21
— Florence 670
— Italy 27, 29, 670
^Padua 29
— Paris 92, 93, 94, 96
— Vienna 51
Pedrocchi. Antonio, chk. . .29, 599
I'eeling {see Hulling)
Pellictilaria tokeroga (see Dis-
eases)
Pemberton. Join 128, 129
Penn, .Tohn 127, 129
Penn, Letitia 128
Penn. William. .105, 115, 125,
126, 467
rennsylvania Gazette, neirsp.
q 126, 127
Pennsylvania Journal, nevsp.
127, 128
Penny-cJiange plan 427
Penny Mai/azinr. per., q 704
Penny universities 73
I'eonage [see I>abor)
Pepion, John 508
Pepys, Samuel, q 59. 554,
561, 574, 582
Percolator, The per., q 521
Percolators
— Acker's Mo-Kof-Fee 645
testing-ta1)le 649
— ' — two cylinder (1905).... 645
— .\ndrews"s pumping (1841). 700
— Bohemian 654
— Bouillon Muller's steam 708
— Bowman's valve-type (1876) 637
— Bruning's vacuum jacket
(1920) 653
— Cafetifere Sen^ (1815) 699
— Carlsbad 654
— Chamberlain's automatic. . . . 652
— De Belloy's (1800) 621,
622, 697, 708
— De Santais' hydrostatic . . . 029
Percolators (eont'il)
— Durant's pumping 025. 699
— ^First French patent (1806), 699
—Gait (1914) 652, 701
^Gandais' pumping 625, 699
— German (plug in spout) .... 708
— Glass "balloons" 627
— Hadrofs "filter" 621, 699
— Half-minute (1881) 701
— Hutchinson's 710
— Jones's pumping 704
— ^^Kellum (1906) 649
— Kin-Hee (1900) 701
—Laurens' pumping 623. 699
— Laurent's steam "whistling," 708
— Malen's '. 708
— Marion Harland 645, 696
— Mo-Kof-Fee (Acker's) 645
— Morize's reversible . . . .623, 699
— J*BSon's tluid-joint (1865).. 637
— Nelson's patents (1912-13) . . 649
— Phylax (1914) 652,701,702
— Potsdam 710
— Preterre's vacuum (1849) . . . 634
— Pumping discussed 714, 715
. (first. 1819) 623
— Rabauts reversed (1822) 699
— Raparlier's glass "filter"... 708
— Reversible double drip .... (523
— Rumford's (1806-12) . . .621,
622, 623. 697, 698
— Rumford type 705
— Russian egg-shaped 708
— Savage's patent (1906) ... 649
— Smart's patent (1919) 653
—Star (1886) 645
— Sternau's patent (1904) ... 649
— T'niversal (1901) 647
— Vanderweyde's patent (1866) 637
— Vard.v's vacuum urn . . . 627. 699
— Vassieux' glass (1842).. 627, 700
— Vienna 638, 639
— Viennese type 708
— Warner's patent (1906) 649
Percolation
— Defined 621, 698
— Discussed (Trigg) 720, 721
— N. C. R. .\. recommendations. 718
Percy, Reuben, pseud 585
Percy. Sholto. pseud 585
Perez & Sons. Juan Pablo 340
Perfect cup of c 721-723
Perfect Vacuum Canning Co.. 471
Perfumed c 59, 695
Pergamino, Cafe en (grade) . . 261
Perieri, C 146
Persecution (se^e Opposition)
Persian letters, Montesquieu, q. 109
Perus (c.) 350, 367
Pests (see Diseases)
Peters, J., q 467
Petit, q 12
Petring. G. H 510
Pett.v. Sir William 60
Pharmaceutical Journal, per, q. 156
Phurmaeeutiee RationaUs, Wil-
lis, q 58
Pharmacological-chemical brew-
ing device 699
Pharmacology. Cushing, q 179
Pharmacology of c 174-188
Phelps. Jr.. Edward A 495, 499
Philadelphia Commission of In-
spection 467
Pbilidor 96, 98
Philipp. .Tohn 591
Philippines (c.) 355. 375
PhiliDs. Ambrose. .80. 576. 577, 5T8
Phillipi. Peter 591
Phillips. Sir Richard 578, .585
Phillips & Co., M 488
Philology (see Etymology)
Phipps. Sir William Ill
Phipps & Co.. J. L. . .476. 482.
484. 486
Phoenix. .To'in 482
Phoenix & Co.. J. W 482
Phoenix FOlectrical Heating Co. 647
Phvfe. James W 480
Phvfe & Co., Jas. W 480
Phonetic difficulties 1
Physimie f^acrfe. on Histoire
Xaturelle de la liihle,
Scheuzer. q 13, 16
Piccander, q 595
Picking c
— Coloml)ia
Pickslay, Joseph D 477,
Pictures
— Afternoon in the court gar-
dens, Munich, Walle's. . .
— Afternoon at the cofCee table,
Meith's
— Button's coffee liouse, Shep-
herd's, ill
— Cafe en Asie Mineure. De
Ternamine's
■ — Cafe sur un route de Syrie.
Marilhat's . . . . ,^.
— Cafe Turc. Descamp's
— Coffee comes to the aid of
the Muse, Ruffle's, ill
— Coffee house at Cairo. Ge-
rome's, ill 591.
— Decorative panel for Paris
House, MazeroUes'
— Dutch coffee house of 1650.
Van Ostade's, ill
— I<Mrst coffee house in Vienna.
Schams', ill
— Four times of the day. Ho-
garth's, ill
— French coffee house, Row-
landson's
— Goldoni in a Venetian cafe,
Ijonghi's, ill
• — Kaffeebesuch. Phillipi's, ill.
— ^Lion's head at Button's,
Shepherd's, ill
— Mad dog in a coffee house,
Rowlandson's. ill
— Manager Classen and his
family, Mllde's
- — Mme. de Pompadour. Van
I^oo's, ill
— Mme. Du Barry at Versailles.
Decreuse's, ill 589,
— Napoleon and the cur^, Char-
let's, ill
— Old woman with coffee cup,
Philipp's
— Oriental coffee house, Meyer-
helm's
— ^Parisian boulevard cafe, Men-
zel's
^Pastor Rautenberg and his
Family. Milde's
— P(>tit dejeuner, Boucher's,
ill
— Rake's progress, Hogarth's.
ill
■ — Slaughter's coffee house,
STiepherd's, ill
— S'weets shop of Josty in Ber-
lin. Schmidt's
— Tom's coffee house, Shep-
herd's, ill
- — Tontine coffee house. Guy's. .
— -Washington's official welcome
to New York, Gruppe's. ill.
Pictures, C. In 587-
Pieree, Jr., O. W
Pierce, Sr., Oliver Webster ....
Pierce & Co.. O. W
Piers, steel-roofed (N. O.)....
Pilcher, q
Pinzou & Co
Pioneer Mills
Pique, R., q
Piron
Pitt, William
Pitt & Sons. C. F
Place, E. B
Place. J. K
I'laces. names of (see Note, p.
769)
I'lnntation machinery 245-
— Brazil
— Salvador
Plantation machines
— (itnirdlola drier
— Planet Junior
Plantation prei)a ration. ......
— .\rabia
I'lantation processes 245-
— .V)),vssinia ••
— Angola I .... .
-Arabia 245, 264, 266.
— iirazil 258-
— Colombia
250
260
533
591
591
593
591
591
591
591
656
591
587
590
587
593
588
591
591
593
591
388
590
593
591
591
591
591
588
587
593
591
593
593
593
593
509
509
509
325
184
338
508
1.-16
94
580
485
482
482
■248
20T
217
255
•207
201
197
■271
26S
26.S
26S
261
260
788
ALL ABOUT COFFEE
riantation processfs (cont'd)
— Guatemala 263
— Haiti 264
— Java 268, 269, 271
— Mexico 263
— Netherlands E. Indies. .268,
269, 271
— Nicaragua 264
— Porto Rico 264
—Salvador 263
^Sumatra 268, 269
— Venezuela 261, 263
Plantations
— Abyssinia, yield per acre. . . . 228
— -Vngola
Cazengo 230
— Australia, yield per acre. . . . 239
— Brazil (fazendas)
Araqua 208
Azevado, L. de 0 208
— - — Cafeeria Sao I'aulo 208
Capital invested 207
do Val, F. S 208
Dumont, ill 205, 208, 258
Ellis, Alfredo. 208
Irmaos, Alves 208
Oliveira 208
Principal 208
Ribeirao Preto, ill 208
Sao Martinho 208
Sao Paulo Coffee Co 208
Schmidt 208, 258
— Ceylon, first British (1825) . 237
— ^Colombia 211, 212
— - — Namay 212
— Cuba, number 282
— Guadeloupe, yield per acre.. 233
— Hawaii, yield per acre 241
— India
Cannon's Baloor 227
Iloskahn 227
— • — iMylemoney 227
— - — Santaverre 227
— • — Sumplgay Kahn 227
Yield per acre 227
— Java
— — Jakatra 44
Kedawoeng estate 6
Typical, A 269, 271
■ — Mexico
Orduna 220
— Porto Rico
Capital invested 223
Yield per acre 223, 225
—Salvador, first (1876) 217
— Sumatra
— • — Gadoeng Batoe, ill 217
— Venezuela (haciendas)
— • — Altamira, ill 212
Carmen, ill 213
■ Yield per acre 213
Planting (see also Propaga-
tion) 200
Plants of Egypt, Alpini, 26
Plants, Roasting, ill 379,
381, 383, 385
Platow. Moritz, pat 627, 699
Piatt, Jr., James, q 1
Plays
— Autocrat of the Coffee Stall,
The, Chapin 556, 563
— Beaux' Stratagem, Parquhar,
1 587, 588
— Bold Stroke for a Wife, A,
Centlivre, q 554
— Boston, first performed in.. Ill
— Bottega di Oaffd, La, Goldoni 555
• — Cafe: ou, I'Ecossaise, Le,
Voltaire 556
— Caffe, Le, Rosseau 554, 555
— Caffd di Campagna, Jl,
Galuppi 556
- — CaffettiSra da Spirito, La, . . 556
— Coffee House, The, Rosseau. 88
— Coffee House: or. Pair Pugi-
tive, The, Voltaire, q 556
— Coffee-House Politician, The,
Fielding, q 554, 555
— Devin du Village, Rousseau . . 102
— "English comedy," q 61
— Poire St. Oermain, La, Dan-
court (1696), q 554
— Hamilton, Hamlin and Ar-
llss, q.,m 556
— Persian Wife, The, Goldoni,
q 556
I'lays {cont'd)
— Socrates, Voltaire 556
— Tartigo's Wiles; or, the Cof-
fee House, St. Serf, q. . . . 554
Pleasure gardens (see Gardens)
Pletzer, q 185
I'luehart, inv 710
Plunket (highwayman) 578
Pneumatic Scale Corp. ...471, 472
Pneumatic Scale Corp., Ltd... 471
Pocoke, Edward, q 12, 38
Pods 329
Poemata DidasoaUa, d'Olivet . . 543
Poems
— "As long as Mocha's happy
tree," Pope's, </ 549
— Ballad of the South Sea
Scheme, Swift, q 571
— Bouquet Blanc et le Bouquet
Noir, Le, Mery 548
— Cafe, Le (anon.) 548
— Cafe, Le, Berchoux 548
—Caffd, II. Barotti 548
— Cap and Bells, Keats, q. . . 550
■ — Carmen Caffaeum, Massieu,
q 14, 544-547
— at)/ Mouse and Country
Mouse, Prior and Mont-
ague, q. 551
— Coffee, Saltus, q 552
— Coffee -a Chanson (music by
Colet), ill 594, 595
— Coffee and Crumpets, "Little-
do," q 550, 551
— C. Companion (from Ara-
bic), q 543
— Coffee Slips, The, Hood, q. 550
— Comus, Milton, q 549
— de Clieu, Esmenard, g .... 8, 548
—Flog6 du Caf6, L'Estienne. . 548
— Frugality, Pope Leo XIII, q. 549
— Gilbert K. Chesterton Rises
to the Toast of C, Un-
termeyer, q 553
— Oiorno, II, Parini, q. . . .548, 549
— Grandeur de Dieu dans les
Merveilles de la Nature,
La, 548
— In Praise of C. (from
Arabic), q 542
— Like His Mother Used to
Make, Riley, q 552
— Lines (appended to broad-
side) Morton, ill 69
— Lines on C, (from French) . 548
— Long Story, A, Grav, q 576
—Ode to Coffee, Price, q 553
— Over the Black Coffee, Gray,
q 552, 553
— Pity for Poor Africans,
Cowper, q 550
■ — Plantes, Les, Castel, q 348
■ — Rape of the Lock, Pope. q. 550
— Recipe for Making C, Hod-
hat, q 663
- — Royal Drummer (Paris) <?... 96
— Rules and orders of the G.
house (broadside) q. 60, 61
— Song from The Coffee House,
Fielding, q., ill 555
— Three Reigns of Nature, De-
lille, q 547
— To the Mighty Monarch,
King Kauhee, Sephton, q. 552
— 3'o the Coffee House, Alten-
burg, q 549
■ — To Pasqua Rosve, q 54
— (Unnamed), Belighi 547
— (Unnamed), Lloyd, q 584
— Verses, Maumenet, q 548
— Wealthy Shopkeeper : or.
Charitable Christian, q.. . . 572
— What Every Wife Knoios,
Rowland, q 553-554
Poetry, C. in 542-554
Poffenberger, Jr., A. T., q 723
Poison, C. a 58, 174
Polislied C, rulings (U. S.)
337, 338
Polishing machinery 247, 248. 257
Political liberty ; England's
won in coffee houses .... 74
Polities, C. and 59, 62
Polli, Pietro 558
I'ollitzer, q 176
Polstorff, K 159, 160
Ponfold. Schuyler & Co 482
Poore, G. W., q 705, 707
Pop open 389
Pope, Alexander 78, 80, 81, 575,
576, 577, 578, 583 ; q. 549, 550
— Life of, Carruthers, q 549
Popularity of c. in U. S. ; rea-
sons for 106
Portable c. making devices
—French (1691-1754) 618
— Turkish 615, 616, 617
Portable grinding machines. . . 685
Portal, Antoine, q 58
Porthandling charges
— Brazil 306, 315
— New York 323
Porthandling methods, U. S... 513
Porter, David (Capt.) 112
Porter, David D. (Admiral) . . 112
Porter. Horace, Gen. q 56.'{
Porter & Co.. W. J 480
Porto Rico Coffee Co 488
I'orto Rico Planters' Protective
Ass'n 444, 445
Porto Ricos (c.) 350,362
Posadas, J. Z 488
Postman, London, per 560
Postulart. pat 640
Pot and Kettle, The, Lally, q 570
Potter, imt 167
Potter, Dr.. q 181
Potter, Ellis M 498; pat. 642
Potter & Parlin 503
Potter Coffee Co 498
Potter-Parlin Co. ...471, 641, 642
l^ottei'- Parlin Spice Mills 498
Potter. Sloan, O'Donohue Co. 498
Pounding c 697, 705
Poursine & Co., P 486
Poursini & Co., R 505
Powdered (see Grinds)
Power, q 155
Power-Chestnut method .... 172
Prado, Paulo da Silva . . . 532, 534
Praedium Rusticunv, Vaniere. . 543
Pratt, A. H 502
Pratt, David S., pat 3.39
Preanger c 355, 373
I>regnancy, Effect of c. on ... . 177
I'remium for early shipping
(Santos) 314
Premium distribution, retail. . 429
Premiums 412, 413
— Arbuckle 522, 525
Prendergast Bros 482
Prentiss & Page 637
Prepared Coffee 404
Prescott, Prof. S. C. 515, 714 ;
q. 'ill
Preterre, Apoleoni P., pat.... 634
Price, William A., q 553
Prices
— Advance notice of change. . . 514
— Beverage
— ■ — Constantinople 665
— — London 675, 677
-—(1662) 582
— — —(1677) 73
—Blends, retail, U. S. (1922)
722, 723
—Green
American colonies ...467, 475
Amsterdam (1810-12) ... 468
England (1719) 74
New York (1670) 105
— — — (1683) 125
— (1898) 471
— — — (1903) 472
— — —(1919) 474
— — Netherlands (early) .... 44
Netherlands E. Indies 312
• — • — United States
— — — Early 475
— — —(1814) 468
— — —(1880-93) 527,530
. — (1911) 532
.—(1913) 538
— — —(1921) 299,330
— — —Wartime 536-53S
— Guaranteeing 514
— Roasted
New York (1791) 492
— Roasting (1885) 509
Prideaux, W. F., q 1, 2
Priest, William 612
Primera (grdde) 261
INDEX
789
Primero (grade) 264
Prims. J. C, pat 473, 643
Prior 89; g. 551, 575
Pritchard, George W 480
Pritcliard & Sons, Geo. W 480
Private Estate (brand) 496
Private estates
—Java 214, 215
— Netlicrlands E. Indies.. 283, 312
Probst & Co., F 482
Proceedinys, Sorivtn of Anti-
quaries (1889), q 602, 603
Procope, Francois, chk 94
I'roctor, Cliarles E 538
I'roducing countries, leading. 191
Production
— Abvssinia 284
—Africa, Britisli E 229, 285
, German E. (1913) 229
—Angola (1913) 229
—Arabia 282
— Arfrentina 27j
— Australia 284
— Holivia 279
— IJrazil 273, 275, 277
— —(1850) 205
— —(1887-1902) 528-O30
— —(1903, 1906) 472
(1906-07) o34
—Santos passes Rio (1900-01) 530
—Cape Verde Islands (1916) 229
—Celebes 217, 283
—Ceylon 236, 282, 283
—Chile 279
._Colombia 211, 278
— Congo. Belgian 22J
—Costa Rica 225, 280
—Cuba 282
— Dominican Republic 281
— I':cuador 278
-Eritrea (1918) 229
— Federated .Malay States . . . 284
— (Jold Coast 28o
—Guadeloupe 281, 282
—Guam .. 284
—Guatemala 219, 225,280
— Guiana, British and French 2<9
Dutch 236, 279
—Haiti 220, 2S1
—Hawaii 239, 284
-Honduras 234, 280
British 235, 280
— India 282
— .Jamaica 281
-.Java 215, 283
—Liberia (1917) 229
--Madagascar (1918) 229
■ — Martinique 282
— ^Mauritius 285
—Mexico 280, 281
— Netherlands E. Indies 283
— Nicaragua 280
— Nigeria 28o
— Nyasaland 285
— Oaxaca (Mex.) 220
—Panama 235. 280
—Paraguay 236, 279
—Peru 278
— Philippines 284
— Porto Rico 281
— Reunion (Bourbon) 285
—Salvador 225, 279, 280
— Sierra Leone 285
—Somali Coast (French) 285
— Somaliland (Fr. and It.) ... 229
— —(British) 285
— St. Thomas and Princes I.'s 229
—Sumatra 217
—Uganda 229, 285
— Uruguay 279
— Venezuela 212
— World (1883-1921) 273
— — (1901-02) 531
(Statistical Table) 274
Production and Consumption
273-285
Prohibition, U. S.
— Effect on consumption 288, 689
Prolongation of Life, Metch-
nikoff, q 178
Propagation
—Cuttings 138, 200
—Grafting 200
—Seeds 138, 200
Arabia 231
Proteins in c 693, 718, 719
I'roteins (cont'd)
— Dearth in beverage 180
Provang 56
Pruning 133, 202, 203
— Angola 230
Publick Adviser^ per, q, ill.
56, 432, 581
Public Ledger, London, per. . . 327
Publicity. National campaign . 513
Publishers' Information Bureau 441
Puerto Cabello c 348, 364
Puhl, John 302
Puhl-Webb Co 502
Pulp, uses 136, 156
Pulping 250, 251
Pulping machinery 245, 246, 247,
248, 252, 254
Puna c 356, 375
Pupke, John F 482, 496
Pupke & Reid. . .482, 496, 499, 635
Pupke, Reid & Phelps 496
Purcell, Alexander H 477
Purcell, Joseph 477, 480, 535
Purcell & Co., Alex. II 477
Purser (artist) 668
Purchas his pilgrimes, q 36
Purchas, Samuel 36
Purdy, L. J 479
Pure Food and Drugs Act
337, 338, 410, 472, 722
Ptirin Bodies of Food Stuffs,
Hall, q 184
Purity Dried Fruits Cleansing
Co 471
Purpurescens, C, hyh 140
Pyriform c.-pot 604
Pythagoras 18
Qahvah 2
Qahwah 1
Quadri, Giorgio 28
Quakers (imperfections) 329
Quarry, Col 126
Queen Anne 82
Queen Mary 601
Queensberrv, Duchess of 572
Quelle, Ralph J., pat 648
Quick roast 387, 388
Quillou, C 146
— Java 216
Quilloiiensls, C 146
Quin, James 580, 583
Quinby & Co., W. S 501
Quincy. Dr 543
Quotation relationship (table), 330
Quotations
— Dailv how determined 335
—Foreign 336
Raljaut, L. B., pat.. 623, 627, 699
Racine 91, 565
Radcliffe, John 77, 572
Rainfall requirements 198
Raleigh. Sir Walter 42
Rambaldi, Angelo 558 ; q. 696
Ramcnu's Xephcir, Diderot, q. . 96
Ramos, August© 531
RamcfS, Francisco F 534
Ramponaux, Jean, chk 94, 96
Rand, George 480
Randall. John 479
Ranelagh (see Gardens)
Ransom, Amos, pat 625
Raparlier, pat 637
Rape of the lock. Pope 80
Rapid-filtration devices
-de Mattel's patent (1920).. 653
—Express 651
— Italiana Sovereign, L 651
— J. & S. (Still's) 674
— Victoria Arduino, La, (1909-
20) 651
Rapid-infusion devices
— Bezzara system 649, 651
— Ideale. ill 651
— Malthe.v-Zorn centrif 653, 654
Rapid-percolation device
— Ijovsel's hydrostatic 708
Rasch, Anthony 612
Rasis ad Almans (see Rhazes^
Rauv/olf. Leonhard 43. 45,
431, 541, 543 ; q. 2, 12, 25
Rav, John 42, 543
Ray & Co., Winthrop G...478,
479, 480
Razi, El (see Rhazes)
Ready and easy way to estab-
lish a free common-
wealth, Milton 60
Reamer, Sr., Abraham 480
Reamer, Turner & Co 480
Rebagging
— New York 322, 338
—Santos 304, 306
Rebellious antidote (broadside)
q 58
Recipes, desserts, etc 723, 724
Reconditioning 322
Recovery, v 468
Red Can (brand) 441
Red D Line 482
Red E (brand) 538
Red pottage 13
Red Ribbon (brand) 441
Reed, Charles 127
Reed, Charles B., q 557
Reed, Nathan, pat 245, 469
Reeve, Daniel 482
Reeve & Van Riper 482
Reeve, Case & Banks 479
Re-exports
— lyondon 327
—United States (1921) .. .299,
301, 302
Refining device
— Johnston's patent (1913)... 652
Reichert, E. T., q 183
Reid, TJiomas 469, 482,
494, 496, 497, 522, 526
Reid & Co., Thomas 499
Reid, Murdoch & Fischer. .480, 502
Reiger, q 184, 185
Reimers & Meyer 485
Religious associations
—Christian 26
-Mohammedan ... 15 16, 17, 22
Remi c 351, 368
Remington, J. R., pat 633
Remington, Mortimer 445
Remmer, Oscar 502
Renan 102
Renovating 158
Renshaw. William, chk 130
Rentschler, q 161
Repassing machine 252
Research, Scientific
— Brewing, comparative test
714. 716
— Dawson and Wetherill
(1855) 711, 712
— Grinds, comparative test. . . 716
— ^University of Kansas 714
— Mass. liist. of Technology
515, 716-718
—Mellon Institute 539
— N. C. R. A 513-515, 539,
713-718
— Prescott 515 714, 716-718
— Robison 715
—Trigg 539
Restaurants
— Ijondon
A, B, C (chain), ill. .G74, 677
— — Brit. Tea Table Ass'n 675
Buzard's cake house 677
Cabin 67T
— — ^Carlton 678
Corner Houses (chain).. 677
Express Dairy Co 677
Groom's, ill 674
Lipton's 677
Lyons (chain), ill... 674,
675, 677
Peel's 674
— —Slater's 675, 677
Temple Bar. ill 675
Trust-houses, Ltd 675
Ye Mecca Co., iU 674
— 'New York
Childs (chain) 691
-Dorlon's 69C>
. Thompson (chain) 691
Restrepo, Dr., q 181
Retailing 415-429
— ^Blending 722
— Channels of distribution. . . . 415
Ifctaliation, Goldsmith 573, 574
Reuter-.Tones Mfg. Co 649
Revere, Paul... 110, 609, 611;
biog. 612, 613
790
ALL ABOUT COFFEE
Revett. William, q 2
Revolution
— American 110, 125,128
--^French 100, 102, 293
Revolution, C. and 18, 20, 31
— (See also Democracy : rolitica)
Rewards 50, 51
Reynolds, J. B 506
Reynolds, Sir Joshua... 81, 88,
574, 580, 585
Remolds, Hatcher & Pierce... 509
Rhazes, q 11, 12, 25, 481, 541
Rheumatism, remedy 182
Rhodes. Benjamin 477
Rice. W. S .">02
Richards. Charles 508
Richardson, Charles.. 80, 570;
q. 584
Richardson & Lane 501
Richelieu. Dulte of 96, 98
Richheimer, I. D 538, 539;
pat. 651, 652 ; q. 715
Richter. q 159
Ricker. Harvey 701 ; pat. 645
Ridenour. Baker Gro. Co 485
Rieehelmann, q 159
Ries, Maurice 338
Riggs, .1. H 508
Riley, James Whitcomb. q 552
Rinehart & Stevens 507
Rios (c.) :'.41, 343. 366
Ripley. D. C 497
Risiey, Christopher 479
Rislev. Leander S 479
Risiey & Co., C 479. 4S0, 528
Ritteuhouse, John, pat 627
Ritz 678
Rivarol 98
Rivers 186; g. 187
Roach, Tiger 579
Roasters
— Baltimore 507, 508
—Boston 501
— Chicago 501, 502
— Cleveland 507
— Detroit 508
— 'Douisville 505
— Milwaukee 506
—New Orleans 505
^New York (1790-94) 475, 476
— — (1S05-.1922) 492-501
- — Philadelphia 501
— Pittsburgh 507
— San Francisco 505, 506
—St Louis V^02. 503
—Toledo 506. 507
— Other cities 508, 509
— United States 492-509
— (See also Dealers, wholesale)
Roasting
— Arabia 658-662
— Australia 692
— Great Britain 673
(18th century) 695, 696
19th century) . .704. 705, 707
— France 679
- — Greece 685
— Netherlands 686
— Now Zealand 692
—United States 709, 710, 712
Roasting, Chemistrv of... 165-
167, 388, 389
Roasting economies 513
Roasting, Household
— ^Decline of 635
— Devices
^Braziers 61 5
Clay dishes 615
— — Corn-poppers 635
Cylinder 619
Earthenware 615, 620
Extemi>orized ..617, 635,
695, 696
Glass flasks (Italy) 623
Iron dippers, spiders.... 616
Metal plates 615
Stirrers (spatulae) ($16
Roasting machinery. . .381-386,
61.5-654
—Coal 891, 392
— Development of 629
— Direct-flame 386
— French 678-680
— — ^Glass cylinder 646
^-Gas 380, 640-643
Roasting machinery (cntit'd)
— German (1860-1897) 688, 639
— -Imports from Gt. Brit 625
— Indirect-flame 642, 64(!
— Inner-heated 386
—Retail 420, 421
— Sample (France) 679
— Wholesale,
JBurus, J. ; ImDrovements
684-637, 644
— — 'French patents 639, 640
— ■ — German patent, first 683
• — - — Fullard's heated fresh air 643
— ■ — Steam-power 631, 635
Roasting machines
— Household
— ^Bernard's c.vlinder (1841) 629
-Bull's coal (1704) 620
Elford's white iron (1660)
616, 617
'Gee's (1852) 634
— —Home (1908) 646
Hvde's combined (1862) . . 684
Ittel's glass sphere (1874) 640
Kuhlemann's electric . . . 648
Lacoux's combined. . .625, 627
Lauznune's cylinder
(1829) 625
Lauzaune's "rocking"
(1873) 640
Lawton's perforated, gas
a912) 641
Jjawton's quick gas (1912)
651, 652
'Marchand's fan roaster
(1866) 640
— — Martin's cylinder (1860) 640
Preterre's weighing
(1849) 634
Ransom's (1833) 625
Remington's wheel of
buckets 633
^Savo (1917) 646
Schick's method (1812).. 623
^Williamson's (1820) 624
— ■ — W^ood's spherical (1849)
634, 710
—Retail
— — Lambert's 50-pound 646
— ^Lester's electric (1903).. 647
Moegling's electric (1906) 647
Sales promotion value. . . 428
Seymour's electric (1921) 648
St. Louis, Jr 649
— — Talbutt's electric (1911). 647
— — Uno electric (1909-20)
647, 648
Warner's mill (1905) 648
—Sample roasting
Burns 642
Improved (1883) 645
^Swing-gate (1900) 647
— — — Tilting (1909) 651
— Wholesale 646
Arbuckle's first (1903)... 647
Aromatic (electric power) 646
Burns Balanced-front
(1908) 651
--Coal 391, 392
Direct-flame (1900)... 642
First patent (1864) ... 684
Special gas (1897) 642
^Carter Pull out (1846)
469, 629
Combination (quick gas). 641
Comet 638
(irawlev patents 642
Dakin (1848) 688
Delphine tubular (1870) 639
Economic 646
Evans cylindrical (1824) 624
Faulder 640, 673
First direct flame (U. S.) 471
Fleury gas (1880-81) 638, 640
Eraser gas (1897-98) 642
Giacomini process (1903) 648
Ilamsley direct-flame
(1898) 642
Ilenneman direct-flame
(1888) 640, 642, 643
— — Holmes patent (1906)... 643
Ilungerford patent (1882) 644
Hyde combined (1802) . . . 634
Ideal-Rapid 639
Johnston patent (1905).. 646
Roasting machines (cont'd)
Jubilee (H»1.5-19 (148. 6")-'
Jumbo 522, 524, 647
Knickerbocker 688, 644
Knowlys's cylinder (1848) 633
'Kuchelmeister drum 647
Lambert indirect-flame
(1901) (542. 646
Self-contained 646
Lambert (l^ench) 646
Magic 646
Marchand ball (1877)... 640
Meteor 638
Moderne 646
— • — Monitor direct-flame 042
— • ■ — Morewood sliding-burner
(1901) 642, 673
— — Muhlberg patents (1878). 638
— — Otto spiral-tubular (1889)
640, 641
-Page Pull-out (1868) 637, 688
Pearson p:jteuts 638. 04(»
Perfekt 639
— — Postulart gas (1888) 640
Potter direct-flame (1899) 642
Probat 639
— — Rekord (quick gas) 641
Resson 646
Royal (1905) 643,646
-= Schmidt patent (1906) . . . 649
Schnuck gas (1919) 653
Shortt electric (1919)... 647
Sirocco 641, 646
Thurmer quick-gas (1891-
93) 640, 641
Tornado quick-gas 641
Tubermann (1877) ...... 638
Tupholme direct-flame
(1887) 640, 641
— — Typhoon 638
Uno 673
Van den Brouck cylinder 646
von Gumborn g)is (1892t 639
Van Gulpen (1870) 638
Roasting methods
— Automatic control 166
— Better C. -making com. . .713, 714
— Burns, Jabez ; views on ... . 636
— Butter; use in Gt. Brit.... 673
—Early 694, 695
— ^Electric 386
— Goldsworthy's process 702
^Lard ; use in Gt. Brit 673 '
— N.itural gas 642
— Quick vs. slow 040, 641
Roasting plants
— France 679
— United States
Arbuckle . .524, 525
First and second 468
— New Yorli
— — Number (1914-1919) 515, 516
Early (1790-95) 491
— — Number (1855-56) 496
Roasting trade
— France 678, 679
— Italy 686
—United States. .879-400, 491-515
Beginning of 522
Methods and prices (1845) 685
Retail 418
St. Ivouis (1857) 629-633
Roasts 356
— ^Brazilian preferences 691
— British preferences 673
— French preferences 680
— Greek preferences 685
— Italian preferences 686
Roberts, Mrs., chk 127
Rohertson, Joseph C 585
Robespierre 94 96, 102
Robinson Crusoe, Defoe ..... 80
Robinson, Dr., q 176
Robinson, Edward Forbes
557 ; 11, 54, 56 59,
62, 72, 73, 107
Robinson, Tancred 584
Robinson & Co., N 501
Robison, Floyd W., pa*.. 158,
474 ; q. 715
Robusta, C.
— ^Botanical description 144
— Ceylon . 236
— Cup-tests 145
— Guadeloupe 234
INDEX
791
Robuttta, C. (cont'd)
— India
— Indo-China, French
— Java 215,
— Netlierlands E. Indies
— New Caledonia
— New Yorlt, Exchange ex-
cludes '^20,
■ — Sumatra
■ — ^Trees : heiarht (Java)
: yield (Java)
— T'fianda
— ^United States, imports
— Varieties
]{f)bii8ta-achtif/en ( robusta-like)
Itobusta hybrid (Ceylon) . . . .
Robusta X Maragooipe. hi/b..
Rochester, Earl of
Uodney. William
Koe. Sir T.. q
Koettier. John G2,
Uoffers, clik
Rolamb. Nicholas, q
Uollins. Thornton
Roiuancc (if Trade, Bourne, q.
Romero, q
Ronan. " Jimes
RoodbcssUjc, C. (Java)
Koome. I^uke, chk
Roome. William P 478,
Roome & Co., William P. .478,
Rooney, John
Roosevelt family
Ropes, Joseph
Ropes, Ripley
Koque. P. de la 31,
Rosary, The. Barclay, q
Rosebault, Charles J., q
Rosel)urg, William 521.
Rost'e, Pasqiia 42, 43, 53,
54, 58 69, 462. 543 : q.
— Handbill. Ul 459,
Roselius, Ludwig, pat ... .1Q2,
Ross. C. J., q
Rossbach & Bro
Rosseau. Jean Baptiste . . . .88,
Rosseter, J. H
Rossi, q
Rossijrnon, q
Rossini
Rota {see Clubs, C. -house)
Rath
Roth Grocery Co., .Vdam
Rothschildr,
Roubiliac 84, 583,
Rouch. pat
Roure, pat
Rousseau. Baron Antoine. q...
Rousseau. J. J 94. 98. 102.
Ronth. Harold, q
Rowland, pat
Rowland. Helen, q 553,
Rowland & Humphreys
Rowland. Humphreys & I'o. . . .
Rowhind. Terry & Humphreys.
R(*wlandson. Thomas 75,
Rowley. Levi 494,
Roxbury "hourlles"
Royal Excliange Lloyd's
Royal Exchanjie (Ijondon) ....
Roval Exchange (New York.
1752)
Royal Scarlet (brand)
Roval Society
Roval. Thomas M
Rubia Mills 434,
Ruffio. P. A
Rnffner, W. R
Rule & Bro.. Robert J
RulifT. Clark & Co
Rulings (U. S.) 337.
Rumford Count, inv 557.
621, 622, 699, 704: biosi.
697 : q.
Rumsey. Walter, q
Runkle & Co.. J. C 479.
Rupert. Prince
Russ<'ll. Edward C
Russell. Frank C 478.
Russell. Robert
Rnssell, Robert S
Russell & Co 482. 494.
Russell & Fessenden
Ruth
Ruth Svlvester
Rutter & Co.. Thomas 480
227 Ryan & Co., James 506
237
216 Saccharin in c 165
283 Saffron in c 660
243 Saint-Foix 566, 567
Saint-Victor 102
338 Salaman. Malcolm C. q 589
217 Salant, q 184
215 Salazar, Alfredo M., pat 653
216 Salazar c 349, 365
353 Sales by candle 571
341 Salesmanship 407
146 Sales promotion
216 — Retail 423-426
236 — Wholesale 412, 413
146 Saltero, Don 559, 560
575 Saltus, Francis S 541 ; q. 552
126 Salvadors (c.) 347.300
2 Salvandy, Narcisse-Aehille, q.. . 100
582 Samoa c 355,375
121 Sample distribution 412
23 Samplers (N. Y. Exch.) 333
485 Sampling
54 —Brazil 303, 304, 306
198 — New York 319, 321
508 — San Francisco 327
216 — Santos. . .303, 304, 306, 312, 316
118 Sanani c 351, 368
498 Sanborn, Chas. E 501
498 Sanborn, .Tames S 501
475 Sandys, Sir George 12, 38,
690 543; q. 36
468 Sandys's Travels, q 36
482 Sand, George 565
543 Sanger, Abraham 480
563 Sanger, Beers & Fisher. . .480, 497
671 Sanger & Wells 480
522 Santa Ana c 350, 365
Santa Cecilia, v 316
432 Santo Domingos (c.) . . . ^350, 36^
461 Santos c 341, 342, 366
473 Saportas Bros 482
230 Saturday Evening Post, per., q. Ill
485 Sauvage c, ill 142
554 Savage 578
490 Savage, George E., pat 649
186 Savage. Richard 570
707 Saxe. Marshall 98
103 Saxon Coffee Co 508
Sa.vre, q 163, 164 166, 183
510 Schadheli. Sheik '..13, 14
485 Schaefer, Henry 478, 535
531 S'chaefer, J. II.. q 428
584 Schams, Franz .590
621 Schanne. Alexandre, q 102
640 Scharf, q 126
650 Schemsi. chk 19. 668
566 Scheuzer, J. J., q 13, 16
561 Schick. Anthony. .'K/f 023
625 Schierenberg, A. . 535
554 Schilling, A 506
482 Schilling & Co.. A... 505. 506, 507
480 Schipano, Mario 27
482 Schittenhelm. q 182
593 Schmelzel, .Tames H 495
499 Schmidt. C 591
110 Schmidt, Francisco 208
85 Schmidt. Ludwig, pat 649
86 Schmidt & Ziegler 486
Schmiedeberg Dr. O.'^wald. q.. 185
120 Schnuck. Edward F., pat 653
441 Schnull & Krag 508
41 Schoepffwasser, Ix)rentz, pseud 45
471 ??chool of Oratory. Macklin's. . 580
496 Schools, information for 513
591 Schools of the wise 19
538 Sc-hotten. Christian 50B
501 Schotten, Hubertus 503
505 Schotten. Jerome J 503
338 Schotten. Julius J... 503, 510, 631
Schotten. William. . .503. 629,
631. 633
698 Schotten & Bro., William 503
56 Schotten & Co.. Wm.. .485. 502, 503
482 Schotten Coffee Co.. Wm 503
69 Schramm. Arnold 477
49.5 Schramm. Inc.. .Vrnold 477
499 Schroefler. Bruno -3-\ 534
482 Schn.eder & Co., J. Henry. 532, 534
499 Schuler. John G 508
499 Schulte. A., q 156
501 Schultz & Ruckgaber 482
13 Scbultze. q 165
507 Schnmaniana, C 146
Schumberg. q
Schurhoff, q
Schurtzkw er
Schwartz. Joseph M
Schwartz Bros
Schweitzer & Co., M
Scialdi
Scolfleld, Henry, pat
Scott, Andrew, q
Scott, Edwin
Scott, Sir Walter. 9. .573, 574,
Scott, William
Scott & Dash
Scott & Meiser
Scott & Sons. William
Scott, Dash & Co
Scott, Meiser & Co
Scotfs Sons & Co., William . . .
S'cotty, C. (chef)
Scriba. Schroppel & Starmen..
Scribner's Magazine, q
Scudder. Gale Gro. Co
Scull. William S
Scull & Co.. W. S
Scull Co.. William S
Sculpture, C. in
Seal (brand) 435. 441,
Secchi
Seelye, Frank R 511,
Segundo (grade) 261,
Seidell, q
Seifert, q
Selby, Thomas, chk
•Selden. David, pat
Seligsberg, Louis
Selim I 18, 19,
Selling chart
Semarang c 355,
Sencial, q
Sen^, pat 623. 625,
Sense of Taste. The. Ilolling-
worth and Poffenberger,
Q
Separating machinery
Sephton, Geoffrey, q
Service, C
— Arabia 658-663,
— Artistic and historic. . . .599-
614, 619, 620,
^Britannia ware, etc
Clay bowls, first
English c.-pots (1714-
70) 620,
— — Lantern c.-pots 602,
S&vres c.-pots
Sheffield-plate c.-pots
Silver c.-pots (18th cent.)
Sino-Lowestoft c.-pot. . . .
— ^Ivondon cafes and restau-
rants
— Oriental c.-pots •.
— Netherlands
— New York hotels
— ^Paris (Pascal's, 1672)
—Turkish 602. 017. 621,
Seren Truths to Teach the
Young in Regard to Life
and fiex. Abbey, q
S^vres c.-pots
Seymour, Mark T.. pat
Shade, C. -growing under
— .\ rabia
— Guam
— Guatemala
— Hawaii
— Reouirement«
Shadli, Shaomer (sec Schadell)
Shaml c ."iol,
Shapleigh Coffee Co .
.Vharkl c 351,
Shaw, Daniel A
Shaw, John W
Shaw. Willi'im
Shaw's Ijouisinna Coffee and
Spice Mills
Sheaff. Henry
Sheffield plate c.-i)ots ■
Sheldon, Henry
Sheldon & Co , He >ry 478,
Sheldon. Banks & Co
Shemsi. chk. , . , . , .19,
Shenstone, q
Shephard. Fleetwood, q
Shepherd, T. H
Sheppard, Alexander
186
185
185
521
488
488
14
247
85
499
579
479
479
479
479
479
479
479
691
475
664
485
509
508
509
599
465
558
513
264
160
185
112
625
478
49
409
373
156
699
723
383
552
31
695
621
619
616
621
619
607
607
619
607
674
619
686
691
619
695
177
607
648
133
197
242
219
241
201
2
368
501
368
480
492
612
505
475
607
479
479
479
668
584
584
593
501
792
ALL ABOUT COFFEE
.Sheppnrd & Sons, Inc., Alex. . 501
Sherbet 562
— r^Diulon c. houses sell 61
fe'heri(l:iii. lUchard Brinsley
80 : q. 581
Sherif-Edflin-Omar-ben-Faredh,
q 543
Sherley, Sir Anthony 35, 543
Sherman, Fred 506
Sherman, Fred T 477, 482
Sherman, Henry B 506
Sherman, Lewis 506, 514
Sherman, Jr., I^ewis 506
Sherman, Milo P 506
Sherman, S. S 506
Sherman, William 506
Sherman, William H 506
Sherman, William M 506
Sherman, William T. (Gen.).. 563
Sherman & Taylor 477
Sherman Bros. & Co . . 485, 502, 506
S'heiwbert, John, chk 126
Shewbert, Mrs., chk 126
Shields & Boucher 50.7
Shihftb-ad-Din manuscript 542
Shinkle, Wilson & Kreis Co.
484, 485
Shipping Board, U. S 338
Shipping c 312-327
— ^Brazil 306
American vessels 515
—Colombia 314, 315
— Iron steamships (1868) 476
— Longest voyage 316
— Santos 312, 314
— Time-table, port to port. . . . 316
Shipping ports, principal 191
Shope, W. C 502
Shortt, Everett T. pat 647
Shrinkage '. 389, 391
— Roasting 388
—Table (green c.) 393
Shubert (see Shewbert)
Sias, Charles D 501
Siddons, Mrs 569
Siegfried, John C 506
Siegfried & Brandenstein . . 505, 506
Siegman, John G 507
Sielcken, Hermann .. .473, 482,
511, 518, 519, 520, 523,
531 ; Wog. 517. 521
— ^Valorization 53()-534
— .Woolson Spice Co 506
Sielcken, Hermann (Mrs.) .... 518
Sielcken-Crossman contract . . . 519
Sierra c 345, 359
Signs, Coffee-house
— ^London 602, 603
Bowman's 54
^Morat (Amurath) 62
— ■ — Rosee's 54
^Soliman 62
— New York 117, 124
King's Arms 124
Signs, Grocers'
— Lowell, Ebenezer (New York) 467
— Richards, Smith (New York) 124
Silver c.-pots 619
Silver skin 136, 138
Silversmiths, American .... 609, 612
Silversmiths Society 612
SimmDnds, W. Lee. 478
Simmonds & Bayne 4'J'8
Simmonds & Co., H 478
Simmonds & Co., W. Lee 478
Simmonds & Newton 478
Simon, Jr., M., pat 167
Simonds. H 478
Sinclair, Evans & Elliot 508
Singleton, Esther, q..lOo, 115, 709
Slnnot, J. B 505
Sino-Lowestoft c.-pot 607
Sion & Co 340
Sir Antoine Shirlies Trauelles,
Parry, q., ill 38
Sirups (see Syrups)
Sizing (see Grading) 258
Skirtdv Francis 479
Skiddy, Minford & Co 479,
485, 530
Skinner, Cyriac 60
"Skyscraper" coffee house. 112, 113
Slacks 322
Slave auctions. Phila., ill 128
Slemmons & Conkling 508
Sloane, Sir Hans 86, 543,
Sloss, Robert, q
Slow roast
Small, C. K 477,
Staiall, John
Small Bros. & Co 477. 479,
Smalls & Bacon
Smart, Joseph F., pat
Smith, Adam 81,
Smith, Clarence
Smith, Daniel, chk
Smith, Frank
Smith, George H
Smith, John. (Capt.) 105, 543,
q-
Smith, John Thomas. . .583 ; q.
Smith, Michael E
Smith, Mrs., chk
Smith. Nathaniel
Smith, Robert
Smith, Robert A
Smith, fe'ydney. q
Smith, William T
Smith, William V. R 523,
Staith & Co., D
Smith «& Co., Thomas
Smith & Curtis
Smith & McKenna
Smith & McNeil
Smith & Schipper
Smith & Son, Robert
Smith & Son, Thomas 637,
639,
Smith & Sons, Robert
Smith Bros. & Co
Smith Bros
Smith Bros. & Co. Ltd
Smith's Sons, M. V. R
Smith's Sons. Robert
•Staioke screens (Guatemala) . . .
Smollett
Smooth (see Flavors)
Smout, Jules, pat
Smyser, Henry L. . . .523 ; pat.
Sobieranski. q
Sobieski, King John
Sociedade Promotora da De-
f esa do Cafe
Societe de Cafe Soluble Belna . .
Societe Generale 532,
Society of Antiquaries
Societ.v of the Friends of Music
Soda fountains
Soils
— Australia
— 'Best 198,
^Brazil 198,
— ^Costa Rica
— 'Federated Malay States. . . .
— Venezuela
iSoliman Aga
Soliraan the Great 18,
Sollmann, q 1 82,
Soluble coffee 404,
— Brands 470, 538,
— History of 538,
— Kato's patent
— Processes
— U. S". Army war needs
— Washington's patent
Soluble Coffee Co
Somers. A. L
Songs of Brittany
Sons of Liberty
Sorenson, John S
Sorenson & Nielson 482,
Sorley, William 480,
Sorting machinery
Sorver, Damon & Co
Soulie
Soup, Coffee
Sour (see Flavors)
South Sea bubble 571,
Southern boom (1904)
Southern Coffee Mills, Inc. . . .
Southern Coffee Polishing Mills
Southern Cross, v
S'outhern Pacific Co
Souvestre, Emile, q
Spatula (see Roasting ma-
chinery)
Specialty stores 415,
Spectator, per 75, 80, 85,
88, o58, 573, 584 : q. 86,
87, 560, 561, 572, 575,
582
531
387
480
480
480
480
653
583
480
129
499
501
36
569
503
119
584
501
501
567
501
524
476
700
507
505
494
485
501
699
501
505
486
505
480
501
219
559
248
470
186
49
446
539
534
602
597
238
201
205
225
238
212
91
19
183
406
539
539
471
169
539
471
539
507
548
120
520
520
491
245
485
102
177
572
530
505
505
316
489
565
ei6
421
582
Spencer, G. L., q 165
Sperry Flour Co 488
Spice Mill, per 470, 520, 527
Spice-Mill Companion 427
Splitting nickels 427
Spot brokers 336, 337
Spot of _ leaf and fruit (see
Spot Marke't, New York . . . 329, 380
Spot quotation committee ( N.
Y. Bxch.) . 334
Sprague, Albert A 502
Sprague, Irvin A 477
Sprague, O. S. A 502
Sprague & Rhodes 477
Sprague & S^tetson 502
Sprague & Warner 502
Sprague, Warner & Co. . . .485, 502
Sprague, Warner & Griswold.. 502
Spreckels & Bros. Co., J. D. . . 488
Spring Garden Iron Works . . . 245
Spruce, Richard, q 200
Squier, George L 246
Squier Mfg. Co., Geo. L. . . 246,
247, 469
St. Germain's Fair (see Cof-
fee houses, Paris)
St. Serf, Thomas, q 554
Stachan, John, chk 119
Stacie, chk 579, 580 ; q. 581
Stadium (circus). New York.. 124
Stage coaches, Boston. .. .110, 112
Stamp Act (1765) ... 120, 125, 128
Stamps, Trading 429
Stanton. Sheldon & Co 479
Star Coffee and Spice Mills... 506
Star, London, neicsp 585
Star Mills 494, 499
S'tarhemberg, Rudigor v(iii..49, 50
State of Sao I'aulo Pure ('. Co.
Ltd 445
Statistical Ahstruct, U. S., q.. 299
Statue of Kolschitzky 599
Steam power for roasting. .631, 635
Steel-cut 401, 714
■ — ^Baker-Duncombe suit 649
Steele, Mrs., chk . . 121
Steele, Sir Richard 75, 80,
84. 557. 570, 572, 576,
577. 578, 579 ; q. 558, 559
Steele & Co., B. L. G. S 487
Steele & Emery 508
Steele & Price 470
Steele, Wedeles Co 485
Steele-Wedeles Co 502
Steeping 720
S'te.-Foix 94
Steinwender, Julius 482
Steinwender, Stoffregen 485
Steinwender, Stoffregen & Co.
338, 340, 482, 502
Steinwender, Stoffregen Co .... 484
Stella (Esther Vanhomrigh) . . 562
Stenhouse, q 163
Stenophylla, C 216
— ^Botanical description 140
StenophjiUa x Abeokiitar. hyb. 146
Stfiioiiliiflla Paris, C..... ... . 146
Stephen, chk 93
Stephens, Alvan 507
Stephens, Henry A 507
Steohens Samuel R 507
Steohens" & Co., A .' 502
Stephens & Sons, A 507
Stephens & Widlar 507
Steppe, J. P., pat 649
Sterility, C. and 23, 46
Sternau, Sigmund, pat 649
Sternau & Co., S 649
Sterne, Richard 601
Stetson, Z. B 502
Stevens, Alfred 103
Stevens, Henry B., pat 247
Stevens, W. & S 508
Stevens & Armstrong 48t>
Stevens Armstrong & Harts-
horn 480
Stevens Bros. & Co 480
Stewart, C. H., q 349
Stewart, James 478
Stewart, Robert C 477, 498
Stewart & Co., CM 485
Stewart & Co., R. C 477
Stewart & Walker 478
Stickney & Poor 501
INDEX
793
still & Sons, \V. M 647, 674
Stillinan, Abel, pat 627
Stiller & Co., Joseph 499
Stitt. Williaiii J 494,497
Stitt & Co.. W. J 497, 499
Stock Excliaiij?e, New York. . . . 122
Stofffregeii, Carl H. . .448, 511, 535
Stokes, John 129
Stoning machinery. . .381, 394, 395
Storage
— ^Ilavro 327
— Xew York 319, 321
— Santos 303
— Venezuela 315
Storia di VencHa nella Vita
Privatu, La, Molmenti,
Q 27
Storm, Walter 482
Storm, Smith & Co 482
S'tory, Rufus G 479, 496
Story & Co.. R. G 496
Story-tellers in c. houses . . 666, 669
Stouf s, Joseph 590
Stowe, Orson W„ pat 644
Strassberger, Ij., pat 649
Straus, Oscar 672
Strauss & Sons, L 518
Street brokers 337
Stringer, Alary, chk 56
Strong, Josepii 508
Strowbridge, Turner, pat 644
Stuart. Alexander. . 503
Stump. Aug 482, 484
Stumpp & Co., August 482
i<uakurcn8is, G. (Java) 216
Substitute, C, advertising. 437, 438
— Charts 440, 441
Sul)stitute-fakers 435
Substitutes 170
— Harley 13, 46
— ^Betony 74
— Bocket 74
— Cereal (harmful to diabetics) 165
— Chicory 46
— Com 46
— Figs, dried 46
— Russia 686
— Saloop (sassafras and sugar)
73, 74
— United States (Ist patent) . . 470
— Wheat 46
Succory {see Chicory)
Succop & Liips 503
Sucrose 165
Suess-Oppenheimer, Joseph. ... 47
Sugar in c 26 58, 91, 98,
106, 667
—Cairo (first use, 1625) 657, 695
^Consumption (U. S.) 689
— Great Britain (17th cent...) 696
— Greece 685
— North America 105
Sugar of c 165
Sugar Trust fight 521-523
Sullivan, Luke 85, 584
Sully, D. J 530, 572
Sultan. Cafe 658
Sultane, Caf^ 694
Sumatras (c.) 355, 370-372
Sumerling & Co 674
Sun, London, newap 578
8im, New York, neicsp, q 175
Sunshine, per 524
Sutton & Vansant 485
Swain. Barle & Co 501
S-waythling, Lord 604
Swazey, S. L 479
Sweated c 316, 817
— Artificial (U. S. rulings)... 337
— Sailing vessels 353
Sweeney, John 492
Sweet (see Flavors)
Sweet c. s 397
Sweet-bitter c.'s 397
Swett, E. H 501
Swift, Jonathan 80, 84, 88,
89. 557. 562 570, 573,
577, 578, 579, 587 : q.
571, 575
Swift & Co.. H. II 482
Swift, Billings & Co 485
Sylva Sfflvanim-, Bacon, q..38, 543
Syndicates
— Arnold-Dash-Kimball ...527, 528
— German Trading Co 528
Si/Ha, The Holy Land, Carne,
Q 668-670
%rups. Coffee; recipe for 724
Szekacs, q 185
Szyszka. q 185
Tabasco c 345,
Taber & Place 434,
Table, The, per
Table Traits, Doran, q
Tachiras (c.) 349,
Tackaberry, William
Tackaberry Co., Wm
Taine
Talbot, Winslow & Co
Talbutt, Robert H., pat
Talleyrand, Prince 103 ; q.
Tampico c 345,
Tannin 160, 182,
Tapachula c 345,
Tapperi, David, q
Tapping hands (Arabia)
Tatler, per 75, 80, 85, 86,
561, 572 ; q. 558, 559, 571,
573, 575.
Tatlock, q
Tavernier 31, 543 ; q.
Taverns
— Boston
• — • — Blue Anchor (inn) ....
Bunch of Grapes
— ■ — Cole's (inn)
First
Green Dragon
Indian Queen 109,
King's Hesul
— —Ship
Sun 109,
Red Lyon (inn)
— London
Barn
Golden
Locket's Ordinary
— • — Mermaid
Rose
Shakespeare's Head
— New York
Atlantic Garden House,
117,
Black Horse
Fighting Cocks
Fraunces'
.Jamaica Pilot Boat
— — King's Head
Queen's Head
White Lion
— Philadelphia
Blue Anchor (first)
— —City 125, 128, 129,
Globe (inn)
New
Smith's
Taxation
— Arabia
—England (1714)
— German.v
Royal monopoly (1781)..
— Porto Rico (exemptions) . . .
— Sao Paulo (valorization)....
— Turkey
— (Se also Duties: Fines; Li-
censes ; Pure food, etc.)
Taylor, C. K., q
Taylor, James H
Tavlor, John
Taylor, William
Taylor & Co., James H 477,
479.
Taylor & Co., Moses
Taylor & Levering 484,
Tea
— Action In stomach
— American colonies
Introduction 105,
Stamp act (1765) In-
creases consumption...
Smuggled from Nether-
lands
— Antiquity
— Canada
— Discovery
— Great Britain
Consumption compared
with c 288,
358
496
675
705
365
509
509
102
507
647
565
359
711
358
11
312
584
159
2
109
111
109
108
613
110
109
109
110
109
584
583
569
60
56
576
121
118
118
121
118
117
119
117
125
126
130
126
129
129
231
59
47
46
222
534
20
177
477
578
475
485
476
485
35
178
106
106
106
15
687
12
289
Tea (cont'd)
— Great Britain
— ■ — First. sold in London
, (1657) 56
— — Imports (1700-571 75
— • — Introducetl at Court.... 582
National beverage 75
— — Preferred to c 674
— —Prices (1662, 1714) 582
Sold in c. houses.. 61, 78, 80
^Taxation 39
■ — Eulogized by Mosely 38
Johnson, Sam'l 568
— Europe (first used, 1610) ... 25
— Literary stimulus 557, 558
— Mental efliciency. Effect on.. 186
—Philadelphia (introduction) . 125
—Russia 686
—United States
— ■ — Consumption per capita
^ (1783) 46S
Consump. comp. with c,
288, 289
Imports (1783) 468
Laws affecting 337
Tea and coffee pots 609
Tea and Coffee Trade Journal,
per. . . 138, 402 ; q. 34, 147.
155, 160, 161, 168, 175,
176, 177, 178, 179, 180,
181, 186, 387, 388, 399,
410, 418, 421, 422, 427,
439, 527, 553, 679. 689,
„ . 693, 715, 717, 720
— Begins publication (1901)... 472
— Ukers assumes e<litorship
, <1904) ^. 527
— Urges nat I organization of
roasters 511
Tea gardens (see Gardens)
Tea party (see Boston; New
York)
Tea-rooms (London) 675 677
Teeth, Effects of c. on 175
T'^^alf (c.) 355, 373
T'eh (tea) 3.5
Teixeira, Pedro, q 2
Telephone in retail stores..... 424
Tellieherry c 351, 339
Temperance, C. and 61
Tennent, Robert Bowman, pat. 246
Terminologv 168
Terms and "credits 405, 513-515
lerms and discounts (Brazil). 306
Terry, Edward, q 36
Testing (France) 679. 680
Text Hook of I'hysiologv, Flint,
'1 176
Teyssonnier 146
Thackera.v, W. M 103 ; q. 563
Thannhauser & Co 488
Thayer, Byron T 50I
Theatriim botanicum, Parkin-
son .343 : q_ 41
Thebaud, Joseph 476
Thein i^q
Theobromin . . . 160
Therapeutic Gazette, per., q.. 176
Thery, q .543
Thevenot 543
Thomas, C 501
Thomas, Elizabeth 575
Thomas, Gov 127
Thomas, R. G . .'. 494
Thomas Co.. R. G 494
Thomas & Son, J. W 508
Thomas & Turner 494
Thompson, Benjamin, tnr. 621,
q. 163
— (See also Rumford)
Thompson, Dr., q 159, 181
Thompson, .Tames 492
Thompson, .Tames Henry, pat. 246
Thompson, Patience 492
Thompson, W. D 479
Thompson & Bowers 478. 480
Thompson & Davis 479
Thompson Bros 479
Thompson Co., J. Walter 445
Thompson, Shortridge & Co.
478, 479
Thomsen & Co • 479
Thomson, .\. M 502
Thomson, James ,502
Thomson, .Tames (poet) .'574
Thomson, A. M. & .Tames 502
794
ALL ABOUT COFFEE
Thomson & Taylor 502
Thomson & Taylor Co 502
Thomson & Taylor Spice Co.
484, 502, 509
Thorn, A. B 499
Thomlev, Jesse 501
Thornley & Bro 501
Thornley & Ryan 501
Thornton, Richard ,T......... '505
Thornton, Richard J. (Mrs.).. 505
Thornton & Co., B. .T 505
Thornton & Hawkins 505
Thorpe, q 159, 164
Thousand and One Hiyhts (see
Arabian J^'iffhts)
Three Reigns of Nature, De-
lille. q 547
Thnni. pat 158. 164
Thumb-piece on English c. pots 620
Thurlier. A. D 499
Thnrber, Francis B 557 ;
q. 182, 712
TTiurber. H. K 482
Thnrber & Co.. H. K 499
Thurber & Co.. H. K. & F. B.. 482
Thurlow. Ix)rd 80, 88, 572
Thurmer, Max 640, 641
TibiricS. .Torge 531
Times, T..ondon, netcsp. 5S5: q. 175
Times, New York, newsp . .671, 672
Tilloch. Dr 585
Till.vard. Arthur 41
Timbs, John.. 557: q. 58. 69.
555, 570-585
Timby, pat., q 157
Timor c S55, .376
Tinned coffee (Great Britain). 67.3
Tinney. Henry C 509
Tipping, origin of 74
To arrive ; 330
— San Francisco 327
Tobacco
— In c. houses.. 42. 77. 78, 84, 98
— Intoxication 182
Todd, Robert 118
Togami, K.. q 179
Toledo & Co., Filipe S 340
Tolimas (c.) 348, 364
Tolman Co.. J. A 485
Tomkyns, chk 576
Toms. O. W 513
Tone, Isaac E 509
Tone, Jav E 508, 509
Tone. Jekiel 509
Tone, W. E .509, 510, 51 1
Tone Bros 509
Tonkin c 352, 370
Tonti. Lorenzo 1 22
Torner. Richard, chk 572
Torro & Co., Lonis M 340
Totten & Bro.. W. W 508
Touches. Viconite des....532, 534
Tovars (c.) 349. 350, 365
Toiim E'elogucs, Montagu '573
Townsend 496
Tractors, electric (Bush Co.). 322
Tracy & Avery Co 485
Trnde
—New Orleans 485-487
— OveniTortuction disturbs
(1898) 471
— San Francisco 487-491
— Shifting currents. .293, 294,
295. 296
—United States 475-.-15
(1921) 299-302
Aden and 301
Brazil nnd 300
— ^Tariff pref erentials . . 296
Booms ... 468. 469
Central Am. and 296, 300
— • — Cbronological review . 467-474
Colombia and 300
Development (1865-1922)
297-299
Mexico and 301
Netherlands E. Ind. and. 301
— —Panic (1880) 470
Venezuela and 300
West Indies and 301
Trade »nd Statistics Committee
(N. Y. Exch.1 334
Trade Marks, V. S...413, 469. 470
Trade names of c.'s (see
Characteristics)
Trading 291-302
— Amsterdam (1040) 105
— Brazil 295
— Early 293
— Europe 327-340
— Germany (begins 1670).... 293
— Havre 327
— Netherlands 293, 294
:First cargo sold (1640). . 43
—New York (early) 115
— U. S. rulings 337. 338
— San Francisco and Central
Am 325
— Sweden (begins 1674) 293
Trading stamps 429
Traffic Assn. of St. Louis Coffee
Importers (1910) 510
Trafton, C. K., q 527
TraitSs Nouveaux et Gurieux
du CafS, etc., Dufour, q.
2, 11, 432, 433
Transhipping ports, Europe. . 289
Transportation, Inland
— Abyssinia 228, 229, 308. 310
• — Arabia 266. 282. 293
— Bolivia 279
— Brazil 303
— Central America 308
— Colombia 308, 316
— Nicaragua 280
— ^Venezuela 308
Transportation, Seven stages
of 323
Travancore c 351, 369
Travels, Herbert, q 36
Travels, Rauwolf, q 25
Travels, Teixeira. q 2
Travels and Adventure, Smith,
q 36
Travels in Arabia Deserts,
Daughty, q 661
Travels in India and Persia,
Delia Valle 27
Travels of Certayne English-
men, etc.. The, Biddulph,
q., ill 36
Travers & Son, Joseph 445
Treatise in Latin, Meisner .... 543
Treatise an Modern Stimu-
lants. Balzac, q 557
Tree. Coffee
— .\ge 203, 211 213, 222
Salvador '..... 219
— Chemistry of 1 55
— Height ..133, 142.202
Arabia 231
— Indigenous to Abyssinia . . 1, 5
■ — Origin .5
— Wood, uses for 138
— Yield 136, 203
— — Bolivia 236
Brazil 138
1 'Colombia 211
— ■ — Mexico 222
Nicaragua 227
Sao Paulo 208
Trees. Coffee
— -Number of
— — Brazil 207,208
Ecuador 236, 278
Indo-China, French .... 237
Guatemala 219
■ — • — P^rnn mbuco 205
— Sao Paulo 205. 207, 208
— Venezuela 212
— Number to acre 201
— ■ — Colombia 211
Haiti 220
Porto Rico 223
— • — Venezuela 213
Tremont Coffee & Snice Mills. 501
Trentman & Bro.. C. A 508
Trentman & Son, B 508
Triage (grade) 258
Tribune, New York, nfirsp.. ". ."1.^3
Tricolntor. .168, 445, 651, 652, 701
Tricolette 654
Triers 321. 389
Trigg, C. W., pat . . 406. 539 ;
q. 155, 174. 718-722
Trillado (grade) 260,263
Trillo (grade) 264
Trinidad c '. . ..''■"I. 362
Triumph of C, Fakr-Eddin-
Aboubeckr 543
Troemner, Henry 646, 472
Tru^ Way of Making and Pre-
paring C, Broadbent, q. . . 697
Trujillos (c.) 350,365
Trusdell & Phelps 495
"Truth in advertising" move-
ment 435
Truxtun, Scott 444
Tubermann's S'on, G.. pat. . . . 638
Tupholme, Beeston, pat. . . . . . 640
Turguenieff 102
Turkey gruel 70
Turkish ewer 602, 603, 621
Turkish pocket cylinder mill.
615, 610, 617
Turner, A 508
Turner, Robert, ohk 109
Turner (or Torner) Richard,
(.fijf 572
Turner, Wiiiiain ' F .' '.'.'.'.'.'.'.'. '. 480
Tussac 8
Twitchell. Champlin & Co 508
Tyler, George C '556
Tyler, Henry D 480
Typhoid fever. Effects of c. on 181
Typografla Pizzolato 558
Uganda c 353, 377
Ugandae, C 146
— Cevlon 236
— Java 216
Vnqandae x Conaensis, hi/h. . . . l->6
Ukers, William H 527
Ulman, Lewis & Co 485
lumber, q 182
Union Bag & Paper Corp 472
Union Coffee Co 477
Union Pacific Tea Co 482, 501
Universal history of plants,
Ray 42, 543
University of Kansas 714
ITniversitv of Pittsburgh 714
Unloading 317-327
—New Orleans 32.3-325
—New York 317-323
— San Francisco 325-327
Unloading machinery ....325, 327
Uno Co., Ltd 647
Untermever, Louis, q 553
Urioste & Co 488
Urruella & Urioste 487
Urwin. William, chk 84. 574
U. 8. Dispensatory, q 164. 184
I'ses for c. New 457
TTtter, J. W 503
Utter, Adams & Ellen 503
Vacuum-packed c 410
— (see also Containers)
Vacuum-packing, Effect of . . . . 168
Valenti.in. q 2
Valorization (Brazil) 473, 530-534
— N. C. R. A .511
— Norris, Senator 532, 533
—Sao Paulo 295, 472. 53-t
Surtax 315
— Sielcken, H 521, 531-534
— IT. S. gov't action 534
Van Cortlandt museum 122
Van Dam. Anthony 475
Van dan Broeck Pieter 43
Van den Bosch. Gov 214
Van Dessel, Rodo & Co 340
Van Fssen 43
Van Btten. E 538
Van Gulpen, Alexius 246,638
Van GulDen & Co 638
Van Gulpen. Lensing & von
Gimborn 638
Van Linschooten, Hans Hugo
(.Tohn Huvgen), q., ill. ... 35
Van Loan. Thomas .497, 498
Van Loan & Co 498
Van Loan, Maguire & Gaffnev
497. 498, 499
Van Loo 588
Van Ommen. Adrian 6, 43
Van Ostade, .Vdriaen 44, 587
Van Outsbonrn 6
Vnn Vliet. C. W., pat 634
Van Zandt & Co., M. N 508
Vnncouver 239
Vanderhoef. George W 479
Vanderhoef & Co.. George W. . . 479
Vanderwevde. P. H.. pat 637
Vane. Gov. 109
Vanessa (see Vanhomrigh)
INDEX
795
Vimliomrigh, Esther 562
VaiiifTc 543
Aaukorn. Gusgeiiheimer & Co. 501
Vardy, James, pat 627, 699
Variegata, C, hyb 140
\'ariiar 43
^■a8sieux. Madame, pat. . . . 627, 700
Vatpl, Charles, q 566
VaiiRhn. X. C, q 176, 177
Vauxhall garden, ill 81, 82, 83
A'.'lloni. (hk 103
Venard. G 505
Vciictinn Republic. The Haz-
litt.. q 28
Veneziielas (c.) 348, 364, 365
Verborg. Ilenrv 503
Acrdier & Closset 507
Verlaine. Paul 94
%'(>iTi, Alexander 558
Verri. Pietro 30, 558
Vertu and use of c. BradleA-,
q 293
Vesling ( Veslinglus), q....l2, 26
Vickers. T. L 498
Victoria Arduino-Societa Ano-
jiima 65 1
Victorias (O 341. 343, 367
Vic prirve d'autrefois La,
Franklin, q fi
Viehoever. A.... 160; q. 144, 145
\'ienna
—Besieged by Turks (1693) . . 49
— CoflFee-makers' guild 50
Vienna^ liclntion of the siege
of, Vulcaren, q 50
Villon, Frazicois, q 135
Vilain .')94
Vincent c.-pot 604
Vintschgau 186
Virey, q 20
Virgil 543
Visconti 558
Vitamins ISO
Vitamives, The, Funk, q 180
Viviani, Count, ill 578
Voit, Carl V.. q 177. 179
Volkman, George 506
Voltaire 94. 98. 178. 556,
557 ; q. 554. 565
Voyaae de V Arable Heurett^e,
Ux Roque 543 ; q. 15.
31, 32, 34. 197
Voi/af/e into the Levant, A.
Blount, q 38
Vulcaren. .Tohn P. A., q .50
V.val, John, chk 109
Wagama. r 316
Wagner & Co.. H. M 485
Wagon-route distributers
— TTnited States 415. 416. 417
— France <>81
WagstafP. David J 76
Wahibis 542
Waite, pat 625
Walte. Creighton & Morrison. . 477
Wakeful monastery 14
Wakemau. Abram " 473. 4 78
Walbridge. Augustus 480
Wall)ridge Inc., Augustus M. -ISO
Wales. Henrv 508
Walker. John, pat 245, 246
Walker. .Toshua 47S
Walker Sons & Co. Ltd 246. 247
Wall. Dr ." 579
Wallace, Alexander 475
Wallace, Alfred Russel, q 200
Wallace. C. Iv. H. (Mrs.), q... 181
Wallace. Hugh 475
Wallace, John William, q 126
Wallace, William, q 657
Walle. Friediich 591
Wallen, Geo. S 482
Wallen & Co., Geo S 482
Walpole Sir Edward 583
Waliwle. Horace. . .578. 580.584
Walsh, Rev. Robert, q. 557. 66.3-664
Walton, William 475
W.anni Rukula C 144
Ward, Ned, q .77, 84. 575
Warden, q 185
Ware (architect) 583.584
Warfleld. John D 502
Warfield W. S 502
Warne. E ."OS
Warner, Alonzo A., pat. 648. 649
Warner, C. M 538
Warner, Ezra J 502
Warnier, q 164, 169, 719
Warren 110
Warren & Bed well 506
Warren & Co 482
Warton Joseph 573
Warwick, Lady 575, 576
Waseana, v 316
Wash-brew 58
Washed V8. Unwashed. .. .250, 251
Wa.shing machinery 247
Washington. G.. pat 471, 538
Washington, George (Gen.)
120. 130, 468
— ^Official welcome, New Toi'k,
ill 593
Washington, Martha 130
Washington Refining Co.,
George 538
Washington and Jefferson col-
lege 521
Washington's Prepared C, G. . 538
Wastell 603
Water extract 168, 169
Water power, Nicaragua 264
Waterbury & Force 482
Water-supply requirements... 198
Watering, Excessive 513
Watjen, Toel & Co 482
Watson, q 126
Wavgood, Tupholme Co 641
Wear F. F.. pat 651
Webb. James R 501
Webb, Rudolphus L.. pat 644
Webb, Thomas J 502, 511
Webb & Son, James R 501
Webl). Cheek & Co 509
Webb. Hughes & Co 509
Webb-Puhl Co 443
Webber, q 1 86
Webster, q 704
Webster. Daniel HO
Webster. George 124
Wedding Breakfast (brand) . . 441
Wedgwood 607, 612
Wedmeyer. q 187
Weighing machinery 403, 471
Weighmasters (N. Y. Exch.) . . 333
Weikel & Smith 501
Weikel & Smith Spice Co. 470,
501, 635
Weir, J. B 499
Weir, Ross W. . . 466. 448. 490.
511. 513. 514: a. 424
Weir & Co.. Ross W 495. 499
Weir. Inc.. Ross W 495. 499
Weissmiin, .Tohn 488
Weisweiller. q 163
Weitzmann. pat 15S
Welch. Amos S 492
Welch & Co 488
Wellman. C. V.. q 410
Wells. D. Henderson 482
Wells. John •* 482
Wells Bros 482, 485
Welsh. Fbenezer 49.)
Wendroth. Clara 519
Wessels & Bros., C 482
Wessels. Kulenkampff & Co 482
West Indies (c.) 3.50, 351,
361. 362. 363
West & Melchers 485
Westcott, q 126
Wcsten T. & S. Co., Edw 485
Westfal. J. R 496
Westfeldt Bros 485, 486
Weston & Grav 482
Westphal. pat 167
Wet method. . .136, 249. 252. 254
Wet roast 389. 391
Wetherill. Charles M., q. 711. 712
Wevl & Co.. G 482
Wevl & Norton 4S2
Wheeler & Co.. Ezra 478, 479
Whieldon 607. 612
White coffee 674
White. A. E., pat 651
White. Francis, rhk 87
White. Herman M.. pat 625
White Peregrine 616
WhiteHouse (brand) ....441. 465
White Rose (brand) 441
Whitefoord. Caleb 573
Whiting & Taylor 502
Whiting. Goehle & Co 502
Whitmarsli, Theodore F 535
Wholesale Grocers Corp 502
Wholesaling roasted c 407-413
— Capital invested, U. S 415
— Sales, annual, U. S 415
Wholesome advice against the
abuse of hot liquors. Dun-
win, q 59
Wickersham, Att'ney Gen 593
Widlar, Francis .507
Widlar & Co., F r.07
Widlar Co .507
Wi.U Kawih n
Wilcox, O. W., q 147
Wild (see navors)
Wild c. (Abyssinia) . .• 284
Wild, James 469, 492
Wilde, Herbert W 492
Wilde, JoJin 492
Wilde, Joseph 492
Wilde, Samuel 482 : biog. 492
Wilde, Jr., Samuel 492
Wilde & Sons, Samuel 492
Wilde's Sons, Samuel 494, 499
Wilde's Sons Co.. Samuel 492
Wiley. Harvey W., g..l75, 176,
180, 182, 396
Wilhelm, R. C, <? 387, 393
Wilke 579
Wilkie 583
Willcox, O. W., q 161, 388
Wille, Theodor 532, 534
William III 601
Williams, Frank 477, 498
Williams & Co.. R. C 494
Williams & Potter 494
Williams & Taft 507
Williams, Chapin & Russell.. 478
Williams, Dimmond & Co 488
Williams, Russell & Co 477,
478, 535
Williamson, C. G., ^ 62
Williamson, Peregrine, pat. 468, 624
Williamson. S. H 498
Willis. Thomas, q 58
Wills & Co.. Alexander 508
Willson. Wm. B 485
Wilson, Increase, pat 623
Wilson, Woodrow 534, 535
Wilson & Bowers 480
Wilson & Co.. J. W 480
Wimmer, pat 162.. 473
Windbreaks 201
Window-displays 425
Window-trimming contest 455
Wine
— C. classed as 1, 17. 20
— C. a substitute for 15, 42
— Made from fruit 15
— Made from hulls and pulp. . 693
Wing Bros. & Hart 498
Winter. IL. pat 1.58. 167
Winter & Smilie 482
Winthrop. Gov 109
Win ton. Andrew L.. q 150
Wise, Capt 128
Withington. Eli.1ah, biog 492
WithinL'ton & Pine . . . .' 492
Withington & Wilde 492
Withington. Francis & Welch 492
Withington. Wilde & Welch . . 494
Witsen. Nicolaas 6, 43
Wittenagemott 582
Wosran. Sir Charles 575
Wolf & Seligsberg 478
Wolff. L 485
Wolsele.v. Viscountess 604
Women as coffee sellers 56
Woiimi's petition aqainst c..
The, pamph.. ill 70. 71
Wood. Jr.. II. C. q 176. 185
Wood, .Tarvis .\.. q 431
Woods, Rufus 485
Wood. Thomas R.. pat 634
Wood & Cr).. Thomas 501
Woodward (actor) 579. 580
Woolson. A. M 506. 523
Woolson Spice Co 503. 506,
521. 523
World War effects
— Arabia 268
— Consumption 289
— Gu^tenaala ' 219
—Mexico 222
— T'nited States trade 531-538
Imports 286
L
796
ALL ABOUT COFFEE
World War effects (cont'd)
— . — San Francisco 325
—World trade... 190-195, 294, 290
World's Commercial Products,
The, Freeman, q 133
World's Work, per. q 531, 532
Worth, J. G 499
Wright, q 167
Wright, George C 501
Wright, George S 448, 501, 629
Wright, John S 482, 491
Wright, John T 488
Wright, Warren M 501
Wright Hard & Co 482
Wrightsville Hardware Co.... 644
Wroth, Warwick, q 82, 83
Wurffbain 43
Wurttemberg, Duke of 47
Wyatt, Charles, pat 621, 699
Wycherly 575
Wyld, F. Lehnhoff 538
XXXX (brand) 44
Yaffey c 351, 368
Yarro-w, Mrs., ctik 555
Yates & Dudley 508
Yellow fever, effect of c. on . . . 182
Yemeni c 351, 368
Yorke, Duke of 554
Young, Arthur, q 100
Young, D. K , 482
Young. Samuel 507
Young! Mahood & Co 507
Young-Mahood Co 507
Youngs & Amman 477
Yuban (brand) 441, 462, 524
Yuban advertising 462-465
Yuengling, D. G 508
Yungas c 350, 867
Zamore 590
Zamzam 18
Zanzibar c 353, 377
Zarf (cup-standj 661
Zecchini, G. B 549
Zenetz, q 185
Ziegler Arctic expedition 538
Zilmore & Co., A. G 508
Zinmeister Sr., Frank 505
Zinsmeister, Jacob 505
Zinsmeister, li. G., q 389
Zinmeister & Son, Frank 505
Zinmeister & Sons, J 505
Zola, Emlle 103, 565
Zoller & Little 508
Zwaardecroon, Henrious 6
Zwick, CiiaTles 505
0
4.
uti^ 1 6 WW
PLEASE DO NOT REMOVE
CARDS OR SLIPS FROM THIS POCKET
UNIVERSITY OF TORONTO LIBRARY
Biological
ftMedicai