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ALLENjAND GREENOUGH'S
NEW
LATIN GRAMMAR
FOR
SCHOOLS AND COLLEGES
It • ■*
FOUNDED ON COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR
EDITED BY
J. B. GREENOUGH G. L. KITTREDGE
A. A. HOWARD BENJ. L. D'OOGE
^
GINN & COMPANY
BOSTON . NEW YORK . CHICAGO • LONDON
7 ' -)
■ •
.p -
(Xf^^^
,^.Qa
Xntbrbd at Stationbrs' Haix
Copyright, x888, by
J. B. GREENOUGH and J. H. ALLEN
Copyright, 1903, by
GINN & COMPANY
/
ALL RIGHTS RBSBRVKI>
37.10
GINN & COMPANY • PRO-
PRIETORS • BOSTON • U.S.A.
I
THEp
Tbisreyi
Professoj
l)eiing
arrangen
^amc
• edition.
editors 1
iuiing.
set for
«!*
; Wt(
\
OHf
PREFACE
The present book is a careful revision of the edition of 1888.
This revision was planned and actually begun in the lifetime of
Professor Greenough and has been carried out in accordance
with principles that met with his full approval. The renum-
bering of the sections has made it possible to improve the
arrangement of material in many particulars and to avoid a cer-
tain amount of repetition which was inevitable in the former
edition. Thus, without increasing the size of the volume, the
editors have been able to include such new matter as the advance
in grammatical science has afforded. The study of historical
and comparative syntax has been pursued with considerable vigor
during the past fifteen years, and the well-established results of
this study have been inserted in their appropriate places. In
general, however, the principles and facts of Latin syntax, as
set forth by Professor Greenough, have stood the test both of
scientific criticism and of practical use in the class-room, and
accordingly the many friends of Allen and Greenough's Gram-
mar will not find the new edition strange or unfamiliar in its
method or its contents. The editors have seen no occasion to
change long-settled nomenclature or to adopt novel classifica-
Mons when the usual terms and categories have proved satis-
vctory. On the other hand, they have not hesitated to modify
4ther doctrines or forms of statement whenever improvement
Vemed possible.
In the matter of " hidden quantity" the editors have been even
)re conservative than in the former revision. This subject is
B of great difficulty, and the results of the most recent investi-
Hons are far from harmonious. In many instances the facts
• • •
in
2«fi20H
IV PREFACE
are quite undiscoverable, and, in general, the phenomena are o;
comparatively slight interest except to special students of the^
arcana of philology. No vowel has been marked long unless the
evidence seemed practically decisive. )
The editors have been fortunate in securing the advice and
assistance of Professor E. S. Sheldon, of Harvard University, for
the first ten pages, dealing with phonetics and phonology. They,
are equally indebted to Professor E. P. Morris, of Yale Univer-i
sity, who haa had the kindness to revise the notes on historical!
and comparative syntax. Particular acknowledgment is also
due to Mr. M. Gi-ant Daniell, who has cooperated in the revision
throughout, and whose accurate scholarship and long experience
as a teacher have been of the greatest service at every point.
Seftbmbeb 1, 1908.
ms
CONTENTS
PART I — WORDS AND FORMS
PAGE
lETTERS AND SOUND8 1-10
Alphabet ; Classification of Sounds 1-3
Orthography, Syllables, Pronunciation 3-6
Quantity and Accent 6-7
Combinations ; Phonetic Changes 7-10
Words and their Forms 11-16
Parts of Speech 11, 12
Inflection; Root, Stem, and Base 12-14
Gender, Number, and Case 14-16
Declbnsion of Nouns 16-46
General Rules of Declension 17
First Declension 18-20
Second Declension 20-24
Third Declension 24-37
Mute Stems 26,26
Liquid and Nasal Stems 27,28
Purei-Stems 29,30
Mixed i-Stems 30, 31
Irregular Nouns 33, 34
Greek Nouns 34-36
Rules of Gender 36, 37
Fourth Declension 37-39
Fifth Declension 89,40
Defective and Variable Nouns 40-44
Names of Persons 46
Inflection of Adjectives 46-62
First and Second Declensions 46-49
Third Declension 49-54
Comparison 66-67
Numerals 68-62
Inflection of Pronouns 63-71
Personal, Reflexive, Possessive, Demonstrative 63-67
Relative, Interrogative, Indefinite 68-71
Correlatives (Pronouns and Adverbs) 71
Conjugation of Verbs 72-126
Inflection 72
"''niflcation : Vc^ce, Mood, Tense . • 78-76
"^' onal Endings 76,77
V
VI CONTENTS
PAQB
Forms: Stem ftnd Verb-Endings 77-81
The Verb Sum 81-83
Regular Verbs 84-103
The Four Conjugations ; Principal Farts 84, 86
Formation of the Three Stems 86-89
Synopsis of the Verb 00
Peculiarities of Conjugation 91
First Conjugation 92-96
Second Conjugation 96, 97
Third Conjugation 98,99
Fourth Conjugation 100, 101
Verbs in -io of the Third Conjugation 102, 103
Deponent Verbs 103-106
Periphrastic Conjugations 106-108
Irregular Verbs 108-116
Defective Verbs 116-119
Impersonal Verbs 119,120
Classified ListB of Verbs 121-126
Particles 126-139
Adverbs 126-130
Prepositions 130-136
Conjunctions 137-139
Interjections 139
Formation of Words 140-162
Roots and Stems 140, 141
Suffixes: Primary; Significant Endings 141-143
Derivation of Nouns 143-148
Derivation of Adjectives 148-164
Nouns with Adjective Suffixes ; Irregular Derivatives .... 164-166
Derivation of Verbs 166-169
Compound Words 160-162
PART II — SYNTAX
Introductory Note 163
The Sentence 164-208
Definitions : Subject and Predicate, Modification, etc 164-168
Agreement : the Four Concords 168
Nouns : Apposition ; Predicate Agreement 168-170
Adjectives 170-176
Rules of Agreement 171, 172
Special Uses 172-176
Pronouns 176-192
Personal and Demonstrative 176-180
Reflexive .*.... lSO-183
Possessive 1^*^ _
/
Mi
CONTENTS VU
FAOB
Relative 184-189
Indefinite 180-191
Alios and alter 192
Vbbbs 193-195
Verb and Subject, Incomplete Sentences 198-195
Particles : Adverbs, Conjunctions, Negatives 196-204
QuBSTiONS 205-208
CoNSTsucTiON OP Cases 209-275
Introductory Note 209
Nominative Case 210
Vocative Case • - • 210
Genitive Case 210-224
Genitive with Nouns 211-216
Possessive Grenitive 211,212
Genitive of Material, of Quality 213
Partitive Genitive 213-215
Objective Genitive 215,216
Genitive with Adjectives 216, 217
Genitive with Verbs 218-223
Verbs of Remembering and Forgetting 218, 219
Verbs of Reminding 219
Verbs of Accusing, Condemning, and Acquitting 220
Verbs of Feeling 221
Interest and refert 221,222
Verbsof Plenty and Want; Special Verbs 222,223
Peculiar Genitives : Exclamatory, etc 223, 224
Dative Case 224-239
Indirect Object with Transitives 226-227
Indirect Object with Intransitives 227-232
Dative of Possession 232,233
Dative of the Agent 233,234
Dative of Reference 234-236
Ethical Dative 236
Dative of Separation 236,237
Dative of the Purpose or End 237
Dative with Adjectives 238,239
' Accusative Case 240-248
Direct Object 240-242
Cognate Accusative 242-244
Two Accusatives 244-246
Idiomatic and Special Uses 247, 248
Ablative Case 248-265
Uses of the Ablative Proper 249-255
Ablative of Separation 249,250
^blative of Source and Material 250-252
*-=^ Uive of Cause 252,253
VIU CONTENTS
Ablative of Agent 263, 25-
Ablative of Comparison 264, 25.'
Uses of the Ablative as Instrumental 266--20«
Ablative of Means or Instrument 266-2 5>
Ablative of Manner 25<
Ablative of Accompaniment 268, 26J
Ablative of Degree of Difference 269, 20(.
Ablative of Quality 26(
Ablative of Price 261, 26S
Ablative of Specification 262, 261
Ablative Absolute 263-26^
Uses of the Ablative as Locative 265
Time and Place 2Q6-27S
Special Uses of Prepositions 274, 276
Syntax of the Verb 276-386
Moods 276-293
Introductory Note 276, 277
Indicative Mood 277
Subjunctive in Independent Sentences 278-283
Hortatory Subjunctive 278, 279
Hortatory Subjunctive in Concessions 279
Optative Subjunctive 280, 281
Deliberative Subjunctive 281
Potential Subjunctive 282, 283
Imperative Mood 283-285
Prohibition (Negative Command) 285
Infinitive Mood 286-292
Infinitive as Noun 286,287
Infinitive with Impersonals 287, 288
Complementary Infinitive 289, 290
Infioitive with Subject Accusative 290 ,
Infinitive of Purpose ; Peculiar Infinitives 290, 291
Exclamatory Infinitive 292
Historical Infinitive 292
Tenses 298-308
Introductory Note 293
Tenses op the Indicative 293-801
Present Tense 298-296
Imperfect Tense 296-297
Future Tense 298
Perfect Tense 298-300
Pluperfect Tense 300
Future Perfect Tense 800
Epistolary Tenses SOI
Tenses op the Subjunctive 301-3r
Sequence of Tenses 302-.''
;
\,
Tbksbs of tub Infinitive - . . . 807, SOS
F*RTicii-UiS aoo-3iu
DisdnctioiiB of Tenaa 800-311
Uses of FanlciplBB 311-314
Future Active Participle 314,315
Gerundive (t'utiire Passive Parttclple) 816, Sie
Gbrund and Gueunuivb 816-310
SUPIKE 820
CoHDitiosAL Sebtences 321-SSS
Introductory Note 321,322
FrotaslB and Apodofiis 822,323
Classificatiou of Conditioaa 823-325
Simple Present and Past Condi lions 825,320
Future Conditions 826-3a8
Conditions Contrary to Fact 328-330
General Conditions ' 831
Conditional Relative Clauses 832,333
Conditiou Disgtdaed 883,834
Conditfoa Omitted 334,335
Complex Conditions 336
Claueea of Comparison (Conclusion Omitted) 330
Use of Si and its Compounds 337,388
CoHCEssivE Clauses 338, 33B
Clacheb or Pnoviao 340
Cladhes of Fuhpobb (Final Cladseh) 340-343
ClADBES of CuARACTEaiBTIC 343— 140
CLAnsBS Of Sesult (CoNBECuTivE Claubes) 346-348
Causal Clauses 848-860
Temporal Cladsbs 350-369
Obi, ut, cum, quando, as Indefinite Relatives 860
Poatquam, abi, at, simnl atqae 861
Com Temporal 852-364
Cud Causal or Concessive . . - 364, 366
Anteqaam and prinsquam 856,360
Dom, dinec, and quoad 867-358
Cladsbs with quia and qn&miDna 860-361
VSobbtantivb Cucseb 862-384
■ Introductory Note 362
I Substantive Clauaes of Purpose and lufinitive Clauses .... 382-367
I SubstaiiUve Clausea of Result (Conaecnttve Clauses) 367-369
1 Indicative with quod
Indirect Questions 370-873
HECT Discoubse 873-884
Introductory Note 373,374
i\ Declaratory Sentences ^T-*
I rdinate Clausea ^
K
\
X CONTENTS i
PAGB 1
Tenses of the Infinitiye 378, 379 ,'
Tenses of the Subjunctive 379, 380
Questions in Indirect Discourse 380, 381
Commands in Indirect Discourse 381
Conditions in Indirect Discourse 381-^384
Intermediate Clauses 384-386
Informal Indirect Discourse 385
Subjunctive of Integral Part (Attraction) 386
Important Rules op Syntax 387^92
Order of Words 393-400
General Rules 398-398
Special Rules 398, 399
Structure of the Period 399, 400
265
PEOSODY j^/l
Quantity 401-406 ^^
Rhythm 406-409 ^^
Introductory Note 406, 406 [^
Measures of Rhythm ; Feet 406-409 J
The Musical Accent ; Caesura ; Diaeresis 409 ^
Versification 410-426 \
The Verse; Scansion and Elision 410,411 }
Dactylic Verse 411-414 \
Dactylic Hexameter 411, 412 |
Elegiac Stanza ; Other Dactylic Verses 413, 414
Iambic Verse 414-416
Iambic Trimeter 414, 416
Other Iambic Measures 416
Trochaic Verse 417
Mixed Measures 418
Logaoedic Verse 418-421
Metres of Horace 421-425
Index to the Metres of Horace 423-425
Other Lyric Poets 425
Miscellaneous Measures ... 426, 426
Early Prosody 426,427,
Miscellaneous 428-43q
Reckoning of Time 428, 421
Measures of Value, Length, and Capacity 429-481 1
Glossary op Terms 432-43r^
Index of Verbs 436-4^
Index of Words and Subjects 445-4 j
Latin Authors and their Works 476,4^^-^]
"Parallel References ^'^^'^4^^
\
ALLEN AND GREENOUGH'S
NEW LATIN GRAMMAR
LATI]^ GRAMMAR
Latin Grammar is usually treated under three heads: 1. Words and
Forms; 2. Syntax; 3. Prosody. Syntax treats of the function of words
when joined together as parts of the sentence ; Prosody of their arrange-
ment in metrical composition.
PART FIRST— WORDS AND FORMS
THE ALPHABET
1. The Latin Alphabet is the same as the English (which is
in fact borrowed from it) except that it does not contain J, U,
and W.
Note 1. — The Latin alphabet was borrowed in very early times from a Greek
alphabet (thoagh not from that most familiar to us) and did not at first contain the
letters 6 and T. It consisted of capital letters only, and the small letters with which
we are familiar did not come into general use until the close of the eighth century of
our era.
Note 2. — The Latin names of the consonants were as follows : — B, be (pronounced
bay); C, ce (pronounced kay); D, <?e {day); F, ef; G, ge {gay); H, ha; K, ka; L, el;
M, em; W, en ; P, pe {pay); Q, qu {koo); R, er; S, es; T, te {tay); X,ix; Z, zeta (the
Greek name, pronounced dzayta). The sound of each vowel was used as its name.
a. The character C originally meant G, a value always retained in
the abbreviations C. (for Gaius) and Cn. (for Gnaeus).
Note. — In early Latin C came also to be used for K, and K disappeared except bo-
fore a in a few words, as Kal. (Kalendae), Karthigo. Thus there was no distinction in
writing between the sounds of g and k. Later this defect was remedied by forming
(from C) the new character G. This took the alphabetic place formerly occupied by
Z, which had gone out of use. In Cicero's time (see N. D. ii. 93), Y (originally a form
of V) and Z were introduced from the ordinary Greek alphabet to represent sounds in
words derived from the Greek, and they were put at the end of the Latin alphabet.
h. I and V were used both as vowels and as consonants (see § 6).
Note. — V originally denoted the vowel sound u {oo)y and P stood for the sound of
our consonant w. When P acquired the value of our f , V came to be used for the
sound of w as well as for the vowel u.
In this book i is used for both vowel and consonant i, u for vowel u, and
v for consonant u : .:— ius, vir, iuvenis.
1
WORDS AND FORMS
[§§2-4
Classification of Sounds
2. The simple Vowels axe a, e, i, o, u, y.
The Diphthongs are ae, au, ei, eu, oe, ui, and, in early Latin, ai,
oi, ou. In the diphthongs both vowel sounds are heard, one fol-
lowing the other in the same syllable.
3. Consonants are either voiced {sonant) or voiceless (surd).
Voiced consonants are pronounced with the same vocal murmur
that is heard in vowels ; voiceless consonants lack this murmur.
1. The voiced consonants are b, d, g, 1, r, m, n, z, consonant i, y.
2. The voiceless consonants are p, t, c (k, q), f, h, s, z.
4. Consonants are further classified as in the following table :
IiABLLLa Dentals Paultaxs
' Voiced (medico')
b
d
g
Mutes
Voiceless (tenuis)
P
t
o (k, q)
^ Aspirates
ph
th
ch
Nasals
m
n
n (before o, g, q)
Liquids
l,r
Fricatives (Spirants)
fi
B, «
Sibilants
By Z
Semivo
wels
V
consonant i
Double consonants are z (= cs) and z (= dz) ; h is merely a breathing.
1. Mates are pronounced by blocking entirely, for an instant, the passage of the
breath through the month, and then allowing it to escape with an explosion (distinctly
heard before a following vowel). Between the explosion and the vowel there may be
a slight puff of breath (h), as in the Aspirates (ph, th, ch).2
2. Labials are pronounced with the lips, or lips and teeth.
3. Dentals (sometimes called Linguals) are pronounced with the tip of the tongue
touching or approaching the upper front teeth.
4. Palatals are pronounced with a part of the upper surface of the tongue touching
or approaching the palate.'
6. Fricatives (or Spirants)" are consonants in which the breath passes continuously
through the mouth with audible friction.
6. Nasals are like voiced mutes, except that the mouth remains closed and the
breath passes through the nose.
1 Strictly a lahio-dentcdy pronounced with the under lip touching the upper teeth.
a The aspirates are almost wholly confined to words borrowed from the Greek. In
early Latin such borrowed sounds lost their aspiration and became simply p, t, c.
« Palatals are often classed as (1) velara, pronounced with the tongue touchhig or ris-
ing toward the soft palate (in the back part of the mouth), and (2) palatals, in which the
tongue touches or rises toward the hard palate (farther forward in the mouth) . Compare
the initial consonants in key and coolt whispering the two words, and it wiU be observed
that before e and i the k is sounded farther forward in the mouth than before a, o, or u.
§§ 6, 6] ORTHOGRAPHY 3
5. The vowels i and u serve as consonants when pronounced
rapidly before a vowel so as to stand in the same syllable.^ Con-
sonant i has the sound of English consonant y; consonant u (y)
that of English consonant w.
Consonant i and u (v) are sometimes called Semivowels.
NoTB 1. — The Latin alphabet did not distinguish between the vowel and consonant
sounds of i and u, but used each letter (I and V) with a double value. In modem books
i and u are often used for the vowel sounds, j and v for the consonant sounds ; but in
printing in capitals J and U are avoided : — I V Li vs (Ittlius) . The characters J and U are
only slight modifications of the characters I and V. The ordinary English sounds of
3 and V did not exist in classical Latin, but consonant u perhaps approached English v
in the pronunciation of some persons.
Note 2. — In the combinations qu, gn, and sometimes su, u seems to be the conso-
nant (w) . Thus, aqua, anguis, cdnsuStus (compare English quarts anguisht suave) . In
these combinations, however, u is reckoned neither as a vowel nor as a consonant.^
ORTHOGRAPHY
6. Latin speUing varied somewhat with the changes in the
language and was never absolutely settled in all details.
Thus, we find lubet, vort5, as earlier, and libet, verto, as later forms. Other
variations are optumus and optimus, gerondus and geiendus.
The spelling of the first century of our era, known chiefly from
inscriptions, is tolerably uniform, and is commonly used in modern
editions of the classics.
a. After y (consonant n), o was anciently used instead of u (voltns, servos),
and this spelling was not entirely given up until the middle of the first
century of our era.
&• The older quo became cu in the Augustan period ; in the second cen-
tury of our era the spelling quu established itself in some words : —
cam, older quom ;^ equos, ecus, later equus ; sequontor, secuntur, later sequuntur ;
similarly ezstingnont, ezstingunt, later ezstinguunt.
NoTB. — In most modem editions the spelling quu is adopted, except in cum.
c. Between consonant i and a preceding a, e, o, or u, an i was developed
as a transient sound, thus producing a diphthong ai, ei, etc., before the con-
sonant i. In such cases but one 1 was written : as, &id (for t*i-i5)» mAius
(for fmai-ius), p^ius (for fpei-ius).
1 Compare the English word Indian as pronounced in two syllahles or in three.
« In such words it is possihle that the preceding consonant was lahialized and that
no distinct and separate consonant u was heard.
• The spelling quum is very late and without authority.
xJ
4 WORDS AND FORMS [§§ 6-8
cf • Similarly in compounds of IacIo but one i was written (as, con-icio,
not con-iicio); but the usual pronunciation probably showed consonant 1
followed by vowel i (see § 11. e).
Note. — Some variations are due to later changes in Latin itself, and these are not
now recognized in classical texts.
1. Unaccented ti and ci, when followed by a vowel, came to be pronounced alike ;
hence nuntio was later speKed with a c and diciS with a t.
2. The sound of h was after a time lost and hence this letter was often omitted (as,
arena for harSna) or mistakenly written (as, hOmor for &mor).
3. The diphthong ae early in the time of the Empire acquired the value of long open
e (about like English e in tJiere)^ and similarly oe after a time became a long close e
(about like the English ey in tfiey) ; and so both were often confused in spelling with
e : as, coena or caena for the correct form cfina.
Syllables
7. Every Latin word has as many syllables as it has vowels or
diphthongs : —
a-ci-e, mo-ne, fi-li-us, fe-ro-ci-ta-te.
a. In the division of words into syllables a single consonant (including
consonant i and v) between two vowels is written and pronounced with
the following vowel. Doubled consonants are separated : —
pa-ter, mf-li-tes, in-ifl-ri-a, di-vl-d5 ; mit-t5, tol-15.
Note 1. — Some extend the rule for single consonants to any consonant group (as
sp, 8t, gn) that can begin a word. In this book, diz-it, saz-iun, etc. are preferred to
dl-xit, sa-zum ; the pronunciation was probably dic-sit, sac-sum.
Note 2. — A syllable ending with a vowel or diphthong is called open: all others
are called dose. Thus in pa-ter the first syllable is open, the second close.
b* In compounds the parts are separated : —
ab-est, ob-latus, dis-cemo, du-plez, d!-st5.
Pronunciation
8. The so-called Roman Pronunciation of Latin aims to repre-
sent approximately the pronunciation of classical times.
Vowels : a as in father; & as in idea,
5 as ehf (prolonged), or a in date; 6 as ehf (clipped) or e in net
I as in machine; I as in holiest or sit,
6 as in holy; 5 as in obey.
ii as 00 in boot; H a,s oo in foot.
y between u and i (French u or German u).
^,
IPHTH0NG8 : ae like ay; ei as in eight; oe like oy in boy,
enB^aeh^oo; au like ow in now; ui 0.3 oo^ee.
§§ 8-10] PRONUNCIATION AND QUANTITY 5
Consonants are the same as in English, except that —
c and g are as in come^ get, never as in city, gem,
a as in sea, lips, never as in ease.
Consonant i is like y in young; v (consonant u) like w in wing,
n in the combinations ns and nf probably indicates nasalization of the
precediDg vowel, which was also lengthened ; and final m in an
unaccented syllable probably had a similar nasalizing effect on
the preceding vowel.
ph., th, ch, are properly like p, t, k, followed by h (which may, for con-
venience, be neglected) ; but ph probably became like (or nearly
like) f soon after the classical period, and may be so pronounced
to distinguish it from p.
z is as (iis in adze,
ba is like ps *, bt is like pt.
NoTB. — Latin is sometimes pronounced with* the ordinary English sounds of the
letters. The English pronunciation should be used in Roman names occurring in
English (as, Julius Cmsar) ; and in familiar quotations, as, e pluribus unum ; viva
voce; vice versa; a fortiori; veni, vidi, vici, etc.
Quantity
9. The Quantity of a Vowel or a Syllable is tlie time occupied
in pronouncing it. Two degrees of Quantity are recognized, —
long and short
€L. In syllables, quantity is measured from the beginning of the vowel
or diphthong to the end of the syllable.
10. Vowels are either long or short hy nature^ and are pro-
nounced accordingly (§ 8).
0. A vowel before another vowel or h is short : as in via, nUul.
6. A diphthong is long : as in Skdes, fdedus. So, also, a vowel derived
from a diphthong : as in ezcludd (from fex-claudo).
Cm A vowel formed by contraction is long : as in nil (from nihil).
(Z* A vowel before ns, nf, gn, is long : as in constans, infero, magnus.
NoTB. — But the quantity of the vowel before gn is not certain in all cases.
e, A vowel before nd, nt, is regularly short : as in amandus, amant.
In this book all vowels known to be long are marked (a, e, etc.), and
short vowels are left unmarked (a, e, etc.). Vowels marked with both signs
at once (a, e, etc.) occur sometimes as long and sometimes as short.
Note. — The Romans sometimes marked vowel length by a stroke above the letter
(called an ai)ex), as, A ; and sometimes the vowel was doubled to indicate length. An
I made higher than the other letters was occasionally used for i. But none of these
devices came into general use.
6 WORDS AND FORMS [§ 11
11. The Quantity of the Syllable is important for the position
of the accent and in versification.
a« A syllable containing a long vowel or a diphthong is said to be long
by nature : as, ma-ter, aes, au-l&.
b. A syllable containing a short vowel followed by two consonants
(except a mute before 1 or r) or by a double consonant (x, z) is said to be
long by position^ but the vowel is pronounced short : as, est, ter-ra, saz-um,
Me-zen-tius.
Note. — When a consonant is doubled the pronunciation should show this dis-
tinctly. Thus in mit-to both t's should be pronounced as in out-talk (not merely a
single t as in better).
Cm A syllable containing a short vowel followed by a mute before 1 or r
is properly short, but may be used as long in verse. Such a syllable is said
to be common.
Note 1. — In syllables long by position, but having a short vowel, the length is
partly due to the first of the consonants, which stands in the same syllable with the
vowel. In syllables of '* common " quantity (as the first syllable of patrem) the ordi-
nary pronunciation was pa-trem, but in verse pat-rem was allowed so that the syllable
could become long.
Note 2. — In final syllables ending with a consonant, and containing a short vovrel,
the quantity in verse is determined by the following word : if this begins with a vowel
the final consonant is joined to it in pronunciation ; if it begins with a consonant the
syllable is long by position.
Note 3. — In rules for quantity h is not counted as a consonant, nor is the appar-
ently consonantal u in qu, gu, su (see § 5. n. 2).
cf. A syllable whose vowel is a, e, o, or u, followed by consonant i, is
long whether the vowel itself is long or short : as, Il-i5, mi-ior, p^ius.
In such cases the length of the syllable is indicated in this book by a
circumflex on the vowel.
Note. — The length of a syllable before consonant i is due to a transitional sound
(vowel i) which forms a diphthong with the preceding vowel: as, A-io (for fai-io),
ml-ior (for fmai-ior). See § 6. c.
em In some compounds of iacio (as, in-icio) the consonant i of the simple
verb was probably pronoimced (though not written). Thus the first syl-
lable was long by position : as, in-ici5 (for in-iicio). See § 6. rf.
In such cases the length of the syllable is not indicated in this book by
a circumflex on the vowel.
/• When a syllable is long by position the quantity of the vowel is not
always determinable. The vowel should be pronounced short unless it is
known to be long.
Note. — The quantity of a vowel under these circumstances is said to be hidden.
It is often determined with a greater or less degree of certainty by inscriptional evi-
dence (see § 10. N.) or by other means. In this book, the quantity of all such vowels
known to be long is marked.
§§ 12-14] ACCENT
Accent
12. Words of two syllables are accented on the first syllable :
3LSy RG'ma, fi'des, tan'gG.
Words of more than two syllables are accented on the Penult ^
Lf tliat is long (as, ami'cus^ monS'tur, contin'git); otherwise on the
Antepenult (as, do'minus, a'ltois, dissocia'bilis).
cr« When an enclitic is joined to a word, the accent falls on the syllable
next before the enclitic, whether long or short : as, dS&'que, SmarSVe, tibrne,
it&'que (and . . . «o), as distinguished from i^tllque (therefore). So (accord-
ing to some) ez'inde, ec'quando, etc.
^Exceptions : 1. Certain apparent compounds of facid retain the accent of the
simple verb : as, benef&'cit, calefH^'cit (see § 266. a).
NOTB. — These were not true compounds, but phrases.
2. In the second declension the genitive and vocative of nouns in -iua and the
genitive of those in -ium retain the accent of the nominative : as, Corned, Vergi'li,
inge^n! (see § 49. c).
8. Certain words which have lost a final vowel retain the accent of the com-
plete words : as, illi^c for ilirce, proda^c for prodace, sati^'n for sati'sne.
Combinations
13. In some cases adjacent words, being pronounced together,
are written as one : —
finusquisque (unus quisque), siquis (si quia), quAre (qua rS), quamobrem (quam
ob rem ; cf . quas ob i§8), rSspublica (r§s p&blica), lasifirandum (ifis ifirandom),
paterfamilias (pater familias).
NoTB. — Sometimes a slight change in pronunciation resulted, as, especially in the
old poets, before est in homost (hom5 est), periculumst (pexiculttm est), ausust (ausus est) ,
qualist (qtiAlis est). Similarly there occur vin', scin' for visne, scisne, sis (si v!s), sodSs
(si audSs), sultis (si vnltls). Compare in English somebody ^ to breakfast; he *8f I've,
thou *rt.
Phonetic Changes
14. Latin, the language of the ancient Romans, was properly, as its name implies,
the language si>oken in the plain of Latium, lying south of the Tiber, which was the first
territory occupied and governed by the Romans. It is a descendant of an early foi;m
of speech commonly called Indo-European (by some Indo-Germanic) y from which
are also descended most of the important languages now in use in Europe, including
among others English, German, the Slavic and the Celtic languages, and further some
now or formerly spoken in Asia, as Sanskrit, Persian, Armenian. Greek likewise
^ The Penult is the last syllable but one ; the Antepenult, the last but two.
8 WORDS AND FORMS [§§ 14, 1
belongs to the same family. The Romance (or Romanic) languages, of which th
most important are Italian, French, Provencal, Spanish, Portugaese, and Roumanian
are modern descendants of spoken Latin.
The earliest known forms of Latin are preserved in a few inscriptions. These in
crease in number as we approach the time when the language began to be used in litera
ture; that is, about b.c. 250. It is the comparatively stable language of the classical
period (b.c. 80-a.d. 14) that is ordinarily meant when we speak of Latin, and it k
mainly this that is described in this book.
15. Among the main features in the changes of Latin from
the earliest stages of the language as we know it up to the forms
of classical Latin may be mentioned the following : —
Vowel Changes
1. The old diphthong ai became the classical ae (aedllis for old aidilis),
old oi became oe or ii (iinus for old oinos), and old ou became a (duc5 for
old douco).
2. In compound verbs the vowel a of the simple verb often appears as i
or e, and ae similarly appears as i : —
facio, factum, but cdnficio, confectum ; caed5, but occido, and gimilarly cecidi,
perfect of caedo (cf. cado, occidd ; cecidi, perfect of cad5).
Note. —This change is commonly ascribed to an accentuation on the first syl-
lable, which seems to have been the rule in Latin before the rule given above (see § 12)
became established. The original Indo-European accent, however, was not limited by
either of these principles ; it was probably a musical accent so-ealled, consisting in a
change of pitch, and not merely in a more forcible utterance of the accented syllable.
3. Two vowels coming together are often contracted : —
cogo for tco-ago; promo for tpro-emo; nil for nihil; debeo for tde-hibeo
(tde-habeo).
Consonant Changes
4. An old s regularly became r between two vowels (rhotacisTn), passing
first through the sound of (English) z : —
eram (cf. est); generis, genitive of genus.^
Note. — Final s sometimes became r by analogy: as, honor (older honos), from the
analogy of honoris, etc.
5. A dental (t, d) often became s, especially when standing next to t, d,
or 8 : as, equestris for fequettris, casus for fcadtus (cf . 6, below).
6. Many instances of assimilation, partial or complete, are found :
cessi for tced-si ; summus for tsupmus ; acriptus for scribtus (b unvoicing to
p before the voiceless t); and in compound verbs (see § 16).
1 A similar change can be seen in English: as, were (of. was)^ lorn (cf. lose).
|§ 16-17] VOWBL YABIATIONS 9
Dissimilation, the opposite kind of change, prevented in some cases the
repetition of the same sound in succcessive syllables : —
Thus, panlia for palilia(from PalSs) ; meridies for fmedidiSs; n&tur&lis with suffix
-alls (after r), but populazis with -aris (alter 1).
7. Final • was in early Latin not always pronounced : as, plitta(s) ildSi.
NoTBJ. — Tracesof thispronunciation existed in Cicero's time. He speaks of the omis-
sion of final s before a word beginning with a consonant as '* countrified ' ' {aubrusticum) .-
8. A final consonant often disappears : as, virg5 for f virgSn ; lac for
flact ; cor for f cord.
9. G, c, and h unite with a following s to form x : as, rex for fregs ; dux
for -j-ducs ; traxi for f trahsi.^
10. G and h before t become c : as, rectum for f regtum ; actum for fagtum ;
tractum for ftrahtum.^
11. Between m and s or m and t, a p is often developed : as, sumpsi for
tsumsi ; emptum for f emtum.
16. In compounds with prepositions the final consonant in the preposition was often
assimilated to the following consonant, but nsage varied considerably.
There is good authority for many complete or partial assimilations ; as, for ad,
ace-, agg-, app-, att-, instead of ade-, adg-, etc. Before a labial consonant we find com-
(comb-, comp-, comm-), but con- is the form before c, d, f, g, cons, i, q, s, t, cons, v ; we
find conl- or coU-, oonr- or corr-; c5- in conecto, conived, conitor, conubium. In usualiy
changes to im- before p, b, m. Ob and sub may assimilate b to a following c, f, g, or
P ; before « and t the pronunciation of prepositions ending in b doubtless had p ; sun-,
summ-, occur for subr-, subm-. The inseparable amb- loses b before a consonant.
Circum often loses its m before i. The s of dis becomes r before a vowel and is assimi-
lated to a following f ; sometimes this prefix appears as di-. Instead of ex we find ef-
bef ore f (also ecf-) . The d of red and sSd is generally lost before a consonant. The
preposition is better left unchanged in most other cases.
Vowel Variations
17. The parent language showed great variation in the vowel
sounds of kindred words.^
a. This variation is often called by the German name Ablaut, It has
left considerable traces in the forms of Latin words, appearing sometimes
as a difference of quantity in the same vowel (as, u, ii ; e, e), sometimes as a
difference in the vowel itself (as, e, o ; i, ae) : * —
teg5, I cover, toga, a robe ; pend5, 1 weigh, pondus, laeigM; fidCt, faith^ fidus,
faithful, fbedus, a treaty ; miser, wretc?ied, maestus, sad ; dare, to give,
d9num, a gift; rego, I rule, r6x, a king; dux, a leader, dQc5 (for older
douc5) , I lead. Compare English drive, drove {drave) , driven ; bind, bound,
band; sing, sang, sung; etc.
1 Really for ttraghsi. The h of trah5 represents an older palatal sound (see § 19).
2 Really for ttraghtum. These are cases of partial assimilation (cf. 6, above).
8 This variation was not without regularity, but was confined within definite limits.
* In Greek, however, it is more extensively preserved.
10 WORDS AND FORMS [§§ 18, 1»
Kindred Fomis
18. Both Latin and English have gone through a series of phonetic changes, dii-
ferent in the two languages, but following definite laws in each. Hence both pre-
serve traces of the older speech in some features of the vowel system, and both sbov
certain correspondences in consonants in words which each language has inherited from
the old common stock. Only a few of these correspondences can be mentioned here.
19. The most important correspondences in consonants between
Latin and English, in cognate words, may be seen in the following
table : — ^
Latin English
p: pater f : /a</^, earlier /oder*
f from bh : fero, frater b : to 6ear, brother
b ** " lubet, libet v, f : love, lief
t : tu, tenuis th : thou, thin, ^
d : duo, dent- t : two, tooth
i from dh : f acid d : do
d ** ** medius d: mid
b ** ** ruber d: red
c : cord-, comQ h : heart, horn
qu: quod wh: what
g : genus, gustus c, k, ch : kin, choose
h (from gh) : hortus, haedus y, g : yard, goat
cons, i : iugum y : yoke
Y : ventus, ovis w : wind, ewe
NoTB 1. — Sometimes a consonant lost in Latin is still represented in English : as,
niv- (for tsni^-), Eng. snow; anser (for fhanser), Eng. goose.
Note 2. — From these cases of kindred words in Latin and English must be care-
fully distinguished those cases in which the Latin word has been taken into English either
directly or through some one of the modern descendants of Latin, especially French.
Thus faclo is kindred with Eng. do, but from the Latin participle (factum) of this verb
comes 'Eng. fact, and from the French descendant (fait) of factum comes 'Eng.feat.
^ The Indo-European parent speech had among its consonants voiced aspirates
(bh, dh, gh). All these suffered change in Latin, the most important results being,
for bh, Latin f , b (English has b, v, or f) ; for dh, Latin f , b, d (English has d) ; for gb.
Latin h, g (Engli^ has y, g). The other mutes suffered in Latin much less change,
while in English, as in the other Grermanic languages, they have all changed consid-
erably in accordance with what has been called Grimm's Law for the shifting of mutes.
2 The th in father is a late development. The older iorm fader seems to show an
exception to the rule that English th corresponds to Latin t. The primitive Grermanic
form was doubtless in accordance with this rule, but, on account of the position of the
accent, which in Germanic was not originally on the first syllable in this word, the
consonant underwent a secondary change to d.
> But to the group st of Latin corresponds also English st ; as in Latin 8t5, English
stand.
{20] THE PARTS OF SPEECH 11
THE PAETS OF SPEECH
20. Words are divided into eight Parts of Speech: Nouns,
Adjectives (including Participles), Pronouns, Verbs, Adverbs,
Prepositions, Conjunctions, and Interjections.
fit* A Noun is the name of a person, place, thing, or idea : as, Caesar ;
R5iiia, Rome ; donms, a house ; virtus, virtue.
Names of particular persons and places are called Proper NoTins ; other
nouns are called Common.
NoTB. — An Abstract Nonn is the name of a quality or idea : as, aud&cia, boldness ;
senecttts, old age. A CoUectiye Noun is the name of a group, class, or the like : as, turba,
crowd ; exercitus, army.
h» An Adjective is a word that attributes a quality: as, bonus, good;
lortis, brave, strong.
NoTB 1. — A Participle is a word that attribntes quality like an adjective, but, being
derived from a verb, retains in some degree the power of the verb to assert : as, —
Caesar consul crepitus, Cassar having been elected consul.
NoTB 2. — EtymologicaUy there is no difference between a noun and an adjective,
both b^ng formed a)ike. So, too, all names originally attribute quality, and any com-
mon name can still be so used. Thus, King William distinguishes this William from
other Williams, by the attribute of royalty expressed in the name king.
c* A Pronoun is a word used to distinguish a person, place, thing, or
idea without either naming or describing it : as, is, he ; qui, who ; nos, voe.
Nouns and pronouns are often called Substantives.
d* A Verb is a word which is capable of asserting something : as, sum,
/ am ; amat, he loves.
Note. — In all modem speech the verb is usually the only woi-d that asserts any-
thing, and a verb is therefore supposed to be necessary to complete an assertion.
Strictly, however, any adjective or noun may, by attributing a quality or giving a
name, make a complete assertion. In the infancy of language there could have been
no other means of asserting, as the verb is of comparatively late development.
ۥ An Adverb is a word used to express the time, place, or manner of
an assertion or attribute : as, splendide mendaz, gloriously false ; hodie natus
est, he was horn to-day.
Note. — These same functions are often performed by cases (see §§ 214-217) of
nouns, pronouns, and adjectives, and by phrases or sentences. In fact, all adverbs
were originally cases or phrases, but have become specialized by use.
/. A Preposition is a word which shows the relation between a noun or
pronoun and some other word or words in the same sentence : as, per agros
it, he goes over the fields; e pluribus unum, one out of many.
Note. — Most prepositions are specialized adverbs (cf. § 219). The relations ex-
pressed by prejwsitions were earlier expressed by case-endings.
12 WORDS AND FORMS [§§ 20-2
g. A Conjunction is a word which connects words, or groups of 'wordi
without affecting their grammatical relations : as, et, and ; sed, hvi,
NoTB. — Some adverbs are also used as connectiyes. These are called Adverbia
Conj unctions or Conjanctive (Relative) Adverbs: as, ubi, where; donee, until. |
h^ Interjections are mere exclamations and are not strictly to be classed)
as parts of speech. Thus, — heus, halloo I 6, oh I
Note. — Interjections sometimes express an emotion which affects a person or thing
mentioned, and so have a grammatical connection like other words: as, vae victls, wot
to the conquered (alas lor the conquered) I
INFLECTION
21. Latin is an inflected language.
Inflection is a change made in the form of a word to show its
grammatical relations.
a* Inflectional changes sometimes take place in the body of a word, or
at the beginning, but oftener in its termination : —
vox, a voice; vocis, of a voice ; voc5, 1 call; vocat, he calls; vocet, let him call;
vocavit, ?ie hoB called; tangit, he touches; tetigit, he touched,
hm Terminations of inflection had originally independent meanings which
are now obscured. They correspond nearly to the use of prepositions,
auxiliaries, and personal pronouns in English.
Thus, in rocat, the termination is equivalent to he or she; in vocis, to the
preposition of; and in vocet the change of vowel signifies a change of mood.
ۥ Inflectional changes in the body of a verb usually denote relations of
tense or mood, and often correspond to the use of auxiliary verbs in Eng-
lish : —
frangit, he breaks or is breaking ; fregit, he broke or has broken; mordet, h
bites; momordit, fie bit,^
22. The inflection of Nouns, Adjectives, Pronouns, and Par-
ticiples to denote gender, number, and case is called Declension,
and these parts of speech are said to be declined.
The inflection of Verbs to denote voice, mood, tense, number,
and person is called Conjugation, and the verb is said to be con-
jugated.
Note. — Adjectives are often said to have inflections of comparison. These are,
however, properly stem-formations made by derivation (p. 65, footnote).
1 The only proper inflections of verbs are those of the personal endings ; and the
changes here referred to are strictly changes of afcm, but have become a part of the
system of inflections.
§§2a-25] ROOT, STEM, AND BASE 13
23. Adverbs, Prepositions, Conjunctions, and Interjections are
not inflected and are called Particles.
NoTB. — The term Particle is sometimes limited to such words as nam, -ne, an (inter-
rogative) ^ n5n, qS (negative) , si (conditional), etc.» which are used simply to indicate
the lorm or constraction of a sentence.
Root, Stem, and Base
24. The body of a word, to which the terminations are attached,
is called the Stem.
The Stem contains the idea of the word without relations ; but, except
in the first part of a compound (as, arti-fez, artificer), it cannot ordinarily be
used without some termination to express them.^
Thus the stem y5c- denotes voice; with -s added it becomes y5z, a voice or the
voice, as the subject or agent of an action ; with -is it becomes vdcis, and signifies
of a voice.
Note. — The stem is in many forms so united with the termination that a compari-
son with other forms is necessary to determine it.
' 25. A Root is the simplest form attainable by analysis of a
word into its component parts.
Such a form contains the main idea of the word in a very general sense,
and is common also to other words either in the same language or in kin-
dred languages.^
Thus the root of the stem voc- is voc, which does not mean to call, or I call,
or caUing, but merely expresses vaguely the idea of calling, and cannot be used
as a part of speech without terminations. With a- it becomes voca-, the stem of
voc&re (to call) ; with av- it is the stem of vocAyit (he called) ; with ftto- it becomes
the stem of vocatus (called) ; with ation- it becomes the stem of voc&tionis (of a
caXling). With its vowel lengthened it becomes the stem of vox, voc-is (a voice:
that by which we call). This stem y5c-, with -aiis added, means belonging to a
voice; with -fila, a little voice.
Note.— In inflected languages, words are built np from Boots, which at a very
early time were used alone to express ideas, as is now done in Chinese. Roots are
modified into Stems, which, hy inflection, become fully formed words. The process by
which roots are modified, in the various forms of derivatives and compounds, is called
Stern^wlding. The whole of this process is originally one of composition, by which
significant endings are added one after another to forms capable of pronunciation and
conveying a meaning.
Roots had long ceased to be recognized as such before the Latin existed as a sepa-
rate language. Consequently the forms which we assume as Latin roots never really
existed in Latin, but are the representatives of forms used earlier.
1 Another exception is the imperative second person singular in -e (as, rege).
2 For example, the root sta is fouTid in the Sanskrit tishthdmi, Greek taryifUy Latin
sistere and stare, German fieJ^en^ and English stand.
14 WORDS AND FORMS [§§ 26-30
26. The Stem maybe the same as the root: as in due-is, (?f a leader^
fer-t, he hears; but it is more frequently formed from the root —
1. By changing or lengthening its vowel : as in scob-s, sawdust (scab.
shave)) reg-is, of a king (reg, direct)} voc-is, of a voice (voc, call),
2. By the addition of a simple suffix (originally another root) : as in fuga-,
stem of fuga, flight (fug + a-) ; regi-s, you rule (reg + stem-ending %-);
sim-t, he allows (si + n%-).^
3. By two or more of these methods : as in duci-t, he leads (dug + stem-
ending Vo")-
4. By derivation and composition, following the laws of development
peculiar to the language. (See §§ 227 ff.)
27. The Base is that part of a word which is unchanged in
inflection : as, serv- in servus ; mgns- in mSnsa ; ign- in ignis.
a. The Base and the Stem are often identical, as in many consonant
stems of nouns (as, reg- in reg-is). If, however, the stem ends in a vowel,
the latter does not appear in the base, but is variously combined with the
inflectional termination. Thus the stem of servus is servo- j that of tnensa,
mensa- ; that of ignis, igni-.
28. Inflectional terminations are variously modifled by com-
bination with the final vowel or consonant of the Stem, and thus
the various forms of Declension and Conjugation (see §§ S6, 164)
developed.
GENDER
29. The Genders distinguished in Latin are three : Masculine,
Feminine, and Neuter.
30. The gender of Latin nouns is either natural or graw/maticat
a. Natural Grender is distinction as to the sex of the object denoted : as,
puer (m.), hoy; puella (f.), girl; rex (m.), king; regina (f.), queen.
NoTB 1. — Many nouns have both a masculine and a feminine form to distinguish
sex: as, cervus, cerva, stag^ doe; cliens, clienta, client; victor, victrix, conqveror.
Many designations of persons (as nauta, sailor) usuaUy though not necessarily male
are always treated as masculine. Similarly names of tribes and peoples are masculine :
as, RSmani, the Romans; Persae, the Persians.
Note 2. — A few neuter nouns are used to designate persons as belonging to a class:
as, mancipium taum, your slave (your chattel).
Many pet names of girls and boys are neuter in form : as, Paegnium, Glycerinm.
Note 3. — Names of classes or collections of persons may be of any gender: as,
ezercitas (m.), acigs (f.), and agmen (n.), army; operae (f. plur.), workmen; copiae
(f. plur.), troops; seiuLtus (m.), senate; cohors (f.), cohort; conciUom (n.), council.
1 These suf&xes are Indo-European stem-endings.
§§30-34] GENERAL RULES OF GENDER 15
bm Grammatical Gender is a formal distinction as to sex where no actual
sex exists in the object. It is shown by the form of the adjective joined
with the noun : as, lapis magnus (m.), a great stone ; manus mea (f.), my
hand.
General Rules of Gender
31. Names of Male beings, and of Rivers, Winds, Months, and
Mountains, are masculine: —
pater, father; lulius, Julius; Tiberis, tJie Tiber; aaster, south wind; Unua-
rius, January ; Apennmus, tJie Apennines.
Note. — Names of Months are properly- adjectiyes, the masculine nonn mCnsis,
month, being onderstood : as, lanuarius, January.
dm A few names of Rivers ending in -a (as, Allia), with the Greek names
Lethe and St]^, are feminine ; others are variable or uncertain.
&. Some names of Mountains are feminine or neuter, taking the gender
of their termination: as, Alpes (f.), the Alps; Sdracte (k.).
32. Names of Female beings, of Cities, Countries, Plants, Trees,
and Gems, of many Animals (especially Birds), and of most ab-
stract Qualities, sltg feminine: —
mater, mother; lulia, Julia; Roma, Borne; Italia, Italy ; rosa, rose; pinus,
pine; sapphiros, sapphire; anas, d/vuck; Veritas, truth.
a. Some names of Towns and Countries are masculine : as, SulmS, Gabii
(plur.) ; or neuter, as, Tarentum, Dlyricum.
&• A few names of Plants and Gems follow the gender of their termina-
tion: as, centaureum (n.), centaury; acanthus (m.), hearsfoot; opalus (m.),
opal.
NoTB. — The gender of most of the above may also be recognized by the termina-
tions, according to the rules given under the several declensions. The names of Roman
women were usually feminine adjectives denoting their gens or house (see § 108. &).
33. Indeclinable nouns, infinitives, terms or phrases used as
nouns, and words quoted merely for their form, are neuter : —
fas, right; nihil, nothing; gummi, gum; scire tuum, your knowledge (to
know) ; triste vale, a sadfareweU; hoc ipsum diu, this very '* long."*^
34. Many nouns may be either masculine or feminine, accord-
ing to the sex of the object. These are said to be of Common
Gender: as, exsul, exile; Ws, ox or cow; parSns, parent.
Note. — Several names of animals have a grammatical gender, independent of sex.
These are called epicene. Thus lepus, hare, is always masculine, and vulpCs, fox, is
alwajrs fOTiinine.
16 DECLENSION OF NOUNS [§§36-37
NUMBER AND CASE
35. Nouns, Pronouns, Adjectives, and Participles are declined
in two Numbers, singular and plural; and in six Cases, nrnnina-
tive^ genitive^ dative^ accusative^ ablative^ vocative.
a» The Nominatiye is the case of the Subject of a sentence.
6# The "Genitive may generally be translated by the English Possessive,
or by the Objective with the preposition of.
c* The Dative is the case of the Indirect Object (§ 274). It may usually
be translated by the Objective with the preposition to or for,
dm The Accusative is the case of the Direct Object of a verb (§ 274). It
is used also with many of the prepositions.
6. The Ablative may usually be translated by the Objective with from,
by, withy in, or at. It is often used with prepositions.
/. The Vocative is the case of Direct Address.
g. All the cases, except the nominative and vocative, are used as object-
cases ; and are sometimes called Oblique Cases (casus ohllqui).
hm In names of towns and a few other words appear traces of another
case (the Locative), denoting the place where : as, R5mae, at Rome ; ruri, in
the country.
Note. — Still another case, the Instrnmental, appears in a few adverbs (§ 215. 4).
DECLENSION OF NOUNS
36. Declension is produced by adding terminations originally significant to differ-
ent forms of stems, vowel or consonant. The various phonetic corruptions in the lan-
guage have given rise to the several declensions. Most of the case-endings, as given
in Latin, contain also the final letter of the stem.
Adjectives are, in general, declined like nouns, and are etymologically to be classed
with them ; but they have several peculiarities of inflection (see § 109 ff .) .
37. Nouns are inflected in five Declensions, distinguished by
the final letter (characteristic) of the Stem, and by the case-ending
of the Genitive Singular.
Dbcl. 1 Characteristic S Gen. Sing, ae
2 6 1
3 i or a Consonant la
4 • tt fia
5 ® ei
a. The Stem of a noun may be found, if a consonant stem, by omitting
the case-ending ; if a vowel stem, by substituting for the case-ending the
characteristic vowel.
§§ 38, 89] CASE-ENDINGS OF THE FIVE DECLENSIONS
17
38. The following are General Rules of Declension : —
a* The Vocative is always the same as the Nominative, except in the
singular of nouns and adjectives in -us of the second declension, which have
•e in the vocative. It is not included in the paradigms, unless it differs
horn the nominative.
hm In neuters the Nominative and Accusative are always alike, and in
;he plural end in -X.
c» The Accusative singular of all masculines and f eminines ends in -m ;
;he Accusative plural in -s.
cf • In the last three declensions (and in a few cases in the others)^ the
Dative singular ends in -L
e* The Dative and Ablative plural are always alike.
f» The Genitive plural always ends in -tun.
ffm Final -i, -o, -u of inflection are always long ; final -a is shorty except in
ihe Ablative singular of the first declension ; final -e is long in the first and
ifth declensions, short m the second and third. Final -is and -us are long in
plural caaes.
Case-endings of the Five Declensions
39, The regular Case-endings of the several declensions are
ihe following: — ^
Decl. I
p.
jrEN.
Oat.
Ice.
roc.
{
Decl. II
M. K.
-U8 -um
-ae -I
-ae -5
-am -um -um
-a -a
-a -e -tun
Decl. Ill
Singular
Decl. IV Decl. V
BC,E.
N.
(modified stem)
-la
-I
-em (-im) (like nom.)
-e(-I)
(like nom.)
M. N*
-U8 -fl
-tl8
-ui (a) -ft
-um -a
-a
-ua -H
F.
-68
-61 (-6)
-61 (-6)
-em
-6
-6a
K.V. -ae -I -a
Gen. -&mm -(^nim
D.Ab. -18 -18
Ace. -^ -OS -a
Plural
-6b -a, -ia
-um, -ium
-ibuB
-68 (-is) -a, -ia
-Qb -na -68
-unm -6rum
•ibiia (-ubus) -6bus
-us -ua -68
1 For ancient, rare, and Greek forms (wMcb are here omitted), see under tb0
seyeral declensions.
18 DECLENSION OF NOUNS FSS 40-43
FIRST DECLENSION (o-STEMS)
40. The Stem of nouns of the First Declension ends in a-. The
Nominative ending is -a (the stem-vowel shortened), except in
Greek nouns.
41. Latin nouns of the First Declension are thus declined : —
Stella, F., star
Stem stella-
SlNGULAR
0A8E-ENDINGS
NOM.
Stella
a star
-a
Gen.
stellae
of a star
-ae
Dat.
stellae
to or for a star
-ae
Ace.
stellam
a star
-am
Abl.
Stella
tvithffromy by, etc.
Plural
a star
-a
NOM.
stellae
stars
-ae
Gen.
stellarum
of stars
-arum
Dat.
stelliB
to or for stars
•U
Ace.
Stellas
stars
-as
Abl.
stelllB
with, from, by, etc.
stars
-la
a. The Latin has no article ; hence stella may mean a star, the star, or
simply star.
Gender in the First Declension
42. Nouns of the first declension are Feminine.
Exceptions : Nouns masculine from their signification : as, nauta, sailor. Sot
few family or personal names: as, MurSna, Dolabella, Scaevola^; also, Hadxia, ^
Adriatic.
Case-Forms in the First Declension
43. a. The genitive singular anciently ended in 4a (dissyllabic), whid
is occasionally found : as, aula!. The same ending sometimes occurs in tb
dative, but only as a diphthong.
1 Scaevola is really a feminine adjective, used as a noun, meaning little l^t hani\
but, being used as the name of a man (originally a nickname), it became maacullB^
Original genders are often thus changed by a change in the sense of a noun.
§§ 43, 44]
FIRST DECLENSION (^-STEMS)
19
6* An old genitive in -as is preserved in the word familias, often used in
the combinations pater (mater, filius, filia) familias, father^ etc., of a family
(plur. patres familias or famUiarum).
ۥ The Locative form for the singular ends in -ae ; for the plural in -is (cf .
p. 34, footnote): as, R5mae, at Rome; Athenis, at Athens.
d* The genitive plural is sometimes found in -um instead of -anun, espe-
cially in Greek patronymics, as, Aeneadum, sons of JEneas, and in compounds
with -cSla and -gSna, signifying dwelling and descent : as, caelicolum, celes-
tials ; Troiugenum, sons of Troy ; so also in the Greek nouns amphora and
drachma.
ۥ The dative and ablative plural of dea, goddess, fHia, daughter, end in
an older form -abus (deabus, filiabus) to distinguish them from the corre-
sponding cases of deus, god, and filius, son (dels, filiis). So rarely with other
words, as, liberta, freed-woman ; mula, she-mvle ; equa, mare. But, except
when the two sexes are mentioned together (as in formulas, documents,
etc.), the form in -is is preferred in all but dea and fHia.
NoTB 1. — The old ending of the ablative singular (-ftd) is sometimes retained in
early Latin: as, praidad, booty (later, praeda).
NoTB 2. — In the dative and ablative plural -eis for -is is sometimes found, and -lis
(as in taeniis) is occasionally contracted to -is (taenis) ; so regularly in words in -iUa (as,
BiUs from siiae).
Greek Nouns of the First Declension
44. Many nouns of the First Declension borrowed from the
Greek are entirely Latinized (as, aula, court) ; but othera retain
traces of their Greek case-forms in the singular.
Electra, F.
NoM. Electra (-S)
Gen. Electrae
Dat. Electrae
Ace. Electram (-ftn)
Abl. ElectriL
Andromache, f.
NoM. AndromachS (-a)
Gen. AndromachSa (-ae)
Dat. Andrbmachae
Ace. AndromachSn (-am)
Abl. Andromache (-a)
Voc. Andromache (-a)
synopsis, f.
epitome
epitomes
epitomae
epitomen
epitome
^neas, M.
Aeng&8
Aeneae
Aeneae
Aenean (-am)
Aeneft
Aenea (-a)
art of music, F.
musica (-e)
musicae (-es)
musicae
musicam (-en)
musica (-e)
Persian, M.
Perses (-a)
Persae
Persae
Pers6n (-am)
Perse (-a)
Persa
20 DECLENSION OF NOUNS [§§44-46
Anchises, M.
son of^neas, M.
comet, M.
NOM.
AnchisSs
AeneadSa (-a)
comStSs (-a)
Gen.
Anchisae
Aeneadae
coiuetae
Dat.
Anchisae
Aeneadae
cometae
Ace.
AnchisSn (-am)
AeneadSn
comStto (-am)
Abl.
AnchisS (-£)
Aeneade (-ft)
cometft (-^)
Voo.
AnchisS (-ft, -a)
AeneadS (-a)
coui3ta
There are (besides proper names) about thirty-five of these words, several being
names of plants or arts: as, crambS, cabbage; musics, music. Most have also regnlai
Latin forms : as, comSta ; bat the nominative sometimes has the a long.
a* Greek forms are found only in the singular; the plural, -when it
occurs, is regular : as, cometae, -&rum, etc.
b* Many Greek nouns vary between the first, the second, and the thirl
declensions : as, Bo5tae (genitive of Bo5tes, -is), Thuc^didas (accusative pli>
ral of Thiictdidgs, -is). See § 52. a and § 81.
Note. — The Greek accusative dcipiadam, from ScipiadSs, descendant of the Sdpioi'
is found in Horace.
SECOND DECLENSION (^-STEMS) j
45. The Stem of nouns of the Second Declension ends in 5-:
as, viro- (stem of vir, man), servo- (stem of servus or servos, slav^}^
bello- (stem of bellum, war).
a. The Nominative is formed from the stem by adding s in masculines
and feminines, and m in neuters, the vowel 9 being weakened to il (s^
§§ 6. a, 46. N.i).
hm In most nouns whose stem ends in r6- the s ig not added in the Nomi-
native, but is lost, and e intrudes before r,^ if not already present: as>
ager, stem agrd- ^ ; cf . puer, stem puero-.
Exceptions : erus, hesperus, iflnipexus, moms, nttmerus, taurus, amems, ntti^
virus, and many Greek nouns.
c. The stem-vowel 6 has a variant form g,* which is preserved in tfe
Latin vocative singular of nouns in -us : as, servS, vocative of seryua, s/a'^
Note. —In composition this » appears as I. Thus, — belli-ger, warlike (from bcU«/r
stem of bellum, war).
46. Nouns of the Second Declension in -us (-os) and -um (-on!
are thus declined : —
1 Compare the English chamber from French chambre.
« Compare Greek dypSs, which shows the original o of the stem.
8 Bj so-called Ablaut (see § 17. a).
§ 46, 47]
SECOND DECLENSION (0-STEMS)
21
servus, M., slave
bellum, N., war
PompSius, M., Pompey
f
' / Stem servo-
Stem bello-
Stem Pomp^io-
!/
/
Singular
OASE-ENDINQS
CA8K-ENDING8
roM.
servus (-os)
-US (-OS)
belluin
-um
Pompdins
rEN.
servi
-i
belli
-I
Pomp6I
)at.
servS
-o
bells
-5
Pomp6lS
k.CC.
servum (-cm)
-um (-om)
bellum
-um
Pompgium
iBL.
8erv5
-5
bells
-S
PompgiS
''oc.
serve
-e
bellum
-um
Pompgl (-ei)
Plural
roM.
sen^
-I
bella
-a
Pomp8I
rEN.
8erv5rum
-5rum
bellSrum
-Snim
Pomp§iSram
)at.
servis
-ia
belliB
-is
Pomp^
lCC.
8erv68
-58
bella
-a
Pomp6iS8
LBL.
servi8
-ia
belHs
-Is
Pomp§Is
Note 1. — The earlier forms for nominative and accusative were -os, -om, and these
rere always retained after u and v up to the end of the Republic. The terminations
and m are sometimes omitted in inscriptions : as, ComSlio for ComSlios, CornSUom.
Note 2. — Stems in quo-, like equo-, change qu to c before u. Thus, — ecus (earlier
luos) , equi, equ'd, ecum (earlier equom) , eque. Modem editions disregard this principle.
47. Nouns of the Second Declension in -er and -ir are thus de-
lined :-
—
puer, M., boy
ager, ^i., field
vir, M., man
Stem puero-
Stem agro-
Singular
Stem viro-
CASE-EKDHrGB
NOM.
puer
ager
vir
Gen.
puerl
agii
virl
-I
DAT.
puerS
agrS
virS
-5
Ace.
puerum
agrum
virum
-um
Abl.
puerS
agrS
Plural
virS
-6
NOM.
puerl
agri
virl
-I
Gen.
puerSrum
agrSrum
virSrum
-5rum
DAT.
puerls
agrla
virls
-18
Ace.
puerSs
agrSs
virSs
-58
Abl.
pueris
agris
virTs
-Is
Note. — When e belongs to the stem, as in puer, it is retained throughout; othei^
ivise it appears only in the nominative and vocative singular, as in ager.
22 DECLENSION OF NOUNS [§§48,
Gender in the Second Declension
48. Nouns ending in -us (-os), -er, -ir, are Masculine ; those end
ing in -um (-on) are Neuter.
Exceptions: Names of countries and towns in -ns (-os) are Feminine: asj
Aegyptas, Corinthus. Also many names of plants and gems, with the following;
alvus, belly; carbasus, linen (pi. carbasa, saiUj n.) ; colas, distaff; humus, groud,
vamius, winnowinjg-ahcyod.
Many Greek nouns retain their original gender : as, arctus (f.), the Polar Bm^
methodus (f.), method.
a. The following in -us are Neuter ; their accusative (as with all neutera
is the same as the nominative : pelagus, sea ; yirus, poison ; yulgus (rareii
M.), the crowd. They are aot found in the plural, except pelagus, which btj
a rare nominative and accusative plural pelage.
Note. — The nominative plural neuter c6tC, sea monsters , occurs; the nominatit
singular cStus occurs in Yitruvius.
Case-Forms in the Second Declension
49. a* The Locative form of this declension ends for the singular in
as, humi, on the ground; Corinthi, at Corinth; for the plural, in -Is: ^
Philippis, at Philippi (cf. p. 34, footnote).
\. h. The genitive of nouns in -ius or -ium ended, until the Augustan A?
in a single -i : as, fill, of a son ; Pompei, of Pompey (Pomplius) ; but tb(
accent of the nominative is retained: as, ingS'ni, of genius.^
c. Proper names in -ius have -i in the vocative, retaining the accent o
the nominative : as, Verglli. So adso, filius, son ; genius, divine guardian : ^
audi, mi fili, hear, my son.
Adjectives in -ius form the vocative in -ie, and some of these are occ*
si on ally used as nouns : as, Lacedaemonie, Spartan. |
Note. — Greek names in -ius have the vocative -ie : as, Lyrdos, vocative Lyrcie.
d» The genitive plural often has -um or (after v) -om (cf. § 6. a) instfi^
of -5rum, especially in the poets : as, deum, superum, divom, of the go^'
yirum, of men. Also in compounds of vir, and in many words of money
measure, and weight : as, Seyirum, of the Seviri ; nummum, of coins ; iugewH
of acres.
e. The original ending of the ablative singular (-5d) is sometimes fonn^
in early Latin : as, Gnaiy5d (later, Gnaeo), Cneius.
/• Proper names in -aius, -eius, -^ius (as, AurunculSius, Bdi), are declii^
like Pomplius.
1 The genitive in -11 occurs once in Virgil, and constantly in Ovid, but was probabl:
unknown to Cicero.
5§ 49-62]
SECOND DECLENSION (0-STEMS)
23
g* Deus (m.), god, is thus declined: —
SlNGULAB
NoM. deu8
Gen. del
Dat. de5
Ace. deum
Abl. ded
Plural
del (dil), dl
dedmin, demn
dels (dils), dis
de58
delB(dils), diB
NoTB. — The vocative singular of deus does not occur in classic Latin, but is said
3 have been dee ; deus (like the nominative) occurs in the Vulgate. For the genitive
ilural, divum or divom (from divus, divine) is often used.
50. The following stems in ero-, in which e belongs to the stem,
etain the e throughout and are declined Uke puer (§ 47) : —
adulter, adulterer; gener, aon-iri-law; puer, boy ;
socer, faiker-ivAaw ; vesper, emeniTig ; Liber, Bacckua.
Also, the adjective liber, free, of which libeii, chUdren, is the plural (§ 111. a),
ind compounds in -fer and -ger (stem fero-, gero-) : as, Ificifer, morning star ;
inniger, squire.
a. An old nominative socerus occurs. So vocative puere, hoy, as if from
•puerus (regularly puer).
h» Vir, man, has genitive viri ; the adjective satur, sated, has saturi ; vea-
>er, evening, has ablative yespere (locative vesperi, in ike evening),
c. Mulciber, Vulcan, has -beri and -bri in the genitive. The barbaric
lames Hiber and Celtiber retain e throughout.
51. The following, not having e in the stem, insert it in the
lominative singular and are declined like ager (§ 47) : —
ager, .^(2, stem agro- ; coluber, 8naA;e; magister, master;
aper, hoar;
arbiter, judge ;
auster, south wind ;
cancer, crab;
caper, goat;
conger, sea eel ;
culter, knife;
faber, smith;
liber, heaver;
liber, hook;
minister, servavJt;
oleaster, wHd olive ;
onager (-grus), wild ass;
scomber (-bros), mackerel.
Greek Nouns of the Second Declension
52. Greek nouns of the Second Deplension end in -os, -<J8, mas-
culine or feminine, and in -on neuter.
They are mostly proper names and are declined as follows in
the Singular, the Plural, when found, being regular : —
24 DECLENSION OF NOUNS [§§52-66
mythos, m.
Ath5s, M.
Delos, F.
lUon, K.
faUe
Aihoa
Singular
Bdos
Ilium
NOM.
mythoB
Athoa (-6)
Deloa
Ilion
Gen.
mythl
Atho (-1)
Dell
Ilii
Dat.
myths
Atho
Dels
Tlio
Ace.
mython
AthSn (-um)
Delon (-um)
Ilion
Abl.
myths
Atho
Dels
IliS
Voo.
mythe
AthSs
Dele
Tlion
a» Many names in -es belonging to the third declension have also a
genitive in -i : as, Thucydides, Thucydidi (compare § 44. h).
&• Several names in -er have also a nominative in -us : as, Teucer or
Teucrus. The name PanthQs has the vocative Panthfl (§81. 8).
c. The genitive plural of certain titles of books takes the Greek ter-
mination -5n : as, Georgicdn, of the Georgics.
d» The termination -oe (for Greek -oi) is sometimes found in the nomi-
native plural : as, Adelphoe, the Adelphi (a play of Terence).
e. Greek names in -eus (like Orpheus) have forms of the second and
third declensions (see § 82).
THIRD DECLENSION (CONSONANT AND /^STEMS)
53. Nouns of the Third Declension end in a, e, i, S, y, c, 1, n,
r, 8, t, X.
54. Stems of the Third Declension are classed as follows : —
r a. Mute stems.
I. Consonant Stems -i , ▼ • -j j xt i i.
[ &. Liquid and Nasal stems.
' a. Pure i-stems.
h. Mixed i-stems.
II. I-Stems ■
55. The Nominative is always derived from the stem.
The variety in form in the Nominative is due to simple modi-
fications of the stem, of which the most important are —
1. Combination of final consonants : as of c (or g) and s to form z ; dm
duels, stem duo-; rex, regis, stem rSg-.
2. Omission of a final consonant : as of a final nasal ; leo, leonis, stem
Icon-; 5ratio, oratiSnis, stem oration-.
3. Omission of a final vowel : as of final 1 ; calcar, calcaris, stem calcari-.
4. Change of vowel in the final syllable : as of a to e ; princeps (for -c*ps}
principis, stem princip- (for -cap-).
56, 67] THIRD DECLENSION: CONSONANT STEMS
25
Consonant Stems
Mute Steins
56. Masculine and Feminine Nouns with mute stems form the
ominative by adding s to the stem.
A labial (p) is retained before s : as, princep-s.
A lingual (t, d) is dropped before s : as, miles (stem milit-), cust5s (stem
stod-).
A palatal (c, g) unites with s to form x : as, dux (for fduc-s), rex (for
eg-s).
€M,* In dissyllabic stems the final syllable often shows e in the nomina-
ve and 1 in the stem : as, princeps, stem princip- (for -cap-).
57. Nouns of this class are declined as follows : —
princeps, c, chief
radix, f., root
miles, M., soldier
Stbm princip-
Stem radic-
SlNGULAR
Stem milit-
CA8B-Eia>INGS
JOM.
princepa
radix
miles
-s
rEN.
principlB
radicis
niilitis
-is
)at.
prmcipi
radici
iiiiliti
-i
^cc.
prmcipem
radicem
militem
-em
S.BL.
principe
radice
Plural
milite
•
-e
?^OM.
principSs
radices
rnilitSa
-es
jrEN.
principum
radicum
militum
-um
DAT.
principibus
radicibus
militibus
-ibus
A.CC.
prlncipSs
radices
milites
-es
A.BL.
principibus
radicibus
militibus
-ibus
custos, c, guard
dux, c, leader
rex, M., king
Stem custod-
Stem duc-
Stem rSg-
•
SlNGULAR
CASE-ENDINGS
NoM.
CUSt5B
diiz
rex
-S
Gen.
custodia
duels
regis
-Is
Dat.
custodi
duci
regl
-i
Ace.
custodem
ducem
regem
-em
Abl.
cfistode
duce
rege
-e
26
DECLENSION OF NOUNS
[§§ 67^
Plural
NOM.
custodSs
ducfis
r6g6B
-^
Gen.
custodum
ducom
regum
-um
Dat.
custodibuB
ducibuB
regibuB^
-ibns
Ace.
custddes
duc6B
rggSa
-^
Abl.
custOdibuB
ducibuB
regibuB
-ibxiB
€U In like manner are declined —
ariSs, -etis (m.), ram; comes, -itis (c), companion; lapis, -idis (m.), stone:
iudez, -icis {m.)^ judge; corniz, -ids (f.), raven^ and many other nouns.
58. Most mute stems are Masculine or Feminine. Those that
are neuter have for the Nominative the simple stem. But, —
a* Lingual Stems (t, d) ending in two consonants drop the final inut«:
as, cor (stem cord-), lac (stem lact-). So also stems in &t- from the Greek:
as, poCma (stem poCmat-).
b» The stem capit- shows tt in the nominative (caput for fcapot).
59. Nouns of this class are declined as follows : —
(
:or, N., h^eari
caput, N., head
poema, n., poem
Stem cord-
Stem capit-
Singular
Stem poSmat-
OASB-BNDDfC*
NOM.
cor
caput
poema
'
Gen.
cordiB
capitis
poematiB
-is
Dat.
cordi
capiti
poemaU
4,
Ace.
cor
caput
poema
Abl.
corde
capite
Plural
poemate
-e
NOM.
corda
capita
poemata
-a
Gen.
capitum
poernatum
-um
Dat.
cordibus
capitibuB
poematibuB
-ibns
Ace.
corda
capita
poeinata
-a
Abl.
cordibuB
capitibuB
poematibuB
-ibuB
60. The following irregularities require notice i —
a* Greek neuters with nominative singular in -a (as poema) frequentlj
end in -is in the dative and ablative plural, and rarely in -drum in the geni*
tive plural ; as, poematis (for poematibus), poemat5rum (for poematum).
b» A number of monosyllabic nouns with mute stems want the geni'
tive plural (like cor). See § 103. ^. 2.
51, 62] THIRD DECLENSION: CONSONANT STEMS
27
Liquid and Nasal Stems (/; n, r)
61, In Masculine and Feminine nouns with liquid and nasal
)ins the Nominative is the same as the stem.
Exceptions are the following : —
1. Stems in on- drop n in the nominative : as in legi5, stem legion-.
2. Steins in din- and gin- drop n and keep an original o in the nominative : as
virgd, stem virgin-.^
B. Stems in in- (not din- or gin-) retain n and have e instead of i in the nom-
Ltive : as in comicen, stem comicin-.^
4. Stems in tr- have -ter in the nominative : as, pater, stem patr-.^
62. Nouns of this class are declined as follows : —
cQnsul, M., consvZ leo, m., lion virgo, f., maiden pater, u., father
Stbm consul- Stbm ledn- Stem virgin- Stem patr-
CM.
cOnsnl
le5
SINGULAR
virgS
OASE-ENDINGS
pater
EN.
consulis
leonis
Virginia
patris
-is
AT.
consul!
leoni
virgini
patii
-I
CC.
consulem
leonem
virgin em
patrem
-em
JBIj,
consnle
leone
virgine
Plural
patre
-e
FOM.
c5nsnl68
leonCs
Virginia
patres
-€8
rBN.
consulom
leonum
virginum
patrum
-um
)at.
c5nsuUbuB
Ie5nibu8
virginibus
patribus
-ibus
Ice.
consules
leonSs
virginCs
patrSs
-es
Lbl.
consnlibua
leonibus
virginibus
patribus
-ibus
Note 1. — Stems in H-, rr- (n.) lose one of their liquids in the nominative: as, far,
arris ; mel, mellis.
Note 2. — A few masculine and feminine stems have a nominative in -s as well as
in -r : as, honSs or honor, arbds or art>or.
Note 3. — Canis, dog^ and luvenis, youth, have -is in the nominative.
^ These differences dex)end in part upon special phonetic laws, in accordance with
which vowels in weakly accented or unaccented syllables are variously modified, and
in part upon the influence of analogy.
^ These, no doubt, had originally ter- inthe stem, but this had become weakened
to tr- in some of the cases even in the parent speech. In Latin only the nominative and
vocative singular show the e. But cf. Maspitris and Maspiteris (Ma[r]8-piter), quoted by
Priscian as old forms.
28
DECLENSION OF NOUNS
[§§ 63^6
63. In Neuter nouns with liquid or nasal stems the Nominar
tive is the same as the stem.
Exc^tioTM : 1. Stems in in- have e instead of i in the nominative : as is
nomen, stem nomin-.
2. Most stems in er- and or- have -us in the nominative : as, genus, stem gener-.^
64. Nouns of this class are declined as follows : —
nomen, n., name genua, n., race corpus, v., body aequor, n., sea
Stem nomin- Stem gener- Stem corpor- Stem aequor-
SiNGULAB
NOM.
n6men
genus
corpus
aequor
Gen.
nominis
generis
corporis
aequoris
Dat.
nomin!
generl
corpoii
aequori
Ace.
ndmen
genus
corpus
aequor
Abl.
nomine
genere
Plural
corpore
aequore
NOM.
nomina
genera
corpora
aequora
Gen.
nominum
generum
corporum
aequorum
Dat.
ndminibus
geneiibus
corporibus
aeqnoribufl
Ace.
ndmina
genera
corpora
aequora
Abl.
nominibus
generibus
corporibus
aequoribus
So also are declined opus, -eris, work; pignus, -eris or -oris, pledge, etc.
I
Note. — The following real or apparent liquid and nasal stems have the genltW
plural in -ioni, and are to be classed with the i-stems : imber, linter, iiter, Tenter ; gOs,
mas, mus, [tr6n]; also virgs (plural ol vis: see §79).
z-Stems
65. Nouns of this class include —
1. Pure i-Stems :
a. Masculine and Feminine parisyllabic ' nouns in -is and four in -er.
b. Neuters in -e, -al, and -ar.
2. Mixed i-Stems, declined in the singular like consonant stemi
in the plural like i-stems.
1 These were originally s-stems (of. § 15. 4).
2 I.e. haying the same number of syllables in the nominative and genitive aingnli
§§ 66-68]
THIRD DECLENSION: PUEB /-STEMS
29
Pure ^Sterns
66. Masculine and Feminine parisyllabic nouns in -is form the
Nominative singular by adding a to the stem.
Four steins in bri- and tri- do not add s to form the nominative, but drop i
and insert e before r. These are imbeif linter, Gter, yenter.
67. Nouns of this class are declined as follows : —
sitis, F
., thirst
turris, f., totoer
Isnis, M.,flre
imber, m., rain
Strm siti-
Stem turii-
Stem igni-
Stem imbii-
SlNGULAB
NOM.
sitis
tnrris
Ignis
imber
Gen.
sitis
turris
Ignis
imbris
Dat.
siti
tunl
Ignl
imbri
Ace.
sitim
turrim (-em)
Ignem
imbrem
Abl.
siti
turri (-e)
igiii (-e)
imbri (-e)
y
Plubal
NOM.
turr§s
ign§s
imbr6s
Gen.
turrium
iguium
imbrium
Dat.
turribus
ignibus
imbribus
Ace.
turris (-6s)
Ignis (-6s)
iiribris (-6s)
Abl.
turribus
Ignibus
imbribus
68. In Neuters the Nominative is the same as the stem, with
final i changed to e : as, mare, stem marl-. But most nouns ^ in
which the i of the stem is preceded by al or fir lose the final vowel
and shorten the preceding a : as, animfil, stem animfili-.^
a. Neuters in -e, -al, and -ar have -i in the ablative singular, -ium in the
genitive plural, and -ia in the nominative and accusative plural : as, animal,
animali, -ia, -ium.
1 Such are animal, txacchlnal, bidental, capital, cemcal, cubital, lupercal, minutal,
puteol, quadrantal, toral, tribunal, vectlffal ; calcar, cochlear, exemplar, lacunar, laquear,
liicar, luminar, lupanar, palear, pulvinar, torcular. Cf. the plurals dentalia, frontalia,
sennalia, sponsalia ; alt&ria, plantajia, gpecularia, talaria ; also many names of festivals,
as, Saturnalia.
> Exceptions are augurale, coU&re, focale, navale, penetrale, r&nuUe, scut&to, tlbiale;
alveare, capillire, cochle&re.
30
DECLENSION OF NOUNS
[§§ 69-71
69. Nouns of this class are declined as follows : —
sedQe, n. , seat animal, n. , animcU calcar, n. , spur
Stjem calcHii-
NOM.
sedile
Singular
animal
calcar
0A8E-BNDIN0S
-e or —
Gbn.
sediliB
animalis
calcaris
-ia
DAT.
sedlli
animall
calc3.ri
-I
Ace.
sedile
animal
calcar
-e or —
Abl.
sedlli
animall
Plural
calcarl
-i
NoM.
sedllia
animalia
calcarla
-ia
Gen.
sedilium
animalium
calcarium
-ium
Dat.
sedllibuB
animalibus
calc9>ribas
-ibuB
Ace.
sedllia
animalia
calcarla
-ia
Abl.
sedTlibus
animalibus
calcaribus
-ibus
Mixed ^Sterns
70. Mixed i-stems are either original i-stems that have lost theii
i-forms in the singular, or consonant stems that have assumed i-
forms in the plural.
NoTB. — It is sometimes impossible to distinguish between these two classes.
71. Mixed i-stems have -em in the accusative and -e in the abla-
tive singular, -ium in the genitive ^ and -is or -68 in the accusative ,
plural. They include the following: —
1. Noims in -es, gen. -is.* I
2. Monosyllables in -« or -z preceded by a consonant : as, ars, pons, an
3. Polysyllables in -ns or -rs : as, aliens, cohors.
4. Nouns in -tas, genitive -talis (genitive plural usually -um) * : as, civitas.
5. Penates, optimates, and nouns denoting birth or abode {patrials) in -as.
-is, plural -ates, -ites : as, Arpinas, plural Arpinates ; Quiris, plural Qiiirites.
6. The following monosyllables in -s or -x preceded by a vowel : dos,
fraus, glis, lis, mas, mus, nix, nox, strix, vis.
1 There is much variety in the practice of the ancients, some of these words having
-ium, some -um, and some both.
3 These are acinacgs, aedSs, alcSs, caedSs, cautSs, cl&dSs, comp&g6s, contiLc^s, famSs,
fSlSs, fid68 (plural), indolfis, UbSs, luSs, mSlSs, mdlSs, nabSs, palumbSs, prSlis, propigH.
pubSs, sSdes, saepSs, sordSs, str&gSs, straSs, subolCs, tIbSs, torqnSs, tudfis, v&tGa, veliH
▼eprgs, verrgs, vnlpCs ; aedSs has also nominative aedis.
§§ 72-76]
THIRD DECLENSION: MIXED I-STEMS
31
72. Nouns of this class are thus declined :
nt
i
ibgs, p., doud
Stbh nab(i)-
urbs, p., dty
Stsm urb(i)-
noz, F., night
Stem noct(i)-
SlNGULAR
clifins, H., client
Stem clieiit(i)-
aetis, F., age
Stbu aet&t(i).
NOM.
nubSs
urbs
noz
cliens
aetas
Gen.
nubia
urbis
noctia
clientiB
aetatiB
Dat.
nub!
urbl
noctit
clientl
aetati
Ace.
niibem
urbem
noctem
clientem
aetStem
Abl.
nube
urbe
nocte
Plural
cliente
aetate
NOM.
nubSs
urb6s
noctSB
client6s
aetatfis
Gen,
nubium
iirbium
noctium
clientium *
aetlltum^
Dat.
DubibuB
urbibuB
noctibiiB
clientibuB
aetatibuB
Ace.
Abl.
nubi8(-6B)
nubibuB
urblB(-Ss)
Tirbibns
■ noctl8(-Ss)
noctibuB
clieTitTB(-Ss)
clientibuB
aetatXB(-«B)
aetatibus
Summary of ^Stems
73. The i-declension was confused even to the Romans themselves, nor was it stable
at all periods of the language, early Latin having i-forms which afterwards disap-
peared. There was a tendency in nouns to lose the i-forms, in adjectives to gain them.
The nominative plural (-Is) ^ was most thoroughly lost, next the accusative singular
(-im), next the ablative (-i) ; while the genitive and accusative plural (-ium, -is) were
retained in almost all.
74. I-stems show the i of the stem in the following forms : —
a. They have the genitive plural in -ium (but some monosyllables lack
it entirely). For a few exceptions, see § 78.
b. All neuters have the nominative and accusative plural in -ia.
€?. The accusative plural (m. or f.) is regularly -is.
d. The accusative singular (m. or f.) of a few ends in -im (§ 75).
e» The ablative singular of aH neuters, and of many masculines and
feminines, ends in -i (see § 76).
75. The regular case-ending of the Accusative singular of i-
stems (M. or f.) would be -im : as, sitis, sitim (cf . stella, -am ; servus,
-um); but in most nouns this is changed to -em (following the
consonant declension).
1 Rarely clientum. 2 Also aetatium. Cf. § 71. 4.
» An old, though not the original, ending (see p. 32, footnote 2)..
82 DECLENSION OF NOUNS [§§76-78
a* The accusative in -im is found exclusively —
1. In Greek nouns and in names of rivers.
2. In buris, cucumis, rilvis, sitis, tassis, vis.
3. In adverbs in -tim (being accusative of nouns in -tis), as, partim ; and in
amussim.
&• The accusative in -im is found sometimes in febris, puppis, restis,
turris, securis, sementis, and rarely in many other words.
76. The regular form of the Ablative singular of i-stems would
be -i : as, sitis, siti ; but in most nouns this is changed to -e.
a. The ablative in -i is found exclusively —
1. In nouns having the accusative in -Im (§ 75) ; also seciiris.
2. In the following adjectives used as nouns : aequalis, annAlis, aqualis, cost
salads, gentOis, moUiis, primipilaris, tribiilis.
8. In neuters in -e, -al, -ar : except baccar, iubar, rete, and sometimes mare.
h. The ablative in -i is found sometimes —
1. In avis, cl&vis, febris, finis, ignis, ^ imber, Iflz, n&vls, ovis, pelvis, puppifli
sementis, strigilis, turns, and occasionally in other words.
2. In the following adjectives used as nouns : affinis, bipennis, canaUs, famili-
aris, natalis, rivalis, 8api§ns, tridens, trirSmis, vocalis.
Note 1. — The ablative of famSs is always famS (§ 105. e) . The defective mine hAS
sometimes man! (§ 103. 6. n.) as ablative.
Note 2. — Most names of towns in ^ (as, Praeneste, Tergeste) and SSiacte, a moun-
tain, have the ablative in -e. Caere has CaerSte.
Note 3. — Canis and ^uvenls have cane^ iuvene.
77. The regular Nominative plural of instems is -Cs,^ but -is is \
occasionally found. The regular Accusative plural -is is common,
but not exclusively used in any word. An old form for bothi
cases is -Ss (diphthong).
78. The following have -um (not -ium) in the genitive plural:
1. Always, — canis, iuvenis,^ ambages, mare (once only, otherwise want-
ing), Yolucris ; regularly, sSdes, vates.
2. Sometimes, — apis, caedes, clades, mensis, strues, subolSs.
3. Very rarely, — patrials in -as, -atis; -is, -itis; as, Arpinas, ArpinAtoin;
Samius, Samnitttm.
1 Always in the formula aqui et igni Interdici (§ 401).
2 The Indo-European ending of the nominative plural, -88 (preserved in Greek in
consonant stems, as 6pTv^t 6pTvy-€s)i contracts with a stem-vowel and gives -€8 in the
Latin i-declension (of. the Greek plural fcts). This *€8 was extended to consonant
stems in Latin. 8 canis and invenis are really n-stems.
79]
THIRD DECLENSION: IBREGULAR NOUNS
88
Inegular Nouns of the Third Declension
79. In many nouns the stem is irregularly modified in the nomi-
native or other cases. Some peculiar forms are thus declined : —
b5s, c.
senex, m.
card, p.
08, K.
tIb, f.
ox, cow
old man
fle^
bone
force
Singular
NOM.
b5s
Benez
carO
OS
vis
Gen.
bCvis
senis
carnis
ossis
vis (rare)
Dat.
bovl
sen!
earn!
ossX
vl (rare)
Ace.
bovem
senem
camem
OS
vim
Abl.
bove
sene
carne
OBse
VI
cattle
Plural
etrengfth
NOM.
bovSs
senis
eamis
ossa
viris
Gen.
boom
senum
carnium
ossium
virium
Dat.
bobuB (bubus)
Benibus
camibus
ossibus
viribus
Ace.
bovSs
sends
carnis
ossa
virifa (-is)
Abl.
bobus (bubus)
Benibus
carnibus
ossibus
viribus
sus, c.
luppiter,
M.
nix, F.
iter, N.
swine
JupUer
mum
march
Singular
NOM.
BUS
luppiter
1
niz
iter
Gen.
suis
lovis
nivis
itineris
Dat.
BUi,
lovl
nivi
itinerl
Ace.
Buem
lovem
niyem
iter
Abl.
sue
love
nive
itinere
Plural
NOM,
8u6s
nivii
(
itinera
Gbn.
suum
nivium
itinerum
Dat.
BUbus
(Bulbns)
nivibus
itineribus
Ace.
sues
nivis
itinera
Abl.
subus
(suibus)
•
nivibus
itineribus
1 Also Jupiter.
34 DECLENSION OF NOUNS [§§ 7&-81
a* Two vowel-stems in u-, gru- and su-, which follow the third declension,
add s in the nominative, and are inflected like mute stems : grvLs has also
a nominative gruis ; sus has both suibus and subus in the dative and ablative
plural, grus has only gniibus.
b* In the stem boy- (boa-) the diphthong ou becomes 5 in the nominative
(bos, bSvis).
In nay- (naa-) an 1 is added (nayis, -is), and it is declined like torris (§ 67).
In My- (= Zevs) the diphthong (on) becomes u in lu-piter (for -piter),
genitive ISvis, etc. ; but the form luppiter is preferred.
Cm In iter, itineris (n.), iecur, iecinoris (iecoris) (k.), supellex, supellectilis
(f.), the nominative has been formed from a shorter stem ; in senez, sem
from a longer ; so that these words show a combination of forms from two
distinct stems.
d» In nix, niyis the nominative retains a g from the original stem, the g
uniting with s, the nominative ending, to form z. In the other cases the
stem assumes the form niy- and it adds i in the genitive plural.
€• Vas (n.), yasis, keeps s throughout ; plural yasa, yasdrum. A dativ«
plural yasibus also occurs. There is a rare singular yftsum.
The Locatiye Case
80. The Locative form for nouns of the third declension ends
in the singular in -i or -e, in the plural in -ibus: as, ruii, in th
country; Carthagim or Carthfigine, at Carthage; Tndlibus, at Tralltt}
Greek Nouns of the Third Declension
81. Many nouns originally Greek — mostly proper names —
retain Greek forms of inflection. So especially —
1. Genitive singular in -os, as, tigridos.
2. Accusative singular in -a, as, aethera.
3. Vocative singular like the- stem, as, Pericl§, Orphan, Ati&.
4. Nominative plural in -£s, as, heroes.
5. Accusative plural in -&s, as, her5&s.
1 The Indo-European locative singular ended in -I, which became -8 in Latin. Thtf
the Latin ablative in -e is, historically considered, a locative. The Latin ablative ii
-i (from -id) was an analogical formation (cf . -a from -*d, -5 from -od), properly belong
ing to i-stems. With names of towns and a few other words, a locative function ^
ascribed to forms in -i (as, Cartfailgini), partly on the analogy of the real locative <^
o-stems (as, Connthi, § 49. a) ; but forms in -S also survived in this use. The ploi*
-bus is properly dative or ablative, but in forms like TralUbus it has a locative tnit
tion. Gf . PhiUppls (§ 49. a), in which the ending -is is, historically considered, eitbti
locative, or instrumental, or both, and Athfinis (§ 43. c), in which the ending is form^
on the analogy of o-stems.
i2, 83]
THIRD DECLENSION: GREEK NOUNS
85
92. Some of these forms are seen in the following examples : —
hgros, M.y hero lampas, f., torch basis, f., base tigils, c, tiger nais, f., naiad
Stum hero-
Stem lampad-
f SxEMbasi-
Singular
Stem 1 ^^' Stem nlid-
a.
heros
lampas
basis
tigris nais
».
herois
lampados
baseds
tigris(-idos) naidos
r.
herol
lampadi
basi
tigii naidl
c.
heroa
lampada
basin
tigrixi(-ida) naida
L.
heroe
lampade
basI
Plural
tigTl(-ide) naide
M.
hSroSs
lampadSs
basfis
tigrSs nftidSs
N.
heroum
lampadum
ba8iam(-e5n) tigrium naidtun
,A.i
heroibus
lampadibua
basibus
tigribus nS.idibus
IC.
hero&B
lampad&B
bas!8(-eis)
tigrls(-id&s) n&id&s
Proper Names
>M.
Dido
Sirnois
Capys
:n.
Didonia(DidfL8)
Simoentis
Capyos
LT.
Did6ni(Did6)
Simoentl
Capyl
30.
Did6nem(-6)
Simoenta
Capyn
iL.
Did6ne(-6)
Simoente
Capye
>C.
Dido
Siiuois
Capy
>M.
Orpheus
Pericles
Paris
£N.
0rpheI(-€68)
Periclis(-I)
Paridis
(IT.
Orphei(-e6)
Pericli(-i)
Paridi
DC.
Orphea(-um)
T> • 1 / « X fParidem,
Penclem(-ea,-en) ( Parim(-in)
BL.
OrpheS
Pericle
Paride, Pari
OC.
Orpheu
Pericl6s(-€)
Pari
NoTR.—The reguli
\r Latin forms
may be used for most of the above.
83. Other peculiarities are the following : —
a. Delphinus, -i (m.), has also the form delphin, -inis ; Salamis, -is (f.),
as ace. Salamina.
h. Most stems in Id- (nom. -is) often have also the forms of i-stems : as,
gris, gen. -idis (-Idos) or -is ; ace. -Idem (-Ida) or -im (-in) ; abl. -Me or -i.
»ut many, including most feminine proper names, have ace. -idem (-ida)}
bl. -ide, — not -im or -L (These stems are irregular also in Greek.)
1 Datiye, hSrSisin (once only).
86 DECLENSION OF NOUNS [§§»
c« stems in oiir sometimes retain -n in the nominatiye : as, Agaa
non (or Agamemnd), genitive -5nis, accusative -Sna.
d. Stems in ont- form the nominative in -dn: as, horizSn, Xenopld
but a few are occasionally Latinized into 5n- (nom. -5) : as, Draco, -oi
AntiphO, -Qnis.
6* Like Simois are declined stems in ant-, ent-, and a few in unt- (nci
native in -as, -Is, -us) : as, Atlas, -antis ; Trapezus, -untis.
/• Some words fluctuate between different declensions : as Orpheus
tween the second and the third.
g» -fin is found in the genitive plural in a few Greek titles of books:
Metamorphdseon, of the Metamorphoses (Ovid's well-known poem); GeSrgk
of the Georgics (a poem of Virgil).
Gender in the Third Declension
84. The Gender of nouns of this declension must be leam
by practice and from the Lexicon. Many are masculine or fe:
nine by nature or in accordance with the general rules for gt
der (p. 15). The most important rules for the others, with th
principal exceptions, are the following : — ^
85. Masculine are nouns in -or, -58, -er, -Ss (gen. -itis), -ex (ge
-ids): as, color, flOs, imber, gorges (gurgitis), vertex (verticis).
Exceptions are the following : —
a. Feminine are arbor ; c5s, dds ; linter.
b. Neuter are ador, aequor, cor, marmor ; 5s (oris) ; also os (ossis) ;
cadaver, iter, tuber, uber, ver; and names of plants and trees in -er:
acer, papaver.
86. Feminine are nouns in -6, -Ss, -6s, -is, -us, -x, and in -s precei
by a consonant : as, legi5, civitas, nub5s, avis, virtus, aix, urbs. T!
nouns in -5 are mostly those in -d5 and -g5, and abstract and collfi
tive nouns in -i5.
Exceptions are the following : —
a. Masculine are leo, leonis ; ligo, 5nis ; serm5, -5nis ; also card5, harpaj
margo, ord5, turbo ; and concrete nouns in -id : as, pugi5, unio, papiliS ; '
acinaces, aries, celes, lebes, paries, pes ;
1 Some nouns of donbtful or variable gender are omitted.
3 Many noons in -5 (gen. -5nis) are masculine by signification : as, ser5, carrii
restio, ropemaker; and family names (originally nicknames): as, Cicerd, Naso. S
§§236. c, 255.
66-^9]
FOURTH DECLENSION
87
Koims in -nis and -^nis : as, ignis, sanguis ; also axis, caulis, collis, cucumis,
iis, fascis, f ollis, fustis, lapis, mensis, orbis, piscis, postis, pulyis, yOmis ;
mus;
calix, fornix, grex, phoenix, and nouns in -ex (gen. -ids) (§ 85);
dens, fons, mons, pons. ^
Note. — Some nouns in -is and -ns which are masculine were originally adjectlTea
participles agreeing with a masculine noun: af, Aprills (sc. mSnsis), m., April;
ins (sc. sol), M., t?ie east; ann&lis (sc. liber), m., t?ie year-book.
b. Neuter are vas (vasis) ; cms, iiis, piis, riis, tus.
B7. Neuter are nouns in -a, -e, -1, -n, -ar, -ur, -iis : as, poSma, mare,
inal, nOmen, calcar, rObur, corpus ; also lac and caput.
Exceptions are the following : —
a. Masculine are sal, sol, pecten, yultur, lepus.
&. Feminine is pecus (gen. -udis).
«
FOURTH DECLENSION
88. The Stem of nouns of the Fourth Declension ends in u-.
lis is usually weakened ta.i before -bus. Masculine and Femi-
le nouns form the nominative by adding a; Neuters have for
minative the simple stem, but with ti (long).
89. Nouns of the Fourth Declension are declined as follows :
anus, F., Jiand
Lacus, M., lake
genii, n., knee
Strm manu-
Stem lacu-
Singular
Stem genu-
CASS-ENDISrOS
OA8S-EKDIKQ8
u. manus
lacuB
-UB
gend
-a
N. manus
lacuB
-us
genfis
-CIS
T. manui(-1i)
lacnr(.tl)
-ui(.ii)
gentl
-a
c. manxmi
lacnm
-um
gend
-a
L. manu
lacti
-u
Plural
genfl
-ti
M. mantis
lacuB
-Us
genua
-ua
N. manuum
lacuum
-uum
genuum
-uum
T. manibuB
lacubus
-ibuB(-ubu8)
genibuB
-ibuB
c. man08
lacliB
-as
genua
-ua
L. manibuB
lacubus
-ibus(-ubuB)
genibus
-ibus
38 DECLENSION OF NOUNS [§§9(M)i
Gender in the Fourth Declension
90. Most nouns of the Fourth Declension in -us are Masculine
JSxceptiora : The following are Feminine : acus, anus, colus, domiis, Idas (plural)
manus, nuras, porticas, qumqu&trus (plural), socroSf tribus, with a few names o
plants and trees. Also, rarely, penus, specus.
91. The only Neuters of the Fourth Declension are comii,
peca (§ 105./), veru.^
Case-Forms in the Fourth Declension
92. The following peculiarities in case-forms of the FourtI
Declension require notice : —
«• A genitive singular in -i (as of the second declension) sometiinB
occurs in nouns in -tus : as, senatus, genitive senati (regularly senatus).
6. In the genitive plural -uum is sometimes pronounced as one syll*
ble, and may then be written -um : as, currum (Aen. vi. 653) for curruuffl'
Cm The dative and ablative plural in -iibus are retained in partus as
tribus ; so regularly in artus and lacus, and occasionally in other word
portus and specus have both -ubus and -ibus.
<!• Most names of plants and trees, and colus, distaff, have also forms
the second declension : as, ficus, Jigy genitive ficiis or fici.
6. An old genitive singular in -uis or -uos and an old genitive plural
-uom occur rarely : as, senatuis, fienatuos ; fluctuom.
• /. The ablative singular ended anciently in -iid (cf . § 43. n. 1) : ^
magistratud.
93. Domus (F.), houae^ has two stems ending in u- and o-. Henfl
it shows forms of both the fourth and second declensions :
Singular
Plural
NOM.
domus
domtlB
Gun.
domtls (domi, loc.)
domuum (domdnun)
Dat.
domui (domo)
domlbuB
Ago.
domum
domos (domfls)
Abl.
domo (domii)
domibus
Note 1. — The Locative is domi (rarely domui), at home.
Note 2. — The Grenitive domi occurs io Plautus ; domorum is late or poetic.
1 A few other neuters of this declension are mentioned by the ancient grammari^
as occurring in certain cases.
§§ 94-96]
FIFTH DECLENSION (Jg-STEMS)
39
94. Most nouns of the Fourth Declension^are formed from
verb-stems, or roots, by means of the suflSx -tus (-sua) (§238. b) :
canttts, song^ can, cano, sing; cAsas (for tcad-tas), cJuincej gad, cad5, faU;
ezsolatus, exUey from exsolo, to he an exUe (ezsul).
a. Many are formed either from verb-stems not in use, or by analogy :
consal&ttts (as if from tconsulo, -£re), senAtas, incestas.
6* The accusative and the dative or ablative of nouns in -tus (-bus) form
the Supines of verbs (§J[59. &): as, spectatum, petitum; dictu, yisu.
c. Of many verbal derivatives only the ablative is used as a noun : as,
iussu (me6), by (my) command; so iniussu (populi), without (the people's) order.
Df some only th6 dative is used : as, diyisuL
FIFTH DECLENSION (^-STEHS)
95. The Stem of nouns.of the Fifth Declension ends in €-, which
appears in all the cases. The Nominative is formed from the stem
by adding s.
96. Nouns of the Fifth Declension are declined as follows : —
res, F., thin^
dies, M., day
fides, T,y faith
Stem re-
Stem die-
Singular
STEMfidS-
OASE-ENDINGS
NOM.
r6s
diSa
fides
-es
Gen.
r«I
di6i (die)
fidei
-61 (-6)
Dat.
rSi
diei (diS)
fidei
-61 (-6)
Ace.
rem
diem
fidem
-em
Abl.
re
die
Plural
fide
-e
NOM.
'.rSs
dies
-es
Gen.
rSmm
dienim
-erum
Dat.
rebus
diebns
-ebus
Ace.
r6B
dies
-es
Abl.
rebus
diebus
-ebus
Note.— The 6 of the stem is shortened in tjie genitive and dative singular of fldSs,
pes, rSs, but in these it is found long in early Latin. In the accusative singular e
s always short.
40 DECLENSION OF NOUNS [§S97-»
• Gender in the Fifth Declension
97. All nouns of the Fifth Declension are Feminine, except
diige (usually M.),' day^ and meridiSs (M.), noon.
a. Dies is sometimes feminine in the singular, especially in phrases indi-
cating a fixed time, and regularly feminine when used of time in general:
as, c5nstitata die, on a set day; longa diSs, a long time,
Case-Forms in the Fifth Declension
98. The following peculiarities require notice : —
a» Of nouns of the fifth declension, only dies and res are declined througb-
out. Most want the plural, which is, however, found in the nominative or
accusative in acies, effigies, eluyies, facies, glacies, series, species, spes.^
h. The Locative form of this declension ends in -6. It is found only i-
certain adverbs and expressions of time : —
hodiS, to-day; di§ quart5'(old, quart!) , the fourth day;
petendii, day after to-morrow ; pi!di8, the day before.
ۥ The fifth declension is closely related to the first, and several nouQJ
have forms of both : as, materia, -ies ; saevitia, -iSs. - The genitive and dative
in -ei are rarely found in these words.
d. Some nouns vary between the fifth and the third declension : as
requies, saties (also satias, genitive -atis), plebes (also plebs, genitive plebis'
fames, genitive famis, ablative fame.
NoTK. — In the genitive and dative -€i (-81) was sometimes contracted into ^^•
as, trlbunns pl5b^, tribune of the people (plebes) . Genitives in -i and -€ also occur
as, dii (Aen. i. 636), plgbi-scitum, aciS (B. G. ii. 23). A few examples of the old gen^
tive in -es are found (of. -as in the first declension, § 43. 6). The dative has rarely-^
and a form in -i is cited.
DEFECTIVE NOUNS
Nouns wanting in the Plural
99. Some nouns are ordinarily found in the Singular numbet
only {singuldria tantum). These are —
1. Most proper names: as, Caesar, Ccesar; Gallia, Gaul,
2. Names of things not counted, but reckoned in mass : as, aurum, goli
aer, air; triticmn, wheat,
3. Abstract nouns : as, ambitio, ambition; fortitiidd, courage; calor, heoi
1 The forms faciSnun, speciSrum, specifibus, sperum, spSbus, are cited by grammariaB
also spirts, spSribtts, and some of these occur in late authors.
^^■a
S,]0O-102] DEFECTIVE N0UH8
100. Many of these nouns, howeyer, are use*^
some other sense.
a. The plural of a proper name may be applied to t
or places, or even things, and so become strictly commo
duadecim CaeaaiBa, the tivetve CcBsara.
GaJIiae, the tioo Gavin (Cis- and Transalpine).
CastoiBs, Castor and Poliwi^ ; lorSa, image* t^ Jupiter.
b. The plural of names of things reckoned in maas mi
objects: as, aera, bronze ulentUs, nires, tnotaflokei ; or differ
as, aetEs, airt (good and bad).
c. The plural of abstract nouns denotes occoixom or tW.
or the like: —
qoaeOam ezceUentlae, some case* of tuperioritj/ ; otU, p&
ftfgon, Umea ofheat and cold.
Nouns wanting In the SlngnUr
101. Some nouns are commonly or exclusive
Plural (plurdlia tatUum). Such are —
1. Many Damea of towns : &a,Athena.e (^A then*), Tbui
2. Names of festivals and games; as, Olympia, lie Oiyn
nilla, /foirt of Bacchvt; Qulnquitras, /««(iu<i/ of Minervi
Roman Games,
3. Names of classes : as, optlmltfa, tie upper clanut;
iibeii, ckUdren; penates, household god*; Qniiitas, citizent
i. Words plural by signification: as, arma, weapons;
Hae, ricket; acAlae, stairs; vslvae, folding-doori ; fores, dou.
i narrow pass (narrows); moeni*, dt]/ mails.
Note 1. — Some words, plural by signification In Latin, are
nauas in tbe singular number : aa, dilieiaa, delighl, darling; fau
(also singular in poetry) ; lasiiiae, amimsk ; cenlctt, neck ; vls:
Note 2. — The poets often use the plural number foe the si
metrical reasons, sometimes from a mere fashion : as, Sr> (for it)
Keptnun), sceptre; Gilentia (for ailenWiim), aSence.
108. Some nouns of the above classes (§101.1
spending singular, as noun or adjective, often in
1. As noun, to denote a single object: as, Bacchan
Bacchus; optimas, an aristocrat,
2. As adjective : as, Cato Maiot, Cato the Elder.
3. In a aense rare, or found only in early Latin:
valta, a door; artuB, a Joint.
42 DECLENSION OF NOUNS [| 103
Nouns Defective in Certain Cases
103. Many nouns are defective in case-forms : ^ —
a. Indeclinable nouns, used only as nominative and accusative singular:
fas, nefas, instar, nihil, opus (need)f secns.
NoTB 1. — The indeclinable adjective necesse is nsed as a nominative or accasative.
Note 2. — The genitive nihil! and the ablative nihilo (from nihllum, nothing) occur.
b* Nouns found in one case only (monoptotes) : —
1. In the nominative singular: glSs (f.).
2. In the genitive singular : dicis, nauci (k.).
3. In the dative singular : divisui (m.) (cf. § 04. c).
4. In the accusative singular : amussim (m.) ; rSnum (dative vend in Tacitus).
5. In the ablative singular: pondd (k.) ; m&ne (n.) ; astu (m.), by craft; iussu,
ininssfi, n&tfi, and many other verbal nouns in -as (m.) (§ 04. c).
Note. — M&ne is also used as an indeclinable accusative, and an old form man! is
nsed as ablative. Pond5 with a numeral is often apparently equivalent to pounds, A
nominative singular astus and a plural astiia occur rarely in later writers.
6. In the accusative plural : tnfitifts.
€• Nouns found in two cases only (diptotes): —
1. In the nominative and ablative singular : fors, forte (f.).
2. In the genitive and ablative singular : spontis (rare), sponte (f.).
3. In the accusative singular and plural : dicam, dicas (f.).
4. In the accusative and ablative plural: foras, foils (f.) (cf. fores), used ^
adverbs.
d» Nouns found in three cases only (triptotes) : —
1. In the nominative, accusative, and ablative singular : impetus, -um, -fi (m.)^:
lues, -em, -€ (f.).
2. In the nominative, accusative, and dative or ablative plural : gratSs, -ibas (f).
3. In the nominative, genitive, and dative or ablative plural : itigeia, Mim, -ibus
(n.) ; but iagerom, etc., in the singular (of. § 105. b).
€m Nouns found in four cases only (tetraptotes) : —
In the genitive, dative, accusative, ablative singular: diciSnis, -i, -em, -e (f.)-
/. Nouns declined regularly in the plural, but defective in the singular : —
1. Nouns found in the singular, in genitive, dative, accusative, ablative: frugis
-i, -em, -e (f.) ; opis, -i (once only), -em, -e (f. ; nominative Ops as a divinity).
2. Nouns found in the dative, accusative, ablative: preci, -em, -e (f.).
3. Nouns found in the accusative and ablative : cassem, -e (f.) ; sordem, -e (t.)
4. Nouns found in the ablative only : ambage (f.) ; fauce (f.) ; obice (c).
gr» Nouns regular in the singular, defective in the plural : —
1 Some early or late forms and other rarities are omitted.
3 The dative singular impetul and the ablative plural impetibus occur once eacb.
§§103-105] VARIABLE NOUNS 48
1. The following neuters have in the plural the nominative and accusatiye
only : fel (fella), far (faira), hordeum (hordea), ius, broth (iura), mel (mella), mannar
(murmuia), pus (pura), rus (rura), tus or thus (tora).
Note. — The neater ius, right y has only iura in classical writers, but a very rare geni-
tive plural iumm occurs in old Latin.
2. calx, cor, cos, crux, fax, faex, lanx, Ifix, nex, os (Sris),^ os (ossis),' pflx, pix,
r5s, sal, sol, vas (vadis), want the genitive plural.
3. Most nouns of the fifth declension want the whole or part of the plural
(see § 98. a).
h* Nouns defective in both singular and plural : —
1. Noun found in the genitive, accusative, ablative singular; nominative,
accusative, dative, ablative plural: vicis, -em, -e; -es, -ibus.
2. Noun found in the genitive, dative, accusative, and ablative singular;
genitive plural wanting: dapis, -i, -em, -e; -es, -ibus.^
VARIABLE NOUNS
104. Many nouns vary either in Declension or in Gender.
105. Nouns that vary in Declension are called hetero elites.^
a. Colus (p.), distaff; domus (p.), house (see § 93), and many names
of plants in -us, vary between the Second and Fourth Declensions.
6. Some nouns vary between the Second and Third : as, idgerum, -i, -o,
ablative -5 or -e, plural -a, -um, -ibus ; Mulciber, genitive -beri and -beris ;
sequester, genitive -tri and -tris ; vas, vasis, and (old) yasum, -i (§ 79. e).
c. Some vary between the Second, Third, and Fourth : as, penus, penum,
genitive peni and penoris, ablative penu.
€?. Many nouns vary between the First and Fifth (see § 98. c).
e. Some vary between the Third and Fifth. Thus, — requies has geni-
tive -etis, dative wanting, accusative -etem or -em, ablative -e (once -ete) ;
fames, regularly of the third declension, has ablative fame (§76. n. 1),
and pubes (m.) has once dative piibe (in Plautus).
/. Pecus varies between the Third and Fourth, having pecoris, etc., but
also nominative pecii, ablative pecii; plural pecua, genitive pecuum.
g* Many vary between different stems of the same declension : as, femur
(n.), genitive -oris, also -inis (as from f femen) ; iecur (n.), genitive iecinoris,
iocinoris, iecoris ; miinus (n.), plural miinera and miinia.
1 The ablative plural 5ribu8 is rare, the classical idiom being in ore omnium, in every-
body's mouth J etc., not in oribus omnium. ,
2 The genitive plural ossium is late ; ossuum (from ossua, plural of a neuter u-stem)
is early and late.
8 An old nominative daps is cited.
* That is, "nouns of different inflections" {irepos^ anotTier^ and kKLvw, to injlect).
44
DECLENSION OF NOUNS
[§§ 106, 107
106. Nouns that vary in Gender are said to be heterogeneous,^
a. The following have a masculine form in -as and a neuter in -am :
balteas, caseas, cUpeus, collam, cingalam, pileus, tergam, vallum, with many
others of rare occurrence.
h. The following have in the Plural a different gender from that of the
Singular : —
bakieae (f.), haiki (an establishment).
caelos (m. ace, I^ucr.).
carbasa (n.) (-dram), sails,
dSliciae (f.), pet.
epalaa (v.), feast,
freni (m.) or frena (ir.), a bridle.
ioca (n.), iod (m.), Jests.
loca (n. ), loci (h. , usually topics, passages in books).
rastri (m.), r&stra (n.), rakes.
balneom (ir.), bath ;
caelum (n.), heaven;
carbasus (f.), a sail;
dSlicium (n.), pleasure;
epalom (ir.), feast ;
frSnam (n.), a bit;
iocas (m.), a jest;
locas (m.), place;
rastrum (n.), a rake;
Note. — Some of these nouns are heteroclites as well as heterogeneoos.
107. Many nouns are found in
aedSs, -is (f.), temple;
aqua (f.), water;
aozilium (n.), help;
bonam (n.), a good;
career (m.), dungeon;
castram (n. ) , f(yrt ;
comitiam (n.), place of assembly ;
copia (f.), plenty;
fides (f.), Iiarp-string ;
finis (m.), end;
fortiina (f.), fortune ;
grAtia (r.) /favor (rarely, tfianks);
hortus (m.), a garden;
impedimentam (n.) hindrance;
litters (f.), letter (of alphabet) ;
locas (m.), place [plural loca (n.)] ;
ludas (m.), sport;
mos (h.), habits custom;
nAt&lis (m.), birthday;
opera (f.), work;
[ops,] opis (f.), help (§ IDS. /. 1) ;
pars (p.), part;
rostrum (n.), beak of a ship;
sAl (A. or k.), salt;
tabella (f.), tablet;
the Plural in a peculiar sense: —
aedSs, -ium, house.
aquae, mineral springs^ a watering-place.
aozilia, auxiliaries.
bona, goods, property.
carceres, barriers (of race-course).
castra, camp.
comitia, an election (toumr-meeting),
copiae, stores, troops.
fides, lyre.
fln§s, bounds, territories.
fortfinae, possessions.
grAtiae, thanks (also, the Graces).
horti, pleaswre-grounds.
impedimenta, baggage.
litterae, epiaUe, literature.
loci,^ topics, places in books,
liidi, public games,
mores, cJiaracter.
n&tales, descent, origin.
operae, day-laborers ("hands").
op§8, resources, wealth.
partSs, part (on the stage), party,
rSstra, speaker* s platform.
sales, witticisms.
tabellae^ documents, records.
1 That is, "of different genders'* {trepoi, another, and y4vos^ gender),
2 In early writers the regular plural.
§108]
NAMES OF PERSONS
45
NAMES OF PERSONS
108. A Roman had regularly three names: — (1) the iiraenOmen,
or personal name ; (2) the nOmen, or name of the gen9 or house ;
(3) the cognomen, or family name : —
Thus in Marcus Tullius Cicero we have —
Marcus, the piaendmen, like our Christian or given name ;
Tullius, the ndmen, properly an adjective denoting of the TvUian g^ra (or
house) whose original head was a real or supposed TuIUab ;
Cicero, the c5gn6meii, or family name, often in origin a nickname, — in this
case from cicer, a vetch, or small pea.
Note. — When two persons of the same family are mentioned together, the eognd-
men is usually put in the plaral : as, Publius et Senrius SaUae.
a, A fourth or fifth name was sometimes given as a mark of honor or
distinction, or to show adoption from another gens.
Thus the complete name of Scipio the Younger was Publius Cornelius Scipio
Africanus AemiliAnus: Afric&nus, from his exploits in Africa; AemiliSnus, as
adopted from the jEmilian gSna.^
Note. — The Romans of the classical period had no separate name for these addi-
tions, but later grammarians Invented the word agnomen to express them.
b. Women had commonly in classical times no personal names, but were
known only by the ndmen of their gSns»
Thus, the wife of Cicero was Terentia, and his daughter Tullia. A second
daughter would have been called Tullia secunda or minor, a third daughter, Tullia
tertia, and so on.
c* The commonest prsenomens are thus abbreviated : —
A. Aulus.
App. (Ap.) Appius.
C. (G.) Giius (Caius) (cf. § 1. a).
Cn. (Gn.) Gnaeus (Cneiiui).
D. Decimus.
K. Kaeso {Caeso).
L. Lucius.
M. MUrcus.
M\ M&nius.
Mam. MUmercus.
N. (Num.) Numerius
P. PabUus.
Q. Quintus.
Ser. Servius.
Sex. (S.)SeztU8.
Sp. Spurius.
T. Titus.
Ti. (Tib.) Tiberius.
Note 1.-
(§l.a).
In the abbreviations C. and Cn., the initial character has the value of G
1 Li stating officially the full name of a Roman it was customary to include the
praenomina of the father, grandfather, and great-grandfather, together with the name
of the tribe to which the individual belonged. Thus in an inscription we find M. TVL-
LIVS M, F. M. N. M. PR. COR. CICERO, i.e. Mftrcus TuUius Marci fillus Marci nepfls Marci pro-
nepds Cornfilia tribu Cicero. The names of grandfather and great-grandfather as well as
that of the tribe are usually omitted in literature. The name of a wife or daughter is
usually accompanied by that of the husband or father in the genitive : as, Postumia
Servi Sulpicii (Suet. lul. 50), Postumia, wife of Servius Sulpicius; Caecilia Metelli
(Div. i. 104), Caecilia, daughter of Metellus.
46
DECLENSION OF ADJECTIVES
[§§ 109, 110
ADJECTIVES
109. Adjectives and Participles are in general formed and de-
clined like Nouns, differing from them only in their use.
1. In accordance with their use, they distinguish gender by different
forms in the same word, and agree with their nouns in gender^ number, and
case. Thus, —
bonus puer, the good boy.
bona paella, the good girl.
bonum ddnum, the good gift.
2. In their inflection they are either (1) of the First and Second Declen-
sions, or (2) of the Third Declension.
FIRST AND SECOND DECLENSIONS {d- AND <>-ST£MS)
110. Adjectives of the First and Second Declensions (fi- and
o-stems) are declined in the Masculine like servus, puer, or ager;
in the Feminine like stella ; and in the Neuter like helium.
The regular type of an adjective of the First and Second Declen-
sions is bonus, -a, -um, which is thus declined : —
bonus, bona, bonum, good
HAHCULINB
FEMININE
NBUTKR
Stem bono-
Stem bonar
Singular
SxBMbono-
NOM.
bonuB
bona
bonum
Gen.
boni
bonae
boni
Dat.
bon6
bonae
bon5
Ace.
bonum
bonam
bonum
Abl.
bon6
bona
bon5
Voc.
bone
bona
Plural
bonum
NOM.
bonI
bonae
bona
Gen.
bonorum
bontrum
bonSrum
Dat.
bonia
bonis
bonis
Ace.
bonds
bonSa
bona
Abl.
bonis
bonis
bonis
no, 111] FIBST AND SECOND DECLENSION^
47
Note. — Stems in quo- have nominative -cas (-qnos), -qva^ -^um (-quom), accusative
-cum (-quom), -quam, -cum (-quom), to avoid quu- (see §§ 6. 6 and 46. N. 2). Thus,—
KoM. propincos (-qaos) propinqoa propinooin (-quom)
Gbn. piopinqui propinquae propinqui, etc.
But most modem editions disregard this principle.
a* The Genitive Singular masculine of adjectives in -iua ends in -11, and
the Vocative in -ie ; not in -i, as in nouns (cf . § 49. ft, c) ; as, Lacedaemonius,
-ii, -ie.
NoTK. — The possessive meus, my, has the vocative masculine mi (cf. % 146).
111. Stems ending in ro- preceded by e form the Nominative
Masculine like puer (§ 47) and are declined as follows: —
miser, misera, miserum, toretcAed
MASCULINE
FEMTNINB
neuter
Stem misero-
Stem misera-
SlNGULAR
Stem miseio-
NOM.
Tniser
misera
misenim
Gen.
miseii
miserae
miserl
Dat.
miser5
miserae
misers
Ace.
iiiisemm
miseram
misenim
Abl.
Tnisero
misera
Plural
miser5
NOM.
miserl
miserae
misera
Gbn.
miseronun
miser&rum
miser5nim
Dat.
miseris
miseris
miseris
Ace.
miser5B
miserSs
misera
Abl.
miseriii
miseria
miseris
a. Like miser are declined asper, gibber, lacer, liber, prosper (also pros-
perns), satur (-ura, -urum), tener, -with compounds of -fer and -ger : as, saeti-
ger, -era, -erum, bristle-bearing ; also, usually, dezter. In these the e belongs to
the stem ; but in dextra it is often omitted : as, dextra manus, the right hand.
Note. — Stems in 8ro- (as procerus), with mdrigSrus, propSrus, have the regular nomi-
native masculine in -us.
h. The following lack a nominative singular masculine in classic use :
cetera, infera, postera, supera. They are rarely found in the singular except
in certain phrases : as, poster5 die, the next day.
Note. — An ablative feminine in -6 is found in a few Greek adjectives: as, lecticS
octdphord rVerr. v. 27).
48
DECLENSION OF ADJECTIVES
[§§ 112, 118
112. Stems in no- preceded by a consonant form the Nominative
Masculine like ager (§ 47) and are declined as follows : —
niger, nigra, nignim, black
MAflcuLnrs
FBMINIKB
NRUTBB
Stsm nigro-
Stsm nigra^
Singular
STSMoigro-
NOM.
niger
nigra
nigrum
Gen.
nigil
nigrae
nigrl
Dat.
nigrS
nigrae
nigrd
Ace.
Digmm
nigram
nigrtun
Abl.
nigrS
nigra
Plural
nigrd
NOM.
nigri
nigrae
nigra
Gen.
nigrSrum
nigr&mm
nigr5ruxn
Dat.
nigria
nigria
nigila
Ace.
nigr5B
nigrta
nigra
Abl.
nigria
nigria
nigiia
a. Like niger are declined aeger, ater, creber, faber, glaber, integer, Ifidicer,
macer, piger, pulcher, ruber, sacer, scaber, sinister, taeter, yaf er ; also the pos-
sessives noster, yester (§ 145).
113. The following nine adjectives with their compounds have
the Genitive Singular in -ius and the Dative in -i in all genders :
alias (n. aliad), other. t5tu8, whole. alter, -terius, the other,
nGUus, no, none, fiUus, any. neuter, -tiias, neither.
sdlus, alone. finus, one. uter, -txius, which (of two).
Of these the singular is thus declined : —
M.
p.
N.
M.
p.
N.
NOM.
iinua
iina
iinum
uter
utra
utnim
Gen.
TinTua
iinluB ,
iiniua
utriua
utriua
utriua
Dat.
fini
unl
iinl
utrl
util
ntrl
Ace.
iinum
unam
iinum
utrum
utram
utmm
Abl.
iin5
iina
iin5
utr6
utra
utr6
NOM.
aliua
alia
aliud
alter
altera
alteram
Gbn.
allua
allua
allua
alteriua
alteriua
alteriua
Dat.
alii
alii
alii
alteil
alter!
alteil
Ace.
alium
aliam
aliud
alterum
alteram
altemin
Abl.
ali5
alia
ali5
alters
altera
altera
■aa^Mu
§§113-116] ADJECTIVES OF THE THIRD DECLENSION
49
a» The plural of these words is regular, like that of bonus (§ 110).
h* The genitive in -ius, dative in -i, and neuter in -d are pronominal in
origin (cf. Ulius, illi, illud, and § 146).
e. The i of the genitive ending -ius, though originally long, may be made
short in verse ; so often in alterius and regularly in utriusque.
d,» Instead of alius, alteriua is commonly used, or in the possessive sense
the adjective alienus, belonging to anothevy another^s,
€• In compounds — as alteruter — sometimes both parts are declined,
sometimes only the latter. Thus, alteri utri or alterutri, to one of the two.
Note. — The regalar genitive and dative forms (as in honvtt) are sometimes ionnd
in some of these words: as, genitive and dative feminine, aliae; dative masculine,
alio. Bare forms aiCLig^nd aUd (for alias, aliud).
THIRD DECLENSION (CONSONANT AND #^TEMS)
114. Adjectives of the Third Declension are thus classified: —
1. Adjectives of Three Terminations in the nominative singular, — one
for each gender : as, acer, Scris, acre.
2. Adjectives of Two Terminations, — masculine and feminine the same :
as, levis (m., f.), lere (n.).
3. Adjectives of One Termination^ — the same for all three genders : as,
atroz.
Or* Adjectives of two and three terminations are true iHBtems and hence retain
in the ablative singular -i, in the neuter plural -ia, in the genitive plural -ium, and
in the accusative plural regularly -is (see §§ 73 and 74).^
Adjectives of Three and of Two Terminations
115. Adjectives of Three Terminations are thus declined : —
acer, acris, &cre, keen, Stem acri-
SiNGULAR Plural
M.
p.
N.
M.
F.
K.
NOM.
SUser
§,criB
acre
acrSs
acrSs
acria
Gen.
acris
acris
acris
acrium
acrium
acrium
Oat.
acil
acri
acri
acribus
acribus
acribus
Ace.
acrem
acrem
acre
acris (-Ss)
acris (-Ss)
acria
Abl.
acrf
acrl
acri
acribus
acribus
Scribus
1 Bat the forms of soine are doubtful.
50 DECLENSION OE ADJECTIVES [§§ 115-117
a. Like acer are declined the following stems in ri- : —
alacer, campester, celeber, equester, paluster, pedester, pater, saluber, silvestei,
terrester, volucer. So also names of months in -ber: as, October (cf.
§66).
Note 1. — ^This formation is comparatively late, and hence, in the poets and in early
Latin, either the masculine or the feminine form of these adjectives was sometimes
used for both genders : as, coetus alacris (Enn.). In others, as faenebris, funebris, illus-
tris, luin^brls, mediocris, maliebris, there is no separate masculine form at all, and these
are declined like levis (§ 116).
NoTB 2. — Celer, celeris, celere, swift y has the genitive plural celerum, used only as a
noun, denoting a military rank. The proper name Celer has the ablative in -e.
116. Adjectives of Two Terminations are thus declined: —
levis, leve,
ligUy
Stem levi-
Singular
Plural
Al** te •
N.
Ai., Jr.
N.
NOM.
levis
leve
levBs
levia
Gen.
levis
levis
leviiim
levium
Dat.
levx
levl
levibus
levibus
Aco.
levem
leve
levis (-6b)
levia
Abl.
le^^
levx
levibus
levibus
Note. — Adjectives of two and three terminations sometimes have an ablative in ■<
in poetry, rarely in prose.
Adjectives of One Termination
117. The remaining adjectives of the third declension are Con-
sonant stems ; but most of them, except Comparatives, have the
following forms of i-stems : — ^
-i in the ablative singular (but often -e) ;
-ia in the nominative and accusative plural neuter ;
-ium in the genitive plural ;
-is (as well as -es) in the accusative plural masculine and feminine.
In the other cases they follow the rule for Consonant stems.
a. These adjectives, except stems in 1- or r-, form the nominative sing^
lar from the stem by adding s : as, atroz (stem atroc- + s), egens (stem
egent- + s).^
&• Here belong the present participles in -ns (stem nt-) * : as, amans, moneos
They are declined like egens (but cf. § 121).
1 For details see § 121. ' Stems in nt- omit t before tbB nominative -s.
mmM
§§ 118, 119] ADJECTIVES OF THE THIRD DECLENSION
61
118. Adjectives of one tennination axe declined as follows : —
atrQz, flerce. Stem atrQc-
egSns, needy, Stem egent-
SrarouLAR
S&*y f •
N.
M., F.
K.
NOM.
atroz
atrSx
eg^rm
egSiiB
GrEN.
atrdcifl
atroclB
egentiB
egentiB
Dat.
atroci
atroci
egenti
egenti
ico.
atrocem
atroz
egentem
egSna
iBL,
atroci (-6)
atrod (-6)
Plural
egenti (-«)
egenti (-e)
lOM.
atr5c6s
atr5cla
egentfiB
egentia
rEN.
atrddam
atrociom
egentium
egentium
)at.
atrocibuB
atrocibnB
egentibuB
egentibuB
tCC.
atrocis (-Sb)
atrocia
egentls (-Sb)
egentia
Lbl.
atrodLboB
atrocibuB
egenttbuB
egentibna
119. Other examples are the following :
ooncors, harmonious
Stem concord-
praeceps, headlong
Stem praecipit-
OH. concora
EN. concordiB
AT. concordl
cc. concordem
BL. concordl
Singular
N.
concors
concordiB
concordl
concora
concordl
praecepa
praecipitiB
praecipiti
praecipitem
praecipiti
N.
praecepa
praecipitiB
praecipiti
praecepa
praecipiti
Plural
OM.
BK.
AT.
CO.
BL.
concordSB
concordinm
concordibuB
Concordia
concordium
concordibuB
concordiB (-6b) concordia
concordibuB concordibuB
praecipitiB praecipitia
[praecipitium] ^
praecipitibuB praecipitibua
praecipitiB (-6b) praecipitia
praecipitibua praecipitibua
1 Given by grammarians, bat not found.
52
DECLENSION OF ADJECTIVES
tiiid
iSns, going
Stem eont-
par, equal
Stem par-
SlNGULAR
diyes, rick
Stem diTit-
Jn«y IT*
KoM. igns
Gbn. euntis
Dat. eunti
Ace. euntem
Abl. eunte (-1)
N.
iSns
euntis
eunti
eunte (-1)
Htj X •
par
parts
pari
parem
pari
N.
p&r
parts
pari
par
pail
dives
divitts
divi«
divitem
divite
N.
dives
divitis
divitl
dives
ctivite
NoM. euntte euntta
Gbn. eunttum eunttum
Dat. eunttbus euntibus
Ace. euntis (-6s) euntta
Abl. euntibus eunttbus
fiber, fertile
Stem aber-
Plural
parSs parla
parium partum
partbus partbus
parls (-6s) parta
paribus paribus
divitfis
divitum
divittbus
divitis (
divittbus
[ditia]
divitum
divitiboi
) [<Ktta]
divitibtf
yettts, old
Stem veter-
SlKGULAR
NOM.
Gbn.
Dat.
Ace.
Abl.
uber
uberts
uberl
uberem
uberl*
N.
uber
uberts
uberl
uber
uberl*
Sl.y F*
vetus
veterts
veteil
veterem
vetere (-1)
vetus
veteria
veterl
vetus
vetere (4)
Plural
NOM.
Gbn.
Dat.
Ace.
Abl.
uberta
uberum
ubertbus
uberSs
ubertbus
ubera
uberum
ubertbus
ubera
ubertbus
veterfis
vetenim
vetertbns
veterta
vetertbus
Vetera
vetenim
veteiibos
Vetera
veteiilms
Note. — Of thMe ▼•tas is originally an ft-stem. In most s-stems the r has intztiii
itself into the nominative also, as U-corpor (for fbi-corpos), dCfMner <for t48-«eiies).
* An ablative in -• is very rare.
§§ 120, 121]
DECLENSION OF COMPARATIVES
58
Declension of Comparatives
120. Comparatives are declined as follows : —
melior, better
Stsm melior- for melids-
plfis, more
Stem plfir- for piai
NOH.
Gen.
Dat.
Ace.
Abl.
NOM.
Gen.
Dat.
Ace.
Abl.
melior
melioris
meliorit
meliorem
meliore (-1)
meliorta
meHomm
melioribus
meliorSa (-Is)
melioribuB
Singular
N.
melius
melioris
meliorl
melius
meliore (-i)
Plural
meliora
meliomm
melioribus
meliora
melioribus
BI.* V*
plurSs
plurium
pluribus
pliirSs (-is)
pliiribus
N.
plus
pluris
plus
plUro
pliira
pliirium
pluribus
plura
pluribus
a. All comparatiyes except plus are declined like melior.
&• The stem of comparatiyes properly ended in Ss-; but this became or
in the nominatiTe masculine and feminine, and 5r- in all other cases except
the nominative and accusative singular neuter, where 8 is retained and 5 is
changed to ii (cf . hondr, -5ri8 ; corpus, -dris). Thus comparatives appear to
have two terminations.
e» The neuter singular plQs is used only as a noun. The genitive (rarely
the ablative) is used only as an expression of value (cf. § 417). The dative
is not found in classic use. The compound complurSs, several^ has sometimes
aeuter plural oompluria.
Case-Forms of Consonant Stems
121. In adjectives of Consonant stems —
a» The Ablative Singular commonly ends in -i, but sometimes -e.
1 . Adjectives used as nouns (as superstes, survivory have -e.
2. Participles in -ns used as such (especially in the ablative absolute,
)419), or as nouns, regularly have -e; but participles used as adjectives
lave regularly -i : —
domlnd imperante, at the ma,ster''8 command; ab amante, bff a lover; ab amanti
maliere, by a loving woman.
1t>
64 DECLENSION OF ADJECTIVES [§§ 121, 122
8. The following have regularly -i: — amSns, anceps, concors (and other
compounds of cor), cOnaors (but as a substantive, -e), degener, hebes, ingess,
inops, memor (and compounds), p&r (in prose), perpes, praeceps, praepes, teres.
4. The following have regularly -e : — caeles, compos, [fdeses], diyes, liospes,
particeps, pauper, pnnceps, sOspes, superstes. So also patrials (see § 7 1 . 5) and
stems in at-, it-, nt-, rt-, when used as nouns, and sometimes when used as
adjectives.
h. The Genitive Plural ends commonly in -iom, but has -am in the
following : 1 —
1. Always in compos, dives, inops, particeps, praepes, pxinceps, sapplez, and
compounds of nouns which have -am : as, quadra-pSa, bi-color.
2. Sometimes, in poetry, in participles in -na : as, ailentum concilium, a covn-
cil of the sUent shades (Aen. vi. 432).
c. The Accusative Plural regularly ends in -is, but comparatives com-
monly have -es.
<f • Vetus (gen. -Ms) and p&bes (gen. -Sris) regularly have -e in the abla-
tive singular, -a in the nominative and accusative plural, and -tun in the
genitive plural. For uber, see § 119.
e« A few adjectives of one termination, used as nouns, have a feminine
form in -a : as, clienta, hospita, with the appellative Iun5 Sdspita.
Irregttlarities and Special Uses of Adjectives
122. The following special points require notice : —
a. Several adjectives vary in declension : as, gracilis (-us), hilaris (-Qs}
inermis (-us), bicolor (-Srus).
h* A few adjectives are indeclinable : as, damnas, friigi (really a dative
of service, see § 382. 1. n. ^), nequam (originally an adverb), necesse, and tb
pronominal forms tot, quot, aliquot, totidem. Potis is often used as an ind^
clinable adjective, but sometimes has pote in the neuter.
c« Several adjectives are defective : as, ezspes (only nom.), ezlez (ezlegeoi
(only nom. and ace. sing.), pemox (pemocte) (only nom. and abl. sing)-
and primdris, sSmineci, etc., which lack the nominative singular.
d. Many adjectives, from their signification, can be used only in tbe
mascuHne and feminine. These may be called adjectives of common gender
Such are aduleacena, youthful; [tdSaea], -idis, slothful; inops, -opis, poor'
aSapea, -itia, s(rfe. Similarly, aenez, old man, and iuvenia, young man, are som^
times called masculine adjectives.
For Adjectives used as Nouns, see §§ 288, 289; for Nouns used as Adjectives, see
§321. c; for Adjectives used as Adverbs, see §214; for Adverbs used as AdjectiTes-
see § 321. d,
1 Forms in -um sometimes occur in a few others.
fMtmmmtmmmik
§§ 123-127] COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES 66
COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES
123. In Latin, as in English, there are three degrees of com-
parison: the Positive^ the Comparative^ and the Superlative.
124. The Comparative is regularly formed by adding -ior (neu-
ter -ius),^ the Superlative by adding -issimus (•«, -um), to the stem of
the Positive, which loses its final vowel : —
c^lrus, dear (stem ciro-) ; cftrior, dearer; cftriaaimus, dearest,
levis, light (stem levl-) ; levior, lighter ; leviMimiui, lighiest.
tSiix, Tiappi/ (stem UUc-) ; fellcior, happier; t&lciawim'aB, happiest.
hebes, duU (stem hebet-) ; hebetlor, duller ; hebetlMimiui, dullest.
Note. — A form of diminutive is made upon the stem of some comporatiTes : as,
grandins-colus, a little larger (see § 243).
a. Participles when used as adjectives are regularly compared : —
patiens, patient ; patientior, patientiBilmoB.
apertus, open; apertior, apertiBsimus.
125. Adjectives in -er form the Superlative by adding -rimus to
the nominative. The comparative is regular: —
ftcer, keen; Scrior, acerrimoB.
miser, wretched; miserior, miserrimus.
a. So yetus (gen. yeteris) has superlative yeterrimuS) from the old form
yeter ; and maturus, besides its regular superlative (maturissimus), has a rare
form maturrimus.
For the comparative of yetus, yetustior (from yetustus) is used.
126. Six adjectives in -lis form the Superlative by adding -limus
to the stem clipped of its final i-. These are facilis, difficilis, simi-
lis, dissimilis, gracilis, humilis.
facilis (stem facili-), easy; facilior, facillimiui.
127. Compounds in -dicus {Baying) and -volus (filling) take in
their comparison the forms of the corresponding participles dicSns
and yolSns, which were anciently used as adjectives : —
maledictiB, slanderous; maledlcentior, maledlcentlBsimus.
malevolus, spiteful; malevolentior, malevolentissimiui.
1 The comparative suffix (earlier -iSs) is akin to the Greek 4<avt or the Sanskrit -iyans.
That of the superlative (-issimus) is a doable form of uncertain origin. It appears to
contain the is- of the old suffix -is-to-s (seen in ri8-ia-To-s and English sweetest) and also
the old -mo-s (seen in pri-mus, mini-mus, etc.) . The endings -limus and -rimus are formed
by assimilation (§ 15. 6) from -simus. The comparative and superlative are really new
stems, and are not strictly to be regarded as forms of inflection.
66 COMPARISON OF ADJ£CTIV£S [§§ 127-130
a^ So, by analogy, compounds in -flcaa : —
mftgnificns, grand; mftgnificontior, mSgnificentiMlmiis.
128. Some adjectives are compared by means of the adverbs
magis, morey and nuudmS, most.
So especially adjectives in -us preceded by e or i : —
id6neuB, JU; magis idOneus, maxime idOneus.
NoTB. — But pint has piifsimns in the superlatiyey — a form condemned by Cicero,
bat common in inscriptions; equally conmion, however, is the irregular pientissimiis.
Irregular Comparison
129. Several adjectives have in their comparison irregular
forms : —
bonus, good; melior, better; optimna, best,
mains, bad; p^or, worse; pesaimna, toors^.
mfignus, great; mdior, greater; masdmua, greatest.
I>arvns» smaU; minor, less; minimua, least.
multus, much; pltls(N.) (§ 120), more; plt]^imua, mosL
multl, many; plftrSs, more; pluriml, most.
nSquam (indecL, § 122. 6), n6quior; nfignlaiifmna.
worOUess;
frOgl (indecl., § 122. 6), use- frOgftlior; frOgSUiaalmiia.
fid, worthy;
dexter, on the right, handy; dexterior ; dextimua.
NoTB. — These irregularities arise from the use of different stems (cf. § 127) . Thus
frngSUor and frftgilissimos are formed from the stem f rugili-, but are used as the coiq-
parative and superlative of the indeclinable frngi.
Defective Comparison
130. Some Comparatives and Superlatives appear without a
Positive : —
Odor, swifter; Ociaaimus, swiftest,
potior, pr^eraJMe; ^ potiaaimoa, most important.
a» The following are formed from stems not used as adjectives: * —
1 The old positive potis occurs in the sense of able, possible.
'The forms in -tii and -tents were originally comparative (cf. alter), so that the
eompaiatives in -terior are double comparatives. Infertts and saperas are com.paratiTes
of a still more primitive form (cf. the English comparative in -er).
The superlatives in -timas (-tumas) are relics of old forms of comparison ; tliofle i£
-mns like imus, snmmns, piimns, are still more primitive. Forms like extrSmas an
superlatives of a comparative. In fact, comparison has always been treated -with ai
accumulation of endings, as children s&j furtfierer oad/UrtherMt,
§§130,131] DEFECnVB COMPARISON 67
cis, citrft (adv., <m this side): citerior, hither; citimiui, hUhermosL
dS (prep., down): deterlor, worse; detenliiiiui, worsL
in, intrft (prep., tn, voithin): interior, inner; intimiis, inmost.
prae, pro (prep., d^ore): prior, former ; pTfaau, first.
prope (adv., near): propior, nearer; prozimns, next.
vHtrfk (adv., beyovid): ulterior, /arfAer; xjlUmQBf farihesL
h» Of the following the positiye forms are rare, except when used as
nouns (generally in the plural) : —
eztems, outward; exterior, oiUer; extrtmiui (extfmiui), outmost.
Inferus, below (see § 111. 6) ; Inferior, lower ; Inflmns (Iknus), lowest.
poB^TUs, following ; posterior, Zoster; po8tr6ma8 (postnmus), lost,
superus, o&ooe; superior, Ai^Aer; suprgmus or suniniuii, highesL
But the plurals, eztezi, foreigners; iiiferi, the gods below; postMl, posterity;
supeii, the heemerdy gods, are common.
KoTE. — The superlatiye postuniis has the special sense of /cM^^om, and was a well-
known surname.
131. Several adjectives lack the Comparative or the Superla-
tive : —
a. The Comparative is rare or wanting in the following : —
beUos, inclotus (or inclitos), aomsy
caesios, invictas, pias,
falsus, inyitos, sacer,
fidos (with its compounds), meritos, vaftr.
&• The Superlatiye is wanting in many adjectives in -ills or -bilia (as,
agilia, prohabilis), and in the following : —
ftctnSstts ezilis prScfiyis saidns
agxestis ingSas piopinqous tacitnraus
alacer ieifinot sator tempestiyos
arcintts longinqous sSgnis teres
caecus obHqoas sSrns -vicinos
didtuBiM opimas supinas
Cm From iuvenis, youth, senex, old man (of. § 122. d), are formed the com-
paratives iiinior, younger, senior, older. For these, however, minor natn and
m&ior nattt are sometimes used (natii being often omitted).
The superlative is regularly expressed by minimus and maximus, with
or without nitu.
Note. — In these phrases a&tft is ablative of specification (see § 418).
d. Many adjectives (as aureus, golden) are from their meaning incapable
of comparison.
NoTK. — But each language has its own usage in this respect. Thus, nicer, ^ossy
black, and Candidas, shinmg white, are compared ; but not &ter or allms, naeaniog abao^
lute dead black or white (except that Plautus once has Atrior).
68
NUMERALS
[§§ 132, IS]
NUMERALS
132. The Latin Numerals may be classified as follows : — ,
L Numeral Adjectives:
1. Cardinal Numbers, answering the question how manyf as, untis, one; I
duo, twoy etc. i
2. Ordinal Numbers,* adjectives derived (in most cases) from the Cardi- I
nals, and answering the question which in order t as, primus, ^r,s^ / secim- |
dus, second, etc.
3. Distributive Numerals, answering the question how many at a time!
as, singuli, one at a time ; blni, two by two, etc.
IL Numeral Adverbs, answering the question how often? as, semel, j
once; bis, tmce, etc.
Cardinals and Ordinals ^
133. These two series are as follows : —
CARDINAL
ORDINAL
ROMAN NUMBRALS
1. tlnus, tin a, tlnum, one
prTmuB, -a, -urn, first
I
2. duo, duae, duo, two
secundus (alter), second
11
8. tres, tria, three
tertius, third
III
4. quattuor
quftrtus
IIU OT IV
6. quTnque
quintus
V
6. sex
sextus
VI
7. septem
Septimus
VII
8. octO
oct&vus
VIII
9. novem
nOnus
vini or IX
10. decern
decimus .
z
11. tSndecim
^ndecimus
XI
12. duodecim
duodecimus
XII
18. tredecim (decern (et) trSs)
tertius decimus (decimus
(et) tertius) xiii
14. qnattuordeclm
qu&rtus decimus
Aim or XIV
15. quindecim
quintus decimus
XV
16. sedecim
sextus decimus
XVI
17. septendecim
Septimus decimus
xvn
18. duodevlgintl (octOdecim)
duodSvIcensimus (oct&vus decimus) xviii
1 The Ordinals (except secundas, tertius, octftvtts, nSnas) are formed by means of snf-
fixes related to those used in the superlative and in part identical with them. Thus,
decimus (compare the form infimus) may be regarded as the last of a series of ten ; pri-
mus is a superlative of a stem akin to pro ; the forms in -tus (quflrtus, quintus, sextus) may
be compared with the corresponding Greek forms in -roSf and with superlatives in
-w-To-f , vrhile the others have the superlative ending -timus (changed to -flimus) . Of the
exceptions, secundus is a participle of sequor ; alter is a comparative form (compare
-repot in Greek) , and nSnus is contracted from fnovenos. The cardinal multiples of ten
''re compounds of -gint- *ten' (a fragment of a derivative from decem).
§§ 133, 134]
CARDINALS AND ORDINALS
59
OABDINAL
ORDINAL
SOMAN NUMSBAL8
10. Undevlgiiitl (novendecim) tlndSYlcSnsimu8(nOnusdecimiis)zyiiii or xix
20. ylgintl vlcfinsimus (vlgensimus)
21. ylgintl flnus ylcfinsimus primus
(or tlnus et ylgintl, etc.) (tlnus et vicensimus, etc,)
XX
XXI
80. triginta
40. quadrSginta
50. qulnqu^nta
60. sexSginia
70. septuftgintft
80. octOgintft
00. nOnSgintft
100. centiim
101. centum (et) Unus, etc
200. ducenti, -ae, -a
800. trecentl
400. quadringentl
500. quingenti
600. seacentl
700. septingenti
800. octingenti
000. nDngentI
KKK). mllle
5000. qulnqne milia (mlllia)
10,000. decern mflia (mlllia)
100,000. centum mIlia (mlllia)
tricensimus
quadrftgensimus
quInquSgSnsimus
sexSgensimus
septuSgSnsimus
octOgensimus
nCnSgensimus
cent6nsimus
centensimus primus, etc,
ducent^nslmus
trecentensimus
quadringentensimus
quIngentSnsimus
sescentensimus
septingentensimus
octingentensimus
nCngentensimus
mlll6nsimus
quinquiens mlllensimus
deciSns mlllfinsimus
xxxx or XL
4^ or L
LX
LXX
LXXX
Lxxzxor xc
CI
CO
ccc
ccco
D
DC
DCC
DCCO
DOCCC
00 (cio) or M
100
CCIOO
CGCIOOO
centiSns mlUgnsimus
NOTB 1. — The forms in -Snsimtts are often written without the n : as, yfcSslmus, etc.
NoTB 2. — The forms octSdecim, noyendecim are rare, daodSyiglnti (two from twenty),
findSyisintl (one from twenty), heing used instead. So 28, 29; 38, 39; etc. may he
expressed either hy the suhtraction of two and one or hy the addition of eight and
nine respectiyely.
Dedension of Cardinals and Ordinals
134. Of the Caxdinals only Onus, duo, Ms, the hundreds above
one hundred, and mille when used as a noun, are declinable.
a« For the declension of iinas, see § 113. It often has the meaning of
same or only. The plural is used in this sense ; but also, as a simple nu-
meral, to agree with a plural noun of a singular meaning : as, una cattra,
one camp (cf. § 137. &). The plural occurs also in the phrase urn et alter!, one
party and the other (the ones and the others).
b. Doo,^ two, and ties, three, are thus declined : — *
1 The form in -o is a remnant of the dual number, which was lost in Latin, but is
found in cognate languages. So in amb5, both, which preserves -9 (cf . 9j&u) and § 629. b) .
60
)
NUMERALS
[§§ 134, 135
M.
F.
K.
M.,F.
N.
NOM.
duo
duae
duo
trfiB
tria
Gbn.
du5rum
duftrom
du5rum
trinm
trium
DAT.
du5bu8
duftbns
du5buB
trlbuB
tiibUB
AOG.
du5s (duo)
duSLs
duo
trSB (triB)
tria
Abl.
duSboa
duftboa
dudbus
triboB
tribus
Note. — Aiiibd, hothf is declined like dao.
ۥ The hundreds, up to 1000, are adjectives of the First and Second
Declensions, and are regularly declined like the plural of bonus.
<!• MillB, a thousand, is in the singular an indeclinable adjective : —
mnie modls, in a th<msand loays.
cum mille hominibus, with a thousand men,
mnie trahens vari5s col5r6s (Aen. iv. 701), drawing out a thotisand varum
colors.
In the plural it is used as a neuter noun, and is declined like the plural
of sedile (§ 69) : milia, milium, milibus, etc.
Note. — The singular nulle is sometimes found as a noun in the nominatiye and
accusative: as, mille hominom misit, lie sent a thousand (of) tnen; in the other cases
rarely, except in connection with the same case of milia : as, com oct5 mllibas pedititin,
mille equitum, with eight thousand foot and a thousand horse,
e. The ordinals are adjectives of the First and Second Declensions, and
are regularly declined like bonus.
135. Cardinals and Ordinals have the following uses : —
a* In numbers below 100, if units precede tens, et is generally inserted:
duo et viginti ; otherwise et is omitted : viginti duo.
h. In numbers above 100 the highest denomination generally stands
first, the next second, etc., as in English. Et is either omitted entirely, or
stands between the two highest denominations : — m31e (et) septingenti
sexaginta quattuor, 1764.
Note. — Observe the following combinations of numerals with substantives:—
anus et viginti militfis, or yiginti militSs (et) onus, 21 soldiers.
dtto milia quingenti militSs, or duo milia militiun et quingenti, 2600 soldiers,
milites mille dttcenti triginta unus, 1231 soldiers,
e. After milia the name of the objects enumerated is in the genitive :
duo milia hominum, two thousand men,^
cum tribus milibus militum, with three thousand soldiers,
milia passuum tria, three thousand paces (three miles).
d. For million, billion, trillion, etc.; the Romans had no special words,
but these numbers were expressed by multiplication (cf. § 138. a).
^ Or, in poetry, bis mille hominSs, twice a thousand men.
S§ 136-137]
DISTRIBUTIVES
61
e. Fractions are expressed, as in English, by cardinals in the numerator
and ordinals in the denominator. The feminine gender is used to agree
i77ith pars expressed or understood : — two-sevenths, duae septimae (sc. partSs) ;
ihree-eighthSf tres octavae (sc. partes).
One-half is dimidia pars or dimidium.
Note 1. — When the numerator is one, it is omitted and pars is expressed: one-
third, tertia pars ; one-fourth, quarta pars.
NOTB 2. — When the denominator is hut one greater than the numerator, the numer-
ator only is given : two-thirds, duae partes ; three-fourths, tr6s partSs, etc.
No^B 3. — Fractions are also expressed hy special words derived ^m as, a pound :
as, trifins, a third; Ms, two-thirds. See § 637.
Distritrntives
136. Distributive Numerals are declined like the plural of
bonus.
Note. — These answer
to the interrogative quotCn!, AO10
many of each? or he
many at a Hmef
1.
singnifi, one by one 18.
octOni deni or
dno-
100.
centeni
2.
Mni, two hy two
deviceni
200.
duceni
3.
temi, trini
19.
noveni deni or un-
300.
treceni
4.
quaterni
deviceni
400.
quadringgni
5.
quini
20.
viceni
600.
quTngeni
6.
sem
21.
vioeni singuli,
etc.
600.
sesceni
7.
septeni
30.
triceni
700.
septingeni
8.
octOni
40.
qnadiageni
800.
octingeni
9.
noveni
50.
quinquageni
900.
nOngeni
10.
deni
60.
sexageni
1000.
milleni
11.
^undeni
70.
septnageni
2000.
binamilia
12.
dnodeni
80.
octOgeni
10,000.
dena nulla
13.
temi deni, etc.
90.
nOnageni
100,000.
centena nulla
137. Distributives are used as follows : —
a« In the sense of so many apiece or on each side : as, singula singulis, one
apiece (one each to each one) ; agri septena iugera plebi diTisa sunt, i.e. seven
jugera to each citizen (seven jugera each), etc.
bm Instead of cardinals, to express simple number, when a noun plural in
form but usually singular in meaning is used in a plural sense : as, bina
castra, two camps (duo castra would mean twofortsy With such nouns trini,
not temi, is used for three: as, trina (not tema) castra, three camps; tema
castra means camps in threes.
e. In multiplication : as, bis bina, twice two ; ter septenis diebus, in thrice
seven days,
d. By the poets instead of cardinal numbers, particularly where pairs or
sets are spoken of : as, bina hastilia, tu}0 shafts (two in a set).
62
NUMERALS
Numeral Adyerbs
[§§ 188, m
138. The Numeral Adverbs answer the question quotiSns
(quotiSs), how many times? how often f
1. semel, once
12. duodecifins
40. quadrSgienfl
2. bis, twice
18. terdeciens
60. qnlnquSgiens
3. ter, thrice
14. quaterdeciens
60. sex3.gi€n8
4. quater
15. quIndeciSns
70. septuSgiens
6. qulnqoiens (-es)i
16. sedecifins
80. octOgK^ns
6. sexifiDS
17. septifisdecifins
90. DOn&giens
7. septiens
18. duodeylciSns
100. centiSns
8. octifins
19. tindeylcienB
200. ducentienR
9. noviens
20. ylcidns
800. trecenti^ns
10. deciens
21. semel ylciens,^ etc.
1000. mllienn
11. Undeciens
80. tricidns
10,000. deciens mUiens
a* Numeral Adverbs are used with miUe to express the higher numbers :
ter et tilcifint (centina milia) sfistertiaiii, 3,300^000 teetercea (three and thirty
times a hundred thousand sesterces),
▼icifis ac septifis miliSs (centSna milia) sSstertittm, £,700,000,000 sesterces
(twenty-seven thousand times a hundred thousand).
NoTB. — These large numbers are used almost exclusively in reckoning money,
and centSna milia is regularly omitted (see §634).
Other Numerals
139. The following adjectives are called Multiplicatives: —
simplex, single; duplex, double, twofold; triplex, triple, threefold; quadroplex,
qninqniplex, septemplex, decemplex, centnplex, sesquiplex (1^), multiplez
(manifold).
a* Proportionals are : duplns, triplus, quadruplus, octuplus, etc., ttmce as
great, thrice as great, etc.
&• Temporals : bimus, trimus, of two or three years* age ; biennis, triemzi^j
lasting two or three years ; bimestris, trimestris, of two or three months ; biduum,
a period of two days; biennium, a period of two years,
c. Partitives : binarius, temarius, of two or three parts.
d. Other derivatives are: uni5, unity; bini5, the two (of dice); prunanus,
of the first legion; primarius, of the first rank; denarius, a sum of iO asses]
binus (distributive), doMe, etc.
1 Forms in -ns are often written without the n.
3 Also written viciSns et semel or vIciSns semel, etc.
§§ 140-143] PERSONAL PRONOUNS 68
PRONOUNS
140. Pronouns are used as Nouns or as Adjectives. They are
divided into the following seven classes : —
1. Personal Pronouns : as, ego, /.
2. Reflexive Pronouns : as, 8§, himself,
3. Possessive Pronouns : a((, mens, my.
4. Demonstrative Pronouns: as, hic, this; iUe, ihat.
5. Relative Pronouns : as, qui, who,
6. Interrogative Pronouns : as, quis, who f
7. Indefinite Pronouns : as, aliquis, some one,
141. Pronouns have special forms of declension.
NoTB. — These special forms are, in general, survivals of a very ancient form of
declension differing from that of nouns.
Personal Pronouns
142. The Personal pronouns of the first person are ego, I, nUa,
we; of the second person^ ttt, thou or t/ou^ vCs, ye or j/ou. The
personal pronouns of the third person — he^ she^ it^ they — are
wanting in Latin, a demonstrative being sometimes used instead.
143. Ego and t& are declined as follows : —
First Person
Singular
Plural
NOM.
ego,/
n58, we
Gen.
mtl, of me
mihf (mi), to me
nostrum, nostri, of us
Dat.
n5bis, to us
Ace.
me, me
nOs, us
Abl.
me, hy me
ndbis, hy us
Second Person
NOM.
tu, thou or you
vos, ye or you
Gen.
tiu, of thee or you
yestrum, vestrl ; yostrum (-trf)
Dat.
tibi
ydbis
Ace.
te
ySs
Abl.
te
y5bis
a. The plural n5s is often used for the singular ego ; the plural yOs is
never so used for the singular tu.
64 PRONOUNS [§§ 143, 144
NoTB.— Old forms are genitiTe mis, tis; aocnsatiTe and ablatiye mU, tM (cf.
§43. K. 1).
5. The forms nostmin, Testrnm, etc., are used partUively : —
flnasqnisqae nostrum, each one of us.
▼estnun omniam, of all of you.
NoTB. — The forms of the genitive of the personal pronouns are really the genltiTes
of the possessives: mel, tni, sal, nostri, vestii, genitive singular neuter: nostrum, ves-
tmm, genitive plural masculine or neuter. So in early and later Latin we find vu
vestrArum, one of you {women).
c. The genitives mei, ti4 siu, nostri, Testri, are chiefly used objectitfel^
(§347):-
memor sis nostil, he mindful of us (me).
m% tui pudet, I am ashamed of you,
d. Emphatic forms of t& are tQte and tutemet (tiitimet). The other
cases of the personal pronouns, excepting the genitive plural, are made
emphatic hy adding -met : as, egomet, ySsmet.
NoTB. — Early emphatic forms are mfipte and tCpte.
e. Reduplicated forms are found in the accusative and ablative singu-
lar : as, mSme, tet€.
/• The preposition cam, withy is joined enclitically with the ablative : as,
tecum loquitur, he talks with you.
Reflexive Pronouns
144. Reflexive Pronouns are used in the Oblique Cases to refer
to the subject of the sentence or clause in which they stand (see
§ 299): as, sS amat, Tie loves himself.
a. In the first and second persons the oblique cases of the Personal pro-
nouns are used as Reflexives: as, me vided, / see myself; te landas, you
praise yourself; n5bis persuademus, we persuade ourselves,
h* The Reflexive pronoun of the third person has a special form used
only in this sense, the same for both singular and pluraL It is thus
declined : —
Gen. sui, of himself herself itself themselves
Dat. sibi, to himself herself itself themselves
Ace, se (sese), himself herself itself themselves
Abl. s€ (sese), [6y] himself herself itself themselves
Note 1. — Emphatic and reduplicated forms of sS are made as in the personals (see
§ 143. d, e) . The preposition cum is added enclitically : as, stexun, with himself, etc.
Note 2. — An old form sSd occurs in the accusative and ablativa
§S 146, 146]
DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS
65
noster, our
▼ester, your
suns, their
Possessiye Pronouns
145. The Possessive pronouns are : —
F1B8T Pebson. mens, my
Second Person. tans, thyy your
Thibd Person. sunSy his, her, its
These are really adjectives of the First and Second Declensions, and are
so declined (see §§ 110-112). But mens has regularly mi (rarely mens) in
tlie yocatiye singular masculine.
Note. — Sans is used only as a reflexive, referring to the subject. For a possessive
pronoun of the third person not referring to the subject, the genitive of a demonstrative
must he used. Thns, patrem sunm occidit, he killed his {oym) father; but patrem dias
occidit, he kitted fUs (somebody else's) /otAer.
a* Emphatic forms in -pte are found in the ahlative sing^ular : snOpte.
b» A rare possessive ciiins (quoins), -a, -um, whose, is formed from the
g^enitive singular of the relative or interrogative* pronoun (qui, quis). It
may he either interrogative or relative in force according to its derivation,
but is usually the former.
ۥ The reciprocals one another and each other are expressed hy inter sS or
alter . . . alterum : —
alter alterius 5va fcangit, they break each other^s eggs (one ... of the other).
inter sS amant, they love one another (they love among themselves).
Demonstrative Pronouns
146. The Demonstrative Pronouns are used to point out or
designate a person or thing for special attention, either with nouns
as Adjectives or alone as Pronouns. They are : — hie, this; is,
iUe, late, th^t; with the Intensive ipse, self^ and idem, same; ^ and
are thus declined : —
hiC| this
Singular
Plural
M.
F.
N.
M.
F.
N.
NOM.
hie
haec
h5c
hi
hae
haec
Gen.
hdius
hiiius
hMus
hOrum
hamm
hOmm
Dat.
huic
huic
huic
his
his
his
ACG.
hunc
hanc
h5c
hds
h&s
•
haec
Abl.
h9c
hJLc
hdc
his
his
his
I These demonstratives are comhinations of 0- and i- stems, which are not clearly
dlstinguishahle.
66
PRONOUNS
[§146
NoTB l.-rHie is a oompoimd of the stem ho- with the demonstrative enclitic -ee.
In most of the cases final e is dropped, in some the whole termination. Bat in these
latter it is sometimes retained for emphasis: as, hoius-ce, bis-oe. In early Latin -ciUone
is retained in some of these (hiSnmc). The vowel in luc, h5c, was originally sliort, and
perhaps this qnantity was always retained, me and iste are sometimes found with
the same enclitic: lIUc, ilUec, ilhic ; also illoc. See a, p. 67.
NoTB 2. — For the dative and ablative plural of liic the old form hilms is sometimes
foond; haee oocors (rarely) for liae.
SiNOULAB
is, that
Plural
H. F. lv«
ei, ii(I) eae ea
eOnim eamm eSmm
MS, iu (u) eis, iu (is) eis, lis (is)
eSs eas ea
eSa, iSs(la) em, iis^) eis, lis (is)
Note 3. — Obsolete forms are eae (dat. fern.), and e&bus or ibas (dat. plur.). Foi
dative ei are found also ei and m (monosyllabic); ei, eos, etc., also occur in the ploial.
M.
F.
N.
NOM.
is
ea
id
Gbn.
61118
6108
61118
Dat.
^
ei
^
Ace.
earn
earn
id
Abl.
eO
ei
e9
me, that
SiNGULAB
»
Plural
M.
F.
N.
M.
F.
N.
NOM.
ill6
illA
mud
iin
illae
Ola
Gbk.
11U118
1111118
ilUiis
illdmm
ill&nun
illdrom
Dat.
ilH
ilU
ilH
illiB
11118
illis
Ace.
illam
illAfn
illnd
illos
illAA
ilia
Abl.
1119
jlU
1115
IIITs
11138
illis
Iste, ista, istnd, that (yonder), is declined like ille.
Notb 4. — llle replaces an earlier ollus (olle), of which several forms occur.
Notb 5. — iBte is sometimes found in early writers in the form ste etc. The fiR<
syllable of ille and ipse is very often used as short in early poetry.
Notb 6. — The forms ilG, ist! (gen.), and illae, istae (dat.), are sometimes found;
also the nominative plural istaeoe, iUaece (for istae, illae). See a, p. 67.
ipse, seHf
Singular
M.
F. K.
NOM.
ipse
ipsa ipsum
Gen.
ipsiiis
ipsius ipsius
Dat.
ipsi
ipsi ipsi
Ace.
ipsum
ipsam ipsum
Abl.
ip85
ipsa ips5
M.
Plural
F.
N.
ipsi ipsae ipsa
ipsSmm ipsamm ipsOmm
ipsis ipsis ipsiis
ipsds ipsis ipsa
ipsis ipsis i^aSa
§i4d]
DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS
67
^ NoTB 7. — Ipse is componnded of is and -pse (a pronominal particle of nncertain
origin: cf. §145. a), meaning se^. The former part was originally declined, as in
reapse (for r5 eUpse), in fact. An old form ipsus occurs, with snperlatiYe ipsissimus,
own self, used for comic effect.
Note 8. — The intensive -pse is found in the forms eapse (nominative), emnpse,
«ainpse, edpse, eapse (ahlative).
idem, the same
Singular
Plubal
aim Vm
N.
M. Vm Xf.
NOK.
idem e&dem
Idem
idem (ei-) eaedem eXdem
Gen.
Siusdem liusdem
liusdem
ednmdem earundem eSnmdem
Dat.
eidem eidem
eidem
eisdem or isdem
Ace.
eundem eandem
Idem
eSsdem easdem eXdem
Abl.
eodem eadem
eodem
eisdem or isdem
Note 9. — Idem is the demonstrative is with the indeclinable suffix -dem. The mas-
collne idem is for fisdem ; the neuter idem, however, is not for fiddem, but is a relic of
an older formation. A final m of is is changed to n before d : as, eandem for eomdem,
etc. The plural forms idem, isdem, are often written udem, iisdem.
a« nie and iste appear in combination with the demonstrative particle -c,
shortened from -ce, in the following forms : —
SlNOULAB
M. F.
NoK. ilUc illaec
Ace. illanc Ulanc
Abl. msc ill&c
N.
iliac (illoc)
iliac (illoc)
ill5c
M. F.
istic Istaec
istanc istanc
ittSc ist&c
N.
ittac (istoc)
istuc (istoc)
iatSc
Plural
N., Ace.
illaec
istaec
Note 1. — The appended -ce is also found with pronouns in numerous combinations :
s, hiliusce, himce, hdrunce, hanmoe, hSsce, hisce (cf . § 146. n. 1), ilHttsce, isce ; also with the
iterrogative -ne, in hdcine, hSscine, istucine, iUicine, etc.
Note 2. — By composition with ecce or em, behold! are formed eccum (for ecce
am), eccam, eccos, eccis; eccillum (for ecce illiun); ellum (for em ilium), ellam, ellos,
Uas ; eccistam. These forms are dramatic and colloquial.
&• The combinations hMusmodi (hdiuscemodi), einsmodi, etc., are used as
adeclinable adjectives, equivalent to talis, such: as, res eiusmodi, such a
iing (a thing of that sort : cf. § 345. a).
For uses of the Demonstrative Pronouns, see §§ 296 ff.
68
PBONOUNS
[§§ U7-H9
Relative Pronouns
147. The Relative Pronoun qui, who^which^ is thus declined :■
Singular
Plural
M.
F.
N.
M.
F.
N.
NOM.
qui
quae
quod
qui
quae
quae
Gen.
diius
cuius
c^us
quSruni
qu&rum
quorum
DAT.
cui
cui
cui
quibus
quibus
quibus
Ace.
quern
quam
quod
quds
quas
quae
Abl.
qu5
qu&.
qnO
quibus
quibus
quibus
Interrogative and Indefinite Pronouns
148. The Substantive Interrogative Pronoun quis, who?
what? is declined in the Singular as follows : —
quid,
Al.| f •
N.
NoM.
quis
quid
Gen.
c&ius
cMus
DAT.
cui
cui
Ace.
quern
quid
Abl.
quo
qu5
The Plural is the same as that of the Relative, qui, quae, quae.
a. The singular quis is either masculine or of indeterminate gender,
but in old writers it is sometimes distinctly feminine.
&• The Adjective Interrogative Pronoun, qui, quae, quod, what kind off
what f which t is declined throughout like the Relative : —
Substantive Aiwtbctive
quia Tocat, w?io calls f qui homS vocat, what man calU 9
quid vides, what do you see f quod templum vides, what temple do you see*
Note. — But qui is often used without any apparent adjective force; and qais^
very common as an adjective, especially with words denoting a person : as, qui naa>-
nat mS 7 who calls my n^ne f quis diSs fait ? what day was it f quis homS ? what man-
but often qui hom5? w?iat kind of mxinf nesciS qui sis, I know not who you ore.
ۥ Quisnam, pray, who f is an emphatic interrogative. It has both sab-
stantive and adjective forms like quis, qui.
149. The Indefinite Pronouns quis, any^ne^ and qui, any^ 9^
declined like the corresponding Interrogatives, but qua is com-
monly used for quae except in the nominative plural feminine :
§§ 149-161] COMPOUNDS OF QUIS AND QUI 69
Substantive : quia, any one ; quid, anything.
Adjective : qui, qua (quae), quod, any.
a. The feminine forms qua and quae are sometimes used substantively.
b. The indefinites quis and qui are rare except after si, nisi, ne, and num,
and in compounds (see § 310. a, &).
Note. -^ After these particles qui is often used as a substantive and quis as an adjec-
tive (cf. §148. 6. N.).
Case-Forms of qui and quis
150. The Relative, Interrogative, and Indefinite Pronouns are
originally of the same stem, and most of the forms are the same
(compare § 147 with § 148). The stem has two forms in the mas-
culine and neuter, quo-, qui-, and one for the feminine, qui-. The
interrogative sense is doubtless the original one.
a. Old forms for the genitive and dative singular are qudius, quoi.
b. The form qui is used for the ablative of both numbers and all genders ;
but especially as an adverb (howy by tchich way, in any way), and in the combi-
nation quicum, with whom, as an interrogative or an indefinite relative.
c. A nominative plural qnes (stem qui-) is found in early Latin. A dative
and ablative qms (stem quo-) is not infrequent, even in classic Latin.
d. The preposition cum is joined enclitically to all forms of the abla-
tive, as with the personal pronouns (§ 143./) : as, qu5cum, quicum, quibuscum.
Note. — But oocasionaUy cam precedes : as, com qa5 (Inv. iv. 9).
Compounds of quis and qui
151. The pronouns quis and qui appear in various combinations.
a. The adverb -cumque (-cunqne) (cf. quisqne) added to the relative
makes an indefinite relative, which is declined like the simple word : as,
quicumque, quaecumque, quodcumque, whoever, whatever; c^iuscumque, etc.
NoTB. — This suffix, with the same meaning, may be used with any relative: as,
quiliscomque, of whatever sort; qoandScamque (also rarely qtiandSque), w?ienever; ubi-
camque, wherever,
b» In quisquis, whoever, both parts are^ declined, but the only forms in
common use are quisquis, quidquid (quicquid) and qu5quo.
NoTB 1. — Rare forms are quemquem and qttibnsquibtts ; an ablative quiqui is some-
times found in early Latin ; the ablative feminine qa&qua is both late and rare. Cuicui
occurs as a genitive in the phrase caicui mod!, of whatever kind. Other cases are
cited, but have no authority. In early Latin quisquis is occasionally feminine.
Note 2. — Quisquis is usually substantive, except in the ablative qu5qu5, which is
more commonly an adjective.
70
PRONOUNS
[§151
c. The indefinite pronouns quidam, a certain (one) ; qniyis, qoilibet, any
you please, are used both as substantives and as adjectives. The first part
is declined like the relative qui, but the neuter has both quid- (substantive)
and quod- (adjective) : —
qnidam quaedam quiddam (quoddam)
quivla quaevit quidvis (quod^^)
Quidam changes m to n before din the accusative singular (quendam, h.;
quandam, f.) and the genitive plural (quorundam, m., n. ; quarundam, f.).
d* The indefinite pronouns quispiam, some, any, and quisquam, any at dU,
are used both as substantives and as adjectives. Quispiam has feminine quae-
piam (adjective), neuter quidpiam (substantive) and qnodpiam (adjective);
the plural is very rare. Quisquam is both masculine and feminine ; the
neuter is quidquam (quicquam), substantive only ; there is no plural. Ullns,
-a, -um, is commonly used as the adjective corresponding to quisquam.
e. The indefinite pronoun aliquis (substantive), some one, aliqiu (adjec-
tive), some, is declined like quis and qui, but aliqua is used instead of aliquae
except in the nominative plural feminine : —
Singular
H.
p.
N.
NOM.
Gen.
aliquis (aliqul)
alicilius
aliqua
aliciiins
aliquid (aliquod)
alicdint
Dat.
alicui
alicui
aUcui
Ace.
Abl.
aliquem
aliqud
aliquam
aliqua
Plural
aliquid (aliquod)
aliqu5
NOM.
Gen.
Dat.
Ace.
Abl.
aliqol
aliqudram
aliqttibut
aliquos
aliqttibus
aliquae
aliqu&rum
aliquibus
aliqufts
aliquibus
aliqua
aliqnSram
aliquibtts
aliqua
aliquibus
Note. — Aliqui is sometimes used substantively and aliquis as an adjective.
/. The indefinite pronoun ecquis (substantive), whether any one, ecqm
(adjective), whether any, is declined like aliquis, but has either ecquae or
ecqua in the nominative singular feminine of the adjective form.
Note. — Bcquis (ecqui) has no genitive singular, and in the plural occurs in tbe
nominative and accusative only.
gr. The enclitic particle -que added to the interrogative gives a universal
as, quisque, every one; uterque, each of two, or both. Quisque is declined
§§ 161, 162]
COBBELATIVES
71
like the interrogative qiiu, qiu : — Bubstantiye, quisqiWy quidqne ; adjectiye,
qulque, quaeqne, quodque.
In the compound unusquisque, every single one, both parts are declined
(genitive uniuscdiusque), and they are sometimes written separately and even
separated by other words : —
ne in find quidem quSque (Lael. 92), not eoen in a single one,
h. The relative and interrogative have rarely a possessive adjective
ciUus (-a, -um), older quoins, whose ; and a patrial ciUas (c&iat-), of what
country,
i* Quantus, how great, qualis, of what sort, are derivative adjectives from
the interrogative. They are either interrogative or relative, corresponding
respectively to the demonstratives tantus, talis (§ 152). Indefinite com-
pounds are quantoscumqiie and qualiscimiqiie (see § 151. a).
Correlatives
152. Many Pronouns, Pronominal Adjectives, and Adverbs
have corresponding demonstrative^ relative^ interrogative^ and
indefinite forms. Such parallel forms are called Correlatives.
They are shown in the following table: —
Demon.
Rbl.
Intbrroo.
Indef. Bel.
Indbf.
is
qui
quis?
quisquis
aliqois
that
who
who?
wlioever
S(mie one
tantas
quantus
quantus ?
quantuscumque
aliquantttt
80 great
how (as) great
how great?
however great
some
t&lis
qualis
. quaUs ?
qu&liscnmqne
such
as
of what sort?
of whatever kind
ibi
ubi
ubi?
ttbiubi
aUcnbi
tliere
where
wJieref
wherever
somewhere
ed
qu5
qu5?
quoquo
aliquo
thither
whither
whither f
whithersoever
(to) somewhere
eft
qnfl
qua?
quaquft
aliquA
that way
which way
which way f
whithersoever
somewhere
inde
unde
unde?
undecumque
alicunde
thence
whence
whence f
whencesoever
from somewhere
tarn
cum
quandS?
quandocumque
aliquandd
then
when
when?
whenever
at some time
tot
quot
quot?
quotquot
aliquot
80 many
as
how many f
" however many
some, several
totiSnt
quotiens
quotiens ?
quotifinscumque
aliquotiSns
80 often
as
how often f
however often
at several times
72 CONJUGATION OF THE VERB [§§163-156
VERBS
CONJUGATION OP THE VERB
153. The inflection of the Verb i& called its Conjugation.
Voice, Mood, Tense, Person, Number
154. Through its conjugation the Verb expresses Voice, Mood,
Tense, Person, and Number.
a. The Voices are two : Active and Passive.
b» The Moods are four: Indicative, Subjunctive, Imperative, and In-
finitive.^
Note. — The Indicative, Subjunctive, and Imperative axe called Finite Moods'^
distinction from the Infinitive.
c. The Tenses are six, viz. : —
1. For continued action, Present, Imperfect, Future.
2. For completed action, Perfect, Pluperfect, Future Perfect.
The Indicative Mood has all six tenses, but the Subjunctive has no
future or future perfect, and the Imperative has only the present and the
future. The Infinitive has the present, perfect, and future.
d. The Persons are three: First, Second, and Third.
e. The Numbers are two : Singular and Plural.
Noun and Adjective Forms
155. The following Noun and Adjective forms are also included
in the inflection of the Latin Verb : —
a. Four Participles,* viz. : —
Active: the Present and Future Participles.
Passive : the Perfect Participle and the Gerundive.*
b. The Grerund : this is in form a neuter noun of the second declension,
used only in the oblique cases of the singular.
c« The Supine : this is in form a verbal noun of the fourth declension
in the accusative (-um) and dative or ablative (-u)* singular.
1 The Infinitive is strictly the locative case of an abstract noun, expressing ^
action of the verb (§ 451).
3 The Participles are adjectives in .inflection and meaning, but have the power o'
verbs in construction and in distinguishing time.
« The Grerundive is also used as an adjective of necessity ^ duty, etc. (§ 158. d)- ^
late use it became a Future Passive Participle. ^ Originally locative.
§§166,167] voices and moods 78
Signification op the Forms of the Verb
Voices
156. The Active and Passive Voices in Latin generally cor-
respond to the active and passive in English ; but —
a. The passive voice often has a reflexive meaning : —
fend acdngor, I gird myself with, my sword.
Ttinins vertitur, Turnus turns (himself),
induitnr vestem, ?ie puts on his (own) clothes.
Note. — This use corresponds very nearly to the Greek Middle voice, and is doubt-
less a survival of the original meaning of the passive (p. 76, footnote 2). •
b» Many verbs are passive in form, but active or reflexive in meaning.
These are called Deponents (§ 190):^ as, hortor, / exhort; sequor, I follow,
c: Some verbs with active meaning have the passive form in the perfect
tenses ; these are called Semi-Deponents : as, auded, audere, ansns stun, dare.
Moods
157. The Moods are used as follows : —
a* The Indicative Mood is used for most direct assertions and interroga-
tions: as, — Talesne? Yal&&f are you well f I am well,
b» The Subjunctive Mood has many idiomatic uses, as in commands, condi-
tionSy and various dependent clauses. It is often translated by the English
Indicative ; frequently by means of the auxiliaries may, might, would, should;^
sometimes by the (rare) Subjunctive ; sometimes by the Infinitive ; and
often by the Imperative, especially in prohibitions. A few characteristic
examples of its use are the following : —
eamtts, let ils go; n6 abeat, let him not depart.
adsom ut videam, I am here to see (that I may see).
tH nS qnaesietis, do not thou inquire, (
be&tus 818, may you he blessed,
quid morer, why should I delay f j
nesciO quid sciibam, I know not what to write, \
si moneam, audiat, if I should warn, he would hear.
1 That is, verbs which have laid aside (deponere) the passive meaning.
2 The Latin uses the subjunctive in many cases where we use the indicative ; and
we use a colorless auxiliary in many cases where the Latin employs a separate verb
with more definite meaning. Thus, I may write is often not sciibam (subjunctive) , but
licet mlhi scnbere ; / can write is pessnm scnbere ; / would write is scnbam, scriberem,
or sciibcre velim (vcllem) ; I should write, {if, etc.), scriberem (si) . . ., or (implying duty)
oportet mS scnbere.
i
a I^jj. . "'^'^ "^ bone*.
°'™oMoorf. -
1^ J^te Panieip,,3 ^ ''""''"*"
^^« I>rese„t Parti. T "'""^ "" ^°"«^ : -
-imTi/rn:''- *<'^;C"* *« the e! ; "'' -«««) has tw,
4«y an adjectiv- *"". acceofe^ .-English n-^, .
- It IS U3e^ ije Q,eanu,„ . „ ''' Ictiis. *«. P*'^^*^* Passive
— « - ,r.^, »o ..er.ee. L,^^-> '^o/../^'- -rtai. t«.s,s of the «.
*°*» 18 different.
§{160-162] TENSES OF THE PINITE VERB 75
Oenind and 'Supine
159. The Gerund and Supine are used as follows; —
a, Tlie Genrnd is a verbal noim, correspond ing in meaning to the English
verbal noun in -ing (§ 602): as, loqueodl c»n»i,/or the take of speaking.
NoTB. — The Qerond ia tonnd only in the obUqae cases. A corregponding doihI-
Dative is supplied by the Infinitive ; 'ihae, (criMn est fitile, writing (to write) ii uw-
fai; but, ais scribendi, the art ijfviriling.
b. The Supine is in form a noun of the fourth declension (§ S4. fi),
found only iu the accusative ending In -tiun, -turn, and the dative or abla-
tive ending in -tfi, -en.
The Supine in -nm ia used after verba and the Snpine in -fi after adjeo-
tives (§§509,510): —
T6aU ipectitiua, he came loaee; mtr&bile dicta, wonder^ to tell.
Tenses of the Finite Verb
160. The Tenses of the Indicative have, in general, the same
meaning as the corresponding tenses in English : —
a. Of continued action,
1. Pebbbnt : actibS, I vrrite, I am writing, I do write.
2. Impbbfkct : aotbibam, I wrote, I wat writing, I did wrUe.
8. FUTDBB : BCribam, I «AaU lorite.
h. Of completed action,
4. pBRPEOT : sedpBl, / have writUn, I wn^.
&. Plopbrfbct : Bcnpoema, I had written.
Q. FuTDKB Perfect : Bciipseio, I «AaU have written.
161. The Perfect Indicative has two separate uses, — the Per-
fect Definite and the Perfect Historical (or Indefinite).
1. The Perfect Definite represents the action of the verb as completed
n present time, and corresponds to the English perfect with have : as,
cripsi, / have written.
2. The Perfect Historical narrates a simple act or state in past time
vithout representing it as in progress or continuing. It corresponds to the
English past or preterite and the Greek aorist: as, scripsit, he wrote.
162. The Tenses of the Subjunctiye are chiefly used in depend-
nt clausee, following the rule for the Sequence of Tenses ; but
Lave also special idiomatic uses (see Syntax).
For Itae nse ol Tensas in the Imperative, see {{ 44S, 440.
74 CONJUGATION OF THE VERB [§§ 157, 16S
ۥ The Imperative is used for exhortation, entreatyy or command ; but the
Subjunctive is often used instead (§§ 439, 450) : —
liber esto, he 8haU he free.
nS 08«a legitd, do not gather the bones.
d* The Infinitive is used chiefly as an indeclinable noun, as the subject
or complement of another verb (§§ 452, 456. n.). In special constructions it
takes the place of the Indicative, and may be translated by that mood in
English (see Indirect Discourse, § 580 ff.).
NoTB. — For the Ssrntaz of the Moods, see § 436 ff.
ParticipleB
158. The Participles are used as follows : —
a. The Present Participle (ending in -ns) has commonly the same
meaning and use as the English participle in -ing ; as, Yocans, call-
ing ; legentSs, reading. (For its inflection, see egSns, § 118.)
ft. The Future Participle (ending in -firus) is oftenest used to ex-
press what is likely or abotU to happen : as, rSctttrus, about to rule;
auditUrus, about to hear.
NoTK. — With the tenses of esse, to 6e, it forms the First Periphrastic Conjugation
(see § 195) : as, orbs est c&sura, the city is aboiU to fall ; m&nsums eram, / was going
to stay,
e. The Perfect Participle (ending in -tus, -sus) has two uses : —
1. It is sometimes equivalent to the English perfect passive participle :
as, tectus, sheltered ; acceptus, accepted; ictus, having been struck; and often
has simply an adjective meaning : as, acceptus, acceptable.
2. It is used with the verb to be (esse) to form certain tenses of the pas^
sive : as, vocatus est, he was (has been) called.
Note. — There is no Perfect Active or Present Passive Participle in Latin. For
substitutes see §§ 492, 493.
d* The Gerundive (ending in -ndus), has two uses : —
1. It is often used as an adjective implying obligation, necessity, or
propriety (ought or must) : as, audiendus est, he must be heard.
Note. — When thus used with the tenses of the verb to be (esse) it forms the Second
Periphrastic Conjugation: dSligendus erat, he ought to have been chosen (§ 196).
2. In the oblique cases the Gerundive commonly has the same meaning
as the Gerund (cf. § 159. a), though its construction is different. (Foi
examples, see § 503 ff.)
§§ 169-162] TENSES OF THE FINITE VERB 76
Gerund and "Supine
159. The Gerund and Supine are used as follows : —
a. The Gerund is a verbal noun, corresponding in meaning to the English
-verbal noun in -ing (§ 502): as, loquendi causa, /or the sake of speaking.
Note. — The Gleriind is found only m the oblique cases. A corresponding nomi-
native is supplied by the Infinitive : thus, scribere est utile, writing (to write) is use-
fvl ; but, ars sciibendi, t?ie art of writing.
b. The Supine is in form a noun of the fourth declension (§ 94, ft),
found only in the accusative ending In -torn, svaa, and the dative or abla-
tive ending in -tii, -su.
The Supine in -um is used after verbs and the Supine in -vl after adjec-
tives (§§509,610): —
vSnit spectatum, Tie came to see; mir&bile dictu, wonderful to teU,
Tenses of the Finite Verb
160. The Tenses of the Indicative have, in general, the same
meaning a^ the corresponding tenses in English: —
a* Of continued action,
1. Present : scribo, / vmte, I am nyriting, I do write,
2. Imperfect : scxibSbam, I wrote^ I was writing, I did write,
3. Future : scribam, I shaXL write,
&• Of completed action,
4. Perfect : scrips!, I have written, I wrote,
5. Pluperfect : scripseram, / had written.
6. Future Perfect : scripsero, I shall have written,
161. The Perfect Indicative has two separate uses, — the Per-
fect Definite and the Perfect Historical (or Indefinite).
1. The Perfect Definite represents the action of the verb as completed
in present time, and corresponds to the English perfect with have: as,
scripsi, / have written,
2. The Perfect Historical narrates a simple act or state in past time
without representing it as in progress or continuing. It corresponds to the
English past or preterite and the Greek aorist: as, scripsit, he wrote,
162. The Tenses of the Subjunctive are chiefly used in depend-
ent clauses, following the rule for the Sequence of Tenses ; but
have also special idiomatic uses (see Syntax).
For the use of Tenses in the Imperative, see §§ 448, 440.
76
CONJUGATION OF THE VERB
Personal Endings
[§163
163. Verbs have regular terminations ^ for each of the three
Persons, both singular and plural, active and passi ve.^ These are :
1. -in(-5):
2. -s:
3. -t:
1. -mils:
2. -tis:
3. -nt:
ACTIVE
am-5, / love.
ama-fi, thou lovest.
ama-t, he loves,
amft-mus, toe love,
ama-tis, you love.
ama-nt, they love.
Singular
-r(^r):
-lis (-re):
-tur:
Plural
-mixr:
-mini:
-ntur:
PASSIVE
amor, / am loved.
am&-ris, thou art loved.
amartur, he is loved.
amarinixr, we are loved-
ama-mini, you are love<^-
ama-ntor, they are lovei
a» The Perfect Indicative active has the special terminations ' : —
SiNO. 1.
2.
3.
Plur. 1.
2.
-i:
-is-ti:
-i-t:
-i-mus :
-is-tis :
3. -erant (-€re) :
am&v-i, I loved.
am&v-is-ti, tkou lovedst.
am&v-i-t, ?ie loved.
am&v-i-mns, we loved.
am&v-is-tis, you loved.
am9.v-eru]it (-dre), thsy loved.
&• The Imperative has the following terminations :
Present Active
Singular
2. — : am&, love thou.
-te:
Plural
am&-te, love ye.
Future Active
2. -to : am&-to, thou shalt love. -tote : am&-tote, ye shaU Unve. i
3. -to : am&-td, he shaU love. -nt5 : ama-ntd, they shaU love. I
I
1 Most of these seem to be fragments of old pronouns, whose signification is th&-'
added to that of the verb-stem (of. § 36). But the ending -mini in the second person
plural of the passive is perhaps a remnant of the participial form found in the Grf^
-/lews, and has supplanted the proper form, which does not appear in Latin. The ?«''
sonal ending -nt is probably connected with the participial nt- (nominative -ns).
2 The Passive is an old Middle Voice, peculiar to the Italic and Celtic Iangiug«^
and of uncertain origin.
' Of these terminations -i is not a personal ending, but appears to represent s^
Indo-European tense-sign -ai of the Perfect Middle. In -is-ti and -ift-tis, -ti and -tis t^
personal endings ; for -is-, see § 169. c. n. In -i-t and -i-mus, -t and -mus are peisoc^
endings, and i is of uncertain origin. Both -Snint and -Sre are also of doubtful origin
but the former contains the jmrsonal ending -nt.
§§ 163, 164]
THE THREE STEMS
77
2. -re.:
2. -tor:
3. -tor:
Singular Presbnt Passive
am&-re, be thou loved. -mini :
Future Passive
am^tor, thou shaU he loved.
am^-tor, ?ie shaU be loved. -ntor :
Plural
amft-mini, be ye loved.
ama-ntor, tkey 8haU be loved.
Forms of the Verb
The Three Stems
164. The forms of the verb may be referred to three stems,
called (1) the Present, (2) the Perfect, and (3) the Supine stem.
1. On the Present stem are formed —
The Present, Imperfect, and Future Indicative, Active and Passive.
The Present and Imperfect Subjunctive, Active and Passive.
The Imperative, Active and Passive.
The Present Infinitive, Active and Passive.
The Present Participle, the Gerundive, and the Gerund.
2. On the Perfect stem are formed —
The Perfect, Pluperfect, and Future Perfect Indicative Active.
The Perfect and Pluperfect Subjunctive Active.
The Perfect Infinitive Active.
3. On the Supine stem are formed ^ —
a* The Perfect Passive Participle, which combines with the forms of the
rerb sum, &e, to make —
The Perfect, Pluperfect, and Future Perfect Indicative Passive. •
The Perfect and Pluperfect Subjunctive Passive.
The Perfect Infinitive Passive.
&• The Future Active Participle, which combines with esse to make
lie Future Active Infinitive. #
ۥ The Supine in -am and -u. The Supine in -um combines with iri to
aake the Future Passive Infinitive (§ 203. a).
NoTB. — The Perfect Participle with fore also makes a Future Passive Infinitive
as, amfttos foze). For fore (futurttm esse) ut with the subjunctive, see § 569. 3. a.
1 The Perfect Passive and Future Active Participles and the Supine, though strictly
loixn-forms, each with its own suffix, agree in having the first letter of the suffix (t)
tie same and in suffering the same phonetic change (t to s, see § 15. 5). Hence these
orms, along. with several sets of derivatives (in -tor, -tfira, etc., see § 238. b. n.I), were
elt^ by the Romans as belonging to one system, and are conveniently associated with
be Supine Stem. Thus, from pingo, we have pictum, pictus, pictiirtts, pictor, pictura ;
roxn lUflS, lisom (for fiid-tam), lisus (part.), lisus (noun), lisfmis, lisiS, zisor, lisibilis.
78
CONJUGATION OF THE VERB
[§§ 165, lae
VSRB-ElVDnfGS
165. Eveiy f oim of the finite verb is made up of two parts :
1. The Stem (see § 24). This is either the root or a modification or
development of it.
2. The Ekdiko, consisting of —
1. the Signs of Mood and Tense (see §§ 168, 160).
2. the Personal Ending (see § 163).
Thus in the verb vocA-bft-s, you were caUing, the root is voc, modified into the
verb-stem voci-, which by the addition of the ending -bis becomes the imperfect
tense vocftbfts ; and this ending consists of the tense-sign b&- and the personal
ending (-s) of the second person singular.
166. The Verb-endings, as they are formed by the signs for
mood and tense combined with personal endings, are —
ACTIVE
INDICATIVB
SUBJUNCTIVE
Present
SiNO. 1. -6
2.-8
& * a
'-m
-s
8. -t
lU.
-t
Plur. 1. -mas
-mas
2. -tis
-tis
8. -nt
- B
-nt
Imperfect
SiMo. 1. -ba-m
-re-in
2. -bft-s
-rS-«
• 3. -ba-t
-re-t
Plur. 1. -ba-mus
-re-mas
2. -bft-tis
-r6-ti8
8. -ba-nt
-re-nt
PASSIVE
indicative subjunctivb
Present
-or
-ris (-re)
-tur
.mar
.mjni
-ntor
8
-r
-ris (-re)
-tar
-mar
-mini
-ntar
Imperfect
-ba-r
-bA-ris (-re)
•bft-tar
-bft-mor
-b&-minl
-ba-ntar
-re-r
-rS-ris (-le)
-rS-tor
-rS-mor
-re-mim
-re-ntor
INDICATIVE
Future
SlNO. 1. -b-d
2. -bi-s
8. -bi-t
Plur. 1. .bi-mns
2. -bi-tia
8. -ba-nt
III
I
I
i
lis
m, IV
-Or-m
-«-8
-e-t
-^mus
-e-tis
-e-nt
indicative
Future
-bo-r
-be-ria (-re) | ^
►bi-tar ® =
-bi-mor ^ ^
-bi-minl J a
-bu-ntar
m, iv»
-o-r
-^ris (-r«)
-S-mor
^ These numerals refer to the four
conjugations given later (see § 171).
|i«e]
VERB-ENDINGS
79
Active
INDICATIVB SUBJUNCTIVB
Pbefect
SiN^o. 1. -I -eri-m
2. -is-ti -eri-s
3. -i-t -eri-t
Pi^tJK. 1. -i-mns -eri-mus
2. -is-tis -eri-tis
8. -era-nt (-Sre) -exi-nt
Pluperfect
SixG. 1. -era-m -isse-m
2. -era-8 -isse-s
8. -era-t -isse-t
PL.UB. 1. -era-mns -issS-mns
2. -era-tis -isse-tis
8. -era-nt -isse-nt
Future Perfect
8iKO. 1. -er-6
2. -eri-8
8. -eri-t
Plxtr- 1. -eri-mua
2. -eri-tis
8. -eri-nt
Passive
INDICATIVE SUBJUNCTIVE
Perfect
•nm sim
es sis
est sit
somna sunns
estis sitis
sunt sint
-tU8(-ta,
-turn)
-ti (-tae,
-ta)
Pluperfect
-tu8(-ta,
-torn)
-ti (-tae,
-ta)
eram
erfts
erat
eramus
eratis
erant
essem
essSs
esset
essemas
essStis
essent
-tas (-ta,
-turn)
-ti (-tae,
-ta)
Future Perfect
' ex5
eris
erit
erimas
eritis
erunt
imperative
Present
SiKO. 2. Plub. 2. -te Sing. 2. -re
Future
2. -t5
3. -t5
2. -tSte
3. -nt5
2. -tor
3. -tor
Present
Plub. 2. -mini
Future
3. -ntor
For convenience a table of the Noun and Adjective fonns of
the verb is here added.
infinitive
Pres. -re (Pres. stem) i, ii, iv. -ri ; iii. -I
Pert, -isse (Perf. stem) -tas (-ta, -turn) esse
FuT. -torus (-a, -«m) esse -turn in
Pres. -ns, -ntis
FuT. -tfiros, -a, -om
participles
Perf. -tas, -ta, -tarn
Gee. -ndus, -nda, -ndnm
GERUND SUPINE
-ndl« -add, -ndom, -nd5 -turn, -tfl
80 CONJUGATION OF THE VERB [§§ 167, m
167. A long vowel is shortened before the personal endings
-m (-r), -t, -nt (-ntiir): as, ame-t (for older am&t), habe-t (for habe-t).
mone-nt, mone-ntur.
168. The tenses of the Present System are made from the Pres-
ent Stem as follows : — ^
a. In the Present Indicative the personal endings are added directly to
the present stem. Thus, — present stem ara- : ara-s, aza-mns, ara-tis.
&• In the Imperfect Indicative the suffix -bam, -bas, etc. (originally a com-
plete verb) is added to the present stem : as, ara-bam, ara-bas, ara-bamus.
Note. — The form ^ham was apparently an aorist of the Indo-European root bht
(of. ftti, futurns, <f>j^ta, English be^ been), and meant JtrcM. This was added to a com-
plete word, originally a case of a verbal noun, as in J was a^eeing; hence vidC-baiiL
The form probably began in the Second or Third Conjugation and was extended to the
others. The a was at first long, but was shortened in certain forms (§ 167).
e. In the Future Indicative of the First and Second Conjugations a similar
suffix, -b5, -bis, etc., is added to the present stem : as, ara-b5, ara-bis, mone-bo.
Note. — The form tb5 was probably a present tense of the root bhu, with a future
meaning, and was affixed to a noun-form as described in 6. k.
d. In the Future Indicative of the Third and Fourth Conjugations the
terminations -am, -es, etc. (as, teg-am, teg-es, audi-am, audi-€s) are really sub-
junctive endings used in a future sense (see «). The vowel was originallr
long throughout. For shortening, see § 167.
e. In the Present Subjunctive the personal endings were added to a
form of the present stem ending in e- or a-, which was shortened in certain
forms (§ 167). Thus, ame-m, ame-s, tega-mus, tega-nt.
Note 1. — The vowel 6 (seen in the First Conjugation: as, am-f-s) is an inherited
subjunctive mood-sign. It appears to be the thematic vowel e (§ 174. 1) lengthened.
The & of the other conjugations (mone-&-8, reg-A-s, audi-A-s) is of uncertain origin.
Note 2. — In a few irregular verbs a Present Subjunctive in -im, -is, etc. occurs:
as, slm, 818, simus, velim, veils, etc. This is an old optative, i being a form of the Indo-
European optative mood-sign y6- (cf. siem, si§8, siet, §170. 6. N.). The vowel has
been shortened in the first and third persons singular and the third person plnral.
/• In the Imperfect Subjunctive the suffix -rem, -t€8, etc. is added to the
present stem : as, ama-rem, ama-res, mon&-rem, tege-rem, audi-rem.
Note. — The stem element -rS- is of uncertain origin and is not found outside of
Italic. The r is doubtless the aorist sign s (cf . es-se-m, es-sS-s) changed to r between
two vowels (§ 15. 4). The 8 is probably the subjunctive mood-sign (see e).
1 The conjugation of a verb consists of separate formations from a root, grad-
ually grouped together, systematized, and supplemented by new formations made on
old lines to supply deficiencies. Some of the forms were inherited from the parent
speech ; others were developed in the course of the history of the Italic dialects or of
the Latin language itself.
S§ 169, 170] VEBB-ENDINGS 81
169. The tenses of the Perfect System in the active voice are
made f lom the Perfect Stem as follows : —
am In the Perfect Indicative the endings -i, -isti, etc. are added directly
to the perfect stem : as, amav-isti, t§x-istis.
h» In the Pluperfect Indicative the suffix -eram, -eras, etc. is added to the
perfect stem : as, amav-eram, monu-eras, tez-erat
Note. — This seems to represent an older ^-iBrkm etc. formed on the analogy of
the Future Perfect in -er6 (older t-is-5: see c below) and influenced by eram (imperfect
of sum) in comparison with erO" (future of sum).
Cm In the Future Perfect the suffix -er5, -eris, etc. is added to the perfect
stem : as, amaY-er5, monu-eris, tex-erit
NoTB. — This formation was originally a subjunctive of the s-aorist, ending prob-
ably in t-ifl^. The -is^ is doubtless the same as that seen in the second person singular of
the perfect indicative (vid-is^-t!), in the perfect infinitive (vld-ifr^e), and in the plu-
perfect subjunctive (vid-is-sem), s being the aorist sign and i probably an old stem
vowel.
dm In the Perfect Subjunctive the suffix -erim, -eris, etc. is added to the
perfect stem : as, amav-erim, jnonu-eris, tex-erit.
NoTB. — This formation was originally an optative of the s-aorist (-er- for older
-is-, as in the future perfect, see c above). The i after r is the optative mood-sign i
shortened (see § 168. e. n. ^. Fortns in -is, -it, -imus, -itis, are sometimes found. The
shortening in -Is, -Imus, -Itis, is due to confusion with the future perfect.
«• In the Pluperfect Subjunctive the suffix -issem, -isses, etc. is added to
the perfect stem : as, amay-issem, monu-isses, tex-isset.
Note. — Apparently this tense was formed on the analogy of the pluperfect indica-
tive in t-ift-Am G&ter -er-nam, see 6), and influenced by essem (earlier feseSm) in its
relation to eram (earlier feslm).!
The Verb Sum
170. The verb sum, Je, is both irregular and defective, having
no gerund or supine, and no participle but the future.
Its conjugation is given at the outset, on account of its impor-
tance for the inflection of other verbs.
1 The signs of mood and tense are often said to be inserted between the root (or
verb-stem) and the personal ending. Ko such insertion is possible in a language
developed like the Latin. All true verb-forms are the result, as shown above, of com-
position; that is, of adding to the root or the stem either personal endings or fully
developed auxiliaries (themselves containing the personal terminations), or of imita-
tion of such processes. Thus vidSbftmns is made by adding to yidS-, originally a signifi-
cant word or a form conceived as such, a full verbal form tb&mus, not by inserting
-ba- between vidS- and -mus (§ 168. &).
82
CONJUGATION OF THE VERB
[§170
Principal Parts : Present Indicative sum, Present Infinitive esse,
Perfect Indicative fiu, Future Participle fotums.
Frbsxkt Stbm es-
INDICATIYE
Prrtkct Stbm fa-
SupiNB Stbm fot-
Prxsxnt
Sing. 1. sum, / am
2. 6s, thou art (you are)
8. est, he (shey it) is
Plub. 1. sumus, toe are
2. estlB, you are
8. sunt, they are
Ihpxrfect
Sing.
Plur.
1. eram, / tmw
2. er&B, you were
8. erat, he (shet it) was
1. erftmuB, we were
2. erfttlB, you were
8. erant, they were
SUBJUNCTIVE
sis
sit
simus
£fti8
sint
essem
asset
esBfimus
essStlB
FUTURK
Sing. 1. er5, / shall be
2. eris, you will be
8. erit, he will be
Plub. 1. erimua, we shall be
2. eritlB, you will be
8. erunt, they will be
Perfect
Sing.
Plub.
1. ful, / was (have been)
2. fuisti, you were
8. fuit, he was
1. f uimus, we were
2. fuistia, you were
8. fuSrunt, fu6re, they were
Pluperfect
Sing. 1. fueram, / had been
2. f uerSa, you had been
8. fuerat, he had been
fuerlm
fueris
fuerit
fuerimus
fuerltlB
fuerint
fuissem
fuisste
fuisset
1 An translatioiis of the Subjunctive are misleading, and hence none la ffivni' see
J1W.6. *
MUMll
8170]
THE VERB SUM
88
Plub. 1. fuerftmuB, toe had been
2. fuerfttia, you had been
3. fuerant, they had been
foissSmuB
fuissStis
fuiasent
Future Perfect
Smo. \, tvieiby I shall have be^^ Plur. 1, ixieiixnMBi we shall have been
2. fueris, you will have been 2. fueritis, you toUl have been
d. fuerlt, he wiU have been 3. f uerlnt, they will have been
DCPEBATIVE
Present Sing. 2. 6s, be thou Plur. 2. este, be ye
VxjTVKR 2. estO, thou shalt be 2. estdte, ye shall be
3. e8t5, he shall be 3. snntS, Oiey shaU be
rNFMnvB
Prbsbnt esse, to be j
Perfect fuisse, to haaejif^n^\.
Future futf&niB ess/or fore^io be about to be
PAETICIPLB
Future f uttlnia, -a, -um, abotU to be
a. For essem, essSs, etc., forem, forSs, foret, lorent, are often used; so fore
for futums esse.
h. The Present Participle, which would regularly be fsOns,^ appears in
the adjective in-«5n8, innocent, and in a modified form in ab-sens, prae-sSns.
The simple form Sns is sometimes found in late or philosophical Latin as a
Darticiple or abstract noun, in the forms ens, being ; entia, things which are.
Note. — Old forms are: — Indicative: Future, escit, escunt (strictly an inchoa-
;iye present, see § 263. 1).
Subjunctive: Present, siem, 8i6s, siet, sient; faam, fnls, foat, foant; Perfect, f&yl-
nas ; Pluperfect, ffiyisset.
The root of the verb sum is es, which in the imperfect is changed to er (see § 15. 4),
ind in many forms is shortened to. s. Some of its modifications, as found in several
anguages more or less closely related to Latin, may be seen In the following table, —
lie Sanskrit sydm corresponding to the Latin sim (siem) : —
Sanskrit Greek
as-mi «yam (optative) K/i/xi^
as-i gyae itrtrl ^
aa-ti syat ktrrl
s-mas syama liriUv
B-tha sifdta itrri
a^uitii syus tprl^
be English 5e.
^ Oompare Sankrit sant, Qreek ofr
Latin
Lithuanian
s-nm sim (siem)
es-mi
es sis (sies)
es-i
es-t sU (met)
es-ti
8-umus stmus
es-me
es-tis sitis
ee-te
s-unt sint (sient)
es-U
:e kindred with the Qreek If^v, and w
»k ofv. * Old form.
84 CONJUQAnOK OF THE YEBB [§§ 171-ll|
Tlis Fbiir CPujogrtimiB
171. Verbs are classed in Four Regular Conjugations, distil^
guished by the stem-Yowel which appears before -xe in the Presen
Infinitive Active : —
Conjugation Infinittve ENDnra Stem
First -Sr« (amBre) ft
Second -€re (monSre) 6
Third -^e (reg&re) S
Fourth -ire (audlre) s in -yi, where the y is a part of the present stem : as, commdrat
for commOyerat.
NoTB. — The first person of the perfect indicative (as, amAvi) is never contracted,
the third very rarely,
»
&• Perfects in -iyi regularly omit y, but rarely contract the vowels ex-
cept before st and ss, and very rarely in the third person perfect: —
andiexam for audiveram ; aadisse for audivisse ; aadisti for aadivisti ; abiit for
at^yit ; abiSrtmt for abivSrant.
NoTB 1. — The forms tSiis, suit, siritis, drint, for siveris etc. (from 8lver9 or siveilm),
are archaic.
Note 2. — In many forms from the perfect stem is, las, sis, are lost in like manner,
when 8 would be repeated if they were retained: as, dixti for dizisti (x = c8); trftze
fortribdssd; Cvftsti f or Svasisti ; vizet f or vixisset ; SrfipsSmttS for SrCpsissiEmas; dScSsse
for dSoessisse. These fonns belong to archaic and coUoqaial nsage.
182. Four verbs, — dic5, duc5, faci(J, ferO, — with their compounds,
drop the vowel-termination of the Imperative, making die, dUc, fSc,
&r; but compounds in -ficiO retain it, as, cOnfice.
NoTB. — The imperative forms dice, duce, face (never fere), occur hi early Latin.
a» For the imperative of sci5, the future form scitS is always used in the
singular, and scitote usually in tfie plural.
183. The following ancient forms are found chiefly in poetry :
1. In the fourth conjugation, -ibam, -ib5, for -iebam, -iam (future). These
forms are regular in c5, go (§ 203).
2. In the present subjunctive, -im: as in duim, perduim, retained in
religious formulas and often in comedy. This form is regular in sum and
vol5 and their compounds (§§ 170, 199).
3. In the perfect subjunctive and future perfect indicative, -sim, -sC : as,
fazim, faz5, iussQ, receps5 (= fecerim etc.) ; ausim (z= ausus sim).
4. In the passive infinitive, -ier : as, voc&rier for vocari ; agier for agi.
6. A form in -Ils85, -assere is found used as a future perfect : as, amassis,
from amO ; levassQ, from leY5 ; impetrassere, from impetrO ; iiidicassit, from
iudic5 (cf . § 263. 2. h. n.).
92
CONJUGATION OF THB VERB
[§184
FISST CONJUGATION (a-STSMS) — ACTIVE VOICE
184. The First Conjugation includes all verbs which add a- to
the root to form the present stem, with a few whose root ends
in a-. The verb amO, love^ is conjugated as follows : —
Principal Parts : Present Indicative amO, Present Infinitive amare,
Perfect Indicative amayi, Supine amatnm.
Pbbbbnt stkm anUU
PsuFBCT STBM amAv-
INDICATIVE
SXTPIKB BTBM aillftt-
SUBJUNCTIVE
amS,^ / love, am loving, do love
amem^
amfts, thou lovest (jyou love)
amSa
amat, he (she, it) loves
»
amet
amamua, we love
amfimiiB
amfttia, you love
amStis
am ant, they love
ament
Imperfect
amabam, / loved, was loving, did love
aiuftrem
amftbas, you loved
amftrSs
amftbat, he loved
amftret
amabamuB, we loved
amarfimua
am&bati8, you loved
amftretia
amabant, they loved
amftrent
Future
amab5, / shall love
am&bis, you will love
amftbit, he wUl love
amablmus, we shall love
amabitia, you will love
amabtmt, they will love
\ ^« ^T^^®^ *" *® ^"^ ^®'**™ "'' *^^ ^^ *^e Present Subjunctive becomes 5-
X, ««V^ f**^*^ ^^ **^® Subjunctive varies widely according to the constmctio:
Hence no translation of this mood is given in the paradigms.
§184]
FIRST CONJUGATION
98
INDICATIYE
aniayl, / loved, have loved
amavisti, you loved
amavit, he loved
amaviiiias, toe loved
amavistiB, pou loved
amayerunt (-Sre), they loved
Perfect
Pluperfect
amaveram, / had loved
amaverSs, you had loved
am&verat, he had loved
amayerSmuB, we had loved
amaver&tis^ you had loved
amliyerant, t?iey had loved
SUBJUNCTIVK
amftyerixn
am&yeris
am&yerit
am&yerixnua
am&yeritia
am&yerint
am&yiBsem
am&yiBsfo
amayisBOt
am&yias6maa
amayisaetia
amayissent
Future Perfect
Singular
amayer5, / shall have loved .
amayeris, you toiil have loved
amayerit, he toiU have loved
Plural
am&yerimu8, we shall have loved
amayeritia, you will have loved
amayerint, Ihey will have loved
m
C IMPERATIVE
Pbesbnt amft, love thou amftte, love ye
Future amStd, thou shalt love amStdte, ye shall love
amflto, he shall love amantd, they shall love
INFINITIVE
Prbsemt amflre, to love
Pbefsct %m&yiB8e or amftsse, to have loved
Future amattLma ease, to be about to hve
PARTICIPLES
Present am&na, -antiB, loving
Future amatflruB, -a, -um, about to love
GERUND
GEHXTiyB amandl, of loving Accusative amandum, loving
Dative amandd, for loving Ablative amandd, by loving
SUPINE
amatum, to love am&tii, to love
94
CONJUQATION Of THE YBKB
[JIM
FIKST COnjnOATIOH (4MTK1IS)— PASSIVX VOICE
Pbincipal Parts : Present Indicative amor, Present Infinitive affliii,
Perfect Indicative am&tiis snm.^
SnpiHB smc amlt-
INDICAHVB
Present
amor,' / am lovedy being laved
amftrla (-re), you are loved
amfttnr, he is loved
amftmnr, we are loved
amftminl, you are loved
amantar, they are loved
SUBJUNCTIVE
amer*
amSris (-re)
amfitnr
amfimnr
amfimix^
amentnr
Imperfect
amftbar, / was loved, being loved
amabftrla (-re), you were loved
amftbfttur, he was loved
amftbftmnr, we were loved
amftbftmini, you were loved
amftbantur, they were loved
amftrer
amftreris (-re)
amftrfitnr
amfirfimnr
amftremlnX
amftrentur
Future
amftbor, / shall be loved
amftberis (-re), you will be loved
amftbitur, he tvill be loved
amabimur, we shall be loved
amftbimini, you will be loved
amftbuntur, they will be loved
1 Fnf , folstl, etc., are sometimes used instead of sum, es, ete. ; so also tveiam inst^
of eram and fuerO instead of er9. Similarly in the Perfect and Pluperfect Sabjoocti^
fuerim, faeris, etc. are sometimes used instead of sim, sis, etc., and foissem instea-i '-
•sssm.
« The stem-vowel t- is lost before -or, and in the Present Subjunctive becomes I-
« The translation of the Subjunctive varies widely according to the construdi -
Hence no translation of this mood is given in the paradigms.
J 184]
FIRST CONJUGATION
95
nJDIOATIVB
amfttas suin,^ / waa loved
am§,taa en, you were loved
am&tuB est, he teas loved
amati stunuB, toe were loved
amatl estts, you were loved
am&tl Bont, they were loved
Perfect
SUBJUNCTIVE
am&tns fllm ^
amatuB sis
am&ttiB Bit
am&tl BfmuB
am&tl BitiB
am&tX Bint
Pluperfect
am&tuB eram,^ / had been loved
am&tuB erSB, you had been loved
am&tuB erat, he had been loved
am&tl erSxnuB, we had been loved
am&tl erfttiB, you had been loved
am&tl erant, they had been loved
am&tuB eBBem ^
am&tuB OBBte
am&tuB esset
am&tl oBBSmiXB
am&U OBBfitiB
am&tl OBBont
Future Perfect
Singular
am&taB er6,^ / shall have been loved
am&tuB erlB, you will have^ etc.
am&tns erit, he will have^ etc.
Plural
am&tl erimuB, we shall have, etc
amatl eritiB, you will have, etc.
am&tl eront, they will have^ etc.
Present
Future
amftre, be thou loved
amfttor, thou shalt be loved
amfttor, he shall be loved
niPEBATIVE
amftmlnl, be ye loved
amantor, they shall be loved
INFINITIVE
Present amftrX, to be loved
Perfect amatuB OBse, to have been loved
Future amatum ui, to be about to be loved
PABTIOIPLES
Perfect am&tna, -a, -um, loved (beloved, or having been loved)
Future (Gerundive) amanduB, -a, -um, to4>e4oved (lovely)
I
^ See page 94, footnote 1.
h
96
CONJUGATION OF THB VERB
[§185
SECOND CONJUGATION (^-STEMS)
185. The Second Conjugation includes all verbs which add 5-
to the root to form the present stem, with a few whose root ends
in (h*
Pbincipal Parts : Active^ moneS, monSre, montu, monitam;
Passive^ moneor, moneri, monitns sum.
Prbsbnt stem monS- Pbrfbct stsm mono-* Suitbtb stem monit-
ACTIVE VOICE
INDICATIVE
SUBJUNCTIVE
Present
moi\e6f I warn moneam^
monte, you warn monefts
monet, he warns moneat
monSmiui
monStia
monent
moneftmua
monefttiB
moneant
PASSIVE VOICE
INDICATIVB SUBJUNCTIVB
Present
moneor
monSria (-re)
monStur
monfimur
monSminl
monentnr
monear *
monearia (-re)
mone&tur
moneamor
monefimim
moneantur
Imperfect
Imperfect
monfibam
monSbfts
monSbat
monSbftmus
monSbfttia
monSbant
monSrem
monerCa
monSret
monSrSmua
moB^StiB
monSrent
Future
mon6b5
monSbia
monfibit
monSbimua
monSbitia
monSbtint
monfibar
monebaria (-re)
monebatur
monfibamur
monSbaminl
monSbantur
monSrer
monfirSrifl (-re)
monSrStnr
monarSmor
monaramini
monarentur
Future
monabor
monaberia (-re)
monabitur
monabimur
monabimini
monabuntur
1 See § 179. 6. 1.
§ 185]
SECOND CONJUGATION
97
Active Voice
UNDICATIVE SUBJUNCTIVE
Perfect
monul monueiim
monuistit monueris
monuit monuerit
momiimua monuerimuB
moxmistis monueritia
mon.u6runt (-re) monuerint
Pluperfect
monuissem
monuiBste
Passive Voice
INDICATIVE SUBJUNCTIVE
Perfect
monitiu sum ^ monitus Bim ^
monitiu bXs
monitoB Bit
moniti BlmuB
moniti bIUb
moniti Bint
monittiB
monituB eat
moniti Bui^tiB
moniti eatdB
moniti sunt
monueram
monuerftB
XQonnerat
monueramtiB
monuerfttiB
monuerant
Pluperfect
monituB eram ^ monitoB eaaem ^
monuiaaet
monuiBBfimuB
monuiaaStiB
monuiaaent
monitua erfta
monitna erat
moniti eramaa
moniti er&tia
moniti erant
monitna eaafia
monitna eaaet
moniti eaaSmna
moniti eaafitia
moniti eaaent
Future Perfect
monuerd
monneria
monuerit
monnerimna
inonueritia
monuerint
Future Perfect
monitna er5 ^
monitna eria
monitna erit
moniti erimna
moniU eritia
moniti emnt
Singular
Phbsbnt monfi
FuTUBB monSt5
monStd
IMPERATIVE
Plural
monfite Pbbsbnt
monStdte Futujub
monentd
Singular
monSre
monitor
monitor
Plural
monfimini
monentor
Prbbbnt monfire
Pbrfkct monniaae
FuTUBB monitl&ma eaae
Prbssnt monSna, -entiLa
Futurb monitfLrnB) -a, -nm
INFINITrVE
monfirl
monitna eaae
monitnm Irl
PARTICIPLES
Perfect monitna, -a, -nm
Gebundiyb monendna^ -a,-nm
GERUND SUPINE
monendS, -d5, -dnm, -dd monitnm, monitfl
1 See footnote 1 on page 94.
98
CONJUGATION OF THE VEBB
urn
THIRD CONJUGATION (d^STSMS)
186. The Third Conjugation includes all verbs (not irregxilar,
see § 197) which add ^ to the root to form the present stem, with
a few whose root ends in 8-.
Principal Parts : Active, tegO, tegSre, t&d» tSctum ;
Passive^ tegor, tegi, tectus sum.
PBBsmrr stbm tege-
ACTIVB VOICE
Pbbfbct stbm t6x- ^
SUPINB STBM t5Ct-
INDIGATiyE SUBJUNCTIVE
Present
teg5,* / cover tegam *
tegiB, you cover
tegit, he covers
tegftB
tegat
tegimuB
tegitiB
tegunt
tegftmuB
tegfttis
tegant
Imperfect
tegfibam
tegSbftB
tegfibat
tegerem
tegerfiB
tegeret
tegebftmuB
tegSbatiB
tegfibant
tegerfimnB
tegerStiB
tegerent
Future
tegam'
teg«8
teget
tegfimtiB
tegfitiA
tegent
PASSIVE VOICE
INDICATIVE
SUBJUNCTIVE
tegor*
tegerlB (-re)
tegitur
tegimnr
tegiminX
t^guntnr
Present
tegar*
tegfiris (-re)
teg&tor
tegftmnr
tegSminI
tegantnr
Imperfect
tegfibar tegerer
tegebSriB (-re) tegerfiria (-re)
tegfibfttur tegerfitur
tegSbSLmur
tegebSLmiuI
tegSbantur
tegerSmnr
tegerSminl
tegerentur
Future
tegar*
tegSriB (-re)
tegfitor
tegfimur
tegSminI
tegentur
1 The perfect stem in this conjugation is always formed from the root; tSs- is foi
i«e-s- (see § 15. 9) . < See § 170. c. 1.
§186]
THIRD CONJUGATION
99
Active Voice
Passive Voice
INDICATlVJfl SUBJUNCTIVE
INDICATIVE
SUBJUNCTIVE
Perfect
Perfect
texl
texerim
tSctos som^
tectus slm^
texistZ
texeris
tectus es
tectus sis
texit
texerit
tSctus est
tectus sit
teximua
tSxerimus
tgcti sumus
tecti simus
texiBtlB
texeritda
tecti estis
tecti sitis
texSrunt (
-re) tSxerint
tecti sunt
tecti sint
Pluperfect
Pluperfect
tezeram
texlBsem
tectus eram ^
tectus essem ^
texerftfl
t§XiBB68
tectus erfts
tectus ess6s
texerat
tSxlBBet
tectus erat
tectus esset
texerflmtu
\ t@xi8s6mu8
tecti erftmus
tecti essSmus
texerfttls
texissfitis
tecti erfttis
tecti essfitis
texerant
tgxisBent
t@ctl erant
tecti essent
Future Pbrfbot
Future Perfect
i;exer5
tectus er5 ^
bexeris
tectus eris
iiSxerit
tectus erit
i^exerimiu
tecti erimus
iSxeritiB
tectt eritis
^Sxerlnt
tecti eruut
mPEBATIVE
Singular Plural
Singular
PlurcU
Pbesbnt
tege tegite
tegere
tegimini
Futurb
tegit5 tegitote
tegitor
tegit5 tegunta
tegitor
INFINITIVB
teguntor
?RBSBirr
tegere
tegl
?BBFBOT
tSxisae
tectus esse
^TtJBB
tectl&nui esse
tectum iri
PABTIOIPIiES
?RB8BNT
tegSns, -entis
Pebfbct
tectus, -a, -um
rUTUBB
tSctl&ms, -a, -urn
Gbbundiyb
tegendus (-undus)
OEBXJND
egendX, -d5y -dunii -d5
SUPINE
tectum, tectd
1 See footnote 1 on page 94.
C"?^l-" -4
^K^%m>m-^-
100
COXIUOATIOli OF THE VERB
[§187
lOUSCH OOHJUQ^TIOH 0-STSKS)
18T. The Foaith Conjogstion indudes all verbs which add I-
to the root to f oim the present stem.
Pakts : Aciwe^ aadifi, anffiie,
r, aadn^ aiwifhia sum
andltimi;
SupiNB BTBM audit-
ACnVB
VOICB
INDICATTYS
SUBJUNCnVS
Prkskht
audi5, / hear
audSa, you hear
audit, he Aeon
aadiam^
aadUUi
audUt
audimiis
audltia
audlnnt
aadUmvA
audULtis
aadiant
PASSIVE VOICE
INDICATIVE SUBJUNCTIVE
PRKSBirr
aadior
aadXris (-re)
aadltnr
aadlmnr
audttmiid
aadiuntur
audiar^
audifiiia (-re)
audifttor
audi&mor
audiSmini
audiantnr
Impkrfkct
audiSbam ^
audlrem
audiibSa
audlrSa
audiSbat
audiret
audifibftmiia
audlrfimna
audiSbfttU
audlrStiB
auditbant
audfirent
Imperfect
audifibar ^ audSrer
audiSbfiri8(-re) audirfiria (-re)
audifib&tiir audirfitmr
audiSbftmnr
audiSbSminl
audiSbantur
aud&6inar
audirfimioX
audirentur
Future
audlam^
audiSa
audiet
audifimoa
audietis
audient
Future
audiar^
audifiris (-re)
audietur
audi6mnr
audieminl
audientur
* See § 179. d.
J 187]
FOXJKTH CONJUGATION
101
Active Voice
indicative subjunctive
Perfect
audiYl audiverim
audlyiatl audiyeria
audMt audiverit
Passive Voice
INDICATIVE SUBJUNCnVB
Perfect
auditua anm ^ auditua aim ^
auditua ea auditua ab
auditua eat auditua ait
audiyimua audiverimua
audlviatia audiyeritia
aadiy6ra]it(-re) audiverint
auditl aumua
auditl eatia
auditl aunt
auditl almua
auditl altia
auditl alnt
Pluperfect
audiYeram audiyiaaem
audiYerfts audiyisate
audiyerat audiyiaaet
Pluperfect
auditua eram ^ auditua eaaem ^
auditua erfta auditua eaafia
auditua erat auditua eaaet
audlyerfimua audiyiaafimna
audiyerfttia audlYiaaStlB
audiyerant audiyiaaent
auditl erAmua
auditl eratia
auditl erant
auditl eaaSmua
auditl eaaStia
auditl eaaent
Future Perfect
audlyer5
audiyeria
audlyerit
Future
auditua er5 ^
auditua eria
auditua erit
Perfect
*
audiverimna
audiyeritia
audiyerint
auditl erimua
auditl eritia
auditl erunt
Singular Plural
Present audi audita
ITtttttvk AiiHTfl:/^ AiidTl:AtA
[MPEBATIVE
Singular
aud&re
auditor
auditor
Plural
audlmini
X U A U JIB CiUULAw^ aiM^Utt^wV
audlt5 audiuntS
audiuntor
Present audire
Perfect audiyiaae
Future auditfLma eaae
INFINITIVE
audlrl
auditua eaae
auditum Irl
pabticiples
Present audiSna, -ientia Perfect
Future auditflrUB) -a, -um Gerunditb
GERUND SUPINE
audiendi; -dO, -dum, -d5 auditum, auditfl
auditua, -a, -um
audieadua, -a, -um
^ ii^ct^^ot^ It p. 94.
102
CONJUGATION OP THE VEBB
[§188
VSRB8 IN 'id OF TH£ THIRD CONJUGATION
188. Verbs of the Third Conjugation in -16 have certain forms
of the present stem like the fourth conjugation. They lose the
i of the stem before a consonant and also before I, i, and S (except
in the future, the participle, the gerund, and the gerundive).^
Verbs of this class are conjugated as follows : —
Principal Parts : Active, capiS, capSre, c^I, captnm;
Passive, capior, capl, capias sum.
Pbbsent stem capie- (cape-) Peufbct stem cSp- Supine stem capt-
ACTIVE
VOICE
PASSIVE
VOICE
INDICATIVE
SUBJUNCTIVE
INDICATIVE
SUBJUNCTIVE
Present
Present
capi5, / take
capiam
capior
capiar
capiB) you take
capifts
caperis (-re)
capiftris (-re)
capit, he takes
capiat
capitur
capiator
capimua
capiaimus
capimur
capiAmur
capitis
capifttis
capiminl
capiamini
capiunt
capiant
capiuntur
capiantur
Imperfect
capiSbam caperem
Imperfect
capiSbar caperer
Future
capiam
capiSs
capiet, etc.
Future
capiar
capifiriB (-re)
capifitur) etc.
Perfect
Perfect
cepi ceperim
captus sum captus sim
Pluperfect
Pluperfect
ceperam cepissem
captus eram captus essem
Future Perfect
cepero
Future Perfect
captus er5
1 This is a practical working rule. The actual explanation of the forms of such
erbs is not fully understood.
§§ 188-190]
DEPONENT VERBS
103
Active Voice
Present
Singular Plural
cape capite
Future
capit5 capit5te
capit5 capiunto
Passive Voice
IMPEBATIVE
Present
Singular Plural
capere capimlni
Future
capitor
capitor
capiuntor
Present capere
PsRFECT ceplBse
PiTTUKE capttiras esse
INFINITIVE
capl
captus esse
captum In
Present
Future
PABTICIPLES
capiSnS) -ientiB Perfect
captfLruB, -a, -lun Gerundive
captus, -a, -um
capiendus, -a, -um
GERUND
capiendV-d5, -dum, -d5
SUPINE
captum, -ttL
Parallel Forms
189. Many verbs have more than one set of forms, of which
only one is generally found in classic use : —
lay5, layaie or lavSre, wash (see § 211. «).
seated, scatere or scatSre, gush forth,
Ifidifico, -Are, Or ludificor, -Ad, mock.
falgo, fulgSre, or f algeo, fulgere, shine.
DEPONENT VERBS
190. Deponent Verbs have the forms of the Passive Voice,
vdth an active or reflexive signification : —
Principal
Parts
' First conjugation : miror, m!rftii, mirfttus, admire.
Second conjugation : yereor, yer§ii, yeritus, fear.
Third conjugation : sequor, seqai, seciitas, follow.
Fourth conjugation : partior, partiri, partitus, share.
104
CONJUGATION OF THE VEBB
[1180
INDICATiyE
Pres.
mlror
mirftxis (-re)
mXrfttar
▼ereor sequor
verSxls (-re) sequexis (-re)
verStur sequitor
paitior
partXris (-re)
partitar
Tnlrftmur
Tnlrftminl
mirantar
TerSmur sequlmur
verSminl sequiminl
verentor sequnntor
partimar
parUminl
partinntiK
Impf.
Put.
Perv.
Plup.
P.P.
mlrftbar
mirftbor
mlr&lYui ■am
mlrfttiu eram
xnlrfttmi 6r5
yerSbar sequSbar
verSbor sequar
Veritas aam secHtas aam
vedtas eram secHtos eram
Veritas er5 secHtas erO
SUBJUNCTIVE
X>artiSbar
partlar
partltussom
partitas eram
partituaero
Pres.
Impf.
Perf.
Plup.
mirer
mlrftrer
mlrfttuB Bim
mir&tiw eBsam
verear sequar
verSrer sequerer
Veritas sim secHtas Bim
Veritas essem sectttos essem
IMPERATIVE
X>artiar
partlrer
partltus sim
partltiis essem
Pres.
Put.
mlrftre
mirfttor
verSre sequere
verfitor sequitor
INFINITIVE
partire
partitor
Pres.
Perf.
Put.
mlTftxI
mir&ttui ease
xnlrattLniB esBe
verSrZ sequX
Veritas esse secutus esse
veritilras esse sectlttLras esse
PARTICIPLES
partXrl
partitas esse
partitflras esm
Pres.
Put.
Perf.
Ger.
mlrSns
mlr&ttlruB
xnlrfttuB
mlranduB
verSns sequfins
veritflrus secutGros
Veritas sectltas
verendus seqaendas
GKRUNI>
partiSns
partitilras
partitas
pamendus
mirandl, -5, etc.
verendl, etc. sequendl, etc.
SUPINE
partiendf , etc.
mlrfttam, -tfL
veritam, -tiX - seciLtam, -ta
partltam, -ta
|§ 190, IW] DEPONENT VERBS 105
€^« Deponents have the participles of both voices : —
9eqn9nBf following. weciLtAiUB^ about to follow.
Becfitos, having followed. sequendas, to befoUowed.
hm The perfect participle generally has an active sense, but in verbs
otherwise deponent it is often passive : as, mercatus, bought ; adeptus, gained
(or having gained).
Cm The future infinitive is always in the active form : thus, seqvor has
secutilnis (-a, -urn) esse (not seditum iri).
<f • The gerundive, being passive in meaning, is found only in transitive
verbs, or intransitive verbs used impersonally : —
hoc cSnfitendam est, this must be a^iknowledged.
moriendum est omnibus, ail must die.
e. Most deponents are intransitive or reflexive in meaning, correspond-
ing to what in Greek is called the Middle Voice (§156. a. k.).
fm Some deponents are occasionally used in a passive sense : as, criminor,
/ accuse, or / am accused.
g. About twenty verbs have an active meaning in both active and
passive forms : as, mere5 or mereor, / deserve,
191. More than half of all deponents are of the First Conju-
gation, and all of these are regular. The following deponents
are irregular : —
adsentior, -ixl, adsSnsus, assemt, obliviscor, -i, oblitns, forget.
aplscor, (-ip-), -I, aptii8(-epta8), get. opperior, -ui, oppertus, await.
defetiacor, -i, -fessns, faint. Qrdior, -iii, orsas, begin.
ezperg^scor, -I, -pexrSctas, rouse. orior, -iii, ortas (oiitfims), rise (3d
ezperior, -izi, ezpertns, try. conjugation in most forms),
fateor, -iri, fassns, confess. padscor, -i, pactus, bargain.
iroor, -i, frGctus (froitus), enjoy. patior (-petior), -i, pasaus (-peasus),
f nngor, -I, fdnctiis, fvJIfil. suffer,
gradior (-gredior), -i, gressus, step. -plector, -i, -plezns, cZaap.
bftscor, -i, irfttas, be angry. piDfidacor, -I, profectiis, set out.
Ubor, -I, Iflpstts, fall. queror, -i, questaa, complain.
loqnor, -i, locfitaa, speak. reor, rSri, ratas, think.
mStior, -in, mSnana, measure. revertor, -I, reveraus, return.
-miniacor, -i, -mentas, think. ringor, -I, rictos, snarl.
morior,-! (-iri), mortuna (morituroa), die. aequor, -i, aecfitua, follow.
nanciacor, -i, nactua (n&iictu8),^nd. tueor, -eri, taitua (tutoa), dtfend.
niacor, -i, nitna, be born. ulciacor, -i, oltua, a:v€nge.
nitor, -i, niaua (nizaa), strive. fitor, -i, fiaua, use, employ.
NOTB.— The deponent comperior, -iri, compertns, is rarely found for comperiS, -ire.
Reyertor, until the time of Augnstus, had regularly the active forms in the perfect sys-
tem, reverti, reverteram, etc.
106 CONJUGATION OF THE VERB [§f 191-194
a. The following deponents haye no supine stem : —
dfivertor, -ti, turn aside (to lodge). medeor, -€d, hedL
difflteor, -€rl, deny. reminiscor, -I, caU to mind.
fatiscor, -i, gape, yescor, -i, feed upon.
liquor, -I, melt (intrans.).
NoTB. — Deponents are really passiye (or middle) yerbs whose actiye yoice has
disappeared. There is hardly one that does not show signs of haying been used in
the actiye at some period of the language.
Semi-Deponents
192. A few verbs having no perfect stem are regular in the
present, but appear in the tenses of completed action as deponents.
These are called Semi-deponents. They are : —
audeS, audSre, ausus, dare. gaudeS, gaudSre, g&visus, r^oice.
Iid5, fidSre, fistts, trust. soleo, solSre, solitas, be wont.
a. From aude5 there is an old perfect subjunctiye ausim. The form sdd^
(for 81 audes), an thou unit, is frequent in the dramatists and rare elsewhere.
b» The actiye forms yapuld, yapulare, be flogged, and ySneS, yenire, be sold
(contracted from ySnum ire, go to sale), haye a passiye meaning, and are
sometimes called neutral passives. To these may be added fieri) to be made
(§ 204), and ezsulare, to be banished (liye in exile) ; cf . accedere, to be added.
Note. — The following yerbs are sometimes found as semi-deponents: iSrS, iflrare,
itrfttas, swear; nilbd, nfibere, nupta, m^rry; placed, placSre, plucitaB, please.
THE PERIPHRASTIC CONJUGATIONS
193. A Periphrastic form, as the name indicates, is a " ronndahont way of speak-
ing." In the widest sense, all verb-phrases consisting of participles and sum are Peri-
phrastic Forms. The Present Participle is, however, rarely so used, and the Perfect
Participle with snm is included in the regular conjugation (anultns sum, eram, etc.)*
Hence the term Periphrastic Conjugation is usually restricted to verb-phrases con-
sisting of the Future Active Participle or the Gerundive with snm.
Note. — The Future Passive Infinitive, as am£tam m, formed from the infinitive
passiye of e5, ^o, used impersonally with the supine in -um, may also be classed as a
periphrastic form (§203. a).
194. There are two Periphrastic Conjugations, known respec-
tively as the First (or Active) and the Second (or Passive).
a* The First Periphrastic Conjugation combines the Future Active
Participle with the forms of sum, and denotes a, future or intended action.
b» The Second Periphrastic Conjugation combines the Gerundive with
the forms of sum, and denotes obligation, necessity, or propriety.
c. The periphrastic forms are inflected regularly throughout the Indica-
te and Subjunctiye and in the Present and Perfect Infinitive.
§§196,196] THE PERIPHBASTIC CONJUGATION
107
it
» )
195. -The First Periphrastic Conjugation : —
Present
Imperfect
Future
Perfect
Pluperfect
Future Perfect
^ Present
Imperfect
Perfect
Pluperfect
Present
Perfect
INDICATIVE
amaturus sum, 1 am about to love
amatunis eram, / was about to love
amaturus ero, / shall be about to love '
amaturus fui, / have been, was, about to love
am&turus fueram, / had been about to love
amaturus f uero, / shall have been about to love
SUBJUNCTIVE
amaturus sim
amaturus essem
am&turus fuerim
am&turus fuissem
INFINITIVE
amaturus esse, to be about to love
amaturus fuisse, to have been about to love
So in the other conjugations : —
Second : monitflras sum, I am about to advise.
Third : tSctflrus sam, I am ahovt to cover.
Fourth : auditilnis sum, I am about to hear.
Third (in -id) : captiinis sum, I am about to take.
196. The Second Periphrastic Conjugation : —
Present
Imperfect
Future
Perfect
Pluperfect
Future Perfect
Present
Imperfect
Perfect
Pluperfect
Present
Perfect
INDICATIVE
amandus sum, / am to be, must be, loved
amandus eram, / was to be, had to be, loved
amandus ero, / shall have to be loved
amandus fui, / was to be, had to be, loved
amandus fueram, / had had to be loved
amandus fuero, / shall have had to be loved
SUBJUNCTIVE
amandus sim
amandus essem
amandus fuerim
amandus fuissem
INFINITIVE
amandus esse, to have to be loved
amandus fuisse, to have had to be loved
108
CONJUGATION OF THE VERB
[§§ 196-198
So in the other conjugations : —
Second : numendtts sum, I am to be, mtut be, advised.
Third : tegendos sum, I am to be, must be, covered.
Fourth : audiendus sum, / am to be, must be, heard,
Tliird (in -15) : capiendus som, I am to be, must be, taken.
IRRSGULAR VERBS
197. Several verbs add some of the personal endings of the
piesent system directly to the root,^ or combine two verbs in
their inflection. These are called Irregular Verbs. They a^
sum, TOlG, feril, ed0, dO, eO, queO, fiO, and their compounds.
Sam has already been inflected in § 170.
198. Sum is compounded without any change of inflection with
the prepositions ah, ad, dS, in, inter, oh, prae, prO (earlier form prOd),
suh, super.
a« In the compound prOsum (help), pr5 retains its original d before e :
Principal Fabts : prSsam, prodesse, prSfoi, piofatflnis
PKBSBirr
Imperfect
Future
Perfect
Pluperfect
FuT. Pbrf.
INDICATIVE
Singular Plural
prOsum prOsumus
prOdes prOdestis
prOdest prOsont
prOderam prOder&mus
prOderO prOderimus
prOfuI prOfuimus
prOfaeram pr5fuer&mus
prOfuerO prOfuerimos
SUBJUNCTIVE
Sir^ular Plural
prOsim prtelmus
prOsIs pr<3titi8
prOsit prOsint
prOdessem prOdessSmus
prOfuerim prOfuerimus
prOfuissem prOfuissemus
IMPERATIVE
Present prOdes, prOdeste Future prOdestO, prOdestOte
iNFmmvE
Present prOdesse Perfect prOfuisse
Future prOfutHrus esse
PARTICIPLE
Future prOfutGrus
1 These are athematic verbs, see § 174. 2.
$§ 198, 190]
IRREGULAR VERBS
109
b. Sum is also compounded with the adjective potis, or pote, able, making
the verb possum (be able, can). Possum is inflected as follows : — i
Principal Parts: possum, posse, potai^
INDICATIVK
SUBJUNC3TIVE
Singular
Plural
Singular
Pltaral
PllBftBNT
possum
potes
potest
possumus
potestis
poflsunt
possim
possis
possit
posslmus
possltis
possint
Imperfect
Fdturjb
Perfect
Pluperfect
Fdt. Pbrf.
poteram
poterO'
potui
potueram
potuerO
poterftmus
poterimus
potuimus
potuer&mus
potuerimiis
poBsem
potuerim
potuissem
possCmus
potuerimus
potuissGmus
Pres. posse
INFINITIVE
Pbrf. potuisse
PARTICIPLE
•
Fres.
X>oteD8 (adjectiye), povoerful
199.
volS^ nSUif mS16
Principal
Parts :
' vol5, velle, yolui, —
n515, ndlle, ndlui, —
maid, malle, malui.
-, be willing, will/wish
', be unvnlling, will not
— , be more willing, prefer
Note. — lTol5 and m&15 are compounds of void. lVdl5 is for ne-yolS, and m&lS for m&-
▼olo from mage-TolS.
Present
Imperfect
Future
Perfect
volo
vis*
vult (volt)
volumus
vultis (voltis)
volunt
volgbam
volam, volSs, etc.
volui
Pluperfect volueram
Fut. Perf. voluerO
INDICATIVE
nolo
non vis
non vult
n5lumus
non vultis
nolunt
ndlebam
nolam, ndl§s, etc.
nolui
ndlueram
noluero
maJd
mavis
mavult
m&lumus
mavultis
malunt
malebam
malam, m&les, etc.
malui
malueram
m&luerd
^ The forms potis stun, pote sum, etc. occur in early writers. Other early forms are
potesse ; poMiMn, -Ss; -et » poterint, potisit (for possit) ; potestur and possitur (used with
a passive infinitive, of. § 20$. a).
3 FotuI is'from^m obsolete fpo't^. ' Vis is from a different root.
110
CONJUGATION OF THE VERB
[§§ 190, 21
SUBJUNCTIVE
Present
Imperfect
Perfect
Pluperfect
Present
Future
velim, -is, -it,
velimus, -Stis, -int
vellem,^ -6s, -€t,
vellemus, -Stis, -ent
voluerim
Yoluissem
ndlim
nollem
noluerim
noluissem
m&lim
m&Uem
malnerim
maloissem
Present
Perfect
Present
velle^
Yoluisse
IMPERATIVE
noil, nolite
nolitC, etc.
INFINITIVE
nolle
noluisse
mSlle
maluisse
PABTICIPLES
YolSns, -entis nolens, -entis
Note. — The forms sis for si vis, sfiltis for si vultis, and the forms nSvis (nS-Tis),
nSvolt, mAyol5, m&yoluiit, m&velim/m&Tellem, etc., occur in early writers.
200. FerO, bear, carry, endure ' ~
Principal Parts : fer5, ferre,^ tall, latum
Present stem far- Perfect stem tol- Supine stbm Ult-
PASSIVB
feror f erimur
ferris (-re) f erimini
fertur f eruntur
ferSbar
ferar
l&tus sum
latus eram
latus ero
ACTIVE
INDICATIVE
Present
fero
ferimiiR
fers
fertis
fert
fenint
Imperfect
ferSbam
Future
feram
Perfect
tuli
Pluperfect
tuleram
Future Perfect tulero
1 Vellem is for fvel-sSm, and velle for frel-se (cf. es-se), the s being assimilated to
the 1 preceding.
3 Fer5 has two independent stems : fer- in the present system, and tal- (for tot) in
the perfect from tol, root of toUd. The perfect tetttl! occurs in Plautus. In the parti-
ciple the root is weakened to tl-, Utum standing for ttUtum (cf. rXt7r6s).
8 Ferre, fcrrcm, are for ffer-se, ffer-sfim (cf. es-se, es-sem), s being assimilated to pre-
ceding r ; or ferre, ferrem, may be for fferese, fferesSm (see § 15. 4).
i 200]
IRREGULAR VERBS
111
Active
Passive
SUBJUNCTIVE
Present
4
feram^
f erar -
Imperfect
ferreiri-*
f errer- . -
i:*E»rECT
tulerim
latus slm
JPlxjperfect
tulissem
IMPERATIVE
latus essem
Present
fer
ferte
ferre ferin
Future
ferto
fertote
fertor
ferto
feruTito
INFINITIVE
fertor ferui
PRESENX .
ferre
ferri
Perfect
tulikse*
latus esse
Future
l&turus esse
>
PARTICIPLES
latum iri.
Present
ferens, -entis
Perfect latus .
Future
Idturus
r
Gerundive ferendus>
GERUND
m
SUPINE
f erendi, -do, -dum, -do
latum, latu
cr« The compounds of ferO, conjugated like the simple verb, are the
following : —
ad-
adferO
adferre
attull
alld.tum
aa-, ab-
auferO
auferre
abstull
ablatum
con-
cOnferG
cOnferre
contull
collatum
dia-, di-
differ^
differre
distull
dQatum
ex-, «-
efferO
efferre
extuU
6l&tum
in-
InferO
Inferre
intuli
illSltum
ob-
offerG
offerre
obtuli
obl&tum
fe-
referO
referre
rettull
rel3.tum
anb-
sufferO
sufferre
sustull^
sublatum^
Note. — In these compounds the phonetic changes in the preposition are especially
to be noted, ab- and au- are two distinct prepositions with the same meaning.
1 See note 3, page 110.
3 Snitnli and sublfttom also supply the perfect and participle of the verb toll5.
112
CONJUGATION OF THE VERB
[§201
201. EdO, edere, M, team, eat, is regular of the third conjuga-
tion, but has also an archaic present subjunctive and some alter-
native forms directly from the root (ed), without the thematic
vowel. These are in full-faced type.
Pbbsbnt
Impbbfbgt
Pbesbnt
Impebfect
ACTIVE
ENDIOATIVB
ed5, edis (Ss^), edit (est)
edimnsy editis (MiB), edunt
edfibam, edfibfts, etc.
SUBJUNCTIVB
edam (edim), edfis (edu), edat (edit)
edfimus (edimus), edatis (editis), edant (edint)
ederem, ederOs (SsaSs), ederet (Ssset)
ederSmufl (Sesimus), ederStis (SssCtis), ederent (Sesent)
IMPEBATIVE
Pbbsbht
FUTUBB
Singular
ede (6e)
edit5 (tetS)
edit6 (6et5)
INFINITIVE
Pbesent
Pebfect
EUTUBB
edere (Ssse)
Sdisse
$8uru8 esse
Plwal
edite (6ete)
edit5te (SstOte)
eduntO
PABTIOIPLES
Pbesent edgns, -entis
FuTUBB Ssums *
6EBUND
edendi, -dO) -dum, -d5
SUPINB
Ssum, Ssn '
a» In the PassiYe the following irregular forms occur in the third per-
son singular : Present Indicative estor, Imperfect Subjunctive essStur.
1 In 68 etc. the e is long. In the corresponding forms of torn, e is short. The diffe^
ence in quantity between 6d5 and H etc. depends apon inherited vowel variation (§ 17. a).
3 Old forms are fssftrot and supine Sssom.
§ 202]
IBBEGULAR VERBS
118
202. The irregular verb do, give^ is conjugated as follows : —
Principal Farts : dd, dSre, dedi, datum
PsBSRKT Stbm dX^
Pbrfrct Stem ded-
SuriNB Stem dat-
ACTIVE
PASSIVE
Pbsbbkt
Impssfbot '
FUTUliB
PSSPSOT
Pjlupekfect
INDICATTVB
d5 damus
d&s datis
dat dant
dabam
dabd
dedi
dederam
;PnTiTJis Pesfbot dederO
daris (-re)
datur
dabar
dabor
datus sum
datus eram
datus erO
damur
damini
dantur
Prssbkt
Impsrfect
Perfect
Plupbrfbct
SUBtFUNCnYE
dem, des, det, etc.
darem
dederim
dedissem
y deris (-re), detur, etc.
darer
datus sim
datus essem
Prebbnt
FUTURB
IMPERATiyB
d& date dare damini
dat5 dat5te dator
dat6 dantd dator dantor
Present
Perfect
Future
INFINITIVB
dare
dedisse
daturus esse
darl
datus esse
datum Iri
Prbseitf
Future
PABTICIPLES
dftns, dantis Perfect datus
daturus Gbrukdiyb dandus
OEBUITD
dandly -d5, -dum, -d0
8T7PINE
datum, datti
For oompounds of dS, see § 209. a. v.
114
203.
Prbsbnt
Impbrfbot
FUTUBB
Pbbfbot
Plupbrfeot
FUTURB PbRFBOT
CONJUGATION OF THE VERB
BO, go,^ Principal Parts : e5, in, iE G^» ^ttxaai
[§203
INDICATIVB
eo, 18, it
Imus, Uis, eunt
ibam, ibas, ibat
Ib&mus, Ib&tis, ibant
ib5y ibis, ibit
ibimus, Ibitis, Ibunt
ii (ivi)
ieram (iveram)
iero (Ivero)
IMPEBATIVE
Present I Fdtdrb ltd, Itote
ite ltd, eunto
SUBJTJNCnVE
earn, eas, eat
eamus, eatis, eant
Irem, ires, iret.
Iremus, irStis, irent
ierim (iTerim)
issem (lyiflsem)
Present ire
INFINinVB
Perfect isse (ivisse) Future iturus esse
PARTICIPLES
Present i6ns, gen, euntis Future iturus Gbrundiyb eundum
GERUND eundi, -do, -dum, -d6 SUPINE itum, itu
a. The compounds ade9, approach, ined, enter, and some others, are tran-
sitive. They are inflected as follows in the passive : —
INDICATIVE SUBJUNOnVE
Pres. adeor
adiris
aditur
adimur
adimini
adeuntur
Impf. adibar
FuT. adibor
Perf. aditus sum
Plup. aditus eram
F. P. aditus erO
iSFiNi, adirl aditus esse
Pres. adear
Impf. adirer
Perf. aditus aim
Plup. aditus essoin
PART, aditus adeunduE
Thus inflected, the forms of e6 are used impersonally in the third persw
singular of the passive : as, itum est (§ 208. d). The infinitive iri is used iritf
the supine in -urn to make the future infinitive passive (§ 1 93. k.). The ver:
vene5, be sold (i.e. venum e5, go to sale), has also several forms in "the passiTe.
b. In the perfect system of eo the forms with v are very rare in the sin?-*
verb and unusual in the compounds.
c. ii before s is regularly contracted to I : as, isse.
I 208, 204]
IBREGULAB VERBS
116
€f • The compound ambi5 is inflected regularly like a verb ol the fourth
onjugation. But it has also ambibat in the imperfect indicatiye.
e* Pr5 with e5 retains its original d : as, prdde5, prddis, prOdit
204. Faci6, facere, fSci, factum, make^ is regular. But it hxus im-
)erative fac in the active, and, besides the regular forms, the future
)erf act £az5, perfect subjunctive faTini, The passive of faciO is —
fid, fiSri, tactus sam, be made or become.
The present system of fio is regular of the fourth conjugation,
Dut the subjunctive imperfect is fierem, and the infinitive fieri.
NOTB. — The forms in brackets are not used in good prose.
Present
Imperfect
Future
Perfect
Pluperfect
Future Perfect
INDICATIVE
fi5, &, fit
[fimus], [Atis], flaQt
figbam, fiebas, etc.
fiam, fi§8, etc.
factus sum
f actus eram
factus erd
IMPERATIVE
[fi, fite, fito,
SUBJUNCTIVE
fiam, flas, fiat
fiamus, fi&tis, fiant
fierem, fierSs, etc.
factus sim
factus esaem
■r
Present fieri
INFINITIVE
Perfect factus ease
Future factum Iri
PABTICIPLBS
Perfect factus Gerundive faciendus
a* Most compounds^f faciS with prepositions weaken X to lin the present
stem and to S in the supine stem, and are inflected regularly like verbs in -15 : —
confldd, conficSre, cdnf^ci, conf ectttm, ^niA^
conficior, confici, confectas.
6. Other compounds retain a, and have -f!5 in the passive : as, benefaciS,
-tacere, 4kif -factum ; passive benefIS, -fieri, -factus, benefit. These retain the
accent of the simple verb : as, bene-f&^cis (§ 12. a, Exc).
e* A few isolated forms of fio occur in other compounds : —
cSaflt, it happens^ cdnfiant ; cdnfiat ; cdnfieret, cfinfiArent ; coafiinL
dSllt, U tocis, difinnt; dSfiet; deflat; defiexL
effleri, to be ^ected,
infiS, begin (to speak), Infit
iaterfiat, let him perish ; interfleil, to perish.
lopeillt, it remaina over; soperfiat, toperfieil
1 Tbe Imperative is rarely found, and then only in early writers.
116
CONJUGATION OF THE VERB
L§205
DEFECTIVE VERBS
205. Some verbs .have lost the Present System, and use only
tenses of the Perfect, in which they are inflected regularly.
These are —
ooepi;^ / began
Perfect
Pluperfect
Future Perfect
Perfect
Pluperfect
- 5di,a I hate
INDICATIVE
coepi odi
coeperam oderam
coepero odero
memini,^ / remernber
SUBJUNCTIVE
coeperim oderim
coepissem
odissem
IMPERATIVE
INFINITIVE
Perfect
Future
Perfect
Future
coepisse
coepturus esse
odisse
osurus esse
memini
meminerani
meminero
meminenin
meminiss^ni
memento
mementote
meminisse
PARTICIPLES
coeptus, begun osus, hating or hated
coepturus osurus, likely to hate
a* The passive of coepI is often used with the passive infinitire: a*
coeptus sum vocari, / began to be called^ but coepi vocare, / began to c^-
For the present system incipio is used.
Note. — Early and rare forms are coepio, coepiam, coeperet, coepere.
i^. The Perfect, Pluperfect, -and Future Perfect of 5di and memimb^^
the meanings of a Present, Imperfect, and Future respectively : —
odi, / ?iate; oderam, I hJated (was Tutting) ; 5der5, 1 shaU hate.
Note 1. — A present participle meminSns is early and late.
Note 2. — Novi and c5n8tt6vi (usually referred to nSscd and consuSscS) are oft^ <^
In the sense of I know (have learned) and I am accustomed (haye beoome aociutao^
as.preteritiye verbs. Many other verbs are occasionally used in the same way
476. N.).
1 Root AP (as in aplscor) with co(]i.).
3 BootOD,. as in Sdium. ,
* Boot MEN, as in miiis.
§206]
DEFECTIVE VERBS
117
206. Many verbs are found only in the Present System. Such
are maere9, -6re, he sorrowful (cf . maestus, Bad) ; feriO, -ire, strike.
In many the simple verb is incomplete, but the missing parts
occur in its compounds : as, yadO, yadere, in-y&si, in-y&siun.
Some verbs occur very commonly, but only in a few forms : —
«• Ai5, / say : —
iNDic. Fees. ftiO, ais,^ ait : , , &iant
8UBJV.
IMPER.
PART.
Fees. ftiO, ais,^ ait ; , -
Impf. &iebam,3 &iebSs, etc.
P&ES. , SASs, &iat;
&iant
al (rare)
&iens
The vowels a and i are pronounced separately (a-is, a-it) except some-
imes in old or colloquial Latin. Before a vowel, one i stands for two (see
6. c) : — thus &i5 was pronounced gl-y5 and was sometimes written aii5.
b. Inqnam, / sat/y except in poetry, is used only in direct quotations
cf. the English quoth).
iNOic. PRES. inquam, inquis, inquit ; inquimus, inquitis (late), Inquiunt
Impf. , , inquiSbat; , ,
FuT. 'J inqui^s, inquiet ; , ,
Perf. inqui!, inquisti, ; , ,
IMPER. Prbs. inque
FuT. inquitO
The only common forms are inquam, inquis, inquit, inquiunt, and the
iture inqnies, inquiet.
Cm The deponent fari, to speak, has the following forms : —
INDIC. Fres. , , fatur; -= — , , f antur
FuT. f abor, , f abitur ; , ,
IMPER.
INFIN.
PART.
Fbrf. , —
FiiUP. fatus eram,
Fres. fare
Fres. farl
-, fatus est ;
-, fati sunt
-, fatus erat ;
Fres. fans, fantis, etc. (in singular)
Ferf. fatus {Tiaving spoken)
Ger. faDdus (to be spoken of)
GERUND, ^en. fandl, oW. fandO supine fatu
Several forms compounded with the prepositions ex, prae, pr6, inter,
tour : as, praefatur, praefamur, afiari, profatus, interfatur, etc. The com-
)and infans is regularly used as a noun (child), Infandus, nefandus, are
led as adjectives, unspeakable^ abominable,
1 The second singnlar ai« with the interrogative -ne is often written ain.
3 An old Imperfect ailMun, ai1>a8, etc. (dissyllabic) is sometimes foun4.
[
118
CONJUGATION OF THE VERB
[§2oe
dm QueO, / can, neqneO, / cannot^ are conjugated like eO. They are rarel jr
used except in the present. Quad is regularly accompanied by a negative.
The forms given below occur, those in full-faced type in classic prose.
The Imperative, Grerund, and Supine are wanting.
INDIOATIVB SUBJUNCTTVB
INDICATIVE
SUBJUNCHVB
Pbbsent
qae5
quls
quit
quimus
quitis
qaeunt
qoeam
qoeis
qoeat
qne&mas
queant
Present
neqoeS (nSn qaed)
nequls
nequit
nequImuB
neqoitis
neqaeant
neqaeam
neqae&s
nequeat
neqne&mos
Heqaeant
Imperfect
quibam
quibat
qoiret
quirent
nequibat
nequlbant
Imperfect
neqniieiii
neqniret
nequlrent
Future
quIbG
quibunt
nequlbit
nequlbunt
Future
Perfect
quivl
quivit quiverit (-ierit)
quiyiniBt (-^re) quierint
Perfect
neqalverim
nequlYl
nequtotl
nequlFit (nequiit) neqnivezlt
nequIvSrunt (-quiere) noqnlveiint
i
I
I
Pluperfect
qulvissent
Pluperfect
neqolvdrat (-ierat) nequhriaset (-qidsset)
nequiverant (-ierant) nequlBsent
quire
qulsae
INFINITIVB
nequire
neqiilTiaM (-quisse)
quiens
PABTIGIPLES
nequiSns, nequeantSs
Note. ~ A f ew passive forms axe used with passive infinitlFeB : as, guitar, qaeutir,
f altu MuiyquoitBr,! uM]itar,n6quitar,B6qiiitttm ; but none of theseooeors in claisBlo prose.
>6, 2073
IMPEBSONAL VEBB8
119
^» / askf beg (original form of qiiaoi5)) has —
ieri>io. J^BJBS. quaesO, qnaestUauB
ToTK. — Other foims of f ium5 are found oocaaioiially in early Latin« For the per-
syatem (quaeaivi, etc), see foaerS (§ 211. cQ.
f • Orare, to triumphy has the following : —
iNi>ic. Prb8. ov8s, ovat
suBJV. P&S8. ovet
Impv. ovftret
PART. ovftns, ovfttOms, ovfttna
QEB. ovandl
gm A few verbs are found chiefly in the Imperative : —
Prb8. singular salyi, plural salTSte, Fut. salyStS, haUt (from sal-
yus, 9afe and 9ound), An infinitive salvSze and the indica*
tive forms salveS, salvStis, salvSUs, are rare.
Phxs. s i ngu l ar avS (or havS), plural avite, Fut. avStd, hail or /ore-
vxXL An infinitive avSre also occurs.
Pbbs. singular cMo, plural cMite (eette), gioe^ teU.
Pbbs. singular apage, hegtme (properly a Greek word).
IMPERSONAL VERBS
207. Many verbs, froin their meaning, appear only in the third
person singtilar^ the infinitive^ and the gerund. These are called
Impersonal Verbs, as having no personal subject.^ The passive
of many intransitive verbs is used in the same way.
CONJ. I
II
III
IV
Pass. Cokj. i
it U plain
it is aUcwed
itchance9
Uruult9
it is fought
constat
licet
accidit
evenit
pfLgnfttur
cOnst&bat
licebat
accidebat
Oveniebat
ptkgnftb&tur
cOnst&bit
UcObit
accidet
eveniet
pfignftbltur
cOnstlUt
licuit, -itum est
accidit
6v6nit
pfignfttum est
cGostiterat
licuerat
acciderat
OvOnerat
pQgnfttum erat
cOnRtiterit
licuerit
accident
OvOnerit
pfignfttnm erit
constat
liceat
accidat
fiveniat
pfignfitnr
cOnstftiet
licOret
accideret
Ovenlret
pfignftrGtur
cOnstitexit
licuerit
accident
OvSnerit
pfignfttum sit
cOnstitinet
Ilcuisset
accidisset
Ovenisset
pfignfttum esMi
cOnstftre
licOre
accidSre
fivenlre
pfignftrl
cGnBtitiase
licuiise
accidisse
fiyenlsse
pfignfttum esse
-stfttHrom eiM
-ittlrum eess
-tOrumesM
pOgnfttum III
1 With impenonal verbs the word it is used in English, having osoally no wpf
Bentatlve in Latin, thoogh id, h6e, illud, are often used nearly in the seme way.
J
120 CONJUGATION OF THE VERB [§
208. Impersonal Verbs may be classified as follows : —
a« Verbs expressing the operations of nature and the time of day : —
▼esperfttcit (inceptive, § 263. 1), it grows late. ningit, it snovos.
ladscit hdc, it is getting light f olgaiat, it lightens.
grandinat, it hails. tonat, it thunders,
pluit, it rains. rSrat, the dew falls.
NoTB. — In these no subject is distinctly thought of. Sometimes, howeyer, tiie yeri
is used personally with the name of a diyinity as the subject : as, luppiter tonat, Jupitei
thunders. In poetry other subjects are occasionally used : . as, fondae saxa plannt, t/u
slings rain stones.
bm Verbs of feeling^ where the person who is the proper subject becomes
the object) as being himself affected by the feeling expressed in the YeiV
(§ 364. h) : —
misexet, it grieves. paenitet (poenitet), it repents.
piget, it disgusts. podet, it shames.
taedet, it wearies.
miaeret m8, I pity (it distresses me) ; pudet mS, I am ashamed.
NoTS. — Such yerbs often haye also a passive form : as, misereor, I pity (am moyed
to pity) ; and occasionally other parts: as, paenitfinis (as from tpaeniS), paenitendns,
pudendtts, pertaetom est, pigitnm est.
C4 Verbs which have a phrase or clause as their subject (cf. §§ 454.
569. 2): —
acddit, contingit, Syenit, obtingit, obyenit, fit, it happens.
libet, it pleases. delectat, iuyat, it delights,
licet, it is permitted. oportet, itisftting, ought.
certom est, it is resohoed, nesesse est, it is needifid,
constat, it is clear. praestat, it is better.
placet, it seems good (pleases). interest, rfifert, it concerns,
yidetur, it seems^ seems good. yacat, there is leisure.
decet, it is becoming. xestat, snperest, it remains.
NoTB. — Many of these yerbs may be used personally; as, yaco, I have leisurt
Libet and licet have also the passive forms libitum (licitam) est etc. The participles
lib^as and licCns are used as adjectives.
d* The passive of intransitive verbs is yery often used impersonally (s^
synopsis in § 207) : —
yentom est, they came (there was coming).
pfignatur, there is fighting (it is fought).
itnr, some one goes (it is gone).
pardtnr mihi, I am spared (it is spared to me, see § 872).
NoTB. — The impersonal use of the passive proceeds from its original refiexioe (<>'
middle) meaning, the action being regarded as acoon^ithing itself (compare the
French oe^a sefait).
i§ 209, 210] classified lists of verbs 121
Classified Lists of Verbs
First Conjugation
209, There are about 860 simple verbs of the First Conjuga-
tion, most of them formed directly on a noun- or adjective-stem :
armd, €arfn {arma^ anna) ; caeco, to blind (caecas, btind) ; ezstild, he <m ezUe
(exsal, an exUe) (§ 259).
Their conjugation is usually regular, like amS ; though of many only a few
{orms are found in use.
Urn The following verbs form their Perfect and Supine stems irregularly.
Those marked ♦ have also regular forms.
crepd, crepui (-crepivi), -crepit-, resound. plied, ♦-plicni, ♦-plicit-, fold,
cub5, *ciibiii, -cubit-, lie down, p5t5, pdtavi, *pdt-, drinJc,
45, dftre, dedl, d&t-, give (da). seed, secui, sect-, cut
domd, domni, domit-, subdue. sond, sonai, sonit-,^ sound.
fried, fiical, *fiict-, rub. std, steti, -stat- (-stit-), stamd.
iav5 (ad-iav5), iil^, iflt-,^ help. tono, tonui, ^-tonit-, ffiunder. :
micd, micul, , glitter. veto, vetui, vetit-, forbid.
need, *necai, necflt- (-nect-), kiU.^ ' '
KoTiB. — Comiwands of these verbs have the f ollowing'f orms : —
crep6 : con-creputf dis-^repui or -crepdvi ; in-crepui or -crcpawi.
d5 : circumrf inter-f pessum-, aatis-t super-f venum-do, -dedit -dat-, of the first con-
jugation. Other compounds belong to the root dha, putf and are of the third
conjugation : as, condOt cond!&ref condidif conditum.
inioS: dt-micavi, -mtca^-; e-micui, -micdt-.
plio5: re-, «tt6- (sup-), mviti-pHcOf -p/icavt, -plicdt'; ex-plico (unfold), -mi, -it-;
(explain), -a»i, -at-; imrplico, -dvi (-w«)> -dtum (-itum).
•t6: coTirStdf stiti, (stdturus); ad-, resto, stitiy -; ante- (anti-), inter-, super-
stOf stetif ; circum^to, steti (stiti), ; praesto, -stiti, -stit- (stdt-);
di-sto, ex^to, no perfect or supine (future participle exstdturus).
Second Conjugation
210, There are nearly 120 simple verbs of the Second Conju-
gation, most of them denominative verbs of condition, having a
corresponding noun and adjective from the same root, and an
inceptive in -8c5 (§ 268. 1): —
cale5, he warm; calor, warmth; calidas, warm; calSscd, grow warm.
timed, fear ; timor, fear ; timidus, timid ; per-tim§sco, to take fright.
^ Future Participle also in -itfiras (either in the simple verb or in composition)'.
'ireoS has regularly necftvl, necitam, except in composition.
122
CONJUGATION OF THE VERB
[§§ 210, 211
a* Most Ttrbs of the second conjugation are inflected like moneS, but
many lack the supine (as, aroe5, ward off; care5, lack; egeO, need; timed,
/ear)f and a number have neither perfect nor supine (as, maere5, be sad),
b* The following keep 5 in all the systems : —
dileS, destroy dSlixe dil8^ dSlStom
fled, toeep flSre flS^ fletmn
ne5, sew nSxe nS^ [nStom]
yM, plait viire [TiiTi] ▼ietom
corn-pled, ^U up ^ -plSre -plS^ -plStom
e» The following show special irregularities : —
alged, alsl, be cold,
ifded, irri, Xzsfiras, bum,
aoded, aaf OS sum, dare,
aageS, aozl, aoct-, increase.
caTed, ci^, caot-, care,
cdased, cdnsol, cdns-, value,
cied, ciTl, cit-, excite.
doced, docnl, doct-, teach.
faved, f &▼!, faot-, favor.
ferved, feni (fexboi), , glow.
foyed, fdyl, fdt-, cherish,
falged, falsi, , shine,
gaaded, gflylias sum, r^oice.
haered, haesl, haes-, di'ng,
ladolged, indolsl, indolt-, indulge.
iabed, iassi, loss-, order,
liqaed, licol (liqal), , mdt.
Iflced, lilJd, , shine.
Iflged, Iflid, , mourn.
maaed, mlnsi, mins-, wait,
miaced) -cui, mixt- (mist-), mix,
morded, momordl, mors-, bite.
moved, mdrl, mdt-, move.
mnlced, mnlsl, mols-, soothe.
mulged, malsl, male-, mUk.
(cd)]iiTed, -ni^ (-nizl)f , uHnk,
(ab)oled, -oMtI, -olit-, destroy.
pended, pependi, -pSns-, hang,
pranded, psaacB, prias-, dine.
lided, risi, -zls-, laitg?L
•eded, sdti, sess-, sit,
soled, solitas stun, be u>onL
sorbed, soxbui (soxpsi), , suck.
sponded, spepondl, spfins-, pledge.
strlded, stiidi, , whiz.
soided, sxAAy snis-, urge.
tened (-tined), tenoi, -tent-, hM.
terged, tersi, ters-, wipe.
tended, -totondi (-tondi), tdns-, shecar.
toxqoed, torti, tort-, twisL
toned, toznsi, tost-, roasL
torged, tnrsi, , sweU.
orged, nrsl, , urge.
Tided, ^di, yis-, see.
Tored, TdTi, Tot-, vow.
Third Con jugation
211. The following lists include most simple verbs of the
Third Conjugation, classed according to the formation of the Pe^
feet Stem : —
a. Forming the perfect stem in • (x) (§ 177. b and note): —
angd, iaxi, , choke. claodd, dausl, claos-, shut
carpd, carpel, carpt-, plwik, cdmd, cdmpsi, cdmpt-, comb^ d«k,
cddd, cessi, cess-, y\M,. ooqod, coxl, coct-, cool;,
eingd, dnzl, dnet-, bind, -cntid, -casiri, -coss-, shake,
^ And other componnds of -pled.
8 211]
THIRD CONJUGATION
123
dSm5, ddmpsi, dSmpt-, take away.
dicdf cQxi, diet-, »ay,
divido, diiasi, divis-, divide.
daco, dOxi, dact-, guide.
Smnnsdf -mdnzi, -mfinct-, clean out
fig5, fizi, fix.-,Jlx,
fingo £fig], finzi, tct-^ fashion,
fleets, flezi, flex-, bend.
-fligd, -flizi, -flict-, , smite.
flad, flfizi, fiaz-, flow.
frendd, , fret- (frest-), gnash.
trigs, frixi, fnct-, fiy.
geiS, geasi, gest-, carry.
inngS, ifinzi, ifinct-, join.
laedS, laesi, laet-, hurt.
-liciS, -lezi, -lect-, entice ((Slicol, -licit-).
16do, Ifls!, Ifit-, play.
mergo, mersl, men-, plunge.
mitts, misi, miss-, send.
nectS [kbc], nezl (nezui), nez-, v>eave.
nflbS, nfipsi, ndpt-, marry,
pectS, pezi, pez-, comb.
pergo, pexrSzi, pexrSct-, go on.
pingS [pio], pinzi, pict-, paint.
plango [flag], planzi, pl&nct-, heat.
plandS, plausi, plaus-, applaud.
plectS, plezi, plez-, braid.
pxemS, press!, pxess-, press.
pxomS, -mpsi, -mpt-, bring out.
bm Reduplicated in the perfect (§
cadS, cecldi, cis-, faU.
caedS, cecidi, caes-, cut.
cans, cedni, , sing.
currS, cocttxzi, ctirs-, run.
discs [dic], didici, , learn.
-do [dha], -didi, -dit- (as in ab-dS, etc.,
with^iSdo, ySudS), put.
fallo, fef elfi, fals-, deceive.
pangS [fag], pepigi (-pSgi), pact-,/as^en,
fix, bargaifL
paxcS, peperci (paisi), (parsdras), spare.
€• Adding n (v) to the verb-root (§ 177. a) : —
al5, alol, alt- (alit-), nouriak. composes, oompSscul, -— — , retitrain.
eemS, cxSrl, -cidt-, decree. cSnsalS, -lal, cSnsalt-, consult.
col9, Golal, cult-, dwells tUl. crSscS, crS^, crit-, increase.
qnatiS, (-cnssi), qaass-, shak^
rido, rflsi, ris-, scrape.
regd, rSzi, rSct-, rule.
lepo, rSpsi, , creep.
rSdS, rdsi, rSs-, gnaw.
scalps, scalps!, scalpt-, scrape.
scnbS, scripn, script-, write.
scalps, sculps!, sculpt-, carve.
seipS, serps!, , crawl.
sparg5, spars!, spars-, scatter.
-spiciS, -spezi, -spect-, view.
-stingnS, -srinz!, -stinct-, quench.
strings, str!n:ri, strict-, bind.
stm5, strdz!, strdct-, build.
sflgS, sflz!, sflct-, suck.
sfimS, sumps!, sfimpt-, take.
surgS, surrSz!, surrSct-, rise.
teg5, tSzI, tSct-, shelter.
temnS, -temps!, -tempt-, despise.
tergS, ters!, ters-, uHpe.
tingS, tinz!, rinct-, stain.
trahS, trizi, trict-, drag.
trddS, trfis!, trds-, thrust.
unguS (ungo), flnz!, unct-, anoint.
firS, uss!, ust-, bum.
▼Add, -tAsI, -yis-, go.
▼eho, vSz!, vect-, draw.
^▼6, vizi, ^ct-, live.
177. c): —
pariS, peperi, part- (paritfiros), bring
forth.
pellS, pepull, puis-, drive.
pendS, pependi, pSns-, weigh.
poscS, poposd, , demand.
pungS [pdg], pupngi (-pfinzi)f pdnct-,
prick.
sistS [sta], stiti, stat-, stop.
tangS [tag], tetig!, t&ct-, touch.
tend5 [ten] , tetend! (-tendi),tent-, stretch.
tund5 [tud], ttttudi, tdns- (-tds-), beat
124
CONJUGATION OF THE VERB
[§211
-cumbo [cub], -cabai, -cubit-, lie down. rapid, rapui, rapt-, seize.
depBO, depsui, depst-, knead,
fremo, fremui, —■ — , roar,
gemd, gemoi, , groan.
gigno [qen], genu!, genit-, &e^e^.
metS, messui,- -mess-, reap,
mold, molui, molit-, grind,
occulS, occtilai, occult-, hide,
(ad)ole8Cd, -evi, -ult-, grow up.
p&sco, pay!, past-, feed,
percello, -culi, -culs-, upset.
pond [pos], posni, posit-, jpttt.
quiesco, quiSvi, quiet-, rest.
scisco, scivi, scit-, decree.
sero, sevi, sat-, sow.
sero, serui, sort-, entwine.
sinS, sivi, sit-y permit.
spemo, sprdvi, sprdt-, scorn.
stemd, strfl^, strat-, strew.
stertd, -stertui, , snore,
strepo, strepui, , sound.
suesco, suevi, suet-, he wont.
tezo, tezui, text-, weave.
tremo, tremui, , tremble,
Yomo, yomui, , vomit.
d. Adding iv to the verb-root (§ 117, f) : —
arcesso,^ -iv!, arcessit-, summon.
capessd, capessivi, , undertake.
cupid, cupi^, cupitr, desire.
incessd, incessi^, , attack.
lacessd, lacessivf, lacessit-, provoke.
petd, petivi, petit-, seek.
quaerd, quaesivi, quaesit-, seek,
rudd, rudiyi, , bray.
sapid, sapiyi, , be wise.
terd, triyi, trit-, rub.
e. Lengthening the vowel of the root (cf. § 177. d):
Agd, eg!, act-, drive.
capid, cepi, capt-, take.
edd, ddi, esum, eat (see § 201).
emd, emi, dmpt-, buy.
facid, fdc!, fact-, make (see § 204).
fodid, fddi, foss-, dig.
frangd [frag], frd^, fract-, break.
fugid, fugi, (fugiturus), ^66.
fundd [fud], fudi, fus-, pour,
iadd, ieci, iact-, throw (-icid, -iect-).
lavd, layi, lot- (laut-), wash (also regu-
lar of first conjugation),
legd,^ leg!, Idct-, gather,
lino [li], ley! (li^), lit-, smear,
linqud [lic], -liqu!, -lict-, leave,
ndscd [oNo], ndv!, ndt- (cd-gnit-, ft-gnit-,
ad-gnit-), knjow.
rumpd [rup], rupi, rupt-, burst,
scabd, scab!, , scratch.
yincd [vie], vici, vict-, conquer,
/• Retaining the present stem or verb-root (cf. § 177. «): —
acttd, -u!, -fit-, sharpen.
argud, -u!, -ut-, accuse.
bibd, bibi, (pdtus), drink.
-cendd, -Cend!, -cens-, kindle.
(con)grud, -ui, , agree.
cudd, -cud!, -CUS-, forge.
facessd, -ii (facessi), facesslt-, execute.
-fendd, -fendi, -fens-, ward off.
findd [fid], fidi,^ fiss-, split.
!cd, ici, ict-, hit.
imbud, -ui, -ut-, give a taMe of,
lud, lu!, -l&t-, wash.
mandd, mand!, m&ns-, cheiw,
metud, -ui, -flt-, fear.
minud, -u!, -Qt-, lessen, •
-nud, -nu!, ^nod,
pandd, pandi, pans- (pass-), open.
pinsd, -SI, pins- (ptnst-, pist-), bruise.
prehendd, -hendi, -hens-, seize,
rud, mi, rut- (ruiturus), faU,
1 Sometimes accersd, etc.
2 The following compounds of legd have -Idxi : diligd, inteUegd, neglegd.
8 In this the perfect stem is the same as the verb-root, having lost the reduplica-
tion (§177. c. N.).
§§211,212]
FOURTH COKJUGATION
125
scando, -scendi, -scensuB, dinib,
8cind5 [scid], sddi,^ sciss-, tear.
8id5, sidi (-sedl), -sess-, settle,
solvo, soM, Bolut-, loose, pay.
spuo, -oi, , spit.
statud, -al,--at-, establish.
stemuo, -ui, , sneeze.
strido, stridi, , whiz.
suo, sul, silt-, sew.
(ex)u6, -ui, -ut-, ptU off.
tribud, -ui, -ut-, assign*
▼ell5, velli (-vulsi), vuls-, pluck.
vetro, -verri, vers-, sweep.
vert5, verti, yers-, turn.
viso [vid], '^81, yis-, visit.
volvo, volvi, volfit-, turn.
Note. — Several have no perfect or supine: as, claudO, limp; fatisod, gape; bisc5,
yawn; toUo (sustuli, sublatum, supplied from sufferS), raise; vergS, incline.
Fourth Conjugation
212. There are — besides a few deponents and some regular
derivatives in -ilrio, as, SsuriO, be hungry (of. § 263. 4) — about
60 verbs of this conjugation, a large proportion of them being
descriptive verbs : like —
crdcio, croaJc; mugio, bellow; tinnio, tinkle.
Urn Most verbs of the Fourth Conjugation are conjugated regularly, like
audio, though a number lack the supine.
h. The following verbs show special peculiarities : —
amicid, asuzi (-cui), amict-, cloths.
aperio, aperui, apert-, open.
comperio, -peri, compert-, find.
farcio, tarsi, fartum, stuff.
ferio, , , strike.
fulcio, falsi, fait-, prop.
haorid, haasi, baast- (baasuras), drain.
opexio, operai, opert-, cover.
repexid, xeppexl, xepeit-,^nd.
saeplS, saepsi, saept-, fiedge in.
saUS (-81115), salai (saUi), [salt- (-salt-)],
leap.
sancio [sac], sflnzi, sanct-, sanction.
sarcio, sarsi, sart-, patch.
sentio, sensi, sens-, feel.
sepelld, sepelivi, sepult-, bury.
venio, veni, vent-, come.
vincio, vinxi, vinct-, bind.
For Index of Verbs, see pp. 436 ff.
1 See footnote 3, page 124.
126 PARTICLES [S§ 218, 214
PAETIOLES
213. Adverbs, Prepositions, Conjunctions, and Interjections
are called Particles.
In their origin Adverbs, Prepositions, and Conjunctions are
either (1) caue-form^^ actual or extinct, or (2) compounds and
phr<ue%.
Particles cannot always be distinctly classified, for many adverbs are
used also as prepositions and many as conjunctions (§§ 219 and 222).
ADVBfiBS
Dbbivation of Advbbbs
214. Adverbs are regularly formed from Adjectives as follows :
a. From adjectiyes of the first and second declensions by changing the
characteristic rowel of the stem to -^ : as, dure, dearly j from cams, dear (stem
cixo-) ; amicS, like a friend, from amicaSf friendly (stem amioo-).
Note. — The ending -6 is a relic of an old ablative in -^d (cf. § 43. n. 1).
bm From adjectives of the third declension by adding -ter to the stem.
Stems in nt- (nom. -ns) lose the t-. All others are treated as i-stems : —
fortiter, bravely, from foitis (stem forti-), brave.
Icriter, eagerly, from Acer (stem icri-), eager.
vigilanter, watchfully, from vigiULns (stem vigilant-),
prfidenter, prvdewUy, from prfidens (stem prfident-).
aliter, otherwise, from alios (old stem ali-).
Note. — This suffix is perhaps the same as -ter in the Greek -repot and in uter, alter.
If sOfthese adverbs are in origin either neater accusatives (cf.d) or masculine nominatiYes.
e» Some adjectives of the first and second declensions have adverbs of
both forms (-e and >ter). Thus dums, hard, has both, diirS and dnriter;
miser, wretched, has both misere and miseriter.
dm The neuter accusative of adjectives and pronouns is often nsed as an
adverb : as, mnltum, much ; facilS, easily ; quid, why.
This is the origin of the ending -ius in the comparative deg^ree of ad-
verbs (§218): as, icrins, more keenly (positive icriter); facilius, more easUy
(positive faclU).
NoTB. —These adverbs are etrieUj cognate aeensatives ({ 390).
•• The ahlaiive singular neuter or (less commonly) frminine of adJectivM,
prononns, and nouns may be used adverbiaUy: as, falsO, fidsely; tXA,
§§ 214-216] DERIVATION OF ADVERBS 127
quickly (with shortened o); rScti (rU), Hraight (straightway); crCbr5, frt-
quently ; volgd, commonly; fortft, by chance; spontS, of one* s own accord.
NoxB. — Some adverbs are derived from adjectives not in use: as, atmndS, plentt"
fully (as if from fabundus ; cf . abondO, abound) ; saep^, often (as if from fiaepis, dense,
close-packed; cf. saepSs, hedge^ and saepid, hedge in),
215. Further examples of Adverbs and other Particles which
are in origin case-forms of nouns or pronouns are given below.
In some the case is not obvious, and in some it is doubtful.
1. Center Accusative forms: n5ii (for nS-oiaom, later finum), not; itenim (compara-
tive of i-, stem of it), a second time; d6mimi (superlative of dS, down), at last,
2. Feminine Accusatives: partim, partly. So statim, on the spot; saltim, at least
(generally saltern), from lost nouns in -tis (genitive -tis). Thus -tim became a regular
adverbial termination ; and by means of it adverbs were made from many noun- and
verb-stems immediately, without the intervention of any form which could have an
aoensative in -tim: as, sSpar&tim, separately, from sSpar&tas, separate. Some adverbs
that appear to be feminine accusative are possibly instrumental: as, paUun, openly;
perperam, wrongly; tam, so; quam, as,
3. Plural Accusatives : as, aliAs, eleewhere ; foxis, out of doors (as end of motion).
So i>erhaps quia, because,
4. Ablative or Instrumental forms: quA, where; intrl, toithin; eztit, outside; qui,
fiow; aliqni, somehow; foxis, out of doors; quO, whither; adeS, to that degree; nltrS,
beyond; citr5, this side (as end of motion) ; retrd, back; iU5c (for till5-Ge), weakened to
iUuc, thither. Those in -tro are from comparative stems (cf. file, cis, re-).
5. Locative forms : ibi, there ; nbi, where ; Uli, ilfi-c, there ; peregxi (peregrS), abroad;
hlc (for fbi-ce) , Tiere, Also the compounds bodiS (probably for fhddlf) , to-day ; perendiS,
day after to-mxtrrow,
6. Of uncertain formation : (1) those in -tas (usually preceded by i), with an abla-
tive meaning: as, fnnditas, /rom the bottom, utterly; divinitus, from above, prodr
dentially; intus, witMn; penitat, within; (2) those in -dem, -dam, -dS: as, quidem,
indeed; quondam, once; quand5 (cf. d5nec), when; (3) dum (probably accusative of
time), while; iam, now,
216. A phrase or short sentence has sometimes grown together
into an adverb (cf. notwithstandingj nevertheless^ besides): —
postmodo, presently (a short time after).
dSnnd (for dS nov5), anew,
vidiUcet (for vid8 licet), to wit (see, you may),
nihildminns, nevertheless (by nothing the less).
KoTB. — Other examples are: — ante&, old antidoi, before (ante oi, probably abla-
tive or instrumental) ; DicS (in loc5), on the spot, immediately; prSrsus, absolutely (pr5
▼onus, straight ahead) ; rfirsus (re-vorsus), again; quotannis, yearly (quotaanis, as many
years as there arfl) ; quam-ob-rem, wher^ore ; cSminus, hand to hand (con maaus) ; Smiaus,
at long range (ex manus) ; nlminun, without doubt (nl mimm) ; ob-viam (as in Ire obviam,
to go to meet) ; pridem (cf. prae and -dem in i-dem), /or some time; fonan (fort an), per-
haps (it's a chance whether); forsitan (fors sit an), perhaps (it would be a chance
whether) ; w^cet (facl, licet), that is to say (know, you may ; cf . I-lloet, you may gci) ;
Ictfttum (ftetfi, on the act, and tum, then).
128 particles [§217
Classification of Adverbs
217. The classes of Adverbs, with examples, are as follows : —
a. Adverbs of Place ^
hic, Jiere. hflc, hither, hinc, hence, h&c, by this way.
ibi, there, ed, thither, inde, thence, e&, by that way.
istic, there, istfic, thither, istinc, thence, ista, by that way.
imc, there, \Mz, thither, muc^ thence, iUfl (ilUlc), '' ''
abi, where, qti5, whither, ande, whence. qa&, by what way.
alicnbi, aomewhere, aliqad, somewhither^ ahaaiAt, from some- aJ^tO^by somjeway.
(to) somewhere, where,
ibidem, in the same eddem, to the same indidem, from the eAdem, by the same
place, place, same place, way,
alibi, elseio Aere, in alid, elsewhere, to aliunde, from an- ali£, in another
another place, another place. other place, way.
aUabi, wherever, qadqud, whitherso- undecnnque, whence- qti§qu&, in whatever
ever. soever. way.
abi^s, anywhere, qaovis, anywhere, nndique, from every qxiSms, by whateter
where you will, whither you will, quarter, way.
sicubi, if anywhere. Biqu5, if anywhere slcunde, if from any- siqtUl, if anywhere.
(anywhUJier). where,
necabi, lest any- n§qud, lest any- nScunde, lest from nequA, lest any-
where. whither, anywhere, where.
Note. — The demonstraUve adverbs hie, ibi, islic, iUi, ilSc, and their correlatives,
correspond in signification with the pronouns hie, is, iste, ille (see § 146), and are often
equivalent to these pronouns with a preposition : as, inde » ab eo, etc. So the relative or
interrogative nbi corresponds with qui (quis), ali-cubi with allquis, ubiubi with quisqais,
81-Cttbi with siqnis (see §§ 147-151, with the table of correlatives in § 152).
usque, aU the way to; nsquam, anywhere; nusqnam, nowhere; citr5, to this side;
intro, inwardly; ultro, beyond (or freely, i.e. beyond what is required);
porr5, further on.
quSrsum (for quo vorsum, whither turned?), to what end? h5ranm, this way;
T^tdisvan, forward (prSrsus, utterly); introrsum, inwardly; xetrSrsnm, back-
ward; sdrsum, upward; deorsum, downward; seorsum, apart; aliSrsnm,
another way.
«
h. Adverbs of Time
quandd, when? (interrogative); cum (quom), when (relative); ut, to^n, as; mmc,
now; tunc (turn), then; moz, presently; iam, already; dum, while; lamdio,
iam dfidum, iam piidem, long ago, long since.
1 All these adverbs were originaHy case-forms of pronouns. The forms in -bi and
-ic are locative, those in -5 and -uc, -a and -Sc, ablative (see § 215) ; those in -inc art
from -im (of uncertain origin) with the particle -ce added (thus iUim, illin-c).
§§ 217, 2180 ADVERBS 129
pximiun ($timS), first; deinde (posteA), next after ; ^8trimvaa{go8txinui), finally ;
posteaquam, postqaam, w?ien (after tkcEt, a>s soon as),
tunquam (anqoam), ever; niunqaam (ntinqaam), never; semper, always,
aliquando, at sometime, at, length; qoandoqne (quanddcamque), whenever; dSnique,
at last,
quotiens (quoties), Tiow often; totiens, so often; aliquotiSns, a number of times,
cotidi§, every day; hodie, to-day; heri, yesterday ; eras, to-morrow; pridie, tke day
before; postridie, the day after; in dies, from day to day,
nondum, not yet ; necdum, nor yet ; yixdtun, scarce yet ; quam piimam, oa soon as
possible ; saepe, often ; crebro, frequently ; iam n5n, no longer,
c. Adyerbs of Maimer, Degree, or Cause
qttam, Jiow, as; tarn, so; quamyis, hxrweoer much, atthxmgh; paene, aJmost; magis,
more; valde, greatly; vix, hardly,
cur, qu&rS, why ; ideS, idcirco, propterea, on this account, because; w, therefore;
ergo, itaqae, igitur, therefore,
ita, 8ic, so; ut (uti), as, how; otut, utcumqae, however,
d. Interrogatiye Particles
an, ->ne, anne, atram, uttomne, nam, whether.
nonne, annon, whether not; numquid, ecquid, whetJier at aU,
On the use of the Interrogative Particles, see §§ 332, 335.
e. Negatiye Particles
non, not (in simple denial) ; hand, minime, not (in contradiction) ; nS, not (In pro-
hibition) ; neve, neu, vjor; nedam, much less,
n§, lest; neque, nee, nor; n§ . . . quidem, not even,
: non modo . . . verum (sed) etiam, n^t only , , . but also,
n5n modo . . . sed ne , . . quidem, not orUy not ... but not even,
81 minus, if not; qud minus (quominus), so as not,
quin (relative), but that; (interrogative), why not?
ne, nee (in composition), not; so in nesci5, / know not; neg5, I say no (SA6, 1 say
yes) ; negStium, business (tnec-^tium) ; nemd (n§- and hemo, old form of homo),
no one; nS quis, lest any one; neque enim, for , . . not
For the use of Negative Particles, see § 325 ff .
For the Syntax and Peculiar uses of Adverbs, see § 320 ff .
Comparison of Adverbs
'. 218. The Comparative of Adverbs is the neuter accusative of
the comparative of the corresponding adjective ; the Superlative
is the Adverb in -6 formed regularly from the superlative of the
I Adjective : —
180 PABTICLES ^ [§§218-220
oiri, dearly (from cirat, dear) ; eftrius, cArlsiimS.
miflerS (miseriter), vfretchedly (from mlaer, wretched) ; miserins, misenime.
leyiter (from teTis, light) ; leviiis, leviaaimS.
audftcter (aadficiter) (from andftz, bold) ; aadadus, andftclMdmfi.
benS, toell (from bonus, good) ; melius, optimS.
malS, ill (from malut, bad) ; p^us, pesaimS.
a» The following are irregular or defective : —
difi, loTig (in time) ; diHtius, diHtiaaimS.
potius, rather; potiirimnm, ^rrt of all, inpr^erence to aXL
•aepe, often; saepius, oftener, again; saepissime.
Mtis, enough; satiua, preferable,
Mcas, othervoise; sfitius, toorse.
molttim (multo), magia, maxlm9, much, more, moaL
panim, not enough; mlnmi, leas; minimS, leaeL
Bflper, newly; napenliiie.
tempers, eeaaonably; temperius.
NoTB. — In poetry the comparatiye nutge is sometimes nsed instead of nuicia.
PREPOSITIONS
2 19. Prepositions were not originally distingnished from Adverbs in form or mean-
ing, but have become specialized in use. Tiiey developed comparatively late in the
history of language. In the early stages of language development the cases alone
were sufficient to indicate the sense, but, as the force of the case-endings weakened,
adverbs were used for greater precision (cf . § 338) . These adverbs, from their habitual
association with particular cases, became Prepositions ; but many retained also their
independent function as adverbs.
Most prepositions are true case-forms : as, the comparative ablativesextrS, infzt, supift
(for teztexi, finf exi, ftaperfi), and the accusatives circum, coram, cum (cf . § 215 ) . Ciiciter
is an adverbial formation from circom (cf. § 214. b. N.) ; praeter is the comparative of
prae, propter of prope.i Of the remainder, versus is a petrified nominative (participle
of TcrtS) ; adrerstts is a compound of versus ; trins is probably an old present participle
(cf . in-trl>re) ; while the origin of the brief forms ab, ad, dS, ex, ob, is obscure and
doubtful.
220. Prepositions are regularly used either with the Accusa-
tive or with 'the Ablative.
4f* The following prepositions are used with the Accusative : —
* ad, to, drciter, about. intr&, inside,
adversns, againat. cis, citrfl, this side, lilxt&, near,
aAyennm, towards, eontisi, against. ^' oh, on account of ,
^ ante, b^ore. erg&, towards. ^ penes, in the power of*
apod, at, near. extra, outside. per, through,
V citcA, arouiid. faitl, below. p5ne, behiiid,
i 6isDam» around. inter, among, ^ post, <nfier.
1 The case^f onn of these prepositions in -ter is doabtfuL
§§220,221] ' PREPOSITIONS 131
praeter, beyond. secundam, next to. altrA, on the further side,
prope, near, suprH, dbove. versus, towards.
propter, on account of. tr^uis, across.
&• The following prepositions are used with the Ablative : — ^
a, fib, abs, away from, by. e, ex, out of.
absque, without, but for. prae, in comparison with.
coram, in presence of. pro, in front of, for.
cum, with. sine, withord.
de, from. tenus, up to, as far as.
c. The following may be used with either the Accusative or the Abla-
tiTe, but with a difference in meaning : —
in, into, in. sub, under.
subter, beneath. super, above.
In and sub, when followed by the accusative, indicate motion to, when by
tlie ablative, rest in, a place :
v^nit in aedis, he came into the house ; erat in aedibus, he was in the house.
disciplina in Britannia reperta atque inde in Galliam transl9,ta esse exlsti-
mfltur, the system is thought to have been discovered in Ghreat Britain and
thence brought over to Gaul.
sub ilice cOnsSderat, he had seated himself under an ilex.
sub leg§s mittere orbem, to subject the world to laws (to send the world under
laws).
221. The uses of the Prepositions are as follows : —
1. A, ab, away frorrif^ from, off from, with the ablative.
a. Of place : as, — ab urbe profectus est, he set out from the city,
b. Of time : (1) from : as, — ab hora tertia ad vesperam, from the third hour
till evening ; (2) just after : as, — ab eO magistratti, after [holding] that office,
c. Idiomatic uses : a reliquis differunt, they differ from the others; a parvulls,
from early childhood ; prope ab urbe, near (not far from) the city ; liberare ab,
to set free from; occlsus ab hosts (periit ab hoste), slain by an enemy; ab hac
parte, on this side ; ab r6 6ius, to his advantage ; a r6 ptiblica, for the interest of
the state.
2. Ad, to J towards, at, near, with the accusative (cf. in, intoy
a. Of plaee : as, — ad urbem v6nit, he came to the city ; ad meridiem, towards
the south; ad exercitum, to the army ; ad hostem, toward the enemy ; ad urbem,
near the city.
b. Of time : as, — ad nOnam hOram, tUl the ninth horir.
c. With persons : as, — ad eum v6nit, Ae came to him.
1 For palam etc., see § 432.
2 Ab signifies direction /rom the object, but often towards the speaker; compare dS,
down from, and ex, out of.
132 PARTICLES [§ 221
d. Idiomatic uses: ad supplicia dSscendunt, they resort to punishment; ad
haeo respondit, to this he answered; ad tempus, at the [fit] time; adire ad rem
pQblicam, to go into public life; ad petendam pftcem, to seek peace; ad latera,
on the flank; ad arma, to arms; ad hunc modum, in this way ; quern ad modum,
hovo^ as; ad centum, nearly a hundred; ad hOc, besides; omnSs ad fLnam, clU to
a man; ad diem, on the day.
3. Ante, in froivt ofy before, with the accusative (cf . post, after),
a. Of place : as, — ante portam, in front cf the gate; ante exercitum, in advance
of the army.
b. Of time : as, — ante bellum, b^ore the war.
c. Idiomatic uses : ante urbem captam, b^ore the city was taken ; ante diem
quintum (a.d.y.) Eal., the fifth day b^ore the Calends; ante quadriennium, four
years before or ago; ante tempus, too soon (before the time).
4. Apud, at, by, among, with the accusative.
a. Of place (rare and archaic) : as, — apud forum, at the forwn (in the market-
place).
b. With reference to persons or communities : as, — apud Helv3tiOs, amxmg
the Helvetians; apud populum, b^ore the people ; apud aliquem, at one^s house;
apud sS, at hom^ or in his senses; apud CicerOnem, in [the works of] Cicero.
5. Circft, abotU, around, with the accusative (cf. circum, cirdter).
a. Of place : templa circft forum, the temples about the forum; circft s6 habet,
he has with him (of persons).
6. Of time or number (in poetry and later writers) : circ& eandem hOram,
about the sam^e hour; circft IdOs OctObrls, about the fifteenth of October; ciic&
decern milia, about ten thousand.
c. Figuratively (in later writers), about, in regard to (cf. dS) : circ& quern
pUgna est, with regard to to/bm, etc. ; circft deOs neglegentior, raUier neglectful of
(i.e. in worshipping) t?ie gods.
6. Circiter, about, with the accusative.
a. Of time or number : circiter Idtls Novembrls, about the thirteenth cf Novem-
ber; circiter meridiem, about noon.
7. Circum, ahout, around, with the accusative.
a. Of place: circum haec loca, hereabout; circum Capuam, round Capua;
circum ilium, wUh him; I6g&ti0 circum InsulSs missa, an embassy sent to the
islands round about; circum amicus, to his friends round about.
8. Contrft, opposite, against, with the accusative.
contra Italiam, over against Italy ; contrft haec, in answer to this.
a. Often as adverb : as, — haec contrft, this in reply; contrft autem, but w
the other hand; quod contra, whereas, on the other hand.
9. Cum, with, together with, with the ablativa
§ 221] PREPOSITIONS 138
a. Of place: as, — v3de m^cam, go with me; cum omnibus impedlmentb,
yjoith aU [their] baggage.
b. Of time : as, — prima cum luce, ai early datum (with first light).
c. Idiomatic uses: mSgnO cum dolOre, toith great sorrow; commtinic&re ali-
quid cum aliquO, aJiare something with some one; cum mal5 suO, to his won hurt;
c5ixfllgere cum hoste, to fight with the enemy; esse cum tel5, to go armed; cum
silentiO, in silence,
10. D6, down from, from, with the ablative (cf. ab, away from ;
ex, out of).
a. Of place : as, — de caelO d€missus, sent down from heaven ; d6 nftTibus
desUire, to jump down from the ships.
b. figuratively, concerning, about, of:^ as, — cOgnOscit d6 ClOdl caede, lie
learns of the murder of Clodius; cOnsilia d6 bellO, plans of war.
c. In a partitive sense (compare ex), out of, of: as, — unus d6 plebe, one of the
people.
d. Idiomatic uses: multls d6 causis, for many reastms; quft dS caus&, for
which reason; dfi improvise, of a sudden; d6 industria, on purpose; de integrO,
anew ; d6 tertia vigilia, just at midnight (starting at the third watch) ; de mSnse
DecembrI navigare, to sail as early as December.
11. Ex, hffrom (the midst, opposed to in), out of, with the abla-
tive (cf. ab and d6).
a. Of place : as, — ex omnibus partibus silvae €volav6runt, they flew out from
aU parts of the forest; ex Hispania, [a man] from Spain.
b. Of time : as, — ex eO die quintus, the fifth day from that (four days after) ;
ex hoc die, from this day forth.
c. Idiomatically or less exactly : ex cOnsulatG, right after his consulship ;
ex §iu8 sententia, according to his opinion; ex aequO, justly; ex imprOvIsO,
unexpectedly; ex tua re, to your advantage; magna ex parte, in a great degree;
ex equO ptlgnare, to fight on horseback; ex Gstl, expedient; e regiOne, opposite;
quaerere ex aliquO, to ask of some one; ex senatSs cOnsultO, according to the
decree of the senate; ex fuga, in [their] flight (proceeding immediately from it) ;
tUius e fllils, one of the sons.
12. In, with the accusative or the ablative.
1. With the accusative, into (opposed to ex).
a. Of place : as, — in Italiam contendit, he hastens into Italy.
b. Of time, tUl, until: as, — in lucem, till daylight.
c. Idiomatically or less exactly: in meridiem, towards the south; amor in
(erga, ad versus) patrem, love for his father; in aram cOnfugit, he fled to the altar
(on the steps, or merely to) ; in dies, from day to day; in longittidinem, length-
wise; in latitadinem patebat, extended in width; in haec verba iOrare, to swear
to these words ; hunc in modum, in this way ; OratiO in Catillnam, a speech a^/ainst
1 0/ originally meant /rom (cf. off).
134 PARTICLES [§ 221
Catiline; in perpetuum, forever; in p6ius,/or the worse; in diem vivere, to live
from Tiand to mouth (for the day).
2. With the ablative, in, on, among.
In very various connections : as, — in castrls, in the camp (cf. ad castra, to, at,
or near the camp) ; in marl, on the sea; in urbe esse, to be in Union; in tempore,
in season; in 8crlbend5, whUe writing; est mihi in anim5, / have it in mind, I
intend; in ancorls, at anchor; in h5c homine, in the case of this man; in dabid
esse, to he in doubt,
13. Infrft, below, with the accusative.
a. Of place : as, — ad mare Infra, oppidum, by the sea below the town; lufrft
caelum, under the sky,
b. Figuratively or less exactly: as, — Infra Hom6rum, later than Homer;
Infra tr€s pedes', less than three feet; Infra elephantOs, smaXier than elephants;
Infra infimOs omnis, the lowest of the low.
14. Inter, between, among, with the accusative.
inter me et ScIplCnem, between mysdf and Scipio ; inter 68 et ofEam, hetu)een
the cup and the lip (the mouth and the morsel) ; inter hostium tela, amid
the weapons of the enemy ; inter omnis primus, ^rst ofaU; inter biben-
dum, while drinking ; inter sS loquimtur, they talk together,
15. Ob, towards, on account of, with the accusative.
a. Literally : (1) of motion (archaic) : as, — ob ROmam, towards Borne
(Ennius) ; ob viam, to the road (preserved as adverb, in the way of), (2) Of place
in which, brfore, in a few phrases : as, — ob oculOs, before the eyes.
b. Figuratively, in return for (mostly archaic, probably a word of account,
balancing one thing against another) : as, — ob mulierem, in pay for the tooman;
ob rem, for gain. Hence applied to reason, cause, and the like, on account of
(a similar mercantile idea), for : as, — ob eam causam, for that reason; quam ob
rem (quamobrem), wher^ore^ why.
16. Per, through, over, with the accusative.
a. Of motion: as, — per urbem Ire, to go through the cUy; per mtlrGs, over
the walls.
b. Of time : as, — per hiemem, throughout the winter.
c. Figuratively, of persons as means or instruments : as, — per homines idO-
neOs, through the instrumentality of suitable persons ; licet per me, you (etc.) may
for all me. Hence, stat per me, it is through my instrumentality ; so, per se, in
and of itself,
d. Weakened, in many adverbial expressions : as, — per locum, in Jest; per
speciem, in shoWy ostentatioudy,
17. Prae, in front of with the ahjative.
a. Literally, of place (in a few connections) : as, — prae s6 portare, to carry
in one'^s arms ; prae se ferre, to carry b^ore one^ (hence figuratively) exhUHt, pro-
claim osterdatiously^ make known*
i 221] PREPOSITIONS 135
6. Eigoratiyely, of hindrance, as by an obstacle in front (compare English
for) : as, — prae gaudi5 conticuit, lie was silent for joy,
c. Of comparison : as, — prae mSgnitudine corporum suOrum, in comparison
jovth their ovm great size,
18. Praeter, along hy^ by, with the accusative.
a. Literally : as, — praeter castra, by the camp (along by, in front of) ; praeter
[>calos, b^ore the eyes.
b. Figuratively, beyond^ besides, more than, in addition to, except : as, — praeter
spem, beyond hope; praeter aliOs, m>ore than others; praeter paucOs, wiJth the
exception of a few.
19. PrO, in front ofj with the ablative.
sedans prO aede Castoris, sitting in front of the temple of CaMor ; prO populO,
in presence of the people. So pr5 rostris, on [the front of] the rostra ;
pro conti5ne, before the assembly (in a speech).
a. In various idiomatic uses: prO lege, in defence of the law; prO vituld*,
instead of a heifer; pr5 centum milibus, 08 good as a hundred thousand; prO
rat^ parte, in due proportion ; prO hac vice, for this once ; prO c5nsule, in place
of consul; prO viribus, considering his strength; prO virili parte, to the best of
one's ability; prO tu^ prudentia, in accordance with your wisdom.
20. Propter, near, by, with the accusative.
propter tfi sedet, he sits next you. Hence, on account of (cf. aU along of) :
as, — propter me turn, through Jear.
21. Secundum/ ^*i^5^ behind, following, with the accusative.
a. Literally: as, — Ite secundum me (Plaut.), go behind me; secundum litus,
near the shore; secundum flflmen, along the stream (cf. secundS fliimine, down
stream).
b. Figuratively, according to: as, — secundum n9,tiiram, according to nature.
22. Sub, under, up to, with the accusative or the ablative.
1. Of motion, with the accusative : as, — sub montem succSdere, to come close
to the hill.
a. Idiomatically: sub noctem, towards night ; sub Iticem, near daylight ; sub
haec dicta, at (following) these words.
2. Of rest, with the ablative : as, — sub love, in the open air (under the heaven,
personified as Jove) ; sub monte, at the foot of the hill.
a. Idiomatically : sub eOdem tempore, about the same time (just after it).
23. Subter, under, below, with the accusative (sometimes, in poetry,
the ablative).
subter togam (Liv.), under his mantle; but, — subter lltore (Catull.), below
the shore.
84. Super,' with the accusative or the ablative.
1 Old participle of sequor. s Comparative of sub.
136 PAKTICLES [§ 221
1. With the accnsatiTe, above, over, on, beyond, upon,
a. Of place : super vftllum praecipitftrl (lug. 68), to be hurled over the ram-
part; super laterfis coria indUcuntur (B.C. ii. 10), hides are drawn over the bricks;
super terrae tumulum statui (Legg. ii. 65), to 6e placed on the mound of earth;
super Numidiam (lug. 19), beyond Numidia,
b. Idiomatically or less exactly: vulnus super vulnus, wound upon wound;
super vlnum (Q. C. viii. 4), over his wine,
2. With the ablative, concerning, about (the only use with this case in
prose).
hflc super rfi, concerning this thing; super UllI re, about such an qffdir; lit-
terfis 8ui)er tantft r6 exspectftre, to wait for a letter in a matter of such
importance,
a. Poetically, in other senses : llgna super focO large rep5n6ns (Hor. Od. i.
9. 6), piling logs generously on the fire; nocte super medift (Aen. iz. 61), after
midnight.
25. Supri, on top of, above, with the accusative.
suprft terrain, on the surface of the earth. So also figuratively : as, — supr§
hanc memoriam, before our remembrance; suprft m6rem, more than
usual; suprft quod, besides,
26. TenuB (postpositive), as far as, up to, regularly with the abla-
tive, sometimes with the genitive (cf. § 359. h),
1. With the ablative : TaurO tenus, oAfar as Taurus; capulO tenus, uptoth^
hiU,
2. With the genitive : Cumftrum tenus (Fam. viii. 1. 2), as far as Cumae.
NoTB 1. — Tenus is frequently connected with the feminine of an adjective prononn,
making an adverbial phrase: as, hftctenus, hitherto; qofttenus, so far as; dS hac re
hftctenus, so much for that (about this matter so far):
NoTS 2. — Tenus was originaUy a neuter noun, meaning line or extent. In its use
with the genitive (mostly poetical) it may be regarded as an adverbial accusatire
(§387. a).
27. Trans, across, over, through, by, with the accusative.
a. Of motion: as, — trftns mare currunt, they run across the sea; trftns flu-
men f erre, to carry over a river ; trftns aethera, through the sky ; trftns caput lace,
throw over your head.
b. Of rest : as, — trftns RhQnum incolunt, they live across the Rhine.
28. Ultrft, beyond (on the further side), with the accusative.
cis Padum ultrftque, on tAis side of the Po and beyond; ultrft eum numerum,
more than thai number; ultrft fidem, incredUfle; ultrft modum, immod-
erale,
NoTK. — Some adverbs appear as prepositions: as, intas, insaper (see § 219).
For Prepositions in Compounds, see § 267.
§§ 222-224] CONJUNCTIONS 187
CONJUNCTIONS
222. Conjunctions, like prepositions (cf . § 219) , aie closely related to adyerbs, and
are either petrified cases of nouns, pronouns, and adjectives, or obscured phrases: as,
qiuod, an old accusative ; dtun, probably an old accusative (cf . torn, cam) ; v6r5, an old
neuter ablative of vSms; nlldlominus, wyM the leas; proinde, lit. /onoard/rom there.
Mpst conjunctions are connected with pnynrnnintd adverbs, which cannot always be re-
ferred to their original case-forms.
; 223. Conjunctions connect words, phrases, or sentences. They
are of two classes, Coordinate and Subordinate : —
a. Codrdinate, connecting coordinate or similar constructions (see § 278.
2. a). These are: —
1. Copulative or disjunctive, implying a eormecUcm or aeparation of thought
"as well as of words: as, et, and; ant, or; neque, Tior,
2. Adversative, implying a connection of words, but a contrast in thought :
as, sed, but.
8. Causal, introducing a cause or reason : as, nam, for.
4. niative, denoting an inference : as, igitor, therefore,
b* Subordinate, connecting a subordinate or independent clause with
that on which it depends (see § 278. 2. b). These are : —
1. Conditional, denoting a condition or hypothesis : as, si, if; nisi, unleas.
2. Comparative, implying comparison as well as condition : as, ac si, 08 (A
3. Concessive, denoting a concesrion or admission : as, quamqoam, although
(lit. liowever much it may be true that, etc.).
4. Temporal: as, postquam, c^fter,
5. Consecutive, expressing result : as, at, so th/it.
6. Final, expressing purpose : as, at, in order that; nS, that not.
7. Causal, expressing cause : as, quia, because.
224. Conjunctions are more numerous and more accurately
distinguish^ in Latin than in English. The following list
includes the common conjunctions * and conjunctive phrases : —
COORDINATB
a. Copulatiye and Disjunctive
et, -qoe, atqae (ac), and.
et . . . et j et . . . -qae (atqae); -^ae . . . et ; -qae . . . -qoe (poetical), both , . . and.
etiam, qaoqae, neqae n5n (necadn), qain etiam, itidem (item), also.
cam . . . tarn ; tarn . . . tarn, both . . . and; not only . . . but also.
1 Some of these have been included in the classification of adverbs. See also list
of Correlatives, § 152.
138 PARTICLES [§ 2211
qnft . . . qnft, on the one hand , , , onthe other hand.
modo . . . modo, novo . . . now.
ant . . . ant; tcI . . . yel (-ve), either . . . or.
siTe (sen) . . . sive, whether . . . or.
nee (neqae) . . . nee (neque); neqae . . . nee ; nee . . . neqae (rare), neither . . . nor,
et . . . neqae, both . . . and not.
nee . . . et ; nee (neqae) . . . -qne, neither {both not) . . . and.
b. Adyersative
•ed, antem, yfiram, ySrS, at, atqai, but.
tamen, attamen, sed tamen, yemm tamen, but yet, nevertheless.
nihilominas, none the less.
at yer5, but in truth; enimvSrd, for in truth.
ceteram, on the other hxvnd, but.
c. Causal
nam, namqae, enim, etenim, for.
qnapropter, qaard, qaamobrem, qaocirca, ande, wher^ore^ whence.
d. niative
erg5, igitar, itaqae, ide5, idcireS, inde, proinde, ther^ore^ accordingly.
Subordinate
a* Conditional
•I, if; am, but if; nisi (ni), unless, if not; qaod si, but if.
modo, dam, dammodo, si modo, if ordy, provided.
dammodo nS (dam n§, modo ne), provided ordy not.
b. Compaxative
at, atl, 8icat,iu^ as; yelat, as, so as; proat, piaeat, cea, like oa, according as.
tamqaam (tanqaam), qaasi, at si, ac si, yelat, yelati, yelat si, as if.
qaam, atqae (ac), as, than.
c. Concessive
etsi, etlamsl, tametsi, even if; qaamqaam (qaanqaam), although.
quamyis, qaantamyis, qaamlibet, quantamlibet, howeoer much.
licet (properly a yerb), at, cam (quom), though, suppose, wliereas.
d. Temporal
cam (qnom), qoandS, when; abi, at, when, as; cam pxlmum, at pifmom, ubi pxlmnoii
simal, timal ac, simal atqae, as soon as; postquam (poste&qaam), after.
priat . . . qaam, ante . . . qaam, b^ore; n5n ante . . . qaam, not . . . until.
dam, (Isqae dam, d5nec, qaoad, until, as long as, while.
§ 224-226] INTERJECTIONS 139
e* Consecative and Final
Lt (uti), qtt5, 80 that, in order that.
le, at ng, lest (that . . . not, in order thxxt not) ; nSve (neu), thaJt noi, rwr,
|um (after negatives), qaominus, bid that (so as to prevent), that not
/• Causal
luia, quod, quoniam (tquom-iam), qttand5, because.
zvLTH (qaom), since,
quanddqttidem, si quidem, quippe, ut pote, since indeed, inasmiu^ as.
propterea . . . quod, for this reason . . . that.
On the use of Gonjanctions, see §§ 323, 321.
INTERJECTIONS
225. Some Interjections are mere nataral exclamations of feeling; others are
derived from inflected parts of speech, e.g. the imperatives em, lo (probably for erne,
take) ; age, come, etc. Names of deities occur in herclS, pel (from PoUux), etc. Many
Latin interjections are borrowed from the Greek, as cage, euhoe, etc.
226. The following list comprises most of the iDterjections in
common use : —
5, §n, ecce, ehem, papae, vih (of astonishment).
io, Svae, fivoe, euhoe (of joy).
heu, Iheu, vae, alas (of sorrow).
heus, eho, ehodum, Ao (of calling) ; at, hist.
eia, euge (of praise).
pro (of attestation) : as, pro pndor, sJiame I
140 FORMATION OF WORDS [§§ 227-230
FORMATION OF WORDS
227. All formation of words is originally a process of composition. An element
significant in itself is added to another significant element, and thus the meaning of
the two is combined. No other combination is possible for the formation either of
inflections or, of stems. Thus, in fact, words (since roots and stems are significant
elements, and so words) are first placed side by side, then brought under one accent,
and finally felt as one word. The gradual process is seen in sea voyage, seor-nymph,
seaside. But as all derivation, properly so called, appears as a combination of nnin-
fleeted stems, every type of formation in use must antedate inflection. Hence words
were not in strictness derived either from nouns or from verbs, but from stems which
were neither, because they were in fact both ; for the distinction between nonn-stems
and verb-stems had not yet been made.
After the development of Inflection, however, that one of sevei*al kindred words
which seemed the simplest was regarded as the primitive form, and from this the other
words of the group were thought to be derived. Such supposed processes of formation
were then imitated, often erroneously, and in this way new modes of derivation arose.
Thus new adjectives were formed from nouns, new nouns from adjectives, new adjec-
tives from verbs, and new verbs from adjectives and nouns.
In course of time the real or apparent relations of many words became confused,
so that nouns and adjectives once supposed to come from nouns were often assigned
to verbs, and others once supposed to come from verbs were assigned to nouns.
Further, since the language was constantly changing, many words went oat of use,
and do not occur in the literature as we have it. Thus many Derivatives survive of
which the Primitive is lost.
Finally, since all conscious word-formation is imitative, intermediate steps in deriva-
tion were sometimes omitted, and occasionally apparent Derivatives occur for which
no proper Primitive ever existed.
ROOTS AND STEMS
228. Roots ^ are of two kinds : —
1. Verhcdf expressing ideas of action or condition (sensible phenomena).
2. Pronominal^ expressing ideas of position and direction.
From verbal roots come all parts of speech except pronouns and certain
particles derived from pronominal roots.
229. Stems are either identical with roots or derived from them.
They are of two classes: (1) Noun-stems (including Adjective-
stems) and (2) Verb-stems.
NoTB. — Noun-stems and verb-stems were not originally different (see p. 163), and
in the consciousness of the Romans were often confounded ; but in general they were
treated as distinct.
230. Words are formed by inflection : (1) from roots inflected
as stems ; (2) from derived stems (see § 232).
1 For the distinction between Roots and Stems, see §§ 24, 25.
§§231-233] PRIMARY SUFFIXES 141
231. A root used as a stem may appear —
a. With a short vowel : as, due-is (dux), dug ; nec-is (nez); i-s, i-d. So
in verbs; as, es-t, fer-t (cf. § 174. 2).
hm With a long vowel ^ : as, luc-is (lux), luc ; pac-is (pax). So in verbs:
duc-o, i-8 for f eis, from e5, ire ; fatur from fari.
c. With reduplication : as, fur-fur, mar-mor, mur-mur. So in verbs : as,
gi-gno (root gen), si-stO (root sta).
DERIVED STEMS AND SUFFIXES
232. Derived Stems are formed from roots or from other stems
by means of mffixea. These are : —
1. Primary : added to the root, or (in later times by analogy) to verb-
stems.
2. Secondary : added to a noun-stem or an adjective-stem.
Both primary and secondary suffixes are for the jnost part pronominal
roots (§ 228. 2), but a few are of doubtful origin.
NoTB 1. — The distinction between primary and secondary suffixes, not being orig-
inal (see § 227), is continually lost sight of in the development of a language. Suffixes
once primary are used as secondary, and those once secondary are used as primary.
Thus in hosticus (hosti + cus) the suffix -^us, originally ko- (see § 234. II. 12) primary, as
in pauctts, has become secondary, and is thus regularly used to form derivatives; but
in padlctts, apricus, it is treated as primary again, because these words were really or
apparently connected with verbs. So in English -able was borrowed as a primary
suffix (tolerable f eatable) f but also makes forms like clubbable^ salable; some is prop-
erly a secondary suffix, as in toilsome^ lonesome, but makes also such words as meddle^
som^f venturesome.
NoTB 2. — It is the stem of the word, not the nominative, that is formed by the
derivative suffix. For convenience, however, the nominative will usually be given.
Primary Suffixes
233. The words in Latin formed immediately from the root by
means of Primary Suffixes, are few. For —
1. Inherited words so formed were mostly further developed by the
addition of other suffixes, as we might make an adjective lone^y-some-ish,
meaning nothing more than lone, lonely, or lonesome.
2. By such accumulation of suffixes, new compound suffixes were formed
which crowded out even the old types of derivation. Thus, —
1 The difference in vowel-quantity in the same root (as d5c) depends on inherited
variations (see § 17. a).
142 FORMATION OF WORDS [§§ 233, 234
A word like mSiis, mentis, by the suffix 5n- (nom. -5), gave mentid, and this,
being divided into men + ti5, gave rise to a new type of abstract noons in -tid:
as, l€g&-ti5, embassy.
A word like auditor, by the suffix io- (nom. -ius), gave rise to adjectives like
anditor-ius, of which the neuter (auditdrium) is used to denote the place where
the action of the verb is performed. Hence toria- (nom. -tdrium), n., becomes a
regular noun-suffix (§ 250. a).
So in English such a word as suffocation gives a suffix -ationi and with this is
made starvation, though there is no such word as starvate.
234. Examples of primary stem-suffixes are : —
I. Vowel suffixes : —
1. 0- (m., N.), ft- (p.), found in nouns and adjectives of the first two declen-
sions : as, sonns, ladus, vagus, toga (root teg).
2. i-, as in ovis, avis ; in Latin frequently changed, as in rupes, or lost, as in
scobs (scobis, root scab).
3. a-, disguised in most adjectives by an additional i, as in suft-vis (for tsuad-
vis, instead of fsuft-dus, cf. vd^), ten-uis (root ten in tendo), and remaining alone
only in nouns of the fourth declension, as acus (root ak, sharp, in ftcer, acies,
wKf^s), peca, genfi.
n. Suffixes with a consonant : —
1. to- (m., n.), ta- (f.), in the regular perfect passive participle, as tCctos,
tectum ; sometimes with an active sense, as in potus, pransus ; and found in a
few words not recognized as participles, as pGtus (cf. purus), altus (alo).
2. ti- in abstracts and rarely in nouns of agency, as messis, vestis, pars,
mSns. But in many the i is lost.
3. tu- in abstracts (including supines), sometimes becoming concretes, as
ftctus, luctus.
4. no- (m., N.), nft- (p.), forming perfect participles in other languages, and in
Latin making adjectives of like participial meaning, which often become nouns,
as magnus, planus, rSgnum.
6. ni-, in nouns of agency and adjectives, as ignis, sSgnis.
6. nu-, rare, as in manus, pinus, comu.
7. mo- (mfi-), with various meanings, as in animus, almus, firmus, forma.
8. vo- (va-) (commonly uo-, ua-), with an active or passive meaning, as in
equns (equos), arvum, cdnspicuus, eziguus, vacivus (vacuus).
9. ro- (rft-), as in ager (stem ag-ro-), integer (cf. intactus), sacer, plSii-qoe (cf.
plSnus, pletus).
10. lo- (Ifi-), as in caelum (for tcaed-lum), chisd^ ezemplum, seUa (for tsedla).
II. yo- (yft-), forming gerundives in other languages, and in Latin making
adjectives and abstracts, including many of the first and fifth declensions, as
ezimius, audftcia, Fldrentia, pemiciSs.
12. ko- (kft-)« sometimes primary, as in paud (cf. raOpot), locus (for atlocus).
In many cases the vowel of this termination is lost, leaving a consonant stem:
as, apex, cortex, loquftz.
|§ 234-236] DERIVATION OF NOUNS 143
13. en- (on-, 9n-, 5n-), in nouns of agency and abstracts : as, aspergS, compftgd
^-Inis), gero (-onis).
14. men-, expressing means, often passing into the action itself: as, agmen,
a.u.znen, fulmen.
15. ter- (tor-, tSr-, t5r-, tr-), forming nouns of agency : as, pater (i.e. protector),
frater (i.e. supporter), 5r&tor.
16. tro-, forming nouns of means: as, claastrum (claud), mfilctnun (mulo).
17. es- (o8-), forming names of actions, passing into concretes: as, genus
(generis), tempus (see § 15. 4). The infinitive in -ere (as in reg-ere) is a locative of
tlxis stem (-er-e for t-«s-i).
18. nt- (ont-, ent-), forming present active participles : as, legSns, with some
adjectives from roots unknown : as, frequSns, recens.
The above, with some suffixes given below, belong to the Indo-European
parent speech, and most of them were not felt as living formations in the
Latin.
Significant Endings
235. Both primary and secondary suiBxes, especially in the
form of compound suffixes, were used in Latin with more or less
consciousness of their meaning. They may therefore be called
Significant Endings.
They form : (1) Nouns of Agency ; (2) Abstract Nouns (in-
cluding Names of Actions) ; (3) Adjectives (active or passive).
NoTB. — There is really no difference in etymology between an adjective and a
noun, except that some formations are habitually used as adjectives and others as
nouns (§ 20. 6. n. 2).
DERIVATION OP NOUNS
Nouns of Agency
236. Nouns of Agency properly denote the off ent or doer of an
action. But they include many words in which the idea of agency
has entirely faded out, and also many words used as adjectives.
a» Nouns denoting the agent or doer of an action are formed from roots
or verb-stems by means of the suffixes —
-tor (-sor), M. ; -triz, P.
can-tor, can-tr!z, singer; can-ere (root can), to sing.
vic-tor, vic-trix, con>queror (victorioiLs) ; vinc-ere (vie), to conquer.
t5n-8or (for ttond-tor), tons-trix (for
ttond-trix), hair-cutter; tond-Cre (tond as root), to shear.
peti-tor, candidate; pet-Sre (pet; peti- as stem), to seek.
144 FORMATION OF WORDS [§§ 236-238
By analogy -tor is sometimes added to noun-stems, but these may be stems
of lost verbs : as, via-tor, traveller, from via, way (but cf. the verb inyio).
NoTB 1. — The termination -tor (-sor) has the same phonetic change as the supine
ending -tum (-sum), and is added to the same form of root or verh-stem as that ending.
The stem-ending is tor- (§234. II. 15), which is shortened in the nominative.
Note 2. — The feminine form is always -trix. Masculines in -sor lack the feminine,
except expttlsor (expultrix) and tonsor (tonstziz).
b» t-, M. or F., added to verb-stems makes nouns in -es (-itis, -etis ; stem
it-, et-) descriptive of a character : —
prae-stes, -stitis, (verb-stem from root sta, stare, stand), guardian.
teges, -etis (verb-stem tege-, cf. tego, cover), a coverer, a mat.
pedes, -itis (pes, ped-is, foot, and i, root of ire, go), foot-soldier.
c. -5 (genitive -onis, stem on-), m., added to verb-stems^ indicates a person
employed in some specific art or trade : —
com-bibo (bib as root in bib5, bibere, drink), a pot-companion.
gero, -onis (ges in gero, gerere, carry), a carrier.
Note. — This termination is also used to form many nouns descriptive of personal
characteristics (cf. §255).
Names of Actions and Abstract Nouns
237. Names of Actions are confused, through their termina-
tions, with real abstract nouns (names of qualities)., and with con-
crete nouns denoting means and instrument.
They are also used to express the concrete result of an action
(as often in English).
Thus legio is literally the act of collecting, but comes to mean legion (the body
of soldiers collected) ; cf. levy in English.
238. Abstract Nouns and Names of Actions are formed from
roots and verb-stems by means of the endings —
a* Added to roots or forms conceived as roots —
NoM. -or, M. -6s, F. -us, N.
Gen. -5ris -is -eris or -oris
Stem 6r- (earlier 6s-) i- er- (earlier «/o»-)
tim-or, /car; timere, to fear.
am-or, love ; amire, to love.
sed-es, seat ; sedere, to ait.
caed-Ss, slaughter; caedere, to kill.
genus, birth, race; gen, to be bom (root of giguS, bear).
1 So conceived, but perhaps this termination was originally added to noun-stems.
r§ 288, 239] NAMES OF ACTIONS AND ABSTRACT NOUNS 145
NoTB. — Many nouns of this class are formed by analogy from imaginary roots:
ks facinas from a supposed root facin.
bm Apparently added to roots or verbHstems —
N'OM. -16, p. -tl6 (-sl6), F. -tiira (-silra), f. -tu»; m.
Gr£N. -i5ni8 -ti5nis (-siSnis) -t&rae (-silrae) -tils (-sua)
Stem i6n- ti5n-(sl5n-) tfira- (silra-) tu-(8U-)
leg-io, a collecting {levy), a legion; legere, to collect.
reg-io, a direction, a region; regere, to direct,
voc&-tio, a caUing ; vocftre, to caU,
moli-ti5, a toiling ; mdliri, to toU.
' scrip-tura, a vrriting ; scribere, to write,
sen-sus (for ^atut-tvis), feeling ; sentire, to feel,
NoTB 1. — ^ti5, -tara, -tus are added to roots or verb-stems precisely as -tor, with the
same phonetic change (cf . § 236. a. n. i). Hence they are conveniently associated with
the supine stem (see § 178). They sometimes form nouns when there is no correspond-
ing verb in use : as, senatus, senate (cf . senex) ; menti5, mention (cf . mSns) ; fStora, off-
spring (cf.fStas); litteratura, literature {ct. litterae); consalatus, consulship (cf. cSnsul).
NoTiE 2. — Of these endings, -tus was originally primary (cf . § 234. II. 3.) ; -15 is a com-
pound formed by adding on- to a stem ending in a vowel (originally i) : as, diciS (cf .
-dicus and dicis) ; -tio is a compound formed by adding 5n- to stems in Id-: as, gradatiS
(cf . gxad&tim) ; -tura is formed by adding -ra, feminine of -rus, to stems in ta- : as,
natura from nfttus ; statura from status (cf . flgura, of like meaning, from a simple u-
stem, ffigtt-s; and maturus, Matuta).
239. Nouns denoting acts^ or means and results of acts, are
formed from roots or verb-stems by the use of the suffixes —
-men, n.; -mentum, n.; -m5nlum, n. ; -m5nia, f.
ag-men, line of march, hand ; ag, root of agere, to lead,
cert&-men, contest, battle; certl-, stem of cert&re, to contend.
So colu-men, pillar ; m5-men, movement ; no-men, nam^ ; flir-men, stream,
testi-^ndniom, testimony ; test&ri, to witness,
queri-mdnia, complaint; qneri, to complain,
-mdnium and -m5nla are also nsed as secondary, forming nouns from other
nouns and from adjectives : as, sancti-mSnia, sanctity (sanctus, holy) ; matri-
mOnimn, marriage (mater, mother).
Note. — Of these endings, -men is primary (cf . § 234. II. 14) ; -mention is a compound
of men- and to-, and appears for the most part later in the language than -men: as,
mSmen, movement (Lucr.) ; momentum (later). So elementum is a development from
L-H-N-a, l'mrn*s (letters of the alphabet), changed to elementa along with other nouns
in -men. -mSnium and -monia were originally compound secondary suffixes formed
from mdn- (a by-form of men-), which was early associated with mo-. Thus almus
146 FORMATION OF WORDS [§§289,241
(stem alm.O')f fostering ; AlmOn, a river near Rome; alimonia, support. But the last
was formed directly from aid when -monia had become established as a supposed
primary suffix.
240. Nouns denoting means or instrument are formed from roots
and ver1>stems (rarely from noun-stems) by means of the neuter
suffixes —
-bulum, -culuxu, -brum, -crum, -truxn
pft-bulum, fodder ; pascere, to feed.
8ta-bulum, staU ; stare, to stand,
vehi-culom, wagon ; vehere, to carry.
cand§la-brum, candlestick ; candela, ca ndle (a secondary formation).
sepul-crum, tomb ; sepelure, to bury.
claus-trum (tclaud-trum), bar ; claudere, to shut.
ara-trum, plough; arare, to plough.
Note. — ^trum (stem tro-) was an old formation from tor- (§234. II. 16), with the
stem sufi&x o-, and -clum (stem clo- for tlo-) appears to be related ; -Cttlom is the same
as -clttm ; -bulum contains lo- (§ 234. II. 9, 10) and -brum is closely related.
a» A few masculines and f eminines of the same formation occur as nouns
and adjectives : —
fft-bula, tale ; fflrl, to speak,
ridi-colus, laughable; ridere, to laugh,
fa-ber, smith; facere, to m/ike.
late-bra, hiding-place; latSre, to hide,
tere-bra, aitgrer ; terere, to bore.
mulc-tra, milk-pail ; mulgSre, to milk.
241. Abstract Nouns, mostly from adjective-stems, rarely from
noun-stems, are formed by means of the secondary feminine suf-
fixes —
-la (-i§s), -tia (-tiSs), -t5s, -tus, -tiid5
audSc-ia, boldness; audax, bold,
paupei-ies, poverty ; pauper, poor.
tiisti-tia, sadness; tristis, sad.
segni-ties, laziness; segnis, lazy.
boni-tas, goodness; bonus, good,
senec-tus, ape; senex, old.
magni-tud5, greatness; magnus, great
1. In stems ending in o- or S- the stem-vowel is lost before -ia (as superb-ia)
and appears as i before -tas, -tus, -tia (as in boni-tas, above).
2. Consonant stems often insert i before -tas : as, loqiiaz (stem loqnac-),
loqu&ci-tas ; but hones-tas, m&ies-tas (as if from bid adjectives in -es), iiber-tas,
volup-tas. after i is changed to e : as, pius (stem pio-), pie-tas ; socius, sode-tas.
8 241]
NEUTEK ABSTRACTS
147
€i0 In like maimer -49 and -g5 (f.) form abstract nouns, but are asso-
ciated with verbs and apparently added to verb-stems : —
cupi-d9, desire, from cupere, to desire (as if from stem cupl-).
dttlcS-d5, sweetness (cf. dulds, sweet), as if from a stem dolc^, of. dolciHicd.
Iiunbft-g5, lurnbago (cf. lumbus, loin), as if from tlumbd, -ire.
NoTB. — Of these, -ia is inherited as secondary (cf. § 234. II. 11). -tia is formed by
adding -ia to stems with a t-suffix : as, militia, from nules (stem milit-) ; molestia
from molestus ; dementia from dSmSns ; whence by analogy, mali-tia, ay&ri-tia. -tia
is inherited, but its component parts, ta- + ti-, are found as suffixes in the same sense :
as, senecta from senex ; sSmen-tis from sSmen. -tfis is tii- + ti-, cf . serritfl-dS. -d9 and
-eo appear only with long vowels, as from verb-stems, by a false analogy; but -d9 is
do--i-5n-: as, cnpidiis, cnpidS; giayidus, grayCdo (cf. gnye-«c9); albidus, albMS (cf. al-
bSacd) ; formidas, hot, formidS (cf. fonnidiildsus), (?iot flash f) fear; -gS is possibly oo-+
5n- ; cf. Torix, TorAgS, but cf . CethSgas. -tadS is compounded of -d9 with tii-stems,
-which acquire a long vowel from association with verb-stems in u- (cf . yolfimen, from
▼o1t5) : as, c5nsafta-d9, valfitfi-dS, habitu-dS, soUicitfi-dS ; whence senrltfidS (cf. serritus,
-tutis).
&• Neuter Abstracts, which easily pass into concretes denoting offices
and groups, are formed from noun-stems and perhaps from verb-stems by
means of the suffixes —
-ium, -tium
hoBpit-ium, hospitality, an inn ; ^
coUSg-ium, coUeagueship, a college ;
auspic-iom, soothsaying, an omen;
gaud-iom, Joy ;
eifug-iom, escape;
benefic-ium, a kindness ;
desider-ium, longing;
adyerb-iom, adverb;
interlfln-ium, time of new moon ;
rSgifng-ium, fligM of the kings ;
•ervi-tiam, slavery, the slave class;
hospes (gen. hospit-is), a guest,
coUega, a colleague,
auspex (gen. auspic-is), a soothsayer,
gaudere, to rejoice,
effngere, to escape,
benefacere, to benefit ; cf . beneficns.
denderAre, to miss, from tdS-sidSs, out
of place, of missing soldiers,
ad verbum, [added] to a verb.
inter IQnfts, between moons.
rSgis fuga, flight of a king.
servns, a dave.
Yowel stems lose their vowel before -iom : as, collSg-iam, from collSga.
NoTB. — ^iom is the neuter of the adjective suffix -las. It is an inherited primary
suffix, but is used with great freedom as secondary, -tium is formed like -tia, by add-
ing -ium to stems with t: as, exit-iom, eqult-ium (cf. exitus, equitSs) ; so, by analogy,
calvitium, seryitium (from calvus, seiyns).
ۥ Less commonly, abstract nouns (which usually become concrete) are
formed from noun-stems (confused with verb-stems) by means ol the
suffixes —
1 The abstract meaning is put first.
148 ^ FORMATION OF WORDS [§§241-243
-nla, F. ; -nluixi) -liuiU) -cinium, K.
pecfl-nUi money (cliaUels) ; peed, caiMe.
contici-iiium, ths hush of night ; conticSscere, to become stiU,
auxi-Uam, help ; augSre, to increase.
Utro-dniom, robbery; latrd, . ro6&er (cf. latrocinor, rob, im-
plying an adjective tlatrodnas).
For Diminutives and Patronymics, see §§ 243, 244.
DERIVATION OF ADJECTIVES
242. Derivative Adjectives, which often become nouns, are
either Nominal (from nouns or adjectives) or Verbal (as from roots
or verb-stems).
Nominal Adjectives
243. Diminutive Adjectives are usually confined to one gen-
der, that of the primitive, and are used as Diminutive Nouns.
They are formed by means of the suffixes-
-uluB (-a, -um), -oluB (after a vowel), -cuius, -ellus, -illus
xiy-ulus, a streamlet; rlvus, a brook,
gladi-olus, a small sword; gladius, a sword,
fHi-olas, a little son ; filius, a son.
fHi-ola, a little daughter ; filia, a daughter,
Stri-oliim, a littXe hall; atrium, a haU.
homun-culUG, a dwarf; homo, a man.
auii-cola, a little ear ; auris, an ear,
milnas-culam, a little gift; mflnas, n., a gift,
codic-illi, wrUing4aJblets ; codex, a block.
mis-elluG, rather wretched; miser, wretched.
Iib-ellu8, a little book ; liber, a book,
aure-olns (-a, -um), golden; aureus (-a, -um), golden,
parv-olus (later parv-ulus), very small; parvus (-a, -um), little.
maius-culus, somewhat larger; maior (old maios), greater.
NoTB 1. — These diminutive endings are all formed by adding -las to various stems.
The formation is the same as that of -ulus in § 251. But these words became set-
tled as diminutives, and retained their connection with nouns. So in English the
diminutives whitishf reddish, are of the same formation as bookish and snappish.
-cnltts comes from -las added to adjectives in -cub formed from stems in n- and s-: as,
iaven-cas, Aaran-cas (cf. Aorancal^ias), pris-cus, whence the ca becomes a part of the
termination, and the whole ending (-calas) is used elsewhere, but mostly with n- ands-
stems, in accordance with its origin. *
NoTB 2. — Diminutives are often used to express affection, pity, or contempt: as,
dSliciolae, little pet,- maliercala, a poor (weak) woman; Graecalus, a miserable Greek.
§ 243-246] NOMINAL ADJECTIVES 149
• -cid, added to stems in n-, has the same diminutive force, but is used
/i-tli masculines only : as, homun-cid, a dwarf (from homS, a man),
1244. Patronymics, indicating descent or relationship^ are formed
yy adding to proper names the suffixes —
•adCs, -ides, -IdCs, -eus, m. ; -&b, -is, -Sis, f.
These words, originally Greek adjectives, have almost all become nouns
XI IL^atin: —
Atlas: Atlanti-ades, Mercury ; Atlant-idSs (Gr. plar.), the Pleiads.
Sapio : Scipi-ades, son of Scipio,
Tyndareus: Tyndar-ides, Castor or PoUvx, son of Tyndarus; Tyndar-is,
B.elen^ daughter of Tyndarus.
Anchises : Anchisi-ades, ^neas^ son of AncMses,
ThSseus : Thes-ides, son of Theseus.
Tydeas : T^d-ides, Diomedes, son of Tydeus.
OHeus : Aiiz Oil-eas, son of Oileus.
CisseuG : Cisse-is, Hecuba^ daughter of Cisseus.
Thaom&s : Thaumant-ias, Im, daughter of Thaumas.
Hespems : Hesper-ides (from Hespei-is, -idis), plur. , the daughters of Hesperus^
the Hesperides.
9
245. Adjectives meaning/wH of^ prone to^ are formed from noun-
stems with the suffixes —
-osus, -lens, -lentus
flucttt-dsuG, billowy ; fluctas, a hUlow.
form-5sa6, beautiful; forma, beauty.
peticnl-osas, dangerous; pericalom, danger.
peati-lens, pesti-lentus, pestilent ; pestis, pest.
vino-lentus, yin-osas, given to drink; vinum, wine.
246. Adjectives meaning provided with are formed from nouns
hy means of the regular participial endings —
-tus, -&tus, -Itus, -fitus
fdnes-tus, deadly ; fdnus (st. faner-, older ffin%8-), death.
hones-tus, honorable; honor, honor.
faus-tus (for tfaves-tus), favorable ; favor, favor.
barb-atus, bearded ; barba, a beard.
tarr-itas, turreted ; turrls, a tower.
com-fltus, fiorned ; comfl, a hmn.
NoTB. — -^Ittts, -itus, -fitus, imply reference to an imaginary verb-stem ; -tus is added
directly to nonns without any such reference.
160 FORMATION OF WORDS [§§ 247-24U
S47. Adjectives of various meanings, bat signifying in gen-
eral made of or belonging to^ are formed from nouns by means of
the suffixes —
-ens, -ins, -Aoens, -lotus, -ftneus (-nens), -tious
aor-eaa, golden; anrom, gold.
patr-ios, jMx^emoZ; pater, a /o^Aer.
nzdr-iua, vzoriofiu; uxor, a wife,
ros-ftcdoa, qfroees; rosa, a rose,
later-Idtta, cf brick ; later, a brick.
praesent-ftnetts, operating inetanUy ; praesSns, present,
eztr-ftneua, extemaX; eztrft, vsOhmit,
aubterr-ftnetts, wbterranean ; aub terrft, wnderground.
aalig-neua, qf willow; aalix, willow,
▼olft-ticaa, winged (Yolfttoa, a flight) ; ToUre, to fly,
domes-ticua, of the house, domestic ; domaa, a house,
silvft-ticaa, sylvan; aflya, a wood,
NoTB. — itts is originally primitiye (§ 234. II. 11) ; -ens corresponds to Greek -«cof,
-€os, and has lost a y-sound (cf . yo-, § 234. II. 11) ; -icias and -Acens are formed by add-
ing -ius and -eus to stems in i-o-, &-o- (suffix ko-, §234. II. 12); -nens is no- + -ens
(§ 234. n. ^ ; -Anens is formed by adding -nens to ft-stems ; -ticns is a formation with
-ens (cf. hotti-cns with silTft-ticus), and has been affected by the analogy of participial
stems in to- (nominative -tus).
248. Adjectives denoting pertaining to are formed from noun-
stems with the suffixes —
-alls, -ftris, -«lls, -nis, -tUis
n&tfir-ilia, naturoU ; n&tfira, nature,
popol-ftria, fellow-countryman; populaa, a people,
patm-Alia, cousin; patmua, unde,
host-Ilia, hostile; hoatia, an enemy,
cur-aiis, curule; cnmis, a chariot,
NoTB. — The suffixes arise from adding -Us (stem 11-) to yarions vowel stems. The
long vowels are due partly to confusion between stem and suffix (cf . vitA-lis, from
yit&-, with iic4Ui8), partly to confusion with verb-stems: cf. Aprilis (apeilre), ediilis
(edere), with senilis (senex). -ris is an inherited suffix, but in most of these formations
"Axis arises by differentiation for 4Uis in words containing an 1 (as mI]it-4Uis). i
249. Adjectives with the sense of belonging to are formed by
means of the suffixes —
-ftnus, -finns, -Inns; -fts, -6nsis ; -ens, -acus (-Aous), -ions ; -ens,
-eins, -icius
1. So from common nouns : —
mont-inoa, of the mountains ; m5na (stem monti-), iTiouiitain.
▼eter-Anna, veteran; vetna (stem veter-), old,
antelflc-Anua, before daylight; ante Ifloem, btfore light.
§ 249, 260]
NOMINAL ADJECTIVES
151
tMT-6iitt8, earthly;
aer-Snus, calm (of evening stillness) ;
coU-Inus, of a hiU;
dlv-inas, divine;
libert-ittus, of the class offreedmen;
c^-As, of whaJb country f
iiifim-&8, of the lowest rank ;
terra, &irth,
•Sms, late*
coUis, h%a.
divas, god.
Ubertus, one'^sfreedman.
quis, wlio f
inflmaB, lotoest.
f or-ftnsis, of a market-place^ or the Forum ; forum, a market-place.
tivi-cas, civic J of a citizen;
folldn-ictts, of a fuller ;
mer-Acns, pure ;
fSmin-etts, of a womxm, feminine;
lact-eus, milky ;
plSb-eias, of the commons, plebeian ;
patr-idtts, patrician;
civis, a citizen.
folio, a fuller.
merum, pure wine.
fSmina, a woman.
lac, milk (stem lacti-).
plSbis, the commons.
pater, father.
2. But especially from proper nouns to denote belonging to or coming from :
Rfim-Antts, Boman;
Sull-Ani, SuXla^s veterans ;
Cyzic-Sni, CyziceneSy people of Cyzicus ;
Lignr-inus, ofLiguria;
Arpin-fts, ofArpinum ;
Sidli-Snsis, Sicilian;
Ili-acu8, Trojan (a Greek form) ;
Platdn-ictts, Platonic;
Aqnil-^ius, a Boman name ;
vi
R5ma, Rome.
Sulla.
Cyzicus.
Liguria.
Arpinom.
Sieilia, Sicily.
lUum, Troy.
PUt5.
Aquila.
Aquil-eia, a town in Italy
a* Many derivative adjectives with these endings have by usage become
nouns : —
Silv-inus, m., a god of the woods; sllva, a wood.
membr-Sna, f., Mn; membrum, limb.
Aemili-ftnus, m., name of Scipio Africanus ; Aemilia (gSna).
lanius, butcJier.
tAufidius (Aufidus).
incola, an inhabitant.
caecus, Uind.
ra5, fall (no noun existing),
doctor, teacher.
lani-Sna, f., a butcJier^s stall;
Aufidi-Snus, M., a Boman name ;
inqoil-inas, m., a lodger;
Caec-&ia, used as m., a Boman name ;
ru-tna, f., a fall;
doctr-ina, f., learning;
Note. — Of these terminations, -Inus, -Sniis, -inus are compounded from -nus added
to a stem-vowel : as, axca, arcinus ; coUis, oollinus. The long vowels come from a con-
fusion with verb-stems (as in plS-nus, fini-tus, tribt-tus), and from the noun-stem in &• :
as, arcinus. A few nouns occur of similar formation, as if from verb-stems in 9- and
fi-: as, oolSnus (col5, cf. incola), patrSnus (cf. patrS, -^Ire), tribfmus (cf. tribuS, tribus),
Portfinut (cf. porttts), Vacflna (cf. vac5, vacnus).
280. Other adjectives meaning in a general way lelonging to
(especiaUy of places and times) are formed with the suffixes —
152 FORMATION OF WORDS [§§ 250, 251
-ter (-trie), -ester (-estris), -timuB, -nus, -ernus, -umus, -ternus (-turnus)
palQs-ter, of t^e marshes ; paltls, a marsh.
pedes-ter, of the foot-soldiers ; pedes, a footman.
8$m68-trl8, lasting six months ; sex mSnses, six m^mJOis,
silY-ester, silv-estris, woody ; silva, a wood,
fini-timas, netghboriTtg^ on the borders; finis, an end,
maxi-timas, of the sea ; mare, sea.
ySr-ntts, vernal ; ver, spring.
hodi-emus, of to-day ; hodiS, to-day,
di-omtts, daily; dies, day.
hes-teinus, of yesterday; heri (old hesi), yesterday.
did-tnmus, Uisting ; did, long (in time).
Note. — Of these, -ester is formed by adding tri- (cf. tro-, § 234. n. 16) to stems in
t- or d-. Thus tpedet-tri- becomes pedestri-, and others follow the analogy, -nns is an
inherited suffix (§ 234. II. 4). -emus and -umos are formed by adding -nus to s-stems:
as, diur-Bus (for fdias-nas), and hence, by analogy, hodiemus (hodiS). By an extension
of the same principle were formed the suffixes -ternus and -turnus from words like
patemus and noctumus.
a* Adjectives meaning belonging to are formed from nouns by means of
the suffixes —
-atiuB, -torluB (-sSrlus)
5rdin-iritt8, regular; 5rd5, rank, order,
argent-Arius, of silver or money ; argentum, silver,
extr-Arius, stranger; extra, outside.
meii-tdrias, prqfttaJUe ; meritus, earned,
dSvor-sorius, of an inn (cf . § 254. 5) ; devorsus, turned oMde.
NoTB 1. — Here -ius (§ 234. II. 11) is added to shorter forms in -iris and -or : as, pecu-
li&rius (from peculilris), bellat5rlu8 (from belUtor).
NoTB 2. — These adjectives are often fixed as nouns (see § 254).
Verbal Adjectives
251. Adjectives expressing the action of the verb as a quality
or tendency are formed from real or apparent verb-stems with the
suffixes —
-&Z, -Idas, -ulu8, -vus (-una, -Ivus, -f^vus)
denotes a, faulty or aggressive tendency; -ti[vus is oftener passive.
^Hgnrix, pugnacious ; jtfignlrt, to fight,
aud-&x, bold ; audere, to dare.
cup-idus, eager ; cupere, to desire,
bib-ulus, thirsty (as dry earth etc.) ; bibere, to drink.
proter-vus, violent, wanton ; prdterere, to trample.
§§ 261-253] VERBAL ADJECTIVES 163
noc-aus (noo-iyus), hur^lj injurious; noc$re, to do harm,
recid-ivas, restored ; reddere, to fall hack.
cap-tivu8, captive; m., a prisoner of war ; capere, to take.
NoTB. — Of these, -ftz is a redaction of 4lca8 (stem-vowel &- + -ca8), become inde-
pendent and used with verb-stems. Similar forms in -^x, -4x, -iz, and -ux are found
or employed in derivatives: as, imbrex, m., a rain-tile (from imber); senex, old (from
seni-s) ; ferSx, fierce (from ferns) ; atrSx, savage (from iter, black) ; celox, f., a yacht
<cf. cello); fSlix, Jiappy, originally /er^iZe (cf. fSlo, suck ); ffdiicia, f., confidence (as
from ffidux) ; cf. also victrix (from victor). So mandficus, chewing (from mandd).
-idtts is no doubt denominative, as in herbidus, grassy (from herba, ?ierb) ; tomidiis,
suDollen (cf. tnma-liis, hill; tumul-tas, uproar); calUdns, toughf cunning (cf. callum,
tauffh fiesh) ; mucidas, slimy (cf . mucus, «/tme) ; tftbidus, wasting (cf. tftbCs, wcuting
ciisease). But later it was used to form adjectives directly from verb-«tems.
-ulus is the same suffix as in diminutives, but attached to verb-stems. Gf . aemulus,
rivalling (cf . imitor and im&g5) ; sedulus, sitting by, attentive (cf . domi-seda, hom^
staying^ and sSdo, set^ settle^ hence calm) ; pendulus, hanging (cf . pond5, ablative, in
tveight; perpendiculum, a plummet; appendix, an addition); str&gulus, covering (cf.
stx3LgH) ; legulus, a picker (cf. sacri-legus, a picker up of things sacred),
"TUB seems originally primary (cf. § 234. II. 8), but -ivus and -tivus have become
secondary and are used with nouns: as, aestivus, of summer (from aestus, heat);
-tempestivus, timely (from tempus) ; cf . domes-ticus (from domus).
252. Adjectives expressing passive qualities^ but occasionally
active, are formed by means of the suffixes —
-Uis, -bUis, -iu8, -tilis (-sUIb)
frag-ilis, frail ; frangere (frag), to break,
n5-bilis, weilX known^ famous; noscere (gno), to know.
ezim-ius, choice, rare (cf. S-greg-ias) ; eximere, to take out, select,
ag-ilis, active; agere, to drive.
hab-ilis, handy ; habSre, to hold.
al-tilis, fattened (see note) ; alere, to nourish.
NoTB. — Of these, -lus is primary, but is also used as secondary (cf . § 241. 6. N.) . -ills
is both primary (as in agilis, fragilis) and secondary (as in similis, like^ cf . d;xos, o/MiXof ,
English 8am£) ; -bilis is in some way related to -bulum and -brum (§ 240. n.) ; in -tilis
and -«ilis, -lis is added to to- (so-), stem of the perfect participle: as, fossilis, dug up
(from fossus, dug); volfttilis, winged (from yoykXxiS^ flight),
253. Verbal Adjectives that are Participial in meaning are
formed with the suffixes —
-nduB, -bunduB, -cundus
a* -ndns (the same as the gerundive ending) forms a few active or reflex-
ive adjectives : —
^ sectt-ndus, second (the following), favorable; sequi, tofoUow.
rotu-ndus, round (whirling) ^ ; rotare, to whirl.
1 Cf . Tolyendis mSnsibus (Aen. i. 269), in the revolving months ; cf . oriundi ab Sablnls
(Liv. i. 17), sprung from the Sabines, where oriundi =orti.
154 FORMATION OF WORDS [§§ 26S, 254
&• -bandiu, -amdiu, denote a continuance of the act or quality expressed
by the verb : —
▼Iti-bnndus, avoiding; yitAre, to shun,
treme-iraikdiss, tremJbiing ; tremere, to tremble,
moii-lrandas, dying ^ at the point of death ; moriri, to die,
fft-condas, eloquent; fixl, to speak,
f9-candu8, fruilfal ; root fb, naurijih,
irft-candtts, irascible; . cf. irftsci, to he angry,
NoTB. — These must have been originally nominal: as in the series, mbns, red
bush; rabidtts (bnt no frabicns), ruddy; Rubicda, Red River (cf. MiniS, a river of
Etroria; niniiu, a river of LuBitania); rabicaiidiis (as in aTemmcas, bomiin-calas).
So tnrba, eommotion; tnrU, atop; tnrbidas, roUy, etc. Cf. apexaU, loncab5, sxaTSdo,
daloMS.
ۥ Here belong also the participial suffixes -minus, -mnus (cf. Greek
-ficvos), from which are formed a few nouns in which the participial force is
still discernible : — ^
f<-mina, woman (the nourisher) ; root fb, nourish,
alu-mnns, a foster-child, nursling; alere, to nourish.
Voans with Adjective Suffixes
254. Many fixed fonns of the Nominal Adjective suffixes men-
tioned in the preceding sections, make Noims more or less regu-
larly used in particular senses : —
1. -Irius, person employed about anything.: —
argent-drius, m. , silversmith, broker, from argentom, silver,
Corinthi-Aritts, m. , worker in Corinthian bronze (sarcastic nickname of Angnstns),
from (aes) Corlnthiom, Corinthian bronze,
centdn-irius, m., ragman, from centd, patchwork.
• 2. -JLria, thing connected with something : —
argent-Aria, f., bank, from argentom, silver,
arSn-iriae, f. plural, sandpits, from arSna, sand,
Asin-iria, f., name of a play, from asinns, ass,^
3. -irium, place of a, thing (with a few of more general meaning): —
aer-Ariom, v,, treasury, from aes, copper,
ttpid-iriom, v,, warm bath, from tepidns, warm,
sfld-iriom, n., a towd, cf. sfidS, -Are, sweat,
•al-Ariom, n., saU money, salary, from sAl, salt,
calend-Ariom, n., a noteA>ook^ from calendae, calends,
lOf. §163. footnote 1.
2 Probably in adjective with fAbnla, ptay^ understood.
§254] NOUNS WITH ADJECTIVE SUFFIXES 155
4. -tSria (-sSria): —
Agitft-tdria, f., a play of Plaatos, The Carter ^ from agititor.
▼or-adxia, f., a tack (nautical), from yorstts, a turn.
5. -tOrinm (-sSrinm), place of action (with a few of more general meaning) :
dSTOFHMzitim, K., an inn^ as from dSyorto, turn aside*
audi-torimii, n., a lecture-room^ as from aadld, fiear,
ten-toriam, n., a tent^ as from tendS, stretch.
tde-tSriom, n., plaster, as from tego, tectus, cover.
por-tSxiom, v., toll, cf. port5, carry, and portus, harbor.
6. -He, animal-stall : —
boY-ile, v., catUe-stall, from bSs, UyIs, oz, cow.
or-Ue, v., sheep/old, from ovis, stem otI-, sheep.
7. -«1 for -ale, thing connected xoiih the primitive : —
capit-al, N., headdress, capital crime, from caput, head.
penetr-ftle (especially in plural), v., inner apartment, cf. penetrS, enter,
S&tnrn-aiia, n. plural (the regular form for names of festivals), feast of Sat-
urn, from Sfttomus.
8. -etnm, N. (cf. -ituB, -fltus, see § 246. N.),-tum,pteceo/a thing, especially
with names of trees and plants to designate where these grow : —
qaerc-Stom, k., oak grove, from quercus, oak.
oCy-€tttm, N., olive grove, from oHya, an olive tree.
salic-tom, v., a willow thicket, from saliz, a willow tree.
Argil-Stum, v.. The Clay Pit, from argilla, clay.
9. -CU8 (sometimes with inserted i, -lens), -icus, in any one of the gen-
ders, with various meanings : —
▼ili-caa, X., a steward, Tfll-ca, f., a stewardess, from tSLUl, farm-house.
fabr-ica, f., a workshop, from faber, workman.
am-icns, m., am-Ica, v., friend, cf. amlre, to love.
bdbul-cus, M., ox4ender, from bCb-ulus, diminutive, cf. bOa, ox.
cant-icom, v., song, from cantns, act of singing.
rubr-ica, f., red paint, from ruber, red.
10. -eus, -ea, -eum, with various meanings : —
alv-eua, m., a trough^ from alvus, the heUy.
capr-ea, f., a 'wild she-goat, from caper, he-goat.
flamm-eum, k., a bridal veil, from flamma, flame, from its color.
11. -ter (stem tri-), -aster, -ester : —
eqoes-ter, m., knight, for feqnet-ter.
■equ-ester, m., a stake-holder, from derivative of sequor, follow.
ole-aster, m. , wHd olive, from olea, an olive tree.
156 FORMATION OF WORDS [§§ 265-269
IRREGULAR DRRIVATIVES
255. The suffix -9 (genitiye -Qnis, stem On-), usually added to
verb-stems (see § 236. c), is sometimes used with noun-stems to
form nouns denoting possessed of. These were originally adjec-
tives expressing quality or charactery and hence often appear as
proper names : —
epulae, a feast; epol-d, afeaster.
oiBos, a nose; nas-o, with a large nose (silso as a proper name),
▼das (in bene-rolus), vnshing; rol-dnes (plural), volunteers,
fr^ins, forehead ; front-o, big-head (also as a proper name).
ciiria, a curia; c6ii-5, head of a curia (also as a proper name),
restis, a rope; resti-o, a rope-maker.
a. Rarely suffixes are added to compound stems imagined, but not used
in their compound form : —
ad-yerb-ium, adverb; ad, to, and yerbiim, verb, but without the Interyening
tadyerbus.
l&ti-fand-iiim, large estaie ; latus, wide, fandas, estate, but without the inter-
yening tUtifandas.
su-OTe-tanr-ilia, a sacrifice of a swine, a sheep, and a bull ; sus, stoine, oris,
sheep, tauras, bull, where the primitive would be impossible in Latin,
though such formations are common in Sanskrit.
DERIVATION OF VERBS
256. Verbs may be classed as Primitive or Derivative.
1 . Primitive Verbs are those inh erited by the Latin from the parent speech.
2. Derivative Verbs are those formed in the development of the Latin
as a separate language.
257. Derivative Verbs are of two main classes : —
1. Denominative Verbs, formed from nouns or adjectives.
2. Verbs apparently derived from the stems of other verbs.
Denominative Verbs
258. Verbs were formed in Latin from almost every form of
noun-stem and adjective-stem.
259. 1. Verbs of the First Conjugation are formed directly
from §-stems, regularly with a transitive meaning: as, faga,
flight; fugfire, put to flight.
§§ S69-261] DENOMINATIVE VERBS 157
2. Many verbs of the First Conjugation are formed from o-
stems, changing the o- into a-. These are more commonly tran-
sitive: —
stimuid, -Ire, to incite^ from stimulas, a goad (stem stimulo-).
aequo, -ire, to make even, from aequus, even (stem aequo-).
hibemd, -&re, to pass the mnter, from hibemus, of the winter (stem hibemo-).
albo, -are, to whiten, from albus, white (stem albo-).
pio, -are, to expiate, from plus, pure (stem pio-).
novo, -are, to renew, from novas, new (stem novo-).
armo, -are, to arm, from arma, arms (stem armo-).
damno, -are, to injure, from damnum, injury (stem danmo-).
8. A few verbs, generally intransitive, are formed by analogy
from consonant and i- or u-s terns, adding a to the stem : — ^
vigilo, -are, to watch, from vigil, awake.
exsulo, -£re, to he in exile, from ezsul, an exile.
auspicor, -ar!, to take the auspices, from auspex (stem auspic-), augur.
pulverd, -are, to turn (anything) to dust, from pulvis (stem pulver-for pulvis-),
dust,
aestud, -ire, to surge, boil, from aestus (stem aestu-), tide, seething.
levo, -are, to lighten, from levis (stem levi-), lighJb.
260. A few verbs of the Second Conjugation (generally in-
transitive) are recognizable as formed from noun-stems ; but most
are inherited, or the primitive noun-stem is lost : —
al1)e5, -ere, to he white, from albus (stem albVe-)? white.
caneo, -ere, to he hoary, from canus (stem canVe-)» hoary,
clareo, -ere, to shine, from clarus, bright.
claudeo, -ere, to he lame, from claudus, kmie.
algeo, -ere, to be cold, cf. algidus, cold,
261. Some verbs of the Third Conjugation in-u9,Hiere, are formed
from noun-stems in u- and have lost a consonant i : —
status (for tstatu-yo), -ere, to set up, from status, position.
metud, -ere, to fear, from metus, fear.
acuo, -ere, to sharpen, from acus, needle.
argno, -ere, to clear up, from inherited stem targu-, bright (cf. dpyvpos).
Note. — Many verbs in u are inherited, being formed from roots in a: asj flaS,
flttere, flow ; so-lvo (for fsS-luS, cf . XiJw), solvere, dissolve. Some roots have a parasitic
tt : a8,*loquor, locutus, speak.
1 The type of all or most of the denominative f ormatioDS in §§ 259-262 was inherited,
but the process went on in the development of Latin as a separate language.
158 FORMATION OF WORDS [§§ 202, 263
262. Many l-yerbs or verbs of tihe Fourth Conjugation are
formed from i-stems : —
mdlior, -iri, to toil, from mdlSs (-is), mass,
finid, -ire, to bound, from finis, end.
sitiS, -ire, to thirst, from sitis, thirst,
stabilio, -ire, to establish, from stabilis, stable.
a« Some arise by confusion from other stems treated as i-stems : —
bnllid, -ire, to boil, from bulla (stem bulUL-), bubble.
condid, -ire, to preserve, from condus (stem condo-), storekeeper.
insftnid, -ire, to rave, from insAnus (stem ins&no-), mad.
gestiS, -ire, to show wUd longing, from gestos (stem gestu-), gesture.
NoTB. — Some of this form are of doabtfal origin: as, Srdior, begin, cf. 5rd5 and
ex5rdiam. The formation is closely akin to that of verbs in -19 of the third conjuga-
tion (p. 102).
b» Some are formed with -15 from consonant stems : —
cdstSdiS, -ire, to guard, from cflstds (stem cfi8t6d-), ^arduzn.
fttlguiid, -ire, to lighten, from fulgor, lightning.
NoTB. — Here probably belong the so-called desideraHves in -nriS (see § 263. 4. n.).
Verlw from Other Verbs
263. The following four classes of verbs regularly derived
from other verbs have special meanings connected with their
terminations.
NoTB. — These classes are all really denominatiye in their origin, but the forma-
tions had become so associated with actual verbs that new deriyatives were often
formed directly from yerbs without the intervention of a noun-stem.
1. Inceptives or Inchoatives add -scO * to the present stem of verbs.
They denote the beginning of an action and are of the Third Conjuga-
tion. Of some there is no simple verb in existence : —
calS-8c5, ^010 warm, from caleo, be warm.
Iaba-8c5, begin to totter, from labo, totter.
8ci-8c5, determine, from sdd, know.
con-cnpi-sco, conceive a desire for, from cupiS, desire.
ali-8c5, grow, from al5, feed.
So irft-scor, get angry ; cf . irft-tus.
Inyen8-sc5, grow young; cf. layenis, young man.
miti-sed, grow mUd; cf. mitis, mild.
▼teperiHKit, it is gdting late; cf. Tosper, evening.
1 For -fo5 in primary formation, see § 176. b. "L
§ 268] VERBS FROM OTHER VERBS 169
IQ'OTB. — Inoeptives properly have only the present stem, but many use the perfect
and supine systems of simple verbs: as, cal8ic5, ^roio toamif calui; ftrdSic5, hl€use
forth^ Arsi ; proflclscor, «et out^ profectus.
2. Intensi ves or Iteratives are formed from the Supine stem and end
in -t5 or -itO (rarely -sO) . They denote 2^ forcible or repeated action, but
this special sense often disappears. Those derived from verbs of
the First Conjugation end in -itO (not -AtO).
iac-t5, hurlf from iaciS, throw.
dormi-t5, be sleepy ^ from domiid, sle^,
YoMtd, flit, from Yold, fly»
▼indi-t5, try to seU, from ySndS, sell.
quas-sd, shatter, from quatiS, shake.
They are of the first conjugation, and are properly denominative.
u* Compound suffixes -tit5, sM, are formed with a few verbs. These
are probably derived from other Iteratives ; thus, cantitS may come from
cantd, iterative of can5) sing.
b» Another form of Intensives — sometimes called Meditatives, or verbs
of practice — ends in -essS (rarely -issS). These denote a certain energy or
eagerness of action rather than its repetition : —
cap-e8s5, lay hold on, from capiS, tdke.
fac-essS, do (with energy), from faciS, do.
pet-esao, pet-issS, seek (eagerly), from pet5, seek.
These are of the third conjugation, usually having the perfect and
supine of the fourth : —
arcessd, arceasSre, arcestivi, arcessitom, summon.
lacesso, lacessSre, lacessm, lacessitum, provoke.
NoTB. — The yerbs in -essS, -issS, show the same formation as lerftssS, impetxtssere,
iudicAsslt, etc. (§ 183. 5), but its origin is not fully explained.
3. Diminutives end in -1115, and denote q, feeble or petty action : —
cav-illor, jest, cf . cayilla, raillery.
cant-iU5, chirp or warUe, from canto, sing.
Note. — Diminutives are formed from verb-stems derived from real or supiwsed
diminutive nouns.
4. Desideratives end in -tuHiS (-suri0), and express longing or wishr
ing. They are of the fourth conjugation, and only two are in com-
mon use : —
par-turi5, be in labor, from parid, bring forth,
S-8ori5 (for ted-torid), be hungry, from edo, eat.
Others are used by the dramatists.
Note. — Desideratives are probably derived from some noun of agency: as, imp>
tnriS, wish to buy, from 8mptor, buyer, VisS, go to see, is an inherited desiderative of
a different formation.
160 FORMATION OF WORDS [§§ 264, 26a
COHPOUND WORDS
264. A Compound Word is one whose stem is made up of two
or more simple stems.
a. A final stem-vowel of the first member of the compound usually dis-
appears before a vowel, and usually takes the form of i before a consonant.
Only the second member receives inflection.^
b» Only noun-stems can be thus compounded. A preposition, however,
often becomes attached to a verb.
265. New stems are formed by Composition in three ways : —
1. The second part is simply added to the first : —
sa-ove-taunlia (sfls, ovis, taorus), the sacrifice of a swine^ a sheep, and a bull
(cf. § 266. a).
septen-dedm (aeptem, decern), seventeen.
2. The first part modifies the second as an adjective or adverb
(Determinative Compounds) : —
Uti-fandituii (Ifttas, fundus), a large landed estaJte.
omni-potens (onmis, potens), omnipotent,
3. The first part has the force of a case, and the second a verbal
force {Objective Compounds) : —
agri-cola (ager,^eZc{, tcola akin to cold, cultivate), a farmer.
armi-ger (arma, arms, tger akin to ger5, carry), armor-bearer.
comi-cen (comfi, horn, teen akin to cano, sing), horn-blower.
cami-fex (card, flesh, tfex akin to facio, make), executioner.
a* Compounds of the above kinds, in which the last word is a noun,
may become adjectives, uiesimng possessed of the quality denoted: —
Sli-pds (aia, wing, pes, foot), wing-footed.
m&gn-animus (m&gnus, greaty animus, soul), great-sotUed.
an-ceps (amb-, at both ends, caput, h^ad), double.
Note. — Many compounds of the above classes appear only in the form of some
further derivative, the proper compound not being found in Latin.
1 The second part generally has its usual inflection ; but, as this kind of composi-
tion is in fact older than inflection, the compounded stem sometimes has an inflectioD
of its own (as, comicen, -cinis ; liicifer, -feri ; iiidex, -dicis), from stems not occurring in
Latin. Especially do compound adjectives in Latin take the form of i-stems: as,
animus, exanimis; nSrma, abnormls (see § 73) . In composition, stems regularly have
their uninflected form : as, ignl-spicium, divining by fire. But in o- and i-stems the
final vowel of the stem appears as i-, as in ali-pSs (from &la, stem aUL-) ; and i« is so
common a termination of compounded stems, that it is often added to stems which do
not properly have it: as, fl5ri-comuB, flower-crowned (from flSs, flor-is, and coma, Aatry
§ 2G6, 267] SYNTACTIC COMPOUNDS 161
Syntactic Compounds
266. In many apparent compounds, complete words — not
items — have grown together in speech. These are not strictly
3oinpoiinds in the etymological sense. They are called Syntac-
tic Compounds. Examples are : —
<e* Compounds of facio, facto, with an actual or formerly eidsting noun-
Btem confounded with a verbal stem in e-. These are causative in force :
cdnsue-facio, habituate (cf . cdnsaS-scS, become accustomed).
cale-fadS, cale-fact5, to heat (cf. cal6-8c5, grow warm),
5. An adverb or noun combined with a verb : —
bene-dic5 (bene, well, died, speak) , to bless.
satia-fadS (satis, enough, fadS, do), to do enough (for).
€• Many apparent compounds of stems : —
fide-iubed (fide, surety, iabeo, command), to give surety.
mftn-saitas (manui, to the hand, suStas, accustomed), tame.
Mard-por (lULrd paer), slave of Marcus.
lappiter (tin, old vocative, and pater), father Jove,
anim-adyertS (animom adverto), aJttend to, punish.
<f • A few phrases forced into the ordinary inflections of nouns : — -
^o-cdnsnl, proconsul (for pro cSnsule, instead of a consul).
triuii-vir, triumvir (singular from trium virdrnm).
septen-trio, the Bear, a constellation (supposed singular of septem tiiSnes,
the Seven Plough-Oxen).
In all these cases it is to be observed that words, not stems, are united.
267. Many syntactic compounds are formed by prefixing a
Particle to some other part of speech.
a. Prepositions are often prefixed to Verbs. In these compounds the
prepositions retain their original adverbial sense : —
jl, ab, JLWAT : ft-mittere, to send away.
ad, TO, TOWARDS : af-ferre (ad-fero), to bring.
ante, bbfobb : ante-ferre, to pr^er; ante-cellere, to excel.
dream, around: drcum-mSnire, to fortify completely.
com-, con- (cum), together or forcibly : con-ferre, to bring together; col-
loc&re, to set firm.
d5, DOWN, utterly : dS-spicere, despise ; de-stmere, destroy.
§, ez, out: ef-ferre (ec-fero), to carry forth, uplift.
in (with verbs), in, on, against : in-ferre, to bear against.
inter, bbtwbbn, to pieces : inter-rumpere, to interrupt.
ob, TOWARDS, to mbet : of-f erre, to offer ; ob-venire, to m>eet.
•ob, UNDER, UP FROM X7NDER: sab-stmere, to buHd beneath; sub-dficere, toleadup.
taper, upon, oveb and above : super-flaere, to overflow.
162 FOKMATION OF WORDS
NoTB 1. — In such compounds, however, the prepositions sometimes have their
ordinary force as prepositions, especially ad, in, circam, tr&ns, and govern the case of
a noun : as, tiflatire liftmen, to cross a river (see § 388. 6).
NoTB 2. — Short a of the root is weakened to i before one consonant, to e before
two : as, faci5, o5nflcl5, cdnfectus ; iaci5, 8ici5, Siectos. But long a is retained : as,
perilctas.
&• Verbs are also compounded with the following inseparable particles,
which do not appear as prepositions in Latin : —
amb- (am-, an-), around : amh-hre, to go about (cf. dfjuf>lj about),
dis-, di-, ASDNDBR, APART : dls-oSdere, to depart (cf. dao, two) ; di-vidfire, to
divide,
per-, forward: por-tendere, to hoJdforth^ predict (cf. porrS, /ortA).
red-, re-, back, again: red-hre, to return; re-cl6dere, to open (from daudo,
shut) ; re-ficere, to repair (make again).
sM-, ai-, APART : sS-cemS, to separate ; cf . sM-itid, a going apart, secession
(e5, ire, to go),
c. Many Verbals are found compounded with a preposition, like the
verbs to which they correspond : —
per-faga, deserter; cf. per-fagi5.
trft-doz, vine-branch; cf. trft-dflc5 (trftna-ddc5).
ad-vena, stranger; cf. ad-veni5.
con-iux (con-iflnz), spouse; cf. con-iang5.
in-dez, pointer out; cf. in-dic5.
praeHMS, guardian; cf. prae-side5.
com-bibd, boon companion; cf. com-bib5, -Sre.
d» An Adjective is sometimes modified by an adverbial prefix.
1. Of these, per- (less commonly prae-), very; sub-, somewhat ; in-, not, are
regular, and are very freely prefixed to adjectives : —
per-mignns, very large, in-nocnus, liarmless.
per-paucl, very few, in-imicus, unfriendly,
sab-rfisticas, rather clownish, in-s&nus, insane.
sttb-fuscas, darkish, ih-finltos, boundless.
prae-longtts, very long. im-pOras, impure.
NoTB. — Per and sub, in these senses, are also prefixed to verbs : as, per-terre9, terrify ;
snb-nde({, smile. In IgnteoO, pardon, in- appears to be the negative prefix.
2. The negative in- sometimes appears in combination with an adjective
that does not occur alone : —
in-ermis, unarmed (cf. arma, arms),
im-bellis, unwarlike (cf. bellnm, war),
hn-pflnis, without punishment (cf. poena, punishmefnt),
in-teger, untouched, whole (cf. tangd, to touch, root tag).
in-vitos, unwillinjg (probably from root seen in vl-s, thou wishett^.
PART SECOND— SYNTAX
INTRODUCTORY NOTE
268. The study of formal grammar arose at a late period in the history of lan-
guage, and dealt with language as a fully developed product. Accordingly the terms
of Syntax correspond to the logical habits of thought and forms of expression that
had grown up at such a period, and have a logical as well as a merely grammatical
meaning. But a developed syntactical structure is not essential to the expression of
thought. A form of words — like o pttenim pulchruml oh! beautiful boy — expresses
a thought and might even be called a sentence ; though it does not logically declare any-
thing, and does not, strictly speaking, make what is usually called a sentence at all.
At a very early period of spoken language, word-forms were no doubt significatft
in themselves, without inflections, and constituted the whole of language, — just as to
a child the name of some familiar object will stand for all he can say about it. At a
somewhat later stage, such uninflected words put side by side made a rudimentary
form of proposition : as a child might say ^rc bright ; horse run. With this began the
first form of logical distinction, that of Subject and Predicate ; but as yet there was no
distinction in form between noun and verb, and no fixed distinction in function. At a
later stage forms were differentiated in function and — by various processes of com-
position which cannot be fully traced — Inflections were developed. These served to
express person, tense, case, and other grammatical relations, and we have true Parts
of Speech.
Not until language reached this last stage was there any fixed limit to the asso-
ciation of words, or any rule prescribing the manner in which they should be combined.
But gradually, by usage, particular forms came to be limited to special functions (as
nouns, verbs, adjectives), and fixed customs arose of combining words into what we
now call Sentences. These customs are in part the result of general laws or modes of
thought (logic), resulting from our habits of mind {General Grammar)] and in part
are what may be called By-Laws, established by custom in a given language {Particu-
lar Grammar), and making what is called the Syntax of that language.
In the fully developed methods of expression to which we are almost exclusively
accustomed, the unit of expression is the Sentence : that is, the completed statement,
with its distinct Subject and Predicate. Originally sentences were simple. But two
simple sentence-forms may be used together, without the grammatical subordination
of either, to express a more complex form of thought than could be denoted by one
alone. This is parataxis (arrangement side by side). Since, however, the two sen-
tences, independent in form, were in fact used to express parts of a complex whole
and were therefore mutually dependent, the sense of unity found expression in con-
junctions, which denoted the grammatical subordination of the one to the other. This
is hypotaxis (arrangement under, subordination) . In this way, through various stages
of development, which correspond to our habitual modes of thought, there were pro-
duced various forms of complex sentences. Thus, to express the complex idea / beseech
you to pardon me, the two simple sentence-forms quaesd and ignSscas were used side by
side, qtiaesd igndsc&s ; then the feeling of grammatical subordination found expression
in a conjunction, quaesS ut Ignoscas, forming a complex sentence. The results of these
processes constitute the subject-matter of Syntax.
168
164 SYNTAX : THE SENTENCE [§§ 269-272
THE SENTENCE
^ Slinds of Sentences
269. A Sentence is a form of words which contains a State-
ment, a Question, an Exclamation, or a Command.
a. A sentence in the form of a Statement is called a Declarative
Sentence : as, — canis corrit, the dog runs.
h. A sentence in the form of a Question is called an Interroga-
tive Sentence: as, — canisne currit? does the dog run?
ۥ A sentence in the form of an Exclamation is called an Exclamar
tory Sentence : as, — quam celeriter currit canis I how fast the dog runs!
d. A sentence in the form of a Command, an Exhortation^ or an
Entreaty is called an Imperative Sentence : as, — i, corre per Alpis, go^
run across the Alps ; currat canis, let the dog run.
Subject and Predicate
270. Every sentence consists of a Subject and a Predicate.
The Subject of a sentence is the person or thing spoken of.
The Predicate is that which is said of the Subject.
Thus in canis coxrit, the dog runs^ canis is the subject, and cunit the predicate.
271. The Subject of a sentence is usually a Noun or Pronoun, I
or some word or group of words used as a Noun : —
eqnitSs ad Caesarem ygngrunt, the cavalry came to Coesar.
htlm9,num est errftre, to err is human.
quaeritur num mors malum sit, the question is whether death is an evil. \
a. But in Latin the subject is often implied in the termination of
the verb : —
sedS-mus, we sit. corri-tis, you run. inqui-t, says he.
272. The Predicate of a sentence may be a Verb (as Jh canis
currit, the dog runs)^ or it may consist of some form of sum and
a Noun or Adjective which describes or defines the subject (as in
Caesar cOnsul erat, Caesar was consul).
Such a noun or adjective is called a Predicate Noun or Adjective,
and the verb sum is called the Copula (i.e. the connective).
Thus in the example given, Caesar is the subject, cdnsol the predicate noun, and
erat the copula (see § 283).
g§ 278, 274] . VERB AND OBJECT 166
Transitiye and Intransitiye Verbs
273. Verbs are either Transitive or Intransitive.
1 . A Transitive Verb has or requires a direct object to complete
its sense (see § 274) : as, — Mtrem cecidit, he slew his brother.
2. An Intransitive Verb admits of no direct object to complete
its sense: —
cadO, IfaU (or am falling), sOl lucet, the sun shines (or is shining).
NoTB 1. — Among transitive verbs Factitive Verbs are sometimes distinguished
as a separate class. These state an act which produces the thing expressed by the
-w^ord which completes their sense. Thus mSnsam fScit, he made a table (which was
not in existence before), is distinguished from mSnsam percussit, he struck a table
(^which already existed).
Note 2. — A transitive verb may often be used absolutely ^ i.e. without any object
expressed: as, — arat, he is ploughing, where the verb does not cease to be transitive
because the object is left indefinite, as we see by adding, — quid, whatf agnim Buiun,
his land,
NoTB 3. — Transitive and Intransitive Verbs are often called Active and Neuter
Verbs re8i)ectively.
Object
274. The person or thing immediately affected by the action of
a verb is called the Direct Object.
A person or thing indirectly affected by the action of a verb
is called the Indirect Object.
Only transitive verbs can have a Direct Object ; but an Indirect
Object may be used with both transitive and intransitive verbs
(§§362,366): —
pater vocat filium (direct object), the father calls his son,
mihi (ind. obj.) agnim (dir. obj.) ostendit, fie showed me afield,
mihi (ind. obj.) placet, it is pleasing to me.
Note. — The distinction between transitive and intransitive verbs is not a fixed dis-
tinction, for most transitive verbs may be used intransitively, and many verbs usually
intransitive may take a direct object and so become transitive (§ 388. a),
a. With certain verbs, the Genitive, Dative, or Ablative is used
where the English, from a difference in meaning, requires the direct
object (Objective) : —
hominem vide5, 1 see the man (Accusative).
homini serviG, I serve the man (Dative, see § 867).
hominis misereor, I pity the man (Genitive, see § 854. a).
homine amicd Utor, I treat the man ofi a friend (Ablative, see § 410).
166 SYNTAX: THE SENTENCE,^ [§§274-277
6. Many verbs transitive in Latin are rendered into English by
an intransitive verb with a preposition: —
petit aprum, he aims at tke boar.
lattdem aSectat, he strives after praise.
ctlrat Yaletadinem, Ae takes care of his health,
meum c&sam dola€rant, they grieved at my misfortune.
ridet nostram amentiam (Quinct. 55), he laughs at our stupidity.
275. When a transitive verb is changed from the Active to the
Passive voice, the Direct Object becomes the Subject and is put
in the Nominative case : —
Active: pater filium vocat, thefaJbher calls his son.
Passive : filius S. patre voc&tur, the son is called by his father.
Active : Ifinam et steU&s yidSmus, we see the moon and the stars.
Passive : Iflna et stellae videntur, the moon and stars are seen (appear).
Modification
276. A Subject or a Predicate may be modified by a single word^
or by a group of words {a, phrase or a clause).
The modifying word or group of words may itself be modified in
the same way.
a. A single modifying word may be an adjective, an adverb, an
appositive (§ 282), or the oblique case of a noun.
Thus in the sentence vir fortis patienter fert, a brave man- endures patiently ^
the adjective fortis, brave, modifies the subject vir, man, and the adverb patienter,
patiently, modifies the predicate fert, endures.
6. The modifying word is in some cases said to limit the word
to which it belongs.
Thus in the sentence pueri patrem vided, I see the boy^s father, the genitive
pueri limits patrem (by excluding any other father).
277. A Phrase is a group of words, without subject or predicate
of its own, which may be used as an Adjective or an Adverb.
Thus in the sentence vir fuit summa nobilitate, he was a man of the highest
nobility, the words summa nobilitate, of the highest nobility, are used for the
adjective nSbilis, noble (or nobilissimus, very noble), and are called an Adjective
Phrase.
So in the sentence mftgna celeritite vgnit, he came with great speed, the words
magna celeritate, with great speed, are used for the adverb celeiiter, quickly (or
celerrime, very quickly), and are called an Adverbial Phrase.
§§ 278, 279] CLAUSES AND SENTENCES 167
Clauses and Sentences
278. Sentences are either Simple or Compound.
1. A sentence containing a single statement is called a Simple
Sentence.
2. A sentence containing more than one statement is called
a Compound Sentence, and each single statement in it is called
a Clause.
a. If one statement is simply added to another, the clauses are
said to be Coordinate. They are usually connected by a Coordinate
Conjunction (§ 223, a) ; but this is sometimes omitted : —
divide et impera, divide and control. But, —
vgni, vidi, vlci, I came, I saw, I conquered.
ft. If one statement modifies another in any way, the modifying
clause is said to be Subordinate, and the clause modified is called
the Main Clause.
This subordination is indicated by some connecting word, either
a Subordinate Conjunction (§ 223. b) or a Eelative; —
Gderint dum metuant, let them Tiate so long as they fear.
servum mlsit quern 8€cum habebat, he sent the date whom he had with him.
A sentence containing one or more subordinate clauses is some-
times called Complex.
NoTB. — A subordinate clause may itself be modified by other subordinate clauses.
279. Subordinate Clauses are of various kinds.
a. A clause introduced by a Eelative Pronoun or Eelative Adverb
is called a Eelative Clause : —
Mesa prCfluit ex monte YosegG, qui est in finibus Lingonum (B. G. iy. 10),
the Meuse rises in the Vosges mountains, which are on the borders of the
Lingon£S.
For Relative Pronouns (or Relative Adverbs) serving to connect independent sen-
tences, see § 308. /.
b, A clause introduced by an Adverb of Time is called a Tem-
poral Clause : —
cum tacent, clftmant (Cat. i. 21), while they are silent, they cry aloud.
homlD^s aegri morbO gravl, cum iactantur aestu febxique, 8l aquam gelidam
biberint, primO relevarl videntur (id. i. 81), inen suffering with a severe
sickness, when they are tossing with the heat of fever, if they drink cold
water, seem at first to be relieved.
168 SYNTAX: AGREEMENT [§§279-281
ۥ A clause containing a Condition, introduced by si, if (or some
equivalent expression), is called a Conditional Clause. A sentence
containing a conditional clause is called a Conditional Sentence.
Thus, 8i aquam gelidam biberint, primo reley&ri videntur (in b, above) is a Con-
ditional Sentence, and si . . . bibeiint is a Conditional Clause.
d* A clause expressing the Purpose of an action is called a Final
Clause : —
edO ut vivam, I eat to live (that I may live).
misit leg&tOs qui dicerent, ?ie sent ambassadors to say (who should say).
e. A clause expressing the Result of an action is called a Con-
secutive Clause : — *
tarn longe aberam at non viderem, I was too far away to see (so far away that
I did not see).
AGREEMENT
280. A word is said to agree with another when it is required
by usage to be in the same Gender, Number, Case, or Person.
The following are the general forms of agreement, sometimes
called the Four Concords : —
1. The agreement of the Noun in Apposition or as Predicate
(§§ 281-284).
2. The agreement of the Adjective with its Noun (§ 286).
3. The agreement of the Relative with its Antecedent (§ 305).
4. The agreement of the Finite Verb with its Subject (§ 316).
a. A word sometimes takes the gender or number, not of the word
with which it should regularly agree, but of some other word implied
in that word.
This use is called Synesis, or constructio ad sensum (construction
according to sense).
AGREEMENT OF NOUNS
281. A noun used to describe another, and denoting the same
pei*son or thing, agrees with it in Case.
The descriptive noun may be either an Appositive (§ 282) or a
Predicate noun (§ 283).
1 Ohserve that the classes defined in a-e are not mutually exclusive, but that a
single clause may belong to several of them at once. Thus a relative clause is
usually subordinate, and may be at the same time temporal or conditional; and
subordinate clauses may be coordinate with each other.
§ 282] APPOSITION 169
Apposition
282. A noun used to describe another, and standing in the same
part of the sentence with the noun described, is called an Apposi-
tive, and is said to be in apposition : —
externus timor, maximum coucordiae vincttlum, iungSbat animOs (Liv. ii. 39),
fear of the foreigner, the chi^ bond of harmony, united their hearts,
[Here the appositive belongs to the 8uhject,'\
quattuor hie primum 5men equos vidi (Aen. iii. 637), I saw here four horses,
the first omen, [Here both nouns are in the predicate.]
litterSs Graecas senex didici (Cat. M. 26), I learned Greek when an old man,
[Here senex, though in apposition with the subject of didid, really states
something further: viz., the tim>e, condition, etc., of the act (Predicate
Apposition).]
a. Words expressing parts may be in apposition with a word
including the parts, or vice versa (Partitive Apposition) : —
Nee P. Popilius neque Q. Metellus, clSlrissimi vizi atque amplissimi, vim
tribtiniciam sustin6re potuSrunt (Clu. 96), neitfier Pvblius Popilius nor
Q^intus Metellus, [both of them] distinguished and honorable men, could
unthstand the power of the tribunes.
Gnaeus et Pdblius ScipiSnes, Cneius and Publius Scipio (the Scipios).
6. An Adjective may be used as an appositive: —
ea Sex. B5scium inopem recSpit (Rose. Am. 27), she received Sextus Roscius
in his poverty (needy).
c. An appositive generally agrees with its noun in Gender and
Number when it can : —
sequuntur natGram, optimam ducem (Lael. 19), they follow nature, the best
guide.
omnium doctrinarum inyentrices AthenSs (De Or. i. 13), AtJiens, discoverer
of all learning.
Note. — But such agreement is often impossible : as, — Olim tnincuB eram ficulnus,
inutile Ggnum (Her. S. 1. 8. 1), I once was a fig-tree trunks a useless log.
d. A common noun in apposition with a Locative (§ 427) is put in
the Ablative, with or without the preposition in : —
Antiochiae, celebri quondam orbe (Arch. 4), aJb Antioch, once a famous city.
Albae cOnstitSrunt, in urbe munlta (Phil. iv. 6), tJiey haUed at Alba, a forti-
fied town.
For a Genitive in apposition with a Possessive Pronoun or an Adjective, see § 802. e.
For the so-called Appositional Genitive, see § 343. d.
For the construction with ndmen est, see § 373. a.
170 SYNTAX: AGREEMENT [§§283-286
Predicate Noun or Adjectire
283. With sum and a few other intransitive or passive verbs, a
noun or an adjective describing or defining the subject may stand in
the predicate. This is called a Predicate Noun or ^^djective•
The verb sum is especially common in this construction, and when
so used is called the copula (i.e. connective).
Other verbs which take a predicate noim or adjective are the so-
called copulative verbs signifying to become, to be made^ to be named,
to appear, and the like.
284. A Predicate Noun or Adjective after the copula sum or a
copulative verb is in the same case as the Subject : —
pftcis semper auctor ful (Lig. 28), I have always been an adviser of peace,
quae pertinftcia quibusdam, eadem alils constantia vidSrl potest (Marc. 31),
w?iat may seem obstinacy to some, may seem to others consistency.
§iu8 mortis sedetis ultores (Mil. 79), you sit as avengers of his death,
habe&tur yir egregius Paulus (Cat. iv. 21), let Paulus be regarded as an
extraordinary man,
ego patrdnas exstiti (Hose. Am. 5), I have come forward as an advocate,
dlclt nOn omnls bonOs esse be&tos, he says that not all good men are happy.
a. A predicate noun referring to two or more singular nouns is
in the plural: —
cSnstties creantur Caesar et Servllius (B. C. iii. 1), C(Bsar and ServUius are
elected consuls.
b. Sum in the sense of exist makes a complete predicate without a
predicate noun or adj ective. It is then called the substantive verb : —
sunt virl fortes, there are (exist) brave men, [Cf. vizere fortes ante Agamem-
nona (Hor. Od. iv. 9. 26), brave men lived b^ore Agamemnon.^
For Predicate Accusative and Predicate Ablative, see §§ 392, 415. n.
AGREEMENT OF ADJECTIVES
Attributive and Predicate Adjectives
285. Adjectives are either Attributive or Predicate.
1. An Attributive Adjective simply qualifies its noun without
the intervention of a verb or participle, expressed or implied: as,
-^ bonus imperator, a good commander; stellae lilcidae, bright stars;
verbum Graecum, a Greek word.
J
§§ 285, 286] AGREEMENT OF ADJECTIVES 171
2. All other adjectives are called Predicate Adjectives : —
stellae Ificidae erant, the stars were bright.
sit Sclpi5 cUras (Cat. iv. 21), let Scipio he iUustrioue.
homines mitis reddidit (Inv. i. 2), Jias rendered men mild.
tria praedia CapitOnI propria trSlduntar (Rose. Am. 21), three forme are
handed over to Capito as his ovm.
cGnsilium cSperunt plinom sceleris (id. 28), fhej/ formed a plan full of
viUany,
NoTiB. — A predicate adjective may be used with sum or a copulative verb ({ 283) ; it
may have the constructiou of a predicate accusative after a verb of naming, calling , or
tlie like (§ 393. v.) ; or it may be used in apposition like a noun (§ 282. 6).
Rules of Ag;reement
286. Adjectives, Adjective Pronouns, and Participles agree
i?srith their nouns in Gender^ Number^ and Case : —
vir fortis, a brave man.
nia molier, that woman.
urbiam mftgnimm, of great cities.
cum ducentis mllitibus, with two hundred soldiers.
imper&tor victus est, t?ie general was beaten.
secfitae sunt tempest&t€s, storms followed.
Note. — All rules for the agreement of adjectives apply also to adjective pronouns
and to participles.
a. With two or more nouns the adjective is regularly plural, but
often agrees with the nearest (especially when attributive) : —
NIsus et Euryalus primi (Aen. v. 294), Nisus and EuryaXus first
Caesaris onmi et gratis, et opibus fruor (Fam. i. 9. 21), I enjoy all Ccesar'^s favor
and resources.
NoTB. — An adjective referring to two nouns connected by the preposition cum is
occasionally plural (synesis, § 280. a): as,— luba cum LabienO capti (B. Afr. 52), Juba
and Labienus were taken.
b. A collective noun may take an adjective of a different gender
and number agreeing with the gender and number of the individuals
implied (synesisy § 280. a): —
pars cert&re parftti (Aen. v. 108), a part ready to contend.
colOniae aliquot dedactae, PrIscI Latin! appell&ti (Liv. i. 3), several colonies
were planted (led out) [of men] caUed Old Latins.
multitUdd convlcti sunt (Tac. Ann. xv. 44), a multitude were convicted.
mftgna pars raptae (id. i. 9), a large part [of the women] were seized.
KoTB. — A superlative in the predicate rarely takes the gender of a partitive geni-
tive by which it is limited: as,— vHScissimum animalium delphlnus est (Plin. N. H.
ix. 20), the dolphin is the swiftest [creature] of creatures.
172 SYNTAX: ADJECTIVES [§§287,288
287. One adjective may belong in sense to two or more nouns
of different genders. In such cases, —
1. An Attributive Adjective agrees with the nearest noun : —
multae operae ac labOris, of much trouble and toU.
vita mOresque mei, my life and character.
si r68, 8l vir, si tempus fillum dignum fuit (Mil. 19), if any thing ^ if any
man^ if any time was fit,
2. A Predicate Adjective may agree with the nearest noun, if the
nouns form one connected idea : —
factos est strepitus et admurmuratiO (Verr. i. 45), a noise of assent was made
(noise and murmur).
Note. — This is only when the copula agrees with the nearest suhject (§ 317, c).
3. But generally, a Predicate Adjective will be masculine, if nouns
of different genders mean living beings; neuter, if things without
life : —
uxor delude ac llberl amplexi (Liv. ii. 40), then his wife and children embraced
him.
labor (m.) yoluptftsque (f.) societSlte qu3,dam inter sS nSX^SAl sunt inncta (n.)
(id. V. 4), labor and delight are hound together by a certain natural odU-
ance,
4. If nouns of different genders include both living beingg and
things without life, a Predicate Adjective is sometimes masculine (or
feminine), sometimes neuter, and sometimes agrees in gender with
the nearest if that is plural : —
rex r6giaque classis tina profecti (Liv. xxi. 60), the king and the royal fijeet set
out together.
n&ttLra inimlca sunt libera clvitSte et rSx (id. xliv. 24), lyy nature a free state
and a king are hostile.
leg&tOs sortesque Oraculi exspectandas (id. v. 15), that the ambassadors and
the replies of the oracle shmild be waited for,
a. Two or more abstract nouns of the same gender may have a
Predicate Adjective in the neuter plural (cf. § 289. c) : —
stultitia et temeritSs et iniOstitia . . . sunt fagienda (Fin. iii. 89), /o%, rashr
ness, and injustice are [things] to be shunned.
Adjectives used Substantively
288. Adjectives are often used as Nouns (sttbstantivelyythe
masculine usually to denote men ot people in general of that kind,
the feminine women, and the neuter things : —
§§ 288, 289] ADJECTIVES USED SUBSTANTIVELY 178
omnes, aU men (everybody). omnia, all things (everything).
mdiOres, ancestors. minOrSs, descendants,
ROmanl, Romans, barbarl, barbarians.
liberta, afreedwoman, Sablnae, t?ie SabiTie wives.
sapiens, a sage (philosopher). amicus, a friend.
boni, the good (good people). bona, goods, property.
NoTB. — The plural of adjectives, pronouns, and participles is very common in this
use. The singular is comparatively rare except in the neuter (§ 289. a, c) and in words
-tliat have become practically nouns.
a* Certain adjectives have become practically nouiis^ and are often
XDLodifLed by other adjectives or by the possessive genitive : —
tuus vicinus prozimus, your next-door neighbor.
propinqiu c@teri, his other relatives.
meus aequalis, a man of my own age.
§ius familiaris Catilina (Har. Resp. 6), his intimate friend Catiline.
I^eptae nostri familiarissimus (Fam. ix. 13. 2), a very close friend of our friend
Lepta.
b» When ambiguity would arise from the substantive use of an
adjective, a noun must be added : —
bonI, the good; omnia, everything (all things) ; but, —
potentia onmium rgrum, power over everything.
ۥ Many adjectives are used substantively either in the singular
or the plural, with the added meaning of some noun which is under-
stood from constant association : —
Africus [ventus], the southwest wind; ISnu&rius [mgnsis], January; vitu-
llna [car5], veal (calf's flesh) ; fera [bSstia], a wild beoM; patria [terra],
t?ie fatherland ; Gallia [terra], Gaul (the land of the Galll); hibema
[castra], vnnter quarters ; trirgmis [navis], a three-banked galley j trireme;
argent&rius [faber], a silversmith; rSgia [domus], the palace; Latlnae
[fSriae], the Latin festival.
Note. — These adjectives are tpedfic in meaning, not generic like those in § 288.
They include the names of winds and months (§ 31).
For Nouns used as Adjectives, see § 321. c.
For Adverbs used like Adjectives, see § 321. d.
289. Neuter Adjectives are used substantively in the following
special senses : —
a. The neuter singular may denote either a single object or an
abstract quality ; —
raptS vivere, to live by plunder. in &rid5, on dry ground.
honestum, an homyrabU act, or virtue (as a quality).
opus est mAttirato, tliere is need of haste. [Of. impersonal passives, § 208. d.]
174 SYNTAX: ADJECTIVES [§§280-291
b. The neuter plural is used to signify objects in general having
the quality denoted, and hence may stand for the abstract idea : —
honesta, honoraJbie deeds (in general). praeterita, the past (lit., bygones).
oiunSs fortia laudant, aXL men praise bravery (brave things).
c. A neuter adjective may be used as an appositive or predicate
noun with a noun of different gender (cf . § 287. a) : —
tiiste lupus stabulls (Eel. iii. 80), the wolf [is] a grieoous thing for the fold. <
yarium et miitAbile semper fSmina (Aen. iv. 669), woman is ener a changing
and fickle thing,
malum mihl vidstur esse mors (Tusc. i. 9), death seemx to me to he an evil I
d. A neuter adjective may be used as an attributive or a predicate
adjective with an infinitive or a substantive clause: —
istac ipsom nOn esse (Tusc. i. 12), that very ^^ not to be,'* ^
Ykfminum. est errftre, to err is human,
aliud est err&re Caesarem nolle, aliud nolle miserSrl (Lig. 16), it is one thing
to be unwilling that Coesar shx)uld err, another to be ununlling thai hi
sJiould pity.
Adjectives with Adverbial Force
290. An adjective, agreeing with the subject or object, is often
used to qualify the action of the verb, and so has the force of an
adverb : —
pzimas vSnit, he was the first to come (came first).
noUus dubitO, I no way doubt.
laeti audiere, they were glad to hear,
erat BOmae frequens (Rose. Am. Id), he was often at Rome.
8§ra8 in caelum redeSs (Hor. Od. i. 2. 45), mayst tliou return late to heaven.
Comparatives and Superlatives
291. Besides their regular signification (as in English), the
forms of comparison are used as follows : —
a* The Comparative denotes a considerable or excessive degree of
a quality: as, — brcvior, rather short; audAcior, too bold,
b» The Superlative (of eminence) often denotes a vert/ high degree
of a quality without implying a distinct comparison: as, — mOns
altissimus, a very high mountain^
NoTB. — The Superlative of Eminence is much used in compUmentary referenoei
to persons and may often be translated by the simple positive.
291-2»3] COMPARATIVES AND SUPERLATIVES 175
o. With quam, vel, or tinus the Superlative denotes the highest pos-
*I>Ze degree : —
qaam plaiimi, as many as possible,
qaam mazimS potest (mazimS qaam potest), 03 much as can be.
vel minimtts, the very least.
vir Unas doctissimas, the one most learned man.
^OTB 1. — A high degree of a quality is also denoted by snch adyerbs as adnvdun,
aide, very, or by per or prae in composition (§ 267. d. 1): as, — valdJ malus, very bad=
essimus; pemuLgnuB, very great; praealtus, very high (or deep).
^OTB 2. — A low degree of a quality is indicated by sub in composition : as, — sub-
asticas, rather clownish, or by minus, not very ; minimS, not at all; parom, not enough ;
i5ii satis, not much,
NoTB 3. —The comparative m&idrSs (for niAi6r68 nitii, greater by birth) has the spe-
dal signiiication of ancestors ; so minSrSs often means descendants.
For the Superlative with quisque, see § 313. 6. For the construction of a substantive
if ter a Comparative, see §§ 406, 407 ; for that of a clause, see § 536. c, 571. a. For the
Ablative of Degree of Difference with a Comparative (malt5 etc.), see § 414.
292. When two qualities of an object are compared, both adjec-
tives are in the Comparative : —
longior quam l&tior aci€s erat (Li v. xxvii. 48), the line was longer tJian it was
broad (or, ratfier long than broad),
vSrior quam gratior (id. xzii. 88), more true than agreeable.
Note. — So also with adverbs: as, — libentiuB quam vCrius (Mil. 78), with more
freedom than truth.
a. Where magis is used, both adjectives are in the positive : —
disertus magis quam sapiSns (Att. z. 1. 4), eloquent rather than wise.
cUIn magis quam honest! (lug. 8), more renowned than honorable.
Note. — A comparative and a positive, or even two positives, are sometimes con-
nected by quam. This use is rarer and less elegant than those before noticed : —
cUiis m&i5ribus quam vetustis (Tac. Ann. iv. 61), of a family more famous than
old.
vehementiuB quam cautS (Tac. Agr. 4), with more fury than good heed.
293. Superlatives (and more rarely Comparatives) denoting
. order and succession — also medius, [ceterus], reliquus — usually
^ designate not what object^ but what part of iL, is meant : —
summas mOns, the top of the hill,
in ultimS plated, at the end of the place.
prior SctiO, the earlier part of an action.
,^ reliqoi captlvi, the rest of the prisoners,
p m coUe medio (B. G. 1. 24), halfway up the hill (on the middle of the hill).
inter cSteram planitiem (lug. 92), in a region elsewhere level.
Note. ~ A similar use is found in 8Sr& (multfi) nocte, late at night, and the like. But
mediun viae, t?ie middle of the way ; mnltum di$!, much of the day, also occur.
176 SYNTAX: PRONOUNS [§§ 204, 295
PRONOUNS
294. A Pronoun indicates some person or thing without either naming or describ-
ing it. Pronouns are derived from a distinct class of roots, which seem to have denoted
only ideas of place and direction (§ 228. 2), and from which nouns or verbs can very
rarely be formed. They may therefore stand for Nouns when the person or thing,
being already present to the senses or imagination, needs only to be pointed out, not
name^.
Some pronouns indicate the object in itself, without reference to its class, and have
no distinction of gender. These are Personal Pronouns. They stand syntactically
for Nouns, and have the same construction as nouns.
Other pronouns designate a particular object of a class, and take the gender of the
individuals of that class. These are called Adjective Pronouns. They stand for
Adjectives, and have the same construction as adjectives.
Others are used in both ways ; and, though called adjective pronouns, may also be
treated as personal, taking, however, the gender of the object indicated.
In accordance with their meanings and uses, Pronouns are classified as follows: —
Personal Pronouns (§ 295) . Interrogative Pronouns (§ 333) .
Demonstrative Pronouns (§ 296). Relative Pronouns (§ 303).
Reflexive Pronouns (§ 299). Indefinite Pronouns (§ 309).
Possessive Pronouns (§ 302).
Personal Pronouns
295. The Personal Pronouns have, in general, the same con-
structions as nouns.
a. The personal pronouns are not expressed as subjects, except for
distinction or emphasis : —
te vocO, I call you. But, —
quis m3 vocat ? ego t6 voc5, who is caUing me? I (emphatic) am caUing you.
5. The personal pronouns have two forms for the genitive plural,
that in -um being used partitively (§ 346), and that in -i oftenest
objectively (§ 348) : —
m&ior vestrum, the elder of you.
habetis ducem memorem vestn, oblitum sui (Cat. iv. 19), you have a leader
who thinks (is mindful) of you andforgeis (is forgetful of) himself.
pars nostrum, apart (i.e. some) of us.
Note 1. — The genitives nostram, vestrum, are occasionally used objectively (§ 348) :
as, — capidus vestnun (Verr. iii. 224), /ond of you ; ciistSs vestrom (Cat. iii. 29), theguar-
dianofyou (your guardian).
Note 2. — " One of themselves ** is expressed by unus ex suis or ipsis (rarely ex s£),
or unus 8a5ram.
c. The Latin has no personal pronouns of the third person except
the reflexive s5. The want is supplied by a Demonstrative or Rela-
tive (§§ 296. 2,^08./).
§ 296, 297] DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS 177
Demonstrative Pronouns
296. Demonstrative Pronouns are used either adjectively or
iubstantively. .
1. As adjectives, they follow the rules for the agreement of adjec-
tives and are called Adjective Pronouns or Pronominal Adjectives
(§§286,287); —
hoc proelid factO, after this battle was foughJb (this battle having been fought).
eddem proelio, in the same battle,
ex eis aedificils, out of those buildings.
2. As s ubstantives, they are equivalent to personal pronoims. This
use is regular in the oblique cases, especially of is : —
Caesar et exercitus eius, CoBsar and his army (not suus). [But, Caesar
exercitum suum dimlsit, Coesar disbanded his [own] army.]
si obsid€s ab eis dentur (B. G. i. 14), if hostages should be given by them
(persons just spoken of),
hi sunt extra prOvinciam tr^ns Bhodanum piimi (id. i. 10), they (those just
mentioned) are the first [inhabitants] across the Rhone,
iUe minimum propter adulescentiam poterat (id. i. 20), he (emphatic) had
very litHe power, on account of his yovih,
a. An adjective pronoun usually agrees with an appositive or
predicate noun, if there be one, rather than with the word to which
it refers (cf . § 306) : —
hic locus est tinus qu5 perfugiant ; hie portus, haec arx, haec &ra sociOrum
(Verr. v. 126), this is the only place to which they canfieefor refuge; this
is the haven, this the citadel, this the altar of the allies.
r€rum caput hoc erat, hic f 5ns (Hor. Ep. i. 17. 45), this was the head of thirigs,
this the source.
earn sapientiam interpretantur quam adhHc mortSIis nSmO est cOnsectltus
[for id . . . quod] (Lael. 18), they explain thai [thing] to be wisdom which
no man ever yet attained,
297. The main uses of hic, ille, iste, and is are the following: —
a. ffic is used of what is near the speaker (in time, place, or
thought). It is hence called the demonstrative of the first person.
It is sometimes used of the speaker himself ; sometimes for " the
latter" of two persons or things mentioned in speech or writing;
more rarely for " the former," when that, though more remote on the
written page, is nearer the speaker in time, place, or thought. Often
it refers to that which has just been mentioned.
178 SYNTAX: PRONOUNS [§§ 297, 2W
&• nie is used of what is remote (in time, etc.) ; and is hence callec
the demonstrative of the third person.
It is sometimes used to mean " the former '^ ; also (usually follow
ing its noun) of what 'v&famotis or well-known ; often (especially thf
neuter illud) to mean << the following."
c. I8te is used of what is between the two others in remoteness:
often in allusion to the person addressed, — hence called the demon'
strative of the second person.
It especially refers to one's opponent (in court, etc.), and fre-
quently implies antagonism or contempt.
dm b is a weaker demonstrative than the others and is especially
common as a personal pronoun. It does not denote any special object
but refers to one just mentioned, or to be afterwards explained by a
relative. Often it is merely a correlative to the relative qui : —
yfinit mihi obviam tuus puer, is mlhi lltterfts abs tS reddidit (Att. ii. 1. 1).
your boy met me, he delivered to me a letter from you.
earn quern, one w?U)m. ,
etun cOnsolem qui nOn dabitet (Cat. iv. 24), a consul who wiU not hesitate.
ۥ The pronouns hie, ille, and is are used to point in either direction,
back to something just mentioned or forward to something about io
be mentioned.
The neuter forms often refer to a clause, phrase, or idea : —
est iUad quidem vel maximum, animum vidSre (Tasc. i. 62), tJiat is in truth
a very great thing, — to seetfie soul.
/. The demonstratives are sometimes used as pronouns of refer-
ence, to indicate with emphasis a noun or phrase just mentioned : —
ntillam virtus aliam mercSdem dSsIderat praeter hanc laudis (Arch. 28),
virtue toants no other reward except that [just mentioned] of praise.
Note. — But the ordinary English use of that of is hardly known in Latin. Com-
monly the genitive construction is continued without a pronoun, or some other con-
struction is preferred : —
cum ei SimOnides artem memoriae polliceretur : obfiyiSnis, inquit, mallem (Fin. ii.
104), when Simonides promised him the art of memory, **I should prefer,"
said he, " [that] of forgelfvlness."
Caesaris ezercitus PompeiftnSs ad Pharsalum vicit, the army of Cmsar d^eated
that of Pompey (the Pompeians) at Pharsalus.
298. The main uses of Idem and ipse are as follows : —
a. When a quality or act is ascribed with emphasis to a person
or thing already named, is or idem (often with the conoessiye quidem)
is used to indicate that person or thing : —
20S3 DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS 179
X>6r tlnnm semun et earn ex gladi&tSriO ItldG (Att. i. 16. 5), by meam of a
single slave, and that too one from the gladiatorial school,
^incula, et ea sempiterna (Cat. iv. 7), imprisonment, and that perpetual.
"Ti. Gracchus regnum occup&re cOnatus est, vel rSgnftvit is qaidem paucOs
m€D8is (Lael. 41), Tiberius Gracchus tried to usurp royal power, or
rather he actually reigned a few months,
I^OTB. — So rarely with ille : as, — nunc dextra ingeminans ictus, nunc iUe sinistra
(.A^exi. V. 467), now dealing redoubled blows with his right hand, now (he) with his l^t,
{Ttl imitation of the Homeric dye: cf. Aen. v. 334; iz. 796.]
&• Idem, the same, is often used where the English requires an
adverb or adverbial phrase (also, too, yet, at the same time): —
GrfttiO splendlda et grandis et eadem in primis fac€ta (Brut. 273), an oration,
brilliant, able, and very witty too,
cam [haec] dicat, negat idem esse in De5 gr&tiam (N. D. i. 121), w?ien he
says this, he denies also that there is mercy with Ood (he, the same man).
NoTK. — This is really the same use as in a ahove, but in this, case the pronoun
cajinot be represented by a pronoun in English.
c. The intensive ipse, self, is used with any of the other pronouns,
with a noun, or with a temporal adverb for the sake of emphasis : —
tarpe mihi ipsi videbatur (Phil. i. 9), even to me (to me myself) it seemed
disgrac^ul.
id ipsum, tJuU very thing; quod ipsom, which of itself alone,
in eum ipsom locum, to that very place,
torn ipsom (Off. ii. 60), at that very time.
Note 1. — The emphasis of ipse is often expressed in English hyjust, very, mere, etc.
Note 2. — In English, the pronouns himself etc. are used both intensively (as, he
will come himself) and reflexively (as, he will kill himself) : in Latin the former would
be translated by ipse, the latter by eg or sSsS.
d. Ipee is often used alone, substantively, as follows : —
1. As an emphatic pronoun of the third person : —
idque re! publicae praeclftrum, ipsis glOriOsum (Phil. ii. 27), and this was
splendid for t%e state, glorious for themselves.
omnSs boni quantum in ipsis fuit (id. ii. 29), aU good men so far as wa^ in
their power (in themselves),
d! capiti ipsius generique reservent (Aen. viii. 484), may the gods hold in
reserve [such a fate] to fall on his own and his son-in4aw^s head,
2. To emphasize an omitted subject of the first or second person : —
vObtecum ipsi recordaminl (Phil. ii. 1), remember in your own minds (your-
selves with yourselves).
3. To distingpiish the principal personage from subordinate persons : —
ipse dixit (cf. a^&s l0a), he (the Master) said it,
NOment&nus erat super ipsom (Hor. S. ii. 8. 23), Nomentanus was above [the
host] himself [at table].
180 SYNTAX: PRONOUNS [§§298 300
e. Ipse is often (is rarely) used instead of a reflexive (see § 30O. b).
/• Ipse usually agrees with the subject, even when the real empha-
sis in English is on a reflexive in the predicate : —
mg ipse c0n85lor (Lael. 10), I console myaeif, [Not me ipsom, as the !Eiig-
lish would lead us to expect.]
Reflexive Pxonoons
299. The Reflexive Pronoun (sC), and usually its corresponding
possessive (suus), are used in the predicate to refer to the subject
of the sentence or clause : —
se ex navl pr5iecit (B. G. iv. 25), he threw himself from the ship.
Dumnorlgem ad sS vocat (id. i. 20), he caXLs Dumnorix to him,
sese castrls tenSbant (id. iii. 24), they kept themselves in camp.
contemnl sS putant (Cat. M. 65), they think they are despised.
Caesar suis c5pida subducit (B. 6. i. 22), Coesar leads up his troops.
Caesar statuit sibi Bhenum esse transeuudum (id. iv. 16), Ccesar decided that
he must cross the Rhine (the Rhine must be crossed by himself).
a. For reflexives of the first and second persons the oblique cases
of the personal pronouns (mei, tui, etc.) and the corresponding pos-
sessives (meus, tuus, etc.) are used : —
morti me obtull (Mil. 94), I have exposed myself to death.
hiuc te re^nae ad limina perfer (Aen. i. 389), do you go (bear yourself)
Jience to the queen's threshold.
quid est quod tantis nos in labOribus exerceSLmus (Arch. 28), w?ud reason is
there why we should exert ourselves in so great toils f
singulis vobis nov^nOs ex turmis manipulisque vestxf similes Sligite (Liv.
xxi. 54), for each of you pick out from the squadrons and maniples nine
like yourselves.
300. In a subordinate clause of a complex«sentence there is a
double use of Reflexives.
1. The reflexive may always be used to refer to the subject of its
own clause (Direct Reflexive) : —
itidic&rl potest quantum habeat in se boni cOnstantia (B. G. L 40), t£ can he
determined how much good firmness possesses (has in itself).
[Caesar] nOluit eum locum vac&re, ne German! 3 snls finibus trfinsirent
(id. i. 28), Caesar did not wish this place to lie vacant, for fear the Ger-
mans would cross over from their territories.
si qua signific&tio virtatis eltlceat ad quam se similis animus adplicet et
adiongat (LaeL 48), if any sign of virtue shine forOi to which a simUat
disposition may attach VMf.
§ 300] REFLEXIVE PRONOUNS 181
2. If the subordinate clause expresses the words or thought of the
s\i"bject of the main clause, the reflexive is regularly used to refer to
'klia^t subject (Indirect Reflexive) : —
petierunt at sibi licSret (B. G. i. 30), they begged that it might be allowed
them (the petitioners).
Iccius nuntium mittit, nisi subsidium sibi submitt&tur (id. it 6), Icciua sends
a message that unless relief be furnished himy etc.
decima legiO el gr&tiSs 6git, quod d@ se optimum iudicium fecisset (id. i. 41),
the tenth legion thanked him because [they said] Ae had expressed a high
opinion of them,
el obsides ab eis (the Helvetians) sibi (Caesar, 'who is the speaker) dentur, se
(Caesar) cum els pacem esse facturum (id. i. 14), [Caesar said that] if
hostages were given him by them he would make peace with them,
NoTB. — Sometimes the person or thing to which the reflexive refers is not the
grammatical subject of the main clause, though it is in effect the subject of discourse :
TbuSy — cum ipsi de5 nihil minus gratum futurum sit quam nOn omnibus patere ad se
placandnm viam (Legg. ii. 26), since to God himself nothing wUl be less pleasing than
that the way to appease him siwuld not be open to all men,
a. If the subordinate clause does not express the words or thought
of the main subject, the reflexive is not regularly used, though it is
occasionally found : —
sunt ita midti ut eds career capere n5n possit (Cat. ii. 22), th^ey are so m^ny
that the prison cannot Jiold them. [Here se could not be used ; so also
in the example following.]
ibi in proximls villls ita bipartite f uerunt, ut Tiberis inter eds et p5ns inter-
esset (id. iii. 5), tfiere they stationed themselves in the nearest farm-
houseSy in two divisions, in such a manner that the Tiber and the bridge
were between them (the divisions).
ndn fuit e5 contentus quod ei praeter spem acciderat (Manil. 25), h£ was not
content with that which had happened to him beyond his hope.
Compare : qui fit, Maecenas, ut n€mO, quam sibi sortem sen ratl5 dederit
sen fors obiCcerit, ilia contentus vivat (Hor. S. i. 1. 1), how comes it,
McBcenas, that nobody lives contented with that lot which choice has
assigned him or chance ?ias thrown in his way f [Here sibi is used to
put the thought into the mind of the discontented man.]
ft. Ipse is often (is rarely) used instead of an indirect reflexive,
either to avoid ambiguity or from carelessness ; and in later writers
is sometimes found instead of the direct reflexive : —
cflr de sua virtate aut d6 ipslos dlligentia d6sp6rarent (B. G. i. 40), why
(he asked) sJumld they despair of their oum courage or his diligence f
omnia aut ipsos aut host€s populates (Q. C. iii. 6. 6), [they said that] either
they themselves or the enemy had laid aU waste, [Direct reflexive.]
182 SYNTAX: PRONOUNS [§§ 300, 301
qui 86 ex his minus timidOs exlstim&rl volSbant, nOn sfi hostem vererl, sed
angu8ti9s itineris et m&gnitudinem silvdrum-quae interc^erent inter
ipsos (the persons referred to by se above) atque Ariovistum . . . timbre
dicebant (B. G. L 39), those of them who wished to he thought less timid
said they did not fear the enemy ^ hid were afraid of the narrows and the
vast extent of the forests which were between themselves and Ariovisttis.
audlstis naper dicere leg&tOs Tyndarit&nOs Mercurium qui sacris anniver-
s&rils apud eos colerStur esse subUtum (Verr. iv. 84), you have just heard
the amhoModors from Tyndaris say that the statue of Mercury which was
worshipped with annual rites among them vKts taken away. [Here Cicero
wavers between apud eos colebfttur, a remark of his own, and apod se
colerStar, the words of the ambassadors, eos does not strictly refer to
the ambassadors, but to the people — the TyndaritanL]
301. Special uses of the Reflexive are the following : —
a. The reflexive in a subordinate clause sometimes refers to the
subject of a suppressed main clause : —
Paetus omnis librOs quSs f rater snas rellquisset mihi dOn&vit (Att. ii. 1),
Pastu^ gave me all the hooks which (as he said in the act of donation)
his brother had l^ him.
6. The reflexive may refer to any noun or pronoun in its own clause
which is so emphasized as to become the subject of discourse: —
Socratem clv6s sai interfecSrunt, Socrates was put to death by his ovmfeUoW'
citizens.
qui poterat salQs sua cuiqaam nOn prob&rl (Mil. 81), how can any one fail
to approve his own safety? [In this and the preceding example the
emphasis is preserved in English by the change of voice.]
banc si sectitl erunt sui comites (Cat. ii. 10), this man, if his companions
follow him.
NoTB. — Occasionally the clause to which the reflexive really belongs is absorbed :
as, — studeO sanare sibi ipsos (Cat. ii. 17), / am anxious to cure these m^nfor their own
benefit (i.e. at s&nl sibi sint).
c. Suus is used for one^s own, as emphatically opposed to that of
others, in any part of the sentence and with reference to any word
in it : —
sals flammis delete FldfinSs (Liv. iv. 33), destroy FideruB with its own fires
(the fires kindled by that city, figuratively). [Cf. Cat. i. 32.]
d. The reflexive may depend upon a verbal noun or adjective: —
sai laus, self-praise.
habetis ducem memorem vestrl, oblltum soi (Cat. iv. 19), you have a leader
mindful of you, forgetful of himself.
perditi homings cum sai simUibus flervis (Phil. i. 6), abandoned men with
slaves like them^lif^,
§§ 301, 302J POSSESSIVE PRONOUNS 188
e» The reflexive may refer to the subject implied in an infinitive
or verbal abstract used indefinitely : —
coutentum sals rebus esse maximae sunt divitlae (Par. 51), the greatest
weaUh is to be content toith one^s own,
cui prOposita sit cOnservatiO sui (Fin. v. 87), one whose aim is self-preservation.
f. Inter sS (nOs, vOs), among themselves (ourselves, yourselves), is
regularly used to express reciprocal action or relation : —
inter se cGn^gunt (Cat. i. 25), contend with each other, ^
inter 85 continentur (Arch. 2), are joined to each other.
Possessive Pronouns
302. The Possessive Pronouns are derivative adjectives, which
take the gender, number, and case of the noun to which they
belong^ not those of* the possessor : —
haec Om&menta sunt mea (Val. iv. 4), these are my jewels, [mea is neuter
plural, though the speaker is a woman.]
mei sunt GrdinSs, mea dlscilptiO (Cat. M. 59), mine are the rows, mine the
arrangement, [mea is feminine, though the speaker is Cyrus.]
multa in nostro collegia praecUra (id. 64), [there are] many fine things in
our college, [nostrd is neuter singular, though men are referred to.]
Germ&m buSlb cOpi^ castrls €duxerunt (B. 6. i. 51), the Germans led their
troops out of the camp.
a. To express possession and similar ideas the possessive pro-
nouns are regularly used, not the genitive of the personal or reflexive
pronouns (§ 343. a): —
domus mea, my house. [Not domus me!.]
pater noster, our father. [Not pater nostri.]
patrimOnium taam, your inheritance. [Not tni.]
Note 1. — Exceptions are rare in classic Latin, common in later writers. For
the use of a i>oss68sive pronoun instead of an Objective Genitive, see § 348. a.
NoTB 2. — The Interrogative Possessive c&ius, -a, -um, occurs in poetry and early-
Latin : as, — cdium pecus (Eel. iii . 1) , whose flock f The genitive cdias is generally used
instead.
5. The possessives have often the acquired meaning oi peculiar to,
favorable or propitious towards y the person or thing spoken of : —
[petere] at 8U& clementi§, ac mansuStudine titatur (B. G. ii. 14), they asked
(they said) that he would show his [wonted] clemency and humanity.
IgnOrantI quern portum petat nuUus suus ventus est (Sen. Ep. 71. 3), to
him who knows not what port he is bound to, no wind is fair (his own).
tempore tuo ptign£Lsti (Li v. xxxviii. 45. 10), did you fight at a fit time?
NoTB. — This use is merely a natural development of the meaning of the possess-
ive, and the pronoun may often be rendered Uterally.
184 STNTAX: PRONOUNS [§§802,303
ۥ The possessives are reg^ulaxly omitted (like other pronouns)
when they are plainly implied in the context : —
socium fraud&^it, he cJiecUed his partner, [sodiim soiim would be distinctive,
his partner (and not another's) ; saumsociiim, emphatic, hisotonpcurtner.]
d* Possessive pronouns and adjectives implying possession are
often used substantively to denote some special class or relation : —
nostri, our countrymen, or men of our party.
BUOB continSbat (B. 6. i. 15), he held his men in check.
fl^mnna. extrSma mednmi (Aen. IL 431), last flames of my countrymen.
SullSui, the veterans of Suila^s army; Pomp^&nl, the partisans of Pampey.
NoTB. — There is no reason to sappose an ellipsis here. The adjective becomes
a noun like other adjectives (see § 288).
e. A possessive pronoun or an adjective implying possession may
take an appositive in the genitive case agreeing in gender, number,
and case with an implied noun or pronoun : —
mea solins cansd (Ter. Heaut. 129), for my sake only.
in nostr5 omnitim fletu (Mil. 92), amid the tears ofusaU.
ex Afitiiang Mil5nis domO ( Att. iv. 3. 3) , out of Annius MHo^s house. [Equiva-
lent to ez Ann! ttilonis dom5.]
nostra omnium patria, the country of us aU.
suum ipsins rSgnum, his own kingdom.
For the special reflexive use of the possessive suus, see §§ 299, 300.
Relative Pronouns
303. A Relative Pronoun agrees with some word expressed or implied either in
its own clause, or (often) in the antecedent (demonstrative) clause. In the fullest con-
struction the antecedent is expressed in both clauses, with more commonly a corre-
sponding demonstrcUive to which the relative refers : as, — iter in ea loca facere coepit,
qaibas in lods esse Germanos audiebat (B. 6. Iv. 7), he began to march into those
PLACES in which placbs he heard the Oermans were. But one of these nouns is com-
monly omitted.
The antecedent is in Latin very frequently (rarely in English) found in the relative
clause, but more commonly in the antecedent clause.
Thus relatives serve two uses at the same time : —
1. As Nouns (or Adjectives) in their own clause: as, — ei qui Alesiae obsidebantnr
(B. G. vii. 77), those who were besieged at Alesia.
2. As Connectives : as, — T. Balventius, qui superiOre ann5 primum pilum duxeiat
(id. V. 35), Titus Balventius, who the year before had been a centurion oftheflrstrank.
When the antecedent is in a different sentence, the relative is often equivalent
to a demonstrative with a conjunction : as, — quae cum ita sint (=et cum ea ita sint),
[and] since this is so.
The subordinating force did not belong to the relative originally, but was developed
from an interrogative or indefinite meaning 8i)ecialized by use. But the subordinat*
ing and the later connective force were acquired by qui at such an early period that
the steps of the process cannot now be traced.
>§ 304-306] RELATIVE PRONOUNS 186
304L A Relative Pronoun indicates a relation between its own
clause and some substantive. This substantive is called the Ante-
cedent of the relative.
Thus, in the sentence —
earn nihil dSlectftbat qaod fSs esset (MO. 43), nothing pleased him which was
rights
the relative quod connects its antecedent nihil with the predicate f&s
esset, indicating a relation between the two.
305. A Relative agrees with its Antecedent in 0-ender and
Number; but its Case depends on its construction in the clause
in which it stands : —
ea dies quam cOnstitaerat yenit (B. G. i. 8), thai day which he had appointed
catne.
pontem qui erat ad Gen&vam iubet rescind! (id. i. 7), Ae orders the bridge
which was near Geneva to be cvi down.
AduatncI, d6 quibas supra diximus, domum reverternnt (id. ii. 29), tJie
Aduatuci^ of wJiom we have spoken above, returned home,
NoTB. — This rule applies to all relative words so far as they are variable in form :
as, qoftlis, qnantns, qulcomque, etc.
a. If a relative has two or more antecedents, it follows the rules
for the agreement of predicate adjectives (§§ 286, 287) : —
fllium et flliam, quSs valdS dilSxit, unO tempore ftmlsit, he lost at the same
tim£ a son and a daughter whom he dearly loved.
grandSs n&tti m&tr6s et parvull liberi, qudrom utrGrumque aetfis misericor-
diam nostram requlrit (Verr. v. 129), ajged matrons and little children,
whose time of life in each case demands our compassion.
Otium atque divitiae, quae prima mort^USs putant (Sail. Cat. 36), idleness and
wealth, which men count the first (objects of desire),
eae frug6s et fructfls quos terra gignit (N. D. ii. 87), those fruits and crops
which the earth produces.
For the Person of the verb agreeing with the Relative, see § 316. a,
306. A Relative generally agrees in gender and number with an
appositive or predicate i^oun in its own clause, rather than with
an antecedent of different gender or number (cf. § 296. a): —
mare etiam quem Neptflnum esse dlcSbSs (N. D. ill. 52), the sea, too, which
you said was Neptune. [Not quod.]
Thebae ipsae, quod BoeOtiae caput est (Liv. xlii. 44), even Thebes, which is
the chief city of Boeotia. [Not quae.]
NoTB. — This rule is occasionally violated: as, — flumen quod appeU&tur Tamesis
(B. 0. T. 11), a river which is called the Thames.
186 SYNTAX: PRONOUNS [§§806,307
a. A relative occasionally agrees with its antecedent in case (by
attraction) : —
A aliquid agSis eorum quorum cOnsuest! (Fam. y. 14), ify(m nhould do somt^
thing of what you are used to do, [For eorum quae.]
Note. — Occasionally the antecedent is attracted into the case of the relatiire : —
urbem quam statuO vestra est (Aen. i. 573), the city which I am founding is yotirs.
Naucratem, quern con venire volui, in navi nOn erat (PI. Am. 1009), NaucrcUes^
whom I wished to meet, was not on board the ship,
6. A relative may agree in gender and number with an irriplied
antecedent : —
quartum genus ... qui in vetere aere ali6n5 vacillant (Cat. ii. 21), a fourth
elass^ who are staggering under old debts.
tinus ex eO numerO qui parati erant (lug. 36), one of the number [of those]
who were ready,
coniuravere panel, d6 qua [i.e. coniflratiOne] dicam (Sail. Cat. 18), a few
have conspired^ of which [conspiracy] I wUl speak.
Note. — So regularly when the antecedent is implied in a possessive pronoun : as,
— nostra acta, quos tyrannOs vocas (Vat. 29), the deeds of uSf whom you call tyrants,
[Here quSs agrees with the nostrum (genitive plural) implied in nostra.]
Antecedent of the Relative
307. The Antecedent Noun sometimes appears in both clauses ;
but usually only in the one that precedes. Sometimes it is
wholly omitted.
a* The antecedent noun may be repeated in the relative clause : —
loci nattira erat haec quern locum nostri d@l€gerant (B. G. ii. 18), the nature
of the ground which our men had chosen was this.
6. The antecedent noun may appear only in the relative clause,
agreeing with the relative in case : —
quas res in cOnsulattL nostrO gessimus attigit hlc versibus (Arch. 28), he has
touched in verse the things which I did in my con,sulship,
quae prima innocentis mihi defensiS est oblata suscSpI (Soil. 92), I under-
took the first defence of an innocent m(in that was offered me.
Note. — In this case the relative clause usually comes first (cf. § 308. <2) and a
demonstrative usually stands in the antecedent clause : —
quae pars civitatis calamitatem populO B5mano intulerat, ea princeps poenas per-
solvit (B. G. i. 12), that part of the state which had brought disaster on the
Romxin people was the first to pay the penalty,
quae gratia currum fuit vivis, eadem sequitur (Aen. vi. 653), tlie same pleasure
that they took in chariots in their lifetime follows them (after death),
qui fit ut nemO, quam sibi sortem ratio dederit, ill! contentus vivat (cf . Hor. S. i.
1.1), how does it happen that ru> one lives contented with the lot which cfioioe
has assigned himf
f§ 307, 308] RELATIVE PRONOUNS 187
€?• The antecedent may be omitted, especially if it is indefinite :
qui decimae legiOnis aquilam ferebat (B. G. iv. 25), [the man] who bore the
eagle of the tenth legion,
qui cognOscerent misit (id. i. 21), he sent [men] to reconnoitre.
<*• The phrase id quod or quae r6s may be used (instead of quod
alone) to refer to a group of words or an idea : —
[obtrectatum est] GabiniO dicam anne Pomp6iO? an utrlque — id quod est
v6rius? (Manil. 57), an affront has been offered-— shall I say to Gabinifia
or to Pompey f or — which is truer — to both ?
multum sunt in v6nati5nibus, quae res vir6s allt (B. G. iv. 1), th^ spend
much time in hunting^ which [practice] increases their strength.
Note. — Butquod alone often occurs : as, — Cassius noster, quod mihi magnae volup-
tati fuit, hostem rSiecerat (Fam. ii. 10), our friend Cassius — which wa^ a great satis-
fcuition to me — had driven back the enemy.
e. The antecedent noun, when in apposition with the main clause,
or with some word of it, is put in the relative clause ; —
firm! [amici], ciiius generis est mS^na p^nuria (Lael. 62), steadfast friends,
a class of which there is great lack (of which class there is, etc.).
/. A predicate adjective (especially a superlative) belonging to the
antecedent may stand in the relative clause : —
vSsa ea quae pulcherrima apud eum viderat (Verr. iv. 63), those most beauti-
ful vessels which he had seen at his house. [Nearly equivalent to the
vessels of which he had seen some very beautiful ones.'\
Special Uses of the Relative
308. In the use of Relatives, the following points are to be
observed : —
a. The relative is never omitted in Latin, as it often is in Eng-
lish : —
liber quern mihi dedisti, the book you gave me.
is sum qui semper fui, I am the sam^ man I always was.
eO in locG est de quo tibi loctitus sum, hsis in the place I told you of.
b» When two relative clauses are connected by a copulative con-
junction, a relative pronoun sometimes stands in the first and a
demonstrative in the last : —
erat profectus obviam legiOnibus Macedonicis quattuor, qu&s sibi concili^re
peciinia cOgitd.bat easque ad urbem adducere (Fam. xii. 23. 2), he ?iad
set out to meet four legions from Macedonia, which he thought to win over
to himself by a gift of money and to lead (them) to the city.
188 SYNTAX: PRONOUNS [§308
m
Cm A relative clause in Latin often takes the place of some other
construction in English, — particularly of a participle, an appositi ve,
or a noun of agency : —
l6g6B quae nunc sunt, tfie existing laws (the laws which now exist).
Caesar qui Galliam vicit, Cassar the conqueror of Oaul,
iOsta gloria qui est frQctus virtatis (Pison. 57), tnie glory [which is] thejruit
of virtue,
ille qui petit, the plaintiff (he who sues),
qui legit, a reader (one who reads).
(i. In formal or emphatic discourse, the relatiye clause usually
comes first, often containing the antecedent noun (cf . § 307. b) : —
quae pars civitfttis HelvStiae Inslgnem calamit&tem popul5 ROm&nO intulerat,
ea princeps poen&s persolvit (B. G. i. 12), the portion of the Helvetian
state which had brought a serious disaster on the Roman people wa^ the
first to pay the penalty.
Note. — In colloquial language, the relative clause in such cases often contains a
redundant demonstrative pronoun which logically helongs in the antecedent clause:
as, — ille qui c<>nsulte cavet, diutine uti bene licet partum bene (Plant. Bud. 1240),
lie who is on his guard, fie may long enjoy what he has well obtained,
e. The relative with an abstract noun may be used in a parenthet-
ical clause to characterize a person, like the English such : —
quae vestra prtldentia est (Gael. 45), sudi is your wisdom, [Equivalent to
pro vestrS. prttdenti&.]
audissSs cOmoedOs vel lectOrem vel lyrist^n, vel, quae mea liberalitas, onmSs
(Plin. £p. i. 15), you would have listened to comedians, or a reader, or a
lyre-player, or — such is my liberality — to cUl of them,
/. A relative pronoun (or adverb) often stands at the beginning of
an independent sentence or clause, serving to connect it with the
sentence or clause that precedes : —
Oaesar statuit ezspectandam classem; quae ubi conv6nit (B. G. iii. 14),
CcBsar decided that he must wait for the fleet; and when this had come
together, etc.
quae qui audiebant, and those who heard this (which things).
quae cum ita sint, and since this is so.
qnSnun quod simile factum (Cat. iv. 13), whM deed of theirs like this?
quo cum vSnisset, and when he had come there (whither when he had come).
Note. — This arrangement is common even when another relative or an interrog-
ative follows. The relative may usually be translated by an English demonstratiye,
with or without and.
gr. A relative adverb is regularly used in referring to an antecedent
in the Locative case; so, often, to express any relation of place instead
of the formal relative pronoun : —
§§ 308-310] INDEFINITE PRONOUNS 189
mortuus C^mls quS s3 contolerat (Liv. ii. 21), having died at Cumce, whither
he had retired, [Here in quam arbem might be used, but Dot in qu&s.]
locus quo aditus ndn erat, a place to which (whither) there was no access^
rSgna onde genus ducis (Aen. v. 801), t?ie kingdom from which you derive
your race.
trnde petitur, the drfendant (he from whom something is demanded).
H. The relatives qui, qu&lis, quantus, quot, etc. are often rendered
simply by as in English: —
idem quod semper, the same as always.
cum esset t&lis qu&lem t6 esse video (Mur. 32), since he was such a man as I
see you are.
tanta dimicS.tiO quanta numquam fuit (Att. yii. 1. 2), such a fight as never
wa4i before.
tot mala quot sidera (Ov. Tr. i. 6. 47), as many troubles as stars in the sky.
i. The general construction of relatives is found in clauses intro-
duced by relative adverbs : as^ ubi, qu9, unde, cum, quarS.
Indefinite Pronouns
309. The Indefinite Pronouns are used to indicate that some
person or thing is meant, without designating what one.
310. Quia, quispiam, aliquis, quidam, are particular indefinites^ mean-
ing some, a certain, any. Of these, quis, ant/ on£, is least definite,
and quidam, a certain one, most definite ; aliquis and quispiam, some
one, stand between the two : —
dizerit quia (quispiam), som£ one may say.
aliqui philosophi ita putant, som e philosophers think so. [quidam would mean
certain persons defined to the speaker's mind, though not named.]
habitant hie quaedam mulierSs pauperculae (Ter. Ad. 647), some poor women
live here [i.e. some women he knows of ; some women or other would
be aliquae or nesciS quae].
a. The indefinite quis is rare except in the combinations si quia, if
any; nisi quis, if any . . . not ; n6 quis, lest any, in order that none ;
^ num quia (ecquis), whether any ; and in relative clauses.
b» The compounds quispiam and aliquis are often used instead of
quis after si, nisi, nS, and num, and are rather more emphatic : —
quid si hoc quispiam voluit deus (Ter. Eun. 875), what if some god had
desired this?
nisi alicui suOrum negOtium daret (Nep. Dion. 8. 2), unless he shxmld employ
some one of his friends.
cavebat Pomp^ius omnia, n6 aliqnid vOs timSrStis (Mil. 66), Pompey took
every precaution, so that you might have no fear.
190 SYNTAX: PRONOUNS [§§311-513
311. In a particular negative aliquis (aliqui), some one (some), is
regularly used, where in a universal negative quisquam, any one,
or Qllus, any^ would be required : —
itbstitia numqaam nocet cniquam (Fin. i. 50), justice never does harm to any-
body, [alicui would mean to somebody who possesses it.]
nOn sine aliquo metti, not without some fear. But, — sine all5 metu, vtUhoui
any fear.
cum aliqoid n6n habe^ (Tusc. i. 88), when there is something you have not.
NoTB. — The same distinction holds between quis and aliqais on the one hand, and
qaisquam (Alias) on the other, in conditional and other sentences when a negative is
eipressed or suggested : —
SI quiaquam, ille sapiens fnit (Lael. 9), if any man was (ever) a sage, he was.
dam praesidia tlU fuemnt (Rose. Am. 126), while there were any anned forces.
si quid in te peccavi (Att. iii. 15. 4), t/ J have done wrong towards you [in any
particular case (see § 310)].
312. Qoivis or quilibet {any one you will), quisquam, and the cor-
responding adjective Qllus, any at all, are general indefinites,
Quivis and qmlibet are used chiefly in affirmative clauses^ quisquam
and Wus in clauses where a universal negative is expressed or sug-
gested : —
DOn coiyis homini contingit adire Corinthum (Hor. Ep. i. 17. 36), t< is Tiot every
man's luck to go to CorirUh, [non coiquam would mean not any man^s.]
qnemlibet mode aliquem (Acad. ii. 132), anybody you will, provided U be
somebody.
si quisquam est timidus, is ego sum (Fam. vi. 14. 1), if any man is timorous^
I am he.
si tempus est dUom itire hominis necandl (Mil. 9), if there is any occasion
whatever when homicide is justifiable.
NoTK. — The use of the indefinites is very various, and must be learned from the
Lexicon and from practice. The choice among them may depend merely on the point
of view of the speaker, so that they are often practically interchangeable. The differ-
ences are (with few exceptions) those of logic, not of syntax.
313. The distributives quisque {every), uterque {each of two), and
taus qtdsque {every single one) are used in general assertions : —
bonus liber melior est quisque quG m&ior (Plin. Ep. i. 20. 4), the larger a
good book is, the better (each good book is better in proportion, etc.).
ambO exercitus suSs quisque abeunt domOs (Liv. ii. 7. 1), both armies go
away, every man to his home.
uterque utiique erat exercitus in c5nspecttl (B. G. vii. 35), each army was
ir^ sight of the other (each to each).
pOnite ante oculOs unum quemque rSgum (Par. 1. 11), set b^ore your eyes each
of the kings.
§ 3X3, 314] INDEFINITE PRONOUNS 191
cr • Quisque regularly stands in a dependent clause, if there is one : —
quo quisque est sollertior, h5c docet irS^^uodius (Rose. Com. 31), the keener-
witted a man is^ the more impatiently he teaches,
^^OTE. — Quisqne is generally postpositiye ^ : as, snom caiqne, to every man his own.
&• Quisque is idiomatically used with superlatives and with ordinal
mrmerals : —
nObilisslmus quisque, all the noblest (one after the other in the order of their
nobility).2
prlm5 quoque tempore (Rose. Am. 36), at the very first opportunity,
antlquissimam quodque tempus (B. 6. i. 46), the most ancient times.
decimus quisque (id. v. 62), one in ten.
^OTE 1. — Two superlatives with qnisqne imply a proportion : as,— sapientlsslmus
quisque aequissimd animd moritur (Cat. M. 83), the toisest men die toith the greatest
equanimity.
NoTK 2. — Quotas quisque has the signification of fioto many, prayf often in a dis-
paraging sense {how few) : —
quotus enim quisque disertns? quotus quisque iuris peritus est (Plane. 62), /or Aoto
few are eloquent! how few are learned in the law I
quotus enim istud quisque fecisset (Ldg. 26), /or how many would have done thisf
[i.e. scarcely anybody would have done it].
314. NSmG, no one^ is used of persons only —
1. As a substantive : —
neminem acctisat, ?ie accuses no one.
2. As an adjective pronoun instead of n&llus: —
yir nemS bonus (Legg. ii. 41), no good man.
None. — Even when used as a substantive, nSm5 may take a noun in apposition:
as, — nSmo scxiptor, nobody [who is] a writer.
a. NttUus^ no, is commonly an adjective ; but in the genitive and
ablative singular it is regularly used instead of the corresponding
cases of nSmC, and in the plural it may be either an adjective or a
substantive : —
nnllum mittitur t€lum (B. C. ii. 13), not a missile is thrown.
naud hoste prohibente (B. G. iii. 6), without opposition from the enemy.
nnllius insector ealamit&tem (Phil. ii. 98) , I persecute the misfortune of no one.
nnllo adiuvante (id. z. 4), with the help of no one (no one helping).
ttolli erant praedQnfis (Flace. 28), there were no pirates.
nalli eximentur (Pison. 94), none shall be taken away.
For n5n nCmS, non nflUus (n5n nulli), see § 326. a.
1 That is, it does not stand first in its clause.
3 As, in taking things one by one oft a pile, each thing is uppermost when you
take it
192 SYNTAX: PRONOUNS £§315
AU$is and Alter
315. Alius means simply other^ another (of an indefinite num-
ber); alter, the other (of two), often the second in a series; ceteri
and reliqui, all the restj the others ; altemter, one of the two .• —
proptereft quod aliud iter habSrent nulloiu (B. 6. i. 7), because (as they
said) they had no other way.
flnl epistulae respondl, veniO ad alteram (Fam. ii. 17. 6), one letter I have
answeredj I come to the other.
alteram genus (Cat. ii. 19), the second doss.
iecissem ipse m6 potius in profandum at ceteros cOnserTSrem (Sest. 45), /
should have rather thrown mysdf into the deep to save the rest.
Sen^us consul, reliquique magistr&tus (B. C. iii. 21), Servilius the consul
and the rest of the magistrates.
cum sit necesse alteram atram vincere (Fam. vi. 3), since it must be that one
of the two shmild prevail.
Note. — Alter is often used, especially with negatives, in reference to an indefinite
number where one is opposed to all the rest taken singly : —
dum ne sit te ditior alter (Hor. S. i. 1. 40), w long as another is not richer than
you (lit. the other, there being at the moment only two persons considered).
nOn ut magis alter, amicus (id. i. 5. 33), a friend such that no other is more so.
a* The expressions alter . . . alter, the one . . . the other, alius . . .
alius, one . . . another, may be used in pairs to denote either division
of a group or reciprocity of action : —
alter! dimicant, altexi victOrem timent (Fam. vi. 3), one party fights, the
other fears the victor.
alteram alter! praesidi5 esse iusserat (B. C. iii. 89), ?ie ?iad ordered each (of
the two legions) to support the other.
alii gladils adoriuntur, alH fragmentis saeptOrum (Sest. 79), some make an
attack with swords, others with fragments of the railings. •
alias ex alio causam quaerit (B. G. vi. 37), tTiey ask eaxh other the reason.
alias alium percontS.mur (PI. Stich. 370), we keep asking each other.
h» Alius and alter are often used to express one as well as another
(the other) of the objects referred to: —
alter cOnsulum, one of the [two] consuls.
atiad est maledicere, aliad accfisd.re (Gael. 6), it is one thing to stonder,
anotJier to accuse.
ۥ Alius repeated in another case, or with an adverb from the same
stem, expresses briefly a double statement : —
alias aUad petit, one man seeks one thing, another another (another seeks
another thing).
. inssit alids alibi fodere (Liv. zliv. 33), Tie ordered different persons to dig tn
different places.
alii aUd locC resistSbant (B. C. ii 39), some halted in onepla/ce, some in another.
§§ 316, 317] VERB AND SUBJECT 193
VERBS
Agreement of Verb and Subject
316. A Finite Verb agrees with its Subject in Number and Per-
son.: —
ego 8tatu5, I resolve. sen&tos dScrSvit, the senate ordered.
silent leges inter arma (Mil. 11), the laws are dumb in time of war.
KoTR. — In yerb-forms containing a participle, the participle agrees with the sub-
ject in gender and number (§ 286) : —
Oratio est habita, the plea was delivered. bellum exortnm est, a war arose.
a. A verb having a relative as its subject takes the person of the
expressed or implied antecedent : —
adsum qui f$ci (Aen. ix. 427), here am I who did it.
tti, qui scis, omnem dlligentiam adhibsbis (Att. t. 2. 3), you, wfio know,
will use ail diligence.
videte quam despici&mur omnSs qui somns 6 mlinicipils (Phil. iii. 16), see
how ail of us are scorned who are from the free towns.
6. A verb sometimes agrees in number (and a participle in the verb-
form in number and gender) with an appositive or predicate noun : —
amantium Irae amOris integrStiO est (Ter. And. 555), the quarrels of lovers
are the renewal of love.
nOn omnis error stultitia dicenda est (Biy. ii. 00), not every error s?iould be
caUed folly.
Corinthus lumen Graeciae exstinctom est (of. Manil. 11), Corinthy the light
of Greece, is put out.
Double or Collective Subject
317. Two or more Singular Subjects take a verb in the Plural:
pater et ayus mortal sunt, his father and grandfather are dead.
Note. — So rarely (by synesis, § 280. a) when to a singular subject is attached an
ablative with cum: as, — dux cum aliquot principibus capiuntur (Liy. xxi. 60), tfie
general and several leading men are taken.
a. When subjects are of different persons, the verb is usually in
the^r^^ person rather than the second, and in the second rather than
the third : —
si tH et TuUia valetis ego et Cicer5 yalemns (Fam. xiy. 5), if you and TuUia
are well, Cicero and I are well. [Notice that the first person is also
first in order, not last, as by courtesy in English.]
Note. — In case of different genders a participle in a yerb-f orm f oUows the rule for
predicate adjectiyes (see § 287. 2-4).
194 SnSTAX: VERBS £§317
5. If the subjects are connected bj disjunctives (§ 223. a), or if
they are considered as a single whole, the verb is usually singular : —
quern aeqoe fides meqae if» iarandnm neqne illam misericordia xepressit
(Ter. Ad. 906), noifaitht wor ootft, nay, nor mercy, checked him.
aenatns populnsque Bdmanus urteUegit (Fam. v. 8), Uie Roman senate and
people underttand. [Bat, neque Caesar neqae ego habiti essenms (id.
XL 20), neither CcBtar nor I akauld have been considered.']
fibna et vita innoceutis defenditiir (Bosc Am. 15), the reputation and l\fe of an
innocent man are d^ended,
est in eO viitils et probitSs et sommam officium sammaque observantia (Fam.
xiiL 28 A. 2), in him are to be found worth, uprightness, the highest sense
qfdutjf, and the greatest devotion.
NoTK. — So almost always when the sab jeets are abstract noons.
c. When a verb belongs to two or more subjects s^arately, it often
agrees with one and is understood with the others : —
inteicedtt M. AntOnins Q. Cassias tribilni pl^bis (B. C. i. 2), Mark Antony
and Quintus Cassius, tribunes of the people, interpose.
hoc mihi et Peripatetic! et vetus Academia concedit (Acad. ii. 113), this both
the Peripatetic philosophers and the Old Academy grant me.
d. A collective noun commonly takes a verb in the singular ; but
the plural is often found with collective nouns when individuals are
thought of (§ 280. a) : —
(1) sen&tus haec inteUegit (Cat. i. 2), the senate is aware of this.
ad hibema exercitus redit (Liv. xxi. 22), the army returns to winter-quarters.
plebes a patribos sicessit (Sail. Cat. 33), the plebs seceded from the patricians.
(2) pars praedSs agebant (lug. 32), a part brought in booty.
cum tanta maltitfido lapides conicerent (B. 6. ii. 6), when such a crovod toere
throwing stones.
Note 1. — The point of view may change in the course of a sentence : as,— equita-
tum omnem . . . quern habebat praemittit, qui videant (B. G. i. 15), h^ sent ahead all
the cavalry he hadf to see (who should see).
Note 2. — The singular of a noun regularly denoting an individual is sometimes
used collectively to denote a group : as, Poenus, the Carthaginians; miles, t?ie soldiery;
eques, the cavalry.
6. Quisque^ each, and anus quisque, every single one, have very often
a plural verb, but may be considered as in partitive apposition with a
plural subject implied (cf. § 282. a): —
sibi qulsque habeant quod suum est (PL Cure. 180), let every one keep his
own (let them keep every man his own).
Note. —So also ntezqne, eac^ {of two), and the reciprocal phrases alias . . . aUun,
altar . . . alteram (§ 315. a).
g§ 318, 319] OMISSION OF SUBJECT OB VERB 195
Omission of Subject or Verb
318. The Subject of the Verb is sometimes omitted : —
a* A Personal pronomi^ as subject, is usually omitted unless em-
pliatic : —
loquor, I speak. But, ego loquor, it is I that speak,
5. An indefinite subject is often omitted: — crSder^, you would
7i,cbve supposed ; putfimus, we (people) think ; dicont, ferunt, perhibent,
they say.
Cm A passive verb is often used impersonally without a subject ex-
pressed or understood (§ 208. d)\ —
din atque ftcriter pttgnatam est (B. G. 1. 26), they fought long and mgorously,
319. The verb is sometimes omitted : —
a. Died, faciS, agC, and other common verbs are often omitted in
familiar phrases : —
quGrsum haec [spectant], wTiat does this aim at?
ex ungue leOnem [c5gn6sces], you wiU know a lion by his daw.
quid multa, what need of many words f (why should I say much ?)
quid ? quod, what of this, that . . . ? (what shall I say of this, that . . • ?)
[A form of trausition.]
Aeolus haec contr& (Aen. 1. 76), JSolus thus [spoke] in reply.
turn Cotta [inquit], then said Cotta,
dl meliOra [duint] 1 (Cat. M. 47), Heaven forfend (may the gods grant better
things)!
unde [venls] et quO [tendis]? (Hor. S. 11. 4. 1), where from and whither
bound? [Cf. id. 1. 9. 62 for the full form.]
b. The copula sum is very commonly omitted in the present indica-
tive and present infinitive, rarely (except by late authors) in the sub-
junctive : —
ttL coniunx (Aen. iv. 113), you [are] his wife.
quid ergO ? audftcissimus ego ex omnibus (Rose. Am. 2), what then f ami
the boldest of aU f
omnia praecl&ra rara (Lael. 79), all the best things are rare.
potest incidere saepe contentiO et comparfttiO d6 duGbus honestis utrum
honestius (Off. i. 162), there may often occur a comparison of two
honorable actions, oa to which is the more Tumorable. [Here, if any
copula were expressed, it would be sit, but the direct question would
be complete without any.]
aocipe quae peragenda prius (Aen. vi. 136), hear what is first to be accom"
plished. [Direct : quae peragenda pzias ?]
196 syntax : particles [§§ 320, 321
Particles
Adverbs
320. The proper function of Adverbs, as petrified case-forms, is to modify Verbs:
as, — celeriter Ire, to go with speed. It is from this use that they derive their name
(adverbium, from ad, to, and verbom, verb; see § 241. 6). They also modify adjectives,
showing in what manner or degree the quality described is manifested : as, splendide
mendaz, gloriously false. More rarely they modify other adverbs: as, nimis snra^iter,
too severely. Many adverbs, especially relative adverbs, serve as connectives, and
are hardly to be distinguished from conjunctions (see § 20. g, n.).^
321. Adverbs are used to modify Verbs, Adjectives, and other
Adverbs.
a. A Demonstrative or Relative adverb is often equivalent to the
corresponding Pronoun with a preposition (see § 308. g) : —
e§ [ = in ea] imp5nit y&sa (lug. 75), upon them (thither, thereon, on the
beasts) he puU the camp-utensils.
eo militSs imp5nere (B. 6. i. 42), to put soldiers upon them (the horses),
apud eOs qn5 [ = ad quSs] s6 contulit (Verr. iv. 38), among those to whom
(whither) he resorted.
qui eum nec9sset nnde [ = quo] ipse nS^tus esset (Rose. Am. 71), one who shotdd
have killed his own father (him whence he had his birth).
condici5n€s miserOs administrand&rum prOvinciarum ubi [ = in qoibos]
sevfiritas periculOsa est (Flacc. 87), 0/ wretched terms of managing the
provinces, where strictness is dangerous.
b. The participles dictum and factum^ when used as nouns, are regu-
lai'ly modified by adverbs rather than by adjectives ; so occasionally
other perfect participles : —
praeclare facta (Nep. Timoth. 1), glorious deeds (things gloriously done),
multa facete dicta (Off. i. 104), many witty sayings.
c. A noun is sometimes used as an adjective, and may then be modi-
fied by an adverb : —
victor exercitus, tJie victorious army.
admodom puer, quite a boy (young).
magis vir, more of a man (more manly).
popalam late r6gem (Aen. i. 21), a people ruling far and wide.
Note. — Very rarely adverbs are used with nouns which have no adjective force
but which contain a verbal idea : —
hinc abitiO (Plant. Rud. 503), a going away from here.
quid c5gitem de obviam itiSne (Att. xiii. 50), what I think about going to mui
(him). [Perhaps felt as a compound.]
1 For the derivation and classification of adverbs, see §§ 214-217.
j§ 321,322] ADVERBS 197
<f. A few adverbs appear to be used like adjectives. Such are
>l>^viaiii, palam, sometimes contra, and occasionally others : —
fit obviaxn ClOdio (Mil. 29), fie falls in with (becomes in the way of) Clodius.
[Of. the adjective obvius : as, — si ille obvius ei futtirus non erat (id. 47),
ifke wets not likely to fall in with him.']
haec commemorO quae sunt palam (Pison. 11), / mention these facts, which
are well-known,
alia probabilia, contra alia dicimus (Off. ii. 7), we call some things probable,
others the opposite (not probable). [In this use, contra contradicts a
previous adjective, and so in a manner repeats it.]
eri semper I6nit3s (Ter. And. 175), my master^ s constant (always) gentleness.
[An imitation of a Greek construction.]
Note. — In some cases one can hardly say whether the adverb is treated as an
adjective modifying the noun, or the noun modified is treated as an adjective (as in
c above).
For propius, pridiS, palam, and other adverbs used as prepositions, see § 432.
322. The following adverbs require special notice : —
a» Etiam (et iam), also, even, is stronger than quoque, also, and
usually precedes the emphatic word, while quoque follows it : —
nOn verbis solum sed etiam vl (Verr. ii. 64), not only by words, but also by
force.
hoc quoque maleficium (Rose. Am. 117), this crime too.
&. Nunc * means definitely now, in the immediate present, and is
rarely used of the immediate past.
lam means now, already, at length, presently, and includes a refer-
ence to previous time through which the state of things described has
been or will be reached. It may be used of any time. With nega-
tives iam means (no) longer.
Turn, then, is correlative to cum, when, and may be used of any
time. Tunc, then, at that time, is a strengthened form of tum
(ttum-ce, cf . nunc) : —
ut iam ante^ dlxl, as I have already said before.
81 iam satis aetatis atque rOboris haberet (Kosc. Am. 149), if he had attained
a suitable age and strength (lit. if he now had, as he will have by and by),
non est iam l€nitati locus, there is no longer room for mercy.
quod iam erat Institutum, which had corns to be a practice (had now been
established),
nunc quidem deleta est, tunc flOrfibat (Lael. 13), n.ow ('tis true) she [Greece]
is ruined, then she was in her glory.
tum cum rggn&bat, at the time when he reigned.
1 For fnum-ce ; cf. tunc (for ftum-ce).
198 SYNTAX: PARTICLES £§§322,323
c. Certfi means certainly, certg (usually) at lea^t, at any rate: —
certd add, 1 krwwfor a certainty; ego certe, I at least.
d. Primum means first {first in order, or for the first time), and
implies a series of events or acts. PrimO means at first, as opposed
to afterwards, giving prominence merely to the difference of time : —
hoc pximam sentiO, this I hold in the first place,
aedls primo mere rSMmur, at first we thought the house was falling,
NOTB. — In enumerations, primum (or pxim5) is often followed by deinde, secondly, in
the next place, or by turn, then, or by both in succession. Delude may be several times
repeated (secondly, thirdly, etc.). The series is often closed by dSnique or postremo,
lastly, finally. Thus, — piimum de genere belli, deinde de magnitudine, turn de im-
peratOre deligendO (Manil. 6), first of the kind of war, next of its magnitude, then oj
the chouse of a commander.
e. Quidem, indeed, gives emphasis, and often has a concessive mean-
ing, especially when followed by eed, autem, etc. : —
h(k2 qnidem vidSre licet (Lael. 54), this surely one may see. [Emphatic.]
[sectiritas] specie qaidem blanda, sed re&pse multls locis repudianda (id. 47),
{tranquillity) in appearance, His true, attractive, but in reality to be
r^ectedfor many reasons. [Concessive.]
/. N6 . . . quidem means not even or not . . . either. The emphatic
word or words must stand between nS and qaidem : —
sed nS lugortha qaidem quietus erat (lug. 61), but Jugurtha was not quid
either.
ego autem n§ Ir3scl possum quidem ils qu5s valde am<J (Att. ii. 19. 1), but I
^ cannot even get angry with those whom I love very much.
KoTB. — Bqnidem has t)ie same senses as qaidem, but is in Cicero confined to the
first person. Thus, — eqaidem adprobabO (Fam. ii. 3. 2), I for my part shall approve.
CONJUNCTIONS ^
323. Copulative and Disjunctive Conjunctions connect similar
constructions, and are regularly followed by the same case or mood
that precedes them: —
sciiptum sen&tui et populo (Cat. ill. 10), written to the senate and people.
ut efts [partis] sanarSs et cOnflrmSxSs (Mil. 68), that you might cwre aiid
strengthen those parts.
neque me& prfldentid. neque humanls c<Jn8ilil8 fr6tus (Cat. ii. 29), rdyvaii
neither on my own foresight nor on human wisdom.
I Tot Hie ctossification of conjunctions, see {§ 223, 224.
I 823] CONJUNCTIONS 199
€L. Conjunctions of Comparison (as ut, quam, tamquam, quasi) also
commonly connect similar constructions : —
his igitur qnam physicis potius cr^dendum ezistimSA (Div. ii. 37), do you
thivk these are more to be trusted than the natural philosophers f
hominem callidlOrem vidl nSminem quam PhormiOnem (Ter. Ph. 691), a
shrewder man I never saw than Phormio (cf. § 407).
at nOn omne vlnum sic nOn omnis nS.tura Tetost&te coac^Bcit (Cat. M. 65),
as every wine does not sour with age, so [does] not every nature.
in me quasi in tyrannum (Phil. xiv. 15), against me as against a tyrant.
h. Two or more coordinate words, phrases, or sentences are often
put together without the use of conjunctions (Asyndetquj § 601. c) :
omnes dl, homines, aU gods and men.
Biimml, medil, InfimI, the highest, the middle class, and the lowest.
iiira, I6g6s, agr5s, libertatem nObIs rellqu6runt (B. G. vli. 77), they have ^ft
us our rights, our laws, our fields, our liberty.
c. 1. Where there are more than two coordinate words etc., a con-
junction, if used, is ordinarily used with all (or all except the first): —
aut aere aliSnO aut md.gnitudine tributOrum aut inltlrift potentiOrum (B. G.
vi. 13), by debt, excessive taxation, or oppression on the pari of the
powerful.
at sunt mOrOsI et anxil et !rd,cundl et dif&cilSs senSs (Cat. M. 65), but (you
say) old men are capricious, soliciUms, choleric, and fussy.
2. But words are often so divided into groups that the members
of the groups omit the conjunction (or express it), while the groups
themselves express the conjunction (or omit it): —
propudium illud et portentum, L. AntOnius Insigne odium omnium homi-
num (Phil. xiv. 8), that wretch and monster, Lucius Antonius, the abomi-
nation of all men.
utmmque 6git graviter, auctdrit&te et offfinsiOne animi nOn acerbd. (Lael.
77), he acted in both cases with dignity, without loss of authority and
with no bitterness of feeling.
3. The enclitic -que is sometimes used with the last member of a
series, even when there is no grouping apparent : —
voce voltu mOttSque (Brut. 110), 6y voice, expression, and gesture.
cHram consilium vigUantiamque (Phil. vii. 20), care, wisdom, and vigUanoe.
quorum auctOritatem dignitatem voluntatemque defenderas (Fam. i. 7. 2),
whose dignity, honor, and wishes you had defended.
d. Two adjectives belonging to the same noun are regularly con*
nected by a conjunction : —
multae et gravOs causae, many weighty reasons.
vir Uber ac fortis (Rep. ii. 34), a free and brave man.
200 SYNTAX: PARTICLES [§§323,384
e. Often the same conjunction is repeated in two coordinate claiLses :j
et . . . et (-que . . . -que), both . . . and, \
ant . . . aut, either . . . or,
▼el . . . vel, either , , , or, [Examples in § 324. e.]
sive (sen) . . . sive (seu), whether . , . or, [Examples in §324./.]
/. Many adverbs are similarly used in pairs, as conjunctions, partly
or wholly losing their adverbial force : —
nunc . . . nunc, tain . . . tttxn, iam . . . iam, now , . , now, -
modo . . . modo, rvow . . . now.
simol . . . simul, at the same time , . . at the same time.
qa& . . . qu&, now , , , now, both , , , and, alike [this] and [that].
modo ait modo negat (Ter. Eun. 714), now he says yes, now no.
simal gratis agit, simul gratul&tur (Q. C. vi. 7. 15), he thanks him and at
the same time congratulates him,
erumpunt saepe vitia amic5rum tum in ips58 amIcOs tum in alien5s (Lael.
76), thp. faults of friends sometimes break out, now against their friends
themselves, now against strangers,
qnh marls quft feminSs (PI. Mil. 1113), both males and females.
g. Certain relative and demonstrative adverbs are used correla-
tively as conjunctions: —
ut (rel.) . . . ita, sic (dem.), as (while) , , . so {yet),
tam (dem.) . . . qaam (rel.), so (as) . . . as.
cum (rel.) . . . tum (dem.), while . . , so also; not only , . , but also.
324. The following Conjunctions require notice : —
a* Et, andy simply connects words or clauses ; -que combines more
closely into one connected whole, -que is always enclitic to the word
connected or to the first or second of two or more words connected :
cum coniugibus et liberis, with [their] wives and children.
£err5 Ignlque, with fire and sword. [Not as separate things, but as the
combined means of devastation.]
aqua et Ignl interdictus, forbidden the use of water and fire. [In a legal
formula, where they are considered separately.]
b. Atque (ac), andy adds with some emphasis or with some implied
reflection on the word added. Hence it is often equivalent to and so,
and yet, and besides, and then. But these distinctions depend very
much upon the feeling of the speaker, and are often untranslatable: —
omnia honesta atque inhonesta, everything honorable and disfionordUe (too,
without the slightest distinction),
tisus atqae discipllna, practice and theory beside (the more important or less
expected),
atque ego cr§d5, and yet I believe (for my part).
i 324] CONJUNCTIONS 201
e« Atque (ac)^ in the sense of as, than, is also used after words of
comparison and likeness : —
simul atque, as soon as.
nOn secus (nOn aliter) ac si, not otherwise than if,
pr5 eO ac debul, as was my duty (in accordance as I ought).
aequ3 ac tu, as much as you,
liaud minus ac iussi f aciunt, they do just as they are ordered.
For and not, pee § 328. a.
cf . Sed and the more emphatic vSrum or v6r6, but, are used to intro-
duce something in opposition to what precedes, especially after nega-
tives (not this . . . but something else). At (old form ast) introduces
with, emphasis a new point in an argument, but is also used like the
others ; sometimes it means at least. At enim is almost always used
to introduce a supposed objection which is presently to be overthrown.
At is more rarely used alone in this sense.
Autem, however, now, is the weakest of th6 adversatives, and often
marks a mere transition and has hardly any adversative force percep-
tible. Atqui, however, now, sometimes introduces an objection and
sometimes a fresh step in the reasoning. Quod si, but if, and if, now if,
is used to continue an argument.
NoTB. — Et, -que, and atque (ac) are sometimes used where the English idiom would
suggest butf especially when a negative clause is followed by an affirmative clause
continuing the same thought: as, — impetum hostes ferre non potuerunt ac terga
verterunt (B. G. iv. 35), the enemy could not stand the onset, but turned their backs.
e, Aut, or, excludes the alternative; vel (an old imperative of volO)
and -ve give a choice between two alternatives. But this distinction
is not always observed : —
sed quls ego sum aut quae est in m3 facultas (Lael. 17), but who am I or
what special capacity have I f [Here vel could not be used, because in
fact a negative is implied and both alternatives are excluded.]
aut bibat aut abeat (Tusc. v. 118), let him drink or (if he won't do that, then
let him) quit. [Here vel would mean, let him do either as he chooses.]
vita talis fuit vel fortune vel glQviS, (Lael. 12), his life was such either in
respect to fortune or fame (whichever way you look at it).
8l propinquOs habeant imbecilliorgs vel animO vel f ortuna (id. 70), if they
have relatives beneath them either in spirit or in fortune (in either respect,
for example, or in both),
aut deOrum aut regum filii (id. 70), sons either of gods or of kings. [Here
one case would exclude the other.]
implic&ti vel ustL dititumO vel etiam officiis (id. 86), entangled either by
dose intimacy or even by obligations. [Here the second case might
exclude the first.]
202 SYNTAX : THE SENTENCE [§ 324
/. Sive (seu) is properly used in disjunctive conditions {if either . . .
or if)j but also with alternative words and clauses, especially -with
two names for the same thing : —
slve inriddns siye quod ita putSret (De Or. i. 01), either laughingly or because
he really thought so,
8iye deae seu sint volacrSs (Aen. iil. 262), whether they (the Harpies) are
goddesses or birds,
g» Vel, everiyfor instance, is often used as an intensive particle with
no alternative force : as, — vel minimus, the very least.
h. Nam and namque, for, usually introduce a real reason, formally
expressed, for a previous statement; enim (always postpositive), a
less important explanatory circumstance put in by the way ; etenim
(J^or, you see ; for, you know ; for, mind you) and its negative neque
enim introduce something self-evident or needing no proof.
(ea Ylta) quae est sOla vita nOminanda. nam dam sumus inclusi in his
comp&gihus corporis, mdnere quOdam necessit&tis et gravi opere per-
fuDgimur; est enim animus caelestis, etc. (Cat. M. 77), (that Ufe)
which alone deserves to be called life; for so long as we are confined by
the body^s frame^ we perform a sort of necessary function and heavy \
task. For the soul is from heaven,
hd.rum trium sententiftnim nuUl prOrsus adsentior. nee enim ilia prima
vera est (Lael. 67), for of course that first one isnH true,
4. ErgO, therefore, is used of things proved formally, but often has
a weakened force. Igitur, then, accordingly, is weaker than erg5 and
is used in passing from one stage of an argument to another. Itaque,
therefore, accordingly, and so, is used in proofs or inferences from the
nature of things rather than in formal logical proof. All of these are
often used merely to resume a train of thought broken by a digression
or parenthesis. IdcircO, for this reason, on this account, is regularly
followed (or preceded) by a correlative (as, quia, quod, si, ut, n5), and
refers to the special point introduced by the correlative. ^
malum mihiyidetor esse mors, est miserum Igitor, quoniam malum. certS.
ergo et ei quibus ^venit iam ut morerentur et el quibus eventurom est
miserl. mihi ita videtur. nem5 ergo nOn miser. (Tusc. L 9.) Death '
seems to me to be an evil, ^Itisvoretched,then,sinceitisaneml.* Certainly.
* Ther^ore, all those who have already died and who are to die hereafter are
wretched,^ So it appears to me, * There is no one, therefore^ who is not
wretched.''
quia natdra mlit&rl n5n potest, iddrco v^rae amicitiae sempitemae sunt
(Lael. 32), because nature cannot be changed, for this reason true friend-
ships are eternal.
5§ 324^326] IIEGATIVE PARTICLES 208
J^ Autem, enim^ and vSrO are postpositive V so generally Igitur and
often tamen.
A;. Two conjunctions of similar meaning are often used together
for the sake of emphasis or to bind a sentence more closely to what
precedes : as, at v6r6, but in truth, but surely, still, however; itaque
erg5, accordingly then; namque, for; et-enim^ for, you see, for of
course (§ 324. h).
For Conjunctioiis introducing Subordinate Clauses, see Syntax.
Negative Particles ^
325. In the xise of the Negative Particles, the following points
are to be observed : —
326. Two negatives are equivalent to an affirmative : —
nem5 non audiet, eoery one will hear (nobody will not hear).
n5n possum non c0nfit€rl (Fam. ix. 14. 1), J mtist confess,
ut . . . ne non timSre qnidem sine aliqa5 timOre possimus (Mil. 2), so thaJt we
cannot even be relieved of fear vntJiovt some fear,
a. Many compounds or phrases of which nOn is the first part express
an indefinite affirmative : —
n5n ntillus, some; nOn nulll (=aliqul), some few.
n5n nihil (= aliquid), something,
nQn nSmO (= aliquot), sundry persons,
n5n numquam (= aliquotiSns), sometimes,
&. Two negatives of which the second is nOn (belonging to the
predicate) express a universal affirmative : —
nemO nOn, ntillus n5n, nobody [does] ru>ty i.e. everybody [does]. [Cf. ndn
nSmO, not nobody ^ i.e. somfbody,"]
nihil nOn, eoerything. [Cf. nOn nihil, something.'}
numquam n5n, never not, i.e. always, [Cf. n5n numquam, sometimes.']
c. A statement is often made emphatic by denying its contrary
(Litotes, § 641) : —
nOn semel (= saepissimS), often enough (not once only).
n5n haec sine ntlmine dlvom eveniimt (Aen. ii. 777), these things do not
occur without the wUl of the gods.
haec ndn nimis exquirO (Att. vii. 18. 3), not very much, i.e. very little,
NOTB. — Compare non naUas, n5n nemS, etc., in a aboye.
1 That is, they do not stand first in their clause.
3 For a list of Negative Particles, see § 217. e.
204 SYNTAX: PARTICLES [§§ 827-^329
327. A general negation is not destroyed —
1. By a following n6 . . . qtudem^ not even, or nCn modo, not only : —
niunqaam tH n5n modo Otium, sed nS bellum qaidem nisi nef&rium concupisti
(Cat. i. 26), not only have you never desired repose, but you have never
desired any war except one which was infamous,
2. By succeeding negatives each introducing a separate subordi-
nate member : —
eaque nesciSlMuit nee ubi nee quftlia essent (Tasc. iii. 4), they knew not where
or of what kind these things were.
3. By neque introducing a coordinate member : —
nequeo satis mlrftrl neque conlcere (Ter. Eun. 647), I cannot wonder enough
nor conjecture,
328. The negative is frequently joined witii a conjunction or
with an indefinite pronoun or adverb. Hence the forms of nega-
tion in Latin differ from those in English in many expressions : —
nnlU (neutii) cr6d5 (not non cr§d5 Qlli), I do njot believe either (I believe
neither).
sine Gilo perlculO (less commonly earn nfiUo), with no danger (without any
danger),
nihil urnqnam audlvl itlcundius, I never heard anything more amusing.
Cf. nego haec esse vera (not died non esse), I say this is not true (I deny, etc.).
a. In the second of two connected ideas, and not is r^ularly ex-
pressed by neque (nee), not by et nOn : —
hostes terga verterunt, neqae prius fugere d6stit6runt (B. G. i. 63), the enemy
turned and fled, and did not stop fleeing untU, etc.
Note. — Similarly nee quisquam is regularly used for et nCmS; neque alias for et
n&llas; nee amqaam for et namqaam ; nSve (nea), for et nS.
329. The particle immo, nay, is used to contradict some part of
a preceding statement or question, or its form ; in the latter case,
the same statement is often repeated in a stronger form, so that
immo becomes nearly equivalent to yes (nay but^ nay rather): —
causa igitur n5n bona est? immo optima (Att. ix. 7. 4), is the cav^ then not
a good one f on the contrary, the best.
a. Minus, less (especially with si, if, quC, in order that), and minimS^
leastf often have a negative force : —
si minus possunt, if they cannot. [For quo minus, see § 668. &.]
audacissimus ego ex omnibus ? minim§ (Rose. Am. 2), am I the boldest of
them all? by no means (not at all).
5§ 330-382] FORMS OF INTERROGATION 205
QUSSTIONS
Forms of Interrogation
330. Questions are either Direct or Indirect.
1. A Direct Question gives the exact words of the speaker : —
quid est ? what iaitf ubi sum ? wliere am If
2. An Indirect Question gives the substance of the question, adapted
to the form of the sentence in which it is quoted. It depends on a verb
or other expression of asking, doubting, knowing, or the like ; —
rogavit quid esset, ?ie asked what it was. [Direct : quid est, whxd isitf'\
iiesci<J ttbi aim, I know not where I am. [Direct : ubi sum, where am If}
331. Questions in Latin are introduced by special interrogative
words, and are not distinguished by the order of words, as in
English.1
NoTK. — The form of Indirect Questions (in English introduced by whetJieTf or by
an interrogative pronoun or adverb) is in Latin the same as that of Direct ; the differ-
ence being only in the verb, which in indirect questions - is regularly in the Subjunc-
tive (§674).
332. A question of simple fact, requiring the answer i/es or no,
is formed by adding the enclitic -ne to the emphatic word : —
tune id veritus es (Q. Fr. i. 3. 1), did you /car that f
hicine vir usquam nisi in patria morietur (Mil. 104), shall this man die any-
where bat in his ruUive land f
is tibi mortemne videtur aut dol5rem timere (Tusc. v. 88), does he seem to
you to fear death or pain f
a. The interrogative particle -ne is sometimes omitted : —
patfire tua cOnsilia nOn sentis (Cat. i. 1), do you not see that your schemes are
manifest f (you do not see, eh ?)
Note.— In such cases, as no sign of interrogation appears, it is often doubtful
whether the sentence is a question or an ironical statement.
6. When the enclitic -ne is added to a negative word, as in nCnne,
an affirmative answer is expected. The particle num suggests a nega-
tive answer : —
nonne animadvertis (N. D. iii. 89), do you not observe f
anm dnbium est (Rose. Am. 107), there is no doubt, is there f
Note. — In Indirect Questions num commonly loses its peculiar force and means
simply whether.
^ For a list of Interrogative Particles, see § 217. d.
206 SYNTAX: QUESTIONS [§§332-335
c. The particle -ne often when added to the verb, less commonlj
when added to some other word, has the force of nOnne : —
meministlne m6 in senftttl dicere (Cat. i. 7), donH you remember my saying
inthe Senaief
rSctine interpretor sententiam toam (Tusc. iii. 37), do I riot rightly interpret
your meaning f
Note 1. — This was evidently the original meaning of -ne ; but in most cases the
negative force was lost and -ne was used merely to express a question. So the English
interrogative nof shades off into ehf
Note 2. — The enclitic -ne is sometimes added to other interrogative words : as,
tttnmme, w?iet?ier? anne, or; qnantane (Hor. S. ii. 3. 317), how higf qu5ne maid (id. ii. 3.
295), by what curse f
333. A question concerning 9<yme special circumstance is formed
by prefixing to the sentence an interrogative pronoun or adverb
as in English (§ 152) : —
quid ezspectas (Cat. ii. 18), what are you looking forward to ?
qa5 igitur haec spectant (Fam. vi. 6. 11), whither then is all this tending f
Icare, ubi es (Ov. M. viii. 232), Icaru8, where are you?
quod vectlgal vObls ttitam fuit? quern socium dSfendistis? cni praesidid
classibus vestrls f uistis ? (Maail. 32), wliat revenue ha9 been safe for you f
wJiat aUy Jiave you dtfended f whom have you guarded wUh your JleeU f
Note. — A question of this form becomes an exclamation by changing the tone of
the voice: as, —
qo&lis vir erat! what a man he was !
quot calamitates pass! sumus! Tiow many misfortunes we have steered!
quo studio cOnsentiunt (Cat. iv. 15), with what zeai they unite!
a. The particles -nam (enclitic) and tandem may be added to inter-
rogative pronouns and adverbs for the sake of emphasis : —
qnisnam est, pray who is itf [quis tandem est? would be stronger.]
ubinam gentium sumus (Cat. i. 9), where in the world are wef
in quA tandem urbe hOc disputant (Mil. 7), in what city, pray, do they main-
tain this ?.
Note — Tandem is sometimes added to verbs: —
ain tandem (Fam. iz. 21), you don*t say so! (say you so, pray?)
itane tandem uxOrem duxit Antipho (Ter. Ph. 231), so then, ehf Antipho*s got
married.
Double Questions
334. A Double or Alternative Question is an inquiry as to
which of two or more supposed cases is the true one.
335. In Double or Alternative Questions, utmm or-ne, whether^
stands in the first member ; an, anne, or, annOn, necne, or not^ in the
"^cond ; and usually an in the third, if there be one : —
S 335] DOUBLE QUESTIONS 207
atram nescis, an prO nihilO id put&s (Fam. x. 20), iait ihaJt you donH know,
or do you think nothing of it?
vOsne L. Domitium an yOs Domitias dSseniit (B. C. ii. 32), did you desert
Lucius DomitiuSy or did Domitius desert youf
quaerO servOsae an liberOs (Rose. Am. 74), I ask whether slaves or free,
ntrum hostem an vOs an fortQnam utrlusque popull ignOrfttis (Li v. xxi. 10),
is U the enemy, or yourselves, or the fortune of the two peoples, that you
do not know f
Note. — Anne for an is rare. Necne is rare in direct questions, but in indirect ques-
tions it is commoner than anndn. In poetry -ne . . . -ne sometimes occurs.
a. The interrogative particle is often omitted in the first mem-
ber ; in which case an or -ne (amne, necne) may stand in the second: —
GablniO dicam anne Pomp^iO an ntrique (Manil. 67), shall I say to OaMnius,
or to Pompey, or to both f
sunt haec tua verba necne (Tusc. iii. 41), are these your words or notf
qnaeslvl S, Catillnft in conyentu apud M. Laecam fuisset necne (Cat. ii. 13),
I asked CaJLUine wJiether he had been ai the meeting at Marcus LoBca^s
ornot,
b. Sometimes the first member is omitted or implied, and an (anne)
alone asks the question, — usually with indignation or surprise: —
an tti miserOs putdjs ill5s (Tusc. i. 13), what ! do you think those men wretched f
an iste umquam d6 sS bonam spem habuisset, nisi de vObls malam opIniOnem
animO imbibisset (Yerr. i. 42), wovXd he ever have had good hopes about
him.self unless he had conceived an evil opinion of you f
c. Sometimes the second member is omitted or implied, and utrum
may ask a question to which there is no alternative : —
utrum est in cUrissimls clvibus is, quern . . . (Flacc. 46), is he among the
noblest citizens, whom, etc.?
d. The following table exhibits the various forms of alternative
questions : —
utrum
. . . an . . . an
utrum
. . . annon (necne, see § 335. k.)
. . . an (anne)
. . . an
, . . -ne, necne
. . necne
-ne
-ne
-ne
. . -ne
NoTB. — From double {alternative) questions must be distinguished those which are
in themselyes single, but of which «>me detail is altematiye. These haye the common
disjonctiye particles ant or yel (-ye) . Thus, — quaerO num iniiiste ant improbe f ecerit
(Off. iii. 54), I ask whether he acted unjustly or even dishonestly. Here there is no
double question. The only inquiry is whether the man did eitTier of the two things
supposed, not which of the two he did.
208 SYNTAX: QUESTIONS [§§336,337
Question and Answer
336. There is no one Latin word in common use meaning sim-
ply ye9 or no. In answering a question affirmatively^ the verb or
some other emphatic word is generally repeated; in answering
negatively^ the verb, etc., with nOn or a similar negative : —
valetne, is he well? valet, yes (he is well).
eratne tecum, tww ke with youf non erat, no (he was not).
num quidnam novl? there is nothing new, is there f nihil sane, oh I nothing.
a. An intensive or negative particle, a phrase, or a clause is some-
times used to answer a direct question : —
1. For YES : —
verO, in truths true^ no doubt^ yes> ita v6rO, certainly (so in truth), etc.
etiam, even 80, yea, etc. s&nS quidem, yeSy no doribt, etc.
ita, «o, true, etc. ita est, itiseo, true^ etc.
Bftn6, surelyy no doubt, doubtless, etc.
certC, certainly, unquestionably, etc.
factum, true, it^s a fact, you^re right, etc. (lit., it was done).
2. For NO : —
nOn, not so. nfLll5 mod5, by no means,
minime, not at all (lit., in the smallest degree, cf. § 329. a).
minim© vCrO, no, not by any means; oh! no, etc.
n5n quidem, why, no; certainly not, etc.
nOn hercle vCrO, why, gracious, no! (certainly not, by Hercules I)
Examples are : —
quidnam? an laudfttiOnds? ita, why, whatf is it eulogies? just so.
aut etiam aut n5n respond6re (Acad. ii. 104) , to answer (categorically) yes or no.
estne ut fertur forma? sfinS (Ter. Eun. 361), is she as handsome as they
say she is f (is her beauty as it is said ?) oh! yes.
miser erg5 Archel&us ? certS si initistus (Tusc. v. 35), was ArcJielaus vjretched
then t certaiiUy, if he was ur^ust. *
an haec contemnitis ? minimfi (De Or. ii. 296) , do you despise these things f not ^
ataU.
yolucribusne et ferls? minimS yeio (Tusc. i. 194), to the birds and bea^ftsf j
why, of course not.
ex tul animi sententift td uxGrem hab€s? n5n hercle, ex mel animi sententia
(De Or. ii. 260), Lord! no, etc.
337. In answering a double question, one member of the alterna-
tive, or some part of it, must be repeated : —
yfdistl an de audltG ntlntifts ? — egomet vidl (Plant Merc 902), did you see
U or are you repeating something you have heardt — I saw it mysdf.
S 338] CONSTRUCTION OF CASES 209
CONSTRUCTION OF CASES
338. The Cases of nouns express their relations to other words in the sentence.
Xlie most primitive way of expressing such relations was by mere juxtaposition of unin-
fected forms. From this arose in time composition, i.e. the growing together of stems,
l>y Tueans of which a complex expression arises with its paits mutually dependent.
Xlms such a complex as aimi-gero- came to mean arm-bearing ; fldi-cen-, playing on the
lyre* Later, Cases were formed by means of suffixes expressing more definitely such
relations, and Syntax began. But the primitive method of composition still continues
to Ixold an important place even in the most highly developed languages.
Originally the Indo-European family of languages, to which Latin belongs, had at
lea.8t seven case-forms, besides the Vocative. But in Latin the Locative and the Instru-
ixieutal were lost^ except in a few words (where they remained without being recog-
ixized as cases), and their functions were divided among the other cases.
The Nominative, Accusative, and Vocative express the simplest and perhaps the
earliest case-relations. The Nominative is the case of the Subject, and generaUy ends
in -s. The Vocative, usually without a termination, or like the Nominative (§ 38. a),
perhaps never had a suffix of its own.2 The Accusative, most frequently formed by the
suffix -m, originally connected the noun loosely with the verb-idea, not necessarily
expressed by a verb proper, but as well by a noun or an adjective (see § 386).
The Genitive appears to have expressed a great variety of relations and to haye
liad no single primitive meaning ; and the same may be true of the Dative.
The other cases perhaps at first expressed relations of place or direction (to, from,
AT, with), though this is not clear in all instances. The sarlier meanings, however,
liave become confused with each other, and in many instances the cases are no longer
distinguishable in meaning or in form. Thus the Locative was for the most part lost
from its confusion with the Dative and Ablative ; and its function was often performed
by the Ablative, which is freely used to express the place where (§ 421). To indicate
the case-relations — especially those of place — more precisely. Prepositions (originally
adverbs) gradually came into use. The case-endings, thus losing something of their
significance, were less distinctly pronounced as time went on (see § 36, phonetic decay) ^
and prepositions have finally superseded them in the modem languages derived from
Latin. But in Latin a large and various body of relations was still expressed by case-
forms. It is to be noticed that in their literal use cases tended to adopt the preposition,
and in th&i figurative uses to retain the old construction. (See Ablative of Separation,
§§402-404; Ablative of Place and Time, §421 if.)
The word casus, cose, is a translation of the Greek TrrOxnit a falling away (from the
erect position). The term irTw<rt$ was originally applied to the Oblique Cases (§ 35. g),
to mark them as variations from the Nominative which was called dpd'fit ^f^ct {casus
rectvs). The later name Nominative {casus ndmindttws) is from n5mino, and means
the naming case. The other case-names (except Ablative) are of Greek origin. The
name Genitive {casus genetivus) is a translation of y^vLKii [jrTw<rtf], from yivot {class),
and refers to the class to which a thing belongs. Dative {casus dativus, from d5) is
translated from doriKi^, and means the case of giving. Accusative {accusdtivuSf from
accttso) is a mistranslation of alruvn.K'fi (the case of causing), from ahia, cause, and
meant to the Romans the case of accusing. The name Vocative {vocdtxvus, from voc5)
is translated from KkTyriKii (the case of calling). The name Ablative {abldttvus, from
ablatus, aoferS) means taking from. This case the Greek had lost.
1 Some of the endings, however, which in Latin are assigned to the dative and
ablative are doubtless of locative or instrumental origin (see p. 34, footnote).
^ The e-vocative of the second declension Is a form of the stem (§ 45. c).
210 SYNTAX: CONSTRUCTION OF CASES [§§ 3S9-S41
NOMINATIVE CASE
339. The Subject of a finite verb is in the Nominative : —
Caetar Rh6num tr&nfiire decrSyerat (B. G. iv. 17), C(B8ar had determined to
cro9S the Rhine.
For the omiision of a pronominal subject, see § 296. a.
a. The nominative may be used in exclamations : —
Sn dextra fidfisque (Aen. iv. 697), lo, the faith and plighted word !
ecce tuae litterae d6 VarrGne (Att. xiii. 16), lo and beholdy your letters about
Varro!
NoTB. — But the aecusatiye is more common (§ 397. d)*
x'
VOCATIVE CASE
340. The Vocative is the case of direct address : —
Tibeiine pater, t6, sincte, precor (Liv. ii. 10), father Tiber^ thee, holy one,
I pray.
res omnis mihi tecum erit, Hortinsi (Verr. i. 33), my whole aUentUm will be
devoted to you, Horteneitis.
a. A noun in the nominative in apposition with the subject of
the imperative mood is sometimes used instead of the vocative : —
audi ta, populus AlbAnus (Liv. i. 24), hear, thou people of Alba.
&• The vocative of an adjective is sometimes used in poetry instead
of the nominative, where the verb is in the second person : —
qu5 moritfire ruis (Aen. z. 811), whither art thou rushing to thy doomf
c6nsOrem txabe&te saliltfis (Pers. iii. 29), robed you ^ute the ceneor.
c. The vocative macte is used as a predicate in the phrase macte
estG (virtute), success attend your (valor) : —
iuberem t6 macte yirtfLte esse (Liv. ii. 12), I should bid you go on and prosper
in your valor.
macte noY& virttite puer (Aen. ix. 641), success attend your valor, boy!
Note. — As the original quantity of the final e in macte is not determinable, it may
be that the word was an adyerb, as in bene est and the like.
GENITIVE CASE
341. The Genitive is regularly used to express the relation of
one noun to another. Hence it is sometimes called the adjective
case, to distinguish it from the Dative and the Ablative, which
may be called adverbial cases.
I. Genitlye with Noons:
S§ 341-^848] POSSESSIVE GENITIVE 211
The iises of the Genitive may be classified as follows : —
' 1. Of Possession (§ 343).
2. Of Material (§ 344).
3. Of Quality (§ 346).
4. Of the Whole, after words designating a Part
(Partitive, §346).
^ 5. With Nouns of Action and Feeling (§ 348).
II. G^^nitiye with Adjectiyes: ( l' ^^^^^^Jt ^^^T*'^"" ^7, Sf^J^^'^ ^^ ^^^'
* \ 2. Of Specification (later use) (§ 349. d).
HI. Genltiv. with V«b.: ( J" % ^'"^^' ^f^^^- (§5 ^. 361 384)^
\ 2. Of Accusing, etc. (Charge or Penalty) (§ 362).
GENITIVE WITH NOUNS
342. A noun used to limit or define another, and not meaning
the same person or thing, is put in the Genitive.
This relation is most frequently expressed in English by the prepo-
sition o/, sometimes by the English genitive (or possessive) case : —
librl Clcerdnis, the books of Cicero, or Cicero^s books.
iuindcl Caesaris, Cassar^s enemies, or the enemies of Coeaar,
talentam aoxi, a talent of gold.
yir summae yirtfltis, a man of the greatest courage.
But observe the following equivalents : —
yacfttiO lahSris, a respite from toil,
petltiO consolatils, candidaey ifOR tlie consulship.
rSgnam dyitatis, royal power over the state.
Possessive Genitive
343. The Possessive Genitive denotes the person or thing to
which an object, quality, feeling, or action belongs: —
Alezandxl canis, Alexander's dog.
potentia Pomp^ (Sail. Cat. 19), Pompey's power,
ArioTisti mors (B. G. v. 29), tAe death of Ario^iatus.
peiditSram temeritSs (Mil. 22), the recklessness of desperate men,
NoTB 1. — The Possessiye Genitlye may denote (1) the actual owner (as in Ale^
under' » dog) or author (as in Cicero* s writings), or (2) the person or thing that possesses
Bome feeling or quality or does some act (as in Cicero's eloquence, the strength of the
bridge, Catiline's evU deeds). In the latter nse it is sometimes called the Subjectiye
Gtonitiye ; but this term properly includes the possessiye genitlye and seyeral other
genitlye constructions (nearly all, in fact, except the Objectiye Genitlye, $ 347).
NoTB 2. — The noun limited is understood in a few expressions : —
ad Gastoris [aedes] (Quinct. VI), at the [temple] <tf Castor, [Gf. 8t, PauVs,]
Flaceus Claudi, Flaecus [slaye] of Claudius,
Hectoris AndromachS (Aen. iii. 319), Hector's [wife] AndromxLche,
212 SYNTAX: CONSTRUCTION OF CASES [§343
a. For the genitive of possession a possessive or derivative adjec-
tive is often used, — regularly for the possessive genitive of the per-
sonal pronouns (§ 302. a) : —
liber meus, my book. [Not liber mei.]
aliSna perlcula, otJier men's dangers. [But also alidram.]
SttlULna tempora, the times of Sulla. [Oftener SulUe.]
b. The possessive genitive often stands in the predicate, connected
with its noun by a verb (Predicate Genitive) : —
haec domus est patris mei, this house is my father^ s,
iam me Pompei tOtum esse scis (Fam. ii. 13), you know I am now aUfor Pom-
pey (all Pompey's).
summa laus et tua et Brfiti est (Fam. xii. 4. 2), the highest praise is due both
to you and to Brutus (is botb yours and Brutus's).
compendi facere, to save (make of saving),
lacri facere, to get the ben^ of (make of profit).
NoTB. — These genitives bear the same relation to the examples in § 343 that a
predicate noun bears to an appositive (§§ 282, 283).
c. .An infinitive or a clause, when used as a noun, is often limited
by a genitive in the predicate : —
neque sui iiidici [erat] discemere (B. C. i. 36), nor was it for his judgment to
decide (nor did it belong to his judgment).
cfiiusTis hominis est err^re (Phil. xii. 6), it is any man^s [liability] to err.
negftvit moris esse GraecOrum, ut in conviviO virOrum accumberent mulierSs
(Verr. 11. 1. 66), he said it was not the custom ofth6 Greeks for women to
appear as guests (recline) at the banquets of men.
sed timid! est optftre neeem (Ov. M. iv. 116), but His the coward's part to
wish for death.
•talti erat spSr^re, suSdere impudentis (Phil. ii. 23), it wasfoUy (the part of
a fool) to hopCf effrontery to urge.
sapientis est pauca loqul, it is wise (the part of a wise man) to say little.
[Not sapiSns (neuter) est, etc.]
NoTBl. — This construction is regular with adjectives of the third declension
instead of the neuter nominative (see the last two examples).
NoTB 2. — A derivative or possessive adjective may be used for the genitive in this
construction, and mtist be used for the genitive of a personal pronoun : —
mentiri nOn est menm [not mei], it is not for me to lie.
humAnom [for hominis] est errare, it is man's nature to err (to err is human).
d. A limiting genitive is sometimes used instead of a noun in appo-
sition (Appositional Genitive) (§ 282) : —
nCmen ins&niae (for nomen insania), the word madness,
oppidum Antiochiae (for oppidom Antiochia, the regular form), the cUy of
Awtioch.
j§ a44-346] PARTITIVE GENITIVE 213
Genitive of Material
344. The Genitive may denote the Substance or Material of
which a thing consists (cf. § 403): —
talentum auri, a talent of gold, flumina lactis, rivers of milk.
Genitive of Quality
345. The Genitive is used to denote Quality, but only when
the quality is modified by an adjective : —
vir sammae virtiltis, a man of the highest courage. [But not vir ▼irtfltis.]
magnae est dSliberAtioiiis, it is an affair of great deliberation.
magni formica labdiia (Hor. S. i. 1. 33), the ant [a creature] of great toU.
ille autem sai ifidici (Nep. Att. 9), but he [a man] of independent (his own)
judgment.
Note. — Compare Ablative of Quality (§ 415) . In expressions of quality, the geni-
tive or the ablative may often be used indifferently : as, praestanti prfidenti& vir, a
man of mrpassing wisdom ; maximi animi homS, a man of the greatest courage. In
classic prose, however, the genitive of quality is much less common than the abla-
tive; it is practically confined to expressions of measure or number, to a phrase with
eius, and to nouns modified by magnns, maximus, sommus, or tantus. In general the
Genitive is used rather of essential, the Ablative of special or incidental characteristics.
a. The genitive of quality is found in the adjetjtive phrases dius
modi, cuius modi (equivalent to tftlis, such ; quSlis, of what sort): —
eitts modi sunt tempestd.tSs cOnsectLtae, uti (B. G. iii. 29), such storms fol-
lowed, that, etc.
6, The genitive of quality, with numerals, is used to define meas-
ui'es of length, depth, etc. (Genitive of Measure): —
fossa triom pedum, a trench of three feet [in depth],
mtirus sSdecim pedum, a waU of sixteen feet [high].
For the Genitive of Quality used to express ind^nite value, see § 417.
Partitive Genitive
346. Words denoting a Part are followed by the Genitive of
the Whole to which the part belongs.
a. Partitive words, followed by the genitive, are —
1. Nouns or Pronouns (cf. also 3 below) : —
pars militum, part of the soldiers, quis nostrum, which ofusf
nihil erat reliqui, there was nothing left,
n6m5 eorum (B. G. vii. 66), not a man of them.
magnam i>artem eorum interfecerunt (id. ii. 23), theykHXed a large pari of them.
214 SYNTAX: CONSTRUCTION OF CASES [§3*
2. Numerals, Comparatives, Superlatives, and Pronominal -wards lik(
alius, alter, niillus, etc.: —
Unus tiibanomm, one of the trUmnes (see c below).
sapientum octftvus (Hor. S. ii. 3. 296), the eighth of the wise men,
milia passuom sescenta (B. G. iv. 3), six hundred miles (thousands of paces).
mftior frAtmm, the elder of the brothers,
anim&liam forti5ra, the stronger [of] animoUs.
Su6b<)rum gSns est longS maxima et bellicOsissima Germflnoniiii onuiiiiin
(B. 0. iv. 1), the tribe of the Siievi is far the largest and most warlike of
aU the Oermans.
alter cSnsulam, one of the [two] consuls,
nlllla einun (B.G. iv. 28), not one of them (the ships).
3. Neuter Adjectives and Pronouns, used as nouns : —
tantum spati, so much [of] spcu^e.
aliquid nammdrom, a few pence (something of coins).
id loci (or locdrum), thai spot of ground; id temporis, at thai tvne (§ 397. a).
plftna ozbie, tlie level parts of the toum,
quid novi, wluxt news? (what of new?)
I>aulum framenti (B. C. i. 78), a little grain,
plus doldris (B. G. i. 20), more grief,
8111 aliquid timdris (B. C. ii. 29), some fear of his own (something of his own fear).
Note 1. — In classic prose neuter adjectives (not pronominal) seldom take a i)arti-
tive genitive, except multum, tantom, quanttim, and similar words.
Note 2. — The genitive of adjectives of the thiird declension is rarely used parti-
tively : — nihil novi (genitive) , nothing new ; but, — nihil memoribile (nominative) , noth-
ing worth mention (not nihil memor&bilis).
4. Adverbs, especially those of Quantity and of Place : —
parum 5ti, not much ease (too little of ease).
satis pecflniae, money enough (enough of money).
plOrimum tdtius Galliae equitatu valet (B. G. v. 3), is strongest of aU Gaul
in cavalry,
ubinam gentium sumus (Cat. i. 9), wJiere in the world are we (where of
nations) ?
ubicumque terrflmm et gentium (Verr. v. 143), wherever in the whole world.
r6s erat e5 iam loci ut (Sest. 68), the business had now reached suxih a point
that, etc.
e5 miserifirum (lug. 14. 3), to that [pitch] of misery,
inde loci, next in order (thence of place). [Poetical.]
b* The poets and later writers often use the partitive genitive
after adjectives, instead of a noun in its proper case : —
sequimur t6, sftncte deorum (Aen. iv. 676), we follow thee, O holy deity, [For
8&ncte deus (§ 49. g, n.)]
nigrae Ulnfiinm (Plin. H. N. vui. 193), black wools, [For nigrae UbiM.]
expediti militum (Li v. xxx. 9), light-armed soldiers, [For expediti militSs.]
bominum cUnctOs (Ov. M. iv. 631), all men, [For cflnctSs bominte ; cf. e.]
f§ 34^-848] OBJECTIVE GBNITTSTE 216
<?• Cardinal numerals (except n^Oia) regularly take the Ablative
witli. 6 (ex) or dS instead of the Partitive Genitive. So also quidam,
at. c&rtain one, commonly, and other words occasionally : —
-anus ex tiibQnis, one of the tribunes. [But also, Hnxxs tzibflnSram (cf. a. 2).]
xninumns ex iUis (lug. 11)^ the youngest of them.
xnedius ex tzibat (ib.), the middle one of the three.
quidam ex mHitibtts, certain of the soldiers.
Unus d5 multis (Fin. iL 66), one of the many.
pauci d5 nostris cadunt (B. G. i. 16), a few of our men fall.
hominem dS comitibat meis, a jnan of my companions.
<I. Uterque, both (properly each), and quisque, each, with Koims
ax-e regularly used as adjectives in agreement, but with Pronouns
t^aJs:e a partitive genitive : —
uterque consul, both the consuls; but, uterque nostmin, both of us.
tmus quisque yestrum, each one of you.
utraque castza, both camps.
e. Numbers and words of quantity including the whole of any
-tiling take a case in agreement, and not the partitive genitive. So
also words denoting a part when only that part is thought of : —
noS'omnes, all of us (we all). [Not omnes nostram.]
quot sunt hostSs, Turn many of the enemy are there f
cave inimlcOs, qui multl sunt, beware of your enemies^ who are many.
multl militSs, many of the soldiers.
nSmO Romanus, not one Roman.
Objective Genitive
347. The Objective Genitive is used with Nouns, Adjectives,
and Verbs.
348. Nouns of action, agency, ojidfeelinff govern the Genitive
of the Object : — .
c&rit&s tui, ejection for you, deGdderium 5ti, longing for rest.
vac&tiO mfineris, relief from duty. grfttia benefici, gratitude for kindness.
fuga malomm, refuge from disaster. prec&tiO deorum, prayer to the gods.
contentiO hononua, struggle for office, opinio virtatiB, reputation for valor.
NoTB. — This usage is an extension of the idea of belonging to (Possessiye Genitive).
Thus in the phrase odinm Caesaris, hate of Csesar, the hate in a passive sense belongs
to CsBsar, as odium, though in its active sense he is the object of it, as fiate (cf. a).
The distinction between the Possessive (subjective) and the Objective Genitive is very
unstable and is often lost sight of. It is iUustrated by the f oUowing example : the
phrase amor patris, love of a father, may mean love felt by a father, a father's love
drabjectiye genitive), or love towards afat?ier (objective genitive).
216 SYNTAX : CONSTRUCTION OF CASES [§§ 348, 349
a. The objective genitive is sometimes replaced by a possessive
pronoun or other derivative adjective : —
mea invidia, my unpopularity (the dislike of which I am the object). [Of.
odium mei (Har. Resp. 5), hatred o/me.]
laudator meus (Alt. i. 16. 5), my eulogist (one who praises me). [Cf. nostri
laudator (id. i. 14. 6).]
Clodianom crimen (Mil. 72), the murder of Clodius (the Clodian charge). [As
we say, the Nathan murdeT.'\
metus hostilis (lug. 41), fear of the enemy (hostile fear),
ea quae faciebat, toi se HduciS facere dicSbat (Verr. y. 176), what he was
doing y he said he did relying on you (with your reliance),
neque neglegentia toi, neque id odi5 f^cit too (Ter. Ph. 1016), he did this
neitJierfrom neglect nor from hatred of you,
b. Rarely the objective genitive is used with a noun already lim-
ited by another genitive : —
animi multarum rerum percursiS (Tusc. iv. 31), tfie mind^8 traversing of many
things,
c. A noun with a preposition is often used instead of the objec-
tive genitive : —
odium in Antonium (Fam. z. 6. 3), hate of Antony,
merita erg& mS (id. i. 1. 1), services to me.
meam in to pietatem (id. i. 9. 1), my devotion to you,
impetus in urbem (Phil. xll. 29), an attack on the city,
ezcessus e vita (Fin. iii. 60), departure from life, [Also, ezcessns vitae,
Tusc. i. 27.]
adoptiO in Bomitium (Tac. Ann. xii. 25), the adoption of Domitiiu, [A late
and bold extension of this construction.]
NoTB. — So also in late writers the dative of reference (cf. § 366. &): as,— lon^o
bello materia (Tac. H. i. 89), resources for a long war,
GENITIVE WITH ADJECTIVES
349. Adjectives requiring an object of reference govern the
Objective Genitive.
a» Adjectives denoting desirey knowledge, memory , fulness, power y
sharing, guilt, and their opposites govern the genitive : —
avidi laudie (Manil. 7), greedy of praise.
fastidiOsus litterarum, disdaining letters.
iuris peritus, skiUed in law. [So also the ablative, ifire, cf. § 418.]
memorem vestri, oblitum sui (Cat. iv. 19), mindful ofymi, forgetful of himself.
ratiSnis et orStionis expertfis (Off. i. 60), devoid of sense and speech.
nostrae consuetfidinis Imperitl (B.G. iv. 22), unacquainted with our customs.
§ 349] GENITIVE WITH ADJECTIVES 217
planus fidei, full of good faith,
omnis spei egenam (Tac. Ann. i. 63), destitvie of all hope,
tempestatum potentem (Aen. L 80), having sway ofoer the storms.
iinxK>t6n8 irae (Li v. xxiz. 9. 9), ungovernahle in anger,
coniurationis participSs (Cat. iii. 14), sharing in the conspiracy.
affinis rei capitalis (Verr. ii. 2. 94), involved in a capital crime.
Ins5ns culpae (Liv. zxii. 49), innocent of guilt,
5. Participles in -ns govern the genitive when they are used as
adjectives, i.e. when they denote a co7istant disposition and not a
particular act : —
si quern tui amantiorem c5gn0visti (Q. Fr. i. 1. 15), if you have become
acquainted with any one more fond of you,
multitudO in80l€ns beUi (B. C. ii. 36), a crowd unused to war.
erat lugurtha appet€ns gloriae militaris (lug. 7), Jugurtha was eager for mili-
tary glory,
NoTB 1. — Participles in -ns, when used as participles, take the case regularly gov-
erned by the verb to which they belong: as, — Sp. Maelium i^guum appetentem inter-
emit (Cat. M. 56), lie put to death Spurius Mxlius, who was aspiring to royal power,
NoTB 2. — Occasionally participial forms in -ns are treated as participles (see note 1)
even when they express a disposition or character: as, — virtus quam alii Ipsam tem-
perantiam dicunt esse, alii obtemperantem temperantiae praeceptis et eam subsequen-
tem (Tusc. iv. 30), observant of the teachings of temperance and obedient to her.
c. Verbals in -fix (§ 251) govern the genitive in poetry and later
Latin: —
iiistum et tenScem prSpositi virum (Hor. Od. iii. 3), a man just and steadfast
to his purpose.
circus capazpopuli (Ov. A. A. i. 136), a circus big enough to hold the people.
cibi Yinique capacissimus (Liv. ix. 16. 13), a very great eater and drinker
(very able to contain food and wine).
d. The poets and later* writers use the genitive with almost any
adjective, to denote that with reference to which the quality exists
(^Genitive of Speeiflcation) : —
callidus rei mHitHris (Tac. H. ii. 32), skilled in soldiership.
pauper aquae (Hor. Od. iii. 30. 11), scant of water.
n5tu8 animi patemi (id. ii. 2. 6), famed for a paternal spirit.
fessi rerum (Aen. i. 178), weary of toil.
integer vitae scelerisque ptirus (Hor. Od. i. 22. 1), upright in life, and unstained
by guilt.
NoTB. — The Gtenitive of Specification is only an extension of the construction with
adjectives requiring an object of reference (§ 349). Thus caUidus denotes knowledge ;
pauper, want ; piiniSy innocence ; and so these words in a manner belong to the classes
under a.
For the Ablative of Specification, the prose construction, see § 418. For Adjectives
of liheMSS etc. with the Genitive, apparently Objective, see § 385. c For Adjectives
with anind (locative in origin), see § 368.
218 SYNTAX: CONSTRUCTION OF CASES [J ^^
GENITIVX WITH VERBS
Verbs of Remembering and Forgetting
350. Verbs of remembering said forgetting take either the Accu-
sative or the Genitive of the object : —
a. MeminI takes the Accusative when it has the literal sense of
retaining in the mind what one has seen, heard, or learned. Hence
the accusatiye is used of persons whom one remembers as acquaint-
ances, or of things which one has experienced.
So obliviscor in the opposite sense, — to forget literally, to lose nU
memory of^ thing (very rarely, of a person).
Ciniiam memini (Phil. y. 17), 1 remember Cinna.
utinam avam tuum meminissSs (id. i. 34), oh! that you could remember your
grandfather! (but he died before you were bom).
Postamium, ctUus statoam in IsthmO meminisse tS dicis (Att. ziii. 32), Postur
miuSy whose statue you say you remember (to have seen) on the Isthmus.
omnia meminit Siron Epicurl dogmata (Acad. ii. 106), Siron remembers all
the doctrines of Epicurus.
multa ab aliis audita meminSrunt (De Or. ii. 355), tJiey remember many things
that they have heard from others.
t5tam causam oblitus est (Brut. 217), he forgot the whole case,
hinc iam obliviscere Graids (Aen. ii. 148), from hencrforth forget the Greeks
(i.e. not merely disregard them, but banish them from your mind, as if
you had never known them).
6. Memini takes the Genitive when it means to he mindful or
regardful of a person or thing, to think of somebody or something
(often with special interest or warmth of feeling).
So obliviscor in the opposite sense, — to disregard, or dismiss from
the mind, — and the adjective oblitus, careless or regardless.
ipse 8tti meminerat (Verr. ii. 136), he was minjdfid of himself (of his own
interests),
faciam ut hMus loci di^que mliqne semper memineris (Ter. Eun. 801), IwiU
make you remember this place and this day and ms as long as you live.
nee me meminisse pigebit Elissae, dum memor ipse mel (Aen. iv. 335), nor
shall I fed regret at the thought of Elissa, so long as I remember myself.
meminerint yerScundiae (Off. i. 122), let them cherish modesty.
hamftnae infirmit&tis memini (Liv. xxx. 31. 6), I remember human weakness.
obllvisci temporum meOrum, meminisse &ctidnttm (Fam. i. 9. 8), to disregard
my own interests, to be minc^ful of tht matters at issue.
nee tamen Epiciiri licet oblivisci (Fin. v. 3), and yet I must not forget Epicwrus.
obliviscere caedis atque incendiorum (Cat. i. 6), turn your mind from sUsugUer
and conflagrations (dismiss them from your thoughts).
§ 350, 361] GENITIVE WITH VERBS 219
^OTB 1. — With both memini and obliviscorthe personal and reflexive pronouns are
'egularly in the Genitiye ; neater pronouns and adjectives used substantively are regu-
arly in the Accusative ; abstract nouns are often in the Grenitive. These uses come
ji eacli instance from the natural meaning of the verbs (as defined above).
NoTB 2. — Memini in the sense of mention takes the Genitive : as, — eundem Achil-
Lam cdius supra meminimus (B. G. iii. 108) , that same Achillas wJiom I mentioned
above,
e. Reminiscor is rare. It takes the Accusative in the literal sense
of call to mind, recollect ; the Genitive in the more figurative sense
of be mindful of: —
dnlcis moriens reminlscitur Argos (Aen. z. 782), as he dies he calls to mind
his beloved Argos.
reminlsceretur et veteris incommodi popull K5manl et pristinae virtatis Helve-
tiOrum (B. G. i. 13), let him remember both the former discomfiture of the
Roman people and the ancient valor of the Helvetians. [A warning, —
let him bear it in mind (and beware) 1 ]
dm Recorder, recollect , recall, regularly takes the Accusative: —
record&re coB&5nsam ilium the3,trl (Phil. i. 80), recall that unanim^ous agree-
ment of the [audience in the] theatre.
record&minl omnis civilis dissSneiones (Cat. iii. 24), call to mind all the civil
wars.
Note. — Recorder takes the genitive once (Pison. 12) ; it is never used with a per-
sonal object, but may be followed by dS with the ablative of the person or thing
(cf. §351. N.): —
dS t6 recorder (Scaur. 49), I remember about you.
d6 iUIs (lacrimis) recorder (Plane. 104), I am reminded of those tears.
Verbs of Reminding
351. Verbs of reminding take with the Accusative of the per-
son a Genitive of the thing ; except in the case of a neuter pro-
noun, which is put in the accusative (cf. § 390. c).
So admoneO, commoner, commonefaciS, commonefiS. But moneO with
the genitive is found in late writers only.
Catilina admonebat aliom egestAtis, alium capidit£tit suae (Sail. Cat. 21),
Catiline reminded one of his poverty ^ another of his cupidity,
e58 hoc moneO (Cat. ii. 20), I give them this warning.
quod v5s l6x commonet (Yerr. iii. 40), that which the law reminds you of.
KoTE. — All these verbs often take dS with the ablative, and the accusative of nonns
as well as of pronouns is sometimes used with them : —
Baepius te admoneO dS syngraphA Sittiana (Fam. viii. 4. 6) I remind you again and
again of Sittius's bond.
oflleiun vostrum ut vOs maid cOgatis commoncrier (Plant. Ps. 150), that you may
by m^fortune force yourselves to be reminded of your duty.
220 SYKTAX : CONSTRUCTION OF CASES [§§ 362, 353
Verbs of Accusing, Condemning, and Acquitting
352. Verbs of accusing^ condemning^ and acquitting^ take the
Genitive of the Charge or Penalty : —
arguit m6 furti, he accuses me of theft.
' pecQlatus damn3,tits (pecfiniae publicae damiid>tiis) (Flacc. 43), condemned for
embezzlement.
video n5n t6 absolutum esse impxobitatis, sed illos damnatOs esse caedis
(Verr. ii. 1. 72), / «ee, not that you were acquitted of outrage j but thai
they were condemned for homicide.
a. Peculiar genitives, under this construction, are —
capitis, as in damnare capitis, to sentence to death.
maiestatis [laesae], treason (crime against the dignity of the state),
repetundaium [r6rum], ext(yrtion (lit. of an action for reclaiming money).
Yoti damnatus (or reus), hound [to the payment] of one*s vowy i.e. success'
ful in one's effort,
pecfiniae (damnare, itidicare, see note),
dupli etc., as in dupli condemnlU'e, condemn to pay twofold.
Note. — The origin of these genitive constructions is pointed at hy pecuniae dam-
nare (Gell. XX. 1. 38), to condemn to pay money, in a case of injury to the i)erson;
quantae pecuniae iudicati essent (id.xx. 1.^7), how much money they were adjudged to pay,
in a mere suit for debt ; confess! aeris ac debit! iudicat! (id. xx. 1. 42), adjudged to owe
an admitted sum due. These expressions show that the genitive of the penalty comes
from the use of the genitive of value to express a sum of money due either as a debt or as
a fine. Since in early civilizations all offe^pes could be compounded by the payment of
fines, the genitive came to be used of other punishments, not pecuniary. From this to
the genitive of the actual crime is an easy transition, inasmuch as there is always a
confusion between crime and penalty (cf . Eng. guilty of death) . It is quite unnecessary
to assume an ellipsis of ciimlne or iiidicid.
353. Other constructions for the Charge or Penalty are —
1. The Ablative of Price : regularly of a definite amount of fine,
and often of indefinite penalties (cf. § 416) : —
Frusinat^s tertia parte agri damn^ti (Liv. x. 1), the people of Frusino cortr
demned [to forfeit] a third part of their land.
2. The Ablative with d6, or the Accusative with inter, in idiomatic
expressions : —
d6 alea, for gambling ; dS ambitu, for bribery.
d6 pecuniis repetundis, of extortion (cf. § 352. a).
inter sic9.ri5s (Rose. Am. 90), as an assassin (among the assassins).
de vl et maiestatis damnati (Phil. i. 21), convicted of assault and treason.
Note. — The accusative with ad and in occurs in later writers to express the pen'
city: as,— ad mortem (Tac. Ann. xvi. 21), to death; ad (in) metaUa, to the mines.
§ 354, 366] GENITIVE WITH VERBS 221
Verbs of Feeling
354. Many verbs of feeling take the Genitive of the object
vhicli excites the feeling.
ce. Verbs of pity^ as misereor and miserSscG, take the genitive : —
miseremini familiae, itidicSs, miseremihi paths, miser^minl fili (Flacc. 106),
have pity on the family^ etc.
miserere animl nOn digna ferentis (Aen. ii. 144), pity a sold that endures
unworthy things.
miserescite regis (id. viii. 673), pity the king. [Poetical.]
NoTB. — But miseror, commiBeror, bewail f take the accusative: as, — communem
condicionem miserari (Mur. 55), bewail the common lot.
h. As impersonals, miseret, paenitet, piget, pudet, taedet (or pertaesum
est), take the genitive of the cause of the feeling and the accusative
of ^^e person affected: —
quos infamise suae neque pudet neque taedet (Verr. i. 35), who are neither
ashamed nor weary of their dishonor.
me miseret parietum ipsorum (Phil. ii. 69), I pity the very waUs.
mS civit9,tis monun piget taedetqu^ (lug. 4), / am sick arid tired of the ways
of the state.
decemvirdrum vos pertaesum est (Liv. iii. 67), you became tired of the decemvirs.
c. With miseret, paenitet^ etc., the cav^se of the feeling may be ex-
pressed by an infinitive or a clause : —
neque m€ paenitet mortSlis inimiciti&s habSre (Rab. Post. 32), Tior am I sorry
to have deadly enmities.
non dedisse Istunc pudet ; in@ quia non accSpi piget (PI. Pseud. 282), he is
ashamed not to have given; I am sorry because I have not received.
Note. — Miseret etc. are sometimes used personally with a neuter pronoun as sub-
ject: as,— nOn te haec pudent (Ter. Ad. 754), do not these things shams you?
Interest and Refert
355. The impersonals interest and rSfert take the Genitive of
the person (rarely of the thing) affected.
The subject of the verb is a neuter pronoun or a substantive
clause : —
Clodi intererat MilOnem perire (cf. Mil. 56), it was the interest of Clodius that
MUo should die.
aliquid quod ill5ram magis quam suA r€tulisse yld€r€tur (lug. Ill), something
which seemed to be more for their interest than his own.
video enim quid mea intersit, quid utiiusque nostrum (Fam. vii. 23, 4), for I
see what is for my good and for the good of us both.
222 SYNTAX: CONSTRUCTION OF CASES [§§365,356
a. Instead of the genitive of a personal pronoun the correspond-
ing possessive is used in the ablative singular feminine after interest
or rtf art : —
quid tu& id rSfert? m9gnl (Ter. Fh. 723), how does thai concern you? iMuk.
[See also the last two examples above.]
vehementer iiitererat vestra qui patrSs estis (Plin. Ep. iv. 13. 4), it woivM he
very much to your advantage^ you who are fathers.
Note. — This is the only coustruction with rSfert in classic prose, except in one
passage in Sallast (see example above).
b. The accusative with ad is used with interest and rSfert to ex-
press the thing with reference to which one is interested : —
m&gnl ad honSrem nostrum interest (Fam. xvi. 1), it is of great consequence
to our honor,
r^fert etiam ad fractus (Yarr. R. R. i. 16. 6), it makes a difference as to the crop.
Note 1. — Very rarely the person is expressed by ad and the accusatiye, or (with
rSfert) by the dative (probably a popular corruption): —
quid id ad mS aut ad meam rem refert (PI. Pers. 513), whai difference does that
make to me or to my interests f
quid referat intra natiirae finis viventi (Hor. S. i. 1. 49), what difference does it
make to me who live within the litnits of natural desire?
nOn referre dSdecoii (Tac. Ann. xv. 65), that it makes no difference as to the
disgrace.
Note 2. — The degree of interest is expressed by a genitive of value, an adverb,
or an adverbial accusative.
Verbs of Plenty and Want
356. Verbs of Plenty and Want sometimes govern the geni-
tive (of. § 409. a. N.) : —
convlvium vicinorum compleO (Cat. M. 46, in the mouth of Cato), J^ up the
banquet with my neighbors.
implentur veteris Bacchi pinguisque fennae (Aen. i. 215), theyfUl themselves
with old wine and fat venison.
ne quis auxili egeat (B. G. vi. 11), lest any require aid.
quid est quod dSfensionis indigeat (Rose. Am. 34), what is there thaJt needs
defence?
quae ad cOnsOlandum m&iOris ingeni et ad ferendum singularis virtutis indi-
gent (Fam. vi. 4. 2), [sorrows] which for their comforting need more abU-
ity^ and for endurance unusual courage.
Note. — Verbs of plenty and want more commonly take the ablative (see §§ 409. a,
401), except eged, which takes either case, and indigeo. But the genitive is by a Greek
idiom often used in poetry instead of the ablative with all words denoting separatum
and want (cf. § 357. 6. 3): —
abstineto irftrum (Hor. Od. iii. 27. 69), refrain from wrath.
openmi solutis (id. iii. 17. W), free from toils.
desine moUium querelUrum (id. ii. 9. 17), have done with weak con^lainU
§ 357-359] PECULIAR GENITIVES 223
Genitive with Special Verbs
357. The Genitive is used with certain special verbs.
ce. The genitive sometimes follows potior^ get possession of; as
always in the phrase potiri rerum^ to he master of affairs : —
illius regni potiri (Fam. i. 7. 6), to become master of that kingdom,
Cleanthes eOlem dominarl et lerum potiri putat (Acad. it. 126), Cleanthes
thinks the sun holds sway and is lord of the universe.
Note. — But potior usually takes the ablative (see §410).
5. Some other verbs rarely take the genitive —
1 . By analogy with those mentioned in § 354 : —
neque htlius sis veritus fSminae primariae (Ter. Fh. 971), and you had no
respect for this highrbom lady,
2. As akin to adjectives which take the genitive : —
fastidit mei (Plaut. Aul. 245), h>e disdains me. [Cf. fastidiOsus.]
studet to! (quoted N. D. iii. 72), he is zealous for you. [Cf. studiCsus.]
3. In imitation of the Greek: —
iustitiaene prius mirer, belline laborum (Aen. xi. 126), shall I rather admire
his justice or his toils in war?
neque ille sSpositi ciceris nee longae invidit avenae (Hor. S. ii. 6. 84), nor did
he grudge his garnered peas, etc. [But cf. in vidua, parcus.]
laborum decipitur (Hor. Od. ii. 13. 38), ?ie is beguiled of his woes.
m6 laborum levas (PI. Rud. 247), you relieve me of my troubles,
358. The apparent Genitive animi (really Locative) is used with
a few verbs and adjectives oi feeling and the like : —
AntiphO mS ezcruciat animi (Ter. Ph. 187), Ardipho tortures my mind (me in
my mind),
qui pendet animi (Tusc. iv. 35), who is in suspense.
me animi fall it (Lucr. i. 022), my mind deceives me.
So, by analogy, desipiebam mentis (PI. Epid. 138), I was out of my head.
aeger animi, sick at heart; cOnfOsus animi, disturbed in spirit.
sSnus mentis aut animi (PI. Trin. 454), sound in mind or heart.
PECULIAR GENITIVES
359. Peculiar Genitive constructions are the following : —
a. A poetical genitive occurs rarely in exclamations, in imitation
of the Greek ( Genitive of Exclamation) : —
dl immort^es, mercimoni lepidi (PI. Most. 912), good heavens! what a charm'
ing bargain I
foederis heu taciti (Prop. iv. 7. 21), alas for the unspoken agreement I
224 SYNTAX: CONSTRUCTION OF CASES [§§359,300
6. The genitive is often used with the ablatives causa, gratia, for
the sake of; ergC, because of; and the indeclinable instar, like; also
with pridiS, the day before; postridiS, the day after; tenus, as far as:
hondris causft, with due respect (for the sake of honor).
yerbl gr&ti&, for example.
gius legis ergO, on account of this law.
equus Instar montis (Aen. ii. 15), a horse huge as a mountain (the image of
a mountain),
laterum tenos (id. x. 210), as far as the sides.
Note 1. — Of these the genitive with caxLsSL is a development from the possessive
genitive and resembles that in ndmen insaniae (§ 343.(2) . The others are of various origin.
Note 2. — In prose of the Republican Period pridiS and postndiS are thus used only
in the expressions pridi6 (postridiS) ftiusdiSI, the day before {after) that (cf. "the eve, the
morrow of that day ' ') . Taci tus uses the construction with other words : as, — postridie
insidi&nun, t?ie day after the plot. For the accusative, see § 432. a. Tenos takes also
the ablative (p. 136).
DATIVE CASE
360. The Dative is probably, like the Grenitive, a grammatical case, that is, it is
a form appropriated to the expression of a variety of relations other than that of the
direct object. But it is held by some to be a Locative with the primary meaning of
to or towards, and the poetic uses (like it clamor caelo, Aen. v. 451) are regarded as
survivals of the original use.
In Latin the Dative has two classes of meanings : —
1. The Dative denotes an object not as caused by the action, or directly affected by
it (like the Accusative), but as reciprocally sharing in the action or receiving it con-
sdously or actively. Thus in dedit puerd librum, he gave the boy a book, or fScit mihi
iniuriam, he did me a wrong, there is an idea of the boy*s receiving the book, and of my
feeling the wrong. Hence expressions denoting persons, or things with personal
attributes, are more likely to be in the dative than those denoting mere things. So
in Spanish the dative is used whenever a person is the object of an action ; yo veo al
hombre, I see [to] the man. This difference between the Accusative and the Dative
(i.e. between the Direct and the Indirect Object) depends upon the point of view implied
in the verb or existing in the mind of the writer. Hence Latin verbs of similar meaning
(to an English mind) often differ in the case of their object (see § 367. a).
2. The Dative is used to express the purpose of an action or that for which it serves
(see § 382). This construction is especially used with abstract expressions, or those
implying an action.
These two classes of Datives approach each other in some cases and are occasion-
ally confounded, as in §§ 383, 384.
The uses of the Dative are the following : —
1. Indirect Object (general / 1. With Transitives (§ 362).
12.
use): \ 2. With Intransitives (§§ 366-372).
1. Of Possession (with esse) (§ 373).
2. Of Agency (with Gerundive) (§ 374).
3. Of Reference (dativus commx)di) (§§ 37&-381).
4. Of Purpose or End (predicate use) (§ 382).
6. Of Fitness etc. (with Adjectives) (§§ 383, 384).
2. Special prWipnjatipVws: -
i§ 361-363] DATIVE OF INDIRECT OBJECT 225
INDIRECT OBJECT
361. The Dative is used to denote the object indirectly affected
by an action.
This is called the Indirect Object (§ 274). It is usually denoted
in ^English by the objective with to : —
c6dite tempoii, yidd to the occasion.
prOvincia Ciceroni obtigit, the province fell by lot to Cicero,
inimicis nOn credimus, we do not trust [to] our enemies.
Indirect Object with Transitives
362. The Dative of the Indirect Object with the Accusative
of the Direct may be used with any transitive verb whose mean-
ing allows (see § 274) : —
do tibi librum, J give you a book,
illud tibi affirmo (Fam. i. 7. 5), this I assure you,
commendO tibi eius omnia negOtia (id. i. 3), Ipvi cUl his chairs in your hands
(commit them to you),
dabis profectO misericordiae quod iracundiae negavistl (Deiot. 40), you will
surely grant to mercy what you reused to wrath.
litteras a te mihi stator tuus reddidit (Fam. ii. 17), your messenger delivered
to me a letter from, you,
a. Many verbs have both a transitive and an intransitive use, and
take either the Accusative with the Dative, or the Dative alone : —
mihi id aarnm credidit (cf. Flaut. Aul. 15), he trusted that gold to me,
equo n6 crfidite (Aen. ii. 48), x^t not your trust in the horse.
concessit sen&tus postulatiom tuae (Mur. 47), th£ senate yielded to your demand.
concSdere amicis quidquid velint (Lael. 88), to grant to friends all they may
wish.
363. Certain verbs implying motion vary in their construction
between the Dative of the Indirect Object and the Accusative
of the End of Motion (§§ 426, 427) : —
1. Some verbs implying motion take the Accusative (usually with
ad or in) instead of the Indirect Object, when the idea of motion pre-
vails:-—
litteras quas ad Pompeium scrlpsi (Att. iii. 8. 4), the letter which I have written
[and sent] to Pompey. [Cf. nCn quo habSrem quod tibi scriberem (id.
iv. 4 a), not that I had anything to write to you.']
226 SYNTAX : CONSTRUCTION 01 CASES [§§ SeS, SOi
litterae extemplO Rdmam Borlptae (LIy. zli. 16), a letter was immediateiy uniUen
[and Bent] to Rome.
hostis in fugam dat (B. G. v. 51), ^ puts the enemy to flight, [Of. ut md dem
fugae (Att. Yii. 23), to take to flight.]
omnSs rem ad Pompcium dMerrI volunt (Fam. i. 1), oZZ wish the matter to hi
put in the hands of Pompey (referred to Pompey).
2. On the other hand, many verbs of motion usually f ollo^wed by
the Accusative with ad or in, take the Dative when the idea of motion
is merged in some other idea ; —
mihi litterSs mittere (Fam. vii. 12), to send me a letter.
eum librum tibi misl (id. vii. 19), I sent you that book.
nee quicquam quod nOn mihi Caesar detulerit (id. iv. 13), and nothing which
CcBsar did not communicate to me,
cilres ut mihi vehantor (id. viii. 4. 5), take care that they he conoeyed to me.
cum alius alii subsidium ferrent (B. G. ii. 26), while one lent aid to another.
364. Certain verbs may take either the Dative of the person and
the Accusative of the thing, or (in a different sense) the Accusative
of the person and the Ablative of the thing ^: —
dOnat coronfts suis, he presents wreaths to his men; or,
dOnat sttSs corSnis, he presents his men with wreaths,
vincula exuere sibi (Oy. M. yii. 772), to shake off the leash (from himself).
omnis annis exult (B. G. v. 51), he stripped them all of their arms.
NoTB 1. — Interdicd, /or&i(2, takes either (1) the Dative of the person and the Abla-
tive of the thing, or (2) in later writers, the Dative of the person and the Accusative of
the thing ; —
aqni et igni alicoi interdicere, to forbid one the use offlre and water, [The regular
formula for banishment.] I
interdmt histridnibusscaenam (Suet. Dom. 7), he forbade t?ie actors [to appear on]
the stage (he prohibited the stage to the actors).
fSminis (dat.) purpurae usil interdicemus (Liv. xxdv. 7), shall we forbid women
the wearing of purple f
Note 2. — The Dative with the Accusative is used in poetry with many verbs of
preventing, protecting, and the like, which usually take the Accusative and Ablative.
Interclttdd and prohibeS sometimes take the Dative and Accusative, even in prose:—
hisce omnis aditus ad Sullam intercludere (Rose. Am. 110), to shut these men off
from all access to Sulla (close to them every approach). [Cf. uti oomnieitfi
Caesarem intercluderet (6. G. i. 48), to shut Csssar off from supplies.]
hunc (oestrum) arcebis pecoii (Georg. iii. 154), you shall keep this away from th$
flock, [Cf . iUum arcuit GaUia (Phil. v. .^), he excluded him from Oaul.]
sSlstitiam pecoii defendite (Eel. vii. 47), keep the summer heat from the flock. [Cf.
uti 86 ft contamSliis inimicOrum defenderet (B. G. i. 22), to defend himeHf
from the slanders of his enemies.]
1 Such are d5n5, impertiS, IndnS, eza5, adspergO, InspergS, dreuiidS, and in poetiy
aocingo, impUc5, and similar verbs.
^65, 366] DATIVE OF INDIRECT OBJECT 227
565. Verbs which in the active voice take the Accusative and
itive retain the Dative when used in the passive : —
nuntiabantur haec eadem Curidni (B. .C. ii. 87), these same things were
announced to Curio. [Active : nfintiabant (quidam) haec eadem Cflrioni.]
nee doceiidi Caesaris propinquis Sins spatium datur, nee tribunis plSbis sui
periculi dfiprecandi facultas tribuitiir (id. i. 6), no time is given C<Bsar''s
relatives to inform him, and no opportunity is granted to the tribunes of
the plebs to avert danger from themselves,
prOvinciae privatis decemuntur (id. i. 6), provinces are voted to private
citizens.
Indirect Object with Intransitives
366. The Dative of the Indirect Object may be used with any
ntransitive verb whose meaning allows : —
cedant arma togae (Phil. ii. 20), let arms give place to the gown,
Caesari respondet, he replies to Ccesar,
Caesari respondetur, a reply is given to Ccesar (Caesar is replied to) . [Cf . § 372. ]
respond! maximis criminibus (Phil. ii. 36), / have answered the heaviest charges,
lit ita cuique Sveniat (id. ii. 119), that it may so turn out to each.
NoTB 1. — Intransitive verbs have no Direct Object. The Indirect Object, there-
fore, in these cases stands alone as in the second example (but cf. § 362. a).
Note 2. — CSdo, yield, sometimes takes the Ablative of the thing along with the
Dative of the person : as, — cedere alicui possessione hortdrum (cf . Mil. 75), to give up to
one the possession of a garden,
a. Many phrases consisting of a noun with the copula sum or a
copulative verb are equivalent to an intransitive verb and take a
kind of indirect object (cf. § 367. a, n.^): —
auctor esse alicui, to advise or instigate one (cf. persuaded).
quis huic rei testis est (Quinct. 37), who testifies (is v^itness) to this fact?
is finis populationibus fuit (Li v. ii. 30. 9), this put an end to the raids,
h. The dative is sometimes used without a copulative verb in a
sense approaching that of the genitive (cf. §§ 367. d, 377) : —
legatus fratri (Mur. 32), a lieutenant to his brother (i.e. a man assigned to his
brother),
mhiistrl sceleribus (Tac. Ann. vi. 36), agents of crime, [Cf. seditidnis minis-
tri (id. i. 17), agents of sedition.]
miseiils suis remedium mortem exspect5.re (Sail. Cat. 40), to look for death
08 a cure for their miseries. [Cf. s5lus mearum miseriSrumst remedium
(Ter. Ad. 294).]
NoTB.— The cases in a and b differ from the constructions of § 367. a, n.> and
§ 377 in that the dative is more closely connected in idea with some single word to
which it serves as an indirect object.
228 STKTAX: OONSTBUCTION OF CASES [§ 2
ladiiect Object with Special Yerbs
367. Many verbs signifying to favavy helpj please^ trtist, an
their contraries ; also to believe^ perwuade^ command^ obey^ sens
resuit envjf^ threaten^ pardon^ and wpare^ take the Dative : —
cfir ■dU invideB, wkg do yad any met
■dU pucit fttqiie igndacii, he 9pare» amd pardons me.
IgnOsoe putrid dolod (Ur. iiL 48), accuse a father's gritf.
BubTenl pfttzia*, opitoUre ooolegM (Fam. z. 10. 2), come to the aid of you
eoimlry, kelp yowr coUeague.
■dU nOn displic^ (Cla. 144), U does not displease me.
nOa ir*«*VT* aerriO (Att. xiiL 49), I am not a servant to eoery nuau
nOn pttrcam apene (Fun. ziiL 27), J will spare no pains.
de ■dU peranifll (Cat. M. 78), so I hose persuaded myseif.
■dU Fabios dSbei^t igndscere si minus ^os fiimae parcere yidebor qnam ante!
oOdsqIuI (Toll. 3), Fabius vnU hone to pardon me if I seetn to spare hk
jngmtctftoH less tkoan I have heretofore regarded U.
huie tegiW Caesar cOnfidCbat inazime (B. 6. i. 40. 15), in this legion CcBsai
In these verbs the Latin retains an original intransitive meaning.
Thus : invidSre, to envy^ is literally to look askance at ; servire is to be
a slave to ; soidSre is to make a thing pleasant (sweet) to.
a. Some verbs apparently of the same meanings take the Accusative.
Such are inrO, adrarft, help; laedQ, injure; inbe5, order; difido, fail;
delects, please : —
hic polYis ocolnm meom laedit, this dust hurts my eye. [Cf . multa ocolis
Bocent, many things are ii^rious to the eyes.'\
Non 1. — KdS and oQnfidS take also the Ablative (§ 431) : as, — mnltnm aitiiia loel
oOniidebant (B. 6. iii. 9), they Aod great confidence in the strength of their position.
NoTS 2. — Some common phrases regularly take the dative precisely like verbs of
similar meaning. Snch are — praestd esse, be on hand (cf. adesae) ; m5rem gerere,
humor (cf. mSriceiixi) ; gratnm facere, do a favor (cf . ciStiflcan) ; dictO audiens esse,
be obedient (cf. oboedize) ; cni fidem habebat (B. O. i. 19), in whom he had eor^denee
(cf. coBfiOSbat).
So also many phrases where no corresponding verb exists. Snch are — bene (male,
ptokfare, aegre, etc.) esse, be well (ill, etc.) off; iniuriam facere, do injustice to ; diem
dicere, bring to trial (name a day for, etc.); agere gratias, eaqtress one's thartki:
habere gratiam,/eeZ thankful; referre gratiam, repay a favor; opus esse, be neea-
sary; *^i""nnin dare, inflict an if^ury; aoceptom (expensnm) ferre (esse), eredt/
(Aarge); lionArem habere, to pay honor to.
I These inelnde, among others, the foUowing: advenor, cSdo, ci€d5, faveS, fido,
\gtaso6, iapei^, iodvlCBS, iavideo, xiiseor, miaitor, aooeS, paio5, pftieS, pUceS, mitto,
ierriS, stadeS, toidsS (yersoIdeS), saflceaseS, tempei5 (oMeoqietS).
36*7 , 368] DATIVE WITH SPECIAL VERBS 229
&* Some verbs are used transitively with the Accusatiye or intranr
t'l-v^ly with the Dative without perceptible difference of meaning.
Sixch are adulor, aemulor, desperO, praestdlor, medeor : —
Sbdulatus est Antonio (Nep. Att. 8), Tie flattered Antony.
SbdtU&rl Nezonem (Tac. Ann. zvi. 19), toflxOter Nero,
pficedi nCn d€8p6r38 (Att. viii. 15. 3), you do not despair of peace.
saluti d^er^re vetuit (Clu. 68), he forbade him to despair of saffiy.
^?. Some verbs are used transitively with the Accusative or intran-
'vti.^ely with the Dative with a difference of meaning : — ^
parti clvium cOnsulunt (Off. i. 85), they consult for a part of the citizens.
cum te cOnsoluissem (Fam. zi. 29), when I had consulted you.
metuens pneiis (Flaut. Am. 1113), anxious for the children.
nee metuunt deos (Ter. Hec. 772), they fear not even the gods. [So also timeo.]
pr5spicite patriae (Cat. iv. 3), Jiave regard for the state.
prOspicere sedem senectHtl (Liv. iy. 49. 14), to provide a Jiabitationfor old age.
[So also provided.]
d,m A few verbal nouns (as insidiae, arnhush; obtemperfttiO; ohedi-
erhce) rarely take the dative like the corresponding verbs : —
Insldiae cdnsuli (Sail. Cat. 32), the plot against the consul (cf. msidior).
obtemper&tiO ISgibns (Legg. i. 42), obedience to the laws (cf. obtempero).
sibi ipsi respOnsiO (De Or. iii. 207), an answer to himself (cf. responded).
NoTB. — In these cases the dative depends immediately upon the verbal force of the
noun and Jiot on any complex idea (cf . § 366. a, b),
368. The Dative is used —
1. With the impersonals libet (lubet), it pleases, and licet, it is
allowed : —
quod mihi maximS lubet (Fam. i. 8. 3), what most pleases me.
quasi tibi nOn Uc6ret (id. vi. S), aa if you were not permitted.
2. With verbs compounded with satis^ bene, and male : —
mihi ipse numquam satisfaciO (Fam. i. 1), J never satisfy myself.
optimO vii5 maledlcere (Deiot. 28), to speak ill of a most excellent man.
pulchrum est benefacere rei pfiblicae (Sail. Cat. d)y it is a glorious Mng to
ben^t the stale.
Note. — These are not real compounds, but phrases, and were apparently felt as
such by the Romans. Thus, — satis officio meO, satis illOrum voluntati qui a me hOc
petlverunt factvm esse arbitrabor (Verr. v. 130), I shall consider that enoiLgh has been
done for my dtUy, enough for the wishes of those who Usked this of me.
1 See the Lexicon under cave9, oonvenid, cupid, InsistO, maaeS, praevertS, recipid, ra-
n&ntiS, BOlvO, 8ueo8d5.
230 SYNTAX: CONSTRUCTION OF CASES [§§368,
3. With grfttificor, grfttalor, nftbO, permittO, plaudO, probO, studeS, sa;
plicO, ezoellO : —
PompSio 86 gratificftrl putant (Fam. i. 1), they suppose they are doing I^ompeg
a service.
gratulor tibi, ml Balbe (id. vi. 12), I congratulate you, my dear Balbus.
tibi permittO respondere (N. D. iii. 4), / give you leave to answer.
mihi plaudO ipse domi (Hor. S. i. 1. 66), / applaud myself at home.
cum inimlcl M. Font§I vObls ac populO ROmanO minentur, amici ac propinqni
supplicent vSbis (Font. 35), while the enemies of Marcus FoniHtts an
threatening ycm and the Roman people too, while his friends and relatite^
are beseeching you,
NoTK. — Miaoe5 and iungS sometimes take the dative (see § 413. a. n.). HaereS usnally ||
takes the ablative, with or without in, rarely the dative : as,— haerentem capiti coin- I
nam (Hor. S. i. 10. 49), a wreath dinging to the head. 1
a. The dative is often used by the poets in constructions which |
would in prose require a noun with a preposition. So especially
with verbs of contending (§ 413. h) : —
contendis HomSiQ (Prop. i. 7.3), you vie with Homer. [In prose : cum Homero.]
placitOne etiam pugnabis amori (Aen. iv. 38), will you struggle even against a
love that pleases you f
tibi certat (Eel. v. 8), vies with you. [tecum.]
diSert sermon! (Hor. S. i. 4. 48), differs from prose, [a sexmone, § 401.]
lateri abdidit ensem (Aen. ii. 653), buried the sword in his side, [in latere,
§ 430. ]
For the Dative instead of ad with the Accusative, see § 428. A.
369. Some verbs ordinarily intransitive may have an Accusa-
tive of the direct object along with the Dative of the indirect
(cf. § 362. a): —
cui cum rSx crucem minar€Uir (Tuisc. i. 102)* and when the king threatened
him with the cross.
Cretensibus obsid^s imperavit (Manil. 85), Ae exacted hostages of the Cretans.
omnia sibi ignOscere (Veil. ii. 30), to pardon one^s self everything.
Ascanione pater ROmanas invidet arces (Aen. iv. 234), does the father envy
Ascanius his Boman citadels f [With invideo this construction is poetic
or late.]
a. With the passive voice this dative may be retained : —
qui iam nunc sanguinem meum sibi indulggrl aequum censet (Liv. xl. 15. 16),
who even now thinks it right that my blood should be granted to him as a
favor.
singulis cSnsdribus dfinaril trecenti imperatl sunt (Verr. ii. 137^ three hun-
dred denarii were exacted of each censor.
Scaevolae concessa est facundiae virtus (Quint, xii. 3. 9), to Scaew^ ha9
been granted excellence in oratory.
70] DATIVE WITH COMPOUNDS 231
Indirect Object with Compounds
370. Many verbs compounded with ad, ante, con, in, inter, ob,
s-t, pxae, pr5, sub, super, and some with circum, admit the Dative
the indirect object : —
neque enlm adsentior eis (Lael. 13), for I do not agree with them.
quajitum nsltura hominis pecudibus antecSdit (OS. i. 106), so far oa marl's
nature is superior to brutes. ^
8l Bibi ipse cOnsentit (id. i. 5), if he is in accord with himseHf.
virtutes semper voluptatibus inbaerent (Fin. i. 68), loirtues are always con-
nected with pleasures.
omnibus negotiis nOn interfuit solum sed praefuit (id. i. 6), ?ie not only had
a hand in all maiters, but took the lead in them.
tempestati obsequi artis est (Fam. i. 9. 21), it t8 a point of skiU to yield to
the weaiher.
nee umquam succumbet inimids (Deiot. 36), and he will never yield to his
foes.
cum et Brutus cuilibet ducum praeferendus yid6r€tur et Vatlnius nGlli n5n
esset postferendus (Veil. ii. 60), since Brutus seemed worthy • of being pvi
before any of the generals and Vatinius deserved to be put after all of them.
a. In these cases the dative depends not on the preposition, but
on the coijipound verb in its acquired meaning. Hence, if the acquired
meaning is not suited to an indirect object, the original construction
of the simple verb remains.
Thus in convocat suos, he calls his men together, the idea of calling is not so
modified as to make an indirect object appropriate. So hominem interficere, to
make way with a man (kill him). But in praeficere imperfttorem beU5, to put a
man (M commander-inrchief in charge of a war, the idea resulting from the com-
position is suited to an indirect object (see also 6, §§ 371, 388, b).
Note 1. —Some of these verbs, being originally transitive, take also a direct object ;
as,— ne offeramus nos periculis (Oif. i. 83), that we may not expose ourselves to perils.
Note 2. — The construction of § 370 is not different in its nature from that of §§ 362,
3G6, and 367 ; but the compound verbs make a convenient group.
6. Some compounds of ad, ante, ob, with a few others, have acquired
a transitive meaning, and take the accusative (cf. § 388. b): — ^
nSs oppfignat (Fam. i. 1), ^ opposes us.
quis audeat bene comit&tum aggredi (Phil. xii. 25), w?io would dare encounter
a man well attended f
mfinos obire (Lael. 7), to attend to a duty.
1 Such verhs are ageredlor, ade5, antecidS, aiitee5, antegredior, convents, ineS, obeo,
offends, oppugns, praec6d5, snbeS.
232 SYNTAX : CONSTRUCTION OF CASES [§§ 370-371
e. The adjective obvius and the adverb obviam with a verb take
the dative : —
si ille obvius ei futilras nOn erat (Mil. 47), if he was jwt iTitending to g^ a
his way.
ndhi obviam vSnistI (Fam. ii. 16. 3), you came to meet me.
371. When place or motion is distinctly thought of, the verbs
mentioned in § 370 regularly take a noun with a preposition :
inhaeret in visceribas (Tusc. iv. 24), it remairis fixed in the vitals.
homine conitLnctO mecttm (Tull. 4), a man united to me.
cum ]i9c concurrit ipse £umen@s (Nep. £um. 4. 1), with him JEutnenes him-
self engages in combat (runs together).
Inserite ocnlOs in cfiiiam (Font. 43), flx your eyes on the senate-house.
Ignis qui est ob 5s offOsus (Tim. 14), the fire which is diffused b^ore the sight
obicitur contrft istOram impetus Macedonia (Font. 44), Macedonia is set to
withstand their aJUacks. [Cf. si qois yoUs error obiectus (Oaec. 6), ij
any mistake has been caused you."]
in segetem flamma incidit (Aen. ii. 804), the fire falls upon the standing com.
NoTB. — Bat the usage varies in different authors, in different words, and often in
the same word and the same sense. The Lexicon must be consulted for each verb, j
372. Intransitive verbs that govern the dative are used imper-
sonally. in the passive (§ 208. d). The dative is retained (cf. § 865):
cui parol potuit (Liv. xxi. 14), who could he spared?
nOn modo nOn invidetur ill! aetati v€rum etiam favStur (Off. ii. 45), thai age
(youth) not only is not envied, but is even favored.
tempori serviendum e8t(Fam. ix. 7), we must serve the exigency of the occasiojL
NoTB. — In poetry the personal construction is sometimes found : as, — cur invideor
(Hor. A. P. 56), why am I envied f
Dative of Possession
373. The Dative is used with esse and similar words to denote
Possession : —
est mihi domi pater (Eel. iii. 33), J have a father at hom^ (there is to me).
homini cum deO similitude est (Legg. i. 26), man has a likeness to God.
qnibns opes ntillae sunt (Sail. Cat. 37), [those] who have no wealth
Note. — The Grenitive or a Possessive with esse emphasizes the possessor; the
Dative, the fact of possession: as, — liber est meus, the book is miks (and no one's
else) ; est mihi liber, / havb a book (among other things).
a. With nSmen est^ and similar expressions, the name is often put
in the Dative by a kind of apposition with the person; but the
Nominative is also common : —
§§ 378-375] DATIVE OF THE AGENT 283
(1) cni Africans fuit cQgnOmen (Liy. zzy. 2), whose (to whom) surname was
Africanus.
puer5 ab inopia Egerid inditum nOmen (id. i. 34), tAe name Egeriua was given
the boy from his poverty.
(2) puerO nOmen est Marcas, tJie boy^s nam^ is Marcus (to the boy is, etc.).
cui nOmen Arethusa (Yen*, iv. 118), [a fount] called AreUiusa.
I^OTB. — In early Latin the dative is usual ; Cicero prefers the nomlnatiye, Liyy the
d ative ; Sallnst uses the dative only. In later Latin the genitive also occurs (cf . § 343. d) :
SLS, — Q. Metello Macedonici nOmen inditum est (Veil. i. 11), to Qmnttts Jfetellus the
Thartve of Macedonicus was given,
h» DSsum takes the dative ; so occasionally absum (which regu-
larly has the ablative) : —
hoc tinum Caesaii defuit (B.6. iv. 26), this only %oas lacking to Ccesar.
quid hoic abesse poterit (De Or. i. 48), what can be wanting to him f
Dative of the Agent
374. The Dative of the Agent is used with the Genindive to
denote the person on whom the necessity rests : —
haec Yobis prOvincia est d@fendenda (Manil. 14), this province is for you to
d^end (to be defended by you),
mihi est ptignandum, I have to fight (i.e. the need of fighting is to me : cf.
mihi est liber, I have a booky § 373. n.).
a. This is the regular way of expressing the agent with the Second
or Passive Periphrastic Conjugation (§ 196).
Note 1. — The Ablative of the Agent with ab (§ 406) is sometimes used with the Sec-
ond Periphrastic Conjugation when the Dative would be ambiguous or when a stronger
expression is desired : —
quibus est a vobis c5nsulendum (Manil. 6), for whom you must consult, [Here two
datives, qnibus and vdbis, would have been ambiguous.]
rem ab onmibns v5bi8 providendam (Rabir. 4), that the matter must be attended to
by all of you, [The dative might mean /or all of you,]
Note 2.— The Dative of the Agent is either a special use of the Dative of Posses-
sion or a development of the Dative of Reference (§ 876).
375. The Dative of the Agent is common with perfect parti-
ciplea (especially when used in an adjective sense), but rare with
other parts of the verb : —
mihi dellber&tum et cOnstitutum est (Leg. Agr. i. 25), I have deliberated and
resolved (it has been deliberated by me).
mihi res prOvisa est (Verr. iv. 91), the matter has been provided for by me.
sic dissimillimis bestiolis communiter cibus quaeritur (N. D. ii 123), so by
very different creatures food is sought in common.
234 SYNTAX : CONSTRUCTION OF CASES [§§ S7&-377
a. The Dative of the Agent is used by the poets and later ^writers
with almost any passive verb : —
neque cernitur ulli (Aen. i. 440), nor t« seen by any,
fellx est dicta soiori (Ov. Fast. iii. 1. 597), sJie was called happy b^f her sister.
Aelia Faetina Narcissd fovebatur (Tac. Ann. zii. 1), ^lia Pastina was
favored by Narcissus.
d. The dative of the person who sees or thinks is regularly used
after videor, seem : —
videtur mihi, it seems (or seems good) to me,
die aUter visum [est] (Aen. ii. 428), U seemed otherwise to the gods.
videor mihi perspicere ipslus animum (Fam. iv. 13. 6), I seem (to myself) to «ee
the soul of the man himself.
NoTK. — The verb prob&re, approve (originally a mercantile word), takes a Dative
of Reference (§ 376), which has become so firmly attached that it is often retained with
the i>as8ive, seemingly as Dative of Agent : —
haec sententia et ilfi et nSbls probabatur (Fam. i. 7. 5), this view met both hii
approval and mine (was made acceptable both to him and to me).
hoc consilium plSrisqae non probabatnr (6. C. 1. 72), this plan was not apprtmed by
the majority. [But also, consilium & ciiiictis probabatur (id. i. 74).]
Dative of Reference
376. The Dative often depends, not on any particular word^ but
on the general meaning of the sentence {Dative of Reference),
The dative in this construction is often called the Dative of
Advantage or Disadvantage,^ as denoting the person or thing for
whose benefit or to whose prejudice the action is performed.
tibi aras (Plaut. Merc. 71), you plough for yourself.
tuas r6s tibi habeto (Plaut. Trin. 266), keep, your goods to yourself (formula
of divorce),
laudavit mihi f ratrem, he praised my brother (out of regard for me ; landavit
fratrem meum would imply no such motive).
meritOs mactavit honOrgs, taurum Neptfino, taurum tibi, pulcher ApollO
(Aen. iii. 118), he offered the sacrifices due^ a bull to Neptune, a buU to
thee, beautiful Apollo.
Note. — In this construction the meaning of the sentence is complete without the
dative, which is not, as in the preceding constructions, closely connected with any sin-
gle word. Thus the Dative of Reference is easily distinguishable in most instances
even when the sentence consists of only two words, as in the first example.
377. The Dative of Reference is often used to qualify a whole
idea, instead of the Possessive Genitive modifying a single word ;
1 Dattvus commxfdt aut incomtnodi, .
§§ 377-379] DATIVE OF REFERENCE 286
iter Poems vel corporibus suls obstmere (Cat. M. 75), to Uock the march of
the Carthaginians even wi^ their own bodies (to block, etc., for the dis^
advantage of, etc.).
86 in cOnspectum nautis dedit (Verr. y. 86), he pvi himself in sight of the
sailors (he put himself to the sailors into sight),
versatur mihi ante oculOs (id. v. 123), it comes b^ore my eyes (it comes to me
before the eyes).
378. The Dative is used of the person from whose point of view
an opinion is stated or a situation or a direction is defined.
This is often called the Dative of the Person Judging,^ but is
merely a weakened variety of the Dative of Reference. It is used —
1. Of the mental point of view (in my opinion^ according to me,
etc.) : —
Plat5 mihi tLnus instar est centum milium (Brut. 101), in my opinion (to me)
Plato alone is worth a hundred thousand.
erit ille mihi semper deus (Eel. i. 7), he will always he a god to me (in my
regard),
quae est ista servitfls tam cld,rO homini (Par. 41), whaJb is that slavery according
to the view of this distinguished man f
2. Of the Ic^al point of view (as you go in etc.). In this use the
person is commonly denoted indefinitely by a participle in the dative
plural : —
oppidum prlmum Thessaliae yenientibas ab EpIrO (B. C. iii. 80), the first town
of Thessaly as you come from Epirus (to those coming, etc.).
laey& parte sinum intrant! (Liy. xxvi. 26), on the left as you sail up the gulf
(to one entering).
est urbe egressis tumulus (Aen. ii. 718), there is, as you come out of the city,
a mound (to those having come out).
Note.— The Dative of the Person Jud^ng is (by a Greek idiom) rarely modified by
nolSns, volSns (participles of n515, vol5), or by some similar word; —
nt quibusqae bellum invitis aut cupientibas erat (Tac. Ann. i. 59), as ea^ might
receive the war reluctantly or gladly.
at militibus lab^ volentibus esset (Ing. 100), that the soldiers might assume the
task willingly.
379. The Dative of Reference is used idiomatically without
any verb in colloquial questions and exclamations : —
quo mihi fortQnam (Hor. Ep. i. 5. 12), of what use to me is fortune?
unde mih! lapidem (Hor. S. ii. 7. 116), where can I get a stone f
quOtibi, Tilli (id. i. 6. 24), what use for you, TUliusf
1 Dativus iudicantis.
286 SYNTAX: CONSTRUCTION OF CASES [§§ 379«1
a. The dative of reference is sometimes used after interjections :
ei (hei) mihi (Aen. ii. 274), ah me I
vae Tictis (Liv. v. 48), woe to the conquered,
em tibi, there, take that (there for you) ! [Cf. § 380.]
NoTB. — To express fob — meaning instead of, in d^enoe of, in hehaJf (/— tlie
ablative with pr9 is used : —
pr5 patrii mori (Hor. Od. iii. 2. 13), to die for one*8 country.
ego ibO pr5 19 (Plant. Most. 1131), Itoill go instead of you.
Ethical Datiye
380. The Dative of the Personal Pronouns is used to show a
certain interest felt by the person indicated.^
This construction is called the Ethical Dative.^ It is really a
faded variety of the Dative of Eeference.
quid mihi Celsus agit (Hor. Ep. i. 3. 16), pray what is Celsus doing f
8u0 sibi servit patrl (Plant. Capt. 6), he serves his own father..
at tibi repente venit mihi Canlnius (Fam. iz. 2), but, look you, of a sudden
comes to me Caninius.
hem tiM talentum argenti (PI. True. 60), Iiark ye, a talewt of silver.
quid tibi vis, what would you have (what do you wish for yourself) ?
Dative of Separation
381. Many verbs of taking away and the like take the Dative
(especially of a person) instead of the Ablative of Separation
(§ 401).
Such are compounds of ab, d6, ex, and a few of ad : —
aureum ei detr9jdt amiculum (N. D. iii. 83), he took from him his cloak of
gold.
hunc mihi terrOrem gripe (Cat. i. 18), take from me this terror.
Yitam adttlSscentibus vis aufert (Cat. M. 71), violence deprives young men of
life.
nihil enim tibi detr&dt senfttus (Fam. i. 6 b), for the senatchas taken nothing
from you.
nee mihi hunc errOrem extorqu6rI volO (Cat. M. 85), nor do I wish this error
wrested from me.
Note. — The Dative of Separation is a variety of the Dative of Reference. It repre-
sents the action as done to the person or thing, and is thus more vivid than the Ablative.
1 Compare " I *11 rhyme you so eight years together."— J« Tou Like It, iii. 2.
3 Dattvits ethicua.
§§ 381, 382] DATIVE OF THE PURPOSE OR END 237
€L. The distinct idea of Ttvotion requires the ablative with a prep-
osition — thus generally with names of things (§ 426. 1) : —
ilium ex peiicolS Sripuit (B. G. iv. 12), Ae dragged him out of danger,
l^OTiB. — Sometimes the dative of the person and the ablative of the thing with a
preposition are both used with the same verb : as, — mihi praeda d6 numibus eripitur
(Verr. 11. 1. 142), the booty is wrested from my hands,
Datlye of the Purpose or End
382. The Dative is used to denote the Purpose or End, often
with another Dative of the person or thing affected.
This use of the dative, once apparently general, remains in
only a few constructions, as follows : —
1. The dative of an abstract noun is used to show that /or which
a thing serves or which it accomplishes , often with another dative of
the person or thing affected : —
rel publicae cl&di sunt (lug. 85. 43), they are ruin to the stale (they are for a
disaster to the state).
mSgnO fisui nostrls fuit (B. G. iv. 25), it was of great service to our m^n (to
our men for great use),
tertiam aciem nostrls 8absidi5 misit (id. i. 52), he sent the Uiird line as a relief
to our men.
suls aalfili fult (id. vii. 50), Jie was the salvation of his men.
evCnlt facile quod dis cordi esset (Liv. i. 39), that cam^ to pass easily which
was desired by the gods (was for a pleasure [lit. heart] to the gods).
NoTB 1. — This oonstmction is often called the Dative of Service, or the Double
Dative construction. The verb is usually sum. The noun expressing the end for
which is regularly abstract and singular in number and is never modified by an adjec-
tive, except one of degree (mignns, minor, etc.), or by a genitive.
NoTB 2.— The word fragi used as an adjective is a dative of this kind : —
c5gis me dicere inimicum Frugi (Font. 39) , you compel me to call my enemy Honest.
homines satis fortes et plane frngi (Verr. iii. 67), men brave enough and thoroughly
honest. Gf. erO friigi bonae (Plant. Pseud. 468), I will be good for some-
thing. [See § 122. 6.]
2. The Dative of Purpose of concrete nouns is used in prose in a
few military expressions, and with freedom in poetry : —
locum eastris deligit (B. G. vii. 16), he selects a site for a camp.
receptoi canere, to sound a retreat (for a retreat),
nceptoi signum (Phil. xiii. 15), the signal for retreat.
opt&vit locum r8gn5 (Aen. iii. 109), Tie chose a place for a kingdom.
locnm insidiis circumspectftre (Liv. xxi. 53), to look about for a place for an
ambush, [Cf. locum seditiSnis quaerere (id. iii. 46).]
-For the Dative of the Gerundive denoting Purpose, see § 605. 5.
288 SYNTAX: CONSTRUCTION OF CASES [§§883-385
Datiye with Adjectiyes
383. The Dative is used after Adjectives or Adverbs, to denote
that to which the given quality is directed^ for which it exists, or
towards which it tends.
NoTB. — The dative with certain adjectives is in origin a Dative of Purpose or End.
384. The Dative is used with adjectives (and a few Adverbs) of
fitness, nearness, likeness, service, inclination, and their opposites : ^
nihil est tarn nfttiirae aptum (Lael. 17), nothing is so fitted to nature.
nihil difficile amanti putO (Or. 83), I think nothing hard to a lover,
castris idOneum locum delegit (B. G. i. 49), he selected a place suitable for a
camp.
tribiini ndbis sunt amici (Q. Fr. i. 2. 16), the tribunes are friendly to us,
esse propitius potest nSmini (N. D. i. 124), he can be gracious to nobody.
m&gnis autem viris prosperae semper omn^s res (id. ii. 167), but to great men
everything is always favorable.
B€des huic nostrO n5n importuna sermSni (De Or. iii. 18), a place not unsuit-
able for this conversaiion of ours.
cui fundo erat afflni^ M. Tullius (Tall. 14), to which estate Marcus TuUius was
next neighbor.
convenienter naturae vivere (Off. iii. 13), to live in accordance with nature
{bixokoyovfiivioi ry 0()<r6().
Note 1. — So, also, in poetic and colloquial use, with idem : as, — invitum qui servat
idem facit Occident! (Hor. A. P. 467), ?ie who saves a man against his will does the same
as one who kills him.
Note 2. — Adjectives of likeness are often followed by atque (ac), as. So also
the adverbs aequS, pariter, similiter, etc. The pronoun idem has regularly atqne or a
relative : —
SI parem sapientiam habet ac formam (Plant. Mil. 1251), %fhe has sense equal to
his beauty (like as his beauty),
te suspicor eisdem rebus quibus me ipsum commoveri (Cat. M. 1), I suspect you are
disturbed by the sam^ things by which I am.
385. Other constructions are sometimes found where the dative
might be expected : —
a* Adjectives of fitness or tise take oftener the Accusative with ad
to denote the purpose or end ; but regularly the Dative oi persons : —
aptus ad rem mllitSrem, fit for a soldier^ s duty.
locus ad insidiAs aptior (Mil. 53), a place fitter for lying in wait.
nobis atile est ad hanc rem (cf. Ter. And. 287), it is of use to us for this thing.
1 Adjectives of this kind are accommod&tus, aptus ; arnicas, inimicns, Infbstus, invlsiu,
molesttts ; idoneus, opportunus, proprius ; utilis, iniitilis ; affinis, finitimos, propinqwu,
vicinus; pftr, dispftr, similis, dissimiUs; iucundus, gritus; nStus, igndtns, and othezs.
336] DATIVE WITH ADJECTIVES 239
&. Adjectives and nouns of inclination and the like may take the
^o<3usative with in or erga : —
cOmis in uxorem (Hor. Ep. ii. 2. 133), kind to his wife.
divlna bonitSs ergft hominSs (N. D. ii. 60), the divine goodness towards men.
de beneyolentia quam quisque habeat erga nos (Ofi. i. 47), in regard to each
man's good will which he has towards us.
gr9.ti5rem m6 esse in te (Fam. xi. 10), that I am more graJtefuX to you.
€?. Some adjectives of likeness, nearness, belonging, and a few
o-tliers, ordinarily requiring the Dative, often take the Possensive
Grenitive: — *
quod ut ill! proprium ac perpetuum sit . . . optftre debetis (Man 11. 48), which
you ought to pray may be secure (his own) and lasting to him. [Dative.]
fuit h5c quondam proprium populi Roman! (id. 32), this was once the peculiar
characteristic of the Roman people. [Genitive.]
cum utriqae sis maximS necess^rius (Alt. ix. 7 a), since you are especially
hound to both. [Dative.]
prOctirator aeque tttriasque necessftrius (Quinct. 86), an agent alike closely
connected with both. [Genitive.]
1. The genitive is especially used with these adjectives when they are
\ised wholly or approximately as nouns : —
amicus Ciceroni, friendly to Cicero. But, CicerSnis amicus, a friend of Cicero ;
and even, Cicerdnis amicissiraus, a very great friend of Cicei'o.
creticus et eins aequd.lis paean (Or. 215), the cretic and its equivalent the pasan.
hi erant afflnSs istins (Verr. ii. 36), tfiese were this man^sfeUows.
2. After similis, like, the genitive is more common in early writers.
Cicero regularly uses the genitive of persons, and either the genitive or the
dative of things. With personal pronouns the genitive is regular (mei, tui,
etc.), and also in veri similis, probable : —
domin! similis es (Ter. Eun. 496), ymi We like your master (your master's like).
ut essemus similes deorum (N. D. i. 91), that we might be like the gods.
est similis m&iomm suom (Ter. Ad. 411), he'^s like his ancestors.
patris similis esse (Off. i. 121), to be like his father.
simia quam similis turpissima bestia nobis (N. D. i. 97, quoted from Enn.),
how like us is that wretched beast tJie ape t
si enim h5c ilH simile sit, est illud huic (id. i. 90), for if this is like that, that
is like this.
Note. — The genitive in this construction is not objective like those in § 349, but
possessive (cf. §343).
For the Dative or Accusative with propior, proximtts, propius, proximS, see § 432. a.
1 Such are acquMis, afiinis, aliBnus, amicus, cogn&tus, oommunis, cSnsanguineus, contrft-
riu8, dispir, familiiris, finitlmus, Inimicus, necessarius, pir, peculiAris, propinquus, propria
(regularly genitive), saccr, similis, superstes, viclnos.
240 SYNTAX : CONSTRUCTION OF CASES [§§ 386. 387
ACCUSATIVE CASE
386. The Accusative originally served to connect the noun more or leas loosely
with the verb-idea, whether expressed by a verb proper or by a verbal nonn or adjee-
tive. Its earliest use was perhaps to repeat the verb-idea as in the Cognate AccnsatlFe
{run a race, fight a battle, see § 390) . From this it would be a short step to the Factitive
Accusative (denoting the result of an act, as in make a table, drill a hole, cf . § 273. n.I).
From this last could easily come the common accusative (of Aff ecting, breaJk a table,
plug a hole, see § 387. a) . Traces of all these uses appear in the language, and the loose
connection of nonn with verb-idea is seen in the use of stems in composition (cf . § 265. 3) .^
It is impossible, however, to derive the various constructions of the accusative with
certainty from any single function of that case.
The uses of the accusative may be classified as follows :
1. Directly affected by the Action (§ 387. a).
I. Primaiy Object:
(1. iJirectly affected by the Action (§ 387. a).
13.
1. Predicate Accusative (Of Naming etc.) (§ 393).
II. Two Accttsatives: \ 2. Of Asking or Teaching (§ 396).
Of Concealing (§ 396. c).
f 1. Adverbial (§ 397. a).
2. Of Specification (Greek Accusative) (§ 397. h),
3. Of Extent and Duration (§§ 423, 425).
4. Of Exclamation (§ 397. d).
5. Subject of Infinitive (§ 397. e).
III. Idiomatic Uses:
Direct Object
387. The Direct Object of a transitive verb is put in the Ac-
cusative (§ 274).
a. The Accusative of the Direct Object denotes (1) that which is
directly affected, or (2) that which is caused or produced by the action
of the verb : —
(1) Brutus Caesarem interfScit, Bmius killed C<B8ar,
(2) aedem f acere, to make a temple. [Cf . proelium pugnare, to fijghi a haiik^ I
§ 390.]
Note. — There is no definite line by which transitive verbs can be distinguished J
from intransitive. Verbs which usually take a direct object (expressed or implied) '
are called transitive, but many of these are often used intransitively or abaolvtely.
Thus times, I fear, is transitive in the sentence inimicum timed, I fear my enemy, bnt
intransitive {absolute) in n51i timSre, donH be afraid. Again, many verbs are transi-
tive in one sense and intransitive in another: as, — HelvStiSs sttpexftvenrnt R5mini, the
Romans overcame the Helvetians ; but nihil super&bat, nothing remained (was left over).
So also many verbs commonly intransitive may be used transitively with a slight
change of meaning: as, — xldSs, you are laughing; but m6 ndSs, you *re laughing at me.
1 Compare armlger, armorbearer, with anna gerere, to bear arms; fldioen, lyr^^ilayer,
with lldibtts canere, to (play on) sing to the lyre. Compare also istanc UctiS (Plant.), the
[act of] touching her, with istaac tangere, to touch her (§ 388. d. k.S).
§ 3S7, 388] ACCUSATIVE OP DIRECT OBJECT 241
i^. The object of a transitive verb in the active voice becomes its
\xt>ject in the passive, and is put in the nominative (§ 275) : —
BrAtus Caesaiem interf 6cit, Brutus killed CcBsar,
Caesar & Brut5 interf ectuB est, CcBsar was killed by Brutus,
domam aedificat, he buiMs a house,
domus aedific&tur, the house is building (being built).
388. Certain special verbs require notice.
«. Many verbs apparently intransitive, expressing feeling^ take
accusative, and may be used in the passive : —
meum c&sum Ifictumqae dolu6runt (Sest. 145), they grieved at my calamity
and sorrow,
8l nOn Aciisiom rlsissent luppiter et Venus (Hor. Od. iii. 16. 6), (f Jupiter
and Venus Juxd not laughed at Acrisius,
xidetor ab omni conventu (Hor. S. i. 7. 22), he is laughed at by the whole
assembly.
For tfaie Cognate Acctusatiye witli verbs of taste, smell, and the like, see § 390. a,
NoTB. — Some verbs commonly intransitive may be used transitively (especially in
poetry) from a similarity of meaning with other verbs that take the accusative : —
gemSns ignOminiam (Georg. iii. 226), groaning at the disgrace, [Of. doled.]
festiiULre fugam (Aen. iv. 575), to hasten their flight, [Of. accelerd.]
oOmpt^ ftrsit crinis (Hor. Od. iv. 9. 13), she burned with love for his well-conibed
locks. [Of. adamS.]
&• Verbs of motion, compounds of circum, trftns, and praeter, and
a few others, frequently become transitive, and take the accusative
(cf . § 370. b) : —
mortem obire, to die (to meet death). ^
consttUtom ineunt (Liv. ii. 28), ^ey enter upon the consulship,
neminem convSnl (Fam. iz. 14), I met no one,
8l insulam adisset (B. G. iv. 20), if he should go to the island,
tr&nsire flfimen (id. ii. 23), to cross the river (cf. § 895).
Gives qui circumstant senStom (Cat. i. 21), IJie citizens who stand about the
senate,
NoTB. — Among such verbs are some compounds of ad, in, per, and sub.
c. The accusative is used after the impersonals decet, dSdecet, dSlec-
tat, ittvat, oportet, f allit, fugit, praeterit : —
ita ut vSs decet (Plant. Most. 729), so as bqfits you.
mS pedibus delectat claudere verba (Hor. S. ii. 1. 28), my delight is (it
pleases me) to arrange words in measure.
niffi mS fallit, unless I am mistaken (unless it deceives me).
iHvit me tibl tu3s litterSs prMuisse (Fam. v. 21. 8), it pleased me that your
literary studies had prqfUed you,
ti nOn praeterit (Fam. i. 8. 2), it does not escape your notice.
242 SYNTAX : CONSTRUCTION OF CASBS £§§ 88ft-3»
NoTB l.*~So after latat in poetry and post-classical prose: as, — latet plirosqoft
(Pliu. N. H. ii. 82), it is unknown to most persons.
Note 2. — These verbs are merely ordinary transltives with an idiomatic significar
tion. Hence most of them are also used personally.
NoTB 3. — Decet and latet sometimes take the dative: —
ita ndbfs decet (Ter. Ad. 928), thtis it befits us.
hostlque R6ma latet (Sil. It. zii. 614), and Rome lies hidden from the foe.
d. A few verbs in isolated expressions take the accusative from
a forcing of their meaning. Such expressions are : —
ferire foedus, to strike a treaty (i.e. to sanction by striking down a victini).
yincere ifidicinm (sponsionem, rem, h5c), to prevail on a trial, etc. [As if the
case were a difficulty to overcome ; cf . vincere iter, Aen. vi. 688. J
aeqaor n&vig&re (Aen. i. 67), to aaU the sea. [As if it were transire, § 388. b.]
maxia aspera iilrO (id. vi. 861), / swear by Uie rough seas (cf. id. vi. 324).
[The accusative with verbs of swearing is chiefly poetic]
noctis dormire, to sleep [whole] nights (to spend in sleep).
NoTB 1. — These accusatives are of various kinds. The last example approaches
the cognate construction (cf. the second example under § 890).
NoTB 2. — In early and popular usage some nouns and adjectives derived from tran-
sitive verbs retain verbal force sufficient to govern the accusative : —
quid tibi istanc tactiO est (Plant. Poen. 1308), what business have you to touch her?
[Cf . tangS.]
mirabundi bSstiam (Ap. Met. iv. 16), full of wonder at the creature. [Cf. miror.J
vitabundus castra (liv. xxv. 13), trying to avoid the camp. [Cf. vito.]
389. Many verbs ordinarily transitive may be used absoltUelff,
having their natural object in the ablative with dg (§ 273. N. 2): —
priusquam PompOnius dS 6ius adventfi c5gn0sceret (B. C. iii. 101), before
Pamponius could learn of his coming. [Cf. Sins adventa cognito, his
arrival being discovered.]
For Accusative and Genitive after Impersonals, see § 354. 5. For the Aocnaative
after the impersonal Grerundive with esse, see § 600. 3.
Cognate Accusative
390. An intransitive verb often takes the Accusative of a noun
of kindred meaning, usually modified by an adjective or in some
other manner.
This construction is called the Cognate Accusative or Accusative
of Kindred Signification : —
tutiOrem vitam vivere (Verr. ii. 118), to live a safer life.
tertiam iam aet&tem hominum vivebat (Cat. M. 31), he was noto living Hu
third generation of men.
servitfitem servire, to be in slavery.
coire societ&tem, to [go together and] form an alliance.
COGNATE ACCUSATIVE 243
• Yerbs of tastCf smeU, and the like take a cognate accusative
f tilzLe quality : —
^v^niim redolgns (Phil. ii. 63), smelling [of] wine,
]:&er1>am mella sapiunt (Plin. H. N. xi. 18), the hxyney toMea [of] grass,
olere malitiam (Rose. Com. 20), to have the odor of malice,
Oordubae natis poetis, pingue qniddam sonantibus atque peregrinum (Arch.
26), to poets bom at Cordova, whose speech had a somewhat thick and
foreign accent.
&. The cognate accusative is often loosely used by the poets : —
huic errOri similem [errorem] Insanire (Hor. S. ii. 8. 62), to suffer a ddusion
like this,
saltare Cyclopa (id. i. 5. 63), to dance the Cyclops (represent in dancing).
Bacchanalia vlvere (luv. ii. 3), to live in revellings,
Amaiyllida reson^e (Eel. 1. 5), to reecho [the name of] AmaryUis,
intonuit laevum (Aen. ii. 693), it thundered on the left.
dulce ridentem, dulce loquentem (Hor. Od. 1. 22. 23), sweetly smiling, sweetly
prattling,
. acerba tuens (Aen. ix. 794), looking fiercely. [Cf. Eng. "to look daggers.*']
torvum cl^unat (id. vii. 399), he cries harshly,
c. A neuter pronoun or an adjective of indefinite meaning is very
common as cognate accusative (cf. §§ 214. d, 397. a): —
EmpedoclSs multa alia peccat (N. D. i. 29), Empedocles commits many other
errors,
ego iUud adsentior TheophrsustO (De Or. iii. 184), in this I agree with Theo-
phrastus,
moltixm te ista fefellit opinio (Yerr. ii. 1. 88), you were much deceived in this
expectation (this expectation deceived you much),
plfis yaleO, I have more strength,
pluiimam potest, he is strongest,
quid mS ista laedunt (Leg. Agr. ii. 32), what harm do those things dome?
h5c te moned, I give you this warning (cf. d. k. ^),
id laetor, I r^oice at this (cf. d. n. ^).
quid moror, why do I delay f
quae homines arant, navigant, aedificant (Sail. Cat. ii. 7), w?iat men do in
ploughing, sailing, and building.
d» So in many common phrases : —
si quid ille s6 velit (B. G. i.' 34), if he should want anything of him (if he
should want him in anything).
ntimqaid, Geta, aliud m6 vis (Ter. Ph. 151), can I do anything more for you^
Oeta (there is nothing you want of me, is there)? [A common form
of leave-taking.]
quid est quod,; etc., why is it that, etc.? [Cf. hoc erat quod (Aen. ii. 664),
was it for this that, etc.?]
244 SYNTAX: CONSTRUCTION OF CASES [§§390-383
NoTB 1. — In these cases snbstantiyes with a d^nite meaning wonld be in aoane
other construction : —
in hoc efidem peccat, he errs in this same point,
bonis rSbns laetari, to rejoice at prosperity, [Also : in, d6, or ex.]
di testimentS monere, to remind one of the wiXl, [Later : genitive, § 351.]
ottd admonere, to remind one of his duty, [Also : d6 officio.]
NoTB 2. — In some of these cases the connection of the accusative with the verb has
so faded out that the words have become real adverbs: as, — multom, plus, plurinmm;
plSnun^ue, /or t?ie most part, generally; cStenun, cStera, /or the rest, otherwise, but;
pnmam.fjb'st; nihil, by no means, not at aU; aliquid, somewhat; \vaA,why; facile, eaaly.
So in the comparative of adverbs (§ 218). But the line cannot be sharply drawn, and
some of the examples under b may be classed as adverbial.
Two Accusatives
391. Some transitive verbs take a second accusative in addi-
tion to their Direct Object.
This second accusative is either (1) a Predicate Accusative or
(2) a Secondary Object.
Predicate Accusative
392. An accusative in the Predicate referring to the same per-
son or thing as the Direct Object, but not in apposition with it,
is called a Predicate Accusative.
393. Verbs of naming^ choodng^ appointing^ making^ esteeming,
showing, and the like, may take a Predicate Accusative along
with the direct object : —
6 Spartacei quern enim t6 potius appellem (Phil. xiii. 22), O Spartacus^ for
what else shaU I caU you (than Spartacus)?
CicerOnem consulem cre3.re, to elect Cicero consul,
me angurem n0minav6runt (Phil. ii. 4), they nominated me for augur.
cum gratias ageret quod sS cdnsulem fScisset (De Or. ii. 268), when he thanked
him because he had made him consul (supported his candidacy),
hominem prae 86 nfiminem putSvit (Rose. Am. 135), Ae thought nobody a man
in comparison with him^df.
ducem s€ praebuit (Vat. 38), he offered him,self as a leader.
Note.— The predicate accusative may be an adjective: as, — homines mitis red-
didit et mAnsuStSB (Inv. i. 2), has made men mild and gentle,
a. In changing from the active voice to the passive, the Predicate
Accusative becomes Predicate Nominative (§ 284) :
r«xabsuIsappellfttur(B. Q,Ym,4),hei8calledHngbuhi8 9ubie(^, [Active:
Bul eum r^sem appellant.]
i 304, 396] ACCUSATIVE OF THE SECONDAKY OBJECT 245
Secondary Object
394. The Accusative of the Secondary Object is used (along
v^ii:li the direct object) to denote something more remotely affected
>y -the action of the verb.
395. Transitive verbs compounded with prepositions sometimes
ba.ke (in addition to the direct object) a Secondary Object, origi-
aally governed by the preposition : —
Caesar GermgjiOs flOmen tr^cit (B. C. i. 83), Cccsar throws the Germans
across the river,
idem ius iurandum adigit Afriniom (id. i. 76), he exacts the same oaJlh from
Afranius.
qnOs Pompgius omnia sua praesidia circumdtizit (id. Hi. 61), whom Pompey
conducted through all his garrison,
NoTB 1. — This construction is common only with tzftdnoS, tr&ici5, and trftnsportd.
Xhe preposition is sometimes repeated with compounds of trftns, and usually with
compounds of the other prepositions. The ablative is also used : —
donee res suas trftns Halyn flumen traicerent (Liv. xzzviii. 25), till they should get
their possessions across the river Halys.
(exercitus) Pad5 traiectus CremOnam (id. zxi. 56), the army was conveyed across
the Po to Cremona (by way of the Po, § 429. a).
NoTB 2. — The secondary object may be retained with a passive verb : as, — Belgae
lUignum traducti sunt (B. 6. ii. 4), the Belgians were led over the Rhine,
NoTB 3. — The double construction indicated in § 395 is possible only when the force
of the preposition and the force of the verb are each distinctly felt in the compound,
the verb governing the direct, and the preposition the secondary object.
But often the two parts of the compound become closely united to form a transitive
verb of simple meaning. In this case the compound verb is transitive solely by virtue
of its prepositional part and can have but one accusative, — the same which was for-
merly the secondary object, but which now becomes the direct. So trfticiS comes to
mean either (1) to pierce (anybody) [by hurling] or (2) to cross (a river etc.):—
gladio hominem traiecit, he pierced the man with a sword, [Here iadd has lost
all transitive force, and serves simply to give the force of a verb to the mean-
ing of trans, and to tell the manner of the act.]
Rhodanum traiecit, he crossed the Rhone. [Here iaciS has become simply a verb
of motion, and trfticid is hardly distinguishable from trftnsed.]
In these examples hominem and Rhodanum, which would be secondary objects if trftiScit
were used in its primary signification, have become the direct objects. Hence in the
passive construction they become the subjects and are put in the nominative : —
homO traiectus est gladiO, the man was pierced with a sword,
Rhodanus traiectus est, the Rhone was crossed.
The poetical tiiiectas lora (Aen. ii. 273), pierced with thongs, comes from a mixture of
two constructions : (1) eum traiecit lOra, he rove thongs through him,^ and (2) eura
traiecit lOris, he pierced him with thongs. In putting the sentence into a passive form,
the direct object of the former (15ra) is irregularly kept, and the direct object of the
latter (earn) is made the subject.
1 Perhaps not found in the active, but cf . tr&iectS ffine (Aen. r. 488).
246 SYNTAX: CONSTRUCTION OF CASES [§ 3S6
396. Some verbs of asking and teaching may take two accusa-
tives, one of the Person {direct object)^ and the other of the Thing
{secondary object): —
mh tententiam rog3.yit, he asked me my opinion.
dtiam diTos rogat (Hor. Od. ii. 16. 1), he prays the gods for rest.
liaee praetdrem p08tuld.b3fi (Tull. 89), you demanded this of the prcetor,
aediliB populum rogftre (Liv. vi. 42), to ask the people [to elect] cediles.
docfire puerds elementa, to teach children their A B CPs.
NoTB. — This constmction is found in classical authors with 5ro, posed, zeposoo, rogo.
interrocS, fliCitS, aoced.
a. Some verbs of asking take the ablative of the person with a
preposition instead of the accusative. So, always, pet5 (ab)^ quaeriJ
(ex, ab, de); usually poscO (ab), fiagitO (ab), postulO (ab)^ and occa-
sionally others : —
p9.cem ab RSm&nis petiSrunt (B. 6. ii. 13), they sought peace from the Bomans.
quod quaeslvit ex me P. Apul^ius (Phil. vi. 1), what Ptiblius Apuleius asked
of me,
h. With the passive of some verbs of asking or teaching^ thej^er-
son or the thing may be used as subject (cf. c. n. ^) : —
Caesar sententiam rog&tus est, Cassar was asked his opinion.
id ab e5 flSgit&b&tur (B. C. i. 71), this was urgently demanded of him.
NoTB. — The accusative of the thing may be retained with the passiye of rogo, and
of verbs of teaching, and occasionally with a few other verbs: —
fuerant h5c rogati (Cael. 64), they had been asked this.
poscor meum Laelapa (Ov. M. vii. 771), / am asked for my LaeHaps.
CicerO ciincta edoctus (Sail. Cat. 45), Cicero, being informed of everything.
But with most verbs of asking in prose the accusative of the thing becomes the
subject nominative, and the accusative of the person is put in the ablative with a
preposition: as, — ne x>ostulantur quidem vires & senectute (Cat. M. 34), strength is
not even expected of an old man (asked from old age).
c. The verb c615, conceal, may take two accusatives, and the usually
intransitive late0, lie hid, an accusative of the person: —
nOn te c6l3.vl sennSnem T. Ampi (Fam. ii. 16. 3), I did not conjceal from you
the talk of Titus Ampiu^.
nee latu^re doll fratrem lunOnis (Aen. i. 130), ihor did the wiles of Juno
escape the notice of her brother.
NoTB 1. — The accusative of the person with lateS is late or poetical (§ 388. c. v. i).
NoTB 2. — All the double constructions indicated in § 396 arise from the wayer-
ing meaning of the verbs. Thus doced means both to show a thing, and to instruet
a person; c615, to keep a person in the dark, and to hide a thing; TOffi,\ti question
a person, and to ask a question or a thing. Thus either accusative may be regarded
as the direct object, and so become the subject of the passive (cf . b above), but for
convenience the accusative of the thing is usuaUy called secondary.
3^7] IDIOMATIC USES OF THE ACCUSATIVE 247
Idiomatic Uses
397. The Accusative has the following special uses : —
cr. The accusative is found in a few adverbial phrases (Adverbial
dLcctcsative) : —
id temporisy at that time; id (istuc) aet&tis, at that age.
id (quod) genus, of that (what) sort (perhaps originally nominatiye).
meam vlcem, on my part,
bonam partem, in a great measure ; maximam partem, for the mo8t part,
virile (muliebre) secus, of the male (female) sex (probably originally in
apposition),
quod si, &ut ^ (as to which, if) ; quod nisi, if not,
h. The so-called synecdochical or Greek Accusative, found in poetry
a nd later Latin, is used to denote the part affected : —
caput nectentur (Aen. v. 309), their heads shall be bound (they shall be bound
about the head).
&rdenti8 oculos suffecti sanguine et Igni (id. ii. 210), their glaring eyes blood-
shot and blazing with fire (suffused as to their eyes with blood and fire),
ntida genu (id. i. 320), with her knee bare (bare as to the knee),
femur trSgulS. ictus (Li v. xxi. 7. 10), wounded in the thigh ^y a dart,
NoTB. — This constraction is also called the Accusative of Specification.
c. In many apparently similar expressions the accusative may be
regarded as the direct object of a verb in the middle voice (§ 156. a) :
InQtile fenum cingitur (Aen. ii. 610), he girds on the useless steel,
nodO sinus coll€cta fluentis (id. i. 320), having her flowing folds gathered in
a knot,
umeros iustemor pelle leOnis (id. ii. 722), / cover my shoulders with a lion's
skin,
prOtinus induitur faciem cultumque Di3iiae (Ov. M. ii. 425), forthwith she
assumes the shape and garb of Diana,
d» The Accusative is used in Exclamations : —
forttinatam rem publicam, O fortunate republic t [Cf . f ortiinata mors
(PhU. xiv. 31), oh, happy death! (§339. a).]
5 m6 infelicem (Mil. 102), oA, unhappy II
m^ miserum, ah, wretched me I
en quattuor SrSs (Eel. v. 66), Zo, four altars I
ellum (= em ilium), there he is ! [Cf. § 146. a. s. 2.]
eccOs (= ecce eOs), there they are, look at them I
pro deum fidem, good heavens (O protection of the gods) !
hOcine saeclum (Ter. Ad. 304), O this generation!
huncme hominem (Verr. v. 62), this man^ good heavens !
248 SYNTAX : CONSTRUCTION OF CASES [§§ 397, 398
NOTB 1. — Sach expressions usually depend upon some long-forgotten verb. The
substantiye is commonly accompanied by an adjective. The use of -ne in some cases
suggests an original question, as in quid? lokatf whyf tell me.
NoTB 2. — The omission of the verb has given rise to some other Idiomatic accosar
tives. Such are : —
salntem (sc. dicit) (in addressing a letter), greeting,
m8 dlus fidius (sc. adiuvet), so help me Iieaven (the god of faith),
unde mihi lapidem (Hor. S. ii. 7. 116) » where can 1 get a stone?
quo mihi fortttnam (Hor. Ep. i. 5. 12) , of what use to me is fortune? [No verb
thought of.]
e. The subject of an infinitive is in the accusative : —
intellegO t8 sapere (Fam. vii. 32. 3), I perceive thai you are wise.
eiB iH iact&rl nOlSbat (B. G. 1. 18), he was unwilling that these matters shovld
be discussed.
Note. — This construction is especially common with verbs of knowing, thinking,
idling, and perceiving (§580).
/. The accusative in later writers is sometimes used in apposition
with a clause : —
dSserunt tribunal . . . mantis intentantSs, causam discordlae et initiam armo-
rum (Tac. Ann. i. 27), they abandon the tribunal shaking their fists,—
a cause of dissension and the beginning of war.
Note. — This construction is an extension (under Greek influence) of a usage more
nearly within the ordinary rules, such as, — Eumenem prodidere AntiochO, pacismeroe-
dem (Sail. Ep. Mith. 8), they betrayed Eumenes to Antiochus, the price of peace. pSere
Eumenes may be regarded as the price, although the real price is the betrayal.]
For the Accusative of the End of Motion, see § 427. 2 ; for the Accusative of Dura-
tion of Time and Extent of Space, see §§ 423, 425 ; for the Accusative with Prepositioiis,
see §220.
ABLATIVE CASE
398. Under the name Ablative are included the meanings and, in part, the forms
of three cases, — the Ablative proper, expressing the relation from; the Locative,
IN ; and the Instrumental, with or by. These three cases were originally not whoUy
distinct in meaning, and their confusion was rendered more certain (1) by the develop-
ment of meanings that approached each other and (2) by phonetic decay, by means of
which these cases have become largely identical in form. Compare, for the first, the
phrases £ parte dextera, on the right; quam ob cattsam, from which cause; ad &nam,
AT (in consequence of) the report; and, for the second, the like forms of the daUve
and ablative plural, the old dative in -e of the fifth declension (§ 96), and the loss of the
original -d of the ablative (§ 49. e; cf. §§ 43. n. \ 92./, 214. a. n.).
The relation of fboh includes separation, source, cause, agent, and comparison;
that of WITH or by, accompaniment, instrument, means, manner, qtuUiiy, and price;
that of IN or at, place, time, circumstance. This classification according to the
original cases (to which, however, too great a degree of certainty should not be
attached) 1 is set forth in the following table: —
1 Thus the Ablative of Cause may be, at least in part, of Instrumental origin, and
the Ablative Absolute appears to combine the Instrumental and the Locative.
398-401] ABLATIVE OF SEPARATION 249
I. Ablatiye Proper (from)
{S^arative):
n. Instrumental Ablatiye
{with):
1. Of Separation, Privation, and Want (§ 400).
2. Of Source (participles of origin etc.) (§403).
3. Of Cause (Ubdrd, exsilio, etc.) (§404).
4. Of Agent (with ab after Passives) (§ 406).
6. Of Comparison (than) (§406).
1. Of Manner, Means, and Instrument (§ 408 ff.).
2. Of Object of the Deponents ator etc. (§ 410).
3. Of Accompaniment (with cum) (§413).
4. Of Degree of Difference (§414).
5. Of Quality (with Adjectives) (§416).
6. Of Price and Exchange (§ 416).
7. Of Specification (§418).
8. Ablative Absolute (§419).
III. Locative Ablative (in, r 1. Of Place loAere (commonly within) (§421).
on, at): \ 2. Of Time and Circumstance (§ 423).
399. The Ablative is used to denote the relations expressed in
English by the prepositions /rom; in, at; with^ by: —
llberftre metii, to deliver from fear,
excultus doctiini, trained in learning.
liOc lps6 tempore, at this very time.
caecus av&ritiA, blind with avarice,
occlsus gladio, slain by the sword.
USES OF THE ABLATIVE PROPER
Ablative of Separation
400. Words signifying Separation or Privation are followed by
the ablative.
401. Verbs meaning to remove, set free, be absent, deprive, and
want, take the Ablative (sometimes with ab or ex) : —
ocufis s6 privavit (Fin. v. 87), he deprived himself of eyes.
omn! Gallia R5md.nis interdicit (B. G. i. 46), lie (Ariovistus) bars the Romans
from the whole of Gaul.
e! aqot et igni interdlcitor (Veil. ii. 45), he is ddnirred the use of fire and
rooter. [The regular formula of banishment.]
voloptatibus carSre (Cat. M. 7), to lack enjoyments.
nOn ege5 medicina (Lael. 10), / want no physic,
lev&mnr superstitione, liberamur mortis metfi (Fin. 1. 68), we are relieved
from superstition^ we are freed from fear of death,
Boltiti i cupiditatibus (Leg. Agr. i. 27), freed from desires.
malt5s ex his incommodis pecuni& s€ liberS,sse (Verr. y. 23), th>at many have
freed themselves by money from these inconveniences.
For the Genitive with verbs of separation and want, see $ 366. n.
250 SYNTAX : CONSTRUCTION OF CASES [§§ 402,
402. Verbs compounded with ft, ab, de, ez, (1) take the simj
Ablative when used figuratively; but (2) when used literallj
denote actual separation or motion, they usually require a prejj
sition (§ 426. 1) : —
(1) con&tfl desustere (B. G. i. 8), to desist from the attempt.
desine communibus locls (Acad. ii. 80), quit commonplaces,
abire magistrfttfi, to leave one^s office,
abstinere inifixU, to refrain from wrong,
(2) ft piSpositd aberrare (Fin. v. 83), to wander from the point,
dS provincift d6cedere (Verr. ii. 48), to withdraw from one^s province.
Ab ifire abIre (id. ii. 114), to go ovisvde of the law,
ez civitftte excessSre (B. G. vi. 8), they departed from the state. [But ci
finibas sals excesserant (id. iv. 18), they had l^ their own territory.]
ft mSgn5 demissum nOmen Iul5 (Aen. i. 288), a name descended (sent down
from great lulus.
For the Dative used instead of the Ablative of Separation, see § 381. For the Abb|
tive of the actual p/ace whence in idiomatic expressions, see §§ 427. 1, 428./.
a. Adjectives denoting freedom and want are followed by th<
ablative : —
urbs nUda praesidiS (Att. vii. 13), the city naked of defence.
immtUiis militift (Liv. i. 43),yree of military service,
plebs orba tribilms (Leg. iii. 9), the people deprived of tribunes.
NoTB. — A preposition sometimes occurs: —
a culpft vacuus (Sail. Cat. 1^), free from blame.
liberi ft dSliciis (Leg. Agr. i. 2fl), free from luxuries,
Messana ab his rSbus vacua atque nuda est (Verr. iv. 3), Messana is empty and
bare of these things.
For the Genitive with adjectives of want, see § 349. a.
Ablative of Source and Material
403. The Ablative (usually with a preposition) is used to denote
the Source from which anything is derived, or the Material of
which it consists : —
1. Source: —
Rhenus oritur ex Lepontiis (B. G. iv. 10), the Rhine rises in (from) tke
country of the Lepontii.
ab his sermQ oritur (Lael. 5), the conversation is begun by (arises from) them.
c^ius ratiOnis vim atque titilitatem ex ill5 caelesti Epictiri volfimine accepi-
mus (N. D. i. 43), of this reasoning we have learned the power and
advantage from that divine book of Epicurus.
suftvitatem odOrum qui aifiarentur e floribas (Cat. M. 59), the saeetness of
the odors which breathed from the flowers.
03] ABLATIVE OF SOUBCE AND MATERIAL 251
2. Material; —
erat totus ex fraude et mendacio f actus (Clu. 72), he was entirely made up oj
fraud and falsehood,
valvas magiiificentiOres, ex auro atque ebore perfectiOrfis (Verr. iv. 124),
more splendid doors, more finely wrought of gold and ivory.
factum de cautibus antrum (Ov. M. i. 675), a cave formed of rocks,
templum de maimore ponam (Georg. iii. 13), I HI build a temple of marble.
Note 1. — In poetry the preposition is often omitted.
NoTK 2. — The Ablative of Material is a development of the Ablative of Source,
'or the Grenitive of Material, see § 344.
a. Participles denoting birth or origin are followed by the Abla-
ive of Source, generally without a preposition: — ^
love natus et Maia (N. D. iii. 66), son of Jupiter and Maia.
edite regibus (Hor. Od. i. 1. 1), descendant of kings.
qu5 sanguine cretus (Aen. ii. 74), bom of what blood.
genitae Pandione (Ov. M. vi. 666), daughters of Pandion.
Note 1. — A preposition (ab, d6, ex) is usually expressed with pronouns, with the
name of the mother, and often with that of other ancestors : —
ex m6 hic natus n5n est sed ex fratre meo (Ter. Ad. 40), this is not my son, but
my brother* 8 (not born from me, etc.) .
cum ex utraque [uxore] filius natus esset (De Or. i. 183), each wife having had
a son (when a son had been born of each wife).
Belus et omnes a BSld (Aen. i. 730), Belus and all his descendants.
Note 2. — Rarely, the place of birth is expressed by the ablative of source: as, —
desideravit C. Fleginatem Placenti^, A. Granium FateoHs (B. C. iii. 71), he lost Caius
Fleginas of Placentia, Axilus Granius of Puteoli.
Note 3. — The Roman tribe is regularly expressed by the* ablative alone: as, —
Q. Verrem Romilil (Verr. i. 23), Quintus Verres of the Romilian tribe.
6. Some verbs may take the Ablative of Material without a prep-
osition. Such are cOnstare, cOnsistere, and continSri.^ But with c5n-
stftre, ex is more common : —
domus amoenitas nOn aedificio sed silvi cOnstSlbat (Nep. Att. 18), the charm
of the house consisted rwt in the buildings but in the woods,
ex animo cOnstamus et corpore (Fin. iv. 19), we consist of soul and body.
vita corpore et spIritCi continetur (Marc. 28), life consists of body and spirit.
e. The Ablative of Material without a preposition is used with
facere, fieri, and similar words, in the sense of do withy become of: —
quid hoc homine faciatis (Verr. ii. 1. 42), what are you going to do with this
manf
quid Tulliola mea fiet (Fam. xiv. 4. 3), what wiU become of my dear Tullia f
quidte futurum est (Verr. ii. 165), what will become of you f
1 As nftttts, satus, Cditus, genitus, ortus, pidgnatus, gener&tus, crCtus, creitus, orinndns.
> The ablative with cdnsistere and continSii is probably locative in origin (cf . § 431).
262 SYNTAX : CONSTRUCTION OF CASES [§§ 403, 404
d. The Ablative of Material with ex, and in poetry without a
preposition, sometimes depends directly on a noun : —
n5n pauca pOcula ex anf5 (Verr. iv. 62), not a few cups of gold,
scopulis pendentibus antrum (Aen. i. 166), a cave of hanging rocks.
For Ablatiye of Source instead of Partitive Grenitive, see § 346. c.
Ablative of Cause
404. The Ablative (mth or without a preposition) is used to
express Cause : — ^
neglegentiA plectimur (Lael. 85), we are chcutiaedfor negligence.
gabem&tOris ars utilit&te nOu arte laudator (Fin. i. 42), the pUoVa skiU is
praised for its aervicey not its akUl.
certis de causis, for cogent reasons.
ex Yulnere aeger (Rep. ii. 38), disabled by (from) a wound.
mare A sole lucet (Acad. ii. 105), the sea gleams in the sun (from the sun).
a. The Ablative of Cause without a preposition is used with labGrS
(also with ex), exsiliO, exsultO, triumphO, lacrimO, firdeO : —
doled t6 aliis maHs labOrftre (Fam. iv. 3), J am sorry that you suffer with
other Uls. [Cf. ex aere alignd labOrare (B. C. ill. 22), to labor under
debt (from another's money).]
ezsultare laetitiA, triumphSlre gaudiS coepit (Clu. 14), she began to exult in
gladness, and triumph in joy.
exsilul gaudio (Fam. xvi. 16), I jumped for joy, [Cf . lacrimO gandid (Ter.
Ad. 409), liioeepforjoy.']
3.rd6re dolore et irA (Att. ii. 19. 5), to &e on fire with pain and anger.
For gaudeo and glorior, see § 431.
h. The motive which influences the mind of the person acting is
expressed by the ablative of cause ; the object exciting the emotion
often by ob * or propter with the accusative : —
nOn ob praedam ant spoliandi cupidine (Tac. H. 1. 63), not for booty or through
lust of plunder.
amicitia ex sS et propter 8§ expetenda (Fin. ii. 83), friendship must be sought
of and for itself ,
Note. — But these constructions are often confused: as, — parere legibus propter
metum (Par. 34), to obey the laws on account of fear, [Here mettim is almost equiva-
lent to "the terrors of the law,'' and hence propter is used, though the ablative would
be more natural.]
1 The causCf in the ablative, is originally sourcCf as is shown by the use of ab, dS,
ez ; but when the accusative with ad, oT>, is used, the idea of cause arises from nearness.
Occasionally it is difficult to distinguish between cause and means (which is the old
Instrumental case) or circumstance (which is either the Locative or the Instrumental).
2 OriginaUy a mercantile use: cf. ob decem minas, /or the price of ten mints.
i 404, 406] ABLATIVE OP AGENT 263
c» The ablatives causfi and grfitift, for the sake of, are used with a
enitive preceding, or with a pronoun in agreement : —
e& causft, on account of this; qu& gratia (Ter. Eun. 09), for what purpose f
ine& causa, for my sake ; mea gratia ^Plaut.), for my sake.
ex mea et rel pflblicae causa, for my own sake and the republic'' s,
praedictiOnis causa (N. D. iii. 6), by way of prophecy.
exempli gratia (verb! gratia), for example.
sui piirgandl gratia, for the sake of clearing themselves.
NoTB. — But sratiA with possessives in this use is rare.
Ablative of Agent
4€5. The Voluntary Agent after a passive verb is expressed by
the Ablative with a or ab : —
laudatur ab his, culpatur ab illis (Hor. S. i. 2. 11), Tie is praised by these,
blamed by those.
ab animo tuO quidquid agitur id agitur a te (Tusc. i. 62), whatever is done by
your soul is done by yourself.
a filiis in iddicium vocatus est (Cat. M. 22), he was brought to trial by his sons.
cum a cunct6 consessu plausus esset multiplex datus (id. 64), when great
applause had been given by the whole audience.
n6 virtus ab audacia vinceretur (Sest. 02), that valor might not be overborne
by audacity. [Audacia is in a manner personyied.l^
NoTB 1. — This construction is developed from the Ablative of Source. The agent
is conceived as the source or author of the action.
NoTB 2. — The ablative of the a^ent (which requires a or ab) must be carefully
distinguished from the ablative of instrument, which has no preposition (§ 409) . Thus
— occisus i\aAi^, slain by a sword; but, occisus ah hoste, slain by an enemy.
Note 3. — The ablative of the agent is commonest with nouns denoting |)er«on«, but
it occurs also with names of things or qualities when these are conceived as performing
an action and so are partly or wholly personified, as in the last example under the rule.
«• The ablative of the agent with ab is sometimes used after intran-
sitive verbs that Have a passive sense : —
perfre ab hoste, to be slain by an enemy.
b* The personal agent, when considered as instrument or means,
is often expressed by per with the accusative, or by operfi with a
genitive or possessive : —
ab exploriltSiibas certior f actus est (B. G. i. 21), ^ xoas informed by scouts (in
person). But, —
per explorfitores Caesar certior factus est (id. i. 12), Coesar itxw informed by
(means of) scouts.
elautae opera Neptfini (Plant. Rud. 609) , washed clean by the services of Neptune.
nGn mea opera evSnit (Ter. Hec. 228), it hasnH happened through me (by my
exertions). [Cf. Sius opera, B. G. v. 27.]
254 SYNTAX: CONSTRUCTION OF CASES [§§ 40&-iei
NoTB 1. — The ablative of means or instrument is often used instead of the abb
tive of agent, especially in military phrases: as, — haec excubitoribus tenebantm
(B. G. vii. 69), these (redoubts) were hdd by means of sentinels.
NoTB 2. — An animal is sometimes regarded as the means or instrumeTZt, some-
times as the agent. Hence both the simple ablative and the ablative with al> occur : —
equd vehi, to ride on horseback (be conveyed by means of a horse). [Not ab equo.^
clipeOs I mfiribus esse derOsOs (Div. i. 99), that the shields were gnawed by mice.
For the Dative of the Agent with the Gerundive, see § 374.
Ablative of Comparison
406. The Comparative degree is often followed by the Abla-
tive ^ signifying than : —
Cat5 est CicerSne 6loquentior, Cato is more eloquent than Cicero,
quid nSbis daSbas labOriOsios est (Mil. 5), whai more burdened with toil than
we two f
villus argentum est anr5, virtutibus aurum (Hor. Ep. i. 1. 62), silver is less
precious than gold, gold than virtue,
a. The idiomatic ablatives opiniGne, spS, solitO, dictO, aequG^ >credi-
bili, and i&stO are used after comparatives instead of a clause : —
celerius opinione (Fam. xiv. 23), faster than one would think,
serius 8p§ omnium (Li v. xxvi. 26), later than all hoped (than the hoi>e of all). I
amnis solitS citatior (id. xxiii. 19. 11), a stream swifter than its wont. I
gravius aequo (Sail. Cat. 61), more seriously than was right.
407. The comparative may be followed by quam, than. When
quam is used, the two things compared are put in the same case :
n5n callidior es quam hie (Rose. Am. 49), you are not more cunning than he.
contidnibas accommodSLtior est quam iudiciis (Clu. 2), Jitter for popular assem-
blies than for courts,
miseiicordiA dignior quam contumelia (Pison. 32), more worthy of pity than of
disgrace,
a. The construction with quam is required when the first of the
things compared is not in the Nominative or Accusative.
NoTB 1. — There are several limitations on the use of the ablative of comparison,
even when the first of the things compared is in the nominative or accusative. Thus
the quam construction is regularly used (1) when the comparative is in agreement
with a genitive, dative, or ablative : as, — senex est e6 melidre condiciOne quara adules-
cens (Cat. M. 68), an old man is in this respect in a better position than a young man ,*
and (2) when the second member of the comparison is modified by a clause : as, — minor
fuit aliquantO is qui primus fabulam dedit quam ei qui, etc. (Brut. 73), he who first
presented a play was somewhat younger than those who, etc.
1 This is a branch of the Ablative of Separation. The object with which anything
is compared is the starting-point/rom which we reckon. Thus, " Cicero is eloqjnent " ;
but, starting from him, we come to Cato, who is *' more so than he."
407] ABLATIVE OF COMPARISON 266
Notb: 2. — The poets sometimes use the ablative of comparison where the prose
3Tistruction requires quam: as, — pane ege6 iam melHtis poti5re placentis (Hor. Ep.
10. 11), / now want bread better than honey-cakes.
Note 3. — Relative pronouns having a definite antecedent never take quam in this
onstruction, but always the ablative: as, — rex erat Aeneas nobis, quo iustior alter
.ec, etc. (Aen. i. 544), Miieas was our king, than whom no other [was] more righteoits.
6. In sentences expressing or implying a general negative the
tblative (rather than quam) is the regular construction when the first
Daember of the comparison is in the nominative or accusative : —
nihil detestabilius dedecore, nihil foedius servitute (Phil. iii. 36), nothing is
more dreadful than disgrace^ nothing viler than slavery.
neminem esse c^riOrem te (Att. x. 8 a. 1), that no one is dearer than you.
c. After the comparatives plus, minus, amplius, longius, without
quam, a word of measure or number is often used with no change in
its case : —
plus septingenti capti (Li v. 3di. 12), more than seven hundred were taken.
[Nominative.]
plus tertia parte interfect& (B. G. iii. 6), mxyre than a third part being slain.
[Ablative Absolute.]
aditus in latitudinem nOn amplius ducentSram pedum re1inquebS,tur (id. ii.
29), an approach of not more than two hundred feet in width was left.
[Genitive of Measure : § 346. 6.]
NoTB. — The noun takes the case required by the context, without reference to the
comparative, which is in a sort of apposition : " seven hundred were taken [and] more."
d. Alius is sometimes followed by the ablative in poetic and collo-
quial use ; in formal prose it is followed by ac (atque), et, more rarely
by nisi, quam : —
nee quicquam aliud llbertate communi (Fam. zi. 2), nothing else thanthe cowr
mon liberty.
alius Lysipp5 (Hor. Ep. ii. 1. 240), anotlier than Lysippus.
nam aliud videtur esse ac me5rum bonOrum direptiO (Dom. 51), does it seem
anything different from the plundering of my property f
erat historia nihil aliud nisi annalium cOnfectiO (De Or. ii. 52), history was
nothing else but a compiling of records.
e* The comparative of an adverb is usually followed by quam, rarely
by the ablative except in poetry : —
tempus t€ citius quam oratid dgficeret (Kosc. Am. 89), time would fail you
sooner than words. But, —
cur olivum sanguine viperind cautius vltat (Hor. Od. i. 8. 9), why does he shun
oil more carefully than viper'' s blood f
Note.— Prepositions meaning before or beyond (as ante, prae, praeter, snprft) are
sometimes used with a comparative: as, — scelere ante aU9s immanior omnlsJAen. i.
347), more monstrous in crime than all other msn.
266 SYNTAX: CONSTBUCTION OF CASKS [§§408,
USES OF THB ABLATIVE AS INSTRUHENTAIr
408. Means, Instrument, Miinner, and Accompaniment are denoted by tbe
mental Ablative (see § 398), but some of these uses more commonly require a prep>o-
sition. As they all come from one source (the old Instrumental Case) no sharp lice
can be drawn between them, and indeed the Romans themselves can hardly have
thought of any distinction. Thus, in omnibas precibns drabant, thejf entreated with
every [kind of] prayer^ the ablative, properly that of meanSf cannot be distinguished
from that of manner.
Ablative of Means or Instnunent
409. The Ablative is used to denote the means or instrument
of an action : —
certantes pflgius, calcibns, ungoibas, morsfl dSnique (Tusc. v. 77), fighting
with fists, heels, nails, and even teeth,
cum pugnis et calcibus concisus asset (Verr. iii. 56), when he had been pum-
melled with their flMs and heels.
mels laboribns interitu rem publicam llber&vi (Sull. 33), by my toils I hate
saved the staJiefrom ruin.
multae istSLrum arborum me3. mana sunt satae (Cat. M. 59), many of those
trees were set out with my own hands,
yi victa vis, vel potius oppressa virtfite audftcia est (Mil. 30), violence was
overcome by violence, or rather, boldness was put down by courage.
a. The Ablative of Means is used with verbs and adjectives of
filling^ abounding, and the like : —
Beus bonis omnibus expl^vit mundum (Tim. 3), God JiasfUed the world with
aU good things.
aggere et crAtibus fossils explent (B. G. vii. 86), they fill up the ditches with
earth and fascivjes.
tOtum montem hominibus compl^vit (id. i. 24), he filled the whole mouTUain
with men.
opimus praeda (Verr. ii. 1. 132), rich with spoils.
vita plena et cOnferta voluptatibu8(Sest.23), lifefiXled and crowded withdeiights.
Forum AppI differtum nautis (Hor. S. i. 5. 4), Forum Appii crammed with
bargemen.
NoTB. — In poetry the Grenitive is often used with these words. CompleS and impleo
sometimes take the genitive in prose (cf . § 356) ; so regularly plSnos and (with personal
nouns) complStus and refeitus (§349. a): —
omnia plena luctiis et maeroris fuerunt (Sest. 128), everything was full of grief
and mourning.
Ollam dSnftridrum implere (Fam. ix. 18), to fill a pot with money. [Here evidently
colloquial, otherwise rare in Cicero.]
convivium vicinorum comple5 (Cat. M. 46, in the mouth of Cato), I fill up the ban-
quet with my neighbors.
cum computus mercfitSrum career esset (Verr. v. 147), w?ien tTie prison wasfidl of
traders.
I
LIO, 411] ABLATIVE OF MEANS OR INSTRUMENT 267
HO. The deponents fitor, fraor, fungor, potior, yescor, with several
their compounds,^ govern the Ablative : —
tLtar vestrft benignit&te (Arch. 18), I miU avail myself of your kindnesa,
ita mihi salvft re pablic& vOblscam perfrul liceat (Cat. iv. 11), so may I enjiyy
with you the state secure and prosperous.
fungi in&nl munere (Aen. vi. 885), to perform an idle service.
anrd herOs potitur (Ov. M. vii. 166), t?ie hero takes the gold,
lacte et ferlnft came vescebantar (lug. 89), they fed on milk and game,
NoTS. — This is properly an Ablative of Means (instrumental) and the verbs are
ally in the middle voice (§ 156. a), Tbns utor with the ablative signifies / employ
yself (or avail myself) by means of, etc. But these earlier meanings disappeared
onoL the language, leaving the construction as we find it.
d^ Potior sometimes takes the Genitive, as always in the phrase
otiri rSrom, to get control or he master of affairs (§ 367. a) : —
t5tias Galliae 86s3 potirl posse spirant (B. G. i. 8), they hope they can get
possession of the whole of Gaul,
NoTS 1. — In early Latin, these verbs are sometimes transitive and take the
iccusative: —
fiinctns est officiom (Ter. Ph. 281), he performed the part ^ etc.
iUe patria potitur commoda (Ter. Ad. 871), he enjoys his ancestral estate.
Note 2. — The Gerundive of these verbs is used personallyin the passive as if the
verb were transitive (but cf. $ 500. 3): as, — HeracliO omnia utenda ac possidenda tra-
diderat (Verr. ii. 46), Ae had given over everything to Heradiusfor his use and posses*
sion (to be used and possessed).
411. Opas and tisus, signifying need, take the Ablative: — ^
magistrfttibus opus est (Leg. iii. 5), there is need of magistrates,
nunc viiibus tLsus (Aen. viii. 441), now there is need of strength.
Note.— The ablative with usus is not common in classic prose.
a. With opus the ablative of a perfect participle is often found,
either agreeing with a noun or used as a neuter abstract noun : —
opus est tuft expzGmptft malitift atque asttitift (Ter. And. 723), I must have
your best cunning and cleverness set to work,
properit5 opus erat (cf. Mil. 49), there was need of haste.
Nora 1.— So rarely with usus in comedy: as,-— quid istis usust odnscnptis (PI.
Bacch. 749), wliat 's the good of having them in writing ?
Note 2. — The omission of the noun gives risei to complex constructions : as, — quid
opua facttet (cf. B. G. i. 42), what must be done? [Cf. quid opus est fieri? with qud
facts opus est?]
^ These are aMtor, deiltor (very rare), dCfongor, dCfraor, perfraor, perfongor.
1 This construction is properly an instrumental one, in which opus and usas mean
\Dwk and Krvxce^ and the ablative expresses that with which the work is performed
or the service rendered. The noun flsus follows the analogy of the verb fitor, and the
ablative with (vos est appears to be an extension of that with ftsos est.
268 SYNTAX: CONSTRUCTION OF CASES [§§ 41i
&• Opus is often found in the predicate^ with the thing needed 1
the nominative as subject : —
dox nobis et auctor opus est (Fam. ii. 6. 4), toe 7iee(2 a chief and respon^^S*^
adviser (a chief, etc., is necessary for us).
8l quid ipsi opus esset (B. G. i. 34), if he himself warded anything (if
thing should be necessary for him).
quae opus sunt (Cato R. R. 14. 3), things which are required,
Ablatiye of Manner
412. The Manner of an action is denoted by the Ablative ; usxz-
ally with cum, unless a limiting adjective is used with the nouix :
cam celeiitflte vSnit, he came with speed. But, —
somnul celerit&te vgnit, h£ came with the greatest speed,
quid rgfert quA m6 ratione cCgd,tis (Lael. 26), what difference does it make €m,
wJiat way you compel me f
a* But cum is often used even when the ablative has a limiting
adjective ; —
qoantd id com periculd f6cerit (B. G. i. 17), at what risk he did this.
n5n minore cum taedid recubant (Plin. Ep. ix. 17. 3), they recline with no les9
weariness,
b» With such words of manner as modO, pactO, ratiOne, ritu, vi, via,
and with stock expressions which have become virtually adverbs (as
silentiO, iure, iniuri&), cum is not used : —
apis Matlnae m5re modoque carmina fingo (Hor. Od. iv. 2. 28), in the style
and manner of a Matinian bee I fashion songs.
Note. — So in poetry the ablative of manner often omits com: as, — insequitur ca-
mul5 aquae mdns (Aen. i. 105), a mountain of water follows in a m,ass, [Cf. mttnnnie
(id. i. 124) ; rimis (id. i. 123).]
Ablative of Accompaniment
413. Accompaniment is denoted by the Ablative, regularly with
cum : —
com coniugibas ac libeiis (Att. yiii. 2. 3), with wives and children.
com funditdribus sagittlriisque flumen transgress! (B. G. ii. 19), Juivivg
crossed the river with the archers and dingers.
quae supplic3>tiO si cam ceteris c5nferatur (Cat. iii. 15), if this thanksgiving
he compared with others.
quae [iSx] esse cum tel5 vetat (Mil. 11), the law which forbids [one] to go
armed (be with a weapon),
si sScum suOs edtixerit (Cat. i. 30), if he leads out with him his associates.
[For sScum, see § 144. b. n.*.]
i 413, 414] ABLATIVE OF DEGREE OF DIFFEBENCE 259
CL. The ablative is used without cum in some military phrases, and
ere and there by early writers : —
BubsequSbatur omnibus copiis (B. G. ii. 19), he foUowed close with aU hU
forces. [Bat also cum omnibus copiis, id. i. 26.]
boc praesidio profectus est (Verr. ii. 1. 86), with this force he set out.
NoTB. — Misceo and iungo, with some of their compounds, and oSnfundS take either
1) the Ablative of Accompaniment with or without cum, or (2) sometimes the Dative
naostly x>oetical or late) : —
mixta dolore voluptas (B. Al. 66), pleasure mingled with pain.
ciiius animumcam suo misceat (Laei. 81), whose soul he may mingle with his own.
fletumque cruori miscuit (Ov. M. iv. 140), and mingled tears with blood.
Caesar eas cohortis cum exercitu 8u5 cpniunxit (B. C. i. 18), Cassar united those
cohorts with his own army.
aer coniiinctus terns (Lncr. v. 562), air united with earth.
hiimand capiti cervicem equinam iungere (Hor. A. P. 1), iojoin to a human head
a horse's neck.
h. Words of Contention and the like require cum : —
armis cum hoste certd,re (Off. iii. 87), to fight with the enemy in arms.
libenter haec cum Q. Catuld disputS,rem (Mauil. 66), I should gladly discuss
these matters with Qy^intus Catulus.
IToTE. — But words of contention may take the Dative in poetry (see § 368. a).
Ablative of Degree of Difference
414. With Comparatives and words implying comparison the
ablative is used to denote the Degree of Difference : —
quinque milibus passaum distat, it is five miles distant.
ft milibus passuum circiter duObus (B. G. v. 82), at a distance of about two
miles. [For a as an adverb, see § 433. 3.]
aliquot ante annis (Tusc. i. 4), severat years h^ore.
aliqoantd post suspexit (Rep. vi. 9), a while after, he looked up.
malt5 m6 yigil&re 9,criu8 (Cat. i. 8), that I watch much more sharply.
mhild erat ipse CyclSps quam arigs prGdentior (Tusc. v. 116), the Cyclops
himself was not a whit wiser than the ram.
a. The ablatives quO . . . eO (hOc), and quantO . . . tantO^ are used
correlatively with comparatives, like the English the . . . the ^ : —
qa5 minus cuplditfttis, eo plus auctoritatis (Liv. xxiv. 28), the less greed, the
mare weight (by what the less, by that the more),
quants erat gravior opptignfttiO, tanto cr6bri5res litterae mittebantur (B. 6.
V. 45), the severer the siege was, the m^re frequently letters were sent.
1 In this phrase the is not the definite article but a pronominal adverb, being the
Anglo-Saxon thy, the instrumental case of the pronoun thsBt, that. This pronoun is
used both as relative (&^ which, by how muxh) and as demonstrative (&y that, by so
mucH). Thus the , . » the corresponds exactly to qa5 . . . e9.
260 SYNTAX: CONSTRUCTION OF CASES [§§ *H
Note. — To this cooBtmctioii are doubtless to be referred all cases of qnB audi
(hdc) with a oomparative, even when they have ceased to be distinctly felt as d<
of difference and approach the Ablatiye of Cause: —
•9que me minus paenitet (N. D. i. 8), and for that reason I regret less, etc. (by »]
much the less I regret).
haec eS facilius faciebant, quod (B. 6. ill. 12), this they did the more etuily/ortiM]
reasorit hecattse, etc. [Of. h5c m&iOre spe, quod (id. iii. 9) .J
&• The Ablative of Comparison (§ 406) and the Ablative of Pegree
of Difference are sometimes used together with the same adjective : —
paal5 minus dncentis (B. C. iii. 28), a little less than two hundred,
patria, quae mihi vitft meft molto est c&rior (Cat. i. 27), my couniry, vfMek
is much dearer to me than life. •
But the construction with quam is more common.
Ablative of Quality
415. The quality of a thing is denoted by the Ablative with an
adjective or genitive modifier.
This is called the Descriptive Ablative or Ablative of Quality : — ^
animS meliore sunt gladifttOrSs (Cat. ii. 26), the gladiators are of a better
mind,
quae cum esset civitfis aequissimd ifire ac foedere (Arch. 6), as this was a
city with perfectly equal constitutional rights.
molierem ezimift pulchritudine (Verr. ii. 1. 64), a woman of rare beauty.
Aristoteles, vir summo ingenio, scientU, copia (Tusc. i. 7), Aristotle, a man of
the greatest genius, learning, and gift of expression.
d6 DomitiO dixit versum Graecum eftdem sententil (Deiot. 25), concerning
Domitivs he recited a Greek line of the same tenor. f
Note. — The Ablative of Quality (like the Gtenitiye of Quality, § 345) modifies a sub- |
stantive by describing it. It is therefore equivalent to an adjective, and may be either \
attributive or predicate. In this it differs from other ablatives, which sure equivalent i
to adverbs. \
a. In expressions of quality the Genitive or the Ablative may |
often be used indifferently ; but physical qualities are of tener denoted ^
by the Ablative (cf . § 345. n.) : — j
capiUo sunt promisso (B. G. v. 14), they have long hair.
ut capite aperto sit (Cat. M. 34), to have his head covered (to be with covered
head),
quam fuit inbecillus P. Af ric&nl fllius, quam tenoi aut nOllA potios valetndine
(id. 36), how weak was the son of Africanus, of what feeble heaJUh, or
rather none at aMI
^}\7^ff^.^^^^^ instrumental and appears to have developed from aooofiuMni-
ment (§ 413) and manner (§ 412).
416, 417] ABLATIVE OF PRICE 261
Ablative of Price
416. The price of a thing is put in the Ablative : —
agruni y€ndidit s^stertium sex milibas, he 8old the land for 6000 sesterces.
AntOnius rGgna addixit pecSnia (Phil. vii. 16), Antony sold thrones for money.
logOs ridiciil5s : quis ceni poscit (PI. Stich. 221), jokes : who wants them for
(at the price of) a dinner?
magnd iUl ea ctoctatiO stetit (Liy. ii. 36), that Iiesitation cost him dear,
l^OTK. — To this head is to be referred the Ablative of the Penalty (§ 353. 1).
417. Certain adjectives of quantity are used in the Genitive to
lenote indefinite value. Such are mftgni, parvi, tanll, qixanti, plfiris,
minSris : —
ine& m&gni interest, it is of great consequence to m«.
Ulud paryi r€fert (Manil. 18), this is of small account,
est mibi tanti (Cat. ii. 16), it is worth the price (it is of so much).
Verresne tibi tanti fuit (Verr. ii. 1. 77), was Verres of so much account to
youf
tantone mindris decumae yeniSrunt (id. iii. 106), were the tithes sold for so
much less t
ut t6 redim&s captum quam que9.s minimo : si nequeas paululd, at quanti que9s
(Ter. Eun. 74), to ransom yourself when captured, at the cheapest rate
you can ; if you can't for a smaU sum, then at any rate for what you can.
Note. —These are really (Jenitives of Quality (§ 346. h),
a. The genitive of certain colorless nouns is used to denote indefi-
nite value. Such are nihil! (nili), nothing; assis^ a farthing (rare) ;
fLocci (a lock of wool), a straw : —
nOn flocd faciO (Att. xiii. 60), J care not a straw. * [Colloquial.]
atinam ego istuc abs te factum ml! penderem (Ter. Eun. 94), O that I cared
nothing for this being done by you I [Colloquial. ]
5. With, verbs of exchanging^ either the thing taken or the thing
given in exchange may be in the Ablative of Price. Such are mfitG,
commutO, permfit^, vertO : —
fidem suam et religl5nem pecQnia commtitftre (Clu. 129), to barter his faith
and conscience for numey.
exsillam patrid. sede mut&vit (Q. C. iii. 7. 11), ?ie exchanged his native land
for ezUe (he took exile in exchange for his native land).
v6l6x saepe LucrStilem mfitat Lycaeo Faunus (Hor. Od. i. 17. 1), nimble
Faunus often changes LyccBus for LucretUis, [He takes Lucretilis at
the price o/Lycseus, i.e. he goes /rom Lycseus to Lucretilis.]
vertere fSneribas triumphOs (id. i. 36. 4), to change the triumph to the funeral
train (exchange triumphs for funerals). [Poetical.]
262 SYNTAX : CONSTRUCTION OF CASES [§§ 417, i
Note. — With verbs of exchanging com is often used, perhaps with a dififerent oo
ception of the action: as, — aries . . . com croceo mutabit vellera luto (£cl. iv. 44), t
ram shall change hisjleece/or [one dyed witii] ths yeiiow saffron.
c. With verbs of buying and selling the simple Ablative of Pric
must be used, except in the case of tanti, quanti, pluris, minOris : —
qoanti earn emit? vill . . . quot mimls? quadragintft minis (PL £pid. 51]
whai did he buy her for f Cheap. For how many mincB f Forty.
AblatiTB of Specification
418. The Ablative of Specification denotes that in respect to
which anything i% or is done : —
virtfite praecedunt (B. G. i. 1), they excel in courage.
claudus alter5 pede (Nep. Ages. 8), lame of one foot.
linguA haesitant^s, voce absoni (De Or. i. 115), hesitating in speech, harsh in
voice.
sunt enim homines nOn r8 sed nomine (Off. i. 105), for they are men not in
fact, but in name.
m&ior natfi, older; minor n&tfi, younger (of. § 131. c).
paulum aet&te prOgressI (Cat. M. 83), somewhat advanced in age.
corpore senex esse poterit, animo numquam erit (id. 38), he may be an old man
in body, he never will be [old] at heart.
a* To this head are to be referred many expressions where the abla-
tive expresses that in accordance with which anything is or is done : —
med ifire, with perfect right; but, meo mod5, in my fashion.
meA sententiA, in my opinion; but also more formally, ex mea sententil.
[Here the sense is the same, but the first ablative is speeificalion, the
second source."]
propinquitate coniunct5s atque nAtfirA (Lael. 60), closely allied by kindred and j
nature. [Here the ablative is not different in sense from those above, '
but no doubt is a development of mearus."]
qui vincit viribus (id. 55), who surpasses in strength. [Here it is impossible j
to tell whether yiribas is the means of the superiority or that in respect '
to which one is superior.]
Note. — As the Romans had no such categories as we make, it is impossible to
classify all uses of the ablative. The ablative of spec^cation (originally instru-
mental) is closely akin to that of manner, and shows some resemblance to means and
cause.
For the Supine in -S as an Ablative of Specification, see § 510.
&. The adjectives dignus and indignus take the ablative: —
vir patre, av5, mSioribus suls dignissimus (Phil. iii. 25), a man most worthy
of his father, grandfather, and ancestors.
t6 omnl hondre indignissimum iudicavit (Vat. 39), he judged you entirdy
unworthy of epery honor.
f§ 418, 419] ABLATIVE ABSOLUTE 268
NoTiB 1. — So the verb dignor in poetry and later prose : as, — baud equidem t&li m5
iignor hondre (Aen. i. 336), / do not deem myse^ worthy of such an honor,
Note 2. — Dignus and indignus sometimes take the genitive in colloquial usage and
in poetry : —
curam dignissimam tuae virtutis (Balbus in Att. viii. 16), care most worthy of
your noble character.
dignus salutis (Plaut. Trin. 1163), worthy of safety.
magnOrum baud umquam indignus avonun (Aen. zii. 649), never unworthy of my
great ancestors.
Ablative Absolute
419. A noun or pronoun, with a participle in agreement, may
be put in the Ablative to define the time or circumstances of an
action. This construction is called the Ablative Absolute : — ^
Caesar, acceptis litteris, ndntium mittit (B. G. v. 46), having received the
letter, Cassar sends a messenger (the letter having been received),
quibos rebtts cognitis Caesar apud milit€s c5nti0n&tur (B. C. i. 7), having
learned this, C<Bsar maJces a speech to the soldiers.
fugatd omni equitatu (B. G. vii. 68), all the cavalry being put to flight.
interfecto Indiltiomaro (id. vL 2), upon the death of Indutiomarus.
n5ndum hieme confecta in finis Nerviorum contendit (id. vi. 3), though the
winter was not yet over, he hastened into the territory of the Nervii.
compressi [sunt] cCnatus null5 tumultu publice concitato (Cat. i. 11), the
attempts were put down without exciting any general alarm.
n6 vObis quidem omnibus re etiam turn probata (id. ii. 4), since at that time
the facts were not yet proved even to aXl of you.
Note. — The ablative absolute is an adverbial modifier of the predicate. It is,
however, not grammatically dependent on any word in the sentence: hence its name
absolute (absoliitas, i.e. free or unconnected). A substantive in the ablative absolute
very seldom denotes a person or thing elsewhere mentioned in the same clause.
a. An adjective, or a second noun, may take the place of the parti
ciple in the Ablative Absolute construction : — *
exiguft parte aestSltis reliquH (B. G. iv. 20), when but a small part of the sum-
mer was left (a small part of the summer remaining).
L. Domitio Ap. Claudio consuiibus (id. v. 1), in the consulship of Lucius Domi-
tins and Appius Claudius (Lucius Bomitius and Appius Claudius [being]
consuls). [The regular way of expressing a date, see § 424. g.]
nil desperandum Teacro duce et auspice Teucrd (Hor. Od. i. 7. 27), there
sJiould be no despair under Teucer^s leadership and auspices (Teucer
being leader, etc.).
iThe Ablative Absolute is perhaps of instrumental origin. It is, however, some-
times explained as an outgrowth of the locative^ and in any event certain locative
constructions (of place and time) must have contributed to its development.
3 The present participle of esse, wanting in Latin (§ 170. &), is used in Sanskrit and
Greek as in English.
264 SYNTAX: CONSTRUCTION OP CASES [§§419,
&• A phrase or clause, used substantively, sometimes occurs as'
ablative absolute with a participle or an adjective : —
incertd quid peterent (Li v. zxyiii. 36), as it was uncertain ivhat they skov^i
aim at (it being uncertain, etc.).
compertd vanum esse formidinem (Tac. Ann. i. 66), wJien it zoos fouTid M.
the alarm was groundless,
cur praetere&tur dSmdnstratd (Inv. ii. 34), when the reason for omitting it h<u
been explained (why it is passed by being explained).
NoTB. — This construction is yery rare except in later Latin.
c. A participle or an adjective is sometimes used adverbially in
the ablative absolute without a substantive : —
consulto (Off. i. 27), on purpose (the matter having been deliberated on),
mihi opt&to veneris (Att. xiii. 28. 3), you vnll come in accordance with my
wish.
serSnd (Liv. xxxi. 12), under a clear sky (it [being] clear),
nee auspicito nee lltatd (id. v. 38), with no auspices or faoorahle scLcrifice.
tranquillS, ut &iunt, quilibet gubern&tor est (Sen. Ep. 85. 34), in good
weather, as they say, any man 'a a pilot.
420. The Ablative Absolute often takes the place of a Sub-
ordinate Clause.
Thus it may replace —
1. A Temporal Clause (§ 541 ff.): —
patre interfectd, [his] father having been killed. [This corresponds to coin
pater interf actus esset, when his father had been kUled.]
recentibus sceleris §ius vestigiis (Q. C. vii. 1. 1), while the traces of the crime
were fresh. [Cf. dam recentia sunt vestigia.]
2. A Causal Clause (§ 540) : —
at ei qui Alesiae obsidebantur praeterit& diS qua auxilia su5rum exspecta-
verant, consumpto omnI frfimentd, couciliO co&ctO consultabant (B. 6.
vii. 77), but those who were under siege at Alesia, since the timey etc.,
Aod expired, and their grain had been exhausted, calling a council (see 5
below), consulted together. [Cf. cum dies piaeterisset, etc.]
BS^rSus, d§8p§rata pace, ad reparandas virls intendit animum (Q. C. iv. 6. 1),
Darius, since he despaired of peace, devoted his energies to recruUing
his forces. [Cf. com pacem desperaret.] j
3. A Concessive Clause (§ 527) : —
at eo repfignante fi^bat (c5nsul), immo vSrO eO fISbat magis (Mil. 34), but
though he (Clodius) opposed, he (Milo) was likely to be elected consul;
nay, rather, etc.
turribus excitStis, tamen hSs altitiidO puppium ex barbarls nSvibus supe-
rabat (B. G. iii. 14), aUhough towers had been buiU up, stiU the high
stems of the enemy's ships rose above them.
I
420--122] ABLATIVE OP PLACE 265
4. A Conditional Clause (§ 521): —
occurrSbat el, mancam et debilem praettlram futtb*am suam, cdnsnle llildne
(Mil. 25), U occurred to him that his proetorship woiUd be maimed and
feeble, if Milo were consul, [si Mild cdnsul esset.]
qti& (regiOne) solMlcta licebit decurrere in illud mare (Q. C. ix. 3. 13), if this
region is subdued, we shall be free to run down into that sea,
qua. quidem detrictft (Arch. 28), if this be taken away,
5. A Clause of Accompanying Circumstance: —
ego haec & ChrysogonO me& sponte, remdtS Sez. Rdscid, quaeT(^ (Rose. Am.
130), of my own accord, without rrference to Sextos Boscius (Sextus
Roscius being put aside), I ask these questions of Chrysogonus.
nee imperante nee sdente nee praesente doming (Mil. 29), without their master^ s
giving orders, or knowing it, or being present,
NoTB. — As the English Nomlnatiye Absolute is far less common than the Abla-
tive Absolute in Latin, a change of form is generally required in translation. Thus
the present participle is oftenest to be rendered in English by a relative clause with
wTien or while; and the perfect passive participle by the perfect active participle.
These changes may be seen in the following example : —
At illi, intermisso spatio, imprHdenti- But they, Jiaving paused a space, while
btis nostris atqne occupdtis in munitiOne our m/en were unaware and busied in for-
castrOrum, subito se ex silvis eiecerunt ; - tifying the camp, suddenly threw them-
impetHqxie in eOs facto qui erant in sta- selves out of the woods ; then, making an
tiOne pro castris conlocati, acriter pug- attack upon those who were on guard in
navemnt ; dudbuaque missis subsidiO front of the camp, they fought fiercely ;
coJiortibus a Caesare, cum hae (perexi- and, though two cohorts had been sent by
gvS intermisso loci ^atio inter se) cOn- Csesar as reinforcements, after these had
stitissent, novo genere pugnae perterritis taken their position (leaving very little
nostriSt per mediOs audacissime perrupe- space of ground between them), as our
runt seque inde incolumis receperunt. — men were aiarmed by the strange kind
Cabsab, B. G. V. 15. of fighting, they dashed most daringly
through the midst of them and got off
safe.
For the Ablative with Prepositions, see § 220.
THE ABLATIVE AS LOCATIVS
Ablative of Place
421. The Locative Case was originally used (literally) to denote the p^ace w?iere
and (figuratively) to denote the tims when (a development from the idea of place).
But this case was preserved only in names of towns and a few other words, and the
p2ace \Dhert is usually denoted by the Ablative. In this construction the Ablative was,
no doubt, used at first without a preposition, but afterwards it became associated in
most instances with the preposition in.
422. In expressions of Time and Place the Latin shows a
variety of idiomatic constructions (Ablative, Accusative, and Loc-
ative), which are systematically treated in § 423 ft.
266 SYNTAX: CONSTRUCTION OF CASES [§§423,
TIME AND PLACE
Time
423. Time when, or within which, is expressed by the Abla-
tive; time how long]pij the Accusative.
1. Ablative: —
cGn8titt!it& di6, on the appointed day ; prlmH l^ce, at daybreak.
quotft hOrft, at what o^clock f tertid. yigiliS,, in the third watch.
tribus proximis annis (lug. 11), within the last three years.
diSbus viginti quinque aggerem exstruxSrunt (B. G. vii. 24), within twenty-
ftoe days they finished building a mound.
2. Accusative : —
dies continues trigintd., for thirty days together.
cum triduum iter fScisset (B. G. ii. 16), when he had marched three days.
Note. — The Ablative of Time is locative in its origin (§ 421) ; the Accusative is the
same as that of the extent of space (§ 425).
424. Special constructions of time are the following : —
a. The Ablative of time within which sometimes takes in, and the
Accusative of time how long per, for greater precision : —
in diebus proximis decern (lug. 28), within the next ten days. i
Itidl per decern dies (Cat. iii. 20), gam^for ten days. ^
h. Duration of time is occasionally expressed by the Ablative:— \
militSs quinque horis proelium sustinuerant (B. C. i. 47), the men had sus-
tained the fight five hours.
Note. — In this use the period of time is regarded as that within which the act is
done, and it is only implied that the act lasted through the period. Cf . inter anuds
quattuordecim (B. G. i. 26), for fourteen years.
c. Time during which or within which may be expressed by the
Accusative or Ablative of a noun in the singular, with an ordinal
numeral : —
qainto die, within [just] four days (lit. on the fifth day). [The Romans
counted both ends, see § 631. d.]
regnat iam seztum annum, he has reigned going on six years.
d. Many expressions have in Latin the construction of time when^
where in English the main idea is rather of place : —
pagna CanngnsI (or, apud Cannas), in the fight at CanwB.
ladls ROmanis, at the Roman games.
omnibus Gallicis bellls, in all the Gallic wars.
\
, 426] TIME AND PLACE 267
^« In many idiomatic expressions of time, the Accusative with ad,
L^ or sub is used. Such are the following : —
supplic&tiO decrSta est in KalencUla I&nuflrUls, a thankagiving was voted for
the first of January.
conygnerunt ad diem, they osaenMed on the [appointed] day,
ad Yespemm, tiU evening ; sub yesperum, towards evening.
sub idem tempos, aJbout the eame time; sub nocte'm, at nigWoM*
f. Distance of time before or after anything is variously expressed :
post (ante) tr^s annOs, post tertium annum, trSs post annOs, tertium post '
annum, tribus post annis, tertiO post annO (§ 414), three years after.
tribus annIs (tertiO annO) post exsilium (postquam eiectus est), three years
after his exile.
his tribus proximls annIs, within the last three years.
paucis annIs, a few years hence.
abhinc annOs trgs (tribus annIs), ante hOs trSs annOs, three years ago.
triennium est cum (trSs anni sunt cum), it is three years since.
oct&yO mSnse quam, the eighth month after (see § 434. n.).
g. In Dates the phrase ante diem (a. d.) with an ordinal, or the
ordinal alone, is followed by an accusative, like a preposition ; and
the phrase itself may also be governed by a preposition.
The year is expressed by the names of the consuls in the ablative
absolute, usually without a conjunction (§ 419. a) : —
is diss erat a. d. v. Kal. Apr. (quintum KalendSA Aprllls) L. PIsOne A. GablniO
c5nsulibus (B. G. i. 6), that day was the ^h before the calends of April
(March 28), in the consulship of Pisa and Oabinius.
in a. d. y. Kal. Nov. (Cat. i. 7), to the &th day b^ore the calends of November
(Oct. 28).
xy. Kal. Sextllls, the \Wt day before the calends of August (July 18). [Full
form : quinto decimS die ante Kalend&s.]
For the Roman Calendar, see § 631.
Extent of Space
425. Extent of Space is expressed by the Accusative : —
fossas quindecim pedSs latSs (B. G. yii 72), trenches fifteen feet broad.
prOgressus milia passuum circiter duodecim (id. y. 9), having advanced about
twelve miles.
in onmi yit& sua quemque & recta cOnscientia transyersum nngoem nCn
oportet discedere (quoted in Att. xiii. 20), in all one^s life, one should
not depart a naiVs breadth from straightforward conscience.
KoTB. — This Accosatiye denotes the object through or over which the action takes
place, and is kindred with the Accusatiye of the End of Motion (§ 427. 2).
268 SYNTAX : CONSTRUCTION OF CASES [§§ 425, 421
a. Measure is often expressed by the Gexutive of Qualiiy (§ 345. b)
yftUum duodecim pedum (B. G. vii. 72), a rampart ofi/a>AnefeA (in height).
h. Distance when considered as extent of space is put in the Accu-
sative; when considered as degree of difference, in the Ablative
(§ 414) : —
mnia passuum tria ab eOnim castrls castra pOnit (B. G. i. 22), he pitches his
camp three miles from their camp.
quinque di€rum iter abest (Liv. zxz. 20), it is distant five days* march.
trlgintft milibos passuum Infrft eum locum (B. G. vi. 35), thirty miles below
that place (below by thirty miles).
Relations of Place
426. Relations of Place ^ are expressed as follows : —
,/i. The pla^e from which, by the Ablative with ab, d6, or ex.
2. The pla^e to which (or end of motion), by the Accusative with
ad or in.
3. The pla^^e where, by the Ablative with in (Locative Ablative).
"Examples are : —
1. Place from which : —
ft septentriSne, from the north.
cum Sl Ydbis discesserO (Cat. M. 70), wJien I leave you,
dS prSvindfl decSdere, to come away from 07ie*s province,
d§ monte, down from the mountain.
negOti&tor ez Afiici (Yerr. ii. 1. 14), a merchant from Africa.
ez BzitaimiA obsidSs mlsSrunt (B. G. iv. 38), they sent hostages from Britain.
MOsa prGfluit ez monte YosegO (id. iv. 10), the Meuse (flows from) rises in
the Vosges mx>untains.
2, Place to which (end of motion): —
nocte ad Neryios pervenerunt (B. G. ii. 17), they came by night to the Kenii
adibam ad istom fandtim (Caec. 82), I was going to that estate.
in Afiicam n&vig&vit, he sailed to Africa ; in Italiam profectus, gone to Italy.
leg&tum in Treveros mittit (B. G. ill. 11), ^e sends his lieutenant into Vie
[country of the] Treveri.
^ Originally all these relations were expressed by the cases alone. The aocnsative,
in one of its oldest functions, denoted the end of motion ; the ablative, in its proper
meaning of separation, denoted the place from which, and, in its locative function, the
place where. The prepositions* originally adverbs, were afterwards added to define
more exactly the direction of motion (as in to usward, toward us), and by long asso*
elation became indispensable except as indicated below.
§ 426, 427] RELATIONS OF PLACE 269
3. Place to^er^: —
in liflc orbe yitam dCgit, he passed hie life in this city.
si in GallU remanSrent (B. G. iv. 8), if they remained in OauL
dum haeo in Venetis geruntor (id. ill. 17), while this toas going on among the
Veneti,
0£pidum in insnU pofiitum (id. yii. 68), a town situated on an island.
OEpi<
427. With names of tatvns and small islands^ and with domus
axid Ills, the Relations of Place are expressed as follows : —
1. • The place from which, by the Ablative without a preposition.
2. The place to which, by the Accusative without a preposition.
V 3. The place where, by the Locatiye.^
Examples are : —
1 . Place from which : —
R5nUl profectus, having set out from Rome; RSmft abesse, to be absent from
Rome.
domS abire, to leave hom^; rare reversus, having returned from the country.
2. Place to toAtcA .* —
cum Romam sextO di6 Mating ySnisset (Fam. zi. 6. 1), when he had come to
Rome from Modena in Jive days (on the sixth day).
DelG Rhodtim n&yigare, to sail from JDelos to Rhodes.
riis ibO, I shaU go into the country.
domom lit, he went home.^ [So, suSs domSs abire, to go to their homes.'\
3. Place where (or at which) : —
ROmae, at Rome (ROma). AthSnls, at Athens (Ath^nae).
Rhodi, at Rhodes (Rhodus). L&nuvl, at Lanuvium.
SamI, at Samos. Cyprl, at Cyprus.
Tlburi or Tibure, at Tibur. Curibus, at Cures.
Philippis, at PhUippi. Caprels, at Capri (Capreae).
domi (rarely domoi), at home. rCLrl, in the country.
a. The Locative Case is also preserved in the following nouns,
which are used (like names of towns) without a preposition : —
belli, mllitiae (in contrast to domi), abroad^ in military service.
humi, on the ground. vespeii (-e), in the evening.
forls, out of doors. animi (see § 3&8).
herl (-e), yesterday. tempeii, betimes.
Cf. Infellcl arborl (Liv. i. 26), on the ill-omened (barren) tree; terrft marlque,
by land and sea.
^ The Locative has in the singular of the first and second declensions the same form
as the Grenitire, in the plural and in the third declension the same form as the Dative
or Ablative. (See p. 34, footnote.)
> The English home in this construction is, like domnm, an old accusative of the
eTid qf motion.
270 SYIJTAX^ CONSTRUCTION OF CASES fH
428. Special iises of place /ro?n which^ to which^ and where ar
the following : —
a. With names of towns and smaU islands ab is often used u
denote from the vicinity of^ and ad to denote towards^ to the neighbor
hood of: —
at & Mutiiia discederet (Phil. ziv. 4), that he should retire from Modena
(which he was besieging),
erat a Gergoviil despectus in castra (B. G. yii. 45), ^lere was from about
Gergovia a view into the camp,
ad Alesiam proficlscuntur (id. vii. 76), tJiey set ovtfor Alesia.
ad Alesiam perveniunt (id. vii. 79), they arrive at Alesia (i.e. in the neighbor-
hood of the town).
D. Laelius cum classe ad Brandisiam y6nit (B. C. iii. 100), Decimus Ladm
came to Brundisium with a fleet (arriving in the harbor).
5. The general words urbs, oppidum, insula require a preposition
to express the place from which, to which, or where : —
ab (ex) urbe, from the city, in urbe, in the city.
ad urbem, to the city. BOmae in urbe, in the city of Rome.
in urbem, into the city. ROm& ex urbe, from the city of Rome,
ad urbem ROmam (ROmam ad torbem), to the city of Rome.
c. With the name of a country, ad denotes to the borders; in with
the accusative, into the coimtry itself. Similarly ab denotes away
from the outside ; ex, out of the interior.
Thus ad Italiam penrenit would mean he came to the frontier, regardless of
the destination ; in italiam, he went to Italy, i.e. to a place within it, to Rome,
for instance.
So ab ItaliA profectns est would mean he came away frwn thefrojdier, regard-
less of the original starting-point; ex Italic, lie came from Italy, from within, as
from Rome, for instance.
d. With all names of places at, meaning near (not in), is expressed
by ad or apud with the accusative.
pdgna ad Cannas, the fight at Cannae.
conchas ad Caietam legunt (De Or. ii. 22), at Caieta (along the sliore).
ad (apud) Inferos, in the world below (near, or among, those below). ]
ad foris, at the doors. ad ianuam, at the door.
Note 1. —In the nmghborhood of may be expressed by circi with the aocosatJTe;
among, by apud with the accusative: —
apud GraecOs, among the Greeks. apud me, at my house.
apud Solensis (Leg. ii. 41), at Soli. circa Capuam, round ahotU Capua-
in T^!!o ■" ^"^.^^^i^^S an author, apud is regularly used ; in citing a particular i/»r4,
x;4 Jn^S^nfmH!!'''''''^^ ''' Xenop^ion; but, in Xenophantis Oeconomic*, in
81 RELATIONS OF PLACE 271
3. Xiarge islands, and all places when thought of as a territory and
s as a locality y are treated like names of countries : —
in Sicilia, in Sicily.
in Ithaca lepores illati moriuntur (Plin. H. N. yiii. 226), in Ithaca hares, when
carried there, die, [Ulysses lived at Ithaca would require Ithacae.]
y. The Ablative without a preposition is used to denote the place
om uihich in certain idiomatic expressions : —
cessisset patria (Mil. 68), he would have left his country.
patria pellere, to drive ofd of the country.
manu mittere, to emancipate (let go from the hand).
g. The poets and later writers often omit the preposition with the
lace froTa which oi to which when it would be required in classical
rose : —
m3jils Acheronte remissOs (Aen. v. 99), <Ae spirits returned from Acheron,
ScythiH profecti (Q. C. iv. 12. 11), setting out from Scythia.
Italiam LS.ymiaque vSnit litora (Aen. i. 2), lie came to Italy and the Lavinian
shores,
terram. Hesperiam veni6s (id. ii. 781), you shall come to the Hesperian land,
Aegyptom proficlscitur (Tac. Ann. ii. 59), he sets out for Egypt
h. In poetry the place to which is often expressed by the Dative,
occasionally also in later prose : —
it clSlmor caelo (Aen. v. 451), a shout goes up to the sky,
facilis descensus Avemo (id. yi. 126), easy is the descent to Avenrms,
diad€ma capiti rep5nere iussit (Val. Max. y. 1. 9), Ae ordered him to put ba>ck
the diadem on his head,
i. The preposition is not used with the supine in -um (§ 609) and
in the following old phrases: —
exsequias Ire, to go to the funeral. InfitiSs Ire, to resort to denial.
pessum Ire, to go to ruin. pessum dare, to ruin (cf. perdo).
v6num dare, to sell (give to sale). [Hence" vendere.]
ygnum Ire, to he sold (go to sale). [Hence yenire.]
forSfl (used as adverb), out: as, — foras 6gredl, to go out of doors.
suppeti&s advenlre, to come to one^s assistance.
j. When two or more names of place are used with a verb of motion,
each must be imder its own construction : —
quadriduO quO baec gesta sunt res ad Chrysogonam in castra L. Sullae Vola-
tenras defertur (Rose. Am. 20), within four days after this was done, the
matter was reported to Chrysogonus in Sulla^s camp at Volaterroe.
NoTB.— The accnsatiye with or without a preposition is often nsed in Latin when
motion to a place is implied but not expressed in English (see kfV,).
272 SYNTAX: CONSTRUCTION OF CASES [§§488,^
k* Domtim denoting the place to which, and the locatiTe domi^
be modified by a possessive pronoun or a genitive : —
domam rigia (Deiot. 17), to the king^a hotise, [But also In M. Laecae
(Cat i. 8), to Marcus L<Bca^8 house.]
domi meae, at my house ; domi Caeaaris, at CcBsar^s house,
domi auae yel aliinae, at his own or another^s house.
NoTB. — At times when thns modified, and rogolarly when otherwise modified, zr^
domom or in dom5 is used : —
in domom priv&tam conveniunt (Tac. H. iy. 55) , thep come together in aprivateko'u^ .
in Marcl Crassi castissimft domS (Gael. 9), in the chaste honw of Marcus Crasguc
[Of. ez Annian& MilOnis domO, § 902. e.]
429. The place where is denoted by the Ablative without a
preposition in the following instances: —
1. Often in indefinite words^ such as locO, parte, etc. : —
quibus loc5 positis (De Or. iii. 153), when these are set in position.
quA parte belli vlcerant (Liv. xxi. 22), the branch of warfare in which thq
were victoriotis.
locia certis horrea c5nstituit (B. C. iii. 32), he established granaries in par-
ticular places.
2. Frequently with nouns which are qualified by adjectives (regv-
larly when tOtus is used) : —
media, orbe (Liv. i. 33), in the middle of the city.
tOta Sidlift (Verr. iv. 61), throughout Sicily (in the whole of Sicily).
tOt& Tarracinft (De Or. ii. 240), in all Tarracina.
ctUictft Asia atque Graedi (Manil. 12), througfumt the whole of Asia aid
Greece too.
3. In many idiomatic expressions which have lost the idea of place:
pendSmus animis (Tusc. i. 96), we are in suspense of mind (in our minds),
socius peiiculis y5blscam aderO (lug. 85. 47), I wiU be present with you, a
companion in dangers.
4. Freely in poetry : —
litore curyO (Aen. iii. 16), on the winding shore.
antio s^clOsa relinquit (id. iii. 446), she leaves them shut up in the cove.
Epiro, Hesperia (id. iii. 503), in Epirus^ in Hesperia.
premit altum corde dolGrem (id. i. 209), he keeps down thepaindeep in his heaii
a. The way by which is put in the Ablative without a preposition:
yiA breyidre equitSs praemlsl (Fam. x. 9), I sent forward the caoalry by a
sJiorter road.
Aegaeo mar! trftiecit (Liv. xxxyii. 14), he crossed by way cf the JEgean Sea-
prOyehimur pelagS (Aen. iii. 506), we saUfoHh over the sea.
Note. —In this use the way by which is conoeiyed as the meona of
429-481] RELATIONS OF PLACE 273
Jpm Position is frequently expressed by the Ablative with ab (rai'ely
:), properly meaning /row; — ^
a tergO, in the rear; ft sinistral, on the left havd. [Of. hinc, on this side.]
a parte Pomp§i^&, on the side ofFompey.
ex altera, parte, on the other Bide.
mSgna ex parte, in a great degree (fromy i.e. in^ a great part).
430. Verbs of placing^ though implying motion, take the con-
truction of the place where : —
Such are p0nO, locO^ collocO, statuO, c5nstitu($, etc. : —
qui in side ac domo coUoc&vit (Par. 25), whx> pvi [one] into hie place and
home.
statuitur eques ROmanus in AprOnI conWviS (Yerr. Hi. 62), a Roman knight
is brought into a banquet of Aproniua.
Insula D€lo8 in AegaeG maxi posita (Manil. 65), the island of Delos, situated in
the ^gean Sea.
Bl in UnO Pompeid omnia p6ner€tis (id. 50), \f you made everything depend on
Pompey alone.
NoTB. — Compounds of pSnS take varioos oonstractions (see the Lexicon under
each word).
431. Several verbs are followed by the Ablative.
These are acquiCscO, dSlector, laetor^ gaudeO, glOrior, nitor, stO^ mane9,
fidO, c5nfid9, cSnsistO, contineor.
Bominibns yeterum glOriantur (Or. 169), they glory in the names of the ancients.
[Also, d6 diyitils (in yirtute, circi rem, aliquid, haec) glOridxi.]
8p5 nitl (Att. iii. 9), to rdy on hope.
ptfldentia fidens (Off. i. 81), trusting in prudence.
Note. — The ablatiye with these verbs sometimes takes the preposition in (but
fid5 in is late), and the ablative with them is probably locative. Thus, — in quibus
causa nititur (Cael. 25), on whom the case depends.
With several of these verbs the neuter Accusative of pronouns is often found. For
fidS and c5nfid5 with the Dative, see § 367.
a. The verbals frStus, contentus, and laetus take the Locative Abla-
tive : —
frgttis grfitii BrQtl (Att. v. 21. 12), relying on the favor of Brutus.
laetus praedi, r^oicing in the booty.
contentos sorte, content with his lot. [Possibly Ablative of Cause.]
n5n fait contentos glSii& (Dom. 101), he was not content with the glory.
Note.— So lataatoiy suely: as, — aliquO negStid intentus (Sail. Cat. 2), intent
on some oedquUion.
^ Apparently the direction whence the sensuous impression comes.
274 SYNTAX: CONSTRUCTION OF CASES
8PSCIAL USES OF PREPOSITIONS^
Adverbs and Prepositions
432. Certain Adverbs and Adjectives are sometimes used as
Prepositions : —
a. The adverbs pridiS, postridiS, propius, prozimS, less frequently tli€
adjectives propior and prozimus^ may be followed by the Accusative : —
pridie Ndn&s MftiSa (Att. ii. 11), the day before the Nones of May (see § 631).
po8tridi€ Itldos (Att. xvi. 4), the day after the games.
propiUB pericalam (Liv. xxi. 1), nearer to danger,
propior montem (lug. 49), nearer the hiU.
proximuB mare Gceanum (B. G. iii. 7), nearest the ocean.
Note. — PridiS and postridiS take also the Grenitiv^e (§ 359. b) . Propior, propins, proxi-
mas, and proximS, take also the Dative, or the Ablative with ab : —
propius Tibezi quam Thermopylis (Nep. Hann. 8), nearer to the Tiber than to Ther-
mopylas.
Sagambri qui sunt proximi Rhfind (B. G. vi. 35), t?ie Sugambri, who are nearest
to the Rhine. 1
proximus & postremS (Or. 217), next to the last. ^
5. Usque sometimes takes the Accusative^ but fisque ad is much
more common : —
terminds flsque Libyae (lust. i. 1. 5), to the bounds of Libya.
tisque ad castra hostium (B. G. 1. 51), to the enemy* s camp. \
c. The adverbs palam, procul, simul, may be used as prepositions \
and take the Ablative: —
rem crSdit^ii i>alam popalo solvit (Liv. vi. 14), he paid the debi to his creditor I
in the presence of the people.
baud procul castns in modum mdnicipl ezstructa (Tac. H. iv. 22), not far
from the camp, built up like a toion.
simul ndbis habitat barbarus (Ov. Tr. v. 10. 29), close avwng us dwells the
barbarian.
NoTB. — But simul regularly takes cum ; procul is usually followed by ab in classic
writers ; and the use of palam as a preposition is comparatively late.
<f. The adverb dam is found in early Latin with the Accusative,
also once with the Genitive and once in classical Latin with the
Ablative : —
clam nitrem suam (Fl. Mil. 112), unknown to his mother,
clsun paferts (id. Merc. 43), without his father^ s knowledge,
clam Tint (B. C. ii. 32. 8), without your knowledge.
1 For a list of PrepositionB with their ordinary uses, see § 221.
§§ 433-436] ADVERBS AND PREPOSITIONS 276
433. Prepositions often retain their original meaning as Ad-
verbs : —
1. Ante and post in relations of time : —
qu(38 paulO ante diximus (Brut. 32), whoi^ I mentioned a little while ago.
post tribus diSbus, three days after (cf. § 424. /).
2. Adverstts, circiter, prope : —
nSmO adversus ibat (Liv. xxxvii. 13. 8), no one went out in opposition,
circiter pars quarta (Sail. Cat. 56), about the fourth part.
prope ezanim&tus, nearly l{feless.
3. A or ab, off, in expressiotis of distance^ with the Ablative of
Degree of Difference (§ 414) : —
& mllibus passuum circiter du^bus R5md,n5ram adventum exspect3.bant
(B. G. v. 32), at a distance of about two miles (about two miles off) they
awaited the approach of the Romans.
4. In general, prepositions ending in -ft : —
Aeolus haec contrl (Aen. i. 76), thus ^olus in reply.
forte fult itizta tumulus (id. iii. 22), there happened to he a mound close by.
434. Some Prepositions and Adverbs which imply comparison
are followed, like comparatives, by quam, which may be separated
by several words, or even clauses.
Such words are ante, prius, post, posteft, pridiS, postridiS ; also magis
and prae in compounds : —
neque ante dimlsit eum qaam fidem dedit (Liv. zzxix. 10), nor did he let him
go until he gave a pledge.
post diem tertium qaam dixerat (Mil. 44), the third day after he said it.
CatG ipse iam servire quam pugn&re m&vult (Att. yii. 15), Cato himself by this
time had rather be a slave than fight.
6all5rum qaam R6man5rum imperia piaefexre (B. G. i. 17), [they] prtfer the
rule of Gauls to that of Romans.
NoTB. — The ablative of time is sometimes followed by quam in the same way
(§ 424./) : as, — octavo mense quam (Liv. zzi. 15), within eight months after ^ etc.^
435. The following Prepositions sometimes come after their
nouns : ad, citrS, circum, contra, dS, S (ex), inter, itizta, penes, propter,
ultra; so regularly tenus and versus, and occasionally others: —
[tlsos] qaem penes arbitrium est et ius et norma loquendl (Hor. A. P. 72),
cuiom^ under whose control is the choice^ rights and rule of speech.
ctdus 9. m6 corpus est crem&tum, qaod contr& decuit ab illd meum (Cat. M.
84), whose body I burned [on the funeral pile], while on the contrary
(contrary to which) mine should have been burned by him.
276 SYNTAX: THE VERB [J
SYHTAX OF THE VERB
MOODS AND TENSES
436. The Syntax of the Verb leUXes chiefly to the use of the Moods (yrhicb. express
the manner in which the action is-conceived) and the Tenses (which express the time ol )
the action). There is no difference in origin between mood and t^ise; and lience the
uses of mood and tense frequently cross each other. Thns the tmses sometimes have
modal significations (compare indicative in apodosis, § 517. c ; future for imperative,
$ 449. b); and the moods sometimes express time (compare subjunctiYe in future con-
ditions, \ 516. h, and notice the want of a future subjunctive).
The parttit language had, besides the Imperative mood, two or more forms with
modal signification. Of these, the Subjunctive appears with two sets of termina-
tions, -A-m, -ft-s, in the present tense (moneam, dicam), and -e-m, -e-s, in the present
(amem) or other tenses (essem, dixissem) . The Optative was formed by i^, I-, ^with the
present stem (sim, dnim) or the perfect (dixeiim). (See details in §§ 168, 169.)
Each mood has two general classes or ranges of meaning. The uses of the Sub-
junctive may all be classed under the general ideas of toiU or desire and of action
vividly conceived; and the uses of the Optative under the general ideas of wish and
of action vaguely conceived.
It must not be supposed, however, that in any given construction either the sub-
junctive or the optative was deliberately used because it denoted conception or possi-
bility. On the contrary, each construction has had its own line of development from |
more tangible and literal forms of thought to more vague and ideal ; and by this
process the mood used came to have in each case a special meaning, which was after-
wards habitually associated with it in that construction. Similar developments have
taken place in English. Thus, the expression I would do this has become equivalent
to a mild command, while by analysis it is seen to be the apodosis of a present condi-
tion contrary to fact (§ 517) : if I were you, etc. By further analysis, / wotdd do is
seen to have meant, originally, I should Tuwe unshed (or / did wish) to do.
In Latin, the original Subjunctive and the Optative became confounded in meaning
and in form, and were merged in the Subjunctive, at first in the present tense. Then
new tense-forms of the subjunctive were formed,^ and to these the original as well as
the derived meanings of both moods became attached (see § 438). All the independent
uses of the Latin subjunctive are thus to be accounted for.
The dependent uses of the subjunctive have arisen from the employment of some
independent subjunctive construction in connection with a main statement. Most fre-
quently the main statement is prefixed to a sentence containing a subjunctive, as
a more complete expression of a complex idea (§ 268). Thus a question implying a
general negative (quin rogem? why shouldn't I ask?) might have the general nega-
tive expressed in a prefixed statement (nfilla causa est, there is no reason) ; or abcat,
let htm go away, may be expanded into sine abcat. When such a combination comes
mto habitual use, the original meaning of the subjunctive partially or wholly dis-
appears and a new meaning arises by implication. Thus, in misit ISgatSs qui dicerent,
snbTimot-^ • **^''* '^ *^^ ^^•®* ^^^ ^^^^^ *^^>» *^® original hortatory sense of the
Similar n^ ** Partially lost, and the mood becomes in part an expression of purpose,
luctum Bul^^^^ ™^^ ^® ®®®" '" *^® growth of Apodosis. Thus, toU© banc opiaioneffl,
remove, etc.). ^^^^^ ^^** notion, you wUl have done away with gri^ (i.e. if you
For the signification of the tense-endings, see §§ 168, 169.
§ 436, 437]
INDICATIVE MOOD
277
Tlie Infinitive is originally a verbal noun (§ 461), modifying a verb like other nouns :
olo -vidgre, lit. *' I wish f or-seeing " : compare English " what went ye out for to see ? "
»u.t in Latin it has been surprisingly developed, so as to have forms for tense, and some
roper modal characteristics, and to be used as a substitute for finite moods.
Tlie other noun and adjective forms of the verb have been developed in various
irays, which are treated under their respective heads below.
Xlie proper Verbal Constructions may be thus classified : —
I. Indicative: Direct Assertion or Question (§437).
1. Exhortation or Command (§439).
2. Concession (§440).
3. Wish (§441).
4. Question of Doubt etc. (§444).
5. Possibility or Contingency (§446).
II. Subjunctive:
III. Imperative:
IV. Infinitive:
a. Independent
Uses;
b. Dependent
Uses:
a. conditions { ^r rfto^SK' '""
2. Purpose (with ut, ne) (§531).
3. Characteristic (Belative Clause) (§535).
4. Result (with ut, ut nSn) (§637).
5. Time (with cum) (§546).
6. Intermediate (Indirect Discourse) (§692).
7. Indirect Questions or Commands (§§ 574,
588).
1. Direct Commands (often Subjunctive) (§448).
2. Statutes, Laws, and Wills (§449. 2).
3. Prohibitions (early or poetic use) (§ 450. a).
a. Subject of esse and Impersonal Verbs (§§ 452, 454).
6. Objective
Construc-
tions :
c. Idiomatic
Uses:
1. Complementary Infinitive (§456).
2. Indirect Discourse (with Subject Accusative)
(§580).
1. Purpose (poetic or Greek use) (§460).
2. Exclamation t^ith Subject Accusative)
(§462).
3. Historical Infinitive (§463).
MOODS
INDICATIVE MOOD
437. The Indicative is the mood of direct assertions or ques-
tions when there is no modification of the verbal idea except that
of time.
«• The Indicative is sometimes used where the English idiom
would suggest the Subjunctive : —
longom est, it would be tedious [if, etc.]; satius erat, it would have been bet-
ter [if, etc.]; persequi possum, I might follow up [in detail].
Note. — Substitutes for the Indicative are (1) the Historical Infinitive (§ 463), and
(2) the Infinitive in Indirect Discourse (§680).
For the Indicative in Conditions, see §§ 615, 516 ; for the Indicative in implied Com-
mands, see § 449. 6.
278 SYNTAX : THE VERB [§§ 438, 49
SUBJXTNCTIVS MOOD
438. The Subjunctive in general expresses the verbal idea with
some modification^ such as is expressed in English by auxiliaries,
by the infinitive, or by the rare subjunctive (§ 157. b).
a. The Subjunctive is used independently to express —
1. An Exhortation or Command {Hortatory Sttbjunctive: § 439^.
2. A Concession (^Concessive Subjunctive: §440).
3. A Wish {Optative Subjunctive: § 441).
4. A Question of Doubt etc. {Deliberative Subjunctive: § 444).
5. A Poyibility or Contingency {Potential Subjunctive: § 446).
For the special idiomatic uses of the Subjunctive in ApodosiSi see § 514.
5. The Subjunctive is used in dependent clauses to express —
1. Condition: future or contrary to fact (§§ 516. 6, c, 517).
2. Purpose {Finaly § 531).
3. Characteristic (§ 535).
4. Result {Consecutive, § 537).
5. Time {Temporal, § 546).
6. Indirect Question (§ 574).
c. The Subjunctive is also used with Conditional Particles of Com-
parison (§ 524), and in subordinate clauses in the Indirect Discoui'se
(§ 580).
«
Subjunctive in Independent Sentences
Hortatory Subjunctive
439. The Hortatory Subjunctive is used in the present tense
to express an exhortation or a command. The negative is n6.
hOs latrOn^s interfidlmus (B. G. vii. 38), let us kill these robbers.
caveant intemperantiam, meminerint verecundiae (Off. i. 122), let them shun
excess and cherish modesty.
Note 1. — The hortatory subjunctiYe occurs rarely in the perfect (except in pro-
hibitions: § 450) : as, — Epicunis h5c viderit (Acad. ii. 19), let Epicurus look to this.
NoTB 2. — The term hortatory subjunctive is sometimes restricted to the first pe^
son plural, the second and third persons being designated as the jussive adjunctive;
but the constructions are substantially identical.
1 These modifications are of various kinds, each of which has had its own special
development (cf . § 436) . The subjunctive in Latin has also many idiomatic uses (as in
clauses of Result and Time) where the English does not modify the verbal idea at all,
but expresses, it directly. In such cases the Latin merely takes a different view of
the action and has developed the construction differently from the English.
439, 440] HOBTATOBY SUBJUNCTIVE 279
KoTS 3. — Once in Cioezo and occasionally in the poets and later writers the nega-
re -with the hortatory subjunctive is ndn : as, ~ a legibus n6n recSdamus (Clu. 155) , let
: not abandon the laws,
€L. The Second Person of the hortatory subjunctive is used only
I an indefinite whjeet, except in prohibitions, in early Latin, and in
oetry : —
iniuri3j9 fortunae, quas ferre nequeSs, defugiendO relinqa^s (Tusc. v. 118), the
torongs of fortune, which you cannot oear, leave behind by flight.
exori&re aliqois ultor (Aen. iv. 625), rise, some avenger.
ist5 bon6 fitare dum adsit, cum absit nS xequiras (Cat. M. 33), use this hUss-
ing while it is present ; when U is wanting do not regret it.
doce&a iter et sacra Ostia pand&s (Aen. yi. 109), sJww us the way and lay open
the sacred portals.
For Negative Commands (prohibitions), ses § 450.
6. The Imperfect and Pluperfect of the hortatory subjunctive
denote an unfulfilled obligation in past time : —
moreretor, ixiquiSs (Bab. Post. 29), he shovld have died, you will say.
potiufi docSret (Off. iii. 88), he should rather have taught.
ne poposcisses (Att. ii. 1. 8), you should not have asked.
saltem aliquid d6 pondere detrftzisset (Fin. iv. 57), at least he should have
taken something from the weight.
NoTB 1. — In this construction the Pluperfect usually differs from the Imperfect
only in more clearly representing the time for action as momentary or as past.
Notb2. — This use of the subjunctive is carefully to be distinguished from the
potential use (§ 446). The difference is indicated by the translation, should or ought
(not would or might).
440. The Hortatory Subjunctive is used to express a conceth
sion,^ The Present is used for present time, the Perfect for past.
The negative is n6.
sit fur, sit sacrilegas : at est bonus imperfttor (Verr. v. 4), grant Jie is a
1M^, a godless wretch : yet he is a good general.
faerit alils ; tibi quandO esse coepit (Verr. ii. 1. 37), suppose he was [so] to
Others ; when did he begin to be to you f
ngmO is umquam fuit : nS fuerit (Or. 101), there never was such a one [you
will say] : granted (let there not have been),
ni sit summum malum dolor, malum cert6 est (Tusc. ii. 14), granted that
pain is not the greatest evU, at least it is an evil.
NoTB.--The concessive subjunctive with quamvis and licet is originally hortatory
(§527. a, 6).
For other methods of expressing Concession, see § 527.
For the Hortatory Subjunctive denoting a Proviso, see § 528. a.
1 Many scholars regard the concessive subjunctive as a development of the Optative
Subjunctiye in a wish.
280 SYNTAX : THE VERB [§§ 44:1, 442
Optative Subjunctive
441. The Optative Subjunctive is used to express a Wish. The
present tense denotes the wish as possible^ the imperfect as itTtac-
complished in present time, the pluperfect as unaccomplished in
past time. The negative is n6 : —
ita vivam (Att. v. 16), as true as I live, so may I live.
ne yiyam si scid (id. iv. 16. 8), I wish I may not live if I know.
dl t£ perdoint (Deiot. 21), the gods confound thee!
yaleant, valeant elves mel ; sint incolum^ (Mil. 93), farewell, farewell to ^ny
feUow-citizens ; may they he secure from harm.
61 facerent sine patre forem (Ov. M. viii. 72), would that the gods allowed me
to be without a father (but they do not) I
a. The perfect subjunctive in a wish is archaic : —
dl faxint (Fam. xiv. 8. 3), may the gods grant.
quod dl Omen averterint (Phil. xii. 14, in a religious formula), and may the
gods avert this omen.
442. The Optative Subjunctive is often preceded by the par-
ticle utinam ; so regularly in the imperfect and pluperfect : —
falsus utinam vatSs aim (Liv. zxi. 10. 10), I wish I may be a false prophet.
utinam ClOdius viveret (Mil. 103), wouM that Clodius were now aiive.
utinam m3 mortuum vidisses (Q. Fr. i. 3. 1), would you had seen me dead.
utinam n@ v^rS sciiberem (Fam. v. 17. 3), would that I were not writing the
truth.
Note. — Utinam non is occasionally used instead of utinam nS: as, — utinam bus-
ceptus non essem (Att. ix. 9. 3), would that I had not been bom.
a. In poetry and old Latin uti or ut often introduces the optative
subjunctive ; and in poetry si or 6 si with the subjunctive sometimes
expresses a wish : —
ut pereat positum rObigine tSlum (Hor. S. ii. 1. 43), may the weapon unused
perish with rust.
81 angulus ille accedat (id. ii. 6. 8), if that corner might only be added!
8l nunc s6 nobis ille aureus rd.mus ostendat (Aen. vi. 187), if now that golden
branch would only show itself to us I
Note 1. — The subjunctive with uti (ut) or utinam was originally deliberative,
meaning how may 7, etc. (§ 444). The subjunctive with si or o si is a protasis (§ 512. a),
the apodosis not being expressed.
Note 2. — The subjunctive of wish without a particle is seldom found in the imper-
fect or pluperfect except by sequence of tenses in Indirect Discourse (§585): as, — ac
venerata Ceres, ita culmO surgeret altd (Hor. S. ii. 2. 124), and Ceres worshipped [with
libations] that so alie might rise with tall stalk. [In addressing the goddess directly
the prayer would be : ita surgas.]
^§ 442-444] DELIBERATIVE SUBJUNCTIVE 281
h» Velim and vellem, and their compounds, with a snbjunctiye or
Lnfinitive, are often equivalent to an optative subjunctive : —
velim tibi persuaders (Fam. ix. 13. 2), I should like to have you hdleoe (I
should wish that you would persuade yourself).
d6 Menedgmd veliem verum fuisset, de r^gina velim verum sit (Att. xv. 4. 4),
about Menedemus I wish it had been true; oibout the queen I wish it may he.
nSUem accidisset tempus (Fam. Hi. 10. 2), I wish the time never had come,
maUem Cerberum metueres (Tusc. i. 12), I had rather have had you afraid
of Cerberus (I should have prefen*ed that you feared Cerberus).
Note. — Velim etc., in this use, are either potential subjunctives, or apodoses with
tlie protasis omitted (§ 4^7. 1. n.). The thing wished may be regarded as a substantive
clause used as object of the verb of wishing (§ 565. N.^).
Deliberative Subjunctive
443. The Subjunctive was used in sentences of interrogative form, at first when
the speaker wished information in regard to the will or desire of the person addressed.
The mood was therefore hortatory in origin. But such questions when addressed by
the speaker to himself, as if asking his own advlc^ become deliberative or, not infre-
quently, merely exclamatory. In such cases the mood often approaches the meaning
of the Potential (see §445). In these uses the subjunctive is often csMed Deliberative
or Dubitative.
444. The Subjunctive is used in questions implying (1) douhty
indignation^ or (2) an impossibility of the thing's being done.
The negative is n5n.
quid agam, indices? quo mS vertam (Verr. v. 2)^ what am I to do, judges f
whither shall I turn f
etiamne earn salutem (PI. Bud. 1275), shxill I greet her f
quid hoc homine facias? quod supplicium dignum libidini §ius invenias (Verr.
ii. 40), what are you to do with this man f what fit penalty can you devise
for his wantonness f
an ego nCn vemrem (Phil. ii. 3), what, should I not have come f
quid dicerem (Att. vi. 3. 9), what was I to say f
quis enira cglUveiit Tguem (Ov. H. xv. 7), who could conceal the flame f
Note. — The hortatory origin of some of these questions is ob-^^lous. Thus, — quid
faciamtts ?=faciamtt8 [aliqaid], quid ? let us do — what? (Compare the expanded form
quid vis faciamus ? what do you wish us to do ?) Once established, it was readily trans-
ferred to the past: quid faciam? what am I to do f quid facerem? what was I to do f
Questions implying impossibility, however, cannot be distinguished from Apodosis
(of. §617).
a. In many cases the question has become a mere exclamation,
rejecting a suggested possibility :
mihi umquam bonOrum praesidium defuttirum putarem (Mil. 94), could 1
think that the defence of good men would ever fail me I
Note. — The indicative is sometimes used in deliberative questions : as, — quid ago,
what am I to do?
282 STITTAX: THE VERB [S§
PotPiitlnl Sobjmictive
445. Of the two principal uses of the Snbjonctiye in independent sentences t
§ 436), the second, or Potential Sabjunctive,^ is fonnd in a yariety of sentence-fo]
having as their common element the fact that the mood represents the action as mere]
conceived or possible, not as desired {hortatory, optcUive) or real {indicative). Sock
of these nses are very old and may go back to the Indo-European parent speech, bat
no satisfactory connection between the Potential and the Hortatory and Optatire
Snbjunctiye has been traced. There is no single English equivalent for the Potential
Sabjnnctiye; the mood most be r^idered, according to circumstances, by the auxil-
iaries would, shotUd, may, might, can, ootUd,
446. The Potential Subjunctive is used to suggest an action
as possible or conceivable. The negative is nOn.
In this use the Present and the Perfect refer without distinction to
the immediate/w^Mre; the Imperfect (occasionally the Perfect) to past
time ; the Pluperfect (which is rare) to what might have happened.
447. The Potential Subjunctive has the following uses : —
1. In cautious or modest assertions in the first person singular of
expressions of saying, thinking, or wishing (present or perfect) : —
p&ce ta& dixerim (Mil. 103), I would say by your leave,
hand sciam an (Lael. 51), I ahoiUd incline to think.
ta velim sic existim^s (Fam. xii. 6), I sliouid like you to think so.
certain afEirm^re n5n ausim (Liv. iii. 23), I should not dare to assert as sure.
NoTB. — Vellem, nollem, or mallem expressing an unfulfilled wish in present time
may be classed as independent potential subjunctive or as the apodosis of an unex-
pressed condition (§ 521): as — veUem adesset M. AntOnius (Phil. i. 16), / could wish
Antony were here.
2. In the indefinite second person singular of verbs of saying, think-
ing, and the like (present or imperfect) : —
credos n5n d6 puerO scrlptum sed S, puerO (Plin. Ep. iv. 7. 7), you wordd
think that it was written not about a hoy but by a boy.
crSderes victCs (Liv. ii. 43. 9), you would have thought ihem conquered.
reOs diceres (id. ii. 35. 5), you would have said they were culprits.
videres susurrOs (Hor. S. ii. 8. 77), you might have seen them whispering (lit.
whispers).
fretd assimil9,re possis (Ov. M. v. 6), you might compare it to a sea.
3. With other verbs, in all persons, when some word or phrase in
the context implies that the action is expressed as merely possible oi
conceivable : — ^
1 The name Potential Subjunctive is not precisely descriptive, but is fixed fa
grammatical usage.
§§ 447, 448] IMPERATIVE MOOD 288
nil ego contalerim itlcundS sinus amIcO (Hor. S. i. 6. 44), when in my senses
I sJiovld compare nothing with an interesting friend.
forttinaxn citius reperiSs quam retinefis (Pub. Syr. 168), you may sooner find
fortune than keep it.
aliquis dicat (Ter. And. 640), somebody may say.
Note. — In this use the subjunctive may be regarded as the apodosis of an unde-
veloped protasis. When the conditional idea becomes clearer, it finds expression in
a formal protasis, and a conditional sentence is developed.
«. Forsitan^ perhaps y regularly takes the Potential Subjunctive
except in later Latin and in poetry, where the Indicative is also
common ; —
forsitan quaeratis qui iste terror sit (Rose. Am. 6), you may perhaps inquire
what this alarm is.
forsitan temerg fecerim (id. 31), perhaps I have acted rashly.
Note. — The subjunctive clause with forsitan (=for8 sit an) was originally an Indi-
rect Question : it would be a chance whether ^ etc.
&• TortBi^^i^, perhaps, is regularly followed by the Indicative; some-
times, however, by the Subjunctive, but chiefly in later Latin: —
luaeres fortasse (Fam. xv. 4. 13), perhaps you will ask.
Note. — Other expressions tor perhaps are (1) forsan (chiefly poetical; construed
with the indicative or the subjunctive, more commonly the indicative), fors (rare and
poetical ; construed with either the indicative or the subjunctive). Forsit (or fors sit)
occurs once (Hor. S. i. 6. 49) and takes the subjunctive. Fortasse is sometimes followed
by the infinitive with subject accusative in Plautus and Terence. Fortassis (rare ; con-
strued like fortasse) and fortasse an (very rare ; construed with the subjunctive) are
also .found.
IMPERATIVE MOOD
448. The Imperative is used in Commands and Entreaties : —
•cSnsulite vObls, prSspicite patriae, conservftte v5s (Cat. iv. 3), hxive a care for
yourselves^ guard the country^ preserve yourselves.
^Cc, Marce Tulli, sententiam, Marcus Tullius^ state your opinion.
t6 ipsum concute (Hor. S. i. 8. 35), examine yourself.
yive, valeque (id. ii. 6. 110), farewell, bless you (live and be well) !
miserere animi nOndlgna ferentis (Aen. ii. 14A),pity a soulbearing undeserved
mitfortune.
a* The third person of the imperative is antiquated or poetic : —
oUls salus popul! snprgma l6z estd (Legg. iii. 8), the safety of the people shaU
he their first law.
i&sta imperia sunto, eisque elves niodestS pftrento (id. iii. 6), let there be law-
ful authorities^ and let the citizens strictly obey them.
Note. — In prose the Hortatory Subjunctive is commonly used instead (§ 439).
284 SYNTAX: THE VERB ^ £§
449. The Future Imperative is used in commands, etc., whei
there is a distinct reference to future time : —
1. In connection with some adverb or other expression that indi-
cates at what time in the future the action of the imperative sJiclU take
place. So especially with a future, a future perfect indicative, or
(in poetry and early Latin) with a present imperative : —
cr&B petit5, dabitur (PI. Merc. 760), ask to-morrow [and] it shall be given.
cum valetddinl cOnsulaeris, turn consulito nftyigatiODi (Fam. xvi. 4. 3), tohen
you have attended to your health, then look to your sailing.
Phyllida mitte mihl, meiis est nat&lis, lolla ; cum faciam vitula pr5 friig^ibiis,
ipse yenitS (Eel. iii. 76), send PhyUisto me, it is my birthday, Zolicts;
when I [shall] sacrifice a heifer for the harvest, come yourself.
die quibus in terrls, etc., et Phyllida sOlus hab€t5 (id. iii. 107), teU in 'what
landA, etc., and have Phyllis for yourself.
2. In general directions serving for all time, as Precepts, Statutes^
and Wills : —
is iQris civllis cOstOs estd (Legg. iii. 8), let him (the praetor) be the guardian
of civU right,
BoreSl flante, n6 arfttd, sSmen ne iacito (Plin. H. N. zviii. 334), when the north
loind blows, plough not nor sow your seed.
a* The verbs 8ci5, memini, and habe5 (in the sense of consider^ regu-
larly use the Future Imperative instead of the Present : — i
fUiolO mS auctum scitS (Att. i. 2), learn that I am blessed with a little boy.
sic habet5, mi TirO (Fam. xvi. 4. 4), so understand it, my good Tiro. \
dQ palla memento, amd,b5 (PL Asin. 939), remember, dear, about the gown.
h. The Future Indicative is sometimes used for the imperative ; '
and quin (why 7iot ?) with the Present Indicative may have the force i
of a command : — j
si quid acciderit novi, fades ut sciam (Fam. xiv. 8), you will let me know if '
anything new happens. I
quIn accipis (Ter. Haut. 882), here, take it (why not take it?). '
c. Instead of the simple Imperative, cura ut, fac (fac ut), or velim,
followed by the subjunctive (§ 565), is often "used, especially in col-
loquial language : —
cura ut Romae sis (Att. i. 2), take care to be at Rome.
fac ut valetudinem ciir6s (Fam. xiv. 17), see that you take care of your heaUh.
domi adsitis facite (Ter. Eun. 606), be at home, do.
eum mihi yelim mittas (Att. viii. 11), I wish you would send it to me.
For commands in Indirect Discourse, see § 588.
For the Imperative with the force of a Conditional Clause, see § 521. 6.
460] PROHIBITION (NEGATIVE COMMAND) 285
Prohibition (Negative Command)
450. Prohibition is regularly expressed in classic prose (1) by
Loli with the Infinitive, (2) by cav6 with the Present Subjunctive,
)r (3) by ng with the Perfect Subjunctive : — ^
(1) noli putare (Lig. 33), do not suppose (be unwilling to suppose).
noU impudSns esse (Fam. xii. 30. 1), don''t he shameless.
nolite cogere sociOs (Verr. ii. 1. 82), do not compel the allies.
(2) cave putes (Att. vii. 20), don't suppose (take care lest you suppose).
cave IgnoscSs (Lig. 14), do not pardon.
cave festines (Fam. xvi. 12. 6), do not he in haste.
(3) ne necesse habueris (Att. xvi. 2. 5), do not regard it as necessary.
ne 818 admiratus (Fam. vii. 18. 3), do not he surprised.
hoc facitO; hoc ne feceiis (Div. ii. 127), thoushaU do this^ thou shalt not do that.
ne Apellae quidem dixeris (Fam. vii. 25. 2), do not tell Apella even.
ne v5s quidem mortem timaeritis (Tusc. L 98), nor must you fear death.
All three of these constructions are well established in classic prose. The first,
which is the most ceremonious, occurs oftenest; the third, though not discourteous, is
usually less formal and more peremptory than the others.
Note 1. — Instead of noli the poets sometimes use other imperatives of similar
meaning- (cf. §467. a): —
parce pias scelerare manus (Aen. iii. 42), /orftear to defile your pious hands.
cetera mitte loqui (Hor. Epod. 13. 7) ^ forbear to say the rest.
fttge quaerere (Hor. Od. i. 9. 13), do not inquire.
Note 2. — Cave ne is sometimes used in prohibitions ; also vldS nS and (colloquially)
fac ne : as, — fac nS quid aliud cures (Fam. xvi. 11), see that you attend to nothing else.
Note 3. — The present subjunctive with ne and the perfect with cave are found in
old writers ; nS with the present is common in poetry at all periods : —
ne exspectetis (PI. Ps. 1234), do not wait.
n5 metuas (Mart. Ep. i. 70. 13), do not fear.
cave quicquam responderis (PL Am. 608), do not make any reply.
Note 4. — Other negatives sometimes take the place of ne : —
nihil ignOveris (Mur. 65), grant no pardon (pardon nothing),
nee mihi illud dixeris (Fin. i. 25), and do not say this to me.
Note 6. — The regular connective, and do notf is ngve.
a. The Present Imperative with n6 is used in prohibitions by early
writers and the poets : —
d6 time (PI. Cure. 520), don't be afraid.
nimium n6 crede color! (Eel. ii. 17), trust nx)t too much to complexion.
equO nS crSdite (Aen. ii. 48), trust not the horse.
b. The Future Imperative with n5 is used in prohibitions in laws
and formal precepts (see § 449. 2).
} In prohibitions the subjunctive with n6 is hortatory; that with cavS is an object
clause (cf . §§ 450. n. 2, 566. N. i ) .
1
I
286 SYNTAX. THE VERB [88«li
INFINITIVE HOOD
451. The Infinitive is properly a noun denoting the action of the yerb abstractly
It differs, however, from other abstract nouns in the following points : (1) it ofte::
admits the distinction of tense; (2) it is modified by adverbs, not by defectives; (3) it
governs the same case as its verb ; (4) it is limited to special constructions.
The Latin Infinitive is the dative or locative case of such a noun ^ and was orig:-
nally used to denote Purpose ; but it has in many constructions developed into a sab-
stitute for a finite verb. Hence the variety of its use.
In its use as a verb, the Infinitive may take a Subject Accusative (§ 397. e), origi-
nally the object of another verb on which the Infinitive depended. Thus iabeo ti vaSre
is literally / command you for being well (cf. substantive clauses, § 562. n.).
Infinitive as Noun
452. The Infinitive, with or without a subject accusative, may
be used with est and similar verbs (1) as the Subject, (2) in Appo-
sition with the subject, or (3) as a Predicate Nominative.^
1. As Subject : —
dolSre malum est (Fin. v. 84), to svffer pain is an evU.
bellum est sua vitia nbsae (Att. ii. 17), ifs a fine thing to kmow one*s own
favUs.
praestat compdnere flucttis (Aen. i. 135), it is better to calm the waves,
2. In Apposition with the Subject : — i
proinde quasi iniuriam facere id d€mum esset imperiO uti (Sail. Cat. 12).
jttst as if this and this alone, to commit iiyusticef were to use power. I
[Here facere is in apposition with id.]
3. As Predicate Nominative : —
id est convenienter nS,turae vivere (Fin. iv. 41), that is to live in ccnformUy
with nature. [Cf. uti in the last example.]
Note 1. — An infinitive may be used as Direct Object in connection with a Predi-
cate Accusative (§ 393), or as Appositive with such Direct Object: —
istuc ipsum n5n esse cum fueris miserrimum puto (Tusc. i. 12), for ItMnk this
very thing most wretched, not to be wlien one has been. [Here istnc ipsun
belongs to the noun non esse.]
miserari, invldSre, gestire, laetaii, haec omnia morbOs Oraeci appellant (id. iii. 7),
to feel pity, envy, desire, joy, — all these things the Greeks call diseases.
[Here the infinitives are in apposition with haec.]
1 The ending -* (amslre, monSre, regere, aadire) was apparently locative, the ending -i
(amari, mongii, regi, audiri) apparently dative ; but this difference of case had no signifi-
cance for Latin syntax. The general Latin restriction of the i-infinitives to the passiTO
was not a primitive distinction, but grew up in the course of time.
a In these constructions the abstract idea expressed by the infinitive is represented
as having some quality or belonging to some thing.
1:52-464] INFINITIVE AS SUBJECT OF IMPERSONALS 287
N'OTB 2. — An Appositive or Predicate nonn or adjective nsed with an infinitive in
r of these constructions is put in the Accusative, wliether the infinitive has a sub-
b expressed or not. Thus, — n6n esse cupidum pecunia est (Par. 61), to be free from
ires (not to be desirous) is money in hand, [No Subject Accusative.]
cr. The infinitive as subject is not common except with est and
[nilar verbs. But sometimes, especially in poetry, it is used as the
bject of verbs which are apparently more active in meaning : —
qu5s omnis eadem cupere, eadem odisse, eadem metuere, in tlnum coegit
(lug. 31), aU ofw'x)m the fact of desiring, hating, and fearing the same
things has united, into one.
ingenuas didicisse fidsliter artis emollit m5rSs (Ov. P. ii. 0. 48), faiUrfuUy to
have learned liberal arts softens the manners.
posse loqui eripitur (Ov. M. ii. 483), the power of speech is taken away.
453. Rarely the Infinitive is used exactly like the Accusative
►f a noun : —
be&t6 vivere alii in alio, vSs in voluptate pOnitis (Fin. ii. 86), a happy life
different [philosophers] base on different things, you on pleasure.
quam multa . . . f acimus causa amic5rum, precari ab indignO, supplic&re, etc.
(Lael. 57), Jiow many things we do for our friends^ sake, a^k favors from
an unworthy person, resort to entreaty, etc.
nihil explOratum habeas, ne amare quidem aut amSii (id. 07), you have noth-
ing assured, not even loving and being loved.
NoTB. — Many complementary and other constructions approach a proper accusa-
tive use of the infinitive, but their development has been different from that of the
examples above. Thus, — avaritia . . . superbiam, crudelitatem, deOs neglegere, omnia
venalia babere edocuit (Sail. Cat. 10), avarice taught pride, cruelty ^ to neglect the gods,
and to hold everything at a price.
Infinitive as Apparent Subject of Impersonals
454. The Infinitive is used as the apparent Subject with many
impersonal verbs and expressions : "
Such are libet, licet, oportet, decet, placet, visum est, pudet, piget,
Decesse est, opus est, etc. : —
libet mihi cdnsiderire (Quinct. 48), it suits me to consider,
necesse est moii (Tusc. ii. 2), it is necessary to die.
quid attinet glOrios€ loqui nisi constanter loquare (Fin. 11. 89), what good does
it do to talk boastfully unless you speak consistently f
neque m6 vixisse paenitet (id. 84), I do not feel sorry to have lived.
gubemare m6 taedebat (Att. ii. 7. 4), I was tired of being pilot.
NoTB.— This use is a development of the Complementary Infinitive (§466); but
the infinitives approach the subject construction and may be conveniently regarded as
the subjects of the impersonals.
288 SYNTAX : THE VERB [§ 45
455. With impersonal verbs and expressions that take the In
finitive as an apparent subject, the personal subject of the actioj
may be expressed —
1. By a Dative, depending on the verb or verbal phrase : —
rogant at id sibi facere liceat (B. 6. i. 7), they ask that it be aUowed them to
do this.
nOn lubet enim mihi d6plOr&re vltam (Cat. M. 84), for U does not please nu
to lament my life,
Tlsum est mihi d6 senectCLte aliquid c5nscrlbere ( id. 1), it seemed good to
me to write something about old age.
quid est tarn secundum n&ttlraDi quam senibus Smorl (id. 71), whctt is so
much in accordance with nature as for old men to die f
exstingul homini su5 tempore optabile est (id. 85), for a man to die at the
appointed time is desirable.
2. By an Accusative expressed as the subject of the infinitive or
the object of the impersonal : —
sX licet vivere eum quern Sex. Naevius n6n volt (Quinct. 04), if it is aUotoed
a man to live against the will of Sextus Ncevius.
ndnne oportuitpraescisse mg ante (Ter. And. 239), ought I not to have known
beforehand f
Srttorem irSscI minimg decet (Tusc. iv. 54), it is particularly unbecoming for
an orator to lose his temper.
puderet m5 dicere (N. D. i. 109), I sliould be ashamed to say. |
cOnsilia ineunt quorum eos ift vestlgiO paenit^re necesse est (B. G. iv. 5), they '
form plans for which they must at once be sorry. j
NoTB. — Libet, placet, and visttin est take the dative only; oportet, pudet, piget, and
generally decet, the accusative only ; licet and necesse est take either case.
a. A predicate noun or adjective is commonly in the Accusative ;
but with licet regularly, and with other verbs occasionally, the Dative
is used : —
expedit bonas esse vObIs (Ter. Haut. 888), it is for your advantage to be good.
licuit esse otiosd Themistocli (Tusc. i. 33), Themistocles might have been inac-
tive (it was allowed to Themistocles to be inactive),
mihi neglegenti esse nOn licet (Att. i. 17. 6), I must not be negligent. [But
also neglegentem.] ^
ctir his esse libcrSs nOn licet (Flacc. 71), why is it not aXUmed these men to
be free? \
nOn est omnibus stantibus necesse dicere (Marc. 33), it is not necessary for
all to speak standing. I
NoTB. — When the subject is not expressed, as being indefinite (one, anybody), a
predicate noun or adjective is regularly in the accusative (cf. §462. 3. n.2): as,—
vel pace vel bello clarum fieri licet (Sail. Cat. 3), one can become iUustrioua either in
peace or in war.
i 456, 467] COMPLEMENTARY INFINITIVE 289
Complementary Infinitive
456. Verbs which imply another action of the same subject to
oroplete their meaning take the Infinitive without a subject
ooiisative.
Such are verbs denoting to he able, dare, undertake, remerriber, for-
^et^y he accustomed, begin, continue, cease, hesitate, learn, know how,
^ecLTj and the like : —
h5c queO dicere (Cat. M. 32), this I can say.
mitt5 quaerere (Rose. Am. 53), I omit to ask,
vereor laudare praesentem (N. D. i. 68), I fear to praise a man to his face,
6r5 ut matures yenire (Att. iv. \),Ibeg you will make haste to come.
oblivisci non possum quae vol5 (Fin. ii. 104), I cannot forget that which 1
wish,
d^sine id m6 docere (Tusc. ii. 20), cease to teach me that.
dicere sol^bat, he used to say.
aude5 dicere, I venture to say.
loqui posse coepi, I began to be able to speak.
Note. — The peculiarity of the Complementary Infinitire construction is that no
Subject Accusative is in general admissible or conceivable. But some infinitives
usually regarded as objects can hardly be distinguished from this construction when
"they have no subject expressed. Thus vol5 dicere and volo m6 dicere mean the same
-thing, / wish to speak, but the latter is object-infinitive, while the former is not
apparently different in origin and construction from queo dicere (complementary infin-
itive), and again volo eum dicere, / wish him to speak, is essentially different from
either (cf. §563. b),
457. Many verbs take either a Subjunctive Clause or a Com-
plementary Infinitive, without difference of meaning.
Such are verbs signifying willingness, necessity, propriety, resolve,
command, prohibition, effort, and the like (cf . § 563) : —
dScemere optS.bat (Q. C. iii. 11. 1), ^e was eager to decide.
optavit ut toUeretur (Off. iii. 94), he was eager to be taken up,
oppugnare contendit (B. G. v. 21), he strove to take by storm.
contend it ut caperet (id. v. 8), he strove to take.
bellum gerere cOnstituit (id. iv. 6), he decided to carry on war.
cdnstitueram at manSrem (Att. xvi. 10. 1), I had decided to remain.
Note 1. — For the infinitive with subject accusative used with some of these verbs
instead of a complementary infinitive, see § 663.
Note 2. — Some verbs of these classes never take the subjunctive, but are identi-
cal in meaning with others which do : —
e6s quGs tutiri debent deserunt (Off. i. 28), they forsake thx>se whom they ought to
protect.
aveO piigiiare (Att. ii. 18. S),I*m anxious to fight.
290 SYNTAX: THE VEBB [!§^6r-
a. In poetry and later writers many verbs may have the m,i
tive, after the analogy of verbs of more literal meaning that 1
it in prose : —
furit t6 reperire (Hor. Od. i. 15. 27), ?ie rages to find thee. [A forcible ^waj
ol saying cupit (§§ 457, 663. 6).]
saeyit exstingaere nOmen (Ov. M. i. 200), he rages to blot out the ruvne.
fuge quaerere (Hor. Od. i. 9. 13), forbear to ask (cf. § 450. n. i).
parce pi&s scelerire manus (Aen. iii. 42), forbear to d^Ue your pious hands.
458. A Predicate Noun or Adjective after a complementajj
infinitive takes the case of the subject of the main verb: — |
flerique studebam ^ius prudenti& doctior (Lael. 1), I was eager to hecimw ■
more wise through his wisdom.
BciO quam soleds esse occup&tas (Fam. xvi. 21. 7), J know how busy you
usually are (are wont to be). i
breyis esse labOrO, obscurus fid (Hor. A. P. 25), / struggle to be bri^, I becomi^
obscure. .
Infinitive with Subject Accusative I
459. The Infinitive with Subject Accusative is used with verbs
and other expressions of hnowiiig^ thinking^ telling^ and perceiving
{Indirect Discourse^ § 579) : —
dicit montem ab hostibus tenSii (B. 6. i. 22), he says that the hiU is heid hK a
the enemy. [Direct : mons ab hostibus tengtur.] f
Infinitive of Purpose '
460. In a few cases the Infinitive retains its original meaning I
of Purpose. j
a. The infinitive is used in isolated passages instead of a subjunc- j
tive clause after habeO, d5, ministrS : — y
tantum habeO poUicSri (Fam. i. 5 a. 3), so much I have to promise. [Here
the more formal construction would be quod poUicear.]
ut lovi bibere ministraret (Tusc. i. 65), to sertie Jove with wirie (to drink),
meridig bibere dato (Cato R. R. 89), give (to) drink at noonday. ^
PlesV^^**^^' s'l^us, and their compounds, and a few other partici-
thev ^^^^ ^^ adjectives), take the infinitive like the verbs from whicfi
^»uSiSf^*" ^^* **^«^® (Quint. 8), that wAicA they are ready to do.
^^iiH *^" "operari (B. G. vi. 24), used to being conquered.
^^Pifts bLni!!".®'^®^^ <Ae"' "^* 641), t£«ai to being harnessed to the ctotot
^" consuetas (B. Afr. 73), forces accustomed to fighting
4.00,461] PECULIAR INFINITIVES 291
^^^OTB. — In prose these words more commonly take the Gerand or Grerundiye con-
rix<3-t;ion (§ 503 ff.) either in the genitivei the dative, or the accusative with ad: —
xusuetus nlvisandi (B. G. v. 6), unused to making voyages.
flOendis liberis sueti (Tac. Ann. ziv. 27), accustomed to supporting children,
€X>rpora insueta ad onera portanda (B. C. i. 78), bodies unused to carry burdens.
<5. The poets and early writers often use the infinitive to express
oirpose when there is no analogy with any prose construction : —
fUius intrd iit videre quid agat (Ter. Hec. 345), your son has gone in to see whxU
he is doing. [In prose : the supine ^sum.]
n5n ferrO LibycOs populare Pen9,tis vSnimus (Aen. i. 527), we have not come
to lay wcvste with the sword the Libyan homes.
iGricam ddnat habere yir5 (id. v. 262), he gives the hero a breastplate to wear.
[In prose: habendam.]
l^OTB. — So rarely in prose writers of the classic period.
For the Infinitive used instead of a Substantive Clause of Purpose, see § 457.
For tempus est abiie, see § 504. n. ^,
Peculiar Infinitives
461. Many Adjectives take the Infinitive in poetry, following a
Greek idiom : — -
durus compdnere versiis (Hor. S. i. 4. 8), harsh in composing verse,
cantari dignus (Eel. v. 54), worthy to be sung. [In prose : qui cantetur.]
fortis tiactare serpentis (Hor. Od. i. 87. 26), brave to handle serpents.
cantaie periti (Eel. x. 32), skiUed in song.
facilgs aurem praebere (Prop. iii. 14. 15), ready to lend an ear.
nescia vine! pectora (Aen. zii. 527), hearts not knowing how to yiM.
te vidSre aegrOti (Plaut, Trin. 75), sick of seeing you.
«• Rarely in poetry the infinitive is used to express result : —
fingit equum docilem magister ire viam qua mOnstret eques (Hor. Ep. i. 2. 64),
the trainer makes the horse gentle so as to go in the road the rider points
out.
hlc levare . . . pauperem labOribus vocatus audit (Hor. Od. ii. 18. 88), ?ie,
when caUedy hears, so as to relieve the poor man of his troubles.
NoTX. — These poetic constructions were originally regular and belong to the Infin-
itive as a noun in the Dative or Locative case (§ 451). They had been supplanted,
however, by other more formal constructions, and were afterwards restored in part
through Greek influence.
6. The infinitive occasionally occurs as a pure noun limited by a
demonstrative, a possessive, or some other adjective : —
hoc n5n dolSre (Fin. ii. 18), this freedom from pain. [Cf. tOtum hOc beSlte
vfvere (Tosc. v. 88), this whole matter of the happy life.]
nostmm vivere (Pers. i. 0), our life (to live),
scire taum (id. 1. 27), your knowledge (to know).
292 SYNTAX: THE VERB [§§ 4^, «
Ezdamatory Infinitive
462. The Infinitive, with Subject Accusative/ may be used in
Exclamations (cf. § 397. d) : —
te in tantas aerumnSs propter m6 incidisse (Fam. ziv. 1), alas^ that y<ni
sJiould have fallen into such grief for me !
m§ne incept5 desisteie victam (Aen. i. 37), what ! I beaten desist from my
purpose?
NoTB 1. — The interrogative particle -ne is often attached to the emphatic word (as
in the second example).
NoTB 2. — The Present and the Perfect Infinitive are used in this construction with
their ordinary distinction of time (§ 486).
a. A subjunctive clause, with or without ut, is often used ellip-
tically in exclamatory questions. The question may be introduced
by the interrogative -ne : —
quamquam quid loquor ? te at uUa rSs frangat (Cat. i. 22), yet why do 1
speak f [the idea] that anything shovM bend you !
egone at t6 interpellem (Tusc. ii. 42), what^ I interrupt you f
ego tibl ir&scerer (Q. Fr. L 3), I angry with you f
Note. — The Infinitive in exclamations usually refers to something actually oc-
curring ; the Subjunctive, to something contemplated.
Historical Infinitive
463. The Infinitive is often used for the Imperfect Indicative
in narration, and takes a subject in the Nominative : —
tum Catilina poUicSri novSs tabal3.s (Sail. Cat. 21), then Catiline promised
abolition ofddAs (clean ledgers).
ego instare ut mihi responderet (Verr. ii. 188), I kept urging him to answer me.
pars cedeie, alii insequi ; neque signa neque OrdinSs observtre ; ubi quemqae
periculum c6perat, ibi resistere ac pxopalsare; arma, tela, eqai, viri,
hostSs atque Gives permixt!; nihil c0nsili5 neque imperiS agi; fors
omnia regere (lug. 51), a part give way, others press on ; they hold neither
to standards nor ranks; where danger overtook them, there each toould
stand and fight; arms, weapons, horses, men, foe and friend, mingled
in confusion ; nothing went by counsel or command ; chance ruled all.
Note. — This construction is not strictly historical, but rather descriptive, and is
never used to state a mere historical fact. It is rarely found in subordinate clauses.
Though occurring in most of the writers of all periods, it is most frequent in the his-
torians Sallust, Llvy, Tacitus. It does not occur in Suetonius.
1 This construction is elliptical ; that is, the thought is quoted in Indirect Disoonne,
though no verb of saying etc. is expressed or even, perhaps, implied (compare the
French dire que). Passages like hancine ego ad rem n&tam misenun mS msmoiibS?
(Plant. Bud. 188) point to the origin of the construction.
^ 464, 465] TENSES OF THE INDICATIVE 298
TENSES
464. The number of possible Tenses is very great. For in each of the three times,
'r-esent. Past, and Future, an action may be represented as going on, completed, or
^ginning; as habitual or isolated; as defined in time or indefinite (aoristic); as
'.etermined with reference to the time of the speaker, or as not itself so determined
^ut as relative to some time which is determined ; and the past and future times may
»e near or remote. Thus a scheme of thirty or more tenses might be devised.
But, in the development of forms, which always takes place gradually, no language
inds occasion for more than a small part of these. The most obvious distinctions,
i^usording to our habits of thought, appear in the following scheme : —
1. Definite (fixing the time of the action) 2. Indefinite
INCOMFIiETB COMPLBTB NARBATITB
Present: a. I am writing, d. I have written. g. I write.
Past: b. I was writing, e. I had written. h. I wrote.
Future: c. I shall be writing, f. I shall have written, i. I shall write.
Most languages disregard some of these distinctions, and some make other distinc-
tions not here given. The Indo-European parent speech had a Present tense to express
a and g, a Perfect to express d, an Aorist to express h, a Future to express c and t, and
a,n Imperfect to express b. The Latin, however, confounded the Perfect and Aorist
in a single form (the Perfect scripsi), thus losing all distinction of form between d and
Tif and probably in a great degree the distinction of meaning. The nature of this con-
fusion may be seen by comparing dizi, dicavi, and didid (all Perfects derived from the
same root, dig), with ^Sei^ay Skr. adiksham, SiSeixa, Skr. dide<;a, Latin also devel-
oped two new forms, those for e (scnpseram) and / (8Ciipser5), and thus possessed six
tenses, as seen in § 154. e. ,
The lines between these six tenses in Latin are not hard and fast, nor are they pre-
cisely the same that we draw in English. Thus in many verbs the form corresponding
to / Tiave written (d) is used for those corresponding to lam writing (a) and I write (g)
in a slightly different sense, and the form corresponding to / had written (e) is used in
like manner for that corresponding to I was writing (b). Again, the Latin often uses
the form for / shall have written (/) instead of that for I shall write (i). Thus, novi, /
have learned, is used for / know; constiterat, Ae had taken his position, for he stood;
cognovero, I shall have learned, ior I shall be aware. In general a writer may take his
own point of view.
tenses of the indicative
Incomplete Action
PRESENT TENSE
465. The Present Tense denotes an action or state (1) as now
taking place or existing, and so (2) as incomplete in present time,
or (3) as indefinite^ referring to no particular time, but denoting a
general truth : —
294 STNTAX : THE VERB [§§ 466, 466
BenfttUB haec intellesit, cOnsol Tidet, hic tamen yvht (Cat. i. 2), the senaU i
knows this, the consul sees U, yet this man lives,
tibi concedo meas s&lis (Diy. L 104), I give you my seat (an offer which may
or may not be accepted),
exspecto quid velis (Ter. And. 34), I await your pleasure (what yon wish),
ta ^ti5nem Institiiis, iU^aciem instmit (Mar. 22), you arrange a case^ he
arrays an army. [The present is here used of regular einployment.l
niin6ra di neglegoiit (N. D. iii. 86), the gods disregard trffles. [General
truth.]
obsequium amIcOs, yeritfts odium patit (Ter. And. 68), flattery gains friends,
truih haired, [General truth.]
NoTK. — The present of a general truth is sometimes called the Gnomic Present.
a. The present is regularly used in quoting writers whose works
are extant : —
EpicQrus ySrO ea fficit (Tusc. ii. 17), but Epicurus says such things,
apud ilium ITlixes lamentfttnr in volnere (id. 11. 49), in him (Sophocles)
Ulysses laments over his wound.
PolyphSmum HomSrus cum ariete colloquentem fadt (id. y. 115), Homer
brings in (makes) Polyphemus talking with his ram.
Present with iam dm etc.
466. The Present with expressions of duration of time (espe-
cially iam diu, iam dudum) denotes an action continuing in the pres-
ent, but begun in the past (cf. § 471. i).
In this use the present is commonly to be rendered by the perfect
in English : —
iam ditl ignoio quid ag^ (Fam. vli. 0), for a long time I have not known what
you were doing.
te iam dudum hortor (Cat. i. 12), I have long been urging you.
patimar multos iam annOs (Verr. v. 126), we suffer now these many years.
[The Latin perfect would imply that we no longer suffer. '\
anni sunt oct5 cum ista causa vers&tur (cf. Clu. 82)', it is now eight years
that this case has been in hand.
annum iam audis Cratippum (Off. i. 1), for a year you have been a hearer of
Cratippus.
adhiic Plancius m6 retinet (Fam. xiv. 1. 8), so far Plancius has kept me here.
Note 1. — The difference in the two idioms is that the English states the beginning
and leayes the continuance to be inferred, while the Latin states the continuance and
leaves the beginning to be inferred. Compare he has long suffered {and stUl suffers)
with he still suffers (and has sufered long).
Note 2. — Similarly the Present Imperative with iam dudum indicates that the
action commanded ought to have been done or was wis?iedfor long ago (cf. the Per-
fect Imperative in Greek): as,— iam dudum stUnite poenas (Aen. ii, 103), exact thi
penalty long delayed.
167-469] PRESENT TENSE 295
Conative Present
467. The Present sometimes denotes an action attempted or
^un in present time, but never completed at all {Conative Pres-
to cf. § 471. c) : —
iam iamquQ manti tenet (Aen. ii. 580), and now^ even now^ he attempts to
grasp him,
d^nsOs fertur in hostis (id. ii. 611), ^ starts to rush into the thickest of the foe.
d§cem5 quinquagintS. diSrum Bupplic&ti0n€8 (Phil. xiy. 29), I move for fifty
days'* thanksgiving, [Cf. senatus decr§vit, the senate ordained,]
Present for Fatiire
468. The Present, especially in colloquial language and poetry,
often used for the Future : —
imusne sessum (De Or. iii. 17), shaU we take a seat f (are we going to sit ?)
hodie uxOrem ducis (Ter. And. 321), are you to be married to-day f
quod si fit, pereO fundi tus (id. 244), if this happens^ I am utterly undone,
ecquid m6 adiuvas (Clu. 71), wonH you give me a little help f
in itls vocG te. n5n e5. nOn is (Pi. Asin. 480), I summon you to the court.
I wonH go. You won't f
NoTB. — B5 and its compounds are especially frequent in this use (cf. where are
fou going to-morrow? and the Greek el/u in a future sense). Verbs of necessity ^
iOssibUity, wish, and the like (as possum, yol5, etc.) also have reference to the future.
For other uses of the Present in a future sense, see under Conditions (§ 516. a.m.),
intequam and priusquam (§ 551. c), dum (§ 553. n.^), and § 444. a, N.
Historical Present
469. The Present in lively narrative is often used for the His*
torical Perfect : —
affertur nuntius Syracusas ; curritur ad praet5rium ; Cleomen^s in ptLblicO
esse nOn audet ; inclddlt s6 domi (Verr. v. 02), the news is brought to Syra-
cuse ; they run to headquarters ; Cleomenes does not venture to be abroad ;
he shuts himself up at home.
Note. — This usage, common in all languages, comes from imagining past events
as going on before our eyes {repraesentdtio, § 585. 6. n.).
For the Present Indicative with dum, whUe, see § 556.
a» The present may be used for the perfect in a summary enumera-
tion of past events (Annalistic Present) : —
ROma interim crSscit Albae rulnis: dapUc&tor civium numerus; Caelius
additor urbl mOns (Liv. i. SO), Borne meanwhile grows as a result of the
fall of Alba : the number of citizens is doubled; the Cadian hill is added
to the town.
296 SYNTAX: THE VERB [§§470,41
IMPERFECT TENSE
470. The Imperfect denotes an action or a state as continued
or repeated in past time : —
hone aadiStMmt anteft (Manil. 13), they used to hear of him b^ore.
[Socrates] ita cSnsettat itaque dissemit (Tusc. i. 72), Socrates thought so (habit-
ually), and so he spoke (then).
prCtdSns esse putdbatur (Lael. 6), he was (generally) thought voise, [The per-
fect would refer to some particular case, and not to a state of things.]
lamque rabSscebat AurOra (Aen. ilL 521), and now the dawn was blushing.
ftra vetus st&bat (Ov. M. vi. 326), an old aJtar stood there.
NoTB. — The Imperfect is a descriptive tense and denotes an action conceived as
in progress or a state of things as actually observed. Hence in many verbs it does
not differ in meaning from the Perfect. Thus rSz erat and rSz fuit may often be used
indifferently ; but the former describes the condition while the latter only states it.
The English is less exact in distinguishing these two modes of statement. Hence the
Latin Imperfect is often translated by the English Preterite : —
Haedui graviter fer$l>ant, neque legatos ad Caesarem mittere aadebant (B. 6. v.
6), tTie Hmdui were displeased^ and did not dare to send envoys to Csbsot.
[Here the Imperfects describe the state of things.] But, —
id tulit factum graviter Indutiomarus (id. v. 4), Indutiomarus was displeased at
this action. [Here the Perfect merely states the fact.]
aedificia vicosque babSbant (id. iv. 4), they had buildings and villages.
471. The Imperfect represents a present tense transferred to
past time. Hence all the meanings which the Present has derived
from the continuance of the action belong also to the Imperfect in
reference to past time.
a. The Imperfect is used in descriptions : —
erant omninO itinera duo . . . mOns altisslmus impendebat (B. G. i. 6), there
were in aU two ways ... a very high mountain overhung.
b. With lam diu, iam dudum, and other expressions of duration of
time, the Imperfect denotes an action continuing in the past hut be-
gun at some previous time (cf. § 466).
In this construction the Imperfect is rendered by the English Plu-
perfect : —
iam dudum flebam (Ov. M. iii. 656), I had been weeping for a long time.
cOpias qu^ difl comparabant (Fam. zi. 13. 6), the forces which tliey had bng
been getting ready.
c. The Imperfect sometimes denotes an action as begun (Inceptive
Imperfect), or as attempted or only intended (Conative Imperfect: cf.
§467): —
471] IMPERFECT TENSE 297
in ezsilmm §ici§baiii quern iam ingressam esse in bellam vidSbam (Cat ii.
14), was I trying to send into exile one who I saw had already gone
inio war f
hunc igitur diem sibi prOpOnens MilO, cruentis manibus ad ilia augusta cen-
turi^Urum auspicia yeniebat (Mil. 43), was MUo coming~{i.e. was it likely
that he would come), €tc. ?
8l licitum esset YeniSbant (Verr. v. 129), they were coming if it had been allowed
(they were on the point of coming, and would have done so if, etc.).
NoTB. — To this head may be referred the imperfect with iam, denoting the begin-
rving of an action or state: as, — iamqae arva tenSbant ultima (Aen. yi. 477), and now
t?vey were just getting to tJie farthest fields,
d. The Imperfect is sometimes used to express a surprise at the
jpreserU discovery of a fact already existing : —
tti quoque aderas (Ter. Ph. 858), o/i, you are here too I
ehem, ttin hic erfts, ml Phaedria (Ter. Eun. 86), wJuUI you Jiere, PJusdriaf
& miser ! quanta labSrabfts Charybdl (Hor. Od. i. 27. 19), unhappy boy, what
a whirlpool you are struggling in [and I never knew it] !
6. The Imperfect is often used in dialogue by the comic poets
-where later writers would employ the Perfect : —
ad amicum Calliclem quoi rem aibat mandate hIc suam (PL Trin. 956), to
his friend CaUicles, to whom, he said, he had intrusted his property.
praesHgibat ml animus frustrft me Ire quom exibam domO (PL Aul. 178), my
mind mistrusted when I went from home that I went in vain.
Note. — So, in conversation the imperfect of verbs of saying (cf . as I was a-saying)
is common in dassic prose : —
at medic! quoque, ita enim dicSbEs, saepe falluntur (K. D. iii. 15), but physicians
also, — for that is what you were saying just now, — are often mistaken.
haec mihi fere in mentem veniSbant (id. ii. 67, 168), this is about what occurred
to me, etc. [In a straightforward narration this would be vSnSront.]
/. The Imperfect with negative words often has the force of the
English auxiliary could or would : —
itaque (Dftmocles) nee pulchrOs illOs ministr&tOr^ aspiciSbat (Tusc. v. 62),
therrfore Tie covld not look upon those beautiful slaves. [In this case did
not would not express the idea of continued prevention of enjoyment by
the overhanging sword.]
nee enim dum eram vobiscum animum meum videb&tis (Cat. M. 79), for, you
know, while I was with you, you could not see my soul. [Here the Per-
fect would refer only to one mmnent.]
Lentulus satis erat fortis QratOr, sed cOgitandi nOn ferebat labOrem (Brut. 268),
Lentulus was bold enough as an orator, but could not endure the exertion
of thinking hard.
For the Epistolary Imperfect, see §479; for the Imperfect Indicative in apodosis
contrary to fact, see § 517. 6, c.
298 SYNTAX : THB VERB [§§ 472, 473
FUTUfiE TENSE
472. The Future denotes an action or state that will occur
hereafter.
a. The Future may have the force of an Imperative (§ 449. h).
5. The Future is often required in a subordinate clause in Latin
where in English futurity is sufficiently expressed by the main clause :
cum aderit videbit, wlien Jie is tfiere he wiU see (cf. § 547).
8&n&bimar si YolSmus (Tusc. iii. 13), we shaU be heal^ if we wish (cf. § 516. a).
Note. — Bat the Present is common in future protases (§516. a. n.).
Completed Action
> PERFECT TENSE
Perfect Definite and Historical Perfect
473. The Perfect denotes an action either as now completed
(Perfect Definite), or as having taken place at some undefined point
of past time {Historical or Aoristic Perfect),
The Perfect Definite corresponds in general to the English Perfect
with have; the Historical Perfect to the English Preterite (or Past): i
(1) ut ego feci, qui Graec^ litterSs senex didici (Cat. M. 26), as J hocoe done,
who have learned Greek in my old age.
dluturnl silenti finem hodiernus dies attulit (Maro. 1), IMs day has pvi an
end to my long-continued silence.
(2) tantum bellum extrema hieme apparftvit, ineunte v6re anscSpit, mediS
ae8t3,te confecit (Manil. 35), so great a war he made ready for at the end
of winter , undertook in early spring^ and finished by midsummer.
Note. — The distinction between these two uses is represented by two forms in
most other Indo-European languages, but was almost if not wholly lost to the miuds
of the Romans. It must be noticed, however, on account of the marked distincticn
in English and also because of certain differences in the sequence of tenses.
a. The Indefinite Present, denoting a citstomary a^ion or a general
truth (§ 465), often has the Perfect in a subordinate clause referring
to time antecedent to that of the main clause : —
qui in compedibas corporis semper fuSrant, etiam cum solfifi sant tardius
ingrediuntur (Tusc. i. 75), they who have always been in the fetters of the
body, even when releoMd move more slowly.
simul ac mihi combitam est, praestO est imagO (N. D. i. 108), as soon as I
have taken a fancy, the image is b^ore my eyes.
(
§ 47a-476] PERFECT TENSE 299
haec morte effagiontur, etiam si nCn ey§nSraiit, tamen quia ponnat 6TenIr«
(Tusc. i. 86), these things are escaped by death even if they have not [yet]
happened^ because they still may happen.
Note. — This use of the perfect is especially common in the protasis of General
Conditions in present time (§ 518. b).
474. The Perfect is sometimes used emphatically to denote that
BL thing or condition of things that once existed no longer exists :
fait ista qnondam in hftc r6 publicft virtus (Cat. i. 3), there was once such vir-
tue in this commonweaMh,
habuit, nOn habet (Tusc. i. 87), he Jiad, he has no longer,
filium habeO . . . immo habui ; nunc habeam necne incertumst (Ter. Haut.
03), 1 have a son, no, I had one ; whether I have now or not is uncertain.
fnimus TrOes, fait Ilium (Aen. ii. 325), we have ceased to be Trojans, Troy is
no more.
Spedal Uses of the Perfect
475. The Perfect is sometimes used of a general truthy espe-
cially with negatives {Gnomic Perfect) : —
qui studet contingere metam multa tulit fddtque (Hor. A. P. 412), ?ie who
aims to reach the goal, first bears and does many things.
nOn aeris acervus et aurl dSdiixit corpore febris (id. Ep. i. 2. 47), the pile of
brass and gold removes not fever from the frame.
Note. — The gnomic perfect strictly refers to past time ; but its use implies that
something which never did happen in any known case never does happen, and never
MoiXl (cf. the English " Faint heart never won fair lady ") ; or, without a negative,
that what has once happened will always happen under similar circumstances.
a. The Perfect is often used in expressions containing or implying
a negation^ where in affirmation the Imperfect would be preferred : —
dicebat melius quam scripsit Hort^nsius (Or. 132), Hortensius spoke better
than he wrote. [Here the negative is implied in the comparison : com-
pare the use of qaisquam, fiUas, etc. (§§311, 312), and the French ne
after comparatives and superlatives.]
476. The completed tenses of some verbs are equivalent to the
mcomplete tenses of verbs of kindred meaning.
Such are the preteritive verbs Mi, I hate; memini, Iremember; nCvi,
I know; cOnsuSvi, lam accustomedy^ with others used preteritively,
as ySnerat (= aderat, he wa^ at hand, etc.), cOnstitfirunt, they stand firm
(have taken their stand), and many inceptives (see § 263. 1) : —
1 Cf. dStestor, reminiscor, scid, 8ole5.
800 SYNTAX: THE VERB [§§476-
qol dies aestOs mazimGs efficere consaSvit (B. G. iv. 29), which day genen
makes the highest tides (is accustomed to make),
ctlius splendor obsolevit (Quinct. 69), whose splendor is now all faded.
KoTB. — Many other verbs are occasionally so used: as, — dnm oculds certai^
iTertemt (liv. xxzii. 24), while the contest had tvmed their eyes (kept them tnrn^
[Here tTOrterat = tenfilMit.]
PLUPERFECT TENSE
477. The Pluperfect is used (1) to denote an action or sta
completed in past time ; or (2) sometimes to denote an action
indefinite time, but prior to some past time referred to : —
(1) loci nfttura erat haec, quern locum nostri castrls delegerant (B. G. ii. I
this was the nature of the ground which our men had cliosen for a can
Viridovlx summam imperl tenebat earum omnium civitatum quae defe
lant (id. iii. 17), Viridovix held the chi^ command of aXL those tribes wh
had revolted.
(2) neque v€rO cum aliquid mandlverat cOnfectum put^bat (Cat. iii. 16), t
when he had given a thing in charge he did y^t look on it as done.
quae si quandO adepta est id quod el fuerat concupltum, turn fert alacritSt^
(Tusc. iv. lb)^if it (desire) ever has gained what it had [previouslj
desired^ then it produces joy.
For the Epistolary Pluperfect, see § 479.
I
FUTURE PERFECT TENSE
478. The Future Perfect denotes an action as completed in tlj
future: — * ,
ut semen tem feceris, ita metSs (De Or. ii. 261), od yon sow (shall have sowd|
so shall you reap,
carmina tum melius, cum veneiit ipse, canSmus (Eel. iz. 67), then shaU ti
sing our songs better, when he him^eJfhas come (shall have come). ,
si illlus Insidiae clariOrgs hac luce fuerint, tum dSnique obsecrabO (Mil. 6
when the plots of that man have been shown to be as clear as dayligi\
then, and not tUl then, sJiaU I conjure you.
ego certe meum officium praestitero (B. G. iv. 26), I at least s?iaU have doi
my duty (i.e. when the time comes to reckon up the matter, I shall i
found to have done it, whatever the event).
Note. — Latin is far more exact than English in distinguishing between mei
future action and action completed in the future. Hence the Future Perfect is mud
commoner in Latin than in English. It may even be used instead of the Future, froi
the fondness of the Romans for representing an action as completed : —
quid inventum sit paulO post videro (Acad. ii. 76), what has been found out I shd
see presently.
qui AntOninm oppresserit bellum taeterrimum c6nf6cerit (Fam. x. 19), whoeva
cruahea (shall have crushed) Antony will finish (will have finished) a moi
loathsome war.
§S 47^-481] TENSES OF THE SUBJUNCTIVE 801
EPISTOLARY TENSES
479. In Letters, the Perfect Historical or the Imperfect may
"be used for the present, and the Pluperfect for any past tense, as
if the letter were dated at the time it is supposed to be received: —
neque tamen, haec cum scxibSbam, eram nescius quantis oneribus premerSre
(Fam. Y. 12. 2), nor while I xorUe this am I ignorant under wJuU burdens
you are weighed down.
ad tuas omnls [epistul^] resciipsezam pridiS (Att. ix. 10. 1), I answered aU
your letters yesterday,
cum quod scrlberem ad te nihil hab€rem, tamen h^ dedi litterSs (Att. ix. 16),
though I have nothing to wrUe to you, stiU I write this letter.
NoTB. — In this use these tenses are called the Epistolary Perfect, Imperfect, and
Pluperfect. The epistolary tenses are not employed with any uniformity, but only
T^hen attention is particularly directed to the time of writing (so especially scribSlMun,
daham, etc.).
TENSES OF THE SUBJUNCTIVE
480. The tenses of the Subjunctive in Independent Clauses de-
note time in relation to the time of the speaker.
The Present always refers U> future (or indefinite) time^ the Im-
perfect to either past or present^ the Perfect to either future or
pa^t^ the Pluperfect always to past.
481. The tenses of the Subjunctive in Dependent Clauses were
, habitually used in certain fixed connections with the tenses of the
main verb.
These connections were determined by the time of the main
verb and the time of the dependent verb together. They are
known, collectively, as the Sequence of Tenses.
Note. — The so-called Sequence of Tenses is not a mechanical law. Each tense
of the snbjunctive in dependent clauses (as in independent) originally denoted its
own time in relation to the time of the speaker, though less definitely than the corre-
sponding tenses of the indicative. Gradually, however, as the complex sentence was
more strongly felt as a unit, certain types in which the tenses of the dependent
clause seemed to accord with those of the main clause were almost unconsciously
'., regarded as regular, and others, in which there was no such agreement, as excep-
' tional. Thus a pretty definite system of correspondences grew up, which is codi-
, fied in the rules for the Sequence of Tenses. These, however, are by no means
' rigid. They do not apply with equal stringency to all dependent constructions, and
,. they were frequently disregarded, not only when their strict observance would have
obscured the sense, but for the sake of emphasis and variety, or merely from care-
lessness.
808 SYNTAX: THE VEBB [§§482,488
Segoenoe of Tenses
483. The tenses of the Subjunctiye in Dependent Clauses fol-
low special rules for the Sequence of Tenses.
With reference to these rules aU tenses when used in independ-
ent clauses are divided into two classes, — Primary and Secondary.
^J^ Pkimary. — The Primary Tenses include all forms that express
present ot future time. These are the Present, Future, and Future
Perfect Indicative, the Present and Perfect Subjunctive, and the
Present and Future Imperative.
^,^. SbcoITdaby. — The Secondary Tenses include all forms that re-
fer to past time. These are the Imperfect, Perfect, and Pluperfect
Indicative, the Imperfect and Pluperfect Subjunctive, and the His-
torical Infinitive.
NoTB. — To these may be added certain fomls less oommonly used in independent
daases: — (1) Primary: Present Infinitive in Exclamations; (2) Secondary: Perfect
Infinitive in Exclamations (see §§ 462, 485. a. n.)<
The Perfect Definite is sometimes treated as primary (see § 485. a).
For the Historical Present, see § 485. e ; for the Imperfect Subjunctive in Apodosis,
see § 486. A.
^ 483. The following is the general rule for the Sequence of
Tenses: — ^
In complex sentences a Primary tense in the main clause is
followed by the Present or Perfect i^i the dependent clause, and
a Secondary tense by the Imperfect or "Pluperfect : —
Primary Tenses
rogo, I ask, am asking
rog&bd, I shall ask
DOg&vi (sometimes), I fiave asked
rogavero, I sliaU have asked
quid f aciils, wTiat you are doing,
quid feceris, what you did, were doing,
have done, have been doing,
quid factfiios sis, what you wiU do.
Bciibit, hevrrites 1 i -^ ^ .
acrlbet, hewiUwrite | «t nSs iwrn^t, to warn ua.
sciibe (sciibitd), write at nSs monefls, to warn us.
Bciibit, he writes quaai obUtus sit, as if he fiad forgotten.
1 The term is sometimes extended to certain relations between the tenaet of sub-
ordinate verbs in the indicative and those of the main verb. These relations do not
differ In principle from those which we are considering ; but for oonvenienoe tht term
Sequence of Tenses is in this book restricted to subjunctives, in accordance with the
usual practice.
8§ 483^86] SEQUENCE OF TENSES 808
Secondary Tenses
xogftbam, I dsked, was asking
rogavi, I asked, have asked
rogaveram, I had asked
quid faceres, wJiat you were doing.
quid fecisses, what you had done, had
been doing.
quid facturas ess§s, wJiat you wouM do.
scripsit, he wrote at ii5a moneret, to warn us.
scnpsit, "^ h£ wrote quasi oblitus esset, as if he had forgotten.
\^ 484, In applying the rule for the Sequence of Tenses, observe —
^ Whether the main verb is (a) primary or (b) secondary.
jP) Whether the dependent verb is to denote completed action (i.e.
past with reference to the main verb) or incomplete action (i.e. pres-
ent or future with reference to the main verb). Then —
fa. If the leading verb is primary ^ the dependent verb urust be in
the Present if it denotes incomplete a^tion,in the Perfect if it denotes
completed action,
)b» If the leading verb is secondary, the dependent verb must be in
the Imperfect if it denotes incomplete action, in the Pluperfect if it
denotes completed action : —
(1) He writes [primary] to warn [incomplete action] us, scnbit ut nOs moneat.
I ask [primary] what you were doing [now past], rogo quid fSceris.
(2) He wrote [secondary] to warn [incomplete] us, scripsit ut nos monSret.
I asked [secondary] what you were doing [incomplete], rog&Ti quid facerSs.
c. Notice that the Future Perfect denotes action completed (at
the time referred to), and hence is represented in the Subjunctive hj
the Perfect or Pluperfect : —
He shows that if they come (shall have come), many will perish., demonstrat, si
▼enerint, multOs interituros. ,.
He showed that if they should come (should have come), many would perish,
demonstravit, si yenissent, multOs interittlrCs.
485. In the Sequence of Tenses the following special points
are to be noted : —
a. The Perfect Indicative is ordinarily a secondary tense, but
allows the primary sequence when the present time is clearly in the
writer's mind: —
ut satis esset praesidi provisum est (Cat. ii. 26), provision has been made that
Uiere shovM he ample guMrd. [Secondary sequence.]
addfixi hominem in quO satisfacere exteris natidnibus possetis (Verr. i. 2), I
have brought a m^an in whose person you can make satisfaxtion to foreign
nations. [Secondary sequence.]
804 SYNTAX : THE VEBB [§ 48S
est enim rfis iam in enm locum addacta, nt qnamqnam multam intersit inter
e5ram causfts qui dimicant, tamen inter victOrifts n5n multam interfa-
tdrum potem (Fam. ▼. 21. 3), for chairs have been brought to such a pan
that, though there is a great difference between the causes of those who art
fighting, stiU I do not thi^ik there will be much difference between their vie-
tories. [Primary sequence.]
ea adhibita doctrlna est quae vel vitiOsissimam n&turam excolere possit (Q. Fr.
i. 1. 7), such instruction has been given as can train even the favMiest
nature, [Primary sequence.]
NoTB. — The Perfect Infinitive in exclamations follows the same rule : —
quemquamne faiaae tarn soeleiatum qui hOc flnceret (Phil. ziy. 14), w<ms any one so
abandoned as to imagine thisf [Secondary.]
adeOn rem rediaae patrem ut extimSscam (Ter. Ph. 153), to think that things Turn
come to such a pass that I should dread my father I [Primary .J
h. After a primary tense the Perfect Subjunctive is regularly used to
denote any past action. Thus the Perfect Subjunctive may represent—
1. A Perfect Definite : —
nOn dubitO quin omnSs tul scxfpseiint (Fam. y. 8), I do rwt doubt that all
your friends have written, [Direct statement: scripserunt.] i
quft re nOn IgnOrO quid accidat in ultimls terrls, cum audieiim in Italia que-
rell&s clvium (Q. Fr. i. 1. 33), therefore I know well what happens at the
ends of the earth, when I have heard in Italy the complaints of citizens.
[Direct statement : audivl]
2. A Perfect Historical : —
m6 autem hic laudat quod rettalerim, n5n quod patefScerim (Att. zii. 21), me
he praises because I brought the matter [before the senate], not because I
brought it to light. [Direct statement : xettnlit.]
3. An Imperfect : —
si forte cecidernnt, tum intellegitur quam fnerint inop6s amlcOrum (Lael. 53),
if perchance they fall (have fallen), then one can see how poor they were
in friends. [Direct question : quam inop&s erant?]
qui status rSrum f uerit cum h3s litteras dedl, scire poteris ex C. TitiO Stra-
bOne (Fam. xii. 6), wJuxt the condition of affairs was when I wrote this i
letter, you can learn from Strdbo. [Direct question : qui status erat?]
quam clvitatl carus fuerit maerOre fdneris indicatum est (Lael. 11), how d&xr
he was to the state has been shown by the grief at his funeroL [Direct
question : quam c^us erat ?]
ex epistulis intellegl licet quam frequSns fuerit PlatOnis auditor (Or. 15), it
may be understood from his letters how constant a hearer he was of Plato.
[Direct question : quam f requSns erat ?]
NoTB. — Thus the Perfect Subjunctive may represent, not only a Perfect Definite
or a Perfect Historical of a direct statement or question, but an Imperfect as well.
This comes from the want of any special tense of the subjunctiye for oontinaed past
action after a primary tense. Thus, miror quid f Scerit may mean (1) I wonder tohat he
\as done, (2) I wonder wfiat he did (hist, perf .), or (3) I wonder what he was doing.
486] SEQUENCE OF TENSES 805
c. In clauses of Eesult, the Perfect Subjunctive is regularly (the
resent rarely) used after secondary tenses : —
Hortensius firdebat dicendl cupidit&te sic ut in nullO umquam flagrantius
stadium videiim (Brut. 302), Horteimus was so hot with desire of speaks
ing that I have never seen a more burning ardor in any man,
[Siciliam Yerrgs] per triennium ita Yex&vit ac peididit ut ea restitul in anti-
quum statum nulls mod5 possit (Verr. i. 12), for three years Verres so
racked and ruined Sicily tliat she can in no way he restored to her former
state. [Here the Present describes a state of things actually existing.]
videor esse cdnsecfitas ut nOn possit Dolftbella in Italiam pervenlre (Earn,
xii. 14. 2), I seem to have brought it about that DolabeUa cannot come into
Italy.
NoTB 1. — This construction emphasizes the result ; the regular sequence of tenses
¥Ould subordinate it.
NoTB 2. — There is a special fondness for the Perfect Subjunctive to represent a
Perfect Indicative : —
Thorius erat ita ndn superstitidsus ut ilia plurima in sua patria et sacrificia et
&na contemneret ; ita ndn timidus ad mortem ut in acie sit ob rem publicam
interfecttts (Fin. ii. 63), Thorius was so little superstitious that he despised
[contemnebat] the mxmy sacrifices and shrines in his country ; so little timor--
ous about death that Tie was killed [interfectus est] in battle, in defence of
the state,
d» A general truth after a past tense follows the sequence of tenses :
ex his quae tribuisset, sibi quam mutabilis asset reput&bat (Q. 0. iii. 8. 20),
from what she (Fortune) had bestowed on him, he reflected how inconstant
she is, [Direct : matabiUs est.]
ibi quantam vim ad stimulandOs anim5s Ira habSret appftruit (Liv. xxxiii. 37),
here it appeared what power anger has to goad the mind, [Direct : habet. ]
Note. — In English the original tense is more commonly kept.
c. The Historical Present (§ 469) is sometimes felt as a primarj/y
sometimes as a secondary tense, and accordingly it takes either the
primary or the secondary sequejice : —
rogat ut cJiret quod dixisset (Quinct. 18), ^ asks him to attend to the thing he
f had spoken of. [Both primary and secondary sequence.]
Note. — After the historical present, the subjunctive with cum temporal must
follow the secondary sequence : —
qnO cum vSnisset cognoscit (B. G. i. 34), when he had come there he learns,
cum esset pugnfttum hOris quinqne, nostrique gravius premerentnr, impetum in
cohortis facinnt (id. i. 46), when they had fought for five hours, and our
men were pretty hard pressed, they make an attack on the cohorts,
/. The Historical Infinitive regularly takes the secondary se-
quence : —
interim cotldiS Caesar HaeduOs friimentum, quod essent polliciti, flilgit&ro
(B. G. i. 16), meanwhile Ca^ar demanded of the Hosdui eoery day the grain
which they had promised.
806 SYNTAX: THE VERB £§
gr. The Imperfect and Pluperfect in conditions contrary to fact
(§ 617) and in the Deliberative Subjunctive (§ 444) are not affected
by the sequence of tenses : —
quia t&le sit, ut vel si igndr&rent id homines vel si obmutaissent (Fin. ii. 49)^
becaiue U U auch thai even if men were ignorant of it, or had been
silent about U,
quaerO & t6 cfLr C. Comelium nOn dSfenderem (Vat. 6), I ask you why I was
not to dtfend Caivs Cornelius f [Direct : cfir non dSfendeiem ?]
h. The Imperfect Subjunctive in present conditions contrary to
fact (§ 617) is regularly followed by the secondary sequence : —
Bl alii cCnsolSs essent, ad t3 potissimum, Paule, mitterem, ut eOs milii quam
amlcissimOs redderSs (Fam. xv. 18. 3), if there were other consuls, I should
send to you, Paulu^, in pr^erence to all, that you might make them a&
friendly to me as possible.
si sOlOs e58 £cer§8 miserOs quibus moriendum esset, n€ininem exciperes
(Tusc. i. 9), if you were to call only those wretched who must die, you
would except no one.
i. The Present is sometimes followed by a secondary sequence,
seemingly because the writer is thinking of past time : —
sed si T^s cOget, est quiddam tertium, quod neque SeliciO nee mihi displicS-
bat: ut neque iacSre rem pateremur, etc. (Fam. i. 6 a. 3), but if the case
sJudl demand, there is a third [course] which neither Selicius nor myself
disapproved, thai we shxmld not allow, etc. [Here Cicero is led by the
time of displicebat.]
sed tamen ut scirSs, haec tibi sciibo (Fam. xiii. 47), but yet thai you m^y kjtow^ I
unite thus. [As if he had used the epistolary imperfect sciibSbam (§ 470). ]
cflius praeceptl tanta vis est ut ea nOn homini cuipiam sed DelpbicO ded
tribaerStor (Legg. i. 58), such is the force of this precept, thai ii wm
ascribed not to any man, but to the Delphic god, [The precept was an
old one.]
J. When a clause depends upon one already dependent, its se-
quence may be secondary if the verb of that clause expresses past
time, even if the main verb is in a primary tense : —
sed tamen qua r6 acdderit ut ex mels superiQribus litterls id saspicarSre nescid
(Fam. ii. 16), but yet how it happened thai you suspected Ihis from my
previous letter, I don't know.
tantum profScisse vidSmur ut § Graecls nS verbOrum quidem cOpi& yinceri-
iniir (N. D. i. 8), we seem to have advanced so far thai even in abundance
of words we are not surpassed by the Greeks,
Note. — So regularly after a Perfect Infinittve which depends on a primary tense
($586. a).
5 4S6] ' TEKSE8 OF THE INFINITIVE 407
TENSES OF THE INFINITIVE
486, Except in Indirect Discourse, only the Present and Per-
fect Infinitives are used.
The Present represents the action of the verb as in progress with-
out distinct reference to time, the Perfect as completed.
For the Tenses ol the Infinitive in Indirect Discoorse see § 584.
a. With past tenses of verbs of necessity, propriety, and possibility
(as 6Bhul, oportuit, potui), the Present Infinitive is often used in
Latin where the English idiom prefers the Perfect Infinitive : —
numne, si Coriolanus habuit amIcOs, ferre contra patriam arma illl cum
Corioland debngrunt (Lael. 36), if Coriolanus had friends^ ouglU tkey to
have home arms with him against their fat?ietland t
pectUiia, quam his oportuit civitatibus prO frumentO dari (Verr. iii. 174),
nwney which ought to have been paid to these stales for grain,
consul esse qui potui, nisi eum vitae cursum tenuissem & pueriti& (Rep. i. 10),
how could I have become consul had I not from boyhood followed that
course of life f
5. With verbs of necessity, propriety, and possibility, the Perfect
Infinitive may be used to emphasize the idea of completed action : —
tametsi statim vicisse debeO (Rose. Am. 73), although I ought to win my case
at once (to be regarded as iiaving won it),
bellum quod possumus ante hiemem perfecisse (Liv. xzxvii. 19. 6), a war
which we can have completed before winter.
nil ego, si peccem, possum nescisse (Ov. H. xvi. 47), if I should go wrong,
I cannot have don^ it in ignorance (am not able not to have known).
Note.— With the past tenses of these verbs the perfect infinitive is apparently
due to attraction : —
quod iam pridera factum esse oportuit (Cat. i. 5), (a thing) which ought to have
been done long ago.
y haec facta ab illO oportebat (Ter. Haut. 536), this ought to have been done by him,
turn decuit metuisse (Aen. x. 94), then was the time to fear (then you should have
feared).
c. In archaic Latin and in legal formulas the Perfect Active Infini-
tive is often used with n616 or vol6 in prohibitions : —
Chaldaeum n6quem consuluisse velit (Cato R. R. v. 4), let him not venture to
have covsvUed a soothsayer.
nGlItO devellisse (PI. Poen. 872), do not have them plucked.
n6quis humasse velit Ai&cem (Hor. S. ii. 3. 187), let no one venture to have
buried Ajax,
NEIQVIS EORVM BACANAL HABVI8E VELET (S. C. ds Bac. 1), let nO OUC Of them
venture to have ?iad a place for Bacchanalian worship.
808 SYNTAX: THS VERB [$4^
d. With verbs of tvishing^ the Perfect Passive Infinitive (com
monly without esse) is often used emphatically instead of the Present
domesticft cClrft i& leTatom volO (Q. Fr. iii. 9. 8), I wish you rdieved ofprivat
care.
illOs monitds \o\6 (Cat. ii. 27), I wish them thoroughly warned.
qui illam [patriam] ezstinctam cupit (Fin. iv. 66), who is eager for her tUtet
destruction,
illud te esse admonitam volO (Gael. 8), I wish you to be weU advised of this.
qui s6 ab omnibus desertds potius quam abs te defensds esse mS.lunt (Caecil.
21), who prefer to he deserted by all rather than to be drfended by you.
NoTB. — The participle in this case is rather in predicate agreement (with or with-
out esse) than used to form a strict perfect infinitive, though the full form can hardly
be distinguished from that construction.
e. In late Latin, and in poetry (often for metrical convenience),
rarely in good prose, the Perfect Active Infinitive is used emphatically
instead of the Present, and even after other verbs than those of tmsh-
ing : —
n€mO eOrum est qui nOn perisse t€ cupiat (Yerr. ii. 149), there is ru> one of
them who is not eager for your death.
baud equidem premendO alium m€ extuUsse velim (liv. zxii. 59. 10), 1
would not by crushing another exaXt myself.
sunt qui nOlint tetigisse (Hor. S. i. 2. 28), there are those who would not touch.
commisisse cavet (Hor. A. P. 168), he is cautious of doing.
nunc quern tetigisse timerent, anguis er^ (Ov. M. viii. 783), again you be-
came a serpent which they dreaded to touch.
fratresque tendentgs opacO Pelion imposolsse OlympO (Hor. Od. iii. 4. 61),
and the brothers striving to set Pelion on dark Olympus.
f» After verbs of feeling the Perfect Infinitive is used^ especially
by the poets, to denote a completed action.
So also with satis est, satis habeS, melius est, contentus sum, and in
a few other cases where the distinction of time is important : — i
nOn paenitebat intercapedinem scrlbendl fecisse (Fam. xvi. 21), I was not
sorry to have made a respite of writing.
pudet m€ nCn praestitisse (id. xiv. 8), I am ashamed not to have shown.
sunt quOs pulverem Olympicum coUdgitse iuvat (Hor. Od. i. 1. 3), som
delight to have stirred up the dust at Olympia.
qoiesse erit melius (Liv. iii. 48), it unit be better to have kept qui^,
ac si quis amet scxipsisse (Hor. S. i. 10. 60), than if one should choose to have
written.
id solum dizisse satis habeO (Yell. ii. 124), I am content to fume said only
UUs.
^ V<d5, and less frequently aSlo, ]iull5» and euirfS,
§ 487-490]
PARTICIPLES
309
I. Participles:
a. Present and
Perfect :
b. Fntnre
c. Gerandive
NOUN AND ADJECTIVE FORMS OF THE VERB
487. The several Noun and Adjective forms associated with the verb are employed
s follows: — 1
1. Attributive (§494).
2. Simple Predicate (§495).
3. Periphrastic Perfect (passive) (§495. n.).
4. Predicate of Circumstance (§ 496).
5. Descriptive (Indirect Discourse) (§ 497 d).
1. Periphrastic with esse (§498. a).
2. Periphrastic with ful (= Pluperfect Subjunc-
tive) (§498.6)..
1. As Descriptive Adjective (§600. 1).
Periphrastic with esse (§ 600. 2).
Of Purpose with certain verbs (§ 500. 4).
' 1. Genitive as Subjective or Objective Genitive (§604).
2. Dative, with Adjectives (of Fitness), Nouns, Verbs (§605).
3. Accusative, with certain Prepositions (§506).
4. Ablative, of Means, Comparison, or with Prepositions (§607).
II.
Gerund or
Gerundive:
III. Supine:
(1. Accusative Supine (in -um), with Verbs of Motion (§509).
2. Ablative Supine (in -u), chiefly with Adjectives (§510).
PARTICIPLES
488. The Participle expresses the action of the verb in the form
of an Adjective, but has a partial distinction of tense and may
govern a case.
Note. — Thus the participle combines all the functions of an adjective with some
of the functions of a verb. As an Adjective, it limits substantives and agrees with
them in gender, number, and case (§286). As a Verb, it has distinctions of time
(§ 489) and often takes an object.
Distinctions of Tense in Participles
489. Participles denote time as present^ past, or future with
respect to the time of the verb in their clause.
Thus the Present Participle represents the action as in progress at
the time indicated by the tense of the verb, the Perfect as completed,
and the Future as still to take pla^e,
490. The Present Participle has several of the special uses of
the Present Indicative. Thus it may denote —
1. An action continued in the present but begun in the past (§ 466) :
qoaerenti mihi iam diu certa r€s nulla veniebat in mentem (Fam. iv. 18),
though I had long sought, no certain thing came to my mind.
I For the Syntax of the Infinitive, see §§ 451 fif., 486.
310 SYNTAX : THE VEBB [§§ 490-'
2. Attempted action (§ 467) : —
C. Fl&miniO restitit agrum Plcentem dividend (Cat. M. 11), Aa resisted Fi
miniuB when aUempling to divide the Ptcene territory.
3. Rarely (in poetry and later Latin) futurity or purpose, -with
verb of motion : —
Eurypylum sdtantem Orftcula mittimus (Aen. ii. 114), we eervd Eurypylus \
consult the oracle. [Cf. § 468.]
491. The Perfect Participle of a few deponent verbs is usee
nearly in the sense of a Present.
Such are, regularly, ratus, solitus, veritus ; commonly, arbitrStus
fisus, ausus, secutus, and occasionally others, especially in latei
writers : —
rem incredibilem rati (Sail. Cat. 48), thinking the thing incredible.
Xnsidi&s yeritus (B. G. ii. 11), fearing an ainiuscade.
cohort&tus milit^s docuit (B. C. iii. 80), encouraging the meuy Tie showed.
Ir&tus dixisti (Mur. 62), you spoke in a passion.
ad pagnam coiigressi (Liv. iy. 10), meeting in fight.
492. The Latin has no Present Participle in the passive.
The place of such a form is supplied usually by a clause with duo
or cum : —
obiCre dam calciantur mftttltlnO duo CaesarSs (Flin. N. H. vii. 181), two
CcBsars died while having their shoes put on in the morning.
mSque ista delectant cum Lat!n6 dicuntor (Acad. i. 18), those things please
me when they are spoken in Latin.
NOTB. — These constructions are often used when a participle might be employed : —
die, hospes, Spartae n5s te hic vidisse iacentis, dum Sanctis patriae legibus obse-
qttimur (Tusc. i. 101), tell it, stranger, at Sparta, that you saw us lying hen
obedient to our country* s sacred laws. [Here dam obsequimnr is a transla-
tion of the Greek present participle ireiOSftevoi.] .
dam [mixes] sibi, dum sociis reditum parat (Hor. Ep. i. 2. 21), Ulystes, while
securing the return of himself and his companions. [In Greek; dpv6fuim.]
493. The Latin has no Perfect Participle in the active voice.
The deficiency is supplied —
1. In deponents by the perfect passive form with its regular active
meaning : —
nam singulas [navis] nostrl consectati expugnavSrunt (B. G. iii. 16), /or our
men, having overtaken them one by one, captured them by boarding.
NoTB. — The perfect participle of several deponent verbs may be either active or
passive in meaning (§ 190. b).
i 493-496] USES OF PARTICIPLBS 811
2. In other verbs, either by the perfect passive participle in the
blative absolute (§ 420. n.) or by a temporal clause (especially with
am or postquam): —
itaque conyocatfs centurionibas mllitSs certiOrSs facit (B. G. iii. 6), and 8o,
having called the centuriona together^ he informs the soldiers (the centu-
rions having been called together).
cum venisset animadvertit collem (id. vii. 44), having come (when he had
come), he noticed a hill.
postquam id animam advertit cOpifts su3s Caesar in prozimum collem subdticit
(B. G. i. 24), Iiaving observed this (after he had observed this) Caesar
led his troops to the nearest hill.
Uses of Participles
494. The Present and Perfect Participles are sometimes used
as attributives, nearly like adjectives : —
aeger et flagrans animus (Tac. Ann. iii. 54), his sick and passionate mind.
cum antiquissimam sententiam tum comprohatam (Div. i. 11), a view at once
most ancient and well approved.
signa numquam fer6 mentientia (id. i. 16), signs hardly ever deceitful.
auspiciis atuntur coactis (id. i. 27), they use forced auspices,
a. Participles often become complete adjectives, and may be com-
pared, or used as nouns : —
quo mulierl esset rSs cautior (Caec. 11), thai the matter might he more secure
for the woman.
in illls artibus praestantissiinas (De Or. 1. 217), pre&ninent in those arts.
sibi indulgentes et corpori deservientes (Legg. i. 39), the self-indiUgent, and
slaves to the body (indulging themselves and serving the body).
rScte facta pari a esse debent (Par. 22), right deeds (things rightly done) otight
to be like in value (see § 821. b).
male parta male dll9,buntur (Phil. ii. 65), ill got, iU spent (things ill acquired
are ill spent).
^ cOnsuStudO valentis (De Or. ii. 186), the habit of a man in health.
495. Participles are often used as Predicate Adjectives. As
such they may be joined to the subject by esse or a copulative verb
(see § 283) : —
Gallia est di^sa (B. G. i. 1), Gaul is divided.
locus qui nunc saeptns est (Li v. i. 8), i^ place which is now enclosed.
vidStis ut senectds sit oper5sa et semper agens aliquid et mSliens (Cat. M. 26),
you see how busy otd age is, always aiming and trying at something.
nSmO adhuc convenire me voluit cui fuerim occup&tus (id. 32), nobody
hitherto has [ever] wished to converse with me, to whom I have been
^^ engaged.''*
312 SYNTAX: THB VERB L§§ -*05, 4
NoTK.— From this predicate uae arise the compound tenses of the passi^v^e^ U
participle of completed action with the incomplete tenses of esse developing tJae id*
of past time : as, interfectus est, he was (or has been) killed, lit. he is having^ye^r^r-JcUl^
(i.e. already slain). . . „ . .^ ^
The perfect participle nsed with fui etc. was perhaps originally an intensified espi-ei
sion in the popular language for the perfect, pluperfect, etc.
At times these forms indicate a state of affairs no longer existing : —
oOtem quoque eOdem locO sitam fuisse memorant (Liv. i. 36. 5), tJiey sajf tJhat #;
whetstone was (once) deposited in this same place. [At the time of ^vrrltUn^
it was no longer there.]
anna quae fixa in parietibns fuerant, hnmi inventa sunt (Div. i. 74), if9^ €3Lrm^
which had been fastened on the walls were found upon the ground.
But more frequently they are not to be distinguished from the forms with smxi eto.
The construction is found occasionally at all periods, but is most common iia. X^^rr
and later writers.
496. The Present and Perfect Participles are often used, as a j
predicate, where in English a phrase or a subordinate clause w^ould '
be more natural. ^
In this use the participles express time, cause, oceasiany condition. ^
concession J characteristic (or description), manner, means, attend^sn^^
circumstances : — |
volventSs hostlUa cadavera amicum reperiebant (Sail. Cat. 61), while roUip?^ F
over the corpses of the enemy they found a friend. [Time. ] \
paululum commoratus, signa canere iubet (id. 69), after delaying a little while^ ,
he orders them to give the signal. [Time.] y
longius prosequi veritus, ad CicerCnem pervfinit (B. G. v. 62), because he .!
feared to follow further, he came to Cicero. [Cause.]
qui sclret lax3^ dare iussus habenas (Aen. i. 63), who might hnoio how to .
give them loose rein when bidden. [Occasion.] y
damnatum poenam sequl oport€bat (B. G. i. 4), if cortdemned^ punishmeni >
must overtake him. [Condition.]
salutem inspcrantibus reddidisti (Marc. 21), you have restored a safety for
which we did not hope (to [us] not hoping). [Concession.]
Dardanius caput ecce puer detectus (Aen. x. 133), the Trojan boy with his ' !
head uncovered. [Description.] I
nee trepides in usum poscentis aevi panca (Hor. Od. ii. 11. 5), 5e not onxiows i
for the needs of age that demands little. [Characteristic] '
incitati fuga mentis altissimOs petebant (B. C. iii. 93), in headlong flight they
made for the highest mountains. [Manner.]
milit^s sublevati alii ab alils magnam partem itineris cOnficerent (id. i. 68),
the soldiers, helped up by each other, accomplished a conaiderabU part of
the route. [Means.]
^^ Uudftns, Pomp§iu8 idem iQravit (id, iii. 87), approving this, Pompey took
the same oath. [Attendant Circumstance.]
^^ a^t "nbulfins disputabam (Tusc. i. 7), I conducted the discussion
^ther stUing or walking. [Attendant Circumstance.]
§§ 496, 497] USES OF PARTICIPLES 818
l^^TB 1. — These Qses are especially frequent in the Ablative Absolute (§ 420).
NoTB 2. — A coordinate clause is sometimes compressed into a perfect participle : —
instructoa Ordines in locum aequum deducit (Sail. Cat. 59), he draws up the lineSf
and leads them to level ground.
ut hOs traductds necaret (B. G. v. 6), that he might carry them over and put them
to death,
"NoTS 3. — A participle with a negative often expresses the same idea which in
Cnglish is given by without and a verbal noun: as, — miserum est nihil pr5flcientem
angi (N. D. iii. 14), it is wretched to vex oneself without effecting anything.
Note 4. — Acceptum and ezpSnsum as predicates with ferre and referre are book-
keeping terms: as, — quas pecunias fer6l>at eis expSnsas (Verr. ii. 170), what sum^he
charged to them,
497. A noun and a passive participle are often so united that
the participle and not the noun contains the main idea : — ^
ajite conditam condendamve urbem (Liv. Pref.), b^ore the city wa^ built or
building.
ill! libertatem imminutam ctvium Hdm&nOrum nOn tulSrunt; vds ereptam
vltam neglegetis (Manil. 11), they did not endure the infringement of the
citizens^ liberty ; will you disregard the destruction of their lives f
post natos homines (Brut. 224), since the creation of man.
iam a conditH urbe (Phil. iii. 9), even from the founding of the city.
a* The perfect participle with a noun in agreement, or in the
neuter as an abstract noun, is used in the ablative with opus, need
(cf. §411. a): —
opus facto est viatico (PI. Trin. 887), tfiere is need of laying in provision.
mitur&to opus est (Liv. viii. 38. 17), there is need of haste,
h. The perfect participle with habeO (rarely with other verbs) has
almost the same meaning as a perfect active, but denotes the contin-
ued effect of the action of the verb : — ^
fidem quam habent Bpect&tam iam et diu cSgnitam (Caecil. 11), my fidelity ^
which they have proved and long known.
cohortls in acifi lxxx cdnstitfltas habebat(B. C. iii. 89), he had eighty cohorts
f stationed in line of battle,
nefarios duc6s captos iam et comprehSnsos tenStis (Cat. iii. 16), you have now
captured the infamous leaders and hold them in custody.
c. A verb of effecting or the like may be used in combination with
the perfect participle of a transitive verb to express the action of that
verb more forcibly : —
1 Compare the participle in indirect discourse in Greek (Goodwin's Greek Grammar,
§ 1588) ; and the English " 'T was at the royal feast /or Persia won " (Dryden), i.e./or
the conquest of Persia,
^ The perfect with have^ in modern languages of Latin stock, has grown out of this
use of habeS.
814 SYNTAX : THE VERB [§§ 497-4!
praefectOs soOs multl miaaSs fecSrnnt (Verr. iii. 134), many discharffed'^the
officers (made dismissed),
hic trAns&ctam reddet omne (PL Capt. 346), Ae vnU get it dU done (restore i
finished).
adSmptam tibi iam faz5 omnem metum (Ter. Haut. 341), I will relieve yo\
of aU fear (make it taken away),
illam tibi incensam dabd (Ter. Ph. 974), / wiU make her angry with you.
NoTB. — Similarly void (with its compounds) and cupiS, with a perfect participle
without esse (cf. § 486. d).
d* After verbs denoting an action of the senses the present partici-
ple in agreement with the object is nearly equivalent to the infinitive
of indirect discourse (§ 580), but expresses the action more vividly ;
ut eum nCmO umquam in equ5 sedentem viderit (Yerr. v. 27), so thai no one
ever saw him sitting on a horse. [Cf. Tusc. iii. 31.]
NoTB. — The same construction is used after facid, indac9, and the like, with the
name of an author as subject : as, — XenophOn f acit SOcratem disputantem (N. D. i
31), Xenophon represents Socrates disputing.
Futore Participle (Active) '
498. The Future Participle (except fut&ms and ventQrus) is
rarely used in simple agreement with a noun, except by poets
and later writers.
a. The future participle is chiefly used with the' forms of esse
(often omitted in the infinitive) in the Active Periphrastic Conjuga-
tion (see § 195) : —
morere, Diagora, ndn enim in caelum adscSnsdrus es (Tusc. i. Ill), di«,
Diagoras^ for you are not likely to rise to heaven,
spSrat adul6sc€n8 diti se ricturum (Cat. M. 68), the young man hopes to live
long (that he shall live long),
neque petitorus umquam cOnsulatum vidSrStur (Off. iii. 79), and did not seem
likely ever to be a candidate for the consulship.
b» With the past tenses of esse in the indicative, the future parti-
ciple is often equivalent to the pluperfect subjunctive (§ 617. d).
For futurom fuisse, see § 589. b.
499. By later writers and the poets the Future Participle is
often used in simple agreement with a substantive to express—
1. Likelihood or certainty : —
rem ausus plOs f amae habitiiram (Liv. 11. 10), having dared a thing which wmid
have more repute.
^§ 499, 500] ' GERUNDIVE 315
2. Purpose, intention, or readiness : —
egreditur castrls R5m3.nus vftUum invasfirus (Liv. iii. 60. 8), tJie Roman comes
out of the camp with the iviention of attacking the rampart.
dispersOs per agrOs milites equitibus invasuris (id. xxxi. 36), lohUe the horse
were ready to attack the soldiers scattered through the fields.
8l periturus abis (Aen. ii. 676), if you are going away to perish.
3. Apodosis : —
dedit mihi quantum maximum potuit, daturus amplius si potuisset (Plin. Ep.
iii. 21. 6), he gave me as much as lie couldj ready to give me more if he
had been able. [Here daturus is equivalent to dedisset.]
Gerundive (Future Passive Participle)
NOTB. — The participle in -dtis, commonly called the Gerundive, has two distinct
uses: —
(1) Its predicate and attribute use as Participle or Adjective (§ 500).
(2) Its use with the meaning of the Gerund (§ 503). This may be called its gerun-
dive use.
500. The Gerundive when used as a Participle or an Adjective
is always passive, denoting necessity/, obligation^ or propriety.
In this use of the Gerundive the following points are to be
observed : —
1. The gerundive is sometimes used, like the present and perfect
participles, in simple agreement with a noun : —
fortem et conservaiidum virum (Mil. 104), a brave man, and worthy to be pre-
served.
gravis initlria facta est et n5n ferenda (Flacc. 84), a grave and intolerable
wrong has been done.
2. The most frequent use of the gerundive is with the forms of esse
in the Second (or passive) Periphrastic Conjugation (see § 196) : —
•*- nOn agitanda r6s erit (Verr. v. 179), wiU not the thing have to be agitated?
3. The neuter gerundive of both transitive and intransitive verbs
may be used impersonally in the second periphrastic conjugation.
* With verbs that take the dative or ablative, an object may be ex-
pressed in the appropriate case ; with transitive verbs, an object in
the accusative is sometimes found : —
tempori serviendum est (Fam. iz. 7. 2), one must obey the time.
iSgibus p&rendum est, the laws must be obeyed.
fitenduip exercitatiOnibus modicis (Cat. M. 36), we mv^ use moderate exercise.
agitandumst vigilias (PI. Trin. 869), I have got to stand guard.
via quam n5blB ingrediendum sit (Cat. M. 6), ^ way we have to enter.
816 SYNTAX : THB VERB [§§ 600-603
4. After verbs signifying to ^ve, deliver, agree far, have, receive^
undertake, demand,^ a gerundive in agreement with the object is used
to express purpose : —
redSmptor qui columnam illam conduxerat faciendam (Diy. ii. 47), the con-
tractor who had undertaken to make thai, column, [The regular construc-
tion with this class of verbs.]
aedem Castoris habuit tuendam (Verr. ii. 1. 150), he had the temple of Castor
to take care of.
nftYls atque onera adservanda ctLrftbat (id. y. 146), he took care that the ships
and cargoes shouM be kept,
GERUND
501. The Gerund is the neuter of the Gerundive, used sub-
stantively in the Genitive, Dative, Accusative, and Ablative.
502. The Gerund expresses an action of the verb in the form
of a verbal noun.
As a noun the gerund is itself governed by other words ; as a
verb it may take an object in the proper case : —
ars bene disseren^ et vera ac falsa dufidicandi (De Or. ii. 157)| the art of dis-
coursing well, and distinguishing the true and the false.
Note. — The Nominative of the gerund is supplied by the Infinitive. Thus in the
example above, the verbal nouns discoursing and distinguishing, if used in the nomi-
natif e, would be expressed by the infinitives disserere and diiudicare.
The Gerund is the neuter of the gerundive used impersonally, but retaining the
verbal idea sufl8ciently to govern an object. It may therefore be regarded as a noun
(of. mattlratd opas est, §497. a) with a verbal force (cf.istanc tactio, p. 240, footnote).
GERUND AND GERUNDIVE
503. When the Gerund would have an object in the Accusa-
tive, the Gerundive ^ is generally used instead. The gerundive
agrees with its noun, which takes the case that the gerund would
have had : —
parati5rgs ad omnia pericula subeunda (B. G. i. 5), readier to undergo all
dangers. [Here subeunda agrees with pericula, which is itself governed
by ad. The (inadmissible) construction with the gerund would be ad
subeundum pericula ; ad governing the gerund, and the gerund governing
the accusative pericula.] For details, see §§ 504-507.
^ Such verbs are accipio, adnStS, attribuS, condiico, euro, dSnotS, d6po8c5, dS, divid5,
dSno, Sdic5, 6doceo, fer5, habeo, loco, mando, obiciS, pennitto, peto, p5no, praebed, prtpono,
relinquS, rogo, 8U8Cipl5, tridS, vove5. j ■
2 The gerundive construction is probabl y the original -ctTe. q ^)uti<r
fj»; -^-^ • <i
|§ 508, 504] GENITIVE OE GERU Apodosis is the main clause
and the Protasis the dependent clause.
a. The Protasis is regularly introduced by the conditional particle
si^ if, or one of its compounds.
Note. — These compounds are sin, nisi, etlam si, etsi, tametsi, tamenetsi (see Condi-
tional and Concessive Particles, p. 138). An Indefinite Relative, or any relative or
concessive word, may also serve to introduce a conditional clause: see Conditional
Relative Clauses (§§619, 642) ; Concessive Clauses (§527).
b. The Apodosis is often introduced by some correlative word or |
phrase : as, ita, turn (rarely sic), or ea condiciSne etc. : — j
ita enim senecttis honesta est, si sS ipsa d€fendit (Cat. M. 3S), on this condi- ]
tion 18 old age honorable, if it defends itself, i
si quidem me amd,ret, turn istuc pr5desset (Ter. Eun. 446), if he loved me, '
then this would be profitable,
sic scribes aliquid, si vac&bis (Att. zii. 38. 2), if you are (shall be) at leisure, J,
then you will write something. I
Cm The Apodosis is the principal clause of the conditional sen- i
tence, but may at the same time be subordinate to some other .
clause, and so appear in the form of a Participle, an Infinitive, or i
a Phrase : —
sepulttira, quoque pFohibituri, nl rSx hutnarl iussisset (Q. C. viii. 2. 12), intend-
ing also to deprive him of burial, urUess the king had ordered him to be
interred.
1 ** There was a certain lender which ought him five hundred pieces." ^- Tyndak'i
New Testament,
512-614] CLASSIFICATION OF CONDITIONtB 328
qaod si praetereft n^mO sequfttur, tamen 86 cum s0l3, decimS. legiOne Itflram
[esse] (B. G. 1. 40. .14), but if no one else should follow, he would go toith
the tenth legion alone.
si quOs adversum proelium commoveret, hSs reperire posse (id. 40. 8), if the
loss of a battle alarmed any, they might find, etc.
^NoTB. — When the Apodosis itself is in Indirect Discourse, or in any other depend-
T\t construction, the verb of the Protasis is regularly in the Subjunctive (as in the aboye
txiampleSy see § 589).
CLASSIFICATION OF CONDITIONS
513. Conditions are either (1) Particular or (2) General.
1. A Particular Condition refers to a definite act or series of acts
occurring at some definite time.
2. A General Condition refers to any one of a class of acts which
may occur (or may have occurred) at any time.
514. The principal or typical forms of Conditional Sentences
may be exhibited as follows : —
PARTICtJLAR CONDITIONS
A. Simple Conditions (nothing implied as to fulfilment)
I. Present Time
Present Indicative in both clauses: —
si adest, bene est, ifJieia [now] here, it is weU.
2. Past Time
Imperfect or Perfect Indicative in both clauses: —
81 aderat, bene erat, if he was [then] h£re, it was welL
s! adfoit, bene f uit, if he has been [was] here, it has been [was] toeK.
B. FuTUBB Conditions (as yet unfulfilled)
I. More Vivid
a. THiture Indicative in both clauses : —
81 adeiit, bene erit, if he is (shall be) here, U wiU be wM.
h. Future Perfect Indicative in protasis, Future Indicative in
apodosis: —
si •dfudsit, bene exit, if he is (shall have been) here, it will [then] be well.
824 SYNTAX: CONDITIONAL SENTENCES [§ 5)
a* LessViyld j
a. Present Subjunctive in both clauses: —
81 adsit, bene sit, if he should be {or were to be) A«re, U vHJuld be tJoeU.
6. Perfect Subjunctive in protasis, Present Subjunctive in apod-
osis: —
81 adf uerit, bene sit, if he should be (should have been) here^ jt would [then]
be well.
0. Conditions Contrary to Fact
I. Present Time
Imperfect Subjunctive in both clauses; —
si adesset, bene esset, if he were [now] ^ere, it wotUd be vfeU (but he is not here).
2. Past Time
Pluperfect Subjunctive in both clauses: —
81 adfuisset, bene foisset, if he ?Md [then] been here, ii would Jiav* been well
(but he was not here).
NoTB. — The use of tenses in Protasis is very loose in English. Thus if he is
alive now is a present condition, to be expressed in Latin by the Present Indicative ;
if he is alive next year is a future condition, expressed in Latin by the Future
Indicative. Again, if he were here now is a present condition contrary to fact,
and would be expressed by the Imperfect Subjunctive ; %f he were to see me thus
is a FUTURE condition less vivid, to be expressed by the Present Subjunctive ; and so
too, if you advised him, he would attend may be future less vivid.^
n. GENERAL CONDITIONS
General Conditions do not usually differ in form from Particular
Conditions (A, B, and C), but are sometimes distinguished in the
cases following : —
I. Present General Condition (Indefinite Time)
a. Present Subjunctive second person singular (Indefinite Subject)
in protasis, Present Indicative in apodosis: —
si hoc dicas, creditur, if any one [ever] says this, it is [always] belieted.
6, Perfect Indicative in protasis, Present Indicative in apodosis :
81 quid dixit, creditur, if he [ever] says anything, it is [always] believed.
1 In most English verbs thfe Preterite (or Past) Subjunctive is identical in form
with the Preterite Indicative. Thus in such a sentence as ^ ^ loved his father, he
would not say this, the verb loved is really a Preterite Subjunctive, though this does
not appear from the inflection. In the verb to be, however, the Subjunctive were has
been preserved and differs in form from the indicative was.
514, 616] SIMPLB PRESENT AND FAST CONDITIONS 826
3. Past General Condition (Repeated Action in Past Time)
cr. Pluperfect Indicative in protasis, Imperfect Indicative in apod-
81 quid dizerat, crSdebatur, if he [ever] said anything^ it was [always] believed.
h» Imperfect Subjunctive in protasis, Imperfect Indicative in apod-
sis : —
81 quid diceret, crSdSb&tur, }/ he [ever] said anything^ it was [always]
believed (= whatever he said was always belie?ed).^
PARTICULAR CONDITIONS
Simple Present and Past Conditions — Nothing Implied
615. In the statement of Present and Past conditions whose
falsity 18 NOT implied^ the Present and Past tenses of the Indica-
tive are used in both Protai^is and Apodosis : —
si ttL exercitosque valStis, bene est (Fam. v. 2), if you and the army arewdl,
it ia well, [Present Condition.]
haec igitar, si ROmae es ; sin abes, aut etiam si ades, haec negOtia sic s€ habent
(Att. v. 18), this, then, if you are at Rome; but if you are away — or even
^ if you are there — these matters are aa follows. [ Present Condition. ]
si Caesarem probatis, in m6 offenditis (B. 0. ii. 82. 10), if you favor CoBsar,
you find fauU with me, [Present Condition. ]
V si qui magnis ingenils in eO genera exstitS^tunt, nOn satis Graec5nim gl^riae
respond^nuit (Tusc. i. 3), ^ any have sh>own themselves of great genius in
that department, they have failed to compete with the glory of the Greeks.
[Past General Condition, not distinguished in form from Particular.]
accSpI R0m3. sine epistula tua fasciculum litterftrum in quO, si modo valuisti
I et ROmae fuisti, Philotlml daco esse culpam nOn tuam (Att. v. 17), I have
received from Rome a bundle of letters with>ovt any from you, which, pro-
vided you have been well and at Rome, I take to be the fault of Philotimv^j
not yours. [Mixed : Past condition and Present conclusion.]
qu9,s litterSs, si ROmae es, vidSbis put€sne reddendSs (id. v. 18), oa to this
letter, if you are at Rome, you will see whether in your opinion it ought
to he delivered. [Mixed : Present and Future.]
81 nemO impetrayit, adroganter rog5 (Lig. 30), ifnx) one has succeeded in obtaivr
ing it, my request is presumptuous. [Past and Present.]
1 Of. the Greek forms corresponding to the various types of conditions : —
A. 1. 6/ irpdffcrei tovto, Ka\Qs l^x*** 2. el tTrpacae tovto, Ka\Clis etx^v,
B. 1. ihv irpdaaTj Toirro^ koKCjs l^et. ^ 2. el wpdaaoi tovto, koXus Slv ^x^'"
G. 1. tl ifTpaaae tovto, fcaXuis hv eXx^v* 2. el ewpa^e tovto, koXQs Av i^rx^v.
D. I. idv rts KXiirTy, KoXdj^erai. 2. et tls kX^vtoi, iKoKdj^ero.
826 SYNTAX : CONDITIONAL SENTENCES [§§ 516, 61
a. In these conditions the apodosis need not always be in the Id
dicative^ but may assume any form, according to the sense : —
si placet . . . videamas (Cat. M. 16), if you please, let us see. [Hortatorj
Subjunctive, §439.]
si nOndum satis cernitis, record&mini (Mil. 61), if you do not yet see clearly.
recollect, [Imperative.]
si quid hab€s certius, velim scire (Att. iv. 10), if you have any trustworthy
information, I should like to know it. [Subjunctive of Modesty, § 447. 1/
Note. — Although the form of these conditions does not imply anything as to the
truth of the supposition, the sense or the context may of course have some such impli-
cation : —
nOUte, 81 in nostiO omnium fletu nuUam lacrimam aspexistis Mildnis, hOc minus
ei parcere (Mil. 92), do not^ if amid the weeping of ua all you have seen m
tear [in the eyes] of MUo, spare him the leas for that,
petimus a vObIs, iudices, si qua divina in tantis ingeniis commendatio dSbet
esse, ut eum in vestram accipiatis fidem (Arch. 31), we ask you, Judg€4y
if there ought to he anything in such genius to recommend it to us as
by a recommendation of the gods, that you receive him under your pro-
tection.
In these two passages, the protasis really expresses cause: but the cause is put by
the speaker in the form of a non-committal condition. His hearers are to draw the
inference for themselves. In this way the desired impression is made on their minds
more effectively than if an outspoken causal clause had been used.
Future Conditions
616. Future Conditions may be more vivid or lesn vivid,
1. In a more vivid future condition the protasis makes a distinct
supposition of a future case, the apodosis expressing what toiU he the
logical result.
2. In a less vivid future condition, the supposition is less distinct,
the apodosis expressing what would he the result in the case supposed.
a. In the more vivid future condition the Future Indicative is used
in both protasis and apodosis : —
sinlbimur, si volemus (Tusc. iii. 13), we shall be healed if we wish.
quod si legere aut audire voletis, . . . reperietis (Cat. M. 20), if you wiU
[shall wish to] read or hear, you will find.
Note. — In English the protasis is usually expressed by the Present Indicative,
rarely by the Future with shall. Often in Latin the Present Indicative is found in
the protasis of a condition of this kind (cf . § 468) : —
81 Tincimus, omnia n5bTs tuta erunt ; sin metu cesserimus, eadem ilia advorsa fient
(Sail. Cat. 68), if we conquer, all things will be safe for us; biU if we yield
through fear, those sam£ things will become hostile.
A pere5, hominum manibus periisse iuvabit (Aen. iii. 606), if I perish, U wUl he
pleasant to have perished at tJie hands of msn.
51d] FUTUBE CONDITIONS 327
&• In the less vivid future condition the Present Subjunctive is
Lsed in both protasis and apodosis : —
haec fii tecum patria loquator, nOnne iinpetrd.re dSbeat (Cat. i. 19), if your
country should thus speak with you, ought she not to prevail?
quod 8l quis deus mihi laigiatur, . . . valde recusem (Cat. M. 83), but if some
god were to grant me this, I should stoutly refuse.
NoTB. — The Present Subjunctive sometimes stands in protasis with the Future
(or the Present) Indicative in apodosis from a change in the point of view: — ^
si diligenter attendamus, inteUeggmus (Inv. ii. 44), ^ we attend (should attend)
carefully f we shall understand.
nisi hoc dicat, "iure feci," n5n habet dofensionem (id. i. 18), unless he should
say thiSf **I acted justifiably /' he has no defence,
c* If the conditional act is regarded as completed before that of the
apodosis begins, the Future Perfect is substituted for the Future
Indicative in protasis, and the Perfect Subjunctive for the Present
Subjunctive : —
sin cum potuerO nOn venero, turn erit inimicus (Att. ix. 2 a.. 2), but if I do not
come when I can, he will he unfriendly.
si a corOnS relictus aim, n6n queam dicere (Brut. 102), if I should he deserted
by the circle of listeners, I should nfii he able to speak.
NoTB. — The Future Perfect is often used in the apodosis of a future condition:
as, — vehementer mihi gratum fecerie, si hunq! adulescentem humanitate tua compre-
henderis (Fam. xiii. 15), you will do (will haVe done) me a great favor, if you receive
this young man with your usual courtesy.
d. Any form denoting or implyuag future j;iine may stand in the
apodosis of a future condition. Sqfthe Imperative, the participles in
-dus and -rus, and verbs of necessity, possibility, and the like : —
alius finis constituendus est, si prius quid maximS reprehendere ScipiO solitus
sit dixerO (Lael. 59), another limit muM he set, if I first state what Scipio
was wont most to find fault with.
si m6 praecgperit fatum, vOs raandSsse mement5 (Q. C. ix. 6. 26), if fate cuts
me off too soon, do you rememher that I ordered this.
nisi oculis videritis Insidias MilQnl 3, ClOdiS factas, nee dSprecaturi sumus nee
postulaturi (Mil. 6) , unless you see with your own eyes the plots laid against
Milo by Clodius, I shall neither beg nor demand, etc.
nOn possum istum acctisare, si cupiam (Verr. iv. S7), I cannot accuse him, if
I should (so) desire.
1 It often depends entirely upon the view of the writer at the moment, and not
upon the nature of the condition, whether it shall be stated vividly or not ; as in the
proverbial "If the sky falls, we shall catch larks" the impossible condition is iron-
ically put in the vivid form, to illustrate the absurdity of some other supposed condi-
tion stated by some one else.
328 SYNTAX : CONDITIONAL SENTENCES [§§ 516, 51
6. Barely the Perfect Indioative is used in apodosis with. a. J^re&
ent or even a Future (or Future Perfect) in protasis, to represent th
conclusion rhetorically as already accomplished : —
Bl hoc bene fizum in animO est, yicistis (Liv. zzi. 44), if this is weUJiacecL h
your minds, you have conquered. [For you will have conquered. ]
s! eandem [animuzn] habaeritis, vidmus (id. xxi. 43), if you shall hctve kept
the same spirit, we have conquered.
/. A future condition is frequently thrown back into past time,
without implying that it is contrary to fact (§ 517). In such cases
the Imperfect or Pluperfect Subjunctive may be used : —
nOn poterat, nisi d6cert&re yeUet (B. C. iii. 44), he was not able, unless he
wished to fight. ^
tumulus app&ruit, ... si lUce palain iretor hostis praeventurus erat (Xiiv.
xzii. 24), a hiU appeared . . , if they should go openly by daylight^ the
enemy would prevent. [The first two appear like Indirect Discoiirse,
but are not. An observer describing the situation in the first example
as present would say ndn potest nisi velit (see d), and no indirect ^is-
course would be thought of.]
Caesar si peteret, . . . nOn quicquam prOficeret (Hor. S. i. 3. 4), if even Co&scir
were to ask, he would gain nothing. [Here the construction is not con-
trary to fact, but is simply si petat, non proficiat, thrown into past time. ]
Conditions Contrary to Fact
517. In the statement of a supposition impliedly faise^ the Im-
perfect and Pluperfect Subjunctive are used in both protasis and
apodosis.^ The Imperfect refers to present time^ the Pluperfect
to past: —
si viveret, verba gius audirStis (Rose. Com. 42), \f he were living, you would
hear his words. [Present.]
nisi tu amisisses, numquam recepissem (Cat. M. 11), unless you had lost it, I
should not have recovered it. [Past.]
si meum c5nsilium valaisset, tfi bodiS egeres, r€s ptiblica nOn tot ducSs ami-
sisset (Phil. ii. 37), if my judgment had prevailed [as it did not], you
would this day be a beggar, and the republic would not have lost so many
leaders. [Mixed Present and Past.]
1 The implication of falsity, in this construction, is not inherent in the subjunc-
tive ; but comes from the transfer of a future condition to past time. Thus the time
for the happening of the condition has, at the moment of writing, already passed ; bo
that, if the condition remains a conditiont it must be contrary to fact. So past forms
of the indicative implying a future frequently take the place of the subjunctive in
apodosis in this construction (see c, d, below, and §611).
617] CONDITIONS CONTRARY TO FACT 829
€^. In conditions contrary to fact the Imperfect often refers to past
ime, both in protasis and apodosis, especially when a repeated or con-
tinued action is denoted, or when the condition if true would still exist :
si nihil litteris adiuvarentur, numquam sS ad eS»rum studium contulissent
(Arch. 16), if they had not been helped at all by literature, they never
would have given their attention to the study of U. [Without the condi-
tion, adiuvabantar.]
hic s! mentis easet suae, ausus esset educere ezercitum (Pison. 50), if Tie were
of sane mind, would he have dared to lead out the army f [Here esset
denotes a continued state, past as well as present.]
nOn concidissent, nisi illud receptaculum classibus nostrls patSret (Yerr. ii.
8), [the power of Carthage] wovld not have fallen, urdess that station had
been [constantly] open to our fleets. [Without the condition, patebat]
6. In the apodosis of a condition contrary to fact the past tenses
of the Indicative may be nsed to express what was intended, or likely,
or already begi^n. In this use, the Imperfect Indicative corresponds
in time to the Imperfect Subjunctive, and the Perfect or Pluperfect
Indicative to the Pluperfect Subjunctive : —
si licitum esset, matres TeniSbant (Verr. v. 129), the mothers were coming if
it had been allowed,
in amplextis fiyae luebat, nisi lict6r€s obstitissent (Tac. Ann. xvi. 32), he was
about rushing into his daughter's arm^, unless the lictors had opposed.
iam tuta tenebam, nl g€ns crud€lis ferrO iny&sisset (Aen. yi. 358), I was just
reaching a place of safety, had not the fierce people attacked me.
Note 1. — Here the apodosis may be regarded as elliptical. Thus, — matres venie-
bant (et vSnissent), the matrons were coming (and would have kept on) iff etc.
'Note 2. — With paene (and sometimes prope), almx)st, ihe Perfect Indicative is used
in the apodosis of a past condition contrary to fact: as, — pdns iterpaene hostibus
dedit, ni unus vir fuisset (Liv. ii. 10), the bridge had almost given a passage to ths
foe^ if it had not been for one hero.
c» Verbs and other expressions denoting necessity, propriety, possi-
hiliUj, duty, when used in the apodosis of a condition contrary to
fact, may be put in the Imperfect or Perfect Indicative.
Such are oportet, decet, debeo, possum, necesse est, opns est, and the Sec-
ond Periphrastic Conjugation : — ^
nOn potuit fieri sapiens, nisi natus esset (Fin. ii. 103), he could not have become
a sage, if he had not been bom.
si prlv9,tus esset h6c tempore, tamen is eiat deiigendus (Manil. 60), if he were
at this time a private citizen^ yet he ought to be appointed.
1 Observe that ail these expressions contain the idea of fnturity (cf . p. 328, footnote).
Thus, decet mS [hodig] ire eras, means it is proper for me [to-day] to go to-morrow ;
and, decCbat m6 [heri] ire hodi6, it was proper for me [yesterday] to go fo-day, usnally
with the implication that I have not gone as I was bound to do.
830 SYNTAX: CONDITIONAL SENTENCES [§617
gaod esse caput dCMlMit, si probilrl posset (Fin. iv. 23), what ought toheihi
main point, if it could be proved,
A ita put&Bset, cert6 optabilius MilOni fait (Mil. 81), if?iehad thought so^ aurdji
it would have been prrferablefor Milo.
NoTB 1. — In Present conditions the Imperfect Sabjonctive (oportSiet, possem, etc..'
is the rule, the Indicative being rare ; in Past conditions both the Subjunctive (asually
Pluperfect) and the Indicative (usually Perfect) are common.
For pftr erat, melius fait, and the like, followed by the infinitive, see § 521. k.
Note 2. — The indicative construction is carried still further in poetry: as, — si
nOn alium iactaret odOrem, laurus erat (Georg. ii. 133), it were a laurel, but for giving
out a different odor,
d. The participle in -flrus with eram or fui may take the place of
an Imperfect or Pluperfect Subjunctive in the apodosis of a condi-
tion contrary to fact : —
quid enim futflram foit [= faisset], si . . . (Li v. 11. 1), what would have hap-
pened if etc.
relicturi agrOs erant, nisi ad eOs Metellos litterSs misisset (Verr. iiL 121), they
would have abandoned their fields, if MettUui had not sent them a letter.
neque ambigitur qain ... id factums fuerit, si . . • (Li v. ii. 1), nor is there
any question that he would have done it, if, etc. [Direct : fedsset.]
adeO par3,ta sSditiO fuit ut OthOuem rapturi fuerint, nl incerta noctis timuis-
seDt (Tac. H. i. 26), so far advanced was the conspiracy that they wjuld
have seized upon Otho, had they not feared the hazards of the night [In
a main clause: rapuissent, m timuissent.]
e. The Present Subjunctive is sometimes used in poetry in the
protasis and apodosis of conditions contrary to fact : —
nl comes admoneat, imnat (Aen. vi. 293), had not his companion warned him.
Tie would have rusJied on. [Cf. tu si hic sis, aliter sentias (Ter. And. 3K)),
if you were in my place, you would think differently,'}
Note 1. — This is probably a remnant of an old construction (see next note).
Note 2. —In old Latin the Present Subjunctive (as well as the Imperfect) is used
in present conditions contrary to fact and the Imperfect (more rarely the Pluperfect) I
in past conditions of the same kind. Thus it appears that the Imperfect Subjunctive, *
like the Imperfect Indicative, once denoted past time, even in conditional sentences.
Gradually, however, in conditional sentences, the Present Subjunctive was restricted
to the less vivid future and the Imperfect (in the main) to the present contrary to fact, J
while the Pluperfect was used in past conditions of this nature. The old construction]
however, seems to have been retained as an archaism in poetry.
/• In Plautus and Terence absque m6 (t6, etc.) is sometimes used to
introduce conditions contrary to fact : —
absque te esset, hodifi nusquam viverem (PI. Men. 1022), (f ft were noe/br
you, I should not be alive to-day,
absque e6 esset, rCctfi ego mihi vidissem (Ter. Ph. 188), if U had not been for
Hm^ I shmdd hrwe looked onxtfor mya^.
&a8] GENERAL CONDITIONS 331
GENERAL CONDITIONS
518, General Conditions (§ 513. 2) have usually the same forms
LS Particular Conditions. But they are sometimes distinguished
JT^ the following cases : —
«• The Subjunctive is often used in the second person singular, f o
ienote the act of an indefinite subject {you = any one). Here the
If^ resent Indicative of a general truth may stand in the apodosis : —
vita htlm^na prope uti f erruin est : si ezerceaSf conteritur ; si n5n exerceSs,
tamen rObigO interficit (Cato de M.), human life is very like iron: if
you use tt, it wears away; if you dont use it, rust still destroys it,
yirtutem necess9,rid glOria, etiamsi tu id nOn agas, consequitnr (Tusc. i. 91),
glory necessarily follows virtue, even if that is not one^s aim.
si prohlbita imptine transcenderis, neque metus ultrg, neque pudor est (Tac.
Ann. iii. 64), if you once overstep the bounds with impunity, there is no
fear or shwne any more.
h» In a general condition in present time, the protasis often takes
the Perfect Indicative, and the apodosis the Present Indicative. For
past time, the Pluperfect is used in the protasis, and the Imperfect in
the apodosis : —
si qu5s aliqua parte membrOrum intitilis notaverunt, necari iubent (Q. C. ix.
1. 25), if they [ever] marh any infirm in any part of their limbs, they
[always] order them to be put to death. [Present.]
si ft persequendO hostis dcterrere nequiverant, ab tergO circumveniebant (lug.
50), if [ever] they were unable to prevent the enemy from pursuing, they
[always] surrouTided them in the rear. [Past.]
c. In later writers (rarely in Cicero and Caesar), the Imperfect and
Pluperfect Subjunctive are used in protasis, with the Imperfect In-
dicative in apodosis, to state a repeated or customary action in past
time {Iterative Suhjunctwe) : —
si quis S, dominO prehenderetur, concursti militum eripiebttur (B. C. iii. 110),
if any (runaway) was arrested by his master, he was (always) rescued by
amch of soldiers,
acctbsat5r€s, si facultas incideret, poenls adflciebantur (Tac. Ann. vi. 30), the
accusers, wJienever opportunity offered, were visited with punishment.
si quis collSgam appellasset, ab eo ita discSdebat ut paenitSret nCn priOris
dScretO stetisse (Li v. iii. SQ. 8), if any one appealed to a colleague, he
[always] came off in such case that he repented not having submitted to
the decree of the farmer decemvir. [Of. SOcratSs, quam sfi cumque in
partem dedisset, omnium fuit facile princeps (Be Or. iii. 60), in whatever
direction SocraUs turned himself, he was (always) easily the foremost (if
in any, eta.).]
^
882 SYNTAX: CONDITIONAL SENTENCES [§§ 618, ij
Conditional Relative Claaaes I
619. A clause introduced by a Relative Pronoun or Relativ
Adverb may express a condition and take any of the co£ii>trai
tions of Protasis^ (§ 514): —
qui enim yitils modum adpdnit, is partem sascipit yitiOmm (Tusc. iv. 42), h
who [only] sets a limit to fauUSj takes up the side of the faults. [ = a
quia adpdnit. Present, nothing implied.]
qui mentlrl aolet, pfiierftre cOnsaSvit (Rose. Com. 46), whoever is in the habit Qj
lying t is accustomed to swear falsely, [= si quia solet. Present, nothing
implied.]
quicquid potoit, potuit ipsa per s6 (Leg. Agr. i. 20), whatever power she ?iad;
she had by herseif. [= si quid potuit Past, nothing implied.]
quod qui taciet, nOn aegritttdine sOlum vac&bit, sed, etc. (Tusc. iv. 38), and
he who does (shall do) tAia, wiU he free not only, etc. [= si quia faciei
Future, more vivid.]
quiaquis httc venerit, vapul&bit (PL Am. 309), whoever comes here shall get a
thrashing. [= si quis vSnerit. Future, more vivid.]
qud voids, sequar (Clu. 71), whithersoever you wisA (shall wish), I wiU follow.
[= si qud voles. Future, more vivid.]
philosophia, cui qui p&reat, om ne tempus aet&tis sine molesti^ possit d€gere (Cat
M. 2), philosophy, which if any one should obey, he would be able to spend
his whole life without vexation. [= si quis p&reat. Future, less vivid.] I
quaecumque vOs causa htlc attulisset, laetS,rer (De Or. ii. 15), 1 should be glad,
whatever cause had brought you here (i.e. if any other, as v^ell as the one
which did). [= si . . . attulisset. Contrary to fact.]
The relative in this construction is always indefinite in meaning^
and very often in/orm.
520. The special constructions of General Conditions are some-
times found in Conditional Relative Clauses : —
1. The Second Person Singular of the Subjunctive in the protasis
with the Indicative of a general truth in the apodosis (§ 518. a) : —
bonus tantum modo sSgnior fit uU neglegis, at malus improbior (lug. 81. 28),
a good man merely becomes less diligent when you don^t watch him, InU a
bad man becomes more shameless. [Present General Condition.]
2. The Perfect or Pluperfect Indicative in the protasis and the
Present or Imperfect Indicative in the apodosis (§ 518. h) : —
cum htlc veni, hOc ipsum nihil agere m6 delectat (Pe Or. ii. 24), whenever I
come here, this very doing nothing delights me (whenever I have come,
etc.). [Present General Condition.]
^ As In the Greek 3* Ap, &rav, etc. ; and In statutes In English, whers th« phrases
if any person shall and whoever shall are used indifferently.
i ©20, 621] CONDITION DISGUISED 388
coin rosam viderat, turn incipere vSr arbitrabitur (Verr. v. 27), whenever he
saw (had seen) a rose, then he thought spring was beginning. [Past
Greneral Condition.]
3. In later writers (rarely in Cicero and Csesar) the Imperfect or
.^liiperf ect Subjunctive in the protasis and the Imperfect Indicative
XX the apodosis (§ 518. c): —
- ubi imbecillitas materiae postulare viderStor, pilae interponuntur (B. C. ii.
16), whereoer the weakness of the Umber seemed to require, piles were put
between. [Past General Condition : interponuntar = interponebantar.]
qtt5cumque s€ intulisset, victOriam secum tiahebat (Liv. yi. 8), wherever he
advanced, he carried victory with him. [Past General Condition.]
Condition Disguised
521. In many sentences properly conditional, the Protasis is
not expressed by a conditional clause, but is stated in some other
form of words or implied in the nature of the thought.
a. The condition may be implied in a Clause, or in a Participle,
l!^oun, Adverb, or some othqr word or phrase ; —
facile me paterer — illO ipso iudice quaerente — pr6 Sex. ROsciC dicere (Rose.
Am. 85), I should readily aUow myself to speak for Roscius if that very
judge were conducting the trial, [Present contrary to fact : s! quaereret,
paterer.]
nOn mihi, nisi admonitd, venisset in mentem (De Or. ii. 180), it would not ha-oe
come into my mind unless [I had been] reminded. [Past contrary to
fact: nisi admonitus essem.]
nfilla alia gens tanta mole ctadis nOn obrata esset (Liv. xzii. 54), there is no
other people thai would not have been crushed by such a weight of disaster.
[Past contrary to fact : si alia faisset.]
nem5 umquam sine magna spe immortalitatis se pro patri^ oSerret ad mortem
(Tusc. i. 32), no one, without great hope of immortality, would ever expose
himself to death for his country. [Present contrary to fact : nisi magnam
spem haberet.]
quid hunc paucSnim annCrum accessio iuvare potuisset (Lael. 11), what good
could the addition of a few years have done him (if they had been added) ?
[Past contrary to fact : s! accessissent.]
quid igitur mihi ferarum laniatus oberit nihil sentient! (Tusc. i. 104), what
harm will the mangling by wild beasts do me if I donH feel anythmg
(feeling nothing) ? [Future more vivid: si nihil sentiam.]
incitata semel pr5clivi labuntur sustingrique nuUo mod5 possunt (id. iv. 42),
if once given a pu^h, they slide down rapidly and can in no way be
checked. [Present General: si incitata sunt.]
384 SYNTAX: CONDITIONAL SENTENCES [§§^^1,631
NoTB. — In several phrases denoting necessity, propriety, or the like, the Impa-
feet, Perfect, or Pluperfect Imlicative of esse is used in the apodosis of a coaditios
contrary to fact, the protasis being implied in a subject infinitive (of. 517. c) : —
quantO melius fuerat prdmissum nOu esse ser^atum (Off. iii. 94), how mtus/i better
wottld it have been if the promise had not been kept ! [prOmissom . . .
servatum — si prOmissum nOn esset servatom.]
mori praeclAium fait (Att. viii. 2. 2), it woutd have been honorable to die.
sed erat aequius Tri&rium aliquid de dissensidne nostra ittdic&re (Fin. ii. 119), h%U it
wovid be more equitable if Triarius passed judgment on our dispute. £Tri-
arium iudicare = si Triarius iudicaret.]
satins fait ftmittere milites (Inv. ii. 73), it would have been better to lose tJie sotdier^.
[amittere=si amlsisset.]
b. The condition may be contained in a wish {Optative Subjunctive),
or expressed as an exhortation or command (Hortatory Subjunctive
or Imperative) : — '
ntinam quidem fuissem 1 molestus nObIs nOn esset (Fam. zii. 3), I wish I j
fiad been [chief] : Jie wovM not now be trouNing us (i.e. if I had been).
[Optative Subjunctive.] i
nattiram ezpellas furcd., tamen fisque recnrret (Hor. Ep. i. 30. 24), drive otU ^
nature with a pitchfork^ still she unU ever return. [Hortatory.] |
roges enim AristOnem, neget (Fin. iv. 69), for ask Aristo, he wovld deny.
manent ingenia senibus, mode permaneat studium et industria (Cat. M. 22),
old men keep their mental powers, only let them keep their zeal and dili-
gence (§ 628. N.). [Hortatory.]
toUe hanc opIniOnem, Itictum sustuleris (Tusc. i. 30), remove this notion, and
you will have done away with grief. [Imperative.]
Note. — The so-called Concessive Subjunctive Ynth. at and nS often has the force
of protasis (§ 527. a. n.) : as, — ut enim ratidnem Plato nullam adferret, ipsa anctQritate
me frangeret (Tusc. i. 49), even if Plato gave no reasons, [still] Tie would overpower
me by his mere authority.
i
c. Barely the condition takes the form of an independent clause: \
I
rides: ind,iOre cachinnO concutitur (luv. iii. 100), you laugh; he shakes with
louder laughter (= if you laugh, he shakes).
commove : sen ties (Tusc. Iv. 64), stir him up, [and] you^UJind, etc.
de paupertate agitur : multi patient^s pauperis commemorantur (id. iii. 67),
we speak of poverty; many patient poor are m.enUoned.
For Conditional Belative Glauses, see §§ 519, 520.
Condition Omitted
522. The Protasis is often wholly omitted, but may be inferred
from the course of the argument : —
poterat Sextilius impHne neg9,re : quis enim redargueret (Fin. iL 65), SeMiui
might have denied with impunity; for who would prove him wrong (ii he
had denied)?
I§ 622, 628] COMPLEX CONDITIONS 886
€1. In expressions signifying necessity, propriety, and the like, the
Indicative may be used in the apodosis of implied conditions, either
future or contrary to fact : —
quod contrft decnit ab illO meum [corpus cremarl] (Cat. M. 84), whereas on
the other Tiand mine ougkb to have been burnt by him.
nam nOs decibat domum lUgSre ubi esset allquis in Iticem Sditus (Tosc. i.
115), for it were fitting for us to mourn the house where a man has been
horn (but we do not).
quanta melius fuerat (Off. iii. 04), how mvjch better it would have been,
illud erat aptius, aeqitum caique conc€dere (Fin. iy. 2), it would be more fit-
ting to yield each one his rights.
ipsum enim ezspect&re m&gnam fuit (Phil. ii. 103), would it have been a great
matter to wait for the man himself f
longam est ea dicere, sad . . . (Sest. 12), it would be tedious to tell, etc.
[Future.]
NoTB 1. — In this construction, ^e Imperfect Indicative refers to present Hme;
the Pluperfect to simple past time, like the Perfect. Thus oportSlMit means it ought
to be [now], but is not; oportuerat means it ought to have been, but was not.
Note 2. — In many cases it is impossible to say whether a protasis was present
to the mind of the speaker or not (see third example above).
•
Complex Conditions
523. Either the Protasis or the Apodosis may be a complex idea
in which the main statement is made with expressed or implied
qualifications. In such cases the true logical relation of the
parts is sometimes disguised : —
si quia hOrum dixisset ... si verbum dQ rS p11blic& fScisset . . . multa pltira
dixisse quam dixisset puts^retur (Rose. Am. 2), if any of these had spoken^
in case he had said a word about politics he would be thought to have said
much more than he did say. [Here the apodosis of dixisset is the whole
of the following statement (si . . . putaretur), which is itself conditioned
by a protasis of its own : si verbum, etc.].
quod si in hOc mundO fieri sine de5 nOn potest, n€ in sphaer^ quidem eOsdem
mOttls sine dIvInO ingeniO potuisset imitari (Tusc. 1. 63), now if that can-
not be done in this universe without divine agency^ no more could [Archi-
medes] in his orrery have imitated the same revolutions without divine
genius. [Here si potest (a protasis with nothing implied) has for its
apodosis the whole clause which follows, but potuisset has a contrary-
to-fact protasis of its own implied, in sine . . . ingeniS.]
peream male sl nOn optimum erat (Hor. S. ii. 1. 6), confound me (may I
perish wretchedly) if it wouldn't be better. [Here peream is apodosis to
the rest of the sentence, while the true protasis to optimum erat, contrary
to fact, is omitted.]
886 SYNTAX: CONDITIONAL SENTENCES
daases of Comparison (Condasion Omitted)
524. Conditional Clauses of Comparison take the Subjunctive,
usually in the Present or Perfect unless the sequence of tenses
requires the Imperfect or Pluperfect.
Such clauses are introduced by the comparative particles tamquam.
tamquam si, quasi, ac si, ut si, velut si (later velut), poetic ceu (all mean-
ing as if), and by quam si (than if) : —
tamquam clausa sit Asia (Fam. zli. 9), as if Asia were closed.
tamquam si claudus sim (PI. Asln. 427), just as if I were lame.
ita hOs [hon5r6s] petunt, quasi honesty vizerint (lug. 85), they seek them
(offices) just as if they had li/ced honorably.
quasi y€rO n5n specie visa iudicentar (Acad. ii. 58), od if forsooth visible things
were not judged by their appearance.
similiter facis ac si me rogSs (N. D. iii. 8), you do exa^ctly as if you asked me.
crtidelitatem horr€rent velut si c5ram adesset (B. G. i. 32), they dreaded hit
cruelty (they said), as if he were present in person.
hic ingentem pugnam cemimus ceu cetera nusquam bellaforent (Aen. ii. 43^,
here we saw a great battle, as if there were no fighting elsewhere. [But
sometimes with £he indicative in poetry, as id. v. 88.]
magis a me abesse videb&re quam si domi esses (Att. vi. 5), you seemed to
be absent from me more than if you were at home.
Note 1. — These subjanctive clauses are really future conditions with apodosis
implied in the particle itself. Thas in tamquam s! claudus sim the protasis is intioduoed
by si, and the apodosis implied in tamquam.
Note 2. — The English idiom would lead us to expect the Imperfect and Pluperfect
Subjunctive (contrary to fact) with these particles ; but the point of view is different
in the two languages. Thus the second example above is translated Ju«^ as ^ I were
lame, — as if it were a present condition contrary to fact; but it really mesLDBjust as
[it would be] if I should [at some future time] be lame, and so is a less vivid future
condition requiring the Present Subjunctive. Similarly quasi honestfi vixerint, as If
they had lived honorably, is really as [they would do in the future] if they should have
lived honorably and so requires the Perfect Subjunctive (§616. c).
a. Even after a primary tense, the Imperfect or Pluperfect Sub-
junctive (contrary to fact) is often used in conditional clauses of
comparison : —
aeque a te petO ac si mea negOtia essent (Fam. xiii. 43), I entreat you as much
as if it were my own business.
6ius negOtium sic velim suscipias ut si essct r6s mea (id. vii. 20. 1), I wmM
have you undertake his business as though it were my affair.
Note. —The practice differs with the different particles. Thus in Cicero a clause
with tamquam or quasi almost always observes the sequence of tenses, but with quam si
the Imperfect or Pluperfect is the rule.
©25] USB OP 81 AND ITS COMPOUNDS 337
Use of «r and !!• OomponnjU
525. The uses of some of the more common Conditional Parti-
les may be stated as follows : —
a* Si is used for affirmative, nisi (ni) and so, nOn for negative con-
Litions.
1. With nisi (generally unless) the apodosis is stated as univeraally true
except in the single case supposed, in which case it is (impliedly) not true : —
nisi ConOn adest, maereO, unleas Conon is here, I mourn (i.e. I am always in
a state of grief except in the single case of Conon's presence, in which
case I am not).
2. With SI non ({/" not) the apodosis is only stated as true in the (negative)
case supposed, hut as to other cases no statement is made : —
81 ConOn non adest, maereO, if Conon is not here, I mofum (i.e. I mourn in
the single case of Conon^s absence, nothing being said as to other cases
in which I may or may not mourn).
NoTB. — It often makes no difference in which of these forms the condition is
stated.
3. Sometimes nisi si, except if, unless, occurs : —
nOlI put9,re m6 ad quemquam longiOrSs epistulSs scribere, nisi si quis ad m3
plura scrlpsit (Fam. xiv. 2), . . . except in case one writes more to me.
Note. — HI is an old form surviving in a few conventional phrases and reappear-
ing in poets and later writers.
6. Nisi v6r5 and nisi forte regularly introduce an objection or excep-
tion ironically, and take the Indicative : —
nisi vero L. Caesar crudelior visus est (Cat. iv. 13), unless indeed Lucius
CcBsar seemed too cruel
nisi forte volumas EpicurSOrum opIniOnem sequi (Fat. 37), unless, to he sure,
we choose to follow the notion of the Epicureans.
Note. — This is the regular way of introducing a reductio ad absurdum in Latin.
Nisi alone is sometimes used in this sense: as, — nisi unum h5c faciam ut in puteO
cenam coquant (PI. Aul. 865), unless I do this one thing, [make them] oooA; dinner
in the well.
c. Sive (sen) . . . sive (sen), whether . . . or, introduce a condition
in the form of an alternative. They may be used with any form of
condition, or with different forms in the two members. Often also
they are used without a verb : —
nam ill5 locO libentissimS sole5 tit!, sive quid mgcum ipse c5git0, sive quid
scribO aut legO (Legg. ii. l),f>r I enjyy myself most in that pUice, whHher
I am thinking by myself, or am either writing or reading.
Note.— Sive . . . seu and seu . . . sive are late or poetic.
388 SYNTAX: CONCESSIVE CLAUSES [§§ 52-S-£
<!• Sin, but if, often introduces a supposition contrary to one th.
precedes : —
accClsator ilium defendet si poterit ; sin minus poterit, negabit (Inv. ii. 88
Uie accuser will defend him if he can ; hut if he cannot, he will deny.
e. Nisi is often used loosely by the comic poets in the sense of onl
when a negative (usually nesciO) is expressed, or easily understood^ it
the main clause : —
nesciO : nisi m6 dixisse nemini certO sciO (Ter. Ph. 952), I don't know : onk
I am sure thai I have n't told anybody.
CONCESSIVE CLAUSES
526 . The concessive idea is rather vague and general, and takes a variety of forms,
each of which has its distinct history. Sometimes concession is expressed by the Hor-
tatory Subjunctive in a sentence grammatically independent (§ 440), but it is more
frequently and more precisely expressed by a dependent clause introduced by a con*
cessive particle. The concessive force lies chiefly in the Conjunctions (which are
indefinite or conditional in origin), and is often made clearer by an adversative par-
ticle (tamen, certS) in the main clause. As the Subjunctive may be used in independ- 1
ent clauses to express a concession, it is also employed in concessive clauses, and '
somewhat more frequently than the indicative.
527. The Particles of Concession (meaning although^ granting
that) are quamvis, ut, licet, etsi, tametsi, etiam si, quamquam, and cum.
Some of these take the Subjunctive, others the Indicative, ac-
cording to the nature of the clause which each introduces.
a. Quamvis and ut take the Subjunctive : —
quamvis ipsi Infantes sint, tamen . . . (Or. 76), howefoer incapable of speaking \
they themselves may &e, yet, etc.
quamvis scelerati illl fuissent (De Or. i. 230), however guilty they might have '
been. -]
quamvis c5mis in amicis tuendis fuerit (Fin. ii. 80), amiable as he may have
been in keeping his friends.
ot n^minem alium rogasset (Mil. 46), eoen if he had asked no other.
nt enim nCn efficias quod vis, tamen mors ut malum n5n sit efficies (Tusc. i.
16), for even if you do not accomplish what you wish, stiU you mil prove
that death is not an eoil.
ut rati5nem PlatO nullam adferret (id. i. 49), though Plato adduced no reasons.
Note. — Quamvis means literally as much as you will. Thus in the first example
above, let them be as incapable as you will, still, etc. The subjunctive with qtuunvis
is hortatory, like that with ne (§ 440) ; that with ut (u^ non) is of uncertain origin.
h. Licet, although, takes the Present or Perfect Subjunctive:—-
Ucet omnes mihi terr5r€s periculaque impendeant (RofBC. Am. 81), Umbgh aU
terrors and perils should menace ine.
527] CONCESSIVE CLAUSES 889
IS^OTS. — Licet is properly a verb in the present tense, meaning it is granted. Hence
sabjunctive is by the sequence of tenses limited to the Present and Perfect. The
concessive clause with licet is hortatory in origin, but may be regarded as a substan-
tive clause serving as the subject of the impersonal verb (§ 565. k.^).
Cm 'Etal, etiam si, tametsi, even if, take the same constructions as si
(see § 514) : —
etsi abest mattlrit3,s, tamen nOn est intltile (Fam. vl. 18. 4), though ripeness
of age is wanting, yet it is not useless, etc.
etsi numquam dabium fait, tamen pei*spiciG (id. v. 19), aWuyugh it has never
been doubtful, yet I perceive, etc.
etai statuezam (id. v. 5), though I had determined.
etsi nihil aliud abstulissetis, tamen conteatos v5s esse oportebat (Sull. 00),
even if you had taken away nothing else, you ought to have been satisfied.
etiam si quod scribe nOn habebis, scrlbitO tamen (Fam. zvi. 26), even if you
[shall] have nothing to write, still write.
sed ea tametsi vOs parvi pendebatis (Sail. Cat. 52. 9), hut although you regarded
those things a^ of small accouiit.
Note 1. — Tametsi with the subjunctive is very rare.
Note 2., — A protasis with si often has a concessive force: as, — ego, si assent ini-
micitiae mihi cum C. Caesare, tamen hoc tempore rei publicae cOnsulere . . . deberem
(Prov. Cons. 47), as for me, even if I had private quarrels with CsBsar, it would still
be my duty to serve the best interests of the state at this crisis.
d. Quamquam, although, introduces an admitted fact and takes the
Indicative : —
omnibus — qaamquam ruit ipse suls cladlbus — pestem dSnuntiat (Phil. ziv.
8), thofkiugh he is breaking down under his disasters, still he threatens dU
with destruction.
Note. — Qnamqaam more commonly means and yet, introducing a new proposition
in the indicative: as, — qnamquam haec quidem iam tolerabilia vidSbantur, etat, etc.
(Mil. 76), and yet these, in truth, seemed now bearable, though, etc.
e. The poets and later writers frequently use qaamvis and quam-
quam like etsi, connecting them with the Indicative or the Subjunc-
tive, according to the nature of the condition : —
qnamqaam mover§tar (Liv. zxxvi. 84), although he was moved.
PolIiO amat nostram, qaamvis est rustica, musam (£cl. iii. 84), PoUio loves
my muse, though she is rustic.
qaamvis pervSner&8 (Liv. ii. 40), though you had come.
f. Ut, as, with the Indicative, may be equivalent to a concession :
v6rum ttt errSre potoisti, sic d€cipl tS nOn potuisse quis nOn videt (Fam. x.
20. 2), WLppose yoa could have been mistaiken, who does not see that you
cannot Jiave been deceived in this way f
For cnm concessive, see f 549 ; for qnl concessive, see f 535. e. For eoncession ex-
pressed by the Hortatory Sabjunctive (negative n0), see { 440.
840 SYNTAX : CLAUSES OF PROVISO [§§ 6S8-«I
CLAUSES OF PROVISO
528. Dam, modo, dummodo, and tantiun ttt, introducing a ProvLs<^
take the Subjunctive. The negative with these particles is ne:
Oderint dam metuant (Off. i. 97), let them hate, if only they fear.
valSttldO mbdo bona sit (Brut. 64), ^oxiidked the health he good.
domniodo inter m6 atque t€ mtlrus intersit (Cat. i. 10), provided only the ted,
(of the city) is between us.
tantum at sciant (Att. xvi. 11. 1), provided only they know.
modo ne sit ex pecudum genere (Off. i. 105), provided [in pleafinre] he U
not of the herd of cattle.
id faciat saepe, dam nS lassus ^t (Cato H. B. v. 4), let him do this often.
provided he does not get tired.
dommodo ea (seT^ritSs) nS yarietor (Q. Fr. i. 1. 20), provided only it (strictness;
be not allowed to swerve.
tantum nS noceat (Or. M. Iz. 21), only lei it do no harm.
Note. — The Subjunctive with modo is hortatory or optative; that with dmn and
dummodo, a developmejit from the use of the Subjunctive with dam in temporal clauses,
$ 553 (compare the colloquial so long as my health is good, I don*t care).
a. The Hortatory Subjunctive without a particle sometimes ex
presses a proviso : —
aint Maecenates, nOn deerunt MarOnSs (Mart, yiii 66. 5), «o there he Maece-
nases, Virgils wiU not he lacking/.
ft. The Subjunctive with ut (negative nfi) is sometimes used to de- j
note a proviso, usually with ita in the main clause : — i
prob9.ta condiciO est, sed ita ut ille praesidia dSddcetet (Att. vii. 14. 1), ^A^ *
terms were approved, hiit only on condition that he sliould withdraw tk
garrisons.
Note. — This is a development of the construction of Characteristic or Result.
For a clause of CfaaraoteriBtic expressing Proviso, see § 535. 4.
CLAUSES OF PURPOSE (FINAL CLAUSES)
529. The Subjunctive in the clause of Purpose is hortatory in origin, coming
through a kind of indirect discourse construction (for which see §592). Thus, misit
legates qui dicerent means he sent ambassadors who should say, i.e. who were directed
to say ; in the direct orders the verb would be dicite, which would become dieaat in the
Indirect Discourse of narrative (§ 688) or dicerent in the past^(cf . hortatory subjunctive
in past tenses, § 439. 6). The Subjunctive with ut and n6 is, in general, slmifair is
origin.
530. A clause expressing purpose is called a Final Clause.
531. Final Clauses take the Subjunctive introduced by ut (uti),
negative n5 (ut ng), or by a Relative Pronoun or Adverb; —
.X3 CLAUSES OF PURPOSE 341
L. Pure Clauses of Purpose, with ut (uti) or nS (ut n8), express the
[:;pose of the main verb in the form of a modifying clause: —
3,b arSLtrO abdOxSrunt Cincinn&tum, ut dictator ^sset (Fin. ii. 12), they brought
Cincinnatus from the plough that he migJU be dictator.
ut 8int auxiliO suls, subsistunt (B. C. i. 80), they halt in order to support (be
an aid to) their own men,
11$ mllitSs oppidum inrumperent, portS,s obstruit (id. i. 27), he barricaded the
gates, in order that the soldiers might not break into the town,
scalds par&ri iubet, ii& quam facultatem dimittat (id. i. 28), he orders scaling-
ladders to be got ready, in order not to let slip any opportunity.
at nS sit impHne (Mil. 81), th>at it be not with impunity.
'NoTia 1. — SometimM the oonjunction has a correlatiYe (ide9, idciro9, e9oOiititi0, etc.)
L the main clause (cf . § 561. a) : —
legum idcircd servi sumus, ut Gberi simus (Cln. US), for this reason we are subject
to the laws, that we may be free.
copias transduzit ed cSnsilio, at castellum expQgn&ret (cf. B. G. ii. 9), he led the
troops across with this design — to storm the fort,
NoTB 2. — Ut nSn sometimes occurs in clauses of purpose when nSa belongs to some
>articular word: as, — ut plura ndn dicam (Manil. M), to avoid unneoessary talk.
2. Belative Clauses of Purpose are introduced by the relative pro-
noun qui or a relative adverb (ubi, unde, quO, etc.). The antecedent
is expressed or implied in the main clause: —
mlttitur L. DScidius Saxa qui loci nattLram perspiciat (B. C. i. 66), Luciu>s
Decidius Saxa i» sent to examirie the ground (who should examine, etc.).
8Cilb€bat OratiOnSs quia alii dicerent (Brut. 206), ?ie wrote speeches for other
men to deliver,
eO exstlnctO fore unde discerem nSminem (Cat. M. 12), that when he was dead
there loould be nobody from whom (whence) I could learn,
huic ne ubi cdnsisteret quidem contr& t6 locum rellquisti (Quinct. 73), you
hane left Mm no ground even to make a stand against you,
habebam qu5 cdnfugerem (Fam. iy. 6. 2), I had [a retreat] whither I might flee.
NoTB.^In this construction qai=:ttt is (etc.), ubi = at ibi, and so on (§ 537. 2).
a. The ablative quO (= ut eO) is used as a conjunction in final
clauses which contain a comparative : —
comprimere eOrum audftciam, quo faciUus ceterOnim animi frangerentur
(Fam. XV. 4. 10), to repress their audacity, that the spirit of the others
might be broken more easily (by which the more easily).
llbertate usus est, qu5 impfinius dic9,x esset (Quinct. 11), he took advantage
of liberty, that he might bluster with more impunity.
Note. —Occasionally quS introduces a final clause that does not contain a compara-
tive: as,— L. Sulla exercitum, qad sibi fidumfaceret, luxuriOsS babuerat (Sail. Cat. 11),
lMdu8 Svlla had treated tf^£ army luxuriotisly, in order to m^ke it devoted to him.
For quSmiiias (=ttt ed minus) after yerbs of hindering, see § 1X&. b.
842 SYNTAX: CLAUSES OF PURPOSE [§§ 632, 5i
532. The principal clause, on which a final clause depends, i
often to be supplied from the context : —
ao n6 longum sit . . . iussimus (Cat. iii. 10), and, not to be tediotis, toe ordered
etc. [Strictly, in order not to be tedious, I say we ordered.]
sed ut ad Dionysium redeftmus (Tosc. y. 63), but to return to Dionysitis.
sed ut eOdem revertar, causa haec fuit timOris (Fam. vi. 7. 3), but, to return
to the same point, this was the cause of fear,
satis incOnsIder&tl fait, n6 dicam audScis (Phil. ziii. 12), it was the ctct of one
rash enough, not to say daring,
NoTB 1. — By a similar ellipsis the Subjunctive is used withnSdum (sometimes n€),
stiU less, not to mention that : —
nSdom salvi esse possimus (Glu. 96), much less could we be safe,
nSdom isti ii6n statim conqmnturi sint aliquid sceleris et flagiti (Leg. Agr. ii. 97),
far more will they hunt up at once some sort of crime and scandal.
nMttm in man et via sit facile (Fam. zvi. 8), still less is it easy at sea and on a
journey, I
quippe secundae res sapientium animOs f atigant ; n6 ill! corruptis mOribus vio
tOriae temperftrent (Sail. Cat. 11), for prosperity overmasters the sovZ eveni
of the wise; much less did they with their corrupt mordsput any check or*
victory, i^
Notb2. — With nSdum the yerb itself is often omitted: as,— aptius humanitab'
tuae quam tOta Peloponnesus, nSdum Patrae (Fam. yii. 28. 1), Jitter for your r^ne-
ment than all Peloponnesus, to say nothing of Patrss,
For Substantive Clauses inyolyingpt^rpo^e, see §§663-4S66.
533. The Purpose of an action is expressed in Latin in various |
ways ; but never (except in idiomatic expressions and rarely in
poetry) by the simple Infinitive as in English (§ 460).
The sentence, thei/ came to seek peace^ may be rendered —
(1) ySnerunt ut pftcem peterent. [Final clause with ut (§ 631. 1).]
(2) yenSrunt qui pacem peterent. [Final clause with Relative (§ 531. 2).]
(3) [venSrant ad petendum pftcem.] Not found with transitive verbs (§ 506,
N. 3), but cf. ad p&rendnm sen&tui. [Gerund with ad (§ 506).]
(4) venSrunt ad petendam pAcem. [Gerundive vnth ad (§ 506).]
(5) venerunt pd.cem petendl causft (gr3,ti&). [Gen. of Gerund with caosi
(§ 504. 6).] j
(6) vSnerunt pScis petendae causft (grfttift). [Gen. of Gerundive with caoil j
(§ 504. 6).] ^
(7) venfirunt pacem petlturl. [Future participle (§ 499. 2); in later writeis.]
(8) venSrunt pacem petltum. [Supine in -um (§ 509).]
These forms are not used indifferently, but —
a. The usual way of expressing purpose is by ut (negative nfi),
unless the purpose is closely connected with some one word, in which
case a relative is more common : —
§ 58&-535] CLAUSES OF CHARACTERISTIC 348
legates ad Damnorigem mittunt, ot e6 dSprecfttOre ft SSquanls impetrftrent
(B. G. i. 9), tJiey send envoys to Dumrwrix, in order through hia intercea-
9Um to obtain (this favor) from the Sequani,
mlKt^s nilsit at eOs qui fugerant persequerentur (id. v. 10), he sent the sol-
diers to follow up those who had fled.
CtiriO praemittit equites qui primum impetum sustineant (B. C. ii. 26), Curio
sends forward cavalry to withstand the first attack,
h. The Gerund and Gerundive constructions of purpose are usually
limited to short expressions, where the literal translation, though not
the English idiom, is nevertheless not harsh or strange.
ۥ The Supine is used to express purpose only with verbs of motion,
and in a few idiomatic expressions (§ 509).
d. The Future Participle used to express purpose is a late con-
struction of inferior authority (§ 499. 2).
For the poetical Infinitive of Purpose, see § 460. c. For the Present Participle in
a sense approaching thai of purpose, see § 490. 3.
CLAUSES OF CHARACTERISTIC
534. The relative clause of Characteristic with the Subjunctive is a development
peculiar to Latin. A relative clause in the Indicative merely states something as a
fact which is true of. the antecedent; a characteristic clause (in the Subjunctive)
defines the antecedent as a person or thing qf such a character that the statement
made is true of him or it and of all others belonging to the same class. Thus, — non
potest exercitum is continSre imperator qui s€ ipse n5n continet (indicative) means simply,
that commander who does not (as a fact) restrain himself cannot restrain his army ;
whereas nSn potest exercitum is continSre imperator qui sS ipse nSn contineat (subjunctive)
would mean, that commander who is not such a man as to restrain himself, etc.,
that is, who is not characterized by self-restraint.
This construction has its origin in the potential use of the subjunctive (§445).
Thus, in the example just given, qui s€ ipse non contineat would mean literally, who
would not restrain himself (in any supposable case), and this potential idea passes
over easily into that of general quality or characteristic. The characterizing force
^ is most easily felt when the antecedent is indefinite or general. But this usage is
extended in Latin to cases which differ but slightly from statements of fact, as in
some of the examples below.
The use of the Subjunctive to express Result comes from its use in Clauses of
Characteristic. . Thus, n5n sum ita hebes at haec dicam means literally, / am not dull
in the manner (degree) in which I shoxdd say this, hence, I am not so dull as to say
this. Since, then, the characteristic often appears in the form of a supposed result,
the construction readily passes over into Pure Result, with no idea of characteristic ;
as,— tanttts in ciiril clamor f actus est at populus concnrreret (Verr. ii. 47), such an outcry
was made in the senate-house that the people hurried together.
535. A Relative Clause with the Subjunctive is often used to
indicate a characteristic of the antecedent, especially where the
antecedent is otherwise undefined : —
844 SYNTAX: CLAUSES OF CHABACTERISTIC [§531
neque en!m tn is m qol netdls (Fam. v. 12. 6), for you are not such a one oi
not to know. [Here ia is equivalent to tuch, and is defined only by ti»
relative clause that follows.]
molta dicunt quae vix intellegam (Fin. iy. 2), fhey 9ay many things which
(snch as) J hardly understand.
paci quae nihil habitQra sit Insidlamm semper est cOnsalendom (Off. i. 35).
voe must always aim at a peace which shall have no plots.
a. A Relative Clause of Characteristic is used after general expres-
sions of existence or non-existence^ including questions which implj
a negative.
So especially with sunt qui, there are [some] who; qois est qui, who
is there who ? —
sunt qui discessam animi ft corpore patent esse mortem (Tasc. 1. 18), there are
some who think that the departure of soul from body constitutes death.
erant qui censexent (B. C. ii. 30), there were some who were of the opinion, etc.
erant qni Helvidium miser&rentur (Tac. Ann. xyi. 29), there were some who
pitied HdvidiiLS. [Cf. est cum (n. *, below).]
qais est qui id n5n maximis efferat laudibos (Lael. 24), who is there that does j
not extol it toith the highest praise f *
nihil video quod timeam (Fam. ix. 16. 8), I see nothing to fear.
nihil est quod adventum nostram extimesc&s (Fam. ix. 26. 4), there is no rea-
son why you should dread my coming.
onde agger comportftrl posset nihil erat reliquum (B. C. ii. 15), there toas noth-
ing left from which an embankment covM he got together. i
NoTB 1. — After general negatives like nSmS est qui, the Sabjonctive is regolar; i
after general affirmatives like sunt qui, it is the prevailing construction, but the Indio- \
ative sometimes occurs ; after multi (non nuUi, quidam) sunt qui, and similar ezpreft-
sions in which the antecedent is partially defined, the choice of mood depends on the I
shade of meaning which the writer wishes to express : — i
sunt bSitiae quaedam in quibus inest aliquid simile virtutis (Fin. v. 38), there are I
certain animals in which there is something like virtue.
But, — invent! multl sunt qui vitam piofundere pr& patria parati essent (Off. i. 84),
many were found of such a character as to be ready to give their lives for
tJieir country.
NoTB 2. — Characteristic clauses with sunt qui etc. are sometimes called RelatiTe
Clauses with an Indefinite Antecedent, but are to be carefully distinguished from the
Indefinite Relative in protasis (§ 520).
NoTB 3. — The phrases est cum, fait cum, etc. are used like est qui, sunt qni: as,-
ac fttit cum mihi quoque initium requiescendi fore iustum arbitrarer (De Or. i. 1), and
there was a time when I thought a beginning of rest would be justifiable on my part.
6. A Relative Clause of Characteristic may follow llnus and sQlns :
nfl admir&rl prope r6s est fina solaque quae possit facere et servare befttum
(Hor. £p. i. 6. 1), to wonder at nothing is almost the sole and ofdy thing
that can make and keep one happy.
851ns es caius in victQria ceciderit nemO nisi armatus (Deiot. 84), you are ihi
only man in whose victory no one has fallen unless armed.
^8&] CLAUSES OF CHARACTERISTIC 846
€Sm A clause of Eesult or Cbaracteristio with quam ut, quam qui
xsbxely with quam alone), may be used after comparatives : —
CanachI tigna rigidion sunt quam at imitentnr T€rit&tem (Brut. 70), the statues
of Canachus are too stiff to represent nature (stlffer than that they should).
maidres arborSs caedGbant quam qu&s ferre miles posset (Liy. xxxiii. 5), they cut
trees too large for a soldier to carry (larger than what a soldier could carry).
D^OTB. — This constraction corresponds in sense to the English too . . , to.
€f« A relative clause of characteristic may express restriction or
proviso (cf . § 628. b) : —
quod sciam, so far as I know (lit. as to what I know).
Cat^^nifl GrfttlGnes, qxAs quidem inreneiim (Brut. 66), the speeches of Goto, at
least such as I have discovered,
servna est nemO, qui modo tolerftbili condiciOne sit servitutis (Cat iv. 16),
there is not a slave^ at least in any tolerable condition of slavery.
e. A Belative Clause of Characteristic may express cause or conces-
sion : —
peccSsse mihi videor qui ft t€ discesserim (Fam. xvi. 1), I seem to myself to
, have done wrong because I have left you. [Causal. ]
yirumsimplicem qui nOs nihil cSlet (Or. 230), O guileless man^ who hides noth-
ing from us I [Causal.]
egomet qui sSrO Graecfts litterSs attlglssam, tamen compltlres AthSnls dies
sum commor^tus (De Or. i. 82), J myself^ though I began Greek literature
late^ yet, etc. (lit. [a man] who, etc.). [Concessive.]
Note 1. — In this use the relative is equiyalent to com is etc. It is often preceded
hy nt, tttpote, or qaippe : —
nee consul, ut qui id ipsum qtiaesisset, moram certamim fecit (Liy. xlii. 1), nor
did the consul delay the fights since he had sought that very thing (as [being
one] who had sought, etc.).
Lucius, f rater #ius, utpote qui peregre ASpttgnarit, familiam ducit (Phil. v. 80),
^ Lucius, his brother, leads his household, inasmuch as he is a man who has
fought it out abroad.
^ conyivia cum patre nOn inibat, quippe qui nS In oppldum quidem nisi perrarO
' venlret (Rose. Am. 62), he did not go to dinnerparties with his father, since
Ae did not even come to town except very rarely.
NoTB 2. — The Relative of Cause or Concession is merely a variety of the Charac-
teriBtic construction. The quality expressed by the Subjunctive is connected with the
action of the main verb either as cause on account of which (since) or as hindrance
in qnte of which (although).
/. Dignus, indig^us^ aptus, idOneus take a subjunctive clause with
a relative (rarely ut). The negative is n5n : —
digna to quibns SlaborSrent (Tusc. 1. 1), (things) worth spending their toil on
(worthy on which they should, etc.).
dIgna res est ubl ttl nervOs intendas tu5s (Ter. Eun. 312), the affair is worthy
dfyour stretching your sinews (worthy wherein you should, etc.).
846 SYNTAX : CLAUSES OF RESULT [§§ 635-63
id6neu8 qui Impetrst (Manil. 67), JU to obtain,
indlgnl at redinMrimiir (Liv. xxii. 69. 17), unworthy to be roMomed.
NoTB 1. — This constmction is sometimes explained as a relative daase of purpose
but it is more closely related to characteristic.
NoTB 2. — With ^snuf etc., the poets often use the Infinitive: —
fOns rivO dare n6men idOneus (Hor. Ep. i. 16. 12), a tourcefit to give a name to a
stream,
aet&s mollis et apta regl (Ov. A. A. i. 10), a time of life soft and easy to be guided.
Tivere dignus eras (Ov. M. x. 633), you were worthy to live.
CLAUSES OF RESULT (CONSECUTIVE CLAUSES)
536. The Subjonctive in Consecative Glauses is a development of the use of that
mood in Clauses of Characteristic (as explained in § 534).
537. Clauses of Result take the Subjunctive introduced by ut, so
that (negative, ut n6n), or by a relative pronoun or relative adverb.
1. Pure Clauses of Eesult, with ut or ut nOn, express the result of
the main verb in the form of a modifying clause : —
tanta yls probitfttis est at earn in hoste dilig&mas (Lael. 29), so great is the
power of goodness that we love it even in an enemy.
pUgnatnr flcriter ad novissimum agmen, adeO tt paene terga conTertant
(B. C. i. 80), there is sharp fighting in the rear, so (to such a degree) that
they almost take flight.
multa rOinor adfingebat, at paene bellum cODfectum yiderStor (id. i. 53),
rumor added many false reports, so that the war seemed almost ended.
2. Relative Clauses of Result are introduced by the relative pro-
noun qui or a relative adverb (ubi^ unde, quO, etc.). The antecedent is
expressed or implied in the main clause.
The Relative in this construction is equivalent to ut with the corre-
sponding demonstrative: — qui = ut is (etc.), ubi = ut ibi, and so on :
nam est innocentia affectiO t&lis animi qaae noceat neminl (Tusc. iii. 16), /or
innocence is such a quality of mind as to do harm to no one,
sunt aliae causae quae pl&ne efficiant (Top. 59), there are other causes such as
to bring to pass.
ntLlla est celeritdfi quae possit cum auimi celerit&te contendere (Tusc. i. 43),
there is no swiftness which can compare with the swiftness of the mini.
quis n&vig&vit qui ndn b6 mortis perlculO committeret (Manil. 31), who toent to
sea who did not incur the peril of death f
NoTB 1.— Since the relative clause of Result Is a development from theielatiytf
clause of Characteristic (§ 534), no sharp line can be drawn between the two constrnc-
tions. In doubtful cases, it is better to attempt no distinction or to describe the clause
as one of Characteristic.
NoTB 2. — Clauses of Result are often introduced by such correlative words as tao,
tAlif, tanttts, ita, sic, a«e5, fiisque e«, which belong to the main clause.
§ 637, 638> CLAUSES OF RESULT 847
€Lm A Kegative Eesult is introduced by ut nOn^ ttt nSmO^ qui nOn^ etc.^
DLOt by iiiB: —
miiltis gravibusque volneribus cGnfectus ut lam se sustiD^re n5n posset (B. G.
ii. 25), uMd up \D\Jth many severe wounds so that he covM no Umger stand,
tanta vl in Pomp^i equitSs impetum f Scerunt at eOrum nimd consisteret (B. C.
iii. 93), they attacked Fompey^s cavalry with such vigor that not one of
th/em stood his ground,
nSmO est tarn senex qui s€ annum non putet posse viyere (Cat. M. 24), nobody
iB aooldas not to think that he can, live a year,
KoTB. — When the result implies an effect intended (not a simple purpose), at nS
or nS is sometimes used as being less positive than at n5n: — pibrum] ita corrigas nS
mihi noceat (Caecina, Fam. vi. 7. 6), correct the book so that it may not hurt me,
5. I'requently a clause of result or characteristic is used in a re-
strictive sense, and so amounts to a Proviso (cf. § 535. d): —
hoc ita est utile at ne pl3.n6 inlfld&mur ab accQsatOribus (Rose. Am. 65), this
is so far useful that we are not utterly mocked by the accusers (i.e. useful
only on this condition, that, etc.).
nihil autem est molestum quod nOn desIderSs (Cat. M. 47), but nothing is
troublesome which (= provided that) you do not miss.
e. The clause of result is sometimes expressed in English by the
Infinitive with to or so as to or an equivalent : —
tarn long€ aberam ut nOn viderem, J was too far away to see (so far that I
did not see ; cf . § 535. c).
Note. — Result is never expressed by the Infinitive in Latin except by the poets in
a few passages (§ 461. a).
538. The constructions of Purpose and Result are precisely
alike in the cffirmative (except sometimes in tense sequence^
§ 485. c) ; but, in the negativey Purpose takes nS, Result ut n6n
etc. : —
custddltus est nS effugeret, he was guarded in order that he might not escape.
ctlstOdltus est at non effugeret, ho was guarded so that he did not escape.
So in negative Purpose clauses n6 quia, nS quid, nS Was, nS quO, n6
qoandO, nScubi, etc. are almost always used ; in negative Result clauses,
ut nSin5, ut nihil, ut nWus, etc. : —
(1) cemere nS qois eOs, neu quis contingere posset (Aen. i. 413), that no one
might see them^ no one touch them, [Purpose.]
bI qoandd llberis prOscrlptOrum bona patria reddantur (Rose. Am. 145), lest
ot som£ time the patrimony of the proscribed should be restored to their
children,
tpw b6 qn5 inciderem, revertl IFovmiSs (Att. viiL 8. 7), tTiat I might not corns
upon him anywhere, I returned to Formim.
848 SYNTAX: CAUSAL CLAUSES [§§
538-^
difpo6itlB ezplOrfttOribns aiciibi ROmSoI oOpias tr&dilcerent (B. G. vii. 35).
having sUUioned scovia here and there in order that the Romans mighi
not l&id their troops across anywhere.
(2) mum Ita sunt imbficilll seii3s nt nflUmn offlcl mOnus ezseqnl possint (Cat
M. 35), many old men are so feeble that they cannot perform any dvity to
society. [Result.]
qui summam bonum sic Institult nt nihil habeat cum virtute coniunctum
(OS. i. 5), w7u> has so settled the highest good that it has nothing in com-
mon with virtue.
For clauses of Result or Characteristic with qnln, see § 559. For Substantfye Claused
of Result, see )§ 507-^1.
CAUSAL CLAUSES
639. Causal Clauses take either the Indicatiye or the Subjunctiye, according t.
their constructiou ; the idea of cause beiug contained, not in the mood itself, but in
the form of the argument (by impUcatiou), in an antecedent of causal meaning (like
vropterea), or in the connecting particles.
Quod is in origin the relative pronoun (stem quo*) used adverbially in the accusative
neuter (cf . § 214. (2) and gradually sinking to the position of a colorless relative con-
junction (cf. English that and see §222). Its use as a causal particle is an early
si>ecial development. Quia is perhaps an accusative plural neater of the relative stem
4vi-, and seems to have developed its causal sense more distinctly than quod, and at
an earlier period. It is used (very rarely) as an interrogative, why? (so in classical
Latin with nam only), and may, like quandS, have developed from an interrogative to
a relative particle.
Quoniam (for quom iam) is also of relative origin (quom being a case*form of the
pronominal stem quo-). It occurs in old Latin in the sense of when (cf. quom, cum),
from which the causal meaning is derived (cf . cum causal) . The Subjunctive with quod
and quia depends on the principle of Informal Indirect Discourse (§ 592).
Quando is probably the interrogative quam {how ?) compounded with a form of the
pronominal stem do- (cf . dum, dO-nec) . It originally denoted timje (first interrogatively,
then as a relative), and thus came to signify eauss. Unlike quod and quia, it is not
used to state a reason in informal indirect discourse and therefore is never followed
by the Subjunctive.
540. The Causal Particles quod and quia take the Indicative,
when the reason is given on the authority of the writer or
speaker; the Subjunctive^ when the reason is given on the
authority of another: —
1. Indicative : —
cum tibi agam grfttlas quod me Tlvere coSglftil (Att iiL 3), when I may thank
you that you have forced me to live.
clir igitur pacem n615 ? quia turpis est (Phil. vii. 9), why then do I not wish
for peace f Because it is disgraceful.
ita fit ut adsint propterea quod officium sequuntur, taceant autem quia peri-
culum vitant (Rose. Am. 1), bo it happens that they attend because they
foUow duty, but are silent because they seek to avoid danger.
&40] CAUSAL CLAUSES 849
2. Subjunctive: —
Biihi gra.tul&bd.re quod audissGs m6 meam prtetinam dlgnltfttem obtinSre
(Fam. iv. 14. 1), you congratulated me because [as you said] yon had
heard that I had regained my former dignity,
noctu ambulabat ThemistoclSs qaod somnum capere nGii posset (Tusc. iv. 44),
Themistoclea used to walk about at night because [as he said] ?ie could not
deep,
mea m3.ter ir&ta est quia nOn rediexim (PI. Cist 101), my mother is angry
because I did n^t return.
Note 1. — Quod introduces either h/act or a ttatementf and accordingly takes either
tl&e Indicative or the Subjunctive. Quia regularly introduces a fact ; hence it rarely
tcklces the Subjunctive. Quoniam, inasmuch as, since, when now, now that, has refer-
ence to motives, excuses, justifications, and the like and takes the Indicative.
Note 2. — Under this head what the speaker himself thought under other circum-
stances may have the Subjunctive (§ 592. 3. n.) : as, — ego laeta visa sum quia soror
vSnisset (PI. Mil. 387), 1 seemed (in my dream) glad because my sister had come.
So with quod even a verb of saying may be in the Subjunctive : as, — rediit quod
se oblitum nesciO quid diceret (Off. i. 40), ^ returned because he said he had forgotten
something.
Note 3. — irSn quod, ndu quia, n5n qtt0, introducing a reason expresdy to deny it, take
the Subjunctive ; but the Indicative sometimes occurs when the statement is in itself
true, though not the true reason. In the negative, u5n quin (with the Subjunctive)
may be used in nearly the same sense as non quod ndn. After a comparative, quam
qud or quam quod is used : —
pugiles ingemescunt, B5n quod doleant, sed quia profnndenda vOce omne corpus
intenditur (Tusc. ii. 56), boxers groan, not because they are in pain, but
because by giving vent to the voice the whole body is put in a state of
tension,
ndn quia rectior ad Alpis via esset, sed credens (Liv. xxi. 31. 2), not because the
route to the Alps was more direct, but believing, etc.
ndn quin pari virtute et voluntate alii faerint, sed tan tarn causam n5n habuerunt
(Phil. vii. 6), 710^ that there were not others of equal courage and good-will,
but tTiey had not so strong a reason.
haec am5re magis impulsus scribenda ad t6 put&vi, quam qu5 te arbitrftrer monitis
et praeceptis egere (Fam. x. 3. 4), this I thought I ought to write to you,
rather from the impulse of (prompted by) affection than because I thought
that you needed advice and suggestion,
a, Quoniam and quandO, sincCf introduce a reason given on the
authority of the writer or speaker, and take the Indicative : —
locus est & m€, quoniam ita MurSna voluit, retr3«tandus (Mur. 64), I must
^ review the point, since Murena has so wisfied.
qaasd5 ita vis, di bene vortant (Fl. Triu. 573), since you so wish, may the
i gods bless the undertaking,
quando ad mS,iOra nati sumus (Fin. v. 21), since we are bom for greater things.
, Note. — The Subjunctive with quoniam is unclassical. Qoandd, since, in the causal
sense, is mostly archaic or late. QuandO, when, is used as interrogative, relative, and
indefinite : as. — quandS ? hodiS, when f to^ay ; 6i quandS, if ever.
360 SYNTAX : TEMPORAL CLAUSES [§§ 640-542
5« Causal clauses introduced by quod, quia^ quoniam, and qnaii
take the Subjunctive in Indirect Discourse, like any other dependent
clause (see § 580).
c. A Relative, when used to express catise, regularly takes the Sub-
junctive (see § 535. e).
d. Cum causal takes the Subjunctive (see § 549).
For Substantiye Clauses with qaod, see § 672.
TSMPORAL CLAUSES
541. Temporal Clauses are introduced by particles which are almost all of rela-
tiye origin. They are construed like other relative clauses, except where they have
developed into special idiomatic constructions.^
For list of Temporal Particles, see p. 138.
Temporal Clauses may be classified as follows : —
I. Conditional Relative Clauses: nbi, at, cum, quandd, in Protasis ^542).
II. Clauses with postquam, ubi, etc. (Indicative), (§ 543).
in. CUuses Trith cum ( i- ?|» ^^P^ «« MS-m).
I 2. Cum causal or concessive (§ 549).
IV. Clauses with antequam and priusquam (Indicative or Subjunctive) (§ 651).
y. Clauses with dam, dSnec, and quoad (Indicative or Subjunctive) (§§ 652-556).
Conditional Relative Clauses
542. The particles ubi, ut, cum, quandO, either alone or com-
pounded with -cumque, may be used as Indefinite Relatives (in the
sense of whenever)^ and have the constructions of Protasis (cf.
§614): —
cum id malum negas esse, capior (Tusc. ii. 29), wheneoer you (the indi-
vidual disputant) deny it to bean evil, / am misled, [Present genera]
condition.]
quod profectO cum mg nulla via cogeret, facere non audfirem (Phil. v. 61),
which I loould surely not venture to do, as long as no force compelled me.
[Present, contrary to fact: cf. § 517.]
cum videas e5s dol5re nOn frangi, debelis existim&re, etc. (Tusc. ii. 66), w?ien
you see that those are not broken by pain, you ought to infer, etc. [Pres-
ent general condition: cf. § 618. a.]
cum rosam viderat, tum incipere v6r arbitrabatur (Verr. v. 27), whenever he saw
a rose he thought spring had begun, [Past general condition : cf . § 518. 6.]
id ubi dizisset, hastam in finis eOrum Smittebat (Liv. i. 32. 13), when he had
said this, he would cast the spear into their territories, [Past General
Condition, repeated action : see § 518. c]
1 With all temporal particles the Subjunctive is often found depending o& some
other principle of construction. (See Intermediate Clauses, § 591.)
543] P08TQUAM, UBI, ETC. 861
Temporal Clauses with postqaatu, ubs, etc.
543. The particles postquam (posteaquam), ubi, ut (ut primum, ut
emel), simul atque (simul ac, or simul alone), take the Indicative
^usually in the perfect or the historical present): —
mllites postqaam victOriam adepti sunt, nihil reliqui yictis fec6re (Sail. Cat. 11),
wlien the soldiers had won the victory^ they left nothing to the vanquisJied,
poste&quam forum attigisti, nihil fecisti nisi, etc. (Fam. xv. 16. 3), since you
came to the forum, you have done nothing except, etc.
ubi omnia idem sentire intellSzit, posterum diem ptignae c5nstituit (B. G.
iii. 23), tphen he understood that all agreed (thought the same thing), he
appointed the next day for the bcUUe.
Catillna, ubi eOs convSnisse yidet, sec6dit (Sail. Cat. 20), when CatUine sees
that they have come together, he retires,
Pomp^ius at equitd>tum suum pulsum yidit, aci6 excessit (B. C. iii. 04), when
Fompey saw his cavalry beaten, he Irft the field.
ut semel 6 FIraeeO eloquentia Svecta est (Brut. 51), as soon as eloquence had
set sail from the Pirceia,
nostrl simul in ftridO cdnstiterunt, in hostis impetum fScSrunt (B. G. iv. 26),
OUT men, as soon as they had taken a position on dry ground, made an
attack on the enemy,
simul atque introductus est, rem cOnfScit (Clu. 40), as soon as he was brought
in, he did the job.
a. These particles less commonly take the Imperfect or Pluperfect
Indicative. The Imperfect denotes a past state of things ; the Plu-
perfect, an action completed in past time : -»—
postquam structi utrimque stfltiant, duces in medium prOcSdunt (Liv. i.
23), when they stood in array on both sides, the generals advance into
the midst.
P. Africflnus poste&quam bis cOnsul et censor fuerat (Caecil. 60), when Afri-
canus had been (i.e. had the dignity of having been) twice consul and
censor,
postquam id difficilius visum est, neque f acult&s perflciendl dab&tur, ad Fom-
^ p^iam trS.nsi6runt (B. C. iii. 60), when this seemed too hard, and no means
of Meeting it were given, they passed over to Pompey,
post diem quintum quam iterum barb)9.rl male pfign&yerant [= victi sunt],
l6g&tl ft BocchO veniunt (lug. 102), the fifth day after the barbarians were
heaten the second time, envoys come from Bocchua,
haeo iuventtLtem, ubi famili9.res op^s difScerant, ad facinora incendebant
(Sail. Cat. 18), when their inherited resources had given out, etc.
ttM perlcula virttlte prdpulerant (id. 6), when they had dispelled the dangers by
Iheir valor.
For the use of ubi, ut, either alone or compounded with -cnmque, as Indefinite Rela-
tives, see $542.
852 syntax : temporal clauses [§§ 544, 545
Uses of Cum
644. The conjunction cum (qnooi) is a caM-form of the relatire pTononn qu. It
inherite from qui its sabordinating foice, and in general shares its constructions.
Bat it was early specialized to a temporal meaning (cf . torn, dun) , and its range of usage
was therefore less wide than that of qui; it could not, for example, introduce clauses
of purpose or of result.
With the Indicative, besides the simple expression of definite time (corresponding to
simple relative clauses with the Indicative), it has a few special uses, — conditional,
explicative, com inversum — all easily derived from the temporal use.
With the Subjunctive, com had a development parallel to that of the qai-clause of
Characteristic, — a development not less extensive and equally peculiar to Latin.
From defining the time the cam-clause passed over to the description of the time by
means of its attendant circumstances of cause or concession (cf. ^nce, to/Ule).
In particular, cum with the Subjunctive was used in narrative O^ence the past
tenses. Imperfect and Pluperfect) as a descriptive clause of time. As, however, the
present participle in Latin is restricted in its use and the perfect active participle is
almost wholly lacking, the historical or narrative cum-clause came into extensive use
to supply the deficiency. In classical writers the narrative cam-«lause (with the Sub-
junctive) has pushed back the defining clause (with the Imperfect or Pluperfect Indica-
tive) into comparative infrequency, and is itself freely used where the descriptive or
characterising force is scarcely perceptible (cf . the qal-sslause of Characteristic, § £34).
Qim Temporal
545. A temporal clause with cum, when^ and some past tense of
the Indicative dates or defines the time at which the action of the
main verb occurred : —
eO [lituO] regiOnSs direxit turn cum urbem condidit (Div. i. 30), he traced with
it the quarters [at Vie sky] at the time he founded the city.
cum occlditur Sex. ROscios, ibidem fnSrunt servl (Rose. Am. 120), when
Roscius was slain, the slaves were or^ the spot. [occMitnr Is historical
present.]
quern quidem cum ex nrbe peUSbam, hOc prOvidebam animO (Cat. iii. 16),
wJien I wa>s trying to force him (conative imperfect) from the city^ I
looked forward to this.
folgentls gladiOs hostium videbant Decil cam in aciem eOrum inruebant (Tusc.
ii. 59), the Decii saw the flashing swords of the enemy wJien they nished
upon their line.
turn cum in Asia. rSs mftgnfts permultl ftmlserant (Manil. 10), aJb that time,
when many had lost great fortunes in Asia.
NoTB 1. — This is the regular use with all tenses in early Latin, and at all times
with the Perfect and the Historical Present (as with postquam etc.). With the Imper-
fect and Pluperfect the Indicative use is (in classical Latin) much less common than
the Subjunctive use defined below (§646).
Note 2. — This construction must not be confused with tliat of cum, whenever, in
General Conditions (§642).
545, 5463 CUM TEMPORAL 358
TSThen th% tim« of the main clause and that of the temporal
clause are ahsolutely identical^ cum takes the Indicative in the same
.euse as that of the main verb : ^-
maxim^ sum laetitift adfectus cum audlTl oOngulem tfi factum Mae (Famv
zv. 7), I toae very much pleated when I heard thai you had heen tiectedf
546. A temporal clause with cum and the Imperfect or Pluper-
fect Subjunctive describes the circumstanees that accompanied or
preceded the action of the main verb: —
com essem 5ti()8us in Tuscul&nO, acc€pl taSs litterSs (Fam. ix. 18. 1), when I
1003 taking my ease in my houee at TuecuLum^ I received your Utter,
cam servili bellO premerStor (Manll. 30), when she (Italy) uuie under the load
of the Servile War.
com Id nfiBtultum esset, maturat (B. G. L 7), when this had been reported, he
made (makes) haste.
cum ad Cybistra quinque dies essem moratus, rSgem Ariobarz&nem Insidils
llberavi (Fam. xv. 4. 6), after remaining at Cybistra for five days, I freed
King Ariobarzanes from plots.
is cum ad me Laodiceam yenisset mScumque ego eum yeUem, repente per-
cussus est atrOcissimIs litteris (id. ix. 25. S), when he had come to me at
Laodicea and I wished him to remain with me, he wa^ suddenly , etc.
NoTK 1. —This construction is very common in narrative, and cum in tliii use !• often
called narrative cum.
Note 2. — Com with the Imperfect or Pluperfect Indicative does not (like cum with
the Imperfect or Pluperfect Subjunctive) describe the time by its cireumatanoee; it
defines the time of the main verb by denoting a coexistent state of things (Imperfect
^ Indicative) or a result attained when the action of the main verb took place (Pluper-
fect). Thus the construction is precisely that of postqnam etc. (§ 543. a).
Note 3. —The distinction between the uses defined in §§545, 546, may be illustrated
by the following examples: (1) He had a fever when he was in Spain (Shakspere).
Here the t(;Ae7M;lause defines the time when Cassar had the fever, — namely, in the year
' of his Spanish campaign (b.c. 49). In Latin we should use cum with the Imperfect
Indicative. (2) Columbus discovered America when he was seeking a new route to
India; here the loAen-clause does not define or date the time of the discovery; it
merely describes the circumstances under which America was discovered, — namely,
: -v in the course of a voyage undertaken for another purpose. In Latin we should use the
Imperfect Subjunctive.
Note 4.— The distinction explained in Note 8 is unknown to early Latin. In
Plautus qaom always has the Indicative unless the Subjunctive is required for some
other reason.
a. When the principal action is expressed in the form of a tem-
poral clause with cum, and the definition of the time becomes the
main clause, cum takes the Indicative.
Here the logical relations of the two clauses are inverted ; hence
cam is in this use called cum inversum : —
854 SYNTAX: TEMPORAL CLAUSES [§§ 546-54
•
dies nOndum decern intercesserant, com ille alter fllius Infans necAtar (CIu
28), ten days had not yet passed^ wfien the other infant son was killed
[Instead of when ten days had not yd. passed, etc.]
iamque ICLz app&rSbat cum procidit ad mllites (Q. C. vii. 8. 3), and day wa
already dawning when he appears before the soldiers,
hOc facere noct& appar&bantf cum mfttres familiae repente in publicum pra
coirSront (B. G. vii. 26), they were preparing to do this by night, when th
women suddenly ran ovt into the streds.
547. Present time with cum temporal is denoted by the Pres-
ent Indicative ; future time, by the Future or Future Perfect
Indicative : —
inciduDt tetnpora, com ea, quae maxima videntur digna esse iQst5 homine,
finiit contr&ria (Off. i. 31), times occur when those things which seem
especially worthy of the upright man, become the opposite,
nOn dubitftbO dare operam ut te videam, cam id satis commode facere potero
(Fam. xiii. I), I shall not ftesitate to take pains to see you, when I can do
it conveniently,
longum illud tempos com nGn ex5 (Att. xii. 18), that long time when I shall
be no more.
cum rSneris, cOgnOscGs (Fam. y. 7. 3), when you come (shall have come),
you will find out.
548. Cum, whenever^ takes the construction of a relative clause
in a general condition (see § 542).
For present time, either the Present or the Perfect Indicative is
used ; for past time, regularly the Pluperfect Indicative.
For eit com etc., see § 536. a. k. <.
Otm Causal or Concessive
549. Cum caiisal or concessive takes the Subjunctive : —
id difBcile ii()n est, cam tantum equitata vale&mus (B. C. iii. 86), this is not
difficuU since we are so strong in cavalry. [Causal.]
cam sOlittidO Insidi&rum et metus plena sit, ratio ipsa monet amlcitiSs com-
parare (Fin. i. 66), since solitude is full of treachery and f ear ^ reason it-
self prompts us to coTdract friendships, [Causal.]
cam priml Ordines concidissent, tamen acerrimS reliqui resistebant (B. G.
vii. 62), though the first ranks had fallen, still the others resisted vigor-
ously. [Concessive.]
brevi spatio legiOnCs numerO hominum explSverat, cam initio nOn amplins
duObus mllibus habaisset (Sail. Cat. 56), in a short time he hadfilki
out the legions with their complement of men, though at the start he had
not had more than two thousand, [Concessive.]
5'^&>5513 ANTEQUAM AND FRIU8QUAM 356
Cum causal may usually be translated by since; cum ooncessire by
It ho ugh or while; either, occasionally, by when,
^OTS 1. — Cam in these ases is often emphasized by ut, utpote, qaippe, praesertim:
», — nee reprehends : qnippe aim ipse istam reprehensionem n5u fuserim (Att. x. 3 a),
yind no fault ; since I myself did not escape that blanie.
^OTB 2. — These causal and concessive uses of cum are of relative origin and are
•strallel to qui causal and concessive (§535. e). The attendant circumstances are re-
;si,rded as the cause of the action, or as tending to hinder it.
l^OTB 3. — In early Latin cum (quom) causal and concessive usually takes the Indic-
Liiive : as, — quom tua res distrahitur, utinam videam (PL Trin. 617), since your prop-
^rty i8 being torn in pieces, that I may see, etc.
u. Cum with the Indicative frequently introduces an explanatory
statement, and is sometimes equivalent to quod, on the ground that: —
com tacent, clamant (Cat. i. 21), when they are silent, they cry orxt (i.e. their
silence is an emphatic expression of their sentiments).
gratulor tibi cum tantum vales apud DolS,bellam (Fam. iz. 14. 3), I congrcAu-
late you thai you are so strong with Dolabella.
NoTB. — This is merely a special use of cum temporal expressing coincident time
<§ 545. a).
6. Cum . . . tum, signifying both . . . and, usually takes the Indica-
tive ; but when cum approaches the sense of while or though^ the Sub-
junctive is used (§ 549) : —
cum molta nOn probS, tum illud in primis (Fin. i. 18), while there are many
things I do not approve, there is this in chirf. [Indicative.]
cum difficile est, tum n@ aequum quidem (Lael. 26), not only is it difficvU
hut even unjust.
cum r68 tota ficta sit puerlliter, tum nS efficit quidem quod vult (Fin. L 19),
^ while the whole thing is childishly got up, he does not even make his point
(accomplish what he wishes). [Subjunctive ; approaching cum causal.]
Autequatn and Priusquam
560. Antequam and priusquam, before, introduce Clauses of Time which resemble
those with cum temporal in their constructions. Priusquam consists of two parts (often
written separately and sometimes separated by other words), the comparative adverb
♦ prius, sioomr (before), which really modifies the main verb, and the relative particle
quam, than, which introduces the subordinate clause. The latter is therefore a rela-
tive clause, and takes the Indicative or the Subjunctive (Like other relative clauses)
according to the sense intended. The Subjunctive with priusquam is related to that of
purpose (§529) and is sometimes called the Anticipatory or Prospective Subjunctive.
Antequam, like priusquam, consists of two words, the first of which is the adverb ante,
h^ore, modifying the main verb. Its constructions are the same as those of priusquam,
but the latter is commoner in classic prose.
551. Antequam and priusquam take sometimes the Indicatiyoi
sometimes the Subjunctive.
366 SYNTAX: TEMPOBAL CLAUSES £§
a. With antequam or prittsquam the Perfect Indicative states \
fact in past time: —
anteqaam tufts ISgl litterfts, hominem Ire cupiSbam (Att. ii. 7. 2), before \
read your letter^ I wished the man to go,
neque ante dimlsit eum quam fidem dedit adulescSns (Liv. xzxix. 10), anli
8he did not let the young man go till he pledged his Jfaith,
neque priua fugere d3stiterunt quam ad flumen pervenerunt (B. G. i. 53), not
did they stop running untU they reached the river,
Note. — The Perfect Indicative in this construction is regular when the main
clause is negative and the main verb is in an historical tense. The Imperfect Indicative
is rare; the Pluperfect Indicative, very rare. The Perfect Subjunctive is rare and
ante-classicaly except in Indirect Discourse.
5. With antequam or priusquam the Imperfect Subjunctive is com-
mon when the subordinate verb implies purpose or expectancy, in past
time, or when the action that it denotes did not take place : —
ante pagnftrl Coeptum est quam satis Instrueretur aciSs (Liv. xxii. 4. 7), the
fight was begun b^ore the line could be properly formM.
priusquam td suum sibi venderes, ipse possSdit (Phil. ii. 96), before you covid
seU him his own property, he took possession of it himself
priusquam t€lum abici posset aut Dostri propius accederent, omnia V^ri acies
terga vertit (B. C. ii. 34), before a weapon could be thrown or our men
approached nearer , the whole line about Varus took flight.
Note 1. — The Pluperfect Subjunctive is rare, except in Indirect Discourse by se-
quence of tenses for the Future Perfect Indicative (§ 484. c): as, — antequam homines I
nefarii de meo adventu audire potuissent, in Macedoniam perresi (Plane. 98), before
those evil men coidd learn of my coming, I arrived in Macedonia.
Note 2. — After an historical present the Present Subjunctive is' used instead of the
Imperfect: as, — neque ab eO prias Domitiani milites discedunt quam in cOnspectum ^
Caesaris dedlidltnr (B. C. 1. 22), and the soldiers of Domitius did (do) not leave him
until Tie was (is) conducted into Cassar^s presence. So, rarely, the Perfect Subjunctive
(asB. G. iii. 18).
c. Antequam and priusquam, when referring to future time, take the
Present or Future Perfect Indicative ; rarely the Present Subjunctive:
priusquam d@ ceteris rSbus responded, de amiciti^ pauca dicam (PhU. u. 3), i
before I reply to the rest, I will say a little about friendship.
ik&n defatlgabor antequam illorum ancipit^s vids perceperd (De Or. iii. 145),
I shall not weary till I have traced out their doubtful ways.
antequam veniat litter93 mittet (Leg. Agr. ii. 53), before he comes, he wiU send
a letter.
Note 1. — The Future Indicative is very rare.
Note 2. — In a few cases the Subjunctive of present general condition is found with
antequam and priusquam (cf. §518. a): as, — in omnibus negotiis priusquam aggrediare,
adhibenda est praeparatio diligens (Ofif. i. 73), in all undertakings, before you proceed
to action, careful preparation must be used.
►4S2— &64] DUM, DONEC, AND QUOAD 367
DuiUy Donee, and Quoad
552. As an adverb meaning /or a timet awhile, dum is found in old Latin, chiefly
a.11 enclitic (cf. vixdum, nondum). Its use as a conjuuctimi comes either through
rela.t^ioii (cf. cam . . . tam, si . . . sic) or through substitution for a conjunction, as
t^e Kiiglish the moment I saw it, I understood. Quoad is a compound of the rela-
e qiio, up to which point, with ad. The origin and early history of donee are unknown.
553. Dum and quoad, until^ take the Present or Imperfect Sub-
irLctive in temporal clauses implying intention or expectancy : —
exspectas fortasse dum dicat (Tusc. ii. 17), you are waiting perhaps for him
to say (until he say). [Dum is especially common after exspecto.]
dum reliquae naves ccnvenirent, ad horam nSnara exspectavit (B. G. iv. 23),
he waited till the ninth hour for the rest of the shi^s to join him.
coraitia dilata [sunt] dum lex ferretur (Att. iv. 17. 3), the election was post-
poned until a law should be passed.
an id exspectamus, quoad n6 vestigium quidem Asiae civitStum atque urbium
relinquatur (Phil. xi. 26), shall we wait for this until not a trace is l^ of
the states and cities of Asia?
" EpaminOndas exercebatur pltirimum luctand(> ad eum finem quoad stans
complecti posset atque contendere (Nep. Epam. 2), Epaminondas trained
himself in wresUing so far as to he able (until he should be able) to grapple
standing and fight (in that way).
Note 1. — DSnec is similarly used in poetry and later Latin: as, — et diixit long^
donee curvata coirent inter se capita (Aen. xi. 860), and drew it (the bow) until the
curved tips touched each other.
Note 2. — Dum, untU, may be used with the Present or Future Perfect Indicative
to state a future fact when there is no idea of intention or expectancy; but this con-
struction is rare in classic prose. The Future is also found in early Latin. D5nec, untiZ,
is similarly used, in poetry and early Latin, with the Present and Future Perfect Indica-
* tive, rarely with the Future : —
ego in Arcand opperlor dum ista cognoscS (Att. x. 3), lam waiting in the vUla at
ArcsB until I find this out. [This is really dum, wliile.]
mihi usque curae erit quid agas, dum quid egeris sciero (Fam. xii. 19. 3), J shall
always fed anxious as to what you are doing, until I actually know (shall
have known) what you have done.
deUcta mftiOrum lues d5nec templa refeceris (Hor. Od. iii. 6. 1), you shall suffer for
the sins of your ancestors untU you rebuild the temples.
^v^ ter centum regnabitur ann5s, d5nec geminam partu dabit Ilia prOlem (Aen. i. 272),
sway shall be held for thrice a hundred years, until Ilia shall give birth to
twin offspring.
554. DCnec and quoad, until^ with the Perfect Indicative denote
an actual fact in past time : —
donee rediit silentium fuit (Liv. xxiii. 31. 9), there was silence until he returned.
tisque eQ timul donee ad r§iciend5s itidices venimus (Verr. ii. 1. 17), I was
, anxious until the moment when we came to cliallenge the jurors.
R5mae fuSrunt quoad L. Metellus in prCvinciam profectus est (id. ii. 62),
they remain^ at Rome untU Lucius Metellus set out for the province.
868 SYNTAX: TEMPORAL CLAUSES
Note. — Dun, untUf with the Perfect Indicative is rare: as, — m&nsit in concir
ciOne usque ad eum fiuem dam iudices r6iecti sunt (Verr. i. IG), fie remained trtie to O^
agreement until the jurors were diallenged.
555. Dam, dOnec, and quoad, as long a«, take the Indicative : —
dam anima est, spSs esse dicitur (Att ix. 10. S), as long as there is life, ikcrt
18 said to be hope.
dtim praesidia uUaf arrant, in SuUae praesidils fuit (Rose. Am. 126), so lo-n^
as there were any garrisons^ he was in the garrisons of Sulla.
dam longius & mdniiiOne aberant Galli, plus multiludine telOrum prQfici€baiit
(B. G. vii. 82), so long as the Gauls were at a distance from the fort{ficU'
tions, they had the advantage because of their missiles.
ddnec gratus eram tibi, Perslrum vigul rSge be^tior (Ilor. Od. iii. 9. 1), cls
long as I enjoyed thy favor ^ I flourished happier than the king of the
Persians.
quoad potuit fortissimG restitit (B. G. iv, 12), h^ resisted bravely as long as
he could. i
NoTB 1. — D9nec in this use is confined to poetry and later writers. |
Note 2. — Quam diu, as long as, takes the Indicative only : as, — se oppidO tain diii
tenuit quam diu in prOvincia Parthi fuSrunt (Fam. xii. 19. 2), he kept himself within the
town as long as the Parthians were in the province. i
556. Dam, whilcj regularly takes the Present Indicative to de-
note continued action in past time.
In translating, the English Imperfect must generally be used : — ^
dam haec geruntur, Caesar! nuntiatum est (B. G. i. 46), while this was going
on^ a message was brought to Coesar.
haec dum agantur, intereS Cleomenes iam ad El5rl litus pervgnerat (Verr. v. ji
91), while this was going on^ Cleomenes meanwhile had come down to the \
coast at Elorum.
hoc dum narrat, forte audivi (Ter. Haut. 272), I happened to hear this while
she was telling it. 1
Note. — This construction is a special use of the Historical Present (§ 469).
a. A past tense with dum (usually so long as) makes the time em- ^
phatic by contrast ; but a few irregular cases of dum with a past tense
occur where no contrast is intended : ^
nee enim dum eram v5biscum, animum meum videbatis (Cat. M. 79), for
while I was with you^ you could not see my soul. [Here the time when
he was alive is contrasted with that after his death.]
coorta est puena, par dum constab&nt Ordings (Liv. xxii. 47), a cor{/lict began,
well matched as long as the ranks stood firm.
But, — dum oculOs hostium certamen averterat (id. zzxii. 24), while the
struggle kept the eyes of the enemy turned away.
dam tlnum adscendere gradum cdnatus est, vSnit in perlculum (Mar. 66),
while he attempted to clinib one step [in rank] he fell into danger.
5&tJ-568J CLAUSES WITH (^UlN AND QUOMINUS 366
T^OTS. — In later writer^ dam sometimes takes the Subjunctive wbeu the classicf^l
3Lge TTould require the Indicative, and donee, untUt is freely used in this manner
ipecially by Tacitus) : —
dum ea in SamniO gererentttr, in Etruria interim bellum ingens concitur (Li v. x.
18), while this was being done in Samnium, meanwhile a great war was
stirred up in Etruria.
ilia quidem dum te fugeret, bydrum nOn vidit (Georg. iv. 457), while she was fleeing
from you she did not see the serpent.
dum per vicOs dSportarStur, condormiebat (Suet Aug. 78), while he was being car-
vied through the streets he used to fall dead asleep.
Rhenus servat nOmen et violentiam cursus (qua Germaniam praevebitur) dSnec
OceanO misceatur (Tac. Ann. ii. 6), the Rhine keeps its name and rapid course
{where it borders Germany) until it mingles with the ocean.
temporibusque August! dicendis nOn defuere decdra ingenia donee gliscente adu-
latidne d6terr6rentur (id. i. 1), for describing the times of Augustus there
was no lack of talent until it was frightened away by the increasing servility
of the age.
For dum, provided that, see § 528.
Clauses with QuTs and QuOminus
667. The original meaning of quin is how not? why not? (qui-ne), and when
used with the Indicative or (rarely) with the Subjunctive it regularly implies a general
negative. Thus, quln ego hoc rogem? why should nU I ask this? implies that there is
no reason for not asking. The implied negative was then expressed in a main clause,
like nulla causa est or fieri ndn potest. Hence come the various dependent construc-
tions introduced by quio.
Qudminus is really a phrase (quo minus), and the dependent constructions which it
introduces have their origin in the relative clause of purpose with quo and a com-
pai'ative (see § 531. a).
558. A subjunctive clause with quin is used after verbs and
other expressions of hindering^ resisting., refusing^ doubting., de-
laying^ and the like, when these are negatived^ either expressly or
by implication : —
nOn htim&na Ulla neque dlvina obstant quin sociOs amfcOs trahant exscindant
(Sail. Ep. Mith. 17), no human or divine laws prevent them from taking
> captive and exterminating their friendly allies.
at ne SuessionSs quidem deterrere potuerint quin cum his consentirent (6. G.
ii. 3), that they were unable to hinder even the Suessiones from making
common cause with them.
nCn posse mllitgs contin?ri quin in urbem inrumperent (B. C. ii. 12), tliat the
soldiers could not be restrained from bursting in*o the city.
nOn recusal quin iudices (Deiot. 48), he does not object to your judging.
neque recfl»&re quin armls contendant (B. G. iv. 7), and that they did not
refine to fight.
praeterire nOn potui quln scriberem ad td (Caesar ap. Cic. Att. ix. 6 a), I could
not neglect to vjrite to you.
360 SYNTAX: DEPENDENT CONSTRUCTIONS [§ 56«
Tlrfiven tOtltis hiemis ntlUum tempus intermlserjmt qum iSgfttOs mitterent
(B. 6. V. 55), the Treveri let no part of the wilder pass wiihout sending
ambassadors. [Cf. B. G. v. 53; B. C. i. 78.]
n6n cuiictandam existim9,vit quin ptlgna dScertftret (B. G. iii. 23), he thoughi
he ought not to delay risking a decisive battle.
paulum afuit quin Varum interficeret (B. C. li. 85), he Just missed killing
Varus (it lacked little but that he should kill),
neque raultum &fuit quin castrls ezpellerentur (id. 11. 35), they came near being
driven out of the camp.
facere nOn possum qain cotldie ad t3 mittam (Att. xii. 27. 2), I cannot help
sending to you every day.
fieri ntlllo modO poterat quin CleomenI parcerStur (Yerr. v. 104), it was out
of the question that Cleomenes should not be spared.
ut effici n(^n possit qiun e6& oderim (Phil. xi. 86), so that nothing can prevent
my hating them.
a. Quin is especially common with nOn dubitO, 1 do not doubt, nSii
est dubium, there is no dovbt, and similar expressions : —
nOn dubitabat qum el crederemus (Att. vi. 2. 3), he did not doubt thai we
believed him.
m
illud cav6 dubitCs qmn ego omnia faciam (Fam. y. 20. 6), do not doubt thai
I will do all.
quis IgnOrat quin tria GraecOrum genera sint (Place. 64), who is ignorant
that there are three races of Greeks ?
nOn erat dubium quin Helv6tii plurimum possent (cf. B. G. i. 3), there was no
doubt that the Helvetians were most powerful, ,
neque Caesarem fefellit quin ab lis cohortibus initium victOriae oriretur (B. C.
iii. 94), and it did not escape Ccesar^s notice that the beginning of the vic-
tory came from those cohorts.
Note 1. — Dubit5 without a negative is regularly followed by an Indirect Ques-
tion ; so sometimes n5n dubito and the like : —
nOn nulli dubitant an per Sardiniam veniat (Fam. ix. 7), some doubt whether he
is coming through Sardinia.
dubitate, si potestis, a quo sit Sex. Roscius occisas (Rose. Am. 78), douht^ if you
can, by whom Sextus Roscius was murdered.
dubitabam tu has ipsas litteras essSsne accepturus (Att. xv. 9), I doubt whether
you will receive this very letter. [Epistolary Imperfect (§ 479).] ,
qu&lis sit futurus, ne vOs quidem dubitatis (B. C. ii. 32), and what it (the outcome) '
will bey you yourselves do not doubt,
nOn dubito quid sentiant (Fam. xv. 9), /cfo not doubt what they think.
dubium illi n5n erat quid futurum esset (id. viii. 8. 1), it was not doubtful to him
what was going to happen.
Note 2. — Non dubitS in the sense of I do not hesitate commonly takes the Infini-
tive, but sometimes quin with the Subjunctive : —
nee dubitare ilium appellare sapientem (Lael . 1 ) , and not to hesitate to call him a sage.
dubitandnm nOn existimavit quin proficisceretur (B. G. ii. 2), he did not think he
ought to hesitate to set out.
quid dubitas uti temporis opportunitate (B. C. ii. 34), why do you hesitate to take
advantage of the favorable moment 9 [A question implying a negative.]
r^ 558, 569] CLAUSES WITH qViN AND QUOlilNUS 861
&• Verbs of hindering and refusing often take the subjunctive with
aS or quOminus (= ut e5 minus), especially when the verb is not nega-
bived : —
plura ne dicam tuae me lacrimae impediunt (Plane. 104), your tears preverU
me from speaking further.
nee aetas impedit quominas agri colendi stasia tene&mus (Cat. M. 00), nor
does age prevent us from retaining an interest in tilling the sou.
nihil impedit quominus id facere potsimas (Fin. i. 33), nothing hinders us
from being able to do that.
obstitisti ne translre cQpiae possent (Verr. v. 6), you opposed the passage of
the troops (opposed lest the troops should cross).
Note. — Some verbs of hindering may take the Infinitive: —
nihil obest dicere (Fam. ix. 13. 4), there is nothing to prevent my saying it,
prohibet accSdere (Caec. 46), prevents him from approaching,
559. A clause of Result or Characteristic may be introduced by
quin after a general negative, where quin is equivalent to qui (quae,
quod) nOn: —
1. Clauses of Result : —
nem5 est tam fortis quin [= qui nOn] rei novitate perturbStur (B. G. vi. 80),
no one is so brave as not to be disturbed by the unexpected occurrence.
nSmO erat ade5 tardus quin put&ret (B. C. i. 69), ru> one was so slothful as not
to thinkj etc.
quis est tam dSmens quin oentiat (Balb. 43), who is so senseless as not to
think, etc.?
nil tam difiicilest quin quaerendO investlgftrl possiet (Ter. Haut. 676), noth-
* ing '« 80 hard but search will find it out (Herrick).
2. Clauses of Characteristic : —
n6mo nostrum est quin [ = qui n5n] sciat (Rose. Am. 56), there is no one of
us who does not know.
n6m5 fuit mllitum quin vulnerarStur (B. C. iii. 63), th^e was not one of the
. soldiers who was not wounded.
ecquis fuit quin laciimaret (Verr. v. 121), was there any one who did not shed
> team's f
qnis est quin intellegat (Fin. v. 64), who is there who does not understand f
hOrum nihil est quin [ = quod n5n] intereat (N. D. iii. 30), there is none of
these (elements) which does not perish.
nihil est ill6rum quin [ = quod n5n] ego illl dixeiim (PI. Bac. 1012), there is
nothing bf this that I have not told him.
Note. — Quin sometimes introduces a pure clause of result with the sens© of ut n5n :
as,— numquam tam male est Siculis quin aliquid facete et commode dicant (Verr. iv.
95), things are never so bad with the Sicilians but that thsy ham^ somsihin^f p l ^astmt
or witty to say.
For quin in independent constructions, see § 449. b.
362 SYNTAX : SUBSTAIHIVE CLAUSES [§§ 06CMM
SUBSTANTIVB CLAUSES
560. A clause which is used as a Doun may be called a Substantive Clause, a
certain relative clauses are sometimes called adjective clauses. Bat in practice th
term is restricted to clauses which represent a nominative or an accusative case, tb
clauses which stand for an ablative being sometimes called adverbial clauses.
Even with this limitation the term is not quite precise (see p. 367, footnote 1). Th
fact is rather that the clause and the leading verb are mutually complementary ; eaci
reinforces the other. The simplest and probably the earliest form of such sentence
is to be found in the paratactic use (see § 268) of two verbs like volo abeis, dicamoi
cinseS, adeam optimum est. From such verbs the usage spread by analogy to other
verbs (see lists on pp. 3C3, 367, footnotes), and the complementary relation ol the
clause to the verb came to resemble the complementary force of the accusative, espe-
cially the accusative of cognate meaning (§ 3U0).
561. A clause used as a noun is called a Substantive Clause.
a. A Substantive Clause may be used as the Subject or Object of
a verb, as an Appositive, or as a Predicate Nominative or Accusative.
Note 1. — Many ideas which in English take the form of an abstract noun may he
rendered by a substantive clause in Latin. Thus, ?ie demanded an investigation may
be postaUbat at qnaestiS haberfitor. The common English expression for with the 1
infinitive also corresponds to a Latin substantive clause: as, — it remains /or me to
speak of the piratic loar, reliquam est at d6 bello dicam piratioS.
NoTB 2. — When a Substantive Clause is used as subject, the verb to which it is
subject is called impersonalt and the sign of the construction in English is commonly
the so-called expletive it.
562. Substantive Clauses are classified as follows : —
1. Subjunctive Clauses ( a. Of purpose (command, wish, fear) (§§ 563, 664).
(at, n6,atnon,etc.). \ b. Of result {happen, effect, etc.) (§568).
2. Indicative Clauses with quod : Fact, Specification, Feeling (§ 572).
3. Indirect Questions: Subjunctive, introduced by an Interrogative Word
(§§ 573-676).
4. Infinitive Clauses ( ^- fjf.^ ^f ^ ^* ordering wishing, etc. (§ 663).
[ 0. Indirect Discourse (§ 679 ff.).
Note. — The Infinitive with Subject Accusative is not strictly a clause, but in Latiu
it has undergone so extensive a development that it may be so classed. The uses of
the Infinitive Clause are of two kinds : (1) in constructions in which it replaces a sub-
junctive clause with ut etc. ; (2) in the Indirect Discourse. The first class will be dis-
cussed in connection with the appropriate subjunctive constructions (§663) ; for Indirect
Discourse, see § 579 ff .
Substantive Clauses of ParpoM
583. Snbst«ntiTe Clauses of Purpose with ut (negattra ni) iire
used as the object of verbs denoting an action directed toward the
fit^jure.
I
&63j SUBSTANTIVE CLAUSES OF PURPOSE 368
Such are, verbs meaning to admonish, ask, bargain, command, de-
, determine, permit, persuade, resolve, urge, and wish : — ^
monet at omnSs suspIciOnes latet (B. G. 1. 20), he warns him to avoid all
suspicion.
hortatiir eOs ne animO dgficiant (B. C. i. 19), ?ie urges them not to lose heart,
te rogO atque 6r5 ut eum iaves (Fam. xiii. 66), 1 beg and pray you to aid him.
his atj conquirerent imper&vit (B. G. i. 28), he ordered them to search,
persuMet CasticO ut regnuin occuparet (id. i. 3), he persuades Casticus to
usurp royal power,
suls imperavit n€ quod omninO tglum reicerent (id. 1. 46), he ordered his men
not to throw back any weapon at all,
4
Note. — With any verb of these classes the poets may use the Infinitiye instead of
object clause : —
hortatnur fan (Aen. ii. 74), we urge piim] to speak.
ne quaere docSri (id. yi. 614), seek not to be told,
temptat praevertere (id. i. 721), she attempts to turn, etc.
For the Subjunctive without ut with verbs of commanding, see § 565. a.
a. lubeC, order, and veto, forbid, take the Infinitive with Subject
Accusative : —
Labienum iugum mentis ascendere iubet (B. G. i. 21), he orders Labienus to
ascend the ridge of the hUl,
liberos ad se adduci iussit (id. ii. 6), ^ ordered the children to be brought to him.
ab opere Ugitoa discedere vetuerat (id. ii. 20), he had forbidden the lieutenants
to leave the work,
vetuCre [bona] reddi (Liv. ii. 5), they forbade the return of the goods (that the
goods be returned).
Note. — Some other verbs of commanding etc. occasionally take the Infinitive : —
pontem imperant fieri (B. C. i. 61), they order a bridge to be built,
res monet cav§re (Sail. Cat. 62. 3), t?ie occasion warns us to be on our guard,
&. Verbs of wishing take either the Infinitive or the Subj unctive.
With vole (nOie, mal5) and cupi5 the Infinitive is commoner, and
the subject of the ijifinitive is rarely expressed when it would be the
same as that of the main verb.
With other verbs of wishing the Subjunctive is commoner when
the subject changes, the Infinitive when it remains the same.
1. Subject of dependent verb same as that of the verb of wishing: —
augur fieri volul (Fam. xv. 4. 13), I wished to be made augur,
cupiO vigiliam meam tibi tradere (id. xi. 24), I am eager to hand over my watch
to you.
^tmSh verbs orlrefrbal phwises ure id ag6, ad Id veniS, cave« (n6), cSneeS, c8g5, con-
cM5, o5n8titu5, cfiro, decerao, €dic5, flagito, hortor, impero, inst5, mandd, metuS (n8),
moneS, negStium do, operam d5, 5rd, perstUlded, peto, postuld, praecipid, precor, prdnfintid,
quaei5, togfi^ seisco, time5 (n6), vereor (n6), vide5, volo.
864 SYNTAX : SUBSTANTIVE CLAUSES [§ U
lUdicem me esse, nOn doctOrem yolO (Or. 117), I wUh to he ajvuige^ riot
teacher.
mS Caesaris mllitem did yolul (B. C. ii. 32. 13), I wished to be called a soldii
of CoBsar.
cupio me esse clementem (Cat. i. 4), I desire to be merciful. [But regalarlj
cupiO esse clCmCns (see § 457).]
omnis homings, qui sSs§ student praestare cSterls animSlibus (Sail. Cat. 1)
cUl men who wish to excel other living creatures.
2. Subject of dependent verb different from that of the verb of ttnshing.
YolO t€ scire (Fam. ix. 24. 1), I wish you to know.
yim Yolumus ezstingui (Sest. 92), we wish violence to be put down.
te tu& tmi virtute cupimus (Brut. 331), we wish you to reap the fruits of your
virtue,
cupio ut impetret (PI. Capt. 102), I wish he m,ay get it.
Dumquam optab5 ut audiatis (Cat. ii. 15), I will never desire that you shall
hear.
For TOld and its compounds with the Subjanctive without at, see § 565.
o« Verbs of permitting take either the Subjunctive or the Infini-
tive. Patior takes regularly the Infinitive with Subject Accusative ;
so often 8in5 ; —
permlsit at faceret (De Or. ii. 366), permitted him to make.
concgdO tibl ut ea praetereAs (Rose. Am. 54), I allow you to pass by these
matters.
tahem&cula statu! passus nOn est (B. C. i. 81), he did not allow tents to be \
pitched.
▼{hum importari n5n sinunt (B. G. iv. 2), they do not allow wine to be imported.
d. Verbs of determining , decreeing^ resolving ^ bargaining, take
eitJUer the Subjunctive or the Infinitive : —
cOnstituerant ut L. B@stia quereretur (Sail. Cat. 43), they houd determined that
Lucius Bestia sfiould complain.
proeliO supersedSre statuit (B. G. ii. 8), he determined to rrfuse battle.
de bonis r€gis quae reddi cSnsuerant (Liv. ii. 5), about the king^s goodSj which
they had decreed should be restored.
d6cernit uti consults dilectum habeant (Sail. Cat. 34), decrees that the consuls
shall hold a levy.
edicts nS quis IniussfL pOgniret (Liv. v. 19), having commanded that none
should fight without orders.
Note 1. — Different verbs of these classes with the same meaning vary In their
ionstruction (see the Lexicon). For verbs of bargaining etc. with the Gerundiye, see
§600.4.
NoTK 2. — Verbs of decreeing and voting often take the Infinitive of the Seoond
Periphrastic conjugation: — Regulus captivos reddendos [esse] nOn oensuit (Off. i.39),
Regulus voted that the captives should not be returned* [He said, in giving his formal
opinion: captivi n6n reddendi sunt.]
§ 56a-565] SUBSTANTIVE CLAUSES OF PURPOSE 866
e. Verbs of caution and effort take the Subjunctive with ut. But
;5nor, trt/, commonly takes the Complementary Infinitive : —
ctira ut quam primum intellegam (Fam. xiii. 10. 4), let me know as soon aapoS"
sible (take care that I may understand).
dant operam at habeant (Sail. Cat. 41), iJiey take pains to Jiave (give their
attention that, etc.).
iinx>ellere uti Caesar nominarStar (id. 49), to induce them to name Cceaar (that
Caesar should he named),
conatus est Caesar reficere pontis (B. C. i. 50), Cceaar tried to rebuild the bridges.
Note 1. — Conor si also occurs (as B. G. i. 8) ; cf. miror si etc., § 672. b. n.
NoTB 2. — Ut n6 occurs occasionally with verbs of caution and effort (cf. §531); —
cura et prQvide ut nSquid ei dSsit (Att. xi. 3. 3), take care and see that he lacks nothing.
For the Subjunctive with quin and qudmintts with verbs of hindering etc., see § 558.
564. Verbs of fearing take the Subjunctive, with n6 af5Srma-
tive and n6 n6n or ut negative.
In this use n6 is commonly to be translated by that, ut and nS nOn
by that not : —
timeO ne Verres fecerit (Verr. v. 3), I fear thai Verres has done, etc.
ne animum offenderet verebatur (B. G. i. 19), he feared that he should hurt
the feelings J etc.
ne ezhered&retur veritus est (Rose. Am. 58), he feared that he should be dis-
inherited.
Crater metuo n5 languescat senecttlte (Cat. M. 28), I fear the orator grows
fe^lefrom old age,
vereor ut tibi possim conc€dere (De Or. i. 35), I fear that I cannot grant you.
haud sane periculum est ne non mortem optandam putet (Tusc. v. 118), there
is no danger that he will not think death desirable.
Note. — The subjunctive in nS-clauses after a verb of fearing is optative in origin.
To an independent ne-sentence, as ne accidat, may it not happen^ a verb may be prefixed
(cf. § 560), making a complex sentence. Thus, vide nS accidat ; oro n6 accidat ; cavet nS
accidat ; when the prefixed verb is one of fearing, timeo nS accidat becomes let it not hap-
pen, but I fear that it may. The origin of the ut-clause is similar.
565. Vole and its compounds, the impersonals licet and oportet,
^ and the imperatives die and fac often take the Subjunctive with-
out ut : —
vols ames (Att. ii. 10), I wish you to love.
quam vellem me invitasses (Fam. x. 28. 1), how I wish you had invited me I
mallem Cerberum metueres (Tusc. i. 12), I had rather you feared Cerberus.
sint enim oportet (id. i. 12), for they must exist
queramur licet (Caec. 41), we are allowed to complain.
fac diligis (Att. iii. 13. 2), do love I [A periphrasis for the imperative dilige,
love (ct §449. c).]
die exeat, tell him to go out.
366 SYNTAX : SUBSTANTIVE CLAUSES £§§ 666, yfi
NoTB 1. — In such cases there Is no ellipsis of ut. The expressions are idiomati
remnants of an older construction in which the subjunctives were hortatory or optatit
and thus really independent of the verb of wishing etc. In the classical period, how
ever, thej were doubtless felt as subordinate. Compare the use of cavC and the sub
junctive (without nS) in Prohibitions (§ 450), which appears to follow the analogy of lac
Note 2. — Licet may take (1) the Subjunctive, usually without at; (2) the simpb
Infinitiye ; (3) the Infinitive with Subject Accusative ; (4; the Dative and the Infini
tive (see § 455. 1). Thus, / may go is licet earn, licet ire, licet mS ire, or licet mihi ire.
For licet in concessive clauses, see § 527. 6.
NoTB 3. — Oportet may take (1) the Subjunctive without ut; (2) the simple Infini-
tive ; (3) the Infinitive with Subject Accusative. Thus / must go is oportet earn, oportet
ire, or oportet m9 ire.
a. Verbs of commanding and the like often take the subjunctive
without ut : —
huic tnandat RSmOs adeat (B. G. iii. 11), he orders him to visit the Bemi.
rogat finem faciat (Id. i. 20), he asks him to cease,
MnSsthea vocat, classem aptent socil (Aen. iv. 289), he calls Mnestheus [and
orders that] his comrades shall make ready the fleet.
NoTB. — The subjunctive in this construction is the hortatory subjonctiye used to
express a command in Indirect Discourse (§ 688).
Substantive Clauses of Purpose with Passive Verbs
566. A Substantive Clause used as the object of a verb becomes
the subject when the verb is put in the passive {Impersonal Conr
8truction): —
Caesar at c5gn5sceret postulSltam est (B. C. 1. 87), CcBsar was requested to
make an investigation (it was requested that CsBsar should malfe an
investigation).
8l erat H6racli5 ab senatu mandatum ut emeret (Verr. iii. 88), if Eeraclius
had been instructed by the senate to buy.
si persuasum erat Cluvi5 ut mentir5tur (Rose. Com. 51), if Cluvius had been
persuaded to lie.
putO concedl nobis oportCre ut GraecO verbO atamur (Fin. iii. 15), I think
we must be atlowed to use a Greek word.
n8 quid els noceitur a Caesare cav6tur (B. C. i. 86), CoRsar takes care that no
harm shall be done them (care is taken by Csesar lest, etc.).
a. With verbs of admonishinfjj the personal object becomes the
subject and the object clause is retained : —
admoniti sumus ut caveremus ( Att. viii. 11 d. 3), we were warw>d to be cartful
cum mongrgtur ut cautior esset (Div. i. 61), when he was advised to be more
cautioits.
monen visus est nS id faceret (id. 56), he seemed to be warned not to do it
t 506-668] SUBSTANTIVE CLAUSES OF RESULT 867
&• Some verbs that take an infinitive instead of a subjunctive
ve used impersonally in the passive, and the infinitive becomes the
ixbject of the sentence : —
loqui nOn concGditur (B. G. vi. 20), it is not allowed to speak,
c. With ittbeO, veto, and cOgd, the subject accusative of the infinitive
3e comes the siibject nominative of the main verb, and the infinitive is
retained as complementary (Personal Construction) : —
adesse iubentur postrldiS (Verr. ii. 41), they are ordered to be present on the
following day,
ire in exsilium iussus est (Cat. ii. 12), he was ordered to go into exile,
SimOnides vetitus est nflyigHre (Div. ii. 134), Slmonideswa^ forbidden to sail.
Mandubil ez!re c()guntur (B. G. vii. 78), the Mdndubii are compelled to go out.
Substantive Clauses of Result (Consecutive Clauses)
567t Clauses of Result may be used substautiyely, (1) as the object of faciS etc.
(§ 568); (2) as the subject of these same verbs in the passive, as well as of other verbs
and verbal phrases (§ 560); (3) in apposition with another substantive, or as predicate
nominative etc. (see §§ 670, 671) .^
568. Substantive Clauses of Result with ut (negative ut nOn)
are used as the object of verbs denoting the accompliBhment of
an effort?
Such are especially faciO and its compounds (efficiO, cGnficiG, etc.) : —
efficiam at inteUeg&tis (Clu. 7), I will make you understand (lit. effect that
^ you, etc.). [So, faciam ut intellegatis (id. 9).]
comme&tus ut port&rl possent efficiSbat (B. G. ii. 6), made it possible that
supplies could be brought.
perfficl ut 6 r5gn6 ille discederet (Fam. xv. 4. 6), I brought about his departure
from the kingdom,
quae Ubert&s ut laetior esset regis superbia fScerat (Liv. ii. 1), the arrogance
of the king had made this liberty more welcome.
Cvincunt Instand5 ut litterae darentur (id. ii. 4), by insisting they gain their
^ point, — that letters should be sent [Here gvincunt = efficiunt.]
1 In all these cases the clause is not strictly subject or object. The main verb orig-
inally conveyed a meaning sufficient in itself, and the result clause was merely com-
plementary. This is seen by the frequent use of ita and the like with the main verb
(ita accidit ut, etc.). In like manner purpose clauses are only apparently subject or
object of the verb with which they are connected.
2 Verbs and phrases taking an ut-clause of result as subject or object are acc€dit,
accidit, additur, altera est rSs, committd, cdnsequor, contingit, efllcio, Sveiit, facio, fit, fieri
potest, fore, impetro, integrum est, mSs est, munus est, necesse est, prope est, rSctum est,
relinquitar, leliquum est, restat, tant! est, tantum abest, and a few others
868 - SYNTAX : SUBSTANTIVE CLAUSES [§§ 668-671
NoTB 1. — The expressions facere at, oommittere at, with the subjunctive, often f oim
a periphrasis for the simple verb : as, — invitus fSci at Flaminium e senatu eiceFem
^Gat. M. 42), it wan with reluctance that 1 expelled Flaminiusfrom the senate.
669. Substantive Clauses of Result are used as the subject of
the following: —
1. Of passive verbs denoting the accomplishment of an effort : —
impetr^tum est ut in sen&tii recitarentar (litterae) (B. C. 1. 1), they succeeded
in having the letter read in the senate (it was brought about that, etc.).
ita efl&citur ut omne corpus mortaie sit (N. D. iii. 30), it therefore is made
ovi that every body is mortal.
2. Of Im personals meaning it happens, it remains, it fallows^ it is
necessary, it is added, and the like (§ 568, footnote) : —
accidit ut asset luna plena (B. G. iv. 29), it happened to befuU moon (it hap-
pened that it was, etc.). [Here ut asset is subject of accidit.]
reliquum est ut officiis certemus inter nOs (Fam. vii. 31), i^ remains for us to
vie with each other in courtesies.
restat ut h6c dubitemus (Rose. Am. 88), it is l^for us to doubt this.
sequitur ut docaam (N. D. ii. 81), the next thing is to show (it follows, etc.).
Note 1. — The infinitive sometimes occurs: as, ^- nee enim acciderat mihi opus
esse (Fara. vi. 11. l),/or it had not happened to be necessary to mc.
Note 2. — ITecesse est often takes the subjunctive without at : as, — ooncCdSs necesse
est (Rose. Am. 87), you must grant,
3. Of est in the sense of it is the fact that, etc. (mostly poetic) : —
est ut vir5 vir latius ordinet arbusta (Hor. Od. iii. 1. 9), it is the fact that one
man plants his vineyards in wider rows than another.
a. Fore (or futllrum esse) ut with a clause of result as subject is
often used instead of the Future Infinitive active or passive; so
necessarily in verbs which have no supine stem : —
sperO fore ut contingat id n()bls (Tusc. i. 82), I hope that will be our happy lot
cum vidSrem fore ut ndn possam (Cat. ii. 4) , when I saw that I should not be able.
570. A substantive clause of result may be in apposition with
another substantive (especially a neuter pronoun): —
illud etiam restiterat, ut t6 in iiis §diicarant (Quinct. 33), this too remained—
for them to drag you into court.
571. A substantive clause of result may serve as predicate
nominative after mOs est and similar expressions : —
eat mos hominum, ut nolint eundem pluribus rfibus excellere (Brut. 84); 4i w
the way of men to be unwillin^f for one man to excel in several things.
&7X, 672] INDICATIVE WITH QUOD 369
A result clause, with or without ut, frequently follows quam
fcer a comparative (but see § 583. c) : —
CanachI signa rigidiOra sunt qaam ut imitentur v^ritatem (Brut. 70), tJie statues
of Canachus are too stiff to represent nature (stiff er than that they should) .
perpessus est omnia potius quam indicaret (Tusc. ii. 62), he endured all rather
than betray, etc. . [Regularly without ut except in Livy.]
hm The phrase tantum abest, it is so far [from being the case],
3gularly takes two clauses of result with ut; one is substantive, the
ubject of abest ; the other is adverbial, correlative with tantum: —
tantum abest at nostra miremur, at Usque eO difficilds ac mOrOsI simut, at
hdbls n5n satis faciat ipse Demosthenes (Or. 104), so far from admiring
my own works, I am difficult and captious to that degree that not Demos-
thenes himself satisjies me. [Here the Jirst at-clause is the subject of
abest (§ 569. 2); the second, a result clause after tantum (§ 537); and
the third, after asque eo.]
ۥ Rarely, a thought or an idea is considered as a result, and is
expressed by the subjunctive with ut instead of the accusative and
infinitive (§ 580). In this case a demonstrative usually precedes :
praeclarum illud est, ut eds . . . amemus (Tusc. ill. 73), this is a noble thing,
that we should love, etc.
yeri simile nOn est at ille anteponeret (Verr. iv. 11), i^ is not likely that he
preferred,
Yqiz Belatiye Clauses with qoin after yerbs of hindering etc., see § 568.
Indicative with Quod
572. A peculiar form of Substantive Clause consists of quod
(in the sense of that^ the fact that) with the Indicative.
The clause in the Indicative with quod is used when the state-
ment is regarded as a fact: —
alteram est yitium, quod quidam nimis magnum studium conferunt (Off. i. 19),
it is another fault that some bestow too much zeal, etc. [Here at conferant
could be used, meaning thaJt some should bestow ; or the accusatiye and
infinitive, meaning to bestow (abstractly); quod makes it a fact that men
do bestow, etc.]
tQter inanimam et animal hOc maximS interest, quod animal agit aliquid
(Acad. ii. 37), this is the chi^ difference between an inanimate object and
an animal, that an animal aims at something.
quod rediit nObis mir&bile yid^tur (Off. iii. Ill), Vud he (Regulus) returned
seems wonderful to i^a.
accidit perincommode quod eum nusquam vidisti (Att. i. 17. 2), it happened
wry unly^kily that you nowhere saw him.
370 SYNTAX : SUBSTANTIVE CLAUSES [§§ 57:^. a1
»
opporttlnissima r&s accidit qaod Germ&nl ySnSnint (6. G. iv. 13), a very fa
tuncUe thing happened, (namely) that the Germans came,
praetereO quod earn sibi domum s^deinque delegit (Clu. 188), I p<iss overti
fact that she chose that house and home for herself,
mittO quod possessa per vim (Flacc. 79), / disregard the fact that they toe
seized by violence.
Note. — Like otlier substaotiye clauses, the clause with quod may be used as scl
jecty as object, as appositiye, etc., but it is commonly either the subject or in appoa
tion with the subject.
a. A substantive clause with quod sometimes appears as an accu
sative of specification, corresponding to the English whereas or (u
to the fact that : —
quod mihi d€ nostr5 statu gratularis, minim 6 miramur te tuls praecl^is operi-
bus laet&ri (Fam. i.7.7)y as to your cov^atidating me on our ccndltion,
we are not at all surprised that you are pleased with your own noble toorks.
quod de dom5 sczibis, ego, etc. (Earn. xiv. 2. S), as to what you torite of Va
house, J, etc.
h. Verbs oi feeling and the exj^ression of feeling take either qiiod
(quia) or the accusative and infinitive (Indirect Discourse) : —
quod scribis . . . gaude5 (Q. Er. iii. 1.0),/ am glad thpt you write.
faci5 libenter quod eam nOn possum praeterire (Legg. i. 63), I am glad thai I
cannot pass it by,
quae perfecta esse vehementer laetor (Rose. Am. 136), I greatly r^oice tkd^
this is finished, \
qui quia nOn habuit & m6 turmSs equitum fortasse su»c6nset ( Att. vl. 3. 5)^ wh
perhaps feels angry that he did not receive squadrons of cavalry from me.
moleste tull te senatui grfttias n5n Sgisse (Fam. x. 27. 1), I was dlspleaaei
that you did not return thanks to the senate.
Note. — Miror and similar expressions are sometimes followed by a clause with si.'
This is apparently substantive, but i*eally protasis (cf. §6<>3. e, n. i). Thus, — miror
SI quemquam amicum habere potuit (Lael.M), I wonder if he could ever have a friend,
[Originally, If this is so, I wonder at it,]
Indirect Questions I
573, An Indirect Question is any sentence or clause which is [
introduced by an interrogative word (pronoun, adverb, etc.), and
which is itself the subject or object of a verb, or depends on any
expression implying uncertainty or doubt.
In grammatical form, exclamatory sentences are not distin-
guished from interrogative (see the third example below),
1 Cf . the Greek $av/idi<a e/.
574, 675] INDIRECT QUESTIONS 371
574. An Indirect Question takes its verb in the Subjunctive :
quid ipse sentiam expOnam (Div. i. 10), I will explain what I think, [Direct :
quid sentio ?]
id possetne fieri cOnsuluit (id. i. 32), he consulted whether it could be done,
[Direct: potestne?]
quam sis audax omnSs intellegere potuerunt (Rose. Am. 87), all could under-
stand flow bold you are, [Direct : quam es audAz I]
doleam necne doleam nihil interest (Tusc. ii. 20), it is of no account whether I
suffer <w noi. [Double question.]
quaesivi a Catilinft in conventa apud M. Laecam ftiisset necne (Cat. ii. 13), I
asked Catiline whether he had been at the meeting at Marcus Loica^a or
not. [Double question.]
rogat m6 quid sentiam, he asks me what I think. [Cf. rogat m8 sententiam, Jie
asks me my opinion,]
hoc dubium est, uter nostrum sit inverCcundior (Acad. ii. 126), this is doubt-
ful, which of us two is the less mx)dest,
incerti quatenus VolerO exercSret victOriam (Liv. ii. 65), uncertain how far
Volero wovM push victory. [As if dubitantis qufttenus, etc.]
Note. — An Indirect Question may be the subject of a yerb (as in the fourth exam-
ple), the direct object (as in the first), the secondary object (as in the sixth), an apposi-
tiye (as in the seventh).
575. The Sequence of Tenses in Indirect Question is illus-
trated by the following examples : —
dico quid faciam, I tell you what I am doing,
dice quid facturus sim, I teU you what I toiU (shall) do,
died quid fecerim, I teU you what I did {Jiave done, was doing).
dix! quid facerem, I told you what I was doing,
dM quid fecissem, I told you what I had done (had been doing),
dixl quid facturus essem, I told you what I would (should) do (was going to do).
dixi quid facturus fuissem, I told you what I would (should) have done.
a. Indirect Questions referring to future time take the subjunc-
tive of the First Periphrastic Conjugation : —
prOspiciO qui concursQs futfiri sint (Caecil. 42), I foresee what throngs there
^ will be, [Direct: qui erunt?]
quid sit futumm cr9s, fuge quaerere (Hor. Od. i. 9. IS) ^forbear to ask what will
be on the morrow. [Direct : quid erit or f uturum est ?]
poBthac n5n scribam ad t6 quid facturus sim, sed quid fecerim (Alt. x. 18),
hereafter I shall not write to you what I am going to do, but what I have
done. [Direct : quid facias (or facturus eris) ? quid fecisti ?]
Note.— This Periphrastic Future avoids the ambiguity which would be caused by
using the Present Subjunctive to refer to future time in such clauses.
6. The Deliberative Subjunctive (§ 444) remains unchanged in an
Indirect Question^ except sometimes in tense : —
372 SYNTAX: SUBSTANTIVE CLAUSES [§§575,51
qo5 me Tertam nesciO (Clu. 4), I do not know which way to turn. [I>irect
quo me yertam ?]
neque satis cOnstd,bat quid ageient (B. G. iii. 14), and it was not very clear who
they were to do. [Direct : quid ag&mus ?]
nee quisquam satis certain habet, quid aut spSret aut timeat (Liv. mrii, 7. 10).
nor is any one well assured wfiat he shall hope or fear. [Here tlie futun
participle with sit could not be used.]
incertO quid peterent aut yit^b:ent (id. xxviii. 36. 12), since it was lioiMfid
(ablative absolute) what they sho\dd seek or shun.
c. Indirect Questions often take the Indicative in early Latin aud
in poetry : —
Yineam quo in agr5 cOnserl oportet sic observatG (Cato B. B. 6. 4), in wTiat
soil a vineyard should be set you must observe thus.
d. NesciO quia, when used in an indefinite sense (somebody or other)^
is not followed by the Subjunctive.
So also nescid quO (unde^ etc.), and the following idiomatic phrases
which are practically adverbs : —
mlrum (nimlrum) quam, marvelXously (marvellous how). i
mirum quantum, tremendously (marvellous how much).
imm3,iie quantum, monstrou^y (monstrous how much).
83,ne quam, immensely.
valde quam, enormously.
Examples are : — i
qui istam nescio quam indolentiam m&gnopere laadant (Tuso. iii. 12), who
greatly extol that freedom from pain, whatever it is. |
minun quantum prOfuit (Liv. ii. 1), it ?ielped prodigiously.
ita tSX6 nescid qud contigisse arbitror (Fam. zv. 13), I think U happened so
by some fatality or other.
nam 8u5s valde quam paucOs habet (id. xi. 13 a. 3), /or he has uncommonly
few of his own. •
sflnS quam sum gavisus (id. xi. 13 a. 4), I was immerady glad.
immane quantum discrepat (Hor. Od. i. 27. 6), is monstroudy at variance.
576. In colloquial usage and in poetry the subject of an In-
direct Question is often attracted into the main clause as object
(Aecusative of Anticipation) : —
nOstI MJLrcellum quam tardus sit (Fam. viii. 10. 3), you know how slow Mar-
cellus is. [For ndsti quam tardus sit MarceUus. Cf. '* I know thee who
thou art."]
Cf . potestne igitur eirum reram, qua re futurae sint, tllla esse praesGnsiO (Div.
ii. 16), can there be, then, any foreknowledge as to those things^ why fhe^
wUl occur? [A similar use of the Objective Genitive.]
I
S S76, 577] INDIRECT DISCOURSE 878
IM^OTE. — In some cases the Object of Anticipation becomes the Subject by a change
f T^oice, and an apparent mixtore of relative and interrogative constructions is the
esxilt : —
quidam saepe in parva pecunia perspiciuntur qnam sint levgs (Lael. 63) fit is often
seeUf in a trifling matter of money , how unprincipled some people are (some
people are often seen through, how unprincipled they are),
quern ad modum Pompeium oppugnarent a me indicati sunt (Leg. Agr. i.6)yit has
been shown by me in what way they attacked Pompey (they have been shown
by me, how they attacked).
a. An indirect question is occasionally introduced by si in the
^ense of whether (like if in English, cf. § 672. b, n.) : —
circumfundiintur hostes si quern aditum reperlre possent (B. G. vi. 37), the
enemy pour round [to see] if they can find entrance,
visam si domi est (Ter. Haut. 170), I will go see if he is at home.
Note. — This is strictly a Protasis, but usually no Apodosis is thought of, and the
clause is virtually an Indirect Question.
For the Potential Subjunctive with forsitan (originally an Indirect Question), see
§ 447. a.
INDIR£CT DISCOURSE
677. The use of the Accusative and Infinitive in Indirect Discourse (prdtio obliqua)
is a comparatively late form of speech, developed in the Latin and Greek only, and
perhaps separately in each of them. It is wholly wanting in Sanskrit, but some forms
like it have grown up in English and German.
The essential character of Indirect Discourse is, that the language of some other
X>erson than the writer or speaker is compressed into a kind of Substantive Clause, the
^erb of the main clause becoming Infinitive, while modifying clauses, as well as all.
hortatory forms of speech, take the Subjunctive. The person of the verb necessarily
conforms to the new relation of persons.
» The construction of Indirect Discourse, however, is not limited to reports of the
language of some person other than the speaker ; it may be used to express what any
one — whether the speaker or some one else — says, thinksy or perceiveSf whenever that
which is saidf thought ^ oi perceived is capable of being expressed in the form of a com-
plete sentence. For anything that can be said etc. can also be reported indirectly as
well as directly.
The use of the Infinitive in the main clause undoubtedly comes from its use as a
case-form to complete or modify the action expressed by the verb of saying and its
object together. This object in time came to be regarded as, and in fact to all intents
^ became, the subject of the infinitive. A transition state is found in Sanskrit, which,
though it has no indirect discourse proper, yet allows an indirect predication after verbs
of saying and the like by means of a predicative apposition, in such expressions as
"The maids told the king [that] his daughter [was] bereft of lier senses. '*
The simple form of indirect statement with the accusative and infinitive was after-
wards amplified by introducing dependent or modifying clauses ; and in Latin it became
a common construction, and could be used to report whole speeches etc., which in other
larnguages would have the direct form. (Compare the style of reporting speeches in
English, where only the person and tense are changed.)
The Subjunctive in the subordinate clauses of Indirect Discourse has no significance
except to make more distinct the fact that these clauses are subordinate ; consequently
no direct connection has been traced between them and the uses of the mood in simple
874 SYNTAX : SUBSTANTIVE CLAUSES £§§ 577-5
sentences. It is probable that the sub j nnctive in indirect questions (§ 574) , in inf orn
indirect discourse (§ 592), and in clauses of the integral part (§ 593) represents tj
earliest steps of a moyement by which the subjunctive became in some degree a iim^
of subordination.
The Subjunctive standing for hortatory forms of speech in Indirect Discourse
simply the usual hortatory subjunctive, with only a change of person and tense |
necessary), as in the reporter's style.
578. A Direct Quotation gives the exact words of the origim
speaker or writer (Ordtio Be eta).
An Indirect Quotation adapts the words of the speaker o
writer to the construction of the sentence in which they ar|
quoted (Ordtio Obllqua).
NoTS. — The term Indirect Discourse (oratio ohliqiLa) is used in two senses. Il
the wider sense it includes all clauses — of whatever kind — which express the wor '\
or thought of any person indirectly f that is, in a form different from that in which il'
person said the words or conceived the thought. In the narrower sense the term In«ii-
rect Discourse is restricted to those cases in which some complete proposition is citpii
in the form of an Indirect Quotation, which may be extended to a narrative or n:
address of any length, as in the speeches reported by Giesar and Livy. In this booik
the term is used in the restricted sense.
Formal Indirect Discourse
579. Verbs and other expressions of knowing^ tldnking^ telling,
and perceiving,^ govern the Indirect Discourse.
NoTB. — Inquam, said I (etc.) takes the Direct Discourse except in poetry.
Declaratory Sentences in Indirect Discourse
580. In Indirect Discourse the main clause of a Declaratoiy
Sentence is put in the Infinitive with Subject Accusative. All
subordinate clauses take the Subjunctive : —
sciO mg paene incredibilem rem pollicen (B. C. iii. 86), I know that I am
promising an almost incredible thing, [Direct: polliceor.]
nOn arbitror tS ita sentire (Fam. x. 26. 2), I do 7wt suppose that you feel
thus. [Direct: senlis.]
spSrO m8 liberfttum [esse] de metti (Tusc. ii. 67), / trust I have been freed
from fear, [Direct: liberatus sum.]
1 Such are : (1) knowing ^ scio, cognosco, compertum habeo, etc. ; (2) (kinkinfj, pato.
ezistimd, arbitror, etc. ; (3) fellirigf dico, nuntio, refers, polliceor, promittd, certiorem faciii.
etc. ; <4) perceiving, senti5, comperiS, videS, audid, etc. So in general any word Ihat
denotes thought or mental and visual perception or their expression may govern the
Indirect Discourse.
580] INDIRECT DISCOURSE 375
[dicit] esse non nullos quOrum auctOritds plUrimom valeat (B. G. i. 17), he
says there are some^ whose ivfiuence most prevails, [Direct : sunt ndn
null! . . . valet.]
niai iur&sset, scelus s5 factfimm [esse] arbitr&b&tur (Verr. ii. 1. 123), he
\ thoughi he should incur guilty unless he should take the oath. [Direct :
^si iOrftvezo, faciam.]
ce. The verb of saying etc. is often not expressed, but implied in
some word or in the general drift of the sentence : —
c5nsulis aiterias nOmen iuvlsam clyit9rti luit: nimiam TarquiniSs rSgDO
adsuessis; initium ft FrisCO factum; rSgnAsse dein Ser. Tullium, etc.
(Liv. ii. 2), the name of the other consul was hateful to the state; the Tar-
quins (tbe^ thought) had become too much accustomed to royal power ^ etc.
[Here invistim implies a thought, and this thought is added in the
form of Indirect Discourse.] ^ .
Grantes ut urbibus saltem — iam enitn agrSs Ilepl9rftt5s esse — opem senfttus
ferret (id. xli. 6), praying that the senate would a< least bring aid to the
cities — for thefietda [they i9aid] were already given up as lost.
b» The verb negO, deny, is commonly used in preference to dltH with
a negative : —
[StOici] negant quidquam [^sse] bonum nisi quod honestum sit (Fin. ii. 68),
the Stoics assert that nothing is good but whqt is right.
c. Verbs oi promising, hoping, expecting, threatening, swearing,
) and the like, regularly take the construction of Indirect Discourse,
contrary to the English idiom : —
'^ min3.tur sesS abire (PI. Asin. 604), he threatens to go away. [Direct : abed,
I am going away.]
'^ spSrant se maximum fructum esse captilros (Lael. 79), they hope to gain the
utmost advantage. [Direct: capiemas.]
spSrat se absolutum iri (Sull. 21), he hopes that he shall be acquitted. [Direct :
absolvar.]
quern inimicissimum futfirum esse prOmittS ac spondeO (Mur. 90), who I
promise and warrant will be the bitterest of enemies. [Direct: erit.]
dolor fortitiidinem sS dSbilitatfirum minatur (Tusc. v. 76), pain threatens to
wear down fortitude. [Direct: debilit£bd.]
c6iifid6 me quod velim facile a t6 impetratfimm (Fam. xi. 16. 1), I trust I
shall easily obtain from you what I wish. [Direct: quod volo, impe-
trabd.]
Note.— These verbs, however, often take a simple Complementary Infinitive (§ 466).
So regularly in early Latin (except spero): — i
pollicentur obsides dare (B. G. iv. 21), they promise to give hostages,
prOmiai dolium vini dare (PI. Cist. 542), I promised to give ajar of wine.
1 Compare the Greek aorist infinitive after similar verbs.
876 SYNTAX : SUBSTANTIVE CLAUSES [§§ 680, 581
<!• Some verbs and expressions may be used either as verbs of
saying, or as verbs of commanding, effecting, and the like. These
take as theii- object either an Infinitive with subject accusative or a
Substantive clause of Purpose or Besult^ according to the sense.
1 . Infinitive with Subject Accusative (Indirect Discourse) : —
laadem sapientiae statuO esse mazimam (Fam. v. 13), I hold that the glory of
wisdom is the greatest, [Indirect Discourse.]
rfis ipsa monebat tempus esse (Att. x. 8. 1), the thing itseif warned thai it
was time. [Cf. monSre at, warn to do something,]
fac mihi esse persu&sum (N. D. i. 75), suppose that I am persuaded of that.
[Cf. facere at, bring it about tJiat,]
hoc volunt persuftd^re, non inteiiie aiiimis (B. G. vi. 14), they wish to con-
vince that sotds do not perish.
2. Subjunctive (Substantive Clause of Purpose or Result): — I
statuunt ut decern milia liominum mittantor (B. G. vii. 21), t?iey resolve thai
10,000 men shaU he sent. [Purpose clause (cf. § 663).]
huic persuadet uti ad hostis transeat (id. iii. 18), he persuades him to pa^
over to the enemy.
Pompeius suis praedixerat ut Caesaris impetum exciperent (B. C. iii. 92),
Pompey had instructed his men beforehand to await Ccesar^s attack.
deiitlnti3,vit ut essent anim5 par&tl (id. iii. 86), h^ bade them be alert and
steadfast (ready in spirit).
NoTB. — The infinitive with subject accusative in this construction is Indirect Dis-
course, and is to be distinguished from the simple infinitive sometimes found with these
verbs instead of a subjunctive clause (§ 563. d).
581. The Subject Accusative of the Infinitive is regularly ex-
pressed in Indirect Discourse, even if it is wanting in the direct:
Or&tor sum, I am an orator ; dicit se esse OrfttGrem, he says he is an orator.
Note 1. — But the subject is often omitted if easily understood: —
ienSscere imprudentiae dixit (B. G. iv. 27), Ac said fie pardoned their rashness.
eadem ab aliis quaerit : reperit esse vera (id. i. 18), ?ie inquires cibout these satne
things from others; he finds that they are true.
NoTB 2. — After a relative, or quam {than) , if the verb would be the same as that of
the main clause, it is usually omitted, and its subject is attracted into the accusative : —
te suspicor eisdem rebus quibus mS ipsum commoveri (Cat. M. 1), J suspect that
you are disturbed by the same things as I. ^
confido tamen haec quoque tibi non minus grata quam Ipsos librSs fntura (Pllu.
Ep. iii. 5. 20), / trust that these facts too will be no less pleasing to you than
the books themselves.
Note 3. — In poetry, by a Greek idiom, a Predicate Noun or Adjective in the indi-
rect discourse sometimes agrees with the subject of the main verb: —
vir bonus et sapiens ait esse paratus (Hor. Ep. i. 7. 22), a good and wise man says
he is prepared, etc. [In prose : ait bB esse par&tum.]
sensit medios deUpsus in hostis (Aen. ii. 377), he found himself fallen among the
foe. [In prose : sS esse dSlapsum.]
§§ &82, 683] INDIRECT DISCOURSE 377
582. When the verb of saying etc. is passive^ the construction
may be either Personal or Impersonal. But the Personal con-
st>i*uction is more common and is regularly used in the tenses of
incomplete action : —
be&te yizis8e Tideor (Lael. 15), I seem to haw Zioed JiappUy.
£paminODda8 fidibus praecl&rd oecinisse ^dtar (Tusc. i. 4), Epaminondds is
said to have played excellently on the lyre.
mult! idem facturl esse dicontur (Fam. xvi. 12. 4), many are said to be dboiU
to do the same thing, [Active : dicant multos facturos (esse).]
priml tradiintur arte quSdam verba vinxisse (Or. 40), they first are related to
have joined words wUh a certain skill.
Bibulus aodKbator esse in Syri& (Att. v. 18), it was heard that Bibulus was in
^yria (Bibulus was heard, etc.). [Direct: Bibulus est.]
c€terae niyrici legiSn^s secuttirae spSrabantur (Tac. H. ii. 74), the rest of the
legions of Illyricum were expected to follow.
yidemur enim qui^tUrl fuisse, nisi ess^mus lacesslti (De Or. ii. 230), it seems
that we tiuyM have kept quiet, if we had not been molested (we seem, etc.).
[Direct: quiSssemus . . . nisi essSmus lacesslti.]
Note. — The poets and later writers extend the personal use of the passive to verbs
Tvhich are not properly verba sentiendi etc. : as, — colligor dominae placuisse (Ov. Am.
ii. 6. 61), it is gathered [from this memorial] that I pleased my mistress.
a* In the compound tenses of verbs of saying etc., the impersonal
construction is more common, and with the gerundive is regular ; —
tridltam est etiam Hom6mm caecum fuisse (Tusc. v. 114), it is a tradition,
too, t^ixit Homer was blind.
ubi tyrannus est, ibi nOn vitiOsam, sed dicendum est pl&n€ ntillam esse rem
pUblicam (Rep. iii. 43), where there is a tyrant, it must be said, not that
the commonwealth is evU, but that it does not exist at all.
Note . — An indirect narrative begun in the personal construction may be continued
with the Infinitive and Accusative (as De Or. ii. 299; Liv. v. 41. 9).
Subordinate Clauses in Indirect Discourse
583. A Subordinate Clause merely explanatory, or containing
^ statements which are regarded as true independently of the quo-
tation, takes the Indicative: —
quis neget haec omnia quae videmas de5mm potestate administrarl (Cat. iii.
21), who can deny that all these things we see are ruled by the power of
the gods f
c^us ingenio putabat ea quae gesserat posse celebrari (Arch. 20), by whose
genius he thought that those deeds which he had done could be celebrated.
[Here the fact expressed by quae gesserat, though not explanatory, is
felt to be true without regard to the quotation : quae gessisset would
mean, what Marius claimed to have done.]
378 SYNTAX: SUBSTANTIVE CLAUSES [§§ 683, 5»
Note. — Snch a clause in the indicative is not regarded as a part of tlie Indirect
Discourse ; but it often depends merely upon the feeling of the writer whetlier he shal
use the Indicative or the Subjunctive (cf. §§ 591-^93).
a. A subordinate clause in Indirect Discourse occasionally takes
the Indicative when the fact is emphasized ; —
factum 6ias hostis perlculum . . . cum, Cimbris et Teutonis . . . pulsis, noQ
minOrem laudem exercitus quam ipse imi>er3,tor meritus videbator (6. G.
i. 40), thai, a trial of this enemy had been made when^ on the d^eat of the
Cimhri and Teutonic the army seemed to have deserved no less credit than
the commander himself.
6, Clauses introduced by a relative which is equivalent to a
demonstrative with a conjunction are not properly subordinate, and
hence take the Accusative and Infinitive in Indirect Discourse (see
§308./): —
M^j'cellus requisisse dicitur Archim€dem illam, quern cum audisset inter-
f actum permolestS tulisse (Verr. iv. 131), Marcdlus is said to have sougU
for Archimedes^ and when he heard that he was slain, to have been greatly
distressed, [quern = et eum.]
cSusent linum quemque nostrum mundl esse partem, ex quo [= et ex eo]
illud n3,tur& consequi (Fin. iii. 64), they say that each one of us is a part
of the universe, from which this naturaUy follows.
Note. — Really subordinate clauses occasionally take the accusative and infinitive:
as, — quern ad modum si n5n dedatur obses pr5 rupto foedus sS habitunim, mc deditam
inviolatam ad suOs remissurum (Liv. ii. 13), [he says] as in case the hostage is not
given up he shall consider the treaty as broken, so if given up he will return her
unharmed to her friends.
c. The infinitive construction is regularly continued after a com-
parative with quam : —
addit s6 priuB occlsum Irl ab e5 quam me violatum in (Att. ii. 20. 2), he adds
that he himself will be killed by him, before I shaU be injured.
nOnne adflrmarVi quidvis m& potius perpessurum quam ex Italia exitoruin
(Fam. ii. 16. 3), did I not assert that I would endure anything rather ^
than leave Italy f
Note. — The subjunctive with or without ut also occurs with quam (see §635. c).
Tenses of the Infinitive in Indirect Discourse *
584. The Present, the Perfect, or the Future Infinitive^ is used
in Indirect Discourse, according as the time indicated is present,
past^ OT future with reference to the verb of saying etc. by which
the Indirect Discourse is introduced : —
^ For various ways of expressing the Future Infinitive^ see § 164. 3. c.
§§ 584, 586] TENSES IN INDIRECT DISCOURSE 379
cad5, lam falling.
dicit sd cadere, he says he iafaUing.
dixit sS cadere, hs said he was falling.
cadSbam, ItoasfaUing; ced^ IfcU, have fallen;
ceddeiam, I had fallen,
dIcit 88 ceddisse, he says he was falling, fell, has fallen, had fallen.
dixit sh cecidisse, he said he fell, had fallen,
cadam, I shaU fall.
dIcit sS cisflnim [esse], he says he sfiall fall.
dixit sg casfirom [esse], h£ said he should fall.
cedderd, I shall Tiave fallen,
dicit fore ut ceddezit [rare], he says he shall have fallen.
dixit fore at ceddiaset [rare], he said he should have fallen.
} «• All varieties of past time are usually expressed in Indirect
Discourse by the Perfect Infinitive, which may stand for the Imper-
fect, the Perfect, or the Pluperfect Indicative of the Direct.
Note. — Continued or repeated action in past time is sometimes expressed by the
Present Infinitive, which in such cases stands for the Imperfect Indicative of the Direct
Discourse and is often called the Imperfect Infinitive.
This is the regular construction after memini when referring to a matter of actual
experience or observation: as, — te memini haec dicere, I rememher your saying this
(that you said this) . [Direct : dixist! or dicSbfts.]
&• The present infinitive posse often has a future sense : —
totlus Gralliae s&sfi potlrl posse spGrant (B. G. i. 3), they hape that they shaU
be able to get possession of all Gaul,
' Tenses of the Subjunctive in Indirect Discourse
585. The tenses of the Subjunctive in Indirect Discourse fol-
low the rule for the Sequence of Tenses (§ 482). They depend for
their sequence on the verb of saying etc. by which the Indirect
, Discourse is introduced.
Thus in the sentence, dixit sS R5mam itfirum ut cSnsulem videret, he said he
^ should go to Rome in order that he might see the consul, videret follows the sequence
of dixit without regard to the Future Infinitive, itumm [esse], on which it directly
^ depends. ^
Note.— This rule applies to the subjunctive in subordinate clauses, to that which
stands for the imperative etc. (see examples, § 588), and to that in questions (§ 586).
a. A subjunctive depending on a Perfect Infinitive is often in the
Imperfect or Pluperfect, even if the verb of saying etc. is in a pri-
mary tense (cf. § 485. ,/); so regularly when these tenses would have
been used in Direct Discourse : —
380 SYNTAX : SUBSTANTIVE CLAUSES [§§ 685, m
Tarquinium dizisse ferunt turn exsulantem b6 inteUezisse qiiOs fid5s amicos
habiiisset (Lael. 63), Viey teU us that Tairquin said that then in his exile
he had found out what faiJthful friends he had had. [Here the main verb
of saying, f enmt, is primary^ but the time is carried back by dizisse and
intellezisBe, and the sequence then becomes secondary.]
tantum piSfedtM iddSmtir ut ft Graecis n6 yerbOrum quidem copia vinceremoi
(N. D. i. 8), we seent to have advanced so far that even in abundance of
words we are not surpassed by the Greeks.
NoTB 1. — The proper sequence may be seen, in each case, by turning the Perfect
Infinitiye into that tense of the Indicative which it represents. Thus, if it stands for
an imperfect or an historical perfect, the sequence will be secondary ; if it stands for
a perfect d^nite, the sequence may be either primary or secondary (§ 485. a) .
Note 2. — The 8o<<»lled imperfect infinitive after memini (§584. a. n.) takes the
secondary sequence: as, — ad me adire quOsdam memini, qui dioerent (Fam. iii. 10. 6), 1
remember that some persons visited me, to tell ms, etc.
h. The Present and Perfect Subjunctive are often used in depend-
ent clauses of the Indirect Discourse even when the verb of saying
etc. is in a secondary tense : —
dicebant . . . totidem NerviOs (pollic6r!) qui longissime absint (B. G. ii. 4),
they said that the Nervii, who live farthest off, promised as many.
NoTB. — This construction comes from the tendency of language to refer aU time
in narration to the time of the speaker (repraesentatio) . In the course of a long x)a»-
sage in the Indirect Discourse the tenses of the subjunctive often vary, sometimes fol-
lowing the sequence, and sometimes affected by repraesentatio. Examples may be
seen in B. G. i. 13, vii. 20, etc.
Certain constructions are never affected by repraesentatio. Such are the Imperfect
and Pluperfect Subjunctive with cum temporal, antequam, and priusquam.
Questions in Indirect Discourse
586. A Question in Indirect Discourse may be either in the
Subjunctive or in the Infinitive with Subject Accusative.
A real question, asking for an answer, is generally put in the ■
Subjunctive ; a rhetorical question, asked for effect and implying
its own answer, is put in the Infinitive : —
quid sibi vellet ? ciir in suas possessiongs veniret (B. G. i. 44), what did he
want f why did he come into his territories f [Real question. Direct :
quid vis ? cfir venis ?]
num recentium iniflriSrum memoriam [sg] dfiponere posse (id. 1. 14), could
he lay aside the memory of recent wrongs? [Rhetorical Question.
Direct : num possum ?]
quem signum daturum f ugientibus ? quem ausflrum Alexandre succSdere (Q. C.
iii. 6. 7), who will give the signal on the retreat f who will dare succeed
Alexander f [Rhetorical. Direct : quia dabit . . . aud«bit.]
§§ 68e-589] COMMANDS IN INDIRECT DISCOURSE 381
Note 1. — No sharp line can be drawn between the Subjunctive and the Infinitive
In questions in the Indirect Discourse. Whether the question is to be regarded as
T'fietorical or real often depends merely on the writer's point of view : —
utnim partem regni petitunun esse, an totum Creptliram (Liv. zlv. 19. 15), wUl you
ask part of the regal power (he said) , or seize the whole f
quid tandem praetori faciendum fulsse (id. zzxi. 48), what, pray ^ ought aprmtor to
have done f
quid repente factum [esse] cur, etc. (id. zxxiy. 54), what had suddenly happenedy
that, etc. ?
Note 2. — Questions coming immediately after a verb of asking are treated as Indi-
lect Questions and take the Subjunctive (see § 674). This is true even when the verb
of asking serves also to introduce a passage in the Indirect Discourse. The question
may be either real or rhetorical. See quaesivit, etc. (Liv. xzxvii. 15).
For the use of tenses, see § 585.
587. A Deliberative Subjunctive (§ 444) in the Direct Dis-
course is always retained in the Indirect : —
cur aliquOs ex suls &mitteret (B. C. i. 72), why (thought he) sho^idd he lose
some of his men f [Direct : cur &mittam ?]
CommandB in Indirect Discourse
588. All Imperative forms of speech take the Subjunctive in
Indirect Discourse : —
reminisceretur veteris incommodi (B. G. i. 13), remember (said he) the ancient
disaster, [Direct: reminiscere.]
finem faciat (id. 1. 20), let him make an end, [Direct : fac]
ferrent opem, adiavarent (Liv. ii. 6), let them bring aid, let them help.
a. This rule applies not only to the Imperative of the direct dis-
course, but to the Hortatory and the Optative Subjunctive as well.
Note 1. — Though these suhjunctives stand for independent clauses of the direct
discourse, they follow the rule for the sequence of tenses, heing in fact dependent on
the verh of saying etc. (cf. §§ 483, 685).
Note 2. — A Prohihition in the Indirect Discourse is regularly expressed by n8 with
the present or imperfect subjunctive, even when noli with the infinitive would be used
in the Direct: as, — ng perturbirentur (B. G. vii. 29), do not (he said) he troubled,
[Direct : nolite perturbari. But sometimes noUet is found in Indirect Discourse.]
Conditions in Indirect Discourse
589. Conditional sentences in Indirect Discourse are expressed
as follows : —
1. The Protasis, being a subordinate clause^ is always in the
Subjunctive.
2. The Apodosis, if independent and not hortatory or optative,
is always in some form of the Infinitive.
382 SYNTAX : SUBSTANTIVE CLAUSES [§ 589
a. The Present Subjunctive in the apodosis of less vivid futture
conditions (§ 516. b) becomes the Future Infinitive like the Futuie
Indicative in the apodosis of more vivid future conditions.
Thus there is no distinction between more and less vivid future
conditions in the Indirect Discourse.
Examples of Conditional Sentences in Indirect Discourse axe —
1. Simple Present Condition (§515): —
(dixit) ffl ipse populO K6m&n0 non praescxiberet quern ad modum suO iure
uteretur, nOn oportere s6se & populO ROmanO in suO iure impedln (B. 6.
i. 86), he said that if he did not dictate to the Roman people how Uiey
should use their rights^ he ought not to he iiderfered with by the Roman
people in the exercise of his rights. [Direct : si non praescnbo . . . non
opoztet.]
praedic&yit ... si pace Htl velint, iniqaum esse, etc. (id. i. 44), he asserted
that if they wished to enjoy peace, it was unfair, etc. [Direct : si yolunt
. . . est. Present tense kept by repraese^iiatio (§ 686. b. n.).]
2. Simple Past Condition (§ 515): —
nOn dicam ne illud quidem, si maxima in culpsl fuerit ApoUCnius, tamen in
hominem honestissimae clvitsltis honestissimum tam graviter animad-
vert!, causa indicta, nOn oportuisse (Verr. v. 20), I wiU not say this
either, that, even if ApoUonius was very greatly in fault, stiU an honorable
man from an honorable state ought not to have been punished so severely
without having his case heard. [Direct : si fait . . . n5n oportoit.]
3. Future Conditions (§ 516) : —
(dixit) quod si praeterea nem5 sequatur, tamen sS cum 86la decima legiOne
iturum (B. 6. i. 40), but if nobody else shmdd follow, still he would go
with the tenth legion atone. [Direct : si sequetar . . . ibo. Present tense
by repraesentdtid (§ 686. b. n.).]
Haeduls sS obsid^s reddittlrum ndn esse, neque els . . . bellum ilUtunun, si
in eO manerent, quod conygnisset, stipendiumque quotannis pendeient :
si id n5n fecissent, longS eis fratemum n5men populi ROmanI Afutu-
rum (id. i. 86), he said that he would not give up the hostages to the
Haedui, but would not make war upon them if they observed the agreement
which had been made, and paid tribute yearly ; but that, if they should
-) not do this, the name of brothers to the Roman people would be far from
aiding them. [Direct : reddam . . . inleram ... si manebunt . . . pen-
dent: SI ndn fecerint . . . aberit.]
id DatamSs ut audivit, sSnsit, si in turbam exisset ab bomine tam necessa-
ri5 se relictum, futurum [esse] ut cSteri consilium sequantur (Nep. Dat.
6), when Datames heard this, he saw that, if it shmild get abroad that he
had been abandoned by a man so closely connected witJi hi7n, everybody
else would follow his example. [Direct: si exierit . . . seqnentor.]
§ 689] CONDITIONS IN INDIRECT DISCOURSE 383
(pat&ySrunt) nisi mS civitate ezpolissent, obtinSre sS n5n posse licentiam
cupidit&tum suarum (Att. x. 4), they thought thai unless they drove me
out of the state, they covM not have free play for their desires. [Direct :
nisi (Cicerdnem) expulerimas, obtinSre n5n potezimus.]
b» In changing a Condition contrary to fact (§ 617) into the Indi-
rect Discourse, the following points require notice : —
1. The Protasis always remains unchanged in tense.
2. The Apodosis, if active, takes a peculiar infinitive form, made by com-
hiining the Participle in -lims with fuisse.
3. If the verb of the Apodosis is passive or has no supine stem, the pe-
riphrasis fntiinun fuisse ut (with the Imperfect Subjunctive) must be used,
4. An Indicative in the Apodosis becomes a Perfect Infinitive.
Examples are : —
nee 86 sni>erstitem Miae lutnram fuisse, nisi spem ulclscendae mortis @ius
in auxili5 commilit5num habuisset (Liv. iti. 50. 7), and that he should
not now be a survivor, etc., unless he had had hope, etc. [Direct: non
superstes essem, nisi habuissem.]
illud Asia c5gitet, niUlam & sS neque belli extern! neque discordi&rum do-
mesticSrum calamitatem afutfiram fuisse, si hoc imperi5 nOn teneretur
(Q. Fr. i. 1. 34), let Asia (personified) think of this, that no disaster, etc.,
w(yuJld not be hers, if she were not held by this government, [Direct :
abesset, si non tenSrer.]
quid immlciti9>rum crSditis [me] excepturum fuisse, si Insontis lacessissem
(Q. C. vi. 10. 18), what enmities do you think I ^ould have incurred, if
I had wardordy assailed the innocent f [excepissem ... si lacessissem.]
invltum s6 dicere, nee dictfimm fuisse, ni c3,ritds re! ptiblicae vinceret (Liv.
ii. 2), that he spoke unwillingly and should not have spoken, did not love
for the state prevail. [Direct: nee dixissem . . . ni vinceret.]
nisi eO tempore quidam nunti! de Caesaris victoria . . . essent allili, exist!-
m&bant plSrique futnrum fuisse uti [oppidum] amitteretur (B. C. iii. 101),
most people thought that unless at that time reports of Coesar^s victory
had been brought, the town would have been lost. [Direct : nisi essent
aU&ti . . . ftmissum esset.]
quCinim si aetas potnisset esse longinquior, f uturum fuisse ut omnibus per-
fects artibus hominum vita erudiretnr (Tusc. iii. 69), if life could Have
been longer, human existence would have been embellished by every art in
its perfection. [Direct: si potuisset . . . erudlta esset.]
at plerlque eidstimant, si Ocrius InsequI voluisset, bellum e5 di€ potuisse
finire (B. C. iii. 61), but most people think that, if he had chosen to follow
up the pursuit more vigorously, he could have ended the war on that day.
[Direct: si voluisset . . . potuit.]
Caesar respondit . . . slalicillusiniuriae sibi conscius fuisset, non fuisse dif-
ficile cav6re (B. G. i. 14), Coesar replied that if [the Roman people] had
been aware of any vrrong act, it would not have been hard for them to take
precautions. [Direct: si fuisset, n3n difficile fuit (§ 517. c).]
884
SYNTAX: SUBSTANTIVE CLAUSES
[§§ 589^91
Note 1. — In Indirect Disooorse Present €onditions contrary- to fact are not dis-
tinguished in the apodosis from Past Conditions contrary to fact, but the protasis may
keep them distinct.
Note 2. — The i)eriphra8is fatunun fuisse at is sometimes used from choice when
there is no necessity for resorting to it, but not in CaBsar or Cicero.
Note 3. — Very rarely the Future Infinitive is used in the Indirect Discourse to ex-
press the Apodosis of a Present Condition contrary to fact. Only four or five examples
of this use occur in classic authors : as, — Titurius clamabat si Caesar adesset neque
Carnutes, etc., neque EburOnes tanta cum contemptiOne nostra ad castra yentnros esse
(B. G. V. 29), Titurius cried out that if Cassar were present, neither would the Car-
nviesj etc., 7U)r would the Eburones be coming to our camp with such contempt.
[Direct : si adesset . . . venirent.]
590. The following example illustrates some of the foregoing
principles in a connected address : —
INDIRECT DISCOURSE
Si pd>cein populus ROmftnus cum
HelvStils faoeret, in eam partem itfirds
atque ibi futords HelvetiSs, ubi eOs
Caesar constituisset atque esse voluis-
set: Bin bell5 persequi persevSraret,
remim8cer§tur et veteris incommodi
populi ROmSLnl, et pristinae virtutis
HelvetiOrum. Quod imprOvisO unum
pagum adortus esset, cum el qi^ flUmen
tr&nslssent sals auxilium f erre n5n pos-
sent, n6 ob eam rem aut suae mSgrt6
opere virtStl tribueret, aut ipsSs despi-
ceret: se ita S, patribus mSiOribusque
suis didicisse, ut magis virttlte quam
dolO contenderent, aut Insidils niteren-
tur. QuS, re ne committeret, ut is locus
ubi constitissent ex calamitSLte populi
R5m&nl et intemeciCne exercitfls n(V>
men caperet, aut memoriam proderet.
— B. G. i. 13.
DIRECT DISCOURSE
SI pdrCem populus ROmSnus cum
Helv€tils faciei, in eam partem ibunt
atque ibi erunt Helvetil, ubi eds tu
cSnstitueris atque esse volueiis: sin
bell5 persequi persever&bis, reminiscere
[inquit] et veteris incommodi populi
R5mSlnI, et pristinae virtutis Helve-
tiOrum. Quod imprOvIsO Snum pagum
adortus es, cum el qui fltlmen trfinsie-
rant suls auxilium ferre n5n possent, ne
ob eam rem aut tuae m3.gnO opere vir-
ttltl tribueris, aut n5s despexeiis: nos
ita 5, patribus md,iOribusque nostiis didi-
dmnsi ut magis yirtflte quam dolO con-
tendamus, aut Insidils nitftmur. Qua re
noli committere, ut hie locus ubi consti-
timus ex calamitftte populi R5mani et
intemeciOne exercitus nOmen capiat,
aut memoriam pr5dat.
Intermediate Clauses
591. A Subordinate clause takes the Subjunctive —
1. When it expresses the thought of some other person than the
speaker or writer (^Informal Indirect Discourse), or
2. When it is an integral part of a Subjunctive clause or equiva-
lent Infinitive (Attraction).^
1 See note on Indirect Discourse (§ 577).
§ 692] INFORMAL INDIRECT DISCOURSE 386
Informal Indirect Discourse
592. A Subordinate Clause takes the Subjunctive when it
expresses the thought of some other person than the writer or
speaker : —
1. When the clause depends upon another containing a wish, a
command, or a question, expressed indirectly^ though not strictly in
tiie form of Indirect Discourse : —
animal sen tit quid sit quod deceat (Off. i. 14), an animal feds what it is thaJt
isftt.
huic imperat quSs possit adeat clvit^ltSs (B. G. iv. 21), ?ie orders him to visit
u>?uU states he can.
himc sibi ex animO scrupulum, qui s€ digs noctlsque stimulat ac pungit, ut
evellatis postulat (Rose. Am. 6), he begs you to pluck from his heart this
doubt that goads and stings him day and night. [Here the relative
clause is not a part of the Purpose expressed lq SyelUtis, but is an
assertion made by the subject of postolat.]
2. When the main clause of a quotation is merged in the verb of
saying, or some modifier of it : —
si quid de his rebus dicere vellet, fSci potest&tem (Cat. iii. 11), if fie wished
to say anything about these matters,' I gave him a chance.
tulit d@ caede quae in AppiS. vi^ fkcta esset (Mil. 15), he passed a law con-
cerning the murder which (in the language of the bill) took place in the
Appian Way.
nisi restittussent statuSs, yehementer minatur (Verr. ii. 162), he threatens them
violently urUess they sh^ould restore the statues. [Here the main clause,
"that he will inflict punishment,'* is contained in minitur.]
iis auxilium suum pollicltus si ab SuSbis premerentur (B. G. iv. 19), he
promised them his aid if they shmUd be molested by the Suevi. [= polli-
cittts sS auxilium litflrum, etc.]
prohibitiO tollendi, nisi pactus esset, vim adhibebat pactiOnI (Verr. iii. 87),
tAe forbidding to take away unless he came to terms gave force to the
bargain.
3. When a reason or an explanatory fa^t is introduced by a rela-
tive or by quod (rarely quia) (see § 540) : —
Paetus omnis libros quos fr3,ter suus reliquisset mihi dGnavit (Att. ii. 1. 12),
PoBtus presented to me all the books which (be said) his brother had left.
Note. —Under this head even what the speaker himself thought under other cir-
cumstances may have the Sub j unctiye. So also with quod eyen the yerb of saying may
be iu the Subjunctiye (§ 540. n.^). Here belong also n5n quia, non quod, introducing a
reason e^resdy to deny it. (See § 540. n. «.)
386 SYNTAX: INTERMEDIATE CLAUSES [§593
Subjunctive of Integral Part (Attraction)
593. A clause depending upon a Subjunctive clause or an
equivalent Infinitive will itself take the Subjunctive if regarded
as an integral part of that clause : — ^
imperat, dum r^s iiidicStur, hominem adservent : cum iudic&ta sit, ad 8€ ut
adducant (Verr. iii. 56), Jie orders them^ till the affair shoiUd be decided^
to keep the man; when it isjudged, to bring him to him.
etenim quis tarn dissolutO animO est, qui haec cum videat, tacere ac neglegere
poasit (Rose. Am. 32), for who is no reckless of spirit that, w?ien he sees
these things, he can keep silent and pass them by f
mOs est Athenis laudftri in cOntiOne eOs qui sint in proeliis interfecti (Or.
151), it is the custom at Athens for those to be publicly eulogized who
have been slain in battle. [Here laudixi is equivalent to ut laudentai.]
a. But a dependent clause may be closely connected grammatically
with a Subjunctive or Infinitive clause, and still take the Indicative,
if it is not regarded as a necessary logical part of that clause : —
quOdam mod 5 postulat ut, quem ad modum est, sic etiam appeUetur, tyrannus
(Att. z. 4. 2), in a manner he demands that as he is, so he may be called,
a tyrant.
n&ttlra fert ut els fave&mus qu! eadem pencula quibus n0s perfancti sumus
ingrediuntur (Mur. 4), nature prompts us to feel friendly towards those
who are entering on the same dangers which we have passed through.
n6 hostSs, quod tantum multitMine potexant, suOs circumvenire possent
(B. G. ii. 8), lest the enemy, because they were so strong in numbers, shcnM
be able to surround his men.
si mea in t3 essent officia solum tanta quanta magis & t6 ipso praedic&i
quam S. m6 ponderS,rI solent, verecundius & t6 . . . peterem (Fam. ii. 6),
if my good services to you were only so great as they are wont rather to
be called by you than to be estimated by me, I should, etc.
NoTB 1. — The use of the Indicative in such clauses sometimes serves to emphasize \
thQ fact, as true independently of the statement contained in the subjunctive or infini-
tive clause. But in many cases no such distinction is perceptible. *
Note 2. — It is often difficult to distinguish between Informal Indirect Discourse
and the Integral Part. Thus in imper&vit at ea flerent quae opus essent, essent may
stand for sunt, and then will be Indirect Discourse, being a part of the thought, but
not a part of the order ; or it may stand for enmt, and then will be Integral Part, being
a part of the order itself. The difficulty of making the distinction in such cases is
evidence of the close relationship between these two constructions.
1 The subjunctive in this use is of the same nature as the subjunctive in the main
clause. A dependent clause in a clause of purpose is really a part of the purpose, as
is seen from the use of should and other auxiliaries in English. In a result clause this
is less clear, but the result construction is a branch of the characteristic (§ 53^), to
which category the dependent clause in this case evidently belongs when it takes the
subjunctive.
&©4] SYNTAX: IMPORTANT RULES 387
594. IMPORTANT RULES OF SYNTAX
1. A noun used to describe another, and denoting the same person or
thing, agrees with it in Case (§ 282).
2. Adjectives, Adjective Pronouns, and Participles agree with their
nouns in Gender, Number, and Case (§ 286).
3. Superlatives (more rarely Comparatives) denoting order and succes-
sion — also medius, (ceterus), reliquus — usually designate not tohat
inject, but what part of it, is meant (§ 293).
4. The Personal Pronouns have two forms for the genitive plural, that
in -um being used partitively, and that in -i oftenest objectively
(§ 295. h),
5. The Reflexive Pronoun (se), and usually the corresponding possessive
(suus), are used in the predicate to refer to the subject of the sen-
tence or clause (§ 299).
6. To express Possession and similar ideas the Possessive Pronouns
must be used, not the genitive of the personal or reflexive pro-
nouns (§ 302. a).
7. A Possessive Pronoun or an Adjective implying possession may take
an appositive in the genitive case agreeing in gender, number, and
case with an implied noun or pronoun (§ 302. e).
8. A Relative Pronoun agrees with its Antecedent in Grender and Num-
ber, but its Case depends on its construction in the clause in
which it stands (§ 305).
9. A Finite Verb agrees with its Subject in Number and Person (§ 316).
10. Adverbs are used to modify Verbs, Adjectives, and other Adverbs
(§ 321).
11. A Question of simple fact, requiring the answer yes or no, is formed
by adding the enclitic -ne to the emphatic word (§ 332).
12. When the enclitic -ne is added to a negative word, — as in nSnne, —
an affirmative answer is expected. The particle num suggests a
negative answer (§ 332. b),
13. The Subject of a finite verb is in the Nominative (§ 339).
14. The Vocative is the case of direct address (§ 340).
15. A noun used to limit or define another, and not meaning the same
person or thing, is put in the Genitive (§ 342).
16. The Possessive (xenitive denotes the person or thing to which an
object, quality, feeling, or action belongs (§ 343).
388 SYNTAX : IMPORTANT RULES [§ 5i
17. The genitive may denote the Substance or Material of whlcli j
thing consists (§ 344).
18. The genitive is used to denote Quality, but only when the quality i
modified by an adjective (§ 345).
19. Words denoting a part are followed by the Genitive of the whole t(
which the part belongs {Partitive Genitive, § 346).
20. Nouns of action, agency, and /ceZtn^ govern the Genitive of the objeci
(Objective Genitive, § 348).
21. Adjectives denoting desire, knowledge, memory, fulness, power, sharing
guilt, and their opposites ; participles in -ns when used as adjectives
and verbals in -ax, govern the Genitive (§ 349. a, b, c).
22. Verbs of remembering and forgetting take either the Accusative oi
the Genitive of the object (§ 350).
23. Verbs of reminding take with the Accusative of the person a Genitive
of the thing (§ 351).
24. Verbs of accusing, condemning, and acquitting take the Grenitive of
the charge or penalty (§ 352).
25. The Dative is used of the object indirectly affected by an action
(Indirect Object, § 361).
26. Many verbs signifying to favor, help, please, trust, and their contraries ;
also, to believe, persuade, command, obey, serve, resist, envy, threaten,
pardon, and spare, take the Dative (§ 367).
27. Many verbs compounded with ad, ante, con, in, inter, ob, post, prae,
pr5, sub, super, and some with circum, admit the Dative of the
indirect object (§ 370).
28. The Dative is used with esse and similar words to denote Possession
(§ 373).
29. The Dative of the Agent is used with the Gerundive, to denote the }
person on whom the necessity rests (§ 374).
30. The Dative often depends, not on any particular word, but on the j
general meaning oi the sentence (Dative of Reference, § 376).
81. Many verbs of taking away and the like take the Dative (especially
of a person) instead of the Ablative of Separation (§ 381).
32. The Dative is used to denote the Purpose or End, often with another
Dative of the person or thing affected (§ 382).
33. The Dative is used with adjectives (and a few adverbs) of fitness,
nearness, likeness, service, inclination, and their opposites (§ 384).
594] SYNTAX: IMPORTANT RULES 889
34. The Direct Object of a transitive verb is put in the Accusative
(§ 387).
35. An intransitive verb often takes the Accusative of a noun of kindred
meaning, usually modified by an adjective or in some other man-
ner (Cognate Accusative^ § 390).
36. Verbs of naming^ choosing ^ appointing, making, esteeming, showing, and
the like, may take a Predicate Accusative along with the direct
object (§ 393).
37. Transitive verbs compounded with prepositions sometimes take (in
addition to the direct object) a Secondary Object, originally gov-
erned by the preposition (§ 394).
38. Some verbs of asking and teaching may take two Accusatives, one of
the Person, and the other of the Thing (§ 396).
39. The subject of an Infinitive is in the Accusative (§ 397. c).
40. Duration of Time and Extent of Space are expressed by the Accusa-
tive (§§424. c, 425).
41. Words signifying separation or privation are followed by the Abla-
tive (Ablative of Separation, § 400).
42. The Ablative, usually with a preposition, is used to denote the source
from which anything is derived or the material of which it consists
(§ 403).
43. The Ablative, with or without a preposition, is used to express cause
(§ 404).
44. The Voluntary Agent after a passive verb is expressed by the Abla-
tive with a or ab (§ 405).
45. The Comparative degree is often followed by the Ablative signifying
than (§ 406).
46. The Comparative may be followed by quam, than. When- quam is
used, the two things compared are put in the same case (§ 407).
47. The Ablative is used to denote the means or instrument of an action
(§ 409).
48. The deponents, utor, fruor, fongor, potior, and yescoiy with several of
their compounds, govern the Ablative (§ 410).
49. Opus and usus, signifying need, are followed by the Ablative (§ 411).
60. The manner of an action is denoted by the Ablative, usually with
cum unless a limiting adjective i« "Sftd with the noun (§ 412).
390 SYNTAX: IMPORTANT RULES [§ oft
51. Accompaniment is denoted by the Ablative, regtilarly with cub
(§ 413)-
52. With Comparatives and words implying comparison the Ablative i
used to denote the degree of difference (§ 414).
53. The quality of a thing is denoted by the Ablative with an adjectiYj
or genitive Modifier (§ 415).
54. The price of a thing is put in the Ablative (§ 416).
55. The Ablative of Specification denotes that in respect to which any
thing w or is done (§ 418).
56. The adjectives dignus and indignus take the Ablative (§ 418. &).
57. A noun or pronoun, with a participle in agreement, may be put iij
the Ablative to define the time or circumstances of an actioi]
(Ablative Absolute, § 419).
An adjective, or a second noun, may take the place of the participle in thi
ablative absolute construction (§419. a).
I
58. Time when, or within which, is denoted by the Ablative; time hm
long by the Accusative (§ 423).
59. Relations of Place are expressed as follows: —
1. ThQ place from which, by the Ablative with ab, de, ex.
2. The place to which (or end of motion), by the Accusative with
ad or in.
3. The place where, by the Ablative with in {Locative Ablative).
(§ 426.)
60. With names of towns and small islands, and with domus and rus, the
relations of place are expressed as follows : —
1. The place from which, by the Ablative without a preposition. ^
2. The place to which, by the Accusative without a preposition.
3. The place where, by the Locative. (§ 427.)
61. The Hortatory Subjunctive is used in the present tense to express
an exhortation, a command, or a concession (§§ 439, 440).
62. The Optative Subjunctive is used to express a wish. The present
tense denotes the wish as possible, the imperfect as unaccomplished
in present time, the pluperfect as unaccomplished in past time
(§ 441).
63. The Subjunctive is used in questions implying (1) doubt, indignation,
or (2) an impossibility of the thing's being done {Deliberative Sulr
j'unctive, § 444).
594] SYNTAX: IMPORTANT RULES 391
64. The Potential Subjunctive is used to suggest an action as possible or
conceivable (§ 446).
65 . The Imperative is used in commands and entreaties (§ 448).
66. Prohibition is regularly expressed in classic prose (1) by n51i with the
Infinitive, (2) by cave with the Present Subjunctive, (3) by n5 with
the Perfect Subjunctive (§ 450).
67. The Infinitive, with or without a subject accusative, may be used
with est and similar verbs (1) as the Subject, (2) in Apposition with
the subject, or (3) as a Predicate Nominative (§ 452).
68. Verbs which imply another action of the same subject to complete their
meaning take the Infinitive without a subject accusative (^Comple-
mentary Infinitive, § 456).
69. The Infinitive, with subject accusative, is used with verbs and other
expressions of knowing^ thinking, telling, and perceiving (Indirect
Discourse, see § 459).
70. The Infinitive is often used for the Imperfect Indicative in narration,
and takes a subject in the Nominative (Historical Infinitive, § 463).
71. Sequence of Tenses. In complex sentences, ?k primary tense in
the main clause is followed by the Present or Perfect Subjunctive
in the dependent clause ; a secondary tense by the Imperfect or
Pluperfect (§ 483).
72. Participles denote time as present, past, or future with respect to the
time of the verb in their clause (§ 489).
73. The Gerund and the Gerundive are used, in the oblique cases, in
many of the constructions of nouns (§§ 501-507).
74. The Supine in -um is used after verbs of motion to express Purpose
• (§ 509).
75. The Supine in -u is used with a few adjectives and with the nouns
fas, nefas, and opus, to denote Specification (§ 510).
76. Dum, mode, dummodo, and tantum ut, introducing a Proviso, take
the Subjunctive (§ 528).
77. Final clauses take the Subjunctive introduced by ut (uti), negative
ne (ut ne), or by a Relative Pronoun or Relative Adverb (§ 531).
78. A Relative Clause with the Subjunctive is often used to indicate a
characteristic of the antecedent, especially where the antecedent is
otherwise undefined (§ 535).
79. Dignus, indignus, aptus, and idoneus, take a Subjunctive clause with
a relative (rarely with ut) (§ 535./).
892 SYNTAX: IMPORTANT RULES [V
80. Claufles of Result take the Subjunctiye introduced by nt, so tU
(negative, ut n5n), or by a Relative Pronoun or Rel&tiTe Ady^
(§ 637).
81. The Causal Particles quod, quia, and quoniam take tlie Indicati^
when the reason is given on the authority of the writer or speaker
the Subjunctive when the reason is given on the authority i
another (§ 540).
82. The particles postqnam (posteaqnam), ubi, ut (nt pnmuin, ut semel)
simul atque (simul ac, or simul alone) take the Indicative (usuall]
in the perfect or the historical present) (§ 543).
83. A Temporal clause with cum, when^ and some past tense of tlie Indict
tive dates or defines the time at which the action of the main verl)
occurred (§ 545).
84. A Temporal clause with cum and the Imperfect or Pluperfect Snh-
junctive describes the circumstances that accompanied or preceded
the action of the main verb (§ 546).
85. Cum Causal or Concessive takes the Subjunctive (§ 540}.
For other concessive particles, see § 527.
86. In Indirect Discourse the main clause of a Declaratory Sentence is
put in the Infinitive with Subject Accusative. Ail subordinai^
clauses take the Subjunctive (§ 580).
87. The Present, the Perfect, or the Future Infinitive is used in Indire<?i
Discourse, according as the time indicated v& present^ pasty or future
with reference to the verb of saying etc. by which the Indirect Dis-
course is introduced (§ 684).
88. In Indirect Discourse a real question is generally put in the Subjunc-
tive ; a rhetorical question in the Infinitive (§ 586).
89. All Imperative forms of speech take the Subjunctive in Indirect ^
Discourse (§ 588).
90. A Subordinate clause takes the Subjunctive when it expresses the
thought of some other person than the writer or speaker (^Informal
Indirect Discourse^ § 592).
91. A clause depending on a Subjunctive clause or an equivalent Infini-
tive will itself take the Subjunctive if regarded as an integral part
of that clause (Attraction, § 598).
For Prepositions and their cases, see §§ 220, 221.
For Conditional Sentences, see § 512 if. (Scheme in § 514.)
For ways of expressing Purpose, see § 633.
i§ 605-607] ORDER OF WORDS 398
ORDER OF WORDS
595. Latin dijffers from English in having more freedom in the
arrangement of words for the purpose of showing the relative
mportance of the ideas in a sentence.
596. As in other languages, the Subject tends to stand first, the
Predicate last. Thus, —
Patta&niia Lacedaemonius m^Lgnus homO sed yarios in omnX genere vitae fuit
(Nep. Paus. 1), Pausanias the Lacedcemonian toas a great man^ but in-
consistent in the whole course of his life.
Note. — This hapx)ens because, from the speaker's ordinary point of view, the sub-
ect of his discourse is the most important thing in it, as singled out from all other
things to be spoken of.
cr. There is in Latin, however, a special tendency to place the verb itself
last of all, after all its modifiers. But many writers purposely avoid the
monotony of this arrangement by putting the verb last but one, followed
by some single word of the predicate.
597. In connected discourse the word most prominent in the
speaker's mind comes first, and so on in order of prominence.
This relative prominence corresponds to that indicated in Eng-
lish by a graduated stress of voice (usually called emphasis),
€t» The difference in emphasis expressed by difference in order of words
is illustrated in the following passages : —
apud XenophOntem autem moriens Cyrus m^ior haec dicit (Oat. M. 79), in
Xenophon toOf on his death-bed Cyrus the elder utters these words.
Cyrus quidem haec morigns ; nOs, si placet, nostra videamus (id. 82), Cyrus,
to be sure, tdters these words on his death-bed; let us, if you please, con-
sider our own case.
Cyrus quidem apud XenophQntem e6 sermOne, quem morigns habuit (id.
30), Cyrus, to be sure, in Xenophon, in thai speech which he uttered on
his death-bed.
Note. — This stress or emphasis, however, in English does not necessarily show
any violent contrast to the rest of the words in the sentence, but is infinitely varied,
constantly increasing and diminishing, and often so subtle as to be unnoticed except
in careful study. So, as a general rule, the precedence of wordp in a Latin sentence
is not mechanical, but corresponds to the prominence which a good speaker would
mark by skilfully managed stress of voice. A Latin written sentence, therefore, has
all the clearness and expression which could be given to a spoken discourse by the best
actor in English. Some exceptions to the rule will be treated later.
The first chapter of Caesar's Gallic War, if rendered so as to bring
out as far as possible the shades of emphasis, would run thus : —
394
ORDER OF WORDS
[§597
GAUL,! in the toidest seriae, is di-
vided' into three parts,^ which are
inhabited^ (as follows): one^ by the
Belgians, another* by the Aqoitani,
the third by a people called in their
own'^ language Celts, in ours Gauls.
Thbsb b in their language,^ institations,
and laws are all of them ^^ different.
The GAULS" (proper) are separated 12
from the Aquitani by the river Garonne,
from the Belgians by the Mame and
Seine, Of these i* (tkibes) the brav-
est of all^^ are the Belgians, for the
reason that they live farthest ^^ away
1 GAUL: emphatic as the svhject of discourse, as with a title or the like.
3 Divided : opposed to the false conception (implied in the use of omnis) that the
country called Gallia by the Romans is one. This appears more clearly from the fact
that GsBsar later speaks of the GcUli in a narrower sense as distinct from the other two
tribes, who with them inhabit Gallia in the wider sense.
s Parts : continuing the emphasis begun in divlsa. Not three parts as opposed to
any other niunber, but into parts at all.
^ Inhabited : emphatic as the next subject, ** The inhabitants of these i>arts are, etc."
6 One : given more prominence than it otherwise would have on account of its close
connection with qniram.
6 Another, etc. : opposed to one.
7 Their own, ours : strongly opposed to each other.
s These (tribes) : the main subject of discourse again, collecting under one head
the names previously mentioned.
9 Language, etc. : these are the most prominent ideas, as giving the striking points
which distinguish the tribes. The emphasis becomes natural in English if we say
" these have a different language, different institutions, different laws.**
^^ All of them : the emphasis on ail marks the distributive character of the adjec-
tive, as if it were ** every one has its own, etc."
11 GAULS : emphatic as referring to the Gauls proper in distinction from the other
tribes.
12 Separated : though this word contains an indispensable idea in the connection, yet
it has a subordinate position. It is not emphatic in Latin, as is seen from the fact that
it cannot be made emphatic in English. The sense is: The Gauls lie between the
Aquitani on the one side, and the Belgians on the other.
18 Of THESE : the subject of discourse.
1* All : emphasizing the superlative idea in " bravest *' ; they, as Gauls, are assumed
to be warlike, but the most so of ail of them are the Belgians.
16 Farthest away: one might expect absunt (are away) to have a more emphatic
place, but it is dwarfed in importance by the predominance of the main idea, the effemi-
nating influences from which the Belgians are said to be free. It is not that they live
farthest off that is insisted on, but that the civilization of the Province etc., which
would soften them, comes less in their way. It is to be noticed also that absiint has
already been anticipated by the construction of cultu and still more by loneissiiDe so
that when it comes it amounts only to a formal part of the sentence. Thus,— " because
the civilization etc. of the Province (which would soften them) i^ farthest from them "
Gallia est omnis divisa in partis
tris, qu&ram Qnam incolunt Belgae,
aliam AqoitSui, tertiam qui ipsdruin
linguft Celtae, nostra Galli appellanj
tur. Hi omnSs lingua, instittLtis, legi^
bus inter s6 differunt. Gallos alj
Aquit&nis Garumna flumen, a Bel^
Matrona et Sequana dividit. HOrun^
omnium fortissimi sunt Belgae, projH
teres quod ft cultu atque humanita£e|
S 697]
ORDER OF WORDS
395
from the oitilization and rbfinbment
of the ProYince, and becaoBe they are
i.isAST^ of all of them subject to the
visits of traders^^ and to the (coiise-
q^uent) importation of such things as '
tend to soften^ their warlike spirit;
and are also nearest ^ to the Germans^
vrho live across the Rhine,^ and with
^^vhom they are incessantly'^ at war.
For the same reason the Heltbtians, as
well, are superior to all the other Gauls
in valor, because they are engaged in
almost daily battles with the Germans,
either defending their own boundaries
from t?iem, or themselyes making war
on those of the Germans. Of all this
country, one part — the one which,
as has been said, the GatUs (proper)
occupy — BEGINS at the river Rhone.
Its boundaries are the river Garonne,
the ocean, and the confines of the Bel-
gians. It even bbachbs on the side
of the Seqwmi and Helvetians the river
Rhine. Its general direction is towards
the north. The Belgians begin at
the extreme limUs of Gaul ; they reach
prSvinciae longissimfi absunt, minime-
que ad eOs merc&tOrSs saepe comme-
ant atque ea quae ad effeminandOs
animOs pertinent important, proximl-
que sunt Germanis, qui trftns Rhenum
incolunt, quibuscum continenter beU
lum genmt. Qua. de causa HelvStil
quoque rellquOs Gall5s virtute praec6-
dunt, quod f er6 cotidi&nis proeliis cum
Germgjils contendunt, cum aut suis
finibus eOs prohibent, aut ipsi in e(3rum
finibus bellum gerunt. EOrum una
pars, quam GallOs obtinSre dictum
est, initium capit a fltimine RhodanO ;
continetur GarumnS. fltimine. Oceans,
finibus Belg&rum; attingit etiam ab
SSquanls et Helvetils fltlmen RhSnum ;
vergit ad septentriOnSs. Belgae ab
extremis Galliae finibus oriuntur:
pertinent ad InferiOrem partem flu-
minis Rhenl; spectant in septentriO-
nem et orientem sOlem. Aquit&nia
ft Grarumnft flumine ad_ PyrSnaeOs
mentis et eam partem OceanI quae
est ad Hispftniam pertinet; spectat
inter occ9.sum sOlis et septentriOnSs.
(on this side) as far as the lower part
of the Rhine. They spread to the northward and eastward.
Aquitania extends from the Garonne to the Pyrenees, and that part of the
ocean that lies towards Spain. It runs off westward and northward.
h. The more important word is never placed last for emphasis. The
apparent cases of this usage (when the emphasis is not misconceived) are
cases where a word is added as an afterthought, either real or affected, and
so has its position not in the sentence to which it is appended, but, as it
were, in a new one.
1 Least : made emphatic here by a common Latin order, the chiasmus (§ 698. f) .
2 Traders : the fourth member of the chiasmus^ opposed to cultu and httminit&te.
8 Sttch things as : the importance of the nature of the importations overshadows the
fact that they are importedy which fact is anticipated in traders.
* Soften : cf . what is said in note 16, p. 394. They are brave because they have
less to soften them, their native barbarity being taken for granted.
6 Nearest : the same idiomatic prominence as in note 1 above, but varied by a special
usage combining chiasmus and anaphora (§ 698./).
« Across the Rhine : i.e. and so are perfect savages.
7 Incessantly : the continuance of the warfare becomes the all-important idea, as
if it were " and not a day passes in which they are not at war with them."
896 ORDER OF WORDS [§566
698. The main rules for the Order of Words are as follows : —
a* In any phrase the determining and most significant word comes
first: —
1. Adjective and Noun : —
omnis homines decet, .jbtebt man ought (opposed to some who do not).
L&cius Catillna nSbili genere natus fait, m&gna vl et animi et corporis,
sed ingenio malO pravOque (Sail. Cat. 5), Lucius Catiline was bom of a
NOBLE family J with great force of mind and body, but with a natubi
thaJt was eoil and depraved. [Here the adjectives in the first part are
the emphatic and important words, no antithesis between the nouns
being as yet thought of ; but in the second branch the noun is meant
to be opposed to those before mentioned, and immediately takes the
prominent place, as is seen by the natural English emphasis, thus mak-
ing a chiasmusA]
2. Word with modifying case : —
quid magis EpamlnOndam, ThSb&norum imperatOrem, quam victoiiae Tii^
banOrum cOnsulere decuit (Inv. i. 69), what should Epaminondas, com-
mander of the Thebans, Iiave aimed at more than the victory of the
Thebansf
lacrimi nihil citius arSscit (id. i. 109), nothing dries quicker than a tear.
nSmO fere laudls cupidus (De Or. i. 14), hardly any one desirous of glort
(cf. Manil. 7, avidi laudis, eager /or glory),
h. Numeral adjectives, adjectives of quantity, demonstrative, relative,
and interrogative pronouns and adverbs, tend to precede the word or words
to which they belong : —
cum aliqofl perturbatiOne (Off. i. 137), with some disturbance.
hoc CLnO praestamus (De Or. i. 32), in this one thing we excel.
cSterae ferG artfis, the other arts.
Note. — This happens because such words are usually emphatic ; but often the
words connected with them are more so, and in such cases the pronouns etc. yield the
emphatic place : —
causa aliqua (De Or. i. 250), some case.
stilas ille tuus (id. i. 257), that well-known style of yours (in an antithesis; see
passage). [Ille is idiomatic in this sense and position.]
RSmun quae apportata sunt (Verr. iv. 121) , what were carried to Rome (in contrast
to what remained at Syracuse).
c. When sum is used as the Substantive verb (§ 284. 6), it regularly
stands first, or at any rate before its subject : —
est virl mSgnl ptinlre sontis (Off. i. 82), His the duty of a great man to pun-
ish the guilty.
1 So called from the Greek letter X (chi), on account of the criss-cross arrangement
of the words. Thus, Jx^ (see / below) .
r &©8] ORDER OF WORDS 397
<!• The verb may come first, or have a prominent position, either (1)
.>e5 cause the idea in it is emphatic ; or (2) because the predication of the
^jul^ole statement is emphatic ; or (3) the tense only may be emphatic : —
(1) dicebat idem Gotta (Off. ii. 59), Coita, used to say the same thing (opposed
to others' boasting).
idem fecit adulSsc^ns M. AntOnius (id. ii. 49), the same thing was done by
Mark Antony in his yovth. [Opposed to dixi just before.]
facia amic6 (Lael. 9), you act kindly, [Cf. amicS facis, you are wry kind
(you act kindly).]
(2) prOpgnsior benignitas esse debSbit in calamitOsOs nisi forte erant dignl
calamitate (Off. ii. 62), liberality ought to be readier toward the unfortv^
note unless perchance they really deserve fheir mirfortune.
praesertim cum scnbat (Panaetius) (id. iii. 8), especially when he does say
(in his books). [Opposed to something omitted by him.]
(3) faimas TrOes, fait Ilium (Aen. ii. 326), toe have ceased to be Trojans, Troy
is now no more.
loqaor autem de commflnibus amlcitils (Off. iii. 45), but I am speaking now
of common friendships.
ۥ Often the connection of two emphatic phrases is brought about by
giving the precedence to the most prominent part of each and leaving the
less prominent parts to follow in inconspicuous places : —
pltirfis Solent esse causae (Off. i. 28), there are usually several reasons.
quOs amisimus civis, e6s Martis vis perculit (Marc. 17), what fellow-citizens
we have lost, have been Strieker^, down by the violence of war.
maximas tibi omn6s gratias agimus (id. 33), we all render you the warmest
thanks.
haec r6s unlus est propria Caesaris (id. 11), this exploit belongs to Coesar
ALONE.
obitLrgatiOnSs etiam nOn numquam incidunt necessariae (Off. i. 136), occa-
sions FOR REBUKE also SOMETIMES occur which are unavoidable.
/• Antithesis between two pairs of ideas is indicated by placing the pairs
either (1) in the same order (anaphora) or (2) in exactly the opposite order
, (chiasmus) : —
(1) rfirum c5pia verbOrum cOpiam gignit (De Or. iii. 125), abundance of mat-
ter produces copiousness of expression.
(2) leges supplici5 improbOs afficiunt, dSfendunt ac tuentur bonOs (Legg. ii.
f* 13), the laws visit punishments upon the wicked, Imt the good they
defend and protect.
Note. — Chiasmus is very common in Latin, and often seems in fact the more inarti-
ficial construction. In an artless narrative one might hear, "The women were all
drowned, they saved the men."
nOn igitur utilitatem amicitia sed utilitas amicitiam c5nsecuta est (Lael. 51), it is
not then that friendship ha^ followed upon advantage, but advantage upon
friendship. [Here the chiasmus is only grammatical, the ideas being in tht
parallel o«ler.] (See also p. 395 : longissimS, minimi, prozimi.)
398 ORDER OF WORDS [§§ 698, 699
g» A modifier of a phrase or some part of it is often embodied within
the phrase (cf . a) : —
d6 commtlnl hominum memori3. (Tusc. i. 59), in regard to the unitersal
memory of man,
h» A favorite order with the poets is the interlocked, by which the attri-
bute of one pair comes between the parts of the other (synchysis) ; —
et superiectdpavidaenat^a^t aequore damm^ (Hor. Od. i. 2. 11).
NoTB. — This IS often joined with chiasmns: as, — arma nOndum explains uiv^ta^
cruOribns (id. ii. 1. 5).
i« Frequently unimportant words follow in the train of more emphatic
ones with which they are grammatically connected, and so acquire a promi-
nence out of proportion to their importance : —
dictit&bat s6 hortul()s aliquOs emere velle (Off. iii. 68), Jie gave ovt that he
wanted to buy some gardens. [Here aliqnds is less emphatic than emere,
but precedes it on account of the emphasis on hortalds.]
J, The copula is generally felt to be of so little importance that it may
come in anywhere where it sounds well ; but usually under cover of more
emphatic words : —
consul ego quaes! vl, cum vOs mihi essStis in cOnsiliO (Rep. iii. 28), as consul
I hdd an investigation in which you attended me in council,
falsum est id tOtum (id. 11. 28), that is aU false.
k» Many expressions have acquired an invariable order : —
r6s publica ; populus ROm&nus ; honOris causS. ; p3ce tant! virl.
NoTB. — These had, no donbt, originally an emphasis which required sach an
arrangement, but In the course of time have changed their shade of meaning. Thus,
senattts populnsqne Romanus originally stated with emphasis the official bodies, but
became fixed so as to be the only permissible form of expression.
I, The Romans had a fondness for emphasizing persons^ so that a name
or a pronoim often stands in an emphatic place : —
[(Uxit] v^n^lls quldem se hortSs non habere (Off. ill. 68), [said] tJiat he didn^t
have any gardens for sale, to he sure.
tn. Kindred words often come together {figura etymological : —
Ita senslm sine sensu aetfts senesclt (Cat. M. 88), thus gradually^ unthout
being perceived, man's life grows old.
Special Rules
599. The following are special rules of arrangement : —
a* The negative precedes the word it especially affects ; but if it belongs
to no one word in particular, it generally precedes the verb ; if it is espe-
cially emphatic, it begins the sentence. (See example, 598./. n.)
§§ 699-601] STRUCTURE OF THE PERIOD 399
&• Itaqna regularly comes first in its sentence or clause; enim, autem,
^ireio, quoque, never first, but usually second, sometimes third if the second
^v^rord is emphatic ; quidem fiever first, but after the emphatic word ; igitur
T:ftsually second ; ne . . . quidem include the emphatic word or words.
Cm Inquam, inquit, are always used parenthetically, following one or more
^words. So often cred5, opinor, and in poetry sometimes precor.
€f . (1) Prepositions (except tenus and yersus) regularly precede their
nouns ; (2) but a monosyllabic preposition is often placed between a noun
a,nd its adjective or limiting genitive : —
quem ad modum ; quam ob rem ; mSgnO cum metti ; omnibus cum cOpils ;
nulla in rS (cf. § 598. i).
e» In the arrangement of clauses, the Relative clause more often comes
first in Latin, and usually contains the antecedent noun : —
qads ftmisimus civis, eOs Mftrtis vis perculit (Marc. 17), those citizens wTumi
we have lost^ etc.
/• Personal or demonstrative pronouns tend to stand together in the
sentence : —
cum Tos mihi essetis in cOnsiliO (Rep. iii. 28), when you attended me in
counsel.
Structure of the Period
600. Latin, unlike modem languages, expresses the relation of words to each other
by inflection rather than by position. Hence its structore not only admits of great
variety in the arrangement of words, but is especially favorable to that form of sen-
tence which is called a Period. In a period, the sense is expressed by the sentence as a
whole, and is held in suspense till the delivery of the last word.
An English sentence does not often exhibit this form of structure. It was imitated,
sometimes with great skiU and beauty, by many of the earlier writers of English prose ;
but its effect is better seen in poetry, as in the following passage: —
High on a throne of royal state, which far
Outshone the wealth of Ormus and of Ind,
Or where the gorgeons East with richest hand *
Showers on her kings barbaric pearl and gold,
Satan exalted sat. — Paradise Lost, il. 1-6.
But in argument or narrative, the best English writers more commonly give short
clear sentences, each distinct from the rest, and saying one thing by itself. In Latin,
on the contrary, the story or argument is viewed as a whole ; and the logical relation
among all its parts is carefully indicated.
601. In the structure of the Period, the following rules ard to
be observed : —
a. In general the main subject or object is put in the main clause, not
in a subordinate one : —
Hannibal cum recCnsuisset auxilla GadSs profectus est (Liv. xxi. 21), when
Hannibal had reviewed the avxiUaries, he set out for Cadiz,
400 ORDER OF WORDS [§ 60J
YoIbcI exigaam spem in armis, alifi undique abscissa, com tentSssent, pra&
ter cetera adversa, locO quoque inlqu5 ad ptignam congress!, iniqui5r<
ad fugam, cum ab omnI parte caederentor, ad preces a certamine vei^
deditO imperfttOre trftditlsque armis, sub iugum missi, cum singuHi
vestimentis, IgnOminiae clSdisque pleni dimittuntur (Liv. iv. 10): [Her(
the main fact is the return of the Volscians. But the striking circum
stances of the surrender etc., which in English would be detailed in i
number of brief independent sentences, are put into the several suboi^
dinate clauses within the main clause so that the passage gives a coml
plete picture in one sentence.]
6. Clauses are usually arranged in the order of prominence in the mind
of the speaker ; so, usually, cause before result ; purpose^ manner, and thj
like, before the act, \
ۥ In coordinate clauses, the copulative conjunctions are frequently
omitted (asyndeton). In such cases the connection is made clear by somJ
antithesis indicated by the position of words.
d. A change of subject, when required, is marked by the introduction
of a pronoun, if the new subject has already been mentioned. But suclj
change is often purposely avoided by a change in structure, — the les^
important being merged in the more important by the aid of participles
or of subordinate phrases : —
quern ut barbari incendium eSugisse vld6runt, tells Sminus missis inters
fecerunt (Nep. Ale. 10), when the barbarians saw that fie had escaped^
THET threw darts at him at long range and killed him.
celeriter c5nfect0 neg0ti5, in hibema Iegi5n6s redtixit (B. G. vi. 8), the mati
ter wa^ soon finished, and he led the legions, etc.
e* So the repetition of a noun, or the substitution of a pronoun for it,
is avoided unless a different case is required : —
dolOrem sinOnpotuerO frangere occultab5 (Phil. xii. 21), if I cannot conquer
the pain, I will hide it. [Cf . if I cannot conquer I will hide the pain.']
/. The Romans were careful to close a period with an agreeable succes-
sion of long and short syllables. Thus, —
quod scis nihil prOdest, quod nescis multum obest (Or. 166), what you knom
is of no use, what you do nx)t know does great harm.
Note. — In rhetorical writing, particularly in oratory, the Romans, influenced by
their study of the Greek orators, gave more attention to this matter than in other
forms of composition. Quintilian (ix. 4. 72) lays down the general rule that a clause
should not oi)en with the beginning of a verse or close with the end of one.
|i§ 602,003] QUANTITY OF VOWELS 401
PROSODY
QUANTITY
602. The poetry of the Indo-European people seems originally to have been some-
wliat like our own, depending on accent for its metre and disregarding the natural
q[u.antity of syllables. The Greeks, however, developed a form of poetry which, like
music, pays close attention to the natural quantity of syllables ; and the Romans bor-
ro^wed their metrical forms in classical times from the Greeks. Hence Latin poetry
does not depend, like ours, upon accent and rhyme; but is measured, like musical
stT-ains, by the length of syllables. Especially does it differ from our verse in not
regarding the prose accent of the words, but substituting for that an entirely differ-
ent system of metrical accent or ictus (see § 611. a). This depends upon the character
of the measure used, falling at regular intervals of time on a long syllable or its equiva-
lent. Each syllable is counted as either long or short in Quantity ; and a long syllable
18 generally reckoned equal in length to two short ones (for exceptions, see § 608. o-e).
The quantity of radical (or stem) syllables — as of short a in pftter or of long a in
mater — can be learned only by observation and practice, unless determined by the
general rules of quantity. Most of these rules are only arbitrary formulas devised to
assist the memory; the syllables being long or short because the ancients pronounced
them so. The actual practice of the Romans in regard to the quantity of syllables is
ascertained chiefly from the usage of the poets ; but the ancient grammarians give some
assistance, and in some inscriptions long vowels are distinguished in various ways, — *
by the apex, for instance, or by doubling (§ 10. e. n.).
Since Roman poets borrow very largely from the poetry and mythology of the
Greeks, numerous Greek words, especially proper names, make an important part of
Latin poetry. These words are genetally employed in accordance with the Greek,
and not the Latin, laws of quantity. Where these laws vary in any important point,
the variations will be noticed in the rules below.
GENERAL RULES
603. The following are General Rules of Quantity (of. §§ 9-11) :
Quantity of Vowels
a. Vowels. A vowel before another vowel or h is short : as, via, tr&h5.
JExceptions. — 1. In the genitive form -ius, i is long : as, atxius, nilUias. It
is, however, sometimes short in verse (§ 113. c).
2. In the genitive and dative singular of the fifth declension, e is long between
two vowels : as, die!; otherwise usually short, as in fidSi, rSi, spSL
Note. — It was once long in these also : as, plSna* fidCi (Ennius, at the end of a hex-
^ ameter). A is also long before i in the old genitive of the first declension: as, aulai.
3. In the conjugation of fi5, i is long except when followed by er. Thus, fi5,
fiebam, fiam, but fieri, fierem ; so also fit (§ 606. a. 3).
4. In many Greek words the vowel in Latin represents a long vowel or diph-
thong, and retains its original long quantity: as. Trees (Tpwej), Thalia (GaXcia),
heroas (^pwas), aer (aijp).
402 PHOSODY: QUANTITY [§603
}foTB. But many Greek words are more or less Latinized in this respect: as,
AcAdSmU, cboria, Malta, platSa.
6. In ditts, in Shea usually, and sometimes in Diana and ohe, the first vowel is
long. ^ ^
5. Diphthongs. A Diphthong is long : as, foedas, cm,^ aula.
Exception. — The preposition prae in compounds is generally shortened before
a vowel : as, praS-astis (Aen. vii. 624), prafi-eonte (id. v. 186).
Note. U following q, s, or g, does not make a diphthong with a following vowel
(see § 5. N. 2). For A-i5, mA-ior, pi-ior, etc., see § 11. d and N.
c. Contraction. A vowel formed by contraction (crasis) is long : as, nil,
from nihil ; c5g5 for fco-agd ; mal5 for ma-yol9.
Note. — Two vowels of different syllables may be run together without full con-
traction {synizesiSf § 642) : as, dAnde (for deinde), meos (for meos) ; and often two
syllables are united by Synseresis (§ 642) without contraction : as when pXriStlbfls is
pronounced paryitibtts.
d. A vowel before ns, nf , gn, is long : as, instd, in&ns, signum.
Quantity of Syllables
e. A syllable is long if it contains a long vowel or a diphthong : as,
ca-rus, 5-men, foe-dns.
/• Position. A syllable is long by position if its vowel, though short, is
followed by two consonants or a double consonant : as, adventos, cortex.
But if the two consonants are a mute followed by 1 or r the syllable may
be either long or short (common) ; as, alacris or aUicris ; patois or p&tris.
Vowels should be pronounced long or short in accordance with their nat-
ural quantity without regard to the length of the syllable by position.
" Note 1. — The rules of Position do not, in general, apply to final vowels before a
word beginning with two consonants.
Note 2. — A syllable is long if its vowel is followed by consonant i (except in
biiagis, quadxllttgis) : see § 11. d.
Note 3. — Compounds of iaciS, though written with one i, commonly retain the
long vowel of the prepositions with which they are compounded, as if before a con-
sonant, and, if the vowel of the preposition is short, the first syllable is long by posi-
tion on the principle of § 11. e.
obicis host! (at the end of a hexameter, Aen. iv. 549).
inicit et saltii (at the beginning of a hexameter, Aen. ix. 552).
prSice tSla manu (at the beginning of a hexameter, Aen. vi. 836).
Later poets sometimes shorten the preposition in trisyllabic forms, and preposi-
tions ending in a vowel are sometimes contracted as if the verb began with a vowel:
(1) cur an|n0s dbl|cis (Claud, iv C. H. 264).
(2) reicC c&lpellas (Eel. iii. 96, at end).
Note 4. — The y or w sound resulting from synseresis (§ 642) has the effect of a con-
sonant in making position: as, abietis (abyetis), fluviSmm (fluvyorum). Conversely,
when the semivowel becomes a vowel, position is lost: as, sllflae, for silvae.
1 Rarely dissyllabic cfil (as Mart. i. 104. 22).
Sd04] FINAL SYLLABLES 40S
FINAL SYLLABLES
604. The Quantity of Final Syllables is as follows : —
a* Monosyllables ending in a vowel are long : as, mS, t&, hi, nS.
1. The attached particles -nS, -qaS, -vS, -c8, -pt8, and rt- (rSd-) are short ; aS-
(sed-) and di- are long. Thns, sec^t, seditio, exercitmnqaS rSdiicit, dimittd. But
re- is often long in rSligio (xelligid), rStuli (xettuH), rSpoli (reppuli).
&• Nouns and adjectives of one syllable are long : as, 851, Ss (dris), bOs,
par, yas (yasis), yer, yis.
Exceptions,— c^x, fSl, Iftc, mSl, 58 (ossis), vfts (vfldis), vir, t5t, qtt5t.
Cm Most monosyllabic Particles are short : as, ftn, In, cIs, n5c. But eras,
cor, en, n5n, quin, sin — with adverbs in c : as, hie, hQc, sic — are long.
d* Fiual a in words declined by cases is short, except in the ablative sin-
gular of the first declension ; in all other words final a is long. Thus, e&
stelUl (nominative), cum ea stella (ablative) ; frustra, voca (imperative),
postea, triginta.
Exceptions. — 5iX, it2, qaiS, pat2 {suppose) ; and, in late use, txiginti etc.
e. Final e is short : as in nub5, ducit5, 8aep5.
Exceptions, — Final e is long — 1. In adverbs formed from adjectives of the
first and second declension, with others of like form : as, alte, longS, miserS, aperte,
saepissime. So fere, femie.
But it is short in benS, mal5 ; infernS, sapemS.
2. In nouns of the fifth declension: as, fidS (also fame), fade, hodiS, quSrS
(qua re).
3. In Greek neuters plural of the second declension : as, c5te ; and in some
other Greek words : Phoebe, Circe, AndromachS, etc.
4. In the imperative singular of the second conjugation : as, vidS.
But sometimes cav5, habS, tac5, val5, vidS (cf. § 629. 5. 1).
/• Final i is long : as in torn, fill, audi.
Exceptions, — Final i is common in mihi, tibi, sibi, ibi, ubi ; and short in nisi,
quasi, sicuti, cul (when making two syllables), and in Greek vocatives : as, Alexl.
g» Final o is common : but long in datives and ablatives ; also in nouns
• of the third declension. It is almost invariably long in verbs before the
time of Ovid.
Exceptions. — cit5, mod5 (dummod5), imm5, prefects, eg5, daS, ced5 (the impera-
tive); so sometimes oct5, ilic5, etc., particularly in later writers.
h. Final u is long. Final y is short.
i. Final as, es, os, are long ; final is, us, ys, are short : as, neffts, rupSs,
8ery58 (accusative), hon5s ; hostXs, amicfis, Tethj^s.
404 PROSODY: QUANTITY [§§ 60i-(«)e
ExcepUon$. — 1. as is short in Greek plural accufiatives : as, lampadSs ; and
in anfts.
2. es is short in the nominative of nouns of the third declension (lingual) hav-
ing a short vowel in the stem ^ : as, milSs (-Itis), obsSs (-Idis), — except abies, aiies,
paxiSs, p§a ; in the present of esse (Ss, adSs) ; in the preposition penSs, and in the
plural of Greek nouns : as, heroSs, lampadSs.
8. OS is short in comp5s, impds ; in the Greek nominative ending : as, barbitSs;
in the old nominative of the second declension : as, servds (later servos).
4. is in plural cases is long : as in bonis, ndbis, vobis, omnis (accusative plural).
6. is is long in the verb forms fis, sis, '^s (with qolvis etc.), velis, mftlis, noHs,
edis ; in the second person singular of the present indicative active in the fourth
conjugation: as, aadis ; and sometimes in the forms in -eris (future perfect indica-
tive or perfect subjunctive).
6. tts is long in the genitive singular and nominative, accusative, and vocative
plural of the fourth declension ; and in nouns of the third declension having d
(long) in the stem: as, virtfis (-Qtis), incus (-Qdis). But pecfis, -fidis.
J. Of other final syllables, those ending in a single consonant are short
Thus, am&t, amatilr ; ddnjk;, fftc, prociil, iub&r.
Exceptions. — hic (also hie) ; alloc ; the ablatives ill5c, etc. ; certain adverbs in
-c : as, iUIc, istac ; liSn, and some Greek nouns : as, asr, aethSr, cr&t6r.
Perfects and Perfect Participles
605. Perfects and Perfect Participles of two syllables have the
first syllable long: as, iuvi, iUtum (iiivO), vidi, visum (videO); fflgi
(fugiO); veni (vSnifi).
Exceptiona. — bibi, dSdi, fidi, scldi, stSti, stiti, tdli; citom, dStum, Itum, litany
qoitum, rStum, rtttum, siltum, situm, st&tom. In some compounds of ato, atatuin
is found (long), as praestatum.
a. In reduplicated perfects the vowel of the reduplication is short ; the
vowel of the following syllable is, also, usually short: as, c^ldi (cSdo),
dldlci (disco), piipfigi (pungo), ciicfirri (currd), tStSndi (tendO), mSmdrdi (mor-
ded). But cicidi from caedd, pepedi from pedo.
Derivatives
606. Rules for the Quantity of Derivatives are : —
a* Forms from the same stem have the same quantity : as, llm5, inui-
yisti; gSnus, generis.
Eocceptions. — 1. bos, lar, mas, par, p6s, sal, — also arbos, — have a long vowel
hi the nominative, though the stem-vowel is short (cf. genitive bSvie etc.).
^ The quantity of the stem-vowel may be seen in the genitive singolar.
$ 606, 607] RHYTHM * 406
2. Nouns in -or, genitive -4bis, have the vowel shortened before the final r : as,
on5r. (But this shortening is comparatively late, so that in early Latin these
ominatives are often found long.)
3. Verb-forms with vowel originally long regularly shorten it before final m,
, or t : as, amSm, amSr, dicerSr, amSt (compare amimos), dicerSt, audit, fit.
Note. — The final syllable in t of the perfect was long in old Latin, but is short in
he classic period.
4. A few long stem-syllables are shortened : as, &cer, ftcerbus. So dS-iSrd and
»&-iSrd, weakened from ifiro.
&• Forms from the same root often show inherited variations of vowel
I^iiantity (see § 17) : as, died (cf . maledicus) ; duco (diiz, diicis) ; fido (perfldus) ;
rox, v5cis (v5co); lex, legis (lSg5).
c» Compounds retain the quantity of the words which compose them :
ks, oc-cido (cSdo), oc-cido (caed9), in-iqntis (aeqnns).
Note. — Greek words compounded with irp6 have o short : as, prOphf ta, prOlSgas.
$ome Latin compounds of pr5 have o short : as, prOfldlscor, prOflteor. Compounds with
le vary : as, nSfas, nSgd, nSqueo, nSquam.
RH7THM
607. The essence of Rhythm in poetry is the regular recurrence of syllables
pronounced with more stress than those intervening. To produce this effect in its
perfection, precisely equal times should occur between the recurrences of the stress.
But, in the application of rhythm to words, the exactness of these intervals is sacri-
ficed somewhat to the necessary length of the words; and, on the other hand, the
words are forced somewhat in their pronunciation, to produce more nearly the proper
intervals of time. In different languages these adaptations take place in different
degrees ; one language disregarding more the intervals of time, another the pronun-
ciation of the words.
The Greek language early developed a very strict rhythmical form of poetry, in
which the intervals of time were sdl-important. The earliest Latin, on the other hand,
' — as in the Satumian and Fescennlne verse, — was not so restricted. But the purely
metrical forms were afterwards adopted from the Greek, and supplanted the native
forms of verse. Thus the Latin poetry with which we have to do follows for the most
part Greek rules, which require the formal division of words (like music) into measures
of equal times, technically called Feet. The strict rhythm was doubtless more closely
followed in poetry that was sung than in that which was declaimed or intoned. In
neither language, however, is the time perfectly preserved, even in single measures ;
and there are some cases in which the regularity of the time between the ictuses is
.'listurbed.
The Greeks and Komans distinguished syllables of two kinds in regard to the time
required for their pronunciation, a long syllable having twice the metrical value of a
short one. But it must not be supposed that all long syllables were of equal length,
or even that in a given passage each long had just twice the length of the contiguous
shorts. The ratio was only approximate at best, though necessarily more exact in
singing than in recitation. Nor are longs and shorts the only forms of syllables that
are found. In some cases a long syllable was protracted, so as to have the time of
three or even of four shorts, and often one long or two shorts were pronounced in less
than their proper time, though they were perhaps distinguishable in time from one
406 PROSODY: RHYTHM [§§607,608
short (see §606. c, d). Sometimes a syllable naturally short seems to have beea
slightly prolonged, so as to represent a long, though in most (not all) cases the appar-
ent in^gnlarity can be otherwise explained. In a few cases, also, a pause takes the
place of one or more syllables to fill out the required length of the measure. This
could, of course, take place only at the end of a word : hence the importance oi
CiBsura and Diaeresis in prosody (§ 611. &, c).
Measures
608. Rhythm consists of the division of musical sound into
eqiial intervals of time called Measures or Feet.
The most natural division of musical time is into measures con-
sisting of either two or thr^e equal parts. But the ancients also
distinguished measures of five equal parts.
Note. — The divisions of musical time are marked by a stress of voice on onecr
the other part of the measure. This stress is called the Ictus {beat), or metrical access
(see §611. a).
a. The unit of length in Prosody is one short syllable. This is called
a Mora. It is represented hy the sign v^, or in musical notation by tbe
eighth note or quaver (P).
h. A long syllable is regularly equal to two morse, and is represented
by the sign _, or by the quarter note or crotchet (]•).
c. A long syllable may be protracted^ so as to occupy the time of thre^
or four morsB. Such a syllable, if equal to three moras, is represented
by the sign i__ (or dotted quarter j**) ; if equal to four, by i_i (or the half
note or minim, ^).
d. A long syllable may be contracted, so as to take practically the time
of a short one. Such a syllable is sometimes represented by the sign >.
e* A short syllable may be contracted so as to occupy less than one mora-
/• A pause sometimes occurs at the end of a verse or a series of verses,
to fill up the time. A pause of one mora in a measure is indicated by the
sign A ; one of two morae by the sign A .
gr. One or more syllables are sometimes placed before the proper begb-
ning of the measure. Such syllables are called an Anacrusis or prelude}
The anacrusis is regularly equal to the unaccented part of the measure.
^ The same thing occurs in modem poetry, and in modern music any unaocenteti
syllables at the beginning are treated as an anacrusis, i.e. they make an incomplete-
measure before the first bar. This was not the case in ancient music. The ancieo^^
seem to have treated any unaccented syllable at the beginning as belonging to the fol-
lowing accented ones, so as to make with them a foot or measure. Thus it would seen
that there was an original form of Indo-European poetry which was iambic in its
structure, or which, at least, accented the second syllable rather than the first.
J O09] MEASURKS 407
609. The feet most frequently employed in Latin verse, to-
gether with their musical notation, are the following : —
a. Triple or Unequal Measures (})*
1. Trochee (X. =pp:a..-,..
2. Iambus {^ -L =i* |^)* ^j dUces.
3. Tribrach* (v^wv^=|*j*|^):as, hffmtnlt.
ZLT-
h. Double or Equal Measures (|)
1. Dactyl (— w w =P C r^' ^» cdnsHlts.
2. Anapaest (v^ w _ =|* /• /•): as, mdhUdis.
3. Spondee ( = /• ^) : as, reges.
ۥ Six-timed Measures (})
1. Ionic a mdiore ( \j \^ =-P ^ ^ ^): bs, confec^frdt,
2. Ionic S minOre (\j w ~T T ^ 1^* *®' r&Ulissent.
3. Choriambus (_ v^ \j ^ =P 1*1* !*)• *8, contiU^rant,
d. Quinary or Hemiolic • Measures (f )
1 . Cretic (__ v^ __ =/•/•/•): as, consiUes.
2. Paeon primus (_ vj'wv^=^|*j*j*):as, cdfkn2/{&tZs.
3. Paeon qudrtus (w v^ w_=l*|*(* (*): as, ttin^ri.
4. Bacchius (w =|* /•/•): as, rfTOico*.
1 Called diplaaiCf the two parts (Thesis and Arsis) being in the ratio of 2 to 1.
2 Not found as a fundamental foot, but only as the resolution of a Trochee or Iambus.
8 Called hemiolic, the two parts being in the ratio of 1 to 1^, or of 2 to 3.
408 PROSODY: RHYTHM [§ 60fi
NoTS. — Sefveral compound feet are mentioned by the grammarians, viz. Pyrrhic
(^ w); Amphibrach (^ w); Antibacchius ( \j); Procdeusnwtic {\j \^ \y \j)]
the M0I088US ( ); the 2d and 3d Paeon, having a long syllable in the 2d or 3d
place, with three short ones ; 1st, 2d, 3d, and 4th Epitritus, haying a short syllable in
the 1st, 2d, 3d, or 4th place, with three long ones.
Irrational Feet
e. Feet with these apparent quantities do not always occupy equal time,
but may be contracted or prolonged to suit the series in which they occur.
They are then called irrcUioncU, because the thesis and arsifl do not have
their normal ratio.^ Such are : —
Irrational Spondee :
(in place of a Trochee) — > \ J J q. JJ
ti)^
(in place of an Iambus)
Cyclic Dactyl (in place of a Trochee) ;
^ v^ or -C w = J. ^'S ^'^ or J. ^ J^
Cyclic Anapsest (in place of an Iambus) :
^ or v^ ^ = J- J- J* or J^ ^ J.
V-A-*
The apparent dactyl > vjr v^, as a substitute for an iambus, and the 1
apparent anapaest \^ \^ >, as a substitute for a trochee, occur frequently
in the dramatic writers. I
Note. — Narrative poetry was written fof rhythmical recitation, or chant, with
instrumental accompaniment ; and Lyrical poetry for rhythmical melody, or singing. J
It must be borne in mind that in ancient music — which in this differs widely from
modem — the rhythm of the melody was identical with the rhythm of the text. The
lyric poetry was to be sung ; the poet was musician and composer, as well as author.
To this day a poet is said conventionally to " sing."
Thus a correct understanding of the rhythmical structure of the verse gives us the j
timef though not the tune, to which it was actually sung. The exact time, however,
as indicated by the succession of long and short syllables, was varied according to
certain laws of so-called " Rhythmic," as will be explained below. In reading ancient ^
verse it is necessary to bear in mind not only the variations in the relative length of
syllables, but the occasional pause necessary to fill out the measure ; and to remembet
that the rhythmical accent is the only one of importance, though the words should be
distinguished carefully, and the sense preserved. Poetry should not be scannedf but
read metrically.
1 It seems probable that both thesis and arsis of an irrational foot were affected by
the necessity of preserving the rhythmical time of the foot.
i§ 610, 611] THE MUSICAL ACCENT 409
Substitution
610. In many cases measures of the same time may be substi-
tuted for each other, a long syllable taking the place of two short
ones, or two short syllables the place of a long one.
In the former case the measure is said to be contracted; in the
latter, to be resolved : —
a* A Spondee ( ) may take the place of a Dactyl (_ v^ n^) or an
Anapsest (v^ n^ — ); and a Tribrach (^ w >^) may take the place of a
Trochee ( v^) or an Iambus (v^ ). The optional substitution of one
long syllable for two short ones is represented by the sign ctg.
b. When a long syllable having the Ictus (§ 611. a) is resolved, the
ictus properly belongs to both the resulting short syllables ; but for con-
venience the mark of accent is placed on the first : —
niinc ex|pliiar | sftn« a|c^tO | dbl c6r | dcr« in | p^ct6|rl —PI. Bac. 406.
The Musical Accent
611. That part of the measure which receives the stress of voice
(the musical accent) is called the Thesis ; the unaccented part is
called the Arsis.^
a. The stress of voice laid upon the Thesis is called the Ictus (beat).
It is marked thus : JL \j \j.
b. The ending of a word within a measure is called Caesura. When
this coincides with a rhetorical pause, it is called the Caesura of the verse,
and is of main importance as affecting the melody or rhythm.
c. The coincidence of the end of a word with that of a measure is
called Diaeresis.
1 The Thesis signifies properly the putting down {O^cru, from rtOnitUt put, place) of
. the foot in beating time, in the march or dance ('* downward beat "), and the Arsis the
raising {Apa-is, from delpia, raise) of the foot (" upward beat")- By the Latin gram-
marians these terms were made to mean, respectively, the ending and the beginning of
a measure. By a misunderstanding which has prevailed till recently, since the time of
Bentley, their true signification has been reversed. They will here be used in accord-
ance with their ancient meaning, as has now become more conmion. This metrical
accent, recurring at regular intervals of time, is what constitutes the essence of the
rhythm of poetry as distinguished from prose, and should be constantly kept in mind.
The error mentioned arose from applying to trochaic and dactylic verse a definition
which was true only of iambic or anapseatic.
410 PROSODY: VERSIFICATION [§612
I
YERSIFICATIGK
THE VERSE
612. A single line of poetiy — that is, a series of feet set in a
recognized order — is called a Verse.^
NoTS. — Most of the oommon verses originally consisted of two series (hemistichs),
hut the joint between them is often obscured. It is marked in Iambic and Trochaic
Tetrameter by the Dimresis, in Dactylic Hepuneter by the Caesura.
a* A verse lacking a syllable at the end is called Catalectic, that is, hav-
ing a pause to fill the measure ; when the end syllable is not lacking, the
verse is called Acatalectic, and has no such pause.
b. A final syllable, regularly short, is sometimes lengthened before a
pause : ' it is then said to be long by Diastole : —
nostrOr**''^ obruimor, — oriturque miserrima caedSs. — Aen. ii. 411.
c. The last syllable of any verse may be indifferently long or short
(syllaha anceps).
Scansion and Elision
<!• To divide the verse into its appropriate measures, according to the
rules of quantity and versification, is called scanning or scansion (scansio,
a climbing or advance by steps, from scandd).
Note. — In reading verse rhythmically, care should be taken to preserve the meas-
ure or time of the syllables, but at the same time not to destroy or confuse the words
themselves, as is often done in scanning.
€. In scanning, a vowel or diphthong at tha end of a word (unless an
interjection) is partially suppressed when the next word begins with a vowel
or with h. This is called Elision (bruising),*
In reading it is usual entirely to suppress elided syllables. Strictly, hovr-
ever, they should be sounded lightly.
1 The word Verse (versus) signifies a turning back, i.e. to begin again in like
manner, as opposed to Prose \pr6rsus orprGversm), which means straight ahead.
3 This usage is comparatively rare, most cases where it appears to be found being
caused by the retention of an originally long quantity.
> The practice of Elision is followed in Italian and French poetry, and is sometimes
adopted in English, particularly in the older poets: —
T' inveigle and invite th' unwary sense. — C(mu* 668.
In early Latin poetry a final syllable ending in s often loses this letter even before a
consonant (cf . § 15. 7) : —
Fonio c6nft»ctu» qui^scit. — Knn. (Cat. M. 14).
i
§§ ei2-616] DACTYLIC HEXAMETER 411
19'OTB. — Eliflion is sometimes called by the Qreek name Synaloepha {imearing).
Rax'ely a syllable is elided at the end of a yerse when the next yerse begins with a
vo^^el: this is called Synapheia {binding).
f. A final m, with the preceding vowel, is suppressed in like manner
^wlxen the next word begins with a vowel or h: this is called Ecthlipsis
(squeezing out) : —
mOnstr**'* horrend**"*, inform*, ingfins, cui ItUnen adfimptum.
— Aen. iii. 668.
NoTB 1. — Final m has a feeble nasal sound, so that its partial suppression before
-the initial vowel of the following word was easy.
NoTB 2. — The monosyllables d5, dem, spS, spem, sim, st5, stem, qui (plural), and
xn-onosyllabic interjections are never elided ; nor Is an iambic word elided in dactylic
^erse. Elision is often evaded by skilful collocation of words.
ff» Elision is sometimes omitted when a word ending in a vowel has a spe-
cial emphasis, or is succeeded by a pause. This omission is called Hiatus
(gaping).
Note. — The final vowel is sometimes shortened in such cases.
FORMS OF ySRSE
613. A verse receives its name from its dominant or funda-
mental foot : as, Dactylic^ Iambic^ Trochaic^ Anapcestic; and from
the number of measures (single or double) which it contains:
as. Hexameter^ Tetrameter^ Trimeter^ Dimeter.
Note. — Trochaic, Iambic, and Anapsestic verses are measured not by single feet,
but by pairs (dipodia), so that six Iambi make a Trimeter.
614. A Stanza, or Strophe, consists of a definite number of
verses ranged in a fixed order.
Many stanzas are named after some eminent poet: as, Sapphic
(from Sappho), Alcaic (from Alcaeus), Archilochian (from Archilo-
chus); Horatian (from Horace), and so on.
Dactylic Vbksb
Dactylic Hexameter
615. The Dactylic Hexameter, or Heroic Verse^ consists theo-
retically of six dactyls. It may be represented thus : —
iririrc/iric/ircj'ircj'irM
412 PROSODY: VERSIFICATION [J 616
Nora.— The last foot is usually said to be a spondee, but is in lealily a troehee
standing for a dactyl, since the final syllable is not measured.
a» For any foot, except the fifth, a spondee may be substituted.
&• Rarely a spondee is found in the fifth foot ; the verse is then called
spondaic and usually ends with a word of four syllables.
Thus in Eel. iv. 49 the verse ends with incrSmentum.
€• The hexameter has regularly one principal cassura — sometimes two —
almost always accompanied by a pause in the sense.
1. The principal caesura is usually after the thesis (less commonly in the arsis)
of the third foot, dividing the verse into two parts in sense and rhythm. See
examples in d.
2. It may also be after the thesis (less commonly in the arsis) of the, fourth foot.
In this case there is often another caesura in the second foot, so that the verse
is divided into three parts: —
pdrtS f6jr6x || ar|d6nsqu« 6cii|lfs || et | sMa | cdllS. — Aen. v. 277.
NoTB. — Often the only indication of the principal among a number of csesuras is
the break in the sense.
A csBsura occurring after the first syllable of a foot is called masculine. A cassura
occurring after the second syllable of a foot is called /emtnirie (as in the fifth foot oi
the third and fourth verses in d) . A csBsura may also be found in any foot of the verse,
but a proper cxsural pause could hardly occur in the first or sixth.
When the fourth foot ends a word, the break (properly a diaeresis) is sometimes
improperly called bucolic casura, from its frequency in .pastoral poetry.
d* The first seven verses of the JEneid, divided according to the fore-
going rules, will appear as follows. The principal caesura in each verse is
marked by double lines : —
Arm& vl|rumqu6 cft|nO | TrO|iae qui | primtia Sb | Oris
It^I|am f&|t5 pr5fti|gus | LajvIniSqug | v6nlt
lltSra, I mult«"Mll« et ter|ris || iacjtatiis 6t | alt(J
vl siipS|rum |{ sae vae mfimd|rem ItL|n5n3is db | Ir&m ;
mult& qu5|qu^ et beljlO pasjsus || dum | condSrSt | urbdm,
Infer retquS dSjOs LStljO, || gSniis | undS Lajtmum,
Albs, nlqug pa|tr6s, || atjqu^ altae | moenia | ROmae.
1. The feminine coesura is seen in the following: —
DIs g6nl|ti p6ttl|6rS: || t6|nent m6dl|* omnlS] silvae. — Aen. vi. 131.
Note. — The Hexameter is thus illustrated in English verse : —
Over the sea, past Crete, on the Syrian shore to the southward,
Dwells in the well-tilled lowland a dark-haired ^thiop people,
Skilful with needle and loom, and the arts of the dyer and carver,
Skilful, but feeble of heart ; for they know not the lords of Olympus,
Lovers of men ; neither broad-browed Zeus, nor Pallas Athen^,
Teacher of wisdom to heroes, bestower of might in the battle ;
Share not the cunning of Hermes, nor list to the songs of Apollo,
Fearing the stars of the sky, and the roll of the blue salt water.
— Kingsley's Andromeda.
$§ 616, 617] ELEGIAC STANZA 418
ElegUc Stanza
616. The Elegiac Stanza consists of two verses, — a Hexame-
ter followed by a Pentameter.^
The Pentameter verse is the same as the Hexameter^ except that it
omits the last haK of the third foot and of the sixth foot : —
rcrircrifirGrircnr''
a. The Pentameter verse is therefore to be scanned as two half-verses^ the
second of which always consists of two dactyls followed by a single syllable.
&• The Pentameter has no regular Csesura; but the first half-verse
must always end with a word (diasresis, § 611. c), which is followed by a
pause to complete the measure.'
c* The following verses will illustrate the forms of the Elegiac Stanza : —
cum sUblt I ilU|us || trIs|ti8slLm& | noctis IjmagO
qua mlhl I 8upre|mum A || temptis In | urbS fii|It, 7^
cum rSpS|t5 noc|tem || quft | tot mlhl | cftrS r6|llqul,
labltlir I ex dcii|l!s 7\ \\ nunc qudquS | gutt& mSjIs. X
iam prdpg | lOx ftdejrat || qua. | m6 disjcMSrS | Caesar
flnlbtHs I eztr^lmae 7^ || iussSrftt | Ausdnljae. X
— Ov. Trist. i. 8.
Note. — The Elegiac Stanza differs widely in character from hexameter verse (of
which it is a mere modification) by its division into Distichs, each of which must have
its own sense complete. It is employed in a great variety of compositions, — epistolary,
amatory, and moumfol, — and was especially a favorite of the poet Ovid. It has been
illustrated in English verse, imitated from the Grerman : —
In the Hexjameter | rises || the | fountain's | silTery | oolumn ;
In the Pen|tameter | aye || falling in | melody | back.
Other Dactylic Verses
617. Other dactylic verses or half-verses are occasionally used
by the lyric poets.
1 Called pentameter by the old grammarians, who divided it, formally, into five
feet (two dactyls or spondees, a spondee, and two anapsests), as follows: —
II— V^V^'I— V^'V^I — II — IWW — IWN^ — II
3 The time of this pause, however, may be filled by the protraction of the preoed*
ing syllable : —
^wv^l-Lv^fwIiZjIl^wwI^wwI^X
414 PROSODY: VEKSlJflCATlON [§§017,618
a. The Dactylic Tetrameter alternates with the hexameter, forming the
Alcmanian Strophe, as follows : —
for|tes p€|i5rSqug | passi
mdcam | saepg vl|ri, || nunc | vinO | pellltS | ctLrSs ;
crSs injgfins It^|r&blmil3 | aequdr.
— Hor. Od. 1. 7 (so 28; Ep. 12).
6. The Dactylic Penthemim (five half -feet) consists of half a pentame-
ter verse. It is used in combination with the Hexameter to form the First
Archilochian Strophe: —
diffu|ger6 ntlves, || rMS|unt lam | grftmtnS | campis,
arbdrljbusquS cd|mae;
mtltat I terrft vl|c68 || et | decr6s|centl& | npSs
flumlnS I praetSrgjunt. — Hor. Od. Iv. 7.
For the Fourth Archilochian Strophe (Archilochian heptameter, alternating with
iambic trimeter catalectic), see § 626. 11.
Iambic Yebsb
Iambic Trimeter
618. The Iambic Trimeter is the ordinary verse of dramatic
dialogue. It consists of three measures, each containing a double
iambus (iambic dipody). The caesura is usually in the third foot.
d-^v^^|d||^w-^iex
v^
/
NoTB. — The sign ^ JL denotes possible substitution of an irrational spondee ( >-l)
for an iambus (w— ). ' ^
a. The Iambic Trimeter is often used in lyric poetry (1) as an inde-
pendent system, or (2) alternating with the Dimeter to form the Iambic
Strophe, as follows : —
(1) iam i^'" ^fflcdjcl || d6 mSniis | scl^ntla^
Prds^rplna^,
d& niimln^
suppl^x St 6|rG II regnS p^r
p§r ^t Dii|nae || n6n mdv^n
pSr dtqug lfb|rOs || c^rmlntim | vSl^ntldm
deffxS ca^|lO II d^vdcd|r$ sid^ra,
CSnfdi^ pdr|c6 || v6cn)t!is | tandem s&cris,
cItiimquS r6t|r6 || rto6 s<51|v6 ttirbln4m. — Hor. Epod. 17.
The last two lines may be thus translated, to show the movement
in English: —
Oh I stay, Canidia, stay thy rites of sorcery,
Thy charm unbinding backward let thy swift wheel fly !
§618] IAMBIC TRIMETER 416
(2) b64ttis {1|13 II qui prdctd | nSgotlfB,
ut prfscft gens | mortdlliiixi,
pftt^m& rdjrft || bdbCLs ^xjerc^t 8ti&,
851uttb3 6iu|nl feii5r^;
nSqu^ ^xcttajtur || cldsslcu | mll^ triicf,
nSqu^ h6rr6t IjrftttUn m&r^. — Hor. Epod. 2.
b. In the stricter form of Iambic Trimeter an irrational spondee ( > JJ)
or its equivalent (a cyclic anapaest w v-r^ or an apparent dactyl > vi v^,
§ 609. e) may be regularly substituted for the first iambus of any dipody.
A tribrach {\j \j \^) may stand for an iambus anywhere except in the
last place. In the comic poets any of these forms or the proceleusmatic
(v^w v^ w) may be substituted in any foot except the last: — ^
Idcis il|m6 rectdr || ^t | caelf deeds !
qu' alt^m& ct!Lr|rtl sp^tlft || fldm|mlfgr^ ^mblens,
illdstrg la^jtls || ^xsSrls | terrfs cftpdt
— Sen. Here. Fur. 692-94.
quid qua^rls ? iin|nOs || s^&gln|t9. nattis ia,
— Ter. Haut. 62.
h5m6 B^i ham&|nl || nfl ft m^ ^Ijendm ptit6.
vel ml m5n6|r^ LOc || v^l perc6n|tftrt ptlti.
—id. 77, 78.
c. The Choliarobic (lame Iambic) substitutes a trochee for the last
iambus :
aequS ^t b^jttis || dc pd^jmft cdm scrfbit:
tarn gaddet In | 86, || t^qu§ s^ fp|s6 miritdr.
— Catull. xxiii. 16, 16.
Note. — The yerse may also be regarded as trochaic with anacrusis : as, —
d* The Iambic Trimeter Catalectic is represented as follows : —
II d X v^ X I e II X w X I d Li -^ II
It is used in combination with other measures (see § 626. 11), and is
shown in the following : —
VulcAniis dr|d6ns || drlt 6f |flcinis. — Hor. Od. i. 4.
or in English : —
On purple peaks a deeper shade descending. — ScoU.
1 The greater freedom of substitution in the comedy is due to the fact that the verse
IS regarded as made up of separate feet rather than of dipodies.
416 PEOSODY: VERSIFICATION [§619
Other Iambic MeasurM
619. Other forms of Iambic verse are the following : —
a. The Iambic Tetrameter Catalectic (SepUndrius), This consists of
seyen and a half iambic feet, with diaeresis after the fourth and with the
same substitutions as in Iambic Trimeter : —
j^am idcfrc^ arc6s|sor, ndptl4s || quod m' idpar4|rl s6nsit.
quTbus qufdSm quam f^I|16 pottLSrit || quX^scI s' hie | quI&ssSt !
— Ter. And. 690, 691.
The metrical scheme of these two verses may be represented as follows : —
l|>-^>-A I>-^ KJ^\\>JLyyJ.\>J.^7:\\
Its movement is lite the following : —
In g6od king Ch^rles^s gdlden days, when 16yalty no hirm meant.
— Vicar of Bray.
6. The Iambic Tetrameter Acatalectic (Octdnctrius), This consists of
eight full iambic feet with the same substitutions as in Iambic Trimeter.
Like the Septenarius it is used in lively dialogue : —
dlcHt 6am dirg | nOs Ph(5rml6|nl || ndptum n^ | susc^nsS^t ;
et mSgte ess* nil'*'^ Id6n6iim, || qu' ipsf sit f^ml|ll4rl6r.
— Ter. Ph. 720, 721.
The metrical scheme of these two verses may be represented as follows : —
\\>^Kj>y:;^\>^Kj^\>\\J->J. \>JL^,!;\\
ۥ The Iambic Dimeter. This may be either acatalectic or catalectic.
1. The Iambic Dimeter Acatalectic consists of four iambic feet. It is used
in combination with some longer verse (see § 618. a).
2. The Iambic Dimeter Catalectic consists of three and a half iambic feet.
It is used only in choruses : —
quOn^m crii6n|t^ Ma^nSs,
praec^ps &m6|rd sa^vO,
rftpltlir qu6d ImjpSt^nti
fftclntis pSrit | f ur6r6 ? — Sen. Med. 850-853.
NoTB. — Owing to the fact that in modem music each measure begins with a down-
ward beat, some scholars regard all these forms of Iambic verse as Trochaic verso
with anacrusis (§ 618. c. n.).
§6aO] TROCHAIC VEBSK 417
Trochaic Vbrbb
620. The most common form of Trochaic verse is the Tetram-
eter Catalectic {Septendritis)^ consisting of four dipodies, the last
of which lacks a syllable. There is reg^ularly diaeresis after the
fourth foot : — m
In musical notation : — '
ircrc\rcrc\rcrc\rcr-
^ t' adv^nlO, gp^m, siUdtem, || c^obUI*^, ai:bcIU*<^ ^xpSt^ns.
— Ter. And. 319.
In English verse : —
T^l me ndt in modniful ntimbers || Iffe is btit an ^mpty dredm.
— LongfeUow,
a. In the stricter form of the Septenarius substitutions are allowed
only in the even feet, but in comedy the tribrach w ^ \^, or an irrational
spondee J- >, cycHc dactyl _Z. w^^, or apparent anapaest vj' w >, may be
substituted for any of the first six feet ; a tribrach for the seventh : —
ftld«"» hSb^t p6ta|s«»» iG vestftum: || t^m cOnsfmllistJ dtqu« I^g6.
bAtS,, p^s, 8tft|tiirS, tonsQs, || 6ciili, nisum, | v^l lILbrS,
mdlae, m^ntum, | bdrbll, C(511us; || t6tusl quid ver|bfs 5pi!ist?
si tergtim c!|c&trlc6sum, || nihil hOc slmUist | sfmUlds.
—PI. Am. 443-446.
The metrical scheme of these four verses is as follows : —
_L w JL w|_d.wXv/(|^vy>^> \JL w -LA
JL > JL w|-L>-^>||JL> ^.^>|viv./wXA||
b» The Trochaic Tetrameter Acatalectic (Octondrius), consisting of four
complete dipodies, occurs in the lyrical parts of comedy.
Substitutions as in the Septenarius a^e allowed except in the last foot.
c* Some other forms of trochaic verse are found in the lyric poets, in
combination with other feet, either as whole lines or parts of lines : —
n6n Sbtir n6|qu^ atir^dm. [Dimeter Catalectic]
m6i rSnf|dgt in ddm6 | l&cdnftr. [Iambic Trimeter Catalectic]
— Hor. Od. ii. 18.
418 prosody: versification [§§621-028
Mixed Measures
6S1. Different measures may be combined in the same verse in two different
ways. Either (1) a series of one kind is simply joined to a series of another kind
(compare the cluuiges of rhythm not uncommon in modem music) ; or (2) single feet
of other measures are combined with the prevailing measures, in which case these odd
feet are adapted by changing their quantity so that they become irrational (see § 609. e) .
When enough measures of one kind occur to form a series, we may suppose a
change of rhythm; when they are isolated, we must suppose adaptation. Of the
indefinite number of possible combinations but few are found in Latin poetry.
622. The following verses, combining different rhythmical
series, are found in Latin lyrical poetry: —
1. Greater Archilochian (Dactylic Tetrameter ; Trochaic Tripody) : —
sdlvltiir I icrls hlj^ms grftjtd vicg || virls | ^t FS|v6nI.— Hor. Od. i. 4.
Note. — It is possible that the dactyls were cyclic; but the change of measure
seems more probable.
2. Verse consisting of Dactylic Trimeter catalectic (Dactylic Penthemim);
Iambic Dimeter : —
scrfbSrS | v^rslctl|lds || Sm6r3 p^r|cal8iim gr&vi. — Hor. Epod. 11. 2.
LoGACEDic Verse
623. Trochaic verses, containing in regular prescribed positions
irrational measures or irrational feet (cf . § 609. e), are called Loga-
oedic. The principal logaoedic forms are - '
1. Logaoedic Tetrapody (four feet) : Glyconic.
2. Logaoedic Tripody (three feet) : Pherecratic (often treated as a
syncopated Tetrapody Catalectic).
8. Logaoedic Dipody (two feet) : this may be regarded as a short Phere-
cratic.
NOTB. — This mixture of irrational measures gives an effect approaching that of
prose: hence the name Logaoedic {\6yoi, Aoidi/i). These measures originated in the
Greek lyric poetry, and were adopted hy the Romans. All the Roman lyric metres not
belonging to the regular iambic, trochaic, dactylic, or Ionic systems, were constructed
on the basis of the three fonns given above : viz., Logaosdic systems consisting respec*
tively of four, three, and two feet. The so-called Logaoedic Pentapody consists of fiye
feet, but is to be regarded as composed of two of the others.
§§624,626] LOOACBDIC VERSE 419
624. Each logaoedic form contains a single dactyl,^ which may
be either in the first, second, or third place. The verse may be
catalectic or acatalectic : —
Glyconic
Pherecratic
i. II -Ow
ii. II J. ^
1 ^^
1 ^v.
-0 ^
■^ (^) II
J. M II or
ill. II ^yj\ Xw|-Ov 1^(^)11
II -C^ I -i-M
NoTS. — The shorter Pherecratic (dipody) (-Ovu^j -£.w), if catalectic, appears to
be a simple Ghoriambns ( \j\j \ A) ; and, in general, the effect of the logaoedic
forms is Choriambic. In fact, they were so regarded by the later Greek and Latin
metricians, and these metres have obtained the general name of Choriambic. But
they are not true choriambic, though they may very likely have been felt to be such
by the composer, who imitated the forms without much thought of their origin. They
may be read (scanned), therefore, on that principle. But it is better to read them as
logacedie measures ; and that course is followed here.
625. The verses constructed upon the several Logaoedic forms
or models are the following : —
1. Glyconic (Second Glyconic, catalectic) : —
Bdmae j prfncIpIiB | t&rbl|ibn.
In English : —
F6rms more r^ than living mi,n,— Shelley,
Note. — In this and most of the succeeding forms the foot preceding the dactyl is
always irrational in Horace, consisting of an irrational spondee (. >).
2. Aristophanic (First Pherecratic) : —
t^mpSrSt |6ra | fr^nls. — Hor. Od. i. 8.
Note. — It is very likely that this was made equal in time to the preceding by
protracting the last two syllables: —
II -C vy I ^ K./ I iZ I -1 A
ftrirnriM
1 Different Greek poets adopted fixed types in regard to the place of the dactyls,
and so a large number of verses arose, each following a strict law, which were imi-
tated by the Romans as distinct metres.
420 PROSODY: VEESIFICATION [M
8. Adonic (^Fint PherecratiCy shortened) : —
T^rriilt | lirbfiuL — Hor.
Or perhaps : —
4. Pherecratic (Second Pkerecratic) : —
cr&s dOn4bSrIj3 ha^o. — Hor.
Often scanned as follows : —
5. Lesser Asclepiadic (Second Pherecratic with syncope and First Ph^
cratic catalectic) : —
II -^ > I -<y ^ I iZ II -O v^ I -il w I vil A II
Maecenas StSvis edItS r^glbus. — Hor.
6. Greater Asclepiadic (the same as 5, with a syncopated Logaoedic Dipd
interposed) : —
ll-^>l-<:.w|ui||-Ov^IiZ||-Ow|^w|:^Aii_
tu n5 qua^Krls — sclrg nSfds — quto mlhl, qu6m tibf. — Hor.
7. Lesser Sapphic (Logaoedic Pentapody, with dactyl in the third place):]
\\M^\^>\J.\\^\J.yj\lL\6A\\
Integer vita^ sc616rlsqu6 pdrSs. — Hor.
Or in English : —
Brilliant hdpes, all w<5ven in gdrgeous tfesties. — Longfellow.
8. Greater Sapphic (Third Glyconic; First Pherecratic^ : —
||Xw|^>|-Cw|iZ||-Cv^|jlw|LJl|c7A||
t6 d66s Or6 SybSrln || cur pr6p6ras Smdndd. — Hor.
9. Lesser Alcaic (Logaoedic Tetrapodg, two irrational dactyls, U
trochees) : —
II -C V/ I -<y W I X w I _Z. C7 II
vfrginlbi!is ptiSrisquS cdntO. — Hor.
«626, 626] METRES OF HORACE 421
10. Greater Alcaic (Logacedic Pentapody, catalectic, with anacrusis, and
ictyl in the third place, — compare Lesser Sapphic) : —
II d : Jl w I J- > II -<^ w I X w I 6 A II
iust**"* 4t tfindcem || propositi vlrAm. — Hor.
NoTS. — Only the above logaoedic forms are employed by Horace.
11. Phalaecean (^Logaoedic Pentapody, with dactyl in the second place) : —
||v^>|-Cv^|^v^|-Z.v^|^C7||
qua^nam t^ mSl& m^ns, mls^lll R^uidl,
ftgit pra^clplt*^ ill m668 IdmbOs?— CatuU. xl.
I English : —
Gorgeous flowerets In the siinlight shfning. — Longfellow.
12. Glyconic Pherecratic (Second Glyconic with syncope, and Second
kerecraiic) ; —
ll^dl-Ow|xw|L£||jLe|-o^liZ|-£.A||
6 Cdl6nl& qua^ ciipls || p<5ntS ludSrS 16ng6. — Catull. xvii.
METRES OF HORACE
626. The Odes of Horace include nineteen varieties of stanza,
'hese are : —
1. Alcaic, consisting of two Greater Alcaics (10), one Trochaic Dimeter
ith anacrusis, and one Lesser Alcaic (9)M —
itist""* 6t tenicem || prdpositf virtim
nOn cfvi**"* 4rdor || prdva iub^ntiUm,
n<3n vtiltus Instantls tyrdnnl
m^nte quatft solidi, nequ^ Atister. — Od. iii. 3.
(Found in Od. i. 9, 16, 17, 26, 27, 29, 31, 34, 35, 37; ii. 1, 3, 5, 7, 9, 11, 13, 14, 16, 17,
f, 20 ; iii. 1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 6, 17, 21, 23, 26, 29; iv. 4, 9, 14, 16.)
Note. — The Alcaic Strophe is named after the Greek poet AIcsbub of Lesbos, and
ks a special favorite with Horace, of whose Odes thirty-seven are in this form. It
I sometimes called the Horatian Stanza.
2. Sapphic (minor), consisting of three Lesser Sapphics (7) and one
^donic (3) : —
1dm satis terris |{ nivis dtque dirae
grdndlnls mlslt || pater 6t mb^nte
d^xterd. sacras || iaculatus drcis
t^rmit lirbem. — Od. i. 2.
(Found in Od. i 2, 10, 12, 20. 22, 25, 30, 32, 38; ii. 2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 16; ill. 8, 11, 14, 18,
0, 22, 27; iv. 2, 6, 11; Carm. Saec.)
1 The figures refer to the foregoing list (§ 625).
422 PROSODY: VEBSUICATION [%6M
NoTB.— The Sapphic Stanza is named after the poetess Sappho of Lesbos, and
was a great favorite with the ancients. It is used by Horace in twenty-five Odes—
more frequently than any other except the Alcaic.
3. Sapphic (major) ^ consisting of one Aristophanic (2) and one Greater
Sapphic (8) : —
L^dia dfc, per dmnia
td deds Or6, Sybarin || cdr properas am^d6. — Od. L 8.
4. Asclepiadean I (minor)^ consisting of Lesser Asclepiadics (5) : —
^zCgf monument**"* || a^re per^nnitis
r^galfque sitd || p^ramid~"» iltitis.— Od. iii. 30.
(Found in Od. i. 1; iii. 30; iv. 8.)
5. Asclepiadean II, consisting of one ' Glyconic (1) and one Lesser
Asclepiadic (5) : —
navis qoa^ tibi credittim
d6b^ y^rgiliiim, || ffnibus Atticts
r^dSa fncolumto, prec6r,
^t serves animal || dfmidiiim mea^. — Od. i. S.
(Found in Od. i. 3, 13, 19, 36; iii. 9, 16, 19, 24, 26, 28; iv. i, 3.)
6. Asclepiadean III, consisting of three Lesser Asclepiadics (5) and one
Grlyconic (1) : —
quls desiderio || sft pudor aiit modtis
tdm c^f capitis ? || pra^ipe Idgabrfis
cdntOs, M^Ipomsn^, || cul liquid^m pat^r
v6cem ctlm cithard dedlt. — Od. i. 24.
(Found in Od. i. 6, 15, 24, 33; ii. 12; iii. 10, 16; iv. 6, 12.)
7. Asclepiadean lY, consisting of two Lesser Asclepiadics (5), one I
Pherecratic (4), and one Glyconic (1) : —
6 fOns Bdndusia^ || spMndididr vitr6,
dtilcl dfgne mer6, || n6n sine fl6ribtis,
crds dOndberis ha^d6 ^
cu£ frOns tiirgida cdmibtis. — Od. iii. 13.
(Found in Od. i. 6, 14, 21, 23; iii. 7, 13; iv. 13.)
8. Asclepiadean V (major), consisting of Greater Asclepiadics (6) : j
td n6 qua^ieris, || scfre nef^sl || qu^m mihi, qu^m tibf
ffnem df dederfnt, || Lei!Lcono4, j| n^c Babyluni6s
t^ntftrls numer6s. — Od. i. 11.
(Found in Od. i. 11, 18; iv. 10.)
9. Alcmanian, consisting of Dactylic Hesameter (§ 615) alternating
with Tetrameter (§ 617. a). (Od. i. 7, 28 ; Epod. 12.)
§ «26] METRES Of HORACE 428
10. Archilochian I, consisting of a Dactylic Hexameter alternating with
Ei. Dactylic Penthemim (see § 617. b). (Od. iv. 7.)
11. Archilochian lY, consisting of a Greater Archilochian (heptameter^
% 622. 1), followed by Iambic Trimeter Catalectic (§ 618. d). The stanza
<3onBi8ts of two pairs of verses : —
861yitar 4cris hi^ms grflti vice || Y^ris ^t Fav6nl,
trahlhitque sfccfis || m&chinad carfn&s ;
ic neque idm stabulu gaud^t pecus, || atit ar&tor fgnl,
nee prdta cinis || ilbic^t pniln^ — Od. L 4.
12. Iambic Trimeter alone (see § 618). (Epod. 17.)
13. Iambic Strophe (see § 618. a). (Epod. 1-10.)
14. Dactylic Hexameter alternating with Iambic Dimeter : —
n<Sx erat, ^t cael6 || fnlg^bat liina ser^nO
Int^r min6ra sfderd,
ctun ttL, mdgnOrtUn || nUm^n laesdra de6ram,
in v^rba idrflbds med. — Epod. 16. (So in Epod. 14.)
15. Dactylic Hexameter with Iambic Trimeter (§ 618) : —
Altera idm terittlr || bellls clvilibos a^t&s,
sufs et ipsa Bdma || vfribtis rolt. — Epod. 16.
16. Yerse of Four Lesser Ionics (§ 609. c. 2): —
lolgerjlrtim ^^ | nequ^ amOri | dare ICLdum | neque dulcl
mala vInO | laver^ aut ex{anim&rl | metuentls. — Od. ill. 12.
17. Iambic Trimeter (§ 618); Dactylic Penthemim (§ 617. 6); Iambic
Dimeter:— p^^^^^ ^^^ ^^ H ^^^^^ ^^^^ ^^^^^
scrlbere v^rsiculds || am6re p^rculstUn gravf. — Epod. 11.
18. Dactylic Hexameter; Iambic Dimeter; Dactylic Penthemim (§ 617. h)i
hiSrrida t^mpesUb || caeltim contrdxit, et fmbrSs
niv^que d^dtLclhit lov^m ; || ntinc mare, mine sillia^ . . .
■* —Epod. 13.
19. Trochaic Dimeter, Iambic Trimeter, each catalectic (see § 620. c).
INDEX TO THE METRES OF HORACE
Lib. I
1. MaecSnftsatavis: 4. 8. Lydiadic: 3.
2. lam satis tenis : 2. 9. Vides at alta : 1.
3. Sic tg diva: 6. 10. Mercuri fiUsunde nepOs: 2.
4. Solvitur ftcrishiems: 11. 11. Tu ne quaesieris: 8.
5. Quismalta: 7. 12. Quern virum: 2.
6. Scriberis Varitt: 6. 13. Cnm tQ Lydia; 5.
7. Laadabontalii: 9. 14. Onavis:7.
424
PROSODY: VERSIFICATION
[§62l
16. P&Btorcamtrftheret:
16. matre pulchra : 1.
17. VelOx amoenum : 1.
18. Nullam Vare: 8.
19. Sfater Baeva: 5.
20. YllepOtabis: 2.
21. Dianam tenerae: 7.
22. Integer vitae : 2.
23. Vitas inuleo : 7.
24. Quisd«dderi5: 6.
25. Parcius iunctas : 2.
26. Mums amicus: 1.
6r
27. Natisinfisnin: 1.
28. Te maris: 9.
29. led beatas: 1.
30. 6 Venus: 2.
31. Quid dedicatum : 1«
32. Poscimur: 2.
33. Albi ne doleas : 6.
34. Parous deOrum : 1.
36. Odiva: 1.
36. Ettare: 6.
37. Nunc est bibendum : 1.
38. Persic6s5di: 2.
Lib. II
1. MOtnm ex MetellO : 1.
2. Nullus argents : 2.
3. Aequam memento : 1.
4. Ne sit ancillae: 2.
6. NOndum subacta : 1.
6. Septimi Gadgs: 2.
7. saepe mecum : 1.
8. Ullaffl iuris: 2.
9. N6n semper imbrSs: 1.
10. lUctiusyives: 2.
11. Quid bellic5sii8 : 1.
12. Nolis longa : 6.
13. Ille et nefasto : 1.
14. £heu fugaces : 1.
*15. lam pauca: 1.
16. Otiura divOs : 2.
17. Cur me querellis : 1.
18. Non ebur: 19.
19. Bacchum in remOtis :
20. Non usitata: 1.
Lib. Ill
1. 5diprofilnum: 1.
2. Angustam amice : 1.
3. lustum et tenacem : 1.
4. DSsoende caelo : 1.
5. CaelO tonantem : 1.
6. Delicta mftiOrum : 1.
7. Quidfles: 7.
8. Martiis caelebs : 2.
9. DOnec gr&tus : 6.
10. Extremum Tanain : 6.
11. Mercuii nam te: 2.
12. Miserarum est: 16.
13. O fOns Bandusiae : 7.
14. Herculis ritu : 2.
15. Uxor pauperis : 6.
16. InclOsam Danaen: 6.
17. Aeli vetustO : 1.
18. Faune nympbarum : 2.
19. Quantum distet: 5.
20. N6n vides: 2.
21. Onata mecum: 1.
22. Montium custOs : 2.
23. Caelo supinas: 1.
24. Intactis opulentior : 6.
25. Quo me Bacche: 5.
26. Vixi puellis : 1.
27. ImpiOs parrae : 2.
28. FestO quid : 6.
29. Tyrrhena regnm : 1.
30. Exegi monumentum : 4.
Lib. IV
1. Intermissa Venus : 6.
2. Pindarum quisquis : 2.
3. Quern tu Melpomeng : 5.
4. Qualem ministrum : 1.
5. Divis orte bonis: 6.
6. Dive quem prOles : 2.
7. Diffugere niv^s : 10.
8 tkOnarem pateras : 4.
9. Ne forte credas: 1.
10. O crudelis adhuc : 8.
11. Est raihi ndnum : 2.
12. lam veris comit§s : 6.
13. Audivere Lyc6 : 7.
14. Quae cura patrum: 1.
15. Phoebus yolentem : 1.
Carmen Saeculdre : 2.
§ 626-628]
MISCELLAKEOUS
425
Epodbs
1. IbisLibnrnis: 13.
2. Beatusille: 13.
3. Parentis dim : 13.
4. Lupis et aguis : 13.
5. At deOrum : 13.
6. Quid immerentis : 13.
7. Quo quo scelesti : 13.
8. Bogare longO : 13.
0. QuandO repostum : 13.
10. Matt soiata: 13.
11. Feta nihil: 17.
12. Quid tibi vis: 9.
13. HoiTida tempestas : 18.
14. Mollis inertia : 14.
16. Kox erat: 14.
16. Altera iam : 15.
17. Jam iam efficad: 12.
627. Other lyric poets use other combinations of the above
mentioned verses : —
€t» Glyconics with one Pherecratic (both imperfect) : —
Df3.|na^ stimtis | In fld6
puelll«« ^t ptl6|r' faitggrf :
Dfa|nd,m, pii6|r' fatfegrf
ptiel|la6qu6 c&|n^|m&3. — CatuU. xxxiv.
6. Sapphics, in a series of single lines, closing with an Adonic: —
An niS.|gis di|rf trgmii|6r3 | M^Ss
H^rctilK"* ? 6t vilsiim cinls | fnf6|r6rtim
fugit I dbrupjtis trgpIjdT^ c&|tenls?
f411I|miir: lae|t6 v6nit | 6cc5 | vtiltu,
qu^m tiijlit Poe|ds ; hilm6|rfsqug | t6l&
g^t&t I ^t nOjtds p5pu|lls ph&Ir^trSs
H^rcmis I heres. — Sen. Here. Oet. 1600-1606.
c* Sapphics followed by Glyconics, of indefinite nnmber (id. Here. Fur.
830-874, 875-894).
MISCELLAIO:0US
628. Other measures occur in various styles of poetry.
a. Anapaestic (§ 609. h. 2) verses of various lengths are found in dramatic
poetry. The spondee, dactyl, or proceleusmatic may be substituted for the
^ * hic h6m6st | omnt**"* h8mT|num pra^|clpii6s
v51tiptd|tlbiis gati|dflsqu* ^n|t6p6t^ns.
Ita C(5m|m6da qua^ | ctipl'' ^|v6nlTint,
qn5d Sg6 | stibit, ad|86ctil | s6qultdr :
Ita gaiijdmm stip|p6d!tat. — PI. Trin. 1116-1119.
&• Bacchiac (§ 609. d. 4) verses (five-timed) occur in the dramatic poets, —
very rarely in Terence, more commonly in Plautus, — either in verses of two
feet (Dimeter) or of four (Tetrameter). They are treated very freely, as are
426 PROSODY : VERSIFICATION [§§ 628, 629
all measures in early Latin. The long syllables may be resolyed, or the
moloisus (three longs) substituted : —
multis res I slmft^ in | mS6 corjdS viSrsO,
mult**** fn c0|glt4nd5 | d6l6r«»» m|dlpfsc6r.
eg5m^t me I cOg^ ^t mft|c6r^ ^t d6|f&tfg0 ;
mftglster | mlh^ ^er|clt6r &nl,mtis ntinc est.
— PI. Trin. 228-226.
€• Cretic measures (§ 609. d. 1) occur in the same manner as the Bac-
chiac, with the same substitutions. The last foot is usually incomplete : —
timquSm.
f^IO.
m6r6s. — id. 267, 293, 297.
Ilm5r ftmljctis mlhl | nd fuSs
his ggO I d' irtlbus | gr^tlam
nfl Sg^ is|t6s m5ror | fa^SOs
d» Satumian Verse. In early Latin is found a rude form of verse, not
borrowed from the Greek like the others, but as to the precise nature of
which scholars are not agreed.^
1. According to one view the verse is based on quantity, is composed of
six feet, and is divided into two parts by a caesura before the fourth thesis.
Each thesis may consist of a long syllable or of two short ones, each arsis
of a short syllable, a long syllable, or two short syllables ; but the arsis,
except at the beginning of the verse and before the c8BSura, is often entirely
suppressed, though rarely more than once in the same verse : —
dftbiint m&liim MSt^llI {| Na6vi6 p5ltae.
2. According to another theory the Saturnian is made up, without regard
to quantity, of alternating accented and unaccented syllables ; but for any
unaccented syllable two may be substituted, and regularly are so substituted
in the second foot of the verse : —
d^bunt mdlum Met^ll || Na^vi6 po^tae.
EARLY PROSODY
629. The prosody of the earlier poets differs in several re-
spects from that of the later.^
a« At the end of words s, being only feebly sounded, does not make
position with a following consonant; it sometimes disappeared altogether.
This usage continued in all poets till Cicero's time (§ 15. 7).
1 The two principal theories only are given. There are numerous variations, pa^
ticularly of the second theory here stated.
3 Before the Latin language was used in literature, it had become much changed
by the loss of final consonants and the shortening of final syllables under the influence
of accent. In many cases this change was still in progress in the time of the early
poets. This tendency was arrested by the study of grammar and by literature, but
shows itself again in the Romance languages.
i e29] EARLY PROSODY 427
&• A long syllable immediately preceded or followed by the ictus may
be shortened (iambic shortening) : —
1. In a word of two syllables of which the first is short (this effect remained in
a. few w^ords like pntA, cayfi, yalS, yid6, eg5, mod5, dad ^) : —
4bl (Ter. Ph. 59); b6nl (id. 516) ; hSmC su4vis (id. 411).
2. If it is either^ monosyllable or the first syllable of a word which is pre-
ceded by a short monosyllable : —
s^d bSs tabellfts (PI. Pei-s. 195) ; quid hic nunc (id. Epid. 157) ; p6r Inpld-
vium (Ter. Ph. 707) ; ^^ 6st6nderem (id. 793).
3. When preceded by a short initial syllable in a word of more than three
syllables : —
v6niistdtis(Ter. Hec. 848); s6n6ctutem (id. Ph. 434); Syracusaa (PI. Merc.
37) ; amlcfUa (id. Ps. 1263).
c. In a few isolated words position is often disregarded.^ Such are Ule,
Immo, Inde, Iste, Qmnis, nSmpe, qulppe, iinde.
dm The original long quantity of some final syllables is retained.
1. The ending -or is retained long in nouns with long stem-vowel (original r-
stems or original s-stems) : —
m6do quom diet** in m^ fnger^bas 6dium n6n uxor erim (PI. Asin. 927).
fta m' in p^tor* dtque c6rde ficit amor inc^ndilim (id. Merc. 500).
dtque qudntO n6z fuisti 16ngl6r hSlc pr6zum4 (id. Am. 548).
2. The termination -es (-Itis) is sometimes retained long, as in miles, superstes.
3. All verb-endings in -r, -s, and -t may be retained long where the vowel is
elsewhere long in inflection ; —
r^gredior audlsse m6 (PI. Capt. 1023); itqu* ut quf fueris et quf nunc (id.
248); me n6minat haec (id. Epid. iv. 1. 8); faciat ut semper (id. Poen.
ii. 42); Infuscabat, amabO (cretics, id. Cist. i. 21); qui amSt (id. Merc.
1021) ; ut fit in b^llO cdpitur alter filiiis (id. Capt. 25); tibi sit ad me
revlsas (id. True. ii. 4. 79).
^ 6. Hiatus (§ 612. ^) is allowed somewhat freely, especially at a pause
in the sense, or when there is a change of speaker.^
1 CI. amU (also a dual, p. 69, footnote), in which the 5 is retained because of the
length of the first syllable.
'^ Scholars are not yet agreed upon the principle or the extent of this irregularity.
s The extent of this license is still a question among scholars ; but in the present
state of texts it must sometimes be allowed.
428 MISCELLANEOUS [§S 330, 631
MISCELLANEOUS
Reckoning of Time
630. The Roman Year was designated, in earlier times, by the names of the
Consals ; but was afterwards reckoned from the building of the City {ab urbe conditd,
anno urhis eonditae), the date of which was assigned by Varro to a period correspond-
ing with B.C. 703. In order, therefore, to reduce Roman dates to those of the Christian
era, the year of the city is to be subtracted from 764: e.g. A.u.c. 691 (the year of
Cicero's consulship) corresponds to b.c. 63.
Before Caesar's reform of the Calendar (b.c. 46), the Roman year consisted of 355
days: March, May, Quintilis (July), and October having each 31 days, February hav-
ing 28, and each of the remainder 29. As this calendar year was too short for the
solar year, the Romans, in alternate years, at the discretion of the pontifices, inserted
a month of varying length {niensis intercalaris) after February 23, and omitted the
rest of February. The *' Julian year," by Caesar's reformed Calendar, had 3G5 days,
divided into months as at present. Every fourth year the 24th of February (vi. Kal.
Mart.) was counted twice, giving 29 days to that month : hence the year was called
bissezttlis. The month Quintilis received the name lOlius (July), in honor of Julius
CiBsar; and Sextilis was called Augustus (August), 'in honor of his successor. The
Julian year (see below) remained unchanged till the adoption of the Gregorian Calen- I
dar (a.d. 1582), which omits leap-year three times in every four hundred years.
631. Dates, according to the Roman Calendar, are reckoned
as follows: —
a. Th.Q first day of the month was called Kalendae (Calends),
NoTB. — Kalendae is derived from calare, to caW,-— the Calends being the day on
which the pontiffs publicly announced the New Moon in the Comitia Caldta. This
they did, originally, from actual observation.
6. On the fifteenth day of March, May, July, and October, but the thir-
teenth of the other months, were the Idiis (Ides), the day of Full Moon.
c. On the seventh day of March, May, July, and October, but the ffih
of the other months, were the Nonae (Nones or ninths),
d» From the three points thus determined, the days of the month were
reckoned backwards as so many days before the Nones, the Ides, or the
Calends, The point of departure was, by Roman custom, counted in the
reckoning, the second day being three days before, etc. This gives the fol-
lowing rule for 
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