Full text of "All about coffee"

JAaCS! BURNS &. SONS

nth AVZ. & 43pd ST.

NEW YORK

AH About

Coffee

SUMMIT, NEW JE;RSET

NuW YORK

"cALL cABOUT

COFFEE

By
WILLIAM H. 'UKERf, M. A.

Editor
THE TEA AND COFFEE TRADE JOURNAL

NEW YORK
THE TEA AND COFFEE TRADE JOURNAL COMPANY

BY f

THE TEA AND COFFEE TRADE JOURNAL COMPANY
New York

International Copyright Secured

PRINTED IN U. S. A.

ALL ABO U T COFFEE

^.t.L^linu

COFFEE ARABICA ; LEAVES, FLOWERS AND FRUIT

Paintpd from nature by M. E. Eaton — Detail aketohes show anther, pistil, and section of corolla

To My Wife

HELEN DE GRAFF UKERS

PREFACE

SEVENTEEN years ago the author of this work made his first trip abroad to gather
material for a book on coffee. Subsequently he spent a year in travel among the
coffee-producing countries. After the initial surveys, correspondents were ap-
pointed to make researches in the principal European libraries and museums ; and this
phase of the work continued until April, 1922. Simultaneous researches were conducted
in American libraries and historical museums up to the time of the return of the final
proofs to the printer in June, 1922.

Ten years ago the sorting and classification of the material was begun. The actual
writing of the manuscript has extended over four years.

Among the unique features of the book are the Coffee Thesaurus ; the Coffee Chro-
nology, containing 492 dates of historical importance ; the Complete Reference Table of
the Principal Kinds of Coffee Grown in the World ; and the Coffee Bibliography, con-
taining 1,380 references.

The most authoritative works on this subject have been Robinson's The Early His-
tory of Coffee Houses in England, published in London in 1893; and Jardin's Le Cafe,
published in Paris in 1895. The author wishes to acknowledge his indebtedness to both
for inspiration and guidance. Other works, Arabian, French, English, German, and
Italian, dealing with particular phases of the subject, have been laid under contribution;
and where this has been done, credit is given by foot-note reference. In all cases where
it has been possible to do so, however, statements of historical facts have been verified by
independent research. Not a few items have required months of tracing to confirm or to
disprove.

There has been no serious American work on coffee since Hewitt's Coffee: Its His-
tory, Cultivation and Uses, published in 1872; and Thurber's Coffee from Plantation to
Cup, published in 1881. Both of these are now out of print, as is also Walsh's Coffee: Its
History, Classification and Description, published in 1893.

The chapters on The Chemistry of Coffee and The Pharmacology of Coffee
have been prepared under the author's direction by Charles W. Trigg, industrial fellow
of the Mellon Institute of Industrial Research.

The author wishes to acknowledge, with thanks, valuable assistance and numerous
courtesies by the officials of the following institutions :

British Museum, and Guildhall Museum, London ; Bibliotheque Nationale, Paris ;
Congressional Library, Washington ; New York Public Library, Metropolitan Museum of
Art, and New York Historical Society, New York; Boston Public Library, and Boston
Museum of Fine Arts ; Smithsonian Institution, Washington ; State Historical Museum,
Madison, Wis. ; Maine Historical Society, Portland ; Chicago Historical Society; New
Jersey Historical Society, Newark ; Harvard University Library ; Essex Institute, Salem,
Mass. ; Peabody Institute, Baltimore.

VII

Thanks and appreciation are due also to :

Charles James Jackson, London, for permission to quote from his Illustrated His-
tory of English Plate;

Francis Hill Bigelow, author ; and The Maemillan Company, publishers, for permis-
sion to reproduce illustrations from Historic Silver of the Colonies;

H. G. D wight, author; and Charles Scribner's Sons, publishers, for permission to
quote from Constantinople, Old and New, and from the article on "Turkish Coffee
Houses" in Scribner's Magazine;

Walter G. Peter, Washington, D. C, for permission to photograph and reproduce
pictures of articles in the Peter collection at the United States National Museum ;

Mary P. Hamlin and George Arliss, authors, and George C. Tyler, producer, for per-
mission to reproduce the Exchange coffee house setting of the first act of Hamilton;

Judge A. T. Clearwater, Kingston, N. Y. ; R. T. Haines Halsey, and Francis P.
Garvan, New York, for permission to publish pictures of historic silver coffee pots in
their several collections;

The secretaries of the American Chambers of Commerce in London, Paris, and
Berlin ;

Charles Cooper, London, for his splendid co-operation and for his special contribu-
tion to chapter XXXV;

Alonzo H. De Graff, London, for his invaluable aid and unflagging zeal in directing
the London researches;

To the Coffee Trade Association, London, for assistance rendered;

To G. J. Letliem, London, for his translations from the Arabic ;

Geoffrey Sephton, Vienna, for his nice co-operation;

L. P. de Bussy of the Koloniaal Institute, Amsterdam, Holland, for assistance ren-
dered ;

Burton Holmes and Blendon R. Campbell, New York, for courtesies;

John Cotton Dana, Newark, N. J.^ for assistance rendered;

Charles H. Barnes, Medford, Mass., for permission to publish the photograph of
Peregrine White's Mayflower mortar and pestle;

Andrew L. Winton, Ph.D.^ Wilton, Conn., for permission to quote from his The
Microscopy of Vegetable Foods in the chapter on The Microscopy of Coffee and to
reprint Prof. J. Moeller's and Tschirch and Oesterle's drawings;

F. Hulton Frankel, Ph.D., Edward M. Frankel, Ph.D., and Arno Viehoever, for
their assistance in preparing the chapters on The Botany of Coffee and The Microscopy
of Coffee;

A. L. Burns, New York, for his assistance in the correction and revision of chapters
XXV, XXVI, XXVII, and XXXIV, and for much historical information supplied in
connection with chapters XXX and XXXI ;

Edward Aborn, New York, for his help in the revision of chapter XXXVI;

George W. Lawrence, former president, and T. S. B. Nielsen, president, of the New
York Coffee and Sugar Exchange, for their assistance in the revision of chapter XXXI ;

Helio Lobo, Brazilian consul general, New York ; Sebastiao Sampaio, commercial at-
tache of the Brazilian Embassy, AVashington ; and Th. Langgaard de Menezes, American
representative of the Sociedade Promotora da Defeza do Cafe ;

Felix Coste, secretary and manager, the National Coffee Roasters Association; and
C. B. Stroud, superintendent, the New York Coffee and Sugar Exchange, for information
supplied and assistance rendered in the revision of several chapters;

VIII

F. T. Holmes, New York, for his help in the compilation of chronological and de-
scriptive data on coffee-roasting machiner}' ;

Walter Chester, New York, for critical comments on chapter XXVIII.

The author is especially indebted to the following, who in many ways have con-
tributed to the successful compilation of the Complete Reference Table in chapter XXIV,
and of those chapters having to do with the early history and development of the green
coffee and the wholesale coffee-roasting trades in the United States:

George S. "Wright, Boston; A. E. Forbes, William Fisher, Gwynne Evans, Jerome J.
Schotten, and the late Julius J. Schotten,, St. Louis; James H. Taylor, William Bayne,
Jr., A. J. Dannemiller, B. A. Livierato, S. A. Schonbrunn, Herbert Wilde, A. C. Fitzpat-
rick, Charles Meehan, Clarence Creighton, Abram Wakeman, A. H. Davies, Joshua
Walker, Fred P. Gordon, Alex. H. Purcell, George W. Vanderhoef, Col. William P.
Roome, W. Lee Simmonds, Herman Simmonds, W. H. Aborn, B. Lahey, John C. Lou-
don, J. R. Westfal, Abraham Reamer, R. C. Wilhelm, C. H. Stewart, and the late Au-
gust Haeussler, New York ; John D. Warfield, Ezra J. Warner, S. 0. Blair, and George
D. McLaughlin. Chicago ; W. H. Harrison, James Heekin, and Charles Lewis, Cincinnati ;
Albro Blodgett and A. M. Woolson, Toledo ; R, V. Engelhard and Lee G. Zinsmeister,
Louisville; E. A. Kahl, San Francisco; S. Jackson, New Orleans; Lewis Sherman, Mil-
waukee ; Howard F. Boardman, Hartford ; A. H. Devers, Portland, Ore. ; W. James
Mahood, Pittsburgh; William B. Harris, East Orange, N. J.

New York. June 17, 1922.

C O X T E N T S

A COFFEE THESAURUS

i:ncoiiiiums and descriptive phrases applied to the plant, the berry, and the beverage. .Page xxvix

THE EVOLUTION OF A CUP OF COFFEE
Showing the various steps through which the bean passes from plantation to cup Page xxix

CHAPTER I

Dealing with the Etymology of Coffee

Origin and translation of the word from the Arabian into various languages — Views of many
writers ; Page 1

CHAPTER II

History of Coffee Propagation
A brief account of the cultivation of the coffee plant in the Old World, and of its introduction into
the New — A romantic coffee adventure Page 5

CHAPTER III

Early History of Coffee Drinking
Coffee in the Near East in the early centui'ies — Stories of its origin — Discovery by phyMcians
and adoption by the Church — Its spread through Arabia, Persia, and Turkey — Persecu-
tions and intolerances — Early coffee manners and customs Page 11

CHAPTER IV

Introduction of Coffee into Western Europe

When the three great temperance beverages, cocoa, tea, and coffee, came to Europe — Coffee first
mentioned by Rauwolf in 1582 — Early days of coffee in Italy — How Pope Clement VIII
haptizetl it and made it a triily Christian beverage — The first European coffee house, in
Venice, 1645 — The famous Caff 6 Florian — Other celebrated Venetian coffee houses of the
eighteenth century — The romantic story of Pedrocchi, tJie poor lemonade-vender, who built
the most beautiful coffee house in the world I'age 25-

CHAPTER V

The Beginnings of Coffee in France
What French travelers did for coffee — the introduction of coffee by P. de la Roque into Marseilles
in 1&44 — Tlie first commercial importation of coffee from Egypt — The first French coffee
house — Failure of the attempt by physicians of Marseilles to discredit coffee — Soli-
man Aga introduces coffee into Paris — Cabarets ft caffe — Celebrated works on coffee by
French writers Page 31

Xlll

CONTENTS

CHAPTER VI

The Introduction op Coffee into England

The first printed reference ito coffee in English — Early mention of coffee by noted English travelers
and writers — The Lacedaemonian "black broth" controversy — How Gonopios introduced
coffee drinking at Oxford^- The first English coffee house in Oxford — Two English botan-
ists on coffee Page 35

CHAPTER VII )

The Introduction op Coffee into Holland
How the enterprising Dutch traders captured the first world's market for coffee — Activities of
the Netherlands East India Company — The first coffee house at the Hague — The first public
auction at Amsterdam in 1711, when Java coffee brought forty-seven cents a pound, green

Page 43

CHAPTER VIII 'y-

The Introduction op Coffee into Germany

The contributions made by German travelers and writers to the literature of the early history
of coffee — The first coffee house in Hamburg opened by an English merchant — Famous
coffee houses of old Berlin — The first coffee periodical and the first kaffeeklatsch —
Frederick the Great's coffee roasting monopoly — Coffee persecutions — "Coffee-smellers" —
The first coffee king Page 45

CHAPTER IX

Telling How Coffee Came to Vienna
The romantic adventure of Franz George Kolsehitzky, who carried "a message to Garcia" through
the enemy's lines and won for himself the honor of being the first to teach the Viennese
the art of making coffee, to say nothing of falling heir to the supplies of the green beans
left behind by the Turks ; also the gift of a house from a grateful municipality, and a
statue after death — Affectionate regard in which "Brother-heart" Kolsehitzky is held as
the patron saint of the Vienna Eaffeesieder — Life in the early Vienna caf6s Page 49

/
CHAPTER X /

The Coffee Houses op Old London
One of the most picturesque chapters in the history of coffee — The first coffee house in London —
The first coffee handbill, and the first newspaper advertisement for coffee — Strange coffee
mixtures — Fantastic coffee claims — Coffee prices and coffee licenses — Coffee club of the
Rota — Early coffee-house manners and customs — Coffee-house keepers' tokens — Opposition
to the coffee house — "Penny universities" — Weird coffee substitutes — The proposed coffee-
house newspaper monopoly — Evolution of the club — Decline and fall of the coffee house —
Pen pictures of coffee-house life — Famous coffee houses of tihe seventeenth and eighteenth
centuries — Some Old World pleasure gardens — Locating the notable coffee houses. .Page 53

CHAPTER XI

History op the Early Parisian Coffee Houses
The introduction of coffee into Paris by ThSvenot in 1657 — How Soliman Aga established the
custom of coffee drinking at the court of Louis XIV — Opening of the first coffee houses —
How the French adaptation of the Oriental coffee house first appeared in the real French
caf6 of FrauQois Procoi)e - — Important part played by the coffee houses in the development
- of French literature and the stage — Their association with the Revolution and the found-
ing of the Republic — Quaint customs and patrons — Historic Parisian cafes Page 91

XIV

CONTENTS

CHAPTER XII
Introduction op Coffee into North America

Captain John Smith, founder of the Ck)lony of Virginia, is the first to bring to North America a
linowledge of coffee in 1607 — The coffee grinder on the Mayflower — Coffee drinking in 1668 —
William Penn's coffee purchase in 1683 — Coffee in colonial New England — The psychology
of the Boston "tea party," and why the United States became a nation of coffee drinkers in-
stead of tea drinkers, like England — The first coffee license to I>orothy Jones In 1670 — The
first coffee house in New England — Notable coffee houses of old Boston — A sky-scraper
coffee-house Page 105

CHAPTER XIII

History of Coffee in Old New York
The burghers of New Amsterdam begin to substitute coffee for "must," or heer, for breakfast in
1668 — William Penn makes his first purchase of coffee in the green bean from New York
merchants in 1683 — The King's Arms, the first coffee house — The historic Merchants,
sometimes called the "Birthplace of our Union" — The coffee house as a civic forum — The
Exchange, Whitehall, Burns, Tontine, and other celebrated coffee houses — The Vauxhall and
Ranelagh pleasure gardens Page 115

CHAPTER XIV

Coffee Houses of Old Philadelphia

Ye Coffee House, Philadelphia's first coffee house, opened about 1700 — The two London coffee

houses — The City tavern, or Merchants coffee house — How these, and other celebrated

resorts, dominated the social, political, and business life of the Quaker City in the eighteenth

century Page 125

CHAPTER XV

The Botany of the Coffee Plant -
Its complete classification by class, sub-class, order, family, genus, and species — How the Coffea
arabica grows, flowers, and bears — Other species and hybrids described — Natural caffein-
free coffee — Fungoid diseases of coffee Page 131

CHAPTER XVI

The Microscopy of the Coffee Fruit
How the beans may be examined under the microscope, and what is revealed — Structure of the
berry, the green, and the roasted beans — The coffee-leaf disease under the microscope —
Value of microscopic analysis in detecting adulteration Page 149

CHAPTER XVII

The Chemistry of the Coffee Bean -

By Charles W. Trigg.
Chemistry of the preparation and treajtment of the green bean — Artificial aging — Renovating
damaged coffees — Extracts — "Oaffetannic acid" — Caffein, caffein-f ree coffee — Caffeol —
Fats and oils — Carbohydrates — Roasting — Scientific aspects of grinding and packaging —
The coffee brew — Soluble coffee — Adulterants and substitutes — Official methods of anal-
ysis Page 155

C O X T E X T S

(mAPTER XVIII
Pharmacology of the Coffee Deink .,

liy Charles IF. Trigg
General physiological action — Effect on chiklven — Effect on longevity — Behavior in the alimen-
tary rSgime — Place in dietary — Action on bacteria — Use in medicine — Physiological
,, action of "caffetannic acid" — Of caffeol — Of caflfein — Effect of caffein on mental and motor
efficiency — Conclnsions Page 174

CHAPTER XIX

The Commercial Coffees of the World

The geographical distribution of the coffees grown in North America, Centi-al America, South

America, tlie West India Islands, Asia, Africa, the Pacific Islands, and the Easit Indies —

A statistical study of tlie distribution of the principal kinds — A commercial coffee chart

of the world's leading growths, with market names and general trade characteristics

Page 189

CHAPTER XX

Cultivation of the Coffee Plant

The early days of coffee culture in Abyssinia and Arabia — Coffee cultivation in general — Soil.

climate, rainfall, altitude, propagation, prepairing the i^lantation, shade, w^ind breaks,

fertilizing, praning, catch crops, pests, and diseases — How coffee is grown around the

world — Cultivation in all the principal producing countries Page 197

CHAPTER XXI

Preparing Green Coffee for Market
Early Arabian methods of preparation — How primitive devices were replaced by modern methods
— A chronological story of the development of scientific plantation machinery, and the
part played by English and American inventors — The marvelous coffee package, one
of the most ingenious in all nature — How coffee is harvested — Picking — Preparation by
the drj- and the wet methods — Pulping — Fermentation and washing — Drying — Hulling,
or peeling, and polishing — Siting, or grading — Preparation methods of different countries

Page 245

CHAPTER XXII

The Production and Consumption of Coffee
A statistical study of world production of coffee by countries — Per capita figures of the leading
consuming countries — Coffee-consumption figures comi>ared with tea-consumption figures in
the United States and the United Kingdom t— Three centuries of coffee trading — Coffee
drinking in the United States, past and present — Reviewing the 1921 trade in the United
States Page 273

CHAPTER XXIII

How Green Coffees Are Bought and Sold
Buying coffee in the producing countries — Transi>orting coffee to the coaisuming markets — Some
recoi"d coffee cargoes shipped to th^ United States — Transport over seas — Java coffee
"ex-sailing vessels" — Handling coffee at New York, New Orleans, and San Francisco —
The coffee exchanges of Europe and the United States — ^Commission men and brokers —
Trade and exchange contracts for delivery — Important rulings affecting coffee trading —
Some well-known green coffee marks Page SOS

XVI

CONTEXTS

^M Greejsi and Roasted Coffee Characteristics '
' The trade values, bean characteristics, and cup merits of the leading coffees of commerce, with a
"Complete Reference Table of the Principal Kinds of Coffee Grown in the World" —
Appearance, aroma, and flavor in cup-testing — How experts test coffee — A typical sample-
roasting and cup-testing outfit Page 341 V

CHAPTER XXV /^

Factory Preparation op Roasted Coffee
Coffee roasting as a business — Wholesale coffee-roasting machinery — Separating, milling, and
mixing or blending green coffee, and roasting by coal, coke, gas, and electricity — Facts
about coffee roasting — Cost of roasting — Green-coffee shrinkage table — "Dry" and "wet"
roasts — On roasting coffee etficiently — A typical coal roaster — Cooling and stoning —
Finishing or glazing — Blending roasted coffees — Blends for restaurants — Grinding and
packaging — Coffee additions and fillers — Treated coffees, and dry extracts Page 379

CHAPTER XXVI

Wholesale Merchandising of Coffee
How coffees are sold at wholesale — The wholesale salesman's place in merchandising — Some
coffee costs analyzed — Handy coffee-selling chart — Terms and credits — About package
coffees — Various types of coffee containers — Coffee package labels — Coffee package
economies — Practical grocer helps — Coffee sampling — Premium method of sales promo-
tion , Page 407

CHAPTER XXVII

Retail Merchandising op Roasted Coffee
How coffees are sold at retail — The place of the grocer, the tea and coffee dealer, the chain
store, and the wagon-route distributer in the scheme of distribution — Starting in the retail
coffee business — Small roasters for retail dealers — Model coffee departments — Creating
a coffee trade — Meeting competition — Splitting nickels — Figuring costs and profits — A
credit policy for retailers — Premiums Page 415

CHAPTER XXVIII

A Short History of Coffee Advertising
Early coffee advertising — The first coffee advertisement in 1587 was frank propaganda for the
legitimate use of coffee — The first printed advertisement in English — The first newspaper
advertisement — Early advertisements in colonial America — Evolution of advertising —
Package coffee advertising — ^ Advertising to the trade — Advertising by means of news-
papers, magazines, bill-boards, electric signs, motion pictures, demonstrations, and by samples
— Advertising for retailers — Advertising by government propaganda — The Joint Coffee
Trade publicity campaign in the United States — Coffee advertising efficiency Page 431

CHAPTER XXIX

The Coffee Trade in the United States
The coffee business started by Dorothy Jones of Boston — Some early sales — Taxes imposed by
Congress in war and peace — The first coffee-plantation-machine, coffee-roaster, coffee-
grinder, and coffee-pot patents — Early trade marks for coffee — Beginnings of the coffee
urn, the coffee container, and the soluble-coffee business — Chronological record of the most
important events in the history of the trade from the eighteenth century to the twentieth

Page 4G7

XVII

CONTENTS

CHAPTER XXX

Development of the Green and Roasted Coffee
Business in the United States
A brief history of the growth of coffee trading — Notable firms and personalities that have played
important parts in green coffee in the principal coffee centers — Green coffee trade organ-
izations — Growth of the wholesale coffee- roasting trade, and names of those who have
made history in it — The National Coffee Roasters Association — Statistics of distribution of
coffee-roasting establishments in the United States Page 475

CHAPTER XXXI

Some Big Men and Notable Achievements
^ B. G. Arnold, the first, and Hermann Sielcken, the last of the American "coffee kings" — John
Arbuckle, the original package-coffee man — Jabez Bums, the man who revolutionized the
roasted-coffee business by his contributions as inventor, manufacturer, and writer — Ck>ffee
trade booms and panics — Brazil's first valorization enterprise — War-time government
control of coffee — The story of soluble coffee Page 517

CHAPTER XXXII

A History of Coffee in Literature
The romance of coffee, and its influence on the discourse, poetry, history, drama, philosophic
writing, and fiction of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries and on the writers of to-
day — Coffee quips and anecdotes Page 541

CHAPTER XXXIII

Coffee in Relation to the Fine Arts

How coffee and coffee drinking have been celebrated in painting, engraving, sculpture, caricature,

lithography, and music — Epics, rhapsodies, and cantatas in praise of coffee — Beautiful

specimens of the art of the potter and the silversmith as shown in the coffee service of

various periods in the world's history — Some historical relics Page 587

CHAPTER XXXIV

The Evolution of Coffee/ Apparatus
Showing the development of coffee-roasting, coffee-grinding, coffee-making, and coffee-serving de-

vices from the earliest time to the present day -^"The original coffee grinder, the first coffee
roaster, and the first coffee pot — T^e original French drip pot, the De Belloy percolator —
Count Rumford's improvement — How the commercial coffee roaster was developed — The
^y olu tion-jQf^ fi 1 tra tio n ,ii^^eg — The old Carter "pull-out" roaster — Trade customs in
New^iork ana ist. rSms in the sixties and seventies — The story of the evolution of the
Burns roaster — How the gas roaster was developed in France, Great Britain, and the
United States Page 615

CHAPTER XXXV

World's Coffee Manners and Customs
How coffee is roasted, prepared, and served in all the leading civilized countries — The Arabian
coffee ceremony — The present-day coffee houses of Turkey — Twentieith century improve-
ments in Europe and the United States Page 655

XVIII

CONTENTS

CHAPTER XXXVI -

Preparation of the Uniyersal Beverage
I he evolution of grinding and brewing methods —Coffee was first a food, then a wine, a medicine,
a devotional ref reshment> a confection, and finally a beverage — Brewing by boiling, infu-
sion, percolation, and filtration — Ck)ffee making in Enrope in the nineteenth century — Early
coffee making in the United States — Latest developments in better coffee making — Various
aspects of scientific coffee brewing — Advice to coffee lovers on how to buy coffee, and how
to make it in perfection Page 693

A COFFEE CHRONOLOGY

Giving dates and events of historical interest in legend, travel, literature, cultivation, plantation
treatment, trading, and In the preparation and use of coffee from the earliest time to the
present ' Page 725

A COFFEE BIBLIOGRAPHY

A list of references gathered from the principal general and scientific libraries — Arranged in
alphabetic order of topics Page 738

INDEX

Page 769

XIX

ILLUSTRATIONS

Color Plates

Facing paye
Cofifee branches, flowers, and fruit (painted

by Blendon Campbell) Frontispiece v

Coffea arabica; leaves, flowers, and fruit

(painted by M. E. Eaton) 1

Tlie coffee tree bears fruit, leaf, and blossom

at the same time 16

A close-up of ripe coffee berries 32

Coffee under the Stars and Stripes 144

Coffee scenes in British India 160

Picking and sacking coffee in Brazil 176

Mild-coffee culttire and preparation 192

. Facing page

Coffee scenes in Java 200

Coffee scenes in Sumatra 216

Coffee preparation in Central and South

America 248 M

Typical coffee scenes in Costa Rica 336 "

Principal varieties of green-coffee beans,

natural size and color 352

Coal-roasting plant, New York 408

Coffee scenes in the Near and Far East 544

Primitive transportation methods, Arabia . . 640
Hulling coffee in Aden, Arabia 656

Black and White Illustrations

rage

Coffee tree in flower 4

De Clieu and his coffee plant 7

Legendary discovery of coffee drink 10

Title page of Dufour's book 13

Frontispiece from Dufour's book 15

Turkish coffee house, 17th century 21

Serving coffee to a guest, Arabia 23

First printed reference to coffee 24

An 18th-century Italian coffee house 2()

Nobility in an early Venetian caff^ 27

Goldoni in a Venetian coffee house 28

Florian's famous coffee house 29

Title page of La Roque's work 82

Coffee tree as pictured by La Roque 32

Coffee branch in La Roque's work 33

First printed reference in English 37

Reference in Sherley's travels 39

References in Biddulph's travels 40

Mol's coffee house at Exeter 41

Reference in Sandys' travels 42

Richter's coffee house, Leipsic 40

Coffee house, Germany, 17th century 47

Kolschitzky in his Blue Bottle coffee house . . 48

First coffee house in Leopoldstadt. 50

Statue of Kolschitzky 51

First advertisement for coffee 55

First newspaper advertisement 57

Page

Coffee house, time of Charles II 60

London coffee house, 17th century 61

Coffee house, Queen Anne's time 62

Coffee-house keepers' tokens (plate 1) 63

A broadside of 1663 64

Coffee-house keepers' tokens (plate 2) 65

A broadside of 1667 68

A broadside of 1670 70

A broadside of 1672 70

A broadside of 1674 71

White's and Brooke's coffee houses 78

London coffee-house politicians 78

Great Fair on the frozen Thames 79

Lion's head at Button's 80

Trio of notables at Button's 81

Vauxhall Gardens on a gala night 82

Rotunda in Ranelagh Gardens 83

Garraway's coffee house 84

Button's coffee house 84

Slaughter's coffee house 85

Tom's coffee house 85

Lloyd's coffee house 86

Dick's coffee house 87

Grecian coffee house 87

Don Saltero's coffee house 88

British coffee house 88

French coffee house in London 89

ILLUSTRATIONS

Pa<je

Raiuponaux' Royal Drummer ca fg 90

La Foire St.-Germaiu 92

Street coffee vender of Paris 92

Armenian decorations in Paris cafe 93

Corner of liistoric Caf6 de Procope 93

C4if6 de Procope, Paris 9.j

Cashier's desk in coffee liouse, Paris 9G

Caf6 Foy 97

Caf6 des Mille Colonnes 99

Caf 6 de Paris 101

Interior of a typical Parisian cafe 103

Chess at tlie Caf6 de la R^gence 104

Types of colonial coffee roasters 100

Early family coffee roaster 100

Historic relics, early New England 107

Maytlower "coffee grinder" 108

Crown coffee house, Boston lOS

Coffee devices, Massachusetts colony 109

Coft'ee devices of western pioneers 110

Coffee pots of oolouial days 110

Green Dragon tavern. Boston Ill

Metal coffee pots. New York colony 112

Exchange coffee house, Boston 113

President-elect Washington's official wel-
come at Merchants Coffee House 114

King's Arms coffee house, New York IIG

Burns coffee house 117

Merchants coffee house 119

Tontine coffee house 121

Tontine building of 1850 122

Xiblo's Garden 122

Coffee relics, Dutch New York 122

New York's Vauxhall Garden of 1803 123

Tavern and grocers' signs, old New York .... 124
Second London coffee house, Philadelphia . . 127

Selling slaves, old London coffee house 128

City tavern, Philadelphia 129

Coffee-house scene in "Hamilton" 130

Coffee tree, flowers and fruit 132

Germination of the coffee plant 133

Brazil coffee plantation in flower 134

f'offea arahica, Porto Rico 135

Coffea arahica, flower and fruit, Costa Rica. 135

Young Coffea arabica. Kona, Hawaii 136

Survivors of first Liberiau trees in Java .... 130

Coffea arabica in flower. Java 137

Liberian coffee tree, Lamoa, P. 1 138

Coffea congensis, 2J^ years old 138

Flowering of 5-year-old Coffea excelsa 139

Branches of Coffee excelsa 140

Coffea stenophylla 140

Near view of Coffea arahica berries 141

Wild caffein-f ree coffee tree 142

Coffee bean characteristios. 142

Coffea arabica berries 143

Rohusta coffee in flower 144

One-year-old rohusta estate 145

Paije

Coffea Quillou Cowers 146

Quillou coffee tree in blossom 147

Coffea L'gandae 148

Coffea arahica under the microscope 149

Cross-section of coffee bean 150

Cross- section of hull and bean 150

Epicarp and pericarp under microscope.... 151
Endocarp and endosperm under microscope. 152

Spermoderm under microscope 152

Tissues of embryo under microscope 152

Coffee-leaf disease under microscope 353

Green and roasted coffee under microscope. . 153
Green and roasted Bogota under microscope 154

Cross-section of endosperm 156

I'ortiou of the investing membrane , . 157

Structure of the green bean 157

Ground coffee under microscope 167

Coffee tree in bearing, Lamoa, P. 1 196

Early coffee implements 198

Ci-oss-section of mountain slope, Yemen 198

First steps in coffee-growing 199

Coffee nursery, Guatemala 200

Coffee under shade, Porto Rico 201

Boekit Gompong estate, Sumatm 202

Estate in Antioquia, Colombia 203

Weeding and harrowing, Sao Paulo 204

Fazenda Dumout, Sao Paulo 205

Fazenda Guatapara, Sao Paulo 206

Picking coffee, Sao Paulo 207

Intensive cultivation, Sao Paulo 207

Private railroad, Sao Paulo 208

Coffee culture in Sao Paulo 209

Heavily laden coffee tree, Bogota 210

Picking coffee, Bogota 211

Altamira Hacienda, Venezuela 212

Carmen Hacienda, Venezuela 213

Heavy fruiting, Coffea rohusta. Java 214

Road through coffee estate, Java 215

Native picking coffee, Sumatra 216

Administrator's bungalow, Java 216

Administrator's bungalow, Sumatra 217

Coffee culture in Guatemala 218

Indians picking coffee, Guatemala 219

Bungalow, coffee estate, Guatemala 220

Thirty-year-old coffee trees, Mexico 221

Mexican coffee picker. .' 222

Receiving coffee, Mexico 223

Heavily laden coffee tree, Porto Rico 224

Coffee cultivation, Costa Rloa 225

Picking Costa Rica coffee 226

Mountain coffee estate, Costa Rica 226

Mysore coffee estate 227

Coffee growing under shade, India 228

Coffee estate at Harar 229

Wild coffee near Adis Abeba 231

Mocjia coffee growing on terraces 232

Picking Blue Mountain Ijerries, Jamaica... 233

XXI

ILLUSTRATIONS

Page

Coffee pickers, Guadeloupe 234

Coffee in blossom, Panama 235

Robusta coffee, Cochin-Ghina 237

Bourbon trees, French Indo-Ohina 238

Picking coffee in Queensland 239

Coffee in bloom, Kona, Hawaii 240

Coffee at Hamakua, Hawaii 241

Coffee trees, South Kona, Hawaii 242

Plantation near Sagada, P. 1 243

Coffee preparation, Sao Paulo 244

Walker's original disk pulper 246

Early English coffee peeler 246

Group of English cylinder pulpers 247

Copper covers for pulper cylinders 248

Granada unpulped coffee separator 249

Hand-power double-disk pulper 249

Tandem coffee pulper 250

Horizontal coffee washer 251

Vertical coffee washer 251

Coban pulper, Venezuela 252

Niagara power coffee huller 252

British and American coffee driers 253

American Guardiola drier 254

Smout i>eeler and polisher 254

Smout peeler and polisher, exposed 255

O'Krassa's coffee drier 255

Six well-known huUers and separators 256

El Monarca coffee classifier 257

Hydro-electric installation, Guatemala 258

Preparing Brazil coffee for market 259

Working coffee on the drying flats 260

Fermenting and washing tanks, Sao Paulo. 260

Drying grounds, Fazenda Schmidt 261

Prei)aring Colombian coffee for market 262

Old-fashioned ox-power huller 263

Street-car coffee transport, Orizaba 264

Coffee on drying floors, Porto Rico 264

Sun-drying coffee 265

Drying patio, Costa Rica 266

Early Guardiola steam drier 266

Indian women cleaning Mocha coffee 267

Cleaning-and-grading machinery, Aden 268

Drying coffee at Harar 269

Preparing Java coffee for market 270

Coffee transport in Java 271

Meeting of Amsterdam coffee brokers, 1820. 291

Bill of public sale of coffee, 1790 292

Last sample before export, Santos 304

Stamping bags for export 304

Preparing Brazil coffee for export 305

Grading coffee at Santos 306

The test by the cups, Santos 306

New York importers' warehouse, Santos 307

Pack-mule transport in Venezuela 308

Coffee-carrying cart, Guatemala 308

Pack-oxen fording stream, Colombia 308

Coffee transport, Mexico and South America 309

Page

Donkey coffee-transport at Harar 310

Coffee camels at Harar 310

Selling coffee by tapping hands, Aden 310

Packing and transporting coffee, Aden 311

Coffee camel train at Hodeida 312

Methods of loading coffee, Santos 313

Coffee freighter, Cauca River, Colombia 314.

Coffee steamers on the Magdalena 314

Loading heavy cargo on Santa Cecilia 315

Unloading Java coffee from sailing vessel . . 317

Receiving piers for coffee. New York 318

Unloading coffee, covered pier. New York . . 319

Receiving and storing coffee, New York 320

Tester at work. Bush Terminal, New York. 321
Loading lighters, Bush Docks, Brooklyn... 321

New Terminal system on Staten Island 322

Motor tractor. Bush piers 322

Unloading with modern conveyor 323

Coffee handling. New Orleans piers 324

Coffee in steel -covered sheds, New Orleans. 325
Unloading and storing coffee, San Francisco 326
Modern device for handling green coffee .... 327
Handling green coffee at European ports. . . 328

New York Coffee and Sugar Exchange 329

Coffee section, Coffee and Sugar Exchange. . 330

Blackboards, Coffee Exchange 331

"Coffee afloat" blackboard 332

Well known green-coffee marks 339

Bourbon-Santos beans, roasted 343

Flat and Bourbon-Santos beans, roasted... 343

Rio beans, roasted 343

Mexican beans, roasted 347

Guatemala beans, roasted 347

Bogota (Colombia) beans, roasted 348

Maracaibo beans, roasted 349

Mocha benas, roasted 351

Washed Java beans, roasted. 353

Sample- roasting and cup- testing outfit 357

Modern gas coffee-roasting plant 380

Sixteen-cylinder coal roasting plant 382

Green-coffee separating and milling machines 384

English gas coffee-roasting plant 386

German gas coffee- roasting plant 386

French gas coffeenroasting plant 387

Jumbo coffee roaster, Arbuckle plant 388

Roasting plant of Reid, Murdoch & Co 389

Complete gas coffee-plant installation 390

Burns Jubilee gas roaster 391

Burns coal roaster 392

Open perforated cylinder with flexible back

head 392

Trying the roast 394

Monitor gas roaster 394

A group of roasting-room accessories 394

Dumping the roast 395

A four-bag coffee flnisher 396

Burns sample-coffee roaster 396

xxn

ILLUSTRATIONS

Page

Lambert coal coffee-roasting outfit 397

Coles No. 22 grinding mill 398

Monitor coffee-granulating machine 398

C'lallenge pulverizer 398

Burns No. 12 grinding mill 399

Monitor steel-cut grinder, separator, etc 399

Johnson carton-filling, weighing, and sealing

machine 400

Ideal steel -cut mill 400

Smyser package-making and filling machine 401

Automatic coffee-packing machine 402

Complete coffee-cartoning outfit 403

Automatic coffee-weighing machines 404

Units in manufacture of soluWe coffee 405

Tyi^s of coffee containers 411

Fresh-roasted-coffee idea in retailing 414

Premium tea and coffee dealer's display. . . . 416

Chain-store interior 417

Familiar A & P store front 418

Specialist idea in coffee merchandising 419

Monitor gas roaster, cooler, and stoner 420

Royal gas coffee roaster for retailers 420

Burns half-bag roaster, cooler, and stoner. 421

Lambert Jr. roasting outfit for retailers 421

Faulder and Simplex gas roasters 422

Coffee roasters used in Paris shops 423

Small German roasters 424

Popular French retail roaster 424

Uno cabinet gas roaster and cooler 424

Educational window exhibit 425

Better-class American grocery, interior 426

Prize-winning window display 427

Americanized English grocer's shop 429

Famous package coffees 430

First coffee advertisement in U. S 433

Coffee advertisement of 1790 434

First colored handbill for package coffee. . . 435

Reverse side of colored handbill 435

St. Louis handbill of 1854 436

Advertising-card copy, 1873 437

Handbill copy of the seventies 437

Box-end sticker, 1833 438

Chase & Sanborn advertisement, 1888 438

A Goldberg cartoon, 1910 439

Copy used by Chase & Sanborn, 1900 439

An effective cut-out 442

How coffee is advertised to the trade 443

Joint Coffee Trade Publicity Committee... 447

Magazine and newspaper copy, 1919 449

Copy that stressed helpfulness of coffee,

1919-20 450

Joint Committee's house organ 451

Introductory medical-journal copy 451

Telling the doctors the truth, 1920 452

Joint Committee's attractive booklets 453

More medical journal copy, 1920 454

Magazine and newspaper copy, 1921 455

Page

Educating the doctor, 1922 456

Magazine and newspaper copy, 1922 457

Specimen of early Yuban copy 459

Historical association in advertising 459

Package coffee advertising in 1922 460

The social distinction argument 461

Drawing upon history for atmosphere 461

An impressive electric sign, Chicago 462

How coffee is advertised outdoors 463

Attractive car cards, spring of 1922 464

Effective iced-coff ee copy 465

European advertising novelty, New York . . 465

Coenties Slip, in days of sailing vessels 466

First U. S. coffee-grinder patent 469

Carter's Pull-out roaster patent 469

First registered trade mark for coffee 470

Original Arbuckle coffee packages 471

Merchants coffee house tablet 473

Departed dominant figures in New York

green coffee trade 476

"Their association with New York green

coffee trade dates back nearly fifty years" 477
Green coffee trade-builders who have passed

on 478

"Their race is run, their course is done"'.. 479

112 Front Street, New York, 1879 480

At 87 Wall Street, New York, years ago 480

Wall and Front Streets, New York, 1922. . . 481

Front Street, New York, 1922 483

In the New Orleans coffee district 486

Green coffee district. New Orleans 487

California Street, San Francisco 488

San Francisco's coffee district 489

Pioneer coffee roasters. New York City 493

Oldtime New York coffee roasters 495

Pioneer coffee roasters of the North and

East, U. S 500

Pioneer coffee roasters of the South and

West, U. S 504

Ground coffee price list of 1862 507

Organization convention, N. C. R. A., 1911.. 510

Former presidents, N. C. R. A 512

Earliest coffee manuscript 540

Song from "The Coffee House" 555

Dr. Johnson's seat, the Cheshire Cheese 567

Original coffee room, old Cock Tavern 568

Morning gossip in the coffee room 569

"His Warmest Welcome at an Inn" 571

Alexander Pope at Button's, 1730 577

Dutch coffee house, 1650 (by Van Ostade) . . 586
White's coffee house, 1733 (by Hogarth).,. 588

Tom King's, 1738 (by Hogarth) 589

Petit Dejeuner (by Boucher) 590

Coffee service in the home of Madame de

Pompadour (by Van Loo) 590

Madame Du Barry (by Decreuse) 591

Coffee house at Cairo (by G6r6me) 592

XXIII

ILLUSTRATIONS

Page

Kaffeebesuch ( by Philippi) 593

Coffee comes to the aid of the Muse (by

Ruffio) 593

M«(l dog in a c-offee house (by Rowlaiidson ) 594

Napoleon and the cure (by Charlet) 595

Coffee, a chanson (music by Colet) 596

Statue of Kolschitzlvy 597

Betty's Aria, Bach's coffee cantata 598

Caf6 Pedrocdii, Padua 599

Coffee grinder set with jewels. 600

Italian wrought-iron coffee roaster 6(X)

Seventeenth-century tea and coffee pots... 601

Lantern coffee pot, 1692 602

Follvingham pot, 1715-16. 602

AVastell ]K>t. 1720-21 603

Dish of coffee-boy design, 1692 603

Cliinese porcelain coffee pot 604

Silver coffee pots, early 18th century 604

Silver coffee pots, 18th century 605

Pottery and porcelain pots 606

Silver coffee pots, late 18th century 607

Porcelain pots, Metropolitan Museum 608

Vienna coffee pot, 1830 609

Spanish coffee pot, 18th century 609

Silver coffee pots in American collections. . 610
Coffee pot by Wm. Shaw and Win. Priest. . 611

Pot of Sheffield plate, 18th century 611

Pot by Ephraim Brasher 611

French silver coffee i)ot 612

Green Dragon tavern coffee urn <j12

Coffee pots by American silversmiths ()13

Twentieth-century American coffee service. 613

Turkish coffee set, Peter collection 614

Oldest coffee grinder •. 616

Grain mill used by Greeks and Romans 616

First coffee roaster 616

First cylinder roaster, 1650 616

Historical relics, U. S. National Museum.. 617

Turkish coffee mill 618

Early French wall and table grinders 618

Bronze and brass mortars, 17th century. . . . 619

Early American coffee roasters 619

Roaster with three-sided hood 620

Roasitdng, making, and serving devices. 17th

century • 620

Englisli and French coffee grinders 621

Eighteenth-century roaster 621

Original French drip pot 621

Belgian. Russian, and French pewter pots. . 622

17th and 18th century pewter pots 623

Count Rumford's percolator 623

Drawings of early French coffee makers... 624

Early Fi'ench filtration devices 624

Early American coffee-maker patents...... 625

French coffee makers. 19th century 625

First ISnglish commercial roaster patent... 626
Early French coffee- roasting machines 627

Page

Battery of Carter pull-out machines 628

Early Englisli and American roasters 630

Early Englisli and American coffee-making

devices 632

Dakin roasting machine of 1848 633

Globe stove roaster of 1860 634

Hyde's combined roa.ster and stove 634

Original Burns roaster, 1864 635

Burns granulating mill, 1872-74 636

Napier's vacuum machine 637

German gas and coal roasting machines... 638

Other German coffee roasters 639

Original Enterprise mill 640

Max Thiirmer's quick gas roaster 640

An English gas coffee-roasting plant 641

Frencli globular roaster 642

Sirocco machine (French) 642

English roasting and grinding equipment.. 643

Magic gas machine (French) 644

Burns Jubilee gas machine 644

Double gas roasting outfit (French) 645

Lambert's Victory gas machine 646

One of the first electric mills 647

English electric-fuel roaster 648

Ben Franklin electric coffee roaster 648

Enterprise hand store mill 649

Latest types electric store mills 650

Italian rapid coffee-making machines 651

Working of Italian rapid machines 652

La Victoria Arduino Mignonne 652

N. C. R. A. Home coffee mill 653

Manthey-Zorn rapid infuser and dispenser. . 653

Tricolette, single-cup filter device 654

Moorish coffee house in Algiers 656

Coffee house in Cairo 656

Coffee service in Cairo barber shop 657

Coffee-laden camels, Arabia 658

Arabian coffee liouse 658

Mahommedan brewing coffee for guest 659

Native cafe, Harar 661

Early coffee, tea, and chocolate service 661

Nubian slave girl with coffee service 662

Persian coffee service, 1737 663

In a Turkish coffee house 664

Roasting coffee outside a Turkisli caf6 (>64

Turkish caffinet, early 19th century 665

Coffee-making in Turke.v 666

Street coffee vender in the Levant 666

A coffee house in Syria 667

Cafetan — garb of oriental caf6-keeper 668

Street coffee service in Constantinople 668

Riverside caf6 in Damascus 669

Coffee al fresco in Jerusalem 671

Caf§ Schrangl, Vienna 672

Favorite English way of making coffee 673

A caf§ of Ye Mecca Company, Loudon 673

Groom's coffee liouse, London 674

XXIV

ILLUSTRATIONS

Page

Caf6 Monico, Picadilly Circus, London 674

Gatti's, The Strand. London 675

Tea lounge, Hotel Savoy, London 675

Two popular places for coffee in London 676

Temple Bar restaurant, London 677

Tea balcony, Hotel Cecil, London 677

One of Slater's chain-shops, London 677

St. James's restaurant, Picadilly, London... 678

An A. B. C. shop. London 678

Halt of caravaners at a serai, Bulgaria. . . . 678

Cafe de la Paix, Paris 679

Sidewalk annex, Caf6 de la Paix 680

Caf^ de la R4gence, Paris 681

Cafe de hi Regence in 1922 682

One of the Biard cafgs, Paris 683

Restaurant Proeope, 1922 683

Morning coffee at a Boulevard caf6 684

Caf§ Bauer, Unter den Linden, Berlin 684

Cafe Bauer, exterior 685

Kranzler's Unter den Linden, Berlin 685

Swedish coffee boilers ; 687

Sidewalk caf6, Lisbon 687

Page

Coffee rooms replacing hotel bars, U. S 688

Britannia coffee pot — a Lincoln relic 690

Coffee service. Hotel Astor, New York 691

Early coffee making in Persia 694

Napier vacuum coffee maker 700

Xapier-List steam coffee machine 700

Finley Acker's filter-paper coffee pot 700

Kin-Hee pot in operation 701

Tricolator in operation 701

King percolator 701

Three American coffee-making machines in

operation 7(^

How the Tru-Bru pot operates 702

Coffee-making devices used in U. S 703

English hotel coffee-making machines 706

Well-known makes of large coffee urns 707

Popular German drip jtot 708

Section of roasted bean, magnified 719

Cross-section of roasted bean, magnified... 720

Coarse grind under the microscope 720

Medium grind under the microscope 721

Fine-meal grind under the mici-oscope 721

Portraits

Page

Ach, F. J 447, 512

Akers, Fred 495

Ames, Allan P 447

Arbuckle, John 523

Arnold, Benjamin Greene 476, 517

Arnold, F. B 476

Bayne, William 479

Bayne, William, Jr 447

Beard, Eli 493

Beard, Samuel 493

Bennett, William H 479

Bickford, C. E 478

Boardman, Thomas J 500

Board'man, William 500

Brand, Carl W 512

Brandenstein, M. J 504

Burns, Jabez 527

Cauby, Edward 500

Casanas, Ben C 512

CaucOiois. F. A 493

Chase, Caleb 500

Cheek, J. 504. 515

Clos-set, Joseph 504

Coste, Felix 447

Crossman, Geo. W 479

Devers, A. H 504

Dwinell, James F 500

Eppens, Fred. 495

Eppens, Julius A 495, 497

Eppens. W. H 493, 495

Page

Evans, David G. 504

Fischer, Benedickt 493

Flint, J. G 500

Folger, J. A., Jr 504

Folger, J. A., Sr 504

Forbes, A. E 504

Forbes, Jas. H 504

Geiger, Frank J 500

Gillies, Jas. W 493

Gillies, Wright 493

Grossman, William 500

Harrison, D. Y 500

Harrison, W. H 500

Haulenbeek, Peter 493

Hayward, Martin 500

Heekin, James 500

Jones, W. T 504

Kimball. O. G 478

Kinsella, W. J 504

Kirkland, Alexander 495

Kolschitzky, Franz George 50

McLaughlin, W. F 500

Mahood, Samuel 500

Mayo, Henry 495

Meehan, P. C 477

Menezes, Th. Langgaard de 446

Meyer, Robert 511

Peck, Edwin H 477

Phyfe, Jas. W 478

Pierce, O. W., Sr 500

XXV

ILLUSTRATIONS

Page

Pupke, John F 495

Purcell, Joseph 476

Reid, Fred 495

Reid, Thomas 493, 495

Roome, Ck)l. William P 499

Russell, James C 478

Sanborn, James S 500

Schilling, A 504

Schotten, Julius J 504, 512

Schotten, William 504

Seelye, Frank R 512

Sielcken, Hermann 476, 519

Simmonds, H 477

^innott, J. B 504

SiiBith, L. B 493

Smith, M. E 504

S'prague, Albert A 500

Page

Stephens, Henry A 500

Stoffregen, Charles 504

Stoflfregen, C. H 447

Taylor, James H 477

Thomson, A, M 500

Van Loan, Thomas 498

Weir, Ross W 447, 512

Westf eldt, George .' 479

Widlar, Francis 500

Wilde, Samuel 493

Withington, Elijah 493

Woolson, Alvin M 500

Wright, George C 500

Wright, George S 447

Young, Samuel 500

Zinsmeister, J 504

Maps, Charts, and Diagrams

Page
Map of London coffee-house district, 1748 ... 76

Formula for Caffein 160

Commercial coffee chart 191

Eiffel and Woolwortih towers in coffee 272

World's coffee cup and largest ship 275

Coffee exi>orts, 1850-1920 277

Coffee exports, 1916-1920 277

Brazil coffee exports, 1850-1920 278

World's coffee consumption, 1850 - 1920 286

Coffee imports, 1916-1920 286

World trend of consumption of tea and

coffee, 1860-1920 288

Coffee map of World (folded insert) facing 288
Pre-war annual average production of coffee

by continents 294

Pre-war annual average production of coffee

by countries 294

Pre-war average annual imports of coffee

into U. S. by continents 295

Page
Pre-war average annual imports of coffee

into U. S. by countries 295

Pre-war coffee-imports chart , 297

Pre-war consumption and price chart 297

Coffee map, Brazil 342

Coffee map, Sao Paulo, Minas, and Rio 344

Mild-coffee map, 1 346

Coffee map, Africa and Arabia 352

Mild-coffee map, 2 354

Complete reference table (21 pp.) 358

Plan of milling-machine connections 381

Plan of green-coffee-mixer connections 383

Layout for coffee and tea department 418

Chart, advertising of coffee and coffee sub-
stitutes, 1911-20 440

Charts, per capita consumption of coffee,

and coffee and substitute advertising 441

Chart, plan of advertising campaign 448

Chart, private-brand advertising, 1921 458

XXVI

A COFFEE THESAURUS

Encomiums and descriptive phrases applied to the plant, the berry,
and the beverage

The Plant
The precious plant
This friendly plant
Mocha's happy tree
The gift of Heaven

The plant with the jessamine - like flowers
The most exquisite perfume of Araby the blest
Given to the human race by the gift of the Gods

The Berry
The magic bean
The divine fruit
Fragrant berries
Rich, royal berry
Voluptuous berry
The precious berry
The healthful bean
The Heavenly berry
The marvelous berry
This all-healing berry
Yemen's fragrant berry
The little aromatic berry
Little brown Arabian berry
Thought-inspiring bean of Arabia
The smoking, ardent beans Aleppo sends
That wild fruit which gives so beloved a drink

The Beverage
Nepenthe
Festive cup
Juice divine
Nectar divine
Ruddy mocha
A man's drink
Lovable liquor
Delicious mocha
The magic drink
This rich cordial
Its stream divine
The family drink
The festive drink
Coffee is our gold
Nectar of all men
The golden mocha
This sweet nectar
Celestial ambrosia
The friendly drink
The cheerful drink
The essential drink
The sweet draught
The divine draught —
The grateful liquor
The universal drink
The American drink
The amber beverage

The convivial drink
The universal thrill
King of all perfumes
The cup of happiness
The soothing draught
Ambrosia of the Gods —
The intellectual drink
The aromatic draught
The salutary beverage
The good - fellow drink
The drink of democracy —
The drink ever glorious
Wakeful and civil drink
The beverage of sobriety — -
A psychological necessity^
The fighting man's drink -^'
Loved and favored drink
The symbol of hospitality —
This rare Arabian cordial
Inspirer of men of letters
The revolutionary beverage
Triumphant stream of sable
Grave and wholesome liquor"'^
The drink of the intellectuals—
A restorative of sparkling wit
Its color is the seal of its purity
The sober and wholesome drink
Lovelier than a thousand kisses — ,
This honest and cheering beverage
A wine which no sorrow can resist
The symbol of human brotherhood
At once a pleasure and a medicine
The beverage of the friends of God
The fire which consumes our griefs
Gentle panacea of domestic troubles
The autocrat of the breakfast table- —
The beverage of the children of God-
King of the American breakfast table
Soothes you softly out of dull sobriety
The cup that cheers but not inebriates*
Coffee, which makes the politician wise
Its aroma is the pleasantest in all nature
The sovereign drink of pleasure and health*
The indispensable beverage of strong nations
The stream in which we wash away our sorrows
The enchanting perfume that a zephyr has

brought
Favored liquid which fills all my soul with

delight
The delicious libation we pour on the altar of

friendship
This invigorating drink which drives sad care

from the heart

• First written about tea ; Improperly claimed to
have been written of coffee.

XXVII

EVOLUTION OF A CUP OF COFFEE

Showing the various steps through which
the hean passes from plantation to cup

1 Planting the seed in nursery

2 Transplanting into roAvs

3 Cultivating and pruning

4 Picking the cherries

5 Pulping

6 Fermenting

7 Washing

8 Drying in the parchment

9 Hulling

10 Polishing

11 Grading

12 Transporting to the seaport

13 Buying and selling for export

14 Transhipment overseas

15 Buying and selling at wholesale

16 Shipment to the point of manufacture

17 Separating

18 Milling

19 Mixing or blending

20 Roasting

21 Cooling and stoning

22 Buying and selling at retail

23 Grinding

24 ^Making the beverage

>r^

*^.^

■%; ^^-^K^X

-W '^#

Chapter I
DEALING WITH THE ETYMOLOGY OF COFFEE

Origin and translation of the word from the Arabian into various
languages — Views of many writers

THE history of the word coffee involves
several phonetic difficulties. The
11^. European languages got the name of
^■e beverage about 1600 from the original

Ai-abic \^4^ qahwah, not directly, but

ihrough its Turkish form, kahveh. This was
the name, not of the plant, but the beverage
made from its infusion, being originally one
of the names employed for wine in Arabic.
Sir James Murray, in the New English
Dictionary, says that some have conjectured
that the wordjsA Xoreign, pe rhaps, A frica.n,
word disguised, and have thought it con-
nected with the name Kaffa^ a^ tqwn^in^|hoaj
southwest Abyssinia, reputed native place
of the coffee plant, but that of this there is
no evidence, and the name qahwah is not
given to the berry or plant, which is called

* » hunn, the native name in Shoa be-

^* ing bun.

Contributing to a symposium on the
etymology of the word coffee in Notes and
Queries, 1909, James Piatt, Jr., said:

The Turkish form might have been written
kahv6, as its final h was never sounded at any
time. Sir James Murray draws attention to the
existence of two European types, one like the
French caU, Italian caffd, the other like the
English coffee, Dutch Icoffie. He explains the
vowel in the second series as apparently rep-
resenting au, from Turkish ahv. This seems
unsupi>orted by evidence, and the v is already
represented by the ff, so on Sir James's assump-
tion coffee must stand for kahv-ve, which is
unlikely. The change from a to o, in my opin-
ion, is better accounted for as an imperfect
appreciation. The exact sound of a in Arabic
and other Oriental languages is that of the Eng-
lish short u, as in "cuff." This sound, so easy
to us, is a great stumbling-block to other nations.
I judge that Dutch koffie and kindred forms are
iniperfect attempts at the notation of a vowel

which the writers could not grasp. It is clear
that the French type is more correct. The Ger-
mans have corrected their koffee, which they
may have got from the Dutch, into kaffee. The
Scandinavian languages have adopted the
French form. Many must wonder how the hv
of the original so persistently becomes ff in the
European equivalents. Sir James Murray
makes no attempt to solve this problem.

Virendranath Chattopadhyaya, who also
contributed to the Notes and Queries sym-
posium, argued that the hw of the Arabic
qahwah becomes sometimes ff and some-
times only / or I) in European translations
because some languages, such as English,
have strong syllabic accents (stresses),
while others, as French, have none. Again,
he points out that the surd aspirate h is
heard in some languages, but is hardly au-
dible in others. Most Europeans tend to
leave it out altogether.

Col. W. F. Prideaux, another contribu-
tor, argued that the European languages
got one form of the w^ord coffee directly
from the Arabic qahwah, and quoted from
Hobson- Jobson in support of this :

Chaoua in 1598, Cahoa in IGIO, Cahue in 1G15 ;
while Sir Thomas Herbert (1638) expressly
states that "they drink (in Persia) ♦ * * above
all the rest, Coho or Gopha: by Turk and Arab
called Caphe and Cahua." Here the Persian,
Turkish, and Arabic pronunciations are clearly
differentiated.

Col. Prideaux then calls, as a witness to
the Anglo-Arabic pronunciation, one whose
evidence was not available when the Neiv
English Dictionary and Hobson- Jobson
articles were written. This is John Jour-
dain, a Dorsetshire seaman, whose Diary
was printed by the Hakluyt Society in 1905.
On May 28, 1609, he records that "in the

ALL ABOUT COFFEE

afternoone wee departed out of Hatch (Al-
Hauta, the capital of the Lahej district
near Aden), and travelled untill three in
the morninge, and then wee rested in the
plaine fields untill three the next dale,
neere unto a cohoo howse in the desert."
On June 5 the party, traveling from Hippa
(Ibb), "laye in the mountaynes, our
camells being wearie, and our selves little
better. This mountain is called Nasmarde
(Nakil Sumara), where all the cohoo
grows." Farther on was "a little village,
where there is sold cohoo and fruite. The
seeds of this cohoo is a greate marchandize,
for it is carried to grand Cairo and all
other places of Turkey, and to the Indias."
Prideaux, however, mentions that another
sailor, William Revett, in his journal
(1609) says, referring to Mocha, that "Sha-
omer Shadli (Shaikh 'Ali bin 'Omar esh-
Shadil) was the fyrst inventour for
drynking of eoffe, and therefor had in es-
teemation." This rather looks to Prideaux
as if on the coast of Arabia, and in the mer-
cantile towns, the Persian pronunciation
was in vogue ; whilst in the interior, where
Jourdain traveled, the Englishman repro-
duced the Arabic.
\ Mr. Chattopadhyaya, discussing Col. Pri-
^' deaux's views as expressed above, said:

Col. Prideaux may doubt "if the worthy mar-
iner, in entering the word in his log, was influ-
enced by the abstruse principles of phonetics
enunciated" by me, but he will admit that the
change from kahvah to coifee is a phonetic
change, and must be due to the operation of some
phonetic principle. The average man, when he
endeavours to write a foreign word in his own
tongue, is handicapped considerably by his in-
herited and acquired phonetic capacity. And,
in fact, if we take the quotations made in
"Hobson-Jobson," and classify the various forms
of the word coffee according tc the nationality
of the writer, we obtain very interesting results.

Let us take Englishmen and Dutchmen first.
In Danvers's Letters (IGll) we have both "colio
pots" and "coffao pots"; Sir T. Roe (1615) and
Terry (161G) have cohu; Sir T. Herbert (1638)
has coho and copha; Evelyn (1637), coffee;
Fryer (1673) coUo; Ovington (1690), coffee; and
Valentijn (1726), coffi. And from the two ex-
amples given by Col. Prideaux, we see that
Jourdain (1609) has cohoo, and Revett (1609)
has coffe.

To the above should be added the follow-
ing by English writers, given in Foster's
English Factories in India (1618-21,
1622 - 23, 1624 - 29) : eowha (1619), cowhe,
couha (1621),coffa (1628).

Let us now see what foreigners (chiefly
French and Italian) write. The earliest
European mention is by Rauwolf, who

knew it in Aleppo in 1573. He has the
form clmube. Prospero Alpini (1580) has
caova; Paludanus (1598) chaoua; Pyrard
de Laval (1610) cahoa; P. Delia Valle
(1615) cahue; Jac. Bontius (1631) caveah;
and the Journal d'Antoine Galland (1673)
cave. That is. Englishmen use forms of a
certain distinct type, viz., cohu, coho, coffao,
coffe, copha, coffee, which differ from the
more correct transliteration of foreigners.

In 1610 the Portuguese Jew, Pedro
Teixeira (in the Hakluyt Society's edition
of his Travels) used the word kavdh.

The inferences from these transitional
forms seem to be: 1. The word found its
way into the languages of Europe both
from the Turkish and from the Arabic. 2.
The English forms (which have strong
stress on the first syllable) have 6 instead
of a, and / instead of h. 3. The foreign
forms are unstressed and have no h. The
original v or w (or labialized u) is re-
tained or changed into /.

It may be stated, accordingly, that the
chief reason for the existence of two dis-
tinct types of spelling is the omission of
h in unstressed languages, and the conver-
sion of h into / under strong stress in
stressed languages. Such conversion often
takes place in Turkish ; for example, silah
dar in Persian (which is a highly stressed
language) becomes zilif dar in Turkish. In
the languages of India, on the other hand,
in spite of the fact that the aspirate is
usually very clearly sounded, the word
qafivah is pronounced kaiva by the less
educated elasses, owing to the syllables be-
ing equally stressed.

Now for the French viewpoint. Jardin '
opines that, as regards the etymology of the
word coffee, scholars are not agreed and
perhaps never will be. Dufour ' says the
word is derived from caouhe, a name given
by the Turks to the beverage prepared from
the seed. Chevalier d'Arvieux, French
consul at Alet, Savary, and Trevoux, in his '
dictionary, think that coffee comes from the
Arabic, but from the word cahoueh or qua-
weh, meaning to give vigor or strength, be-
cause, says d'Arvieux, its most general ef-
fect is to fortify and strengthen. Ta ver-
nier combats this opinion. Moseley attrib-
utes the origin of the word coffee to Kaffa.
Sylvestre de Sacy, in his Chrestomathie

'.Tardin. fidelestan. Le CafHer et le Caf4. Paris,
1895 (p. 55).

'Dufour, Philippe Sylvestre. TraiUs Nouveaux et
Gurieux du Cafi, du Th6, et du Ohocolat. Lyons^

ETYMOLOGY OP COFFEE

Arabe, published in 1806, thinks that the
word kahwa, synonymous with makli,
roasted in a stove, might very well be the
etymology of the word coffee. D'Alembert
in his encyclopedic dictionary, writes the
word caffe. Jardin concludes that what-
ever there may be in these various etymolo-
gies, it remains a fact that the word coffee
comes from an Arabian word, whether it be
kahua, kahoueh, kaffa or kahwa, and that
the peoples who have adopted the drink
have all modified the Arabian word to suit
their pronunciation. This is shown by
giving the word as written in various mod-
ern languages:

French, cafe; Breton, kafe; German,
kaffee (coffee tree, kaffeehaum) ; Dutch,
koffie (coffee tree, koffiehoonen) ; Danish,
kaffe; Finnish, kahvi; Hungarian, kave;
Bohemian, kava; Polish, kawa; Roumanian,
cafea; Croatian, kafa; Servian, kava; Rus-

sian, kophe; Swedish, kaffe; Spanish, cafe;
Basque, kaffia; Italian, caffe; Portuguese,
cafe; Latin (scientific), coffea; Turkisii,
kahue; Greek, kafeo; Arabic, qahwah (cof-
fee berry, hun) ; Persian, qehve (coffee ber-
ry, bun") ; Annamite, ca-phe; Cambodian,
kafe; Dukni*, bunbund^ ; Teluyan', kapri-
vittidu; Tamil*, kapi-kottai or kopi; Can-
areze\ kapi-bija; Chinese, kia-fey, teoutse;
Japanese, kelii; Malayan, kawa, koppi;
Abyssinian, bonn'; Foulak, legal cafe';
Sousou, houri caff'; Marquesan, kapi;
Chinook", kaufee; Volapuk, kaf; Esperanto,
kafva.

'Coffee covered with the skin is called boun, and
the eoftee-tree, boun-tree (aejar et boun).

*These four dialects are spoken in Hindustan.

''Notice must be taken of the similarity in the names
of coffee in Hindustan and Abyssinia, and of the name
of the coffee-tree as given by ancient authors.

"See note 3 above.

''Legal and Houri mean tree.

"North-.^merican Indian.

ALL ABOUT COFFEE

THE FAIRY BEAUTY OP' A COFFEE TREE IN FLOWER

Chapter II

HISTORY OF COFFEE PROPAGATION

A brief account of the cultivation of the coffee plant in the Old World
and its introduction into the Neiv — A romantic coffee adventure

THE history of the propagation of the
coffee plant is closely interwoven
with that of the early history of
coffee drinking, but for the purposes of this
chapter we shall consider only the story of
the inception and growth of the cultivation
of the coffee tree, or shrub, bearing the
seeds, or berries, from which the drink, cof-
fee, is made.

Careful research discloses that most au-
thorities agree that the coffee plant is indig-
enous to Abyssinia, and probably Arabia,
whence its cultivation spread throughout
the tropics. The first reliable mention of
the properties and uses of the plant is by
an Arabian physician toward the close of
the ninth century A. I)., and it is reason-
able to suppose that before that time the
plant was found growing wild in Abyssinia
and perhaps in Arabia. If it be true, as
Ludolphus writes,' that the Abyssinians
came out of Arabia into Ethiopia in the
early ages, it is possible that they may have
brought the coffee tree with them; but the
Arabians must still be given the credit for
discovering and promoting the use of the
beverage, and also for promoting the propa-
gation of the plant, even if they found it in
Abyssinia and brought it to Yemen.

Some authorities believe that the first cul-
tivation of coffee in Yemen dates back to
575 A. D., M'hen the Persian invasion put
an end to the P]thiopian rule of the negus
Caleb, who conquered the country in 525.

Certainly the discovery of the beverage
resulted in the cultivation of the plant in
Abyssinia and in Arabia; but its progress
Avas slow until the 15th and 16th centuries,
when it appears as intensively carried on

'r<a Uoquo, Jean.
I'arls, 17J(J.

Voyage de I' Arabic Heureuae.

in the Yemen district of Arabia. The
Arabians were jealous of their new found
and lucrative industry, and for a time suc-
cessfully prevented its spread to other
countries by not permitting any of the pre-
cious berries to leave the country unless
they had first been steeped in boiling water
or parched, so as to destroy their powers of
germination. It may be that many of the
early failures successfully to introduce the
cultivation of the coffee plant into other
lands was also due to the fact, discovered
later, that the seeds soon lose their germi-
nating power.

However, it was not possible to watch
every avenue of transport, with thousand.^
of pilgrims journeying to and from Mecca
every year ; and so there would appear to be
some reason to credit the Indian tradition
concerning the introduction of coffee culti-
vation into southern India by Baba Budan,
a Moslem pilgrim, as early as 1600, although
a better authority gives the date as 1695.
Indian tradition relates that Baba Budan
planted his seeds near the hut he built for
himself at Chickmaglur in the mountains
of Mysore, where, only a few years since,
the writer found the descendants of these
first plants growing under the shade of the
centuries-old original jungle trees. The
greater part of the plants cultivated by the
natives of Kurg and Mysore appear to have
come from the Baba Budan importation.
It was not until 1840 that the English be-
gan the cultivation of coffee in India. The
plantations extend now from the extreme
north of Mysore to Tuticorin.

Early Cidtivation by the Dutch
In the latter part of the 16th century,
German, Italian, and Dutch botanists and

ALL ABOUT COFFEE

travelers brought back from the Levant
considerable information regarding the
new plant and the beverage. In 1614 en-
terprising Dutch traders began to examine
into the possibilities of coffee cultivation
and coffee trading. In 1616 a coffee plant
was successfully transported from Mocha
to Holland. In 1658 the Dutch started the
cultivation of coffee in Ceylon, although
the Arabs are said to have brought the
plant to the island prior to 1505. In 1670
an attempt was made to cultivate coffee on
European soil at Dijon, France, but the
result was a failure.

In 1696, at the instigation of Nicolaas
Witsen, then burgomaster of Amsterdam,
Adrian Van Ommen, commander at Mala-
bar, India, caused to be shipped from Kan-
anur, Malabar, to Java, the first coffee
plants introduced into that island. They
were grown from seed of the Goffea arabica
brought to Malabar from Arabia. They
were planted by Governor-General Willem
Van Outshoorn on the Kedawoeng estate
near Batavia, but were subsequently lost
by earthquake and flood. In 1699 Henricus
Zwaardecroon imported some slips, or cut-
tings, of coffee trees from Malabar into
Java. These were more successful, and be-
came the progenitors of all the coffees of
the Dutch East Indies. The Dutch were
then taking the lead in the propagation of
the coffee plant.

In 1706 the first samples of Java coffee,
and a coffee plant grown in Java, were re-
ceived at the Amsterdam botanical gardens.
Many plants were afterward propagated
from the seeds produced in the Amsterdam
gardens, and these were distributed to
some of the best known botanical gardens
and private conservatories in Europe.

While the Dutch were extending the cul-
tivation of the plant to Sumatra, the
Celebes, Timor, Bali, and other islands of
the Netherlands Indies, the French were
seeking to introduce coffee cultivation into
their colonies. Several attempts were made
to transfer young plants from the Amster-
dam botanical gardens to the botanical gar-
dens at Paris; but all were failures.

In 1714, however, as a result of negotia-
tions entered into between the French gov-
ernment and the municipality of Amster-
dam, a young and vigorous plant about five
feet tall was sent to Louis XIV at the*
chateau of Marly by the burgomaster of
Amsterdam. The day following, it was
transferred to the Jardin des Plantes at
Paris, where it was received with appro-

priate ceremonies by Antoine de Jussieu,
professor of botany in charge. This tree
was destined to be the progenitor of most
of the coffees of the French colonies, as well
as of those of South America, Central
America, and Mexico,

The Romance of Captain Gabriel de Clieu

Two unsuccessful attempts were made to
transport to the Antilles plants grown from
the seed of the tree presented to Louis XIV ;
but the honor of eventual success was won
by a young Norman gentleman, Gabriel
Mathieu de Clieu, a naval officer, serving at
the time as captain of infantry at Martin-
ique. The story of de Clieu 's achievement
is the most romantic chapter in the history
of the propagation of the coffee plant.

His personal affairs calling him to
France, de Clieu conceived the idea of util-
izing the return voyage to introduce coffee
cultivation into Martinique. His first diffi-
culty lay in obtaining several of the plants
then being cultivated in Paris, a difficulty
at last overcome through the instrumental-
ity of M. de Chirac, royal physician, or, ac-
cording to a letter written by de Clieu
himself, through the kindly offices of a lady
of quality to whom de Chirac could give no
refusal. The plants selected were kept at
Rochefort by M. Begon, commissary of the
department, until the departure of de Clieu
for Martinique. Concerning the exact date
of de Clieu 's arrival at Martinique with the
coffee plant, or plants, there is much con-
fiict of opinion. Some authorities give the
date as 1720, others 1723. Jardin " suggests
that the discrepancy in dates may arise
from de Clieu, with praiseworthy persever-
ance, having made the voyage twice. The
first time, according to Jardin, the plants
perished ; but the second time de Clieu had
planted the seeds when leaving France and
these survived, "due, they say, to his hav-
ing given of his scanty ration of water to
moisten them. ' ' No reference to a preced-
ing voyage, however, is made by de Clieu
in his own account, given in a letter written
to the Annee Litteraire ^ in 1774. There is
also a difference of opinion as to whether
de Clieu arrived with one or three plants.
He himself says "one" in the letter re-
ferred to.

According to the most trustworthy data,
de Clieu embarked at Nantes, 1723. * He

''.Tardiii. firlelestan.
1895 (p. 102).

■KAnni^e fjitt^raire.

*r''ranklin, Alfred.
Paris, 1833,

Le Caf^ier et le GafS. Paris,

Paris, 1774 (vol. vi : p. 217).
'Lia Vie Privic d'4-tttrefoit.

COFFEE PROPAGATION

had installed his precious plant in a box
covered with a glass frame in order to ab-
sorb the rays of the sun and thus better to
retain the stored-up heat for cloudy
days. Among the passengers one man, en-
vious of the young officer, did all in his
power to wrest from him the glory of suc-
cess. Fortunately his dastardly attempt
failed of its intended effect.

"It is useless," writes de Clieu in his
letter to the A?inee lAtteraire, "to recount

Captain de Clieu Shares His Drinking Water

With the Cofj-ee Plant He Is Carrying

TO Martinique

in detail the infinite care that I was obliged
to bestow upon this delicate plant during a
long voyage, and the difficulties I had in
saving it from the hands of a man who,
basely jealous of the joy I was about to
taste through being of service to my coun-
try, and being unable to get this coffee
plant 3,wq,y frpm me, tprp pff a brai^ch,"

The vessel carrying de Clieu was a mer-
chantman, and many were the trials that
beset passengers and crew. Narrowly
escaping capture by a corsair of Tunis,
menaced by a violent tempest that threat-
ened to annihilate them, they finally en-
countered a calm that proved more appall-
ing than either. The supply of drinking
water was well nigh exhausted, and what
was left was rationed for the remainder of
the voyage.

"Water was lacking to such an extent,"
•says de Clieu, "that for more than a month
I was obliged to share the scanty ration of
it assigned to me with this my coffee plant
upon which my happiest hopes were
founded and which was the source of my
delight. It needed such succor the more in
that it was extremely backward, being no
larger than the slip of a pink." Many
stories have been written and verses sung
recording and glorifying this generous sac-
rifice that has given luster to the name of
de Clieu.

Arrived in Martinique, de Clieu planted
his precious slip on his estate in Precheur,
one of the cantons of the island; where,
says Raynal, "it multiplied with extraordi-
nary rapidity and success." From the
seedlings of this plant came most of the
eoft'ee trees of the Antilles. The first har-
vest was gathered in 1726.

De Clieu himself describes his arrival as
follows :

Arriving at home, iny first cure was to set out
my plant with great attention in the part of my
garden most favorahle to its growth. Although
keeping it in view, I feared many times that it
would be taken from me ; and I was at last
obliged to surround it with thorn bushes and to
establish a guard .about it until it arrived at
maturity . . . this precious plant which had
become still more dear to nie for the dangers it
had run and the cares it had cost me.

Thus the little stranger thrived in a dis-
tant land, guarded day and night by faith-
ful slaves. So tiny a plant to produce in
the end all the rich estates of the West
India islands and the regions bordering on
the Gulf of Mexico ! What luxuries, what
future comforts and delights, resulted from
this one small talent confided to the care of
a man of rare vision and fine intellectual
sympathy, fired by the spirit of real love
for his fellows! There is no instance in
the history of the French people of a good
deed done by stealth being of greater serv-
ice to humanity.

De Clieu thus describes the events that
fpjlowed last upon the introduction of

ALL ABOU

coffee into Martinique, with particular ref-
erence to the earthquake of 1727 :

Success exceeded my hopes. I gathered alx>iit
two pounds of seed which I distributed among
all those whom I thought most capable of giving
the plants the care necessary to their prosperity.

The first harvest was very abundant ; with the
second it was possible to extend the cultivation
prodigiously, but what favored multiplication,
most singularly, was the fact that two years
afterward all the cocoa trees of the country,
which were the resource and occupation of the
people, were uprooted and totally destroyed by
horrible tempests accompanied by an inundation
which submerged all the land where these trees
were planted, land which was at once made into
coffee plantations by the natives. These did
marvelously and enabled us to send plants to
Santo Domingo, Guadeloupe, and other adjacent
islands, where since that time they have been
cultivated with the greatest success.

By 1777 there were 18,791,680 coffee
trees in Martinique.

De Clieu was born in Anglequeville-sur-
Saane, Seine-Inferieure (Normandy), in
1686 or 1688." In 1705 he was a ship's
ensign; in 1718 he became a chevalier of
St. Louis; in 1720 he was made a captain
of infantry ; in 1726, a major of infantry ;
in 1733 he was a ship's lieutenant; in 1737
he became governor of Guadeloupe ; in 1746
he was a ship' captain ; in 1750 he was made
honorary commander of the order of St.
Louis ; in 1752 he retired with a pension of
6000 francs ; in 1753 he re-entered the naval
service; in 1760 he again retired with a
pension of 2000 francs.

In 1746 de Clieu, having returned to
France, was presented to Louis XV by the
minister of marine, Rouille de Jour, as ''a
distinguished officer to whom the colonies,
as well as France itself, and commerce
generally, are indebted for the cultivation
of coffee."

Reports to the king in 1752 and 1759 re-
call his having carried the first coffee plant
to Martinique, and that he had ever been
distinguished for his zeal and disinterested-
ness. In the Mercure de France, December,
1774, was the following death notice :

Gabriel d'Erchigny de Clieu, former Ship's
Captain and Honorary Commander of the Royal
and Military Order of Saint Louis, died in Paris
on the 30th of November in the 88th year of
his age.

A notice of his death appeared also in
the Gazette de France for December 5,
1774, a rare honor in both cases ; and it has
been said that at this time his praise was
again on every lip.

'Michaud, I. F. and L. G. Biographic Universelle.
Paris.

T COFFEE

One French historian, Sidney Daney,' ^
records that de Clieu died in poverty at
St. Pierre at the age of 97 ; but this must
be an error, although it does not anywhere
appear that at his death he was possessed
of much, if any, means. Daney says :

This generous man received as his sole recom-
pense for a noble deed the satisfaction of seeing
this plant for whose preservation he had shown
such devotion, prosper throughout the Antilles.
The illustrious de Clieu is among those to whom
Martinique owes a brilliant reparation.

Daney tells also that in 1804 there was
a movement in Martinique to erect a monu-
ment upon the spot where de Clieu planted
his first coffee plant, but that the under-
taking came to naught.

Pardon, in his La Martinique says :
Honor to this brave man! He has deserved
it from the people of two hemispheres. His
name is worthy of a place beside that of Par-
mentier who carried to France the potato of
Canada. These two men have rendered im-
mense service to humanity, and their memory
should never be forgotten — yet alas ! Are they
even remembered"?

Tussac, in his Flora de las Antillas, writ-
ing of de Clieu, says, "Though no monu-
ment be erected to this beneficent traveler,
yet his name should remain engraved in the
heart of every colonist."

In 1774 the Annee Litteraire published
a long poem in de Clieu 's honor. In the
feuilleton of the Gazette de France, April
12, 1816, we read that M. Donns, a wealthy
Hollander, and a coffee connoisseur, sought
to honor de Clieu by having painted upon- a
porcelain service all the details of his voy-
age and its happy results. "I have seen
the cups," says the writer, who gives many
details and the Latin inscription.

That singer of navigation, Esmenard, has
pictured de Clieu 's devotion in the follow-
ing lines :

Forget not how de Clieu with his light vessel's

sail,
Brought distant Moka's gift — that timid plant

and frail.
The waves fell suddenly, young zephyrs breathed

no more.
Beneath fierce Cancer's fires behold the fountain

store.
Exhausted, fails ; while now inexoi'able need
Makes her unpitying law — with measured dole

obeyed.

Now each soul fears to prove Tantalus torment

first.
De Clieu alone defies: While still that fatal

thirst.
Fierce, stifling, day by day his noble strength

devours,

"Daney, Sidney. .Hiatoirc de la Martinigue. Fort
Royal, 184G. ^

COFFEE PROPAGATION

And still a heaven of brass inflames the burning

hours.
With that refreshing draught his life he will not

cheer ;
But drop by drop revives the plant he holds

more dear.
Already as in dreams, he sees great brandies

grow,
One look at his dear plant assuages all his woe.

The only memorial to de Clieu in Mar-
tinique is tlie botanical garden at Fort de
France, which was opened in 1918 and dedi-
cated to de Clieu, ' ' whose memory has been
too long left in oblivion.'"

In 1715 coffee cultivation was first intro-
duced into Haiti and Santo Domingo.
Later came hardier plants from Martinique.
In 1715 - 17 the French Company of the
Indies introduced the cultivation of the
plant into the Isle of Bourbon (now Re-
union) by a ship captain named Dufou-
geret-Grenier from St. Malo. It did so
well that nine years later the island began
to export coffee.

The Dutch brought the cultivation of cof-
fee to Surinam in 1718. The first coffee
plantation in BraziTwas started at Para in
1723 with plants brought from French
Guiana, but it was not a success. The Eng-
lish brought the plant to Jamaica in 1730.
In 1740 Spanish missionaries introduced
coffee cultivation into the Philippines from
Java. In 1748 Don Jose Antonio Gelabert
introduced coffee into Cuba, bringing the
seed from Santo Domingo. In 1750 the
Dutch extended the cultivation of the plant
to the Celebes. Coffee was introduced into
Guatemala about 1750 - 60. The intensive
cultivation in Brazil dates from the efforts
begun in the Portuguese colonies in Para
and Amazonas in 1752. Porto Rico began
the cultivation of coffee about 1755. In
1760 Joao Alberto Castello Branco brought

''Innuguratiim du Jardin Deaclieux. Fort de France,
1918.

to Rio de Janeiro a coffee tree from Goa,
Portuguese India. The news spread that
the soil and climate of Brazil were particu-
larly adapted to the cultivation of coffee.
Molke, a Belgian monk, presented some
seeds to the Capuchin monastery at Rio in
1774. Later, the bishop of Rio, Joachim
Bruno, became a patron of the plant and
encouraged its propagation in Rio, Minas.
Espirito Santo, and Sao Paulo. The Span-
ish voyager, Don Francisco Xavier Na-
varro, is credited with the introduction of
coffee into Costa Rica from Cuba in 1779.
In Venezuela the industry was started near ~
Caracas by a priest, Jose Antonio Mohe-
dano, with seed brought from Martinique
in 1784.

Coffee cultivatinn in Mpyien h^^n in
1790, the se ed being brought from the West
Indies. InJlSITLDon fjuan Antonio (lome x
mstitutel i ntensive cultivati on in ihp Statpi
of Vexa ^ruz. In 1825 the cultivation of
THe^ plant was begun in the Hawaiian
Islands with seeds from Rio de Janeiro.
As previously noted, the English began to
cultivate coffee in India in 1840. In 1852
coffee cultivation was begun in Salva-
dor with plants brought from Cuba. In
1878 the English began the propagation of
coffee in British Central Africa, but it was
not until 1901 that coffee cultivation was
introduced into British East Africa from
Reunion. In 1887 the French introduced
the plant into Tonkin, Indo-China. Coffee
growing in Queensland, introduced in 1896,
has been successful in a small way.

In recent years several attempts have
been made to propagate the coffee plant in
the southern United States, but without
success. It is believed, however, that the
topographic and climatic conditions in
southern California are favorable for its
cultivation.

ALL ABOUT COFFEE

Omar and the Marvelous Coffee Bird

Kaldi and His Dancing Goats
THE LEGENDARY DISCOVERY OF THE COFFEE DRINK

From drawings by a modern French artist

Chapter III
ARLY HISTORY OF COFFEE DRINKING

Coffee in the Near East in the early centuries — Stories of its origin

— Discovery by physicians and adoption by the Church — Its spread
through Arabia, Persia and Turkey — Persecutions and intolerances

— Early coffee manners and customs

THE coffee drink had its rise in the
classical period of Arabian medicine,
which dates from Rhazes (Abu Bakr
Muhammad ibn Zakariya El Razi) who fol-
lowed the doctrines of Galen and sat at the
feet of Hippocrates. Rhazes (850 - 922)
was the first to treat medicine in an ency-
clopedic manner, and, according to some
authorities, the first writer to mention
coffee. He assumed the poetical name of
Razi because he was a native of the city of
Raj in Persian Irak. He was a great
philosopher and astronomer, and at one
time was superintendent of the hospital at
Bagdad. He wrote many learned books on
medicine and surgery,' but his principal
work is Al-IIaiwi, or The Continent, a col-
lection of everything relating to the cure
of disease from Galen to his own time.

Philippe Sylvestre Dufour (1622 -87)\ a
French coffee merchant, philosopher, and
writer, in an accurate and finished treatise
on coffee, tells us (see the early edition of
the work translated from the Latin) that
the first writer to mention the properties
of the coffee bean under the name of hun-
chum was this same Rhazes, "in the ninth
century after the birth of our Saviour";
from which (if true) it would appear that
coffee has been known for upwards of 1000
^ars. Robinson^, however, is of the opinion
that hnnchum meant something else and
had nothing to do with coffee. Dufour,
himself, in a later edition of his Traitez

'Dufour. Philippe Sylvestro. Trait^n Nouveaux et
Curieux du Cajii, du Th6, et du Ghocolat. Lyons,
1684. (Titlo pago lias Traitez: elspwhore, Traitia.)

^'Robinson, Edward Forbos. The Early History of
Coffee Houses in England. Loudon, 1893.

Nouveaux et Curieux du Cafe (the Hague,
1693) is inclined to admit that bunchum
may have been a root and not coffee, after
all ; however, he is careful to add that there
is no doubt that the Arabs knew coffee as
far back as the year 800, Other, more
modern authorities, place it as early as the
sixth century.

Wiji Kawih is mentioned in a Kavi
(Javan) inscription A. D. 856; and it is
thought that the "bean broth" in David
Tapperi's list of Javanese beverages (1667 -
82) may have been coffee'.

While the true origin of coffee drinking
may be forever hidden among the mysteries
of the purple East, shrouded as it is in
legend and fable, scholars have marshaled
sufficient facts to prove that the beverage
was known in Ethiopia "from time imme-
morial," and there is much to add verisi-
militude to Dufour 's narrative. This first
, coffee merchant-prince, skilled in languages
and polite learning, considered that his
character as a merchant was not incon-
sistent with that of an author ; and he even
went so far as to say there were some things
(for instance, coffee) on which a merchant
could be better informed than a philoso-
pher.

Granting that by hnnchum Rhazes meant
coffee, the plant and the drink must have
been known to his immediate followers ; and
this, indeed, seems to be indicated by simi-
lar references in the writings of Avicenna
(Ibn Sina), the Mohammedan physician
and philosopher, who lived from 980 to
1037 A. D.

^Encyclopedia Britannica. 1910. (vol. xv : p. 291.)

ALL ABOUT COFFEE

Rhazes, in the quaint language of Du-
four, assures us that "hunchum (coffee)
is hot and dry and very good for the stom-
ach." Avicenna explains the medicinal
properties and uses of the coffee bean {hon
or hunn)^ which he, also, calls hunchum,
after this fashion:

As to the choice thereof, that of a lemon color,
light, ami of a good smell, Ls the best; the white
and the heavy is naught. It is hot and dry lu
the first degree, and, according to others, cold
in the tirst degree. It fortifies the members, it
(•loans the skin, and dries up the humidities that
are under it, and gives an excellent smell to all
the body.

The early Arabians called the bean and
the tree that bore it, himn; the drink,
hunchnm. A. Galland' (1646-1715), the
French Orientalist who first analyzed and
translated from the Arabic the Abd-al-
Kadir manuscript", the oldest document ex-
tant telling of the origin of coffee, observes
that Avicenna speaks of the hunn, or coffee ;
as do also Prospero Alpini and Veslingius
(Vesling). Bengiazlah, another great
physician, contemporary with Avicenna,
likewise mentions coffee; by which, says
Galland, one may see that we are indebted
to physicians for the discovery of coffee, as
well as of sugar, tea, and chocolate.

Rauwolf (d. 1596), German physician
and botanist, and the first European to
mention coffee, who became acquainted
with the beverage in Aleppo in 1573, tell-
ing how the drink was prepared by the
Turks, says:

In this same water they take a fruit called
Bunnu, which in its bigness, shape, and color
is almost like unto a bayberry, with two thin
shells surrounded, whieh, as they informed me,
are brought from the Indies; but as these in
themselves are, and have within them, two yel-
lowish grains in two distinct cells, and besides,
being they agree in their virtue, figure, looks,
and name with the Biinchum of Avicenna and
Bunca of Rasis ad Almans exactly: therefore
I take them to be the same.

In Dr. Edward Pocoke's translation (Ox-
ford, 1659) of The Nature of the Drink
Kauhi, or Coffee, and the Berry of which
it is Made, Described hy an Arabian Phisi-
tian, we read :

Btm is a plant in Yaman [Yemen], which is
planted in Adar, and groweth up and is gathered
in Ah. It is about a cubit high, on a stalk about
the thickness of one's thumb. It flowers white,
leaving a berry like a small nut, but that some-

■•Galland, Antoino. Lettrc sur I'Origine et le Progres
du Cnf6. Paris, 1690.

'The Ahd-al-Kadir mnnuscript is described and illus-
trated in chapter XXXII.

'Rauwolf, Leonhard. Aigcntliche beschreibung der
Raisis so er vor diser zeit gegen auffgang inn die
morgenlaender volbracht. Lauwingen, 1582-83,

times it is broad like a bean; and when it is'
peeled, parteth in two. The best of It is that
which is weighty and yellow; the worst, that
whieh is black. It is hot in the first degree, dry
in the second : it is usually reported to be cold
and dry, but it is not so; for it is bitter, and
whatsoever is bitter is hot. It may be that the
scorce is hot, and the Bun it selfe either of
equal] temperature, or cold in the first degree.

That which makes for its coldnesse is Its stip-
ticknesse. In summer it is by experience found
to conduce to the drying of rheumes, and fleg-
matick eoughes and distillations, and the opening
of obstructions, and the provocation of urin.
It is now known by the name of Kohioah. When
it is dried and thoroughly boyled, it allayes the
ebullition of the blood, is good against the small
jK)xe and measles, the bloudy pimples ; yet
causeth vertiginous headheach, and maketh lean
much, occasioneth waking, and the Emrods, and
asswageth lust, and sometimes breeds melan-
cliolly.

He that would drink it for livelinesse sake,
and to discusse slothfulnesse, and the other
properties that we have mentioned, let him use
nuich sweat meates with it, and oyle of pis-
taccioes, and butter. Some drink it with milk,
but it is an error, and such as may bring in
danger of the leprosy.

Dufour concludes that the coffee beans of
commerce are the same as the bunchum
(bunn) described by Avicenna and the
bunca (bunchum) of Rhazes. In this he
agrees, almost word for word, with Rau-
wolf, indicating no change in opinion
among the learned in a hundred years.

Christopher Campen thinks Hippocrates,
father of medicine, knew and administered
coffee.

Robinson, commenting upon the early
adoption of coffee into materia medica,
charges that it was a mistake on the part
of the Arab physicians, and that it origi-
nated the prejudice that caused coffee to be
regarded as a powerful drug instead of as
a simple and refreshing beverage.

Homer, the Bible, and Coffee

In early Grecian and Roman writings no
mention is made of either the coffee plant
or the beverage made from the berries.
Pierre (Pietro) Delia Valle' (1586-1652),
however, maintains that the nepenthe,
which Homer says Helen brought with her
out of Egypt, and which she employed as
surcease for sorrow, was nothing else but
coffee mixed with wine.* This is disputed
by M. Petit, a well known physician of
Paris, who died in 1687. Several later
British authors, among them, Sandys, the

'Delia Valle, Pierre (Pietro). De Constantinople a
Bombay, Lettres. 1615. (vol. i : p. 90.)

»"She mingled with the wine the wondrous juice of
a plant which banishes sadness and wrath from the
heart and brings with it forgetfulness of every woe,"

EARLY HISTORY OF COFFEE

])oet; Burton; and Sir Henry Blount, have
suggested the probability of coffee being the
"black broth" of the Lacedaemonians.

George Paschius, in his Latin treatise of
tlie New Discoveries Made since the Time
of the Ancients, printed at Leipsic in 1700,

T R A I T E Z

NouYcaux & curicujc

DU CAFE'.

D U THE'

E 1 D U

CHOCOLATE.

Ouvrageegdement necelTaire aux

Medecins , & a tous ceux qui

aiment leur fante.

PaiPHiLtPP fiSytvESTRB Dupour

e^ quoy on a adjoute dans cettc. Edition , la meil-
leure de toutes les metkodes , qui manquoit
a ce Livre j pour compojer '

L'JEXCELLENT OHOCOiATE.

Par Mi. St. D i s d i £ r.
Troifi^me Edition.

A LAHAYEi

Chez ADRIAN MOETJENS.Mar-

chand Librairc prez laCour , a la
LibraireFran9oi(e,

M, DG. XCHL

Title Page of Dufoub's Book, Edition of 1693

says he believes that coffee was meant by
the five measures of parched corn included
among the presents Abigail made to David
to appease his wrath, as recorded in the
Bible, 1 Samuel, xxv, 18. The Vulgate
translates the Hebrew words sein kali into
sata polentea, which signify wheat, roasted,
or dried by fire.

Pierre fitienne Louis Dumant, the Swiss
Protestant minister and author, is of the

opinion that coffee (and not lentils, as
others have supposed) was the red pottage
for which Esau sold his birthright; also
that the parched grain that Boaz ordered
to be given Ruth was undoubtedly roasted
coffee berries.

Dufour mentions as a possible objection
against coffee that "the use and eating of
beans were heretofore forbidden by Py-
thagoras," but intimates that the coffee
bean of Arabia is something different.

Scheuzer," in his Physique Sacree, says
"the Turks and the Arabs make with the
coffee bean a beverage which bears the same
name, and many persons use as a substitute
the flour of roasted barley. ' ' From this we
learn that the coffee substitute is almost as
old as coffee itself.

Some Early Legends

After medicine, the church. There are
several Mohammedan traditions that have
persisted through the centuries, claiming
for "the faithful" the honor and glory of
the first use of coffee as a beverage. One of
these relates how, about 1258 A. D., Sheik
Omar, a disciple of Sheik Abou'l hasan
Schadheli, patron saint and legendary
founder of Mocha, by chance discovered the
coffee drink at Ousab in Arabia, whither
he had been exiled for a certain moral
remissness.

Facing starvation, he and his followers
were forced to feed upon the berries grow-
ing around them. And then, in the words
of the faithful Arab chronicle in the Biblio-
theque Nationale at Paris, ' ' having nothing
to eat except coffee, they took of it and
boiled it in a sauce-pan and drank of the
decoction. ' ' Former patients in Mocha who
sought out the good doctor-priest in his
Ousab retreat, for physiic with which to
cure their ills, were given some of this de-
coction, with beneficial effect. As a result
of the stories of its magical properties, car-
ried back to the city. Sheik Omar was in-
vited to return in triumph to Mocha where
tile governor caused to be built a monastery
for him and his companions.

Another version of this Oriental legend
gives it as follows :

The dervish Hadji Omar was driven by his
enemies out of Mocha into the desert, where they
expected he would die of starvation. This un-
doubtedly would have occurred if he liad not
plucked up courage to taste some strange berries
which he found growing on a shrub. While they
seemed to be edible, they were very bitter ; and

*SchPuzer, .T. .T. Physique 8acr6e, ou Hiatoire
Naturelle de la Bible. Amsterdam, 1732, 1737.

ALL ABOUT COFFEE

he tried to improve tlie taste by roasting tliein.
He found, liowever, tliut tliey liad become very
hard, so he attempted to soften them with water.
The berries seemed to remain as hard as before,
but the iiquid turned brown, and Omar dranli
It on the chance that it contained some of the
nourishment from the berries. He was amazed
at how it refreshed him, enlivened his sluggish-
ness, and raised his drooping spirits. Later,
when he returned to Mocha, liis salvation was
considered a miracle. The beverage to wliich it
was due sprang into high favor, and Omar him-
self was made a saint.

A popular and much-quoted version of
Omar's discovery of coffee, also based upon
the Abd-al-Kadir manuscript, is the fol-
lowing:

In the year of the Ilegira C5(5, the moUah
Schadheli went on a pilgrimage to Mecca. Ar-
riving at the mountain of the Emeralds (Ousab),
he turned to his disciple Omar and said : "I shall
die in this place. When my soul has gone forth,
a veiled person will appear to you. Do not fail
to execute the command which he will give you."

The venerable Schadheli being dead, Omar saw
in the middle of the night a gigantic specter
covered by a white veil.

"Who are youV" he asked.

The phantom drew back his veil, and Omar
saw with surprise Schadheli himself, grown ten
cubits since his death. The mollah dug in the
ground, and water miraculously appeared. The
spirit of his teacher bade Omar fill a bowl with
the water and to proceed on his way and not to
stop till he reached the spot where the water
would stop moving.

"It is there," he added, "that a great destiny
awaits you."

Omar started his journey. Arriving at Mocha
in Yemen, he noticed that the water was im-
movable. It was here that he must stop.

The beautiful village of Mocha was then rav-
aged by the plague. Omar began to pray for the
sick and, as the saintly man was close to
Mahomet, many found themselves cured by his
prayers.

The plague meanwhile progressing, the daugh-
ter of the King of Mocha fell ill and her father
had her carried to the home of the dervish who
cured her. But as this young princess was of
rare beauty, after having cured her, the good
dervish tried to carry her off. The king did not
fancy this new kind of reward. Omar was
driven from the city and exiled on the mountain
of Ousab, with herbs for food and a cave for
a home.

"Oh, Schadheli, my dear master," cried the
unfortunate dervish one day ; "if the things
which happened to me at Mocha were destined,
was it worth the trouble to give me a bowl to
come here?"

To these just complaints, there was heard im-
mediately a song of incomparable harmony, and
a bird of marvelous plumage came to rest in a
tree. Omar sprang forward quickly toward the
little bird which sang so well, but then he saw
on the branches of the tree only flowers and
fruit. Omar laid hands on the fruit, and found
it delicious. . Then he filled his great pockets
with it and went back to his cave. As he was

preparing to boil a few herbs for his dinner, the
idea came to him of substituting for this sad
souj), some of his harvested fruit. From it he
obtained a savory and perfumed drink ; it was
coffee.

The Italian Journal of the Savants for
the year 1760 says that two monks, Scialdi
and Ayduis, were the first to discover the
properties of coffee, and for this reason be-
came the object of special prayers. "Was
not this Scialdi identical with the Sheik j|
Schadheli ? ' ' asks Jardin." 1

The most popular legend ascribes the dis-
covery of the drink to an Arabian herdsman
'in upper Egypt, or Abyssinia, who com-
plained to the abbot of a neighboring
monastery that the goats confided to his
care became unusually frolicsome after eat-
ing the berries of certain shrubs found near
their feeding grounds. The abbot, having
observed the fact, determined to try the
virtues of the berries on himself. He, too,
responded with a new exhilaration. Ac-
cordingly, he directed that some be boiled,
and the decoction drunk by his monks, who
thereafter found no difficulty in keeping
awake during the religious services of the
night. The abbe Massieu in his poem.
Carmen Caffaeum, thus celebrates the
event :

The monks each in turn, as the evening draws

near,
Drink 'round the great cauldron — a circle of

cheer !
And the dawn in amaze, revisiting that shore.
On idle l)eds of ease surprised them nevermore!

According to the legend, the news of the
"wakeful monastery" spread rapidly, and
the magical berry soon "came to be in re-
quest throughout the whole kingdom; and
in progress of time other nations and
provinces of the East fell into the use
of it."

The French have preserved the following
picturesque version of this legend :

A young goatherd named Kaldi noticed one
day that his goats, whose deportment up to that
time had been irreproachable, were abandoning
themselves to the most extravagant prancings.
1'he venerable buck, ordinarily so dignified and
solemn, bounded about like a young kid. Kaldi
attributed this foolish gaiety to certain fruits
of which the goats had been eating with delight.

The story goes that the poor fellow had a
heavy heart; and in the hope of cheering him-
self up a little, he thought he would pick and eat
of the fruit. The experiment succeeded mar-
velously. He forgot his troubles and became the
happiest herder in happy Arabia. When the
goats danced, he gaily made himself one of the

J^ardin, I5del,estan. Le Cafiier et le Caf6. Paris,

teARLY ttL^TORY OF COFFER

1.5

party, and entered into their fun witli admirable
spirit.

One day, a monk clianced to pass by and
stopiied in surprise to find a ball going on. A
score of goats were executing lively pirouettes
like a ladies' chain, wMle the buck solenuily
halan(('-fH\, and the herder went through the
ttgures of an eccentric i)astoral dance.

The astonished monk inquired the cause of this
saltatorial madness ; and Kaldi told him of his
precious discovery.

Now, this poor monk had a great sorrow ; he
always went to sleep in the middle of his
prayers; and he reasoned that Mohannned with-

Cats, JO v Tsi, * r 2J v CkJc o itA. i!^..

Arai! DiiiNKiNo ('okike; Chinaman, Tea; and

Indian, Cuocolatb

Frontispiece from Dufour's work

out doubt was revealing this marvelous fruit to
him to overcome his sleepiness.

Piety does not exclude gastronomic instincts.
Those of our good monk were more than ordi-
nary ; because he thought of drying and boiling
the fruit of the herder. This ingenious concoc-
tion gave us coffee. Immediately all the monks
of the realm made use of the drink, because It
encouraged them to pray and, perhaps, also be-
cause it was not disagreeable.

In those early days it appears that the
drink was prepared in two ways; one in
which the decoction was made from the
hull and the pulp surrounding the bean,
and the other from the bean itself. The
roasting process came later and is an im-
provement generally credited to the Per-
sians. There is evidence that the early
Mohammedan churchmen were seeking a
.substitute for the wine forbidden to them
by the Koran, when they discovered coffee.
The word for coffee in Arabic,* ga/ii^a/i, is
the same as one of those used for wine ; and
later on, when coffee drinking grew so pop-
ular as to threaten the very life of the
church itself, this similarity was seized
upon by the church-leaders to support their
contention that the prohibition against
wine applied also to cott'ee.

La Roque," writing in 1715, says that the
Arabian word cakouah signified at first
only wine; but later was turned into a
generic term applied to all kinds of drink.
' ' So there were really three sorts of coffee ;
namely, wine, including all intoxicating
liquors ; the drink made with the shells, or
cods, of the coffee bean; and that made
from the bean itself."

Originally, then, the coffee drink may
have been a kind of wine made from the
coffee fruit. In the coffee countries even
today the natives are very fond, and eat
freely, of the ripe coffee cherries, voiding
the seeds. The pulp surrounding the cof-
fee seeds (beans) is pleasant to taste, has
a sweetish, aromatic flavor, and quickly
ferments when allowed to stand.

Still another tradition (was the wish
father to the thought?) tells how the coffee
drink was revealed to Mohammed himseif
by the Angel Gabriel. Coffee's partisans
found satisfaction in a passage in the
Koran which, they said, foretold its adop-
tion by the followers of the Prophet:

'i'hey shall be given to drink an excellent wine,
sealed ; its seal is that of the musk.

The most diligent research does not carry
a knowledge of coffee back beyond the time
of Rhazes, two hundred years after Mo-
hammed ; so there is little more than specu-
lation or conjecture to support the theory
that it was known to the ancients, in Bible
times or in the days of The Praised One.
Our knowledge of tea, on the other hand,
antedates the Christian era. We know

also that tea was intensively cultivated

(

"La Roque, Jean. Voyage dans I'Arabie Heureuae,
de 1708 d nis, et TraiU HistoHque du Ca}6. Paris,
1715. (pp. 247, 251.)

ALL ABOUT COFFEE

and taxed under the Tang dynasty in
China, A. D. lU'.i, and that Arab traders
knew of it in tlie following century.

The First Reliable Coffee Date

About 1454 Sheik Gemaleddiii Abou Mu-
hammad Bensaid, mufti of Aden, sur-
named Aldhabhani, from Dhabhan, a small
town where he was born, became acquainted
with the virtues of coffee on a journey into
Abyssinia.'' Upon his return to Aden, his
health became impaired; and remembering
the coffee he had seen his countrymen
drinking in Abyssinia, he sent for some in
the hope of finding relief. He not only
recovered from his illness; but, because of
its sleep-dispelling qualities, he sanctioned
the use of the drink among the dervishes
"tliat they might spend the night in
prayers or other religious exercises with
tnore attention and presence of mind.""

It is altogether probable that the coffee
drink was known in Aden before the time
of Sheik Gemaleddin ; but the endorsement
of the very learned imam, whom science
and religion had already made famous, was
sufficient to start a vogue for the beverage
that spread throughout Yemen, and thence
to the far corners of the world. We read
in the Arabian manuscript at the Biblio-
theque Nationale that lawyers, students,
as well as travelers who journeyed at night,
artisans, and others, who worked at night,
to escape the heat of the day, took to drink-
ing coffee ; and even left off another drink,
then becoming popular, rhade from the
leaves of a plant called khat or cat {catha
edulis).

Sheik Gemaleddin was assisted in his
work of spreading the gospel of this the
first propaganda for coffee by one Mu-
haramed Alhadrami, a physician of great
reputation, born in Hadramaut, Arabia
Felix.

A recently unearthed and little known
version of coffee's origin shows how fea-
tures of both the Omar tradition and the
Gemaleddin story may be combined by a
professional Occidental tale- writer" :

Toward the middle of the fifteenth century,
a poor Arab was traveling in Abyssinia. Find-
ing himself weak and weary, he stopped near a
grove. For fuel wlierewith to cook his rice, he
cut down a tree that happened to be covered
with dried berries. His meal being cooked and
eaten, the traveler discovered that these half-
burnt berries were fragrant. He collected a

^^Adjam, by many writers wrongly rendered Persia.
"Scheuzer, ,T. J. Physique Sacrie, ou Histoire Nat-
urelle de la Bible. AmBterdam, 1732, 1737.

^*Harper'a Weekly. New Yorlc, 1911. (Jan. 21.)

number of them and, on crushing them with a
stone, found that the aroma was increased to a
great extent. While wondering at this, he acci-
dentally let tlie substance fall into an earthen
vessel that contained his scanty supply of water.
.V miracle ! The almost putrid water was puri-
Hctl. He brought it to his lips; it was fresh and
agreeable; and after a short rest the traveler so
far recovered his strength and energy as to be
able to resume his journey. The lucky Arab
gathered as many berries as he could, and hav-
ing arrived at Aden, informed the mufti of his
(lisc-overy. That worthy was an inveterate
opium-smoker, who had been slifliering for years
from the influence of the poisonous drug. He
tried an infusion of the roasted berries, and was
so delighted at the recovery of his former vigor
that in gratitude to the tree he called it cahuha
which in Arabic signifies "force".

Galland, in his analysis of the Arabian
manuscript, already referred to, that has
furnished us with the most trustworthy ac-
count of the origin of coffee, criticizes An-
toine Faustus Nairon, Maronite professor
of Oriental languages at Rome, who was the
author of the first printed treatise on coffee
only,"" for accepting the legends relating to
Omar and the Abyssinian goatherd. He
says they are unworthy of belief as facts of
history, although he is careful to add that
there is some truth in the story of the dis-
covery of coffee by the Abyssinian goats
and the abbot who prescribed the use of
the berries for his monks, "the Eastern
Christians being willing to have the honor
of the invention of coffee, for the abbot, or
prior, of the convent and his companions
are only the mufti Gemaleddin and Mu-
hammid Alhadrami, and the monks are the
dervishes. ' ' ^

Amid all these details, Jardin reaches
the conclusion that it is to chance we must
attribute the knowledge of the properties
of coffee, and that the coffee tree was trans-
ported from its native land to Yemen, as
far as Mecca, and possibly into Persia,
before being carried into Egypt.

Coffee, being thus favorably introduced
into Aden, it has continued there ever
since, without interruption. By degrees
the cultivation of the plant and the use of
the beverage passed into many neighbor-
ing places. Toward the close of the fif-
teenth century (1470 - 1500) it reached
Mecca and Medina, where it was intro-
duced, as at Aden, by the dervishes, and
for the same religious purpose. About
1510 it reached Grand Cairo in Egypt,
where the dervishes from Yemen, living in
a district by themselves, drank coffee on the

"*Nairon, Antoine Faustus. De Saluberrimd Cahue
seu Caf6 nuncupata Diacuraus. Rome, 1671.

A L L A H () i; T C O F F 1^: h

m
O

EARLY HISTORY OF COFFEE

^■fhts they intended to spend in religious
Trevotion. They kept it in a large red
earthen vessel — eacli in turn receiving
it, respectfully, from their superior, in a
small bowl, which he dipped into the jar —
in the meantime chanting their prayers,
the burden of which was always: "There
is no God but one God, the true King,
whose power is not to be disputed."

After the dervishes, the bowl was passed
to lay members of the congregation. In this
way coffee came to be so associated with
tiie act of worship that "they never per-
formed a religious ceremony in public and
never observed any solemn festival with-
out taking coffee."

Meanwhile, the inhabitants of Mecca be-
came so fond of the beverage that, disre-
garding its religious associations, they
made of it a secular drink to be sipped
publicly in Icaveh kanes, the first coffee
houses. Here the idle congregated to drink
coffee, to play chess and other games, to
discuss the news of the day, and to amuse
themselves with singing, dancing, and
music, contrary to the manners of the rigid
Mahommedans, who were very properly
scanchilized by such performances. In Me-
dina and in Cairo, too, coffee became as
common a drink as in Mecca and Aden.

The First Coffee Persecution

At length the pious Mahommedans began
to disapprove of the use of coffee among
the people. For one thing, it made com-
mon one of the best psychology - adjuncts
of their religion ; also, the joy of life, that
it helped to liberate among those who fre-
quented the coffee houses, precipitated
.social, political, and religious arguments ;
and these frequently developed into dis-
turbances. Dissensions arose even among
the churchmen themselves. They divided
into camps for and against coffee. The
hiw of the Prophet on the subject of wine
was variously construed as applying to
loffee.

About this time (1511) Kair Bey was
governor of Mecca for the sultan of Egypt,
lie appears to have been a strict disci-
plinarian, but lamentably ignorant of the
actual conditions obtaining among his
people. As he was leaving the mosque one
evening after prayers, he was offended by
seeing in a corner a company of coffee
drinkers who were preparing to pass the
night in prayer. His first thought was
that they were drinking wine ; and great
was his astonishment when he learned what

the liquor really was and how common was
its use throughout the city. Further in-
vestigation convinced him that indulgence
in this exhilarating drink must incline men
and women to extravagances prohibited by
law, and so he determined to suppress it.
First he drove the coffee drinkers out of
the mosque.

The next day, he called a council of
officers of justice, lawyers, physicians,
priests, and leading citizens, to whom he
declared what he had seen the evening be-
fore at the mosque; and, "being resolved
to put a stop to the coffee-house abuses, he
sought their advice upon the subject."
The chief count in the indictment was that
"in these places men and women met and
played tambourines, violins, and other
musical instruments. There were also
people who played chess, mankala, and
other similar games, for money ; and there
were many other things done contrary to
our sacred law — may God keep it from
all corruption until the day when we shall
all appear before him!""

The lawyers agreed that the coffee
houses needed reforming; but as to the
drink itself, inquiry should be made as to
whether it was in any way harmful to
mind or body; for if not, it might not be
sufficient to close the places that sold it.
It was suggested that the opinion of the
physicians be sought.

Two brothers, Persian physicians named
Ilakimani, and reputed the best in Mecca,
were summoned, although we are told they
knew more about logic than they did
about physic. One of them came into the
council fully prejudiced, as he had already
written a book against coffee, and filled
with concern for his profession, being fear-
ful lest the common use of the new drink
would make serious inroads on the prac-
tise of medicine. His brother joined with
him in assuring the assembly that the
plant hunn, from which coffee was made,
was "cold and dry" and so unwholesome.
When another physician present reminded
them that Bengiazlah, the ancient and re-
spected contemporary of Avicenna, taught
that it was "hot and dry," they made
arbitrary answer that Bengiazlah had in
mind another plant of the same name, and
that anyhow, it was not material; for, if
the coffee drink disposed people to things
forbidden by religion, the safest course for

^^de Sacy, Bnron Antolne Isaac Silvestre. Chreato-
nathie Arahc. Paris, 1806. (vol. il : p. 224.)

ALL ABOUT COFFEE

Mahommedans was to look upon it as un-
lawful.

The friends of coffee were covered with
confusion. Only the mufti S'poke out in
the meeting in its favor. Others, carried
away by prejudice or misguided zeal, af-
firmed that coffee clouded their senses. One
man arose and said it intoxicated like wine ;
which made every one laugh, since he could
hardly have been a judge of this if he had
not drunk wine, which is forbidden by the
Mohammedan religion. Upon being asked
whether he had ever drunk any, he was so
imprudent as to admit that he had, thereby
condemning himself out of his own mouth
to the bastinado.

The mufti of Aden, being both an officer
of the court and a divine, undertook, with
some heat, a defense of coffee; but he was
clearly in an unpopular minority. He
was rewarded with the reproaches and af-
fronts of the religious zealots.

So the governor had his way, and coffee
was solemnly condemned as thing forbid-
den by the law ; and a presentment
was drawn up, signed by a majority of
those present, and dispatched post-haste by
the governor to his royal master, the sultan,
at Cairo. At the same time, the governor
published an edict forbidding the sale of
coffee in public or private. The officers
of justice caused all the coffee houses in
Mecca to be shut, and ordered all the coffee
found there, or in the merchants' ware-
houses, to be burned.

Naturally enough, being an unpopular
edict, there were many evasions, and much
coffee drinking took place behind closed
doors. Some of the friends of coffee were
outspoken in their opposition to the order,
being convinced that the assembly had ren-
dered a judgment not in accordance with
the facts, and above all, contrary to the
opinion of the mufti who, in every Arab
community, is looked up to as the inter-
preter, or expounder, of the law. One man,
caught in the act of disobedience, besides
being severely punished, was also led
through the most public streets of the city
seated on an ass.

However, the triumph of the enemies of
coffee was short-lived; for not only did
the sultan of Cairo disapprove the "indis-
creet zeal" of the governor of Mecca, and
order the edict revoked; but he read him
a severe lesson on the subject. How dared
he condemn a thing approved at Cairo,
the capital of his kingdom, where there
were physicians whose opinions carried

more weight than those of Mecca, and who
had found nothing against the law in the
use of coffee? The best things might be
abused, added the sultan, even the sacred
waters of Zamzam, but this was no reason
for an absolute prohibition. The fountain,
or well, of Zamzam, according to the Mo-
hammedan teaching, is the same which
God caused to spring up in the desert to
comfort Hagar and Ishmael when Abraham
banished them. It is in the enclosure of
the temple at Mecca; and the Mohamme-
dans drink of it with much show of devo-
tion, ascribing great virtues to it.

It is not recorded whether the misguided
governor was shocked at this seeming pro-
fanity; but it is known that he hastened
to obey the orders of his lord and master.
The prohibition was recalled, and there-
after he employed his authority only to
preserve order in the coffee houses. The
friends of coffee, and the lovers of poetic
justice, found satisfaction in the governor's
subsequent fate. He was exposed as "an
extortioner and a public robber," and "tor-
tured to death," his brother killing him-
self to avoid the same fate. The two
Persian physicians who had played so mean
a part in the first coffee persecution, like-
wise came to an unhappy end. Being dis-
credited in Mecca they fled to Cairo,
where, in an unguarded moment, having
cursed the person of Selim I, emperor of
the Turks, who had conquered Egypt, they
were executed by his order.

Coffee, being thus re-established at
Mecca, met with no opposition until 1524,
when, because of renewed disorders, the
kadi of the town closed the coffee houses,
but did not seek to interfere with coffee
drinking at home and in private. His
successor, however, re-licensed them; and,
continuing on their good behavior since
then, they have not been disturbed.

In 1542 a ripple was caused by an order
issued by Soliman the Great, forbidding
the use of coffee; but no one took it seri-
ously, especially as it soon became known
that the order had been obtained "by
surprise" and at the desire of only one
of the court ladies "a little too nice in this
point."

One of the most interesting facts in the
history of the coffee drink is that wher-
ever it has been introduced it has spelled
je volution. It has been the world's most
radical dfink in that its function has al-
ways been to make people think. And
when the people began to think, they be-

EARLY HISTORY OF COFFEE

came dangerous to tyrants and to foes of
liberty of thought and action. Sometimes
the people became intoxicated with their
new found ideas; and, mistaking liberty
for license, they ran amok, and called
down upon their heads persecutions and
many petty intolerances. So history re-
peated itself in Cairo, twenty-three years
after the first Mecca persecution.

Coffee's Second Religious Persecution

Selim I, after conquering Egypt, had
brought- coffee to Constantinople in 1517.
The drink continued its progress through
Syria, and was received in Damascus
(about 1530), and in Aleppo (about 1532),
without opposition. Several coffee houses
of Damascus attained wide fame, among
them the Cafe of the Roses, and the Cafe
of the Gate of Salvation.

Its increasing popularity and, perhaps,
the realization that the continued spread of
the beverage might lessen the demand for
his services, caused a physician of Cairo
to propound (about 1523) to his fellows
this question :

What is your opinion concerning the liquor
called coffee which is drank in company, as heing
reckoned in the number of those we have free
leave to make use of, notwithstanding it is the
cause of no small disorders, that it flies up into
the head and is very pernicious to health? Is
it permitted or forbidden?

At the end he was careful to add, as
his own opinion (and without prejudice?),
that coffee was unlawful. To the credit of
the physicians of Cairo as a class, it should
be recorded that they looked with unsympa-
thetic eyes upon this attempt on the part
of one of their number to stir up trouble
for a valuable adjunct to their materia
medica, and so the effort died a-borning.

If the physicians were disposed to do
nothing to stop coffee's progress, not so
the preachers. As places of resort, the
coffee houses exercised an appeal that
proved stronger to the popular mind than
that of the temples of worship. This to
men of sound religious training was in-
tolerable. The feeling against coffee
smouldered for a time; but in 1534 it
broke out afresh. In that year a fiery
preacher in one of Cairo's mosques so
played upon the emotions of his congrega-
tion with a preachment against coffee,
claiming that it was against the law and
that those who drank it were not true Mo-
hammedans, that upon leaving the build-
ing a large number of his hearers, enraged,

threw themselves into the first coffee house
they found in their way, burned the coffee
pots and dishes, and maltreated all the
])ersons they found there.

Public opinion was immediately aroused ;
and the city was divided into two parties;
one maintaining that coffee was against
the law of Mohammed, and the other tak-
ing the contrary view. And then arose
a Solomon in the person of the chief jus-
tice, who summoned into his presence the
learned physicians for consultation. Again
the medical profession stood by its guns.
The medical men pointed out to the chief
justice that the question had already been
decided by their predecessors on the side
of coffee, and that the time had come to
put some check "on the furious zeal of
the bigots" and the "indiscretions of
ignorant preachers." Wihereupon, the
wise judge caused coffee to be served to the
whole company and drank some himself.
By this act he "re-united the contending
parties, and brought coffee into greater
esteem than ever."

Coffee in Constantinople

The story of the introduction of coffee
into Constantinople shows that it experi-
enced much the same vicissitudes that
marked its advent at Mecca and Cairo.
There were the same disturbances, the same
unreasoning religious superstition, the same
political hatreds, the same stupid inter-
ference by the civil authorities ; and yet, in
spite of it all, coffee attained new honors
and new fame. The Oriental coffee house
reached its supreme development in Con-
stantinople.

Although coffee had been known in Con-
stantinople since 1517, it was not until 1554
that the inhabitants became acquainted
with that great institution of early eastern
democracy — the coffee house. In that year,
under the reign of Soliman the Great, son
of Selim I, one Scherasi of Damascus and
one Hekem of Aleppo opened the first two
coffee houses in the quarter called Taktaca-
lah. They were wonderful institutions for
those days, remarkable alike for their fur-
nishings and their comforts, as well as for
the opportunity they afforded for social
intercourse and free discussion. Schemsi
and Hekem received their guests on "very
neat coiiches or sofas," and the admission
was the price of a dish of coffee — about
one cent.

Turks, high and low, took up the idea
with avidity. Coffee houses increased in

ALL ABOUT COFFEE

number. The deinaiid outstripped the
supply. In the seraglio itself special offi-
cers {kafivedjibachi) were commissioned to
prepare the coffee drink for the sultan.
Coffee was in favor witli all classes.

The Turks gave to the coffee houses the
name kahveh kancs {diver soria, Cotovicus
called them) ; and as they grew in popu-
larity, they became more and more luxu-
rious. There were lounges, richly carpeted;
and in addition to coffee, many other means
of entertainment. To these ' ' schools of the
wise" came the ''young men ready to enter
upon offices of judicature ; kadis from the
provinces, seeking re-instatement or new
appointments ; muderys, or professors ; of-
ficers of the seraglio; bashaws; and the
principal lords of the port," not to men-
tion merchants and travelers from all parts
of the then known world.

Coffee House Persecutions

About 1570, just when coffee seemed
settled for all time in the social scheme,
the imams and dervishes raised a loud wail
against it, saying the mosques were almost
empty, while the coffee houses were always
full. Then the preachers joined in the
clamor, affirming it to be a greater sin to
go to a coffee house than to enter a tavern.
The authorities began an examination ; and
the same old debate was on. This time,
however, appeared a mufti who was un-
friendly to coffee. The religious fanatics
argued that Mohammed had not even
known of coffee, and so could not have
used the drink, and, therefore, it must be
an abomination for his followers to do so.
Further, coffee was burned and ground to
charcoal before making a drink of it ; and
the Koran distinctly forbade the use of
charcoal, including it among the unsani-
tary foods. The mufti decided the ques-
tion in favor of the zealots, and coffee was
forbidden by law.

The prohibition proved to be more hon-
ored in the breach than in the observance.
Coffee drinking continued in secret, instead
of in the open. And when, about 1580,
Amurath III, at the further solicitation of
the churchmen, declared in an edict that
coffee should be classed with wine, and so
prohibited in accordance with the law of
the Prophet, the people only smiled, and
persisted in their secret disobedience. Al-
ready they were beginning to think for
themselves on religious as well as political
matters. The civil officers, finding it use-
less to try to suppress the custom, winked

at violations of the law; and, for a con-
sideration, permitted the sale of coffee pri-
vately, so that many Ottoman "speak-
easies" sprung up — places where coffee
might be had behind shut doors; shops
where it was sold in back-rooms.

This was enough to re-establish the cof-
fee houses by degrees. Then came a mufti
less scrupulous or more knowing than his
predecessor, who declared that coffee was
not to be looked upon as coal, and that the
drink made from it was not forbidden by
the law. There was a general renewal of
coffee drinking; religious devotees, preach-
ers, lawyers, and the mufti himself indulg-
ing in it, their example being followed by
the whole court and the city.

After this, the coffee houses provided a
handsome source of revenue to each suc-
ceeding grand vizier ; and there was no fur-
ther interference with the beverage until
the reign of Amurath IV, when Grand
Vizier Kuprili, during the war with Can-
dia, decided that for political reasons, the
coffee houses should be closed. His argu-
ment was much the same as that advanced
more than a hundred years later by Charles
II of England, namely, that they were hot-
beds of sedition. Kuprili was a military
dictator, with nothing of Charles's vacillat-
ing nature; and although, like Charles, he
later rescinded his edict, he enforced it,
while it was effective, in no uncertain
fashion. Kuprili was no petty tyrant. For
a first violation of the order, cudgeling was
the punishment; for a second offense, the
victim was sewn in a leather bag and thrown
into the Bosporus. Strangely enough,
while he suppressed the coffee houses, he
permitted the taverns, that sold wine for-
bidden by the Koran, to remain open.
Perhaps he found the latter produced a
less dangerous kind of mental stimulation
than that produced by coffee. Coffee, says
Virey, was too intellectual a drink for the
fierce and senseless administration of the
pashas.

Even in those days it was not possible
to make people good by law. Paraphrasing
the copy-book, suppressed desires will
arise, though all the world o'erwhelm thera,
to men's eyes. An unjust law was no more
enforceable in those centuries than it is in
the twentieth century. Men are humans
first, although they may become brutish
when bereft of reason. But coffee does not
steal away their reason ; rather, it sharpens
their reasoning faculties. As Galland has
truly said: "Coffee joins men, born for

EART.Y HISTORY OF COFFEE

Characteristic Scene in a Turkish Coffee House of the Seventeenth Century

society, in a more perfect union ; protesta-
tions are more sincere in being made at a
time when the mind is not clouded with
fumes and vapors, and therefore not easily
forgotten, which too frequently happens
when made over a bottle."

Despite the severe penalties staring them
in the face, violations of the law were plen-
tiful among the people of Constantinople.
Venders of the beverage appeared in the
market-'places with "large copper vessels
with fire under them ; and those who had
a mind to drink were invited to step into
any neighboring shop where every one was
welcome on such an account."

Later, Kuprili, having assured himself
that the coffee houses were no longer a
menace to his policies, permitted the free
use of the beverage that he had previously
forbidden.

Coffee and Coffee Houses in Persia

Some writers claim for Persia the dis-
covery of the coffee drink; but there is no
evidence to support the claim. There are,
however, sufficient facts to justify a belief
that here, as in Ethiopia, coffee has been
known from time immemorial — which is
a very convenient phrase. At an early date
the coffee house became an established insti-
tution in the chief towns. The Persians
appear to have used far more intelligence
than the Turks in liandling the political
phase of the coffee-house question, and so
it never became necessary to order them
suppressed in Persia.

The wife of Shah Abbas, observing that
great numbers of people were wont to
gather and to talk politics in the leading
coffee house of Ispahan, appointed a. mol-

ALL ABOUT COFFEE

lah — an eeclesiastix-'al teacher and ex-
pounder of the law — to sit there daily
to entertain the frequenters of the place
with nicely turned points of history, law,
and poetry. Heing a man of wisdom and
great tact, he avoided controversial ques-
tions of state ; and so politics were kept in
the background, lie proved a welcome visi-
tor, and was made much of by the guests.
This example was generally followed, and
as a result disturbances were rare in the
coffee houses of Ispahan.

Adam Olearius" (1599-1671), who was
secretary to the German Embassy that
traveled in Turkey in 1633 - 36, tells of
the great diversions made in Persian coffee
houses "by their poets and historians, who
are seated in a high chair from whence
they make speeches and tell satirical stories,
playing in the meantime with a little stick
and using the same gestures as our jug-
glers and legerdemain men do in England."

At court conferences conspicuous among
the shah's retinue were always to be seen
the "kahvedjibachi," or " coffee-pourers. "

Early Coffee Manners and Customs

Karstens Niebuhr" (1733-1815), the
Hanoverian traveler, furnishes the follow-
ing description of the early Arabian,
Syrian, and Egyptian coffee houses:

They are commonly large halls, having their
floors spread with mats, and illuminated at night
by a multitude of lamps. Being the only
theaters for the exercise of profane eloquence,
poor scholars attend here to amuse the people.
Select portions are read, e. g. the adventures of
Rustan Sal, a Persian hero. Some aspire to the
praise of invention, and compose tales and
fables. They walk up and down as they recite,
or assuming oratorial consequence, harangue
upon subjects chosen by themselves.

In one coffee house at Damascus an orator
was regularly hired to tell his stories at a fixed
hour; in other cases he was more directly de-
pendent upon the taste of his hearers, as at the
conclusion of his discourse, whether it had con-
sisted of literary topics or of loose and idle tales,
he looked to the audience for a voluntary con-
tribution.

At Aleppo, again, there was a man with a soul
above the common, who, being a per.son of dis-
tinction, and one that studied merely for his own
pleasure, had yet gone the round of'all the coffee
houses in the city to pronounce moral harangues.

In some coffee houses there were singers
and dancers, as before, and many came to
listen to the marvelous tales of the Thou-
sand and One Nights.

"Olearius. Adam. An Account of His Journeys.
London, 1669.

"Niebuhr, Karstens. Description of Arabia. Amster-
dam, 1774. (Heron trans., London, 1792; p. 266.)

In Oriental countrieii it was once the cus-
tom to offer a cup of "bad coffee," i.e.,
coffee containing poison, to those function-
aries or other persohs who had proven
themselves embarrassing to the authorities.
While coffee drinking started as a pri-
vate religious function, it was not long
after its introduction by the coffee houses
that it became secularized still more in the
homes of the people, although for centuries
it retained a certain religious significance.
Galland says that in Constantinople, at the
time of his visit to the city, there was no
house, rich or poor, Turk or Jew, Greek
or Armenian, where it was not drunk at
least twice a day, and many drank it
oftener, for it became a custom in every
house to offer it to all visitors; and it was
considered an incivility to refuse it.
Twenty dishes a day, per person, was not
an uncommon average.

Galland observes that "as much money
must be spent in the private families of
Constantinople for coffee as for wine at
Paris," and relates that it is as common
for beggars to ask for money to buy cof-
fee, as it is in Europe to ask for money to
buy wine or beer.

At this time to refuse or to neglect to
give coffee to their wives was a legitimate
cause for divorce among the Turks. The
men made promise when marrying never
to let their wives be without coffee. "That,"
says Fulbert de Monteith, "is perhaps more
prudent than to swear fidelity."

Another Arabic manuscript by Bichivili
in the Bibliotheque Nationale at Paris fur-
nishes us with this pen picture of the cof-
fee ceremony as practised in Constanti-
nople in the sixteenth century:

In all the great men's houses, there are ser-
vants whose business it ds only to take care of
the coffee ; and the head officer among them, or
he who has the inspection over all the rest, has
an apartment allowed him near the hall which
is destined for the reception of visitor-s. The
Turks call this officer Kavveghi, that is. Over-
seer or Steward of the Coffee. In the harem or
ladies' apartment in the seraglio, there are a
great many such officers, each having forty or
fifty Baltafiix under them, who, after they have
served a certain time in these coffee-houses, are
sure to be well provided for, either by an ad-
vantageous post, or a sufficient quantity of land.
In the houses of persons of quality likewise,
there are pages, called Itchogluns, who receive
the coffee from the stewards, and present it to
the company with surprising dexteritv and ad-
dress, as soon as the master of the faniily makes
a sign for that purpose, which is all the language
they ever speak to them. ... The coffee is
served on salvers without feet, made commonly

EARLY HISTORY OF COFFEE

Serving Cofiee to a Guest. — After a Drawing in an Early Edition of "Arabian Nights"

of painted or varnished wood, and sometimes
of silver. They hold from 15 to 20 china dishes
each ; and such as can afford it have these
dishes half set in silver . . . the dish may be
easily held with the thumb below and two fingers
on the upper edge.

In his Relation of a Journey to Constan-
tinople in 1657, Nicholas Rolamb, the Swe-
dish traveler and envoy to the Ottoman
Porte, gives us this early glimpse of cof-
fee in the home life of the Turks:"

This [coffee] is a kind of pea that grows in
l^fiupt, which the Turks pound and boil in water,
and take it for pleasure instead of brandy, sip-
ping it through the lips boiling hot, persuading
themselves that it consumes catarrhs, and pre-
vents the rising of vapours out of the stomach
into the head. The drinking of this coffee and
smoking tobacco (for tho' the use of tobacco
is forbidden on pain of death, yet it is used in
Constantinople more than any where by men

'"A Collection of Voyages and Travels. London,
1745. (vol. Iv: p. 690.)

as well as women, tho' secretly) makes up all
the pastime among the Turks, and is the only
thing they treat one another with; for which
reason all people of distinction have a particular
room next their own, built on purpose for it,
where there stands a jar of coffee continually
boiling.

It is curious to note that among several
misconceptions that were held by some of
the peoples of the Levant was one that
coffee was a promoter of impotence, al-
though a Persian version of the Angel
Gabriel legend says that Gabriel invented
it to restore the Prophet's failing metabo-
lism. Often in Turkish and Arabian litera-
ture, however, we meet with the sugges-
tion that coffee drinking makes for sterility
and barrenness, a notion that modern medi-
cine has exploded; for now we know that
coffee stimulates the racial instinct, for
which tobacco is a sedative.

ALL ABOUT COFFEE

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Chapter IV
INTRODUCTION OF COFFEE INTO WESTERN EUROPE

When the three great temperance beverages, cocoa, tea, and coffee,
came to Europe — Coffee first mentioned by Rauivolf in 1582 —
Early days of coff'ee in Italy — How Pope. Clement VIILJbaptised it
and made it a truly Qhrisiicm beverage — The first European coffee
house, in Venice, 1645 — The famous Caffe Florian — Other cele-
brated Venetian coffee houses of the eighteenth century — The
romantic story of Pedrocchi, the poor lemonade-vender, who built the
most beautiful coffee house in the world

OF the Avorld's three great temperance
beverages, cocoa, tea, and coffee,
cocoa was the first to be introduced
into Europe, in lh28^hy the Spanish. It
was nearly a century later^ift-1 61^, that
the Dutch brought tea to Europe. Vene-
tian traders introduced coffee into Europe
in 1615.

Europe's first knowledge of coffee was
brought by travelers returning from the
Far East and the Levant. Leonhard Rau-
wolf started on his famous journey into the
Eastern countries from Marseilles in Sep-
tember, 1573, having left his home in
Augsburg, the 18th of the preceding May.
He reached Aleppo in November, 1573 ; and
returned to Augsburg, February 12, 1576.
He was the first European to mention cof-
fee; and to him also belongs the honor of
being the first to refer to the beverage in
print.

Rauwolf was not only a doctor of medi-
cine and a botanist of great renown, but
also official physician to the town of Augs-
burg. When he spoke, it was as one having
authority. The first printed reference to
coffee appears as chauhe in chapter viii of
Rauwolf 's Travels, which deals with the
manners and customs of the city of Aleppo,
The exact passage is reproduced herewith
as it appears in the original German edi-
tion of Rauwolf published at Frankfort

and Lauingen in 1582-83.
tion is as follows:

The transla-

If you have a mind to eat something or to
drinii other liquors, there is commonly an open
shop near it, where you sit down upon the
ground or carpets and drink together. Among
the rest they have a very good drink, by them
called Chauhe [coffee] that is almost as black
as ink, and very good in illness, chieti.v that of
the stomach ; of this they drink in the morning
early in open places before everybody, without
any fear or regard, out of China cups, as hot as
they can : they put it often to their lips but
drink but little at a time, and let it go round
as they sit.

In this same water they take a fruit called
Bunnu which In its bigness, shape and color is
almost like unto a bayberry, with two thin shells
surrounded, which, as they informed me, are
brought from the Indies; but as these in them-
selves are, and have within them, two yellowish
grains in two distinct cells, and besides, being
they agree in their virtue, figure, looks, and
name with the Bunchum of Avicenna, and Bunca
of Rasis ad Almans exactly; therefore I take
them to be the same, until I am better informed
by the learned. This liquor is very common
among them, wherefore there are a great many
of them that sell it. and others that sell the
berries, everywhere in their Batzars.

The Early Days of Coffee in Italy

It is not easy to determine just whvm the
use of coffee spread from Constantinople to
the western parts of Europe ; but it is more
than likely that the Venetians, because of
their close proximity to, and their great

ALL ABOUT COFFEli

trade with, the Levant, were the first
acquainted with it.

Prospero Alpini (Alpinus; 1553-1617),
a learned physician and botanist of Padua,
journeyed to P^^ypt in 1580, and brought
back news of coffee. He was the first to
print a description of the coffee plant and
drink in his trcatisi' The Vlanis of Kgypl,
written in Tjatin, and published in Venice,
1592. lie says:

I have seen this tree at Cairo, it being tlio
same tree that prodnces the frnit, so common in
Egypt, to which they giro tlie name hnn or hnn.
The Arabians and the Egyptians malie a sort
of decoction of it, which they drink instead of
wine; and it is sokl in all their public houses,
as wine Is with us. They call this drink caova.
The fruit of which they make it comes from
"Arabia the Happy," and the tree that I saw
looks like a spindle tree, but the leaves are
thicker, tougher, and greener. The tree is never
without leaves.

Alpini makes note of the medicinal quali-
ties attributed to the drink by dwellers in
the Orient, and many of these were soon
incorporated into Europe's materia medica.

Johann Vesling (Veslingius; 1598-
1649), a German botanist and traveler,
settled in Venice, where he became known
as a learned Italian physician. He edited
(1640) a new edition of Alpini 's work; but
earlier (1638) published some comments on
Alpini 's findings, in the course of which
he distinguished certain qualities found in
a drink made from the husks (skins) of
the coffee berries from those found in the
liquor made from the beans themselves,
which he calls the stones of the coffee fruit.
He says :

Not only in Egypt is coffee in much request,
but in almost all the other provinces of the
Turkish Empire. Whence it comes to pass that
it is dear even in the Levant and scarce among
the Europeans, who by that means are deprived
of a very wholesome liquor.

From this we may conclude that coffee
was not wholly unknown in Europe at that
time. Vesling adds that when he visited
Cairo, he found there two or three thousand
coffee houses, and that "some did begin to
put sugar in their coffee to correct the bit-
terness of it, and others made sugar-plums
of the berries."

Coffee, Baptized hy the Pope

Shortly after coffee reached Rome, ac-
cording to a much quoted legend, it was
again threatened with religious fanaticism,
which almost caused its excommunication
from Christendom. It ig rel$.te4 that eer-

Ax EuniTEENTii Centuuy Italian Coffee House
After Goldoni, by Zatta

tain priests appealed to Pope Clement VIII
(1535-1605) to have its use forbidden
among Christians, denouncing it as an in-
vention of Satan. They claimed that the
Evil One, having forbidden his followers,
the infidel Moslems, the use of wine — no
doubt because it was sanctified by Christ
and used in the Holy Communion — had
given them as a substitute this hellish black
brew of his which they called coffee. For
Christians to drink it was to risk falling
into a trap set by Satan for their souls.

It is further related that the pope, made
curious, desired to inspect this Devil's
drink, and had some brought to him. The
aroma of it was so pleasant and inviting
that the pope was tempted to try a cupful.
After drinking it, he exclaimed, "Why, this
Satan's drink is so delicious that it would
be a pity to let the infidels have exclusive
use of it. We shall fool Satan by baptizing
it, and making it a truly Christian bev-
erage. ' '

Thus, whatever harmfulness its oppo-
nents try to attribute to coffee, the fact
remains (if we are to credit the story) that
it has been baptized and proclaimed un-
harmful, and a "truly Christian beverage,"
by his holiness the pope.

The Venetians had further knowledge of
coffee in 1585, when Cianfrancesco Moro-
sini, city magistrate at Constantinople, re-
ported to the Senate that the Turks ' ' drink
a black water as hot as they can suffer it,
which is the infusion of a bean called cavee,
which is said to possess the virtue of stimu-
lating mankind."

Dr. A. Couguet, in an Italian review,
asserts that Europe's first cup of coffee
was sipped in Venice, toward the close of

COFFEE IN WESTERN EUROPE

the sixti'oiith eontury. He is of the opin-
ion that the first berries were imported by
Mocenjrio, who was called the pevcre, be-
cause he made a huge fortune trading- in
spices and others specialties of the Orient.
In Kilf) Pierre (Pietro) Delia Valle
(ir)8() - 1652), the well known Italian trav-
eler and author of Travels in India and
Persia, wrote a letter from Constantinople
to his friend Mario Schipano at Venice:

The Turks have a drink of black color, which
dnrinj? tho suinnier is very cooliii}?. whereas in
the winter it heats and warms the Itody, re-
maiiiiiiK always the same boverajje and not
changinj; its sui»stance. They swallow it hot
as it comes from the fire and they drink it in
lonj; draughts, not at dinner time, but as a
kind of dainty and sipped slowly while talking
with one's friends. One cannot find any meet-
ings among them where they drink it not. . . .
With this drink, whicli they call cahue, they
divert themselves in their conversations. . . .
It is made with the grain or fruit of a certain
tree called cahuc. . . . When I return I will
bring some with me and 1 will impart the knowl-
edge to the Italians.

Nobility in an Early Vknetian CAFFfe

From the Grevembroch collection in the Museo
CIvico

Delia Valle 's countrymen, however, were
in a fair way to become well acquainted
with the beverage, for already (1615) it
had been introduced into Venice. At first
it was used largely for medicinal purposes;
and high prices were charged for it. Ves-
ling says of its use in Europe as a medicine,
''the first step it made from the cabinets
of the curious, as an exotic seed, being into
the apothecaries' shops as a drug."

The first coffee house in Italy is said to
have been opened in 1645, but convincing
confirmation is lacking. In the beginning,
the beverage was sold with other drinks by
lemonade-venders. The Italian word aqua-
cedratajo means one who sells lemonade and
similar refreshments; also one who sells
coffee, chocolate, liquor, etc. Jardin says
the beverage was in general use throughout
Italy in 1645. It is certain, however, that
a coffee shop was opened in Venice in 1683
under the Procuratie Nuove. The famous
Gaffe Florian was opened in Venice by
Floriono Francesconi in 1720.

The first authoritative treatise devoted to
coffee only appeared in 1671. It was writ-
ten in Latin by Antoine Faustus Nairon
(1635-1707), Maronite professor of the
Chaldean and Syrian languages in the Col-
lege of Rome.

During the latter part of the seventeenth
century and the first half of the eighteenth,
the coffee house made great progress in
Italy. It is interesting to note that this
first European adaptation of the Oriental
coffee house was known as a caffe. The
double f is retained by the Italians to this
day, and by some writers is thought to
have been taken from coffea, without the
double f being lost, as in the case of the
French and some other Continental forms.

To Italy, then, belongs the honor of hav-
ing given to the Western world the real
coffee house, although the French and
Austrians greatly improved upon it. It was
not long after its beginning that nearly
every shop on the Piazza di San Marco in
Venice was a caffe \ Near the Piazza was
the Caffe della Ponte dell' Angelo, where
in 1792 died the dog Tabacchio, celebrated
by Vincenzo Formaleoni in a satirical eu-
logy that is a parody of the oration of
Ubaldo Bregolini upon the death of Angelo
Emo.

In the Caffe della Spaderia, kept by
Marco Ancilloto, some radicals proposed to

1 Molnipnti, Pompeo. La Btoria di Venezia nella
Vita Privata. Bergamo, 1908. (pt 3 : p. 245.)

ALL ABOUT COFFEE

open a rcadiiifr-room to encourage the
spread of liberal ideas. The inquisitors
sent a foot-soldier to notify the proprietor
that he should inform the first person en-
tering the room that he was to present him-
self before their tribunal. The idea was
thereupon abandoned.

Among other celebrated coffee houses
was the one called Menegazzo, from the
name of the rotund proprietor, Menico.
This place was much frequented by men
of letters ; and heated discussions were com-

GoLDONi IN A Venetian Caffe
From a painting by P. Longhi

mon there between Angelo Maria Barbaro,
Lorenzo da Ponte, and others of their time.

The coffee house gradually became the
common resort of all classes. In the morn-
ings came the merchants, lawyers, physi-
cians, brokers, workers, and wandering ven-
ders; in the afternoons, and until the late
hours of the nights, the leisure classes, in-
cluding the ladies.

For the most part, the rooms of the first
Italian caffe were low, simple, unadorned,
without windows, and only poorly illumi-
nated by tremulous and uncertain lights.
Within them, however, joyous throngs
passed to and fro, clad in varicolored gar-
ments, men and women chatting in groups
here and there, and always above the buzz
there were to be heard such choice bits of

scandal as made worthwhile a visit to the
coffee house. Smaller rooms were devoted
to gaming.

In the "little square" described by Gol-
doni ^ in his comedy The Coffee House,
where the combined barber-shop and gam-
bling house was located, Don Marzio, that
marvelous type of slanderous old romancer,
is shown as one typical of the period, for
Goldoni was a satirist. The other charac-
ters of the play were also drawn from the
types then to be seen every day in the
coffee houses on the Piazza.

In the square of St. Mark's, in the eigh-
teenth century, under the Procuratie Vec-
chie, were the caffe Re di Francia, Abbon-
danza, Pitt. I'eroe, Regina d'Uiigheria,
Orfeo, Redentore. Coraggio - Speranza,
Arco Celeste, and Quadri. The last-named
was opened in 1775 by Giorgio Quadri of
Corfu, who served genuine Turkish coffee
for the first time in Venice.

Under the Procuratie Nuove were to be
found the caffe Angelo Custode, Duca di
Toscana, Buon genio - Doge, Imperatore
Imperatrice della Russia, Tamerlano, Fon-
tane di Diana, Dame Venete, Aurora Piante
d'oro, Arabo - Piastrelle, Pace, Venezia
trionfante, and Florian.

Probably no coffee house in Europe ha.s
acquired so world-wide a celebrity as that
kept by Florian, the friend of Canova the
sculptor, and the trusted agent and ac-
quaintance of hundreds of persons in and
out of the city, who found him a mine of
social information and a convenient city
directory. Persons leaving Venice left
their cards and itineraries with him ; and
new-comers inquired at Florian 's for tid-
ings of those whom they wished to see,
"He long concentrated in himself a knowl-
edge more varied and multifarious than
that possessed by any individual before or
since," says Hazlitt^ who has given us
this delightful pen picture of caffe life in
Venice in the eighteenth century:

Venetian coffee was said to surpass all others,
and the article placed before his visitors by
Florian was the best in Venice. Of some of the
establishments as they then existed, Molmenti
lias supplied us with illustrations, in one of
which Goldoni the dramatist is represented as
a visitor, and a female mendicant is soliciting
alms.

So cordiftl -was the esteem of the great sculp-
tor Canova for him, that when Florian was

= Goldoni, Carlo. La Bottegn di Caffe. IToO.
=• Hazlitt, W. Carew. The Venetian Republic. Lon-
don, 1905. (vol. 2: pp. 1012-15.)

COFFEE IN WESTERN EUROPE

Flokian's Famous Cafkk in the Piazza di San Marco, Venice, Nineteenth Century

overtaken by gout, he made a model of his
leg. that the poor fellow might be spared the
anguish of fitting himself with boots. The
friendsliip had begun when Canova was enter-
ing on liis career, and he never forgot the
.substantial services which had been rendered
to him in the hour of need.

In later days, the Cafife Florian was under
the superintendence of a female chef, and the
waitresses used, in the case of certain visitors,
to fasten a liower in the button-hole, perhaps
allusively to the name. In the Piazza Itself
girls would do the same thing. A good deal of
hospitality is, and has ever been, dispensed at
Venice in the caf6s and restaurants, which do
service for the domestic hearth.

There were many other establishments de-
voted, more especially in the latest period of
Venetian independence, to the requirements of
those wlio desired such resorts for purposes of
conversation and gossip. These houses were
frequented by various classes of patrons — the
patrician, the politician, the soldier, the artist,
the old and the young — all had their special
haunts where the company and the tariff were
in accordance with the guests. The upper cir-
cles of male society — all above the actually
poor — gravitated hither to a man.

For the Venetian of all ranks the coffee house
was almost the last place visited on departure
from the city, and the first visited on his re-
turn. His domicile was the residence of his
wife and the repository of his possessions; but
only on exceptional occasions was it the scene
of domestic hospitality, and rare were the in-
stances when the husband and wife might be
seen abroad together, and when the former

would invite the lady to enter a cafe or a con-
fectioner's shop to partake of an ice.

The Caffe Florian has undergone man^^
changes, but it still survives as one of the
favorite caffe in the Piazza San Marco.

By 1775 coffee-house history had begun
to repeat itself in Venice. Charges of im-
morality, vice, and corruption, were pre-
ferred against the caffe; and the Council
of Ten in 1775, and again in 1776, directed
the Inquisitors of State to eradicate these
' ' social cankers. ' ' However, they survived
all attempts of the reformers to suppress
them.

The Caffe Pedrocchi in Padua was an-
other of the early Italian coffee houses that
became famous. Antonio Pedrocchi (1776-
1852) was a lemonade- vender who, in the
hope of attracting the gay youth, the stu-
dents of his time, bought an old house with
the idea of converting the ground floor
into a series of attractive rooms. He put
all his ready money and all he could borrow
into the venture, only to find there were
no cellars, indispensable for making ices
and beverages on the premises, and that the
walls and floors were so old that they
crumbled when repairs were started.

He was in despair ; but, nothing daunted,
he decided to have a cellar dug. What was

ALL ABOUT COt^FEE

his surprise to find the house was built
over the vault of an old church, and that
the vault contained considerable treasure.
The lucky proprietor found himself free to
continue his trade of lemonade-vender and
coffee-seller, or to live a life of ease. Being
a wise man, he adhered to his original plan ;
and soon his luxurious rooms became the
favorite rendezvous for the smart set of
his day. In this period lemonade and cof-
fee frequently went together. The Gaffe
Pedrocchi is considered one of the finest
pieces of architecture erected in Italy in
the nineteenth century. It was begun in
1816, opened in 1831, and completed in
1842.

Coffee houses were early established in
other Italian cities, particularly in Rome,
Florence, and Genoa.

In 1764, 11 Cajfe, a purely philosophical
and literary periodical, made its appear-
ance in Milan, being founded by Gount
Pietro Verri (1728-97). Its chief editor
was Gesare Beccaria. Its object was to
counteract the influence and superficiality
of the Arcadians. It acquired its title from
the fact that Gount Verri and his friends
were wont to meet at a coffee house in
Milan kept by a Greek named Demetrio. It
lived only two years.

Other periodicals of the same name ap-
peared at later periods.

■4

Chapter V

THE BEGINNINGS OF COFFEE IN FRANCE

What French travelers did for coffee — The introduction of coffee
hy P. de la Roque into Marseilles in 1644 — The first commercial
importation of coffee from Egypt — The first French coffee house —
Failure of the attempt hy physicians of Marseilles to discredit
coffee — Soliman Aga introduces coff'ee into Paris — Cabarets a
caffe — Celebrated works on coffee hy French writers

WE are indebted to three great French
travelers for much valuable knowl-
edge about coffee; and these gal-
lant gentlemen first fired the imagination
of the French people in regard to the bev-
erage that was destined to play so impor-
tant a part in the French revolution. They
are Tavernier (1605 - 89), Thevenot (1633 -
67), and Bernier (1625-88).

Then there is Jean La Roque (1661-
1745), who made a famous "Voyage to
Arabia the Happy" {Voyage de rArabie
Heureuse) in 1708 - 13 and to whose father,
P. de la Roque, is due the honor of having
brought the first coffee into France in 1644.
Also, there is Antoine Galland (1646 -
1715), the French Orientalist, first trans-
lator of the Arabian Nights and antiquary
to the king, who, in 1699, published an an-
alysis and translation from the Arabic of
the Abd-al-Kadir manuscript (1587), giv-
ing the first authentic account of the origin
of coffee.

Probably the earliest reference to coffee
in France is to be found in the simple
statement that Onorio Belli (Bellus), the
Italian botanist and author, in 1596 sent to
Charles de I'ficluse (1526 - 1609), a French
physician, botanist and traveler, "seeds
used by the Egyptians to make a liquid
they call cave.^"

P. de la Roque accompanied M. de la
Haye, the French ambassador, to Constan-

• Jardin, fidelestan. Le Caf&icr vt le Caji. I'aris,
1895. (p. 16 )

tinople; and afterward traveled into the
Levant. Upon his return to Marseilles in
1644, he brought with him not only some
coffee, but "all the little implements used
about it in Turkey, which were then looked
upon as great curiosities in France. ' ' There
were included in the coffee service some
findjans, or china dishes, and small pieces
of muslin embroidered with gold, silver,
and silk, which the Turks used as napkins.

Jean La Roque gives credit to Jean de
Thevenot for introducing coffee privately
into Paris in 1657, and for teaching the
French how to use coffee.

De Thevenot writes in this entertaining
fashion concerning the use of the drink :u
Turkey in the middle of the seventeenth
century :

They have another drink in ordinary use.
Tliey call it cahve and take it all hours of the
day. This drink is made from a berry roasted
in a pan or other utensil over the fire. They
pound it into a very fine powder.

When they wish to drink it, they take a boiler
made expressly for the purpose, which they call
an ibrik; and having filled it with water, they
let it boil. When it boils, they add to about
three cups of water a heaping spoonful of the
powder ; and when it boils, they remove it
quickly from the fire, or sometimes they stir it,
otherwise it would boil over, as it rises very
quickly. When it has boiled up thus ten or
twelve times, they pour it into porcelain cups,
which they place upon a platter of painted wood
and bring it to you thus boiling.

One must drink it hot, but in several instal-
ments, otherwise it is not good. One takes it in

ALL ABOUT COFFEE

little swallows ' for fear of burning one's self —
in such fashion that in a cavekane (so they call
the places where it is sold ready prepared), one
hears a plea.saiit little musical sucking sound.
. . . There are some who mix with it a small
quantity of cloves and cardamom seeds ; others
add sugar.

It was really out of curiosity that the
[)e()ple of France took to coffee, says Jar-

VO Y AG E

D E
L'ARABIE HEUREUSE.

PAR L OCEAN ORIENTAL,

5£ Ic Dctioit dc la Mcr Rouge. Fau par
Ics Fran^oji pout U premiere fbis, dans
les anncci 1708,170^^6^1710.

AVEC LA RELATION PA RTICULIERE
d'un Voyage fait du Pott de Mcka a laCour du
Roy d'Yemcn , dans la feconde Expedition dc$
annees 1711, 1711 & 1713.

UN ME MOIRE CONCERNANT L'ARERE
Sc le Fruit du Cafe , dfc (Te fur ks Obfervations
de ceux qui ont fait cc dernier Voyage. Et un
Traitc hiftonque de Toi igine & du progfcs du
Cafe, tant dans lAfie que dans 'Europe ; de Con
introduftion en France, & de rctiblmemcnt dc
fon ufagc a Paris.

A PARIS,

Chez A N D R E^ C A 1 L L F. A u, fur Ic Quay dcj
Auguftins, p;es la rue Pavec , a Saint Andre.

M D C C X V L
^vtc jipprobmon , ^& Privilege du R»y,

Title Page of La Roque's Work, 1716

din; "they wanted to know this Oriental
beverage, so much vaunted, although its
blackness at first sight was far from attrac-
tive."

About the year 1660 several merchants
of Marseilles, who had lived for a time in
the Levant and felt they were not able to
do without coffee, brought some coffee beans
home with them; and later, a group of
apothecaries and other merchants brought
in the first commercial importation of eof-

^ "Drop by drop they take it in," said Cotoviciis.

fee in bales from Egypt. The Lyons mer-
chants soon followed suit, and the use of
coffee became general in those parts. In
1671 certain private persons opened a cof-
fee house in Marseilles, near the Exchange,
which at once became popular with mer-
chants and travelers. Others started up,
and all were crowded. The people did not,
however, drink any the less at home. "In
fine," says La Roque, "the use of the bev-
erage increased so amazingly that, as was
inevitable, the physicians became alarmed,
"thinking it would not agree with the in-
habitants of a country hot and extremely
dry."

The age-old controversy was on. Some
sided with the physicians, others opposed
them, as at Mecca, Cairo, and Constanti-
nople; only here the argument turned
mainly on the medicinal question, the
Church this time having no part in the
dispute. "The lovers of coffee used the
physicians very ill when they met together,

Poj.^jS.

^^rh.re' Ail Cn/c dcj'sniii en.

.'ir/xhit j->ir h }7an%rcf.

' TA.-n^^U J-c,

The Coffee Tree as Pictured by La Roque in
His "Voyage de l'Arabie Heureuse"

and the physicians on their side threatened
the coft'ee drinkers with all sorts of dis-
eases. ' '

Matters came to a head in 1679, when
an ingenious attempt by the physicians of

ALL ABOUT COFFEE

A CLOSE-UP OF RIPE COFFEE BERRIES

BEGINNINGS IN FRANCE

Marseilles to discredit coffee took the form
of having a young student, about to be ad-
mitted to the College of Physicians, dis-
pute before the magistrate in the town hall,
a question proposed by two physicians of
the Faculty of Aix, as to whether coffee was
or was not prejudicial to the inhabitants of
Marseilles.

The thesis recited that coffee had won
the approval of all nations, had almost
wholly put down the use of wine, although
it was not to be compared even with the
lees of that excellent beverage; that it was
a vile and worthless foreign novelty ; that
its claim to be a remedy against distempers
was ridiculous, because it was not a bean
but the fruit of a tree discovered by goats
and camels; that it was hot and not cold,
as alleged; that it burned up the blood,
and so induced palsies, impotence, and
leanness ; ' ' from all of which we must nec-
essarily conclude that coffee is hurtful to
the greater part of the inhabitants of Mar-
seilles. ' '

Thus did the good doctors of the Faculty
of Aix set forth their prejudices, and this
was their final decision upon coffee. Many
thought they overreached themselves in
their misguided zeal. They were handled
somewhat roughly in the disputation, which
disclosed many false reasonings, to say
nothing of blunders as to matters of fact.
The world had already advanced too far to
have another decision against coffee count
for much, and this latest effort to stop its
onward march was of even less force than
the diatribes of the Mohammedan priests.
The coffee houses continued to be as much
frequented as before, and the people drank
no less coffee in their homes. Indeed, the
indictment proved a boomerang, for con-
sumption received such an impetus that the
merchants of Lyons and Marseilles, for the
first time in history, began to import green
coffee from the Levant by the ship-load in
order to meet the increased demand.

Meanwhile, in 1669, Soliman Aga, the
Turkish ambassador from Mohammed IV to
the court of Louis XIV, had arrived in
Paris. He brought with him a considerable
quantity of coffee, and introduced the cof-
fee drink, made in Turkish style, to the
French capital.

The ambassador remained in Paris only
from July, 1669, to May, 1670, but long
enough firmly to establish the custom he
had introduced. Two years later, Pascal,

4 . AtyoM. tfp^s/U

A Coffee Branch With Flowers and Fruit

AS iLLUSTItATED IN La ROQUE'S "VoYAGE
DE L'ArABIE HeUREUSE"

an Armenian, opened his coffee-drinking
booth at the fair of St.-Germain, and this
event marked the beginning of the Parisian
coffee houses. The story is told in detail
in chapter XI.

The custom of drinking coffee having
become general in the capital, as well as
in Marseilles and Lyons, the example was
followed in all the provinces. Every city
soon had its coffee houses, and the beverage
was largely consumed in private homes. La
Roque writes: "None, from the meanest
citizen to the persons of the highest quality,
failed to use it every morning or at least
soon after dinner, it being the custom like-
wise to offer it in all visits."

"The persons of highest quality" en-
couraged the fashion of having cabarets a
caffe; and soon it was said that there could
be seen in France all that the East could
furnish of magnificence in coffee houses,
"the china jars and other Indian furniture

ALL ABOUT COFFEE

being richer and more valuable than the
gold and silver with which they were lav-
ishly adorned."

In 1671 there appeared in Lyons a book
entitled The Most Excellent Virtues of the
Mulberry, Called Coffee, showing the need
for an authoritative work on the subject —
a need that was ably filled that same year
and in Lyons by the publication of Philippe
Sylvestre Dufour's admirable treatise,
Concerning the Use of Coffee, Tea, and
Chocolate. Again at Lyons, Dufour pub-
lished (1684) his more complete work on
The Manner of Making Coffee, Tea, and
Chocolate. This was followed (1715) by
the publication in Paris of Jean La Roque 's
Voyage de I' Arabic Heureuse, containing
the story of the author's journey to the
court of the king of Yemen in 1711, a de-
scription of the coffee tree and its fruit,
and a critical and historical treatise on its
first use and introduction to France.

La Roque 's description of his visit to the
king's gardens is interesting because it
shows the Arabs still held to the belief that
coffee grew only in Arabia. Here it is :

There was nothing remarkable in the King's
Gardens, except the great pains taken-to furnish
it with all the kinds of trees that are common
in the country ; amongst which there were the
cofifee trees, the finest that could be had. When
the deputies represented to the King how much
that was contrary to the custom of the Princes
of Europe (who endeavor to stock their gardens

chiefly with the rarest and most uncommon
plants that can be found) the King returned
them this answer: That he valued himself as
much upon his good taste and generosity as any
Prince in Europe ; the coffee tree, he told them,
was indeed common in his country, but it was
not tlie less dear to him upon that account ; the
perpetual verdure of it pleased him extremely;
and also the thoughts of its producing a fruit
which was nowhere else to be met with ; and
when he made a present of that that came from
his own Gardens, it was a great satisfaction to
him to be able to say that he had planted the
trees that produced it with his own hands.

The first merchant licensed to sell coffee
in France was one Damame Frangois, a
bourgeois of Paris, who secured the privi-
lege through an edict of 1692. He was
given the sole right for ten years to sell
coffees and teas in all the provinces and
towns of the kingdom, and in all territories
under the sovereignty of the king, and re-
ceived also authority to maintain a ware-
house.

To Santo Domingo (1738) and other
French colonies the caf6 was soon trans-
ported from the homeland, and thrived un-
der special license from the king.

In 1858 there appeared in France a leaf-
let-periodical, entitled The Cafe, Literary,
Artistic, and Commercial. Ch. Woinez, the
editor, said in announcing it: "The Salon
stood for privilege, the Caf6 stands for
equality." Its publication was of short
duration.

Chapter VI
THE INTRODUCTION OF COFFEE INTO ENGLAND

The first printed reference to coffee in English — Early mention of
coffee by noted English travelers and writers — The Lacedaemonian
''black broth'' controversy — How Conopios introduced coffee drink-
ing at Oxford — The first English coffee house in Oxford — Two
English botanists on coffee

ENGLISH travelers and writers of the
sixteenth and seventeenth centuries
were quite as enterprising as their
Continental contemporaries in telling about
the coffee bean and the coffee drink. The
first printed reference to coffee in English,
however, appears as chaoua in a note by
a Dutchman, Paludanus, in Linschoten's
Travels, the title of an English translation
from the Latin of a work first published in
Holland in 1595 or 1596, the English edi-
tion appearing in London in 1598. A re-
production made from a photograph of the
original work, with the quaint black-letter
German text and the Paludanus notation in
roman, is shown herewith.

Hans Hugo (or John Huygen) Van Lin-
sehooten (1563 - 1611) was one of the most
intrepid of Dutch travelers. In his de-
scription of Japanese manners and cus-
toms we find one of the earliest tea refer-
ences. He says:

Their manner of eating and drinking is : everie
man hatli a table alone, without table-clothes
or napkins, and eateth with two pieces of wood
like the men of Chino : they drinke wine of Rice,
wherewith they drink themselves drunke, and
after their meat they use a certain drinke, which
4s a pot with bote water, which they drinke
as bote as ever they may indure, whether it be
Winter or Summer.

Just here Bernard Ten Broeke Paludanus
(1550-1633), Dutch savant and author,
professor of philosophy at the University
of Leyden, himself a traveler over the four
quarters of the globe, inserts his note con-
taining the coffee reference. He says:

The Turks holde almost the same manner of
drinking of their Chaona \ which they make of
certalne fruit, which is like unto the Bakelaer ^
and by the Egyptians called Bon or Ban:' : they
take of this fruite one pound and a half, and
roast them a little in the fire and then sieth
them in twenty .pounds of water, till the half
be consumed away : this drinke they take every
morning fasting in their chambers, out of an
earthen pot, being verie bote, as we doe here
drinke aqiKwmnposita* in the morning : and they
say that it strengtheneth and maketh them
warme, breaketh wind, and openeth any stop-
ping.

Van Linsohooten then completes his tea
reference by saying:

Tlie manner of dressing their meat is alto-
gether contrarie unto other nations: the afore-
said warme water is made with the powder of
a certaine hearbe called Chaa, which is much
esteemed, and is well accounted among them.

The chaa is, of course, tea, dialect t'eh.

In 1599, *'Sir" Antony (or Anthony)
Sherley (1565 - 1630), a picturesque gentle-
man-adventurer, the first Englishman to
mention coffee drinking in the Orient, sailed
from Venice on a kind of self-appointed,
informal Persian mission, to invite the shah
to ally himself with the Christian princes
against the Turks, and incidentally, to pro-
mote English trade interests in the East.
The English government knew nothing of
the arrangement, disavowed him, and for-
bade his return to England. However, the

1 Misprinted thus in the original Dutch and here
Read Chaoua, i. e., Arabic qahwah.

* Laurel berry, of which the taste is bitter and
disagreeable. From Latin bacca lauri.

' Arabic, iunn ; coffee berries.

* Brandewijn in original Dutch.

3i5

ALL ABOUT COFFEE

expedition got t() Persia; and the account
of the voyage thither was written by Will-
iam Parry, one of the Sherley party, and
was published in London in 1601. It is
interesting because it contains the first
printed reference to coffee in English em-
ploying the more modem form of the word.
The original reference was photographed
for this work in the Worth Library of the
British Museum, and is reproduced here-
with on page 39.

The passage is part of an account of the
manners and customs of the Turks (who.
Parry says, are "damned infidells") in
Aleppo. It reads:

Tliey sit at tlieir meat (which is served to
them upon the ground) as Tailers sit upon their
stalls, crosse-legd ; for the most part, passing
the day in banqueting and carowsing, untill they
surfet, drinking a eertaine lifpior, which they
do call Coffc, which is made of seede nuich like
mustard seede, which will soone intoxicate the
braine like our Metheglin."

Another early English reference to coffee,
wherein the word is spelled "coffa", is in
Captain John Smith's book of Travels and
Adventure, published in 1603. He says of
the Turks : ' ' Their best drink is coff'a of a
graine they call coava.'^

This is the same Captain John Smith who
in 1607 became the founder of the Colony
of Virginia and brought with him to Amer-
ica probably the earliest knowledge of the
beverage given to the new Western world.

Samuel Purchas (1527-1626), an early
English collector of travels, in Purchas His
Pilgrimes, under the head of ' ' Observations
of William Finch, merchant, at Socotra"
(Sokotra — an island in the Indian Ocean)
in 1607, says of the Arab inhabitants :

Tlieir best entertainment is a china dish of
Coho, a blacke bitterisli drinke, made of a berry
like a baybei'ry, brought from Mecca, supped
off hot, good for the head and stomache."

Still other early and favorite English
references to coffee are those to be found in
the Travels of William Biddulph. - This
work was, published in 1609. It is entitled
The Travels of Certayne Englishmen in
Africa, Asia, etc. . . Begunne in 1600
and by some of them finished — this yeere
1608. These references are also reproduced
herewith from the black-letter originals
in the British Museum (see page 40).

Biddulph 's description of the drink, and
of the coffee-house customs of the Turks,

was the first detailed account to be written
by an Englishman. It also appears in
Purchas His Pilgrimes (1625). But, to
quote :

Tlieir most common drinke is Coffa, which is
a blacke kinde of drinke, made of a kind of
I'ulse like Pease, called Coaua; which being
grownd in the Mill, and boiled in water, they
drinke it as hot as they can suffer it ; which they
tinde to agree very well with them against their
crudities, and feeding on hearbs and rawe
meates. Other compounded drinkes they have,
called Sherbet, made of Water and Sugar, or
Hony, with Snow therein to make it coole; for
although the Countrey bee hot, yet they keepe
Snow all the yeere long to coole their drinke.
It is accounted a great curtesie amongst them
to give unto their frends when they come to
visit them, a Fin-ion or Scudella of Coffa, which
is more holesome than toothsome, for it causeth
good concoction, and driveth away drovvsinesse.

Some of them will also drinke Bersh or
Opium, which maketh them forget themselves,
and talk idely of Castles in the Ayre, as though
they saw Visions, and heard Revelations. Tlieir
Coffa liouses are more common than Ale-houses
in England ; but they use not so much to sit
in the houses, as on benches on both sides the
streets, neere unto a Coffa house, every man
with his Fin-ionful ; which being smoking
hot, they use to put it to their Noses & Eares,
and then sup it off by leasure, being full of
idle and Ale-house talke vk^hiles they are amongst
themselves drinking it ; if there be any news,
it is talked of there.

Among other early English references to
coffee we find an interesting one by Sir
George Sandys (1577 - 1644), the poet, who
gave a start to classical scholarship in Amer-
ica by translating Ovid's Metamorphoses
during his pioneer days in Virginia. In
1610 he spent a year in Turkey, Egypt, and
Palestine, and records of the Turks : '

Although they be destitute of Taverns, yet
have they their Coffa-houses, which something
resemble them. There sit they chatting most
of the day; and sippe of a drinke called Coffa
(of the berry that it is made of) in little China
dishes as hot as they can suffer it: blacke as
soote, and tasting not much unlike it (why not
that Wacke broth which was in use amongst
the Lacedemonians^) which helpeth, as they
say, digestion, and procureth alacrity : many of
the Cofta-men keeping beautiful! boyes, who
serve as stales to procure them customers.

Edward Terry (1590-1660), an English
traveler, writes, under date of 1616, that
many of the best people in India who are
strict in their religion and drink no wine
at all, "use a liquor more wholesome than
pleasant, they call coffee ; made by a black
Seed boyld in water, which turnes it almost

" Mead.

• Purchas His Pilgrimes.

London, 1625.

' Sandys, Sir George.
1673. (p. 66.)

Sandys' Travels. London,

INTRODUCTION INTO ENGLAND

£)ftl)e3ilanD5aptirt.

rr.rclohrs tuijctt \0c mcanc to goe ab;o<iD

tuto t1)c totunc 0; countnc, tbcp put tbcin off

Ui7]rn tbrp goc fo:tb, putting oti great IvpDc

l):ffrbc0,aijo r cinmg borne tbep put tbem off

aijiim, miD cnft tl)circloUc0\)pon tbctr fljotU*

set saiiQ as among ottiernatioiw it ui a gso

figl)t to fa men iwtb Uibitc nno pcaloU) bap;c

aiiD luliitc tiTtb,ta)itb tbem it to eaocmco the

6ltbufttbm;intbe U)0:[8, anD fixKe biNiU

inrancothci'uiaplo nwhe t5)cir bapjc aiiD

trtrtbblathc, fc: tb.u tbc tobite caufetb tbctr

(tricf,anotbc bUchc mahctb tbcm glafi. Ebc

ItUc cuSomc IS among tbe Uionir n, fo} n0

tbc>>gocab:eaDtbcpbduc tbfir Daugbterst

inapDca brfojc tbcni, ano tbcir men feruants

tome bebmfi,vu'.ncb m Spjignc ie cleanecon-

traric, raiD UJben tbcp arc great luitb rtjitec,

tbci' tr e tbctr girblcs fo bare about tbctti,tbat

men icculD tbtn^e tbcp Qjulu burlt , an&

U)bcn tbcp arc not luttb CbilDc , tijcp

locate tbcir gtrDIcs fo fl,ichc, tbat pou U)oulo

tbmhc tbcp luonlD fall from tbe ir boOicc,fap;

tngtbstL'i'ri-pincncc tbcp Co finCc, iftbcp

UoulD not Cce fo,tbcp fljoulo bauc eutll lucKe

iuitb tbfJr fruicr, ano pjcfcntip as fcone as

tbcp arc DeUttcreD of tbeirebilorn, inftfrD tf

. tbi.n(l>;n5 botb tU motber ana tbe cbilo iwtb

fomc f omfo:tablc meat, tbcp p;cfentlp UJaCb

tbeclwlDcmcoU) toater, aniifo;ntime giue

tbe mctbrr ^rp Utile to eate, anu tbat of no

great fubQance.SLbeir manner of eating an»

c:mhiiis 10: Cuetiem«t batb a table ^alonc,

iDittjout tablc-clotbcsoj naphtns,anOcatetb

iDitbtUJo ports of lDQji3,liUetbcmenofClii'

11.V, tbep D;mkc iuinc of Hice, tobcreimtb

tbep Dimh tbemfclurs D;unhe,an6 after tbcir

tncattbcp tfea rertatne Ojmkc, lubirbisa

pot tuitb bote toater , lublcb tbep ti:mKe as

botcaseuerttjepmapmourc, laijctberitbe

©amtcro} Summer.

^nnotjt .'^'''^ Turkcs holdc -alinoll the f.inic
D.I'ilJ. ' i^'^ncofdrinkinq; of their ^i;4*«/»,wlucli
• .' tlicy make of ccrtainc fruit, which is like
xntothc'SAli^/Aer ^ iiid by the Egyptians
called 5«fl or S4«; they takcof this huuc
one pound and a half, androall thcnia
little ill the fire, and then ficth theiu in
twentic poundcs of water, till the half
beconfuuiedatvay.- this dnnketliey take
ciierie uiorning/a'rtin^ in their chambers ,
out ofan earthen pot, being vcric liote,
as we doe here dr i nkc aqHacemftfitm i n the
morning: and tlicy fay that it flrcngthcn.
ethandmakcth tliem warmc, breakcth
\vind,sndopencfh aiiv ffoppinsj.

Ebc mannrt of Djeamg tbefr imat i& al«
togptljcr coittrartc twto otticr nation»:tl)t «u
ft^efiitt) tDonm tuater tsmafee tmtl Vtn po\»
tarofaccrtalne ftcacbcealkt> Chaa, tobicti
temutfjeOfftneft, anhts toll WMonte^of
Tht i^ookt.

among tbcm,anDal fittb ns a»t? of an? ccwt'
trnance oj babflitic bauc tbe faio toater Itcpt
foj tbcm m a ferret plire, aiio tbe gentlemen
make It tbemfelues, aiiD toben tbr? totU en-
tcrtamcanp of tbcir fnencs. tbrp giue bun
fome of tbat toamte luater to ojmkc: fo; tbe
pots toliercm tbep fietbit, ano uibcrcmlbc
bcarbc is kept, tuittj tbe eartben cups tobieb
tbcp D?uihc It «i . tbcp cttocmc as mucb of
tbem.os lucooeof Diamants.Uubies ano O'
tber precious Hones, ano tbep are not el!a>
mcOfo;tbe(r nciunes, but fo: tbctr oltmes,
ano fo; tbat tbcp tocre maoc bp a geD too;k-
man: anotoknotoanDlicepcfucbbptbem'
fclucs, tbep tahc great anO fpeciall care, as
alfo of fucb as arc tbe \xilctocrs of tbcm,
ano are fhilfiill in tbcm , as luitb t)s tbe
golofmttb p:ifetb ano tialuetb Glurr ano goto,
ano tbe ieVueltcrs all kinoes of pjccious
ttonrs: foiftbnrpotsicbppesbc ol^an olO
i eicellet U)o:hmasmahing,tbcparc tooitii
4 0; 5 tboufaO Cutats 0: mo;e ttjepcccc.SSIjt
iiing oiB\.wz,n oto giue fs:fucb a pot,bautn9
tb;(cfttt, 14 tboufano Ducats, ano a lapan
beuig a Cb;itliun in tbe tolon of Sacay^gaue
fo; fiub a pot 1 400 &ucats , anti pet It bao ?
pfcceo \jpon it . "Cbcp Doe liftetoifc eOcettv
mucb of onp picture 0; table, tobrrem ispain^
teoablachetrtr, o;ablncKebtrO. attOto^
ti]ep tooloeittsmaoc ofU]a3D,nnlbpanMi<
tlent % cuntng matttcr,tbep guie tobatfoctKt
pou iDill afUe fo: it. 3t bappenctb fome tunes
tt}at fucb a piitiire 10 folD fo; 3 st 4 tbetifano
Ducats ant) mo:e. Ebepalfoelttemcmucti
of a gooo rapier, mafic bp an olo anD cunnmg
inaifter.fwb a one manp times coftetb % oj *
4 tboufano Crotons tbe pcrce. Ebefe tbmgs
Doe tbcp hff epe anD cftcrmc fo; tbcir Jclods,
as W cftamc our Jetof Is t p;eaous flones*
llnDtobcntoc aftetijem \xA)v tbepcttarme
tl)emfo mucb .tbcp afKcbsagamc, Uibptoe
efttcmcfo UicU of our p;c£iaiis ftoncs f ietD«
els, U)t)trtbp tbcrc is not unv p;oftte to be
baD anD ferue to no ottjcr ufr, tbcit oirtp fo; a
fl)tU)c, 5 tbat tbcir tbliigs ferue to fome cnb.
Cbeir JufhceanDgoucnimcnt \i asfoU
Iotoctb:€bcir kings arc callcDlacuay, anD
'are abfolutclv Li^os of tbe lanD , nottott^'
ftanoingtbcp kocpcfo; tbemfelues asmn^
as IS neccifarp fo: tftcm anD tbctr ettate, ana
tbe rctt of tbcir lanD tbep ocupDc among 9'
tbers, tobtcb arc callcD Cunixus, ipbicb arc
like our Carles anD Duhe0:tbcfe are appoln*
teffbPtbeUmg, aitDbc taufctb tbcm to go'
ucnur t rule ttje lanD as it plctife tb blm: tbep
arc bouno to feme tijt iitng iis mcU in peace,
as (n toarres, at tbeir otonr c ott j c barges,
acc8;tKn3to tbcu: iiia.it^ nnotfic aunnent
laUits of Upan.^befc c^imuviis bane otbem
tjnDcrtlxwtsUcD lums, UJbubarcliUf our

&,o:ds

FIRST PRINTED REFERENCE TO COFFEE IN ENGLISH, 1598

It appears as Chaona (chaoua) Ju the second line of tbe roman text notation by Paludanus

ALL ABOUT COFFEE

into the same colour, but doth very little
alter the taste of the water [!], notwith-
standing it is very good to help Digestion,
to quicken the Spirits and to cleanse the
Blood."

In 1623, Francis Bacon (1561 - 1626), in
his Historia Vitae et Mortis says: "The
Turkes use a kind of herb which they cali
caphe"; and, in 1624, in his Sylva Syl-
varum ' (published in 1627, after his death) ,
he writes :

They have in Turkey a drink called coffa
made of a berry of the same name, as black as
soot, and of a strong scent, but not aromatical ;
which they take, beaten into powder, in water,
as hot as they can drink it: and they take it,
and sit at it in their coffa-houses, which are like
our taverns. This drink comforteth the brain
and heart, and helpeth digestion. Certainly this
berry coffa, the root and leaf betel, the leaf
tobacco, and the tear of poppy (opium) of which
the Turks are great takers (supposing it ex-
pelleth all fear), do all condense the spirits,'
and make them strong and aleger. But it seerofi-^
eth tli^y wei-e taken after several manners; for^
coffa and opium are taken down, tobacco but
in smoke, and betel is but champed in the mouth
with a little lime.

Robert Burton (1577-1640), English
philosopher and humorist, in his Anatomy
of Melancholy*' writes it 1632:

The Turkes have a drinke called coffa (for
they use no wine), so named of a bei*ry as blacke
as soot and as bitter (like that blacke drinke
which was in use amongst the Lacedemonians
and perhaps the same), which they sip still of,
and sup as warme as they can suffer ; they spend
much time in those coffa-houses, which are
somewhat like our Ale-houses or Taverns, and
there they sit, chatting and drinking, to drive
away the time, and to be merry together, be-
cause they find, by experience, that kinde of
drinke so used, helpeth digestion and procureth
alacrity.

Later English scholars, however, found
sufficient evidence in the works of Arabian
authors to assure their readers that coffee
sometimes breeds melancholy, causes head-
ache, and "maketh lean much." One of
these, Dr. Pocoke, (1659: see chapter TIT)
stated that, "he that would drink it for
livelinesse sake, and to discusse slothful-
nesse ... let him use much sweet
meates with it, and oyle of pistaceioes, and
butter. Some drink it with milk, but it is
an error, and such as may bring in danger
of the leprosy." Another writer observed
that any ill effects caused by coffee, unlike

• Bacon, Francis. Sylva Sylvarum. London, 1627.
(vol. v: p. 26.)

» Burton. Robert. The Anatomy o1 Melancholy.
Oxford, 1632. (pt. 2 : sec. 5 : p. 397.) This reference
does not appear m the earlier editions of 1621, 24, 28.

those of tea, etc., ceased when its use was
discontinued. In this connection it is in-
teresting to note that in 1785 Dr. Benjamin
Mosely, physician to the Chelsea Hospital,
member of the College of Physicians, etc.,
probably having in mind the popular idea
that the Arabic original of the word coffee
meant force, or vigor, once expressed the
hope that the coffee drink might return to
popular favor in England as "a cheap
substitute for those enervating teas and
beverages which produce the pernicious
habit of dram-drinking."

About 1628, Sir Thomas Herbert (1606 -
1681), En^ish traveler and writer, records
among his observations on the Persians
that:

"They drink above all the rest Coho or Copha :

by Turk and Arab called Caphe and Cahua: a

' drink imitating that in the Stigian lake, black,

thick, and bitter: destrain'd from Bunchi/,

liunnu, or Bay berries; wholesome, they say,

if hot, for it expels melancholy . . . but not so

Jimuch regarded for those good properties, as

•■■tfrom a Romance that it was invented and

brew'd by Gabriel . . . to' restore the decayed

radical 'Moysfcure of kind hearted Mahomet."

In 1634, Sir Henry Blount (1602-82),
sometimes referred to as "the father of the
English coffee house, ' ' made a journey on a
Venetian galley into the Levant. He was
invited to drink cauphe in the presence of
Amurath IV; and later, in Egypt, he tells
of being served the beverage again "in a
porcelaine dish". This is how he describes
the drink in Turkey : "

They have another drink not good at meat,
called Cauphe, made of a Berry as big as a
small Bean, dried in a Furnace, and beat to
Ponder, of a Soot-colour, in taste a little bit-
terish, that they seeth and drink as hot as may
be endured : It is good all hours of the day,
but especially morning and evening, when to
that purpose, they entertain themselves two or
three hours in Cauphe-houses, which in all Tur-
key abound more than Inns and Ale-houses with
us ; it is thought to be the old black broth used
so much by the Lacedemonians, and dryeth ill
Humours in the stomach, comforteth the Brain,
never causeth Drunkenness or any other Sur-
feit, and is a harmless entertainment of good
Fellowship; for there upon Scaffolds half a
yard high, and covered with Mats, they sit
Cross-leg'd after the Turkish manner, many
times two or three hundred together, talking,
and likely with some poor musick passing up
and down.

This reference to the Lacedaemonian black
broth, first by Sandys, then by Burton,

" Herbert. Sir T. Travels. London, ed. 1638.
(p. 241.)

" Blount. Sir Henry. A Voyage Into the Levant,
London. 1671.- (pp. 20, 21, 54, 55, 138, 1.39.)

INTRODUCTION INTO ENGLAND

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40 ALL ABOUT COFFEE

again by Blount, and concurred in by James Although it seems likely that coffee must
Howell (1595-1666), the first historio- have been introduced into England some-
grapher royal, gave rise to considerable time during the first quarter of the seven-
controversy among Englishmen of letters in teenth century, with so many writers and
later years. It is, of course, a gratuitous travelers describing it, and with so much
speculation. The black broth of the Lace- trading going on between the merchants
dsemonians was "pork, cooked in blood and of the British Isles and the Orient, yet the
seasoned with salt and vinegar."" first reliable record we have of its advent

Sl^eti; molt common o^tntie 10 Coi6,lTif)ul^ Coffa,
tea Uadtetnittof o;iritte maoe of afcino of fdulfe like peafe^
cofleoCotua; tD^ being atotxmo in tt)e milUanDbotleD in
imtet^ H^D^mSeitasbot astljep can fuffcc it; taljicl) t\)c^
ftmto agne tieri^Uieatinl!) tbem againtt tljcic auoities ano
iitetat onbeacb^anD catoemeates*

3it t0 occountcD a great cuttt&t amonsS tbem to giue bnto
tlieic f ccnos iDtjen i\)e^ tome to utat tbem,a ifm- ton o^ ^cut^el^
laofCofFa, lD^ut)tduto;etiolefometbant(Dt|irome)fo^ it cao^
fetl) SOD concoction , ano o^iuetb atnav o;»tD(ineaei

^ W^tit Cof{a^ottfe0 ace mo;e common t^mSk-^onttBrn
(i^nglami; butti^ bfenotfomu^tofit in V)t ^onttB us on
bencbe0 on botb Qoe^ tbe ftreets netce bnto a CoSi boufe, euec?
ttian tuitb W if tn*ton ful^ixibicl^beins rmotunsbot^ tf^e; bfe to
put itto ^eit nofes f eaceB, anb tlftn fnpitoff b^Ieadtce, being
fnllof iole anoiaie-boufetalbelubtled tije^ace amongtltt^em^
felues blinking of it ; if tbece be ani> nt\s)Sy it is talbeo of tljere^

Kefekences to Coffee as Found in Kiddulpii's Travels 1G04)
J From the black - letter original in the British Museum

William Harvey (1578-1657), the fa- is to be found in the Diary and Corre-
mous English physician who discovered the spondence of John Evelyn, F. B. S. ",
circulation of the blood, and his brother are under "Notes of 1637", where he says :
reputed to have used coffee before coffee Tiiere came in my time to tine college (Baliol,
houses came into vogue in London — this Oxford) one Natlianiel Conopios. out of Greece,
must have been previous to 1652. "I re- f™m Cyrill, the Patriarch of Constantinople,
TTiPmher" ^savs Anbrev" "be was wont to ^^'^^"' ''^turning many years after was made (as
^^™, ® 'J^^^ f ?V^^ ' ^f ^,^? T 1 ^ understand) Bishop of Smyrna. He was the
dnnke coffee ; which his brother Eliab did, first I ever saw drink cofCee ; which custom
before coffee houses were the fashion in came not into England till thirty years there-
London." Houghton, in 1701, speaks of a^t^i'-

"the famous inventor of the circulation of Evelyn should have said thirteen years

the blood. Dr. Harvey, who some say did after; for then it was that the first coffee

frequently use it." house was opened (1650).
"TTT-.u . r, . rr,. r. .: .■ . . .■ :■ Couoplos was a native of Crete, trained

** Gilbert. Gustav. The Conxtttuttonal Anttqmttes • ii, /-i i x. i tt i •

of Sparta and Athena. London. 1895. (p. 69.) m tile Lrreek ctiurch. He became pnmore

" Aubrev. John. Lives of Eminent Men. London,

1813. (vol. ii : pt. 2 : pp. 384 - 85.) " Works, (vol. iv : p. 389.)

INTRODUCTION INTO ENGLAND

Cyril], Patriarch of Constantinople.

''hen Cyrill was strangled by the vizier,

Jonopios fled to England to avoid a like

jarbarity. He came with credentials to

irchbishop Laud, who allowed him main-

'tenance in Balliol College.

It was observed that while he continued in
Balliol College he made the drink for his own
use called Coffey, and usually drank it every
morninj;:. heiiiR the first, as the antients of that
House have informed me, that was ever drank
in Oxon.^^

In 1640 John Parkinson (1567-1650),
English botanist and herbalist, published

Mol's Coffeie House, Exeter, England,
Now WouTii's Art KoOxMS

his Theatrnm Botanicum^% containing the
first botanical description of the coffee plant

"a Wood, Anthony. Athcnac Oxonicnaea. London,
1692. (vol. il: col. 058.)

" Parkinson. John. Theatruin Botanictim. London,
1640. (p. 1622.)

in English, referred to as ''Arbor Bon cum
sua Buna. The Turkes Berry Drinke".

His work being somewhat rare, it may be
of historical interest to quote the quaint
description here :

Alpinus, in his Booke of Egiptian plants, giv-
eth us a description of this tree, which as hee
saith, hee saw in the garden of a certain Cap-
taine of the lanissarics, which was brought out
of Arabia fclix and there planted as a rarity,
never seene growing in those places before.

Tlie tree, saith Alpinus, is somewhat like unto
the Evonymus Pricketimber tree, whose leaves
were thicker, harder, and greener, and always
abiding greene on the tree; the fruite is called
Buna and is somewhat bigger then an Hazell
Nut and longer, round also, and pointed at the
end, furroweti also on both sides, yet on one
side more conspicuous than the other, tha$ it
might be parted in two, in each side whereof
lyeth a small long white kernell, flat on that
side they joyne together, covered with a yellow-
ish skinne. of an acid taste, and somewhat bit-
ter withall and contained in a thinne shell, of
a darkish ash-color ; with these berries gen-
erally in Arabia and Egipt, and in other places
of the Turkes Dominions, they make a decoc-
tion or drinke. which is in the stead of Wine
to them, and generally sold in all their tappe
houses, called by the name of Caova; Paludatms
saith Chaova, and Ramcolflus Chaube.

This drinke hath many good physical prop-
erties therein ; for it strengtheneth a week
stomacke, helpeth digestion, and the tumors and
obstructions of the liver and spleene, being
drunke fasting for some time together.

In 1650, a certain Jew from Lebanon,
in some accounts Jacob or Jacobs by name,
in others Jobson ", opened "at the Angel
in the parish of St. Peter in the East",
Oxford, the earliest English coffee house
and "there it [coffee] was by some who
delighted in noveltie, drank". Chocolate
was also sold at this first coffee house.

Authorities differ, but the confusion as to
the name of the coffee-house keeper may
have arisen from the fact that there were
two — Jacobs, who began in 1650; and an-
other. Cirques Jobson, a Jewish Jacobite,
who followed him in 1654.

The drink at once attained great favor
among the students. Soon it was in such
demand that about 1655 a society of young
students encouraged one Arthur Tillyard,
' ' apothecary and Royalist, ' ' to sell ' ' coffey
publickly in his house against All Soules
College." It appears that a club composed
of admirers of the young Charles met at
Tillyard's and continued until after the
Restoration. This Oxford Coffee Club was
the start of the Royal Society.

" D'lsraeli. I. Curiosities of Literature. London,
1798. (vol. i : p. 345.)

ALL ABOUT COFFEE

Jacobs removed to Old Southhampton
Buildings, London, where he was in 1671.

Meanwhile, the first coffee house in Lon-
don had been opened by Pasqua Ros^e in
1652 ; and, as the remainder of the story of
coffee's rise iind fall in England centers
around the coffee houses of old London, we
shall reserve it for a separate chapter.

Uf course, the coffee-house idea, and the
use of coffee in the home, quickly spread
to other cities in Great Britain ; but all the
coffee houses were patterned after the Lon-

When the Bishop of Berytus (Beirut)
was on his way to Cochin China in 1666,
he reported that the Turks used coffee to
correct the indisposition caused in the
stomach by the bad water. "This drink,"
he says, "imitates the effect of wine , . .
has not an agreeable taste but rather bitter,
yet it is much used by these people for the
good effects they find therein."

In 1686, John Ray (1628-1704), one of
the most celebrated of English naturalists,
published his Universal History of Plants,

JUthough they be dcftitutc of Taucms,yct hauc they their
CofEhhoufes, which Ibmething refemble them. There fiifthey chatting moil of
the day; ^ fippe of a drinke called Coffii (of the berry that it is made of) in little
Ckmd diiibes, as hoc as they can futfer it : blacke as foote^nd tailing not much W
Iikeic<why.pot that blade broth which was invfeamongft the LucedemoniAns'^)
which helpeth,fe they (ay, digeftion,andprocureth alacrity: many of the Coffa-
DKolce^mgbcautiiuUboyeSjwhoienieasftalesto procure them cii^

Early English Reference to Coffee by Sib Gbx)rge Sandys
From the seventh edition of Sandys' Travels, London, 1673

don model. Mol's coffee house at Exeter,
Devonshire, which is pictured on page 41,
was one of the first coffee houses established
in England, and may be regarded as typical
of those that sprang up in the provinces.
It had previously been a noted club house ;
and the old hall, beautifully paneled with
oak, still displays the arms of noted mem-
bers. Here Sir Walter Ealeigh and con-
genial friends regaled themselves with
smoking tobacco. This was one of the first
places where tobacco was smoked in Eng-
land. It is now an art gallery.

notable among other things for being the
first work of its kind to extol the virtues of -
coffee in a scientific treatise.

R. Bradley, professor of botany at Cam-
bridge, published (1714) A Short Histori-
cal Account of Coffee, all trace of which
appears to be lost.

Dr. James Douglas published in London
(1727) his Arior Yemensis fructum Cofe
ferens; or, a description and History of
the Coffee Tree, in which he laid under
heavy contribution the Arabian and French
writers that had preceded him.

Chapter VII

THE INTRODUCTION OF COFFEE INTO HOLLAND

Hotv the enterprising Dutch traders captured the first world's
market for coffee — Activities of the Netherlands East India Com-
pany — The first coffee house at the Hague — The first public auction
at Amsterdam in 1711, when Java coffee brought forty-seven cents a
pound, green

THE Dutch had early knowledge of
coffee because of their dealings with
the Orient and with the Venetians,
and of their nearness to Germany, where
Rauwolf first wrote about it in 1582. They
were familiar with Alpini's writings on the
subject in 1592. Paludanus, in his coffee
note on Linschoten's Travels, furnished
further enlightenment in 1598.

The Dutch were always great merchants
and shrewd traders. Being of a practical
turn of mind, they conceived an ambition
to grow coffee in their colonial possessions,
so as to make their home markets head-
quarters for a world 's trade in the product.
In considering modern coffee-trading, the
Netherlands East India Company may be
said to be the pioneer, as it established in
Java one of the first experimental gardens
for coffee cultivation.

The Netherlands East India Company
was formed in 1602. As early as 1614,
Dutch traders visited Aden to examine into
the possibilities of coffee and coffee-trad-
ing. In 1616 Pieter Van dan Broeck
brought the first coffee from Mocha to
Holland. In 1640 a Dutch merchant, named
Wurffbain, offered for sale in Amsterdam
the first commercial shipment of coffee from
Mocha. As indicating the enterprise of
the Dutch, note that this was four years
before the beverage was introduced into
France, and only three years after Conopios
had privately instituted the breakfast coffee
cup at Oxford.

About 1650, Varnar, the Dutch minister
resident at the Ottoman Porte, published
a treatise on coffee.

When the Dutch at last drove the Por-
tuguese out of Ceylon in 1658, they began
the cultivation of coffee there, although the
plant had been introduced into the island
by the Arabs prior to the Portuguese in-
vasion in 1505. However, it was not until
1690 that the more systematic cultivation
of the coffee plant by the Dutch was under-
taken in Ceylon.

Regular imports of coffee from Mocha to
Amsterdam began in 1663. Later, supplies
began to arrive from the Malabar coast.

Pasqua Ros6e, who introduced the coffee
house into London in 1652, is said to have
made coffee popular as a beverage in Hol-
land by selling it there publicly in 1664.
The first coffee house was opened in the
Korten Voorhout, the Hague, under the
protection of the writer Van Essen ; others
soon followed in Amsterdam and Haarlem.

At the instigation of Nicolaas Witsen,
burgomaster of Amsterdam and governor of
the East India Company, Adrian Van Om-
men, commander of Malabar, sent the first
Arabian coffee seedlings to Java in 1696,
recorded in the chapter on the history of
coffee propagation. These were destroyed
by flood, but were followed in 1699 by a
second shipment, from which developed the
coffee trade of the Netherlands East Indies,
that made Java coffee a household word in
every civilized country.

ALL ABOUT COFFEE

A trial shipment of the coffee grown near
Batavia was received at Amsterdam in 1706.
also a plant for the botanical gardens. This
plant subsequently became the progenitor
of most of the coffees of the West Indies
and America.

The first Java coffee for the trade was
received at Amsterdam 1711. The ship-
ment consisted of 894 pounds from the
Jakatra plantations and from the interior
of the island. At the first public auction,
this coffee brought twenty-three and two-
thirds stuivers (about forty-seven cents)
per Amsterdam pound.

The Netherlands East India Company
contracted with the regents of Netherlands
India for the compulsory delivery of coffee ;
and the natives were enjoined to cultivate
coffee, the production thus becoming a
forced industry worked by government. A
"general system of cultivation" was intro-
duced into Java in 1832 by the government,
which decreed the employment of forced
labor for different products. Coffee - grow-
ing was the only forced industry that ex-

isted before this system of cultivation, and
it was the only government cultivation that
survived the abolition of the system in
1905 - 08, The last direct government in-
terest in coffee was closed out in 1918. From
1870 to 1874, the government plantations
yielded an average of 844,854 piculs * a
year; from 1875 to 1878, the average was
866,674 piculs. Between 1879 and 1883, it
rose to 987,682 piculs. From 1884 to 1888,
the average annual yield was only 629,942
piculs.

Holland readily adopted the coffee house ;
and among the earliest coffee pictures pre-
served to us is one depicting a scene in a
Dutch coffee house of the seventeenth cen-
tury, the work of Adriaen Van Ostade
(1610-1675), shown on page 586.

History records no intolerance of coffee
in Holland. The Dutch attitude was ever
that of the constructionist. Dutch inventors
and artisans gave us many new designs in
coffee mortars, coffee roasters, and coffee
serving - pots.

* A weight of from 1.33 to 140 pounds.

Chapter VIIj

THE INTRODUCTION OF COFFEE INTO GERMANY

The contributions made by German travelers and writers to the
literature of the early history of coffee — The first coffee house in
Hamburg opened by an English merchant — Famous coffee houses
of old Berlin — The first coffee periodical, and the first kaffee-
klatsch — Frederick the Great's coffee-roasting monopoly — Coffee
persecutions — ''Coffee-smellers" — The first coffee king

AS we have already seen, Leonhard
Rauvvolf, in 1573, made his memora-
ble trip to Aleppo and, in 1582, won
for Germany the honor of being the first
European country to make printed mention
of the coffee drink,

Adam Olearius (or Oelschlager) , a Ger-
man Orientalist (1599-1671), traveled ia
Persia as secretary to a German embassy
in 1633 - 36. Upon his return he published
an account of his journeys. In it, under
date of 1637, he says of the Persians:

They drink with their tobacco a certain blaclc
water, whicli they call cahwa, made of a fruit
brought out of Egypt, and which is in colour
like ordinary wheat, and in taste like Turkish
wheat, and is of the bigness of a little bean.
. . . The Persians think it allays the natural
heat.

In 1637, Joh. Albrecht von Mandelsloh,,
in his Oriental Trip, mentions "the black
water of the Persians called Kahwe", say-
ing ' ' it must be drunk hot. ' '
^ .Coffee drinking was introduced into Ger-
many about 1670. The drink appeared at
the court of the great elector of Branden-
burg in 1675. Northern Germany got its.
first taste of the beverage from London, an
English merchant opening the first coffee-
house in Hamburg in 1679 - 80. Regens-
burg followed in 1689 ; Leipsic, in 1694
Nuremberg, in 1696; Stuttgart, in 1712;.
Augsburg, in 1713; and Berlin, in 1721.
In that year (1721) King Frederick Will-
iam I granted a foreigner the privilege of

conducting a coffee house in Berlin free of
all rental charges. It was known as the
English coffee house, as was also the first
coffee house in Hamburg. And for many
years, English merchants supplied the
coffees consumed in northern Germany;
while Italy supplied southern Germany.

Other well known coffee houses of old
Berlin were, the Royal, in Behren Strasse;
that of the Widow Doebbert, in the Stech -
bahn ; the City of Rome, in Unter - den -
Linden; Amoldi, in Kronen Strasse;
Miercke, in Tauben Strasse, and Schmidt,
in Post Strasse.

Later, Philipp Falck opened a Jewish
coffee house in Spandauer Strasse. In the
time of Frederick the Great (1712-1786)
there were at least a dozen. coffee houses in
the metropolitan district of Berlin. In the
suburbs were many tents where coffee was
served.

The first coffee periodical, The New and
Curious Coffee House, was issued in Leipsic
in 1707 by Theophilo Georgi. The full title
was The New and Curious Coffee House,
formerly in Italy hut now opened in Ger-
many. First water debauchery. "City of
the Well." Brunnenstadt by Lorentz
Schoepfftvasser [draw-water] 1707. The
second issue gave the name of Georgi as the
real publisher. It was intended to be in
the nature of an organ for the first real
-German kaft'ee-klatsch. It was a chronicle
of the comings and goings of the savants

ALL ABOUT COFFEE

who frequented the "Tusculum" of a
well-to-do gentleman in the outskirts of
the city. At the beginning the master of
the house declared:

I know that the gentlemen here speak French,
Italian and other languages. I know also that
in many eoflfee and tea meetings it is considered
requisite that French be spoken. May I ask,
however, that he who calls upon me should use
no other language l)ut German. We are all
Germans, we are in Germany ; shall we not con-
duct ourselves like true Germans?

In 1721 Leonhard Ferdinand Meisner
published at Nuremberg the first compre-
hensive German treatise on coffee, tea, and
chocolate.

During the second half of the eighteenth
century coffee entered the homes, and be-
gan to supplant flour-soup and warm beer
at breakfast tables.

Meanwhile coffee met with some opposi-
tion in Prussia and Hanover. Frederick
the Great became annoyed when he saw
how much money was paid to foreign coffee
merchants for supplies of the green bean,
and tried to restrict its use by making
coffee a drink of the "quality". Soon all
the German courts had their own coffee
roasters, coffee pots, and coffee cups.

Many beautiful specimens of the finest
porcelain cups and saucers made in Meissen,
and used at court fetes of this period, sur-
vive in the collections at the Potsdam and
Berlin museums. The wealthy classes fol-
lowed suit; but when the poor grumbled
because they could not afford the luxury,
and demanded their coffee, they were told
in effect: "You had better leave it alone.
Anyhow, it's bad for you because it causes
sterility." Many doctors lent themselves
to a campaign against coffee, one of their
favorite arguments being that women using
the beverage must forego child-bearing.
Bach's Coffee Cantata^ (1732) was a
notable protest in music against such libels.

On September 13, 1777, Frederick issued
a coffee and beer manifesto, a curious docu-
ment, which recited:

It is disgusting to notice the increase in the
quantity of coffee used by my subjects, and the
amount of money that goes out of the country
in consequence. Everybody is using coffee. If
possible, this must be prevented. My people
must drink beer. His Majesty was brought up
on beer, and so were his ancestors, and his
officers. Many battles have been fought and
won by soldiers nourished on beer; and the
King does not believe that coffee-drinking sol-
diers can be depended upon to endure hardship

1 See chapter XXXII.

or to beat his enemies in case of the occurrence
of another- war.

For a time beer was restored to its
honored place ; and coffee continued to be a
luxury afforded only by the rich. Soon a
revulsion of feeling set in ; and it was found
that even Prussian military rule could not
enforce coffee prohibition. Whereupon, in
1781, finding that all his efforts to reserve
the beverage for the exclusive court circles,
the nobility, and the officers of his army,
were vain, the king created a royal mo-
nopoly in coffee, and forbade its roasting
except in royal roasting establishments. At
the same time, he made exceptions in the
cases of the nobility, the clergy, and govern -
ment officials; but rejected all applications
for coffee-roasting licenses from the com-
mon people. His object, plainly, was to
confine the use of the drink to the elect.
To these representatives of the cream of
Prussian society, the king issued special
licenses permitting them to do their own
roasting. Of course, they purchased their
supplies from the government; and as the
price was enormously increased, the sales
yielded Frederick a handsome income. In-
cidentally, the possession of a coffee-roast-
ing license became a kind of badge of
membership in the upper class. The poorer
classes were forced to get their coffee by
stealth; and, failing this, they fell back

Richteb's Coffee House in Leipsic
TEENTH Century

Seven-

upon numerous barley, wheat, corn,
chicory, and dried-fig substitutes, that soon
appeared in great numbers.

This singular coffee ordinance was known
as the "Declaration du Roi concernant la

INTRODUCTION INTO GERMANY

Coffee House in Germany — Middle of the Seventeenth Century

ve7ite du cafe hruU", and was published
January 21, 1781.

After placing the coffee regie (revenue)
in the hands of a Frenchman, Count de
Lannay, so many deputies were required to
make collections that the administration
of the law became a veritable persecution.
Discharged wounded soldiers were mostly
employed, and their principal duty was to
spy upon the people day and night, fol-
lowing the smell of roasting coffee when-
ever detected, in order to seek out those
who might be found without roasting
permits. The spies were given one-fourth
of the fine collected. These deputies made
themselves so great a nuisance, and became
so cordially disliked, that they were called
"coffee-smellers" by the indignant people.

Taking a leaf out of Frederick's book, the
elector of Cologne, Maximilian Frederick,
l)ishop of Miinster, (Duchy of Westphalia)
on February 17, 1784, issued a manifesto
which said :

To our great displeasure we have learned
that in our Duchy of Westphalia the misuse of
the coffee beverage has become so extended that
to counteract the evil we command that four
weeks after the publication of this decree no
one shall sell coffee roasted or not roasted un-
der a fine of one hundred dollars, or two years
in prison, for each offense.

Every coffee-roasting and coffee-serving place
shall he closed, and dealers and hotel-koepers
are to get rid of their coffee supplies in four
weeks. It is only permitted to obtain from the
outside coffee for one's own consumption in lots
of fifty pounds. House fathers and mothers
shall not allow their work people, especially
their washing and ironing women, to prepare

coffee, or to allow it in any manner under "a
penalty of one hundred dollars.

All officials and government employees, to
avoid a penalty of one hundred gold florins, are
called upon closely to follow and to keep -a
watchful eye over this decree. To the one who
reports such persons as act contrary to this
decree shall be granted one-half of the said
money fine with absolute silence as to his name.

This decree was solemnly read iq. the
pulpits, and was published besides in the
usual places and ways. There immediately
followed a course of 'Helling-ons", and
of "coffee-smellings", that led to many
bitter enmities and caused much unhappi-
ness in the Duchy of Westphalia. Appar-
ently the purpose of the archduke was to
prevent persons of small means from enjoy-
ing the drink, while those who could afford
to purchase fifty pounds at a time were to
be permitted the indulgence. As was to be
expected, the scheme was a complete failure.

While the king of Prussia exploited his
subjects by using the state coffee monopoly
as a means of extortion, the duke of Wiirt-
temberg had a scheme of his own. He sold
to Joseph Suess-Oppenheimer, an un-
scrupulous financier, the exclusive privilege
of keeping coffee houses in Wiirttemberg.
Suess-Oppenheimer "in turn sold the in-
dividual coffee-house licenses to the highest
bidders, and accumulated a considerate
fortune. He was the first ' ' coffee king. ' '

But coffee outlived all these unjust
slanders and cruel taxations of too paternal
governments, and gradually took its right-
ful pl^fee as one of the favorite beverages
of the German people." "

ALL ABOUT COFFEE

o
w

Chapter IX

TELLING HOW COFFEE CAME TO VIENNA

The romantic adventure of Franz George Kolschitsky, who carried
"a message to Garcia" through the enemy's lines and won for him-
self the honor of being the first to teach the Viennese the art of
making coffee, to say nothing of falling heir to the supplies of the
green beans left behind by the Turks; also the gift of a house from a
gratefid municipality, and a statue after death — Affectionate regard
in tvhich ^'brother-heart'' Kolschitsky is held as the patron saint of
the Vienna kaffeesieder — Life in the early Vienna cafes

AROMAA^TIC tale has been woven
around the introduction of coffee into
Austria. When Vienna was besieged
l)y the Turks in 1683, so runs the legend,
Franz George Kolschitzky, a native of
Poland, formerly an interpreter in the
Turkish army, saved the city and won for
himself undying fame, with coffee as his
principal reward.

It is not known whether, in the first siege
of Vienna by the Turks in 1529, the in-
vaders boiled coffee over their camp fires
that surrounded the Austrian capital; al-
though they might have done so, as Selim
I, after con([uering Egypt in 1517, had
brought with him to Constantinople large
stores of coffee as part of his booty. But
it is certain that when they returned to the
attack, 154 years later, they carried with
them a plentiful supply of the green beans.
Mohammed IV mobilized an army of
300,000 men and sent it forth under his
vizier, Kara Miistapha, (Kuprili's succes-
sor) to destroy Christendom and to conquer
Europe. Reaching Vienna July 7, 1683, the
army quickly invested the city and cut it
off from the world. Emperor Leopold had
escaped the net and was several miles away.
Nearby was the prince of Lorraine, with an
army of 33,000 Austrians, awaiting the
succor promised by John Sobieski, king of

Poland, and an opportunity to relieve the
besieged capital. Count Rudiger von Star-
hemberg, in command of the forces ' in
Vienna, called for a volunteer to carry a
message through the Turkish lines to hurry
along the rescue. He found him in the
person of Franz George Kolschitzky, who
had lived for many years among the Turks
and knew their language and customs.

On August 13, 1683, Kolschitzky donned
a Turkish iniiform, passed through the
enemy's lines and reached the Emperor's
army across the Danube. Several times he
made the perilous journey between the camp
of the prince of Lorraine and the garrison
of the governor of Vienna. One account
says that he had to swim the four interven-
ing arms of the Danube each time he per-
formed the feat. His messages did much
to keep up the morale of the city's de-
fenders. At length King John and his army
of rescuing Poles arrived and were consoli-
dated with the Austrians on the summit of
Mount Kahlenberg. It was one of the most
dramatic moments in history. The fate of
Christian Europe hung in the balance.
Everything seemed to point to the triumph
of the crescent over the cross. Once again
Kolschitzky crossed the Danube, and
brought back word concerning the, signals
that the prince of Lorraine and King Jflhn

ALL ABOUT COFFEE

Franz George Kolschitzky, Patron Saint of
Vienna Coffee Lovers

would give from Mount Kahlenberg to in-
dicate the beginning of the attack. Count
Starhemberg was to make a sortie at the
same time.

The battle took place September 12, and
thanks to the magnificent generalship of
King John, the Turks were routed. The
Poles here rendered a never - to - be - for-
gotten service to all Christendom. The
Turkish invaders fled, leaving 25,000 tents,
10,000 oxen, 5,000 camels, 100,000 bushels
of grain, a great quantity of gold, and
many sacks filled with coffee — at that time
unknown in Vienna. The booty was dis-
tributed; but no one wanted the coffee.
They did not know what to do with it;
that is, no one except Kolschitzky. He said,
•'If nobody wants those sacks, I will take
them", and every one was heartily glad
to be rid of the strange beans. But Kol-
schitzky knew what he was about, and he
soon taught the Viennese the art of prepar-
ing coffee. Later, he established the first
public booth where Turkish coffee was
served in Vienna.

This, then, is the story of how coffee was
introduced into Vienna, where was devel-
oped that typical Vienna caf6 which has

become a model for a large part of the
world. Kolschitzky is honored in Vienna
as the patron saint of coffee houses. His
followers, united in the guild of coffee
makers (kaffee-sieder), even erected a
statue in his honor. It still stands as part
of the facade of a house where the Kol-
schitzygasse merges into the Favoritengasse,
as shown in the accompanying picture.

Vienna is sometimes referred to as the
"mother of cafes". Caf6 Sacher is world-
renowned. Tart a la Sacher is to be found
in every cook-book. The Viennese have
their '' jause" every afternoon. When one
drinks coffee at a Vienna cafe one generally
has a kipfel with it. This is a crescent-
shaped roll — baked for the first time in the
eventful year 1683, when the Turks be-
sieged the city. A baker made these cres-
cent rolls in a spirit of defiance of the Turk.
Holding sword in one hand and kipfel in
the other, the Viennese would show them-
selves on top of their redoubts and chal-
lenge the cohorts of Mohammed IV.

Mohammed IV was deposed after losing
the battle, and Kara Mustapha was executed
for leaving the stores — particularly the
sacks of coffee beans — at the gates of
Vienna; but Vienna coffee and Vienna
kipfel are still alive, and their appeal is
not lessened by the years.

The hero Kolschitzky was presented with
a house by the grateful municipality; and

The First Coffee House in the Leopoldstadt
From a cut so titled in Bermann's Alt und Neu Wiett

there, at the sign of the Blue Bottle, ac-
cording to one account, he continued as a
coffee-house keeper for many years.^ This,
in brief, is the story that — although not

' Vulcaren. John Peter A.
of Vienna. 1684.

Relation of the Siege

HOW COFFEE CAME TO VIENNA

authenticated in all its particulars — is
seriously related in many books, and is
firmly believed throughout Vienna.

It seems a pity to discredit the hero of
so romantic an adventure ; but the archives
of Vienna throw a light upon Kolschitzky 's
later conduct that tends to show that, after
all, this Viennese idol's feet were of com-
mon clay.

It is said that Kolschitzky, after receiv-
ing the sacks of green coffee left behind by
the Turks, at once began to peddle the
beverage, from house to house, serving it in
little cups from a wooden platter. Later he
rented a shop in Bischof-hof. Then he
began to petition the municipal council,
that, in addition to the sum of 100 ducats
already promised him as further recogni-
tion of his valor, he should receive a house
with good will attached; that is, a shop in
some growing business section. "His peti-
tions to the municipal council", writes M.
Bermann *, ' ' are amazing examples of meas-
ureless self-conceit and the boldest greed.
He seemed determined to get the utmost
out of his own self-sacrifice. He insisted
upon the most highly deserved reward, such
as the Romans bestowed upon their Curtius,
the Lacedsemonians upon their Pompilius,
the Athenians upon Seneca, with whom he
modestly compared himself."

At last, he was given his choice of three
houses in the Leopoldstadt, any one of
them worth from 400 to 450 gulden, in
place of the money reward, that had been
fixed by a compromise agreement at 300
gulden. But Kolschitzky was not satisfied
with this; and urged that if he was to
accept a house in full payment it should
be one valued at not less than 1000 gulden.
Then ensued much correspondence and con-
siderable haggling. To put an end to the
acrimonious dispute, the municipal council
in 1685 directed that there should be deeded
over to Kolschitzky and his wife, Maria
Ursula, without further argument, the
house known at that time as 30 (now 8)
Haidgasse.

It is further recorded that Kolschitzky
sold the house within a year; and, after
many moves, he died of tuberculosis, Feb-
ruary 20, 1694, aged fifty-four years. He
was courier to the emperor at the time of
his death, and was buried in the Stefans-
freithof Cemetery.

* Bermann, M.
(p. 964.)

Alt und Neu Wien. Vienna, 1880.

Statue of Kolschitzky Erected by the
Coffee Makers Guild of Vienna

Kolschitzky 's heirs moved the coflfee
house to Donaustrand, near the wooden
Schlagbriicke, later known as Ferdinand's
briicke (bridge). The celebrated coffee
house of Franz Mosee (d. 1860) stood on
this same spot.

In the city records for the year 1700 a
house in the Stock-im-Eisen-Platz (square)
is designated by the words "allwo das erste
kaffeegewolhe" ("here was the first coffee
house"). Unfortunately, the name of the
proprietor is not given.

Many stories are told of Kolschitzky 's
popularity as a eoflPee-house keeper. He is
said to have addressed everyone as hruder-
herz (brother-heart) and gradually he
himself acquired the name bruderherz. A
portrait of Kolschitzky, painted about the
time of his greatest vogue, is carefully pre-
served by the Innungi der Wiener Kaffee-
sieder (the Coffee Makers' Guild of
Vienna) .

ALL A B OUT COFFEE

Even during the lifetime of the first
kaffee-sieder, a number of others opened
coffee houses and acquired some little fame.
Early in the eighteenth centurj^ a tourist
gives us a glimpse of the progress made by
coffee drinking and by the coffee-house
idea in Vienna. "We read :

The t'it.v of Vienna is filled witli coffee liouses,
where the novelists or those who Inisy them-
selves with the newspapers delight to meet, to
read the gazettes and discuss their contents.
Some of these houses have a better reputation
than others because such zeitungs-d actors
(newspaper dQ'ctors — an ironical title) gather
there to pass most unhesitating judgment on

the weightiest events, and to surpass all others
in their opinions concerning political matters
and considerations.

All this wins them such respect tliat many
congregate there because of them, and to enrich
their minds with inventions and foolishness
which thev innnediately run through the city to
bring to the ears of the said ])ersonalities. It
is^ impossil)le to believe what freedom is per-
mitted, in furnishing this gossip. They speak
without reverence not only of the doings of gen-
erals and ministers of state, but also mix them-
selves in the life of the Kaiser (Emperor) him-
self.

Vienna liked the coffee house so well that
by 1839 there were eighty of them in the
city proper and fifty more in the suburbs.

Chapter X

THE COFFEE HOUSES OF OLD LONDON

One of the most picturesque chapters in the history of coffee The

first coffee house in London — The first coffee handbill, and the first
newspaper advertisement for coffee— Strange coffee mixtures —
Fantastic coffee claims— Coffee prices and coffee licenses— Coffee
club of the Rota — Early coffee-house manners and customs —
Coffee-house keepers' tokens — Opposition to the coffee house —
''Penny universities'' — Weird coffee substitutes — The proposed
coffee-house newspaper monopoly — Evolution of the club — Decline
and fall of the coffee house — Pen pictures of coffee-house life —
Famous coffee houses of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries —
Some Old World pleasure gardens — Locating the notable coffee
houses

THE two most picturesque chapters in
the history of coffee have to do with
the period of the old London and
Paris coffee houses of the seventeenth and
eighteenth centuries. Much of the poetry
and romance of coffee centers around this
time.

"The history of coffee houses," says
D 'Israeli, "ere the invention of clubs, was
that of the manners, the morals and the
politics of a people." And so the history
of the London coffee houses of the seven-
teenth and eighteenth centuries is indeed
the history of the manners and customs of
the English people of that period.

The First London Co fee House

"The first coffee house in London",
says John Aubrey (1626-97), the Eng-
lish antiquary and folklorist, "was in St.
Michael's Alley, in Comhill, opposite to
the church, which was sett up by one . . .
Bowman (coachman to Mr. Hodges, a Tur-
key merchant, who putt him upon it) in
or about the yeare 1652. 'Twas about four
years before any other was sett up, and
that was by Mr. Farr. Jonathan Paynter,

over-against to St. Michael's Church, was
the first apprentice to the trade, viz., to
Bowman. ' ' *

Another account, for which we are in-
debted to William Oldys (1696 - 1761), the
bibliographer, relates that Mr. Edwards, a
London merchant, acquired the coffee habit
in Turkey, and brought home with him
from Ragusa, in Dalmatia, Pasqua Ros6e,
an Armenian or Greek youth, who prepared
the beverage for him. "But the novelty
thereof," says Oldys, "drawing too much
company to him, he allowed the said servant
with another of his son-in-law to set up
the first coffee house in London at St.
Michael's Alley, in Cornhill."

From this it would appear that Pasqua
Ros6e had as partner in this enterprise, the
Bowman, who, according to Aubrey, was^
coachman to Mr. Hodges, the son-in-law
of Mr. Edwards, and a fellow merchant
traveler.

Oldys tells us that Rosee and Bowman
soon separated. John Timbs (1801 - 1875),
another English antiquary, says they
quarreled, Rosee keeping the house, and his

* Manuscript in t\n' Boilloiaii Library.

ALL ABOUT COFFEE

partner Bowman obtaining leave to pitch
a tent and to sell the drink in St. Michael's
churchyard.

Still another version of this historic inci-
dent is to be found in Houghton's Collec-
tion, 1698. It reads :

It appears that a Mr. Danie' Edwards, an
English merchant of Smyrna, brought with him
to this conntry a Greek of the name of Pasqua,
in 16r)2, who made his coffee ; this Mr. Edwards
married one Alderman Ilodges's danghter, who
lived in Walbrook. and set up Pasqna for a cof-
fee man in a shed in the churchyard in St.
Michael. Cornhill, which is now a scrivener's
brave-house, when, having great custom, the
ale-sellers i)etitioned the Lord Mayor against
him, as being no freeman. This made Alderman
Hodges join his coachman, Bowman, who was
free, as Pasqua's partner; but Pasqua, for
some misdemeanor, was forced to run the coun-
try, and Bowman, by his trade and a contribu-
tion of 1000 sixpences, turned the shed to a
house. Bowman's apprentices were first, John
Painter, then Humphry, from whose wife I had
this account.

This account makes it appear that Ed-
wards was Hodges' son-in-law. Whatever
the relationship, most authorities agree that
Pasqua Rosee was the first to sell coffee
publicly, whether in a tent or shed, in Lon-
don in or about the year 1652. His original
shop-bill, or handbill, the first advertise-
ment for coffee, is in the British Museum,
and from it the accompanying photograph
was made for this work. It sets forth in
direct fashion : "The Vertue of the COF-
FEE Drink First publiquely made and
sold in England, by Pasqua Rosee ... in
St. Michaels Alley in Cornhill. ... at the
Signe of his own Head." '

H. R. Fox Bourne ' (about 1870) is alone
in an altogether different version of this
historic event. He says:

"In 1652 Sir Nicholas Crispe, a Levant
merchant, opened in London the first coffee
house known in England, the beverage be-
ing prepared by a Greek girl brought over
for the work,"

There is nothing to substantiate this
story; the preponderance of evidence is in
support of the Edwards - Rosee version.

Such then was the advent of the coffee
house in London, which introduced to Eng-
lish-speaking people the drink of de-
mocracy. Oddly enough, coffee and the
Commonwealth came in together. The
English coffee house, like its French con-
temporary, was the home of liberty.

» See also chapter XXVIII. '

' The Romance of Trade. London, (chap, ii ; p. 31.)

Robinson, who accepts that version of
the event wherein Edwards marries
Hodges 's daughter, says that after the part-
ners Rosee and Bowman separated, and
Bowman had set up his tent opposite Rosee,
a zealous partisan addressed these verses
"To Pasqua Rosee, at the Sign of his own
Head and half his Body in St. Michael's
Alley, next the first Coffee-Tent in Lon-
don":

Were not the fountain of my Tears
Each day exhausted by the steam

Of your Coffee, no doubt appears

But they would swell to such a stream

As could admit of no restriction

To see, poor Pasqua, thy Affliction.

What! Pasqua, you at first did broach
This Nectar for the publick Good,

Must you call Kitt down from the Coach
To drive a Trade he understood

No more than you did then your creed,

Or he doth now to write or read?

Pull Courage, Pasqua, fear no Harms

From the besieging Foe ;
Make good your Ground, stand to your Arms,

Hold out this summer, and then tho'
He'll storm, he'll not prevail — your Face *
Shall give the Coffee Pot the chace.

Eventually Pasqua Rosee disappeared,
some say to open a coffee house on the Con-
tinent, in Holland or Germany. Bowman,
having married Alderman Hodges 's cook,
and having also prevailed upon about a
thousand of his customers to lend him six-
pence apiece, converted his tent into a sub-
stantial house, and eventually took an
apprentice to the trade.

Concerning London's second coffee-
house keeper, James Farr, proprietor of the
Rainbow, who had as his most distinguished
visitor Sir Henry Blount, Edward Hatton'
says:

I find it recorded that one James Farr, a
barber, who kept the coffee-house which is now
the Rainbow, by the Inner Temple Gate (one of
the first in England), was in the year 1657,
prosecuted by the inquest of St. Dunstan's in
the West, for making and selling a sort of
liquor called coffe, as a great nuisance and
prejudice to the neighborhood, etc., and who
would then have thought London would ever
have had near three thousand such nuisances,
and that coffee would have been, as now, so
much drank by the best of quality and physi-
cians?

Hatton evidently attributed Farr's nuis-
ance to the coffee itself, whereas the present-

* Pasqua Rosee's sign. Kltt's (or Bowman's) sign
was a coffee pot.

* Ilatton, Edward. . New View of London. London.
1708. (vol. i: p. 30.)

COFFEE HOUSES OF OLD LONDON

4^^iiiSI

[ThcVevtucofthe COFFEE Drinkr

Firftpub!ic]uciy mad: and fold in England, by Ttifciti^ <Pofee,

TH E Grain or Berry called Coffecy groweth upon licdc Trees,
on ;y i n the Defeits of Arabia:

ic is brouglu from thence, anddmnk generally throughouc
all tlie Grand Seigniors Dominions.

I. is a fimple innocent thing, compofed into a Drijik, by being dry-
cd in snOven, and ground to Powder,and boiled up with Spring wa-
ter, and about half a pint of it to be drunk, fading an hour before .and
not Edting an hour after, and CO be taken as hot as pofsibly can be en-
dured ; chcvvhich will never fetch the skin offthe mouth,or raifc any
Blii>.:'rs,by rc:fon of chat Heat,

V The ru:ks drink 2t meals and other times, is ufually W'^ffr, and
their Dyec confill; much of Fr/4^ ^ the Crudities whereof arc very
much corrected by this Drink. ;■ 4^ Is

The quality of this Drink h cofd and Dryj and though it be a
Dryer^ yst it neither heats, 'nor inflames more then hot fojfet.

Ir fcTclofech the Orifice of the Stomack, and fortifies the heat wiih-
ns very good (o^help digeftionj and therefore of great u/e to be
bout 3 or4aCiockafternoon,as wcUas \n the morning.-
ucn quickens the Spirits^ and makes the Heart Ughtfwie,

. is goodagauift lore Eys, and the better if you hold your Head o-
er It, and rake in the Steem that way.

Ic lu'.preifeth Fumes exceedingly, and therefore good againftthc
Head~ach, an^i wiU very much flop any De fluxion of <l{heums, that diftil
from the Hrad upon the Stomachy and fo prevent and help Qonjumfti'
ons^a nd the Cough of the Lun^s,

It is excellent to prevent and cure the Vropfyy Gout, and Scuryy,

II is known l?y experience to be better then any other Drying
"DnuV^oxTeople in years, or CWirew that have any running humors u^-
cnx!tiCV[\yZS the Kings B\fiU &c.

It is very good to prevent Mif carryings in Qnli-hearing Women,

Jt is a moft excellent Remedy againft the Spleen ^ Hypoconclriac^,
TT/nt/y, or thelike.

It will prevent 'Dro'^fintfsy and make one fitforbiifines,if one have
occafion ro Watch-^ and therefore you are not to Drink of u after Supper^
unlets you intend to be watchful^^or it will hinder llecp for ) <jr 4 hours.

It is obferVed that in Turkey 3 Ti'here this is generally drunk, that they are
mt trolled leith the Stone , Gout , Dropjie , or ScurVey , a?id that their
Skins are exceeding deer and vhite. ^^£^

khnckhct Laxative not ^eflringent. ^8.

Made and Sold in St. Michaels Alley in Cornhilh by Pafqua T^hftty
at the Signc of lus own Head.

FIRST ADVERTISEMENT FOR COFFEE — 1652

Handbill used by Pasqua Rosf^e, who opened the first coffee house in London
From the original in the British Museum

ALL ABOUT COFFEE

ment* clearly shows it was in Farr's
chimney and not in the coffee.

Mention has already been made that Sii
Henry Blount w'as spoken of as "the fathei
of Enirlish coffee houses" and his claim to
this distinction would seem to be a valid
one, for his strong personality "stamped it
self upon the system." His favorite motto,
"Loqnendum est cum vulgo, sentiendum
cum sapientihus (the crowd may talk about
it; the wise decide it), says Robinson, "ex-
presses well their colloquial purpose, and
w'as natural enough on the lips of one whose
experience had been world wide. ' ' Aubrej
says of Sir Henry Blount, ' ' He is now neer
or altogether eighty yeares, his intellectuals
good still and body pretty strong."

Women played a not inconspicuous part
in establishing businesses for the sale of the
coffee drink in England, although the coffee
houses were not for both sexes, as in other
European countries. The London City
Quaeries for 1660 makes mention of "a she-
coffee merchant." Mary Stringar ran a
coffee house in Little Trinity Lane in 1669 ;
Anne Blunt was mistress of one of the
Turk's-Head houses in Cannon Street in
1672. Mary Long was the widow of Will-
iam Long, and her initials, together with
those of her husband, appear on a token
issued from the Rose tavern in Bridge
Street, Covent Garden. Mary Long's token
from the "Rose coffee house by the play-
house" in Covent Garden is shown among
the group of coffee-house keepers' tokens
herein illustrated.

The First Newspaper Advertisement

The first newspaper advertisement for
coffee appeared. May 26, 1657, in the Puh-
lich Adviser of London, one of the first
weekly pamphlets. The name of this pub-
lication was erroneously given as the Pub-
lick Advertiser by an early writer on coffee,
and the error has been copied by succeeding
writers. The first newspaper advertisement
was contained in the issue of the Puhlick
Adviser for the week of May 19 to May 26,
and read:

In Bartholometc Lane on the back side of the
Old Exchange, the drink called Coffee, (which
is a very wholsom and Physical drink, having
many excellent vei-tues. closes the Orifice of the
Stomack, fortifies the heat within, helpeth Di-
gestion, quickneth the Spirits, maketh the heart
lightsom, is good against Eye-sores, Ck>ughs, or
Colds, Rhumes, Consumptions, Head-ach, Drop-

» The prosecution came under the heading, "Pis-
orders and Annoys."

sie, Gout, Scurvy, Kings Evil, and many others
is to be sold both in the morning, and at three
of the clock in the afternoon.

Chocolate was also advertised for sale in
London this same year. The issue of the
Puhlick Adviser for June 16, 1657, con-
tained this announcement:

In Bishopgate Street, in Queen's Head Alley,
at a Frenchman's house is an excellent West
India drink called chocolate, to be sold, where
you may have it ready at any time, and also
unmade at reasonable rates.

Tea was first sold publicly at Garra way's
(or Garway's) in 1657.

Strange Coffee Mixtures

The doctors were loath to let coffee escape
from the mysteries of the pharmacopoeia
and become "a simple and refreshing bev-
erage" that any one might obtain for a
penny in the coffee houses, or, if preferred,
might prepare at home. In this they were
aided and abetted by many well-meaning
but misguided persons (some of them men
of considerable intelligence) who seemed
possessed of the idea that the coffee drink
was an unpleasant medicine that needed
something to take away its curse, or else
that it required a complex method of
preparation. Witness "Judge" Walter
Rumsey's Electuary of Cophy, which ap-
peared in 1657 in connection with a curious
work of his called Organon Salutis: an in-
strument to cleanse the stomach. ' The in-
strument itself was a flexible whale-bone,
two or three feet long, with a small linen
or silk button at the end, and was designed
to be introduced into the stomach to pro-
duce the effect of an emetic. The electuary
of coffee was to be taken by the patient
before and after using the instrument,
which the "judge" called his Provang.
And this was the "judge's" "new and
superior way of preparing coffee ' ' as found
in his prescription for making electuary of
cophy :

Take equal quantity of Butter and Sallet-oyle,
melt them well together, but not boyle them ;
Then stir re them well that they may incorpor-
ate together: Then melt therewith three times
as much Honey, and stirre it well together:
Then add thereunto powder of Turkish Cophie,
to make it a thick Electuary.

A little consideration will convince any
one that the electuary was most likely to
achieve the purpose for which it was recom-
mended.

' Rumsey (or Ramsey), W. Organon Salutis. LoU'
don, 1657.

COFFEE HOUSES OF OLD LONDON 57

TIiePublickAdvifer,

WEEKLY

CommunicsUin(* unto the whole

Nation the fcvcral Occafroni of all perfons
that arc any way concerned in matter of Buying and
iSelling, or in any kind of Impa)ymcnt, or deahnos
whaifoever^ according to the int«ntof the OFFICE
OF PUBLICK ADVICE newly fct up in
feveral places , in and about L4ff/ipff and rP^/-
mhfifr.

For the better Accommodation and Eafc of
the People , and the Univerfal Benefit of the
Commonwealth, in point of

PUBLICK I NTERCOURSE.

from Tuefda^ Maj r^ r# Ttn/Hdy May a5.

la B^rtholomem Lane on the back liJc of the Old
Exchange, the drink called Coffee^ ( yvhich is a very wHol-
form and Phyfical drink, havjng many excellent vertues,
clofes rhe.Orifice of the Stomack, fortifies the heat with-
m, helpcth Digeftion,qUJckncthihc Spirits, niakcth the
hitt hghtfom, is gcodagainft Eyc-furfS. Coughs, or
Colds/ Hhun^cs, Confumptions; Heid-ach, Dropfie,
Goac,.ScQrvy»Kings Evlland many others if to hrfofd
bothta the morning, and at three of the clock in ihe^ a(-^
ternooo*

xjittifcers*

ONc Mrs. Uffdel living at the fi^ of the Boot in Ful-
lers Rentsin//o/^»r;i, AttirethanJ DrefTcih Lidicf
and Gcntlt womcns Heads •, and tcawheth Maids to **
H:ads: TAct'; fV c refTiMS * '
till they br p*****^

THE FIRST NEWSPAPER ADVERTISEMENT FOR COFFEE — 1657

ALL ABOUT COFFEE

Another concoction invented by the
"jud^e" was known as "wash-brew", and
included oatmeal, powder of "cophie", a
pint of ale or any wine, ginger, honey, or
sugar to please the taste; to these ingre-
dients butter might be added and any
cordial powder or pleasant spice. It was to
be put into a tiannel bag and "so keep it at
pleasure like starch." This was a favorite
medicine among the common people of
Wales.

The book contained in a prefix an in-
teresting historical document in the shape
of a letter from James Howell (1595 - 1666)
the writer and historiographer, which read :

Touching coffee, I concurre with them in opin-
ion, who lioltl it to be that black-broth which
was us'd of old in Lacedemon, whereof the
Poets sing ; Surely it must needs be salutiferous,
because so many sagacious, and the wittiest
sort of Nations use it so much ; as they who
have conversed with Shashes and Turbants doe
well know. But, besides the exsiccant quality
it hath to dry up the crudities of the Stomach,
as also to comfort the Brain, to fortifle the
sight with its steem, and prevent Dropsies,
Gouts, the Scurvie, together with the Spleen
and Hypocondriacall windes (all which it doth
without any violance or distemper at all.) I
say, besides all these qualities, 'tis found al-
ready, that this Coffee-drink hath caused a
greater sobriety among the nations; for where-
as formerly Apprentices and Clerks with others,
used to take their mornings' draught in Ale,
Beer or Wine, which by the dizziness they cause
in the Brain, make many unfit for business,
they use now to play the Good-fellows in this
wakefull and civill drink : Therefore that
-worthy Gentleman, Mr. Mudiford*, who intro-
duced the practice hereof first to London, de-
serves much respect of the whole nation.

The coffee drink at one time was mixed
with sugar candy, and also with mustard.
In the coffee houses, however, it was usually
served black; "few people then mixed it
with either sugar or milk."

Fantastic Coffee Claims
One can not fail to note in connection
with the introduction of coffee into Eng-
land that the beverage suffered most from
the indiscretions of its friends. On the one
band, the quacks of the medical profession
sought to claim it for their own ; and, on
the other, more or less ignorant laymen
attributed to the 'drink such virtues as its
real champions among the physicians never
dreamed of. It was the favorite pastime
of its friends to exaggerate coffee 's merits ;
and of its enemies, to vilify its users. All
this furnished good ' ' copy ' ' for and against

* Also given as Sir James Muddiford, Murford, Mud-
ford, Moundeford, and Modyford,

the coffee house, which became the central
figure in each new controversy.

From the early English author who
damned it by calling it "more wholesome
than toothsome", to Pas(iua Rosee and his
contemporaries, who urged its more fan-
tastic claims, it was forced to make its way
through a veritable morass of misunder-
standing and intolerance. No harmless
drink in history has suffered more at hands
of friend and foe.

Did its friends hail it as a panacea, its
enemies retorted that it was a slow poison.
In France and in England there were those
who contended that it produced melancholy,
and those who argued it was a cure for the
same. Dr. Thomas Willis (1621-1673), a
distinguished Oxford physician whom An-
toine Portal (1742-1832) called "one of
the greatest geniuses that ever lived", said
he would sometimes send his patients to the
coffee house rather than to the apothecary's
shop. An old broadside, described later in
this, chapter, stressed the notion that if you
"do but this Rare ARABIAN cordial use,
and thou may'st all the Doctors Slops
Refuse."

As a cure for drunkenness its "magic''
power was acclaimed by its friends, and
grudgingly admitted by its foes. This will
appear presently in a description of the war
of the broadsides and the pamphlets. Coffee
was praised by one writer as a deodorizer.
Another (Richard Bradley), in his treatise
concerning its use with regard to the plague,
said if its qualities had been fully known
in 1665, "Dr. Hodges and other learned
men of that time would have recommended
it." As a matter of fact, in Grideon Har-
vey's Advice against the Plague, published
in 1665, we find, "coffee is commended
against the contagion."

This is howl the drink's sobering virtue
was celebrated by the author of the Rehelli-
ous Antidote :

Come, Frantick Fools, leave off your Drunken

fits.
Obsequious be and I'll recall your Wits,
From perfect Madness to a modest Strain
For farthings four I'll fetch you back again,
Enable all your mene with tricks of State,
Enter and sip and then attend your Fate;
Come Drunk or Sober, for a gentle Fee,
Come n'er so Mad, I'll your Physician be.

Dr. Willis, in his Pharmaceutice Ration-
alis (1674), was one of the first to attempt
to do justice to both sides of the coffee
question. At best, he thought it a some-
what risky beverage, and its votaries must,

COFFEE HOUSES OF OLD LONDON

some cases, be prepared to suffer languor
and even paralysis; it may attack the heart
and cause tremblings in the limbs. On the
other hand it may, if judiciously used,
prove a marvelous benefit; "being daily
drunk ii, wonderfully clears and enlightens
each part of the Soul and disperses all the
clouds of every Function."

It was a long time before recognition was
obtained for the truth about the "novelty
drink''; especially that, if there were any
beyond purely social virtues to be found in
coffee, they were "political rather than
medical."

Dr. James Duncan^ of the Faculty of
Montpellier, in his book Wholesome Advice
against the Abuse of Hot Liquors, done into
English in 1706, found coffee no more de-
serving of the name of panacea than that
of poison.

George Cheyne (1671-1743), the noted
British physician, proclaimed his neutral-
ity in the words, "I have neither great
praise nor bitter blame for the thing. * '

Coffee Prices and Coffee Licenses

Coffee, with tea and chocolate, was first
mentioned in the English Statute books in
1660, when a duty of four pence was laid
upon every gallon made and sold, "to be
paid by the maker. ' ' Coffee was classed by
the House of Commons with "other out-
landish drinks."

It is recorded in 1662 that "the right
coffee powder" was being sold at the Turk's
Head coffee house in Exchange Alley for
"4s. to 6s. 8d. per pound; that pounded in
a mortar, 2s ; East India berry. Is. 6d. ; and
the right Turkic berry, well garbled
[ground] at 3s. The ungarbled [in the
bean] for less with directions how to use
the same." Chocolate was also to be had
at "2s. 6d. the pound; the perfumed from
4s. to 10s,"

At one time coffee sold for five guineas a
pound in England, and even forty crowns
(about forty-eight dollars) a pound was
paid for it.

In 1663, all English coffee houses were
required to be licensed ; the fee was twelve
pence. Failure to obtain a license was
punished by a fine of five pounds for every
month's violation of the law. The coffee
houses were under close surveillance by
government officials. One of these was
Muddiman, a good scholar and an "arch
rogue ' ', who had formerly ' * written for the
Parliament" but who later became a paid

spy. L 'Estrange, who had a patent on
"the sole right of intelligence", wrote in
his Intelligencer that he was alarmed at the
ill effects of "the ordinary written papers
of Parliament's news . . . making
coffee houses and all the popular clubs
judges of those councils and deliberations
which they have nothing to do with at all."

The first royal warrant for coffee was
given by Charles II to Alexander Man, a
Scotsman who had followed General Monk
■to London, and set up in Whitehall. Here
he advertised himself as "coffee man to
Charles II."

Owing to increased taxes on tea, coffee,
and newspapers, near the end of Queen
Anne's reign (1714) coffee-house keepers
generally raised their prices as follows:
Coffee, two pence per dish; green tea, one
and a half pence per dish. All drams, two
pence per dram. At retail, coffee was then
sold for five shillings per pound ; while tea
brought from twelve to twenty-eight shill-
ings per pound.

Cofee Club of The Rota

"Coffee and Commonwealth", says a
pamphleteer of 1665, "came in together for
a Reformation, to make 's a free and sober
nation." The writer argues that liberty
of speech should be allowed, "where men
of differing judgements croud"; and he
adds, "that's a coffee-house, for where
should men discourse so free as there?"
Robinson's comments are apt:

Now perhaps we do not always connect the
ideas of sociableness and freedom of discussion
with the days of Puritan rule; yet it must be
admitted that something like geniality and
openness characterized what Pepys calls the
Coffee Club of the Rota. This "free and open
Society of ingenioiis gentlemen" was founded in
the year 1659 by certain members of the Re-
publican party, whose peculiar opinions had
been timidly expressed and not very cordially
tolerated under the Great Oliver. By the weak
Government that followed, these views were re-
garded with extreme dislike and with some
amount of terror.

"They met", says Aubrey, who was him-
self of their number, "at the Turk's Head
[Miles 's coffee house] in New Palace Yard,
Westminster, where they take water, at one
Miles 's, the next house to the staires, where
• was made purposely a large ovall table,
wdth a passage in the middle for Miles to
deliver his coffee."
Robinson continues :

This curious refreshment bar and the interest
with which the beverage Itself was regarded,
were quite secondary to the excitement caused

ALL ABOUT COFFEE

A Coffee House in the Time of Charles II
From a wood cut of 1674

by another novelty. When, after heated dis-
putation, a member desired to test tlie opinion
of the meeting, any particular point might, by
agreement, be put to the vote and then every-
thing depended upon "our wooden oracle," the
first balloting-box ever seen in England. Formal
methods of procedure and the intensely practi-
cal nature of the subjects discussed, combined
to give a real importance to this Amateur Par-
liament.

The Rota, or Coffee Club, as Pepys called
it, was essentiall y a debating so ciety for the
rlissemi nation of repubjican op inions . It
was preceded only, in the reign of Henry
IV, by the club called La Court de Bone
Compagnie ; by Sir Walter Raleigh's Friday
Street, or Bread Street, club ; the club at the
Mermaid tavern in Bread Street, of which
Shakespeare, Beaumont, Fletcher, Raleigh,
Selden, Donne, et al., were members; and
"rare" Ben Jonson's Devil tavern club,
between Middle Temple Gate and Temple
Bar.

I The Rota derived its name from a plan.

Which it was designed to promote, for

onanging a certain number of members of

parliament annually by rotation. It was

y^ounded by James Harrington, who had

/painted it in fairest colors in his Oceana,

I that ideal commonwealth.

Sir "William Petty was one of its mem-
bers. Around the table, "in a room every
fivening as full as it could be crammed,"
says Aubrey, sat Milton ( ?) and Marveil,
Cyriac Skinner, Hamngton, Nevill, and

their friends, discussing abstract political
questions.

The Rota became famous for its literary
strictures. Among these was ' ' The censure
of the Rota upon Mr. Milton 's book entitled
The ready and easie way to establish a free
commonwealth" (1660) , although it is doubt-
ful if Milton was ever a visitor to this
"bustling coffee club." The Rota also
censured "Mr. Driden's Conquest of
Granada" (1673).

Early Coffee-House Manners and Customs
Among many of the early coffee-house
keepers there was great anxiety that the
coffee house, open to high and low, should
be conducted under such restraints as might
secure the better class of customers from
annoyance. The following set of regula-
tions in somewhat halting rhyme was dis-
played on the walls of several of the coffee
houses in the seventeenth century :
The Rules and Orders of the Coffee Housej.
Enter, Sirs, freely, but first, if you please,
Peruse our civil orders, which are these.
Jlrst, gentry, tradesmen, all are welcome hither,
And may without affront sit down together:
Pre-eminence of place none here should mind,
Rut take the next fit seat that he can find :
Nor need any. if finer persons come,
Rise up to assigue to them his room;
To limit men's expence, we think not fair,
But let him forfeit twelve-pence that shall

swear ;
He that shall any quarrel here begin.
Shall give each man 8 digU t' atone the sin;

COFFEE HOUSES OF OLD LONDON

And so shall he, whose compliments extend

So far to drink in coffee to his friend ;

Ij«»t noise of loud disputes he quite forhorne,

\() maudlin lovers here in corners mourn.

Hut all he brisk and talk, hut not too much,

On sacred things, let none presume to touch.

Nor profane Scripture, nor sawcily wrong

Affairs of state with an irreverent tongue :

Let mirth he innocent, and each man see

That all his jests without reflection be ;

To keep the house more quiet and from blame,

We banish hence cards, dice, and every game ;

Nor can allow of wagers, that exceed

Five shillings, which ofttimes much trouble

breed ;
Let all that's lost or forfeited be spent
In such good liquor as the house doth vent.
And customers endeavour, to their powers.
For to observe still, seasonable hours.
Lastly, let each man what he calls for pay.
And so you're welcome to come every day.

The early coffee houses were often up a
flight of stairs, and consisted of a single
large room with ' ' tables set apart for divers
topics." There is a reference to this in the
prologue to a comedy of 1681 (quoted by
Malone) :

In a coffee house just now among the rabble
I bluntly asked, which is the treason table?

This was the arrangement at Man's and
others favored by the wits, the literati, and
"men of fashionable instincts." In the
distinctly business coffee houses separate
rooms were provided at a later time for
mercantile transactions. The introduction
of wooden partitions — wooden boxes, as at
a tavern — was also of somewhat later date.

A print of 1674 shows five persons of dif-
ferent ranks in life, one of them smoking,
sitting on chairs around a coffee-house
table, on which are small basins, or dishes,
without saucers, and tobacco pipes, while
a coffee boy is serving coffee.

In the beginning, only coffee was dis-
pensed in the English coffee houses. Soon
chocolate, sherbert, and tea were added;
but the places still maintained their status
as social and temperance factors. Con-
stantine Jennings (or George Constantine)
of the Grecian advertised chocolate, sher-
bert and tea at retail in 1664 - 65 ; also
free instruction in the part of preparing
these liquors. "Drams and cordial waters
were to be had only at coffee houses newly
set up," says Elford the younger, writing
about 1689. While some few places added
ale and beer as early as 1669, intoxicating
liquors were not items of importance for
many years.

After the fire of 1666, many new coffee
houses were opened that were not limited

to a single room up a flight of stairs. Be-
cause the coffee-house keepers over-em-
phasized the sobering qualities of the coffee
drink, they drew many undesirable char-
acters from the taverns and ale houses after
the nine o'clock closing hour. These were
hardly calculated to improve the reputa-
tion of the coffee houses; and, indeed, the
decline of the coffee houses as a temperance
institution would seem to trace back to

CojpFiE House xests

A London Coffee House of the Seventeenth

Century

From a wood cut of the period

this attitude of false pity for the victims
of tavern vices, evils that many of the
coffee houses later on embraced to their
own undoing. The early institution was
unique, its distinctive features being un-
like those of any public house in England
or on the Continent. Later on, in the eigh-
teenth century, when these distinctive fea-

ALL ABOUT COFFEE

tures became obscured, the name coffee
house became a misnomer.

However, Robinson says, "the close in-
tercourse between the habitu6s of the coffee
house, before it lost anything of its gen-
erous social traditions and whilst the issue
of the struggle for political liberty was as
yet uncertain, was to lead to something

Coffee House, Queen Anne's Time — 1702-14
Showing coffee pots, coffee dishes, and coffee boy

more than a mere jumbling or huddling
together of opposites. The diverse ele-
ments gradually united in the bonds of
common sympathy, or were forcibly com-
bined by persecution from without until
there resulted a social, political and moral
force of almost irresistible strength."

Coffee-Eouse Keepers' Tokens

The great London fire of 1666 destroyed
some of the coffee houses; but prominent
among those i^iat survived was the Rain-
bow, whose proprietor, James Farr, issued
one of the earliest coffee-house tokens,
doubtless in grateful memory of his escape.
Farr's token shows an arched rainbow

emerging from the clouds of the "great
fire," indicating that all was well with
him, and the Rainbow still radiant. On
the reverse the medal was inscribed, "In
Fleet Street — His Half Penny."

A large number of these trade coins were
put out by coffee-house keepers and other
tradesmen in the seventeenth century as
evidence of an amount due, as stated there-
on, by the issuer to the holder. Tokens
originated because of the scarcity of small
change. They were of brass, copper, pew-
ter, and even leather, gilded. They bore
the name, address, and calling of the is-
suer, the nominal value of the piece, and
some reference to his trade. They were
readily redeemed, on presentation, at their
face value. They were passable in the im-
mediate neighborhood, seldom reaching
farther than the next street. C. G. William-
son writes :

Tokens are essentially deniooratic ; they would
never have been issued but for the indifterenee
of the Government to a public need ; and in
tJieni we have a remarkable instance of a people
forcing a legislature to comply with demands at
once reasonable and imperative. Taken as a
whole series, they are homely and quaint, want-
ing in beauty, but not without u curious domes-
tic art of their own.

Robinson finds an exception to the gen-
eral simplicity in the tokens^ issued by one
of the Exchange Alley houses. The dies
of these tokens are such as to have sug-
gested the skilled workmanship of John
Roettier. The most ornate has the head
of a Turkish sultan at that time famed for
his horrible deeds, ending in suicide; its
inscription runs:

Morat ye Great Men did mee call;
Where Eare I came I conquer'd all.

A number of the most interesting
coffee-house keepers' tokens in the Beau-
foy collection, in the Guildhall Museum
were photographed for this work, and are
shown herewith. It will be observed that
many of the traders of 1660-75 adopted
as their trade sign a hand pouring coffee
from a pot, invariably of the Turkish-
ewer pattern. Morat (Amurath) and Soli-
man were frequent coffee-house signs in
the seventeenth century.

J. H. Bum, in his Catalogue of Traders'
Tokens, recites that in 1672 "divers per-
sons who presumed ... to stamp, coin,
exchange and distribute farthings, half-
pence and pence of brass and copper'
were "taken into custody, in order to

COFFEE HOUSES OF OLD LONDON

Andrew Vincent
in Friday Street

Morat Ye Great Coffee House
in Kxchange Alley

Mary Long
in Russell Street

Robins' Coffee House
in Old Jewry

Union Coffee House
in Cornhill

James Farr, the Rainbow
In Fleet Street

Chapter Coffee House
in Paternoster Row

Sultaness Coffee House
in Cornhill

Achler Brocas
in Exeter

Morat Coffee House
in Exchange Alley

PLATE 1 — COFFEE-HOUSE KEEPERS' TOKENS OF THE 17TH CENTURY

Drawn for this work from the originals in the British Museum, and in the Beaufoy collection at the

Guildhall Museum

ALL ABOUT COFFEE

severe prosecution"; but upon submission,
their offenses were forgiven, and it was
not until the year 1675 that the private
token ceased to pass current.

A royal proclamation at the close of
1674 enjoined the prosecution of any who
should "utter base metals with private
stamps," or "hinder the vending of those
half pence and farthings which are pro-
vided for necessary exchange." After
this, tokens were issued stamped "neces-
sary change."

losition to the C offee House

It is easy to see why the coffee houses
at once found favor among men of intel-

A Cup oh

O F E E

OR,

CoiFee in its Colqms.

7WiMmt<jtad«^d .

?uulf«d

r^^^w

ii.{>.p»»j.rfi».°ti'»~"r' ■

•w, SKl^i

w« luw fkM fMT WMteAi Jn

ta<l|TVdS*>

A Broadside of 1GG3

ligence in all classes. Until they came,
the average Englishman had only the tav-
ern as a place of common resort. But
here was a public house offering a non-in-
toxicating beverage, and its appeal was in-
stant and universal. As a meeting place
for the exchange of ideas it soon attained
wide popularity. But not without opposi-
tion. The publicans and ale-house keep-
ers, seeing business slipping away from
them, made strenuous propaganda against
this new social center; and not a few at-
tacks were launched against the coffee
drink. Between the Restoration and the
year 1675, of eight tracts written upon the
subject of the London coffee houses, four

have the words "character of a coffee
house" as part of their titles. The au-
thors appear eager to impart a knowledge
of the town's latest novelty, with which
many readers were unacquainted;

One of these early pamphlets (1662) was
entitled lite Coffee Scuffle, and professed
to give a dialogue between "a learned
knight and a pitifull pedagogue," and con-
tained an amusing account of a house
where the Puritan element was still in the
ascendant. A numerous company is pres-
ent, and each little group being occupied
with its own subject, the general effect is
that of another Babel. "While one is en-
gaged in ({noting the classics, another con-
fides to his neighbors how much he admires
Euclid ;

A third's for a lecture, a fourth a conjecture,
A fifth for a penny in the pound.

Theology is introduced. Mask balls and
plays are condemned. Others again dis-
cuss the news, and are deep in the store
of "mercuries" here to be found. One
cries up philosophy. Pedantry is rife, and
for the most part unchecked, when each
'prentice-boy "doth call for his coffee in
Latin" and all are so prompt with their
learned quotations that " 't would make
a poor Vicar to tremble."

The first noteworthy effort attacking the
coffee drink was a satirical broadside that
appeared in 1663. It was entitled A Cup
of Coffee: or, Coff'ee in its Colours. It said:

For men and Christians to turn Turks, and

tliink
T' excuse the Crime because 'tis in their drink,
Is more tlian Magick .

Pure English Apes ! Ye may, for ought I know.
Would it but mode, learn to eat Spiders too.

The writer wonders that any man should
prefer coffee to canary, and refers to the
days of Beaumont, Fletcher, and Ben
Jonson. He says :

They drank pure nectar as the gods drink too,
Sublim'd with rich Canary . .

shall then
These less than coffee's self, these coffee-men.
These sons of nothing, that can hardly make
Their Broth, for laughing how the jest doth

take ;
Yet grin, and give ye for the Vine's pure Blood
A loathsome potion, not yet understood,
Syrrop of soot, or Essence of old Shooes,
Dasht with Diurnals and the Books of news?

The author of A Cup of Coffee, it will
be seen, does not shrink from using epi-
thets.

COFFEE HOUSES OF OLD LONDOX

Richard Lione
in tlie Strand

Mary Stringar
in Little Trinity Lane

Richard Tart
in Gray Friars, Newgate Street

William Russell
in St. Bartholomew's Close, Smithfleld

John Marston
in Trumpington Street, Cambridge

Henry Muscut
opposite Brook House in Holborn

West Country Coffee House
in Lothebury

Thomas Outridge
in Carter Lane End, near Creed Lane

Ward's Coffee House
in Bread Street

Mansfield's Coffee House
in Shoe Lane

PLATE 2— COFFEE-HOUSE KEEPERS' TOKENS OF THE 17TH CENTURY

Drawn for this work from the originals in the British Museum, and in the Beaufoy collection at the

Guildhall Museum

ALL ABOUT COFFEE

The Coffee Man's Granado Discharged
upon the Maiden's Complaint Against
Coffee, a dialogue in verse, also appeared
in 1663.

The Character of a Coffee House, hy an
Eye and Ear Witness appeared in 1665.
It was a ten-page pamphlet, and proved to
be excellent propaganda for coffee. It is
so well done, and contains so much local
color, that it is reproduced here, the text
being copied from the original in the Brit-
ish Museum. The title page reads:

The
Character

OF A

COFFEE-HOUSE

wherein
Is contained a Description of the Persons
usually frequenting it, with their Dis-
course and Humors,
As Also
The Admirable Vertues of
COFFEE
By an Eye and Ear Witness

When Coffee once was vended here.
The Alc'ron shortly did appear,
For our Reformers were such Widgeons.
New Liquors brought in new Religions.

Printed in the Year, 1665.

the

The text and the arrangement of
body of the pamphlet are as follows :

The
Character

OF A

Coffee-House
the derivation of
A coffee-house

A Coffee-house, the learned hold
It is a place where Coffee's sold ;
This derivation cannot fail us,
For where Ale's vended, that's an Ale-house.

This being granted to be true,
'Tis meet that next the Signs we shew
Both where and how to find this house
Where men such cordial hroth carowse.
And if Culpepper woon some glory
In turning the Dispensatory
From Latin into English; then
Why should not all good English men
Give him much thanks who shews a cure
For all diseases men endure?

SIGNS : HOW TO
FIND IT OUT

As you along the streets do trudge.

To take the pains you must not grudge,

To view the Posts or Broomsticks where

The Signs of Liquors hanged are.

And if you see the great Moral

With Shash on's head instead of hat,

Or any Sultan in his dress,

Or picture of a Sultaness,

Or John's admir'd curled pate,

Or th' great Mogul in's Chair of State,

Or Constantine the Grecian,

Who fourteen years was th' onely man

That made Coffee for th' great Bashaw,

Although the man he never saw;
Or if you see a Coffee-cup
Fil'd from a Turkish pot, hung up
Within the clouds, and round it Pipes,
Wax Candles, Stoppers, these are types
And certain signs (with many more
Would be too long to write them 'ore,)
Which plainly do Spectators tell
That in that house they Coffee sell.
Some wiser than the rest (no doubt,)
Say they can by the smell find't out ;
In at a door (say they,) but thrust
Your Nose, and if you scent burnt Crust,
Be sure there's Coffee sold that's good.
For so by most 'tis understood.

Now being enter'd, there's no needing
Of complements or gentile breeding,
For you may seat you any where,
There's no respect of persons there ;
Then comes the Coffee-man to greet you,
With welcome Sir, let me entreat you.
To tell me what you'l please to have.
For I'm your humble, humble slave ;
But if you ask, what good does Coffee?
He'l answer, Sir, don't think I scoff yee.
If I affirm there's no disease
Men have that drink it but find ease.

THE VERTUES
OF COFFEE

Look, there's a man who takes the steem
In at his Nose, has an extreme
Worm in his pate, and giddiness.
Ask him and he will say no less.
There sitteth one whose Droptick belly
AVas hard as flint, now's soft as jelly.
There stands another holds his head
'Ore th' Co:i9'ee-pot, was almost dead
Even now with Rhume; ask him hee'l say
That all his Rhum's now past away.
See, there's a man sits now demure
And sober, was within this hour
Quite drunk, and comes here frequently.
For 'tis his daily Malady,
More, it has such reviving power
'Twill keep a man awake an houre,
Nay, make his eyes wide open stare
Both Sermon time and all the prayer.
Sir, should I tell you all the rest
O' th' cures 't has done, two hours at least
In numb'ring them I needs must spend.
Scarce able then to make an end.
Besides these vertues that's therein,
For any kind of Medicine,
The C ommonwealthr Kingdom I'd say.
Has mighty reason for to pray
That still Arabia may produce
Enough of Berry for it's use :
For't has such strange magnetick force,
That it draws after't great concourse
Of all degrees of persons, even
From high to low, from morn till even ;
Especially the "iober Party,
And News-mongers do drink't most hearty.
Here you'r not thrust into a Box
As Taverns do to catch the Fox,
But as from th' top of Pauls high steeple,
Th' whole City's view'd, even so all people
May here be seen ; no secrets are
At th' Court for Peace, or th' Camp for War,.
But straight they'r here disclos'd and known ;
Men in this Age so wise are grown.
Now (Sir) what profit may accrew

^BWith that he's loudly call'd upon
^B For Coffee, and then whip he's gone.
^Hthe company
^B Here at a Table sits (perplext)

A griping Usurer, and next

To him a gallant Furioso,

Then nigh to him a Virtuoso;

A Player then (full fine) sits down,

And close to him a Country Clown.

()' th' other side sits some Pragmatick,

And next to him some sly Phanatick.

THE SEVERAL
LIQUORS

The gallant he for Tea doth call,
The Usurer for nought at all.
The Pragmatick he doth intreat
That they will fill him some Beau-cheat,
The Virtuoso he cries hand me
Some Coffee mixt with Sugar-candy.
Phanaticus (at last) says come.
Bring me some Aromaticum.
The Player bawls for Chocolate,
All which the Bumpkin wond'ring at,
Cries, ho, my Masters, what d' ye speak,
D' ye call for. drink in Heathen Greek ?
Give me some good old Ale or Beer,
Or else I will not drink. I swear.
Then having charg'd their Pipes around,

THEIR DISCOURSE

They silence break ; First the profound
And sage Phanatique, Sirs what news?
Troth says the UsWer I ne'r use
To tip my tongue with such discourse,
. 'Twere news to know how to disburse
A summ of mony (makes me sad)
To get ought by't, times are so bad.
The other answers, truly Sir
You speak but truth, for I'le aver
They ne'r were worse ; did you not hear
What prodigies did late appear
At Xoririch. Ipsirich. Grantham, Gotam?
And though prophane ones do not not'em,
Yet we — Here th' Virtuoso stops
The current of his speech, with hopes
Quoth he. you will not tak'd amiss,
I say all's lies that's news like this,
For I have Factors all about
The Realm, so that no Stars peep out
That are unusual, much less these
Strange and unheard-of prodigies
You would relate, but they are tost
To me in letters by first Post.
At which the Furioso swears
Such chat as this offends his ears
It rather doth become this Age
To talk of bloodshed, fury, rage.
And t' drink stout healths in brim-fill'd Nogans.
To th' downfall of the Hogan Mogans.
With that the Player doffs his Bonnet,
And tunes his voice as if a Sonnet
Were to be sung; then gently says,
O what delight there is in Plays!
Sure if we were but all In Peace,
This noise of Wars and News would cease ;
All sorts of people then would club
Their pence to see a Play that's good.
You'l wonder all this while (perhaps)
The Ctirioso holds his chaps.
But he doth in his thoughts devise.
How to the rest he may seem wise ;

COFFEE HOUSES OF OLD LONDON 67

Yet able longer not to hold.

His tedious tale too must be told.

And thus begins. Sirs unto me

It reason seems that liberty

Of speech and words should be allow'd

Where men of differing judgements croud.

And that's a Coffee-house, for where

Should men discourse so free as there?

Coffee and Commonwealth begin

Both with one letter, both came in

Together for a Reformation,

To make's a free and sober Nation.

But now — With that Phanaticus

Gives him a nod. and speaks him thus.

Hold brother, I know your intent,

That's no dispute convenient

For this same place, truths seldome find

Acceptance here, they'r more confin'd

To Taverns and to Ale-house liquor.

Where men do vent their minds more quicker

If that may for a truth but pass

What's said, In vino Veritas.

With that up starts the Country Clown,

And stares about with threatening frown

As if he would even eat them all up.

Then bids the boy run quick and call up,

A Constable, for he has reason

To fear their Latin may be treason

But straight they all call what's to pay,

Lay't down, and march each several way.

THE COMPANY

At th' other table sits a Knight,
And here a grave old man ore right
Against his worship, then perhaps
That hy and by a Drawer claps
His bum close by them, there down squats
A dealer in old shoes and hats;
And here withouten any panick
Fear, dread or care a bold Mechanick.

THEIR DISCOURSE

The Knight (because he's so) he prates
Of matters far beyond their pates.
The grave old man he makes a bustle,
And his wise sentence in must justle.
Up starts th' Apprentice boy and he
Says boldly so and so't must be.
The dealer in old shoes to utter
His saying too makes no small sputter.
Then comes the pert mechanick blade,
And contradicts what all have said.
* * *

There by the fler-side doth sit,
One freezing in an Ague fit.
Another poking in't with th' tongs,
Still ready to cough up his lungs
Here sitteth one that's melancolick.
And there one singing in a frolick.
Each one hath such a prety gesture.
At Smithfield fair would yield a tester.
Boy reach a pipe cries he that shakes.
The songster no Tobacco takes.
Says he who coughs, nor do I smoak.
Then Monsieur Mopus turns his cloak
Off from his face, and with a grave
Majestick beck his pipe doth crave.
They load their guns and fall a smoaking
Whilst he who coughs sits by a choaking.
Till he no longer can abide.
And so removes from th' fier side.
Now all this while none calls to drink.
Which makes the Coffee hoy to think

ALL ABOUT COFFEE

Much they his pots should so enclose,

He cannot pass but tread on toes.

With that as he the Nectar fills

From pot to pot, some on't he spills

Upon the Songster. Oh cries he.

Pox, what dost do? thou'st burnt my knee;

No says the boy, (to make a bald

And blind excuse.) Sir Hvnll not scald.

With that the man lends him a cuff

O' th' ear, and whips away in snuff.

The other two, their pipes being out,

Says Monsieur Mopus I much doubt

My friend I wait for will not come.

But if he do, say I'm gone home.

Then says the Aguish man I must come

According to my wonted custome.

To give ye' a visit, although now

I dare not drink, and so adieu.

The boy replies, O Sir, however

You'r very welcome, we do never

Our Candles, Pipes or Fier grutch

To daily customers and such,

They'r Company (without expence,)

For that's sufficient recompence.

Here at a table all alone,

Sits (studying) a spruce youngster, (one

Wlio doth conceipt himself fully witty,

And's counted one o' th' wits o' th' City,)

Till by him (with a stately grace,)

A Spanish Don himself doth place.

Then (cap in hand) a brisk Monsieur

He takes his seat, and crowds as near

As possibly that he can come.

Then next a Dutchman takes his room.

The Wits glib tongue begins to chatter,

Though't utters more of noise than matter,

Yet 'cause they seem to mind his words.

His lungs more battle still affords

At last says he to Don, I trow

Ydu understand me? Sennor no

Says th' other. Here the Wit doth pause

A little while, then opes his jaws.

And says to Monsieur, you enjoy

Our tongue I hope? Non par ma foy,

Replies the Frenchm/m : nor you, Sir?

Says he to th' Dutchman, 7veen mynheer,

With that he's gone, and cries, why sho'd

He stay where tmfs not understood?

There in a place of his own chusing

(Alone) some lover sits a musing,

With arms across, and's eyes up lift,

As if he were of sence bereft.

Till sometimes to himself he's speaking,

Then sighs as if his heart were breaking.

Here in a comer sits a Phrantick,

And there stands by a frisking Antick,

Of all sorts some and all conditions

Even Vintners, Surgeons and Physicians.

The blind, the deaf, and aged cripple

Do here resort and Coffee tipple.

Now here (perhaps) you may expect
My Muse some trophies should erect
In high flown verse, for to set forth
The noble praises of its worth.

Truth is, old Poets beat their brains
To find out high and lofty strains
To praise the (now too frequent) use
Of the bewitching grapes strong juice,
Some have strain'd hard for to exalt
The liquor of our English Mault
Nay Don has almost crackt his nodle
Enough t' applaud his Caaco Caudle.

The Germans Mum, Teag's Usquebagh,
(Made him so well defend Tredagh,)
MethegUn, which the Brittains tope,
Hot Brandy wine, the Hogans hope.
Stout Meade which makes the Russ to laugh,
Spic'd Punch (in bowls.) the Indians quaff.
All these have had their pens to raise
Tliem Monuments of lasting praise,
Onely poor Coffee seems to me
No subject fit for Poetry
At least 'tis one that none of mine is.
So I do wave 't, and here write —
FINIS.

News from the Coffe House; in which
is shewn their several sorts of Passions ap-

NEWS from the COFFE-HOUSE;

In which is (hewn their fcvaral forts of Pairions,
Conuining Newes fiom all cm Nogjibour \amn!.

A POEM.

YOo tint 4eli«lit iii iv-,i j„j Mirth,
Aniiotn to bcBr imti N«w(,
Ai roam from «11 P»m of the Fteih,
Vmii. DMfj, Mil Tmltj, md J,w',

Ihe, know more Tbingi 'then ci
No Moitty ia the M'liiing-jMtufc

/I >«a,i tm h CO

Bdore tf« Ji.vp, ftlt tn Work
Tta^kai* who lladi kc Wion

Tbiy llMTt CM tdl yciritH the 7
iJCtaidlTlKiilaDmnfi

Wks M dU Cm D. tmim, u«
hmBffi Ita jovial Crete ;

Ob WhoMl givf tiM i^fTiitkji

k filhrma i,i taWlv teTI,
Am ftrongly d:il a voucli.

He Cufht % Shne! (.i Metkirel,
T!»tPtrlej'J.i;w7l.i.-4,

ntf„.,hK..,mV,. G,d\,i,mg,

Miiieof Mit-S >ctom-d Hoan,
Shell Coinfiu E.t.'"»l '*u-il *h .Lt

There*! neit! ing done ir. ill iht Wi r/,

Bw««vDevo(Nicht':i»bjr:<i ,

Into the tr.f ,.fa»/,.
WEUI tiiJitar Rhtt fM^<r tin

By An, n«i briri; Ibiwr,
*i C.f.-*wi// you'l find ■ Ml",

C— faitH/i fi-d .1 .«,

They1tti)|«ilierc. whit Itdy wire.

Oflite i» fftn/n too I'l^itf ;
WhSt W.fe.tBin Ibeii tnta favour r»f>

Whet fo«l diill bt 1 K-mhil
Ztty'i tell yc wbcn tier F«> Inn Xttie,

&fMl!Kifcij;'in, end Flotitilh,
Or m-Iks 7,*r^ JJ^ai, (hill be mi^

Olorth-Wirden ^ tie Pirifli.

'*>&>, trimti h) t. Cnw>l, for rbx,^ frt •>; ilii

Ttty lnow»hol)>«iiin Iimei i,no»

Be either made, or undone,
Trom great S!. fiwi-Jtrintn timt

And lloeile Kill at Clrtjn,.,
WhittnU uath great ei'l Gi.n;

And in that place, what Biajen-f.te
Doth mtti a Golden Cham.

At Sea their Knoia-ledee ii lo muth,
TleyHrowall Kotli and snel.ei,

Tl«y Unrn ,h Counci'li of t.'.t D.r.*,
More il,e= -hey kr»» Them^elrei ,

f. ho •[,! ni.l -el the ti'> ai lad.
They perlefily ran Omw

The? know a:! that it Gtini, t" Hun
To Dam yr, or to Save ye ;

There i, the C ''*i', and the Cfr,
TlwCa*"';. tTaaip, and hivit;

)&&. IheDtml:n5ill.reotCt..>./.,-,

S^ Tht tend Of nii/i:-,.-

5^^ "Til Cheaperfarr then Wine.

«)(v> Yoti ftiall. fciiow there, lehatFllltontwei

ij;i6> H»"l'<irT»igg,artCiirl'd,

y fci; Arf lor a Penny yoo flit|| ktall,

gj* All Novel* in (he WoHd

gg Doth Old and Yontif, and Gleat andSlMB,

CVqp And Kich, and faon, ymtl ftf :

Sf& Thavefori ktl t« tie Cafe *8,

gg^ Cone All an; >1A Uk. FMl .

C»iia!c. fafcv/n» ><«j. ^ahjkfnnsa. ji

A Broadside of 1667

peared in 1667. It was reprinted in 1672
as The Coffee House or Newsmongers'
Hall.

Several stanzas from these broadsides
have been much quoted. They serve to
throw additional light upon the manners
of the time, and upon the kind of conver-
sation met with in any well frequented
coffee house of the seventeenth century,
particularly under the Stuarts. They are
finely descriptive of the company char-

COFFEE HOUSES OF OLD LONDON

acteristics of the early coffee houses. The
fifth stanza of the edition of 1667, inimical
to the French, was omitted when the broad-
side was amended and reprinted in 1672,
the year that England joined with France
and again declared war on the Dutch. The
following' verses with explanatory notes
are from Timbs:

News from the Coffe House

You that delight in Wit and Mirth,

And long to hear such News,
As comes from all Parts of the Earth,

Dutch, Danes, and Turks, and Jews,
I'le send yee to a Rendezvouz,

Where it is smoaking new ;
Go hear it at a Coffe-house,

It cannot hut he true.

Tliere Battles and Sea-Fights are Fought,

And bloudy Plots display'd ;
They know more Things then ere was thought

Or ever was betray'd :
No Money in the Minting-house

Is halfe so Bright and New ;
And comming from a Coffe-house

It cannot hut he true.

Before the Navyes fall to Work,

They know who shall be Winner ;
They there can tell ye what the Turk

Last Sunday had to Dinner ;
Who last did Cut Du Ruitters " Corns,

Amongst his jovial Crew ;
Or Who first gave the Devil Horns,

Which cannot hut he true.

A Fisherman did boldly tell,

And strongly did avouch,
He Caught a Shoal of Mackarel,

That Parley'd all in Dutch,
And cry'd out Yaw, yaw, yaw Myne Here;

But as the Draught they Drew
They Stunck for fear, that Monck^'' was there.

Which cannot hut he true.

There's nothing done in all the World,

From M anarch to the Mouse
But every Day or Night 'tis hurld

Into the Coffe-house.
What Lillie^^ or what Booker^ can

By Art,, not bring about,
At Coffe-house you'l find a Man,

Can quickly find it out.

They know who shall in Times to come,

Be either made, or undone,
From great St. Peters street in Rome,

To Tumhull-street^^ in London;

* * *

They know all that is Good, or Hurt,

To Dam ye, or to Save ye;
There is the Colledge, and the Court,

The Country, Camp and Navie;
So great a Universitie,

I think there ne're was any ;
In which you may a Schoolar be

For spending of a Penny.

* * *

Here Men do talk of every Thing,

With large and liberal Lungs,
Like Women at a Gossiping,

With double tyre of Tongues;
They'l give a Broad-side presently,

Soon as you are in view.
With Stories that, you'l wonder at,

Which they will swear are true.

Tlie Drinking there of Chockalat,

Can make a Fool a Sophie :
'Tls thought the Turkish Mahomet

Was first Inspir'd with Coffe,
By which his Powers did Over-flow

The Land of Palestine :
Then let us to, the Coffe-house go,

'Tis Cheaper farr then Wine.

You shall know there, what Fashions are ;

How Perrywiggs are Curl'd ;
And for a Penny you shall heare,

All Novells in the World.
Both Old and Young, and Great and Small,

And Rich, and Poore, you'l see ;
Therefore let's to the Coffe All,

Come All away with Mee.

Finis.

Robert Morton made a contribution to
the controversy in Lines Appended to the
Nature, Quality and Most Excellent Ver-
ifies of Coffee in 1670.

There was published in 1672 A Broad-
side Against Coffee, or the Marriage of
the Turk, verses that attained consider-
able fame because of their picturesque in-
vective. They also stressed the fact that
Pasqua Ros^e's partner was a coachman,

» The Dutch admiral who, in June, 1667, dashed
into the Downs with a fleet of eighty "sail", and
many "flre-ships", blocljed up the mouths of the
Medway and Thames, destroyed the fortifications at
Sheerness. cut away the paltry defenses of booms and
chains drawn across the rivers, and got to Chatham,
on the one side, and nearly to Gravesend on the
other, the king having spent in debauchery the money
voted by Parliament for the proper support of the
English navy.

" General Monk and Prince Rupert were at this
time commanders of the English fleet.

" Lillie (Lilly) was the celebratefl astrologer of the
Protectorate, who earned great fame at that time by
predicting, in June, 1645, "if now we fight, a victory
stealeth upon us ;" a lucky guess, signally verified in

the King's defeat at Naseby. Lilly thenceforth always
saw the stars favourable to the Puritans.

" This man was originally a fishing-tackle maker in
Tower Street during the reign of Charles I ; but
turning enthusiast, he went about prognosticating
"the downfall of the King and Popery ;" and as he
and his predictions were all on the popular side, he
became a great man with the superstitious "godly
brethren" of that day.

1* Turnball, or TurnbuU - street, as it is still called,
had been for a century previous of infamous repute.
In Beaumont and Fletcher's play, the Knipht of the
Burning Pestle, one of the ladies who is undergoing
penance at the barber's, has her character sufliciently
pointed out to the audience, in her declaration, that
she had been "stolen from her friends in Turnball -
street."

ALL ABOUT COFFEE

N.taircQualicy, and Mofl: Ex'ccllcnc V'

COFFEE

crtucs

MKti ihmi k>r the

fhim rtiobchts »^ <lrv' becaufeO-
' -iid axnft, liiakcn ^hcn ^vr\ has*

M coU thm^* dulli the tK'sui n

tcrfii liung i)Ott d* SroiB* '■

^ h t ai,d di^ rfang^ flroigiithe

A Broadside of 1670

and imitated the broken English of the
Ragusan youth:

A Broad-side Against COFFEE ;

Ob, the

Mabbiage of the Turk

Coffee, a kind of Turkish Renegade,

Has late a match with Christian water made ;

At first l)etween them happen'd a Demur,

Yet joyn'd they were, but not without great stir;

* * *

Coffee was cold as Earth, Water as Thames,
And stood in need of recommending Flames;

* iti *

Coffee so brown as berry does appear,
Too swarthy for a Nymph so fair, so clear :

* * *

A Coachman was the first (here) Coffee made,
And ever since the rest drive on the trade;
Me no good Engalash! and sure enough.
He plaid the Quack to salve his Stygian stuff;
Ver boon for de stomach, de Cough, de Ptisick
And I believe him, for it looks like Physick.
Coffee a crust is charkt into a coal.
The smell and taste of the Mock China bowl ;
Where huflf and puff, they labour out their lungs,
Lest Dives-like they should bewail their tongues.
And yet they tell ye that it will not burn.
Though on the Jury Blisters you return ;
Whose furious heat does make the water rise.
And still through the Alembicks of your eyes.
Dread and desire, ye fall to't snap by snap,

As hungry Dogs do scalding porrige lap,
But to cure Drunkards it has got great Fame;
Posset or Porrige, will't not do the same?
Confusion huddles all into one Scene,
Like Noah's Ark, the clean and the unclean.
But now, alas! the Drench has credit got,
And he's no Gentleman that drinks it not ;
That such a Dwarf should rise to such a stature I
But Custom is but a remove from Nature.
A little Dish, and a large Coffee-house,
What is it, but a Mountain and a Mouse?
* * *

Mens humana novitatis avidissim^a.

And so it came to pass that coffee his-
tory repeated itself in England. Many
good people became convinced that coffee
was a dangerous drink. The tirades against
the beverage in that far-off time sound not
unlike the advertising patter employed by
some of our present-day coffee-substitute
manufacturers. It was even ridiculed by
being referred to as "ninny broth" and
"Turkey gruel."

A brief description of the excellent ver-
tues of that sober and wholesome drink
called coffee appeared in 1674 and proved
an able and dignified answer to the at-
tacks that had preceded it. That same year,
for the first time in history, the sexes di-
vided in a coffee controversy, and there
was issued The Women's Petition against
Coffee, representing to public consideration
the grand inconveniences accruing to their

A Broad-ride againft COFFEE; ,

Or, the

Marriage of the Turk. -x

■^'llFhE.i.i.n

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A Broadside of 1672

COFFEE HOUSES OF OLD LOXDON

sex from the excessive use of the drying
and enfeebling Liquor, in which the ladies,
who had not been accorded the freedom of
the coffee houses in England, as was the
custom in France, Germany, Italy, and
other countries on the Continent, com-
plained that coffee made men as "unfruit-
ful as the deserts where that unhappy
berry is said to be bought." Besides the
more serious complaint that the whole race
was in danger of extinction, it was urged
that "on a domestic message a husband
would stop by the way to drink a couple
of cups of coffee."

This pamphlet is believed to have pre-
cipitated the attempt at suppression by
the crown the following year, despite the
prompt appearing, in 1674, of The Men's
Answer to the Women's Petition Against
Coffee, vindicating . . . their liquor, from
the undeserved aspersion lately cast upon
them, in their scandalous pamphlet.

The 1674 broadside in defense of coffee
was the first to be illustrated; and for all
its air of pretentious grandeur and occa-
sional bathos, it was not a bad rhyming
advertisement for the persecuted drink. It
was printed for Paul Greenwood and sold
"at the sign of the coffee mill and tobacco-
roll in Cloath-fair near West-Smithfield,
who selleth the best Arabian coffee powder
and chocolate in cake or roll, after the
Spanish fashion, etc." The following ex-
tracts will serve to illustrate its epic char-
acter :

When the sweet Poison of the Treacherous

Grape,
Had Acted on the world a General Rape ;
Drowning our very Reason and our Souls
In such deep Seas of large o'reflowing Bowls,

* * an

When Foggy Ale, leavying up mighty Trains
Of muddy Vapours, had besieg'd our Brains ;

* * *

Then Heaven in Pity, to Effect our Cure,

* * *

First sent amongst us this All-heaUng-Berry,
At once to make us both Sober and Merry.

Arabian Coffee, a Rich Cordial
To Purse and Person Beneficial,
Which of so many Vertues doth partake,
Its Country's called Felix for its sake.
From the Rich Chambers of the Rising Sun,
Where Arts, and all good Fashions first begun.
Where Earth with choicest Rarities is blest.
And dying Phoenix builds Her wondrous Nest;:
COFFEE arrives, that Grave and wholesome

Liquor,
That heals the Stomack, makes the Genius

quicker,

DESCRIPTh N

COFFEE

■^J*!,- INCOMPARABLE
'.*-jj^ EFFECTS

Wr^-^:t^i:

mil F HOUSE.

I b whi,.^ I. .. HA.n.VMVM.

A I ".udADsii'i; III It;, 1
The first one to be illustrated

Relieves the Memory, Revives the Sad.
* * *

Do but this Rare ARABIAN Cordial Use,
And thou may'st all the Doctors Slops Refuse.
Hush then, dull QUACKS, your Mountebanking

cease,
COFFEE'S a speedier Cure for each Disease;
How great its Vertues are, we hence may think.
The Worlds third Part makes it their common

Drink ;
In Breif, all you who Healths Rich Treasures

Prize,
And Court not Ruby Noses, or blear'd Eyes,
But own Sobriety to be your Drift.
And Love at once good Company and Thrift ;
To Wine no more make Wit and Coyn a

Trophy,
But come each Night and Fi-<>llique here in

Coffee.

•

An eight-page folio, the last argument
to be issued in defense of coffee before
Charles II sought to follow in the foot-
steps of Kair Bey and Kuprili, was issued
in the early part of 1675. It was entitled
Coffee Houses Vindicated. In answer to
the late published Character of a Coffee
House. Assertiiig from Reason, Experi-
ence and good Authors the Excellent Use
and physical Virtues of that Liquor. . . .
With the Grand Conveniency of such civil
Places of Resort and ingenious Conversa-
tion.

ALL ABOUT COFFEE

The advantage of a coffee house com-
pared with a " publiek-house " is thus set
forth:

First, In regard of easy expense. Being to
wait for or meet a friend, a tavern-reckoning
soon breeds a purse-consumption : in an ale
house, you must gorge yourself with pot after
pot . . . But here, for a penny or two, you
may spend two or three hours, have the shelter
of a house, the warmth of *a fire, the diversion
of company ; and conveniency, if you please, of
taking a pipe of tobacco ; and all this without
any grumbling or repining. Secondly. For so-
briety. It is grown, by the ill influences of I
know not what hydropick stars, almost a gen-
eral custom amongst us, that no bargain can
be drove, or business concluded between man
and man, hut it must be transacted at some
publick-house . . . where continual sippings
. . . would be apt to fly up into their brains,
and render them drowsy and indisposed . . .
whereas, having now the opportunity of a
coffee-house, they repair thither, take each
man a dish or two (so far from causing, that it
cures any dizziness, or disturbant fumes) : and
so, dispatching their business, go out more
sprightly about their affairs, than before. . . .
Lastly, For diversion . . . where can young
gentlemen, or shop-keepers, more innocently and
advantageously spend an hour or two in the eve-
ning than at a coffee-house? Where they shall
be sure to meet company, and, by the custom of
the house, not such as at other places stingy and
reserved to themselves, but free and communica-
tive, where every man may modestly begin his
story, and propose to, or answer another, as
he thinks fit. . . . So that, upon the whole
matter, spight of the idle sarcasms and paltry
reproaches thrown upon it, we may, with no
less truth than plainness, give this brief char-
acter of a well-regulated coffee-house, (for our
pen disdains to be an advocate for any sordid
holes, that assume that name to cloke the prac-
tice of debauchery,) that it is the sanctuary of
health, the nursery of temperance, the delight of
frugality, and academy of civility, and free-
school of ingenuity.

The Ale Wives' Complaint Against the
Coffee-houses, a dialogue between a vict-
ualer's wife and a coffee man, at difference
about spiriting away each other's trade,
also was issued in 1675.

As early as 1666, and again in 1672, we
find the government planning to strike a
blow at the coffee houses. By the year
1675, these "seminaries of sedition" were
much frequented by persons of rank and
substance, who, "suitable to our native
genius," says Anderson," "used great free-
dom therein with respect to the courts'
proceedings in these and like points, so
contrary to the voice of the people."
. In 1672, Charles II, seemingly eager to
emulate the Oriental intolerants that pre-

^* Anderson. Adam. Historical and Chronological
Deduction of the Origin of Commerce. London, 1787.

ceded him, determined to try his hand at
suppression. "Having been informed of
the great inconveniences arising from the
great number of persons that resort to
coffee-houses," the king "desired the Lord
Keeper and the Judges to give their opin-
ion in writing as to how far he might law-
fully proceed against them."

Roger North in his Examen gives the
full story; and D 'Israeli, commenting on
it, says, "it was not done without some
apparent respect for the British constitu-
tion." The courts affected not to act
against the law, and the judges were sum-
moned to a consultation ; but the five who-
met could not agree in opinion.

Sir William Coventry spoke against the
proposed measure. He pointed out that
the government obtained considerable
revenue from coffee, that the king himself
owed to these seemingly obnoxious places
no small debt of gratitude in the matter
of his own restoration; for they had been
permitted in Cromwell's time, when the
king's friends had used more liberty of
speech than "they dared to do in any
other." He urged, also, that it might be
rash to issue a command so likely to be
disobeyed.

At last, being hard pressed for a reply,
the judges gave such a halting opinion in
favor of the king's policy as to remind us
of the reluctant verdict wrung from the
physicians and lawyers of Mecca on the
occasion of coffee 's first persecution.'' ' ' The
English lawyers, in language which, for its
civility and indefiniteness, ' ' says Robinson,
"would have been the envy of their East-
em brethren," declared that:

Retailing coffee might be an innocent trade,
as it might be exercised; but as it is used nt
present, in the nature of a common assembly,
to discourse of matters of State, news and
great Persons, as they are Nurseries of Idle-
ness and Pragmaticalness, and hinder the ex-
pence of our native Provisions, they might be
thought common nuisances.

An attempt was made to mold public
opinion to a favorable consideration of the
attempt at suppression in The Grand Con-
cern of England explained, which w^as good
propaganda for his majesty's enterprise,
but utterly failed to carry conviction to
the lovers of liberty.

After much backing and filling, the king,
on December 23, 1675, issued a proclama-
tion which in its title frankly stated its

" See chapter III.

COFFEE HOUSES OF OLD LONDON

object — "foF the suppression of coffee
houses." It is here given in a somewhat
condensed form:

BY THE KING: A PROCLAMATION

^FOR THE SUPPRESSION OF

COFFEE HOUSES

Charles R.

Whereas it is most apparent that the multi-
tude of Coffee Houses of late years set up and
kept within this kingdom, the dominion of
Wales, and town of Berwick-upon-Tweed, and
the great resort of Idle and disaffected persons
to them, have produced very evil and dangerous
effects ; as well for that many tradesmen and
others, do herein mispend much of their time,
which might and probably would be employed
in and about their Lawful Calling and Affairs ;
but also, for that in such houses ....
divers false, malitious and scandalous reports
are devised and spread abroad to the Defama-
tion of his Majestie's Government, and to the
Disturbance of the Peace and Quiet of the
Realm ; his Majesty hath thought fit and neces-
sary, that the said Coffee Houses be (for the
future) Put down, and suppressed, and doth
. strictly charge and command all man-
ner of persons. That they or any of them do
not presume from and after the Tenth Day of
January next ensuing, to keep any Public Cof-
fee House, or to utter or sell by retail, in his,
her or their house or houses (to be spent or
consumed within the same) any Coffee, Choco
let, Sherbett or Tea, as they will answer the
contrary at their utmost perils . . . (all
licenses to be revoked).

Given at our Court at Whitehall, this third-
and-twentleth dajj of Dec, 1675, in the seven -
and-twentieth year of our Reign.

GOD SAVE THE KING.

And then a remarkable thing happened.
It is not usual for a royal proclamation
issued on the 29th of one month to be re-
called on the 8th day of the next ; but this
is the record established by Charles II.
The proclamation was made on December
23, 1675, and issued December 29, 1675.
It forbade the coffee houses to operate
after January 10, 1676, But so intense
was the feeling aroused, that eleven days
was sufficient time to convince the king
that a blunder had been made. Men of
all parties cried out against being deprived
of their accustomed haunts. The dealers

I in coffee, tea, and chocolate demonstrated
that the proclamation would greatly lessen
his majesty's revenues. Convulsion and
discontent loomed large. The king heeded
|the warning, and on January 8, 1676, an-
other proclamation was issued by which
the first proclamation was recalled.

In order to save the king's face, it was
solemnly recited that "His Gracious Maj-

esty," out of his "princely consideration
and royal compassion" would allow the re-
tailers of coffee liquor to keep open until
the 24th of the following June. But this
was clearly only a royal subterfuge, as
there was no further attempt at molesta-
tion, and it is extremely doubtful if any
was contemplated at the time the second
proclamation was promulgated.

"Than both which proclamations noth-
ing could argue greater guilt nor greater
weakness," says Anderson. Robinson re-
marks, "A battle for freedom of speech
was fought and won over this question at
a time when Parliaments were infrequent
and when the liberty of the press did not
exist, ' '

"Penny Universities"

"We read in 1677 that "none dare ven-
ture into the coffee houses unless he be
able to argue the question whether Parlia-
ment were dissolved or not."

All through the years remaining. in the
seventeenth century, and through most of
the eighteenth century, the London coffee
houses grew and prospered. As before
stated, they were originally temperance in-
stitutions, very different from the taverns
and ale houses. "Within the walls of the
coffee house there was always much noise,
much clatter, much bustle, but decency
was never outraged."

At prices ranging from one to two
pence per dish, the demand grew so great
that coffee-house keepers were obliged to
make the drink in pots holding eight or
ten gallons.

The seventeenth-century coffee houses
were sometimes referred to as the "penny
universities"; because they were great
schools of conversation, and the entrance
fee was only a penny. Two pence was the
usual price of a dish of coffee or tea, this
charge also covering newspapers and lights.
It was the custom for the frequenter to
lay his penny on the bar, on entering or
leaving. Admission to the exchange of
sparkling wit and brilliant conversation
was within the reach of all.

So great a Vniveraitie
I think there ne're was any ;
In which you may a Schoolar be
For spending of a Penny.

"Regular customers," we are told, "had
particular seats and special attention from
the fair lady at the bar, and the tea and
coffee boys."

ALL ABOUT COFFEE

It is believed that the-iiifidern custom
of tipping, and the wordQ ^tip^ originated
in the coffee houses, where irequently hung
brass-bound boxes into which customers
were expected to drop coins for the ser-
vants. The boxes were inscribed " Jc) Ttt-
mxet Prom ptnes s'' and from the initial
letters of these words came "tip."

The National Review says, ' ' be^re 1715
the number of coffee houses in London was
reckoned at 2-000." Dufour, who wrote in
1683, declares, upon information received
from several persons who had staid in
London, that there were 3000 of these
places. However, 2000 is probably nearer
the fact.

In that critical time in English history,
when the people, tired of the misgovern-
ment of the later Stuarts, were most in need
of a forum where questions of great mo-
ment could be discussed, the coffee house
became a sanctuary. Here matters of
supreme political import were threshed out
and decided for the good of Englishmen
for all time. And because many of these
questions were so well thought out then,
there was no need to fight them out later.
England's great struggle for political
liberty was really fought and won in the
coffee house.

To the end of the reign of Charles II,
coffee was looked upon by the govern-
ment rather as a new check upon license
than an added luxury. After the revolu-
tion, the London coffee merchants were
obliged to petition the House of Lords
against new import duties, and it was not
until the year 1692 that the government,
"for the greater encouragement and ad-
vancement of trade and the greater impor-
tation of the said respective goods or mer-
chandises," discharged one half of the ob-
noxious tariff.

Weird Co/fee Substitutes

Shortly after the "great fire," coffee
substitutes began to appear. First came
a liquor made with betony, "for the sake
of those who could not accustom themselves
to the bitter taste of coffee." Betony is
a herb belonging to the mint family, and
its root was formerly employed in medi-
cine as an emetic or purgative. In 1719,
when coffee was 7s. a pound, came bocket,
later known as saloop, a decoction of sassa-
fras and sugar, that became such a favorite'
among those who could not afford tea or
coffee, that there were many saloop stalls

in the streets of London. It was also sold
at Read's coffee house in Fleet Street.

The Coffee Men Overreach Themselves

The coffee-house keepers had become so
powerful a force in the community in 1729
that they lost all sense of proportion; and
we find them seriously proposing to usurp
the functions of the newspapers. The vain-
glorious coffee men requested the govern-
ment to hand over to them a journalistic
monopoly; the argument being that the
newspapers of the day were choked with
advertisements, filled with foolish stories
gathered by ail-too enterprising news-
writers, and that the only way for the gov-
ernment to escape "further excesses occa-
sioned by the freedom of the press" and
to rid itself of "those pests of society, the
unlicensed newsvendors, " was for it to in-
trust the coffee men, as "the chief support-
ers of liberty" with the publication of a
Coffee House Gazette. Information for the
journal was to be supplied by the habitues
of the houses themselves, written down on
brass slates or ivory tablets, and called for
twice daily by the Gazette's representatives.
All the profits were to go to the coffee men
— including the expected increase of cus-
tom.

Needless to say, this amazing proposal
of the coffee-house masters to have the pub-
lic write its own newspapers met with the
scorn and the derision it invited, and noth-
ing ever came of it.

The increasing demand for coffee caused
the government tardily to seek to stimulate
interest in the cultivation of the plant in
"British colonial possessions. It was tried
out in Jamaica in 1730. By 1732 the ex-
periment gave such promise that Parlia-
ment, "for encouraging the growth of
coffee in His Majesty's plantations in
America," reduced the inland duty on cof-
fee coming from there, "but of none other,"
from two shillings to one shilling six pence
per pound. "It seems that the French at
Martinico, Hispaniola, and at the Isle de
Bourbon, near Madagascar, had somewhat
the start of the English in the new prod-
uct as had also the Dutch at Surinam, yet
none had hitherto been found to equal cof-
fee from Arabia, whence all the rest of
the world had theirs." Thus writes Adam
Anderson in 1787, somewhat ungraciously
seeking to damn England's business rivals
with faint praise. Java coffee was even
then in the lead, and the seeds of Bourbon-

COFFEE HOUSES OF OLD LONDON

Jantos were multiply ing rapidly in Bra-
ilian soil.

The British East India Company, how-
Bver, was much more interested in tea than
coffee. Having lost out to the French
ind Dutch on the "little brown berry of
Lrabia," the company engaged in so lively
propaganda for "the cup that cheers"
lat, whereas the annual tea imports from
[700 to 1710 averaged 800,000 pounds, in
[721 more than 1,000,000 pounds of tea
Jrere brought in. In 1757, some 4,000,000
^Jounds were imported. And when the cof-
fee house finally succumbed, tea, and not
coffee, was firmly intrenched as the na-
tional drink of the English people.

A movement in 1873 to revive the coffee
house in the form of a coffee ' ' palace, ' ' de-
signed to replace the public house as a
place of resort for working men, caused
the Edinburgh Castle to be opened in Lon-
don. The movement attained considerable
success throughout the British Isles, and
even spread to the United States.

Evolution of th e Clu b

Every profession, trade, class, and party
had its favorite coffee house. ' ' The bitter
black drink called coffee," as Mr. Pepys
described the beverage, brought together
all sorts and conditions of men; and out
of their mixed association there developed
groups of patrons favoring particular
houses and giving them character. It is
easy to trace the transition of the group
into a clique that later became a club, con-
tinuing for a time to meet at the coffee
house or the chocolate house, but event-
ually demanding a house of its own.

Decline and Fall of the Coffee House

Starting as a forum for the commoner,
the coffee house soon became the plaything
of the leisure class ; and when the club was
evolved, the coffee house began to retro-
grade to the level of the tavern. And so
the eighteenth century, which saw the cof-
fee house at the height of its power and
popularity, witnessed also its decline and
fall. It is said there were as many clubs
at the end of the century as there were
coffee houses at the beginning.

For a time, when the habit of reading
newspapers descended the social ladder,
the coffee house acquired a new lease of
life. Sir Walter Besant observes:

They were then frequented by men who came,
not to talk, but to read ; the smaller tradesmen

and the better class of mechanic now came to
the cofifee-house. called for a cup of cofifee, and
with it the daily paper, which they could not
afford to take in. Every cofifee-house took three
or four papers ; there seems to have been in this
latter phase of the once social institution no
general conversation. The cofifee-house as a
place of resort and conversation gradually de-
clined ; one can hardly say why, except that all
human institutions do decay. Perhaps manners
declined; the leaders in literature ceased to be
seen there; the city clerk began to crowd in;
the tavern and the club drew men from the cof-
fee-house.

A few houses survived until the early
years of the nineteenth century, but the
social side had disappeared. As tea and
coffee entered the homes, and the exclusive
club house succeeded the democratic coffee
forum, the coffee houses became taverns
or chop houses, or, convinced that they had
outlived their usefulness, just ceased to be.

Pen Pictures of Coffee-House Life

From the writings of Addison in the
Spectator, Steele in the Tatler, Mackay in
his Journey Through England, Macaulay
in his history, and others, it is possible to
draw a fairly accurate pen-picture of life
in the old London coffee house.

In the seventeenth century the coffee
room usually opened off the street. At
first only tables and chairs were spread
about on a sanded floor. Later, this ar-
rangement was succeeded by the boxes, or
booths, such as appear in the Rowlandson
caricatures, the picture of the interior of
Lloyds, etc.

The walls were decorated with handbills
and posters advertising the quack medi-
cines, pills, tinctures, salves, and electu-
aries of the period, all of which might be
purchased at the bar near the entrance,
presided over by a prototype of the mod-
ern English barmaid. There were also
bills of the play, auction notices, etc., de-
pending upon the character of the place.

Then, as now, the barmaids were made
much of by patrons. Tom Brown refers
to them as charming "Phillises who invite
you by their amorous glances into their
smoaky territories."

Messages were left and letters received
at the bar for regular customers. Stella
was instructed to address her letters to
Swift, "under cover to Addison at the St.
James's coffee house." Says Macaulay:

Foreigners remarked that it was the coffee
house which specially distinguished London from
all other cities; that the coffee house was the

ALL ABOUT COFFEE

MAP SHOWING THE LOCATION OF MANY OF THE OLD LONDON
COFFEE HOUSES PREVIOUS TO THE FIRE OF 1748

COFFEE HOUSES OF OLD LONDOJl

jondoner's home, and that those who wished to

ind a gentleman commonly asked, not whether

the lived in Fleet Street or Chancery Lane, but

j-whether he frequented the Grecian or the Rain-

fcbow.

So every man of the upper or middle
classes went daily to his coffee house to
learn the news and to discuss it. The better
class houses were the meeting places of the
most substantial men in the community.
Every coffee house had its orator, who be-
came to his admirers a kind of "fourth
estate of the realm. ' '

Macaulay gives us the following picture
of the coffee house of 1685 :

Nobody was excluded from these places who
laid down his penny at the bar. Yet every
rank and profession, and every shade of reli-
gious and political opinion had its own head-
quarters.

There were houses near St. James' Park,
where fops congregated, their heads and shoul-
ders covered with black or flaxen wigs, not less
ample than those which are now worn by the
Chancellor and by the Speaker of the House of
Commons. The atmosphere was like that of a
perfumer's shop. Tobacco in any form than
that of richly scented snuff was held in abom-
ination. If any clown, ignorant of the usages
(if the house, called for a pipe, the sneers of the
whole assembly and the short answers of the
waiters soon convinced him that he had better
go somewhere else.

Nor, indeed, would he have far to go. For, in
general, the coffee-houses reeked with tobacco
like a guard room. Nowhere was the smoking
more constant than at Will's. That celebrated
house, situated between Covent Garden and Bow
street, was sacred to polite letters. There the
talk was about poetical justice and the unities
of place and time. Under no roof was a great-
er variety of figures to be seen. There were
earls in stars and garters, clergymen in cas-
socks and bands, pert Templars, sheepish lads
from universities, translators and index makers
in ragged coats of frieze. The great press was
to get near the chair where John Dryden sate.
In winter that chair was always in the warmest
nook by the fire ; in summer it stood in the bal-
cony. To bow to the Laureate, and to hear his
opinion of Racine's last tragedy, or of Bossu's
treatise on epic poetry, was thought a privilege
A pinch from his snuff-box was an honour suffl-
cient to turn the head of a young enthusiast.

There were coffee-houses where the first medi-
cal men might be consulted. Dr. John Rad-
cliffe. who, in the year 1685, rose to the largest
practice in London, came daily, at the hour
when the Exchange was full, from his house in
Bow street, then a fashionable part of the capi-
tal, to Garraway's, and was to be found, sur-
rounded by surgeons and apothecaries, at a par-
ticular table.

There were Puritan coffee-houses where no
oath was heard, and where lank-haired men
discussed election and reprobation through their
Boses; Jew coffee-houses, where dark-eyed
money changers from Venice and Amsterdam
greeted each other; and Popish coffee-houses.

where, as good Protestan^j believed, Jesuits
planned over their cups another great fire, and
cast silver bullets to shoot the King.

Ned Ward gives us this picture of the
coffee house of the seventeenth century.
He is describing Old Man's, Scotland
Yard:

We now ascended a pair of stairs, which
brought us into an old-fashioned room, where a
gaudy crowd of odoriferous Tom-Essences were
walking backwards and forwards, with their
hats in their hands, not daring to convert them
to their intended use lest it should put the fore
tops of their wigs into some disorder. We
squeezed through till we got to the end of the
room, where, at a small table, we sat down,
and observed that it was as great a rarity to
hear anybody call for a dish of politicians por-
ridge, or any other liquor, as it is to hear a
beau call for a pipe of tobacco; their whole
exercise being to charge and discharge their
nostrils and keep the curls of their i)eriwigs in
their proper order. The clashing of their snush-
box lids, in opening and shutting, made more
noise than their tongues. Bows and cringes of
the newest mode were here exchanged 'twixt
friend and friend with wonderful exactness.
They made a humming like so many hornets in
a country chimney, not with their talking, but
with their whispering over their new Minuets
and Bories, with the hands in their pockets, if
only freed from their snush-box. We now began
to be thoughtful of a pipe of tobacco, where-
upon we ventured to call for some instruments
of evaporation, which were accordingly brought
us, but with such a kind of unwillingness, as if
they would much rather been rid of our com-
pany ; for their tables were so very neat, and
shined with rubbing like the upper-leathers of
an alderman's shoes, and as brown as the top
of a country house-wife's cupboard. The floor
was as, clean swept as a Sir Courtly's dining
room, which made us look round to see if there
were no orders hung up to impose the forfeiture
of so much mop-money upon any person that
should spit out of the chimney-corner. Not-
withstanding we wanted an example to en-
courage us in our porterly rudeness, we ordered
them to light the wax candle, by which we
ignifled our pipes and blew about our whiffs ;
at which several Sir Foplins drew their faces
into as many peevish wrinkles as the beaux at
the Bow Street Coffee-house, near Covent
Garden, did when the gentleman in masquerade
came in amongst them, with his oyster-barrel
muff and turnip-buttons, to ridicule their fop-
eries.

In A Brief and Merry History of Great
Britain we read:

There is a prodigious number of Cofifee-
Houses in London, after the manner I have
seen some in Constantinople. These Coffee-
Houses are the constant Rendezvous for Men
of Business as well as the idle People. Besides
Coffee, there are many other Liquors, which
People cannot well relish at first. They smoak
Tobacco, game and read Papers of Intelligence;
here they treat of Matters of State, make
Leagues with Foreign Princes, break them again,

ALL ABOUT COFFEE

White's and Brookes', St. James's Street

and transact Affairs of the last Consequence to
the whole World. They represent these Coffee-
Houses as the most agreeable things in London,
and they are, in my Opinion, very proper Places
to find People that a Man has Business with,
or to pass away the Time a little more agree-
ably than he can do at home; but in other re-
spects they are loathsome, full of smoak, like
a Guard-Room, and as much crowded. I be-
lieve 'tis these Places that furnish the Inhabi-
tants with Slander, for there one hears exact
Account of everything done in Town, as if it
were but a Village.

At those Coffee-Houses, near the Courts, called
White's, St. James's, Williams's, the Conversa-
tion turns chiefly upon the Equipages, Essence,
Horse-Matches, Tupees, Modes and Mortgages ;
the Cocoa-Tree upon Bribery and Corruption,
Evil ministers, Errors and Mistakes in Govern-
ment : the Scotch Coflfee-Houses towards Char-
ing Cross, on Places and Pensions ; the Tiltyard
and Young Man's on Affronts, Honour, Satisfac-
tion, Duels and Rencounters. I was informed
that the latter happen so frequently, in this part
of the Town, that a Surgeon and a Sollicitor are
kept constantly in waiting ; the one to dress and
heal such Wounds as may be given, and the
other in case of Death to bring off the Survivor
with a Verdict of Se Devendendo or Man-
slaughter. In those Coffee-Houses about the
Temple the Subjects are generally on Causes,
Costs, Demurrers, Rejoinders and Exceptions;
Daniel's the Welch Coffee-House in Fleet Street,
on Births, Pedigrees and Descents; Child's and
the Chapter upon Glebes, Tithes, Advowsons.
Rectories and Lectureships ; North's Undue
Elections, False Polling, Scrutinies, etc. ; Ham-
lin's, Infant-Baptism, Lay-Ordination, Free-
will, Election and Reprobation ; Batson's, the
Prices of Pepper. Indigo and Salt-Petre; and
all those about the Exchange, where the Mer-
chants meet to transact their Affairs, are in a
perpetual hurry about Stock-Jobbing, Lying,
Cheating, Tricking Widows and Orphans, and
committing Spoil and Rapine on the Publick.

In the eighteenth century beer and wine
were commonly sold at the coffee houses
in addition to tea and chocolate. Daniel
Defoe, writing of his visit to Shrewsbury

in 1724, says, "I found there the most
coffee houses around the Town Hall that
ever I saw in any town, but when you
come into them they are but ale houses,
only they think that the name coffee house
gives a better air."

Speaking of the coffee houses of the city,
Besant says:

Rich merchants alone ventured to enter cer-
tain of the coffee houses, where they transacted
business more privately and more expeditiously
than on the Exchange. There were coffee houses
where officers of the army alone were found ;
where the city shopkeeper met his chums ; where
actors congregated; where only divines, only
lawyers, only physicians, only wits and those
who came to hear them were found. In all
alike the visitor put down his penny and went
in, taking his own seat if he was an habitue;
he called for a cup of tea or coffee and paid his
twopence for it ; he could call also, if he pleased,
for a cordial: he was expected to talk with his
neighbour whether he knew him or not. Men
went to certain coffee houses in order to meet
the well-known poets and writers who were to
be found there, as Pope went in search of Dry-
den. The daily papers and the pamphlets of
the day were taken in. Some of the coffee
houses, but not the more respectable, allowed
the use of tobacco.

Coffee House Politicians of the Seventeenth
Century

COFFEE HOUSES OF OLD LONDON

The Great Fair on the Frozen Tpiames — 1683
From a broadside entitled Wonders on the Deep. Figure 2 is the Duke of York's Coffee House

Mackay, in his Journey Through Eng-
land (1724), says:

We rise by nine, and those that frequent great
men's levees find entertainment at them till
eleven, or, as in Holland, go to tea-tables ; about
twelve the heau monde assemble in several cof-
fee or chocolate houses ; the best of which are
the Cocoatree and White's chocolate houses, St.
James', the Smyrna, Mrs. Rochford's and the
British coffee houses ; and all these so near one
another that in less than an hour you see the
company of them all. We are carried to these
places in chairs (or sedans), which are here
very cheap, a guinea a week, or a shilling per
hour, and your chairmen serve you for porters
to run on errands, as your gondolierg do at
Venice.

If it be fine weather we take a turn into the
park till two, when we go to dinner; and if it
be dirty, you are entertained at piequet or
basset at White's, or you may talk politics at
the Smyrna or St. James'. I must not forget to
tell you that the parties have their different
places, where, however, a stranger is always
well received; but a Whig will no more go to
the Ck)coatree than a Tory will be seen at the
Coffee House, St. James'.

The Scots go generally to the British, and a
mixture of all sorts go to the Smyrna. There
are other little coffee houses much frequented
in this neighborhood — Young Man's for officers ;
Old Man's for stock jobbers, paymasters and
courtiers, and Little Man's for sharpers. I

never was so confounded in my life as when I
entered into this last. I saw two or three
tables full at faro, and was surrounded by a
set of sharp faces that I was afraid would have
devoured me with their eyes. I was glad to
drop two or three half crowns at faro to get
off with a clear skin, and was overjoyed I so-
got rid of them.

At two we generally go to dinner; ordinaries
are not so common here as abroad, yet the
French have set up two or three good ones for
the convenience of foreigners in Suffolk street,
where one is tolerably well served ; but the gen-
eral way here is to make a party at the coffee
house to go to dine at the tavern, where we sit
till six, when we go to the play, except you are
invited to the table of some great man, which
strangers are always courted to and nobly en-
tertained.

Mackay writes that "in all the coffee
houses you have not only the foreign prints
but several English ones with foreign oc-
currences, besides papers of morality and
party disputes."

"After the play," writes Defoe, "the
best company generally go to Tom's and
Will's coffee houses, near adjoining, where
there is playing at piequet and the best of
conversation till midnight. Here you will
see blue and green ribons and stars sitting
familiarly and talking with the same free-

ALL ABOUT COFFEE

dom as if they had left their equality and
degrees of distance at home."

Before entering the coffee house every
one was recommended by the Tatler to
prepare his body with three dishes of
bohea and to purge his brains with two
pinches of snuff. Men had their coffee
houses as now they have their clubs —
sometimes contented with one, sometimes
belonging to three or four. Johnson, for
instance, was connected with St. James's,
the Turk's Head, the Bedford, Peele's, be-
sides the taverns which he frequented. Ad-
dison and Steele used Button's; Swift,

The Lion's Head at Button's Coffee House

From a water color by T. H. Shepherd

Button's, the Smyrna, and St. James's;
Dryden, Will's; Pope, Will's and Button's;
Goldsmith, the St. James's and the Chap-
ter; Fielding, the Bedford; Hogarth, the
Bedford and Slaughter's; Sheridan, the
Piazza; Thurlow, Nando 's. |

Some Famous Coffee Houses i

Among the famous English coffee houses
of the seventeenth - eighteenth century
period were St. James's, Will's, Garra-
way's. White's, Slaughter's, the Grecian,

Button's, Lloyd's, Tom's, and Don Sal-
tero 's.

St. James's was a Whig house frequented
by members of Parliament, with a fair
sprinkling of literary stars. Garra way's
catered to the gentry of the period, many
of whom naturally had Tory proclivities.

One of the notable coffee houses of
Queen Anne's reign was Button's. Here
Addison could be found almost every after-
noon and evening, along with Steele, Dave-
nant, Carey, Philips, and other kindred
minds. Pope was a member of the same
coffee house club for a year, but his inborn
irascibility eventually led him to drop out
of it.

At Button's a lion's head, designed by
Hogarth after the Lion of Venice, **a
proper emblem of knowledge and action,
being all head and paws," was set up to
receive letters and papers for the Guard-
ian". The Tatler and the Spectator were
born in the coffee house, and probably
English prose would never have received
the impetus given it by the essays of Addi-
son and Steele had it not been for coffee
house associations.

Pope's famous Rape of the Lock grew
out of coffee-house gossip. The poem itself
contains one charming passage on coffee."

Another frequenter of the coffee houses
of London, when he had the money to do
so, was Daniel Defoe, whose Rohinson Cru-
soe was the precursor of the English novel.
Henry Fielding, one of the greatest of all
English novelists, loved the life of the
more bohemian coffee houses, and was, in
fact, induced to write his first great novel,
Joseph Andrews, through coffee-house criti-
cisms of Richardson's Pamela.

Other frequenters of the coffee houses
of the period were Thomas Gray and Rich-
ard Brinsley Sheridan. Garri.^k was often
to be seen at Tom's in Birchin Lane, where
also Chatterton might have been found on
many an evening before his untimely death.

The London Pleasure Gardens

The second half of the eighteenth cen-
tury was covered by the reigns of the
Georges. The coffee houses were still an
important factor in London life, but were
influenced somewhat by the development
of gardens in which were served tea, choc-
olate, and other drinks, as well as coffee.
At the coffee houses themselves, while cof-

" More fully described in chapter XXXII.
" See chapter XXXII.

COFFEE HOUSES OF OLD LOXDOX

Jrom {!)( orcgiAal dra^wing hy HOCARTH in. ilt ColUdion. ofSam. .frdaTii .

A Trio of Notables at Button's in 1730

The figure in the cloak is Count Viviani; of the figures facing the reader, the draughts player is Dr.
Arbuthnot, and the figure standing is assumed to be Pope

^fee remained the favorite beverage, the
proprietors, in the hope of increasing their
patronage, began to serve wine, ale, and
other liquors. This seems to have been the
first step toward the decay of the coffee
house.

The coffee houses, however, continued to
be the centers of intellectual life. When
Samuel Johnson and David Garrick came
together to London, literature was tempo-
rarily in a bad way, and the hack writers
of the time dwelt in Grub Street.

It was not until after Johnson had met
with some success, and had established the
first of his coffee-house clubs at the Turk's
Head, that literature again became a fash-
ionable profession.

This really famous literary club met at
the Turk's Head from 1763 to 1783.
Among the most notable members were
Johnson, the arbiter of English prose;
Oliver Goldsmith; Boswell, the biographer;
Burke, the orator; Garrick, the actor; and

Sir Joshua Reynolds, the painter. Among
the later members were Gibbon, the his-
torian; and Adam Smith, the political
economist.

Certain it is that during the sway of the
English coffee house, and at least partly
through its influence, England produced
a better prose literature, as embodied alike
in her essays, literary criticisms, and nov-
els, than she ever had produced before.

The advent of the pleasure gaiden
brought coffee out into the open in Eng-
land; and one of the reasons why gardens,
such as Ranelagh and Vauxhall, began to
be more frequented than the coffee houses
:was that they were popular resorts for
women as well as for men. All kinds of
beverages were served in them; and soon
the women began to favor tea as an after-
noon drink. At least, the great develop-
ment in the use of tea dates from this
period; and many of these resorts called
themselves tea gardens.

ALL ABOUT COFFEE

The use of coffee by thip. time, however,
was well established in the homes as a
breakfast and dinner beverage, and such
consumption more than made up for any
loss sustained through the gradual de-
cadence of the coffee house. Yet signs of
the change in national taste that arrived
with the Georges were not wanting ; for the
active propaganda of the British East In-
dia Company was fairly well launched
during Queen Anne's reign.

The London pleasure gardens of the
eighteenth century were unique. At one
time there was a "mighty maze" of them.
Their season extended from April or May
to August or September. At first there
was no charge for admission, but Warwick
Wroth" tells us that visitors usually pur-
chased cheese cakes, syllabubs, tea, coffee
and ale.

The four best-known London gardens
were Vauxhall ; Marylebone ; Cuper 's,
where the charge for admission subse-
quently was fixed; at not less than a shill-
ing; and Ranelagh, where the charge of
half a crown included "the Elegant Ee-
gale" of tea, coffee, and bread and butter.

18 Wroth, Warwick. The. London Pleasure Oardena
of the 18th Century. London, 1896.

The pleasure gardens provided walks,
rooms for dancing, skittle grounds, bowl-
ing greens, variety entertainments, and
promenade concerts; and not a few places
were given over to fashionable gambling
and racing.

The Vauxhall Gardens, one of the most
favored resorts of pleasure-seeking Lon-
doners, were located on the Surrey side of
the Thames, a short distance east of Vaux-
hall Bridge. They were originally known
as the New Spring Gardens (1661), to dis-
tinguish them from the old Spring Gar-
dens at Charing Cross. They became fa-
mous in the reign of Charles II. Vauxhall
was celebrated for its walks, lit with thou-
sands of lamps, its musical and other per-
formances, suppers, and fireworks. High
and low were to be found there, and the
drinking of tea and coffee in the arbors
was a feature. The illustration shows the
garden brightly illuminated by lanterns
and lamps on some festival occasion. Cof-
fee and tea were served in the arbors.

The Ranelagh, "a place of public enter-
tainment," erected at Chelsea in 1742, was
a kind of Vauxhall under cover. The
principal room, known as the Rotunda, was
circular in shape, 150 feet in diameter, and

Vauxhall Gardens on a Gala Night

COFFEE HOUSES OF OLD LONDON

m^.

The Kotunda ix Kaxelagh Gardens With the Company at Breakfast — 1751

had an orchestra in the center and tiers
of boxes all around. Promenading and
taking refreshments in the boxes were the
principal divertisements. Except on gala
nights of masquerades and fireworks, only
tea, coffee, bread and butter were to be
had at Ranelagh.

In the group of gardens connected with
mineral springs was the Dog and Duck
(St. George's Spa), which became at last
a tea garden and a dancing saloon of
doubtful repute.

Still another division, recognized by
Wroth, consisted mainly of tea gardens,
among them Highbury Barn, The Canon-
bury House, Hornsey and Copenhagen
House, Bagnigge Wells, and White Con-
duit House. The two last named were the
classic tea gardens of the period. Both
were provided with "long rooms" in case
of rain, and for indoor promenades with
organ music. Then there were the Adam
and Eve tea gardens, with arbors for tea-
drinking parties, which subsequently be-
came the Adam and Eve Tavern and Cof-
fee House. Well known were the Bays-
water Tea Gardens and the Jews Harp
House and Tea Gardens. All these were
provided with neat, "genteel" boxes, let

into the hedges and alcoves, for tea and
coffee drinkers.

Locating the Notable Coffee Houses

Garraw'ay's, 3 'Change Alley, Cornhill,
was a place for great mercantile transac-
tions. Thomas Garway, the original pro-
prietor, was a tobacconist and coffee man,
who claimed to be the first that sold tea
in England, although not at this address.
The later Garra way's was long famous as
a sandwich and drinking room for sherry%
pale ale, and punch, in addition to tea and
coffee. It is said that the sandwich-maker
was occupied two hours in cutting and ar-
ranging the sandwiches for the day's con-
sumption. After the "great fire" of 1666
Garra way's moved into the same place in
Exchange Alley where Elford had been
before the fire. Here he claimed to have
the oldest coffee house in London ; but the
ground on which Bowman's had stood
was occupied later by the Virginia and the
Jamaica coffee houses. The latter was
damaged by the fire of 1748 which con-
sumed Garraway's and Elford 's (see map
of the 1748 fire).

Will's, the predecessor of Button's,
first had the title of the Red Cow, then of

ALL ABOUT COFFEE

Gakraway's Coffee House in 'Change Alley

Garway (or Garraway) claimed to have been first

to sell Tea in England

the Rose. It was kept by William Urwin,
and was on the north side of Russell Street
at the corner of Bow Street. "It was Dry-
den who made Will's coffee house the great
resort of the wits of his time." {Pope and
Spence.) The room in which the poet was
accustomed to sit was on the first floor ; and
his place was the place of honor by the
fireside in the winter, and at the corner of
the balcony, looking over the street, in fine
weather; he called the two places his win-
ter and his summer seat. This was called
the dining-room floor. The company did
not sit in boxes as subsequently, but at
various tables which were dispersed through
the room. Smoking was permitted in the
public room ; it was then so much in vogue
that it does not seem to have been consid-
ered a nuisance. Here, as in other similar
places of meeting, the visitors divided
themselves into parties; and we are told
by Ward that the young beaux and wits,
who seldom approached the principal
table, thought it a great honor to have a
pinch out of Dryden's snuff-box. After
Dry den's death Will's was transferred
to a house opposite, and became Button "s,

"over against Thomas's in Covent Gar-
den." Thither also Addison transferred
much company from Thomas's. Here
Swift first saw Addison. Hither also came
"Steele, Arbuthnot and many other wits
of the time. ' ' Button 's continued in vogue
until Addison's death and Steele's retire-
ment into Wales, after which the coffee
drinkers went to the Bedford, dinner par-
ties to the Shakespeare. Button's was
subsequently known as the Caledonien.
Slaughter's, famous as the resort of
painters and sculptors in the eighteenth
century, was situated at the upper end of
the west side of St. Martin's Lane. Its
first landlord was Thomas Slaughter, 1692.
A second Slaughter's (New Slaugh-
ter's) was established in the same street
in 1760, when the original Slaughter's
adopted the name of Old Slaughter's. It
was torn down in 1843 - 44. Among the
notables who frequented it were Hogarth ;
young Gainsborough ; Cipriani ; Haydon ;
Roubiliac ; Hudson, w^ho painted the Dilet-
tanti portraits; M'Ardell, the mezzotinto-

BuTTOx's Coffee House, Great Russell Street
Afterward it became the Caledonien
From a water color by T. H. Shepherd

^^r

COFFEE HOUSES OF OLD LONDON

Taper; Luke Sullivan, the engraver;
Gardell, the portrait painter; and Parry,
the Welsh harper.

Tom s, in Birchin Lane, Cornhill, though
in the main a mercantile resort, acquired
some celebrity from having been frequented
by Garrick, Tom's was also frequented
by Chatterton, as a place "of the best re-
sort." Then there was Tom's in Devereux
Court, Strand, and Tom 's at 17 Great Rus-
sell Street, Covent Garden, opposite But-
ton's, a celebrated resort during the reign
of Queen Anne and for more than a cen-
tury^ after.

The Grecian, Devereux Court, Strand,
was originally kept by one Constantine, a
Greek. From this hou^e Steele proposed
to date his learned articles in the Tatler;
it is mentioned in No. 1 of the Spectator,
and it was much frequented by Goldsmith.
The Grecian was Foote's morning lounge.
In 1843f the premises became the Grecian
Chambers, with a bust of Lord Devereux,
earl of Essex, over the door,

Lloyd's, Royal Exchange, celebrated for
its priority of shipping intelligence and
its marine insurance, originated with Ed-

Slaughter's Coffee House. St. Martin's Lane

It was taken down in 1843

From a water color by T. H. Shepherd, 1841

Tom's Coffee House, 17 Great Russell Street

Used as a coffee house until 1804 and razed in 1865

From a water color by T. H. Shepherd

ward Lloyd, who about 1688 kept a coffee
house in Tower Street, later in Lombard
Street corner of Abchurch Lane. It was
a modest place of refreshment for sea-
farers and merchants. As a matter of con-
venience, Edward Lloyd prepared "ships'
lists" for the guidance of the frequenters
of the coffee house. "These lists, which
were written by hand, contained,." accord-
ing to Andrew Scott, "an account of ves-
aeh which the underwriters who met there
were likely to have offered them for in-
surance." Such was the beginning of two
institutions that have since exercised a
dominant influence on the sea-carrying
trade of the whole world — the Royal Ex-
change Lloyd's, the greatest insurance in-
stitution in the world, and Lloyd's Regis-
ter of Shipping. Lloyd's now has 1400
agents in all parts of the world. It re-
ceives as many as 100,000 telegrams a year.
It records through its intelligence service
the daily movements of 11,000 vessels.

In the beginning one of the apartments
in the Exchange was fitted up as Lloyd's

ALL ABOUT COFFEE

Lloyd's Coffee House in the Royal Exchange, Showing the Subscrh'tion Uoom

coffee room. Edward Lloyd died in 1712.
Subsequently the coffee house was in
Pope's Head Alley, where it was called
New Lloyd's coffee house, but on Septem-
ber 14, 1784, it was removed to the north-
west corner of the Royal Exchange, where
it remained until the partial destruction of
that building by fire.

In rebuilding the Exchange there were
provided the Subscribers' or Underwriters'
room, the Merchants' room, and the Cap-
tains' room. The City, second edition,
1848, contains the following description of
this most famous rendezvous of eminent
merchants, shipowners, underwriters, in-
surance, stock and exchange brokers :

Here is obtained the earliest news of the
arrival and sailing of vessels, losses at sea, cap- .
tures, recaptures, engagements and other ship-
ping intelligence; and proprietors of ships and
freights are insured hy the underwriters. The
rooms are in the Venetian style with Roman
enrichments. At the entrance of the room are
exhibited the Shipping Lists, received from
Lloyd's agents at home and abroad, and afford-
ing particulars of departures or arrivals of '
vessels, wrecks, salvage, or sale of property ,
saved, etc. To the right and left are "Lloyd's
Books," two enormous ledgers. Right hand, '
ships "spoken with" or arrived at theii- destined
ports; left hand, records of wrecks, fires or
severe collisions, written in a fine Roman han.d
in "double lines." To assist the underwriters
in their calculations, at the end of the room is

an Anemometer, which registers the state of the
wind day and night ; attached is a rain gauge.

The British, Cockspur Street, "long a
house of call for Scotchmen," was fortun-
ate in its landladies. In 1759 it was kept
by the sister of Bishop Douglas, so well
known for his works against Lauder and
Bower, which may explain its Scottish
fame. At another period it was kept by
Mrs. Anderson, described in Mackenzie's
Life of Home as "a woman of uncommon
talents and the most agreeable conversa-
tion."

Don Saltero's, 18 Cheyne Walk, Chel-
sea, was opened by a barber named Salter
in 1695. Sir Hans Sloane contributed of
his own collection some of the refuse gim-
cracks that were to be found in Salter's
"museum." Vice-Admiral Munden, who
had been long on the coast of Spain, where
he had acquired a fondness for Spanish
titles, named the keeper of the house Don
Saltero, and his coffee house and museum
D6n Saltero 's.

Squire's was in Fulwood's Rents, Hol-
burn, running up to Gray's Inn. It was
one' of the receiving houses of the Spectator.
In No. 269 the Spectator accepts Sir Roger
de Coverley's invitation to "smoke a pipe
with him over a dish of coffee at Squire's.
As I love the old man, I take delight in

COFFEE HOUSES OF OLD LONDON

complying with everything that is agree-
able to him, and accordingly waited on him
to the coffee-house, where his venerable
figure drew upon us the eyes of the whole
room. He had no sooner seated himself
at the upper end of the high table, but he
called for a clean pipe, a paper of tobacco,
a dish of coffee, a wax candle and the ' Sup-
plement' (a periodical paper of that time),
with such an air of cheerfulness and good
humour, that all the boys in the coffee
room (who seemed to take pleasure in serv-
ing him) were at once employed on his
several errands, insomuch that nobody else
could come at a dish of tea until the Knight
had got all his conveniences about him."
Such was the coffee room in the Spectator's
day.

The Cocoa-Tree was originally a coffee
house on the south side of Pall Malll. When
there grew up a need for ''places. of resort
of a more elegant and refined character,"
chocolate houses came into vogue, and the

Interior of Dick's Coffee House

From the frontispiece to "The Coffee House-
dramatick Piece" (see chapter XXXII)

The (tKix lAX ('oijkk iloi si:. Devebeux Coi ht
It was closed in 1843. From a drawing dated 1809

Cocoa- Tree was the most famous of these.
It was converted into a club in 1746.

White's chocolate house, established by
Francis White about 1693 in St. James's
Street, originally open to any one as a
coffee house, soon became a private club,
composed of '*the most fashionable ex-
quisites of the town and court." In its
coffee-house days, the entrance was six-
pence, as compared with the average penny
fee of the other coffee houses. Escott re-
fers to White's as being "the one speci-
men of the class to which it belongs, of
a place at which, beneath almost the same
roof, and always bearing the same name,
whether as coft'ee house or club, the same
class of persons has congregated during
more than two hundred years."

Among hundreds of other coffee houses
that flourished during the seventeenth and
eighteenth centuries the following more
notable ones are deserving of mention:

Baker's, 58 'Change Alley, for nearly
half a century noted for its chops and
steaks broiled in the coffee room and eaten
hot from the gridiron; the Baltic, in

ALL ABOUT COFFEE

Don Saltero's Coffee House, Cheyne Walk

From a steel engraving in the British Museum

Threadneedle Street, the rendezvous of
brokers and merchants connected with the
Russian trade; the Bedford, "under the
Piazza, in Covent Garden," crowded every
night with men of parts and "signalized
for many years as the emporium of wit,
the seat of criticism and the standard of
taste"; the Chapter, in Paternoster Row,
frequented by Chatterton and Goldsmith;
Child's, in St. Paul's Churchyard, one of
the Spectator's houses, and much fre-
quented by the clergy and fellows of the
Royal Society; Dick's, in Fleet Street,
frequented by Cowper, and the scene of
Rousseau's comedietta, entitled The Coffee
House; St. James's, in St. James's Street,
frequented by Swift, Goldsmith, and Gar-
rick; Jerusalem, in Cowper 's Court, Corn-
hill, frequented by merchants and captains
connected with the commerce of China,
India, and Australia; Jonathan's, in
'Change Alley, described by the Tatler as
"the general mart of stock jobbers"; the
London, in Ludgate Hill, noted for its
publishers' sales of stock and copyrights;

Man's, in Scotland Yard, which took its.
name from the proprietor, Alexander Man,
and was sometimes known as Old Man's,
or the Royal, to distinguish it from Young
Man's, Little Man's, New Man's, etc.,
minor establishments in the neighborhood ;'*
Nando 's, in Fleet Street, the favorite
haunt of Lord Thurlow and many profes-
sional loungers, attracted by the fame of
the punch and the charms of the land-
lady; New England and North and
SouTPi American, in Threadneedle Street,
having on its subscription list representa-
tives of Barings, Rothschilds, and other
wealthy establishments; Peele's, in Fleet
Street, having a portrait of Dr. Johnson
said to have been painted by Sir Joshua

19 There were six places, all told, bearing the name
"Man's". Alexander Man was coffee maker to
William III.

'V\\\z ItiMTisii Coffee House

FN CbcKSPTjR Street

Prom a print published in 1770

COFFEE HOUSES OF OLD LONDON

The French Coffee House in London, Second Half of the Eighteenth Century

From the original water-color drawing by Thomas Rowlandson

Reynolds; the Percy, in Oxford Street,
the inspiration for the Percy Anecdotes;
the Piazza, in Covent Garden, where
Macklin fitted up a large coffee room, or
theater, for oratory, and Fielding and
Foote poked fun at him; the Rainbow, in
Fleet Street, the second coffee house opened
in London, having its token money; the
Smyrna, in Pall Mall, a "place to talk
politics," and frequented by Prior and

Swift; Tom King's, one of the old night
houses of Covent Garden Market, "well
known to all gentlemen to whom beds are
unknown"; the Turk's Head, 'Change
Alley, which also had its tokens; the
Turk's Head, in the Strand, which was a
favorite supping house for Dr. Johnson
and Boswell; the Folly, a coffee house on
a houseboat on the Thames, which became
quite notorious during Queen Anne's reign.

ALL ABOUT COFFEE

Chapter XI

HISTORY OF THE EARLY PARISIAN COFFEE HOUSES

The introduction of coffee into Paris by Thevenot in 1657 — How
Soliman Aga established the custom of coffee drinking at the court
of Louis XIV — Opening the first coffee houses — How the French
adaptation of the Oriental coffee house first appeared in the real
French cafe of Frangois Procope — The important part played by
the coffee houses in the development of French literature and the
stage — Their association with the Revolution and the founding of
the Republic — Quaint customs and patrons — Historic Parisian
cafes

IF we are to accept the authority of Jean
La Roque, "before the year 1669 coffee
had scarcely been seen in Paris, except
at M. Thevenot 's and at the homes of some
of his friends. Nor had it been heard of
except in the writings of travelers."

As noted in chapter V, Jean de Thevenot
brought coffee into Paris in 1657. One ac-
count says that a decoction, supposed to
have been coffee, was sold by a Levantine
in the Petit Chatelet under the name of
cohove or cahoue during the reign of Louis
XIII, but this lacks confirmation. Louis
XIV is said to have been served with coffee
for the first time in 1664.

Soon after the arrival, in July, 1669, of
the Turkish ambassador, Soliman Aga, it
became noised abroad that he had brought
with him for his own use, and that of his
retinue, great quantities of coffee. He
"treated several persons with it, both in
the court and the city." At length "many
accustomed themselves to it with sugar,
and others who found benefit by it could
not leave it off."

Within six months all Paris was talking
of the sumptuous coffee functions of the
ambassador from Mohammed IV to the
court of Louis XIV.

Isaac D 'Israeli best describes them in his
Curiosities of Literature:

On bended knee, the black slaves of the Am-
bassador, arrayed in the most gorgeous Orien-
tal costumes, served the choicest Mocha coffee
in tiny cups of egg-shell porcelain, hot. strong
and fragrant, poured out in saucers of gold and
silver, placed on embroidered silk doylies fringed
with gold bullion, to the grand dames, who flut-
tered their fans with many grimaces, bending
their piquant faces — ^be-rouged, be-powdered
and be-patched — over the new and steaming
beverage.

It was in 1669 or 1672 that Madame de
Sevigne (Marie de Rabutin-Chantal ;
1626-96), the celebrated French letter-
writer, is said to have made that famous
prophecy, "There are two things French-
men will never swallow — coffee and Ra-
cine 's poetry, ' ' sometimes abbreviated into,
"Racine and coffee will pass." "What Ma-
dame really said, according to one author-
ity, was that Racine was writing for
Champmesle, the actress, and not for pos-
terity; again, of coffee she said, "s'en
degoi'derait comme) d'un indigne favori
(People will become disgusted with it as
with an unworthy favorite).

Larousse says the double judgment was
wrongly attributed to Mme. de S6vign6.
The celebrated aphorism, like many others,
was forged later. Mme. de S6vign6 said,
"Racine made his comedies for the Champ-
mesle — not for the ages to come." This
was in 1672. Four years later, she said to

ALL ABOUT COFFEE

Coffee Was First Sold and Served Publicly in

THE Fair of St.-Germain

From a Seventeenth-Century Print

her daughter, "You have done well to quit
coffee. Mile, de Mere has also given it up. "

However it may have been, the amiable
letter-writer was destined to live to see
Frenchmen yielding at once to the lure of
coffee and to the poetical artifices of the
greatest dramatic craftsman of his day.

While it is recorded that coffee made
slow progress with the court of Louis XIV,
the next king, Louis XV, to please his
mistress, du Barry, gave it a tremendous
vogue. It is related that he spent $15,000
a year for coffee for his daughters.

Meanwhile, in 1672, one Pascal, an
Armenian, first sold coffee publicly in Paris.
Pascal, who, according to one account, was
brought to Paris by Soliman Aga, offered
the beverage for sale from a tent, which
was also a kind of booth, in the fair of St.-
Germain, supplemented by the service of

Turkish waiter boys, who peddled it among
the crowds from small cups on trays. The
fair was held during the first two months
of spring, in a large open plot Just inside
the walls of Paris and near the Latin
Quarter. As Pascal's waiter boys circu-
lated through the crowds on those chilly
days the fragrant odor of freshly made
coffee brought many ready sales of the
steaming beverage; and soon visitors to
the fair learned to look for the "little
black" cupful of cheer, or petit noir, a
name that still endures.

When the fair closed, Pascal opened a
small coffee shop on the Quai de I'ficole,
near the Pont Neuf; but his frequenters
were of a type who preferred the beers and
wines of the day, and coffee languished.
Pascal continued, however, to send his
waiter boys with their large 'coffee jugs,
that were heated by lamps, through the
streets of Paris and from door to door.
Their cheery cry of "cafe! cafe!'^ became
a welcome call to many a Parisian, who
later missed his petit noir w^hen Pascal gave
up and moved on to London, where coffee
drinking was then in high favor.

Lacking favor at court, coffee's progress
was slow. The French smart set clung to
its light wines and beers. In 1672, Maliban,

Street Coffee Vender of Paris ■ — Period, 1GT2

TO 1689 — Two Sous per Dish, Sugar

Included

EARLY PARISIAN COFFEE HOUSES

mother Armenian, opened a coffee house in
|he rue Bussy, next to the Metz tennis court
lear St.-Germain's abbey. He supplied
)bacco also to his customers. Later he
rent to Holland, leaving his servant and
>artner, Gregory, a Persian, in charge,
rregory moved to the rue Mazarine, to be
lear the Comedie Franqaise. He was suc-
^eded in the business by Makara, another
*ersian, who later returned to Ispahan,
Saving the coffee house to one Le Gantois,
Liege.

About this period there was a cripple

^oy from Candia, known as le Candiot, who

^egan to cry "coffee!" in the streets of

*aris. He carried with him a coffee pot

|if generous size, a chafing-dish, cups, and

11 other implements necessary to his trade.

le sold his coffee from door to door at two

)us per dish, sugar included.

A Levantine named Joseph also sold

)ffee in the streets, and later had several

)ffee shops of his own. Stephen, from

^\leppo, next opened a coffee house on Pont

lu Change, moving, when his business

.Many ok the Early Parisian Coffee Houses

Followed Pascal's Lead and Abfected

Armenian Decohations

From a Seventeenth-Century Print

A Corner of the Historic CafS de Procope

Showing Voltaire and Diderot in Debate

From a rare water color

prospered, to more pretentious quarters in
the rue St.-Andre, facing St. -Michael's
bridge.

All these, and others, were essentially the
Oriental style of coffee house of the lower
order, and they appealed principally to the
poorer classes and to foreigners. "Gentle-
men and people of fashion" did not care
to be seen in this type of public house.
But when the French merchants began to
set up, first at St.-Germain's fair, "spa-
cious apartments in an elegant manner,
ornamented with tapestries, large mirrors,
pictures, marble tables, branches for
candles, magnificent lustres, and serving
coffee, tea, chocolate, and other refresh-
ments", they were soon crowded with peo-
ple of fashion and men of letters.

In this way coffee drinking in public
acquired a badge of respectability. Pres-
ently there were some three hundred coffee
houses in Paris. The principal coffee men,
in addition to plying their trade in the city,
maintained coffee rooms in St.-Germain's
and St. -Laurence's fairs. These were fre-
quented by women as well as men.

ALL ABOUT COFFEE

The Progenitor of the Real Parisian Cafe

It was not until 1689, that there appeared
in Paris a real French adaptation of the
Oriental coffee house. This was the Cafe
de Procope, opened by Frangois Procope
(Procopio Cultelli, or Cotelli) who came
from Florence or Palermo. Procope was a
limonadier (lemonade vender) who had a
royal license to sell spices, ices, barley
water, lemonade, and other such refresh-
ments. He early added coffee to the list,
and attracted a large and distinguished
patronage.

Procope, a keen-witted merchant, made
his appeal to a higher class of patrons than
did Pascal and those who first followed him.
He established his caf6 directly opposite
the newly opened Com6die Frangaise, in
the street then known as the rue des
Fosses-St.-Germain, but now the rue de
I'Ancienne Comedie. A writer of the period
has left this description of the place : ' ' The
Cafe de Procope . . . was also called
the.Antre [cavern] de Procope, because it
was very dark even in full day, and
ill-lighted in the evenings ; and because you
often saw there a set of lank, sallow poets,
who had somewhat the air of apparitions. ' '

Because of its location, the Cafe de
Procope became the gathering place of
many noted French actors, authors, dram-
atists, and musicians of the eighteenth
century. It was a veritable literary salon.
Voltaire was a constant patron; and until
the close of the historic cafe, after an exist-
ence of more than two centuries, his marble
table and chair were among the precious
relics of the coffee house. His favorite
drink is said to have been a mixture of
coffee and chocolate. Eousseau, author and
philosopher; Beaumarchais, dramatist and
financier; Diderot, the encyclopedist; Ste.-
Foix, the abbe of Voisenon; de Belloy,
author of the Siege of Callais; licmierre,
author of Artaxerce; Crebillon; Piron; La
Chaussee; Fontenelle; Condorcet; and a
host of lesser lights in the French arts, were
habitues of Francois Procope 's modest
coffee saloon near the Comedie Frangaise.

Naturally, the name of Benjamin Frank-
lin, recognized in Europe as one of the
world's foremost thinkers in the days of the
American Revolution, was often spoken over
the coffee cups of Cafe de Procope; and
when the distinguished American died in
1790, this French coffee house went into
deep mourning "for the great friend of

republicanism." The walls, inside and out,
were swathed in black bunting, and the
statesmanship and scientific attainments of
Franklin were acclaimed by all frequenters.

The Caf6 de Procope looms large in the
annals of the French Revolution. During
the turbulent days of 1789 one could find
at the tables, drinking coffee or stronger
beverages, and engaged in debate over the
burning questions of the hour, such char-
acters as Marat, Robespierre, Danton,
Hebert, and Desmoulins. Napoleon Bona-
parte, then a poor artillery officer seeking
a commission, was also there. He busied
himself largely in playing chess, a favorite
recreation of the early Parisian coffee-
house patrons. It is related that Franqois
Procope once compelled young Bonaparte
to leave his hat for security while he sought
money to pay his coffee score.

After the Revolution, the Cafe de Pro-
cope lost its literary prestige and sank to
the level of an ordinary restaurant. During
the last half of the nineteenth century,
Paul Verlaine, bohemian, poet, and leader
of the symbolists, made the Cafe de Procope
his haunt ; and for a time it regained some
of its lost popularity. The Restaurant Pro-
cope still survives at 13 rue de I'Ancienne
Comedie.

History records that, with the opening of
the Caf^ de Procope, coffee became firmly
established in Paris. In the reign of Louis
XV there were 600 cafes in Paris. At the
close of the eighteenth century there were
more than 800. By 1843 the number had
increased to more than 3000.

The Development of the Cafes

Coffee's vogue spread rapidly, and many
cabarets and famous eating houses began
to add it to their menus. Among these
was the Tour d'Argent (silver tower),
which had been opened on the Qua! de la
Tournelle in 1582, and speedily became
Paris 's most fashionable restaurant. It
still is one of the chief attractions for the
epicure, retaining the reputation for its
cooking that drew a host of world leaders,
from Napoleon to Edward VII, to its quaint
interior.

Another tavern that took up coffee after
Procope, was the Royal Drummer, which
Jean Ramponaux established at the Cour-
tille des Porcherons and which followed
Magny's. His hostelry rightly belongs to-
the tavern class, although coffee had sli

EARLY PARISIAN COFFEE HOUSES

THE CAFE DE PROCOPE IN 1743

From an engraving by Bosredon

ALL ABOUT COFFEE

The Cashier's Counter in a Paris Coffee

House of 1782

From a drawing,' by Retif tie la Bretonne

prominent place on its menu. It became
notorious for excesses and low-class vices
during the reign of Louis XV, who was a
frequent visitor. Low and high were to be
found in Ramponaux's cellar, particularly
when some especially wild revelry was in
prospect. Marie Antoinette once declared
«he had her most enjoyable time at a wild
farandole in the Royal Drummer. Ram-
ponaux was taken to its heart by fashion-
able Paris; and his name was used as a
trade mark on furniture, clothes, and foods.
The popularity of Ramponaux's Royal
Drummer is attested by an inscription on
an early print showing the interior of the
cafe. Translated, it reads :

The pleasures of ease untroubled to taste,

The leisure of home to enjoy without haste,
Perhaps 'a few hours at Magny's to waste,

Ah, that was the old-fashioned way !
Today all our laborers, everyone knows.

Go running away ere the working hours
close.
And why? Tliey must be at Monsieur Ram-
ponaux' !

Behold, the new style of cafe!

When coffee houses began to crop up
rapidly in Paris, the majority centered in
the Palais Royal, "that garden spot of
beauty, enclosed on three sides by three
tiers of galleries," which Richelieu had
erected in 1636, under the name of Palais
Cardinal, in the reign of Louis XIII. It
became known as the Palais Royal in 1643 ;
and soon after the opening of the Cafe de
Procope, it began to blossom out with many
attractive coffee stalls, or rooms, sprinkled
among the other shops that occupied the
galleries overlooking the gardens.

Life In The Early Coffee Houses

Diderot tells in 1760, in his Bameau's
Nephew, of the life and frequenters of one
of the Palais Royal coffee houses, the
Regency {Cafe de la Regence) :

In all weathers, wet or fine, it is my practice
to go toward live o'clock in the evening to take
a turn in the Palais Roj^al. ... If the weather
is too cold or too wet I take shelter in the
Regency coffee house. There I amuse myself
by looking on while they play chess. No where
in the world do they play chess as skillfully as
in Paris and nowhere in Paris as they do a'
tliis coffee house ; 'tis here you see Legal the
profound, Philidor the subtle. Mayot the solid ;
here you see the most astounding moves, and
listen to the sorriest talk, for if a man be at
once a wit and a great chess player, like L'5gal,
he may also be a great chess player and a sad
simpleton, like Joubert and Mayot.

The beginnings of the Regency coffee
house are associated with the legend that
Lefevre, a Parisian, began peddling coft'ee
in the streets of Paris about the time Pro-
cope opened his cafe in 1689. The story
has it that Lefevre later opened a cafe near
the Palais Royal, selling it in 1718 to one
Leclerc, who named it the Cafe de la
Regence, in honor of the regent of Orleans,
a name that still endures on a broad sign
over its doors. The nobility had their
rendezvous there after having paid their
court to the regent.

To name the patrons of the Cafe de la
Regence in its long career would be to
outline a history of French literature for
more than two centuries. There was Phili-
dor the "greatest theoretician of the eigh-
teenth century, better known for his chess
than his music ' ' ; Robespierre, of the Revo-
lution, who once played chess with a girl —
disguised as a boy — for the life of her
lover; Napoleon, who was then noted more
for his chess than his empire-building pro-
pensities; and Gambetta, whose loud voice,
generally raised in debate, disturbed one,

EARLY PARISIAN COFFEE HOUSES

THE CAFfi FOY IN THE PALAIS RO YAL, 1789

From an engraving by Bosredon

ALL ABOUT COFFEE

chess player so much that he protested
because he could not follow his game.
Voltaire, Alfred de Musset, Victor Hugo,
Th6ophile Gautier, J. J. Rousseau, the
Duke of Richelieu, Marshall Saxe, Buffon,
Rivarol, Fontenelle, Franklin, and Henry
Murger are names still associated with
memories of this historic cafe. Marmontel
and Philidor played there at their favorite
game of chess. Diderot tells in his Memoirs
that his wife gave him every day nine sous
to get his coffee there. It was in this
establishment that he worked on his Encyc-
lopedia.

Chess is today still in favor at the
Regenee, although the players are not, as
were the earlier patrons, obliged to pay by
the hour for their tables with extra charges
for candles placed by the chess-boards.
The present Cafe de la Regenee is in the
rue St.-Honore, but retains in large meas-
ure its aspect of olden days.

Michelet, the historian, has given us a
rhapsodic pen picture of the Parisian cafes
under the regency :

Paris became one vast cafe. Conversation in
France was at its zenitli. Tliere were less
eloquence and rhetoric than in '89. With the
exception of Rousseau, there was no orator to
cite. The intangible flow of wit was as spon-
taneous as possible. For this sparkling out-
burst there is no doubt that honor should be
ascribed in part to the auspicious revolution
of the times, to the great event which created
new customs, and even modified human tempera-
ment — the advent of coffee.

Its effect was immeasurable, not being weak-
ened and neutralized as it is today by the
brutalizing influence of tobacco. They took
snuff, but did not smoke. Tlie cabaret was de-
throned, the ignoble cabaret, where, during the
reign of Louis XIV. the youth of the city rioted
amid wine-casks in the company of light women.
The night was less thronged with chariots.
Fewer lords found a resting place in the gutter.
The elegant shop, where conversation flowed, a
salon rather than a shop, changed and ennobled
its customs. The reign of coffee is that of tem-
perance. Coffee, the beverage of sobriety, a pow-
erful mental stimulant, which, unlike spirituous
liquors, increases clearness and lucidity ; coffee,
which suppresses the vague, heavy fantasies of
the imagination, which from the perception of
reality brings forth the sparkle and sunlight of
truth ; coffee anti-erotic. . . .

The three ages of coffee are those of modern
thought; they mark the serious moments of
the brilliant epoch of the soul.

Arabian coffee is the pioneer, even before 1700.
The beautiful ladies that you see in the fash-
ionable rooms of Bonnard. sipping from their
tiny cups — they are enjoying the aroma of
the finest coffee of Arabia. And of what are
they chatting? Of the seraglio, of Chardin, of
the Sultana's coiffure, of the Thousand and One

Nights (1704). They compare the ennui of
Versailles with the paradise of the Orient.

Very soon, in 1710 - 1720. commences the reign
of Indian coffee, abundant, popular, compara-
tively cheap. Bourbon, our Indian island, where
coffee was transplanted, suddenly realizes un-
heard-of happiness. This coffee of volcanic
lands acts as an explosive on the Regency and
the new spirit of things. This sudden cheer,
this laughter of the old world, these overwhelm-
ing flashes of wit, of which the sparkling verse
of Voltaire, the Persian Letters, give us a faint
idea ! Even the most brilliant books have not
succeeded in catching on the wing this airy
chatter, which comes, goes, flies elusively. This
is that spirit of ethereal nature which, in the
Thousand and One Nights, the enchanter con-
fined in his bottle. But what phial would have
withstood that pressure?

The lava of Bourbon, like the Arabian sand,
was unequal to the demand. The Regent rec-
ognized this and had coffee transported to the
fertile soil of our Antilles. T"lie strong coffee
of Santo Domingo, full, coarse, nourishing as
well as stimulating, sustained the adult popu-
lation of that period, the strong age of the en-
cyclopedia. It was drunk by Buffon, Diderot,
Rousseau, added its glow to glowing souls, its
light to the penetrating vision of the prophets
gathered in the cave of Procope. who saw at
the bottom of the black beverage the future rays
of '89. Danton, the terrible Danton. took sev-
eral cups of coffee before mounting the tribune.
'The horse must have its oats,' he said.

The vogue of coffee popularized the use
of sugar, which was then bought by the
ounce at the apothecary's shop. Dufour
says that in Paris they used to put so much
sugar in the coffee that "it was nothing
but a syrup of blackened water." The
ladies were wont to have their carriages
stop in front of the Paris cafes and to have
their coffee served to them by the porter
on saucers of silver.

Every year saw new cafes opened. When
they became so numerous, and competition
grew so keen, it was necessary to invent
new attractions for customers. Then was.
born the cafe chantant, where songs, mono-
logues, dances, little plays and farces (not
always in the best taste), were provided to
amuse the frequenters. Many of these
cafes chantants were in the open air along
the Champs-Elysees. In bad weather, Paris
provided the pleasure-seeker with the
Eldorado, Alcazar d'Hiver, Scala, Gaiete,
Concert du XIX^^ Si^cle, Folies Bobino,
Rambuteau, Concert Europeen, and count-
less other meeting places where one could
be served with a cup of coffee.

As in London, certain cafes were noted
for particular followings, like the military,
students, artists, merchants. The politi

EARLY PARISIAN COFFEE HOUSES

THE CAFfi DES MILLE COLONNES IX 1811

From an engraving by Bosredon

100

ALL ABOUT COFFEE

eians had their favorite resorts. Says
Salvandy :

These were senates in miniature ; here miglity
political questions were discussed ; here peace
and war were decided upon ; here generals were
brought to the bar of justice . . .distinguished
orators were victoriously refuted, ministers
heckled upon their ignorance, their incapacity,
their perfidy, their corruption. The cafe is in
reality a French institution ; in them we find
all these agitations and movements of men, the
like of which is unknown in the English tavern.
No government can go against the sentiment of
the caf6s. The Revolution took place because
they were for the Revolution. Napoleon reigned
because they were for glory. Tlae Restoration
was shattered, because they understood the
Charter in a different manner.

In 1700 appeared the Portefeuille Galant,
containing conversations of the caf6s.

The Cafes in the French Revolution

The Palais Royal coffee houses were
centers of activity in the days preceding
and following the Revolution. A picture
of them in the July days of 1789 has been
left by Arthur Young, who was visiting
Paris at that time :

The coffee houses present yet more singular
and astounding spectacles; they are not only
crowded within, but other expectant crowds are
at the doors and windows, listening d gorge
d4plogec to certain orators who from chairs or
tables harangue each his little audience; the
eagerness with which they are heard, and the
thunder of applause they receive for every
sentiment of more than common hardiness or
violence against the government, cannot easily
be imagined.

The Palais Royal teemed with excited
Frenchmen on the fateful Sunday of July
12, 1789. The moment was a tense one,
when, coming out of the Cafe Foy, Camille
Desmoulins, a youthful journalist, mounted
a table and began the harangue that pre-
cipitated the first overt act of the French
Revolution. Blazing with a white hot
frenzy, he so played upon the passions of
the mob that at the conclusion of his speech
he and his followers "marched away from
the Cafe on their errand of Revolution."
The Bastille fell two days later.

As if abashed by its reputation as the
starting point of the mob spirit of the
Revolution, Cafe Foy became in after years
a sedate gathering-place of artists and
literati. Up to its close it was distinguished
among other famous Parisian cafes for its
exclusiveness and strictly enforced rule of
"no smoking."

1 Salvandy, Naroissp-Achille. Influence des Caf48
sur lea Moeurs PoUtiqtiea.

Even from the first the Parisian cafes
catered to all classes of society ; and, unlike
the London coffee houses, they retained this
distinctive characteristic. A number of
them early added other liquid and substan-
tial refreshments, many becoming out-and-
out restaurants.

Coffee-House Customs and Patrons

Coffee's effect on Parisians is thus
decribed by a writer of the latter part of
the eighteenth century:

I think I may safely assert that it is to tlie
establishment of so many cafes in Paris that is
due the urbanity and mildness discernible upon
most faces. Before they existed, nearly every-
body passed his time at the cabaret, where even
business matters were discussed. Since their
establishment, people assemble to hear what is
going on, drinking and playing only in modera-
tion, and the consequence is that they are more
civil and polite, at least in appearance.

Montesquieu's satirical pen pictured in
his Persian Letters the earliest cafes as
follows :

In some of these liouses they talk news ; in
others, they play draughts. There is one where
they prepare the coffee in such a manner that
it inspires the drinkers of it with wit ; at least,
of all those who frequent it, there is not one
person in four who does not think he has more
wit after he has entered that house. But what
offends me in these wits is that they do not
make themselves useful to their country.

Montesquieu encountered a geometrician
outside a coffee house on the Pont Neuf,
and accompanied him inside. He describes
the incident in this manner:

I observe that our geometrician was received
there with the utmost ofRciousness, and that the
coffee house boys paid him much more respect
than two musqueteers who were in a corner of
the room. As for him, he seemed as if he
thought himself in an agreeable place ; for he
unwrinkled his brows a little and laughed, as if
he had not the least tincture of geometrician in
him. . . . He was offended at every start of wit,
as a tender eye is by too strong a light. ... At
last I saw an old man enter, pale and thin,
whom I knew to be a coffee house politician
before he sat down ; he was not one of those
who are never to be intimidated by disasters,
but always prophesy of victories and success;
he was one of those timorous wretches who are
always boding ill.

Cafe Momus and Caf6 Rotonde figure
conspicuously in the record of French
bohemianism. The Momus stood near the
right bank of the River Seine in rue des
Pretres St.-Germain, and was known as the
home of the bohemians. The Rotonde stood
on the left bank at the corner of the rue de

EARLY PARISIAN COFFEE HOUSES

101

THE CAFfi DE PARIS IN 1843

From an engraving by Bosredon

102

ALL ABOUT COFFEE

rficole de Medecine and the rue Haute-
feuille.

Alexandre Schanne has given us a
glimpse of bohemian life in the early cafes.
He lays his scene in the Cafe ]Rotonde, and
tells how a number of poor students were
wont to make one cup of coffee last the
coterie a full evening by using it to flavor
and to color the one glass of water shared
in common. He says :

Every evening, the first comer at the waiter's
inquiry, "What will you talie, sir?" never failed
to reply, "Nothing just at present, I am waiting
for a friend." The friend arrived, to be assailed
by the brutal question, "Have you any money?"
He would make a despairing gesture in the nega-
tive, and then add, loud enough to be heard by
the dame clu comptoir, "By Jove, no ; only fancy,
I left my purse on my console-table, with gilt
feet, in the purest Louis XV style. Ah ! what a
thing it is to be forgetful." He would sit down,
and the waiter would wipe the table as if he
had something to do. A third would come, who
was sometimes able to reply, "Yes, I have ten
sous." "Good !" we would reply ; "order a cup
of coffee, a glass and a water bottle ; pay and
give two sous to the waiter to secure his
silence." Tliis would be done. Others would
come and take their places beside us, repeating
to the waiter the same chorus, "We are with
this gentleman." Frequently we would be eight
or nine sitting at the same table, and only one
customer. Whilst smoking and reading the
papers we would, however, pass the glass and
bottle. When the water began to run short, as
on a ship in distress, one of us would have the
impudence to call out, "Waiter, some water !"
The master of the establishment, who understood
our situation, had no doubt given orders for us
to be left alone, and made his fortune without
our help. He was a good fellow and an intel-
ligent one, having subscribed to all the scientific
journals of Europe, which brought him the cus-
tom of foreign students.

Another cafe perpetuating the best tradi-
tions of the Latin Quarter was the Vaehette,
which survived until the death of Jean
Moreas in 1911. The Vaehette is usually
cited by antiquarians as a model of circum-
spection as compared with the scores of
cafes in the Quarter that were given up to
debaucheries. One writer puts it: "The
Vaehette traditions leaned more to scholar-
ship than sensuality."

In the late seventeenth and early eigh-
teenth centuries the Parisian cafe was truly
a coffee house ; but as many of the patrons
began to while away most of their waking
hours in them, the proprietors added other
beverages and food to hold their patron-
age. Consequently, we find listed among
the cafes of Paris some houses that are
more accurately described as restaurants,

although they may have started their
careers as coffee houses.

Historic Parisian Cafes

Some of the historic cafes are still thriv-
ing in their original locations, although the
majority have now passed into oblivion.
Glimpses of the more famous houses are to
be found in the novels, poetry, an'd essays
written by the French literati who patron-
ized them. These first-hand accounts give
insights that are sometimes stirring, often
amusing, and frequently revolting — such
as the assassination of St.-Fargeau in
Fevrier's low- vaulted cellar cafe in the
Palais Royal.

There is Magny 's, originally the haunt of
such literary men as Gautier, Taine, Saint-
Victor, Turguenieff, de Goncourt, Soulie,
Renan, Edmond. In recent years the old
Magny 's was razed, and on its site was built
the modem restaurant of the same name,
but in a style that has no resemblance to its
predecessor. Even the name of the street
has been changed, from rue Contrescarpe to
the rue Mazet.

Meot's, the Very, Beauvilliers', Mass^'s,
the Cafe Chartres, the Troi Freres Proven-
qaux, and the du Grand Commun, all situ-
ated in the Palais Royal, are cafes that
figured conspicuously in the French Revolu-
tion, and are closely identified with the
French stage and literature. Meot's and
Masse 's were the trysting places of the
Royalists in the days preceding the out-
break, but welcomed the Revolutionists
after they came in power. The Chartres
was notorious as the gathering place of
young aristocrats who escaped the guillo-
tine, and, thus made bold, often called their
like from adjoining caf6s to partake in some
of their plans for restoration of the empire.
The Trois Freres Provengaux, well known
for its excellent and costl/ dinners, is men-
tioned by Balzac, Lord Lytton, and Alfred
de Musset in some of their novels. The
Cafe du Grand Commun appears in
Rousseau's Confessions in connection with
the play Devin du Village.

Among the most famous of the cafes on
the Rue St. Honore were Venua's, patron-
ized by Robespierre and his companions of
the Revolution, and perhaps the scene of
the inhuman murder of Berthier and its
revolting aftermath ; the Mapinot, which has
gone down in cafe history as the scene of
the banquet to Archibald Alison, the 22-

EARLY PARISIAN COFFEE HOUSES

103

Interior of a Typical Parisian CAFfi of the Early Nineteenth Century

year-old historian; and Voisin's cafe,
around which still cling traditions of such
literary lights as Zola, Alphonse Daudet,
and Jules de Goncourt.

Perhaps the boulevard des Italiens had,
and still has, more fashionable cafes than
any other section of the French capital.
The Tortoni, opened in the early days of
the Empire by Velloni, an Italian lemonade
vender, was the most popular of the boule-
vard caf^s, and was generally thronged
with fashionables from all parts of Europe.
Here Louis Blanc, historian of the Revolu-
tion, spent many hours in the early days of
his fame. Talleyrand ; Rossini, the musi-
cian ; Alfred Stevens and Edouard Manet,
artists, are some of the names still linked
with the traditions of the Tortoni. Farther
down the boulevard were the Cafe Riche,
Maison Doree, Cafe Anglais, and the Cafe
de Paris. The Riche and the Doree, stand-
ing side by side, were both high-priced and
noted for their revelries. The Anglais,
which came into existence after the snuffing
out of the Empire, was also distinguished
for its high prices, but in return gave an
excellent dinner and fine wines. It is told
that even during the siege of Paris the
Anglais offered its patrons "such luxuries
as ass, mule, peas, fried potatoes, and cham-
pagne."

Probably the Cafe de Paris, which came
into existence in 1822, in the former home
of the Russian Prince Demidoff, was the
most richly equipped and elegantly con-
ducted of any cafe in Paris in the nine-
teenth century, Alfred de Musset, a fre-
quenter, said, ' ' you could not open its doors
for less than 15 francs."

The Cafe Litteraire, opened on boulevard
Bonne Nouvelle late in the nineteenth
century, made a direct appeal to literary
men for patronage, printing this footnote
on its menu : ' ' Every customer spending a
franc in this establishment is entitled to
one volume of any work to be selected from
our vast collection. ' '

The names of Parisian cafes once more or
less famous are legion. Some of them are :

The Cafe Laurent, which Rousseau was
forced to leave after writing an especially
bitter satire; the English cafe, in which
eccentric Lord Wharton made merry with
the Whig habitues; the Dutch cafe, the
haunt of Jacobites; Terre's, in the rue
Neuve des Pet its Champs, which Thackeray
described in The Ballad of Bouillahaisse;
Maire's, in the boulevard St.-Denis, which
dates back beyond 1850; the Caf6 Madrid,
in the boulevard Montmartre, of which
Carjat, the Spanish lyric poet, was an
attraction; the Caf6 de la Paix, in the

104

ALL ABOUT COFFEE

boulevard des Capucines, the resort of Sec-
ond Empire Imperialists and their spies ;
the Caf6 Durand, in the place de la Made-
leine, which started on a plane with the
high-priced Riche, and ended its career
early in the twentieth century; the Rocher
de Cancale, memorable for its feasts and
high-living patrons from all over Europe ;

the Cafe Guerbois, near the .rug, d^e, St.
Petersbourg, where Manet, the impres-
sionist, after many vicissitudes, won fame
for his paintings and held court for many
years ; the Chat Noir, on the rue Victor
Masse at Montmartre, a blend of cafe and
concert hall, which has since been imitated
widely, both in name and feature.

Chess Has Been a Favorite
Pastime at the CafS; de la
rfigence for t\vo hundred years

A I. L ABOUT COFFEE

COFFEE BRANCHES, FLOWERS, AND FRUIT

Showing the Berry in its Various Ripening Stages from Flower to CiiKituY

(luset: 1, green bean; 2, silver skin; i?, parohment ; 4, fruit pulj).)

Painted from life by Blendon Campbell

Chapter XII

INTRODUCTION OF COFFEE INTO NORTH AMERICA

Captain John Smith, founder of the Colony of Virginia, is the first
to bring to North America a knowledge of coffee in 1607 — The
coffee grinder on the Mayflower — Coffee drinking in 1668 — Wil-
liam Penn's coffee purchase in 1683 — Coffee in colonial New Eng-
land — The psychology of the Boston "tea party," and why the
United States became a nation of coffee drinkers instead of ti i
drinkers, like England — The first coffee license to Dorothy Jones i
1670 — The first coffee house in New England — Notable coffi ?
houses of old Boston — A sky-scraper coffee house

'-A

UNDOUBTEDLY the first to bring a
knowledge of coffee to North Amer-
ica was Ca ptain John Smith , who
founded the Colony of Virgmia at James-
town in 1607. Captain Smith became fa-
miliar with coffee in his tr avels in Turke y.

Although the Dutch also had early knowl-
edge of coffee, it does not appear that the
Dutch West India Company brought any
of it to the first permanent settlement on
Manhattan Island (1624). Nor is there
any record of coffee in the cargo of the
Mayflower (1620), although it included a
wooden mortar and pestle, later used to
make "coffee powder."

In the period when New Yo^ T^ ^^^^ T>Jp-«zl

AmstPrdanij and ^^^n^(^r■ Dnfpli r>r>mipanny

(1624-64), it is poss ible that coffee ma^v
have bppn import^H from Holland, where
it was being sold on the Amsterdam market
as early as 1640, and where regular sup-
plies of the green bean were being received
from Mocha in 1663; but positive proof is
lacking. The Dutch appear to have brought
tea across the Atlantic from Holland before
coffee. The English may have introduced
the coffee drink into the New York colony
between 1664 and 1673. The earliest refer-
ence to coffee in America is 1668 \ at which

• Singleton, Esther.
1909. (p. 132.)

Dutch New York. New York,

time a beverage made from the roasted
beans, and flavored with sugar or honey,
and cinnamon, was being drunk ii New
York.

,^Coffee first appears in the official lecords
oFthe New England colony in ifiTfL, in
1683, the year following William Penn's
settlement on the Delaware, we find him
buying supplies of coffee in the New York
market and paying for them at the rate of
eighteen shillings and nine pence per
pound.''

Coffee houses patterned after the English
and Continental prototypes were soon estab-
lished in all the colonies. Those of New-
York and Philadelphia are described in
separate chapters. The Boston houses are
described at the end of this chapter.

Norfolk, Chicago, St. Louis, and New
Orleans also had them. Conrad Leonhard 's
coffee /house at 320 Market Street. St.
Louis, was famous for its coffee and coffee
cake, from 1844 to 1905, when it became a
bakery and lunch room, removing in 1919
to Eighth and Pine Streets.

In the pioneer days of the great west,
coffee and tea were hard to get; and, in-
stead of them, teas were often made from
garden herbs, spicewood, sassafras-roots^

^ Bishop, J. Leander. A History of American Manu-
factures, 1608 to IfdO. New York, 1804. (Vol. 1; p.
259.)

105

106

ALL ABOUT COFFEE

and other shrubs, taken from the thickets '.
In 1839, in the city of Chicago, one of the
minor taverns was known as the Lake Street
coffee house. It was situated at the corner
of Lake and Wells Streets. A number of
hotels, which in the English sense might
more appropriately be called inns, met a
demand for modest accommodation *. Two
coffee houses were listed in the Chicago

Types of Colonial Coffee Roasters

The cylinder at the top of the picture was revolved
by hand in the fireplace; the skillets were set in
the smouldering ashes

directories for 1843 and 1845, the Wash-
ington coffee house, 83 Lake Street; and
the Exchange coffee house, Clarke Street
between La Salle and South Water Streets.
The oldtime coffee houses of New Orleans
W'Cre situated within the original area of the
city, the section bounded by the river, Canal
Street, Esplanade Avenue and Rampart
Street. In the early days most of the big
business of the city was transacted in the
coffee houses. The brideau, coffee with
orange juice, orange peel, and sugar, wdth
cognac burned and mixed in it, originated
in the New Orleans coffee house, and led to
its gradual evolution into the saloon.

How the United States Became a Nation
of Coffee Drinkers

Coffee, tea, and chocolate were introduced
into North America almost simultaneously
in the latter part of the seventeenth century.
In the first half of the eighteenth century,
tea had made such progress in England,
thanks to the propaganda of the British
East India Company, that, being moved to
extend its use in the colonies, the directors
turned their eyes first in the direction of
North America. Here, however, King
George spoiled their well-laid plans by his

« Patterson, Robert W. Early Society in Southern
Illinois. Chicago, 1881.

* Andreas, A. T. History of Chicago. Chicago,

unfortunate stamp act of 1765, which
caused the colonists to raise the cry of "no
taxation without representation."

Although the act was repealed in 1766,
the right to tax was asserted, and in 1767
was again used, duties being laid on paints,
oils, lead, glass, and tea. Once more the
colonists resisted ; and, by refusing to im-
port any goods of English make, so dis-
tressed the English manufacturers that
Parliament repealed every tax save that on
tea. Despite the growing fondness for the
beverage in America, the colonists preferred
to get their tea elsewhere to sacrificing their
principles and buying it from England. A
brisk trade in smuggling tea from Holland
was started.

In a panic at the loss of the most promis-
ing of its colonial markets, the British East
India Company appealed to Parliament for
aid, and was permitted to export tea, a
privilege it had never before enjoyed.
Cargoes were sent on consignment to
selected commissioners in Boston, New
York, Philadelphia, and Charleston. The
story of the subsequent happenings proper-
ly belongs in a book on tea. It is sufficient
here to refer to the climax of the agitation
against the fateful tea tax, because it is
undoubtedly responsible for our becoming
a nation of coffee drinkers instead of one
of tea drinkers, like England.

The Boston "tea party" of 1773, when
citizens of Boston, disguised as Indians,
boarded the English ships lying in Boston
harbor and threw their tea cargoes into the

' " X

■

f I

An Early Family Coffee Roaster
This machine, known in Holland as a "Coffee
Burner," was used late in the 18th century in
New England. It hung in the fireplace or stood
in the embers

INTRODUCTION INTO NORTH AMERICA

lOT

Historical Relics Associated With the Early Days of Coffee in New England

These exhibits are in the Museum of the Maine Historical Society at Portland. On the left is Kenrick's
Patent coffee mill. In the center is a Britannia urn with an iron bar for heating the liquid. The
bar was encased in a tin receptacle that hung inside the cover. On the right is a wall type of coffee
or spice grinder

ay, cast the die for coffee; for there and
then originated a subtle prejudice against
"the cup that cheers", which one hundred
and fifty years have failed entirely to over-
come. ^Meanwhile, the change wrought in
our social customs by this act, and those of
like nature following it, in the New York,
Pennsylvania, and Charleston colonies,
caused coffe e to be crowned "king of th e
American b reakfast tahl ^"^ and the sove r-
eign drmir^f the American ppopT p" ^

Coffee in Colonial New England

The history of coffee in colonial New
England is so closely interwoven with the
story of the inns and taverns that it is
difficult to distinguish the genuine coffee
house, as it was known in England, from
the public house where lodgings and liquors
were to be had. The coffee drink had
strong competition from the heady wines,
the liquors, and imported teas, and conse-
quently it did not attain the vogue among
the colonial New Englanders that it did
among Londoners of the late seventeenth
and early eighteenth centuries.

Although New England had its coffee
houses, these were actually taverns where
coffee was only one of the beverages served
to patrons. "T hey were'^ gay« Rnhinson.
"generally meeting pla^ces_of_those_whQj^£re
co nservative in — ffiei r^ views ref ^'arding
church a nd~slat e7"^5emg_frignds of therul-
ing— a:difrinistration.' Sucir~persons were

terms 'Courtiers' by their adversaries, the
Dissenters and Republicans."

Most of the coffee houses were estab-
lished in Boston, the metropolis of the
Massachusetts Colony, and the social center
of New England. While Plymouth, Salem,
Chelsea, and Providence had taverns that
served coffee, they did not achieve the
name and fame of some of the more cele-
brated coffee houses in Boston

It is not definitely known when the first
coffee was brought in ; but it is reasonable
to suppose that it came as part of the
household supplies of some settler (prob-
ably between 1660 and 1670) , who had be-
come acquainted with it before leaving
England. Or it may have been introduced
by some British officer, who in London had
made the rounds of the more celebrated
coffee houses of the latter half of the seven-
teenth century.

The First Coffee License

According to early town records of Bos-
ton, Dorothy Jones was the first to be
licensed to sell "coffee and cuchaletto,"
the latter being the seventeenth-century
spelling for chocolate or cocoa. This license
is dated 1670, and is said to be the first
written reference to coffee in the Massa-
chusetts Colony. It is not stated whether
Dorothy Jones was a vender of the coffee
drink or of "coffee powder," as ground
coffee was known in the early days.

108

ALL ABOUT COFFEE

The Mayflowek "Coffee Grinder"

Mortar and pestle for "braying" coffee to make
coffee powder, brought over in the Mayflower
by tiie parents of Peregrine White

There is some question as to whether
Dorothy Jones was the first to sell coffee
as a beverage in Boston. Londoners had
known and drunk coffee for eighteen years
before Dorothy Jones got her coffee license.
British government officials were frequent-
ly taking ship from London to the Massa-
chusetts Colony, and it is likely that they
brought tidings and samples of the coffee
the English gentry had lately taken up.
No doubt they also told about the new-style
coffee houses that were becoming popular
in all parts of London. And it may be
assumed that their tales caused the land-
lords of the inns and taverns of colonial
Boston to add coffee to their lists of bever-
ages.

New England's First Coffee House

The name coffee house did not come into
use in New England until late in the seven-
teenth century. Early colonial records do
not make it clear whether the London coffee
house or the Gutteridge coffee house was the
first to be opened in Boston with that dis-
tinctive title. In all likelihood the London
is entitled to the honor, for Samuel Gardner
Drake in his History and Antiquities of the
City of Boston, published in 1854, says that
*'Benj. Harris sold books there in 1689."
Drake seems to be the only historian of
early Boston to mention the London coffee
house.

Granting that the London coffee house
was the first in Boston, then the Gutteridge
coffee house was the second. The latter

stood on the north side of State Street, be-
tM'een Exchange and Washington Streets,
and was named after Robert Gutteridge,
who took out an innkeeper's license in 1691.
Twenty-seven years later, his widow, Mary
Gutteridge, petitioned the town for a re-
newal of her late husband's permit to keep
a public coffee house.

The British coffee house, which became
the American coffee house when the crowm
officers and all things British became ob-
noxious to the colonists, also began its
career about the time Gutteridge took out
his license. It stood on the site that is now
Q& State Street, and became one of the most
widely known coffee houses in colonial New
England.

Of course, there were several inns and
taverns in existence in Boston long before
coffee and coffee houses came to the New
England metropolis. Some of these taverns
took up coffee when it became fashionable
in the colony, and served it to those patrons
who did not care for the stronger drinks.

The earliest known inn was set up by
Samuel Cole in Washington Street, midway
between Faneuil Hall and State Street.
Cole was licensed as a "comfit maker" in
1634, four years after the founding of
Boston ; and two years later, his inn was the

<f.

The Crown Coffee House, Boston

One of the first in New England to bear the dis-
tinctive name of coffee house; opened in 1711
and burned down in 1780

INTRODUCTION INTO NORTH AMERICA

109

Coffee Making and Serving Devices Used in the ^NlA.s^iAenLsEirs Colony

hese exhibits are in the Museum of the Essex Institute at Salem, Mass. Top row, left and right,
Britannia serving pots; center, Britannia table urn; bottom row, left end, tin coffee making pot;
center, Britannia serving pots; right end, tin French drip pot

temporary abiding place of the Indian chief
Miantonomoh and his red warriors, who
came to visit Governor Vane. In the fol-
lowing year, the Earl of Marlborough found
that Cole's inn was so "exceedingly well
governed," and afforded so desirable pri-
vacy, that he refused the hospitality of
Governor Winthrop at the governor's man-
sion.

Another popular inn of the day was the
Red Lyon, which was opened in 1637 by
Nicholas Upshall, the Quaker, who later
was hanged for trying to bribe a jailer to
pass some food into the jail to two
Quakeresses who were starving within.

Ship tavern, erected in 1650, at the
corner of North and Clark Streets, then on
the waterfront, was a haunt of British
government officials. The father of Gover-
nor Hutchinson was the first landlord, to
be succeeded in 1663 by John Vyal. Here
lived the four commissioners who were sent
to these shores by King Charles II to settle
the disputes then beginning between the
colonies and England.

Another lodging and eating place for the
gentlemen of quality in the first days of
Boston was the Blue Anchor, in Cornhill,
which was conducted in 1664 by Robert

Turner. Here gathered members of the
government, visiting officials, jurists, and
the clergy, summoned into synod by the
Massachusetts General Court. It is assumed
that the clergy confined their drinking to
coffee and other moderate beverages, leav-
ing the wines and liquors to their con-
freres.

Some Notable Boston Coffee Houses

In the last quarter of the seventeenth
century quite a number of taverns and
inns sprang up. Among the most notable
that have obtained recognition in Boston's
historical records were the King's Head, at
the corner of Fleet and North Streets; the
Indian Queen, on a passageway leading
from Washington Street to Hawley Street ;
the Sun, in Faneuil Hall Square, and the
Green Dragon, which became one of the
most celebrated coffee-house taverns.

The King's Head, opened in 1691, early
became a rendezvous of crown officers and
the citizens in the higher strata of colonial
society.

The Indian Queen also became a favorite
resort of the crown officers from Province
House. Started by Nathaniel Bishop about
1673, it stood for more than 145 years as

110

ALL ABOUT COFFEE

Coffee Devices that Figured in the Pioneering of the Great West

Photographed for this work in the Museum of the State Historical Society of Wisconsin. Left to right,
English decorated tin pot; coffee and spice mill from Lexington, Mass.; Globe roaster built by Rays
& Wilcox Co., Berlin, Conn., under Wood's patent; sheet brass coffee mill from Lexington, Mass.;
John Luther's coffee mill, Warren, R. I.; cast iron hopper mill

the Indian Queen, and then was replaced
by the Washington cotfee house, which be-
came noted throughout New England as the
starting place for the Roxbury "hourlies,''
the stage coaches that ran every hour from
Boston to nearby Roxbury.

The Sun tavern lived a longer life than
any other Boston inn. Started in 1690 in
Faneuil Hall Square, it was still standing
in 1902, according to Henry R. Blaney ; but
has since been razed to make way for a
modern skyscraper.

New-Emj^mi d's Most Famous Coffee H ouse

The Green Dragon, the last of the inns
that were popular at the close of the seven-
teenth century, was the most celebrated of
Boston's coffee-house taverns. It stood on
Union Street, in the heart of the town's
business center, for 135 years, from 1697
to 1832, and figured in practically all the
important local and national events during

its long career. Red-coated British soldiers,
colonial governors, bewigged crown ofificers,
earls and dukes, citizens of high estate, plot-
ting revolutionists of lesser degree, con-
spirators in the Boston Tea Party, patriots
and generals of the Revolution — all these
were wont to gather at the Green Dragon
to discuss their various interests over their
cups of coffee, and stronger drinks. In the
words of Daniel Webster, this famous
coffee-house tavern was the "headquarters
of the Revolution." It was here that
Warren, John Adams, J ames Otis,_aiid-P aul
ReveT'e met as a "wd>s ancTmeans com-
' "' to se^rnre-f^eedtmiliiJiJlie^miHcau

mi _ _

ft nlohies. HereT too, came members of the
Grand Lodge of Masons to hold their meet-
ings under the guidance of Warren, who
was the first grand master of the first
Masonic lodge in Boston. The site of the
old tavern, now occupied by a business
block, is still the property of the St. An-

Metal and China Coffee Pots Used in New England's Colonial Days
From the collection in the Museum of the Pocumtuck Valley Memorial Association, Deerfleld, Mass.

INTRODUCTION INTO NORTH AMERICA

111

The Green Dragon, the Center of Social and Political Life in Boston for 135 Years

This tavern figured in practically all the important national affairs from 1697 to 1832, and, according to
Daniel Webster, was the "headquarters of the Revolution"

drew 's Lodge of Free Masons. • The old
tavern was a two-storied brick structure
with a sharply pitched roof. Over its en-
trance hungr a sign bearing the figure of a
green dragon.

Patrons of the Green Dragon and the
British coffee house were decidedly opposed
in their views on the questions of the day.
While the Green Dragon was the gathering
piaf>Aj2^ f t^Q pflt^^'^t^^ "^^"^inls^ thp_ Briti sh
w as the rendezvous of the loyalists, and
frequent were the encounters hetwppn t hp
patrons ol thes e two celebrated taverns. It
was in Llie British coft'ee house that James
Otis was so badly pummeled, after being
lured there by political enemies, that he
never regained his former brilliancy as an
orator.

It was there, in 1750, that some British
red coats staged the first theatrical enter-
tainment given in Boston, playing Otway's
Orphan. There, the first organization of
citizens to take the name of a club formed
the Merchants' Club in 1751. The member-
ship included ofiicers of the king, colonial
governors and lesser officials, military and
naval leaders, and members of the bar, with
a sprinkling of high-ranking citizens who
were staunch friends of the crown. How-
ever, the British became so generally dis-

liked that as soon as the king's troops
evacuated Boston in the Revolution, the
name of the coffee house was changed to the
American.

The Bunch of Grapes, that Francis
Holmes presided over as early as 1712, was
another hot-bed of politicians. Like the
Green Dragon over the way, its paJtjrous
included unconditional freedom ^<^e^--Qvg^
many coming from the British coffee house
when things became too hot for them in that
Tory atmosphere. The Bunch of Grapes
became the center of a stirring celebration
in 1776, w^hen a delegate from Philadelphia
read the Declaration of Independence from
the balcony of the inn to the crowd
assembled in the street below. So enthus-
iastic did the Bostonians become that, in
the excitement that followed, the inn was
nearly destroyed when one enthusiast built
a bonfire too close to its walls. Another
anecdote told of the Bunch of Grapes con-
cerns Sir "William Phipps, governor of
Massachusetts from 1692 - 94, who was
noted for his irascibility. He had his
favorite chair and window in the inn, and
in the accounts of the period it is written
that on any fine afternoon his glowering
countenance could be seen at the window
by the passersby on State Street.

112

ALL ABOUT COFFEE

After the beginning of the eighteenth
century the title of coffee house was applied
to a number of hostelries opened in Boston.
One of these was the Crown, which was
opened in the ' ' first house on Lon^g Wharf ' '
in 1711 by Jonathan Belcher, who later be-
came governor of Massachusetts, and still
later of New Jersey. The first landlord of
the Crown was Thomas Selby, who by trade
was a periwig maker, but probably found
the selling of strong drink and coffee more
profitable. Selby 's coffee house was also
used as an auction room. The Crown stood
until 1780, when it was destroyed in a fire
that swept the Long Wharf. On its site
now stands the Fidelity Trust Company at
148 State Street.

Another early Boston coffee house on
Statef Street was the Royal Exchange. How
long it had been standing before it was first
mentioned in colonial records in 1711 is
unknown. It occupied an ancient two-story
building, and was kept in 1711 by Benjamin
Johns. This coff ee house became thp start-
ing p lace for stage coaches running betwee n
Bost on and New York._the first one leavi ng
Sep J-pmher 7, 'I TT^^'^Tn fhe ColumFian
Centinel of January 1, 1800, appeared an
advertisement in which it was said: ''New
York and Providence Mail Stage leaves
Major Hatches' Royal Exchange Coffee

House in State Street every morning at 8
o'clock."

In the latter half of the eighteenth cen-
tury the North-End coffee house was cele-
brated as the highest-class coffee house in
Boston. It occupied the three-storied brick
mansion which had been built about 1740
by Edward Hutchinson, brother of the
noted governor. It stood on the west side
of North Street, between Sun Court and
Fleet Street, and was one of the most
pretentious of its kind. An eighteenth
century writer, in describing this coffee-
house mansion, made much of the fact that
it had forty-five windows and was valued at
$4,500, a large sum for those days. During
the Revolution, Captain David Porter,
father of Admiral David D. Porter, was the
landlord, and under him it became cele-
brated throughout the city as a high-grade
eating place. The advertisements of the
North-End coffee house featured its "din-
ners and suppers — small and retired rooms
for small company — ' oyster suppers in the
nicest manner."

A "Skyscraper" Coffee House

The Boston coffee-house period reached
its height in 1808, when the doors of the
Exchange coffee house were thrown open
after three years of building. This struc-

Metai. Coffee Pots Used in the New York Colony
Left, tin coffee pot, dark brown, with "love apple" decoration In red, New Jersey Historical Society,
Newark; right, weighted bottom tin pot with rose decoration, private owner

IXTRODUCTrOX INTO NORTH AMERICA

113

Exchange Coffee House, Boston, 1808, Probably the 'Largest and Most Costly in the World

Juilt of stone, marble and brick, it stood seven stories high and cost $500,000. It was patterned after
Lloyd's of London, and was the center of marine intelligence In Boston

ire, situated on Congress Street near State
Street, was the skyscraper of its day, and
probably was the most ambitious coffee-
house project the world has known. Built
of stone, marble, and brick, it stood seven
stories high, and cost a half-million dollars.
Charles Bulfinch, America's most noted
architect of that period, was the designer.
Like Lloyd's coffee house in London, the
Exchange was the center of marine intelli-
gence, and its public rooms were thronged
all day and evening with mariners, naval
officers, ship and insurance brokers, who had
come to talk shop or to consult the records
of ship arrivals and departures, manifests,

charters, and other marine papers. The
first floor of the Exchange was devoted to
trading. On the next floor was the large
dining room, where many sumptuous ban-
quets were given, notably the one to Presi-
dent Monroe in July, 1817, which was at-
tended by former President John Adams,
and by many generals, commodores, gover-
nors, and judges. The other floors were
given over to living and sleeping rooms, of
which there were more than 200. The Ex-
change coffee house was destroyed by firf"
in 1818; and on its site was erected an-
other, bearing the same name, but having
slight resemblance to its predecessor.

114

ALL ABOUT COFFEE

Chapter XIII

HISTORY OF COFFEE IX OLD XEW YORK

The burghers of Neiv Amsterdam begin to substitute coffee for
"must," or beer, at breakfast in 1668 — William Penn makes his
first purchase of coffee in the green bean from New York merchants
in 1683 — The King's Arms, the first coffee house — The historic
Merchants, sometimes called the "Birth-place of our Union" — The
coffee house as a civic forum — The Exchange, Whitehall, Burns,
Tontine, and other celebrated coffee houses — The Vauxhall ayid
Ranelagh pleasure gardens

THE Dutch founders of New York
seem to have introduced tea into New
Amsterdam before they brought in
coffee. This was somewhere about the
middle of the seventeenth century. We find
it recorded that about 1668 the burghers
succumbed to coffee '. Coffee made its way
slowly, first in the homes, where it replaced
the "must", or beer, at breakfast. Choco-
late came about the same time, but was
more of a luxury than tea or coffee.

After the surrender of New York to the
British in 1674, English manners and cus-
toms were rapidly introduced. First tea,
and later coffee, were favorite beverages
in the homes. By 1683 New York had be-
come so central a market for the green
bean, that William Penn, as soon as he
found himself comfortably settled in the
Pennsylvania Colony, sent over to New
York for his coft'ee supplies ^ It was not
long before a social need arose that only
the London style of coffee house could fill.

The coffee houses of early New York,
like their prototypes in London, Paris, and
other old world capitals, were the centers
of the business, political and, to some ex-
tent, of the social life of the city. But they
never became the forcing-beds of literature

* Singleton, Esther.
133.)

' Bishop, J. Leander.
ufacture8, 1608 to 1860.

Dutch New York. 1909. (p.

A History of American Man-
New York.

that the French and English houses were,
principally because the colonists had no
professional writers of note.

There is one outstanding feature of the
early American coffee houses, particularly
of those opened in New York, that is not
distinctive of the European houses. The
colonists sometimes held court trials in the
long, or assembly, room of the early coffee
houses; and often held their general as-
sembly and council meetings there.

TJie Coffee House as a Civic Forum

The early coffee house was an important
factor in New York life. What the per-
petuation of this public gathering place
meant to the citizens is shown by a com-
plaint (evidently designed to revive the
declining fortunes of the historic Merchants
coffee house) in the New York Journal of
October 19, 1775, which, in part, said:
To the Inhabitants of New York :

It gives me concern, in this time of public
difficulty and danger, to find we have in tliis
city no place of daily general meeting, where we
might hear and communicate intelligence from
every quarter and freely confer with one another
on every matter that concerns us. Such a place
of general meeting is of very great advantage
in many respects, especially at such a time as
this, besides the satisfaction it affords and the
sociable disposition it has a tendency to keep up
among us, which was never more wanted than
at this time. To answer all these and many
other good and useful purposes, coffee houses

115

116

ALL ABOUT COFFEE

have been universally deemed the most conve-
nient places of resort, because, at a small ex-
pense of time or money, persons wanted may
be found and spoke with, appointments may be
made, current news heard, and whatever it most
concerns us to know. In all cities, therefore,
and large towns that I have seen in the British
dominions, sufficient encouragement has been
given to support one or more coffee houses in a
genteel manner. How comes it then that New
York, the most central, and one of the largest
and most prosperous cities in British America,
cannot support one coffee house? It is a scandal
to the city and its inhabitants to be destitute
of such a convenience for want of due encour-
agement. A coffee house, indeed, there is, a
very good and comfortable one, extremely well
tended and accommodated, but it is frequented
but by an inconsiderable number of people ; and
I have observed with surprise, that but a small
part of those who do frequent it, contribute any-
thing at all to the expense of it, but come in
and go out without calling for or paying any-
thing to the house. In all the coffee houses in
London, it is customary for every one that comes
in to call for at least a dish of coffee, or leave
the value of one, which is but reasonable, be-
cause when the keepers of these houses have
been at the expense of setting them up and pro-
viding all necessaries for the accommodation of

company, every one that comes to receive the
benefit of these conveniences ought to contribute
something towards the expense of them.

A Friend to the City.

New York's First Coffee House

Some chroniclers of New York's early
days are confident that the first cofi'ee house
in America was opened in New York; but
the earliest authenticated record they have
presented is that on November 1, 1696, John
Hutchins bought a lot on Broadway, be-
tween Trinity churchyard and what is now
Cedar Street, and there built a house, nam-
ing it the King's Arms. Against this rec-
ord, Boston can present the statement in
Samuel Gardner Drake's History and An-
tiquities of the City of Boston that Benj.
Harris sold books at the "London Coffee
House" in 1689.

The King's Arms was built of wood, and
had a front of yellow brick, said to have
been brought from Holland. The building
was tM^o stories high, and on the roof was
an "observatory," arranged with seats, and

New York's Pioneer Coffee House, the King's Arms, Opened in 1696
This view shows the garden side of the historic old house as It was conducted by John Hutchins, near
Trinity Church, on Broadway. The observatory may have been added later

COFFEE IN OLD NEW YORK

117

BuRXS Coffee House as It Appeared About the Middle of the Nineteenth Century

It stood for many years on Broadway, opposite Bowling Green, in the old De Lancey House, becoming
known in 1763 as the King's Arms, and later the Atlantic Garden House

commanding a fine view of the bay, the
river, and the city. Here the coffee-house
visitors frequently sat in the afternoons. It
is not shown in the illustration.

The sides of the main room on the lower
floor were lined with booths, which, for the
sake of greater privacy, were screened with
green curtains. There a patron could sip
his coffee, or a more stimulating drink, and
look over his mail in the same exclusiveness
affected by the Londoner of the time.

The rooms on the second floor were used
for special meetings of merchants, colonial
magistrates and overseers, or similar public
and private business.

The meeting room, as above described,
seems to have been one of the chief features
distinguishing a coffee house from a tavern.
Although both types of houses had rooms
for guests, and served meals, the coffee
house was used for business purposes by
permanent customers, while the tavern was
patronized more by transients. Men met at
the coffee house daily to carry on business,
and went to the tavern for convivial pur-
poses or lodgings. Before the front door

hung the sign of "the lion and the unicorn
fighting for the crown."

For many years the King's Arms was the
only coffee house in the city ; or at least no
other seems of sufficient importance to have
been mentioned in colonial records. For this
reason it w^s more frequently designated as
"the" coffee house than the King's Arms.
Contemporary records of the arrest of John
Hutchins of the King's Arms, and of Roger
Baker, for speaking disrespectfully of King
George, mention the King's Head, of which
Baker was proprietor. But it is generally
believed that this public house was a tavern
and not rightfully to be considered as a
coffee house. The White Lion, mentioned
about 1700, was also a tavern, or inn.

The New Coifee House

Under date of September 22, 1709, the
Journal of the General Assembly of the
Colony of New York refers to a conference
held in the "New Coffee House."
About this date the business section of the
city had begun to drift eastward from
Broadway to the waterfront ; and from this

118

ALL ABOUT COFFEE

fact it is assumed that the name "New
Coffee House" indicates that the King's
Arms had been removed from its original
location near Cedar Street, or that it may
have lost favor and have been superseded
in popularity by a newer coffee house. The
Journal does not give the location of the
"New" coffee house. Whatever the case
may be, the name of the King's Arms does
not again appear in the records until 1763,
and then it had more the character of a
tavern, or roadhouse.

The public records from 1709 up to 1729
are silent in regard to coffee houses in New
York. In 1725 the pioneer newspaper in
the city, the New York Gazette, came into
existence ; and four years later, 1729, there
appeared in it an advertisement stating
that ' ' a competent bookkeeper may be heard
of" at the "Coffee House." In 1730 an-
other advertisement in the same journal
tells of a sale of land by public vendue
(auction) to be held at the Exchange coffee
house.

The Exchange Coffee House

By reason of its name, the Exchange
Coffee House is thought to have been lo-
cated at the foot of Broad Street, abutting
the sea-wall and near the Long Bridge of
of that day. At that time this section was
the business center of the city, and here
was a trading exchange.

That the Exchange coffee house was the
only one of its kind in New York in 1732
is inferred from the announcement in that
year of a meeting of the conference com-
mittee of the Council and Assembly ' ' at the
Coffee House." In seeming confirmation of
this conclusion, is the advertisement in 1733
in the New York Gazette requesting the
return of "lost sleeve buttons to Mr. Todd,
next door to the Coffee House." The records
of the day show that a Robert Todd kept the
famous Black Horse tavern which was
located in this part of the city.

Again we hear of the Exchange coffee
house in 1737, and apparently in the same
location, where it is mentioned in an ac-
count of the "Negro plot" as being next
door to the Fighting Cocks tavern by the
Long Bridge, at the foot of Broad Street.
Also in this same year it is named as the
place of public vendue of land situated on
Broadway.

By this time the Exchange coffee house
had virtually become the city's official auc-
tion room, as well as the place to buy and

to drink coffee. Commodities of many
kinds were also bought and sold there, both
within the house and on the sidewalk be-
fore it.

The Mercha7its Coffee House

In the year 1750, the Exchange coffee
house had begun to lose its long-held
prestige, and its name was changed to the
Gentlemen's Exchange coffee house and
tavern. A year later it had migrated to
Broadway under the name of the Gentle-
mens' coffee house and tavern. In 1753 it
was moved again, to Hunter's Quay, which
was situated on what is now Front Street,
somewhere between the present Old Slip
and Wall Street. The famous old coffee
house seems to have gone out of existence
about this time, its passing hastened, no
doubt, by the newer enterprise, the Mer-
chants coffee house, which was to become
the most celebrated in New York, and, ac-
cording to some writers, the most historic
in America.

It is not certain just when the Merchants
coffee house was first opened. As near as
can be determined, Daniel Bloom, a mariner,
in 1737 bought the Jamaica Pilot Boat
tavern from John Dunks and named it the
Merchants coffee house. The building was
situated on the northwest corner of the
present Wall Street and Water (then
Queen) Street; and Bloom was its landlord
until his death, soon after the year 1750.
He was succeeded by Captain James Ack-
land, who shortly sold it to Luke Roome.
The latter disposed of the building in 1758
to Dr. Charles Arding. The doctor leased
it to Mrs. Mary Ferrari, who continued as
its proprietor until she moved, in 1772, to
the newer building diagonally across the
street, built by William Brownejohn, on the
southeast corner of Wall and Water Streets.
Mrs. Ferrari took with her the patronage
and the name of the Merchants coffee house,
and the old building was not used again as
a coffee house.

The building housing the original Mer-
chants coffee house was a two-story struc-
ture, wdth a balcony on the roof, which was
typical of the middle eighteenth century
architecture in New York. On the first
floor were the coffee bar and booths de-
scribed in connection with the King's Arms
coffee house. The second floor had the
typical long room for public assembly.

During Bloom's proprietorship the Mer-
chants coffee house had a long, hard struggle

COFFEE IN OLD NEW YORK

11&

Merchants Ck)FFEE House (at the Right) as It Appeared from 1772 to 1804

The original coffee house of this name was opened on the northwest corner of Wall and Water Streets
about 1737, the business being moved to the southeast corner in 1772

to win the patronage away from the Ex-
change coffee house, which was flourishing
at that time. But, being located near the
Meal Market, where the merchants were
wont to gather for trading purposes, it
gradually became the meeting place of the
city, at the expense of the Exchange coffee
house, farther down the waterfront.

Widow Ferrari presided over the original
Merchants coffee house for fourteen years,
until she moved across the street. She was
a, keen business woman. Just before she
was ready to open the new coffee house she
announced to her old patrons that she
would give a house-warming, at which
arrack, punch, wine, cold ham, tongue, and
other delicacies of the day would be served.
The event was duly noted in the news-
papers, one stating that ''the agreeable
situation and the elegance of the new house
liad occasioned a great resort of company
to it."

]\Irs. Ferrari continued in charge until
May 1, 1776, when Cornelius Bradford bo-
came proprietor and sought to build up the
patronage, that had dwindled somewhat
during the stirring days immediately pre-
ceding the Revolution. In his announce-
ment of the change of ownership, he said,
""Interesting intelligence will be carefully

collected and the greatest attention will be
given to the arrival of vessels, when trade
and navigation shall resume their former
channels." He referred to the complete
embargo of trade to Europe which the
colonists were enduring. When the Amer-
ican troops withdrew from the city during
the Revolution, Bradford went also, to
Rhinebeck on the Hudson.

During the British occupation, the Mer-
chants coffee house was a place of great
activity. As before, it was the center of
trading, and under the British regime it
became also the place where the prize ships
were sold. The Chamber of Commerce
resumed its sessions in the upper long room
in 1779, having been suspended since 1775.
The Chamber paid fifty pounds rent per
annum for the use of the room to Mrs.
Smith, the landlady at the time.

In 1781 John Stachan, then proprietor
of the Queen's Head tavern, became land-
lord of the Merchants coffee house, and he
promised in a public announcement *'to
pay attention not only as a Coffee House,
but as a tavern, in the truest; and to dis-
tinguish the same as the City Tavern and
Coffee House, with constant and best at-
tendance. Breakfast from seven to eleven ;
soups and relishes from eleven to half-past

120

ALL ABOUT COFFEE

one. Tea, coffee, etc., in the afternoon, as
in England." But when he began charging
sixpence for receiving and dispatching let-
ters by man-o'-war to England, he brought
a storm about his ears, and was forced to
give up the practise. He continued in
charge until peace came, and Cornelius
Bradford came with it to resume pro-
prietorship of the coffee house.

Bradford changed the name to the New
York coffee house, but the public continued
to call it by its original name, and the land-
lord soon gave in. He kept a marine list,
giving the names of vessels arriving and
departing, recording their ports of sailing.
He also opened a register of returning citi-
zens, "where any gentleman now resident
in the city," his advertisement stated,
"may insert their names and place of
residence." This seems to have been the
first attempt at a city directory. By his
energy Bradford soon made the Merchants
coffee house again the business center of the
city. When he died, in 1786, he was
mourned as one of the leading citizens.
His funeral was held at the coffee house
over M^iich he had fjresided so well.

The Merchants coffee house continued
to be the principal public gathering place
until it was destroyed by fire in 1804. Dur-
ing its existence it had figured prominently
in many of the local and national historic
events, too numerous to record here in de-
tail.

Some of the famous events were : The
reading of the order to the citizens, in 1765,
warning them to stop rioting against the
Stamp Act; the debates on the subject of
not accepting consignments of goods from
Great Britain ; the demonstration by the
Sons of Liberty, sometimes called the "Lib-
erty Boys," made before Captain Lockyer
of the tea ship Nancy which had been
turned away from Boston and sought to
land its cargo in New York in 1774; the
general meeting of citizens on May 19,
1774, to discuss a means of communicat-
ing with the Massachusetts colony to ob-
tain co-ordinated effort in resisting Eng-
land's oppression, out of which came the
letter suggesting a congress of deputies
from the colonies and calling for a "vir-
tuous and spirited Union ; ' ' the mass meet-
ing of citizens in the days immediately fol-
lowing the battles at Concord and Lexing-
ton in Massachusetts; and the forming of
the Committee of One Hundred to admin-

ister the public business, making the Mer-
chants coffee house virtually the seat of
government.

When the American Army held the city
in 1776, the coffee house became the resort
of army and navy officers. Its culminating
glory came on April 23, 1789, when Wash-
ington, the recently elected first presi-
dent of the United States, was officially
greeted at the coffee house by the governor
of the State, the mayor of the city, and the
lesser municipal officers.

As a meeting place for societies and
lodges the Merchants coffee house was long
distinguished. In addition to the purely
commercial organizations that gathered in
its long room, these bodies regularly met
there in their early days: The Society of
Arts, Agriculture and Economy; Knights
of Corsica ; New York Committee of Cor-
respondence; New Yori?: Marine Society;
Chamber of Commerce of the State of New
York; Lodge 169, Free and Accepted Ma-
sons; Whig Society; Society of the New
York Hospital; St. Andrew's Society; So-
ciety of the Cincinnati ; Society of the Sons
of St. Patrick; Society for Promoting the
Manumission of Slaves ; Society for the Re-
lief of Distressed Debtors; Black Friars
Society ; Independent Rangers ; and Federal
Republicans.

Here also came the men who, in 1784,.
formed the Bank of New York, the first
financial institution in the city; and here
was held, in 1790, the first public sale of
stocks by sworn brokers. Here, too, was
held the organization meeting of subscrib-
ers to the Tontine coffee house, which in a
few years was to prove a worthy rival.

Some Lesser Known Coffee Houses

Before taking up the story of the famous
Tontine coffee house it should be noted
that the Merchants coffee house had some
prior measure of competition. For four
years the Exchange coffee room sought toi
cater to the wants of the merchants around
the foot of Broad Street. It was located
in the Royal Exchange, which had beea
erected in 1752 in place of the old Ex-
change, and until 1754 had been used a»
a store. Then William Keen and Alex-
ander Lightfoot got control and started
their coffee room, with a ball room at-
tached. The partnership split up in 1756^
Lightfoot continuing operations until he
died the next year, when his widow tried t&

COFFEE IN OLD NEW YORK

121

The Toxtine Coffee House (Second Building at the Left), Opened in 1792

This is the original structure, northwest corner of Wall and Water Streets, which was succeeded about

1850 by a flve-story building (see page 122) that in turn was replaced by a modern office buildii.g

carry it on. In 1758 it had reverted into
its original character of a mercantile estab-
lishment.

Then there was the Whitehall coffee
house, which two men, named Rogers and
Humphreys, opened in 1762, with the an-
nouncement that "a correspondence is set-
tled in London and Bristol to remit by
every opportunity all the public prints and
pamphlets as soon as published; and there
will be a , weekly supply of New York,
Boston and other American newspapers."
This enterprise had a short life.

The early records of the city infrequent-
ly mention the Burns coffee house, some-
times calling it a tavern. It is likely that
the place was more an inn than a coffee
house. It was kept for a number of years
by George Burns, near the Battery, and
was located in the historic old De Lancey
house, which afterward became the City
hotel.

Burns remained the proprietor until
1762, when it was taken over by a Mrs.
Steele, who gave it the name of the King's
Arms. Edward Barden became the land-
lord in 1768. In later years it became
known as the Atlantic Garden house. Trai-

tor Benedict Arnold is said to have lodged
in the old tavern after deserting to the
enemy.

The Bank coffee house belonged to a
later generation, and had few of the char-
acteristics of the earlier coffee houses. It
was opened in 1814 by William Niblo, of
Niblo's Garden fame, and stood at the
corner of William and Pine Streets, at the
rear of the Bank of New York. The cof-
fee house endured for probably ten years,
and became the gathering place of a co-
terie of prominent merchants, who formed
a sort of club. The Bank coffee house be-
came celebrated for its dinners and dinner
parties.

Fraunces' tavern, best known as the
place where Washington bade farewell to
his army officers, was, as its name states,
a tavern, and can not be properly classed
as a coffee house. While coffee was served,
and there was a long room for gatherings,
little, if any, business was done there by
merchants. It was largely a meeting place
for citizens bent on a "good time."

Then there was the New England and
Quebec coffee house, which was also a
tavern.

122

ALL ABOUT COFFEE

The Tontine Building of 1850

Northwest corner of Wall and Water Streets; an
omnibus of the Broadway-Wall-Street Ferry
line is passing

The Tontine Coffee House

The last of the celebrated coffee houses
of New York bore the name, Tontine cof-
fee house. For several years after the
burning of the Merchants coffee house, in
1804, it was the only one of note in the
city.

Feeling that they should have a more
commodious coffee house for carrying on
their various business enterprises, some 150
merchants organized, in 1791, the Tontine
coffee house. This enterprise was based'
on the plan introduced into France in 1653
by Lorenzo Tonti, with slight variations.
According to the New York Tontine plan,
each holder's share reverted automatically

^ 1

^^H| ,4

ii.j#

^^^^1^

^i^nji.

-^1

--.^.

Stf'jf

to the surviving shareholders in the asso-
ciation, instead of to his heirs. There
were 157 original shareholders, and 203
shares of stock valued at £200 each.

The directors bought the house and lot
on the northwest corner of Wall and Water
Streets, where the original Merchants cof-
fee house stood, paying £1,970. They next
acquired the adjoining lots on Wall and
Water Streets, paying £2,510 for the for-
mer, and £1,000 for the latter.

The cornerstone of the new coffee house
was laid June 5, 1792 ; and a year later to
the day, 120 gentlemen sat down to a ban-
quet in the completed coffee house to cele-
brate the event of the year before. John
Hyde was the first landlord. The house
had cost $43,000.

NiBLo's Gakden,

Broadway and Pkince Street,

1828

Coffee Kelics of Dutch New York

Spice-grinder boat, coffee roaster, and coffee pots
at the Van Cortlandt Museum

A contemporary account of how the Ton-
tine coffee house looked in 1794 is supplied
by an Englishman visiting New York at
the time :

The Tontine tavern and coffee house is a
handsome large brick building; you ascend six
or eight steps under a portico, into a large pub-
lie room, which is the Stock Exchange of New
York, where all bargains are made. Here are
two books kept, as at Lloyd's [in London] of
every ship's arrival and clearance. This house
was built for the accommodation of the mer-
chants by Tontine shares of two hundred pounds
each. It is kept by Mr. Hyde, formerly a woolen

COFFEE IN OLD NEW YORK

123

.fc*— :■- ■ li aTKMiq^^

New York's Vauxiiall Garden of 1803
From an old print

draper in London. You can lodge and board
tliere at a common table, and you pay ten shil-
lin<?s currency a day, whether you dine out or
not.

The stock market made its headquarters
in the Tontine coffee house in 1817, and
the early organization was elaborated and
became the New York Stock and Exchange
Board. It was removed in 1827 to the
Merchants Exchange Building, where it re-
mained until that place was destroyed by
fire in 1835.

It was stipulated in the original articles
of the Tontine Association that the house
was to be kept and used as a coffee house,
and this agreement was adhered to up to
the year 1834, when, by permission of the
Court of Chancery, the premises were let
for general business-office purposes. This
change was due to the competition offered
by the Merchants Exchange, a short dis-
tance up Wall Street, which had been
opened soon after the completion of the
Tontine coffee house building.

As the city grew, the business-office quar-
ters of the original Tontine coffee house be-
came inadequate; and about the year 1850
a new five-story building, costing some $60,-
000, succeeded it. By this time the build-
ing had lost its old coffee-house character-
istics. This new Tontine structure is said

to have been the first real office building in
New York City. Today the site is occu-
pied by a large modern office building,
which still retains the name of Tontine,
It was owned by John B. and Charles A.
O'Donohue, well known New York coffee
merchants, until 1920, When it was sold
for $1,000,000 to the Federal Sugar Refin-
ing Company.

The Tontine coffee house did not figure
so prominently in the historic events of the
nation and city as did its neighbor, the
Merchants coffee house. However, it be-
came the Mecca for visitors from all parts
of the country, who did not consider their
sojourn in the city complete until they had
at least inspected what was then one of the
most pretentious buildings in New York.
Chroniclers of the Tontine coffee house al-
ways say that most of the leaders of the
nation, together with distinguished visitors
from abroad, had foregathered in the large
room of the old coffee house at some time
during their careers.

It was on the walls of the Tontine coffee
house that bulletins were posted on Hamil-
ton 's struggle for life after the fatal duel
forced on him by Aaron Burr.

The changing of the Tontine coffee house
into a purely mercantile building marked
the end of the coffee-house era in New

124

ALL ABOUT COFFEE

York. Exchanges and office buildings had
come into existence to take the place of the
business features of the coffee houses ; clubs
were organized to take care of the social
functions; and restaurants and hotels had
sprung up to cater to the needs for bever-
ages and food.

New York's Pleasure Gardens

There was a fairly successful attempt
made to introduce the London pleasure-
garden idea into New York. First, tea
gardens were added to several of the tav-
erns already provided with ball rooms.
Then, on the outskirts of the city, were
opened the Vauxhall and the Eanelagh
gardens, so named after their famous Lon-
don prototypes. The first Vauxhall gar-
den (there were three of this name) was
on Greenwich Street, between "Warren and
Chambers Streets. It fronted on the North
River, affording a beautiful view up the
Hudson. Starting as the Bowling Green
garden, it changed to Vauxhall in 1750.

Ranelagh was on Broadway, between Du-
ane and Worth Streets, on the site where
later the New York Hospital was erected.
From advertisements of the period (1765 -
69) we learn that there were band concerts
twice a week at the Ranelagh. The gardens
were "for breakfasting as well as the eve-
ning entertainment of ladies and gentle-

men." There was a commodious hall in
the garden for dancing. Ranelagh lasted
twenty years. Coffee, tea, and hot rolls
could be had in the pleasure gardens at
any hour of the day. Fireworks were fea-
tured at both Ranelagh and Vauxhall gar-
dens. The second Vauxhall was near the
intersection of the present Mulberry and
Grand Streets, in 1798; the third was on
Bowery Road, near Astor Place, in 1803.
The Astor library was built upon its site
in 1853.

William Niblo, previously proprietor of
the Bank coffee house in Pine Street,
opened, in 1828, a pleasure garden, that
he named Sans Souci, on the site of a circus
building called the Stadium at Broadway
and Prince Street. In the center of the
garden remained the stadium, which was
devoted to theatrical performances of "a
gay and attractive character." Later, he
built a more pretentious theater that
fronted on Broadway. The interior of the
garden was "spacious, and adorned with
shrubbery and walks, lighted, with festoons
of lamps." It was generally known as
Niblo 's garden.

Among other well known pleasure gar-
dens of old New York were Contoit's, later
the New York garden, and Cherry gardens,
on old Cherry Hill.

Tavern and Grocers' Signs Used in Old New York
Left, Smith Richards, grocer and confectioner, "at the sign of the tea canister and two sugar loaves"
(1773) ; center, the King's Arms, originally Burns coffee house (1767) ; right, George Webster, Grocer,
"at the sign of the three sugar loaves"

Chapter XIV
COFFEE HOUSES OF OLD PHILADELPHIA

Ye Coffee House, Philadelphia's first coffee house, opened about
1700 — The two London coffee houses — The City tavern, or Mer-
chants coffee house — How these, and other celebrated resorts,
dominated the social, political, and business life of the Quaker City
in the eighteenth century

WILLIAM PENN is generally cred-
ited with the introduction of coffee
into the Quaker colony which he
founded on the Delaware in 1682. He also
brought to the "city of brotherly love"
that other great drink of human brother-
hood, tea. At first (1700), "like tea, cof-
fee was only a drink for the well-to-do,
except in sips. ' " As was the case in the
other English colonies, coffee languished
for a time while tea rose in favor, more
especially in the home.

Following the stamp act of 1765, and
the tea tax of 1767, the Pennsylvania Col-
ony joined hands with the others in a
general tea boycott ; and coffee received the
same impetus as elsewhere in the colonies
that became the thirteen original states.

The coffee houses of early Philadelphia
loom large in the history of the city and
the republic. Picturesque in themselves,
with their distinctive colonial architecture,
their associations also were romantic. Many
a civic, sociological, and industrial reform
came into existence in the low-ceilinged,
sanded-floor main rooms of the city's early
coffee houses.

For many years. Ye coffee house, the two
London coffee houses, and the City tavern
(also known as the Merchants coffee house)
each in its turn dominated the official and
social life of Philadelphia. The earlier
houses were the regular meeting places of

* Oberholtzer, Ellis Paxson. Philadelphia ; a his-
tory of the city and its people. Philadelphia, 1912.
(vol. i : p. 106.)

Quaker municipal officers, ship captains,
and merchants who came to transact pub-
lic and private business. As the outbreak
of the Revolution drew near, fiery colonials,
many in Quaker garb, congregated there to
argue against British oppression of the
colonies. After the Revolution, the leading
citizens resorted to the coffee house to dine
and sup and to hold their social functions.

When the city was founded in 1682, cof-
fee cost too much to admit of its being
retailed to the general public at coffee
houses, William Penn wrote in his Ac-
counts that in 1683 coffee in the berry
was sometimes procured in New York at
a cost of eighteen shillings nine pence the
pound, equal to about $4.68. He told also
that meals were served in the ordinaries
at six pence (equal to twelve cents), to wit:
"We have seven ordinaries for the enter-
tainment of strangers and for workmen
that are not housekeepers, and a good meal
is to be had there for six pence sterling."
With green coffee costing $4.68 a pound,
making the price of a cup about seventeen
cents, it is not likely that coffee was on
the menus of the ordinaries serving meals
at twelve cents each. Ale was the common
meal-time beverage.

There were four classes of public houses
— inns, taverns, ordinaries, and coffee
houses. The inn was a modest hotel that
supplied lodgings, food, and drink, the bev-
erages consisting mostly of ale, port, Ja-
maica rum, and Madeira wine. The tavern,

125

126

ALL ABOUT COFFEE

though accommodating guests with bed and
board, was more of a drinking place than a
lodging house. The ordinary combined the
characteristics of a restaurant and a board-
ing house. The coffee house was a preten-
tious tavern, dispensing, in most cases, in-
toxicating drinks as well as coffee.

Philadelphia's First Coffee House

The first house of public resort opened
in Philadelphia bore the name of the Blue
Anchor tavern, and was probably estab-
lished in 1683 or 1684; colonial records do
not state definitely. As its name indicates,
this was a tavern. The first coffee house
came into existence about the year 1700.
Watson, in one place in his Annals of the
city, says 1700, but in another 1702. The
earlier date is thought to be correct, and is
seemingly substantiated by the co-authors
Scharf and Westcott in their History ' of
the city, in which they say, * ' The first pub-
lic house designated as a coffee house was
built in Penn's time [1682-1701] by
Samuel Carpenter, on the east side of
Front Street, probably above Walnut
Street. That it was the first of its kind —
the only one in fact for some years —
seems to be established beyond doubt. It
was always referred to in old times as 'Ye
Coffee House.' "

Carpenter owned also the Globe inn,
which was separated from Ye coffee house
by a public stairway running down from
Front Street to Water Street, and, it is
supposed, to Carpenter's Wharf. The ex-
act location of the old house was recently
established from the title to the original
patentee, Samuel Carpenter, by a Phila-
delphia real-estate title-guarantee company,
as being between Walnut and Chestnut
Streets, and occupying six and a half feet
of what is now No. 137 South Front Street
and the whole of No, 139.

How long Ye coffee house endured is un-
certain. It was last mentioned in colonial
records in a real estate conveyance from
Carpenter to Samuel Finney, dated April
26, 1703. In that document it is described
as "That brick Messuage, or Tenement,
called Ye Coffee House, in the possession
of Henry Flower, and situate, lying and
being upon or before the bank of the Dela-
ware River, containing in length about
thirty feet and in breadth about twenty-
four."

The Henry Flower mentioned as the pro-
prietor of Philadelphia's first coffee house,

was postmaster of the province for a num-
ber of years, and it is believed that Ye
coffee house also did duty as the post-offiei'
for a time. Benjamin Franklin's Penn-
sylvania Gazette, in an issue published in
1734, has this advertisement:

All persons who are indebted to Henry Flower,
iQ/te postmaster of Pennsylvania, for Postage of
Letters or otherivise, are desir'd to pay the same
to Mm at the old Coffee House in Philadelphia.

Flower's, advertisement would indicate
that Ye coffee house, then venerable enough
to be designated as old, was still in exist-
ence, and that Flower was to be found
there. Franklin also seems to have been
in the coffee business, for in several issues
of the Gazette around the year 1740 he
advertised: "Very good coffee sold by the
Printer. ' '

The First London Coffee House

Philadelphia's second coffee house bore
the name of the London coffee house, which
title was later used for the resort William
Bradford opened in 1754. The first house
of this name was built in 1702, but there
seems to be some doubt about its location.
Writing in the American Historical Regis-
ter, Charles H. Browning says: "William
Rodney came to Philadelphia with Penn in
1682, and resided in Kent County, where
he died in 1708 ; he built the old London
coffee house at Front and Market Streets
in 1702." Another chronicler gives its lo-
cation as "above Walnut Street, either on
the east side of Water Street, or on Dela-
ware Avenue, or, as the streets are very
close together, it may have been on both.
John Shewbert, its proprietor, was a pa-
rishioner of Christ Church, and his estab*
lishment was largely patronized by Church
of England people." It was also the gath-
ering place of the followers of Penn and
the Proprietary party, while their oppo-
nents, the political cohorts of Colonel
Quarry, frequented Ye coffee house.

The first London coffee house resembled
a fashionable club house in its later years,
suitable for the "genteel" entertainments
of the well-to-do Philadelphians. Ye cof-
fee house was more of a commercial or
public exchange. Evidence of the gentility
of the London is given by John William
Wallace :

The appointments of the London Coffee House,
if we may infer what they were from the will
of Mrs. Shtitiert [Shewbert] dated November 27,
1751, were genteel. By that instrument she

IN OLD PHILADELPHIA

127

The Second London Coffee House, Opened in 1754 by William Bradford, the Printer
Up to the outbreak of the American Revolution, it was more frequented than any other tavern in the
Quaker city as a place of resort and entertainment, and was famous throughout the colonies v.^

makes bequest of two silver quax't tankards; a
silver cup ; a silver porringer ; a silver pepper
pot ; two sets of silver castors ; a silver soup
spoon ; a silver sauce spoon, and numerous
silver tablespoons, and tea spoons, with a silver
teapot.

One of the many historic incidents con-
nected with this old house was the visit
there by William Penn's eldest son, John,
in 1733, when he entertained the General
Assembly of the province on one day and
on the next feasted the City Corporation.

Roberts' Coffee House

Another house with some fame in the
middle of the eighteenth century was Rob-
erts' coffee house, which stood in Front
Street near the first London house. Though
its opening date is unknown, it is believed
to have come into existence about 1740.
In 1744 a British army officer recruiting
troops for service in Jamaica advertised
in the newspaper of the day that he could
be seen at the Widow Roberts' coffee house.
During the French and Indian War, when
Philadelphia was in grave danger of attack
by French and Spanish privateers, the citi-
zens felt so great relief when the British
ship Otter came to the rescue, that they
proposed a public banquet in honor of the
Otter's captain to be held at Roberts' cof-

fee house,.- For some unrecorded reasoii
the entertainment was not given ; probably
because the house was too small to accom-
modate all the citizens desiring to attend.
Widow Roberts retired in 1754.

The James Coffee House

Contemporary with Roberts ' coffee house
w^as the resort run first by Widow James,
and later by her son, James James. It
was established in 1744, and occupied a
large wooden building on the northwest
corner of Front and Walnut Streets. It
w^as patronized by Governor Thomas and
many of his political followers, and its
name frequently appeared in the news and
advertising columns of the Pennsylvania
Gazette.

The Second London Coffee House

Probably the most celebrated coffee house
in Penn's city was the one established by
William Bradford, printer of the Pennsyl-
vania Journal. It was on the southwest
corner of Second and Market Streets, and
was named the London coffee house, the
second house in Philadelphia to bear that
title. The building had stood since 1702,
when Charles Reed, later mayor of the
city, put it up on land which he bought

128

ALL ABOUT COFFEE

from Letitia Penn, daughter of William
Penn, the founder. Bradford was the first
to use the structure for coffee-house pur-
poses, and he tells his reason for entering
upon the business in his petition to the gov-
ernor for a license : ' ' Having been advised
to keep a Coffee House for the benefit of
merchants and traders, and as some people
may at times be desirous to be furnished
with other liquors besides coffee, your pe-
titioner apprehends it is necessary to have
the Governor's license." This would indi-
cate that in that day coffee was drunk as
a refreshment between meals, as were
spirituous liquors for so many years be-
fore, and thereafter up to 1920.

Selling Slaves at the Old London Coffee
House

Bradford's London coffee house seems to
have been a joint-stock enterprise, for in
his Journal of April 11, 1754, appeared
this notice: "Subscribers to a public cof-
fee house are invited to meet at the Court-
house on Friday, the 19th instant, at 3
o'clock, to choose trustees agreeably to the
plan of subscription."

The building was a three-story wooden
structure, with an attic that some historians
count as the fourth story. There was a
wooden awning one-story high extending
out to cover the sidewalk before the cof-
fee house. The entrance was on Market
(then known as High) Street.

The London coffee house was "the pul-
sating heart of excitement, enterprise, and
patriotism" of the early city. The most
active citizens congregated there — mer-
chants, shipmasters, travelers from other
colonies and countries, crown and provin-
cial officers. The governor and persons of
equal note went there at certain hours "to
sip their coffee from the hissing urn, and
some of those stately visitors had their
own stalls." It had also the character of
a mercantile exchange — carriages, horses,
foodstuffs, and the like being sold there at
auction. It is further related that the early
slave-holding Philadelphians sold negro
men, women, and children at vendue, ex-
hibiting the slaves on a platform set up
in the street before the coffee house.

The resort was the barometer of public
sentiment. It was in the street before this
house that a newspaper published in
Barbados, bearing a stamp in accordance
with the provisions of the stamp act, was
publicly burned in 1765, amid the cheers
of bystanders. It was here that Captain
Wise of the brig Minerva, from Pool, Eng-
land, who brought news of the repeal of the
act, was enthusiastically greeted by the
crowd in May, 1766. Here, too, for several
years the fishermen set up May poles.

Bradford gave up the coffee house when
he joined the newly formed Revolutionary
army as major, later becoming a colonel.
When the British entered the city in Sep-
tember, 1777, the officers resorted to the
London coffee house, which was much fre-
quented by Tory sympathizers. After the
British had evacuated the city, Colonel
Bradford resumed proprietorship ; but he
found a change in the public's attitude
toward the old resort, and thereafter its
fortunes began to decline, probably hast-
ened by the keen competition offered by the
City tavern, which had been opened a few
years before.

Bradford gave up the lease in 1780,
transferring the property to John Pember-
ton, who leased it to Grifford Dally. Pem-
berton was a Friend, and his scruples about
gambling and other sins are well exhibited
in the terms of the lease in which said
Dally "covenants and agrees and promises
that he will exert his endeavors as a Chris-
tian to preserve decency and order in said
house, and to discourage the profanation
of the sacred name of God Almighty by
cursing, swearing, etc., and that the house

IN OLD PHILADELPHIA

129

The City Tavern, Built i.n .17i;i. am> K.nuwn as iiii-: Mlkciiams Coiii-h lluttot

The tavern (at the left) was regarded as the largest inn of the colonies and stood next to the Bank of
Pennsylvania (center). From a print made from a rare Birch engraving

on the first day of the week shall always be
kept closed from public use. " It is further
covenanted that "under a penalty of ilOO
he will not allow or suffer any person to
use, or play at, or divert themselves with
cards, dice, back-gammon, or any other un-
lawful game."

It would seem from the terms of the
lease that what Pemberton thought were
ungodly things, were countenanced in other
coffee houses of the day. Perhaps the regu-
lations were too strict ; for a few years later
the house had passed into the hands of John
Stokes, who used it as dwelling and a store.

City Tavern or Merchants Coffee House

The last of the celebrated coffee houses
in Philadelphia was built in 1773 under
the name of the City tavern, which later
became known as the Merchants coffee
house, possibly after the house of the same
name that was then famous in New York.
It stood in Second Street near Walnut
Street, and in some respects was even more
noted than Bradford's London coffee house,
with which it had to compete in its early
days.

The City tavern was patterned after the
best London coffee houses; and when

opened, it was looked upon as the finest
and largest of its kind in America. It was
three stories high, built of brick, and had
several large club rooms, two of which were
connected by a wide doorway that, when
open, made a large dining room fifty feet
long.

Daniel Smith was the first proprietor,
and he opened it to the public early in 1774.
Before the Revolution, Smith had a hard
struggle trying to win' patronage from
Bradford's London coffee house, standing
only a few blocks away. But during and
after the war, the City tavern gradually
took the lead, and for more than a quar-
ter of a century was the principal gather-
ing place of the city. At first, the house
had various names in the public mind, some
calling it by its proper title, the City tav-
ern, other attaching the name of the pro-
prietor and designating it as Smith's tav-
ern, while still others used the title, the
New tavern.

The gentlefolk of the city resorted to
the City tavern after the Revolution as
they had to Bradford's coffee house before.
However, before reaching this high estate,
it once was near destruction at the hands
of the Tories, who threatened to tear it

180

ALL ABOUT COFFEE

down. That was when it was proposed to
hold a banquet there in honor of Mrs.
George Washington, who had stopped in
the city in 1776 while on the way to meet
her distinguished husband, then at Cam-
bridge in Massachusetts, taking over com-
mand of the American army. Trouble was
averted by Mrs. Washington tactfully de-
clining to appear at the tavern.

After peace came, the house was the
scene of many of the fashionable enter-
tainments of the period. Here met the
City Dancing Assembly, and here was held
the brilliant fete given by M. Gerard, first
accredited representative from France to
the United States, in honor of Louis XVI 's
birthday. Washington, Jefferson, Hamil-
ton, and other leaders of public thought
were more or less frequent visitors when
in Philadelphia.

The exact date when the City tavern be-
came the Merchants coffee house is un-
known. When James Kitchen became pro-
prietor, at the beginning of the nineteenth

century, it was so called. In 1806 Kitchen
turned the house into a bourse, or mercan-
tile exchange. By that time clubs and
hotels had come into fashion, and the cof-
fee-house idea was losing caste with the
elite of the city.

In the year 1806 William Renshaw
planned to open the Exchange coffee house
in the Bingham mansion on Third Street.
He even solicited subscriptions to the enter-
prise, saying that he proposed to keep a
marine diary and a registry of vessels for
sale, to receive and to forward ships' letter
bags, and to have accommodations for hold-
ing auctions. But he was persuaded from
the idea, partly by the fact that the Mer-
chants coffee house seemed to be satisfac-
torily filling that particular niche in the
city life, and partly because the hotel
business offered better inducements. He
abandoned the plan, and opened the Man-
sion House hotel in the Bingham residence
in 1807.

Exchange Coffee House Scene in "Hamilton"

In this setting for the first act of the play by Mary P. Hamlin and George Arliss, produced in 1918,
the scenic artist aimed to give a true historical Background, and combined the features of several
inns and coffee houses in Philadelphia, Virginia, and New England as they existed in Washington's
first administration

Chapter XV
HE BOTANY OF THE COFFEE PLANT

Its complete classification hy class, sub-class, order, family, genus,
and species — How the Coffea arahica groivs, flowers, and hears —
Other species and hybrids described — Natural caffein-free coffee —
Fungoid diseases of coffee

THE coffee tree, scientifically known
as Coffea arahica, is native to Abys-
sinia and Ethiopia, but grows well in
Java, Sumatra, and other islands of the
Dutch East Indies; in India, Arabia, equa-
torial Africa, the islands of the Pacific,
in Mexico, Central and South America, and
the AVest Indies. The plant belongs to the
large sub-kingdom of plants known scien-
tifically as the Angiosperms, or Angio-
spermcE, which means that the plant re-
produces by seeds which are enclosed in a
box-like compartment, known as the ovary,
at the base of the flower. The word Angio-
sperm is derived from two Greek words,
sperma, a seed, and aggeion, pronounced
angeion, a box, the box referred to being
the ovary.

This large sub-kingdom is subdivided in-
to two classes. The basis for this division
is the number of leaves in the little plant
which develops from the seed. The coffee
plant, as it develops from the seed, has two
little leaves, and therefore belongs to the
class Dicotyledonece. This word dicotyle-
donece is made up of the two Greek words,
di{s), two, and kotyledon, cavity or socket.
It is not necessary to see the young plant
that develops from the seed in order to
know that it had two seed leaves; because
the mature plant always shows certain
characteristics that accompany this condi-
tion of the seed.

In every plant having two seed leaves,
the mature leaves are netted-veined, which
is a condition easily recognized even by the
layman; also the parts of the flowers are

in circles containing two or five parts, but
never in threes or sixes. The stems of
plants of this class always increase in thick-
ness by means of a layer of cells known as
a cambium, which is a tissue that continues
to divide throughout its whole existence.
The fact that this cambium divides as long
as it lives, gives rise to a peculiar appear-
ance in woody stems by which we can, on
looking at the stem of a tree of this type
when it has been sawed across, tell the age
of the tree.

In the spring the cambium produces
large open cells through which large
quantities of sap can run ; in the fall
it produces very thick-walled cells, as there
is not so much sap to be carried. Because
these thin-walled open cells of one spring
are next to the thick-walled cells of the last
autumn, it is very easy to distinguish one
year's growth from the next; the marks so
produced are called annual rings.

We have now classified coffee as far as
the class; and so far we could go if w'e
had only the leaves and stem of the coffee
plant. In order to proceed farther, we
must have the flow^ers of the plant, as bo-
tanical classification goes from this point
on the basis of the flowers. The class
Dicotyledonecu is separated into sub-classes
according to whether the flower's corolla
(the showy part of the flower which ordi-
narily gives it its color) is all in one piece,
or is divided into a number of parts. The
coffee flower is arranged with its corolla
all in one piece, forming a tube-shaped ar-
rangement, and accordingly the coffee plant

131

132

ALL ABOUT COFFEE

The Coffee Tree, Showing Details of Flowers axd Fruit
From a drawing by Ch. Emonts in Jardin's Le Cafcier et Le Cafe

belongs to the sub-class Sympetalce, or
MetachlamydecE , which means that its pet-
als are united.

The next step in classification is to place
the plant in the proper division under the
sub-class, which is the order. Plants are
separated into orders according to their
varied characteristics. The coffee plant be-
longs to an order known as Buhiales. These
orders are again divided into families. Cof-
fee' is placed in the family Buhiacece, or
Madder Family, in which we find herbs,
shrubs or trees, represented by a few Amer-
ican plants, such as bluets, or Quaker
ladies, small blue spring flowers, common
to open meadows in northern United States ;
and partridge berries {Mitchella repens).

The Madder Family has more foreign
representatives than native genera, among
which are Coffea, Cinchona, and Ipecac-
uanha {Uragoga), all of which are of eco-
nomic importance. The members of this
family are noted for their action on the
nervous system. Coffee, as is well known,
contains an active principle known as
caffein which acts as a stimulant to the
nervous system and in small quantities is
very beneficial. Cinchona supplies us with
quinine, while Ipecacuanha produces ipe-
cac, which is an emetic and purgative.

The families are divided into smaller sec-
tions known as genera, and to the genus

Coffea belongs the coffee plant. Under this
genus Coffea are several sub-genera, and to
the sub-genus Eucoffea belongs our common
coffee, Coffea arabica. Coffea arahica is
the original or common Java coffee of com-
merce. The term "common" coffee may
seem unnecessary, but there are many other
species of coffee besides arahica. These
species have not been described very fre-
quently; because their native haunts are
the tropics, and the tropics do not always
offer favorable conditions for the study of
their plants.

All botanists do not agree in their classi-
fication of the species and varieties of the
coffea genus. M. E. de Wildman, curator
of the royal botanical gardens at Brussels,
in his Les Plantes Tropicales de Grande
Cidture, says the systematic division of
this interesting genus is far from finished;
in fact, it may be said hardly to be begun.

Coffea arahica we know best because of
the important role it plays in commerce.

Complete Classification of Coffee

Kingdom Vegetable

Sub-Kiiigdom Angiospermce

Class DicotyledonecB

Sub-class Sympetalce or Metaclilamydew

Order Ruhiales

Family RuMacece

Genus Coffea

Sub-genus Eucoffea

Species C. araiica

BOTANY OF COFFEE

138

CH .E/v\OMT

Details of the Germination of the Coffee Plant
From a drawing by Ch. Emonts in Jardin's Le Cafeier et Le Cafe

The coffee plant most cultivated for its
berries is, as already stated, Coffea arabica,
which is found in tropical regions, although
it can grow in temperate climates. Unlike
most plants that grow best in the tropics,
it can stand low temperatures. It requires
shade when it grows in hot, low-lying dis-
tricts; but when it grows on elevated land,
it thrives without such protection. Free-
man' says there are about eight recognized
species of coffea.

Coffea Arabica

Coffea arabica is a shrub with evergreen
leaves, and reaches a height of fourteen
to twenty feet when fully grown. The
shrub produces dimorphic branches, i. e.,
branches of two forms, known as uprights
and laterals. When young, the plants have
a main stem, the upright, which, however,
eventually sends out side shoots, the later-
als. The laterals may send out other later-
als, known as secondary laterals; but no
lateral can ever produce an upright. The
laterals are produced in pairs and are op-
posite, the pairs being borne in whorls
around the stem. The laterals are pro-
duced only while the joint of the upright,
to which they are attached, is young; and
if they are broken off at that point, the

1 Freeman, W. G. The World's Commercial Prod-
ucts. Boston, (p. 170.)

upright has no power to reproduce them.
The upright can produce new uprights
also; but if an upright is cut off, the later-
als at that position tend to thicken up.
This is very desirable, as the laterals pro-
duce the flowers, which seldom appear on
the uprights. This fact is utilized in prun-
ing the coffee tree, the uprights being cut
back, the laterals then becoming more pro-
ductive. Planters generally keep their
trees pruned down to about six feet.

The leaves are lanceolate, or lance-shaped,
being borne in pairs opposite each other.
They are three to six inches in length, with
an acuminate apex, somewhat attenuate at
the base, with very short petioles which are
united with the short interpetiolar stipules
at the base. The coffee leaves are thin, but
of firm texture, slightly coriaceous. They
are very dark green on the upper surface,
but much lighter underneath. The margin
of the leaf is entire and wavy. In some
tropical countries the natives brew a coffee
tea from the leaves of the coffee tree.

The coft'ee flowers are small, white, and
very fragrant, having a delicate character-
istic odor. They are borne in the axils of
the leaves in clusters, and several crops are
produced in one season, depending on the
conditions of heat and moisture that pre-
vail in the particular season. The diffor-
ent blossomings are classed as main blossom-

134

ALL ABOUT COFFEE

P5
o

I— I

BOTANY OF COFFEE

185

ing and smaller blossomings. In semi-dry
high districts, as in Costa Rica or Guate-
mala, there is one blossoming season, about
March, and flowers and fruit are not found
together, as a rule, on the trees. But in
lowland plantations where rain is peren-
nial, blooming and fruiting continue prac-
tically all the year; and ripe fruits, green
fruits, open flowers, and flower buds are to
be found at the same time on the same
branchlet. not mixed together, but in the
order indicated.

The flowers are also tubular, the tube of
le corolla dividing into five white seg-

m. '''-ni^B-'A.

C<^^^^r:^

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-^i^ngKil^

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COFFEA ARABICA I'ORTO KiCO

ments. Dr. P. J. S. Cramer, chief of the
division of plant breeding. Department of
Agriculture, Netherlands India, says the
number of petals is not at all constant, not
even for flowers of the same tree. The
corolla segments are about one-half inch
in length, while the tube itself is about
three-eighths of an inch long. The anthers
of the stamens, which are five in number,
protrude from the top of the corolla tube,
together with the top of the two-cleft pistil.
The calyx, which is so small as to escape
notice unless one is aware of its existence,
is annular, with small, tooth-like indenta-
tions.

While the usual color of the coffee flower
is white, the fresh stamens and pistils may
have a greenish tinge, and in some culti-
vated species the corolla is pale pink.

The size and condition of the flowers are
entirely dependent on the weather. The
flowers are sometimes very small, very fra-
grant, and very numerous; while at other
times, when the weather is not hot and dry,
they are very large, but not so numerous.
Both sets of flowers mentioned above "set

fruit," as it is called; but at times, espe-
cially in a very dry season, they bear
flowers that are few in number, small, and
imperfectly formed, the petals frequently
being green instead of white. These flowers
do not set fruit. The flowers that open on
a dry sunny day show a greater yield of
fruit than those that open on a wet day, as
the first mentioned have a better chance
of being pollinated by the insects and the
wind. The beauty of a coffee estate in
flower is of a very fleeting character. One
day it is a snowy expanse of fragrant white
blossoms for miles and miles, as far as the
eye can see, and two days later it reminds
one of the lines from Villon's Des Dames
du Temps Jadis,

Where are the snows of yesterday?

The winter winds have blown them all away.

But here, the winter winds are not to
blame : the soft, gentle breezes of the per-

CoFFEA Ababica, Flower axu Fruit — Costa
Rka

petual summer have wrought the havoc,
leaving, however, a not unpleasing picture
of dark, cool, mossy green foliage.

The flowers are beautiful, but the eye of
the planter sees in them not alone beauty
and fragrance. He looks far beyond, and
in his mind's eye he sees bags and bags

186

ALL ABOUT COFFEE

Young Coffea Arabica Tkee at Kona, Hawaii

of green coffee, representing to him the
goal and reward of all his toil. After the
flowers droop, there appear what are com-
mercially known as the coffee berries. Bo-
tanically speaking, "berry" is a misnomer.
These little fruits are not berries, such as
are well represented by the grape ; but are
drupes, which are better exemplified by the
cherry and the peach. In the course of
six or seven months, these coffee drupes
develop into little red balls about the size
of an ordinary cherry; but, instead of
being round, they are somewhat ellipsoidal,
having at the outer end a small umbilicus.
The drupe of the coffee usually has two
loeules, each containing a little "stone"
(the seed and its parchment covering) from
which the coffee bean (seed) is obtained.
Some few drupes contain three, while
others, at the outer ends of the branches,
contain only one round bean, known as
the peaberry. The number of pickings
corresponds to the different blossomings
in the same season ; and one tree of the
species arabica may yield from one to
twelve pounds a year.

In countries like India and Africa, the
birds and monkeys eat the ripe coffee ber-
ries. The so-called "monkey coffee" of

India, according to Arnold, is the undi-
gested coffee beans passed through the ali-
mentary canal of the animal.

The pulp surrounding the coffee beans
is at present of no commercial importance.
Although efforts have been made at various
times by natives to use it as a food, its
flavor has not gained any great popularity,
and the birds are permitted a monopoly of
the pulp as a food. From the human
standpoint the pulp, or sarcocarp, as it is
scientifically called, is rather an annoyance,
as it must be removed in order to procure
the beans. This is done in one of two
ways. The first is known as the dry meth-
od, in which the entire fruit is allowed to
dry, and is then cracked open. The sec-
ond way is called the wet method; the
sarcocarp is removed by machine, and two
wet, slimy seed packets are obtained. These
packets, which look for all the world like
seeds, are allowed to dry in such a way that
fermentation takes place. This rids them
of all the slime; and, after they are thor-
oughly dry, the endocarp, the so-called
parchment covering, is easily cracked open
and removed. At the same time that the
parchment is removed, a thin silvery mem-
brane, the silver skin, beneath the parch-
ment, comes off, too. There are always

Survivors of the First Liberian Cofbee Trees
Introduced into Java in 1876

BOTANY OF COFFEE

137

^^■K'^^^'S

■jjjj

^^^^^^J^^^^^^H

Pf '^"t^^^^B

P^pr ^^^^1

j^B

BBS

^^^^^^t^w^^^B*^

^^^^^^^Hk^^S^B^ ^

COFFEA ARABICA IN FLOWER ON A JA\' A ESTATE

From a photograph made at I>ramaga, Preanger, Java, in 1907

138

ALL ABOUT COFFEE

LiBERiAX Coffee Tree at Lamoa, P. I.

small fragments of this silver skin to be
found in the groove of the coffee bean con-
tained within the parchment packet,
r We have said that the coffee tree yields
from one to twelve pounds a year, but of
course this varies with the individual tree
and also with the region. In some coun-
tries the whole year's yield is less than 200
pounds per acre, while there is on record
a patch in Brazil which yields about seven-
teen pounds to the tree, bringing the yield
per acre much higher.

The beans do not retain their vitality for
planting for any considerable length of
time; and, if they are thoroughly dried, or
are kept for longer than three or four
months, they are useless for that purpose.
It takes the seed about six weeks to ger-
minate and to appear above ground. Trees
raised from seed begin to blossom in about
three years ; but a good crop can not be ex-
pected of them for the first five or six
years. Their usefulness, save in excep-
tional cases, is ended in about thirty years.
The coffee tree can be propagated in a
way other than by seeds. The upright
branches can be used as slips, which, after
taking root, will produce seed-bearing lat-
erals. The laterals themselves can not be
used as slips. In Central America the na-
tives sometimes use coffee uprights for

fences and it is no uncommon sight to see
the fence posts "growing."

The wood of the coffee tree is used also
for cabinet work,- as it is much stronger
than many of the native woods, weighing
about forty-three pounds to the cubic foot,
having a crushing strength of 5,800 pounds
per square inch, and a breaking strength of
10,900 pounds per square inch.

The propagation of the coffee plant by
cutting has two distinct advantages over
propagation by seed, in that it spares the
expense of seed production, which is enor-
mous, and it gives also a method of hybrid-
ization, which, if used, might lead not only
to very interesting but also to very profit-
able results.

The hybridization of the coffee plant was
taken up in a thoroughly scientific manner
by the Dutch government at the experi-
mental garden established at Bangelan,
Java, in 1900. In his studies, twelve va-
rieties of Coffea arabica are recognized by
Dr. P. J. S. Cramer, namely :

Laurina, a hybrid of Coffea arahica with C.
mauritiana, having small narrow leaves, stiff,
dense branches, young leaves almost wliite, berry
long and narrow, and beans narrow and oblong.

Mnrta, having small leaves, dense branches,
beans as in the typical Coffea arabica, and the
plant able to stand bitter cold.

Menosperma, a distinct type, with narrow
leaves and bent-down branches resembling a

2 Tea and Coffee Trade Jour., 1018.
no. 4 )

(vol. XXXV :

Two-and-One-Half-Yeab-Old C. Congensis

BOTANY OF COFFEE

139

A HEAVY FLOWERING OF FIVE-YEAR-OLD COFFEA EXCELSA

This Is a comparatively new species, discovered in the Tcliad T>ake district of West Africa in 190r».

a small-beaned variety of Coffca liberica

It is

140

ALL ABOUT COFFEE

JBbanches of Cofpea Excels a Grown at the
Lamao Experiment Station, P. I.

willow, the berries seldom containing more tlian
one seed.

Mohka (Coffea MokkcB), having small leaves,
dense foliage, small round berries, small round
beans resembling split peas, and possessed of a
stronger flavor than Coffea arabica.

Purpurescens, a red-leaved variety, compar-
able with the red-leaved hazel and copper beech,
a little less productive than the Coffea arahka.

Variegata, having variegated leaves striped
and spotted with white.

Amarella, having yellow berries, comparable
with the white-fruited variety of the strawberry,
raspberry, etc.

Bullata, having broad, curled leaves ; stiflf,
thick, fragile branches, and round, fleshy ber-
ries containing a high percentage of empry
beans.

Angustifolia, a narrow-leaved variety, with
berries somewhat more oblong and, like the
foregoing, a poor producer.

Erecta, a variety that is sturdier than the
typical arabica, better suited to windy places,
and having a production as in the common
arabica.

Maragogipe, a well-defined variety with light
green leaves having colored edges; berries large,
broad, sometimes narrower in the middle ; a

C. Stenopiiylla, From Which Is Obtained the
Highland Coffee of Sierra Leone

light bearer, the whole crop sometimes being
reduced to a couple of berries per tree.'

Columruvris, a vigorous variety, sometimes
reaching a height of 25 feet, having leaves
rounded at the base and rather broad, but a
shy bearer, recommended for dry climates.

Coffea Stenophylla

Coffea arabica has a formidable rival in
the species stenophylla. The flavor of this
variety is pronounced by some as surpass-
ing that of arabica. The great disadvan-
tage of this plant is the fact that it re-
quires so long a time before a yield of any
value can be secured. Although the time
required for the maturing of the crop is
so long, when once the plantation begins
to yield, the crop is as large as that of
Coffea arahica, and occasionally somewhat
larger. The leaves are smaller than any
of the species described, and the flowers
bear their parts in numbers varying from
six to nine. The tree is a native of Sierra
Leone, where it grows wild.

Coffea Lib erica

The bean of Coffea arabica, although the
principal bean used in commerce, is not the

^ Dr. Cramer considers C. Maragogipe "the flnrst
coffee known ; it lias a higlily developed, splendid
flavor."

BOTANY OF COFFEE

NEAR VIEW OF COFFEE BERRIES OF COFFEA ARABICA

142

ALL ABOUT COFFEE

Wild "Caffein-Free"' Coffee Tree
Mantsa'ka or Cafe Sauvofje — Madagascar

only one ; and it may not be out of place
here to describe briefly some of the other
varieties that are produced commercially.
Coffea liberica is one of these plants. The
quality of the beverage made from its ber-
ries is inferior to that of Coffea arahica,
but the plant itself offers distinct advan-
tages in its hardy growing qualities. This
makes it attractive for hybridization.

The Coffea liberica tree is much larger
and sturdier than the Coffea arahica', and
in its native haunts it reaches a height of
30 feet. It will grow in a much more tor-
rid climate and can stand exposure to
strong sunlight. The leaves are about twice
as long as those of arahica, being six to
twelve inches in length, and are very thick,
tough, and leathery. The apex of the
leaf is acute. The flowers are larger than
those of arahica, and are borne in dense

clusters. At any time during the season,
the same tree may bear flowers, white or
pinkish, and fragrant, or even green, to-
gether with fruits, some green, some ripe
and of a brilliant red. The corolla has
been known to have seven segments, though
as a rule it has five. The fruits are large,
round, and dull red; the pulps are not
juicy, and are somewhat bitter. Unlike
Coffea arahica, the ripened drupes do not
fall from the trees, and so the picking can
be delayed at the planter's convenience.

Among the allied Liberian species Dr
Cramer recognizes:

Abeokutae, having small leaves of a bright
green, flower buds often pink just before open-
ing (in Liberian coffee never), fruit smaller
with sharply striped red and yellow shiny skin,
and producing somewhat smaller beans than
Liberian coffee, but beans whose flavor and
taste are praised by brokers ;

Deivevrei. having curled edged leaves, stiff
branches, thick-skinned berries, sometimes pink
flowers, beans generally smaller than in C.
liberica, but of little interest to the trade :

Arnoldiana, a species near to Coffea Abeoku-
tae having darker foliage and the even colored
small berries :

Laurentii Gillet, a species not to be confused
with the V. Laurentii belonging to the robusta
coffee, but standing near to C. liberica, charac-
terized by oblong rather than thin-skinned ber-
ries ;

Excelsa, a vigorous, disease-resisting species
discovered in 1905 by Aug. Chevalier in West

Differentiating Characteristics of Coffee

Beans, in Cross-section

Col. I. Mature bean. Col. II. Embryo.

A. Gojfea arabica, R. Coffea rohusta, L. Coffea liberica

BOTANY OF COFFEE

143

144

ALL ABOUT COFFEE

Africa, in the region of tlie Chari River, not far
from Lake Tchad. The broad, dark-green leaves
have an under side of liglit green witli a bluish
tinge ; the flowers are large and white, borne in
axillary clusters of one to five ; the berries are
short and broad, in color crimson, the bean
smaller than rohusta, very like Mocha, but in
color a bright yellow like Uberica. The caffein
content of the coffee is high, and the aroma is
very pronounced ;

Dyboicskii, another disease-resisting variety
similar to excelsa, but having different leaf and
fruit characteristics ;

LanibOray, having bent gutter-like leaves, and
soft-skinned, oblong fruit ;

Wanni Riikula, having large leaves, a vigorous
growth, and small berries ;

Coffca arutmmensis, being a mixture of dif-
ferent types.

The last three types were received by Dr.
Cramer at Bangelan from Frere Gillet in
the Belgian Congo, and were still under
trial in Java in 1919.

Coffea Rohusta

Emil Laurent, in 1898, discovered a spe-
cies of coffee growing wild in Congo. This
was taken up by a horticultural firm of
Brussels, and cultivated for the market.
This firm gave to the coffee the name Coffea

rohusta, although it had already been given
the name of the discoverer, being known as
Coffea Laurentii. The plant diifers widely
from both arahica and liherica, being con-
siderably larger than either. The tree is
umbrella-shaped, due to the fact that its
branches are very long and bend toward
the ground.

The leaves of rohusta are much thinner
than those of liherica, though not as thin
as those of arahica. The tree, as a whole,
is a very hardy variety and even bears
blossoms when it is less than a year old.
It blossoms throughout the entire year, the
flowers having six-parted corollas. The
drupes are smaller than those of liherica;
but are much thinner skinned, so that the
coffee bean is actually not any smaller.
The drupes mature in ten months. Al-
though the plants bear as early as the first
year, the yield for the first two years is of
no account; but by the fourth year the
crop is large.

Amo Viehoever, pharmacognosist in
charge of the pharmacognosy laboratory of
the Bureau of Chemistry, United States
Department of Agriculture, has recently

RogusTA Coffee in Flower, Preangeb, Java

ALL ABOUT COFFEE

Coffee Estate in the Luquillo Mountains, Porto Rico

Jai'anksi: i,Ai!t)i!i:i:s I'UKi.Nd Coffee on Kona rSiiiE, Island of Hawaii

COFFEE UNDER THE STABS AND STRIPES

BOTANY OF COFFEE

145

One-Ykau-Ulu Kuhusta Estate, on Sumatra's West Coast

announced findings confirming Hartwich
which appear to permit of differentiation
between rohusta, arabica, and liherica*
These are mainly the peculiar folding of
the endosperm, showing quite generally a
distinct hook in the case of the rohusta cof-
fee bean. The size of the embryo, and es-
pecially the relation of the rootlet to hy-
pereotyl, wall be found useful in the dif-
ferentiation of the species Coffea arabica,
liherica, and rohusta (see cut, page 142).

Viehoever and Lepper carried on a series
•of cup tests of rohusta, the results as to
taste and flavor being distinctly favorable.*
They summarized their studies and tests
as follows:

The time when coffee could be limited to
beans obtained from plants of Coffea arabica
and Coffea Uberica has passed. Other species,
with qualities which make them desirable, even
in preference to the well reputed named ones,
have been discovered and cultivated. Among
them, the species or group of Coffea rohusta has
attained a great economic significance, and is
grown in increasing amounts. While it has, as
reports seem to indicate, not as yet been pos-
sible to obtain a strain that would be as de-
sirable in flavor as the old "standard" Coffea

*,Ioumnl of the A^nnciation of Official Agricultural
Chemists, ><ov. 15, 1921. (vol. v : no. 2 : pp. 274 -

•2S8.)

arabica, well known as Java or "Fancy Jav&"
coffee, its merits have been established.

The botanical origin is not quite cleared up,
and the classification of the varieties belonging
to the rohusta group deserves further study.
Anatomical means of differentiating rohusta
coft'ee from other species or groups, may be ap-
plied as distinctly helpful. ,

As is usual in most of the coffee species, caf-
fein is present. The amount appears to be, on
an average, somewhat larger (even exceeding
2.0 percent) than in the South American cof-
fee species. In no instance, however, did the
amount exceed the maximum limits observed in
coffee in general. .

Due to its rapid growth, early and prolific
yield, resistance to coffee blight, and many other
desirable qualities, Coffea rohusta has estab-
lished "its own". In the writers' judgment,
rohusta coffee deserves consideration and rec-
ognition.

Among the rohusta varieties, Coifea cane-
pJiora is a distinct species, well character-
ized by growth, leaves, and berries. The
branches are slender and thinner than
rohusta; the leaves are dark green and
narrower ; the flowers are often tinged with
red ; the unripe berries are purple, the ripe
berries bright red and oblong. The produce
is like rohusta, only the shape of the bean,
somewhat narrower and more oblong, makes
it look more attractive. Coffea canephora,

146

ALL ABOUT COFFEE

like C. robusta, seems better fitted to higher
altitudes.

Other canephora varieties include :

Madagascar, having small, slightly-
striped, bright red berries and small round
beans ;

Quilloucnsis, having dark green foliage
and reddish brown young leaves; and,

Stenophylla Paris, with purplish young
berries.

These last two named were under test at
the Bangelan gardens in 1919.

Among other allied rohusta species are:

Vgandce, whose produce is said to pos-
sess a better flavor than rohusta;

Bukobensis, different from Vgandce in
the color of its berries, which are a dark
red; and

Quillou, having bright red fruit, a cop-
per-colored silver skin, three pounds of
fruit producing one pound of market coffee.
Some people prefer Quillou to robusta be-
cause of the difference in the taste of the
roasted bean.

Some Interesting Hybrids

. The most popular hybrid belongs to a
crossing of liberica and arabica. Cramer
states that the beans of this hybrid make
an excellent coffee combining the strong

taste of the liberica with the fine flavor of
the old Government Java (arabica), adding:

The hybrids are not only of value to the
roaster, but also to the planter. They are vig-
orous trees, pi-actically free from leaf disease ;
they stand drought well and also heavy rains ;
they are not particular in regard to shade and
upkeep; never fail to give a fair and often a
rather heavy crop. The fruit ripens all the
year around, and does not fall so easily as in
the case of arabica.

Among other hybrids (many were still
under trial in 1919) may be mentioned:
Coffea excelsia x liberica; C. Abeokuta; x
liberica; C. Dybowskii x excelsa; C. steno-
phylla X Abeokutce; C. congensis x
Ugandce; C. Uganda; x congensis; and C.
robusta x Maragogipe.

There are many species of Coffea that
stand quite apart from the main groups,
arabica, robusta and liberica; but while
some are of commercial value, most of them
are interesting only from the scientific point
of view. Among the latter may be men-
tioned: Coffea bengalensis, C. Perieri, C.
mauritiana, C. macrocarpa, C. madagas-
cariensis, and C. schumanniana.

M. Teyssonnier, of the experimental gar-
den at Camayenne, French Guinea, West
Africa, has produced a promising species of
coffee known as affinis. It is a hybrid of
C. stenophylla with a species of liberica.

Coffea Quillou Flowers in Full Bloom

^Kd by Dr. Cramer are :

Coffea congensis, whose berry resembles
that of C. arahica, when well prepared for
the market being green or bluish ; and

Coffea congensis var. Chalotii, probably
a hybrid of C. congensis with C. canephora.

Caffein-free Coffee

Certain trees growing wild in the Comoro
Islands and Madagascar are known as
caffein-free coffee trees. Just whether they
are entitled to this classification or not is a
question. Some of the French and Ger-
man investigators have reported coffee from
these regions that was absolutely devoid of
caffein. It w^as thought at first that they
must represent an entirely new genus ; but
upon investigation, it was found that they
belonged to the genus Coffea, to which all
our common coffees belong. Professor
Dubard, of the French National Museum
and Colonial Garden, studied these trees
botanically and classified them as C. Gal-
lienii, C. Bonnieri, C. Mogeneti, and C.
Aiigag)tcuri. The beans of berries from
these trees were analyzed by Professor
Bertrand and pronounced caffein-free ; but
Labroy, in writing of the same coffee, states
that, while the bean is caffein-free, it con-
tains a very bitter substance, cafamarine.

BOTANY OF COFFEE

147

which makes the infusion unfit for use.
Dr. O. W. Willcox", in examining some
specimens of wild coffee from Madagascar,
found that the bean was not caffein-free;
and though the caffein content was low, it
was no lower than in some of the Porto
Rican varieties.

Hartwich' reports that Hanausek found
no caffein in C. mauritiana, C. humboltiana,
C. Gallienii, C. Bonnerii, and C. Mogeneti.

Fungoid Disease of Coffee

The coffee tree, like every other living
thing, has specific diseases and enemies, the
most common of which are certain fungoid
diseases where the mycelium of the fungus
grows into the tissue and spots the leaves,
eventually -causing them to fall, thus rob-
bing the plant of its only means of elabor-
ating food. Its most deadly enemy in the
insect world is a small insect of the lepidop-
terous variety, which is known as the coffee-
leaf miner. It is closely related to the
clothes moth and, like the moth, bores in its
larval stage, feeding on the mesophyl of
the leaves. This gives the leaves an appear-
ance of being shriveled or dried by heat.

There are three principal diseases, due
to fungi, from which the coffee plants

^The Tea and Cotfee Trade Jour., 1912. (vol. xxiii :
no. 3.)

'Die Menachlichen Oenusmittel, 1911. (p. 300.)

An Eighteen-Months'-Old Coffea Quiulou Tree in Blossom

148

ALL ABOUT COFFEE

suffer. The most common is known as the
leaf-blight fungus, Pellicularia tokeroga,
which is a slow-spreading disease, but one
that causes great loss. Although the fungus
does not produce spores, the leaves die and
dry, and are blown away, carrying with
them the dried mycelium of the fungus.
This mycelium will start to grow as soon
as it is supplied with a new moist coffee
leaf to nourish it. The method of getting
rid of this disease is to spray the trees in
seasons of drought.

It was a fungoid disease known as the
Hemileia vastatrix that attacked Ceylon's
coffee industry in 1869, and eventually
destroyed it. It is a microscopic fungus

whose spores, carried by the wind, adhere
to and germinate upon the leaves of the
coffee tree'.

Another common disease is known as the
root disease, which eventually kills the tree
by girdling it below the soil. It spreads
slowly, but seems to be favored by collec-
tions of decaying matter around the base
of the tree. Sometimes the digging of
ditches around the roots is sufficient to
protect it. The other common disease is
due to Stilhium flavidum, and is found only
in regions of great humidity. It affects
both the leaf and the fruit and is known
as the spot of leaf and fruit.

' See chapter XVI.

CoFFEA Uganda Bent Over by a Heavy Crop

Chapter XVI

HE MICROSCOPY OF THE COFFEE FRUIT

How the beans may be examined under the microscope, and what is
revealed — Structure of the berry, the green, and the roasted bean —
The coffee leaf disease under the microscope — Value of microscopic
analysis in detecting adulteration

THE microscopy of coffee is, on the
whole, more important to the planter
than to the consumer and the dealer ;
while, on the other hand, the microscopy is
of paramount importance to the consumer
and the dealer as furnishing the best means
of determining whether the product offered
is adulterated or not. Also, from this

spherical ; in the rare instances where three
seeds are found, the grains are angular.

The coffee bean with which the consumer
is familiar is only a small part of the fruit.
The fruit, which is the size of a small
cherry, has, like the cherry, an outer fleshy
portion called the pericarp. Beneath this is
a part like tissue paper, spoken of technic-

I 11

Fig. 331. Coffee (Coffea arahica). I — Cross-section of berry, natural size; Pk, outer pericarp;
Mk, endocarp ; Ek, spermoderm ; 8a, liard endosperm ; 8p, soft endosperm. II — Longitudinal
section of berry, natural size ; Dis, bordered disk ; 8e, remains of sepals ; Em, embryo. Ill-
Embryo, enlarged; cot, cotyledon; rad, radicle. (Tschircli and Oesterle.)

standpoint, the microscopy of the plant is
less important than that of the bean.

The Fruit and the Bean

The fruit, as stated in chapter XV, con-
sists of two parts, each one containing a
single seed, or bean. These beans are flat-
tened laterally, so as to fit together, except
in the following instances : in the peaberry,
where one of the ovules never develops, the
single ovule, having no pressure upon it, is

ally as the parchment, but known scientific-
ally as the endocarp. Next in position to
this, and covering the seed, is the so-called
spermoderm, which means the seed skin,
referred to in the trade as the silver skin.
Small portions of this silver skin are always
to be found in the cleft of the coffee bean.
The coffee bean is the embryo and its
food supply ; the embryo is that part of the
seed which, when supplied with food and
moisture, develops into a new plant. The

149

150

ALL ABOUT COFFEE

embryo of the coffee is very minute (Fig.
331, II, Em) '; and the greater part of the
seed is taken up by the food supply, con-

Fig. 332. Coffee. Cross section of bean
showing folded endosperm with hard
and soft tissues. x6. (Moeller)

sisting of hard and soft endosperm (Fig.
331, I and II, Sa, Sp). The minute em-
bryo consists of two small thick leaves, the
cotyledons (Fig. 331, III, cot), a short
stem, invisible in the undissected embryo,
and a small root, the radicle (Fig. 331, III,
rad).

Fruit Structure

In order to examine the structure of these
layers of the fruit under the microscope, it
is necessary to use the pericarp dry, as it
is not easily obtainable in its natural con-
dition. If desired, an alcoholic specimen
may be used, but it has been found that
the dry method gives more satisfactory re-
sults. The dried pericarp is about 0.5 mm
thick. Great difficulty is experienced in
cutting microtome sections of pericarp when
the specimen is embedded in paraffin, be-
cause the outer layers are soft and the
endocarp is hard, and the two parts of the
section separate at this point. To overcome
this, the sections might also be embedded in
celloidin. When the sections are satisfac-
tory, they may be stained with any of the
double stains ordinarily used in the study
of plant histology.

A section cut crosswise through the entire
fruit would present the appearance shown
in Fig. 333. The cells of the epicarp are

^These and all other numbered drawings in this
chapter are from Andrew L. Winton's The Microscopy
of Vegetable Foods, copyright 191G, and reprinted by
permission.

broad and polygonal, sometimes regularly
four-sided, about 15-35 fi broad. At in-
tervals along the surface of the epicarp are
stomata, or breathing pores, surrounded by
guard cells. The next layer of the pericarp
is the mesocarp (Figs. 333, 334, 335), the
cells of which are larger and more regular
in outline than the epicarp. The cells of
the mesocarp become as large as 100 fi
broad, but in the inner parts of the layer
they become very much flattened. Fibro-
vascular bundles are scattered through the
compressed cells of the mesocarp. The cell
walls are thick; and large, amorphous,
brown masses are found within the cell;
occasionally, large crystals are found in the
outer part of the layer. The fibrovascular
bundles consist mainly of bast and wood
fibers and vessels. The bast fibers are as
large as 1 mm long and 25 fi broad, with

fffb

ixpn9BSrS6a:

Fig. 333. Coffee. Cross section of hull
and bean. Pericarp consists of : 1, epi-
carp ; 2-3, layers of mesocarp, with 4,
flbro-vascular bundle ; 5, palisade layer ;
and 6, endocarp ; ss, spermoderm, con-
sists of 8, sclerenchyma, and 9, paren-
chyma ; End, endosperm (Tschirch and
Oesterle)

MICROSCOPY OF COFFEE

151

Fig. 334. Coflfee. Surface view of ep, epi-
carp, and p^ outer parenchyma of meso-
carp. xl60. (Moeller)

thick walls and very small lumina. Spiral
and pitted vessels are also present.

The layer next to this is a soft tissue,
parenchyma (Fig. 333, 5; Fig. 334, p).
The parenchyma, or palisade cells as they
are called, is a thin-walled tissue in which
the cells are elongated, from which fact
they receive their name. The walls of these
cells, though verj^ thin, are mucilaginous,
and capable of taking up large amounts of
water. They stain well with the aniline
stains.

The endocarp (Fig. 336) is closely con-
nected with the palisade layer and has thin-
walled cells that closely resemble, in all
respects, the endocarp of the apple. The
outer layer consists of thick-walled fibers,
which are remarkably porous (Fig. 333, 6;
Fig. 336) while the fibers of the inner layer
are thin-walled and run in the transverse
direction.

The Bean Structure

Spermoderm, or silver skin, is not diffi-
cult to secure for microscopic analysis ; be-
cause shreds of it remain in the groove of
the berry, and these shreds are ample for
examination. It can readily be removed
without tearing, if soaked in water for a
few hours. The spermoderm is thin enough
not to need sectioning. It consists of two
elements — sclerenchyma and parenchyma
cells. (Figs. 333, 337, st,p).

Sclerenchyma forms an uninterrupted
covering in the early stages of the seed ; but

Fig. 335. Coffee. Elements of pericarp in
surface view. p, parencliyma ; Itp,
parencliyma of fibro-vascular bundle ;
ft, bast fiber ; sp, spiral vessel. xl60.
(Moeller)

as the seed develops, surrounding tissues
grow more rapidly than the sclerenchyma,
and the cells are pushed apart and scattered.
The cells occurring in the cleft of the berry
are straight, narrow, and long, becoming as
long as 1 mm, and resemble bast fibers
somewhat. On the surface of the berry,
and sometimes in the cleft, there are found
smaller, thicker cells, which are irregular
in outline, club-shaped and vermiform
types predominating.

Parenchyma cells form the remainder of
the spermoderm; and these are partially
obliterated, so that the structure is not
easily seen, appearing almost like a solid
membrane. The raphe runs through the
parenchyma found in the cleft of the berry.

The endosperm (Figs. 333; 338) consist
of small cells in the outer part, and large
cells, frequently as thick as 100 /x, in the
inner part. The cell walls are thickened
and knotted. Certain of the inner cells
have mucilaginous walls which when treated
with water disappear, leaving only the
middle lamellae, which gives the section a
peculiar appearance. The cells contain no
starch, the reserve food supply being
stored cellulose, protein, and aleurone
grains. Various investigators report the
presence of sugar, tannin, iron, salts, and
caffein.

The embryo (Fig. 331, III) may be ob-
tained by soaking the bean in water for
several hours, cutting through the cleft and
carefully breaking apart the endosperm. If

152

ALL ABOUT COFFEE

Fig. 336. Coffee. Sclerenchyma fibers of
endocarp. xl60. (Moeller)

it is now soaked in diluted alkali, the
embryo protrudes through the lower end of
the endosperm. It is then cleared in alkali,
or in chloral hydrate. The cotyledons
shown have three pairs of veins, which are
slightly netted. The radicle is blunt and is
about % mm in length, while the cotyledons
are ^ mm long.

The Coffee-Leaf Disease
The coffee tree has many pests and dis-
eases; but the disease most feared by
planters is that generally referred to as the
coffee-leaf disease, and by this is meant the
fungoid Hemileia vastatrix, which as told in

Fig. 338. Coffee. Cross-section of outer
layers of endosperm, shiowing knotty
thickenings of cell walls. xl60.
(Moeller)

chapter XV, destroyed Ceylon's once pros-
perous coffee industry. As it has since been
found in nearly all coffee-producing coun-
tries, it has become a nightmare in the
dreams of all coffee planters. The micro-
scope shows how the spores of this dreaded

Fig. 339. Coffee. Tis-
sues of embryo in sec-
tion. xl60. (Moeller)

Fig. 337. Coffee. Spermoderm in surface view. at.
sclerenchyma ; p, compressed parencnyma. xlOO.
(Moeller)

fungus, carried by the winds upon a leaf
of the coffee tree, proceed to germinate at
the expense of the leaf; robbing it of its
nourishment, and causing it to droop and
to die. A mixture of powdered lime and
sulphur has been found to be an effective
germicide, if used in time and diligently
applied.

Value of Microscopic Analysis

The value of the microscopic analysis of
coffee may not be apparent at first sight;
but when one realizes that in many cases
the microscopic examination is the only way
to detect adulteration in coffee, its import-
ance at once becomes apparent. In many
instances the chemical analysis fails to get
at the root of the trouble, and then the only
method to which the tester has recourse is
the examination of the suspected material
under the scope. The mixing of chicory

MICROSCOPY OF COFFEE

153

^th coffee has in the past been one of the
)mmonest forms of adulteration. The
ucroscopic examination in this connection

Roasted date stones have been used as
adulterants, and these can be detected quite
readily with the aid of the microscope, as

Coffee Leaf Disease (Hemileia vastatrix)

1, under surface of affected leaf, x % ; 2, section through same showing mycelium, haustoria.
and a spore-cluster ; 3, a spore-cluster seen from below : 4, a uredospore ; 5, germinating
uredospore ; 6, appressorial swellings at tips of germ-tubes ; 7, infection through stoma of
leaf ; 8. teleutospores ; 9, teleutospore germinating with promycelium and sporidia ; 10, spori-
dia and their germination (2 after Zimmermann, 3 after Delacroix, 4-10 after Ward)

is the most reliable. The coffee grain will
have the appearance already described.
Microscopically, chicory shows numerous
thin-w^alled parenchymatous cells, lactifer-
ous vessels, and sieve tubes with transverse
plates. There are also present large vessels
with huge, well-defined pits.

they have a very characteristic microscopic
appearance. The epidermal cells are almost
oblong, while the parenchymatous cells are
large, irregular and contain large quantities
of tannin.

Adulteration and adulterants are con-
sidered more fully in chapter XVII.

Green and Roasted Coffee Under the Microscope

Green bean, showing the size and form of the cells
as well as the drops of oil contained within their
cavities. Drawn with the camera lucida, and
magnified 140 diameters.

A fragment of roasted coffee under the niicrcscope.
Drawn with the camera lucida, and magnifled
140 diameters.

154

ALL ABOUT COFFEE

Bogota, Gkeen
Longitudinal — Magnifled 200 diameters

Bogota, Green
Cross Section — Magnified 200 diameters

Bogota, Green
Tangential — Magnified 200 diameters

Bogota, Roasted
Tangential — Magnified 200 diameters

GREEN AND ROASTED BOGOTA COFFEE UNDER THE MICROSCOPE

These pictures serve to demonstrate that the coffee bean is made up of minute cells that are
not broken down to any extent by the roasting process. Note that the oil globules are more
prominent in the green than in the roasted product

Chapter XVII

THE CHEMISTRY OF THE COFFEE BEAN

Chemistry of the preparation and treatment of the green hean —
Artificial aging — .Renovating damaged coffees — Extracts — ''Caf-
fetannic acid" — Caffein, caffein-free coffee — Caffeol — Fats and
oils — Carbohydrates — Roasting — Scientific aspects of grinding
and pacJiaging — The coffee brew — Soluble coffee — Adulterants
and substitutes — Official methods of analysis

By Charles W. Trigg

Industrial Fellow of the Mellon Institute of Industrial Research, Pittsburgh, 191G - 1920

WHEN the vast extent of the coffee
business is considered, together
with the intimate connection
which coffee has with the daily life of the
average human, the relatively small amount
of accurate knowledge which we possess re-
garding the chemical constituents and the
physiological action of coffee is productive
of amazement.

True, a painstaking compilation of all
the scientific and semi-scientific work done
upon coffee furnishes quite a compendium
of data, the value of which is not commen-
surate with its quantity, because of the
spasmodic nature of the investigations and
the non-conclusive character of the results
so far obtained. The following general sur-
vey of the field argues in favor of the pro-
mulgation of well-ordered and systematic
research, of the type now in progress at
several places in the United States, into the
chemical behavior of coffee throughout the
various processes to which it is subjected in
the course of its preparation for human
consumption.

Green Coffee

One of the few chemical investigations
of the growing tree is the examination by
Graf of flowers from 20-year-old coffee
trees, in which he found 0.9 percent caffein.

a reducing sugar, caffetannic acid, and
phytosterol. Power and Chestnut' found
0.82 percent caffein in air-dried coffee
leaves, but only 0.087 percent of the alka-
loid in the stems of the plant separated
from the leaves. In the course of a study"
instituted for the purpose of determining
the best fertilizers for coffee trees, it de-
veloped that the cherries in different stages
of growth show a preponderance of potash
throughout, w^hile the proportion of PgOg
attains a maximum in the fourth month
and then steadily declines.

Experiments are still in progress to as-
certain the precise mineral requirements
of the crop as well as the most suitable
stage at which to apply them. During the
first five months the moisture content un-
dergoes a steady decrease, from 87.13 per-
cent to 65.77 percent, but during the final
ripening stage in the last month there is a
rise of nearly 1 percent. This may ex-
plain the premature falling and failure to
ripen of the crop on certain soils, especially
in years of low rainfall. Malnutrition of
the trees may result also in the production
of oily beans.'

1 JoMr. Am. Chan. Soc, 1919 (vol. xli : p. 1306 K
- Anstead, R. D. Annals on Applied Biology, 1915

(vol. i: pp. 299-302).
* Huntington, L. M. Tea and Coffee Trade Jour.,

1917 (vol. xxxiii: p. 228).

155

156

ALL ABOUT COFFEE

The coffee berry comprises about 68 per-
cent pulp, 6 percent parchment, and 26
percent clean coffee beans. The pulp is
easily removed by mechanical means; but
in order to separate the soft, glutinous, sac-
charine parchment, it is necessary to resort
to fermentation, which loosens the skin so
that it may be removed easily, after which
the coffee is properly dried and aged.
There is first a yeast fermentation produc-
ing alcohol ; and then a bacterial action
giving mainly inactive lactic acid, which is
the main factor in loosening the parchment.
For the production of the best coffee, acetic
acid fermentation (which changes the color
of the bean) and temperature above 60°
should be avoided, as these inhibit subse-
quent enzymatic action.*

Various schemes have been proposed for
utilizing the large amount of pulp so ob-
tained in preparing coffee for market.
Most of these depend upon using the pulp
as fertilizer, since fresh pulp contains 2.61
percent nitrogen, 0.81 percent PaO.,, 2.38
percent potassium, and 0.57 percent cal-
cium. One procedure' in particular is
to mix pulp with sawdust, urine, and a
little lime, and then to leave this mixture
covered in a pit for a year before using.
In addition to these mineral matters, the
pulp also contains about 0.88 percent of
caffein and 18 to 37 percent sugars. Ac-
cordingly, it has been proposed" to extract
the caffein with chloroform, and the sugars
with acidulated water. The aqueous solu-
tion so obtained is then fermented to
alcohol. The insoluble portion left after
extraction can be used as fuel, and the re-
sulting ash as fertilizer.

The pulp has been dried and roasted for
use in place of the berry, and has been im-
ported to England for this purpose. It is
stated that the Arabs in the vicinity of
Jiddah discard the kernel of the coffee ber-
ries and make an infusion of the husk.'

Quality of green coffee is largely depend-
ent upon the methods used and the care
taken in curing it, and upon the conditions
obtaining in shipment and storage. True,
the soil and climatic conditions play a de-
terminative role in the creation of the
characteristics of coffee, but these do not

^ Gorter, Ann. (vol. ccclxxii : pp. 237-46).
Schulte, A. Z. Nahr. Oenussm. (vol. xxvii : pp.
209-25).

Loew, Oscar. Ann. Rep. P. R. Apr. Expt. Sta.,
1907 (pp. 41-55).

» Senclal. El Hacendado Mex. (vol. ix : p. 191).
'Pique, R. Bull. As-^oc. Chim. aucr. dist. (vol. xxiv :
pp. 1210-13).

'' Pharm. Jour., 1886 (vol. xvii : p. 656).

offer any greater opportunity for construc-
tive research and remunerative improve-
ment than does the development of methods
and control in the processes employed in
the preparation of green coffee for the mar-
ket.

Storage prior and subsequent to ship-
ment, and circumstances existing during
transportation, are not to be disregarded
as factors contributory to the final quality
of the coffee. The sweating of mules carry-

Cross-Section of the Endosperm or Hard
Structure of the Green Bean

ing bags of poorly packed coffee, and the
absorption of strong foreign aromas and
flavors from odoriferous substances stored
in too close proximity to the coffee beans,
are classic examples of damage that bear
iterative mention. Damage by sea water,
due more to the excessive moisture than to
the salt, is not so common an occurrence
now as heretofore. However, a cheap and
thoroughly effective means of ethically
renovating coffee which has been damaged
in this manner would not go begging for
commercial application.

That green coffee improves with age, is
a tenet generally accepted by the trade.
Shipments long in transit, subjected to the
effects of tropical heat under closely bat-
tened hatches in poorly ventilated holds,
have developed into much-prized yellow
matured coffee. Were it not for the large
capital required and the attendant prohibi-
tive carrying charges, many roasters would
permit their coffees to age more thoroughly
before roasting. In fact, some roasters do
indulge this desire in regard to a portion
of their stock. But were it feasible to treat

CHEMISTRY OF COFFEE

157

?ortiox of the investing membrane, showing

Its Structure
Drawn with the camera lucida, and magnified 140
diameters

and hold coffees long enough to develop
their attributes to a maximum, still the
exact conditions which would favor such
development are not definitely known.
What are the optimum temperature and
the correct humidity to maintain, and
should the green coffee be well ventilated
or not while in storage? How long should
coffee be stored under the most favorable
conditions best to develop it? Aging for
too long a period will develop flavor at the
expense of body; and the general cup effi-
qiency of some coffees will suffer if they
be kept too long.

The exact reason for improvement upon
aging is in no wise certain, but it is highly
probable that the changes ensuing are
somewhat analogous to those occurring in
the aging of grain. Primarily an unde-
fined enzymatic and mold action most likely
occurs, the nature of the enzymes and molds
being largely dependent upon the previous
treatment of the coffee. Along with this
are a loss of moisture and an oxidation, all
three actions having more evident effects
with the passage of time.

Artificial Aging

In consideration of the higher prices
which aged products demand, attempts
have naturally been made to shorten by
artificial means the time necessary for their
natural production. Some of these methods

depend upon obtaining the most favorable
conditions f6r acceleration of the enzyme
action ; others, upon the effects of micro-
organisms; and still others, upon direct
chemical reaction or physical alteration of
the green bean.

One of the first efforts toward artificial
maturing was that of Ashcroff , who argued
from the improved nature of coffee which
had experienced a delayed voyage. His
method consisted of inclosing the coffee in
sweat-boxes having perforated bottoms and
subjecting it to the sweating action of
steam, the boxes being enclosed in an oven
or room maintained at the temperature of
steam.

Timby" claimed to remove dusts, foreign
odors, and impurities, while attaining in a
few hours or days a ripening effect nor-
mally secured only in several seasons. In
this process, the bagged coffee is placed in
autoclaves and subjected to the action of
air at a pressure of 2 to 3 atmospheres and
a temperature of 40° to 100° F. The tem^
perature should seldom be allowed to rise
above 150° F. The pressure is then al-.

Structure of the Green Bean
Showing thick-walled cells enclosing drops of oil

lowed to escape and a partial vacuum
created in the apparatus. This alteration
of pressure and vacuum is continued until
the desired maturation is obtained.
Desvignes" employs a similar procedure,
although he accomplishes seasoning by

»U. S. Pat., 113,832. April 18, 1871.
»U. S. Pat., 660,602, Oct. 30, 1900.
"French Pat., 379,036, Aug. 28, 1906.

158

ALL ABOUT COFFEE

treating the coffee also with oxygen or
ozone." First the coffee is rendered porous
by storage in a hot chamber, which is then
exhausted prior to admission of the oxygen.
The oxygen can be ozonized in the closed
vessel while in contact with the coffee.
Complete aging in a few days is claimed.

Weitzmann" adopts a novel operation,
by exposing bags of raw coffee to the action
of a powerful magnetic field, obtained with
two adjustable electro-magnets. The claim
that a maturation naturally produced in
several years is thus obtained in % to 2
hours is open to considerable doubt. A
process that is probably attended with more
commercial success is that of Gram" in
which the coffee is treated with gaseous
nitrogen dioxid.

By far the most notable progress in this
field, both scientifically and commercially,
has been made by Robison* with his "cul-
turing" method. Here the green coffee is
washed with water, and then inoculated
with selected strains of micro-organisms,
such as Ochraeceus or Aspergillus Wintii.
Incubation is then conducted for 6 to 7
days at 90° F. and 85 percent relative hu-
midity. Subsequent to this incubation, the
coffee is stored in bins for about ten days ;
after which it is tumbled and scoured.
With this process it is possible to improve
the cupping qualities of a coffee to a sur-
prising degree.

Renovating Damaged Coffees

Sophistication has often been resorted to
in order ostensibly to improve damaged or
cheap coffee. Glazing, coloring, and polish-
ing of the green beans was openly and
covertly practised until restricted by law.
The steps employed did not actually im-
prove the coffee by any means, but merely
put it into condition for more ready sale.
An apparently sincere endeavor to reno-
vate damaged coffee was made by Evans'°
when he treated it with an aqueous solu-
tion of sulphuric acid having a density of
10.5° Baume. After agitation in this solu-
tion, the beans were washed free from acid
and dried. In this manner discolorations
and impurities were removed and the
beans given a fuller appearance.

The addition of glucose, sucrose, lactose,
or dextrin to green coffees is practised by

"French Pat., 359,451, Nov. 15, 1905.
"British Pat., 26,905, Dec. 9, 1904.
"U. S. Pat., 843,530, Feb. 5, 1907.
"IT. S. Pat., 1,313.209, Aug. 12, 1919.
«U. S. Pat., 134,792, Jan. 14, 1873.

von Niessen'" and by Winter", with the ob-
ject of giving a mild taste and strong aroma
to "hard" coffees. The addition is accom-
plished by impregnating, with or without
the aid of vacuum, the beans with a mod-
erately concentrated solution of the sugar,
the liquid being of insufficient quantity to
effect extraction. When the solution has
completely disseminated through the ker-
nels, they are removed and dried. Upon
subsequent roasting, a decided amelioration
of flavor is secured.

Another method developed by von Nies-
sen'" comprises the softening of the outer
layers of the beans by steam, cold or warm
water, or brine, and then surrounding them
with an absorbent paste or powder, such as
china clay, to which a neutralizing agent
such as magnesium oxid may be added.
After drying, the clay can be removed by
brushing or by causing the beans to travel
between oppositely reciprocated wet cloths.
In the development of this process, von
Niessen evidently argued that the so-called
"caffetannic acid" is the "harmful" sub-
stance in coffee, and that it is concentrated
in the outer layers of the coffee beans.* If
these be his precepts, the question of their
correctness and of the efficiency of his
process becomes a moot one.

A procedure which aims at cleaning and
refining raw coffee, and which has been the
subject of much polemical discussion,'' is
that of Thum'\ It entails the placing of
the green beans in a perforated drum ; just
covering them with water, or a solution of
sodium chloride or sodium carbonate, at 65°
to 70° C. ; and subjecting them to a vigor-
ous brushing for from 1 to 5 minutes, ac-
cording to the grade of coffee being treated.
The value of this method is somewhat
doubtful, as it would not seem to accom-
plish any more than simple washing. In'
fact, if anything, the process is undesir-
able ; as some of the extractive matters
present in the coffee, and particularly eaf-
fein, will be lost. Both Freund'" and Har-
nack'" hold briefs for the product produced
by this method, and the latter endeavors
analytically to prove its merits ; but as his
experimental data are questionable, his con-
clusions do not carry much weight.

" British Pat., 7.427, Mar. 24, 1910.
"U. S. Pat., 997,431, July 11, 1911.
"British Pat., 28.087. Oct. 9, 1912.

French Pat., 449.343, Oct. 12, 1912.
"British Pat., 21,397. Sept. 26, 1907.

French Pat., 382,238. Sept. 26, 1907.

U. S, Pat., 982.902, Jan. 31, 1911.
^Pharm. Zentralhalle, 1915 (vol. Ivi : pp. 343-48).
'^ Munch. Med. Wochschr., (vol. Iviii : pp. 1868-72).-

^■The study of the acids of coffee has been

^^oduetive of much controversy and many
contradictory results, few of which possess
any value. The acid of coffee is generally
spoken of as "caifetannic acid." Quite a
few attempts have been made to determine
the composition and structure of this com-
pound and to assign it a formula. Among
them may be noted those of Allen " who
gives it the empirical formula Ci^Hj^sO^;
Hlasiwetz/' who represents it as (TisHisOg ;
Richter, as C^oHisOie ; Griebel," as
CisHo^Ojo, and Cazeneuve and Haddon/"
as CoiH2sOi4. It is variously supposed to
exist in coffee as the potassium, calcium, or
magnesium salt. In regard to the physical
appearance of the isolated substance there
is also some doubt, Thorpe'^ describing it
as an amorphous powder, and Howard''' as
a brownish, syrup-like mass, having a
slight acid and astringent taste.

The chemical reactions of "caffetannic
acid" are generally agreed upon. A dark
green coloration is given with ferric chlo-
rid; and upon boiling it with alkalies or
cHTute acids, caffeic acid and glucose are
formed. Fusion with alkali produces pro-
tocatechuie acid.

K. Gorter" has made an extensive and
accurate investigation into the matter, and
in reporting upon the same has made some
very pertinent observations. His claim is
that the name "caffetannic acid" is a mis-
nomer and should be abandoned. The so-
called "caffetannic acid" is really a mix-
ture which has among its constituents
chlorogenic acid (CgoH^gOio), which is not
a tannic acid, and coffalic acid. Tatlock

^ and Thompson"* have expressed the opinion
that roasted coffee contains no tannin, and
that the lead precipitate contains mostly
coloring matter. They found only 4.5 per-
cent of tannin (precipitable by gelatin or
" alkaloids) in raw coffee.

Hanausek"* demonstrated the presence of
oxalic acid in unripe beans, and citric acid
has been isolated from Liberian coffee. It
also has been claimed that viridic acid,

' C14H20O11, is present in coffee. In addi-

** Commercial Organic Analysis.
»A«n. Chem. Pharm . 1 S07 fvol. cxlii : p. 230).
" Inaugural Diss., Munich. 1903.
'^ Comptes Rertdus, 1807 (vol. cxxiv : p. 1458).
^ Diet. Avp. Chem., 15)13 (vol. v: p. 393).
"U. S. Dept. Agr. Bur. Chem. Bull. 105, 1907.
<P. 42).

^ Ann. (vol. cccviii : pp. 327-348).

Ibid. (vol. ccclxxH : pp. 237, 246).

Arch. Pharm. (vol. ccxlvii : pp. 184-196).
'^Jour. Soc. Chem., Ind.. 1910 (vol. xxlx : p. 138).
^"Z. Nahr. Gentissm. (vol. xxi : p. 295).

CHEMISTRY OF COFFEE

159

tion to these, the fat of coffee contains a
certain percentage of free fatty acids.

It is thus apparent that even in green
coffee there is no definite compound "caffe-
tannic acid," and there is even less likeli-
hood of its being present in roasted coffee.
The conditions, high heat and oxidation, to
which coffee is subjected in roasting would
suffice to decompose this hypothetical acid
if it wera present. ^-

In the method of analysis for caffetannic
acid (No. 24) given at the end of this chap-
ter, there are many chances of error,
although this procedure is the best yet de-
vised. Lead acetate forms three different
compounds with "caffetannic acid," so that
this reagent must be added with extreme
care in order to precipitate the compound
desired. The precipitate, upon forming,
mechanically carries down with it any fats
which may be present, and which are re-
moved from it only with difficulty. The
majority of the mineral salts in the solu-
tion will come down simultaneously. All
of the above-mentioned organic acids form
insoluble salts with lead acetate, and there
will also be a tendency toward precipita-
tion of certain of the components of cara-
mel, the acidic polymerization products of
acrolein, glycerol, etc., and of the proteins
and their decomposition products.

In view of this condition of uncertainty
in composition, necessity for great care in
manipulation, and ever-present danger of
contamination, the significance of "caffe-
tannic acid analysis" fades. It is highly
desirable that the nomenclature relevant to
this analytical procedure be changed to
one, such as "lead number," which will be
more truly indicative of its significance.

The Alkaloids of Coffee

In addition to caffein, the main alkaloid
of coffee, trigonellin — the methylbetaine
of nicotinic acid — sometimes known as
caffearine, has been isolated from coffee."
This alkaloid, having the formilla
C14H16O4N2, is also found in fenugreek,
Trigonella foenumrgrcecum, in various le-
guminous plants, and in the seeds of stro-
phanthus. When pure it forms colorless
needles melting at 140" C, and, as with all
alkaloids, gives a weak basic reaction. It is
very soluble in water, slightly soluble in.
alcohol, and only very slightly soluble in

31 Paladino, Oasietta, 1895 (vol. xxv : no. 1 : p. 104).

Forster & Rlechelmann, Zeitach. 6ffent. Chem.,
1897 (vol. lii: p. 129).

Polstorflf, K. Wallach-Featachrift, 1909 (pp. 569-
83).

160

ALL ABOUT COFFEE

ether, chloroform or benzol, so that it does
not contaminate the caffein in the deter-
mination of the latter. Its effects on the
body have not been studied, but they are
probably not very great, as Polstorff ob-
tained only 0.23 percent from the coffee
which he examined.

Caffein, thein, trimethylxanthin, or
C5H(CH3)3N40a, in addition to being in
the coffee bean is also found in guarana
leaves, the kola nut, mate, or Paraguay tea,
and, in small quantities, in cocoa. It is also
found in other parts of these plants besides
those commonly used for food purposes.

A neat test for detecting the presence of
caffein is that of A. Viehoever,"' in which
the caffein is sublimed directly from the
plant tissue in a special apparatus. The
presence of caffein in the sublimate is veri-
fied by observing its melting point, deter-
mined on a special heating stage used in
connection with a microscope. .

The chief commercial source of this alka-
loid is waste and damaged tea, from which
it is prepared by extraction with boiling
water, the tannin precipitated from the
solution with litharge, and the solution then
concentrated to crystallize out the caffein.
It is further purified by sublimation or re-
cpystallization from water. «Coffee chaff
and roaster-flue dust have been proposed as
sources for medicinal caffein, but the ex-
traction of the alkaloid from the former
has not proven to be a commercial success.
Several manufacturers of pharmaceuticals
are now extracting caffein from roaster-flue
dust, probably by an adaptation of the
Faunce"" process. The recovery of caffein
from roaster-flue gases may be facilitated
and increased by the use of a condenser
such as proposed Ewe."*

Pure caffein forms long, white, silky, flex-
ible needles, which readily felt together to
form light, fleecy masses. It melts at

^Private comninnioation.
M U. S. Pat, 716,878, Dec. 30, 1902.
»* Tea d Coffee Trade Jour., 1920 (vol. xxxvlii : pp.
321-22).

235 - 7° C. and sublimes completely at 178
C, though the sublinlation starts at 120 .
Salts of an iinstable nature are formed with
caffein by most acids. The solubility o!:
caffein as determined by Seidell is given
in Table I.

Table I — 'The Solubility of Caffein

r,\

Solvent

Tempera-
ture of
Sp. Gr. of Solu-

Solvent tlon

Water 0.95)7 25

J]ther 0.716 25

Chloroform . . . 1.476 25

Acetone 0.809 30-1

Benzene 0.872 80-1

Benzaldehyde . 1.055 30-1

Amylacetate . . 0.860 30-1

Anmne 1.02 «0-l

Amyl alcohol.. 0.814 25

Acetic acid 1.055 21.5

Xylene 847 32.5

Toluene 0.862 25

Solubility:
Grm. Caf-
fein per 100
Grm. of
Saturated
Solution
2.14
0.27
11.0
2.18
1.22
11.62
0.72
22.89
0.49
2.44
1.11
0.57

Sp. Gr.

of Satu-
rated
Solu-
tion

0.832
0.875
1.087
0.862
1.080
0.810

0.847
0.801

The similarity between caffein and theo-
bromin (the chief alkaloid of cocoa), xan-
thin (one of the constituents of meat), and
uric acid, is shown by the accompanying
structural formulae.

These formulae show merely the relative
position occupied by caffein in the purin
group, and do not in any wise indicate, be-
cause of its similarity of structure to the
other compounds, that it has the same
physiological action. The presence and
position of the methyl groups (CH3) in
caffein is probably the controlling factor
which makes its action differ from the be-
havior of other members of the series. The
structure of these compounds was estab-
lished, and their syntheses accomplished, in
the course of various classic researches by
Emil Fischer.''

Gorter states that caffein exists in coffee
in combination with ehlorogenic acid as a
potassium chlorogenate, Ca^HaeOia,
K2(C8HjoO,N,)2-2H20, which he 'isolated
in colorless prisms. This compound is
water-soluble, but caffein can not be ex-
tracted from the crystals with anhydrous

^Jour. Amer. Chetn. Soc, 1907 (vol. xxix : p. 1091).
^* Ber., 1895 (vol. xxviii : p. 3137) ; 1899 (vol. xxxii :
p. 435); 1900 (vol. xxxiii : p. 3035).

CttjN— CO

OC C— Nn

XH,

.CH

CH3N — C-N^
Caffcm (their\)

HN — CO

I I
OC C— N<^"3

I II >"
CH3N— C— N

Thcobromin

HN.

-co

OC c —

HN — C — N'^

Xanthin

MN— CO

I I

OC C~NH

HN— C — NH

Unc Acid

Formula fob Caffein, Showing Its Relation to the Purin Group

.' ■ I ,-1

ALL ABOUT COFFEE

1(1(11, IKS l>A(i(ll ,\(; iOIlKK ON TllK 1 »i;\ 1 .N(i GkOUNDS

COFFEE SCENES IN BRITISH INDIA

■p

^^B Green

^Hoisture April 20th 8.75

Moisture Septemb, r 20tli 8.12

Ash 4.41

Oil 12.96

CaJfein 1.87

Caffein, dry basis 2.03

Crude fiber 20.70

I'rotein 9.50

Protein, dry basis 10.41

Water e.xtrnct 31.11

Specific gravity, 10 p rcent extract 1.0109

Bushelwt'ight 47.0

1,000 kernel weight ISO. 60

1,000 kernel weight, dry basis 119.1

Dextrose

■ffetannic acid 15.58

iility by titration apparent 1.50

CHEMISTRY OF COFFEE

Table II — Coffee Analyses

Santos
Roasted

3.75

6.45

4.49
13.76

1.81

14.75
12.93

30.30

1.0101
28.2
120.20
115.7
0.72
17.44
2.08

^^■||vents. To this behavior can probably
^^H attributed the difficulty experienced in
^^Blracting caffein from coffee with dry or-
^^nic solvents. However, the fact that a
small percentage can be extracted from the
green bean in this manner indicates that
some of the caffein content exists therein
in a free state. This acid compound of caf-
fein will be largely decomposed during the
process of torrefaction, so that in roasted
coffee a larger percentage will be present in
the free state. Microscopical examination
of the roasted bean lends verisimilitude to
this contention.

As may be seen in Table II " the caffein
content of coffee varies with the different
kinds, a fair average of the caffein content
being about 1.5 percent for C. arahica, to
which class most of our coffees belong.
However, aside from these may be men-
tioned C. canephora, which yields 1.97 per-
cent caffein ; C. mauritiana, which contains
0.07 percent of the alkaloid (less than the
average "caffein-free coffee") ; and C.
humhoUiana, which contains no caffein, but
a bitter principle, cafemarin. Neither do
the berries of C. Gallienii, C. Bonnieri, or
C. Mogeneti contain any caffein ; and there
has also been reported^' a "Congo coffee"
which contained no crystallizable alkaloid
whatever.

Apparently the variation in caffein con-
tent is largely due to the genus of the tree
from which the berry comes, but it is also
quite probable that the nature of the soil
and climatic conditions play an important
part. In the light of what has been accom-
plished in the field of agricultural research,
it does not seem improbable that a man
of Burbank's ability and foresight could
successfully develop a series of coffees pos-

" Willcox & Rentschler. Tea & Coffee Trade Jour.,
1910 (vol. six: p. 440).

■^ Pricke, E. Zeits. /. angew. Chemie, 1889 (pp.
121-122).

Padang
Green

8.78

8.05

4.23
12.28

1.56

1.69
21.92
12.62
13.68
30.83

1.0107
4o.2
167.30
154.1

Padang
Roasted
2.72
6.03
4.70
13.33
1.47

14.95
14.75

15.37
1.47

30.21

1.0104
27.8
151.35
147.2
0.81
16.93
2.00

Guate-
mala
Green

9.59

8.68

3.93
12.42

1.26

1.39
22.23
10.43
11.53
31.04

1.0105
52.2
189.20
171.0

Guate-
mala
Roasted
3.40
6.92
4.48
13.07
1.22

15.23
11.69

16.27
1.39

30.47

1.0104
27.2
165.80
160.1
0.54
17.13
2.13

Mocha
Green

9.06

8.15

4.20
14.04

1.61

1.44
22.46

8.56

9.41
31.27

1.0108
48.8
119.52
10i8.6

iV.ei
1.11

161

Mocha
Roasted

3.36

7.10

4.43
14.18

1.28

15.41
9.57

80.44

1.0108
30.2
100.00
96.6

0.46
16.89

1.87

sessed of all the cup qualities inherent in
those now used, but totally devoid of caf-
fein. Whether this is desirable or not is a
question to be considered in an entirely
different light from the possibility of its
accomplishment.

Table III — Caffein in Different Roasts

(ireen

Rio

1 68%

Santos

1.85%

1.72

1.66

Guatemala
1.82%
1.80
1.56
1.46

Cinnamon . . .

Medium

City

. .. 1.70
. . . 1.66
. . . 1.36

The variation in the caffein content of
coffee at different intensities of roasting,
as shown in Table III^ is, of course, pri-
marily dependent upon the original content
of the green, A considerable portion of the
caffein is sublimed off during roasting, thus
decreasing the amount in the bean. The
higher the roast is carried, the greater the
shrinkage ; but, as the analyses in the above
table show, the loss of caffein proceeds out
of proportion to the shrinkage, for the per-
centage of caffein constantly decreases with
the increase in color. If the roast be car-
ried almost to the point of carbonization,
as in the case of the "Italian roast," the
caffein content will be almost nil. This is
not a suitable coffee for one desiring an al-
most caffein-free drink, for the empyreu-
matic products produced by this excessive
roasting will be more toxic by far than the
caffein itself would have been.

Caffein-free Coffee

The demand for a caffein-free coffee may
be attributed to two causes, namely: the
objectionable effect which caffein has upon
neurasthenics; and the questionable adver-
tising of the "coffee-substitute" dealers,
who have by this means persuaded many
normal persons into believing that they are
decidedly sub-normal. As a result of this
demand, a variety of decaffeinated coffees

s* Willcox & Rentschler.
1911 (vol. XX : p. 355).

Tea d Coffee Trade Jour.,

162

ALL ABOUT COFFEE

have been placed on the market. Just why
the coffee men have not taken advantage of
naturally caffein-free coffees, or of the pos-
sibility of obtaining coffees low in caffein
content by chemical selection from the lines
now used, is a difficult question to answer.

In the endeavor to develop a commercial
decaffeinated coffee the first method of pro-
cedure was to extract the caffein from
roasted coffee. This method had its advan-
tages and its disadvantages, of which the
latter predominated. The caffein in the
roasted coffee is not as tightly bound chemi-
cally as in the green coffee, and is, there-
fore, more easily extracted. Also, the
structure of the roasted bean renders it
more readily penetrable by solvents than
does that of the green bean. However, the
great objection to this method arises from
the fact that at the same time as the caf-
fein is extracted, the volatile aromatic and
flavoring constituents of the coft'ee are re-
moved also. These substances, which are
essential for the maintenance of quality by
the coffee, though readily separated from
the caffein, can not be returned to the
roasted bean with any degree of certainty.
This virtually insurmountable obstacle
forced the abandonment of this mode of
attack.

In order to avoid this action, the atten-
tion of investigators was directed to extrac-
tion of the alkaloid in question from the
green bean. Because of the difficulty of
causing the solvent to penetrate the bean,
recourse to grinding resulted. This greatly
facilitated the desired extraction, but a
difficulty was encountered when the subse-
quent roasting was attempted. The irregu-
lar and broken character of the ground
green beans resisted all attempts to produce
practically a uniformly roasted, highly
aromatic product from the ground ma-
terial.

Avoidance of this lack of uniformity in
the product, and the great desirability to
duplicate the normal bean as far as pos-
sible, necessitated the development of a
method of extraction of the caffein from the
whole raw bean without a permanent al-
teration of the shape thereof. The close
structure of the green bean, and its conse-
quent resistance to penetration by solvents,
and the existence of the caffein in the bean
as an acid salt, which is not easily soluble,
offered resistance to successful extraction.

As a means of overcoming the difficulty
of structure, the beans were allowed to
stand in water in order to swell, or the cells

were expanded by treatment with steam, or
the beans were subjected to the action of
some "cellulose-softening acids," such as
acetic acid or sulphur dioxid. As a method
of facilitating the mechanical side of ex-
traction without deleterious effects, the
treatment of the coffee with steam under
pressure, as utilized in the patented proc-
ess of Myer, Eoselius, and Wimmer,*" is
probably the safest.

Many ingenious methods have been de-
vised for the ready removal of the caffein
from this point on. Several processes
employ an alkali, such as ammonium hy-
droxid, to free the caffein from the acid ; or
an acid, such as acetic, hydrochloric, or
sulphurous, is used to form a more soluble
salt of caffein. Other procedures effect the
dissociation of the caffein-acid salt by
dampening or immersion in a liquid and
subjecting the mass to the action of an
electric current.

The caffein is usually extracted from the
beans by benzol or chloroform, but a variety
of solvents may be employed, such as pe-
trolic ether, water, alcohol, carbon tetra-
chlorid, ethylene chlorid, acetone, ethyl
ether, or mixtures or emulsions of these.
After extraction, the beans may be steam
distilled to remove and to recover any resid-
ual traces of solvent, and then dried and
roasted. It is said" that by heating the
beans before bringing them into contact
with steam, not only is an economy of steam
effected, but the quality of the resultant
product is improved.

One clever but expensive method" of pre-
paring caffein-free coffee consists in heat-
ing the beans under pressure, with some
substance, such as sodium salicylate, with
the resultant formation of a more soluble
and more easil.y steam-distillable compound
of caffein. The beans are then steam dis-
tilled to remove the caffein, dried, and
roasted.

Another process of peculiar interest is
that of Hubner," in which the coffee beans
are well washed and then spread in layers
and kept covered with water at 15° C. until
limited germination has taken place, where-
upon the beans are removed and the caf-
fein extracted with water at 50° C. It is
claimed by the inventor that sprouting
serves to remove some of the caffein, but it
is quite probable that the process does noth-

*»U. S. Pat, 897,840. Sept. 1, 1908.
"British Pat., 144,988, March 19, 1920.
« French Pat., 412,550. Feb. 12, 1910.
«U. S. Pat., 947,577, Jan. 25, 1910.

CHEMISTRY OF COFFEE

163

ig more than aecoinplish simple aqueous

ttraction.

In the majority of these processes the

Ivor of the resultant product should be

iry similar to natural roasted coffee.

[owever, in the cases where aqueous ex-

raction is employed, other substances be-

jjdes caffein are removed that are replaced

the bean only with difficulty. The re-

iltant product accordingly is very likely
to have a flavor not entirely natural. On
the other hand, beans from which the caf-
fein is extracted with volatile solvents, if
the operation be conducted carefully,
should give a natural-tasting roast. Any
residual traces of the solvent left in the
bean are volatilized upon roasting.

Some of the caffein-free coffees on the
market show upon analysis almost as much
eaffein as the natural bean. Those manu-
factured b}' reliable concerns, however, are
virtually caffein-free, their content of the
alkaloid varying from 0.3 to 0.07 percent
as opposed to 1.5 percent in the untreated
coffee. Thus, although actually only caf-
fein-poor, in order to get the reaction of
one cup of ordinary coffee one would have
to drink an unusual amount of the brew
made from these coffees.

The Aromatic Principles of Coffee

To ascertain just what substance or sub-
stances give the pleasing and characteristic
aroma to coffee has long been the great
desire of both practical and scientific men
interested in the coffee business. This elu-
sive material has been variously called caf-
feol, caffeone, "the essential' oil of coffee,"
etc., the terms having'acquired an ambigu-
ij^ous and incorrect significance. It is now
f generally agreed that the aromatic con-
! stituent of coffee is not an essential oil, but
! a comple x of compounds which usage has
causecPto be coITecHvery called "caffeol.','
These substances are not present in the,
green bean, but are produced during the
process of roasting. Attempts at identi-
fication and location of origin have been
numerous; and although not conclusive,
still have not proven entirely futile. One
of the first observations along this line was
that of Benjamin Thompson in 1812.
"This fragrance of coffee is certainly ow-
ing to the escape of a volatile aromatic
substance which did not originally exist as
such in the grain, but which is formed in
the process of roasting it." Later, Graham,
Stenhouse, and Campbell started on the
way to the identification of this aroma by

noting that "in common with all the valu-
able constituents of coffee, caffeone is found
to come from the soluble portion of the
roasted seed.""

Comparison of the aroma given off by
coffee during the roasting process with that
of fresh-ground roasted coffee shows that
the two aromas, although somewhat differ-
ent, may be attributed to the same sub-
stances present in different proportions in
the two cases. Recovery and identification
of the aromatic principles escaping from
the roaster would go far toward answering
the question regarding the nature of the
aroma. Bernheimer" reported water, caf-
fein, caffeol, acetic acid, quinol, methyla-
min, acetone, fatty acids and pyrrol in the
distillate coming from roasting coffee.
The caffeol obtained by Bernheimer in this
work was believed by him to be a methyl
derivative of saligenin. Jaeekle" examined
a similar product and found considerable
quantities of caffein, furfurol, and acetic
acid, together with small amounts of ace-
tone, ammonia, trimethylamin, and formic
acid. The caffeol of Bernheimer could not
be detected. Another substance was sepa-
rated also, but in too small a quantity to
permit complete identification. This sub-
stance consisted of colorless crystals, which
readily sublimed, melted at 115° to 117° C,
and contained sulphur. The crystals were
insoluble in water, almost insoluble in alco-
hol, but readily soluble in ether.

By distilling roasted coffee with super-
heated steam, Erdmann" obtained an oil
consisting of an indifferent portion of 58
percent and an acid portion of 42 percent,
consisting mainly of a valeric acid, prob-
ably alphamethylbutyric acid. The indif-
ferent portion was found to contain about
50 percent furfuryl alcohol, together with
a number of phenols. The fraction con-
taining the characteristic odorous constit-
uent of coffee boiled at 93° C. under 13
mm. pressure. The yield of this latter
principle was extremely small, only about
0.89 gram being procured from 65 kilos
of coffee.

Pyridin was also shown to be present in
•coffee by Betrand and Weisweiller*' and by
Sayre.*" As high as 200 to 500 milligrams

**J(jur. Chem. Soc, 1857 (vol. Ix : p. 34).

"Tl'tcn. Akad. Ber. (2 Abth.) (vol. Ixxxi : pp. 1032-
104.S).

Monatsh, f. Chem., 1880 (vol. i: p. 456).

** Zeita. f. Vntersuch. d. Nahr. u. Ocnussm., 1898
(vol. vii : pp. 457-472)

« Ber , 1901 (vol. xxxv : pp. 1846-1854).

<»Co»ipf. rend. (vol. clvii : pp. 212-13).

*» Bull. Pharm., 1916 (vol. xxx : pp. 276^-78).

164

ALL ABOUT COFFEE

of this toxic compound have been obtained
from 1 kilogram of freshly roasted coffee.

As stated above, the empyreumatic vola-
tile aromatic constituents of the coffee are
without question formed during and by the
roasting process. According to Thorpe/"
the most favorable temperature for devel-
opment of coffee odor and flavor is about
200° C. Erdmann claimed to have pro-
duced caffeol by gently heating together
caffetannic acid, caffein, and cane sugar.
Other investigators have been unable to
duplicate this work. Another authority,"
giving it the empirical formula CgHioOa,
states that it is produced during roasting,
probably at the expense of a portion of the
caffein. These conceptions are in the main
incomplete and inaccurate.

By means of careful work, Grafe" came
closer to ascertaining the origin of the fuga-
cious aromatic materials. His work with
normal, caffein-free coffee and with Thum's
purified coffee led him to state that a part
of these substances was derived from the
crude fiber, probably from the hemi-cellu-
lose of the thick endosperm cells. Sayre"
makes the most plausible proposal regard-
ing the origin of caffeol. He considers the
roasting of coffee as a destructive distilla-
tion process, summarizing the results,
briefly, as the production of furfuraldehyde
from the carbohydrates, acrolein from the
fats, catechol and pyrogallol from the tan-
nins, and ammonia, amins, and pyrrols
from the proteins. The products of roast-
ing inter-react to produce many compounds
of varying degrees of complexity and
toxicity.

The great difficulty which arises in the
attempt to identify the aromatic constit-
uents of coffee is that the caffeols of no two
coffees may be said to be the same. The
reason for this is apparent; for the green
coffees themselves vary in composition, and
those of the same constitution are not
roasted under identical conditions. There-
fore, it is not to be expected that the de-
composition products formed by the action
of the different greens would be the same.
Also, these volatile products occur in the
roasted coffee in such a small amount that
the ascertaining of their percentage rela-
tionship and the recognition of all that are
present are not possible with the methods
of analysis at present at our disposal.
Until better analytical procedures have

^ Diet. App. Chem., 1913 (vol. li : p. 99).

" [/. S. Dispensatory, 19th Ed, 1907 (p. 145).

^^Monatsh. f. Chem. (vol. xxxiii : pp. 1389-1406).

been developed we can not hope to estab-
lish a chemical basis for the grading ol'
coffees from this standpoint.

Coffee Oil and Fat

It is well to distinguish between the * ' cof-
fee oils," as they are termed by the trade,
and true coffee oil. In speaking of thi'
qualities of coffee, connoisseurs frequently
use erroneous terms, particularly when they
designate certain of the flavoring and aro-
matic constituents of coffee as "oils" or
"essential oils." Coffee does not contain
any essential oils, the aromatic constituent
corresponding to essential oil in coffee being
caffeol, a complex which is water-soluble, a
property not possessed by any true oil.
True, the oil when isolated from roasted
coffee does possess, before purification, con-
siderable of the aromatic and flavoring con-
stituents of coffee. They are, however, no
part of the coffee fat, but are held in it no
doubt by an enfleurage action in much the
same way that perfumes of roses, etc., are
absorbed and retained by fats and oils in
the commercial preparation of pomades and
perfumes. This affinity of the coffee oil for
caffeol assists in the retention of aromatic
substances by the whole roasted bean.
However, upon extraction of ground
roasted coffee with water, the caffeol shows
a preferential solubility in water, and is
dissolved out from the oil, going into the
brew.

The true oil of coffee has been investi-
gated to a fair degree and has been found
to be inodorous when purified. Analysis of
green and roasted coffees shows them to
possess between 12 percent and 20 percent
fat. Warnier" extracted ground unroasted
coffee with petroleum ether, washed the ex-
tract with water, and distilled off the sol-
vent, obtaining a yellow-brownish oil
possessing a sharp taste. From his exam-
ination of this oil he reported these con-
stants: d24_5, 0.942; refraction at 25°,
81.5 ; solidifying point, 6° to 5° ; melting
point, 8° to 9° ; saponification number,
177.5 ; esterification number, 166.7 ; acid
number, 6.2 ; acetyl number, ; iodin num-
ber, 84.5 to 86.3. Meyer and Eckert" care-
fully purified coffee oil and saponified it
with LigO in alcohol. In the saponifiable
portion, glycerol was the only alcohol pres-
ent, the acids being carnaubic, 10 percent;
daturinic acid, 1 to 1.5 percent; palmitic

^^^Apoth.-Ztg. (vol. xxii: pp. 919-20).
Pharm. Weekbl., 1907 (vol. xxxvii).
^ Monatsh. f. Chem. (vol. xxxi : p. 1227).

^Ri<

CHEMISTRY OF COFFEE

165

id, 25 to 28 percent ; capric acid, 0.5 per-
cent ; oleic acid, 2 percent, and linoleic acid,
50 percent. The unsaponifiable wax
amounted to 21.2 percent,, was nitrogen-
free, gave a phytostearin reaction, and
saponification and oxidation indicated that
it was probably a tannol carnaubate. Von-
Bitto'" examined the fat extracted from the
inner husk of the coffee berry and found it
to be faint yellow in color, and to solidify
only gradually after melting. Upon analy-
sis, it showed : saponification value, 141.2 ;
palmitic acid, 37.84 percent, and glycerids
as tripalmitin, 28.03 percent.

Carbohydrates of the Coffee Berry

There has been considerable diversity of
opinion regarding the sugar of coffee. Bell
believed the sugar to be of a peculiar species
allied to melezitose, but Ewell,°" G. L. Spen-
cer, and others definitely proved the pres-
ence of sucrose in coffee. In fat-free coffee
6 percent of sucrose was found extractable
by 70 percent alcohol. Baker" claimed that
manno-arabinose, or manno-xylose, formed
one of the most important constituents of
the coffee-berry substance and yielded man-
nose on hydrolysis. Schultze and Maxwell
state that raw coffee contains galactan,
mannan, and pentosans, the latter present
to the extent of 5 percent in raw and 3 per-
cent in roasted coffee. By distilling coffee
with hydrochloric acid Ewell obtained fur-
furol equivalent to 9 percent pentose. He
also obtained a gummy substance which, on
hydrolysis, gave rise to a reducing sugar;
and as it gave mucic acid and furfurol on
oxidation, he concluded that it was a com-
pound of pentose and galactose. In un-
dressed Mysore coffee Commaille°' found
2.6 percent of glucose and no dextrin. This
claim of the presence of glucose in coffee
was substantiated by the work of Hlasi-
wetz,"" who resolved a caffetannie acid,
which he had isolated, into glucose and a
peculiar crystallizable acid, C8H8O4, which
he named caffeic acid.

The starch content of coffee is very low.
Cereals may readily be detected and identi-
fied in coffee mixtures by the presence and
characteristics of their starch, in view of
the fact that coffee (chicory, too) is prac-
tically free from starch. On this score it is
inadvisable for diabetics to use any of the
many cereal substitutes for coffee. It is

"Jour. Lnndw., 1904 (vol. Hi: p. 93).

"> Amer. Chem. Jour., 1892 (vol. xiv : p. 47.3).

"Analyst, 1902 (vol. xxvl : p. 116).

''Mon. 8ci. (vol. iii : no. 6: p. 779).

»»J. P. C, 1867 (p. 307).

pertinent to note in this connection that
persons suffering from diabetes may
sweeten their coffee with saccharin (I/2 to
1 grain per cup) or glycerol, thus obtaining
perfect satisfaction without endangering
their health.

The cellulose in coffee is of a very hard
and horny character in the green bean, but
it is made softer and more brittle during
the process of roasting. It is rather diffi-
cult to define under the microscope, par-
ticularly after roasting, even though the
chief characteristics of the cellular tissue
are more or less retained. Coffee cellulose
gives a blue color with sulphuric acid and
iodin, and is dissolved by an ammoniacal
solution of copper oxid. Even after roast-
ing, remnants of the silver skin are always
present, the structure of which, a thin
membrane with adherent, thick-walled,
spindle-shaped, hollow cells, is peculiar to
coffee.

The Chemistry of Roasting

The effect of the heat in the roasting of
coffee is largely evidenced as a destructive
distillation and also as a partial dehydra-
tion. At the same time, oxidizing and
reducing reactions probably occur within
the bean, as well as some polymerization
and inter-reactions.

A loss of water is to be expected as the
natural outcome of the application of heat ;
and analyses show that the moisture con-
tent of raw coffee varies from 8 to 14 per-
cent, while after roasting it rarely exceeds
3 percent, and frequently falls as low as
0.5 percent. The loss of the original water
content of the green bean is not the only
moisture loss ; for many of the constituents
of coffee, notably the carbohydrates, are de-
composed upon heating to give off water,
so that analysis before and after roasting is
no direct indication of the exact amount of
water driven off in the process. If it be
desired to ascertain this quantity accu-
rately, catching of the products which are
driven off and determination of their water
content becomes necessary.

The carbohydrates both dehydrate and
decompose. The result of the cjehydration
is the formation of caramel and related
products, which comprise the principal
coloring matters in coffee infusion. That
portion of the carbohydrates known as pen-
tosans gives rise to furfuraldehyde, one of
the important components of caffeol.

The effect of roasting upon the fat con-
tent of the beans is to reduce its actual

166

ALL ABOUT COFFEE

weight, but not to change appreciably the
percentage present, since the decrease in
quantity keeps pace fairly well with the
shrinkage. Some of the more volatile fatty
acids are driven off, and the fats break
down to give a larger percentage of free
fatty acids, some light esters, acrolein, and
formic acid. If the roast be a very heavy
one, or is brought up too rapidly, the iai
wall come to the surface, through breaking
of the fat cells, with a decided alteration in
the chemical nature of the fat and with
pronounced expansion and cracking.

Decomposition of the caffein acid-salt
and considerable sublimation of the caffein
also occur. The majority of the caffein un-
dergoes this volatilization unchanged, but
a portion of it is probably oxidized with the
formation of ammonia, methylamin, di-
methylparabanic acid, and carbon dioxid.
This reaction partly explains why the
amount of caffein recovered from the
roaster flues is not commensurate with the
amount lost from the roasting coffee; al-
though incomplete condensation is also an
important factor. Microscopic examination
of the roasted beans will show occasional
small crystals of caffein in the indentations
on the surface, where they have been de-
posited during the cooling process.

The compound, or compounds, known as
**caffetannic acid" are probably the source
of catechol, as the proteins are of am-
monia, amins, and pyrrols. The crude
fiber and other unnamed constituents of
the raw beans react analogously to similar
compounds in the destructive distillation of
wood, giving rise to acetone, various fatty
acids, carbon dioxid and other uncondens-
able gases, and many compounds of un-
known identity.

During the course of roasting and subse-
quent cooling these decomposition products
probably interact and polymerize to form
aromatic tar-like materials and other com-
plexes which play an important role among
the delicate flavors of coffee. In fact, it is
not unlikely that these reactions continue
throughout the storage time after roasting,
and that upon them the deterioration of
roasted coffee is largely dependent. Specu-
lation upon what complex compounds are
thus formed offers much attraction. A
notable one by Sayre"* postulates the reac-
tion between acrolein and ammonia to give
methyl pyridin, which in turn with fur-
furol forms furfurol vinyl pyridin. This

«» Trans. Kansas Acad. Sci., 1918 <vol. xxviil : pp.
136-141).

upon reduction would produce the alkaloid,
conin, traces of which have been found in
coffee.

Although furfuraldehyde is the natural
decomposition product of pentosans, fur-
furyl alcohol is the main furane body of
coffee aroma. This would indicate that
active reducing conditions prevail within
the bean during roasting; and the further
fact that carbon monoxid is given oft' dur-
ing roasting makes this seem quite prob-
able. If one admits that caffetannic acid
exists in the green bean; that upon oxida-
tion it gives viridic acid ; and that it is con-
centrated in the outer layers of the bean,
as certain investigators have claimed, then
there is chemical proof of the existence of
oxidizing conditions about the exterior of
the bean. In any event, however, the fact
that oxidizing conditions predominate on
the external portion of the bean is obvious.
Accordingly, our meager knowledge of the
chemistry of roasting indicates that while
the external layers of the roasting beans are
subjected to oxidizing conditions, reducing
ones exist in the interior. Future experi-
mentation will, no doubt, prove this to be
the case.

Attempts have been made to retain in
the beans the volatile products, which nor-
mally escape, both by coating previous to
roasting" and by conducting the process
under pressure."' However, the results so
obtained were not practical, since the cup
values were decreased in the majority of
cases;, and the physiological effects produced
were undesirable. In cases where the qual-
ity was improved, the gain was not suffi-
cient to recompense the roaster for the ad-
ditional expense and difficulty of operation.

Various persons have essayed to control
the roasting process automatically; but
the extreme variance in composition of
different coffees, the effect of changing
atmospheric conditions, and the lack of
constancy in the calorific power of fuels
have conspired to defeat the automatic
roasting machine." It is even doubtful
whether De Mattia's" process for roasting
until the vapors evolved produce a violet
color when passed into a solution of fuchsin
decolorized with sulphur dioxid is commer-
cially reliable.

81 Feitler, S. : Enj?. Pat., 19,84.5, Aug. 28, 1897.

«U. S. Pat., 33,453, Oct. 8. 1861.

U. S. Pat., 75.829, March 24. 1868,

U. S. Pat., 701,750, June 3, 1902.

«'U. S. Pat, 943, 238, Dec. 14. 1909.

«*U. S. Pat., 703,508, July 1, 1902.

U. S. Pat., 865,203, Sept. 3, 1907.

CHEMISTRY OF COFFEE

167

Many patents have been granted for the
treatment of coffees immediately prior to or
during roasting with the object of thus im-
proving the product. The majority of
These depend upon adding solutions of
sugar.'" calcium saccharate,"" or other carbo-
hydrates,*' and in the case of Eckhardt,""
of small percentages of tannic acid and fat.
In direct opposition to this latter practise,
urgens and Westphaf" apply alkali,
tensibly to lessen the "tannic acid" con-

^ ''L^k

tl Iff ^1

Grouxd Coffee Under the Microscope

tent. Brougier'" sprays a solution contain-
ing caifein upon the roasting berries ; and
Potter" roasts the coffee together with
chicory, effecting a separation at the end.
The exact effect which roasting with
sugars has upon the flavor is not well un-
derstood ;'but it is known that it causes the
beans to absorb more moisture, due to the
hygroscopicity of the caramel formed. For
inrstance, berries roasted with the addition
of glucose syrup hold an additional 7 per-
cent of water and give a darker infusion
than normally roasted coffee. When the
green coffee is glazed with cane sugar prior
to roasting, the losses during the process
are much higher than ordinarily, on ac-
count of the higher temperature required
to attain the desired results. Losses for
ordinary coffee taken to a 16-percent roast
are 9.7 percent of the original fat and 21.1

« Winter. H. : U. S. Pat., 997.4.31. Augr. 28, 1897.

'"Simon, M., Jr.: Ger. Pat.. 2.53.419. Feb. 19. 1911.

«' Von Niessen : British Pat., 7,417, Mar. 24, 1910.

•« Eng. Pat., 5.776, Mar. 19, 1895.

«»U. S. Pat, 832..322.

">Eng. Pat., 8.270, April 24, 1893.

«U. S. Pat., 994,785, June 13, 1911.

percent of the original caffein ; while for
"sugar glazed" coffee the losses were 18.3
percent of the original fat and 44.3 percent
of the original caffein, using 8 to 9 percent
sugar with Java coffee.

Grinding and Packaging

It is a curious fact that green coffee im-
proves upon aging, whereas after roasting
it deteriorates with time. Even when
packed in the best containers, age shows to
a disadvantage on the roasted bean. This
is due to a number of causes, among which
are oxidation, volatilization of the aroma,
absorption of moisture and consequent
hydrolysis, and alteration in the character
of the aromatic principles. Doolittle and
Wright''' in the course of some extensive ex-
periments found that roasted coffee showed
a continual gain in weight throughout 60
weeks, this gain being mostly due to mois-
ture ab.sorption. An investigation by
Gould" also demonstrated that roasted cof-
fee gives off carbon dioxid and carbon
monoxid upon standing. The latter, ap-
parently produced during roasting and
retained by the cellulffr structure of the
bean, diffuses therefrom; whereas the
former comes from an ante-roasting decom-
position of unstable compounds present.'*

The surface of the whole bean forms a
natural protection against atmospheric in-
fluences, and as soon as this is broken, de-
terioration sets in. On this account, coffee
should be ground immediately before ex-
traction if maximum efficiency is to be
obtained. The cells of the beans tend to
retain the fugacious aromatic principles to
a certain extent ; so that the more of these
which are broken in grinding, the greater
will be the initial loss and the more rapid
the vitiation of the coffee. It might, there-
fore, seem desirable to grind coarsely in
order to avoid this as much as possible.
However, the coarser the grind, the slower
and more incomplete will be the extraction.
A patent" has been granted for a grind
which contains about 90 percent fine coffee
and 10 percent coarse, the patentee's claim
being that in his "irregular grind" the
coarse coffee retains enough of the volatile
constituents to flavor the beverage, while
the fine coffee gives a very high extraction,

".4m. J. P^ar»»./l915 (vol. Ixxxvil : pp. 524-26).

" Orig. Com. 8th Intern. Cong. Appl. Chetn.
(Apprn ) (vol. xxvl : p. 389)

'♦ Ten d Coffee Trade Jour., 1920 (vol. xxxlx : pp.
318-19).

« King, J. E. : U. S. Pat. 1,263,434.

168

ALL ABOUT COFFEE

thus giving an efficient brew without sacri-
ficing individuality.

In packaging roasted coffee the whole
bean is naturally the best form to employ,
but if the coffee is ground first, King'"
found that deterioration is most rapid with
the coarse ground coffee, the speed decreas-
ing with the size of the ground particles.
He explains this on the ground of ' ' ventila-
tion" — the finer the grind, the closer the
particles pack together, the less the circula-
tion of air through the mass, and the
smaller the amount of aroma which is car-
ried away. He also found that glass makes
the best container for coffee, with the tin
can, and the foil-lined bag with an inner
lining of glassine, not greatly inferior.

Considerable publicity has been given
recently to the method of packing coffee in
a sealed tin under reduced pressure. While
thus packing in a partial vacuum undoubt-
edly retards oxidation and precludes escape
of aroma from the original package, it
would seem likely to hasten the initial vola-
tilizing of the aroma. Also, it would appear
from Gould's" work that roasted coffee
evolves carbon dioxid until a certain posi-
tive pressure is attained, regardless of the
initial pressure in the container. Accord-
ingly, vacuum-packing apparently enhances
decomposition of certain constituents of
coffee. "Whether this result is beneficial or
otherwise is not quite clear.

Brewing

The old-time boiling method of making
coffee has gone out of style, because the
average consumer is becoming aware of the
fact that it does not give a drink of maxi-
mum efficiency. Boiling the ground coffee
with water results in a large loss of aro-
matic principles by steam distillation, a
partial hydrolysis of insoluble portions of
the grounds, and a subsequent extraction of
the products thus formed, which give a bit-
ter flavor to the beverage. Also, the main-
tenance of a high temperature by the direct
application of heat has a deleterious effect
upon the substances in solution. This is
also true in the ease of the pumping perco-
lator, and any other device wherein the
solution is caused to pass directly into
steam at the point where heat is applied.
Warm and cold water extract about the
same amount of material from coffee; but
with different rates of speed, an increase

"Tea 4c Coffee Trade Jour., 1917 (vol. xxxiii : pp.
552-55).

■'■' hoc. cit. (see 73).

in temperature decreasing the time neces-
sary to effect the desired result.

It is a well known fact that rewarming a
coffee brew has an undesirable effect upon
it. This is very probably due to the pre-
cipitation of some of the water-soluble
proteins when the solution cools, and their
subsequent decomposition when heat is ap-
plied directly to them in reheating the solu-
tion. The absorption of air by the solution
upon cooling, with attendant oxidation,
which is accentuated by the application of
heat in rewarming, must also be considered.
It is likewise probable that when ap extract
of coffee cools upon standing, some of the
aromatic principles separate out and are
lost by volatilization.

The method of extracting coffee which
gives the most satisfaction is practised by
using a grind just coarse enough to retain
the individualistic flavoring components,
retaining the ground coffee in a fine cloth
bag, as in the urn system, or on a filter
paper, as in the Tricolator, and pouring
water at boiling temperature over the cof-
fee. During the extraction, a top should
be kept on the device to minimize volatiliza-
tion, and the temperature of the extract
should be maintained constant at about
200° F. after being made. Whether a re-
pouring is necessary or not is dependent
upon the speed with which the water passes
through the coffee, which in turn is con-
trolled by the fineness of the grind and of
the filtering medium.

The Water Extract

Although many analyses of the whole
coffee bean are available, but little work
has been reported upon the aqueous ex-
tracts. The total water extract of roasted
coffee varies from 20 to 31 percent in dif-
ferent kinds of coffee. The following
analysis of the extract from a Santos coffee
may be taken as a fair average example of
the water-soluble material.''

Table IV- — Analysis of Santos Coffee Extract
(Dry Basis)

Ether extract, fixed 1.06%

Total nitrogen 3.40%

Caffein 5.42%

Crude fiber 0.25%

Total ash 17.43%

Reducing sugar 2.70%

Caffetannic acid 15.33%

Protein 7.71%

It is difficult to make the trade ternis,
such as acidity, astringency, etc., used in
describing a cup of coffee, conform with the

'"Tea d Coffee Trade Jour., 1911 (vol. xx : p. 34)-

CHEMISTRY OF COFFEE

169

_emical meanings of the same terms,
owever, a fair explanation of the cause of
ime of these qualities can be made. Care-
1 work by Warnier" showed the actual
iidities of some East India coffees to be :

'ABLE V — Acidity of Some East India Coffees
ffee from Acid Content

Sindjai 0.033%

Timor 0.028%

' Bauthain 0.019%

^K Boengei 0.016%

^B Loewae 0.021%

^^" Waloe Pengenteu 0.018%

Kawi Redjo 0.015%

Palman Tjiasem 0.022%

Malang 0.013%

These figures may be taken as reliable
examples of the true acid content of coffee ;
and though they seem very low, it is not at
all incomprehensible that the acids which
they indicate produce the acidity in a cup
of coffee. They probably are mainly vola-
tile organic acids, together with other
acidic-natured products of roasting. "We
know that very small quantities of acids are
readily detected in fruit juices and beer,
and that variation in their percentage is
quickly noticed, while the neutralization of
this small amount of acidity leaves an in-
sipid drink. Hence, it seems quite likely
that this small acid content gives to the
coffee brew its essential acidity. A few
minor experiments on neutralization have
proven that a very insipid beverage is pro-
duced by thus treating a coffee infusion.

The body, or what might be called the
licorice-like character, of coffee, is due
conceivably to the presence of bodies of a
glucosidic nature and to caramel. Astrin-
gency, or bitterness, is dependent upon the
decomposition products of crude fiber and
chlorogenic acid, and upon the soluble min-
eral content of the bean. The degree to
which a coffee is sweet-tasting or not is, of
course, dependent upon its other charac-
teristics, but probably varies with the re-
ducing sugar content. Aside from the
effects of these constituents upon cup qual-
ity, the influence of volatile aromatic and
flavoring constituents is always evident in
the cup valuation, and introduces a con-
trolling factor in the production of an
individualistic drink.

Coffee Extracts

I The uncertainty of the quality of coffee

' brews as made from day to day, the incon-

^*Phnrm. WeekM. voor Nederl., 1899 (no. 13).
Apoth. Ztg., 1899 (p. 14).

venience to the housewife of conducting the
extraction, and the inevitable trend of the
human race toward labor-saving devices,
have combined their influences to produce a
demand for a substance which will give a
good cup of coffee when added to water.
This gave rise to a number of concentrated
liquid and solid ''extracts of coffee," which,
because of their general poor quality, soon
brought this type of product into disrepute.
This is not surprising; for these prepara-
tions were mainly mixtures of caramel and
carelessly prepared extracts of chicory,
roasted cereals, and cheap coffee.

Liquid extracts of coffee galore have ap-
peared on the market only soon to disap-
pear. Difficulty is experienced in having
them maintain their quality over a pro-
tracted period of time, primarily due to
the hydrolyzing action of water on the
dissolved substances. They also ferment
readily, although a small percentage of
preservative, such as benzoate of soda, will
halt spoilage.'"

So much trouble is not encountered with
coffee-extract powders — the so-called
"soluble" or "instant" coffees. The ma-
jority of these powdered dry extracts do,
however, show great affinity for atmos-
pheric moisture. Their hygroscopicity
necessitates packing and keeping them in
air-tight containers to prevent them run-
ning into a solid, slowly soluble mass.

The general method of procedure em-
ployed in the preparation of these powders
is to extract ground roasted coffee with
water, and to evaporate the aqueous solu-
tion to dryness with great care. The major
difficulty which seems to arise is that the
heat needed to effect evaporation changes
the character of the soluble material, at the
same time driving off some volatile con-
stituents which are essential to a natural
flavor. Many complex and clever processes
have been developed for avoiding these
difficulties, and quite a number of patents
on processes, and several on the resultant
product, have been allowed; but the com-
mercial production of a soluble coffee of
freshly-brewed-coffee-duplicating-power is
yet to be accomplished. However, there
are now on the market several coffee-extract
powders which dissolve readily in water,
giving quite a fair approximation of freshly
brewed coffee. The improvement shown

<^ Jour. Assoc. Off. Agri. Chem., 1920 (vol. ill: p.
501).

170

ALL ABOUT COFFEE

since they first appeared augurs well for
the eventual attainment of their ultimate
goal.

Adulterants and Substitutes

There would appear to be three reasons
why substitutes for coffee are sought — the
high cost, or absence, of the real product;
the acquiring of a preferential taste, by the
consumer, for the substitute; and the in-
jurious effects of coffee when used to excess.
Makers of coffee substitutes usually empha-
size the latter reason ; but many substitutes,
which are, or have been, on the market,
seem to depend for their existence on the
other two. Properly speaking, there are
scarcely any real substitutes for coffee.
The substances used to replace it are mostly
like it only in appearance, and barely simu-
late it in taste. Besides, many of them are
not used alone, but are mixed with real
coffee as adulterants.

The two main coffee substitutes are
chicory and cereals. Chicory, succory,
Cichorium Iniybus, is a perennial plant,
growing to a height of about three feet,
bearing blue flowers, having a long tap root,
and possessing a foliage which is sometimes
used as cattle food. The plant is cultivated
generally for the sake of its root, which is
cut into slices, kiln-dried, and then roasted
in the same manner as coffee, usually. with
the addition of a small proportion of some
kind of fat. The preparation and use of
roasted chicory originated in Holland,
about 1750. Fresh chicory'' contains about
77 percent water, 7.5 gummy matter, 1.1 of
glucose, 4.0 of bitter extractive, 0.6 fat, 9.0
cellulose, inulin and fiber, and 0.8 ash.
Pure roasted chicory" contains 74.2 percent
water-soluble material, comprised of 16.3
percent water, 26.1 glucose, 9.6 dextrin and
inulin, 3.2 protein, 16.4 coloring matter,
and 2.6 ash; and 25.8 percent insoluble
substances, namely, 3.2 percent protein, 5.7
fat, 12.3 cellulose, and 4.6 ash. The effect
of roasting upon chicory is to drive off a
large percentage of water, increasing the
reducing sugars, changing a large propor-
tion of the bitter extractives and inulin, and
forming dextrin and caramel as well as the
characteristic chicory flavor.

The cereal substitutes contain almost
every type of grain, mainly wheat, rye,
oats, buckwheat, and bran. They are pre-
pared in two general ways, by roasting the

» Blyth, Wynter. Foods. 1909 (p. 3.59>

»2 Petermann. Bied. Zentr., 1899 (vol. ii : p. 211).

grains, or the mixtures of grains, with or
Avithout the addition of such substances as
sugar, molasses, tannin, citric acid, etc., or
by first making the floured grains into a
dough, and then baking, grinding, and
roasting. Prior to these treatments, the
grains may be subjected to a variety of
other treatments, such as impregnation
with various compounds, or germination.
The effect of roasting on these grains and
other substitutes is the production of a
destructive distillation, as in the case of
coffee; the crude fiber, starches, and other
carbohydrates, etc., being decomposed, with
the production of a flavor and an aroma
faintly suggesting coffee.

The number of other substitutes and imi-
tations which have been employed are too
numerous to warrant their complete de-
scription; but it will prove interesting to
enumerate a few of the more important
ones, such as malt, starch, acorns, soya
beans, beet roots, figs, prunes, date stones,
ivory nuts, sweet potatoes, beets, carrots,
peas, and other vegetables, bananas, dried
pears, grape seeds, dandelion roots, rinds
of citrus fruits, lupine seeds, whey, pea-
nuts, juniper berries, rice, the fruit of the
wax palm, cola nuts, chick peas, cassia
seeds, and the seeds of any trees and plants
indigenous to the country in which the
substitute is produced.

Aside from adulteration by mixing sub-
stitutes with ground coffee, and an occa-
sional case of factitious molded berries, the
main sophistications of coffee comprise
coating and coloring the whole beans.
Coloring of green and roasted coffees is
practised to conceal damaged and inferior
beans. Lead and zinc chromates, Prussian
blue, ferric oxid, coal-tar colors, and other
substances of a harmful nature, have been
employed for this purpose, being made to
adhere to the beans with adhesives. As
glazes and coatings, a variety of substances
have been emplyyed, such as butter, mar-
garin, vegetable oils, paraffin, vaseline,
gums, dextrin, gelatin, resins, glue, milk,
glycerin, salt, sodium bicarbonate, vinegar,
Irish moss, isinglass, albumen, etc. It is
usually claimed that coating is applied to
retain aroma and to act as a clarifying
agent; but the real reasons are usually to
increase weight through absorption of
water, to render low-grade coffees more at-'
tractive, to eliminate by-products, and to
assist in advertising.

CHEMISTRY OF COFFEE

171

METHODS OF ANALYSIS OF COFFEES"
{Official and Tentative)

(Sole responsibility for any errors in compilation
printing of these metliods is assumed by the
kuthor.i

1^;
Green Coffee
, Macroscopic Examination — Tentative
A macroscopic exaniiuation is usually sufficient
) show the presence of excessive amounts of
black and blighted coffee beans, coffee hulls,
stones, and other foreign matter. These can be
iparated by hand-picking and determined gravi-
letrically.

Coloring Matters — Tentative

Shake vigorously 100 grams or more of the

iple with cold water or 70 percent alcohol by
>lume. Strain through a coarse sieve and
low to settle. Identify soluble colors in the
)lution and insoluble pigments in the sediment.

Roasted Coffee
Macroscopic Examination — Tentative
Artificial coffee beans are apparent from their
Sxact regularity of form. Roasted legumes and
lumps of chicory, when present in whole roasted
coffee, can be picked out and identified micro-
scopically. In the case of ground coffee, si>rinkle
some of the sample on cold water and stir
lightly. Fragments of pure coffee, if not over-
roasted, will float ; while fragments of chicory,
legumes, cereals, etc., will sink immediately,
I'hicory coloring the water a decided brown. In
all cases identify the particles that sink by
microscopical examination.

4. Preparation of Sample — Official

Grind the sample to pass through a sieve hav-
ing holes 0.5 mm. in diameter and preserve in a
tightly stoppered bottle.

r>. Moisture — Tentative

Dry 5 gi'ams of the sample at 105° - 110° C. for
5 hours and subsequent periods of an hour each
until constant weight is obtained. The same pro-
cedure may be used, drying in vacuo at the tem-
perature of boiling water. In the case of whole
coffee, grind rapidly to a coarse powder and
weigh at once portions for the determination
without sifting and without unnecessary ex-
posure to the air.

6. Soluble Solids — Tentative
Place 4 grams of the sample in a 200-cc. flask,

add water to the mark, and allow the mass to
infuse for eight hours, with occasional shaking ;
let stand IG hours longer without shaking, filter,
evaporate 50 cc. of filtrate to dryness in a flat-
bottomed dish, dry at 100° C, cool and weigh.

7. Ash — Official
Char a quantity of the substance, rei>resenting

al>out 2 grams of the dry material, and burn
until free of carbon at a low heat, not to exceed
dull redness. If a carbon-free ash can not be
obtained in this manner, exhaust the charred
mass with hot water, collect the insoluble resi-
due on a filter, burn till the ash is white or
nearly so. and then add the filtrate to the ash
and evaporate to dryness. Heat to low redness,
until ash is white or grayish white, and weigh.

^ Association of Official Agricultural Chemists.
Sept. 1920.

8. Ash Insoluble in Acid — Official

Boil the water-insoluble residue, obtained as
directed under 9, or the total ash obtained as
directed under 7, with 25 cc. of 10-perceut hydro-
chloric acid (sp. gr. 1.050) for 5 minutes, collect
the insoluble matter on a Gooch crucible or an
ashless filter, wash with hot water, ignite and
weigh.

9. Soluble and Insoluble Ash — Official

Heat 5 to 10 grams of the sample in a plati-
num dish of from 50 to 100 cc. capacity at 100°
C. until the water is expelled, and add a few
drops of pure olive oil and heat slowly over a
rtame until swelling ceases. Then place the dish
in a muffle and heat at low redness until a white
ash is obtained. Add water to the ash, in the
platinum dish, heat nearly to boiling, filter
through ash-free filter paper, and wash with hot
water until the combined filtrate and washings
measure to about 00 cc. Return the filter and
contents to the platinum dish, carefully ignite,
cool and weigh. Compute percentages of water-
insoluble ash and water-soluble ash.

10. Alkalinity of the Soluble Ash — Official
Cool the filtrate from 9 and titrate with N/10

hydrochloric acid, using methyl orange as an
indicator.

Express the alkalinity in terms of the number
of cc. of N/10 acid per 1 gram of the sample.

11. Soluble Phosphoric Acid in the Ash — Official
Acidify the solution of soluble ash, obtained in

9, with dilute nitric acid and determine phos-
phoric acid (PoOs). For percentages up to 5
use an aliquot corresponding to 0.4 gram of sub-
stance, for percentages between 5 and 20 use an
aliquot corresponding to 0.2 gram of substance,
and for percentages above 20 use an aliquot cor-
responding to 0.1 gram of substance. Dilute to
75 - 100 cc, heat in a water-bath to 60° - 65° C,
and for percentages below 5 add 20 - 25 cc. of
freshly filtered molybdate solution. For per-
centages between 5 and 20 add 30 - 35 cc. of
molybdate solution. For percentages greater
than 20 add sufficient iholybdate solution to in-
sure complete precii>itation. Stir, let stand in
the bath for about 15 minutes, filter at once,
wash once or twice with water by decantation,
using 25-30 cc. each time, agitate the precipi-
tate thoroughly and allow to settle; transfer to
the filter and wash with cold water until the
filtrate from two fillings of the filter yields a
pink color upon the addition of phenolphthalein
and one drop of the standard alkali. Transfer
the precipitate and filter to the beaker, or pre-
cipitating vessel, dissolve the precipitate in a
small excess of the standard alkali, add a few
drops of phenolphthalein solution, and titrate
with the standard acid.

12. Insoluble Phosphoric Acid in the Ash —

Official
Determine iihosphoric acid (P3O5) in the in-
soluble ash by the foregoing method.

13. Chlorids — Official

Moisten 5 grams of the substance in a plati-
num dish with 20 cc. of a 5-percent solution of
sodium carbonate, evaporate to dryness and
ignite as thoroughly as possible at a temperature
not exceeding dull redness. Extract with hot
water, filter and wash. Return the residue to

172

ALL ABOUT COFFEE

the platinum dish and ignite to an ash ; dissolve
In nitric acid, and add this solution to the
water extract. Add a linown volume of N/10
sliver nitrate In slight excess to the combined
solutions. Stir well, filter and wash the sliver
chlorld precipitate thoroughly. To the filtrate
and washings add 5 cc. of a saturated solution
of ferric alum and a few cc. of nitric acid.
Titrate the excess silver with N/10 ammonium
or potassium thlocyanate until a permanent light
brown color appears. Calculate the amount of
chlorln.

14. Caffein — The Fendler and Stiiber Method —
Tentative
Pulverize the coffee to pass without residue
through a sieve having circular openings 1 mm.
in diameter. Treat a 10-gram sample with 10
grams of 10-percent ammonium hydroxld and
200 grams of chloroform in a glass-stoppered
bottle and shake continuously by machine or
hand for one-half hour. Pour the entire con-
tents of the bottle on a 12.5-cm. folded filter,
covering with a watch glass. Weigh 150 grams
of the filtrate into a 250-cc. flask and evaporate
on the_ steam bath, removing the last chloroform
with a blast of air. Digest the residue with
80 cc. of hot water for ten minutes on a steam
bath with frequent shaking, and let cool. Treat
the solution with 20 cc. (for roasted coftee) or
10 cc. (for unroasted coffee) of 1-percent potas-
sium permanganate and let stand for 15 minutes
at room temperature. Add 2 cc. of 3-percent
hydrogen peroxid (containing 1 cc. of glacial
acetic acid in 100 cc). If the liquid is still red
or reddish, add hydrogen peroxid, 1 cc. at a
time, until the excess of potassium permanganate
is destroyed. Place the flask on the steam bath
for 15 minutes, adding hydrogen peroxid in
0.5-cc. portions until the liquid becomes no
lighter in color. Cool and filter into a separa-
tory funnel, washing with cold water. Extract
four times with 25 cc. of chloroform. Evaporate
the chloroform extract from a weighed flask
with aid of an air blast and dry at 100° C. to
constant weight (one-half hour is usually suffi-
cient). Weigh the residue as caffein and
calculate on 7.5 grams of coffee. Test the purity
of the residue by determining nitrogen and mul-
tiplying by 3.464 to obtain caffein.

15. Caffein — Power-Chestnut Method — Official
Moisten 10 grams of the finely powdered
sample with alcohol, transfer to a Soxhlet, or
similar extraction apparatus, and extract with
alcohol for 8 hours. (Care should be exercised
to assure complete extraction.) Transfer the
extract with the aid of hot water to a porcelain
dish containing 10 grams of heavy magnesium
oxdd in suspension in 100 cc. of water. (This
reagent should meet the U. S. P. requirements.)
Evaporate slowly on the steam bath with fre-
quent stirring to a dry, powdery mass. Rub the
residue with a pestle into a paste with boiling
water. Transfer with hot water to a smooth
filter, cleaning the dish with a rubber-tipped
glass rod. Collect the filtrate in a liter flask
marked at 250 cc. and wash with boiling water
until the filtrate reaches the mark. Add 10 cc. of
10-percent sulphuric acid and boil gently for 30
minutes with a funnel in the neck of the flask.
Cool and fllter through a moistened double paper
into a separatory funnel and wash with small

portions of 0.5-percent sulphuric acid. Extract
with six successive 25-cc. portions of chloro-
form. Wash the combined chloroform ex-
tracts in a separatory funnel with 5 cc. of
1-percent potassium hydroxld solution. Fil-
ter the chloroform into an Erlenmeyer flask.
Wash the potassium hydroxld with 2 portions
of chloroform of 10 cc. each, adding them to the
flask together with the chloroform washings of
the filter paper. Evaporate or disitil on the
steam bath to a small volume (10-15 cc.) , trans-
fer with chloroform to a tared, beaker, evaporate
carefully, dry for 30 minutes in a water oven,
and weigh. The purity of the residue can be
tested by determining nitrogen and multiplying
by the factor 3.464.

16. Crude Fiber — Official

Prepare solutions of sulphuric acid and sodium
hydroxld of exactly 1.25-percent strength, deter-
mined by titration. Extract a quantity of the
substance representing about 2 grams of the dry
material with ordinary ether, or use residue
from the determination of the ether extract.
To this residue in a 500-cc. flask add 200 cc.
of boiling 1.25-percent sulphuric acid ; connect
the flask with a reflux condenser, the tube of
which passes only a short distance beyond the
rubber stopper into the flask, or simply cover a
tall conical flask, which is well suited for this
determination, with a watch glass or short
stemmed funnel. Boil at once and continue boil-
ing gently for thirty minutes. A blast of air
conducted into the flask may serve to reduce the
frothing of the liquid. Filter through linen, and
wash with boiling water until the washings are
no longer acid ; rinse the substance back into
the flask with 200 cc. of the boiling 1.25-ipercent
solution of sodium hydroxld free, or nearly so,
of sodium carbonate ; boil at once and continue
boiling gently for thirty minutes in the same
manner as directed above for the treatment with
acid. Filter at once rapidly, wash with boiling
water until the washings are neutral. The last
filtration may be performed upon a Gooch
crucible, a linen filter, or a tared filter paper.
If a linen filter is used, rinse the crude fiber,
after washing is completed, into a flat-bottomed
platinum dish by means of a jet of water ;
evaporate to dryness on a steam bath, dry to
constant weight at 110° C, weigh, incinerate
completely, and weigh again. The loss in weight
is considered to be crude fiber. If a tared filter
paper is used, weigh in a weighing bottle. In
any case, the crude fiber after drying to con-
stant weight at 110° C, must be incinerated and
the amount of the ash deducted from the original
weight.

17. Starch — Tentative

Extract 5 grams of the finely pulverized
sample on a hardened filter with five successive
portions (10 cc. each) of ether, wash with small
portions of J>5-percent alcohol by volume until
a total of 200 cc. have passed through, place the
residue in a beaker with 50 cc. of water, im-
merse the beaker in boiling water and stir con-
stantly for 15 minutes or until all the starch is
gelatinized ; cool- to 55° C, add 20 cc. of malt
extract and maintain at this temperature for an
hour. Heat again to boiling for a few minutes,
cool to 55° C, add 20 cc. of malt extract and
maintain at this temperature for an hour or
until the residue treated with iodln shows no

CHEMISTRY OF COFFEE

173

l)lue color upon microscopic examination. Cool,
make up directly to 250 cc, and filter. Place
1100 cc. of the filtrate in a fiask with 20 cc. of
liydrochloric acid (sp. gr. 1.125) ; connect with a
loflux condenser and heat in a boiling water
bath for 2.5 hours. Cool, nearly neutralize with
sodium hydroxid solution, and make up to 500
cc. Mix the solution well, pour through a dry
filter and determine the dextrose In an aliquot.
Conduct a blank determination upon the same
volume of the malt extract as used upon the
sample, and correct the weight of reduced cop-

;r accordingly. The weight of the dextrose
Obtained multiplied by 0.90 gives the weight of

tarch.
|8. Sugars — Tentative

See original."'
19. Petroleum Ether Extract — Official

Dry 2 grams of coffee at 100° C, extract with

?troleum ether (boiling point 35° to 50° C.) for
IG hours, evaporate the solvent, dry the residue
It 100° C, cool, and weigh.
Total Aciditu — Tentative

Treat 10 grams of the sample, prepared as
lirected under 4, wdth 75 cc. of 80-percent alco-
hol by volume in an Erlenmeyer flask, stopper,
md allow to stand 16 hours, shaking occasion-
illy. Filter and transfer an aliquot of the
lltrate (25 cc. in the case of green coffee, 10 cc.
In the case of roasted coffee; to a beaker, dilute
|o about 100 cc. with water and titrate with

f/10 alkali, using phenolphthalein as an indi-
Bator. Express the result as the number of cc.
)f N/10 alkali required to neutralize the acidity
)f 100 grams of the sample.

21. Volatile Acidity — Tentative

Into a volatile acid apparatus introduce a few
glass beads, and over these place 20 grams of
the unground sample. Add 100 cc. of recently
boiled water to the sample, place a sufficient
quantity of recently boiled water in the outer
flask and distil until the distillate is no longer
acid to litmus paper. Usually 100 cc. of distillate
will be collected. Titrate the distillate with
N/10 alkali, using phenolphthalein as an indi-
cator. Express the result as the number of cc.
of N/10 alkali required to neutralize the acidity
of 100 grams of the sample.

Unofficial Methods

22. Protein

Determine nitrogen in 3 grams of the sample
by the Kjeldahl or Gunning method. This gives

the total nitrogen due to both the proteids and
the caCfein. To obtain the protein nitrogen, sub-
tract from the total nitrogen the nitrogen due to
caffein, obtained by direct determination on the
separated caffein or by calculation (caffein
divided by 3.464 gives nitrogen). Multiply by
0.25 to obtain the amount of protein.

23. Ten Percent Extract — McGill Method
Weigh into a tared flask the equivalent of 10

grams of the dried substance, add water until
the contents of the flask weigh 110 grams, con-
nect with a reflux condenser and heat, beginning
the boiling in 10 to 15 minutes. Boil for 1 hour,
cool for 15 minutes, weigh again, making up
any loss by the addition of water, filter, and
take the specific gravity of the filtrate at 15° C.

According to McGill, a 10-percent extract of
pure coffee has a specific gravity of 1.00986 at
15° C, and under the same treatment chicory
gives an extract with a specific gravity of
1.02821. In mixtures of coffee and chicory the
approximate percentage of chicory may be cal-
culated by the following formula :

(1.02821 — sp.gr.)

Percent of chicory = 100 •

0.01835

The index of refraction of the above solution
may be taken with the Zeiss immersion refrac-
tometer or with the Abbe refractometer.

With a 10-percent coffee extract, n^ 20° =
1.3377.

With a 10-percent chicory extract, n^ 20° =
1.3448.

Determinations of the solids, ash, sugar, nitro-
gen, etc., may be made in the 10-percent extract,
if desired.

24. Caffetannic Acid — Krug's Method^*

Treat 2 grains of the coffee with 10 cc. ol
water and digest for 36 hours ; add 25 cc. of 90-
percent alcohol and digest 24 hours more, filter,
and wash with 90-percent alcohol. The filtrate
contains tannin, caffein, color, and fat. Heat the
filtrate to the boiling point and add a saturated
solution of lead acetate. If this is carefully
done, a caffetannate of lead will be precipitated
containing 49 percent of lead. As soon as the
precipitate has become flocculent, collect on a
tared filter, wash with 90-percent alcohol until
free from lead, wash with ether, dry and weigh.
The precipitate multiplied by 0.51597 gives the
weight of the caffetannic acid.

"^ Association of Official Agricultural Chemists.
Sept., ]!)20.

"U. S. Dept. Agri., Div. of Chem. Bull. 13 (pt. 7:
p. 908).

Chapter XVIII
PHARMACOLOGY OF THE COFFEE DRINK

General physiological action — Effect on children — Effect on longev-
ity — Behavior in the alimentary regime — Place in dietary — Action
on bacteria — Use in medicine — Physiological action of " caff etannic
acid" — Of caffeol — Of caffein — Effect of caffein on mental and
motor efficiency — Conclusions

By Charles W. Trigg

Indnsti-ial Fellow of the Mellon Institute of Industrial Research, Pittsburgh, 191G-1920

THE published information regarding
the effects of coffee drinking on the
human system is so contradictory in
its nature that it is hazardous to make
many generalizations about the physiologi-
cal behavior of coffee. Most of the investi-
gations that have been conducted to date
have been characterized by incompleteness
and a failure to be sufficiently comprehen-
sive to eliminate the element of individual
-idiosyncrasy from the results obtained. Ac-
cordingly, it is possible to select statements
from literature to the effect either that cof-
fee is an ''elixir of life," or even a poison.
This is a deplorable state of affairs, nor
calculated to promote the dissemination of
accurate knowledge among the consuming
public, but it may be partly excused upon
the grounds that experimental apparatus
has not always been at the level of perfec-
tion that it now occupies. Also, to do jus-
tice to some of the able men who have
interested themselves in this problem, it
should be said that some of their results
were obtained in researches, distinguished
by painstaking accuracy, which have ef-
fected the establishment of the major reac-
tions of ingested coffee.

The Physiological Action of Coffee

Drinking of coffee by mankind may be
attributed to three causes : the demand for,
and the pleasing effects of, a hot drink (a

very small percentage of the coffee con-
sumed is taken cold), the pleasing reaction
which its flavors excite on the gustatory
nerve, and the stimulating effect which it
has upon the body. The flavor is due
largely to the volatile aromatic constit-
uents, "caffeol," which, when isolated, have
a general depressant action on the system;
and the stimulation is caused by the caffein.
The general and specific actions of these in-
dividual components, together with that of
the hypothetical "caffetannic acid," are
considered under separate headings.

Coffee may be considered a member of
the general class of adjuvant, or auxiliary,
foods to which other beverages and condi-
ments of negligible inherent food value be-
long. Its position on the average menu
may be attributed largely to its palatability
and comforting effects. However, the
medicinal value of coffee in the dietary and
per se must not be overlooked.

The ingestion o,f coffee infusion is always
followed by evidences of stimulation. It
acts upon the nervous system as a powerful
cerebro-spinal stimulant, increasing mental
activity and quickening the power of per-
ception, thus making the thoughts more
precise and clear, and intellectual work
easier without any evident subsegirent de-
pression. The muscles are^caused to con-
tract more vigorously, increasing their
working power without there being any

174

PHARMACOLOGY OF COFFEE

175

secondary reaction leading to a diminished
capacity for work. Its action upon the cir-
culation is somewhat antagonistic; for
hile it tends to increase the rate of the
eart by acting directly on the heart
uscle, it tends to decrease it by stimulat-
ing the inhibitory center in the medulla/
The effect on the kidneys is more marked,
he diuretic effect being shown by an in-
rease in water, soluble solids, and of uric
cid directly attributable to the caffein con-
ent of the coffee taken. In the alimentary
iract coffee seems to stimulate the oxyntic
ells and slightly to increase the secretion
of hydrochloric acid, as well as to favor in-
testinal peristalsis. It is difficult to accept
reports of coffee accomplishing both a de-
crease in metabolism and an increase in
body heat; but if the production of heat by
^Bithe demethylation of caffein to form uric
^Hftcid and a possible repression of perspira-
^Hpion by coffee be considered, the simultane-
^^Bus occurrence of these two physiological
^^■•eactions may be credited.
^L The disagreement of medical authorities
over the pliysiological effects of coffee is
quite pronounced. This may be observed
by a careful perusal of the following state-
ments made by these men. It will be no-
ticed that the majority opinion is that
coffee in moderation is not harmful. Just
how much coffee a person may drink, and
still remain within the limits of moderation
and temperance, is dependent solely upon
the individual constitution, and should be
decided from personal experience rather
than by accepting an arbitrary standard set
by some one who professes to be an author-
ity on the matter.

A writer in the British Homeopathic Re-
vieiv^ says that "the exciting effects of
coffee upon the nervous system exhibit
themselves in all its departments as a tem-
porary exaltation. The emotions are raised
in pitch, the fancies are lively and vivid,
benevolence is excited, the religious sense is
stimulated, there is great loquacity. . . .
The intellectual powers are stimulated,
both memory and judgment are rendered
more keen and unusual vivacity of verbal
expression rules for a short time." He
continues :

Hahnemann gives a characteristically careful
account of the coffee headache. If the quantity
of coffee taken he immoderately great and the
l>ody he very excitable and quite unused to cof-
fee, there occurs a semilateral headache from

the upper part of the parietal hone to the base
of the brain. The cerebml membranes of this
side also seem to be painfully sensitive, the
hands and feet becoming cold, and sweat ap-
pears on the brows and palms. The disposition
becomes irritable and intolerant, anxiety, trem-
bling and restlessness are apparent. ... I
have met with headaches of this type which
yielded readily to coffee and with many more
in which the indicated remedy failed to act until
the use of coffee as a beverage was abandoned.
The eyes and ears suffer alike from the super-
excitation of coffee. There is a characteristic
toothache associated with coffee.

In apparent contradiction of this opin-
ion, Dr. Valentin Nalpasse,' of the Faculty
of Medicine of Paris, states :

When coffee is properly made and taken in
moderation, it is a most valuable drink. It
facilitates the digestion because it produces a
local excitement. Its principal action gives clear
and stable imaginative power to the brain. By
doing that, it makes intellectual work easy, -and,
to a certain extent, regulates the functions of
the brain. The thoughts become more precise
and clear, and mental combinations are formed
with much greater rapidity. Under the influ-
ence of coffee, the memory is sometimes sur-
prisingly active, and ideas and words flow with
ease and elegance. . . . Many people abuse
coffee without feeling any bad effect.

Discussing the use and abuse of coffee,
I. N. Love* says :

The world has in the infusion of coffee one of
its most valuable beverages. It is a prompt
diffusible stimulant, antiseptic and encourager
of elimination. In season it supports, tides over
danger, helps the appropriate powers of the sys-
tem, whips up the flagging energies, enhances
the endurance ; but it is in no sense a food, and
for this reason it should be used temperately.

Also Dr. Jonathan Hutchinson' makes
the following weighty pronouncement :

In reference to my suggestion to give children
tea and coffee, I may explain that it is done ad-
visedly. There is probably no objection to their
use even at early ages. They arouse the duU,
calm the excitable, prevent headaches, and fit the
brain for work. They preserve the teeth, keep
them tight in their place, strengthen the vocal
chords, and prevent sore throat. To stigmatize
these invaluable articles of diet as "nerve stimu-
lants" is an erroneous expression, for they un-
doubtedly have a right to rank as nerve
nutrients.

But Dr. Harvey Wiley" comes forth with
evidence on the other side, saying:

The effects of the excessive use of coffee, tea,
and other natural caffein beverages is well
known. Although the caffein is combined in these

^Niles, G. M. Tea & Coffee Trade Jour., 1910
(vol. xix : no. 1 : p. 27).
"Through The Sun, New York, July 17. 1910.

' Annales PoUtiquea et Littirairea, through Tea, d
Coffee Trade Jour., 1906 (vol. x: p. 303).

*Jour. Am. Med. Assoc., 1891 (vol. xvl).

s The Times, London, Oct. 1, 1904 ; through Tea &
Coffee Trade Jour, 1911 (vol. xxl : p. 36).

« Oood Housekeeping, through Tea d Coffee Trade
Jour., 1912 (vol. xxiii : p. 237).

176

ALL ABOUT COFFEE

beverages naturally, and they are as a rule
taken at meal times, which mitigates the effects
of the caffein, they are recognized by every one
as tending to produce sleeplessness, and often
indigestion, stomach disorders, and a condition
which, for lack of a better term, is described
as nervousness. . . . The excessive drinking of
tea and coffee is acknowledged to be injurious
by practically all specialists.

Dr. V. C. Vaughn/ of the University of
Michigan, speaking of tea and coffee, ex-
presses this opinion :

I believe that caffein used as a beverage and
in moderation not only is harmless to the ma-
jority of adults, but is beneficial.

This verdict is upheld by the results of a
symposium" conducted by the Medical
Times, in which a large majority of the
medical experts participating, among whom
may be enumerated Drs. Lockwood, Wood,
Hollingworth, Robinson, and Barnes,
agreed that the drinking of coffee is not
harmful per se, but that over-indulgence is
the real cause of any ill effects. This is also
true of any ingested material.

Insomnia is a condition frequently at-
tributed to coffee, but that the authorities
disagree on this ground is shown by
Wiley's* contention, "We know beyond
doubt that the caffein (in coffee) makes a
direct attack on the nerves and causes in-
somnia." While Woods Hutchinson' ob-
serves :

Oddly enough, a cup of hot, weak tea or coffee,
with plenty of cream and sugar, will often help
you to sleep, for the grateful warmth and stimu-
lus to the lining of the stomach, drawing the
blood into it and away from the head, will pro-
duce more soothing effects than the small amount
of caffein will produce stimulating and wakeful
ones.

The writer has often had people remark
to him that while black coffee sometimes
kept them awake, coffee with, cream or
sugar or both made them drowsy.

In the course of experiments conducted
by Montuori and Pollitzer'" it was found
that coffee prepared by hot infusion when
given by mouth or hypodermically with the
addition of a small dose of alcohol proved
an efficient means of combating the perni-
cious effects of low temperatures. Coffee
prepared by boiling, and tea, showed nega-
tive effects.

The value of coffee as a strength-con-
server, and its function of increasing en-

■ ' Tea d Coffee Trade Jour., 1913 (vol. xxiv : p. 455).

» Tea & Coffee Trade Jour., 1912 (vol. xxiii : p.
356).

' Good Housekeeping, through Tea & Coffee Trade
Jour., 1915 (vol. xxviii : p. 533).

^'> Atti. accad. Lincei, 1915 (vol. xxiv: no. 2: pp.
543-48).

durance, morale, and healthfulness, was
demonstrated by the great stress which the
military authorities, in the late and in pre-
vious wars, placed upon furnishing the
soldiers with plenty of good coffee, particu-
larly at times when they were under the
greatest strain. Various articles" record
this fact; and these statements are further
borne out by the data given below in the
discussion of the physiological effects of
caffein, to which the majority of the stimu-
lating effects of coffee may be attributed.

According to Fauvel,'^ with a healthy
patient on a vegetable diet, chocolate and
coffee increase the excretion of purins,
diminishing the excretion of uric acid and
apparently hindering the precipitation of
uric acid in the organism. This diminu-
tion, however, was not due to retention of
uric acid in the organism.

"Habit-forming" is one of the adjectives
often used in describing coffee, but it is a
fact that coffee is much less likely than alco-
holic liquors to cause ill effects. A man
rarely becomes a slave of coffee ; and exces-
sive drinking of this beverage never pro-
duces a state of moral irresponsibility or
leads to the commission of crime. Dr. J. W.
Mallet," in testimony given before a Fed-
eral Court, stated that caffein and coffee
were not habit-forming in the correct sense
of the term. His definition of the expres-
sion is that the habit formed must be a
detrimental and injurious one — one which
becomes so firmly fixed upon a person form-
ing it that it is thrown off with great diffi-
culty and with considerable suffering,
continuous exercise. of the habit increasing
the demand for the habit-forming drug.
It is well known that the desire ceases in a
very short period of time after cessation of
use of caffein-containing beverages, so that
in that sense, coffee is not habit-forming.

It has been shown by Gourewitsch" that
the daily administration of coffee produces
a certain degree of tolerance, and that the
doses must be increased to obtain toxic re-
sults. Harkness" has been quoted as stat-
mg that "taken in moderation, coffee is one
of the most w^holesome beverages known.
It assists digestion, exhilarates the spirits,
and counteracts the tendency to sleep."

" Nalpasse, Dr. Valentin, loc. cit. (see 3).
Flint, Dr. Austin B. Text Book of Physiology.
Wood, H. C, Jr. Therapeutic Gazette, 1912 (vol.
xxxvi : p. 13).

^ Compt, rend. (vol. cxlviii : p. 1541).
" Tea & Coffee Trade Jour., 1914 (vol. xxvi : p.
5.39).

^*Arch. exp. Path. Pharm., 1907 (vol. Ivii : p. 214).
^^ Universal Dictionary, 1897 (vol. i: p. 1097).

ALL ABOUT COFFEE

Men and Women Laborers Picking Cofi-ee on a Sao Paulo Estate

SACKING COFIEE IN A WAUEJIOUSE AT THE POBT OF SANTOS

PICKING AND SACKING COFFEE IN BRAZIL

PHARMACOLOGY OF COFFEE

177

Carl V. Voit," the German physiological
chemist, says this about coffee:

The effect of coffee is that we are bothered
[less by uupleasant experiences and become more
[able to conquer difficulties; therefore, for the

feasting rich, it makes intestinal work after a

meal le^^s evident and drives away the deadly
( ennui ; for the student it is a means to keep wide

awake and fresh ; for the worker it makes the

day's fatigue more bearable.

Dr. Brady" believes that the so-called
,harmfulness of coffee is mainly psychologi-
jcal, as evidenced by his expression, ''Most
I of the prejudice which exists against coffee
as a beverage is based upon nothing more
(than morbid fancy. People of dyspeptic
for neurotic temperament are fond of assum-
ing that coffee must be bad because it is so
good, and accordingly, denying themselves
the pleasure of drinking it."

The recounting of evidence, both pro and

con, relevant to the general effects of coffee

tcould continue almost ad infinitum, but the

fairest unification of the various opinions is

best quoted from Woods Hutchinson ' :

Somewhere from 1 to 3 percent of the com-
munity are distinctly injured or poisoned by
tea or coffee, even small amounts producing
burning of the stomach, palpitation of the heart,
headache, eruptions of the skin, sensations of
extreme nervousness, and so on ; though the re-
maining 97 i>ercent are not injured by them in
I any appreciable way if consumed in moderation.

So, if one is personally satisfied that he
belongs to the abnormal minority, and has
not been argued by fallacious reasoning
into his belief that coffee injures him, he
should either reduce his consumption of
coffee or let it alone. Even those most
vitally interested in the commercial side of
coffee will admit that this is the logical
procedure.

Effects of Coffee on Children

The same sort of controversy has raged
around the question of the advisability of
giving coffee to children as has occurred
regarding its general action. Dr. J.
Hutchinson"* advocates furnishing children
with coffee, while Dr. Charlotte Abbey"" is
strongly against such a practise, claiming
that use of caffein-containing beverages be-
fore the attainment of full growth will
weaken nerve power. Nalpasse" observes

" Handhuch der Physiologic, 1881 (vol. vi : p. 435).

"r/ie CoScc Club, 1921 (vol. i: p. 4).

" Saturday Evening Post, throujih Tea d Coffee
Trade Jour, 1914 ^vol. xxvii : p. 5St)).

*» hoc. cit. (see 5).

''Seven Truths to Teach the Young in Regard to
Life and Sex, No. 2.

** Loc. cit. (see 3).

that until fully developed the young are
immoderately excited by coffee ; and Hawk"
is of the opinion that to give such a stimu-
lant to an active school-child is both logi-
cally and dietetically incorrect. Dr.
Vaughn" advances this scientific argument
against the drinking of coffee by children
under seven years of age :

In proportion to body weight the young con-
tain more of the xanthin bases than adults.
They are already laden with these physiological
stimulants, and the additional dose given in tea
or coffee may be harmful.

In a study of the effects of coffee drink-
ing upon 464 school children, C. K, Tay-
lor'* found a slight difference in mental
ability and behavior, unfavorable to coffee.
About 29 percent of these children drank
no coffee ; 46 percent drank a cup a day ;
12 percent, 2 cups; 8 percent, 3 cups; and
the remainder, 4 or more cups a day. The
measurements of height, weight, and hand
strength also showed a slight advantage in
favor of the non-coffee drinkers. If these
results be talfen as truly representative,
their indication is obvious. However, it
seems desirable to repeat these experiments
upon other groups ; at the same time noting
carefully the factors of environment, and
other diet, before any criterion is made.

As a refutation to this experimental evi-
dence is the practical experience of the in-
habitants of the Island of Groix, off the
Brittany coast, whose annual consumption
of coffee is nearly 30 pounds per cxpita,
being ingested both as the roasted bean and
as an infusion. It is reported that many
of the children are nourished almost en-
tirely on coffee soup up to ten years of age,
yet the mentality and physique of the
populace does not fall below that of others
of the same stock and educational oppor-
tunities," "•
Pertinent in this connection is Hawk^s"*
statement that young mothers should re-
frain from the use of coffee, as caffein
stimulates the action of the kidneys and
tends to bring about a loss from the body
of some of the salts necessary to the de-
velopment of the unborn child as well as
for the proper production of milk during
the nursing period. The caffein of coffee
also increases the flow of milk, but the milk
produced is correspondingly dilute and a
later decreased secretion may be expected.

"Ladies' Home Journal, Dec, 1916 (p. 37).

'^ Loc. cit. (see 7).

^ Psych. Clin. (vol. vi : pp. 56-5S).

"Tea d Coffee Trade Jour., June, 1905 (p. 274).

178

ALL ABOUT COFFEE

Furthermore, some of the caffein of the
coffee may pass into the mother's milk, thus
reaching the child, so that the use of coffee
during the nursing period is undesirable on
this ground also." Naturally, the question
arises as to whether this arra^ignment is
purely theoretical or based upon analytical
and clinical data.

It is a difficult matter definitely to set
an age below which coffee should not be
drunk, as the time of reaching maturity
varies with climate and ancestral origin.
Yet, from a theoretical standpoint, chil-
dren before or during the adolescent period
should be limited to the use of a rather
small amount of tea and coffee as bever-
ages, as their poise and nerve control have
not reached a stage of development suffi-
cient to warrant the stimulation incident
to the consumption of an appreciable quan-
tity of caffein.

Coffee Drinking and Longevity

There are many who would have us be-
lieve that the use of coffee is only a means
toward the end of quickly reaching the
great beyond; but it is known that the
habitual coffee drinker generally enjoys
good health, and some of the longest-lived
people have used it from their earliest
youth without any apparent injury to their
health. Nearly every one has an acquaint-
ance who has lived to a ripe old age despite
the use of coffee. Quoting Metchnikoff'' :

In some cases centenarians have been much
addicted to the drinlving of coffee. The reader
will recall Voltaire's reply when his doctor de-
scribed the grave harm that comes from the
abuse of coffee, which acts as a real poison.
"Well", said Voltaire, "I have been poisoning
myself for nearly eighty years." There are cen-
tenarians who have lived longer than Voltaire,
and have drunk still more coffee. Elizabeth^
Dririeux, a native of Savoy, reached the age of 1
114. Her principal food was coffee, of which i
she took daily as many as forty small cups.
She was jovial and a boon table companion, and
used black coffee in quantities that would have
surprised an Arab. Her coffee-pot was always
on the fire, like the tea-pot in an English cot-
tage (Lejoncourt, p. 84; Chemin, p. 147).

The entire matter resolves itself into one
of individual tolerance, resistivity, and
constitution. Numerous examples of young
abstainers who have died and coffee
drinkers who have still lived on can be
found, and vice versa, the preponderance
of instances being in neither direction.
Bodies of persons killed by accident have
been painstakingly examined for physio-

" The Prolongation oj Life.

logical changes attributable to coffee; but
no difference between those of coffee and
of non-coffee drinkers (ascertained by care-
ful investigation of their life history)
could be discerned."' In the long run, it is
safe to say that the effect of coffee drinking
upon the prolongation or shortening of life
is neutral.

Coffee in the Alimentary Tract

When coffee is taken per os it passes di-.
rectly to the stomach, where its sole im-
mediate action is to dilute the previous
contents, just as other ingested liquids do.
Eventually the caffein content is absorbed
by the system, and from thence on a stimu-
lation is appareiit. Considerable conjec-
ture has occurred over the difference in the
effects of tea and coffee, the most feasible
explanation advanced being one appearing
in the London Lancet.'"

The caffein tannate of tea is precipitated by
weak acids, and the presumption is that it is
precipitated by the gastric juice and, therefore,
the caffein is probably not absorbed until it
reaches the alkaMne alimentary tract. In the
\case of coffee, however, in whatever form the
caffein may be present, it is soluble in both al-
kaline and acid liuids, and, therefore, the absorp-
tion of the alkaloid probably takes place in the
stomach.

This theory, if true, goes far toward ex-
plaining the more rapid stimulation of
coffee.

The statement has sometimes been made
that milk or cream causes the coffee liquid
to become coagulated when it comes into
contact with the acids of the stomach. This
is true, but does not carry with it the in-
ference that indigestibility accompanies
this coagulation. Milk and cream, upon
reaching the stomach, are coagulated by the
..gastric juice; but the casein product
formed is not indigestible. These liquids,
when added to coffee, are partially acted
upon by the small acid content of the brew,
so that the gastric juice action is not so
pronounced, for the coagulation was started
before ingestion, and the coagulable con-
stituent, casein, is more dilute in the cup
as consumed than it is in milk. Accord-
ingly, the particles formed by it in the
stomach will be relatively smaller and more
quickly and easily digested than milk per
se. It has been observed that coffee con-
taining milk or cream is not as stimulating
as black coffee. The writer believes that

^ Hekteon and LeConte.

» Through Tea & Coffee Trade Jour.. 1914 (vol.
xxvi : pp. 29 32).

PHARMACOLOGY OF COFFEE

179

is is probably due to mechanical inclusion .
caffein in the casein and fat particles,

d also to some adsorption of the alkaloid
by them. This would materially retard the
absorption of the caffein by the body,
spread the action over a longer period of
time, and hence decrease the maximum
stimulation attained.

In a few instances, a small fraction of
one percent of coffee users, there is a cer-
tain type of distress, localized chiefly in the

imentary tract, caused by coffee, which

n not be blamed upon the much-maligned
caffein. The irritating elements may be
generally classified as compounds formed
upon the addition of cream or milk to the
coffee liquor, volatile constituents, and
products formed by hydrolysis of the
fibrous part of the grounds. It may be
generally postulated that the main causa-
tion of this discomfort is due to substances
formed in the incorrect brewing of coffee,
the effect of which is accentuated by the
addition of cream or milk, when the condi-
tion of individual idiosyncrasy is present.

Without enlarging upon his reason, Lo-
rand'" concludes that neither tea nor coffee
is advisable for weak stomachs. Nalpasse,"
however, believes that coffee taken after
meals makes the digestion more perfect and
more rapid, augmenting the secretions, and
that it agrees equally well with people in-
clined to embonpoint and heavy eaters
whose digestion is slow and difficult.
Thompson^^ also observes that coffee drunk
in moderation is a mild stimulant to gastric
digestion.

Eder'^ reported, as the result of an in-
quiry into the action of coffee on the ac-
tivity of the stomachs of ruminants, that
coffee infusions produced a transitory in-
crease in the number and intensity of the
movements of the paunch, but that the in-
fluence exercised was very irregular.

An elaborate investigation of the action
of tea and coffee on digestion in the stomn,
ach was made by Fraser,^* in which hei
found that both retard peptic digestion, |
the former to a greater degree than the'
latter. The digestion of white of egg, ham,
salt beef, and roast beef was much less af-
fected than that of lamb, fowl, or bread.
Coffee seemed actually to aid the digestion

'» Old Age Deferred, 1910.
^^ Loc. cit. (see 3).
^Practical Dietetics, 1017 (p. 254).
^^ Zentr. Biochem Biophys, 1912 (vol. xili : p. 504).
^Jour. Anat. d Phyai., through Tea & Coffee Trade
Jour., 1913 (vol. XXV : p. 345).

of egg and ham. He attributed the retard-
ing effect to the tannic acid of the tea and
the volatile constituents of the coffee — the
caffein itself favoring digestion rather than
otherwise. Tea increased the production of
i gas in all but salt foods, whereas coffee did
' not. Coffee is, therefore, to be preferred in
cases of flatulent dyspepsia.

Hutchinson, in his Food and Dietetics,
opines :

As regards the practical inferences to be
drawn from experiences and observations, it may
be said that in health the disturbance of diges-
tion px'oduced by the infused beverages (tea and
coffee) is negligible. Roberts, indeed, goes so
far as to suggest that the slight slowing of di-
gestion which they produce may be favored
rather than otherwise, as tending to compensate
for too rapid digestibility which refinements of
manufacture and preparation have made char-
acteristic of modern foods.

Regarding increase in secretory activity,
Moore and Allanston"' report that in their
experience meat extracts, tea, caffein solu-
tion, and coffee call forth a greater gastric
secretion than does water, while with milk
the flow of gastric juice seems to be re-
tarded. Cushing'* and others support this
statement. This action is partially ex-
plained by Voit on the grounds that all
tasty foods increase gastric secretion, the
action being partly psychological; but
Cushing observed the same effects upon in-
troducing coffee directly into the stomachs
of animals.

In general, a moderate amount of coffee
stimulates appetite, improves digestion and
relieves the sense of plenitude in the stom-
ach. It increases intestinal peristalsis, acts
as a mild laxative, and slightly stimulates
seei:£tion._ofbile. Excessive use, however,
profoundly disturbs digestive function, and
promotes constipation and hemorrhoids."
There is much evidence to support the view
that "neither tea, coffee, nor chicory in
dilute solutions has any deleterious action
on the digestive ferments, although in
strong solutions such an action may be
manifest.'"' After conducting exhaustive
experiments with various types of coffee,
Lehmann'' concluded that ordinary coffee is
without effect on the digestion of the ma-
jority of sound persons, and may be used
with impunity.

^Lancet, Dec 2, 1911.
^^Pharmacology, 1913 (p. 258).

" Butler. Materia Medica, Therapeutics and Pharma-
cology, 1906 (p. 256).

»«Tognmi, K. Biochem. Zeit , 1908 (vol. ix : p. 453).
'» Munch. Med. Wochcnschr. (vol. Ix : pp. 281-85. 357-
61).

Naturwias. Umschau. d. Chem., Ztg. 1913 (p. 4).
Schxoeiz. Wochenachr. (vol. 11: pp. 490-92).

180

ALL ABOUT COFFEE

Coffee in the Dietary — Food Value

There are three things to be considered
in deciding upon the inclusion of a
substance in the dietary — palatability, di-
gestibility without toxicity or disarrange-
ment, and calorific value. Coffee is as
satisfactory from these viewpoints as any
other food product.

The palatability of a well-made cup of
good coffee needs no eulogizing; it speaks
for itself. It adds enormously to the at-
tractiveness of the meal, and to our ability
to eat with relish and appetite large
amounts of solid foods, without a subse-
quent uncomfortable feeling. Wiley^" says
that the feeling of drowsiness after a full
meal is a natural condition incidental to
the proper conduct of digestion, and that
to drive away this natural feeling with cof-
fee must be an interference with the normal
condition. However, if by so doing, we can
increase our over-all efficiency without ma-
terial harm to our digestive organs (and
we can and do), the procedure has much
in its favor both psychologically and
dietetically.

The fact that coffee favors digestion
without eventual disarrangement has been
demonstrated above. On the subject of the
relative agreement with the constitution of
foods of daily consumption. Dr. English"
said:

It is well known that there is no species of
diet which invariably suits all constitutions, nor
will that which is palatable and salutary at one
time be equally palatable and salutary at an-
other time to the same individual. I think the
most natural food provided for us is milk ; yet I
will engage to show twenty instances where milk
disagrees more than coffee.

Further in this regard, Hutchinson^"
considers that ninety percent of the "dys-
pepsias" attributed to coffee are due to
malnutrition, or to food simultaneously in-
gested, no disease known to the medical
profession being directly attributable to it.

No one cognizant of the facts will con-
tend that a cup of black coffee has any di-
rect food value ; but not so with the roasted
bean. This has quite an appreciable content
of protein and fat, both substances of high
calorific value. The inhabitants of the
Island of Groix eat the whole roasted coffee
bean in considerable quantity, and seem to
obtain considerable nourishment therefrom.
Also, the Galla, a wandering tribe of

*^ hoc. cit. (see 6).

■•1 Through Tea d Coffee Trade Jour., 1916 (vol.
XXX : p. 443).

*^Tea d Coffee Trade Jour., 1909 (vol. xvi : p. 271).

Africa, make large use of food balls, about
the size of billiard balls, consisting of pul-
verized coffee held in shape with fat. One
ball is said to contain a day's ration; and,
because of its food content and stimulating
power, serves to sustain them on long
marches of days' duration.

When an infusion, or decoction, of
roasted coffee is made, about 1.25 percent
of the extracted matter is protein, it being
accompanied by traces of dextrin and
sugar. The same dearth of extraction of
food materials occurs upon infusing coffee
substitutes. This small amount can have
but little dietetic significance. However,
upon addition of sugar and of milk or
cream, with their content of protein, fat,
and lactose, the calorific value of .the cup
of coffee rises. Lusk and Gephart" give
the food value of an ordinary restaurant
cup of coffee as 195.5 calories, and Locke"
gives it as 156.

Mattei"" found that 8 cc. of an infusion
of roaSited Mocha coffee of five-percent
strength suppressed incipient polyneuritis
in pigeons within a few hours' time. Their
weight did not improve, but otherwise they
were completely restored to health. How-
ever, in from four to six weeks after the
apparent cure, the symptoms rapidly re-
turned and the pigeons perished, with
symptoms of paralysis and cerebral com-
plications. The temporary cure was prob-
ably due to caffein stimulation and sec-
onciary actions of the volatile constituents
of coffee, which may be related to the vita-
mines; for it is not likely that the vita-
mines would withstand the heat of roasting.
If B-vitamine does occur in roasted coffee,
it is present only in traces.""

The inclusion of coffee in the average
dietary is warranted because of its evident
worth as an aid to digestion and for its as-
similating power, thus earning its charac-
terization as an "adjuvant food."

Action of Coffee on Bacteria

The employment of coffee as an aid to
sanitation has been but little considered.
Coffee, when freshly roasted and ground, is
deodorant, antiseptic, and germicidal,
probably due to the empyreumatic products
developed during the process of roasting.
An infusion of 0.5 percent inhibits the
growth of many pathogenic organisms, and

" Prankel. F. H. Tea & Coffee Trade Jour., 191C
(vol. xxxi : p. 446).
**Food Values, 1914 (p. 54).
**^ PoHclin., 1920 (no. 27: p. 1011).
"''Funk, C. The Vitamines, 1922 (p. 270).

PHARMACOLOGY OF COFFEE

181

those of 10 percent kill anthrax bacteria in
three hours, cholera spirilla in four hours,
and many other bacteria, including those
producing typhoid, in two to six days."

The maintenance of a low rate of contrac-
tion of typhoid fever has often been at-
tributed to drinking of coffee instead of
water, the action of the coffee being partly
due to the bactericidal effect of the caffeol
and partly to the boiling of the water be-
fore infusion. The stimulating tendency of
the caffein to sustain and to "tide over"
those of low vitalities is also evidenced.

Use of Coffee in Medicine

Coffee has been employed in medicinal
practise as a direct specific, as a preven-
tive, and as an antidote. The United States
Dispensatory*'' summarizes the uses of caf-
fein and coffee as follows :

Caffein is a valuable remedy in practical
medicine as a cerebral and cardiac stimulant
and as a diuretic. In undue somnolence, in ner-
vous headache, in narcotism, also, at times
when the exigencies of life require excessively
prolonged wakefulness, caffein may be used as
the most powerful agent known for producing
wakefulness. In a series of experiments,
J. Hughes Bennett found that within narrow
limits there is a direct physiological antagonism
lietween caffein and morphine. Coffee and caf-
fein in narcotic? poisoning are of value as a
means of keeping the patient awake, and of
stimulating the respiratory centres.

As a cardiac stimulant, caffein may be used
in any form of heart failure: the indications for
its use are those which call for the employment
of digitalis. It is superior to digitalis in never
disagreeing with the stomach, in having no dis-
tinctive cumulative tendency, and in the prompt-
ness of its action. It is pronouncedly inferior
to digitalis in the power and certainty of its
action, and in the permanence of its influence
once asserted. As a diuretic it is superior ; it is
very valuable in the treatment of cardiac drop-
sies, and is often useful in chronic BrighVs
disease when there is no irritation of the
kidneys.

On account of its tendency to produce wakeful-
ness, it is usually better to mass the doses early
in the day, at least six hours being left between
the last dose and the ordinary time for sleep.
From eight to fifteen grams (of caffein) may be
given in the course of a day in severe cases.
If tried, it would probably prove a useful drug
in cases of sudden collapse from various causes.

Good effects of coffee are recounted by
Thompson."

It removes the sensation of fatigue in the
muscles, and increases their functional activity;
it allays hunger to a limited extent ; it strength-

*° Potter. Materia Medica, Pharmacy and Thera^
peutics. 10th ed.. 1906 (n. 187).

Culbreth. Materia Medica and Pharmacology, 2nd
ed. (p. 520).

"Nineteenth ed. (p. 254).

«Loc. cit. (see 32).

ens the heart action; it acts as a diuretic,
and increases the excretion of urea ; it has a
mildly sudorific infiuence ; it counteracts ner-
vous exhaustion and stinuilates nerve centers.
It is used sometimes as a nervine in cases of
migraine, and there are many persons who can
sustain prolonged mental fatigue and strain
from anxiety and worry much better by the use
of strong black coffee. In low delirium, or when
the nervous system is overcome by the use of
narcotics or by excessive hemorrhage, strong
black coffee is serviceable to keep the patient
from falling into the drowsiness which soon
merges into coma. In such cases as much as
half a pint of strong black coffee may be in-
jected into the rectum.

Strong coffee with a little lemon juice or
brandy is often useful in overcoming a malarial
chill or a paroxysm of astlima. It is a useful
temporary cardiac stimulant for children suffer-
ing collapse.

Dr. Restrepo," of Medellin, Colombia,
claims to have cured many cases of chronic
malaria and related diseases with infusion
of green coffee, after quinine had failed.
Wallace" states that tincture of green cof-
fee is a natural and efficacious specific for
cholera, and that she knows of more than
a thousand cases of cholera and diarrhea
which have been treated with it without an
isolated case of failure. Landanabileo has
been quoted as using raw coffee infusion in
hepatic and nephritic diseases, venal and
hepatic colics, and in diabetes.

In the Civil War, surgeons utilized cof-
fee in allaying malarial fever and other
maladies with which they had to contend,
often under the most trying conditions,
and with severely limited means of combat-
ing disease.'" Its effect is to counteract the
depressant action of low and miasmatic
atmospheres, opening the secretions which
they have checked. Travelers from the
colder climes soon find that the fragrant
cup of coffee is a corrective to derange-
ments of the liver resulting from climatic
conditions."

Dr. Guillasse, of the French Navy, in a
paper on typhoid fever, says:

Coffee has given us unhoped for satisfaction,
and after having dispensed it we find, to our
great surprise, that its action is as prompt as it
is decisive. No sooner have our patients taken
a few tablespoonfuls of it, than their features
become relaxed and they come to their senses.
The next day the improvement is such that we
are tempted to look upon coffee as a specific
against typhoid fever. Under its infiuence the
stupor is dispelled, and the patient arouses from

"Keable. B. B. Coffee (p. 97).

"WaUace, Mrs. C. L. H. "Cholera: Its Cause and
Cure." The Herald of Health, through Tea d Coffee
Trade Jour., 1908 (vol. xiv : p. 22).

^ "S. Culaplus", Tea d Coffee Trade Jour., 1913
(vol. XXV : p. 239).

" Tea d Coffee Trade Jour., 1913 (vol. xxv : p. 458).

182

ALL ABOUT COFFEE

the state of somnolency in which he has been
since the invasion of the disease. Soon all the
functions take their natural course, and he
enters upon eonAalescence.°-

Also it has been reported that in extreme
cases of yellow fever, coffee has been used
most effectively by many physicians as the
main reliance after all other well known
remedies have been administered and
failed.

According to Lorand," the use of coffee
in gout is strictly prohibited by Umber and
Schittenhelm ; but he considered it a mis-
take absolutely to forbid coffee, as, when a
person has good kidneys, the small amount
of uric acid furnished by the caffein can
readih'- be eliminated. A curious remedy
for gout and rheumatism, the efficacy of
which the writer scouts, is said to be'* — a
pint of hot, strong, black coffee, which must
be perfectly pure, and seasoned with a tea-
spoonful of pure black pepper, thoroughly
mixed before drinking, and the preparation
taken just before going to bed. If this have
any value, it is probably purely psychologi-
cal in its function.

Several writers'' attribute amblyopia and
other affections of the sight to coffee and
chicory, without giving much conclusive
experimental data. Beer,°' a Vienna ocu-
list, however, held that the vapor from
pure, hot, freshly-made coffee is beneficial
,to the eyes.

Coffee and caff'ein are physiologically an-
tagonistic to the common narcotics, nico-
tine, morphine, opium, alcohol, etc., and
are frequently used as antidotes for these
poisons. Binz found that dogs that have
been stupified with alcohol could be awak-
ened with coffee. It may thus be prescribed
for hard drinkers to counteract the baleful
excitability produced by alcohol; in fact,
many topers taper off after a long debauch
with coffee containing small amounts of al-
coholic beverages. Considering its ability
to counteract the slow intoxication of to-
bacco, it may be inferred that coffee is
indispensable for hard smokers.

In general, the medicinal value of coffee
may be said to be directly attributable to
its caffein content, although its antiseptic
properties are dependent upon the volatile
aromatic constituents. Its function is to

•'■'2 Thnrber, F. B. Coffee from Plantation to Cup
(p. 182).

"^ Health and Lonrieviti) Through Rational Diet.

"* Keable. B. B. Coffee (p. 98).

== Bulson. A. E. J. Am. Jour. Opthal., 1905 (vol.
xxii : pp .00-64)

Handhool; of Medical Science (vol. Hi: d. 190i.-t

"•KealilP. B. B. Coffee (p. 98).

raise and to sustain vitalities which have
been lowered by disease or drugs. Al-
though some of the cures attributed to it
are probably purely traditional; still, it
must be admitted, that by utilizing its
stimulating qualities in many illnesses the
patient may be carried past the danger
point into convalescence.

Physiological Action of "Caffetannic
Acid"

It has been demonstrated in chapter XVII
that- there is no definite compound ' ' caffe-
tannic acid," and that the heterogeneous
material designated by this name does not
possess the properties of tanning. Further
substantiation of this contention, and more
evidence of the innocuous character of the
tannin-like compounds in coffee, are con-
tained in the testimony of Sollmann."
"Tannins precipitate proteins, gelatine,
and connective tissue, and thus act as
astringents, styptics, and antiseptics. The
different tannins are not equivalent in
these respects. Some (which are perhaps
misnamed) such as those of coffee and ipe-
cac, are practically non-precipitant. . . .
On the whole, one may say that the small
quantities of tannin ordinarily taken with
the food and drink are not injurious, but
that large quantities (excessive tea drink-
ing) are certainly deleterious. The tannin
of coffee is scarcely astringent, and, there-
fore, lacks this action," which is proven by
the fact that it does not precipitate pro-
teins.

"It has been claimed that 'caffetannic
acid' injuries the stomach walls, but there
is no evidence that this is so."'' Wiley,"
in reporting some of his experiments, says :
"Apparently the efforts to saddle the in-
jurious effects of coffee-drinking upon caf-
fetannic acid in any form in which it may
exist in the coffee-extract are not supported
by these recent data." The fact that tan-
nins retard intestinal peristalsis, whereas
coffee promotes this digestive action, lends
further proof to the non-existence of tannin
in coffee. These statements by eminent
authorities may be consolidated into the
verity that there is no tannin, in the true
sense of the term, in coffee: and that the
constituents of the coffee brew which have
been so designated are physiologically
harmless.

^- A Manual of Pharmacology (pp. 137. 215).
"Hawk. Philip B. Loc. cit. (see 22).
'* Good Housekeevinp. Oct.. 1917 (p. 144).

PHARMACOLOGY OF COFFEE

183

Physiological Action of Caffeol

The evidence regarding the physiological
action of caffeol is contradictory in many
cases. J. Lehmann found in 1853, that the
"erapyrenmatie oil of coffee, caffeorie," is
active ; but more recent investigations have
yielded results at variance with this.
Hare and Marshall"* believe that they
proved it to be active. E. T. Reichert,"
however, found it inactive in dogs, except-
ing in so far that, when given intraven-
ously, it mechanically interfered with the
circulation. With it Binz"' Avas able to pro-
duce in man only feeble nervous excite-
ment, with restlessness and increase in the
rate and depth of respirations.

The general effects, as summated by Soll-
mann"' are, for small closes, pleasant stimu-
lation ; increased respiration ; increased
heart rate, but fall of blood pressure ; mus-
cular restlessness ; insomnia ; perspiration ;
congestion; for large doses, increased peri-
stalsis and defecation : depression of respira-
tion and heart ; fall of blood pressure and
temperature; paralytic phenomena. It is
doubtful whether the quantities taken in
the beverage cause any direct central
stimulation.

Investigations have also been conducted
with the various known constituents of this
"coffee oil." Erdmann"* found that in
doses of between 0.5 and 0.6 gram per kilo
of body weight, furane-alcohol kills a rab-
bit by respiratory paralysis; and that the
symptoms of poisoning are a short primary
excitement, salivation, diarrhea, respira-
tory depression, continuous fall of the body
temperature, and death from collapse with
respiratory failure. In man, doses of from
0.6 to 1 gram of furane-alcohol increased
respiratory activity without producing
other symptoms.

However, man is not as susceptible to
these compounds as are the smaller animals.
But even if their relative susceptibility be
assumed to be the same, the lethal dose
given the rabbit is equivalent to giving a
140-pound man one dose containing the
furane-alcohol content of over 5,000 cups of
coffee. Thus, in view of the very apparent
minuteness of the quantity of this com-
pound present in one cup of coffee, together
with the fact that it is not cumulative in its
physiological action, the. importance of its

»«J/ed. News, 1886 (p. 52).

"J/ed. News. 1890 (n. 56).

'-Centr. In. Med.. 1900 (p. 21).

'^ Loc. cit. (see 57 1.

"^ Arch. Exper. Path. Phnrm.. 1902 (bd. 48).

toxic properties becomes very inconsequen-
tial to even the most profuse and inveterate
coffee drinkers.

Burmann" reported the volatile principle
to have a reducing action on the hemo-
globin; a depressing effect on the blood
pressure ; a depressant action on the central
nervous system, disturbing the cardiac
rhythm; and an action on the respiratory
centers, causing dyspnea. The report of
Sayre"" regarding the minimum lethal dose
of the concentrated combined active prin-
ciples of coffee obtained from dry distilla-
tion is, for frogs, administered intraperi-
toneally and subcutaneously, 0.03 cubic
centimeters per gram of body weight ; for
guinea pigs per stomach, 7.0 cc. per kilo-
gram of body weight, and administered in-
travenously and intraperitoneally, about
1.0 cc. per kilogram.

This evidence regarding the physiologi-
cal action of caffeol can not in any wise be
construed to indicate a harmfulness of cof-
fee. The percentage of these volatile sub-
stances in a cup of coffee infusion is so low
as to be relatively negligible in its action.
And, again, the caffein content of the brew,
as will be seen, tends to counteract any
possible desultory effects of the caffeol.

General Physiological Action of Caffein

More attention has been given to the
study of the physiological action of caffein'
than to that of the other individual con-
stituents of coffee. Since certain of the
effects of coffee drinking have been attribu-
ted to this alkaloid, a brief presentment
of the pharmacology of caffein will be given
as an exposition of the many statements
made regarding it. According to the Brit-
ish Pharmaceutical Codex"" :

Caffein exerts thi-ee important actions: (1) on
the central nervous system: (2) on muscles, in-
cluding cardiac: and (3) on the kidney. The
action on the central nervous system is mainly
ou that part of the hrain connected with psychi-
cal functions. It produces a condition of wake-
fulness and increased mental activity. The
interpretation of sensory impressions is more
perfect and correct, and thought becomes clearer
and quicker. With larger doses of caffein the
action extends from the psychical areas to the
motor area and to the cord, and the patient be-
comes at first restless and noisy, and later may
show convulsive movements.

Caffein facilitates the performance of all
forms of physical work, and actually increases
the total work which can be obtained from

"^ Bull. gen. therap. (vol. clxvl : p. 379).

Zentr. Biochem. Biophya. (vol. xvl : p. 79).
""Bull. Pharm.. 1916 (vol. xxx : pp. 276-78).
•^1907 (p. 176).

184

ALL ABOUT COFFEE

muscle. On the normal man, however, it is im-
possible to say how much of the action on the
muscle is central and how much peripheral, but,
as fatigue shows itself first by an action on the
center, it is probable that the action of eaffeiu
in diminishing fatigue is mainly central. Caf-
fein accelerates the pulse and slightly raises
blood pressure. It has no action in any way
resembling digitalis ; by increasing the irritabil-
ity of the cardiac muscle, its prolonged use
rather tends to fatigue than to rest the heart.

Caffein and its allies form a very important
group of diuretics. The urine is generally of a
lower specific gravity than normal, since it con-
tains a lesser proportion of salt and urea ; but
the total excretion of solids, both as regards
urea, uric acid, and salts, is increased. Caf-
fein, by exciting the medulla, produces an initial
vaso-constriction of the kidneys, which tends at
first to retard the flow of urine. So in recent
years, other drugs liave been introduced, allies
of caffein, which act like it on the kidneys, but
are without the stimulant action on the brain.
Theobromine is such a drug.

Another authority states that"^:

One of the most constant symptoms produced
in man by over-doses of caffein is excessive diu-
resis, and experiments made upon the lower ani-
mals show that caffein acts as a diuretic not
only by influencing the circulation, but also by
directly affecting the secreting cells, the proba-
bilities being in favor of the flrst of these
theories of action. According to Schroeder, not
only the water but also the solids of the urine
are increased.

The question whether caffein has an influ-
ence upon tissue changes and the consequent
nitrogenous elimination can not be considered as
distinctly answered, though the most probable
conclusion is that the action of caffein upon urea
elimination and upon general nutrition is not
direct or pronounced. While the therapeutic
dose of caffein is broken up in the body with
the formation of methylxanthin, ' which escapes
with the urine, the toxic dose is at least in
part eliminated by the kidney unchanged.

The metabolism of the methyl purins,
of which group caffein is a member, ap-
pears to vary with the quantity ingested.
The manner in which the methyl group is
liberated by the cell protoplasm is said"' to
determine the amount of stimulus which
the tissues receive from these substances.
The xanthin group is almost without any
excitatory action, and its metabolic end
products are constant. Perhaps the varia-
tion in the excretions of unchanged methyl-
purins is dependent upon the amount of
total reactive energy they invoke.

Baldi'" found that caffein in small doses
increases muscular excitability in dogs and
frogs. The spinal and muscular hyperic
excitability produced by caffein is, in his

«» D'. 8. Dispensatory, 19th ed. (p. 253).
"Hall. I. W. The Purin Bodies of Food Stuffs,
1904 (p. 98).
^* Terapia moderna, Dec, 1891.

opinion, due to the methyl groups attached
to the xanthin nucleus. Fredericq" states
that caffein increases the irritability of the
cardiac vagus and accelerates the appear-
ance of pseudofatigue of the vagus which
is produced by prolonged stimulation of the
nerve. The action of caffein on the mam-
malian heart has also been investigated by
Pilcher," who found that, following the
rapid intravenous injection of caffein, there
is an acute fall of blood pressure ; and with
a maximal quantity of caffein, 10 milli-
grams per kilogram, the cardiac volume
and the amplitude of the excursions are
usually unchanged. With larger quanti-
ties, the volume progressively increases and
the amplitude of the excursion decreases.

Salant" found that the intravenous injec-
tion of 15 to 25 milligrams of caffein per
kilogram in animals was followed by a fall
of blood pressure amounting to 7 to 35 per-
cent in most cases, which was transitory,
although in some animals it remained un-
changed. A moderate rise was rarely ob-
served. Caffein aids the action of nitrates,
acetanilid, ethyl alcohol and amyl alcohol,
and increases the toxicity of barium chlo-
rid. In a very thorough study of the
toxicity of caffein which he made with
Reiger," a greater toxicity of about 15 to
20 percent by subcutaneous injection than
by mouth, and but about one-half this
when injected peritoneally, was found.
Intramuscularly the toxicity is 30 percent
greater than subcutaneously. In making
the tests on animals, they found that in-
dividuality, season, age, species, and certain
pathological conditions caused variation in
the toxic effect of the administered caffein.
Low protein diet tends to decrease resist-
ance to caffein in dogs, and a milk or meat
diet does the same for growing dogs. Caf-
fein is not cumulative for the rabbit or dog.

As a result of experiments on the action
of caffein on the bronchiospasm caused by
peptone (Witte), silk peptone, B-imidoazo-
lyl-ethylamin. curare, vasodilation, and
mucarin, Pal" concluded that caffein stimu-
lates certain branches of the peripheral
sympathetic and is thus enabled to widen
the bronchi or remove bronchiospasm.

According to Lapicque'", caffein produces
a change in the excitability of the medulla
of the frog similar to that produced by rais-

^^ Arch, intern, physiol. (vol. xiii : pp. 107-14).
"/. Pharmachol. (vol. iii : p. 609).
"./. Pharmachol. (vol. iii: p. 468).
''* J. Pharmachol. (vol. Iii: p. 455).
" Wien. Deut. med. Wochenschr. (vol. xxxviii : pp.
1774 76).

" Comp. rend. soc. biol. (vol. Ixxiv : p. 32).

PHARMACOLOGY OF COFFEE

185

ing the temperature of the nerve centers.
Schiirhoff'' has pointed out that the con-
tinued use of large quantities of caffein will
produce cardiac irregularity and sleepless-
ness.

Cochrane" cited three cases where caffein
was hypodermically administered in cases
of acute indigestion, etc., and concluded
that the cases prove that caffein, or a com-
pound containing it as a synergist, does
indirectly make the injection of morphia a
safe proceeding, and directly increases the
force of the heart and arterial tension.
However, Wood'" found that medium doses
of caffein do not produce any marked rise
in blood pressure, and cause a reduction in
pulse rate. He attributes the contradictory
results which prior investigations gave, to
employment of unusually large doses and
to inaccurate experimental methods.

Caffein was found by Nonnenbruch and
Szyszka"" to have a slight action toward ac-
celerating the coagulation time of the blood,
being active over several hours. It inhibits
coagulation in vitrio. Its action in the body
apparently rests on an increase of the fibrin
ferment. There is no reason to believe that
the behavior is dependent on a toxic action,
but there is probably an action on the
spleen ; for in several rabbits from which
the spleen was removed, no action was
observed.

Experiments conducted by Levinthal"
gave no positive information as to the for-
mation of uric acid from caffein in the
human organism. The elimination of caf-
fein has also been studied by Salant and
Reiger"', who found that larger amounts of
caffein are demethylated in carnivora than
in herbivora, and resistance to caffein is
inversely as demethylation, caffein being
much more toxic in the former class. In a
similar investigation, Zenetz"^ observed that
caffein is very slightly eliminated from the
system by the kidneys, and that its action
on the heart is cumulative; therefore he
concludes that it is contra-indicated in all
renal diseases, in arterio-sclerosis, and in
cardiac affections secondary to them. The
inaccuracy of these conclusions regarding
the non-elimination of caffein and those of

" D. A. Apoth.-Ztg., 1911-12 (vol. xxxii : p. 4).

"J/ed. Record, N. Y., 1916 (vol. xxx : p. 68).

^Therap. Gazette. 1912 (vol. xxxvi : pp. 6-13).

" Deut. Arch. Klin. Med., 1920 (vol. cxxxiv : pp.
174-84).

"Z. phpsioi. Chem. (vol. Ixxvii : p. 259).

*> Bull. Bur. of Chem. (no. 157).

»» Pharm. J., Mar. 31, 1900, through Brit. Med. J..
Bpit., 1900 (vol. i: p. 35).

Albanese," Bondzynski and Gottlieb",
Leven'", Schurtzkwer", and Minkowski'', has
been shown by Mendel and Wardelf, who
point out that many of these experimenters
worked with dogs, in which the chief end-
product of purin metabolism is not uric
acid, but allantoin. They observe that the
increase in excretion of uric acid after the
addition of caffein to the diet seems to be
proportional to the quantity of caffein
taken, and equivalent to from 10 to 15 per
cent of the ingested caffein. The remainder
of the caffein is probably eliminated as
mono-methylpurins.

Regarding the alleged cumulative action
of caffein, Pletzer", Liebreich," Szekacs'^
Pawinski,"' and Seifert"* all concluded from
their investigations that the action of caf-
fein is usually of brief duration, and does
not have a cumulative effect, because of
its rapid elimination; so that there is no
danger of intoxication.

Dr. Oswald Schmiedeberg says:

Caffein is a means of refreshing bodily and
mental activity, so that this may be prolonged
when the condition of fatigue has already begun
to produce restraint, and to call for more severe
exertion of the will, a state which, as is well
known, is painful or disagreeable.

This advantageous effect, in conditions of
fatigue, of small quantities of caffein, as it is
commonly taken in coffee or tea, might, how-
ever, by continued use become injurious, if it
were in all cases necessarily exerted ; that is
to say, if by oaffein the muscles and nerves
were directly spurred on to increased activity.
This is not the case, however,- and just in this
lies the peculiarity of the effect in question.
The muscles and the simultaneously-acting
nerves only under the influence of caffein re-
spond more easily to the impulse of the will,
but do not develop spontaneous activity ; that
is, without the co-operation of the will.

The character of oaffein action makes plain
that these food materials do not injure the or-
ganism by their caffein content, and do not by
continued use cause any chronic form of illness.

According to Dr. Holl ing worth's"' deduc-
tions, caffein is the only known stimulant
that quickens the functions of the human

^ Arch. f. exper. Path. u. Pharmakol., 1895 (vol.
XXXV : p. 449).

^Ibid., 1895 (vol. xxxvi: p. 45). IMd , 1896 (vol.
xxxvii : p. 385).

'^ Arch, de physiol. norm, et path., 1868 (vol. i: p.
179).

*' Inaug. Diss., Konigsberg, 1882.

'^ Arch, f, exper. Path. u. Pharmakol, 1898 (vol.
xli: p. 375).

"''Jour. Am. Med. Assoc, 1917 (vol. Ixviii : pp. 1805-
07).

^Berliner Klin. Wochenschrift. 1889 (no. 40).

0^ Encijc. dcr Therapie, 1896 (vol. i).

"Pester, Med.-Chir. Presse, 1885 (no. 39).
Orrosi Hetilap, 1885 (nos. 32-33).

** Zeitschrift f. Klin. Med.. 1893 (vol. xxii').

" Mitt, aus der Wurzburger Med. Klinik, 1885
(vol. i).

"-Veto York Herald, Mar. 24. 1912.

186

ALL ABOUT COFFEE

body without a subsequent period of de-
pression. His explanation for this behavior
is that "caffein acts as a lubricator for the
nervous system, having an actual physical
action ^yhereby the nerves are enabled to
do their work more easily. Other stimu-
lants act on the nerves themselves, causing
a waste of energy, and consequently, ac-
cording to nature's law, a period of de-
pression follows, and the whole process
tends to injure the human machine." In
not a single instance during his experi-
ments at Columbia University did depres-
sion follow the use of caffein.

Of course, cafifein, like any other alka-
loid, if used to excess will prove harmful,
due to the over-stimulation induced by it.
However, taken in moderate quantities, as
in coffee and tea by normal persons, the
conclusions of Hirsch™ may be taken as cor-
rect, namely : caffein is a mild stimulant,
without direct effect on the muscles, the
effect resulting from its own destruction and
being temporary and transitory; it is not
a depressant either initially or eventually ;
and is not habit-forming but a true stimu-
lant, as distinguished from sedatives and
habit-forming drugs.

Caffein and Mental and Motor Efficiency

The literature on the influence of caffein
on fatigue has been summarized, and the
older experiments clearly pointed out, by
Rivers"'. A summary of the most important
researches Avhich have had as their object
the determination of the influence of caf-
fein on mental and motor processes has
been made by HolIingworth°*, from whose
monograph much of the following material
has been taken.

Increase in the force of muscular con-
tractions was demonstrated in 1892 by De
Sarlo and Barnardini"" for caffein and by
Kraepelin for tea. These investigators used
the dynamometer as a measure of the force
of contraction ; however, most of the sub-
sequent work on motor processes has been
by the ergographic method. Ugolino
Mosso™, Koch"\ Rossi'"; Sobieranski"'^
Hoch and Kraepelin,'"" Destree,'°° Benedi-

^ Tea & Coffee Trade Jour., 1914 (vol, xxvi : pp.
537-41).

»' The Influence of Alcohol and Other Drugs on
Fatigue.

98 "The Influence of Caffeine on Mental and Motor
Efficiency." Archives of Psychology, 1912 (no. 22).

^ Revista sper. di. Freniatria (vol. xviii : p. 1).

^ooArchiv. ital. de Biol.. 1893 (vol. xix : p. 241).

101 Inaug. Diss., Marburs. 1894.

^"^ Revista sper. di Freniatria. 1S94 Cvol. xx : D. 458).

w3 CentralU. f. Physiol., 1896 (vol. x : p. 126).

■^'>* Psychol. Arhrit.. 1S96 (vol. 1: p. 378).

^°^Jour. Med. de Brvxellcs, 1897.

centi,"'" Schumberg,"*' Hellsten/"' and Jo-
teyko,"*° have all observed a stimulating ef-
fect of caffein on ergographic performance.
Only one investigation of those reported by
Rivers failed to find an appreciable effect,
that of Oseretzkowsky and Kraepelin,""
while Fere"' affirms that the effect is only
an acceleration of fatigue.

In spite of the general agreement as to
the presence of stimulation there is some
dissension regarding whether only the
height of the contractions or their number
or both are affected. As might be expected
from the great diversity of methods em-
ployed, the quantitative results also have
varied considerably. Carefully controlled
experiments by Rivers and Webber"" "con-
firm in general the conclusion reached by ,
all previous workers that caffein stimulates ■
the capacity for muscular work; and it is
clear that this increase is not due to the
various psychical factors of interest, sen-
sory stimulation, and suggestion, which the
experiments were especially designed to ex-
clude. The greatest increase . . . falls,
however, far short of that described by
some previous w^orkers, such as Mosso ; and
it is probable that part of the effect de-
scribed by these workers was due to the fac-
tors in question."

Investigations of mental processes under
the influence of caffein have been much less
frequent, most notable among which are
those of Dietl and Vintschgau,"' Dehio,'"
Kraepelin and Hoch,"'' Ach,"' Lang-
f eld,"' and Rivers."' Kraepelin"" observes :
"We know that tea and coffee increase
our mental efficiency in a definite way, and
we use these as a means of overcoming men-
tal fatigue . . . In the morning these
drinks remove the last traces of sleepiness
and in the evening when we still have intel-
' lectual tasks to dispose of they aid in keep-
ing us awake. ' ' Their use induces a greater
briskness and clearness of thought, after

^'^ Moleschott's Untersuchungen, 1899 ^vol. xvi : p.
170).

-"' Archiv. f. Anat. u. Physiol. (Physiol. AMh,),
Suppl. Bd., 1899 (p. 289).

^'^ Skand. Arch. f. Physiol., 1904 (vol. xvi: p. 197).

109 Travaux du Lah. de Physiol. Inst. Solraii, 1904
(vol. vi: p. 361).

^"^^ Psychol. Arbeit., 1901 Cvol. iii : p. 617).

"1 C. R. de la Soc. de Biol. Paris, 1901 (pp. 593-
627).

^^-Op. at. (p. 38). (See 97.)

^'^^ PflUf/ers Archiv., 1877 (vol. xvi: p .316).

^^* Diss.. Dorpat.. 1887.

'-P Psychol. Arbeit., 1896 (vol. i: p. 431).

'-^^ Psychol. Arbeit.. 1901 Cpp. 203-289).

'^"Psychol. Rev., 1911 (vol. xviil : p. 424).
."^Op, at (see 97).
■ "» Ueber die Beeinfliissung einfacher vsvchischer Vor-
rjilngc diirch einige Arzeneimittel (p. 224).

PHARMACOLOGY OF COFFEE

187

^'hich secondary fatigue is either entirely
ibsent or is very slight.
Tendency toward habituation of the
jpyschic functions to caffein has been
[studied by Wedemeyer'™, who found
Hhat in the regular administration of it in /■
the course of four to five weeks there is a/
measurable weakening of its action on
psychic processes.

Rivers"', who seems to have been the first
to appreciate fully the genuine and prac-
tical importance of thoroughly controlling
'the psychological factors that are likely to
play a role in such experiments, concludes
that "caffein increases the capacity for both
muscular and mental work, this stimulating
action persisting for a considerable time
after the substance has been taken without
there being any evidence, with moderate
doses, of reaction leading to diminished
capacity for work, the substance thus really
diminishing and not merely obscuring the
effects of fatigue. ' '

Subsequent to these investigations was
that of Hollingworth'" which is at once the
most comprehensive, carefully conducted,

of individuals for a long period of time,
under controlled conditions; to study the
way in which this influence is modified by
such factors as the age, sex, weight, idio-
syncrasy, and previous caffein habits of the
subjects, and the degree to which it depends
on the amount of the dose and the time and
conditions of its administration ; and to in-
vestigate the influence of caffein on the gen-
eral health, quality and amount of sleep,
and food habits of the individual tested.

To obtain this information the chief tests
employed were the steadiness, tapping, co-
ordination, typewriting, color-naming, cal-
culations, opposites, cancellation, and dis-
crimination tests, the familiar size-weight
illusion, quality and amount of sleep, and
general health and feeling of well-being.
A brief review of the results of these tests
is given in the tabular summary.

From these Hollingworth concluded
that caffein influenced all the tests in a
given group in much the same way. The
effect on motor processes comes quickly and
is transient, while the effect on higher men-
tal processes comes more slowly and is more

Effect of Caffein ox Mental and Motor Processes
Schematic Summary of All Results

St. = Stimulation. 0:

Process
Motor speed
Coordination

Association

Xo effect. Ret. = Retardation.

PRIMARY effect

Small Medium Large
Doses
St.

Doses
St.
St.

Doses
St.
Ret.

St.

Ret.

Choice

General

Tests

1. Tapping

2. Three-hole

3. Typewriting

(a) Speed

(b) Errors

4. Color-naming

5. Opposites

6. Calculation

7. Discrimination reaction time

8. Cancellation

9. S-W illusion

10. Steadiness

11. Sleep quality Individual differences de-

12. Sleep quantity pending on body weight

13. General health and conditions of ad-

ministration

Secondary Action Time
Reaction Hours

None
None

.75 - 1.5
1 -1.5

Duration
in Hours

2-4

3-4

Fewer for all doses
St. St. St.

St. St. St.

Ret. 0" St.

Ret. ? St.

Unsteadiness

None
None
None
None
None
None
None

None

Results show only in total
day"s work
2-2.5 3-4

2.5 - 3 Next day

2.5 Next day

,2-4 Next day

3 - 5 No data

1-3
2 ?

-4

and scientifically accurate one yet per-
formed. He employed an ample number of
subjects in his experimentation ; and both
his subjects, and the assistants who re-
corded the observations, were in no wise
cognizant of the character or quantity of
the dose of caffein administered, the other
experimental conditions being similarly
rigorous and extensive.

The purpose of his study was to deter-
mine both qualitatively and quantitatively
the effect of caffein on a wide range of
mental and motor processes, by studying
the performance of a considerable number

^ Arch. exp. Path. Pharm., 1920 (vol. Ixxxv : pp.
339-58) .

^^^Op. cit. (p. 50K (See 97.)
^^ Loc. cit. (see 95).

persistent. Whether this result is due to
quicker reaction on the part of motor-
nerve centers, or whether it is due to a
direct peripheral effect on the muscle tissue
is uncertain, but the indications are that
caffein has a direct action on the muscle
tissue, and that this effect is fairly rapid in
appearance. The two principal factors
which seem to modify the degree of caffein
influence are body weight and presence of
food in the stomach at the time of ingestion
of the caffein. In practically all of the
tests the magnitude of the caffein influence
varied inversely with the body weight, ^nd
was most marked when taken on an empty
stomach or without food substance. This
variance in action was also true for both

188

ALL ABOUT COFFEE

the quality and amount of sleep, and
seemed to be accentuated when taken on
successive days; but it did not appear to
depend on the age, sex, or previous caffein
habits of the individual. Those who had
given up the use of caffein-eontaining bev-
erages during the experiment did not re-
port any craving for the drinks as such, but
several expressed a feeling of annoyance at
not having some sort of a warm drink for
breakfast.

It is interesting to note that he also found
a complete absence of any trace of second-
ary depression or of any sort of secondary
reaction consequent upon the stimulation
which was so strikingly present in many of
the tests. The production of an increased
capacity for work was clearly demonstrated,
the same being a genuine drug effect, and
not merely the effect of excitement, interest,
sensory stimulation, expectation, or sugges-
tion. However, this study does not show
whether this increased capacity comes from
a new supply of energy introduced or ren-
dered available by the drug action, or
whether energy already available comes to
be employed more effectively, or whether
fatigue sensations are weakened and the in-
dividual's standard of performance thereby
raised. But they do show that from a
standpoint of mental and productive physi-
cal efficiency "the widespread consumption
of caffeinic beverages, even under circum-

stances in which and by individuals for
whom the use of other drugs is stringently
prohibited or decried, is justified."

Conclusion

Brief summarization of the information
available on the pharmacology of coffee in-
dicates that it should be used in modera-
tion, particularly by children, the permis-
sible quantity varying with the individual
and ascertainable only through personal
observation. Used in moderation, it will
prove a valuable stimulant increasing per-
sonal efficiency in mental and physical
labor. Its action in the alimentary regime
is that of an adjuvant food, aiding diges-
tion, favoring increased flow of the diges-
tive juices, promoting intestinal peristalsis,
and not tanning any portion of the diges-
tive organs. It reacts on the kidneys as a
diuretic, and increases the excretion of uric
acid, which, however, is not to be taken as
evidence that it is harmful in gout. Coffee
has been indicated as a specific for various
diseases, its functions therein being the
raising and sustaining of low vitalities. Its
effect upon longevity is virtually nil. A
small proportion of humans who are very
nervous may find coffee undesirable; but
sensible consumption of coffee by the aver-
age, normal, non-neurasthenic person will
not prove harmful but beneficial.

Chapter XIX

THE COMMERCIAL COFFEES OF THE WORLD

The geographical distribution of the coffees grown in North America,
Central America, South America, the West India Islands, Asia,
Africa, the Pacific Islands, and the East Indies — A statistical study
of the distribution of the principal kinds — A commercial coffee
chart of the world's leading growths, with market names and general
trade characteristics

A STUDY of the geographical distri-
bution of the coffee tree shows that
it is grown in well-defined tropical
limits. The coffee belt of the world lies
between the tropic of cancer and the tropic
of Capricorn. The principal coffee consum-
ing countries are nearly all to be found in
the north temperate zone, between the
tropic of cancer and the arctic circle.

The leading commercial coffees of the
world are listed in the accompanying com-
mercial coffee chart, which shows at a
glance their general trade character. The
cultural methods of the producing coun-
tries are discussed in chapter XX ; statistics
in chapter XXII ; and the trade character-
istics, in detail, in chapter XXIV, which
considers also countries and coffees not so
important in a commercial sense. Mexico
is the principal producing country in the
northern part of the western continent, and
Brazil in the southern part. In Africa, the
eastern coast furnishes the greater part of
the supply; while in Asia, the Netherlands
Indies, British India, and Arabia lead.

Within the last two decades there has
been an expansion of the production areas
in South America, Africa, and in southeast-
ern Asia : and a contraction in British India
and the Netherlands Indies.

The Shifting Coffee Currents of the World

Seldom does the coffee drinker realize
how the ends of the earth are drawn upon

to bring the perfected beverage to his lips.
The trail that ends in his breakfast cup, if
followed back, w^ould be found to go a
devious and winding way, soon splitting up
into half-a-dozen or more straggling
branches that would lead to as many widely
scattered regions. If he could mount to a
point where he could enjoy a bird's-eye
view of these and a hundred kindred trails,
he would find an intricate criss-cross of
streamlets and rivers of coffee forming a
tangled pattern over the tropics and reach-
ing out north and south to all civilized
countries. This would be a picture of the
coffee trade of the world.

It would be a motion picture, with the
rivulets swelling larger at certain seasons,
but seldom drying up entirely at any time.
In the main the streamlets and rivers
keep pretty much the same direction and
volume one year after another, but then
there is also a quiet shifting of these cur-
rents. Some grow larger, and other dimin-
ish gradually until they fade out entirely.
In one of the regions from which they
take their source a tree disease may
cause a decline; in another, a hurricane
may lay the industry low at one quick
stroke; and in still another, a rival crop
may drain away the life-blood of capital.
But for the most part, when times are
normal, the shift is gradual; for interna-
tional trade is conservative, and likes to run
where it finds a well-worn channel.

189

190

ALL ABOUT COFFEE

In recent times, of course, the big dis-
turbing element in the coffee trade was the
"World War. Whole countries were cut out
of the market, shipping was drained away
from every sea lane, stocks were piled high
in exporting ports, prices were fixed, im-
ports were sharply restricted, and the whole
business of coffee trading was thrown out
of joint. To what extent has the world
returned to normal in this trade? Were
the stoppages in trade merely temporary
suspensions, or are they to prove perma-
nent? How are the old, long-worn chan-
nels filling up again, now that the dams
have been taken away?

We are now far enough removed from
the war to begin to answer these questions.
We find our answer in the export figures of
the chief producing countries, which for the
most part are now available in detail for
one or two post-war years. These figures
are given in the tables below ; and for com-
parison, there are also given figures show-
ing the distribution of exports in 1913 and
in an earlier year near the beginning of the
century. These figures, of course, do not
necessarily give an accurate index to
normal trade ; as in any given year some
abnormal happening, such as an exception-
ally large crop or a revolution, may affect
exports drastically as compared with years
before and after. But normally the pro-
portions of a country's exports going to its
various customers are fairly constant one
year after another, and can be taken for
any given year as showing approximately
the coffee currents of that period.

The figures following are for the calendar
year unless the fiscal year is indicated.
Where figures could not be obtained from
the original statistical publications, they
have been supplied as far as possible from
consular reports.

Brazil. The war naturally increased the
dependence of Brazil on its chief customer,
and the proportion of the total crop coming
to this country since the war has continued
to be large. Shipments to United States
ports in 1920 represented about fifty-four
percent of the total exports. Figures for
that year indicate also that France and
Belgium were working back to their normal
trade; but that Spain, Great Britain, and
the Netherlands were taking much less
coffee than in the year just before the war.
Germany was buying strongly again, her
purchases of 72,000,000 pounds being about

half as much as in 1913. Shipments to
Italy were four times as heavy as in 1913.
The natural return to normal was much
interfered with by speculation and valor-
ization. Brazil seems to have come through
the cataclysmic period of the war in better
style than might have been expected.

Coffee Exports from Brazil

1900 1913 1920

Exported to Pounds Pounds Pounds

United States. .566,686,343 650,071,337 826,425,340

France 78,408, .S62 244,295,282 203,694,212

Great Britain. 6,442,739 32,559,715 9,597,378

Germany 235,131,881 246,767,144 72,196,934

Aus.-Hunsary . 71,696,556 134,495,310

Netherlands ..102,711,887 196,169,240 49,760,767

Italy 17,559,107 31,364,656 132,543,798

Spain 868,617 14,407,906 6,057,833

Belgium 41,500,638 58,858,562 42,309,469

Other countries. 59,432,882 145,896,327 181,796,919

Total 1,180,439,514 1,754,885,479 1,524,382,650

The 1900 figures are for the ports of Ric,
Santos, Bahia, and Victoria.

"Other countries" in 1913 included Ar-
gentina, 32,941,182 pounds; Sweden, 28,-
045,737 pounds; Cape Colony, 15,930,731
pounds; Denmark, 6,252,931 pounds. In
1920 they included Argentina, 37,736,498
pounds; Sweden, 51,026,591 pounds; Den-
mark, 18,764,483 pounds; Cape Colony,
26,936,653 pounds.

Venezuela. Venezuela's coffee trade was
deeply affected by the war; both because
the Germans were prominent in the in-
dustry, and because the regular shipping
service to Europe was discontinued. Large
amounts of coffee were piled up at the
ports and elsewhere ; and when the restric-
tions were swept away in 1919, an abnormal
exportation resulted. Although Germany
had been one of the chief buyers before the
war, Venezuela was by no means dependent
on the German market. In fact, her com-
bined shipments to France and the United
States, just before the war, were three times
as great as her exports to Germany. These
two countries took two-thirds of her total
exports in 1920. Spain and the Nether-
lands were also prominent buyers.

Coffee Exports from Venezuela

1906 1913 1920

Exported to Pounds Pounds Pounds

United States. 35,704,398 45,570,268 43,670,191

Prance 21,748,370 46,413,174 4,647,978

Germany 5,270.814 32,203,972 546,363

Aus. -Hungary . 289,851 3,015,723

Spain 3,133,012 7,372,839 15,210,756

Netherlands . . 28,549,920 2,903,806 1,836,209

Italy 315,293 2,805,948 719,850

Great Britain. . 404,720 98,796 1,518,175

Other countries 2,663,507 1,631,143 5,577,110

Total 98,079,885 142,015,669 73,726,632

Colombia. Colombian statistics of for-
eign trade are issued very irregularly, and

191

COMMERCIAL COFFEE CHART

The World's Leading Growths, with Market Names and General

Trade Characteristics

Grand Division

Country

Principal
Shipping Ports

Best Known
Market Names

Trade Characteristics

North

Mexico

Vera Cruz

Coa tepee

Greenish to yellow bean ;

America

Huatusco
Orizaba

mild flavor.

Central

Guatemahi

Puerto Barrios

Coban

Waxy, bluish bean ; mellow

America

Antigua

flavor.

Salvador

La Libertad

Santa Ana
Santa Tecla

Smooth, green bean ; neu-
tral flavor.

Kk'-

Costa Rica

I'uerto Limon

Costa Ricas

Blue-greenish bean ; mild

flavor.

^PtVest

Haiti

Cape Haitien

Haiti

Blue bean ; rich, fairly

If Indies

acid ; sweet flavor.

Santo Domingo

Flat, greenish-yellow bean ;
strong flavor.

Jamaica

Kingston

Blue Mountain

Bluish-green bean ; rich,
full flavor.

Porto Rico

Ponce

Porto Ricans

Gray-blue bean ; strong,
heavy flavor.

South

Colombia

Sa van ill a

Medellin

Greenish-yellow bean ; rich.

^ America

Manizales, Bogota
Bucaramanga

mellow flavor.

Venezuela

La Gualra

Merida

Greenish-yellow bean ; mild,

Maracaibo

Cucuta
Caracas

mellow flavor.

Brazil

Santos

Small bean ; mild flavor.

Rio de Janeiro

Rio

Large bean ; sti-ong cup.

Asia

Arabia

Aden

Mocha

Small, short, green to yel-
low bean ; unique, mild
flavor.

India

Madras

Mysore

Small to large, blue-green

Calicut

Coorg (Kurg)

bean ; strong flavor.

East India

Malay States

Penang (Geo't'n)

Straits

Liberian and Robusta

Islands

Singapore

Liberian, Robusta

growths from Malaysia.

Sumatra

Padang

Mandheling
Ankola
Ayer Bangles

Large, yellow to brown
bean ; heavy body ; ex-
quisite flavor.

Java

Batavia

Preanger
Cheribon, Kroe

Small, blue to yellow bean ;
light in cup.

Celebes

Menado
Macassar

Minahassa

Large, yellow bean ; aro-
matic cup.

Africa

Abyssinia

Jibuti

Harar
Abyssinia

Large, blue to yellow bean ;
very like Mocha.

Pacific

Hawaiian

Honolulu

Kona

Large, blue, flinty bean ;

Islands

Puna

mildly acid.

Philippines

Manila

Yellow and brown large
bean ; mild cup.

192

ALT. ABOUT COFFEE

no figures are available to afford compari-
son between pi*e-war and post-war trade.
The figures below, however, -will show the
comparative amounts of coffee going to the
chief buying countries at different periods.
From these it will be seen that, the countries
mainly interested in the trade in Colombian
coffee are those prominent in the trade in
other tropical American sections. England,
France, Germany, and the United States
took the great bulk of the exports. A con-
sular report written after the outbreak of
the war says :

Prior to the war the United States took about
seventy percent of Colombia's coffee crop ; tlie
remainder being about equally divided between
England. France, and Germany, with England
taking the largest share.

Coffee Exports fkom Colombia *
(Prom Barranquilla only)

1899 1905 1916

Exported to Pounds Pounds Pounds

•Great Britain. 22,573,828 7,268,429 442,026

France 6,873,722 496,120 1,685,454

Germany 9,348,028 8,568,131

United States. 17,991,500 43.518,704 134,292,858

Other countries 7,396,385 23,753,678

Total 56,787,078 67,247,769 160,174,016

* Tliese figures are taken from a consular report,
which gave statistics only for the port of Barran-
quilla and did not include the total shipments from
that port. Shipments from Cartagena, the only other
exporting port of any consequence, amounted to
7,836,505 pounds, destination not stated. The Bar-
ranquilla figures, in the absence of oflicial statistics,
can be taken as fairly representative of the total
trade so far as destination is concerned. They are
for fiscal years, ending June 30.

"Other countries" in 1916 included
Italy, 1,135,137 pounds ; Venezuela, 20,564,-
321 pounds; Dutch West Indies, 400,132
pounds.

Central America. The three largest pro-
ducing countries of Central America,
Guatemala, Salvador, and Costa Rica, w^ere
all closely linked to Germany by the coffee
trade before the war. German capital was
heavily invested in coffee plantations; Ger-
man houses had branches in the principal
cities ; and German ships regularly served
the chief ports. Accordingly, when the
Mockade became effective, these countries
were placed in a difficult position. But
fortunately for them, a special effort had
Ibeen made shortly before by Pacific-coast
interests in the United States to divert a
part of the coffee trade to San Francisco \
The market to the east being shut off, these
countries turned naturally to the north.
This trade with the United States has ap-
parently been firmly established, and there
lias not yet been much of a return to Ger-
man ports.

1 See chapter XXX.

Guatemala. Of the three countries
named, Guatemala was the most heavily
involved in German trade. In 1913 she
sent to Germany 53,000,000 pounds of
coffee, a fifth more than in 1900., Her ship-
ments of more than 10,000,000 pounds to
the United Kingdom were about the same
as at the beginning of the century. The
war turned both these currents into United
States ports, and they continued to tlow in
that direction through 1920. The figures
follow :

Coffee Exports from Guatemala

1900 191i3 1920

Exported to Pounds Pounds Pounds

Germany 44.416,064 53,232,910 452,206

United States . . . 14,057,120 21,188,444 78,226,508

United Kingdom. 11,467.680 10,666,604 2,341,217

Other countries.. 3,041,584 6,641.936 13,185,638

Total 72.982,448 91,729,894 94,205,569

"Other countries" in 1913 included Aus-
tria-Hungary, 4,205,400 pounds; Nether-
lands, 407,900 pounds. In 1920, they in-
cluded Netherlands, 10,355,625 pounds;
Sweden, 422,421 pounds; Norway, 57,408
pounds; Spain, 97,519 pounds; France,
27,956 pounds.

Salvador. Salvador is one. of the coun-
tries in which the publication of foreign-
trade statistics has been irregular in the
past, and none is available to show the full
trade in coffee at the beginning of the
century. A consular report gives figures
for the first half of 1900. The most recent
statistics show that the United States still
holds much of the trade gained during the
war, although Salvador is sending to Scan-
dinavian countries many millions of pounds
of her coffee that came to the United States
in wartime.

Coffee Exports from Salvador

1900 (1st 6mos.) 1913 1920

Exported to Pounds Pounds Pounds

United States. 6,700,101 10,779,655 46,262,256

France 22,948,712 15,955,920 6,686,714

Germany 6,607,892 12,120,133 813, 16Q

Great Britain. 4,396,465 3,415,187 4,226,061

Italy 4,322,003 9,538,976

Aus.-Hungary . 1,335,626 3,557,482

Belgium 210,834 5,508 3,104

Spain 24,799 377,729 364,296

Other countries 3,920 7,193,107 24,509,071

Total 46.550.352 62,943.697 82,^64,668

"Other countries" in 1913 included Nor-
way, 2,070,220 pounds; Sweden, 2,238,332
pounds; Netherlands, 738,694 pounds;
Chile, 609,441 pounds; Russia, 95,625
pounds; Denmark, 140,665 pounds. In
1920, they included Norway, 10,726,375
pounds; Chile, 1,772,346 pounds; Nether-
lands, 1,071,614 pounds ; Sweden, 9,635,947
pounds; Denmark, 1,061,772 pounds.

AL J. A HO r T COFFK K

A Fi.ouKisiiiNG Coffee Estate in Chiapas, Mexico

i..\1!oi;ei!S BRI^■GI^G ia the Day's I'ickings, 2seak Bogota, Columuia
l\[TT;D-rOFFEK rTT.TFRE A\D PKKPARATTON

WORLD'S COMMERCIAL COFFEES

L,» „..„..

man capital was heavily invested in Costa
^^ica before the war, and all three nations
^ftere interested in the coffee trade. For
^Tiany years England had maintained the

lead as a coffee customer, and shipments

continued in large volume after the war.

The following figures are for the crop year

ending September 30 :

Coffee Exports
1903
xported to Pounds

United States .. 6,388,236
Great Britain. 27,756,661

France 1.241,816

Germany 2.676,841

Other countries 147.925

193

tOM Costa Rica

1913
Pounds

1921
Pounds

1,625,866

23,464,827

741,548

2,581,055

288,521

14,137,605

13,418,527

313,538

376,649

1,155,066

28,701,817

29,401,385

Total 38,211,479

In 1900 total shipments were 35,496,055
pounds, of which 20,587,712 pounds went
to Great Britain; 8,874,014 pounds to the
United States; and 3,904,566 pounds to
Germany.

"Other countries" in 1903 included
Spain. 49,189 pounds; Italy, 4,104 pounds.
In 1921, they included Netherlands, 837,-
496 pounds : 'Spain, 308,308 pounds ; Chile,
9,259 pounds.

Mexico. Mexico has naturally sent most
of her coffee across the border into the
United States, and she continued to do so
during and after the war. But she had
worked up a very important trade with
Europe, chiefly with Germany ; and German
capital, and German planters and mer-
chants were prominent in the industry.
France and England also were interested
in the trade, and purchased annually sev-
eral million pounds. During the war, as
shown by the exports in its final year, this
trade almost entirely ceased, and the
United States and Spain remained as the
only consumers of Mexican coffee. Details
of the after-war trade are not yet available
in published statistics. In the following
table, 1900 and 1918 are calendar years,
and 1913 is a fiscal year.

Coffee Exports from Mexico
1900
. Exported to Pounds

United States. 28.882.954
Germany ..... 10,074,001
Aus.-Hunjrary . 163.934

Belgium 25,855

Spain . 546,132

France 3,927,294

Netherlands ... 220.607
Great Britain . 3,848,605
Cuba ...-...•.: 467;201

Italy , . 157,653

Other couptries

Total '. 48,314,236

1913

1918

Pounds

28,012,655

23,816,044

10,461,382

30.864

39.722

184,941

6,184,494

4,482,011

46,296

2,170,669

37,921

171,527

347,758

655,073

46,469.292

30.172,065

In 1913 "other countries" included
Panama, 342,131 pounds; Canada, 276,567
pounds; Sweden, 3,079 pounds; British
Honduras, 33,179 pounds; Denmark, 112
pounds.

Jamaica. The French, more than any
other peoples in Europe, have cultivated a
taste for coffee from the West Indies; and
France normally has led all other countries
in shipments from the larger producing
islands, including Jamaica, although the
island is a British possession. In the
year before the war, France bought nearly
4,000,000 pounds of Jamaican coffee, more
than half the total production. In the year
1900-01 also she took about 4,000,000
pounds, leading all other countries. This
trade was very much cut down during the
war. but was not wiped out. As shown in
the figures for 1918, England largely took
the place of France in that year, and
Canada increased her purchases several
hundred percent.

Coffee Exports from Jamaica

1901 (fls.yr.)

1913

1918

Exported to

Pounds

Great Britain

. 1,849,456

671,440

6.919,808

Canada

109,536

263,872

1.819.328

United States

. 2,976.512

802,032

643,888

France

. 3,958,304

3,743,264

729.120

Aus. -Hungary

104,272

303,296

Cuba

114,800

Barbados . . .

226,464

26,992

Other countries 508,704

507,248

97.440

Total

. 9,621,584

6,517.616

10,236.576

"Other

countries ' '

in 1901

included

British West Indies, 316,512 pounds. In
1913, they included Netherlands, 125,216
pounds; is^rway, 28,896 pounds; Sweden,
70,224 pounds ; Italy, 46,592 pounds ; Aus-
tralia, 71,456 pounds.

Haiti. Prior to the taking over of the
administration of the customs of Haiti by
the United States, detailed statistics of the
exports are almost wholly lacking. France
took most of the annual production, con-
tinuing a trade that dated back to old
colonial times. An American consular
report says:

Before the war there was no market for Hai-
tian coffee in the United States, practically the
entire crop going to Europe, with France as the
largest consumer. However, there has been for
some time past a determined effort made to
create a demand in the United States, and this
is said to be meeting with ever-increasing suc-
cess.

The actual success achieved can be meas-
ured by the following figures for the fiscal
year ended September 30.,' 1920:

194

ALL ABOUT COFFEE

Coffee Exports from Haiti
Exported to Pounds

United States 27,647,077

France 23,921,083

Great Britain 39,583

Other countries 10,362,351

Total 61,970,094'

These figures do not include 6,322,167
pounds of coffee triage, or waste, of which
the United States took 2,028,352 pounds;
France, 1,491,507 pounds.

Dominican Republic. The comparatively
small production of the Dominican Repub-
lic was divided among the United States
and three or four European countries be-
fore the war. Since the war the exports
have been scattered among the former
customers in varying amounts. Germany
is again a buyer, although her purchases
have not come back to anything like the
pre-war level.

Coffee Exports from the Dominican Republic

1906 1913 1920

Exported to Pounds Pounds Pounds

United States. 564,291 506,456 529,831

France 569,215 1,248,418 454,165

Germany 1,562,193 327,843 69,224

Italy * 195,294 51,543

Cuba * 25,628 132,569

Great Britain. * 660 54,114

Other countries 221,028 8,154 70,220

Total 2,916,727 2,312,453 1,361,666

*No shipments, or included in "other countries."

"Other countries" in 1920 included only
the Netherlands.

PoRTO Rico. In spite of several attempts
on the part of Porto-Rican planters to
make their product popular in the markets
of the United States, the American con-
sumer has never found the taste of that
coffee to his liking. The big market for
the Porto-Rican product has been Cuba,
which has depended on her neighbor for
most of her supply. This demand takes a
large part of the annual crop, including
the lower grades. The better grades, be-
fore the war, went largely to Europe,
mostly to the Latin countries. During the
war, the Cuban mai-ket carried the Porto-
Rican planters through, although shipments
of considerable size continued to go to
France and Spain. Recovery of the pre-
war trade with Europe, however, has been
slow, Spain being the only country to take
over 1,000,000 pounds in 1920. Shipments
to that country totaled 3,472,204 pounds;
those to France, 900,868 pounds. Both
countries increased their purchases con-
siderably in 1921.

Coffee Exports from Porto Rico

1900-01 (fls.yr.) 1913 1921

Exported to Pounds Pounds Pounds

United States. 29,565 628,843 211,531

France 3,348,025 6,0'20,170 1,625,065

Spam 2,590,096 6,851,235 5,705,932

Aus.-Hungary . 386,158 6,729,726

Germany 493,891 876,315 363,993

Belgium 9,964 25,867 234 019

Italy 611,033 3,498,157 43,484

Netherlands . . 8,860 497,938 25 199

Sweden 32,390* 633,046 266,550

Cuba 4,633,538 23,179,690 21,135,397

Other countries 13,720 393,586 356.709

Total 12,157,240 49,334,573 29,967,879

* Includes Norway.

Hawaii. The war disarranged Hawaii's
coffee trade very little, as she had for many
years been shipping chiefly to continental
United States. Recently a considerable
trade with the Philippines has developed.

Coffee Exports from Hawaii

1901-02 (fls.yr.) 1913 1921

Exported to Pounds Pounds Pounds

United States. 1,082,994 3,393,009 4,183,046

Canada 77,900 10,200 11 355

Japan 24,155 49,167 23,950

Germany 2,100 1,612

Philippines ... * 932,640 747,700-

Other countries 23,349 49,179 13,070

Total 1,210,498 4,435, 807 4,979,121

*No exports, or included in "other countries."

Aden. Lying on the edge of the war
area and on the road to India, Aden felt
the full force of the disarrangement of
commercial traffic by the war. Ordinarily,.
Aden is not only the chief outlet for the
coffee of the interior of Arabia — the orig-
inal "Mocha" — but it is also the tranship-
ping point for large amounts from Africa
and India. The figures given below relate
for the most part to this transhipped
coffee. Exports of coffee from Aden go.
chiefly to the United Kingdom, France, and
the United States, and to other ports of
Arabia and Africa. Before the war no»
great proportion went to the Central
Powers. The following figures apply to
fiscal years ending March 31 :

Coffee Exports from Aden

1901 (fls.yr.) 1914 (fls.yr.) 1921 (fls.yr.)

Exported to Pounds Pounds Pounds

Great Britain. 1,563,632 696,976 466,928

United States. 2,412,368 4,300,128 2,507,344

France 3,789,296 2,975,840 814.016

Egypt 1,024,576 3,108,336

Arab. Gulf Pts. 860,160 852,320 606,592

Germany 247,184 465,136

Aus.-Hungary . 341,152 553,952

Italy 197,568 811,664 7,504

Br. Somaliland 280,224 23,408

♦Africa 337,344 2,390,640 292,880

Other countries 1,114,848 2,500,456 1,659,504

Total 12,168,352 15,570,520 9,463,104

•Including adjacent islands, but exclusive of British
territory.

"Other countries" in 1914 included
Australia, 222,320 pounds; Perim, 142,016
pounds; Zanzibar, 148,848 pounds; Mauri- J|

WORLD'S COMMERCIAL COFFEES

195

ius, 154,672 pounds; Seychelles, 116,704
founds; Sweden, 118,720 pounds; Norway,
^9,168 pounds ; Russia, 196,448 pounds. In
1921, they included Denmark, 120,624
pounds ; Spain, 124,208 pounds'; Massowah,
110,704 pounds.

British India. As India's trade before

le war was chiefly with the mother coun-

ry, with France, and with Ceylon, the

I'eturn to normal has been rapid. In the

rear following the war, these three cus-

)mers were again credited with the largest

^mounts exported from India, except for

lipments to Greece, W'hich took little before

le war. The following figures are for the

iscal years ending March 31 :

Coffee Exports from British India

1901 (fla.yr.) 1914 (fls.yr.) 1920(fla.yr.)

Exported to Pounds Pounds Pounds

Jreat Britain. 15,678,768 10,343,536 8,138,144

Ceylon 1,088,528 l,428i,112 1,423,072

France 8,430.016 10 924,816 9,256,352

Belgium 617,792 1,021,664

Germany 126,560 1,033,088 25,312

Aus.-Hungary . 123,312 1,358,896 8,400

Italy 23,968 22,624 30.912

United States. 54,096 16,576

Turkey in Asia 232,176 501,984 986,720

♦Africa 118,272 113,344 619,696

Other countries 1,106,784 2,360,736 10,021,648

Total 27,600,272 29,108,800 30,526,832

♦Including adjacent islands.

"Other countries" in 1914 included
Netherlands, 238,560 pounds; Australia,
748,608 pounds; Bahrein Islands, 757,568
pounds. In 1920, they included Greece,

6,487,376 pounds; Australia, 481,152
pounds ; Bahrein Islands, 1,081,696 pounds ;
Aden and dependencies, 459,984 pounds;
other Arabian ports, 890,176 pounds.

Dutch East Indies. The war played
havoc with the coffee trade of the Dutch
East Indies, taking away shipping, closing
trade routes, and causing immense quanti-
ties of coffee to pile up in the warehouses.
When the war ended, this coffee was re-
leased; and trade was consequently again
abnormal, although in the opposite direc-
tion from that it took during war years.
The 1920 figures indicate that the trade is
working back into its old channels.

Coffee Exports from

Dutch East

Indies

1900

1913

1920t

Exported to

Pounds

Netherlands .

81,489,000

33,323,748*

*50,028,815

Great Britain

88,000

981,201

5,987,598

Prance

2,560,000

9,081,715*

5,410,582

Aus.-Hungary

1,153,000

996,988

Germany ....

71,000

997,715*

75,699

Egypt

5,494,000

104,868

1,418,313

United States

8,408,000

5,695,180

17,274,522

Singapore . . .

9,952,000

4,785,580

8,349,415

Other countries 2,965,000

7,831,732

10,475,509

Total

112,180,000

63,798,727

99,020,453

♦Includes shipments "for orders."

t These figures cover only Java and Madura.

"Other countries" in 1920 included,
Norway, 2,606,421 pounds ; Sweden, 728,580
pounds; Australia, 1,553,495 pounds;
British India, 1,912,541 pounds; Italy, 1,-
964,109 pounds; Denmark, 1,191,643
pounds ; Belgium, 166,092 pounds.

196

ALL ABOUT COFFEE

^*jt

COFFEE TREE IN BEARING AT THE GOVERNMENTAL EXPERIMENT
STATION AT LAMOA, NEAR MANILA, P. I.

Chapter XX
CULTIVATION OF THE COFFEE PLANT

The early days of coffee culture in Abyssinia and Arabia — Coffee
cultivation in general — Soil, climate, rainfall, altitude, propagation,
preparing the plantation, shade and wind breaks, fertilising, prun-
ing, catch crops, pests, and diseases — How coffee is grown around
the ivorld — Cidtivation in all the principal producing countries

^OR the beginnings of coffee culture
we must go back to the Arabian
colony of Harar in Abyssinia, for
lere it was, about the fifteenth century,
that the Arabs, having found the plant
growing wild in the Abyssini an^ highlands,
first gave it intensive cultivation. The com-
plete story of the early cultivation of cofl'ee
in the old and new worlds is told in chapter
II, which deals with the history of the
propagation of the coffee plant.

La iloque ^ was the first to tell how the
plant was cultivated and the berries pre-
pared for market in Arabia, where it was
brought from Abyssinia.

The Arabs raised it from seed grown in
nurseries, transplanting it to plantations
laid out in the foot-hills of the mountains,
to which they conducted the mountain
streams by ingeniously constructed small
channels to water the roots. They built
trenches three feet wide and five feet deep,
lining them with pebbles to cause the water
to sink deep into the earth with which the
trenches were filled, to preserve the mois-
ture from too rapid evaporation. These
were so constructed that the water could
be turned off into other channels when the
fruit began to ripen. In plantations ex-
posed to the south, a kind of poplar tree
was planted along the trenches to supply
needful shade.

La Roque noted that the coffee trees in
Yemen were planted in lines, like the apple
trees in Normandy; and that when they

^ La Roque, .lean. Voyage de I'AraMe Heureuae,
Paris. 17] 5. (p. 280.)

were much exposed to the sun, the shade
poplars were regularly introduced between
the rows.

Such cultivation as the plant received in
early Abyssinia and Arabia was crude and
primitive at best. Throughout the inter-
vening centuries, there has been little im-
provement in Yemen ; but modern cultural
methods obtain in the Harar district in
Abyssinia.

Like the Arabs in Yemen, the Harari
cultivated in small gardens, employing the
same ingenious system of irrigation from
mountain springs to water the roots of the
plants at least once a week during the dry
season. In Yemen and in Abyssinia the
ripened berries were sun-dried on beaten-
earth barbecues.

The European planters who carried the
cultivation of the bean to the Far East and
to America followed the best Arabian prac-
tise, changing, and sometimes improving
it, in order to adapt it to local conditions.

Cofee Cidtivation in General

Today the commercial growers of coffee
on a large scale practise intensive cultiva-
tion methods, giving the same care to pre-
paring their plantations and maintaining
their trees as do other growers of grains
and fruits. As in the more advanced
methods of arboriculture, every effort is
made to obtain the maximum production of
quality coffee consistent with the smallest
outlay of money and labor. Experimental
stations in various parts of the world are
constantly working to improve methods and

197

198

ALL ABOUT COFFEE

products, and to develop types that will
resist disease and adverse climatic condi-
tions.

While cultivation methods in the differ-
ent producing countries vary in detail of
practise, the principles are unchanging.
Where methods do differ, it is owing prin-
cipally to local economic conditions, such as
the supply and cost of labor, machinery,
fertilizers, and similar essential factors.

Implements Used in Early Arabian Coffee
Culture

1, Plow. 2 and 3, Mattocks. 4, Hatchet and sickle.
Top, Seeder implement

Soil. Rocky ground that pulverizes
easily — and, if possible, of volcanic origin
— is best for coffee; also, soil rich in de-
composed mold. In Brazil the best soil is
known as terra roxa, a topsoil of red clay
three or four feet thick with a gravel sub-
soil.

Climate. The natural habitat of the
coffee tree (all species) is tropical Africa,
Mhere the climate is hot and humid, and the
soil rich and moist, yet sufficiently friable
to furnish well drained seed beds. These
conditions must be approximated when the
tree is grown in other countries. Because
the trees and fruit generally can not with-
stand frost, they are restricted to regions
where the mean annual temperature is
about 70° F., with an average minimum

about 55°, and an average maximum of
about 80°. Where grown in regions subject
to more or less frost, as in the northernmost
parts of Brazil's coffee-producing district,
which lie almost within the south temperate
zone, the coffee trees are sometimes frosted,
as was the case in 1918, when about forty
percent of the Sao Paulo crop and trees
suffered.

Generally speaking, the most suitable
climate for coffee is a temperate one within
the tropics; however, it has been success-
fully cultivated between latitudes 28° north
and 38° south.

Rainfall, Although able to grow satis-
factorily only on well drained land, the
coffee tree requires an abundance of water,
about seventy inches of rainfall annually,
and must have it supplied evenly through-
out the year. Prolonged droughts are
fatal ; while, on the other hand, too great a
supply of water tends to develop the wood
of the tree at the expense of the flowers and
fruit, especially in low-lying regions.

Altitude. Coffee is found growing in all
altitudes, from sea-level up to the frost-line,
which is about 6,000 feet in the tropics.
Rohusta and liberica varieties of coffee do
best in regions from sea-level up to 3,000
feet, while arabica flourishes better at the
higher levels.

Carvalho says that the coffee plant needs
sun, but that a few hours daily exposure is
sufficient. Hilly ground has the advantage
of offering the choice of a suitable exposure,
as the sun shines on it for only a part of
the day. Whether it is the early morning
or the afternoon sun that enables the plant
to attain its optimum conditions is a ques-
tion of locality.

In Mexico, Romero tells us, the highlands
of Soconusco have the advantage that the
sun does not shine on the trees during the
whole of the day. On the higher slopes of

Cross Section of Mountain Slope in Yemen, Arabia, Showing Coffee Terraces
These miniature plantations are found chiefly along the caravan route between Hodeida and Sanaa

COFFEE CULTIVATION

199

Cleauinu Virgin Fokest for a Coffee Estate in Mexico

Coffee Xubsery Under a Bamboo Roof in Colombia
THE FIRST STEPS IN COFFEE GROWING

200

ALL ABOUT COFFEE

the Cordilleras — from 2,500 feet above
sea-level — clouds prevail during the sum-
mer season, when the sun is hottest, and
are frequently present in the other seasons,
after ten o'clock in the morning. These
keep the trees from being exposed to the
heat of the sun during the whole of the day.
Perhaps to this circumstance is due the
superior excellence of certain coffees grown
in Mexico, Colombia, and Sumatra at an
altitude of 3,000 feet to 4,000 feet above
sea-level.

Richard Spruce, the botanist, in his notes
on South America, as quoted by Alfred
Russel Wallace," refers to "a zone of the
equatorial Andes ranging between 4,000
and 6,000 feet altitude, where the best
flavored coffee is grown."

Propagation. Coffee trees are grown
most generally from seeds selected from
trees of known productivity and longevity ;
although in some parts of the world propa-
gation is done from shoots or cuttings. The
seed method is most general, however, the
seeds being either propagated in nursery
beds, or planted at once in the spot where
the mature tree is to stand. In the latter

^Encyclopedia Britannica, 11 ed., Cambridge, 1910.
(vol. i: p. 118.)

case — called planting at stake — four or
five seeds are planted, much as corn is
sown ; and after germination, all but the
strongest plant are removed.

Where the nursery method is followed,
the choicest land of the plantation is
chosen for its site ; and the seeds are
planted in forcing beds, sometimes called
cold-frames. When the plants are to be
transplanted direct to the plantation, the
seeds are generally sown six inches apart
and in rows separated by the same distance,
and are covered with only a slight sprink-
ling of earth. When the plants are to be
transferred from the first bed to another,
and then to the plantation, the seeds are
sown more thickly; and the plants are
"pricked" out as needed, and set out in
another forcing bed.

During the six to seven weeks required
for the coffee seed to germinate, the soil
must be kept moist and shaded and thor-
oughly weeded. If the trees are to be
grown without shade, the young plants are
gradually exposed to the sun, to harden
them, before they begin their existence in
the plantation proper.

Considerable experimental work has been
done in renewing trees by grafting, notably

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Coffee Tree Nursery, Panajabal, Pochuta, Guatemala

ALL ABOUT COFFEE

Drying Grounds and Factory in the Preanger Regency

--»=.- „-.-»; -mi

Native TKAMSFohx, Field to Factoky, at Duamaga, Neau liuiXEN/^ouu
COFFEE SCENES IN JAVA, NETHERLANDS EAST INDIES

COFFEE CULTIVATION

201

Coffee Growing Under Shade, Porto Rico

in Java ; but practically all commercial
planters follow the seed method.

Preparing the Plantation. Before
transplanting time has come, the plantation
itself has been made ready to receive the
young plants. Coffee plantations are gen-
erally laid out on heavily wooded and slop-
ing lands, most often in forests on moun-
tainsides and plateaus, where there is an
abundance of water, of which large quan-
tities are used in cultivating the trees and
in preparing the coffee beans for market.
The soil most suitable is friable, sandy, or
even gravelly, with an abundance of rocks
to keep the soil comparatively cool and well
drained, as well as to supply a source of
food by action of the weather. The ideal
soil is one that contains a large proportion
of potassium and phosphoric acid ; and for
that reason, the general practise is to burn
off the foliage and trees covering the land
and to use the ashes as fertilizer.

In preparing the soil for the new planta-
tion under the intensive cultivation method,
the surface of the land is lightly plowed,
and then followed up with thorough cul-
tivation. "When transplanting time comes,
which is when the plant is about a year old,
and stands from twelve to eighteen inches
high with its first pairs of primary

branches, the plants are set out in shallow
holes at regular intervals of from eight to
twelve, or even fourteen, feet apart. This
gives room for the root system to develop,
provides space for sunlight to reach each
tree, and makes for convenience in cultivat-
ing and harvesting. Liherica and robusta
type trees require more room than arahica.
When set twelve feet apart, which is the
general practise, with the same distance
maintained between rows, there are approxi-
mately four hundred and fifty trees to the
acre. In the triangle, or hexagon, system
the trees are planted in the form of an
equilateral triangle, each tree being the
same distance (usually eight or nine feet)
from its six nearest neighbors. This sys-
tem permits of 600 to 800 trees per acre.

Shade and Wind Breaks. Strong, chilly
winds and intensely hot sunlight are foes
of coffee trees, especially of the arahica
variety. Accordingly, in most countries it
is customary to protect the plantation with
wind-breaks consisting of rugged trees, and
to shade the coffee by growing trees of
other kinds between the rows. The shade
trees serve also to check soil erosion : and
in the case of the leguminous kinds, to
furnish nutriment to the soil. Coffee does
best in shade such as is afforded bv the silk

202

ALL ABOUT COFFEE

oak (Grevillea rohusta). In Shade in
Coffrf Culture {Bulletin 25, 1901, division
of botany, United States Department of
Agriculture), 0. F. Cook goes extensively
into this subject.

The methods emploj^ed in the care of a
coffee plantation do not differ materially
from those followed by advanced orchard-
ists in the colder fruit-belts of the world.
After the young plants have gained their
start, they are cultivated frequently, prin-
'cipally to keep out the weeds, to destroy
pests, and to aerate the earth. The imple-
ments used range from crude hand-plows to
horse-drawn cultivators..

Fertilizing. Comparatively little fer-
tilizing is done on plantations established
on virgin soil until the trees begin to bear,
which occurs when they are about three
years of age. Because the coffee tree takes
potash, nitrogen, and phosphoric acid from
the soil, the scheme of fertilizing is to
restore these elements. The materials used
to replace the soil-constituents consist of
stable manure, leguminous plants, coffee-
tree prunings, leaves, certain weeds, oil
cake, bone and fish meal, guano, wood
ashes, coffee pulp and parchment, and such
chemical fertilizers as superphosphate of
lime, basic slag, sulphate of ammonia,

nitrate of lime, sulphate of potash, nitrate
of potash, and similar materials.

The relative values of these fertilizers
depend largely upon local climate and soil
conditions, the supply, the cost, and other
like factors. The chemical fertilizers are
coming into increasing use in the larger and
more economically advanced producing
countries. Brazil, particularly, is showing
in late years a tendency toward their adop-
tion to make up for the dwindling supply
of the so-called natural manures. As the
coffee tree grows older, it requires a larger
supply of fertilizer.

Pruning. On the larger plantations,
pruning is an important part of the cul-
tivation processes. If left to their own
devices, coffee trees sometimes grow as high
as forty feet, the strength being absorbed
by the wood, with a consequent scanty pro-
duction of fruit. To prevent this undesir-
able result, and to facilitate picking, the
trees on the more modern plantations are
pruned down to heights ranging from six
to twelve feet. Except for pruning the
roots when transplanting, the tree is per-
mitted to grow until after producing its
first full crop before any cutting takes
place. Then, the branches are severely cut
back ; and thereafter, pruning is carried on

The Famous Boekit Gompong Estate, Near Padang, on Sumatra's West Coast
Showing the healthy, regrular appearance of well-cultivated coffee bushes, twenty-six years old.
note the line of feathery bamboo wind-breaks

Also

COFFEE CULTIVATION

203

Coffee Estate in Antioquia, Colombia, Showing Wind-Breaks

annually. Topping and pruning begin be-
tween the first and the second years.

Coffee trees as a rule produce full crops
from the sixth to the fifteenth year, al-
though some trees have given a paying crop
until twenty or thirty years old. Ordinarily
the trees bear from one-half pound to eight
pounds of coffee annually, although there
are accounts of twelve pounds being ob-
tained per tree. Production is mostly gov-
erned by the cultivation given the tree, and
by climate, soil, and location. When too
old to bear profitable yields, the trees on
commercial plantations are cut down to the
level of the ground; and are renewed by
permitting only the strongest sprout spring-
ing out of the stump to mature.

Catch Crops. On some plantations it
has become the practise to grow catch crops
between the rows of coffee trees, both as
a, means of obtaining' additional revenue
and to shade the young coffee plants. Corn,
beans, cotton, peanuts, and similar plant-s
are most generally used.

Pests and Diseases. The coffee tree, its
wood, foliage, and fruit, have their enemies,
chief among which are insects, fungi,
rodents (the "'coffee rat"), birds, squirrels.

and — according to Rossignon — elephants,
buffalo, and native cattle, which have a
special liking for the tender leaves of the
coffee plant. Insects and fungi are the
most bothersome pests on most plantations.
Among the insects, the several varieties of
borers are the principal foes, boring into
the wood of the trunk and branches to lay
larvae which sap the life from the tree.
There are scale insects whose excretion
forms a black mold on the leaves and
affects the nutrition by cutting' off the sun-
light. Numerous kinds of beetles, cater-
pillars, grasshoppers, and crickets attack
the coffee-tree leaves, the so-called "leaf-
miner" being especially troublesome. The
Mediterranean fruit fly deposits larvae
which destroy or lessen the worth of the
coffee berry by tunneling within and eating
the contents of the parchment. The coffee-
berry beetle and its grub also live within
the coffee berry.

Among the most destructive fungoid dis-
eases is the so-called Ceylon leaf disease,
which is caused by the Hemileia vastatrix, a
fungus related to the wheat rust. It was
this disease which ruined the coffee industry
in Ceylon, where it first appeared in 1869,

204

ALL ABOUT COFFEE

and since has been found in other coffee-
producing regions of Asia and Africa.
America has a similar disease, caused by the
Sphaerostilhe flavida, that is equally de-
structive if not vigilantly guarded against.
(See chapters XV and XVI.)

The coffee-tree roots also are subject to
attack. There is the root disease, prevalent
in all countries, and for wh'ch no cause
has yet been definitely assigned, although
it has been determined that it is of a
fungoid nature. Brazil, and some other
American coft'ee-producing countries, have
a serious disease caused by the eelworm,
and for that reason called the eelworm
disease.

Coffee planters combat pests and diseases
principally with sprays, as in other lines of
advanced arboriculture. It is a constant
battle, especially on the large commercial
plantations, and constitutes a large item on
the expense sheet.

Cultivation hy Countries

Coffee-cultivation methods vary some-
what in detail in the different producing
countries. The foregoing description covers
the underlying principles in practise
throughout the world; while the following
is intended to show the local variations

in vogue in the principal countries of
production, together with brief descriptions
of the main producing districts, the alti-
tudes, character of soil, climate, and other
factors that are peculiar to each country.
In general, they are considered in the order
of their relative importance as producing
countries.

Brazil. In Brazil, the Giant of South
America, and the world's largest coffee
producer, the methods of cultivation natur-
ally have reached a high point of develop-
ment, although the soil and the climat3
were not at first regarded as favorable.
The year 1723 is generally accepted as the
date of the introduction of the coft'ee plant
into Brazil from French Guiana. Coffee
planting was slow in developing, however,
until 1732, when the governor of the states
of Para and Maranhao urged its cultiva-
tion. Sixteen years later, there were 17,000
trees in Para. From that year on, slow
but steady progress was made ; and by 1770,
an export trade had been begun from the
port of Para to countries in Europe.

The spread of the industry began about
this time. The coffee tree was introduced
into the state of Rio de Janeiro in 1770.
From there its cultivation was gradually

Up-to-Date Weeding and Hakeowing, Sao Paulo

COFFEE CULTIVATION

205

Photograph by Courtesy of J. Aron & Co.

General View of Fazenda Uumont, Ribeirao Preto, Sao Paulo, Brazil

extended into the states of Sao Paulo, Minas
Geraes, Bahia, and Espirito Santo, which
have become the great coffee-producing sec-
tions of Brazil. The cultivation of the
plant did not become especially noteworthy
until the third decade of the nineteenth
century. Large crops were gathered in the
season of 1842 - 43 ; and by the middle of
the century, the plantations were producing
annually more than 2,000,000 bags.

Brazil's commercial coffee-growing region
has an estimated area of approximately
1,158,000 square miles, and extends from
the river Amazon to the southern border of
the state of Sao Paulo, and from the
Atlantic coast to the western boundary of
the state of Matto Grosso. This area is
larger than that section of the United
States lying east of the Mississippi River,
with Texas added. In every state of the
republic, from Ceara in the north to Santa
Catharina in the south, the coffee tree can
be cultivated profitably; and is, in fact,,
more or less grown in every state, if only
for domestic use. However, little attention
is given to coffee-growing in the north, ex-
cept in the state of Pernambuco, which has
only about 1,500,000 trees, as compared,
with the 764.000,000 trees of Sao Paulo in
1922.

The chief coffee-growing plantations in
Brazil are situated on plateaus seldom less
than 1,800 feet above sea-level, and ranging

up to 4,000 feet. The mean annual tem-
perature is approximately 70° F., rang-
ing from a mean of 60.8° in winter to a
mean of 72° in summer. The temperature
has been known, however, to register 32°
in winter and 97.7° in summer.

"While coffee trees will grow in almost
any part of Brazil, experience indicates
that the two most fertile soils, the terra
roxa and the massape, lie in the "coffee
belts." The terra roxa is a dark red earth,
and is practically confined to Sao Paulo,
and to it is due the predominant coffee
productivity of that state. Massape is a
yellow, dark red — or even black — soil,
and occurs more or less contiguous to the
terra roxa. With a covering of loose sand,
it makes excellent coffee land.

Brazil planters follow the nursery-propa-
gated method of planting, and cultivate,
prune, and spray their trees liberally.
Transplanting is done in the months from
November to February.

Coffee-growing profits. have shown a de-
cided falling off in Brazil in recent years.
In 1900 it was not uncommon for a coffee
estate to yield an annual profit of from 100
to 250 percent. Ten years later the average
returns did not exceed twelve percent.

In Brazil's coffee belt there are two sea-
sons — the wet, running from September
to March ; and the dry, running from April
to August. The coffee trees are in bloom

206

ALL ABOUT COFFEE

COFFEE CULTIVATIOX

207

from September to December. The blos-
soms last about four days, and are easily
beaten off by light winds or rains. If the
rains or winds are violent, the green berries
may be similarly destroyed ; so that great
damage may be caused by unseasonable
rains and storms.

The harvest usually begins in April or
May, and extends well into the dry season.
Even in the picking season, heavy rains
and strong winds — especially the latter —
may do considerable damage; for in Brazil
shade trees and wind-breaks are the excep-
tion.

Approximately twenty-five percent of the
Sao Paulo plantations are cultivated by
machinery, A type of cultivator very com-
mon is similar to the small corn-plow used
in the United States. The Planet Junior,
manufactured by a well known United
States agricultural-machinery firm, is the
most popular cultivator. It is drawn by a
small mule, with a boy to lead it, and a
man to drive and to guide the plow.

The preponderance of the coffee over
other industries in Sao Paulo is shown in
many ways. A few years ago the registra-
tion of laborers in all industries was about
450,000; and of this total, 420,000 were
employed in the production and transpor-
tation of coffee alone. Of the capital in-
vested in all industries, about eighty-five
percent was in coffee production and com-
merce, including the railroads that de-
pended upon it directly. An estimated
value of $482,500,000 was placed upon the

Picking Coffee in Sao Paulo

plantations in the state, including land,,
machinery, the residences of owners, and
laborers' quarters.

In all Brazil, there are approximately
1,200,000,000 coffee trees. The number of
bearing coffee trees in Sao Paulo alone in-
creased from 735,000.000 in 1914-15 to:
834,000,000 'in 1917-18. The crop in 1917-
18 was 1,615,000,000 pounds, one of the
largest on record. In the agricultural vear
of 1922-23 there were 764,969,500 coffee
trees in bearing in Sao Paulo, and in Sao
Paulo, Minas, and Parana, 824,194,500.

Plantations having from 300,000 to 400,-
000 trees are common. One plantation near
Ribeirao Preto has 5,000,000 trees, and
requires an army of 6,000 laborers to work

y •: .1. A:, i: \ (V.

Intensive Cultivation METiions in the Kibeirao Preto District, Sao Paulo

208

ALL ABOUT COFFEE

1? ^

i^B^£

^- ■...•, !'■ ' ■ ^:'.^.dMM

^^H^^^^^HBHt'l^ JjTfl

Pliotograph by Courtesy of J. Aion k Co.

Private Railroad on a Sao Paulo Coffee Fazenda
Showing coffee trees and laborers' houses in the middle distance at right

it. Another planter owns thirty-two ad-
jacent plantations containing, in all, from
7,500,000 to 8,000,000 coffee trees and
gives employment to 8,000 persons. There
are fifteen plantations having more than
1,000,000 trees each, and five of these have
more than 2,000,000 trees each. In the
munieipalitv of Ribeirao Preto there were
30,000,000 trees in 1922.

The largest coffee plantations in the world
are the Fazendas Dumont and the Fazendas
Schmidt. The Fazendas Dumont were
valued, in 1915, in cost of land and im-
provements, at $5,920,007; and since those
figures were given out, the value of the
investment has much increased. Of the
various Fazendas Schmidt, the largest,
owned by Colonel Francisco Schmidt, in
1918 had 9.000.000 trees with an annual
yield of 200,000 bags, or 26,400,000 pounds,
of coffee. Other large plantations in Sao
Paulo with a million or more trees, are the
Companhia Agricola Fazenda Dumont, 2,-
420,000 trees; Companhia Sao Martinho,
2,300,000 trees ; Companhia Dumont, 2,000,-
000 trees : »Sao Paulo Coffee Company,
1,860,000 trees; Christiana Oxorio de
Oliveira. 1.790.000 trees; Companhia Guata.
para 1.550.000 trees; Dr. Alfredo Ellis,
1,271,000 trees; Companhia Agricola Ara-
qua, 1,200,000 trees; Companhia Agricola
Ribeirao Preto, 1,138,000 trees; Rodriguez
Alves Irmaos, 1,060,000 trees; Francisca
Silveira do Val, 1,050,000 trees; Luiza de
Oliveira Azevedo, 1,045,000 trees; and the
Companhia Cafeeria Sao Paulo, 1,000,000
trees.

The average annual yield in Sao Paulo is
estimated at from 1,750 to 4,000 pounds

from a thousand trees, while in exceptional
instances it is said that as much as 6,000
pounds per 1,000 trees have been gathered.^
Dift'erences in local climatic conditions, in
ages of trees, in richness of soil, and in the
care exercised in cultivation, are given as
the reasons for the wide variation.

The oldest coffee-growing district in Sao
Paulo is Campinas, There are 136 others.

Bahia coffee is not so carefully cultivated
and harvested as the Santos coffee. The
introduction of capital and modern methods
would do much for Bahia, which has the
advantage of a shorter haul to the New
York and the European markets.

On the average, something like seventy
percent of the world's coffee crop is grown
in Brazil, and two-thirds of this is produced
in Sao Paulo. Coffee culture in many dis-
tricts of Sao Paulo has been brought to the
point of highest development; and yet its
product is essentially a quantity, not a
quality, one.

Colombia. In Col ombia^ coffee is th e
J2rineipal crop gro\\'n tor export It is
produced m nearly — aii — depSHments at
elevations ranging from 3,500 feet to 6,500
feet. Chief among the coffee-growing de-
partments are Antioquia (capital, Medel-
lin) ; Caldas (capital, Manizales) ; Mag-
daleuaL ^(capitfil, Santa Marta) ; Sgn tander
(capital, Bucaramanga) ; Tolima'~ (' capital,
Ibague) ; and the Federal TPistric^ (capita l,
Bogota) . 'I'he department of Cundm'a-
marca produces a coffee that is counted one
of the best of Colombian grades. The finest
grades are grown in the foot-hills of the
Andes, in altitudes from 3,500 to 4,500 feet
above sea level.

COFFEE CULTIVATIOX

209

The Conducting Sluiceway at Guatapaea

The running water carries tlie picljecl coffee berries to pulpers and washing tanks

CuilEE ritlvl.NG AM) l-'lKLI) Tl!A.\Sl'OI!T

COFFEE CULTURE IN SAO PAULO, BRAZIL

210

ALL ABOUT COFFEE

COFFEE CULTIVATION

211

I'icKiNG Coffee on a LIogota Plantation

Methods of planting, cultivation, gather-
ing, and preparing the Colombian coffee
crop for the market are substantially those
that are common in all cofifee-producing
_eountries, although they differ in some small
particulars. About 700 trees are usually
planted to the acre, and native trees fur-
nish the necessary shade. The average
yield is one pound per tree per year.

While Coffea arabica has been mostly cul-
tivated in Colombia, as in the other coun-
tries of South America, the liherica variety
has not been neglected. Seeds of the
liherica tree were planted here soon after
1880, and were moderately successful.
Since 1900, more attention has been given
to liherica, and attempts have been made
to grow it upon banana and rubber planta-
tions, which seem to provide all the shade
protection that is needed. Liherica coffee
trees begin to bear in their third year.
From the fifth year, when a crop of about
650 pounds to the acre can reasonably be
expected, the productiveness steadily in-
creases until after fifteen or sixteen years,
when a maximum of over one thousand
pounds an acre is attained.

Antioquia is the largest coffee producing
department in the republic, and its coffee
is of the highest grade grown. Medellin,

the capital, where the business interests of
the industry are concentrated, is a hand-
some white city located on the banks of the
Aburra river, in a picturesque valley that
is overlooked by the high peaks of the
Andean range. It is a town of about
80,000 inhabitants, thriving as a manufac-
turing center, abundant in modern improve-
ments, and is the center of a coffee produc-
tion of 500,000 bags known in the market
as Medellin and Manizales. Another center
in this coffee region is the town of Mani-
zales, perched on the crest of the Andean
spurs to dominate the valley extending to
Medellin and the Cauca valley to the
Pacific. There-about many small coffee
growers are settled, and several hundred
thousand bags of the beans pass through
annually.

One of the interesting plantations of the
country was started a few years ago in a
remote region by an enterprising American
investor. It was located on the slopes of
the Sierra Nevada mountains 3,000 to 5,000
feet above sea-level, about twenty-five miles
from the city of Santa Marta. An extended
acreage of forest-covered land was acquired,
about 600 acres of which were cleared and
either planted in coffee or reserved for
pasturage and other kinds of agriculture.

212

ALL ABOUT COFFEE

When the plantation came to maturity, it
had nearly 300,000 trees. In 1919. there
were 425,000 trees producing 3,600 hun-
dred-weight of coffee.

A typical Colombian plantation is the
Namay, owned by one of the bankers of the
iBanco^de Colombia of Bogota. It is located
'a good half day's travel by rail and horse-
back from the city, about 5,000 feet above
the level of the sea. There are 1,000 acres
in the plantation, with 250,000 trees having
an ultimate productive capacity of nearly
2,000 bags a year. During crop times,
which are from May to July, about two
hundred families are needed on an estate
oi this size.

Venezuela. Seeds of the coffee plant
were brought into Venezuela from Marti-
nique in 1784 by a priest who started a
small plantation near Caracas. Five years
later, the first export of the bean was
made, 233 bags, or about 30,000 pounds.
Within fifty years, production had in-
creased to upward of 50,000,000 pounds
annually ; and by the end of the nineteenth
century, to more than 100,000,000 pounds.

Situated between the equator and the
twelfth parallel of north latitude, in the
world's coffee belt, this country has an
area equal to that of all the United States
east of the Mississippi river and north of

the Ohio and Potomac rivers, or greater
than that of France, Germany, and the
Netherlands combined — 599,533 square
miles.

The chain of the Maritime Andes, reach-
ing eastward across Colombia and Vene-
zuela, approaches the Caribbean coast in
the latter country. Along the slopes and
foot-hills of these mountains are produced
some of the finest grades of South American
coffee. Here the best coffee grows in the
tierra templada and in the lower part of the
tierra fria, and is known as the cafe de
tierra fria, or coffee of the cold, or high,
land. In these regions the equable climate,
the constant and adequate moisture, the
rich and well-drained soil, and the protect-
ing forest shade afford the conditions under
which the plant grows and thrives best. On
the fertile lowland valleys nearer the coast
grows the cafe de tierra caliente, or coffee
of the hot land.

Coffee growing has become the main
agricultural pursuit of the country. In
1839 it was estimated that there were 8,900
acres of land planted in coffee, and in 1888
there were 168,000,000 coffee trees in the
country on 346,000 acres of land. In the
opening years of the twentieth century not
far from 250,000 acres were devoted to this
cultivation, comprised in upward of 33,000

The long pipe crossing

On the Altamira Hacienda, Venezuela
the center of the picture is a water sluiceway bringing

coffee down from the hills

COFFEE CULTIVATION

213

}■ "

fe-_J^

1 — -^ '^

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- lA

' "^^"9

pr --1

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, .», .

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Carmen Hacienda, Fronting on the Escalante Kivek, Venezuela

plantations. The average yield per acre is
about 250 pounds. The trees are usually
planted from two to two and a quarter
meters apart, and this gives about 800 trees
to the acre. The triangle system is un-
knoAvn.

In this country, the coffee tree bears its
first crop when four or five years old. The
trees are not subject to unusual hazards
from the attacks of injurious insects and
animals or from serious parasitic diseases.
Nature is kind to them, and their only seri-
ous contention for existence arises from the
luxuriant tropical vegetation by which they
are surrounded. On the whole their culti-
vation is comparatively easy. On the best
managed estates there are not more than
1,000 trees to a fanegada — about one and
three-quarters acres of land — and it is
calculated that an average annual yield for
such a fanegada should be about twenty
quintals, a little more than 2,032 pounds of
merchantable coffee. It is to be noted,
however, that the average yield per tree
throughout Venezuela is low — not more
than four ounces.

There are no great coffee belts as in
Mexico and Central America. Many dis-
tricts are days' rides apart. The planta-
tions are isolated, and there is lacking a co-
operative spirit among the growers.

Methods of cultivating and preparing the
berry for the market are substantially those
that prevail elsewhere in South America.

Most plantations are handled in ordinary,
old-fashioned ways; but the better estates
employ machinery and methods of the most
advanced and improved character at all
points of their operation, from the planting
of the seed to the final marketing of the
berry.

Java. Java, the oldest coffee-producing
country in which the tree is not indigenous,
was producing a high-grade coffee long
before Brazil, Colombia, and Venezuela
entered the industry; and it held its
supremacy in the world's trade for many
years before the younger American pro-
ducing countries were able to surpass its
annual output. The first attempt to intro-
duce the plant into Java took place in 1696,
the seedlings being brought from Malabar
in India and planted at Kadawoeng, near
Batavia. Earthquake and flood soon de-
stroyed the plants; and in 1699 Henricus
Zwaardecroon brought the second lot of
seedings from Malabar. These became the
progenitors of all the arahica coffees of the
Dutch East Indies. The industry grew,
and in 1711 the first Java coffee was sold at
public auction in Amsterdam. Exports
amounted to 116,587 pounds in 1720; and
in 1724 the Amsterdam market sold 1,396,-
486 pounds of coffee from Java.

From the early part of the nineteenth
century up to 1905, cultivation was carried
on under a Dutch government monopoly —

214

ALL ABOUT COFFEE

'^;:^-

^■^^>*-a*

•/:-^ - :<y^^-

^ ^ ^*-

6 y^^T -^M

^••;f r>^r:-i

u/, ■•^^.-. .4,

:'li. '".^ "''^'

\a ,^4,,' . "X -^'"^ ^

A Heavy Fruiting of Coifea Robusta in Java

excepting for the five years, 1811 - 16,
when the British had control of the island.
The government monopoly was first estab-
lished when Marshal Daendels, acting for
the crown of Holland, took control of the
islands from the Netherlands East India
Company. Before that time, the princes of
Preanger had raised all the coffee under
the provisions of a treaty made in the
middle of the eighteenth century, by which
they paid an annual tribute in coffee to the
company for the privilege of retaining
their land revenues. When the Dutch gov-
ernment recovered the islands from the.
British, the plantations, which had been per-
mitted to go to ruin, were put in order
again, and the government system re-estab-
lished.

A modification of the first monopoly plan
of the government was put into effect later
in the regime of Governor Van den Bosch,
^nd was maintained until into the twentieth
century. Under the Daendels plan, each
native family was required to keep 1000
coffee trees in bearing on village lands, and
to give to the government two-fifths of the
crop, delivered cleaned and sorted, at the
government store. The natives retained the
other three-fifths. Under the Van den
Bosch system, each family was required to

raise and care for 650 trees and to deliver
the crop cleaned and sorted to the govern-
ment stores at a fixed price. The govern-
ment then sold the coffee at public auctions
in Batavia, Padang, Amsterdam, or Rotter-
dam.

This method of fostering the new in-
dustry resulted in government control of
fully four-fifths of the area under the crop,
only the small balance being owned or
worked independently by private enter-
prise. For many years after the cultiva-
tion had been fully started, this condition
of the business persisted. Most of the pri-
vately-operated plantations had been in
existence before the government had set up
its monopoly system. Others were on the
estates of native princes who, in treating
with the Dutch, had been able to retain
some of their original sovereign rights.
While these plans worked well in encourag-
ing the industry at the outset, they were not
conducive to the fullest possibilities in pro-
duction. Forced labor on the government
plantations was naturally apt to be slow,
careless, and indifferent. Private owner-
ship and operation bettered this somewhat,
•^he private estates being able to show an-
nual yields of from one to two pounds per
tree as compared with only a little more

COFFEE CULTIVATION

215

than one-half pound per tree on govern-
ment-controlled estates.

In the course of time, the system of pri-
vate ownership gradually expanded beyond
that of the government; and before the end
of the nineteenth century, private owners
were growing and exporting more coffee
than did the Javanese government. The
government withdrew from the coffee busi-
ness in Java in 1905, and the last govern-
ment auction was held in June of that year.
The monopoly in Sumatra was given up in
1908. After that, however, coffee con-
tinued to be grown on government lands,
but in much less quantity than in the years
immediately preceding. The Dutch govern-
ment withdrew from all coffee cultivation
in 1918 - 19.

According to statistics, the ground under
cultivation for all kinds of coffee in Java
and the other islands of the Dutch East
Indies in 1919 was 142,272 acres, of which
112,138 acres were in Java. Of this area,
110.903 acres were planted with robust a,
15,314 acres with arabica, 4,940 with
liherica, and 11,115 with other varieties.

There were more than 400 European-
managed estates in 1915, covering a planted
area of about 209,000 acres. Three hun-
dred and thirty of these estates, represent-

ing 165,000 acres, were in Java. On that
island production in 1904 was 47,927,000
pounds; in 1905, 59,092,000 pounds; in
1906, 66,953,000 pounds; in 1907, 31,044,-
000 pounds ; 1908, 39,349,000 pounds. The
total crop in 1919 for all the Netherlands
East Indies was 97,361,000 pounds, as
against 140,764,800 pounds for 1918.

Intensive cultivation methods on the
European-operated plantations in Java
have been practised for many years; and
the Netherlands East Indies government
has long maintained experimental stations
for the purpose of improving strains and
cultivation methods.

In some parts of the island, especially in
the highlands, the climate and soil are ideal
for coffee culture. The robusta tree grows
satisfactorily even at altitudes of less than
1,000 feet in some regions ; but its bearing
life is only about ten years, as compared
with the thirty years of the arabica at
altitudes of from 3,000 to 4,000 feet. The
low-ground trees generally produce earlier
and more abundantly. On some of the
highland plantations, pruning is not prac-
tised to any great extent, and the trees
often reach thirty or forty feet in height.
This necessitates the use of ladders in pick-

lloAD TiiuouGU A Coffee Estate in East Java

216

ALL ABOUT COFFEE

Native Picking Coffee, Sumatha

ing; but frequently the yield per tree has
been from six to seven pounds.

Coffee is produced commercially in near-
ly every political district in Java, but the
bulk of the yield is obtained from East
Java, The names best known to European
and American traders are those of the
regencies of Besoeki and Pasoeroean ; be-
cause their coffees make up eighty-seven
percent of Java's production. Some of the
other better known districts are : Preanger,

Cheribon, Kadoe, Samarang, Soerabaya, and
Tegal.

The arabica variety has practically been
driven out of the districts below 3,500 feet
altitude by the leaf disease, and has been
succeeded by the more hardy robust a and
Uherica coffees and their hybrids. Illus-
trating the importance of robusta coffee,
Netherlands East India government in a
statement issued August, 1919, estimated
the area under cultivation on all islands as
follows: robusta, eighty-four percent;
arabica, five and one-half percent; liberica,
four and one-half percent. The balance,
six percent, was made up of scores of other
varieties, among the most important being
the canepliora, Ugandae, baukobensis, sua-
kurensis, Qwillou, stenophylla, and rood-
bessige. All of these are similar to robusta,
and are exported as robiista-achtigen
(robusta-like) . The liberica group includes
the excelsa, abeokuta, Dewevrei, arnoldi-
aiia, aruwimiensis, and Dybowskii.

Sumatra. Practically all the coffee dis-
tricts in Sumatra are on the west coast,
where the plant was first propagated early
in the eighteenth century. Padang, the
capital city, is the headquarters for
Sumatra coffee. With climate and soil
similar to Java, the island of Sumatra has
the added advantage that its land is not
"coffee moe'\ or coffee tired, as is the case

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COFFEE SCENES IN SUMATRA, NETHERLANDS EAST INDIES

COFFEE CULTIVATION

217

Administkatoe's Bungalow on the Gadoeng Batoe Estate, Sumatra

in parts of Java. Some of the world's best
coffees are still coming from Sumatra; and
the island has possibilities that could make
it an important factor in production.
Sumatra produced 287,179 piculs of coffee
in 1920. The total production of all the
islands that year was 807,591 piculs.

The districts of Ankola, Siboga, Ayer
Bangles, Mandheling, Palembang, Padang,
and Benkoelen, on the west coast, have
some of the largest estates on the island;
and their products are well known in inter-
national trade. The east coast has recently
gone in for heavy plantings of rohusta.

As in Java, coifee for a century or more
was cultivated under the government-mo-
nopoly scheme. The compulsory system was
given up in this island in 1908, three years
after it was abandoned in Java.

Other East Indies. Coffee is grown in
several of the other islands in the Dutch
East Indian archipelago, chiefly on the
Celebes, Bali, Lombok, the Moluccas, and
Timor. Most of the estates are under
native control, and the methods of cultiva-
tion are not up to the standard of the
European-owned plantations on the larger
islands of Java and Sumatra. The most
important of these islands is Celebes, where
the first coffee plant was introduced from
Java about 1750, but where cultivation was
not carried on to any great extent until

about seventy-five years later. In 1822 the
production amounted to 10,000 pounds; in
1917, the yield was 1,322,328 pounds.

Salvador. Coffee, which is far and away
the most important crop in Salvador, con-
stitutes in value more than one-half the
total exports. It has been cultivated since
about 1852, when plants were brought from
Havana; but the development of the in-
dustry in its early years was not rapid.
The first large plantations were established
in 1876 in La Paz, and that department has
become the leading coffee-producing section
of the country.

The berry is grown in all districts that
have altitudes of from 1,500 to 4,000 feet.
Besides those of La Paz, the most produc-
tive plantations are in the departments of
Santa Ana, Sonsonate, San Salvador, San
Vincente, San Miguel, Santa Tecla, and
Ahuachapam. In contrast with several of
the adjoining Central American republics,
native Salvadoreans are the owners of most
of the coffee farms, very few having passed
into the hands of foreigners. The laborers
are almost entirely native Indians. A con-
siderable part of the work of cultivating
and preparing the berry for the market is
still done by hand; but in recent years
machinery has been set up on the large
estates and for general use in the receiving
centers.

218

ALL ABOUT COFFEE

Well Cultivated Young Coffee Tkees in Blossom

Entrance to a Finca in the Highlands
COFFEE CULTURE IN GUATEMALA

COFFEE CULTIVATION

219

It is estimated that now about 166,000
acres are under coffee, nearly all the land
in the country suitable for that purpose.
As in most other coffee-raising countries,
the trees begin bearing when they are two
or three years old, reach full maturity at
the age of seven or eight years, and con-
tinue to bear for about thirty years. In-
tensive cultivation and a more extensive
use of fertilizers have been urged as neces-
sary in order to increase the crop ; but, so
far, with not much effect, the importation
of fertilizer being still very small. Crop
gathering begins in the lowlands in No-
vember, and gradually proceeds into the
higher regions, month by month, until the
picking in the highest altitudes is finished
in the following March.

Guatemala. Guatemala began intensive
coffee growing about 1875. Coffee had been
known in the country in a small way from
about 1850, but now serious attention began
to be given to its cultivation, and it quickly
advanced to an industrial position of im-
portance. Within a generation it became
the great staple crop of the country.

Guatemala has an area of 48,250 square
miles, about the size of the state of Ohio.
Its population is about 2,000,000. Three
mountain ranges, intersecting magnificent
table lands, traverse the country from north
to south ; and there is the great coffee terri-
tory. The table lands are from 2,500 to
5,000 feet above sea-level, and have a tem-
perate climate most agreeable to the coffee
tree. On the lower heights it is necessary
to protect the young trees from the extreme
heat of the sun ; and the banana is most
approved for this purpose, since it raises
its own crop at the same time that it is
giving shade to its companion tree. On the
higher levels the plantations need protec-
tion from the cold north winds that blow
strongly across the country, especially in
December, January, and February. The
range of hills to the north is the best
protection, and generally is all sufficient.
When the weather becomes too severe, heaps
of rubbish mixed with pitch are thrown up
to the north of the fields of coffee trees and
set afire, the resultant dense smoke driving
down between rows of trees and saving
them from the frost.

Named in the order of their productivity,
the coffee districts are Costa Cuea, Costa
Grande, Barberena, Tumbador, Coban,
Costa de Cucho, Chicacao, Xolhuitz, Po-

IxDiANs Picking Coffee, Guatemala

chuta, Malacatan, San Marcos, Chuva,
Panan, Turgo, Escuintla, San Vincente,
Pacaya, Antigua, Moran, Amatitlan, Sumat-
an, Palmar, Zunil, and Motagua.

Estimates of coffee acreage vary. One
authority, too conservatively, perhaps, puts
the figure at 145,000. Another estimate is
260,000 acres. Under cultivation are from
70,000,000 to 100,000,000 trees from which
an annual crop averaging about 75,000,000
pounds is raised, and the exceptional
amounts of nearly 90,000,000 and 97,000,000
pounds have been harvested. Several
plantations of size can be counted upon for
an annual production of more than 1,000,-
000 pounds each.

Before the World War German interests
dominated the coffee industry, handling
fully eighty percent of the crop, and grow-
ing nearly half of it.

Planting and cultivation methods in
Guatemala are about the same as those
prevailing in other countries. The trees
are usually in flower in February, March,
and April, and the harvesting season ex-
tends from August to January, All work
on the plantation is done by Indian
laborers under a peonage system, families
working in companies : wages are small, but
sufficient, conditions of living being easy.
As elsewhere in these tropical and sub-

220

ALL ABOUT COFFEE

tropical countries, scarcity of labor is
severely felt, and is a grave obstacle to the
development of the industry in a land that
is regarded as particularly well adapted
to it.

Haiti. Haiti, the magic isle of the Indies,
has grown coffee almost from the beginning
of the introduction of the tree into the
western hemisphere. Its cultivation was
started there about 1715, but the trees were
largely permitted to fall into a wild natural
state, and little attention was given to them
or to the handling of the crop. Fertility of
soil, climate, and moisture are favorable,
and the advancement of the industry has
been retarded only by the political condi-
tions of the negro republic and a general
lack of industry and enterprise on the part
of the people.

Haiti is an island with three names.
Haiti is used to describe the island as a
whole, and to denote the Republic of Haiti,
which occupies the western third of its area.
The island is also known as Santo Domingo,
and San Domingo, names likewise applied
to the Dominican Republic which occupies
the eastern two-thirds of the land unit.

Plantations now existing in Haiti have
had, with rare exceptions, a life of more
than ten or twenty years. It is estimated
that they cover about 125,000 acres, with
about 400 trees to the acre.

When the French acquired the island in
1789, the annual production was 88,360,502
pounds. During the following century that
amount was not approached in any year,
the nearest to it being 72,637,716 pounds
in 1875. The lowest annual production 'was
20,280,589 pounds in 1818. The range dur-
ing the hundred years, 1789 - 1890, was,
with the exceptions noted, from 45,000,000
to 71,000,000 pounds.

Mexico. Opinions differ as to the exact
date when coffee was introduced into
Mexico. It is said to have been trans-
planted there from the West Indies near the
end of the eighteenth century. A story is
current that a Spaniard set out a few trees,
on trial, in southern Mexico, in 1800, and
that his experiments started other Mexican
planters along the same line. Coffee was
grown in the state of Vera Cruz early in
the nineteenth century; and the books of
the Vera Cruz custom house record that
1,101 quintals of coffee were exported
through that port during the years 1802,
1803, and 1805.

In the Coatepec district, which eventually
became famous in the annals of Mexican
coffee growing, trees were planted about the
year 1808. Local history says that seeds
were brought from Cuba by Arias, a part-
ner of the house of Pedro Lopez, owners of
the large hacienda of Orduna in Coatepec.

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The Coffee Plakter's Life in Guatemala Is 0>'e of Pleasantness and Peace

COFFEE CULTIVATION

221

THiaTY-YEAK-OLD COFFEE TrEES, La EsPEIiANZA, HUATUSCO, MEXICO

The seeds were given to a priest, Andres
Dominfriiez, who sowed them near Teocelo.
When he had succeeded in starting seed-
lings, he gave them away to other planters
there-about. The plants thrived, and this
was the beginning of coffee cultivation in
that section of the country.

It was, however, nearly ten years later
before the cultivation was on a scale ap-
proaching industrial and commercial im-
portance. About 1816 or 1818 a Spaniard,
named Juan Antonio Gomez, introduced the
plant into the neighborhood of Cordoba,
This city, now on the line of the Mexican
and Vera Cruz Railroad, 200 miles from
Mexico City, and sixty miles from Vera
Cruz, is 2,500 feet above sea-level, and is
situated in the most productive tropical
region of the country.

Having been started in Coatepec and
Cordoba, the industry was centered for a
long time in the state of Vera Cruz. For
many years practically all the coffee
grown commercially in Mexico was pro-
duced in that state. Gradually the new
pursuit spread to the mountains in the
adjacent states of Oaxaca and Puebia,
where it was taken up by the Indians al-
most entirely, and is still followed by them,
but not on a large scale.

Although cultivation is now widely dis-
tributed in most of the more southern
states of the republic, the principal coffee
territory is still in Vera Cruz, where lie
the districts of Cordoba, Orizaba, Huat-
usco, and Coatepec. In the same region
are the Jalapa district, and the mountains
of Puebia, where a great deal of coffee is
grown. Farther south are the Oaxaca
districts on the mountain slopes of the
Pacific coast, and still farther south the
districts of the state of Chiapas. Planting
in the Pluma district in Oaxaca was begun
about fifty years ago, and it now produces
annually, in good years, nearly 1,000,000
pounds. The youngest district in this sec-
tion is Soconusco, one of the most prolific
in the republic, having been developed
within the last thirty years. The region is
near the border of Guatemala, and the
coffee is held by many to possess some of
the quality of the coffee of that country.
The influence of Guatemalan methods has
been felt also in its cultivation and hand-
ling, especially in increasing plantation
productiveness. On the gulf slope of
Oaxaca, there are plantations that annu-
ally produce 222,000 to 550,000 pounds.
Several United States companies have be-
come interested in coffee growing in this

222

ALL ABOUT COFFEE

state, and their output in recent years has
been put upon the market in St. Louis.

Two principal varieties of coffee are
recognized in Mexico. A sub-variety of
Coffea arabica is mostly cultivated. This
is an evergreen, growing only from five
to seven feet. It flourishes well at differ-
ent altitudes and in different climes, from
the temperate plains of Puebla to the hot,
damp, lower lands of Vera Cruz and
Oaxaca, and other Pacific-coast regions.
The range of elevation for it is from 1,500
to 5,000 feet, and it is satisfied with a
temperature as low as 55° or as high as
80°, with plenty of natural humidity or
with irrigation in the dry season. The
other variety is called the "myrtle" and
is widely grown, although not in large
quantities. It is distinguished from
arahica by the larger leaf of the tree and
by the smaller corolla of the flower. It is
a hardier plant than the arahica and will
stand the higher temperature of low alti-
tudes, thriving at an elevation of from 500
to 3,000 feet above sea-level. Mostly it is
cultivated in the Cordoba district.

It is claimed by many that the Mexican
coffee of best quality is grown in the
western regions of the table lands of
Colima and Michoacan, but only a small
quantity of that is available for export.
The ■ state of Michoacan is especially
favored by climate, altitude, soil, and sur-
roundings to produce coffee of exception-
ally high grade, and the Uruapan is con-
sidered to be its best.

Trees flower in January and March, and
in high altitudes as late as June or July.
Berries appear in July and are ripe for
gathering in October or November, the
picking season lasting until February.

Trees begin to yield when two or three
years old, producing from two to four
ounces. They reach full production, which
is about one and a half pounds, at the age
of six or seven years, though in the dis-
tricts of Chiapas, Michoacan, Oaxaca, and
Puebla, annual yields of three to five
pounds per tree have been reported.

Since the World War American buyers
have shown greater interest in the Tapa-
chula coffee grow^n in Chiapas.

Porto Rico. Coffee culture in Porto
Rico dates from 1755 or even earlier, hav-
ing been introduced from the neighboring
islands of Martinique and Haiti. Count
O'Reilly, writing of the island in the

Mexicain Coffee Pickeu, Coatepec Distkict

eighteenth century, mentions that the
coffee exports for five years previous to
1765 amounted in value to $2,078. Old
records show that in 1770 there was a crop
of 700,000 pounds and that seems to be
the first evidence that the new industry
was growing to any noticeable propor-
tions. For a hundred years, at least, only
slow progress was made. In 1768 the king
of Spain issued a royal decree exempting
coffee growers on the island from the pay-
ment of taxes or charges for a period of
five years; but even that measure was not
materially successful in stimulating in-
terest and in developing cultivation.

Porto Rico is a good coffee-growing
country ; soil, climate, and temperature are
well adapted to the berry. The coffee belt
extends through the western half of the
island, beginning in the hills along the
south coast around Ponce, and extending
north through the center of the island
almost to Arecibo, near the west end of the
north coast. But some coffee is grown in
the other parts of the island, in sixty-four
of the sixty-eight municipalities. Mountain
sections are considered to be superior.

The largest plantations are in the region
which includes the municipalities of
Utuado, Adjuntas, Lares, Las Marias,
Yauco, Maricao, San Sebastian, Mayaguez,
Ciales, and Ponce. With the exception of
Ponce and Mayaguez, all these districts are
back from the coast ; but insular roads of

COFFEE CULTIVATION

223

recent construction make them now easily
accessible, and there is no point on the
island more than twenty miles distant
from the sea.

From the Sierra Luquillo range, which
rises to a height of 1,500 feet, and from
Yauco, Utuado, and Lares, come excellent
coffees ; and. on the whole, these are con-
sidered to be the best coffee regions of the
island. A fine grade of. coffee is also grown
in the Ciales district. Figures compiled
by the Treasury Department of the insular
government for the purpose of taxation
showed that for the tax year 1915-16
there were 167,137 acres of land planted
to coffee and valued at $10,341,592, an
average of .$61.87 per acre. In 1910,
there were 151,000 acres planted in coffee.
In 1916 there were more than 5,000 sep-
arate coffee plantations.

Originally the coffee trees of Porto Rico
were all of the arahica variety. In recent
years numerous others have been intro-
duced, until in 1917 there were more than
2,500 trees of new descriptions on the
island.

The virgin land in the interior of the
island is admirably adapted to the coffee
tree, and less labor is required to prepare
it for plantation purposes than in many

other coffee-growing countries. It is
cleared in the usual manner, and the trees
are planted about eight feet apart, an
average of 680 trees to the acre. The seeds
are planted in February; and if the seed-
lings are transplanted, that is done when
they are a year or a year and a half old.
The guama, a big strong tree of dense
foliage, is used for a wind-break on the
ridges; and the guava, for shade in the
plantation. Plow cultivation is generally
impossible on account of the lay of the
land, and only hoeing and spade work are
done. Pruning is carefully attended to as
the trees become full grown.

Flowering is generally in February and
March, or even later. Heavy rains in
April make a poor crop. Harvesting be-
gins in September and extends into Jan-
uary, during which time ten pickings are
made.

The average yield per acre is between
200 and 300 pounds; but expert authority
— Prof. O. F. Cook — in a statement made
to the Committee on Insular Affairs of the
United States House of Representatives, in
1900, held that under better cultural
methods the yield could be increased to
800 or 900 pounds per acre. One estima-
tor has calculated that an average planta-

Keceiving and Measuring the Ripe Bebbies fbom the Pickers, Mexico

224

ALL ABOUT COFFEE

COFFEE CULTIVATION

225

lion of 100 acres had cost its owner at the
end of six or seven years, the bearing age,
,i1)ont $13,100 with yields of 75 pounds per
ii'-re in the third and in the fourth years,
Li to pounds per acre in the fifth year, and

M) pounds in the sixth year, the income
: rom which would practically have met
•lie cost to that time. It is held by the

tue authority that an intensively culti-

tted, well-situated farm of selected trees,
bSO to the acre, should yield some 880
pounds of cleaned coffee to the acre.

Costa Rica. Costa Rica ranks next to
<luatemala and Salvador among the Cen-
tral American countries as a producer of
coffee, showing an average annual yield
ill recent years of 35,000,000 pounds as

nipared with Guatemala's 80,000,000
,iiid Salvador's 75,000,000 pounds. Nica-
i'a2"ua has an average annual production of
::0^000,000 pounds.

Coffee was introduced into Costa Rica
in the latter part of the eighteenth
century; one authority saying that the
plants were brought from Cuba in 1779
by a Spanish voyager, Navarro, and an-
other saying that the first trees were
])lanted several years later by Padre
Carazo, a Spanish missionary coming from
Jamaica. For more than a century six

big coffee trees standing in a courtyard
in the city of Cartago were pointed out to
visitors as the very trees that Carazo had
planted.

The coffee-producing districts are prin-
cipally on the Pacific slope and in the
central plateaus of the interior. Planta-
tions are located in the provinces of Car-
tago, Tres Rios, San Jose, Heredia, and
Alajuela. In the province of Cartago
are several extensive new estates on the
slope to the Atlantic coast. The San Jos4
and the Cartago districts are considered
by many to be the best naturally for the
coffee tree. The soil is an exceedingly rich
black loam made up of continuous layers
of volcanic ashes and dust from three to
fifteen feet deep. Preferable altitudes for
plantations range from 3,000 to 4,500 feet,
although a height of 5,000 feet is not out
of use and there are some estates that do
fairly well on levels as low as 1,500 feet.

India. Tradition has it that a Moslem
pilgrim in the seventeenth century
brought from Mecca to India the first
coffee seeds known in that country. They
were planted near a temple on a hill in
Mysore called Baba Budan, after the pil-
grim ; and from there the cultivation of
coffee gradually spread to neighboring

The Modern Iuea in CutiEK Culiivaxion, Costa Rica

226

ALL ABOUT COFFEE

Picking Costa Kica Coptee

districts. Aside from this legend, nothing
further is heard about coffee in India until
the early part of the nineteenth century,
when its existence there was confirmed by
the granting of a charter to Fort Gloster,
near Calcutta, authorizing that place to
become a coffee plantation.

Planting was begun on the flat land of
the plains, but the trees did not thrive.
Then the cultivation was extended to the
hills in southern India, especially in
Mysore, where better success was achieved.
The first systematic plantation was estab-
lished in 1840. For the most part, the
production has always been confined to
southern India in the elevated region near
the southwestern coast. The coffee district
comprises the landward slopes of the
"Western Ghats, from Kanara to Travan-
core.

About one-half of the coffee-producing
area is in Mysore; and other plantations
are in Kurg (Coorg), the Madras districts
of Malabar, and in the Nilgiri hills, those
regions having 86 percent of the whole
area under cultivation. Some coffee is
grown also in other districts in Madras,
principally in Madura, Salem, and Coim-
bator, in Cochin, in Travancore, and, on a
restricted scale, in Burma, Assam, and
Bombay. The area returned as under
coffee in 1885 was 237,448 acres; in 1896,
as 303,944 acres. Since then there has
been a progressive decrease on account of
damage from leaf diseases difficult to
combat, and by competition with Brazilian
coffee.

Coffee Estate in the Mountains of Costa Rica

COFFEE CULTIVATION

227

Bikd's-Eye View of a Coffee Estate in Mysore, India

New land that had just been planted
with icoffee in plantations reported for
1919 - 20 amounted to 7,012 acres ; while
the area abandoned was 8,725 acres, rep-
resenting a net decrease in cultivated area
of 1,713 acres.

Of the total area devoted to coffee cul-
tivation (126,919 acres), 49 percent was
in Mysore, which yielded 35 percent of
the total production ; ^vhile Madras, with
23 percent of the total area, yielded 38
percent of the production. The total pro-
duction for the year 1920 - 21 is reported as
26.902,471 pounds.

Yield varies throughout the country ac-
cording to the methods of cultivation and
the condition of the season. On the best
estates in a good season, the yield per
acre may be as high as 1,100 or 1,200
pounds, and on poor estates it may not be
over 200 or 300 pounds. The arabica
variety is chiefly cultivated. The rohusta
and Maragogipe have been tried, but with-
out much success.

A representative plantation is the San-
taverre in Mysore, comprising 400 acres,
at an elevation of from 4,000 to 4,500
feet, where the coffee trees, cultivated un-
der shade, produce from 100 to 250 tons
of coffee a year. Other prominent es-
tates in Mysore are Cannon's Baloor and

Mylemoney, the Hoskahn, and the Sum-
pigay Khan.

Nicaragua. Coffee trees will grow well
anywhere in Nicaragua, but the best loca-
tions have altitudes of from 2,000 to 3,000
feet above sea level. At such elevations
the yield varies from one pound to five
pounds per tree annually; but above or
below those, the average production dimin-
ishes to from one pound to one-half pound
a tree.

Lands most suitable for the berry are
on the Sierra de Managua, in Diriambe,
San Marcos, and Jinotega, and about the
base of the volcano Monbaeho near Gra-
nada. Good land is also found on the is-
land Omotepe in Lake Nicaragua, and
around Boaco in the department of Chon-
tales, where cultivation was begun in
1893.

There are also plantations in the vicin-
ity of Esteli and Lomati in the depart-
ment of Neuva Segovia. The most exten-
sive operations are in the departments of
Managua, Carazo, Matagalpa, Chontales,
and Jinotega, and from those regions the
annual crop has attained to such quantity
that it has become the chief agricultural
product of th& republic. Poor and costly
means of transportation on the Atlantic
slope have operated to retard the develop-

228

ALL ABOUT COFFEE

^jCM*Jb^& ^^^0^ffK^M^ftl^^^^^^^lHH^^EEHfli^^HH^^'! "^^b VHI

Mmm

1
<

if -5'.

, ■ J "^^mm^-

Coffee Growing Undek Shade, Ubban Estate, India

ment of the industry there, even though
conditions of climate are not unfavorable.

Abyssinia. In the absence of any con-
clusive evidence to the contrary, the claim
that coffee was first made known to mod-
ern man by the trees on the mountains of
the northeastern part of the continent of
Africa may be accepted without reserve.
Undoubtedl.y the plant grew wild all
through tropical Africa: but its value as
an addition to man's dietary was brought
forth in Abyssinia.

Abyssinia,, while it may have given
coffee to the world, no longer figures as a
prime factor in supplying the world, and
now exports only a limited quantity.
There are produced in the country two
coffees known to the trade as Harari and
Abyssinian, the former being by far the
more important. The Harari is the fruit
of cultivated arahica trees grown in the
province of Harar, and mostly in the
neighborhood of the city of Harar, capital
of the province. The Abyssianian is the
fruit of wild arahica trees that grow
mainly in the provinces of Sidamo, Kaffa,
and Guma.

The coffee of Harar is known to the
trade as Mocha longberry or Abyssinian
longberry. Most of the plantations upon

which it is raised are owned by the na-
tive Hararis, Galla, and Abyssinians, al-
though there are a few Greek, German,
and French planters. The trees are
planted in rows about twelve or fifteen
feet apart, and comparatively little at-
tention is given to cultivation. Crops av-
erage two a year, and sometimes even five
in two years. The big yield is in Decem-
ber, January, and February. The aver-
age crop is about seventy pounds, and is
mostly from small plots of from fifty to
one hundred trees, there being no very
large plantations. All the coffee is
brought into the city of Harar, whence it
is sent on mule-back to Dire-Daoua on the
Franco-Ethiopian Railway, and from
there by rail to Jibuti. Some of it is ex-
ported directly from Jibuti, and the rest
is forwarded to Aden, in Arabia, for re-
exporting.

Abyssinian, or wild, coffee is also known
as Kaft'a coffee, from one of the districts
where it grows most abundantly in a state
of nature. This coffee has a smaller bean
and is less rich in aroma and flavor than
the Harari; but the trees grow in such
profusion that the possible supply, at the
minimum of labor in gathering, is prac-
tically unlimited. It is said that in south-

COFFEE CULTIVATION

229

western Alwssinia there are immense for-
ests of it that have never been encroached
upon except at the outskirts, where the
natives lazily pick up the beans that have
fallen to the ground. It is shelled where
it is found, in the most primitive fashion,
and goes out in a dirty, mixed condition.

Formerly, much of this Kaffa cotfee
was sent to market through Boromeda,
Ilarar, and Dire-Daoua. An average an-
nual crop was about 6,000 bags, or 800,000
pounds, of which something more than
one-half usually went through Harar. A
customs and trading station has lately
been established at Gambela, on the Sobat
Biver: and with the development of this
outlet, there has been a substantial and
increasing exploitation of the wild-coffee
plants since 1913. Large areas of land
have been cleared, with a view to cultiva-
tion, and attention is being given to im-
proved methods of harvesting and of pre-
paring the coffee for the market. At one
time a fair amount of coffee from this re-
gion went to Adis Abeba on the backs of
pack mules, a journey of thirty-five or
forty days, and then was carried to Jibuti,
nearly 500 miles, part of the way by rail.
Now practically all of it goes to Gambela,
thence by steamers to Khartum, and by

rail to the shipping-point at Port Sudan
on the Red Sea.

Other African Countries.. Practi-
cally every part of Africa seems to be
suitable for coffee cultivation, even
United South Africa, in the southern part
of the continent, producing 140,212
pounds in 1918. To name all the coun-
tries in which it is grown would be to
list nearly all the political divisions of
Africa. Among the largest producers are
the British East African Protectorate. 18,-
735,572 pounds in 1918; French Somali-
land, 11,222,736 pounds in 1917; Angola,
10,655,934 pounds in 1913; Uganda,
9,999, 84o pounds in 1918 ; former German
East Africa, 2,334,450 pounds in 1913;
Cape Verde Islands, 1,442,910 pounds in
1916; Madagascar, 707,676 pounds in
1918; Liberia, 761,300 pounds in 1917;
Eritrea, 728,840 pounds in 1918; St.
Thomas and Prince's Islands, 484,350
pounds in 1916; and the Belgian Congo,
375,000 pounds in 1917.

Angola. Coffee is Angola's second
product, and there are large areas of wild-
coffee trees. With a production of nearly
11,000,000 pounds, Angola ranks about
third in Africa as a coffee-growing coun-
try. The coffee is gathered and sold by

j^ssim^

;■ -:^-v*;>:/. *

(»i

A Galla Coffee Gkower. and His Helper, in His Grove of Young Trees near Harab

230

ALL ABOUT COFFEE

the natives, and there are also several Eu-
ropean companies engaged in the coffee
business. The chief coffee belt extends
from the Quanza River northward to the
Kongo at an altitude of 1,500 to 2,500
feet. In the Cazengo valley the wild
trees are so thick that thinning out is the
only operation necessary to the planta-
tion-owner. When the trees become too
tall, they are simply cut off about two feet
above ground; and new shoots appear
from the trunks the following season.

The largest coffee plantation, owned by
the Companhia Agricola de Cazengo, pro-
duced in 1913, a record year, nearly 1,500
tons.

Liberia. Coffee is native to Liberia,
growing wild in the hinterland of the
negro republic, and in the natural state
the trees often attain a height of from
thirty to forty feet. Cultivated Liberian
coffee, Coffea liherica, has become a staple
of the civilized inhabitants of the country,
and is grown successfully in hot, moist
lowlands or on hills that are not much ele-
vated. On account of the size of the trees,
only about four hundred can be planted
to the acre. In recent years the native
Africans have been planting thousands of
trees in the district of Grand Cape Mount.
Coffee is grown in all parts of the repub-
lic, but chiefly in Grand Cape Mount and
Montserrado.

General Outlook in Africa. In the
African countries under control of Euro-
pean governments much recent progress
has been made in promoting coffee grow-
ing and in improving methods of cultiva-
tion.

British interests were reported in 1919
as having started a movement toward
reviving interest in the coffee growing
industry in the British possessions in
Africa. The report stated that Uganda,
in the East African Protectorate, had 21,-
000 acres under coffee cultivation, with
16,000 acres more in other -parts of the
Protectorate, and 1,300 acres in Nyasa-
land; also that there is no hope of an
immediate revival of the industry in Natal,
where it was killed twenty years ago by
various pests ; ' ' but it should certainly be
established in the warmer parts of Rhode-
sia ; and in the northern part of the Trans-
vaal an effort is being made to bring this
form of enterprise into practical ex-
istence."

Coffee growing possibilities in British
East Africa (Kenya Colony) are alluring,
according to reports from planters in that
region. Late in 1920, Major C. J. Ross,
a British government officer there, said
that "British East Africa is going to be
one of the leading coffee countries of the
world." Coffee grows wild in many parts
of the Protectorate, but the natives are
too lazy to pick even the wild berries.

On the more advanced plantations in all
parts of Africa the approved cultivation
methods of other leading countries are
carefully followed ; especial care being
given to weeding and pruning, because of
the rank growth of the tropics. On the
whole, however, little attention is given
to intensive methods.

Arabia. Whether the coffee tree was
first discovered indigenous in the moun-
tains of Abyssinia, or in the Yemen dis-
trict of Arabia, will probably always be
a matter of contention. Many writers
of Europe and Asia in the fifteenth cen-
tury, when coffee was first brought to the
attention of the people of Europe, agree
on Arabia; but there is good reason to be-
lieve the plant was brought to Arabia
from Abyssinia in the sixth century.

Once all the coffee of Arabia went to
the outside world through the port of
Mocha on the eastern coast of the Red
Sea. Mocha, which never raised any
coffee, is no longer of commercial impor-
tance; but its name has been permanently
attached to the coffee of this country.

Mocha {Moka, or Morkha) coffee (i. e.
Coffea arabica) is raised principally in
the vilayet of Yemen, a district of south-
eastern Arabia. Yemen extends from
the north, southerly along the line of the
Red Sea, nearly to the Gulf of Aden.
With the exception of a narrow strip of
land along the shores of the Red Sea, the
Strait of Bab-el-Man deb, and the Gulf of
Aden, it is a rugged, mountainous region,
in which innumerable small valleys at
high elevations are irrigated by waters
from the melting snows of the mountains.

Coffee can be successfully grown in any
part of Yemen, but its cultivation is con-
fined to a few widely scattered districts,
and the acreage is not large. The prin-
cipal coffee regions are in the mountains
between Taiz and Ibb, and between Ibb
and Yerim, and Yerim and Sanaa, on the
caravan route from Taiz to Sanaa; be-

COFFEE CULTIVATION

231

Wild Kaffa Coffee Trees Near Adis Abeba

tween Zabeed and Ibb, on the route from
Taiz to Zabeed; between Hajelah and
Menakha, on the route from Hodeida to
Sanaa, and in the wild mountain ranges
both to the north and south of that route ;
between Beit-el-Fakih and Obal; and be-
tween ]\Ianakha and Batham to the north
of Bajil. The plant does best at eleva-
tions ranging from 3,500 to 6,500 feet.

In the Yemen district, cotfee is gener-
ally grown in small gardens. Large plan-
tations, as they exist in other coffee-grow-
ing countries, are not seen in Arabia.
Many of these small farms may be parts
of a large estate belonging to some rich
tribal chief. The native Arabs do not use
coffee in the way it is used elsewhere in
the world. They drink kisher, a beverage
brewed from the husks of the berry and
not from the bean. Consequently, the en-
the crop goes into export. But bad con-
ditions of trade routes, political disturb-
ances, and small regional wars, absence of
good cultivation methods, and heavy tran-
sit taxes imposed by the government, have
combined to restrict the production of
Yemen coffee.

Land for the coffee gardens is selected
on hill-slopes, and is terraced with soil and
small walls of stone until it reaches up

like an amphitheater — often to a consider-
able height. The soil is well fertilized.
For sowing, the seeds are thoroughly dried
in ashes, and after being placed in the
ground, are carefully watched, watered,
and shaded. In about a year the shrub
has grown to a height of twelve or more
inches. Seedlings in that condition are
set out in the gardens in rows, about ten
to thirteen feet apart. The young trees
receive moisture from neighboring wells
or from irrigation ditches, and are shaded
by bananas.

At maturity the trees reach a height of
ten or fifteen feet. Since they never lose
all their leaves at one time, they appear
always green, and bear at the same time
flowers and fruits, some of which are still
green while others are ripe or approaching
maturity. Thus, in some districts, the
the trees are considered to have two or
even three crops a year. All the trees be-
gin to bear about the end of the third
year.

Cuba. Coffee can be grown in prac-
tically every island of the West Indies,
but owing to the state of civilization in
many of the lesser islands, little is pro-
duced for international trade, excepting

232

ALL ABOUT COFFEE

COFFEE CULTIVATION

233

in Jamaica, Guadeloupe, Haiti, the Do-
minican Republic, Trinidad, and Tobago.
In past years a considerable quantity of
good-quality coffee was produced in Cuba,
the annua] export in the decade of 1840
averaging 50,000,000 pounds. Severe hur-
ricanes, adverse legislation, the rise of
coffee-growing in Brazil, the increase in
cultivation of sugar and other more profit-
able crops, practically eliminated Cuba
from the international coffee-export trade.

Martinique. This is a name well
known to coffee men, the world over, as
the pioneer coffee-growing country of the
western hemisphere. Gabriel de Clieu in-
troduced the coffee plant to the island in
1723 by bringing it through many hard-
ships from France. For a time, coffee
flourished there, but now practically none
is grown. Such coffee as bears the name
Martinique in modern trade centers is pro-
duced in Guadeloupe, and is only shipped
through Martinique.

Jamaica. Coffee was introduced into
Jamaica in 1730 ; and so highly was it re-
garded as a desirable addition to the agri-
cultural resources of the island, that the
British Parliament in 1732 passed a spe-
cial act providing for the encouraging and
fostering of its cultivation. Later, it be-
came one of the great staples of the coun-
try. Disastrous floods in 1815, and the
gradual exhaustion of the best lands since
then, have brought about a decline of the
industry, which is now confined to a few
estates in the Blue Mountains and to scat-
tered "settler" or peasant cultivation in
the same districts but at lower altitudes.

The tree was formerly grown at all al-
titudes, from sea-level to 5,000 feet; but
the best height for it is about 4,500 feet.
Four parishes lead in coffee producing:
Manchester, with an area of 5,045 acres;
St. Thomas, with 2,315 acres; Clarendon,
with 2,172 acres ; St. Andrew, with 1,584
acres. Nine other parishes that raise
coffee have less than 1,000 acres each un-
der cultivation. There were 24,865 acres
devoted to coffee in 1900. In addition, it
was estimated that there were 80,000 acres
suitable for the cultivation, nearly all be-
ing owned by the government.

Dominican Republic. Coffee was once
the leading staple in the Dominican Re-
public as in the adjoining Haitian Repub-
lic; but in recent years cacao, sugar, and
tobacco have become the predominating

crops. Said to have the world's richest
and most productive soil, one-half of the
republic's area is particularly suited to
the cultivation of a good grade of coffee
of the highland type. But political and
industrial conditions have made for neg-
lect of its cultivation by efficient methods.
Lack of suitable roads has also militated
against the development of the coffee in-
dustry.

In spite of many drawbacks, it is to be
noted that, from the beginning of the
twentieth century, the coffee-growing area
has been gradually expanded until ex-
ports increased from less than 1,000,000
pounds to 5,029,316 pounds in 1918, al-
though in the next two years there was
a recession in the total exports to 1,358,-
825 pounds in 1920.

The principal plantations are in the
vicinity of the town of Moca and in the

■A.

'^VI^I^B '

Cop/i'iShtoiH
HC.wSiteCo-

Picking Blue Mountain Berries, Jamaica

districts of Santiago, Bani, and Barahona.
Generally speaking, the methods of cul-
tivation in the Dominican Republic are
somewhat crude • as compared with the
practise in the larger countries of produc-
tion in Central America and South
America.

Guadeloupe, Guadeloupe has an area
of 619 square miles, and about one-third
of this area is under cultivation. About
15,000 acres are in coffee, giving employ-
ment to upward of 10.000 persons. The
average yield of a plantation of mature
trees is about 535 pounds to the acre.

234

ALL ABOUT COFFEE

In the early years of the industry in
Guadeloupe, production and export were
considerable. From old records it ap-
pears that in 1784 the exports amounted
to 7,500,000 pounds. During the closing
years of the eighteenth century the annual
exports were from 6,500,000 to 8,500,000
pounds, and in the beginning of the next
century they registered about 6,000,000
pounds. Toward the middle of the nine-
teenth century the growing of sugar cane
overtopped that of coffee in profit, and
many planters abandoned coffee. After
1884, with the decadence of the sugar in-
dustry, coffee was again favored, the gov-
ernment giving substantial encouragement
by paying bounties ranging from $15 to
$19 per acre for all new coffee plantations.

In recent years, considerable lib erica
and rohnsta have been planted in place of
the exhausted arahica.

Trinidad and Tobago. The islands of
Trinidad and Tobago are small factors in
international coffee trading. Coffee can
be grown almost any place on the islands;
but -its cultivation is confined principally
to' the districts of Maracas, Aripo, and

North Oropouche. Both the arahica and
the liberica varieties are grown.

Honduras. Soil, surface, and climate
in Honduras, as far as they relate to the
cultivation of coffee, are similar to those
of the adjoining regions of Central Amer-
ica. The tree grows in the uplands of the
interior, thriving best at an altitude of
from 1,500 to 4,000 feet. Scarcity of la-
bor and insufficient means of transporta-
tion have been the chief obstacles in the
way of the large development of the in-
dustry.

The departments of Santa Barbara,
Copan, Cortez, La Paz, Choluteca, and El
ParaisO have the principal plantations.
The ports of shipment are Truxillo and
Puerto Cortes. Annual production in re-
cent years has been about 5,000,000
pounds. In 1889 the United States im-
ported 3,322,502 pounds, but in 1915 its
importations fell away to 665,912 pounds.

British Honduras, British Honduras
has never undertaken to raise coffee on a
commercial scale despite the fact that
conditions are not unfavorable to its cul-
tivation. It has failed to produce enough
even for domestic consumption, importing

CoFFKE Pickers Returning from the Fields, Guadeloupe

COFFEE CULTIVATION

235

Three- Year-Old Coffee Trees in Blossom, Panama

most of what it has needed. Annual pro-
duction, as recorded in recent years, has
been upward of 10,000 pounds.

Panama. Panama presents a very fa-
vorable field for the growing of coffee.
The l)est district is situated in the uplands
of the district of Bugaba, where vast areas
of the best lands for coffee-growing exist,
and where climatic and other conditions
are most favorable to its growth.

No shade is required in this country ;
and the only cultivation consists of tliree
or four cleanings a year to keep down the
weeds, as no plowing, etc., are necessary.
Coffee matures from October to January.
Water power being abundant, it is used
for running all machinery.

The annual output of the province of
Chiriqui, which produces the bulk of the
coffee, is approximately 4.000 sacks of 100
pounds each; all of which is produced in

the Boquete district at present, as the
coffee planted in the Bugaba section is
still young and unproductive. The local
supply does not meet the domestic de-
mand; and instead of exporting, a -great
deal is imported from adjoining countries,
although there is a protective tariff of six
dollars per hundred pounds.

The Guianas. Coffee has had a precari-
ous existence in the Guianas. Plants are
said to have been brought by Dutch voy-
agers from Amsterdam in 1718 or 1720.
They flourished in the new habitat to
which they were introduced, and in 1725
were carried from- Dutch Guiana into the
district of Berbice in British Guiana and
into French Guiana. There the berry was
a considerable success for a time : Berbice
coffee especially acquiring a good reputa-
tion ; and when Demerara was settled,
coffee became a staple of that region.

236

ALL ABOUT COFFEE

Shortage of native labor, and the difficulty
of procuring cheap and capable workers
from outside the country, ultimately com-
pelled the practical abandonment of the
crop in all three sections, Dutch, French,
and British, In British Guiana it is now
grown mainly for domestic consumption,
and the same is true of French Guiana,
which also imports.

From the time of its introduction, about
1718, until about 1880, the only coffee
grown in Surinam, or Dutch Guiana, was
the Coffea arahica. It was not a boun-
tiful producer, and with labor scarce and
unreliable, its cultivation was expensive.
Therefore experiment was made with the
liherica plant. This proved to be very
satisfactory, growing luxuriantly, produc-
ing abundantly, and requiring minimum
labor in- care. In 1918 some 16,000,000
pounds were produced.

Ecuador. Though not of great com-
mercial importance, coffee in Ecuador
grows on both the mainland and on the
adjacent islands. The area planted to
coffee is estimated at 32,000 acres having
an aggregate of about 8,000,000 trees.
The trees blossom in December, and the
picking season is through April, May and
June. Coffee ranks third in value among
the exports of the country.

Peru. Although possessed of natural
coffee land and climate, little has been
done to develop the industry in Peru. A
finely flavored coffee grows at an altitude
of 7,000 feet, while that grown in the low-
lands along the Pacific coast is not so de-
sirable. Such small quantities as are
grown are cultivated in the mountain dis-
tricts of Choquisongo, Cajamarca, Perene,
Paucartambo, Chaucghamayo, and Huan-
ace. The Pacific-coast district of Paces-
mayo also grows a not unimportant crop.

Bolivia. Comparatively little attention
is given to coffee cultivation in Bolivia.
Agricultural methods are crude, and are
limited to cutting down weeds and under-
growth twice a year. The coffee is
planted in small patches, or as hedges
along the roads or around the fields of
other crops. The first crop is picked at
the end of one and a half or two years.
The trees bear for fifteen to twenty years.
The average yield is from three to eight
pounds per tree. The best grades of
coffee are grown at 2,000 to 6,000 feet
above sea level.

Coffee is cultivated in the departments
of La Paz, Cochabamba, Santa Cruz, El
Beni, and Chuquisca. In the department
of Santa Cruz there are plantations in
the provinces of Sara, Velasco, Chiquitos
and Cordillera. In the Yungas and the
Apolobamba districts of La Paz, its cul-
tivation reaches the greatest importance,
but even there is not of large proportions.

Chile, Paraguay, and Argentina.
Coffee is of minor, almost insignificant,
importance in the agriculture of Chile,
Paraguay, and Argentina. In Uruguay
the climate is altogether unsuitable for it.

Argentina and Paraguay each have
small growing districts. In the first
named, only the provinces of Salta and
Jujuy have, at the latest reports, a little
more than 3,000 acres under cultivation.
In Paraguay some householders have
grown coffee iji their yards solely for their
own use. In the Paraguayan district of
Altos, north of Asuncion, a small group
of plantations was started before the out-
break of the World War, and produced
about 300,000 pounds of coffee in a year.

Ceylon. Coffee planting in Ceylon
was an important industry for a century,
until the so-called Ceylon leaf disease at-
tacked the plantations in 1869, and a few
years later had practically destroyed all
the trees of the country. Although coffee
raising has continued since then, there has
been, especially since the beginning of the
twentieth century, a steady decline in
acreage. There were 4,875 acres under
cultivation in 1903, 2,433 acres in 1907,
1.389 in 1912, and 941.5 in 1919. Only
2,200 pounds were produced in 1917.
However, the climate and soil of Ceylon
seem adapted to coffee culture, and the
experimental stations at Peradeniya and
Anuradhapura have been experimenting
in recent years with rohusta, canepJiora,
TJgandae, and a rohusta hybrid for the
purpose of reviving the industry in the
country,

Ceylon is one of the oldest coffee-grow-
ing countries, the Arabs having experi-
mented with it there, according to legend,
long before the Portuguese seized the is-
land in 1505, The Dutch, who gained
control in 1658, continued the cultivation,
and in 1690 introduced more systematic
methods. They sent a few pounds in 1721
to Amsterdam, where the coffee brought a
higher price than Java or Mocha. How-

COFFEE CULTIVATION

237

RoBusTA Coffee Growing on the Suzannah Estate, Cociiin-China

ever, it was not until after the British
occupied the island in 1796, that coffee
growing was carried on extensively. The
first British-owned upland plantation was
started in 1825 by Sir Edward Barnes;
and for more than fifty years thereafter
coffee was one of the island's leading
products. An orgy of speculation in
coffee growing in Ceylon, in which
£5,000,000 sterling are said to have been
invested, culminated in 1845 in the burst-
ing of the coffee bubble, and hundreds
were ruined. The peak of the export
trade was reached in 1873, when 111,495,-
216 pounds of coffee were sent out of the
country. Even then, the plantations were
suffering severely from the leaf disease,
which had appeared in 1869 ; and by 1887,
the coffee tree had practically disappeared
from Ceylon. Ceylon's day in coffee was
a cycle of fifty-odd years.

French Indo-China. Coffee culture in
French Indo-China is a comparatively
small factor in international trade, al-
though production is on the increase, par-
ticularly from those plantations planted
to robiista, liherica, and excelsa varieties.
The average annual export for the five-
year period ended with 1918 was 516.978
pounds, nearly all of it going to France.

The first experiments with coffee grow-
ing were begun in 1887, near Hanoi in
Tonkin. The seeds were of the arabica
variety, brought from Reunion, and the
production from the first years was dis-
tributed throughout the country to foster
the industry. Eventually arahica was
found unsuitable to the soil and climate,
and experiments were begun with robusta
and other hardier types.

A survey of the industry of the coun-
try in 1916 showed that the plant was be-
ing successfully grown in the provinces
of Tonkin, Anam, and Cochin-China, and
that altogether there were about 1,000,000
trees in bearing. The plantations are
mostly in the foot-hills of the mountain
ranges or on the slopes, although a few
are located near the coast line at 1,000
feet, or even less, above sea-level.

The larger and more successful planta-
tions follow advanced methods of planting
and cultivating, while the government
maintains experimental stations for the
purpose of fostering the industry. It is
believed that French Indo-China in com-
ing years will assume an important po-
sition in the coffee trade of the world,
particularly as a source of supply for
France.

238

ALL ABOUT COFFEE

Federated Malay States, Including
Strait's Settlements. Rubber has been
the chief cause of the decline of coffee
industry in the Federated Malay States.
Since the closing years of the nineteenth
century coffee has been steadily on the
downward path in acreage and produc-
tion, with the possible exception of parts
of Straits Settlements, which in 1918 ex-
ported, mostly to England, some 3,500,000
pounds of good grade coffee. The other
sections of the federation shipped less
than 1,000,000 pounds.

In the early days, planters of the Malay
Peninsula knew little about proper meth-
ods of cultivating, and depended mostly
upon what they learned of the practises
in Ceylon, which, unfortunately for them,
were not at all suited to the Malay
country. They secured their best crops
from lowlands where peaty soil prevailed,
and eventually all the coffee grown on the
peninsula came from such regions.

Liberica is mostly favored, and is
grown with some success as an inter-crop
with cocoanuts and rubber. The rohusta
variety has also been introduced, but does
not seem to do as well as the liberica. Be-
tween 2,300 and 2,600 acres, according to
recent returns, have been under coffee as
a catch-crop with cocoanuts, out of a total

of 40,000 acres in cocoanut estates. One
planter has been reported as making quite
a success with this method of inter-crop-
ping for coffee, but it is not generally
approved.

There has been a general decline in
acreage, product, and exports since the
closing years of the nineteenth century,
until now the industry is regarded as prac-
tically at a stand-still and likely so to re-
main as long as rubber shall continue to
hold the commercially high position to
which it has attained. Unsatisfactory
prices realized for the crop, poor growth
of the trees in some localities, and the
gradual weakening of the trees under
rubber as they mature, are offered as the
principal explanations of this decrease in
acreage. Nearly all the Malay crop in
recent years has been grown in Selangor,
though Negri Sembilan, Pahang, and
Perak continue as factors in the trade.

Australia. Although Australia is a
prospective coffee-growing country of
large natural possibilities, the Australian
Year Book for 1921 states that Queensland
is the one state in which experiments have
been tried, and that in 1919 - 20 there
were only twenty-four acres under cul-
tivation. Queensland soils are of volcanic
origin, exceptionally rich, and support

Coffee Trees of the Bourbon Variety, French Indo-China

COFFEE CULTIVATION

239

Picking Coffee on a North Queensland Plantation

trees that are vigorous and prolific with
a bean of fine quality. The arabica is
chiefly cultivated, and the trees can be
successfully grown on the plains at sea-
level as well as up to a height of 1,500 or
2,000 feet. The trees mature earlier than
in some other countries. Planted in Jan-
uary, they frequently blossom in Decem-
ber of the next year, or a month later,
and yield a small crop in July or August;
that is, in about two years and a half from
the time of planting. The bean closely re-
sembles the choice Blue Mountain coffee
of Jamaica. For coffee cultivation the
labor cost is almost prohibitive.

As much as fifteen hundredweight of
beans per acre have been gathered from
trees in North Queensland; and for years
the average was ten hundredweight per
acre. After thirty years of cultivation,
no signs of disease have appeared. Af^
late as 1920, the government was propos-
ing to make advances of fourteen cents a
pound upon coffee in the parchment to
encourage the development of the indus-
try to a point where it would be possible
for local coffee growers to capture at least
the bulk of the commonwealth's import
coffee trade of 2,605,240 Rounds.

Coffee grows well in most all the islands
of the Pacific Ocean, and in some of them^
as in the Philippines and Hawaii, the in-
dustry in past years reached considerable
importance.

Hawaii. Coffee has been grown in
Hawaii since 1825, from plants brought
from Brazil. It has also been said that
seed was brought by Vancouver, the Brit-
ish navigator, on his Pacific exploration
voyage, 1791 - 94. Not, however, until
1845 was an official record made of the
crop, which was then 248 pounds. The
first plantations, started on the low levels,
near the sea, did not do well; and it was
not until the trees were planted' at eleva-
tions of from 1,000 to 3,000 feet above
sea-level that better returns were obtained.

Coffee is grown on all the islands of
the group, but nowhere to any great ex-
tent except on Hawaii, which produces
ninety-five percent of the entire crop. Next
in importance, though far behind, is the
island of Oahu. On Hawaii there are
four principal coffee districts, Kona,
Hamakua, Puna, and Olaa. About four-
fifths of the total output of the islands is
produced in Kona. At one time there
were considerable coffee afe^s in Maui

240

ALL ABOUT COFFEE

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COFFEE CULTIVATION

241

and Kauai, but sugar cane eventually
there took the place of coffee.

The Kona coffee district extends for
many miles along- the western slope of the
island of Hawaii and around famous
Kealakekua Bay. The soil is volcanic,
and even rocky; but coffee trees flourish
surprisingly well among the rocks, and
are said to bear a bean of superior
quality.

Coffee trees in Kona are planted prin-
cipally in the open, though sometimes they
are shaded by the native kukui trees.
They are grown from seed in nurseries;
and the seedlings, when one year old, are
transplanted in regular lines nine feet
apart. In two years a small crop is gath-
ered, yielding from five to twelve bags of
cleaned coft'ee per acre. At three years
of age the trees produce from eight to
twenty bags of cleaned coffee per acre,
and from that time they are fully ma-
tured. The ripening season is between
September and January, and there are
two principal pickings. Many of the
trees are classed as wild; that is, they are
not topped, and are cultivated in an ir-
regular manner and are poorly cared for;
but they yield 700 or 800 pounds per acre.
The fruit ripens very uniformly, and is
picked easily and at slight expense.

It is calculated that in the Hawaiian
group more than 250,000 acres of good
coffee land are available and about 200,-
000 acres more of fair quality. Com-
paratively little of this possible acreage
has been put to use. According to the
census of 1889, there were then 6,451 acres
devoted to coffee, having, young, and old,
3,225,743 bearing trees. The yield, in
that census year, was 2,297,000 pounds, of
which 2,112,650 pounds 'were credited to
Hawaii, the small remainder coming from
Maui, Oahu, Kauai, and Molokai.

A blight in 1855 - 56 set back the indus-
try, many plantations being ruined and
then given over to sugar cane. After the
blight had disappeared, the plantations
were re-established, and prosperity cou:
tinued for years. Following the Ameri-
can occupation of the islands in 1898,
came another period of depression. With
the loss of the protective tariff that had
existed, prices fell to an unremunerative
figure; and the more profitable sugar cane
was taken up again. After 1912, the in-
creased demand for coffee, with higher
prices, led again to hopes for the future

Coffee Growing Under Shade, Hamakua, H. I.

of the industry. Planting was encour-
aged; and it has been demonstrated that
from lands w^ell selected and intelligently
cultivated it is possible to have a yield of
from 1,200 to 2,100 pounds per acre.
Improvements have also been made in
pulping and milling facilities. Many of
the plantations are cultivated by Japanese
labor.

Exports of coffee from Hawaii to the
principal countries of the world in 1920
were 2,573,300 pounds.

Philippine Islands. Spanish mission-
aries from Mexico are said to have carried
the coffee plant to the Philippine Islands
in the latter part of the eighteenth cen-
tury. At first it was cultivated in the
province of La Laguna ; but afterward
other provinces, notably Batangas and
Cavite, took it up ; and in a short time the
industry was one of the most important
in the islands. The coffee was of the
arahica variety. In the middle of the
eighteenth century, and after, the indus-
try had a position of importance; several
provinces produced profitable crops that
contributed much to the wealth of the
communities where the berry was culti-
vated. In those days the city of Yipa was
an important trading center. In the
period of its prime Philippine coffee en-
joyed fine repute, especially in Spain,
Great Britain, and China (at Hong
Kong), those three countries being the
largest consumers. At one time — in

242

ALL ABOUT COFFEE

1883 and 1884 — the annual export was
16,000,000 pounds, which demonstrates
the importance of the industry at the peak
of its prosperity. The leaf blight ap-
peared on the island about 1889, causing
destruction from which there has not yet
been complete' recovery. The export of
3,086 pounds in 1917 shows the depths
into which the industry had fallen.

The Bureau of Agriculture at Manila
announced in 1915 that an effort was to
be made to re-habilitate the coffee indus-
try of the islands.. Nothing came of the
effort, which died a-borning. Since then,
several attempts to introduce disease-re-
sisting varieties of coffee from Java have
failed because of lack of interest on the
part of the natives.

Despite the misfortunes that have over-
whelmed it in the past and are now re-
tarding its growth, it is still believed that

the industry in these islands may be re-
habilitated. Conditions of soil and cli-
mate are favorable; land and labor are
cheap, abundant, and dependable: rail-
roads run into the best coffee regions, and
good cart roads are in process of construc-
tion. Some plantations of consequence
are still in existence, and serious consid-
eration is being given to their develop-
ment and to increasing their number,

Guam. Coffee is one of the commonest
wild plants on the little island of Guam.
It grows around the houses like shade
trees or flowering shrubs, and nearly every
family cultivates a small patch. Climate
and soil are favorable to it; and it flour-
ishes, with abundant crops, from the sea-
level to the tops of the highest hills. The
plants are set in straight rows, from three
and a half to seven feet apart, and are
shaded by banana trees or bv cocoanut

The Coffee Tbee Thrives in the Lava Soil of South Kona, Island of Hawaii

COFFEE CULTIVATION

243

Coffee Plantation Near Sagada, Bontoc Province, P. I.

leaves stuck in the ground. There is no
production for export, scarcely enough for
home consumption.

Other Pacific Islands. Other islands
of the Pacific do not loom large in coffee
growing, though New Caledonia gives
promise as a producer, exporting 1,248,-
024 pounds in 1916, most of which was

rohusta. Tahiti produces a fair coffee,
but in no commercial quantity. In the
Samoan group there are plantations, small
in number, in size, and in amount of pro-
duction. Several islands of 'the Fiji
group are said to be well adapted to coffee,
but little is grown there and none for
export.

244

ALL ABOUT COFFEE

Owner's Residence Adjoining Drying Grounds on One of the Large Estates

Drying Grounds, Fazenda Santa Adelaide, Kibeiuao Preto
COFFEE PREPARATION IN SAO PAULO, BRAZIL

Chapter XXI

RE PARING GREEX COFFEE FOR MARKET

Early Arabian methods of preparation- — Hoiv primitive devices were
replaced by modern methods — A chronological story of the develop-
ment of scientific plantation machinery, and the part played by Brit-
ish and American inventors — The marvelous coffee package, one
of the most ingenious in all nature — Hoiv coffee is harvested —
Picking — Preparation by the dry and the ivet methods — Pulping —
Fermentation and washing — Drying — Hulling, or peeling, and pol-
ishing — Sizing, or grading — Preparation methods of different
countries

LA ROQUE', in his description of the
ancient coffee culture, and the prepa-
ration methods as followed in Yemen,
says that the berries were permitted to dry
on the trees. When the outer covering be-
gan to shrivel, the trees were shaken, caus-
ing the fully matured fruits to drop upon
cloths spread to receive them. They were
next exposed to the sun on drying-mats,
after which they were husked by means of
wooden or stone rollers. The beans were
given a further drying in the sun, and then
were submitted to a winnowing process, for
which large fans were used.

Development of Plantation Machinery
The primitive methods of the original
Arab planters were generally followed by
the Dutch pioneers, and later by the
French, with slight modifications. As the
ultivation spread, necessity for more effec-
live methods of handling the ripened fruit
mothered invention's that soon began to
transform the whole aspect of the business.
Probably the first notable advance was in
curing, when the West Indian process, or
wet method, of cleaning the berries w^as
evolved.

About the time that Brazil began the
active cultivation of coffee, William Panter

' La Koque, Jean.
Paris, 1715 (r. 285).

Voyage dc I'Arahie Heureuae,

was granted the first English patent on a
"mill for husking coffee." This was in
1775. James Henckel followed with an
English patent, granted in 1806, on a coffee
drier, "an invention communicated to liim
by a certain foreigner." The first Amer-
ican to enter the lists was Nathan Reed of
Belfast, Me., who in 1822 was granted a
United States patent on a coffee huller.
Roswell Abbey obtained a United States
patent on a huller in 1825 ; and Zenos
Bronson, of Jasper County, Ga., obtained
one on another huller in 1829. In the next
few years many others followed.

John Chester Lyman, in 1834, was grant-
ed an English patent on a coffee huller em-
ploying circular wooden disks, fitted with
wire teeth. Isaac Adams and Thomas Dit-
son of Boston brought out improved hullers
in 1835 ; and James Meacock of Kingston,
Jamaica, patented in England, in 1845, a
self-contained machine for pulping, dress-
ing, and sorting coffee.

William McKinnon began, in 1840, the
manufacture of coffee plantation machinery
at the Spring Garden Iron Works, founded
by him in 1798 in Aberdeen, Scotland. He
died in 1873 ; but the business continues
as Wm. McKinnon & Co., Ltd.

About 1850 John Walker, one of the pio-
neer English inventors of coffee-plantation

245

246

ALL ABOUT COFFEE

Walker's Okiginal Disk Pulper, 1860
Much favored in Ceylon and India

machinery, brought out in Ceylon his
cylinder pulper for Arabian coffee. The
pulping surface was made of copper, and
was pierced with a half-moon punch that
raised the cut edges into half circles.

The next twenty years witnessed some of
the most notable advances in the develop-
ment of machinery for plantation treat-
ment, and served to introduce the inven-
tions of several men whose names will ever
be associated with the industry.

John Gordon & Co. began the manufac-
ture in London of the line of plantation
machinery still known around the world as
"Gordon make" in 1850; and John Gordon
was granted an English patent on his im-
proved coffee pulper in 1859.

Robert Bowman Tennent obtained Eng-
lish (1852) and United States (1853) pat-
ents on a two-cylinder pulper.

George L. Squier began the manufacture
of plantation machinery in Buffalo, N. Y.,
in 1857. He was active in the business until
1893, and died in 1910. The Geo. L. Squier
Manufacturing Co. still continues as one
of the leading American manufacturers of
coffee-plantation machinery.

Marcus Mason, an American mechanical
engineer in San Jose, Costa Rica, invented
(1860) a coffee pulper and cleaner which
became the foundation stone of the exten-
sive plantation-machinery business of Mar-
cus Mason & Co., established in 1873 at
Worcester, Mass.

John Walker was granted (1860) an
English patent on a disk pulper in which
the copper pulping surface was punched,
or knobbed, by a blind punch that raised
rows of oval knobs but did not pierce the
sheet, and so left no sharp edges. During
Ceylon's fifty years of coffee production,
the Walker machines played an important
part in the industry. They are still manu-
factured by Walker, Sons & Co., Ltd., of
Colombo, and are sold to other producing
countries.

Alexius Van Gulpen began the manufac-
ture of a green-coffee-grading machine at
Emmerich, Germany, in 1860,

Following Newell's United States patents
of 1857 - 59, sixteen other patents were is-
sued on various types of coffee-cleaning ma-
chines, some designed for plantation use,
and some for treating the beans on arrival
in the consuming countries.

James Henry Thompson, of Hoboken, and
John Lidgerwood were granted, in 1864, an
English patent on a coffee-hulling machine.
William Van Vleek Lidgerwood, American
charge d'affaires at Rio de Janeiro, was
granted an English patent on a coffee hull-
ing and cleaning machine in 1866. The
name Lidgerwood has long been familiar to
coffee planters. The Lidgerwood Manufac-
turing Co.,, Ltd., has its headquarters in
London, with factory in Glasgow. Branch
offices are maintained at Rio de Janeiro,
Campinas, and in other cities in coffee-
growing countries.

Probably the name most familiar to cof-
fee men in connection with plantation

Eaely English Coffee Peeleb
Largely used in India and Ceylon

GREEN COFFEE PREPARATION

247

Group of English Cylinder Coffee-Pulping Machines

lethods is Guardiola. It first appears in
the chronological record in 1872, when J.
Guardiola, of Chocola, Guatemala, was
granted several United States patents on
machines for pulping and drying coffee.
Since then, "Guardiola" has come to mean
a definite type of rotary drying machine
that — after the original patent expired —
was manufactured by practically all the
leading makers of plantation machinery.
Jose Guardiola obtained additional United
States patents on coffee hullers in 1886.

William Van Vleek Lidgerwood, Morris-
town, N. J., was granted an English patent
on an improved coffee pulper in 1875.

Several important cleaning and grading
machinery patents were granted by the
United States (1876-1878) to Henry B.
Stevens, who assigned them to the Geo. L.
Squier Manufacturing Co., Buffalo, N. Y.
One of them was on a separator, in which
the coffee beans were discharged from the
hopper in a thin stream upon an endless
■carrier, or apron, arranged at such an in-
clination that the. round beans would roll
by force of gravity down the apron, while
the flat beans would be carried to the top.

C. F. Hargreaves, of Eio de Janeiro, was
granted an English patent on machinery
for hulling, polishing, and separating cof-
fee, in 1879.

The first German patent on a coffee dry-
ing apparatus was granted to Henry Scol-
field, of Guatemala, in 1880.

In 1885 Evaristo Conrado Engelberg of
Piracicaba, Sao Paulo, Brazil, invented an
improved coffee huller which, three years
later, was patented in the United States.
The Engelberg Huller Co. of Syracuse,
N. Y., was organized the same year (1888)
to make and to sell Engelberg machines.

Walker Sons & Co., Ltd., began, in 1886,
experimenting in Ceylon with a Liberian
disk pulper that was not fully perfected
until twelve years later.

Another name, that has sinjce become al-
most as well known as Guardiola, appears
in the record in 1891. It is that of
O'Krassa. In that year R. F. E. O'Krassa
of Antigua, Guatemala, was granted an
English patent on a coffee pulper. Addi-
tional patents on washing, hulling, drying,
and separating machines were issued to Mr.
O'Krassa in England and in the United
States in 1900, 1908, 1911, 1912, and 1913.

The Fried. Krupp A. G. Grusonwerk,
Magdeburg-Buckau, Germany, began the
manufacture of coffee plantation machines
about 1892. Among others it builds coffee
pulpers and hulling and polishing machines
of the Anderson (Mexican) and KruU
(Brazilian) types.

248

ALL ABOUT COFFEE

Additional United States patents were
granted in 1895 to Marcus Mason, assignor
to Marcus Mason & Co., New York, on ma-
chines for pulping and polishing' coffee.
Douglas Gordon assigned patents on a cof-
fee pulper and a coffee drier to Marcus
Mason & Co. in 1904 - 05.

The names of Jules Smout, a Swiss, and
Don Roberto O'Krassa, of Guatemala, are
well known to coffee planters the world
over because of their combined peeling and
polishing machines.

The Huntley Manufacturing Co., Silver
Creek, N. Y., began in 1896 the manufac-
ture of the Monitor line of coffee-grading-
and-cleaning machines.

TJie Marvelous Coffee Package

It is doubtful if in all nature there is a
more cunningly devised food package than
the fruit of the coffee tree. It seems as if
Good Mother Nature had said : ' ' This gift
of Heaven is too precious to put up in any
ordinary parcel. I shall design for it a
casket w^orthy of its divine origin. And

the casket shall have an inner seal that
shall safeguard it from enemies, and that
shall preserve its goodness for man until
the day when, transported over the deserts
and across the seas, it shall be broken open
to be transmuted by the fires of friendship,
and made to yield up its aromatic nectar
in the Great Drink of Democracy."

To this end she caused to grow from the
heart of the jasmine-like flower, that first
herald of its coming, a marvelous berry
which, as it ripens, turns first from green
to yellow, then to reddish, to deep crimson,
and at last to a royal purple.

The coffee fruit is very like a cherry,
though somewhat elongated and having in
its upper end a small umbilicus. But mark
with what ingenuity" the package has been
constructed ! The outer wrapping is a thin,
gossamer-like skin which encloses a soft
pulp, sweetish to the taste, but of a mucila-
ginous consistency. This pulp in turn is
wrapped about the inner-seal — called the
parchment, because of its tough texture.
The parchment encloses the magic bean in

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Specimens of Copper Covers for Pulper Cylinders

For Arabian coffee (Coffea ardbica). 2 — For Liberian coffee {Coffea liberica). 3 — Also for Arabian..
4 — For; Coffea canephora. 5 — For Coffea robusta. 6 — For larger Arabian, and for Coffea Maragoyipe.

ALL ABOUT COFFEE

Dkyim, GituL ._^, I'LLPi^G House, and Fermentation Vats, Boa Vista. Brazil

Pulping House and 1<"^rmentation Tanks, Costa Rica
COFFEE PREPARATION IN CENTRAL AND SOUTH AMERICA

GREEN COFFEE PREPARATION

249

Its last wrapping, a delicate silver-colored
Bkin, not unlike fine spun silk or the sheer-
est of tissue papers. And this last wrap-
Iping is so tenacious, so true to its guardian-

Granada Unpulped Coffee Separator
Shown in combination witl] a Guatemala coffee pulper

ship function, that no amount of rough
treatment can dislodge it altogether; for
portions of it cling to the bean even into
the roasting and grinding processes.

Coffee is said to be "in the husk," or "in
the parchment," when the whole fruit is
dried; and it is called "hulled coffee" when
it has been deprived of its hull and peel.
The matter forming the fruit, called the
coffee berry, covers two thin, hard, oval
seed vessels held together, one to the other,
by their fiat sides. These seed vessels, when
broken open, contain the raw coffee beans
of commerce. They are usually of a round-
ish oval shape, convex on the outside, flat
inside, marked longitudinally in the center
of the flat side with a deep incision, and
wrapped in the thin pellicle known as the
silver skin. "When one of the two seeds
aborts, the remaining one acquires a greater
size, and fills the interior of the fruit, which
in that case, of course, has but one cellule.
This abortion is common in the arahica
variety, and produces a bean formerly
called grage coffee, but now more commonly
known as peaberry, or male berry.

The various coverings of the coffee beans
are almost always removed on the planta-
tions in the producing countries. Properly
to prepare the raw beans, it is necessary to
remove the four coverings — the outer skin,
the sticky pulp, the parchment, or husk,
and the closely adhering silver skin.

There are two distinct methods of treat-
ing the coffee fruits, or "cherries." One
process, the one that until recent years
was in general use throughout the world,
and is still in many producing countries,
is known as the dry method. The coffee

prepared in this way is sometimes called
"common," "ordinary," or 'natural," to
distinguish it from the product that has
been cleaned by the wet or washed method.
The wet method, or, as it is sometimes
designated, the "West Indian process"
(W.I.P.) is practised on all the large mod-
ern plantations that have a sufficient supply
of water.

In the wet process, the first step is called
pulping; the second is fermentation and
washing; the third is drying"; the fourth is
hulling or peeling; and the last, sizing or
grading. In the dry process, the first step
is drying ; the second hulling ; and the last,
sizing or grading.

Harvesting

The coffee cherry ripens about six to
seven months after the tree has flowered,
or blossomed; and becomes a deep pur-
plish-crimson color. It is then ready for
picking. The ripening season varies
throughout the world, according to climate
and altitude. In the state of Sao Paulo,
Brazil, the harvesting season lasts from
May to September ; while in Java, where
three crops are produced annually, harvest-
ing is almost a continuous process through-
out the year. In Colombia the harvesting
seasons are March and April, and Novem-
ber and December. In Guatemala the crops
are gathered from October through Decem-
ber ; in Venezuela, from November through
March. In Mexico the coffee is harvested
from November to January; in Haiti the
harvest extends from November to March ;
in Arabia, from September to March;

Hand-Power Double-Disk Pulper

250

ALL ABOUT COFFEE

in Abyssinia, from September through
November, In Uganda, Africa, there are
two main crops, one ripening in March and
the other in September, and picking is car-
ried on during practically every month
except December and January. In India

work. About thirty pounds is considered a
fair day 's work under good conditions. As
the baskets are filled, they are emptied at
a ''station" in that particular unit of the
plantation; or, in some cases, directly into
wagons that keep pace with the pickers.

Tandem Coffee Pulpee of English Make
Being a combination of a Bon-Accord-Valencia pulper with a Bon-Accord repassing machine

the fruit is ready for harvesting from Oc-
tober to January.

Picking

The general practise throughout the
world has been to hand-pick the fruit; al-
though in some countries the cherries are
allowed to become fully ripe on the trees,
and to fall to the ground. The introduc-
tion of the wet method of preparation, in-
deed, has made it largely unnecessary to
hand-pick crops; and the tendency seems
to be away from this practise on the larger
plantations. If the berries are gathered
promptly after dropping, the beans are not
injured, and the cost of harvesting is re-
duced.

The picking season is a busy time on a
large plantation. All hands join in the
work — men, women and children; for it
must be rushed. Over-ripe berries shrink
and dry up. The pickers, with baskets
slung over their shoulders, walk between the
rows, stripping the berries from the trees,
using ladders to reach the topmost
branches, and sometimes even taking imma-
ture fruit in their haste to expedite the

The coffee is freed as much as possible of
sticks, leaves, etc., and is then conveyed to
the preparation grounds.

A space of several acres is needed for the
various preparation processes on the larger
plantations; the plant including concrete-
surfaced drying grounds, large fermenta-
tion tanks, washing vats, mills, warehouses,
stables, and even machine shops. In Mex-
ico this place is known as the heneficio.

Washed and Unwashed Coffee

Where water is plenty, the ripe coffee
cherries are fed by a stream of water into
a pulping machine which breaks the outer
skins, permitting the pulpy matter envelop-
ing the beans to be loosened and carried
away in further washings. It is this wet
separation of the sticky pulp from the
beans, instead of allowing it to dry on them,
to be removed later with the parchment in
the hulling operation, that makes the dis-
tinction between washed and unwashed
coffees. Where water is scarce the coffees
are unwashed.

Either method being well done, does
washing improve the strength and flavor?

GREEN COFFEE PREPARATION

251

Opinions differ. The soil, altitude, climatic
influences, and cultivation methods of a
country give its coffee certain distinctive
drinking qualities. Washing immensely im-
proves the appearance of the bean ; it also
reduces curing costs. Generally speaking,
washed coffees will always command a pre-
mium over coffees dried in the pulp.

Whether coffee is washed or not, it has
to be dried ; and there is a kind of fermenta-
ion that goes on during washing and dry-
g, about which coffee planters have differ-
g ideas, just as tea planters differ over
the curing of tea leaves. Careful scientific
study is needed to determine how much, if
any, effect this fermentation has on the ulti-
mate cup value.

Preparation hy the Dry Method

The dry method of preparing the berries
is not only the older method, but is con-
sidered by some operators as providing a
distinct advantage over the wet process,
since berries of different degrees of ripeness
can be handled at the same time. However,
the success of this method is dependent
largely on the continuance of clear warm
weather over quite a length of time, which
can not always be counted on.

In this process the berries are spread in
a thin layer on open drying grounds, or
barbecues, often having cement or brick
surfaces. The berries are turned over sev-
eral times a day in order to permit the
sun and Avind thoroughly to dry all por-
tions. The sun-drying process lasts about
three weeks ; and after the first three days

Costa Rica Vertical Coffee Washer

of this period, the berries must be protected
from dews and rains by covering them with
tarpaulins, or by raking them into heaps
under cover. If the berries are not spread
out, they heat, and the silver skin sticks
to the coffee bean, and frequently discolors
it. When thoroughly dry, the berries are
stored, unless the husks (outer skin and
inner parchment) are to be removed at
once. Hot air, steam, and other artificial
drying methods take the place of natural
sun-drying on some plantations.

In the dry method, the husks are re-
moved either by hand (threshing and

Continuous Working Horizontal Coffee Washer

252

ALL ABOUT COFFEE

COBAN PULPEU IN TaCIIIKA, VENEZUELA

pounding in a mortar, on the smaller plan-
tations) or by specially constructed ma-
chinery, known as hulling machines.

The Wet Method — Pulping

The wet method of preparation is the
more modern form, and is generally prac-
tised on the larger plantations that have a
sufficient supply of water, and enough
money to instal the quite extensive amount
of machinery and equipment required. It
is generally considered that washing results
in a better grade of bean.

In this method the cherries are sometimes
thrown into tanks full of water to soak
about twenty-four hours, so as to soften
the outer skins and underlying pulp to a
condition that will make them easily remov-
able by the pulping machine — the idea
being to rub away the pulp by friction
without crushing the beans.

On the larger plantations, however, the
coffee cherries are dumped into large con-
crete receiving tanks, from which they are
carried the same day by streams of running
water directly into the hoppers of the pulp-
ing machines.

At least two score of different makes of
pulping machines are in use in the various
coffee-growing countries. Pulpers are made
in various sizes, from the small hand-
operated machine to the large type driven
by power; and in two general styles —
cylinder, and disk.

The cylinder pulper, the latest style —
suggesting a huge nutmeg-grater — con-
sists of a rotary cylinder surrounded with
a copper or brass cover punched with bulbs.
These bulbs differ in shape according to
the species, or variety, of coffee to be
treated — arabica, liherica, rohusta, cane-
phora, or what not. The cylinder rotates

against a breast with pulping edges set at
an angle. The pulping is effected by the
rubbing action of the copper cover against
the edges, or ribs, of the breast. The cher-
ries are subjected to a rubbing and rolling
motion, in the course of which the two
parchment-covered beans contained in the
majority of the cherries become loosened.
The pulp itself is carried by the cover and
is discharged through a pulp shoot, while
the pulped coffee is delivered through holes
on the breast. Cylinder machines vary in
capacity from 400 pounds (hand power)
to 4,800 pounds (motive power) per hour.

Some cylinder pulpers are double, being
equipped with rotary screens or oscillating
sieves, that segregate the imperfectly
pulped cherries so that they may be put
through again. Pulpers are also equipped
with attachments that automatically move
the imperfectly pulped material over into
a repassing machine for another rubbing.
Others have attachments partially to crush
the cherries before pulping.

The breasts in cylinder machines are
usually made with removable steel ribs ; but
in Brazil, Nicaragua, and other countries,
where, owing to the short season and scarc-
ity of labor, the planters have to pick,
simultaneously, green, ripe, and over-ripe
(dry) cherries, rubber breasts are used.

The disk pulper (the earliest type, hav-
ing been in use more than seventy years)
is the style most generally used in the
Dutch East Indies and in some parts of
Mexico. The results are the same as those
obtained with the cylindrical pulper. The

Niagara Power Coffee . Huller

GREEX COFFEE PREPARATION

253

McKinnon's Guardiola Coffee Drier

The Squier-Guardiola Coffee Drier, With Direct-Fire HEATEn

BRITISH AND AMERICAN COFFEE DRIERS — GUARDIOLA SYSTEM

There are numerous makes of cofifee driers based upon the original invention of Jos6 Guardiola of
Chocola, Guatemala. In the two illustrated above both direct-fire heat and steam heat

may be utilized

254

ALL ABOUT COFFEE

nm^

^^^j^f^y^' ,^ ^^^^BBiiiiiiiiiii" ^^

Another American Guardiola Drier

disk machine is made with one, two, three,
or four vertical iron disks, according to the
capacity desired. The disks are covered on
both sides with a copper plate of the same
shape, and punched with blind punches.
The pulping operation takes place between
the rubbing action of the blind punches, or
bulbs, on the copper plates and the lateral
pulping bars fitted to the side cheeks. As
in the cylinder pulper, the distance between
the surface of the bulbs and the pulping
bar may be adjusted to allow of any clear-
ance that may be required, according to
the variety of coffee to be treated.

Disk pulpers vary in capacity from 1,200
pounds to 14,000 pounds of ripe cherry
coffee per hour. They, too, are made in
combinations employing cylindrical sepa-
rators, shaking sieves, and repassing pulp-
ers, for completing the pulping of all
unpulped or partially pulped cherries.

Fermentation and Washing

The next step in the process consists in
running the pulped cherries into cisterns,
or fermentation tanks, filled with water,
for the purpose of removing such pulp as
was not removed in the pulping machine.
The saccharine matter is loosened by fer-
mentation in from twenty-four to thirty-
two hours. The mass is kept stirred up
for a short time ; and, in general practise,
the water is drawn off from above, the light
pulp floating at the top being removed at
the same time. The same tanks are often
used for washing, but a better practise is
to have separate tanks.

Some planters permit the pulped coffee
to ferment in water. This is called the wet
fermentation process. Others drain off the
water from the tanks and conduct the fer-

menting operation in a semi-dry state,
called the dry fermentation process.

The coffee bean, when introduced into the
fermentation tanks, is enclosed in a parch-
ment shell made slimy by its closely adher-
ing saccharine coat. After fermentation,
which not only loosens the remaining pulp
but also softens the membranous covering,
the beans are given a final washing, either
in washing tanks or by being run through
mechanical washers. The type of washing
machine generally used consists of a cylin-
drical tub having a vertical spindle fitted
with a number of stirrers, or arms, which,
in rotating, stir and lift up the parchment
coffee. In another type, the cylinder is
horizontal ; but the operation is similar.

Drying

The next step in preparation is drying.
The coffee, which is still "in the parch-
ment," but is now known as washed coffee,
is spread out thinly on a drying ground,
as in the dry method. However, if the
weather is unsuitable or can not be de-
pended upon to remain fair for the neces-
sary length of time, there are machines
which can be used to dry the coffee satis-
factorily. On some plantations, the drying
is started in the open and finished by ma-
chine. The machines dry the coffee in
twenty-four hours, while ten days are re-
quired by the sun.

The object of the drying machine is to
dry the parchment of the coffee so that it

The Smout Peeler and Polisher

GREEN COFFEE PREPARATION

255

may be removed as readily as the skin on
a peanut; and this object is achieved in the
most approved machines by keeping a hot
current of air stirring through the beans.
One of the best-liked types, the Guardiola,
resembles the cylinder of a coffee-roasting
machine. It is made of perforated steel
plates in cylinder form, and is carried on a
hollow shaft through which the hot air is
circulated by a pressure fan. The beans
are rotated in the revolving cylinder; and
,s the hot air strikes the wet coffee, it
reates a steam that passes out through the
erforations of the cylinder. Within the
cylinder are compartments equipped with
winged plates, or ribs, that keep the coffee
constantly stirred up to facilitate the dry-
ing process. Another favorite is the
O'Krassa. It is constructed on the prin-
ciple just described, but differs in detail of
construction from the Guardiola, and is
able to dry its contents a few hours quicker.
Hot air, steam, and electric heat are all- em-
ployed in the various makes of coffee
driers. A temperature from 65° to 85°
centigrade is maintained during the drying
process.

When thoroughly dry, the parchment
can be crumbled between the fingers, and
the bean within is too hard to be dented by
finger nail or teeth.

Hulling, Peeling, and Polishing

The last step in the preparation process
is called hulling or peeling, both words ac-
curately describing the purpose of the

The Smout Peeler and Polisher, with Cylin-
der Open Showing Cone

operation. Some husking machines for
hulling or peeling parchment coffee are
polishers as well. This work may be done
on the plantation or at the port of shipment
just before the coffee is shipped abroad.
Sometimes the coffee is exported in parch-
ment, and is cleaned in the country of eon-
sumption ; but practically all coffee entering
the United States arrives without its parch-
ment.

Peeling machines, more accurately named
hullers, work on the principle of rubbing
the beans between a revolving inner cylin-
der and an outer covering of woven wire.
Machines of this type vary in construction.
Some have screw-like inner cylinders, or
turbines, others having plain cone-shaped
cores on which are knobs and ribs that rub

O'Kkassa's Coffee Drier Combined with Direct- Fire Heater

256

ALL ABOUT COFFEE

xn
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X/1

O
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I— I

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GREEN COFFEE PREPARATION

257

the beans against one another and the outer
shell. Practically all types have sieve or
exhaust-fan attachments, which draw the
loosened parchment and silver skin into one
compartment, while the cleaned beans pass
into another.

Polishers of various makes are sometimes
used just to remove the silver skin and to
give the beans a special polish. Some coun-
tries demand a highly polished coffee ; and
) supph' this demand, the beans "are sent
ihrough another huller having a phosphor-
bronze cylinder and cone. Much Guade-
loupe coffee is prepared in this way, and is
known as cafe honifieur from the fact that
the polishing machine is called in Guade-
loupe the honifieur (improver). It is also
called cafe de luxe. Coffee that has not
received the extra polish is described as
habitant; while- coffee in the parchment is
known as cafe en parch e. Extra polished
coffee is much in demand in the London,
Hamburg, and other European markets.
A favorite machine for producing this kind
of coffee is the Smout combined peeler and

polisher, the invention of Jules Smout, a
Swiss. Don Roberto O'Krassa also has
produced " a highly satisfactory combined
peeler and polisher.

For hulling dry cherry coffee there are
several excellent makes of machines. In
one style, the hulling takes place between
a rotating disk and the casing of the ma-
chine. In another, it takes place between
a rotary drum covered with a steel plate
punched with vertical bulbs, and a chilled
iron hulling-plate with pyramidal teeth
cast on the plate. Both are adjustable to
different varieties of coffee. In still an-
other type of machine, the hulling takes
place between steel ribs on an ' internal
cylinder, and an adjustable knife, or hull-
ing blade, in front of the machine.

Sizing or Grading

The coffee bean is now clean, the proc-
esses described in the foregoing having re-
moved the outer skin, the saccharine pulp,
the parchment, and the silver skin. This
is the end of the cle'aning operations; but

THE GEO.LSOUIER MTG rn

BUFFALO n" USA

El Moxarca Coffee Classifier

258

ALL ABOUT COFFEE

Old ropo-diivu transmission on Finca Ona. Hydro-electric power plant on Finca Ona.

Hydro-Electric Installation on a Guatemala Finca

there are two more steps to be taken before
the coffee is ready for the trade of the
world — sizing and hand-sorting. These
two operations are of great importance;
since on them depends, to a large extent,
the price the coffee will bring in the market.

Sizing, or grading by sizes, is done in
modern commercial practise by machines
that automatically separate and distribute
the different beans according to size and
form. In principle, the beans are carried
across a series of sieves, each with perfora-
tions varying in size from the others; the
beans "passing through the holes of cor-
responding sizes. The majority of the ma-
chines are constructed to separate the beans
into five or more grades, the principal
grades being triage, third flats, second flats,
first flats, and first and second peaberries.
Some are designed to handle "elephant"
and "mother" sizes. The grades have local
nomenclature in the various countries.

After grading, the coffee is picked over
by hand to remove the faulty and discol-
ored beans that it is almost impossible to
remove thoroughly by machine. The higher
grades of coffee are often double-picked;
that is, picked over twice. When this is
done on a large scale, the beans are gen-
erally placed on a belt, or platform, that
moves at a regulated speed before a line
of women and children, who pick out the
undesirable T)eans as they pass on the mov-
ing belt. There are small machines of this
type built for one person, who operates the
belt mechanism by means of a treadle.

Preparation in the Leading Countries

The foregoing description tells in gen-
eral terms the story of the most approved
methods of harvesting, shelling, and clean-
ing the coffee beans. The following para-
graphs will describe those features of the

processes that are peculiar to the more im-
portant large producing countries and that
differ in details or in essentials from the
methods just outlined.

In the Western Hemisphere

Brazil. The operation of some of the
large plantations in Brazil, a number of
which have more than a million trees, re-
quires a large number and a great variety
of preparation machines and equipment.
Grenerally considered, the State of Sao
Paulo is better equipped with approved
machinery than any other commercial dis-
trict in the world.

In Brazil, coffee plantations are known
as fazendas, and the proprietors as fazen-
deiros, terms that are the equivalent of
"landed estates" and "landed proprie-
tors." Practically every fazenda in Brazil
of any considerable commercial importance
is equipped with the most modern of cof-
fee-cleaning equipment. Some of the
larger ones in the state of Sao Paulo, like
the Dumont and the Schmidt estates, are
provided with private railways connecting
the fazendas with the main railroad line
some miles away, and also have miniature
railway systems running through the fa-
zendas to move the coffee from one harvest-
ing and cleaning operation to another.
The coffee is carried in small cars that are
either pushed by a laborer or are drawn
by horse or mule.

Some of the larger fazendas cover thou-
sands of acres, and have several millions
of trees, giving the impression of an un-
ending forest stretching far away into the
horizon. Here and there are openings in
which buildings appear, the largest group
of structures usually consisting of those
making up the cafezale, or cleaning plant.
Nearby, stand the handsome "palaces" of

GREEX COFFEE PREPARATION

259

Picking Coffee on a Well Kept Fazenda

Manager's Residence on One of the Big Sao Paulo Fazendas

Photographs by Courtesy of J. Aron & Co.

Drying Grounds on a Modern Estate in Ribeirao Preto
MAKING BRAZIL COFFEE READY TO MARKET

260

ALL ABOUT COFFEE

WoRKI^"G (. oiihr,_uA DkyiiNg Fla i s, Sao I'aulo

the fazendeiros; but not so close that the
coffee princes and their households will be
disturbed by the almost constant rumble
of machinery and the voices of the workers.

Brazilian fazendeiros follow the methods
described in the foregoing in preparing
their coffee for market, using the most mod-
ern of the equipment detailed under thb
story of the wet method of preparation.
On most of the fazendas the machinery is
operated by steam or electricity, the latter
coming more and more into use each year
in all parts of the coffee-growing region.

In some districts, however, far in the
interior, there are still to be found small

plantations where primitive methods of
cleaning are even now practised. Produc-
ing but a small quantity of coffee, possibly
for only local use, the cherries may be
freed of their parchment by macerating the
husks by hand labor in a large mortar. On
still another plantation, the old-time
bucket-and-beam crusher perhaps may be
in use.

This consists of a beam pivoted on an
upright upon which it moves freely up
and down. On one end of the beam is an
open bucket; and on the other, a heavy
stone. Water runs into the bucket until its
weight causes the stone end of the beam to
rise. When the bucket reaches the ground,
the water is emptied, and the stone crashes
down on the coffee cherries lying in a large
mortar.

The workers on some of the largest
Brazilian fazendas would constitute the
population of a small city — more than a
thousand families often finding continuous
employment in cultivating, harvesting,
cleaning, and transporting the coffee to
market. For the most part, the workers
are of Italian extraction, who have almost
altogether superseded the Indian and Negro
laborers of the early days. The workers

Fehmextixg and ■\VAs^I^'G Tanks on a Sao Paulo Fazenda

GREEX COFFEE PREPARATION

261

By Coiirtisy of J. Aroii k Co. »

Drying Grounds on Fazenua Schaiidt, the Largest in Brazil

live on the fazendas in quarters provided
by the fazendeiros, and are paid a weekly
or monthly wage for their services; or
they may enter upon a year's contract to
cultivate the trees, receiving extra pay for
picking and other work. Brazil in the past
has experimented with the slave system,
with government colonization, with co-
operative planting, with the harvesting sys-
tem, and with the share system. And some
features of all these plans — except slav-
ery, which was abolished in 1888 — are
still employed in various parts of the coun-
try, although the wage system predomi-
nates.

Brazil has six gradings for its Sao Paulo
coffees, which are also classified as
Bourbon Santos, Flat Bean Santos, and
Mocha-seed Santos. Rio coffees are graded
by the number of imperfections for New
York, and as washed and unwashed for
Havre. (See chapter XXIV.)

Colombia. Practically all the countries
of the western hemisphere producing cof-
fee in large quantities for export trade use
the eleaning-and-grading machines specified
in the first part of this chapter; and the
installation of the equipment is increasing
as its advantages become better known

In Colombia, now (1922), next to Brazil
the world's largest producer, the wet
method of preparing the coffee for market
is most generally followed, the drying proc-
esses often being a combination of sun and
drying machines. Many plantations have
their own hulling equipment ; but much of

the crop goes in the cherry to local com-
mercial centers where there are establish-
ments that make a specialty of cleaning
and grading the coffee.

The Colombia coffee crop is gathered
twice a year, the principal one in March
and April and the smaller one in Novem-
ber and December, although some picking
is done throughout the year. For this
labor native Indian and negro women are
preferred, as they are more rapid, skilful,
and careful in handling the trees. Con-
trary to the method in Brazil, where the
. tree at one handling is stripped of its en-
tire bearings, ripe and unripe fruit, here
only the fully ripened fruit is picked. That
necessitates going over the ground several
times, as the berries progressively ripen.
More time is consumed in this laborious
operation, but it is believed that thereby
a better crop of more uniform grade is ob-
tained and in the aggregate with less waste
of time and effort.

Colombian planters classify their coffees
as cafe trillado (natural or sun-dried),
cafe lav ado (washed), cafe en pergamino
(washed and dried in the parchment).
They grade them as excel so (excellent),
fantasia (excelso and extra), extra (extra),
primera, (first), segundo (second), caracol
(peaberry), monstruo (large and de-
formed), consumo (defective), and casilla
(sif tings).

Venezuela. Venezuela employs both the
dry and the wet methods of preparation,
producing both "washed" and ''commons"

262

ALL ABOUT COFFEE

GREEN COFFEE PREPARATION

263

d also, like Colombia, has a large part
of the coffee cleaned in the trading centers
of the various coffee districts. Dry, or un-
washed, coffees are known as trillado
(milled), and compose the bulk of the
country's output. Venezuela's plantation-
working forces are largely natives of Indian
descent and negroes, some of them coming
during harvesting season from adjoining
Colombia and returning there after the
picking is done. The resident workers
labor under a sort of peonage system which
is tacitly recognized by both employee and
employer, although no laws of peonage or
slavery have ever existed in Venezuela.
Under this system, the laborers live in little
colonies scattered over the haciendas, as
the coffee plantations are called in Vene-
zuela. Company stores keep them supplied
with all their wants. Modern plantation
machinery is very scarce; the ancient
method of hulling coffee in a circular
trough where the dried berries are crushed
by heavy wooden wheels drawn by oxen, is
still a common sight in Venezuela. In pre-
paring washed coffees, some planters fer-
ment the pulped coffee under water (wet
fermentation process) ; while others fer-
ment without water (dry fermentation).
The principal ports of shipments for
Venezuela coffees are La Guaira, Puerto

Cabello, and Maracaibo. Caracas, the capi-
tal, is five miles in an air line from the port
of La Guaira; but in ascending the three
thousand feet of altitude to the city the
railroad twists and turns among the moun-
tains for a distance of twenty-four miles.
By rail or motor the trip is one of much
charm and great beauty.

Salvador. The planters in Salvador
favor the dry method of coffee preparation ;
and the bulk of the crop is natural, or un-
washed.

Guatemala. Most Guatemalas are pre-
pared for market by the wet method. The
gathering of the crops furnishes employ-
ment for half the population. German and
American settlers have introduced the lat-
est improvements in modern plantation
machinery into Guatemala.

Mexico. In Mexico coffee is harvested
from November to January, and large
quantities are prepared by both the dry and
the wet methods, the latter being practised
on the larger estates that have the neces-
sary water supply and can afford the ma-
chinery. Here, too, one will find coffee
being cleaned by the primitive hand-mor-
tar and wind-winnowing method. Labor-
ers are mostly half-breeds and Indians.
Chinese coolies have been tried and found

This Old-Fa.shioned Huli.ixo Ma(iiim; Ls di'khatki- hy i)x I'owkh in Venezuela

264

ALL ABOUT COFFEE

Street Cak Cofi'Ee Tkanspokt in Okizaija,
Mexico

satisfactory, and some Japanese are util-
ized, though not largely.

Haiti. In Haiti the picking season is
from November to March. In recent years
better attention has been paid to cultural
and preparation methods ; and the product
is more favorably regarded commercially.
Large quantities are shipped to France and
Belgium ; and much of that sent to the
United States is reshipped to France, Bel-
gium, and Germany, where it is sorted by
hand. Both dry and wet methods are em-
ployed in Haiti.

Porto Rico. Here planters favor the wet
method of coffee preparation. The crop is
gathered from August to December. The
coffees are graded as caracollilo (peaberry),
primero (hand-picked), segundo (second
grade), trillo (low grade).

Nicaragua. The wet method of coffee
preparation is mostly favored in Nicaragua.
Many of the large plantations are worked
by colonies of Americans and Germans who
are competent to apply the abundant nat-
ural water power of the country to the
operation of modern coffee cleaning ma-
chinery.

Costa Rica. Costa Rica was one of the
first countries of the western world to use
coffee cleaning machinery. Marcus Mason,
an American mechanical engineer then
managing an iron foundry in Costa Rica,
invented three machines that would respec-
tively peel off the husk, remove the parch-
ment and pulp, and winnow the light refuse
from the beans.

The inventor gave his original demon-
stration to the planters of San Jose in 1860,
and duplicates were installed on all the
large plantations. In the course of the next
thirty years. Mason brought out other ma-
chines until he had developed a complete

line that was largely used on coffee plan-
tations in all parts of the world.

In the Eastern Hemisphere

Modern cleaning machinery and methods
of preparation are employed to some extent
in the large coffee-producing countries of
the eastern hemisphere, and do not differ
materially from those of the western.

Arabia. In Arabia the fruit ripens in
August or September, and picking con-
tinues from then until the last fruits ripen
late in the March following. The cherries,
as they are picked, are left to dry in the
sun on the house-top terrace or on a floor
of beaten earth. When they have become
partly dry, they are hulled between two
small stones, one of which is stationary,
while the other is worked by the hand
power of two men who rotate it quickly.
Further drying of the hulled berry follows.
It is then put into bags of closely woven
aloe fiber, lined with matting made of palm
leaves. It is next sent to the local market
at the foot of the mountain. There, on
regular market days, the Turkish or
Arabian merchants, or their representa-
tives, buy and dispatch their purchases by
camel train to Hodeida or Aden. The prin-
cipal primary market in recent years has
been the city of Beit-el-Fakih.

In Aden and Hodeida the bean is sub-
mitted to further cleaning by the principal

Coffee on the Drying Floors in Porto Rico

GREEX COFFEE PREPARATIOX

265

Raking Coffee on Drying Floors — Ciiuva District, Guatemala

Coffee Drying Patios, Hacienda Longa-Espana, Venezuela
SUN-DRYING COFFEE AMID SCENES OF RARE TROPICAL BEAUTY

266

ALL ABOUT COFFEE

A Drying 1'atio ox a Costa Kica Estate

foreign export houses to whom it has come
from the mountains in rather dirty condi-
tion. Indian women are the sole laborers
employed in these cleaning houses. First,
the coffee beans are separated from the dry
empty husks by tossing the whole into the
air from bamboo trays, the workers deftly
permitting the husks to fly off while the
beans are caught again in the tray. The
beans are then surface-cleaned by passing
them gently between two very primitive
grindstones worked by men. A third proc-

ess is the complete clearing of the bean
from the silver skin, and it is then ready
for the final hand picking. Women are
called into service again, and they pick out
the refuse husks, quaker or black, beans,
green or immature beans, white beans, and
broken beans, leaving the good beans to be
weighed and packed for shipment. The
cleaned beans are known as bun safi; the
husks become kisher. Some of the poorer
beans also are sold, principally to France
and to Egypt. Hand-power machinery is
used to a slight extent; but mostly the old-
fashioned methods hold sway.

The Yemen, or Arabian, bale, or package,
is unique. It is made up of two fiber wrap-
pers, one inside the other. The inside one
is called attal or darouf. It is made from
cut and plaited leaves of nakhel douin or
narghil, a species of palm. The outer cover-
ing, called garair, is a sack made of woven
aloe fiber. The Bedouins weave these
covers and bring them to the export mer-
chants at Aden and Hodeida. A Mocha
bundle contains one, two, or four fiber pack-
ages, or bales. When the bundle contains
one bale it is known as a half ; when it con-
tains two it is known as quarters ; and when
it contains four it is known as eighths.
Arabian coffee for Boston used to be packed
in quarters only; for San Francisco and

Photograph by R. C. Wilhelm.

Early Guardiola Steam Drier, "El Canida" Plantation, Costa Rica

GREEN COFFEE PREPARATION

267

INDIAN WOMEN CLEANING MOCHA COFFEE IN AN ADEN WAREHOUSE

There are four processes in cloaniag Mocha coffee. In order to separate the dried beans from the
broken hnlls these Momen (brought over from India) toss the beans in the air, very deftly permit-
ting the empty hulls to fly off. and catch the coffee beans on the bamboo trays. Then the coffee is
passed between two primitive grindstones, turned by men. After this grinding process the beans
are separated from the crushed outside hulls' and the loose silver skins. In the fourth process tlie
Indian women pick out by hand the remaining husks, the quakers, the immature beans, the white
beans and the broken beans. Being Mohammedans, their religion does not permit such little van-
ities as picture posing, which explains why their faces are covered and turned away from the
camera

268

ALL ABOUT COFFEE

New York, in quarters and eighths. The
longberry Abyssinian coffees were for-
merly packed in quarters only. Since the
"World War, however, there has been a
scarcity of packing materials, and packing
in quarters and eighths lias stopped. Now,
all Mocha, as well as Harar, coffee comes in
halfs. A half weighs eighty kilos, or 176
pounds, net — although a few exporters
ship "halfs" of 160 pounds.

Abyssinia. Little machinery is used in
the preparation of coffee in Abyssinia;
none, in preparing the coffee known as
Abyssinian, which is the product of wild
trees ; and only in a few instances in clean-
ing the Harari coffee, the fruit of cultivated
trees. Both classes are raised mostly by
natives, who adhere to the old-time dry
method of cleaning. In Harar, the coffee
is sometimes hulled in a wooden mortar;
but for the most part it is sent to the bro-
kers in parchment, and cleaned by primi-
tive hand methods after its arrival in the
trading centers.

Angola. In Angola the coffee harvest
begins in June, and it is often necessary for
the government to lend native soldiers to
the planters to aid in harvesting, as the
labor supply is insufficient. After picking,

the beans are dried in the sun from four-
teen to forty days, depending upon the
weather. After drying, they are brought
to the hulling and winnowing machines.
There are now about twenty-four of these
machines in the Cazengo and Golungo dis-
tricts, all manufactured in the United
States and giving satisfactory results.
They are operated by natives.

A condition adversely affecting the trade
has been the low price that Angola coffee
commands in European markets. The
cost of production per arroha (thirty-three
pounds) on the Cazengo plantations is
$1.23, while Lisbon market quotations aver-
age $1.50, leaving only twenty-seven cents
for railway transport to Loanda and ocean
freight to Lisbon. It has been unprofitable
to ship to other markets on account of the
preferential export duties. A part of the
product is now shipped to Hamburg, where
it is known as the Cajiengo brand. Next to
Mocha, the Cazengo coffee is the smallest
bean that is to be found in the European
markets.

Java and Sumatra. The coffee industry
in Java and Sumatra, as well as in the other
coffee-producing regions of the Dutch East
Indies, was begun and fostered under the

Cleaning and Grading Coffee uy Machinery in Aden

GREEN COFFEE PREPARATIOX

269

Duvx>;g Coffee in the Sun at the Custum-House, IIauak, AiiYbsiMA

paternal care of the Dutch govermnent ;
and for that reason, machine-cleaning has
always been a noteworthy factor in the mar-
keting of these coffees. Since the govern-
ment relinquished its control over the
so-called government estates, European
operators have maintained the standard of
preparation, and have adopted new equip-
ment as it was developed. The majority of
estates producing considerable quantities of
coffee use the same types of machinery as
their competitors in Brazil and other west-
ern countries.

In Java, free labor is generally em-
ployed ; while on the east coast of Sumatra
the work is done by contract, the workers
usually being bound for three years. In
both islands the laborers are mostly Java-
nese coolies.

Under the contract system, the worker is
subject to laws that compel him to work,
and prevent him from leaving the estate
until the contract period expires. Under
the free-labor system, the laborer works as
his whims dictate. This forces the estate
manager to cater to his workers, and to
build up an organization that will hold
together.

As an example of the working of the
latter system, this outline — by John A.
Fowler, United States trade commissioner
— of the organization of a leading estate in

Java will indicate the general practise in
vogue :

The manager of this estate has had full con-
ti-ol for twenty years and knows the "adat"
(tribal customs) of his jjeople and the individual
peculiarities of the leaders. This estate has been
described as having one of the most perfect
estate organizations in Java. It consists of two
divisions of 3,440 bouws (about G,048 acres in
all), of which 2,500 bouws are in rubber and
coffee and 550 in sisal ; the remainder includes
rice fields, timber, nurseries, bamboo, tealv, pas-
tures, villages, roads, canals, etc.

The foreign staff is under the supervision of
a general manager, and consists of the follow-
ing personnel: A chief garden assistant of sec-
tion 1, who has under him foiir section assist-
ants and a native staff; a chief garden assist-
ant of section 2, who has under him three sec-
tion assistants, an apprentice assistant, and a
native staff ; a chief factory assistant, who has
under him an assistant machinist, an apprentice
assistant, and a native staff: and, finally, a
bookkeeper. The term "garden"' means the area
under cidtivation.

The bookkeeper, a man of mixed blood, handles
all the general accounting, accumulating the re-
ports sent in by the various assistants. The
two chief garden assistants are resiK)nsible to
the manager for all work outside the factory
except the construction of new buildings, which
is in charge of the chief factory assistant. The
two divisions of the estate are subdivided into
seven agricultural sections, each section being
in full charge of an assistant. A section may
include coffee, rubber, sisal, teak, bamboo, a co-
agulation station and nurseries. The assistant's

270

ALL ABOUT COFFEE

Open-Air Drying Grounds on a West Java Estate

The beans are being turned by native Sudanese men and women

Interioe of a Modern Coffee Factory in East Java
Sliowing pulping machinery and fermentation tanks

PREPARING JAVA COFFEE FOR THE MARKET

GREEN COFFEE PREPARATION

271

duties include tlie supervision of road building
and repairs, building repairs, transportation,
paying tbe labor, and the supervision of section
accounts.

The factory includes a water-power plant de-
livering, through an American water wheel and
by cable, 250 horse-power to the main shafting,
an auxiliary steam plant of 150 horse-i>ower as
a reserve, a rubber mill, a coffee mill, three
sisal-stripping machines, smoke-houses, drying
fields and houses for sisal, drying floors and
houses for coffee, sorting rooms, blacksmith
shop, machine shop, brass-fitting foundry, pack-
ing houses, warehouses, and other equipment.
The factory is in charge of a first assistant, who
is a machinist, with a European staff consist-
ing of a machinist and an apprentice assistant.

The chief garden assistant is paid 350 to 400
florins, and the garden "assistants start at 200
florins per month, with graduated yearly in-
creases up to 300 florins per month ( florin =
$0.40). The chief factory assistant receives 300

florins, and the machinist and bookkeeper 250
florins each.

The mandoer in charge of the air and kiln
drying of coffee gets 25 florins per month, and
the mandoer at the coffee mill 20 florins, A
woman mandoer in cliarge of the coffee sorters
receives 0.50 florin per day and 0.01 florin each
for sewing the bags. This woman supervises
all the sorters, fixes their status, and inspects
their work. Unskilled labor (male) receives
0.40 florin per day in the coffee sheds, and the
women sorters are paid 0.50 florin per picul
of 136 pounds, measured before sorting. These
women are graded into three classes — those
who can sort 1 picul in a day, those who can
sort three-fourths of a picul, and those who can
sort but one-half of a picul in a day. Some of
these women become very expert in sorting, and
the quality of the output of a factory is largely
dependent on an ample supply of expert sorters.
Many years are required to develop an adequate
personnel for this department.

Coffee Transport in Java

272

ALL ABOUT COFFEE

THE WORLD'S COFFEE TOWER COMPARED WITH THE EIFFEL AND

WOOLWORTH TOWERS

The Woohvorth Building, the world's loftiest office structure, is 792 feet high from street to top of
■ tower ; its main section of 151 by 196 feet stretches up 386 feet, and its volume equals a total of
13,110,942 cubic feet. But a tower made of the year's supplj' of bags of green coffee (132 pounds
each) would equal 73,649,115 cubic feet, or nearly six times the bulk of the Woolworth Building.
In the same proportions it would rise 1,386 feet, with the lower section 260 by 340 feet and 670
feet high. Its dimensions would be nearly double those of the Woolworth Building in every direc-
tion. And the Eiffel Tower, reaching up 1,000 feet toward the sky would be lost in a tower made
of a year's bags of coffee. Such a tower would stand 1,425 feet high on a base area of 230 feet
square, the size of the Eiffel's first floor

Chapter XXII • '

THE PRODUCTION AND CONSUMPTION OF COFFEE

A statistical study of world production of coffee by countries — Per
capita figures of the leading consuming countries — Coffee-consump-
tion figures compared with tea-consumption figures in the United
States, and the United Kingdom — Three centuries of coffee trading
— Coffee drinking in the United States, past and present — Review-
ing the 1921 trade in the United States

THE world's yearly production of
coffee is on the average considerably
more than one million tons. If this
were all made up into the refreshing drink
we get at our breakfast tables, there would
be enough to supply every inhabitant of
the earth with some sixty cups a year,
representing a total of more than ninety
billion cups. In terms of pounds the an-
nual world output amounts to about two
and a quarter billions — an amount so
large that if it were done up in the fa-
miliar one-pound paper packages; and if
these packages were laid end to end in a
row; they would form a line long enough
to reach to the moon. If this average
yearly production were left in the sacks in
which the coffee is shipped, the total of
17,500,000 would be enough to form a
broad six-foot pavement reaching entirely
across the United States, upon which a
man could walk steadily for more than
five months at the rate of twenty miles a
day. This vast amount of coffee comes
very largely from the western hemisphere;
and about three-fourths of it, from a single
country. The production, shipment, and
preparation of this coffee, directly and in-
directly support millions of workers; and
many countries are entirely dependent on
it for their prosperity and economic well-
being.

During the crop year that ended June
30, 1921, this million-ton average was

considerably exceeded, though it did not
approach the record yield of all time in
the crop year 1906 - 07, when the total
amounted to almost 24,000,000 sacks; or,
in round numbers, 3,000,000,000 pounds.

As indicated by the Statistical Record
table, on page 274, Brazil produces more
than all the rest of the world put together.
Coffee growing, however, is general
throughout tropical countries, and in most
of them constitutes one of the leading in-
dustries. Yet in most cases, the actual
production of these countries can only be
estimated, as accurate figures, showing the
exact output, are seldom kept. But the
contribution which each country makes
to the total world traffic in coffee can be
determined by its export figures, which
are obtainable in reasonably accurate and
up-to-date form.* The table on page 276
gives the coffee export figures, in pounds,
for practically every country that pro-
duces coffee for sale outside its own bor-
ders. Figures are given for the latest
available year, and also for the average
of the last five years for which statistics
are to be obtained. The figures are taken
from official statistics, from the publica-
tions of the International Institute of
Agriculture of Rome, and from other au-
thoritative sources.

For the most part, these figures of ex-
portation are the only ones available to
indicate the actual coffee production in

273

274

ALL ABOUT COFFEE

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PRODUCTION AND CONSUMPTION

275

THE WORLD'S COFFI^E CUP AND THE WORLD'S LARGEST SHIP

The statistical sharks talk of the 17,5GG,000 bags, or 2,318,712,000 pounds of coffee that the world
drinks every year ; but how many really appreciate what those huge figures mean? For instance, com-
puting 40 cups of beverage to the pound, there are more than 90,000,000,000 cups drunk annually, or
enough to fill a gigantic cup 4,000 feet in diameter and 40 feet deep, on which the "Majestic," the world's
largest ship, would appear floating approximately as shown in the drawing

the countries named. The following ad-
ditional data, however, will serve to show
the extent to which the coffee-raising in-
dustry has developed in most of these
countries, and in a few places of minor
importance not named in the table :

Brazil. The coffee industry of Brazil,
which has furnished seventy percent of
the world's coffee during the last ten
years, has developed in a century and a
half. Brazilian soil first made the ac-
quaintance of the coffee plant at Par4 in
1723. A small export trade to Europe
had developed by 1770, the year when the
first plantation was established in the
state of Rio de Janeiro, and from which
the country's great industry really dates.
Development at first was apparently slow,
as no exports are recorded until the be-
ginning of the nineteenth century; so that
the history of Brazil's coffee trade is a
matter entirely of the nineteenth and
twentieth centuries. Once started, how-

ever, the new line of export made rapid
progress. In 1800, the amount of coffee
exported was 1720 pounds, contained in
thirteen bags. Twenty years later, 12.-
896,000 pounds were shipped, the number
of bags being 97,498. Ten years later, in
1830, this amount had increased to 64,-
051,000 pounds; and in 1840, to 137,300,-
000 pounds. In 1852 - 53, the receipts for
shipment at the ports were double that
amount, 284,592,000 pounds; in 1860-61
they were 420,420,000 pounds; in 1870-
71 they had increased to 427,416,000
pounds ; in 1880 - 81 they were 764,945,000
pounds; in 1890-91, 739,654,000 pounds;
and at the beginning of this century,
1900-01, they were 1,504,424,000 pounds,
having passed the one billion-pound mark
in 1896-97. The highest point of coffee
receipts in the country's history was
reached in 1906-07 with 2,699,644,694
pounds; and since that year, the amount
ha,« staid at about one and one-half

276

ALL ABOUT COFFEE

Exports of Coffee from the Coffee-Producing Countries of the World

Country Five-Year Average

South America: Tear Pounds Pounds

Brazil 1920 1,524,382,650 1,469,&49,180

Colombia 1920 190,901.953= 172,862,121

Venezuela 1920 73,726,632 110,174,946

Guiana, Br 1917 267,344 257,152

Guiana, Fr 1918 1,100 970

Guiana, D 1918 3,856 923,644<i

Ecuador 1919 3,729,413 5,843,033

Peru 1919 370,655 455,212

Central America :

Salvador 1920 82,864,668 78.953,339

Nicaragua 1920 15,345,398 23,243,865

Costa Rica 1921'' 29,401,683 28,667,262

Guatemala 1920 94,205,569 88,213,080

Honduras 1920^ 1,091,977 646,574

Mexico 1918 30,172,065 47,555,5141

West Indies :

Haiti 1920b 61,970,094e 54,308,959d

Dominican Republic 1920 1,361,666 3,497,866

Jamaica 1919 8,246,672 7,918,781

Porto Rico 1921 29,967,879' 30,033,4711 f

Trinidad & Tobago 1920 73,201 19,639

Martinique 1918 10.358 17,219

Guadeloupe 1918 2,144,855 1,594,146

Dutch East Indies 1920 99,020,4531 103,701,297h

Pacific Islands:

Br. North Borneo 1918 1,984 6,613

New Caledonia 1916 1,248.024 784,176

New Hebrides 1917 625,224 608,410g

Hawaii 1921 4,979,121' 4,244,479d'

Reunion 1918 3,527 26,455

Asia :

Aden (Arabia) 1921b 9,463,104 10,837,893

Br. India 1920b 30,526.832 23,767,744

French Indo-China 1918 79,145 516,978

Africa :

Eritrea 1918 728,840 315,698

Somaliland, Fr 1917 11,222,736 9,321,930

Somaliland, Br 1918 440,272 233,908

Somaliland, It 1918 3,747 3,306

Abyssinia 1917 17,324,223 12,744,406

German East Africa (former).. 1913 2,334,450 2,649,0471

Br. East African Protectorate.. 1918 18,735.572 8,397,541

Uganda 1918 9,999,845 5,076,091

Nyasaland 1918 122,796 92,593

Mayotte (including Comoro Is.) . 1914 3,306 660

Madagascar 1918 707,676 981,047

Angola 1913 10,655.934 10,459,724

Belgian Congo 1919 347,588 186,432b

Fr. Equatorial Africa 1916 48,060 47,046

Nigeria 1916 3,527 19,180

Ivory Coast 1918 66,358 49,162

Gold Coast 1917 660 220

French Guinea 1918 1,320 1,320

Spanish Guinea 1918 8,150 3,968b

St. Thomas & Prince's Is 1916 484,350 1,125,448

Liberia 1917 761,300

Cape Verde Islands 1916 1,442,910 1,100,095

a Crop yen-, ii Fiscal ye^r. c Inclurting small proportion of nnhiisked coffee. d Four-year averag:e. e Not
including 6,322,167 pounds "triage" or waste coffee, t Including shipments to continental United States.
K Two-year average, h Three-year average, i Java and Madura only

PRODUCTION AND CONSUMPTION

277

billion pounds. Further expansion in the
last fifteen years has been closely regu-
lated to prevent over-production.

It is estimated that the area in the
coffee-growing section suitable for coffee
raising covers 1,158,000 square miles, or
more than one-third the area of con-
tinental United States. The state of Sao
Paulo is the chief producing state, and
supplies practically half the world's
annual output. Most of this Sao Paulo
coffee is exported through the port of
Santos, which is consequently the leading
coffee port of the world. Besides Santos,
the ports of Rio de Janeiro and Victoria
are of much importance in the coffee
trade, although some twenty or thirty
million pounds are exported each year
through the port of Bahia, and smaller
amounts through various other ports. The
crop year of Brazil runs from July 1 to
June 30, the heaviest receipts for shipment
coming as a rule in the months of August,
September, and October of each year.
One-third of the season's crop is usually
received at ports of shipment before the
last of October, sometimes as early as the
latter part of September; one-half comes
in by the middle or last of November; and

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1 — Coffee Exports, 1850-1920

This diagram shows the exports of the principal
coffee-producing countries, omitting Brazil

No. 21 — 1 Coffee Exports, 1916-1920

This diagram shows the exports of the leading^
coffee countries (except Brazil) in a period
covering most of the World War

two-thirds is usually received by the end
of January.

Venezuela. The coffee plant was intro-
duced into Venezuela in 1784, being
brought from Martinique; and the first
shipment abroad, consisting of 233 bags,
was made five years later. By 1830 - 31,
production had increased to 25,454,000
pounds; and in the next twenty years, it
more than trebled, amounting to 83,717,-
000 pounds in 1850 - 51. Since then, how-
ever, the increase has been much more
gradual. In 1881-82, 94,369,000 pounds
were produced; and about the same
amount, 95,170,000 pounds, in 1889-90.
Twentieth-century production has appar-
ently exceeded the hundred-million mark
on the average, although there are no
definite statistics beyond export figures.
These showed 86,950,000 pounds sent
abroad in 1904 - 05 ; 103,453,000 pounds in

278

ALL ABOUT COFFEE

1908 - 09 ; and 88,155,000 pounds in 1918 ;
the trade in the last-named year being cut
down by war conditions. In 1919, the
extraordinary amount of 179,414,815
pounds was exported, the high figure be-
ing due to the release of coffee stored
from previous years. It has been esti-
mated that domestic consumption of coffee
would amount to a maximum of 25,000,000
pounds yearly, but may be much less than
that. The United States and France have
in the past been Venezuela's best custo-
mers.

Colombia, Prior to 1912, the total
production of coffee in Colombia was
around 80,000,000 pounds annually, of
which some 3,000,000 or 4,000,000 pounds
were consumed in the country itself. But
in the last decade production has been
advancing rapidly, and the present pro-
duction is the heaviest in the history of
the country. The industry has practically
grown up in the last seventy years, the
exports for the decade 1852 - 53 to 1861 -
62 averaging only about 940,000 pounds;
in the decade following, about 5,700,000
pounds ; and, in the ten years from 1872 -
73 to 1881-82, about 12,600,000 pounds,
according to an unofficial compilation.
Exportations had advanced to about 47,-
000,000 pounds by 1895 ; and to 80,000,000
pounds by 1906. As large quantities of
Colombian coffee are shipped out through
Venezuela, and because of the lack of de-
tailed statistics in Colombia, the actual
exportation each year is not easy to
determine ; but the following figures, ob-
tained by a trade commissioner of the
United States, may be taken as a fairly
accurate estimate of exports from 1906 to

1918:

Columbian Coffee Exports
Year Sacks (138 lbs.)
1906 605,705

1907 -. -. .541,300

1908 577,900

1909 673,350

1910 543,000

1911 601.600

1912 888,800

1913 972,000

1914 983,000

1915 1,074,600

1916 1,153,000

1917 1,093,000

1918 1,102,000

Ecuador. Annual production in Ecua-
dor runs from 3,000,000 to 8,000,000
pounds, most of which is exported. The

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No. 3 — Brazil's Coffee Exports, 1850-1920

Diiifiram based on -^-year avf^rages with quanti-
ties given in millions of pounds

greater part of the production is sent to
Chile and the United States. Production
has shown only a gradual increase since
the middle of the nineteenth century,
when planters began to give some atten-
tion to coffee cultivation. Exports were
about 87,000 pounds in 1855; 296,000
pounds in 1870; and 985,000 pounds in
1877. By the beginning of the present
century, production had reached 6,204,000
pounds; in 1905, it was estimated at
4,861,000 pounds ; and in 1910, at 8,682,000
pounds. Exports in 1912 were 6,101,700
pounds; and 7,671,000 pounds in 1918;
but there was a falling off to 3,729,000
pounds in 1919, Several years ago it was
estimated that the coffee trees numbered
8,000,000, planted on 32,000 acres.

Peru. Coffee is one of the minor prod-
ucts of Peru, and the country does not
occupy a place of importance in the inter-
national coffee trade. The larger part of
,the production is apparently consumed in
the country itself. Export figures indicate
that the industry is steadily declining.
Exports amounted to 2,267,000 pounds in
1905; to 1,618,000 pounds in 1908; and
in the five years ending with 1918, exports
averaged only 529,000 pounds; while fig-

PRODUCTION AND CONSUMPTION

279

ures for 1919 show that in that year thev
fell still lower, to 370,000 pounds. Pro-
duction is mainly in the coast lands.

British Guiana. The Guianas are the
site of the first coffee planting on the
continent of South America; and accord-
ing to some accounts, the first in the New
World. The plants were brought first into
Dutch Guiana, but there was no planting
in what is now British Guiana (then a
Dutch colony) until 1752. Twenty-six
years later, 6,041,000 pounds were sent to
Amsterdam from the two ports of De-
marara and Berbice; and after the colony
fell into the hands of the English in 1796,
cultivation continued to increase. Exports
amounted to 10,845,000 pounds in 1803;
and to more than 22,000,000 pounds in
1810. Then there was a falling off, and
the production in 1828 was 8,893,500
pounds and 3,308,000 pounds in 1836. In
1849 British Guiana exported only 109,-
600 pounds. For a long period thereafter
there was little production, and practi-
cally no exportation; exports in 1907, for
instance, amounting to only 160 pounds.
With the next year, however, a revival of
exportation began, and it has continued to
grow since then. In 1908, exports were
88,700 pounds; and for the succeeding
years, up to 1917, the following amounts
are recorded: 1909, 96,952 pounds; 1910,
108,378 pounds; 1911, 136,420 pounds;
1912, 144,845 pounds; 1913 , 89,376
pounds; 1914, 238,767 pounds; 1915,
172,326 pounds; 1916, 501,183 pounds;
1917, 267,344 pounds. In the last-named
year 4,953 acres were in coffee plantations.

French Guiana. This colony raises a
small amount of coffee for local consump-
tion, and exports a few hundred pounds;
but it is really an importing and not an
exporting colony. Coffee cultivation was
never of much importance, although in
1775 some 72,000 pounds were exported.
One hundred and eighty thousand pounds
were harvested in I860; and 132,000
pounds in 1870, mostly for local con-
■consumption.

Dutch Guiana. Regular shipments of
coffee from Dutch Guiana have been made
for two centuries, beginning — a few j^ears
after the plant was introduced — with a
shipment of 6,461 pounds to the mother
country in 1723. Seven years later, 472,-
000 pounds were shipped ; and in 1732 -
33 exportation reached 1,232,000 pounds.

Exports were averaging 16,900,000 pounds a
year by 1760 ; and reached almost 20,600,000
pounds in 1777. At the beginning of the
nineteenth century, they amounted to
about 17,000,000 pounds; but a few years
later fell off to some 7,000,000 pounds,
where they remained until about 1840;
after which they began again to decline.
Exportation had practically ceased by 1875,
only 1,420 pounds going out of the country,
although cultivation still continued, as evi-
denced by a production of 82,357 pounds
in that year. In 1890, production was onlj
15,736 pounds, and exports only 476
pounds; but since then there has been a
considerable increase. In 1900, production
amounted to 433,000 pounds, and exports
to 424,000 pounds. In 1908, 1,108,000
pounds were grown, of which 310,000
pounds were sent abroad; and in 1909, the
figures were 552,000 pounds produced and
405,000 pounds exported. No figures are
available for production in recent years;
but the exportation of 1,600,000 pounds in
1917 indicates that plantings have been
steadily growing.

Other South American Countries. Of
the other South American countries, Argen-
tina, Chile, and Uruguay are coffee-import-
ing countries; and the coffee-raising
industry of Paraguay, although more or
less promising, has yet to be developed. In
Argentina, a few hundred acres in the sub
tropical provinces of the north have been
planted to coffee; but coffee-growing will
always necessarily remain a very minor in
dustry. Many attempts have been made to
establish the industry in Paraguay, where
favorable conditions obtain, but only a few
planters have met with success. Their
product has all been consumed locally.
Bolivia has much land suitable for coffee
raising ; and it is estimated that production
has reached as high as 1,500,000 pounds a
year, but transportation conditions are such
as to hold back development for an indefi-
nite time. Small amounts are now exported
to Chile.

Salvador. Coffee was introduced into
Salvador in 1852, and immediately began to
spread over the country. Exports were
valued at more than $100,000 in 1865 ; and
by 1874-75 the amount exported had
reached 8,500,000 pounds. The first large
plantation was established in 1876; and
since then planting has continued, until
now practically all the available coffee

280

ALL A B OUT COFFEE

land has been taken up. The area in
plantations has been estimated at 166,000
acres, and the annual production at 50,000,-
000 to 75,000,000 pounds, of which some
5,000,000 pounds are consumed in the
country. Since the beginning of the present
century, exports have in general shown a
considerable increase, the figures for 1901
being 50,101,000 pounds ; for 1905, 64,480,-
000 pounds; for 1910, 62,764.000 pounds;
for 1915, 67,130,000 pounds ; and for 1920,
82,864,000 pounds.

GrUATEMALA. Cultivation of coffee in
Guatamala became of importance between
1860 and 1870. In 1860, exports were only
about 140,000 pounds; by 1863, they had
increased to about 1,800,000 pounds; and
by 1870, to 7,590,000 pounds. In 1880 - 81,
they amounted to 28,976,000 pounds ; and in
1883-84, to 40,406,000 pounds. Twenty
years later, they had doubled. In recent
years, exports have ranged between 75,-
000,000 and 100,000,000 pounds ; the years
from 1909 to 1918 showing the following
results, according to a consular report :
Guatemala's Coffee Exports

Cleaned Vnshelled

Year (pounds) (pounds)

1909 92,639,800 23,654,600

1910 50,717,600 19,671,700

1911 60,689,500 20,959,500

1912 14,329,800 60,837,500

1913 70,749,100 20,980,700

1914 71,136,800 14,999,600

1915 69,649,500 9,892,000

1916 85,057,000 3,015,800

1917 89,259,600 1,410,200

1918 77,842,800 511,500

Costa Eica. Coffee raising in Costa Rica
dates from 1779, when the plant was intro-
duced from Cuba. By 1845, the industry
had grown sufficiently to permit an expor-
tation of 7,823,000 pounds; and twenty
years later, 11,143,000 pounds were shipped.
Thereafter, production increased rapidly;
so that in 1874, the total exports were 32,-
670,000 pounds, and in 1884 they were more
than 36,000,000 pounds. In recent years,
the average production has been around
35,000,000 pounds. For the crop years
1916 - 17 to 1920 - 21 exports have been :
Costa Rica's Coffee Exports,

Year Pounds

1916 - 17 27,044,550

1917 - 18 25,246,715

191S - 19 30,784,184

1919 - 20 30,860,634

1920 - 21 29,401,683

Nicaragua. Production of coffee in
Nicaragua began between 1860 and 1870;
and in 1875, the yield was estimated at
1,650,000 pounds. By 1879-80, this had
increased to 3,579,000 pounds; and by
1889 - 90, to 8,533,000 pounds. In 1890 - 91
production was 11,540,000 pounds; and in
1907-08 it was estimated at more than
20,000,000 pounds. Ten years later, 25,-
000,000 pounds were produced; and the
crop of 1918 - 19 was estimated at about
30,000,000 pounds. Lack of transportation,
and excess of political troubles, have been
important factors in holding back develop-
ment.

Honduras. The coffee of Honduras is of
very good quality ; but production is small,
and the country is not an important factor
in international trade. Exports usually
run less than 1,000,000 pounds. The chief
obstacle to expansion is said to be lack of
transportation facilities.

British Honduras. This colony grows a
little coffee for its own use, but imports
most of what it needs. Production had
reached almost 50,000 pounds in 1904 ; but
the present average is only about 10,000
pounds, raised on scattering trees over about
1,000 acres.

Panama. A small amount of coffee, of
which occasionally as much as 200,000 or
250,000 pounds a year are exported, is
raised in the uplands of Panama, or is
gathered from wild trees. The industry
is not of great importance, and the country
imports considerable supplies, mostly from
the United States.

Mexico. A very good grade of coffee is
produced in Mexico; and it is said that
there is sufficient area of good coffee land
to take care of the demand of the world
outside of that supplied by Brazil. Pro-
duction, however, is limited, and to a large
extent goes to satisfy home needs, leaving
only about 50,000,000 pounds for export.
In spite of much government encourage-
ment in past years, coffee cultivation has
not made rapid progress, when we remem-
ber that the country became acquainted
with the plant as early as 1790. Not until
about 1870 did the country begin to become
important in the list of coffee-exporters;
but by 1878 - 79, shipments amounted to
about 12,000,000 pounds. This steadily in-
creased to 29,400,000 pounds in 1891-92.
Exports in recent years have averaged about
50,000,000 pounds; but in 1918 were only

PRODUCTION AND CONSUMPTION

281

30,000,000. Production has fluctuated
greatly. In the years preceding the troubled
revolutionary period, the total output was
estimated as follows: 1907, 45,000,000
pounds: 1908, 42,000,000 pounds; 1909,
81,000,000 pounds ; 1910, 70,000,000 pounds.
In the ten years preceding 1907, production
dropped as low as 22,000,000 pounds in
1902; and rose to 88,500,000 pounds in
1905. Next to the United States, Germany
was the chief buyer of Mexican coffee before
the war; although France and Great Brit-
ain also took several million pounds each.

Haiti. For well over a century Haiti has
been shipping tens of millions of pounds
of coffee annually; and the product is the
mainstay of the country's economic life.
In all that time, however, shipments have
maintained much the same level. The
country has been a coffee producer from the
early years of the eighteenth century, when
the plants began to spread from the orig-
inal sprigs in Guiana or Martinique. After
half a century of growth, exports had risen
to 885860,000 pounds in 1789 - 90, a mark
that has never again been reached. Since
then, exports have ranged between 40,000,-
000 and 80,000,000 pounds, keeping close to
the lower mark in recent years because of
European conditions. They were 38,000,000
pounds in 1856 ; 55,750,000 pounds in 1866 ;
and 52,300,000 pounds in 1876. They had
reached 84,028,000 pounds in 1887 - 88 ; but
fell back to 67,437,000 pounds in 1897 - 98 ;
and ten years later, were 63,848,000 pounds.
In 1917 - 18, they were only about two-
thirds that amount, or 42,100,000 pounds.
Some 8,000,000 pounds are consumed yearly
in the country itself. The coffee planta-
tions cover about 125,000 acres.

Dominican Republic. Coffee production
in the Dominican Republic ranges between
1,000,000 and 5,000,000 pounds, exports in
recent years averaging about 3,500,000
pounds. The quality of the coffee is good ;
but the plantations are not well cared for.
Until fifty years ago, the industry was in a
state of decline from a condition of former
importance; but it was revived, and by
1881 it supplied 1,400,000 pounds for ex-
port. The amount was 1,480,000 pounds
in 1888 ; 3,950,000 pounds in 1900 ; 1,540,-
000 pounds in 1909 ; and 4,870,000 pounds
in 1919. Blight, and disturbed political
conditions, have hampered development. In

normal times, Europe takes most of the
export.

Jamaica. Jamaica began to raise coffee
about -1730; and from that time on there
was a steady but slow increase in produc-
tion. Shipments amounted to about 60,000
pounds in 1752, and to about 1,800,000
pounds in 1775. At the beginning of the
new century, in 1804, exports of 22,000,000
pounds are recorded ; and in 1814 the figure
was 34,045,000 pounds. Then exports grad-
ually fell off, and in 1861 were only 6,700,-
000 pounds. They were 10,350,000 pounds
in 1874; and since then, have not varied
much from 9,000,000 or 10,000,000 pounds
a year. They were 9,363,000 pounds in
1900 ; 7,885,000 pounds in 1909 ; and 8,246,-
000 pounds in 1919. The acreage in coffee
remains fairly constant, being 24,865 in
1900 ; 22,275 in 1911 ; and 20,280 in 1917.
It is said that there are 80,000 acres of
good coffee land still uncultivated.

Porto Rico. The cultivation of coffee in
Porto Rico dates back to the middle of the
eighteenth century; but exportation does
not seem to have been much more than a
million pounds a year until the first years of
the nineteenth century. Between 1837 and
1840, the average exportation was about
10,000,000 pounds; and by 1865, this had
risen to 24,000,000 pounds. Ten years later,
it was 25,700,000 pounds. In recent years,
it has averaged about 37,000,000 pounds;
the 1921 figure, including shipments to
continental United States, being 29,968,000
pounds. Production since 1881 has been
between 30,000,000 and 50,000,000 pounds ;
the heaviest being in 1896 when the total
output was 62,628,337 pounds — the largest
figure in the island's history. The industry
was greatly damaged by a disastrous storm
in 1900, and was also adversely affected by
the European War,. as a large part of Porto
Rico's crop goes to Europe. Porto Rican
coffee has not been popular in the United
States, which takes only limited amounts.
Cuba is one of the island's best customers.

Guadeloupe. Coffee production in
Guadeloupe reached its highest point in
the latter part of the eighteenth century,
when more than 8,000,000 pounds were
raised. The figure was about 6,000,000 in
1808; but the output declined during the
succeeding decades, and forty years later
was only 375,000 pounds. The amount pro-
duced in 1885 was 986,000 pounds; and

282

ALL ABOUT COFFEE

there has been a gradual increase, so that
the crop has been large enough to permit
the exportation of 1,000,000 to 2,000,000
pounds, or more, since the beginning of the
present century. Exports in 1901 were
1,449,000 pounds; in 1908, 2,266,000
pounds ; and in 1918, 2,144,000 pounds.

Other West Indian Islands. Some little
coffee is gathered for home consumption in
many other West Indian islands, but little
is exported. The island of Martinique,
which is said to have seen the introduction
of the coffee plant into the western hemi-
sphere, does not now raise enough for its
own use. Cuba was formerly one of the
important centers of production; but for
various reasons the industry declined, and
for many years the country has imported
most of its coffee supply. A century ago,
the plantations numbered 2,067 ; and the
annual exportation amounted to 50,000,000
pounds. When the island became inde-
pendent, steps were taken to revive coffee
planting; and in 1907 there were 1,411
plantations and 3,662,850 trees, producing
6,595,700 pounds of coffee. The Cubans,
however, now find it convenient to obtain
their coffee from the neighboring island of
Porto Rico and from other sources ; and im-
portations have remained around 20,000,000
pounds a year. In Trinidad and Tobago,
exports have reached as high as 1,000,000
pounds a year ; but in recent times they have
fallen off heavily. St. Vincent exported 485
pounds in 1917, and Grenada, 251 pounds
in 1916. The Leeward Islands exported
1,415 pounds in 1917, and 2,946 pounds in
1916, the acreage being 274, the same as for
many years past.

Arabia. The home of the famous Mocha
coffee still produces considerable quantities
of that variety, although the output, com-
paratively speaking, is not large. The chief
district is the vilayet of Yemen ; and the
product reaches the outside world mainly
through the port of Aden, although before
the war much of this coffee was exported
through Hodeida. The port of Massowah,
in the last two or three years, has been
drawing some of the supply of Mocha for
export. No statistics are available to show
the production of Mocha coffee ; but an esti-
mate made by the oldest coffee merchant in
Aden places the average annual output at
45,000 bags of 176 pounds each, or 7,920,000
pounds. Although this is the only district
in the world that can produce the particular

grade of coffee known as Mocha, there is
little systematic cultivation, and large areas
of good coffee land are planted to other
crops to provide food for the natives. When
transportation facilities are provided, so
that this food can be imported, it is pre-
dicted that the output of Mocha coffee will
be doubled.

Aden is a great transhipping port for
coffee from Asia and Africa, and more than
half its exports are re-exports from points
outside of Arabia. The following figures
will show the proportion of Arabian coffee
coming into Aden for export as compared
with that from other producing sections :

Aden's Coffee Receipts for Re-Expoet

Imports 1916-17 1917-18 1918-19

from (pounds) (pounds) (pounds)

Abyssinia (via Jibuti) .4,529,280 6,174,896 4,337,760

Mocha and Ghizan ....3,555,104 6,562,752 3,075,024

Somaliland (British) .. 394,128 396,592 245,840
Straits Settlements . . . 672,224

Zanzibar and Pemba .. 92,512 795,312 764,288

All other countries ... 162,064 307,104 323,616

Total 9,405,312 14,236,656 8,746,528

British India. Cultivation of coffee was
begun systematically in India in 1840 ; and
twenty years later, the country exported
about 5,860,000 pounds. For the next eight
years the exports remained at about that
figure; but in 1859 they amounted to 11,-
690,000 pounds; and by 1864 they had
doubled, rising in that year to 26,745,000
pounds. They have continued at between
20,000,000 and 60,000,000 pounds ever
since, reaching their highest point in 1872
with 56,817,000 pounds. In recent years,
production and exportation have declined;
the exports in 1920 being only 30,526,832
pounds. The area under coffee has been
between 200,000 and 300,000 acres for fifty
years or more, reaching its highest point
in 1896, with 303,944 acres. Recently the
area has been slowly decreasing.

Ceylon. The island of Ceylon was form-
erly one of the important producers of
coffee; and the industry was a flourishing
one until about 1869, when a disease ap-
peared that in ten or fifteen years practi-
cally ruined the plantations. Production
has gone on since then, but at a steadily
declining rate. In late years, the island
has not produced enough for its own use,
and is now ranked as an importer rather
than as an exporter. It is said that system-
atic cultivation was carried on in Ceylon
by the Dutch as early as 1690; and ship-
ments of 10,000 to 90,000 pounds a year

PRODUCTIOX AND CONSUMPTION

I _

tury, exports in one year, 1741, going as
high as 370,000 pounds. The English took
the island in 1795, and thirty years later,
they began to expand cultivation. Exports
had risen to 12,400,000 pounds in 1836 ; and
they continued to increase to a high point
of 118,160,000 pounds in 1870; but in the
next thirty years they declined, until they
were only 1,147,000 pounds in 1900. The
total acreage in coffee at one time reached
as high as 340,000; but as the coffee trees
were att'ected by the leaf disease, this land
was turned to tea; and in 1917 there were
only 810 acres left in cotfee.

Dutch East Indies. The year 1699 saw
the importation from the Malabar coast of
India to Java of the cotfee plants which
were destined to be the progenitors of the
tens of millions of trees that have made the
Dutch East Indies famous for two hundred
years. Twelve years afterward, the first
trickle of the stream of coffee that has con-
tinued to flow ever since found its way
from Java to Holland, in a shipment of 894
pounds. About 216,000 pounds were ex-
ported in 1721; and soon thereafter, ship-
ments rose into the millions of pounds.

From 1721 to 1730 the Netherlands
East India Co. marketed 25,048,000 pounds
of Java coffee in Holland; and in the de-
cade following, 36,845,000 pounds. Ship-
ments from Java continued at about the
latter rate until the close of the century,
although in the ten years 1771 - 80 they
reached a total of 51,319,000 pounds. The
total sales of Java coffee in Holland for the
century were somewhat more than a quarter
of a billion pounds, which represented
pretty closely the amount produced.

With the beginning of the nineteenth
century, coffee production soon became
much heavier; and in 1825 Java exported,
of her own production, some 36,500,000
pounds, besides 1,360,000 pounds brought
from neighboring islands to which the cul-
tivation had spread. In 1855, the amount
was 168,100,000 pounds of Java coffee, and
4,080,000 pounds of coffee from the other
islands. This is the highest record for the
half-century following the beginning of the
regular reports of exports in 1825. From
1875 to 1879 the average annual yield was
152,184,000 pounds. In 1900, production
in Java was 84,184,000 pounds; in 1910,
it was 31,552,000 pounds, and in 1915 it
had jumped to 73,984,000 pounds.

283

On the west coast of Sumatra coffee was
regularly cultivated, according to one ac-
count, as early as 17-83 ; but it was not until
about 1800, that exportation began, with
about 270,000 pounds. By 1840, exports
were averaging 11,000,000 to 12,250,000
pounds per year. Ofificial records of pro-
duction date from 1852, in which year the
figures were 16,714,000 pounds. Five years
later the recorded yield was 25,960,000
pounds, the high-water mark of Sumatra
production. The total output in 1860 was
21,400,000 pounds; and 22,275,000 pounds
in 1870. The average from 1875 to 1879
was 17,408,000 pounds; and from 1895 to
1899, it was 7,589,000 pounds. The yield
was 5,576,000 pounds in 1900; 1,360,000
in 1910; and 7,752,000 in 1915.

In Celebes, the first plants were set out
about 1750 ; but seventy years later produc-
tion was only some 10,000 pounds. This
soon increased to half a million pounds;
and from 1835 to 1852 the yield ran between
340,000 and 1,768,000 pounds. From 1875
to 1879, production averaged 2,176,000
pounds; from 1885 to 1889, 2,747,000
pounds; and from 1895 to 1899, 707,000
pounds. In 1900, it was 680,000 pounds;
in 1910, 272,000 pounds ; and in 1915, 272,-
000 pounds.

Planting under government control,
largely wdth forced labor, has been the
special feature of coffee cultivation in the
Dutch East Indies. At first the govern-
ment exercised what was practically a
monopoly; but private planting was more
and more permitted ; and in the latter part
of the nineteenth century, the amount of
coffee produced on private plantations ex
ceeded that raised by the government. The
government has now entirely given up the
business of coffee production.

The total production of coffee in Java,
Sumatra, and Celebes, in 1920, in piculs of
136 pounds, was as follows :

Dutch East Indies' Coffee Production
Kind of Quantity Produced in

Coffee Java Sumatra Celebes Total

and Bali
(piculs) (piculs) (piculs) (piculs)
Liberica . 14,972 6,243 2,074 23,289

Java 16,312 24,291 70,621 111,224

Robusta .. 411,235 256,645 4,998 672,878

Total .. 442,519 287,179 77,693 807,391

Straits Settlements. Trade in coffee is
a transhipping trade, Singapore acting as a

284

ALL ABOUT COFFEE

clearing center for large quantities of
coffee from the neighboring islands. In
1920, the imports were 25,914,267 pounds;
and the exports, 26,856,000 pounds.

Federated Malay States. The acreage
in coffee in the Federated Malay States is
steadily declining. In 1903, coffee planta-
tions covered 22,700 acres; in 1913, 7,695
acres ; and in 1916, 4,312 acres. There was
formerly a considerable export ; but appar-
ently local production is now required for
home consumption, as in 1920 exports were
practically nothing, and about 9,800 pounds
were imported.

British Nortpe Borneo. Total exports of
coffee have reached as high as 50,000
pounds, which was the figure in 1904; but
they are much less now; being 5,973
pounds in 1915 ; 15,109 pounds in 1916 ; and
1,980 pounds in 1918.

Sarawak. Previous to 1912, the exporta-
tion of coffee from Sarawak was 20,000 to
45,000 pounds annually. In 1912, a coffee
estate of 300 acres was abandoned, and since
that time there have been no exports.

Philippines. Coffee raising was former-
ly one of the chief industries of the Philip-
pines; but it has now greatly declined,
partly because of the blight. Exports
reached their highest point in 1883, when
16,805,000 pounds were shipped. Since
then, they have fallen off steadily to noth-
ing; and the islands are now importers,
although still producing considerable for
their own use. The area still under cultiva-
tion in 1920 was 2,700 acres ; and the pro-
duction in that year was given as 2,710,000
pounds, as compared with 1,580,000 pounds
in 1919, and an average of 1,500,000 pounds
for the previous five years.

Guam. Coffee is a common plant on the
island but is not systematically cultivated.
There is no exportation, but a Navy De-
partment report says that the possible ex-
port is not less than seventy-five tons
annually.

Hawaii. A certain amount of coffee has
been produced in the Hawaiian Islands for
many years, exports being recorded as 49,-
000 pounds in 1861; as 452,000 pounds in
1870 ; and as 143,000 pounds in 1877. The
trees grow on all the islands ; but nearly all
the coffee produced is raised on Hawaii.
The trees are not carefully cultivated; but
the coffee has an excellent flavor. The-
amount of land planted to coffee is about

6,000 acres. The exports go mostly to con-
tinental United States. The exports are
increasing, the figures up to 1909 ranging
usually between 1,000,000 and 2,000,000
pounds, and now usually running between
2,000,000 and 5,000,000 pounds. Including
shipments to continental United States,
Hawaii exported 5,775,825 pounds in 1918 ;
3,649,672 pounds in 1919 ; 2,573,300 pounds
in 1920 ; and 4,979,121 pounds in 1921.

Australia. Queensland is the only state
of the Commonwealth in which coffee grow-
ing has been at all extensively tried; and
here the results have, up to the present
time, been far from satisfactory. The total
area devoted to this crop reached its highest
point in the season 1901 - 02 when an area
of 547 acres was recorded. The. area then
continuously declined to 1906 - 07, when it
was as low as 256 acres. In subsequent
seasons the area fluctuated somewhat; but,
on the whole, with a downward tendency.
In 1919 - 20, only 24 productive acres were
recorded, with a yield of 16,101 pounds.
The country is now listed among the con-
suming rather than the producing countries.

Abyssinia. This country, usually cred-
ited with being the original home of the
coffee plant, still has, in its southern part,
vast forests of wild coffee whose extent is
unknown, but whose total production is
believed to be immense. It is of inferior
grade, and reaches the market as ' ' Abyssin-
ian" coffee. There is also a large district
of coffee plantations producing a very good
grade called "Harari", which is considered
almost, if not quite, the equal of the
Arabian Mocha. This is usually shipped
to Aden for re-export. Abyssinia's coffee
reaches the outside world through three
different gate-ways ; and as the neighboring
countries, through which the produce passes,
also produce coffee, no accurate statistics
are available to show the country's annual
export. The total probably ranges from
10,000,000 to 20,000,000 pounds a year.
Coffee was shipped from Abyssinia to the
extent of 6,773,800 pounds in 1914, over
the Franco-Ethiopian railroad; 10,054,000
pounds in 1915; and 9,064,000 pounds in
1916. Export figures of the port of Mas-
sowah include a large amount of Abyssin-
ian coffee, but the proportion is unknown.
At this port 108,680 pounds of coffee were
exported in 1914; and 1,221,880 pounds in
1915. Abyssinian coffee exported by way of
the Sudan amounted to 232,616 pounds iiL

PRODUCTION AND CONSUMPTION

285

1914; to 140,461 pounds in 1915; and to
4,164,600 pounds in 1916.

British East African Protectorate.
The acreage in coffee has greatly increased
in recent years. It was estimated at 1,000
acres in 1911 ; and by 1916, it had grown
to 22,200 acres. Production, as shown by
the exports, has likewise increased greatly;
and exports in recent years have averaged
about 8,000,000 pounds a year. They were
10,984,000 pounds in 1917; and were 18,-
735,000 pounds in 1918.

Uganda Protectorate. The acreage in
coffee has been steadily increasing, as shown
bv the following figures: 1910, 697 acres;
1914, 19,278 acres ; 1916, 23,857 acres ; 1917,
22,745 acres. In 1909, 33,440 pounds of
coffee were produced ; and by 1918, this had
grown to 10,000,000 pounds. The average
for the five years, 1914-18, was 5,076,000
pounds.

Nyasaland Protectorate. Twenty-five
years ago, this colony exported coffee in
amounts ranging from 300,000 to more than
2,000,000 pounds. Production has now so
declined, that only 122,000 pounds were
exported in 1918 ; and the average for recent
years has been about 92,000 pounds. The
acreage in bearing in 1903 was 8,234; and
in 1917 it was 1,237.

Nigeria. Production has been falling off
in recent years. Exports were 35,000
pounds in 1896 ; 57,000 pounds in 1901 ; and
70,000 pounds in 1909. In 1916 and 1917,
however, they were only about 3,000
pounds.

Gold Coast. This colony formerly pro-
duced considerable coffee, exporting 142,000
pounds in 1896. There have been no
exports in recent years, except about 440
pounds in 1916, and 660 pounds in 1917.

SOMALILAND PROTECTORATE. ExpOrts of

coffee were more than 7,500,000 pounds in
1897, indicating a very eed to 322,419,884 pounds;
exports to 1,154,769 pounds; and net con-
sumption, to 321,265,115 pounds.

Germany. Hamburg is one of the world 's
important coffee ports ; and in normal times
coffee is brought there in vast amounts, not
only for shipment into the interior of Ger-
many, but also for transhipment to Scandi-
navia, Finland and Russia. Up to the out-
break of the war, Germany was the chief
coffee-drinking country of Europe. During
the blockade, the Germans resorted to sub-
stitutes; and after the war because of high
prices, there was still some consumption of
them. German coffee imports since the war
have not quite climbed back to their former
high mark; and the per capita consump-
tion, judged by these figures is still some-
what low. Importations amounted to
90,602,000 pounds in 1920. The amount of
total imports was 371,130,520 pounds in
1913; total exports, 1,783,521 pounds; and
net imports, 369,346,999 pounds.

Netherlands. Netherlands is one of the
oldest coffee countries of Europe, and for
centuries has been a great transhipping
agent, distributing coffee from her East
Indian possessions and from America
among her northern neighbors. Before
sending these coffee shipments aloner. how-
ever, she kept back enough plentifully to
supply her own people, so that for many
years before the war she led the world in
per capita consumption. As far back as
1867 - 76, coffee consumption was averaging
more than 13 pounds per capita. In the
year before the war, the average was 18.8
pounds. The blockade, and other abnormal
conditions during the war, threw the trade
off; and it is still subnormal. In 1920 the
net imports were about 96,000,000 pounds,
Avhich would give a per capita consump-

tion of about 14 pounds if it all went into-
consumption. But part of it was probably
stored for later exportation, as indicated
by the figures for 1921, which show heavy
exports and a c&nsequent lower figure for
consumption. Eighty per cent of the Neth-
erlands coffee trade is handled through
Amsterdam.

Consumption of coffee is now slowly
going back to normal, but the change in
source of imports — which before the war
came largely from Brazil but which war
conditions turned heavily toward the East
Indies — is still in evidence. Per capita
consumption of coffee in Holland up to the
outbreak of the war was as follows :
Coffee Consumption ?*:» Capita in Holland

Year

Pounds

Year

Pounds:

1847-56 ...

. 9.6

19()7 ....

14.9

1857-66 ...

. 7.1

1908 ....

14.8

1867-76 ...

. 18.3

1909 ....

. ... 16.7

1877-86 ...

. 16.7

1910 ....

.... 15.7

1887-96 ...

. 12.8

1311 ....

. ... 15.8

1897-1906 .

. 16.7

1912 ....

12.8

1906

. 17.2

1913 ....

. ... 18.8

Other Countries op Europe. Denmark^
Norway, and Sweden are all heavy coft'ee
drinkers. In 1921 Sweden had the highest
per capita consumption in the world, 15.25
pounds. Before the war, these three coun-
tries each consumed about as much per
capita as the United States does to-day, 12
to 13 pounds. The 1921 imports for con-
sumption! were as follows: Denmark, 43,-
122,417 pounds; Norway, 29,665,623
pounds; Sweden, 89,660,766 pounds. Aus-
tria-Hungary was formerly an important
buyer of coffee, large quantities coming
into the country yearly through Trieste.
Imports in 1913 totaled 130,951,000 pounds ;
and in 1912, 124,527,000 pounds. In 1917
the war cut down the total to 17,910,000
pounds net consumption. Finland shares
with her neighbors of the Baltic a strong
taste for coffee, importing, in 1921, 27,-
968,000 pounds, about 8.25 pounds per
capita. In the same year, Belgium had a
net importation of 83,824,000 pounds.

Spain, in 1920, consumed 48,513,821
pounds. Portugal, in 1919, imported 6.-
926,575 pounds; and exported 1,258,271
pounds, leaving 5,668,304 pounds for home
consumption. Coffee is not especially pop-
ular in the Balkan States and Italy; im-
portations into the last-named country in
1920 amounting to 66,494,925 pounds net.
Switzerland is a steady coffee drinker, con-

> The 1921 figures for all countries given are pre-
liminary.

PRODUCTION AND CONSUMPTION

291

;

IS \S

■0-

^:V^v-H,

:\'i

A Meeting of the Coffee Brokeks of Amsterdam, 1820
Reproduced from an old print

Sliming 31,535,260 pounds in 1921. Russia
was never fond of coffee ; and her total im-
ports in 1917, according to a compilation
made under Soviet auspices, were only
4,464,000 pounds.

Other Countries. The Union of South
Africa, in 1920, imported 27,798,000 pounds
net, or about 3.8 pounds per capita. Cuba
purchased 39,981,696 pounds in the fiscal
year 1920 ; Argentina, 37,541,000 pounds in
1919; Chile, 12,358,000 pounds in 1920;
Australia, 2,239,000 pounds in 1920; and
New Zealand, 283,633 pounds in that year.

Three Centuries of Coffee Trading
The story of the development of the
world's coffee trade is a story of about
three centuries. When Columbus sailed for
the new world, the coffee plant was un-
known even as near its original home as his
native Italy. In its probable birthplace in
southern Abyssinia, the natives had enjoyed
its use for a long time, and it had spread
to southwestern Arabia ; but the Mediter-
ranean knew nothing of it until after the
beginning of the sixteenth century. It then
crept slowly along the coast of Asia Minor,
through Syria, Damascus, and Aleppo,
until it reached Constantinople about 1554.
It became very popular ; coffee houses were
opened, and the first of many controversies
arose. But coffee made its way against all

opposition, and soon was firmly established
in Turkish territory.

In those deliberate times, the next step
westward, from Asia to Europe, was not
taken for more than fifty years. In general,
its introduction and establishment in
Europe occupied the whole of the seven-
teenth century.

The greatest pioneering work in coffee
trading was done by the Netherlands East
India Company, which began operations in
1602. The enterprise not only promoted the
spread of coffee growing in two hemi-
spheres ; but it was active also in introduc-
ing the sale of the product in many Euro-
pean countries.

Coffee reached Venice about 1615, and
Marseilles about 1644. The French began
importing coffee in commercial quantities
in 1660. The Dutch began to import
Mocha coffee regularly at Amsterdam in
1663 ; and by 1679 the French had devel-
oped a considerable trade in the berry be-
tween the Levant and the cities of Lyons
and Marseilles. Meanwhile, the coffee drink
had become fashionable in Paris, partly
through its use by the Turkish ambassador,
and the first Parisian cafe was opened in
1672. It is significant of its steady popu-
larity since then that the name cafe, which
is both French and Spanish for coffee, has

292

ALL ABOUT COFFEE

A". 179 o.
OOST-IN D ISCHE

COMPAGNIE.

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BILL OF PUBLIC SALE OF COFFEE, ETC., 1790

Reproduction of an advertisement by the Dutch East India Company

PRODUCTION AND CONSUI^IPTION

293

come to mean a general eating or drinking
place.

Active trading in coffee began in Ger-
many about 1670, and in Sweden about
1674.

Trading in coflfee in England followed
swiftly upon the heels of the opening of the
first coffee house in London in 1652. By
1700, the trade included not only exporting
and importing merchants, but wholesale
and retail dealers; the latter succeeding the
apothecaries who, up to then, had enjoyed a
kind of monopoly of the business.

Trade and literary authorities * on coffee
trading tell us that in the early days of the
eighteenth century the chief supplies of
coffee for England and western Europe
came from the East Indies and Arabia.
The Arabian, or — as it was more generally
known — Turkey berry, was bought first-
hand by Turkish merchants, who were ac-
customed to travel inland in Arabia Felix,
and to contract with native growlers.

It was moved thence by camel transport
through Judea to Grand Cairo, via Suez,
to be transhipped down the Nile to Alex-
andria, then the great shipping port for
Asia and Europe. By 1722, 60,000 to 70,-
000 bales of Turkish (Arabian) coffee a
year were being received in England, the
sale price at Grand Cairo being fixed by the
Bashaw, who "valorized" it according to
the supply. "Indian" coffee, which was
also grown in Arabia, was brought to
r Bettelfukere (Beit-el- fakih) in the moun-
tains of southwestern Arabia, where Eng-
lish, Dutch, and French factors went to buy
it and to transport it on camels to Moco
(Mocha), whence it was shipped to Europe
around the Cape of Good Hope.

In the beginning, "Indian" coffee was
inferior to Turkish coffee ; because it was
the refuse, or what remained after the
Turkish merchants had taken the best. But
after the European merchants began to
make their own purchases at Bettelfukere,
the character of the "Indian" product as
sold in the London and other European
; markets was vastly improved. Doubtless
the long journey in sailing vessels over
tropic seas made for better quality. It was
estimated that Arabia in this way exported
about a million bushels a year of "Turkish"
and "Indian" coffee.

1 Broadbent, Humphrey. The Domestick Coffee Man.
London. 1720.

Brndley, Richard. The vertu and use of coffee with
reqard to the plague and other infectious distempers.
London, 1721.

The coffee houses became the gathering
places for wits, fashionable people, and
brilliant and scholarly men, to whom they
afforded opportunity for endless gossip
and discussion. It was only natural that
the lively interchange of ideas at these
public clubs should generate liberal and
radical opinions, and that the constituted
authorities should look askance at them.
Indeed the consumption of coffee has been
curiously associated with movements of
political protest in its whole history, at least
up to the nineteenth century.

Coffee has promoted clear thinking and
right living wherever introduced. It has
gone hand in hand with the world's on-
ward march toward democracy.

As already told in this work, royal orders
closed the coffee houses for short periods in
Constantinople and in London ; Germany
required a license for the sale of the
beverage; the French Revolution was
fomented in coffee-house meetings ; and the
real cradle of American liberty is said to
have been a coffee hovise in New York. It
is interesting also to note that, while the
consumption of coffee has been attended by
these agitations for greater liberty for three
centuries, its production for three centuries,
in the Dutch East Indies, in the West
Indies, and in Brazil, was very largely in
the hands of slaves or of forced labor.

Since the spread of the use of coffee to
western Europe in the seventeenth century,
the development of the trade has been
marked, broadly speaking, by two features :
(1) the shifting of the weight of produc-
tion, first to the West Indies, then to the
East Indies, and then to Brazil; and (2)
the rise of the United States as the chief
coffee consumer of the world. Until the
close of the seventeenth century, the little
district in Arabia, w'hence the coffee beans
had first made their way to Europe, con-
tinued to supply the whole w^orld's trade.
But sprigs of coffee trees were beginning
to go out from Arabia to other promising
lands, both eastward and westward. As
previously related, the year 1699 was an
important one in the history of this expan-
sion, as it was then that the Dutch success-
fully introduced the coffee plant from Ara-
bia into Java. This started a Far Eastern
industry, whose importance continues to
this day, and also caused the mother coun-
try, Holland, to take up the role of one of
the leading coffee traders of the world,

294

ALL ABOUT COFFEE

which she still holds. Holland, in fact,
took to coffee from the very first. It is
claimed that the first samples were intro-
duced into that country from Mocha in
1616 — long before the beans were known in
England or France — and that by 1663,
regular shipments were being made. Soon
after the coffee culture became firmly es-
tablished in Java, regular shipments to the
mother country began, the first of these

Pbe-Wak Average Annual Production of
Coffee by Continents

Fiscal years: 1910-1914
Total pounds: 2,311,917,200

being a consignment of 894 pounds in 1711.
Under the auspices of the Netherlands East
India Co. the system of cultivating coffee
by forced labor was begun in the East In-
dian colonies. It flourished until well into
the nineteenth century. One result of this
colonial production of coffee was to make
Holland the leading coffee consumer per
capita of the world, consumption in 1913,
as recorded on page 290, having reached as
high as 18.8 pounds. It has long been one
of the leading coffee traders, importing and
exporting in normal times before the war
between 150,000,000 and 300,000,000 pounds
a year.

The introduction of the coffee plant into
the new world took place between 1715 and
1723, It quickly spread to the islands and
the mainland washed by the Caribbean.
The latter part of the eighteenth centur}^
saw tens of millions of pounds of coffee

being shipped yearly to the mother coun-
tries of western Europe ; and for decades,
the two great coffee trade currents of the
world continued to run from the West
Indies to France, England, Holland, and
Germany ; and from the Dutch East Indies
to Holland. These currents continued to
flow until the disruption of world trade-
routes by the World War; but they had
been pushed into positions of secondary im-
portance by the establishing of two new
currents, running respectively from Brazil
to Europe, and from Brazil to the United
States, which constituted the nineteenth
century's contribution to the history of the
world's coffee trade.

The chief feature of the twentieth cen-
tury's developments has been the passing
by the United States of the half-way mlark
in world consumption; this country, since

C-OST^ /?/C^

Pre- War Average Annual Production of
Coffee by Countries

Fiscal years: 1910-1914
Total pounds: 2,311,917,200

the second year of the World War, having
taken more than all the rest of the world
put together. The world's chief coffee
"stream," so to speak, is now from Santos
and Rio de Janeiro to New York, other
lesser streams being from these ports to
Havre, Antwerp, Amsterdam, and (in nor-
mal times) Hamburg; and from Java to
Amsterdam and Rotterdam. It is said that
a movement, fostered by Belgium and
Brazil, is under way to have Antwerp suc-
ceed Hamburg as a coffee port.

PRODUCTION AND CONSUMPTION

295

The rise of Brazil to the place of all-
important s^ource of the world's coffee was
•entirely a nin^eteentth oentury development.
When the coffee tree found its true home
in southern Brazil in 1770, it began at once
to spread widely over the area of excellent
soil; but there was little exportation for
thirty or forty years. By the middle of
the nineteenth century Brazil was con-
tributino; twice as much to the w^orld's com-
merce as her nearest competitor, the Dutch
East Indies, exports in 1852 -53 bein^
2,353,563 ba^s from Brazil and 1,190,543
Ij&gs from the Dutch East Indies. The
world's total that year was 4,567,000 bags,
so that Brazilian coffee represented about
one-half of the total. This proportion was
roughly maintained during the latter half
•of the nineteenth century, but has gradu-

Pke-Wak Average Annual Imports of Coffee
INTO THE United States by Continents

Fiscal years: 1910-1914
Total pounds: 899,339,327

:ally increased since then to its present
three-fourths.

The most important single event in the
history of Brazilian production was the
carrying out of the valorization scheme, by
which the State of Sao Paulo, in- 1906 and
1907,. purchased 8,474,623 bags of coffee,
and stored it in Santos, in New York, and
in certain European ports, in order to
stabilize the price in the face of very heavy
production. At the same time, a law was
passed limiting the exports to 10,000,000

bags per year. This law has since been
repealed. The story of valorization is told
more fully in chapter XXXI. The coffee
thus purchased by the state was placed in
the hands of an international committee,
which fed it into the world 's markets at
the rate of several hundred thousand bags
a year. Good prices were realized for all
coffee sold; and the plan was successful,
not only financially, but in the achievement

-cosr/i /?/c^

-l/\/SST /A/O/SS

Pre- War Average Annual Imports of Coffee
INTO THE United States by Countries

Fiscal years: 1910-1914
Total pounds: 899,339,327

of its main object, the prevention of the
ruin of planters through overproduction.

Another valorization campaign was
launched by Brazil in 1918, and a third in
1921. Early in 1918, the Sao Paulo gov-
ernment bought about 3,000,000 bags. Sub-
sequent events caused a sharp advance in
prices, and at one time it was said that
the holdings showed a profit of $60,000,000.
The Brazil federal government appointed
an official director of valorization, Count
Alexandre Sieiliano. A federal loan of
£9,000,000, with 4,535,000 bags of valorized
coffee as collateral, was placed in London
and New York in May, 1922.

European consumption during the -last
century has been marked by the growth, of
imports into France and Germany; these
being the two leading coffee drinkers of the
world, aside from the United States. Ger-
many held the lead in European consump-
tion during the whole of the nineteenth

296

ALL ABOUT COFFEE

Trend of European Coffee Consumption for Seventy Years

Year Germany France Holland Aus.-Hung. Belgium

(pounds) (pounds) (pounds) (pounds) (pounds)

1853 104,049,000 48,095,000 46,162,000 44,716,000' 41.270.000

1863 146.969,000 87.524,000 30.299.000 44,966.000 39,305,000

1873 215,822.000 98.841.000 79.562.000 71,111.000 49,874.00f)

1883. 251,706,000 150,468,000 130.380,000 74,145,000 62,846,0(JO

1893 269,.S81.000 152,203,000 75,562,000 79,438.000 52,046,000

19a3 403,070,000 246,122.000 78.328,000 104,200.000 51,859,000

1913 369,347,000 254,102,000 116,749,000 130,951,000 93,250,000

century, and also in this century until all
imports were stopped by the Allied navies;
although, in actual imports, Holland for
many years showed higher figures. Both
Holland and England have acted as dis-
tributers, re-exporting each year most of
the coffee which entered their ports. In
the last half-century, the chief consumers,
in the order named, have been Germany.
France, Holland, Austria-Hungary, and
Belgium. However, with the removal of
the duty on coffee in the last-named coun-
try in 1904, imports trebled; and Belgium
took third place. The table at the top of
this page shows the general trend of the
trade for the last seventy years.

Most of the coffee for these countries
has for many years been supplied by
Brazil, even Holland bringing in several
times as much from Brazil as from the
Dutch East Indies. Special features of the
European trade have been the organization,
in 1873, and successful operation, in Ger-
man}^, of the world's first international
syndicate to control the coffee trade; and
the opening of coffee exchanges in Havre
in 1882, in Amsterdam and Hamburg, in
] 887 ; in Antwerp, London, and Rotterdam,
in 1890 ; and in Trieste in 1905.

The advance of coffee consumption in the
United States, the chief coffee-consuming
country in the world, has taken place
through about the same period as the ad-
vance of production in Brazil, the chief
producing country ; but it has been far less
rapid. From 1790 to 1800, coffee imports
for consumption ranged from 3,500,000 to
32,000,000 pounds. The figures in the next
column show the net importations of coffee
into this country since the beginning of the
nineteenth century.

The chief source of supply, of course,
has been Brazil; and the commercial and
economic ties created by this immense cof-
fee traffic has knit the two countries closely
together. Brazil is probably more friendly
to the United States than any other South

American country, as shown by her action
in following this country into the World
War against Germany. She also grants the
United States certain tariff preferentials a.s
a recognition of the continued'policy of this
country of admitting coffee free of duty.
The chief port of entry of coffee into the
United States is New York, which for
decades has recorded entries amounting
from sixty to ninety percent of the coun-
try's total. Since 1902, New Orleans has
shown a big advance, and in 1910 imported
some thirty-five percent of the total. The
only other port of importance is San
Francisco, where imports have been in-
creasing in recent years because of the
growth of the trade in Central American
coffee.

Throughout the century and a third of
steady increase of importations of coffee.

Coffee Imports, United States, for 120 Years
l^et Imports

Year

Pounds

Year

Pounds

1800 a . .

8,792,472

1906 . . .

. 804,808,594

1811a ...

19,801,230

1907 . . .

. 935,678,412

1821a ...

11,886,063

1908 . . .

. 850.982.919

1830a ...

38.363,687

1909 . . .

. 1,006,975,047

184<^)a . . .

86.297,761

1910 . . .

. 813.442.972

1850

129.791.466

1911 ...

. 869.489,902

1860 . . . .

182,049,527

1912 . . .

. 880,838,776

1870 . . . .

231,173,574

1913 . . .

. 859.166.618

1880 . . .

440,128,838

1914 ...

. 991,953,821

1890 . . . .

490,161,900

1915 . . .

. 1,051,716,023

1900

748.800.771

1916 ...

. 1,131,730,672

1901 . . . .

809.036,029

1917 . . .

. 1,267.975.290

1902 . . . .

1,056,541.637

1918 ...

. 1.083.480.622

1903 . . .

867,385 063

1919 ...

. 968.297,668

1904 . . .

960 878 977

1920 . . .

. 1.364,252.073

1905 . . .

991,160.207
year ending Sept

1921 . . .
30; all (

. 1,309,010,452

a Fiscal

)ther years end

June 30.

Congress has for the most part permitted
its free entry; as a rule, resorting to taxa-
tion of "the poor man's breakfast cup"
only when in need of revenue for war pur-
poses. At times, the free entry has been
qualified ; but for the most part, coffee has
been free from the burden of customs
tariff.

PRODUCTIOX AND CONSUMPTIOX

297

The country's coffee trade before the
Civil War was without special incident;
but since that time, the continued growth
has brought about manipulations that have
often resulted in highly dramatic crises ;
organizations to exercise some sort of regu-
lation in the trade; the development of a
trade in substitutes ; the advance of the sale
of branded package coffee; the institution
of large advertising campaigns; and other
interesting features. These are treated more
in detail in chapters that follow.

Coifee Drinking in the United States
Is the United States using more coffee
than formerly, allowing for the increase in
population ? Of course there are sporadic
increases, in particular years and groups of
years, and they may indicate to the casual
observer that our coffee drinking is mount-

Uj'Oijjio t—r— 0OcOff>(Ji oo —
Ju«nt.1iiS2 WoooooooooooooOoo ffiff) S>V«lue

100 p-^ 1 I . I I I r— r-^ r— , 20

90 1^ 7^/ 'S

85 '-^ -/.^L , 17

80 r— — vy 1 V- '6

75 -i ^ ^-^ 15

70 -i 7^^ /^ 14

65 i / v-/ 13

feo '^y— ^/ — '^

50 l-J. 10

45 i-J- 9

40 -!-l 8

35—3 7

30 ,J. 6

25 ^'Ij- 5

20 ^ : 4

15 3

10 a

5 I

I I I I I I I I I I I I I

I'ke-War Ciiakt of Coffee Imports

Quantity and value of net imports of coffee into the
United States for the fiscal years 1851 to 1914
in five-year averages. Solid line represents
quantity, figures in million pounds on left side.
Dotted line represents value, figures in million
dollars on right side

ing rapidly. And then there is the steadily
growing import figure, double what it was
within the memory of a man still young.

looinoiooiooiooioo-^

iOu)*o vor-r-oooo<n<nOo-

Cents S2 ««ooooo0ooooooco50> 5}Ro«b;

l"7 • —

• /
16

15
14
13
le
II
10
9
8

6
5
4
3
2
1

16
15
14
13
12
II
10
9
8

7
6

5
4
3
2

]

/
f

^.'

—

/
/

1
/

/
/

I're-War Consumption and Price Chart

Import price and per capita consumption of coffee
in the United States for the fiscal years 1851
to 1914, in five-year averages. Solid line repre-
sents import price per pound. Dotted line
represents per capita consumption

But the apparent growth in any given
year is a matter of comparison with a near-
by year, and there are declines as well as
jumps; and, as for the gradual growth, it
must always be remembered that, according
to the Census Bureau, some 1,400,000 more
people are born into this country every
year, or enter its ports, than are removed
by death or emigration. At the present
rate this increase would account for abouu
17,000,000 pounds more coffee each year
than was consumed in the year before.

The question is : Do Mr. Citizen, or Mrs.
Citizen, or the little Citizens growing up
into the coffee-drinking age, pass his or her
or their respective cups along for a second
pouring where they used to be satisfied
with one, or do they take a cup in the
evening as well as in the morning, or do
they perhaps have it served to them at an
afternoon reception where they used to get
something else? In other words, is the
coffee habit becoming more intensive as
well as more extensive ?

There are plenty of very good reasons
why it should have become so in the last

298

ALL ABOUT COFFEE

twenty-five or thirty years ; for the improve-
ments in distributing, packing, and prepar-
ing coffee have been many and notable. It
is a far cry these days from the times when
the housewife snatched a couple of minutes
amid a hundred other kitchen duties to set
a pan oyer the fire to roast a handful of
green coffee beans, and then took two or
three more minutes to pound or grind the
crudely roasted product into coarse gran-
ules for boiling.

For a good many years, the keenest wits
of the coffee merchants, not only of the
United States but of Europe as well, have
been at work to refine the beverage as it
comes to the consumer's cup; and their
success has been striking. Now the con-
sumer can have his favorite brand not only
roasted but packed air-tight to preserve its
flavor ; and made up, moreover, of growths
brought from the four corners of the earth
and blended to suit the most exacting taste.
He can buy it already ground, or he can
have it in the form of a soluble powder ; he
^an even get it with the caffein element
ninety-nine percent removed. It is pre-
served for his use in paper or tin or fiber
boxes, with wrappings whose attractive de-
signs seem to add something in themselves
to the quality. Instead of the old coffee
pot, black with long service, he has modern
shining percolators and filtration devices;
with a new one coming out every little
while, to challenge even these. Last but not
least, he is being educated to make it
properly — tuition free.

It would be surprising, with these and
dozens of other refinements, if a far better
average cup of coffee were not produced
than was served forty years ago, and if the
coffee drinker did not show his apprecia-
tion by coming back for more.

As a matter of fact, the figures show that
he does come back for more. We do not
refer to the figures of the last two years,
which indeed are higher than those for
many preceding years, but to the only aver-
ages that are of much significance in this
connection ; namely, those for periods of
years going back half a century or more.
Five-year averages back to the Civil War
show increa.sing per capita consumption for
continental United States (see table).

It will be seen that the gain has been a
decided one, fairly steady, but not exactly
uniform. In the fifty years, John Doe has
not quite come to the point where he hands

FIVE-YEAK I'ER C.'APITA CONSUMPTION FIGURES

Five-year Per capita Five-year Per capita
Period Pounds Period Pounds

1867

-71

6.38

1897

-1901

10.52

1872

-76

7.03

1902

-06

11.50

1877-

■81

7.53

1907 ■

10.21

1882.

-86

9.09

1912-

■16

10.02

1887-

■91

8.07

1917-

■21

11.39

1802 -

8.(i3

up his cup for a second helping and keeps
a meaningful silence. Instead, he stipu-
lates, "Don't fill it quite full; fill it about
five-sixths as full as it was before." That
is a substantial gain, and one that the next
fifty years can hardly be expected to dupli-
cate, in spite of the efforts of our coffee
advertisers, our inventors, and our vigor-
ous importers and roasters.

The most striking feature of this fifty-
year growth was the big step upward in
1897, when the per capita rose two pounds
over the year before and established an
average that has been pretty well main-
tained since. Something of the sort may
have taken place again in 1920, when there
was a three-pound jump over the year
before. If will be interesting to see whether
this is merely a jump or a permanent rise ;
whether our coffee trade has climbed to a
hilltop or a plateau.

In this connection it should be noted that
the government's per capita coffee figures
apply only to continental United States,
and that in computing them all the various
items of trade of the noncontiguous posses-
sions (not counting the Philippines, whose
statistics are kept entirely separate from
those of the United States proper) are care-
fully taken into account.

But for the benefit of students of coffee
figures it should be added that this method
does not result in a final figure except for
one year in ten. The reason is that between
censuses the population of the country is
determined only by estimates; and these
estimates (by the U. S. Bureau of the
Census) are based on the average increase
in the preceding census decade. The in-
crease between 1910 and 1920, for instance,
is divided by 120, the number of months
in the period, and this average monthly in-
crease is assumed to be the same as that
of the current year and of other years fol-
lowing 1920. Until new figures are obtained
in 1930, the monthly increase will continue
to be estimated at the same rate as the
increase from 1910 to 1920, or about 118,-

PRODUCTION AND CONSUMPTION

299

000. This figure will be used in computing
the per capita coffee consumption. But
when the 1930 figures are in, it may be
found that the estimates were too low or
too high, and the per capita figures for all
intervening years will accordingly be sub-
ject to revision. This will not amount to
much, probably five-hundredths of a pound
at most ; but it is evident that between 1920
and 1930 all per capita consumption figures
issued by the government are to be con-
sidered as provisional to that extent at least.
In the 1920 Statistical Abstract the gov-
ernment has revised its per capita coffee
and tea figures to conform to actual instead
of estimated population figures between
1910 and 1920, with the result that these
figures are slightly different from those
published in previous editions of the Ab-
stract. Figures from 1890 to 1910 have also
heen slightly changed, as they were orig-
inallv computed by using. population figures
as of June 1, w^hereas it is desirable to have
computations based on July 1 estimates to
make them conform to present per capita
figures.

Reviewing the 1921 Trade in the
United States

According to the latest available foreign
trade summaries issued by the government,
the United States bought more coffee in
1921 than in any previous calendar year of
our history, although the total imports did
not quite reach the highest fiscal-year mark.
Our purchases passed the 1920 mark by
more than 40,000,000 pounds and were
higher than those of two years ago by
a.500.000 pounds.

But this record was made only in actual
amounts shipped, as the value of imported
coffee was far below that of immediately
preceding years. Coffee values, however,
fell off less than the average values for all
imports, the decrease for coffee being
forty-three percent and for the country's
total imports fifty-two percent.

Exports of coffee were somewhat less in
quantity than in 1920, and about the same
as in 1919; although the value, like that of
imports, w^as considerably less than in either
previous year.

Re-exports of foreign coffee were con-
siderably below the 1920 mark, in both
quantity and value, and indeed were less
than in several years. The amount of tea
re-exported to foreign countries was only
about half that shipped out in 1920, show-

ing a continuation of the tendency of the
United States to discontinue its services as
a middleman, which raised the through
traffic in tea several million pounds during
the dislocation of shipping.

Actual figures of amounts and values of
gross coffee imports for the three calendar
years, 1919-1921, have been as follows:

Pounds Value

1921 1.340,979,776 $142,808,719

1920 1.297,439,310 252.450.651

1919 1.337.564.067 261.270,106

This represents a gain of three and three-
tenths percent over 1920 in quantity and of
only about one-fifth of one percent over
1919. The decrease in value in 1921 was
forty-three percent from the figures for
1920 and forty-five percent from those of
1919.

Domestic exports of coffee, mostly from
Hawaii and Porto Rico, amounted to 34,-
572,967 pounds valued at $5,895,606, as
compared with 36,757,443 pounds valued at
$9,803,574 in the calendar year 1920, or a
decrease of six percent in quantity and
forty percent in value. In 1919 domestic
exports were 34,351,554 pounds, having a
value of $8,816,581, practically the same in
quantity, but showing a falling off of thirty-
three percent in value.

Re-exports of foreign coffee amounted to
36,804,684 pounds in 1921, having a value
of $3,911,847, a decline of twenty-five per-
cent from the 49,144,691 pounds of 1920
and of fifty-four percent from the 81,129,-
691 pounds of 1919 ; whereas in point of
value there was a decrease of fifty-six per-
cent from 1920, which was $9,037,882, and
of eighty-eight percent from that of 1919,
which was $16,815,468.

The average value per pound of the
imported coffee, according to these figures,
works out at little more than half that of
either 1920 or 1919, illustrating the precipi-
tate drop of prices w^hen the depression
came on. The pound value in 1921 was
10.6c. ; for 1920, 19.4c. ; and for 1919, 19.5c.
These values are derived from the valua-
tions placed on shipments at the point of
export, the "foreign valuation" for which
the much discussed "American valuation"
is proposed as a substitute. They accord-
ingly do not take into account costs of
freisrht. insurance, etc.

It is interesting to note that the average
valuation of 10.6c. a pound for coffee

300

ALL ABOUT COFFEE

shipped during the calendar year is a sub-
stantial drop from the 13.12c. a pound that
was the average for the fiscal year 1921,
showing that the decline in values con-
tinued during the last half of the calendar
year.

Coffee imports in 1921 continued to run
in about the same well-worn channels as
in previous years, according to the figures
showing the trade with the producing coun-
tries. The United States, as heretofore,
drew almost its whole supply from its
neighbors on this side of the globe ; the
countries to the south furnishing ninety-
seven percent of the total entering our
ports. The three chief countries of South
America contributed eighty-five percent;
and the share of Brazil alone was sixty-two
and five-tenths percent.

Brazil's progress to her normal pre-war
position in our coffee trade is rather slow,
although she continues to show a gain in
percentage each year. Formerly we ob-
tained seventy percent to seventy-five per-
cent of our coffee from that country; but
war conditions, diverting nearly all of
Central America's production to our ports,
reduced the proportion to almost half. In

1919 this had risen to fifty-nine per cent, in

1920 it was somewhat over sixty percent,
and in 1921 it attained a mark of sixty-two
and five-tenths percent. The actual amount
shipped, which was 839,212,388 pounds hav-
ing a value of $77,186,271, was about seven
percent higher than in 1920, which was
785,810,689 pounds valued at $148,793,593 ;
and about the same percent higher than
that of 1919 — 787,312,293 pounds valued
at $160,038,196. Although the actual pound-
age showed an increase, it will be noted that
the value fell off almost one-half as com-
pared with 1920, and more than one-half
as compared with the year before.

The real feature of the year, and perhaps
the most interesting development in the
coffee trade of this country in recent years,
is the steady advance of Colombian coffee.

In the year before the war, we obtained
from our nearest South American neighbor
87,176,477 pounds of coffee valued at $11,-
381,675, which was about ten percent of our
total imports. In 1919, the first year after
the war, this amount was almost doubled,
being 150,483,853 pounds with a value of
$30,425,162. In 1920, there was a further
increase to 194,682,616 pounds valued at
$41,557,669, and in 1921 the high mark of

249,123,356 pounds valued at $37,322,305
was reached. This was a gain of twenty-
eight percent over 1920 shipments ; and,
although the value was less than in the year
before, the decrease was only ten percent
in a year when the average fall in value was
forty-three percent.

It will be news to many people interested
in the coffee trade that the value of Colom-
bian coffee now imported into the United
States is almost half the value of the
Brazilian coffee — $37,000,000 as compared
with $77,000,000. The number of pounds
imported is a little less than one-third the
Brazilian contribution; but at the present
rate of increase, it will pass the half mark
in a few years.

Colombia and Venezuela together now
supply considerably more than half as much
coffee as Brazil in value, and more than
one-third as much in quantity. The average
value of Colombian coffee in 1921 was about
fifteen cents a pound, as compared with
eleven cents for Venezuelan, nine cents for
Brazilian, ten cents for Central American,
and ten and six-tenths cents for total cof-
fee imports.

Shipments from Venezuela showed a drop
in quantity of nine percent as compared
with 1920 imports, being 59,783,303 pounds
valued at $6,798,709; in 1920 they were
65,970,954 pounds valued at $13,802,995;
and in 1919, they were 109,777,831 pounds
valued at $23,163,071.

The figures relating to imports from
Central America are of interest as showing
to what extent we are continuing tc hold
the trade of the war years, when nearly all
coffee shipped from that region came to the
United States. Although there has prob-
ably been a considerable swing back to the
trade with Europe, the 1921 figures show
that a large percent of the trade that this
country gained during the war is being
retained. Imports in 1921 were consider-
ably lower than in 1920 or in 1919, but were
still more than three times as heavy as in
1913, the last year of normal trade.

The displacement of Central America's
trade by the war, and the extent to which
it has so far returned to old channels, are
illustrated in the table of Imports into the
United States from Central America in
thB last nine years on page 301.

As Germany was very prominent in pre-
war trade, it is likely that more and more
coffee will be diverted from the United

PRODUCTION AND CONSUMPTION

301

Imports Into the United States from
Central America

Year Pounds Value

1913 36.326.440 $4,635,359

1914 44,896.856 5,465,893

1915 71,361.288 8,093,532

1916 111.259,125 12,775,921

1917 148.031.640 15,751,761

1918 195.259.628 19,234,198

1919 131.638,695 19.375,179

ir>20 159.204,341 30,388,567

1921 118,607,382 12,308,250

States as German imports gradually in-
crease to their old level.

Imports from Mexico in 1921 were
greater by thirty-eight percent than in 1920,
but were less than in 1919, and were still
much below the normal trade before the
war. The total was 26,895,034 pounds hav-
ing a value of $3,475,122, as compared with
19,519,865 pounds valued at $3,873,217 in
the year before, and with 29,567,469 pounds
valued at $5,434,884 in 1919. The imports
in 1913 were more than 40,000,000 pounds,
in 1914 more than 43,000,000 pounds, and
in 1915 more than 52,000,000 pounds.

West Indian coffees showed a gradual
settling back to pre-war figures, which
ranged from 3,000,000 to 12,000,000 pounds
annually, but which in 1918, the last year
of the war, leaped to 52,000,000 pounds.
In 1919 they amounted to 42,013,841
pounds valued at $7,575,051 ; and in 1920,
fell to 29,204,674 pounds valued at $5,711,-
993. In 1921 they continued to drop, the
total being 15,398,073 pounds valued at
$1,518,784, a decrease of forty-seven and
three-tenths percent in quantity.

The year under review showed practically
a return to normal for importations from
Aden, which up to 1917 ran about 3,000,000

pounds a year. In that year the full
effects of the war were felt in the Aden
district, and shipments of coffee to this
country dropped to 187,817 pounds. They
rose to 432,000 pounds in 1918; and in
1919, to 681,290 pounds valued at $141,391.
In 1920 there was a further rise to 889,633
pounds valued at $200,505; and in 1921
they amounted to 2,799,824 pounds valued
at $476,672. But this trade is of little
importance compared with that of the pro-
ducing countries of this hemisphere, being
less than one percent of our total imports.

Imports from the Dutch East Indies con-
tinued to decline, being fifty-five percent
less than in 1920. The total of 12,438,016
pounds, however, valued at $1,771,602, is
still two or three times the normal pre-war
importations.

Exports of coffee in 1921 — 33,389,805
pounds of green coffee valued at $5,590,318
and^l, 183,162 pounds of roasted valued at
$305,288 — were about the same as those of
the year before in quantity, although much
lower in value. The 1920 shipments were
34,785,574 pounds valued at $9,223,966 of
green coffee and 1,971.869 pounds of
roasted valued at $579,608.

In the re-export trade, shipments of
coffee were lower than in several years,
total amounts for 1921, 1920, and 1919 be-
ing 36,804,684 pounds, 49,144,091 pounds,
and 81,129,641 pounds, and total values
$3,911,847, $9,037,882, and $16,815,468.

Re-exports to France fell off from 16,-
760,977 pounds in 1920 to 11,429,952 in
1921. Mexico took 3,236,245 pounds as
compared with 9,892,639 in the previous
year, and Cuba also reduced her purchases
from 6,319,105 pounds to 2,831,109. Ship-

Pebcentage of Total, Coffee Imports Into United States

1919

, ^

From Quantity Value

rVntral America 9.80 7.40

Mexico 2.20 2.10

West Indies 3.10 2.90

Brazil 58.80 61.30

Colombia 11.20 11.60

Venezuela 8.20 8.90

Aden 0.05 0.05

Dutch East Indies 4.20 3.80

Other countries 2.45 1.95

Total 100.00 lOO.OO

1920

1921

Percentage of in-
crease (4-) or de-
crease ( — ) of
1921 imports com-
pared with 1920.

Quantity

^ r ~ ^

Value Quantity Value

Quantity

Value

12.30

12.00

8.80

8.60

— 25.50

— 50.00

1.50

2.00

2.40

-f 37.80

— 1O30

2.20

1.10

1.00

— 47.30

— 73.40

60.50

58.90

62.50

W.OO

-f 6.80

— 48.10

15.00

16.40

18.50

26.10

-f 28.00

— 10.20

5.10

4.40

4.80

— 9.30

— 50.70

0.07

0.08

0.20

0.30

4-214.80

-f 137.70

2.10

2.00

0.90

1.20

— 55.70

— 65.40

1.23

1.52

1.60

100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 + 3.40 — 43.40

302

ALL ABOUT COFFEE

ments to Denmark, 4,099,403 pounds, were
practically the same as in 1920, 3,951,166
pounds, as were also those to Germany,
3,200,158 pounds as compared with 2,917,-
773 in 1920.

In the trade of the two coffee-exporting
possessions of the United States, Hawaii
and Porto Rico, the 1921 figures show a
considerable increase in shipments from
Hawaii to continental United States and to
foreign countries, while exports from Porto
Rico fell off slightly.

Hawaii in 1921 sent 803,905 pounds
valued at $123,347 to foreign countries,
which compared with 687,597 pounds
valued at $200,180 in the year before, and
4,183,046 valued at $650,036 to continental
United States, as against 1,885,703 pounds
valued at $476,033 in the previous year.

Porto Rico 's crop, as usual, furnished the
bulk of the domestic exports of the United
States to foreign countries — 29,546,348
pounds valued at $5,027,741, as against
1920 exports of 31,321,415 pounds valued
at $8,455,908. Shipments from Porto Rico
to continental United States amounted to
211,531 pounds valued at $35,780, as
against 418,127 pounds valued at $118,663
in 1920.

Following are the figures of re-exports of
coffee by countries in the calendar year
1921:

Ke-Exports of Cofff:k from United States, 1921
Country Pounds

Belgium 2,717,949

Denmark 4.099,403

France 11,429,952

Germany 3.200.158

Greece 539,933

Netherlands 920,855

Norway 237,155

Sweden 1,935.641

Canada 1,037,628

Mexico 3,236,245

Cuba 2,831,109

Other Countries 4.618.f!56

Total 36,804,684

Per capita consumption of coffee in con-
tinental United States showed a slight in-
crease during the calendar year 1921 over
that of 1920, the figure being 12,09 pounds
as against 11.70 for the previous year. This,
calendar-year figure compares with the
fiscal-year figure of 12.21 pounds, indicat-
ing that imports during the last half of
1920 were somewhat heavier than during
the last half of 1921.

The various items for the two calendar
years 1920 and 1921 are shown as follows :

1921 1920

Calendar year. Calendar year,.

(pounds) (pounds)

(a) Total imports into

U. S 1,340,979,776 l,297,439,3ia

(b) Imports into non-

contiguous terri-
tory from foreign
countries 7,410 27

(d) Total exports from

U. S 34,572,967 36,757,443

(e) Exports from non-

contiguous terri-
tory to foreign
countries 30,363,098 32.028,832

(f) (d) minus (e) . . . 4,209,869 4,728,611

(g) Total re-exports from

U.S. 36,804,684 49,144,691

(h) Re-exports from non-
contiguous terri-
tory to foreign
countries 20,008

(i) (g) minus (li)... 36,804,684 49,124,683

(j) Imports Into con-
tinental U. S. from
non - contiguous
territory 4,394,577 2,303,830

(k) Exports to non-con-
tiguous territory
from continental
U. S 798,644 972,303

(1) (J) minus (k) . . . 3,595,933 1,331,527

Net consumption, con-
tinental U. S. : (c)
minus (f) minus
(i) plus (1) 1,303,553,746 1,244,917,516

Population, July 1 107,833,279 106,418,170

Per capita consumption,

1921 12.09 11.70

Chapter XXIU

HOW GREEN COFFEES ARE BOUGHT AND SOLI>

Buying coffee in the producing countries — Transporting coffee to
the consuming markets — Some record coffee cargoes shipped to the
United States — Transport over seas — Java coffee "ex-sailing ves-
sels" — Handling coffee at New York, New Orleans, and San Fran-
cisco — The coffee exchanges of Europe and the United States —
Commission men and brokers — Trade and exchange contracts for
delivery — Important rulings affecting coffee trading — Some well
known green coffee marks

IN moving green coffee from the planta-
tions to the consuming countries, the
shipments pass through much the same
trade channels as other foreign-grown food
products. In general, the coffee goes from
planter to trader in the shipping ports;
thence to the exporter, who sells it to an
importer in the consuming country; he in
turn passing it on to a roaster, to be pre-
pared for consumption. The system varies
in some respects in the different countries,
according to the development of economic
and transportation methods; but, broadly
considered, this is the general method.

Buying Coffee in the Producing Countries

The marketing of coffee begins when the
berries are swept up from the drying
patios, put in gunny sacks, and sent to the
ports of export to be sampled and shipped.
In Brazil, four-wheeled wagons drawn by
six mules, or two-wheeled carts carry it to
the nearest railroad or river.

Brazil, as the world's largest producer of
coffee, has the most highly developed buy-
ing system. Coffee cultivation has been the
chief agricultural pursuit in that country
for many years ; and large amounts of gov-
ernment and private capital have been in-
vested in growing, transportation, storage,
and ship-loading facilities, particularly in
the state of Sao Paulo.

The usual method in Brazil is for the^
fazen deJTf^ (-pogf ep-grower) or the conu
n uftarin ('commission merchant) to load his
[ sKipments of coffee at an interior railroad
station. If his consignee is in Santos, he
generally deposits the bill of lading with
a bank and draws a draft, usually payable
after thirty days, against the consignee.
When the consignee accepts the draft, he
receives the bill of lading, and is then per-
jmitted to put the coffee in a warehouse.

Storing at Santos

At Santos most of the storing is done
in the steel warehouses of the City Dock
Company, a private corporation whose
warehouses extend for three miles along
the waterfront at one end of the town.
Railroad switches lead to these warehouses,
so that the coffee is brought to storage in
the same cars in which it was originally
loaded up-country. Tiio T^y^T-oVimigog f^y^
le ased by commisarios. There are also
Tnany old warehouses, built of wood, still
operated in Santos, and to these the coffee
is transferred from the railroad station
either by mule carts or by automobile
trucks.

At the receiving warehouses, samples of
each bag are taken ; the tester, or sampler,
standing at the door with a sharp tool, re-
sembling a cheese-tester, which he thrusts.

303

304

ALL ABOUT COFFEE

The Last Sami'le Before Expokt, Santos

into the center of the bag as the men pass
liim with the bags of coffee on their heads,
removing a double handful of the contents.
The samples are divided into two parts;
one for the seller, and one that the com-
misario retains until he has sold the eon-
;signment of coffee covered by that particu-
lar lot of samples.

The Disappearing Ensaccador

I In the old days it was the custom every
morning for the ensaccadores, or baggers,
;and the exporters or their brokers, to visit
the commisarios' warehouses and to bar-
gain for lots of coffee made up by the
.commisario.

In the Santos market, until recent years,
the ensaccador, or coffee-bagger, often stood
(_J)etween the commisario and exporter.
When American importing houses began to
establish their own buying offices in the
Brazilian ports (about 1910) to deal direct
with the fazendeiro and the commisario,
the gradual elimination of the ensaccador
was begun. Today he has entirely disap-
peared from the Santos market, and is dis-
appearing from Rio de Janeiro, Bahia, and
Victoria.

Coffee reaches Santos in a mixed condi-
tion ; that is, it has not been graded, or
separated according to its various qualities.
This is the work of the commisario, who
puts each shipment into "lots" in new
^'official" bags, each of which bears a mark

stating that the contents are Sao Paulo
growth-. If the coffee is offered for sale
by the owner, the commisario will then put
it on the "street," the section of Santos
given over to coffee trading.

The commisario works with samples of
the coffee he has to offer and only puts
out one set at a time. He names his "ask-
ing" price, known locally as the pedido,
which is the maximum rate he expects to
get, but seldom receives. A set of samples
may be shown to twenty-five or thirty ex-
porting houses in a day, one at a time.
When the sample is in the hands of a firm
for consideration, no other exporter has
the right to buy the lot even at the pedido
price, and the commisario can not accept
other offers until he has refused the bid.
On the other hand, if a house refuses to
give up the samples, it is understood that
it is willing to pay the pedido price. The
firm first offering a price acceptable to the
commisario' s broker gets the lot, even
though other houses have offered the same
price.

When a lot is sold, the samples are
turned over to the successful bidder, and
he then asks the commisario for larger
samples for comparison with the first set.

Commisarios Make as High as Nine Percent

Having sold the coffee of a given planter,
the commisario often gets as much as nine
percent for his share of the transaction.

.Staju'ixg Bacis for Export, Santos

BUYING AND SELLING GREEN COFFEE

305

Coffee from the Fazendas is Deliveued at the Commissarios' Warehouses in Rio

Interior of a Santos Cleaning and Grading ^YAREHOUSE
PREPARING BRAZIL COFFEE FOR EXPORT

306

ALL ABOUT C0FFP:E

Gkadixg Coffee at ^Santos

Unless the bags have been furnished to the
planter at a good rental, the coffee must
be transferred to the commisario 's bags ;
and for this the planter pays a commission.
' Formerly the coffee, being rebagged by
the ensaccador, was manipulated in what is
called ligas; that is, mixing several neutral
grades from various lots to create an arti-
ficial grade ; or, more properly speaking, a
"type," desirable for trading on the New
York market.

Grading and Testing in Brazil

Having bought a lot of coffee, the ex-
porter's next step is to grade and to test it.
Grading is generally done in the morning
and late afternoon, the hours from one to
half-past four being devoted to making
offers. The afternoon grading is done by
sight. The morning examinations are more
thorough, some progressive exporting
houses even cup-testing the samples. Sam-
ples' are compared with house standards,
and with the requirements that have been
cabled from the home office in the consum-
ing country. Some of the coffee is roasted
to obtain a standard by which all ' ' chops ' '
(varieties) are then graded and marked ac-
cording to quality — fine, good, fair, or
pooc Quality is further classified by the
numerals from two to eight, which stand-
ards have been established on the New York
Coffee and Sugar Exchange, and are de-
scribed farther on in this chapter. Some
traders also, use the terms large or small
bean ; fair, good, or poor roasters ; soft or
hard bean; light or dark; and similar de-
scriptive terras.

When a lot is ready for shipment over-
seas, the commisario stamps each bag with
his identifying mark, to which the buyer or
exporter adds his brand. If the com-
m,isario is ordered before eleven in the
morning to ship a lot of coffee, he must be
paid before three in the afternoon of the
same day; if he receives the order after-
eleven, payment need not be made before-
three in the afternoon of the following day..
Generally the terms of sale are full settle-
ment in thirty days, less discount at the
rate of six percent per annum for the un-
expired time, if paid before the period of
grace is up. _,. ^, . ,

Dispatching and Capitazias

The exportei* collects his money by draw-
ing a draft against his client oh deposit of
bill of lading, cashing the draft through an
exchange broker who deducts his brokerage
fee. The exporter must obtain a consular
invoice, a shipping permit from both fed-
eral and state authorities, and pay an ex-
port tax, before the coffee goes aboard the
ship. This process is known as ''dispatch-
ing," while the dock company's charges
are known as capitazias.

In practically all coffee-growing sections
the small planter is helped financially by
the owners of processing plants or by the
exporting firms. The larger planters may
even obtain advances on their crops from
the importing houses in New York, Havre,.
Hamburg, or other foreign centers.

The Exchange at Santos

A new coffee exehange began business at
Santos on May 1, 1917, sitting with the
Coffee Brokers Board of Control. This.

H '^v

The Test by Cups, Santos

BUYING AND SELLING GREEN COFFEE

307

Where Coffees Are Sight-Graded Before Being Submitted to Cup Tests

Hand »& Raxd Building: First Floor, Storage; Second Floor, Offices
NEW YORK COFFEE IMPORTERS' MODEL ESTABLISHMENT AT SANTOS

308

ALL ABOUT COFFEE

Pack-Mule Transport in Venezuela

Board consists of five coffee brokers, four
elected annually at a general meeting of
the brokers of Santos, and one chosen an-
nually by the president of the state of
Sao Paulo. Among the duties of the Board
are the classification and valuation of cof-
fee, adjustment of differences, etc.

^ Transporting Coffee to Points of Export

Transportation methods from plantation
to shipside naturally vary with local topo-
graphical and economic conditions. In
Venezuela, the bulk of th.e coffee is trans-
ported by pack-mule from the plantations
and shipping towns to the head of the rail-
road system, and thence by rail to the
Catatumbo River, where it is carried in
small steamers down the river and across
Lake Maracaibo to the city of Maracaibo.
In Colombia, coffee is sent down the Mag-
dalena River aboard small steamers direct
to the seaboard. In Central America,
transportation is one of the most serious

problems facing the grower. The roads
are poor, and in the rainy season are some-
times deep with mud ; so much so that it
may require a week to drive a wagon-load
of coffee to the railroad or the river ship-
ping point.

Buying Coffee in Abyssinia

Coffee is generally grown in Abyssinia
by small farmers, who mostly finance them-
selves and sell the crop to native brokers,
who in turn sell it to representatives of
foreign houses in the larger trading cen
ters. Trading methods between farmer
and broker are not much more than the old
system of barter. In the southwestern sec-
tion, where the Abyssinian coffee grows
wild, transport to the nearest trading cen-
ter is by mule train, and not infrequently

Coffee-Carrying Cart, Guatemala

Coffee- Laden C)xen Fording Stream, Colombia

by camel back. In the Harar district, the
women of the farmers living near Harar
the market center, carry the coffee in long
shallow baskets on their heads to the na-
tive brokers. In the more remote places^
the coffee farmer waits for the broker to
call on him. From the town of Harar the
coffee is transported by mule or camel train
to Dire-Daoua, whence it is shipped by
rail to Jibuti, to be sent by direct steamers
to Europe, or across the Gulf of Aden to
Aden in Arabia.

Ten different languages are spoken in
Harar. In order successfully to engage in
the coffee business there, it is necessary
either to become proficient in all these
tongues, or to engage some one who is.

When the coffee is brought, partially
cleaned, into Harar by donkey or mule

BUYIXG AND SELLING GREEN COFFEE

309

Transporting Coffee by Mitleback in the City of Cucuta, Colombia

SchooiuT from Encontrados to Maracaibo One of the lake and river steamers

Coffee Cargo Carriers That Operate on Lake Maracaibo and Tributary Rivers

Donkey Transport Train for Coffee in .Mexico
COFFEE TRANSPORT IN MEXICO AND SOUTH AMERICA

310

ALL ABOUT COFFEE

Donkey Coffee Tkanspobt on the Way from

HARAR to DiRte-DAOUA

train, it is first taken to the open air
eustom-house (coffee exchange) in the cen-
ter of the town, where a ten-percent duty
(in coffee) is exacted by the local govern-
ment, and one Abyssinian dollar (fifty
cents) is added for every thirty-seven and
a half pounds, this latter being Ras Makon-
nen's share. As soon as the native dealer
has released to him what remains of his
shipment, he takes it out of the custom-
house enclosure and disposes of it through
the native brokers, who have their little
' ' office ' ' booths stretching in a long line up
the street just outside the custom-house
entrance.

There, a brokerage charge of one piaster
per bag is paid by the buyer, and the coffee
then becomes the property of the European
merchant. In some cases it is put through
a further cleaning process ; but usually it
is shipped to Jibuti or Aden uncleaned.

Arriving at Jibuti, there is a one-percent
ad valorem duty to pay. At Aden, there
is another tax of one anna (two cents) to
be paid to the British authorities.

Since 1914, however, Abyssinian coffee
has been exported largely through the
Sudan, a much shorter and less expensive
trip than that to Adis Abeba and Jibuti.
Now the coffee is carried by pack-train to
Gambela on the Sobat River ; and thence
by river steamer to Khartoum, where it is
loaded on railroad trains and sent to Port
Sudan on the Red Sea.

Buying Coffee in Arabia

Most of the coffee in Arabia is grown in
almost inaccessible mountain valleys by na-
tive Arabs, and is transported by camel
caravan to Aden or Hodeida, where it is
sold to agents of foreign importing houses.

Coffee Camels in the Custom-House. Harar

Selling Coffee at Aden by Tapping Hands
Under Cover

Mocha, once the principal exporting city
for coffee, was abandoned as a coffee port
early in the nineteenth centurj% chiefly be-
cause of the difficulty of keeping the road-
stead of the harbor free from sandbars.

In Aden there is a kind of open-air cof-
fee "exchange" (as in Harar) where the
camel trains unload their coffee from the
interior. The European coffee merchant
does not frequent it, but is represented by
native brokers, through whom all coffee
business is transacted. This native broker
is an important person, and one of the
most picturesque characters in Aden. He
receives a commission of one and a half
percent from both buyer and seller. Cer-
tain grades of coffee are purchasable only
in Maria Theresa dollars ; so a knowledge
of exchange values is essential to the
broker's calling.

BUYING AND SELLING GREEN COFFEE

311

PACKING AND TRANSPORTING COFFEE AT ADEN

312

ALL ABOUT COFFEE

In making coffee sales, the negotiations
between buyer and seller are carried on by-
means of finger taps under a handkerchief.
The would-be purchaser reaches out his
hand to the seller under cover of the cloth
and makes his bid in the palm of the
seller's hand by tapping his fingers. The
code is well understood by both. Its ad-
vantage lies in the fact that a possible
purchaser is enabled to make his bid in
the presence of other buyers without the
latter knowing what he is offering.

Buying Coffee in Netherlands India

In the Dutch East Indies cultivation of
Coff'ea arabica has diminished, the decay of
the industry beginning when Brazil and
Central America became the dominant fac-
tors in the green market. Not so many
years ago coffee growing and coffee trading
were virtually government monopolies.
Under government control each native fam-
ily was required to keep from six hundred
to a thousand coffee trees in bearing, and
to sell two-fifths of the crop to the govern-
ment. It was also compulsory to deliver
the coffee cleaned and sorted to the official
godowns, and to sell the crop at fixed
prices — nine to twelve florins per picul
previous to 1874, although forty to fifty

florins were ott'ered in the open market.
Later, the price was advanced ; until about
1900 the government paid fifteen florins
per picul for coffee in parchment. All
government coffee was sold at public auc-
tion in Batavia and Padang, these sales
being held four times a year in Batavia
and three times a year in Padang.

Coffee from private estates, not under
government control and operated by Euro-
pean corporations or individuals, has now
succeeded the government monopoly coffee.
Private-estate crops are sold by public ten-
der, usually on or about January 28 of
each year. If the owners do not get the
price they desire in Batavia or Padang,.
the coffee is sent to Amsterdam for dis-
posal. Some coffees always are sent to
Holland ; because the directors of the com-
pany get a commission on all sales there,
and also because the coffees are prepared
especially for the Dutch market. The
Hollander wants his coffee blue-green in
color.

Loading Coffee at Santos

In Brazil, when the coffee has been re-
bagged and marked by both the com-
misario and the exporter, the coffee is again
sampled. These samples are compared

Coffee Camel Train Arriving at the Hodeida Custom-IIouse from the Interior of Yemen

BUYIXG AND SELLING GREEN COFFEE

313

Loading by the Old-Style Hand-Labor Method

- 1 ^'^Hi^

hSjfW

W^'W^

•

E^r*

*i4^

^f]

StCtiW

S-1

Here the Autoaiatic Belt Pours Into the Hold a Continuous Stream of Bacs of Coffee
OLD AND NEW METHODS OF LOADING COFFEE AT SANTOS

314

ALL ABOUT COFFEE

A' Coffee FREiaHTEK on the Cauca River,
Colombia

with those by which the purchase was
made; and if right, the bags are turned
over to the dock-master, who sets his la-
borers to work loading ship. Two methods
are used at Santos. The old familiar style
of hand labor is still in evidence — men of
all nationalities, but largely Spaniards and
Portuguese, take the bags on their heads
and carry them in single file up the gang-
planks and into the hold of the ship. The
dock company, however, operates a huge
automatic loading machine, or belt, which
saves a great deal of time and labor. In
other Brazilian ports all loading is done by
manual labor.

Recently, at the suggestion of the Com-
mercial Association of Santos, the minister
of transport of Sao Paulo ordered that cof-
fees destined for legitimate traders should
be transported during four days of the
week, and those of a speculative nature
during the remaining two days. A pre-
mium of as much as five milreis a bag has
been paid by speculators in order to obtain
immediate transport.

Skipping Coffee from Colombia

As Colombia ranks next to Brazil in cof-
fee, a. brief description of its transporta-
tion methods, which are unique, should be
of interest to coffee shippers. A goodly
portion of Colombia's coffee exports comes
from the district around the little city of
Cucuta, whose official name is San Jose de
Cucuta. It is the capital of North San-
tander, is situated in a beautiful valley of
the Colombian Andes mountains that is
watered by several rivers, and is only about
a half-hour 's ride by motor from the Vene-
zuelan frontier.

Due to its geographical position, Cucuta
serves as the most convenient inland port

and commercial center for most of the de-
partment of North Santander. For the
same reason, it is forced to depend on
Maracaibo as its seaport, even though the
Venezuelan government has a number of
annoying laws controlling the commerce
thus conducted. The Colombian ports of
Baranquilla and Cartagena on the Atlantic
are too distant from Cucuta to be avail-
able; and a large part of the traffic would
have to be done on mule-back across one
of the most formidable ranges of the Co-
lombian Andes, involving high cost and de-
lay in transportation. Yet its frontier po-
sition makes it possible for Cucuta to have
important commercial relations with the
neighboring republic of Venezuela, and to
enjoy exceptional privileges from the Co-
lombian central government.

A cargo of coff'ee leaving Cucuta has to
go through the following steps on its way
to a foreign market :

1. From Cucuta, it travels thirty-five
miles by railroad to Puerto Villamizar, a
Colombian river port on the Zulia river.

2. At Puerto Villamizar it is loaded
into small, flat-bottomed, steel lighters that
are taken to Puerto Bncontrados by man
power. Puerto Bncontrados, belonging to
Venezuela, is on the Catatumbo river; and
the trip from Villamizar takes from two
to four days, depending on the depth of
water in the river. During high water,
river steamers are also used, and make the
trip in less than a day.

3. At Bncontrados the cargo is loaded
on river steamboats more or less of the
Mississippi river type, which take it to
Maracaibo, Venezuela. Coffee is also car-
ried to Maracaibo by small sailing vessels.

4. At Maracaibo it is taken by ocean
vessel, which either carries it direct to New

Coffee Steamers on the Magdalena,
Colombia

BUYING AND SELLING GREEN COFFEE

315

Oi.i> A.xu New Methods Employeu ix Loajiag Heavy Caugo ox the .Santa Cecilia

York or to Curacao, Dutch West Indies,
where it is transhipped to steamers plying
between New York and Curacao. It is ob-
vious that the many transhipments that
coffee coming from Cucuta has to undergo
greatly retard its arrival at a foreign port ;
and a cargo sometimes takes a month or
more to reach New York.

Coffee from Cucuta is stored in the Vene-
zuelan custom-house, from which it must
be shipped for export within forty-five
days, or the shipper runs the risk of hav-
ing it declared by the Venezuelan govern-
ment for cansumo (home consumption) at
a prohibitory tariff. AiTangements can be
made at considerable cost to have the cof-
fee talcen to a private warehouse ; but it is
no longer possible to make up the chops in
Maracaibo, as was done formerly with all,
the Cucutas. The Venezuelan customs will
not even allow the Maracaibo forwarding
agent the same chops, as a general rule.
Special permission must be obtained to
change any bags that are stained or dam-
aged. Schooners from Curacao have, in
the past, carried a great deal of the Colom-
bian coffee to Curagao.

Port Handling Charges in Brazil

It is almost impossible to list all the vari-
ous charges for the handling of coffee at

the port of shipment in Brazil, the figures
not being accessible to outsiders. Some
fi;gures, such as warehouse charges and va-
rious forms of tax, are obtainable, however.
For every bag of coffee which is in ware-
house over forty-eight hours from tlu; time
of its arrival from the railroad there is a
charge of two hundred reis (about five
cents). In Sao Paulo there is an export
tax of nine percent ad valorem levied by
the state, and in Rio the state tax is eight
and a half percent. Then there is a surtax
of five francs per bag in Santos, and of
three francs in Rio, which goes toward de-
fraying the expenses of valorization. For
every bag of coffee that passes over the
dock the dock company charges one hun-
dred reis (about two and a half cents).

Some Record Coffee Cargoes

With its superior loading and shipping
facilities Brazil has been able to send ex-
traordinarily large cargoes of coffee to the
United States since the development of
large modern freight-carrying steamships.
While 75,000 or 90,000 bag cargoes were of
common occurrence just prior to the out-
break of the World War, several shipments
of more than 100,000 bags were made in
the years 1915^ 1916, and 1917. Up to Jan-
uary, 1919, the record was held by the

316

ALL ABOUT COFFEE

steamship Bjornstjeriie Bjomson which un-
loaded 136,424 bags at New York on No-
vember 17, 1915. Other shipments of
more than 100,000 bags were by the Ros-
setti (December, 1900), 125,918 bags ; the
Wascana (March 3, 1915), 108,781 bags;
the Wagama (October, 1916), 105,650
bags; the American (October 23, 1916),
124,212 bags; the Santa Cecilia (Novem-
ber 2, 1916), 105,500 bags, and the Dakotan
(January 6, 1917), which can-ied 136,387
bags.

Transport Overseas

To bring green coffee to the consuming
markets, both steamships and sailing ves-
sels are used, although the latter have al-
most wholly given way to the speedier and
more capacious modern steamers. Because
of its large consumption, a constant stream
of vessels is always on the way to the mar-
kets of the United States. The majority
of these unload at New York, which in 1920
received about fifty-nine percent of all the
coffee imported into this country. New
Orleans came next, with about twenty -five
percent; and San Francisco third, with
about twelve percent.

The approximate time consumed in
transporting green coffee overseas from the
principal producing countries to the United
States by freight steamships is shown in
the table in the next column.

In some cases, that of Guadeloupe, for
instance, the vessels stop at a number of
ports, and this lengthens the time. This
is also true of vessels running on the west
coast of Central America and of those from
Aden.

During the World "War, one shipment of
Timor coffee consumed three and a half
years coming from Java to New York. It
was aboard the German steamship Bris-
bane, which cleared from Batavia, July 4,
1914, and fearing capture, took refuge in
Goa, Portuguese India, where it lay until
Portugal joined the Allies. Then the Por-
tuguese seized the vessel, and turned it
over to the British, who moved it to Bom-
bay. Here the cargo was finally tran-
shipped to the City of Adelaide, reaching
New York in January, 1918, three and a
half years after the coffee left Batavia.

Java Coffee '' Ex-Sailing Ships"

Up to 1915 it was the custom to ship con-
siderable Java coffee to New York in slow-
going sailing vessels of the type in favor
a hundred years ago. Java coffees "ex-

Transportation Time fob Coffee^

liio tie Janeiro to New York It to 10 days

Santos ' 14 to 18 "

Kahia " " " 17 "

Victoria " " " 19 "

Maraeaibo " " *" 10 "

I»uei-to Cabello " " " 10 "

La Guaira " " " 8 "

Oosta Riea " " " 10 "

Salvador 18 "

Mexico " " " ••

Guatemala '' " " 11 "

( I'nerto

Barrios)

Colombia " " " 10 "

Haiti ■' " " 7 ■'

Porto Rico " " '' o "

Guadeloupe " " " 10 "

Hawaii " " " 28 "

(viaP. C.)

Java " " " 30 '■

(via Suez)

Sumatra " " " 30 "

(via Suez)

Singaiwre " " " 3.5 "

(via Suez)

India " " " 35 "

(via Suez)

Aden " " " 4.5 "

(via Suez)

Porto Rico " New Orleans. . . 7 "

Guadeloupe " " " ... 10 "

Haiti " " "... 7 "

Guatemala " " " ... 8 "

Costa Rica " " " , _ 7 "

Colomloia >< » « _ _ G "

Mexico " " » 4 "

Salvador " " " ... 15 "

Guatemala " San Francisco . . 10 *'

Costa Rica " " " .. 18 "

Salvador " '" " . . 14 "

Mexico "I' '1 ^ 8 "

Hawaii •; •' " . . g '•

Singapore " " " • • 30

India " " " • • 33

1 The American Legion and the Southern Cross, of
the Munson Line, make the journey from Rio de

Janeiro to New York in eleven days. These are

freight-and-passenger vessels, and have carried as
many as 5,000 bags of coffee at one time.

sailing ships" always commanded a pre-
mium because of the natural sweating they
experienced in transit. Attempts to imi-
tate this natural sweating process by steam-
heating the coffees that reached New York
by the faster-going steamship lines, and in-
terference therewith by the pure-food au-
thorities, caused a falling oft* in the demand
for "light," "brown," or "extra brown"
Dutch East Indian growths ; and gradually
the picturesque sailing vessels were seen no
more in New York harbor. At the end
they were mostly Norwegian barks of the
type of the Gaa Paa.

It usually took from four to five months
to make the trip from Paclang or Batavia

BUYING AND SELLING GREEN COFFEPJ

317

Unloading Java Coffee from a Sailing Vessel at a Bi'.ooklyn Dock
The ship is the Gaa Paa, which made the voyage from Padang in five months in 1912

to New York. Crossing: the Equator twice,
first ill the Indian Ocean, then in the South
Atlantic, the trip was more than equal to
circumnavigating the earth in our latitude.
In the hold of the vessel the cargo under-
went a sweating that gave to the coffee a
rare shade of color and that, in the opinion
of coffee experts, greatly enhanced its flavor
and body. The captain always received a
handsome gratuity if the coffee turned ' ' ex-
tra brown."

The demand for sweated, or brown, Javas
probably had its origin in the good old days
when the American housewife bought her
coffee green and roasted it herself in a
skillet over a quick fire. Coffee slightly
brown was looked upon with favor; for
every good housewife in those days knew
that green coffee changed its color in aging,
and that of course aged coffee was best.

And so it came about that Java coffees
were preferably shipped in slow-going
Dutch sailing vessels, because it was de-
sirable to have a long voyage under the
hot tropical sun suitably to sweat the cof-
fee on its way to market and to have it a
handsome brown on arrival. The sweating
frequently produced a musty flavor which,
if not too pronounced, was highly prized

by experts. When the ship left Padang or
Batavia the hatches were battened down,
not to be opened again until New York
harbor was reached.

Many of the old-style Dutch sailing ves-
sels were built somewhat after the pattern
of the Goed Vrouw, which Irving tells us
was a hundred feet long, a hundred feet
wide, and a hundred feet high. Sometimes
she sailed forward, sometimes backward,
and sometimes sideways. After dark, the
lights were put out, all sail was taken in,
and all hands turned in for the night.

The last of the coffee-carrying sailing
vessels to reach the United States was the
bark Padang, which arrived in New York
on Christmas day, 1914.

Handling Coffee at New York

The handling of the cargoes of coffee
when they arrive at their destination is a
source of wonder to the layman. There is
probably no better place to study the han-
dling of coffee than in New York City —
the world's largest coffee center. Millions
of bags of coffee pass into consumption
every year through its docks, and scarcely
a day goes by when there are not one or
more ships discharging coffee upon the

318

ALL ABOUT COFFEE

The Bush Terminal System of Docks and Warehouses

Much of the green coffee received in New York is discharged and stored here, at one of the most modern
waterfront and terminal developments in the world

Airplane View of New York Dock Company's Piers and Warehouses

This is the Fulton Street sectioh of the Brooklyn waterfront, where more than half the coffee received in
New York is unloaded. The storage warehouses are to be seen back of the piers

RECEIVING PIERS FOR COFFEE AT NEW YORK

BUYING AND SELLING GREEN COFFEE

319

docks lining the Brooklyn shore, the center
of the coffee-warehouse district for New
York. In 1921, the New York Dock Com-
pany alone had 159 bonded warehouses
with a storage capacity of some 65,000,000
cubic feet; and 34 piers, the longest meas-
uring 1,193 feet and containing more than
175,000 square feet. These piers have a
total deck space of sixty-one and a half
acres. The wharfage distance is more than
nine and a third miles. More than twenty
steamship lines berth their vessels there
regularly, and many of them are coffee
ships. The warehouses have direct connec-
tions with all the principal railway trunk
lines running into the New York district ;
and the whole property of the company
stretches along the waterfront opposite
lower Manhattan for about two and one-
half miles.

Although coffee is admitted to the United
States free of duty, it is subject to prac-
tically the same formalities as dutiable
goods. Before the cargo can be "broken
out," a government permit to *'land and
deliver" must be placed in the hands of
the customs inspector on the dock. This
done, the ship's samples, which consist of
the samples sent by the exporter to the im-
porter, are taken to the United States ap-

praiser's office for inspection, and are then
delivered to the importer's representative.
Meanwhile the shipping documents cover-
ing the cargo, including bills of lading and
consular invoices, have been sent to the post
office for delivery to banks and bankers'
agents, who check and deliver them to the
customs officers for entry. The govern-
ment requires that this entry shall be made
within forty-eight hours of the vessel's ar-
rival, else the cargo will be stored in a
United States bonded warehouse under
what is known as ''general order" which
makes the consignee liable for storage and
cartage charges.

When a coffee ship arrives in New York,
not much time is lost in discharging the
cargo. As soon as the vessel is securely
moored to the pier, and the government's
permission to ''land and deliver" is se-
cured, the hatches are removed, the coffee-
is hauled out of the hold by block and
tackle and swung off in slings to the pier,
where dock laborers carry the bags to their
proper places. If each cargo consisted of
one consignment to a single importer, and
contained only one variety of coffee, un-
loading would be a comparatively simple
affair. In general practise, however, the
cargoes consist of a large number of con-

Unloadixg Coffee at One of the Covered Piers of the New York Dock Company

320

ALL ABOUT COFFEE

Storing Coffee by Marks and Chops

lIoisTiXG Coffee iato the- Storage \Yabxhouses Adjoining the Brooklyn 1'iers
RECEIVING AND STORING COFFEE AT NEW YORK

BUYING AND SELLING GREEN COFFEE

321

signments and a variety of grades, necessi-
,tating a careful sorting as unloading pro-
gresses. Accordingly, even before the un-
loading begins, the dock is chalked off into
squares, each square having a number, or
symbol, representing a particular consign-
ment. As the bags come up out of the
hold, the foreman of the laborers, who has
a key to the brand marks on the bags, in-
dicates where each bag is to be placed.
Coffee to be reshipped, either by lighter or
rail, is heaped in piles by itself until loaded
on to the lighters or freight cars.

The next step is to transfer the cargo to
the warehouse, and to separate eaeh con-
signment according to the various kinds of
coffee making up the invoices. When the
importer gives his orders to store, he sends
also a list of the different kinds of coffees
in his consignment, called "chops" by the
trade, with directions how to divide the
shipment. To do this, the floor of the
warehouse is chalked off into squares, as
was done on the dock; but now the num-
bers, or symbols, in each space indicate
the chops in each invoice, or consignment.

The importer naturally is eager to sam-
ple the newly arrived coffee. Sampling is
generally done by trained warehouse em-
ployees, Avho are equipped with coffee
triers, sampling instruments resembling
apple-corers, which they thrust into the
bags. The instrument is hollow, and the

Tester at Work, Bush Terminal, New York

Loading Lighters, Bush Docks, New York

coffee flows iiito the hand of the sampler,
who places each sample in a paper bag
which is marked to indicate the chop. The
total sample of each chop usually consists
of about ten pounds of coffee, which the
importer compares "Vi'^tti the exporter's
sample.

When sampling for trade delivery, about
two-thirds of the bags in "a chop are tried.
But when sampling for delivery on Coffee
Exchange contract, every bag must be
tested, and care taken that each chop is
uniform in color, kind, and quality. Coffee
for Exchange delivery must be stored in
a warehouse licensed by the Exchajige;
and the warehouseman is responsible for
the uniformity of grade of each chop.

When approximately ninety percent of
the cargo has been unloaded and stored,
the warehouse issues what has become
known as the "last bag notice." In the
majority of cases the coffee has been sold
before arrival ; and on receipt of the last
bag notice, the importer can transfer own-
ership of the coffee and save interest. j

In a cargo of 75,000 to 100,000 bags of
coffee that have been hurriedly loaded in
the producing country and unloaded at
destination in equal haste, a small portion
of the cargo is almost certain to be dam-
aged. Generally the damage is slight. If
a bag is torn or stained, the coffee is placed
in a new bag. If the contents have become

322

ALL ABOUT COFFEE

The New Terminal System on Staten Island

On the left are three piers of the Pouch Terminal at Clifton; on the right, four of the American Dock
Terminal at Tompkinsville ; and between these are thirteen piers of the new Municipal Terminal

mildewed, the damaged portion is taken to
a warehouse for reconditioning; while the
sound coffee is thoroughly aired to remove
the odor and is then placed in a clean bag.
The reconditioned lot is put into a separate
package and forwarded to the buyer with
a "reconditioning statement" that shows
what has been done.

Bags that have become torn in transit,
and parts of their contents spilled, are
called "slacks." These are weighed as
they arrive on the dock by a licensed pub-
lic weigher; and a sufficient quantity of
the coffee remaining on the floor of the
ship's hold is put into the bag to make it
of the proper weight. The expense of re-

conditioning and rebagging is generally
borne by the marine insurance companies.
When the entire cargo is unloaded, and the
slacks and bad-order bags are weighed and
marked, the warehouseman tallies up the
records of his clerks, and renders a cor-
rected chop list to the consignee.

Electric Tractors mid Trailers

Another district along the water front of
Brooklyn where coffee is discharged in
large quantities is that between Thirty-
third and Forty-fourth Streets, south
Brooklyn, occupied by the Bush Terminal
Stores. This plant is laid out with rail-
road spurs on every pier, so that its own

Motor Tractor Moving Coffee at the Bush Terminal Docks, Brooklyn

BUYING AND SELLING GREEN COFFEE

323

transfer cars, or the cars of the railroads
running out of New York, can be run into
the sheds of the docks where coffee is be-
ing discharged from the ships. The meth-
ods employed by the Bush Terminal are
similar to those just described, except that
all the coffee is handled by electrically-
manipulated cars or trucks, in some in-
stances the powerful little tractors haul-
ing many "trailers" to various parts of
the yards.

Handling Charges at New York

Before the World War, it cost approxi-
mately one-half cent a bag to handle green
coffee from the vessel to warehouse and in
storage in New York. The rate advanced
nearly one hundred percent in the latter
part of 1919, then dropped slightly, al-
though it is still (1922) above the pre-war
price. Other handling charges are shown
in the following tabulation :

Coffee Handling Charges at New Yoek

Pre-war prices Present prices

Cents per bag Cents per bag

(132 lbs.) (132 lbs.)

Storage 3 to 4 5 to 8

Labor 3 to 4 5 to 8

Sampling for damage 1 1

Cleaning 15 20

Dumping and mixing 10 15

Dumping and airing 10 15

Shoveling and airing 10 15
Transferring c o ff e e

from floor to floor. 4 8

Marking 1 1

Labor at vessel $9perM $12.50 to $15 per M

The warehousemen in 1919 charged four
cents per bag for loading into railroad cars.
This charge was discontinued in 1921. The
cost of weighing increased from two and
one-half cents per bag in 1914 to four and
one-half cents in 1919, and then dropped
to the present price of three to three and
one-half cents. Other handling charges at
the port of New York are :

Other Handling Charges, 1922

Cents per bag
(132 lbs.)

Drawing samples, each 10 lbs 17 to 20

Grading for variation 4

Matching in 12

Reducing or evening off slack 9

Transferring to new bag 10

Trucking to weigher in store 3

Collecting and preparing sweep-
ings 25

Delivering sample below Canal

Street 75

Each additional sample 10 to 15

New bags 15

Old bags 6

Unloading Coffee with Modern Conveyor, New
Orleans

A plan intended to cut down handling
costs in New York, and to expedite de-
liveries, was inaugurated by the National
Coffee Eoasters Association at the begin-
ning of 1920. The Association formed a
freight-forwarding bureau, and invited
members to have their coffee shipments
handled through the bureau. The charges
for forwarding direct importations are two
cents per bag. Cartage charges vary from
six to eighteen cents per hundred pounds.
Claims are handled without charge.

The Seven Stages of Transportation

The foregoing story has taken the reader
through the seven most direct routes that
lead from the plantation to the roaster:
first, from the patio to the railroad or
river ; then to the city of export ; into the
warehouses there; then into the steamers;
out of them, and upon the wharf at the
port of destination; from the wharf into
the warehouses; and, finally, from the
warehouses to the roasting rooms. It ^vill
be understood that in some instances where
the plantation is hidden away in the moun-
tains, it is necessary to relay the coffee;
and again, at this end, the coffee is very
often transhipped. In such cases, moref
handlings are required.

Handling Coffee at New Orleans

Coffee ships are unloaded in New Or-
leans, the second coffee port in the United

324

ALL ABOUT COFFEE

Unloading a Coffee Ship by Block and Tackle at the Port of New Orleans

In Foreground — Loading Coffee by Means of an Automatic Traveling-Belt Conveyor, on

Government Barges for St. Louis

COFFEE-HANDLING SCENES ON THE WHARVES AT NEW ORLEANS

BUYING AND SELLING GREEN COFFEE

325

■^mum

^llPllpHMP

m'"i- — !»-.,.iiii

Showing How Coffee Is Stored Undeb Steel-Covered Sheds at New Orleans

States, in about the same general manner
as in New York, with the important ex-
ception that the block-and-taekle system
for transferring the bags from the ship to
the dock has been largely supplanted by
the automatic traveling-belt conveyor sys-
tem. Another notable feature is New Or-
leans' steel-roofed piers, whereon the coffee
can be stored until ready for shipment to
the interior. Because of the class of la-
bor — mostly negro — employed in unload-
ing ships, New Orleans has found it ex-
pedient to retain the old flag system to in-
dicate the part of the pier where each mark
of coffee is to be piled as taken from the
vessel. These little flags vary in shape,
color and printed pattern, each represent-
ing a particular lot of coffee, and they are
firmly fixed at the part of the pier where
those bags should be stacked. Trained
checkers read the marks on the bags as the
laborers carry them past, and tell the car-
rier where the bag should be placed. To
the illiterate laborers the checker's cries
of "blue check," "green ball," "red
heart," "black hand," and the like, are
more understandable than such indications
as letters or numbers.

Handling Coffee at San Francisco

San Francisco ranks third in the list of
United States coffee ports, having received

its greatest development in the four years
of the World War, when the flow of Cen-
tral American coffees was largely diverted
from Hamburg to the Californian port.
In the course of these four years, the an-
nual volume of coffee imports increased
from some 380,000 bags to more than
1,000,000 bags in 1918. The bulk of these
importations came from Central America,
though some came from Hawaii, India, and
Brazil and other South American coun-
tries. Because of its improved unloading
and distributing facilities, San Francisco
claims to be able to handle a cargo of cof-
fee more rapidly than either New York or
New Orleans.

Handling Central American coffees in
San Francisco is distinctly different from
the business in Brazils. In order to secure
the Central American planter's crops, the
importers find it necessary to finance his
operations to a large extent. Conse-
quently, the Central American trade is not
a simple matter of buying and selling, but
an intricate financial operation on the part
of the San Francisco importers. Prac-
tically all the coffee coming in is either on
consignment, or is already sold to estab-
lished coffee-importing houses. Brokers
do not deal direct with the exporters ; and
practically none of the roasters now import
direct.

326

ALL ABOUT COFFEE

Discharging Coffee from a Steamer Just Arrived from Central America

How A Large Cargo of Coffee Is Handled on the Pier as It Is Unloaded from the Ship
UNLOADING AND STORING COFFEE AT SAN FRANCISCO

BUYING AND SELLING GREEN COFFEE

327

In recent years San Francisco has
adopted the practise of buying a large
part of her coffee on the * ' to arrive ' ' basis ;
that is the purchase has been made before
the coffee is shipped from the producing
country, or while in transit. This practise
applies, of course, only to well known
marks and standard grades. Coffee that
has not been sold before arrival in San
Francisco is generally sampled on the docks
-during unloading, although this is some-
times postponed until the consignment is
in the warehouse. It is then graded and
priced, and is offered for sale by samples
through brokers.

San Francisco is better equipped with
modern unloading machinery and other ap-
paratus than either New Orleans or New-
York, even more liberal use being made
there than in New Orleans of the automatic-
belt, conveyors both for transferring the
bags from the ships to the docks and for
stacking them in high tiers on the pier.
Another notable feature of the modern
coffee docks is that the newer ones are of
steel and concrete and, as in New Orleans,
are covered to protect the coffee from wind
and storm,

Europe's Great Coffee Markets

Europe has three great coffee-trading
markets — Havre, Hamburg, and Antwerp.
Rotterdam and Amsterdam are also im-
portant coffee centers, but rank far below
the others named. In point of volume of
stocks, Havre led the world before the war ;
while in respect to commercial transac-
tions, it ranked second, with New York
first. In pre-war days, the largest part
of the world's visible supply of coffee was
stored in the Havre bonded warehouses, be-
ing available for shipment to any part of
Europe on short notice, or even to the
United States in emergencies. Even dur-
ing the World War, this French port re-
mained a powerful factor in international
coffee trading. Coffee trading in Havre,
both exchange and ' ' spot ' ' transactions, fol-
lows about the same general lines as in New
York and the other great coffee markets.
Coffee ' ' futures ' ' are dealt in on the Havre
Botirse.

Green coffee is sold in London by auc-
tion in Mincing Lane. On arrival, it is
stored in bonded warehouses, and is re-
leased for domestic use only when customs
duty at the rate of four and one-half pence

One of the Modern Devices Lotu i.n 6a.n 1-kan-
cisco FOR Handling Green Coffee

per pound has been paid. The bulk of the
coffee comes in parchment on consignment;
and before sale, it must be hulled and sorted
in the milling establishments, most of which
are on the banks of the Thames.

The auctions are held four times a week,
usually on Tuesday, Wednesday, Thurs-
day, and Friday. The sales are advertised
in the market papers — chief among which
is the Public Ledger — and also by the
auctioneers, who issue catalogs of their of-
ferings. A few hours before the beginning
of the sale, samples are laid out for inspec-
tion by prospective buyers, who may cup-
test them if they desire. The actual sell-
ing is done by competitive cash bidding, the
highest bidder becoming the owner. Two
classes of brokers do the bidding, one for
home trade and the other for exporters.

Home trade takes about a tenth of the
coffee, the remainder being sold for export.
If the coffee is bought for re-export, it can
be transferred to the shipping port, still in
bond, and shipped out of the country with-
out paying duty. During the World War,
auctions were held about twice a week ; but
after the signing of the armistice in Novem-
ber 1918, the London traders resumed the
four times a week practise. •