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i
ALLEN AND GREENOUGH'S
NEW
LATIN GRAMMAR
FOR
SCHOOLS AND COLLEGES
FOUNDED ON COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR
EDITED BY
J. B. GREENOUGH G. L. KITTREDGE
A. A. HOWARD BENJ. L. D'OOGE
i^tSMi
GINN AND COMPANY
BOSTON • NEW YORK • CHICAGO • LONDON
ATLANTA • DALLAS • COLUMBUS • SAN FRANCISCO
FcLu cT ^1^.-2,-1*^3^
ffA^-^.r- r,\'\'E " ::. ,:<
' v^s •: 1939
ENTERED AT STATIONERS* HALL
COPYRIGHT, 1888, BY
JAMES B. GREENOUGH AND J. H. ALLEN
COPYRIGHT, 1903, BY
GINN AND COMPANY
COPYRIGHT, 1916, BY
GEORGE L. KITTREDGE
ALL RIGHTS RESERVED
PRINTED IN THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA
527.4
GINN AND COMPANY . PRO-
PRIETORS • BOSTON • U&A.
PREFACE
The present book is a careful revision of the edition of 1888.
This revision was planned and actually begun in the lifetime of
Professor Greenough and has been carried out in accordance
with principles that met with his full approval. The renimi-
bering of the sections has made it possible to improve the
arrangement of material in many particulars and to avoid a cer-
tain amount of repetition which was inevitable in the former
edition. Thus, without increasing the size of the volume, the
editors have been able to include such new matter as the advance
in grammatical science has afforded. The study of historical
and comparative syntax has been pursued with considerable vigor
during the past fifteen years, and the well-established results of
this study have been inserted in their appropriate places. In
general, however, the principles and facts of Latin syntax, as
set forth by Professor Greenough, have stood the test both of
scientific criticism and of practical use in the class-room, and
accordingly the many friends of Allen and Greenough's Gram-
mar will not find the new edition strange or unfamiliar in its
method or its contents. The editors have seen no occasion to
change long-settled nomenclature or to adopt novel classifica-
tions when the usual terms and categories have proved satis-
factory. On the other hand, they have not hesitated to modify
either doctrines or forms of statement whenever improvement
seemed possible.
In the matter of " hidden quantity" the editors have been even
more conservative than in the former revision. This subject is
one of great difficulty, and the results of the most recent investi-
gations are far from harmonious. In many instances the facts
•••
m
IV PREFACE
are quite undiscoverable, and, in general, the phenomena are of
comparatively slight interest except to special students of the
arcana of philology. No vowel has been marked long unless the
evidence ^seemed practically decisive.
The editors have been fortunate in securing the advice and
assistance of Professor E. S. Sheldon, of Harvard University, for
the first ten pages, dealing with phonetics and phonology. They
are equally indebted to Professor E. P. Morris, of Yale Univer-
sity, who has had the kindness to revise the notes on historical
and comparative syntax. Particular acknowledgment is also
due to Mr. M. Grant Daniell, who has cooperated in the revision
throughout, and whose accurate scholarship and long experience
as a teacher have been of the greatest service at every point.
Septembeb 1, 1903.
CONTENTS
PART I — WORDS AND FORMS
PAGE
Lbttebs and Sounds 1-lt)
Alphabet ; Classification of Sounds 1-3
Orthography, Syllables, Pronunciation 3-5
Quantity and Accent 5-^7
Combinations ; Phonetic Changes 7-10
WOBDS AND THEIR FOSMS 11-16
Parts of Speech ^ 11, 12
Inflection; Root, Stem, and Base 12-14
Gender, Number, and Case 14-16
Declension of Nouns 16-45
General Rules of Declension 17
First Declension 18-20
Second Declension 20-^4
Third Declension 24-37
Mute Stems 25, 26
Liquid and Nasal Stems 27, 28
Pure i-Stems 29,30
Mixed i-Stems 30,31
Irregular Nouns 33, 34
Greek Nouns 34-86
Rules of Gender 36, 37
Fourth Declension 37-39
Fifth Declension 39,40
Defective and Variable Nouns 40-44
Names of Persons 45
Inflection of Adjectives 46-62
First and Second Declensions 46-49
Third Declension 49-54
Comparison 55-57
Numerals 58-62
Inflection of Pronouns 63-71
Personal, Reflexive, Possessive, Demonstrative 63-67
Relative, Interrogative, Indefinite 68-71
Correlatives (Pronouns and Adverbs) 71
Conjugation of Verbs 72-125
Inflection 72
Signification : Voice, Mood, Tense 73-75
Personal Endings 76, 77
V
VI CONTENTS
PAGE
Forms: Stem and Verb-Endings ...••• 77-31
The Verb Sum 81-83
Regular Verbs 84-103
The Four Conjugations ; Principal Parts 84, 85
Formation of the Three Stems 85-89
Synopsis of the Verb 90
Peculiarities of Conjugation 91
First Conjugation 92-96
Second Conjugation • 96, 97
Third Conjugation 98,99
Fourth Conjugation 100, 101
Verbs m -15 of the Thbd Conjugation 102,103
Deponent Verbs 103-106
Periphrastic Conjugations 106-108
Irregular Verbs 108-115
Defective Verbs 116-119
Impersonal Verbs 119, 120
Classified Lists of Verbs 121-125
Pabtiolbs 126-139
Adverbs 126-130
Prepositions 130-136
Conjunctions 137-139
Interjections 139
FOBMATION OF WOBDS ^ 140-162
Roots and Stems 140,141
Suffixes: Primary; Significant Endings 141-143
Derivation of Nouns 143-148
Derivation of Adjectives 148-154
Nouns with Ad jective Suffixes ; Irregular Derivatives .... 154-156
Derivation of Verbs 156-159
Compound Words 160-162
PART II — SYNTAX
Intboductobt Notb 163
Thb Sbntbkcb 164-208
Definitions : Subject and Predicate, Modification, etc 164-168
Agreement: the Four Concords 168
Nouns : Apposition ; Predicate Agreement 168-170
Adjectives 170-176
Rules of Agreement 171, 172
Special Uses 172-175
Pronouns 176-192
Personal and Demonstrative 176-180
Reflexive 180-183
Possessive 188, 184
/
CONTENTS vii
«. , . PAGE
^la^ive 184_lgj,
Indefinite ^ 189-101
Alius and alter 202
Verbs 193-196
Verb and Subject, Incomplete Sentences 193-196
Pakticles : Adverbs, Conjunctions, Negatives 196-204
Questions !!!!.' 206-208
CoNSTBucTiON OP Cases 209-276
Introductory Note * ' 209
NoMmATiYE Case 2io
Vocative Case * 210
Genitive Case ' 210^224
Genitive with Nouns 211-216
Possessive Genitive 211 212
Genitive of Material, of Quality '213
Partitive Genitive , 213-216
Objective Genitive , . . . . 216 216
Genitive with Adjectives ... 216* 217
Genitive with Verbs . 218^223
Verbs of Remembering and Forgetting 218 219
Verbs of Reminding 219
Verbs of Accusing, Condemning, and Acquitting 220
Verbs of Feeling 221
Interest and rgfert . 221 222
Verbs of Plenty and Want ; Special Verbs 222, 223
Peculiar Genitives : Exclamatory, etc 223, 224
Dative Case 224-239
Indirect Object with Transitives 226-227
Indirect Object with Intransitives ........... 227-232
Dative of Possession 232 233
Dative of the Agent 233, 234
Dative of Reference 234-236
Ethical Dative 236
Dative of Separation 236, 237
Dative of the Purpose or End 237
Dative with Adjectives 238, 239
Accusative Case 240-248
Direct Object 240-242
Cognate Accusative 242-244
Two Accusatives 244-246
Idiomatic and Special Uses 247, 248
Ablathtb Case 248-265
Uses of the Ablative Proper 249-256
Ablative of Separation 249,260
Ablative of Source and Material 260-252
Ablative of Cause 252,253
VIU CONTENTS
PAOB
Ablative of Agent 253, 264
Ablative of Comparison 254, 255
Uses of the Ablative as Instramental 256-265
Ablative of Means or Instrument 256-258
Ablative of Manner 258
Ablative of Accompaniment 258, 259
Ablative of Degree of Difference 250, 260
Ablative of Quality 260
Ablative of Price .• 261,262
Ablative of Specification 262,263
Ablative Absolute 263-265
Uses of the Ablative as Locative 265
Time and Place 266-273
Special Uses of Prepositions 274, 275
Syntax of the Verb 276-386
Moods , 276-293
Introductory Note 276, 277
Indicative Mood 277
Subjunctive in Independent Sentences 278-283
Hortatory Subjunctive 278, 279
Hortatory Subjunctive in Concessions 279
Optative Subjunctive 280, 281
Deliberative Subjunctive , , 281
Potential Subjunctive 282, 283
Imperative Mood 283-285
Prohibition (Negative Command) 285
Infinitive Mood 286-292
Infinitive as Noun 286, 287
Infinitive with Impersonate 287, 288
Complementary Infinitive 289, 290
Infinitive with Subject Accusative 290
Infinitive of Purpose ; Peculiar Infinitives 290, 291
Exclamatory Infinitive 292
Historical Infinitive 292
Tenses 293-308
Introductory Note 293
Tenses of the Indicative 293-301
Present Tense 293-295
Imperfect Tense 296-297
Future Tense 298
Perfect Tense 298-300
Pluperfect Tense 300
Future Perfect Tense 300
Epistolary Tenses 301
Tenses of the Subjunctive ., 301-306
Sequence of Tenses 302-306
CONTENTS IX
PAGE
Tenses of the Infinitive 307, 308
Participles 309-316
Distinctions of Tense 309-311
Uses of Participles 311-314
Future Active Participle 314, 316
Gerundive (Future Passive Participle) 316, 316
Gerund and Gerundive 316-319
Supine 320
Conditional Sentences 321-338
Introductory Note 321,322
Protasis and Apodosis 322,323
Classification of Conditions 323-326
Simple Present and Past Conditions 326, 326
Future Conditions 326-328
Conditions Contrary to Fact 328-330
General Conditions 331
Conditional Relative Clauses 332,333
Condition Disguised 333, 334
Condition Omitted 334,336
Complex Conditions 336
Clauses of Comparison (Conclusion Omitted) 336
Use of Si and its Compounds 337, 338
Concessive Clauses ^ 338, 339
Clauses of Proviso 340
Clauses op Purpose (Final Clauses) 340-343
Clauses of Characteristic 343-346
Clauses of Result (Consecutive Clauses) 346-348
Causal Clauses 348-360
Temporal Clauses 360-369
UM, at, com, qoandS, as Indefinite Relatives 360
Postqaam, abi, at, simal atqae 361
Cam Temporal 362-364
Com Causal or Concessive 364, 365
Anteqaam and priasqoam 366, 366
Dun, dOBec, and qooad 367-369
Clauses with qain and qaominus 369-361
Substantive Clauses 362-384
Introductory Note 362
Substantive Clauses of Purpose and Infinitive Clauses .... 362-367
Substantive Clauses of Result (Consecutive Clauses) 367-369
Indicative with qood 369, 370
Indirect Questions 370-373
Indirect Discourse 373-384
Introductory Note 373, 374
Declaratory Sentences 374-377
Subordinate Clauses 377, 378
X CONTENTS
PAGE
Tenses of the Infinitive 378,379
Tenses of the Subjunctive 379, 380
Questions in Indirect Discourse 380, 381
Commands in Indirect Discourse 381
Conditions in Indirect Discoui-se 381-384
Intermediate Clauses 384-386
Informal Indirect Discourse 385
Subjunctive of Integral Part (Attraction) 386
Important Rules op Syntax 387-392
Order op Words 393-400
General Rules 398-398
Special Rules 398, 399
Structure of the Period 399, 400
PROSODY
Quantity 401-405
Rhythm 406-409
Introductory Note 405, 406
Measures of Rhythm ; Feet 406-409
The Musical Accent ; Caesura ; DisBresis 409
Versification 410-426
The Verse ; Scansion and Elision 410, 411
Dactylic Verse 411-414
Dactylic Hexameter 411, 412
Elegiac Stanza ; Other Dactylic Verses 413, 414
Iambic Verse 414-416
Iambic Trimeter 414, 415
Other Iambic Measures 416
Trochaic Verse 417
Mixed Measures . , 418
LogaoBdic Verse 418-421
Metres of Horace 421-425
Index to the Metres of Horace 423-425
Other Lyric Poets 425
Miscellaneous Measures 425, 426
Early Prosody 426,427
Miscellaneous 428-431
Reckoning of Time 428, 429
Measures of Value, Length, and Capacity 429-431
Glossary of Terms 432-435
Index of Verbs 436-444
Index of Words and Subjects 445-475
Latin Authors and their Works 476,477
Parallel References 479-490
ALLEN AND GREENOUGH'S
NEW LATIN GRAMMAR
XI
LATIIS^ GRAMMAR
Latin Grammar is usually treated under three heads: 1. Words and
Forms; 2. Syntax; 3. Prosody. Syntax treats of the function of words
when joined together as parts of the sentence ; Prosody of their arrange-
ment in metrical composition.
PART FIRST— WORDS AND FORMS
THE ALPHABET
1. The Latin Alphabet is the same as the English (which is
in fact borrowed from it) except that it does not contain J, U,
and W.
Note 1. — The Latin alphabet was borrowed in very early times from a Greek
alphabet (though not from that most familiar to us) and did not at first contain the
letters G aud Y. It consisted of capital letters only, and the small letters with which
we are familiar did not come into general use until the close of the eighth century of
our era.
Note 2. — The Latin names of the consonants were as follows : — B, be (pronounced
hay); C, ce (pronounced kay); D, de {day); F, ef; G, ge (gay); H, ha; K, ka; L, el;
M, em; N, en ; P, pe (pay); Q, qu (koo); R, er; S, ea; T, te (tay); X, ix; Z, zeta (the
Greek name, pronounced dzayta). The sound of each vowel was used as its name.
a. The character C originally meant G, a value always retained in
the abbreviations C. (for Gaius) and Cn. (for Gnaeus).
Note. — In early Latin C came also to be used for K, and K disappeared except be-
fore a in a few words, as Kal. (Kalendae), Karthago. Thus there was no distinction in
writing between the sounds of g and k. Later this defect was remedied by forming
(from C) the new character G. This took the alphabetic place formerly occupied by
Z, which had gone out of use. In Cicero*s time (see N. D. ii. 93), Y (originally a form
of V) and Z were introduced from the ordinary Greek alphabet to represent sounds in
words derived from the Greek, and they were put at the end of the Latin alphabet.
6. I and'V were used both as vowels and as consonants (see § 5).
Note. — V originally denoted the vowel sound u (oo), and F stood for the sound of
our consonant w. When F acquired the value of our f, V came to be used for the
sound of w as well as for the vowel u.
In this book i is used for both vowel and consonant i, u for vowel u, and
Y for consonant u : — ius, vir, iuvenis.
1
WORDS AND FORMS
[§§2-4
Classification of Sounds
2. The simple Vowels are a, e, i, o, u, y.
The Diphthongs are ae, au, ei, eu, oe, ni, and, in early Latin, ai,
oi, ou. In the diphthongs both vowel sounds are heard, one fol-
lowing the other in the same syllable.
3. Consonants are either voiced (sonant) or voiceless (surd).
Voiced consonants are pronounced with the same vocal murmur
that is heard in vowels ; voiceless consonants lack this murmur.
1. The voiced consonants are b, d, g, 1, r, m, n, z, consonant i, y.
2. The voiceless consonants are p, t, c (k, q), f, h, s, z.
4. Consonants are further classified as in the following table :
IM.BIALS Dentals Palatals
Voiced (mediae)
b
d
6
Mutes Voiceless (tenues)
P
t
o (k, q)
Aspirates
ph
th
oh
Nasals
m
n
n (before c, g, q) ^
Liquids
l,r
Fricatives (Spirants)
fi
8, a
Sibilants
», z
Semivowels
V
consonant i
Double consonants are z (= cs) and x (= dz) ; h is merely a breathing.
1. Mutes are pronoanced by blocking entirely, for an instant, the passage of the
hreath through the mouth, and then allowing it to escape with an explosion (distinctly
heard before a following vowel). Between the explosion and the vowel there may be
a slight. puff of breath (h), as in the Aspirates (ph, th, ch).3
2. Labials are pronounced with the lips, or lips and teeth.
3. Dentals (sometimes called Linguals) are pronounced with the tip of the tongue
touching or approaching the upper front teeth.
4. Palatals are pronounced with a part of the upper surface of the tongue touching
or approaching the palate.'
5. Fricatives (or Spirants) are consonants in which the breath passes continuously
through the mouth with audible friction.
6. Nasals are like voiced mutes, except that the mouth remains closed and the
breath passes through the nose.
1 Strictly a labio-dentcU, pronounced with the under lip touching the upper teeth.
s The aspirates are almost wholly confined to words borrowed from tlfe Greek. In
early Latin such borrowed sounds lost their aspiration and became simply p, t, c.
> Palatals are often classed as (1) velarSf pronounced with the tongue touching or ris-
ing toward the soft palate (in the back part of the mouth), and (2) palatals, in which the
tongue touches or rises toward the hard palate (farther forward in the mouth) . Compar«
the initial consonants in key and coo/, whispering the two words, and it will be observed
that before e and i the k is sounded farther forward in the mouth than before a, o, or u.
§§ 6, 6] ORTHOGRAPHY 3
5. The vowels i and u serve as consonants when pronounced
rapidly before a vowel so as to stand in the same syllable.^ Con-
sonant 1 has the sound of English consonant y; consonant u (v)
that of English consonant w.
Consonant i and a (▼) are sometimes called Semivowels.
NoTB 1. — The Latin alphabet did not distinguish between the vowel and consonant
sounds of i and u, but used each letter (I and V) with a double value. In modern books
i and u are often used for the vowel sounds, j and v for the consonant sounds ; but in
printing in capitals J and U are avoided : — I V LI V S (Ittlius) . The characters J and U are
only slight modifications of the characters I and V. The ordinary English sounds of
3 and. V did not exist in classical Latin, but consonant a perhaps approached English v
in the pronunciation of some persons.
Note 2. — In the combinations qu, ga, and sometimes tn, a seems to be the conso-
nant (w) . Thus, aqua, angnis, cdnsuetos (compare English quarts ang^Ush, suave) . In
these combinations, however, a is reckoned neither as a vowel nor as a consonant.'
ORTHOGRAPHY
6. Latin spelling varied somewhat with the changes in the
language and was never absolutely settled in all details.
Thus, we find Inbet, vortS, as earlier, and libet, vertd, as later forms. Other
variations are optumas and optlmas, gerondus and gerendus.
The spelling of the first centuiy of our era, known chiefly from
inscriptions, is tolerably uniform, and is commonly used in modem
editions of the classics.
a* After y (consonant n), o was anciently used instead of n (voltas, 8er?08),
and this speUing was not entirely given up until the middle of the first
century of our era.
bm The older quo became cu in the Augustan period ; in the second cen-
tury of our era the spelling qua established itself in some words : —
com, older quom ;* eqiios, ecns, later eqaus ; seqaontor, secantnr, later sequuntur ;
similarly ezstingaont, ezstingunt, later ezatingaunt.
NoTB. — In most modem editions the spelling qua is adopted, except in cam.
c. Between consonant i and a preceding a, e, o, or n, an i was developed
as a transient sound, thus producing a diphthong ai, ei, etc, before the con-
sonant i. In such cases but one i was written : as, M (for fAi-iS), miius
(for tmai-ins), pfiius (for fpei-ius).
1 Compare the English word Indian as pronounced in two syllables or in three.
3 In such words it is possible that the preceding consonant was labialized and that
no distinct and separate consonant a was heard.
* The spelling qaam is very late and without authority.
4 WORDS AND FORMS [§§ 6-8
d* Similarly in oomponnds of iadS but one i was written (as, ocm-icifi,
not con-iici5); but the usual pronunciation probably showed consonant i
followed by vowel i (see § 11. e).
NoTB. — Some yariatioiis are due to later changes in Latin itself, and these are not
now recognized in classical texts.
1. Unaccented ti and ci, when followed by a vowel, came to be pronounced alike ;
hence nflntlS was later spewed with a c and dicl5 with a t.
2. The sound of h was after a time lost and hence this letter was often omitted (as,
arCua for harfina) or mistakenly written (as, humor for amor).
3. The diphthong ae early in the time of the Empire acquired the value of long open
e (about like English e in there) ^ and similarly oe after a time became a long dose e
(about like the English ey in t?iey) ; and so both were often confused in spelling with
e : as, ceena or caeoa for the correct form c6na.
Syllables
7. Every Latin word has as many syllables as it has vowels or
diphthongs : —
Brci-if mo-n8, fl-li-us, fe-r5-ci-t&-te.
a* In the division of words into syllables a single consonant (including
consonant i and y) between two vowels is written and pronounced with
the following vowel. Doubled consonants are separated : —
pa-ter, ml-li-tSs, in-ifi-ri-a, di-vi-do ; mit-t5, tol-15.
NoTB 1. — Some extend the rule for single consonants to any consonant group (as
Bp, 8t, gn) that can begin a word. In this book, dix-lt, sax-om, etc. are preferred to
di-xit, sa-zum ; the pronunciation was probably dic-sit, sac-sum.
Note 2. — A syllable ending with a vowel or diphthong is called open: all others
are called close. Thus in pa-ter the first syllable is open, the second close.
b» In compounds the parts are separated : —
ab-est, ob-Utas, dis-cexnS, dn-plex, di-stfi.
Pronunciation
8. The so-called Roman Pronunciation of Latin aims to repre-
sent approximately the pronunciation of classical times.
Vowels : ft as in father; & as in idea.
^SLsehf (prolonged), or a in date; 4 as eh t (clipped) or e in neL
X as in machine; I as in holiest or sit,
5 as in holy; 5 as in obey,
a as 00 in boot; ii as oo in fooL
y between n and i (French u or German U).
Diphthongs : ae like ay; el as in eight; oe like oy in boyf
eu as eh'oo: au like ow in now; ul as on'ee.
§§8-10] PRONUNCIATION AND QUANTITY 6
Consonants are the same as in English, except that —
c and g are as in comej gety never as in dty^ gem,
B as in sea^ lips, never as in ease.
Consonant i is like y in young; v (consonant u) like w in wing.
n in the combinations na and nf probably indicates nasalization of the
preceding vowel, which was also lengthened ; and final m in an
unaccented syllable probably had a similar nasalizing effect on
the preceding vowel.
ph, th, ch, are properly like p, t, k, followed by h (which may, for con-
venience, be neglected) ; but ph probably became like (or nearly
like) f soon after the classical period, and may be so pronounced
to distinguish it from p.
z is as dz in adze.
bs is like pa ; bt is like pt.
Note. — Latin is sometimes pronounced with the ordinary English sounds of the
letters. The English pronunciation should be used in Roman names occurring in
English (as, Julius Csssar) ; and in familiar quotations, as, e pluribus unum ; viva
voce; vice versa; a fortiori; veniy vidiy vici, etc.
Quantity
9. The Quantity of a Vowel or a Syllable is the time occupied
in pronouncing it. Two degrees of Quantity are recognized, —
long and short.
a» In syllables, quantity is measured from the beginning of the vowel
or diphthong to the end of the syllable.
10. Vowels are either long or short bt/ nature^ and are pro-
nounced accordingly (§ 8).
a« A vowel before another vowel or h is short : as in vU, nihil.
b. A diphthong is long : as in Shdea, fSedus. So, also, a vowel derived
from a diphthong : as in ezcludO (from fez-claudd).
c. A vowel formed by contraction is long : as in nil (from nihil).
d* A vowel before ns, nf, gn, is long : as in cdnstans, inferd, magnus.
Note. — But the quantity of the vowel before gn. is not certain in all cases.
e. A vowel before nd, nt, is regularly short : as in anuuidus, amant.
In this book all vowels known to be long are marked (a, e, etc.), and
short vowels are left unmarked (a, e, etc.). Vowels marked with both signs
at once (I, I, etc.) occur sometimes as long and sometimes as short.
NoTK. — The Romans sometimes marked vowel length by a stroke above the letter
(called an apex), as, A ; and sometimes the vowel was doubled to indicate length. An
I made higher than the other letters was occasionally used for i. Bnt none of these
devices came into general use.
6 WORDS AND FORMS [§ U
11. The Quantity of the Syllable is important for the position
of the accent and in versification.
a* A syllable containing a long vowel or a diphthong is said to be long
by nature : as, ma-ter, aes, au-l».
&• A syllable containing a short vowel followed by two consonants
(except a mute before 1 or r) or by a double consonant (z, z) is said to be
long by position, but the vowel is pronounced short : as, est, ter-ra, saz-um,
Me-zen-tius.
NoTB. — When a consonant is doubled the pronunciation should show this dis-
tinctly. Thus in mit-t5 both t's should be pronounced as in out-talk (not merely a
single t as in better).
c. A syllable containing a short vowel followed by a mute before 1 or r
is properly short, but may be used as long in verse. Such a syllable is said
to be common.
Note 1. — In syllables long by position, but having a short vowel, the length is
partly due to the first of the consonants, which stands in the same syllable with the
vowel. In syllables of *' common " quantity (as the first syllable of patrem) the ordi-
nary pronunciation was pa-trem, but in verse pat-rem was allowed so that the syllable
could become long.
Note 2. — In final syllables ending with a consonant, and containing a short vowel,
the quantity in verse is determined by the following word : if this begins with a vowel
the final consonant is joined to it in pronunciation ; if it begins with a consonant the
syllable is long by position.
Note 3. — In rules for quantity h is not counted as a consonant, nor is the appar-
ently consonantal u in qu, gu, su (see § 5. n. 2).
d* A syllable whose vowel is a, e, o, or u, followed by consonant i, is
long whether the vowel itself is long or short : as, 4-i5, mil-ior, pe-ius.
In such cases the length of the syllable is indicated in this book by a
circumflex on the vowel.
Note. — The length of a syllable before consonant i is due to a transitional sound
(vowel i) which forms a diphthong with the preceding vowel: as, a-io (for t*i-i6),
mit-ior (for fmai-ior). See § 6. c.
ۥ In some compounds of iaci5 (as, in-ici5) the consonant i of the simple
verb was probably pronounced (though not written). Thus the first syl-
lable was long by position : as, in-icio (for in-iicio). See § 6. </.
In such cases the length of the syllable is not indicated in this book by
a circumflex on the vowel.
/. When a syllable is long by position the quantity of the vowel is not
always determinable. The vowel should be pronounced short unless it is
known to be long.
Note. — The quantity of a vowel under these circumstances is said to be hidden.
It is often determined with a greater or less degree of certainty by inscriptional evi-
dence (see § 10. N.) or by other means. In this book, the quantity of all such vowels
known to be long is marked.
§§ 12-14] ACCENT
Accent
12. Words of two syllables are accented on the first syllable :
as, RO'ma, fi'dfis, tan'gO.
Words of more than two syllables are accented on the Penult ^
if that is long (as, ami'cas, monc'tur, contin'git) ; otherwise on the
Antepenult (as, do'minus, a'Ucris, dissociA'bilis).
Urn When an enclitic is joined to a word, the accent falls on the syllable
next before the enclitic, whether long or short : as, dSI^que, llmarS^e, tlbfne,
itit^que {and . . . *o), as distinguished from i'tique (therefore). So (accord-
ing to some) ez^inde, ec^'quando, etc.
Exceptions : 1. Certain apparent compounds of facid retain the accent of the
simple verb: as, benefft'cit, caleffl^cit (see § 266. a).
NoTK. — These were not true compoands, but phrases.
2. In the second declension the genitive and vocative of nouns in -ins and the
genitive of those in -ium retain the accent of the nominative : as, Come'ii, Vergili,
inge^'iii (see § 49. c).
3. Certain words which have lost a final vowel retain the accent of the com-
plete words : as, illfc for illfce, pr5du^c for piddGce, sati'n for sati'sne.
Combinations
13. In some cases adjacent words, being pronounced together,
are written as one : —
unasquisque (Qnus qoisqae), siquis (si qnis), qa&r§ (quA r5), qaamobrem (quam
ob rem ; cf . quas ob res), respublica (res publica), iusiurandum (ifis iurandum),
pateifamiliAs (pater famili&s).
NoTB. — Sometimes a slight change in pronunciation resulted, as, especially in the
old poets, before est in homdst (homo est), pericttlumst (periculnm est), ausnst (ausus est),
qnalist (qualis est). Similarly there occur vin', scin' for visne, scisne, sis (si vis), s5d6s
(si audgs), sultis (si vultls). Compare in English somebody, to breakfast; he \<j, /'uc,
thou Wt.
Phonetic Changes
14. Latin, the language of the ancient Romans, was properly, as its name implies,
the language spoken in the plain of Latium, lying south of the Tiber, which was the first
territory occupied and governed by the Romans. It is a descendant of an early form
of speech commonly called Indo-European (by some Indo-Oennanic) , from which
are also descended most of the important languages now in use in Europe, including
among others English, German, the Slavic and the Celtic languages, and further some
now or formerly spoken in Asia, as Sanskrit, Persian, Armenian. Greek likewise
1 The Penult is the last syllable but one ; the Antepenult, the last but two.
8 WORDS AND FORMS [§§ 14, 16
belongs to the same family. The Romance (or Romanic) langnages, of which the
most important are Italian, French, Provencal, Spanish, Portuguese, and Roumanian,
are modern descendants of spoken Latin.
The earliest known forms of Latin are preserved in a few inscriptions. These in-
crease in number as we approach the time when the language began to be used in litera-
ture ; that is, about B.C. 250. It is the comparatively stable language of the classical
period (b.c. 80-a.d. 14) that is ordinarily meant when we speak of Latin, and it is
mainly this that is described in this book.
15. Among the main features in the changes of Latin from
the earliest stages of the language as we know it up to the forms
of classical Latin may be mentioned the following : —
Vowel Changes
1. The old diphthong ai became the classical ae (aedilis for old aidilis),
old oi became oe or u (iinus for old oinos), and old ou became u (duc5 for
old douco).
2. In compound verbs the vowel a of the simple verb often appears as i
or e, and ae similarly appears as i : —
facid, factum, but confidd, conf actum ; caedd, but occido, and similarly cecldi,
perfect of caedo (cf. cado, occido ; cecidi, perfect of cad5).
Note. — This change is commonly ascribed to an accentuation on the first syl-
lable, which seems to have been the rule in Latin before the rule given above (see § 12)
became established. The original Indo-European accent, however, was not limited by
either of these principles ; it was probably a musical accent so-called, consisting in a
change of pitch, and not merely in a more forcible utterance of the accented syllable.
3. Two vowels coming together are often contracted : —
cogo for tco-ago; prom5 for fpro-emo; nil for nihil; dSbeS for fde-hibeo
(tde-habeo).
Consonant Changes
4. An old s regularly became r between two vowels (rhotacism), passing
first through the sound of (English) z : —
cram (cf. est); generis, genitive of genus. ^
Note. — Final s sometimes became r by analogy: as, honor (older honSs), from the
analogy of honSris, etc.
5. A dental (t, d) often became s, especially when standing next to t, d,
or 8 : as, equestris for fequettris, casus for fcadtus (cf . 6, below).
6. Many instances of assimilation, partial or complete, are found : —
cessi for tced-si ; summus for tsupmus ; scriptus for scribtus (b unvoicing to
p before the voiceless t); and in compound verbs (see § 16).
1 A similar change can be seen in English: as, were (cf. waB)^ lorn (cf. /o«e).
§§ 15-17] VOWEL VARIATIONS 9
Dissimilation, the opposite kind of change, prevented in some cases the
repetition of the same sound in succcessive syllables : —
Thus, paiHia for palilia(from PalSs) ; meridies for tmedidiSs; n&tar&lis with suffix
-alia (after r), but popuUris with -tris (after 1).
7. Final s was in early Latin not always pronounced : as, plSna(8) fidSi.
NoTB . — Traces of this pronunciation existed in Cicero' s time. He speaks of the omis-
sion of final 8 before a word beginning with a consonant as ** countrified **{8uhru8tieum) .
8. A final consonant often disappears : as, yirgS for frirgdn ; lac for
flact ; cor for fcord.
9. 6, c, and h unite with a following s to form z : as, r§x for fregs ; dux
for fducs ; traxi for ftrahsi.^
10. G and h before t become c : as, rectum for f regtum ; &ctum for fagtum ;
tractum for ftrahtum.^
11. Between m and s or m and t, a p is often developed : as, sumpsi for
f sums! ; emptnm for fSmtum.
16. In compounds with prepositions the final consonant in the preposition was often
assimilated to the following consonant, but usage varied considerably.
There is good authority for many complete or partial assimilations ; as, for ad,
ace-, Sigg'f app-, att-, instead of ado-, adg-, etc. Before a labial consonant we find com-
(comb-, comp-, comm-), but con- is the form before c, d, f, g, cons, i, q, s, t, cons, v ; we
find conl- or coU-, conr- or con-; c5- in c5nect5, cSniveS, c5nitor, cSnubium. In usually
changes to im- before p, b, m. Ob and sub may assimilate b to a following c, f , g, or
p ; before 8 and t the pronunciation of prepositions ending in b doubtless had p ; surr-,
snmm-, occur for subr-, subm-. The inseparable amb- loses b before a consonant.
Circom often loses its m before i. The s of dis becomes r before a vowel and is assimi-
lated to a following f ; sometimes this prefix appears as d!-. Instead of ex we find ef-
before f (also ecf-). The d of red and sCd is generally lost before a consonant. The
preposition is better left unchanged in most other cases.
Vowel Variations
17. The parent language showed great variation in the vowel
sounds of kindred words.^
a«- This variation is often called by the German name Ablaut. It has
left considerable traces in the forms of Latin words, appearing sometimes
as a difference of quantity in the same vowel (as, u, u ; e, e), sometimes as a
difference in the vowel itself (as, e, o ; i, ae) : * —
tego, I cover, toga, a robe ; pendo, I weighs pondus, weight; fides, faith^ fidus,
faithful^ foedus, a treaty ; miser, toretcJiedy maestus, sad ; dare, to give,
donom, a gift; lego, I rule, rex, a king; dux, a leader, duco (for oldei
doQco) , I lead. Compare English drive, drove (drave) , driven ; bind, bound,
band; sing, sang, sung; etc.
1 Really for ftraghsi. The h of trahd represents an older palatal sound (see § 19).
3 Really for ftraghtum. These are cases of partial assimilation (cf. 6, above).
s This variation was not without regularity, but was confined within definite limits.
^ In Greek, however, it is more extensively preserved.
10 WORDS AND FORMS [§§ 18, 19
Kindred Forms
18. Both Latin and English have gone through a series of phonetic changes, dif-
ferent in the two languages, hut following definite laws in each. Hence hoth pre-
serve traces of the older speech in some features of the vowel system, and both show
certain correspondences in consonants in words which each language has inherited from
the old common stock. Only a few of these correspondences can he mentioned here.
19. The most important correspondences in consonants between
Latin and English, in cognate words, may be seen in the following
table: — 1
Latin
English
p: pater
f : father, earlier /oder*
f from bh : fero, frater
b : to hear, brother
b ** ** lubet, libet
V, f : loTue, lief
t: tu, tennis
th: tkou, iMn^
d : duo, dent-
t : tvoo, tooth
f from dh : fadd
d: do
d " " medius
d: mid
b " " ruber
d: red
c : cord-, comu
h: heart, horn
qu: quod
wh: what
g : genus, gustus
c, k, ch : kin, choose
h (from gh): hortus, haedus
y, g : yard, goat
cons, i: iugum
y: yoke
Y : ventus, ovis
w : wirid, erne
V from gv : vivus (for tgvivos),
▼eni5 (for tgvemio).
qu, c, k : quick, come
Note 1. — Sometimes a consonant lost in Latin is still represented in English: as,
niv- (for fsniv-), Eng. snow ; anser (for fhanser), Eng. goose.
Note 2. — From these cases of kindred words in Latin and English must be care-
fully distinguished those cases in which the Latin word has been taken into English either
directly or through some one of the modern descendants of Latin, especially French.
Thus facio is kindred with Eng. do, but from the Latin participle (factum) of this verb
comes Eng./ac^, and from the French descendant {fait) of factum comes Eng./eo^.
^ The Indo-European parent speech had among its consonants voiced aspirates
(bh, dh, gh) . All these suffered change in Latin, the most important results beinjg,
for bh, Latin f , b (English has b, v, or f) ; for dh, Latin f , b, d (English has d) ; for gh,
Latin h, g (English has y, g). The other mutes suffered in Latin much less change,
while in English, as in the other Germanic languages, they have all changed consid-
erably in accordance with what has been called Grimm's Law for the shifting of mntes.
2 The th in father is a late development. The older form fader seems to show an
exception to the rule that English th corresponds to Latin t. The primitive Germanic
form was doubtless in accordance with this rule, but, on account of the position of the
accent, which in Germanic was not originally on the first syllable in this word, the
consonant underwent a secondary change to d.
* But to the group st of Latin corresponds also English st ; as in Latin sto, English
stand.
^20] THE PARTS OF SPEECH 11
THE PARTS OF SPEECH
20. Words are divided into eight Fails of Speech: Nouns,
Adjectives (including Participles), Pronouns, Verbs, Adverbs,
Prepositions, Conjunctions, and Interjections.
a* A Noun is the name of a person, place, thing, or idea : as, Caesar ;
Roma, Rome ; domuay a house ; virtus, virtue.
Names of particular persons and places are called Proper Nouns ; other
nouns are called Common.
Note. — An Abstract Noon is the name of a quality or idea : as, aud&cia, boldness ;
.senectus, old age. A Collective Noun is the name of a group, class, or the like : as, tnrba,
crowd; ezercitus, army.
b. An Adjective is a word that attributes a quality : as, bonus, good ;
iortis, hrave, strong.
Note 1. — A Participle is a word that attributes quality like an adjective, but, being
derived from a verb, retains in some degree the power of the verb to assert : as, —
Oaesar cdnsul creatua, CsBsar having been elected consul.
Note 2. — Etymologically there is no difference between a noun and an adjective,
both being formed alike. So, too, all names originally attribute quality, and any com-
mon name can still be so used. Thus, King WUliam distinguishes this William from
other Williams, by the attribute of royalty expressed in the name king.
ۥ A Pronoun is a word used to distinguish a person, place, thing, or
idea without either naming or describing it : as, is, he ; qui, who ; nSs, we.
Nouns and pronouns are often called Substantives.
dm A Verb is a word which is capable of asserting something : as, sum,
/ am ; amat, he loves.
Note. — In all modem speech the verb is usually the only word that asserts any-
thing, and a verb is therefore supposed to be necessary to complete an assertion.
Strictly, however, any adjective or noun may, by attributing a quality or giving a
name, make a complete assertion. In the infancy of language there could have been
no other nxeans of asserting, as the verb is of comfMiratively late dev^opment.
e* An Adverb is a word used to express the time, place, or manner of
an assertion or attribute : as, splendide mendax, gloriously false ; hodie natus
est, he was bom to-day.
Note. — These same functions are often performed by cases (see §§ 214-217) of
nouns, pronouns, and adjectives, and by phrases or sentences. In fact, all adverbs
were originally cases or phrases, but have become specialized by use.
/. A Preposition is a word which shows the relation between a noun or
pronoun and some other word or words in the same sentence : as, per agros
it, he goes over the fields : e pliiribus iinum, one out of many.
NoTK. — Most prepositions are specialized adverbs (cf. § 219). The relations ex-
pressed by prepositions were earlier expressed by case-endings.
l2 WORDS AND FORMS m 20-22
g» A Conjunction is a word which connects words, or groups of words,,
without affecting their grammatical relations : as, et, and ; sed, hu.
Note. — Some adverbs are also used as connectives. These are called Adverbiali
Conjunctions or Conjunctive (Relative) Adverbs: as, ubi, where; dSnec, untii.
hm Interjections are mere exclamations and are not strictly to be classed
as parts of speech. Thus, — heiu, halloo I b, oh/
Note. — Interjections sometimes expre§s an emotion which affects a person or thing
mentioned, and so have a grammatical connection like other words: as, vae victis, woe
to the conquered (alas for the conquered) !
INFLECTION
21. Latin is an inflected language.
Inflection is a change made in the form of a word to show its.
grammatical relations.
a* Inflectional changes sometimes take place in the body of a word, or
at the beginning, but oftener in its termination : —
vox, a voice ; vdcis, of a voice ; vocS, I call ; vocat, he calls ; vocet, let him call ;
▼ocivit, he has coiled; tangit, h£ touches; tetigit, he touched,
b. Terminations of inflection had originally independent meanings which
are now obscured. They correspond nearly to the use of prepositions,,
auxiliaries, and personal ptonouns in English.
Thus, in vocat, the termination is equivalent to ^ or site; in vdcis, to the
preposition of; and in vocet the change of vowel signifies a change of mood.
c. Inflectional changes in the body of a verb usually denote relations of
tense or mood, and often correspond to the use of auxiliary verbs in Eng-
lish : —
frangit, ?ie breaks or is breaking ; fregit, he broke or fia^ broken ; mordet, he
bites; momordit, he bit.^
22. The inflection of Nouns, Adjectives, Pronouns, and Par-
ticiples to denote gender, number, and case is called Declension^
and these parts of speech are said to be declined.
The inflection of Verbs to denote voice, mood, tense, number,
and person is called Conjugation, and the verb is said to be con-
jugated.
Note. — Adjectives are often said to have inflections of comparison. These are,
however, properly stem-formations made by derivation (p. 55, footnote).
^ The only proper inflections of verbs are those of the personal endings ; and the
changes here referred to are strictly changes of stemf but have become a part of tho
system of inflections.
§§23-25] ROOT, STEM, AND BASB 18
23. Adverbs, Prepositions, Conjunctions, and Interjections axe
not inflected and are called Particles.
Note. — The term Particle is sometimes limited to such words as num, -ne, an {inter-
rogaUv€)f n5n, n6 (negative) ^ si {conditional) ^ etc., which are used simply to indicate
the form or construction of a sentence.
Root, Stem, and Base
24. The body of a word, to which the terminations are attached,
is called the Stem.
The Stem contains the idea of the word without relations ; but, except
in the first part of a compound (as, arti-fez, artificer), it cannot ordinarily he
used without some termination to express them.^
Thus the stem v5c- denotes voice; with -s added it becomes y5z, a voice or the
voice, as the subject or agent of an action ; with -is it becomes vocis, and signifies
of a voice.
Note. — The stem is in many forms so united with the termination that a compari-
son with other forms is necessary to determine it.
25. A Root is the simplest form attainable by analysis of a
word into its component parts.
Such a form contains the main idea of the word in a very general sense,
and is common also to other words either in the same language or in kin.
dred languages.^
Thus the root of the stem yoc- is voc, which does not mean to caU, or I caU,
or calling, but merely expresses vaguely the idea of calling, and cannot be used
as a part of speech without terminations. With Sl- it becomes yoc&-, the stem of
vocare {to caU) ; with fty- it is the stem of voc&vit (he called) ; with at»- it becomes
the stem of voc&tus {called) ; with AtiSn- it becomes the stem of vocAtionis {of a
caUing), With its vowel lengthened it becomes the stem of vdx, voc-is (a voice :
that by which we call). This stem voc-, with -fills added, means belonging to a
voice ; with -fila, a little voice.
Note. — In inflected languages, words are built up from Boots, which at a very
early time were used alone to express ideas, as is now done in Chinese. Boots are
modified into Stems, which, by inflection, become fully formed words. The process by
which roots are modified, in the various forms of derivatives and compounds, is called
Stem-building. The whole of this process is originally one of composition, by which
significant endings are added one after another to forms capable of pronunciation and
conveying a meaning.
Boots had long ceased to be recognized as such before the Latin existed as a sepa-
rate language. Consequently the forms which we assume as Latin roots never really
existed in Latin, but are the representatives of forms used earlier.
1 Another exception is the imperative second person singular in -e (as, rege).
* For example, the root sta is found in the Sanskrit tishthdmi, Greek tarrifu, Latin
sisteze and st&re, German fie^eit/ and English stand*
14 WORDS AND FORMS [§§ 26-30
26. The Stem may be the same as the root: as induc-ls^of a leader^
fer-t, he bears; but it is more frequently formed from the root —
1. By changing or lengthening its vowel : as in scoIks, sawdust (scab,
shave)\ r§g-is, of a king (reg, direct)', vtc-is, of a voice (voc, call),
2. By the addition of a simple suffix (originally another root) : as in fuga-,
stem of fuga, flight (fug + a-) ; regi-6, you rule (reg + stem-ending %-) ;
sini-t, he allows (si + n%-).^
3. By two or more of these methods : as in diici-t, he leads (dug + stem-
ending %-).
4. By derivation and composition, following the laws of development
peculiar to the language. (See §§ 227 ff.)
27. The Base is that part of a word which is unchanged in
inflection : as, serv- in servus ; mSns- in mgnsa ; ign- in ignis.
a. The Base and the Stem are often identical, as in many consonant
stems of nouns (as, reg- in reg-is). If, however, the stem ends in a vowel,
the latter does not appear in the base, but is variously combined with the
inflectional termination. Thus the stem of servus is servo-; that of meosa,
mensa- ; that of ignis, igni-.
28. Inflectional terminations are variously modified by com-
bination with the final vowel or consonant of the Stem, and thus
the various forms of Declension and Conjugation (see §§ 36, 164)
developed.
GENDER
29. The Genders distinguished in Latin are three : Masculine,
Feminine, and Neuter.
30. The gender of Latin nouns is either natural or grammatical.
a. Natural Gender is distinction as to the sex of the object denoted : as,
puer (m.), boy ; puella (f.), girl; rex (m.), king; regina (f.), queen.
Note 1. — Many noans have both a masculine and a feminine form to distinguish
sex : as, cervus, cerva, stag^ doe ; cliCns, clienta, dient ; victor, victrix, conqueror.
Many designations of persons (as nauta, saUor) usually though not necessarily male
are always treated as masculine. Similarly names of tribes and peop/e^ are masculine :
as, RJtetftnl, the Romans; Persae, the Persians.
Note 2. — A few neuter nouns are used to designate persons as belonging to a class :
as, maacipiom tuum, your slave (your chattel).
Many pet names of girls and boys are neuter in form : as, Paegnium, Glycerium.
Note 3. — Names of classes or collections of x)ersons may be of any gender: as»
exercitus (m.), acigs (f.), and agmen (n.), army; operae (f. plur.), workmen; c5piae
(f. plur.), troops; een&tas {jk.), senate; cohors (f.), cohort; concilium (k.), eouncQ,
1 These suffixes are Indo-European stem-endings.
§§30-34] GENERAL RULES OF GENDER 15
6* Grammatical Gender is a formal distinction as to sex where no actual
sex exists in the object. It is shown by the form of the adjective joined
with the noun: as, lapis magnus (m.), a great stone; manus mea (f.), my
hand,
Genexal Rules of Gender
31. Names of Male beings, and of Rivers, Winds, Months, and
Mountains, are masculine: —
pater, father; lulius, Julius; Tiberis, the Tiber; auster, south voivd; Unu&-
rius, January ; Apenninus, the Apennines.
Note. — Names of Months are properly adjectives, the masculine noun mSnsis,
monthj being understood : as, lanuarius, January.
a* A few names of Rivers ending in -a (as, Allia), with the Greek names
Lethe and Styx, are feminine ; others are variable or uncertain.
h* Some names of Mountains are feminine or neuter, taking the gender
of their termination : as, AlpSs (f.), the Alps; S5racte (k.).
32. Names of Female beings, of Cities, Countries, Plants, Trees,
and Gems, of many Animals (especially Birds), and of most ab-
stract Qualities, b.tq feminine : —
miter, mother; lulia, Julia; RSma, Rome; Italia, Italy; rosa, rose; pinus,
pine; sapphirus, soppAtre; anas, duck; vSritas, trutJi.
a. Some names of Towns and Countrieis are masculine : as, Sulmd, Gabi!
(plur.) ; or neuter, as, Tarentum, Illyricum.
6. A few names of Plants and Grems follow the gender of their termina-
tion: as, centaureum (n.), centaury; acanthus (m.), bears/oot; opalus (m.),
opal.
Note. — The gender of most of the above may also be recognized by the termina-
tions, according to the rules given under the several declensions. The names of Roman
women were usually feminine adjectives denoting their gens or house (see § 108. 6).
33. Indeclinable nouns, infinitives, terms or phrases used as
nouns, and words quoted merely for their form, are neuter : —
fas, right; nihil, nothing; gumm!, gum; scire tuum, your knowledge (to
know) ; triste vale, a sad farewell; hoc ipsum diu, this very '* long.'''*
34. Many nouns may be either masculine or feminine, accord-
ing to the sex of the object. These are said to be of Common
Gender: as, ezsul, exile; bOs, ox or cow; -parens, parent.
Note. — Several names of animals have a grammatical gender, independent of sex.
These are called epicene. Thus lepus, hare, is always masculine, and vulpes, fox, is
always feminine.
16 DECLENSION OF NOUNS [§§36-07
NUMBER AND CASE
35. Nouns, Pronouns, Adjectives, and Participles are declined
in two Numbers, singular and plural; and in six Cases, nominar-
tive, genitive^ dative^ accusative^ ablative^ vocative.
a» The Nominative is the case of the Subject of a sentence.
h* The Genitive may generally be translated by the English Possessive,
or by the Objective with the preposition of.
€• The Dative is the case of the Indirect Object (§ 274). It may usually
be translated by the Objective with the preposition to or for,
dm The Accusative is the case of the Direct Object of a verb (§ 274). It
is used also with many of the prepositions.
e. The Ablative may usually be translated by the Objective with frmriy
biff withy in, or at. It is often used with prepositions.
/. The Vocative is the case of Direct Address.
g» All the cases, except the nominative and vocative, are used as object-
cases ; and are sometimes called Oblique Cases (casus obliqul),
h. In names of towns and a few other words appear traces of another
case (the Locative), denoting the place where : as, R5mae, at Rome ; ruri, in
the country.
Note. — Still another case, the Instrumental, appears in a few adverbs (§ 215. 4).
DECLENSION OF NOUNS
36. Declension is produced by adding terminations originally significant to differ-
ent forms of stems, vowel or consonant. The various phonetic corruptions in the lan-
guage have given rise to the several declensions. Most of the case-endings, as given
in Latin, contain also the final letter of the stem.
Adjectives are, in general, declined like nouns, and are etymologically to be classed
with them; but they have several peculiarities of inflection (see § 109 ft,),
37. Nouns are inflected in five Declensions, distinguished by
the final letter (characteristic) of the Stem, and by the case-ending,
of the Genitive Singular.
Decl. 1 Chabacteristic S. Gen. Sing, ae
2 5 I
3 X or a Consonant la
4 ii US
5 9 6i
cr* The Stem of a noun may be found, if a consonant stem, by omitting
the case-ending ; if a vowel stem, by substituting for the case-ending the
characteristic voweL
S§ 38, SU] CASE-ENDINGS OF THE FIVE DECLENSIONS 17
38. The following are General Rules of Declension : —
a. The Vocative is always the same as the Nominatiye, except in the
singular of nouns and adjectives in -ns of the second declension, which have
-e in the vocative. It is not included in the paradigms, unless it differs
from the nominative.
6. In neuters the Nominative and Accusative are always alike, and in
the plural end in •&.
ۥ The Accusative singular of all masculines and feminines ends in -m ;
the Accusative plural in -s.
d» In the last three declensions (and in a few cases in the others) the
Dative singular ends in -L
e» The Dative and Ablative plural are always alike.
/• The Grenitive plural always ends in -am.
g» Final -i, -o, -a of inflection are always long ; final •« is short, except in
the Ablative singular of the first declension ; final -• is long in the first and
fifth declensions, short in the second and third. Final -is and -us are long in
plural cases.
Case-endings of the Five Declensions
39. The regular Case-endings of the several declensions are
the following: — ^
Decl. I
Decl. II
Decl. HI
Decl. IV
Decl. V
Singular
F.
dl. 2Va
jn.,F. Mm
M.
N.
F.
NOM.
j^
' -US -nm
-B
-OS
-a
-Ss
-a
(modified stem)
Gek.
-ao
-I
-ia
-US
-€i (-6)
Dat.
-ae
-6
-i
-al(.a)
-ii
-€1 (.6)
Ace.
-am
-um -am
-em (-im) (like nom.)
-am
-a
-em
Abl.
-&
-6
-e(-l)
-fl
-«
Voc.
-a
-e -am
(like nom!)
Plural
-as
-fl
-«s
N.V.
-ae
-1 -a
-Ss -a, -la
-Os
-aa
-«s
Gen.
-&mm
-drum
-am, -lam
-aam
-€ram
D.Ab.
, -la
-IB
-iboa
-ibas (-ubus)
-€bu8
Ace.
-fiB
-5b -a
-fis (-Is) -a, -la
-us
-ua
-Ss
^For ancient, rare, and Greek forms (which are here omitted), see nnder the
fteyeral declensioiiS'
18 DECLENSION OF NOUNS [§§40-4^
FIRST DECLENSION (o-STEMS)
40. The Stem of nouns of the First Declension ends in a-. The
Nominative ending is -a (the stem-vowel shortened), except in
Greek nouns.
41. Latin nouns of the First Declension are thus declined : —
Stella, F., star
Stem stellft-
SlNGULAR
GASB-ENDIKGS
NOM.
Stella
a star
-a
Gen.
stellae
of a star
-ae
Dat.
stellae
to or for a star
-ae
Ace.
stellam
a star
-am
Abl.
Btellft
with, from, by, etc.
Plural
a star
-A
NOM.
stellae
stars
-ae
Gbn.
stell&rum
of stars
-firum
Dat.
stellis
to or for stars
-Is
Ace.
Stellas
stars
-as
Abl.
stellis
with, from, by, etc.
stars
-is
a* The Latin has no article ; hence stella may mean a star, the star, or
simply star.
Gender in the First Declension
42. Nouns of the first declension are Feminine.
Exceptions : Nouns masculine from their signification : as, nanta, sailor. So a
few family or personal names: as, MiirSna, Dolabella, Scaeyola^; also, Hadzia, the
Adriatic.
Case-Forms in the First Declension
43. a. The genitive singular anciently ended in -al (dissyllabic), which
is occasionally found : as, aula!. The same ending sometimes occurs in the
dative, but only as a diphthong.
1 Scaevola is really a feminine adjective, used as a noun, meaning little l^t hand;
but, being used as the name of a man (originally a nickname), it became masculine.
Original genders are often thus changed by a change iu the sense of a noun.
43,44]
FIRST DBCLBNSION (^-STEMS)
I
19
b» An old genitive in -as is preserved in the word f amiUSs, often used in
the combinations pater (mater, filius, filia) famili&s, father ^ etc., of a family
(plur. patres familias or familiarum).
ۥ The Locative form for the singular ends in -ae ; for the plural in -is (cf .
p. 34, footnote): as, R5mae, at Rome; AthSnis, at Athens.
<!• The genitive plural is sometimes found in -um instead of -arum, espe>
cially in Greek patronymics, as, Aeneadum, sons of ^neas^ and in compounds
with -c01a and -gSna, signifying dwelling and descent : as, caelicolum, celes-
tials ; TrSiugenum, sons of Troy ; so also in the Greek nouns amphora and
drachma.
ۥ The dative and ablative plural of dea, goddess, fHia, daughter, end in
an older form -abiis (deabus, filiabus) to distinguish them from the corre-
sponding cases of deus, god, and filias, son (dels, filiis). So rarely with other
words, as, liberta, freed-woman ; mula, she-mule ; equa, mare. But, except
when the two sexes are mentioned together (as in formulas, documents,,
etc.), the form in -is is preferred in all but dea and filia.
Note 1. — The old ending of the ablative singular (-ftd) is sometimes retained in
early Latin: as, praid&d, booty (later, praedA).
Note 2. — In the dative and ablative plural -eis for -is is sometimes found, and -i!s
(as in taenils) is occasionally contracted to -Is (taenis) ; so regularly in words in -Aia (as,
BAis from Baiae).
Greek Nouns of the First Declension
44. Many nouns of the First Declension borrowed from the
Greek are entirely Latinized (as, aula, court) ; but others retain
traces of their Greek case-forms in the singular.
Electro, f.
synopsis, F.
art of music, F.
NOM.
Electra (-ft)
epitomS
musica (-6)
Gen.
£lectrae
epitomes
musicae (-6s)
Dat.
Electrae
epitomae
miisicae
Ace.
Clectram (-&n)
epitom6n
miisicam (-^n)
Abl.
PJectra
epitomS
musica (-S)
Andromache, F.
jEneas, M.
Persian, M.
NOM.
Andromache (-a)
Aeneas
PersSs (-a)
Gen.
Andromaches (-ae)
Aeneae
Persae
Dat.
Andromachae
Aeneae
Persae
Ace.
AndroraachCn (-am)
Aenean (-am)
PersSn (-am)
Abl.
AndroiiiachS (-a)
Aenea
Persg (-a)
Voc.
AndroinachS (-a)
Aenea (-a)
Persa
20 DECLENSION OF NOUNS [§§44-46
Anchiies, m.
son of jEneas, M.
comet, M.
NOM.
AnchisSs
Aeneadte (-a)
comgtSs (-a)
Gen.
Anchisae
Aeneadae
comStae
DAT.
Anchisae
Aeneadae
cometae
Ace.
Anchisfin (-am)
AeneadCn
comet6n (-az
Abl.
Anchise (-ft)
Aeneade (-ft)
com5ta (-€)
Voc.
AnchisS (-ft, -a)
Aeneadfi (-a)
comSta
0
There are (besides proper names) about thirty-five of these words, several being
names of plants or arts : as, crambC, cabbage ; musicS, music. Most have also regular
Latin forms : as, comfita ; but the nominative sometimes has the a long.
a. Greek forms are found only in the singular; the plural, -when it
occurs, is regular : as, cometae, -arum, etc.
h. Many Greek nouns vary between the first, the second, and the third
declensions : as, Bodtae (genitive of Bodtes, -is), Thucydidas (accusative plu-
ral of Thucydides, -is). See § 52. a and § 81.
Note. — The Greek accusative Scipiadam, from ScipiadSs, descendant of the Scipios,
is found in Horace.
SECOND DECLENSION (O-STEMS)
45. The Stem of nouns of the Second Declension ends in &- :
as, viro- (stem .of vir, T/iaw), servo- (stem of servus or servos, slave),
bello- (stem of beUum, war).
a» The Nominative is formed from the stem by adding s in masculines
and feminines, and m in neuters, the vowel 6 being weakened to fi (see
§§ 6. a, 46. N.i).
6« In most nouns whose stem ends in r^ the s is not added in the Nomi-
native, but 0 is lost, and e intrudes before r,^ if not already present : as,
agar, stem agr5- ^ ; cf . puer, stem puero-.
Exceptions : eras, hesperus, iflniperus, mSrus, numerus, tanrus, nmems, nterus,
virus, and many Greek nouns.
Cm The stem-vowel 5 has a variant form €,^ which is preserved in the
Latin vocative singular of noi^ns in -us : as, servS, vocative of servus, slave.
Note. — In composition this 8 appears as I. Thus, — belli-eer, warlike (from beU*/*-,
stem of bellum, war).
46. Nouns of the Second Declension in -us (-os) and -um (-om)
are thus declined : —
1 Compare the English chamber from French chambre.
< Compare Greek &yp(n^ which shows the original o of the stem.
* By so-called Ablaut (see § 17. a).
§§ 46, 47]
SECOND DECLENSION (0-STEMS)
21
semis, M., slave
bellum, N., war
Pomplius, M., Pompey
Stbm servo-
Stem bello-
Stem Pompiio-
SlXGULAR
0A8E-EKDINOS CASB-EKDIN08
NOM,
servus (-os)
-US (-OB) bellum
-um
Pomp^iuB
Gen.
servl
-I
belli
-I
Pomp§I
Dat.
serv6
-6
bell5
-6
Pomp§ifi
Ace.
servuxn (-om)
-um (-om) bellum
-um
Pompdium
Abl.
servfi
-«
bells
-6
Pomp^i5
Voc.
serve
-e
bellum
Plural
-um
Pompei (-Si)
NOM.
seryl
-I
bella
-a
Pomp§I
Gen.
servSmm
-drum
bell5rum
-drum
Pomp§i6rum
Dat.
servia
-Is
belllB
-Is
Pomp^Is
Ace.
serv5B
-6b
beUa
-a
Pomp^ifis
Abl.
servXs
-lii
belUs
iB
Pomp^lB
Note 1. — The earlier forms for nominative and accasative were-os, -om, and these
were always retained after u and ▼ up to the end of the Republic. The terminations
8 and m are sometimes omitted in inscriptions : as, CornClio for ComSlios, Cornfiliom.
Note 2. — Stems in quo-, like equo-, change qu to p before u. Thus, — ecus (earlier
equos), eqoi, aquS, ecum (earlier equom), eque. Modem editions disregard this principle.
47. Nouns of the Second Declension in -er and -ir are thus de-
clined : —
pner, m., boy ager, M,,fleld yir, m., man
Stem pueio-
NOM.
puer
Gen.
pueil
Dat.
puer5
Ace.
puerum
Abl.
puer5
NOM.
pueil
Gen.
puer5rum
Dat.
puerfo
Ace.
puerSa
Abl.
pueria
TEM agro-
STEMviro-
SlNGULAR
CASB-ENDINOS
ager
vir
agrl
virl
-I
agr6
vir5
-6
agrum
virum
-um
agr5
vir6
-5
Plural
agrl
virl
-I
agr5rum
Yir5rum
-5rum
agrts
yiifa
-la
agrSa
Yir5a
-5a
agrla
▼irb
-Xa
Note. — When e belongs to the stem, as in pner, it is retained throughout; other-
wise it appears only in the nominative and vocative singular, as in ager.
22 DECLENSION OF NOUNS [§§ 48, 49
Gender in the Second Declension
48. Nouns ending in -us (-os), -er, -ir, are Masculine ; those end-
ing in -um (-on) are Neuter.
Exceptions: Names of countries and towns in -as (-oe) are Feminine: as,
Aegyptas, Corinthus. Also many names of plants and gems, with the following :
alvus, h^y ; carbasus, linen (pi. carlMisa, sailSf k.) ; colas, distaff; hamas, ground;
▼annas, winnowing-shovel.
Many Greek nouns retain their original gender : as, arctas {T.),the Polar Bear ;
methodus (f.), method.
a. The following in -us are Neuter ; their accusative (as with all neuters)
is the same as the nominative : pelagns, sea ; yirus, poison ; vulgus (rarely
M.), the crotvd. They are not found in the plural, except pelagns, which has
a rare nominative and accusative plural pelage.
NoTB. — The nominative plural neuter cCtS, sea monsters, occurs; the nominative
singalar cStas occurs in V itmvius.
Case-Forms in the Second Declension
49. a* The Locative form of this declension ends for the singular in -! :
as, humi, on the ground; Corinthi, at Corinth; for the plural, in -is: as,
Philippis, at Philippi (cf. p. 34, footnote).
b. The genitive of nouns in -ius or -ium ended, until the Augustan Age,
in a single -i : as, fili, of a son ; Pompei, of Pompey (Pompeius) ; but the
accent of the nominative is retained: as, ing^'ni, of genius.^
ۥ Proper names in -ius have -i in the vocative, retaining the accent of
the nominative : as, Vergili. So also, fiUus, son ; genius, divine guardian : as,
audi, mi fill, hear, my son.
Adjectives in -ius form the vocative in -ie, and some of these are occa-
sionally used as nouns : as, Lacedaemonie, 0 Spartan,
Note. — Greek names in -ius have the vocative -le : as, Lyrcius, vocative L3rrcie.
d. The genitive plural often has -um or (after ▼) -om (cf. § 6. a) instead
of -orum, especially in the poets: as, deum, superum, divom, of the gods;
yirum, of men. Also in compounds of vir, and in many words of money,
measure, and weight : as, Seyinun, of the Seviri ; nummum, of coins ; iugerum,
of acres.
e» The original ending of the ablative singular (-Od) is sometimes found
in early Latin : as, 6naiy5d (later, GnaeO), Cneius.
/• Proper names in -ilins, -^ius, -dins (as, Auruncnldins, B6i), are declined
like Pompeius.
1 The genitive in -ii occurs once in Virgil, and constantly in Ovid, but was probably
unknown to Cicero.
§§ 40-62]
SECOND DECLENSION (0-STEMS)
23
g. Dens (m.), god^ is thas declined : —
Singular
NoM. deus
Gen. del
Dat. de6
Ace. deum
Abl. de5
Plural
del (dil), dl
de6ram, deum
deb (dilB), dls
deds
delB(dilB), diB
Note. — The vocatiye singular of deus does not occur in classic Latin, but is said
to have been dee ; deus (like the nominative) occurs in the Vulgate. For the genitive
plural, divum or divom (from divus, divine) is often used.
50. The following stems in ero-, in which e belongs to the stem^
retain the e throughout and are declined like puer (§ 47) : —
adulter, ad^uXUTer; gener, Hon-in-Xmo; puer, hoy;
Mceiy father-irtrlaw ; vesper, evening; Liber, Bacchus.
Also, the adjective liber, free, of which Uberi, children, is the plural (§ 111. a),
and compounds in -fer and -ger (stem fero-, gero-) : as, Iflcifer, morning star ;
armiger, squire,
a. An old nominative socerns occurs. So vocative puere, hoy, as if from
tpuents (regularly puer).
&• Vir, man, has genitive viri ; the adjective satur, sated, has satiiri ; ves-
per, evening, has ablative yespere (locative yesperi, in the evening).
Cm Mulciber, Vulcan, has -beri and -bri in the genitive. The barbaric
names Hiber and Celtiber retain e throughout.
51. The following, not having e in the stem, insert it in the
nominative singular and are declined like ager (§ 47) : —
agcr, field, stem agra- ; coluber, snake ; magister, master ;
aper, hoar ;
arbiter, judge ;
auster, south wirid ;
cancer, crab;
caper, goat;
conger, sea eel ;
culter, knife;
faber, smith;
fiber, heaver;
liber, hook;
minister, servant;
oleaster, wild olive ;
onager (-grus), wUd ass;
scomber (-brus), mackerel.
Greek Kouns of the Second Declension
52. Greek nouns of the Second Declension end in -os, -(Js, mas-
culine or feminine, and in -on neuter.
They are mostly proper names and are declined as follows in
the Singular, the Plural, when found, being regular : —
24 DECLENSION OF NOUNS [§§52-^6
mythos, m.
Ath58, M.
Delos, F.
llion, N
f(Me
Athos
Singular
Delos
Ilium
NOM.
mythos
AthSs (-6)
Delos
llion
Gen.
mythi
Ath6 (-1)
Dell
IliT
Dat.
myths
Athd
Del5
1116
Ace.
mython
Athon (-um)
Delon (-um)
llion
Abl.
myth5
Ath5
• Del5
Ili5
Voc.
mythe
Ath5B
Dele
llion
a. Many names in -es belonging to the third declension have also a
genitive in -i : as, Thucydides, Thucydidi (compare § 44. h),
bm Several names in -er have also a nominative in -us: as, Teucer or
Teucnis. The name Panthus has the vocative Pantha (§ 81. 3).
c« The genitive plural of certain titles of books takes the Greek ter-
mination -on : as, Ge5rgic5n, of the Georgics,
d. The termination -oe (for Greek -ot) is sometimes found in the nomi-
native plural : as, Adelphoe, the Adelphi (a play of Terence).
e. Greek names in -eus (like Orpheus) have forms of the second and
third declensions (see § 82).
THIRD DSCLENSION (CONSONANT AND /-ST£MS)
53. Nouns of the Third Declension end in a, e, i, 0, y, c, 1, n,
r, 8, t, z.
54. Stems of the Third Declension are classed as follows : —
' a. Mute stems.
h. Liquid and Nasal stems.
I. Consonant Stems <
II. I-Stems «
' a. Pure i-stems.
6. Mixed i-stems.
55. The Nominative is always derived from the stem.
The variety in form in the Nominative is due to simple modi
fications of the stem, of which the most important are —
1. Combination of final consonants : as of c (or g) and s to form z ; dux,
duels, stem duo-; rex, regis, stem reg-.
2. Omission of a final consonant : as of a final nasal ; le5, le5nis, stem
le5n-; 5rati5, 5rationis, stem 5rati5n-.
3. Omission of a final vowel : as of final 1 ; calcar, calcaris, st^m calcari-.
4. Change of vowel in the final syllable : as of a to e ; princeps (for -caps),
principis, stem princip- (for -cap-).
§§ 66, 67] THIRD DECLENSION: CONSONANT STEMS
25
Consonant Stems
Mute Stems
56. Masculine and Feminine Nouns with mute stems form the
Nominative by adding s to the stem.
A labial (p) is retained before 8 : as, princep-s.
A lingual (t, d) is dropped before 8 : as, mHes (stem milit-), c&8t58 (stem
cu8t5d-).
A palatal (c, g) unites with 8 to form z : as, dux (for f duc-s), rSz (for
treg-8).
a. In dissyllabic stems the final syllable often shows e in the nomina-
tive and i in the stem : as, princeps, stem princip- (for -cap-).
57. Nouns of this class are declined as follows :
princeps, c, chief
r&diz, F., root
mHes, M., soldier
Stem princip-
Stem rftdic-
SlNGULAR
Stem milit-
casb-endinos
NOM.
princeps
radix
roiles
-B
Gen.
principis
radicis
iiiilitis
-is
DAT.
pnncipl
radicl
militi
-I
Ace.
principem
radicem
mllitem
-em
Abl.
principe
radice
Plural
milite
"®
NOM.
princip6s
radices
milites
-es
Gen.
principuxn
radicum
militum
-um
Dat.
pnncipibus
radicibua
mllitibus
-ibus
Ace.
principgB
radices
milites
-es
Abl.
principibus
radicibus
mllitibus
-ibus
cust5s, c., guard
dux, e., leader
rex, M., king
Stbm custod-
Stem duc-
SlNGULAR
Stem rSg-
CA8E-ENDIN08
NOM.
CUStOB
dux
rex
-S
Gen.
custodis
duels
regis
-is
Dat.
custodi
duel
regi
-I
Aec.
ciistodem
ducexn
regem
-em
Abl.
ciistode
duce
rege
-e
56
DECLENSION OF NOUNS
[§§ 57-^
Plural
NOM.
custodfis
duc6s
regfis
-te
Gen.
custodnm
ducum
regum
-nm
DAT.
custodibua
dudbuB
regibuB
-ibiiB
Ace.
custodfiB
duc68
regCB
-«8
Abl.
custodibiiB
ducibus
rSgibuB
-iboB
a* In like manner are declined —
ariSs, -etis (m.), ram; comes, -itis (c), companion; lapis, -idis (m.), stone;
ifidex, -icis (m.), judge; comix, -icis (f.), raven^ and many other nouns.
58. Most mute stems are Masculine or Feminine. Those that
are neuter have for the Nominative the simple stem. But, —
a. Lingual Stems (t, d) ending in two consonants drop the final mute :
as, cor (stem cord-), lac (stem lact-). So also stems in ftt- from the Greek :
as, poema (stem poemat-).
b* The stem capit- shows a in the nominative (caput for fcapot).
59. Nouns of this class are declined as follows : —
cor, N., heart
Stbm cord-
NOM.
Gen.
Dat.
Ace.
Abl.
NOM.
Gen.
Dat.
Ace.
Abl.
cor
cordis
cordl
cor
corde
corda
cordibuB
corda
cordibuB
caput, N., head
Stem capit-
SlNGULAR
caput
capitis
capitX
caput
capite
Plural
capita
capitum
capitibuB
capita
capitibuB
poema, n., poem
Stem poemat-
poema
poematiB
poemati
poema
poem ate
poemata
po6matiiin
poematibuB
poemata
po^matibnB
CASE-ENDING S
-iB
-I
-a
-nm
-ibuB
-a
-ibuB
60. The following irregularities require notice : —
a. Greek neuters with nominative singular in -a (as poema) frequently
«nd in -is in the dative and ablative plural, and rarely in -Gram in the geni-
tive plural ; as, poematis (for poematibus), poematSrum (for po6matum).
6* A number of monosyllabic nouns with mute stems want the geni-
tive plural (like cor). See § 103. g. 2.
§§61, C2] THIRD DECLENSION: CONSONANT STEMS
27
Liquid and Naaal Stems (A n^ r)
61. In Masculine and Feminine nouns with liquid and nasal
stems the Nominative is the same as the stem.
Exceptions are the following : —
1. Stems in on- drop n in the nominative : as in legiS, stem legiSn-.
2. Stems in din- and gin- drop n and keep an original 5 in the nominative : as
in virgd, stem virgin-.^
3. Stems in in- (not din- or gin-) retain n and have o instead of 1 in the nom-
inative : as in coxnicen, stem coinicin-.^
4. Stems in tr- have -ter in the nominative : as, pater, stem patr-.'
62. Nouns of this class are declined as follows : —
cdnsul, M., consul leo, m., lion virg5, f., maiden pater, m.^ father
Stem cdnsul- Stem ledn- Stem virgin- Stem pair-
Singular
0ASB>BKDIN68
NOM.
consul
led
virgo
pater
Gen.
cdnsulia
leonis
Virginia
patris
-iB
Dat.
c5nsull
leont
virginl
patii
-I
Ace.
consulem
lednem
virginem
patrem
-em
Abl.
consule
leone
virgirie
Plural
patre
-e.
NOM.
eonsules
leonSs
virginfis
patrfis
-6b
Gen.
consnlmn
leonnm
virginum
patrum
-um
Dat.
c6nsalibii8
leonibna
virginibus
patribuB
-ibuB
Arc.
consulSa
leones
virgin 6b
patrSa
-6b
Abl.
consuUbus
leonibns
virginibuB
patribuB
-ibuB
Note 1. — Stems in 11-, rr- (n.) lose one of their liquids in the nominative: as, far,
f arris; mel, mellis.
Note 2. — A few masculine and feminine stems have a nominative in -s as well as
in -r : as, bonds or honor, arbds or arbor.
Note 3. — Canis, dog^ and ittvenls, youths have -is in the nominative.
1 These differences depend in part upon special phonetic laws, in accordance with
which vowels in weakly accented or unaccented syllables are variously modified, and
in part upon the influence of analogy.
2 These, no doubt, had originally ter- in the stem, but this had become weakene<i
to tr- in some of the cases even in the parent speech. In Latin only the nominative and
vocative singular show the e. But cf . Mftspitris and UIspiteriB (M4[r]8-piter), quoted by
Priscian as old forms.
28
DECLENSION OF NOUNS
[§§ 63-66
63. In Neuter nouns with liquid or nasal stems the Nomina-
tive is the same as the stem.
Exceptions: 1. Stems in in- have e instead of i in the nominative: as in
ndmen, stem ndmin-.
2. Most stems in er- and or- have -as in the nominative : as, genus, stem gener-.^
64. Nouns of this class are declined as follows : —
nomen, n., name genus, n., race corpus, n., body aeqnor, n., sea
Stbm nomin- Stem gener- Stem corpor- Stem aeqnor-
SiNGULAS
I
NOM.
nomen
genus
corpus
aequor
Gen.
nominis
generis
corporis
aequoris
Dat.
nomini
generi
corpori
aequori
Ace.
norrien
genus
corpus
aequor
Abl.
nomine
genere
Plural
corpore
aequore
NOM.
nomina
genera
corpora,
aequora
Gen.
nominum
generum
corporum
aequorum
Dat.
nominibus
generibus
corporibus
aequoribus
Ace.
nomina
genera
corpora
aequora
Abl.
nominibus
generibus
corporibus
aequoribus
So also are declined opus, -eris, work; pignus, -eris or -oris, pledge, etc.
Note. — The following real or apparent liquid and nasal stems have the genitive
plural in -ium, and are to he classed with the i-stems : imber, linter, uter, venter ; glis,
mas, mils, [frgn]; also virSs (plural of vis: see §79).
i-STEMS
65. Nouns of this class include —
1. Pure i-Stems :
a. Masculine and Feminine parisyllabic ^ nouns in -is and four in -er.
b» Neuters in -e, -al, and -ar.
2. Mixed i-Stems, declined in the singular like consonant stems,
in the plural like i-stems.
1 These were originally s-stems (cf. § 15. 4).
2 I.e. having the same number of syllables in the nominative and genitive singular.
§§66-68]
THIRD DECLENSION: PURE I-STEMS
29
Pure ^Steins
66. Masculine and Feminine parisyllabic nouns in -is form the
Nominative singular by adding s to the stem.
Four stems in bri- and tri- do not add a to form the nominative, but drop i
and insert e before r. These are imber, linter, fiter, venter.
67. Nouns of this class are declined as follows : —
sitis.
F., thirst
turris, f., tower
ignis, u.^fire
imber, m., rain
Stem siti-
Stem torri-
Stem igni-
Stem imbri-
Singular
NOM.
sitis
turris
iguis
imber
Gen.
sitis
turris
ignis
imbris
Dat.
sin
turrl
ignl
imbri
Ace.
sitim
turrim (-em)
ignem
imbrem
Abl.
sitI
turrl (-e)
ignl (-e)
imbrI (-e)
•
Plural
NOM.
turrfis
ignfis
imbrfis
Gen.
turrium
ignium
imbrium
Dat.
turribus
ignibus
imbribus
Ace.
turris (-fis)
ignis (-fis)
imbris (-8s)
Abl.
turribus
ignibus
imbribus
68. In Neuters the Nominative is the same as the stem, with
final i changed to e : as, mare, stem mari-. But most nouns ^ in
which the i of the stem is preceded by al or ar lose the final vowel
and shorten the preceding &: as, animil, stem animali-.^
a. Neuters in -e, -al, and -ar have -i in the ablative singular, -ium in the
genitive plural, and -ia in the nominative and accusative plural : as, animal,
animali, -ia, -iixm.
1 Such are animal, bacch&nal, bidental, capital, cervical, cubital, lupercal, minutal,
pateal, qnadrantal, toral, tribunal, vectigal ; calcar, cochlear, exemplar, Ucunar, laquear,
Incar, laminar, lup&nar, palear, pulvinar, torcular. Cf. the plurals dent&Iia, frontftlia,
genullia, spons&lia ; alt&ria, plantiria, specul&ria, t&l&ria ; also many names of festivals,
as, Satum&lia.
2 Exceptions are augur&le, colUre, fdcile, navale, penetrale, r&mAle, ecutftle, tibiAle;
alve&re, capilUre, cochleaie.
30
DECLENSION OF NOUNS
[§§ 69-71
69. Nouns of this class are declined as follows : —
sedile, n. , seat animal, n. , animal calcar, n. , spur
Stem se^li- Stem animali- Stem calcari-
NOM.
sedile
Singular
animal
calcar
CA8B-Bin>IN08
-e or —
Gen.
sedilis
ani mails
calcaris
-iB
Dat.
sedill
animali
calcari
-I
Ace.
sedile
animal
calcar
-e or —
Abl.
sedlU
animali
Plural
calcari
-I
NoM.
sedilia
animalia
calcaria
-la
Gen.
sedllium
animalium
calcarium
-lam
Dat.
sedilibus
animalibuB
calcaribuB
-ibuB
Ace.
sedilia
animalia
calcaria
-la
Abl.
sedilibuB
animalibuB
calcarlbuB
-ibUB
Mixed /-Stems
70. Mixed i-stems are either original i-stems that have lost their
i-forms in the singular, or consonant stems that have assumed i-
forms in the plural.
Note. — It is sometimes impossible to distinguish between these two classes.
71. Mixed i-stems have -em in the accusative and -e in the abla-
tive singular, -ium in the genitive ^ and -is or -€8 in the accusative
plural. They include the following: —
1. Nouns in -es, gen. -is.^
2. Monosyllables in -s or -x preceded by a consonant : as, ars, p5ns, arx.
3. Polysyllables in -ns or -rs : as, aliens, cohors.
4. Nouns in -tas, genitive -talis (genitive plural usually -Tim)^ : as, civitas.
5. Penates, optimates, and nouns denoting birth or abode {patrials) in -as,
-is, plural -ates, -ites : as, Arpinas, plural Arpinates ; Quiris, plural Quirites.
6. The following monosyllables in -s or -x preceded by a vowel : dos,
fraus, glis, lis, mas, mus, nix, nox, strix, vis.
1 There is much variety in the practice of the ancients, some of these words having
-ium, some -um, and some both.
2 These are acinacSs, aedSs, alcSs, caedSs, cautSs, cULdSs, comp&gSs, contagSs, famSs,
fglSs, fldSs (plural), indolSs, labSs, luSs, mSlSs, molfis, nubSs, palumbSs, prSlSs, propages,
pubSs, sedSs, saepSs, sordfis, strag^s, struSs, subolSs, tSbSs, torqufis, tudSs, vfitSs, vehSs,
veprSs, verrSs, vulpSs ; aedSs has also nominative aedis.
§§ 72-76]
THIRD DECLENSION: MIXED /-STEMS
31
72. Nouns of this clajss are thus declined : —
1
iibes, F., doud
Stbm ]iab(i)-
arbs, F., city
Stem urb(i)-
nox, F., night
Stem iiO€t(i)-
SlNGULAR
cliSns, M., client
Stem cUe]it(i)-
aetis, F., age
Stem aetAt(i)-
NOM.
nubfis
urbB
noz
clienB
aet&B
Gen.
nubis
urbiB
noctiB
clieiitiB
aetatiB
Dat.
nubi
urbl
nocti
clientl
aetati
Ace.
nubem.
urbem
noctem
clientem
aetatem
Abl.
nube
urbe
nocjte
Plural
cliente
aetate
NoM.
nubSs
urbfiB
noctSB
client^B
aetatfiB
Gen.
nubium
urbium
noctium
clientiom ^
aet&tum -
Dat.
nubibuB
urbibuB
noctibuB
clientibaB
aetatibuB
Ace.
Abl.
nublB(-6B)
nubibuB
urblB(-6B)
urbibuB
noctlB(-eB)
noctibuB
clieTitl8(-6B)
clientibixB
aetAtTB(-«B)
aetatibuB
Summary of ^Stems
73. The i-declension was confused even to the Romans themselves, nor was it stable
at all periods of the language, early Latin having i-forras which afterwards disap-
peared. There was a tendency in nouns to lose the i-forms, in adjectives to gain them.
The nominative plural (-Is) 8 was most thoroughly lost, next the accusative singular
(-im), next the ablative (-i) ; while the genitive and accusative plural (-ium, -is) were
retained in almost all.
74. iHstems show the i of the stem in the following forms : —
a* They have the genitive plural in -ium (but some monosyllables lack
it entirely). For a few exceptions, see § 78.
b. All neuters have the nominative and accusative plural in -ia.
c. The accusative plural (m. or f.) is regularly -is.
d* The accusative singular (m. or f.) of a few ends in -im (§ 75).
Cm The ablative singular of all neuters, and of many masculines and
feminines, ends in -i (see § 76).
75. The regular case-ending of the Accusative singular of i-
stems (M. or F.) would be -im : as, sitis, sitim (cf . stella, -am ; senrus,
-um); but in most nouns this is changed to -em (following the
consonant declension).
1 Rarely cHentum. 2 Also aetfttlum. Cf. § 71. 4.
* An old, though not the original, ending (see p. 32, footnote 2).
32 DECLENSION OF NOUNS FIS 76-78
a. The accusative in -im is found exclusively —
1. In Greek nouns and in names of rivers.
2. In buris, cucamis, r&viSf sitis, tussis, vis.
8. In adverbs in -tim (being accusative of nouns in -tis), as, partim ; and in
amussim.
&• The accusative in -im is found sometimes in febris, puppis, restis,
turris, securis, sementis, and rarely in many other words.
76. The regular form of the Ablative singular of i-stems would
be -i : as, sitis, siti ; but in most nouns this is changed to -e.
«• The ablative in -i is found exclusively —
1. In nouns having the accusative in -im (§ 75) ; also sectiris.
2. In the following adjectives used as nouns : aequalis, ann&lis, aqufllis, con-
salaris, gentilis, molaris, primipilaiiB, tribnlis.
3. In neuters in -e, -al, -ar : except baccar, iubar, rSte, and sometimes mare.
&• The ablative in -i is found sometimes —
1. In avis, cl&vis, febris, finis, ignis,^ imber, liix, navis, ovis, pelvis, puppis,
sementis, strigilis, tarns, and occasionally in other words.
2. In the followmg adjectives used as nouns : aifinis, bipennis, can&lis, famili-
aris, n&t&lis, rivalis, sapiSns, tridens, tpxemis, voc&lis.
NoTB 1. — The ablative of iamSa is always famS (§ 105. e). The defective mane has
sometimes m&ni (§ 103. h. n.) as ablative.
Note 2. — Most names of towns in -e (as, Praeneste, Tergeste) and SOracte, a moun-
tain, have the ablative in -e. Caere has CaerSte.
Note 3. — Canis and invenis have cane, iuvene.
77. The regular Nominative plural of i-stems is -fis,^ but -is is
occasionally found. The regular Accusative plural -is is common,
but not exclusively used in any word. An old form for both
cases is -Ss (diphthong).
78. The following have -um (not -ium) in the genitive plural;
1. Always, — canis, iuyenis,' ambages, mare (once only, othervrise want-
ing), YOlucris ; regularly, sedes, yates.
2. Sometimes, — apis, caedes, clades, mensis, strues, suboles.
3. Very rarely, — patrials in -as, -atis; -is, -itis; as, Arpinas, Arpinatum;
Samms, Samnitum.
1 Always in the formula aquA et igni iaterdic! (§ 401) .
2 The Indo-European ending of the nominative plural, -88 (preserved in Greek in
consonant stems, as 6pTv^f 6pTvy-€s)j contracts with a stem- vowel and gives -Ss in the
Latin i-declension (cf. the Greek plural tfeis). This -€s was extended to consonant
stems in Latin. * Canis and invenis are really n-stems.
§79]
THIRD DECLENSION: IRREGULAR NOUNS
33
Irregular Nouns of the Third Declension
79. In many nouns the stem is irregularly modified in the nomi-
native or other cases. Some peculiar forms are thus declined : —
bos, c.
senez, m.
car5, F.
OS, N.
vis, F.
ox, cow
old man
flesh
bone
force
Singular
NOM.
bos
senez
caro
OS
VIB
Gen.
bOvis
senlB
carniB
OSSiB
viB (rare)
Dat.
bovl
sen!
carni
ossi
VI (rare)
Ace.
bovem
senem
carnem
t
OS
vim
Abl.
bove
sene
carne
osse
vi
catUe
Plural
strength
NOM.
bovCa
senes
carnfiB
ossa
vTiSb
Gen.
bourn
senum
carnium
ossium
virium
Dat.
bobua (bubus)
senibuB
carnibuB
ossibuB
vTribuB
Ace.
boy6B
senSs
carnCB
ossa
viriB (-Sb)
Abl.
bobus (bubus)
senibuB
carnibuB
ossibuB
viribuB
sua, c.
luppiter,
M.
nix, F.
iter, N.
8wine
Jupiter
8now
march
Singular
NOM.
SUB
luppiter
I
niz
iter
Gen.
suis
lovlB
iiiviB
itineris
Dat.
su!
lovl
nivl
itinerl
Ace.
suem
lovexn
nivem
iter
Abl.
sue
love
nive
itinere
•
Plural
NOM
SU68
nivSa
i
itinera
Gen.
suum
nivlum
itinerum
Dat.
SUbUB
(suibuB)
nivlbuB
itineribuB
Ace.
suCb
niv6B
itinera
Abl.
SUbUB
(suibuB)
nivlbuB
itineribuB
1 Also lupiter.
S4 DECLENSION OF NOUNS [§§79-81
a. Two vowel-stems in u-, gru- and su-, which follow the third declension,
add 8 in the nominative, and are inflected like mute stems : grus has also
a nominative gniis ; s&s has both siiibus and subus in the dative and ablative
plural, grus has only gruibus.
b. In the stem bov- (bou-) the diphthong ou becomes 5 in the nominative
(bSs, bdvis).
In nay- (nau-) an i is added (navis, -is), and it is declined like turns (§ 67).
In I5v- (= Zcvs) the diphthong (ou) becomes u in lu-piter (for -pftter),
genitive ISvis, etc. ; but the form luppiter is preferred.
c* In iter, itineris (n.), iecur, i»cinoris (iecoris) (n.), supellSz, supellectilis
(f.), the nominative has been formed from a shorter stem ; in senez, senis,
from a longer ; so that these words show a combination of forms from two
distinct stems.
d. In nix, nivis the nominative retains a g from the original stem, the g
uniting with s, the nominative ending, to form x. In the other cases the
stem assumes the form niv- and it adds i in the genitive plural.
ۥ Vas (n.), yasis, keeps s throughout ; plural yasa, yasorum. A dative
plural yasibus also occurs. There is a rare singular y&sum.
The Locatiye Case
80. The Locative form for nouns of the third declension ends
in the singular in -i or -e, in the plural in -ibus : as, riiri, in the
country ; Carthagini or Carthagine, at Carthage; Tiallibus, at Tralle%}
Greek Nouns of the Third Declension
81. Many nouns originally Greek — mostly proper names —
retain Greek forms of inflection. So especially —
1. Genitive singular in -os, as, tigridos.
2. Accusative singular in -a, as, aethera.
3. Yoealiye singular like the stem, as, Perici§, Orpheu, Atla.
4. Nominative plural in -^s, as, herS^s.
5. Aoousative plural in -&8, as, herdSs.
1 The Indo-European locative singular ended in -I, which became -S in Latin. Thus
the Latin ablative in -e is, historically considered, a locative. The Latin ablative in
-i (from -id) was an analogical formation (cf . -a from -&d, -6 from -M), properly belong-
ing to i-stems. With names of towns and a few other words, a locative function was
ascribed to forms in -i (as, Carthagini), partly on the analogy of the real locative of
o-stems (as, Corinttal, § 49. a) ; but forms in -S also survived in this use. The plural
-bus is properly dative or ablative, but in forms like Trallibus it has a locative func-
tion. Cf« Pliilippis (§ 49. «), in which the ending -is is, historicaUJr considered, either
locative, or instrumental, or both, and AthCnis (§ 43. c), in which the ending is formed
on the analogy of o-stems.
§§ ^A 83]
THIRD DECLENSION: GREEK NOUNS
85
82. Some of these forms are seen in the following examples : —
her58, m., hero lampas, f., torch luisis, f., base ti^ris, c, tiger nils, f., naiad
Stem her&-
Stem lampad-
Stem basi-
SlNGULAR
Stem ( *!«^^
I tigii-
^' STBMBAid-
NOM.
heros
lampas
baslB
tigrlB
naiB
Gen.
herois
lanipadoB
base^B
tigrlB(-idoB) naidoB
Dat.
her 61
lampadl
basi
tigii
naidf
Ace.
heroa
lairipada
baRin
tigrin(-ida) n9.ida
Abl.
heroe
lampade
basI
Plural
tigrl(-ide)
naide
NOM.
heroSs
lampadSs
basfiB
tigr^B
n&idSa
Gen.
heroum
lampadum
ba8lum(-e6n) tigrium
naidum
D.,A.i
heroibuB
lampadibuB
basibuB
tigribuB
naidibuB
Ace.
berofts
lampadftB
basb(-eiB)
tigrfB(-idftB) naid&B
Proper Names
NoM.
Dido
SimoiB
Capya
Gen.
Didoni8(Didii8)
SimoentiB
CapyoB
Dat.
Did6nI(Did6)
SimoentI
Capyl
A-cc.
Diddnem(-^)
Simoenta
CapjTi
Abl.
Didone(-o)
Simoente
Capye
Voc.
Dido
SiiuoiB
Capy
NoM.
Orpheus
Pericl6B
Paria
Gbn.
OrpheI(-e(JB)
Pericli8(-I)
Paridia
Dat.
OrpheI(-efi)
Pericll(-i)
ParidI
Paridem.
Acc.
Orphea(-um)
Periclem(-ca
,-«n)
Parim(-in)
Abl.
Orphea
Peride
Paride, PaiT
Voc.
Orpheu
Pericl6B(-fi)
Pari
MoTB. — The regular Latin forms may be used for most of the abore.
83. Other peculiarities are the following : —
a. Delphinus, -i (m.), has also the form delphin, -Inis ; Salamis, -is (r.)^
has acc. SaUnnina.
b» Most stems in U- (noro. -is) often have also the forms of i-stems : as^
tigris, gen. -Idis (-Idos) or -is ; acc. -Idem (-!da) or -im (-in) ; abl. -!de or -L.
But many, including most feminine proper names, have acc. -idem (-ida)
abl. -ide, — not -im or -L (These stems are irregular also in Greek.)
1 Dative, hSrdisin (once only).
3i5 DECLENSION OF NOUNS [§§83-86
c. Stems in on- sometimes retain -n in the nominative: as, Agamem-
ii5n (or Agamemn5), genitive -6nis, accusative -6na.
d. Stems in ont- form the nominative in -6n: as, horizdn, Xenophon;
but a few are occasionally Latinized into on- (nom. -6) : as, Dracd, -Snis ;
Antiph5, -5nis.
e» Like Simois are declined stems in ant-, ent-, and a few in unt- (nomi-
native in -as, -is, -us) : as. Atlas, -antis ; Trapezus, -untis.
/• Some words fluctuate between different declensions : as Orpheus be-
tween the second and the third.
g. -5n is found in the genitive plural in a few Greek titles of books : as,
Dletamorphdsedn, of the Metamorphoses (Ovid's well-known poem); Ge5rgicdn,
of the Georgics (a poem of Virgil).
Gender in the Third Declension
84. The Gender of nouns of this declension must be learned
by practice and from the Lexicon. Many are masculine or femi-
nine by nature or in accordance with the general rules for gen-
der (p. 15). The most important rules for the others, with their
principal exceptions, are the following: — ^
85. Masculine are nouns in -or, -Os, -er, -6s (gen. -itis), -ex (gen.
-icis): as, color, fl5s, imber, gurges (gurgitis), vertex (verticis).
Exceptions are the following : —
a. Feminine are arbor ; cos, dos ; linter.
h. Neuter are ador, aequor, cor, marmor ; 5s (oris) ; also os (ossis) ;
cadaver, iter, tuber, uber, ver ; and names of plants and trees in -er : as,
acer, papaver.
86. Feminine are nouns in - 6, -fis, -6s, -is, -us, -x, and in -s preceded
by a consonant : as, legiO, civitas, nubes, avis, virtus, arx, urbs. The
nouns in -o are mostly those in -d6 and -g5, and abstract and collec-
tive nouns in -iO.
Exceptions are the following : —
a. Masculine are led, leonis ; ligo,-onis ; serm5, -5nis ; also cardo, harpago,
margo, ordo, turbo ; and concrete nouns in -id : as, pugio, unio, papilio ; ^
acinaces, aries, celes, lebes, paries, pes ;
1 Some nouns of doubtful or variable gender are omitted.
2 Many nouns in -6 (gen. -Snis) are masculine by signification : as, gero, carrier;
restio, ropemaker ; and family names (originally nicknames) : as, Cicerd, NasS. See
§§236. c, 255.
§§86-89]
FOURTH DECLENSION
87
Nouns in -nis and -guis : as, isnis, sanguis ; also axis, caulis, collis, cucumiSy
ensis, fasds, follis, fustis, lapis, mensis, orbis, piscis, postis, pulyis, ydmis ;
mus;
caliz, fornix, grex, phoenix, and nouns in -ex (gen. -icis) (§ 85) ;
dens, fons, m5ns, pGns.
Note. — Some nouns in -is and -ns which are masculine were originally adjectives
or participles agreeing with a masculine noun: as, Aprilis (sc. mfinsis), ii., April;
oriSns (sc. 851), m., the east; annalis (sc. liber), m., tfie year-book.
b» Neuter are yas (yasis) ; crus, iiis, piis, rus, tils.
87. Neuter are nouns in -a, -e, -1, -n, -ar, -ur, -Us : as, poSma, mare,
animal, nOmen, calcar, rObur, corpus ; also lac and caput.
Exceptions are the following : —
a» Masculine are s&l, sOl, pecten, yultur, lepus.
bm Feminine is pecus (gen. -udis).
FOURTH DBCLSNSION
88. The Stem of nouns of the Fourth Declension ends in u-.
This is usually weakened to 1 before -bus. Masculine and Femi-
nine nouns form the nominative by adding s ; Neuters have for
nominative the simple stem, but with fi (long).
89. Nouns of the Fourth Declension are declined as follows :
manns
(, F., hand
lacus, M., lake
1
genu, N., knee
•
Stbm mann-
Stem lacu-
Stem genu-
Singular
•
i
CiASX-KimiNOS
«
CASK-SKDINOS
NOM.
manna
lacus
-UB
genu
-fl
Gen.
manfLs
lactis
-as
gentUi
-flB
DAT.
manul(-il)
lacni(-fi)
-ni(.fl)
genu
-fl
Ace.
mannm
lacnm
-nm
genfL
-fl
Abl.
manfL
lacfl
-fl
Plural
gend
-fl
NOM.
man&i
lacflB
-tiB
genua
-ua
Gen.
m annum
lacnnm
-num
genuum
-uum
Dat.
manibns
lacnbuB
-ibnB(-ubuB)
genibuB
-ibuB
Ace.
manflB
lacflB
-UB
genua
-ua
Abl.
manibuB
lacnbiiB
-ibuB(-nbnB)
genibUB
-ibuB
88 DECLENSION OF NOUNS [§§90-03
Gender in the Fourtii Declension
90. Most nouns of the Fourth Declension in -us are Masculine.
ExcepiioTis : The following are Feminine : acus, anus, colas, domas, idfis (phiral),
manas, nurus, portictts, qainqoAtrfis (plural), socrns, txiboa, with a few names of
plants and trees. Also, rarely, penus, apeciis.
91. The only Neuters of the Fourth Declension are oom% genu,
pecii (§ 106./), veru.^
Case-Forms in the Fourth Declension
92. The following peculiarities in case-forms of the Fourth
Declension require notice : —
a» A genitive singular in -i (as of the second declension) sometimes
occurs in nouns in -tus : as, senatus, genitive sen&ti (regularly senatoa).
&• In the genitive plural -uum is sometimes pronounced as one sylla-
ble, and may then be written -urn : as, ctttrum (Aen. vi. 653) for curmnm.
c» The dative and ablative plural in -ilbus are retained in partus and
tribus; so regularly in artus and lacus, and occasionally in other words;
portus and specus have both -ubus and -ibus.
d. Most names of plants and trees, and coins, distaff, have also forms of
the second declension : as, ficiis, Jig, genitive ficus or lid.
e. An old genitive singular in -uis or -uos and an old genitive plural in
-uom occur rarely : as, senatuis, senatuos ; fluctuom.
-/• The ablative singular ended anciently in -ud (cf. § 43. N. 1) : as,
magistratiid.
93. Domus (f.), hou9e^ has two stems ending in u- and o-. Hence
it shows forms of both the fourth and second declensions :
Plural
dom^
domnum (domdnim)
domibus
dom5s (domfLs)
domibuB
Note 1. — The Locative is domi (rarely domui), at home.
Note 2. — The Grenitive domi occurs in Plautus ; domdntm is late or poetic.
1 A few other neuters of this declension are mentioned by the ancient grammarians
as oocnrring in certain cases.
Singular
NOM.
domtts
Gen.
dom^ (domi, loc.)
Dat.
domui (dom6)
Ace.
domum
Abl.
domo (domu)
§§Mr963
FIFTH DECLENSION {#^STEMS)
S9
94. Most nouns of the Fourth Declension are formed from
verb-stems, or roots, by means of the suffix -tus (-sas) (§ 238. b) :
cantas, aoTig, can, cand, sing ; cAsut (for tcad-ttts), chance, cad, cad5, faU;
ezsolatas, exile, from ezsuld, to he an exile (exsul).
a. Many are formed either from verb-stems not in use, or by analogy :
cdnsuUltus (as if from tconsuld, -&re), ten&ttts, incestas.
b» The accusative and the dative or ablative of nouns in -tus (-sus) form
the Supines of verbs (§ 159. 6): as, spectatom, petitmn; dictu, yisu.
c. Of many verbal derivatives only the ablative is used as a noun : as,
iussu (meO), hy (my), command * so iniussu (populi), without {the people's) order.
Of some only the dative is used : as, diyisai.
FIFTH DECLENSION (^-STEMS)
95. The Stem of nouns of the Fifth Declension ends in 6-, which
appears in all the cases. The Nominative is formed from the stem
by adding s.
96. Nouns of the Fifth Declension are declined as follows : —
res, F., thing
dies, M., day
fides, v., faith
STxacre-
STSMdi^
Singular
Stem fid$-
OASE-ENDING»
NOM.
rte
di5s
fides
-es
Gen.
rdX
di« (die)
fidfil
.61 (.e)
Dat.
rei
diei (die)
fidei
-ei (-e)
Ace.
rem
diem
fidem
-em
Abl.
r6
die
Plural
fide
.e
NOM.
rSs
dies
-ee
Gen.
rSmm
diemm
^emm
Dat.
rebus
diebus
-ebus
Ace.
T^
dies
-es
Abl.
rSbuB
diebus
•4bU8
Note. — The 8 of the stem is shortened in the genitive and dative singular of lldCs^
spSft, i^, but in tbese it is found long in early Latin. In the aocmaative singular e
is always short.
40 DECLENSION OF NOUNS [§§97-99
Gender in the Fifth Declension
97. All nouns of the Fifth Declension are Feminine, except
diSs (usually M.), day^ and meridiSs (M.), noon.
a* Dies is sometimes feminine in the singular, especially in phrases indi-
cating a fixed time, and regularly feminine when used of time in general:
as, constituta die, on a set day; locga dies, a long time.
Case-Forms in the Fifth Declension
98. The following peculiarities require notice : —
a. Of noims of the fifth declension, only dies and res are declined through-
out. Most want the plural, which is, however, found in the nominative or
accusative in acies, effigies, eluvies, fades, giacies, series, species, spes.^
&• The Locative form of this declension ends in -€. It is found only in
certain adverbs and expressions of time : —
hodie, to-day ; die quarts (old, qu&rti), thefowrih day ;
perendie, day after to-morrow ; pridiS, the day before,
c. The fifth declension is closely related to the first, and several nouns
have forms of both : as, materia, -ies ; saeyitia, -ies. The genitive and dative
in -ci are rarely found in these words.
d. Some nouns vary between the fifth and the third declension : as,
requies, saties (also satias, genitive -atis), plebes (also plebs, genitive plSbis),
fames, genitive famis, ablative fame.
NoTB. — In the genitive and dative -Si (-Si) was sometimes contracted into -€i:
as, tribunns plSbA, tribune of the people (plSbSs). Genitives in -i and -S also occur:
as, dii (Aen. i. 636), pl61>i-8citum, aciS (B. 6. ii. 23). A few examples of the old geni-
tive in -$8 are found (cf. -&8 in the first declension, § 43. 6). The dative has rarely -€,
and a form in -i is cited.
DEFECTIVE NOimS
Nouns wanting in the Plural
99. Some nouns are ordinarily found in the Singular number
only (sinffuldria tantum). These are —
1. Most proper names : as, Caesar, Casar; Gallia, Gaul,
2. Names of things not counted, but reckoned in mass : as, aurum, gold;
aer, air; triticum, wheat,
3. Abstract nouns: as, ambitid, ambition; fortitiidS, courage; calor, heat.
1 The forms faciCnun, speciSrum, speciSbus, spSmm, spSbns, are cited by grammarians,
also 8p€rS8, sp^ribus, and some of these occnr in late authors.
§§100-102] DEFECTIVE NOUNS 41
100. Many of these nouns, however, are used in the plural in
some other sense.
a* The plural of a proper name may be applied to two or more persons
or places, or even things, and so become strictly common : —
duodedm Caesar^s, the twelve CcBsars,
Galliae, tfie two Gauls (Cis- and Transalpine).
Castores, Castor and Pollux ; IoySs, images of Jupiter,
6. The plural of names of things reckoned in mass may denote particular
objects: as, aera, bronze utensils, nives, snowjlakes; or different kinds of a thing :
as, acres, airs (good and bad).
c. The plural of abstract nouns denotes occasions or instances of the quality,
or the like : —
quaedam excellentiae, some cases of superiority ; ot;a> periods of rest ; caldr§8»
frigora, times of heat and cold.
Nouns wanting in the Singular
101. Some nouns are commonly or exclusively found in the
Plural (plurdlia tantum). Such are —
1. Many names of towns : as, Athenae (Athens), Thurii, Philippi, Veil.
2. Names of festivals and games: as, Olympia, the Olympic Games; Baccha'
nalia, feast of Bacchus ; Quinquatriis, festival of Minerva ; ludi ROmani, the
Roman Games,
3. Kames of classes: as, optimates, /Ae upper classes; maiores, ancestors;
liberi, children; penates, household gods; Quirites, citizens (oi Rome).
4. Words plural by signification: as, arma, weapons; axtua, joints ; divi-
fa'ae, riches; acalae, stairs ; yaWaie, folding-doors ; fores, double-doors; angustiae,
a narrow pass (narrows) ; moenia, city walls,
NoTK 1. — Some words, plural by signification in Latin, are translated by English
nouns in the singular number: as, dgliciae, delight, darling; faucgs, throat; fldCs, lyre
(also singular in poetry) ; Insidiae, ambush; cervicSs, neck; viacera,, flesh.
NoTB 2. — The poets often use the plural number for the singular, sometimes for
metrical reasons, sometimes from a mere fashion : as, 6ra (for 6s), the face ; sc8ptra (for
scSptrum), sceptre; silentia (for silentium), silence.
102. Some nouns of the above classes (§ 101. 1-4), have a corre-
sponding singular, as noun or adjective, often in a special sense :
1. As noun, to denote a single object: as, Bacchanal, a spot sacred to
Bacchus; optimas, an aristocrat,
2. As adjective : as, Cato Maior, Cato the Elder,
3. In a sense rare, or found only in early Latin: as, scala, a ladder:
yalya, a door; artns, a joint.
42 DECLENSION OF NOUNS [§103
Koiiiui Defective in Oertain Caeee
103. Many nouns are defective in case-forms: ^ —
a. Indeclinable nouns^ used only as nominative and accusative singular:
ffts, nefasy instar, nihil, opus (need), secns.
NoTB 1. — The indeclinable adjective neoMW is used as a nominative or aecnsative.
NoTB 2.— The genitive nihiti and the ablative nihiU (from nihUam, nothing) occor.
b» Nouns found in one case only (monoptotes) t —
1. In the nominative singular: glds (f.).
2. In the genitive singular : dicis, nanci (v.).
3. In the dative singular : dlvisoi (m.) (cf. § 94. e).
4. In the accusative singular : amnssim (m.) ; ▼Cnnm (dative vin5 in Tacitus).
6. In the ablative singular: pondd (n.) ; mftne (n.) ; astd (m.), by craft; iussa,
iniussfi, nAtfi, and many other verbal nouns in -us (m.) (§ 04. c).
NoTB. — nftne is also used as an indeclinable accusative, and an old form mAni is
«used as ablative. PondO with a numeral is often apparently equivalent to pounds. A
nominative singular attns and a plural ast&s occur rarely in later writers.
6. In the accusative plural : infiti&a.
C0 Nouns found in two cases only (diptotes): —
1. In the nominative and ablative singular : fors, forte (f.).
2. In the genitive and ablative singular : spontis (rare), sponte (f.).
8. In the accusative singular and plural : dicam, dicAs (f.).
4. In the accusative and ablative plural : fozfta, foris (f.) (cf. for§e), used as
adverbs.
d» Nouns found in three cases only (triptotes) : —
1. In the nominative, accusative, and ablative singular : impetus, -nm, -d (m.)* ;
hies, -em, -9 ('«)•
2. In the nominative, accusative, and dative or ablative plural: grftt6e,-ibii8(F).
8. In the nominative, genitive, and dative or ablative plural ; iCgeia, -am, -ibus
<N.) ; but iflgenun, etc., in t^ singular (of. § 105. 5).
e» Nouns found in four cases only (tetraptotes) : —
In the genitive, dative, accusative, ablative singular: didSsis, -T, -em, -e (f.).
/• Nouns declined regularly in the plural, but defective in the singular : —
1. Nouns found in the singular, in genitive, dative, accusative, ablative: frOgis.
4, -em, -e (f.) ; opis, -i (once only), -em, -e (f. ; nominative Ope as a divinity).
2. Nouns found in the dative, accusative, ablative : preci, -em, -e (f.).
8. Nouns found in the accusative and ablative : cassem, -e (f.) ; soidem, -e (f.).
4. Nouns found in the ablative only : amb&ge (f.) ; fance (f.) ; obice (c).
g» Nouns regtdar in the singular, defective in the plural : —
1 Some early or late forms and other rarities are omitted.
> The dative singular impetui and the ablative plural impetilnui ooeur once each.
§§ 103-105] VARIABLE NOUNS 43
1. The follawing neuters have in the plural the nonunatlve and accvsalive
only : fel (fella), far (farra), hordeam (hordea), iQs, broth (itira), mel (mella), mtmnttr
(mannara), pfts (pfira), nls (rOra), tils or thfls (tflra).
Note. — The neater ifls, rig?Ut has only iiira m classical writers, hut a very rare geni-
tive plural iurom occurs in old Latin.
2. calx, cor, cos, crux, fax, faex, lanx, Iflx, nex, da (oris),^ os (ossis),' pftx, pix,
roe, 8&1, sol, vas (vadis), want the genitive plural.
3. Most nouns of the fifth declension want the whole or part of the phiral
(see § 98. a).
hm Nouns defective in both singular and plural : —
1. Noun found in the genitive, accusative, ablative singular; nomhiative,
accusative, dative, ablative plural: vicit, -em, -e; -es, -ibus.
2. Noun found in the genitive, dative, accusative, and ablative stngnlar;
gttnitiTe plural wanting: dapis, -i, -em, -e; -es, -ibus.'
VARIABLE NOUNS
104. Many nouns vary either in Declension or in Gender.
105. Nouns that vaiy in Declension are called hetero elites.^
a. Coins (f.), distaff; domus (f.), house (see § 93), and many names
of plants in -us, vary between the Second and Fourth Declensions.
h* Some nouns vary between the Second and Third : as, ifigerum, -f, -0,
ablative -o or -e, plural -«, -um, -ibus ; Mulciber, genitive -beri and -beris ;
sequester, genitive -tri and -tris ; yas, yasis, and (old) yasum, -i (§ 79. e).
Cm Some vary between the Second, Third, and Fourth : as, penus, penum,
genitive peni and penoris, ablative penii.
d» Many nouns vary between the First and Fifth (see § 98. c).
e. Some vary between the Third and Fifth. Thus, — requies has geni-
tive -etis, dative wanting, accusative -etem or -em, ablative -€ (once --ete) -,
fames, regularly of the third declension, has ablative fame (§ 76. k. 1),
and piibes (m.) has once dative pubS (in Plautus).
/. Pecus varies between the Third and Fourth, having pecoris, etc., but
also nominative pedi, ablative pecQ ; plural pecna, genitive pecuum.
gr. Many vary between different stems of the same declension : as, femur
(n.), genitive -oris, also -inis (as from ffemen); iecur (n.), genitive iecinoris,
iocinoris, iecoris ; miinas (n.), plural miinera and munia.
1 The ablative plural drilms is rare, the classical idimn being in Ore onminm, in every-
body's mouth J etc., not in Sribae omnium.
2 The genitive plural ossium is late ; ossuum (from ossua, plural of a neuter u-stem)
is early and late.
* An old nominative daps is cited.
* That is, "nouns of different inflections" (Jhepos, another y and «fX£y«, to inflect).
44
DECLENSION OF NOUNS
106, 107
106. Nouns that vary in Gender are said to be heterogeneous.^
a» The following have a masculine form in -as and a neuter in -um :
balteus, caseus, clipeus, coUom, cingulum, pileus, tergum, yallum, with many
others of rare occurrence.
hn The following have in the Plural a different gender from that of the
Singular : —
balneae (f.), hoXhs (an establishment).
caelos (m. ace, Lucr.).
carbasa (n.) (-drum), sai/s.
dSliciae (f.), ptt.
epulae (F.),/eaat
frSni (m.) or frSna (n.), a bridle.
ioca (n.), loci (M.),jest8.
loca (y.), loci (m., usually topics, passages in books).
rflstri (m.), rftstra (n.), rakes.
balneum (n.), bath ;
caelum (n.), heaven ;
carbasus (f.), a sail;
deliciam (n.), pleasure;
epulom (n.), feaM ;
frenom (if.), a bit;
iocus (m.), a jest;
locus (h.), place;
rflstrum (n.), a rake;
Note. — Some of these nouns are heteroclites as well as heterogeneous.
107. Many nouns are found in
aedes, -is (f.), temple;
aqua (f.), water ;
auzilium (n.), help;
bonum (x.), a good ;
career (m.), dungeon;
castrum (n.), /ort;
comitium (n. ), place of assembly ;
c5pia (f.), pleidy ;
fides (f.), harp-string;
finis (m.), end;
fortuna (¥.),fortunje;
gr&tia (v.), favor (rarely, thanks);
hortus (m.), a garden;
impedimentum (n.) hindrance;
littera (f.), letter (of alphabet) ;
locus (m.), place [plural loca (n.)] ;
ludus (m.), sport;
mos (m.), habit, custom;
nat&lis (m.), birthday;
opera (f.), work;
[ops,] opis (f.), help (§ 103./. 1) ;
pars (f.), part;
rostrum (n.), beak of a ship;
sId (m. or n.), salt;
tabella (f.), tablet;
the Plural in a peculiar sense: —
aedSs, -inm, house.
aquae, mineral springs, a watering-place.
auxilia, auxiliaries.
bona, goods, property,
carcergs, barriers (of race-course).
castra, camp.
comitia, an election (town-meetlTig).
copiae, stores, troops.
fides, lyre.
fines, bounds, territories.
fortunae, possessions.
grfttiae, thanks (also, the Graces).
horti, pleasure-grounds.
impedimenta, baggage.
Utterae, epistle, literature.
loci,^ topics, places in books,
ludi, public games.
mdres, character.
n&tales, descent, origin.
operae, day-laborers ("hands").
op€s, resources, wealth.
partSs, part (on the stage), party.
rostra, speaker'* s platform,
sales, witticisms.
tabellae, documents, records.
1 That is, "of different genders" {Hrepos, another, and y^vos, gender).
3 lu early writers the regular plural.
108] NAMES OF PERSONS 45
NAMES OF PERSONS
108. A Roman had regularly three names: — (1) the praenOmen,
or personal name ; (2) the nOmen, or name of the gen% or house ;
(3) the cOgnGmen, or family name : —
Thus in Marcus Tullius Cicerd we have —
M&rcas, the praendmen, like our Christian or given name ;
Tnllias, the nSmen, properly an adjective denoting of the TuUian gSm (or
?iou8e) whose original head was a real or supposed TuUus ;
Cicero, the cdgnomen, or family name, often in origin a nickname, — in this
case from cicer, a vetch, or small pea.
NoTB. — When two persons of the same family are mentioned together, the cogno-
men is usually pnt in the plural : as, Publius et Sezrius SulUie.
a* A fourth or fifth name was sometimes given as a mark of honor or
distinction, or to show adoption from another gens.
Thus the complete name of Scipio the Younger was Pablins ComSlins ScipiS
Africanas AemiliAnas: AfricAnut, from his exploits in Africa; AemiliAiios, as
adopted from the JSmilian gtna.^
Note. — The Romans of the classical period had no separate name for these addi-
tions, but later grammarians invented the word agnomen to express them.
6. Women had commonly in classical times no personal names, but were
known only by the nomen of their gens.
Thus, the wife of Cicero was Terentia, and his daughter Tullia. A second
daughter would have been called Tallia secanda or minor, a third daughter, Tullia
tertia, and so on.
Cm The commonest praenomens are thus abbreviated : —
A. Aulas. L. Lucius. Q. Quintns.
App. (Ap.) Appius. M. Marcus. Ser. Servius.
C. (6.) Gaius (Caius) (cf. § 1. a). M\ Mflnius. Sex. (S.) Sextus.
Cn. (Gn.) Gnaeus {Cneitui). M2m. Mamercus. Sp. Spuiius.
D. Decimns. N. (Num.) Numerius T. Titus.
K. Kaeso {Caeso). P. Pfiblius. Ti. (Tib.) Tiberius.
NoTK 1. — In the abbreviations C. and Cn., the initial character has the value of G
(§l.a).
1 In stating officially the full name of a Boman it was customary to include the
prctenoniina of the father, grandfather, and great-grandfather, together with the name
of the tribe to which the individual belonged. Thus in an inscription we find M. TVL-
LIVS M. F. M. N. M. PR. COR. CICERO, i.e. Uarcus TttllittS Mirci filitts M&rci nepos Marci pro-
nepos ComSliil tribu Cicero. The names of grandfather and great-grandfather as well as
that of the tribe are usually omitted in literature. The name of a wife or daughter is
usually accompanied by that of the husband or father in the genitive : as, Postumia
Scrvi Sulpicii (Suet. lul. 50), Postumia, wife of Servius Sulpicius; Caecilia MetelH
(Div. i. 104), Caecilia, daughter of Metellus.
46
DECLENSION OF ADJECTIVES
[§§ 109, 110
ADJECTIVES
109. Adjectives and Participles are in general formed and de-
clined like Nouns, differing from them only in their use.
1. In accordance with their use, they distinguish gender by different
forms in the same word, and agree with their nouns in gender, number, and
case. Thus, —
bonas paer, the good boy.
bona puella, the good girl.
bonum donam, the good gift.
2. In their inflection they are either (1) of the First and Second Declen-
sions, or (2) of the Third Declension.
FIRST AND SECOND DECLENSIONS (d- AND oSTKMS)
110. Adjectives of the First and Second Declensions (ft- and
o-stems) are declined in the Masculine like servus, puer, or ager ;
in the Feminine like stella ; and in the Neuter like bdlum.
The regular type of an adjective of the First and Second Declen-
sions is bonus, -a, -um, which is thus declined : —
bonus, bona, bonum, good
MASCULINE
FEMININE
NEUTEB
Stbm bono-
Stem bon&-
Singular
Stem bono-
NOM.
bonus
bona
bonum
Gen.
boni
bonae
boni
Dat.
bono
bonae
bono
Ace.
bonum
bonam
bonum
Abl.
bono
bona
bon6
Voc.
bone
bona
Plural
bonum
NOM.
bonI
bonae
bona
Gbn.
bondrum
bonftnim
bondnun
Dat.
bonis
bonis
bonis
Ace.
bon5a
bonfls
bona
Abl.
bonis
bonis
bonis
If no, 111]
FIRST AND SECOND DECLENSIONS
47
NoTB. — Stems in 41MH baye nominative -cos Huob), -^va, -com (-quom), aocnsative
-com (-qaom), -quam, -oun (-quom), to avoid quu- (see §§ 6. 6 and 46. n. 2). Thus, —
NoM. propinoQS (-qtKM) propinqoa propinoiim {-q^xem)
6bn. propinqui propinquae propinqul, etc.
But most modern editions disregard this principle.
€U The Genitive Singular masculine of adjectives in -I110 ends in -li, and
the Vocative in -ie ; not in -1, as in nouns (c£. § 49. b, c) ; as, LacedaemoniuSy
-ii, -ie.
NoTB. — The possessive mens, my, has the vocative mascnline mi (cf. § 145).
111. Stems ending in n>- preceded by e form the Nominative
Masculine like puer (§ 47) and are declined as follows: —
miser, misera, misenim, wretched
MASCULINB
FEMININE
neuteb
Stem misero-
Stem miserft-
SlKOULAR
Stem misero-
NOM.
miser
misera
misemm
Gen.
miserl
miserae
miserl
Dat.
miser5
miserae
miserd
Ace.
xniserum
uiiseram
misemm
Abl.
miserS
misera
Plural
miscrd
NOM.
miser!
miserae
miaera
Gbn.
miserdrom
miserftrum
miser&nun
Dat.
miseris
miseiib
miseris
Ace.
miserjki
miserfts
misera
Abl.
miseria
miseria
miseiia
a. Like miser are declined asper, gibber, lacer, liber, prosper (also pros-
perns), satur (-ura, Hirum), tener, ^ith compounds of -fer and -ger : as, saeti-
ger, -era, -erum, bristle-bearihg ; also, usually, dexter. In these the e belongs to
the stem ; but in dextra it is often omitted : as, deztra manus, the right hand.
Note. — Stems in 6ro- (as piteCnts), with m5rieSra8, propSrns, have the regular nomi-
native masculine in -as.
h. The following lack a nominative singular masculine in classic use :
cetera, infera, postera, snpera. They are rarely found in the singular except
in certain phrases : as, posterd die, the next day.
Note. — An ablative feminine in -5 is found in a few Greek adjectives: as, lectid
octSphoiG (Verr. v. 27).
48
DECLENSION OF ADJECTIVES
[§§ 112, 113
112. Stems in ro- preceded by a consonant form the Nominative
Masculine like ager (§ 47) and are declined as follows : —
niger, nigra, nigrum, black
MASCULINE
FEMININE
NEUTER
Stem nigro-
Stem nigr&-
SlNGULAR
Stem nigio-
NOM.
niger
nigra
nigmm
Gen.
nigrf
nigrae
nigrl
Dat.
nigro
nigrae
nigrd
Ace.
nignim
nigram
nigmm
Abl.
nigra
nigra
Plural
nigr5
NOM.
nigii
nigrae
nigra
Gex.
nigromm
nigramm
nigrdrum
Dat.
nigria
nigris
niffi^
Ace.
nigroB
nigrfts
nig^a
Abl.
nigris
nigris
nigris
a. Like niger are declined aeger, ater, crSber, faber, glaber, iAteger, ludicer,
macer, piger, pulcher, ruber, sacer, scaber, sinister, taeter, yaf er ; also the pos-
sessives noster. Tester (§ 145).
113. The following nine adjectives with their compounds have
the Genitive Singular in -ius and the Dative in -i in all genders :
alius (n. aliud), other. tdtus, whole. alter, -terius, ^ oilier.
nailus, no^ none, ullus, any. neuter, -txlus, neither.
solus, alone. flnus, one. uter, -trins, which (of two).
Of these the singular is thus declined : —
Bf.
F.
N.
M.
F.
N.
NoM.
iinus
iina
iinum
uter
utra
utrum
Gen.
iinlus
iinlus
iinlus
utrius
utrius
utrius
Dat.
unl
uul
iini
utrf
utri
utri
Ace.
unnm
unam
iinuxn
utrum
utram
utrum
Abl.
un5
iina
lino
utrd
utra
utr5
NOM.
alius
alia
aliud
alter
altera
altemm
Gen.
alius
alius
alius
alterius
alterius
alterius
Dat.
alii
alii
aliT
alteri
alteri
alter!
Ace.
alium
aliam
aliud
alterum
alteram
altemm
Abl.
ali5
alia
ali5
alter5
altera
alters
§§113-116] ADJECTIVES OF THE THIRD DECLENSION
49
a* The plural of these words i^ regular, like that of bonus (§ 110).
b» The genitive in -ius, dative in -i, and neuter in -d are pronominal in
origin (cf. illius, illi, illud, and § 146).
c. The 1 of the genitive ending -ius, though originally long, may be made
short in verse ; so often in alterius and regularly in utriusque.
dm Instead of alius, alterius is commonly used, or in the possessive sense
the adjective alienus, belonging to another, another*s,
€• In compounds — as alteruter — sometimes both parts are declined,
sometimes only the latter. Thus, alter! utri or alterutri, to one of the two.
Note. — The regular genitive and dative forms (as in bonus) are sometimes found
in some of these words: as, genitive and dative feminine, allae; dative masculine,
alio. Bare forms are alls and alid (for alius, aliud) .
THIfiD DECLENSION (CONSONANT AND f^STEMS)
114. Adjectives of the Third Declension are thus classified: —
1. Adjectives of Three Terminations in the nominative singular, — one
for each gender : as, acer, acris, acre.
2. Adjectives of Two Terminations, — masculine and feminine the same :
as, levis (m., f.), leve (n.).
3. Adjectives of One Termination, — the same for all three genders : as,
atroz.
a. Adjectives of two and three terminations are true i-stems and hence retain
in the ablative singular -i, in the neuter plural -ia, in the genitive plural -ium, and
in the accusative plural regularly -is (see §§ 73 and 74). ^
Adjectives of Three and of Two Terminations
115. Adjectives of Three Terminations are thus declined : —
acer, acris, acre, keen, Stem icri-
SiNGULAR Plural
M.
F.
N.
M.
F.
N.
N03I.
acer
aciis
acre
acrSa
acrSs
acria
Gen.
acris
acris
acris
acrium
acrium
acrium
Dat.
acri
acri
acri
acribua
acribus
acribus
Ace.
acrem
acrem
acre
acris (-l^s)
acris (-6s)
acria
Abl.
acri
acri
acri
acribus
acribus
acribus
^ But the forms of some are doubtful.
56 DECLENSION OF ADJECTIVES Ȥ 116-117
a. Like &cer are declined the following stems in ri- : —
aUoer, campetter, celeber, eqnester, palflster, pe4ester, pater, salfiber, silvMter,
terrester, volacer. So also names of months in -ber: as, OctSbar (of.
§66).
NoTB 1. — Tlds f onnatioii is comparatiyely late, and henoe, hi the poets and hi early
Latin, either the masculine or the feminine form of these adjectives was sometimes
used for both genders : as, coettts alacris (Enn.). In others, as faenebris, fonebris, iUiis-
tris, Ificabris, mediocris, mnliebris, there is no separate masculine form at all, and these
are declined like lerit (§ 116).
NoTS 2. — Celsr, celeiii, celere, swift, has the genitive plural celemm, used only as a
noun, denoting a military rank. The proper name Celer has the ablative in -e.
116. Adjectives of Two Terminations are thus declined : —
• levis, leve,
light.
Stem levi-
SiNGULAB
Plural
M., F.
K.
M., r .
N.
NOM.
levis
leva
levfis
levia
Gen.
levis
levis
leviiim
levinm
Dat.
levl
levl
levibuB
levibns
Ace.
levem
leve
levis (-6s)
levia
Abl.
levl
levl
levibus
levibus
Note. — Adjectives of two and three terminations sometimes have an ablative in -•
in poetry, rarely in prose.
Adjectives of One TemdnatiiMi
117. The remaining adjectives of the third declension are Con-
sonant stems ; but most of them, except Comparatives, have the
following forms of litems : — ^
-i in the ablative singular (but often -e) ;
-ia in the nominative and accusative plural neuter ;
-ium in the genitive plural ;
-IS (as well as -es) in the accusative plural masculine and feminine.
In the other cases they follow the rule for Consonant stems.
a. These adjectives, except stems in 1- or t-, form the nominative singu-
lar from the stem by adding s : as, atr5x (stem atr5c- + s), egSns (stem
egent- + s).*
h. Here belong the present participles in -ns (stem nt-) * : as, am&ns, monSiis.
They are declined like egens (but cf. § 121).
«
1 For details see § 121. * Stems in nt- omit t before the nominative -a.
118, 119] ADJECTIVES OF THE THIRD DECLENSION
51
118. Adjectives of one termination are declined as follows : —
atroz, fierce, Stem atrdc-
egSns, needy. Stem egent-
Singular
91. y W*
N.
m.m, F.
N.
NOM.
atroz
atroz
egena
' egena
Gen.
atrocia
atrocia
egentia
egentia
Dat.
atroci
atroci
egenti
egenti
Ace.
atrocem
atroz
egentem
eg6na
Abl.
atroci (-e)
atroci (-e)
Plural
egenti (-e)
egenti (-e)
KOM.
atrocSa
atrdcia
egentea
egentia
Gen.
atrocium
atrocium
egentium
egentium
Dat.
atrocibua
atrocibua
egentibua
egentibua
Ace.
atrocis (-Ss)
atrocia
egentia (-6a)
egentia
Abl.
atrocibna
atrocibua
egentibua
egentibua
119. Other examples are the following:
NoM.
Gen.
Dat.
Ace.
Abl.
concors, harmonicms
Stem concord-
praeceps, headlong
Stem praecipit-
M., F.
concora
Concordia
concordi
concordem
concordi
Singular
N.
concora
Concordia
concordi
concora
concordi
Plural
NoM. concordSa concordia
Gen. concordium concordium
Dat. concordibua concordibua
Aec. concordia (-6a) concordia
Abl. concordibua concordibua
M., F.
praecepa
praecipitia
praecipiti
praecipitem
praecipiti
N. ■
praecepa
praecipitia
praecipiti
praecepa
praecipiti
praecipitea praecipitia
[praecipitium] ^
praecipitibua praecipitibua
praecipitia (-6a) praecipitia
praecipitibua praecipitibua
1 Given by grammarians, but not found.
52
DECLENSION OF ADJECTIVES
[§119
iens, going
par,
equoU
dives,
rich
Stem etint-
SxEMpar-
Stem ^vit-
SlNGULAR
Jtt.y ly»
N.
JS.j 7*
N.
Ha, Jfa
N.
NOM.
iens
igns
par
par
div'es
dives
Gen.
euDtis
euntlB
paris
parts
dlvitis
dIvitiB
DAT.
eunti
euntI
pari
pari
diviti
diviti
Ace.
euntem
iens
parem
par
dlvitem
dives
Abl.
eunte (-1)
eunte
(-0
pari
pari
divite
divite
NoM. euntds euntia
Gen. euntium euntium
Dat. euntibus euntibus
Ace. eunils (-Ss) euntia
Abl. euntibus euntibus
Plural
parSs paria
parium parium
paribus paribus
paiis (-5s) paria
paribus paribus
divitSs [ditia]
divituxn divitam
divitibus divitibns
divitis (-«s) [ditia]
divitibus divitibus
fiber, fertile
Stem fiber-
vetus, old
Stem veter-
SlNGULAR
NOM.
Gen.
Dat.
Ace.
Abl.
AK., Jr.
fiber
uberis
uberl
uberem
uberl ^
N.
fiber
fiberis
fiberl
fiber
fiberl^
vetus
veteris
veterl
veterem
vetere (-1)
N.
vetus
veteris
veterl
vetus
vetere (-1)
Plural
NOM.
Gen.
Dat.
Ace.
Abl.
fiberfis
fiberum
fiberibus
fiberSs
fiberibus
fibera
fiberum
fiberibus
fibera
fiberibus
veterCs
veterum
veteribus
veterfis
veteribus
Vetera
veterum
veteribus
Vetera
veteribus
Note. — Of tbese vetns is originally an s-stem. In most s-stems the r has intraded
itself into the nominative also, as bi-corpor (for fbi-corpos), dfigener (for fdi-genes).
^ An ablative in •« is very rare.
§§ 120, 121]
DECLENSION OF COMPARATIVES
58
Declension of Comparatives
120. Comparatives are declined as follows : —
/^
melior, 6et^er
Stem meUdr- for melids-
plfis, mmt
Stem plfir- for plfli
NOM.
Gen.
Dat.
Ace.
Abl.
NOM.
Gen.
Dat.
Ace.
Abl.
melior
meliorla
meliorl
meliorem
meliore (-1)
meliorSs
meliomm
melioribrui
meliorSs (-is)
melioribuB
Singular
N.
melius
meliorla
meliorl
melius
meliore (-1)
Plural
meliora
meliorum
melioribiis
meliora
melioribOB
M.} F>
plu*r6a
plffiium
plYribua
pl^rSs (-la)
pluribua
N.
plus
pliiria
plus
plure
plura
pliirium
pluribua
plura
pliiribtia
a. All comparatiyes except plQs are declined like melior.
h. The stem of comparatives properly epded in 8s-; but this became or
in the nominative masculine and feminine, atid 5r- in all other cases except
the nominative and accusative singular neuter, where a is retained and d is
changed to ti (of. hon5r, -oris; corpus, -^ris). Thus comparatives appear to
hav« two terminations.
c. The neuter singular plus is used only as a noun. The genitive (rarely
the ablative) is used only as an expression of value (cf. § 417). The dative
is not found in classic use. The compound complures, severaly has sometimes
neater plural complHria.
Case-Forms of Consonant Stems
121. In adjectives of Consonant stems —
a. The Ablative Singular commonly ends in -i, but sometimes -e.
1 . Adjectives used as nouns (as superstes, survivor) have -e.
•J. Participles in -ns used as such (especially in the ablative absolute,
§ 419), or as nouns, regularly have -e ; but participles used as adjectives
have regularly -i : —
domino imperante, at tke master^ 8 command; ah amante, by a lover; ab amantl
maliere, ly a Umng woman.
64 DECLENSION OF ADJECTIVES [§§ 121-, 122
3. The following have regularly -i : — amens, anceps, concors (and other
compounds of cor), cdnsors (but as a substantive, -e), degener, hebes, ingens,
inops, memor (and compounds), par (in prose), perpes, praeceps, praepes, teres.
4. The following have regularly -e : — caeles, compos, ^fdeses], dives, hospes,
particeps, pauper, princeps, sdspes, superstes. So also patrials (see §71.5) and
stems in at-, it-, nt-, rt-, when used as nouns, and sometimes when used as
adjectives.
b» The Grenitive Plural ends commonly in -ium, but has -am in the
following : ^ —
1. Always in eompos, dives, inops, particeps, praepes, pxinceps, supplex, and
compounds of nouns which have -urn : as, qoadru-pSs, bi-color.
2. Sometimes, in poetry, in participles in -ns : as, sil^ntam coneiliiun, a coun-
cil of the sUent shades (Aen. vi. 432).
c* The Accusative Plural reg^arly ends in -is, but comparatives com-
monly have -es.
d. Vetiis (gen. -Sris) and pubes (gen. -Sris) regularly have -e in the abla-
tive singular, -a. in the nominative and accusative plural, and -am in the
genitive plural. For uber, see § 119.
6. A few adjectives of one termination, used as nouns, have a feminine
form in -a : as, clienta, hospita, with the appellative Iun5 Sospita.
Irregularities and Special Uses of Adjectives
122. The following special points require notice : —
a. Several adjectives vary in declension : as, gracilis (-as), hilaris (-us),
in .rmis (-us), bicolor (-orus).
b. A few adjectives are indeclinable : as, damnas, frugi (really a dative
of service, see § 382. 1. n. 2), nequam (originally an adverb), necesse, and the
pronominal forms tot, quot, aliquot, totidem. Potis is often used as an inde-
clinable adjective, but sometimes has pote in the neuter.
c. Several adjectives are defective : as, ezspes (only nom.), ezlSx (ezlegem)
(only nom. and ace. sing.), pemox (pemocte) (only nom. and abl. sing.);
and prim5ris, semineci, etc., which lack the nominative singular.
d. Many adjectives, from their signification, can be used only in the
masculine and feminine. These may be called adjectives of common gender.
Such are adulescens, youthful; [tdeses], -idis, slothful; inops, -opis, poor;
sospes, -itis, safe. Similarly, senez, old man, and iuvenis, young man, are some-
times called masculine adjectives.
For Adjectives used as Nouns, see,§§ 288, 289; for Nouns used as Adjectives, see
§321. c; for Adjectives used as Adverbs, see § 214; for Adverbs used as Adjectives,
see § 321. d.
1 Forms in -um sometimes occur in a few others.
§§ 123-127] COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES 66
COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES
123. In Latin, as in English, there are three degrees of com-
parison : the Po%itive^ the Comparative^ and the Superlative,
124. The Comparative is regularly formed by adding -ior (neu-
ter -ius),^ the Superlative by adding -issimus (-a,-um), to the stem of
the Positive, which loses its final vowel : —
cams, dear (stem cAro-); carior, dearer; c&riBalmuB, dearest.
levis, light (stem levi-) ; levior, lighter ; leyiBsimus, lightest.
f@llx, Aapp2^ (stem fglic-) ; fellcior, happier; f€licisBimuB, Aoppiest.
hebes, dull (stem hebet-) ; hebetior, duller ; hebetisBimus, dullest.
Note. — A form of diminutive is made upon the stem of some comparatives: as,
grandiufr-cttltts, a little larger (see § 243).
a* Participles when used as adjectives are regularly compared : —
patiSns, patient; patientior, patientiBBimuB.
apertus, open; apertlor, apertlBBimuB.
125. Adjectives in -er form the Superlative by adding -rimus to
the nominative. The comparative is regular : —
&cer, keen; 9<;rior, ftcerrimuB.
miser, wretched; miserlor, miserrimuB.
a. So yetus (gen. yeteris) has superlative yeterrimus, from the old form
yeter ; and maturus, besides its regular superlative (miturissimus), has a rare
form maturrimus.
For the comparative of yetus, yetustior (from yetustus) is used.
126. Six adjectives in -lis form the Superlative by adding -limua
to the stem clipped of its final i-. These are facilis, difficilis, simi-
lis, dissimilis, gracilis, hnmilis.
facilis (stem facili-), easy; facilior, facillimuB.
127. Compounds in -dicus {saying) and -yolus (filling) take in
their comparison the forms of the corresponding participles dicSna
and volens, which were anciently used as adjectives : —
maledicna, slanderous; maledicentior, maledlcentlBBiinuB.
malevolus, spiteful; malevolentior, malevolentiBBixnuB.
1 The comparative suffix (earlier -ios) is akin to the Greek -Iwvt or the Sanskrit -iyans.
That of the superlative (-issimus) is a douhle form of uncertain origin. It appears to
contain the is- of the old suffix -is-to-s (seen in ^d-i(rro-t and English sweetest) and also
the old -mo-s (seen in pri-mus, mini-mas, etc.) . The endings -limus and -rimus are formed
hy assimilation (§ 15. 6) from -simus. The comparative and superlative are really new
stems, and are not strictly to he regarded as forms of inflection.
66 COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES [§§ 127-130
a. So, by analogy, compounds in -ficus : —
milgnificttB, grand; magnificentior, magnificentisBimna.
128. Some adjectives are compared by means of the adverbs
xnagis, rmre^ and maxime, most.
So especially adjectives in -us preceded by e or i : —
idOneos, fit ; magis IdGneus, iiiazim§ iddneus.
Note. — But plus has piissimtts in the superlative, — a form condemned by Cicero,
but common in inscriptions; equally common, however, is the irregular pientissimus.
Irregular Comparison
129. Several adjectives have in their comparison irregular
forms : —
bonus, good; melior, better; optimuB, best,
malus, had; p^or, worse; pessimus, worst.
mSgnus, great; mSior, greater; maximas, greatest,
parvus, smaU; minor, less; minimus, leasL
multus, mvjch; plus(N.)(§ 120), more; plurimua, most.
multi, many; pltir6s, m,ore; plUrimi, m^ost.
nSquam (indecl., § 122. &), nSquior; nequlssimuB.
wortMess;
frugl (indecl., § 122. 6), ttse- frug&llor; frOgaliesimus.
fulj worthy;
dexter, on the rights handy; dexterior; dextimua.
Note. — These irregularities arise from the use of different stems (cf . § 127) . Thus
f rugilior and fnigaiissimus are formed from the stem frugali-, hut are used as the com-
parative and superlative of the indeclinable frugi.
Defective Comparison
130. Some Comparatives and Superlatives appear without a
Positive : —
Ocior, swifter; (kdaaimua, swiftest.
potior, pr^erable ; ^ potiaaimua, most important.
a» The following are formed from stems not used as adjectives : ^ —
^ The old positive potis occurs in the sense of able, possible.
3 The forms in -tr& and -terns were originally comparative (cf. alter), so that the
comparatives in -tenor are douhle comparatives. Inferus and snperus are comparatives
of a still more primitive form (cf. the English comparative in -er).
The superlatives in -timus (-tumtts) are relics of old forms of comparison ; those in
-mu8 like imns, snmmns, piimus, are still more primitive. Forms like extremus are
superlatives of a comparative. In fact, comparison has always been treated with an
accumulation of endings, as children a&j furtherer aadfurtherest.
§§ 130, 181] DEFECTIVE COMPARISON 67
cis, citrft (adv., on this aide): citerlor, hither; citdmua, hithermost.
de (prep., down): deterior, worse; deterrimus, worst.
in, intr& (prep., in, loithin): inteiior, inner; intiinua, inmost.
prae, prO (prep., b^ore): prior, former ; primus, ^rs^.
prope (adv., near): propior, n.earer; proximuB, next.
ultr& {sdY., beyond): uXteTioT, farther ; nMxauu, farthest.
ft. Of the following the positive forms are rare, except when used as
nouns (generally in the plural): —
exterus, outward ; exterior, owier; extr^mus (extimus), ou^rno^.
Inferus, below (see §111.6); Inferior, lower ; Infimus (Imus), lowest.
posterns, /oZZotoingr ; posterior, Zo^r; poBtr6mu8 (postumns), toaf.
superus, above; eaperior, higher ; aupremus orsumnms, higheaL
But the plurals, ezteii, foreigners; inferi, the gods below; posteii, posterity;
snpexi, the heavenly gods, are common.
Note. — The superlative postumus has the special sense of last-bom, and was a well-
known surname.
131. Several adjectives lack the Comparative or the Superla-
tive : —
€V* The Comparative is rare or wanting in the following : —
bellas, inclutns (or inclittts), nonist
caesitts, invictus, plus,
falsas, invitus, sacer,
fidas (with its compounds), meritus, vafer.
6. The Superlative is wanting in many adjectives in -ills or -bilis (as,
agilis, probabilis), and in the following : —
Actadsus enlis proclivis snrdns
agrestis ingens propinquas tadtanms
alacer ieiunas sator tempestSvus
arcanus longinqaus segnis teres
caecns obliqnas seras vicinas
diatomus opunas supinus
€• From iuyenis, youth, senez, old man (cf. § 122. d), are formed the com-
paratives iimior, younger, senior, older. For these, however, minor natii and
miiior natu are sometimes used (natu being often omitted).
The superlative is regularly expressed by minimus and mazimus, with
or without natii.
Note. — In these phrases n&tfi is ablative of specification (see § 418).
d» Many adjectives (as aureus, golden) are from their meaning incapable
of comparison.
Note. — But each language has its own usage in this respect. Thus, nicer, glossy
black, and Candidas, shining white, are compared ; but not ftter or albns, meaning absO'
lute dead black or white (except that Plautus once has fttrior).
68
NUMERALS
[§§ 132, 133
NUMERALS
132. The Latin Numerals may be classified as follows : —
I. Numeral Adjectives:
1. Cardinal Numbers, answering the question how manyf as, miiis, tme ;
duo, two, etc.
2. Ordinal Numbers,^ adjectives derived (in most cases) from the Ca«rdi-
nals, and answering the question which in order f as, primus, ^r^r^; seciin-
du8, second, etc.
3. Distributive Numerals, answering the question how many at a time f
as, singoli, one at a time ; bini, two by two, etc.
11. Numeral Adverbs, answering the question how often f as, semel,
once ; bis, twice, etc.
Cardinals and Ordinals
133. These two series
are as follows : —
CARDINAL
ORDINAL
ROMAN NUMERALS
1. tlnus, una, ^um, one
primus, -a, -urn, first
I
2. duo, duae, duo, two
secundus (alter), secovd
11
3. trfis, tria, three
tertius, third
III
4. quattuor
qud>rtus
nil or IV
5. qnlnque
quintus
V
6. sex
sextus
VI
7. septem
Septimus
VII
8. octO
octavus
VIII
9. novem
nOnus
vim or IX
10. decern
decimus
X
11. ilndecim
undecimus
XI
12. duodecim
duodecimus
XII
13. tredecim (decern (et) tr6s)
tertius decimus (decimus
(et) tertius) xiii
14. quattuordecim
qu&rtus decimus
xiiii or XIV
15. quindecim
quintus decimus
XV
16. sSdecim
sextiiR decimus
XVI
17. septendecim
Septimus decimus
XVII
18. duodfivigintl (octOdecim)
duodevicensimus (octavus decimus) xviii
^ The Ordinals (except secundus, tertius, octiLvus, n5nus) are formed by means of suf-
fixes related to those used in the superlative and in x^art identical with them. Thus,
decimus (compare the form mflmus) may be regarded as the last of a series of ten ; pri-
mus is a superlative of a stem akin to pr5 ; the forms in-tus (quftrtus, quintus, sextus) may
be compared with the corresponding Greek forms in -ro%t and with superlatives in
-w-To-s, while the others have the superlative ending -timus (changed to -simus) . Of the
exceptions, secundus is a participle of sequor ; alter is a comparative form (compare
•repoi in Greek), and nSnus is contracted from fnovenos. The cardinal multiples of ten
are componnds of -gint- Hen' (a fragment of a derivative from decern).
§§ 133, :
134] CARDINALS AND ORDINALS
69
CABDINAL
ORDINAL
BOMAK NUMEBALS
19.
tindeylgintl (novendecim) Ilnd6vlc6n8imus(n0nus decimus) xviiii or xix
20.
viginti
vlc6nsimu8 (vlgfinsimus)
XX
21.
yiginti finiiR
vlcfinsimus primus
XXI
{or tiiius et vlgintl, efc.) (tLnus et vicensimus, etc.)
30.
trigintS.
tricensimus
XXX
40.
quadr§^int&
quadrSgensimus
xxxx or XL
60.
quinqu3gint&
quinquSggusimus
J^ or L
60.
sexftgintd.
sexSgensimus
LX
70.
8eptud.giDt&
septuSg^nsimus
LXX
80.
octOgintA
octOgensimus
LXXX
90.
nOndgintfl
nOnagSnsimus
Lxxxx or xc
100.
centum
centensimus
c
101.
centum (et) tlnus, estc.
centensimus primus, efc.
CI
200.
ducenti, -ae, -a
ducentensimus
cc
300.
trecenti
trecentensimus
ccc
400.
quadringenti
quadringentensimus
cccc
600.
quingentl
quingentensimus
D
600.
sescenti
sescentensimus
DC
700.
sepdngentl
septingent6nsi mus
DCC
800.
octingenti
octlngent€nsimus
DCCC
9eK).
nOngenlJ
nOngentensimus
DCCCC
1000.
mllle
mill^TiHimus
CO (cio) or M
5000.
quinque milia (mlllia)
quinquiens mlllensimus
100
10,000.
decern mIlia (millia)
deciens millensimus
CCIDD
100,000.
centum milia (millia)
centiens millensimus
ccciooo
Note 1. — The forms in -Cnsimtts are often written without the n : as, vicSsimas, etc.
Note 2. — The forms octodecim, novendecim are rare, duodSvieinti {two from twenty) ^
undSviginti {one from twenty), being used instead. So 28, 29; 38, 39; etc. may be
expressed either by the subtraction of two and on^ or by the addition of eight and
niTie respectively.
Declension of Cardinals and Ordinals
134. Of the Cardinals only unus, duo, tr6s, the hundreds above
one hundred, and mille when used as a noun, are declinable.
a. For the declension of Unus, see § 113. It often has the meaning of
same or only. The plural is used in this sense ; but also, as a simple nu-
meral, to agree with a plural noun of a singular meaning : as, iina castra,
one camp (cf. § 137. ft). The plural occurs also in the phrase uni et alteri, one
party and the other (the ones and the others).
b. Duo,^ twoy and ties, three, are thus declined : —
1 The form in -o is a remnant of the dual number, which was lost in Latin, but is
found in cognate languages. So in ambS, both, which preserves -^ (of. di^w and § 620. h) .
60
►
NUMERALS
[f§
1 134, 135
M.
F.
V.
H. 1 Wm
N.
NOM.
duo
duae
duo
tr^B
tria
Gen.
du5rum
duftrum
du5nim
trium
trium
DAT.
duobuB
duftbus
dudbuB
tribuB
tribus
Ace.
duds (duo)
dufta
duo
trea(triB)
tria
Abl.
du5bas
du&buB
dudbuB
tiibuB
tribus
Note. — AmbS, bothf is declined like duo.
c. The hundreds, up to 1000, are adjectives of the First and Second
Declensions, and are regularly declined like the plural of bonus.
d» Mille, a thousand^ is in the singular an indeclinable adjective : —
mille modls, in a thousand ways.
cum mille hominibus, with a iJumsand men.
mille trah6ns variOs colOr^s (Aen. iv. 701), dratoing out a thousand various
colors.
In the plural it is used as a neuter noun, and is declined like the plural
of sedile (§69): milia, miliam, milibtts, etc.
Note. — The singular mille is sometimes found as a noun in the nominative and
accusative : as, nuUe hominum misit, he sent a thotbsand (of) men ; in the other cases
rarely, except in connection with the same case of milia : as, cum octd nulibas peditum,
mille equitum, with eight thousand foot and a thov>sand horse.
e. The ordinals are adjectives of the Fii'st and Second Declensions, and
are regularly declined like bonus.
135. Cardinals and Ordinals have the following uses : —
a* In numbers below 100, if units precede tens, et is generally inserted :
duo et yiginti ; otherwise et is omitted : yiginti duo.
hm In numbers above 100 the highest denomination generally stands
first, the next second, etc., as in English. Et is either omitted entirely, or
stands between the two highest denominations : — mQle (et) septingenti
sezaginta quattuor, 1764.
Note. — Observe the following combinations of numerals with substantives: —
unns et viginti milites, or viginti mllitSs (et) onus, 21 soldiers.
duo milia quinsenti militfis, or dtto milia militom et qaingenti, 2600 soldiers.
militSs mille ducenti trigintA untts, 1231 soldiers.
ۥ After milia the name of the objects enumerated is in the genitive :
duo milia hominum, two tfwusand men.^
cum tribus milibus militum, wUh three thousand soldiers.
milia passuum tria, three thousand paces (three miles).
d. For million, billion, trillion, etc., the Romans had no special words,
but these numbers were expressed by multiplication (cf. § 138. a).
1 Or, in poetry, bis mille homines, twice a t?iotuand men.
§§ 136-137]
DISTRIBUTIVES
61
e« Fractions are expressed, as in English, by cardinals in the numerator
and ordinals in the denominator. The feminine gender is used to agree
with pars expressed or understood : — two-sevenths, duae septimae (sc. partSs) ;
three-eighthsj trgs octayae (sc. partes).
One-half is dimidia pars or dimidium.
Note l.^When the numerator is onCf it is omitted and pars is expressed: one-
third, tertia pars ; one-fourth, qnirta pars.
NoTB 2. — TVlien the denominator is but one greater than the numerator, the nnmer-
ator only is given: two-thirds, duae partSs; three-fourths, trSs partSs, etc.
NoTB 3. — Fractions are also expressed by special words derived tram as, a pound :
as, triSns, a third; Ms, two-thirds. See § 837.
Distrilmtiyes
136. Distributive Numerals are declined like the plural of
bonus.
NoTK. — These answer to
many at a time?
1. singnfi, one by one
2. Inni, two by two
3. temi, trini
4. quatemi
5. quini
6. sem
7. septeni
8. octOni
9. noveni
10. deni
11. undeni
12. daodeni
13. temi deni, etc-
the interrogative quotCni, how many of eachf or how
18. octOni deni or duo-
deviceni
19. noveni deni or un-
deviceni
20. viceni
21. viceni sing^li, etc,
30. triceni
40. quadrageni
60. quinquageni
60. sezageni
70. septuageni
80. octOgeui
90. nonageni
100.
centeni
200.
duceni
300.
treceni
400.
quadringeni
500.
quingeni
600.
sesceni
700.
septingeni
800.
octingem
900.
nOngeni
1000.
milleni
2000.
bina milia
10,000.
dena milia
100,000.
centena milia
137. Distributives are used as follows : —
a* In the sense of so many apiece or on each side : as, singula singulis, one
apiece (one each to each one) ; agri septena iugera plibi divisa sunt, i.e. seven
jugera to each citizen (seven jugera each), etc.
h» Instead of cardinals, to express simple number, when a noun plural in
form but usually singular in meaning is used in a plural sense : as, bina
castra, two camps (duo castra would mean two forts), • With such nouns tnni,
not temi, is used for three : as, trina (not tema) castra, three camps ; tema
castra means camps in threes,
c. In multiplication : as, bis bina, twice two ; ter septenis diebus, in thrice
seven days,
d. By the poets instead of cardinal numbers, particularly where pairs or
sets are spoken of : as, bina hastilia, two shafts (two in a set).
62
NUMERALS
138, 139
Numeral Adverbs
138. The Numeral Adverbs answer the question quotiens
1. semel, once
12. duodeciens
40. quadr&giens
2. bis, twice
13. terdeciens
60. quInquagiSns
3. ter, ihrice
14. quaterdeciens
60. sex3giens
4. quater
15. qnindeciens
70. septuSigiens
6. qulnquifins (-€s)i
16. 8€deci€ns
80. octOgiens
6. sexiSns
17. septi6sdeci6ii8
90. nOnftgiens
7. septiSns
18. duodevlciens
100. centiSns
8. octiens
19. undeylciSns
200. ducentiens
9. noviSTiR
20. ylciSns
300. trecentiSns
10. deciSns
21. semel Ylcifins,^ eto.
1000. mlliens
11. t&ndeciens
80. triciens
10,000. decifins mlliens
a* Numeral Adverbs are used with miUe to express the higher numbers :
ter et triciens (centina nulla) 8§8tertlam, 3,300,000 sesterces (three and thirty
times a hundred thousand sesterces).
viciSs ac septiSs millgs (centSna milla) sestertlam, 2,700,000,000 sesterces
(twenty-seven thousand times a hundred thousand).
Note. — These large nnmbers are used almost ezclusiyely in reckoning money,
and centSna milia is regularly omitted (see § 634).
Other Ntunerals
139. The following adjectives are called Multiplicatives : —
simplex, sirtgle ; duplex, d<yuble, twofold ; triplex, triple, thre^old ; quadruplex,
quinquiplex, septemplex, decemplex, centuplex, sesquiplex (1^), multiplex
(manifold).
a. Proportionals are : duplus, triplus, quadruplus, octnplos, etc., ttoice as
great, thrice as great, etc.
b. Temporals : bimus, trimus, of two or three years* age ; biemiis, triennis,
lasting tico or three years ; bimestris, trimestris, of two or three months ; biduum,
a period of two days; biennium, a period of two years.
c. Partitives : binarius, tem&rius, of two or three parts.
d. Other derivatives are: iiniO, unity; binio, the two (of dice); primanus,
of the first legion; primarius, of the first rank; denarius, a sum ot 10 asses;
binus (distributive), double, etc.
^ Forms in -ns are often written without the n.
3 Also written viciCnB et semel or yicifins semel, etc.
§§ 140-143] PERSONAL PRONOUNS 63
PRONOUNS
140. Pronouns are used as Nouns or as Adjectives. They are
divided into the foUowing seven classes: —
1. Personal Pronouns : as, ego, /.
2. Reflexive Pronouns : as, se, himself,
3. Possessive Pronouns : as, meus, my,
4. Demonstrative Pronouns : as, hie, this ; iUe, that,
5. Relative Pronouns : as, qui, who,
6. Interrogative Pronouns : as, quis, who f
7. Indefinite Pronouns : as, aliqois, some one,
141. Pronouns have special forms of declension.
NoTB. — These special forms are, in general, survivals of a very ancient form of
declension differing from that of nouns.
Personal Pronouns
142. The Personal pronouns of the first person are ego, /, nGs,
we; of the second person^ tu, thou or you^ v58, ye or you. The
personal pronouns of the third person — he^ she^ ity they — are
wanting in Latin, a demonstrative being sometimes used instead.
143. Ego and t& are declined as follows : —
First Person
Singular . Plural
NoM. ego, / nSs, we
Gen. mei, of me nostrum, nostri, of us
Dat. mihi (mi), to me nSbis, to us
Ace. me, me n58, us
Abl. me, by me nSbis, by us
Second Person
NoM tu, thou or you v5s, ye or you
Gbn. tm, of thee or you yestnim, yestri ; TOstmm (-tri)
Dat. tibi v5bis
Ace. te v5s
Abl. tS vSbis
a. The plural n58 is often used for the singular ego ; the plural v5s is
never so used for the singular tu.
64 PRONOUNS [§§ 143, 144
Note. — Old forms are genitive mis, tis; accusative and ablative mSd, tCd (cf.
§43. N. 1).
b» The forms nostmm, yestrum, etc., are used partUively : —
finusquisque nostrum, each one of v^.
yestrum omnium, of aU of you.
Note. — The forms of the genitive of the personal pronouns are really the genitives
of the possessives : mei, tui, sui, nostri, vestri, genitive singular neuter : nostrum, ves-
trum, genitive plural masculine or neuter. So in early and later Latin we find fina
vestr&rum, one of you {women).
c. The genitives mei, tui, sui, nostri, yestri, are chiefly used objectively
(§347):-
memor sis nostri, he mindful of us (me).
m§ tui pudet, / am ashamed of you.
d. Emphatic forms of tii are tiite and tutemet (tntimet). The other
cases of the personal pronouns, excepting the genitive plural, are made
emphatic by adding -met : as, egomet, y5smet.
Note. — Early emphatic forms are mSpte and tSpte.
6. Reduplicated forms are found in the accusative and ablative singu-
lar : as, meme, tete.
/• The preposition cum, with, is joined enclitically with the ablative : as,
tecum loquitur, he talks with you. ^
Refleziye Pronouns
144. Reflexive Pronouns are used in the Oblique Cases to refer
to the subject of the sentence or clause in which they stand (see
§ 299) : as, sS amat, he loves himself.
am In the^r*^ and second persons the oblique cases of the Personal pro-
nouns are used as Reflexives: as, me yided, / see myself; te laudas, you
praise yourself; n5bis persuademus, we persuade ourselves.
b. The Reflexive pronoun of the third person has a special form used
only in this sense, the same for both singular and plural. It is thus
declined : —
Gen. sui, of himself herself itself themselves
Dat. sibi, to himself herself itself themselves'
Ace. se (sese), himself herself itself themselves
Abl. se (sese), [by"] himself herself itself themselves
Note 1. — Emphatic and reduplicated forms of 86 are made as in the personals (see
§ 143. d, e). The preposition cum is added enclitically: as, sScum, vnth himse^, etc.
Note 2. — An old form sSd occurs in the accusative and ablative.
146, 146]
DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS
65
Possessive Pronouns
145. The Possessive pronouns are : —
First Febson. meus, my
Second Person. tuns, ihyy your
Third Person. suus, hisy her, its
noster, our
vaster, your
suus, their
These are really adjectives of the First and Second Declensions, and are
so declined (see §§ 110-112). But mens has regularly mi (rarely meus) in
the vocative singular masculine.
NoTB. — Suu8 is used only as a reflexive, referring to the snbject . For a possessive
pronoun of the third person not referring to the subject, the genitive of a demonstrative
must be used. Thus, patrem sttum occidit, Ae killed his {own) father; but patrem 6iu&
ocodit, he IdUed his (somebody else's) /a^Aer.
a. Emphatic forms in -pte are found in the ablative singular : snOpte.
h. A rare possessive ciiius (quoius), -a, -um, whose, is formed from the
genitive singular of the relative or interrogative pronoun (qui, quis). It
may be either interrogative or relative in force according to its derivation,
but is usually the former.
Cm The reciprocals one another and each other are expressed by inter sS or
alter . . . altenim : —
alter altezins Sva frangit, they break each other^s eggs (one ... of the other),
inter se. amant, they love one anotJier (they love among themselves).
Demonstrative Pronouns
146. The Demonstrative Pronouns are used to point out or
designate a person or thing for special attention, either with nouns
as Adjectives or alone as Pronouns. They are : — hie, this; is,
ille, iste, that; vdth the Intensive ipse, self\ and Idem, same; ^ and
are thus declined : —
hie, this
Singular
Plural
M.
F.
N.
M.
F.
N.
NOM.
hie
haee
h5e
hi
hae
haee
Gen.
huius
huius
hiiiua
horum
harum
hdrum
Dat.
huie
huie
huie
his
his
his
Ace.
hnne
hane
hoe
h5s
has
haee
Abl.
h5e
hae
h5e
h&
his
his
1 These demonstratives are combinations of o- and i- stems, which are not clearly
distinguishable.
66
PRONOUNS
[§146
Note 1. — Hie is a compound of the stem ho- with the demonstrative enclitic -ce.
In most of the cases final e Is dropped, in 'some the whole termination. But in these
latter it is sometimes retained for emphasis : as, hfiius-ce, his-ce . In early Latin -c alone
is retained in some of these (hSrunc). The vowel in hie, hdc, was originally short, and
perhaps this quantity was always retained. Die and iste are sometimes found with
the same enclitic: illic, illaec, iliac; also illoc. See a, p. 67.
Note 2. — For the dative and ablative plural of hic the old form hibos is sometimes
found ; haec occurs (rarely) for ttae.
is, that
Singular
M.
F.
N.
M.
l^OM.
is
ea
id
ei, ii (i)
Gen.
€ias
€ius
6iU8
edmm
Dat.
ei
ei
ei
eis, iis (is)
Ace.
eum
earn
id
.. eds
Abl.
ed
ea
eo
eis, lis (is)
Plural
F.
N.
eae ea
earum edmm
eis, iis (is) eis, iis (is)
eas ea
eis, lis (is) eis, iis (is)
Note 3. — Obsolete forms are eae (dat. fem.), and e&bns or ibns (dat. plur.). For
dative ei are found also hi and ei (monosyllabic) ; ei, ^, etc., also occur in the plural.
ille, that
Singular
Plural
M.
F.
N.
M.
F.
N.
NOM.
ille
ilia
illud
ill!
illae
ilia
Gen.
illius
illius
illius
illoram
illarum
illdram
Dat.
0
iUi
illi
illi
illTs
illis
illis
Acc.
ilium
illam
illud
ill5s
illas
ilia
Abl.
illd
ilia
ill5
illis
illis
illTs
Iste, ista, istud, that (yonder), is declined like ille.
Note 4. — ille replaces an earlier ollus (oUe), of which several forms occur.
Note 5. — Iste is sometimes foimd in early writers in the form ste etc. The first
syllable of ille and ipse is very often used as short in early poetry.
Note 6. — The forms ilH, isti (gen.), and illae, istae (dat.), are sometimes found;
also the nominative plural istaece, illaece (for istae, illae). See a, p. 67.
ipse, self
Singular
M.
F.
N.
NOM.
ipse
ipsa
ipsum
Gen.
ipsius
ipsius.
ipsius
Dat.
ipsi
ipsi
ipsi
Acc.
ipsum
ipsam
ipsum
Abl.
ips5
ipsa
ips5
M.
Plural
F.
N.
ipsi ipsae ipsa
ipsorum ipsanim ipsorom
ipsis ipsis ipsis
ips5s ipsas ipsa
ipsis ipsis ipsis
146]
DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS
67
None 7. — Ipse is compounddd of is and -pse (a pronominal particle of uncertain
origin: cf. § 145. a), meaning »e^f. The former part was originally declined, as in
reipse (for rC eipse), in fact. An old form ipsus occurs, with superlative ipsissimus,
ovjn self, used for comic effect.
NoTB 8. — The intensive -pse is found in the forms eapse (nominative), eumpse,
eampse, edpse, eapse (ablative).
idem, the same
Singular
Plural
M* F*
K.
M. F. N.
KOM.
idem e&dem
Idem
idem (ei-) eaedem eftdem
6bn.
^insdem ^iusdem
Siusdem
eOrundem e&randem e5randem
Dat.
eidem eidem
eidem
eisdem or isdem
Ace.
eundem eandem
idem
eOsdem easdem e&dem
Abu
eSdem eadem
e5dem
eisdem or isdem
NoTB 9. — Idem is the<lemonstrative is with the- indeclinable suffix -dam. The mas-
culine idem is for fisdem ; the neuter idem, however, is not for fiddem, but is a relic of
an older formation. A final m of is is changed to n before d : as, eundem for eumdem,
etc. The plural forms idem, isdem, are often written iidem, iisdem.
a. nie and iste appear in combination with the demonstrative particle -c,
shortened from <e, in the following forms : —
Singular
M.
F.
N.
H. F.
N.
NOM.
illic
illaec
illuc (Uloc)
istic istaec
istuc (istoc)
Ace.
illnnc
illanc
illuc (illoc)
istnnc istanc
istuc (istoc)
Abl.
iUdc
illAc
illoc
istoc istic
istdc
Plural
N., Ace.
illaec
istaec
NoTB 1. — The appended -ce is also found with pronouns in numerous combinations :
as, hfiiusce, hnnce, hdnmoe, hftmnce, hdsce, hisce (cf . § 14(i. n. 1), illiusce, isce ; also with the
interrogative -ne, in hdcine, hSscine, istucine, illicine, etc.
NoTB 2. — By composition with ecce or em, behold.' are formed eccum (for ecce
eum), eccam, ecc5s, eccas; eccillum (for ecce ilium); ellum (for em ilium), ellam, ellSs,
ellas ; eccistam. These forms are dramatic and colloquial.
b» The combinations h^usmodi (huiuscemodi), eiusmodi, etc., are used as
indeclinable adjectives, equivalent to talis, stich: as, res Eiusmodi, such a
thing (a thing of that sort : cf. § 345. a).
For uses of the Demonstrative Pronouns, see §§ 296 ff.
68
PRONOUNS
147-149
Relative Pronouns
147. The Relative Pronoun qui, who^which^ is thus declined :•
Singular
Plural
M.
F.
N.
M.
F.
N.
NOM.
qui
quae
quod
qui
quae
quae
Gen.
ciiius
CMU8
ciiius
quOrum
quarum
quoram
Dat.
cui
cui
cui
quibus
quibus
quibus
Ace.
quern
quam
quod
qu58
quas
quae
Abl.
qu5
qua
qu5
quibus
quibus
quibus
Interrog^ative and Indefinite PxDnouns
148. The Substantive Interrogative Pronoun quia, whof quid,
what? is declined in the Singular as follows : —
SC} F.
N.
NOM.
quis
quid
Gen.
ciiius
ciiius
Dat.
cui
cui
Ago.
quern
quid
Abl.
qu5
qu5
The Plural is the same as that of the Relative, qui, quae, quae.
a. The singular quis is either masculine or of indeterminate gender,
but in old writers it is sometimes distinctly feminine.
bm The Adjective Interrogative Pronoun, qui, quae, quod, what kind off
what f which t is declined throughout like the Relative : —
Substantive Adjective
quis vocat, wh>o calls f qui homd vocat, wh>at man calls f
quid vides, what do you see f quod templum vidSs, whnt temple do you see f
Note. — But qui is often used without any apparent adjective force; and quis is
very common as an adjective, especially with words denoting a person : as, qu! nomi-
nat mS ? wha calls my name f quis diCs fuit ? what day was it f quis homo ? what man ?
but often qu! homo ? what kind of man ? nescid qui sis, / know not who you are.
ۥ Quisnam, pray, who f is an emphatic interrogative. It has both sub-
stantive and adjective forms like quis, qui.
149. The Indefinite Pronouns quis, any one, and qui, any, are
declined like the corresponding Interrogatives, but qua is com-
monly used for quae except in the nominative plural feminine : —
§§ 149-161] COMPOUNDS OF QUIS AND QUI 69
Substantive : quia, any one ; quid, anything.
Adjective : qm, qua (quae), qnod, any,
€Mr» The feminine forms qua and quae are sometimes used substantively.
&• The indefinites quia and qui are rare except after si, nisi, ne, and num,
and in compounds (see § 310. a, b).
Note. — After these particles qui is often used as a substantive and quis as an adjec-
tive (cf. §148. 6. N.).
Case-Forms of qui and quis
150. The Relative, Interrogative, and Indefinite Pronouns are
originally of the same stem, and most of the forms are the same
(compare § 147 with § 148). The stem has two forms in the mas-
culine and neuter, quo-, qui-, and one for the feminine, qu&-. The
interrogative sense is doubtless the original one.
€r. Old forms for the genitive and dative singular are qudius, quoi.
b» The form qui is used for the ablative of both numbers and all genders;
but especially as an adverb (howy by which way^ in any way)^ and in the combi-
nation qmcum, with whom, as an interrogative or an indefinite relative.
Cm A nominative plural ques (stem qui-) is found in early Latin. A dative
and ablative qvSa (stem quo-) is not infrequent, even in classic Latin.
€f* The preposition cum is joined encliticaUy to all forms of the abla-
tive, as with the personal pronouns (§ 143./) : as, quQcum, quicnm, quibuscum.
NoTB. — But occasionally com precedes : as, cum quo (luv. iv. 9).
Compounds of guts and qut
151. The pronouns quis and qui appear in various combinations.
«r. The adverb -cumque (-cunque) (cf. quisque) added to the relative
makes an indefinite relative, which is declined like the simple word : as,
quicumque, quaecumque, quodcumque, whoever, whatever ; ciiiuscumque, etc.
Note. — This suffix, with the same meaning, may be used with any relative : as,
qualiscumqae, of whatever sort ; qvanddcnmqne (also rarely qoandSqtte), whenever; ttM-
ciunque, wherever.
h. In quisquis, whoever, both parts are declined, but the only forms in
common use are quisquis, quidquid (quicquid) and qu5quo.
NoTB 1. — Rare forms are quemquem and quibttsquibas ; an ablative quiqui is some-
times found in early Latin ; the ablative feminine quaquA is both late and rare. Cuicui
occurs as a genitive in the phrase cuicui modi, of whatever kind. Other cases are
cited, but have no authority. In early Latin quisquis is occasionally feminine.
Note 2. — Quisquis is usually substantive, except in the ablative qudquS, which is
more commonly an adjective.
70
PRONOUNS
[§151
ۥ The indefinite pronouns quidam, a certain (one) ; qmyis, qnilibet, any
you please, are used both as substantives and as adjectives. The first part
is declined like the relative qui, but the neuter has both quid- (substantive)
and quod- (adjective) : —
qaldam qoaedam quiddam (quoddam)
qoivlB quaevia quid^a (quodvia)
Quidam changes m to n before d in the accusative singular (quendam, m. ;
quandam, f.) and the genitive plural (qoSmndam, m., x. ; quarundam, f.).
d» The indefinite pronouns quispiam, some, any, and quisquam, any at all,
are used both as substantives and as adjectives. Quispiam ha» feminine qaae-
piam (adjective), neuter quidpiam (substantive) and quodpiam (adjective^ ;
the plural is very rare. Quisquam is both masculine and feminine ; the
neuter is qnidquam (quicquam), substantive only ; there is no plural. Ullus,
-a, -nm, is commonly used as the adjective corresponding to quiaqnam.
e. The indefinite pronoun aliquis (substantive), some one, aliqui (adjec-
tive), some, is declined like quia and qui, but aliqua is used instead of aliquae
except in the nominative plural feminine : —
Singular
M.
p.
N.
NOM.
Gen.
aliquia (aliqui)
alicniua
aliqua
alicuiua
aUquid (aliquod)
alicftina
Dat.
alicui
alicui
alicui
Ace.
Abl.
aliquem
aliquS
aliquam
aUqua
Plural
aliquid (aUquod)
aUqnd
NOM.
Gen.
Dat.
Ace.
Abl.
aUquI
aliqudmm
aliquibna
aliqute
aliquibna
aliquae
aliquftrum
aliquibna
aliqu&a
aliquibna
aliqua
aliqu5mm
aliquibna
aliqua
aliquibna
Note. — Aliqui is sometimes used substantively and aliquis as an adjective.
/. The indefinite pronoun acquis (substantive), whether any one, ecqrn
(adjective), whether any, is declined like aliquia, but has either ecqnae or
ecqua in the nominative singular feminine of the adjective form.
Note.— Bcquis (ecqui) has no genitive singular, and in the plural occurs in the
nominative and accusative only.
g. The enclitic particle -que added to the interrogative gives a universal :
as, quiaqne, every one; uterque, each of two, or hoih» Qniaque is declined
§§ 161, 162]
CORRELATIVES
71
like the interrogatiye qnis, qm : — substantive, quiaque, quidque ; adjective,
qmqne, quaeque, quodque.
In the compound imiisqiiisque, every single one, both parts are declined
(genitive nniusc^usque), and they are sometimes written separately and even
separated by other words : —
ne in fino quidem qaSque (Lael. 02), not even in a single one.
h» The relative and interrogative have rarely a possessive adjective
cfiins (-a, -mn), older qndiiis, whose ; and a patrial ciUas (diiat-), of what
country,
ۥ Quantns, how great, qualis, of what sort, are derivative adjectives from
the interrogative. They are either interrogative or relative, corresponding
respectively to the demonstratives tantus, talis (§ 152). Indefinite com-
pounds are qnantnacumque and qualiscumque (see § 151. a).
OoTelatives
152. Many Pronoans, Pronominal Adjectives, and Adverbs
have corresponding demonstrative^ relative^ interrogative^ and
indefinite forms. Such parallel forms are called Correlatives.
They are shown in the following table: —
Demon.
Bel.
Imterkog.
Indbf. Bel.
Indbf.
is
qai
qnis?
quisquis
aliquis
that
who
whof
whoeoer
some one
tantas
quantos
quantus ?
quantuscumque
aliquanttts
so great
how (as) great
how great f
however great
some
taliA
qualis
qnftlis ?
quAliscumque
suck
as
of what sort f
of whatever kind
ibi
nbi
ubi?
ubiubi
aUcttU
there
where
where f
wherever
somewhere
eo
qao
qu5?
quoquo
aliqu5
thither
whither
whither f
whithersoever
(to) somewhere
ea
qua
qn&?
qu&qu&
aliquft
that way
which way
which way f
whithersoever
somewhere
inde
unde
unde?
undecumqne
alicnnde
thevjce
whence
whence f
whencesoever
from somewhere
tnm
cum
quando ?
quandocnmque
aliqnando
then
when
when?
wheneoer
at some tijne
tot
quot
quot?
quotquot
aliquot
so many
as
how many f
however many
some, several
totiens
quotieiis
quotiSns ?
quotiSnscumque
aliquotiSns
80 often
(M
how often f
however often
at several times
72 CONJUGATION OF THE VERB [§§ 153-155
VERBS
CONJUGATION OF THE VERB
153. The inflection of the Verb is called its Conjugation.
Voice, Mood, Tense, Person, Number
154. Through its conjugation the Verb expresses Voice, Mood,
Tense, Person, and Number.
a* The Voices are two : Active add Passive.
6* The Moods are four : Indicative, Subjunctive, Imperative, and In-
finitive.^
Note. — The Indicative, Subjunctive, and Imperative are called Finite Moods in
distinction from the Infinitive.
Cm The Tenses are six, viz. : —
.1. For continued action, Present, Imperfect, Future.
2. For completed action, Perfect, Pluperfect, Future Perfect.
The Indicative Mood has all six tenses, but the Subjunctive has no
future or future perfect, and the Imperative has only the present and the
future. The Infinitive has the present, perfect, and future.
d» The Persons are three : First, Second, and Third.
e* The Numbers are two : Singular and Plural.
Noun and AdjectiTe Forms
155. The following Noun and Adjective forms are also included
In the inflection of the Latin Verb : —
a. Four Participles,* viz. : —
Active: the Present and Future Participles.
Passive : the Perfect Participle and the Gerundive.*
5. The Grerund : this is in form a neuter noun of the second declension,
used only in the oblique cases of the singular.
c. The Supine : this is in form a verbal noun of the fourth declension
in the accusative (-am) and dative or ablative (-u)^ singular.
1 The Infinitive is strictly the locative case of an abstract noun, expressing the
action of the verb (§ 451).
^ The Participles are adjectives in inflection and meaning, hut have the power of
verbs in construction and in distinguishing time.
' The Gerundive is also used as an adjective of necessity, duty, etc. (§ 158. d). In
late use it became a Future Passive Participle. ^ Originally locative.
;,§ lo($, 157] VOICES AND MOODS 78
Signification of the Forms of the Verb
Voices
156. The Active and Passive Voices in Latin generally cor-
respond to the active and passive in English ; but —
a* The passive voice often has a reflexive meaning : —
f erro acdngor, I gird myself with my sword,
Tomtts vertitur, Turnus turns (himself),
induitor vestem, he puts on his (own) clothes.
NoTB. — This use corresponds very nearly to the Greek Middle voice, and is doubt-
less a survival of the original meaning of the passive (p. 76, footnote 2).
&• Many verbs are passive in form, but active or reflexive in meaning.
These are called Deponents (§ 190): ^ as, hortor, / exhort; sequor, I follow.
Cm Some verbs with active meaning have the passive form in the perfect
tenses ; these are called Semi-Deponents : as, auded, audere, ausus sum, dare.
Moods
157. The Moods are used as follows : —
a* The Indicative Mood is used for most direct assertions and interroga-
tions: as, — yalesne? valed, are you wellf I am well.
&• The Subjunctive Mood has many idiomatic uses, as in commands, condi-
tions, and various dependent clauses. It is often translated by the English
Indicative; frequently by means of the auxiliaries may, might, would, should;^
sometimes by the (rare) Subjunctive ; sometimes by the Infinitive ; and
often by the Imperative, especially in prohibitions. A few characteristic
examples of its use are the following : —
eimus, let us go; nS abeat, let him not depart.
adsum ut videam, I am here to see (that I may see).
to. tA qoaealeris, do not thou inquire.
be&tus 818, m^y you be blessed.
quid morer, why should I delay f
nesciO quid scntMon, I know not what to write.
si moneam, audiat, if I shovJd warn, he would hear.
1 That is, verbs which have laid aside (deponere) the passive meaning.
2 The Latin uses the subjunctive in many cases where we use the indicative ; and
we use a colorless auxiliary in many cases where the Latin employs a separate verb
with more definite meaning. Thus, / may write is often not scribam (subjunctive) , but
licet mihi scxibere ; I can write is possum scxibere ; I would write is scribam, scrfberem,
or scnber© velim (vellem) ; I should write, (if, etc.), scriberem (si) . . ., or (implying duty)
oportet mS scnbere.
74 CONJUGATION OF THE VERB [§§ 167, 168
c« The Imperative is used for exhortation^ entreaty y or command ; but the
Subjunctive is often used instead (§§ 439, 450) : —
liber estd, he ahaU be free,
ne 088a legito, do not gather the hones,
d. The Infinitive is used chiefly as an indeclinable noun, as the subject
or complement of another verb (§§ 452, 456. n.). In special constructions it
takes the place of the Indicative, and m^y b^ translated by that mood in
English (see Indirect Discourse, § 580 ft,).
Note. — For the Syntax of the Moods, see § 436 ft.
Participles
158. The Participles are used as follows : —
a. The Present Participle (ending in -ns) has commonly the sajne
meaning and use as the English participle in -ing ; as, voc&ns, call-
ing ; legentes, reading, (For its inflection, see egSns, § 118.)
b» The Future Participle (ending in -tirus) is oftenest used to ex-
press what is likely or about to happen : as, rScturus, a^otut to rule ;
auditUrus, ahovt to hear.
Note. — With the tenses of esse, to be^ it forms the First Periphrastic Conjngstion
(see § 195) : as, urbs est casura, t?ie city is about to fall ; minsurus eram, I was going
to stay,
c. The Perfect Participle (ending in -tus, -sua) has two uses : —
1. It is sometimes equivalent to the English perfect passive participle :
as, tectus, sheltered ; acceptus, accepted ; ictus, having been struck ; and often
has simply an adjective meaning : as, acceptus, acceptable,
2. It is used with the verb to he (esse) to form certain tenses of the pas-
sive : as, Yocatus est, he was (has been) called.
Note. —There is no Perfect Active or Present Passive Participle in Latin. For
substitutes see §§ 492, 493.
d* The Gerundive (ending in -ndus), has two uses : —
1. It is often used as an adjective implying obligation, necessity, or
propriety (ought or must) : as, audiendus est, he must he heard.
Note. — When thus used with the tenses of the verb to be (esse) it forms the Second
Periphrastic Conjugation: dSligendtts erat, he ought to have been chosen (§ 196).
2. In the oblique cases the Gerundive commonly has the same meaning
as the Gerund (cf. § 159. a), though its construction is different. (For
examples, see § 503 ft,)
§§ 169-162] TENSES OF THE FINITE VERB 76
Gerund and Supine
159. The Gerund and Supine are used as follows : —
a. The Gerund is a verbal noun, corresponding in meaning to the English
verbal noun in -ing (§ 502): as, loquendi cattaa;/or the sake of speaking.
Note. — The Grerund is found only in the ohlique cases. A corresponding nomi-
native is supplied by the Infipitive : thus, scnbere est utile, writing (to write) is use-
ful ; but, ars scribendi; the art of writing.
h. The Supine is in form a noun of the fourth declension (§ 94. 6),
found only in the accusative ending in -turn, -^om, and the dative or abla-
tive ending in -to, -sxk.
The Supine in -urn is used after verbs and the Supine in -ii after adjec-
tives (§§509, 510): —
vSnit spectfltum, he came to see ; mir&bile dictfl, wonderful to teU.
Tenses of the Finite Verb
160. The Tenses of the Indicative have, in general, the same
meaning as the corresponding tenses in English : —
Urn Of continued action,
1. Present : scribo, I write, I am writing, I do write.
2. Imperfect : scribSbam, I wrote, I was writing, I did write.
3. Future : sciibam, I ahaU write.
h. Of completed action,
4. Perfect : scrips!, I have written, I wrote.
5. Pluperfect : scnpseram, I had written.
6. Future Perfect : scripserS, I shall have written.
161. The Perfect Indicative has two separate uses, — the Per-
fect Definite and the Perfect Historical (or Indefinite).
1 . The Perfect Definite represents the action of the verb as completed
in present time, and corresponds to the English perfect with have: as,
scrips!, / have written.
2. The Perfect Historical narrates a simple act or state in past time
without representing it as in progress or continuing. It coiTesponds to the
English past or preterite and the Greek aorist : as, scripsit, he wrote.
162. The Tenses of the Subjunctive are chiefly used in depend-
ent clauses, following the rule for the Sequence of Tenses ; but
have also special idiomatic uses (see Syntax).
For the use of Tenses in the Imperative, see §§ 448, 449.
76
CONJUGATION OF THE VERB
[§163
Personal Endings
163, Verbs have regular terminations ^ for each of the three
Persons, both singular and plural, active and passive.? These are :
ACTIVE
SiNOULAB
PASSIVE
1.
'-m(-«):
am-0, / love.
-r(-or):
amo-r, I am loved.
2.
-8:
am&-B, thou lovesU
-ris (-re):
am&-ris, thou art loved.
3.
-t:
ama-t, he love*.
-tnr:
Plural
ama-tur, he is loved.
1.
-mils:
amSrinas, we love.
-mur:
ama-miir, we are loved.
2.
-tis:
ama-tis, you love.
-mini:
amSrmim, you are loved.
3.
-nt:
amariit, they love.
-ntur:
ama-ntur, they are loved.
a* The Perfect Indicative active has the special terminations ' : —
SiNo. 1. -i:
am9,v-I, I loved.
2. -is-ti
am&y-is-ti, tkou lovedst.
3. -i-t:
amftv-i-t, ?ie loved.
Plub. 1. -i-mns:
am&v-i-mtts, we
loved.
2. -i8-ti8 :
amftv-is-tlA, you loved.
3. -€rant (-Sre)
amav-«rant (-Sre), they loved.
b» The Imperative has the following terminations : —
Present Active
2. — :
2. -t5:
3. -to:
Singular
am&, love thou.
-te:
Future Active
amfirtd, thou shall love. -tdte :
am&-td, he shall love. -ntd :
Plural
am9r-te, love ye.
am&-t5te, ye i^iaU love.
ama-ntd, Viey shall love.
^ Most of these seem to be fragments of old pronouns, whose signification is thus
added to that of the verb-stem (of. § 36). But the ending -mini in the second person
plural of the passive is perhaps a remnant of the participial form found in the Greek
-/Acvos, and has supplanted the proper form, which does not appear in Latin. The pei^
sonal ending -nt is probably connected with the participial nt- (nominative -ns).
3 The Passive is an old Middle Voice, peculiar to the Italic and Celtic languages,
and of uncertain origin.
< Of these terminations -! is not a personal ending, but appears to represent an
Indo-European tense-sign ^i of the Perfect Middle. In -is-ti and -is^tis, -ti and -tis are
personal endings ; for -is-, see § 169. c. m. In -i-t and -i-mns, -t and -mus are personal
endings, and i is of uncertain origin. Both -Smnt and -6re are also of doubtful origin,
but the former contains the personal ending -nt.
§§ 163, 164] THE THREE STEMS 77
Singular Prbsjbnt Passive piy^jral
2. -re : am&-xe, he thou lowd, .mini : amft^miid, be ye 2ooed.
FuTURB Passive
2. -tor : amft^tor, fhjou shatt be loved,
3. -tor : amSr-tor, he ahaU be loved, -ntor : ama-ntor, they shall be loved.
Forms op the Verb
The Three Stems
164. The forms of the verb may be referred to three stems,
called (1) the Present, (2) the Perfect, and (3) the Supine stem.
1. On the Present stem are formed —
The Present, Imperfect, and Future Indicative, Active and Passive.
The Present and Imperfect Subjunctive, Active and Passive.
The Imperative, Active and Passive.
The Present Infinitive, Active and Passive.
The Present Participle, the Grerundive, and the Gerund.
2. On the Perfect stem are formed —
The Perfect, Pluperfect, and Future Perfect Indicative Active.
The Perfect and Pluperfect Subjunctive Active.
The Perfect Infinitive Active.
8. On the Supine stem are formed ^ —
a* The Perfect Passive Participle, which combines with the forms of the
verb sum, be, to make —
The Perfect, Pluperfect, and Future Perfect Indicative Passive.
The Perfect and Pluperfect Subjunctive Passive.
The Perfect Infinitive Passive.
6. The Future Active Participle, which combines with esse to make
the Future Active Infinitive.
c» The Supine in -urn and -&. The Supine in -am combines with iri to
make the Future Passive Infinitive (§ 203. a).
Note. — The Perfect Participle with fore also makes a Future Passive Infinitive
(as, amfttus fore). For fore (fatfimm esse) at with the subjunctive, see § 569. 3. a.
1 The Perfect Passive and Future Active Participles and the Supine, though strictly
noon-forms, each with its own suffix, agree in having the first letter of the suffix (t)
the same and in suffering the same phonetic change (t to s, see § 15. 5) . Hence these
forms, along with several sets of derivatives (in -tor, -tfira, etc., see § 238. 6. n.^), were
felt by the Romans as belonging to one system, and are conveniently associated with
the Snpine Stem. Thus, from ping5, we have pictam, pictns, pictarus, pictor, pictfira ;
from xided, nsom (for fxld-tttm), iteas (part.), nsus (noun), lisfirus, liiiS, risor, risibilis.
78
CONJUGATION OF THE VERB
[§§ 166, 166
VERB-ENDINGS
165. Every form of the finite verb is made up of two parts :
1. The Stem (see § 24). This is either the root or a modification or
deyelopment of it.
2. The Ending, consisting of —
1. the Signs of Mood and Tense (see f§ 168, 169).
2. the Personal Ending (see § 163).
Thus in the verb yocft-bA-s, you were caUing, the root is yog, modified into the
verb-stem yoc&-, which by the addition of the aiding -bAs becomes the imperfect
tense voc&b&s ; and this ending consists of the tense-sign bA- and the personal
ending (-s) of the second person singular.
166. The Verb-endings, as they are formed by the signs for
mood and tense combined with personal endings, are —
ACTIVE
INDICATIVE
SUBJUNCTIVE
Present
SiNO.
1.
-6
— lej
-m
2.
3.
-8
-t
-8
-t
Plur.
1.
-mas
•ic*
-mas
2.
-tis
-tis
3.
-nt
- B
-nt
Imperfect
Sing.
1.
-ba-m
-re-m
2.
-ba-8
-rS-«
3.
-ba-t
-re-t
Plub.
1.
-bft-mus
-rS-mas
2.
-ba-tis
-rS-tis
3.
-ba-nt
IND]
-re-nt
LCATIVK
Future
i.ni
in, rv
SiNO.
1.
-b-6
' -d-m
2.
3.
-bi-8
-bi-t
1 -s ^ 8 .
-«-8
-e-t
Plur.
1.
-bi-mas
^ -4 p «
-^mus
2.
3.
-bi-tis
-ba-nt
V0W€
indiea
irerbaii
before
-^-tis
-c-nt
PASSIVE
INDICATIVE
SUBJUNCTIVE
Present
-or
-r
-Il8(-
re)
'ii
-lis (-re)
-tur
-mar
el-Chat
In Acti'
-tar
-mar
-mini
l»
-mini
-ntar
-ntar
Imperfect
-ba-r -re-r
-bi-ris (-re) -rS^ris (-re)
-bi-tar -rS-tar
-bA-mor -rS-mur
-bi-mini -rS-mini
-ba-ntar -re-ntar
indicative
Future
i,n
-bo-r
-be-ris (-re)
-bi-tar
-bi-mar
-bi-mini
-ba-ntar
"3 e
ni, rv»
-a-r
-5-ri8 (-re)
-5-tar
-^-mar
-^min!
-e-ntar
1 These numerals refer to the four conjugations given later (see § 171).
§166]
VERB-ENDINGS
79
Active
INDICATIVE SUBJUNCTIVE
Perfect
Sing. 1. -i -eri-m
2. -is-ti -«ri-8
3. -i-t -eri-t
Plub. 1. -i-mu8 -eri-mns
2. -is-tis -eri-tia
S. -dru-nt (-€re) -eri-nt
Pluperfect
Sing. 1. -era-m
2. -er&-s
3. -era-t
Plub. 1. -erA-maa
2. -er&-ti8
3. -era-nt
-iaae-m
-iasS-a
-isse-t
-iaaS-mua
-isa^tis
-laae-nt
Future Perfect
Sing. 1. -er-5
2. -eri-a
3. -eri-t
Plur. 1. -eri-maa
2. -ari-tia
3. -eri-nt
Passive
indicative subjunctive
Perfect
anm aim
ea aia
eat ait
aumua nmaa
eatia aitia
aunt aint
-taa(-ta,
-torn)
-ti (-tae,
-ta)
Pluperfect
-toa(-U,
-torn)
-ti (-tae,
-ta)
-toa (-ta,
-tarn)
-ti (-tae,
-ta)
Sing. 2.
2.
3.
IMPERATIVE
Present
Plub. 2. -te Sing. 2. -re
Future
-t5
-t5
2. -tSte
3. -ntS
2. -tor
3. -tor
Present
Plub. 2. -mini
Future
3. -ntor
For convenience a table of the Noun and Adjective forms of
the verb is here added.
infinitive
Pbes. -re (Pres. stem) i, n, it. -ri ; iii. -i
Pbbf. -iaae (Perf. stem) -taa (-ta, -tun) eaae
FuT. -tfima (-a, -om) eaae -torn iri
Pbbs. -na, -ntia
FuT. -tfinxa, -a, -urn
pabticiples
Pbbf. -taa, -ta, -torn
6bb. -ndaa, -nda^ -ndom
GERUND SUPINE
-ndi, -nd5, -ndun, -nd5 -torn, -til
80 CONJUGATION OF THE VERB [§§ 167, 168
167. A long vowel is shortened before the personal endings
-m (-r), -t, -nt (-ntiur): as, ame-t (for older amM), habe-t (for hab&>t),
mone-nt, mone-ntur.
168. The tenses of the Present System are made from the Pres-
ent Stem as follows : — ^
a. In the Present Indicative the personal endings are added directly to
the present stem. Thus, — present stem ara- : ara-s, ara-mus, ar&-tis.
hm In the Imperfect Indicative the suffix -bam, -baa, etc. (originally a com-
plete verb) is added to the present stem : as, ara-bam, ara-bas, ara-bamus.
Note. — The form ftiam was apparently an aorist of the Indo-European root bhu
(cf. fui, fatfiras, <f)(Kay English &e, been), and meant I was. This was added to a com-
plete word, originally a case of a verbal noun, as in I was a-seeing; hence vidS-tiam.
The form probably began in the Second or Third Conjugation and was extended to the
others. The a was at first long, but was shortened in certain forms (§ 167).
c. In the Future Indicative of the First and Second Conjugations a similar
suffix, -bo, -bis, etc., is added to the present stem : as, ari-b9, ara-bis, mone-bd.
Note. — The form fbd was probably a present tense of the root bhu, with a future
meaning, and was affixed to a noun-form as described in b. n.
€l« In the Future Indicative of the Third and Fourth Conjugations the
terminations -am, -€s, etc. (as, teg-am, teg-es, audi-am, audi-es) are really sub-
junctive endings used in a future sense (see «). The vowel was originally
long throughout. For shortening, see § 167.
e. In the Present Subjunctive the personal endings were added to a
form of the present stem ending in 6- or a-, which was shortened in certain
forms (§ 167). Thus, ame-m, ame-s, tega-mus, tega-nt.
Note 1. — The vowel S (seen in the First Conjugation: as, am-S-s) is an inherited
subjunctive mood-sign. It appears to be the thematic vowel e (§ 174. 1) lengthened.
The & Of the other conjugations (mone-A-s, reg-ft-s, audi-&-s) is of uncertain origin.
Note 2. — In a few irregular verbs a Present Subjunctive in -im, -is, etc. occurs :
as, 8im, 818, 8imtt8, velim, veils, etc. This is an old optative, i being a form of the Indo-
European optative mood-sign y5- (cf. siem, siSs, siet, §170. b. n.). The vowel has
been shortened in the first and third persons singular and the third person plural.
/• In the Imperfect Subjunctive the suffix -rem, -res, etc. is added to the
present stem : as, ama-rem, ama-res, mone-rem, tege-rem, audi-rem.
Note. — The stem element -rS- is of uncertain origin and is not found outside of
Italic. The r is doubtless the aorist sign s (cf . es-se-m, es-sS-s) changed to r between
two vowels (§ 15. 4). The 5 is probably the subjunctive mood-sign (see e).
1 The conjugation of a verb consists of separate formations from a root, grad-
ually grouped together, systematized, and supplemented by new formations made on
old lines to supply deficiencies. Some of the forms were inherited from the parent
speech ; others were developed in the course of the history of the Italic dialects or of
the Latin language itself.
§§ 169, 170] VERB-ENDINGS 81
169. The tenses of the Perfect System in the active voice are
made from the Perfect Stem as follows : —
a* In the Perfect Indicative the endings -i, -isti, etc. are added directly
to the perfect stem : as, amay-isti, tex-istis.
h. In the Pluperfect Indicative the suffix -eram, -eras, etc. is added to the
perfect stem : as, amay-eram, monu-eras, tez-erat.
Note. — This seems to represent an older t-is-&m etc. formed on the analogy of
the Future Perfect in -er5 (older t-i8-5: see c helow) and influenced by eram (inperfect
of sum) in comparison with erd (future of sum).
c. In the Future Perfect the suffix -er6, -cris, etc. is added to the perfect
stem : as, amay-er5, monu-eris, tez-erit.
Note. — This formation was originally a subjunctive of the s-aorist, ending prob-
ably in t-is-o. The -is- is doubtless the same as that seen in the second person singular of
the perfect indicative (vid-is-ti), in the perfect infinitive (vid-is-se), and in the plu-
perfect subjunctive (vid-is-sem), s being the aorist sign and i probably an old stem
vowel.
d. In the Perfect Subjunctive the suffix -erim, -eris, etc. is added to the
perfect stem : as, amay-erim, monu-eris, tez-erit.
Note. — This formation was originally an optative of the s-aorist (-er- for older
-is-, as in the future perfect, see c above). The 1 after r is the optative mood-sign !
shortened (see § 168. e. n. 3). Forms in -is, -it, -imtts, -itis, are sometimes found. The
shortening in -Is, -Imus, -Itis, is due to confusion with the future perfect.
e. In the Pluperfect Subjunctive the suffix -issem, -isses, etc. is added to
the perfect stem : as, amay-issem, monu-isses, tex-isset.
Note. — Apparently this tense was formed on the analogy of the pluperfect indica-
tive in ^-is-am (later -er-am, see 6), and influenced by essem (earlier fessCm) in its
relation to eiam (earlier fesftm).!
The Verb Sum
170. The verb sum, he^ is both irregular and defective, having
no gerund or supine, and no participle but the future.
Its conjugation is given at the outset, on account of its impor-
tance for the inflection of other verbs.
1 The signs of mood and tense are often said to be inserted between the root (or
verb-stem) and the personal ending. No such insertion is possible in a language
developed like the Latin. All true verb-forms are the result, as shown above, of com-
position; that is, of adding to the root or the stem either personal endings or fully
developed auxiliaries (themselves containing the personal terminations), or of imita-
tion of such processes. Thus vldgbamus is made by adding to vidS-, originally a signifi-
cant word or a form conceived as snch, a full verbal form fbamus, not by inserting
-b£- between vidS- and -mas (§ 168. 6).
82
CONJUGATION OF THE VERB
[§170
Principal Parts : Present Indicative sum, Present Infinitive esse,
Perfect Indicative foi, Future Participle fntums.
Pbbsbnt Stem es-
Pebfect Stem fu-
SupiNE Stem fat-
SlNO.
Plur.
Sing.
Plur.
SiKO.
Plur.
Sing.
Plur.
Sing.
INDICATIVE
Present
subjunctive
1. sum, / am
sim^
2. 3s, thou art (you are)
SiB
3. est, he (she, it) is
sit
1. stimns, tve are
sTmuB
2. estis, you are
SitiB
3. sunt, they are
Imperfect
slnt
1. eram, / was
esaem
2. eras, you were
esBSB
3. erat, he (she, it) was
esset
1. erftmus, we were
esBSmns
2. eratis, you were
esBStiB
3. erant, they were
Future
esaent
1. erd, / shall be
2. eris, you will be
3. erit, he will be
1. erimuB, we shall be
2. eritis, you will be
3. enint, they will be
Perfect
1. fui, / was (have been)
4
fuerim
2. fuistl, you were
fueris
3. fuit, he was
fuerit
1. fnimuB, we were
fuerimtu
2. fuiatlB, you were
fueritiB
3. fuSrunt, fu6re, they were
fuerint
Pluperfect
1. fueram, / had been
fuissem
2. fuerSB, you had been
fuissea
3. fuerat, he had been
fuisset
1 All translations of the Sabjonctive' are misleading, and hence none is given ; see
§ 167. 6.
§ 170] THE VERB SUM 83
Plur. 1. fuerftmuB, we had been fuiasfimuB
2. fuerfttis, you had been fuissfitiB
3. fuerant, they had been fuissent
Future Perfect
Sing. 1. txxKx^y I shall have been Plur. 1. ixiexiaiMA, we shall have been
2. fueris, you will have been 2. fueritis, you will have been
3. fuerit, he will have been 3. fueriat, they will have been
IMPERATIVE
Present Sing. 2. 6s, be thou Plur. 2. este, be ye
Future 2. e8t6, thou shall be 2. est5te, ye shall be
3. est6, he shall be 3. 8iint5, they shall be
INFINITIVE
Present esse, to be ' -
Perfect fuisse, to have been
Future futHnis esse or fore, to be about to be
PARTICIPLE
Future futtlrus, -a, -um, about to be
a* For essem, eaaSa, etc., forem, fores, foret, forent, are often used ; so fore
for fatnms esse.
bm The Present Participle, which would regularly be f s5ns,^ appears in
the adjective in-sdns, innocent, and in a modified form in ab-sens, prae-sens.
The simple form ens is sometimes found in late or philosophical Latin as a
participle or abstract noun, in the forms ens, being ; entia, things which are.
Note. — Old forms are: — Indicative: Future, escit, escunt (strictly an inchoa-
tive present, see § 263. 1).
Subjunctive: Present, siem, sifis, siet, sient; foam, fuAs, fuat, tuant; Perfect, ffivi-
mvLB; Pluperfect, fnvisset.
The root of the verb sum is es, which in the imperfect is changed to br (see § 15. 4),
and in many forms is shortened to s. Some of its modifications, as found in several
languages more or less closely related to Latin, may be seen in the following table, —
the Sanskrit sydm corresponding to the Latin sim (siem) : —
Sanskrit Greek
as-mi sydm (optative) tfifu ^
as-i syds (val ^
' as-ti sydt iarl
s-mas sydma iffuJp
s-tha sydta kvri
s-anti syus kvrl^
The Perfect and Supine stems, fa-, fut-,
the English be.
1 Compare Sankrit sant^ Greek wy.
Latin
Lithuanian
s-um sim {siem)
es-mi
es sis {sies)
es-i
es-t sit {siet)
es-ti
s-umus simvs
es-me
es-tis sitis
es-te
s-unt sint {sienf)
es-ti
■e kindred with the Greek f<f>v, and w
3k w¥. 2 Old form.
84 CONJUGATION OF THE VERB [§§ 171-173
The Four Conjugations
171. Verbs are classed in Four Regular Conjugations, distin-
guished by the stem-vowel which appears before -re in the Present
InfinitiYe Active : —
Conjugation Infinitive Ending Stem
First -Sre (amftre) ft
Second -Sre (monftre) S
Third -Sre (regSre) S
Fourth -Ire (audire) I
The Principal Parts
172. The Principal Parts of a verb, showing the three stems
which determine its conjugation throughout, are —
1. The Present Indicative (as, amd) 1 i. . j.v t* i. o^
o rri. T> i. T ij -A- / - X r showing the Present Stem.
2. The Present Infinitive (as, ama-re) J °
3. The Perfect Indicative (as, amay-i), showing the Perfect Stem.
4. The neuter of the Perfect Participle (as, amat-um), or, if that form
is not in use, the Future Active Participle (amat-unis), showing the Supine
Stem.
173. The regular forms of the Four Conjugations are seen in
the following : —
First Conjugation : —
Active, am5, am&re, amavi, amatam, love.
Passive, amor, am&ri, amatus.
Present Stem ama-, Perfect Stem amav-. Supine Stem amit-.
Second Conjugation : —
Active, deleo, delete, d§l§vi, deletum, blot cut.
Passive, dSleor, deleri, deletus.
Present Stem dele-, Perfect Stem delev-, Supine Stem delet-.
In the Second conjugation, however, the characteristic e- rarely appears
in the perfect and perfect participle. The conuiion type is, therefore : —
Active, moneS, monSre, monai, monitom, warn.
Passive, moneor, monSri, monitns.
Present Stem monS-, Perfect Stem monu-, Supine Stem monit-.
173, 174] PRESENT STEM 85
Third Conjugation : —
Active, tegd, tegSre, tSxi, tSctom, coftier.
Passive, tegor, tegi, tSctas.
Present Stem tegS-, Perfect Stem t§z-, Supine Stem tict-.
Fourth Conjugation : —
Active, andiS, antire, aadivi, auditam, hear.
Passive, audior, audM, auditos.
Present Stem and!-, Perfect Stem audiv-, Supine Stem audit-.
u. In many verbs the principal parts take forms belonging to two or
more different conjugations (cf. § 189): —
1, 2, domo, domftre, domai, domitttin, subdue.
2, 3, maned, manSre, oUUim, minsum, remain.
3, 4, pets, petira, petivi, p«titam, seek,
4, 3, vincio, vinclre, vlnxl, vinctom, hvnd.
Such verbs are referred to the conjugation to which the Present stem
conforms.
Preaent Stem
174. The parent (Indo-European) speech from which Latin comes had two main
classes of verbs : —
1. Thematic Verbs, in which a so-called thematic vowel (*/o, in Latin %) appeared
between tlie root and the personal ending: as, leg-i-tis (for fleg-e-tes), leg-n-nt (for
tlcg-o-nti).i *
2. Athematic Verbs, in which the personal endings were added directly to the root:
as, e»-t, et-tis (root ss)*, dl-mui (dO, root da), fer-t (ferS, root fsr).
Of the Athematic Verbs few survive in Latin, and these are counted as irregalar,
except such as have been forced into one of the four " regular " conjugations. Even
the irregular verbs have admitted many forms of the thematic type.
Of the Thematic Verbs a large number remain. These may be divided into two
classes : —
1. Verbs which preserve the thematic vowel e or o (in Latin i or a) before the per-
sonal endings. — These make up the Third Conjugation. The present stem is formed
in various ways (§ 176), but always ends in a short vowel Vo (Latin ^4) . Examples are
tego (stem teg*/*-), stemimns (stem stemVo-) for ftter-no-mos, plectont (stem plectVo")
for tpleo-to-nti. So ndscS (stem gn56C*/«-) for gn5-BO-9. Verbs like nSsod became the
type for a large number of verbs in -flc5, called inceptives (§ 263. 1).
2. Verbs which form the present stem by means of the suffix 3^/©-, which already
contained the thematic vowel Vo* ~ Verbs of this class in which any vowel (except
tt) came in contact with the suffix y*/^- suffered contraction so as to present a long^
vowel &-, S-, 1-, at the end of the stem. In this contraction the thematic */o disappeared.
These became the tyx>es of the First, Second, and Fourth conjugations respectively.
In imitation of these long vowel-stems numerous verbs were formed by the Romans
themselves (after the mode of formation had been entirely forgotten) from noun- and
1 Cf . X^-e-r€, \iy-i>^fuv ; Doric X^-o-i^i.
> Cf. ia^l, i<r-r4 (see p. 83, note).
86 CONJUGATION OF THE VERB [§§ 174-176
adjectiye-stems. This came to be the regular way of forming new verbs, just as in
English the borrowed sufiiz -ize can be added to nouns and adjectives to make
verbs: as, macadamize, modernize.
Thematic verbs of the second class in which a consonant or u came into contact
with the suffix yVo- suffered various phonetic changes. Such verbs fall partly into
the Third Conjugation, giving rise to an irregular form of it, and partly into the Fourth,
and some have forms of both. Examples are : — (c5n)spicl9 (-spicSre) for fspekyS ; veniQ
(venire) for f (g)vem-y5 ; cupiS, capSre, but cupm ; orior, oritur, but oriri. Note, however,
pltto (pluere) for fpltt-yo ; and hence, by analogy, acttd (acuere) for facu-yd.
In all these cases many cross-analogies and errors as well as phonetic changes have
been at work to produce irregularities. Hence has arisen the traditional system which
is practically represented in §§ 175, 176.
175. The Present Stem may be found by dropping -re in the
Present Infinitive : —
am&->i»r-8t&m ama-; monS-re, stemmonS^; tegS-re, stem tegS-; audi-re, stem
audi-.
176. The Present Stem is formed from the Root in all regu-
lar verbs in one of the following ways : —
a. In the First, Second, and Fourth conjugations, by adding a long
vowel (a-, e-, i-) to the root, whose vowel is sometimes changed : as, voca-re
(voc), mone-re (men, of. memini), sopi-re (sop).^
Note. — Verb-stems of these conjugations are almost all really formed from noun-
stems on the pattern of older formations tisee § 174).
bm In the Third Conjugation, by adding a short vowel %* to the root.
In Latin this % usually appears as %, but e is preserved in some forms.
Thus, tegi-8 (root teg), ali-tis (al), regu-nt (reg) ; but teg^ris (teg^re), al^ris.
1. The stem-vowel Vo (Vu) may be preceded by n, t, or sc : ^ as, tem-ni-tis,
tem-ntt-nt, tem-nS-ris (tem) ; plec-ti-8 (pleo) ; crS-sci-tis (ore).
2. Verbs in -i5 of the Third Conjugation (as, capiS, capSre) show in some forms
an i before the final vowel of the stem : as, cap-i-unt (cap), fug-i-unt (fug).
c. The root may be changed —
1. By the repetition of a part of it (reduplicaJbion) : as, gi-gn-e-re (gen).
2. By the insertion of a nasal (m or n) : as, flnd-e-re (fid), tang-e-re (tag).
1 Most verbs of the First, Second, and Fourth Conjugations form the present stem by
adding the suffix -y Vo~ ^ & noun-stem. The & of the First Conjugation is the stem-ending
of the noun (as, plant£-re, from plantil-, stem of planta). The 6 of the Second and the 1
of the Fourth Conjugation are due to contraction of the short vowel of the noun-stem
with the ending -yVo~* Thus albSre is from albV,-, stem of albus ; finire is from fini-,
stem of finis. Some verbs of these classes, however, come from ro6ts ending in a vowel.
2 This is the so-called " thematic vowel."
8 In these verbs the stem-ending added to the root is respectively -b%-, -t*/^.,
ac%-.
176, 177] PERFECT STEM 87
d. In some verbs the present stem is formed from a noan-stem in u- :
as, stata-e-re (statu-s), aestu-a-re (aestu-s) ; cf . acuO, acuere.^
NoTB 1. — A few isolated forms use the simple root as a present stem: as, fer-re,
fer-t; es-se; veHe, vul-t. These are ;!oanted as irregular.
Note 2. — In some verbs the final consonant of the root is doubled before the stem-
vowel: as, peU-i-tis (pel), mitt-i-tis (mit).
e. Some verbs have roots ending in a vowel. In these the present stem
is generall^r identical with the root : as, da-mus (da), fle-mus (stem fle-, root
form unknown).' But others, as rui-mus (ru), are formed with an addi-
tional vowel according to the analogy of the verbs described in d.
Note. — Some verbs of this class reduplicate the root: as, si-st-e-re (sta, cf. st&re).
Perfect Stem
177. The Perfect Stem is formed as follows : —
a» The suffix y (u) is added to the verb-stem : as, Toca-v-i, audi-v-i ; or
to the root : as, son-u-i (sona-re, root son), mon-u-i (monS-re, mon treated
as a root).*
Note. — In a few verbs the vowel of the root is transposed and lengthened : as,
stift-v-! (sternO, stab), 8pr6-v-i (spernS, spar).
&• The suffix 8 is added to the root : as, carp-s-i (carp), tez-i (for teg-s-i,
teg).'*
Note. — The modifications of the present stem sometimes appear in the perfect:
as, finx-i (fig, present stem flng6-), sftnx-i (sac, present stem sanci-).
€• The root is reduplicated by prefixing the first consonant — generally
with 8, sometimes with the root-vowel: as, ce-cid-i (cad5, cad), to-tond-i
(tended, tond).
Note. — Infld-i (for t'e-M-i, flnd-6), scid-i (for fscl-scid-i, scindo), the reduplication
has been lost, leaving merely the root.
dm The root vowel is lengthened, sometimes with vowel change : as, leg-i
(16g-5), em-i («m-o), vid-i (v!d-e-d), fug-i (fttg-i-6), eg-i (ftg-o).
ۥ Sometimes the perfect stem has the same formation that appears in
the present tense : as, vert-i (vert-5), solv-i (solv-6).
/• Sometimes the perfect is formed from a lost or imaginary stem : as,
peti-v-i (as if from fpeti-ft, fpeti-re, pet).
1 These are either old formations in -3rVo" i^ which the y has disappeared after the
u (as, statud for fstatu-yS) or later imitations of such forms.
« In some of the verbs of this class the present stem was originally identical with
the root ; in others the ending -yVo" w*8 added, but has been absorbed by contraction.
» The v-perfect is a form of uncertain origin peculiar to the Latin.
* The 8-perfect is in origin an aorist. Thus, dix-i (for fdics-i) corresponds to the
Greek aorist ^-dei^a (for f^-deiKa-a).
88 CONJUGATION OF THE VERB [§§ 178, 179
Supine Stem
178. The Supine Stem may be found by dropping -urn from the
Supine. It is formed by adding t (or, by a phonetic change, s) —
a* To the present stem : as, ama-t-um, dele-t-um, audi-t-um.
b» To the root, with or without 1 : as, cap-t-um (capid, cap), moni-t-um
(moneo, mon used as root), cas-um (for fcad-t-um, cad), lec-t-um (leg).
Note 1. — By phonetic change dt and tt become s (dSfgnsum, yersum for tdS-fend-
t-tim, fyert-t-um) ; bt becomes pt (scnp-t-om for fsciib-t-iim) ; gt becomes ct (reo-t-um
for treg-t-um).i
Note 2. — The modifications of the present stem sometimes appear in the supine :
as, tinc-t-um (ting:o, tig), tSn-s-um for ftend-t-um (ten-d-o, ten).
Note 3. — The supine is sometimes from a lost or imaginary verb-stem : as, peti-t-um
(as if from fpeti-o, fpeti-re, pet).
Note 4. — A few verbs form the supine stem in 8 after the analogy of verbs in d
and t: as, fal-&-um (falld), pal-&-um (pell5).
Forms of Conjugation
179. The forms of the several conjugations from which, by
adding the verb-endings in § 166, all the moods and tenses can
be made are as follows : —
«• The First Conjugation includes all verbs which add a- to the
root to form the present stem : * as, am&-re ; with a few whose root
ends in a (ffor, ffi-ri ; flO, flfi-re ; niJ, na-re ; st(J, sta-re).
1. The stem-vowel a- is lost before -6 : as, amo = tania-(y)6 ; and in the
present subjunctive it is changed to e : as, ame-s, ame-mus.
2. The perfect stem regularly adds v, the supine stem t, to the present
stem: as, ama-y-i, ama-t-um. For exceptions, see § 209. a.
6. The Second Conjugation includes all verbs which add 6- to the
root to form the present stem : as, monS-re ; with a few whose root
ends in 6 ; as, fle-fl, fl6-re ; ne-(J, n6-re ; re-or, r6-ri (cf. § 176. e).
1. In the present subjunctive a is added to the verl>stem : as, mone-a-s,
mone-a-mus (cf. § 168. e).
2. A few verbs form the perfect stem by adding v (u), and the supine
stem by adding t, to the present stem : as, dele-v-i, dele-t-um. But most
form the perfect stem by adding v (u) to the root, and the supine stem by
adding t to a weaker form of the present stem, ending in i: as, mon-u-i,
moni-t-um. For lists, see § 210.
^ For these modifications of the supine stem, see § 15. 5, 6, 10.
3 The present stem is thus the verb-stem. For exceptions, see § 209. a.
§179] FORMS OF CONJUGATION 89
c. The Third Conjugation includes all verbs (not irregular, see
§ 197) which add 6- to the root to form the present stem : as, tegS-
re, capS-re ; with a few whose root ends in e : as, se-rfi-re for fse-se-re
(reduplicated from se, cf. s&tum).
1. The stem-vowel 6 is regularly lost before -5, and becomes u^ before
-nt and I before the other endings of the indicative and imperative: as,
teg-d, tegi-t, tegu-nt; in the imperfect indicative it becomes S: as, teg§-
bam, tege-bas, etc. ; in the future, e : as, tege-s (except in the first person
singular, tega-m, tega-r) ; in the present subjunctive, a : as, tega-s.
Verbs in -15 lose the i before a consonant and also before i, i, and h
(except in the future, the participle, the gerund, and the gerundive).
Thus, — capi-at, capi-unt, capi-ebat, capi-es, capi-et, capi-ent; but, cap-it
(not fcapi-it), cap-eret.
2. All varieties of perfect and supine stems are found in this conjuga-
tion. See lists, § 211. The perfect is not formed from the present stem,
but from the root.
d» The Fourth Conjugation includes all verbs which add i- to the
root to form the present stem : as, audi-re.' In these the perfect and
supine stems regularly add v, t, to the verb-stem : as, audi-v-i, audi-
t-um.* Endings like those of the third conjugation are added in the
third person plural of the present (indicative and imperative), in
the imperfect and future indicative, and in the present subjunctive :
as, audi-unt, audl-Sbat, audi-Stis, audi-at, the i being regularly short
before a vowel.
ۥ The Present Imperative Active (second person singular) is the
same as the present stem : as, ami, monS, tegS, audi But verbs in -iO
of the third conjugation omit i : as, capS (not fcapie).
/. The tenses of completed action in the Active voice are all regu-
larly formed by adding the tense-endings (given in § 166) to the
perfect stem : as, am&v-I, amftv-eram, am&v-erO, amAv-erim, amav-issem,
amftv-isse.
g» The tenses of completed action in the Passive voice are formed
by adding to the perfect participle the corresponding tenses of con-
tinued auction of the verb esse : as, perfect amAtus sum ; pluperfect
am&tus eram, etc.
1 The genmdive varies between -endns and -nndus.
'^ A few are formed from noun-stems, as fini-re (from fini-B) , and a few roots perhaps
end in i ; but these are not distinguishable in form,
s For exceptions, see § 212. b.
90
CONJUGATION OF THE VERB
[§180
Synopsis of the Verb
180. The following synopsis shows the forms of the verb ar-
ranged according to the three stems (§ 164). Am(J, a regular verb
of the first conjugation, is taken as a type.
> Principal Parts : Active^ ambj amare, amavi, amatum.
Passive, amor, amari, amatus sum.
•♦ • *. .
Present stem ami- ^e^sct stem am&v- Supine stem amit-
ACTIVE . ^ PASSIVE
Present stem, ama-
Pres.
Impe^rf.
Fdt.
amo
amft-bam
amft>b5
INDICATIVE
amo-r
am&-bar
am&-bor
Pres.
Imperf.
auie-m
am&-rem
SUBJUNCTIVE
ame-r
am&-rer
Pres.
FUT.
am&
am&-to
IMPERATIVE
amSl-re
am&-tor
Pres.
amSL-re
INFINITIVE
am£-ri
Pres.
amSL-ns
PARTICIPLE
Gerundive ama-ndus
GERUND ama-ndl
Perfect stem, amfiy-
Perf. amSv-i
Pluperf. amav-eram
FuT. Perf. am&v-ero
INDICATIVE
Perf.
Pluperf.
Perf.
amSLv-erim
amav-issem
am&v-isse
SUBJUNCTIVE
Supine stem, amat-
am&t-UB sum
amat-u8 eram
am&t-UB ero
amSLt-uB aim
amftt-UB esBem
INFINITIVE
Perf.
FUT.
Supine stem, amfit-
INFINITIVE
am&t-flniB esBe
PARTICIPLE
amSLt-uB obbo
amat-um Iri
FuT. amSLt-flruB
SUPINE amSt-um am&t-il
Perf. amSt-u8
§§ 181-188] PECULIARITIES OF CONJUGATION 91
Peculiarities of Conjugation
181. In tenses formed upon the Perfect Stem, v between two
vowels is often lost and contraction takes place.
a. Perfects in -ayi, 4vi, -^yi, often contract the two vowels into i, €, 5,
respectiyely : as, amasse for amavisse ; amarim for amaverim ; amassem for
amavisaem ; consuerat for cGnsueverat ; flSstis for flevistis ; nSsse for n5vi88e.
So in pei-f ects in -vi, where the v ia a part of the present stem : as, comm5rat
for commoverat.
NoTB. — The first person of the perfect indicative (as, amftvi) is never contracted,
the third very rarely.
&• Perfects in -ivi regularly omit v, but rarely contract the vowels ex-
cept before at and ss, and very rarely in the third person perfect : —
attdiexam for aodiveram ; audisse for andivisse ; audlsli for aadivisti ; abiit for
abivit ; abidrunt for ablvSrunt
NoTB 1. — The forms sirli, sirit, siritis, slrint, for siverls etc. (from siverd or siverim),
are archaic.
Note 2. — In many forms from the perfect stem is, iss, sis, are lost in like manner,
when s would be repeated if they were retained: as, dixt! for dixisti (x = c8); trixe
for trilxisse ; Svisti for fivftsist! ; vizet for vixisset ; 6r6ps€mtt8 for CrfipsissCmus ; dScCsse
-or dScessisse. These forms belong to archaic and colloquial usage.
182. Four verbs, — dicO, dQc5, faciO, fertJ, — with their compounds,
drop the vowel-termination of the Imperative, making die, dftc, fXc,
fSr; but compounds in -fidO retain it, as, cGnfice.
Note. — The imperative forms dice, duce, face (never fere), occur in early Latin.
a. For the imperative of sci5, the future form sdto is always used in the
singular, and scitOte usually in the plural.
183. The following ancient forms are found chiefly in poetry :
1. In the fourth conjugation, -ibam, -ibS, for -iebam, -iam (future). These
forms are regular in eO, go (§ 203).
2. In the present subjunctive, -im: as in duim, perduim, retained in
religious formulas and often in comedy. This form is regular in sum and
volo and their compounds (§§ 170, 199).
3. In the perfect subjunctive and future perfect indicative, -aim, -s6 : as,
fazim, faz5, iusso, recepsd (= fecerim etc.) ; ausim (= ausus aim).
4. In the passive infinitive, -ier : as, vocarier for vocari ; agier for agi.
5. A form in -asso, -assere is found used as a future perfect : as, amassis,
from am5 ; levasso, from lev5 ; impetrassere, from impetr5 ; itidicassit, from
iudico (cf. § 263. 2. b, n.).
92
CONJUGATION OF THE VERB
[§184
FIRST CONJUGATION (a-STEMS) — ACTIVE VOICE
184. The First Conjugation includes all verbs which add fi- to
the root to form the present stem, with a few whose root ends
in a-. The verb amO, love, is conjugated as follows : —
Principal Parts : Present Indicative amd, Present Infinitive amare,
Perfect Indicative amavi, Supine amatiim.
Pbssbnt stiem amIU
PSBFSCT STEM am&Y-
SupiNB STEM am&t-
INDICATIVE
Present
SUBJUNCTIVF.
am5,^ / love, am loving, do love
amem^
amfts, thou lovest (you love)
amfiB
amat, he (she, it) loves
amet
aui&muB, we love
auiSmiiB
aiu&tis, you love
ametiB
amant, they love
Imperfect
anient
amftbam, / loved, was loving, did love
am&rem
amfib&B, you loved
am&rSB
aiuSlbat, he loved
aui&ret
aniabSLmuB, we loved
amftremuB
aui&b&tiB, you loved
am&rStiB
am&bant, they loved
amSbrent
Future
am&b5, I shall love
am&bis, you will love
ani&bit, he will love
amftbimuB, we shall love
am&bitiB, you will love
am&bunt, they will love
1 The stem- vowel a- is lost before -5, and in the Present Subjunctive becomes €-.
3 The translation of the Subjunctive varies widely according to the construction.
Hence no translation of this mood is given in the paradigms.
§184]
FIRST CONJUGATION
93
INDICATIVE
amavl, / lovedf have loved
amaviatf, you loved
amavit, he loved
amaviinus, we loved
amaYistlB, you loved
amavSrunt (-8re), they loved
Perfect
Pluperfect
amaveraxn, / had loved
amaverfts, you had loved
amaverat, he had loved
amaver&maB, we had loved
amaver&tiS; you had loved
amaverant, they had loved
SUBJUNCTIVE
amaverim
amaveris
amaverit
araaverixnuB
amaveritia
amaverint
amaYissem
amaviasSs
amSiVisset
amayissSmuB
amaviBBStis
amaviBBent
Future Perfect
Singular
amavero, / shall have loved
amaveriB, you will have loved
amaverit, he will have loved
Plural
amaverlmuB, we shall have loved
amaveritiB, you will have loved
amaverint, they will have loved
IMPERATIVE
Present amft, love thou ainftte, love ye
Future am&t5, thou shall love am&t5te, ye shall love
amfttd, he shall love amant5, they shall love
INFINITIVE
Present amftre, to love
Perfect amaviBBe or amftBBe, to have loved
Future amatfLniB esse, to be about to love
PARTICIPLES
Present amftna, -antU, loving
Future amatflruB, -a, -um, about to love
GERUND
Genitive amandi, of loving Accusative amandum, loving
Dative amand5, for loving Ablative amand5, by loving
SUPINE
amatam, to love amatfL, to love
94
CONJUGATION OF THE VERB
[§184
FIRST CONJUGATION (if-STEMS) — PASSIVE VOICE
Principal Parts : Present Indicative amor, Present Infinitive amari,
Perfect Indicative amatus sum.^
Pbksbnt stem am&-
SupiNB STEM am&t-
INDICATIVE
Present
amor,' / am louedj being loved
am&ris (-re), you are loved
amfttur, he is loved
amftmur, we are loved
amftmini, you are loved
amantur, they are loved
SUBJUNCTIVE
amer*
amSris (-re)
am6tur
amSmur
amSminI
amentar
Imperfect
amSLbar, / was loved, being loved
am&b&ris (-re), you were loved
amftbSltur, he was loved
am&b&mur, we were loved
ainftbfixnini, you were loved
amftbantur, they were loved
amftrer
amSbrSris (-re)
amftrfitur
amftrfimur
amarSminl
amSbrentur
Future
amSLbor, / shall be lotted
am&beris (-re), you will be loved
amftbitur, he will be loved
amftbimur, we shall be loved
am&biminr, you will be loved
am&buntur, they will be loved
1 Fai, fuisti, etc., are sometimes used instead of sum, es, etc. ; so also fueiam instead
of eram and faer5 instead of er5. Similarly in the Perfect and Pluperfect Subjunctive
ftterim, fueris, etc. are sometimes used instead of sim, sis, etc., and fuissem instead of
essem.
2 The stem-vowel H- is lost before -or, and in the Present Subjunctive becomes 6-.
' The translation of the Subjunctive varies widely according to the constructioD
Hence no translation of this mood is given in the paradigms.
§184]
FIRST CONJUGATION
95
INDICATIVE
amatus snin,^ / wtzs loved
amatuB ea, you were loved
amatus est, he was loved
amatX Btuntui, we were loved
amati estis, you were loved
amati sunt, they were loved
Perfect
SUBJUNCTIVE
amatus sixn ^
amatus sis
amatus sit
am&tl sXmus
amati sitis
amati sint
Pluperfect
amatus eram,^ / liad been loved
amatus erSs, you had been loved
amatus erat, he had been loved
amaH erSLxnus, we had been loved
amati erfttis, you had been loved
amatf erant, they had been loved
amatus essem ^
amatus ess6s
am&tus esset
amati essSmua
amati essfitis
amatJ essent
Future Perfect
Singular
amatus er5,^ I shall have been loved
amatus eris, you will have, etc.
amatus erit, he will have, etc.
Plural
amati erlmus, we shall have^ etc.
amati erltis, you will have, etc.
amati erunt, they will have^ etc.
IMPERATIVE
Present amftre, be thou loved
Future amSLtor, thou shalt be loved
amator, he shall be loved
amftminl, be ye loved
amantor, they shall be loved
INFINITIVE
Present amftrl, to be loved
Perfect amatus esse, to have been loved
Future amatum Irl, to be about to be loved
PARTICIPLES
Perfect am&tus, -a, -um, loved (beloved, or having been loved)
Future (Gerundive) amandus, -a, -um, to-be-loved (lovely)
1 Bee page 9^, footnote 1.
96
CONJUGATION OF THE VERB
[§185
SECOND CONJUGATION (^-STEMS)
185. The Second Conjugation includes all verbs which add 5-
to the root to form the present stem, with a few whose root ends
in 6-.
Principal Parts : Active, moneO, monSre, monui, monitam;
Passive, moneor, moneri, monitus sum.
Present stem monS-
Pbrfbct stem monu-
SupiNE STEM monit-
ACTIVE VOICE
INDICATIVE
SUBJUNCTIVE
Present
moneo, / toam moneaxn
mon6B, you warn moneSLs
monet, he warns moneat
mon6iniiB
monStia
monent
moneSLmus
mone&tia
moneant
PASSIVE VOICE
INDICATIVE SUBJUNCTIVE
Present
moneor monear ^
monfiris (-re) moneSLris (-re)
mon6tur monefttur
mon6mur
monfiminl
monentur
moneftmar
moneftminl
moneantur
Imperfect
monSbam
inonSb&B
monSbat
monSbamuB
monSb&tis
mon§bant
monGrem
monSrSs
monSret
mon6rSiniiB
monSretis
monSrent
Imperfect
monCbar monSrer
moneb&ris (-re) monSrSris (-re)
monfib&tur monSrfitiir
monfibftmur
monebaxnini
luonSbantur
monSrSmur
monSreminl
monSrentor
Future
Future
monSb5
monSbis
monSbit
monSbixnuB
monSbitdB
monSbunt
mon6bor
monSberis (-re)
monebitur
monfibimur
monebimint
monfibuntur
1 See § 179. 6. 1.
§185]
SECOND CONJUGATION
97
Active Voice
INDICATIVE SUBJUNCTIVE
Perfect
monuerim
monueria
monuerit
monuerimiis
monul
monuisti
monuit
monuimiis
Passive Voice
indicative subjunctive
Perfect
monitus sum ^ monitus aim ^
monuifltis monueritis
, monufimnt (-re) monuerint
Pluperfect
monitus ea
monituB est
moniti sumus
moniti estis
moniti sunt
monitus sis
monitus sit
moniti s&nus
moniti sitis
moniti sint
monueram
monuerfis
monuerat
monuerftmus
monuer&tis
monuerant
monuissem
monuissSs
monuisset
monuissSmus
monuissStis
monuissent
Pluperfect
monitus eraxn ^ monitus essem ^
monitus erSLs
monitus erat
moniti er&mus
moniti erfttis
moniti erant
monitus essSs
monitus esset
moniti ess6mus
moniti essfitis
moniti essent
Future Perfect
monuerd
monueris
monuerit
monuerixnus
monueritis
monuerint
Singular
Present mon6
FnTURE monStS
monStd
Future Perfect
monitus er5 ^
monitus eris
monitus erit
moniti erimus
moniti eritis
moniti erunt
IMPEKATIVE
Plural
monSte
monStote
monento
Present
Future
Singular
monSre
monStor
monetor
Plural
monemim
monentor
Present monSre
Perfect monuisse
Future monitfbrus esse
INFINITIVE
mon6rI
monitus esse
monitum Irl
PARTICIPLES
Present raonCns, -entis Perfect monitus, -a, -um
Future monittirus, -a, -um Gerundiyb monendus, -a,-um
GERUND SUPINE
monendl, -do, -dum, -dd monitum, roonittl
1 See footnote 1 on page 94.
98
CONJUGATION OF THE VERB
[§186
THIRD CONJUGATION (^-ST£MS)
186. The Third Conjugation includes all verbs (not irregular,
see § 197) which add S- to the root to form the present stem, with
a few whose root ends in g-.
Prixcipal Parts : Active^ tes5, tegto, tezi, tSctum ;
Passive, tegor, tegi, tSctus sum.
Present stem tege-
ACTIVE VOICE
Perfect stem tiz- ^
Supine stem tSct-
INDICATIVE SUBJUNCTIVE
Present
PASSIVE VOICE
INDICATIVE SUBJUNCnVE
Present
teg6,* / cover
tegie, you cover
tegit, he covers
tegam^
tegfta
tegat
tegor * tegar *
tegeria (-re) tegSria (-re)
tegitur tegfttur
tegimus
tegitia
tegunt
tegftmua
tegatia
tegant
tegimur teg&mur
teglmini tegftminl
teguntur tegantur
Imperfect
Imperfect
tegebam
tegfibSa
tegSbat
tegerem
tegerea
tegeret
tegSbar tegerer
tegSbSria (-re) tegerSria (-re)
tegfibatur tegerfitur
teg6b&mua
tegSbfttia
tegSbant
tegerfimuB
tegerStia
tegerent
teg6b&mur tegerSmur
tegSbfiminl tegerSminI
tegSbantur tegerentur
Future
Future
tegaxn *
teges
teget
tegar*
tegfiria (-re)
tegfitur
tegSmua
tegStia
tegent
tegSmur
tegSminI
tegentur
1 TliA nfirfpnt. affl
tm in fhiB nrtninorgfirt
Ti \a gl-nroxra ftwmt%A fi>/\iYi fViA r^exrA' • ^Sy- ib fni*
tgg-s- (see § 15. 9). a See § 179. c. I.
§186]
THIRD CONJUGATION
99
Active Voice
Passive Voice
INDICATIVE SUBJUNCTIVE
indicative
SUBJUNCTIVE •
Perfect
Perfect
texT
texerim
tectua sum ^
tectua aim ^
texisU
texeria
tectua ea
tectua bIb
texit
texerit
tecLua eat
tectua ait
teximus
texerimua
t@ctl aumua
tecti almua
texistis
texeritis
tecti estis
tecti altia
tex6nint
(-re) texerint
tecti aunt
tecti Bint
Pluperfect
Pluperfect
texeraxn
texiasem
tectua eram ^
tectuB eaaem ^
texerSs
texiaafia
tectua erfta
tectuB eaaSa
texerat
texiaset
tectuB erat
tectuB eaaet
texeramiia texisBemus
tecti erftmua
tecti eaaemua
te^erfttis
tgxiaafitia
tectI erStia
tecti eaBfitia
texerant
texiaaent
tecti erant
tecti eBBent
Future Perfect
Future
Perfect
texer5
tectua ero ^
texeris
tectuB eria
texerit
tectua erit
texerlmuB
t@c1I erimua
texeritis
tectI eritia
texerint
tecti erunt
imperative
Singular Plural
Singular
Plural
Present
tege tegite
tegere
tegimini
Future
tegit5 tegitdte
tegitor
tegit5 tegunta
tegitor
infinitive
teguntor
Present
tegere
tegl
Perfect
texiaae
tectua eBBe
Future
tectOma eaae
tectum Irl
participt.es
Present
tegCna, -entia
Perfect
tectua, -a, -um
Future
tectAma, -a, -um
Gerundive
tegendua (-undi
gerund
supine
tegendL
-do, -dum, -d5
tectum, tectu
1 See footnote 1 on page 94.
100
CONJUGATION OF THE VERB
[§187
FOURTH CONJUGATION (l-ST£MS)
187. The Fourth Conjugation includes all verbs which add i-
to the root to form the present stem.
Principal Parts : Active^ audi5, andire, andiyi, aaditum ;
Passive, aiidior, audiri, auditus sum.
PRBSBMT STlOf EUdl-
Febfkct stem aadiv-
Supnnfi 8TS1C aafit-
ACTIVE VOICE
PASSIVE VOICE
INDICATIVE
SUBJUNCTIVE
mDICATlVK
SUBJUNCTIVE
Present
Present
audid, / hear
audia, you hear
audit, he hears
audiam ^
audiSs
audiat
audior
audXris (-re)
auditor
audiar ^
audi&ris (-re)
audifttur
audimus
audltis
audiant
audi&mus
audiatis
audiant
audimor
audimini
audiuntnr
audiftmur
audiftmini
audiantur
Imperfect
Imperfect
audiSbam ^
audiebfts
audiebat
audlrem
audires
audiret
audiSbar ^
aiidi6bftris(-re)
audiebatnr
audlrer
audlrSris (-re)
audlrfitor
audifib&mtis
audi6bftt<s
audiSbant
audirfimns
audiretis
audirent
audifibftmnr
audiSbftminl
audiSbantnr
audlr6mur
audlrfimiiuT
aucBtentur
Future
audiam ^
audiSs
audiet
audiSmns
audifitis
audient
Future
audiar ^
audieris (-re)
audifitur
audifimur
audiSminI
audientur
1 See § 179. d.
187]
FOURTH CONJUGATION
101
Active Voice
indicative subjunctive
Perfect
audivl
audivistit
audivit
aadiyimuB
audiYistis
audiverim
audiveris
audiverit
audiverimas
audiveritis
audiYenint (-re) audiverint
Pluperfect
audiveram
audiveraB
audiverat
aadiverSUnus
audiver&tiB
audiverant
audiTiasem
audivissSs
audiviaset
audivlssCmiia
audiYiBsfitis
audivisBent
Future Perfect
audiverd
audiveris
audiverit
audiverimns
audiveritis
audiverint
Passive Voice
indicative subjunctive
Perfect
audltus sum ^ auditus aim ^
auditus es
audituB est
auditl sumus
auditl estis
auditl sunt
auditus sis
auditus sit
auditl slmus
audit! sitis
auditl sint
Pluperfect
auditus eram ^
auditus er&s
auditus erat
auditl erftmus
auditl erfttis
auditl erant
auditus essem ^
auditus ess6s
auditus esset
auditl essfimus
audit! essStis
audit! essent
Future Perfect
auditus er5 ^
auditus eris
auditus erit
auditl erimus
auditl eritis
audit! erunt
Present
Future
imperative
Singular Plural Singular
audi audlte audire
audits audltfite auditor
audits audiuntS auditor
Plural
audlmin!
audiuntor
Present
Perfect
Future
Present
Future
audire
audivisse
auditfLrus esse
INFINITIVE
audlrl
auditus esse
auditum Irl
PARTICIPLES
audifins, -ientis Perfect
auditllrus, -a, -um Gerundive
audituS) -a, -um
audieudus, -a, -um
GERUND SUPINE
audiendl, -do, -dum, -do auditum, auditCi
^ See footnote 1, p. 94.
102
CONJUGATION OF THE VERB
[§188
VERBS IN -id OF THE THIRD CONJUGATION
188. Verbs of the Third Conjugation in -iO have certain forms
of the present stem like the fourth conjugation. They lose the
i of the stem before a consonant and also before i, i, and 6 (except
in the future, the participle, the gerund, and the gerundive).^
Verbs of this class are conjugated as follows : —
Principal Parts : Active, capi5, capSre, cepi, captum;
Passive, capior, capi, captus sum.
Present stem capie- (cape-) Perfect stem cSp- Supine stem capt^
ACTIVE VOICE
INDICATIVE SUBJUNCTIVE
PASSIVE VOICE
INDICATIVE SUBJUNCTIVE
Present
Present
capio, / take
capiam
capior
capiar
capis, you take
capias
caperis (-re)
capiftris (-re)
capit, he takes
capiat
capitur
capiatur
capimus
capi&mnB
capimur
capiftmur
capitis
capiatiLs
capiminl
capiftminl
capiiint
capiant
capiiintur
capiantur
Imperfect
capifibam caperem
Future Perfect
cepero
Imperfect
capifibar caperer
Future
Future
capiam
capiar
capiSs
capifiris (-re)
capiet, etc.
capifitur, etc.
Perfect
Perfect
cepi ceperim
captus sum captus aim
Pluperfect
Pluperfect
ceperam cepissem
captus eram captus essem
Future Perfect
captus er5
1 This is a practical working rule. The actual explanation of the forms of such
verbs is not fully understood.
§§ 188-190]
DEPONENT VERBS
103
Active Voice
Present
Singular Plural
cape capite
Future
Passive Voice
IMPERATIVE
Present
Singular Plural
capere capimini
Future
capito capitote
capito capinnto
capitor
capitor
capiuntor
INFINITIVE
Present
Perfect
Future
capere
cepisse
captHrus esse
capl
captuB eBse
captum In
PARTICIPLES
Present
Future
capiSna, -ientis
capturas, -a, -um
Perfect
Gerundive
captuB, -a, -um
capienduB, -a, -um
GERUND
SUPINE
capiendi,
-d5, -dnm, -dd
captum, -ttl
Parallel Forms
189. Many verbs have more than one set of forms, of which
only one is generally found in classic use : —
lav5, layare or lavSre, wash (see § 211. e).
seated^ scatSre or scatSre, gu^h forth.
ludifico, -Are, or ludificor, -ari, mock.
falgo, falgSre, or fulged, fulgSre, shine.
DEPONENT VERBS
190. Deponent Verbs have the forms of the Passive Voice,
with an active or reflexive signification : —
Principal
Parts
' First conjugation : miror, mir&ri, mir&tus, admire.
Second conjugation : yereor, yereri, yeritus, fear.
Third conjugation : sequor, sequi, secfitns, follow.
Fourth conjugation : partior, partui, partatus, share.
104
CONJUGATION OF THK VERB
[§190
INDICATIVE
Pres. miror
mirazis (-re)
mXrSltur
miramur
miraminl
mirantur
Impf. mir&bar
FuT. mir&bor
Ferf. mIratUB sum
Plup. mlr&tUB eram
F. P. miratUB er5
vereor
verSriB (-re)
verStur
verfimur
verSminl
verentur
verSbar
verSbor
veritUB Bum
veritUB eram
verituB er5
sequor
sequeriB (-re)
sequitar
sequlxnur
sequimini
sequuntur
sequfibar
sequar
secutuB Bum
secutuB eram
sectltuB ero
partior
partlriB (-re)
partitur
partlmur
partlminl
partiiintar
partifibar
partiar
partituB
partltuB
partltuB ero
SUBJUNCTIVE
Pres. mirer
Impf. mirSLrer
Perf. xnir&tuB aim
Plup. mIr&tUB eBBem
verear
verfirer
veritUB aim
veritUB
sequar
sequerer
secatUB aim
sectltuB eBBem
partiar
partirer
partitua aixn
partltufl
Pres. mir&re
FuT. mirator
IMPERATIVE
verSre
verStor
sequere
sequitor
partire
partltor
Pass, mlrftri
Perf. mIratUB eaae
FuT. xniratfLruB
INFINITIVE
verSrl
veritUB eaae
verituruB
sequi
secutuB
sectituruB
partM
partitua
partltQrua
PARTICIPLES
Pres. mirSLnB
FuT. mir3.t{LruB
Perf. mIratUB
Ger. mIranduB
verfina
veritflruB
verituB
verendns
sequCna
sectlt&iiB
sectituB
sequenduB
parti^na
partlturua
partitua
partiendua
GERUND
mirandi, -5, etc. verendi, etc. sequendi, etc. partiendi, etc.
SUPINE
mlrfttum, -tH veritum, -til secittum, -tti partXtum, -tti
§ 190, 191] DEPONENT VEBBS 105
a. Deponents have the participles of both voices : —
aeqainsj foUowing. stctitSiniB, abotU to follow.
secutas, having foUotoed, sequendus, to hefoUUmtd,
h» The perfect participle generally has an active sense, but in verbs
otherwise deponent it is often passive : as, mercatus, hought ; adeptus, gained
(or hewing gained^
Cm The future infinitive is always in the active form : thus, sequor has
secuturus (-a, -um) esse (not secutum iri).
€l« The gerundive, being passive in meaning, is found only in transitive
verbs, or intransitive verbs used impersonally : —
hoc cSnfitendttm est, this must be acknowledged.
moziendom est omnibus, all must die.
e« Most deponents are intransitive or reflexive in meaning, correspond-
ing to what in Greek is called the Middle Voice (§ 156. a. n.).
/*• Some deponents are occasionally used in a passive sense : as, criminor,
/ accuse, or / am accused,
ffm About twenty verbs have an active meaning in both active and
passive forms : as, mereO or mereor, / deserve,
191. More than half of all deponents are of the First Conju-
gation, and all of these are regular. The following deponents
are irregular : —
adsentior, -iri, adsinsus, assent. obliviscor, -I, oblitus, forget.
apiscor, (-ip-), -i, aptus (-eptus), get, oppezior, -iri, oppertus, await,
defetiscor, -i, -fessus, faint, ordior, -in, Srsus, begin.
ezpergiscor, -i, -penSctas, rouse. orior, -Iri, ortos (oritarns), rise (3d
ezperior, -iri, expertas, try. conjugation in most forms).
fateor, -Sri, fassus, cor^ess. padscor, -i, pactas, bargain.
fraor, -i, fractiis (truitas), enjoy. patior (-petior), -i, passas (-pessus),
ftmgor, -i, f anctoa, fu^, suffer.
gradior (-gredior), -i, gresans, step. -plector, -i, -plexus, clasp.
irilscor, -i, irfttus, be angry. proficiscor, -i, pzofectus, set out.
labor, -i, l&psas, faU. queror, -i, questus, complain.
loqnor, -i, locfitns, speak. reor, rSri, ratus, Ihirik.
mStior, -iri, mSnsut, measure. reverter, -i, reversus, return.
-mimscor, -I, -mentna, think. ringor, -i, rictas, SMid.
mfnior,-i (-iri), mortiias (moritflrus), die. seqaor, -i, secfitus, follow.
nandscor, -i, nactus (iiftncta8),JZnd. tueor, -Sri, toitus (tutus), d^end.
nlscor, -i, nAtus, be b<mi. uldscor, -i, ultus, avenge.
nftor, -i, nlsus (nixus), strive. fitor, -i, fisus, use, employ.
Note. — The deponent comperior, -iri, compertns, is rarely found for comperiS, -ire.
Rjevertor, until the time of Augustus, had regularly the active forms in the perfect sys-
tem, reverti, revertenun, etc.
106 CONJUGATION OF THE VERB [§§ 191-194
a. The following deponents have no supine stem : —
devertor, -tl, turn aside (to lodge). medeor, -Srif heal,
diffiteor, -^ri, deny. reminiscor, -i, call to mind,
fatiscor, -i, gape. vescor, -i, feed upon.
' liquor, -i, melt (intrans.)*
Note. — Deponents are really pasisive (or middle) verbs whose active voice has
disappeared. There is hardly one that does not show signs of having been used in
the active at some period of the language.
Semi-DeponentB
192. A few verbs having no perfect stem are regular in the
present, but appear in the tenses of completed action as deponents.
These are called Semi-deponents. They are : —
auded, audSre, ausus, dare. gaudeo, gaudSze, gftvisus, rejoice,
fidd, fidSre, fisus, trust. soled, solera, solitus, he word.
a. From audeo there is an old perfect subjunctive ausim. The form sSdes
(for si audes), an thou wilt^ is frequent in the dramatists and rare elsewhere.
h. The active forms yapuld, yapulare, he flogged, and yened, yenire, he sold
(contracted from yenum ire, go to sale), have a passive meaning, and are
sometimes called neutral passives. To these may be added fieri, to he made
(§ 204), and exsulare, to he hanished (live in exile); cf. accedere, to he added.
Note. — The following verbs are sometimes found as semi-deponents: inrS, iurire,
ittratas, swear ; nubo, nabere, niipta, marry ; placed, placSre, placitus, please.
THE PERIPHRASTIC CONJUGATIONS
193. A Periphrastic form, as the name indicates, is a " roundabout way of speak-
ing." In the widest sense, all verb-phrases consisting of participles and sum are Peri-
phrastic Forms. The Present Participle is, however, rarely so used, and the Perfect
Participle with sum is included in the regular conjugation (amitus sum, eram, etc.).
Hence the term Periphrastic Conjugation is usually restricted to verb-phrases con-
sisting of the Future Active Participle or the Gerundive with sum.
Note. — The Future Passive Infinitive, as amitum iri, formed from the infinitive
passive of eo, go, used impersonally with the supine in -um, may also be classed as a
periphrastic form (§203. a).
194. There are two Periphrastic Conjugations, known respec-
tively as the First (or Active) and the Second (or Passive).
a. The First Periphrastic Conjugation combines the Future Active
Participle with the forms of sum, and denotes a future or intended action.
6. The Second Periphrastic Conjugation combines the Gerundive with
the forms of sum, and denotes ohligation^ necessity, or propriety,
c. The periphrastic forms are inflected regularly throughout the Indica-
tive and Subjunctive and in the Present and Perfect Infinitive.
§§ 196, 196]
THE PERIPHRASTIC CONJUGATION
107
195. The First Periphrastic Conjugation :
Present
Imperfect
PUTCRE
Perfect
Pluperfect
Future Perfect
Present
Imperfect
Perfect
Pluperfect
Present
Perfect
INDICATIVE
amaturus sum, 1 am about to love
amaturus eram, / was about to love
amaturus ero, / shall be about to love
am&turus fui, / have been, was, about to iove
amaturus fueram, / had been about to love
amaturus f uero, / shall have been about to love
SUBJUNCTIVE
amaturus sim
amaturus essem
amaturus fuerim
amaturus fuissem
INFINITIVE
amaturus esse, to be about to love
amaturus fuisse, to have been about to love
So in the other conjugations : —
Second : monitunis sum, I am about to advise.
Third : tectums sum, I am about to cover.
Fourth : aaditiiras sum, I am about to hear.
Third (in -io) : captiirus sum, I am about to take.
196. The Second Periphrastic Conjugation : —
Present
Imperfect
Future
Perfect
Pluperfect
Future Perfect
Present
Imperfect
Perfect
Pluperfect
Present
Perfect
INDICATIVE
amandus sum, / am to be, jnust be, loved
amandus eram, / was to be, had to be, loved
amandus ero, / shall have to be loved
amandus fui, / ums to be, had to be, loved
amandus f ueram, / had had to be loved
amandus fuero, / shall have had to be loved
SUBJUNCTIVE
amandus sim
amandus essem
amandus fuerim
amandus fuissem
INFINITIVE
amandus esse, io have to be loved
amandus fuisse, to have had to be loved
108
CONJUGATION OF THB VERB
£§§ 196-198
So in the other conjugations : —
Second : monendus svoAy I um to he^ must hCy advised.
Third : tegendut som, / am to be, must be, covered.
Fourth : audiendus sum, I am to be, must be, heard.
Third (in -io) : capiendos sum, I am to be, must be, taken.
IRRS6ULAR VERBS
197. Several verbs add some of the personal endings of the
present system directly to the root,^ or combine two verbs in
their inflection. These are called Irregular Verbs. They are
sum, volG, ferO, edd, dO, eO, queO, fiO, and their compounds.
Sum has already been inflected in § 170.
198. Sum is compounded without any change of inflection with
the prepositions ab, ad, d^ in, inter, ob, prae, pr6 (earlier form prOd),
6ub, super.
a. In the compound pr5sum (help), pr5 retains its original d before e :
Principal Parts : prosam, prddesse, prolui, profutijius
Prbsbnt
Imperfect
Future
Perfect
Pluperfect
Fut. Perf.
INDICATIVE
SUBJUNCTIVE
Singular Plural
Singular Plural
prOsum pr5sumii8
prOdes prodestis
prOdest prOsunt
pr()sim prOsimus
prflflis prOiEdtis
prOsit prOsint
prOderam pr(3der3,mus
prOderO prOderimus
prOfuI prOfuimus
prOfueram prSfuer&mos
prOfaerO prOfuerimus
prOdessem prOdessemus
prOfuerim prOfuerimos
pr5fiiissem prOfuissSmus
IMPERATIVE
Present prOdes, prOdeste Future prOdestQ, prOdestOte
INFINITIVE
Present prOdesse Perfect prOfoisse
Future 'prOfuturos esse
PARTICIPI^E
Future prOfuttLrus
1 These are atberaatic verbs, see § 174. 2.
§§ 198, 199]
IRREGULAR VERBS
109
bm Sum is also compounded with the adjective potis, or pote, able, making
the verb possum (be able, can). Possum is inflected as follows : — i
Principal Parts : possum, posse, potui^
INDICATIVE
SUBJUNCTIVE
Singular
Plural
Singular
Plural
Present
possum
potes
potest
possumus
potestis
possunt
possim
possis
possit
posslmus
possltis
possint
Imperfect
Future
Perfect
Pluperfect
FuT. Psrf.
poteram
poterO
potul
potueram
potuerO
poter&mus
poterimus
potuimus
potuerftmus
potuerimus
possem
potuerim
potnlssem
possemus
potuerimus
potuissSmuB
Pres. posse
INFINITIVE
Perf. potuisse
PARTICIPLE
Pres. potens (adjective), powerful
199.
YOlO, nOlO, malO
Principal f ^*^^^' ''''"®' ^""^"^ ""
Parts : ] ^°^' ^^' ^^^ ^
I maid, malle, malui,
-, be willing, will, wish
', be unwilling, will not
— , be more willing, prefer
Note. — NS15 and m&lS are compounds of volS. 11515 is for ne-yol5, and m&ld for mA-
▼old from mage-volo.
Present
Imperfect
Future
Perfect
Pluperfect
FuT. Perf.
volo
vis*
vult (volt)
volumus
vultis (voltis)
volunt
volebam
volam^ voles, etc.
volui
volueram
voluero
INDICATIVE
nold
non VIS
non vult
nolumus
non vultis
nolunt
nolebam
nolam, noles, etc.
nolui
nolueram
noluero
maJo
mavis
mavult
malumus
mavultis
malunt
malebam
malam, males, etc.
raalui
malueram
maluero
1 The forms p«tl8 snm, pote sum, etc. occur in early writers. Other early forms are
potesse ; possiem, -is, -et ; poterint, potitit (for possit) ; potestur and possitnr (used with
£t passive infinitive, ef. § 205. a).
3 Potoi is from an obsolete fpotSre. > Vis is from a different root.
110
CONJUGATION OF THE VERB
[§§ 190, 200
SUBJUNCTIVE
Present
velim, -Is, -it,
nolim
malim
veliinus, -itis.
-int
Imperfect
vellem,^ -68, -et, noUem
mallem
■ vellemus, -etis
, -ent
Perfect
voluerim
noluerim
maluerim
Pluperfect
voluissern
noluissem
IMPERATIVE
maluissem
Present
Future
noli, nolite
nolito, etc.
INFINITIVE
Present
velle*
nolle
malle
Perfect
Yohiisse
noluisse
PARTICIPLES
maluisse
Present
volens, -entis
nolens, -entis
Note. — The forms sis for si vis, sultis for si valtis, and the forms n8vis (ng-vis),
nSrelt, m&vold, mft volant, m&velim, mavellem, etc., occur in early writers.
200. FerO, bear, carry, endure *
Principal Parts : fer5, ferre,^ tttli, latum
Present stem fer-
Perfect stem tul-
SUPINE STEM Ut-
ACTIVE
INDICATIVE
Present
fero
ferimus
fers
ferlis
fert
ferunt
Imperfect
ferebam
Future
feram
Perfect
tuli
Pluperfect
tuleram
Future Perfect tulero
PASSIVE
feror ferimur
ferris (-re) ferimim
fertur feruntur
ferebar
ferar
latus sum
lS.tus eram
latus ero
1 Vellem is for tvel-sfim, and velle for fvel-se (cf. es-se), the s heing assimilated to
the 1 preceding.
2 Fero has two independent stems: fer- in the present system, and tul- (for tol-) in
the perfect from tol, root of toll5. The i)erf ect tetali occurs in Plautus. In the parti-
ciple the root is weakened to tl-, latum standing for ttl&tum (cf. rXi^r^t).
8 Ferre, ferrem, are for ffer-se, ffer-sgm (cf. es-se, es-sem), s heing assimilated to pre-
ceding r; or ferre, ferrem, may be for fferese, fferesSm (see § 15. 4).
200]
IRREGULAR VERBS
111
Active
Passive
SUBJUNCTIVE
Present
feram
ferar
Imperfect
ferrem ^
feiTer
Perfect
tulerim
latus sim
Pluperfect
tulissem
IMPERATIVE
latus essem
Present
fer
ferte
ferre ferir
Future
ferto
fertote
fertor
ferto
ferunto
INFINITIVE
fertor feru
Present
ferre
ferri
Perfect
tulisse
latus esse
Future
laturus esse
latum iri
PARTICIPT.RS
Present
ferens, -entis
Perfect l&tus
Future
laturuB
Gerundive ferendus
GERUND
SUPINE
ferendi, -do, -dum, -do
latum, latii
a» The compounds of fer5, conjugated like the simple verb, are the
following : —
ad-
adferO
adferre
attull
all&tum
au-, ab-
auferO
auferre
abstnll
abl&tum
con-
c5nfer0
c5nferre
contull
coll&tum
di8-, di-
differO
differre
distull
dllatum
ex-, 5-
efferO
efferre
extull
eiatum
in-
InferO
inferre
intull
ill&tum
ob-
offerO
offerre
obtull
obl&tnm
re-
referO
referre
rettull
rel&tum
sub-
sufferO
sufferre
siistulia
subl&tum^
Note. — In these compounds the phonetic changes in the preposition are especially
to be noted, ab- and an- are two distinct prepositions with the same meaning.
1 See note 3, page 110.
3 SnstuH and rabULtnm also supply the perfect and particit)le of the Verb toUS.
112
CONJUGATION OF THE VERB
[§201
201. EdO, edere, Sdi, Ssam, eat^ is regular of the third conjuga-
tion, but has also an archaic present subjunctive and some alter-
native forms directly from the root (ED), without the thematic
vowel. These are in full-faced type.
Present
Imperfect
Present
Imperfect
ACTIVE
INDICATIVE
ed5, edis (S8% edit (est)
edimus, editis (estis), edunt
edSbam, edebas, etc.
subjuncti\t:
edam (edim), edas (edis), edat (edit)
edamus (edimus), edatis (editis), edant (edint)
ederem, ederes (esses), ederet (esset)
ederemus (essSmus), ederStis (essetis), ederent (<
IMPERATIVE
nt)
Singular
Plural
Present
ede (is)
edite (este)
Future
edito (Ssto)
edito (est5)
editote (estOte)
edunto
INFINITIVE
PARTICIPTiES
Present
edere (esse)
Present edens, -entis
Perfect
ediBse
Future esurus '
Future
esiirus esse
GERUND
edendi.
-do.
-dum, -do
SUPINE
esum,
esu
2
a» In the Passive the following irregular forms occur in the third per-
son singular : Present Indicative estur. Imperfect Subjunctive essetur.
1 In 68 etc. the e is long. In the corresponding forms of sum, e is short. The differ-
ence in quantity between Sdo and H etc. depends upon inherited vowel variation (§ 17. a)-
3 Old iormfl are Sssanis and supine (ssom.
202]
IRREGULAR VERBS
113
202. The iiregalar verb di^give^ is conjugated as foUowB: —
Principal Farts : d5, dire, dedi, datum
Pbssbnt Stem djl-
Pbrfect Stbh ded-
Supine Stem dat-
ACnVE
PASSIVE
Present
Imperfect
Future
Perfect
Pluperfect
Future Perfect dedero
INDICATIVE
do damus
das datis
dat dant
dabam
dabo
dedi
dederam
daris (-re)
datur
dabar
dabor
datus sum
datus eram
datus ero
damur
daminl
dantuT
Present
Imperfect
Perfect
Pluperfect
SUBJUNCTIVB
dem, des, det, etc
darem
dederim
dedissem
-, dgris (-re), detur, etc.
darer
datus sim
datus essem
Present
Future
IMPERATIVE
da date
dato datote
dato danto
dare daminl
datop
dator dantor
Present
Perfect
Future
INFINITIVB
dare
dedisse
daturus esse
dari
datus esse
datum iri
Present
Future
PARTICIPLES
dSns, dantis Perfect datus
daturus Gerundive dandns
GERUND
dandi, -dd, -dum, -dd
SUPINE
datum, datu
For compoonds of d5, see § 209. a. N.
114
CONJUGATION OF THE VERB
[§203
203. ^» 90-^ Principal Parts : ed, ire, ii (lYi), itum
Present
Imperfect
Future
Perfect
Pluperfect
Future Perfect
INDICATIVE
eo, is, it
imus, itis, eunt
ibam, ibas, ibat
ibamus, ibS.tis, ibant
ibo, Ibis, ibit
ibimus, ibitis, ibunt
ii (ivi)
ieram (iveram)
iero (ivero)
IMPEEATIVE
Present i Future
ite
SUBJUNCTIVE
earn, eas, eat
eamus, eatis, eant
irem, ires, iret
iremus, iretis, irent
ierim (iverim)
issem (ivi^sem)
Present ire
INFINITIVE
Perfect isse (ivisse)
PARTICIPLES
Future iturus
ito, itote
ito, eunto
Future iturus esse
Present iens, gen, euntis
GERUND eundi, -do, -dum, -do
Gerundive eundum
SUPINE itum, itii
INDICATIVE
Pres.
adeor
Impf. adibar
adiris
FuT. adibor
aditur
Perf. aditiiB sum
adimur
Plup. aditus eram
adimini
F. P. aditus er6
adeuntur
INFIN.
adirl aditus esse
a. The compounds ade5, approach, ineS, enter, and some others, are tran-
sitive. They are inflected as follows in the passive : —
SUBJUNCTIVE
Pues. adear
Impf. adlrer
Perf. aditus sim
Plup. aditus essem
PART, aditus adeundus
Thus inflected, the forms of e5 are used impersonally in the third person
singular of the passive : as, itum est (§ 208. rf). The infinitive iri is used with
the supine in -um to make the future infinitive passive (§ 1 93. n.). The verb
yened, he sold (i.e. yenum eo, go to sale), has also several forms in the passive.
b. In the perfect system of eo the forms with y are very rare in the simple
verb and unusual in the compounds.
ۥ ii before s is regularly contracted to i : as, isse.
1 The root of e5 is ei (weak form i) . This ei becomes i except before a, o, and u,
where it becomes e (cf . c5, earn, eunt) . The strong form of the root, i, is shortened
before a vowel or final -t ; the weak form, i, appears in itum and itums.
|§ 203, 204]
IRRKGULAR VERBS
115
d,» The compound ambid is inflected regularly like a verb of the fourth
conjugation. But it has also ambibat in the imperfect indicatiye.
e. Pro with e5 retains its original d : as, pr0de5, prddis, pxMit.
204. FaciO, facere, f6ci, factam, make^ is regular. But it has im-
perative fac in the active, and, besides the regular forms, the future
perfect faza, perfect subjunctive faxim. The passive of laciO is —
fio, fiSn, factus sum, he made or become.
The present system of fiO is regular of the fourth conjugation,
but the subjunctive imperfect is fieiem, and the infinitive fieri.
NoTK. — The forms in brackets are not used in good prose.
Present
Impkrfbct
Future
Perfect
Pluperfect
Future Perfect
INDICATIVE
flO, fis, fit
[fimus], [fitis], fiunt
fiebam, fiebas, etc.
fiam, fies, etc.
factus sum
factus eram
factus ero
SUBJUNCTIVE
flam, fias, fiat
fiamus, fiatis, fiant
fierem, fier@8, etc.
factus sim
factus essem
IMPERATIVE
[fi, fite, fito,
■y
Present fieri
INFINITIVE
Perfect factus esse
FuTURB factum iri
PARTICIPLES
PsKFBCT factus Gerundits faciendus
a. Most compounds of facid with prepositions weaken & to i in the present
stem and to S in the supine stem, and are inflected regularly like verbs in -15 : —
conficio, conficSre, cdnfeci, confectum, ^nisA.
cdnficior, cdixflci, confectus.
h. Other compounds retain a, and have -fi5 in the passive : as, benefaciS,
-facere, -fed, 'factum; passive benefiS, -fiexi, -f actus, benefiu These retain the
accent of the simple verb : as, bene-f&'cis (§ 12. a, Exc).
c. A few isolated forms of fio occur in other compounds : —
cdnfit, it happens, cdnfiont ; oSnfiat ; confieiet, cdnfieresit ; confieri.
defit, U lacks, defiant ; defiet ; dSfiat ; defieri.
effleri, to be effected.
infiS, begin (to speak), infit.
interfiat, let him perish ; interfieri, to perish.
supeifit, U remains over ; superfiat, supeifieri.
1 The imperative is rarely found, and then only in early writers.
116
CONJUGATION OF THE VERB
[§206
DEFECTIVE VERBS
205. Some verbs have lost the Present System, and use only
tenses of the Perfect, in which they are inflected regularly.
These are —
coepi,^ / began
Perfect
Pluperfect
Future Perfect
Perfect
Pluperfect
5di,^ / hate
INDICATIVE
coepi odi
coeperam oderam
coepero odero
SUBJUNCTIVE
coeperim oderim
coepissem odissem
IMPERATIVE
memini,' / remember
memini
memineram
meminerd
memmenm
meminissem
memento
mementote
INFINITIVE
Perfect
Future
Perfect
Future
coepisse
coepturus esse
odisse
osurus esse
memmisse
PARTICIPLES
coeptus, begun osus, hating or hated
coepturus osurus, likely to hate
a. The passive of coepI is often used with the passive infinitive: as,
coeptus sum vocari, / began to be called, but coepi vocare, / began to cdl.
For the present system incipid is used.
Note. — Early and rare forms are coepid, coepiam, coeperet, coepere.
&• The Perfect, Pluperfect, and Future Perfect of Mi and memini have
the meanings of a Present, Imperfect, and Future respectively : —
ddi, I kate ; oderam, I hated {was hating) ; odero, I shall hate.
Note 1. — A present participle meminSns is early and late.
Note 2. — Noyi and cSnsaSvi (usually referred to n$80o and cdnsuSscS) are often used
in the sense of I know (have learned) and / am accustomed (have become accustomed)
as preteritive verbs. Many other verbs are occasionally used in the same way
476. N.).
1 Root AP (as in apiscor) with co(ii-).
3 Root OD, as in fidium.
s Root HBN, as in mSns.
§206] DEFECTIVE VERBS 117
206. Many verbs are found only in the Present System. Such
are maereO, -€re, he sorrowful (cf. maestus, Bad)\ feriO, -ire, strike.
In many the simple verb is incomplete, but the missing parts
occur in its compounds : as, vadO, vadere, in-Y&si, in-v&sum.
Some verbs occur very commonly, but only in a few forms : —
€i» Ai5y / say : —
iNDic. PRES. &i6, ais,i ait ; , , ftiunt
Impf. diebam,^ S.i6bas, etc.
SUBJV. Fbes. , SkiSs, &iat ; , , diant
IMPER. ai (rare)
FART. ftiens
The vowels a and i are pronounced separately (a-is, a-it) except some-
times in old or colloquial Latin. Before a vowel, one i stands for two (see
§ 6.'c) : — thus Aio was pronounced ai-y5 and was sometimes written aiid.
&• Inqnam, / say, except in poetry, is used only in direct quotations
(cf. the English quoth).
iNDic. Pbes. inquam, inquis, inquit ; inquimus, inquitis (late), inquiunt
Impf. , , inquifibat ; , ,
Fdt. , inqui^s, inquiet ; , ,
Perf. inquil, inqulsti, ; , ,
IMFER. Pres. inque
Fdt. inquitO
The only common forms are inquam, inqnia, inquit, inquiimt, and the
future inqoies, inquiet.
c The deponent fari, to speak, has the following forms : —
INDIC. Pres. , , f atur ; , , f antur
FuT. f abor, , f abitur ; , ,
Perf. , , fatus est ; , , f atl sunt
Plup. fatus eram, , fatus erat ; , ,
IMFER. Pres. fare
TNvnf. Prbs. farl
FART. Pres. fans, fantis, etc. (in singular)
Perf. fatus (having spoken)
Ger. fandus {to he spoken of)
OERX7ND, ^671. faudl, oM. faudO SUPINE f atd
Several forms compounded with the prepositions ex, prae, pr5, inter,
occur : as, praefatnr, praefamur, affari, prSfatns, interfatur, etc. The com-
pound mfans is regularly used as a noun (child), Infandus, nefandus, are
used as adjectives, unspeakable, abominable.
1 The second singular ais with the interrogative -ne is often written ain.
a An old imperfect aibam, aib&s, etc. (dissyllabic) is sometimes found.
118
CONJUGATION OF THE VERB
[§206
d» QueO, 1 cariy nequeS, / cannot^ are conjugated like e5. They are rarely
used except in the present. Quad is regularly accompanied by a negative.
The forms given below occur, those in full-faced type in classic prose.
The Imperative, Gerund, and Supine are wanting.
INDICATIVE SUBJUNCTIVE
INDICATIVE SUBJUNCTIVE
Present
Present
qae5 qaeam
quia qae&8
quit queat
nequeo (non qued)
nequls
nequit
nequeam
nequeas
nequeat
quimus qaeamus
quitis
queant queant
nequimus
neqoitis
nequeunt
nequeAmas
nequeant
Imperfect
Imperfect
quibam
quibat quiret
quirent
nequibat
nequlbant
nequirem
nequiret
nequlrent
Future
Future
quibd
quibunt
nequibit
nequlbunt
Perfect
Perfect
quivi
quivit quiverit (-ierit)
quiverunt (-ere) quierint
nequivi
nequisti
nequivit (nequiit)
nequivgrunt (-quifire)
neqniverim
nequiverit
nequiveiint
Pluperfect
Pluperfect
q^ivissent
nequiverat (-ierat)
nequiverant (-ierant)
INFINITIVE
nequivisset (-quisset)
nequissent
quire quiase
>
nequire
PARTICIPLES
nequlvisse (-quisse)
quigns
nequiens, nequeuntSs
Note. — A few passive forms are used with passive infinitives : as, quitur, qaenntur,
quitus 8um,que&tur,queantur,nequitur,nequitum ; but none of tlieseoccurs in classic prose.
§§ 206, 207]
IMPERSONAL VERBS
119
€• Quaesd, / asky beg (original form of quaerO), has —
iNDic. Pres. quaes5, quaestimus
Note. — Other forms of qaaesd are found occasionally in early Latin. For the per-
fect system (qoaesivi, etc.), see quaerS (§211. d).
fm Ovare, to triumph^ has the following : —
INDIC. Pres. ovSs, ovat
suBjy. Prbs. ovet
Impf. ov&ret
PART. ovftns, OV&ttU'US, ovfttus
GER. ovandi
f^» A few verbs are found chiefly in the Imperative : —
Pres. singular salvS, plural salvSte, Fut. salvSto, hail ! (from sal-
vus, safe and sound). An infinitive salvere and the indica-
tive forms salved, salvetis, salySbis, are rare.
Pres. singular aY§ (or havS), plural avSte, Fut. avetd, fiail or fare-
well. An infinitive avere also occurs.
Pres. singular cSdo, plural cSdite (cette), gioe^ teU.
Pres. singular apage, begone (properly a Greek word).
IMPERSONAL VERBS
207. Many verbs, from their meaning, appear only in the third
person singular^ the infinitive, and the gerund. These are called
Impersonal Verbs, as having no personal subject.^ The passive
of many intransitive verbs is used in the same way.
CONJ. I
11
III
IV
Pass. Conj. i
it is plain
it is allowed
it chances
it restUts
it is fought
constat
licet
accidit
fivenit
pugn&tur
c5nstabat
lic^bat
accidebat
eveniebat
ptign&b&tur
constabit
licebit
accidet
gveniet
ptlgn&bitur
cOnstitit
licuit, -itum est
accidit
ev6nit
pugnatum est
constiterat
licuerat
acciderat
6v6nerat
ptign&tum erat
c5nstiterit
licuerit
accident
evCnerit
pugnatum erit
cdnstet
Uceat
accidat
Sveniat
pugnetur
constaret
licCret
accideret
eveniret
piignaretur
coristiterit
licuerit
accident
evfinerit
pugnatum sit
cdnstitis.set
licuiRset
accidisset
evSnisset
pugnatum esset
cOnstare
licSre
accidgre
evenire
pugnarl
cOnstitisse
licnisse
accidisse
SvSnisse
pdgnatum esse
-staturum eiwe
-itiinim esse
-ttirum esse
pugnatum Irl
1 With impersonal verbs the word it is used in English, having usually no repre-
sentative in Latin, though id, hoc, illud, are often used nearly in the same way.
120 CONJUGATION OF THE VERB [§208
208. Impersonal Verbs may be classified as follows : —
a. Verbs expressing the operations of nature and the time of day : —
yesper&scit (inceptive, § 263. 1), it grows late. ningit, it snows.
Ificiscit hoc, it is getting light. fulgurat, it lightens,
grandinat, it hails. tonat, it thunders.
pluit, it rains. rorat, the dew falls.
Note. — In these no subject is distinctly thought of. Sometimes, however, the verb
is used personally with the name of a divinity as the subject : as, luppiter tonat, JTupiter
thunders. In poetry other subjects are occasionally used : as, fandae saza pluont, the
dings rain stones.
b» Verbs of feeling, where the person who is the proper subject becomes
the object, as being himself affected by the feeling expressed in the verb
(§ 354. h) : —
miseret, it grieves. paenitet (poenitet), it repents.
piget, it disgusts. padet, it shames.
taedet, it wearies.
miseret me, I pity (it distresses me) ; podet mS, I am ashamM.
Note. — Such verbs often have also a passive form : as, misereor, I pity (am moved
to pity) ; and occasionally other parts: as, paenituras (as from fpaenid), paenitendus,
padendas, pertaesum est, pigitom est.
c. Verbs which have a phrase or clause as their subject (cf. §§ 454,
569. 2) : —
accidit, contingit, evenit, obtingit, obvenit, fit, it Jiappens.
libet, it pleases. delectat, iuvat, it delights.
licet, it is permitted. oportet, it is fitting, ought.
certttm est, it is resolved. necesse est, it is needful.
constat, it is clear. praestat, it is better.
placet, it seems good (pleases). interest, rSfert, it concerns.
▼idetur, it seems, seems good. vacat, there is leisure.
decet, it is becoming. restat, superest, it remains.
Note. — Many of these verbs may be used personally; as, vac5, / have leisure.
Libet and licet have also the passive forms libitum (licitum) est etc. The participles
libSns and licSns are used as adjectives.
<?• The passive of intransitive verbs is very often used impersonally (see
synopsis in § 207) : —
ventom est, th£y came (there was coming).
pdgnatur, tJiere is fighting (it is fought).
itur, 8om£ one goes (it is gone).
parcitur mihi, I am spared (it is spared to me, see § 372).
Note. — The impersonal use of the passive proceeds from its original reflexive (or
middle) meaning, the action being regarded as accomplishing itself (compare the
French oela se fait) .
§§ 209, 210] classified lists of verbs 121
Classified Lists of Verbs
First Conjugation
209, There are about 360 simple verbs of the First Conjuga-
tion, most of them formed directly on a noun- or adjective-stem :
anno, arm (arma, arma); caecd, to blind (caecas, blind); exsuld, be an exile
(exsul, an exile) (§ 269).
Their conjugation is usually regular, like amo ; though of many only a few
forms are found in use.
a. The following verbs form their Perfect and Supine stems irregularly.
Those marked * have also regular forms.
cxepo, crepai («crep&vi), -crepit-, resound, plied, *-plicni, *-plicit-, fold,
cnbo, *cabai, -cubit-, lie dovm. potd, potftvi, *p5t-, drink,
do, dire, dedi, dAt-, give (da). 8ec5, secai, sect-, cut,
domo, domai, domit-, subdue, sond, sonui, sonit-,^ sound.
fried, fdctti, *frict-, rub. 8t5, steti, -stat- (-stit-), stand,
ivvo (ad-iavo), idvi, idt-,^ help, tond, tonui, *-to]iit-, thunder,
inicd, micai, , glitter, vetd, vetui, vetit-, forbid,
need, %iecai, aecat- (-nect-), IdU.^
Note. — Compounds of these verbs have the following forms: —
crepo: con-crepuit dis-crepui or -crepdvi; in-crepui ot-crepdvi.
do: drcufn-, inter-t pessum-y satis-j super-, venunv-ddy -dediy -dat-y of the first con-
jugation. Other compounds belong to the root dha, puty and are of the third
conjugation: as, conddy ooTidirey eondidiy conditum.
taicH: di-nUcdvi, ^micdt- ; e-micui, 'Tnicdt-.
plied: re-y sub- {sup-)y mtUti-pHooy -plicdviy -plicdt-; ex-plico (unfold), -ui, -it-;
(explain), -dviy -dt-; im-plioo, -dvi (-ut), -dtum {-itum).
•to: eonnsto, -stitiy (stdturus); ad-y re-sto, -stitiy ; ante- (anti-), inter-y super-
stdy steti, ; circum-stdf -steti {-stiti), ; prae-stOy -stitiy -stit- {-stdt-);
di-Mo, ex-sto, no perfect or supine (future participle ez-stdturus).
Second Conjugation
210. There are nearly 120 simple verbs of the Second Conju-
gation, most of them denominative verbs of condition, having a
corresponding noun and adjective from the same root, and an
inceptive in -8c6 (§ 263. 1): —
calefi, be warm; calor, warmth; calidus, warm; calescS, grow warm,
iimedyfear; timoc, /ear; timidus, timid; per-timdsco, to take fright.
^ Futare Participle also in -atiirtts (either in the simple verb or in composition).
* Vaco lias regularly aeeivi, necatam, except in composition.
122 CONJUGATION OF THE VBBB [§§210,211
a. Most verbs of the second conjugation are inflected like moneo, bnt
many lack the supine (as, arced, ward off; caie5, lack; eged, need; timeo,
fear), and a niunber have neither perfect nor supine (as, maered, he sad).
b» The following keep e in all the systems : —
deleo, deatray deleie delSvi deletnm
fled, toeep flere flivi fletom
ned, sew nere neri [n§tum]
vied, plait viire [vievi] vietum
corn-pled, JiU up ^ -plere -plevi -pletum
c. The following show special irregularities : —
algeo, alsi, be cold. mulceo, mulsi, male-, soothe.
aided, ftrsi, arsurus, bum. mulged, mulsi, muls-, miUc.
aaded, ausus sam, dare. (cd)iiived, -nivi (-nixi), , roink.
anged, auxi, aact-, increase, (ab)oled, -oldvi, -olit-, destroy.
caved, cavi, cant-, care. pended, pependi, -pdns-, har^.
censed, censtfi, cens-, wdue. pranded, piandl, prans-, dine.
cied, civi, cit-, excite. rided, risl, -lis-, laugh.
doced, docai, doct-, teach. seded, sedi, sess-, sit.
f aved, f&vi, fattt-, favor. soled, solitas sum, be wonL
ferved, fervi (ferbui), , glow. sorbed, sorbtti (sorpsi), , suck.
loved, fdvi, fdt-, cherish. sponded, spopondi, spdns-, pledge.
fulged, fulsi, , shine. strided, stridi, , whiz.
gauded, gAvisas sum, r^oice. su&ded, saasi, suas-, urge.
haered, haesi, haes-, cling. tened (-tined), tenui, -tent-, Iiold.
indulged, indnlsi, indult-, itidulge. terged, tersi, ters-, wipe.
iubed, iusu, inss-, order. tonded, -totondi (-tondi), tdns-, shear.
liqued, licni (liqui), , melt. torqued, torn, tort-, twist.
luced, lux!, , shine. toned, tormi, tost-, roast.
Inged, Iflxi, , mourn. turged, tursi, , sweU.
maned, mansi, m&ns-, wait. urged, ursi, , urge.
misced, -cui, mixt- (mist-), mix. vided, vidi, vis-, see.
morded, momordi, mors-, bite. voved, vdvT, vdt-, vow.
moved, mdvi, mdt-, move.
Third Conjugation
211. The following lists include most simple verbs of the
Third Conjugation, classed according to the formation of the Per-
fect Stem : —
a. Forming the perfect stem in s (x) (§ 177. h and note): —
angd, anxi, , choke. claudd, clausi, claus-, shvi.
carpd, carpsi, carpt-, pluck. cdmd, cdmpsi, cdmpt-, comb, dtek.
cedd, cessi, cess-, yield. cequd, coxi, coct-, cook.
cingd, cind, cinct-, bind. -cutid, -cusn, -coss-, shake.
1 And other compounds of -pled.
§211]
THIRD CONJUGATION
123
-demo, dempsi, dfimpt-, take avoay,
died, dizi, diet-, say.
divido, dlvisl, di^s-, dwide.
duc5, ddxi, duct-, guide.
emungd, -munxi, -munet-, clean out.
fig5, fix!, fiX'^fx.
fingo [fio], finxi, fict-, /a^ion.
flectd, flexi, flex-, heiid.
>fllgd, -flixi, -flkt-, , amite.
flao, flfixi, flox-,^10.
trendd, , ires- (freM-), gnash.
trigo, fiixi, ftict-, fry.
gero, gessi, gest-, carry.
iungd, ianxi, iunct-, join.
laedo, laesi, laes-, hurt.
-licio, -lex!, -lect-, ejUice (elicn!, -licit-).
ludo, lusi, Ifis-, play.
mergo, mersi, mers-, plunge.
mitto, misi, miss-, send.
nectd [nec], nexi (nexai), nex-, weave.
nubo, nupsi, nupt-, marry.
^eetd, pexi, pex-, comb.
pergd, perrexi, penect-, go on.
pingd [pio], pinxl, pict-, paint.
plango [flag], planxi, planet-, beajt.
plaudo, plaum, plans-, applaud.
plectS, plexi, plex-, braid.
premo, press!, press-, press.
promd, -mpsi, -mpt-, brijig out.
h. Reduplicated in the perfect (§
-cadd, cecidi, c&s-, faU.
eaedd, cecidi, caes-, cut.
«ano, cecini, , sing.
carro, cncurri, curs-, run.
discd [dig], didici, , learn.
-do [dha], -did!, -dit- (as in ab-dd, etc.,
with crSdd, yend5), put.
fallo, fefelH, fals-, deceive.
pangd [PAo], pepi^ (-pSgl)i p*ct-,/(Mten,
Jix^ bargain.
pared, pep«icl (pars!), (parsfirus), spare.
qnatid, (-cnssi), quass-, shake.
rftdd, r&s!, rfts-, scrape,
rego, rSxi, rect-, rule.
repo, rSpsi, , creep.
rodo, rosi, rSs-, gnaw.
scalpd, scalps!, scalpt-, scrape,
scrib5, scrips!, script-, write.
sculpo, scalps!, sculpt-, carve.
serpo, serpsi, , crawl.
spargd, spars!, spars-, scatter.
-spiciS, -spex!, -spect-, mew.
-stinguo, -stinx!, rstinct-, quench.
strings, strinx!, strict-, bind.
stru5, striix!, struct-, build.
siigo, sQx!, suet-, suck.
sumd, sfimpsi, sumpt-, take.
snrgo, sarrSxi, surrSct-, rise.
tego, tex!, tect-, shelter.
temnd, -temps!, -tempt-, despise.
tergd, tersl, ters-, wipe.
tingS, tinxi, tinct-, stain.
traho, tr&x!, tr&ct-, drag.
trudd, triis!, trils-, thrust.
ungu5 (ungd), unxi, dnet-, anoint.
uro, nssi, ust-, bum.
vadd, -v&si, -vfts-, go.
vehd, vSxi, vect-, draw.
vivo, vixi, vict-, live.
177. c):_
parid, peperi, part- (paritdrus), bring
forth.
pell5, pepuli, puis-, drive.
pend5, pependi, pdns-, weigh.
posed, poposci, , demand.
pungd [pco], pQpugi (-pdnxi), pfinct-,
prick.
sistd [sta], stiti, Stat-, stop.
tangd [tag], tetigi, t&ct-, touch.
tends [ten] ,tetendi (-tend!), tent-, stretch.
tundo [tud], tntttdi, tdns- (-tus-), beat.
c. Adding u (v) to the verb-root (§ 177. a) : —
alo, aloi, alt- (alit-), nourish. composes, compescui, —
cernS, crSvi, -cret-, decree. consuls, -lui, cSnsult-, consult.
colS, colui, cult-, dwell, till crescS, erSvi, erSt-, increase.
, restrain.
124
CONJUGATION OF THE VERB
[§2U
-cttmbo [cub], -cabtti, -cabit-, lie dovm. rapid, rapui, rapt-, seize.
depsS, depstti, depat-, knead.
fremS, fremai, , roar.
gem5, gemui, , groan.
gignd [oen], genu!, genit-, beget.
metd, meaaui, -meaa-, reap.
mold, molai, molit-, grind,
occulS, occului, occult-, hide,
(ad)olS8Cd, -evi, -ult-, grow up.
pAaco, pavi, paat-, feed.
percello, -culi, -cula-, upset.
pond [pos], posui, poait-, put.
quiSacS, qaievi, quiet-, rest.
aciacd, acivi, acit-, decree.
aerS, aSyi, aat-, sow.
aero, aerui, aert-, entwine.
aind, aivl, ait-, permit.
apernd, aprS^, aprSt-, scorn.
atemS, atrAvi, atr&t-, strew.
aterto, -atertui, , snore.
atrepo, atrepni, , sound,
auSacd, au5^, auet-, be word,
texo, texni, text-, weaioe,
tremS, tremui, , tremble,
Yomd, Yomui, , vomit.
d* Adding iv to the verb-root (§ 177./) : —
arceaad,^ -ivi, arceaait-, summon,
capeaaS, capeaaivi, , undertake,
cupio, cupiyi, cupit-, desire.
inceaao, inceaaivi, , aUack.
laceaao, laceaam, laceaait-, provoke.
pet5, petivi, petit-, seek.
quaero, quaeaivi, quaeait-, seek,
rud5, rudivl, , bray,
aapid, aaplvi, , be wise.
tero, trivi, trit-, rub.
e. Lengthening the vowel of the root (cf. § 177. d): —
Ag^i ^g!, act-, drive.
capid, cepi, capt-, take.
edd, edi, eaum, eat (see § 201).
emo, emi, empt-, buy.
facio, feci, fact-, make (see § 204).
fodio, fSdi, foaa-, dig.
frangd [frag], fregi, frflct-, break.
fugiS, ffigi, (fugiturua),^ee.
fundd [fud], fudi, ffia-, pour,
iacid, ieci, iact-, throw (-icid, -iect-).
Iav5, Uvi, lot- (laut-), wash (also regu-
lar of first conjugation).
legd,' 15gl, ISct-, gather,
lixi5 [li], 16vi (Uvi), lit-, smear.
linquS [lic], -liqui, -lict-, leave.
n5ac5 [gno], novi, not- (co-gnit-, A-gnit>
ad-gnit-), know.
rumpd [rup], rfipi, rupt-, burst.
acabd, acabi, , scratch.
vinco [vie], ^ci, vict-, conquer.
/• Retaining the present stem or verb-root (cf. § 177. e): —
acuo, -ui, -ut-, sharpen.
argu5, -ui, -fit-, accuse.
bib5, bibi, (p5tua), drink.
-cendd, -cendi, -cena-, kindle.
(con)gru5, -ui, , agree.
ciidd, -cudi, -cua-, forge.
faceaaS, -ii (faceaai), faceaait-, execute
-fendo, -fendi, -fena-, ward off.
flndo [fid], fidifB flaa-, split.
ico, ici, let-, hit.
imbud, -ui, -Qt-, give a taste of,
lu5, lui, -lut-, wash.
mandS, mandi, mana-, chew.
metuo, -ui, -ut-, fear.
minuo, -ui, -fit-, lessen.
-nuo, -nui, , nod.
pandd, pandi, p&na- (paaa-), open.
pinad, -ai, pina- (pinat-, piat-), bruise.
prehendd, -hendi, -hena-, seize.
rud, rui, rut- (ruitfirua), faJll.
^ Sometimes accersd, etc.
3 The following compounds of lego have -Idzi : diligd, intellegd, neglegd.
8 In this the perfect stem is the same as the verb-root, having lost the reduplica-
tion (§177. c. N.).
§§ 211, 212]
FOURTH CONJUGATION
125
flcando, -scendi, -acSnsus, climb,
scindd [scid], sddi,^ sciss-, tear.
8id5, 8ldi(Hiedi), -sess-, aetUe,
solvo, 8ol^ solat-, loose, pay.
spad, -ni, , spit.
statuo, -oi, -ut-, establish.
stemno, -ui, , sneeze.
stiidd, stiidi, , whiz.
suo, sai, 8ut-, sew.
(ez)ao, -ui, -fit-, put off.
tribuS, -ui, -fit-, assign.
yelld, velli (-vulsi), vuls-, pluck.
veiio, -▼eni, vers-, sweep.
▼erto, verti, vers-, turn.
viso [vid], visi, vis-, visit.
▼olvo, volvi, volfit-, turn.
Note. — Several have no perfect or supine: as, cland5, limp; fati8c5, gape; hiscO,
yawn; toUS (sastuli, subULtum, supplied from suffers), raise; vergd, indinje.
Fourth Conjugation
212. There are — besides a few deponents and some regular
derivatives in -ilriO, as, CsuriO, be hungry (cf. § 263. 4) — about
60 verbs of this conjugation, a large proportion of them being
descriptive verbs: like —
ciocio, croak; mfigio, bellow; tinnid, tinkle.
a. Most verbs of the Fourth Conjugation are conjugated regularly, like
audio, though a number lack the supine.
h. The following verbs show special peculiarities : —
amido, amin (-cui), amict-, clothe.
aperiS, apemi, apert-, open.
compexio, -peri, compert-, ^7u2.
farcid, farsi, fartum, stuff.
ferio, , , strike.
fulcid, fulai, f ult-, prop.
hauiiS, hausi, haust- (hausfirus), drain.
operio, openii, opert-, cover.
lepezio, repperi, xepert-,^nd.
aaepiS, saepsi, saept-, hedge in,
salio (-silio), salui (salu), [salt- (-suit-)],
leap.
sancid [sac], s&nzi, s&nct-, sarvction,
sarcid, sarsi, sart-, patch.
sentid, sSnsi, sSns-, /eet.
sepelid, sepelivi, sepult-, bury.
venid, vini, vent-, come.
Yindd, vinzi, vinct-, bind.
For Index of Verbs, see pp. 436 ff.
1 See footnote 3, page 124.
126 PARTICI.ES [§§ 213, 214
PAETICLES
213. Adverbs, Prepositions, Conjunctions, and Interjections
are called Particles.
In their origin Adverbs, Prepositions, and Conjunctions are
either (1) case-forms^ actual or extinct, or (2) compounds and
phrases.
Particles cannot always be distinctly classified, for many adverbs are
used also as prepositions and many as conjunctions (§§ 219 and 222).
ADVERBS
Derivation of Adverbs
214. Adverbs are regularly formed from Adjectives as follows :
a. From adjectives of the Jirst and second declensions by changing the
characteristic vowel of the stem to -e : as, care, dearly, from cams, dear (stem
caro-) ; amice, like a friend, from amlcaa, friendly (stem amico-).
Note. — The ending -5 is a relic of an old ablative in -Sd (ef. § 48. n. 1).
6. From adjectives of the third declension by adding -ter to the stem.
Stems in nt- (nom. -ns) lose the t-. All others are treated as i-stems : —
fortiter, bravely, from fortis (stem forti-), brave.
ficriter, eagerly, from acer (stem acri-), eager.
yigilanter, watchfully, from vigilans (stem vigilant-).
prGdenter, prudently, from prudens (stem prudent-),
aliter, otherwise, from alius (old stem ali-).
Note. — This suffix is perhaps the same as -ter in the Greek -repo; and in uter, alter.
If sOfthese adverbs are in origin either neuter accusatives {d.d) or masculine nominatives.
c. Some adjectives of the first and second declensions have adverbs of
both forms (-e and -ter). Thus diirus, hard, has both dure and diiriter;
miser, toretched, has both misere and miseriter.
d. The neuter accusative of adjectives and pronouns is often used as an
adverb : as, multum, much ; facilS, easily ; quid, why.
This is the origin of the ending -ius in the comparative degree of ad-
verbs (§218): as, acrius, more keenly (positive acriter); facilius, mtyre easily
(positive facilS).
Note. — These adverbs are strictly cognate accusatives (§ 390).
6. The ablative singular neuter or (less commonly) feminine of adjectives,
pronouns, and noims may be used adverbially: as, talsb, falsely ; at6.
§§ 214-216] DERIVATION OF ADVERBS 127
quickly (with shortened o); tMjSl (via), straight (straightway); crSbr5, fre-
quently; volgd, commonly ; fortS, by chance; spoilt^, of one's oivn accord.
NoTB. — Some adverbs are derived from adjectives not in use : as, abundS, pUnti-
fully (as if from fabundas ; cf . abundS, abound) ; saepS, often (as if from fsaepis, dense,
close-p€u:ked; cf. saepSs, hedge^ and saepid, hedge in).
215. Further examples of Adverbs and other Particles which
are in origin case-forms of nouns or pronouns are given below.
In some the case is not obvious, and in some it is doubtful.
1. Neuter Accusative forms: n5n (for nfi-oinom, later finum), not; iterum (compara-
tive of i-, stem of is), a second time; demum (superlative of d6, down)^ at last.
2. Feminine Accusatives: partim, partly. So statim, on the spot; saltim, at least
(generally saltern), from lost nouns in -tis (genitive -tis). Thus -tim became a regular
adverbial termination ; and by means of it adverbs "were made from many noun- and
verb-stems immediately, without the intervention of any form which could have an
accusative in -tim: as, sSparfttim, separately ^ from sSparfttus, separate. Some adverbs
that appear to be feminine accusative are possibly instrumental : as, palam, openly ;
peiperam, wrongly ; tain, so ; qoam, as.
3. Plural Accusatives: as, ali&s, elsewfiere ; foris, out of doors (as end of motion).
So perhaps quia, becau^.
4. Ablative or Instrumental forms: qui, where; intr&, within; extrft, outside; qui,
how; aliqui, somehow; foris, out of doors; qud, whither; aded, to that degree; ultro,
beyond; citr5, this side (as end of motion) ; retrd, back; ill5c (for fillS-ce), weakened to
iUuc, thither. Those in -tr5 are from comparative stems (cf. ills, cis, re-).
5. Locative forms: ibi, there; nbi, where; lin, ilU-c, there; peregri (peregriS), abroad;
hic (for fhi-ce) , here. Also the compounds hodie (probably for fhSdiS) , to^ay ; peiendiS,
day after to-morrow.
6. Of uncertain formation: (1) those in -tns (usually preceded by 1), with an abla-
tive meaning: as, funditus, /ror*i t?ie bottom, utterly; divinitus, from above, provi-
dentially; intus, within; penitus, within; (2) those in -dem, -dam, -dS: as, quidem,
indeed; quondam, once; quandS (cf. d5nec), when; (3) dum (probably accusative of
time), while; iam, now.
216. A phrase or short sentence has sometimes grown together
into an adverb (cf . notwithstanding ^ neverthelessj besides) : —
postmodo, presently (a short time after),
denuo (for dS novo), anew.
videlicet (for vid« Kcet), to wit (see, you may),
nihilominus, nevertheless (by nothing the less).
Note. — Other examples are: — anteft, old antideft, before (ante eft, probably abla-
tive or instrumental) ; Hied (in loco), on the spot, immediately; prSrsus, absolutely (pr5
vorsns, straight ahead) ; rursus (re-vorsus), again; quotannis, yearly (quot annis, as many
years as there are) ; quam-ob-rem, wherefore ; cSminuB, hand to hand (con manns) ; Sminus,
at long range (ex manns) ; nimimm, without doubt (ni mimm) ; ob-viam (as in ire obviam,
to go to meet) ; pridem (cf. prae and -dem in i-dem), /or some time; forsan (fors an), per-
haps (it's a chance whether); forsitan (fors sit an), perhaps (it would be a chance
whether) ; scilicet (tsci, MceX)ythat is to say (know, you may; cf. i-licet, you may go) ;
ftctutam (actu, on the act, and turn, tlien).
128 particles [§ 217
Classification of Adverbs
217. The classes of Adverbs, with examples, are as follows : —
a. Adverbs of Place ^
hic, here. hue, hither. hinc, hence. hftc, hy this way.
ibi, there. eo, thither. inde, thence. e&, by that way.
istic, there. iat&c, thither, utinc, Vience. ista, by that way.
iinc, t^ere. Uluc, thither. illinc, tAence. illa(ilUc), '* '*
nbi, wfiere. quo, whither, nnde, whence. qa&, by what way.
alicabi, somewhere, aliqttd, somewhither^ alicunde,yromsome- aliqaa,&y some toa^.
ipo) somewhere. where.
ibidem, in the same eddem, to the same indidem, from the e2dem, by the same
place. place. same place. way.
alibi, elsewhere^ in alid, elsewhere^ to aliunde, from an- ali&, in another
another place. another place. other place. way.
nbinbi, whereoer. quoquo, whitherso- undecunque, wfience- qu&qnft, in whatever
ever. soever. way,
nbivis, anywhere^ qnoyis, anywhere^ undique, /rom ecery quivis, by whatever
where you will. whither you will. quarter. way.
sicubi, if anywhere, siquo, if anywhere slcnnde, if from any- siquft, if anywhere.
(anywhither). where.
nScubi, lest any- nequo, lest any- nScunde, lest from nequft, lest any-
where, whither. anywhere. where.
Note. — The demonstrative adverbs hic, ibi, istic, illi, illic, and their correlatives,
correspond in signification with the pronouns hic, is, iste, iUe (see § 146), and are often
equivalent to these pronouns with a preposition : as, inde » ab eo, etc. So the relative or
interrogative ubi corresponds with qui (quis), ali-cubi with aliquis, ubiubi with quisquis,
8i-cttbi with siquis (see §§ 147-151, with the table of correlatives in § 152).
usque, all the way to; nsquam, anywhere; nusquam, nowhere; citro, to this side;
intrd, inwardly; ultro, beyond (or freely j i.e. beyond what is required);
potr5, further on.
quSrsnm (for qu5 vorsum, whither turned?), to what end? hSrsum, this way;
prorsum, forward (prSrsus, utterly); introrsum, inwardly; retrSrsum, back-
ward; sursum, upward; deorsum, downward; seorsum, apart; aliSrsom,
another way.
h. Adverbs of Time
quandS, when f (interrogative) ; cum (qnom), when (relative) ; nt, when, as^ nunc,
now; tunc (turn), then; mox, presently; iam, already; dum, whUe; iam din,
iam dudum, iam pridem, long ago, long since.
1 All these adverbs were originally case-forms of pronouns. The forms in -bi and
-ic are locative, those in -5 and -uc, 41 and i&c, ablative (see § 215) ; those in -inc aro
from -im (of uncertain origin) with the particle -co added (thus iUim, illin-c).
§§ 217, 218] ADVERBS 129
piimam (pximo), ^rs^ ; delude (posteA), next after; postrSmom (poBtr6m5),^naZZy;
posteaqiiam, postquam, wJien (after that, aa 8oon as).
oinqaam (unqaam), ever; nomquam (nunquam), never; semper, always.
aliquandd, cU some time, cU length; quanddque (qoandScamque), whenever; dSnique,
at last.
qnotiSiis (qaoties), how often; totiSna, so often; allquotiSns, a number of times.
cotidig, every day ; hodie, to-day ; heri, yesterday ; cr&s, to-morrow ; pridie, the day
before ; poatxIdiS, the day after ; in diSs, from day to day,
nondom, not yet; necdum, nor yet; vizdam, scarce yet; qnam primam, oa soon as
possible; saepe, often; ciibTO, frequently ; iam nSn, no longer.
c. Adverbs of Manner, Degree, or Cause
qnam, how, a>s ; tarn, so ; qaamyis, however much, although ; paene, aimost ; magis,
more; valdS, greatly; vix, hardly.
car, qu&re, why ; ided, idcircd, proptere&, on this account, because; ed, therefore;
ergo, itaque, igitar, ther^ore.
ita, sic, so; at (ati), a«, how; atat, atcamque, however.
d. Interrogative Particles
an, -ne, anne, atram, atramne, nam, whether.
ndnne, annon, whether not ; namqaid, ecqaid, whether at all.
On the use of the Interrogative Particles, see §§ 332, 335.
e. Negative Particles
non, not (in simple denial) ; haad, minimS, not (in contradiction) ; nS, not (in pro-
hibition) ; nSye, nea, ru>r ; nSdam, much less.
ne, lest; neqae, nee, nor; n6 . . . qaidem, not even.
non modo . . . verum (sed) etiam, not only . . . but also.
non modo . . . sed n6 . . . qaidem, not ordy not . . . but not even.
si mintts, if not; qudminas (qaSminas), so 03 not.
qain (relative), but that; (interrogative), why not f
ne, nee (in composition), not; so in nescid, I know not; neg5, I say no (ai5, 1 say
yes) ; negotiam, business (fnec-otiam) ; nSm5 (nS- and hemd, old form of homo),
no one ; ne qais, lest any one ; neqae enim, for . . . not.
For the nse of Negative Particles, see § 325 fif .
For the Syntax and Peculiar uses of Adverhs, see § 320 ff.
Comparison of Adverbs
218. The Comparative of Adverbs is the neuter accusative of
the comparative of the corresponding adjective ; the Superlative
is the Adverb in -5 formed regularly from the superlative of the
Adjective : —
130 PARTICLES [§§ 218-220
cftrS, dearly (from cflma, dear) ; c&riiui, cfiiiosimS.
misers (miseriter), wretchedly (from miter, ufretched) ; miseriiui, miserxime.
leviter (from levis, light) ; levius, levisslme.
audftcter (audftciter) (from aud&x, bold) ; aud&ciua, audftciaaimS.
benS, loell (from bonus, good) ; meliua, optime.
malS, iU (from malas, bad) ; p§iua, pesaimS.
a. The following are irregular or defective : —
diu, long (in time) ; didtiaa, difttlaaimS.
potiua, raJLher ; potJaaJmnm, first of aU, in pr^erence to all.
•aepe, often; saepiua, oftener, again; saepiaaime.
satis, enough ; satiua, pr^erable.
secus, otherwise; sStiua, worse.
multom (molto), magla, mazime, much, more^ most.
param, not enough ; minua, less ; minlme, leaM.
nuper, newly; nuperrime.
tempere, seasonably; temperiua.
Note. — In poetry the comparative mage is sometimeB used instead of magis.
PREPOSITIONS
2 19. Prepositions were not originally distinguished from Adverbs in form or mean-
ing, but have become specialized in use. They developed comparatively late in the
history of language. In the early stages of language development the cases alone
were sufficient to indicate the sense, but, as the force of the case-endings weakened,
adverbs were used for greater precision (cf . § 338) . These adverbs, from their habitual
association with particular cases, became Prepositions ; but many retained also their
independent f uncticb as adverbs.
Most prepositions are true case-forms : as, the comparative ablatives eztr&, infri, supra
(for fexterft, finferi, fsttperft), and the accusatives circum, c5ram, cum (cf. § 215) . Circiter
is an adverbial formation from circum (cf. § 214. b. n.) ; praeter is the comparative of
prae, propter of prope.i Of the remainder, versus is a petrified nominative (participle
of vertS) ; adversus is a compound of versus ; tr&ns is probably an old present participle
(cf . in-trft-re) ; while the origin of the brief forms ab, ad, di, ex, ob, is obscure and
doubtful.
220. Prepositions are regularly used either with the Accusar
live or with the Ablative.
a. The following prepositions are used with the Accusative : —
ad, to. circiter, about. intrft, inside.
adversus, against. cia, citra, this side. iuzt&, near.
adversum, tovKurds. contrft, against. ob, on account of
ante, before. arg&, towards. penes, in the power of.
apnd, at, near. eztr&, outside. per, through,
circft, around. Infra, below. pone, behind.
circum, around. inter, among. post, after.
1 The case-form of these prepositions in -ter is doubtful.
§§ 220, 221] PREPOSITIONS 181
piaeter, beifond. secondttm, next to. altift, on the further fide.
ptope, near, sopri, above. renaa, towards.
propter, on account of. trine, across.
&• The following prepositions are used with the Ablative : — *
a, ib, abe, away from, by. e, ex, out of.
abeqae, voUhoutj hut for. prae, in comparison wUfi.
coram, in presence of. pr6, in front of for.
cam, vrith. eine, unthout.
de, from. tenue, up to, as far as.
Cm The following may be used with either the Accusative or the Abla-
tive, but with a difference in meaning : —
in, into, in. sub, under.
subter, heneaJLh. super, above.
In and sub, when followed by the accusative, indicate motion to, when by
the ablative, rest in, a place :
venit in aedis, he came into the house; erat in aedibas, he was in the house.
discipllna in Britannii reperta atque inde in Galliam trftnsl&ta esse existi-
m&tnr, the system is thought to have been discovered in Oreat Britain and
thence brought over to Gaul.
eiab nice cGnsederat, he had seated himse^ under an ilex.
sob legSs mittere orbem, to subject the world to laws (to send the world under
laws).
221. The uses of the Prepositions are as follows : —
1. A, ab, away frorti^ from, off from, with the ablative.
a. Of place : as, — ab urbe profectus est, he set out from the city.
b. Of time : (1) from : as, — ab hOrft tertia ad vesperam, from the third hour
till evening ; (2) just after : as, — ab eO magistratd, after [holding] that office.
c. Idiomatic uses : & reliquls differunt, they differ from the others; & parvulis,
from early childhood ; prope ab urbe, near (not far from) the city ; llberftre ab,
to set free from; occlsus ab hoste (periit ab hoste), slain by an enemy; ab hac
parte, on Vtis side ; ab r6 §ius, to his advantage ; S, r6 pUblica, for the interest of
the state.
2. Ad, to, towards, at, neary with the accusative (cf. in, into).
a. Of place : as, — ad urbem vSnit, ?ie came to the city ; ad meridiem, towards
the south ; ad exercitum, to the army ; ad hostem, toward the enemy ; ad urbem,
near the city.
b. Of time : as, — ad nOnam hOram, till the ninth hour.
c. With persons : as, — ad eum vSnit, he came to him.
1 For palam etc., see § 432.
^ Ab signifies direction /rom the object, but often towards the speaker ; compare d6^
down from, and ex, out of.
132 PARTICLES [§ 221
d. Idiomatic uses: ad supplicia descendunt, they resort to punishment; ad
haec respondit, to this he answered ; ad tempus, at the [fit] time ; adire ad rem
publicam, to go into public life ; ad petendam p&cem, to seek pea>ce ; ad latera,
on thefiank; ad arma, to arras; ad hunc modum, in this way ; quern ad modum,
how^ as; ad centum, nearly a hundred; ad hOc, besides; omnSs ad tmum, aXL Ut
a man; ad diem, on the day.
3. Ante, in front of, before, with the accusative (cf. post, after),
a. Of place : as, — ante portam, in front of the gate ; ante exercitum, in advance
of the army.
b. Of time : as, — ante bellum, b^ore the voar.
c. Idiomatic uses : ante urbem captam, before the city was taken ; ante diem
quintum (a.d.v.) Kal., the fifth day before the Calends; ante quadriennium, four
years before or ago ; ante tempus, too soon (before the time).
4. Apud, at J by, among, with the accusative.
a. Of place (rare and archaic) : as, — apud forum, at Vie forum (in the market-
place).
b. With reference to persons or communities : as, — apud Helv6ti5s, am&ng
the Helvetians; apud populum, before the people; apud aliquem, at one'^s house;
apud se, at horns or in his senses ; apud CicerOnem, in [the works of] Cicero.
5. Circ&, about, around, with the accusative (cf. circum, circiter).
a. Of place : templa circ& forum, the temples about the forum; circa se habet,
he has with him (of persons).
b. Of time or number (in poetry and later writers) : circS. eandem hOram,
about the same hour ; circa idus OctObrls, about the fifteenth of October; circa
decem milia, about ten thousand,
c. Figuratively (in later writers), about, in regard to (cf. d§) : circa quem
ptlgna est, with regard to whom, etc. ; circa deOs neglegentior, rather neglectful of
(i.e. in worshipping) the gods,
6. Circiter, about, with the accusative.
a. Of time or number : circiter idus Novembrls, about the thirteenth of Novem-
ber; circiter meridiem, about noon.
7. Circum, a^out, around, with the accusative.
a. Of place: circum haec loca, ^^ea&out; circum Capuam, rmund Capua;
•circum ilium, with him; iSgatiO circum Insulas missa, an embassy sent to the
islands rowid about; circum amlc5s, to his friends round about,
8. ContrS, opposite, against, with the accusative.
contra italiam, over against Italy ; contra haec, in answer to this,
a. Often as adverb: as, — haec contra, this in reply ; contra autem, hut on
the other hand ; quod contra, whereas, on the other hand,
9. Cum, with, together with, with the ablative.
§ 221] PREPOSITIONS 138
a. Of place: as, — vftde mficum, go with me; cum omnibus impedlmentis,
with all [their] baggage.
6. Of time : as, — prima cum lace, at early dawn (with first light).
c. Idiomatic uses : mftgnO cum dol5re, with great sorrow ; commanicftre ali-
quid cum aliquG, share something with some one; cum malO suO, to his own hurt;
cOnfligere cum hoste, to fight with the enemy ; esse cum t6l5, to go armed ; cum
silentiO, in silence.
10. D6, down from, from, with the ablative (cf. ab, away from ;
ex, out of).
a. Of place : as, — d6 caelO demissus, sent down from heaven ; de nftvibus
desillre, to jump down from the ships,
h. Figuratively, concerning, about, of:^ as, — c5gn^cit d5 ClOdl caede, Ae
learns of the murder of Clodiu^ ; cOnsilia d6 bellO, plans of war.
c. In a paitilive sense (compare ez), out of of: as, — tinus d6 plSl^e, one of the
people. •
d. Idiomatic uses : multis d6 causis, for mxiny reasons ; quSL d6 causd,, for
which reason ; de imprOvIsO, of a sudden ; dS industria, on purpose ; d6 integrO,
anew ; de tertia vigilia., just at midnight (starting at the third watch) ; de mSnse
Decembr! nftvigare, to sail as early as December,
11. Ex, Hjfrom (the midst, opposed to in), out of with the abla-
tive (cf, ab and d6).
a. Of place : as, — ex omnibus partibus silvae 6volav6runt, they flew out from
all parts of the forest; ex Hispania, [a man] from Spain.
b. Of time : as, — ex e6 die quintus, the fifth day from thaJt (four days after) ;
ex hoc die, from this day forth.
c. Idiomatically or less exactly : ex cOnsulattl, right after his consulship ;
ex §ius sententia, according to his opinion ; - ex aequ5, justly ; ex improvise,
unexpectedly; ex tua re, to your advantage; magna ex parte, in a great degree;
ex equO ptignare, to fight on horseback ; ex tLsu, expedient ; e regiOne, opposite ;
quaerere ex aliquO, to ask of some one; ex senattLs cOnsultO, according to the
decree of the senate ; ex fuga, in [their] flight (proceeding immediately from it) ;
tlnus e ffliis, one of the sons.
12. In, with the accusative or the ablative.
1. With the accusative, into (opposed to ex).-
a. Of place : as, — in Italiam contendit, Tie hastens into Italy.
b. Of time, tUl, until : as, — in ItLcem, till daylight.
c. Idiomatically or less exactly: in meridiem, towards the south; amor in
(erga, adversus) patfem, love for his father ; in aram cOnftigit, he fled to the altar
(on the steps, or merely to) ; in dies, from day to day ; in longittldinem, length-
wise; in latittidinem patebat, extended in width; in haec verba iilrare, to swear
to these words ; hunc in modum, in this way ; OratiO in Catilinam, a speech against
1 (y originally meant /rom (cf. off).
134 PARTICLES [§ 221
Catiline; in perpetuum, forever; in p^ius, /or t?ie worse; in diem ylveie, to live
from hand to movth (for the day).
2. With the ablative, i7i, any among.
In yery yarious connections : as, — in castris, in the camp (cf . ad castra, to, at,
or near the camp) ; in mari, on the sea; in urbe esse, to be in town; in tempore,
in season ; in scribendO, while writing ; est mihi in auimO, I have it in mind^ I
intend ; in ancorls, at anchor ; in hOc homine, in the caae of this man ; in dubio
esse, to he in doubt.
13. Infr&, belowy with the accusative.
a. Of place : as, — ad mare Infr& oppidum, by the sea behw the town; infra
caelum, under the sky.
b. Figuratively or less exactly: as, — Infra HomSrum, later than Homer;
infra trSs pedes, less than three feet; Infra elephantOs, sm^jJUer than elephards;
Infra InfimOs omnis, the lowest of the low.
14. Inter, between^ among, with the accusative.
inter m6 et ScIpiOnem, between myself and Scipio ; inter Os et offam, between
the cup and the lip (the mouth and the morsel) ; inter hostium tela, aviid
the weapons of the enemy ; inter omnis primus, first of ail ; inter biben-
dum, while drinking ; inter s6 loquuntur, they talk together.
16. Ob, towards, on account of, with the accusative.
a. Literally : (1) of motion (archaic) : as, — ob RGmam, towards Rome
(Ennius) ; ob viam, to the road (preserved as adverb, in the way of). (2) Of place
in which, before^ in a few phrases : as, — ob oculOs, before the eyes.
b. Figuratively, in return for (mostly archaic, probably a word of account,
balancing one thing against another) : as, — ob mulierem, in pay for the woman ;
ob rem, for gain. Hence applied to reason, cause, and the like, on account of
(a similar mercantile idea), for : as, — ob eam causam, for that reason ; quam ob
rem (quamobrem), wher^ore, why.
16. Per, through, over, with the accusative.
a. Of motion: as, — per urbem Ire, to go through the city; per mtirOs, over
the walls.
b. Of time : as, — per hiemem, throughout the winter.
c. Figuratively, of persons as means or instruments : as, — per homines ido-
ne5s, through the instrumentality of suitable persons ; licet per m6, you (etc.) may
for all me. Hence, stat per m^j itis through my inMrumentality ; so, per se, in
and of itself.
d. Weakened, in many adverbial expressions : as, — per iocum, in jest; per
speciem, in show, ostentatiously.
17. Prae, in front of, with the ablative.
a. Literally, of place (in a few connections) : as, — prae s6 portare, to carry
in one''s arms ; prae s6 ferre, to carry before one, (hence figuratively) exhibit, pro-
claim ostentatiously, make known.
§ 221] PREPOSITIONS 135
b. Figoratively, of hindrance, as by an obstacle in front (compare English
for) : as, — prae gaudiO conticuit, ke loas silent for joy,
c. Of comparison : as, — prae mSgnitudine corporum suOrum, in comparison
with their own great size,
18. Praeter, along by, hy^ with the accusative.
a. Literally : as, — praeter castra, by the camp (along by, in front of) ; praeter
oculos, before the eyes,
b. Figuratively, beyond^ besides, more than, in addition to, except : as, — praeter
spem, beyond hope; praeter alios, more than others; praeter paucSs, with the
exception of a few.
19. Prt, in front of, with the ablative.
sedens pr6 aede Castoris, sitting in front of the temple of Castor ; pr6 popul5,
in presence of the people. So pr6 rOstrls, on [the front of] the rostra;
pro contiOne, b^ore the assembly (in a speech).
a. In various idiomatic uses: prO lege, in defence of the law; prO vitulfi,
irtMead of a heifer ; prO centum mllibus, as good as a hundred thousand ; prO
rata parte, in due proportion ; prO hac vice, for this once ; prO cOnsule, in place
of consul; prO viribus, considering his strength; prO virili parte, to the best of
on^i's ability; prO tu& prudentia., in accordance with your wisdom.
20. Propter, near, by, with the accusative.
propter t6 sedet, he sits next you. Hence, on account of (cf. all along of) :
as, — propter metum, through fear.
21. Secundum,^ yt^^^ behind, following, with the accusative.
a. Literally: as, — Ite secundum me (Plant.), go behind me; secundum litus,
near the shore; secundum fliimen, along the stream (cf. secundO flumine, down
stream).
b. Figuratively, according to: as, — secundum naturam, according to nature.
22. Sub, under, up to, with the accusative or the ablative.
1. Of motion, with the accusative : as, — sub montem succfidere, to come close
to the hill.
a. Idiomatically : sub noctem, towards night ; sub lucem, near daylight ; sub
haec dicta, at (following) these words.
2. Of rest, with the ablative : as, — sub love, in the open air (under the heaven,
personified as Jove) ; sub monte, at the foot of the hill.
a. Idiomatically : sub eOdem tempore, about the same time (just after it).
23. Subter, under, below, with the accusative (sometimes, in poetry,
the ablative).
subter togam (Liv.), under his mantle; but, — subter litore (Catull.), below
the shore.
24. Super,* with the accusative or the ablative.
1 Old participle of sequor. 2 Comparative of sub.
136 PARTICLES [§ 221
1. With the accusative, above, over, an, beyond, upon,
a. Of place : super vS,llum praecipitftrl (lug. 58), to be hurled over ifie ram-
part ; super laterSs coria indtlcuntur (B.C. ii. 10), hides are drawn over the bricks;
super terrae tumulum statui (Legg. ii. 65), to be placed on the mound of earth;
super Numidiam (lug. 19), beyond Numidia.
b. Idiomatically or less exactly: vulnus super vulnus, unmnd upon wound;
super vlnum (Q. C. viil. 4), over his wine,
2. With the ablative, concerning, about (the only use with this case in
prose).
h&c super re, concerning this thing; super t&lire, about such an affair; llt-
terSfi super tantd. r6 exspect&re, to wait for a letter in a matter of such
importance.
a. Poetically, in other senses : llgna super focO largS repOnens (Hor. Od. i.
0. 5), piling logs generously on the fire ; nocte super medi& (Aen. iz. 61), after
midnight.
25. Suprft, on top ofj above, with the accusative.
8upr& terram, on the surface of the earth. So also figuratively : as, — supr&
hanc memoriam, b^ore our remembrance; supr& mOrem, mxire than
usual; supr&quod, besides.
26. Tenus (postpositive), cw far as, up to, regularly with the abla-
tive, sometimes with the genitive (cf. § 359. b).
1. With the ablative : TaurO tenus, as far as Taurus; capulO tenus, up to the
hut.
2. With the genitive : Cum&rum tenus (Fam. viii. 1. 2), as far as Cumae.
Note 1. — Tenus is frequently connected with the feminine of an adjective pronoun,
making an adverbial phrase: as, bActenus, hitherto; quitenus, so far as; dS bac rC
li&ctentt8, 80 much for that (about this matter so far).
NoTB 2. — Tenus was originally a neuter noun, meaning line or extent. In its use
with the genitive (mostly poetical) it may be regarded as an adverbial accusative
(§397. a).
27. Trans, across, over, through, hy, with the accusative.
a. Of motion : as, — tr9.ns mare currunt, they run across the sea ; tr&ns flu-
men f erre, to carry over a river ; tr&us aethera, through the sky ; tr&ns caput iace,
throw over your head.
b. Of rest : as, — trans RhSnum incolunt, they live across the Rhine.
28. IJltrA, beyond (on the further side), with the accusative.
cis Padum ultr&que, on this side of the Po and beyond; ultr&eum numenun,
more than that number; ultra fidem, incredible; ultra modum, immod-
erate.
Note. — Some adverbs appear as prepositions : as, intns, insuper (see § 21d).
For Prepositions in Compounds, see § 267.
§§ 222-224] CONJUNCTIONS 187
CONJUNCTIONS
222. Gonjanctions, like prepositions (cf. § 219), are closely related to adverbs, and
are either petrified cases of nouns, pronouns, and adjectives, or obscured phrases : as,
quod, an old accusative ; dum, probably an old accusative (cf . turn, cum) ; v6r5, an old
neuter ablative of vCras; niliildminus, none the lees; proinde, lit. forward from there.
Most conjunctions are connected with pronominal adverbs, which cannot always be re-
ferred to their original case-forms.
223. Conjunctions connect words, phrases, or sentences. They
are of two classes, Coordinate and Subordinate : —
€t» Coordinate, connecting coordinate or similar constructions (see § 278.
2. a). These are: —
1. Copulative or disjunctive, implying a connecUon or separation of thought
as well as oi words : as, et, and; aat, or; neque, nor.
2. Adversative, implying a connection of words, but a contrast in thought :
as, sed, hut.
3. Causal, introducing a cause or reason : as, nam, for.
4. Illative, denoting an inference : as, igitnr, therefore.
hm Subordinate, connecting a subordinate or independent clause with
that on which it depends (see § 278. 2. b). These are : —
1. Conditional, denoting a condition or hypothesis: as, si, if; nisi, unless.
2. Comparative, implying comparison as well as condition : as, ac si, as if.
3. Concessive, denoting a concession or admission: as, quamquam, although
(lit. however much it may be true that, etc.).
4. Temporal : as, postquam, after.
6. Consecutive, expressing result : as, at, so that
6. Final, expressing purpose : as, at, in order thai; ne, tJiat not.
7. Causal, expressing cause : as, quia, decause.
224. Conjunctions are more numerous and more accurately-
distinguished in Latin than in English. The following list
includes the common conjunctions ^ and conjunctive phrases : —
Coordinate
a. Copulative and Disjunctive
et, -que, atqne (ac), and.
et . . . et ; et . . . -qae (atque); -que . . . et ; -qne . . . -que (poetical), both . . . and.
etiam, quoque, neqae non (necndn), quin etiam, itidem (item), also.
cum . . . tarn ; tam . . . tum, both . . . and; not ordy . . . but also.
1 Some of these have been included in the classification of adverbs. See also list
of Correlatives, § 152.
138 PARTICLES [§ 224
qua . . . qa&, on the one hand , , . on the other hand.
modo . . . modo, now . . . now.
aut . . . aat; vel . . . vel (-ve), either . . . or.
sive (seu) . . . sive, whether . . . or.
nee (neque) . . . nee (neque); neque . . . nee ; nee . . . neque (rare), neither . . . nor.
et . . . neque, both . . . and not.
nee . . . et ; nee (neque) . . . -que, neither (both not) . . . and,
h. Adversative
sed, autem, verum, vero, at, atqui, bat.
tamen, attamen, sed tamen, verum tamen, hut yet, nevertheless.
nihildminus, none the less.
at vero, but in truth; enimverd, for in truth.
ceterum, on the other hand., but.
c. Causal
nam, namque, enim, etenim, for.
quapropter, quare, quamobrem, qudcirca, unde, viher^ore, whence.
d. Illative
ergd, igitur, itaque, ideo, idcireo, inde, proinde, ther^ore^ axicordingly.
Subordinate
a. Conditional
81, if; sin, but if; nisi (ni), unless j if not; quod si, but if.
modo, dum, dummodo, si modo, if only, provided.
dummodo ne (dum ne, modo ne), provided only not.
h. Comparative
ut, uti, sicut, just as; velut, as, so as; prout, praeut, ceu, like as, according as.
tamquam (tanquam), quasi, ut si, ac si, velut, veiuti, velut si, as if.
quam, atque (ac), as, than.
c. Concessive
etsi, etiamsi, tametsi, even if; quamquam (quanquam), although.
quamvis, quantumvis, quamlibet, quantumlibet, however much,
licet (properly a verb), ut, cum (quom), though, suppose, whereas.
fl. Temporal
cum (quom), quando, when; ubi, ut, when, as; cum primum, ut piimom, nbi primum,
simul, simul ac, simul atque, as soon as; postquam (poste&quam), after.
prius . . . quam, ante . . . quam, b^ore; n5n ante . . . quam, not . . . until.
dum, usque dum, d5nec, quoad, until, as long as, white.
§§ 224-226] INTERJECTIONS 189
e. Consectttiye and Final
at (ati), qao, ao tkat^ in order that.
ne, ut ne, lest (that . . . not^ in order that not) ; nSve (neu), tkat not, nor.
quin (after Degatives), quominus, but that (so as to prevent), that noL
/. Causal
qaia, qaod, qaoniam (tqaom-iam), quandd, because.
cum (quom), since.
qaanddqaidem, si quidem, quippe, ut pote, since indeed^ inasmuch as.
propterea . . . qaod, for this reason . . . that.
On the use of Ck>njanction8, see §§ 323, 324.
mXERJECTIONS
225. Some Interjections are mere natural exclamations of feeling; others ai*e
derived from inflected parts of speech, e.g. the imperatives em, lo (probahly for erne,
take); age, oome, etc. Names of deities occur in hercie, pol (from Pollux), etc. Many
Latin interjections are borrowed from the Greek, as euge, euboe, etc.
226. The following list comprises most of the Interjections in
common use : —
0, en, ecce, ehem, papae, y&h (of astonishment).
id, evae, eyoe, eohoe (of joy).
hen, ehea, yae, alas (of sorrow).
hens, eho, ehodom, ho (of caMing) ; st, hist.
eia, eage (of praise).
pro (of attestation) : as, pr5 pador, shame I
140 FORMATION OF WORDS [§§227-230
FORMATION OF WORDS
227. AH formation of words is originally a process of composition. An element
significant in itself is added to another significant element, and thns the meaning of
the two is combined. No other combination is possible for the formation either of
inflections or of stems. Thus, in fact, words (since roots and stems are significant
elements, and so words) are first placed side by side, then brought under one accent,
and finally felt as one word. The gradual process is seen in sea voyage^ sea-nymph,
seaside. But as all derivation, properly so called, appears as a combination of unin-
flected stems, every type of formation in use must antedate inflection. Hence Tvords
were not in strictness derived either from nouns or from verbs, but from stems which
were neither, because they were in fact both ; for the distinction between noun-stems
and verb-stems had not yet been made.
After the development of Inflection, however, that one of several kindred words
which seemed the simplest was regarded as \h& primitive form, and from this the otiier
words of the group were thought to be derived. Such supposed processes of formation
were then imitated, often erroneously, and in this way new modes of derivation arose.
Thus new adjectives were formed from nouns, new nouns from adjectives, new adjec-
tives from verbs, and new verbs from adjectives and nouns.
In course of time the real or apparent relations of many words became confused,
so that nouns and adjectives once supposed to come from nouns were often assigned
to verbs, and others once supposed to come from verbs were assigned to nouns.
Further, since the language was constantly changing, many words went out of use,
and do not occur in the literature as we have it. Thus many Derivatives survive of
which the Primitive is lost.
Finally, since all conscious word-formation is imitative, intermediate steps in deriva-
tion were sometimes omitted, and occasionally apparent Derivatives occur for which
no proper Primitive ever existed.
HOOTS AND STEMS
228. Roots ^ are of two kinds : —
1. Verbal, expressing ideas of action or condition (sensible phenomena).
2. Pronominal, expressing ideas of position and direction.
From verbal roots come all parts of speech except pronouns and certain
particles derived from pronominal roots.
229. Stems are either identical with roots or derived from them.
They are of two classes: (1) Noun-stems (including Adjective-
stems) and (2) Verb-stems.
Note. — Noun-stems and verb-stems were not originally different (see p. 163), and
in the consciousness of the Romans were often confounded ; but in general they were
treated as distinct.
230. Words are formed by inflection : (1) from roots inflected
as stems; (2) from derived stems (see § 232).
1 For the distinction between Roots and Stems, see §§ 24, 25.
§§231-233] PRIMARY SUFFIXES 141
231. A root used as a stem may appear —
a. With a short vow^ : as, dnc-is (dux), dug ; nec-is (nez) ; i-s, i-d. So
in verbs : as, es-t, fer-t (cf . § 174. 2).
b* With a long vowel ^ : as, luc-is (lux), luc ; pac-is (p&z). So in verbs :
duc-o, i-s for f eis, from e5, ire ; f&tur from fari.
c* W^ith reduplication : as, fur-fur, mar-mor, mur-mur. So in verbs : as,
gi-gnO (root gen), si-std (root sta).
DERIVED STEMS AND SUFFIXES
232. Derived Stems are formed from roots or from other stems
by means of suffixes. These are : —
1. Primary : added to the root, or (in later times by analogy) to verb-
stems.
2. Secondary : added to a noun-stem or an adjective-stem.
Both primary and secondary suffixes are for the most part pronominal
roots (§ 228. 2), but a few are of doubtful origin.
Note 1. — The distinction between primary and secondary suffixes, not being orig-
inal (see § 227), is continually lost sight of in the development of a language. Suffixes
once primary are used as secondary, and those once secondary are used as primary.
Thus in hosticas (hosti + cas) the suffix -cus, originally ko- (see § 234. II. 12) primary, as
in pauctts, has become secondary, and is thus regularly used to form derivatives ; but
in pudlcus, apricus, it is treated as primary again, because these words were really or
apparently connected with verbs. So in English -able was borrowed as a primary
suffix (tolerable, eatable), but also makes forms like clubbable, salable; some is prop-
erly a secondary suffix, as in toilsome, lonesome, but makes also such words as meddle-
some, venturesome.
NoTB 2. — It is the stem of the word, not the nominative, that is formed by the
derivative suffix. For convenience, however, the nominative will usually be given.
Primary Suffixes
233. The words in Latin formed immediately from the root by
means of Primary Suffixes, are few. For —
1. Inherited words so formed were mostly further developed by the
addition of other suffixes, as we might make an adjective lone4y-some-ish^
meaning nothing more than lone, lonely, or lonesome.
2. By such accumulation of suffixes, new compound suffixes were formed
which crowded out even the old types of derivation. Thus, —
1 The difference in vowel-quantity in the same root (as duo) depends on inherited
variations (see § 17. a).
142 FORMATION OF WORDS [§§ 233, 234
A word like mSnt, oMiitia, by the suflSx 5n- (nom. -d), gave mentid, and this,
being divided into men + tid, gave rise to a new type of abstract noons in -tio :
as, lSg&-ti5, embawy, ^
A word like auditor, by the sufSx io- (nom. -ius), gave rise to adjectives like
aaditdr-ins, of which the neater (auditorium) is used to denote the j^ce where
the action of the verb is performed. Hence tfirio- (nom. -tocinm), n., becomes a
regular noun-suffix (§ 250. a).
So in English such a word as suffocation gives a suffix -ation, and with this is
made starvation^ though there is no such word as starvate.
234. Examples of primary stem-suffixes are : —
I. Vowel suffixes : —
1. 0- (m., N.), fl- (f.), found in nouns and adjectives of the first two declen-
sions : as, sonus, Ifidns, vagus, toga (root teg).
2. i-, as in ovis, avis ; in Latin frequently changed, as in rfipSs, or lost, as in
scobs (scobis, root scab).
3. U-, disguised in most adjectives by an additional i, as in sui-vis (for tsuad-
vis, instead of tsuft-dus, cf. ii8ijs)^ ten-uis (root ten in tendo), and remaining alone
only in nouns of the fourth declension, as acus (root ak, sharp ^ in ftcer, acies,
cJici>s), pecu, genu.
II. Suffixes with a consonant : —
1. to- (m., n.), td- (f.), in the regular perfect passive participle, as tSctos,
tectum ; sometimes with an active sense, as in pdtus, pr&nsus ; and found in a
few words not recognized as participles, as pfitus (cf. pfirus), altus (aid).
2. ti- in abstracts and rarely in nouns of agency, as messis, vestis, pars,
mens. But in many the i is lost.
3. tu- in abstracts (including supines), sometimes becoming concretes, as
actus, IQctus.
4. no- (m., n.), nA- (f.), forming perfect participles in other languages, and in
Latin making adjectives of like participial meaning, which often become nouns,
as magnus, plSnus, regnum.
5. ni-, in noims of agency and adjectives, as ignis, sSgnis.
6. nu-, rare, as in manus, pmus, comu.
7. mo- (mft-), with various meanings, as in animus, almus, firmus, forma.
8. vo- (va-) (commonly uo-, ui-), with an active or passive meaning, as in
equus (equos), arvum, cdnspicuus, exiguus, vacivus (vacuus).
9. ro- (ra-), as in ager (stem ag-ro-), integer (cf. int&ctus), sacer, pleri-que (cf.
plenus, plgtus).
10. lo- (UI-), as in caelum (for tcaed-lum), chisel, exemplum, sella (for fsedla).
11. yo- (ya-), forming gerundives in other languages, and in Latin making
adjectives and abstracts, including many of the iirst and fifth declensions, as
eximius, aud&da, P15rentia, pemiciSs.
12. ko- (ka-), sometimes primary, as in pauci (cf. iravpos), locus (for stlocus).
In many cases the vowel of this termination is lost, leaving a consonant stem :
as, apex, cortex, loqufix.
§§234-286] DERIVATION OF NOUNS 148
13. en- (on-, Sn-, 5n-), in nouns of agency and abstracts : as, aspergS, compAgo
(-inis), ger5 (Italia).
14. men-, expressing meanSj often passing into the action itself : as, agmen,
flumen, fnlmen.
15. ter- (tor-, tSr-, tor-, tr-), forming nouns of agency : as, pater (i.e. protector),
trater (i.e. supporter), or&tor.
16. tro-, forming nouns of means: as, claustrum (claud), mOlctram (mdlo).
17. es- (os-), forming names of actions, passing into concretes: as, genus
(generis), tempus (see § 15. 4). The infinitiye in -ere (as in reg-ere) is a locative of
this stem (-er-e for t-es-i).
18. nt- (ont-, ent-), forming present active participles : as, legSns, with some
adjectives from roots unknown : as, frequens, zecSns.
The above, with some suffixes given below, belong to the Indo-European
parent speech, and most of them were not felt as living formations in the
Latin.
Significant Endings
235. Both primary and secondary suffixes, especially in the
form of compound suffixes, were used in Latin with more or less
consciousness of their meaning. They may therefore be called
Significant Endings.
They form: (1) Nouns of Agency; (2) Abstract Nouns (in-
cluding Names of Actions) ; (3) Adjectives (active or passive).
Note. — There is really no difference in etymology between an adjective and a
noun, except that some formations are habitually used as adjectives and others as
nopus (§ 20. b. N. 2).
DERIVATION OF NOUNS
Nouns of Agency
236. Nouns of Agency properly denote the off ent or doer of an
action. But they include many words in which the idea of agency
has entirely faded out, and also many words used as adjectives.
a« Nouns denoting the agent or doer of an action are formed from roots
or verb-stems by means of the suffixes —
-tor (-Bor), M. ; -trix, f.
can-tor, can-trix, singer ; can-ere (root can), to svng,
vic-tor, vic-triz, conqueror (victorious) ; vinc-ere (vie), to conquer,
tdn-sor (for ftond-tor), tdns-trix (for
ttond-trix), hair-cutter; tond-ere (tond as root), to shear.
peti-tor, candidate; pet-4^re (pet; peti- as stem), to seek.
144 FORMATION OF WORDS [§§236-238
By analogy -tor is sometimes added to noim-stems, but these may be stems
of lost verbs : as, via-tor, traveller , from via, way (but cf. the verb inyiS).
Note 1. — The termination -tor (-sor) has the same phonetic change as the supine
ending -tam (-sum), and is added to the same form of root or verb-stem as that ending.
The stem-ending is t5r- (§234. II. 15), which is shortened in the nominative.
Note 2. — The feminine form is always -trix. Masculines in -sor lack the feminine,
except expulsor (expaltrix) and tdnsor (tonstxiz).
&• t-, M. or F., added to verb-stems makes nouns in -es (-itis, -etis ; stem
it-, et-) descriptive of a character : —
prae-stes, -stitis, (verb-stem from root sta, stAre, starid), guardian,
teges, -etis (verb-stem tege-, cf. tego, cover) ^ a coverer^ a mat.
pedes, -itis (p§8, ped-is, foot, and i, root of ire, go), fooUaoldier,
c. -5 (genitive -5nis, stem on-), m., added to verb-stems^ indicates a person
employed in some specific art or trade : —
com-bibo (bib as root In bibo, bibere, drink), a poUcompanion,
gero, -onis (oes In gerd, gerere, carry), a carrier.
Note. — This termination is also used to form many nouns descriptive of personal
characteristics (cf. §255).
Names of Actions and Abstxact Nouns
237. Names of Actions are confused, through their termina-
tions, with real abstract nouns (names of qualities)^ and with con-
crete nouns denoting means and instrument.
They are also used to express the concrete result of an action
(as often in English).
Thus legio is literally the act of collecting, but comes to mean legion (the body
of soldiers collected) ; cf. leny in English.
238. Abstract Nouns and Names of Actions are formed from
roots and verb-stems by means of the endings —
a. Added to roots or forms conceived as roots —
NoM. -or, M.
-68, F. -US, N.
Gen. -6ri8
-is -eris or -oris
Stem 6r- (earlier
5a-)
1- er- (earlier ©/©s-)
tim-or, fear ;
timere, to fear.
am-or, love;
amare, to love.
sed-es, seat;
sedere, to ait.
caed-es, slaughter;
caedere, to kill.
genus, hirth, race;
GEN, to he horn (root of gignd, hear).
1 So conceived, but perhaps this termination was originally added to noun-stems.
§§ 288, 239] NAMES OF ACTIONS AND ABSTRACT NOUNS 145
Note. — Many nouns of this class are formed by analogy from imaginary roots:
as facinas from a supposed root facin.
b. Apparently added to roots or verb-stems —
NoM. -16, F. -tia (-816), F. -tflra (-sflra), f. -tus, m.
Gen. -16iil8 -tldnls (-Bl6nlB) -tfirae (-sflrae) -ttLs (-sfls)
Stem 16n- tl6ii- (sl6n-) tfLrft- (sflrft-) tu- (au-)
leg-id, a collecting (levy), a legion; legere, to collect,
reg-io, a direction, a region; regere, to direct.
Yocjl-tio, a caUing; voc&re, to coil.
moli-tid, a toiling ; mdliri, to toil,
8crip-tara, a writing ; scribere, to write.
sen-sns (for tsent-tns), /ee^ing ; aentire, to feel.
Note 1. — ^ti5, -tiira, -tu» are added to roots or verb-stems precisely as -tor, with the
same phonetic change (cf . § 236. a. v. i). Hence they are conveniently associated with
the supine stem (see § 178). They sometimes form nouns when there is no correspond-
ing verb in use : as, sexiAtas, senate (cf . senex) ; mentis, mention (cf . mSns) ; ffitura, off-
spring (cf. fStns); litterfttiiia, literature (cf. Utterae) ; cOnsaUltus, oonsiUship (cf. oOnsul).
Note 2. —Of these endings, -tus was originally primary (cf . § 234. II. 3.) ; -16 is a com-
pound formed by adding 5n- to a stem ending in a vowel (originally 1) : as, diciS (cf .
-dicas and dicis) ; -tid is a compound formed by adding 5n- to stems in ti- : as, gradAtiS
(cf. gradAtim); -tura is formed by adding -la, feminine of -nis, to stems in tn-: as,
nat^za from nAtns ; statnza from status (cf . flgiiia, of like meaning, from a simple u-
stem, fflgu-e; and mAtilras, Mfttuta).
239. Nouns denoting actSy or means and results of acts, are
formed from roots or verb-stems by the use of the suflBxes —
-men, n.; -mentum, n.; -m6nlam, n. ; -m6nla, f.
ag-men, line ofmarch, band ; ag, root of agere, to lead.
cert&-men, contest, battle ; certft-, stem of certAie, to contend.
So colurmen, piUar ; mo-men, movement; n5-men, name; flfl-men, stream.
testi-moninm, testimony ; test&ri, to witness.
qneri-mdnia, complaint; queri, to complain.
-m5niiim and -mSnia are also used as secondary, forming nouns from other
nouns and from adjectives : as, sancti-mSnia, sanctity (sanctus, holy) ; matri-
moninm, marriage (mater, mother).
Note. — Of these endings, -men is primary (cf . § 234. II. 14) ; -mentum is a compound
of men- and to-, and appears for the most part later in the language than -men : as,
m5men, movement (Lucr.) ; mSmentum (later). So elementnm is a development from
i/-M-N-a, l-mr-n*8 (letters of the alphabet), changed to elementa along with other nouns
in -men. -mdninm and -mdnia were originally compound secondary suffixes formed
from m6n- (a by-form of men-), which was early associated with mo-. Thus almus
146 FORMATION OF WORDS [§§ 239, 241
(stem aimo'), fostering; Almte, a river near Rome; aUmteU, ttqtport. But the last
was formed directly from al5 when -mdnia had beoome establiahed as a supposed
primary suffix.
240. Nouns denoting means or instrument are formed from roots
and verb-stems (rarely from noun-stems) by means of the neuter
suffixes —
-bulum, -culum, -brum, -crum, -truin
pft-balnm, fodder ; p&scere, to feed.
8ta-buium, stall ; st&re, to stand.
rehi-culum, wagon ; yehere, to carry.
candeU-bmm, candiestick; candSUfCaTidte (a secondary formation).
sepul-cmm, tomb ; sepelire, to bury.
claus-trum (tclaud-trom), bar ; claadere, to shut.
aiartrvaa^ plough ; uSae, to plough.
Note. — tram (stem tro-) was an old formation from tor- (§234. II. 15), with the
stem suffix o-, and -clum (stem clo- for tlo-) appears to be related ; -culam is the same
as -dam; -bulam contains lo- (§ 234. II. 9, 10) and -brum is clowly related.
a* A few masculines and feminines of the same formation occur as nouns
and adjectives : —
fa-bula, tale ; f Ari, to speak.
ridi-culus, laughable; ridSre, to laugh.
fa-ber, smith; facere, to make.
late-bra, hiding-place ; latSre, to hide.
tere-bra, auger ; terere, to bore.
mulo-tra, milk-pail ; mulgSre, to milk.
241. Abstract Nouns, mostly from adjective-stems, rarely from
noun-stems, are formed by means of the secondary feminine suf-
fixes
-ia (-168), -tia (-ties), -tfta, -tfls, -tfidd
audic-ia, boldness ; aad&z, bold.
panper-iSs, poverty ; pauper, poor.
tristi-tia, sadness ; tristis, sad.
segni-tiCs, laziness; sSgnis, lazy.
boni-t&s, goodness; bonus, good.
senec-tus, age; senez, old.
m&gni-tud5, greatness; mAgnns, great,
1 . In stems ending in o- or &- the stem-vowel is lost before -ia (as anperb-ia)
and appears as i before -tas, -tus, -tia (as in boni-t&s, above).
2. Consonant stems often insert i before -tas : as, loquSz (stem loqaac-),
loquaci-tas ; but hones-tas, mAies-tas (as if from old adjectives in -es), uber-tas,
volap-taa. o after i is changed to e : as, plus (stem pio-), pie-tas ; socius, sode^as.
§241]
NEUTER ABSTRACTS
14T
a* In like manner -dA and -g5 (f.) form abstract nouns, but are asso-
ciated with verbs and apparently added to verb-stems : —
cupi-d5, desire^ from cupere, to desire (as if from stem cupi-).
dulce-dd, suoeetMss (cf. dulds, svoeet)^ as if from a stem dulci-, of. diiloe<«cd.
lumbA-g5, lumbago (cf. Iambus, loin)^ as if from tlumbd, -ftre.
Note. — Of these, -ia is inherited as secondary (cf. § 234. II. 11). -tia is formed by
adding -ia to stems with a t-sufiix : as, militia, from miles (stem milit-) ; molestia
from molesttts ; clSmentia from clSmfins ; whence by analogy, mali-tia, av&ri-tia. -tils
is inherited, but its component parts, tA- + ti-, are found as suffixes in the same sense:
as, senecta from senez ; iCmen-ti8 from sCmen. -tfis is tii- + ti-, cf. servitu-dS. -d5 and
-go appear only with long vowels, as from verb-stems, by a false analogy ; but -d5 is.
do- + oii-: as, cupidvs, capid5; gravidas, giavCdd (cf. gravfr405) ; albidus, alMdS (cf. al-
bescd) ; formidns, Aof, formidS (cf. formidnlotas), {hot flash?) fear; -g6 is possibly co- +
on- ; cf . vorix, vorigS, but cf . CethfiQis. -tttdS is compounded of -d5 with tu-stems,.
which acquire a long vowel from association with verb-stems in u- (cf . volfimen, from
volvo) : as, cdnsuCtd-dd, valStu-dS, habitu-dS, sollicitii-dd ; whence servitndO (cf . servitus,.
-tdtis).
6. Neuter Abstracts, which easily pass into concretes denoting offices
and groups, are formed from noun-stems and perhaps from verb-stems by
means of the suffixes —
-ium, -tium
hospit-ium, hospitality, an inn ; ^
colleg-inm, colleagueship, a coUege ;
auspic-ium, soothsaying, an omen ;
gaud-inm, joy ;
effug-ium, escape;
benefic-ium, a kindness ;
desider-iom, longing;
adverb-inm, adverb;
interlun-inm, time of new moon ;
rSgifug-imn, flight of the kings ;
servi-tinm, slavery, the slave class ;
hospes (gen. hospit-is), a guest,
collSga, a colleague.
auspex (gen. auspic-is), a sootksayer^
gandSre, to rejoice.
eifagere, to escape.
benefacere, to ben^ ; cf . beneficus.
dSnder&re, to miss, from tdS-sidSs, out
of place, of missing soldiers.
ad verbum, [added] to a verb.
inter IflnAs, between moons.
rSgis fuga, flight of a king.
servus, a slave.
Vowel stems lose their vowel before -ium : as, colleg-inm, from collega.
Note. — ^ium is the neuter of the adjective suffix -ius. It is an inherited primary
suffix, but is used with great freedom as secondary, -tiam is formed like -tia, by add-
ing -ium to stems with t : as, ezit-ium, eqait-ium (cf . exitns, equitSs) ; so, by analogy,,
calvitium, servitinm (from calvus, senms)'.
Cm Less commonly, abstract nouns (which usually become concrete) are
formed from noun-stems (confused with verb-stems) by means of th&
suffixes —
^ The abstract meaning is put first.
148 FORMATION OF WORDS TSS 241-243
-nia, F. ; -nium, -lium, -cinium, n.
pecfi-nia, money (ckattela) ; pecu, calUe.
contici-nium, the hush of night; conticiscere, to become stiU.
anzi-liam, help ; augere, to increoae.
latrd-dnium, robbery; latrd, robber (cf. latrdcinor, rob, im-
plying an adjective flatrodnus).
Por Diminutives and Patronymics, see §§ 243, 244.
DERIVATION OF ADJECTIVES
242. Derivative Adjectives, which often become nouns, are
-either Nominal (from nouns or adjectives) or Verbal (as from roots
or verb-stems).
Nominal Adjectives
243. Diminutive Adjectives are usually confined to one gen-
der, that of the primitive, and are used as Diminutive Nouns.
They are formed by means of the suffixes —
-uluB (-a, -um), -oluB (after a vowel), -cuius, -eUua, -iUus
iiy-alu8, a streamlet ; rivus, a brook.
gladi-olus, a small sword ; gladius, a sword.
fili-olas, a little son ; filias, a son.
fni-ola, a little daughter ; filia, a daughter.
&tri-oliim, a little hall; fttrium, a hall.
homun-culus, a dwarf; homd, a man.
auri-cula, a little ear ; auris, an ear.
munus-culiim, a little gift ; munus, n. , a gift.
codic-illi, u)riting-taUets ; cddex, a block.
mis-ellas, rather vrretched ; miser, wretched.
lib-elluSf a little book ; liber, a book.
aure-olus (-a, -urn), golden; aureus (-a, -um), golden.
parv-olas (later parv-ulus), very small; parvus (-a, -urn), little.
maius-culus, somewhat larger; maior (old maids), greater.
Note 1. — These diminutive endings are all formed by adding -lus to various stems.
The formation is the same as that of -alas in § 261. But these words became set-
tled as diminutives, and retained their connection with nouns. So in English the
diminutives whitish^ reddish, are of the same formation as bookish and snappish.
-culas comes from -las added to adjectives in -cos formed from stems in n- and a- : as,
iaven<as, Aorun-cas (cf. Auruncaldius), pris-cas, whence the ca becomes a part of the
termination, and the whole ending (-cuius) is used elsewhere, but mostly with n- and s-
.stems, in accordance with its origin.
Note 2. — Diminutives are often used to express affection, pity, or contempt: as,
'd$liciolae, little pet; maliercula, a poor (weak) woman \ Graeculus, a miserable Greek-
§§243-246] NOMINAL ADJECTIVES 149
a. -cio, added to stems in n-, has the same diminutive force, but is used
with masculines only : as, homun-cid, a dwarf (from honi5, a man),
244. Patronymics, indicating descent or relationshipj are formed
by adding to proper names the suffixes —
-adSs, -idSs, -Idea, -eus, m. ; -fts, -is, -Sis, f.
These words, originally Greek adjectives, have almost all become nouns
in Latin : —
AtlAs: Atlanti-adSs, Mercury; Atlant-idSs (6r. plur.), the Pleiads,
Sdpid : Scipi-ades, son of Scipio.
Tyndarens: Tyndar-ides, Castor or Pollux, son of Tyndarus; Tyndar-is,
Helen, daughter of Tyndarus.
Anchises : Anchisi-ades, ^neas, son of Anchises,
Thgaeus : Thes-idSs, son of Theseus.
Tydeus : T^d-idea, Diomedes, son of Tydeus.
Oilens : Ai&x (Kl-eua, son of Oileus.
Ciaseua : Ciase-is, JSecvba, daughter of Cisseus.
Thaom&a : Thaumant-iAa, Iris, daughter of Thaumas,
Heapems : Hesper-idea (from Heaper-ia, -idia), plur., the daughters of Hesperus,
the Hesperides.
245. Adjectives meaning/wK o/, prone to^ are formed from noun-
stems with the suffixes —
-5bus, -ISns, -lentuB
flncta-oaua, billoivy ; fluctua, a billow.
fonn-oana, beautiful; forma, beauty.
pesical-oaua, dangerous; pericalmn, danger.
peati-lina, peati-lentua, pestilent ; peatia, pest.
yino-lentua, -nn-oana, given to drink ; vinum, wine.
246. Adjectives meaning provided with are formed from nouns
by means of the regular participial endings —
-tuB, -atns, -Itua, -fltus
fiinea-tua, deadly; fanua (st. fOner-, older fdn%a-), death.
honea-tua, honorable; honor, honor.
faaa-taa (for tfavea-tua), favoraJble ; favor, favor.
barb-Ataa, bearded ; barba, a beard.
torr-itua, turreted ; tarria, a tower.
com-ntaa, horned ; coma, a horn.
NoTB. — fttus, -ittts, -iitas, imply reference to an imaginary verb-stem ; -tus is added
directly to nouns without any such reference.
160 FORMATION OF WORDS fSS 247-249
247. Adjectives of various meanings, but signifying in gen-
eral made of or belonging to, are formed from nouns by means of
the suffixes —
-euB, 'ivLB, -&oeu8, -Icius, -aneus (-neas), -tiouB
aur-eus, golden; aarum, gold,
patr-ias, po^erno/ ; patidT, a father.
ux5r-ia8, uxorious ; uxor, a wife.
ro8-&cett8, of rosea ; rosa, a rose.
later-icios, qf brick ; later, a brick.
praesent-Aneas, operaiiTkg insUmUy ; praeaSns, present.
extr-ftneus, exterrual; extrft, voUhovt.
sabterr-Anens, sfMerranean ; sab terra, underground,
aallg-neos, of willow; salix, wiUow.
▼olft-ticas, winged (voULtus, a flight) ; voUre, to fly.
domes-tictts, of the Jiouse, domestic ; domus, a house,
8ily&-tictt8, sylvan ; silva, a wood.
Note. — ^ius is originally primitiye (§ 234. II. 11) ; -eus corresponds to Greek -cios,
-eos, and has lost a y-sound (cf . yo-, § 234. 11. 11) ; -Idas and -Aceus are formed by add-
ing -ias and -ens to stems in Ire-, Sl-o- (suffix ko-, § 234. II. 12) ; -neus is no- + -eus
(§ 234. II. 4) ; linens is formed by adding -neus to &-stems ; -ticns is a formation with
-ens (cf. hosti-cus with silvi-ticas), and has been affected by the analogy of participial
stems in to- (nominative -tus).
248. Adjectives denoting pertaining to are formed from noun-
stems with the suffixes —
-aiis, -aria, -alls, -niB, -tUla
nAtfir-alis, natural; nAtiira, nature.
popul-Aris, fellow-countryman ; populus, a people,
patrn-Slis, cousin; patruus, unde.
host-ilis, hostile ; hostis, an enemy.
cur-ulis, curule ; cumis, a chariot.
Note. — The suffixes arise from adding -lis (stem 11-) to various vowel stems. The
long vowels are due partly to confusion between stem and suffix (cf . vitA-lis, from
vitA-, with rSg-Alis), partly to confusion with verb-stems: cf. Apnlis (aperire), edulis
(edere), with senilis (senex). -ris is an inherited suffix, but in most of these formations
-Aris arises by differentiation for -Alls in words containing an 1 (as niilitnAris).
249. Adjectives with the sense of belonging to are formed by
means of the suffixes —
-anus, -6nua, -Inns ; -as, -Cnsis ; -ous, -aciis (-acus), -lens ; -eus,
-eius, -iciUB
1. So from common noims : —
mont-Anus, of the mxmntains ; mdns (stem monti-), mxmntain.
veter-Anus, veteran; vetus (stem veter-), old.
anteluc-Anus, b^ore daylight ; ante lucem, b^ore light.
§§ 249, 250]
NOMINAL ADJECTIVES
161
terr-Snus, earthly;
ser-enas, calm (of evening stillness) ;
coU-inus, of a hill ;
diT-inas, divine;
libert-inas, of the class offreedmen ; "
ctti-&8, of what country f
infim-Ss, of the lowest rank ;
terra, earth.
sSrus, late,
collis, hill.
diYus, god.
llbcrtus, one^sfreedman,
quia, who f
infimus, lovoest.
for-ensis, of a market-place, or the Forum ; forum, a market-place.
civi-cus, civiCy of a citizen ;
fullon-icus, ofafuUer;
mer-&cus, pure ;
femin-eus, of a woman, feminine ;
lact-eus, milky ;
pleb-eius, of the commons, plebeian ;
patr-icias, patrician;
civia, a citizen.
fuUo, a fuller.
memm, pure wine.
fSmina, a woman.
lac, milk (stem lacti-).
plSbSa, the commoTis.
pater, father.
2. But especially from proper nouns to denote belonging to or coming from ;
Rom-inna, Roman;
Soll-ani, Sulla^s veterans ;
Cyzic-gnl, Cyzicenes, people of Cyzicus ;
Lignr-mas, of Liguria;
Arpin-fts, ofArpinum ;
Sidli-dnaia, Sicilian;
ni-acua, Trojan (a Greek form) ;
Platdn-icaa, Platonic;
Aqoil-eiaa, a Roman name ;
Roma, Rome.
Sulla.
Cyzicua.
Liguria.
Arpinum.
Sidlia, Sicily.
Ilium, Troy.
Platd.
Aquil-eia, a town in Italy ; 1 qu .
a. Many derivative adjectives with these endings have by usage become
nouns : —
Siiv-Anna, m., a god of the woods ; ailva, a wood.
membr-ftna, f., skin; membrum, limb.
Aemili-anna, m., name of Scipio Africanus ; Aemilia (gSns).
lani-Sna, f., a butcher^ s stall ;
Aufidi-Snns, m. , a Roman name ;
inqnil-mua, m., a lodger;
Caec-ina, used as m., a Roman name ;
m-ina, f., afaU;
laniua, Indcher.
tAufidius (Aufidus).
incola, an inhabitant.
caecus, blind.
ru5, fall (no noun existing),
doctor, teacher.
doctr-ina, f., learning ;
Note. — Of these terminations, -Anus, -Snus, -mus are compounded from -nus added
to a stem-vowel : as, area, arcftnus ; collis, collinus. The long vowels come from a con-
fusion with verb-stems (as in plS-nns, fini-tus, tribii-tus), and from the noun-stem in a- :
as, arcanus. A few nouns occur of similar formation, as if from verb-stems in 5- and
U-: as, colonas (cold, cf. incola), patrdnus (cf. patrS, -ftre), tribfinus (cf. tribao, tribus),
Portunus (cf. portus), Vacfina (cf. vaco, vacuus).
250. Other adjectives meaning in a general way belonging to
(especially of plcicea and times) are formed with the suffixes —
152 FORMATION OF WORDS [§§ 260, 251
-ter (-tria), -ester (-estris), -timus, -nus, -emus, -umus, -ternus (-tnrniui)
paias-ter, of tJie marshes ; palus, a marsh.
pedes^ter, of the foot-soldiers ; pedes, a footman,
sSmes-tiis, lasting six months ; ■- sex mgnses, six months.
sily-ester, silv-estris, woody ; silva, a wood.
fini-timus, neighboring, on the borders ; finis, an erui.
mari-timos, of the sea ; mare, sea.
ver-nus, vernal; v6r, spring.
hodi-emus, of to-day ; hodie, to-day.
di-umus, daily ; dies, day.
hes-ternus, of yesterday ; heri (old hesi), yesterday.
diu-turnus, laMing ; diii, long (in time).
Note. — Of these, -ester is formed by adding tri- (cf . tro-, § 234. II. 16) to stems in
t- or d-. Thus tpedet-tri- becomes pedestri-, and others follow the analogy, -nus is an
inherited suffix (§ 234. II. 4). -emtts and -umus are formed by adding -nus to s-stems :
as, ditti-nus (for tditts-nus), and hence, by analogy, hodiemus (hodiS). By an extension
of the same principle were formed the suffixes -temus and -tumus from words like
patemus and noctumas.
a. Adjectives meaning belonging to are formed from nouns by means of
the suffixes —
-ftriuB, -t5rius (-sSrius)
ordin-arius, regular; 5rd5, rank, order.
argent-arius, of silver or money ; argentom, silver.
extr-ftrius, stranger; extrft, outside.
meri-t5ritt8, prqfUaMe ; meritus, earned.
dgyor-sdrius, of an inn (cf. § 264. 5) ; dSvorstts, turned aside.
Note 1. — Here -ius (§ 234. II. 11) is added to shorter forms in -arts and -or : as, pecu-
li&ritts (from peculiftris), bellatSrius (from beU&tor).
Note 2. — These adjectives are often fixed as nouns (see § 254).
Verbal Adjectives
251. Adjectives expressing the action of the verb as a qiiality
or tendency are formed from real or apparent verb-stems with the
suffixes —
-Sbc, -iduB, -uluB, -vus (-uus, -ivus, -ttvus)
denotes dt, faulty or aggressive tendency; -tlvus is oftener passive.
pfign-ftx, pu^Tiactot^a ; pfignftre, fo^^^t.
aad-ftx, bold ; audere, to dare.
cup-idus, eager ; cupere, to desire.
bib-olus, thirsty (as dry earth etc.) ; bibere, to drink.
proter-vus, violenJt, wanton ; prSterere, to trample.
§§ 261-253] VERBAL ADJECTIVES 168
noc-aus (noc-ivas), hutiful, injurioua; nocire, to do harm,
teddAvuB, restored ; lecideie, to faU back. ^
cap-tiYU8, captive ; m. , a prisoner of war ; capere, to take,
NoTB. — Of these, -&x is a reduction of -Actts (stem- vowel ft- + -cu8), become inde-
pendent and used with verb-stems. Similar forms in -8z, -Ox, -ix, and -fix are found
or employed in derivatives : as, imbrex, m., a rain-tile (from imber); senex, old (from
seni-s) ; ferox, fierce (from feras) ; atrdx, savage (from &ter, black) ; celdx, f., a yacht
(cf . cell5) ; fSlix, happy, originally fertile (cf . fCld, suck ) ; fiducia, f., coiifidence (as
from ffldux) ; cf. also victiix (from victor). So manducus, chewing (from mandd).
-idns is no doubt denominative, as in herbidus, grassy (from herba, herb) ; tumidus^
swollen (cf. tumu-lus, hill; tumul-tus, uproar); callidtts, tough, cunning (cf. callum^
tough flesh) ; mucidus, slimy (cf . milctts, slime) ; t&bidus, wasting (cf. taMs, waiting
disease). But later it was used to form adjectives directly from verb-stems.
^Itts is the same suffix as in diminutives, but attached to verb-stems. Cf . aemulas,
rivalling (cf . imitor and imigo) ; sSdulus, sitting by, attentive (cf . domi-seda, hom^
staying, and sSdo, set, settle, hence calm) ; pendulus, hanging (cf . pondd, ablative, in
weight ; perpendicalum, a plummet ; appendix, an addition) ; ^trigalus, covering (cf .
stragSs) ; legulus, a picker (cf. sacri-letnis, a picker up of things sacred).
-vtts seems originally primary (cf. § 234. II. 8), but -ivus and -tivus have become
secondary and are used with nouns: as, aestivus, of summer (from aestus, heat);
tempestivtts, timely (from tempus) ; cf. domes-ticus (from domus).
252. Adjectives expressing passive qualities^ but occasionally
active, are formed by means of the suffixes —
-ills, -billB, -iuB, -tills (-sUis)
frag-ilis, frail ; frangere (frag), to break.
no-bilis, well knoym, famous ; noscere (ono), to know. ,
exim-ius, choice^ rare (cf. e-greg-ius) ; eximere, to take out^ select.
ag-ilis, active; agere, to drive.
hab-ilis, handy ; hab€re, to hold.
al-tilis, fattened (see note) ; alere, to nourish.
Note. — Of these, -ius is primary, but is also used as secondary (cf . § 241. b. N.) . -ills
is both primary (as in agilis, fragilis) and secondary (as in similis, like, cf . 6fUQS, o/xaXoSf
English same) ; -bills is in some way related to -bulum and -brum (§ 240. n.) ; in -tills
and -sills, -lis is added to to- (so-), stem of the perfect participle : as, fossilis, dug up
(from fossas, dug) ; voiatilis, winged (from YoVktvLS, flight).
253. Verbal Adjectives that are Participial in meaning are
formed with the suffixes —
-nduB, -bundus, -cundua
a. -ndus (the same as the gerundive ending) forms a few active or reflex-
ive adjectives: —
seco-ndns, second (the following), favorable ; seqni, to follow.
rota-ndus, round (whirling) i ; rotare, to whirl.
1 Cf . volvendis mCnaibas (Aen. i. 269), in the revolving months ; cf . oriundi ab Sabinis
(Liv. i. 17), sprung from the Sabines, where oriundi =orti.
154 FORMATION OF WORDS [§§ 253, 264
b* -bundns, -cnndns, denote a continuance of the act or quality expressed
by the verb : —
▼itft-bandus, avoiding ; vitfire, to shun.
treme-bondus, trembling ; tremere, to tremble.
mori-bundus, dying, at the point of death ; monri, to die.
f A-cundus, eloquent ; f£ri, to speak.
fg-cundus, fruitful ; root fe, nourish.
tra-cundtts, irascible ; cf . ur&sci, to be angry.
Note. — These must have been originally nominal: as in the series, rubas, red
bush; nibidus (but no frubictts), ruddy; RubicSn, Red River (cf. Mini5/a river of
Etruria; Minius, a river of Lusitania); rubicondus (as in ayerrancus, homon-ciilns).
So turba, commotion; turbS, a top; turbidus, roily y etc. Cf. apexabo, longabo, gravSdo,
dttlc6d5.
c. Here belong also the participial suffixes -minus, -mnus (cf. Greek
-/tAcvos), from which are formed a few nouns in which the participial force is
still discernible : — ^
fe-mina, woman (the nourisher) ; root fe, nouri^.
alu-mnus, a foster-child, nursling ; alere, to nourish.
Nouns with Adjective Suffixes
254. Many fixed forms of the Nominal Adjective suffixes men-
tioned in the preceding sections, make Nouns more or less regu-
larly used in particular senses : —
1. -alius, person employed about anything : —
argent-arius, m. , silversmith, broker, from argentum, silver.
Corinthi-arius, m. , worker in Corinthian bronze (sarcastic nickname of Augustus),
from (aes) Corinthiom, Corinthian bronze.
centon-Srius, m., ragman, from centd, patchwork.
2. -aiia, thing connected with something : —
argent-aria, f., bank, from argentum, silver.
arSn-ariae, f. plural, sandpits, from arena, sand.
Asin-aria, f., name of a play, from asinns, ass.^
3. narium, place of a thing (with a few of more general meaning) : —
aer-arium, n. , treasury, from aes, copper.
tepid-ariam, n. , v)arm bath, from tepldus, warm.
sud-4rium, n., a towel, cf. sudo, -fire, 8V}eat.
sal-arinm, n., salt m^oney, salary, from s&l, salt.
calend-arium, n., a note-^ook, from calendae, calends.
iCf. §163. footnote 1.
2 Probably an adjective with f&bnla, play, understood.
§254] NOUNS WITH ADJECTIVE SUFFIXES 156
4. -tdria (-sdria) : —
Agita-toria, p., a play of Plautus, The Carter y from agitAtor.
▼or--8dna, f., a tack (nautical), from vorsua, a turn.
5. -t5riiun (-sSrium), place of action (with a few of more general meaning) :
deyor-soriiiiii, n., an inn^ as from dSvorto, turn aside.
audi-toriiim, n., a lecture-room, as from aadiS, hear,
ten-toriom, n., a tent, as from tendS, stretch.
tec-t5riam, n., planter, as from tego, tectus, cover.
por-toriom, n., toll, cf. portd, carry, and portus, harbor.
6. -He, animal-stall : —
bov-Oe, N., catUe-staU, from b5s, bdvis, ox, cow.
oy-ile, N., sheepfold, from ovis, stem ovi-, sheep.
7. -al for -ale, thing connected with the primitive : —
capit-al, N., headdress, capital crime, from caput, head,
pcnetr-ale (especially in plural), n., inner apartment, cf. penetro, enter.
Satum-alia, n. plural (the regular form for names of festivals), feast of Sat-
urn, from S&tumus.
8. -etum, N. (cf. -atns, -utus, see § 246. n.), -torn, place of a thing, especially
with names of trees and plants to designate where these grow : —
qiterc-^tiim, k. , oak grove, from qaercos, oaJc.
oHv-€tiun, N., olive grove, from oliva, an olive tree.
salic-tnm, v., a willow thicket, from salix, a willow tree.
Argil-Stum, v., The Clay Pit, from argilla, clay.
9. 'CUB (sometimes with inserted i, -icus), -icus, in any one of the gen-
ders, with various meanings : —
▼ili-cns, M., a steward, vili-ca, f., a stewardess, from villa, farm-house.
fabr-ica, f., a workshop, from faber, workman.
am>icu8, m., am-ica, t., friend, cf. amftre, to love.
bubnl-cu8, M., 07^4endeT, from bab-ulus, diminutive, cf. bds, ox
cant-icum, n. , song, from cantus, act of singing.
rubr-ica, f., red paint, from ruber, red.
10. -eus, -ca, -eum, with various meanings : —
alv-ens, m., a trough, from alvus, the beily.
capr-ea, f., a wild she-goat, from caper, he-goat.
flamm-enm, v., a bridal veil, from flamma, flame, from its color.
11. -ter (stem tri-), -aster, -ester : —
equea-ter, m., knight, for tequet-ter.
seqn-ester, m., a stake-holder, from derivative of sequor, foUow-
ole-aater, m. , wHd olive, from olea, an olive tree.
166 FORMATION OF WORDS [§§ 265-269
IRREGULAR DSRIVATIVSS
255. The suffix -0 (genitive -Onis, stem 5n-), usually added to
verb-stems (see § 236. c)^ is sometimes used with noun-stems to
form nouns denoting possessed of. These were originally adjec-
tives expressing quality or character^ and hence often appear as
proper names : —
epulae, a feast; epnl-o, a f easier,
nAsus, a Wise; nas-d, with a large noae (also as a proper name).
Yolns (in bene-volus), toishing ; yol-onSs (plural), volunteers,
frbns, forehead ; front-o, big-fiead (also as a proper name),
curia, a curia ; curi-o, head of a curia (also as a proper name),
restis, a rope; resti-o, a rope-maker,
a. Rarely suffixes are added to compound stems imagined, but not used
in their compound f orpa : —
ad-yerb-ium, adverb; ad, to, and yerbnm, verb, but without the intervening
tadverbns.
Ulti-fand-iam, large estate ; Utas, toide, fundas, estate, but without the inter-
vening tUltifandas.
su-ore-taur-ilia, a sacrifice of a swine, a sheep, and a bull ; sQs, sunne, ovia,
sheep, taorus, bull, where the primitive would be impossible in Latin^
though such formations are common in Sanskrit.
DERIVATION OF VERBS
256. Verbs may be classed as Primitive or Derivative,
1. Primitive Verbs are those inherited by the Latin from the parent speech.
2. Derivative Verbs are those formed in the development of the Latin
as a separate language.
257. Derivative Verbs are of two main classes : —
1. Denominative Verbs, formed from nouns or adjectives.
2. Verbs apparently derived from the stems of other verbs.
Denomiiiative Verbs
258. Verbs were formed in Latin from almost every foim of
noun-stem and adjective-stem.
259. 1. Verbs of the Firat Conjugation are formed directly
from &-stems, regularly with a transitive meaning: as, foga,
flight ; fogfire, put to flight.
§§ 259-261] DENOMINATIVE VERBS 167
2. Many verbs of the First Conjugation are formed from o-
stems, changing the o- into A-. These are more commonly tran-
sitive : —
8timal5, -are, to incite, from stimulus, a goad (stem stimulo-).
aequo, -ire, to inake even, from aequus, even (stem aequo-).
hibernd, -&re, to pass the winter, from hibemus, of the winter (stem hiberno-).
albd, -Ire, to whiten, from albus, white (stem albo-).
pio, -Ire, to expiate, from plus, pure (stem pio-).
noYd, -die, to renew, from novus, new (stem novo-).
aims, -Are, to arm, from arma, arms (stem armo-).
damnd, -&re, to injure, from daxnnum, injury (stem damno-).
3. A few verbs, generally intransitive, are formed by analogy
from consonant and i- or u-stems, adding & to the stem : — ^
vigild, -&re, to watch, from vigil, awake.
ez8ul5, -&re, to he in exile, from ezsul, an exile.
auspicor, -&ri, to take the auspices, from auspez (stem anspic-), augur.
pnlvero, -&xe, to turn (anything) to dust, from pulvis (stem pnlver-for pulvis-),
duM,
aestuS, -ftre, to surge, boil, from aestus (stem aestu-), tide, seething,
levo, -&re, to lighten, from levis (stem levi-), light.
260. A few verbs of the Second Conjugation (generally in-
transitive) are recognizable as formed from noim-stems ; but most
are inherited, or the primitive noun-stem is lost : —
albeS, -Sre, to be white, from albus (stem albV*-)? white.
cSneo, -ere, to be hoary, from cAnus (stem cAnV*-)) hoary.
cULred, -ere, to shine, from clArus, bright.
clauded, -ere, to be lame, from daudus, lame.
algeo, -^re, to be cold, cf. algidns, cold.
261. Some verbsof the Third Conjugation in-uO,-uere, are formed
from noun-stems in u- and have lost a consonant i : —
statuo (for tstatu-yS), -ere, to set up, from status, position.
metnd, -ere, to fear, from metus, fear.
acuo, -ere, to sharpen, from acus, needle.
argu5, -ere, to clear up, from inherited stem targu-, bright (cf. Apyvpos).
Note. — Many verbs in u are inherited, being formed from roots in u: as, fluS,
flnere, flow ; so-lvo (for fsC-luO, cf. \Oia), solvere, dissolve. Some roots have a parasitic
u : as, loquor, locatns, speak.
1 The type of all or most of the denominative formations in §§ 269-262 was inherited,
bat the process went on in the development of Latin as a separate language.
158 FORMATION OF WORDS [§§ 262, 263
262. Many i-verbs or verbs of the Fourth Conjugation are
formed from instems : —
molior, -iri, to toil, from mdlSs (-is), mciaa.
finio, -ire, to bound, from finis, end.
sitid, -ire, to thirst, from sitis, thirst.
stabilid, -ire, to establish, from stabilis, staUe.
a. Some arise by confusion from other stems treated as i-stems : —
bnllio, -ire, to boU, from bulla (stem bulla-), bubble.
condid, -ire, to preserve, from condus (stem condo-), storekeeper.
ins&nio, -ire, to rave, from fns&xitts (stem insJlno-), mad.
gestio, -ire, to show wild longing, from gestus (stem gestn-), gesture.
Note. — Some of this form are of doubtful origin : as, 5rdior, begin^ cf . 5rdd and
exSrdium. Tlie formation is closely akin to that of verbs in -io of the third conjuga-
tion (p. 102).
h. Some are formed with -id from consonant stems : —
cuBt5di5, -ire, to guard, from cQstos (stem cfistdd-), guardian.
fulguiiS, -ire, to lighten, from fulgur, lightning.
NoTB. — Here probably belong the so-called desideratives in -arid (see § 263. 4. n.).
Verbs from Other Verbs
263. The following four classes of verbs regularly derived
from other verbs have special meanings connected with their
terminations.
Note. — These classes are all really denominative in their origin, but the forma-
tions had become so associated with actual verbs that new derivatives were often
formed directly from verbs without the intervention of a noun-stem.
1. Inceptives or Inchoatives add -sc5 * to the present stem of verbs.
They denote the beginning of an action and are of the Third Conjuga-
tion. Of some there is no simple verb in existence : — ^
cal§-8c5, grow warm, from caled, be wami.
iabft-8c5, begin to totter, from labo, totter.
sci-sco, determine, from scio, know.
con-cupi-sco, conceive a desire for, from cupio, desire.
alS-sco, grow, from alo, feed.
So ir&-8cor, get angry ; cf . iri-tus.
iUTene-sco, grow young ; cf. iuvenis, young man.
mite-SCO, grow mild; cf. mitis, mild.
vesperft-scit, it is getting late ; cf . vesper, evening.
1 For -8C0 in primary formation, see § 176. b. 1.
2eJ3] VERBS FROM OTHER VERBS 159
Note. — Inceptives properly have only the present stem, but many use the perfect
and supine systems of simple verbs: as, cal68c5, grow warnit calui; ftrdSscd, blaze
forth, ftrsi; proflciscor, set out, profectus.
2. IntensivesoT Iteratives are formed from the Supine stem and end
in-t6 or -itO (rarely -85). They denote sl forcible or repeated action, but
this special sense often disappears. Those derived from verbs of
the First Conjugation end in -itO (not -AtO).
iac-t5, hurly from iacio, throw.
donm-t5, be sleepy^ from doimiS, sleep.
vol-it5, flit J from volo, fly.
▼Sndi-td, try to sell, from vendo, sell.
qnas-sd, shatter, from quatiS, shake.
They are of the first conjugation, and are properly denominative.
a. Compound suffixes -tit5, -sitS, are formed with a few verbs. These
are probably derived from other Iteratives ; thus, cantitS may come from
cant5, iterative of canS, sing,
b» Another form of Intensives — sometimes called Meditatives, or verbs
of practice — ends in -es85 (rarely -isad). These denote a certain energy or
eagerness of action rather than its repetition :• —
cap-esso, lay hold on, from capi5, taJce.
fac-esso, do (with energy), from facio, do. i
pet-esso, pet-issd, seek (eagerly), from pet5, seek.
These are of the third conjugation, usually having the perfect and
supine of the fourth : —
arcesso, arcessSre, arcessivi, arcessitum, summon.
lacessd, lacessSre, lacessiyi, lacessitom, provoke.
Note. — The verbs in -essfi, -issd, show the same forlnation as lerAsaS, impetr&ssere,
ittdic&ssity etc. (§ 183. 5), but its origin is not fully explained.
3. Diminutives end in -1115, and denote a feeble or pettj/ action : —
cav-iUor, ^'es<, cf. cavUla, raillery.
cant-ill5, chirp or warble, from cant5, sing.
Note. — Diminutives are formed from verb-stems derived from real or supposed
diminutive nouns.
4. Desideratives end in -turiO (-suriO), and express longing or wish-
ing. They are of the fourth conjugation, and only two are in com-
mon use : —
par-torio, be in labor, from pario, bring forth.
e-surio (for ted-tari5), be hungry, from edo, eat.
Others are used by the dramatists.
Note. — Desideratives are probably derived from some noun of agency: as, Cmp-
turio, wish to buy, from §mptor, buyer. VisS, go to see, is an inherited desiderative of
a different formation.
160 FORMATION OF WORDS [§§ 264, 266
COMPOUND WORDS
264. A Compound Word is one whose stem is made up of two
or more simple stems.
a. A final stem-vowel of the first member of the compound usually dis-
appears before a vowel, and usually takes the form of i before a consonant.
Only the second member receives inflection.^
&. Only noun-stems can be thus compounded. A preposition, however,
often becomes attached to a verb.
265. New stems are formed by Composition in three ways : —
1. The second part is simply added to the first : —
80-ove-taurilia (sus, ovis, taarus), the aacriflce of a swine^ a sheep, and a bull
(cf. § 255. a),
septen-decim (septem, decern), seventeen.
2. The first part modifies the second as an adjective or adverb
(Determinative Compounds) : —
lati-fandiam (Utus, fundus),- a large landed estate.
omni-potSns (omnis, potens), omnipotent,
3. The first part has the force of a case, and the second a verbal
force (Objective Compounds) : —
agri-cola {agei, field, tcola akin to colo, cidtivate), a farmer,
armi-ger (arma, arms, tger akin to geiO, carry), armor-bearer,
comi-cen (comfl, horn, teen akin to cano, sing), horn-blower.
cami-fez (caio, flesh, tfez akin to facio, make), executioner.
a. Compounds of the above kinds, in which the last word is a nomiy
may become adjectives, meaning possessed of the quality denoted : —
flli-pes (ftla, wing, pSs, foot), wing-footed.
m&gn-^animus (mignus, great, animus, soul), great-sotUed,
an-ceps (amb-, at both ends, caput, h£ad), double.
Note. — Many compounds of the above classes appear only in the form of some
further derivative, the proper compound not being found in Latin.
^ The second part generally has its usual inflection ; but, as this kind of composi-
tion is in fact older than inflection, the compounded stem sometimes has an inflection
of its own (as, comicen, -cinis ; liicifer, -feii ; iudex, -dicis), from stems not occurring in.
Latin. Especially do compound adjectives in Latin take the form of i-stems: bs»
animus, ezanimis; n5nna, abnSrmis (see§73). In composition, stems regularly have
their uninflected form : as, igni-spicium, divining by fire. But in o- and ft-stems the
final vowel of the stem appears as i-, as in &li-p68 (from &la, stem &!&-) ; and i- is so
common a termination of compounded stems, that it is often added to stems which do
not properly have it: as, fldri-comus, flower-crowned (from flos, flor-is, and coma, Aatr>.
§§266,267] SYNTACTIC COMPOUNDS 161
S3rntactic Compounds
266. In many apparent compounds, complete words — not
stems — have grown together in speech. These are not strictly
compounds in the etymological sense. They are called Syntac-
tic Compounds. Examples are : —
a. Compounds of facid, factO, with an actual or formerly existing noun-
stem confounded with a verbal stem in e-. These are causative in force :
consue-facio, IiabUiuite (cf . consue-^co, become axicustomed),
cale-facio, cale-factO| to heat (cf. cal§-8Co, grow warm),
h» An adverb or noun combined with a verb : —
bene-dicd (bene, well^ died, speak) ^ to bless.
satis-fadd (satis, enough, fado, do), to do enough (for).
Cm Many apparent compounds of stems : —
fide-ittbeo (fide, surety, iubeS, commxiind), to give surety,
man-soetas (manui, to the hand, suetas, accustomed), tame,
Mard-por (Mftrd pner), slave of Marcus,
luppiter (tlu, old vocative, and pater), father Jove,
anim-advertS (animum advertd), attend to, punish,
d. A few phrases forced into the ordinary inflections of nouns : —
pro-consul, proconsul (for pr5 consule, instead of a consul),
trium-vir, triumvir (singular from trium virdrupi).
septen-trio, the Bear, a constellation (supposed singular of septem triones,
the Seven Plough-Oxen).
In all these cases it is to be observed that words, not stems, are united.
267. Many syntactic compounds are formed by prefixing a
Particle to some other part of speech.
a* Prepositions are often prefixed to Verbs. In these compounds the
prepositions retain their original adverbial sense : —
a, ab, AWAY : &-mittere, to send away.
ad, TO, TOWARDS : af-ferre (ad-fero), to bring.
ante, before : ante-ferre, to prefer ; ante-cellere, to excel,
circiim, around : drcum-mfinire, to fortify completely,
com-, con- (cum), together or forcibly : cdn-ferre, to bring together; col-
locdre, to set firm.
de, i>owN, UTTERLY : de-spicere, despise ; de-stniere, destroy.
5, ex, out: ef-ferre (ec-fero), to carry forth, uplift.
in (with verbs), in, on, against : in-ferre, to bear against,
inter, between, to pieces : inter-rumpere, to interrupt.
ob, towards, to meet : of-ferre, to offer ; ob-venire, to meet.
sob, under, up from under : sub-stmere, to build beneath; sub-diicere, to leadup.
super, UPON, over and above : super-flaere, to overflow.
162 FORMATION OF WORDS
Note 1. — In such compounds, however, the prepositions sometimes have their
ordinary force as prepositions, especially ad, in, circom, tr&ns, and govern the case of
a noun : as, titsaire flomen, to cross a river (see § 388. b).
Note 2. — Short a of the root is weakened to i before one consonant, to e before
two: as, faciS, o5nflci0, confeetus; iacid, 9icif, Siectos. But long a is retained: as,
perictuB.
6. Verbs are also compounded \pith the following inseparable particles,
which do not appear as prepositions in Latin : —
amb- (am-, an-), around : amb-ire, to go nbotU (of. dfi^j, about).
dis-, ^-, ASUNDER, APART : dls-cidere, to depart (cf. duo, two) ; ^-vidire, U>
divide.
per-, FORWARD: por-tendere, to hold forth, predict (cf. ^n^, forth).
red-, re-, back, again: red-ire, to return; re-clQdere, to open (from claado,
shut) ; re-ficere, to repair (make again).
sM-, se-, APART: se-cemd, to separate; cf. sfid-itid, a going apart, secession
(ed, Ire, to go).
c. Many Verbals are found compounded with a preposition, like the
verbs to which they correspond : —
per-fuga, deserter; cf. per-fugi5.
trft-dox, mnenbranch; cf. tra-duco (trans-dficd).
ad-vena, danger; cf. ad-veni5.
con-ittx (con-iunx), spouse; cf. con-inngo.
in-dex, pointer aid; cf. in-dico.
pxat-MS, guardian ; cf . prae-sideo.
com-bibo, boon companion ; cf . com-bibo, -$re.
d. An Adjective is sometimes modified by an adverbial prefix.
1. Of these, per- (less commonly prae-), very; sub-, somewhat ; in-, noty are
regular, and are very freely prefixed to adjectives : —
per-mAgnus, very large. in-nocuus, harmless.
per-pauci, very few. in-imicus, unfriendly,
sub-rustiais, raiher clownish. in-s&nas, insane.
sab-fuscus, darkish. in-finitus, boundless.
prae-longus, very long. im-pams, impure.
Note. — Per and sub, in these senses, are also prefixed to verbs : as, per-terre5, terrify;
sab-ride5, smile. In igndsco, pardon, in- appears to be the negative prefix.
2. The negative in- sometimes appears in combination with an adjective
that does not occur alone : —
in-ermis, UTUirmed (cf. arma, arms).
im-bellis, unwarlike (cf. beUum, war).
im-punis, without punishment (cf. poena, punishment).
im-tegcr, untoucJied, whole (cf. tangd, to touch, root tag).
in-vitus, unwilling (probably from root seen in vi-^, thou wishest^.
PART SECOND— SYNTAX
INTRODUCTORY NOTE
«o8. The study of formal grammar arose at a late period in the history of lan-
guage, and^lealt with language as a fully developed product. Accordingly the terms
of Sjmtax correspond to the logical habits of thought and forms of expression that
^ grown up at such a period, and have a logical as well as a merely grammaticdt
meaning. But a developed syntactical structure is not essential to the expression of
thought. A form of words — like 5 puensm pvlchmml oh! beautiful hoy — expresses
a thought and might even be called a sentence ; though it does not logically declare any-
thing, and does not, strictly speaking, make what is usually called a sentence at all.
At a very early period of spoken language, word-forms were no doubt si^ficant
in themselves, without inflections, and constituted the whole of huiguage,— just as to
a child the name of some familiar object will stand for all he can say about it. At a
somewhat later stage, such uninflected words put side by side made a rudimentary
form of proposition : as a child mi^^t say^Zre bright ; horse run. With this began the
firet form of logical distinction, that of Subject and Predicate ; but as yet there was no
distinction in form between noun and verb, and no fixed distinction in function. At a
later stage forms were differentiated in function and — by various processes of com-
position which cannot be fully traced — Inflections were developed. These served to
express person, tense, case, and other grammatical relations, and we have true Parts
of Speech.
Not until language reached this last stage was there any fixed limit to the asso-
ciation of words, or any rule prescribing the manner in which they should be combined,
^t gradually, by usage, particular forms came to be limited to special functions (as
nouns, verbs, adjectives), and fixed customs arose of combining words into what we
now call Sentences. These customs are in part the result of general laws or modes of
thought (logic), resulting from our habits of mind (General Grammar); and in part
are what may be called By-Laws, established by custom in a given language {Particu-
lar Grammar), and making what is called the Syntax of that language.
In the fully developed methods of expression to which we are almost exdusively
accustomed, the unit of expression is the Sentence: that is, the completed statement,
with its distinct Subject and Predicate. Originally sentences were simple. But two
simple sentence-lomit may be used together, without the grammatical subordination
of either, to express a more complex form of thought than could be denoted by one
alone. This is paratavu (arrangement side by side). Since, however, the two sen-
tences, independent in form, were in fact used to express parts of a complex whole
and were therefore mutually dependent, the sense of unity found expression in con-
junctions, which denoted the grammatical subordination of the one to the other. This
is hypotaxis (arrangement under, subordination) . In this way, through various stages
of development, which correspond to our habitual modes of thought, there were pro-
duced virions forms of complex sentences. Thus, to express the complex idea I beseech
you to pardon me, the two simple sentence-forms quaesd and ignSscas were used side by
side, quaesS ignose&s; then the feeling of grammatical subordination found expression
in a conjmctlon, qnaeaS at Ignascis, forming a complex sentence. The results of these
processes constitute the subject-matter of Syntax.
103
164 SYNTAX: THE SENTENCE [§§ 26»-272
THE SENTENCE
Kinds of Sentences
269. A Sentence is a form of words which contains a State-
:ment, a Question, an Exclamation, or a Command.
a. A sentence in the form of a Statement is called a Declarative
.Sentence : as, — canis currit, the dog runs,
h. A sentence in the form of a Question is called an Interroga-
tive Sentence: as, — canisne currit? does the dog run?
c. A sentence in the form of an Exclamation is called an Exclama-
tory Sentence : as, — quam celeriter currit canis ! how fast the dog runs !
d. A sentence in the form of a Command, an Exhortation, or an
Entreaty is called an Imperative Sentence: as, — i, curreperAlpis, ^o,
trun across the Alps ; currat canis, let the dog run.
Subject and Predicate
270. Every sentence consists of a Subject and a Predicate.
The Subject of a sentence is the person or thing spoken of.
The Predicate is that which is said of the Subject.
Thus in canis currit, the dog runs, canis is the subject, and currit the predicate.
271. The Subject of a sentence is usually a Noun or Pronoun,
or some word or group of words used as a Noun : —
equit&s ad Caesarem ven^runt, the cavalry came to Casaar.
hQmftnum est errare, to err is human.
quaeritur num mors malum sit, the question is whether death is an evU.
a. But in Latin the subject is often implied in the termination of
the verb : —
sedS-mus, we sit. curri-tis, you run. inqui-t, says he.
272. The Predicate of a sentence may be a Verb (as in canis
'Currit, the dog runs), or it may consist of some form of sum and
a Noirn or Adjective which describes or defines the subject (as in
^Caesar consul erat, Ccesar was consul).
Such a noun or adjective is called a Predicate Noun or Adjective,
:and the verb sum is called the Copula (i.e. the connective).
Thus in the example given, Caesar is the subject, consul the predicate noim, and
terat the copula (see § 283).
J§ 273, 274] VERB AND OBJECT 165
Transitiye and IntransitlTe Verbs
273. Verbs are either Transitive or Intransitive.
1. A Transitive Verb has or requires a direct object to complete
its sense (see § 274) : as, — frfttrem cecidit, he Blew his brother.
2. An Intransitive Verb admits of no direct object to complete
its sense: —
cadO, IfaU (or am falling) . s6l lucet, the sun shines (or is shining).
Note 1. — Among transitive verbs Factitive Verbs are sometimes distinguished
as a separate class. These state an act which produces the thing expressed by the-
word which completes their sense. Thus mSnsam fScit, he made a table (which was-
not in existence before), is distinguished from mSnsam percussit, he struck a table
(which already existed).
Note 2. — A transitive verb ma^ trften be used absolutely ^ i.e. without any object
expressed : as, — arat, ?ie is ploughing, where the verb does not cease to be transitive^
because the object is left indefinite, as we see by adding, — quid, what? agnun suum,.
his land.
Note 3. — Transitive and Intransitive Verbs are often called Active and Neuter
Verbs respectively.
Object
274. The person or thing immediately affected by the action of
a verb is called the Direct Object.
A person or thing indirectly affected by the action of a verb
is called the Indirect Object.
Only transitive verbs can have a Direct Object ; but an Indirect
Object may be used with both transitive and intransitive verbs
(§§ 362, 366) : —
pater vocat fHium (direct object), the father calls his son.
mihi (ind. obj.) agmm (dir. obj.) ostendit, he shmoed me afield,
mihi (ind. obj.) placet, it is pleasing to me.
Note. — The distinction between transitive and intransitive verbs is not a fixed dis-
tinction, for most transitive verbs may be used intransitively, and many verbs usually
intransitive may take a direct object and so become transitive (§ 388. a).
a. With certain verbs, the Genitive, Dative, or Ablative is used
where the English, from a difference in meaning, requires the direct
object (Objective) : —
hominem videO, I see the man (Accusative).
homini serviO, I serve the man (Dative, see § 367).
hominis misereor, IpUy the man (Grenitive, see § 354. a).
homine amIcO litor, I treat the man as a friend (Ablative, see § 410).
166 SYNTAX : THE SBNTKNCE [§§ 274-277
b. Many verbs transitive in Latin are rendered into English by
an intransitive verb with a preposition; —
petit aprum, he aims at tfie boar.
laadem affectat, A« strives c^ter praise.
cClrat Taletfidinein, ?ie takes care of his health,
meum casom doluemnt, tkey grieved at my misfortuihe.
rklet nostram ftmentiam (Quinct. 55), he laughs at our stupidity.
275. When a transitive Terb is changed from the Active to the
Passive voice, the Direct Object becomes the Subject and is put
in the Nominative case : —
Active : pater fUiam vocat, the father calls his son.
Passive : filius & patre vocatur, the son is called by his f other .
Active : Iflnam et ttelUs yidemus, loe see the moan and the stars.
Passive : IGna et stella* videntur, the moon and stairs are seen (appear).
Modificaticm
276. A Subject or a Predicate may be modified by a single word,
or by a group of words (a phrase or a clause).
The modifying word or group of words may itself be modified in
the same way.
a. A single modifying word may be an adjective, an adverb, an
appositive (§ 282), or the oblique case of a noun.
Thus in the sentence yir fortis patienter fert, a brave man endures pattenUj/,
the adjective fortis, brave^ modifies the subject yir, man^ and the adverb patienter,
patiently, modifies the predicate fert, endures.
ft. The modifying word is in some cases said to limit the word
to which it belongs.
Thus in the sentence pueri patrem video, J see ^ boy^s father, the genitive
pueri limits patrem (by excluding any other father).
277. A Phrase is a group of words, without subject or predicate
of its own, which may be used as an Adjective or an Adverb.
Thus in the sentence vir fait 8ninin& ndbilit&te, he was a man of the highest
ru^Uity, the words summ& ii5bilit&te, of the highest nobility, are used for the
adjective nobilis, noble (or nobilissimus, very noble), and are called an Adjective
Phrase.
So in the sentence migni celerit&te vSnit, he cams with great speed, the words
m&gnft celeritate, with great speedy are used for the adverb celexlter, quidUy (or
celerrime, very quieldy}, and are called an Adverbial Phrase.
§§ 278, 279] CLAUSES AND SENTENCES 167
Clauses and Sentences
278. Sentences are either Simple or Compound.
1. A sentence containing a single statement is called a Simple
Sentence.
2. A sentence containing more than one statement is called
a Compound Sentence, and each single statement in it is called
a Clause.
«• If one statement is simply added to another, the clauses are
said to be Coordinate. They are usually connected by a Coordinate
Conjunction (§ 223. a) ; but this is sometimes omitted : —
divide et imperft, divide and control. But, —
veni, vidl, vici, I came, I aaw^ I conquered.
h. If one statement modifies another in any way, the modifying
clause is said to be Subordinate, and the clause modified is called
the Main Clause.
This subordination is indicated by some connecting word, either
a Subordinate Conjunction (§ 223. h) or a Relative: —
oderint dum metuant, let them hate so long as they fear.
servum misit quern s€cum habebat, he sent the slave whom he had with him.
A sentence containing one or more subordinate clauses is some-
times called Complex.
Note. — A subordinate clause may itself be modified by other subordinate clauses.
279. Subordinate Clauses are of various kinds.
a. A clause introduced by a Relative Pronoun or Relative Adverb
is called a Relative Clause : —
Mosa prCfluit ex monte Yoseg5, qui est is finibus Lingonum (B. G. iv. 10),
the Meuse rises in the Vosges mountains, which are on the borders of the
Lingo7i£S.
For Relative Pronouns (or Relative Adverbs) serving to connect independent sen-
tences, see § 308. /.
h, A clause introduced by an Adverb of Time is called a Tem-
poral Clause : —
cam tacent, clamant (Cat. i. 21), ivhile they are silent, they cry aloud.
homioSs aegri morbO gravi, cum iactantur aestu febrique, si aquam gelidam
biberint, primO relevari videntur (id. i. 81), men suffering with a severe
stckness, wJien they are tossing with the heat cf fever, if they drink cold
water, seem at first to be relieoed.
168 SYNTAX: AGREEMENT [§§ 27»-281
c. A clause containing a Condition, introduced by si, if (or some
equivalent expression), is called a Conditional Clause. A sentence
containing a conditional clause is called a Conditional Sentence.
Thus, 81 aquam gelidam biberint, primS relev&ri videntur (in 6, above) is a Con-
ditional Sentence, and si . . . bibeiint is a Conditional Clause.
d. A clause expressing the Purpose of an action is called a Final
Clause : —
edO at vivam, 1 eaiio live (that I may live).
misit legates qui dicerent, he sent ambassadors to say (who should say).
e. A clause expressing the Kesult of an action is called a Con-
secutive Clause : — ^
tarn longe aberam ot n5n viderem, I was too far away to see (so far away that
I did not see).
AGREEMENT
280. A word is said to cigree with another when it is required
l)y usage to be in the same Gender, Number, Case, or Person.
The following are the general forms of agreement, sometimes
called the Four Concords : —
1. The agreement of the Noun in Apposition or as Predicate
<§§ 281-284).
2. The agreement of the Adjective with its Noun (§ 286).
3. The agreement of the Relative with its Antecedent (§ 305).
4. The agreement of the Finite Verb with its Subject (§ 316).
a. A word sometimes takes the gender or number, not of the w^ord
with which it should regularly agree, but of some other word implied
in that word.
This use is called Synesis, or constructio ad sensum (construction
ikccording to sense).
AGREEMENT OF NOUNS
281. A noun used to describe another, and denoting the same
person or thing, agrees with it in Case.
The descriptive noun may be either an Appositive (§ 282) or a
Predicate noun (§ 283).
^ Observe that the classes defined in a-e are not mutually exclusive, but that a
.single clause may belong to several of them at once. Thus a relative clause is
usually subordinate, and may be at the same time temporal or conditional; and
^subordinate clauses may be coordinate with each^ other.
282] APPOSITION 169-
Apposition
282. A noun ujsed to describe another, and standing in the same*
part of the sentence with the noun described, is called an Apposi-
tive, and is said to be m apposition : —
extemus timor, maximum concordiae yincnlum, iungSbat animOs (Liv. ii. SO),
fear of the foreigner, the chief bond of harmony, united their hearts..
[Here the appositive belongs to the eulject.]
quattuor hic prlmum Smen equOs vidl (Aen. ill. 537), I saw here four horseSy
the first omen, [Here both nouns are in the predicate.]
litterSs 6raec&3 senex didici (Cat. M. 26), I learned Greek when an old man.
[Here senex, though In apposition with the subject of didici, really states
something further: viz., the time, condition, etc., of the act {Predicate-
Apposition).]
a. Words expressing parts may be in apposition with a word
including the parts, or vice versa (Partitive Apposition) : —
Nee P. Popilius neque Q. Metellus, clarissiml viri atque amplissimT, vim
tribQnlciam sustinSre potuSrunt (Clu. 96), neither PuUius Popilius nor
(iuintus Metellus, [both of them] distinguished and honorable men, could-
withstand the power of the. tribunes.
Gnaeus et Pdblius ScipidnSs, Cneius and Publius Scipio (the Scipios).
&• An Adjective may be used as an appositive: —
ea Sex. ROscium inopem recSpit (Rose. Am. 27), she received Sextus Rosciuar
in his poverty (needy).
c. An appositive generally agrees with its noun in Gender and
Number when it can : —
sequuntur n&turam, optimam dacem (Lael. 19), they follow nature, the best
guide.
omnium doctrln&rum inyentricSs Ath^nlbs (De Or. 1. IS), Athens, discoverer-
of all learning.
Note. — But such agreement is often impossible : as, — Olim truncas eram ficulnus,.
inutUe fignnin (Her. S. i. 8. 1), I once was a fig-tree trunk, a useless log.
d. A common noun in apposition with a Locative (§ 427) is put in
the Ablative, with or without the preposition in : —
Antiochiae, celebri quondam nrbe (Arch. 4), at Antioch, once a famous city.
Albae cOnstitSrunt, in nrbe mtinltft (Phil. iv. 6), they halted at Alba, a forti-
fied town.
For a Genitive in apposition with a Possessive Pronoun or an Adjective, see § 302. e..
For the so-called Appositional Genitive, see § 343. d.
For the construction with nSmen est, see § 373. a.
170 SYNTAX: AGRBEMENT [§§283-286
« Predicate Noun or Adjective
283. With siiin and a few other intransitive or passive verbs, a
noun or an adjective describing or defining the subject may stand in
the predicate. This is called a Predicate Noun or Adjective.
The verb sum is especially common in this construction, and when
so used is called the copula (i.e. connective).
Other verbs which take a predicate noun or adjective are the so-
called copulative verbs signifying to become^ to be made, to be named,
to appear, and the like.
284. A Predicate Noun or Adjective after the copula sum or a
copulative verb is in the same case as the Subject : —
pacis semper auctor ful (Lig. 28), I have always been an adviser of peace.
quae pertinacia quibusdam, eadem aliis c5nstantia vidSr! potest (Marc. 31),
what may seem obstinacy to some, may seem to others consistency.
€iits mortis sedetis altirSs (Mil. 79), you sit as avengers of his death.
habe&tur vii Sgr^ius Paolus (Cat. iv. 21), let Paulas be regarded as an
extraordinary man.
ego patrdnus exstiti (Rose. Am. 5), I have come forward as on advocate.
dicit nOn omiUs bonOs esse be&tds^ he says thai not all good men are happy.
a, A predicate noun referring to two or more singular nouns is
in the plural : —
cdnsules creantur Caesar et Servilius (B. C. iii. 1), Cassar and Servilius are
elected consuls.
b» Sum in the sense of exist makes a complete predicate without a
predicate noun or adjective. It is then called the substantive verb : —
sont viri fortes, there are (exist) brave men. [Cf . vixSre fortes ante Agamem-
nona (Hor. Od. iv. 9. 25), brave men lived before Agam,emnon.\
For Predicate Accusative and Predicate Ablative, see §§ 392, 415. n.
AGREEMENT OF ADJECTIVES
Attrilmtive and Predicate Adjectives
285. Adjectives are either Attributive or Predicate.
1. An Attributive Adjective simply qualifies its noun without
the intervention of a verb or participle, expressed or implied: as,
— bonas imperator, a good commander; stellae l&cldae, bright stars;
verbum Graecum, a Greek word.
§§ 285) 2861 AGREEMENT OF ADJECTIVES 171
2. All other adjectiyes are called Predicate Adjectives : —
stellae Ificidae erant, the stars were bright.
sit ScipiO cULrus (Cat. iv. 21), let Scipio be illustrious.
homines mitis reddidit (Inv. i. 2), has rendered men mild.
tria praedla CapitOnI propria trftduntur (Rose. Am. 21), three farms are
handed over to Capito as his own.
consilium cep€niBt plSnom sceleris (id. 28), t?iey formed a plan full of
viUany.
Note. — A predicate adjective may be used with sum or a copulative verb (§ 283) ; it
may have the constructiou of a predicate accusative after a verb of naming, calling y or
the like (§ 393. n.) ; or it may be used in apposition like a noun (§ 282. b).
Rules of Agreement
286. Adjectives, Adjective Pronouns, and Participles agree
with their nouns in Gender^ Number^ and Cobb : —
vir fortift, a brave man.
ilia mulier, that woman.
urbinm mSgnarum, of great cities.
cum dacenljs mllitibus, with two hundred soldiers.
imperStor victns est, the general was beaten.
secdtae sunt tempestatSs, storms followed.
Note. — All rules for the agreement of adjectives apply also to adjective pronouns
and to participles.
«. With two or more nouns the adjective is regularly plural, but
often agrees with the nearest (especially when attributive) : —
Nisus et Euryalus prim! (Aen. v. 294), Nisus and Euryalus first.
Caesaris omni et grSti& et opibus f ruor (Fam. i. 9. 21), I enjoy all Cassar's favor
and resources.
Note. — An adjective referring to two nouns connected by the preposition cum is
occasionally plural (synesis, § 280. a): as, — luba cum LabienO capti (B. Afr. 6?), Juha
and Labienus were taken.
h. A collective noun may take an adjective of a different gender
and number agreeing with the gender and number of the individuals
implied (sy nests, § 280. a) : —
pars certare parftti (Aen. v. 108), a part ready to contend.
coloniae aliquot deductae, Prisci Latin! appeUftti (Liv. i. 3), several colonies
were planted (led out) [of men] called Old Latins.
multitud5 convicti sunt (Tac. Ann. xv. 44), a multitude were convicted.
m&gna pars raptae (id. i. 9), a large part [of the women] were seized,
NoTB. — A superlative in the predicate rarely takes the gender of a partitive geni-
tive by which it is limited: as, — vglocisslmum animalium delphinus est (Plin. N. H.
ix. 20), the dolphin is the swiftest [creature] €f creatures.
172 SYNTAX: ADJECTIVES [§§287,288
287. One adjective may belong in sense to two or more nouns
of different genders. In such cases, —
1. An Attributive Adjective agrees with the nearest noun: —
maltae operae ac labOris, of irmch trouble and toil,
vita mOrSsque mei, my life and character.
si r6s, si vir, si tempus ullum dignum fuit (Mil. 10), if any thing^ if any
man, if any time was fit,
2. A Predicate Adjective may agree with the nearest noun, if the
nouns form one connected idea : —
facias est strepitus et admurmur^tid (Verr. i. 45), a noise of assent was made
(noise and (Qurmur).
Note. —This is only when the copula agrees with the nearest subject (§ 317. c).
3. But generally, a Predicate Adjective will be masculine, if nouns
of different genders mean living beings.; neuter, if things without
life : —
uxor deinde ac liberi amplezi (Liv. ii. 40), then his wife and children enibraced
him.
labor (m.) volaptasqae (f.) societftte qu&dam inter sS nftturS.!! sunt iancta (n.)
(id. V. 4), labor and delight are bound together by a certain natural alli-
ance.
4. If nouns of different genders include both living beings and
things without life, a Predicate Adjective is sometimes masculine (or
feminine), sometimes neuter, and sometimes agrees in gender with
the nearest if that is plural : —
rex rSgiaque classis unS, profecti (Liv. xxi. 50), the king and the royal fleet set
out together.
n&tura inimica sunt libera civit^ et rSx (id. xliv. 24), by nature a free state
and a king are fiostile.
IggatOs sortSsque Or&;uli exspectand&s (id. v. 15), that the ambassadors and
the replies of the oracle should be waited for.*
a. Two or more abstract nouns of the same gender may have a
Predicate Adjective in the neuter plural (cf. § 289. c): —
stultitia et temeritfts et iniustitia . . . sunt fugienda (Fin. iii. 39),/o{Zy, rash-
ness, and injustice are [things] to be shunned.
Adjectives used Substantively
288. Adjectives are often used as Nouns (subgtantively)^ the
masculine usually to denote men ov people in general of that kind,
the feminine women^ and the neuter things : —
§§ 288, 289] ADJECTIVES USED SUBSTANTIVELY
173
omnes, aU men (everybody).
m&iOres, ancestors.
B5m&ni, Romans,
llbi^rta, afreedwoman,
sapiens, a sage (philosopher),
boni, the good (good people).
omnia, aU things (everything).
minOr^, descendants.
barbarl, barbarians.
Sablnae, the Sabine wives.
amicus, a friend.
bona, goods, property.
Note. — The plural of adjectives, pronouns, and participles is very common in this
use. The singular is comparatively rare except in the neuter (§ 289. a, c) and in words
that have become practically nouns.
a» Certain adjectives have become practically nouns, and are often
modified by other adjectives or by the possessive genitive : —
tuus vicinus prozimus, your next-door neighbor.
propinqui cSteri, his other relatives.
meus aequ&lis, a man of my own age.
§ias familiizis Catillna (Har. Resp. 6), his intimate friend Catiline.
Ijeptae nostrl ^amiliixisfumus (Fam. ix. 13. 2), a very close friend of our friend
Lepta.
&. When ambiguity would arise from the substantive use of an
adjective, a noun must be added : —
bonI, the good ; omnia, everything (all things) ; but, —
potentia onminm rSrom, power over everything.
c. Many adjectives are used substantively either in the singular
or the plural, v\rith the added meaning of some noun which is under-
stood from constant association : —
Africus [ventus], the southwest wind; lanuarius [m6nsis], January; vitu-
lina [carO], veal (calf's flesh) ; fera [bestia], a wUd beast; patria [terra],
the fatherland ; Gallia [terra], Gaul (the land of the Galli) ; hibema
[castra], vointer quarters ; trir6mis [navis], a three-banked galley, trireme;
argentarius [faber], a silversmiUi; rCgia [domus], the palace; Latlnae
[fsriae], the Latin festival.
NoTB. — These adjectives are spedjic in meaning, not generic like those in § 288.
1 They include the names of winds and months (§ 31).
I For Nouns used as Adjectives, see § 321. c.
I For Adverbs used like Adjectives, see § 321. d.
289. Neuter Adjectives are used substantively in the following
special senses : —
a. The neuter singular may denote either a single object or an
abstract quality : —
rapt5 vivere, to live by plunder. in ftridS, on dry ground.
honestnm, an honorable act, or virtue (as a quality),
opus est matarato, there is need of haste, [Cf. impersonal passives, § 20». rt. ^
174 SYNTAX: ADJECTIVES [§§ 289-2»l
b* The neuter plural is used to signify objects in general having
the quality denoted, and hence may stand for the abstract idea : —
honesta, howynMe deeds (in general). praeterita, thepatlb (lit., bygones).
oninSs fortia laudant, aU men praise bravery (brave things).
c. A neuter adjective may be used as an appositive or predicate
&oun with a noun of different gender (cf . § 287. a) : —
triste lupus stabuUs (Eel. iii. 80), the wolf [is] a grievous thing for the fold.
yarium et mGtAbile semper fSmina (Aen. iv. 669), vx>man is ever a changing
and fickle thing.
maloin mihi vid€tur esse mors (Tuse. i. 0), death seems to me to be an evil.
d. A neuter adjective may be used as an attributive or a predicate
adjective with an infinitive or a substantive clause : —
istuc ipsnm nOn esse (Tusc. i. 12), tfiat very ^* not to be."*^
hflmSnam est errftre, to err is human.
aliud est errftre Caesarem nolle, aliud nOlle misereri (Lig. 16), i^ is one thing
to be wnwilling that Ccesar sJiould err, another to be unmlling that he
should pity.
Adjectives with Adverbial Force
290. An adjective, agreeing with the subject or object, is often
used to qualify the action of the verb, and so has the force of an
adverb : —
primus vSnit, he was the first to come (came first).
nfillus dubitO, I no way doubt.
laeti audiere, they were glad to hear.
erat HOmae frequens (Rose. Am. 16), he was often at Rome.
serus in caelum redeSs (Hor. Od. i. 2. 45), mayst thou return late to heaven.
Comparatives and Superlatives
291. Besides their regular signification (as in English), the
forms of comparison are used as follows : —
a* The Comparative denotes a considerable or excessive degree of
a quality: as, — brevier, rather short ; audacior, too hold.
b. The Superlative (of eminence) often denotes a very high degree
of a quality without implying a distinct comparison : as, — mSns
altissimus, a very high mountain.
Note. — The Superlatire of Eminence is much used in complimentary references
to persons and may often be translated by the simple positive.
§§291-298] COMPARATIVES AND SUPERLATIVES 175
e. With quam, vel, or tons the Superlative denotes the highest pos-
sible degree : —
qnam ptfiximi, as many as possible.
qnam. maxlmi potest (mazimS qnam potest), as much OA can he.
Tel minimns, the very least.
vir iniui doctiBiimntt the one most learned man.
NoTK 1. — A high degree of a quality is also denoted by such adverbs as
ndtf, very, or by per or pfae in composition (§ 267. d. 1) : as, — rsM mataa, very bad=
pessimas; penn&gavs, very great; pKaealtns, very high (or deep).
NoTK 2. — A low degree of a quality is indicated by tub in composition : as, — svb-
risticas, rather elownish , or by Jainns, not very ; minimi, not at aU; param, not enottgh ;
ate satis, not much.
NoTK 3. — The comparatire m&iteSs (for miidif s aAtIi, greater by Mrth) has the spe-
cial signaiication of ancestors; so mlafrSs often means diescendanis.
For the Superlfttiye with qnisque, see § 313. b. For the constmetkni of a snbstftBtlve
after a ComparatiYe, see §§ 406, 407 ; for that of a clause, see § 036. c, 571. a. Wot the
Ablative of Degree of Difference with a Comparatiye (mmltO etc.), see § 414.
292. When two qualities of an object are compared, both adjec-
tives are in the Comparative : —
Umgior qnam Utior aci^s erat (Liv. xxvii. 48), the line was longer than it uhu
broad (or, rather long than broad).
Tailor qnam gritior (id. zzii. 88), more true than agreeable.
Note. — So also with adverbs: as, — libentins quam yirins (Mil. 78), with more
freedom than truth.
a. Where magis is used, both adjectives are in the positive : —
diaeitna magis quam sapiSna (Att. x. 1. 4), eloquent rather than wise.
cUlzi magis quam honesti (lug. 8), more renowned than honorable.
NoTK. — A comparative and a positive, or even two positives, are sometimes con-
nected by foaa. This use is rarer and less elegant than those before noticed : —
eUris miiOribus quam vetasfis (Tac. Ann. iv. 61), of a family more famous thmik
old.
veliementivs quam cantC (Tac. Agr. 4), with more fury than good heed.
293. Superlatives (and more rarely Comparatives) denoting
order and succession — also medius, [oetems], rdiqaus — usually
designate not what object^ but what part of it^ is meant : —
summiia mCns, the top of the hill.
in oltimA plateft, at the end of the place.
prior ficti6, the earlier part of an action.
leliqiii captlvi, the rest of the prisoners.
in coUe medi5 (B. 6. i 24), half way up the hiU (on the middle of the hill).
inter cHeiam plUnitiem (lug. 02), in a region elsewhere level.
NoTS. — A similar use is found in sSra (multil) nocte, late at night, and the like. Bat
medium viae, the middle of the way ; moltam diSi, much of the day, also occur.
176 SYNTAX: PRONOUNS [§§294,295
PRONOUNS
294. A Pronoun indicates some person or thing without either naming or describ-
ing it. Pronouns are derived from a distinct class of roots, which seem to have denoted
only ideas of place and direction (§ 228. 2), and from which nouns or verbs can very
rarely be formed. They may therefore stand for Nouns when the person or thing,
being already present to the senses or imagination, needs only to be pointed out, not
named.
Some pronouns indicate the object in itself, without reference to its class, and have
no distinction of gender. These are Personal Pronouns. They stand syntactically
for Nouns, and have the same construction as nouns.
Other pronouns designate a particular object of a class, and take the gender of the
individuals of that class. These are called Adjective Pronouns. They stand for
Adjectives, and have the same construction as adjectives.
Others are used in both ways ; and, though called adjective pronouns, may also be
treated as personal, taking, however, the gender of the object indicated.
In accordance with their meanings and uses. Pronouns are classified as f oUoprs : —
Personal Pronouns (§ 295). Interrogative Pronouns (§ 333).
Demonstrative Pronouns (§296). Relative Pronouns (§303).
Reflexive Pronouns (§ 299). Indefinite Pronouns (§ 309).
Possessive Pronouns (§ 302).
Personal Pronouns
295. The Personal Pronouns have, in general, the same con-
structions as nouns.
a. The personal pronouns are not expressed as subjects, except for
distinction or emphasis : —
t6 vocO, I ccUl you. But, —
quis m6 vocat ? ego te voc5, wlio is calling mef I (emphatic) am calling you.
ft. The personal pronouns have two forms for the genitive plural,
that in -um being used partltively (§ 346), and that in -i oftenest
objectively (§ 348) : —
md,ior vestrum, the elder of you.
habetis ducem memorem vestri, oblltam sul (Cat. iv. 19), you ?iave a leader
who thinks (is mindful) of you and forgets (is forgetful of) himself.
pars nostrum, a part (i.e. some) of us.
Note 1. — The genitives nostrum, vestrum, are occasionally used objectively (§ 348) :
as, — cupidus vestrum (Verr. iii. 224), /ond of you ; custds vestrum (Cat. iii. 29) , the guar-
dian of you (your guardian).
Note 2. — " One of themselves " is expressed by tLnus ez suis or ipsis (rarely ex sC),
or unus sudrum.
c. The Latin has no personal pronouns of the third person except
the reflexive s6. The want is supplied by a Demonstrative or Kela-
tive (§§ 296. 2, 308./).
§§296,297] DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS 177
Demonstrative Pronouns
296. Demonstrative Pronouns are used either adjectively or
substantively.
1. As adjectives, they follow the rules for the agreement of adjec-
tives and are called Adjective Pronouns or Pronominal Adjectives
(§§ 286,287): —
h5c proeliO factO, after this battle was fought (this battle having been fought).
eodem proeliO, in the same battle.
ex ei8 aedificiis, out of those buildings.
2. As substantives, they are equivalent to personal pronouns. This
use is regular in the oblique cases, especially of is : —
Caesar et exercitus eias, Ccesar and his army (not suus). [But, Caesar
exercitum suam diuiisit, Ccesar disbanded his [own] army.]
si obsid€s ab eis dentur (B. G. i. 14), if hostages should be^ given by them
(persons just spoken of).
hi sunt extra pr5vinciain trans Rhodanum primi (id. i. 10), they (those just
mentioned) are the first [inhabitants] across the Rhone,
iUe minimum propter adulescentiam poterat (id. i. 20), he (emphatic) had
very little power, on account of his youth.
cr. An adjective. pronoun usually agrees with an appositive or
predicate noun, if there be one, rather than with the word to which
it refers (cf . § 306) : —
hlc locus est unus quO perfugiant ; hie portus, haec arx, haec ftra soci5rum
(Verr. v. 126), this is the only place to which they can flee for r^uge; this
is the haven, this the citadel, this the altar of the allies.
rerum caput h5c erat, hie fOns (Hor. £p. i. 17. 45), this was the head of things^
this the source.
earn sapientiam interpretantur qaam adhuc mortalis nem5 est c5nseciltus
[for id . . . quod] (Lael. 18), they explain thai [thing] to be wisdom which
no man ever yet attained.
297. The main uses of hie, ille, iste, and is are the following: —
«. Hie is used of what is near the speaker (in time, place, or
thought). It is hence called the demonstrative of the first person.
It is sometimes used of the speaker himself ; sometimes for " the
latter" of two persons or things mentioned in speech or writing;
more rarely for " the former," when that, though more remote on the
taritten page, is nearer the speaker in timey place, or thought Often
it refers to that which has^i^^^ been mentioned.
178 SYJNTAX: PRONOUNS [§§297,288
6. nie is used of what is remote (in time, etc.) ; and is hence called
the demonstrative of the third person.
It is sometimes used to mean " the former " ; also (usually follow-
ing its noun) of what ia famous or well-known ; often (especially the
neuter illud) to mean << the following/'
c. late is used of what is between the two others in remoteness :
often in allusion to the person addressed, — hence called the demon-
strative of the second person.
It especially refers to one's opponent (in court, etc.), and fre-
quently implies antagonism or contempt.
d. Is is a weaker demonstrative than the others and is especially
common as a personal pronoun. It does not denote any special object,
but refers to one just mentioned, or to be afterwards explained by a
relative. Often it is merely a correlative to the relative qui : —
venit mihi obviam tuos puer, is mihi litterdiS abs te reddidit <AU. ii. 1. 1),
your hoy met me, he delivered to me a letter from you.
earn qmem, one whom.
earn cOnsulem qui n^n dubitet (Cat. iv. 24), a consul who will not heaitaie.
e. The pronouns luc, ille, and is are used to point in either direction,
back to something just mentioned or forward to something about to
be mentioned.
The neuter forms often refer to a clause, phrase, or idea : —
est iUud quidem vel maximum, animum vid6re (Tusc i. 52), thxA is in troth
a very great thvng^ — to seethe soul.
/. The demonstratives are sometimes used as pronouns of refer-
ence, to indicate with emphasis a noun or phrase just mentioned : —
nuUam yirttis aliam merc€dem dSsIderat praeter hanc laudis (Arch. 28).
virtue woofUs no other reward except that [just mentioned] of praise.
Note. — But the ordinary English use of that of is hardly known in Latin. Com-
monly the genitive construction is continued without a pronoun, or some other con-
struction is preferred : —
cum ei SiraOnides artem memoriae polliceretur : obliyiSnis, inquit, mallem (Fin. ii.
104), when Simxynides prom,ised him the art of memory , "/ should prefer,"
said he, ** [that] of forgetfulnesa."
Caesaris exercitus PompeiAnos ad Pharsalum vicit, the army of CsBsar d^eated
that of Pompey (the Pompeians) at PharsaXus.
298* The main uses of idem and ipse are as follows : —
cu When a quality or act is ascribed with emphasis to a person
or thing already named, is or idem (often with the concessive quidem)
is used to indicate that person or thing : —
§298] DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS 179
per anum servom et earn ez gladi&tOriO ItLdO (Att. i. 16. 6), by meaiM of a
single slave, and thai too one from the gladiatorial school,
Yincula, et ea sempitema (Cat. iv. 7), imprisonment^ and that perpetual,
Ti. Gracchus rSgnum occup&re cOnfttus est, vel rSgnavit is quidem paucOs
mensls (Lael. 41), Tiberitis Oracchu^ tried to iisurp royal power, or
rather he actiuilly reigned a few months.
NoTB. — So rarely with ille : as, — nunc deztra ingeminans ictus, nunc iUe sinistra
(Aen. Y. 457), now dealing redoubled blows with his right hand, now (he) with his Iqft.
[In imitation of the Homeric 5 ye: cf. Aen. v. 334; ix. 796.]
b. Idem, the same, is often used where the English requires an
adverb or adverbial phrase (also, too, yet, at the same time): —
Or&tiO splendida et grandis et eadem in primis facSta (Brut. 273), an oration,
brilliant, able, and very witty too,
cum [haec] dicat, negat idem esse in DeO gr&tiam (N. D. i. 121), wfien he
says this, he denies also that there is mercy with God (he, the same man).
NoTS. — This is really the same use as in a above, but in this case the pronoun
cannot be represented by a pronoun in English.
c. The intensive ipse, self, is used with any of the other pronouns,
with a noun, or with a temporal adverb for the sake of emphasis : —
turpe mihi ipsi videbatur (Phil. i. 9), even to me (to me myself) it seemed
disgraceful.
id ipsom, that very thing; quod ipstun, which of itself alone,
in eum ipstun locum, to that very place.
turn ipsom (Off. ii. 60), at that very time.
NoTB 1. — The emphasis of ipse is often expressed in English hjjust, very, mere, etc.
I^otb2. — In English, the pronouns himse^ etc. are used both intensively (as, he
will corns himMlf) and reflexively (as, he wUl kill him^lf) : in Latin the former would
be translated by ipse, the latter by sS or sSsS.
d. Ipse is often used alone, substantively, as follows : —
1. As an emphatic pronoun of the third person : —
idque rel pablicae praeclanim, ipsis glOriOsum (Phil. ii. 27), and this was
splendid for the state, glorious for themselves.
omn€s bon! quantum in ipsis fuit (id. ii. 29), all good men so far as was in
their power (in themselves).
di capiti ipsius generique resenrent (Aen. viii. 484), may the gods hold in
reserve [such a fate] to fall on his own and his son-in-law'' s head.
2. To emphasize an omitted subject of the first or second person : —
vOblscum ipsi recordamini (Phil. ii. 1), remember in your own minds (your-
selves with yourselves).
3. To distinguish the principal personage from subordinate persons : —
ipse dixit (cf. a.{nhz f0a), he (the Master) said it.
NOmentanus erat super ipsum (Hor. S. ii. 8. 23), Nomentanus was above [the
host] himself [at table].
180 SYNTAX: PRONOUNS [§§298-^00
e. Ipse is often (is rarely) used instead of a reflexive (see § 300. h).
/. Ipse usually agrees with the subject, even when the real empha-
sis in English is on a reflexive in the predicate : —
me ipse cOnsOlor (Lael. 10), I console myself. [Not mS ipsom, as the Eng-
lish would lead us to expect.]
Reflexive Pronouns
299. The Reflexive Pronoun (s6), and usually its corresponding
possessive (suus), are used in the predicate to refer to the subject
of the sentence or clause : —
85 ex n&vl prOiecit (B. G. iv. 25), he threw himsf^f from the efdp,
Dumnorlgem ad se vocat (id. i. 20), he caXU Bumnorix to him.
sese castris tenfibant (id. iii. 24), they kept themadves in camp.
contemni se putant (Cat. M. 65), they think they are despised.
Caesar sufts cOpias subdue! t (B. G. i. 22), Ccesar leads up his troops.
Caesar statuit sibi RhSnum esse trdJiseundum (id. iv. 16), Ccesar decided that
he must cross the Rhine (the Rhine must be crossed by himself).
a* For reflexives of the first and second persons the oblique cases
of the personal pronouns (mei, tui, etc.) and the corresponding pos-
sessives (meus, taus, etc.) are used : —
morti m8 obtull (Mil. 94), I have exposed myself to death.
hinc tS reglnae ad limina perfer (Aen. i. 389), do you go (bear yourself)
hence to the queen^s threshold.
quid est quod tantis nds in labOribus exerceftmus (Arch. 28), wfiat reason is
there why we should exert ourselves in so great toils f
singulis Tobis novSnOs ex turmis manipulisque vestii similes €ligite (Li?.
xxi. 54), for each of you pick out from t?ie squadrons and maniples nine
like yourselves.
300. In a subordinate clause of a complex sentence there is a
double use of Reflexives.
1. The reflexive may always be used to refer to the subject of its
own clause (Direct Reflexive) : —
itldic&rl potest quantum habeat in sS bonl cQnstantia (B. G. i. 40), it can be
determined how much good firmness possesses (has in itself).
• [Caesar] n5luit eum locum vac&re, ne GeimSni 6 sals finibus translrent
(id. i. 28), CcBsar did not wish this place to lie vacant^ for fear the Ger-
mans would cross over from their territories.
81 qua signific&tio virtiitis eluceat ad quam se similis animus adplicet et
adiungat (Lael. 48), if any sign of virtue shine forth to which a eimUar
disposition may attach itself.
§300] RBFLBXIVE PRONOUNS 181
2. If the subordinate claase expresses the words or thought of the
subject of the main clause, the reflexive is regularly used to refer to
that subject (Indirect Reflexive) : —
petiSrunt at sibi lic^ret (B. G. i. 30), they begged that it might he aliowed.
them (the petitioners).
Iccius nOntium mittit, nisi subsidium sibi submitt&tur (id. ii. 6), Icciua send»
a message that unless rdief be furnished him, etc.
decima legiO el grfttiSA egit, quod d6 sfi optimum iCLdicium fecisset (id. i. 41>r
the tenth legion thanked him because [they said] ha had expressed a high
opinion of them,
Bl obsidSs ab eis (the Helvetians) sibi (Csesar, who is the speaker) dentur, 86
(Caesar) cum els pftcem esse factamm (id. i 14), [Ciesar said that] if
hostages were given him by them he would make peace with them.
NoTB. — Sometimes the person or thing to which the reflexive refers is not the
grammatical subject of the main clause, though it is in effect the subject of discourse :
Thus, — cum ipsi ded nihil minus gratum futurum sit quam nOn omnibus patere ad sS
placandum viam (Legg. ii. 25), since to God himself nothing will be less pleasing than
that the way to appease him ihovld not be open to aU men,
Urn If the subordinate clause does not express the words or thought
of the main subject, the reflexive is not regularly used, though it is
occasionally found : —
sunt ita multi ut eSs career capere nOn possit (Cat. ii. 22), they are so many
that the prison cannot hold them. [Here sS could not be used ; so also
in the example following.]
ibi in proximis villis ita bipartite f uSrunt, ut Tiberis inter eos et pOns inter-
esset (id. iii. 5), there they stationed themselves in the nearest farm-
houses, in two divisions, in such a manner that the Tiber and the bridge
were between them (the divisions).
ndn fuit e5 contentus quod ei praeter spem acciderat (Manil. 25), he was not
content with that which had happened to him beyond his hope.
Compare : qui fit, Maecen3.s, ut nemo, quam sibi sortem seu rati5 dederit
seu fors obigcerit, ilia contentus vivat (Hor. S. i. 1. 1), how comes it,
Moecenas, that nobody lives contented with tfiat lot which choice has
assigned hini or chance has thrown in his way f [Here sibi is used to
put the thought into the mind of the discontented man.]
6. Ipse is often (is rarely) used instead of an indirect reflexive,
either to avoid ambiguity or from carelessness ; and in later writers
is sometimes found instead of the direct reflexive : —
cflr d€ su& virtute aut de ipsius diligentiS. d€spgrarent (B. 6. i. 40), why
(he asked) should they despair of their own courage or his diligence f
omnia aut ipsds aut hostSs populates (Q. C. iii. 6. 6), [they said that] either
they themselves or the enemy had laid all waste. [Direct reflexive.]
182 SYNTAX: PRONOUNS [§§300,301
qui s6 ex hl8 minus timid5s ezistim&rl volebant, nOn sS hostem vereri, Bed
angustiSfl itineris et md,gnitudinem 8ilv9.l:uin quae intercederent inter
ipsos (the persons referred to by se above) atque Ariovistum . . . timere
dicebant (B. G. i. 39), those of them who wished to he thought less timid
said they did not fear the enemy, but were afraid of the narrows and the
vast extent of the forests which were between themselves and Ariomstus. '
audlstis nCLper dicere leg&tOs TyndaritanOs Mercurium qui sacns anniver-
s&rils apad eos coleretur esse 8ublS.tum (Verr. iv. 84), you have just heard
the ambassadors from Tyndaris say that the statue of Mercury which was
worshipped with annual rites among them was taken away. [Here Cicero
wavers between apad eos colebatur, a remark of his own, and apod se
coleretur, the words of the ambassadors, eos does not strictly refer to
the ambassadors, but to the people — the Tyndaritani.^
301. Special uses of the Reflexive axe the following : —
a. The reflexive in a subordinate clause sometimes refers to the
subject of a suppressed main clause : —
Faetus omnis librOs quOs frater suus reliquisset mihi dOn^vit (Att. 11. 1),
Pcetus gave me all the books which (as he said in the act of donation)
his brother had l^ him,
b. The reflexive may refer to any noun or pronoun in its own clause
which is so emphasized as to become the subject of discourse: —
Sdcratem cIvSs sai interf ecSrunt, Socrates was put to death by his oum feUow-
citizens.
qui poterat saltls sua culquam nOn prob&rl (Mil. 81), hxm can any one fail
to approve his own safety f [In this and the preceding example the
emphasis is preserved in English by the change of voice.]
hunc si secuti erunt sal comites (Cat. 11. 10), this man, if his companions
follow him.
NoTB. — Occasionally the clause to which the reflexive really belongs is absorbed :
as, — studeO sanare sibi ipsos (Cat. ii. 17), / am amdous to cure these m^nfor their own
beneJU (i.e. ut s&ni sibi sint).
c. Suus is used for one^s own as emphatically opposed to tTiat of
others, in any part of the sentence and with reference to any -word
in it: —
sttis flammis delete Fiden9,s (Li v. iv. 33), destroy Fidenoe with its own fires
(the fires kindled by that city, figuratively). [Cf. Cat i. 32.]
d. The reflexive may depend upon a verbal noun or adjective: —
8tt! laus, self-praise.
habetis ducem memorem vestrl, oblltum sai (Cat. iv. 19), you have a leader
mindful of you, forgetful of himself.
perditi homines cum sui similibus servis (Phil. i. 5), abandoned men wUh
slaves like themselves.
§§ 301, 302] POSSESSIVE PRONOUNS 188
e. The reflexive may refer to the subject implied in an infinitive
or verbal abstract used indefinitely : —
contentum suis rebus esse maximae sunt divitlae (Par. 61), the greatest
wealth is to be content with one^s own,
Gui prOposita sit cdDseryd.tiO sui (Fin. v. 37), one whose aim is self-preservation.
/". Inter se (nOs, v6s), among themselves (ourselves, yourselves), is
regularly used to express reciprocal action or relation : —
inter se c5nfl!gunt (Cat. i. 26), contend with eaxh other,
inter se continentur (Arch. 2), are joined to eojch other.
Possessive Pronouns
302. The Possessive Pronouns are derivative adjectives, which
take the gender, number, and case of the noun to which they
belong^ not those of the possessor : —
haec OmSmenta sunt mea (Val. iv. 4), these are my jewels, [mea is neuter
plural, though the speaker is a woman.]
mei sunt OrdinSs, mea discriptio (Cat. M. 69), mine are the rotos, mine the
arrangement, [mea is feminine, though the speaker is Cyrus.]
multa in nostro coUegiS praeclHra (id. 64), [there are] many fine things in
our college, [nostrd is neuter singular, though men are referred to.]
Germ&il safts cOpi9£ castrls eduxSrunt (B. G. i. 61), the Germans led their
troops out of the camp.
41. To express possession and similar ideas the possessive pro-
nouns are regularly used, not the genitive of the personal or reflexive
pronouns (§ 343. a) : —
domus mea, my house, [Not domas mei. ]
pater noster, our father, [Not pater nostri.]
patrimOnium tutim, your inheritance. [Not tui.]
l^OTE 1. — Exceptions are rare in classic Latin, common in later writers. For
the use of a possessive prononn instead of an Objective Oenitive, see § 348. a.
NoTB 2. — The Interrogative Possessive cClittS, -a, -am, occurs in poetry and early
Latin : as, — ctdnm pecus (Eel. iii. 1) , whose fiock f The genitive cflitts is generally used
instead.
h* The possessives have often the acquired meaning oi peculiar to,
favorable or propitious towards, the person or thing spoken of : —
[petere] ut sal dementia ac m&nsu€tadine ut9.tur (B. G. ii. 14), they asked
(they said) thxit he would show his [wonted] clemency and humanity.
IgnOrantI quern portum petat ntillus sans ventus est (Sen. Ep. 71. 8), to
him who knows not what port he is hound to, no wind is fair (his own).
tempore too pugn3,st! (Li v. zxxviii. 45. 10), did you fight at a fit time?
NoTB. — This use is merely a natural development of the meaning of the possess*
ive» and the pronoun may often be rendered literaUy.
184 SYNTAX: PRONOUNS [§§ 3Q2, 303
e. The possessives are regularly omitted (like other pronouns)
when they are plainly implied in the context : —
Bocium fraadftvit, he cheated his partner, [aociiim raom would be distinctiv^e,
hie partner (and not another's) ; suom soclom, emphatic, his own part ner. ]
d. Possessive pronouns and adjectives implying possession are
often used substantively to denote some special class or relation : —
nostrl, (mr countrymen^ or men of our party.
suds continSbat (B. G. i. 15), he held hia men in check,
flamma eztrSma meSrum (Aen. ii. 481), last flames of my countrymen.
SuU&nl, the veterans of Sultans army; Pompgi&nl, the partisans of Pompey.
NoTB. — There is no reason to suppose an ellipsis here. The adjective becomes
a noun like other adjectives (see § 288).
e. A possessive pronoun or an adjective implying possession may
take an appositive in the genitive case agreeing in gender, number,
and case with an implied noun or pronoun : —
mea. solias caus& (Ter. Heaut. 129), for my sake only,
in nostrO nmn<nm flgttl (Mil. 92), amid the tears of us aJX,
ex Annianft MilOnis domO ( Att. iv. 3. 3) , out of Annius Miio^s house. [Equiva-
lent to ex Amu Milonis dome.]
nostra omnium patria, the country of us all.
suum ipsitts rSgnam, his own kingdom.
For the special reflexive use of the possessive Bans, see §§ 299, 300.
Relative Pronouns
303. A Relative Pronoun agrees with some word expressed or implied either in
its own clause, or (often) in the antecedent (demonstrative) clause. In the fullest con-
struction the antecedent is expressed in both clauses, with more commonly a corre-
sponding demonstrative to which the relative refers : as, — iter in ea loca facere coepit,
quibus in locis esse GermanOs audiebat (B. G. iv. 7), he began to march into those
PLACBS in which places he heard the Germans were. But one of these nouns is com-
monly omitted.
The antecedent is in Jjatin very frequently (rarely in English) found in the relative
clause, but more commonly in the antecedent clause.
Thus relatives serve two uses at the same time : —
1. As Nouns (or Adjectives) in their own clause: as, — ei qui Alesiae obsidebantur
(B. G. vii. 77), thx)3e who were besieged at Alesia.
2. As Connectives : as, — T. Balventius, qui superiOre annO primum pilum duxerat
(id. V. 35), Titus Balventius, who the year before had been a centurion of the first rank.
When the antecedent is in a different sentence, the relative is often equivalent
to a demonstrative with a conjunction: as, — quae cum ita sint (=:et cum ea ita sint),
[and] since this is so.
The subordinating force did not belong to the relative originally, but was developed
from an interrogative or indefinite meaning specialized by use. But the subordinat-
ing and the later connective force were acquired by qui at such an early period that
the steps of the process cannot now be traced.
§§304^06] RELATIVE PRONOUNS 185
304. A Relative Pronoun indicates a relation between its own
clause and some substantive. This substantive is called the Ante-
cedent of the relative.
Thus, in the sentence —
earn nihil d€lect&bat quod fas esset (Mil. 43), nothiTig pleased him which was
rights
the relative quod connects its antecedent nihil with the predicate f&s
asset, indicating a relation between the two.
305. A Relative agrees with its Antecedent in Gender and
Number; but its CoBe depends on its construction in the clause
in which it stands : —
ea dies qnam cOnstituerat yenlt (B. G. i. 8), that day which he had appointed
came.
pontem qui erat ad Gen9,vam lubet rescindl (id. i. 7), he orders the bridge
which was near Geneva to be cut down.
AduatucI, de quibus supra diximus, domum revertCrunt (id. ii. 29), the
Aduatuci, of whom we have spoken above, returned home,
KoTK. — This role applies to all relative words so far as they are variable in form:
as, qnalis, quantas, qoicumque, etc.
a. If a relative has two or more antecedents, it follows the rules
for the agreement of predicate adjectives (§§ 286, 287) : —
filium et filiam, quos valde dilexit, un6 tempore amisit, he lost at the same
tim^ a son and a daughter whom he dearly loved.
g^randes natu matrgs et parvull liberl, qaorum utr5ramqae aetas misericor-
diam nostram requirit (Yen*, v. 129), aged matrons and little children,
whose time of life in each case demands our compassion.
Otiom atque divitiae, quae prima mortal6s putant (Sail. Cat. 36), idleness avd
toealth, which men count the first (objects of desire).
eae frugfis et fructOs quos terra gignit (N. D. ii. 87), those fruits and crops
which the earth produces.
For the Person of the verb agreeing with the Relative, see § 316. a.
306. A Relative generally agrees in gender and number with an
appositive or predicate noun in its own clause, rather than with
an antecedent of different gender or number (cf. § 296. a): —
mare etiam quern Neptannm esse dlcSbas (N. D. iii. 62), the sea, too, which
you said was Neptune. [Not quod.]
Thebae ipsae, quod BoeOtiae caput est (Liv. xlii. 44), even Thebes, which is
the chief city of BoRotia. [Not quae.]
Note. — This rule is occasionally violated: as, — flumen quod appellatur Tamesis
(B. G. V. 11), a river which is called the Thames.
186 SYNTAX: PRONOUNS [§§306,307
a. A relative occasionally agrees with its antecedent in case (by
attraction) : —
8l aliquid agSs eorum quorum cOnsuesti (Fam. y. 14), if you should do some-
thing of what you are used to do. [For eorum quae.]
Note. — Occasionally the antecedent is attracted into the case of the relative: —
urbem quam statuO vestra est (Aen. i. 573), the city which I am founding is yours.
Naucratem, quern convenire Yolui, in navi nOn erat (PI. Am. 1009), Naucrates,
whom I wished to meet, was not on board the ship.
6. A relative may agree in gender and number with an implied
antecedent : —
quartum genus ... qui in vetere aere ali6nO vacillant (Cat. ii. 21), a fourth
class, who are staggering under old debts.
unus ex eO numerC qui parfttl erant (lug. 36), one of the number [of those]
10^0 were ready.
coniurav6re pauci, de qua [i.e. coniiiratiOne] dicam (Sail. Cat. 18), a few
Jiave conspired, of which [conspiracy] I wUl speak.
Note. — So regularly when the antecedent is implied in a possessive pronoun : as,
^nostra acta, quos tyrannos vocas (Vat. 29), the deeds of uSf whom you call tyrants.
[Here quds agrees with the nostrum (genitive plural) implied in nostra.]
Antecedent of the Relative
307. The Antecedent Noun sometimes appears in both clauses;
but usually only in the one that precedes. Sometimes it is
wholly omitted.
a. The antecedent noun may be repeated in the relative clause : —
loci natura erat haec quern locum nostrl d^lSgerant (B. G. ii. 18), t?ie nature
of the ground which our men had chosen was this.
b. The antecedent noun may appear only in the relative clause,
agreeing with the relative in case : —
quas res in cOnsulatG nostrO gessimus attigit hie versibus (Arch. 28), ?ie has
touched in verse the things which I did in my consulship.
quae prima innocentis mihi defensid est oblata suscSpi (Sull. 92), I under-
took the first drfence of an innocent man that was offered me.
Note. — In this case the relative clause usually comes first (cf. § 308. d) and a
demonstrative usually stands in the antecedent clause : —
quae pars civitatis calamitatem populo Romano intulerat, ea princeps poenas per-
solvit (B. G. i. 12), that part of the state which had brought disaster on the
Roman people was the first to pay the penalty.
quae gratia currum fuit vivis, eadem sequitur (Aen. vi. 653), the same pleasure
that they took in chariots in their lifetime follows them (after death),
qui fit ut nemo, quam sibi sortem ratio dederit, ilia contentus vivat (cf . Hor. S. i-
1. 1), how does it happen that no one lives contented with the lot which choice
has assigned him?
§§307,308] RELATIVE PRONOUNS 187
c. The antecedent may be omitted, especially if it is indefinite : —
qui decimae legiOnis aquilam ferebat (B. G. iv. 25), [the man] whx) bore the
eagle of the tenth legion.
qui cOgnOscerent misit (id. 1. 21), Ae sent [men] to reconnoitre,
a. The phrase id quod or quae rSs may be used (instead of quod
alone) to refer to a group of words or an idea : —
[obtrect&tum est] GablniO dicam anne Pomp§iO ? an utrlque — id quod est
yerius? (Manil. 57), an affront has been offered — shall I say to Gdbinius
or to Pompey f or — which is truer — to both f
multam sunt in vSn&tidnibus, qaae res vlr^ alit (B. G. iv. 1), they spend
much time in hunting, which [practice] increa>ses their strength.
Note. — Butqaod alone often occnrs : as, — Gassins noster, quod mihi magnae volup-
tati fait, hostem reiecerat (Fam. ii. 10), our friend Caasius — which was a great satis-
faction to me — had driven back the enemy.
€. The antecedent noun, when in apposition with the main clause,
or with some word of it, is put in the relative clause : —
firmi [amici], ciiius generis est magna p€nilria (Lael. 62), steadfast friends,
a class of which there is great lack (of which class there is, etc. ).
/. A predicate adjective (especially a superlative) belonging to the
antecedent may stand in the relative clause : —
vasa ea qnae pulcherrima apud eum viderat (Verr. iv. 63), those most beauti-
ful vessels which he had seen at his house. [Nearly equivalent to the
vessels of which he had seen some very beautiful ones.^
Special Uses of the Relative
308. In the use of Relatives, the following points are to be
observed : —
a. The relative is never omitted in Latin, as it often is in Eng-
lish : —
liber quern mihi dedisti, the book you gave me.
is sum qui semper ful, I am the same man I always was.
e5 in loc5 est dS qud tibi locutus sum, he is in the place I told you of.
h. When two relative clauses are connected by a copulative con-
junction, a relative pronoun sometimes stands in the first and a
demonstrative in the last : —
erat profectus obviam legiOnibus Macedonicis quattuor, quSs sibi conciliare
pecunia cOgitabat easque ad urbem adducere (Fam. xii. 23. 2), he had
set out to meet four legions from Macedonia^ which he thought to win over
to himself by a gift of money and to lead (them) to the city.
188 SYNTAX: PRONOUNS [§306
c. A relative clause in Latin often takes the place of some other
construction in English, — particularly of a participle, an appositive,
or a noun of agency : —
leges quae nunc sunt, the existing laws (the laws which now exist).
Caesar qui Galliam Yicit, Coisar the conqueror of Gavd.
itista gloria qui est fructus virttltis (Pison. 67), true glory [which is] the fruit
of virtue,
ille qui petit, the plaintiff (he who sues),
qui legit, a reader (one who reads).
d. In formal or emphatic discourse, the relative clause usually
comes first, often containing the antecedent noun (cf. § 307. h) : —
quae pars clvitfttis Helvetiae Inslgnem calamitfttem populO BOm&nO intulerat,
ea princeps poenfts persolvit (B. G, i. 12)^ the portion of the Helnetvan
slate which had brought a serious disaster on the Bwnan people was the
first to pay the penalty,
NoTB. — In colloquial language, the relative clause in such cases often contains a
redundant demonstrative pronoun which logically belongs in the antecedent clause:
as, — ills qui oOnsulte cavet, diutine uti bene licet partom bene (Plaut. Bad. 1240),
he who is on his guard, he may long enjoy w?iat he has well obtained.
e* The relative with an abstract noun may be used in a parenthet-
ical clause to characterize a person, like the English siich : —
quae vestra prudentia est (Gael. 45), such is your wisdom, [Equivalent to
pro yestri prudentU.]
audlssSs cOmoedSs vel iSctOrem vel lyristSn, vel, quae mea fiberilit&s, omnes
(Plin. Ep. i. 15), you would have listened to comedians, or a reader^ or a
lyre-player, or — such is my liberality — to all of them.
/. A relative pronoun (or adverb) often stands at the beginning of
an independent sentence or clause, serving to connect it with the
sentence or clause that precedes : —
Caesar statuit exspectandam classem; qaae ubi convSnit (B. G. iii. 14),
CoBsar decided that he must wait for the fl.eet; and when this had come
together, etc.
quae qui audiebant, and those who heard this (which things).
quae cum ita sint, and sinee this is so.
qn5mm quod simile factum (Cat. iv. 13), what deed of theirs like thisf
quo cum vSnisset, and when he had come there (whither when he had come).
NoTJB. — This arrangement is common even when another relative or an interrog-
ative follows. The relative may usually be translated by an English demonstrative,
with or without and.
g. A relative adverb is regularly used in referring to an antecedent
in the Locative case; so, often, to express any relation of place instead
of the formal relative pronoun : —
§§ 308-310] INDEFINITE PRONOUNS 189
mortuus Cumis qu5 8& contulerat (Liv. ii. 21), having died at CumtB^ tokUher
he hxid retired, [Here in qoaxn urbem might be used, but not in qu&s.]
locus qud aditus nOn erat, a place to which (whither) Viere ioob no access,
regna unde genus ddcis (Aen. v. 801), ike kingdom from which you derive
your race.
unde petitur, the d^endant (he from whom something is demanded).
h. The relatives qui, quAlis, quantas, quot, etc. are often rendered
simply by as in English : —
idem quod semper, th>e same as always.
cum esset talis quAlem te esse videO (Mur. 32), since he was such a man as I
see you are.
tanta dimic&tio quanta numquam fuit (Att. yli. 1. 2), such a fight as never
was b^ore.
tot mala quot sidera (Ov. Tr. i. 5. 47), as many trovhles as stars in the sky.
i. The general construction of relatives is found in clauses intro-
duced by relative adverbs : as, ubi, quO, unde, cum, qu&r€.
Indefinite Pronouns
309. The Indefinite Pronouns are used to indicate that some
person or thing is meant, without designating what one,
310. Quia, quispiam, aliquis, quidam, are particular indefinites^ mean-
ing 9ome^ a certain^ any. Of these, quia, any one, is least definite,
and quidam, a certain one, most definite ; aliquis and quispiam, some
one, stand between the two: —
dixerit qnis (quispiam), som£ one may say.
aliqm philoaophi ita pntant, some philosophers think so. [quidam would mean
certain persons defined to the speaker^s mind, though not named.]
habitant hic quaedam mulierSs pauperculae (Ter. Ad. 647), some poor women
live here [i.e. some women he knows of ; some women or other would
be aliquae or nescid quae].
a. The indefinite quia is rare except in the combinations si quia, if
any; niai quia, if any . . . not; nS quia, lest any, in order that none;
num quia (ecquia), whether any ; and in relative clauses.
bm The compounds quiapiam and aliquia are often used instead of
quia after al, niai, nS, and num, and are rather more emphatic : —
quid A hoc quispiam voluit deus (Ter. Eun. 876), wJuxt if some god had
desired thisf
nisi alicui suOrum negf^tium daret (Nep. Dion. 8. 2), unless he shoiUd employ
some one of his friends.
cavebat Pompiius onmia, n6 aUquid vOs timSrStis (Mil. 66), Pompey took
every precaution^ so that you might have no fear.
190 SYNTAX: PRONOUNS [§§ 311-313
311. In a particular negative aliquis (aliqui), some one (some)^ is
regularly used, where in a universal negative quisquam, any oney
or alius, any, would be required : —
iustitia numquam nocet cuiquam (Fin. i. 60), justice never does harm to any-
body, [alicui would mean to somebody who possesses it]
nOn sine aliqud mettl, not without some fear. But, — sine 0115 metu, wiUiout
any fear.
cum aliquid nOn habeas (Tusc. i. 88), wfien there is something you have not.
NoTB. — The same distinction holds between quis and aliquis on the one hand, and
qttisquam (ullns) on the other, in conditional and other sentences when a negative is
expressed or suggested : —
SI quisqaam, ille sapiens fuit (Lael. 9), if any man was (ever) a sage^ he was.
dum praesidia iilla fuerunt (Rose. Am. 126), while there were any armed forces.
SI quid in te peccavi (Att. iii. 15. 4), ^ / have done wrong towards you [in anj
particular case (see § 310)].
312. Quivis or quilibet {any one you will)^ quisquam, and the cor-
responding adjective Wus, any at all, are general indefinites.
Quivis and quilibet are used chiefly in affirmative clauses^ quisquam
and ullus in clauses where a universal negative is expressed or sug-
gested : —
nOn cuivfs homini contingit adire Corinthum (Hor. Ep. i. 17. S6),itis not every
man^s luck to go to Corinth, [ndn cuiqoam would mean not any man's.]
quemlibet modo aliquem (Acad. ii. 132), anybody you will, provided it be
somebody. •
si quisquam est timidus, is ego sum (Fam. vi. 14. 1), if any man is timorous,
I am he.
si tempus est uUum iure hominis necandl (Mil. 9), if there is any occasion
whatever when homicide is justifiable.
Note. — The use of the indefinites is very various, and must be learned from the
Lexicon and from practice. The choice among them may depend merely on the point
of view of the speaker, so that they are often practically interchangeable. The differ-
ences are (with few exceptions) those of logic, not of syntax.
313. The distributives quisque (every), uterque (each of two), and
finus quisque (every single one) are used in general assertions : —
bonus liber melior est quisque quO mftior (Plin. Ep. i. 20. 4), th^ larger a
good book is, the better (each good book is better in proportion, etc. ).
amb5 exercitus sufis qaisqne abeunt domOs (Li v. ii. 7. 1), both armies go
away, every man to his home.
uterque utrique erat exercitus in cOnspectu (B. 6. vii. 35), each army was
in sight of the other (each to each).
pOnite ante oculOs flnum qnemque rSgum (Par. i. 11), sei, before your eyes each
of the kings.
S§ 313, 314] INDEFINITE PRONOUNS 191
a. Quisque regularly stands in a dependent clause, if there is one: —
quQ quisque est soUertior, hOc docet Ir&cundius (Rose. Com. 31), the keener-
wUted a man is, the more impatiently he teaches.
Note. — Quisque is generally postpositive ^ : as, suum cuique, to every man his own.
h. Quisque is idiomatically used with superlatives and with ordinal
numerals : —
nObilissimus qoisqae, all the noblest (one after the other in the order of their
nobiUty).2
pilm5 qndqae tempore (Rose. Am. 86), aJb the very first opportunity.
antlquissimum quodque tempus (B. G. i. 4o), the most ancient times,
decimus quisque (id. y. 62), one in ten.
Note 1. — Two superlatives with quisque imply a proportion : as, — sapientissimus
quisque aequissimO animo moritur (Cat. M. 83), the loisest m^n die with the greatest
equanimity.
Note 2. — Quotus quisque has the signification of how manyj prayf often in a dis-
paraging sense {how few) : —
quotus enim quisque disertus? quotus quisque iuris peritus est (Plane. 62) t for how
few are eloquent! how few are learned in the law !
quotus enim istud quisque fecisset (Lig. 26), /or how many would have done this?
[i.e. scarcely anybody would have done it].
314. KSmO, no one, is used of persons only —
1. As a substantive: —
neminem aee&sat, he accuses no one.
2. As an adjective pronoun instead of nullus : —
vir ngmo bonus (Legg. ii. 41), no good man.
Note. — Even when used as a substantive, n6m5 may take a noun in apposition:
as, — ngmo scxiptor, nobody [who is] a writer.
a* Nullus, no, is commonly an adjective ; but in the genitive and
ablative singular it is regularly used instead of the corresponding
cases of nSmO, and in the plural it may be either an adjective or a
substantive : —
nnUum mittitar t€lum (B. C. ii. 13), iwt a missile is thrown.
naU5 hoste prohibente (B. G. iii. 6), u)ithx)ut opposition from the enemy.
nullius insector ealamitatem (Phil. ii. 98), I persecute the misfortune of no one.
nuUo adiuvante (id. x. 4), with the help of no one (no one helping).
nulli erant praed6n6s (Flacc. 28), there were no pirates.
nuUi eximentur (Pison. 94), none shall be taken away.
For n5n ngmo, non niiUus (non nulli), see § 326. a.
1 That is, it does not stand first in its clause.
2 As, in taking things one by one oflf a pile, each thing is uppermost when you
take it.
192 SYNTAX: PRONOUNS [§816
Alius and Alter
315. Alius means simply other^ another (of an indefinite niun-
ber) ; alter, the other (of two), often the second in a series ; cSteri
and rdiqui, all the rest, the others ; alteruter, one of the two : —
propterea quod alind iter hab^rent nallum (B. 6. i. 7), because (as they
said) Viey had no other way.
finl epistulae respondl, yeniO ad alteram (Fam. ii. 17. 6), one letter I have
answered, I come to the other.
alteram genus (Oat. ii. 19), tke second class.
iecissem ipse m6 potius in profundum ut c8ter58 cOnseryftrem (Sest. 45), I
should have rather thrown myself into the deep to save the rest.
Seryllius cOnsul, reliqoique magistrfttOs (B. C. iii. 21), ServUius the consul
and the rest of the magistrates.
cum sit necesse alteram atram vincere (Fam. vi. 3), since it ynust he that one
of the two should prevail.
Note. — Alter is often ased, especially with negatives, in reference to an indefinite
number where one is opposed to all the rest taken singly : —
dam ne sit te ditior alter (Hor. S. i. 1. 40), «o long as another is not richer tfian
you (lit. the other, there being at the moment only two persons considered).
nOn nt magis alter, amicus (id. i. 5. 33), a friend such that no other is more so.
a. The expressions alter . . . alter, the one . . . the otJier, alios . . .
alius, one . . . another, may be used in pairs to denote either division
of a group or reciprocity of action : —
altexl dimicant, alter! yictOrem timent (Fam. vi. 3), one party fights, the
other fears the victor.
alteram alter! praesidiO esse iusserat (B. C. iii. 89), he had ordered each (of
the two legions) to support the other.
alii gladils adoriuntur, alii fragments saeptOrum (Sest. 79), some make an
aUack with swords, others with fragments of the railings.
aUus ex alid causam quaerit (B. G. vi. 87), they ask each other the reason.
aUus aliam percontftmur (PI. Stich. 370), we keep asking each other.
&• Alius and alter are often used to express one as well as another
(the other) of the objects referred to: —
alter c5nsulum, one of the [two] consuls.
aUud est maledlcere, aUad acctlsftre (Gael. 6), it is one thing to slander,
another to accuse.
c* Alius repeated in another case, or with an adverb from the same
stem, expresses briefly a double statement : —
alias aliad petit, one man seeks one thing, another another (another seeks
another thing),
iussit aliSs alibi fodere (Liv. xliv. 38), fie ordered different persons to dig in
different pUices.
alii alid locO resistfibant (B. C. ii. 39), some halted in one place, some in anoiher.
§§ 316, 317] VERB AND SUBJECT 198
VERBS
Agreement of Verb and Subject
316. A Finite Verb agrees with its Subject in Number and Per-
son: —
ego statuO, I resolve, senatas dScrevit, the senate ordered.
silent leges inter arma (Mil. 11), the laws are dumb in time of war.
NoTB. — In verb-forms containing a participle, the participle agrees with the sub-
ject in gender and number <§ 286): —
dratio est babita, the plea was delivered. bellnm ezortum est, a war arose.
«. A verb having a relative as its subject takes the person of the
expressed or implied antecedent : —
adsum qui feci (Aen. ix. 427), here am I who did it.
tu, qui scis, omnem diligentiam adhibebis (Att. v. 2. 3), you^ who know,
wiU use aU diligence.
videte quam despiciamar omnSs qui somas 6 mtlnicipils (Phil. iii. 16), see
how all of us are scorned who are from the free toums.
5. A verb sometimes agrees in number (and a participle in the verb-
form in number and gender) with an appositive or predicate noun : —
axnantium Irae amOris integr&tiO est (Ter. And. 656), tJie quarrels of lovers
are the renewal of love.
nOn omnis error stultitia dicenda est (Div. ii. 90), not every error should be
called folly,
Corinthus lumen Graeciae exstinctam est (of. Manil. 11), Corinth^ the light
of Greece, is put out.
Doable or Collective Subject
317. Two or more Singular Subjects take a verb in the Plural:
pater et avus mortni sunt, his father and grandfather are dead.
NoTB. — So rarely (by synesis, § 280. a) when to a singular snbject is attached an
ablative with com: as, — dux cum aliquot prmcipibus capiontur (Li v. xxi. 60), the
general and several leading m£n are taken.
a. When subjects are of different persons, the verb is usually in
the first person rather than the second, and in the second rather than
the third : —
si tu et Tullia valetis ego et Cicer5 valSmns (Pam. xiv. 6), if you and Tullia
are toefl, Cicero and I are weXL [Notice that the first person is also
first in order, not last, as by courtesy in English.]
Note. — In case of different gmders a participle in a verb-form follows the rule for
predicate adjectives (see § 287. 2rA).
194 SYNTAX: VERBS [§317
ft. If the subjects are connected by disjunctives (§ 223. a), or if
they are considered as a single whole, the verb is usually singular : —
quern neque fid€s neque ius ifirandum neque ilium misericordia repressit
(Ter. Ad. 306), notfaith, nor oath^ ruiy^ nor mercy ^ checked him.
sen&tus populusque ROmd.nus intellegit (Fain. y. 8), the Roman senate and
people understand. [But, neque Caesar neque ego habit! essemus (id.
xi. 20), neither CcBsar nor I should have been considered.']
f&ma et vita innocentis defenditur (Rose. Am. 15), <Ae reputation and life of an
innocent man are defended.
est in eO virtus et probity et summum ofBcium summaque observantia (Fam.
xiii. 28 a. 2), in him are to he found worthy uprightness, the highest sense
of duty, and the greatest demotion.
NoTB. — So almost always when the subjects are abstract nouns.
c. When a verb belongs to two or more subjects separately, it often
agrees with one and is understood with the others : —
intercedit M. Ant5nius Q. Cassius tribUnl plebis (B. C. i. 2), Mark Antony
and Qy^intus Cassius, tribunes of the people, interpose.
h5c mihi et Peripat€tici et vetus Academia concedit (Acad. ii. 113), this both
the Peripatetic philosophers and the Old Academy grant me.
d. A collective noun commonly takes a verb in the singular ; but
the plural is often found with collective nouns when individuals are
thought of (§ 280. a) : —
(1) sen^tus haec intellegit (Cat. i. 2), tJie senate is aware of this.
ad hlberna exercitus redit (Liv. xxi. 22), the army returns to winter-quarters.
plebSs a patribus secessit (Sail. Cat. 33), the plebs seceded from the patricians.
(2) pars praed3£i agebant (lug. 32), a part brought in booty.
cum tanta multitiidd lapid@s conicerent (B. G. ii. 6), when such a croiod were
throwing stones.
Note 1. — The point of view may change in the course of a sentence : as, — equita-
tum omnem . . . quern habebat praemittit, qui videant (B. 6. i. 15), Ae sent ahead aU
the cavalry he had, to see (who should see).
Note 2. — The singular of a noun regularly denoting an individual is sometimes
used collectively to denote a group : as, Poenus, the Carthaginians; miles, the soldiery;
eques, the cavalry.
6. Quisque, each, and tinus quisque, every single one, have very often
a plural verb, but may be considered as in partitive apposition with a
plural subject implied (cf. § 282. a): —
sibi quisque habeant quod suum est (PI. Cure. 180), let every one keep his
own (let them keep every man his own).
Note. — So also aterqne, each (of two), and the reciprocal phrases aUus . . . alium,
alter . . . alterum (§316. a).
§§ 318, 319] OMISSION OF SUBJECT OR VERB 195
Omission of Subject or Verb
318. The Subject of the Verb is sometimes omitted : —
a. A Personal pronoun, as subject, is usually omitted unless em-
phatic : —
loquor, I speak. But, ego loquor, it is I thai speak,
h. An indefinite subject is often omitted: — crSderSs, you would
have supposed ; putftmus, we (people) think ; dicunt, ferunt, perhibent,
they say.
Cm A passive verb is often used impersonally without a subject ex-
pressed or understood (§ 208. d) : —
ditl atqae ftcriter pfignAtum est (B. G. i. 26), theyfoy^ghJb long and vigorously.
319. The verb is sometimes omitted : —
a. DicO, faciO, agO, and other common verbs are often omi^^ed in
familiar phrases : —
qu()r8um haec [spectant], what does this aim atf
ex ungue leOnem [cognosces], you will know a lion by his claw.
quid multa, what need of many words f (why should I say much ?)
quid ? quod, w?iat of this, that . . . ? (what shall I say of this, that . . • ?)
[A form of transition.]
Aeolus haec contr& (Aen. i. 76), Molus thus [spoke] in reply.
turn Gotta [inquit], then said Cotta.
61 meliOra [dulnt] ! (Gat. M. 47), Heaven forfend (may the gods grant better
things) !
unde [venis] et quO [tendis] ? (Hor. S. ii. 4. 1), where from and whither
bound? [Cf. id. i. 9. 62 for the full form.]
6. The copula sum is very commonly omitted in the present indica-
tive and present infinitive, rarely (except by late authors) in the sub-
junctive : —
tu coniCinz (Aen. iv. 113), you [are] his wife.
quid ergO ? audS^issimus ego ex omnibus (Rose. Am. 2), wh^ then f am I
the boldest ofaUf
omnia praeclara rara (Lael. 79), all the best things are rare,
potest incidere saepe contentiO et compar&tiO d6 duObus honestls utrum
honestius (Off. i. 162), there may often occur a comparison of two
honoraMe actions, as to which is the more honorable. [Here, if any
copula were expressed, it would be sit, but the direct question would
be complete without any.]
accipe quae peragenda prius (Aen. vi. 136), hear what is first to be accom-
plished. [Direct : quae peragenda prius ?]
196 syntax : particles [§§ 320, 321
Particles
Adverbs
320. The proper f miction of Adverbs, as petrified case-forms, is to modify Verbs :
as, — celeriter ire, to go with speed. It is from this use that they derive their name
(adverbiom, from ad, to, and verbum, verb ; see § 2AX. h) . They also modify adjectives,
showing in what manner or degree the quality described is manifested : as, splendidS
meud&z, gloriotisly false. More rarely they modify other adverbs : as, nimis graviter,
too severely. Many adverbs, especially relative adverbs, serve as connectives, and
are hardly to be distinguished from conjunctions (see § 20. g, v.).^
321. Adverbs are used to modify Verbs, Adjectives, and other
Adverbs.
am A Demonstrative or Relative adverb is often equivalent to the
corresponding Pronoun with a preposition (see § 308. g) : —
eo [ = in ea] impOnit vasa (lug. 76), upon them (thither, thereon, on the
beasts) he piets the camp-utenaUs.
eo milites impOnere (B. G. i. 42), to put soldiers upon them (the horses),
apud eOs qu5 [ = ad quos] s6 contulit (Verr. iv. 38), among those to whom
(whither) h£ resorted.
qui eum necasset unde [ = qu3] ipse natus esset (Rose. Am. 71), one who should
have killed his own father (him whence he had his birth).
0 condiciOnSs misers administrandanim pr5vinci9,rum nbi [ = in qaibus]
se Veritas periculGsa est (Flacc. 87), O / vrretched terms of managing the
provinces, where strictness is dangerous.
bm The participles dictnm and factum, when used as nouns, are itegu-
lai'ly modified by adverbs rather than by adjectives ; so occasionally
other perfect participles : —
praeclarg facta (Nep. Timoth. 1), glorious deeds (things gloriously done),
molta facitS dicta (Off. i. 104), many witty sayings.
c, A noun is sometimes used as an adjective, and may then be modi-
fied by an adverb : —
■victor exercitufi, the victorious army.
admodam puer, quite a boy (young).
magis vir, more of a man (more manly).
populum late r6gem (Aen. i. 21), a people ruling far and wide.
Note. — Very rarely adyerbs are used with nouns which have no adjective foit:e
but which contain a verbal idea : —
hinc abitio (Plant. Rud. 503), a going away from here.
quid cogitem de obviam itione (Att. xiii. 50), what I think about going to meet
(him). [Perhaps felt as a compound.]
fl
1 For the derivation and classification of adverbs, see §§ 214-217.
§§ 321, 322] ADVERBS 197
d. A few adverbs appear to be used like adjectives. Such are
obviam, palam, sometimes contr&, and occasionally others : —
fit obviam ClOdiO (Mil. 20), he f alia in with (becomes in the way of) Clodius.
[Cf. the adjective obrias : as, — si ille obrias el futQrus nOn erat (id. 47),
if he was liGt likely to faU in with him.'\
haec commemorO quae sunt palam (Pison. 11), I mention these facts^ which
are well-known,
alia probabilia, coiitr& alia dicimus (Off. ii. 7), we call some things probable^
others the opposite (not probable). [In this use, contrfl contradicts a
previous adjective, and so in a manner repeats it.]
eri semper l3nit&s (Ter. And. 176), my master^ s constant (always) gentleness.
[An imitation of a Greek construction.]
NoTB. — In some cases one can hardly say whether the adverb is treated as an
adjective modifying the noun, or the noun modified is treated as an adjective (as in
c above).
For propias, pxidiS, palam, and other adverbs used as prepositions, see § 432.
322. The following adverbs require special notice : —
€K. Etiam (et iam), alsoj even, is stronger than quoque, also, and
usually precedes the emphatic word, while quoque follows it : —
nOn verbis s5lum sed etiam vl (Verr. ii. 64), not only by words^ bvt also by
force.
hoc quoque maleficium (Rose. Am. 117), this crime too.
h. Nunc ^ means definitely now, in the immediate present, and is
rarely used of the immediate past.
lam means now, already, at length, presently, and includes a refer-
ence to previous time through which the state of things described has
been or will be reached. It may be used of any time. With nega-
tives iam means (no) longer.
Turn, then, is correlative to cum, when, and may be used of any
time. Tunc, then, at that time, is a strengthened form of tum
(ftum-ce, cf . nunc) : —
ut iam antell dixi, as I hone already said before.
81 iam satis aetS,tis atque rOboris haberet (Rose. Am. 140), if he had attained
a suitable age and strength (lit. if he now had, as he will have by and by).
non est iam iSnitatl locus, there is no longer room for m^rcy.
quod iam erat instittitum, which had come to be a practice (had now been
established),
nunc quldem delSta est, tunc fl5rebat (Lael. 13), tiow {'tis true) she [Greece]
is ruined, then she was in her glory,
torn cum rggnftbat, at the tim^ when he reigned.
1 For tnum-ce ; cf. tunc (for ttum-ce).
198 SYNTAX: PARTICLES [§§322,323
€• CertO means certainly, cert6 (usually) at least, at any rate: —
certd 8cid, I Icnow for a certainty ; ego certe, I at least,
d* Primum means first {first in order, or for the first time), and
implies a series of events or acts. PrimO means at first, as opposed
to afterwards, giving prominence merely to the difference of time : —
hoc piimoxn senti5, this I hold in the first place.
aedis piimd ruere rSbamur, at first we thought the house wasfaUing.
Note. — In enamerations, primum (or primo) is often followed by deinde, secondly, in
the next place, or by tum, then, or by both in succession. Deinde may be several times
repeated {secondly, thirdly, etc.). The series is often closed by dSnique or postrSmo,
lastly, finally. Thus, — primum de genere belli, deinde de magnitudine, tum de im-
peratore deligendo (Manil. 6), first of the kind of war, next of its magnitude, then of
the choice of a commander.
e. Quidem, indeed, gives emphasis, and often has a concessive mean-
ing, especially when followed by sed, autem, etc. : —
hoc quidem vld€re licet (Lael. 54), this surely one may see. [Emphatic]
[s^curit&s] specig quidem blanda, sed reapse multis locis repudianda (id. 47),
{tranquillity) in appearance, His true, attractive, but in reality to he
rejected for many reasons. [Concessive.]
/. N6 . . . quidem means- not even or not . . . either. The emphatic
word or words must stand between n6 and quidem : —
sed ne lugurtha quidem quietus erat (lug. 51), hid Jugurtha was not quid
either.
ego autem ne irSscI possum quidem iis quOs valde amQ (Att. ii. 19. 1), huJt I
cannot even get angry with those whom I love very much.
Note. — Equidem has the same senses as quidem, but is in Cicero confined to the
first person. Thus, — equidem adprobabO (Fam. ii. 3. 2), I for my part shall approve.
CONJUNCTIONS i
323. Copulative and Disjunctive Conjunctions connect similar
constructions, and are regularly followed by the same case or mood
that precedes them: —
scriptum senatui et populO (Cat. iii. 10), written to the senate and people.
ut eas [partis] sanares et c0nflrm3,res (Mil. 68), thM you might cure and
strengthen those parts.
neque meS. prudentia neque humanis cOnsiliis frStus (Cat. ii. 29), relying
neither on my own foresight nor on human wisdom.
1 For the classification of conjunctions, see §§ 223, 224.
S 323] CONJUNCTIONS 199
a. Conjunctions of Comparison (as at, quam, tamquam, quasi) also
commonly connect similar constructions : —
his igitur qoam physicis potius credendum ezIstimSs (Div. ii. 37), (2o yoni
think these are more to be trusted than the natural philosophers f
hominem callidiCrem vidi nSminem quam PhormiOnem (Ter. Ph. 591), a
shrewder man I never saw than Phormio (cf. § 407).
at n5n omne yinum sic n5n omnis natura vetustate coac€scit (Cat. M. 66),
as every wine does not sour with age, so [does] not every nature.
in me qaasi in tyrannum (Phil. ziv. 15), against me as againjit a tyrant
h. Two or more coordinate words, phrases, or sentences are often
put together without the use of conjunctions (Asyndeton^ § 601. c) :
omnSs di, homines, aU gods and men.
summl, medii, infiml, the highest^ the middle cla>ss^ and the lowest.
iura, I6g6s, agrOs, libertatem nObIs reliquenint (B. G. vii. 77), they have l^
wa our rights^ our laws^ our fields, our liberty.
c. 1. Where there are more than two coordinate words etc., a con-
junction, if used, is ordinarily used with all (or all except the first) : —
ant aere ali€nG aut m&gnitMine tribut(^rum aut iniurift potentiOrum (B. G.
vi. 13), by d^t, excessive taxationy or oppression on the part of the
powerful.
at soDt mOrOsI et anxil et Trftcundl et difficilSs senSs (Cat. M. 65), hid (you
say) old men are capricious, solicitou^f choleric, and fussy.
2. But words are often so divided into groups that the members
of the groups omit the conjunction (or express it), while the groups
themselves express the conjunction (or omit it) : —
propudium illud et portentum, L. AntOnius Inslgne odium omnium homi-
num (Phil. xiv. 8), that wretch and monster, Lucius Antonius, the abomi-
nation of all men.
utrumque Sgit graviter, auct5rit&te et off^nsiOne an! ml nGn acerba, (Lael.
77), he acted in both cases with dignity, withx)vi loss of authority and
with no bitterness of feeling.
3. The enclitic -que is sometimes used with the last member of a
series, even when there is no grouping apparent : —
v5ce voltti m5tGque (Brut. 110), by voice, expression, and gesture.
ctiram consilium vigilautiamque (Phil. vii. 20), care, wisdom, and vigilance.
qu5rum auctGrit&tem dignitatem volunt&temque defenderfts (Fam. i. 7. 2),
whose dignity, honor, and wishes you had defended.
d. Two adjectives belonging to the same noun are regpilarly con-
nected by a conjunction : —
mnltae et graves causae, many weighty rea,s(ms.
vir liber ac fortis (Rep. ii. 34), a free and brave man.
200 SYNTAX: PARTICLES [§§323,324
e. Often the same conjunction is repeated in two coordinate clauses :
et . . . et (-que . . . -que), both . . . and.
aut . . . aut, either , , . or.
vel . . . vel, either , . . or. [Examples in § 324. e.]
8iye (sen) . . . siTe (sea), whether . , . or. [Examples in §324./.]
/. Many adverbs are similarly used in pairs, as conjunctions, partly
or wholly losing their adverbial force : —
nunc . . . nonOf tam . . . tam, iam . . . iam, now . . . now.
modo . . . modo, now . . . now.
simul . . . simal, at the same time . . . atthe same time.
qa& . . . qui, now . . . noto, both . . . and, alike [this] and [that].
modo ait modo negat (Ter. Eun. 714), now he says yes, now no.
simul gr&ti&s agit, simul grS.tul3,tur (Q. C. vi. 7. 15), he thinks him and at
the same time congratulates him.
erumpunt saepe vitia amicOrum tnm in ipsOs amicus tum in alienos (Lael.
76), the faults of friends sometimes break out, now again^ their friends
themselves, now against strangers.
qofl marls quA feminSs (Pi. Mil. 1113), both mules and females.
g. Certain relative and demonstrative adverbs are used correla-
tively as conjunctions: —
ut (rel.) . . . ita, sic (dem.), as (while) . . . so (yet).
tam (dem.) . . . quam (rel.), so (as) . . . as.
cum (rel.) . . . tum (dem.), while . . . so also; not only . . . but also.
324. The following Conjunctions require notice : —
a. Et, and, simply connects words or clauses ; -que combines more
closely into one connected whole, -que is always enclitic to the word
connected or to the first or second of two or more words connected :
cum coniugibus ct llberls, with [their] wives and children.
ferrO ignlque, with fire and sword. [Not as separate things, but as the
combined means of devastation.]
aqud. et Ignl interdictus, forbidden the use of water and fire. [In a legal
formula, where they are considered separately.]
h. Atque (ac), and, adds with some emphasis or with some implied
reflection on the word added. Hence it is often equivalent to and so,
and yet, and besides, and then. But these distinctions depend very
much upon the feeling of the speaker, and are often imtranslatable:—
omnia honesta atque inhonesta, everything honorable and dishonorable (too,
without the slightest distinction),
usus atque disciplina, practice avid theory beside (the more important or less
expected),
atque ego cr6d5, and yet I believe (for my part).
f 324] CONJUNCTIONS 201
Cm Atque (ac), in the sense of <iSy than, is also used after words of
comparison and likeness : —
slmul atque, as soon as.
nan secus (nOn aliter) ac 8l, not otherwise than if,
pro eO ac debul, as tooa my duty (in accordance as I ought),
aequfi ac tu, as much <is you.
hand minus ac iussi faciunt, they do just as they are ordered.
For and not, see § 328. a.
d. Sed and the more emphatic verum or v6r(J, but, are used to intro-
duce something in opposition to what precedes, especially after nega-
tives (not this . . . but something else). At (old form ast) introduces
with emphasis a new point in an argument, but is also used like the
others ; sometimes it means at least. At enim is almost always used
to introduce a supposed objection which is presently to be overthrown.
At is more rarely used alone in this sense.
Autem, howeveVy now, is the weakest of the adversatives, and often
marks a mere transition and has hardly any adversative force percep-
tible. AtquI, however, now, sometimes introduces an objection and
sometimes a fresh step in the reasoning. Quod ai, but if, and if, now if,
is used to continue an argument.
NoTB. — Bt, -que, and atqne (ac) are sometimes used where the English idiom would
suggest but, especially when a negative clause is followed hy an affirmative clause
oontinning the same thought: as, — impetum hostes ferre nOn potuerunt ac terga
Terterunt (B. G. iv. 35), the enemy could not stand the onset, but turned their backs.
e. Aut, or, excludes the alternative ; rel (an old imperative of volG)
and -Te give a choice between two alternatives. But this distinction
is not always observed : —
aed quis ego sum aut quae est in m6 facultfts (Lael. 17), but who am I or
what special capacity have I f [Here vel could not be used, because in
fact a negative is implied and both alternatives are excluded.]
ant bibat aut abeat (Tusc. v. 118), let him drink or (if he won^t do that, then
let him) quit, [Here vel would mean, let him do either as ho chooses.]
'^ta t&lis fuit vel fort&nft vel gl5ri& (Lael. 12), his life was such either in
respect to fortune or fame (whichever way you look at it).
8l propinqnOs habeant imbScilliOres vel anim5 vel fortune (id. 70), if they
have relatives beneath them either in spirit or in fortune (in either respect,
for example, or in both).
ant deOrum ant r§gum filil (id. 70), sons either of gods or of kings, [Here
one case would exclude the other.]
implic&tl vel Osa dilltamO vel etiam officils (id. 85), entangled either by
dose intimacy or even by obligations, [Here the second case might
exclude the first.]
202 SYNTAX: THE SENTENCE [§324
/. Sive (seu) is properly used in disjunctive conditions (if either . . .
or if), but also with alternative words and clauses, especiallj with
two names for the same thing ; —
8iTe inrid€ns slye quod ita putaret (De Or. i. 01), either laughingly or because
he really thought so.
sive deae sea sint yolacrSs (Aen. iii. 262), whether they (the Harpies) are
goddesses or birds.
g. Vel, even, for instance, is often used as an intensive particle with
no alternative force : as, — vel minimus, the very least.
h. Nam and namque, for, usually introduce a real reason, formally
expressed, for a previous statement ; enim (always postpositive), a
less important explanatory circumstance put in by the way ; etenim
(for, you see ; for, you know ; for, mind you) and its negative neque
enim introduce something self-evident or needing no proof.
(ea vita) quae est sola vita nOminanda. nam dum sumus inclusi in his
compagibus corporis, munere qu5dam necessitatis et gravi opere per-
fungimur; est enim animus caelestis, etc. (Cat. M. 77), (that life)
which alone deserves to be called life ; for so long as we are covfined by
the body^s frame, we perform a sort of necessary function and heavy
task. For the soul is from heaven.
harum trium sententiS,rum null! pr5rsus adsentior. nee enim ilia prima
vera est (Lael. 57), for of course that first one isn^t true.
i. £rg5, therefore, is used of things proved formally, but often has
a weakened force. Igitur, then, accordingly, is weaker than ergO and
is used in passing from one stage of an argument to another. Itaque,
therefore, accordingly, and so, is used in proofs or inferences from the
nature of things rather than in formal logical proof. All of these are
often used merely to resume a train of thought broken by a digression
or parenthesis. IdcircS, for this reason, on this account, is regularly
followed (or preceded) by a correlative (as, quia, quod, si, ut, n6), and
refers to the special point introduced by the correlative.
malum mihi videtur esse mors, est miserum igitur, quoniam malum. certS.
ergo et el quibus ev6nit iam ut morerentur et ei quibus 6venturum est
miseri. mihi ita vidstur. ngmO ergo nOn miser. (Tusc. i. 9.) Deaik
seems to me to be an evil. * It is wretched, then, since it is an evU. ' Certainly.
* Therefore, all those who have already died and who are to die hereafter are
wretched.'^ So it appears to me. ' There is no one, therefore, who is not
> wretched."*
1 , quia natura mutari nOn potest, idcirco ygrae amicitiae sempitemae sunt
\ "- ^ (Lael. 32), because nature cannot be changed, for this reason true friend-
ships are eternal.
I \
§§324-326] NEGATIVE PARTICLES K03
J. Autem^ enim^ and v6r5 are postpositive V so generally igitur and
often tamen.
km Two conjunctions of similar meaning are often used together
for the sake of emphasis or to bind a sentence more closely to what
precedes : as, at v6r6, but in truth, but surely y stilly however; itaque
ergd, accordingly then; namque, for; et-enim, /or, you see, for of
course (§ 324. h).
For Conjunctions introducing Subordinate Clauses, see Syntax.
Negative Particles *
325. In the use of the Negative Particles, the following points
are to be observed : —
326. Two negatives are equivalent to an affirmative : —
nemd n5n audiet, every one wiU hear (nobody will not hear),
ndn possum non cOnfit€ri (Fam. ix. 14. 1), J must confess,
ut . . . ne non timbre quidem sine aliqu5 timSre posslmus (Mil. 2), so that we
cannot even he relieved of fear without some fear,
a* Many compounds or phrases of which nQn is the first part express
an indefinite afl&rmative : —
nOn nullus, some; n5n nuUl (=aliqai), some few,
ndn nihil (= aliquid), something,
nOn n€mO (= aliquot), sundry persons,
ndn numquam (= aliquotiens), sometimes,
6. Two negatives of which the second is n5n (belonging to the
predicate) express a universal affirmative : —
nemo nOn, nullus nOn, nobody [does] noty i.e. everybody [does]. [Cf. nOn
nemO, not nobody, i.e. som^ody."]
nihil nOn, everything, [Cf. nSn nihil, something."]
numquam non, never not, i.e. always. [Cf. non numquam, sometimes.]
Cm A statement is often made emphatic by denying its contrary
(Litotes, § 641): —
nOn semel (=saepi88im6), often enough (not once only).
non haec sine numine dTvom 6veniunt (Aen. ii. 777), these things do not
occur without the will of the gods.
haec ndn nimis exquirO (Att. vii. 18. 3), not very much, i.e. very little.
NoTB. — Compare non nuUas, nSn nSmo, etc., in a above.
1 That is, they do not stand first in their clausa
3 For a list of Negative Particles, see § 217. e.
204 SYNTAX: PARTICLKS [§§327-320
327. A general negation is not destroyed —
1. By a following nfi . . . quidem, 7iot ei^en, or n5n modo, not only .•—
numquam til non modo Gtium, sed ne bellum qaidem nisi nefftrium concuplsti
(Cat. 1. 25), not only have you never desired repose, buJt you have never
desired any war except one which was infamous.
2. By succeeding negatives each introducing a separate subordi-
nate member : —
eaque nesciSbant nee ubi nee qtiSllia essent (Tusc. iii. 4); they knew not where
or of what kind these things were.
3. By neque introducing a coordinate member : —
nequeS satis mlr3rl neqne conicere (Ter. Eun. 547), I cannoi wonder enough
nor conjecture.
328. The negative is frequently joined with a conjunction or
with an indefinite pronoun or adverb. Hence the forms of nega-
tion in Latin differ from those in English in many expressions : —
nflUI (nentn) crSdO (not n5n crSdS filli), / do not Mieve either (I believe
neither),
sine fiUo perlcul5 (less commonly cum null5), with no danger (without any
danger),
nihil umqaam audlvl itHcundius, I never heard anything more amusing.
Cf. nego haec esse vSra (not died n5n esse), I say this is not true (I deny, etc.).
a. In the second of two connected ideas, and not is regularly ex-
pressed by neque (nee), not by et nOn : —
hostes terga verterunt, neque prius fugere d^stiteront (B. 6. i. 53), the enemy
turned and fled, and did not stop fleeing until, etc.
Note. — Similarly nee quisquam is regularly used for et nSmS ; neque finvs for et
nfillns; nee umquam for et nnmqoam ; neve (nen), for et nS.
329. The particle immo, nay, is used to contradict some part of
a preceding statement or question, or its form ; in the latter case,
the same statement is often repeated in a stronger form, so that
immo becomes nearly equivalent to yes {nay hut^ nay rather): —
causa igitur nOn bona est? immo optima (Att. iz. 7. 4), is tAe eaxae then noi
a good one f on the contrary, the best.
a. Minus, less (especially with si, if, quO, in order that), and minimS,
lea^t, often have a negative force : —
si minus possunt, if they cannot. [For qu5 minus, see § 658. 6.]
aadftcissimus ego ex omnibus ? minimS (Rose. Am. 2), am I the bolder of
them all? by no means (not at all).
§§330-332] FORMS OF INTERROGATION 206
QUESTIONS
Forms of Interrogation
330. Questions are either Direct or Indirect.
1. A Direct Question gives the exact words of the speaker : —
quid est? what isitf ubi sum ? where am If
2. An Indirect Question gives the substance of the question, adapted
to the form of the sentence in which it is quoted. It depends on a verb
or other expression of asking, doubting , knowing, or the like : —
rogavit quid esset, he asked what it was. [Direct : quid est, what is it f]
nesciO ubi aim, I know not where I am. [Direct : ubi sum, wh^re am If]
331. Questions in Latin are introduced by special interrogative
words, and are not distinguished by the order of words, as in
English.^
Note. — The form of Indirect Questions (in English introduced by whether f or by
an interrogative pronoun or adverb) is in Latin the same as that of Direct ; the differ-
ence being only in the verb, which in indirect questions is regularly in the Subjunc-
tive (§574).
332. A question of simple fact^ requiring the answer t/es or no,
is formed by adding the enclitic -ne to the emphatic word : —
tune id veritus es (Q. Fr. i. 8. 1), did ron fear that f
hicine vir usquam nisi in patrid. morietur (Mil. 104), shxill this man die any-
where bvt in his rvative land f
is tibi mortemne videtur aut dolCrem tlmSre (Tusc. v. 88), does he seem to
you to fear death or pain f
a. The interrogative particle -ne is sometimes omitted : —
pat€re tua cCnsilia n5n sentis (Cat. i. 1), do you not see that your schemes are
manifest f (you do not see, eh ?)
Note. — In such cases, as no sign of interrogation appears, it is often doubtful
whether the sentence is a question or an ironical statement.
6. When the enclitic -ne is added to a negative word, as in nOnne,
an affirmative answer is expected. The particle num suggests a nega-
tive answer : —
nonne animadvertis (N. D. iii. 89), do you not observe f
num dubium est (Rose. Am. 107), there is no doubt, is there f
NoTB. — In Indirect Questions nam commonly loses its peculiar force and means
simply whether,
1 For a list of Interrogative Particles, see § 217. d.
206 SYNTAX: QUESTIONS [§§332-335
c. The particle -ne often when added to the verb, less commonly
when added to some other word, has the force of nOnne : —
meministine m6 in senatu dicere (Cat. i. 7), donH you remember my saying
in the Senate f
rSctene interpreter sententiam tuam (Tusc. iii. 37), do I not rightly interpret
your meaning f
. Note 1. — This was evidently the original meaning of -ne ; but in most cases the
negative force was lost and -ne was used merely to express a question. So the English
interrogative no? shades off into eh?
Note 2. — The enclitic -ne is sometimes added to other interrogative words : as,
ntrunme, whether? anne, or; qaantane (Hor. S. ii. 3. 317)y/ioio big? quSne male (id. ii.3.
295), by what curse?
333. A question concerning some special circumstance is formed
by prefixing to the sentence an interrogative pronoun or adverb
as in English (§ 152) : —
quid exspectfts (Cat. ii. 18), what are you looking forward to?
qu5 igitur haec spectant (Fam. vi. 6. 11), whither then is all this tending?
Icare, ubi es (Ov. M. viii. 232), Icarus^ where are you?
quod vectigal v5bis tutum fuit? quern socium defendistis? cni praesidiS
classibus vestrls f uistis ? (Manil. 32), what revenue has been safe for you f
what ally have you d^ended ? whom have you guarded with your fleets f
Note. — A question of this form becomes an exclamation by changing the tone of
the voice: as, —
qii&Ils vir erat! what a man fie was!
quot calamitates pass! sumus! how many misfortunes we have suffered!
qu5 studio coDsentiunt (Cat. iv. 15), with to fiat zeal they unite!
a. The particles -nam (enclitic) and tandem may be added to inter-
rogative pronouns and adverbs for the sake of emphasis : —
quisnam est, pray who is it? [quis tandem est? would be stronger.]
ubinam gentium sumos (Cat. i. 9), where in the world are we?
in qua tandem urbe hOc disputant (Mil. 7), in wfiat city, pray, do they main-
tain this ?
Note — Tandem is sometimes added to verbs : —
ain tandem (Fam. ix. 21), you donH say so! (say you so, pray?)
itane tandem uxOrem duxit Antipho (Ter. Ph. 231), so then^ eh? Antipho's got
married.
Double Questions
334. A Double or Alternative Question is an inquiry as to
which of two or more supposed cases is the true one.
335. In Double or Alternative Questions, utrum or -ne, whether^
stands in the first member ; an, anne, or, annOn, necne, or not^ in the
second ; and usually an in the third, if there be one : —
§335] DOUBLE QUESTIONS 207
atmm nescis, an prO nihilO id putSs (Fam. x. 26), is it that you donH know^
or do you tliink nothing of itf
vOsne L. Domitium an vOs Domitius dCseruit (B. C. ii. 32), did you desert
f Lucius Domitius^ or did Domitius desert you f
quaerO servOsne an llberOs (Rose. Am. 74), I ask whether slaves or free.
utrum hostem an vOs an fortunam utrlusque popull ignOrfttis (Liy. xxi. 10),
is it the enemy, or yourselves, or the fortune of the two peoples, that you
do not know f
Note. — Anne for an is rare. Necne is rare in direct questions, but in indirect ques-
tions it is commoner than anndn. In poetry -ne . . , -ne sometimes occurs.
a. The interrogative particle is often omitted in the first mem-
ber ; in which case an or -ne (anne, necne) may stand in the second: —
GabiniO dicam anne Pomp^iO an utrique (Manil. 67), shall I say to Gabinius,
or to Pompey, or to both f
sunt haec tua verba necne (Tusc. iii. 41), are these your words or not?
quaeslYl S, Catilina in conventu apud M. Laecam fuisset necne (Cat. ii. 13),
I asked Caiiline whether he had been at the meeting at Marcus LoBca^s
or not.
b. Sometimes the first member is omitted or implied, and an (anne)
alone asks the question, — usually with indignation or surprise : —
an tu miserOs put&s illOs (Tusc. i. 13), what I do you think those men wretched f
an iste umquam d6 86 bonam spem habuisset, nisi de vObIs malam opIniOnem
animO imbibisset (Verr. i. 42), would he ever ?iave had good hopes about
himself unless he had conceived an evil opinion of you f
c. Sometimes the second member is omitted or implied, and utrum
may ask a question to which there is no alternative : —
atram est in clS.rissim!s civibus is, quern . . . (Flacc. 45), is he among the
noblest citizens, whom, etc. ?
d. The following table exhibits the various forms of alternative
questions : —
utmm
utrum
-ne
-ne
-ne
. . an . . . an
. . annon (necne, see § 335. v.)
. . an (anne)
. . an
. . -ne, necne
. . necne
. . -ne
Note. — From double (altemative) questions must be distinguished those which are
in themselves single, but of which some detail is alternative. These have the common
disjunctive particles ant or vel (-ve) . Thus, — quaerO num iniuste ant improbe f ecerit
(Off. iii. 54), I a>sk whether he acted unjustly or even dishonestly. Here thdre is no
doable question. The only inquiry is whether the man did either of the two things
supposed, not which of the two he did.
208 SYNTAX: QUESTIONS [§§336,337
Question and Answer
336. There is no one Latin word in common use meaning sim-
ply ycB or no. In answering a question affirmatively^ the verb or
some other emphatic word is generally repeated ; in answering
negatively^ the verb, etc., with nOn or a similar negative : —
yaletne, id he well? valet, yes (he is well).
eratne tficum, voas he vnth youf ndii erat, no (he was not).
num quidnam novl? there is nothing new, is there? nihil sflnS, oh I nothing.
a. An intensive or negative particle^ a phrase, or a clause is some-
times used to answer a direct question : —
1. Eor YES : —
y€rO, in truth, true, no doubt, yes. ita y6r0, certainly (so in truth), etc.
etlam, even so, yes, etc. s9.n6 qnidem, yes, no doubt, etc.
ita, so, true, etc. ita est, it is so, true, etc.
s9,ne, surely, no doubt, doubtless, etc.
certs, certainly, unquestionably, etc.
factum, true, U^s afaxi, you We right, etc. (lit., it was done).
2. For NO : —
nOn, not so. ntlllO modO, by no meara.
minims, not at all (lit., in the smallest degree, cf. § 329. a).
minimfi vSrO, no, not by any means; oh! no, etc.
n5n quidem, why, no; certainly not, etc.
nOn hercle ySrO, why, gracious, no ! (certainly not, by Hercules I)
Examples are : —
quidnam? an laud&tiOnes? ita, why, whatf is it eulogies? juM so.
aut etiam aut non respondSre (Acad. ii. 104), to answer (categorically) yes or no.
estne ut fertur forma? sftne (Ter. Eun. 361), is she as h/indsome as they
say she is ? (is her beauty as it is said ?) oh! yes.
miser ergO Archeld,us ? certS si iniustus (Tusc. y. 35), was Archelau^ wretched
then ? certainly, if he was unjust.
an haec contenmitis ? minimS (De Or. ii. 295), do you despise these things ? not
at all.
yolucribusne et ferls? minime yero (Tusc. i. 104), to the birds and beasts?
why, of course not.
ex tul animi sententia tu uz5rem hab^s ? ndn hercle, ex mel animi sententiSL
(De Or. ii. 260), Lord! no, etc.
337. In answering a double question, one member of the alterna-
tive, or some part of it, must be repeated : —
yidisti an d6 auditO nuntias ? — egomet vidi (Plant. Merc. 902), did you see
it or are you repeating something you have heard ? — I saw U myself.
§338] CONSTRUCTION OF CASES 209
CONSTRUCTION OF CASES
338. The Cases of nouns express their relations to other words in the sentence.
The most primitive way of expressing such relations was by mere juxtaposition of unin-
flected forms. From this arose in time composition, i.e. the growing together of stems,
by means of which a complex expression arises with its parts mutually dependent.
Thus such a complex as armi-gero- came to mean arm^bearing ; fldi-oen-, playing on the
lyre. Later, Cases were formed by means of suffixes expressing more definitely such
relations, and Syntax began. But the primitive method of composition still continues
to hold an important place even in the most highly developed languages.
Originally the Indo-European family of languages, to which Latin belongs, had at
least seven case-forms, besides the Vocative. But in Latin the Locative and the Instru-
mental were lost ^ except in a few words (where they remained without being recog-
nized as cases), and their functions were divided among the other cases.
The Nominative, Accusative, and Vocative express the simplest and perhaps the
earliest case-relations. The Nominative is the case of the Subject, and generally ends
in -8. The Vocative, usually without a termination, or like the Nominative (§ 38. a),
perhaps never had a suffix of its own.^ The Accusative, most frequently formed by the
sufiix -m, originally connected the noun loosely with the verb-idea, not necessarily
expressed by a verb proper, but as well by a noun or an adjective (see § 386).
The Genitive appears to have expressed a great variety of relations and to have
had no angle primitive meaning ; and the same may be true of the Dative.
The other cases perhaps at first expressed relations of place or direction (to, from,
AT, with), though this is not clear in all instances. The earlier meanings, however,
have become confused with each other, and in many instances the cases are no longer
distinguishable in meaning or in form. Thus the Locative was for the most part lost
from its confusion with the Dative and Ablative ; and its function was often performed
by the Ablative, which is freely used to express the place where (§ 421). To indicate
the case-relations — especially those of place — more precisely. Prepositions (originally
adverbs) gradually came into use. The case-endings, thus losing something of their
significance, were less distinctly pronounced as time went on (see § 38, phonetic decay) ,
and prepositions have finally superseded them in the modem languages derived from
Latin. But in Latin a large and various body of relations was still expressed by case-
forms. It is to be noticed that in their literal use cases tended to adopt the preposition,
and in their Jigttrative uses to retain the old construction. (See Ablative of Separation,
§§402-404; Ablative of Place and Time, $421 ff.)
The word cftsus, case, is a translation of the Greek irruxris, a falling away (from the
erect position) . The term wrQirii was originally applied to the Oblique Cases (§ 36. g) ,
to mark them as variations from the Nominative, which was called 6p^j erect {casus
rectus). The later name Nominative {casus ndminattvvs) is from nomino, and means
the naminff case. The other case-names (except Ablative) are of Greek origin. The
name Genitive (casus genetivus) is a translation of yevncfi [wrwo^it], from 7^rof (c/om),
and refers to the class to which a thing belongs. Dative {casus dativus, from d5) is
translated from doriK-fi, and means the case of giving. Accusative {accusdtivus, from
accuse) is a mistranslation of alnariK-h (the case of causing), from air la, cause, and
meant to the Romans the case of accusing. The name Vocative {vocativus, from voce)
fs translated from K\irriK-fi (the case of calling). The name Ablative {ablatlvus, from
Abiatus, aulcrt) means taking from. This case the Greek had lost.
1 Some of the endings, however, which In Latin are assigned to the dative and
ablative are doubtless of locative or instrumental origin (see p. 34, footnote).
« The e-vocative of the second declension is a form of the stem (§ 46. c).
210 SYNTAX : CONSTRUCTION OF CASES [§§ 339-341
NOMINATIVE CASE
339. The Subject of a finite verb is in the Nominative : —
Caesar Rhenum trSnsIre decrSverat (B. G. iv. 17), CoBsar had determined to
cross the Rhine.
For the omission of a pronominal sabject, see § 295. a.
a. The nominative may be used in exclamations : —
en dextra fidSsque (Aen. iv. 607), lo^ the faith and plighted word!
ecce tuae litterae dfi VarrOne (Att. xiii. 16), lo and behold^ your letters about
Varrol
Note. — But the accusative is more common (§ 397. d).
VOCATIVE CASE
340. The Vocative is the case of direct address : —
Tibeiine pater, te, sAncte, precor (Li v. ii. 10), 0 father Tiber, thee, holy one,
I pray.
res omnia mihi tecum erit, HortSnsi (Verr. i. 33), my whole attention will be
devoted to you, HortensivB.
a. A noun in the nominative in apposition with the subject of
the imperative mood is sometimes used instead of the vocative : —
audi tu, populus Albanus (Liv. i. 24), hear, thou people of Alba.
b. The vocative of an adjective is sometimes used in poetry instead
of the nominative, where the verb is in the second person : —
qu5 moriture ruis (Aen. x. 811), whither art tliou rushing to thy doom?
cens5rem trabeate saltit&s (Fers. iii. 29), robed you salute the censor,
c. The vocative macte is used as a predicate in the phrase macte
estO (virtute), success attend your (valor) : —
^ iuberem t6 macte virtute esse (Liv. ii. 12), I should bid you go on and prosper
in your valor.
macte novS. virtute puer (Aen. ix. 641), success attend your valor, boy!
Note. — As the original quantity of the final e in macte is not determinable, it may
be that the word was an adverb, as in bene est and the like.
GENITIVE CASE
341. The Genitive is regularly used to express the relation of
one noun to another. Hence it is sometimes called the adjective
case, to distinguish it from the Dative and the Ablative, which
may be called adverbial cases.
I. Genitiye with Vonns:
§§341-343] POSSESSIVE GENITIVE 211
The uses of the Genitive may be classified as follows : —
1. Of Possession (§ 343).
2. Of Material (§ 344).
3. Of Quality (§ 345).
4. Of the Whole, after words designating a Part
(Partitive, §346).
6. With Nouns of Action and Feeling (§ 348).
III. Cnltiv. Witt V.r1»: I J" ^J ""'""'fy' Ff "»«.«»«• (§« f>. 3fl. 35*^
\ 2. Of Accusing, etc. (Charge or Penalty) (§ 352).
6SNITIVS WITH NOUNS
342. A noun used to limit or define another, and not meaning
the same person or thing, is put in the Genitive.
This relation is most frequently expressed in English by the prepo-
sition of J sometimes by the English genitive (or possessive) case : —
librl CiceioniB, the books of Cicero, or Cicero^s hooka,
inimlcl Caesaris, CcBsar^s enemies, or the enemies of CcBsar,
talentum auri, a talent of gold.
vir sammae virtutis, a man of the greatest courage.
But observe the following equivalents : —
yac&ti5 laboris, a respite from toil.
X>etitiO consnUtiis, candidacy for the consulship.
regnum dvitHtis, royal power oyer the state.
Possessive Genitive
343. The Possessive Genitive denotes the person or thing to
which an object, quality, feeling, or action belongs: —
Alezandri canis, Alexander's dog.
potentia Pompei (Sail. Cat. 19), Pompey'^s power.
AriOYisti mors (B. G. v. 29), the death of Ariovistus.
peiditonim temeritas (Mil. 22), the recklessness of desperate men.
Note 1. — The Possessiye Genitive may denote (1) the actual owner (as in Alex-
ander's dog) or author (as in Cicero* s writings), or (2) the person or thing that possesses
Bome feeling or quality or does some act (as in Cicero* s eloque7ice, the strength of the
bridge, Catiline's evil deeds). In the latter use it is sometimes called the Subjective
Grenitive ; but this term properly includes the possessive genitive and several other
genitive constructions (nearly all, in fact, except the Objective Genitive, § 347).
NoTB 2. — The noun limited is understood in a few expressions : —
ad Castoris [aedes] (Quinct. 17), at the [temple] of Castor. [Cf. St. PauVs.]
Flaccus Claudi, Flaccus [slave] of Claudius.
Hectoris Andromache (Aen. iii. 319), Hector's [wife] Andromache.
212 SYNTAX: CONSTRUCTION OF CASES [§343
a. For the genitive of possession a possessive or derivative adjec-
tive is often used, — regularly for the possessive genitive of the per-
sonal pronouns (§ 302. a) : —
liber meas, my hook. [Not liber me!.]
aliSna pericula, other men's dangers. [But also aliSnun.]
SalUna tempora, the times of Sulla. [Oftener Sullae.]
&• The possessive genitive often stands in the predicate, connected
with its noun by a verb (Predicate Genitive) : —
haec domus est patiis mei, this house is my father^ s.
lam me Pompei totum esse scis (Fam. ii. 13), you know I am now all for JPotn-
pey (all Pompey's).
summa laus et tua et Brfiti est (Fam. xii. 4. 2), the highest praise is due both
to you and to Brutus (is both yours and Brutus^s).
compendi facere, to save (make of saving).
lacri facere, to get the ben^t of (make of profit).
NoTB. — These genitives bear the same relation to the examples in § 343 that a
predicate noun bears to an appositive (§§ 282, 283).
c. An infinitive or a clause, when used as a noun, is often limited
by a genitive in the predicate : —
neque sui ifidic! [erat] discernere (B. C. i. 35), nor was it for his judgment to
decide (nor did it belong to his judgment).
cdiasYis hominis est errare (Phil. xii. 5), it is any man^s [liability] to err.
neg&vit moris esse GraecOrum, ut in convivio virOrum accumberent mulieres
(Verr. ii. 1. 66), Ae said it was not the custom of the Greeks for women to
appear as guests (recline) at the banquets of men.
sed timidi est optare necem (Ov. M. iv. 116), but His the coward's part to
wish for death.
stalti erat sperd,re, su&dere impodentis (Phil. ii. 23), U was folly (the part of
a fool) to hope^ ^oinJtery to urge.
sapientis est pauca loqul, it is wise (the part of a wise man) to say little.
[Not sapiens (neuter) est, etc.]
NoTB 1. — This construction is regular with adjectives of the third declension
instead of the neuter nominative (see the last two examples).
Note 2. — A derivative or possessive adjective may be used for the genitive In this
construction, and invst be used for the genitive of a personal pronoun : —
mentiri ndn est meum [not mei], it is not for me to lie.
bumanom [for hominis] est errare, U is man*s nature to err (to err is human).
d. A limiting genitive is sometimes used instead of a noun in appo-
sition (Appositional Genitive) (§ 282) : —
n6men insaniae (for nomen insania), the word madness,
oppidum Antiochiae (for oppidum Antiochia, the regular form), t?ie city of
Antioch,
§§344-346] PARTITIVB GENITIVE 218
Genitive of Material
344. The Genitive may denote the Substance or Material of
which a thing consists (cf. § 403): —
talentum ami, a tcUenit of gold, flUmina lactis, rivers ofmUk.
Genitive of Quality
345. The Genitive is used to denote Quality, but only when
the quality is modified by an adjective : —
vir sumniae virttitis, a man of the highest courage. [But not vir ▼irtQtis.]
magnae est dSliberitidiiiB, it is an affair €f great deliberation,
mAffd formica laboris (Hor. S. i. 1. 33), the ant [a creature] of great toU,
ille autem sul iudici (Nep. Alt. 9), but fie [a man] of independent (his own)
judgment.
Note. — Compare Ablative of Quality (§ 415) . In expressions of quality, the geni-
tive or the ablative may often be used indifferently : as, praestanti prfideatii vir, a
man of surpassing wisdom ; maximT anind homS, a man of the greatest courage. In
classic prose, however, the genitive of quality is much less common than the abla-
tive; it is practically confined to expressions of measure or number, to a phrase with
eins, and to nouns modified by m&gntts, maximas, sammus, or tantns. In general the
Genitive is used rather of essential, the Ablative of special or incidental characteristics.
a. The genitive of quality is found in the adjective phrases ^us
modi, cuius modi (equivalent to t&lis, such ; qu&lis, of what sort): —
eius modi sunt tempestat^s cOnsecutae, utl (B. G. iii. 29), such storms fol-
lowed, tfiat, etc.
&. The genitive of quality, with numerals, is used to define meas-
ures of length, depth, etc. (Genitive of Measure): —
fossa triom pedum, a trench of three feet [in depth].
mtirus sedecim pedum, a waU of sixteen feet [high].
For the Genitive of Quality used to express ind^nite t;a/u6, see § 417.
Partitive Genitive
346. Words denoting a Part are followed by the Genitive of
the Whole to which the part belongs.
a. Partitive words, followed by the genitive, are —
1 . Nouns or Pronouns (cf . also 3 below) : —
pars militum, part of the soldiers, quis nostrum, which qfusf
nihil erat reliqui, there was nothing left.
nSmO eoium (B. 6. viL 66) j not a man of them.
magnam partem eomm interfecCrunt (id. ii. 28), they kiUed a large part of them.
214 SYNTAX: CONSTRUCTION OF CASES [§346
2. Numerals, Comparatives, Superlatives, and Pronominal words like
alius, alter, nullus, etc.: —
tlnus tribfindrum, one of the tribunes (see c below).
sapientom oct^vus (Hor. S. ii. 3. 206), the eighth of the wise men,
milia passuum sescenta (B. G. iv. 3), six hundred, miles (thousands of paces).
m&ior fr&trom, the elder of the brothers,
anim&liam fortiOra, the stronger [of] animals.
Sueb(}rum gSns est longS maxima et bellicOsissima Germflndrum omnium
(B. G. iv. 1), the tribe of the Suevi is far the largest and most warlike of
all the Germans.
alter cdnsulom, one of the [two] consuls.
ntLUa eArum (B.G. iv. 28), not one of them (the ships).
3. Neuter Adjectives and Pronouns, used as nouns : —
tantum spati, so much [of] space.
aliquid nummorum, a few pence (something of coins).
id loci (or locorum), that spot of ground; id temporis, at that time (§ 397. a),
pl&na urbis, tlie level parts of the town,
quid novi, what news? (what of new?)
paulum frumenti (B. C. i. 78), a lUtle grain,
pltis doldris (B. G. i. 20), more grirf,
soi aliquid timoiis (B. C. ii. 29), somefear of his own (something of his ownfear).
Note 1. — In classic prose neuter adjectives (not pronominal) seldom take a parti-
tive genitive, except multam, tantum, quantum, and similar words.
Note 2. — The genitive of adjectives of the third declension is rarely used parti-
tively : — nihil novi (genitive) , nothing new ; but, — nihil memoiabile (nominative) , noihr
ing worth mention (not nihil memoxftbilis).
4. Adverbs, especially those of Quantity and of Place : —
parum 5ti, not much ease (too little of ease).
satis pecuniae, money enough (enough of money).
plQrimum tolias Galliae equitatti valet (B. G. v. 3), is strongest of all Gavl
in cavalry,
ubinam gentium sumus (Cat. i. 9), where in the world are we (where of
nations) ?
ubicumque texramm et gentium (Yerr. v. 143), whereoer in the whole world,
res erat eO iam loci ut (Sest. 68), the basin^ess had now reajched such a point
that, etc.
eO miseriarum (lug. 14. 3), to that [pitch] of misery.
inde loci, next in order (thence of place). [Poetical.]
b* The poets and later writers often use the partitive genitive
after adjectives, instead of a noun in its proper case : —
sequlmur te, s&ncte deorum (Aen. iv. 676), we follow thee, 0 holy deity. [Por
s&ncte deus (§ 49. g. n.)]
nigrae lAnSrum (Plin. H. N. viii. 193), black wools. [For nigrae ISnae.]
expedltl militnm (Liv. xxx. 9), light-armed soldiers. [For expediti milites.]
hominum cunct5s (Ov. M. iv. 631), all men. [For cflnctds homines ; cf. e.]
§§346-348] OBJECTIVE GENITIVE 215
c. Cardinal numerals (except milia) regularly take the Ablative
with 6 (ex) or d6 instead of the Partitive Genitive. So also quidam,
a certain one^ commonly, and other words occasionally : —
unus ex tribunis, one of the tribunes. [But also, tlnus tribdnSrum (cf. a. 2).]
minumus ex ilHs (lug. 11), the youngest of them.
medius ex tribus (ib.), the middle one of the three.
quidam ex militibas, certain of the soldiers.
unus de multis (Fin. ii. 66), one of the many.
pauci de nostris cadunt (B. G. i. 15), a few of our men fall.
hominem de comitibus meis, a man of my companions.
d. Uterque, both (properly each), and quisque, each, with Nouns
are regularly used as adjectives in agreement, but with Pronouns
take a partitive genitive : —
uterque consul, both the consuls; but, uterque nostrum, both of us.
unus quisque vestrum, each one of you.
utraque castra, both camps.
e. Numbers and words of quantity including the whole of any
thing take a case in agreement, and not the partitive genitive. So
also words denoting a part when only that part is thought of : —
nos omnes, all of us (we all). [Not omnes nostnim.]
quot sunt hostis, how many of the enemy are there f
cave inimic5s, qui multi sunt, beware of your enemies^ who are many.
mult! milites, many of the soldiers.
nSmo Rdmanus, not one Roman.
Objective Genitive
347. The Objective Genitive is used with Nouns, Adjectives,
and Verbs.
348. Nouns of action^ agency^ 2JiA feeling govern the Genitive
of the Object : —
c^ritas tui, affection for you. dgsiderium oti, longing for rest.
vacatid muneris, relief from duty. gratia benefici, gratitude for kindness.
fuga maldnim, refuge from disaster. precatiO dedrom, prayer to the gods.
contentid hondram, struggle for office, opinio yirtutis, reputation for valor.
NoTB. —This usage is an extension of the idea of belonging to (Possessive Genitive).
Thus in the phrase odiam Caesaris, hate of CsBsar, the hate in a passive sense belongs
to Caesar, as odiumi though in its active sanse he is the object of it, as hate (cf. a).
The distinction between the Possessive (subjective) and the Objective Genitive is very
unstable and is often lost sight of. It is illustrated by the following example : the
phrase amor patris, love of a father^ may mean love felt by a father y a father* s love
(subjective genitive), or love towards a father (objective genitive).
216 SYNTAX : CONSTRUCTION OF CASES [§§ 348, 349
a. The objectiye genitive is sometimes replaced by a possessive
pronoun or other derivative adjective: —
mea invidia, my unpopularity (the dislike of which I am the object). [Cf.
odium mei (Har. Reap. 6), hatred of me.]
laud&tor mens (Att. i. 16. 6), my eulogist (one who praises me). [Cf. nostri
laud&tor (id. i. 14. 6).]
Clodiftnum crimen (Mil. 72), the murder of Clodiua (the Clodian charge). [As
we say, the Nathan murder,]
metus hostnis (lug. 41), fear of the enemy (hostile fear).
ea quae faciSbat, tu& s6 fldtlci& facere dicebat (Verr. v. 176), what he was
doing ^ he said he did relying on you (with your reliance),
neque neglegentia tuA, neque id odi5 fecit tu5 (Ter. Ph. 1016), he did this
neither from neglect nor from hatred of you,
b. Rarely the objective genitive is used with a noun already lim-
ited by another genitive : —
animi mult&nim rSrum percursiO (Tusc. iv. 31), the mind^a traversing of inany
things.
c. A noun with a preposition is often used instead of the objec-
tive genitive : —
odium in Antonium (Fam. x. 5. 3), hate of Antony.
merita ergft mS (id. i. 1. 1), services to me.
meam in t5 piet&tem (id. i. 9. 1), my devotion to you.
impetus in arbem (Phil. zii. 29), an attack on the city.
excessus § viti (Fin. iii. 60), departure from life. [Also, ezcessus vitae,
Tusc. i. 27.]
adoptiO in Domitiam (Tac. Ann. xii. 25), the adoption of DomUius. [A late
and bold extension of this construction.]
NoTB. — So also in late writers the dative of reference (cf. § 366. 6): as, — loni^o
bell5 materia (Tac. H. i. 89), resotarces for a long war.
GSNITIVS WITH ADJECTIVB8
349. Adjectives requiring an object of reference govern the
Objective Genitive.
a» Adjectives denoting desire, knowledge, memory/, fulness^ power ,
sharing, guilt, and their opposites govern the genitive : —
avid! laudis (Manil. 7), greedy of praise.
fastidiOsus litter&mm, disdaining letters.
iuris peiltus, skilled in law. [So also the ablative, lure, cf. § 418.]
memorem vestii, oblitum sui (Cat. iv. 19), mindful ofyou^ forgetful ofhimsdf.
rationiB et or&tiSnis expertSs (Off. i. 50), devoid of sense and speech.
nostrae cdnsuStfldinis imperlti (B.G. iv. 22), unacquainted with our customs.
§ 349] GENITIVE WITH ADJECTIVES 217
planus fidei, fuU of good faith,
omnis spei egSnam (Tac. Ann. i. 63), destitute of all hope.
tempest&tam potentem (Aen. 1. 80), having sway over the storms.
impot6ns irae (Li v. zxix. 9. 9), ungov€rTici>le in anger.
coniOrAtidiiis particip6s (Cat. ill. 14), sharing in the conspiracy.
affinis rei capit&liB (Verr. ii. 2. 94), involved in a capital crime.
insOns colpae (Liv. xxil. 49), innocent of guilt.
b. Participles in -ns govern the genitive when they are used as
adjectives, i.e. when they denote a constant disposition and not a
2J articular act : —
si quern tui amantiOrem cOgnOvistI (Q. Fr. i. 1. 15), ^ you have become
acquainted voith any one more fond of you.
moltittLdO insolens belli (B. C. ii. 36), a croiod unused to war.
erat lagurtha appetens gloxiae milit&rii} (lug. 7), Jugurtha was eager for mili-
tary glory.
NoTS 1. — Participles in -ns, when used as participles, take the case regularly gov-
emed by the yerb to which they belong : as, — Sp. Maelium rtgnom appetentem inter-
emit (Cat. M. 56), he put to death Spurius MsBlius, who was aspiring to royal power.
Note 2. — Occasionally participial forms in -ns are treated as participles (see note 1)
even when they express a disposition or character: as, — virtus quam alii ipsam tem-
perantiam dicunt esse, alii obtemperantem temperantiae praeceptis et earn subsequen-
tern (Tusc. iv. 30), observant of the teachings of temperance and -obedient to her.
c. Verbals in -4x (§ 251) govern the genitive in poetry and later
Latin: —
ittstum et ten&cem prSpoaiti virum (Hor. Od. iii. 8), a man just and steadifast
to his purpose.
circufl capdjc pepuli (Ov. A. A. i. 136), a circus big enough to hold the people.
cibi viniqne capd^issimus (Liv. ix. 16. 13), a very great eater and drinker
(very able to contain food and wine).
<f. The poets and later writers use the genitive with almost any
adjective, to denote that with reference to which the quality exists
( Genitive of Specification) : —
callidus rei nulit&ria (Tac. H. ii. 32), skilled in soldiership.
paaper aquae (Hor. Od. iii. 30. 11), scant of water.
ndtus animi patemi (id. ii. 2. 6), famed for a paternal spirit.
fessi lenxm (Aen. i. 178), weary of toil.
integer vitae scelexisque purus (Hor. Od. 1. 22. 1), upright in life^ and unstained
by guilt.
NoTB. — The Genitive of Specification is only an extension of the construction with
adjectives requiring an object of reference (§ 349). Thus callidus denotes knowledge ;
pauper, want ; poms, innocence ; and so these words in a manner belong to the classes
under a.
For the Ablative of Specification, the prose construction, see § 418. For Adjectives
of likeness etc. with the Genitive, apparently Objective, see § 386. c For Adjectives
with animi (locative in origin), see § 358.
218 SYNTAX: CONSTRUCTION OF CASES [§360
GENITIVE WITH VERBS
Verbs of Remembering and Forgetting
350. Verbs of remembering ^jlA. forgetting take either the Accu-
sative or the Genitive of the object : —
a. Memini takes the Accusative when it has the literal sense of
retaining in the mind what one has seen, heard, or learned. Hence
the accusative is used of persons whom one remembers as acquaint-
ances, or of things which one has experienced.
So obliviscor in the opposite sense, — to /or^e^ literally, to lose all
memory of Q, thing (very rarely, of a person).
Cinnam memini (Phil. v. 17), 7 remember Cinna,
utinam avum tuum meminissSs (id. i. 34), oh! that you could remember your
grandfather! (but he died before you were born).
Postumium, c^ius statuam in IsthmO meminisse te dicis (Att. xiii. 32), Postu-
miu8, whose statue you say you remember (to have seen) on the Isthmus.
omnia meminit Siron Epictiri dogmata (Acad. ii. 106), Siron remembers aJU
the doctrines of Epicurus.
multa ab aliis audita meminSrunt (De Or. ii. 355), they remember many things
that they have heard from others.
totam causam oblitus est (Brut. 217), he forgot the whole ca^e.
hinc iam obli^ascere Graios (Aen. ii. 148), from henc^orth forget the Greeks
(i.e. not merely disregard them, but banish them from your mind, as if
you had never known them).
b. Memini takes the Genitive when it means to be mindful or
regardful of a person or thing, to think of somebody or something
(often with special interest or warmth of feeling).
So obliviscor in the opposite sense, — to disregard, or dismiss from
the mind, — and the adjective oblitus, careless or regardless.
ipse sui meminerat (Verr. ii. 136), hs was mindful of himself (of his own
interests),
faciam ut hfiius loci dieique meique semper memineris (Ter. Eun. 801), I will
make you remember this place and this day and me as long cw you live.
nee me meminisse piggbit Elissae, dum memor ipse mei (Aen. iv. 335), nor
shall I feel regret at the thought of Elissa, so long as I remember myself.
meminerint verecundiae (Off. i. 122), let them cherish modesty,
humanae infiimitatis memini (Liv. xxx. 31. 6), I remember human weakness.
oblivisci tempoTum meorum, meminisse actionam (Fam. i. 9. S), to disregard
my own interests, to be mindful of the matters at issue.
nee tamen Epicun licet oblivisci (Fin. v. 3), and yet I must not forget Epicurus.
obliviscere caedis atque incendidrum (Cat. i. 6), turn your mind from slaughter
and conflagrations (dismiss them from your thoughts).
§§ 350, 361] ._ GENITIVE WITH VERBS 219
Note 1. — With both memini and obliviscor the personal and reflexive pronouns are
regularly in the Genitive ; neuter pronouns and adjectives used substantively are regu-
larly in the Accusative ; abstract nouns are often in the Grenitive. These uses come
in each instance from the natural meaning of the verbs (as defined above).
Note 2. — Memini in the sense of mention takes the Genitive : as, — eundem Achil-
lam cfiitts supra meminimus (B. C. iii. 108) , that same Achillas whom I mentioned
above.
c. Reminiscor is rare. It takes the Accusative in the literal sense
of call to mind, recollect ; the Genitive in the more figm*ative sense
of he mindful of: —
dolcls morions reminlscitur Argds (Aen. x. 782), as he dies he calls to mind
his beloved Argos.
reminisceretur et veteris incommodi popull ROm&nl et pristinae virtutis Helv€-
ti5ram (B. G. i. 13), let him remember both the former discomfiture of the
Roman people and the ancient valor of the Helvetians. [A warning, —
let him bear it in mind (and beware) ! ]
d. Recorder, recollect, recall, regularly takes the Accusative : —
recordare consinsum ilium thefttrl (Phil. i. 30), recall that unanimous agree-
msnt of the [audience in the] theatre,
recordamini omnis civillB dissSnsiones (Cat. iii. 24), call to mind all the civil
wars.
Note.— Recorder takes the genitive once (Pison. 12) ; it is never used with a per-
sonal object, but may be followed by d6 with the ablative of the person or thing
(cf. §351. N.): —
d6 15 recordor (Scaur. 49), / remember about you.
dS iUis (lacrimis) recordor (Plane. 104), / am reminded of those tears.
Verbs of Reminding;
351. Verbs of reminding take with the Accusative of the per-
son a Genitive of the thing; except in the case of a neuter pro-
noun, which is put in the accusative (cf. § 390. c).
So admoneO, commoneO^ commonefaciO; commonefiS. But moneS with
the genitive is found in late writers only.
Catilina admonfibat alinm egestatis, alium cupiditatis suae (Sail. Cat. 21),
Catiline reminded one of his poverty, another of his cupidity.
eos hoc moneO (Cat. ii. 20), I give them this warning.
quod V08 lex commonet (Verr. iii. 40), that which the law reminds you of.
Note. — All these verbs often take d6 with the ablative, and the accusative of nouns
as well as of pronouns is sometimes used with them : —
saepius te admoneo d€ syngrapha Sittiana (Fam. viii. 4. 5) I remind you again and
again of Sittius's bond.
offlcium vostrum ut vos malo cOgatis commonerier (Plant. Ps. 160), that you may
. by misfortune force yourselves to be reminded of your duty.
220 SYNTAX : CONSTRUCTION OF CASES [§§ 362, 353
Verbs of Accusing:, Condemning, and Acquitting
352. Verbs of accumig^ condemning^ and acquitting^ take the
Genitive of the Charge or Penalty : —
arguit mS faiti, he accuses me of tkeft,
pecal&tiis damnatus (pecaniae ptiblicae damn&tus) (Flacc. 43), condemned for
embezzlement.
video nOn t€ absoltitum esse improbitatis, sed illos damnatOs esse caedis
(VeiT. ii. 1. 72), I see, not that you were acquitted of outrage, but thai
they were condemned for homicide.
a. Peculiar genitives, under this construction, are —
capitis, as in damnare capitis, to sentence to death.
maiest&tis [laesae], treason (crime against the dignity of the state),
repetandflmm [rerum], extortion (lit. of an action for reclaiming money).
YOti damnatus (or reus), bound [to the payment] of one^s vow, i.e. success-
ful in one's effort,
pecaniae (damnare, iudlcd.re, see note),
dupli etc., as in dupli condemnaie, condemn to pay twofold.
NoTB. — The origin of these genitive constructions is pointed at by pecaniae dam-
nare (Gall. XX. 1. 38), to condemn to pay money ^ in a case of injary to the person;
qnantae pectiniae iudicati essent (id.xx.l.47),^ot(; muc^ money they were adjudged to pay,
in a mere suit for debt; cdnfessi aeris ac debit! iudicati (id. xx. 1. 42), adjudged to owe
an admitted sum due. These expressions show that the genitive of the penalty conies
from the use of the genitive of value to express a sum, of money due either as a debt or as
a fine. Since in early civilizations all offences could be compounded by the payment of
fines, the genitive came to be used of other punishments, not pecuniary. From this to
the genitive of the actual crime is an easy transition, inasmuch as there is always a
confusion between crime and penalty (cf . Eng. guilty of death) . It is quite unnecessary
to assume an ellipsis of cximine or iudiciS.
353. Other constructions for the Charge or Penalty are —
1. The Ablative of Price : regularly of a definite amount of fine,
and often of indefinite penalties (cf. § 416) : —
FrusinatSs tertia parte agrl damnati (Liv. x. 1), the people of FruHno con-
demned [to forfeit] a third part of their land.
2. The Ablative with d€, or the Accusative with inter, in idiomatic
expressions : —
d6 alea, for gambling ; d6 ambitu, for bribery.
de pecCinils repetandis, of extortion (cf. § 862. a).
inter sicOriOs (Rose. Am. 90), as an assassin (among the assassins).
d€ yl et md,iestatis damn3,ti (Phil. i. 21), convicted of assault and treason.
Notes. — The accusative with ad and In occurs in later writers to express the pen-
ally: as, — ad mortem (Tac. Ann. xvi. 21), to death; ad (in) metana, to the mines.
§§354,356] GENITIVE WITH VERBS 221
Verbs of Feeling
354. Many verbs of feeliivg take the Genitive of the object
which excites the feeling.
a. Verbs of ;pityj as misereor and miserescO, take the genitive : —
miseremini familiae, iudic^s, miser^mini patris, miseremini fili (Flacc. 106),
home pUy on the family, etc.
miserere animl nOn digna ferentis (Aen. ii. 144), pity a 8<ml that endures
unworthy things.
misereecite regis (id. viii. 573), pity the king. [Poetical.]
Note. — But miseror, oonuniMror, bewail, take the aocusative: as, — communem
condiciSnem miseran (Mur. 56), bewail the common lot.
6. As impersonals, miseret, paenitet, piget, pudet, taedet (or pertaesum
est), take the genitive of the cause of the feeling and the accusative
of th& person affected: —
quos inf&miae suae neque pudet neque taedet (Verr. i. 35), who are neither
ashamed nor weary of their dishonor.
me miseret paiietum ipsOrum (Phil. ii. 60), I pity the very waUs.
mS ciyitd,tis momm piget taedetque (lug. 4), / am sick and tired of the ways
of the state.
decemvirdrum vos pertaesum est (Liv. iii. 67), you became tired of the decemvirs.
c. With miseret, paenitet, etc., the cause of the feeling may be ex-
pressed by an infinitive or a clause : —
neque mS paenitet mortfllfs inindcitl&s habSre (Rab. Post. 32), nor am I sorry
to have deadly enmities.
non dedisse istunc pudet; m6 quia n5n accipi piget (PI. Pseud. 282), h£ is
ashamed not to have given; I am sorry because I have not received.
NoTB. — Miseret etc. are sometimes used personally with a neuter pronoun as sub-
ject: as, — nOn te baec pudent (Ter. Ad. 764), do not these things shame you?
Interest and Refert
355. The impersonals interest and refert take the Genitive of
the person (rarely of the thing) affected.
The subject of the verb is a neuter pronoun or a substantive
clause : —
Clodl intererat MilOnem perlre (cf. Mil. 56), it was the interest of Clodius that
Milo should die.
aliquid quod illonxm magis quam svlSl rStnlisse viderStur (lug. Ill), something
which seemed to be more for their interest than his own.
video enim quid me& intersit, quid utriusque nostrum (Fam. vii. 23. 4), for 1
see what is for my good an/dfor the good of us both.
222 SYNTAX: CONSTRUCTION OF CASES [§§356,356
a. Instead of the genitive of a personal pronoun the correspond-
ing possessive is used in the ablative singular feminine after interest
or r6f ert : —
quid tua id rfifert? mSgnl (Ter. Ph. 723), how does thai concern youf much,
[See also the last two examples above.]
vehementer intererat vestrft qui patr€s estls (Plin. Ep. iv. 13. 4), it would he
very much to your advantage^ you who are fathers.
Note. — This is the only construction with rSfert in classic prose, except in one
passage in Sallust (see example above).
b. The accusative with ad is used with interest and rSfert to ex-
press the thing with reference to which one is interested : —
m&gnl ad honorem nostrum interest (Fam. xvi. 1), it is of great consequence
to our honor.
rSfert etiam adfructus (Varr. R. R. i. 16. 0), it makes a difference as to the crop.
Note 1. — Very rarely the person is expressed by ad and the accusative, or (with
rtfert) by the dative (probably a popular corruption): —
quid id ad mS aut ad meam rem refert (PI. Pers. 513), what difference does that
make to me or to my interests?
quid referat intra naturae finis vfyent! (Hor. S. i. 1. 49), what difference does it
make to me who live within the limits of natural desire f
nOn referre dedecori (Tac. Ann. xv. 65), that it makes no difference as to the
disgrace.
Note 2. — The degree of interest is expressed by a genitive of value, an adverb,
or an adverbial accusative.
Verbs of Plenty and Want
356. Virbs of Plenty and Want sometimes govern the geni-
tive (cf . § 409. a. N.) : —
convlvium vicinorum compleO (Cat. M. 46, in the mouth of Cato), I Jill up the
banquet with my neighbors.
implentur veteris Bacchi pinguisque feiinae (Aen. i. 215), they fill themselves
with old wine and fat venison.
n6 quis auxili egeat (B. G. vi. 11), lest any require aid.
quid est quod defensiSnis indigeat (Rose. Am. 34), what is there that needs
defence?
quae ad c5ns5landum m§.i5ris ingeni et ad ferendum singul9,ris virtutis indi-
gent (Fam. vi. 4. 2), [sorrows] which for their comforting need more abil-
iby^ and for endurance unusual courage.
Note. — Verbs of plenty and want more commonly take the ablative (see §§ 409. a.
401), except egeo, which takes either case, and indigeS. But the genitive is by a Greek
idiom often used in poetry instead of the ablative with aU words denoting separatm
and want (cf. § 357. 6. 3): —
abstineto irarum (Hor. Od. iil. 27. 69), refrain from, wrath.
operum solutis (id. iii. 17. 16), /ree/rom toils.
desine moUinm querell&rum (id. ii. 9. 17), have done with weak complaints.
§§357-369] PECULIAR GENITIVES 228
Genitiye with Special Verbs
357. The Genitive is used with certain special verbs.
a. The genitive sometimes follows potior, get possession of; as
always in the phrase potiri rerum, to he master: of affairs : —
illlus regni potiri (Fam. i. 7. 5), to become master of that kingdom,
Cleanthes 851em dominftrl et rSrum potiri putat (Acad. ii. 126), Cleanthes
thinks the sun holds sway and is lord of tfie universe.
Note. — But potior usually takes the ablative (see §410).
b» Some other verbs rarely take the genitive —
1 . By analogy with those mentioned in § 354 : —
neque huius sis veritus fSminae prlm&riae (Ter. Ph. 071), and you had no
respect for this highrbom lady,
2. As akin to adjectives which take the genitive : —
fastldit mei (Plant. Aul. 245), he disdains me. [Cf. fastldidsus.]
studet tm (quoted N. D. iii. 72), he is zeaXcmsfor you, [Cf. studiOsus.]
3. In imitation of the Greek: —
iostitiaene prius mirer, belllne labdrum (Aen. xi. 126), shall I raiher admire
his justice' or his toils in warf
neque ille sSpositi ciceris nee longae invldit avSnae (Hor. S. ii. 6. 84), nor did
he grudge his garnered peas, etc. [But cf. invidus, parcus.]
labSram dgcipitur (Hor. Od. ii. 13. 38), he is beguiled of his woes,
m6 laboram levfts (PL Rud. 247), you relieve me of my troubles, ^
358. The apparent Genitive animi (really Locative) is used with
a few verbs and adjectives oi feeling and the like: —
AntiphO m6 excruciat animi (Ter. Ph. 187), Antipho tortures my mind (me in
my mind),
qui pendet animi (Tusc. iv. 35), who is in suspense,
me animi fallit (Lucr. i. 922), my mind deceives me.
So, by analogy, dSsipiebam mentis (PI. Epid. 138), I was out of my head;
aeger animi, sick at heart; cOnfusus animi, disturbed in spirit.
s3jiu8 mentis aut animi (PI. Trin. 454)^ sound in mind or heart,
PECULIAR GENITIVES
359. Peculiar Genitive constructions are the following : —
a. A poetical genitive occurs rarely in exclamations, in imitation
of the Greek ( Genitive of Exclaination) : —
dl immortales, mercimoni lepidi (PL Most. 912), good heavens! what a charm-
ing bargain !
fo^eris heu taciti (Prop. Iv. 7. 21), alas for the unspoken agreement!
224 SYNTAX: CONSTRUCTION OF CASES [§§369,360
6. The genitive is often used with the ablatives causa, gratia, for
the sake of; ergO, because of; and the indeclinable instar, like; also
with pridiS, the day before; postridiS, the day after; tenus, a^ far as:
hondris causft, with due respect (for the sake of honor),
yerbi gratia, for example.
gius \%pB erg5, on account of this law,
equus instar montU (Aen. ii. 15), a horse huge as a mountain (the image of
a mountain).
laterum tenus (id. x. 210), as far as the sides.
NoTB 1. — Of these the genitive with causft is a deyelopment from the possessive
genitive and resembles that in ndmen ins&niae (§ 343,(7) . The others are of various origin.
Note 2. — In prose of the Repablican Period pxidii and postiidiS are thus used only
in the expressions pridiJ (postridiS) ftius di6i, the day before {after) that (cf . " the eve, the
morrow of that day"). Tacitus uses the construction with other words : as, — postridiJ
insidianun, the day after the plot. For the accusative, see § 432. a. Tenus takes also
the ablative (p. 136).
DATIVE CASE
360. The Dative is probably, like the Genitive, a grammatical case, that is, it is
a form appropriated to the expression of a variety of relations other than that of the
direct object. But it is held by some to be a Locative with the primary meaning of
to or towardSf and the poetic uses (like it dimor cael5, Aen. v. 451) are regarded as
survivals of the original use.
In Latin the Dative has two classes of meanings : —
1. The Dative denotes an object not as caused by the action, or directly affected by
it (like the Accusative), but as reciprocally sharing in the action or receiving it conr
scionMy or actively. Thus in dedit paero libnun, he gave the boy a book, or fScit mihi
iniuriam, he did me a torong, there is an idea of tiie boy*s receiving the book, and of my
feeling the wrong. Hence expressions denoting persons, or things with personal
attributes, are more likely to be in the dative than those denoting mere thijigs. So
in Sx>anish the dative is used whenever a person is the object of an action ; yo veo al
honibre, I see [to] the man. This difference between the Accusative and the Dative
(i.e. between the Direct and the Indirect Object) depends upon the point of view implied
in the verb or existing in the mind of the writer. Hence Latin verbs of similar meaning
(to an English mind) often differ in the case of their object (see § 367. a).
2. The Dative is used to express the purpose of an action or that for which it serves
(see § 382). This construction is especially used with abstract expressions, or those
implying an action.
These two classes of Datives approach each other in some cases and are occasion-
ally confounded, as in §§ 383, 384.
The uses of the Dative are the following : —
1. Indirect Object (general ( 1. With Transitives (§ 362).
use): I 2. With Inlransitives (§§ 366-.'?72).
1. Of Possession (with esse) (§ 373).
2. Of Agency (with Gerundive) (§ 374).
2. Special or Idiomatic Uses : \ 3. Of Reference (datlvus commodl) (§§ 376-381).
4. Of Purpose or End (predicate use) (§ 382).
5. Of Fitness etc. (with Adjectives) (§§383, 384).
§§961-^03] DATIVE OF INDIRECT OBJECT 226
INDIRECT OBJECT
361. The Dative is used to denote the object indirectly affected
by an action.
This is called the Indirect Object (§ 274). It is usually denoted
in English by the objective with to: —
cedite tempori, yiM to the occasion.
prOvincia Ciceroni obtigit, the province feU by lot to Cicero,
inimicis n5n cr€dimus, we do not trust [to] our enemies.
Indirect Object with Transitives
362. The Dative of the Indirect Object with the Accusative
of the Direct may be used with any transitive verb whose mean-
ing allows (see § 274) : —
d5 tibi librum, I give you a hook.
iUnd tibi affirmO (Fam. i. 7. 6), this I assure you.
commendO tiU §iu8 omnia negOtia (id. i. 3), I put all his affairs in your hands
(commit them to you),
dabis profecto misericordiae quod ir&cundiae negd,vistl (Deiot. 40), you will
surely grant to mercy what you reused to wrath.
litteras & te mihi stator tuus reddidit (Fam. il. 17), your messenger delivered
tom^a letter from you.
a. Many verbs have both a transitive and an intransitive use, and
take either the Accusative with the Dative, or the Dative alone : —
mihi id aamm credidit (cf. Plaat. Aul. 15), he trusted that gold to me.
eqao ng erudite (Aen. ii. 48), put not your trust in the horse.
concessit sen&tns postaUtidnl tuae (Mar. 47), the senate yielded to your demand.
concedere amicis qoidquid velint (Lael. 38), to grant to friends all they may
wish.
363. Certain verbs implying motion vary in their construction
between the Dative of the Indirect Object and the Accusative
of the End of Motion (§§ 426, 427): —
1. Some verbs implying motion take the Accusative (usually with
ad or in) instead of the Indirect Object, when the idea of motion pre-
vails : —
litteras quas ad Pompeium scrlpsi (Att. iii. 8. 4), the letter which I have written
[and sent] to Pompey. [Cf. n5n quO hab€rem quod tibi scribereni (id.
iy. 4 a), not that I had anything to write to you.]
226 SYNTAX : CONSTRUCTION OF CASES [§§ 363, 364
litterae extemplO R5main scrlptae (Liv. xli. 16), a letter was invmediateiy vrriUen
[and sent] to Borne,
hostis in fugam dat (B. G. v. 51), A€ puts the enemy to flight, [Cf. at me dem
fugae (Att. vii. 23), to take to flight.]
omnes rem ad Pompeiam deferri volant (Fam. i. 1), aU wish the mcUter to be
put in thb hands of Pompey (referred to Pompey).
2. On the other hand, many verbs of motion usually followed by
the Accusative with ad or in, take the Dative when the idea of motion
is merged in some other idea : —
mihi litteras mittere (Fam. vii. 12), to send me a letter,
eum librum tibi misi (id. vii. 19), 7 sent you that book,
nee quicquam quod nOn mihi Caesar detulerit (id. iv. 13), and nothing which
Coisar did not communicate to me.
cQres at mihi vehantar (id. viii. 4. 5), taJce care that they be conveyed to me.
cam alius alii subsidium ferrent (B. 6. ii. 26), while one lent aid to another.
364. Certain verbs may take either the Dative of the person and
the Accusative of the thing, or (in a different sense) the Accusative
of the person and the Ablative of the thing ^ : —
dOnat coron&8 snis, he presents wreaths to his men; or,
dOnat Bads corSnis, he presents his men with wreaths.
▼incala exuere sibi (Ov. M. vii. 772), to shake cff the leash (from himself).
omnis armis exuit (B. G. v. 61), he stripped them all of their arms.
Note 1. — InterdicS, /or&id, takes either (1) the Dative of the person and the Abla-
tive of the thing, or (2) in later writers, the Dative of the person and the Accusative of
the thing : —
aquft et igni alicui interdicere, to forbid one the use of fire and water. [The regular
formula for banishment.]
interdixit histrionibus scaenam (Suet. Dom. 7), he forbade the actors [to appear on]
the stage (he prohibited the stage to the actors).
fSminis (dat.) purpurae usu interdicemus (Liv. xxxiv. 7), shall we forbid women
the wearing of purple ?
Note 2. — The Dative with the Accusative is used in poetry with many verbs of
preventing J protecting, and the like, which usually take the Accusative and Ablative.
Intercludo and prohibeS sometimes take the Dative and Accusative, even in prose : —
hisce omnis aditus ad Sullam intercliidere (Rose. Am. 110), to shut these men ofT
from all access to Sulla (close to them every approach). [Cf. uti commeata
Caesarem intercluderet (B. G. i. 48), to shut Cassar off from supplies.l
himc (oestrum) arccbis pecori (Greorg. iii. 154), you shall keep this away from the
flock, [Cf . ilium arcuit Gallia (Phil. v. 37), he excluded him from Gaul.]
85l8titium pecoii defendite (Eel. vii. 47) , keep the summer heat from the flock. [Cf .
uti 86 a contumSliis inimlcorum dcfenderet (B. C. i. 22), to defend himself
from the slanders of his enemies.]
1 Such are d5n5, imperti5, indad, exu5, adsperco, inspergS, circnmdS, and in poetry
accingd, implied, and similar verbs.
§§ 366, 366] DATIVE OF INDIRECT OBJECT 22T
365. Verbs which in the active voice take the Accusative and
Dative retain the Dative when used in the passive : —
ntintiabantur haec eadem Cflrioni (B. C. ii. 37), these same things were
announced to Curio. [Active : nflntiibant (quidam) baec eadem COrioni.]
nee doceudl Caesaris propinquis 6ius spatium datur, nee tribunis pl6bis sui
perlculi dfiprecandi facultSa tribuitur (id. i. 5), no time is given Ccesar's
relatives to inform him, and no opportunity is granted to the tribunes of
the plebs to avert danger from themselves.
prOvineiae privStis dficemuntur (id. i. 6), provinces are voted to private
citizens.
Indirect Object with Intransitives
366. The Dative of the Indirect Object may be used with any
Intransitive verb whose meaning allows : —
cedant arma togae (Phil. ii. 20), let arms give place to the gown,
Caesari respondet, he replies to Ccesar.
Caesaii respondetur, a reply is given to Coesar (Caesar is replied to) . [Cf . § 372. ]
respond! maximis crimlnibus (Phil. ii. 36), I have answered the heaviest charges,
ut ita cuique Cveniat (id. ii. 119), tJiat it may so turn out to each.
Note 1. — Intransitive verbs have no Direct Object. The Indirect Object, there-
fore, in these cases stands alone as in the second example (but cf. § 362. a).
Note 2. — C6do, yields sometimes takes the Ablative of the thing along with the
Dative of the person : as, — cedere alicni possessiSne hortOrum (cf . Mil. 76) , to give up to
one the possession of a garden.
«• Many phrases consisting of a noun with the copula sum or a
copulative verb are equivalent to an intransitive verb and take a
kind of indirect object (cf. § 367. a, n.^): —
auctor esse alicni, to advise or instigate on^ (cf. persalided).
quis huic rei testis est (Quinct. 37), wh>o testifies (is witness) to this fact?
is finis populatidmbas fait (Liv. ii. 30. 9), this put an end to the raids.
b» The dative is sometimes used without a copulative verb in a
sense approaching that of the genitive (cf. §§ 367. d, 377) : —
legatus fratri (Mur. 32), a lieutenant to his brother (i.e. a man assigned to his
brother),
ministrl sceleribus (Tac. Ann. vi. 36), agents of crime. [Cf. sgditionis minis>
tri (id. i. 17), agents of sedition.]
miseiiis suis remedium mortem exspectare (Sail. Cat. 40), to look for death
as a cure for their miseries. [Cf. solus mearum miseriarumst remedium
(Ter. Ad. 294).]
Note. — The cases in a and b differ from the constructions of § 367. a. n.^ and
§ 377 in that the dative is more closely connected in idea with some single word to
which it serves as an indirect object.
228 SYNTAX : CONSTRUCTION OF CASES [§ 367
Indirect Object with Special Verbs
367. Many verbs signifying to favor ^ helpy pleasey trusty and
their contraries ; also to believe^ persuade^ command^ obey, serve,
resist, envy, threaten, pardon, and spare} take the Dative : —
cur mihi invid€s, why do you envy me f
mihi parcit atque Igndscit, Tie spares and pardons me.
ignOfice patriO dolori (Liv. ill. 48), excuse a father^ s grirf.
subvenl patriae, opitulare conlegae (Fam. z. 10. 2), coTiie to the aid of your
country, help your colleague.
mihi nOn displicet (Clu. 144), U does not displease me.
n5n omnibas serriO (Att. xiil. 49), I am not a servant to eoery man.
nOn parcam operae (Fam. xiii. 27), I will spare no pains.
sic mihi persu&Bl (Cat. M. 78), $o I have persuaded myself,
mihi Fabius dSbSbit ignOscere si minus §ias famae parcere yidSbor quam antea
cOnsuluI (TuU. 3), Fabius will have to pardon me if I seem to spare hxs
reputation less than I huve heretofore regarded it.
hale legion! Caesar cOnfid^bat mazimS (B. G. i. 40. 15), in this legion Ooesar
trusted most.
In these verbs the Latin retains an original intransitive meaning.
Thus : invidBre, to envy, is literally to look askance at ; servire is to he
a slave to ; sufidSre is to make a thing pleasant (sweet) to,
a* Some verbs apparently of the same meanings take the Accusative.
Such are iuv5, adiuvd, help; laedO, injure; iubed, order; deficiO, /ail;
delects, please : —
hic pulvis oculam meum laedit, this dust hurts my eye. [Cf. multa ocolia
nocent, many things are injurious to the eyes.]
NoTB 1. — nd5 and c5nfid5 take also the Ablative (§ 431) : as, — multum nfitflrft loci
oOnfidebant (B. G. iii. 9), they had great confidence in the strength of their position.
Note 2. — Some common phrases regularly take the dative precisely like verbs of
similar meaning. Such are >- praesto esse, be on h^nd (cf . adesse) ; mOrem gerere,
humor (cf. moriger&ri) ; gratum facere, do a favor (cf. grStlflc&ri) ; dictO audi§ns esse,
be obedient (cf. oboedire) ; cui fidem habebat (B. O. i. 19), in whom hs had conjidenca
(cf. c5nfid«Mit).
So also many phrases where no corresponding verb exists. Such are ^ ben^ (male,
pulchre, aegre, etc.) esse, be well {ill, etc.) off; iniuriam facere, do injustice to ; diem
dicere, bring to trial (name a day for, etc.); agere gn*&ti&s, express one's thanks;
habere gratiam,/ee2 thankful; referre g^atiam, repay a favor; opus esse, be neces-
sary ; damnum dare, inflict an injury; acceptum (ezpensum) ferre (esse), credit
{charge); honOrem habgre, to pay honor to.
1 These include, among others, the following: advertor, cCdd, cridd, faved, fidS,
IgndscS, imper5, indulged, invided, irftscor, mxnitor, noced, pared, pared, placed, xedstfi^
aerviS, studed, so&ded (persuaded), susodnsed, tempexd (obtempexd).
§§ d67, Sd8] DATIVE WITH SPECIAL VERBS 229
h. Some verbs are used tranntively with the Acousative or intran-
sitively with the Dative without perceptible difference of meaning.
Such are adfklor, aemiilor, dSspeit^, praestSlor, med^or : —
adul&tus est Aatdnid (Nep. Att. 8), he flattered Antony »
adulari Nerdnem (Tac. Ann. xvi. 10), to fritter Nero,
p&cem n5n despGrSs (Att. yiii. 15. 3), you do not despair qf peace,
sidttti desp6r&re vetuit (Clu. 68), lie forbade Him to despair o/8(tfety,
c. Some verbs are used transitively with the Accusative or intran-
sitively with the Dative with a difference of meaning : — ^
paxtl clYium cOnsolunt (Off. i. 86), Hufy consult for a part of the dtUiens,
cum ti cOUAiluissem (Fam. zi. 29), when I had consulted yotu
metu^ns paeris (Plant. Am. 1118), anxiofusfor the ehildren,
nee metaunt deos (Ter. Hec. 772), they fear not even the gods, [So also timed.]
prOspicite patriae (Cat. iv. 8), have regard for the state.
prOspicere sedem senecttltl (Liv. iv. 40. 14), to provide a habitation for old a^ge,
[So also provided.]
4l. A few verbal nouns (as insidiae, ambttsh; obtemperfttiO^ obedi-
ence) rarely take the dative like the corresponding verbs : —
insidlae cdnsaU (Sail. Cat. 82), the plot against thje consul (of. ihsidior).
obtemper&tiO Ugibos (Legg. i. 42), obedience to the laws (cf. obtempeto).
sibi ip8i respdnsiO (De Or. ill. 207), an anstver to himseif (cf. respondeS).
NoTB. — In these cases the dative depends immediately upon the verbal force of the
noun and not on any complex idea (cf . § 366. a, b),
368. The Dative is used —
1. With the impersonals libet (lubet), it pleases^ and licet, it is
allowed : —
quod mihi maxime lubet (Fam. i. 8. 3), what most pleases me.
quasi tibi nOn licSret (id. vi. 6), cu ^ you were not permitted,
2. With verbs compounded with satis, bene, and male : —
miki ipse numquam satisfaciO (Fam. 1. 1), I neeer satiny myself,
optimO viro maledlcere (Deiot. 28), to speak ill of a most excellent man.
pulchrum est benefacere rei pfiblicae (Sail. Cat. 3), it is a glorious thing to
ben^ the state,
NoTK. — These are not real compounds, but phrases, and were apparently felt as
such by the Romans. Thus, — satis officio me6, satis illOmm volnntati qni a me hoc
petiverunt factum esse arbitrabor (Verr. v. 130) , I shall consider that erwugh has been
done for my duty, erwughfor the wi^ies of those who asked this of me.
1 See the Lexicon nnder caveS, convenio, cupi5, Insists, numeS, pracvcrtS, recipiS, re-
nuntiS, solvd, saocSdd.
230 SYNTAX: CONSTRUCTION OF CASES [§§368,369
3. With grfttificor, grfltulor, nubO^ permittO, plaudS, probO, studeO, sup-
plicO, excellO: —
PompSid s6 gr9.tific9,ri putant (Fam. i. 1), they suppose they are doing Pompey
a service,
grd.tulor tibi, ml Balbe (id. vi. 12), I congratulate you^ my dear Balbus.
tibi permittO respondere (N. D. iii. 4), I give you leave to answer,
mihi plaudO ipse doml (Hor. S. i. 1. 66), I applaud myself at hom£.
cum inimici M. Font^I vObIs ac populO ROm^no minentur, amid ac propinqui
supplicent ydbis (Font. 35), while the enemies of Marcus Fonteius are
threatening you and the Roman people too., while his friends and relatives
are beseeching you.
NoTB.'^ Misceo and inngo sometimes take the dative (see § 413. a. n.) . HaereS usually
takes the ahlative, with or without in, rarely the dative : as, — haerentem capiti coiO-
nam (Hor. S. i. 10. 49), a wreath dinging to the head,
a. The dative is often used by the poets in constructions which
would in prose require a noun with a preposition. So especially
with verbs of contending (§ 413. b) : —
contendis HomSrd (Prop. i. 7. 3), you vie with Homer, [In prose : cum Homeio.]
placitOne etiam ptignabis amSri (Aen. iv. 38), will you struggle even against a
love that pleases you f
tibi certat (Eel. v. 8), vies with you, [tecum.]
differt sennSni (Hor. S. i. 4. 48), differs from prose, [& sezmone, § 401.]
lateri abdidit Snsem (Aen. ii. 553), buried the sword in his side, [in latere,
§ 430. ]
For the Dative instead of ad with the Accusative, see § 428. h,
369. Some verbs ordinarily intransitive may have an Accusa-
tive of the direct object along with the Dative of the indirect
<cf. § 362. a): —
cni cum r€x crucem min&retnr (Tusc. i. 102), and when the king threatened
him with the cross.
CrStensibus obsides imper&vlt (Manil. 35), Tie exacted hostages of the Cretans.
omnia sibi IgnQscere (Veil. ii. 30), to pardon ante's self everything.
Ascanione pate^ R5m9,nas invidet arces (Aen. iv. 234), does the father envy
Ascanius his Roman citadels f [With invide5 this construction is poetic
or late.]
«. With the passive voice this dative may be retained : —
qui iam nunc sanguinem meum sibi indulgeri aequum cgnset (Liv. xl. 15. 16),
wh,o even now thinks it right that my blood should be granted to him as a
favor,
singulis censoribus denarii trecenti impdrati sunt (Verr. ii. 137), three hun-
dred denarii were exacted of each censor,
Scaevolae concessa est facundiae virtus (Quint, xii. 3. 9), to Scaevola has
been granted excellence in oratory.
§370] DATIVE WITH COMPOUNDS 231
Indirect Object with Compounds
370. Many verbs compounded with ad, ante, con, in, inter, ob,
post, prae, pr<$, sub, super, and some with circum, admit the Dative
of the indirect object : —
neque enim adsentior eis (Lael. 13), for I do riot agree with them.
quantum natura hominis pecudibus antec€dit (Off. i. 105), so far as mail's
nature is superior to brutes.
si 8ibi ipse cOnsentit (id. i. 5), if he is in accord wiUi himself.
virtutes semper voluptatibus inhaerent (Fin. i. 68), virtues are always con-
nected with pleasures.
omnibus negStiis non interfuit sOlum sed praefuit (id. i. 6), he not ordfj had
a hand in all matters, but took the lead in them.
tempestati obsequi artis est (Fam. i. 9. 21), it is a point of skill to yield to
the weather.
nee umquam succumbet inimicis (Deiot. 36), and he will never yield to his
foes.
cum et Brutus cuilibet dacum praeferendus vid6r6tur et Vatinius nulli nOn
esset postferendus (Veil. ii. 69), since Brutus seemed worthy of being put
before any of the generals and Vatinius deserved to be put after aU of them,
a. In these cases the dative depends not on the preposition, but
on the compound verb in its acquired meaning. Hence, if the acquired
meaning is not suited to an indirect object, the original construction
of the simple verb remains.
Thus in convocat sads, ?ie calls his men together, the idea of calling is not so
modified as to make an indirect object appropriate. So hominem interficere, to
m,ake way with a man (kill him). But in praeficere imperatorem bello, to put a
man as commander-in-chief in charge of a war, the idea resulting from the com-
position is suited to an indirect object (see also b, §§ 371, 388. b).
Note 1. — Some of these verbs, being originally transitive, take also a direct object :
as, — ne offeramus nos periculis (Off. i. 83), that we may not expose ovrselves to perils.
Note 2. — The construction of § 370 is not different in its nature from that of §§ 362,
366, and 367 ; but the compound verbs make a convenient group.
h. Some compounds of ad, ante, ob, with a few others, have acquired
a transitive meaning, and take the accusative (cf . § 388. b): — ^
nds oppugnat (Fam. i. 1), he opposes us.
quis audeat bene comitatam aggredl (Phil. xii. 26), who would dare encounter
a man well attended f
mfinns obire (Lael. 7), to attend to a duty.
1 Such verbs are aggredior, adeo, antec6d5, anteed, antegredior, conveniS, ineo, obed,
offendo, oppngno, praecSd5. subeo.
232 SYNTAX: CONSTRUCTION OF CASES [§§370-373
c. The adjective obvlus and the adverb obviam with a verb take
the dative : —
si ille obvius ei futtlrus nOn erat (Mil. 47), if hs was not intending to get in
his way.
mihi obviam y€nistl (Fam. ii. 16. 3), you came to meet me.
371. When place or motion is distinctly thought of, the verbs
mentioned in § 370 regularly take a noun with a preposition :
inhaeret in visceribaa (Tusc. iv. 24), it remains fixed in the vitals.
homine conifLnctO mictim (Tull. 4), a man united to me.
cum h5c concurrit ipse Eumen€s (Nep. Eum. 4. 1), with him Eum^eries him-
self engages in combat (runs together).
inserite oculOs in curiam (Font. 43), fix your eyes on the senate-house.
Ignis qui est ob 58 offtisus (Tim. 14), the fire which is diffused before the sight.
obicitur contrS istOrum impetus Macedonia (Font. 44), MajcedonUz is set to
wttfutand their attacks. [Cf. si quis ySbis error obiectus (Caec. 5), if
any mistake has been caused you.'^
in segetem flamma incidit (Aen. ii. 304), the fire falls upon the standing corn.
Note. — But the usage varies in different authors, in different words, and often in
the same word and the same sense. The Lexicon must be consulted for each verb.
372. Intransitive verbs that govern the dative are used imper-
%onally in the passive (§ 208. d). The dative is retained (cf. § 365):
cul parol potuit (Liv. xxi. 14), who could be spared?
noh modo n5n invidetur illi aetali v^rum etiam favStur (Off. ii. 45), that age
(youth) not only is not enviedy but is eoen favored.
tempori serviendum e8t(Fam. iz. 7), we must serve the exigency of the occasion.
Note. — In poetry the personal construction is sometimes found : as, — ciir invideor
(Hor. A. P. 56), why am I envied f
Dative of Possession
373. The Dative is used with esse and similar words to denote
Possession : —
est mihi domi pater (Eel. iii. 33), I have a father at home (there ia to me),
homini cum deO similitude est (Legg. i. 25), man has a likeness to God.
quibns op@s nullae sunt (Sail. Cat. 37), [those] who have no wealth.
Note. — The Grenitive or a Possessive with esse emphasizes the possessor; the
Dative, the fao0 of possession: as, — liber est meus, ths book is mine (and no one's
else) ; est mihi liber, / have a book (among other things).
a. With nSmen est, and similar expressions, the name is often put
in the Dative by a kind of apposition with the person; but the
Nominative is also common : —
§§ 373-876] DATIVB OF THE AGENT 288
(1) cui Afiicino fuit oCgnOmen (Liv. xxy. 2), whose (to whom) surname was
Africanus.
puerO ab inopid, Egerio inditum nOmen (id. i. 34), the name Egerius was given
the hoy from his poverty.
(2) puer5 nOmen est Marcus, the hoy^s name is Marcus (to the boy is, etc.).
cui ndmen Arethusa (Verr. iv. 118), [a fount] called Arethusa.
Note. — In early Latin the dative is usual ; Cicero prefers the nominative, Livy the
dative ; Sallust uses the dative only. In later Latin the genitive also occurs (cf . § 343. d) :
as, — Q. MetellO Macedonici nOmen inditum est (Veil. i. 11), to Quintus Metellus the
name of Macedonicus was given.
h. DStam takes the dative ; so occasionally absum (which regu-
larly has the ablative) : —
hoc unum Caesaii defuit (B.G. iv. 26), this only was lacking to CoBSar.
quid huic abesse poterit (De Or. i. 48), what can be wanting to him f
Dative of the Agent
374. The Dative of the Agent is used with the Gerundive to
denote the person on whom the necessity rests : —
haec Yobis prOvincia est defendenda (Manil. 14), this province is for you to
d^end (to be defended by you).
mihi est plignandum, I have to fight (i.e. the need of fighting is to me : cf.
mihi est liber, / have a book, § 373. n.).
a. This is the regular way of expressing the affent with the Second
or Passive Periphrastic Conjugation (§ 196).
Note 1. --The Ablative of the Agent with ab (§ 405) is sometimes used with the Sec-
ond Periphrastic Conjugation when the Dative would be ambiguous or when a stronger
expression is desired : —
qttibus est 4 v5b!8 cOnsulendum (Manil. 6),/or whom you must consult. [Here two
datives, quibus and vobis, would have been ambiguous.]
rem ab omnibut vSbis piovidendam (Rabir. 4), that the matter must he attended to
by all of you. [The dative might mean /or all of you."]
Note 2. — The Dative of the Agent is either a special use of the Dative of Posses-
sion or a development of the Dative of Reference (§ 376).
375. The Dative of the Agent is common with perfect parti-
ciples (especially when used in an adjective sense), but rare with
other parts of the verb : —
mihi dSliberS,tum et c5nstitutum est (Leg. Agr. i. 25), I have deliberated and
resolved (it has been deliberated by me).
mild r^ prOvisa est (Verr. iv. 91), the matter has been provided for by me.
eac dissimillimls bestiolis communlter cibus quaeritur (N. D. ii. 123), so by
very differevd creaiures food is sfmght in commjon.
284 SYNTAX: CONSTRUCTION OF CASES [§§376-377
a. The Dative of the Agent is used by the poets and later writers
with almost any passive verb ; —
neque cernitur ulli (Aen. i. 440), nor is seen by any.
fellx est dicta soroxi (Ov. Fast. iii. 1. 597), sJie was called happy by her sister.
Aelia Paetina Narcissd foveb&tur (Tac. Ann. xii. 1), JElia Pastina was
faviyred by Narcissus,
b. The dative of the person who sees or thinks is regularly used
after videor, seem : —
videtur mihi, it seems (or seems good) to me.
dis aliter visum [est] (Aen. ii. 428), it seemed otherwise to the gods.
videor mihi perspicere ipsius animum (Fam. iv. 13. 6), I seem (to myself) to see
the soul of the man himself.
Note. — The verb probftre, approve (originally a mercantile word), takes a Dative
of Reference (§ 376), which has become so firmly attached that it is often retained with
the passive, seemingly as Dative of Agent : —
haec sententia et illi et nobis probabatur (Fam. i. 7. 5), this view met both his
approval and mine (was made acceptable both to him and to me),
hoc consilium plfirisqae nOn probabatur (B. C. i. 72), this plan was not approved by
the majority. [But also, consilium & cunctis probabatur (id. i. 74).]
Dative of Reference
376. The Dative often depends, not on any particular word^ but
on the general meaning of the sentence {Dative of Reference).
The dative in thjs construction is often called the Dative of
Advantage or Disadvantage/ as denoting the person or thing for
whose benefit or to whose prejudice the action is performed.
tibi aras (Plaut. Merc. 71), you plough for yourself.
tuas r6s tibi habetd (Plaut. Trin. 266), keep your goods to yourself (formula
of divorce),
laudavit mihi f ratrem, he praised my brother (out of regard for me ; laudavit
fratrem meum would imply no such motive).
meritOs mactavit honOrSs, taurum Nepttlno, taunim tibi, pulcher ApollO
(Aen. iii. 118), h£ offered the sacrifices due, a bull to Neptune, a bull to
thee, beautiful Apollo.
Note. — In this construction the meaning of the sentence is complete without the
dative, which is not, as in the preceding constructions, closely connected with any sin-
gle word. Thus the Dative of Reference is easily distinguishable in most instances
even when the sentence consists of only two words, as in the first example.
377. The Dative of Reference is often used to qualify a whole
idea, instead of the Possessive Genitive modifying a single word :
1 Dativus commx)dl aut incommodi.
§§377-379] DATIVE OF REFERENCE 235
iter Poenis vel corporibus suis obstruere (Cat. M. 76), to block tJie march of
the Cartfiaginians even with their own bodies (to block, etc., for the dis-
advantage of, etc.).
se in cOnspectum nautis dedit (Verr. v. 86), he pvt himself in sight of the
sailors (he put himself to the sailors into sight).
versatur mihi ante oculOs (id. v. 123), it comes before my eyes (it comes to me
before the eyes).
378. The Dative is used of the person from whose point of view
an opinion is stated or a situation or a direction is defined.
This is often called the Dative of the Person Judging,^ hut is
merely a weakened variety of the Dative of Reference. It is used —
1. Of the mental point of view (in my opinionf according to me,
etc.) : —
Plato mihi unus instar est centum mUium (Brut. 191), in my opinion (to me)
Plato alone is worth a hundred thousand.
erit ills mihi semper deus (Eel. i. 7), ^ will always be a god to me (in my
regard),
quae est ista servitus tam cl3,r5 homini (Par. 41), wfiat is that slavery ojccording
to the view of this distinguished man f
2. Of the local point of view (as you go in etc.). In this use the
person is commonly denoted indefinitely by a participle in the dative
plural : —
oppidum primum Thessaliae venientibus ab EpIrO (B. C. iii. 80), the first town
of Thessaly cw ycm come from Epirus (to those coming, etc.).
laevS. parte sinum intrant (Liv. xxvi. 26), on the left as you sail up the gulf
(to one entering).
• est urbe egressis tumulus (Aen. ii. 713), there is, as you come out of the city,
a mound (to those having come out).
Note. — The Dative of the Person Judging is (by a Greek idiom) rarely modified by
nolSns, volSns (participles of n51o, volo), or by some similar word: —
ut quihusque helium invitts ant cupientibus erat (Tac. Ann. i. 69), as each might
receive the war reluctantly or gladly.
ut militibus labOs volentibus esset (lug. lQQi)y that the soldiers might assume the
task willingly.
379. The Dative of Reference is used idiomatically without
any verb in colloquial questions and exclamations : —
qu5 mihi fortOnam (Hor. Ep. i. 5. 12), of what use to me is fortune?
unde mihi lapidem (Hor. S. ii. 7. 116), where can I get a stone f
quo tibi, Tilll (id. i. 6. 24), what use for you, TUliusf
1 Dativus iudicantis.
286 SYNTAX : CONSTRUCTION OF CASES [§§ 879-881
«• The dative of reference is sometimes used after interjections :
ei (hei) mild (Aen. ii. 274), ah me!
vae yictis (Liv. v. 48), %ooe to the conquered,
em tibi, there, iake that (there for you) ! [Cf. § 380.]
Note. — To express for — meaning instead of, in d^ence of^ in behalf of — the
ablative with pr5 is used : —
pr5 patrii mori (Hor. Od. iii. 2. 13), to die for one's ootmtry,
ego ibO pr6 tC (Plant. Most. 1131), Itoill go instead of you.
Ethical Dative
380. The Dative of the Personal Pronouns is used to show a
certain interest felt by the person indicated.^
This construction is called the Ethical Dative.^ It is really a
faded variety of the Dative of Eeference.
quid mihi Celsus agit (Hor. Ep. i. 8. 16), pray w?iat is CelsuB doing f
8U6 slbi serrit patri (Plant. Capt. 5), he servies his mim father.
at tibi repents venit mihi Canlnins (Fam. ix. 2), hid, look you, cf a sudden
tomes to me Caninius.
hem tibi talentum argenti (PI. True. 80), hark ye, a tdlenJt of silver.
quid tibi vis, what would you have (what do you wish for yourself) ?
Dative of Separation
381. Many verbs of taking away and the like take the Dative
(especially of a person) instead of the Ablative of Separation
(§ 401).
Such are compounds of ab, dS, ex, and a few of ad : —
aureum ei detr3.zit amiculum (N. D. iii. 8S), he took from him his cloak of
gold.
hunc mihi terrOrem Sripe (Cat. i. 18), take from me this terror.
yitam adulSscentibas vis anfert (Cat. M. 71), violence deprives young men of
life,
nihil enim tibi detr&xit senfttus (Fam. i. 5 b), for the senate has taken nothing
from you.
neo mihi hunc errCrem ei:torqu6tf volO (Cat. M. 86), nor do I wish ^is error
wrested from me.
Note. *~ The Dative of Separation is a variety of the Dative of Reference. It repre-
sents the action as done to the person or thing, and is thus more vivid than the Ablative.
1 Compare " I '11 rhyme you so eight years together.'' — As You Like It, iii. 2.
3 Datwvs ethicus.
§§ 381, 382] DATIVE OF THE PURPOSE OR END 237
a. The distinct idea of motion requires the ablative with a prep-
osition — thus generally with names of things (§ 426, 1) : —
ilium ex periculo eripuit (B. G. iv. 12), he dragged him ovi of dxmger.
Note. — Sometimes the dative of the person and the ablative ol the thing with a
preposition are both used with the same verb : as, — mihi praeda d6 manlbus eripitur
(Verr. ii. 1. 142) , the booty ie wrested from my handa.
Dative of the Purpose or End
382. The Dative is used to denote the Purpose or End, often
with another Dative of the person or thing affected.
This use of the dative, once apparently general, remains in
only a few constructions, as follows : —
1. The dative of an abstract noun is used to show that /or which
a thing serves or which it accomplishes, often with another dative of
the person or thing affected ; —
rei publicae cladi sunt (lug. 85. 43), ifiey are ruin to the stale (they are for a
disaster to the state).
mllgnO Usui nostris fuit (B. G. iv. 25), it wa^ of great service to our men (to
our men for great use),
tertiam aciem nostris snbsidio misit (id. i. 52), he sent the third line oa a reli^
to our men.
siUs salfiti fuit (id. yii. 50), he was the salvation of his men,
evenit facile quod dis cordi esset (Li v. i. 39), tfiat came to pass easily which
wa>s desired by the gods (was for a pleasure [lit. heart] to the gods).
NoTS 1. — This oonstruction is often called the Dative of Service, or the Donble
Dative construction. The verb is usually sum. The noun expressing the end for
which is regularly abstract and singular in number and is never modified by an adjec-
tive, except one of degree (mAgnus, minor, etc.), or by a genitive.
Note 2. — The word frfigl used as an adjective is a dative of this kind : —
c5gis me dicere inimicum Ti^ifi (Font. 89) , you compel m6 to call my enemy Honest,
homines satis fortes et plane frugS (Verr. iii. 67), men brave enough and thoroughly
honest, Cf. er5 frflgi bonae (Plant. Pseud. 468), / will be good for some-
thing, [See § 122. 6.]
2. The Dative of Purpose of concrete nouns is used in prose in a
few military expressions, and with freedom in poetry : —
locum castxis d^ligit (6. G. vii. 16), he selects a site for a camp.
receptui canere, to sound a retreat (for a retreat),
receptui aignum (Phil. xiii. 15), the signal for retreat.
optavlt locum r§gn5 (Aen. iii. 109), ?ie chose a place for a kingdom,
locum insidiis circumspectare (Liv. xxi. 53), to look about for a place for an
ambush. [Cf. locum seditidnis quaerere (id. iii. 46).]
For the Dative of the Gerundive denoting Purpose, see § 505. b.
238 SYNTAX: CONSTRUCTION OF CASES [§§383-386
Dative with Adjectives
383. The Dative is used after Adjectives or Adverbs, to denote
that to which the given quality is directed^ for which it exists^ or
towards which it tends.
Note. — The dative with certain adjectives is in origin a Dative of Purpose or End.
384. The Dative is used witli adjectives (and a few Adverbs) of
fitness, nearness, likeness, service, inclination, and their opposites : ^
Dihil est tarn n&turae aptum (Lael. 17), nothing is so fitted to nature.
nihil difficile amanti putd (Or. 33), I think nothing hard to a lover.
castris idOneum locum delegit (B. G. i. 49), he selected a place suitable for a
camp.
tribtini nobis sunt amid (Q. Fr. i. 2. 16), the tribunes arefrvendly to us.
esse propitius potest nemini (N. D. i. 124), he can he gracious to nobody.
m&gnis autem viiis prosperae semper omnSs r€s (id. ii. 167), bui to great men
everything is always favorable.
s6d€s huic nostr5 n5n importuna sermoni (De Or. iii. 18), a place not unsuit-
able for this conversation of ours.
cui f and5 erat afflnis M. TuUius (Tull. 14), to which estate Marcus Tullius was
next neighbor.
convenienter n&turae vivere (Off. iii. 13), to live in accordance with nature
(ofioXoyovfiivuts rj </>i6a'€i).
Note 1. — So, also, in poetic and colloquial use, with idem : as, — invitum qui servat
idem facit Occident! (Hor. A. P. 467), he who saves a man against his will does the same
as one who kills him.
Note 2. — Adjectives of likeness are often followed by atque (ac), cm. So also
the adverbs aequS, pariter, similiter, etc. The pronoun idem has regularly atque or a
relative : —
SI i>arem sapientiam habet ac formam (Plant. Mil. 1251), if?ie has sense equal to
his beauty (like as his beauty),
te suspicor eisdem rebus quibus me ipsum commoveri (Cat. M. 1), I suspect you are
disturbed by the same things by which I am.
385. Other constructions are sometimes found where the dative
might be expected : —
a. Adjectives oi fatness or use take oftener the Accusative with ad
to denote the purpose or end ; but regularly the Dative oi persons : —
aptus ad rem militS,rem,./^ /or a soldier'' s duty.
locus ad insidiis aptior (Mil. 53), a place fitter for lying in wait.
nobis utile est ad banc rem (cf. Ter. And. 287), it is of use to us for this thing.
1 Adjectives of this kind are accommod&tus, aptns ; amicus, inimicus, infestus, invisus,
molestus ; idSneus, opportunus, proprius ; utilis, inutilis ; afiinis, finitimus, propinquus,
yicintts ; par, dispar, similis, dissimilis ; iucundus, gr&tus ; notus, igndtus, and others.
§ 386] DATIVE WITH ADJECTIVES 239
&• Adjectives and nouns of inclination and the like may take the
Accusative with in or erga : —
cOmis in oxdrem (Hor. Ep. ii. 2. 183), kind to his wife.
dlvina bonitSs erg& hominSs (N. D. ii. 60), the divine goodness towards mevu
d3 benevolenti^ quam quisque habeat ergfi nSs (Off. i. 47), in regard to each
man's good will which he has towards us.
gr&tiOrem me esse in te (Fam. xi. 10), that I am more grateful to you.
Cm Some adjectives of likeness^ nearness, belonging^ and a few
others, ordinarily requiring the Dative, often take the Possessive
Genitive : — *
quod ut ill! proprium ac perpetuum sit . . . opt&re debetis (Manil. 48), which
you ought to pray m^y be secure (his own) and lasting to him, [Dative.]
fuit hoc quondam proprium populi R5m&ni (id. 82), this was OTice the peculiar
characteristic of the Roman people, [Genitive. ]
cum ntriqae sis maxime necessSxius (Att. ix. 7 a), since you are especially
bound to both. [Dative.]
prOctir&tor aequ^ atriusque necess&rius (Quinct. 86), an agent alike closely
connected wUh both, [Genitive.]
1. The genitive is especially used with these adjectives when they are
used wholly or approximately as nouns : —
amicus Ciceioni, friendly to Cicero. But, Ciceronis amicus, a friend of Cicero ;
and even, Cicerdnis amicissimus, a very great friend of Cicero.
creticus et eius aequftlis paean (Or. 215), the cretic and its equivalent thepa^n.
hi erant affinSs istius (Verr. ii. 86), these were this man's feUows.
2. After similis, like, the genitive is more common in early writers.
Cicero regularly uses the genitive of persons, and either the genitive or the
dative of things. With personal pronouns the genitive is regular (mei, tui,
etc.), and also in veri similis, probable : —
dominl similis es (Ter. Eun. 496), yofu 're like your master (your master's like).
ut essSmus similes dedrum (N. D. i. 01), tJiat we might be like the gods.
est similis mMoniin suom (Ter. Ad. 411), Ae's like his ancestors.
patris similis esse (Off. i. 121), to be like his father.
simia quam similis turpissima b€stia nobis (N. D. i. 97, quoted from Enn.),
how like M« is that wretched beast the ape!
si enim hOc ilK simile sit, est illud huic (id. i. 90), for if this is like that, that
is like this.
Note. — The genitive in this construction is not objective like those in § 349, but
I)osse8sive (cf. § 343).
For the Dative or Accusative with propior, prozimiis, propins, prozimS, see § 432. a.
1 Such are aequ&lis, affinis, aliCnus, arnicas, cSgnatus, communis, oSnsaneuineas, contra-
lius, displLr, familiAris, fuutimus, inimicus, neoess&rins, pSr, pecali£ris, propinquus, proprins
(regularly genitive), saoer^ similis, superstes, vidnns.
240 SYNTAX : CONSTRUCTION OF CASES [§§ 386, 887
ACCUSATIVE CASE
386. The Accnsative originally served to connect the noun more or less loosely
with the verb-idea, whether expressed by a verb proper or by a verbal noun or adjec-
tive. Its earliest use was perhaps to repeat the verb-idea as in the Cognate Accusative
fy^n A face, fight a battle, see § 300) . From this it would be a short step to the Factitive
Accusative (denoting the result of an act, as in mak» a tdbk, drUl a hole, of. § 273. k.^).
From this last could easily oome the common aocnsative (of Affecting, break a table,
plug a hole, see § 387. a) . Traces of all these uses appear in the language, and the loose
oonneotiou of noun with verb-idea is seen in the use of stems in composition (of. § 265. 3) .i
It is impossible, however, to derive the various constructions of the accusative with
certainty from any single function of that case.
The uses of the accusative may be classified as follows :
{1. Directly affected by the Action (§ 387. a).
( 1. Predicate Accusative (Of Naming etc) (§ 393).
II. Two Accasatives: | 2. Of Asking or Teaching (§ 396).
I 3. Of Concealing ({ 396. c).
1. Adverbial (§ 397. a).
2. Of Specification (Greek Accusative) (§ 397. 6).
3. Of Extent and Duration (§$ 423, 425).
4. Of Exclamation (§ 397. d).
5. Subject of Infinitive ({ 397. e).
III. Idiomatic Uses:
Direct Object
887. The Direct Object of a transitive verb is put in the Ac-
cusative (§ 274).
a. The Accusative of the Direct Object denotes (1) that which is
directly affectedy or (2) that which is caused or produced by the action
of the verb : —
(1) Brutus Caesarem interfScit, Brutua killed Ccoaar,
(2) aedem facers, to make a temple. [Of. proelium pfigaftre, to fight a battle,
§ 390.]
Note. — There is no definite line by which transitive verbs can be distinguished
from intransitive. Verbs which usually take a direct object (expressed or implied)
are called transitive, but many of these are often used intransitively or absolutely.
Thus timed, I fear, is transitive in the sentence inimicum time5, 1/ear my enemy, but
intransitive {absolute) in ndU timSre, don't be afraid. Again, many verbs are transi-
tive in one sense and intransitive in another : as, — HelvStios superftvSrant Rfim^ni, the
Romans overcame the Helvetians ; but nihil mperftbat. Toothing remained (was left over) .
So also many verbs commonly intransitive may be used transitively with a alight
change of meaning : as, *— ridfe, you are laughing ; but mC ridfs, you *re laughing ai tne.
^ Compare armiger, armor-bearer, with anna gerere, to bear anns ; lldicen, iyr^player,
with fldibtts canere, tp (play on) sing to the lyre. Compare also istanc tftctio (Plaut.) , the
[act of] touching her, with istanc tangere, to touch her (§ 388* d, n.^).
§5 387,388] ACCUSATIVE OF DIRECT OBJECT 241
&• The object of a transitive verb in the active voice becomes its
subject in the passive, and is put in the nominative (§ 275) : —
Bratus Caesarem inter! Scit, Bruttis killed Casaar.
Caesar & BrutO interf ectus est, Cassar was killed &y Srutua.
domom aedificat, ?ie builds a Jiouse.
domos aediflc&tur, t?ie house is building (being built).
388. Certain special verbs require notice.
a. Many verbs apparently intransitive, expressing feelingy take
an accusative, and may be used in the passive : —
meum c&suxa luctomque dolu6runt (Sest. 145), tJiey grieved at my calamity
and sorrow.
8l n5n Acrisiam risissent luppiter et Venus (Hor. Od. iii. 16. 6), if Jupiter
and Venus had not laughed at Acrisius.
xidetur ab omnI conventu (Hor. S. i. 7. 22), he is laughed at by the whale
assembly.
For the Cognate Accusative with verbs of taste, smell, and the like, see § 390. a.
Note. — Some verbs commonly intransitive may be used transitively (especially in
poetry) from a similarity of meaning with other verbs that take the accusative : —
gemSns ignOminiam (Georg. iii. 226), groaning at the disgrace, [Cf. doled.]
festiaire fugam (Aen. iv. 575), to hasten their jlight. [Of. accelerQ.]
oOmptOs arsit crinis (Hor. Od. iv. 9. 13), she burti^d with love for his well-combed
locks. [Cf . adamo.]
b. Verbs of motion, compounds of circum, trftns, and praeter^ and
a few others, frequently become transitive, and take the accusative
(cf . § 370. b) : —
mortem obire, to die (to meet death).
cdnsaUtom ineunt (Liv. ii. 28), they enter upon the consulship.
nSmlnem conveni (Fam. iz. 14), I met no one.
8l insulam adisset (B. G. iv. 20), if he should go to the island.
tr&nsire flumen (id. ii. 23), to cross the river (cf. § 895).
elves qui circumstant senAtum (Cat. i. 21), Vie citizens who stand about the
senate,
NoTB. — Among such verbs are some compounds of ad, In, per, and sub.
Cm The accusative is used after the impersonals decet, dSdecet, dSlec-
tat, iuvat, oportet, f allit, fugit, praeterit : —
ita nt Yds decet (Flaut. Most. 729), so as b^ts you.
mS pedibus delectat claudere verba (Hor. S. ii. 1. 28), my delight is (it
pleases me) to arrange words in measure.
nisi mfi fallit, unless I am mistaken (unless it deceives me),
mvit me tibi tuSs litterSs prSfuisse (Fam. v. 21. 8), it pleased me that your
literary studies had profited you.
t5 nOn praeterit (Fam. 1. 8. 2), it does not escape your notice.
242 SYNTAX : CONSTRUCTION OF CASES [§§ 388-390
Note 1. — So after latet in poetry and i>08t-classical prose: as, — latet pierosque
(Plin. N. H. ii. 82), it is unknoion to most persons.
Note 2. — These verbs are merely ordinary transitives with an idiomatic significa-
tion. Hence most of them are also used personally.
Note 3. — Decet and latet sometimes take the dative: —
ita nSbis decet (Ter. Ad. 928), thus it befits us,
hostlque ROma latet (Sil. It. xii. 614), and Rome lies hidden from the foe.
d. A few verbs in isolated expressions take the accusative from
a forcing of their meaning. Such expressions are : —
ferlre foedos, to strike a treaty (i.e. to sanction by striking down a victim),
vincere iadidom (sponsidnem, rem, hoc), to prevail on a trials etc. [As if the
case were a difficulty to overcome ; cf. vincere iter, Aen. vi. 688.]
aeqoor n3,vigSTe (Aen. i. 67), to sail the sea. [As if it were transire, § 388. 6.]
maiia afipera itirO (id. vi. 351), I swear by the rough seas (cf. id. vi. 324).
[The accusative with verbs of swearing is chiefly poetic]
noctis dormire, to sleep [whole] nights (to spend in sleep).
Note 1. — These accusatives are of various kinds. The last example approaches
the cognate construction (cf. the second example under § 390).
Note 2. — In early and popular usage some nouns and adjectives derived from tran-
sitive verbs retain verbal force sufficient to govern the accusative : —
quid tibi istanc tactiO est (Plant. Poen. 1308), toAa^ buMness heme you to touch herf
[Cf . tang5.]
mirabundi bSstiam (Ap. Met. iv. 16),/mW of wonder at the creature. [Cf. miior.]
vitabundus castra (Liv. xxv. 13), trying to avoid the camp. [Cf. vito.]
389. Many verbs ordinarily transitive may be used ohBolutelyy
having their natural object in the ablative with dS (§ 273. N. 2) : —
priusquam PompOnius de §ius adventfl cOgnOsceret (B. C. iii. 101), before
Pomponius could learn of his coming. [Cf. eins adventti cogmt5, his
arrival being discovered.]
For Accusative and Grenitive after Impersonals, see § 354. b. For the Accusative
after the impersonal Gerundive with esse, see § 500. 3.
Cognate Accusative
390. An intransitive verb often takes the Accusative of a noun
of kindred meaning, usually modified by an adjective or in some
other manner.
This constriiction is called the Connate Accusative or Accusative
of Kindred Signification : —
tiitiOrem vitam vivere (Verr. ii. 118), to live a safer life.
tertiam iam aetatem hominum viv€bat (Cat. M. 81), he was now living the
third generation of men.
servitutem servire, to be in slavery.
coire societ&tem, to [go together and] form an alliance.
§390] CX)6NAT£ ACCUSATIVE 248
•• Verbs of itute, smell, and the like take a cognate aecnsatiYe
of the quality : —
▼inmn redolSns (FluL ii. 68), smelling [oi] vriwe,
herbam laelki BapinDt (Plin. H. N. xi. 18), Me kone^ iasies [of} grmss^
olSre matitiam (Rose. Com. 20), to have the odor ofmatiee.
Corditbae nStIs pofitls, ptngue qoiddam sonantibus atque peregnnran (Arch.
29), to poets bom at Cordova, whose speech had a somewhat thkk and
foreign a/xent.
6. The cognate accusative is often loosely used by the poets : —
huic errOrl similem [errorem] Ins&nlre (Hor. S. ii. 3. 62), to suffer a ddusion
like this.
salt&re Cycl5pa (id. i. 5. 63), to danee the GyelopB (represent in dancing).
Bacch&n&lia vivere (lav. ii. 3), to live in reveUlnga.
Amacylllia tesoiitrB (ScL i. 6), to re^ho [the nasie of] Amaryllis,
intonnit laeyum (Aen. ii. 603), it thundered on ths 1^.
dulce ridentem, dulce loquentem (Hor. Od. i. 22. 23), sweetly smiling^ smssUy
prattHng.
acerba tn^ns (Aen. ix. 704), looking fiercely. [Cf. Eng. ^'tc^look daggers."]
tonrum clSmat (id. vii. 300), he cries harafdy.
Cm A neuter pronoun or an adjective of indefinite meaning is very
common as cognate accusative (cf. §§ 214. d, 397. a): —
Empedoctei molta afia peecat (N. D. 1. 20), Empedoc^ csmn^ts maiyy other
errors,
ego illad adseatior TheophrastO (De Or. iii. 184)^ in this I agree yiith TAeo-
phrasbis.
uMiltam to lata ielellit €^ni() (Verr. ii. 1. 88), you were mwch deceived in this
expectation (this expectation deceived yoamuch).
plfis yaleO, I have more strength,
plaxi&iiim potest, fie is strongest.
^ quid me ista laedunt (Leg. Agr. ii. 32), what harm do those things dom/tt
hoc te moneO, I give you this warning (cf. d, n. ^}.
id laetor, 7 r^oice at this (cf. d. k. i).
quid moror, why do I delay f
quae hominfis arant, n&yigant, aedificant (Sail. Cat. ii. 7), what m^n do in
ploughing, sailing, and building.
<f . So in many eommon phrases : —
si ff^^ iUie afi yelit (B. 6. i. 34), if he should want mnythit^ of him (If he
should want him in anything).
Bimiqiad, Oeta, aliud m6 vis (Ter. Ph. 151), can I do anything more for youy
Geta (there is nothing you want of me, is there)? [A common form
of leave-taking]
qoM est quod, ete., why is it that, etc.? [Cf. h5c erat quod (Aen. iL 664),
was it for this that, etc.?]
244 SYNTAX: CONSTRUCTION OF CASES [§§300-393
NoTB 1. — In these cases substantives with a d^hite meaning would be in some
other construction : —
in hoc eodem peccat, he errs in this same point.
bonis rSbus laetari, to r^oice at prosperity, [Also : in, dS, or ex.]
d^ testaments monere, to remind one of the will. [Later: genitiyei § 351.]
offici admonere, to remind one of his duty. [Also : dC officid.]
Note 2. — In some of these cases the connection of the accusatiye with the verb has
so faded out that the words have become real adverbs: as, — multum, plus, pluiimiim;
plgrumque, /or the most part, generally; cfiterum, cStera, /or the rest, otJiervoise, hut;
^nmum, first ; nihil, by no msans, not at all; aliquid, somewhat; quid, why ; facile, easily.
So in the comparative of adverbs (§ 218). But the line cannot be sharply drawn, and
some of the examples under h may be classed as adverbial.
Two Accusatives
391. Some transitive verbs take a second accusative in addi-
tion to their Direct Object.
This second accusative is either (1) a Predicate Accusative or
(2) a Secondary Object.
Predicate Accusative
392. An accusative in the Predicate referring to the same per-
son or thing as the Direct Object, but not in apposition with it,
is called a Predicate Accusative.
393. Verbs of naming^ choosing^ appointing^ making^ esteeming^
showing^ and the like, may take a Predicate Accusative along
with the direct object : —
5 Spartace, quem enim t6 potius appellem (Phil. xiii. 22), 0 Spartajcus^ for
what else shall I call you (than Spartacus) ?
CicerOnem cdnsulem creare, to elect Cicero consul.
m6 augurem n0minav6runt (Phil. ii. 4), they nominated me for augur.
cum gr&ti9.s ageret quod sS consulem fecisset (De Or. ii. 268), when he thanked
him because he had made him consul (supported his caCtididacy).
hominem prae b& nSminem putavit (Rose. Am. 135), Jie thought nobody a man
in comparison with himself.
docem s6 praebuit (Vat. 33), he cffered himself as a leader.
Note. — The predicate accusative may be an adjective: as, — homines mitis red-
didit et mAnsuStos (Inv. i. 2), has made men mild and gentle.
a. In changing from the active voice to the passive, the Predicate
Accusative becomes Predicate Nominative (§ 284) : —
rex ab suis appell&tur (B. G. viii. 4), he is called king by his subjects. [Active :
sui eum rSgem appellant.]
394, 395] ACCUSATIVE OF THE SECONDARY OBJECT 245
Secondary Object
394. The Accusative of the Secondary Object is used (along
with the direct object) to denote something more remotely affected
by the action of the verb.
395. Transitive verbs compounded with prepositions sometimes
take (in addition to the direct object) a Secondary Object, origi-
nally governed by the preposition : —
Caesar GermanOs flumen traicit (B. C. i. 83), Cansar throws the Germans
across the river,
idem ius iurandum adigit Afraniam (id. i. 76), he exacts the same oath from
Afranms,
quOs Fomp^ius omnia sua praesidia circumduxit (id. iii. 61), whx)m Pompey
conducted through all his garrison.
Note 1. — This construction is common only with trftdacQ, tr&icid, and tr&nsportS.
The preposition is sometimes repeated with compounds of tr&ns, and usually with
compounds of the other prepositions. The ablative is also used : —
ddnec res suas tnUis Halyn flumen traicerent (Liv. xxxviii. 25), till they should get
their possessions across the river Halys,
(exercitus) Pado traiectus CremOnam (id. xxi. 56), the army was conveyed across
the Po to Cremona (by way of the Po, § 429. a),
NoTB 2. — The secondary object may be retained with a passive verb : as, — Belgae
Rhenum traducti sunt (B. 6. ii. 4), the Belgians were led over the Rhine.
Note 3. — The double construction indicated in § 395 is possible only when the force
of the preposition and the force of the verb are each distinctly felt in the compound,
the verb governing the direct, and the preposition the secondary object.
But often the two parts of the compound become closely united to form a transitive
verb of simple meaning. In this case the compound verb is transitive solely by virtue
of its prepositional part and can have but one accusative, — the same which was for-
merly the secondary object, but which now becomes the direct. So traicio comes to
mean either (1) to pierce (anybody) [by hurling] or (^) to cross (a river etc.): —
gladiO hominem traiecit, he pierced the man with a sword. [Here iacio has lost
all transitive force, and serves simply to give the force of a verb to the mean-
ing of trans, and to tell the manner of the act.]
Bhodanum traiecit, he crossed the Rhone, [Here iaciS has become simply a verb
of motion, and traicio is hardly distinguishable from tr&nsed.]
In these examples hominem and Rhodanum, which would be secondary objects if trftiScit
were used in its primary signification, have become the direct objects. Hence in the
passive construction they become the subjects and are put in the nominative : —
homo traiectus est gladiO, the man was pierced with a sword,
Bhodanus traiectus est, the Rhone was crossed.
The poetical traiectus lora (Aen. ii. 273), pierced with thongs^ comes from a mixture of
two constructions : (1) eum traiecit lOra, he rove thongs through hitUf^ and (2) eum
traiecit lOns, he pierced him with thongs. In putting the sentence into a passive form,
the direct object of the former (15ra) is irregularly kept, and the direct object of the
latter (earn) is made the subject.
1 Perhaps not found in the active, but cf. triiectS fune (Aen. v. 488).
246 SYNTAX: CONSTRUCTION OF CASES [§396
396. Some verbs of asking and teachinff may take two accusa-
tives, one of the Person (direct object)^ and the other of the Thing
(secondary object) : —
mS Mntentiam rogftvit, he asked me my opinion.
dtiism divSa rogat (Hor. Od. ii. 16. 1), he prays the gods for rest.
luMC piaetSiem postolftb&s (Tull. 39), you demanded this of the prcBtor.
aedilis popalam rogftre (Liv. vi. 42), to ask the people [to elect] CBdiles.
doc6re paeros elementa, to teach children their A B CPs,
NoTB. — This constmctioii is found in classical authors with 5x6, po8o5, reposoG, rogo,
iBterrogS, iUlgitS, dooed.
a. Some verbs of asking take the ablative of the person with a
preposition instead of the accusative. So, always, petO (ab)^ quaerG
(ex, ab, dS); usually poscO (ab), flAgitO (ab)^ postnlO (ab), and occa-
sionally others : —
p&cem ab RSm&iis petiSrunt (B. 6. ii. 13), they sought peace from the Romans.
quod quaeslvit ez mS P. ApulSius (Phil. vi. 1), wh£d Publius Apuleius asked
of me,
6. With the passive of some verbs of asking or teaching, the^er-
son or the thing may be used as subject (cf. c. n. ^) : —
Caesar sententiam rogfttus est, Ccesar was asked his opinion,
id ab eO flftgit&b&tur (B. C. i. 71), this was urgently demanded of him.
Note. — The accusative of the thing may be retained with the passive of logS, and
of verbs of teaching, and occasionally with a few other verbs: —
fuerant h9c rogati (Gael. 64), they had been asked this.
poscor meum Laelapa (Ov. M. vii. 771), / am asked for my iMlaps.
CicerO cuncta edoctus (Sail. Cat. 45), Cicero, being informed of everything.
But with most verbs of asking in prose the accusative of the thing becomes the
subject nominative, and the accusative of the person is put in the ablative with a
preposition: as, — ne postulantur quidem vires £ senectnte (Cat. M. M), strength is
not even expected of an old man (asked from old age).
c. The verb cSlO, conceal, may take two accusatives, and the usually
intransitive lateO, lie hid, an accusative of the person: —
nOn te celftvl seimSnem T. Amp! (Fam. ii. 16. 3), I did not conceal from, you
the talk of Titus Ampius.
nee latuSre doll fr&trem Itln()nis (Aen. i. 130), nor did the wUes of Juno
escape the notice of her brother,
NoTB 1. — The accusative of the person with lateS is late or poetical (§ 383. c. n. ^).
NoTB 2. — All the double constructions indicated in § 396 arise from the waver-
ing meaning of the verbs. Thus doced means both to show a thing, and to instruct
a person; cei5, to keep a person in the dark, and to hide a thing; rog5, to question
a person, and to ask a question or a thing. Thus either accusative may be regarded
as the direct object, and so become the subject of the passive (cf. b above), bat for
convenience the accusative of the thing is usually caUed secondary.
§397] IDIOMATIC USES OF THE ACCUSATIVE 247
Idiomatic Uses
397. The Accusative has the following special uses : —
a. The accusative is found in a few adverbial phrases (Adverbial
Accusative) : —
id temporis, <jA thai time; id (istuc) aet&tis, at thxxt age.
id (quod) genus, of that (what) sort (perhaps originally nominative).
meam vicem, on my part.
bonam partem, in a great measure ; maximam partem, for the m>ost part.
viiile (moliebre) secus, of the male (female) sex (probably originally in
apposition),
quod si, but ^ (as to which, if) ; quod nisi, if not.
6. The so-called synecdochical or Greek Accusative, found in poetry
and later Latin, is used to denote the part affected ; —
caput nectentur (A en. y. 309), their heads shall he hound (they shall be bound
about the head),
^dentis oculos suffecti sanguine et Igni (id. ii. 210), their glaring eyes bUood-
shot and blazing with fire (suffused as to their eyes with blood and fire).
nQda genii (id. i. 320), with her knee hare (bare as to the knee),
femur tr&gulA ictus (Liv. zxi. 7. 10), wounded in the thigh by a dart.
NoTB. — This construction is also called the Accusative of Specification.
c» In many apparently similar expressions the accusative may be
regarded as the direct object of a verb in the middle voice (§ 166. a) :
inutile ferrom cingitur (Aen. ii. 610), he girds on the useless steel.
nodo sinus collScta fluentis (id. i. 320), having her flowing folds gathered in
a knot.
umeros instemor pelle le6mB (id. 11. 722), I cover my shoulders with a lion's
skin.
prOtinus induitur faciem coltumque Dianae (Ov. M. ii. 425), forthwith she
assumes the shape and garb of Diana.
d. The Accusative is used in Exclamations : —
o f ortun3.tam rem publicam, O fortunate republic I [Cf . 6 fortunSta mora
(Phil. xiv. 31), oh, happy death I (§339. a).]
6 m6 infelicem (Mil. 102), oh, unhappy 1 1
m@ miseram, oA, wretched me I
en'quattuor ftrSs (Eel. v. 66), lo^four altars!
ellum (= em ilium), there he is ! [Cf. § 146. a. n. 3.]
eccOs (= ecce eOs), there they are, look at them !
pr6 deum fidem, good heavens (O protection of the gods) !
bdcine saeclum (Ter. Ad. 304), O this generation I
huncine hominem (Verr. v. 62), this man, good heavens !
248 SYNTAX : CONSTRUCTION OF CASES [§§ 397, 398
Note 1. — Such expressions usually depend upon some long-forgotten verb. The
substantive is commonly accompanied by an adjective. The use of -ne in some cases
suggests an original question, as in quid? what? why? tell me.
Note 2. — The omission of the verb has given rise to some other idiomatic accnsa-
tives. Such are : —
sallitem (sc. dicit) (in addressing a letter), greeting.
mS dius fidius (sc. adiuvet), so help me heaven (the god of faith),
undo mihi lapidem (Hor. S. ii. 7. 116), where can I get a stone?
quo mihi fortunam (Hor. Ep. i. 5. 12), of what use to me is fortune? [No verb
thought of.]
€. The subject of an infinitive is in the accusative : —
intelleg5 te sapere (Fam. vii. 32. 3), I perceive that you are wise,
eas r§s iactftri nOlebat (B. 6. i. 18), h>e was unwilling thai these matters sTiotdd
be discussed.
Note. — This construction is especially common with verbs of hnowingj thinking,
telling, and perceiving (§580).
/. The accusative in later writers is sometimes used in apposition
with a clause : —
deserunt tribunal . . . mantis intentant^s, causam discordlae et initiam armo-
rum (Tac. Ann. i. 27), they abandon the tribunal shaking their fists, —
a cause of dissension and the beginning of war.
Note. — This construction is an extension (under Greek influence) of a usage more
nearly within the ordinary rules, such as, — Eumenem prddidere Antiocho, pacis merce-
dem (Sail. Ep. Mith. 8), they betrayed Eumenes to Antiochus, the price of peace, [Here
Eumenes may be regarded as the price, although the real price is the betrayal.]
For the Accusative of the End of Motion, see § 427. 2 ; for the Accusative of Dura-
tion of Time and Extent of Space, see §§ 423, 425 ; for the Accusative with Prepositions,
see § 220.
ABLATIVE CASE
398 • Under the name Ablative are included the meanings and, in part, the forms
of three cases, — the Ablative proper, expressing the relation from; the Locative,
IN ; and the Instrumental, with or by. These three cases were originaUy not wholly
distinct in meaning, and their confusion was rendered more certain (1) by the develojK
ment of meanings that approached each other and (2) by phonetic decay, by means of
which these cases have become largely identical in form. Compare, for the first, the
phrases & parte dextera, on the right; quam ob causam, from which cause; ad famam,
AT (in consequence of) the report; and, for the second, the like forms of the dative
and ablative plural, the old dative in -€ of the fifth declension (§ 96), and the loss of the
original -d of the ablative (§ 49. e; cf. §§ 43. n. \ 92. f, 214. a. n.).
The relation of from includes separation, source, cause, agent, and comparison;
that of WITH or by, accompaniment, instrument, means, manner, quality, and price;
that of IN or at, pla^x, time, circumstance. This classification according to the
original cases (to which, however, too great a degree of certainty should not be
attached) i is set forth in the following table : —
^ Thus the Ablative of Cause may be, at least in part, of Instrumental origin, and
the Ablative Absolute appears to combine the Instrumental and the Locative.
§§398-401] ABLATIVE OF SEPARATION 249
I. Ablative Proper {from)
{Separative)',
II. Instromental Ablative
{with):
1. Of Separation, Privation, and Want (§ 400).
2. Of Source (participles of origin etc.) (§ 403).
3. Of Cause (labdrS, exsiliS, etc.) (§404).
4. Of Agent (with ab after Passives) (§ 405).
5. Of Comparison (than) (§406).
1. Of Manner, Means, and Instrument (§408ff.).
2. Of Object of the Deponents fitor etc. (§ 410).
3. Of Accompaniment (with cum) (§413).
4. Of Degree of Difference (§ 414).
5. Of Quality (with Adjectives) (§416).
6. Of Price and Exchange (§ 416).
7. Of Specification (§418).
8. Ablative Absolute (§419).
in. Locative AbUtive {in^ r 1. Of Place w^ere (commonly within) (§421).
oUf at): \ 2. Of Time and Circumstance (§ 423).
399. The Ablative is used to denote the relations expressed in
English by the prepositions /roiw; m, at; withj by: —
liberftre metfl, to deliver from fear.
exciiltns doctzinft, traiTied in learning.
hoc ipso tempore, at this very time.
caecos avaritii, blind with avarice.
occisus gladio, slain by the sword.
USES OF THE ABLATIVE PROPER
Ablative of Separation
400. Words signifying Separation or Privation are followed by
the ablative.
401. Verbs meaning to remove, set free, he absent, deprive, and
want, take the Ablative (sometimes with ab or ex) : —
ocnlis s6 privavit (Fin. v. 87), he deprived himself of eyes.
omm GalliU R5m3.nls interdlcit (B. G. i. 46), he (Ariovistus) bars the Romans
from the whole of Gaul.
ei aqua et igni interdicitur (Veil. ii. 45), he is debarred the use of fire and
water. [The regular formula of banishment.]
Yolnpt&tibas carSre (Cat. M. 7), to lack enjoyments.
n5n eged medicing, (Lael. 10), I want no physic.
levftmur soperstitidiie, liberSmur mortis metii (Fin. i. 68), we are relieved
from superstition, we are freed from fear of death.
floluti a cupiditatibus (Leg. Agr. i. 27), freed from desires.
multds ez his incommodis pecunia se llberasse (Verr. v. 23), that many have
freed themselves by money from these inconveniences.
For the G«nitive with verbs of separation and wantf see § 356. n.
250 SYNTAX: CONSTRUCTION OP CASES [§§402,403
402. Verbs compounded with fi, ab, ds, ez, (1) take the simple
Ablative when used figuratively; but (2) when used literally to
denote actual reparation or motion^ they usually require a prepo-
sition (§ 426. 1) : —
(1) cSnfttfl desistere (B. 6. i. 8), to desist from the attempt
dSsine commftnibus locis (Acad. ii. 80), quit commonplaces.
abire magistratG, to leave one*s office.
abstinSre inifirift, to refrain from wrong.
(2) & pr5posit5 aberr&re (Fin. v. 83), to wander from the point.
de provincUl decedere (Verr. ii. 48), to withdraw from one^s province.
Bb iGra abIre (id. ii 114), to go outside of the law.
ex civit&te excessSre (B. G. vi. 8), they departed from the state. [But cf.
finibas suls excesserant (id. iv. 18), they had left their own territory.]
A mSgnO demissum nOmen laio (Aen. i. 288), a name descended (sent down)
from great lulus.
For the Dative used instead of the Ablative of Separation, see § 381. For the Abla-
tive of the actual pla^ie whence in idiomatic expressions, see §§ 427. 1, 428./.
a. Adjectives denoting freedom and want are followed by the
ablative : —
urbs ntida praesidid (Att. vii. 13), the city naked of defence,
immtlnis militi& (Liv. i. 43),/ree of military service.
plebs orba tribunis (Leg. iii. 9), the people deprived of tribunes.
NoTB. — A preposition sometimes occurs: —
2 calpft vacuus (Sail. Cat. 1^)^ free from blame.
liberi ft dSlicils (Leg. Agr. i. ^)f free from luxuries.
Messana ab his rfibus vacua atque nuda est (Verr. iv. 3), Messana is empty and
bare of tTiese things.
For the Genitive with adjectives of want, see § 349. a.
Ablative of Source and Material
403. The Ablative (usually with a preposition) is used to denote
the Source from which anything is derived, or the Material of
which it consists : —
1. Source: —
Rhenus oritur ex Lepontiis (6. 6. iv. 10), the Bhine rises in (from) the
country of the Lepontii.
ab his 8erm5 oritur (Lael. 5), the conversation is begun by (arises from) them.
cilius ratiOnis vim atque uti1itd,tem ex illO caelesti Epicflrl voliinune acc^pi-
mus (N. D. i. 43), of this reasoning we have learned the power awl
advantage from that divine book of Epicurus.
suftvitfttem odOrum qui afflarentur 6 fldxibas (Cat« M. 69), the svfeetmess of
the odors which breathed from t\e flowers.
$403] ABLATIVB OF SOURCE AND MATERIAL 251
2. Mftterial: —
erat totus ez fnnde et acnUcId faotUB (Clu. 72), he tooa eiUirely maxU up qf
fraud caid falsehood.
valv&s mdgnificenti0r6s, ez aaro atque cbore perfectiOres (Verr. iv. 124),
more splendid doors, more finely vsrought of gold and ivory.
factum de cautibus antrum (Ov. M. i. 575), a cave formed of rocks.
templum de mannore p5nam (Georg. iii. 13), I HI build a temple ofmxLrUe,
Note 1. — In poetry the preposition is often omitted.
NoTB 2. — The Ablatire of Material is a development of the Ablative of Scarce.
For the Grenitive of Material, see § 344.
a. Participles denoting birth or origin are followed by the Abla-
tive of Source^ generally without a preposition : — *
love n&tus et Maia (N. D. iii. 56), son of JupUer and Maia.
€dite regibos (Her. Od. i. 1. 1), desceiidant of kings.
quo sanguine crCtus (Aen. ii. 74), bom of what blood.
genitae Panffione (Ov. M. vi. 666), daughters of Pandion.
Note 1. — A preposition (ab, d8, ez) is osually expressed with pronomm, with the
name of the mother, and often with that of other ancestors : —
ez mS hic natus ndn est sed ez fratre meo (Ter. Ad. 40), this is not my son, but
my brother's (not bom from me, etc.).
cum ez tttraqne [uzOre] filius natus esset (De Or. i. 183), ecuih wife having had
a son (when a son had been bom of each wife).
Belus et omnes a B615 (Aen. i. 730), Belus and all his descendants.
Note 2. — Rarely, the place of birth is expressed by the ablative of source: as, —
•desideravit C. Fleginatem Flacentifl, A. Graninm Pateofis (B. G. iii. 71), he lost Cains
^egintis of PlacsTitia, Aulus Granius of Puteoli.
Note 3. — The Roman tribe is regularly expressed by the ablative alone: as,—
Q. Verrem filteilil (Yerr. i. 23), QuirUus Verres of the MondUan tribe.
h. Some verbs may take the Ablative of Material without a prep-
osition. Such are c5nst£re, cOnsistere, and continSri.' But with c6n-
stfire, ez is more common : —
domus amoenitajs nCn aedlficio sed silvft cCnstftbat (Nep. Att. 13), (Ae charm
of the house consisted not in the buildings but in the woods,
ez animd cOnst&mus et corpore (Fin. iv. 19), we consist of soul and body.
vita oospore et apliitG continetur (Marc. 28), life consists of body and spirit.
c. The Ablative of Material without a preposition is used with
facere, fieri, and similar words, in the sense of do withy become of: —
quid h5c homlne faci&tis (Yerr. iL 1. 42), whaJt are you going to do with this
man?
quid TnlliolA mea fiet (Fam. xiv. 4. 3), what will become of my dear Tullia f
quid t6 futunim est (Yerr. ii. 155), what will become of you f
1 As aitat, tatas, Uitns, cenitas, ertus, prSgnAtus, generatus, crStas, cre&tas, oriniidtts.
2 The ablative with cQiisistere and continSrl is probably locative in origin (of. § 481) .
252 SYNTAX : CONSTRUCTION OF CASES [§§ 403, 404
d. The Ablative of Material with ex, and in poetry without a
preposition, sometimes depends directly on a noun : —
nOn pauca p6cula ex auro (Verr. iv. 62), not a few cups of gold,
scopulis pendentibus antrum (Aen. i. 166), a cave of hanging rocks.
For Ablative of Source instead of Partitive Oenitive, see § 346. c.
Ablative of Cause
404. The Ablative (with or without a preposition) is used to
express Cause : — ^
neglegentia plectimur (Lael. 85), we are chastised for negligence.
gubematOris ars utilitate n5n arte laudatur (Fin. i. 42), the piloVs skill is-
praised for its service, rwt its skill.
certiB de causis, for cogent reasons.
ex Yulnere aeger (Rep. ii. 38), disabled by (from) a wound,
mare & sole lucet (Acad. ii. 105), the sea gleams in the sun (from the son).
a. The Ablative of Cause without a preposition is used with labOrO-
(also with ex), exsiliO, exsultO, triumphs, lacrimS, ardeS : —
doleO t6 aliis mails labdr9.re (Fam. iv. 3), J am sorry that you suffer with
other ills. [Cf. ex aere alieno labOrare (B. C. iii. 22), to labor under
debt (from another^s money).]
exsultare laetitia, triumphare gaudio coepit (Clu. 14), she began to exult in
gladness, and triumph in joy.
exsilui gaudid (Fam. xvi. 16), I jumped for joy. [Cf. lacrimO gaudio (Ter.
Ad. 409), I weep for joy.]
ardere doldre et ira (Att. ii. 19. 5), to be on fire with pain and anger.
For gaade5 and glorior, see § 431.
5, The motive which influences the mind of the person acting is.
expressed by the ablative of cause ; the object exciting the emotion
often by ob ^ or propter with the accusative : —
nOn ob praedam aut spoliandl cupidine (Tac. H. i. 63), not for booty or through
lust of plunder.
amicitia ex se et propter se expetenda (Fin. ii. 83), friendship must be sought
of and for itself.
Note. — But these constructions are often confused: as, — parere legibus propter
metam (Par. 34), to obey the laws on account of fear. [Here metum is almost equiva-
lent to "the terrors of the law," and hence propter is used, though the ablative would
be more natural.]
1 The causCy in the ablative, is originally source^ as is shown by the use of ab, dS,,
ez ; but when the accusative with ad, ob, is used, the idea of cause arises from nearness.
Occasionally it is difficult to distinguish between cause and m^ans (which is the old
Instrumental case) or circumstance (which is either the Locative or the Instrumental).
^ Originally a mercantile use : cf . ob decem mints, for the price of ten minsB.
§§ 404, 405] ABLATIVE OF AGENT 263
c. The ablatives causft and gr&M, for the sake of, are used with a
genitive preceding, or with a pronoun in agreement : —
ea causa, on accouvt of this ; qua gratia (Ter. Eun. 99), for what purpose f
mea causa, for my sake ; mea gratia (Plaut.), for my sake.
ex mea et rel ptiblicae causa, for my own sake and the republic's,
praedictiOnis causa (N. D. iii. 5), by way of prophecy. ^
exempli gratia (verb! gratia), for example.
sui purgandi gratia, for the sake of clearing t?iemselves.
Note. — But sritia with possessives in this use is rare.
Ablative of Agent
405. The Voluntary Agent after a passive verb is expressed by
the Ablative with ft or ab : —
laudatur ab his, culpatur ab iUis (Hor. S. i. 2. 11), he is praised by these,
blamed by those.
ab animo tuO quidquid agitur id agitur a tS (Tusc. i. 52), whatever is done by
your sovl is dime by yourself,
a filiis in iadicium vocatus est (Cat. M. 22), lie was brought to trial by his sons.
cum a ctmcto consessu plausus esset multiplex datus (id. 64), when great
applause had been given by the whole audience.
n€ yirtHs ab audAciA Yincer€tur (Sest. 92), that valor might not be overborne
by audacity. [Aadacia is in a manner personified.']
NoTB 1. — This construction is developed from the Ablative of Source. The agent
is conceived as the source or author of the action.
NoTB 2. — The ablative ot the agent (which requires a or ab) must be carefully
distinguished from the ablative of instrumsntf which has no preposition (§ 409). Thus
— occisns cladiS, slain by a smooi'd; but, occisus ab hoste, slain by an enemy.
NoTB 3. — The ablative of the agent is commonest with nouns denoting per«on«, but
it occurs also with names of things or qualities when these are conceived as performing
an action and so are partly or wholly personified^ as in the last example under the rule.
a. The ablative of the agent with ab is sometimes used after intran-
sitive verbs that have a passive sense : —
perire ab hoste, to be stain by an enemy,
h. The personal agent, when considered as instrument or means,
is often expressed by per with the accusative, or by opera with a
genitive or possessive : —
ab explSratoiibns certior factus est (B. 6. i. 21), he was informed by scouts (in
person). But, —
per ezploratorgs Caesar certior factus est (id. 1. 12), Caesar was informed by
(means of) scouts.
elautae opera Neptuni (Plaut. Rud. 609), washed cleanby the services of Neptune,
nOn mea operft Svenit (Ter. Hec. 228), it haenH happened through me (by my
exertions). [Cf. eins opera, B. 6. v. 27.]
^
254 SYNTAX: CONSTRUCTION OF CASES [§§ 406-i07
NoTB l.-*Tli« ftblative of means or instrument is often nsed instead of the abla-
tive of agent, especially in military phrases: as, — haec ezcubitdribiis tenebantnr
(B. G. yii. 69), theae (redoubts) were held by means of aentineh.
NoTB 2. — An animal is sometimes regarded as the means or instrument, some-
times as the agent. Hence both the simple ablative and the ablative with ab ooenr : —
equd vehl, to ride on horseback (be conveyed by means of a horse) . [Not ab equo.]
clipe5s & mfiribtts esse derCtaOs (Div. i. 99), that the shields were gnawed by mice.
For the Dative of the Agent with the Gerundive, see § 374.
Ablative of Comparison
406. The Comparative degree is often followed by the Ablar
tive ^ signifying than : —
CatO est Cicerdne €loquentior, Cato is more eloquent than Cicero,
quid nSbis dadbus labOriOsius est (Mil. 5), what more burdened with toU than
we two f
vilios argentnm est auro, virtfitibus aurum (Hor. Ep. i. 1. 52), silver is less
precious than gold, gold than virtue.
a. The idiomatic ablatives opiniOne, spS, aolitfl, diets, aeqtiO^ crOdi-
bili, and iQ8t0 are used after comparatives instead of a clause : —
celerius opinidne (Fam. xiv. 2B), faster than one would think.
s6rius spS omnium (Li v. xxvi. 26), later than all hoped (than the hope of all),
amnis solitS cit3.tior (id. xxiii. 19. 11), a stream swifter than Us wcmt.
gravius aequo (Sail. (jat. 61), more seriously than was right.
407. The comparative may be followed by quam, than. When
quam is used, the two things compared are put in the same case :
n5n callidior es quam hlc (Hose. Am. 49), you are not more cunning than he.
cdntidnibus accommod&tior est quam ifidicus (Clu. 2) y Jitter for popular assem-
blies than for courts.
misericordia dignior quam contumelift (Fison. 32), more worthy of pity tJian of
disgrace.
a. The construction with quam is required when the first of the
things compared is not in the Nominative or Accusative.
NoTB 1. — There are several limitations on the use of the ablative of comparisen,
even when the first of the tilings compared is in the nominative or accusative. Thns
the quam construction is regularly used (1) when the comparative is in agreement
with a genitive, dative, or ablative : as, — senex est eO meliOre condiciOne <iuam adules-
cens (Cat. M. 08), an old man is in this respect in a better position than a young man ;
and (2) when the second member of the comparison is modified by a clause : as, — minor
fuit aliquantO is qui primus fabulam dedit quam ei qui, etc. (Brut. 73), he who first
presented a play was somewhat younger than those who, etc.
1 This is a branch of the Ablative of Separation. The object with whicb anything
is compared is the starting-point /rom which we reckon. Thns, " Cieero is eloq{«eBt " ;
but, starting from himt we come to Gate, who is ** more so than he.'*
§407] ABLATIVE OF COMPARISON 266
Notb2. — The poets sometimes use the ablative of comparison where the prose
oonstmction requires qoam: as,— pane eged iam meUitiB jwtiOre plaoan^ (Hor. Ep.
i. 10. 11), I now want orecui better than honey-cakes.
NoTB 3. — Relative pronouns having a definite antecedent never take quam in this
construction, but always the ablative: as, — rez erat Aeneas ndbis, qu5 iustior alter
nee, etc. (Aen. i. 544), ^neaa was our king, than whom no other [was] more righteoiis.
&• In sentences expressing or implying a general negative the
ablative (rather than quam) is the regular construction when the first
member of the comparison is in the nominative or accusative : —
nihil d€testd.bilius didecore, nihil foedios servitfite (Phil. iii. S6), nothing is
more dreadful than disgrace^ nothing viler than eLwoery.
ngmiuem esse cariOrem tS (Att. x. 8 a. 1), thaJL no one is dearer than you,
c. After the comparatives plUs, minus, amplius, longius^ without
quam, a word of measure or number is often used with no change in
its case : —
pltis septingenti capti (Liv. xli. 12), more than Mven hundred were taken.
[Nominative.]
plGs tertUl parte interfectft (B. G. iii. 6), mxyre than a third part being slain,
[Ablative Absolute.]
aditus in latitddinem nOn amplius dncentSrum pedum relinquSbfttur (id. ii.
29), an approach of not more than two hundred feet in width was left.
[Genitive of Measure : § 346. 6.]
NoTK. — The noun takes the case required by the context, without reference to the
comparative, which is in a sort of apposition : " seven hundred were taken [and] more. ' '
d. Alius is sometimes followed by the ablative in poetic and collo-
quial use ; in formal prose it is followed by ac (at^oe), et, more rarely
by nisi, quam : —
nee quicquam alind Hbert&te commOni (Fam. xi. 2), nothing dee than the comr
mon liberty,
alias Lysippo (Hor. Ep. ii. 1. 240), another than Lysippus.
nnm aliud videtur esse ac meOram bonOram dIreptiO (Dom. 51), does it seem
anything different from the plundering of my property t
erat historia nihil aliud nisi annftlium cOnfectiO (De Oi. ii. 52), history was
nothing else but a compiling of records.
ۥ The comparative of an adverb is usually followed by quam, rarely
by the ablative except in poetry : —
tempus te citius quam 5r&tio dSficeret (Kosc. Am. 89), time would faH you
sooner than words. But, —
cur olivum sanguine vipeiino cautius vitat (Hor. Od. i. 8. 9), why does he shun
oU more carefully than viper^s blood f
NoTB. — Prepositions meaning b^ore or beyond (as ante, prae, piaeter, supri) are
sometimes used with a comparative: as,— scelere ante aUSs immanior omnis (Aen. i.
347), more mofistrous in crime than all other men.
266 SYNTAX : CONSTRUCTION OF CASES [§§ 408, 409
USES OF THE ABLATIVE AS INSTRUMENTAL
408. Means, Instrument, Manner, and Accompaniment are denoted by the Instru-
mental Ablative (see § 398), but some of these uses more commonly require a prepo>
sition. As they sill come from one source (the old Instrumental Case) no sharp line
can be drawn between them, and indeed the Romans themselves can hardly have
thought of any distinction. Thus, in omnibus precibas orabant, they entreated with
every [kind of] prayer^ the ablative, properly that of means, cannot be distinguished
from that of mxinner.
Ablative of Means or Instrument
409. The Ablative is used to denote the means or instrument
of an action : —
certantes pfignis, calcibus, anguibus, morsfi dSnique (Tusc. v. 77), fighting
with fists, heels, nails, and even teeth.
cum pGgnis et calcibus conclsus esset (Verr. iii. 56), when he had been pum-
melled with their fiMs and heels.
mels laboribas interitti rem ptlblicam llberd.vl (Sail. 33), by my toils I have
saved the state from ruin.
multae istftnim arborum meS, manu sunt satae (Cat. M. 69), many of those
trees were set out with my own hands,
▼i victa vis, vel potius oppressa virtfite aud&cia est (Mil. 30), violence was
overcome by violence, or rather, boldness was put down by courage.
a. The Ablative of Means is used with verbs and adjectives of
filling, abounding, and the like : —
Deus bonis omnibus explSvit mundum (Tim. 3), God has filled the world with
aU good things.
aggere et cr&tibus frs As explent (B. G. vii. 86), they fill up the ditches with
earth and fa^c ss.
t{>tum montem hominibus complSvit (id. i. 24), he filled the whole mountain
with men.
opimus praeda (Verr. ii. 1. 132), rich with spoils.
vita plena et c5nferta voluptatibas (Sest 23), lifefilled and crowdedwith delights.
Forum AppI differtum nantis (Hor. S. i. 6. 4), Forum Appii crammed with
bargemen.
Note. — In poetry the Genitive is often used with these words. Compled and Impled
sometimes take the genitive in prose (cf . § 356) ; so regularly plSnus and (with personal
nouns) compiettts and refertus (§ 349. a): —
omnia plena Ittctus et maerSris fuerunt (Sest. 128), everything wasfuU of grief
and mjouming.
Ollam dSn&ridrum implere (Fam. ix. 18), to fill a pot with mjoney. [Here evidently
colloquial, otherwise rare in Cicero.]
convivium vicinorum compleO (Cat. M. 46, in the mouth of Cato), I fill up the ban-
quet with my neighbors.
cum completus merc&tSrum career esset (Verr. v. 147), when the prison was full of
traders.
51410,411] ABLATIVE OF MEANS OR INSTRUMENT 257
410. The deponents Qtor, fruor, fungor, potior, yescor, with several
of their compounds,^ govern the Ablative : —
tLtar vestrft benignitAte (Arch. 18), 1 will avail myself of your kindness.
ita mihi salv& rS pfiblicA vOblscum perfrul liceat (Cat. iv. 11), so may I enjoy
with you the state secure and prosperous,
fungi in&Ql manere (Aen. yi. 885), to perform an idle service,
anro herds potitur (Ov. M. vii. 166), the hero takes the gold.
lacte et ferlnft carne yescebantur (lug. 89), they fed on milk and gam£.
Note. — This is properly an Ablatiye of Means (instrumental) and the yerbs are
Teally in the middle yoice (§ 156. a). Thus fitor with the ablatiye signifies I employ
myself (or avail myself) by m^ans of, etc. But these earlier meanings disappeared
from the language, leaying the construction as we find it.
a. Potior sometimes takes the Genitive, as always in the phrase
potlri rSrum, to get control or be master of affairs (§ 357. a) : —
tOtlus GalUae s^s^ potlrl posse spirant (B. G. i. 8), they hope they can get
possession of the whole of Gaul.
NoTB 1. — In early Latin, these yerbs are sometimes transitiye and take the
accusatiye : —
functus est ofaciam (Ter. Ph. 281), he performed the part, etc.
ille patria potitur commoda (Ter. Ad. 871), he enjoys his ancestral estate,
NoTx 2. — The Gerundiye of these yerbs is used personally in the passiye as if the
yerb were transitiye (but cf. § 500. 3): as, — HeracllO omnia utenda ac i>ossidenda tra-
diderat (Verr. ii. 46), fie had given over everything to Heracliusfor his use andposses'
sion (to be used and possessed).
411. Opus and fisus, signifying need^ take the Ablative: — ^
magistr&tlbas opus est (Leg. ill. 6), there is need of magistrates,
nunc yiribas usus (Aen. yiii. 441), now there is need of strength.
Note. — The ablatiye with usas is not common in classic prose.
a. With opus the ablative of a perfect participle is often found,
either agreeing with a noun or used as a neuter abstract noun : —
opus est tu& ezpzOmptft maliti& atque astatift (Ter. And. 723), I must hone
your best cunning and cleverness set to v>ork,
proper&t5 opus erat (cf. Mil. 49), there was need of haste.
Note 1. — So rarely with usas in comedy: as, — quid istis usust cSnscriptis (PI.
Bacch. 749), whaVs the good of having them in writing?
Note 2. — The omission of the noun giyes rise to complex constructions : as, — quid
opus factOst (cf. B. G. i. 42), what must he done? [Cf. quid opus est fieri? with qu6
facts opus est?]
1 These are abutor, dentor (yery rare), dCfungor, dSfruor, perfruor, perfungor.
^ This construction is properly an instrumental one, in which opus and usus mean
^Dork and service, and the ablatiye expresses that with which the work is performed
or the seryice rendered. The noun usus follows the analogy of the yerb utor, and the
ablative with opus est appears to be an extension of that with usus est.
258 SYNTAX: CONSTRUCTION OF CASSS [§§ 411-41^
6. Opu 18 oltfin found in the predicate, with the iking needed in ••%
the nominative as subject : —
doz nWa et asetor opoa est (Fain. u. 6. 4), toe need a Mtf and retpotui&Ie
edmaer (a ohiaf, etc., Is necessary for us).
si quid ipsi opus esset (B. 6. i. d4), ^ Ae him»e{f wcaUed eaajflAing (if any-
thing ahonld be necessary for him).
quae opus sunt (Cato R. R. 14. 3)» Mngs which are requiwed.
▲bUtiye of Manner
412. The Manner of an aotion is denoted by the Ablative ; usu-
ally with cum, unless a limiting adjective is used with the noun r
cum eelsiitite Ttoit, he tame wUh speed. But, —
sommft oeleiit&te vdrnt^ he came with the greateiA speed,
quid r^ert qui m6 latiSne cOgfttis (Lael. 26), vAal difference doee it make in
what way you compel me f
a. But cum is often used even when the ablative has a limiting
adjective: —
qaantfi id com peilcolS f€cerit (B. G. i. 17), at what risk he did this.
nOn miadra cm taadio recubant (Plln. £p. ix. 17. 8), th^ recline with no less
tMormafa.
b. With such words of manner as modO, pactO, ratiOne, iit&, v^ vifl,
and with stock expressions which have become virtually adverbs (as
silentiG, V!kr% Imfirifl), cum is not used : —
apis Matl&ae mdie modoqoe carmina fing& (Hor. Od. iv. 2. 28), in the style
and masmer of a Matinian bee I fashion somjgs.
NoTB. — So in poetry the ahlatire of manner often omits com: as,— *inseqnitiir ca-
malS aquae mOns (Aen. i. 105), a mountain of water follows in a moM, [Of. monnnze
(id. i. 124) ; rinds (id. i. 123).]
Ablative of AocomiMLniinest
413. Accompaniment is denoted by the Ablative, regularly with
cum:
com coniog^bns ac libezis (Att. viti. 2. S), wWi wiioes and chUdren.
com fonditdiibns sagittftxilsque fiamen transgress! (B. G. ii. 19), haxing
crossed the river with the archers and stingers.
quae supplicatiO si cam ceteris c5nferfttur (Cat. ill. 16), if this thanksgining
he. compared with others.
quae [I^x] esse com tBo vetat (Mil. 11), the law which forbids [one] to go
ermed (be with a weapon).
A seam anda edtkxeriA (Cat. i 30), (^ Ae lends out with him his associa^BS.
[Fer aCcQfli, see f 144. 6. ir.i.]
}§ 413,414] ABLAHVB OF DBOREB OF DIFFEBBNCE 259
a. The ablatiye is used without cum in some military phrases, and
here and there by early writers : —
sntanqadbatar omnibiis cdpiXs (B. 6. ii. 19), he followed close wUh all hie
forces. [But also cam omiiibas cdpiis, id. L 26.]
hde praesidiS profectiis est (Verr. ii. 1. 86), with this force he set ovt.
Note. — MisoeS and innsS, with some of their compounds, and oSnfimdS take either
(1) the Ablative of Aooompaniment with or without com, or (2) sometimes the Dative
(mosUy poetical or late) : —
mixta dolore yoluptfts (B. Al. 56), pleasure mingled with pain.
cC^ius animnmcom sa5 misceat (Lael. 81), whose soul he may mingle with his own.
fletnmque cmfiri miscuit (Oy. M. iv. 140), and mingled tears with blood.
Caesar eas cohortis cum exercitii sa5 coniunzit (B. G. i. 18), Casar united those
cohorts with his own army.
aer coniunctus tenia (Lncr. t. 662), air united with earth.
humanO capiti cervicem equinam iungere (Hor. A. P. 1), to join to a human head
a horse* s neck.
h. Words of Contention and the like require cum : —
armls com hoste cert&re (Off. iii. 87), to fight with the enemy in arms.
libenter haec cmn Q. Catold disput&rem (Manil. 66), I should gladly discuss
these matters with Quintvs Catulus.
Note. — But words of contention may take the Dative in poetry (see § 368. a).
Ablative of Degree of Difference
414. With Comparatives and words implying comparison the
ablative is used to denote the Degree of Difference : —
qnlnqne mllibas passaum distat, it is five miles distant.
SL mHihiia passaum circiter daObns (B. 6. v. 82), at a distance of about two
miles. [For ft as an adverb, see § 433. 8.]
aliquot ante anma (Tnsc. i. 4), several years before.
aUquaittS post snspexit (Rep. yi. 9), a while after^ he looked up.
mnlt5 m6 vigilftre ftcrins (Cat. i. 8), thai I watch much more sharply.
nihild erat ipse Cyclops quam aries pradentior (Tusc. y. 115), the Cyclops
himself was not a whit wiser than the ram.
a. The ablatives qu5 . . . eO (h6c), and quantff . . . tantff, are used
correlatively with comparatives, like the English the . . . the ^ : —
qud minus cnpiditfitis, e9 pills auctOrit&tis (Liv. xxiv. 28), the less greedy the
more weight (by what the less, by that the more),
qoanto erat gravior oppQgn&tiO, tant5 crebriOrSs litterae mittebantnr (B. G.
V. 45), the seserer the siege vms^ the more frequently letters were sexL
1 In this phrase the is not the definite article hut a pronominal adyerb, being the
Anglo-Saxon thyt the instrumental case of the pronoun that, that. This pronoun is
uaed \MQk as lelatiye (by whidi, by how mucA) and as demonstratiye (by thai, by so
much). Thus the ... the corresponds exactly to qn5 . . . e5.
260 SYNTAX: CONSTRUCTION OF CASES [§§414,415
Note.— : To this coDStruction are doubtless to be referred all cases of qii5 and ed
<li5c) with a comparative, even when they have ceased to be distinctly felt as degree
of difference and approach the Ablative of Cause : —
e5que me minus paenitet (N. D. i. 8), and for that reason I regret less, etc. (by so
much the less I regret),
haec e5 facilius faciebant, quod (B. 6. iii. 12), this they did the more easily for this
reason^ hecause, etc. [Of. hoc m&iore spe, quod (id. iii. 9).]
6. The Ablative of Comparison (§ 406) and the Ablative of Degree
of Difference are sometimes used together with the same adjective : —
paul5 minus ducentis (B. C. iii. 28), a little less than tioe^ hundred,
patria, qaae mihi yit& me& multd est cftrior (Cat. 1. 27), my country , which
is much dearer to me than life.
But the construction with quam is more common.
Ablative of Quality
415. The quality of a thing is denoted by the Ablative with an
adjective or genitive modifier.
This is called the Descriptive Ablative or Ablative of Quality : — ^
animd meliore sunt gladi&tOrSs (Cat. ii. 26), the gladiators are of a better
mind.
quae cum asset civitas aequissimd lure ac foedere (Arch. 6), as this was a
city with perfectly equal constitutional rights.
mulierem eximifi palchritudine (Verr. ii. 1. 64), a woman of rare heaviy.
Aristoteles, yir snmmo ingeni5, 8cienti&, c5pi& (Tusc. i. 7), Aristotle, a man of
the greatest genius, learning, and gift of expression.
d6 DomitiO dixit versum Graecum e&dem Bentetiti& (Deiot. 25), concerning
Domitiu^ he recited a Greek line of the same tenor.
Note. — The Ablative of Quality (like the Grenitiye of Quality, § 345) modifies a sub-
stantive by describing it. It is therefore equivalent to an adjective, and may be either
attributive or predicate. In this it differs from other ablatives, which are equivalent
to adverbs.
a. In expressions of quality the Genitive or the Ablative may
often be used indifferently ; hut physical qualities are oftener denoted
by the Ablative (cf . § 345. n.) : —
capill5 sunt promisso (B. G. v. 14), th£y huve long hair.
ut capite opertd sit (Cat. M. 34), to have his head covered (to be with covered
head),
quam f uit inbecillus P. Af ricftnl fllius, quam tenui aut nfilU potius yaletudine
(id. 36), hxm weak was the son of Africanus, of whaJt feiMe healthy or
rather none at all !
^ It was originally instrumental and appears to have developed from accompani-
ment (§ 413) and manner (§ 412).
§§416,417] ABLATIVE OF PRICE 261
Ablative of Price
416. The priee of a thing is put in the Ablative : —
agrum vendidit sestertium sex milibus, fie sold the land for 6000 sesterces.
AntOnius rSgna addlxit pecanift (Phil. vii. 16), Antony sold thrones for money.
logSs ridiculOs : quia cen& poscit (PL Stich. 221), jokes : who wants them for
(at the price of) a dinner?
mAgDo illl ea cunctatiO stetit (Liy. ii. 36), that hesitation cost him dear.
Note. — To this head is to be referred the Ablative of the Penalty (§ 353. 1).
417. Certain adjectives of quantity are used in the Genitive to
denote indefinite value. Such are magni, parvi, tanti, quanti, pluris,
minSris : —
mea mlgni interest, it is of great consequence to me.
illud parvi rgfert (Manil. 18), this is of small ajccount.
est mihi tanli (Cat. ii. 15), Uis worth the price (it is of so much).
Verrgsne tibi tanti fuit (Verr. ii. 1. 77), was Verres of so much account to
you?
tant5ne minoxis decumae venierunt (id. iii. 106), were the tithes sold for so
much less f
ut tS redimas captum quam queas rninimd : si nequeas paulalo, at qaanti queas
(Ter. Eun. 74), to random yourself when captured^ at the cheapest rate
you can; if you can't for a small sum, then at any rate for what you can.
Note. —These are really Genitives of Quality (§ 345. 6).
a. The genitive of certain colorless nouns is used to denote indefi-
nite value. Such are nihil! (nili), nothing; assis, a farthing (rare) ;
flocci (a lock of wool), a straw : —
ii5n flocd faciO (Att. xiii. 50), I care not a strata. [Colloquial.]
utinam ego istuc abs te factum nili penderem (Ter. Eun. 94), O that I cared
nothing for this being done by you'! [Colloquial.]
&. With verbs of exchanging, either the thing taken or the thing
given in exchange may be in the Ablative of Price. Such are mutO,
commutO, permutO, vertO : —
fidem suam et religiOnem pecunia commutare (Clu. 129), to barter his faith
and conscience for mxmey.
exsilium patria sede mtitavit (Q. C. iii. 7. 11), he exchanged his native land
for exile (he took exile in exchange for his native land).
v6lox saepe Lucretilem mutat Lycaed Faunus (Hor. Od. i. 17. 1), nimble
Faunas often changes Lycceus for Lucretilis. [He takes Lucretilis at
the price o/Lycseus, i.e. he goes /rom Lycseus to Lucretilis.]
vertere ffineribas triumphOs (id. i. 35. 4), to change the triumph to the funeral
train (exchange triumphs for funerals). [Poetical.]
262 SYNTAX : CONSTRUCTION OF CASES [§§ 417, 418
Note. — With verbs of exchanging cum is often used, perhaps with a different con-
ception of the action: as, — aries . . . cum croce5 mutabit vellera lat5 (Eel. iv. 44), the
ram shall change hiafieece/or [one dyed with] the yellow saffron,
c. With verbs of buying and seUing the simple Ablative of Price
must be used, except in the case of tanti, quanti, plliris, minSris : —
qnanti earn €mit? yili . . . quot minis? quadr&ginta minis (PI. Epid. 51),
whaJt did he buy her for f Cheap, For how many minx f Forty.
Ablative of Specification
418. The Ablative of Specification denotes that in respect to
which anything is or is done : —
virtttte praecSdunt (B. G. i. 1), they excel in courage,
claudcis alterO pede (Nep. Ages. 8), lame of one foot.
tingofi haesitantes, voce absoni (De Or. i. 116), hesitating in speech, harsh in
voice.
sunt enim homines nOn f§ sed nomine (Off. i. 105), for they are men not in
fact, but in nam^.
m&ior o&ta, older; minor n&tfi, younger (of. § 131. c).
paulum aetftte prOgressI (Cat. M. 33), somewhat advanced in age.
corpore senex esse poterit, animS numquam erit (id. 38), he may be an old nuin
in body, he never will be [old] at heart.
a. To this head are to be referred many expressions where the abla-
tive expresses that in accordance tcith which anything is or is done : —
med inre, with perfect right; but, meo modo, in my fashion.
meft 8eBtenti&, in my opinion; but also more formally, ex me& seatentia.
[Here the sense is the same, but the first ablative is specification, the
second sourccl
propinqoitate conitLnctOs atqne nfitfira (Lael. 60), closely allied by kindred and
nature. [Here the ablative is not different in sense from those above,
but no doubt is a development of means.]
qvd vincit viribas (id. 55), who surpasses in strength. [Here it is impossible
to tell whether yiribus is the means of the superiority or that in respect
to which one is superior.]
NoTB. — As the Romans had no such categories as we make, it is impossible to
classify all uses of the ablative. The ablative of specification (originaUy instru-
mental) is closely akin to that of manner ^ and shows some resemblance to means and
cause.
For the Supine in -u. as an Ablative of Specification, see § 510.
b. The adjectives dignus and indignus take the ablative : —
vir patre, avo, miUoribus sufs dignissimus (Phil. iii. 25), a man moet toorthy
of his father, grandfather, and ancestors.
te omnI honore indignissimum iudicavit (Vat. 39), he judged you entirely
unworthy of every honor.
§§ 418, 419] ABLATIVE ABSOLUTE 263
NoTB 1. — So the TBrb di^nor in poetry and later prose : as, — baud eqnidem tali me
dignor honore (Aen. i. 335), 1 do not deem myself worthy of such an honor.
NoTB 2. — Dianas and indicnns sometimes take the genitive in colloquial usage and
in poetry: —
curam dignissimam tuae virtiitis (Balbus in Att. viii. 16), care moei worthy of
your noble character,
dignus salntis (Plaut. Trin. 1153), worthy ofsqfety.
magnOnun haud umqnam indignus aydrum (Aen. xii. 649), never unworthy of my
great ancestors.
Ablative Absolute
419. A noun or pronoun, with a participle in agreement, may
be put in the Ablative to define the time or circumstances of an
action. This constiuction is called the Ablative Absolute : — ^
Caesar, acceptis litteiis, nuntium mittit (B. G. v. 46), having received the
letter, CoBsar sends a messenger (the letter having been received),
quibns rebas cdgnitis Caesar apud mllites cOntiOnfttur (B. C. i. 7), having
learned this, Coesar makes a speech to the soldiers,
fug&t5 omnI equit&tu (B. 6. vii. 68), aU the cavcUry being put to flight,
interfectd Indfltionmro (id. vi. 2), upon the death of Indutiomarus,
nOndum hieme cdnfecta in finis Nervi5nim contendit (id. vi. 3), though the
winter was not yet over, he hastened into the territory of the Nervii,
compressi [snnt] c5n9,t11s ntUl5 tumultu ptlblicS concit&t5 (Cat. i. 11), the
attempts were put down without exciting any general alarm.
n€ v5bis quidem omnibus rS etiam turn prob&ti (id. ii. 4), since at that time
the facts were not yet proved eoen to all of you.
Note. — The ablative absolute is an adverbial modifier of the predicate. It is^
however, not grammatically dependent on any word in the sentence: hence its name
absolute (abBolutns, i.e./ree or unconnected). A substantive in the ablative absolute
very seldom denotes a person or thing elsewhere mentioned in the same clause.
a. An adjective, or a second noun, may take the place of the parti-
ciple in the Ablative Absolute construction : — *
exiga& parte aestfttis reliqoi (B. G. iv. 20), when but a small part of the sum-
mjer was left (a small part of the summer remaining).
L. Domitid Ap. Clandio cdnsulibus (id. v. 1), in the consulship of Lucius Domi-
tius andAppius Claudius (Lucius Domitius and Appius Claudius [being]
consuls). [The regular way of expressing a date, see § 424. g.]
nil desx>erandum Teucrd duce et auspice Teucro (Hor. Od. i. 7. 27), tJiere
should be tio despair under Teucer's leadership aiid auspices (Teucer
being leader, etc.).
1 The Ablative Absolute is perhaps of instrumental origin. It is, however, some-
times explained as an outgrowth of the locative^ and in any event certain locative
constructions (of place and time) must have contributed to its development.
3 The present participle of esse, wanting in Latin (§ 170. b), is used in Sanskrit and
Greek as in English.
264 SYNTAX: CONSTRUCTION OF CASES [§§419,420
b. A phrase or clause, used substantively, sometimes occurs as
ablative absolute with a. participle or an adjective: —
incertd quid peterent (Li v. xxviii. 36), as it was uncertain wliaJb they should
aim at (it being uncertain, etc.).
comperto v&num esse formldinem (Tac. Ann. i. 66) ^ when it was found that
the alarm was groundless.
cHr praetere&tur dfimSnstratd (Iny. ii. 34), wh£n the reason for omitting it has
been explained (why it is passed by being explained).
Note. — This construction is very rare except in later Latin.
c. A participle or an adjective is sometimes used adverbially in
the ablative absolute without a substantive : —
consultd (Off. i. 27), on purpose (the matter having been deliberated on),
mihi optatd veneris (Att. xiil. 28. 3), you wiXL come in accordance with my
wish,
sereno (Liv. xxxi. 12), under a clear sky (it [being] clesur).
nee auspic&td nee litfttd (id. v. 38), with no auspices or favorable sacrifice,
tranquillo, ut &iunt, quilibet gubernfttor est (Sen. Ep. 85. 34), in good
weather, as they say, any man ^s a pilot,
420. The Ablative Absolute often takes the place of a Sub-
ordinate Clause.
Thus it may replace —
1. A Temporal Clause (§ 541 ff.): —
patre interfecto, [his] father having been kiUed, [This corresponds to com
pater interfectus asset, when his father had been killed.]
recentibtts sceleris ^ius vestigiis (Q. C. vii. 1. 1), while the traces of the crime
were fresh. [Cf. dam recentia sunt vestigia.]
2. A Causal Clause (§ 540) : —
at ei qui Alesiae obsidebantur praeteiitfl die quS. auxilia suOrum exspecta-
verant, consumptd omnI frumento, concilia coftctO c5nsultd,bant (B. G.
vii. 77), but those who were under siege at Alesia, since the time, etc.,
had expired, and their grain had been exhausted, calling a council (see 5
below), consulted together. [Cf. cum difis praeterisset, etc.]
D&reus, desperftta p&ce, ad reparandas virls intendit animum (Q. C. iv. 6. 1),
Darius, since he despaired of peace, devoted his energies to recruiting
his forces. [Cf. cum pacem desperaret.]
3. A Concessive Clause (§ 527) : —
at eo repugnante flSbat (cOnsul), immo v€rG e6 fiebat magis (Mil. 34), but
though he (Clodiuci) opposed, he (Milo) was likely to be elected consul;
nay, rather, etc.
turribus excit&tis, tamen h3s altitud5 puppium ex barbaris navibus supe-
rabat (B. G. iii. 14), although towers had been built up, still the high
stems of the enemy^s ships rose above them.
§§ 420-422] ABLATIVE OF PLACE 265
4. A Conditional Clause (§ 521): —
occurrebat el, mancam et debilem praetdram futdram suam, cdnsnle Kilone
(Mil. 25), it occurred to him that hia proetorship would he maimed and
feeble, if MHo were consul, [si Blilo cdnsul esset.]
qua. (regiOne) subftctA licSbit decurrere in illud mare (Q. C. ix. 3. 13), if this
region is aulniued, we shall he free to run down into that sea.
qii& quidem detrftctft (Arch. 28), if this he taken away.
5. A Clause of Accompanying Circumstance : —
ego haec ft ChrysogonO meft sponte, remStS Sex. Rdscio, quaer5 (Kosc. Am.
130), of my own accord, without reference to Sextus Roscius (Sextus
Boscius being put aside), I ask these questions of Chrysogonus,
nee impeiante nee sciente nee praesente domind (Mil. 29), witliout their master'' s
giving orders, or knowing it, or heing present.
Note. — As the English Nominative Absolute is far less common than the Abla-
tive Absolute in Latin, a change of form is generally required in translation. Thus
the present participle is oftenest to be rendered in English by a relative clause with
token or while; and the perfect passive participle by the perfect active participle.
These changes may be seen in the following example : —
At illi, intermisso spatio, imprudenti' But they, having paused a space^ while
bus nostris atque occupdtis in munitiOne our men were unaware and busied in for-
castrorum, subitO se ex silvis eiecerunt ; tifying the camp, suddenly threw them-
impetitcixxe in eos facto qui erant in sta- selves out of the woods ; then, making an
tione pro castris conlocati, acriter pQg- attack upon those who were on guard in
naverunt ; dudbusque missis subsidiO front of the camp, they fought fiercely ;
cohortibus a Caesare, cum hae (perexi- and, though two cohorts had been sent by
gud intermisso loci spatio inter se) cOn- Csesar as reinforcements, after these had
stitissent, noyOgenerepugnaeper^er7t/t« taken their x)08ition {leaving very little
nostris f per mediOs audacissime perrupe- space of ground between them), as our
runt seque inde incolnmis receperunt. — men were alarmed by the strange kind
Caksar, B. 6. y. 15. of fighting, they dashed most daringly
through the midst of them and got off
safe.
For the Ablative with Prepositions, see § 220.
THE ABLATIVE AS LOCATIVE
Ablative of Place
421. The Locative Case was originally used (literally) to denote the place where
and (figuratively) to denote the time when (a development from the idea of place).
But this case was preserved only in names of towns and a few other words, and the
place where is usually denoted by the Ablative. In this construction the Ablative was,
no doubt, used at first without a preposition, but afterwards it became associated in
most instances with the preposition in.
422. In expressions of Time and Place the Latin shows a
variety of idiomatic constructions (Ablative, Accusative, and Loc-
ative), which are systematically treated in § 423 ff.
266 SYNTAX: CONSTRUCTION OF CASES [§§423,424
TIME AND PLACE
Time
423. Time wherij or within whieh^ is expressed by the Abla-
tive ; time how long by the Accusative.
1. Ablative: —
cOnstitdtft die, on the appoirded day ; prim& luce, at daybreak.
quota hOr&, al what o^clock f tenia yigiliS,, in the third watch.
tribus proximis annis (lug. 11), within the last three years.
didbas vlgiutl quinque aggerem exstruxSrunt (B. G. vil. 24), within twenty-
five days they finished building a mound.
2. Accusative : —
dies continuOs trigint&, for thirty days together.
cum tridnam iter fScisset (B. G. ii. 16), when he had marched three days.
NoTB. — The Ablative of Time is loccUive in its origin (§ 421) ; the Accusative is the
same as that of the extent of space (§ 425).
424. Special constructions of time are the following: —
a. The Ablative of time within which sometimes takes in, and the
Accusative of time how long per, for greater precision : —
in diebus proximis decem (lug. 28), within the next ten days.
ludl per decem di€s (Cat. iii. 20), games for ten days.
b. Duration of time is occasionally expressed by the Ablative:—
mllitSs quinque hdxis proelium sustinuerant (B. C. i. 47), the men had sus-
tained the fight five hours.
Note. — In this use the period of time is regarded as that within whidi the act is
done, and it is only implied that the act lasted through the period. Of. inter annos
quattuordecim (B. G. i. 2/S) ^ for fourteen years.
c. Time during which or within which may be expressed by the
Accusative or Ablative of a noun in the singular, with an ordinal
numeral : —
qomto die, within [just] four days (lit. on the fifth day). [The Roman!!
coimted both ends, see § 631. d."]
regnat iam sextom animm, he ?ias reigned going on six years.
d. Klany expressions have in Latin the construction of time when
where in English the main idea is rather of plaice : —
ptLgna CannSnsI (or, apud Cannes), in the fight at CanMB.
ludls ROm&nIs, at the Roman games.
omnibus Gallicis bellls, in all the Gallic wars.
§§424,425] TIMB AND PLACE 267
e« In many idiomatic expressions of time, the AocusatiTe with ad,
in, or sub is used. Such are the following: —
supplicdtiO decreta est in Kalend&s linaAxifts, a thanksgiving was voted for
the first of January.
conY6n6rant ad diem, they aaaemUed on the [appointed] day.
ad vesperom, tiU evening ; sub vesperum, towards evening,
sab idem tempus, about the same time; sub noctem, ai nigktfalL
/. Distance of time before or after anything is variously expressed :
post (ante) trSs annOs, post tertium annum, trSs post annOs, tertium post
annum, tribus post annis, terti5 post annO (§ 414), three years after.
tribus annIs (tertio annO) post exsilium (postquam eiectus est), three years
after his exile.
YiSB tribus proximis annIs, vfithin the last three years.
paucis annIs, a few years hence.
abhinc annOs tr6s (tribus annIs), ante hds tr&s annOs, three years ago.
triennium est cum (tr€s anni sunt cum), it is three years since.
octavo mense quam, the eighth month after (see § 4S4. n.).
ff. In Dates the phrase ante diem (a. d.) with an ordinal, or the
ordinal alone, is followed by an accusative, like a preposition ; and
the phrase itself may also be governed by a preposition.
The year is expressed by the names of the consuls in the ablative
absolute, usually without a conjunction (§ 419. a) : —
is dies erat a. d. v. Kal. Apr. (quintum Kalend&s Aprllls) L. RsOne A. Gabinio
cOnsulibus (B. G. 1. 6), that day was the Wi before the calends of April
(March 28), in the consulship of Piso and Oabinius.
in a. d. v. Kal. Nov. (Cat. i. 7), to the 6th day before the caXends of November
(Oct 28).
XV. Kal. Sextllls, the lUh day before the calends of August (July 18). [Full
form : qointS dedmS di§ ante Kalend&s.]
For the Roman Calendar, see § 631.
Extent of Space
425. Extent of Space is expressed by the Accusative : —
fos8&8 quindecim pedSs UtSs (6. G. vii. 72), trenches fifteen feet broad.
prOgressus nulia passuum circiter duodecim (id. v. 9), having advanced about
twelve miles.
in oxnni vltft soft quemque S. r6ct& cOnscienti& tr&nsversmn ongnem non
oportet discedere (quoted in Att. xiii. 20), in all one^s life^ one should
not depart a naiPs breadth from straightforward conscience.
NOTS. — This AocusatiTe denotes the object through or over which the action takes
place, and is kindred with the AoousatiTe of the End of Motion (§ 427. 2).
268 SYNTAX : CONSTRUCTION OF CASES [§§ 426, 426
a. Measure is often expressed by the Genitive of Qualiiy (§ 345. h) :
vallum duodecim pedum (B. G. vii. 72), a rampart of twelve feet (in height).
h. Distance when considered as extent of space is put in the Accu-
sative; when considered as degree of difference^ in the Ablative
(§ 414) : —
milia passuum tria ab eOrum castrls castra p5nit (6. G. i. 22), he pitches his
camp three miles from their camp.
quinque dierum iter abest (Liv. xxx. 29), it is distant five days'* march.
trlgint& nulibos passuum Infr3, eum locum (B. G. vi. 35), thirty milea below
that place (below by thirty miles).
Relations of Place
426. Relations of Place ^ are expressed as follows : —
1. The place from which, by the Ablative with ab, d6, or ex. .
2. The place to which (or end of motion), by the Accusative Tvith
ad or in.
3. The pla^e where, by the Ablative with in {Locative Ablative),
Examples are : —
1. Place /rom which : —
ft septentrionef from the north,
cum ft ydbis discesserO (Cat. M. 79), wfien I leave you,
d5 prdvincift decSdere, to come away from one^s province,
dS monte, down from the mountain.
negotiator ez Afiicft (Verr. ii. 1. 14), a merchant from Africa.
ex Britaimia obsidSs misSrunt (B. G. iv. 38), they sent hostages from BrUaiiL
MOsa prOfluit ex monte VosegO (id. iv. 10), the Meuse (flows from) rises in
the Vosges mountains.
2. Place to which (end of motion): —
nocte ad Nervios pervSn^runt (B. G. ii. 17), they came by night to the Nervii.
adibam ad istom fundum (Caec. 82), I was going to that estate.
in Africam n9.vigd.vit, he sailed to Africa ; in Italiam profectus, gon^ to Italy.
leg&tum in Treyer5s mittit (B. G. iii. 11), he sends his lieutenant into tJie
[country of the] Treveri.
1 Originally all these relations were expressed by the cases alone. The accusative,
in one of its oldest functions, denoted the end of motion ; the ablative, in its proper
meaning of separation, denoted the place from which^ and, in its locative function, the
place wfiere. The prepositions, originally adverbs, were afterwards added to define
more exactly the direction of motion (as in to umoard, toward us), and by long asao<
elation became indispensable except as indicated below.
§§ 426, 427] RELATIONS OF PLACE 269
3. Place where : —
in h&c urbe vltam dSgit, he passed his life in this city.
si in GalliA remanerent (B. G. iv. 8), if they remained in Gaul.
dum haec in Venetis geruntur (id. iii. 17), while this was going on among the
Veneti.
oppidum in insuUl positum (id. vii. 58), a town situated on an island.
427. With names of towns and small islands, and with domus
and rus, the Relations of Place are expressed as follows : —
1. The place from which, by the Ablative without a preposition.
2. The plaice to which, by the Accusative without a preposition.
3. The place where, by the Locative.^
^Examples are : —
1. TlsLce from which : —
Romft profectos, having set out from Bome; R5m& abesse, to he absent from
Borne.
domS abire, to leave home; rure reversus, having returned from the country.
2. FlsLce to which : —
cum Romam seztO die MutinS. vSnisset (Fam. xi. 6. 1), when he had come to
Bome from Modena in five days (on the sixth day).
D€lO Rhodnm iiS.vigd.re, to sail from Delos to Bhodes.
rus Ih^t I shall go into the country.
domam iit, he went home,^ [So, sufts domos abXre, to go to their homes.'\
3. Place where (or at which) : —
ROmae, at Bome (ROma). Ath6nls, at Athens (AthSnae).
RhodI, at Bhodes (Rhodus). L&nuvl, at Lanuvium.
Sami, at Samos. Cypri, at Cyprus.
Tiburl or Tibure, at TUmr. Curibus, at Cures.
Philippis, at Philippi. Caprels, at Capri (Capreae).
domi (rarely domai), at home. rtlrl, in the country.
a. The Locative Case is also preserved in the following nouns,
which are used (like names of towns) without a preposition : —
belli, militiae (in contrast to domi), abroad^ in military service.
huml, on the ground. vesperl (-e), in the evening.
foris, out of doors. animi (see § 368).
herl (-e), yesterday. temperi, betimes.
Cf. Infgllcl arbori (Liv. i. 26), on the ill-omened (barren) tree; terra marlque,
by land and sea.
^ The Locative has in the singular of the first and second declensions tUe same form
as the Genitive, in the plural and in the third declension the same form as the Dative
or Ablative. (See p. 34, footnote.)
2 The English home in this construction is, like domnm, an old accusative of the
end of motion.
270 SYNTAX : CONSTRUCTION OF CASES [§ 428
428. Special uses of place /ro7n which^ to which^ and where are
the following : —
€u With names of towns and small islands ab is often used to
denote from the vicinity of, and ad to denote towardsy to the neighbor-
hood of: —
at A Matiiii discfideret (Phil. xiv. 4), tJiat he should retire from Modena
(which he was besieging).
erat i Gergovia despectos in castra (B. G. yii. 45), there toa» from about
Oergovia a view into the camp.
ad Aleaiam proficlscuntur (id. vii. 76), they set out for Alesia,
ad Aleaiam perveniaiit (id. yii. 79), they arrive at Alesia (i.e. in the neighbor-
hood of the town).
D. Laelius cum classe ad Brandisiom v€nit (B. C. iii. 100), Deeimus Ladius
came to Brundisium with a fleet (arriving in the harbor).
b. The general words urbs, oppidnm, Insula require a preposition
k) express the place from which, to which, or where : —
ab (ex) urbe, from the city. in urbe, in the city.
ad nrbem, to the city. ROmae in urbe, in the city of Rome.
in urbem, into the city. R5m9. ex urbe, from the city of Rome.
ad urbem ROmam (ROmam ad urbem), to the city of Rome.
Cm With the name of a country, ad denotes to the borders; in with
the accusative, into the country itself. Similarly ab denotes away
from the outside ; ex, out of the interior.
Thus ad Italiam pervSnit would mean he came to the frontier, regardless of
the destination ; in Italiam, he went to Italy, i.e. to a place within it, to Rome,
for instance.
So ab itallA profectus est would mean ?ie came away from the frontier, regard-
less of the original starting-point; ex ItaliA, Ae came from Italy, from within, as
from Rome, for instance.
d» With all names of places at, meaning near (not in), is expressed
by ad or apud with the accusative.
pfigna ad CannSs, the fight at Cannae.
conchas ad C^ietam legunt (De Or. ii. 22), at Caieta (along the shore),
ad (apud) Inferos, in the world below (near, or among, those below),
ad forls, at the doors. ad iftnuam, at the door.
Note 1. — In the neighborhood of may be expressed by circ& with the aocnsatiye;
among, by apad with the aceusatiye : —
apod GraeoOs, among the Greeks. apud me, at my house.
apnd Solensis (Leg. ii. 41), at Soli. circa Capuam, round about Capua.
NoTK 2. — In citing an author, apud is regularly used ; in citing a particular work,
in. Thus, — apad Xenophdntem, in Xenophon; but, in Xenophdntls OeoonondeO, in
Xenophon's (Bconomicus.
§428] RELATIONS OF PLACE 271
0. Large islands, and all places when thought of as a territory and
not as a locality y are treated like names of countries : —
in Sidlia, m SicUy.
in Ithact leporSs illati moriuntur (Plin. H. N. viiL 226), in Ithaca hares^ when
carried there, die, [ Ulysses lived at Ithaca would require ithacae.]
/• The Ablative without a preposition is used to denote the place
from which in certain idiomatic expressions : —
cessisset patxii (Mil. 68), he would have left his country,
patii& pellere, to drive out of the country.
maun mittere, to emancipate (let go from the hand).
g» The poets and later writers often omit the preposition with the
place from which or to which when it would be required in classical
prose: —
mSnls Acheronte remissOs (Aen. y. 99), the spirits returned from Acheron.
Scythii profecti (Q. C. iv. 12. 11), setting outfr m Scythia,
Italiam LS,yIniaque vSnit Utora (Aen. i. 2), Jte came to Italy and the Lavinian
shores,
texram Hesperlam veni6s (id. ii. 781] , you shaU come to the Hesperian land.
Aegyptnm proficiscitur (Tac. Ann. ii. 59), he sets out for Egypt
h. In poetry the place to which is often expressed by the Dative,
occasionally also in later prose : —
it cl&mor caelo (Aen. v. 451), a shout goes up to the sky,
facilis descensus AvemS (id. vi. 126), easy is the descent to Avemus.
diadema capiti repQnere iussit (Yal. Max. v. 1. 9), he ordered him to put back
the diadem on his head.
i. The preposition is not used with the supine in -um (§ 509) and
in the following old phrases: —
ezsequi&s Ire, to goto the funeral. InfitiSs Ire, to resort to denial.
pessam Ire, to goto ruin, pessum dare, to ruin (cf. pezdo).
vSnnm dare, to sell (give to sale). [Hence vSndere.]
v6nam Ire, to be sold (go to sale). [Hence vSnln.]
for&s (used as adverb), out: as, — forfts Sgredl, to go out of doors,
suppeti&s advenlie, to come to one's oMistance,
J» When two or more names of place are used with a verb of motion,
each must be under its own construction : —
qoadridud qaO haec gesta sunt res ad Chryaogonom in castra L. Snllae VoU-
teirAa d^fertur (Rose. Am. 20), within four days after this was done, the
matter was reported to Chrysogonus in Build's camp at Volaterra^
NoTK. — Tbe accasative with or withont a preposition is often nsed in Latin when
motion to a place is implied but not expressed in English (see k, v,).
272 SYNTAX: CONSTRUCTION OF CASES [§§428,429
k. Domum denoting the place to which, and the locative domi^ may
be modified by a possessive pronoun or a genitive : —
domum regis (Deiot. 17), to the king^s house. [But also in M. Laecae domiim
(Cat. i. 8), to Marcus LoBca^s house.]
domi meae, at my house ; domi Caesaris, at Ccesar^s house,
domi snae vel alienae, at his own or another^s house.
Note. — At times when thus modified, and regularly when otherwise modified, in
domum or in domo is used : —
in domum privatam conveniunt (Tac. H. iv. 55) , they come together in a private house.
in Marci Grass! castissimA domo (Gael. 9), in the chaste home of Marcus Crassus.
[Gf. ex Anniana M:l3nis domo, § 302. e.]
429. The place where is denoted by the Ablative without a
preposition in the following instances: —
1. Often in indefinite words, such as loc(J, parte, etc. : —
quibus loc5 positis (De Or. iii. 153), when these are set in position.
qui parte belli vicerant (Liv. xxi. 22), the branch of warfare in which they
were victorious.
locis certis horrea cOnstituit (B. C. iii. 32), he established granaries in par-
ticular places.
2. Frequently with nouns which are qualified by adjectives (regu-
larly when t5tU8 is used) : —
media, urbe (Liv. i. 33), in the middle of the city.
tOt& Sicilia (Verr. iv. 51), throughout Sicily (in the whole of Sicily).
tOt& Tairacina (De Or. ii. 240), in all Tarracina.
cunctd. Asia atque Graeci& (Manil. 12), throughout the whole of Asia and
Greece too.
3. In many idiomatic expressions which have lost the idea of place :
pendemus animis (Tusc. i. 96), we are in suspense of mind (in our minds),
socius peiicufis vOblscum aderO (lug. 85. 47), I will he present with you, a
companion in dangers.
4. Freely in poetry : —
litore curvO (Aen. iii. 16), on the loinding shore.
antro seclusa relinquit (id. iii. 446), she leaves them shut up in the cave.
Epiro, Hesperia (id. iii. 503), in Epirus, in Hesperia.
premit altum corde dolOrem (id. i. 209) , Ae keeps down the pain deep in his heart.
a. The way by which is put in the Ablative without a preposition:
yi& breviOre equitSs praemisi (Fam. x. 9), J sent forward the aavatry by a
shorter road.
AegaeO mari trd,iecit (Liv. xxxyii. 14), he crossed by way of the ^gean Sea.
prOvehimur pelag5 (Aen. iii. 506), we sail forth over the sea.
Note. — In this use the way by which is conceived as the means of passage.
§§42^-431] RELATIONS OF PLACE 273
b» Position is frequently expressed by the Ablative with ab (rarely
ex), properly meaning from: — ^
& tergO, in the rear; & sinisti'S,, on the Wt hand. [Cf. hinc, on this side.]
& parte Pomp§i9.na, on the side of Pompey.
ex alter& parte, on the other side.
mfign& ex parte, in a great degree (from, i.e. in, a great part).
430. Verbs of placing, though implying motion, take the con-
struction of the place where : —
Such are pOn0, loc0, collocO, statuO, cOnstituO, etc. : —
qui in 88de ac domS collocftvit (Par. 25), who put [one] into his place and
home.
statoitiir eques ROmftnus in Apr6nl conidyiS (Verr. iii. 62), a Roman knight
is brought into a banquet of Apronius.
Insula Delos in AegaeO man posita (Manil. 55), the island of Detos, sit^wted in
the JEgean Sea.
8l in UnO Pompeio omnia pCnerStis (id. 59), if you made everything depend on
Pompey alone.
Note. — Compounds of p5n5 take various constructions (see the Lexicon under
each word).
431. Several verbs are followed by the Ablative.
These are acquiSscO, dSlector, laetor, gaudeO, glOrior, nitor, stO, maneO,
fidO, cOnfidO, cOnsistO, contineor.
nominibns yeterum glOriantur (Or. 169), they glory in the names of the ancients.
[Also, de dlvitils (in virtute, circa rem, aliquid, haec) gloriarl.]
spS nitl (Att. iii. 9), to rely on hope.
prddentift fldSns (Off. i. 81), truHting in prudence.
Note. — The ablative with these verbs sometimes takes the preposition in (but
fido In is late), and the ablative with them is probably locative. Thus, — in quibtts
causa nititur (Cael. 25), on whom the case depends.
"With several of these verbs the neuter Accusative of pronouns is often found. For
fido and confidS with the Dative, see § 367.
a. The verbals frStas, contentus, and laetus take the Locative Abla-
tive : —
fr6tu8 gr&tiA Brtttl (Att. v. 21. 12), relying on the favor of Brutus.
laetus praedi, rejoicing in the booty.
contentus sorte, content with his lot. [Possibly Ablative of Cause.]
nOn fuit contentus glSilA (Dom. 101), he loos not content with the glory.
Note. — So intentus, rarely: as, — aliqu5 negdtiS intentus (SaU. Cat. 2), intent
on some occupation.
1 Apparently the direction whence the sensuoitt impression oomes.
274 SYNTAX: CONSTKUCTION OF CASBS [{ 43S
SPECIAL USES OF PREPOSITIOll S >
Adverbs and Pxepositions
132. Certain Adverbs and Adjectives are sometimes nsed as
Prepositions : —
a. The adverbs pridiS^ postiidie, propius, prozime, less frequently the
adjectives propior and proidmus, may be followed by the Accusative : —
pridifi Ndn&s BiftiSa (Att. ii. 11), the day b^ore the Nones of May (see § 631).
poBtrldifi IfldSs (Att. zvi. 4), the day after the games,
propius peiiciilaiii (Liv. zxi. 1), nearer to danger,
propior montem (log. 49), nearer the hiU.
proximus maxe Oceanum (B. G. iii. 7), nearest the ocean.
Note. — PifdiC and postridie take also the Qenitiye (§ 359. () . Fxopiar, froipiu, pfoxi-
mus, and proziiiii, take also the Dative, or the Ablative with ab: —
propins Tiberi qnam Theimopylis (Nep. Hann. 8), nearer to the Tiber than to Ther-
Sngambri qui snnt proximi RhSnd (B. 6. \i. 35), the Sugambri, who are nearest
to the Rhine,
proximiiB t postrBmS (Or. 217) , next to the last,
b. Usque sometimes takes the Accusative, but Usque ad is much
more common : —
t^^Tm^j^ t^ue Libyae (lust. i. 1. 6), to the bounds of Libya.
tlsque ad castra hostium (B. G. i. 51), to the enemy^s camp.
Cm The adverbs palam, procol, simul, may be used as prepositions
and take the Ablative: —
rem crSditOrl palam popalS solvit (Liv. vi. 14), Tie paid the dM to his creditor
in the presence of the people.
baud procal castria in modum mQnicipI exstrficta (Tao. H. iv. 22), not far
from the camp, built up like a toum,
simnl nSbis habitat barbaras (Ov. Tr. v. 10. 29), close among ica dtoeSs the
barbarian.
Note. — But simnl regularly takes cum ; procul is usually followed by ab in classic
writers ; and the use of palam as a preposition is comparatively late.
d» The adverb dam is found in early Latin with the Accusative,
also once with the Genitive and once in classical Latin with the
Ablative : —
clam Eiitran suam (PI. MiL 112), unknoum to his mother.
elam patzia (id. Merc 43), without his father^ s knowledge,
clam vobia (B. C. ii. 32. 8), without your knowledge,
^ Vot a list of Prepoaitiona with their ordinary «aaa, aae % 881.
§§4SI-435] ADVBBBS AND PREPOSITIONS 275
433. Prepositions often retain their original meaning as Ad-
verbs : —
1. Ante and post in relations of time : —
quOs paulO ante diximus (Brut. 32), whom I mentioned a lUUe while ago.
post tribus di6bas, three day» after (cf . § 424. /).
2. Adversua, dxcher, ptope : —
n€m5 adTeraus Ibat (Liv. zzxvii. 13. 8), no one toevif out in opposition.
drdter pars qu&rta (Sail. Cat. 56), about the fourth part.
prope exanim&tus, Tiearly lifeless.
3. A or ab, off, in expressions of distance, with the Ablative of
Degree of Difference (§ 414) : —
iL mflibos passaam circiter duObus R^teiftnOram adyentitm ezspectlttmiDt
(B. G. y. 32), tA a distannce of about two mUee (about two miles ofiF) ttoy
awaited Vie cq^proajch of the Romans.
4. In general, prepositions ending in -ft : —
Aeolus haec contrft (Aen. i. 76), thus j^oIus in reply.
forte fuit iOztft tumulus (id. iii. 22), there happened to he a mound close by.
434. Some Prepositions and Adverbs which imply comparison
are followed, like comparatives, by qaam, which may be separated
by several words, or even clauses.
Such words are ante, prius, post, posteft, pndie^ postiidiS; also magis
and prae in compounds : —
neqoe ante dimlsit earn qnam-fidsm dedit (Liv. xzziz. 10), nor did he lot him
go ufiiU he gave a pledge.
post diem tertinm qtiam dixerat (Mil. 44), tfie third day after he said it.
CatO ipse lam servire qnam ptlgnare mavult (Att. vii. 16), Cato himself by this
time had rather be a slave than fight.
GallOrum qnam B0m&n5rum Imperia praefene (B. G. i. 17), [they] pr^er the
rule of OavXs to that of Romans.
NoTB. — The ablatiye of time is sometimes followed hj qnam in the same way
(§424./) : as, — oetavO mense <iaam (Liv. xxi. 15), xoithin eight months after, etc.
435. The following Prepositions sometimes come after their
nouns : ad, citrS, drcum, oontrft, dS, 6 (ez), inter* luztft, penes, propter,
ultril; BO regularly tenns and versas, and occasionally others: —
[usos] qoem penes arbitrium est et ius et norma loquendl (Hor. A. P. 72),
custom, -vnier who^ control is the choice, right, and rule of speech.
ctdus ft m6 corpus est cremStum, quod contr& decuit ab illG meam (Cat. M.
84), whose body I burned [on the funeral pile], while on the contrary
(contrary to wliich) mine should have been burned by him.
276 SYNTAX: THE VERB [§436
SYNTAX OF THE VERB
MOODS AND TENSES
436. The Syntax of the Verb relates chiefly to the use of the Moods (which express
the mamier in which the action is conceived) and the Tenses (which express the time of
the action) . There is no difference in origin between mood and tense ; and hence the
nses of mood and tense frequently cross each other. Thus the tenses sometimes have
modal significations (compare indicative in apodosis, § 517. c ; future for imperative,
^ 449. h) ; and the moods sometimes express time (compare subjunctive in future con-
ditions, §516. &, and notice the want of a future subjunctive).
The parent language had, besides the Imperative mood, two or more forms with
modal signification. Of these, the Subjunctive appears with two sets of termina-
tions, -a-m, -4-8, in the present tense (moneam, dicam), and -€-m, -6-«, in the present
(amem) or other tenses (essem, dixissem). The Optative was formed by IS-, i-, with the
present stem (sim, duim) or the perfect (dixerim). (See details in §§ 168, 169.)
Each mood has two general classes or ranges of meaning. The uses of the Sub-
junctive may all be classed under the general ideas of wUl or desire and of action
vividly conceived; and the uses of the Optative under the general ideas of wish and
•of action vagudy conceived.
It must not be supposed, however, that in any given construction either the sub-
junctive or the optative was deliberately used becaiLse it denoted conception or possi-
bility. On the contrary, each construction has had its own line of development from
more tangible and literal forms of thought to more vague and ideal; and by this
process the mood used came to have in each case a special meaning, which was after-
wards habitually associated with it in that construction. Similar developments have
taken place in English. Thus, the expression / would do this has become equivalent
to a mild command, while by analysis it is seen to be the apodosis of a present condi-
tion contrary to fact (§ 617) : if I were you, etc. By further analysis, / would do is
seen to have meant, originally, / should have wished (or / did wish) to do.
In Latin, the original Subjunctive and the Optative became confounded in meaning
and in form, and were merged in the Subjunctive, at first in the present tense. Then
new tense-forms of the subjunctive were formed,^ and to these the original as well as
the derived meanings of both moods became attached (see § 438) . All the independent
uses of the Latin subjunctive are thus to be accounted for.
The dependent uses of the subjunctive have arisen from the employment of some
independent subjunctive construction in connection with a main statement. Most fre-
quently the main statement is prefixed to a sentence containing a subjunctive, as
a more complete expression of a complex idea (§ 268). Thus a question implying a
general negative (quin rogem? why shouldn't I ask?) might have the general nega-
tive expressed in a prefixed statement (nulla causa est, there is no reason) ; or abeat,
let him go away, may be expanded into sine abeat. When such a combination comes
into habitual use, the original meaning of the subjunctive partially or wholly dis-
appears and a new meaning arises by implication. Thus, in misit ISgatos qui diceient,
he sent ambassadors to say (i.e. who should say), the original hortatory sense of the
subjunctive is partially lost, and the mood becomes in part an expression of purpose.
Similar processes may be seen in the growth of Apodosis. Thus, telle banc opinidnem,
luctum sttstuleris, remove this notion, you will have donk away wUh gri^ (i.e. if you
remove, etc.).
1 For the signification of the tense-endings, see §§ 168, 169.
§§ 436, 437]
INDICATIVE MOOD
277
The Infinitiye is ori^nally a verbal noun (§ 451), modifying a verb like other nouns :
▼olo vidSre, lit. " I wish for-seeing " : compare English "what went ye out for to see ? "
But in Latin it has been surprisingly developed, so as to have forms for tense, and some
proper modal characteristicSi and to be used as a substitute for finite moods.
The other noun and adjective forms of the verb have been developed in various
ways, which are treated under their respective heads below.
The proper Verbal Constructions may be thus classified : —
I. Indicative: Direct Assertion or Question (§437).
1. Exhortation or Command (§439).
2. Concession (§440).
3. Wish (§441). .
4. Question of Doubt etc. (§444).
5. Possibility or Contingency (§446).
( a. Independent
Uses:
n. Subjunctive:
b. Dependent
Uses:
m. Imperative
: \ 2.
I 3.
IV. Infinitive:
1. Conditions ( Future (less yiyid)(§ 616. 6, c).
I Contrary to Fact (§ 617).
2. Purpose (with ut, ng) (§531).
3. Characteristic (Relative Clause) (§535).
4. Result (with ut, ut n5n) (§537).
6. Time (with cum) (§ 546).
6. Intermediate (Indirect Discourse) (§592).
7. Indirect Questions or Commands (§§ 574,
588).
1. Direct Commands (often Subjunctive) (§448).
Statutes, Laws, and Wills (§449. 2).
Prohibitions (early or poetic use) (§ 450. a),
a. Subject of esse and Impersonal Verbs (§§ 452, 454).
6. Objective
Construc-
tions :
c. Idiomatic
Uses:
1. Complementary Infinitive (§456).
2. Indirect Discourse (with Subject Accusative)
(§580).
1. Purpose (poetic or Greek use) (§460).
2. Exclamation (with Subject Accusative)
(§,462).
3. Historical Infinitive (§463).
MOODS
INDICATIVE MOOD
437. The Indicative is the mood of direct assertions or ques-
tions when there is no modification of the verbal idea except that
of time.
a. The Indicative is sometimes used where the English idiom
would suggest the Subjunctive : —
longum est, U woidd be tedious [if, etc.]; satius erat, it would have been bet-
ter [if, etc.]; perseqm possum, I might foUovo up [in detail].
Note. —Substitutes for the Indicative are (1) the Historical Infinitive (§ 463), and
(2) the Infinitive in Indirect Discourse (§580).
For the Indicative in Conditions, see §§ 515, 516 ; for the Indicative in implied Com-
mands, see § 449. b.
278 SYNTAX: THE VERB [§§488,439
SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD
438. The Subjunctive in general expresses the verbal idea witii
some modification^ such as is expressed in English by auxiliaries,
by the infinitive, or by the rare subjunctive (§ 157. 5).
a. The Subjunctive is used independently to express —
1. An Exhortation or Command (Hortatory Subjunctive: § 439).
2. A Concession (Concessioe Subjunctive: §440).
3. XYf'uh {Optalice Subjunctive: §441).
4. A Question of Doubt etc. (^Deliberative Subjunctive: § 444).
5. A Possibility or Contingency (Potential Subjunctive: § 446).
For the special idiomatic uses of the Sabjunetive in Apodosis, see § 514.
b» The Subjunctive is used in dependent clauses to express —
1. Condition : future or contrary to fact (§§ 516. 6, c, 517).
2. Purpose (Ftnai, § 531).
3. Characteristic (§ 535).
4. Result (Consecutive, § 537).
5. Time (Temporal, §546).
6. Indirect Questoon (§ 574).
c. The Subjunctive is also used with Conditional Particles of Com-
parison (§ 524), and in subordinate clauses in the Indirect Discourse
(§ 580).
SUBJITNCTIVB IN INDEPENDENT SENTENCES
Hortatory Subjunctive
439. The Hortatory Subjunctive is used in the present tense
to express an exhortation or a command. The negative is nS.
hOs latrOnSs interfid&mas (B. G. vii. 38), let V3 kiU these robbers.
caveant intemperantiam, meminennt yerScundiae (Off. i. 122), let them shun
excess and cherish modesty.
NoTK 1, — The hortatory subjunctive occurs rarely in the perfect (except in pro-
hibitions: §450) : as, — Epiciirus hOc viderit (Acad. ii. 19), let Epicurua look to this.
NoTB 2. — The term hortatory 8ubjunctit>e is sometimes restricted to the first per-
son plural, the second and third persons heing designated as thejiusive stdguMtcHve;
hut the constructions are substantially identical.
^ These modifications are of various kinds, each of which has had its own special
development (cf. § 436). The subjunctive in Latin has also many idiomatic uses (as in
clauses of Result and Time) where the English does not modify the verbal idea at aB,
but expresses it directly. In such cases the Latin merely takes a different view of
the action and has develoi)ed the construction differently from the English.
§§ 439, 440] HORTATORY SUBJUNCTIVE 279
Note 3. — Once in Cicero and occasionally in the poets and later writers the nega-
tive with the hortatory subjunctive is nSn : as, — a legibus n5n reofidAmas (Clu. 155), let
us not abandon ihe lanos.
a. The Second Person of the hortatory subjunctive is used onlj
of an indefinite subject^ except in prohibitions, in early Latin, and in
poetry : —
initlrias fortunae, quSfi ferre nequeds, defugiendO relinquas (Tusc. v. 118), the
tmronga of fortune^ which you cannot hear^ leaoe behind by flight.
ezori&re aliquis ultor (Aen. iv. 625), rise, some avenger,
istO bono utare dum adsit, cum absit ne requiras (Cat. M. 33), use this bless-
ing while it is present; when it is wanting do not regret it.
doceafl iter et sacra Ostia pandas (Aen. vi. 109), show us the way and lay open
the sacred portals.
For Negative Commands {prohibitions) ^ see §450.
6. The Imperfect and Pluperfect of» the hortatory suhjunctive
denote an unfulfilled obligation in past time : —
moreretar, inqui^s (Rab. Post. 20), he should have died, you will say.
potius doceret (Off. iii. 88), he should rather have taugld.
ng poposcisses (Alt. ii. 1. 3), you should not have asked,
saltern aliquid de pondere dStrSzisset (Fin. iv. 57), at least he should have
taken something from the weight.
NoTB 1. — In this construction the Pluperfect usually differs from the Imperfect
only in more clearly representing the time for action as momentary or as past.
Note 2. — This use of the subjunctive is carefully to be distinguished from the
potential use (§ 446). The difference is indicated by the translation, should or ought
(not would or might).
440. The Hortatory Subjunctive is used to express a conces-
sion,^ The Present is used for present time, the Perfect for past.
Tlie negative is n6.
sit fur, sit sacrilegus: at est bonus iraperator (Verr. v. 4), grant he is a
thief, a godless wretch : yet he is a good general.
faerit aliis ; tibi quand{) esse coepit (Verr. ii. 1. 37), suppose he was [so] to
others ; when did he begin to be to you f
ii€mQ is nmquam fuit: ne fuerit (Or. 101), there never was muih a one [you
will say] : granted (let there not have been),
ne sit summum malum dolor, malum cert6 est (Tusc. ii. 14), granted that
pain is not the greatest evil, at least it is an eovL
Note. — The concessive subjunctive with quamvis and licet is originally hortatory
(§527. a, 6).
For oth^ methods of expressing Concession, see § 527.
For the Hortatory Subjunctive denoting a Proviso, see § 528. a.
1 Many scholars regard the concessive subjunctive as a development of the Optative
Subjunctive in a wish.
280 SYNTAX: THE VERB [§§441,442
Optative Subjunctive
441. The Optative Subjunctive is used to express a Wish. The
present tense denotes the wish as possible^ the imperfect as unac-
oompliahed in present time, the pluperfect as unaccomplished in
past time. The negative is ne : —
ita vivam (Att. v. 16), as true as I live^ so may I live.
ne vivam si sciO (id. iv. 16. 8), I wish I may not live if I know.
di 16 perduint (Deiot. 21), the gods confound thee!
valeant, valeant civ68 mei ; sint incolumes (Mil. 93), farewell^ farewell to my
fellow-citizens ; may they he secure from harm.
dl facerent sine patre forem (Ov. M. viii. 72), would tJiat the gods allowed me
to he without a father (but they do not) 1
a. The perfect subjrmctive in a wish is archaic : —
di faxint (Fam. xiv. 3. 3), may the gods grant.
quod di Omen averterint (Phil. xii. 14, in a religious formula), and may the
gods avert this omen.
442. The Optative Subjunctive is often preceded by the par-
ticle utinam ; so regularly in the imperfect and pluperfect : —
falsus utinam y&t€s sim (Liv. xxi. 10. 10), J wish I may he a false prophet.
utinam ClOdius viveret (Mil. 103), would that Clodius were now alive.
utinam mS mortuum vidisses (Q. Fr. i. 3. 1), would you had seen me dead.
utinam nS Y<5r6 scriberem (Fam. v. 17. 3), would that I were not writing the
truth.
Note. — Utinam non is occasionally used instead of ntinam nS: as, — utinam sus-
ceptus n5n essem (Att. ix. 9. 3), icovld that I had not heeri born.
a. In poetry and old Latin uti or ut often introduces the optative
subjunctive ; and in poetry si or 0 si with the subjunctive sometimes
expresses a wish : —
ut pereat positum rObigine telum (Hor. S. ii. 1. 43), may the weapon unused
perish with rust.
6 SI angulus ille accedat (id. ii. 6. 8), O if that corner might only he added!
81 nunc s6 nObis ille aureus ramus ostendat (Aen. vi. 187), if now that golden
branch would only show itself to us !
Note 1. — The subjunctive with uti (ut) or utinam was originally deliberative,
meaning how may /, etc. (§ 444) . The subjunctive with si or 6 si is a protasis (§ 512. a),
the apodosis not being expressed.
Note 2. — The subjunctive of wish without a particle is seldom found in the imper-
fect or pluperfect except by sequence of tenses in Indirect Discourse (§ 585): as, — ac
venerata Ceres, ita culm5 surgeret alt5 (Hor. S. ii. 2. 124), and Ceres worshipped [with
libations] that so she might rise with tall stalk, [In addressing the goddess directly
the prayer would be : ita surgSs.]
§§ 442-444] DELIBERATIVE SUBJUNCTIVE 281
&• Velim and vellem, and their compounds, with a subjimctiye or
infinitive, are often equivalent to an optative subjunctive : —
velim tibi persaade&s (Fam. ix. 13. 2), I should like to have you believe (I
should wish that you would persuade yourself).
d6 MenedSmO vellem vSrum faisset, d@ r^glnft yelim yerum sit (Att. xv. 4. 4),
about Menedemua I wish it had been true ; about the queen I wish it may be.
nollem accidisset tempus (Fam. iii. 10. 2), I wish the time never had come.
maUem Cerberum metnerSs (Tusc. 1. 12), I had rather have had you afraid
of Cerberus (I should have preferred that you feared Cerberus).
Note. — Velim etc., in this use, are either potential subjunctives, or apodoses with
the protasis omitted (§ 447. 1. N.). The thing wished may be regarded as a substantive
clause used as object of the verb of wishing (§ 565. n. ^).
Deliberative Subjunctive
443. The Subjunctive was used in sentences of interrogative form, at first when
the i^>eaker wished information in regard to the will or desire of the person addressed.
The mood was therefore fiortatory in origin. But such questions when addressed by
the speaker to himself, as if asking his own advice, become deliberative or, not infre-
quently, merely exdamatory. In such cases the mood often approaches the meaning
of the Potential (see § 445). In these uses the subjunctive is often caUed peliberative
or Dubitative.
444. The Subjunctive is used in questions implying (1) doubty
indignation^ or (2) an impossibility of the thing's being done.
The negative is nOn.
quid agam, iadices? quO m6 vertam (Verr. v. 2), what am I to do, judges f
whither shall I turn f
etiamne eam salutem (PI. Rud. 1275), shaU I greet her f
quid hoc homine facias? quod supplicium dignum libidini §ius inveni&s (Verr.
ii. 40), what are you to do with this man f what fit penalty can you devise
for his wantonness f
an ego nOn venirem (Phil. ii. 8), what, shoidd I not have come f
quid dicerem (Att. vi. 3. 9), what was I to say f
quis enim c81aveiit ignem (Ov. H. xv. 7), who could conceal the flame?
Note. — The hortatory origin of some of these questions is obvious. Thus, — quid
faciSmus ? =faciamas [aliquid] , quid ? let us do —what ? (Compare the expanded form
quid vis faci&mus ? what do you wish us to do ?) Once established, it was readily trans-
ferred to the past: quid faciam? what am I to do? quid facerem? what was I to do?
Questions implying impossibility, however, cannot be distinguished from Apodosis
(of. §517).
a. In many cases the question has become a mere exclamation,
rejecting a suggested possibility :
mihi umquam bonQrum praesidium dgfuturum putarem (Mil. 94), could 1
think that the defence of good men would ever fail me!
Note. — The indicative is sometimes used in deliberative questions : as, — quid ag6,
what am I to do?
282 SYNTAX: THE VERB flS 446-447
Potential Subjunctive
445. Of the two principal uses of the Subjunctive in independent sentences (cf.
§436), the seeond, or Potential Subjunctive,^ is found in a variety of sentenee-forms
having as their common el^nent the fact that the mood represents the acticm as merely
conceived or possible, not aa desired {PiortcUorif, optative) or rea> (indicative). Some
of these nsea are very old and may go back to the Indo-Euroi>ean parent siieech, but
no satisfactory connection between the Potential and the Hortatory and Optative
Subjunctive has been traced. There is no single English equivalent for the Potential
Subjunctive; the mood must be rendered, according to circumstances, by the auxil-
iaries would, shoidd, may, might, can, could.
446. The Potential Subjunctive is used to suggest an action
as possible or conceivable. The negative is n6n.
In this use the Present and the Perfect refer without distinction to
the immediate/z^ura; the Imperfect (occasionally the Perfect) topaM
time ; the Pluperfect (which is rare) to what miffht have happened.
447. The Potential Subjunctive has the following uses : —
1. In cautious or modest assertions in the first person singular of
expressions of saying, thinking, or wishing (present or perfect) : —
pace tu& dixerim (Mil. 108), I would say by your leave.
haud sciam an (Lael. 51), I should incline to think.
tu velim sic ezistim€s (Fam. xii. 6), / shxmld like you to think so.
certum affirm 9x6 non ausim (Liv. iii. 23), I should not dare to assert as sure.
Note. — Vellem, nollem, or mallem expressing an unfulfilled wish in present time
may be classed as independent potential subjunctive or as the apodosis of an nnex-
pressed condition (§521): as — veUem adesset M. Antonius (Phil. i. 16), I could wish
Antony were here.
2. In the indefinite second person singular of verbs of saying, think-
ing, and the like (present or imperfect) : —
crgdas n5n dg puer5 scriptnm sed a puero (PI in. Ep. iv. 7. 7), you wouid
think thai it was written not about a boy hvt by a boy.
crederes victOs (Liv. ii. 43. 9), you would have thought them conquered.
reOs diceres (id. ii. 35. 6), you would have said they were culprits.
videres susurros (Hor. S. ii. 8. 77), you might have seen them whispering (lit.
whispers).
fretO assimilare posms (Ov. M. v. 6), you might compare it to a sea.
3. With other verbs, in all persons, when some word or phrase in
the context implies that the action is expressed as merely possible ot
conceivable : —
1 The name Poteniial St^nnctive is not precisely deseriptiye, bnt is faeA in
grammatical usage.
91 447, 448] IMPERATIVE MOOD 283
nU ego contalcrim iHcundd s&nuB amlc6 (Hor. S. i. 5. 44), when m my senses
I should compare nothing with an interesting friend.
f orttLnam citius repeiifts quam retiiiefts (Pub. Syr. 168V, you may sooner find
foertiuve th€ai keep iL
aliquis dicat (Ter. And. 640), somebody may say.
NoTB. — In this use the subjunctive may be regarded as the apodosia of an unde-
veloped protasis. When the conditional idea becomes clearer, it finds expression iit
a formal protasis, and a conditional sentence is developed.
a« Forsitan, perhaps, regularly takes the Potential Subjunctive
except in later Latin and in poetry, where the Indicative is also
common : —
forsitan qaaerfttis qui iste terror sit (Rose. Am. 6), you may perhaps inquire
what this aJtarm is,
forsitan temerS fecexim (id. 31), perhaps I hane acted rashiy.
Note. — The subjunctive clause with forsitan (=for8 sit an) was originally an Indi-
rect Qnestion : it would he a chance whether, etc.
6. FortBLsaey perhaps, is regularly followed by the Indicative; some-
times, however, by the Subjunctive, but chiefly in later Latin: —
quaeres fortaase (Pam. zv. 4. 13), perhaps you will ask.
Note. — Other expressions tor perhaps are (1) forsan (chiefly poetical; construed
with the indicative or the subjunctive, more commonly the indicative), fors (rare and
poetical ; construed with either the indicative or the subjunctive). Forait (or fors sit)
occurs once (Hor. S. i. 6. 49) and takes the subjunctive. Fortaase is sometimes followed
by the infinitive with subject accusative in Plautus and Terence. Fortassis (rare ; con-
strued like fortasse) and fortasse an (very rare; construed with the subjunctive) are
also found.
IMPERATIVE MOOD
448. The Imperative is used in Commands and Entreaties : —
cdnsulite v5bls, prdspicite patriae, cSnservftte v5s (Cat. iv. S)^ ha/oe a care for
yoursdves, guard Uie country , preserve yourselves.
die, M&rce Toll!, sententiam, Marcus TuUiuSy state your opinion.
t€ ipsum cancnte (Hor. S. t 3. 35), examine yowrseilf.
Vive, valSque (id. ii. 5. 110), farewell^ bless you (live and be well) I
miserere animi nOn digna ferentis ( Aen. ii. 144) ^ pity a soul bearing Undeserved
mitfortune.
«. The third person of the imperative is antiquated or poetic : —
olUs salCbs populi suprema l€z estd {J^'^g^- iii. 8), the safety of the people shall
be their first law.
itista imperia anata, elsque clv€s roodestg pftrentS (id. ill. 6), let there be law-
ful authorities, and let the citizens strictly obey them.
NoTB. — In prose the Hortatory Subjunctive is commonly used instead (§ 439).
284 SYNTAX : THE VERB [§ 449
449. The Future Imperative is used in commands, etc., where
there is a distinct reference to future time : —
1. In connection with some adverb or other expression that indi-
cates at what time in the future the action of the imperative shall take
place. So especially with a future, a future perfect indicative, or
(in poetry and early Latin) with a present imperative : —
eras petito, dabitur (PI. Merc. 769), oak to-morrow [and] U shaU he given,
cum val^ttidinl cOnsulueris, turn consulito nftvigatiODl (Fam. xvi. 4. 3), when
you fiave attended to your healthy then look to your sailing.
Fhyllida mitte mihl, meus est nS,tali8, I0II& ; cum f aciam vitul& pr5 f rtLg^ibus,
ipse venito (Eel. iii. 76), send Phyllis to me, it is my birthday, loUas;
when I [shall] sacrjfijce a heifer for the harvest, come yourself.
die quibus in terrls, etc., et Fhyllida sOlus habetd (id. iii. 107), tell in what
lands, etc., and have Phyllis for yourself.
2. In general directions serving for all time, as Precepts, Statutes,
and Wills : —
is iuris clvilis ctistOs estS (Legg. iii. 8), let him (the prsetor) be the guardian
of civil right.
Borea fiante, ne aratS, sSmen n6 iacitd (Plin. H. K. xviii. 334), when the north
wind blows, plough not nor sow your seed.
a. The verbs sciO, memini, and habed (in the sense of consider) regu-
larly use the Future Imperative instead of the Present : —
flUol5 me auctum scitd (Att. i. 2), learn that I am blessed with a little boy.
sic habetd, ml Tird (Fam. xvi. 4. 4), so understand it, my good Tiro.
de palla mementd, amd,bO (PI. Asin. 930), remember, dear, about the gown,
b. The Future Indicative is sometimes used for the imperative ;
and quin (why not ?) with the Present Indicative may have the force
of a command : —
si quid accident novl, faciSs ut sciam (Fam. xiv. 8), you wiU let me know if
anything new happens.
quIn accipis (Ter. Haut. 832), here, take it (why not take it?).
c. Instead of the simple Imperative, cura ut, fac (fac ut), or velim,
followed by the subjunctive (§ b^b), is often used, especially in col-
loquial language : —
cura at R5mae sis (Att. i. 2), take care to be at Rome.
fac at valsttidinem cures (Fam. xiv. 17), see that you take care of your health.
domi adsitis facite (Ter. £un. 506), be at home, do.
eum mihi velim mittS,s (Att. viii. 11), J wish you would send it to me.
For commands in Indirect Discourse, see § 588.
For the Imperative with the force of a Conditional Clause, see § 521. 6.
§460] PROHIBITION (NEGATIVE COMMAND) 285
Prohibition (Negative Command)
450. Prohibition is regularly expressed in classic prose (1) by
ndi with the Infinitive, (2) by cav6 with the Present Subjunctive,
or (3) by n6 with the Perfect Subjunctive : — ^
(1) noU patare (Lig. 33), do not suppose (be unwilling to suppose).
noli impudens esse (Fam. zii. 30. 1), donH he shameless,
nSlite c5gere sociOs (Verr. ii. 1. 82), do not compel the aUies.
(2) cave putes (Att. vii. 20), don^t suppose (take care lest you suppose).
cave ignOscas (Lig. 14), do not pardon.
cavS festings (Fam. xvi. 12. 0), do not be in haste,
(3) xi§ necesse habaeris (Att. xvi. 2. 6), do not regard it as necessary,
ne Bis admirfttas (Fam. vii. 18. 3), do not be surprised.
hoc facitO; hOc nS fSceris (Div. ii. 127), thoushaU do this^ thou shaJt not do that,
ne Apellae quidem dizeris (Fam. vii. 25. 2), do not tell Apella even.
ne vOs quidem mortem timaeritis (Tusc. 1. 98), nor must you fear death.
All three of these constructions are well established in classic prose. The first,
which is the most ceremonious^ occurs oftenest ; the third, though not discourteous, is
usually less formal and more peremptory than the others.
Note 1. — Instead of nSli the poets sometimes use other imperatives of similar
meaning (cf. § 457. a): —
parce pias scelerare manus (Aen. iii. 42), forbear to defile your pious hands,
cetera mitte loqui (Hor. Epod. 13. 1), forbear to say the rest,
iugfi quaerere (Hor. Od. i. 9. 13), do not inquire.
NoTS 2. — CavS ne is sometimes used in prohibitions ; also vid6 nS and (colloquially)
tac ne : as, — fac nS quid aliud cures (Fam. xvi. 11), see that you attend to nothing else.
Note 3. — The present subjunctive with nC and the perfect with cave are found in
old writers ; ne with the present is common in poetry at all periods : —
ne exspectetis (PI. Ps. 1234), do not wait.
ne metofts (Mart. Ep. i. 70. 13), do not fear,
cave quicquam responderis (PI. Am. 608), do not make any reply.
Note 4. — Other negatives sometimes take the place of ne : —
nihil ignOveris (Mur. 65), grant no pardon (pardon nothing),
nee mihi illud dixeris (Fin. i. 25), and do not say this to me.
Note 6. — The regular connective, and do not, is neve.
a. The Present Imperative with nS is used in prohibitions by early
writers and the poets : —
n6 time (PI. Cure. 520), don't be afraid.
nimium n€ crede colOrl (Eel. ii. 17), trust not too much to complexion.
equO n6 credite (Aen. ii. 48), trust not the horse.
&• The Future Imperative with n6 is used in prohibitions in laws
and formal precepts (see § 449. 2).
1 In prohibitions the subjunctive with ne is hortatory ; that with cave is an object
clause (cf. §§ 450. y, ^, 565. n. i).
286 SYNTAX : THE VERB [§§ 461, 452
INFINITIVE MOOD
45 1« The tofinitiye is properly a noun denoting the action of the verb abstractly.
It differs, howeTer, from other abstract nouns in the following points: (I) it oft^i
admits the distinction of tense ; (2) it is modified by adverbs, not by ac^ectives; (3) it
governs the same case as its verb ; <4) it is limited to special constructions.
The Latin Infinitive is the dative or locative case of such a noun ^ and was origi-
nally used to denote Purpose; but it has in many constructions developed into a sub-
stitute for a finite verb. Hence the variety of its use.
In its use as a verb, the Infinitive may take a Subject Accusative (§ 397. e), origi-
nally the object of another verb on which the Infinitive depended. Thus ittbed tC valSre
is literally / command you for being well (cf. substantive clauses, § 562. n.).
Infinitive as Noun
452. The Infinitive, with or without a subject accusative, may
be used with est and similar verbs (1) as the Subject, (2) in Appo-
sition with the subject, or (3) as a Predicate Nominative-^
1. As Subject : —
dolere malum est (Fin. v. 84), to suffer pain is an evil.
bellum est sua vitia nosse (Alt. ii. 17), it ^s a fine thing to know one's awn
favJUs.
praestat compSnere fluct&s (Aen. i. 135), it is better to calm the vfoves.
2. In Apposition with the Subject : —
proinde quasi iniuriam facere id demum asset imperi5 Htl (Sail. Cat. 12),
just as if this and this alone, to commit ir^juMice, were to use power.
[Here facere is in apposition with id.]
3. As Predicate Nominative : —
id est convenienter n9.turae vivere (Fin. iv. 41), Viat is to live in conformity
with nature. [Cf. uti in the last example.]
Note 1. — An infinitive may be used as Direct Object in connection with a Predi-
cate Accusative (§ 393), or as Appositive with such Direct Object: —
istuc ipsum non esse cum fueris miserrimum puto (Tusc. i. 12), for I think thi*
very thing most wretched, not to be when one has been. [Here istuc ipsnm
belongs to the noun non esse.]
miserazi, invidSre, gestire, laet&n, haec omnia morbOs Graea appellant (id. iii. 7),
to feel pity, envy, desire, joy, — all these things the Greeks oaU diseases.
[Here the infinitives are in apposition with haec]
^ The ending -9 (amire, monCre, regere, audire) was apparently locative, the ending -i
(am&n, mongii, re|^, audiri) apparently dative ; but this difference of case had no signifi-
cance for Latin syntax. The general Latin restriction of the i-infinitives to the passive
was not a primitive distinction, but grew up in the course of time.
^ In these eonstraetions the abstract idea expressed by tlie infinitive is represented
as having some quality or belonging to some thing.
§§462-464] INFINITIVE AS SUBJECT OF IMPERSONALS 287
Note 2. — An Appositive or Predicate noun or adjective used with an infiuitiYe in
any of these constructions is put in the Accusative, whether the infinitive has a sub-
ject expressed or not. Thus, — nOn esse cnpidun pecunia est (Par. 51), to hefrteftova
desires (not to be desirous) is money in hand. [No Subject Accusative.]
a. The infinitive as subject is not common except with est and
similar verbs. But sometimes, especially in poetry, it is used as the
subject of verbs which are apparently more active in meaning : —
qnOs omnia eadem cnpere, eadem odisae, eadem metaere, in tinnm co€git
(lug. 31), oU of whom the fact of desiring^ hatijig, and feanng the same
things has united into one.
ingenu&s didicisse fideliter artis emoUit mOres (Ov. P. ii. 0. iS), faithfuUy to
have learned liberal arts softens the manners.
posse loqul eiipitiir (Ov. M. ii. 483), the power of speech is taken away.
453. Rarely the Infinitive is used exactly like the Accusative
of a noun : —
be&te vivere alii in alio, vOs in volupt&te pOnitis (Fin. ii. 86)^ a happy life
different [philosopherB] base an different things, you on pleasure.
quam malta . . . facimus causa amicOnun, precan ab indignO, supplicAre, etc.
(Lael. 57), how many things we do for our friends' sake, ask favors from
an unworthy person, resort to entreaty, etc.
nihil explOrfttum babefls, ne am&re quidem aut amSri (id. 97), ycm have noth-
in{i assured, not even loving and being loved.
Note. — Many complementary and other constructions approach a proper aocusa-
tivB nse of the infinitive, but their development has been different from that of the
examples above. Thus, — avaritia . . . superbiam, crudelitatem, deOsneCIegere, omnia
venalia babSre edocuit (Sail. Cat. 10), avarice taught pride y cruelty, to neglect the gods,
and to Tiold everything at a price.
Infinitive as Apparent Subject of Impersonals
454. The Infinitive is used as the apparent Subject with many
impersonal verbs and expressions :
Such are libet, licet, oportet, decet, placet, visum est, pudet, piget,
necesse est, opus est, etc. : —
llbet mihi cdnsider&re (Quinct. 48), it suits me to consider,
necesse est mod (Tusc. ii. 2), it ia necessary to die.
quid attinet glOriOsg loqni nisi cOnstanter loquare (Fin. ii. 89), whaigood does
it do to talk boastfully unless you speak consistently f
neque m6 vixisse paenitet (id. 84), I do not feel sorry to hone lived.
gnbeniSre me taed^bat (Att. ii. 7. 4), I was tired of being pilot
NoTTB. — This nae is a development ot the Complementaiy Infinitive (§456); bat
the infinitives approach the subject construction and may be conveniently regarded as
tbe subjects of the impersonals.
288 SYNTAX: THE VERB [§465
455. With impersonal verbs and expressions that take the In-
finitive as an apparent subject, the personal subject of the action
may be expressed —
1. By a Dative, depending on the verb or verbal phrase : —
rogant ut id sibi facere liceat (B. G. i. 7), they oak that it be allowed them to
do this,
nOn lubet enim mihi deplOrftre vltam (Cat. M. 84), for it does not please me
to lament my life,
visum est miU de senecttite aliquid cOnscrlbere ( id. 1), it seemed good to
me to write something about old age,
quid est tarn secundum n&ttiram quam senibas Smori (id. 71), w?iat is so
much in ajccordance with nature as for old men to die f
exstingui homini suO tempore optd.bile est (id. 85), for a man to die at the
appointed time is desirable.
2. By an Accusative expressed as the subject of the infinitive or
the object of the impersonal : —
si licet vivere eum quern Sex. Naevius nOn volt (Quinct. 94), if it is allowed
a man to live against the wiU of Sextus NceviiLS.
nOnne oportuit praescisse xn5 ante (Ter. And. 239), oiight I not to have knovm
b^orehand f
or&t5rem irasci minimS decet (Tusc. iv. 54), it is particularly unbecoming for
an orator to lose his temper,
puderet mi dicere (N. D. i. 109), I should be a,shamed to say,
cOnsilia ineunt quOrum eds in vestlgiO paenit€re necesse est (B. G. iv. 5), they
form plans for which they must at once be sorry,
NoTB. — Libet, placet, and yisam est take the dative only; oportet, pndet, pieet, and
generally decet, the accusative only ; licet and necesse est take either case.
a« A predicate noun or adjective is commonly in the Accusative;
but with licet regularly, and with other verbs occasionally, the Dative
is used : —
expedit bonas esse v5bis (Ter. Haut. 388), it is for your advantage to be good.
licuit esse dtidsS Themistocll (Tusc. i. 33), Themistocles might have been inac-
tive (it was allowed to Themistocles to be inactive),
mihi neglegenti esse nOn licet (Att. i. 17. 6), I miwt not be negligent. [But
also neglegentem.]
ctir his esse liberos non licet (Flacc. 71), why is it not allowed these men to
be free?
nOn est omnibus stantibas necesse dicere (Marc. SS)^ it is not necessary for
aU to speak standing,
NoTB. — When the subject is not expressed, as being indefinite (one, anybody), a
predicate nonn or adjective is regularly in the accusative (cf. §452. 3. n.*): as,—
vel pace vel bellO cl&rom fieri licet (Sail. Cat. 3), one can become illustrious either in
peace or in war.
§§ 456, 457] COMPLEMENTARY INFINITIVE 289
Complementary Infinitive
456. Verbs which imply another action of the same mbject to
complete their meaning take the Infinitive without a subject
accusative.
Such are verbs denoting to he Me, dare, undertake, remember, for-
get y he accustomed, hegin, continue, cease, hesitate, learn, know how,
fear, and the like : —
hoc queO dicere (Cat. M. 32), this I can say.
mittO quaerere (Rose. Am. 53), I omit to ask.
vereor laad&re praesentem (N. D. i. 58), I fear to praise a man to his face.
Gt6 ut mS,turgs venire (Alt iv. 1), I beg you will make haste to come,
oblivisci nOn possum quae volO (Fin. ii. 104), I cannot forget that which I
wish.
desine id me docSre (Tusc. ii. 20), cease to teach me that.
dicere solebat, he used to say.
audeC dicere, I venture to say.
loqui posse coepi, I began to be able to speak.
NoTK. — The peculiarity of the Complementary Infinitive construction is that no
Subject Accusative is in general admissible or conceivable. But some infinitives
usually regarded as objects can hardly be distinguished from this construction when
they have no subject expressed. Thus vol5 dicere and void m5 dicere mean the same
thing, / wish to speak, but the latter is object-infinitive, while the former is not
apparently different in origin and construction from qued dicere (complementary infin-
itive), and again volo eum dicere, / wish him to speak, is essentially different from
either (cf. §563. b).
457. Many verbs take either a Subjunctive Clause or a Com-
plementary Infinitive, without difference of meaning.
Such are verbs signifying willingness, necessity, propriety, resolve,
command, prohibition, effort, and the like (cf. § 563) : —
dScemere optfibat (Q. C. iii. 11. 1), he was eager to decide.
optavit at tolleretur (Off. iii. 94), he was eager to be taken up.
oppfignire contendit (B. G. v. 21), h£ strove to take by storm.
contendit at caperet (id. y. 8), Ae strove to take.
helium gerere c(^nstituit (id. iv. 6), he decided to carry on war.
cOnstitueram at manSrem (Att. xvi. 10. 1), I had decided to remain.
Note 1. — For the infinitive with subject accusative used with some of these verbs
instead of a complementary infinitive, see § 563.
Note 2. — Some verbs of these classes never take the subjunctive, but are identi-
cal in meaning with others which do : —
e5s quOs tutiUi debent dcserunt (Off. i. 28), they forsake those whom they ought to
protect.
aved pugnftre (Att. ii. 18. 3),I*m anxious tofighi.
290 SYNTAX: THE VERB [|§ 467-400
a. In poetry and later writers many verbs may have the infini-
tiye^ after the analogy of verbs of more literal meaning that take
it in prose : —
furlt tS reperire (Hor. Od. i. 15. 27), he rages to find thee, [A forcible way
of saying capit (§§ 457, 563. &).]
saeytt ezstii^aere nOmen (Ov. M. i. 200), he rages to Uot out the name.
fuge qaaerere (Hor. Od. i. 9. 13), forbear to oafc (cf. § 450. n. ^).
parce pifts acelerAre mantUs (Aen. iii. 42), foH)ear to d^fUe your pUms hands.
458. A Predicate Noun or Adjective after a complementary
infinitive takes the case of the subject of the main verb : —
fieifqme stnd€bam €ius prt!Ldenti& doetior (Lael. 1), I vxts eager to become
more wise through his wisdom.
BciO qwun soleSs esse occopfttus (Fam. zri. 21. 7), I know how bus^ you
usually are (are wont to be).
hrevia esse labOrO, obBcClras fiG (Hor. A. P. 26), J struggle to be britf, I become
obscure.
Infinitive with Subject Aocusative
459. The Infinitive with Subject Accusative is used with verbs
and other expressions of knowing, thinking^ telling^ and perceiving
{Indirect Discourse^ § 579) : —
dlcit montem ab hostibus tenSri (B. G. 1. 22), he says thai the hiU is held by
the enemy. [Direct : mSns ab hostibus tenStur.]
Infinitive of Purpose
460. In a few cases the Infinitive retains its original meaning
of Purpose.
a. The infinitive is used in isolated passages instead of a subiunc-
tive clause after habeO^ dO, ministrO : —
tantum habeO pollicfixi (Fam. i. 5 a. 3), ao rmich I have to promise. [Here
the more foimal construction would be quod pollicear.]
ut loYl bibere ministraret (Tusc. i. 65), to serve Jove voith wine (to drink),
inerldie bibere datO (Cato R. R. 89), give (to) drink at noonday.
6. PacStus, soStus, and their compounds, and a few other partici-
ples (used as adjectives), take the infinitive like the verbs from which
they come : —
id quod parfttl sunt facere (Quint. 8), t?iat v)hich they are ready to do.
adsiiefactl mperAxi (B. 6. vi. 24), used to bevftg conquered.
curra saccSdere suStl (Aen. iii. 541), used to being harnessed to theckaarioL
c(^pi&i bellAre cOnsuetfts (B. Afr. 78), forces accustomed to fighting.
§§460,461] PECULIAR INFINITIVES 291
NoTB. — In prose these words more oommonly take the Gemnd or Gerundive con-
stmction (§ 503 ff .) either in the genitive, the dative, or the accusative with ad : —
insuetus n&yicandi (B. O. v. 6), untiaed to making voyc^ges.
alendls liberis sueta (Tac. Ann. xiv. 27), accustomed to supporting children.
corpora insueta ad oneia portanda (B. C. 1. 78), bodies unused to carry hurdefis.
e. Tlie poets and early writers often use the infinitive to express
purpose when, there is no analogy with any prose construction : —
fllins intrO lit vidSre quid agat (Ter. Hec. 846), your son has gone in to see what
he is doing, [In prose : the supine i^som.]
nOn ferrO LibycCs popalAre Penfttls venimus (Aen. i. 627)^ we have not come
to lay uMUte with the sword the Libyan homes,
lOricam dOnat habere virO (id. v. 262), he gives the hero a breatiplate to wear,
[In prose: habendam.]
NoTB. — So rarely in prose writers of the classic period.
For the Infinitive used instead of a Substantive Clause at Purpose, see § 467.
For tempos est aUze, see § 604. n. s.
Peculiar InlliiitiTes
461. Many Adjectives take the Infinitive in poetry, following a
Greek idiom : —
durus compdneze verstLs (Hor. S. 1. 4. 8), harsh in composing verse.
cantazi dlgnns (Eel, v. 64), worthy to be sung. [In prose : qui cantetnr.]
fortis tzflctixe serpentis (Hor. Od. i. 37. 26), brave to handle serpents.
cantfize perlU (Eel. z. 32), skilled in song.
faeilds anrem piaebfae (Prop. iii. 14. 15), ready to lend an ear.
nescia vind peetora (Aen. xiL 627), hearts not knowing how to yield.
t6 videre aegrOtI (Plant. Trin. 76), sick of seeing you.
a. Karely in poetry the infinitive is used to express result : —
fingit eqnnm docilem magister Ire viam quA mOnstret eqnes (Hor. Ep. i. 2. 64),
the trainer makes the horse gentle so as to go in the road the rider points
out.
hfc levlre . . . i)anperem lab5ribus vocfttus audit (Hor. Od. li. 18. 38), he,
when called, hears, so as to rdieve the poor man of his troubles.
NoTB. — These poetic constructions were originally regular and belong to the Infin-
itive as a noun in the Dative or Locative case (§ 461). They had been supplanted,
however, by other more formal constructions, and were afterwards restored in part
throogh Greek inftucoce.
b» The infinitive occasionally occurs as a pure noun limited by a
demonstrative, a possessive, or some other adjective : —
hdc bSh ddlfire (Fin. IL 18), this freedom from pain. [Of. tOtum h5c beats
idTeze (Tuflc. T. 33), this whole matter of the happy life.]
nooftram iriYvze (Pers. i 9), our life (to live).
stire tnnm (id. i. 27), yowr knowledge (to know).
292 SYNTAX : THE VERB [§§ 462, 463
Exclamatory Infinitive
462. The Infinitive, with Subject Accusative,^ may be used in
Exclamations (cf. § 397. d) : —
te in tantfis aerumnas propter me incidisse (Fam. xiv. 1), cUaSj that you
should havefaUen into such grief for me I
m§ne inceptO dSsistere victam (Aen. i. 37), what I I beaten desist from my
purpose?
Note 1. — The interrogative particle -ne is often attached to the emphatic word (as
in the second example).
Note 2. — The Present and the Perfect Infinitive are used in this construction with
their ordinary distinction of time (§ 486).
a. A subjunctive clause, with or without ut, is often used ellip-
tically in exclamatory questions. The question may be introduced
by the interrogative -ne : —
quamquam quid loquor ? t6 at ulla rSs frangat (Cat. i. 22), yet why do 1
speak f [the idea] ihat anything shouM bend you I
egone at t& interpellem (Tusc. ii. 42), wftat, I interrupt you f
ego tibi ir&scerer (Q. Fr. i. 3), I angry with you f
Note. — The Infinitive in exclamations usually refers to something actually oc-
curring ; the Subjunctive, to something contemplated.
Historical Infinitive
463. The Infinitive is often used for the Imperfect Indicative
in narration, and takes a subject in the Nominative : —
tum Catillna poUicSri novas tabolas (Sail. Cat. 21), then Catiline promised
abolition of debts (clean ledgers).
ego inst&re ut mlhi respondSret (Verr. ii. 188), / kept urging him to answer me.
pars cMere, alii inseqai ; neque signa neque OrdinSs observare ; ubi quemque
periculum cSperat, ibi resistere ac pi5pal8&re; arma, tela, eqol, virf,
hostSs atque elves permixti; nihil cOnsiliO neque imperiQ agi; fors
omnia regere (lug. 51), a part give way, others press on ; they hold neither
to standards nor ranks; where danger overtook them, there each would
stand and fight ; arms, weapons, horses^ men, foe and friend, mingled
in confusion ; nothing went by counsel or command ; chance ruled cUl.
Note. — This construction is not strictly historical, but rather descriptive, and is
never used to state a mere historical fact. It is rarely found in subordinate clauses.
Though occurring in most of the writers of all periods, it is most frequent in the his-
torians Sallust, Livy, Tacitus. It does not occur in Suetonius.
^ This construction is elliptical ; that is, the thought is quoted in Indirect Discourse,
though no verb of saying etc. is expressed or even, perhaps, implied (compare the
French dire que). Passages like taancine ego ad rem nitam misexam mi memoriLM?
(Plant. Rud. 188) point to the origin of the construction.
§§ 404, 466] TENSES OF THE INDICATIVE 298
TENSES
464. The number of possible Tenses is very great. For in each of the three times,
Present, Past, and Future, an action may be represented as going oUf completed, or
beginning; as habitual or isolated; as defined in time or ind^nite (a^ristic) ; as
determined with reference to the time of the speaker, or as not itself so determined
but as relative to some time which is determined ; and the past and future times may
be near or remote. Thus a scheme of thirty or more tenses might be devised.
But, in the development of forms, which always takes place gradually, no language
finds occasion for more than a small part of these. The most obvious distinctions,
according to our habits of thought, appear in the following scheme : —
1. Definite (fixing the time of the action) 2. Indefinite
INCOMPLETE COMPLETE NARRATIVE
Present: a. I am writing. d. I have written, g. I write.
Past: \i. I was writing. e, I had written. h.. I wrote.
Future: q. I shall be writing. f. I shall have written. i. I shall write.
Most languages disregard some of these distinctions, and some make other distinc-
tions not here given. The Indo-European parent speech had a Present tense to express
a and g, a Perfect to express d, an Aorist to express h, a Future to express c and i, and
an Imperfect to express b. The Latin, however, confounded the Perfect and Aorist
in a single form (the Perfect scripsi), thus losing all distinction of form between d and
h, and probably in a great degree the distinction of meaning. The nature of this con-
fusion may be seen by comparing dixi, dicavi, and didlci (all Perfects derived from the
same root. Die), with ^^et^a, Skr. adiksham, diScixo-i Skr. dide(;a. Latin also devel-
oped two new forms, those for e (scripseram) and / (scripserS), and thus possessed six
tenses, as seen in § 154. c.
The lines between these six tenses in Latin are not hard and fast, nor are they pre-
cisely the same that we draw in English. Thus in many verbs the form corresponding
to I have written (d) is used for those corresponding to I am writing (a) and I write (g)
in a slightly different sense, and the form corresponding to / had written (e) is used in
like manner for that corresponding to I was writing (6). Again, the Latin often uses
the form for / shall fiave written (/) instead of that for I shall write (i). Thus, n5vi, /
have learned, is used for I know; constiterat, he had taken his position, for ?ie stood;
cognovero, I shall have learned, for / shall be aware. In general a writer may take his
own point of view.
TENSES OF THE INDICATIVE
Incomplete Action
PRESENT tense
465. The Present Tense denotes an action or state (1) as now
taking place or exiBting^ and so (2) as incomplete in present time,
or (3) as indefinite^ referring to no particular time, but denoting a
general truth : —
294 SYNTAX : THE VERB [§§ 465, 466
senfttus haec intellegit, consul videt, hic tamen Tivit (Cat. L 2), the seriate
knows this, the consul sees U^ yet this man lives.
. tibi concSdo mefts sSdls (Div. i. 104), / give you my seat (an offer which may
or may not be accepted),
ezspectd quid veils (Ter. And. 34), I await yourplecumre (what you wish),
ttl Actionem instituis, ille aciem instniit (Mur. 22), you arrange a case^ he
arrays an army. [The present is here used of regular employmemt.'i
minora dl neglei^t (N. D. ill. 86), Ihe gods disregard trifles. [Greneral
truth.]
obsequium amlcOs, vSriUls odium parit (Ter. And. ^), flaUery gains friends^
truth hatfred. [General truth.]
NoTB. — The present of a general truth is sometimes called the Gnomic Present.
a. The present is regularly used in quoting writers whose works
are extant : —
Eplctlrus vSrO ea dicit (Tusc. ii. 17), but Epicurus says such things,
apud ilium UlizOs l&ment&tor in volnere (id. ii. 49), in him (Sophocles)
Ulysses laments over his wound.
PolyphSmum Hom6rus cum ariete colloquentem fadt (id. y. 115), Homer
brings in (makes) Polyphemus talking with his ram.
Present with iam diu etc.
466. The Present with expressions of duration of time (espe-
cially iam dift, iam dUdum) denotes an action continuing in the pres-
ent, but begun in the past (cf. § 471. 6).
In this use the present is commonly to be rendered by the perfect
in English : —
iam dltl IgnSiO quid ag&s (Fam. vii. 9), for a long time I hone not known what
you were doing.
t6 iam dtldum hortor (Cat. i. 12), / have long been urging you.
patimar multOs iam annOs (Verr. v. 126), we suffer now these many years.
[The Latin perfect would imply that we no longer staffer.]
anni sunt octO cum ista causa vers&tur (cf. Clu. 82), it is n,ow eight years
that this case has been in hav/d.
annum iam audis Cratippum (Off. i. 1), for a year you have been a hearer of
Cratlppus.
adhHc Plancius mO retinet (Fam. xiv. 1. 3), so far Plandus has kept me here.
NoTB 1. — The difference in the two idioms is that the English states the begiimii^!
and leaves the continuance to be inferred, while the Latin states the continuance and
leayes the beginning to be inferred. Compare he has long suffered {and still e%^ers)
with Ae still suffers {and has suffered long).
NoTX 2. — Similarly the Present Imperative with iam flfidam indicates tbat the
action oommanded ought to have been doTte or was Ufishedfor long ago (cf. the Per-
fect Imperative in Greek): as, — iam diidum snmite poenas (Aen. ii. 103), ex€ict the
penalty long delayed.
§§467-469] PRESENT TENSE 296
Gonatiye Present
467. The Present sometimes denotes an action attempted or
begun in present time, but never completed at all (Conative Pres-
ent^ of. § 471. c) : —
iam iamque mantL tenet (Aen. ii. 680), and noto, men now^ he attempta to
grasp him,
d€D858 fertnr in hosUs (id. ii. 611), ^ starts to rush into the thickest of the foe.
dicern5 qu!nqaagint& dierum BUpplic&ti(3n€8 (Phil. ziv. 20), I move for fifty
days^ thanksgiving. [CI. sen&tna dicrSvit, the senate ordained.]
Present for Future
468. The Present, especially in colloquial language and poetry,
is often used for the Future : —
imasne sessum (De Or. iii. 17), shall we take a seat f (are we going to sit ?)
hodiS nxOrem dficis (Ter. And. 821), are you to be married to-day 9
quod s! fit, pereO funditus (id. 244), if this happens, I am vtterly undone.
ecqnid m6 adiavls (Clu. 71), wonH you give me a litUe help f
in ius vocO t6. n6n eo. nrtn is (PI. Asin. 480), I summon you to the court.
I wonH go. You wonH ?
Note. — Eo and its compounds are especially frequent in this use (cf. where are
you going to-morrow f and the Greek elfu in a future sense). Verbs of necessity ^
possibility, wish, and the like (as possum, yolo, etc.) also have reference to the future.
For other uses of the Present in a future sense, see under Conditions (§ 516. a. v.),
antequam and priusquam (§ 551. c), dum (§ 553. v.^), and § 444. a. n. ^
Historical Present
469. The Present in lively narrative is often used for the His-
torical Perfect : —
affertur ntmtius Syracus&i ; cunitux ad praetOrium ; Cleomen€s in publico
esse nOn andet ; inclfidit 86 donii (Verr. v. 92), the news is brought to Syra-
cuse ; they run to headquarters ; Cleomenes does not venture to be abroad ;
he shuts himself up at home.
Note. — This usage, common in all languages, comes from imagining past events
as going on before our eyes {repraesentdtio, § 585. h. n.).
For the Present Indicative with dum, while, see § 556.
a. The present may be used for the perfect in a summary enumera-
tion of past events {Anrialistic Present) : —
R5ma interim cr€scit Albae nilnls: duplic&tur civium numenis; Caelius
additur urbi mOns (Liv. i. 80), Rome meanwhile grows as a result of tlw
fall of Alba: the number of citizens is doubled; the CasXian hill is aMed
to thetovm.
296 SYNTAX : THE VERB [§§ 470, 471
IMPERFECT TENSE
470. The Imperfect denotes an action or a state as continued
or repeated in past time : —
hunc aadiebant antea (Manil. 13), they used to hear of him b^ore,
[Socrates] ita censebat itaque disseruit (Tusc. i. 72), Socrates thought so (habit-
ually), and so he spoke (then).
prtidens esse patabatur (Lael. 6), Jie was (generally) thought wise, [The per-
fect would refer to some particular case, and not to a state of things.]
iamque rubescebat AurOra (Aen. ill. 521), and now the dawn woa blushing.
ara vetus stabat (Ov. M. vi. 326), an old altar stood there.
Note. — The Imperfect is a descriptive tense and denotes an action conceived as
in progress or a state of things as actually observed. Hence in many verbs it does
not differ in meaning from the Perfect. Thus rSx erat and r6x fuit may often be used
indifferently ; but the former describes the condition while the latter only states it.
The English is less exact in distinguishing these two modes of statement. Hence the
Latin Imperfect is often translated by the English Preterite ; —
Haedui graviter fergbant, neqne legatOs ad Caesarem mittere audebant (B. G. v.
6), the HsRdui were displeased^ and did not dare to send envoys to Caesar.
[Here the Imperfects describe the state of things.] But, —
id tttlit factum graviter Indutiomarus (id. v. 4), Indutiomarus was displeased at
this action. [Here the Perfect merely states the fact.]
aedificia vicosque habebant (id. iv. 4), they had buildings and villages.
471. The Imperfect represents a present tense transferred to
past time. Hence all the meanings which the Present has derived
£«om the continuance of the action belong also to the Imperfect in
reference to past time.
a. The Imperfect is used in descriptions : —
erant omnino itinera duo . . . mOns altissimus impendebat (B. G. i. 6), there
were in aU two ways , , , a very high mountain overhung.
6. With iam diu, lam dudum, and other expressions of duration of
time, the Imperfect denotes an action continuing in the past but be-
gun at some previous time (cf. § 466).
In this construction the Imperfect is rendered by the English Plu-
perfect : —
iam dudum flebam (Ov. M. iii. 656), I had been weeping for a long time.
copiSfi quas diu comparabant (Fam. xi. 13. 5), the forces which they had long
been getting ready.
c. The Imperfect sometimes denotes an action as begun {Inceptive
Imperfect), or as attempted or only intended (Conative Imperfect; cf.
§ 467) : —
§471] IMPERFECT TENSE 297
in ezsilium eici5l>am quein iam ingressum esse in bellum vidSbam (Cat. ii.
14), was I trying to send into exile one who I saw had already gone
injto war f
hunc igitur diem sibi prOpOnSns MilO, cruentis manibus ad ilia augosta cen-
turiftrum auspicia yeniSbat (Mil. 43), was Milo coming (i.e. was it likely
that he would come), etc. ?
si licitum esset veniSbant (Verr. v. 129), they were coming if it had been aUowed
(they were on the poiat of coming, and would have done so if, etc.).
Note. — To this head may be referred the imperfect with iam, denoting the begin-
ning of an action or state: as, — lamque arva tenSbant ultima (Aen. yi. 477), and now
they werejuat getting to the farthest fields,
d. The Imperfect is sometimes used to express a surprise at the
present discovery of a fact abeady existing : —
0 tu quoque ader&s (Ter. Ph. 858), o^, you are here too !
ehem, tun hie erfla, ml Phaedria (Ter. Eun. 86), what! you here^ Phcedria f
& miser ! quant& laborAbAs Charybdl (Hor. Od. i. 27. 19), unhappy boy, wh^t
a whirlpool you are struggling in [and I neyer knew it] I
€. The Imperfect is often used in dialogue by the comic poets
where later writers would employ the Perfect : —
ad amicum Calliclem quoi rem aibat mandasse hic suam (PI. Trin. 956), to
his friend Callicles, to whom, he said, he had intrusted his property.
praes&gibat ml animus frfistrft me Ire quom exibam domO (PI. Aul. 178), my
mind mistrusted when I went from home that I went in vain.
Note. — So, in conyersation the imperfect of verbs of saying (cf . as I was a-saying)
is common in classic prose : —
at medici quoque, ita enim dicCbJs, saepe falluntur (N. D. iii. 15), but physicians
algOj — for that is what you were saying just now^ — are often mistaken.
haec mihi fere in mentem yeniCtant (id. ii. 67, 168), this is about what occurred
to me, etc. [In a straightforward narration this would be ygngrunt.]
/. The Imperfect with negative words often has the force of the
^English auxiliary could or would : —
itaque (Damocles) nee pulchrOs illOs ministratOres aspidebat (Tusc. v. 62),
tfier^ore he could not look upon those beautiful slaves. [In this case did
not would not express the idea of continued prevention of enjoyment by
the oyerhauging sword.]
nee enim dum eram vObiscum animum meum yideb&tis (Cat. M. 79), for, yo\
know, while I was with you, you could not see my soul. [Here the Per-
fect would refer only to owe moment.']
lientulus satis erat fortis 6rat6r, sed cOgitandl nOn ferSbat labOrem (Brut. 268),
LentUhis was bold enough as an orator, but could not endure the exertion
of thinking hard.
For the Epistolary Imperfect, see §479; for the Imperfect Indicative in apodosis
contrary to fact, see §617. fe. c.
298 SYNTAX : THE VERB [§§ 472, 473
FUTURE TENSE
472. The Future denotes an action or state that will occur
hereafter.
a. The Future may have the force of an Imperative (§ 449. b).
h. The Future is often required in a subordinate clause in Liatin
where in English futurity is sufficiently expressed by the main clause :
cum aderit yid€bit, when he is there he will see (cf. § 547).
s9ji9,bimar si volemtts (Tusc. iii. 13), we shaU be healed if we wish (cf . § 516. a).
Note. — But the Present is common in future protases (§516. a. n.).
Completed Action
perfect tense
Perfect Definite and Historical Perfect
473. The Perfect denotes an action either as now completed
(Perfect Definite^ or as having takeii place at some undefined point
of past time (Historical or Aoristic Perfect).
The Perfect Definite corresponds in general to the English Perfect
with have; the Historical Perfect to the English Preterite (or Past):
(1) at ego f§ci, qui GraecOs litter^s senex didici (Cat. M. 26), as / have done,
who have learned Greek in my old age.
diuturnl silent! finein hodiernus dies attulit (Marc. 1), this day hxis pvt an
end to my long-continued silence,
(2) tantum bellam extrSmS. hieme appar&vit, ineunte vera suscepit, media
aestate confecit (Manll. 35), so great a war he made ready for at the end
of winter^ undertook in early spring^ and finished by midsummer.
Note. — The distinction between these two uses is represented by two forms in
most other Indo-European languages, but was almost if not wholly lost to the minds
of the Romans. It must be noticed, however, on account of the marked distinction
in English and also because of certain differences in the sequence of tenses.
a* The Indefinite Present, denoting a customary action or a general
trvlh (§ 465), often has the Perfect in a subordinate clause referring
to time antecedent to that of the main clause : —
qui in compedibus corporis semper fuSront, etiam cum solfiti sunt tardius
ingrediantur (Tusc. i. 75), they who have ahoays been in the fetters of the
body, even when released move more slowly.
simul ac mihi colUbitum est, praestC est imSgO (N. D. i. 108), as soon as I
have taken a fancy, the image is before my eyes.
§§473-476] PERFECT TENSE 299
haec moiie effagiimtisr, etiam si n5n SvSnSnmt, tamen quia pMsont ^yenlre
(Tosc. i. 86), these things are escaped by death even if they have not [yet]
Aoppened, because they stiU may happen.
NoTB. — This use of the perfect is especially common in the protasis of Gener<al
Conditions in present time (§ 518. 6).
474. The Perfect is sometiiiies used emphatically to denote that
a thing or condition of things that once existed no longer exists :
fait ista quondam in hSc r6 pGblica virttls (Cat. i. 3), there was once such vir-
tue in this commonwealth,
habnit, nOn habet (Tusc, i. 87), he had, he has no longer.
filium babeO . . . immo habui ; nunc habeam necne incertumst (Ter. Haut.
93), I have a son, no, I hxid one; whether I have now or not is uncertain.
foimns TrOes, fait Ilium (Aen. ii. 325), we have ceased to be Trojans, Troy is
no more.
Special Uses of the Perfect
475. The Perfect is sometimes used of a general truth, espe-
cially with negatives {Gnomic Perfect) : —
qui studet contingere nietam multa talit fecitque (Hor. A. F. 412), he who
aims to reajch the goal, first bears and does many things.
n5n aeris acervus et aurl dedaxit corpore febris (id. Ep. i. 2. 47), the pile of
brass and gold removes not fever from the frame.
Note. — The gnomic perfect strictly refers to past time ; but its use implies that
something which never did happen in any known case never does happen, and never
will (cf . the English " Faint heart never won fair lady ") ; or, without a negative,
that what has once happened will always happen under similar circumstances.
a. The Perfect is often used in expressions containing or implying
a negationj where in affirmation the Imperfect would be preferred : —
dicebat melius quam scnpsit HortSusius (Or. 132), Hortensius spoke better
than he wrote. [Here the negative is implied in the comparison : com-
pare the use of qoisqoam, alias, etc. (§§311, 312), and the French ne
after comparatives and superlatives.]
476. The completed tenses of some verbs are equivalent to the
incomplete tenses of verbs of kindred meaning.
Such are the preteritive verbs Odi, I hate; memini, I remember ; nOvi,
I know; cOnsuGyiy I am accustomed^ with others used preteritively,
as vSnerat (= aderat, hs was at hand, etc.), cOnstitSnmt, th^y stand firm
(have taken their stand), and many inceptives (see § 263. 1) : —
1 Cf . dStestor, remimscor, sciS, soled.
300 SYNTAX: THE VERB [§§476^78
qui di€s aestus maximOs efficere consuevit (B. G. iv. 29), which day generally
makes the highest tides (is accastomed to make).
cfLius splendor obsolevit (Quinct. 69), whose splendor is now all faded.
Note. — Many other verbs are occasionally so used: as, — dum oculos certamen
irerterat (Idv. xxxii. 24), while the contest had turned their eyes (kept them tnmed).
[Here averterat = tenfibat.]
PLUPERFECT TENSE
477. The Pluperfect is used (1) to denote an action or state
completed in past time ; or (2) sometimes to denote an action in
indefinite time, but prior to some past time referred to : —
(1) loci nS,tura erat haec, quern locum nostri castris delggerant (B. 6. ii. 18),
this was the nature of the ground which our men had chosen for a camp.
Yiridovix summam impen ten@bat e3.rum omnium civitatum quae defece-
rant (id. iii. 17), Viridovix held the chi^ command of aU those tribes which
had revolted.
(2) neque v€rO cum aliquid mand&verat cOnfectum put^bat (Cat. iii. 16), hut
when he had given a thing in charge he did not look onUas done.
quae si quandO adepta est id quod el fuerat concupitum, tum fert alacrit&tem
(Tusc. iv. 15), if it (desire) et?er has gained what it had [previously]
desired, then it produces joy.
For the Epistolary Pluperfect, see § 479.
FUTURE PERFECT TENSE
478. The Future Perfect denotes an action as completed in the
future : —
ut sSmentem feceris, ita met6s (De Or. ii. 261), as you sow (shall have sown),
so shall you reap.
carmina tum melius, cum venerit ipse, canSmus (Eel. iz. 67), then shall we
sing our songs better, when he himself has come (shall have come),
si illius insidiae clariores hac Itice fuerint, tum denique obsecrabo (Mil. 6),
when the plots of thai man have been shown to be as clear as daylight,
then, and not till then, shall I conjure you.
ego certe meum officium praestitero (B. G. iv. 2b), I at least shaM have done
my duty (i.e. when the time comes to reckon up the matter, I sTiaU be
found to have done it, whatever the event).
Note. — Latin is far more exact than English in distinguishing between mere
future action and action completed in the future. Hence the Future Perfect is much
commoner in Latin than in English. It may even be used instead of the Future, from
the fondness of the Romans for representing an action as completed : —
quid inventum sit paulo post viderS (Acad. ii. 76), what has been found outlshaU
see presently.
qui Antonium oppresserit bellnm taeterrimum cSnfCcerit (Fam. x. 19), whoever
crushes (shall have crushed) Antony will finish (will have finished) a most
loathsome war.
§§47&-481] TENSES OF THE SUBJUNCTIVE 301
EPISTOLARY TENSES
479. In Letters, the Perfect Historical or the Imperfect may
be used for the present, and the Pluperfect for any past tense, as
if the letter were dated at the time it is supposed to be received: —
neque tamen, haec cum sciiMtMun, eram nescius quantis oneribus premerere
(Fam. V. 12. 2), nor while I write this am I ignorard under what burdens
you are weighed down.
ad tuSs omnls [epistulas] rescripseram pridi6 (Att. ix. 10. 1), I answered all
your letters yesterday.
cum quod scrlberem ad 13 nihil bab^rem, tamen has dedi litteras (Att. Ix. 16),
thxmgh I have nothing to write to youy still I write this letter.
Note. — In this use these tenses are called the Epistolary Perfect, Imperfect, and
Pluperfect. The epistolary tenses are not employed with any uniformity, but only
when attention is particularly directed to the time of writing (so especially scnbSlMun,
dabam, etc.).
TENSES OF THE SUBJUNCTIVE
480. The tenses of the Subjunctive in Independent Clauses de-
note time in relation to the time of the speaker.
The Present always refers U^ future (or indefinite) time^ the Im-
perfect to either past or present^ the Perfect to either future or
past^ the Pluperfect always to past.
481. The tenses of the Subjunctive in Dependent Clauses were
habitually used in certain fixed connections with the tenses of the
main verb.
These connections were determined by the time of the main
verb and the time of the dependent verb together. They are
known, collectively, as the Sequence of Tenses.
Note. — The so-called Sequence of Tenses is not a mechanical law. Each tense
of the subjunctive in dependent clauses (as in independent) originally denoted its
own time in relation to the time of the speaker, though less definitely than the corre-
sponding tenses of the indicative. Gradually, however, as the complex sentence was
more strongly felt as a unit, certain types in which the tenses of the dependent
clause seemed to accord with those of the main clause were almost unconsciously
regarded as regular, and others, in which there was no such agreement, as excep-
tional. Thus a pretty definite system of correspondences grew up, which is codi-
fied in the rules for the Sequence of Tenses. These, however, are by no means
rigid. They do not apply with equal stringency to all dependent constructions, and
they were frequently disregarded, not only when their strict observance would have
obscured the sense, but for the sake of emphasis and variety, or merely from care-
lessness.
302 SYNTAX : THE VERB [§§ 482, 483
Sequence of Tenses
483. The tenses of the Subjunctive in Dependent Clauses fol-
low speoial rules for the Sequence of Tenses.
With reference to these rules all tenses when used in independ-
ent clauses are divided into two classes, — PriTnary and Secondary.
1. Primary. — The Primary Tenses include all forms that express
present or future time. These are the Present, Future, and Future
Perfect Indicative, the Present and Perfect Subjunctive, and the
Present and Future Imperative.
2. Secondary. — The Secmidary Tenses include all forms that re-
fer to past time. These are the Imperfect, Perfect, and Pluperfect
Indicative, the Imperfect and Pluperfect Subjunctive, and the His-
torical Infinitive.
Note. — To these maybe added certain forms less commonly osed in independent
danses: — (1) Primary: Present Infinitive in Exclamations; (2) Secondary: Perfect
Infinitiye in Exclamations (see §§462, 485. a. n.).
The Perfect Definite is sometimes treated as primary (see § 485. a).
For the Historical Present, see § 485. e ; for the Imperfect Subjonctiye in Apodosis,
see § 485. h.
483. The following is the general rule for the Sequence of
Tenses:—!
In complex sentences a Primary tense in the main clause is
followed by the Present or Perfect in the dependent clause, and
a Secondary tense by the Imperfect or Pluperfect : —
Primary Tenses
rogd, I asik^ am asking ^ quid faciis, what you are doing.
rogabo, I shall ask \ quid feceris, what you did, were doing^
rog&vi (sometimes), I have asked \ have done^ have been doirtg.
j quid factfirus sis, what you will do.
ut nos moneat, to warn us.
ut nos monefts, to warn us.
quasi oblitus sit, as if he h^d forgotten.
xogaTsrd,
I shall have asked
sctibit,
Jie writes
sciibet,
h^ will write
scribe (scxlbitS),
write
seribit,
h£ writes
]
^ The term is sometimes extended to certain relations between the tenses of sub-
ordinate Terbs in the indicative and those of the main verb. These relations do not
differ in principle from those which we are considering; bat for conTenienoe the term
Sequence of Tenses is in this book restricted to subjonctives, in aooozdance with the
usual practice.
§§48d-485] SEQUENCE OF TENSES 308
SSCONDARY TbITOBS
zogSbam, I aaked^ was asking ) quid faceres, tohont you were doing.
zog&^ / aaked, hone asked
rogayezam, I had asked
quid fScisses, what you had done, had
been doing.
quid factdrus easSSt what you toould do.
sczipsit, he wrote at nos monSret, to warn vjs.
sczipsit, he wrote ^ qjELa^obUtu^esBet^a^ if he had forgotten.
484. In applying the rule for the Sequence of Tenses, observe —
(1) Whether the main verb is (a) primary or (b) secoDdary.
(2) Whether the dependent verb is to denote completed action(i.e.
past with reference to the main verb) or incomplete action (i.e. pres-
ent or future with reference to the main verb). Then —
a. If the leading verb is primary j the dependent verb must be in
the Present if it denotes incomplete action, in the Perfect if it denotes
completed action.
6. If the leading verb is secondary , the dependent verb must be in
the Imperfect if it denotes incomplete oniony in the Pluperfect if it
denotes completed action : —
(1) He writes [primary] to warn [incomplete action] us^ scxibit at nOs moneat.
I ask [primary] what you were doing [now past], rogd quid f Seeds.
(2) He wrote [secondary] to warn [incomplete] us, scxipait at nOs numSxet.
I asked [secondary] what you were doing [incomplete], rog&vi quid faceres.
c. Notice that the Future Perfect denotes action completed (at
the time referred to), and hence is represented in the Subjunctive by
the Perfect or Pluperfect : —
He shows that if they come (shall have come), many will perish, demSnstrat, si
yeneiint, multOs interiturOs.
He showed that if they should come (should have come), many wouJd perish,
dSmonstrSyit, si yenissent, multOs interittlrOs.
485. In the Sequence of Tenses the following special points
are to be noted : —
«. The Perfect Indicative is ordinarily a secondary tense, but
allows the primary sequence when the present time is clearly in the
writer's mind : —
ut satis easet praesidi proyisom est (Cat. ii. 26), provision has been made that
there should be ample guard. [Secondary sequence.]
addfizi hominem in quO satisfaoere ezteris nfttiOnibos pos8flti8'(yerr. i. 2), /
haioe brought a man in whose person you can make sati^acUon to foreign
nations. [Secondary sequence ]
304 SYNTAX: THE VERB [§485
est enim tSs iam in eum locum adducta, ut quamquam multum inteigit inter
eOrum causSus qui dimicant, tamen inter victOri&s nOn multum interfu-
tQrum putem (Fam. v. 21. 3), fw affairs have been brought to such a pass
^lat, though there is a great difference between the causes of those who are
fighting, still I do not think there will be much difference between their vic-
tories. [Primary sequence.]
ea adhibita doctrina est quae vel vitiOsissimam natfiram excolere possit (Q. Fr.
i. 1. 7), such instruction has been given as can train even the faultier
nature. [Primary sequence.]
NoTB. — The Perfect Infinitive in exclamations follows the same rule : —
quemquamne fuisse tam soeleratnm qui hoc fingeret (Phil. xiy. 14), was any one so
abandoned as to imagine this? [Secondary.]
adedn rem redisse patrem ut extimSscam (Ter. Ph. 153), to think that things have
come to such a pass that I should dread my father! [Primary.]
h. After a primary tense the Perfect Subjunctive is regularly used to
denote any past action. Thus the Perfect Subjunctive may repi^ent —
1. A Perfect Definite: —
nOn dubitO quin omnes tul scxipseiint (Fam. v. 8), I do not doubt that all
your friends have written. [Direct statement: sciipserunt.]
quS. re nOn IgnOrO quid accidat in ultimis terrls, cum audierim in Italia que-
rellas civium (Q. Fr. i. 1. 33), ther^ore I know well what happens at the
ends of the earth, when I have heard in Italy the complaints of citizens.
[Direct statement : audivi.]
2. A Perfect Historical : —
me autem hic laudat quod rettulerim, nOnquod patefecexim (Att. xii. 21), me
he praises because I brought the matter [before the senate], not because I
brought it to light, [Direct statement : rettulit.]
3. An Imperfect : —
81 forte ceciderunt, tum intellegitur quam faerint inopSs amlc5rum (Lael. 53),
if perchance theyfaU (have fallen), then one can see how poor they were
in friends. [Direct question : quam inopes erant?]
qui status rSrum fuerit cum has litterds dedl, scire poteris ex C. Titi5 Stra-
bOne (Fam. xii. 6), what the condition of affairs was when I wrote this
letter, you can learn from Strabo. [Direct question : qui status erat?]
quam civitati cams fuerit maerore funeris indicatum est (Lael. 11), how dear
he was to the state has been shown by the gri^ at his funeral. [Direct
question : quam c^rus erat ?]
ex epistulis intellegi licet quam frequens fuerit PlatOnis auditor (Or. 15), it
may be understood from his letters how constant a hearer he was of Plato.
[Direct question : quam frequ6ns erat ?]
Note. — Thus the Perfect Subjunctive may represent, not only a Perfect Definite
or a Perfect Historical of a direct statement or question, but an Imperfect as well.
This comes from the want of any special tense of the subjunctive for continued past
action after a primary tense. Thus, miror quid fScerit may mean (1) / wonder what fie
has done, (2) Iioonder what he did (hist, perf.), or (3) I wonder what he was doing.
§486] SEQUENCE OF TENSES 305
c. In clauses of Result, the Perfect Subjunctive is regularly (the
Present rarely) used after secondary tenses : —
Hortensius firdSbat dicendl cupidit9.te 8lc ut in ntQl5 umquam flagrantius
studium videiim (Brut. 302), Hortensius was so hot with desire of speak-
ing that I have nener seen a more burning ardor in any man,
[Siciliam Verr^s] per triennium ita vezavit ac perdidit ut ea restitui in antl-
qaum statum ntillO modO possit (Verr. i. 12), for three years Verres so
racked and ruined Sicily that she can in no way be restored to her former
state. [Here the Present describes a state of things actually existing.]
yideor esse cdnsecutus ut nOn possit Dol&bella in Italiam pervenire (Earn,
zii. 14. 2), I seem to have brought it about that Dolahdla cannot come into
Italy.
NoTB 1. — This constraction emphasizes the result ; the regular sequence of tenses
would subordinate it.
NoTB 2. — There is a special fondness for the Perfect Subjunctive to represent a
Perfect Indicative : —
Thorius erat ita nOn superstitidsus ut ilia plurima in sua patria et sacrificia et
&na contemneret ; ita nOn timidus ad mortem ut in acie sit ob rem publicam
interfectas (Fiu. ii. 63), Thorius was so little superstitious that he despised
[contemnebat] the many sacrifices and shrines in his country ; so little timor-
ous about death that he was killed [interfectus est] in battle, in defence of
the state.
<f . A general truth after a past tense follows the sequence of tenses :
ex bis quae tribuisset, sibi quam mutd,bilis esset reput9.bat (Q. C. iii. 8. 20),
from what she (Fortune) had bestowed on him, he reflected how inconstarit
she is. [Direct: mut&bilis est.]
ibi quantam vim ad stimuland5s animOs Ira haberet apparuit (Liv. xxxiii. 37),
here it appeared what power anger has to goad the mind. [Direct : habet. ]
NoTB. — In English the original tense is more commonly kept.
e. The Historical Present (§ 469) is sometimes felt as a primary^
sometimes as a secondary tense, and accordingly it takes either the
primary or the secondary sequence : —
rogat ut ciixet quod dizisset (Quinct. 18), he asks him to attend to the thing he
had spoken of. [Both primary and secondary sequence.]
Note. — After the historical present, the subjunctive with cum temporal must
follow the secondary sequence : —
quo cum vSnisset cognSscit (B. C. i. 34), when he had corns there he learns.
cum esset pugn&tom horis quinque, nostrique gravius premerentur, impetum in
cohortis faciont (id. i. 46), when they had fought for Jive hours , and our
men were pretty hard pressed^ they m<ike an attack on the cohorts.
f. The Historical Infinitive regularly takes the secondary se-
quence : —
interim cotldie Caesar HaeduOs frumentum, quod essent polliciti, flagit9.re
(B. 6. i. 16), meanwhile CcBsar demanded of the Hasdui every day the grain
which they had promised.
306 SYNTAX: THK VERB [§486
g. The Imperfect and Pluperfect in conditions contrary to fact
(§ 517) and in the Deliberative Subjunctive (§ 444) are not affected
by the sequence of tenses : —
quia tale sit, ut vel si ignSrarent id homines vel si obmutoissent (Fin. ii. 49),
hecayjiM it is such that even if men were ignorant of Uy or had been
silent about it,
quaerO & t6 cfLr C. Comelium n5n dSfenderem (Vat. 5), Task you why I was
not to defend Caius ComeUusf [Direct : car n5n dSfenderem?]
h» The Imperfect Subjunctive in present conditions contrary to
fact (§ 517) is regularly followed by the secondary sequence : —
si alii consoles essent, ad te potissimum, Paule, mitterem, ut eOs milii quam
amlcissim5s redderes (Fam. xv. 18. 3), if there were other consuU, I should
send to you, PauluSy in pr^erence to oily that you migJit make them as
friendly to me as possible.
Bl bOIAs eOs dfoeres miserOs quibus moriendum esset, neminem exciperSs
(Tnsc. i. 9), if you were to call only those wretched who must die, you
would except no one.
i. The Present is sometimes followed by a secondary sequence,
seemingly because the writer is thinking of past time : —
sed si r6s cOget^ est quiddam tertium, quod neque Selici5 nee mihi dieplice-
bat: ut neque iacSre rem pateremur, etc. (Fam. i. 5 a. 3), but%fths case
shaU demand^ there is a third [course] lohich neither Sdicius nor myself
disapproved, that we should not oMow, etc. [Here Cicero is led by the
time of displicSbat.]
sed tamen ut scires, haec tibi sciibo (Fam. xiii. 47), but yet that you may know, I
write thus. [As if he had used the epistolary imperfect scribebam (§ 479). ]
ctdus praecepti tanta Ylis est nt ea nOn homini cuipiam sed DelphicO deo
tribaerStur (Legg. i. 58), such is the force of this precept, that it vyas
ascribed not to any man, but to the Delphic god. [The precept was an
old one.]
j» When a clause depends upon one already dependent, its se-
quence may be secondary if the verb of that clause expresses past
time, even if the main verb is in a primary tense : —
sed tamen quft r6 accideiit ut ex mels superiOribus litterls id suspicareie nesci5
(Fam. ii. 16), but yet how it happened that you suspected this from my
precious letter, I don't know.
tantam pr8fici«i» videmnr ut ft Oraecis n6 verbGrum quidem c5pia vincere-
mar (N. D. i. 8), we seem to have advanced so far that even in abundance
of words we are not surpassed by the Greeks.
KoTTB. — So regularly after a Perfect InfinitiTe which depends on a primary tense
(§ 585. a).
486] TENSES OF THE INFINITIVE 307
TENSES OF THE INFINITIVE
486, Except in Indirect Discourse, only the Present and Per-
fect Infinitives are used.
The Present represents the action of the verb as in progress with-
out distinct reference to time, the Perfect as completed.
For the Tenses of the Infinitive in Indirect Discourse see § 584.
a* With past tenses of verbs of necessity, propriety , and possibility
(as dSbui, oportuit, potui), the Present Infinitive is often used in
Latin where the English idiom prefers the Perfect Infinitive : —
numne, si Coriol^us habuit amIcOs, feire contra, patriam arma illl cum
CoriolftnO debugmnt (Lael. 36), if Coriolanus had friends^ ougM they to
have home arms with him against their fatherland f
pecunia, quam his oportuit civitatibus prO frtlment(^ dari (Verr. iii. 174),
moTiey which ought to have been paid to these staJtesfor grain,
consul esse qui potui, nisi eum vitae cursum tenuissem S, pueritia (Rep. i. 10),
how couLd I have become consul had I not from boyhood followed that
course of life f
h. With verbs of necessity, propriety, and possibility, the Perfect
Infinitive may be used to emphasize the idea of completed action : —
tametsi statim vidsse debeO (Rose. Am. 73), although I ought to win my case
at once (to be regarded as having won it).
beUum quod possumus ante hiemem pezfgcisse (Liv. xxxvii. 19. 5), a war
which we can have completed brfore winter,
nil ego, s! peccem, possum nescisse (Ov. H. xvi. 47), if I should go wrong ^
I cannot have done it in ignorance (am not able not to have known).
NoTB. — With the past tenses of these verbs the perfect infinitive is apparently
due to attraction : —
qnod iam pridem factum esse oportuit (Cat. i. 5), (a thing) which ought to have
been done long ago.
haec facta ab illo oportebat (Ter. Haut. 536), this ought to have been done by him.
turn decnit metuisse (Aen. x. 94), then was the tims to fear (then you should have
feared).
c. In archaic Latin and in legal formulas the Perfect Active Infini-
tive is often used with ii515 or vol(5 in prohibitions : —
Chaldaeum nSquem consuluisse velit (Cato R. R. v. 4), let him not venture to
have consulted a soothsayer.
n5l!t5 devellisse (PI. Poen. 872), do not have them plucked.
n^quis humasse velit Aiacem (Hor. S. 11. 3. 187), let no one venture to have
buried Ajaz.
NEiQVis EORVM BACANAL HABVI8E VELET (S. C. de Bac. 1), let no One of them
venture to have had a pUicefor Bacchanalian worship.
808 SYNTAX: THE VERB [§486
d. With verbs of wishing^ the Perfect Passive Infinitive (com-
monly without esse) is often used emphatically instead of the Present:
domesticac(lr& t6 levfltmn VolO (Q. Fr. iii. 9. 3), I wish you reUeoei ^fprkoak
care.
illOs monitos volO (Cat. ii. 27), I wish them thorougldy warned.
qui illam [patriam] exs^ctam cupit (Fin. iv. OC), who is eager for her utter
destruction,
illud 16 esse admonitam volO (Gael. 8), I wish you to be v)eU adoised qfthut.
qui 86 ab omnibus dSsertos potius quam abs tS defensos esse malimt (Caecil
21), w?io prefer to be deserted by aU rather than to be defended by you,
NoTB. — The participle in this case is rather in predicate agreement (with or with-
out esse) than nsed to form a strict perfect infinitive, though the foil form can hardly
be distinguished from that construction.
e» In late Latin, and in poetry (often for metrical convenience)^
rarely in good prose, the Perfect Active Infinitive is used emphatically
instead of the Present, and even after other verbs than those of wish-
ing : —
nemO eOrum est qui n5n peiisse t6 cupiat (Verr. 11. 149), there is no one of
them who is not eager for your death.
haud equidem premendO alium me extnliBse velim (Liy. zxiL 59. 10), I
woidd not by crushing another exalt myself.
sunt qui nOlint tetigisse (Hor. S. 1. 2. 28), there are those who would not touch.
commisisse cavet (Hor. A. P. 168), he is cautious of doing.
nunc quem tetigisse timSrent, anguis er^ (Ov. M. viii. 733), again you be-
came a serpent which they dreaded to touch.
fr&trSsque teudentSs op3,c5 FSlion imposulsse 01ymp5 (Hor. Od. ill. 4. 51),
and the brothers striving to set Pelion on dark Olympus.
/. After verbs of feeling the Perfect Infinitive is used, especially
by the poets, to denote a completed action.
So also with satis est, satis habeO, melius est, contentus sum, and in
a few other cases where the distinction of time is important : —
nOn paenitebat lntercap€dinem scrlbendl fecisse (Fam. xvl. 21), I was not
sorry to have made a respite of writing.
pudet m6 nOn praestitisse (id. xiv. 3), I am ashamed not to have shown.
sunt quOs pulverem Olympicum coliegisse iuvat (Hor. Od. i. 1. 3), some
delight to have stirred up the dust at Olympia.
quiesse erit melius (Liv. iii. 48), it will be better to have kept qui^.
ac si quis amet sczipsisse (Hor. S. i. 10. 60), than if one should choose to hatt
written,
id solum dixisse satis habeO (Yell. ii. 124), I am content to have said only
this.
1 V<fl5, and less frequently n515, mild, and capiO.
f § 487^90]
PARTICIPLES
309
I. Farticiplefl:
a. Present and
Perfect:
NOUN AND ADJECTIVE FORMS OF THE VERB
487 . The seYeial Noun and AdjectiTe forms associated with the yerb are employed
as follows: — l
1. Attribatiye(§494).
2. Simple Predicate (§496).
3. Periphrastic Perfect (passive) (§495. n.)-
4. Predicate of Circumstance (§ 496).
6. Descriptive (Indirect Discourse) (§ 497 d).
1. Periphrastic with esse (§ 498. a).
Periphrastic with fai (= Pluperfect Subjonc-
tive) (§498.6).
1. As Descriptive Adjective (§500. 1).
Periphrastic with esse (§ 500. 2).
Of Purpose with certain verbs (§ 500. 4).
1. (lenitive as Subjective or Objective Genitive (§504).
2. Dative, with Adjectives (of Fitness), Nouns, Verbs (§505).
3. Accusative, with certain Prepositions (§ 50f>).
. 4. Ablative, of Means, Comparison, or with Prepositions (§507).
Accusative Supine (in -urn), with Verbs of Motion (§ 609).
Ablative Supine (in -u), chiefly with Adjectives (§ 610).
5. Future
e. Grerundive
II.
Gentnd or
Genmdire:
III. Supine:
{i
PARTICIPLES
488. The Participle expresses the action of the verb in the form
of an Adjective, but has a partial distinction of tense and may
govern a case.
NoTB. — Thus the participle combines all the functions of an adjective with some
of the functions of a verb. As an Adjective, it limits substantives and agrees with
them in gender, number, and case (§286). As a Verb, it has distinctions of time
(§ 489) and often takes an object.
Distiiictions of Tense in Participles
489. Participles denote time as present^ pasty or future with
respect to the time of the verb in their clause.
Thus the Present Participle represents the action as in progress at
the time indicated by the tense of the verb, the Perfect as completed^
and the Puture as still to take pla^e,
490. The Present Participle has several of the special uses of
the Present Indicative. Thus it may denote —
1. An action continued in the present but begun in the past (§ 466) :
quaerenti mihi iam diu carta rSs nulla veniebat in mentem (Fam. iv. 13),
thovjgh I had long sought, no certain thing came to my mind.
1 For the Syntax of the Infinitive, see §§ 451 fF., 486.
310 SYNTAX : THE VERB [§§ 49(M9S
2. Attempted action (§ 467) : —
C. Fl&miniO restitit agrum Picentem dividenti (Cat. M. 11), he resisted Flo-
miniia when aUemptin^f to divide the Picene territory,
3. Rarely (in poetry and later Latin) futurity or purpose, with a
verb of motion : —
Eurypylum scitantem Orftcula mittimus (Aen. ii. 114), we send Eurypylusto
consult the oracle. [Cf. § 468.]
491. The Perfect Participle of a few deponent verbs is used
nearly in the sense of a Present.
Such are, regularly, ratus, solitus, veritus ; commonly, arbitratns,
fisus, ausus, secutus, and occasionally others, especially in later
writers : —
rem incr6dibilem rati (Sail. Cat. 48), thinking the thing incredible,
Insidias yeritus (B. G. ii. 11), fearing an ambuscade.
cohortitus militSs docuit (B. C. iii. 80), encouraging the men, he showed.
iratus dixisti (Mur. 62), you spoke in a passion.
ad pugnam congressi (Liv. iv. 10), meeting in fight.
492. The Latin has no Present Participle in the passive.
The place of such a form is supplied usually by a clause with dum
or cum : —
obiere dam calciantur mftttltinO duo Caesar&s (Plin. N. H. yii. 181), tico
Ccesars died while having their shoes put on in the morning.
mSque ista d6lectant cum Latlne dlcuntur (Acad. i. 18), those things please
me when they are spoken in Latin.
Note. — These constructions are often used when a participle might be employed : —
die, hospes, Spartae n5s te hic vidisse iacentis, dam Sanctis patriae legibns obse-
quimor (Tusc. i. 101), tell it, stranger, at Sparta, that you saw us lying hen
obedient to our country^s sacred laws. [Here dum obseqnimar is a transla-
tion of the Greek present participle ir€i66fjxyoi.]
dum [Ulixes] sibi, dum sociis reditum parat (Hor. Ep. i. 2. 21), Ulysses, whik
securing the return of him^Jf and his companions. [In Greek: ApvOfuvm]
493. The Latin has no Perfect Participle in the active voice.
The deficiency is supplied —
1. In deponents by the perfect passive form with its regular active
meaning : —
nam singula^ [navis] nostri consectati exptignav6runt (B. G. iii. 15), for our
men, having overtaken them one by one, captured them by boarding.
Note. — The perfect participle of several deponent verbs may be either active or
passive in meaning (§ 190. 6).
§§493-496] USES OF PARTICIPLES 811
1 , . ^^^^^ verbs, either by the perfect passive participle in the
ablative absolute (§ 420. n.) or by a temporal clause (especially with
cum or postquam) : —
itaque convocatis centurionibua mllites certiOres facit (B. G. iii. 5), and ao,
saving ccUled the centuriona together y he informs the soldiers (the centu-
rions having heen called together).
cum vgnisset animadvertit collem (id. vii. 44), having come (when he had
come), he noticed a hiU.
postquam id animnm advertit cOpifts suSs Caesar in prozimum collem subducit
(B. G. i. 24), having observed this (after he had observed this) Ccesar
M, his troops to the nearest hill.
Uses of Participles
494. The Present and Perfect Participles are sometimes used
as attributives, nearly like adjectives : —
aeger et fiagrflns animus (Tac. Ann. iii. 54), his sick and passionate mind.
cum antiquissimam sententiam tum compxob&tam (Div. i. 11), a view at once
most ancient and weU approved.
fiigna numquam ferS mentientia (id. i. 16), signs hardly ever deceitful.
auspiciis ntuntur coftctis (id. i. 27), they Tise forced auspices.
a. Participles often become complete adjectives, and may be com-
pared, or used as nouns : —
qu5 mulierl esset rfis caatior (Caec. 11), thaJb the matter might be more secure
for the woman.
in illis artibus praestantissimus (De Or. i. 217), pre&ninent in those arts.
sibi indnlgentes et corporl deservientSs (Legg. i. 39), the self-indulgent, and
slaves to the body (indulging themselves and serving the body),
rgcte facta paria essedfibent (Par. 22), right deeds (things rightly done) ought
to be like in value (see § 821. 6).
male parta male dllabuntur (Phil. ii. 66), iU got, ill spent (things ill acquired
are ill spent).
cOnsuCttidO valentls (De Or. ii. 186), the habit of a man in health.
495. Participles are often used as Predicate Adjectives. As
such they may be joined to the subject by esse or a copulative verb
(see § 283) : _
GaUia est divisa (B. G. i. 1), Gaul is divided.
locus qui nunc saeptas est (Uv. i. 8), the place which is now enclosed.
videtis ut senectus sit operOsa et semper agSns aliquid et mdliSns (Cat. M. 26),
you see how busy old age is, always aiming and trying at something.
nemo adhuc convenire m6 voluit cui fuerim occup&tus (id. 32), nobody
hitherto has [ever] toished to converse with me, to whom I have been
^^engaged.^^
312 SYNTAX: THE VERB [§§406,496
Note. — From this predicate use arise the compoHnd tenses of the passiye, — the
participle of completed action with the incomplete tenses of esse developing the idea
of past time : as, interfectus est, lie Wds (or has been) killed^ lit. he is having-been-kUled
(i.e. already slain).
The perfect participle used with ful etc. was perhaps originally an intensified expres-
sion in the popular language for the perfect, pluperfect, etc.
At times these forms indicate a state of affairs no longer existing : —
cOtem quoque eOdem locO sitam fuisse memorant (Liv. i. 36. 5), t?iey say that a
whetstone was (once) deposited in this same pla/x. [At the time of writing
it was no longer there.]
anna quae fixa in parietibus fuerant, hurm inventa sunt (Div. i. 74), the arms
which had heenfastened on the walls were found upon the ground.
But more frequently they are not to be distinguished from the forms with sum etc.
The construction is found occasionally at all i)eriods, but is most common in Livy
and later writers.
496. The Present and Perfect Participles are often used as a
predicate, where in English a phrase or a subordinate clause would
be more natural.
In this use the participles express timey causct occasion, condition,
concession, characteristic (or description), manner, means, attendant
circumstances : —
▼olventes hostllia cadavera amicum reperiebant (Sail. Cat. 61), while rolling
over the corpses of the enemy they found a friend, [Time.]
paululum commorfttus, slgna'canere iubet (id. 59), after delaying a little while,
he orders them to give tf^e signal, [Time.]
longius prosequi veritus, ad CicerOnem pervSnit (B. G. v. 62), because he
feared to follow further^ he came to Cicero. [Cause.]
qui flclret laxls dare inssus habCnfls (Aen. i. 68), who might know haw to
give them loose rein when hidden. [Occasion.]
danmfltum poenam sequi oportebat (B. G. i. 4), if condemned^ punishment
must overtake him. [Condition.]
salutem inspSrantibos reddidistl (Marc. 21), you have restored a safety for
which we did not hope (to [us] not hoping). [Concession.]
Dardanius caput ecce puer detSctus (Aen. z. 133), the Trojan boy urith his
head uncovered. [Description . ]
nee trepidSs in usum poscentis aevi panca (Hor. Od. ii. 11. 6), be iu>t anxioui
for the needs of age that demands little. [Characteristic]
incitftti fuga, montis altissimOs petebant (B. C. iii. 93), in headlong flight they
made for the highest mountains. [Manner.]
mllites subleyfttj alii ab alils m^gnam partem itineris cOnficerent (id. i. 68),
the soldiers, helped up by each other, accomplished a considerable part of
the route. [Means.]
hCc laud&ns, PompSius idem itirftyit (id. iii. 87), approving this, Pompey took
the same oath. [Attendant Circumstance.]
aut sedSns aut ambnULns disputftbam (Tnsc. i. 7), J conducted the discussion
either sitting or walking. [Attendant Circumstance.]
§§496,4»7] USES OF PARTICIPLES 313
NoTB 1. — These uses are especially frequent in the Ablative Absolute (§ 420).
NoTB 2. — A coordinate clause is sometimes compressed into a perfect participle : —
, instructSs Ordines in locum aequum deducit (Sail. Cat. 59), he draws up the lineSf
and leads them to level ground,
ut hi5s trftdttctSs necaret (B. G. v. 6), that he might carry them over and put them
to death,
NoTS 3. — A participle with a negative often expresses the same idea which in
English 18 given by without and a verbal noun: as, — miserum est nihil prGflcientem
ang[ (N. D. iii. 14) » it is wretched to vex oneself without effecting anything.
NoTB 4. — Acceptum and expensum as predicates with feire and referre are book-
keeping terms: as, — quas pecunias ferCbat eis expSnafts (Verr. ii. 170), what sum^ he
charged to them.
497. A noun and a passive participle are often so united that
the participle and not the noun contains the main idea : — ^
ante conditam condendamve urbeni (Li v. Pref.), b^ore the city was built or
building.
ilU libertatem xmminiitam clvium ROmlUiCrum nOn tulSrunt; vOs Sreptam
vitam neglegetis (Manil. 11), th^ did not endure the infringement of the
citizens''' liberty ; will you disregard the destruction of their lives f
I)OSt nat58 homines (Brut 224), since the creation of man,
iam & condit& urbe (Phil. iii. 0), even from the founding of the city,
a» The perfect participle with a noun in agreement, or in the
neuter as an abstract noun, is used in the ablative with opus, need
(cf. §411. a): —
opus facts est viaticd (PI. Trin. 887), there is need of laying in provision,
mAtfiitto opus est (Liv. viii. 13. 17), there is need of haste,
6. The perfect participle with habeO (rarely with other verbs) has
almost the same meaning as a perfect active, but denotes the contin-
ued effect of the action of the verb : — *
fidem quam habent spectfttam iam et diu cognitam (Caecil. 11), myftddity-j
which they have proved and long knovm.
cohortis in acid lxxx cSnstitfltaa habebat (B. C. iii. 80), he had eighty cohorts
stationed in line of battle.
nefariOs duces captds iam et comprehSnsds tenStis (Cat. iii. 16), you have now
captured the infamous leaders and hold them in custody,
€, A verb of effecting or the like may be used in combination with
the perfect participle of a transitive verb to express the action of that
verb more forcibly : —
1 Compare the participle in indirect discourse in Greek (Goodwin's Greek Grammar,
§ 1588) ; and the English " 'T was at the royal feast /or Persia won*' (Dryden), i.e./or
the conquest of Persia.
« The perfect with haoe^ in modem languages of Latin stock, has grown out of this
use of habed.
314 SYNTAX: THE VERB [§§497-499
praefecios su58 multl missSs fScerunt (Verr. iii. 134), many discharged their
officers (made dismissed),
hie trflns&ctum reddet omne (PI. Capt. 345), he will get it cUl done (restore it
finished).
adSmptum tibi iam fax5 omnem metum (Ter. Haut. 341), I wiU relieve you
of all fear (make it taken away),
illam tibi incSnsam dabo (Ter. Ph. 974), 1 will make her angry with you.
Note. — Similarly void (with its compounds) and cupid, with a perfect participle
without esse (cf. § 486. d),
d. After verbs denoting an action of the senses the present paxtici-
ple in agreement with the object is nearly equivalent to the infinitive
of indirect discourse (§ 680), but expresses the action more vividly :
ut eom nSmO umquam in equ5 sedentem vlderit (Verr. v. 27), so that no one
ever saw him sitting on a horse. [Cf. Tusc. iii. 31.]
Note. — The same construction is used after faci5, indticd, and the like, with the
name of an author as subject : as, — XenophOn facit Sdcratem disptttantem (N. D. i.
31), Xenophon represents Socrates disputing.
Future Participle (Active)
498. The Future Participle (except futurus and ventums) is
rarely used in simple agreement with a noun, except by poets
and later writers.
a. The future participle is chiefly used with the forms of esse
(often omitted in the infinitive) in the Active Periphrastic Conjuga-
tion (see § 195) : —
morere, Diagord,, n5n enim in caelum adscgnsurus es (Tusc. i. Ill), die,
Diagoras, for you are not likely to rise to heaven,
spSrat adulSscens diu se victurum (Cat. M. 68), the young man hopes to lite
long (that he shall live long),
neque petitums umquam cOnsuUtum vidSrStur (Off. iii. 79), and did not seeni
likely ever to be a candidate for the consulship,
b. With the past tenses of esse in the indicative, the future parti-
ciple is often equivalent to the pluperfect subjunctive (§ 517. d).
For f uturum fuisse, see § 589. b,
499. By later writers and the poets the Future Participle is
often used in simple agreement with a substantive to express —
1. Likelihood or certainty : —
rem ausus plus famae habituram (Liv. ii. 10), having dared a Mng which would
have more repute.
§§ 499, 600] GERUNDIVE 316
^^ -Purpose, intention, or readiness : —
€greditur castrls ROmSnus vallum invasflrus (Llv. iii. 60. 8), tAe Boman cornea
out of the camp with the iritention of attacking the rampart.
disperses per agrOs mllitCs equitibus invasuris (id. xxxi. 36), while the horse
were ready to attack the soldiers scattered through the fields.
Bl pexitfiias abis (Aen. ii. 676), if you are going away to perish.
3. Apodosis: —
dedit mihi quantum maximum potuit, datfirus apaplius si potuisset (Plin. Ep.
iii. 21. 6), he gave me as much as he could, ready to give me more if he
had been able. [Here daturas is equivalent to dedisset.]
Gerundive (Future Passive Participle)
NoTK. — The participle in -due, commonly called the Gerundive, has two distinct
uses: —
(1) Its predicate and attribute use as Participle or Adjective (§ 600).
(2) Its use with the meaning of the Grerund (§ 503). This may be called its gerun-
dive use.
500. The Gerundive when used as a Participle or an Adjective
IS always passive, denoting necessity, obligation, or propriety/.
In this use of the Gerundive the following points are to he
observed : —
1. The gerundive is sometimes used, like the present and perfect
participles, in simple agreement with a noun : —
fortem et conservandum virum (Mil. 104), a brave mun, and worthy to be pre-
served.
gravis initlria facta est et nOn ferenda (Flacc. 84), a grave and intolerable
vyrong has been done.
2. The most frequent use of the gerundive is with the forms of esse
in the Second (or passive) Periphrastic Conjugation (see § 196) : —
nOn agitanda rCs erit (Verr. v. 179), will not the thing have to be agitated f
3. The neuter gerundive of both transitive and intransitive verbs
may be used impersonally in the second periphrastic conjugation.
With verbs that take the dative or ablative, an object may be ex-
pressed in the appropriate case ; with transitive verlos, an object in
the accusative is sometimes found : —
temporl serviendum est (Fam. ix. 7. 2), one must obey the time.
legibus parendum est, the laws must be obeyed.
utendnm exercitatiOnibus modicis (Cat. M. 36), we must use moderate exercise.
agitandumst vigilias (PI. Trin. 869), I have got to stand guard.
via quam nobis ingrediendom sit (Cat. M. 6), the way we have to enter.
316 SYNTAX: THE VERB M§ 600-603
4. After verbs signifying to give, deliver, agree for, have, receive^
undertake, demand,^ a gerundive in agreement with the object is used
to express purpose : —
redemptor qui columnam illam conduxerat fadendam (Div. ii. 47), the con-
tractor who had undertaken to make that column, [ The regular construc-
tion with this class of verbs.]
aedem Castoris haboit tuendam (Verr. ii. 1. 150), he had the temple of Ccutor
to take care of.
nftvis atque onera adsenranda ctLrftbat (id. ▼. 146), he took care that the ships
and cargoes shx)uld he kept.
GERUND
501. The Gerund is the neuter of the Gerundive, used sub-
stantively in the Genitive, Dative, Accusative, and Ablative.
502. The Gerund expresses an action of the verb in the form
of a verbal noun.
As a noun the gerund is itself governed by other words ; as a
verb it may take an object in the proper case : —
ars bene disseiendi et vera ac falsa diifidicaiidi (De Or. ii. 157), the art ofdi^
coursing weU, and distinguishing the true and the false.
Note. — The NomiDative of the gerund is supplied by the Infinitive. Thus in the
example aboye, the verbal nouns discoursing and distinguishing ^ if used in the nomi-
native, would be expressed by the infinitives disserere and dliudicire.
The Gerund is the neuter of the gerundive used impersonally, but retaining the
verbal idea sufficiently to govern an object. . It may therefore be regarded as a noun
(cf. m&tttiat5 opof est, §497. a) with a verbal force (cf. istanc t&ctid, p. 240, footnote).
GERUND AND GERUNDIVE
503. When the Gerund would have an object in the Accusa-
tive, the Gerundive ^ is generally used instead. The gerundive
agrees with its noun, which takes the case that the gerund would
have had : —
par&tiOrSs ad omnia perlcula subeunda (B. G. i. 5), readier to undergo aU
dangers. [Here subeunda agrees with pericula, which is itself governed
by ad. The (inadmissible) construction with the gerund would be ad
snbenndnm pericula ; ad governing the gerund, and the gerund governing
the accusative pencula.] For details, see §§ 504-507.
I Such verbs are aociplS, adn5t5, attribuS, conducS, curS, dCnOtS, d6p06o5, d5, dIvidS,
d5n5, Sdioo, SdoceS, fer5, babeS, loc5, mando, obiciS, permitto, pet5, p(hi5, praebeS, prSpSofi,
relinqud, rog5, suscipiS, trftdS, vove$.
3 The gerundive construction is probably the original one.
§§508,504] GENITIVE OF GERUND AND GERUNDIVE 317
NoTB 1. — In this nse the gerand and the gerondiye are translated in the same
way, but have really a different construction. The gerundive is a pasHve participle,
and agrees with its noun, though in translation we change the voice, just as we may
translate vigiliae agitandae sont (guard miut be kept) by / miLat stand guard.
Note 2. — In the gerundive construction the verbs fitor, fruor, etc., are treated like
transitive verbs governing the accusative, as they do in early Latin (§ 410. a. n. ^ ) : as,
— ad perfmend&s volnpt&tes (Off. i. ^JS) /for enjoying pleasures,
a. The following examples illustrate the parallel constructions of
Gerund and Gerundive : —
Gbn. cOnsiliam | ,^ \ -^ [ ct design of taking the city,
Dat. da4i operam | *^* , "^ . [ ^ attends to tiUing the fields,
. t * j» ( ™^ pftrendum 1 ., (to obey me.
Ace. veniont ad ^ , ' ^ _ > they conie { . f
\ pftcem petendam j [to seek peace.
Abl. terit tempos | -k a* i ti r i ^^ spends time in writing letters,
NoTK 1. — The gerund with a direct object is practically limited to the Genitive aiul
the Ablative (without a preposition) ; even in these cases the gerundive is commoner.
Note 2. — The gerund or gerundive is often found coordinated with nominal con-
structions, and sometimes even in apposition with a noun : —
(1) in forO, in curia, in amicOrum pericufis propulsandis (Phil. vii. 7), in the forum,
in the senate-house^ in defending my friends in jeopardy,
(2) ad res diversissimas, pirendum atqne imperandom (Li v. xxi. 4t)ffor the most
widdy different things, obeying and commanding.
Genitive of the Gerund and GemndiTe
504. The Genitive of the Gerund and Gerundive is used after
nouns or adjectives, either as subjective or objective genitive : —
Vivendi finis est optimus (Cat. M. 72), it is the best end of living. [Sub-
jective.]
neque cobbUS. habeadi neque arma capiendi spatiO dat5 (B. G. iv. 14), time being
given neither for forming plans nor for taking arms, [Objective. ]
nOn tarn commutandarum quam evertendarum rSrum cupidOs (Off. ii. 3), desir-
ous not so much of changing as of destroying the state. [Objective.]
Note 1. — In these uses the gerund and the gerundive are about equally common.
Note 2. — In a few phrases the Infinitive is used with nouns which ordinarily
have the genitive of the gerund or gerundive : as, — tempus est abire, it is time to go.
a. The genitive of the gerund sometimes takes a direct object, espe-
cially a neuter pronoun or a neuter adjective used substantively : —
nfUla causa itista cuiquam esse potest contr& patriam anna capiendi (Phil. ii.
53), no one can have aju^ cause for taking up arms against his country.
artem vSra ac falsa diludicandl (De Or. ii. 157), f^ art of distinguishing true
* from false.
318 SYNTAX: THE VERB [§§604,505
NoTB 1. — The genitive of the gerund or gerundive is used (especially in later Latin)
as a predicate genitive. When so used it often expresses purpose : —
quae postquam glOriOsa modo neque belli patrandi cOgnOvit (lug. 88), when fie
perceived that these were only brilliant deeds and not likely to end the war.
Aegyptum proficiscitur cdgnSsoendae antiqttit&tis (Tac. Ann. ii. 59), fie sets out for
Egypt to study old times.
h. The genitive of the gerund or gerundive with causa or gratia
expresses purpose (§ 633. b) : —
pabulandi aut framentandi causd. prOgressI (B. C. i. 48), having advanced for
the purpose of collecting fodder or supplies.
vitandae suspicionis causa (Cat. i. 19), in order to avoid suspicion.
simulandi grftti& (lug. 37), in order to deceive.
ezercendae memoriae gr&ti& (Cat. M. 88), for the sake of training the memory.
c. The genitive of the gerund is occasionally limited by a noun or
pronoun (especially a personal pronoun in the plural) in the objective
genitive instead of taking a direct object : —
r§iciendi trinm itidicam potestas (Yerr. ii. 77), the power of challenging three
jurors (of the rejecting of three jurors).
8Ui colligendl faculty (B. G. iii. 6), the opportunity to recover themselves.
Dative of the Gerund and Gerundive
505. The Dative of the Gerund and Gerundive is used in a few
expressions after verbs : — ^
diem praestitit open faciendo (Verr. ii. 1. 148), fie appointed a day for doing the
worfc.
praeesse agr5 colendo (Rose. Am. 50), to take charge of cultivating the land.
esse solvendd, to be able to pay (to be for paying).
Note. — The dative of the gerund with a direct object is never found in classic
Latin, but occurs twice in Plautus.
a. The dative of the gerund and gerundive is used after adjec-
tives,* especially those which denote ^^ness or adaptability: —
genus armOrum aptum tegendis corpoiibus (Liv. xxxii. 10), a sort of armor
suited to the defence of tfie body.
reliqua tempora dSmetendis fructibus et percipiendis accommodata sunt (Cat. M.
70), tfie other seasons are fitted to reap and gatfier in tfie harvest.
perferendfs mllitum mandatis iddneus (Tac. Ann. i. 23), suitable for carrying
out tfie instructions of tfie soldiers.
NoTB. — This construction is very common in Livy and later writers, infrequent
in classical prose.
1 Such are praeesse, operam dare, diem dicere, locum capere.
3 Such are accommod&tus, aptas, ineptus, bonus, habilis, idoneus, pftr, ntilis, inntUis.
But the accusative with ad is common with most of these (cf . § 385. a).
505-507] ABLATIVE OF GERUNI> AND GERUNDIVE 319
h. The dative of the gerund and gerundive is used in certain legal
phrases after nouns meaning officers, offices, elections, etc., to indicate
the function or scope of the office etc. : —
comitia cdnsalibus rogandis (Div. i. 33), elections for nominating consuls.
triumvir colSniis dSdficandis (lug. 42), a triumvir for planting colonies.
triumviri rei pfiblicae cdnstitueiidae (title of the Triumvirate), triumvirs (a com-
mission of three) for settling the government.
Accusative of the Gerund and Gerundive
506. The Accusative of the Gerund and Gerundive is used
after the preposition ad, to denote Puipose (cf. § 533): —
m6 vocSs ad acxibendiuii (Or. 34), you summ^m me to write.
vivis n5n ad deponendam sed ad cSnfirmandam audaciam (Cat. i. 4), you live
not to put off but to confirm yovr daring.
nactus adittls ad ea conanda (B. C. i. 31), having found means to undertake
these things.
NoTB 1. — Other prepositions api>ear in this construction ; inter and ob a few times,
circft, in, ante, and a few others very rarely: as, inter agendum (Eel. iz. 24), while
driving.
Note 2. — The Accusatiye of the gerund with a preposition never takes a direct
object in classic Latin.
Ablative of the Gerund and Gerundive
507. The Ablative of the Gerund and Gerundive is used (1)
to express manner^ means^ cause^ etc.; (2) after Comparatives;
and (3) after the propositions ab, d6, ex, in, and (rarely) pr5 : —
(1) multa pollicendd persu&det (lug. 46), he persuades by large promises.
Latins loquendS cuivis par (Brut. 128), equal to any man in speaking Latin.
his ipsis legendis (Cat. M. 21), by reading these very things.
obscHram atque humilem conciendo ad 83 multittldinem (Li v. i. 8), calling to
them a mean and obscure multitude.
(2) nullum officium referenda grftti& magis necess&rium est (Off. i. 47), no duty
is more important than repaying favors.
(3) in re geiendA versSri (Cat. M. 17), to he employed in conducting affairs.
Note 1. — The Ablative of the Gerund and (Jerundive is also very rarely used
with verbs and adjectives: as, — nee continnandd abstitit magistr&tu (Liv. iz. 34), he
did not desist from continuing his magistracy.
Note 2. — The ablative of the gerund rarely takes a direct object in classic prose.
1 In this use the ablative of the gerund is, in later writers nearly, and in mediseval
writers entirely, equivalent to a present participle : as, — cum unA diSmm FiiBNDo sSdis-
set, quidam miles generSsus inzta earn EQurrANDo vSnit (Gesta Romanorum, 66 [58]),
as one day she sat weeping, a certain knight came riding by (compare § 507, fourth
example) . Hence come the Italian and Spanish forms of the present participle (as maiv-
dando, esperando), the true participial form becoming an adjective in those languages.
320 SYNTAX: THE VERB [§§ 608-610
SUPINS
508. The Supine is a verbal abstract of the fourth dedension ($ 94. b), haying no
distinction of tense or person, and limited to two uses. (1) The form in -um is the
Accusative of the end of motion (§ 428. i) . (2) The form in -u. is usually Dative of pur-
pone (§ 382), but the Ablative was early confused with it.
509. The Supine in -ttm is used after verbs of motion to express
purpose. It may take an object in the proper case : —
quid est, Imusne sessom? etsi admonitnm vSnimus t6, n5n fl&gitiltam (De Or.
iii. 17), hovo nov), aJiaU voe be seated f though vje have come to remindj not
to entreat you.
nflptom dare (coUocftre), to give in marriage,
venerunt questam initlriSs (Liv. iii. 25), they came to complain of wrongs.
Note 1. — The supine in -um is especially common withe5, and with the passive
infinitive izi forms the future infinitive passive : —
fuere elves qui rem publicam perditum irent (Sail. Cat. 36), there were cttizens who
went about to ruin the republic.
SI Bciret se tmcid&tam Ixi (Div. ii. 22), if he (Pompey) had known that he was
going to be murdered, [Rare except in Cicero. For the more usual way of
expressing the future passive infinitive, see § 569. 3. a.]
Note 2. — The supine in -um is occasionally used when motion is merely implied.
510. The Supine in-u^ is used with a few adjectives and with
the nouns ffts, nefis, and opus, to denote an action in reference to
which the quality is asserted : —
rem nOn modo visfi foedam, sed etiam audita (Phil. ii. 63), a thing not oniy
shocking to see, but even to hear cf.
quaerant quid optimam facti! sit (Verr. ii. 1. 68), they ask what is best to do.
si hoc fas est dictfl (Tusc. ▼. 88), if this is lawful to say,
videUs nef&s esse dictfl iniseram f uisse tftlem senectutem (Cat. M. 13), you
see U is a sin to say that such an old a/ge was wretched.
Note 1. — The supine in -fi is thus in appearance an Ablative of Specification (§ 418).
Note 2. — The supine in -u is found especially with such adjectives as indicate an
effect on the senses or the feelings, and those which denote ease, difficulty, and the
like. But with facilis, difflcilis, and lucandus, ad with the gerund is more common : —
nee visa facilis nee dicta adfabilis iilli (Aen. iii. 621), he is not pleasant for any
man to look at or address.
difficilis ad distlnguendum similitudo (De Or. ii. 212), a likeness difficult to dis-
tinguish.
Note 3. — With all these adjectives the poets often use the Infinitive in the same
sense: as, — faciles aurem praebCre (Prop. ii. 21. 15), indulgent to lend an ear.
Note 4. — The supine in -u with a verb is extremely rare: as, — pudet dicta (Tac.
Agr. 32), it is a shame to tell. [On the analogy of padendnm dicta.]
^ The only common supines in -a are aoditfi, dicta, facta, inventll, memoifttfi, iiati,
▼istt. In classic use this supine is found in comparatively few verbs. It is never
followed by an object-case.
§611] CONDITIONAL SENTENCES 821
CONDITIONAL SENTENCES
511. The Conditional Sentence differs from other complex sentences in this, that
the form of the main clause (afodosis) is determined in some degree by the nature
of the subordinate clause (protasis) upon the truth of which the whole statement
depends. Like all complex sentences, however, the Conditional Sentence has arisen
from the use of two independent sentence-forms to express the parts of a thought
which was too complicated to be fully expressed by a simple sentence. But because
the thoughts thus expressed are in reality closely related, as parts of a single whole, the
sentences which represent them are also felt to be mutually dependent, even though
the relation is not expressed by any connecting word. Thus, Speak the word : my ser-
vant shall be healed is a simpler and an earlier form of expression than ^ thou speak
the word, etc.
The Conditional Particles were originally pronouns without conditional mean-
ing: thus, 81, \f, is a weak demonstrative of the same origin as sic, so (si-ce like
hi-ce, see § 215. 5), and had originally the meaning of in that way, or in some way.
Its relative sense (if) seems to have come from its use with sic to make a pair of correla-
tives: thus . . . thus (see § 512. 6).
In its origin the Conditional Sentence assumed one of two forms. The condition
was from the first felt to be a condition, not a fact or a command ; but, as no special
sentence-form for a condition was in use, it employed for its expression either a state-
ment of /ac< (with the Indicative) or a form of mild com,mand (the Subjunctive).
From the former have come all the uses of the Indicative in protasis ; from the latter
all the uses of the Subjunctive in protasis. The Apodosis has either (1) the Indicative,
expressing the conclusion as a fact, and the Present and Perfect Subjunctive, express-
ing it originally as /uture — and hence more or less doubtftd — or (2) the Imperfect
and Pluperfect Subjunctive expressing it as /titurum in praeterito,^ and so unfurled
in the present or past. Thus, — xidSs, m&iore cachinn5 concutitur, you laugh, he shakes
with more boisterous laughter, is the original form for the Indicative in protasis and
apodosis; si ridSs originally means merely you laugh in som/e way or other, and so,
later, if you kmgh. So rogSs AristSnem, neget, ask Arista, he would say no, is the
original form of the subjunctive in protasis and apodosis ; si rog6s would mean ask in
some way or other. In si rogires, neglret, the Imperfect rog&rSs transfers the command
of rogis to past time,^ with the meaning suppose you had asked, and si would have the
same meaning as before ; while negaret transfers the future idea of neget to past time,
and means he was going to deny. Now the stating of this supposition at all gives
rise to the implication that it is untrue in point of fact, — because, if it were true,
there would ordinarily be no need to state it as a supposition : for it would then be a
simple fact, and as such would be put in the indicative fi Such a condition or conclusion
1 The futurum in praeterito is a tense future relatively to a time absolutely past.
It denotes a future act transferred to the point of view of past time, and hence is
naturally expressed by a past tense of the Subjunctive : thus dixisset, he would have
said=:dictnivLB fait, Ae was about to say [but did not]. As that which looks towards
the future from some point in the past has a natural limit in present time, such a
tense (the imi)erfect subjunctive) came naturally to be used to express 2^ present con-
dition purely ideal, that is to say, contrary to fact.
3 Compare potius diceret, he should rather have said (§ 439. 6).
» There are, however, some cases in which this implication does not arise : as, —
deeiSns centSna dedissCs, nil erat in locafis (Hor. S. i. 3. 15), if you'd given him a mil-
Hon, there was nothing in his coffers.
322 SYNTAX: CONDITIONAL SENTENCES [§§611,512
(originally past, meaning svppose you had asked [yesterday], he was going to deny)
came to express an unfulfilled condition in the present: suppose (or if) you were
now asking t he would [now] deny — just as in English ought, which originally meant
owedf^ has come to express a present obligation.
For the classification of Conditional Sentences, see § 513.
PEOTASIS AND APODOSIS
612. A complete Conditional Sentence consists of two clauses,
the Protasis and the Apodosis.
The clause containing the condition is called the Protasis ;
the clause containing the conclusion is called the Apodosis : —
si qui exire volant [protasis], cOnlvCre possum [apodosis] (Cat. ii. 27), if
any wish to depart, I can keep my eyes shut,
si est in exsiliO [protasis], quid amplius postulatis [apodosis] (Lig. 13), if
he is in exiUy what more do you askf
It should be carefully noted that the Apodosis is the main clause
and the Protasis the dependent clause.
a. The Protasis is regularly introduced by the conditional particle
8i, if, or one of its compounds.
Note. — These compounds are sm, nisi, etiam si, etsf, tametsi, tamenetsi (see €k)ndi-
tional and Concessive Particles, p. 138). An Indefinite Relative, or any relative or
concessive word, may also serve to introduce a conditional clause : see Conditional
Relative Clauses (§§519, 542) ; Concessive Clauses (§527).
6. The Apodosis is often introduced by some correlative word or
phi'ase : as, ita, turn (rarely sic), or ea condiciGne etc. : —
ita enim senectus honesta est, si sS ipsa d6fendit (Cat. M. 38), on this cfrndU
tion is old age homrraUe, if it defends itself,
si quidem m6 am3itet, turn istuc prOdesset (Ter. Eun. 446), if he loved wic,
then this would be profitable.
sic scribes aliquid, si vacabis (Att. xii. 38. 2), if you are (shall be) at leisure,
then you will write something.
c. The Apodosis is the principal clause of the conditional sen-
tence, but may at the same time be subordinate to some other
clause, and so appear in the form of a Participle, an Infinitive, or
a Phrase : —
sepulttira quoque prohibituri, ni rgx humari iussisset (Q. C. viii. 2. 12), intend-
ing also to deprive him of burial, unless the king had ordered him to be
interred.
1 ** There was a certain lender which ought him five hundred pieces." — Tyndale*s
New Testament.
§§612-614] CLASSIFICATION OF CONDITIONS 323
quod si praetereft nSmO sequ&tur, tamen &€ cum sOlft decimS, legiOne itflram
[esse] (B. G. i. 40. 14), but if no one else should follow, he would go with
the tenth legion alone.
si quOs adyersum proelium commoveret, hds reperire posse (id. 40. 8), {/ the
los8 of a battle alarmed any, they might find, etc.
NoTB. — When the Apodosis itself is in Indirect Discourse, or in any other depend-
ent constmction, the verb of the Protasis is regularly in the Subjunctive (as in the above
examples, see § 589).
CLASSIFICATION OF CONDITIONS
513. Conditions are either (1) Particular or (2) General. •
1. A Particular Condition refers to a definite act or series of acts
occurring at some definite time.
2. A Greneral Condition refers to any one of a class of acts which
may occur (or may have occurred) at any time.
514. The principal or typical forms of Conditional Sentences
may be exhibited as follows : —
PARTICULAR CONDITIONS
A. Simple Conditions (nothing implied as to fulfilment)
I. Present Time
Present Indicative in both clauses: —
si adest, bene est, if he is [now] here, it is well,
2. Past Time
Imperfect or Perfect Indicative in both clauses: —
si aderat, bene erat, if he wa^s [then] here, it was well.
si adfuit, bene fuit, if he has been [was] here, it has been [was] well.
B. Future Conditions (as yet unfulfilled)
I. More Vivid
a# Future Indicative in both clauses : —
si aderit, bene erit, if he is (shall be) here, it will be well.
h. Future Perfect Indicative in protasis, Future Indicative in
apodosis : —
si adfnerit, bene erit, if he is (shall have been) here, it will [then] be well.
324 SlUTAX: CONDITIONAL SENTENCES [§614
2. Less Vivid
a. Present Subjunctive in both clauses: —
n adsit, bene sit, if he akouid he {or were to be) here, it would be toeU.
6. Perfect Subjunctive in protasis, Present Subjunctive in apod-
osis: —
si adfaerit, bene sit, if he should be (should have been) h£re, U would [then]
be well.
0. Conditions Contrary to Fact
I. Present Time
Imperfect Subjunctive in both clauses: —
si adesset, bene esset, if he were [now] Aere, it would be well (but he is not here).
2. Past Time
Pluperfect Subjunctive in both clauses: —
si adfuisset, bene faisset, if he had [then] been here, it %»ould have been well
(but he was not here).
Note. — The use of tenses in Protasis is very loose in English. Thus if he u
cUive now is a fbbsbnt condition, to be expressed in Latin by the Present Indicative;
if he is alive next year is a futurz condition, expressed in Latin by the Future
Indicative. Again, if Tie were here now is a prssbnt condition contrary to fact,
and would be expressed by the Imperfect Subjunctive ; if he were to see me thut
is a^FUTUBB condition less vivid, to be expressed by the Present Subjunctive; and so
too, if you advised hinit he would attend may be future less vivid.i
D. GENERAL CONDITIONS
General Conditions do not usually differ in form from Particular
Conditions {A, By and (7), but are sometimes distinguished in the
cases following : —
I. Present General Condition (Indefinite Time)
a. Present Subjunctive second person singular (Indefinite Subject)
in protasis, Present Indicative in apodosis: —
si hoc dic&s, creditnr, if any one [ever] says this, it is [always] bdieved,
6. Perfect Indicative in protasis, Present Indicative in apodosis:
si quid dixit, creditur, if he [ever] says anything, it is [always] bdieved.
1 In most English verbs the Preterite (or Past) Subjunctive is identical in form
with the Preterite Indicative. Thus in such a sentence as if he loved his father, he
would not say this, the verb loved is really a Preterite Subjunctive, though this does
not appear from the inflection. In the verb to be, bowever, the Subjunctive were has
been preserved and differs in form from the indicative was.
§§ 614, 616] SIMPLE PRESENT AND PAST CONDITIONS 326
2. Past General Condition (Repeated Action in Past Time)
ft. Pluperfect Indicative in protasis, Imperfect Indicative in apod-
osis : —
si quid dixexat, crSdfib&tnr, if he [ever] aaid anything, it was [always] believed.
h. Imperfect Subjunctive in protasis, Imperfect Indicative in apod-
osis : —
8i quid diceret, crSdSUtar, if he [ever] said anything, it was [always]
beUeoed (= whatever he said was always believed).^
PARTICULAR CONDITIONS
Simple Present and Past Conditions — Nothing Implied
515. In the statement of Present and Past conditions whose
falsity is not implied^ the Present and Past tenses of the Indica-
tive are used in both Protasis and Apodosis : —
si tfL exercitasqae valStis, bene est (Fam. v. 2), if you and the army are weU^
it is well, [Present Condition.]
haec igitur, si ROmae es ; sin abes, aut etiam si ades, haec negOtia sic s€ habent
(Att. V. 18), this, then, if you are at Rome; hut if you are away — or even
if you are there — tkese matters are as follows. [ Present Condition. ]
si Caesarem prob&tis, in me offenditis (B. C. ii. 32. 10), if you favor Ccesar,
you find fault with me. [Present Condition.]
si qui mftgnls ingenils in eO genere exstitSrant, nOn satis GraecOnim gldriae
respondSnxiit (Tosc. i. 3), if any have shovm themselves of great genius in
that department, they have failed to compete with the glory of the Greeks.
[Past General Condition, not distinguished in form from Particular.]
accSpi ROm& sine epistul& tuft fasciculum litter&rum in quO, si modo valuisti
et K5mae fuisti, Pbilotlml duc5 esse culpam nOn tuam (Att. v. 17), / have
received from Rome a bundle of letters without any from you^ which, pro-
vided you have been well and at Rome, I take to be the fault of PhUotimus,
not yours. [Mixed : Past condition and Present conclusion.]
quas litter&s, si ItOmae es, vidSbis put^sne reddendfts (id. v. 18), as to this
letter, if you are at Rome, you wiU see whether in your opinion it ought
to be delivered. [Mixed : Present and Future.]
si nemO impetrflvit, adroganter rogd (Lig. 30), ^ no one has succeeded in obtain-
ing it, my request is presumptuous. [Past and Present.]
1 Cf . the Greek forms corresponding to the various types of conditions : —
A. 1. €l rpdaaei roGro^ KoXCn Ix"* 2. el Hvpaaae toOto, koXCos elx^v.
B. 1. ^Air rpda-ffxi rovro, koKQs l^€i. 2. €/ irpd<r<roi rovro, KoXm hv ex®*-
C. 1. €l ^vpoffae rovro, Ka\(at hv efxev. 2. el llirpa^€ rovro, iroXwi Ar l^xc"-
2>. 1. idv Til xXivryf KoXd^erai. 2. etris kXirroL, ixoXdl^ero,
326 SYNTAX: CONDITIONAL SENTENCES [§§615,516
a. In these conditions the apodosis need not always be in the In-
dicative, but may assume any form, according to the sense : —
si placet . . . vide&mus (Cat. M. 15), ^ you please^ let xls see. [Hortatory
Subjunctive, §439.]
8l nOndum satis cernitis, record&miiu (Mil. 61), if you do not yet see clearly,
recoUect, [Imperative.]
si quid habSs certius, yelim scire (Att. iv. 10), if you have any trustworthy
information, I should like to knmo it. [Subjunctive of Modesty, § 447. 1.]
NoTB. — Although the form of these conditions does not imply anything as to the
truth of the supposition, the sense or the context may of course have some such impli-
cation : —
nOlite, si in nostrO omnium fletu nullam lacrimam aspexistis MilOnis, hOc minas
ei parcere (Mil. 92), do not, if amid the weeping of ua all you have seen no
tear [in the eyes] of Milo, spare him the less for that.
petimus a Y5bis, iudices, si qua divina in tantis ingeniis commendatid dSbet
esse, ut eum in vestram accipiatis fidem (Arch. 31), we ask you, judges,
if there ought to be anything in such genius to recommend it to tis cs
by a recommendation of the gods, that you receive him under your pro-
tection.
In these two passages, the protasis really expresses cause: but the cause is put by
the speaker in the form of a non-committal condition. His hearers are to draw the
inference for themselves. In this way the desired impression is made on their minds
more effectively than if an outspoken causal clause had been used.
Future Conditions
516. Future Conditions may be more vivid or leas vivid.
1. In a more vivid future condition the protasis makes a distinct
supposition of a future case, the apodosis expressing what will be the
logical result.
2. In a less vivid future condition, the supposition is less distinct,
the apodosis expressing what would be the result in the case supposed.
a. In the more vivid future condition the Future Indicative is used
in both protasis and apodosis : —
sAnftbimnr, si volemus (Tusc. iii. 13), we shall be healed if we wish.
quod 8l legere aut audire voietis, . . . reperietis (Cat. M. 20), if you will
[shall wish to] read or hear, you will find.
Note. — In English the protasis is usually expressed by the Present Indicative,
rarely by the Future with shall. Often in Latin the Present Indicative is found in
the protasis of a condition of this kind (cf . § 468) : —
si vlncimus, omnia nObis tuta erunt ; sin metu cesserimus, eadem ilia advorsa fient
(Sail. Cat. 58), if we conquer, all things will be safe for us; but if we yield
through fear, those same things will become hostile.
si pere5, hominum manibus periisse iuvabit (Aen. iii. 606), if I perish, it wiQ he
pleasant to have perished at the hands of men.
§516] FUTURE CONDITIONS 327
ft
6. In the less vivid future condition the Present Subjunctive is
used in both protasis and apodosis : —
haec 8l tecum patria loqu&tur, nOnne impetrftre dSbeat (Cat. i. 19), if ycmr
country should thus speak with you, ought she not to prevail?
quod si quia deus mihi largi&tur, . . . valdS reciisem (Cat. M. 83), but if some
god were to grant me this, I should stoutly refuM.
Note. — The Present Subjunctive sometimes stands in protasis with the Future
(or the Present) Indicative in apodosis from a change in the point of view : — ^
si dSigenter attendimns, inteUegSmus (Inv. ii. M), if we attend (should attend)
carefully, we shall understand.
nisi hoc dicat, 'Mure feci," ndn babet defensidnem (id. i. 18), unless he should
say this, "I acted Justifiably," he has no defence.
ۥ If the conditional act is regarded as completed before that of the
apodosis begins, the Future Perfect is substituted for the Future
Indicative in protasis, and the Perfect Subjunctive for the Present
Subjunctive : —
8ln cum potuer5 nOn vSnerd, tum erit inimlcus (Att. 'm. 2 k, 2), but if I do not
come when 1 can, he will be unfriendly.
si & cor5n& relictus tim, nOn queam dicere (Brut. 192), if I should be deserted
by the circle of listeners, I should not be able to speak.
Note. — The Future Perfect is often used in the apodosis of a future condition:
as, — vehementer mihi gratum ficeris, si hunc adulescentem humanitate tua compre-
henderis (Fam. xiii. 15), you will do (will have done) me a great favor, if you receive
this young man with your usual courtesy.
€l» Any form denoting or implying future time may stand in the
apodosis of a future condition. So the Imperative, the participles in
-dus and -rus, and verbs of necessity, possibility, and the like : —
alios finis cdnstltoendus est, si prius quid maxim6 reprehendere Scipi5 solitus
sit dlxerO (Lael. 60), another limit muM be set, if 1 first state what Scipio
was wont most to find fault with.
si me praecSperit f&tum, vOs mandftsse memento (Q. C. ix. 6. 26), if fate cuts
me off too soon, do you remember that I ordered this.
nisi oculls videritis Insidifts MilOnl 9, Cl5di0 factfts, nee dSprecftturi sumus nee
postuULtfiri (Mil. 6), unless you see with your own eyes the plots laid against
Milo by Clodius, I shaU neither beg nor demand, etc.
nOn possum istum accOs&re, si cupiam (Verr. iv. 87), J cannot accuse him, if
I should (so) desire,
1 It often depends entirely upon the view of the writer at the moment, and not
upon the nature of the condition, whether it shall be stated vividly or not ; as in the
proverbial " If the sky falls, we shall catch larks " the impossible condition is iron-
ically put in the vivid form, to illustrate the absurdity of some other supposed condi-
tion stated by some one else.
328 SYNTAX: CONDITIONAL SENTENCES [§§516,617
e. Rarely the Perfect Indicative is used in apodosis with a Pres-
ent or even a Future (or Future Perfect) in protasis, to represent the
conclusion rhetorically as already accomplished : —
si h5c bene fixum in animO est, vicistis (Liv. xxi. 44), if this is well fixed in
your minds, you have conquered. [For you wiU have conquered.]
si eundein [animum] habueritis, vicimus (id. xxi. 43), if you shaU have kept
Vie same spirit, we have conquered.
/• A future condition is frequently thrown back into past time,
without implying that it is contrary to fact (§ 517). In such cases
the Imperfect or Pluperfect Subjunctive may be used : —
n5n poterat, nisi dScert^re vellet (B. C. iii. 44), he voas not able, unless he
wished to fi^ht.
tumulus apparuit, ... si luce palam iretur hostis praeventtirus erat (Lir.
xxii. 24), a hiU appeared . . . if they should go openly by daylight, the
enemy would prevent. [The first two appear like Indirect Discourse,
but are not. An observer describing the situation in the first example
as present would say ndn potest nisi velit (see d), and no indirect dis-
course would be thought of.]
Caesar si peteret, . . . nOn quicquam proficeret (Hor. S. i. 3. 4), if even Ccesar
were to ajik, he would gain nothing. [Here the construction is not con-
trary to fact, but is simply si petat, n5n proficiat, thrown into past time.]
Conditions Contrary to Fact
517. In the statement of a supposition impliedly fcUse^ the Im-
perfect and Pluperfect Subjunctive are used in both protasis and
apodosis.^ The Imperfect refers to present tims, the Pluperfect
to past: —
si viveret, verba Sius andiretis (Rose. Com. 42), %fhe were living, you would
hear his words. [Present.]
nisi tu amisisses, numquam recepissem (Cat. M. 11), unless you had lost it. I
should not have recovered it. [Past.]
si meum consilium valoisset, tU hodie egSiSs, r6s puhlica n5n tot duces ami-
sisset (Phil. ii. 37), if my judgment haud prevailed [as it did not], yow
would this day he a beggar, and the republic would not have lost so inany
leaders. [Mixed Present and Past.] ♦
^ The implication of falsity, in this construction, is not inherent in the snbjnuc-
tiye ; but comes from the trarufer of a future coTidition to past tivne. Thus the time
for the happening of the condition has, at the moment of writing, already passed ; so
that, if the condition remains a condition, it must be contrary to fact. So past forms
of the indicative implying a future frequently take the place of the subjnnctiTe in
apodosis in this construction (see c, d, below, and §511).
§517] CONDITIONS CONTRARY TO FACT 329
a. In conditions contrary to fact the Imperfect often refers to past
time, both in protasis and apodosis, especially when a repeated or con-
tinued dction is denoted, or when the condition if true would still exist :
si nihil litteils adiavftxentur, numquam s6 ad e&ram studium contulLssent
(Arch. 16), if they had not been helped at all by literature, they never
toould have given their attention to the study qf it, [Without the condi-
tion, Adiavibantar.]
hie si mentis esset suae, ausus esset edficere exercitum (Pison. 60), if he were
of sane mind, wouli he have dared to lead out the army f [Here esset
denotes a continued state, past as well as present.]
nOn concidissent, nisi illud recept&culum classihus nostrls pat6ret (Verr. ii.
3), [the power of Carthage] would not have fallen, unless that station had
been [constantly] open to our fleets, [Without the condition, patfibat.]
b» In the apodosis of a condition contrary to fact the past tenses
of the Indicative may be used to express what was intended, or likely,
or already begun. In this use, the Imperfect Indicative corresponds
in time to the Imperfect Subjunctive, and the Perfect or Pluperfect
Indicative to the Pluperfect Subjunctive : —
fA licitum esset, m&tres YeniSbant (Verr. y. 120), the mothers were coming if
it had been allowed.
in amplexOs flliae ruSbat, nisi llctOres obstitissent (Tac. Ann. xvi. 82), he was
about rushing into his daughter's arms, unless the lictors had opposed.
iam tUta tenebam, nl gSns crtldelis ferrO invftsisset (Aen. vi. 868), I was just
reaching a place of so^fety, had not the fierce people attacked me.
Note 1. — Here the apodosis may be regarded as elliptical. Thos, — matres venie-
bant (et TSnissent), the matrons were coming (and would have kept on) if, etc.
Note 2. — With paene (and sometimes prope), almost, the Perfect Indicatiye is used
in the apodosis of a past condition contrary to fact: as, — pons iter paene hostibus
dedit, m udus yir fnisset (Liv. ii. 10), t?ie bridge had almjost given a passage to the
foe, if it had not been for one hero,
ۥ Verbs and other expressions denoting necessity, propriety, possi-
bility, duty, when used in the apodosis of a condition contrary to
facty may be put in the Imperfect or Perfect Indicative.
Such are oportet, decet, dSbe5, possum, necesse est, opus est, and the Sec-
ond Periphrastic Conjugation : — *
n5n potoit fieri sapiSns, nisi natus esset (Fin. ii. 103), he couJd not have become
a sage, if he had not been bom.
si priv&tus esset hOc tempore, tamen is erat dCligendns (Manil. 50), if he were
at this time a private citizen, yet he ought to be appointed.
1 Observe that all these expressions contain the idea of f ntnrity (cf . p. 328, footnote) .
Thns, decet mi [hodiS] Ire czfts, means it is proper for me [to-day] to go to-morrow ;
and, decCbat mB [hen] irs hodiS, it was proper for me [yesterday] to go to-day, usually
with the implication that / fiave not gone as I was bour^ to do.
330 SYNTAX: CONDITIONAL SENTENCES [§517
quod esse caput debSbat, si probarl posset (Fin. iv. 23), what (mght to he the
main pointy if it could be proved.
si ita putdsset, certe opt&bilius MilOnl fait (Mil. 31), if he had thought so^ surely
it would have been pr^eraMefor Milo.
Note 1. — In Present conditions the Imperfect Subjunctive (oportSret, possem, etc.)
is the rule, the Indicative being rare ; in Past conditions both the Subjunctive (usually
Pluperfect) and the Indicative (usually Perfect) are common.
For pftr eraty melius fait, and the like, followed by the infinitive, see § 521. n.
NoTK 2. — The indicative construction is carried still further in poetry: as, — a
Ddn allum iactaret odOrem, laurus erat (Georg. ii. 133), it were a laurel, but for giving
out a different odor.
d. The participle in -urus with eram or fui may take the place of
an Imperfect or Pluperfect Subjunctive in the apodosis of a condi-
tion contrary to fact : —
quid enim fatiimm fait [= fuisset], si . . . (Li v. ii. 1), whal would have hap-
pened if, etc.
relictari agrOs erant, nisi ad eOs Metellus litterfis mlsisset (Verr. ill. 121), they
would have abandoned their fields, if Metellus had not sent ^lem a letter.
neque ambigitur quln ... id factilrus fuerit, si . . . (Li v. ii. 1), nor is there
any question that he would have done it, if, etc. [Direct : fedsset.]
adeO par&ta sSditiO fuit ut OthOnem rapturi fuerint, nl incerta noctis timuis-
sent (Tac. H. 1. 26), so far advanced was the conspiracy that they would
have seized upon Otho, had they njot feared the hazards of the night. [In
a main clause: rapaissent, ni timuissent.]
e. The Present Subjunctive is sometimes used in poetry in the
protasis and apodosis of conditions contrary to fact : —
nl comes admoneat, inmat (Aen. vi. 293), had not his companion warned him,
he would have rushed on. [Cf . tu si hic sis, aliter senti&s (Ter. And. 310),
if you were in my place, you would think differently.']
Note 1. — This is probably a remnant of an old construction (see next note).
Note 2. — In old Latin the Present Subjunctive (as well as the Imperfect) is used
in present conditions contrary to fact and the Imperfect (more rarely the Pluperfect)
in past conditions of the same kind. Thus it appears that the Imperfect Subjunctive,
like the Imperfect Indicative, once denoted past time, even in conditional sentences.
Gradually, however, in conditional sentences, the Present Subjunctive was restricted
to the less vivid future and the Imperfect (in the main) to the present contrary to fact,
while the Pluperfect was used in past conditions of this nature. The old construction,
however, seems to have been retained as an archaism in poetry.
/. In Plautus and Terence absque mS (t5, etc.) is sometimes used to
introduce conditions contrary to fact : —
absque t6 esset, hodi6 nusquam viverem (PI. Men. 1022), if it were not for
you, I should not be alive to-day.
absque eO esset, r6ct6 ego mihi vidissem (Ter. Ph. 188), if it had not been for
him, I should have looked autfor myself.
§518] GENERAL CONDITIONS 331
GENERAL CONDITIONS
518. General Conditions (§ 513. 2) have usually the same forms
as Particular Conditions. But they are sometimes distinguished
in the following cases : —
a. The Subjunctive is often used in the second persoji singular j to
denote the act of an indefinite subject {you = any one). Here the
Present Indicative of a general truth may stand in the apodosis : —
▼ita htLmftna prope uti ferrum est : si exerce&s, conteritur ; si nOn ezercefts,
tamen rOblgO interflcit (Cato de M.), human life is very like iron: if
you use it^ it wears away; if you dont use it^ rust still destroys it,
virt&tem necessSriO glOria, etiamsl tH id nOn ag&s, consequitur (Tusc. i. 91),
glory necessarily foUows virtue^ even if that is not one^s aim.
8l prohibita impilne tr&nscenderis, neque metus ultra neque pudor est (Tac.
Ann. iii. 64), if you once overstep the bounds with impunity ^ there is no
fear or shame any more.
b. In a general condition in present time, the protasis often takes
the Perfect Indicative, and the apodosis the Present Indicative. For
past time, the Pluperfect is used in the protasis, and the Imperfect in
the apodosis : —
si quOs aliqu3. parte membrOrum intitilis n5t&v§runt, nec9,rl iubent (Q. C. iz.
1. 25), if they [ever] mark any infirm in any part of their limbs, they
[always] order them to be put to death. [Present.]
si & i)erseqaendO hostis deterrSre neqaiverant, ab tergO circumyeniSbant (lug.
50), if [ever] they were unable to prevent the enemy from pursuing , they
[always] surrounded them in the rear. [Past.]
c. In later writers (rarely in Cicero and Caesar), the Imperfect and
Pluperfect Subjunctive are used in protasis, with the Imperfect In-
dicative in apodosis, to state a repeated or customary action in past
time (Iterative Subjunctive): —
si quis & dominO prehenderetur, concursu militum eiipiSbfttar (6. C. iii. 110),
if any (runaway) was arrested by his master, he was (always) rescued by
a mob of soldiers.
acctbs&tOrSs, si faculty incideret, poems adficiSbantur (Tac. Ann. vi. 30), t?ie
accusers, whenever opportunity offered, were visited with punishment.
8l quis collegam appellfisset, ab eO ita di8c§dSbat ut paenitSret nOn priOris
decretO stetisse (Liv. iii. 36. 8), if any one appealed to a colleague, he
[always] came off in such case that he repented not having submitted to
the decree of the formjer decemvir. [Cf . S5crat6s, quam s6 cumque in
partem dedisset, omnium fuit facile princeps (De Or. iii. 60), in whatever
direction Socrates turned himself, he was (always) easily the foremost (if
in any, etc.).]
382 SYNTAX : CONDITIONAL SENTENCES [§§ 619, 520
Conditional Relative Clauses
519. A clause introduced by a Relative Pronoun or Relative
Adverb may express a condition and take any of the construc-
tions of Protasis^ (§ 514): —
qui enim yitils modum adpdnit, is partem suscipit yitiSnim (Tusc. iy. 42), he
who [only] 8et8 a limit to faults, takes up the side of the fauUs. [= si
qois adponit. Present, nothing implied.]
qui mentlrl solet, pfiierftre cOnsufivit (Rose. Com. 46), wJioever is in the habit of
lying, is accustomed to swear falsely. [= ai quia solet. Present, nothing
implied.]
quicqiiid potoit, potuit ipsa per sS (Leg. Agr. i. 20), whatever power she hadj
she had by herself. [= si quid potuit. Past, nothing implied.]
quod qui faciet, nOn aegritddine solum vac&bit, sed, etc. (Tusc. iv. 38), and
he who does (shall do) this, will be free not only, etc. [= n quia faciet.
Future, more vivid.]
qoiaqaia hue Tenerit, y&pulftbit (PI. Am. 800), whoever comes here shall get a
thrashing, [= ai quia TSnexit. Future, more vivid.]
qoS volSs, sequar (Clu. 71), whithersoever you wish (shall wish), I will follow.
[= ai qao volea. Future, more vivid.]
philo8ophia,cui qui p&reat,omne tempus aetatissine molesti&possit d6gere(Cat.
M. 2), philosophy^ which if any one should obey, he would be able to spend
his whole life without vexation. [= si quis p£reat. Future, less vivid.]
qnaecomqae v5s causa hflc attulisset, laet&rer (De Or. ii. 15), I should be glad,
wJudever cause had brought you here (i.e. if any other, as well as the one
which did). [= ai . . . attulisset. Contrary to fact]
The relative in this construction is always indefinite in meaning,
and very often in form.
520. The special constructions of General Conditions are some-
times found in Conditional Relative Clauses : —
1. The Second Person Singular of the Subjunctive in the protasis
with the Indicative of a general truth in the apodosis (§ 618. a) : —
bonus tantum modo sSgnior fit ubi neglegfis, at malus improbior (lug. 31. 28),
a good man merely becomes less diligent when you don*t watch him, but a
bad mxin becomes more shameless. [Present General Condition.]
2. The Perfect or Pluperfect Indicative in the protasis and the
Present or Imperfect Indicative in the apodosis (§ 518. b) : —
com hUc yeni, hC^c ipsum nihil agere m6 delectat (De Or. ii. 24), whenever I
come here, this very doing nothing delights me (whenever I have come,
etc.). [Present General Condition.]
^ As in the Greek of hv, &ra9, etc. ; anji in statutes in English, where the phrases
if any person shall and whoever shall are used indifferently.
§§ 520, 621] CONDITION DISGUISED 883
cum rosam ▼ideiat, tnm incipere vSr axUtrftbltm (Verr. v. 27), whenever he
9aw (had seen) a rose, then he thought spring toaa beginning. [Past
General Condition.]
3. In later writers (rarely in Cicero and Caesar) the Imperfect or
Pluperfect Subjunctive in the protasis and the Imperfect Indicative
in the apodosis (§ 618. e): —
uU imbecillitas mSteriae postul&re viderl^tor, pilae interpSnuntar (B. C. ii.
16), whereoer the toeahnesa of the timber seemed to reqwre, piles were put
between, [Past General Condition: interp5iiiintur = jaterp5ai1>antar.]
qaocoinqne 86 intalisset, victOriam sScum trahSbat (Liv. yi. 8), whereoer he
advanced, he carried victory with him. [Past General Condition.]
Condition Disguised
521. In many sentences properly conditional, the Protasis is
not expressed by a conditional clause, but is stated in some other
form of words or implied in the nature of the thought.
a* The condition may be implied in a Clause, or in a Participle^
Noun, Adverb, or some other word or phrase : —
facile m6 i>aterer — illO ipsS iHdice quaerente — prO Sex. ROsciO dicere (Rose.
Am. 85), I should readily allow myself to speak for Roscivs if that very
judge were conducting the trial. [Present contrary to fact : si quaereret,
paterer.]
nOn mihi, nisi admonitS, vSnisset in mentem (De Or. ii. 180), itw&uld not Jiane
come into my mind unless [I had been] reminded, [Past contrary to
fact: nisi admonitus essem.]
nfiUa alia g€ns tanta mole cladis n5n obruta esset (Liv. xzii. 64), there is no
other people that would not haxe been crushed by such a weight qf disaster.
[Past contrary to fact: si alia foisaet.] .
n^mO umqoam sine mftgnft spe immortalitatis s6 prO patri& offerret ad mortem
(Tusc. i. 32), no one, withovl great hope of immortality, would ever expose
himself to deaihfor his country. [Present contrary to fact : nisi magnam
spemhabSret.]
quid hunc pauc5rum annOrum accessio iuv&re xx)tui8set (Lael. 11), what good
could the addition of a few years have done him (if they had been added) ?
[Past contrary to fact : si accessissent.]
qaid igitur mihi fer&rum lani&tus oberit ntiiil sentient! (Tusc. i. 104), what
harm will the mangling by wild beasts do me if I donH feel anything
(feeling nothing) ? [Future more vivid : si nihil sentiam.]
iadtftta semel prOclIvI l&buntor siistinerique nUllO raodO possunt (id. iv. 42),
if once given a push, they ^ide down rapidly and can in no way be
checked. [Present General : si incit&ta sunt.]
834 SYNTAX: CONDITIONAL SENTENCES [§§621,622
Note. — In several phrases denoting necessity , propriety , or the like, the Imper-
fect, Perfect, or Pluperfect Indicative of esse is used in the apodosis of a condition
contrary to fact, the protasis being implied in a subject infinitive (cf . 517. c) : —
quantO melins fuerat prSmissttm nOu esse serv&tum (Off. iii. 94), how much better
wovld it have been if the promise had not been kept! [promissum . . .
servatum = a prOmissum nOn esset servatum.]
mori praecl&rum fuit (Att. viii. 2. 2), it wovld have been hxmorahle to die.
sed erat aequius Triirium aliquid de dissensione nostra iudicare (Fin. ii. 119), but it
would be mjore equitable if Triarius pa^ed judgment on our dispute. [Tri-
arium iudicare = si Triarius iudicaret.]
satins fuit amittere milites (In v. ii. 73), it would have been better to lose tlie soldiers.
[amittere = si amisisset.]
b» The condition may be contained in Si,wi8h (Optative Subjunctive),
or expressed as an exhortation or command {Hortatory Subjunctive
or Imperative) : —
tttinam quidem faissem 1 molestus nObis nOn esset (Fam. xii. 3), I uoish I
h>ad been [chief] : he would not noxo be troubling U8 (i.e. if I had been).
[Optative Subjunctive.]
n&ttlram expellas furc9,, tamen tisque recurret (Hor. Ep. i. 10. 24), drive ovt
nature with a pitchfork^ still she will ever return. [Hortatory.]
xogSs enim AristOnem, neget (Fin. iv. 69), for ask Arista, he would deny.
manent ingenia senibus, modo permaneat studium et industria (Cat. M. 22),
old men keep their mental powers, only let them keep their zeal and dUi-
gence (§ 628. n. ). [Hortatory. ]
telle banc opiniOnem, lactam sastuleris (Tasc. i. 30), remove this notion, and
you will hate done away with grief. [Imperative.]
Note. — The so-called Concessive Subjunctive with nt and nS often has the force
of protasis (§ 527. a. n.) : as, — ut enim rationem Plato niillam adferret, ipsa auctoritate
me frangeret (Tusc. i. 49), even if Plato gave no reasons, [still] he would overpower
me by his mere authority.
ۥ Rarely the condition takes the form of an independent clause:
ridSs : m§.iOre cachinnO concutitur (luv. iii. 100), you laugh ; he shakes with
louder laughter (= if you laagh, he shakes),
commove: senti€s (Tusc. iv. 64), stir him up, [and] you^Ufind, etc.
de panpert&te agitur : multl patientSs pauperis commemorantar (id. iii. 67),
we speak of poverty; many patient poor are mentioned.
For Conditional Relative Clauses, see §§ 519, 520.
Condition Omitted
522. The Protasis is often wholly omitted, but may be inferred
from the course of the argument : —
poterat Sextilias impune negftre : quis enim redargaeret (Fin. ii. 55), Sextilius
might have denied with impunity; for who would prove him wrong (if be
had denied)?
§§522,523] COMPLEX CONDITIONS 335
a. In expressions signifying necessity y propriety, and the like, the
Indicative may be used in the apodosis of implied conditions, either
future or contrary to fact ; —
quod contr& decoit ab ill5 meum [corpus cremftrl] (Cat. M. 84), whereas on
the other hand mine ought to have been harnl by him.
nam n5s decSbat domum lugSre ubi esset aliquis in lucem editus (Tusc. i.
115), for it were fitting for us to mourn the house where a man has been
bom (but we do not).
quantO melius faexat (Off. iii. 94), how much better it would have been.
illud ezat aptias, aequum culque conc6dere (Fin. iv. 2), it would be more fit-
ting to yield each one his rights.
ipsum enim exspect&re mAgnnm fait (Phil. ii. 103), would it have been a great
matter to wait for the man himself f
lon^am est ea dicere, sed . . . (Sest. 12), it would be tedious to tell^ etc.
[Future.]
NoTB 1. — In this constmction, the Imperfect Indicative refers to present time;
the Pluperfect to simple past time, like the Perfect. Thus oportCbat means it ought
to be [now], but is not; oportnexat means it ought to have bee7i, but was not.
Note 2. — In many cases it is impossible to say whether a protasis was present
to the mind of the speaker or not (see third example above).
Complex Conditions
523. Either the Protasis or the Apodosis may be a complex idea
in which the main statement is made with expressed or implied
qualifications. In such cases the true logical relation of the
parts is sometimes disguised : —
si quis hOrum dixisset ... si verbum de rS pUblicft f Scisset . . . multa plOra
dixisse quam dixisset putftretur (Rose. Am. 2), if any of these had spoken^
in case he had said a word about politics he would be thought to have said
much more than he did say. [Here the apodosis of dixisset is the whole
of the following statement (si . . . pntArStor), which is itself conditioned
by a protasis of its own : si verbum, etc.].
quod si in hOc mund5 fieri sine deO nOn potest, nS in sphaera quidem eOsdem
mOtflB sine dlvinO ingeniO potuisset imitSxI (Tusc. i. 63), now if that can^
not be done in this universe without divine agency^ no more could [Archi-
medes] in his orrery have imitated the same revolutions without divine
genius. [Here si potest (a protasis with nothing implied) has for its
apodosis the whole clause which follows, but potuisset has a contrary-
to-fact protasis of its own implied in sine . . . ingenio.]
peream male d nOn optimum erat (Hor. S. ii. 1. 6), confound me (may I
perish wretchedly) if it wouldn't be better. [Here peream is apodosis to
the rest of the sentence, while the true protasis to optimum erat, contrary
to fact, is omitted.]
886 SYNTAX: CONDITIONAL SENTENCES [§624
Gattses of Comparison (Condusion Omitted)
524, Conditional Clauses of Comparison take the Subjunctive,
usually in the Present or Perfect unless the sequence of tenses
requires the Imperfect or Pluperfect.
Such clauses are introduced by the comparative particles tamquam,
tamquam si, quasi, ac si, ut si, velut si (later velut), poetic oeu (all mean-
ing as if), and by quam si (than if) : —
tamquam clausa sit Asia (Fam. xii. 9), as if Asia were closed.
tamquam si claudus sim (PI. Asin. 427), just as if I were lame,
ita hOs [honOrSs] petant, quasi honestS vixexint (lug. 85), they seek fhem
(ofiSces) just as if they had lived Jionorably,
quasi y&c6 nOn specie visa iadicentur (Acad. ii. 58), as if forsooth visible things
were not judged by their appearance,
similiter facis ac si me zogis (N. D. ili. 8), you do exactly as if you asked me.
crtLdelitatem horrerenti velut si c5ram adesset (B. G. 1. 82), they dreaded hv»
cruelty (they said), as if he were present in person.
hic inge;item ptignam cemimus ceu cetera nusquam bellaforent (Aen. ii. 438),
here we saw a great battle, as if there were no fighting elsewhere. [Bat
sometimes with the indicative in poetry, as id. v. 88.]
magis a me abesse videbare quam si domi essSs (Att. vi. 5), you seemed to
be absent from me more than if you were at home.
Note 1. — These subjunctive clauses are really future conditions with apodosis
implied in the particle itself. Thus in tamqnam si cUadas sim the protasis is introduced
by si, and the apodosis implied in tamquam.
Note 2. — The English idiom would lead us to expect the Imperfect and Pluperfect
Subjunctive (contrary to fact) with these i>articles; but the point of view is different
in the two languages. Thus the second example above is translated JiMt cw if Iwert
lame, — as if it were a present condition contrary to fact; but it really means Ju«< as
[it would be] if I sfiould [at some future time] be lame, and so is a less vivid future
condition requiring the Present Subjunctive. Similarly quasi honestS vixerint, as if
they had lived honorably, is really as [they would do in the future] if they should have
lived honorably and so requires the Perfect Subjunctive (§516. c).
a. Even after a primary tense, the Imperfect or Pluperfect Sub-
junctive (contrary to fact) is often used in conditional clauses of
comparison : —
aeque a te pet5 ac si mea neg()tia essent (Fam. xiii. 48), I entreat you as much
as if it were my own business.
§ius neg5tium sic velim suscipiSs ut si esset res mea (id. vii. 20. 1), I woM
have you undertake his business as though it were my affair.
XoTB. — The practice differs with the different partioles. Thus in Cicero a clause
with tamqnam or quasi almost always observes the sequence of tenses, but with quam a
the Imperfect or Pluperfect is the rule.
§ 626] USE OF SI AND ITS COMPOUNDS 387
Use of si and its Compounds
525. The uses of some of the more common Conditional Parti-
cles may be stated as follows : —
a. Si is used for affirmative, nisi (ni) and si nOn for negative con-
ditions.
1. With nisi (generally unless) the apodosis is stated as universally true
except in the single case supposed, in which case it is (impliedly) not true : —
nisi ConOn adest, maereO, unless Conon is here, I mourn (i.e. I am always in
a state of grief except in the single case of Conon's presence, in which
case I am not).
2. With si non (if not) the apodosis is only stated as true in the (negative)
case supposed, but as to other cases no statement is made : —
si Con5n n$ii adest, maere(), if Conon is not here, I mourn (i.e. I mourn in
the single case of Conon^s absence, nothing being said as to other cases
in which I may or may not mourn).
NoTB. — It often makes no difference in which of these forms the condition is
stated.
3. Sometimes nisi si, except if, unless, occurs : —
nOli putilre mS ad quemquam longiCJrSs cy ^^tulSs scrlbere, nisi si quis ad m6
plura scripsit (Fam. xiv. 2), . . . excep^ ^ase one writes more to me.
Note. — Ni is an old form surviying in a few conveiA iial phrases and reappear-
ing in poets and later writers.
b* Nisi v6r5 and nisi forte regularly introduce an objection or excep-
tion ironically y and take the Indicative : —
nisi TeiS L. Caesar crddslior yisus est (Cat. iy. 18), unless indeed Lucius
CcBsar seemed too cruel.
nisi forte yolnmas EpicfLreOrum opIniOnem sequi (Fat. 87), unless^ to be sure,
we choose t) follow the notion of the Epicureans.
Note. — This is the regular way of Introducing a reductio ad absurdum in Latin.
Nisi alone is sometimes used in this sense: as, — nisi unum hOc faciam ut in puteO
cenam coquant (Fl. Aul. 365), unless I do this one thing, [make them] oooA; dinner
in tJie well.
ۥ Sive (sen) . . . sive (sen), whether . . . or, introduce a condition
in the form of an akemative. They may be used with any form of
condition, or with different forms in the two members. Often also
they are used without a verb : —
nam illO locO libentissimS soleO titl, siye quid m6cum ipse cOgitO, slye quid
scrlbO aut leg5 (Lepg. ii. l),/>r I enjoy myself most in that place, whether
I am thinking by myself, or am either writing or reading.
Note. T- Siye . . . sen and sen . . . siye are late or poetic.
338 SYNTAX: CONCESSIVE CLAUSES [§§ 62&-527
d. Sin, hut ifj often introduces a supposition contrary to one that
precedes : —
accus&tor ilium defeudet si poterit ; sin minus poterit, neg&bit (Iny. ii. 88),
ike accuser will d^end him if he can ; hut if he cannot^ he will deny,
e. Nisi is often used loosely by the comic poets in the sense of only
when a negative (usually nesciO) is expressed, or easily understood, in
the main clause : —
nesci5 : nisi mS dixisse nemini certO sciO (Ter. Ph. 952), I dorCt know : only
I am sure that I haven't told anybody,
CONCESSIVE CLAUSES
526 . The concessive idea is rather vague and general, and takes a variety of forms,
each of which has its distinct history. Sometimes concession is expressed by the Hor-
tatory Subjunctive in a sentence grammatically independent (§440), but it is more
frequently and more precisely expressed by a dependent clause introduced by a con-
cessive particle. The concessive force lies chiefly in the Conjunctions (which are
indefinite or conditional in origin), and is often made clearer by an adversative par-
ticle (tamen, certS) in the main clause. As the Subjunctive may be used in independ-
ent clauses to express a concession, it is also employed in concessive clauses, and
somewhat more frequently than the indicative.
527. The Particles of Concession (meaning although^ granting
that) are quamvis, ut "..^x^ etsi, tametsi, etiam si, quamquam, and cum.
Some of these take the Subjunctive, others the Indicative, ac-
cording to the nature of the clause which each introduces.
a* Quamvis and ut take the Subjunctive : —
quamvis ipsi InfantSs sint, tamen . . . (Or. 76), however incapable of speaking
they themselves may be, yet, etc.
quamvis scelerati ill! fuissent (De Or. i. 230), however guilty they might have
been,
quamvis c5mis in amicls tuendls faerit (Fin. 11. 80), amiable as he may have
been in keeping his friends.
at nSminem alium rogasset (Mil. 46), even if he had asked no other.
at enim non efficias quod vis, tamen mors ut malum n5n sit efficies (Tosc. i.
16), for even if you do not accomplish what you wish, still you will prove
that death is not an evil.
at ratiOnem Plat5 nullam adf arret (id. i. 49), though Plato adduced no reasons.
Note. — Quamvis means literally as m,uch as you will. Thus in the first example
above, let them be as incapable as you will, stUlj etc. The subjunctive with qoamvis
is hortatory, like that with nS (§ 440) ; that with ut (ut non) is of uncertain origin.
h. Licet, although, takes the Present or Perfect Subjunctive: —
licet omnes mihi terr5res perlculaque impendeant (Hose. Am. 31), though all
terrors and perils sJwuld menace me.
§527] CONCESSIVE CLAUSES 889
Note. — Licet is properly a verb in the present tense, meaning it is granted. Hence
the subjnnctive is by the sequence of tenses limited to the Present and Perfect. The
concessive clause with licet is hortatory in origin, but may be regarded as a substan-
tive clause serving as the subject of the impersonal verb (§ 565. n.^).
c. £tsi, etiam si, tametsi, even iff take the same constructions as si
(see § 514) : —
etsl abest m&tttrit&s, tamen nOn est infltile (Fam. vi. 18. 4), though ripeness
of age is warding^ yet it is not useless, etc.
etsi numquam dubium fuit, tamen perspiciO (id. v. 19), although it has never
been doubtful, yet I perceive, etc.
etsi statueram (id. v. 5), though I had determined.
etsi nihil aliud abstalissStis, tamen contentOs vOs esse oportebat (Soil. 90),
even if you had taken away nothing else, you ought to have been satined.
etiam si quod scrlbSA n5n habSbis, scrlbitO tamen (Fam. xvi. 26), even if you
[shall] have nothing to write, still write.
sed ea tametsi vOs parvi pendebfttis (Sail. Cat. 62. 9), but although you regarded
those things ajs of small account.
Note 1. — Tametti with the subjunctive is very rare.
Note 2. — A protasis with si often has a concessive force: as, — ego, si essent ini-
micitiae mihi cum C. Caesare, tamen hOc tempore rei publicae cOnsulere . . . debcrem
(Prov. Cons. 47), as for me, even if I had private quarrels with CsBsar, it wouJd still
be my duty to serve the best interests of the state at this crisis.
d. Quamquam, although j introduces an admitted faxit and takes the
Indicative : —
omnibus ^- quamqaam mit ipse suls cl3,dibu8 — pestem d^nflntiat (Phil. xiv.
8), though he is breaking down under his disoMers, still he threatens all
with destruction.
Note. — Qvamqiuun more commonly means and yet, introducing a neto proposition
in the indicative: as, — qnamqoam haec quidem iam tolerabilia vidSbantur, etsi, etc.
(Mil. 76), and yet these, in truth, seemed now bearable, though, etc.
c. The poets and later writers frequently use quamvis and quam-
quam like etsi, connecting them with the Indicative or the Subjunc-
tive, according to the nature of the condition : —
qtxamquam moverStar (Li v. xxxvi. 34), although he was moved.
Folli5 amat nostram, quamvis est rOstica, miUutm (Eel. ill. 84), Pollio loves
my mtMe, though she is rustic.
quamvis pervSnerfts (Li v. it. 40), though you had com>e.
/• Ut, as, with the Indicative, may be equivalent to a concession :
vfirum ut errare potuisti, sic dScipI t6 nOn potuisse quia nOn videt (Fam. x.
20. 2), suppose you could have been mistaken, who does not see that you
cannot have been deceived in this way f
For com concessive, see §549; for qui concessive, see § 5.^. e. For concession ex-
pressed by the Hortatory Subjunctive (negative nS), see § 440.
340 SYNTAX: CLAUSES OF PROVISO [§§528-531
CLAUSES OF PROVISO
528. Dam, modOf dummodo, and tantum ut, introducing a Proviso,
take the Subjunctive. The negative with these particles is n6 :
Gderint dam metaant (Off. i. 97), let them kate, if only they fear.
valetUdO modo bona sit (Brat. 64), provided the health be good,
dummodo inter me atqae t6 mnros intersit (Cat. i. 10), provided only the loaU
(ox the city) is between tis.
tantam ot sciant (Att. xvi. 11. 1), provided only they know.
modo ne sit ex pecudum genere (Off. i. 105), provided [in pleasure] he be
not of the herd of cattle.
id faciat saepe, dam ne lassus fiat (Cato R. R. v. 4), let him do this often,
provided he does not get tired.
dommodo ea (severitfts) nS TariStar (Q. Fr. i. 1. 20), provided only it (strictness)
be not aJlowed to swerve.
tantam nS noceat (07. M. ix. 21), only let it do no harm.
Note. — The Sahjanctive with modo is hortatory or optative; that with dum and
dummodo, a development from the use of the Subjunctive with dnm in temporal clauses,
§ 653 (compare the colloquial so long as my health is good, I don*t care).
a* The Hortatory Subjunctive without a particle sometimes ex-
presses a proviso : —
sint MaecenfttSs, nOn deerunt MarOnCs (Mart. viii. 56. 5), so there be Mcece-
nases, Virgils will not be lacking.
6. The Subjunctive with ut (negative n6) is sometimes used to de-
note a proviso, usually with ita in the main clause : —
probd,ta condiciO est, sed ita at ille praesidia dedficeret (Att. vii. 14. 1). the
terms voere approved, but only on condition that he should withdraw the
garrisons.
Note. — This is a development of the construction of Characteristic or Result.
For a clause of Characteristic expressing Proviso, see § 535. d.
CLAUSBS OF PURPOSE (FINAL CLAUSES)
529. The Subjunctive in the clause of Purpose is hortatory in origin, coming
through a kind of indirect discourse construction (for which see §592). Thus, misit
ISgitOs qui dioerent means he sent ambassadors who should say, i.e. who were directed
to say ; in the direct orders the verb would be dicite, which would become dicant in the
Indirect Discourse of narrative (§ 588) or dicerent in the past (cf . hortatory subjunctive
in past tenses, § 439. 6). The Subjunctive with at and n6 is, in general, similar in
origin.
530. A clause expressing purpose is called a Final Clause.
531. Final Clauses take the Subjunctive introduced by ut (uti),
negative nS (ut n6), or by a Relative Pronoun or Adverb: —
§ 581] CLAUSES OF PURPOSE 841
1. Pure GlauBes of Purpose, with ut (uti) or n6 (ut nS), express the
purpose of the maiii verb in the form of a modifying clause: —
ab arfttrO abduz6rant CinciDn&tam, at dict&tor essat (Fin. U. 12), they brought
Cincinnaius/rom the plough that he might be dictator,
ut sint aaziliO 8uls, subsistunt (B. C. i. 80), they halt in order to support (be
an aid to) their own men,
nd mllitfis oppidum inrumperent, port&s obstruit (id. L 27), he barricaded the
gateSj in order that the soldiers might not break into the tmon.
sc&lfls i>ar&rl iubet, n6 quam facultfttem dimittat (id. i. 28), he orders scaling-
ladders to be got ready ^ in order not to let slip any opportunity.
ttt nS sit impune (Mil. 81), that it be not with impunity.
Note 1. — Sometimes the conjunction has a oorrelatiye (ide5, ideiio5, eQ oSnsiUS, etc.)
in the main clause (cf . § 661. a) : —
legum idciioS servi sumus, at liberi timns (Clu 146), /or this reason we are suilitject
to the laws, that we may be free.
copias transduxit e5 cSnsiliS, ut castellum expugnaret (cf. B. G. ii. 9), Ae led the
troops across toith this design — to storm the fort.
NoTX 2. — Ut n5n sometimes occurs in clauses of purpose when nSn belongs to some
particular word: as, — at plura ii5ii dicam (Manil. 44), to avoid unnecessary talk.
2. Relative Clauses of Purpose are introduced by the relative pro-
noun qui or a relative adverb (ubi, unde, quO, etc.). The antecedent
is expressed or implied in the main clause: —
mittitor L. DScidius Saxa qui loci n&tilram perspiciat (B. C. i. 66), Lucius
Decidius Saxa is sent to examine the ground (who should examine, etc.).
scribebat (^r&tiOnfis quiis alii dicerent (Brut. 206), he wrote speeches for other
men to deliver,
e5 exstlnctd fore unde discerem n^minem (Cat. M. 12), that when he was dead
there would be nobody from whom (whence) I could learn,
huic n3 ubi coas'steret quidem contrft te locum rellquisti (Quinct. 78), you
have ^ft him no ground even to make a stand against you.
habebam quo cdnfugerem (Fam. iv. 6. 2), 1 Aad [a retreat] whither I might fiee.
Note. — In this construction qal=at is (etc.), ubisnt ibi, and so on (§ 537. 2).
a. The ablative quO (= ut eO) is used as a conjunction in final
clauses which contain a comparative : —
comprimere eOrum audaciam, qa5 facilius c6ter0ram animi frangerentui
(Fam. XV. 4. 10), to repress their audacity, that the spirit of the others
might be broken more easily (by which the more easily).
libert&te Gsus est, qu5 impunius dic&x asset (Quinct. 11), Ae took advantage
of liberty^ that he might bliuter wiUi more impunity.
NoTB. — OccasionaUy qa5 introduces a final clause that does not contain a compara-
tive : as, — L. Sulla exeicitum, qa5 sibi fidum faceret, luxuriOse habnerat (Sail. Cat. 11),
Lucius Svlla had treated the army luxuriously , in order to make it devoted to him.
For qadminus (=at eo minas) after verbs of hindering, see §'558. b.
342 SYNTAX: CLAUSES OF PURPOSE [§§632,633
532. The principal clause, on which a final clause depends, is
often to be supplied from the context : —
ac ne longum sit . . . iussimus (Cat. iii. 10), and, not to be tediov^, we ordered,
etc. [Strictly, in order not to he tedious, I say we ordered^]
sed ut ad Dionysium rede&mus (Tusc. v. 63), but to return to DionysiiLS.
sed ut eOdem revertar, causa haec fuit timOris (Fam. vi. 7. 3), but, to return
to the same point, this wcls the cause of fear,
satis incOnsider9.ti fuit, nS dicam audS^cis (Phil. ziii. 12), it was the act of one
rash enough, not to say daring.
Note 1. — By a similar ellipsis the Subjanctive is used withnSdum (sometimes n€),
still less, not to mention that : —
nSdum salvi esse possimus (Clu. 95), much less could we be safe,
nSdttm isti nOn statim conquisituri sint aliquid sceleris et flagiti (Leg. Agr. ii. 97),
far more will they hunt up at once some sort of crime and scandal,
nSdum in man et via sit facile (Fam. zvi. 8), still less is it easy at sea and on a
journey,
quippe secundae res sapientium animOs f atigant ; nS illi corruptis mOribus vic-
tOriae temperArent (Sail. Cat. 11), for prosperity overmasters the sotU even
of the wise; mu^h less did they with their corrupt morals put any clieck on
victory.
Note 2. — With nSdtim the verb itself is often omitted: as, — aptius humanitad
tuae quam tota Peloponnesus, nCdum Patrae (Fam. vii. 28. 1), Jitter for your refine-
m^ent than all Peloponnesus, to say nothing of Patras.
For Substantive Clauses involving purpose, see §§ 563-566.
533. The Purpose of an action is expressed in Latin in various
ways ; but never (except in idiomatic expressions and rarely in
poetry) by the simple Infinitive as in English (§ 460).
The sentence, thsi/ came to seek peace, may be rendered —
(1) v6nerunt ut p9,cem peterent. [Final clause with ut (§ 631. 1).]
(2) v6n6runt qui pftcem peterent. [Final clause with Relative (§ 531. 2).]
(3) [venSrunt ad petendum p^cem.] Not found with transitive verbs (§ 606,
N. 2), but cf. ad p&rendum senatui. [Gerund with ad (§ 606).]
(4) venerunt ad petendam pacem. [Gerundive with ad (§ 606).]
(6) venSrunt p9.cem petend! causd. (grd,tia). [Gen. of Gerund with causa
(§ 604. 6).]
(6) v€n6runt pftcis petendae causS, (gratia.). [Gen. of Gerundive with cansa
(§ 604. 6).]
(7) v6n6runt pacem petlturi. [Future participle (§ 499. 2); in later writers.]
(8) venerunt pacem petltum. [Supine in -um (§ 609).]
These forms are not used indifferently, but —
a. The usual way of expressing purpose is by ut (negative n5),
unless the purpose is closely connected with some one wordy in which
case a relative is i^ore common : —
§§533-535] CLAUSES OF CHARACTERISTIC 343
legatOs ad Dumnorigem mittunt, ut eO dfiprecatOre a S6quanls impetrarent
(B. G. i. 9), tJiey send envoys to Dumnorix, in order through his interces-
sion to obtain (this favor) from the Sequani.
milit^s misit ut eOs qui ftigerant persequerentur (id. v. 10), Ae sent the sol-
diers to follow up those who had fled,
Curi5 praemittit equites qui primum impetum sustineant (B. C. ii. 26), Curio
sends forward cavalry to withstand the first attack,
5. The Gerund and Grerundive constructions q| purpose are usually
limited to short expressions, where the literal translation, though not
the English idiom, is nevertheless not harsh or strange.
c. The Supine is used to express purpose only with verbs of motion,
and in a few idiomatic expressions (§ 509).
cf . The Future Participle used to express purpose is a late con-
struction of inferior authority (§ 499. 2).
For the imetical Infinitive of Purpose, see § 460. c. For the Present Participle in
a sense approaching that of purpose, see § 490. 3.
CLAUSES OF CHARACTERISTIC
534. The relative clause of Characteristic with the Suhjunctive is a development
peculiar to Latin. A relative clause in the Indicative merely states something as a
fact which is true of the antecedent; a characteristic clause (in the Subjunctive)
defines the antecedent as a person or thing of such a character that the statement
made is true of him or it and of all others belonging to the same class. Thus, — non
potest ezercitum is contlnSre imper&tor qui sS ipse non continet (indicative) means simply,
that commander who does not (as a fact) restrain himself cannot restrain his army ;
whereas non potest ezercitum is continSre imper&tor qui sS ipse n5n contineat (subjunctive)
would mean, that commander who is not such a man as to restrain himself, etc.,
that is, who is not characterized by self-restraint.
This construction has its origin in the potential use of the subjunctive (§445).
Thus, in the example just given, qui sS ipse n5n contineat would mean literally, who
would not restrain him^f (in any supposable case), and this potential idea passes
over easily into that of general quality or characteristic. The characterizing force
is most easily felt when the antecedent is indefinite or general. But this usage is
extended in Latin to cases which differ but slightly from statements of fact, as in
some of the examples below.
The use of the Subjunctive to express Result comes from its use in Clauses of
Characteristic. Thus, non sum ita hebes ut haec dicam means literally, I am not dull
in the manner (degree) in which I should say this, hence, I am not so dull as to say
this. Since, then, the characteristic often appears in the form of a supposed result,
the construction readily passes over into Pure Result, with no idea of characteristic ;
as, — tantus in curia clamor factus est ut popnlus concuireret (Verr. ii. 47), su^h an outcry
was made in the senate-house that the people hurried together,
535. A Relative Clause with the Subjunctive is often used to
indicate a characteristic of the antecedent, especially where the
antecedent is otherwise undefined : —
844 SYNTAX : CLAUSES OF CHARACTERISTIC [§ 535
neqne enim tH is es qui neodAs (Fam. v. 12. 6), for you are not such a one as
not to know. [Here is is equivalent to suchj and is defined only by tlie
relative clause that follows.]
mnlta dicunt quae viz intellegam (Fin. iv. 2), Uiey say many things which
(such as) I hardly understand,
pftcl quae nihil habitara sit Insidi&rum semper est cOnsalendum (Off. i. 35),
we must always aim at a peace which shaU hone no plots.
a. A Kelatiye Cl^se of Characteristic is used after general expres-
sions of existence or non-existencey including questions which, imply
a negative.
So especially with sunt qui^ there are [some] who; quia est qui, who
is there who ? —
sunt qui discessum animl ft corpore putent esse mortem (Tusc. i. 18), there are
some who think that the departure of soul from body constitutes death.
erant qui censerent (B. C. li. 30), tJiere were some who were of the opinion^ etc.
erant qui Helvidium miserflrentur (Tac. Ann. xvi. 20), there were some who
pitied Hdvidius. [Cf. est cum (n. ", below).]
quis est qui id nOn mazimis efferat laudibus (Lael. 24), who is there that does
not extol it vrith the highest praise f
nihil video quod timeam (Fam. ix. 16. 3), I see nothing to fear.
nihil est quod adventum nostrum ezthnSscAs (Fam. ix. 26. 4), Giere is no rea-
son why you should dread my coming.
unde agger comportftrl posset nihil erat reliqaum (B. C. ii. 15), there was noth-
ing Uftfrom which an embankment could be got together.
NoTB 1. — After general negatives like n6m5 est qui^ the Subjunctive is regular ;
after general affirmatives like sunt qui, it is the prevailing construction, but the Indio
ative sometimes occurs ; after mult! (n5n niilli, quidam) sunt qui, and similar expres-
sions in which the antecedent is partially defined, the choice of mood depends on the
shade of meaning which the writer wishes to express : —
sant bSstiae quaedam in quibus inest aliquid simile virtutis (Fin. v. 38), there are
certain animals in which there is something like virtue. •
But, — invent! mnlti sunt qui vitam profundere pr5 patria parftti essent (0£f. i. S4) ,
many were found of such a character as to be ready to give their lives for
their country.
Note 2. — Characteristic clauses with sunt qui etc. are sometimes called Relative
Glauses with an Indefinite Antecedent, but are to be carefully distinguished from the
Indefinite Relative in protasis (§ 520).
Note 3. — The phrases est cum, fuit com, etc. are used like est qui, sunt qui : as, —
ac fait com mihi quoque initium requiescendi fore iustum arbitiJLrer (De Or. i. 1), attd
there was a time when I thought a beginning of rest would be justifiable on my part.
6. A Eelative Clause of Characteristic may follow llnus and aStas :
nil admlrftri prope rSs est iina solaque quae possit facere et servftre befttnni
(Hor. Bp. i. 0. 1), to wonder at Jiothing is almost the sole and only thing
that can make and keep one happy.
851us es c&ius in victOrift ceciderit nSmO nisi armStus (Deiot. 34), you are the
only man in whose mctory no one has fallen vmless armed.
§ 536] CLAUSES OF CHARACTERISTIC 845
e. A clause of Kesult or Characteristic with qnam at, quani qui
(rarely with quam alone), may be used after comparatives : —
Canachl signa rigidlSra sant quam at imitentar veriUtem (Brut. 70), the statuea
of Canachus are too stiff to represent nature (stiff er than that they should).
maioxSs arbors caedebant quam quAs f erre miles posset (Liv. zxxiii. 5), they cid
trees too large for a soldier to carry (larger than what a soldier could carry).
NoTB. — This construction corresponds in sense to the English too . . . to,
d» A relative clause of characteristic may express restriction or
proviso (cf . § 528. h) : —
quod sciam, so far as I know (lit. as to what I know).
Cat5nis 5r3.ti5nes, quAs quidem invenerim (Brut. 65), the speeches of Cato, at
least such as I have discovered,
aervus est nSmG, qui modo toler&bill condiciOne sit servitGtis (Cat. iv. 16),
there is not a slavey at least in any tolerable condition of slavery,
e. A Relative Clause of Characteristic may express cause or conces-
sion : —
peccasse mihi videor qui 9. t£ discesserim (Fam. zvi. 1), I seem to myself to
have done wrong because I have l^ you. [Causal.]
virum simplicem qui n5s nihil cSIet (Or. 230), O guileless man, wha hides nothr
ing from us I [Causal . ]
egomet qui sSr5 GraecS^s litter^ attigissem, tamen complHrSs Atfa€nis dies
sum commorfttus (De Or. i. 82), I myself, though I began Greek literature
latCf yetj etc. (lit. [a man] who, etc.). [Concessive.]
Note 1. — In this use the relative is equivalent to com is etc. It is often preceded
by lit, utpote, or quippe : —
nee cdnsul, at qnl id ipsum quaesisset, moram certamini fecit (Liv. zlii. 7), nor
did the consul delay the fights since he had sought thai very thing (as [being
one] who had sought, etc.).
Lucius, frater Sins, ntpote qui peregrg depfignArit, familiam ducit (Phil. v. 30),
LuciuSf his brother f leads his household, inasmtich as he is a man who has
fought it out abroad.
convivia cum patre nOn inibat, quippe qui ne in oppidum quidem nisi perraro
veniret (Rose. Am. 52), he did not go to dinnerparties with his father, since
he did not even come to town except very rarely.
Note 2. — The Relative of Cause or Concession is merely a variety of the Charac-
teristic construction. The quality expressed by the Subjunctive is connected with the
action of the main verb either as cause on account of which (since) or as hindrance
in ^Ue qf which (Ai.THonoH).
/• Dignas, indignus, aptus, idOneus take a subjunctive clause with
a relative (rarely ut). The negative is n5n : —
digna in qnibus Slaborftient (Tusc. i. 1), (things) worth spending their toil on
(worthy on which they should, etc.).
dIgna res est uM tQ nerv^Vs intend&s tuOs (Ter. Eun. S12), the affair is worthy
of your stretching your sinews (worthy wherein you should, etc.).
846 SYNTAX: CLAUSES OF RESULT [§§635-537
idOneus qui impetret (Manil. 57), ftt to obtain,
indignl at redimeremttr (Li v. xxii. 59. 17), unworthy to he ransomed.
Note 1. — This construction is sometimes explained as a relative clause of purpose,
but it is more closely related to characteristic.
Note 2. — With dignus etc., the x)oets often use the Infinitive : —
fOns rivO dare n6men id5neus (Hor. Ep. i. 16. 12), a source fit to give a name to a
stream,
aetas mollis et apta re^^ (Ov. A. A. i. 10), a time of life soft and easy to he fftiided.
vivere dignus eras (Ov. M. x. 633), you were worthy to live,
CLAUSES OF RESULT (CONSECUTIVE CLAUSES)
536. The Subjunctive in Consecutive Clauses is a development of the use of that
mood in Clauses of Characteristic (as explained in § 534).
537. Clauses of Result take the Subjunctive introduced by ut, so
that (negative, ut nOn), or by a relative pronoun or relative adverb.
1. Pure Clauses of Result, with ut or ut nOn, express the result of
the main verb in the form of a modifying clause : —
tanta vis probit3.tis est ut earn in hoste dOigAmns (Lael. 29), so great is the
power of goodness that we love it even in an enemy.
pugnatur &criter ad novissimum agmen, ade5 ut paene terga convertant
(B. C. i. 80), there is sharp fighting in the rear, so (to such a degree) that
they almost tdkefiight.
multa rumor adfingebat, ut paene bellum cOnfectum videretur (id. i. 63),
rumor added many false reports, so that the war seemed almo^ ended.
2, Relative Clauses of Result are introduced by the relative pro-
noim qui or a relative adverb (ubi, unde, qu5, etc.). The antecedent is
expressed or implied in the main clause.
The Relative in this construction is equivalent to ut with the corre-'
spending demonstrative : — qui = ut is (etc.), ubi = ut ibi, and so on :
nam est iimocetitia affecti5 talis animi quae noceat nSminl (Tusc. iii. 16), for
innocence is such a quality of mind as to do harm to no one,
sunt aliae causae quae plane efficiant (Top. 59), there are other causes such as
to hring to pass,
nulla est celerit&s quae possit cum animi celerit&te contendere (Tosc. i. 43),
there is no swiftness which can compare with the swiftness of the mind.
quis nS,vigd,vit qui ndn s^ mortis periculO committeret (Manil. 31), wha went to
sea who did not incur the peril of death f
NoTB 1. — Since the relative clause of Result is a development from the relative
clause of Characteristic (§ 534), no sharp line can be drawn between the two construc-
tions. In doubtful cases, it is better to attempt no distinction or to describe the clause
as one of Characteristic.
Note 2. — Clauses of Result are often introduced by such correlative words as tam,
t&lis, tanttts, ita, sic, aded, usque eo, which belong to the main clause.
537,538] CLAUSES OF RESULT 347
a. A Negative Eesult is introduced by ut nOn^ ut nSmO, qui nOn, etc.,
not by n6 : —
multis gravibusque volneribus cOnfectus at iam se sustinere non posset (B. 6.
ii. 25), tL8ed up with many severe wounds so that he could no longer stand.
tanta Yl in Pomp^I equitSs impetum feoerunt ut eOrum nem5 cdnsisteret (B. C.
iii. 93), they attacked Pompey''s cavalry with such vigor thai not one of
them stood his ground.
nSmO est tarn senez qni s^ annum non putet posse vlvere (Cat. M. 24), nobody
is so old OS not to think that he can live a year.
Note. — When the result implies an effect intended (not a simple purpose), ut nS
or nS is sometimes used as being less positive than ut n5n : — pibrum] ita corrigas nS
mihi nooeat (Caecina, Fam. yi. 7. 6), correct the book so that it may not hurt me,
bm Frequently a clause of result or characteristic is used in a re-
strictive sense, and so amounts to a Proviso (cf . § 535. d) : —
h5c ita est titile at nS plftnG inlfld&mor ab accusd^tOribus (Rose. Am. 55), this
is so far useful that we are not utterly mocked by the accusers (i.e. useful
only on this condition, that, etc.).
nihil autem est molestum qaod n5n dSsiderSs (Cat. M. 47), but nothing is
troublesome which (= provided that) you do not miss.
c. The clause of result is sometimes expressed in English by the
Infinitive with to or so as to or an equivalent ; —
tarn longg aberam ut nOn vid€rem, I was too far away to see (so far that I
did not see ; cf. § 535. c).
NoTB. — Result is never expressed by the Infinitive in Latin except by the poets in
a few passages (§ 461. a).
538. The constructions of Purpose and Result are precisely
alike in the affirmative (except sometimes in tense sequence^
§ 485. c) ; but, in the negative^ Purpose takes n6, Result ut nOn
etc. : —
cust5d!tus est n5 effugeret. Tie wa^ guarded in order that he might nx)t escape,
custodxtus est at non effugeret, he was guarded so that he did not escape.
So in negative Purpose clauses nC quia, nS quid, n6 ullus, nS quO, nS
quandS, nScubi, etc. are almost always used ; in negative Result clauses,
ut nSm^, ut nihil, ut nullus, etc. : —
(1) cernere ne qais eos, nea quis contingere posset (Aen. i. 413), that no one
might see them, rio one touch them. [Purpose.]
ne quando llberis prOscrlptOrum bona patria reddantur (Kosc. Am. 145), lest
at some time the patrimony of the proscribed should be restored to their
children.
ipse ne quo inciderem, reverti FormiSs (Att. viii. 3. 7), that I might not come
upon him anywhere, I returned to Formice.
348 SYNTAX: CAUSAL CLAUSES [§§538-540
diflpositis explOrfttOribuB nScttbi ROmftnl cOpUto trSdtLcerent (B. G. vil. 35) ,
haoing stationed acouta here and there in order that the Romans might
not lead their troops across anywhere,
(2) multl ita sunt iinbecilll sen6s at nfiUom offici munus exsequi possint (Cat.
M. 35), many old men are sofedble thai they cannot perform any dvity to
society. [Result.]
qui Bummum bonum sic Instituit ut nihil habeat cum virtUte coniunctum
(Off. i. 5), who has so settled the highest good thai it has nothing in com-
mon with virtue.
For clauses of Result or Characteristic with qoin, see § 559. For Substantive Clauses
of Result, see §§ 567-571.
CAUSAL CLAUSES
539. Causal Clauses take either the Indicatiye or the Subjunctive, according to
their construction ; the idea of caitse being contained, not in the mood itself, but in
the form of the argument (by implication), in an antecedent of causal meaning (like
proptere&), or in the connecting particles.
Quod is in origin the relative pronoun (stem quo-) used adverbially in the accusative
neuter (cf . § 214. <2) and gradually sinking to the position of a colorless relative con-
junction (cf. English that and see § 222). Its use as a causal particle is an early
special development. Quia is perhajMS an accusative plural neuter of the relative stem
qui-, and seems to have developed its causal sense more distinctly than quod, and at
an earlier period. It is used (very rarely) as an interrogative, why? {ao in classical
Latin with nam only), and may, like quandS, have developed from an interrogative to
a relative particle.
Quoniam (for qaom iam) is also of relative origin (quom being a case-form of the
pronominal stem quo-). It occurs in old Latin in the sense of when (cf. quom, cum),
from which the causal meaning is derived (cf . com causal) . The Subjunctive with qnod
and quia depends on the principle of Informal Indirect Discourse (§692).
QoandS is probably the interrogative quam {how f) compounded with a form of the
pronominal stem do- (cf . dam, d5-nec) . It originally denoted time (first interrogatively,
then as a relative), and thus came to signify cause. Unlike quod and quia, it is not
used to state a reason in informal indirect discourse and therefore is never followed
by the Subjunctive.
540. The Causal Particles qaod and quia take the Indicatiye,
when the reason is given on the authority of the writer or
speaker; the Subjunctive, when the reason is given on the
authority of arwther : —
1. Indicative : —
cum tibi agam grflti&s quod mS vivere coSgisti (Att. ill. 8), when I may thaiOc
you that you have forced vm to live,
cfir igitur pacem h5l5 ? quia turpis est (Phil. vii. 9), why then do I not tnsh
for peace f Because it is disgraceful.
ita fit at adsint proptereS. quod officium sequuntur, taceant antem quia peri-
cnlum vitant (Rose. Am. 1), so it Mppens that they attend because they
follow duty^ but are silent because they seek to avoid danger.
§640] CAUSAL CLAUSES 349
2. Subjunctive : —
mihi grdtulabftre qaod aacQssSs m€ meam pristinam dignitfttem obtm^re
(Fam. iv. 14. 1), you congraiulated me because [as you said] yoa had
heard tfuU I had regained my former dignity,
noctu ambulabat Tbemistocles quod somnuin capere n5ii posset (Tusc. iv. 44),
Themistocles used to walk about at night because [as be said] he could not
sleep.
mea mftter Irftta est quia nOn xedienm (PI. Cist. 101), my mother is angry
because I did n't return,
NoTB 1. — Quod introduces either t^/act or a statement, ^nd accordingly takes either
the Indicative or the Subjunctive. Quia regularly introduces a fact ; hence it rarely
takes the Subjunctive. Qaoniam, inasmuch as, since, when now, now that, has refer-
ence to motives, excuses, justifications, and the like and takes the Indicative.
Note 2. — Under this head what the speaker himself thought under other circum-
stances may have the Subjunctive (§592. 3. n.) : as, — ego laeta visa sum quia soror
vSnisset (PI. Mil. 387), / seemed (in my dream) g^ad because my sister had come.
So with quod even a verb of saying may be in the Subjunctive: as, — rediit quod
se oblitum nesciO quid diceret (Off. i. 40), ^ returned because he said he had forgotten
something.
Note 3. — N5n quod, n5n quia, n5n qu5, introducing a reason expressly to deny it, take
the Subjunctive ; but the Indicative sometimes occurs when the statement is in itself
true, though not the true reason. In the negative, non quin (with the Subjunctive)
may be used in nearly the same sense as n5n quod non. After a comparative, quam
qu5 or quam quod is used : —
pngiles ingemescunt, n5n quod doleant, sed quia profundenda vOce omne corpus
intenditur (Tusc. ii. 66), boxers groan, not because they are in pain, but
because by giving vent to the voice Vie whole body is put in a state of
tension.
ndn quia recUor ad Alpis via esset, sed credens (Li v. xxi. 31. 2), not becauee the
route to the Alps was more direct, but believing, etc.
n5n quin pari virtute et voluntate alii fuerint, sed tantam cansam nOn habuerunt
(Phil. vii. 6), not that there were not others of equal courage and good-ioill,
btU they had not so strong a reason.
haec amdre magis impulsns scribenda ad te putavi, quam qu5 te arbitrtrer monids
et praeceptis egere (Fam. x. 3. 4), this I thought I ought to write to you,
rather from the impulse of (prompted by) affection than because I thought
that you needed advice and suggestion.
a. Quoniam and quandS, stnee, introduce a reason given on the
authority of the writer or speaker^ and take the Indicative : —
locus est & m6, quoniam ita Murena volnit, retr^tandus (Mur. 64), I must
review the point, since Murena has so wished.
qoandS ita vis. dl bene vortant (PI. Trin. 673), sinee you so wish, may the
gods bless the undertaking.
qoandS ad m&iOra nftli sumus (Fin. v. 21), since we are bom for greater things.
Note. — The Subjunctive with quoniam is unclassical. Quand5, since, in the causal
sense, is mostly archaic or late. Quandd, when, is used as interrogative, relatiye, and
indefinite: as, — quaadS? hodif, when? to-day; n quandd, if ever.
850 SYNTAX: TEMPORAL CLAUSES [§§640-542
b. Causal clauses introduced by quod, quia, quoniam, and quando
take the Subjunctive in Indirect Discourse, like any other dependent
clause (see § 580).
c. A Relative, when used to express causey regularly takes the Sub-
junctive (see § 535. e).
d. Cum causal takes the Subjunctive (see § 549).
For Substantive Clauses with quod, see § 572.
/ TEMPORAL CLAUSES
541. Temporal Clauses are introduced by particles which are almost all of rela-
tive origin. They are construed like other relative clauses, except where they have
developed into special idiomatic constructions. ^
For list of Temporal Particles, see p. 138.
Temporal Clauses may be classified as follows : —
I. Conditional Relative Clauses : ubi, at, cam, quando, in Protasis (§ 542) .
II. Clauses with postquam, ubi, etc. (Indicative), (§ 543).
III. Clauses with cum ( J- ?™ t«"'P°,«'l «§ 54{W48) .
I 2. Cum causal or concessive (§ 549).
IV. Clauses with antequam and priusquam (Indicative or Subjunctive) (§551).
v. Clauses with dum, donee, and quoad (Indicative or Subjunctive) (§§ 552-556).
Conditional Relative Clauses
542. The particles ubi, ut, cum, quando, either alone or com-
pounded with -cumque, may be used as Indefinite Relatives (in the
sense of whenever)^ and have the constructions of Protasis (cf.
§514): —
cum id malum neg&s esse, capior (Tusc. ii. 29), wJienever you (the indi-
vidual disputant) deny it to be an evil, I am misled. [Present general
condition.]
quod profectO cum me nulla vis cogeret, facere n5n auderem (Phil. v. 61),
which I would surely Twt venture to do^ a^s long as no force compelled me.
[Present, contrary to fact: cf. § 517.]
cum videas e5s dol5re non frangi, d€beas existlmare, etc. (Tusc. ii. 66), when
you see that those are not broken by pain^ you ought to infer ^ etc. [Pres-
ent general condition : cf. § 518. a.]
com rosam viderat, turn incipere ver arbitrabatur (Verr. v. 27), whenever he saw
a rose he thought spring had begun. [Past general condition : cf . § 518. 6.]
id ubi dixisset, bastam in finis e5rum €mittebat (Liv. 1. 32. 13), when he had
said this, he would cast the spear into their territories. [Past General
Condition, repeated action : see § 618. c]
1 Witb all temporal particles the Subjunctive is often found depending on some
other principle of construction. (See Intermediate Clauses, § 591.)
§ 543] POSTQUAM, UBI, ETC. 351
Temporal Clauses with pasiquam ubh etc.
543. The particles postquam (poste&quam), ubi, ut (ut primum, ut
semel), simul atque (simul ac, or simul alone), take the Indicative
(usually in the perfect or the historical preserU) : —
inilit€8 postqaam yictCriam adepti sunt, nihil reliqui yictis fScSre (Sail. Cat. 11),
when the soldiers had won the victory^ they l^ nothing to the vanquished,
posteSquam forum attigisti, nihil fecisti nisi, etc. (Fam. xy. 16. 3), sin^e you
came to the forum, you have done nothing except, etc.
ttbi omnis idem sentire intellezit, posterum diem ptLgnae cOnstituit (B. 6.
iii. 23), when he understood that all a^greed (thought the same thing), he
appointed the next day for the battle,
Catilina, ubi eOs cony Suisse yidet, sScSdit (Sail. Cat. 20), when Catiline sees
that they have come together, he retires.
Pomp§ius ut equitatum suum pulsum yidit, aci6 excessit (B. C. iii. 94), when
Pompey saw his cavalry beaten, he l^t the field,
Qt semel 6 FlraeeO eloquentia §yecta est (Brut. 51), as soon as eloquence had
set sail from the Piraeus,
nostri simul in aridO c5nstit§runt, in hostis impetum f€c6runt (B. G. iy. 26),
our men, as soon as they had taken a position on dry ground, made an
attack on the enemy.
simul atque introductns est, rem c5nf6cit (Clu. 40), as soon as he was brought
in, he did the job,
a* These particles less commonly take the Imperfect or Pluperfect
Indicative. The Imperfect denotes a past state of things ; the Plu-
perfect, an action completed in past time : —
postquam structi utrimque stAbant, duces in medium prOc€dunt (Liy. i.
23), wh^n they stood in array on both sides, the generals advance into
the midst,
P. Africauus posteaqnam bis cOnsul et censor fuerat (Caecil. 69), when Afri-
canus had been (Le. had the dignity of haying been) twice consul and
censor.
postquam id difficilius ylsnm est, neque f acultas perficiendi dabatur, ad Pom-
p^ium trS,nsi€runt (B. C. iii. 60), when this seemed too hard, and no means
of effecting it were given, they passed over to Pompey,
post diem quintum qnam iterum barbari male pugnftyerapt [= yicti sunt],
legatl 9. Bocch(^ yeniunt (lug. 102), the fifth day after the barbarians were
beaten the second time, envoys come from Bacchus,
haec iuyentHtem, ubi famili9.r€s opes defecerant, ad facinora incendebant
(Sail. Cat. 13), when their inherited resources had given out, etc.
ubi pericula yirt^te piopulerant (id. 6), when they had dispelled the dangers by
their valor,
YoT the use of ubi, ut, either alone or compounded with -ctunqae, as Indefinite Rela-
tiyes, see § 642.
352 syntax : temporal clauses [f § 544, 646
Uses of Cum
544. The conjunction cum (quom) is a case-form of the relative pronoun qui. It
inherits from qui its subordinating force, and in general shares its coDStnictiiiiis.
But it was early specialized to a temporal meaning (cf . torn, dam) , and its range of usage
was therefore less wide than that of qui ; it could not, for examplci introduce clauses
of purpose or of result.
With the Indicative, besides the simple expression of definite time (corre^wnding to
simple relative clauses with the Indicative), it has a few special uses, — conditional,
explicative, com irmtrswn — all easily derived from the temporal use.
With the Subjunctive, cum had a development parallel to that of the qul-clause of
< 'liaracteristic, — a development not less extensive and equally peculiar to Latin.
From ^Lf^rAng the time the cam-clause passed over to the description of the time by
means of its attendant circumstances of cause or concession (cf. since, whiie).
In particular, cam with the Subjunctive was used in narrative (hence the past
tenses. Imperfect and Pluperfect) as a descriptive clause of time. As, however, the
present participle in Latin is restricted in its use and the perfect active participle is
almost wholly lacking, the historical or narrative cam-clause came into extensive use
to supply the deficiency. In classical writers the narrative cam-clause (with the Sub-
junctive) has pushed back the defining clause (with the Imperfect or Pluperfect Indica-
tive) into comparative infrequency, and is itself freely used where the descriptive or
characterizing force is scarcely perceptible (cf . the qal-clause of Characteristic, § S34).
Cum Temporal
545. A temporal clause with cum, wheit, and some past tense of
the Indicative dates or defines the time at which the action of the
main verb occurred : —
eO [lituO] regiOnSs dlrSxlt turn cum urbem condidit (Div. i. 30), ^ tmced vnih
it the quarters [of the sky] aJb the time he founded the city,
cum occiditur Sex. ROscius, ibidem fuSrunt servl (Rose. Am. 120), when
Boscius was slain, the slaves were on the spot, [occiditur is historical
present.]
quem quidem cum ex urbe peUSbam, hOc pr5vid6bam animO (Cat. iii. 16),
wJien I was trying to force him (conative imperfect) from the city, I
looked forward to this.
fulgentis gladiOs hostium videbant Decil cum in aciem eOnim inruebant (Tusc.
ii. 59), the Decii saw the flashing swords of the enemy when they rushed
upon theif line.
tum cum in Asia rgs magnSs permultl Amiserant (Manil. 19), at that time,
when many had lost great fortunes in Asia.
Note 1. — This is the regular use with all tenses in early Latin, and at all times
with the Perfect and the Historical Present (as with postqaam etc.). With the Imper-
fect and Pluperfect the Indicative use is (in classical Latin) much less common than
the Subjunctive use defined below (§546).
NoTB 2. — This construction must not be confused with that of com, whenever , in
General Conditions (§ 542).
§ 545, 546] CUM TEMPORAL 358
M. When the time of the main clause and that of the temporal
clause are absolutely identieal, cum takes the Indicatiye in the same
tense as that of the main verb : —
maxima, sum laetitift adfectus cum audi^ cOnsulem t8 factum esse (Faui.
XY. 7), 1 loas very mtich pleased when I heard that you had been elected
conauL
546. A temporal clause with cum and the Imperfect or Pluper-
fect Subjunctive describes the circumstances that accompanied or
preceded the action of the main verb: —
com essem OtiOsus in TusculftnG, accSpi taSs litterSs (Fam. ix. 18. 1), when I
tocM taking my ease in my house at Tusculum, I received your letter.
cum servlli bellS premerStor (Manil. 30), when she (Italy) was under the load
of the Servile War,
com id nantiJLtam esset, mStOrat (B. G. i. 7), when this had been reported^ he
made (makes) haste,
cum ad Cybistra quinque dies essem moratus, r6gem Ariobarz&nem Insidils
liberd.yi (Fam. xv. 4. 6), after remaining at Cybistra for five days, I freed
King Arioba;rzanes from plots.
is cam ad me LftodicSam vSnisset mScumque ego eum vellem, repente per-
CUS8US est atrOcissimIs litterls (id. ix. 25. 3), w?ien he had come to me at
Laodicea and I withed him to remain with me, he was suddenly, etc.
NoTB 1. — This coostmction is very common in narratiye, and cum in this use is often
called narrative cam.
Note 2. — Cum with the Imperfect or Pluperfect Indicative does not (like cam with
the Imperfect or Pluperfect Subjunctive) describe the time by its circumstances; it
defines the time of the main verb by denoting a coexistent state of things (Imperfect
Indicative) or a result attained when the action of the main verb took place (Pluper-
fect). Thus the construction is precisely that of postqnam etc. (§ 543. a).
Note 3. — The distinction between the uses defined in §§545, 546, may be illustrated
by the following; examples: (1) He had a fever when he was in Spain (Shakspere).
Here the to^en-clause defines ike time when Gsesar had the fever, — namely, in the year
of his Spanish campai^ (B.C. 49). In Latin we should use cum with the Imperfect
Indicative. (2) Columbus discovered America tohen he was seeking a new route to
India; here the to/ien-clause does not define or date the time of the discovery; it
merely describes the circumstances under which America was discovered, — namely,
in the course of a voyage undertaken for another purpose. In Latin we should use the
Imperfect Subjunctive.
Note 4. — The distinction explained in Note 3 is unknown to early Latin. In
Plautus quom always has the Indicative unless the Subjunctive is required for some
other reason.
a. When the principal action is expressed in the form of a tem-
poral clause with cum, and the definition of the time becomes the
main clause, com takes the Indicative.
Here the logical relations of the two clauses are invertied ; hence
cum is in this use called cum inversum : —
854 SYNTAX: TEMPORAL CLAUSES [§§ 646-64»
di€s nOndum decern intercesserant, cam ille alter filius Infftns nec&tar (Clu.
28), ten days had not yet passed, when the other infard son was killed.
[Instead of when ten days had not yet passed, etc.]
iamque ItLx app&rSbat cum prdcedit ad inllit^ (Q. C. vii. 8. 3), and day wa»
already dawning when he appears hefofre the soldiers.
hOc facere noctH appar&bant, cum mfttrSs familiae repente in publicum prd-
corrSrunt (B. G. vii. 26), they were preparing to do this by night, when the
women suddenly ran ovt into the streets,
547. Present time with cum temporal is denoted by the Pres-
ent Indicative ; future time, by the Future or Future Perfect
Indicative : —
incidunt tempora, cum ea, quae maxima videntur digna esse iQst5 homine,
fiunt contrftria (Off. i. 31), times occur when those things which seem
especially worthy of the upright man, become the opposite.
nOn dubit&bO dare operam ut te videam, cum id satis commode facere poteio
(Fam. xiii. 1), I shaU not hesitate to take pains to see you, when I can do
it conveniently,
longum illud tempus cum nOn ero (Att. xii. 18), that long time when I shall
be no more.
cum ySneris, cOgnOscSs (Fam. y. 7. 3), when you com£ (shall have come),
you will find out.
548. Cum, whenever, takes the construction of a relative clause
in a general condition (see § 542).
For present time, either the Present or the Perfect Indicative is
used ; for past time, regularly the Pluperfect Indicative.
For est cum etc., see § 535. a. v. '.
Qitn Causal or Concessive
549. Cum causal or concessive takes the Subjunctive : —
id difBcile ndn est, cum tantum equitd,tu yale&mus (B. C. iii. 86), this is not
difficult since we are so strong in cavalry, [Causal.]
cum sOlitudO Insidiftrum et mettis pl6na sit, ratio ipsa monet amiciti&s com-
par9,re (Fin. i. 66), since solitude is full of treachery and fear, reason it-
self prompts us to contract friendships, [Causal.]
cum prim! 5rdinSs concidissent, tamen ftcerrimS reliqui resist^bant (B. G.
vii. 62), though the first ranks had fallen, still the others resisted mgor-
ously. [Concessive.]
brevi spatiO Iegi5n6s numero hominum expl6verat, cum initio nOn amplius
duobus milibus habuisset (Sail. Cat. 66), in a short time he had filled
out the legions with their complement of men, though at the start he had
not had more than two thousand, [Concessive.]
§§ 549-651] ANTEQUAM AND PRIU8QUAM 356
Cum causal may usually be translated by since; cum concessiye by
although or while; either, occasionally, by when.
Note 1. — Cum in these uses is often emphasized by ut, utpote, quippe, praesertim:
as, — nee reprehendO: qnippe cum ipse istam reprehensiOnem nOn fuserim (Att. x.3a),
I find nofavlt ; since I myself did not escape that blame.
Note 2. — These causal and concessive uses of cum are of relative origin and are
parallel to qui causal and concessive (§535. e). The attendant circumstances are re-
garded as the cavLse of the action, or as tending to hinder it.
Note 8. — In early Latin cum (quom) causal and concessive usually takes the Indic-
ative: as, — quom tua res distrahitur, utinam videam (PI. Trin. 617), since your prop-
erty is being torn in pieces, 0 that I may see, etc.
a* Cum with the Indicative frequently introduces an explanatory
statement, and is sometimes equivalent to quod, on the ground that: —
cam tacent, cl&mant (Cat. i. 21), when they are silent^ they cry out (i.e. their
silence is an emphatic expression of their sentiments).
gr&tulor tibi cam tantum vales apud Dolabellam (Fam. ix. 14. 3), I congraiw-
Idle you that you are so strong with DolaJbdla.
Note. — This is merely a special use of cum temporal expressing coincident time
(§545. a).
b* Cum . . . turn, signifying both . . . and, usually takes the Indica-
tive ; but when cum approaches the sense of while or though, the Sub-
junctive is used (§ 549) : —
cam multa nOn probd, tam illad in primis (Fin. i. 18), while there are many
things I do not approve^ there is this in chiefs [Indicative.]
com difficile est, tam nS aequum quidem (Lael. 26), not only is it difficult
but even unjust.
cam res t5ta Acta sit pueriliter, tum nS efficit quidem quod vult (Fin. i. 19),
while the whole thing is childishly got up, he does not even make his point
(accomplish what he wishes). [Subjunctive ; approaching cum causal.]
Aftfequam and Priusquam
550. Anteq^m and priusquam, before, introduce Glauses of Time which resemble
those with cum temporal in their constructions. Priusquam consists of two parts (often
written separately and sometimes separated by other words), the comparative adverb
prlus, sooner (before), which really modifies the main verb, and the relative particle
quam, than, which introduces the subordinate clause. The latter is therefore a rela-
tive clause, and takes the Indicative or the Subjunctive (like other relative clauses)
according to Uie sense intended. The Subjunctive with priusquam is related to that of
purpose (§ 529) and is sometimes called the Anticipatory or Prospective Subjunctive.
Antequam, like priusquam, consists of two words, the first of which is the adverb ante,
before, modifying the main verb. Its constructions are the same as those of priusquam,
but the latter is commoner in classic prose.
551. Antequam and priusquam take sometimes the Indicative
sometimes the Subjunctive.
366 SYNTAX: TEMPORAL CLAUSES [§561
a. With antequam or priusqoam the Perfect Indicative states a
fact in past time: —
antequam tuas l§gi litteras, hominem Ire copiebam (Att. ii. 7. 2), brfore I
read your letter, I wisJved the man to go.
neque ante dimisit earn quam fidem dedit adulSscens (Liv. xxxix. 10), ami
she did not let the young man go till he pledged hia faith.
neque prius fugere dgs titer unt quam ad fldmen perveneront (B. 6. i. 53), mr
did they stop running until they rea/ihed the river.
Note. — The Perfect Indicative in this construction is regolar when the main
clause is negative and the main verb is in an historical tense. The Imperfect Indicative
ia rare ; the Pluperfect Indicative, very rare. The Perfect Subjunctive is rare and
ante-dassicaly except in Indirect Discourse.
&• With antequam or priusquam the Imperfect Subjunctive is com-
mon when the subordinate verb implies purpose or expectancy in past
time, or when the action that it denotes did not take place : —
ante pugnS^ri coeptum est quam satis instrueietur acies (Liv. xxii. 4. 7), the
fight was begun h^ore the line could he properbj formed.
priusquam tu suum sibi venderes, ipse possSdit (Phil. ii. 96), before you cotdd
sell him his own property, he took possession of it himself,
piiasqoam tglum abici posset aut noetri propius accedeient, omnis YSri acies
terga vertit (B. C. ii. 34), before a weapon could be thrown or our men
approached nearer, the whole line about Varus tookfliglit.
Note 1. — The Pluperfect Subjunctive is rare, except in Indirect Discourse by se-
quence of tenses for the Future Perfect Indicative (§ 484. c): as, — antequam homines
nefarii de med adventu audire potuissent, in Macedoniam perrexi (Plane. 98), before
those evU men could learn of my coming, I arrived in Macedonia.
Note 2. — After an historical present the Present Subjunctive is used instead of the
Imperfect: as, — neque ab eo prius Domitiani milites discedunt quam in oonspectum
Oaesaris dSducitur (B. C. i. 22), and the soldiers of Domitius did (do) ruot leave him
until he was (is) conducted into Csesar's presence. So, rarely, the Perfect Subjunctive
(as B. G. iii. 18).
e. Antequam and priusquam, when referring to future time, taJ^e the
Present or Future Perfect Indicative ; rarely the Present Subjunctive:
priusquam d6 ceteris r€bus responded, dS amIcitiS pauca dicam (Phil. ii. 3),
b^ore I reply to the rest, I will say a little about friendship.
nOn defatigabor antequam ill5rum ancipites vias perceper5 (De Or. iii. 145),
I shall not weary tUl I have traced out their doubtful ways.
antequam yeniat litter^ mittet (Leg. Agr. ii. 53), befofre he comss, fie loill send
a letter.
NoTB 1. — The Future Indicative is very rare.
Note 2. — In a few cases the Subjunctive of present general condition is found with
antequam and priusquam (cf. §518. a): as, — in omnibus negotiis priusquam aggrediaie,
adhibenda est praeparatio diligent (Off. i. 73), in all undertakings, before you proceed
to action, careful preparation must be used.
§f 562-664] DlTJf, DONEC, AND QUOAD 857
DuiHt Dihtec, and Quoad
552. As an adverb meaning/or a time, awhiie, dun is fonnd in old lAtin, chiefly
as an enclitic (cf. vixdnm, ndndum). Its use as a conjunction comes either through
conelatioii (cf. cum . . . tun, ai . . . sic) or through substitution for a conjunction, as
in the English the moment I saw it, I understood. Quoad is a compound of the rela-
tive qu5, up to which point, with ad. The origin and early history of ddaec are unknown .
553. Dam and quoad, until^ take the Present or Imperfect Sub-
junctive in temporal clauses implying intention or expectancy : —
exspectas fortasse dam dicat (Tusc. ii. 17), y(m are waiting perhaps for him
to say (until he say). [Dum is especially common after ezspectd.]
dum reliquae nS.v€8 convemrent, ad hOram nOnam exspect&vit (B. G. iv. 23),
he waited till the ninth hour for the rest qf the ships to Join him.
comitia diiata [sunt] dum lex ferrStur (Att. iv. 17. 3), Vie election was post-
poned wnlU a law should he passed.
an id ez8X>ectamu8, quoad ne vestigium quidem Asiae civitatum atque urbium
lelinquatur (Phil. xi. 25), shall we wait for this until not a trace is Itft of
the states arid cities of Asia f
EpaminOnd&s exercebd,tar pliirimum luctand5 ad eum finem quoad stS.ns
complecti posset atque contendere (Nep. Epam. 2), Mpaminondas trained
himseHfin wrestling so far as to he able (until he should be able) to grapple
standing andjight (in that way).
Note 1. — D5nec is similarly used in poetry and later Latin: as, — et duxit longe
donee curvata coirent inter se capita (Aen. xi* 860), and drew it (the bow) until the
curved tips touched each other.
NoTJB 2. — Dun, until, may be used with the Present or Future Perfect Indicative
to state a future fact when there is no idea of intention or expectancy; but this con-
struction is rare in classic prose. The Future is also found in early Latin . D5nec, until j
is similarly used, in poetry and early Latin, with the Present and Future Perfect Indica-
tive, rarely with the Future : —
ego in ArcanO opperior dum ista cOgnoscd (Att. x. 3), I am. waiting in the villa at
Arcm until I find this out. [This is really dum, while.'\
mihi iisque curae erit quid agas, dam quid egeris scierd (Fam. xii. 19. 3), / shall
always feel anxious as to what you are doing, until I actually know (shall
have known) what you have done.
delicta mftiOrum lues donee templa refSeeris (Hor. Od. ill. 6. 1), you shall suffer for
the sins of your ancestors until you rehuild the temples.
ter centum regnabitur annos, donee geminam partu dabit Ilia prOlem (Aen. i. 272),
sway shall he hddfor thrice a hundred years, until Ilia shall give hirth to
twin offspring,
554. DOnec and quoad, until^ with the Perfect Indicative denote
an actual fact in past time : —
dSnec rediit silentium fuit (Liv. xxiii. 31. 9), there was silence until he returned.
Iisque eO timni ddnec ad r§iciendOs iudicSs vSnimus (Verr. ii. 1. 17), I was
anxious until the moment when we came to challenge the jurors.
ROmae fuSrunt quoad L. Metellos in prGvinciam profectus est (id. IL 62),
they remained at Rome until Lucius Metellus set ovtfor the province.
858 SYNTAX: TEMPORAL CLAUSES [§§664-566
NoTB. — Dun, untU, with the Perfect Indicative is rare: as, — mansit in oondi-
cidne usque ad eum finem dam iudices r£iecti sunt (Yerr. i. 16), ?ie remained true to the
agreement until the Jurors were challenged,
555. Dum, dOnec, and quoad, a8 long as^ take the Indicative : —
dam anima est, spSs esse dlcitur (Att. ix. 10. 3), as long as there is life, there
is said to he hope.
dam praesidia tllla fuerant, in Sullae praesidils fuit (Rose. Am. 126), so long
as there were any garrisons, he was in the garrisons of Sulla.
dam longius & munltiOne aberant Galll, plus multitudine telQrum prOficiebant
(B. G. vii. 82), so long as the Gauls were at a distance from thefortificar
tions, they had the advantage because of their missiles.
ddnec gratus eram tibi, Persarum vigui r€ge be9,tior (Hor. Od. iii. 9. 1), cw
long OS I enjoyed thy favor, I flourished happier than the king of Vie
Persians.
quoad potuit fortissimo restitit (B. G. iv. 12), he resisted bravely as long as
he could.
Note 1. — Donee in this use is confined to poetry and later writers.
Note 2. — Quam diu, as long as, takes the Indicative only : as, — se oppid6 tarn diu
tenuit quam diu in prOvincia Parthi fuSnint (Fam. xii. 19. 2), he kept himself within t?ie
town as long as the Parthians were in the province.
556. Dum, whilcy regularly takes the Present Indicative to de-
note continued action in past time.
In translating, the English Imperfect must generally be used : —
dam haec geruntur, Caesarl nuntifttum est (B. G. i. 46), while this vxis going
on, a message was brought to Coesar.
haec dam aguntur, intered. Cleomenes iam ad El5ri litus pervenerat (Verr. v.
91), while this was going on, Cleomenes meanwhile had come down to ike
coast at Elorum.
h5c dum narrat, forte audlvl (Ter. Haut. 272), I happened to hear this whUe
she was telling it.
Note. — This construction is a special use of the Historical Present (§ 469).
a. A past tense with dum (usually so long as) makes the time em-
phatic by contrast ; but a few irregular cases of dum with a past tense
occur where no contrast is intended :
nee enim dum eram vObiscum, animum meum yidOb&tis (Cat. M. 79), for
while I was with you, you could vx)t see my soul. [Here the time when
he was alive is contrasted with that after his death.]
. coorta est pugna, par dum constabant Ordin€s (Li v. xxii. 47), a cor\flict begatu
well matched as long as the ranks stood firm.
But, — dum oculds hostium certSmen averterat (id. xxzii. 24), while tk
struggle kept the eyes of the enemy turned away.
dam unum adscendere gradum con&tus est, vSnit in x)ericulain (Mar. 55),
whUe he attempted to climb one step [in rank] he fell into danger.
§§ 560-558] CLAUSES WITH QUiN AND QUOMINUS 359
Note. — In later writers, dun sometimes takes the Subjunctive when the classical
usage would require the Indicat\ve, and d5nec, untU, is freely used in this manner
(especially by Tacitus) : —
dum ea in SamniO gcrerentur, in Etruria interim bellum ingens concitur (Liv. x.
18), while this was being done in Samniunif meanwhile a great war was
stirred up in Etruria.
ilia quidem dum te fugeret, hydrum nOn vidit (Georg. iv. 457), while she was fleeing
from you sh£ did not see the serpent.
dum per ^cos dSport&rStur, condormiebat (Suet. Aug. 78), while he was being car-
ried through the streets he used to fall dead asleep.
Rhenus servat ndmen et violentiam cursus (qua Germaniam praevehitur) donee
OceanO misceatur (Tac. Ann. ii. 6), the Rliine keeps its name and rapid course
(where it borders Germany) until it mingles with the ocean.
temporibusque August! dicendis nOn defucre decOra ingenia d5nec gliscente adu-
latiOne dSterrSrentnr (id. i. 1), for describing the times of Augustus there
was no lack of talent until it was frightened away by the increasing servility
of the age.
For dum, provided that, see § 528.
Clauses with QuTx and QuOminus
657. The original meaning of quin is how not? why not? (qui-ng), and when
used with the Indicative or (rarely) with the Subjunctive it regularly implies a general
negative. Thus, quin ego hoc rogem? why shouldn't I ask this? implies that there is
no reason for not asking. The implied negative was then expressed in a main clause,
like nulla causa est or fieri non potest. Hence come the various dependent construc-
tions introduced by quin.
Qttominus is really a phrase (qu5 minus), and the dependent constructions which it
introduces have their origin in the relative clause of purpose with quo and a com-
parative (see § 531. a).
558. A subjunctive clause with quin is used after verbs and
other expressions of hindering^ resisting^ refusing^ doubting^ de-
laying., and the like, when these are negatived^ either expressly or
by implication : —
n5n h€Lm3Jia tllla neque divina obstant quin sociOs am!c5s trahant exscindant
(Sail. Ep. Mith. 17), no human or divine laws prevent them from taking
captive and exterminaiing th^ir friendly allies.
at ne Sues8i5nes quidem deterrgre potuerint qum cum his cdnsentlrent (B. G.
ii. 3), that they were unable to hinder even the SuessUmes from making
common cause with them.
n5n posse militCs continSri quin in urbem inramperent (B. C. ii. 12), that the
soldiers could not be restrained from bursting into the city.
nOn recfisat qum iudicSs (Deiot. 48), he does not object to your judging.
neque recus&re qum armis contendant (B. G. iv. 7), and that they did not
refuse to fight.
praeterire nOn potiu qmn scxiberem ad te (Caesar ap. Cic. Att. iz. 6 a), J could
not neglect to write to you.
360 SYNTAX: DEPENDENT CONSTRUCTIONS [§658
Trfiverl totlos hiemis nHUnin tempus intennlBfiniiit qoin iSg&tOB mitttfeiit
(B. G. V. 65), the Treoen let no part ofkhe wivier pass without sending
ambaasadora, [Cf. B. G. v. 63; B. C. i. 78.]
nOn ctiiictandum exlstimavit quin ptign& dScertflret (B. G. iii. 23), he thought
he ought not to delay risking a decisive battle,
paulum 9iuit quin Varum intezficeret (B. C. ii. 36), he Just missed killing
Varus (it lacked little but that he should kill).
Deque multum ftfuit quin castrls ezpellerentor (id. 11. 36), they caane near being
driven out of the camp.
facere nOn possum qain cotldie ad te mittam (Att. xU. 27. 2), I cannot help
sending to you every day.
fieri nullO modO poterat quin CleomenI parcerStor (Yerr. v. 104), it was out
of the question that Cleomenes should not be spared.
ut effici nOn possit quin e5s odezim (Phil. zi. 36), so that nothing can prevent
my hating them.
a. Quin is especially common with n0n dubitO, 1 do not doubt , n5n
est dubium, there is no dovht, and similar expressions : —
nOn dubitabat qain el crederSmua (Att. vi. 2. 3), Ae did not doubt- that ire
believed him.
illud cave dubites qoin ego omnia faciam (Fam. y. 20. 6), do not doubt that
I will do aU.
qnis ignOrat quin tria Graec5rum genera sint (Flacc. 64), who is ignorant
that there are three races of Greeks f
nOn erat dubium quin HelvStii plurimum possent (cf. B. G. 1. 3), there was iw
doidft that the Helvetians were most powerful.
neque Caesarem f ef ellit quin ab lis cohortibus initlum victOriae ariretur (B. C.
ill. 04), and it did not escape Ccesar^s notice that the beginnirig of the vic-
tory came from those cohorts.
Note 1. — Dubito without a negative is regularly followed by an Indirect Ques-
tion ; so sometimes non dubit5 and the like : —
nOn nulli dubitant an per Sardiniam veniat (Fam. Ix. 7), some doubt wheUier be
is coming through Sardinia.
dubitate, si potestis, a quS sit Sex. R5scius oocisas (Rose. Am. 78), dotibty if yon
can, by wfiom Sextus Roscius was murdered.
dubitabam tu has ipsas litteras essSsne accepturus (Att. xy<9), I doubt tchether
you will receive this very letter. [Epistolary Imperfect (§ 479).]
qo&lis sit futurus, ne vOs quidem dubitatis (B. C. ii. 32), and what it (the outcome)
will be, you youradves do not doubt.
nOn dabit5 quid sentiant (Fam. xv. 0), / do not doubt what they think.
dubium ill! non erat quid fnturam esset (id. viii. 8. 1),U w<is not doubtful to him
what was going to happen.
Note 2. — Non dubitd in the sense of / do not hesitate commonly takes the Infini-
tive, but sometimes quin with the Subjunctive : —
nee dubitare ilium appell&re sapientem (Lael. 1) , and not to hesitate to call him a sage.
dubitandum ndn exlstimavit quin proflctscerCtar (B. G. ii. 2), he did not think hf
ought to hesitate to set out.
quid dubitfts utl temporis opporttinitate (B. C. ii. 34), why do you hesitate to take
advantage of the favorable moment ? [A question implying a negative.]
§§ 668, 660] CLAUSES WITH QUiN AND QUOlilNUS 361
bm Verbs of hindering and refusing often take the subjunctive with
nS or quOminus (= ut eO minus), especially when the verb is not nega-
tived : —
plura nfi dicam tuae m6 lacrimae impediunt (Plane. 104), your tears prevent
me from speaking further.
nee aetas impedit qudminas agri colendl studia teneftmus (Cat. M. 60), nor
does age prevent us from retaining an interest in tillVng the soil
nihU impedit qudminus id faeere possimus (Fin. i. 83), nothing hinders u>s
from being able to do that.
obstitisti n5 transire eOpiae possent (Verr. v. 5), you opposed the passage of
the troops (opposed lest the troops should cross).
NoTB. — Some verbs of hindering may take the Infinitiye : —
nihil obest dicere (Fam. ix. 13. 4), there is nothing to prevent my saying it.
prohibet acoSdere (Caec. 46), prevents him from approaching,
559. A clause of Result or Characteristic may be introduced by
quin after a general negative, where quin is equivalent to qui (quae,
quod) noa: —
1. Clauses of Result : —
n^md est tarn fortis quin [= qu! nOn] rel novit&te pertoxbetnr (B. G. vi. 39),
no one is so brave as not to be disturbed by the unexpected occurrence.
n€mO erat adeO tardus quin patAret (B. C. i. 69), no one was so slothful as n>ot
to think, etc.
quis est tarn d6m€ns qain sentiat (Balb. 43), who is so senseless as not to
think, etc.?
nil tam difficilest qain quaerendO investlgftrl possiet (Ter. Haut. 676), tith-
ing ^s so hard but search will find it out (Herrick).
2. Clauses of Characteristic ; —
n6m0 nostrum est quin [ = qui nOn] sciat (Rose. Am. 66), there is no one of
us whjo does not know.
nSmO fait mllitum qain YalneraxStor (B. C. iii. 68), t?iere was not one of the
soldiers who was not wounded.
ecquis fuit qoin lacrimaret (Verr. v. 121), was there any one who did not shed
tears?
quis est qain inteUegat (Fin. v. 64), who is there who does not understand f
hOrum nihil est qain [ = quod n5n] intereat (N. D. iii. 80), there is none of
these (elements) which does not perish.
nihil est ill5rum qain [ = quod nOn] ego ill! ^Qxerim (Fl. Bac. 1012), there is
nothing of this that I have not told him.
NoTB. — Quin sometimes introduces a pure clause of result with the sense of ut n6n :
as, — nnmquam tam male est Siculis quin aliqnid facete et commode dicant (Verr. iv.
95), things are never so had with the Sicilians but that they have something pleasant
or witty to say.
For quin in independent constructions, see § 449. b.
362 SYNTAX : SUBSTANTIVE CLAUSES [§§ 660-663
SUBSTANTIVE CLAUSES
560. A clause which is used as a noun may be called a Substantive Clause, as
certain relative clauses are sometimes called adjective clauses. But in practice the
term is restricted to clauses which represent a nominative or an accusative case, the
clauses which stand for an ablative being sometimes called adverbial clauses.
Even with this limitation the term is not quite precise (see p. 367, footnote 1). The
fact is rather that the clause and the leading verb are mutually complementary ; each
reinforces the other. The simplest and probably the earliest form of such sentences
is to be found in tlie paratactic use (see § 268) of two verbs like vol5 abe&s, dicamns
cSnse5, adeam optimum est. From such verbs the usage spread by analogy to other
verbs (see lists on pp. 363, 367, footnotes), and the complementary relation of the
clause to the verb came to resemble the complementary force of the accusative, espe-
cially the accusative of cognate meaning (§ 390).
561. A clause used as a noun is called a Substantive Clause.
a* A Substantive Clause may be used as the Subject or Object of
a verb, as an Appositive, or as a Predicate Nominative or Accusative.
KoTE 1. — Many ideas which in English take the form of an abstract noun may be
rendered by a substantive clause in Latin. Thus, he demanded an investigation may
be postul&bat ut quaestiS habSrStur. The common English expression for with the
infinitive also corresponds to a Latin substantive clause: as, — it remains for nie to
speak of the piratic war, reliquom est ut dS bellS dicam pizftticd.
KoTE 2. — When a Substantive Clause is used as subject, the verb to which it is
subject is called impersonal, and the sign of the construction in English is commonly
the so-called expletive it.
562. Substantive Clauses are classified as follows : —
1. Subjunctive Clauses ( a. Of purpose (command, wiah^ fear) (§§ 563, 664).
(ut, ne,utnon, etc.). \ h. Of result (happen^ effect^ etc.) (§668).
2. Indicative Clauses with quod : Fact, Specification, Feeling (§ 672).
3. Indirect Questions: Subjunctive, introduced by an Interrogative Word
(§§ 573-676).
4. Infinitive Clauses | ^- Yf" ^^""^^ ""^ ordering wisMng, etc. (§ 668).
\ b. Indirect Discourse (§ 579 ff.).
Note. — The Infinitive with Subj ect Accusative is not strictly a clause, but in Latin
it has undergone so extensive a development that it may be so classed. The uses of
the Infinitive Clause are of two kinds: (1) in constructions in which it replaces a sub-
junctive clause with ut etc. ; (2) in the Indirect Discourse. The first class wiU be dis-
cussed in connection with the appropriate subjunctive constructions (§563) ; for Indirect
Discourse, see § 579 ff .
Substantive Clauses of Purpose
563. Substantive Clauses of Purpose with ut (negative ii6) are
used as the object of verbs denoting an action directed toward the
future.
§663] SUBSTANTIVE CLAUSES OF PURPOSE 363
Such are, verbs meaning to admonish^ asky hargaiuy commavdy de-
creCy determiney permity persuadey resolve, urge, and wish : — ^
monet nt omnes suspicion^ 'ntet (B. G. i. 20), he warns him to avoid all
suspicion.
hort&tiir eOs nS animO deficiant (B. C. i. 10), ^ urges them not to lose heart.
te rogO atque 0r5 ut eum iuves (Fam. xiii. QQ)^ I beg and pray you to aid him,
his uti conqairerent imper&yit (B. G. i. 28), he ordered them to search.
persu&det CasticO ut r^gnum occuparet (id. i. 3), he persuades Casticus to
usurp royal power.
Bills imper&vit nS quod omnInO telum rSiceient (id. i. 46), h£ ordered his men
not to throw back any weapon at all.
Note. — With any verb of these classes the poets may use the Infinitive instead of
an object clause : —
bortamur fan (Aen. ii. 74), we urge [him] to speak.
ne quaere docSri (id. vi. 614), seek not to be told.
temptat pracvcrtere (id. i. 721), she attempts to turm, etc.
For the Subjunctive without ut with verbs of commandingf see § 565. a.
a. lubeO, order, and veto, forbid, take the Infinitive with Subject
Accusative ; —
Labienom iugum mentis ascendere iubet (B. G. i. 21), Ae orders Labienus to
ascend the ridge of the hill.
libexos ad s6 adduci iussit (id. ii. 5), Ae ordered the children to be brought to him.
ab opere ISg&tos discedere vetuerat (id. ii. 20), he had forbidden the lieutenants
to leave the work.
vetuere [bona] reddi (Liv. ii. 6), they forbade the return of ike goods (that the
goods be returned).
Note. — Some other verbs of commanding etc. occasionally take the Infinitive: —
I>ontem imperant fieri (B. C. i. 61), they order a bridge to be built.
res monet cavSre (Sail. Gat. 52. 3), the occasion warns us to be on our guard.
h. Verbs of wishing take either the Infinitive or the Subjunctive.
With volO (nOlO, malS) and cupi5 the Infinitive is commoner, and
the subject of the infinitive is rarely expressed when it would be the
same as that of the main verb.
With other verbs of wishing the Subjunctive is commoner when
the subject changes, the Infinitive when it remains the same.
1. Subject of dependent verb same as that of the verb of wishing: —
augur fieri volui (Fam. xv. 4. 13), I unshed to be made augur.
cupiO vigil iam meam tibi tradere (id. xi. 24), I am eager to hand over my watch
to you.
1 Such verbs or verbal phrases are id ag5, ad id venio, caved (nS), cSnseo, c6g5, con-
cedo, cdnstittto, euro, dScerno, 5dic5, Mgito, hortor, imperS, insto, mandd, metu5 (nS),
moned, negdtium do, operam do, oro, persuaded, pet5, postuld, praecipiS, precor, prSnuntid,
quaerS, rogo, seised, timed (ng), vereor (ne), vided, void.
364 SYNTAX: SUBSTANTIVE CLAUSES [§563
ifldicem mS esse, nOn doctOrem volO (Or. 117), I wiah to be a judge, not a
teach^.
m§ Caesaris mllitem die! volul (B. C. ii. 32. 13), I wished io he caUed a soldier
of Ca^ar.
cupiO me esse cl@mentem (Cat. i. 4), / desire to he merciful, [But regularly,
cupiO esse clSinSns (see § 457).]
omnis hominSs, qui sSsS student praestflre ceteris auimalibus (Sail. Cat. 1),
aU men who wish to excel other living creatures.
2. . Subject of dependent verb different from that of the verb of wishing :
volO tS scire (Fam. ix. 24. 1), / wish you to know.
vim volumus ezstingui (Sest. 92), we wish violence to he put down.
te tuft fiul virttlte cupimus (Brut. 331), toe wiah you to reap the fruits of your
virtue,
cupi5 ut impetret (Fl. Capt. 102), / wish he m>ay get i^.
numquam optabO ut aadiAtis (Cat. ii. 15), I vjiU never desire that you shall
hear.
For volo and its compounds with the Subjunctive without ut, see § 565.
c. Verbs of permitting take either the Subjunctive or the Infini-
tive. Patior takes regularly the Infinitive vrith Subject Accusative ;
so often sinO : —
permlsit ot faceret (De Or. ii. 366), permitted him to make.
GoncedO tibl ut ea piaeteie&s (Rose. Am. 54), / aUow you to pass by these
matters.
tubem&cnla statu! passus nCn est (B. C. i. 81), he did not aUow tenta to he
pitched.
▼inuin importftil nOn sinunt (B. G. iv. 2), Ihey do not dUow wine to be imparted.
d. Verbs of determining^ decreeing^ resolving, bargaining, take
either Hhe Subjunctive or the Infinitive : —
cOnstituerant ut L. B^stia querer§tur (Sail. Cat. 48), they had determined thai
Lucius Bestia sTiould complain.
proeliO supersedere statuit (B. G. ii. 8), he determined to r^use battle.
de bonis rSgis quae reddi cSnsuerant (Li v. ii. 5), about the hinges goods^ v^ich
they had decreed should be restored.
decemit uti c5n8ul6s dilectum habeant (Sail. Cat. 84), decrees that the consuls
shaU hold a levy.
edict5 ne quia iniussti pugnflret (Li v. v. 19), having commanded that none
should fight without orders.
Note 1. — Different verbs of these classes with the same meaning vary in their
construction (see the Lexicon). For verbs of bargaining etc. with the Gerundive, see
§500.4,
NoTB 2. — Verbs of decreeing and voting often take the Infinitive ol the Second
Periphrastic conjugation:— Regulus captivOs reddendSs [esse] nOncensuit (Off. i. 39),
Segtdus voted that the captives should not be returned. [He said, in giving liis f ormsl
opinion: captivi non reddendi sunt.]
§§563-666] SUBSTANTIVE CLAUSES OF PURPOSE 366
e. Verbs of caution and effort take the Subjunctive with. ut. But
cdnor, try, commonly takes the Complementary Infinitive : —
cur& at quam priinum inteUegam (Fam. xiii. 10. 4), let me know cm aoon as pos-
sible (take care that I may understand).
dant operam at habeant (Sail. Cat. 41), they take pairts to have (give their
attention that, etc.).
impellere ati Caesar ndmixiflrgtar (id. 40), to induce them to name CoBsar (that
Caesar should be named).
con&Uis est Caesar leficere pontis (B. 0. i. 50), CcBsar tried to rebuild the bridges.
Note 1. — CSnor si also occurs (as B. G. i. 8) ; cf. miror si etc., § 572. b, n.
Note 2. — Ut nC occurs occasionally with verbs of cavtion and effort (cf. § 631): —
curd et provide at nSquld d difit (Att. xi. 3. 3), take care and see that he lacks nothing.
For the Subjunctive with quin and qadminus with verbs of hindering etc., see § 558.
564. Verbs of fearing take the Subjunctive, with ni afl&rma-
tive and nS nOn or ut negative.
In this use nS is commonly to be translated by thaty ut and nS nOn
by thcU not : —
timed n5 Verr6s f§cerit (Verr. v. 3), I fear that Verres ha^ done, etc.
ne animum offenderet verSbatur (B. G. i. 19), he feared that he should hurt
the feelings, etc.
ne ezhSrediretor veritns est (Rose. Am. 58), he feared that he should be dis-
inherited.
5T&tor meta5 nS langaSscat seneotQte (Cat. M. 28), I fear the orator grows
feeble from old age.
vereor ut tibi possim concedere (De Or. i. 35), I fear that I cannot grant you,
baud san6 perlculum est n§ n5n mortem optandam putet (Tusc. v. 118), there
is no danger that he wiU not think death desirable.
Note. — The subjunctive in nS-clauses after a verb of fearing is optative in origin.
To an independent nS-sentence, as n6 aocidat, may it not happen^ a verb may be prefixed
(cf . § 660), making a complex sentence. Thus, vidS nS aocidat ; dr5 nS accidat ; cavet nS
accidat ; when the prefixed verb is one of fearing, timed nS accidat becomes let it not hap-
pen, btU I fear that it may. The origin of the vt-clause is similar.
565. VolG and its compounds, the impersonals licet and oportet,
and the imperatives die and fac often taJse the Subjunctive with-
out ut : —
vol5 amSs (Att. il. 10), I wish you to love.
quam vellem me invit&ssSs (Fam. x. 28. 1), how I wish you had invited me !
mSllem Cerbemm metaerSs (Tusc. i. 12), I had rather you feared Cerberus.
sint enim oportet (id. i. 12), for they muM exist.
qoeramdr licet (Caec. 41), loe are allowed to complain,
fac filigfts (Att. iii. 13. 2), do love ! [A periphrasis for the imperative ffilige,
loroe (cf. §449. c).]
die exeat, teiX him to go out.
366 SYNTAX: SUBSTANTIVE CLAUSES [§§565,566
Note 1. — In such cases there is no ellipsis of at. The expressions are idiomatic
remnants of an older construction in which the subjunctives were hortatory or optative
and thus really independent of the verb of wishing etc. In the classical period, how-
ever, they were doubtless felt as subordinate. Compare the use of cavS and the sub-
junctive (without ne) in Prohibitions (§ 450) , which appears to follow the analogy of fac.
Note 2. — Licet may take (1) the Subjunctive, usually without ut ; (2) the simple
Infinitive ; (3) the Infinitive with Subject Accusative ; (4) the Dative and the Infini-
tive (see § 455. 1). Thus, / may go is licet eam, licet ire, licet ml ire, or licet mihi Ire.
For licet in concessive clauses, see § 527. h.
Note 3. — Oportet may take (1) the Subjunctive without ut; (2) the simple Infini-
tive ; (3) the Infinitive with Subject Accusative. Thus I must go is oportet eam, oportet
ire, or oportet m6 ire.
a. Verbs of commanding and the like often take the subjunctive
without ut : —
huic mandat RSm5s adeat (B. G. iii. 11), he orders him to visit the Bemi,
rogat finem faciat (id. i. 20), he asks him to cease.
MnSsthea vocat, classem aptent socii (Aen. iv. 289), he caUs Mnestheus [and
orders that] his comrades shall make ready the fleet.
Note.. — The subjunctive in this construction is the hortatory subjunctive used to
express a command in Indirect Discourse (§ 588).
Substantive Clauses of Purpose with Passive Verbs
566. A Substantive Clause used as the object of a verb becomes
the subject when the verb is put in the passive {Impersonal Con-
struction) : —
Caesar ut cognosceret postul9>tum est (B. C. i. 87), Ccesar was requested to
make an investigation (it was requested that CsBsar should make an
investigation),
si erat HeracliO ab sen9,tu mandatum ut emeret (Verr. iii. 88), if Heraclius
had been instructed by the senate to buy.
8l persuasum erat CluviO ut mentiretur (Rose. Com. 51), if Cluvius had been
persuaded to lie.
put5 concedi nobis oportgre ut GraecO verb5 utamnr (Fin. iii. 15), I thimk
we must be allowed to use a Greek word.
ng quid eis noceatur a Caesare cavetur (B. C. i. 86), Ccesar takes care tJiat no
harm shall be done them (care is taken by Caesar lest, etc. ).
a. With verbs of admonishing, the personal object becomes the
subject and the object clause is retained : —
admoniti sumus ut caveremus (Att. viii. 11 d. 3), tae were warned to he careful.
cum mongretur at cautior asset (Div. 1. 51), when he was advised to he wxyrt
cautious.
moneri visus est ne id faceret (id. 56), he seemed to be warned not to do it.
§§566-668] SUBSTANTIVE CLAUSES OF RESULT 367
b. Some verbs that take an infinitive instead of a subjunctive
are used impersonally in the passive, and the infinitive becomes the
subject of the sentence : —
loqni nOn concMitur (B. G. yi. 20), it ia not aXUmed to speak,
c. With iubeO, veto, and cOgO, the subject accusative of the infinitive
becomes the subject nominative of the main verb, and the infinitive is
retained as complementary (Personal Construction) : —
adesse iubentur i)ostxIdi3 (Verr. ii. 41), they are ordered to be present on the
following day,
ire in exsilium iussus est (Cat. ii. 12), he was ordered to go into exile.
SimOnides yetitus est n&vig&re (Diy. ii. 134), Simonides was forbidden to sail.
Mandubil ezire cOguntur (B. G. yii. 78), the Mandubii are compelled to go out.
Substantive Clauses of Result (Consecutive Clauses)
567. Clauses of Result may be used substantively, (1) as the object of faci5 etc.
<§ 568) ; (2) as the subject of these same verbs in the passive, as well as of other verbs
and verbal phrases (§ 569) ; (3) in apposition with another substantive, or as predicate
nominative etc. (see §§ 670, 571) .i
568. Substantive Clauses of Result with ut (negative ut n5n)
are used as the object of verbs denoting the accomplishment of
an effort.^
Such are especially faciO and its compounds (eflSlciO, cOnficiG, etc.) : —
efficiam ut intellegatis (Clu. 7), I wUl make you understand (lit. effect that
you, etc.). [So, faciam at intelleg&tis (id. 9).]
comme9.tus ut portdxl possent efficiebat (B. G. ii. 5), made it possible that
supplies could be brought.
perfSci ut 6 r€gnO ille discSderet (Fam. xy. 4. 6), I brought about his departure
from the kingdom,
quae llbertSs ut laetior esset rSgis superbia fScerat (Liv. ii. 1), the arrogance
of the king had made this liberty more welcome.
eyincunt mstandO ut litterae darentur (id. ii. 4), by insisting they gain their
point, — that letters should be sent. [Here evincunt = efficiunt.]
1 In all these cases the clause is not strictly subject or object. The main verb orig-
inally conveyed a meaning sufficient in itself, and the result clause was merely com-
plementary. This is seen by the frequent use of ita and the like with the main verb
(ita accidit at, etc.). In like manner purpose clauses are only apparently subject or
object of the verb with which they are connected.
2 Verbs and phrases taking an ut-clause of result as subject or object are accSdit,
accidit, additur, altera est res, committS, consequor, contingit, jpfflciS, gvenlt, facio, fit, fieri
potest, fore, lmpetr5, integrum est, mds est, muiitts est, necesse est, prope est, rSctum est,
relinquitur, reliquum est, restat, tanti est, tantum abest^ and a few others.
368 SYNTAX: SUBSTANTIVE CLAUSES [§§668-671
Note 1. — The ezpreasions teceie ut, oommittere ut, with the subjimctive, often form
a periphrasis for the simple yerb : as, — in-^^tus f6ci nt Flaminium e senatu Cicerem
(Cat. M. 42), it was with reluctance that I expelled Flaminvua/rom the senate.
569. Substantive Clauses of Result are used as the subject of
the following : —
1. Of passive verbs denoting the dccomplishment of an effort : —
impetrfttum est ut in senfttli recitirentor (litterae) (B. C. i. 1)^ they succeeded
in having the letter read in the sencAe (it was brought about that, etc.).
ita efficitur at omne corpus mortSie sit (N. D. iii. 30), it therefore is made
out that every body is mortal.
2. Of Im personals meaning t^ happens, it remains, it follows, it is
necessary, it is added, and the like (§ 568, footnote) : —
accidit at esset Itlna plena (B. G. iv. 29), it happened to hefuU moon (it hap-
pened that it was, etc.). [fiere at esset is subject of accidit.]
reliquum est at officils certemas inter nOs (Fam. vii. SI) ^ it remains for ta to
vie loith each other in courtesies.
restat at hOc dabitSxnas (Rose. Am. 88), it is l^for us to doubt this.
sequitur at doceam (N. D. ii. 81), the next thing is to show (it follows, etc.).
Note 1. — The infinitive sometime9 occurs: as, — nee enim acciderat mihi opns
esse (Fam. vi. 11. l),/or it had not happened to be necessary to me.
Note 2. — If eoesse est often takes the subjonctive without nt : as, — concSdas necesse
est (Rose. Am. 87), you must grant.
3. Of est in the sense of it is the fact that, etc. (mostly poetic): —
est at virO yir l&tius ordinet arbusta (Hor. Od. iii. 1. 9), it is the fact that one
man plants his vineyards in under rows than another.
a» Foie (or futllram esse) ut with a clause of result as subject is
often used instead of the Future Infinitive active or passive; so
necessarily in verbs which have no supine stem : —
spSrO fore ut oontingat id nSbls (Tusc. i. 82), / ?iope that vnU be our happy lot.
cum yid€rem fore at nSn possem (Cat. ii. 4), when I saw Uiat I should net be able.
570. A substantive clause of result may be in apposition with
another substantive (especially a neuter pronoun): —
illud etiam restiterat, at t6 in ins §ducerent (Quinct. 33), this too remained —
for them to drag you into court.
571. A substantive clause of result may serve as predicate
nominative after mOs est and similar expressions : —
est mos hominum, at nolint eundem pluribus rSbus excellere (Brut. 84), it i»
the way of men to be unwilling for one man to excel in several things.
§§ 671, 672] INDICATIVE WITH QUOD 369
a. A result olause, with or without ut, frequently follows quam
after a comparative (but see § 583. c) : —
Canach! signa rigidiOra sunt quam ut imitentur veritatem (Brut. 70), the statues
of CanachiLS are too stiff to represent nature (stiff er than that they should) .
perpessus est omnia potius quam indicaret (Tusc. ii. 52), he endured all rather
than betray, etc. [Regularly without ut except in Livy.]
b* The phrase tantum abest, it is so far [from being the case],
regularly takes two clauses of result with ut: one is substantive, the
subject of abeat ; the other is adverbial j correlative with tantum: —
tantum abest ut nostra mirSmur, ut tlsque eO difficilSs ac mOrOsI sunus, at
nobis nOn satis facial ipse Demosthenes (Or. 104), so far from admiring
my own works, I am difficult and captious to thai degree that not Demos-
thjsnes himself saiis/ies me. [Here the first ut-K^lause is the subject of
abest (§ 569. 2); the second, a result clause after tantum (§ 537); and
the third, after usque eo.]
c, Karely, a thought or an idea is considered as a result, and is
expressed by the subjunctive with ut instead of the accusative and
infinitive (§ 580). In this case a demonstrative usually precedes :
praeclSnim illud est, ot eCs . . . amemus (Tusc. iii. 12), this is a noble thing,
that we shffuXd love, etc.
yeri simile nOn est ut ille anteponeret (Verr. iv. 11), it is not likely that he
preferred.
For Relative Clauses with quin after verbs of hindering etc., see § 568.
Indicative with Quod
572. A peculiar form of Substantive Clause consists of quod
(in the sense of that^ the fact that) with the Indicative.
The clause in the Indicative with quod is used when the state-
ment is regarded as a fact : —
alterum est vitium, quod quidam nimis mSgnam studium conferunt (Off. i. 19),
it is another fault that some bestow too much zeal, etc. [Here ut c5nferant
could be used, meaning that some should bestow ; or the accusative and
infinitive, meaning to bestow (abstractly) ; quod makes it a fact that men
do bestow, etc.]
inter inanimum et animal hoc maxime interest, quod animal agit aliquid
(Acad. ii. 37), this is the chief difference between an inanimate object and
an animal, Viat an animal aims at something.
qaod rediit nObls mlrabile vid6tur (Off. iii. Ill), that he (Regains) rdumed
seems wonderful to us,
accidit perincoinmodS quod eum nnsquam vidisti (Att. i. 17. 2), it happened
very unluckily that you nowhere saw him.
870 SYNTAX: SUBSTANTIVE CLAUSES [§§672,573
opportOnissima ras accidit quod GermSni venerunt (B. G. iv. 13), a very for-
tunate thing happened, (namely) that the Germans came.
praetereO quod earn sibl domum s^demque delegit (Clu. 188), I pass over the
fa^t that she chose thai house and home for herself.
mittO quod possessa per vim (Flacc. 79), / disregard the fojct thai they were
seized by violence.
Note. — Like other substantive clauses, the clause with quod may be used as sub-
ject, as object, as appositive, etc., but it is commonly either the subject or in apposi-
tion with the subject.
a. A substantive clause with, quod sometimes appears as an accu-
sative of specificationy corresponding to the English whereas or as
to the fact that : —
quod mihi dS nostrO statu gratularis, minimS mlr^mur t€ tuls praeclSxis operi-
bus laetari (Fam. i. 7. 7), as to your congratulating me on our condition,
we are not ai all surprised thai you are pleased with your own noble loorks.
quod de domo scnbis, ego, etc. (Fam. xiv. 2. 3), as to whai you write of the
house, I, etc.
5. Verbs ol feeling and the expression of feeling take either quod
(quia) or the accusative and infinitive (Indirect Discourse) : —
quod scribis . . . gaudeO (Q. Fr. iii. 1. 9), J am glad thai you write.
faciO libenter quod eam nOn possum praeterire (Legg. i. 63), I am glad that I
cannot pass it by.
quae perfecta esse vehementer laetor (Rose. Am. 136), I greatly rejoice thai
this is finished,
qui quia nOn habuit a m6 turmas equitum f ortasse suscSnset ( Att. vi. 3. 5), who
perhaps feels angry that he did not receive sqvxidrons of cavalry from me.
molests tuli te senatui gratias non egisse (Fam. x. 27. 1), I was displeased
thai you did not return thanks to the senate.
Note. — Miror and similar expressions are sometimes followed by a clause with si.i
This is apparently substantive, but really protasis (cf. § 563. c. n. i). Thus, — miror
si quemquam amicum habere potuit (Lael.54), I wonder if he could ever have a friend.
[Originally, If this is so, I wonder at it.]
Indirect Questions
573. An Indirect Question is any sentence or clause which is
introduced by an interrogative word (pronoun, adverb, etc.), and
which is itself the subject or object of a verb, or depends on any
expression implying uncertainty or doubt.
In grammatical form, exclamatory sentences are not distin-
guished from interrogative (see the third example below).
1 Cf . the Greek Oavfid^uf el.
574, 576] INDIRECT QUESTIONS 871
574. An Indirect Question takes its verb in the Subjunctive :
quid ipse sentiam expOnam (Div. i. 10), I will explain what I think. [Direct :
quid sentio ?]
id possetne fieri cOnsuluit (id. i. 82), he consulted whether it could he done,
[Direct: potestne?]
quam sis aad&x omnes intellegere potuerunt (Rose. Am. 87), aU could under-
stand how hold you are, [Direct : quam es audflx I]
doleam necne doleam nihil interest (Tosc. ii. 20), it is of no account wTiether I
suffer or not. [Double question.]
quaesivl & Catilln& in conirenttL apud M. Laecam fnisaet necne (Cat. ii. 18), /
asked Catiline whether he had heen at the meeting at Marcus LcBcd*s or
not. [Double question.]
rogat me quid sentiam, lie asks me what I think. [Cf. rogat m6 sententiam, he
asks me my opinion.']
hoc dubium est, nter nostrum sit inverecundior (Acad. ii. 126), this is doubt-
ful, which of us two is the less modest.
incerti qafttenus VolerO ezercSret victOriam (Liv. ii. 55), uncertain how far
Yolero would push victory. [As if dubitantCa quJlteniM, etc.]
NoTB. — An Indirect Question may be the subject of a verb (as In the fourth exam-
ple), the direct object (as in the first), the secondary object (as in the sixth), an apposi-
tive (as in the seventh).
575. The Sequence of Tenses in Indirect Question is illus-
trated by the following examples : —
died quid faciam, I tell you what I am doing.
died quid facturus sim, / tell you what I will (shall) do.
died quid fScerim, / tdl you what I did {have done, was doing).
dizi quid facerem, / told you what I was doing.
dizi quid fScissem, I told you what I had done {had heen doing).
£zl quid factfiros esaem, I told you what I would {should) do (was going to do).
dizi quid factflxns fuissem, I told you what I would {should) haive done.
«. Indirect Questions referring to future time take the subjunc-
tive of the First Periphrastic Conjugation : —
prOspiciO qal concursfia futflri sint (Caecil. 42), I foresee whxdkthrongs there
will he. [Direct : qui erunt ?]
qttid ait fotflnnn crfia, fuge quaerere (Hor. Od. i. 9. 18),/or6ear to ask what will
he on the morrow. [Direct : quid exit or futiiram est ?]
posth^ nOn scrlbam ad tS quid factfirus sim, sed quid fScerim (Att. x. 18),
hereafter I shall not write to you what I wrn going to do, hut what I have
done. [Direct: quid fadia (or factfiius eria) ? quid fSdati ?]
Note. — This Perii^rastic Future avoids the ambiguity which would be caused by
using the Present Subjunctive to refer to future time in such clauses.
&• The Deliberative Subjunctive (§ 444) remains unchanged in an
Indirect Question, ezeept sometimes in tense : —
372 SYNTAX: SUBSTANTIVE CLAUSES [§§676,576
qa5 me Tertam nesciO (Clu. 4), I do Tiot know which way to turn, [Direct:
qa5 mS Tertam ?]
neque satis cOnstftbat quid agerent (B. G. iii. 14), and it was not very clear what
they were to do. [Direct : quid agflmas ?]
nee quisquam satis certain habet, quid aut speret aut timeat (Liv. xxii. 7. 10),
nor is any one well assured what he shall hope or fear. [Here the future
participle with sit could not be used.]
incertO quid peterent aut yit&rent (id. xxviii. 36. 12), since it was doubtful
(ablative absolute) whai they should seek or shun,
c. Indirect Questions often take the Indicative in early Latin and
in poetry : —
vlneam quo in agrO cOnserl oportet sic observ&tO (Cato R. R. 6. 4), in what
soil a vineyard should be set you must observe thus,
d. WesciO quis, when used in an indefinite sense {somebody or other),
is not followed by the Subjunctive.
So also nesciO qu0 (unde, etc.), and the following idiomatic phrases
which are practically adverbs : —
mirum (nimirum) quam, marvellously (marvellous how),
mirum quantum, tremendously (marvellous how much),
imm&ne quantum, monstrously (monstrous how much).
s&n6 quam, immensely,
vald6 quam, enormously.
Examples are : —
qui istam nescio quam indolentiam mSgnopere laudant (Tusc. iii. 12), who
greaUy extol that freedom from pain, whatever it is,
mirum quantum prOfuit (Liv. ii. 1), it helped prodigiously,
ita fSLtO nescio quo contigisse arbitror (Fam. xv. 13), I think it happened so
by somefatatity or other.
nam suOs valde quam paucOs habet (id. xi. 13 a. 3), for he has uncommonly
few of his own.
sang quam sum g9,visus (id. xi. 13 a. 4), I was immensely glad,
immane quantum discrepat (Hor. Od. i. 27. 6), is monstrously at variance.
576. In colloquial usage and in poetry the subject of an In-
direct Question is often attracted into the main clause as object
(Accusative of Anticipation) : —
n5sti Marcellum quam tardus sit (Fam. viii. 10. 3), you know how slow Mar-
ceUus is, [For ndsti quam tardus sit Marcellus. Cf. ** I know thee who
thou art."]
Cf . potestne igitur e&rum rerum, qu& rS f uttirae sint, ulla esse praesfinsiO (DiT.
ii. 16), can there be, then, any foreknowledge as to those things, why they
wUl occur? [A similar use of the Objective Crenitive.]
§§ 576, 577] INDIRECT DISCOURSE 873
Note. — In some cases the Object of Anticipation becomes the Subject by a change
of voice, and an apparent mixture of relative and interrogative constructions is the
result : —
quidam saepe in parva pecQnia perspiciuntur quam sint leves (Lael. 63), it is often
seen, in a trifling matter of money, haw unprincipled some people are (some
I)eople are often seen through, how unprincipled they are).
quern ad modum Pompeium oppugnarent a me indicati sunt (Leg. Agr. i. 5), it has
been shown by me in what way they attacked Pompey (they have been shown
by me, how they attacked).
€t* An indirect question is occasionally introduced by si in the
sense of whether (like if in English, cf. § 572. b. n.): —
circumfunduntur hostSs si quern aditum reperire possent (B. G. vi. 37), the
enemy pour round [to see] if they can find entrance.
visam si domi est (Ter. Haut. 170), 7 wUl go see if he is at home,
NoTB. — This is strictly a Protasis, but usually no Apodosis is thought of, and the
clause is virtually an Indirect Question.
For the Potential Subjunctive with forsitan (originally an Indirect Question), see
§ 447. a.
INDIRECT DISCOURSE
577. The use of the Accusative and Infinitive in Indirect Discourse {oratio ohliqua)
is a comx>aratively late form of speech, developed in the Latin and Greek only, and
perhaps separately in each of them. It is wholly wanting in Sanskrit, but some forms
like it have grown up in English and German.
The essential character of Indirect Discourse is, that the language of some other
person than the writer or speaker is compressed into a kind of Substantive Clause, the
verb of the main clause becoming Infinitive, while modifying clauses, as well as all
hortatory forms of speech, take the Subjunctive. The person of the verb necessarily
caniomaa to the new relation of persons.
The construction of Indirect Discourse, however, is not limited to reports of the
language of some i)erson other than the speaker ; it may be used to express what any
one — whether the sx)eaker or some one else — says, thinks, or perceives, whenever that
-which is said, thought, ov perceived is capable of being expressed in the form of a com-
plete sentence. For anything that can be said etc. can also he reported indirectly as
-well as directly.
The use of the Infinitive in the main clause undoubtedly comes from its use as a
case-form, to complete or modify the action expressed by the verb of saying and its
object together. This object in time came to be regarded as, and in fact to all intents
became, the subject of the infinitive. A transition state is found in Sanskrit, which,
though it has no indirect discourse proper, yet allows an indirect predication after verbs
of saying and the like by means of a predicative apposition, in such expressions as
" The maids told the king [that] his daughter [was] bereft of her senses."
The simple form of indirect statement with the accusative and infinitive was after-
-wards amplified by introducing dependent or modifying clauses ; and in Latin it became
a common construction, and could be used to report whole speeches etc., which in other
lan^n^ages would have the direct form. (Compare the style of reporting speeches in
English, -where only the person and tense are changed.)
The Subjunctive in the subordinate clauses of Indirect Discourse has no significance
except to make more distinct the fact that these clauses are subordinate ; consequently
no direct connection has been traced between them and the uses of the mood in simple
874 SYXTAX: SUBSTANTIVE CLAUSES [§§577-580
aentences. It is probable that the sub j unctiye in indirect qaestions (§ 674) , in informal
indirect discourse (§092), and in clauses of the integral part (§ 693) represents the
earliest steps of a movement by which the subj unctiye became in some degree a mood
of subordination.
The Subjunctive standing for hortatory forms of speech in Indirect Discourse is
simply the usual hortatory subjunctive, with only a change of person and tense (if
necessary), as in the reporter's style.
578. A Direct Quotation gives the exact words of the original
speaker or writer {Ordtio Recta).
An Indirect Quotation adapts the words of the speaker or
writer to the construction of the sentence in which they are
quoted {Ordtio Ohllqua).
Note. — The term Indirect Discourse {ordtio obliqtia) is used in two senses. In
the wider sense it includes all clauses — of whatever kind — which express the words
or thought of any person indirectly f that is, in a form different from that in which the
person said the words or conceived the thought. In the narrower sense the term Indi-
rect Discourse is restricted to those cases in which some complete proposition is cited
in the form of an Indirect Quotation, which may be extended to a narrative or an
address of any length, as in the speeches reported by Cesar and Livy. In this book
the term is used in the restricted sense.
Formal Indirect Discourse
579. Verhs and other expressions of knowing^ thinking^ tellingy
and perceivings^ govern the Indirect Discourse.
Note. — Inquam, said I (etc.) takes the Direct Discourse except in poetry.
Declaratory Sentences in Indirect Discourse
580. In Indirect Discourse the main clause of a Declaratoiy
Sentence is put in the Infinitive with Subject Accusative. All
subordinate clauses take the Subjunctive : —
sciO me paene incredibilem rem poUic^ri (B. C. iii. S6), I know that I am
promising an almost in^edible thing. [Direct : polHceor.]
nOn arbitror tS ita sentire (Fam. x. 26. 2), I do not suppose that you fed
thus. [Direct: sentiis.]
sp€rO me liber&tum [esse] de metu (Tusc. ii. 67), I trust I have been freed
from fear. [Direct : liber&tus sum. ]
^ Such are : (1) knowing, 8ci5, oSgnoscd, compertum liabe9, etc. ; (2) thinking, pvto.
existimd, arbitror, etc. ; (3) telling, d!c5, nantiS, referS, poHioeor, pr5mitt5, certiSrem fado,
etc. ; (4) perceiving, sentiS, comperiS, videS, audid, etc. So in general any word thiit
denotes thought or mental and visual perception or their expression may govern tbe
Indirect Discourse.
§ 580] INDIRECT DISCOURSE 376
[dioit] esse nfin nfillSs quorum auctOrit&B pltbrimum valeat (B. G. i. 17), he
aaya there are some, whose ivftuence most prevaUa, [Direct : sunt nSn
null! . . . yalet.]
nisi iOxftsset, scelus sS factumm [esse] arbitrftb&tur (Yerr. ii. 1. 123), he
thought he should incur guUtj unless he shotdd take the oath. [Direct :
nisi iQr&vezo, faciam.]
€»• The verb of saying etc. is often not expressed, but implied in
some word or in the general drift of the sentence : —
cOnsulis alterlus nOmen invisum clvitfttl fuit: nimium Tarqoinios rSgnO
adsaSsse; initinm ft FrIscO factum; rSgnftsee dein Ser. Tullium, etc.
(Liy. ii. 2), the name of the other consvl was hat^l to the state; the Tar-
quins (they thought) ?iad become too much accustomed to royal power ^ etc.
[Here invisum implies a thought, and this thought is added tu the
form of Indirect Discourse.]
orantes ut urbibus saltern — iam enim agrSs dSpl5r&t5s esse — opem senfttus
ferret (id. xli. 6), prayiji/g that the senate would at lea^ bring aid to the
cities — for the fields [they said] were already given up as lost.
h. The verb neg5, deny, is commonly used in preference to to5 with
a negative : —
[StOicI] negant quidquam [esse] bonum nisi quod honestum sit (Fin. ii. 68),
the Stoics assert that nothing is good but what is right.
c. Verbs oi promising, hoping, expecting, threatening, swearing,
and the like, regularly take the construction of Indirect Discourse,
contrary to the English idiom : —
minS^tur sSs5 abire (PI. Asin. 604), he threatens to go away. [Direct : abeo,
I am going away."}
sperantse maximum fructum esse captfizds (Lael. 79), they hope to gain the
utmost advantage. [Direct: capiSmus.]
sp€rat se absolutum iii (Sull. 21), ?ie hopes that lie shall be acquitted. [Direct :
absolyar.]
qnem inimicissimum futurum esse prOmittO ac spondeo (Mur. 00), who I
promise and warrant will be the bitterest of enemies. [Direct : exit.]
dolor fortit&dinem se deUlit&tarum min&tur (Tusc. v. 76), pain threatens to
wear down fortitude. [Direct: debilitftbd.}
c5nfld5 me quod velim facile ft te impetrfttflium (Fam. xi. 16. 1), I trust I
shall easily obtain from you what I wish. [Direct : quod yoIo, impe-
trftbd.]
Note. — These yerbs, however, often take a simple Ck>mplem6ntary Infinitive (§ 456^
So regularly in early Latin (except 8p6i5): — i
polliceiitar obsides dare (B. Q. iv. 21), they promise to give homages.
piOnuffl dolium vini dare (PI. Cist. 542), I promised to ffive ajar of wine.
1 Compare the Greek aorist infinitive after similar verbs.
876 SYNTAX: SUBSTANTIVE CLAUSES [§§680,681
d. Some verbs and expressions may be used either as verbs of
sayingj or as verbs of commanding, effecting^ and the like. These
take as their object either an Infinitive with subject accusative or a
Substantive clause of Purpose or Result, according to the sense.
1. Infinitive with Subject Accusative (Indirect Discourse) : —
landem sapientiae statuO esse maximam (Fam. v. 13), I fiold that the glory of
wisdom is the greatest, [Indirect Discourse.]
res ipsa mon6bat tempas esse (Att. x. 8. 1), the thing itself warned that it
was time. [Of. monSre at, warn to do something,]
fac mihi esse persaftsum (N. D. i. 76), suppose that I am persuaded of that
[Cf. facere at, bring it about that.]
hoc volunt persu&d€re, nSn interire anim&s (B. G. vi. 14), they wish to con-
vince that souls do not perish,
2. Subjunctive (Substantive Clause of Purpose or Result) : —
statuunt at decern milia hominum mittantar (B. G. vii. 21), they resolve that
10,000 men shall be sent, [Purpose clausa (cf. § 663).]
huic persuftdet ati ad hostis trftnseat (id. iii. 18), he persuades him to pass
over to the enemy,
Pomp^ius suls praedlzerat at Caesaris impetum exciperent (B. C. liL 92),
Pompey had instructed his men b^orehand to await Ccesar^s attack,
denuntiftvit at essent animO parati (id. iii. 86), he bade them be alert and
steadfa^ (ready in spirit).
Note. — The infinitive with subject accusative in this construction is Indirect Dis-
course, and is to be distinguished from the simple infinitive sometimes found with these
verbs instead of a subjunctive clause (§ 563. d).
581. The Subject Accusative of the Infinitive is regularly ex-
pressed in Indirect Discourse, even if it is wanting in the direct:
Orfttor sum, I am an orator ; dicit sS esse Or&tOrem, he says he is an oraJbor,
Note 1. — But the subject is often omitted if easily understood: —
ign5ecere imprudentiae dixit (B. 6. iv. 27), fie said he pardoned their rashness.
eadem ab aliis quaerit : reperit esse vera (id. i. 18), he inquires about these same
things from others; ?ie finds that they are true.
Notb 2. — After a relative, or quam (than) , if the verb would be the same as that of
the main clause, it is usually omitted, and its subject is attracted into the accusative : —
te suspicor eisdem rebus quibus mS ipsum commoveri (Gat. M. 1), J 8y,spect that
you are disturbed by the same things as I,
cOnfidO tamen haec quoque tibi n5n minus grata quam ipsds UbrSs futura (Plin.
Ep. iii. 6. 20), J trust that these fa^s too will be no less pleasing to you than
the books tfiemjselves.
Note 3. — In poetry, by a Greek idiom, a Predicate Noun or Adjective in the indi-
rect discourse sometimes agrees with the subject of the main verb : —
vir bonus et sapiens ait esse par&tns (Hor. Ep. i. 7. 22), a good and wise man says
he is prepared, etc. [In prose : ait s6 esse paz&tnm.]
sensit mediOs dSUpsus in hostis (Aen. ii. 377), he found himself faUen among the
foe, [In prose: sS esse dfiUpsnm.]
§§ 682, 683] INDIRECT DISCOURSE 377
582. When the verb of %ay%ng etc. is passive^ the construction
may be either Personal or Impersonal. But the Personal con-
struction is more common and is regularly used in the tenses of
incomplete action : —
be&te Ylzisse yideor (Lael. 16), I seem to Iiave lived happUy,
EpamlnOndfis fidibus praecl&rfi cecinisse didtur (Tusc. i. 4), Epaminondoa ia
said to have played exceUenUy on the lyre.
miilti idem facttlrl esse dicontnr (Fam. zvi. 12. 4), many are said to he about
to do the same thing, [Active : dicant multSs factfiros (esse).]
priml tr&dttntur arte quadam verba vinzisse (Or. 40), they first are related to
have Joined toords wi^ a certain ^cUL
Bibulus audiebAtor esse in Syria (Att. v. 18), it was heard that Btbulus was in
Syria (Bibulus was heard, etc.). [Direct : Bibnlas est.]
ceterae IllyricI legiOnSs secattlrae sper&bantur (Tac. H. ii. 74), the rest of the
legions of lUyricum were expected to follow.
▼idemnr enim quiettlrl fuisse, nisi essSmus lacessltl (De Or. ii. 230), it seems
that we should have kept quiet, if we fiad not been molested (we seem, etc.).
[Direct: quiSssSmus . . . nisi essSmns lacessiti.]
KoTB. — The poets and later writers extend the personal use of the passive to verbs
which are not properly verba sentiendi etc. : as, — colligor dominae placuisse (Ov. Am.
ii. 6. 61), it is gathered [from this memorial] that I pleaded my mistress.
a. In the compound tenses of verbs of saying etc., the impersonal
construction is more common, and with the gerundive is regular : —
traditum est etiam Homerum caecum fuisse (Tusc. v. 114), it is a tradition,
too, that Homer was Uind.
ubi tyrannus est, ibi nOn vitiOsam, sed dicendum est plftn6 ntUlam esse rem
ptiblicam (Rep. iii. 43), where there is a tyrant, it must be said, not that
the commxmweaUh is evil, but that it does not exist at all.
Note. — An indirect narrative begun in the personal construction may be continued
with the Infinitive and Accusative (as De Or. ii. 299; Liv. v. 41. 9).
Subordinate Clauses in Indirect Discourse
583. A Subordinate Clause merely explanatory^ or containing
statements which are regarded as true independently of the quo-
tation, takes the Indicative : —
quis neget haec omnia quae videmus deOrum potestate administr&ri (Cat. iii.
21), who can deny that aU these things we see are ruled by the power of
the gods f
c^us ingenia putabat ea quae gesserat posse celebr9,rl (Arch. 20), by whose
genius he thought that those deeds which he had done could be celebrated.
[Here the fact expressed by quae gesseiat, though not explanatory, is
felt to be true without regard to the quotation : quae gessisset would
mean, what Marius claimed to have done.]
878 SYNTAX: SUBSTANTIVE CLAUSES [§§583,584
Note. — Sach a clause in the indicative is not regarded as a part of the Indirect
Discourse ; but it often depends merely upon the feeling of the writer whether he shall
use the Indicative or the Subjunctive (cf. §§591-^93).
a. A subordinate clause in Indirect Discourse occasionally takes
the Indicative when the fact is emphasized : —
factum 6iu8 hostis perlculum . . . cum, Cimbrls et Teutonis . . . pulsis, non
minOrem laudem exercitus quam ipse imperStor meritus videbator (B. G.
i. 40), that a trial of this enemy had been made when^ on the d^eat of the
Cimbri and Teutoni, the army seemed to have deserved no less credit tMn
the commander himself.
h. Clauses introduced by a relative which is equivalent to a
demonstrative with a conjunction are not properly subordinate, and
hence take the Accusative and Infinitive in Indirect Discourse (see
§308./): —
MSrcellus requislsse dicitur Archimedem ilium, quern cum audisset inter-
fectum permolest^ tuUsse (Verr. iv. 131), Marcellus is said to have sought
for Archimedes, and when he heard that he was slain, to have been greatly
distressed, [quern = et euxn.]
cSosent tlnum quemque nostrum mundi esse partem, ex quo [= et ex eo]
illud natura consequi (Fin. iii. 64), they say that each one ofvs is a part
of the universe, from which this naturally follows.
Note. — Really subordinate clauses occasionally take the accusative and infinitive :
as, — quern ad modum si n5n dedatur obses pro rupt5 foedus sS habitunun, ^c deditam
inviolatam ad suds remissurum (Liv. ii. 13), [he says] as in case the hostage is net
given up he shall consider the treaty as broken^ so if given up he will return her
unharmed to her friends.
c. The infinitive construction is regularly continued after a com-
parative with quam : —
addit se prius occisum iri ab eO quam me viol&tnm in (Att. ii. 20. 2), Ae adds
that he himseJf will be killed by him, b^ore I shaU be injured.
n5nne adflrmavi quidvls m€ potius perpessuram quam ex Italia exitumm
(Fam. ii. 16. 3), did I not assert that I would endure anything rather
than leave Italy f
Note. — The subjunctive with or without ut also occurs with quam (see § 535. c).
Tenses of the Infinitive in Indirect Discourse
584. The Present, the Perfect, or the Future Infinitive^ is used
in Indirect Discourse, according as the time indicated is present
past^ OT future with reference to the verb of sat/ing etc. by which
the Indirect Discourse is introduced : —
1 For various ways of expressing the Future Infinitive, see § 164. 3. c.
§§ 584, 585] TENSES IN INDIRECT DISCOURSE 379
cadS, lamfaUing.
dicit w6 cadeie, be aays he iafaUing.
dixit ai cadere, he said he tBoe falling.
cadSbam, I was f (Ming; ceddi, IfeU^ htmefaUen;
ceddeiam, I had faUen.
dicit aS ceddiaae, ?ie says he wasfaUing^ feU, hasfailen, had fallen.
dixit aS cecidiase, he said he fell, had fallen.
cadam, I shaM fall.
dicit ae cftafinim [eaae], he says he s?iall faU.
dixit ae c&afimin [eaae], he said he should faU.
ceddero, I shall hxive fallen.
dicit foie at cedderit [rare], he says he shall have fallen.
dixit fore ot ceddiaaet [rare], he said he shotdd have fallen.
a,. All varieties of past time are usually expressed in Indirect
Discourse by the Perfect Infinitive, which may stand for the Imper-
fect, the Perfect, or the Pluperfect Indicative of the Direct
Note. — Continued or repeated action in past time is sometimes expressed by the
Present Infinitive, which in such cases stands for the Imperfect Indicative of the Direct
Discourse and is often called the Imperfect Infinitive.
This is the regular construction after memini when referring to a matter of actual
experience or observation : as, — te memini haec dicere, / remefmber ycur saying this
(that you said this). [Direct : dixiati or dicfbfts.]
h* The present infinitive posse often has a future sense : —
totlus Galliae sSsS potiri posse spirant (B. G. i. 3), they hope thai they shall
he able to get possession of aU Gaul.
Tenses of the Subjunctive in Indirect Discourse
585. The tenses of the Subjunctive in Indirect Discourse fol-
low the rule for the Sequence of Tenses (§ 482). They depend for
their sequence on the verb of saying etc. by which the Indirect
Discourse is introduced.
Thus in the sentence, dixit ae Romam iturom ut coasnlem videret, he said he
should go to Rome in order that he might see the consul, vidSret follows the aequfince
of dixit without regard to the Future Infinitive, iturum [eaae], on which it directly
depends.
Note. — This rule applies to the subjunctive in subordinate clauses, to that which
stands for the imi)erative etc. (see examples, § 588), and to that in questions (§686).
a. A subjunctive depending on a Perfect Infinitive is often in the
Imperfect or Pluperfect, even if the verb of saying etc. is in a pri-
mary tense (ct § 485. f) ; so regularly when these tenses would have
been used in Direct Discourse : —
380 SYNTAX: SUBSTANTIVE CLAUSES [§§686,686
Tarquinium dixisse fenmt turn exsolantem 86 intellSxisse qu5s fidOs amicus
haboisset (Lael. 63), they teU ua thai Tarquin 8aid that then in his exile
he had found out what faithful friends he had had, [Here the main Yerb
of saying, f emnt, is primary y but the time is carried back by dixisae and
intellSzisse, and the sequence then becomes secondary.]
tantum profedsse yidSmur ut & Graecis n6 verbOrum quidem cOpi& yincetemnr
(N. D. i. 8), we seem to have advanced so far thaJt even in abundance of
words we are not surpassed by the Greeks.
Note 1. — The proper sequence may be seen, in each case, by turning the Perfect
Infinitive into that tense of the Indicative which it represents. Thus, if it stands for
an imperfect or an historical perfect, the sequence will be secondary ; if it stands for
a perfect definite, the sequence may be either primary or secondary (§ 485. a).
Note 2. — The so-called imperfect infinitive after memini (§584. a. n.) takes the
secondary sequence : as, — ad me adire qudsdam memini, qui dicerent (Fam. iii. 10. 6), I
remember that some persons visited me, to tell me, etc.
h. The Present and Perfect Subjunctive are often used in depend*
ent clauses of the Indirect Discourse even when the verb of sai/ing'
etc. is in a secondary tense : —
dicSbant . . . totidem NerviOs (pollic€ri) qui longissim6 absint (B. G. ii. 4),
they said that the Nervii, who live farthest off, promised as many.
Note. — This construction comes from the tendency of language to refer all time
in narration to the time of the speaker (repraesentatio). In the course of a long pa^
sage in the Indirect Discourse the tenses of the subjunctive often vary, sometimes fol>
lowing the sequence, and sometimes affected by repraesentatio. Examples may be
seen in B. 6. i. 13, vii. 20, etc.
Certain constructions are never affected by repraesentatio. Such are the Imperfect
and Pluperfect Subjunctive with com temporal, anteqnam, and priusquam.
Questions in Indirect Discourse
586. A Question in Indirect Discourse may be either in the
Subjunctive or in the Infinitive with Subject Accusative.
A real question, asking for an answer, is generally put in the
Subjunctive ; a rhetorical question, asked for effect and implying
its own answer, is put in the Infinitive : —
quid sibi vellet ? cur in BuSa possession's veniret (6. G. i. 44), wh/it did he
want f why did he come into his territories f [Real question. Direct :
quid "^8 ? cur vems ?]
nam recentium iniuriSxum memoriam [sS] dSpOnere posse (id. 1. 14), coidd
he lay aside the memory of recent wrongs? [Rhetorical Question.
Direct : num possum ?]
quern signum daturum f ugientibus ? quern ausiirum AlezandrO succ6dere (Q. C.
iii. 6. 7), wfio will give the signal on the retreat f who will dare succeed
Alexander? [Rhetorical. Direct: quis dabit . . . audebit.]
§§686-589] COMMANDS IN INDIRECT DISCOURSE 381
Note 1. — No sharp line can be drawn between the Subjunctive and the Infinitive
in questions in the Indirect Discourse. Whether the question is to be regarded as
rhetorical or real often depends merely on the writer's point of view : —
utmm partem regni petitunun esse, an t5tum 6reptiiram (Liv. xlv. 19. 15), wUl you
ask part of the regal power (he said), or seize the whole?
quid tandem praetori fadendom fnisse (id. xzxi. 48), what, pray , ought aprs&tor to
?iave done?
quid repente factum [esse] cur, etc. (id. zxxiv. 54), what had suddenly happened,
that, etc. ?
Note 2. — Questions coming immediately after a verb of asking are treated as Indi-
rect Questions and take the Subjunctive (see § 574). .This is true even when the verb
of asking serves also to introduce a passage in the Indirect Discourse. The question
may be either real or rhetorical. See quaetivit, etc. (Liv. xxxvii. 15).
For the use of tenses, see § 585.
587. A Deliberative Subjunctive (§ 444) in the Direct Dis-
course is always retained in the Indirect : —
cor aliqnOs ex siils ftmitteret (B. C. i. 72), why (thought he) should he lose
some of his men f [Direct : cfir ftmittam ?]
Commands in Indirect Disooorse
588. All Imperative forms of speech take the Subjunctive in
Indirect Discourse : —
remimsceretiir veteris incommodi (B. G. i. 13), remember (said he) the ancient
disaster, [Direct: reminlscere.]
finem faeiat (id. i. 20), let him maJce an end, [Direct : fac]
ferrent opem^ adiaT&rent (Liy. ii. 6), let them bring aid, let them help,
a. This rule applies not only to the Imperative of the direct dis-
course, but to the Hortatory and the Optative Subjunctive as well.
Note 1. — Though these subjunctives stand for independent clauses of the direct
disoooTse, they follow the rule for the sequence of tenses, being in fact dependent on
the verb of saying etc. (cf. §§ 483, 685).
Note 2. — A Prohibition in the Indirect Discourse is regularly expressed by n6 with
the present or imperfect subjunctive, even when n5Ii with the infinitive would be used
in the Direct: as, — n6 pertorbftrentar (B. 6. vii. 29), do not (he said) he troubled.
[Direct; ndlite perturb&ri. But sometimes ndllet is found in Indirect Discourse.]
Conditions in Indirect Discourse
589. Conditional sentences in Indirect Discourse are expressed
as follows : —
1. The Protasis, being a svhordinaie clause^ is always in the
Subjunctive.
2. The Apodosis, if independent and not hortatory or optative,
is always in some form of the Infinitive.
382 SYNTAX: SUBSTANTIVE CLAUSES [§589
a. The Present Subjunctive in the apodosis of less vivid future
conditions (§ 516. b) becomes the Future Infinitive like the Future
Indicative in the apodosis of more vivid future conditions.
Thus there is no distinction between more and less vivid future
conditions in the Indirect Discourse.
Examples of Conditional Sentences in Indirect Discourse are —
1. Simple Present Condition (§515): —
(dixit) 8l ipse populO ROinanO nOn praesctiberet quein ad modum suO iure
titerStur, nOn oportere ses€ a popuIO ROmanO in suO iure impediri (B. 6.
i. 36), ke said that if he did not dictate to the Roman people how they
should use their rights^ he ought not to he interfered with by the Roman
people in the exercise of his rights. [Direct : si ndn piaescribo . . . noa
oportet.]
praedic&vit ... si pace titi velint, iniquum esse, etc. (id. i. 44), ?ie asserted
that if they wished to enjoy pea^e, it was unfair, etc. [Direct : si volunt
. . . est. Present tense kept by reprOiesentatid (§ 685. h. x.).]
2. Simple Past Condition (§ 515): —
non dicam n6 illud quidem, si maxime in culpa fueiit ApollOnius, tamen in
hominem honestissimae civitatis honestissimum tarn graviter animad-
vert!, caus& indicts,, nOn oportuisse (Verr. v. 20), I will not say this
either, that, even if Apollonius was very greatly infauU, still an honorable
man from an honorable state ought not to have been punished so severely
without having his case heard. [Direct: si fuit . . . non oportait.]
3. Future Conditions (§516): —
(dixit) quod si praetereft n€mO sequ&tur, tamen 86 cum sCla decim& legiOne
itorum (B. G. i. 40), but if nobody else should follow, still he woiUd go
with the tenth legion atone. [Direct : si sequetar . . . ibo. Present tense
by repra^eserMtid (§ 586. 6. n.).]
Haeduis sS obsidSs redditiirum ndn esse, neque eis . . . bellum illatflmm. si
in e5 manSrent, quod convSnisset, stipendiumque quotannis penderent :
si id nOn fecissent, longe eis fratemum n5men populi R6mftni afata-
rum (id. i. 36), he said that he would not give up the fiostages to the
Haedui, but would not make war upon them if they observed the agreement
which hod been made, and paid tribute yearly ; but that, if they should
not do this, the name of brothers to the Roman people would be far from
aiding them. [Direct : reddam . . . inf eram ... si manebunt . . . pen-
dent: si non fecerint . . . aberit.]
id Datames ut audivit, sensit, si in turbam ezisset ab homine tarn necessa-
ri5 s€ relictum, futurum [esse] ut cSteri consilium sequantur (Nep. Dat
6), wh^n Datames heard this, he saw that, if it shoutd get abroad that he
had been abandoned by a man so closely connected with him, everybody
else would follow his example. [Direct : si exiedt . . . aeqaentiir.]
§689] CONDITIONS IN INDIRECT DISCOURSE 383
(putftyfount) nisi xd6 elvitftte ezpnliMent, obttnfire 86 nOn poese licentiam
cnpiditaium fiu&ram (Alt. x. 4), tJiey thought that urUeas they drofoe me
out of the state, they could not have free play for their desires. [Direct :
nisi (CiceiGnem) ezpaletimus, obtinere non poterimos.]
6. In changing a Condition contrary to fa>ct (§ 617) into the Indi-
rect Discourse, the following points require notice : —
1. The Protasis always remains unchanged in tense.
2. The Apodosis, if activey takes a peculiar infinitive form, made by com-
bining the Participle in -Grus with fuisse.
3. If the verb of the Apodosis is passive or has no supine stem, the pe-
riphrasis fnturum fuisse ut (with the Imperfect Subjunctive) must be used.
4. An Indicative in the Apodosis becomes a Perfect Infinitive.
Examples are : —
nee s6 saperstitem filiae futflrum faisse, nisi spem ulclscendae mortis ^ius
in aoxiliO commllitOnum habuisset (Liv. iii. 50. 7), and that he should
not now he a survinoTj etc., unless he had had hope^ etc. [Direct: ndn
snperstes essem, nisi habuissem.]
illud Asia cOgitet, n&llam & s€ neque belli externi neque disoordiftrum do-
mestic&rum calamitAtem Afntflram fuisse, si hOc imperiO nOn tenSrStur
(Q. Fr. i. 1. 34), let ulsta (personified) think ofthis^ that no disaster, etc.,
toould not be hers, if she were not held by this govemmewL [Direct :
abesset, u non tenfirer.]
quid inimiciti&rum crSditis [me] ezceptuzum fuisse, si Insontls lacesaissem
(Q. C. vi. 10. 18), what enmities do you think I should have incurred, if
I had wantonly OMaUed the innocent f [excipiBsem ... si lacessissem. ]
invitum s€ dicere, nee dictfimm fuisse, nl cSritfts rel publicae vinceret (Liv.
ii. 2), that he spoke unwillingly and should not have spoken^ did not love
for the state preoaU. [Direct: nee dixisaeiii . . . ni vinceret.]
nisi eO tempore quidam ntintil d6 Caesaris vlctOrift . . . essent all&ti, exlsti-
mabant plerlquefutOmm fuisse uti [oppidum] 2initter6tur (B. C. iii. 101),
most people thought that unless at that time reports of Ccesar^s victory
had been brought, the town would have been lost, [Direct : nisi essent
alUti . . . ^missum esset.]
quorum s! aetas potuisset esse longinquior, futurum fuisse ut omnibus per-
fects artibus hominum vita Srudiretur (Tusc. iii. 60), if life could have
been longer, human existence would have been embellished by every art in
its perfection. [Direct: si potuisset . . . Srudita esset.]
at pierlque ezlstimant, SI &crius insequi volnisset, bellum e9 di3 potuisse
finire (B. C. iii. 61), but most people think that, ifhehad chosen to follow
up the pursuit more vigorously, he could have ended the war on that day.
[Direct : si volulsset . . . potnit.]
Caesar respondit ... si alic^us iniuriae sibi cSnscius fnisset, n6n fuisse dif-
ficile cav6re (B. G. i. 14), Coesar replied that if [the Roman people] had
been aware of any wrong act, it would not have been hard for them to take
precautions. [Direct: si fuisset, ndn difficile foit (§ 517. c).]
384
SYNTAX: SUBSTANTIVE CLAUSES
[§§ 589-691
Note 1. — In Indirect Discourse Present Conditions contrary to fact are not dis-
tinguished in the apodoaU fh)m Past Conditions contrary to fact, but the protaMs may
keep them distinct.
Notb 2. — The periphrasis futanun fuisse at is sometimes used from choice when
there is no necessity for resorting to it, but not in CsBsar or Cicero.
Note 3. — Very rarely the Future Infinitive is used in the Indirect Discourse to ex-
press the Apodosis of a Present Condition contrary to fact. Only four or five examples
of this use occur in classic authors : as, — Titurius clamabat si Caesar adesaet neque
Camutes, etc., neque EburOnes tanta cum contemptiOne nostra ad castra Tentuxte esse
(B. 6. y. 29), TUuriu8 cried out that if Csesar werepresentf neither wotdd the Car-
nutes, etc., nor would the Eburones be coming to our camp with such contempt.
[Direct: si adesset . . . venirent.]
590. The following example illustrates some of the foregoing
principles in a connected address : —
INDIRECT UISGOURSB
SI pScem populus ROmftnos cum
HelvStils faceret, in eam partem itflrds
atque ibi futfiros Helvetids, ubi eOs
Caegar constituisset atque esse ▼olois-
set: sin bellO persequl perseverSret,
reminiscerStur et veteris incommodi
popuU KOmftnl, et pristinae virtutis
HelvetiOrum. Quod imprOvIsO tinum
pSgum adortus esset, cum el qui fltlmen
transissent suis auxilium f erre nOn pos-
sent, n6 ob eam rem aut suae m^gnO
opere virtfltl triboeret, aut ipsos despi-
caret: 88 ita & patribus mftiOribusque
suis didicisse, ut magis virtQte quam
dolO contenderent, aut Insidils niteren-
tur. Qud. r6 n6 committexet, ut is locus
ubi cdnstitissent ex calamit&te popull
ROm&nl et intemeciOne exercittks nO-
men caperet, aut memoriam proderet.
— B. G. i. 13.
DIRECT DISCOURSE
Si pftcem populus ROmSnus cum
HelvStils faciet, in eam partem ibant
atque ibi erunt Helvetii, ubi eOs tH
constittteris atque esse volueris: on
bellO persequl persevSiabis, leminisceie
[inquit] et yeteris incommodi popull
ROmftnl, et pristinae virtutis Hdve-
tiOrum. Quod impr0vls5 tinum pftgum
adortus es, cum el qui fltimen trSnsie-
xant suis auxilium f erre nOn possent, nS
ob eam rem aut tnae m&gnO opere vir-
tdtl tribaeris, aut nSs dSspezeiis: nos
ita & patribus m&iOribusque nostiis didi-
cimuB, ut magis yirtdte quam dolO con-
tendftmus, aut Insidils mtftmur. Qu& r6
n5II committere, ut hie locus ubi consti-
timns ex calamitfite popull ROm&nl et
intemeclOne exercitOs nOmen capiat,
aut memoriam prSdat.
Intermediate Clauses
591. A Subordinate clause takes the Subjunctive —
1. When it expresses the thought of some other person than the
speaker or writer (Informal Indirect Discourse), or
2. When it is an integral part of a Subjunctive clause or equiva-
lent Infinitive (Attraction).^
1 See note on Indirect Discourse (§ 577).
S692] INFORMAL INDIRECT DISCOURSE 385
Informal Indirect Discourse
592. A Subordinate Clause takes the Subjunctive when it
expresses the thought of some other person than the writer or
speaker : —
1. When the clause depends upon another containing a wishy a
commandy or a questwrty expressed indirectly, though not strictly in
the form of Indirect Discourse : —
animal sen tit quid sit quod deceat (Off. i. 14), an animal feels what it is thai
isftt,
huic imperat qu&s possit adeat clvitftt^s (B. G. iv. 21), he orders him to visit
what stales he can.
hunc sibi ex anim5 scrHpulum, qui 86 dies noctlsque stimalat ac pungit, ut
€veU&tis postulat (Rose. Am. 6), he begs you to pluck from his heart this
doubt thai goads and stings him day and night, [Here the relative
clause is not a part of the Purpose expressed in ivellfltis, but is an
assertion made by the subject of postalat]
2. When the main clause of a quotation is merged in the verb of
sayingy or some modifier of it : —
si quid de his rSbus dicere vellet, fScI potest&tem (Cat. iii. 11), if he wished
to say anything about these maUers, I gave him a chance,
tulit d6 caede quae in AppiS. yi& facta esset (Mil. 15), he passed a law con-
cerning the murder which (in the language of the bill) took place in the
Appian Way.
nisi restitttisseiit statuSs, vehementer min&tur (Verr. ii. 162), he threatens them
violently unless they should restore the statues. [Here the main clause,
^Hhat he will inflict punishment,^' is contained in min&tur.]
lis auxilium suum pollicitus si ab Suebis premerentur (B. 6. iv. 19), he
promised them his aid if they should be molested by the Suevi. [= polli-
citus 88 aoxilinm Utfirum, etc.]
prohibitiO tollendl, nisi pacttts esset, vim adhib€bat pactiOnI (Verr. iii. 37),
the forbidding to take away unless he came to terms gave force to the
bargain,
3. When a reason or an explanntory fact is introduced by a rela-
tive or by quod (rarely quia) (see § 540) : —
Paetus omnis librOs quSs fr&ter suus reUqisisset mihi dOn&vit (Att. ii. 1. 12),
Patus presented to me aU the books which (he said) his brother had left.
Note. — Under this head even what the speaker himself thought under other cir-
cumstances may have the Subjunctiye. So also with quod even the yerb of saying may
be in the Subjunctiye (§ 540. v.^). Here belong also nSn quia, ndn quod, introducing a
reason expres^ to deniy it. (See § 540. n. '.)
386 SYNTAX: INTERMEDIATE CLAUSES [§59$
Sttbjttncdve of Integral Port (Attraction)
593. A clause depending upon a Subjunctive clause or an
equivalent Infinitive will itself take the Subjunctive if regarded
as an integral part of that clause : — ^
imperat, dum res ifldicetur, hominem adservent : cum ifLdicftta sit, ad ae ut
adddcant (Verr. iii. 56), lie orders tkem, tiU the affair should be decided,
to keep the man; when it is judged^ to bring him to him,
etenim quia tarn dissoltltO animO est, qui haec cum videat, tacSre ac neglegere
poflsit (Rose. Am. 32), for who is so reckless of spirit that^ when he sees
these thingSy he can keep silent and pass them by f
mOs est Athenis laadftrl in cOntiOne eOs qui sint in proeliis interfecti (Or.
151), it is the custom at Athens for those to be publicly eulogized who
have been slain in battle. [Here Uudin is equivalent to ut laudentor.]
a. But a dependent clause may be closely connected grammatically
with a Subjunctive or Infinitive clause, and still take the Indicative,
if it is not regarded as a necessary logical part of that clause : —
quOdam modO postulat ut, quern ad modum est, sic etiam appelletur, tyrannus
(Att. X. 4. 2), in a mxinner he demands that as he is, so he may be caUed,
a tyrant.
nattbra f ert ut els faveftmus qui eadem perlcula quibus nOs pexffincti sumns
ingrediuntur (Mar. 4), nature prompts us to feel friendly Uywards those
who are entering on the sam^ dangers which we have parsed through,
n6 hostes, quod tantum multitudine potexant, suOs circumvenire possent
(B. G. ii. 8), lest the enemy, because they were so strong in numbers, should
be able to surround his men.
sX mea in t6 essent ofiBcia sClum tanta quanta magis & t6 ipsO praedicari
quam & m6 ponderftrl solent, verScundius 9, te . . . peterem (Earn. ii. 6).
if my good services to you were only so great as they are wont rather to
be caMed by you tlian to be estimated by me, I sJiouUl, etc.
Note 1. — The use of the Indicative in such clauses sometimes serves to emphasize
the fact, as true independently of the statement contained in the subjunctive or infini-
tive clause. But in many cases no such distinction is perceptible.
Note 2. — It is often difficult to distinguish between Informal Indirect Discourse
and the Integral Part. Thus in imperilvit ut ea flerent quae opus eeeent, essent may
stand for sunt, and then will be Indirect Discourse, being a part of the thought, but
not a part of the order ; or it may stand for eruut, and then will be Integral Part, being
a part of the order itself. The difficulty of making the distinction in such eases is
evidence of the close relationship between these two constructions.
1 The subjunctiye in this use is of the same nature as the subjunctive in the main
clause. A dependent clause in a clause of purpose is really a part of the purpose, as
is seen from the use of should and other auxiliaries in English. In a result danse this
is less clear, but the result oonstruction is a branch of the characteristic (§ 53ft), to
whieh category the dependent clause in this case evidently belongs when it takes tiie
subjunctive.
§594] SYNTAX: IMPORTANT RULES 887
594. IMPORTANT RULES OF SYNTAX
1. A noun used to describe another, and denoting the same person or
thing, agrees with it in Case (§282).
2. Adjectives, Adjective Pronouns, and Participles agree with their
nouns in Gender, Number, and Case (§ 286).
3. Superlatives (more rarely Comparatives) denoting order and succes-
sion— also mediuB, (cetems), reliquus — usually designate uot what
dbjecty but what part of it, is meant (§ 293).
4. The Personal Pronouns have two forms for the genitive plural, that
in -am being used pariitivelyy and that in -i oftenest objectively
(§295.6).
5. The Reflexive Pronoun (sS), and usually the corresponding possessive
(suns), are used in the predicate to refer to the subject of the sen-
tence or clause (§ 299).
6. To express Possession and similar ideas the Possessive Pronouns
must be used, not the genitive of the personal or reflexive pro-
nouns (§ 302. a).
7. A Possessive Pronoun or an Adjective implying possession may take
an appositive in the genitive case agreeing in gender, number, and
case with an implied noun or pronoun (§ 302. e).
8. A Relative Pronoun agrees with its Antecedent in (render and Num-
ber, but its Case depends on its construction in the clause in
which it stands (§ 305).
9 . A Finite Verb agrees with its Subject in Number and Person (§ 316).
10. Adverbs are used to modify Verbs, Adjectives, and other Adverbs
(§ 321).
11. A Question of simple fact, requiring the answer yes or no, is formed
by adding the enclitic -ne to the emphatic word (§ 332).
12. When the enclitic -ne is added to a negative word, — as in nSnne, —
an qffirmative answer is expected. The particle num suggests a
negative answer (§ 332. 6).
13. The Subject of a finite verb is in the Nominative (§ 339).
14. The Vocative is the case of direct address (§ 340).
15. A noun used to limit or define another, and not meaning the same
person or thing, is put in the Genitive (§ 342).
16. The Possessive Crenitive denotes the person or thing to which an
object, quality, feeling, or action belongs (§ 343).
388 SYNTAX: IMPORTANT RULES [§594
17. The genitive may denote the Substance or Material of which a
thing consists (§ 344).
18. The genitive is used to denote Quality, but only when the quality is
modified by an adjective (§ 345).
19. Words denoting a pari are followed by the Grenitive of the whole to
which the part belongs {Partitive Genitive, § 346).
20. Nouns of action, agency, and feeling goyern the Genitive of the object
{Objective Genitive, § 348).
21. Adjective* denoting desire, knowledge, memory, fulness, power, sharing,
guilt, and their opposites ; participles in -ns when used as adjectives;
and verbals in -&x, govern the Genitive (§ 349. a, b, c).
22. Verbs of remembering and forgetting take either the Accusative or
the Genitive of the object (§ 350).
23. Verbs of reminding take with the Accusative of the person a Genitive
of the thing (§ 351).
24. Verbs of accusing, condemning, and acquitting take the Genitive of
the charge or penalty (§ 352).
25. The Dative is used of the object indirectly affected by an action
{Indirect Object, § 361).
26. Many verbs signifying to favor, help, please, trust, and their contraries ;
also, to believe, persuade, command, obey, serve, resist, envy, threaten,
pardon, and spare, take the Dative (§ 367).
27. Many verbs compounded with ad, ante, con, in, inter, ob, post, prae,
pr5, snb, super, and some with circum, admit the Dative of the
indirect object (§ 370).
28. The Dative is ujed with esse and similar words to denote Possession
(§ 373).
29. The Dative of the Agent is used with the Gerundive, to denote the
person on whom the necessity rests (§ 374).
30. The Dative often depends, not on any particular word, but on the
general meaning of the sentence {Dative of Reference, § 376).
31. Many verbs of taking away and the like take the Dative (especially
of 2^ person) instead of the Ablative of Separation (§ 381).
32. The Dative is used to denote the Purpose or End, often with another
Dative of the person or thing affected (§ 382).
33. The Dative is used with adjectives (and a few adverbs) of fitness,
nearness, likeness, service, inclination, and their opposites (§ 384).
§ 694] SYNTAX : IMPORTANT RULES 389
34. The Direct Object of a transitive verb is put in the Accusative
(§ 387).
35. An intransitive verb often takes the Accusative of a noun of kindred
meaning, usually modified by an adjective or in some other man-
ner (Cognate AccuscUive^ § 390).
36. Verbs of naming, choosing, appointing, making, esteeming, showing, and
the like, may take a Predicate Accusative along with the direct
object (§ 393).
37. Transitive verbs compounded with prepositions sometimes take (in
addition to the direct object) a Secondary Object, originally gov-
erned by the preposition (§ 394).
38. Some verbs of asking and teaching may take two Accusatives, one of
the Person, and the other of the Thing (§ 396).
39. The subject of an Infinitive is in the Accusative (§ 397. e),
40. Duration of Time and Extent of Space are expressed by the Accusa-
tive (§§ 424. c, 425).
41. Words signifying separation or privation are followed by the Abla-
tive (Ablative of Separation, § 400).
42. The Ablative, usually with a preposition, is used to denote the source
from which anything is derived or the material of which it consists
(§ 403).
43. The Ablative, with or without a preposition, is used to express cause
(§ 404).
44. The Voluntary Agent after a passive verb is expressed by the Abla-
tive with a or ab (§ 405).
45. The Comparative degree is often followed by the Ablative signifying
than (§ 406).
46. The Comparative may be followed by quam, than. When quam is
used, the two things compared are put in the same case (§ 407).
47. The Ablative is used to denote the means or instrument of an action
(§ 409).
48. The deponents, utor, fruor, fongor, potior, and yescor, with several of
their compounds, govern the Ablative (§ 410).
*
49. Opus and usus, signifying need, are followed by the Ablative (§ 411).
50. The manner of an action is denoted by the Ablative, usually with
cum unless a limiting adjective is used with the noun (§ 412).
390 SYNTAX : IMPORTANT RULES [§ 504
51. Accompaniment is denoted by the Ablative, regularly with cum
(§ 413).
52. With Comparatives and words implying comparison the Ablative is
used to denote the degree of difference (§ 414).
53. The quality of a thing is denoted by the Ablative with an adjective
or genitive Modifier (§ 415).
54. The price of a thing is put in the Ablative (§ 416).
55. The Ablative of Specification denotes that in respect to which any-
thing is or is done (§ 418).
56. The adjectives dignus and indignns take the Ablative (§ 418. 5).
57. A noun or pronoun, with a participle in agreement, may be put in
the Ablative to define the time or circumstances of an action
(Ablative Absolute, § 419).
An adjective, or a second noun, may take the place of the participle in the
ablative absolute construction (§ 419. a).
58. Time when, or within which, is denoted by the Ablative; time how
long by the Accusative (§ 423).
59 . Relations of Place are expressed as follows : —
1. The place from which, by the Ablative with ab, de, ex.
2. The place to which (or end of motion^, by the Accusative with
ad or in.
3. The place where, by the Ablative with in (Locative Ablative).
(§ 426.)
60. With names of toions and small islands, and with dornns and rus, the
relations of place are expressed as follows : —
1. The place from which, by the Ablative without a preposition.
2. The place to vjhich, by the Accusative without a preposition.
3. The place where, by the Locative. (§ 427.)
61. The Hortatory Subjunctive is used in the present tense to express
an exhortation, a command, or a concession (§§ 439, 440).
62. The Optative Subjunctive is used to express a wish. The present
tense denotes the wish as possible, the imperfect as unaccomplished
in present time, the pluperfect as unaccomplished in past time
(§ 441).
63. The Subjunctive is used in questions implying (1) doxiht, indignation,
or (2) an impossibility of the thing's being done (Deliberative 5m//-
junctive, § 444).
§ 594] SYNTAX : IMPORTANT KULES 391
64. The Potential Subjunctive is used to suggest an action as possible or
conceivable (§ 446).
65. The Imperative is used in commands and entreaties (§ 448).
66. Prohibition is regularly expressed in classic prose (1) by noli with the
Infinitive, (2) by cave with the Present Subjunctive, (3) by ne with
the Perfect Subjunctive (§ 450).
67. The Infinitive, with or without a subject accusative, may be used
with est and similar verbs (1) as the Subject, (2) in Apposition with
the subject, or (3) as a Predicate Nominative (§ 452).
68. Verbs which imply another action of the same subject to complete their
meaning take the Infinitive without a subject accusative (Comple-
mentary Infinitive, § 456).
69. The Infinitive, with subject accusative, is used with verbs and other
expressions of knowing, thinking, telling, and perceiving (^Indirect
Discourse, see § 459).
70. The Infinitive is often used for the Imperfect Indicative in narration^
and takes a subject in the Nominative (^Historical Infinitive, § 463).
71. Sequence of Tenses. In complex sentences, a primary tense in
the main clause is followed by the Present or Perfect Subjunctive
in the dependent clause ; a secondary tense by the Imperfect or
Pluperfect (§ 483).
72. Pai*ticiple8 denote time as present, past, or future with respect to the
time of the verb in their clause (§ 489).
73. The Gerund and the Gerundive are used, in the oblique cases, in
many of the constructions of nouns (§§ 501-507).
74. The Supine in -um is used after verbs of motion to express Purpose
(§ 509).
75. The Supine in -u is used with a few adjectives and with the nouns
fas, nefas, and opus, to denote Specification (§ 510).
76. Dum, modo, dummodo, and tantum ut, introducing a Proviso, take
the Subjunctive (§ 528).
77. Final clauses take the Subjunctive introduced by ut (uti), negative
ne (ut ne), or by a Relative Pronoun or Relative Adverb (§ 531).
78. A Relative Clause with the Subjunctive is often used to indicate a
characteristic of the antecedent, especially where the antecedent is
otherwise undefined (§ 535).
79. Dignus, in^gnus, aptus, and iddneus, take a Subjunctive clause with
a relative (rarely with ut) (§ 535./).
892 SYNTAX: IMPORTANT RULES [§594
80. Clauses of Result take the Subjunctive introduced by ut, so thai
(negative, ut n6n), or by a Relative Pronoun or Relative Adverb
(§ 087).
81. The Causal Particles quod, quia, and quoniam take the Indicative
^hen the reason is given on the authority of the writer or speaker;
the Subjunctive when the reason is given on the authority of
another (§ 540).
82. The particles postquam (posteaquam), ubi, at (ut primum, ut semel),
simul atque (simul ac, or simul alone) take the Indicative (usually
in the perfect or the historical present) (§ 543).
83. A Temporal clause with cum, when, and some past tense of the Indica-
tive dates or defines the time at which the action of the main verb
occurred (§ 545).
84. A Temporal clause with cum and the Imperfect or Plttperfect Sub-
junctive describes the circumstances that accompanied or preceded
the action of the main verb (§ 546).
85. Cum Causal or Concessive takes the Subjunctive (§ 549).
For other concessive particles, see § 527.
86. In Indirect Discourse the main clause of a Declaratory Sentence is
put in the Infinitive with Subject Accusative. Ail subordinate
clauses take the Subjunctive (§ 580).
87. The Present, the Perfect, or the Future Infinitive is used in Indirect
Discourse, according as the time indicated is present, past, or future
with reference to the verb of saying etc. by which the Indirect Dis-
course is introduced (§ 584).
88. In Indirect Discourse a real question is generally put in the Subjunc-
tive; a rhetorical question in the Infinitive (§ 586).
89. All Imperative forms of speech take the Subjunctive in Indirect
Discourse (§ 588).
90. A Subordinate clause takes the Subjunctive when it expresses the
thought of some other person than the writer or speaker (^Informal
Indirect Discourse, § 592).
91. A clause depending on a Subjunctive clause or an equivalent Infini-
tive will itself take the Subjunctive if regarded as an integral part
of that clause (Attraction, § 593).
For Prepositions and their cases, see §§ 220, 221.
For Conditional Sentences, see § 512 ff. (Scheme in § 514.)
For ways of expressing Purpose, see § 633.
§§ 596-597] ORDER OF WORDS 393
ORDER OF WORDS
595. Latin differs from English in having more freedom in the
arrangement of words for the purpose of showing the relative
importance of the ideas in a sentence.
596. As in other languages, the Subject tends to stand first, the
Predicate last. Thus, —
Paasftni&s LacedaemoniuB m&gnus hom5 sed varius in omnl genere vltae fait
(Nep. Faus. 1), Pattsaniaa the LacedxBmonian was a great man, hut in-
consistent in the whole course of his life.
Note. — This happens because, from the speaker's ordinary i>oint of view, the sub-
ject of his discourse is the most important tiling in it, as singled out from all other
things to be spoken of.
a. There is in Latin, however, a special tendency to place the verb itself
last of all, after all its modifiers. But many writers purposely avoid the
monotony of this arrangement by putting the verb last but one, followed
by some single word of the predicate.
597. In connected discourse the word most prominent in the
speaker's mind comes first, and so on in order of prominence.
This relative prominence corresponds to that indicated in Eng-
lish by a graduated stress of voice (usually called emphasis).
«• The difference in emphasis expressed by difference in order of words
is illustrated in the following passages : —
apud XenophOntem autem moriSns Cyrus m§,ior haec dicit (Cat. M. 79), in
Xenophon too, on his death-bed Cyrus the elder utters these words.
Cyrus quidem haec morions ; nOs, si placet, nostra videamus (id. 82), Cyrus,
to be sure, utters these words on his deat?i-bed ; let us, if you please, con-
sider our own case.
Cyrus quidem apud Xenoph5ntem eO serm5ne, quern mori€ns habuit (id.
30), Cyrus, to be sure, in Xenophon, in that speech which he uttered on
his deatMyed.
Note. — This stress or emphasis, however, in English does not necessarily show
any violent contrast to the rest of the words in the sentence, but is infinitely varied,
constantly increasing and diminishing, and often so subtle as to be unnoticed except
in careful study. So, as a general rule, the precedence of words in a Latin sentence
is not mechanical, but corresponds to the prominence which a good speaker would
mark by skilfully managed stress of voice. A Latin written sentence, therefore, has
all the clearness and expression which could be given to a spoken discourse by the best
actor in Cnglish. Some exceptions to the rule will be treated later.
The first chapter of Caesar's Gallic War, if rendered so as to bring-
out as far as possible the shades of emphasis, would mn thus : —
394
ORDER OF WORDS
[§597
Gallia est omnis divisa in partis
tris, quftrum unam incoliint Belgae,
aliam Aqolt&ni, tertiam qui ipsOrum
lingu& Celtae, nostra Galli appellan-
tur. HI omnSs lingua, instittltls, legi-
bu8 inter bS differunt. GallOs ab
AquIt&niB Garumna flfunen, & Belgis
M&trona et SSquana dlvidit. Horum
omnium fortissimi sunt Belgae, prop-
tere& quod ft culttl atque hOm&nitate
GAUL,^ in the widest senae^ is di-
vided' into three parto,' which are
vnhabiited^ (as follows): one^ by the
Belgians, another* by the Aquitani,
the third by a people called in fkeir
own'^ language Celts, in ours Gauls.
These ^ in their language,^ institutioiis,
and laws are ail of them ^^ different.
The GAULS" (proper) are separated 12
from the Aqaitani by the river Garonne^
from the Belgians by the Mame and
Seine, Of these 1* (tribes) the brav-
est of all^^ are the Belgians, for the
reason that they live farthest ^^ away
1 GAUL: emphatic as the subject of discourse, as with a title or the like.
3 Divided : opposed to the false conception (implied in the use of omnis) that the
country called Gallia by the Romans is one. This appears more clearly from the fart
that Cffisar later speaks of the Oalli in a narrower sense as distinct from the other two
tribes, who with them inhabit Oallia in the wider sense.
* Parts : continuing the emphasis begun in divisa. Not three parts as opposed to
any other number, but into par^« at all.
^ Inhabited : emphatic as the next subject, ** The inhabitants of these parts are, etc."
^ One : given more prominence than it otherwise would have on account of its close
connection with quftrum.
> Another, etc. : opposed to one.
^ Their own, ours : strongly opposed to each other.
B These (tribes) : the main subject of discourse again, collecting under one head
the names previously mentioned.
9 Language, etc. : these are the most prominent ideas, as giving the striking points
which distinguish the tribes. The emphasis becomes natural in English if we say
** these have a different language, different institutions, different laws.**
^^ All of them : the emphasis on all marks the distributive character of the adjec-
tive, as if it were "every one has its own, etc."
11 GAULS : emphatic as referring to the Gauls proper in distinction from the other
tribes.
13 Separated : though this word contains an indispensable idea in the connection, yet
it has a subordinate position. It is not emphatic in Latin, as is seen from the fact that
it cannot be made emphatic in English. The sense is: The Oauls lie between the
Aquitani on the one side, and the Belgians on the other.
18 Of THESE : the subject of discourse.
14 All : emphasizing the superlative idea in ** bravest ** ; they, as Gauls, are assumed
to be warlike, but the most so of all of them are the Belgians.
16 Farthest away : one might expect absont (are away) to have a more emphatic
place, but it is dwarfed in importance by the predominance of the main idea, the effemi-
nating influences from which the Belgians are said to be free. It is not that they live
farthest off that is insisted on, but that the civilization of the Province etc., which
would soften them, comes less in their way. It is to be noticed also that abeimt has
already been anticipated by the construction of coltn and still more by longistimE, so
that when it comes it amounts only to a formal part of the sentence. Thus, — ' * becaose
the civilization etc. of the Province (which would soften them) is farthest from them."
597]
ORDER OF WORDS
395
from the civilization and rbfinbmbnt
of the ProYince, and because they are
LEAST 1 of all of them subject to the
visits of traders^^ and to the (conse-
quent) importation of sach things as '
tend to soften^ their warlike spirit;
and are also nearest ^ to the Germans^
who live cusross the Rhine,^ and with
whom they are incessantly'^ at war.
For the same reason the Helvetians, aJs
well, are superior to all the other Gauls
in valor, because they are engaged in
dLmost daily battles with the Germans,
either defending their own boundaries
from them^ or themselves making war
on those of the Germans, Of all this
country, one part — the one which,
as has been said, the CkxuJLs (proper)
occupy — BEOiNS at the river Rhone.
Its boondaxies are the river Garonne^
the ocean, and the confines of the Bel-
gians. It even reaches on the side
of the Sequani and Helvetians the river
Rhine. Its general direction is towards
the north. The Belgians begin at
the extreme limits of Gaul ; they reach
prdvinciae longissime absunt, minime-
que ad eOs merc&t5r€s saepe comme-
ant atque ea quae ad effSminandOs
animOs pertinent Important, proximl-
que sunt Grerm&nia, qui trftns RhSnum
incolunt, quibuscum continenter hel-
ium gerunt. Qu& dS caus& HelvStil
quoque reliquOs GallOs virtute praec6-
dunt, quod fere cotldiftnls proelils cum
Germ&nis contendunt, cum aut suis
finibus eds prohibent, aut ipsi in eOrum
finibus helium gerunt. EOrum tina
pars, quam Gall6s obtlnSre dictum
est, initium capit S, flumine Rhodano ;
continStur Garumna. flumine, OceanO,
finibus Belgarum; attingit etiam ah
S€quanls et HelvStiis fliimen Rhenum ;
vergit ad septentriOn^s. Belgae ab
extremis Galliae finibus oriuntur:
pertinent ad inferlGrem partem flu-
minis RhSni; spectant in septentriO-
nem et orientem sOlem. Aquit&nia
3. Garumnd. flumine ad_ PyrSnaeOs
mentis et eam partem OceanI quae
est ad Hisp3jiiam pertinet; spectat
inter occasum sOlis et 8eptentri5n6s.
(on this side) as far as the lower part
of the Rhine. They spread to the northward and eastward.
Aquitania extends from the Garonne to the Pyrenees, and that part of the
ocean that lies towards Spain. It runs off westward and northward.
&• The more important word is never placed last for emphasis. The
apparent cases of this usage (when the emphasis is not misconceived) are
cases where a word is added as an afterthought, either real or affected, and
so has its position not in the sentence to which it is appended, but, as it
were, in a new one.
1 Least : made emphatic here by a common Latin order, the chi<ismu8 (§ 596. /) .
^ Traders : the fourth member of the chiasmus , opposed to cnltu and humanitate.
3 Such things as : the importance of the nature of the importations overshadows the
fact that they are imported, which fact is anticipated in traders.
^ So/ten : cf . what is said in note 15, p. 394. They are brave because they have
less to so/ten them, their native barbarity being taken for granted.
6 Nearest : the same idiomatic prominence as in note 1 above, but varied by a special
usage combining chiasmus and anap?iora (§ 598./).
^ Across the Rhine : i.e. and so are perfect savages.
^ Incessantly: the continuance of the warfare becomes the all-important idea, as
if it were " and not a day passes in which they are not at war with them."
896 ORDER OF WORDS [§698
598. The main rules for the Order of Words are as follows : —
am In any phrase the determining and most significant word comes
first: —
1. Adjective and Noun : —
omnia homines decet, evebt man ought (opposed to some who do not).
Lucius Catillna ndbili genere n&tus fuit, m&gnA vl et animi et corporis,
. sed ingenio malO pr&vGque (Sail. Cat. 5), LucivLS Catiline was horn of a
NOBLE family^ with gbeat force of mind and body, but with a nature
that was evil and depraved. [Here the adjectives in the first part are
the emphatic and important words, no antithesis between the nouns
being as yet thought of ; but in the second branch the noun is meant
to be opposed to those before mentioned, and immediately takes the
prominent place, as is seen by the natural English emphasis, thus mak-
ing a chiasmvsA]
2. Word with modifying case : —
quid magis EpamlnOndam, ThSb&nSmm imper3,t5rem, quam victSiiae The-
bftnOrum cOnsulere decuit (In v. i. 69), what should Epaminxmdas, com-
mander of the Thbbans, ?iave aimed at more than the victory of the
Thehans 1
lacrima nihil citius ftrSscit (id. i. 109), nothing dries quicker than a tear.
nem5 fere laudis cupidus (De Or. i. 14), hardly any one desirous of glort
(cf. Manil. 7, avidi laudis, eager /or glory),
b* Numeral adjectives, adjectives of quantity, demonstrative, relative,
and interrogative pronouns and adverbs, tend to precede the .word or words
to which they belong : —
cum aliqua perturb3.ti5ne (Off. i. 137), with some disturbance.
hoc un5 praest9.mus (De Or. i. 32), in this one thing we excel.
ceterae ferS artSs, th>e other arts.
Note. — This happens because such words are usually emphatic ; but often the
words connected with them are more so, and in such cases the pronouns etc. yield the
emphatic place : —
causa aliqua (De Or. i. 260), soms case.
stilus ille tuus (id. i. 257), that well-known style of yours (in an antithesis; see
passage), [nie is idiomatic in this sense and position.]
R5mam quae apportata sunt (Verr. iv. 121) , what were carried to Rous (in contrast
to what remained at Syracuse).
c. When sum is used as the Substantive verb (§ 284. ft), it regularly
stands first, or at any rate before its subject : —
est virl magn! punire sontis (Off. i. 82), it is the duty of a great man to pun-
ish the guilty.
1 So called from the Greek letter X {chi)\ on account of the criss-cross arrangement
of the words. Thus, "x* (see / below) .
§598]
ORDER OF WORDS 397
tf. The verb may come first, or have a prominent position, either (1)
ecause the idea in it is emphatic ; or (2) because the predication of the
tonole statement is emphatic ; or (3) the tense only may be emphatic : —
(1) dicebat idem Cotta (Off. ii. 69), Cotta tised to say the same thing (opposed
to others' boasting).
Idem fecit adulescfins M. AntOnius (id. ii. 49), the samething was done by
Mark Antony in his youth, [Opposed to dixi just before.]
tacis amice (Lael. 9), you act kindly. [Of. amicS facis, ymi are very kind
(you act kindly).]
(2) prOpgnsior benlgnitfts esse dCbCbit in calamitOsOs nisi forte erunt digni
calamitate (Off. ii. 62), liberalUy ought to be readier toward the unfoHu-
note unless perchance they really deserve their misfortune.
praeserUm cum scribat (Panaelius) (id. iii. 8), especially when he does say
(in his books). [Opposed to something omitted by him.]
<3) fuimus Trees, fuit Ilium (Aen. ii. 325),toe have ceased to be Trojans, Troy
is now no more.
loquor autem d6 commtinibus amicitiis (Off. iii. 46), but I am speaking now
of common friendships,
e. Often the connection of two emphatic phrases is brought about by
giving the precedence to the most prominent part of each and leaving the
less prominent parts to follow in inconspicuous places : —
plurfis Solent esse causae (Off. i. 28), there are usually several reasons,
quos amisimus civis, eOs Martis vis perculit (Marc. 17), what fellow-cUizens
we have lost, have been stricken down by the violence of war.
maximas tibi omn€s gratias agimus (id. 33), we all render you the warmest
thanks,
haec r6s tinlus est propria Caesaris (id. 11), this exploit belongs to Coesar
alone.
obiQrgatiOnes etiam nOn numquam incidunt necessariae (Off. i. 136), occa-
sions for rebuke also sometimes occur which are unavoidaMe.
/. Antithesis between two pairs of ideas is indicated by placing the pairs
either (1) in the same order (anaphora) or (2) in exactly the opposite order
(chiasmus) : —
(1) rgrum cOpia verbOrum cOpiam gignit (De Or. ui. 126), abundance of mat-
ter produces copiousness o/ expression.
(2) leges suppliciO improbOs afficiunt, defendunt ac tuentur bonOs (Legg. ii.
13), the laws visit punishments upon the wicked, but the good they
defend and protect.
NoTB. — Chiasmus is very common in Latin, and often seems in fact the more inarti-
ficial construction. In an artless narrative one might hear, "The women were all
drowned, they saved the men." ' ^^^^ *"
nOn igitur utilit»tem amicitia sed utilitas amicitiam cOnsecuta est (Lael 61) it is
not then that friendship has followed upon advantage, but advantage upon
friendship. [Here the chiasmus is only grammatical, the ideas heine in the
parallel order.] (See also p. 395 ; longissime, minimg, proxinu )
398 ORDER OF WORDS [§§698,599
g. A modifier of a phrase or some part of it is often embodied within
the phrase (cf . a) : —
d6 commUnl hominum memoria (Tusc. i. 69), in regard to the universal
memory of man.
h. A favorite order with the poets is the interlocked, by which the attri-
bute of one pair comes between the parts of the other (synchysis) : —
et superiectO pavidae nat&runt aequore dammae (Hor. Od. i. 2. 11).
NoTB. — This is often joined with chiasmus: as, — arma nOndom expiatis uncta
cruOribos (id. ii. 1. 5).
i. Frequently unimportant words follow in the train of more emphatic
ones with which they are grammatically connected, and so acquire a promi-
nence out of proportion to their importance : —
dictitftbat se hortulOs aliquOs emere velle (Off. iii. 68), ke gave out that he
wanted to buy some gardens, [Here aliquos is less emphatic than emere,
but precedes it on account of the emphasis on hortulds.]
j» The copula is generally felt to be of so little importance that it may
come in anywhere where it sounds well ; but usually under cover of more
emphatic words : —
consul ego quaeslvl, cum vOs mihi essStis in c5nsili5 (Rep. iii. 28), as consul
I held an investigation in which you attended me in cowncU.
falsum est id tOtum (id. ii. 28), that is all false.
k» Many expressions have acquired an invariable order : —
r€s pablica ; populus R5m9.nus ; honOris caus& ; pace tanti viri.
Note. — These had, no doubt, originally an emphasis which required such an
arrangement, but in the course of time have changed their shade of meaning. Thos,
senattts populusque Rom&nus originally stated with emphasis the official bodies, bnt
became fixed so as to be the only permissible form of expression.
I. The Romans had a fondness for emphasizing persons, so that a name
or a pronoun often stands in an emphatic place : —
[dixit] venftlls quidem se hortOs nOn habere (Off. iii. 68), [said] that he didn't
have any gardens for sale, to be sure.
in. Kindred words often come together (figara etymclogica) : —
ita sSnsim sine sensu aet^ sen^scit (Cat. M. 38), thus gradually^ vnthmd
being perceived, man^s life grows old.
Special Rules
599. The following are special rules of arrangement : —
a. The negative precedes the word it especially affects ; but if it belongs
to no one word in particular, it generally precedes the verb ; if it is espe-
eially emphatic, it begins the sentence. (See example, 598. f. n.)
§§ 699-601] STRUCTURE OF THE PERIOD 399
6. Itaqne regularly comes first in its sentence or clanse; enim, antem,
yer5, quoque, never first, but usually second, sometimes third if the second
word is emphatic ; quidem never first, but after the emphatic word ; igitnr
usually second ; ng . . . qnidem include the emphatic word or words.
c. Inquam, inquit, are always used parenthetically, following one or more
words. So often credS, dpmor, and in poetry sometimes precor.
<*• (1) Prepositions (except tenus and versus) regularly precede their
nouns ; (2) but a monosyllabic preposition is often placed between a noun
and its adjective or limiting genitive : —
quem ad modum ; quam ob rem ; m&gn5 cum metH ; omnibus cum c5piis ;
ntilla in r6 (cf. § 698. i).
e* In the arrangement of clauses, the Relative clause more often comes
first in Latin, and usually contains the antecedent noun : —
quo8 amisimus civis, eOs M&rtis vis perculit (Marc. 17), those citizens whom
we have lost, etc.
f» Personal or demonstrative pronouns tend to stand together in the
sentence : —
cum V08 mihi essStls in cOnsiliO (Rep. ill. 28), when you attended me in
couji'Sel.
Structore of the Period
600. Latin, unlike modem languages, expresses the relation of words to each other
by inflection rather than by position. Hence its stractore not only admits of great
variety in the arrangement of words, but is especially favorable to that form of sen-
tence which is called a Period. In a period, the sense is expressed by the sentence as a
wTiole, and is held in suspense till the delivery of the last word.
An English sentence does not often exhibit this form of structure. It was imitated,
sometimes with great skill and beauty, by many of the earlier writers of English prose ;
bat its effect is better seen in poetry, as in the following passage: —
High on a throne of royal state, which far
Outshone the wealth of Ormus and of Ind,
Or where the gorgeous East with richest hand
Showers on her kings barbaric pearl and gold,
Satan exalted sat. — Paradise Lostf ii. 1-^.
But in argument or narrative, the best English writers more commonly give short
clear sentences, each distinct from the rest, and saying one thing by itself. In Latin,
on the contrary, the story or argument is viewed as a whole; and the logical relation
among all its parts is carefully indicated.
601. In the structure of the Period, the following rules are to
be observed : —
a* In general the main subject or object is put in the main clause, not
in a subordinate one : —
Hannibal cum recSusuisset auxilia GadSs profectus est (Liv. xxi. 21), when
HannUxd had retnewed the auxiliaries^ he set cut for Cadiz.
400 ORDER OF WORDS [§601
VolscI exiguam spem in armls, alia, undique abBcissft, cum tentSssent, prae-
ter cetera adversa, locO quoque inlquO .ad pugnam congress!, inlquiOre
ad fugam, cum ab omnI parte caederentur, ad precSs & certamine versi
dSditO imper&tOre tr&ditlsque armls, sub iugum missi, cum singulis
yestlmentis, XgnOminiae cladisque pl^nl dimittuntur (Li v. iv. 10). [Here
tlie main fact is the return of the Volsciana. But Uie striking circum-
stances of the surrender etc., which in English would be detailed in a
number of brief independent sentences, are put into the several subor-
dinate clauses within the main clause so that the passage gives a com-
plete picture in one sentence.]
6t Clauses are usually arranged in the order of prominence in the mind
of the speaker ; so, usually, cause before result ; purpose, manner, and the
like, before the act.
ۥ In coordinate clauses, the copulative conjunctions are frequently
omitted (asyndeton). In such cases the connection is made clear by some
antithesis indicated by the position of words.
€f« A change of subject, when required, is marked by the introduction
of a pronoun, if the new subject has already been mentioned. But such
change is often purposely avoided by a change in structure, — the less
important being merged in the more important by the aid of participles
or of subordinate phrases : —
quem ut barbari incendium efftlgisse vid€runt, tells 6minus missis inter-
fecerunt (Nep. Ale. 10), when the barbarians saw that he had escaped,
THET Virew darts at him at long range and JciUed him.
celeriter cOnfectO negOtiS, in hibema legiOnSs redOxit (B. G. vi. 3), t?ie mat-
ter was soon finished, and he led the legions, etc.
e. So the repetition of a noun, or the substitution of a pronoun for it,
is avoided unless a different case is required : —
dolGrem si nOnpotuerO frangere occult&bO (Phil. xii. 2\),if I cannot conquer
the pain, I wiU hide it. [Cf . if I cannot covqaer I wiU hide the pain.]
/• The Romans were careful to close a period with an agreeable succes-
sion of long and short syllables. Thus, —
quod scis nihil prOdest, quod nescis multum obest (Or. 166), wJuxt you know
is of no v^Ct what you do not know does great harm.
NoTB. — In rhetorical writing, particularly in oratory, the Romans, influenced by
their study of the Greek orators, gave more attention to this matter than in other
forms of composition. Quintilian (ix. 4. 72) lays down the general rule that a clanse
should not open with the beginning of a verse or close with the end of one.
§§602,603] QUANTITY OF VOWELS 401
PEOSODY
QUANTITY
603. The poetry of the Indo-European people seems originally to have been some-
what like our own, depending on accent for its metre and disregarding the natural
quantity of syllables. The Greeks, however, developed a form of poetry which, like
music, pays close attention to the natural quantity of syllables ; and the Romans bor-
rowed their metrical forms in classical times from the Greeks. Hence Latin poetry
does not depend, like ours, upon accent and rhyme; but is measured, like musical
strains, by the length of syllables.- Especially does it differ from our verse in not
regarding the prose accent of the words, but substituting for that an entirely differ-
ent system of metrical accent or ictus (see § 611. a). This depends upon the character
of the measure used, falling at regular intervals of time on a long syllable or its equiva-
lent. Each syllable is counted as either long or short in Quantity ; and a long syllable
is generally reckoned equal in length to two short ones (for exceptions, se6 § 608. c-e).
The quantity of radical (or stem) syllables — as of short a in p&ter or of long a in
m&ter — can be learned only by observation and practice, unless determined by the
general rules of quantity. Most of these rules are only arbitrary formulas devised to
assist the memory; the syllables being long or short because the ancierUs pronounced
them so. The actual practice of the Romans in regard to the quantity of syllables is
ascertained chiefly from the usage of the poets ; but the ancient grammarians give some
assistance, and in some inscriptions long vowels are distinguished in various ways, —
by the apex, for instance, or by doubling (§ 10. e. N.).
Since Roman poets borrow very largely from the poetry and mythology of the
Greeks, numerous Greek words, especially proper names, make an important part of
Latin poetry. These words are generally ^ployed in accordance with the Greek,
and not the Latin, laws of quantity. Where these laws vary In any important point,
the variations will be noticed in the rules below.
GENERAL RULES
603. The following are General Rules of Quantity (of. §§ 9-11) :
Quantity of Vowels
a. Vowels. A yowel before another vowel or h is short : as, via, tr&h5.
Socceptions. — 1. In the genitive form -ins, i is long: as, utzius, nailius. It
is, however, sometimes short in verse (§ 113. c).
2. In the genitive and dative singular of the fifth declension, e is long between
two vowels : as, di§i; otherwise usually short, as in fidSi, r6i, spSi.
Note. — It was once long in these also : as, pl6nu* fldCi (Ennius, at the end of a hex-
ameter). A is also long before i in the old genitive of the first declension : as, aulfti.
3. In the conjugation of fio, i is long except when followed by er. Thus, fi5,
fiebam, fiam, but fieri, flerem ; so also fit (§ 606. a. 3).
4. In many Greek words the vowel in Latin represents a long vowel or diph-
thong, and retains its original long quantity : as. Tides (Tptdet), Thalia (OaXeta),
heroas (ipioat), &Sr (difp).
402 PROSODY: QUANTITY [§603
Note. — But many Greek words are more or less Latinized in this respect: as,
AcadSmia, cborSa, MalSa, platBa.
5. In dius, in Shea usually, and sometimes in Dilna and She, the first vowel is
long.
b. Diphthongs. A Diphthong is long : as, fSedns, cui,^ aula. ^
Exception. — The preposition prae in compounds is generally shortened before
a Yowel : as, praS-astis (Aen. vii. 624), praS-eante (id. v. 186).
NoTB. — U following q, s, or g, does not make a diphthong with a following yowel
(see § 5. N. 2). For 4-15, mi-ior, p6-ior, etc., see § 11. d and n.
c. Contraction. A vowel formed by contraction (crasis) is long : as, ml,
from nihil ; 0&g5 for fco-agQ ; mal5 for ma-yol5.
NoTB. — Two vowels of different syllables may be nm together without full con-
traction {aywUtUia, $642): as, d^de (for deinde), mfts (for mete); and often two
syllables are united by Synaeresis (§ 642) without contraction: as when piiiSttbfis is
pronounced parjfi&lrus.
d. A vowel before ns, nf , gn, is long : as, instS, inf&ns, signnm.
Quantity of Syllables
ۥ A syllable is long if it contains a long vowel or a diphthong : as,
ca-rus, 5-nien, foe-dna.
/• Position. A syllable is long by position if its vowel, though short, is
followed by two consonants or a double consonant : as, adventus, cortex.
But if the two oonsonants are a mute followed by 1 or r the syllable may
be either long or short (common) ; as, alacris or al&cris ; wttria or pfttris.
Vowels should be pronounced long or short in accordance with their nat-
ural quantity without regard to the length of the syllable by position.
NoTB 1. — The rules of Position do not, in general, apply to final vowels before a
word beginning with two consonants.
NoTB 2. — A syllable is long if its vowel is followed by consonant i (except in
bliugis, quadiliugis) : see § 11. d.
NoTB 3. — Ck)mpounds of iaci$, though written with one i, commonly retain the
long vowel of the prepositions with which they are compounded, as if before a con-
sonant, and, if the vowel of the preposition is short, the first syllable is long by pos-
tion on the principle of § 11. «.
obicis host! (at the end of a hexameter, Aen. iv. 549).
Inicit et saltu (at the beginning of a hexameter, Aen. ix. 652).
prSice tSla mann (at the beginning of a hexameter, Aen. vi. 836).
Later poets sometimes shorten the preposition in trisyllabic forms, and preposi-
tions ending in a vowel are sometimes contracted as if the verb began with a vowel:
(1) cnr anjnos 5bl|ci8 (Claud, iv 0. H. 264).
(2) reicS cft|pella8 (Ed. iU. 96, at end).
NoTB 4. — The y or w sound resulting from syfueresis (§ 642) has the effect of a con-
sonant in making position: as, abietis {ahyetis), flaviSmm {fluvyonim). CouTersely,
when the semivowel becomes a vowel, position is lost : as, sllfiae, for silvae.
1 Rarely dissyllabic cfil (as Mart. i. 104. 22).
§604] FINAL 8YLLABUSS 408
FINAL SYLLABLES
604. The Quantity of Final Syllables is as follows : —
u* Monosyllables ending in a Yowel are long : as, mS, tu, hi, nS.
1. The attached particles -nS, -quS, -yft, -cS, -pt6, and rS- (r6d-) are short ; s6-
(s§d-) and d!- are long. Thus, sScSdit, sSditiS, ezercitumquS T^dflcit, dimittd. But
re- is often long in rgligiS (relligid), rfitnli (rettnii), lepali (reppull).
h* Nouns and adjectiyes of one syllable are long : as, sGl, (to (dris), bds,
par, Tas (Yasis), vSr, yna,
JExceptions. — c5r, fSI, ISc, mSl, Ss (ossis), vSs (vSdis), vlr, t5t, qa5t.
c» Most monosyllabic Particles are short : as, Hn, in, cis, nSc. But eras,
cur, gn, n5n, qmh, sin — with adverbs in c: as, hie, hue, sic — are long.
cf • Final a in words declined by cases is short, except in the ablative sin-
gular of the first declension ; in all other words final a is long. Thus, e&
stelUi (nominative), cum ea steUa (ablative) ; fruatra, voca (imperative),
postea, triginta.
Exceptions. — SIX, itft, qnil, patft (suppose); and, in late use, trigintA etc.
e. Final e is short : as in nubS, ducit£, saep£.
Exceptions. — Final e is long — 1. In adverbs formed from adjectives of the
first and second dedenedon, with others of like form : as, alts, longe, misere, aperte,
saepissime. So ferS, ferme.
But it is short in benS, malS ; infemS, supemS.
2. In nouns of the fifth declension: as, fid§ (also famS), fadS, hodiS, qafiifr
(qna xe).
3. In Greek neuters plural of the second declension : as, o6te ; and in some
other Greek words : Phoebe, CircS, Andromache, etc.
4. In the imperative singular of the second conjugation : as, vidS.
But sometimes cavS, habS, tacS, valS, vidS (cf. §629. 6. 1).
/• Final i is long : as in turn, fill, au<SL
Exceptions. — Final i is common in mihi, tiU, sibi, ibi, abi ; and short in nisi,
quasi, sicttti, coi (when making two syllables), and in Greek vocatives : as, Alezi.
g* Final o is common : but long in datives and ablatives ; also in nouns
of the third declension. It is almost invariably long in verbs before the
time of Ovid.
Exceptions. — cit5, modS (dummodd), imm5, profectS, egd, dud, ced5 (the impera-
tive) ; so sometimes oct5, ilic5, etc., particularly in later writers.
hm Final u is long. Final y is short.
i. Final as, es, os, are long ; final is, us, ys, are short : as, nefas, rupes„
servds (accusative), bonds ; hostils, amicfis, Tethjhi.
404 PROSODY: QUANTITY [§§604-606
ExceptioTM, — 1. as is short in Greek plural accusatives : as, Ismpadiiw ; and
in anXs.
2. •B is short in the nominatiye of nouns of the third declension (lingual) hav-
ing a short vowel in the stem ^ : as, milSs (-Itia), obaSa (-Idia), — except ahiea, axles,
paziCs, p€s ; in the present of esse (Ss, adSa) ; in the preposition penis, and in the
plural of Greek nouns : as, hSroSs, lampadSa.
3. 08 is short in compSs, impds ; in the Greek nominative ending : as, barbitSs ;
in the old nominative of the second declension : as, servSs (later servus).
4. is in plural cases is long : as in bonis, ndbis, vobls, omnis (accusative plural).
5. is is long in the verb forms fis, sis, v!s (with qoivis etc.), velis, malia, nolis,
edia ; in the second persgn singular of the present indicative active in the fourth
conjugation: as, aadia ; and sometimes in the forms in -eria (future perfect indica-
tive or perfect subjunctive).
6. as is long in the genitive singular and nominative, accusative, and vocatiYe
plural of the fourth declension ; and in nouns of the third declension having a
(long) in the stem : as, virtfla (-Qtis), incQs (-Odis). But pecfis, -fidis.
J» Of other final syllables, those ending in a single consonant are short.
Thus, am&t, amatfir ; d5nic, fSc, prodU, iub&r.
Exceptions. — hie (also hic); allec; the ablatives ill5c, etc.; certain adverbs in
-c : as, illic, iatuc ; liSn, and some Greek nouns : as, aer, aether, crfttSr.
Perfects and Perfect Participles
605. Perfects and Perfect Participles of two syllables have the
first syllable long: as, ifivi, iiitam (iHvO), vi^ Yisum (y!de6); fugi
(fttgiO); yeni (v^O).
Exceptiona. — bibi, dS^, fidi, scldi, stSti, stiti, tflli; cltom, dltam, Itnm, ntmn,
qaltum, r&tom, rfttom, s&tam, situm, stAtom. In some compounds of ato, st&toin
is found (long), as praeat&tum.
[ a* In reduplicated perfects the vowel of the reduplication is short ; the
vowel of the following syllable is, also, usually short: as, cteldi (cSdS),
didici (discS), piipiigi (pungS), cficfirri (currS), tStftncU (tend5), mSn&Srdi (mol-
ded). But 0^^ from caedO, pepedi from pM5.
Derivatives
606. Rules for the Quantity of Derivatives are : —
a. Forms from the same stem have the same quantity : as, JSlblo, ima-
visti; g^nus, generis.
Exceptions. — 1. bda, Ifir, mfta, par, pSa, a&l, — also axbda, — have a long vowel
in the nominative, though the stem-vowel is short (cf. genitive bSvia etc.).
1 The quantity of the stem-vowel may be seen in the genitive singular.
§§ 606, 607] RHYTHM 405
2. Nonns in -or, genitive -oris, have the vowel shortened before the final r : as,
lioiiSr. (But this shortening is comparatively late, so that in early Latin these
nominatives are often found long.)
3. Verb-forms with vowel originally long regolarly shorten it before final m,
r, or t : as, amSm, amSr, dicezSr, amSt (compare amemus), dicerSt, aadit, fit.
NoTS. — The final syllable in t of the perfect was long in old Latin, but is short in
the classic period.
4. A few long stem-syllables are shortened : as, acer, ftcerbas. So de-iSro and
pe-iSi5, weakened from iaro.
h. Forms from the same root often show inherited variations of vowel
quantity (see § 17) : as, dico (cf . maledicns) ; diic5 (diiz, dficis) ; fido (perfidus) ;
Yox, vocis (y0c5); lex, legis (ISgo).
c* Compounds retain the quantity of the words which compose them :
as, oc-dd5 (cSdo), oc-ddo (caed5), in-iquos (aequus).
KoTS. — Greek words compoonded with -rpb have o short: as, piOphSta, prOlSgus.
Some Latin comiwnnds of pro have o short : as, prOfi<S8Cor, prOflteor. Compoonds with
ne vary: as, nSfas, nSgd, nSqueo, nSqnam.
RHYTHM
607. The essence of Rhythm in poetry is the regular recurrence of syllables
pronounced with more stress than those intervening. To produce this effect in its
perfection, precisely equal times should occur between the recurrences of the stress.
But, in the application of rhythm to words, the exactness of these intervals is sacri-
ficed somewhat to the necessary length of the words; and, on the other hand, the
words are forced somewhat in their pronunciation, to produce more nearly the proper
intervals of time. In different languages these adaptations take place in different
degrees ; one language disregarding more the intervals of time, another the pronun-
ciation of the words.
The Greek language early developed a very strict rhythmical form of poetry, in
which the intervals of time were all-important. The earliest Latin, on the other hand,
— as in the Satumian and Fescennine verse, — was not so restricted. But the purely
metrical forms were afterwards adopted from the Greek, and supplanted the native
forms of verse. Thus the Latin poetry with which we have to do follows for the most
part Greek rules, which require the formal division of words (like music) into measures
of equal times, technically called Feet. The strict rh3rthm was doubtless more closely
followed in poetry that was 9vmg than in that which was declaimed or intoned. In
neither language, however, is the time perfectly preserved, even in single measures ;
and there are some cases in which the regularity of the time between the ictuses is
disturbed.
The Greeks and Bomans distinguished syllables of two kinds in regard to the time
required for their pronunciation, a long syllable having twice the metrical value of a
short one. But it must not be supposed that all long syllables were of equal length,
or even that in a given jiassage each long had just twice the length of the contiguous
shorts. The ratio was only approximate at best, though hecessarily more exact in
singing than in recitation. Nor are longs and shorts the only forms of syllables that
are found. In some cases a long syllable was protracted, so as to have the time of
three or even of four shorts, and often one long or two shorts were pronounced in less
than their proper time, though they were perhaps distinguishable in time from one
406 PROSODY: RHYTHM [§§607,608
abort (see §60B. c, d). Sometimes a syllable naturally short seems to have been
slightly prolonged, so as to represent a long, though in most (not all) cases the appai^
ent irregularity can be otherwise explained. In a few cases, also, a pause takes the
place of one or more syllables to fill out the required length of the measure. This
could, of course, take place only at the end of a word: hence the importance of
GsBSura and Diasresis in prosody (§ 611. 6, c).
Measures
608. Rhythm consists of the division of musical sound into
equal intervals of time called Measures or Feet.
The most natural division of musical time is into measures con-
sisting of either two or three equal parts. But the ancients also
distinguished measures of five equal parts.
Note. — The divisions of muHcal time are marked by a stress of voice on one or
the other part of the measure. This stress is called the Ictus (beat), or metrical accent
(see §611. a).
a. The unit of length in Prosody is one short syllable. This is called
a Mora. It is represented by the sign \^, or in musical notation by the
eighth note or quaver (ff).
b. A long syllable is regularly equal to two morse, and is represented
by the sign , or by the quarter note or crotchet (P^.
c. A long syllable may be protracted^ so as to occupy the time of three
or four morae. Such a syllable, if equal to three morse, is represented
by the sign l- (or dotted quarter !••) ; if equal to four, by i_j (or the half
note or minim, f^.
d» A long syllable may be contracted, so as to take practically the time
of a short one. Such a syllable is sometimes represented by the sign >.
«• A short syllable may be contracted so as to occupy less than one mora.
/• A pause sometimes occurs at the end of a verse or a series of verses,
to fill up the time. A pause of one mora in a measure is indicated by the
sign A ; one of two mor» by the sign A.
gm One or more syllables are sometimes placed before the proper begin-
ning of the measure. Such syllables are called an Anacrusis or prelude}
The anacrusis is regularly equal to the unaccented part of the measure.
1 The same thing occurs in modem poetry, and in modern music any unaccented
syllables at the beginning are treated as an anacrusis, i.e. they make an incomplete
measure before the first bar. This was not the case in ancient music. The ancients
seem to have treated any unaccented syllable at the beginning as belonging to the fol-
lowing accented ones, so as to make with them a foot or measure. Thus it would seem
that there was an original form of Indo-European poetry which was iambic in its
structure, or which, at least, accented the second syllable rather than the first.
§ 609] MEASURES 407
609. The feet most frequently employed in Latin verse, to-
gether with their musical notation, are the following : —
a« Triple or Unequal Measures (J)*
1 . Trochee (-^ w ~ I* 1^) • *®» ^^9^*
2. Iambus (v-' -^ = ^ ^) : as, dUces,
3. Tribrach* (ww ^^=^1* 1*)' *s» k^inh*.
b. Double or Equal Measures (|)
1. Dactyl ( vy vy = (• (• l^) : as, cansM/i,s.
2. Anapaest (w w =(• I* I*): as, mdnltos.
3. Spondee ( =/• I*): &Sy reges.
c. Six-timed Measures (|)
1 . Tonic a maiore ( vy w = I* |^ |* l*) : as, confecSrdt,
2. Ionic a mtnore (^ v^ =^ 0 0 (•):as, reiulissent.
3. Choriambus ( wvy =1^ 1*1* I*) -as, contulerant.
d. Quinary or Hemiolic • Measures (f )
1. Cretic (__ \j =(• (• i*): as, consoles,
2. Paeon j^rimti* (__ wwvy=i* [•|*|*):as, con^t^^.
3. Paeon quartus (w vy w ~ 1* 1* I* 1^' *^» Uln^rl.
4. Bacchius (w =(• (• (•): as, cfmicos.
1 Called diplasiCf the two parts (Thesis and Arsis) being in the ratio of 2 to 1.
3 Not fonnd as a fondamental foot, but only as the resolution of a Trochee or Iambus.
s Called Tiemiolie, the two parts being in the ratio of 1 to 1^, or of 2 to 3.
408 PROSODY: RHYTHM [§609
Note. — Several compound feet are mentioned by the grammarians, viz. Pyrrhk
{\j \j)\ Amphibrach {\j w); Antibacchiua ( \j); Proodeusmatic (\j \j \j \j)\
the M0I08SU8 ( ); the 2d and 3d Pmon^ having a long syllable in the 2d or 3d
place, with three short ones ; Ist, 2d, 3d, and 4th Epitfitus, having a short syllable in
the 1st, 2d, 3d, or 4th place, with three long ones.
Irrational Feet
ۥ Feet with these apparent quantities do not always occupy equal time,
but may be contracted or prolonged to suit the series in which they occur.
They are then called irrcUional, because the thesis and arsis do not have
their normal ratio.^ Such are : —
Irrational Spondee :
(in place of a Trochee) ^ > 1 J J jn
(in place of an Iambus) > — J ^L^ 9*m*
Cyclic Dactyl (in place of a Trochee) :
-^ wv^ or -<^ w = J. ^^i Ji or J. ^ J
Cyclic Anapsest (in place of an Iambus) :
^ or w ^ = JiJiS'^^S ^ S-
\j\^
The apparent dactyl > w v^^, as a substitute for an iambus, and the
apparent anapsest \j w >, as a substitute for a trochee, occur frequently
in the dramatic writers.
Note. — Narrative poetry was written for rhythmical recitation, or chant, with
instrumental accompaniment ; and Lyrical poetry for rhythmical melody, or singing.
It must be borne in mind that in ancient music — which in this differs widely from
modem — the rhythm of the melody was identical with the rhythm of the text. The
lyric poetry was to be sung ; the poet was musician and composer, as well as author.
To this day a poet is said conventionally to " sing.''
Thus a correct understanding of the rhythmical structure of the verse gives us the
time, though not the tune, to which it was actually sung. The exact time, however,
as indicated by the succession of long and short syllables, was varied according to
certain laws of so-called ** Rhythmic," as will be explained below. In reading ancient
verse it is necessary to bear in mind not only the variations in the relative length of
syllables, but the occasional pause necessary to fill out the measure ; and to remember
that the rhythmical accent is the only one of importance, though the words should be
distinguished carefully, and the sense preserved. Poetry should not be scanned, but
read metrically.
^ It seems probable that both thesis and arsis of an irrational foot were affected by
the necessity of preserving the rhythmical time of the foot.
§§ 610, 611] THE MUSICAL ACCENT 409
Substitution
610. In many cases measures of the same time may be substi-
tuted for each other, a long syllable taking the place of two short
ones, or two short syllables the place of a long one.
In the former case the measure is said to be contracted; in the
latter, to be resolved : —
a* A Spondee ( ) may take the place of a Dactyl (_ \j w) or an
Anapsest (^\j \j __); and a Tribrach {\j \j \j) may take the place of a
Trochee (__ w) or an Iambus {\j __). The optional substitution of one
long syllable for two short ones is represented by the sign ct^.
6# When a long syllable having the Ictus (§ 611. a) is resolved, the
ictus properly belongs to both the resulting short syllables ; but for con-
venience the mark of accent is placed on the first : —
ntSnc exlp^iiar | sltn« a|c^t5 | tibi c5r | acr« in | p6ct6|ri —PI. Bac. 405.
The Musical Accent
611. That part of the measure which receives the stress of voice
(the musical accent) is called the Thesis ; the unaccented part is
called the Arsis.^
a* The stress of voice laid upon the Thesis is called the Ictus (hea().
It is marked thus i J- \j \j,
&. The ending of a word within a measure is called Caesura. When
this coincides with a rhetorical pause, it is called the Caesura of the verse,
and is of main importance as affecting the melody or rhythm.
c. The coincidence of the end of a word with that of a measure is
called Diaeresis.
1 The Thesis signifies properly the putting down (dicis, from rLBrj/Ut putf place) of
the foot in beating time, in the march or dance (" downward beat "), and the Arsis the
raising (d/xris, from detpw, raise) of the foot (" upward beat")* By the Latin gram-
marians these terms were made to mean, respectively, the ending and the beginning of
a measure. By a misunderstanding which has prevailed till recently, since the time of
Bentley, their true signification has been reversed. They will here be used in accord-
ance with their ancient meaning, as has now become more common. This metrical
accent, recurring at regular intervals of time, is what constitutes the essence of the
rhythm of i>oetry as distinguished from prose, and should be constantly kept in mind.
The error mentioned arose from applying to trochaic and dactylic verse a definition
which was true only of iambic or anapasstic.
410 PROSODY: VERSIFICATION [§612
VERSIFICATION
THE VERSE
612. A single line of poetry — that is, a series of feet set in a
recognized order — is called a Verse.^
Note. — Most of the common verses originally consisted of two series (hemigtichs),
but the joint between them is often obscured. It is marked in Iambic and Trochaic
Tetrameter by the Dueresis, in Dactylic Hexameter by the Cassura.
«• A verse lacking a syllable at the end is called Catalectic, that is, hav-
ing a pause to fill the measure ; when the end syllable is not lacking, the
verse is called Acatalectic, and has no such pause.
b. A final syllable, regularly short, is sometimes lengthened before a
pause : 2 it is then said to be long by Diastole : —
nostrOr""* obniimm, — oriturque miserrima caedSs. — Aen. ii. 411.
c. The last syllable of any verse may be indifferently long or short
(syllaha anceps).
Scansion and Elision
d. To divide the verse into its appropriate measures, according to the
rules of quantity and versification, is called scanning or scansion (acinsid,
a climbing or advance by steps, from scando).
NoTB. — In reading verse rhythmically, care should be taken to preserve the meas-
ure or time of the syllables, but at the same time not to destroy or confuse the words
themselves, as is often done in scanning.
6. In scanning, a vowel or diphthong at the end of a word (unless an
interjection) is partially suppressed when the next word begins with a vowel
or with h. This is called Elision (bruising),^
In reading it is usual entirely to suppress elided syllables. Strictly, how-
ever, they should be sounded lightly.
1 The word Verse (versiLs) signifies a turning back, i.e. to begin again in like
manner, as opposed to Prose {prorsus oiprdversus), which means straight ahead.
3 This usage is comparatively rare, most cases where it appears to be found being
caused by the retention of an originally long quantity.
s The practice of Elision is followed in Italian and French poetry, and is sometimes
adopted in English, particularly in the older poets : —
T* inveigle and invite th' unwary senBe. — Comus 638.
In early Latin poetry a final syllable ending in s often loses this letter even before a
consonant (cf . § 16. 7) : —
seniO eSnfectu' quiSscit. — £nn. (Cat. M. 14).
§§612-615] DACTYLIC HEXAMETER 411
NoTB. — Elision is sometimes called by the Greek name Synalo^pha {smearing).
Rarely a syllable is elided at the end of a verse when the next verse begins with a
vowel: this is called Synapheia {binding).
f. A final m, with the preceding vowel, is suppressed in like manner
when the next word begins with a vowel or h: this is called Ecthlipsis
(squeezing out) : —
mOnstr^*" horrend"*'*, Inform*, ingSns, cui lumen ad€mptam.
— Aen. iii. 668.
NoTB 1. — Final m has a feeble nasal sound, so that its partial suppression before
the initial vowel of the following word was easy.
NoTJC 2. — The monosyllables do, dem, spS, spem, sim, sto, stem, qui (plural), and
monosyllabic interjections are never elided ; nor is an iambic word elided in dactylic
verse. Elision is often evaded by skilful collocation of words.
g. Elision is sometimes omitted when a word ending in a vowel has a spe*
cial emphasis, or is succeeded by a pause. This omission is called Hiatus
(gaping).
XoTB. — The final vowel is sometimes shortened in such cases.
FORMS OF VERSE
613. A verse receives its name from its dominant or funda-
mental foot : as, Dactylic^ Iambic^ Trochaic^ Anapcestic; and from
the number of measures (single or double) which it contains:
as. Hexameter^ Tetrameter^ Trimeter^ Dimeter.
NoTK. — Trochaic, Iambic, and Anapaestic verses are measured not by single feet,
but by pairs {dipodia)^ so that six Iambi make a Trimeter.
614. A Stanza, or Strophe, consists of a definite number of
verses ranged in a fixed order.
Many stanzas are named after some eminent poet: as, Sapphic
(from Sappho), Alcaic (from Alcaeus), Archilochian (from Archilo-
chus), Horatian (from Horace), and so on.
Dactylic Verse
Dactylic Hexameter
615. The Dactylic Hexameter, or Heroic Verse^ consists theo-
retically of six dactyls. It may be represented thus : —
ircrircj'iricj'ircj'ircj'irM
412 PROSODY: VERSIFICATION [§615
NoTB. — The last foot is usually said to be a spondee, but is in reality a trochee
standing for a dactyl, since the final syllable is not measured.
a. For any foot, except the fifth, a spondee may be substituted.
b. Rarely a spondee is found in the fifth foot ; the verse is then called
spondaic and usually ends with a word of four syllables.
Thus in Eel. iv. 49 the verse ends with incrSmentum.
c. The hexameter has regularly one principal ccssura — sometimes two —
almost always accompanied by a pause in the sense.
1. The principal caesura is usually after the thesis (less commonly in the arsis)
of the third footy dividing the verse into two parts in sense and rhythm. See
examples in d.
2. It may also be after th/e thesis (less commonly in the arsis) of the fourth foot.
In this case there is often another caesura in the second foot, so that the veise
is divided into three parts: —
p^tS f6|r6x II arld^nsqu^ 5cii|lfs || et | slbllft | c<511&. » Aen. v. 277.
Note. — Often the only indication of the principal among a number of caesuras is
the break in the sense.
A caesura occurring after the first syllable of a foot is called masculine. A caesura
occurring after the second syllable of a foot is called feminine (as in the fifth foot of
the third and fourth verses in d) . A caesura may also be found in any foot of the verse,
but a proper csBSural pause could hardly occur in the first or sixth.
When the fourth foot ends a word, the break (properly a diaeresis) is sometimes
improperly called bucolic csBSura^ from its frequency in pastoral poetry.
d. The first seven verses of the ^neid, divided according to the fore^
going rules, will appear as follows. The principal caesura in each verse is
marked by double lines : —
ArmS vl|rumqu6 cS|nO || TrO|iae qui j primtis &b | 0ns
It^I|am fa|tO pr5fu|gas || L3,|vInidquS j v^nlt
litSra, I mult"*" il|l« et ter|ris jj iacjtattis 6t j alt5
vi 8tip6|rum || saejvae mSmdjrem lujnOnls db | Ir&m;
multS qud|qu^ et bel|lO pasjsus || dum j cond6r6t | urbSm,
Infer|retqu3 d6|0s Mtl|0, || ggnus | undS Lll|tinum,
Albajniqug p&|tres, |j atjqu^ aJtae | moenllL | ROmae.
1. The feminine casura is seen in the following : —
Dis g6ni|ti p6tti|€r6: || t6|nent mgdlj^ omnia] silvae. — Aen. vi. 131.
Note. — The Hexameter is thus illustrated in English verse : —
Over the sea, past Crete, on the Syrian shore to the southward,
Dwells in the well-tilled lowland a dark-haired ^thiop people,
Skilful with needle and loom, and the arts of the dyer and carver,
Skilful, but feeble of heart; for they know not the lords of Olympus,
Lovers of men ; neither broad-browed Zeus, nor Pallas Athen^,
Teacher of wisdom to heroes, bestower of might in the battle ;
Share not the cunning of Hermes, nor list to the songs of Apollo,
Feturing the stars of the sky, and the roll of the blue salt water.
— Kingsley*8 Andromeda.
§§ 616, 617] ELEGIAC STANZA 413
Elegiac Stanza
616. The Elegiac Stanza consists of two verses, — a Hexame-
ter followed by a Pentameter.^
The Pentameter verse is the same as the Hexameter, except that it
omits the last half of the third foot and of the sixth foot : —
-^ U^ \J- Z^ \J.A\\^kjkj\jLkjkj\J-7:
a,. The Pentameter verse is therefore to be scanned as two half-verses^ the
second of which always consists of two dactyls followed by a single syllable.
6. The Pentameter has no regular Caesura; but the first half-verse
must always end with a word {diceresis, § 611. c), which is followed by a
pause to complete the measure.'
€• The following verses will illustrate the forms of the Elegiac Stanza : —
cum silbit I illljus |{ trls|tisslm& | noctis I|mSg5
qua mlhl I suprejmum A || temptis In | urbS ftLjIt, A
cum rgpSjtO noc|tem || qua | tot mlhl | cftrft rg|llqui,
lablttLr I ex 5cti|lis X || nunc qu5qu3 | gutt& mSjis. X
iam pr5p6 | lux adSjrat || qua | me dis|ced6rg | Caesar
flnlbils I extre|mae "K \\ iussSrat | Ausdnljae. 7\
— Ov. Trist. i. 3.
NoTB. — The Elegiac Stanza differs widely in character from hexameter verse (of
which it is a mere modification) by its division into Distichs, each of which must have
its own sense complete. It is employed in a great variety of compositions, — epistolary,
amatory, and mournful, — and was especially a favorite of the poet Ovid. It has been
illustrated in English verse, imitated from the Grerman : —
In the Hex|ameter | rises || the | fountain's | silvery | column ;
In the Pen|tameter | aye || falling in | melody | back.
Other Dactylic Verses
617. Other dactylic verses or half- verses are occasionally used
by the lyric poets.
1 Called pentameter by the old grammarians, who divided it, formally, into five
feet (two dactyls or spondees, a spondee, and two anapaests), as follows: —
2 The time of this pause, however, may be filled by the protraction of the preced-
ing syllable : —
^kjkj\J-kjkj\iLi\\jLkj^\J.kjkj\^7k
414 PROSODY: VKRSIFICATION [§§617,618
a. The Dactylic Tetrameter alternates with the hexameter, forming the
Alcmanian Strophe, as follows : —
0 forjt^s p§|iOrSqu@ | passi
mScum I saep6 Yl|rl, || nunc | vlnO | pelllt^ { cflr&s ;
eras in|gSns It£|rablmiis | aequdr.
— Hor. Od. i. 7 (so 28 ; Ep. 12).
hm The Dactylic Fenthemim (five half -feet) consists of half a pentame-
ter verse. It is used in combination with the Hexameter to form the First
ArchUochian Strophe: —
diSll|gere nl|ves, || rSdSjunt iam | grftmlnft | campis,
arb5rl{busqu£ cdjmae;
miltat I terr& yl|c6s || et { decrg8|centT& | ripSs
flumln^ I praet6r6|unt. — Hor. Od. iv. 7.
For the Fourth Archilochian Strophe (Archilochian heptameter, alternating with
iambic trimeter catalectic), see § 626. 11.
Iambic Verse
Iambic Trimeter
618. The Iambic Trimeter is the ordinary verse of dramatic
dialogue. It consists of three measures, each containing a double
iambus (iambic dipody). The caesura is usually in the third foot.
NoTB. — The sign ^ J~ denotes possible substitution of an irrational spondee ( >S.)
for an iambus {^\jJ~).
a. The Iambic Trimeter is often used in lyric poetry (1) as an inde-
pendent system, or (2) alternating with the Dimeter to form the lanibk
Strophe, as follows : —
(1) iam i«"» 6ffici|cl || do mSniis | soI6ntIa6
Pr6s6rplna6,
d& ndmln^,
suppl^x 6t 6|r5 II regna p6r
pSr 6t Dl6,|nae || n6n m5v6n
p6r dtquS llbjrOs || cdrmlntim | vSl^ntidm
deflx& ca^|l5 II d4ydci|rg sidSr^,
C&ifdiS«, pdr|c3 II Yoclbi^ j tandto slU^rfs,
cltiimqug r6t|r6 || rto6 sdl|v6 ttirbln^m. — Hor. Epod. 17.
The last two lines may be thus translated, to show the movement
in English : —
' Oh ! stay, Canidia, stay thy rites of sorcery,
Thy charm unbinding backward let thy swift wheel fly !
§618] IAMBIC TRIMETER 415
(2) bedttis fl|l& y qui prdctU j ndgotifs,
ut prl8C& gens | mortalltim,
p&t&nft rd|rft || biibiis ^|erc^t siifs,
sdldttis 5in|ni fendr4;
nSqa^ tocltajtur || cl^8lc6 | mll^ triicf,
nSqn^ hdrrSt !|rftti&in mfir^. — Hor. Bpod. 2.
&• In the stricter form of Iambic Trimeter an irrational spondee ( > _£.)
or its equivalent (a cyclic anapaest \^ ^^ or an apparent dactyl > ^ w,
§ 609. 6) may be regularly substituted for the first iambus of any dipody.
A tribrach (w vi w) may stand for an iambus anywhere except in the
last place. In the comic poets any of these forms or the proceleusmatic
(ww \L/ \j) may be substituted in any foot except the last: — ^
5 liicls il|m6 rectdr || ^t | caelf d6c^ !
qu* alt^mft ct!Lr|ru sp^tlft |{ fldm|mlfer^ dmblens,
illdstrS la^jtls |{ ^xs&rls | terrfs cflpdt.
— Sen. Here. Fur. 592-04.
quid qua^rls? dnjnOs || s^xagln|t& nattus i&,
— Ter. Haut. 62.
h5m6 B^i htlmi|nl || nil & m^ lUljentim piito.
vel ml mdnljr^ hOc || y^I percdnjtftii piiti.
— id. 77, 78.
c. The Choliambic (lame Iambic) substitutes a trochee for the last
iambus : —
||d-lw-£-|d||XwJL|w-^-Lv^||
aequ^ ^t bdi|tiis || ^ p^|m& ctim scrfblt:
tarn gatidSt in | sS, || t4mqu6 s^ lp|s3 mfrdtiir.
— Catull. xxiii. 16, 16.
Note. — The verse may also be regarded as trochaic with anacrusis: as, —
cf. The Iambic Trimeter Catalectic is represented as follows : —
II d X v^ ^ I d II X w -A I e l£ -A II
It is used in combination with other measures (see § 626. 11), and is
shown in the foUowing : —
Yulcdntis dr|dens || itiHX 6f jficfnls. — Hor. Od. i. 4.
or in English : —
On purple peaks a deeper shade descending. — Scott.
1 The greater freedom of snbstitation in the comedy is due to the fact that the verse
is regarded as made up of separate feet rather than of dipodies.
416 PROSODY: VERSIFICATION [§619
Other Iambic Measures
619. Other forms of Iambic verse are the following : —
a« The Iambic Tetrameter Catalectic (Septenarius), This consists of
seven and a half iambic feet, with diaeresis after the fourth and with the
same substitutions as in Iambic Trimeter : —
j^am idclrc^ arc^|sor, ndptlis || quod m' ddpard|ri sSnsit.
quTbus quIdSm quam f^Ijlg potdgrdt || quiesci s' hie | quiessgt !
— Ter. And. 690, 691.
The metrical scheme of these two verses may be represented as follows : —
II > J- >-^ l>-^. kj^\\>^kj-L.\>J.kjA\\
||v^viw>viw|wvirWW-L||w_^>-^|v^-L^A||
Its movement is like the following : —
In g<5od king Ch^les^s gdlden days, when Idyalty no hdxm meant.
— Vicar of Bray.
6. The Iambic Tetrameter Acatalectic (Octonariits), This consists of
eight full iambic feet with the same substitutions as in Iambic Trimeter.
Like the Septenarius it is used in lively dialogue : —
cUc^t gam dirS | n5s Ph6rml6|ni || nuptum n^ | suscinsS^t;
et m%!s ess* fl|l«"* Id6n6um, || qu' ipsi sit fam!|liiri6r.
— Ter. Ph. 720, 721.
The metrical scheme of these two verses may be represented as follows : —
||>ww>viv^|>XwJL| >\\J.>J. |>Xwv5||
||>vir^>-:. \sj J-^ JL.\\> J.>y!j^\KjJ-KJs!j\\
c. The Iambic Dimeter. This may be either acatalectic or catalectic.
1. The Iambic Dimeter Acatalectic consists of four iambic feet. It is used
in combination with some longer verse (see § 618. a).
2. The Iambic Dimeter Catalectic consists of three and a half iambic feet
It is used only in choruses : —
quOndm crfignjtS Mannas,
praec^ps ftm6|r6 sa^vO,
rSpIttir qudd Imjpdt^nti
faclntis pardt | f tirdrg ? — Sen. Med. 850-853.
NoTB. — Owing to the fact that in modern music each measure begins with, a down-
ward heat, some scholars regard all these forms of Iambic verse as Trochaic veise
with anacrusis (§ 618. c. n.).
620] TROCHAIC VERSE 417
Trochaic Vkrsb
620. The most common form of Trochaic verse is the Tetram-
eter Catalectic (Septendrius)^ consisting of four dipodies, the last
of which lacks a syllable. There is regfularly diaeresis after the
f oiirtli foot : —
II Xw-^d|^w^e||Xv^^e|-^w-LA||
In musical notation : —
6
8
rfrnrrrnrfririrrr-
dd t* adv^nlO, sp^m, saiatem, || consIir*»»*, atixlll**"* ^xpgt^ns.
— Ter. And. 319.
In English verse : —
T^U me n6t in motimful ni!Lmbers || life is biit an ^mpty dredm.
— LongfeUow.
u* In the stricter form of the Septenarius substitutions are allowed
only in the even feet, but in comedy the tribrach \^ kj v^^, or an irrational
spondee -d_ >, cyclic dactyl J- w^, or apparent anapaest \f/ kj >, may be
substituted for any of the first six feet ; a tribrach for the seventh : —
fed«"* hab^t p6ta|8~"» dc vestftum: || tim cOnsfmllistJ dtqu« IS>g6.
sdra, p^s, stajturS, tonsCis, || 6c1ill, nisum, | v^l ISbrft,
mdlae, m^ntum, | birbS, c611us; || tdtusi quid ver|bfs dpi!ist?
si tergtim cl|c£trlc6sum, || nihfl hOc slmllist | slmHIus.
—PI. Am. 443-446.
The metrical scheme of these four verses is as follows : —
||v^ww-^wvy|-^>X>||-£.> ^KJ>\-L^ -^A
II _L w J- w|^w^w||viw>-i.> \-L y^ J- A
\\^>J.>\J.KjJL>\\^> JL> \jLkj J-A
_£. > _L ^|-:.>^>||X> viw>|vi^^v^-^A||
b* The Trochaic Tetrameter Acatalectic (Oct(hiarius), consisting of four
complete dipodies, occurs in the lyrical parts of comedy.
Substitutions as in the Septenarius are allowed except in the last foot.
Cm Some other forms of trochaic verse are found in the lyric poets, in
combination with other feet, either as whole lines or parts of lines : —
n6n 6bt!ir ng|qu^ atirSdm. [Dimeter Catalectic]
mei r6n!|det in ddm6 | ISuaAa&c. [Iambic Trimeter Catalectic]
— Hor. Od. il. 18.
418 prosody: versification [§§621-683
Mixed Measures
621. Different measures may be combined in the same verse in two different
ways. Either (1) a series of one kind is simply joined to a series of another kind
(oompare the changes of rhythm not unoommon in modem mnsie) ; or (2) single feet
of other measures are combined with the prevailing measures, in which case these odd
feet are adapted by changing their quantity so that they become irrational (see § 609. e) .
When enough measures of one kind occur to form a series, we may suppose a
change of rhythm; when they are isolated, we must suppose adaptation. Of tlie
indefinite number of possible combinations but few are found in Latin poetry.
622. The following verses, combining different rhythmical
series, are found in Latin lyrical poetry: —
1. Greater Arohilochian (Dactylic Tetrameter; Trochaic Tripody): —
s61vltiir | acrb hl|^ms gra|ta vlc« i| verls | ^t F&|v6nl. — Hor. Od. i. 4.
NoTB. — It Is possible that the dactyls were cyclic; but the change of measure
seems more probable.
2. Verse consiating of Dactylic Trimeter catalectic (Dacti^ic Penthemm);
Iambic Dimeter : —
scrfb6r6 [ v^r8lcii|lu8 || ftmorg p6r|cul8um gravl. — Hor. Epod. 11. 2.
LoGACEDic Verse
623. Trochaic verses, containing in regular prescribed positions
irrational measures or irrational feet (cf . § 609. e), are called Loga-
oedic. The principal logaoedic forms are —
1. Logaoedic Tetrapody (four feet) : Glyconic.
2. Logaoedic Tripody (three feet) : Phkrecratic (often treat<ed as a
syncopated Tetrapody Catalectic).
8. Logmflddic Dipody (two feet) : this may be regarded as a short Phere-
cratic.
Note. — This mixture of irrational measures gives an effect approaching that of
prose: henoe the name Logacedic {Xiyot, doii-ff). These measures originated in the
Greek lyiie poetry, and were adopted by the Boinans. AU the Roman lyric metres not
belonging to the regular iambic, trochaic, dactylic, or Ionic systems, were constracted
on the basis of the three forms given above : viz., LogaoBdSc systems consisting lespeo-
tively of four, three, and two feet. The so-called Lngacedic Pen^<9>od^ consists of five
feet, but is to be regarded as composed of two of the others.
§§ 634, 626] LOGAOBDIC VERSE 419
624. Each logaoedic form contains a single dactyl,^ which may
be either in the first, second, or third place. The verse may be
catalectic or acatalectic : —
Glyconic Pherecratic
i. Il-C w I -L.j\ J.kj\^(kj)\\ \\^kj\ JL ^
ii. II ^ w I -C ^ I J^^\J- (v/)|| II ^ w I -0 w
iii. II 2.Kj\ ^ v/j-C w|X(v^)||
-^ (w) II
^ (w) II or
-^ ^ I -<^ KJ \\±\J- N
-^^\ -^(v/)li
NoTB. — The shorter Pherecratic {dipody) (— Cw | -^w), if catalectic, appears to
be a simple Ghoriambus ( Kj\y \ A) ; and, in general, the effect of the logacedic
forms is Choriambic. In fact, they were so regarded by the later Greek and Latin
metricians, and these metres have obtained the general name of Choriambic. But
they are not true choriambic, though they may very likely have been felt to be such
by the composer, who imitated the forms without much thought of their origin. They
may be read (scanned), therefore, on that principle. But it is better to read them as
logamdic measures ; voA that course is followed here.
625. The verses constructed upon the several Logaoedic forms
or models are the following : —
1. GlycoDic (Second Glyconic, catalectic) ; —
B6mae | princlpis | tirbljiim.
In English : —
F6rm8 more r^al than Ifving m^n. — Shelley,
Note. — In this and most of the succeeding forms the foot preceding the dactyl is
always irrational in Horace, consisting of an irrational spondee ( >).
2. Aristophanic (First Pherecratic) : —
tdmper&t |6r& | fr^nls. — Hor. Od. i. 8.
Note. — It is very likely that this was made equal in time to the preceding by
protracting the last two syllables : —
1 Different Greek poets adopted fixed types in regard to the place of the dactyls,
and so a large number of verses arose, each following a strict law, which were imi-
tated by the Romans as diBtinct metals.
420 PROSODY: VERSIFICATION [§625
3. Adonic (First Pkerecratic, shortened) : —
T^rruit | tirbfim. — Hor.
Or perhaps : —
4. Pherecratic (^Second Pherecratic) : —
cr4s dOndbSrIs ha^do. — Hor.
Often scanned as follows : —
5. Lesser Asclepiadic (Second Pherecratic with syncope and First Phere-
cratic catalectic) : —
II ^ > I -O w I iZ II -<. w I ^ w I M A II
Ma^Snas St&yis editd r^glb^. — Hor.
6. Greater Asclepiadic (the same as 5, with a syncopated Logaadic Dipody
interposed) : —
II JL > I -C w 1 Ll II -0 w I Li II -<. w I X V. I vi A II
td n3 qaa6sI6rls — sclrS ngfds — qu^m mlhl, qu^m tibf. — Hor.
7. Lesser Sapphic (Logaadic Pentapody, with dactyl in the third place) : —
\\j.^\j.>\j.\\^\^^\lL\6a\\
intSg^r vita6 sc61Srisqu3 pdrds. — Hor.
Or in English : —
Brilliant hdpes, all wdven in gdrgeous tlssties. — LongfeUow.
8. Greater Sapphic (Third Glyconic; First Pheretiratic) : —
||_Lv^|X>|--Cw|lZI|-C^|Xvy|iZ|v^A||
t^ dg6s Or6 Syb&rln || cur prdpSris &n^d6. — Hor.
9. Lesser Alcaic (Logacedic Tetrapody, two irrational dactyls, two
trochees) : —
^ ||-<.w|-Ov/|^w|Xw
Tfrginn)t!is ptiSrfsqag c&nt5. — Hor.
§§626,626] METRES OF HORACE 421
10. Greater Alcaic (Logacedic Pentapody^ catalectic, with anacrusis, and
dactyl in the third place, — compare Lesser Sapphic) : —
II d : X v^ I X > II -C w I JL w I 6 A II
iusV^ 6t tgndcem || pr6p6s!tf vlrdm. — Hor.
Note. — Only the above logaoedic forms are employed by Horace.
11. Fhalsecean (Logaadic Pentapodyy with dactyl in the second place) : —
||v^>|-0w|X^|Xw|^v7||
qua^nam t^ m&I& m^ns, mls^lll RauidI,
^it pra6ciplt«» In mS^s IdmbOs?— CatuU. xl.
In English : —
Gdrgeous flowerets fn the stinlight shining. — Longfellow.
12. Glyconic Pherecratic (^Second Gly conic with syncope, and Second
Pherecraiic) : —
ll^ei-Ow|jL^Iijil|xei-<.w|iZ|xA||
6 Cdl6nl& qua^ ctipfs || p6nt3 Iud6r6 16ng6. — Catull. xvii.
METRES OF HORACE
626. The Odes of Horace include nineteen varieties of stanza.
These are : —
1. Alcaic, consisting of two Greater Alcaics (10), one Trochaic Dimeter
with anacrusis, and one Lesser Alcaic (9)^ : —
itist***" ^t tenicem || pr6positf viriim
nOn civi'*''* drdor || prdva iub^ntii^,
nOn Tdltus Instantis tyrdnni
m^nte quatft solida, nequ^ At!ister. — Od. iii. 3.
(Found in Od. i. 9, 16, 17, 26, 27, 29, 31, 34, 35, 37 ; ii. 1, 3, 6, 7, 9, 11, 13, 14, 16, 17,
19, 20; iii. 1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 6, 17, 21, 23, 26, 29; iv. 4, 9, 14, 15.)
Note. — The Alcaic Strophe is named after the Greek poet AIcsbus of Lesbos, and
was a special favorite with Horace, of whose Odes thirty-seven are in this form. It
is sometimes called the Horatian Stanza.
2. Sapphic (minor), consisting of three Lesser Sapphics (7) and one
Adonic (3) : —
idm satis terris || nivis dtque dirae
grdndinlis mlsft || pater ^t rub^nte
d^xterd sacr&s || iaculatus d.rcls
t^rruit i!irbem. — Od. i. 2.
(Found in Od. i. 2, 10, 12, 20, 22, 25, 30, 32, 38 ; ii. 2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 16 ; iii. 8, 11, 14, 18,
20, 22, 27; iv. 2, 6, 11; Carm. Saec.)
1 The figures refer to the foregoing list (§ 625).
422 PROSODY: VERSIFICATION [§626
NoTB. — The Sapphic Stanza is named after the poetefls Sappho of Lesboe, and
was a great favorite with the ancients. It is used by Horace in twenty-five Odes—
more frequently than any other e^teept the Alcaic.
3. Sapphic (major), consisting of one Aristophanic (2) and one Greater
Sapphic (8) : —
Lydia die, per 6mnls
t6 dedfl Or6, Sybarln || ciir properiU aniind6. — Od. i. 8.
4. Asclepiadean I (minor), consisting of Lesser Asolepiadics (5) : —
^z6gf monum^nt*'^ || a^re per^nnitbs
r^gftlfque sitd || pyramid""* dJtitis.— Od. iU. 30.
(Found in Od. i. 1; iii. 30; iv. 8.)
5. Asclepiadean IT, consisting of one Glyconic (1) and one Lesser
Asclepiadic (5) : —
navis qua^ tibi creditiim
d^bea y^rgiliiim, || ffnibus Attiols
rMdSs Incolumto, prec6r,
^t serv^ animal 11 dfmiditim mea^. — Od. i. 3.
(Found in Od. i. 3, 13, 19, 36; ui. 9, 16, 19, 24, 25, 28; iv. i, 3.)
6. Asclepiadean III, consisting of three Lesser Asolepiadics (5) and one
Glyconic (1) : —
quls deslderio || sit pudor atit modi!bi
tdm cOrl capitis? || pra^ipe Idgubrfs
c^nttls, M^lpomen^, || cuf liquidim pat^r
v6cem ctun cithadl dedft. — Od. i. 24.
(Found in Od. i. 6, 15, 24, 33; ii. 12; ill. 10, 16; iv. 6, 12.)
7. Asclepiadean IV, consisting of two Lesser Asolepiadics' (5), one
Pherecratic (4), and one Glyconic (1) : —
6 fOns Bindnsia^ || spl^ndididr vitr6,
dtilcl dfgne mer6, || n6n sine fl6rib]i!i8,
cris dOndberis ha^6
cul frOns ttSrgida c<)mibi!bs. — Od. iii. 13.
(Found in Od. i. 5, 14, 21, 23; iii. 7, 13; iv. 13.)
8. Asclepiadean V (major), consisting of Greater Asclepiadics (6) : —
tti n6 qoa^ieris, || scire nefis 1 |
dnem df dederlnt, || Leticono^,
t^ntftris numerds. — Od. i. 11.
qu^m mihi, qu^m tibi
n^c Babyl6ni6s
(Found in Od. i. 11, 18 ; iv. 10.)
9. Alcmanian, consisting of Dactylic Hexameter (§ 615) alternating
with Tetrameter (§ 617. a). (Od. i. 7, 28 ; Epod. 12.)
§626] METRES OF HORACE 423
10. Archilochian I, consisting of a Dactylic Hexameter alternating with
a Dactylic Penthemim (see § 617. b), (Od. iv. 7.)
11. Archilochian IV, consisting of a Greater Archilochian (heptameter,
§ 622. 1), followed by Iambic Trimeter Catalectic (§ 618. d). The stanza
consists of two pairs of verses : —
s61yitur icris hi6ms gr9.t4 vice || Y^ris ^t Fay6nl,
trahi!intqae sfccSs |J mdchina^ carinas ;
ic neque iim stabulis gaud^t pecus, |{ aiit ardtor fgm,
nee prdta c&nis || dlbicd.nt pruinfs. — Od. i. 4.
12. Iambic Trimeter alone (see § 618). (Epod. 17.)
13. Iambic Strophe (see § 618. a). (Epod. 1-10.)
14. Dactylic Hexameter alternating with Iambic Dimeter : —
n6x erat, ^t cael6 || fulgebat idna serenO
int^r minora sfderd,
ctim tfl, mdgnOnim |{ ntim^n laesdra de6rum,
in v^rba idrSbis med. — Epod. 15. (So in Epod. 14.)
15. Dactylic Hexameter with Iambic Trimeter (§ 618): —
iltera i&m teritik || bellls civflibus a^t^,
sufs et ipsa R6ma || vfribds raft. — Epod. 16.
16. Verse of Four Lesser Ionics (§ 609. c. 2): —
miserar"'" est | nequ^ amOrl | dare Itidum | neque dulci
mala vinO I layer^ aut exlanimarl I metuentls. — Od. ill. 12.
17. Iambic Trimeter (§ 618); Dactylic Penthemim (§ 617. 6); Iambic
Pettf, nihil mQ \\ sicut dntea iuvdt
soribere v^rsiculds || am ore p^rculsiim gravf. — Epod. 11.
1 8. Dactylic Hexameter ; Iambic Dimeter ; Dactylic Penthemim (§617.6):
hdrrida t^mpest^ || caeliim contrdxit, et imbrfis
niv^sque d^dt&ci!int loy^m; || nunc mare, mine siltia^ . . .
—Epod. 13.
19. Trochaic Dimeter, Iambic Trimeter, each catalectic (see § 620. c).
INDEX TO THE METRES OF HORACE
Lib. I
1. Maecenas atayis : 4. 8. Lydiadic: 3.
2. lam satis terns: 2. 9. Vides ut alta: 1.
3. Sic te diva: 5. 10. Mercun facunde nepOs: 2.
4. Solvitor acris hiems : 11. 11. Tu ne qnaesieris: 8.
5. Quismnlta: 7. 12. Quern virum: 2.
6. ScribCris Vari6 : 6. 13. CumtuLfdia: 6.
7. Laud&bont alii : 9. 14. O navis : 7.
424
PROSODY: VERSIFICATION
[§626
15. Pastor cum traheret: 6.
16. 0 matre pulchra : 1.
17. VelOx amoenum : 1.
18. NuUam Vare: 8.
19. Mater saeva: 5.
20. VilepOtabis: 2.
21. Dianam tenerae : 7.
22. Integer vitae : 2.
23. Vitas inuleO: 7.
24. Quis deraderiO : 6.
25. Parcius iunctas : 2.
26. Muffls amicus : 1.
27. Natis in usnm: 1.
28. Te maris: 9.
29. led beatis: 1.
30. 6 Venus: 2.
31. Quiddedicatum: 1.
32. Foscimur: 2.
33. Albi ne doleas: 6.
34. Parens dedrum: 1.
35. Odiva: 1.
36. Etture: 5.
37. Nunc est bibendum:
38. PersioOsOdi: 2.
Lib. II
1. Mdtum ex MetellO : 1.
2. Nullus argentd : 2.
3. Aequam memento : 1.
4. Ne sit ancillae : 2.
5. Nondum subacta : 1.
6. Septimi Grades : 2.
7. 0 saepe mecum : 1.
8. tJlla a iuris : 2.
9. N5n semper imbres : 1.
10. Rectius vives : 2.
11. Quid bellioOsus : 1.
12. NOlislonga: 6.
13. lUe et nefasto : 1.
14. Eheu fugaces : 1.
15. lam pauca : 1.
16. Otium divOs : 2.
17. Cur me querellis : 1.
18. NOnebur: 19.
19. Bacchum in remdtis :
20. N5n usitata : 1.
Lib. Ill
1. Odi profanum : 1.
2. Angustam amice : 1.
3. lustum et tenacem : 1.
4. Descende eaelo : 1.
5. CaelO tonantem : 1.
6. Delicta m&idrum : 1.
7. Quidfles: 7.
8. Martiis caelebs : 2.
9. D5nec gratus : 5.
10. Extremum Tanain: 6.
11. Mercuri nam te : 2.
12. Miserarum est : 16.
13. O fOns Bandusiae : 7.
14. Hereulis ritu : 2.
15. Uxor pauperis : 5.
16. Inclusam Danaen : 6.
17. Aeli vetustD: 1.
18. Faune nympharum : 2.
19. Quantum distet: 5.
20. NOn vides: 2.
21. Onata mecum: 1.
22. Montium custos : 2.
23. Caeld supinas: 1.
24. Intactis opulentior : 5.
25. Qu5 me Bacche : 5.
26. Vixipuellis: 1.
27. ImpiOs parrae : 2.
28. Fest5quid: 5.
29. Tyrrhena regum : 1.
30. Exegi monumentum : 4.
Lib. rv
1. Intermissa Venus : 5.
2. Pindarum quisquis : 2.
3. Quem tu Melpomene : 5
4. Qualem ministrum : 1.
5. Mvis orte bonis : 6
6. Dive quem prOles : 2.
7. Diffugere nives : 10.
8. DOnarem pateras : 4.
9. Ne forte credas: 1.
10. 0 crudelis adhuc : 8.
11. Est mibi nOnum: 2.
12. lam yeriscomites: 6.
13. Audivere Lyce : 7.
14. Quae cura patrum : 1.
15. Phoebus volentem : 1.
Carmen Saeculdre: 2.
§§ 626-628] MISCELLANEOUS 425
Epodes
1. Ibis Liburnis : 13. 10. Malasoluta: 13.
2. Beatusille: 13. 11. Petti nihil: 17.
3. Parentis Olim : 13. 12. Quid tibi vis : 9.
4. Lupis et agnis : 13. 13. Horrida tempestas : 18.
6. At 0 deOrum : 13. 14. Mollis inertia : 14.
6. Quid immerentis : 13. 15. Noz erat : 14.
7. Quo quo scelesti : 13. 16. Altera iam : 15.
8. Bogare longd : 13. 17. Iam iam efficaci : 12.
9. Quando repostum : 13.
627. Other lyric poets use other combinations of the above-
mentioned verses : —
a* Glyconics with one Pherecratic (both imperfect) : —
Dfd.|na^ siimfis | in fld^
puel|l«« ^t pii6|r' Intggrf :
Dfa|ndm, ptl6|r« intfigrf
ptiel|la^u6 c£|na|mus. — CatuU. xxziv.
b» SapphicSf in a series of single lines, closing with an Adonic: —
An mS.\gia dl|rl trSmii|6rS | Mdn€s
H6rcii|l«» ? ^t vi|siim cinls | fnf6|r6riim
fliglt I dbrup|tis tr6pl|dt!is cSJtenls ?
fdJlI|mtir : lae|t^ vSnlt | ^ccS | viUtu,
qu^m tii|lit Poe|ifl ; hiim6|rfsqu6 | tiiS,
g^t^t I ^t nO|t^ pdpii|lls ph&|r^trSs
H^rctiliis | hlr6s. — Sen. Here. Oet. 1600-1606.
c. Sapphics followed by Glyconics, of indefinite number (id. Here. Fur.
830-874, 875-894).
MISCELLANEOUS
628. Other measures occur in various styles of poetry.
a* Anapaestic (§ 609. h, 2) verses of various lengths are found in dramatic
poetry. The spondee, dactyl, or proceleusmatic may be substituted for the
^ ' htc hdmost | omnl**"* h6m!|num pra^|ctpu6s
ydltLptaltlbus gat!i|di!squ^ in{t6p5t^ns.
Ita c6m|m5da qua6 | ctipl® 6|v6nliint,
qu5d ^6 I sCibIt, dd|s6cii6 | sSquItdr :
M gati|dium slip|p6dlt^t. — PI. Trin. 1115-1119.
&• Bacchiac (§ 609. d. 4) verses (five-timed) occur in the dramatic poets, —
very rarely in Terence, more commonly in Plautus, — either in verses of two
feet (Dimeter) or of four (Tetrameter). They are treated very freely, as are
426 PROSODY: VERSIFICATION [§§628,629
all measures in early Latin. The long syllables may be resolved, or the
molossus (three longs) substituted : —
multds rSs I slmft^ in | mg6 cor|d6 y6ts6,
mult«»« in c0|gltdnd5 | dSldr^"* in|dlpf8c6r.
6gQm^t me | cQg^ ^t m&\c^T^ a de|f&tfgO;
mftgfster | mih** ^zer|clt6r &nl{mi!u3 ntinc est.
— PL Trin. 223-^226.
c. Cretic measures (§ 609. d. 1) occur in the same manner as the Bac-
chiac, with the same substitutions. The last foot is usually incomplete : —
^mdr ILmljcus mllil [ ne ffias | timquSm.
hfs SgO I d^ ^rtlbus | grdtlam | f^IO.
nfl eg^ i8|t68 m5ror | fa^SOs | m6res. — id. 207, 293, 297.
<!• Satumian Verse. In early Latin is found a rude form of verse^ not
borrowed from the Greek like the others, but as to the precise nature of
which scholars are not agreed.^
1. According to one view the verse is based on quantity, is composed of
six feet, and is divided into two paints by a caesura before the fourth thesis.
Each thesis may consist of a long syllable or of two short ones, each arsis
of a short syllable, a long syllable, or two short syllables; but the arsis,
except at the beginning of the verse and before the caesura, is often entirely
suppressed, though rarely more than once in the same verse : —
d&btint mSltm UmWi \\ Na^vl6 p5etae.
2. According to another theory the Satumian is made up, without regard
to quantity, of alternating accented and unaccented syllables ; but for any
unaccented syllable two may be substituted, and regularly are so substituted
in the second foot of the verse : —
d^bnnt m^lum Met^Ui || Na^vi6 po^tae.
EARLY PROSODY
629. The prosody of the earlier poets differs in several re-
spects from that of the later.^
a. At the end of words s, being only feebly sounded, does not make
position with a following consonant ; it sometimes disappeared altogether.
This usage continued in all poets till Cicero's time (§ 15. 7). ^
^ The two principal theories only are given. There are nnmerons variations, par-
ticularly of the second theory here stated.
2 Before the Latin language was used in literature, it had become much changed
by the loss of final consonants and the shortening of final syllables under the influence
of accent. In many cases this change was still in progress in the time of the early
poets. This tendency was arrested by the study of grammar and by literature, but
shows itself again in the Romance languages.
§629] EARLY PBOSODY 427
b. A long syllable immediately preceded or followed by the ictus may
be shortened (iambic shtyrtening) : —
1. In a word of two syllables of which the first is short (this effect remained in
a few words like putft, cavS, Tali, vid^, eg5, mod5, da5 ^) : —
dbl (Ter. Ph. 69); b6ni (id. 516) ; homS sudvis (id. 411).
2. If it is either a monosy liable or the first syllable of ^ word which is pre-
ceded by a short monosyllable : —
8^ h&s tabellfls (PI. Pers. 195) ; quid hlo nunc (Id. Epid. 157) ; pSr Inpld.
vium (Ter. Ph. 707) ; 6g« 6st^nderem (id. 793).
3. When preceded by a abort initial syllable in a word of more than three
syllables : —
vgniistitis (Ter. Hec. 848) ; s6n6ctAtem (id. Ph. 434) ; SJrftcfisas (PL Merc.
37) ; amlcltla (id. Ps. 1263).
c. In a few isolated words position is often disregarded.* Such are Hie,
immo, inde, iste, Qmnis, n^mpe, ^l^PP^? iinde.
dU The original long quantity of some final syllables is retained.
1. The ending -or is retained long in nouns with long stem-vowel (original r-
stems or original 8-«tems) : —
mddo quom dfct** in m^ Inger^b&s 6dium n6n uxor erd.m (PI. Asin. 927).
(ta m^ in p^ctor^ ^tque c<5rde fdcit amor ine^ndit!im (id. Merc 500).
^tque quintO n6x fuisti 16ngi6r hac prdxumd (id. Am. 548).
2. The termination -es (-itis) is sometimes retained long, as in miles, superstes.
3. All verb-endings in -r, -a, and -t may be retained long where the vowel is
elsewhere long in inflection : —
r^gredior audlsse m6 (PI. Capt. 1023) ; dtqu* ut quf fueris et quf nunc (id.
248); m6 n6minit haec (id. Epid. iv. 1. 8); faciat ut semper (id. Poen.
ii. 42); InfusoabAt, amftbd (cretios, id. Cist. i. 21); qui am9t (id. Merc.
1021) ; ut fit in b^llO cipitur ^ter filitis (id. Capt 25); tibi sh ad m^
revisas (id. True. ii. 4. 79).
e. Hiatus (§ 612. g) is allowed somewhat freely, especially at a pause
in the sense, or when there is a change of speaker.^
1 Cf. ambo (also a dual, p. 59, footnote), in which the o is retained because of tbe
length of the first syllable.
2 Scholars are not yet agreed upon the principle or the extent of this Irregularity.
3 The extent of this license is still a question among scholars; but in tbe present
state of texts it must sometimes be allowed.
428 MISCELLANEOUS [§§ 630, 631
MISCELLANEOUS
Reckoning of Time
630. The Roman Year was designated, in earlier times, by the names of the
Consuls; but was afterwards reckoned from the building of the City (aft urbe conditd,
anno urbis conditae), the date of which was assigned by Varro to a period correspond-
ing with B.C. 753. In order, therefore, to reduce Roman dates to those of the Christian
era, the year of the city is to he svJbtracted from 754: e.g. A.u.c. 691 (the year of
Cicero's consulship) corresponds to B.C. 63.
Before Caesar's reform of the Calendar (b.c. 46), the Roman year consisted of 355
days: March, May, Quintalis (July), and October having each 31 days, February hav-
ing 28, and each of the remainder 29. As this calendar year was too short for the
solar year, the Romans, in alternate years, at the discretion of the pontificeSt inserted
a month of varying length (mensis intercaldria) after February 23, and omitted the
rest of February. The " Julian year," by Caesar's reformed Calendar, had 365 days,
divided into months as at present. Every fourth year the 24th of February (vi. Kal.
Mart.) was counted twice, giving 29 days to that month : hence the year was called
hissextllis. The month Quintilis received the name luliiis (July), in honor of Julius
Caesar; and Sextilis was called Augusttts (August), in honor of his successor. The
Julian year (see below) remained unchanged till the adoption of the Gregorian Calen-
dar (a.d. 1582), which omits leap-year three times in every four hundred years.
631. Dates, according to the Roman Calendar, are reckoned
as follows: —
a* The first day of the month was called Kalendae (^Calends').
Note. — Kalendae is derived from calare, to call^ — the Calends being the day on
which the pontiffs publicly announced the New Moon in the Comitia Calata, This
they did, originally, from actual observation.
&• On the fifteenth day of March, May, July, and October, but the tlivr-
teenth of the other months, were the Idiis (Ides), the day of Full Moon.
c. On the seventh day of March, May, July, and October, but the fifth
of the other months, were the Nonae (Nones or ninths),
d. From the three points thus determined, the days of the month were
reckoned backwards as so many days before the Nones, the /rfes, or the
Calends, The point of departure was, by Roman custom, counted in the
reckoning, the second day being three days before, etc. This gives the fol-
lowing rule for determining the date : —
If the given date be Calends, add two to the number of days in the month pre-
ceding, — if Nones or Ides, add one to that of the day on which they fall, — and
from the number thus ascertained subtract the given date. Thus, —
VIII. Kal. Feb. (31 -|- 2 - 8) = Jan. 25.
IV. N5n. Mar. (7 -|- 1 - 4) = Mar. 4.
rv. Id. Sept. (13 -|- 1 - 4) = Sept. 10.
§§ 631, 632]
CALENDAR
429
Note.— The name of the month appears as an adjective in agreement with Kalen-
dae, ITonae, Idiis.
For peculiar constructions in dates, see § 424. g.
ۥ The days of the Roman month by the Julian Calendar, as thus ascer-
tained, are given in the following table : —
January
February
March
April
1. Kal. Ian.
Kal. Feb.
KAIi
. Mabtiae
Kal. ApbIles
2. IV. Non. Ian.
IV. Non. Feb.
VI. ]S
on. Mart.
IV. NOn. Apr.
3. III. "
III. '•
V.
((
<(
III. "
4. prid."
5. NoN. LiN.
prid." "
Non. Feb.
IV.
III.
prid." **
Non. AfrilSs
6. vni. Id. Ian.
VIII. Id. Feb.
prid.
({
(t
VIII. Id. Apr.
7. vn. " "
vn. " "
NON
. Martiae
VII. " "
8. VI. " "
VI. " "
vni.
Id. Mart
.
VI. ♦* "
9. V. " "
V. " "
VII.
<i
V. " "
10. IV. " •*
IV. •* ♦*
VI.
it
IV. ♦* **
11. m. " "
III. " **
V.
a
III. " "
1?!. prid. " "
13. iDfrsTXN.
prid. " "
Idus Feb.
IV.
III.
(I
<(
prid. " •*
Idus Apriles.
14. XIX. Kal. Feb.
XVI. Kal. Martias
prid.
{(
xvni. Kal. Maias
16. xvin. '* "
XV. "
IdusMarttae
XVII. ** *•
16. xvn. ** *'
XIV. "
XVII.
Kal.
Aprilis.
XVI. "
17. xvi. " '*
XIII. "
XVI.
XV.
18. XV. " "
XII. "
XV.
XIV. " "
19. XIV. •* "
XI. "
XIV.
XIII. " **
20. xni. " "
X. '*
XIII.
XII.
21. xn. '* "
IX. **
XII.
XI. " "
22. XI. " "
vni. **
XI.
X.
23. X. " "
VII. "
X.
IX.
24. IX. " "
VI. "
IX.
VIII. '* **
25. VIII. ** "
V. **
VIU.
VII. " "
26. vn. " "
IV. "
VII.
VI. " •*
27. VI. ** "
in. *'
VI.
V.
28. V. " "
29. IV. " "
prid. "
[prid. Kal. Mart, in
V.
IV.
IV.
ni. "
30. III. " "
31. prid. " "
(So Aug., Dec.)
leap-year, the vi.
Kal. (24th) being
counted twice.]
III. " "
prid. " "
(So May, July, Oct.)
prid. "
(So June, Sept.,
Nov.)
Note. — Observe that a date before the Julian Reform (b.c. 46) is to be found not
by the above table, but by taking the earlier reckoning of the number of days in the
month.
Measures of Value, etc.
632. The money of the Eomans was in early times wholly of cop-
per. The unit was the as, which was nominally a pound in weight, but
actually somewhat less. It was divided into twelve undae {ounces).
430 MISCELLANEOUS [fS 632-636
In the third century b.c. the as was gradually reduced to one-half
of its original value. In the same century silver coins were intro-
duced,— the dSnftrius and the sSstertius. The denarius = 10 asses;
the sestertius = 2^ asses.
633. The Sestertius was probably introduced at a time when the
as had been so far reduced that the value of the new coin (2^ asses)
was equivalent 'to the original value of the as. Hence, the Sester-
tius (usually abreviated to SB or HS) came to be used as the unit
of value^ and nummus, coin, often means simply sSstertius. As the
reduction of the standard went on, the sestertius became equivalent
to 4 asses. Gold was introduced later, the aureus being equal to
100 sesterces. The approximate value of these coins is seen in the
following table : —
2^ asses = 1 sestertius or nummus, value nearly 5 cents (2^d.).
10 asses or 4 sestertii = 1 den&rius . '' «' 20 '' (10 d.).
1000 sestertii = 1 sestertium ..." " $50.00 (£10).
NoTB. — The word sestertius is a shortened form of sSmis-tertias, the third one, a
half. The abbreviation -fiS or HS = dao et sSmis, two and a half.
634. The sSstertium (probably originally the genitive plural of ses-
tertius depending on mille) was a sum of money, not a coin ; the word
is inflected regularly as a neuter noun : thus, tria 8S8tertia = $150.00.
When sSstertium is combined with a numeral adverb, centSna milia,
hundreds of thousands, is to be understood : thus deci6ns sSstertiam
(deciSns hs) = deciens centena milia sSstertium = $50,000. Sestertimn in
this combination may also be inflected : deciSns sestertii, sSstertiS, etc.
In the statement of large sums sSstertium is often omitted as well
as centena milia: thus sezflgiens (Rose. Am. 2) signifies, aexagiSns
[centena milia sgstertium] = 6,000,000 sesterces = $300,000 (nearly).
635. In the statement of sums of money in Boman numerals, a
line above the number indicates thousands ; lines above and at the
sides also, hundred-thousands. Thus hs dc=600 sestertu; hs dc=
600,000 sestertii, or 600 sestertia; hs | do] = 60,000,000 sestertii, or
60,000 sestertia.
636. The Roman Measures of Length are the following: —
12 inches (uncicu) = 1 Roman Foot {pes: 11.65 English inches),
li Feet = 1 Cubit {cubUum), — 2i Feet = 1 Step (gradus).
5 Feet = 1 Pace (passus). — 1000 Paces {mUle passuum) = l Mile.
§§636-688] MEASURES OF WEIGHT AND CAPACITY 431
The Roman mile was equal to 4850 English feet.
The iugerum, or unit of measure of land, was an area of 240 (Roman)
feet long and 120 broad; a little less than f of an English acre.
637. The Measures of Weight are —
12 unciae (ounces) = one pound {Itbra^ about } lb. avoirdupois).
Fractional parts (weight or coin) are —
^, uncia. y\, quincunx. |, dodrdns.
^, aextdns. ^, sSmis. |, dextdns.
I, quadrHns. 3^, septunx. H, deunx.
I, triSTis. I, hSs or hBssia. j^f, as.
The Talent (tcUentum) was a Greek weight (rdXavrov) = 60 librae.
638. The Measures of Capacity are —
12 cyathi = 1 sextSirius (nearly a pint).
16 sextarll = 1 madhu (peck).
6 sextaril = 1 congius (3 quarts, liquid measure).
8 congil = 1 amphora (6 gallons).
432 GLOSSARY [§§ 639, 640
GLOSSAKY
OP TERMS USED IN GRAMMAR, RHETORIC, AND PROSODY
639. Many of these terms are pedantic names given by early grammarians to forms
of speech used naturally by writers who were not conscious that they were using fig-
ures at all — as, indeed, they were not. Thus when one says, "It gave me no little
pleasure," he is unconsciously using litotes; when he says, "John went up the street,
James down," antithesis; when he says, "High as the sky," hyperbole. Many were
given under a mistaken notion of the nature of the usage referred to. Thus mSd and
tSd (§ 143. a. N.) were supposed to owe their d to paragoge^ sumps! its p to eperUhesis.
Such a sentence as " See my coat, how well it fits ! " was supposed to be an irregularity
to be accounted for by prolepsis.
Many of these, however, are convenient designations for phenomena which often
occur ; and most of them have an historic interest, of one kind or another.
640. Grammatical Terms
Anacoluthon: a change of construction in the same sentence, leaving the
first part broken or unfinished.
Anastrophe: inversion of the usual order of words.
Apodosis: the conclusion of a conditional sentence (see Protasis).
Archaism: an adoption of old or obsolete forms.
Asyndeton: omission of conjunctions (§ 323.6).
Barbarism: adoption of foreign or unauthorized forms.
Brachylogy: brevity of expression.
Crasis: contraction of two vowels into one (§ 15. 3).
Ellipsis: omission of a word or words necessary to complete the sense.
Enallage: substitution of one word or form for another.
Epenthesis: insertion of a letter or syllable.
Hellenism: use of Greek forms or constructions.
Hendiadys (cv &a hxmi) : the use of two nouns, with a conjunction, instead
of a single modified noun.
Hypallage: interchange of constructions.
Hysteron proteron: a reversing of the natural order of ideas.
This term was applied to cases where the natural sequence of events is violated in
language because the later event is of more importance than the earlier and so comes
first to the mind. This was supposed to be an artificial embellishment in Greek, and
so was imitated in Latin. It is still found in artless narrative ; cf . ''Bred and Bom in
a Brier Bush " (Unde Remus).
Metathesis: trajisposition of letters in a word.
Paragoge : addition of a letter or letters to the end of a word.
Parenthesis: insertion of a phrase interrupting the construction.
§§ 640, 641] RHETORICAL FIGURES 433
Periphrasis: a roundabout way of expression (circumlocution).
Pleonasm: the use of needless words.
Polysyndeton: the use of an unnecessary number of copulative conjunctions.
Prolepsis: the use of a word in the clause preceding the one where it would
naturally appear (anticipation).
Protasis: a clause introduced by a conditional expression (i/y when, whoever) j
leading to a conclusion called the Apodosis (§ 512).
Syncope: omission of a letter or syllable from the middle of a word.
Synesis (constructio ad sensum) : agreement of words according to the sense,
and not the grammatical form (§ 280. a).
Tmesis: the separation of the two parts of a compound word by other words
(cutting).
This term came from the earlier separation of prepositions (originally adverbs) from
the verbs with which they were afterwards joined ; so in per ecastor scittts puer, a very
fine boy, egad I As this was supposed to be intentional, it was ignorantly imitated in
Latin; as in cere- comminuit -brum (Ennius).
Zeugma : the use of a verb or an adjective with two different words, to
only one of which it strictly applies (yoking),
641. Rhetorical Figures
Allegory: a narrative in which abstract ideas figure as circumstances, events,
or persons, in order to enforce some moral truth.
Alliteration: the use of several words that begin with the same sound.
Analogy: argument from resemblances.
Anaphora: the repetition of a word at the beginning of successive clauses
(§ 598./).
Antithesis: opposition, or contrast of parts (for emphasis: § 598./).
Antonomasia: use of a proper for a common noun, or the reverse : —
sint Maecenates, non deemnt, Flacce, Marones, so there he patrons (like Mae-
cenas), poets (like Virgil) will not be lacking ^ Flaccus (Mart. viii. 56. 5).
ilia foria et pestis, that fury and plague (i.e. Clodius); Homeromastiz, scourge
of Homer (i.e. Zoilus).
Aposiopesis: an abrupt pause for rhetorical effect.
Catachresis: a harsh metaphor (ahmid, misuse of words).
•Chiasmus: a reversing of the order of words in corresponding pairs of phrases
(§ 598./).
Climax: a gradual increase of emphasis, or enlargement of meaning.
Euphemism: the mild expression of a painful or repulsive idea : —
81 quid ei acdderit, if anything happens to him (i.e. if he dies).
Euphony: the choice of words for their agreeable sound.
Hyperhaton: violation of the usual order of words.
434 GLOSSARY [§§ 641, 642
Hyperbole: exAggeration for rhetorical ef^t.
Irony: the use of words which naturally oonv«y a senae contrary to what is
Meant.
Litotes: the affirming of a thing by denying itB contrary (§ 326. c).
Metaphor: the figurative use of words, indicating an object by some
resemblance.
Metonymy: the use of the name of one thing to indicate some kindred thing.
Onomat^amki: a fitting of sound tx> sense in the use of words.
OajfmofWi: the use of contradictory words in the same phrase : —
insaniens sapientia, foolish Ufisdom.
Paronomasia: the use of words of like sound.
Prosopopoeia : personification .
Simile: a figurative comparison (usually introduced by likej or as).
Synchysis: the interlocked order (§ 598. A).
Synecdoche : the use of the name of a part for the whole, or the rei^rse.
642. Tenns of Prosody
Acatalectic: complete, as a verse or a series of feet (§ 612. a).
Anaclasis: breaking up of rliythm by substituting different measures.
^Anacrusis: the unaccented syllable or ayllables preceding averse (§ 608. ^).
Antistrophe: a series of vei«es corresponding to one which has gone before
(cf. strophe).
Arsis: the unaccented part of a foot (§611),
Basis: a aingle foot preceding the regular movement of a verse,
Ccesura: the ending of a word within a metrical foot (§ 611. h).
Catalectic : see Catalexia.
Catalexis: loss of a final syllable (or syllables) making the series catalectic
(incomplete, § 612. a).
C^ntraotion: the use of one long syllable for two short (§ 610}.
C^rre^ions' shortening of a long syllable, for metrical reasons.
Diaeresis: the coincidence of the end of a foot with the «nd of a word
within the verse (§ 611. c).
Dialysis: the use of i (consonant) and y as vowels (sUUa ^^tZ»a, § 603.y^ n. *},
Diastole: the lengthening of a ^ort syllable by emphasis (§ 612. li).
Dimeter: consisting of two like measures.
Dipody: consisting of two like feet.
Distich: a system or series of two verses.
Ecthlipsis: the suppression of a final syllable in -m before a word l>eginning
with a vowel (§'61'2./).
Elision: the cutting off of a "final liiefore a following initial ^«<owel (§ 612. «>
Heptameter: consisting of se^mi feet.
§642] TERMS OF PROSODY 435
Hexameter: consisting of six measures.
Hexapody: consisting of six feet.
Hiatus: the meeting of two vowels without contraction or elision (§ 612. g)»
Ictus: the metrical accent (§ 611. a).
Irrational: not conforming strictly to the unit of time (§609. e).
Logacedic: varying in rhythm, making the effect resemble prose (§ 623).
Monometer: consisting of a single measure.
Mora: the unit of time, equal to one short syllable (§ 608. a).
Pentameter: consisting of five measures.
Pentapody: consisting of five feet.
Penthemimeris : consisting of five hcdf-feet.
Protraction: extension of a syllable beyond its normal length (608. c).
BesoliUion: the use of two short syllables for one long (§610).
Strophe: a series of verses making a recognized metrical whole (stanza),
which may be indefinitely repeated.
Synceresis: i (vowel) and u becoming consonants before a vowel (§ 603.
c. N.,/. N. **).
Synaloepha: the same as elision (§ 612. e, N.).
Synapheia: elision between two verses (§ 612. e, n.).
Syncope: loss of a short vowel.
Synizesis : the running together of two vowels without full contraction (§ 603.
c. N.).
Systole: shortening of a syllable regularly long.
Tetrameter: consisting of four measures.
Tetrapody: consisting of four feet.
Tetrastich: a system of four verses.
Thesis: the accented part of a foot (§ 611).
Trimeter: consisting of three measures.
Tripody: consisting of three feet.
Tristich : a system of three verses.
INDEX OF VERBS
Regular verbs of the First , Second, and Fourth Conjugations are given only in
special cases. Compounds are usually omitted when they are conjugated like the
simple verbs. The figures after the verbs indicate the conjugation. References are
to sections. For classified lists of important verbs see § 209 (First Conjogation),
§210 (Second Conjugation), § 211 (Third Conjugation), §212 (Fourth Conjugation),
§§ 190, 191 (Deponents), § 192 (Semi-Deponents).
ab-do, 3, -didi, -ditum, 209. a. n.
ab-eO, see eO.
ab-iciO, 3, -ieci, -iectum [iaciO].
ab-igO, 3, -egi, -actum [agO].
ab-nuO, 3, -nui, — .
ab-oleO, 2, -e^, -itum.
ab-oleso5, 3, -evi, — [aboleOl.
ab-ripio, 3, -ripui, -reptum [rapid].
abs-condo, 3, -oi (-didi), -ditum [condo].
ab-sisto, 3, -stiti, — .
ab-sum, abesse, afui, (afuturus).
ac-cendd, 3, «cendi, -censum.
accers5, see arcessO.
ac-cidit (impers.), 207, 208. c.
ao-cido, 3, -cldi^ — [cado].
ac-ddo, 3, -cidi, -cisum [caedo].
ac-ciO, 4, reg. [cid].
ac-cipio, 3, -cepi, -ceptum [capio].
ac-coid, 3, -ui, — .
ac-credo, see cred5.
ac-cumbO, 3, -cubui, -itum.
ao-currO, 3, -curri (-cucurri), -cursum.
acescO, 3, -acui, — [co-].
ac-quirO, 3, -quinvi, -qmsitum [quaero].
acuO, 3, -ui, -utum, 174, 176. d.
ad-do, 3, -didi, -ditum, 209. a. n.
ad-eO, see eo.
ad-hibeO, 2, -ui, -itum FhabeO].
ad-igO, 3, -egi, -actum [SkgOi}.
ad-imO, 3, -emi, -emptum [em5].
ad-ipiscor, -i, -eptus.
ad-nuo, 3, -nui, — .
ad-ole5, 2, -ui, — .
ad-oleso5, 3, -evi, -ultum.
ad-sentior, -iri, -sensus.
ad-sideO, 2, -sedi, -sessum [sedeo].
ad-sido, 3, ^di, — .
ad-spergo, 3, -spersi, -spersum [spargO].
ad-sto, 1, -stiti, — .
ad-sum, -esse, -fui, (-futurus).
af-fari, affatus, 206. c.
af-fer5, -ferre, attuli, allatum.
af-ficid, 3, -feci, -fectum [facio].
436
af-fiigo, 3, -xi, -ctum.
ag-grodior, -i, -gressus [gradlorl.
agi^^so{>, 3, -Ovi, agnltum [nOsoo].
ago, 3, egi, actum. [For regular comps.,
see ab-igo ; for others, see o5gO, circum-,
per-.]
ai5, defect., 206. a.
albeO, 2, -ui, — .
alesco, 3, -m, -alitum. ^
algeO, 2, alsi, — .
algesc5, 3, alsi, — .
al-legO, 3, -egi, -ectum.
al-IiciO, 3, -leid, — .
aid, 3, alui, altum (alitum).
amb-ig5, 3, — , — [agO].
ambio, -ire, -ii (-ivi), -itum (ambibat),
203. d.
amicio, 4, amixi (-cni), amictum.
amO, 180, 184; amarim, amasse, amus-
sem, 181. a; amassis, 183. 5.
angO, 3, ana, — .
ante-celld, .*i, — , — .
ante-std, 1, -steti, — .
anti-Bt6, 1, -steti, — .
aperio, 4, aperui, apertum.
apiscor, -i, aptus [ad-ipiscor].
ap-pelld, 3, -puli, -pulsum.
ap-petO, 3, -petivi (-ii), -itum.
ap-primd, 3, -pressi, -pressnm [premo].
arceO, 2, -ui, — [co-erce5].
arcessO (aocersd), 3, -ivi, arcessitum.
arded, 2, arsi, (arsurus).
ardesco, 3, arsi, — .
areo, ^, , .
aresoo, 3, -arui, — .
argu5, 3, -ui, -utum.
ar-rig6, 3, -rexi, -rectum [repO].
ar-ripio, 3, -ui, -reptum [rapiOJ.
a-scendd, 3, -di, -scensum [scand6].
a-spergo, see ad-spergO.
a-spiciO, 3, -exi, -ectum [-spiciO].
at-tendO, 3, -di, -tum.
at-tine5, 2, -tinui, -tentum [tene6].
INDEX OF VERBS
437
at-tingd, 3, -tig^, -taetam [tangO].
at-toll5, 3, — , — [tollO].
audeo, audere, ausus, 192 (aasim, 183. 3 ;
sddes, 13. n.).
audi5, 4, aadivi, aaditum, 187 (contracted
forms, 181. 6).
aii-fer&r -ferre, abstuli, ablatum.
auged, 2, auxi, auctum.
ansim, see audeO.
ave (have), avete, aveto, 206. g.
aveo, 2, — , — .
balbutiO, 4, — , — .
batno, 3, -ui, — .
bibO, 3, bibi, (pOtum).
balli5, 4, reg. (build, -are) [e-bullid].
cado, 3, cecldi, casum [ao-, con-, oc-cldo],
178. b.
caecutio, 4, — , — .
caedO, 3, cecidi, caesum [ac-, oc-cidO, etc.].
cale-iacia, like faci6, 266. a.
cale-factO, 1, — , — , 266. a.
caleO, 2, -ui, (cali turns),
calesoo, 3, -ui, — .
calle5, 2, -ui, — .
calveO, 2, — , — .
candeO, 2, -ui, — .
candescO, 3, -candni, — .
caned, 2, -ui, — .
canesc5, 3, canui, — .
cand, 3, cecini, — [con-cin5].
cantillO, 1, reg., 26^i. 3.
capessO, 3, capessivi, — , 263. 2. b (in-
cipissO, 3, — , — ).
capio, 3, oepi, captum [ac-cipi5 etc. ; also
aute-capiO], 188.
cared, 2, -ui, (-iturus).
carpd, 3, -psi, -ptum, 177. b [de-cerp6].
caved, 2, cavi, cautum.
cavUlor, -an, -atus, 263. 3.
cedo (imperative), cedite (cette), 206. g.
cedd, 3, cessi, cessum.
-celld (only in comp., see per-oelld, ex-
eelld, ante-cello, prae-celld).
-cendd, 3, -cendi, -censum (only in comp.,
as in-cendd).
censed, 2, -ui, censum.
cemd, 3, crevi, -cretum.
cied ^(-cid), ciere (-<are), civi, citum
(-dftum) [ac-cid, con-, ex-cid].
cingd, 3, cinxi, cinctum.
-cid, see cied.
circum-dd, -d&re, -dedi, -d&tum, 209. a. n.
circum-sistd, 3, -steti (-stiti), — .
circum-spicid, 3, -exi, -ectum.
circnm-std, 1, -stiti (-steti), — .
clangd, 3, — , — .
clarescd, 3^ clarui, — .
clauded, 2, — , — , see claudd (limp).
claudd {limp)f 3, — , — .
claudd (dose), 3, clauid, clausum [ex-
cludd].
clued, 2, — , — .
co-emd, 3, -end, -emptum.
coepi, -isse, coepturus, 205.
co-erced, 2, -ui, -itum [arced],
cd-gndscd, 3, -gndvi, -gnltum fndsod].
cdgd, 3, coegi, coactum, 15. 3 [agd].
col-lidd, 3, -Uffl, lisum [laedd].
col-ligd, 3, -legi, -lectum.
col-luced, 2, — , — [luced].
cold, 3, colui, cultum [ex-, ac-, in-],
comburd, 3, -ussi, -ustum [urdl.
oom-edd, 3 (esse), -edi, -esum (-estum).
com-mimscor, -i, -mentus.
odmd, 3, odmpn, cdmptum.
com-pelld, 3, -puli, -pulsum.
oom-percd, 3, -per», — [pared],
comperid, 4, -peri, compertum.
comperior, -in, compertus, 191. n.
com-pescd, 3, -cui, — .
com-pingd, 3, -pe^, -pactum [pangd].
corn-pled, 2, -evi, -etum.
com-primd, 3, -presu, -pressum [premd].
com-pungd, 3, -punxi, -punctum u;>ungo].
con-cidd, 3, -cicfi, — [cadd].
con-ddd, 3, -cidi, -cisum [caedd].
con-cind, 3, -ui, — [cand].
con-cipid, 3, -cepi, -ceptum [capid].
con-cid (-cied), 4 (2), -dvi, -cltum (-dtum).
con-cludd, 3, -clusi, -clusum [claudd].
con-cupiscd, 3, -cupivi, -cupitum.
con-currd, 3, -curri (-cucurri), -cursum.
con-cutid, 3, -cusd, -cussum [quatid].
cou-dd, 3, -didi, -ditum, 209. a. n.
cd-nectd, 3, -nexui, -nexum, 16.
cdn-fercid, 4, — , -fertum [farcid].
cdn-ferd, -ferre, -tuli, collatum.
cdn-ficid, 3, -feci, -f ectum [facid].
cdn-fit, defect., 204. c.
cdn-fiteor, -en, -fessus [fateor].
cdn-fringd, 3, -fregi, -fractum [frangd].
con-prud, 3, -ui, — [-grud].
con-icid, 3, -ieci, -iectum, 6. d [iacid].
cd-nitor, -i, -nisus (-nixus), 16.
cd-nived, 2, -nivi (-nixi), — , 16.
con-quird, 3, -quisivi, -quisitum [quaerd].
cdn-sistd, 3, -stiti, — .
cdn-spergd, 3, -spersi, -spersum [spargd].
cdn-spicid, 3, -spexi, -spectum, 174.
cdn-stitud, 3, -ui, -stitutum [statud].
cdn-std, 1, -stiti (-staturus) (cdnstat, 207).
cdn-sue-facid, like facid, 266. a.
cdn-suescd, 3, -evi, -etum (cdnsuerat,
181. a),
cdn-suld, 3, -ui, -sultum.
cdn-tendd, 3, -tendi, -tentum.
con-tkescd, 3, -ticui, — .
con-tined, 2, -tinui, -tentum [tenedl.
con-tingd, 3, -tigi, -tactum [tangdj (con*
tingit, impers., 208. c).
438
INDEX OF VERBS
oon-tnndd, 3, -tudi, -tusom [tundo].
coqaO, 3, coxi, coctum.
cor-rigO, 3, -rexi, -rectum [regO].
cor-ripi6, 3, -ripui, -reptum [rapiO].
cor-ru6, 3, -ui, — [ruOj.
crebrescO, 3, -crebrui, — [in-, per-],
credo, 3, -did!, -ditum, 209. a. N. f-dO].
crepO, 1, -ui (-crepavi), Ksrepitum.
crescO, 3, crevi, cretum, 176. 6. 1.
crOciO, 4, — , — .
crudescO, 3, -crudui, — [re-].
cubO, 1, -uI (cubavi), -cuoitum.
cudo, 3, -cudi, -cusum [in-cudO].
-cumbO [cub] (see ac-cumbo ; compounds
with ae-, ob-, pro-, re-, and sub-, lack
the p.p.).
cupiO, 3, cupivi, cupitum, 174.
-cupiscd, 3, see con-cupiscO.
cnrr6, 3, cucurri, cursum [in-currO].
debeO, 2, -ui, -itum, 15. 3.
de-cerpo, 3, -cerpsi, -cerptum [carpd].
decet (impers.), decere, decuit, 208. c.
de^ipiO, 3, -cepi, -ceptum [capiO].
de-currO, 3, -curri (-cucurri), -cursum.
de-do, 3, -didi, -ditum [do], 209. a. n.
de-fendo, 3, -di, -fensum, 178. b. n. ^.
de-fetiscor, -i, -fessus.
de-fit, defect., 204. c.
d^O, 3, — , — [ago].
delectat (impers.), 208. c.
deleO, 2, -evi, -etum.
de-libuO, 3, -libui, -libutnm.
de-ligO, 3, -legi, -lectum [legO].
demO, 3, dempsi, demptum.
de-pellO, 3, -puli, -pulsum.
de-primO, 3, -pressi, -pressum [premo].
depsO, 3, -sui, -stum.
de-scendO, 3, -di, -scensum [scando].
de-silio, 4, -silui (-silii), [-sultum] fsaliO].
de-sinO, 3, -sii (-sivi), -situm [sinOj.
de-sipiO, 3, — , — [sapio].
de-sistO, 3, -stiti, -stitum [sisto].
de-spiciO, 3, -spen, -spectum.
de-spondeO, 2, -di, -spOnsum [spondeO].
de-struO, 3, -striixi, -structum.
de-sum, -esse, -fui, (-futurus) [sum].
de-tendo, 3, [-di], -sum.
de-tineO, 3, -ui, -tentum [teneO].
de-vertor, -i, — .
dicO, 3, dixi, dictum, p. 87, footnote 4
(dixti, 181. 6. N.2; die, 182).
dif-ferO, -ferre, distuli, dilatum [ferO].
dif-fiteor, -eri, — [fateor].
di-gnOscO, 3, -gnOvi, — [nOscO].
di-ligO, 3, -lexi, -lectum [legO].
di-luO, 3, -lui, -lutum [luO].
di-micO, 1, -aTi, -atum.
di-nOsoO, see di-gnOscO.
dir-ibeO, 2, — , -itum [habeO].
dir-imO, 3, -emi« -emptum [emO].
di-ripio, 3, -ripui, -reptum [rapiO].
di-ruO, 3, -rui, -rutum [ruOJ.
disco [dig] , 3, didici, — . [So compounds.]
dis-crepO, 1, -ui or -avi, — .
dis-currO, 3, -curri (-cucurri), -cursum.
dis-icio, 3, dis-ieci, -iectum [iacio].
dis-pando, 3, — , -pansum (-pessom) [pan-
do].
dis-sideO, 2, -sedi, — [sedeO].
dis-siliO, 4, -ui, — .
dis-tendo, 3, -di, -tum.
di-stinguO, 3, -stinxi, -stinctum.
di-sto, 1, — , — .
ditescO, 3, — , — .
di-vido, 3, -visi, -visum,
do [da] (give), d&re, dedi, d&tum, 174,
176. e, 202, 209. a. n. (duim, perduim,
183. 2).
-do [dha] (put), 3, -didi, -ditum (only in
comp. , see ab-do, credO,yendd) , 209. a. n.
doceO, 2, -ui, doctum.
doleO, 2, -ui, (-iturus).
-dolescO, 3, -dolui, — [con-].
domO, 1, -ui, -itum.
-dormiscO, 3, -dormivi, — [con-].
ducO, 3, duzi, ductum (due, 182).
diilcescO, 3, — , — .
durescO, 3, durui, — .
e-buUiO, 4, ebullii, — .
edO (eat)t 3, edere (esse), edi, esum, 201.
e-do (put forth) 1 3, -didi, -ditum, 209. a. n.
ef-ferO, -ferre, extuli, elatum.
ef-ficio, 3, -feci, -fectum [facid].
egeO, 2, -ui, — .
e-icio, 3, -ieci, -iectum [iaciO].
e-liciO, 3, -ui, -citum.
e-li^O, 3, -legi, -lectum [legO].
e-micO, 1, -micui, -micatum.
e-mineO, 2, -ui, — [-mineO].
emO, 3, emi, emptum, 15. 11 [ad-, dir-imo,
co-emO].
e-necO, 1, -ui(-avi), -nectum (-atnm) [need].
ens, see sum.
eO, ire, ii (ivi), Itum, 203 (itum est, 203. a;
iri, id. ; itur, impers., 208. d ; ad-eO, ad-
eor, in-eO, 203. a ; ambiO, 203. d ; prod-
eO, -ire, -ii, -Itum, 203. e). See veneo.
e-rigO, 3, -rexi, -rectum.
escit, escunt (see sum), 170. b. k.
esuriO, 4, — , esuriturus, 263. 4.
e-vadO, 3, -vasi, -vasum (evasti, 181 . 6. N.*).
e-vanescO, 3, evanui, — .
e-venit (impers.), 207, 208. c.
e-"vilescO, 3, -vilui, — .
ex-cello, 3, -cellui, -celsum.
ex-ciO (-cieO), 4 (2), -ivi (-ii), -Itum (-itum).
ex-cipiO, 3, -cepi, -ceptum [capio].
ex-cludo, 3, -clusi, -clusum [claudo].
ex-colO, 3, -ui, -cultum [colO].
ex-cun^ 3, -curii (-cucurri), -cursum.
INDEX OF VERBS
439
ex-erceo, 2, -cui, -citum [arceOl.
ex-iiuO, 3, -emi, -emptum [emdj.
ex-olescO, 3, -olevi, -oletum.
ex-pell6, 3, -puli, -pulsum.
ex-perpiacor, 3, -perrectus.
ex-perior, 4, -pertus.
ex-pleO, 2, -evi, -etum.
ex-plicO, 1, {unfold), -ui, -itum ; {explain) ,
-avi, -atum.
ex-pl5d5, 3, -81, >sum [plaudO].
ex-pungO, 3, -punxi, -punctum.
ex-(s)ili6, 3, -ui (-ii), — [saliO].
ex-sistO, 3, -stiti, -stitum.
ex-stinguO, 3, -stinxi, -stinctum.
ex-sto, 1, — , (-staturus).
ex-tendOy 3, -di, -turn (-sum),
exuo, 3y -ui, -utum.
facessO, 3, faces^vi (facessi), facessitum,
2t>3. 2. h.
iacio, 3, fed, factum, 204 (fac, 182 ; fax5,
-im, 183. 3 ; oOn-ficid and otiier comps.
iu -fici5, 2Cf4. a; bene-facio etc., 204. 6;
con-8ue-faci0, cale-facio, cale-facto, 266.
a),
-factd, 1 (in compounds), 266. a.
fallo, 3, fefelli, falsum, 177. c, 178. 6. n. *.
farciO, 4, farsi, fartum [re-ferci6].
fateor, -eri, fassus [oOn-fiteor].
fatiscO, 3, — , — .
faveO, 2, favi, fautum.
-fendo, 3, -fendi, -fensum, see defendO.
far id, 4, — , — .
f ero, ferre, tuli, latum, 176. d. n. i, 200
(fer, 182) [af-, au-, cOn-, dif-, ef-, in-,
of-, re-, sui-ferO].
ferved, 2, fervi (ferbui), — ; also, fervO, 3.
fervesoO, 3, -fervi (-ferbui), — .
fido, fidere, fisus, 192 [cOn-fidO].
figo, 3, fixi, fixum.
iindo [fid], 3, fidi, fissum, 176. c. 2,
177. c. N.
fingd [fig], 3, finxi, fictum, 177. 6. n.
fio, fieri, lactus, 204 (see faciO) (fit, im-
pers., 208. c; oOnfit, defit, infit, emeri,
mterfieri, interfiat, superfit, 204. c).
flectO, 3, fiexi, fiexum.
fleo, 2, -evi, -etum, 176. e (fiestis, 181. a).
-fiigO, only in comp., see af-fiigO.
fldreO, 2, -ui, — .
fldreaco, 3, flomi, — .
liud, 3, flu3d, fluxnm, 261. N.
fodio, 3, f5di, fossum.
[for], feri, fatus, 179. a, 206. c (af-fari, pr5-
fatus, prae-, inter-fatur, etc., 206. c).
fore, forem, etc., see sum.
foveO, 2, fOvi, fotum.
f rang© [frag], 3, fregi, fractum, 176. 6. 1
[per-iring5j.
fremd, 3, £emui, — .
frendO, 3, — , fresum (fressnm).
frioo, 1, -ui, frictum (fricatum).
frige5, 2, — , — .
frigesod, 3, -frixi, — [per-, re-].
frigo, 3, frixi, frictum.
fronded, 2, — , — .
fruor, -i, fructus.
fuam, -as, etc. (see sum), 170. h. k.
fugid, 3, fu^, (fugiturus).
fulcio, 4, fmsi, fultum.
fulgeo, 2, -a, — .
fulg5, 3, — , — .
fulgurat (impers.), 208. a.
fundO [fud], 3, fudi, fusum, 176. 6. 1.
fungor, -i, functus.
furO, 3, — , — .
fuvimus, fuvisset (see sum), 170. 6. n.
gannio, 4, — , — .
gaudeo, gaudere, gavisus, 192.
-gemiscO, 3, -gemui, — .
gemd, 3, gemui, — .
gero, 3, gessi, gestum.
gestio, 4, -ivi, — , 262. a.
gignO [gen], 3, genui, genitum, 176. c. 1.
glisco, 3, — , — .
glubO, 3, — , — .
gradior, -i, gressus [ag-gredior].
grandinat (impers.), ^. a.
-gruo, 3, see con-, in-gruo.
habeO, 2, -ui, -itum [in-hibeo; debeO;
dir-ibeO].
haereo, 2, haesi, baesum.
haeresco, 3, — , — .
haurio, 4, hausi, baustum (bausurus).
bave, see ave.
bebeO, 2, — , — .
bebescO, 3, — , — .
binnio, 4, — , — .
birriO, 4, — , — .
biscO, 3, — , — [de-bisc5].
borreO, 2, horrui, — .
borrescO, 3, -borrui, — .
ic5, 3, ici, ictum.
ignOsoo, 3, -nOvi, -nOtum [nosco].
il-liciO, 3, -lexi, -lectum [-liciO].
il-lidO, 3, -lisi, -lisum [laedo].
imbuO, 3, -ui, -utum.
im-mineO, 2, — , — [-mine5l.
im-pelld, 3, -puli, -pulsum [pelld].
im-petrO, 1, reg. (-assere, 183. 5).
im-pingO, 3, -pegi, -pactum [pang5].
im-pleO, 2, -evi, -€tum.
im-plic5, 1, -avi (-ui), -atum (-itum).
in-cendO, 3, ^di, -sum.
in-cessd, 3, incessivi, — .
in-cido, 3, -cidi, (-casurus) [cad5].
in-cido, 3, -cidi, -cisum [caedo].
in-cipio, 3, -cepi, -ceptum [capiO].
in-cludo, 3, -si, -sum [claudOJ.
440
INDEX OF VERBS
in-oolo, 3, ^aolui, — [oolO].
in-crepb, 1, -ni (-avi), -itam.
in-currO, 3, -cum (-cucurri), -cunum.
in-cntio, 3, -cussi, -cuBSum.
ind-tgeO, 2, -ui, — [egeOj.
ind-ipiscor, 3, -eptus [apiscor].
iii-d5, 3^ -didi, -aitum, 200. a. n.
iudulgeO* 2, indulsi, indultmn.
induO, 3, -111, -utum.
ineptiO, 4, — , — .
In-ferO, -ferre, -tali, illatum.
in-fit, see HO.
in-gredior, 3, -gressus [gradior].
in-gruO, 3, -ui, — [-gru^.
in-hibeO, 2, -ui, -itum [habeO].
in-oIescO, 3, -olevi, — .
inquam, defect., 206. h.
in-qnirO, 3, -quisiyi, -quisitum [quaeid].
in-BideO, 2, -sedi, -sessum [sedeOJ.
in-sido, 3, -sedi, -sessum.
in-siliO, 3, -ni, [-sultumj [saliO].
in-sistO, 3, -stiti, — .
in-spicio, 3, -8i)ezi, -spectnin.
in-«tita5, 3, -ni, -utnm [statnO].
in-std, 1, -stiti, (-staturus).
intel-legO, 3, -lexi, -lectum.
inter-do, -d&re, -dedi, -datum, 209. a. N.
inter-est, -esse, -fnit (impers.), 208. 6.
inter-fatnr, see for.
inter-ficid, 3, -feci, -fectnm [faciO].
inter-sto, 1, -steti^ — , 209. a. n.
in-tueor, -eri, -tuitus [tueorj.
irascor, -i, iratus. •
ir-ru5, 3, -rui, — [rnO].
iaceO, 2, -ui, — .
iacio, 3, ieci, lactum [ab-iciO, etc.; dis-
iciO, porr-icioj.
inbeO, 2, iussi, lussnm (inssO, 183. 3).
iudicO, 1, reg. (-assit, 183. 5).
iungO, 3, iunxi, iunctum.
invenesco, 3, — , — .
inyO (ad-), 1, iuvi, iutum (-aturus).
labascO, 3, — , — .
labor, -i, ^psus.
lacessO, 3, lacessivi, lacessitum, 263. b.
laedO, 3, laesi, laesum [il-lido].
lambo, 3, — , — .
langueO, 2, langui, — .
Ianguesc5, 3, langui, — .
lateO, 2, -ui, — .
latescG, 3, -litui, — [de-litescO].
lavO, 3, lavi, lautum (lotum) (also reg. of
Istoonj.).
lego, 3, legi, lectum [for compounds see
211. e, footnote, also de-ligo, di-ligO,
intel-legO, neglegOl.
levO, 1, reg. (-assO, 183. 5).
libet (lubet), -ere, -uit, 208. c (libitum eat ;
libens).
liceO, 2, licui, — .
licet, -ere, licuit, (-itumm), 307, 208. c
(licitum est, licens).
-lid<\ 3 [for laciO, only in oomp. ; see al-
liciO, e-licio, pel-liciOl.
lino [liI, 3, levi (livi), litum.
linquO [licIi 3, -liqui, -lictnm.
liqneO, 2, liqui (licui), — .
Iique9c0, 3, -licui, — .
liquor, -i, — .
liveO, 2, — , — .
loquor, -i, locutus, 261. n.
luceO, 2, luin, — .
luoescO (-Cisco), 3, -luxi, — [11-].
ludO, 3, lusi, lusum.
lugeO, 2, luxi, — .
luO, 3, lui, -Iutum [de-luO, solyO].
madeO, 2, madui, — .
madescO, 3, madui, — .
maereO, 2, — , — .
malO, malle, maloi, — , 199 (m&yolo, mu-
yelim, mayellem, id. n.).
mandO, 3, mandi, mansum.
maneo, 2, mansi, mansum [per-maneO].
mansuescO, see -suescO.
marcescO, 3, -marcui, — [§-].
maturescO, 3, maturui, — .
medeor, -eri, — .
memini, defect., 205.
mereO or mereor, merere or -eri, meritus,
190.^.
mergo, 3, mersi, mersum.
metior, -iri, mensus.
metO, 3, messui, -messnm.
metuO, 3, -ui, -utum.
micO, 1, micui, — .
-mineO, 2, -ui, — [e-, im-, prO-mineo].
-miniscor, -i, -mentus [com-, re-].
minuO, 3, -ui, -utum.
miror, mirari, miratus.
misceO, 2, -cui, mixtum (mistom).
misereor, -eri, miseritus (misertns), 20H.
6. N.
miseret, impers., 208. b.
mitesco, 3, — , — .
mittO, 3, misi, missum, 176. d. n. >.
mOlior, -in, -itus.
molO, 3, molui, molitum.
moneO, 2, -ui, -itum, 185.
mordeo, 2, momordi, morsnm.
morior, -i (-iri), mortuus (moritQms).
moyeO, 2, mOW, mOtum (commOrat, 181.a).
mulceO, 2, mulsl, mulsum.
mulgeO, 2, -si, mulsum.
muttiO, 4, -iyi, — .
footnoted
INDEX OF VERBS
441
nectd [nbc], 3, nen (nexui), nezum.
neglegO, 3, neglezi, -lectam, 211. e, foot-
note 2.
ne6, 2, nevi, — .
nequeO, defect., 206. d.
nigresoO, 3, nigral, — .
ningit, 3, ninxit (imp6rB.)i 208. a.
uiteO, 2, — , — .
iiitesoO, 3, nitui, — .
nitor, -1, niBiis (nixus).
-niveO, 2, -nivi (-nixi), — .
116, 1, uavi, — , 179. a.
uoceo, 2, nocoi, — .
nOld, ndlle, nOlui, — , 199 (nevis, nevolt,
id. N.).
nd8c5 [oNo], 3, nOvi, nOtum [ag-, oQg-» di(g)-,
ig-ndficO], 205. b. v, ^ (ndsse, 181. a).
ndtescO, 3, -ui, — .
iiubO, 3, nupsi, nuptam.
-nao, 3, -nui, — [ab-, ad-nuO].
ob-do, 3, -didi, -ditam, 209. a. n.
ob-livlscor, -i, oblitus.
ob-muteacO, 3, -mutui, — .
ob-sideO, 2, -sedi, -aessum [sideO].
ob-sidc, 3, — , — .
ob^istd, 3, -atiti, -stitnm.
ob-solescO, 3, -evi, -etum.
ob-stO, 1, Hstiti, (-staturus).
ob-tiiie5, 2f -ui, -tentum [teneO].
ob-tingit (impers.), 208. c.
ob-tuiid5, 3, -tadi, -tusum (-tunsum) .
ob-yenit (impers.), 208. c.
oo-calleaoO, 3, -callui, — .
oo-ddd, 3, -cicfi, - casum [cadol.
oc-cido, 3, -cidi, -insom [caedoj.
oo-cinO, 3, -einui, — [canO].
oc-cipiO, 3, -cepi, -ceptam.
occulo, 3, oocnlui, oocultam.
oc-curr5, 3, -cuni (-cucurri), -cursum.
odi, odisse, 5surus (perOsus), 205.
of-fer5, -ferre, obtuli, oblatum.
-ole5 (grow) [see ab-, ad-].
oleO {amell}, 2, olal, — .
operiO, 4, operui, opertom.
oportet, -ere, -ait (impers.), 208. c.
op-pangO, 3, -pegi, -pactum [pangO].
opperior, -iri, oppertus.
opjprimO, 3, -pressi, -preasom [premO] .
ormor, -m, Orsus.
orior (3d), -Iri, ortos (oriturus) (so
comps.), 174, 191.
os-tendo, 3, -tendi, -tentom.
ovare, ovatos, defect., 206. /.
paciscor, -i, pactns.
paenitet (impers.), -ere, -uit, 208. b
(-turus, -tendtts, li. n.).
palled, 2, pidlui, — .
palleacO, 3, pallm, — .
panda, 3, paadi, puisum (passum) [dis-].
pang5 [PAo], 3, pepin (-pegi), pactum
[im-pmgO; op-pangOj.
pared, 3, peperci (parsD, (parsurus).
pared, 2, -ui, paritum (late),
pario, 3, peperi, partum (pariturus)
[com-, re-perid].
partior, -iri, -itus, 190.
parturid, 4, — , — .
pascd, 3, pavi, pastum.
pated, 2, patui, — .
patior, -1, passus [per-petior].
paved, 2, pavi, — .
pavescd, 3, -pavi, — [ex-],
pectd, 3, peid, pexum.
pel-licid, 3, -lexi, -lectum [-licid].
pelld, 3, pepuli, pulsum, 176. d. n. >, 178.
b. N.^ [ap-pelld, com-pelld, etc.].
pended, 2, pependi, -pensum.
pendd, 3, pependi, pensum.
per-agd, 3, -egi, -actum,
per-celld, 3, -culi, -culsum.
per-cid, see cid ; p.p. -citus.
per-currd, 3, -curri (-cucurri), -cursum.
per^ld, 3, -didi, -ditum, 209. a. n.
Iier-ficid, 3, -feci, -fectum [facid].
per-fringd, 3, -fregi, -fractum [frangd].
pergd, 3, perrexi, perrectum.
per-legd, 3, *legi, -lectum [legd].
per-dsus, see dm.
per-petior, -i, -pessus.
per-quird, 3, -quisivi, -quisitum [quaerd].
per-spicid, 3, -spexi, -spectum.
per-std, 1, -stiti, — .
Iier-tined, 2, -ui, — [tened].
per-tundd, 3, -tudi, -tusum.
pessum-dd, like dd, 209. a. n., 428. i,
petessd (petissd), 3, — , — , 263. 2. b.
petd, 3, petivi (-ii), petitum, 177./.
piget (impers.), -ere, piguit, 208. b (pigi-
tum est, id. n.).
pingd ^io]» 3, pinxi, pictum.
pinsd, 3, -si, jiins- (pinstum, pistum).
pisd, 3, pisivi (-ii), pistum (see pinsd).
pladed, 2, -ui, -itum (placet, impers.,
208. c).
planed, 3, planxi, planctum.
plaudd, 3, plausi, plausum [ex-plddd, etc. ;
ap-plaudd].
plectd, 3, plexi, plexum, 174, 176. b. 1.
-plector, -i, -plexus,
-pled, 2, -plevi, -pletnm (only in comps.,
as oom-pled).
plied, 1, -plicui (-plicavi), -plicitnm (-pli-
catum).
pluit, 3, pluit (pluvit), 174, 208. a (pluunt,
id.N.).
polled, 2, — , — .
pollud, 3, -ui, -utum [lud].
pdnd, 3, posui, positum.
porr-icid, 3, — , -rectum Jiacid].
por-rigd (porgd), 3, -rexi, -rectum.
442
INDEX OF VERBS
pOscO, 3, popOscI, — (so comps.)'
possideOi 2, -sedi, -sessum [sedeO].
possido, 3, -sedi, -sessum.
possum, posse, potui, — , 198. b (potis sum,
pote sum, possiem, poterint, potisit,
potestur, possitur, id., footnote),
potior, -iri, potitus.
pOtO, 1, -avi, -atum (pOtum).
praebeO, 2, -ui, -itum [habeO].
prae-celld, 3, — , — [-cello].
prae-cinO, 3, -cinui, — [canO].
prae-curro, 3, -curri (-cucurri), -cursum.
prae-fatur, 206. c.
prae-legO, 3, -legi, -lectum [legO].
prae-sagiO, 4, -ivi, — .
prae-sens, 170. b (see sum).
prae-sideO, 2, -sedi, — [sedeO].
prae-stO, 1, -stiti, -stltum (-statum) (prae-
Stat, impers., 208. c).
prae-sum, -esse, -fui, (-futurus).
prandeO, 2, prandi, pransum.
prehendo (prendo), 3, -di, prehensum
(prensum).
premO, 3, pressi, pressum [re-primO].
prendo, see prehendo.
pr5^urr0, 3, -curri (-cucurri), -cursum.
prOd-eO, 4, -ii, -itum, 203. e.
pr0d-ig5, 3, -egi, -actum [agO].
prO-dO, 3, -didi, -ditum, 209. a. N.
prO-fatus, 206. c.
prO-ficiO, 3, -feci, -fectum.
pro^ciscor, -i, profectus.
prO-fiteor, -eri, -fessus.
prO-mined, -ere, -ui, — .
prOmd, 3, -mpsi, -mptum, 15. 3.
prO-siliO, 3, -ui (-ivi), — [salid].
prO-sum, prOdesse, prOfui (-futurus), 198.
a.
prO-tendO, 3, -di, -tentus (-sus).
psallO, 3, -i, — .
pubescd, 3, pubui, — .
pudet (impers.), pudere, puduit or pudi-
tum est, 208. b (pudendus, id. n.).
puerascO, 3, — , — .
pungO [puo], 3, pupugi, punctum [com-].
putescO, 3, putui, — .
quaerO, 3, quaesiyi, quaesitum [re-quiro]
(cf. quaeso).
quaesd, 3, defect., 206. e (cf. quaerO).
quasso, 1, reg., 263. 2.
quatid, 3, -cussi, quassum [con-cutio].
queO, (^uire, quivi, quitus, 206. d (quitur,
etc., id. N.) ; cf. nequed.
queror, -i, questus.
quiescO, 3, quievi, quietum.
rabO (rabio), 3, — , — .
rad5, 3, rasi, rasum.
rapid, 3, rapui, raptum (erepsemus, 181. b.
N.3 [ab-ripio etc.].
re-cido, 3, reccldi, (recasurus) [cadO].
re-cidO, 3, -cidi, -cisum [caedo].
re-cipi5, 3, -cepi, -ceptum [capio] (recepso,
183. 3).
re-cludO, 3, -si, -sum.
red-do, 3, reddidi, redditum, 209. a. n.
red-igO, 3, -egi, -actum [ago].
red-imO, 3, -emi, -emptum.
re-fellO, 3, -felli, — [fallO].
re-fercio, 4, -fersi, -fertum [farciO].
re-ferO, -ferre, rettuli, relatum [fero].
re-fert, -ferre, -tulit (impers.), 208. c.
re-ficiO, 3, -feci, -fectum.
regO, 3, rexi, rectum [ar-rigO etc. ; pergo,
surgO].
re-linquO, 3, -liqui, -lictum [linquO].
re-miniscor, -i, — .
renideO, 2, — , — .
reor, reri, rat us.
re-pello, 3, reppuli (repuli), repulsum.
reperio, 4, repperi, repertum.
repO, 3, repsi, — .
re-primO, 3, -pressi, -pressum [premo].
re-quirO, 3, -sivi, -situm [quaerOj.
re-sideO, 2, -sedi, — .
re-siliO, 4, -ui (-ii), — .
re-sipiscO, 3, -sipivi, — [sapiO].
re-sistO, 3, -stiti, — .
re-spergO, 3, -si, -sum [spargO].
re-spondeO, 2, -di, -spOnsum [spondeo].
re-stat (impers.), 208. c.
re-stO, 1, -stiti, — , 209. a. n.
r&-tendO, 3, -di, -tum (-sum).
re-tineO, 2, -tinui, -tentum [teneO].
re-tundo, 3, rettudi, retunsum (-tusum).
re-vertor, -i, reversus, 191 (reverti, -eram,
id. N.).
rideO, 2, risi, -risum.
rigeO, 2, rigui, — .
rigescO, 3, rigui, — .
ringor, 3, rictus.
rOdO, 3, rOsi, rOsum.
rubeO, 2, — , — .
rube SCO, 3, rubui, — .
rudo, 3, rudivi, — .
rumpO [rup], 3, rupi, ruptum.
ruO, 3, rui, rutum (ruiturus), 176. e [di-,
cor-].
saepio, 4, saepsi, saeptum.
sagiO, 4, see prae-sagiO.
saliO, 4, salui (salii), [saltum] [de-silio].
salve, salvere, 206. g.
sancio [sac], 4, sanxi, sanctum, 177. b. n.
sanescO, 3, -sanui, — [con-].
sapiO, 3, sapii, — .
sarcio, 4, sarsi, sartum.
satis-do, -d&re, -dedi#-d&tum, 209. a. x.
scabO, 3, scabi, — .
scalpO, 3, scalpsi, scalptum.
scand0,3»-8cendi,-ficen8um [arBcendO,etc].
INDEX OF VERBS
443
seated (acatO), -ere or -€re, — , — .
scaturio, 4, — , — .
scin* ( = 8cisne), 13. s. (see sciO).
scindo [scid], 3, scidi, scissam, 177. c. n.
scio, 4, -ivi, scitum (scin', 13. n.).
seised, 3, scivi, scitum.
seribo, 3, scripsi, scriptum, 178. 6. n.i.
sculpo, 3, seulpsi, seulptum.
se-cem5, 3, -erevi, -eretum.
seed, 1, -ui, sectam (also secaturus).
seded, 2, sedi, sessiim [ad-, pos-sideo,
etc. ; saper-sede5].
se-ligo, 3, -legi, -lectum [legO].
senesco, 3, -senui, — .
sentio, 4, sensi, sensam.
sepelio, 4, sepelm, sepultum.
sequor, -i, secutas, 190.
sero {entwine), 3, serui, sertum.
serO (sow)f 3, sevi, satum.
serpoy 3, serpsi, — .
sido, 3, sidi (-sedi), -sessnm.
8ile5, 2, -ui, — .
singn^tid, 4, -ivi, — .
sinO, 3, siyi, situm (siris, etc., 181. b. n. i).
sisto [sta], 3, stiti, statum.
sitiO, 4, -ivi, — .
sOdes (=si audes), 13. n.
soleO, solere, solitus, 192.
solvO, 3, solvi, solutum, 177. e, 261. n.
sono, 1, -ui, -itum (-aturus).
sorbeo, 2, sorbui (rarely sorpsi), — .
spargo, 3, spaisi, sparsum [ad-spergO].
spemO, 3, sprevi, spretum, 177. a. n.
-spicio, 3, -spexi, -spectum.
splendeo, 2, -ui, — .
sponded, 2, spopondi, spOnsum [re-],
spud, 3, -spui, — .
squaleo, 2, — , — .
statuo, 3, -ui, -utum, 176. d [con-stitud].
stemO, 3, stravi, stratum, 177. a. n.
stemuo, 3, sternui, — .
sterto, 3, -stertui, — .
-stinguO, 3, -stinxi, -stinctum (in comp.,
as ex-).
st5, stare, steti, -statum (-stit-), 209. a,
and N.
strepo, 3, strepui, — .
strideo, 2, stridi, — .
stridO, 3, stridi, — .
stringo, 3, strinxi, strictum.
stru5, 3, struxi, structum.
8tude5, 2, -ui, — .
stuped, 2, stupui, — .
stupesco, 3, -stupui, — .
su&ded, 2, suasi, suasum.
sub-do, 3, -didi, -ditum, 209. a. n.
sub-i^d, 3, -egi, -actum [ag5].
suo-cidd, 3, -cidi, — [caddj.
suo-eidd, 3, -cidi, -cisum [caedd].
suc-ourrd, 3, -curri, -cursnm.
suescd, 3, suevi, suetum.
snf-ferd, snfferre, sustuli, sublatum.
suf-ficid, 3, -feci, -fectus [facid].
suf-fodid, 3, -fddi, -fossum.
sug-gerO, 3, -gessi, -gestum.
sugd, 3, suxi, suetum.
sultis (= si vultis), 13. n.
sum, esse, fui, (futurus), 170; fui (forem,
fore, 170. a; fsdns, -sens, ens, id. 6;
fuvimus, fuvisset, siem, fuam, fuas,
escit, escunt, id. &. n. ; homdst, etc.,
13. N.).
sUmd, 3, sumpsi, sumptum, 15. 11.
sud, 3, sui, sutum.
super-dd, -d&re, -dedi, -d&tum, 209. a. n.
super-fit, defect., 204. c.
super-flud, 3, — , — [flud].
super-std, 1, -steti, — .
super-sum, see sum (superest, impers.,
208. c).
surdescd, 3, surdui, — .
surgd (sur-rigd), 3, surrexi, surrectum.
sur-ripid, 3, -ui (surpui), -reptum [rapid].
tabed, 2, -ui, — .
tabesed, 3, tabui, — .
taedet (impers.), -ere, taeduit, pertaesum
est, 208. b.
tangd [tag], 3, tetigi, tactum, 176. c. 2
[con-tingdj.
tegd, 3, texi, tectum, 186.
temnd, 3, -tempsi, -temptum, 176. b, 1.
tendd [ten], 3, tetendi, tentum.
tened, 2, tenui, -tentum [con-tined, etc.].
tepescd, 3, tepui, — .
terged, 2, tersi, tersum.
tergd, 3, tersi, tersum.
terd, 3, trivi, tritum.
texd, 3, texui, textum.
timed, 2, -ui, — .
-timesod, 3, -timui, — .
tingd (tingud) , 3, tinxi, tinctum, 178. b. n.^.
tolld, 3, sustuli, sublatum, 211. /. n.
[al^toUd].
tonded, 2, -totondi (-tondi), tdnsum, 177. c.
tond, 1, -ui, -tonitum (-tonatum).
torped, 2, — , — .
torqued, 2, torsi, tortum.
torred, 2, torrui, tostum.
tra-dd, 3, -didi, -ditum, 209. a. n.
trahd,''3, traxi, tractum (traxe, 181. b. N. 2).
trans-currd, 3, -curri (-cucurri), -cursum.
tremd, 3, tremui, — .
tribud, 3, tribui, tributum.
trudd, 3, trusi, trusum.
tueor, -eri, tuitus (tutus, adj.).
tumed, 2, — , — .
tumesed, 3, -tumui, — [in-].
tundd [tudI, 3, tutudi, tunsum (-tusum)
[ob-tunddj.
turged, 2, tursi, — .
tussid, 4, — , — .
444
INDEX OF VBRBS
ulcuKsor, -I, ttltns.
ungO (-aO), 3, Aim, flnotnm.
urgeO, 2, arsi, — .
urO, 3, 0881, ustum (so oomp8., cf. also
comb&rO).
iitor, -1, ftsns.
vacat (impels.) > 20& c.
vadO, 3, -vftsi, -yasam.
vaslo, 4, -ii, --.
YiueO, 2, -al, (-itanu).
valesoO, 3, -m, — .
vanesoO, 3, -yftnni, — [§-].
veho, 3, yezi, vectam.
vellO (yoUO), 3, yelli (-yolsi), yulsom.
yendO, 3, -didi,-4itum,y428. t.
yeneO (be aold), 4, 41, -itnrn, 428. i.
yeniO (oome), 4, yeni. yentmn, 19, 174.
yenum-dO, -dftre, -dedi, -dfttnm, 20d. a. n.,
428. t.
yereor, -Sri, -itna, 190.
yerg6, 3, — , — .
yerr5 (yonO), 3, -yeni, yeraum.
yertO (yortO), 3, yerta, yeraam, 178. b. k.^
(yertor, mid., 156. a. m.).
yesoor, -i, — .
yespeikscit (impeis.), 208. a, 263. 1.
yeteiascO, 3, yetei&yi, — .
yeto, 1, -111, -itum.
yideO, 2, yidi, yiaom.
yideor (aeem), -en, yisos (yidetur, im-
pers., 208. c).
yieO, 2, [yie^, -§tam.
yigeO, 2, -ui, — .
yin' (=yisiie, see yolO).
yinciO, 4, yiiud, yinctnm.
yinoO rnc], 3, yici, yictam.
yireO, 2, -ui, — .
yisO [yiDl, 3, yisi, — , 263. 4. n.
yiyisoO, 3, -yixi, — , [re-].
yiyO, 3, yud, yictum (yixet, 181. 6. v.^.
yoU>, yelle, yolui, 199 (sultis, 13. n.,
199. v.; yfn', 13. N.).
yolyO, 3, yolyi, yolutom.
yomd, 3, yomui, — .
yoyeO, 2, yOyi, ydtnm.
INDEX OP WORDS AND SUBJECTS
NoTB. — The namerical references are to sections, with a few exceptions in whicii the
page (p.) is referred to. The letters and some numerals refer to subsections. The
letter n. signifies Note; ftn., footnote. Abl.= ablative; ace. r= accusative; adj.=
adjective; adv. = adverb or adverbial; apod. = apodosis; app.=appositive or appo-
sition ; cf . = compare ; comp. = compound or composition ; compar. = comparative or
conoLjiarison ; conj.=conjugation or conjunction; constr.=construction; dat.=dative;
gen. = genitive ; gend. = gender ; imv. = imperative ; ind. disc. = indirect discourse ;
loc. = locative ; nom. = nominative ; prep. = preposition ; snbj. = subject ; subj v. =
subjunctive ; vb. = verb ; w. = with. (Other abbreviations present no difficulty.)
A, quantity of final, 604. d.
2, ace. of Greek nouns in, 81. 2; as nom.
ending, decl. Ill, gend., 84-87.
ii, in decl. I, 37; stem-vowel of conj. I,
171, 174, 179. a, 269; in subjunctive,
179 ; preps, in -A, adv. use of, 433. 4.
£-, primary suffix, 234. 1. 1.
& (ab, abs), use, 220. 6, 221. 1, 429. b ; com-
pounded with vbs., 267. a; w. abl. of
agent, 406 ; w. place from which, 426. 1 ;
^. names of towns, 428. a; expressing
position, 429. h ; as adv. expressing dis-
tance, w. abl. of degree of difference,
433. 3; in comps., w. dat., 381; in
oomps., w. abl., 402; w. abl. of ger-
und, 607.
a parte, 398, 429. b.
ab and an in auferS, 200. a. n.
Abbreviations of praenomens, 108. c.
Ability, verbs of, constr., 466; in apod.,
517. c.
ABiiATTVB, defined, 35. 6; in -Abas, 43.
e; in -d, 43. N.i, 49. e, 80. ftn., 92./;
of i-stems, decl. Ill, 74. e; rules of
form, 76 ; nouns having abl. in -i, 76. a,
b ; of decl. IV, in -nbus, 92. c ; abl. used
as supine, 94. 6 ; of adjs., decl. Ill, 121.
a. 1-4 ; preps, followed by, 220. b ; ad-
verbial forms of, 214. e, cf . 215. 4.
Abi^ativb, Syntaxy 398-420; classifica-
tion and meaning, 398, 399. Separation,
400; w. vbs. of freedom, 401 ; w. compa.,
402; w. adjs. of freedom etc., 402. a.
Source and material, 403; w. partici-
ples, id. a; w. oSnstAie etc., id. 6; w.
facere, id. c; w. nouns, id. d. Cause,
404; causft, grfttift, id. c. Agent, 406;
means for agent, 406. b.vA, Compari-
son, 406; opinidne, spC, etc., id. a; w.
alias, 407. d\ w. advs., id. e. Means,
409; w. dSno etc., 364; w. utor, fruor,
etc., 410; w. opus and iisus, 411. Man-
ner, 412. Accompaniment, 413. Degree
of difference, 414; quo . . . eo, 414.
a. Quality, 415; price, 416; charge or
penalty, 353. 1. Specification, 418; w.
digntts etc., id. 6. Abl. Absolute, 419 ;
adverbial use, id. c; replacing subord.
clauses, 420; sup^ying place of perf.
act. part., 493. 2. Place, 422, 426. 3; w.
vbs. and frStns, 431 and a. Abl. of
time, 423 ; of time w. quam, 434. n. ; of
place from which, 426. 1; names of
towns, domus, rus, 427. 1 ; ex nrbe RSmft,
428. 6. Locative abl., 426. 3; way by
which, 429. a ; w. transitive compounds,
1^95. N.^; time within which, 424. c;
duration of time, id. 6. Abl. w. preps.,
220. 6, 221 , 430, 435 ; w. ex for part, gen . ,
346. c; w. pr5 {in df^ence o/)y 379. n. ;
w. palam etc., 432. c; abl. of gerund,
507 ; equiv. to pres. part., id. ftn.
Ablaut, 17 ; in decl. 11, 45. c.
Abounding, words of, w. abl., 409. a ; w.
gen., 366.
Absence, vbs. of, w. abl., 401.
Absolute case, see Abl. Absolute.
Absolute use of vb., 273. 2. n. ^ 387. n.
absque mS etc., in PI. and Ter., 517./.
Abstract nouns, gend., 32; in plur., 100.
c ; endings, 238 ; w. neut. adj., 287. 4. a,
289 ; abstract quality denoted by neut.
adj., 289. a.
abeam, constr., 373. 6.
-Abas, in dat. and abl. plur., decl. I, 43. e.
ac, see atqae.
ac 81, w. subj v., 624.
Acatalectic verse, 612. a.
445
446
INDEX OF WORDS AND SUBJECTS
accCdit ttt, 569. 2.
Accent, rales of, 12 ; effect in modifying
voweds, p. 27. ftn. 1 ; in decl. 11, 49. b ;
in comps. of facio, 204. b ; musical, 611.
acceptnm, 496. n.^.
aocidit, synopsis, 207; constr., 569. 2.
accingd, constr., 364.
accommodattts, w. dat. of gerund etc.,
505. a.
Accompaniment, abl. of, 413.
Accomplishment, vbs. of, w. subjv., 568.
Accusative, defined, 35. d; in -m and
-8, 38. c ; in -im, decl. Ill, 75. a, 6 ; in
-18 (plur.), 77; in -a, 81. 2; ace. of
decl. IV , used as supine, 94. b ; neut.
ace. used as adv., 214. c7, cf . 215. 1 ; fern,
used as adv., id. 2.
Accusative, Syntax, 386-397 (see 338) ;
w. vbs. of remembering, 350 and a, c,
d; and gen. w. vbs. of reminding, 351 ;
w. impersonals, 354. 6, 388. c, 455. 2 ; w.
ad with interest and rSfert, 355. b ; w.
dat., 362; w. compounds of ad, ante,
Ob, 370. b ; vbs. varying between ace.
of end of motion and dat., 363; w. ad
for dat., 385. a ; after propior etc., 432. a ;
direct object, 274, 387; w. iuv6 etc.,
367. a; ace. or dat. w. vbs., 367. &, c;
ace. w. vbs. of feeling and taste, 388. a,
390. a ; w. comps. of circum and trans,
388. b ; cognate ace., 390 ; adverbial use
of, 390. c, d and n. *, 397. a ; two accu-
satives, 391; pred. aoc., 392-3; second-
ary object, 3J^^5 ; aoc. w. pass, of vbs.
of asking etc., 396. b. n. ; synecdochical
ace. (of specification), 397. 6; in excla^
mations, id. d; duration and extent,
423, 425 ; end of motion, 426. 2 ; names
of towns, domus, rus, 427. 2; Romam
ad urbem, 428. b ; ace. w. ante diem, 424.
g; w. preps., 220. a,c; w. ad or in to
denote penalty, 353. 2. N. ; w. pridi6,
propius, etc., 342. a; ace. of gerund,
506; of anticipation, 576; subj. of inf.,
397. e, 452, 455. 2, 459 ; as pred . after inf.,
455. a; subj. in ind. disc., 579, 581.
Accusing and acquitting, vbs. of, constr.,
352.
2cer, decl., 115; compar., 125.
-acens, adj. ending, 247.
aciSs, decl., 98. a.
acqttiSsco, w. abl., 431.
Actions, names of, 237 ; nouns of action
w. gen., 348.
Active voice, 154. a, 156 ; change to pass.,
276.
Acts, nouns denoting, 239.
-acu8 (-Acas), adj. ending, 249.
acns, gend., 90. Exc.
ad, use, 220. a, 221. 2 ; incomp., 16, 267. a ;
w. ace. to denote penalty, 353. 2. n. ;
in comps., w. dat., 370, 381 ; in comps.,
w. ace, 370. b ; w^acc. with adjs., 385,
a; end of motion, 426. 2, cf. 363; w.
names of towns, 428. a ; w. names of
countries, 428. c ; meaning near, 428. d ;
in expressions of time, 424. e ; following
its noun, 435 ; w. gerund, 506.
additttr, constr., 568.
adeo (verb), constr., 370. 6.
adeSut, 537. 2. N.2.
•adfis, patronymic ending, 244.
adiuvo, w. ace., 367. a.
Adjective pronouns, see Pronouns.
Adjectives. Definition, 20. 6 ; formed
like nouns, 109; a- and o-stems, 110-
112. Declension, 110-122 ; decl. I and
II, 110-113; decl. Ill, 114-121; decl.
III, three terminations, 115 ; one termi-
nation, 117, 118; variable, indeclinable,
defective, 122. Comparison, 12S-131;
decl. of comparative, 120. NomeTal
adjs., 132-137; derivative adjs., 242-255.
Adjectives, Syntax. Masc. adjs., 122.
d; adjs. of com. gend., id.; as ad vs.,
214. d, e (cf. 218), 290; adj. as app.,
282. b ; as nouns, 288, 289 ; noons used
as adjs., 321. c; ad vs. used as adjs.,
321. a; participles used as adjs., 494.
Agreement of adjs., 286, 287 ; attribute
and predicate, 287 ; use of neut. adjs.,
289. Adjs.w. adverbial force, 290. Two
comparatives w. quam, 292. Adj. pro-
nouns, 296-298. Gen. of adjs. of decl.
Ill instead of nom., 343. c. n. ^. Adjs.
w. part, gen., 346. 2; w. dat., 383; w.
ace, 388. d. N. 2 ; w. inf. , 461 ; w. supine
in -n, 510. Position of adjs., 598. a, b.
Adjective phrase, 277.
admodum, use, 291. c. n. i.
admoned, constr., 351.
Admonishing, vbs. of, constr., 563.
Adonic verse, 625. 3.
adspergo, constr., 364.
adttlor, constr., 367. 6.
Adverbial ace., 390. b, c, d, and n. *, 397. a.
Adverbial conjunctions, 20. g. n.
Adverbial phrases, 216, 277.
Adverbs, defined, 20. e; formed from
adjs., 214 and c, d, e, 218 ; case-forms or
phrases, 215 ; comparison of advs., 218;
numeral advs., 138. Classification of
advs., 217 ; correlative forms of advs.
of place, 217. n.
Adverbs, Syntax, 321. Advs. used as
adjs., 321. d; adjs. w. adverbial force,
290; adverbial abl. abs., 419. c. Special
uses, 322, 326. Advs. w. nouns, 321. c.
N. ; correlative advs. used as conjs., 323.
/, g ; part. gen. w. advs., 346. a. 4 ; dat.
w. advs., 384 ; compar. of adv. followed
by quam, 406 ; adv. as protasis, 521. a.
INDEX OF WORDS AND SUBJECTS
447
Adversative conjunctions, 223. a. 2, 224.
I. b.
adversus, 219; w. ace, 220. a; as adv.,
433.2.
ac, diphthong, 2; sound of, 6. n.s, 8.
aedSs, sing, and plur., 107. a.
aeger, decl., 112. a.
aemulor, constr., 367. h.
Aeneades, decl., 44.
AenSas, decl., 44.
aequaUs, decl., 76. a. 2; constr. w. gen.,
385. c and 1.
aeqttS ac, 384. n. ^.
aequo (abl.), w. compar., 406. a.
aeqaor, decl., 64.
•aer, use of plur., 100. b.
aes, use.of plur., 100. b.
aetas, decl., 72.
aethSr, decl., 81.
Affecting, ace. of, 386.
afflnls, decl., 76. b. 2 ; constr. w. gen., 386.
c and 1.
Affirmative, expressed by two negatives,
326; nonne expecting affirm, answer,
332. b ; ways of saying yc«, 336 and a.
Agency, nouns of, 236 ; rel. clause equiv-
alent to, 308. c.
Agent, dat. of, w. gerundives, 374; w.
perf. parts., 375; abl. of, 405; agent
regarded as means, id. b; animal as
agent, id. n. ^.
ager, decl., 47.
aj^gredior, constr., 370. 6.
Agnomerif 108. a. n.
ago, forms of, omitted, 319. a.
Agreeing, verbs of, w. gerundive, 500. 4.
Agreement, 280; of nouns, 281; in app.,
282; in predicate, 283; of adjs., 286;
of demonstrative pronouns, 296 ; of pos-
sessive pronouns, 302; of relatives,
305, 306; of verbs, 316, 317.
-ai for -ae, decl. I, 43. a; 603. a. 2. n.
-4ia, nouns in, decl., 43. e. n. 2.
"&io, pronounced ai-io, 6. c.
-aius, names in, decl., 49./; -fiius in Pros-
ody, 603./. n. 2.
-al, ending, 254. 7 ; nouns in, 68. ftn. 1.
-al and -ar, neuters in (decl. Ill), 65. 6,
76. a. 3.
alacer, decl., 115. a: compar., 131. b.
albus, not compared, 131. d.
Alcaic verse, 625. 9, 10.
Alcmanian strophe, 617. a.
-ale, noun ending, 254. 7 ; list of nouns
in, 68. ftn. 2.
alienus, for possessive gen. of alius, 113. c2,
343. a.
aliquis (-iiui), decl., 151. e; meaning, 310,
311.
aliquot, indeclinable, 122. b.
-alls, -axis, adj. endings, 248.
alius, decl., 113; gen., id. c, cf. 343; com-
pounds, 113. e; alius w. abl., ac, nisi,
quam, 407. d.
alius . . . alius, 315. a.
Alphabet, 1 ; vowels and diphthongs, 1, 2 ;
consonants, 3, 4 ; early forms of letters,
1. a and n., 6. a, b.
alter, decl., 113. b; gen. and comps., id.
c, e ; use, 315 ; reciprocal use, 146. c,
315. a.
alter . . . alter, 315. a.
altera est rgs ut, 568. ftn. 2.
alteruter, decl., 113. e ; use, 315.
Although, how expressed, 527, 535. e.
alvos (alvus), gend., 48. Ezc.
am-, see amb-.
-am, adv. ending, 215. 2.
amb- (am-, an-), mseparable prefix, 267. 6.
amb&ges, decl., 78. 1.
ambd, decl., p. 59. ftn. ; 5 in, p. 427. ftn. 1.
ftmens, decl., 121. a. 3.
amplius, without quam, 407. c.
amussim, ace, 75. a. 3, 103. 6. 4.
an-, see amb-.
an, anne, ann5n, in double questions, 335.
Anacrusis, 608. g.
AnapsBSt, 609. 6.2; anapsestic verse, 613,
628. a.
Anaphora, 598. /.
anceps, decl., 121. a. 3.
AnchisSs, decl., 44.
AndromachS, decl., 44.
-aneus, adj. ending, 247.
animal, decl., 69.
Animals, gend. of names of, 32, 34 and
N. ; regarded as means or agent, 405. 5.
animi (loc.),w. adjs., 358; w. vbs., id.
annalis, decl., 76. a. 2.
Annalistic present, 469. a.
Answers, forms of, 336, 337.
ant-, cnt-, stem-endings, 83. e.
ante, 220. a ; uses, 221. 3 ; compounded w.
vbs., 267. a; in compounds, w. dat.,
370, w. ace., id. 6; adverbial use of,
433. 1 ; followed by quam, 434.
ante diem, 424. g.
Antecedent, its use w. relative, 305-307 ;
undefined, constr., 535. See Indefinite
antecedent.
antecMo, constr., 370. b.
anteeo, constr., 370. b.
antegredior, constr., 370. 5.
Antepenult, defined, 12. ftn.
antequam, 550, 551 ; in ind. disc, 585. b. n.
AntibacMus, 609. d. n.
Anticipation, ace. of, 576 ; becomes nom.,
id. N.
Antithesis, 598./.
anus, gend., 90. Exc.
-anus, adjs. in, 249.
448
INDEX OF WORDS AND SUBJECTS
AoriHt ( = hist. perf.), 161. 2, 473.
apage, 206. g,
apertu, oompar. of, 124. a.
Apex, 10. N.
apis, decL, 78. 2.
Apodosis, defined, 512; introduced by
correl., id. 6; may be subord., id. c;
forms of, 514, 515 ff. ; potential subjv.,
447.3.N. ; subjy.of modesty, 447.1 ; vbs.
of necessity etc. , 522. a ; complex apod.,
523; apod, omitted, 524; apod, in ind.
disc., 589. 2. See Ck>nditional Sen-
tenoes.
Appointing, vbs. of, constr., ?^\.
Apposition, see Appositiye.
Appositlve, defined, 282; agreement of,
1^1, ^2. c; w. loc., id. d; gen. as app.
to possessive, 302. e ; gen. uMd for ai^.,
;i43. d ; so dat., 373. a ; rel. clause equiv-
alent to app., 308. c; ace. as app. to a
clause, 397. /; app. instead of voc.,
'Mss. a; app. in connection with inf.,
452 and K.^.
aptns ad, 385. a; aptas w. dat. of gerund
etc., 505. a. ftn. 2; aptns qui, 535./.
apttd, 220. a ; use, 221. 4 ; in quoting, 428.
d. M.*.
aqttUis, decl., 76. a. 2.
-ar, nom. ending, ded. Ill, 68. a, 66. &,
76. a. 2; 68. ftn. 1 ; gend., 87.
arbor (Hfo), decl., 62. n.^.
arced, constr., 364. n. ^.
Archilochian verse, 622.
arctus, gend., 48. Exc.
£rde5, w. abl., 404. a.
-&ria, suffix, 254. 2.
-aris, adj. ending, 248.
Aristophanic verse, 626. 2.
-2riiim, noun ending, 254. 3.
-&rius, adj. ending, 260. a; noun ending,
254.1.
Arrangement of words, 595-601.
Arsis and thesis, 611 and ftn.
Arts, names of, decl. I, 44.
artus, decl., 92. c.
as, value of, 632 ; gen. of, 417. a.
-is, in ace. plur. of Greek nouns, 81. 5.
-&B, old gen. ending, 43. 6; Greek nom.
ending, 83. e ; patronymic, 244 ; gend.
of nonns in, 86. 6; -fts, 4ltis, see it-;
adjs. in -As, 249.
Asclepiadic verse, 626. 5, 6.
Asking, vbs. of, w. two ace., 396 ; w. abl.,
.'$96. a ; w. subjunctive clause, 563.
Aspirates, 4 and ftn. 2. |
Assertions, direct, in indie, lOT. a.
Assimilation of consonants, 15. 6, 10 ; in
prefixes, 16.
4Lss5, -ftssere, in fut. perf., 183. 5.
ast, 324. d.
-aster, as noun ending, 254. 11.
Asyndeton, 323. 6, 601. c.
At, meaning near^ 428. d,
at, use, 324. d ; at enim, id. ; at vCiS, 324. A.
it-, patrial stem-ending, 71. 5; decl., 78.
3, 121. a. 4.
iter, decl., 112. a; not compared, 131. tf
and N.
Athematic verbs, 174. 2.
Athds, decl., 52.
Atlis, decl., 82, 83. e.
atque (ac) , use, 324. 5, e ; after adjs. of like-
ness, 384. N.S; after alius, 407. d.
atqni, use, 324. d.
atrSx, decl., 117. a.
Attraction of case of relative, 306. a; of
case of antecedent, id. n. ; of subject in
ind. disc., 581. n.^.
Attraction, subjunctive of, 591. 2, 598.
Attributive adjective defined, 285. 1;
number, 286. a; takes gend. of near-
est noun, 287. 1.
-itus, adj. ending, 246.
audieter, oompar., 218.
aula, decl., 44.
aureus, not compared, 131. d.
ansns as pres. part., 491.
ant, use, 324. e, 335. d. n.
antem, use, 324. d,i, 599. 5.
Author w. apnd, 428. d. n. 2.
Authority in Prosody, 602.
avis, decl., 76. 6. 1.
-ix, verbal adj. ending, 251; adjs. in,
w. gen., 349. c.
baccar, decl., 76. a. 3.
Bacchiac verse, 628. 6.
^accAitM, 609. d.
Biiae, decl., 43. e. n. >.
-bam, tense-ending, 168. b.
Bar^ining, vbs. of, constr., 563; gerun-
dive, 500. 4 ; clause, 563. d.
Base, 27.
basis, decl., 82.
Beginning, vbs. of, constr., 456.
BeUeving, vbs. of, w. dat., 367.
belli, loc. use of, 427. a.
bellnm, decl., 46.
bellus, compar., 131. a.
Belonging, adjs. of, w. gen., 385. c.
bene, comparison, 218; in phrase com-
pounds, 12. a. Ext. 1, 266. 5; com-
pounds of, constr., 368. 2.
Benefiting, vbs. of, constr., 367.
-ber, names of months in, decl., 115. a.
bicolor, decl., 122. a.
bicorpor, 119. N.
-bills, verbal adj. ending, 252.
Birds, gend. of names of, 32.
Birth or origin, nouns of, derivation, 214;
participles of, w. abl., 403. a.
-bo, tense-ending, 168. c.
INDEX OF WORDS AND SUBJECTS
449
B«i, decl., 49./.
bonus, decl., 110; compar.,12i); w. dat. of
gerund etc., 506. a. ftn.
Ms, decl., 79 and h.
bri-, stems ending in, 66; adjs. in, 115. a.
-brum, suffix, 240.
-bulum, suffix, 240.
-bundus, verbals in, 253. 6 ; w. ace, 3SS. d.
N.
2
buris, decl., 75. a. 1.
Buying, vbs. of, constr. with, 417. c.
C for g, in early use and as abbreviation,
1. a and n. ; for qu, 6. a, 6 ; quantity of
final syllables ending in, 604. j.
caed^B, decl., 78. 2.
caelSs, decl., 121. a. 4.
caelum, w. masc. plnr., 106. b.
Caere, decl., 76. 6. n. «.
caesius, compar., 131. a.
CsBSura, 611. b ; masc. and fem., 615. c. n. ;
bucolic csBsnra, id.
Calendar, Roman, 6^)1 .
Calends, 631. a.
calx, de6l., 103. g. 2.
campester, decl., 115. a.
Can, how expressed in Lat., 157. 6.
canUis, decl., 76. 6. 2.
canis, decl. and stem, 62. n. 3, 76. b. n. 3,
78.1.
CAP, root, 56. a.
Capacity, measures of, 638.
capitis, genitive, w. verbs of accusing,
352. a.
caput, decl., 59.
Capys, decl., 82.
carbasus, gend., 48. Ezc. ; plur., 106. b.
Cardinal numbers, 132 ; inflection of, 134.
a-c; use of et with, 135. a, 6; replaced
by distributives, 137. 6, rf ; w. ex or par-
titive genitive, 346. c.
cSLrif compar., 218.
caro, decl., 79.
c&rus, compar., 124.
Case-constructions, ^338.
Case-endings, 27. a ; final vowels in, 38. ^ ;
table, 39.
Case-forms, words defective in, 108.
Cases, defined, 35 ; position of modifying
case, 598. 2 ; agreement in, 281 ; origin
and meaning of, 338 ; case of rel. pron.,
.305, 306. a ; same case after as before
certain conis., 323. a. Construction of
Cases, :»8-435; Genitive, 342-359;
Dative, 360-380; Accusative, 386-397;
Vocative, 340; Ablative, 398-420 ; time
and place, 423-431; cases w. preps.,
220, 426. ftn.
cassem, decl., 103./. 3.
castnim, castra, 107.
Catalectic verse, 612. a.
causA, w. gen., 359. 6, 404. c; w. gen. of
gerund, 504. 6.
Causal clauses, 539, 540; w. indie, or
subjv., quod, quia, 540 ; w. indie, quoni-
am, quandS, 540. a; w. qui, 535. e; w. cum,
540. d ; n5n quia, n5n quod, etc., in the
denial of a reason, 540. n.*; causal
clause replaced by part., 496; by abl.
abs., 420. 2.
Causal conjunctions, 223. a. 3, b, 7, 224. II.
/,- particles, 539, 540.
Cause, abl. of, 404.
Cause, advs. of, 217. c.
Caution and effort, verbs of, constr.,
563. €.
cav6, in prohibitions, 450 (2) and n.^;
nS omitted after, 565. N. ^.
cave5, constr., 563.
-ee, enclitic, 146. n. ^ and o. n. i.
Ceasing, verbs of, w. complem. inf., 4.56.
ced5, constr., 366. N.2.
oeleber, decl., 115. a.
celer, forms, 115. a. x. '.
c516, w. ace, 396. c.
Celtiber, decl., 50. c.
cCnsed, constr., 563 and d.
certs, certs, use, 322. c ; in answers, 336. a.
cStS, Greek plur., 48. a. N.
oStera, 111. 6; adverbial use, 390. d.v.^;
-us, use, 29.3 ; -i, use, 315.
ceu, use, 524.
-ecus, adj. ending, 247.
Characteristic, clauses of, 534, 536 ; pro-
viso, 535. d ; cause or concession, ia. e ;
of result or characteristic, 559.
Characteristic, expr. by participle, 496.
Characteristic vowel, 37,
Charge and penalty, gen. of, 352.
Chiasmus J .'>98. / and n.
Choliambic trimeter, 618. c.
Choosing, vbs. of, w. two aocs., 393.
Choriambic verse, 624. n.
Choriambiuij 609. c.
ci and ti, interchange of, 6. N. ^.
-cinium, noun ending, 241. c.
-ci5, diminutive ending, 243. a.
cip-, stems in, decl. Ill, 56. a.
circ2, circum, circiter, use, 220. a, 221. .5-7 ;
as advs., 433. 2.
cirdl, w. gerund, 606. n. i.
circum, compounds w. vbs., 267. a; dat.
w. such comps., 370; aoc., 388. b.
circumdS, constr., 364.
Circumstances of action, 419, 420. 5;
participle implying, 496.
cis, citerior, 130. a.
Cities, gend. of names of, 32 and a. See
Locative.
citra, after its noun, 435.
cladSs, decl., 78. 2.
clam, constr., 4iy2. d.
450
INDEX OF WORDS AND SUBJECTS
Classes, names of, geud. of, 30. a. n.>;
iised in plur., 101. 3.
Clauses, defined, kinds of, 278, 279 ; re-
placed bv abl. abs., 420; used as
nouns, 34i3. c; dependent, syntax of,
519^583; conditional rel., 279. c, 519;
final, 279. d, 529-^533; consecutive,
536, 537; causal, 539, 540; temporal,
543-556; substantive, 562^588; infini-
tive clauses, 452, 562. n. ; substantive
clauses of purpose, 563 ; of result, 567,
568 ; indie, w. quod, 572 ; indirect ques-
tions, 57an575; ind. disc., 578-693.
cUlvis, decl., 76. 6. 1.
Close syllables, 7. n.-.
coepl, 205.
Cognate ace., 214. d.s.y 390.
Cognomen^ 108.
Collective noun with sing, or plur. vb.,
317. d.
colas, gend., 90; decl., 105. a.
com- (con-), compounded w. vbs., 16, 267.
a; such may take dat., 370.
Combinations of words, 13.
cometCs, decl., 44.
comitiam, comitia, 107.
Command, see Imperative ; in hortatory
subjv., 439.
Commanding, vbs. of, w. dat., 367; w.
inf., 563. a; w. subiv., 563 (cf. 680. a).
Commands, expressed by imv., 448; for
condition, 521. 6; in ind. disc., 588; in
informal ind. disc., 592. 1.
commiseror, w. ace., 354. a. n.
committo at, 568 and N. i.
Common gender, 34 ; adjs. of, 122. d.
Common syllables, 11. c, 60.'<./.
commonefacid, -fid, constr., 351.
commoned, constr., 351.
communis, w. gen., 385. c.
commat5, constr., 417. b.
Comparative conjunctions, 223. h. 2, 224.
\\.h\ in conditions, 524.
Comparative sufiix, 124. ftn. ; of ad vs.,
214. 6. N.
Comparatives, decl., 120; stem, id. 6;
neut. sing, of compar. adj. used as adv.,
218; meaning of, 291; two comparar
tives, 292; compar. and positive w.
qaam, id. a. N. ; abl. w. compar., 406;
qaam w. compar., 407. a; compar. w.
qaam (at), qaam qui, 635. c, 571. a.
Comparison, conjunctions of, 323. a.
Comparison, particles of, tamqaam, qaasi,
etc., constr., 524.
Comparison of adis., 123 if. ; irregular,
129 ; defective, 130, 131 ; w. magis and
mazimC, 128; of ad vs., 218; preposi-
tions implying, w. qaam, 407. e. n., 434.
Complementary infinitive, 456; has no
subject, id. n. ; pred. noun or adj. after,
458 ; inf. partly subject, partly comple-
mentary, 454 ; by analogy, 457. a.
compled, constr., 356, 409. n.
Completed action, tenses of, 160. 6 ; how
formed, 179./, g\ use of, 473 ff.
Complex conditional sentences, 523.
Complex sentence, 278. h.
complurCs, complaria,. 120. c.
compos, decl., 121. a. 4, 6. 1.
Composition, all word-formation a pro-
cess of, 227 ; comp. to express relations
of words, 338, 386. See Comp. words.
Compound sentence, defined, 278. 2.
Compound stems, imaginary, 255. a.
Compound sufiixes, 233. 2, 235.
Compound verbs, 267; comps. of facio,
204. a, 6.
Compound words, assimilation in, 15. 6,
16; defined, 264; how formed, 265-267.
Compounds of preps., w. dat., 370; of ab,
d6, ex, 381; w. ace, 388. 6, 395; quan-
tity of, 606. c.
con-, see com-.
Conative present, 467; imperfect, 471. c.
concSdo, constr., 563 and c.
Concession, hortatory subjv. of, 440 (cf.
526) ; particles of, 527 ; qoamvis, ut, 527.
a ; licet, id. h ; etsi etc., id. c ; cam, 549;
qaamqoam, 527. d, e ; qaamvis, w. indic-
ative, 527. e ; vbs. of, w. ut, 527. /;
abl. abs. for concessive clause, 420. 3;
concession implied in part., 496; qn!
concessive, 535. e.
Concessive clauses, see Concession.
Concessive conjunctions, 223. h. 3, 224,
II. c ; particles, use of, 527.
Conclusion, see Ajiodosis.
Concords, the four, 280.
concors, decl., 119, 121. a. 3.
Condenming, vbs. of, constr., 352.
Conditional clauses, defined, 279. c.
Conditional conjunctions, 223. 6. 1, 224.
II. a, 525.
Conditional Particles, 524, 625.
Conditional sentences, defined, 279. e;
development, 511 ; protasis and apodo-
sis, 512 ; classification, 514 ; Presentand
Past, nothing implied, 516 ; Future con-
ditions, 516; fut. more vivid, id. 2. a;
fut. less vivid, id. 2. h ; perf . indie, in
fut. cond., id. e ; Contrary to fact, 517;
indie, in contrary to fact condition, id.
6, cf. c and notes; in old Latin, id.
e. N.^^ General condition, 618; condi-
tion disguised, 621; as part, etc., id.
a ; as euiortatlon or command, id. h. ;
protasis omitted, 522 ; Potential SubJT.,
446; Subjv. of Modes^, 447. 1; vbs.
of necessity etc., 622. a; complex
conditions, 523 ; clauses of CompansoQ
(conclusion omitted), 624; GonoessiTe
INDEX OF WORDS AND SUBJECTS
451
clauses, 627; Proviso, 628; use of si
and its comps., 525 ; conditional relative
clauses, 619 ; temporal, 642, 651. c. n. a ;
conditional sentences in ind. disc., 689.
confidd, constr., 431 and n. i.
Conjugation, defined, 22. Conjugation
of verbs, 171-193; how distinguished,
171; regular forms of, 173; mixed
forms, id.. ; parallel forms, 189 ; stem-
vowels of conjugations, 171-178 ; stems
of the four conjugations, how modified,
179 ; paradigms of the four regular con-
jugations, 184-212.
Conjunctions, defined, 20. g; classes of,
223; Ust of, 224. Syntax, 323. a, 324.
a-Jc, 639, 640. notes; correlative use,
323. g ; conjs. repeated, id. e ; omitted,
id. 6 ; used together, 324. k.
Conjunctive adverbs, 20. g. n.
Conjunctive phrases, 224.
Connectives, relatives used as, 308./.
Conor, w. inf., 663. c. ; c6nor si, id. n. i.
Consecutive clauses, defined, 279. e ; uses,
536-538; clauses of result or charac-
teristic, 559.
Consecutive conjunctions, 223. 6. 6, 224.
II. e.
consequor ut, 568.
oonsistere, w. abl., 403. 6. ftn. 2, 431.
Consonant stems of nouns, decl. Ill, 56-
64; cons, stems of adjs., 117; case-
forms, 121 ; of verbs, 259. a. 3.
Consonant suffixes (primary), 234. H.
Consonants, classification, 3; changes,
14r-19 ; insertion, 16. 11 ; transposition,
177. a. N. ; dissimilation, 15. 6 ; assimila-
tion, id. 16; pronunciation, 8 and n.,
11. 6. N.
consors, decl., 121. a. 3.
constare, w. abl., 403. 6.
constitoo, constr., 563. d.
Constructio ad sensum, see Synesis.
Constructions of cases, 338-435 (see under
Abl. etc.).
eonsuSvi, use, 476.
consul, decl., 62.
consularis, decl., 76. a. 2.
consuls, "w. dat. or ace, 367. c.
Contention, words of, constr., 368. a,
413. 6.
contentus, w. abl., 431. a; w. perf. inf.,
486. y.
contineri, -w. abl., 403. 6. ftn.
contin^it ut, 568.
Continued action, tenses of, 160, 161.
Continuing, vbs. of, w. complementary
inf., 456.
contra, use, 220. a, 221. 8, 321. d; as adv.,
433. 4: ; position, 435.
Contracted forms, vin', scin', 13. n. ; gen.
in -1, dat. and abl. in -is, 49. a, d.
Contracting, vbs. of, w. gerundive, 600. 4.
Contraction of vowels, 16. 3; quantity,
10. c; in prosody, 603. c; of syllables,
608. d.
Contrary to fact conditions, 617 ; in ind.
disc, 589. b.
conveniS, w. ace, 370. 6.
Coordinate conjunctions, 223. a, 224.
a-d; coord, clauses, 278. aU coord,
words without conj., 323. &; w. conj.,
id. c.
Copula, 272, 283; position of, 598. i.
Copulative conjunctions, 223. a. 1, 224. 1.
a ; constr. after, 323 ; omission of, 323. 6.
Copulative verbs, 272, 283.
cor, decl., 59, 60. 6, 103. g. 2.
corpus, decl., 64.
Correlatives, 152, 323. g; rendered by
the , , . the, 414. a; advs. of place, 217.
a; conjs., 323./, g.
c68, decl., 103. g. 2.
Countries, names of, gend., 32; as end of
motion, and place from which, 428. a
Crdsia, 603. c.
crSber, decl., 112. a.
crSdibiH, w. comparative, 406. a.
crSdS, position of, 599. c.
Cretic foot, 609. d ; verse, 628. c.
Crime or charge, gen. of, 352.
-crum, noun ending, 240.
crux, decl., 103. g. 2.
cucumis. decl., 75. a.
c^ias, cuius, 146. b, 161. h,
cuicui modi, 161. &. N.
cfiiuB modi, 345. a.
-culum, noun suffix, 240.
•cuius, dim. ending, 243.
cum, quom (conj.), form, 544; meaning,
544 if. ; cum . . . turn, 323. gr, 649. b ; se-
quence, 485. e. N. ; w. clause for part.,
492, 493. 2; temporal, 545-548; causal
or concess., 549 ; in ind. disc, 685. b, n. ;
cum (whenever), 645. n.2, 548.
cum (prep.), 220. 6; in comp., see com-;
joined as enclitic with pronouns, 143./,
160. d ; use of, 221. 9 ; w. plur. adj., 286.
a. N. ; w. plur. verb, 317. n. ; w. abl.
of manner, 412; w. abl. of accom-
ptaniment, 413; w. words of conten-
tion, 413. 6; w. words of exchange,
417. 6. N.
-cumque, added to relatives, 161. a and
N. ; temporal particles w., 542.
-cundus, verbal adj. ending, 253 and b.
cupio, constr., 563. 6.
euro, constr., 563; cura (imv.), use, 449. c.
-cus, suffix, 232. N., 249.
Customary action, 470, 518. c.
D changed to s, 15. 5 ; -d, old abl. ending,
decl.I,43.N.i; decl. II, 49. c ; decl. Ill,
452
INDEX OF WORDS AND SUBJECTS
p. 34. fto. ; ded. IV, 92./; mM, tM, 143.
a. N. ; sM, 144. 6. n. « ; -8 in advs. origi-
nally -M, 214. a. N. ; -d as neut. pron.
ending, 113. b\ loss of -d, 398.
Dactyl, 609. b ; cyclic, id. e.
Dactylic verse, 613 ; hexameter, 615 ; ele-
giac stanza, 616; other forms, 617.
-dam, adverbial ending, 215. 6.
damn&s^ indecl. adi., 122. b.
daps, defect., 103. h. 2.
Daring, vbs. of, w. compl. inf., 466.
Dates, how expressed, 424. ^,631.
Dativb defined, 35. c; in -ii, decl. I, 43.
a; in -Abas, decl. I, id. e ; in -is for -iis,
decl. II, 49./; in -ubus, decl. IV, 92. c;
in -1 (of unns etc.), 113.
Dativb, Syntax, 360-386. Indirect ob-
ject, 361 ; w. transitives, 362 ; w. vbs.
implying motion, 363; nse of d5n5 etc.,
364 ; in pass., 365 ; w. intransitives, 366 ;
w. phn^s, id. a ; like gen., id. 6 ; w.
intransitives, verbs meaning /avor etc.,
367; similar vbs. w. ace. id. a; vbs.
having dat. or ace., id. b, c; w. verbal
nonns, id. d ; w. libet and licet, 368. 1 ;
w. comps. of satis, bene, male, id. 2;
poetic use, id. a; intrans. vbs. w. ace.
and dat., 369; w. comps. of preps, ad,
ante, etc., 370; w. passive used imper-
sonally, 372. Of Possession, 373; w.
nomen est, id. a ; w. dfisom and absiun,
id. 6. Of the Agent, 374, 376. Of Ref-
erence, 376, 377 ; of the person judging,
378; used idiomatically, 379; etihical
dat., 380. Of Separation, 381. Of Pur-
pose, 382; w. adjs. and advs., 383; w.
adjs. of fitness etc., 384, 386; gen. or
dat. w. similis, 385. c. 2. With words
of contention (poetic) , 413. b. n. Of End
of Motion, 428. h ; w. infin., 455. 1 ; dat.
of gerund, 605. a.
Dativus commodi atU incommodx, 2>16.
dS, use, 220. 6, 221. 10; in comp. w. vbs.,
267. a; in comp. w. vbs., w. dat., 381;
in comp. w. vbs., w.%bl., 402; w. abl.
instead of part, gen., 346* e; w. vbs. of
reminding, 351. n. ; w. abl. to denote
the crime, 363. 2 ; w. place from which,
426. 1; position of dS, 436; dS w. abl.
of gerund, 607.
dea, decl., 43. e.
dSbed, in ajxKl., 617. c.
dSbai, w. pres. inf., 486. a ; w. i>6Tf . inf., id. b .
dScemd, constr., 563. d and v. ^.
decet, w. ace., 388. c; w. dat., id. n.>;
in apod., 517. c.
Declarative sentence, 269. a; how ex-
pressed in ind. disc., 580.
Declension defined, 22; characteristics
of, 37; general rules for, 38; termi-
nations, 39. Of Nouns, I, 40-44; II,
45-52; m, 53-«7; IV, 88-94; V, 9(^-98;
decl. V compared with I, 98. c. Of
Adjs., decl. I-U, 109-113; decl. Ill,
114-122 ; of comparatives, 120 ; of par-
ticiples, 109, 117. b.
Decreeing, vbs. of, 663. d,
dtdl, quantity of penult, 605. Exc,
Defective adjectives, HI. 6, 122. c.
Defective comiiarison, 130.
Defective nouns, 99-103; of decl. IV, 94.
c; of decl. V, 98. a.
Defective verbs, 205-206.
dCflcid, constr., 367. a.
Definite perfect, 161. 1, 473; sequence of,
485. a.
dSflt, 204. c.
dCgener, 119. n., 121. a. 3.
Degree, adverbs of, 217. c.
Degree of difference, abl. of, 414; dis-
tance expressed by, 425. 6.
Degrees of Comparison, 123.
deinde, dSnique, in enumerations, 322. d. n.
dSlectat, constr., 388. c.
dSlectS, w. ace., 367. a.
deiector, w. abl., 431.
Deliberative subjunctive, 443, 444; in
indir. questions, 676. b ; in ind. disc., 587.
dSliciam, 4a, -iae, 106. b.
Delivering, vbs. of, w. gerundive, 600. 4.
Mlos, dec!., 62.
dolphin, decl., 83. a.
-dem, adverbial ending, 215. 6.
Demanding, vbs. of, w. gerundive, 500. 4.
Demonstrative adverbs, as correlatives,
323. g; equivalent to demonstr. pron.
w. prep., 321. a. Position, 598. 6.
Demonstrative pronouns, 146; decl., id.;
formation, id. n. i. Syntax, 295-296;
of 1st person, 297. a; of 2d pars., id. c;
of 3d pers., id. b ; supply place of pers.
prons. of 3d pers., 296. c; in relative
clause, 308. d. n. Position, 598. b.
dinlrins, value of, 632.
Denominative verbs, 258-262.
Dependent clauses, subjv. used in, 438. b.
Deponent verbs defined^ 166. b; how
conjugated, 190; paradigms, id. ; parti-
ciples, id. a; fut. inf., id. c; usedre-
flexively, id. e; in passive sense, id./;
list of irregular deponent verbs, 191;
defective deponents, id. a; semi-depo-
nents, 192.
Depriving, constr. w. vbs. of, 401.
Derivation of words, 227-267.
Derivative forms of nouns, 236-241; of
adjs., 24^266; of vbs., 268-263.
Derivative verbs, defined, 267.
Derivatives, quantity of, 606.
-dSs, nouns in, 244.
Description, imperf. used in, 471. a.
Description implied in part., 406.
INDEX OF WORDS AND SUBJECTS
453
Descriptive abl., see Abl. of quality.
fdSses, decl., 121. a. 4.
Desiderative verbs (in -oriS), 263. 4.
Desire, adjs. of, w. gen., 349. a.
dSspSrd, constr., 367. 5.
deterior, compar. of, 130. a.
Determinative compounds, 265. 2.
Determining, vbs. of, constr., 563. d.
deu8, decl., 49. g,
dexter, decl., 111. a; compar., 129.
di-, see di*-.
DisBresis, 611. c.
Diastole, 612. 6.
die, imperative, 182.
diciSnis, defect., 103. e.
died, forms of, omitted, 319. a.
diets, w. comp., 406. a.
-dictts, adjs. in, comparison of, 127.
Dido, decl., 82.
diem dicere, w. dat. of gerund etc., 505.
di$8, decl., 96; gender, 97. a; gen. form
dii, 98. N.
Difference, abl. of degree of, 414.
difficilis, comparison, 126; constr., 510.
N.2.
dignor, w. abl., 418. b. N. i.
digntts, w. abl., 418. 6; w. relative clause,
5.55./.
Dimeter, iambic verse, 619. c.
Diminutive endings, w. nouns and adjec-
tives, 243; verbs, 263. 3.
din-, stem-ending, 61. 2.
Diphthongs, 2; sound of, 8; quantity,
10.6,603.6.
Diptotes, 103. c.
Direct object, 274, 387.
Direct question, defined, 330. 1.
Direct quotation, 578. n.
Direct reflexive, 300. 6.
dis- (di-), inseiMtrable prefix, 267. 6.
Disjunctive conjunctions, 224. I. a ; case
of noun after, 323.
Dissimilation, 15. 6.
dissimiUs, comp., 126.
Distance, ace. or abl., 426. 6; of time,
424./.
Distributive numerals, 136 ; use, 137.
Distributive pronouns, 313.
din, compar., 218. a.
dives, decl., 119, 121. 6.
divttm (^vom), for dedrom, 49. g. n.
-do, adverbial ending, 215. 6.
-dd, nouns ia, from st. din-, 61 . 2 ; gend. , 86.
do, conj., 202; w. inf., 460. a-
doceo, constr., 396 and c. n. ^.
domi, locative, 427. 3.
domum, 427. 2 ; dom5, id. 1.
domus, gend., 90. Exc. ; decl., 98; double
stem of, id. ; locative form, 93. v. i.
donee, w. ind. or subjv., 553 n. i, 2, 554,
d5n5, double constr. of, 364.
dSs, decl., 71. 6.
Double consonants, 4, 11. 6.
Double questions, 334; answers to, 337.
Doubting, vbs. of, constr., 558.
Dual forms, p. 59. ftn.
Dubitative subjv., see Deliberative.
dubito an, 331. n. ; n9n dabitS qoin, 568. a ;
n5n dubitS, w. inf., id. N.S; without
ne^., id. n. i.
dnc, imperative, 182.
dam, derivation, 215. 6; w. past, id. a;
w. clause for pres. and perf. part., 492,
493. 2; introducing a proviso, 528; as
^ adv., 552 ; untU^ w. pres. or impf . subjv.
* denoting intention or expectancy, 553 ;
w. pres. or fut. perf. indie, to state
future fact, id. n.^; w. perf. indie,
554. N. ; as long as, w. indie, 565 <cf .
566. a) ; while, w. pres. indic.,,566; w.
past indie, id. a.
dommodo, 528.
duo, decl., 134. 6.
dapli, w. vbs. of condemning, 352. a.
Duration, ace. of, 423 ; abl. of, 424. 6.
-das, participle in, see Gerundive.
Duty, vbs. of, in apod., 517. c.
dux, decl., 57.
fi, variant of 0 as stem-vowel of decl. II,
45. c and n. ; in voc, id. ; abl. of neuters
in, decl. Ill, 76. a. 3; gend. of neuters
in, decl. Ill, 87 ; abl. in, of adjs. of two
and three terminations, 116. n., 117, 121.
a ; stem-vowel, conj. Ill, 171, 174. 1, 179.
c ; final, quantity of, 604. e.
6, for ae (oe), 6. n. » ; in Greek voc, 81. 3 ;
in stem of decl. V , 98 ; in gen. of decl. V,
98. d, N. ; in dat., id. ; in stem of conj.
n, 171, 179. 6 ; -S as adv. ending, 214. a, c.
6 (preposition), see ex.
eae, old dat. fem. of is, 146. n. *.
Early forms of alphabet, 1. a and v., 6.
a,o; of pijQSody, 629.
ecce (eccam etc.), 146. a. n.2.
ecqois, decl., 151./; use, 310. a.
Ecthlipsis, 612./.
6dicd, constr., 563. d.
ed5 (eat), conj., 201.
Effecting, vbs. of, w. perf. part., 497. c ; w.
at-clause, 580. d.
efflcio at, 568. ?
effieri, 204. c.
efOlgiSs, decl., 98. a.
Effort, vbs. of, w. at-clause, 563. e.
egSns, decl., 118.
egeo, constr., 356 and n.
ego, decl., 143.
el, diphthong, 2 ; sound of, 8.
-eis for -is in plur. of decl. I, 43. e. n. 2.
-Sis, patronymic, 244.
454
INDEX OF WORDS AND SUBJECTS
-ftns, adj. ending, 249; in prosody, 11. d,
603./. N.«.
•4iuB, names in, decl., 49. /.
Ciusmodi, 146. b, 345. a.
filectra, decl., 44.
Elegiac stanza, 616.
-Ois, adj. ending, 248.
Elision, 612. e.
Ellipsis, 640.
ellum etc., 146. a. n. >.
-«lla8, diminutive ending, 243.
einviSs, decl., 96. a.
em, combined w. prons. (ellom etc.), 146.
a. N. 2.
Emphasis, 597.
en- (on-, Cn-, dn-) , primary snffiz, 234. II. 13.
Enclitics, accent, 12. a ; quantity, 604. a,
1 ; cum, 143./, 150. 6, d; -met, -te, -pte,
143. d and n. ; -pse, 146. n. 7, 8; .ce, id.
a. N. 1 ; -que, see under that word.
End of motion, ace. of, 426. 2; w. ybs.
that also take dat., 363 ; dat. of, 428. h ;
two or more places as end of motion,
428. i.
Endings, signification of, 235-263; end-
ings of verb, 165. 2, 166. See Personal
endings, and Terminations.
English method of pronunciation, 8. n.
English words cognate with Lat., 18, 19.
enim, use, 324. h; position, 324.^', 599. b,
•^simus (or -fisimas), numeral adj. end-
ing, 133. N. 1.
-Snsis, gentile ending, 249.
Enumeration, primum . . . deinde, 322. d, n.
-^nus, adj. ending, 249.
Envy, vbs. of, w. dat., 367.
eo, used w. supine in -am, 428. i, 509. N. i.
e5, used w. qn5, 414. a; w. compar., id.;
approaching abl. of cause, id. n.
e5 cSnsiliS at, 531. 1. n. K
Epicene nouns, 34. n.
Epistolary tenses, 479.
epitomS, decl., 44.
epalam, plur. -ae, 106. &.
eqaester, decl., 115. a.
eqaidem, 322./. n.
cr- for es-, primary suffix, 234. II. 17.
er-, stem-ending, 63. Ezc. 2.
-er, nom. ending, decl. II, 45-47: decl.
Ill, 61. 4, 65. a ; gend., 85 ; -er, adjs. in,
111, 112, 115; compar. of these, 125.
erga, w. ace. after adjs., 385. b.
erg5, use, 324. i; w. gen., 359. b,
-erim, -er6, as tense-ending, 169. c, d.
-emas, adj. ending, 260.
ero-, noun stems in, decl. II, 50 ; Sro-, adj.
stems in, 111. a. n.
B8, root of esse, 15. 4 ; 170. b. n.
c»- (OS-), primary suffix, 234. II. 17.
-^, in nom. plur. of Greek nouns, 81. 4 ;
gend. of nouns in, 85.
•«8, gen. of Greek nouns in, decl. n, 52. a;
gen. ending, ded. V, 98. n.
•is, list of nouns in, p. 30. ftn. 2; gend.,
86; formation, 238. a.
esse, conj., 170; forms of, in other lan-
guages, id. 6. N. ; compounds of, 198;
case after, 284; dat. of poss. w., 373;
future part. w. (first periph. conj.),
498. a, 6 ; position of forms of, 598. cJ.
est, united with other words, 13. n. ; est
qai etc., 535. a ; est cam, 535. a. n. < ; est
at, 56^. 3.
Esteeming, vbs. of, constr., 393.
-ester (-estris), adj. ending, 250; a noun-
ending, 254. 11.
{star, CssStar, pass, forms of ed5, 201. a.
et, use, 324. a; et . . . et, 323. e; et re-
peated or omitted, 323. c.
et, -qae, or atqae translated btU, 324. d. n.
etenim, use, 324. A, k.
Ethical dative, 380.
etiam, use, 322. a ; in answers, 336. a. 1.
etiam si, concessive, 527. c.
etsi, use, 527. c.
-Ctom, noun ending, 254. 8.
-eas, Greek names in, 52. e ; -ens, patro-
nymic ending, 244; adj. ending, 247,
249, 254. 10.
Cvenit at, 668. ftn. 2.
ex («), 220. 6 ; use, 221. 11 ; in compounds,
267. o, 402; abl. w., instead of part,
gen., 346. c; in vbs. w. dat., 381; w.
prons. etc., 403. a. n. ^ ; to express place
from which, 426. 1; expressing posi-
tion, 429. b ; after its noon, 436 ; w. abl.
of gerund, 507.
excellS, w. dat., 368. 3.
Exchanging, vbs. of, 417. 6.
Exclamation, form of, 333. n. ; nom. in,
339. a; ace. in, 397. d; w. infin., 462.
Exclamatory questions, 462. a.
Exclamatory sentences, 269. c ; nom. in,
339. a; gen. in, 359. a; ace. in, 397. d.
Existence, general expressions of, 535. a.
exl6x, defect., 122. c.
Expecting, hoping, etc., vbs. of, w. ind.
disc., 580. c; w. complem. inf., id. n.
exp^nsam, 496. n. *.
exsjlid, w. abl., 404. a.
exspCs, defect., 122. c.
exsaltS, w. abl., 404. a.
exteri, use, 130. b.
exterior, 130. 6.
extrSmos, form, 130. a. ftn. 2.
exaS, constr., 364.
F, original sound of, l.b.TSf.
faber, decl., 112. a.
fac, imv., 182, 204; fac (at), w. snbjv.,
449. c; fac n«, in prohibition, 450. n. «.
faciSs, ded., 98. a.
INDEX OF WORDS AND SUBJECTS
455
facilis, compar., 126; w. supine, 510. n.^.
facio, accent of comps. of, 12. a. £zc,;
forms of, omitted, 319. a; w. abl., 403.
c; w. names of authors, 497. d. n. ;
facere ut, 568. n. ^.
Factitive ace., 386; verbs, 273. N.i.
-fact5, in compounds, 266. a.
faenebris, dec!., 115. N. K
faex, decl., 103. g. 2.
fallit, w. ace., 388. c.
falBttS, compar., 131. a.
iamSs, abl. of, 76. b, n. i, 98. d,
famili&ris, decl., 76. b. 2.
families, in pater famili&s etc., 43. b.
i3M, indecl., 103. a; w. supine in -&, 510.
faux, decl., 101. n. i, 103./. 4.
Favor, vbs. of, w. dat., 367.
fax, decl., 103. g. 2.
Fearing, vbs. of, w. inf., 456; w. n6, n6
non, ut, 564.
febris, decl., 75. 6, 76. 6. 1.
Feeline, nouns of, w. gen., 348; iniper-
sonal vbs. of, 208. 6, 354. b ; animi w.
ybs. and adjs. of, 358; gen. w. vbs.
of, 354 ; ace. w. vbs. of, 388. a ; quod-
clause w. vbs. of, 572. 6.
Feet in Prosody, 608-610.
fSlix, comi)ar., 124.
Feminine, rule for gend., 32.
femur, decl., 105. g,
-fer, comps. of, 50; decl.. 111. a.
fer, imperative, 182.
fero, con j., 200; aoceptnm (expensum) ferre,
496. N. 4 ; comps. of, 200. a.
ferre, ferrem, for fferse etc., p. 110. ftn. 3.
Festivals, plural names of, 101. 2 ; in -alia,
254.7.
-ficus, adjs. in, comparison of, 127. a.
fides, decl., 96.
fid5 (cdnfldo) , semi-dei)onent, 192 ; w. dat.,
367; w. abl., 431.
fidus, compar., 131. a.
fieri, constr. w. abl., 403. c.
Fifth Declension, 95-97.
Figura etymologica, 598. m.
filla, decl., 43. e ; filius, voc., 49. c.
Filling, words of, w. abl., 409. a ; w. gen.,
id. N.
Final Clauses, defined, 279. d ; constr. of,
530-532 ; as subst. clauses, 563.
Final conjunctions, 223. b. 6, 224. II. e.
Final syllables, rules of quantity, 604;
voweb, id. a-h.
finis, decl., 76. b.
Finite yerb, defined, 154. n. ; subj. of,
339.
fio, conj., 204; in compounds, id. b; de-
fective compounds of, id. c; quantity
of i in, 603. a. 3.
First Conjugation, prin. parts, 173; pres.
stem, how formed, 176. a; formation,
179. a, 259; paradigms, 184; vbs. of,
209 ; vbs. of, now formed, 259.
First Declension, 40-42.
fisus, as pres. part., 491.
fit ut, 568. ftn. 2, 569. 2.
Fitness, adjs. of, w. dat., 384, 385. a.
flftgito, constr., 563.
flocci, gen. of value, 417. a.
For, when expressed by pr6, 379. n.
foris, 103. c. 4, 215. 3.
fore, 170. a ; perf. part, w., 164. c. n. ; fore
ut, 569. a.
forem, 170. a.
forfis, plur. only, 101.4, 103. c. 4.
Forgetting, vbs. of, 350; w. inf., 456.
foris (locative), 103. c. 4, 215. 4, 427. a.
Formation of words, 227-267.
Forms of the verb, 180 ft,
fors, forte, 103. c. 1.
forsan, 447. b. n.
forsitan (fors sit an), 216. N.; w. subj v.,
447. a.
fortasse, 447. 6.
Fourth Conjugation, prin. parts, 173;
pres. stem, how formed, 176. a, 179. d;
paradigm, 187 ; list of vbs., 212 ; vbs.,
how formed, 262.
Fourth Declension, 88-94.
Fractional expressions, 135. e, 637.
fraus, decl., 71. 6.
Freedom, adjs. of, w. abl., 402. a; vbs.
of, 401.
French, derivations through, 19. N. ^.
Frequentative verbs, 263. 2.
fretas, w. abl., 431. a.
Fricatives, 4. 5.
friigi, defect, noun, 103./. 1 ; as adj., 122.
b; compar., 129; constr., 382. 1. n. 3.
fmor, fongor, w. abl., 410; w. ace., id. a.
N. 1 ; gerundive, 503. n. 2.
fagit, w. ace., 388. c.
fai, derivation of, 170. b, N.
Fulness, adjs. of, 349. a.
funebris, decl., 115. n. ^.
fungor, see fruor.
Future conditions, 516; in ind. disc.,
589. a.
Future tense, use, 472; of inf. pass.,
how formed, 203. a; of imv., 449; ind.
for imv., id. 6; in indirect questions,
575.
Future Infinitive, how formed, 164. 3.
b, c, 193. N.; expressed with fore or
fntunim esse, 669. aj (rarely) in con-
trary to fact conditions in ind. disc.,
589. 6. N. ».
Future Participle, use, 158. 6, 489, 498,
517. d; fut. pass, part., 500.
Future Perfect tense, suffix of, 169. c;
use of, 478 ; represented in subj v., ^.
c ; in conditions, 516. c.
456
INDEX OF WORDS AND SUBJECTS
ftttfinun osM nt, see fore ut ; fatfimm fuisM
utj^dSQ. ft. 3andN.s.
Futurum in praeteritOt 511. ftn. 1.
6 (the character), 1. a and n.
Grames, plur. names of, 101. 2.
ganded, oonj., 192; w. abl., 431; w. quod
or ind. disc., 572. b.
Gems, gend. of, 32 and 6, 48. Exc.
Gender, kinds of, 30 ; general rales for,
31-34; common, epicene, 34; change
of gend., p. 18. ftn. ; nouns, decl. I,
gend., 42 ; decl. II, 48 ; nouns, decl. ni,
gend. according to endings, 84-87; of
nouns, decl. IV, 90, 91; decl. V, 97;
Syntax: agreement in gend., 280; of
appositives, 282. c; of acQs., 286; adjs.
w. nouns of different genders, 287 (cf .
289. c) ; of rel., 306. b.
General conditions, defined, 513. 2 ; constr.
of, 518 ; relatives in, 520.
General truths after past tense (in
sequence of tenses), 485. d; in pres.,
465 ; in general condition, 518. a.
GBNinyB, defined, 35. 6; terminations
of, 37; plur. in -um, 38./; gen. in -SI
and -As, decl. I, 43. a, 6 ; in -i for -ii,
decl. n, 49. b; in -i of proper nouns of
decl. Ill, 52. a; gen. plur. in -am (-om),
for -5mm, 49. d; -urn for -ium, decl. Ill,
78 ; -58 for -is, 81. 1 ; gen. plur. in -am,
92. 6 ; in -i or -8 for -«, decl. V, 98. N. ;
gen. plur. wanting, 103. ^. 2; of adjs. in
-las, 113 ; gen. plur. in -iom or ^om, 121. b.
Obnitivb, SyntaXf 342-356 ; general use,
342. Subjective gen., 343. N.i. Posses-
sive g^n., 343 ; in app. w. poss. pron.,
302. e ; compared w. dat., 373. n. ; gen.
in predicate, 343. 5, c; gen. of adj.
for neut. nom., 343. c. n. ^ ; gen. of sub-
stance or material, 344; for app., 343.
d ; gen. of quality, 345. Partitive, 346.
Objective, 347 ff . ; w. adjs., 349, 385.
c; w. vbs. of memory, 350; charge
and penalty, 352; of feeling, 354; w.
impers., miseret etc., 354. b; w. rSfert
and interest, 355 ; of plenty and want,
356 ; of exclamation, 359. a ; w. potior,
357. a ; w. other vbs., id. b ; w. egeS and
indiged, 356. n. ; gen. for abl., id. ; gen.
replaced by dat., 366. b ; of value, 417 ;
gen. of gerundive, 504.
genius, voc. of, 49. c.
GenSf or family, names, 108.
Gentile adjectives, 244.
gentiUs, 76. a. 2.
genu, decl., 89; gend., 91.
genus, decl., 64.
-ger, compounds of, 50; decl., 111. a.
Genmd, form, 155. b; meaning, 159. a;
gerundive used instead, 503. Syntax^
502-507; gen. of, 504; w. direct obj.,
id. a ; pred. use, purpose, id. a. n. ^ ; w.
obj. gen., id. c; dat. of, 506; in law
phrases etc., id. b ; ace. of, 506 and n.^ ;
abl. of, 507; gerund coordinated w.
nominal constr. and in app., 503. .a.
N. 3 ; w. direct obj., 503. a. n. K
Gerundive, meaning and form, 155. a and
ftn. 3, 158. d ; in -endus or -undus, p. 89.
ftn. 1 ; of dep. vb., 190. d ; use as part.
or adj., 500; of iitor, id. 3; to denote
purpose after certain vbs., id. 4 ; used for
gerund, 503. Gerundive constructions
in cases, gen., 504; dat., 606 ; ace., 506;
abl., 507. Impersonal w. esse, w. ace.,
500.3.
gibber, decl., 111. a.
gin-, stem-ending, 61. 2.
Giving, vbs. of, w. gerundive, 500. 4.
glaber, decl., 112. a.
glaciCs, decl., 98. a.
glis, decl., 71. 6.
glQrior, w. abl., 431.
Glyconic verse, 623. 1, 624, 625. 1, 12.
Gnomic perfect, 475.
-g5, nouns in, from stem gin-, 61. 2;
gend., 86.
gracilis, decl., 122. a; oompar. 126.
Grammar, how developed, 268.
Grammatical gender, 30. 6.
grfttift, w. gen., 359. 5, 404. c; w. gen. of
gerund, 533.
grfttiflcor, w. dat., 368. 3.
grfttulor, w. dat., id.
Greek accusative (synecdochical), 387. b.
Greek forms compared w. Latin, pp. i;{,
14, 19, 26, 55, 58, 76, 80, 83, 126, 142,
143, 150, 153.
Greek nouns, decl. I, 44; decl. II, 52;
decl. Ill, 81, 82, 83.
Greek proper names, quantity of, 603. 4.
Groups of words, conjunctions w., 323. c.
grfis, decl., 79. a.
Guilt, adjs. of, w. gen., 349. a.
H (breathing), 4; omitted in spelling,
6. d. N. 3 ; m prosody, 603. a, 612. e.
habeS, w. infinitive, 460. a; w. perfect
participle, 497. b; future imperative
hab6t5 in sense of consider, 449. a.
taabilis, w. dat. of gerund etc., 505. a. ftn.
hictenus, 221. 26. n.^.
Hadria, gen., 42. Exc.
haec for hae, 146. n. s.
liaere«, w. abl., 368. 3. n.
Happening, vbs. of, constr., 569. 2.
Have, perf. w., origin, 497. b. ftn.
hav8 (av6), defective verb, 206. g.
Having, vbs. of, w. gerund., 500. 4.
hebes, decl., 86. a; compar., 124.
Help, vbs. of, w. dat., 367.
INDEX OF WOED8 AND SUBJECTS
457
Hemiolic measnres, 609. d.
Heroic verse, 615.
hei58, decl., 82.
Hesitation, clauses of, w. quin, 558, 559 ;
vbs. of, constr., 456.
Heteroclite noans, 105; adjs., 122. a.
Heterogeneous noans, 106.
Hexameter verse, 615.
HidtuSy 612. g.
HibSr, decl., 50. c.
lulms, 146. N.a.
hic, 146, jc. 1; dec!., 146; use, 297. a, e,/;
Siantity, 604. J, Exc.
den quantity, 11./ and N.
hiemps (for hiems), 15. 11.
hilaris (-iis), 122. a.
Himself (ipse, 86), 298. c. N.a.
Hindering, vbs. of, with n6 or quSminus,
or inf., 558. h and n.
Hindrance, vbs. of, w. quSminas, 558. h ;
w. negatives, followed by quin, 658,
559.
Historical infinitive, 463 ; takes secondary
sequence, 485./.
Historical perfect, 161. 2, 473.
Historical present, 469 ; followed by pri-
mary or secondary tenses, 485. e.
hodiS, loc. form, 98. 6, 215. 5.
honor (-os), decl., 62. N.a.
Hoping, verbs of, with ind. disc., 580. c;
w. complem. inf., id. n.
Horace, metres of, 626.
horizon, decl., 83. d.
Hortatory subjunctive, 430; in conces-
sion, 440 ; in proviso, 528 ; in obligation,
439. h ; w. force of protasis, 521. b.
hortor, constr., 563.
hospes, decl., 121. a. 4.
hospita (fem. of hospes), 121. e.
hdiusmodi, 146. b.
hnmi, 49. a ; locative use of, 427. a.
humilis, compar., 126.
Hundreds, how declined, 134. c.
Hypotaxis, 268.
I, as vowel and as cons., 1, 10; i as tran-
sient sound between cons, i and a pre-
ceding vowel, 6. c (cf. 11. e).
1-, primary suffix, 234. I. 2.
i, for € in conj. n, 179. b. 2 ; for -8 in conj.
Ill, id. c. 1 ; lost in vbs. in -io of con].
in, id. and e ; inserted in vb. stem, 176.
6.2.
-i in Greek voc., 82.
-1, (single) in gen. of nouns in -ins (-inm),
49. 6 ; in gen. of nouns in -Cs, 52. a ; in
abl. of decl. HI, 76 ; in loc. of decl. Ill,
p. 34. ftn. 1 ; in gen., decl. IV, 92. a ; in
^en., dat., decl. v. 98. d. n. ; in dat. of
unns etc., 113 ; in pres. pass, inf., p. 286.
ftn. 1 ; in perfect, 163. ftn. 3.
i-stems, decl. Ill, 66-78; confused, 73;
signs of, 74; in adj., 117; cases retain-
ing -i, cf . 74, 76, 114, 116. N. ; i-stems in
vbs., 179. d.
-la, ending of abstract nouns, 241.
-ia, nom. and ace. plur. decl. Ill, 74. 6 ; of
adjs., 116, 117.
-ia for -i«8, decl. V, 98. c.
iacid, comps. of, 6. d, 603./. n.8.
iam, derivation, 216. 6; use, 322. b; w.
imi>f., 471. c. N.
Iambic verse, 613; trimeter, 618; other
forms, 619.
Iambus, 609. a. 2.
iamdiu, w. pres., 466; w. impf., 471. b.
iamdudum, w. pres., 466 ; w. impf. 471. 6 ;
w. imperative, 466. n. 2.
-iham for -iSham, conj. IV, 183. 1.
-ibo for -iam, 183. 1.
ibus, 146. N. «.
-iciuB, 247.
Ictus, 608. N., 611. a.
-icns, 249.
id-, stem-ending, 83. b.
id genus, 397. a.
id quod, 307. d.
id temporis, 346. 3, 397. a.
idcircS, as correl., 324. i; w. final clause,
531. 1. N.i.
idem, decl., 146; derivation, 146. n.S; w.
dat., 384. N. 1 ; w. atque or rel., id. n. 2 ;
used emphatically, 298. a; equiv. to
adv., id. 0.
Ides (13th or 15th of month), how reck-
oned, 631. b.
-idSs (-idSs), in patronymics, 244.
iddneus, compar., 128; w. dat. of gerund
etc., 505. a. ftn. 2.
idSneusqui, 636./.
-idus, verbal adj. ending, 251.
idus, decl. rV, gender, 90. Exc, (See Ides.)
-ie, in voc. of adjs. in -ius, 110. a.
iecnr, decl., forms from different stems,
79. c, 106. g.
iSns (part, of eo), ded., 119.
-ier in inf. pass., 183. 4.
-iSs, noun ending, 241; in decl. V = -ia,
decl. I, 98. c.
igitor, meaning, 324. i ; position, id. ^'.
Ignis, decl., 76. b. 1.
-ii (or -^, in gen., decl. II, 49. b and ftn. ;
of adjs., 110. a.
ii. iis, for i, is, from is, 146.
-ile, noun ending, 254. 6.
-ilis, -bilis, verbal adj. ending, 262.
-ilis, nominal adj. ending, 248.
Illative conjunctions, 223. a. 4, 224. 1, d.
ille, forms, 146. n. *, • ; decl., 146; use^
297. 5, e ; combined w. -ce, 146. a. n. i.
illic, decl., 146. a.
-illo, vbs. ending in, 263. 3.
458
INDEX OF WORDS AND SUBJECTS
illus, diminutiye ending, 243.
illnstris, decl., 115. N. ^.
-im, aoc. ending, decl. Ill, 73-76.
-im, in pres. subjv., 183. 2.
imber, decl., 66, 67, 76. b.
immine qaantttm, 575. d.
immO, how used, 329.
Imperative mood, 154. b ; how used, 157.
c; terminations, 163. 6, 179. c; die, dfic,
fac, f er, 182 ; some vbs. used chiefly in,
206. g; w. iam dndum, 466. v.^; in
commands, 448 ; 3d pers., 448. a ; forms
in ind. disc., 588; fut., 449 and a;
various periphrases for imv., 449, c;
imperative as protasis, 521. b.
Imperative Sentence, 269. d.
Imperfect tense, defined, 160. a, 471 ; use,
470; in descriptions, id. a; w. iam difi
etc., id. b ; inceptive and conative, id. c ;
w. iam, id. n. ; of surprise, id. d ; in
dialogue, id. e; = coutd^ etc., id. /;
epistolary, 479 and n. ; represented by
perf. subjv., 485. b. 3; imperf. subjv.,
sequence, id. ^, A, 584. a and n.
imperd, oonstr., 563.
Impersonal construction of pass. w. infin.
clause, 566. 6, 582 and a.
Impersonal verbs, synopsis of, 207 ; classi-
fied, 208; passive of intransitives, id.
d, 372; impersonals, miseret etc., w.
gen., 354, 6 ; Ubet, licet, w. dat., 368. 1 ;
ace. w. decet etc., 388. c.
impertiS, constr., 364.
ImpetrS, constr., 563, 568. ftn. 2.
impetus, defect., 103. d.
ImpleS, constr., 409. a. n.
implied, constr., 364.
imponS, constr., 430.
imtts, 130. a. v. >.
in-, neg. prefix, 267. d. 1.
in-, stem-ending, 61. 2; in-, 83. a.
in, prep., use, 220. c, 221. 12; comp. w.
vbs., 267. a; in, w. ace. or abl., 259. e
(cf. 430) ; w. ace, penalty, 353. 2. n. ;
vbs. comp. with, w. aat., 370 ; in w. ace,
w. adjs., 385. b ; in citations, 428. d. n. ^ ;
place where, 426. 3 ; in idioms of time,
424. e ; w. abl. of gerund, 507.
Inceptive or Inchoative verbs, 263. 1.
Inclination, adjs. of, constr., 384, 385. b.
inclnttts, compar., 131. a.
Incomplete action, tenses of. See Con-
tinued action.
Indeclinable nouns, gender of, 33; list
of, 103. a; adjectives, 122. b.
Indefinite antecedent, relative with, w.
subjv., 535. a and v. ^.
Indefinite pronouns, decl., 148-151. Syiv-
tax, 30^-315; indefinite relative may
introduce conditional clause, 512. n.,
519.
Indefinite subject omitted, 318. 6 ; use of
2d person for, 439. a; in general con-
ditions, 518. a ; licet clanim fieri, 455. N.
Indefinite value, 417 and a.
Indicative mood, 154. b ; how used, 157. a,
437 ; for Eng. subjv., id. a; in apod, of
conditions contrary to fact, 517. 6, c,
522. a; in causal clauses, 540; in clause
with quod, 572; in deliberative ques-
tions, 444. a. N.
indiged, w. gen., 356. n.
indignuB, w. abl., 418. 6 ; w. qui and subjv.,
535./.
Indirect Discoubsb, origin etc., 677;
list of verbs that take ind. disc., 579,
ftn.; direct and indir. quotation, 578.
Moods in ind. disc., 580; verb of say-
ing implied, id. a. Subj. ace., 580.
Subord. clause when explanatory, 583;
clauses w. rel. which is equivalent to
demonstr., id. 6. Tenses of inf. in ind.
disc., 584; tenses of subj v., 585 ; subjv.
depending on perf. inf., id. a; pres.
and perf. after secondary tense {rqf)ra€'
sentatio), id. b. Conditional sentences
in ind. disc., 589 ; questions, 586 ; delib-
erative subjv., 587; commands, 588;
Srohibition, id. N. 3. Informal ind.
isc., 591. 1, 592.
Indirect object, 274, 361, 362, 366, 367.
Indirect Questions, defined, 330, 331 ; Syn-
tax, 331. N., 332. 6. n., 573-575; fut.
tense in, 575. a ; deliberative subjy. in,
id. 6; indie, in (early Lat.), id. c; nam
in, 332. b. n.
Indirect quotation, 578.
Indirect reflexive, 300. 2 and b.
Indo-European, 14, 18, 19.
indao6, w. names of authors, 497. d. N.
indu5, double constr. of, 364.
ine5, constr., 370. b.
ineptus, constr., 505. a. ftn.
inermis or -us, 122. a.
xnfera, defect., 111. &, cf. p. 56. ftn. 2;
compar., 130. b.
inferi, meaning in plur., 130. b.
inferior, compmson, 130. 6.
Infinitive Clauses, as subj. or obj., 452;
w. pass, vbs., 582 and a. See also In-
direct Discourse. Cf . also 459.
Infinitivb Mood, 154. b and ftn. ; tenses
of, 164. 3. 6, 486 ; how used, 157. d ; pass,
in -ier, 183. 4; fut. inf. of deponents,
190. c; subject in ace., 397. e.
Infinitive Mood, Syntax, 451-463 ; used
as subject, 452; complementary inf.,
456 ; vbs. having subjv. or inf., 457 (cf .
563); inf. for obj. clause, 563. n. ; w.
subject ace., 459; case of predicate
noun, 581 and n. ^ ; inf. of purpose, 460 ;
w. adjs., in poetry, 461 ; of result, id. a ;
INDEX OF WORDS AND SUBJECTS
459
as pure noun, id. &; in exclamations,
462 (sequence, 482. n.). Historical inf.,
463. Tenses of inf., 486; perf. instead
of pres., id. d, e; fore at etc., for fut.
' inf., 569. a. Inf. in ind. disc., 579;
tenses, 584.
Infinitive used as noun, gender, 33; w.
gen., 343. c. (See also Infinitive Mood,
Syntax.)
infitias, defect., 103. 5. 6; use, 428. i.
Inflection, defined, 21; terminations of,
id. b; how modified, 28; of decl. and
conj., 22.
Influence, vbs. of, w. nt-clause, 563.
Informal Indirect Discourse, 591, 592.
infra, use, 220. a, 221. 13.
ingSns, decl., 121. a. 3; compar., 131. 6.
iniuria, as abl.'of manner, 412. o.
iniusstt, defect., 94. c.
inops, decl., 121. a. 3, b. 1.
inquam, inqnit, 206. b ; position of, 599. c.
Inseparable particles, 267. b.
Insertion of consonants (p in sumps!),
15. 11, 639.
insidiae, dat. w., 367. d.
inspergo, constr., 364.
instar, indecl., 103. a; w. gen., 359. b.
instd, constr., 563.
Instrument, abl. of, 409.
Instrumental case, 35. n. (cf. 338, 398);
as adv., 215. 4; source of several abl.
constructions, 408.
insulam, ad, 428. a.
integer, decl., 112. a.
Integral part, subjv. of, 591, 593.
integrum est ut, 568.
Intensive pronoun, 146. n. ', 8, 298. o-f.
Intensive vbs., 263. 2 and b.
inter, use, 220. a, 221. 14 ; in comp., 267. a ;
vbs. comp. w., 370 ; position, 435 ; inter 85
(reciprocal), 145. c, 301./; inter sicarios,
353. 2; Inter, w. serund, 506 and n. i.
intercludS, constr., 364 and n. 3.
interdieo, constr., 364. v. K
interest, constr., 355; w. ad, id. 6; how
to express degree of interest, id. n. ^.
interior, compar., 130. a.
Interjections, defined, 20; list, 226; w.
dat., 379. a.
Interlocked order of words, 598. h.
Intermediate clauses. Syntax of, 591-
693.
Interrogative ad vs., use, 333; position,
698.6.
Interrogative particles, list of, 217. d;
use, 331-333.
Interrogative pronouns, 148-151; use,
333; position, 698. b.
Interrogative sentences, 269. b ; forms of,
330-336.
Jntra (interior), 130. a; derivation, 215. 4.
Intransitive verbs, 273. 2, 274. n. ; used
impersonally in pass., 208. d; dat. w.,
366 ff. ; used transitively, w. ace. and
dat., 369 (cf. 388. a. n.) ; w. cognate aoc.,
390 ; having passive sense, w. ab, 406. a.
-inus, adj. ending, 249.
iniitilis, w. dat. of gerund etc., 506. a.
invictus, compar., 131. a.
invitus, compar., 131. a.
-io, noun ending, 238. b ; gend., 86.
-i5, vbs. in, conj. Ill, 176. b. 2; forms
of, 179. c, e ; paradigm, 188 ; conj. IV,
179. d; derivation, 262.
iocus, plur. in -i or -a, 106. 6.
Ionic measure, 609. c; verse, 626. 16.
ip-, stem-ending, 56. a.
ipse, formation, 146. n. 7, 8 ; decl., 146 ; use,
298. c ; used instead of reflexive, 3(X). 6.
in, in fut. inf. pass., 203. a.
Ironical statement not different in form
from question, 332. a. n.
Irrational measures, 609. e, 623. n.
-is-, -iss-, -sis-, dropped in perf., 181. 6. nA
is, decl., 146; use, 162, 297. d. e; used
emphatically, 298. a; used instead of
reflexive, 300. 6.
-Is, nom. ending, gend., 86; -is, patro-
nymic, 244.
-is, for -iis in decl. I, 43. c. N.2 ; nom. and
ace. plur., decl. Ill, 77 (cf. 73) ; of adis.,
117, 121. c ; Greek nom. ending, 83. o.
-is, nouns in, see it-.
Islands, names of, loc. use, 427. 3, 428. e ;
from which, 427. 1 ; to which, id. 2.
-isse, -issem, vb. ending, see 181. &.
-isso, vbs. ending in, 263. b.
iste, shortened to ste, 146. n. ^ ; ded., 146 ;
use, 297. c.
istic, decl., 146. a.
It, as sign of Impersonals, 207. ftn.
it- as stem-ending, 68. b ; decl., 78, 121. a. 4.
ita, correl. with ut, 323. or; in an ^s/ers,
336. a; ite ut, 637. 2. N. 2.
itaque, accent, 12. a; compared with
ergS, 324. i ; used with erg5, id. k ; posi-
tion of, 699. 6.
iter, stem of, 79. c.
Iterative subjunctive, 618. c.
Iterative verbs (-to, -ito, -so), 263. 2.
-its, vbs. in, 263. 2.
-ittts, adj. ending, 246.
iubar, decl., 76. a. 3.
iubeo, w. ace, 367. a; w. inf., 663. a; in
pass., 666. c.
iucundus, constr., 610. n. 2.
iiigemm, defect. 103. d. 3; decl., 106. 5;
measure, 636.
-ium, gen. plur., decl. Ill, 74. a; of adjs.,
114. a, 117, 121. 6.
-ium, noun ending, 241. b.
iungo, w. abl. or dat., 368. 3. n., 413. N.
460
INDEX OF WORDS AND SUBJECTS
Ittppiter, stem and decl., 79 and b ; plural,
100. a ; deriyationy 266. c.
-ias, adjs. in, gen., yoc. of, 110. a; forma-
tion of adjs. in, 247, 2tS2, n.
ifis {broth), ded., 103. g. 1.
-ias, gen. sing, ending, 113 ; quantity, id.
c, 603. a. Exc, 1.
lassIL, defect., 94. c, 103. b. 5.
itstd, w. compar., 406. a.
iayat, w. ace., 388. c.
iuvenis, decl., 62. n.*, 78. 1; maac. adj.,
122. d; compar., 131. c.
iuv5, w. ace., 367. a.
iuztil, position, 435.
-iv-, in perf., 211. d.
-iiras, verbal adj. ending, 251. n.
J (the character), 5 n. ^; Eng. sound, id.
Julian Calendar, 630, 631. e.
K, supplanted by C, 1. a. n.
kalendae, 631. a.
Kindred forms, Latin and English, 18, 19.
Kindred signification, ace. of, 390.
Knowing, ybs. of, w. ace. and inf., 459.
Knowledge, adjs. of, w. gen., 349. a.
ko-(k&-), primary suffix, 234. II. 12.
L, nouns in -1, gend., 87; adj. stems in
1-, 117. a.
Labials, 4. 2; stems, decl. Ill, 56 and a.
labdro, w. abl., 404. a.
lacos, decl., 89 ; dat. and abl. plur. in -abas,
92. c.
laedo, w. ace., 367. a.
laetor, laetus, w. abl., 431.
lampas, decl., 82.
lateo, w. ace., 396. c.
latet, w. ace., 388. c. n. i.
Ultlfandiam, 265. 2.
Ultas, part., deriyation, 200. ftn. 2.
Learmng, ybs. of, w. inf., 456.
Length, expressed by gen., 345. b.
-Ifins, -lenttts, adj. endings, 245.
led, decl., 62.
Letters, classification of, 1-5.
levis, decl., 116; compar., 124.
leviter, compar., 218.
liber, adj., ded., 50, 111. a.
Liber, decl., 50.
liberi, noun, 50, 101. 3.
libet, impers., 208. c. n. ; w. dat., 368. 1.
licet, impers., synopsis, 207 ; use, 208. c.
N. ; w. dat., 3(58. 1; w. predicate dat.,
455. 1; w. subjy., meaning although^
S2^. 6; licet eam, licet mS ue, licet mihi
ire, 565 and n. 2.
Likeness, adjs. of, w. dat., 384; w. gen.,
385. c.
Limiting word, meaning of, 276. b.
Linguals, 4. 3 ; stems in, decl. Ill, 58. a.
linter, ded., 66.
Liquids, 3, 4 ; stems in, decl. Ill, 61-64.
-lis, adjs. in, compar., 126.
Litotes, 326. c.
-liam, noun ending, 241. c.
U-, as stem ending, 62. n. K
l<h (1I-), primary suffix, 234. II. 10.
Locative abl., 426. 3; idiomatic use,
429. 3 ; adverbial forms, 215. 5.
LocATivB, defined, 35. h, p. 34. ftn. (cf.
360) ; in abl., 398, 421 ; of ded. I, 43. c;
decl. n, 49. a; decl. UI, 80; decl. IV
(domi), 93. N. 1 ; decl,^V, 98. 6 ; as adv.,
215. 5; w. abl. in apposition, 282. d;
relative adv. used to refer to, 308. g;
animi, 358 ; loc. used to express tokens,
426. 3; forms (domi etc.), 427. a.
loc5, abl. without prep., 429. 1.
loc5, vb., constr., 430.
locum capere, w. dat. of gerund etc., 505.
locas, plur. -i or -a, 106. o.
Logaoedic Verse, 623-626.
Lon^ and Short, see Quantity.
longias, without quam, 407. c.
lodicer, decl., 112. a.
laCs, defect., 103. d. 1.
lux, decl., 103. g. 2.
M, final, elision of, 612. d. n.,/; inserted
in verb root, 176. c. 2.
-m, sign of ace., 338 ; omitted in inscrip-
tions, 46. N. K
macer, decl., 112. a.
macte virtute, use and constr., 340. c
and N.
magis, as sign of compar., 128; comps.
of, w. qoam, 434.
nuLgni, gen. of value, 417.
mignas, comparison, 129.
mftiestatis, w. words of accusing etc.,
352. a.
Main clause, defined, 278. b.
mftior nattt, 131. c.
maiSrSs, signification of, 101. 3 (cf. 102. 2),
291. c. N. ».
Making, ybs. of, constr., 393.
male, compar., 218; compounds of, w.
dat., 368. 2.
maid, conj., 199.
malas, compar., 129.
mando, constr., 563.
mine, defect, noun, 76. n. \ 103. b. 5.
maneS, w. abl., 431.
Manser, advs. of, 217. c ; abl. of, 412 and
b ; hard to distinguish from abl. of speci-
fication, 418. a. N ; manner implied in
participle, 496.
mansoStas, 266. c.
manas, decl., 89; gend., 90. Exc.
mare, decl., 76. a. 3, 78.
mari, loc., 427. a.
INDEX OF WORDS AND SUBJECTS
461
in&s, decl., 71. 6.
Masculine, rule for gender, 31.
Masculine adjs., 122. d.
Masculine csBsura, 615. c. n.
Material, adjectives denoting, 247 ; gen.
of, 344; abl. of, 403 and &, c, d.
maximi, as sign of superL, 128.
May, how expressed in Latin, 157. b.
m$ dins fldiuB, 307. d. n. ».
Means, nouns denoting, 239 ; abl. of, 408,
409; participle implying means, 496.
Measure, ^en. of, 345. b (cf. 426. a).
Measures m Prosody, 608-610 ; names of,
609 ; contracted or resolved, 610.
Measures of value, 632-635; of length,
636 ; of weight, 637 ; of capacity, 638.
medeor, w. dat. or ace., 367. o.
^ediocris, decl., 115. a. n. i.
Meditative verbs, 263. 2. 6.
medius {middle part of)^ 293.
melior, decl., 120.
meUns est, w. infin. 486./.
memini, conj., 205; in pres. sense, id. b,
476 ; imperative of, 449. a ; memini w.
aoc. or gen., 350. a, 6; w. pres. inf.,
584. a and n.
memor, decl.^ 121. a. 3.
Memory, adjs. of, constr., 349. a; vbs. of,
oonstr., 350. *
men-, primary suffix, 234. U. 14.
-men, -mentum, noun endings, 239.
mSnsis, decl., 78. 2.
mexidiSs, gend., 97.
-met (enclitic), 143. d.
Metathesis, 640 (cf. 177. a. n.).
Metre, see Prosody.
metu5, w. dat. or ace., 367. c; w. sub] v.,
564.
mens, voc. mi, 110. a. n. ; syntax of,
302. a, 343. a.
Middle voice, 397. c, 4ia n.
Mile, 636.
nules, decl., 57.
Military expressions, dat. in, 382. 2 ; abl.
of means instead of agent, 405. 6. n. ^ ;
abl. of acoomp. without cum, 413. a.
militiae (locative), 427. a.
miUe (milia), decl. and constr., 134. d.
-mini, as jMrsonal ending, p. 76. ftn. 1.
minlmfi, compar., 218. a ; use, 291. c. n. ^ ;
w. neg. force, 392. a ; in answer {no) , 336.
a. 2.
ministro, w. infin., 460. a.
minor nAtfi, 131. c.
minSris, gen. of value, 417 and c.
mindris, signification, 291. c. n. *.
-minus, -nmns, verbal adjective endings,
263. c.
minas, compar., 218. a; use, 291. c. n. 3;
w. si and 4a5, = nof, 329. a; constr.
without qnam, 407. c.
miior si, 572. b. n.
mirum quam (quantum), w. indicative,
675. d.
mis, tis, 143. a. N.
misceS, w. abl. or dat., 368. 3. n., 413. a. n.
miser, decl., HI; compar., 125.
miserfi, compar., 218.
misereor, w. gen., 354. a.
mlserSscd, w. gen., 364. a.
miseret, 208. 6; w. gen. and aoc., 354. b\
other constr., id. n.
miseror, w. ace, 354. a. n.
Mixed i-stems, 70-72.
-nmus, see -minus.
mo- (ma-), primary suffix, 234. II. 7.
Modesty, subjunctive of, 447. 1.
Modification of subj. or pred., 276.
Modifiers, position of, 596-699; of nega-
tive, 599. a.
modo (modo n§) with subjv. of proviso^
528.
modo . . . modo, 323./.
mod5 as abl. of manner, 412. b.
moUlris, decl., 76. a. 2.
mone5, conj., 186; constr., 351, 390. d.vA.
-monium, -mOnia, noun endings, 239.
Monoptotes, 103. b.
Monosyllables, quantity, 604. o-c.
Months, gend. of names of, 31 and n. ;
decl. of names of in -ber, 115. a ; names
of, 630; divisions of in Roman Calen^
dar, 631.
Moods, names and uses of, 154, 167 ; note
on origin and nature of, 4^; syntax
of, 264-275, 437-463.
Moods in temporal clauses, how distin-
guished, 545, 546 and notes.
Mora, in Prosody, 608. a.
mSrigerus, decl.. 111. a. n.
mds est ut, 668.
Mother, name of, w. prep., 403. a. n. i.
Motion, how expressed, 363, 381. a, 402 ;
indicated by compounds, 388. b\ im-
plied, 428. j. N.
Motion, end of, see End of Motion.
Motive, how expressed, 404. b.
Mountains, names of, gend., 31 and b.
Httlciber, decl., 50. c.
muliebris, decl., 115. a. n. i.
mult& nocte, 293. n.
Multiplication by distributives, 137. c.
Multiplicatives, 139.
multnm (-5), compar., 218. a.
multus, compar., 129.
munus, decl., 105. g\ munus est ut, 568.
mus, decl., 71. 6.
mnsica (-€), decl., 44.
Musical accent, 611.
mutilre, constr., 417. b.
Mutes, 4 ; mute stems, decl. Ill, 56-64.
m^hos, decl., 52.
462
INDEX OF WORDS AND SUBJECTS
N, 4; as final letter of stem (ledn-), 61. 1 ;
preceding stem vowel of vb., 176. b. 1 ;
mserted m verb root (tangS), 176. c. 2,
177. 6. N.
n&is, decl., 82.
-nam (enclitic), in questions, 333. a.
nam, namque, use, 324. A, k.
Names of men and women, 108.
Naming, vbs. of, w. two aces., 393.
Nasals, 4, 6 ; inserted in verb root, 176. c. 2.
D&UUs, decl., 76. b. 2.
D&tn (imtior, minor), 131. c.
nitus etc., w. abl. of source, 403. a.
n&vis, decl., 76. 6. 1.
-nd, -nt, vowel short before, 10. e.
-ndu8, verbal adj. ending, 253. a ; gerun-
dive in, 158. d.
-ne (enclitic), use in questions, 332. ch:;
w. force of nSnne, 332. c; orig. mean-
ing, id. N. 1 ; in double questions, 335 ;
in exclamatory questions, 462. a ; quan-
tity, 604. a. 1.
n6, neg. of hortatory subjv., 439; in pro-
hibitions, 450. 3 ; m concessions, 527. a ;
w. subjv. of proviso, 528. b; in final
clauses, 531;=nSdum, 532. n. i; in
substantive clauses, w. vbs. of hinder-
ing, 558. b; of fearing, 564; omitted
after cavS, 565. n. i.
nS ndn, w. vbs. of fearing, 564.
nS . . . quidem, use, 322./; after n5n, 327.
1 ; after ndn modo, 217. e ; position of,
599.6.
Nearness, adjs. of, w. dat., 384 ; w. gen.,
385. c.
nee enim, 324. h.
necesse, indecl., 103. n.^; necesse est at,
568, 569. 2. N. 2.
Necessity, vbs. of, w. perf. pass, inf.,
486. d; in apod., 517. c, 522. a; w. ut-
clause, 569. 2.
necne in double questions, 335 and n.
nSdum, 532. n. i, X
neffts, indecl., 103. a; w. supine in -u, 510.
Negation, perfect preferred in, 475. a.
Negative answers, 332. &, 336 and a. 2.
Negative particles, list of, 217. e; use
of, 325 ; two negatives, 326 ; neg. form
different from English, 328 ; neg. con-
dition, 525. a ; neg. proviso, 528 ; neg.
purpose, 531; neg. result, 538, 568;
position of, 599. a.
neg5, better than dic5 . . . n5xi, 328, 580. 6.
negStiam dS ut, 563. ftn. 2.
n6md, use of, 314 ; gen. and abl. sing, re-
placed by nullius and nullS, 314. a ; nSm5
n5n, 326. b ; nSmS est qui, 535. a. n. i.
neque (nee), and not, 328. a; neqae enim,
use, 324. h ; neque after a neg., 327. 2, 3.
nBquam, indecl., 122. 6; oompar. of, 129.
neqned, conj., 206. d.
nCquls, decl., 310. a.
nesciS an, 575. d.
nescid qnis, as indefinite without subjy.,
575. d.
-neus, adj. ending, 247.
Neuter ace. as adv., 214. d, cf. b. k.
Neuter adjs., special uses of, 289.
Neuter gender, general rule for, 33 ; cases
alike m, 38. b ; endings of decl. Ill, 87.
Neuter pron. as cognate ace., 390. c.
Neuter verbs, see Intransitive Verbs.
n6ve, connective in prohibitions, 450. n. ^.
nex, decl., 103. a. 2.
ni-, primary sumx, 234. II. 5.
ni, nisi, 512. n ; use of, 525. a.
-nia, -niiun, noun endings, 241. c.
niger, decl., 112; distinct from ater, 131.
d. N.
nihil, indecl., 103. a; contr. to nil, 603. c.
nihili, gen. of value, 417. a.
nihlH and nihilo, 103. a. n. s.
nimiramqaam,as indefinite without subjv.,
575. d,
ningit, 208. a.
nisi and si non, 525. a; nisi m, id. 3;
nisi vSro (forte), id. 6.
nitor, w. abl., 431.
nix (stem and decl.), 79. d; plur., 100. b.
No, in answers, how expressed, 336. a. 2.
no- (nfi-), primary suffix, 234. II. 4.
no-, verb suffix, 176. 6. 1.
nSli, in prohibitions, 450. (1) and n . i.
nold, conj., 199; part. w. dat. of the ^r-
son judging, 378. n. ; w. perf. act. inf.
in prohibitions, 486. c. ; w. perf. pass,
inf. (or part.), id. d and n.
Nomen, denoting gens, 108.
ndmen, decl., 64.
nSmen est, w. pred. nom. or dat., 373. a;
w. gen., id. n.
Nominal adjs., £43-254.
NoHnf ATivE defined, 35. a ; nom. suffix,
338; neut. plur. nom. and. ace. alike,
38. 6; in decl. II, 45. a; in decl. Ill,
56, 68, 61, 66, 79; of neuters, i-stems,
68. a ; in u-stems, decl. lY, 88 ; in e-
stems, decl. V, 96.
Nominative, Syntax (see 338) : in pred-
icate, 283, 284; verb-agreement with,
316; as subject, 339; in exclamations,
339. a (cf . 397. d) ; used for vocative,
340. a; w. opus in predicate, 411.6;
nom. of gerund supplied by inf., 502. n.
ndn, derivation, 215. 1; compounds of,
326. a, 6 ; in answers, 336. a. 2.
n5n dttbitS quin, 558. a ; nSn dnbitS w. inf.,
id. N. 3; w. indir. quest., id. N.i.
ndn modo, after a negative, 327. 1.
n9n modo . . . n6 . . . qnidem, 217. e.
ndn nfimS, nSn nuUus, etc., 326. a.
nSn quia (quod, qa5, qain) etc., 640. n. *.
INDEX OF WORDS AND SUBJECTS
463
non satis, 291. c. v. ^.
Nones (n5iiae), 631. c.
ndnne, in qaestions, 332. b.
n58, decl., 143; for ego, 143. a.
noster, for poss. gen., 302. a.
nostxi, as objective gen., 143. c, 295. b.
nostnun, as partitive gen., 143. b, 295. b;
as objective gen., 2^. b. n. ^.
Noun and adj. forms of vb., 166.
Noun stem, treated as root, 176. d.
Nouns defined, 20. a; indecl., gend., 33;
decl. of, 37-95 ; derivative forms of, 236-
241; used as adjectives, 321. c; rule of
agreement, 281 ; w. part, gen., 346. a. 1 ;
w. obi. gen., 348; governing ace., 388.
d. N. ^; noun as protasis, 521. a.
Nouns of agency, ^ ; formation, 236.
novendecim, 133. N. 3.
nox, decl., 72.
ns, nf, gn, quantity of preceding vowel,
10. (2, 603. d.
-ns, as adjective ending, 118; participles
in, decl., 119, 121. &.2; w. gen., 349. 6;
w. ace. id. N. ^ '.
nt- (ont-, ent-), primary suffix, 234. II. 18.
nt-, stems in, decl., 121. a. 4.
nu-, primary suffix, 234. II. 6.
nubCs, decl., 72.
nubd, w. dat., 368. 3.
nullns, decl., 113; use, 314. a; cf. n6m5.
niun, force of, 332. 6; in indirect ques-
tions, id. N.
Number, 35; nouns, defect, in, 99, 100,
101, 103./, g; variable in, 107; pecul-
iar uses, 101. N. \ 317. d. N. > ; number
in vbs., 154. e; agreement in, 280; w.
appositives, 282. a ; w. adjs., 286 and b ;
w. vbs., 316, 317. d.
Numeral advs., 138.
Numerals, 132-139; cardinals and ordi-
nals, 132, 133 ; distributives, 136 ; advs.,
138; others, 139. Position of numeral
adjs., 508. b.
numquis, 149. 6, 310. a.
nunc, compared w. lam, 322. 6.
nunc . . . nunc, 323./.
nuras, gend., 90.
-nns, adj. ending, 250.
O for u after u or v, 6. a, 6 ; in decl. II,
46. N. 1.
o- (a-), primary suffix, 234. 1. 1.
-o in nom., 61. 1; gend., 86; in fem. abl.
of Greek adjs., 111. b. n.
-6, -5nis, noun ending, 236. c, 255.
o si, w. subjv. of wish, 442. a and n. i.
o-stems, decl. II, 46; in adjs., 111-113;
vbs. from o-stems, 269. 2.
Ob, use, 220. a, 221. 16; in comp., 267. a;
in comp. w. vbs., w. dat., 370 ; to express
cause, 404. b ; w. gerund, 506 and v. i.
obed, constr., 370. 6.
Obeying, vbs. of, 367; w. ace., id. a.
Object cases, 274. a.
Object clauses, infin., 462 ; subjv., 561-668.
Object defined, 274; becomes subj. of
pass., 276, 387. 6; ace. of direct w.
dat. of indir. obj., 362; secondary
obj., 394; obj. of anticipation, 676.
Obiective case expressed in Latin by gen.,
dat., ace., or abl., 274. a.
Objective compounds, 266. 3.
Obiective genitive, mei etc., 143. c; de-
nned, 348. N.; w. nouns, 348; w. adjs.,
349.
Obligation, unfulfilled, hortatory subjv.,
439. 6.
Oblique cases, 36. g ; origin of names of,
338.
obliViscor, w. ace. or gen., 360. a, b.
obvins (obviam), derivation, 216 and n.;
obviam as apparent adj., 321. d ; w. dat.,
370. c.
Occasion, expressed by participle, 496.
dolor, compar., 130.
octSdecim, 133. n. ^,
5di, conj., 205 ; w. meanine of present, 476.
-oe, for -I in nom. plur., decl. II, 52. d,
offendO, constr., 370. b.
-^ins, names in, 49./.
Old forms of pronouns: mis, tis, 143. a.
N. ; mSd, ted, id.
oUus (ille), 146. n. *.
-olus, diminutive ending, 243.
Omission, of possessive, 302. c; of ante-
cedent, 307. c.
omnCs; nOs omnCs (instead of omnSs nos-
trum), 346. e.
5n-, stem-ending, 83. c.
-fin, Greek ending, decl. II, 52.
6n-, stem-ending, 61. 1, 234. II. 13.
-6n, gen. plur., decl. II, 52. c.
-6n, nom. ending, 83. c, d,
ont-, nom. -onj ^. d.
Open syllables, 7. n. 2.
oper&, w. gen., 405. b.
operam d5, w. dat. of gerund etc., 505;
w. subjv., 663.
Operations of nature, 208. a.
opinione, w. compar., 406. a.
opinor, position of, 599. c.
oportet, 208. c; w. ace., 388. c; in apod.,
517. c; imperfect refers to present,
plupf . to past, 522. a. n. i ; w. subjv. or
inf., 665 and N.8.
oportnit, w. pres. inf., 486. a; w. perf.
inf., id. b.
oppldum, ad, 428. b.
oppugnd, w. ace., 370. b.
ops, defect., 103./. 1.
Optative, derivation, and comparison
w. subjv., 436.
464
INDEX OF WORDS AND SUBJECTS
Optative forms in the yb., 168. e. n.^,
169. d.
Optative subjv. (wi»A), 441; w. atinam
etc., 442; velim etc. w. subjv., equiv.
to, id. 6.
optimltis, 71. 5, 101. 3.
opus, indecl., 103. a; opus and fistts, w.
abl., 411; as pred. nom., id. 6; w.
participle, 497. a; w. supine in -fi, 510.
or-, stem-ending, decl. Ill, 63. Szc, 2.
-or, noun ending, 238. a.
-or or -^, nom. ending, 62. n. * ; gend., 85.
Ordtio oUiqua, see Indirect Discourse.
Order of words, 595-601.
Ordinal Numbers, 132-135; decl., 134. e;
use of et with, 135. a, b.
5r5, constr., 563.
Orphens, decl., 52. e.
OS-, stem of comparatives, 120. b.
-08 for His, in nom. sing., decl. II, 46. k. i ;
as Greek ending, 62 ; as gen. ending in
Greek nouns, decl. Ill, 81. 1.
08, ossis, stem, 79.
-5e, nom. ending, 62. n.'; gend., 85.
58, 5ri8, decl., 103. g. 2.
-Sttts, -leas, 4enta8, adj. endings, 245.
ovat (defective), 206./.
ovi8, decl., 76. b, 1.
P, parasitic after m (sfimpsl), 15. 11.
pacts, as abl. of manner, 412. b.
paene, in apod., 517. 6. ir. >.
paenitet, 208. b ; constr., 354. 6, c.
Paeon, 609. d.
palam, as apparent adj., 321. d; w. abl.,
432. c.
Palatals, 4.
palttster, decl., 115. a.
Panthtis, vocative of, 52. b.
pftr, decl., 119, 121. a. 3; w. gen., 385. c;
w. dat. of gerund etc., 505. ftn. 2.
Parallel verb forms, 189.
Parataxis, 268.
pariltas, w. iufin., 460. b.
Pardoning, vbs. of, w. dat., 367.
Parisyllabio nouns of decl. Ill, 65. a.
pariter, use, 384. n. ».
parte, locative use, without prep., 429. 1.
partem, adverbial use, 387. a.
particepB, ded., 121. a. 4, b.
Participlbs, defined, 20. b. n. ^; com-
parison of, 124. a; number of, 155. a;
now used, 158.
Participlbs, Syntax^ 488-600; agree-
ment, 286 and' n. ; clause equivalent to
part., 308. c ; parts, in -ns, used as adjs.,
w. gen., 349. b ; parts, in abl. absolute,
419; meaning and form, 488; tenses,
48&^93; present in special use, 490;
pres. pass, part., how supplied, 492;
perf. act., how supplied, 4fl3; parts, of
dep(ment vbs., 190. a, 6, 491, 493 ; adjeo-
tlveuse,494; as nouns, id. a; predicate
use, 495, 496 ; w. opus, 497. a ; perf. w.
habeO, id. b ; present w. tacio, id. c; fut-
ure iMEirt., 498; w. past tenses of esse,
498. 0 ; poetic and late use, 499 ; gerund-
ive, use as part, or adj., 500; part as
protasis, 521. a.
Particles defined, 23 ; forms and classifi-
cation, 213; note on formation, 215,
216; interrogative, 217. d; negative,
id. 6,326; in compe., 267. Syntax, 321-
336 ; use of interrogative particles, 332.
Or-e; conditional particles, 612. a and
N., 525; particles of comparison, 624.
Particular conditions defined, 513.
partior, conj., 190.
Partitive apposition, 282. a.
Partitive genitive, 346 ; nostmm etc., 143.
b ; neut. adjs. with, 346. 3 and n. i.
Partitive numerals, 139. c.
Parts of Speech, 20.
partus, decl., 92. c.
pamm, compar., 218. a; meaning, 291. c.
parvi, gen. of value, 417.
parvus, compar., 129.
Passive voice, 154. a ; origin, 163. ftn. 2,
208. d. N. ; signification, 156 ; reflexive
meaning, id. a; deponents, 166. b ; com-
pleted tenses, how formed, 179. g;
passive used impersonally, 203. a, 206.
d, 372 (cf. 566, 682. a).
pater lamitils, decl., 43. b.
patifins, compar., 124. a.
patior, constr., 563. c.
Patrials in -&s, decl., 71. 5, 121. a. 4.
Patronymics (nUles, -ides, -ens, etc), 244.
pauper, decl., 121. a. 4.
piz, decl., 103. g. 2.
pecil, gend., 91; decl., 106./.
pecuniae, gen., w. vbs. of accusing, 352.
a and n.
pedester, decl., 115. a.
pelagus (plur. pelagS), gend. of, 48. a.
pelvis, decl., 76. b. 1.
Penalty, gen. of, 352 and n. ; abl. of,
353.2.
Penfttes, ded., 71. 5 (cf. 101. 3).
penes, foUowing noun, 436.
Pentameter verse, 616.
Penult, defined, 12.
penus, gend., 90. Exc. ; decl., 105. c.
per, prep., 220. o; use, 221. 16; w. aoc.
of agent, 406. 6. Adverbial prefix, w.
adjs., 267. d. 1 (cf . 291. c. n. *) ; w. vbs.,
267. d. N.
Perceiving, vbs. of, constr., 469.
perendiC (loc.), 98. 5, 215. 6.
Perfect participle, two uses, 168. c. 1, 2:
of deiwnents, 190. b; used as noun,
INDEX OF WORDS AND SUBJECTS
465
retains adv., 321. b; dat. of agent w.,
375 ; abl. w. opus and isas, 411. a, 487. a.
PsRFBCT TsNBS distmgniahed from im-
perf., 161, 471 ; perf . def. and perf . hist.,
161, 473 ; personal endings, 163. a, 169.
a ; origin of 1 and s in, 163. f tn. 3 ; stem,
how formed, 177, 179 ; perf. subly., suf-
Hxes of, 169. d; of coni. I, 179. a. 2;
contracted perf., 181. a, o ; perf. subjv.
in -Sim, 183. 3; irreg. forms of conj. I,
209. a; of oonj. II, 210. c; various, of
conj. m, 211; of conj. IV, 212.
PsBFXCT Tbnsb, Syntax. Perf. Ind.,
use, 473; in general conditions, id. a,
518. b ; gnomic perf., 475 : in fut. condi-
tions, 516. 6. rerf. Sub] v., hortatory,
439 and n. i ; optative, 441. a ; potential,
446 ; in prohibitions, 450 (3) ; in fnt. con-
ditions, 516. c. Perf. Inf., in exclama-
tions, 462 and n. ^ ; w. dSbeS etc., 486. b ;
w. n516 or voW in prohibition, id. c ; pass,
w. vol5 etc., id. a; instead of the pres.
inf., id. e ; w. vbs. of feeling etc., id./;
in ind. disc., 584. a and k. Seqaence of
Tenses, perf. ind., 485. a; pen. sabjv.,
id. by c, 585. a.
PericlSs, decl., 82.
Period, 600, 601.
Periphrastic conjugations, 158. b. n., d.
K. ; paradigms, 195, 196; periphrastic
forms in conjugation, 193 ; use in con-
trary to fact apodosis, 517. d; in ind.
questions, 575. a.
Permission, vbs. of, constr., 663. c.
peimnts; w. abl., 417. b.
pemox, decl., 122. c.
perpes, decl., 121. a. 3.
Person, 154. d; agreement, 280; of vbs.,
316 and a ; w. different persons, 317. a ;
order of the three persons, id.
Personal constr. of passive w. infinitive,
582.
Personal endings, 163 and ftn. 1.
Personal pronouns, 142, 143, 294, 295 ; re-
duplicated forms, 143. «; Syntax^ 295;
omitted, id. a, 318. a ; gen. plur., 295. b ;
3d pers., id. c; position of personal and
demonstrative, 599./.
perenAdeS, constr., 563.
Persuading, vbs. of, w. dat., 367.
pertaesnm est, 354. b.
pSs, comps. of, decl., 121. b. 1.
Pet names, gend., 30. a. n.^.
pet6 w. ab, 396. a; w. subjv., 663.
ph only in Greek words, 4. 1. ftn. 2;
sound of, 8.
Phalffician verse, 625. 11.
Pherecratic verse, 623. 2, 624, 625. 2, 4, 12.
Phonetic variations, 14-19; phonetic
decay, id. ; vowels, 15, 17 ; consonants,
16. 4-17.
Phrase, defined, 277.
Phrases, neut., 33; phrases and clauses
grown into advs., 216; adverbial
phrases, 277; phrases limited by gen.,
343. c; phrase or clause in abl. abs.,
419. 6.
Physical qualities, abl., 415. a.
piger, decl., 112. a.
piget, constr., 354. b.
Pity, vbs. of, constr., 364. a.
piuB, compar., 128. n., 131. a.
pix, decl., 103. AT. 2.
Place, advs. of, 217. a; relations of. re-
quire prep., 381. a, 426; place of birth,
abl., 403. o. N.a; place where, 426. 3,
427. 3 ; place to or from which, 426. 1,2;
prep., when omitted, 426. ftn., 427. 1, 2.
a, 429. a ; locative case, 427. 3. a, 428. k.
Placing, vbs. of, constr., 430.
Plants, gend. of names o^ 32 and b;
decl. of plant names in -us, 106. a.
plaudd, w. dat., 368. 3.
Plautus, absque mS etc., 617./; use of quom
w. indie, 646. N.*, 649. n.»; prosodial
forms, 620. a, 628. 6, 629.
Pleasing, vbs. of, constr., 367.
plSbSs, decl., 98. d.
Plenty, vbs. of, constr., 366, 409. a. '
plSnas, constr., 409. n.
-plex, numeral adjs. in, 139.
pluit (impers.), 208. a; used personally,
id. N.
Pluperfect Indicative, suffixes of, 169. b ;
use of, 477; epistolary, 479; pluperf.
indie, in conditions oont. to falct, 617. b ;
in general conditions, 618. b. Pluperf.
Subjv., suffixes of, 169. e; hortatory,
439. 6; optative, 441; potential, 446; in
conditions, 617 (sequence, 485. g).
Plural, wanting in decl. V, 98. a; used
in sense different from sing., 100. <i^f
107 ; plur. alone used, 101. nA ; plur. ace.
used as advs., 215. 3 ; neut. plur. of adjs.,
289.6.
Plurdlia tarUumy 101.
pluris, gen. of value, 417 and c.
plus, dec!., 120 and c; compar., 129; with-
out quam, 407. c
poSma, decl., 60. a.
poenitet, see paenitet.
pondS, defect., 103. b. 5.
pdn5, w. abl., 430.
por-, prefix, 267. b.
porticas, gend., 90. Exc.
portas, decl., ^. c.
Position, expressed by ab, ex, 429. b.
Position in Prosody, 11. 6, 603. /; does not
affect final vowel, 603./. k. i.
posse, as fut. inf., 584. b.
Possession, how expressed, 302. a ; dat.
of, 373; compared w. gen., id. n.
466
INDEX OF WORDS AND SUBJECTS
Possessive compounds, 265. a.
Possessive genitive, 343 and a-c; dat. of
reference used instead, 377.
Possessive pronouns, 145; a^eement,
302 ; instead of gen., id. a ; special mean-
ings, id. b ; omission, id. c ; used sub-
stantively, id. d ; w. gen. in app., id. e ;
used for gen., 343. a; for obj. gen.,
348. a.
Possibility, vbs. of, in apodosis, 517. c.
possom, in apodosis, 517. c.
post, adverbial use of, 433. 1 ; with quam,
434.
post, vbs. comp. w., with dat., 370.
postera, defect.. 111. b; compar., 130. b;
pocteri, id.
posterior, 130. &.
Postpositive conjunctions, 324. J.
pastqnam (posteilqiiain), in temporal
clauses, 543.
postrSmS, in enumerations, 322. d. n.
postxidiS, w. gen., 359. 6; w. ace, 432. a;
w. quam, 434.
postnlo ab, 396. a; postulS at, 563.
Potential mood, how expressed 'in Latin,
157.6.
Potential subjunctive, 445-447.
potior (adj.), compar., 130.
potior (verb), w. gen., 357. a, 410. a; w.
abl., 410; w. ace., id. n. i; gerundive,
503. N. a.
potis, pote, 122. b.
potins, compar., 218. a.
pottti, w. pres. infin., 486. a.
Practice; vbs. of, 263. b.
prae, 220. b ; use, 221. 17 ; in comp., 291. c.
N. ^ ; in comps., w. dat., 370 ; in compar.,
w. quam, 434; quantity of, in comps.,
603. 6. Exc.
praecSdo, constr., 370.
praeceps, decl., 119, 121. a. 3.
praecipio, constr., 563.
PraenomeTiy 108 ; abbreviations, id. c.
praepes, decl., 121. b. 1.
praestdlor, constr., 367. b.
praesum, w. dat. of gerund etc., 505.
piaeter, use, 220. a, 221. 18.
praeterit, w. ace, 388. c.
preci, defect., lOS.f, 2.
precor, constr., 563.
Predicate, defined, 270; modified, 276;
pred. noun or adj., 272, 283; case, 284;
pred. noun referring to two or more
sing, nouns, id. a; adjective, 285. 2,
286. a; agreement in, 287. 1-3; in rel.
clause, 306; pred. adj. in neut. plur.,
287. 4. a; pred. adj. in relative clause,
307./; pred. gen., 343. 6, c; pred. ace,
392, 393 ; adj. as pred. ace, id. n. ; pred.
ace. becomes pred. nom. in the pass.,
id. a ; predicate use of participles, 496.
Predicate noun or adj. after inf., 452. n. 2,
455. a and n., 458. 581. N. K
Prepositions, assimilation of, 16 ; defined,
20./; derivation of, 219; list of preps,
w. ace, 220. a ; w. abl., id. b ; w. either,
id. c ; idiomatic uses, 221 ; comp. w. vbs.
and adjs., 267. a, c; noun w. prep., in-
stead of obj. gen., 348. c; in comp. w.
vbs., w. dat., 370, 381 ; ace in comp.,
395; w. abl. of separation, 401; prep,
omitted in relations of place, 427. 1, 2,
429 and a; use of, 220, 221, 429. 6, 430,
432-435 ; preps, following the noun, 435;
usual position of, 599. d. (See 338.)
Present participle, decl., 119; use, 158. a.
Present stem, how formed, 168, 174 ; from
root, 176.
Present subjunctive in -im, 183. 2. I
Present tense, w. iam dia etc., 466 ; cona- '
tive, 467 ; for fut., 468 ; historical, 469 ;
annalistic, id. a ; w. dam, 556 ; in quo- j
tations, 465. a; sequence, 483, 485. e, i;
pres. inf. w. potai etc., 486. a ; participle,
489, 490, 492, 494, 496. Pres. inf. in md.
disc, referring to past time, 584. a and n.
Preteritive verbs, 205. n. 2, 476. 1
Preventing, vbs. of, constr., 364. n. a.
Price, abl. or gen., 416.
pridiS, form, 98. 6 ; w. gen., 359. b ; w. ace,
432. a; w. qoam, 434.
Primary suffixes, defined, 233.
Primary tenses, 482. 1, 483.
pzimipilaris, decl., 76. a. 2.
Primitive verbs, 256.
primS, primam, meanings, 322. d and n.
primoris, defect., 122. c.
primas, form, 130. ftn. 2.
pnnceps, decl., 121. a. 4.
Principal parts of verb, 172, 173.
prior, compar., 130. a.
prias, w. qoam, 434; priasqoam in tem-
poral clause, 550, 551; in ind. dise.,
585. b. N.
Privation expressed by abl., 400.
pr5, 220. 6; use, 221. 19; in comps., w.
dat., 370; to express /or, 379. n.
probS, w. dat., 368, 375. 6. n.
Proceleusmatic, 609. n.
procSrus, decl.. 111. a. n.
procal, w. abl., 432. c.
prohibeo, constr. of, 364. N. 2.
Prohibitions, 450; in ind. disc, 688. N.2.
Promising etc., vbs. of, 580. c.
Pronominal roots, 228, 232; as primary
suffixes, id.
Pronouns defined, 20. c; decl. of, 140-
161; personal, 142,143; reflexive, 144;
gen., how used, 143. c, 302. a; demon-
strative, 146; relative, 147; interr(^.
and indef., 148-151 ; pron. contained in
verb ending, 163. ftn. 1, 271. a.
INDEX OF WORDS AND SUBJECTS
467
Pbonouns, Syntax, 294-315; Personal,
295; Demonstrative, 296-298; idem,
298. a, 6; ipse, id. c-/; Reflexive, 299;
Possessive, 302; Relative, 303-308 ; In-
definite, 309-314. Prons. w. part, gen.,
346. a. 1. Relative in protasis, 519.
Position of prons., 598. e, I.
Pronunciation, Roman method, 8; Eng-
lish method, 8. n.
prdnuntio, constr., 563.
prope, compar., 130 ; use, 220. a ; in apod.,
617. 6. N.2.
prope est ut, 568.
Proper names, 108; plur., 99. 1, 101. 1.
Proper nouns, 20. a.
properuB, decl.. 111. a. n.
propinquns, w. gen., 385. c.
propior (propius), compar., 130. a; constr.,
432. a and n.
Proportional numerals, 139. a.
Propriety, vbs. of, in apod., 517. c, 522. a.
proprius, w. gen., 385. c.
propter, use, 220. a, 221. 20; position, 435;
denoting motivef 404. b.
Prosody, 602; rules and definitions,
603-606; early peculiarities, 629.
pro8per(-a8), dec!.. 111. a.
prdspicio, w. dat. or ace., 367. c.
Protasis (see Conditional Sentences), 512
ft. ; loose use of tenses in Eng., 514. C.
N. ; relative in prot., 519 ; temporal par-
ticles in, 542 ; antequam, priusquam, in,
651. c. N.2; prot. in ind. disc., 589. 1.
Protecting, vbs. of, constr., 364. n.^.
Protraction of long syllables, 608. c.
provided, w. dat. or ace., 367. c.
Proviso, subj V. used in, 528. a and b ; in-
troduced by modo etc., 528; hortatory
subjv. expressing, id. a; subiv. w. ut
(or n5), id. 6; characteristic clause ex-
pressing, 535. d.
proximS, constr., 432. a.
proximus, constr., 432. a.
-pse, -pte (enclitic), 143. d. n., 145. a, 146.
N. 7, 8.
pubSs, decl., 105. e, 121. d.
pudet, 208. b ; constr., 354. &, c, and N.
puer, decl. 47 (cf. 50. a).
pulcher, decl., 112. a.
Punishment, abl. of, 353. 1.
puppis, decl., 75. 6, 76. 6. 1.
Purpose, dat. of, 382; infin. of, 460;
expressed by gerundive after certain
vbs., 500. 4; by gerund or gerundive
as predicate gen., 504. a. n. i; ways
of expressing, 533. Glauses of, 279. d ;
defined and classified, 529 ff. ; use of
quo in, 531. a ; main clause omitted, 532 ;
nSdum, id., n. ^, ^. Substantive clauses
of, used after certain vbs., 663; of
wishing, id. b ; of permitting, id. c ; of
determining, id. d; of caution etc., id.
e ; of fearing, 564.
Purpose or end, dat. of, 382.
pttter, decl., 115. a.
qua . . . qua, 323./.
qttadrap€s, decl., 121. b. 1.
quae res (or id quod), 307. d,
quaere, constr. (ex or d6) , 396. a ; w. subjv.,
563.
quaesd, conj., 206. e.
qu&lis, 151. i.
Qualities (abstract), gend., 32.
Qualities of an object compared, 292.
Quality, adjs. of, 251 ; gen. of, 345, 415. a ;
to denote indef . value, 417 and a ; abL
of, 415 (cf. 345. N.).
quam, derivation of, 215. 2; with super-
lative, 291. c ; w. compar. and positive
or w. two positives, 292. a. n. ; cor-
relative w. tam, 323. g) w. compar.,
407. a, e ; after alius, id. a ; w. compar.
of advs., 434; w. ante, post, id.; w.
subjv. after compar., 535. c; followed
by result clause, 671. a; in indirect
questions, 675. d; in ind. disc., 581.
N. 2, 683. c.
quam diu, 555. N. 3.
quam ob causam, 398.
quam qui, quam ut, w. subjv., 635. c.
quam si, 524.
quamquam, use, 627. d\ introducing a
proposition = a7ie2 yet, id. n. ; w.
subjv., id. e.
quamvis, use, 627. a; subjv. or. ind. w.,
440. N., 627. a, e.
quandd (interrog.), derivation and mean-
ing, 215. 6, 639 ; causal (since) , 540. a and
N. ; indef., id. ; temporal, 642.
quanti, gen. of price, 417.
Quanti^, gen. of adjs. of, denoting price,
417.
Quantity in Prosody, marks of, 10. e;
nature of, 602 ; general rules, of, 9-11,
603; final syllables, 604; perf. and
perf. parts., 605; derivatives, 606.
quanto, w. tantd, 414. a.
quantum (with mirum), in indirect ques-
tions, 575. d.
quantus, 151. i.
quasi, with primary tenses, 524. n. 2.
quassd (intensive), 263. 2.
•que (enclitic), added to indefinites, 151.
g; as conj., use, 323. c. 3, 324. a ; quan-
tity, 604. a. 1.
qued (defective), 206. d.
quSs, old nom. plur., 150. c.
Questions, direct, in indie, 157. a, 330-
335; indirect, 330. 2, 331. N.; double
questions, 334; question and answer,
336 ; result clause in exclam. questions,
468
INDEX OK WORDS AND SUBJECTS
462. a; mood in indir. question, 574;
in ind. disc., 586; in informal }nd. disc.,
592.1.
qui (adverbial), 150. 5.
qni (relative), decl., 147; (interrog. and
indef.), 148 and 6; in compounds, 151;
qa!=at is, w. subjy., 531. 2. N., 537. 2;
qui causal and concessive, 535. e.
quia, derivation etc., 539; use, 540. n.^;
causal, id. ; w. vbs. of feeling, 572. 6 ;
in intermediate clauses, 592. 3.
quicum, 150. b.
qulcumqae, decl., 151. a.
quid, in exclamations, 397. d. n. i.
quidam, decl., 151. c; meaning of, 310;
w. ex, 346. e.
quidem, use, 322. e * w. is or Idem, 298. a ;
position of, 599. o.
qnmbet, decl., 151. c; use, 312.
quin, w. indie, equiv. to command, 449. b ;
in result clause (=qui nOn), 558, 559;
w. vbs. of hindering, 558; nfin dubitS
qain, 558. a.
Quinary or bemiolie measures, 609. d.
qainquKrHs, gender, 90; plural only,
101. 2.
qnippe, w. relative clause, 535. e. K. ^ ; w.
cum, 549. N. 1.
Quirites, 101. 3.
qais, decl., 148, 149; distinguished from
qui in use, id. b and n. ; compounds of
(aJiqnis etc.), 151. d-f, 310 and b; qnis
w. si, nam, n6, 310. a ; indef. use of, 310.
qnis est qui, 535. a.
qols, dat. or abl. plur., 150. c.
quisnam, 148. e.
quispiam, 151. d; use of, 310 and b.
quisqoam, decl., 151. d; use, 311, 312.
quisque, form and decl., 151. a; use in
general assertions, 313; in dependent
clause, id. a ; vr. superlative, id. b ; w.
plur. vb., 317. c.
qnisquis, decl., 151. b.
qtdvls, decl.. 151. c; use, 312.
quo-, stems in, 46. m. *.
qu5, approaching abl. of cause, 414. a. n.
qa5 in final clauses (r= ut e6) w. subjv.,
531. a; n5n qa6, 540. N.8.
quo . . . e5, 414. a; to denote deg. of
difference, id.
quoad (intention etc.), 553; (fact), 554;
{as long a«), 555.
quod for id quod, 307. d. n.
quod (conj.), 540. n.^; mood with, 540;
in ind. disc, id. b; subst. clause with,
572 ; as ace. of specification, id. a ; w.
vbs. of feeling, Id. b; quod in interme-
diate clauses, 592. 3 and K.
qnod sciam (proviso), 535. d.
quod si, use, 324. d, 397. a.
qnom (see cum), 6. &, 539. H.
quSminvs (»ut a6 miniis), w. vbs. of hin-
dering, 558. b.
quoniam, origin, 639; meaning and use,
540. 1. N. 1 and a.
quoqus, use, 322. a; position, 599. b.
quot, indeclinable, 122. 6 ; correl., 152.
Quotation, forms of, w. apud and in,
428. d. N.>; direct and indir., 578.
quotas quisque, 313. b.v,^.
qua- (CU-), 6. 6.
quum (conj.), 6. b (see cum).
R substituted for s between two vowels,
15. 4 and N. ; r- in adj. stems, 117. a ;
rr- in noun stems, 62. N. h
rAdix, decl., 57.
riLstrom, plur. in -a and -!, 106. b.
ratl5ne, as abl. of manner, 412. b.
latus, as pres. part, 491.
rftvis, decl., 75. a. 2.
re- or red- prefix), 267. 6.
reftpse, 146. N. ^.
Receiving, vbs. of, w. gerundive, 500. 4.
Reciprocal {each other), how e^q^^ressed,
145. c, 301./.
recordor, w. ace., 360. d; w. gen., id. >'.;
w. dS, id. N.
rCctom est at, 568.
red-, see re-.
Reduplication, 177. e, 231. c; list of vbs.,
211. b ; lost in fldi etc., id. /. f tn. 3 ; rule
for quantity, 605. a.
Reference, object of, 349.
Reference, prononnsof, 297./; commonly
omitted, id. n ; dative of, 376; gen. of
specification, 349. d.
rSfert, w^ gen. or possessive adj., 355 and
a; other oonstr., id. 6.
Reflexive pronouns, 144; Syntax of, 298.
c. N. 3, 299-301 ; of 1st and 2d persons,
299. a.
Reflexive verbs (deponent or passive),
190. e, 208. d. N. ; use of passive, 156. a ;
w. object aoc., 397. c.
Refusing, vbs. of, w. qaominus, 558. b.
Regular verbs, 171-189.
Relationship, nouns of, 244.
Relative adverbs, nsed correlatively, 152;
demon, for rel., 308. b ; used to connect
independent sentences, id./; referring
to loc., id. ^; spronoim w. prep., 321.
a; used in relative clauses of purpose,
531. 2; result, 537. 2.
Relative clauses, defined, 279. a ; w. rel.
ad vs., 308. t; conditional, 519; final,
531, 533; characteristic, 535; conseco-
tive, 537; causal, 540. c; temporal.
541, 542; rel. clauses in ind. disc., 591 :
position of rel. clause, 599. e.
Relative pronouns, decl., 147 ; forms, how
distinguished from interrogative aod
mDBX OF WORDS AND SUBJECTS
469
Indef., 148. b and n. ; comps. of, liil,
310 and a, &. Sjfntax, 303-^08; rules
of agreement, 305, 306 ; w. two antece-
dents, 305. a ; rel. in agreement w. app.
etc., 306; use of the antecedent, 307;
special uses of rel., 308; never omitted
in Lat., id. a; relatives as connectives,
id./; pers. of vb. agreeing w., 816. a;
abl. of rel. after oompar., 407. a. n. 8 ;
position, 699. e.
reunquitor ut, 568.
reliquum est ut, 568.
reliqutts, use, 293 ; reliqul, use, 315.
-rem, verb ending, 168./.
Remembering, vbs. of, w. aoo. or gen.,
350; w. inf., 466.
Reminding, vbs. of, oonstr., 351.
reminiscor, w. ace. or gen., 350. c.
Removing, vbs. of, w. abl., 401.
Repeated action as general condition,
518. c.
repetttnd&rom, 352. a.
NepraesentdtiOf 469. n. ; in ind. disc.,
585. b and n.
requiCs, decl., 98. c2, 105. e.
rSs, decl., 96.
Resisting, vbs. of, constr., 367, 558.
Resolution of syllables in Prosody, 610.
Resolving, vbs. of, constr. (subjv. or inf.),
563.(2.
restat, w. ut, 569. 2.
restis, decl., 75. 6.
Restriction in subjunctive clause, 535. d.
Result, clauses of, 279. e, 534 ; sequence of
tenses in, 485. e; inf. of, 461. a. Sub-
junctive w, relatives or ut, 637 ; nega-
tive result w. ttt n5n etc., id. a, 538;
result clause equivalent to proviso, 537.
b; w. quin, 558; w. qudminus, id. b.
Snbst. clauses of result after faciS etc.,
568 ; as subject, 569 ; in app. w. noun,
570; as pred. nom., 571; after qnam,
id. a; tantum abest ut, id. 6; thought
as result, id. c.
Result, nouns denoting, 239.
rete, decl., 76. a. 3.
rSz, decl., 57.
Rhetorical questions in ind. disc., 586.
Bhotacism, 15. 4.
Rhythm, development of, 607 ; nature of,
608.
Rhythmical reading, 612. d. n.
ri-, adi. stems in, 116. a.
ritu, abl. of manner, 412. 6.
rivalis, decl., 76. 6. 2.
Rivers, gender of names of, 31. 1 and a.
TO- (ra-), primary suffix, 234. II. 9.
ro-stems, decl. II, 46. 6; adj. stems. 111,
112.
rogo, constr. of, 396 and 6. n., c. n.^: w.
subjv., 563.
Roman method of pronunciation, 8.
Root, defined, 25, 228; consciousness, of
roots lost in Lat., 25. n. ; of vbs., 117.
1; noun stem treated as root, 176. d;
roots ending in vowel, id. e ; root used
as stem, id. d. n. ^ and e, 231.
ros, decl., 103. a. 2.
rr-, as stem ending, 62. n.^.
rt-, stems in, decl., 121. a. 4.
ruber, decl., 112. a.
run, locative, 80, 427. a
rus, decl., 103. g. 1 ; constr., 427. 1, 2, 3.
S changed to r, 15. 4 and n., 62. n. ^ ; sub-
stituted for d or t, 15. 5^; s- as stem end-
ing, 79. e; ofadJ8.,119. N.; of^oompars.,
120. b ; of perf. stem, 177. b ; list of vbs.
of conj. Ill, w. perf. in s, 211. a; s sup-
pressed in verb forms, 181. 6. n.2; in
earl^ Lat., 629. a.
-a as sign of nom., 45, 46, 56, 95, 117. a,
338 ; -s omitted in inscriptions, 46. n. ^ ;
-s, noun ending, decl. Ill, gend., 86.
sacer, decl., 112. a; comp., 131. a.
saepe, compar., 218. a.
sai, decl., 103. g. 2.
Salamis, decl., 83. a.
aal&ber, decl., 115. a,
salutem, 397. d. n. 2.
8alv6, defect., 206. g.
sine quam, 575. d.
Sanskrit forms, see 25. ftn. 2, 170. 6. n.
sapiSns, decl., 76. b. 2.
Sapphic verse, 625. 7, 8.
satiis, decl., 98. d.
satis, compar., 218. a; compounds of, w.
dat., 368. 2; non satis, 291. c. n.^;
satis est (satis habeo), w. perf. infin.,
486./.
satur, genitive of, 60. b; diecl., 111. a;
compar., 131. b.
Saturnian verse, 628. d.
Saying, vbs. of, constr., 459 ; in passive,
582.
80 preceding stem-vowel of verb, 176. 6. 1»
scaber, decl., 112. a.
Scanning, 612. d, 609. e. n.
scilicet, derivation, 216. n.
scin, contracted form for sdsne, 13. n.
sold, imperative of, 449. a.
ScipladSs, 44. b. n.
8C18C0, constr.^ 563.
scitd, scit5te, imv. forms, 182. a, 449. a.
-8c6 (inceptive), vbs. ending in, 263. 1.
sS- or sSd-, inseparable prefix, 267. b.
86, reflexive, decl., 144. b; use, 299-301:
inter sS, 145. c.
Second Conjugation, prin. parts, 173:
pres. stem, how formed, 176. a ; forma-
tion of, 179. b ; paradigm, 185 ; vbs. of,
210; from noun stems, 260.
470
INDEX OF WORDS AND SUBJECTS
Second Declension, nouns, 45-47 ; accent
of gen. and voc. of nouns in -ins, 12.
Exc. 2.
Secondary object, 384.
Secondary suttixes, defined, 232.
Secondary tenses, 482. 2 ; rule for use of,
483; i>erf. def. more commonly sec-
ondary, 485. a; perf. subjv. in clauses
of result used alter, id. c; hist, pres.,
id. e; imperf. and pluperf. subjv., id.
g^ h ; present used as if secondary, by
synesiSf id. i.
secundum, prep., 220. a; use, 221. 21.
secundas. deriyation, 132. ftn.
secoris, decl., 75. 6, 76. a. 1.
secas (adv.), compar., 218. a,
secas, indecl. noun, 103. a ; use, 387. a.
secuttts (as pres. part.), 491.
sed-, see sC-.
sed compared with vfinim etc., 324. d,
sSdSs, decl., 78. 1.
sedile, decl., 69.
Selling, ybs. of, 417. c.
sSmentis, decl., 75. 6, 76. 5. 1.
Semi-deponents, 192.
sCmineci, defect., 122. c.
Semi-vowels, i and v (u), 5.
senAti, senitnos, forms of gen. in decl.
IV, 92. a, e.
senex, decl., 79 and c; adj. masc., 122. d;
comparison, 131. c.
Sentence, development, 268 ; defined, 269;
simple or compound, 278; incomplete,
318, 319.
Separation, dat. of, after comps. of ab,
dS, ex, and a few of ad, 381 ; abl. of, 400 ;
gen. for abl., 356. n., 357. b. 3.
Sequence of tenses, 482-485 ; in ind. disc,
585; in conditional sentences in ind.
disc., 589. 6.
sequester, decl., 105. b.
sequitur, w. at, 569. 2.
sequor, conj., 190.
bStSL nocte, 293. N.
series, decl., 98. a.
Service, adjs. of, w. dat., 384.
Service, dat. of, 382. n. i.
Serving, vbs. of, w. dat., 367.
servas (servos), decl., 46.
sSstertium, s6stertiu8, 632-634 ; how writ-
ten in cipher, 635.
sea (sive), 324./, 525. c.
Sharing, adjs. of, w. gen., 349. a.
Should (auxiliary), how expressed in Lat.,
157. b. ftn. 2.
Showing, vbs. of, w. two aces., 393.
si, 511 ; w. subjv. of wish, 442. a and N. i ;
SI and its compounds, use, 512. a. n.,
525; si n5n distinguished from nisi, id.
a. 1; miror si, 672. b. n.; a=w?iether,
676. a.
Sibilants, 4.
sic, correl., w. at, 323. gr, 537. 2. n.*; w.
si, 512. b.
siem (Sim), 170. b. n.
Significant endings, 235-253.
Signs of mood and tense, 169. ftn.
silentio, without preposition, 412. b.
-silis, adj. ending, 252.
Silvester, decl., 115. a.
-Sim, old form of perf. subjv., 183. 3.
similis, comparison, 126; w. gen. and
dat., 385. c. 2.
simiUter, use, 384. N. >.
Simois, decl., 82.
Simple sentences, 278. 1.
simol, simul atque (ac), 543.
Bimal . . . simul, 323./.
simal w. abl., 432. c.
sin, 612. a. v.
Singular, nouns defect, in, 103./.
Singvlaria tantum, 99.
sinister, decl., 112. a.
6in5, constr., 563. c.
-Bid, noun ending, 238. b.
-sis-, dropped in perf., 181. 6. N. *.
sitis, decl., 67 (cf. 75. a. 2).
sive (sea) . . . sive, use, 324./, 525. c.
Smell, vbs. of, w. ace., 390. a.
-85, old form of fut. perfect, 183. 3.
-60, vbs. in, 263. 2.
socras, gend., 90. Exc.
sSdSs (si aadSs), 13. N., 192. a.
s51, decl., 103. g. 2.
soled, semi-dep., 192.
solitS, w. compars., 406. a.
solitas, as pres. part., 491.
solus, decl., 113; w. relative clause of
characteristic, 535. b.
Sonants, 3.
85ns, as participle of esse, 170. 6.
-sor, see -tor.
85racte, dec)., 76. 6. N.^.
Bordem, defect., 103./. 3.
•soria, noun ending, 254. 4 ; -sSrium, noun
ending, 254. 5; -sOrius, adj. ending,
250. a.
SSspita, fem. adj. form, 121. e.
Sounds, see Pronunciation.
Source, expressed by abl.j 403.
Space, extent of, expressed by ace., 425.
Sparing, vbs. of, with dat., 367.
8p6, w. compars., 406. a.
Special verb forms, 181, 182.
speciSs, decl., 98. a.
Specification, gen. of, w. adjs., 349. d;
ace. of, 397. 6 and n. ; abl. of, 418.
spectts, gend., 90. Exc.
Spelling, variations of, 6.
sp^s, 98. a and ftn.
Spirants, 4.
Spondaic verse, 615. b.
INDEX OF WORDS AND SUBJECTS
471
Spondee, 609. h. 3.
spontis, -e, defect., 103. c. 2.
Stanza or Strophe, 614.
statad, w. vbs. of placing, 430 ; w. inf. or
subjv., 563. d.
Statutes, fut. imv. in, 449. 2.
ste for iste etc., 146. n. 6.
Stella, decl., 41.
Stem building, 25. n.
Stems, defined, 24; classified, 229; bow
formed from root, 26, 230-232; how
found in nouns, 37. a; a-stems, decl.
I, 40; adjs., 110; o-stems, decl. II, 45;
adjs. 110 ; in decl. Ill, mute stems, 56-
60; liquid and nasal stems, 61-64;
i-stems, 65-69; mixed i-stems, 70-72;
u-stems, decl. IV, 88, 89; in tu-, 94;
of vb., 166. 1; present, perfect, and
supine, 164. Pres. stem, how formed,
175, 176 ; perf . stem, 177 ; supine stem,
178. Tenses arranged by stems, synop-
sis, 180. *
8t5, w. abl., 431.
strigilis, decl., 76. 6. 1.
strix, decl., 71. 6.
Structure of Latin sentences, 600, 601.
Strugs, decl., 78. 2.
stndeo, w. dat., 368. 3.
suadeo, w. dat., 367.
sub-, in comp., w. adjs., 267. d. 1, 291. c.
N.3; w. vbs., 267. a and d. n.
sab, use, 220. Cj 221. 22; in comps., w.
dat., 370; of time, 424. c.
subed, w. ace, 370. b.
Subject, 268 ; defined, 270 ; how expressed,
271 and a; modified, 276; vb. agrees
w., 316 ; two or more subjs., 317 ; subi.
omitted, 318; accusative, 459; in ina.
disc., 5^; position of subject, 596.
Subject clauses (inf.), 452. 1; (subjv.),
666,, 667, 669, 571. b.
Subjective gen., defined, 343. n.^; use,
343.
Subjunctive mood, 164. b ; how used and
translated, 167. b. ftn. 2; tenses how
used, 162; vowel of pres. subjv., 179. a.
1, &. 1, c. 1, d. Classification of uses,
438; hortatory subjv., 439, 440; optative
subjv., 441, 442 ; deliberative, 443, 444 ;
potential sub j v. , 445, 446 ; sub j v . of mod-
esty, 447. 1; tenses of subjv., 480-486;
dependent clauses, 481 ; subjv. in ind.
disc., 580; in informal ind. disc., 592;
of integral part, 593.
subolSs, decl., 78. 2.
Subordinate clauses, defined, 278. b ; uscj
619-693; in ind. disc., 579-593.
Subordinate conjs., 223. 6, 224. II. a-f.
Substance, gen. of, 344 ; abl. of, 403.
Substantive clauses, 560-672 ; nature and
classes of, 660 (cf. 561, 562) ; clauses of
purpose, 663-n566; of result, 567-571;
mdic. w. quod, 572 ; indirect questions,
673-576; adj. w. subst. clauses, ^9. d;
inf. clauses, 462.
Substantive use of adjs., 288 ; of posses-
sive prons., 302. d.
Substantive verb (esse), 272, 284. 6.
sttbter, use, 220. c, 221. 23.
s*«tus, w. inf., 460. 6.
Suffixes, 232; primary, list of, 233, 234;
significant, 235-255.
sui, decl., 144. 6; use, 299, 300; w. gen.
of gerund, 604. c.
sum, conj., 170; as copula, 284; as sub-
stantive verb, id. 6; omitted, 319. b;
w. dat. of possession, 373 ; position, 598.
summus, form, 130. a. ftn. 2; {top of)^
293.
sunt qui, 536. a.
suovetaurilia, 265. 1.
sttpellSx, decl., 79. c.
super, use, 220. c, 221. 24; in comps., 267.
a; in comps., w. dat., 370.
supers, defect.. 111. b (cf. 130. a. N.S);
comp., 130. 6; snperi, id.
superior, compar^ 130. b.
Superlative, suffix, 124. ftn. ; in -rimus,
126; of adjs. in -lis, 126; w. maximS,
128; takes gend. of partitive, 286. b.
N. ; of eminence, 291. 6; w. quam, vel,
or unu8, id. c; denoting order, succes-
sion, 293 ; w. quisque, 313. b.
superstes, deck, 121. a. 4.
Supine, noun of decl. IV, 94. 6, 159. 6 ;
stem, 164. 3 ; formation, 178, 179. a-d
(cf. 164. ftn.) ; irregular forms of, conj.
I, 209; conj. II, 210; allied with forms
in -tor, 236. a. N. i ; Supine in -um, use
of, 509 ; in -it, 610 ; as abl. of specifica-
tion, 510. N. 1.
supplex, decl., 121. &. 1.
supplied, w. dat., 368. 3.
supra, use, 220. a, 221. 25.
-sura, noun ending, 238. 6.
Surds, 3.
-surio, vbs. in, 263. 4.
-BUS, phonetic form of -tus, 94 ; noun
ending, 238. b»
SUB, decl., 79 and a.
Stttts, use, 299.
Swearing, vbs. of, constr., 388. d, 680. c.
Syllables, rules for division of, 7; open
etc., id. N. 2; long and short, 60>3. c, /
and notes.
Synaeresis, 603. c. n.,/. n. *, 642.
Synaloepha, 612. e. n., 642.
Synchysis, 598. h, 641.
Syncope, 640.
Synecdoche, defined, 641.
Synecdochical ace., 397. b.
472
INDEX OF WORDS AND SUBJECTS
Syneais, 280. a; In gend. and number,
286. b ; in seqnenoe of tenses, 485. i.
Synizesis, 603. c. m., 642.
Synopsis of tenses (am5), 180; of impeiv
soiuil ybs., 207.
Syntactic compounds, 267.
Syntax, 268-601 ; historical development
of, 268. Important rules of Syntax, 594.
T changed to s, 15. 5, 178; t preceding
stem-YOwel of vb., 176. b. 1; t- (b-),
supine stem-ending, 178, 179. a. 2, b. 2,
c. 2, d.
taedet, impersonal, 208. b; oonstr., 364.
b, e and n.
taster, decL, 112. a.
Taking away, vbs., of, 381.
Talent, value of, 637.
tUis, 151. i, 152.
tiUs at etc., 537. n. >.
tarn, correl. w. qoam, 323. g; correl. w.
ut, 537. N.«.
tamen, as correl., 527. c; position of,
324. J.
tametsl, concessive use, 527. o and n. K
tamquam, in conditional clauses, 524; w.
primaiy tenses, id. v. ^.
tandem, iu questions, 333. a and N.
tanti, gen. of value, 417 and c; tantS, est
ut, 568.
tantd following qoantS, 414. a.
tantum, w. sub), of proviso, 528.
tantam abest ut, 571. b.
tantus, 151. t, 152; Untus at, 537. n. 2.
-t&8, -tia, noun endings, 241.
Taste, vbs. of, w. ace., 390. a.
-te (enclitic), 143. d and n.
Teaching, vbs. of (two aocs.), 396.
teg5, oonj., 186.
Telling, vbs. of, constr., 459.
Temporal clauses, defined, 279. &, 541-
556 ; as protasis, 542 ; w. postqnam etc.,
543; w. com, 544-549; w. anteqnam and
priusquam, 550, 551; w. dam, dSnec,
quoad, 552-^556; replaced by abl. abs.,
420.
Temporal numerals, 139. b ; conjunctions,
224. II. d.
tempus est abire, 504. n. K
Tendency, ad is. denoting, 251.
tencr, decl.. 111. a.
Tbkbbs, 154. c; of passive voice, 156; of
participles, 158; classification, mean-
mg, and use, 160-162; of the ind., 160,
161; of the subjv., 162; endings, 166;
of completed action, formation of, 179.
/» ffl synopsis of, 180.
Tbnsbs, Syntax, 464-486; classified, 464 ;
of ind. , 465-479 ; Present tense, 465-459 ;
Imperfect, 470, 471; Future, 472; of
Completed action, 473-478 ; Epistolary
tenses, 479 ; of subjv. , 480, 481 ; aequence
of, 482-485 ; tenses of the inf., 486 ; tense
emphatic, 598. d, (3) ; tenses of inf. in
ind. disc., 584; tenses of subjv. in ind.
disc., 585; affected by repraesentdtidy
id. b and n. ; in condition in ind. disc.,
589. Notes on origin of syntax, 436, 464.
tenus, constr., w. gen., 359. 6; w. abl.,
221. 26; position, 435, 599. d.
ter- (tor-, tfir-, tor-, tr-), primary suffix,
234. II. 15.
-ter, adv. ending, 214. 6, c.
Terence, absque mfi etc, 517. f ; prosodial
forms, 628. 6, 629.
teres, decl., 121. a. 3; compar., 131. b.
-terlor, ending, p. 56. ftn. 2.
Terminations. of inflection, meaning of,
21. b; terminations of nouns, 39; of
verbs, 166. (See Endings.)
-tenms, as adj. ending, 250.
tenft marique, 427. a.
terrester, decl., 115. a.
-terus, ending, p. 56. ftn. 2.
Tetrameter, Iambic, 619. a.
Than, how expressed, 406.
That of, not expressed in Lat., 297./. n.
The, as correlative, 414. a and ftn.
Thematic verbs, 174. 1.
Thematic vowel %, 174. 2. 1.
Thesis and Arsis, 611.
Thinking, vbs. of, constr. w. ace. and
inf., 459.
Third conj., of vbs., prin. parts, 173 ; pres.
stem, how formed, 176 ; formation, id.,
179. c ; paradigm, 186 ; in -15, paradigm,
188 ; list of vbs., w. principal parts, 211 ;
derivation of vbs. in -ufi, 261.
Third declension, of nouns, 53-87 ; mute
stems, 56-60; liquid stems, 61-d4; i-
stems, 65-78; pure i4rtems, 66-69;
mixed i-stems, 70-78; peculiar forms,
79; loc., 80; Greek nouns, 81-83; rules
of gend., 84-87.
Though, see Although.
Thought, considered as result, 571. c.
Threatening, vbs. of, 367, 680. c
ti-, primary suffix, 234. 11. 2.
-tia (-tiSs), noun ending, 241.
-ticus, adj. ending, 247.
tigrit, decl., 82.
-tiUs, adj. ending, 252.
-tim; advs. in, 76. o. 3, 215. 2.
Time (see Temporal Glauses), 465 ff., 481,
545, 546.
Time, abl. abs. to denote, 419, 420. 1 ; time
io^n,423 ; duration of time, 424. 6 ; time
during or within which, w. ordinal, id.
c; distance of time, id./; corresponding
to Eng. plaoef id. d.
Time, advs. of, 217. 6.
Time, mode of reckoning, 630.
INDEX OF WORDS AND SUBJBCIS
478
times, w. dat. or ace, 367. c; w. subjv.,
564.
-timni, adj. ending, 130. a. ftn. 2, 260.
-ti5, noun ending, 233. 2, 238. b,
-tid (-«io), -tur&, -tiU (-tfttis), noon end-
ings, 238. b.
-tium, noun ending, 241. &. n.
-tiYtts, verbal adj. ending, 251.
to- (a-), primary soffiz, 234. II. 1.
-td, -its, intensive or iterative vbs. in,
263.2.
Too ... to, 535. e. n.
-tor (-8or), -trix, noons of agency in, 236.
a; nsed as ad^s., 321. c.
-t&ia, noun ending, 254. 4.
-tfiriam, noun ending, 233. 2, 254. 5.
-tfirins, adj. ending, 233. 2; as nonn end-
iilg, 250. a.
tot, indeclinable, 122.5; correl., 152.
totidem, indeclinable, 122. 5.
t9tii8,decl.,113; nonnsw., in abl. without
prep, {place where), 429. 2.
Towns, names of, gend., 32 and a, 48.
Exc, ; names of towns in -e, dec!., 76.
N. 3; locative of, 427. 3; as place from
which, id. 1 ; as place to which, id. 2.
tr-, stems in (liater etc). 61. 4.
trfticio, constr., 395. n.^S; trUectos 19ra,
id. N.'.
trans, 220. a ; use, 221. 27 ; oomps. of, w.
ace, 388. h; w. two aoes., 395.
Transitive verbs, 273. 1, 274 ; absolute use,
273. N.2; how translated, 274. b\ w.
dat., 362.
Transposition of vowels, 177. cu N.
Trees, names of, gend., 32.
trSs, decl., 134. 5.
tri-, stem-ending of noons, 66; of adjs.,
115. a.
Tribe, abl. of, 403. a. n.«.
Tribrach, 609. a. 3.
tribttUs, decl., 76. a. 2.
tribtts, gend., 90. Exc; decl., 92. c.
tridens, decl., 76. 6. 2.
Trimeter, Iambic, 618.
Triptotes, 103. d.
trirCmis, decl., 76. b. 2.
-tris, adj. ending, 250.
triumphs, w. abl., 404. a.
-trix, see -tor.
tro-, primary suffix, 234. 16.
-tr5, advs. in, 215. 4.
Trochaic verse, 613, 620.
Trochee, 609. a. 1 ; irrational, id. e, 623
and N.
-tmm, noun ending, 240.
Trusting, vbs. of, constr., 367.
tu-, primary suffix, 234. II. 3.
-tfi, -su, supine endings, 159. b.
tu, decl., 143 (see tute, tfitimot).
-tud5, -ttts, noun endixigs, 241.
tufi (tetttl!), 200; derivation, id. ftn. 2;
quantity, 605. Exc,
-tnm, -sum, supine endings, 159. b,
torn, tunc, meaniug, 217. 6; correl. w.
cum, 323. g.
turn . . . turn, 323./.
-tura, -tttS, noun ending, 238. 6.
•tnri6, desiderative vbs. in, 263. 4.
-tttmns, adi. ending, 250.
-tarris, decl., 67 (cf. 75. 5).
-tUB, adi . ending, 246 ; nounending, 94, 241 .
-tus, adv. ending, 215. 6.
tUBsis, decl., 75. a. 2.
tate, 143. d; tiitimet, id.
Two aocosatives, 391.
Two datives, 382. 1.
U <v) , as consonant, 5 ; after g, q, s, id. n. ^ ;
not to follow n or V, 6. o, fr ; n f or e in
coni. Ill, 179. c 1.
U-, primary suffix, 234. 1. 3.
tt-stems, of nouns, decl. m, 79 and a;
decl. IV, 88; of vbs., 174, 176. d, 259. 3.
nber, decl., 119.
ubi, derivation, 215. 5; in temporal
clauses, 542, 643.
-abas, in dat. and abl. plur., decl. IV,
92. c
-ais (-ao8), in gen., decl. IV, 92. e.
-iilis, adj. endmg, 248.
alias, decl., 113; use, 311, 312.
ulterior, compar., 130. a.
altril, 220. a; use, 221. 28; following
noun, 435.
-ulas, diminutive ending, 243; verbal adj.
ending, 251.
-um for ^ftrom, 43. d; for -5rom, 49. d;
-am in gen. plur. of personal prons., 295.
5; -um for -ium, decl. Ill, 78; in gen.
plur. of adjs., 121. b ; for -uum, ded. IV,
92.6.
Undertaking, vbs. of, w. gerundive, 500. 4.
ant-, stem-ending, 83. e.
onus, decl., 113; meaning, 134. a; w.
superl., 291. c.
onus qui, w. subjv., 536. 6.
onus qaisqae, decl., 151. g\ use, 313.
«o-, suffix, see vo-.
-ao, vbs. in, 261.
-aos, see -ais.
-ar, nouns in, 87.
arbs, decl., 72; use in relations of place,
428. &.
Urging, vbs. of, with ut, 563.
-arid, desiderative vbs. in, 263. 4.
-amas, adj. ending, 260.
-oras, fut. part, in, 158. 6, 498; w. fai,
498. 6, 517. d; in ind. questtons, 675. a ;
-ims faisse, in ind. disc., 589. 5. 3.
-us, nom. ending, in decl. n, 46 ; -us for -er
in Greek nouns, decl. II, 52. 6 ; his, nom.
474
INDEX OF WORDS AND SUBJECTS
ending in decl. Ill, 63. JSxc. 2; gend.,
87; decl. IV, 88; gend., 90; neut.
ending, 238. a.
-fis, Greek nom. ending, 83. e.
Use, adjs. of, constr., 385. a.
fitque, w. ace., 432. b.
utut (neeel), w. abl., 411.
ttt (u«), correlative w. ito, sic, 323. g; to
denote concession, 440, 527. a; at (as)
w. ind. equiv. to concession, 527./; w.
optative subjv., 442. a; used ellipti-
cally in exclamations, 462. a ; in clauses
of purpose, 531; ut nB, id., 563. e. N.«;
«t n6n, 531. 1. N.^; of result, 537; ut
n6n etc. , 538 ; at temporal, 542, 543 ; vbs.
foil, by clauses w. at, 563, 568; omis-
sion after certain vbs., 565 and notes,
560. 2. K. 2 ; w. vbs. of fearing, 564 and N.
nt, atpote, qaippe, w. relative clause, 535.
e. w. 1 ; w. cam, 549. ». i.
at primam, 543.
at samel, 543.
at si, constr., 524.
fiter, decl., 66.
aterqae, form and decl., 151.^; use, 313;
constr. in agreement and as partitive,
346.(2.
ttilis, w. dat. of gerund etc., 505. a.
atinam, w. sublv. of wish, 442.
fitor etc., w. abl., 410; w. ace., id. a.ix.^f
gerundive use of, 500. 3, 503. N. >.
atpote qui, 535. e. n. i.
atram ... an, 335 and d.
-atas, adj. ending, 246.
-aas, verbal adj. ending, 251.
V (a), 1. 6, 5 and n. i; suffix of perf.,
177. a, 179. a. 2, 6.2, d; suppressed in
perf., 181 ; list of vbs. in coni. Ill w. v
in perf.,^1. c; v often om. in perf. of
e5 and its comps., 203. 6.
vafer, decl., 112. a; compar., 131. a.
valdB, use, 291. c. n. ^ ; vald5 qaam, 575. d.
Value, gen. of indefinite, 417.
Value, measures of, 632-^538.
vannus, gend., 48. Sxc.
yftpalS, neutral passive, 192. b.
Variable nouns, 104-106 (cf. 98. e, d);
adjs., 122. a.
Variations, see Phonetic Variations.
Variations of spelling, 6.
vfts, decl., 103. g. 2.
v&s, decl., 79. e, 105. 6.
vfttBs, decl., 78. 1.
-ve, vel, use, 324. e, 335. d. N.
vcl (see -ve), w. superl., 291. c.
Velars, p. 2. ftn. 3.
velim, vellem, subjv. of modesty, 447. 1. n.
velim, vellem, w. subjv. (=opt.), 442. 6,
(=imv.), 449. c.
velat, velat si, 524.
v8ne5 (vSnam e5), 192. 6, 428. i.
v6nerat=aderat, 476.
Verba sentiendi et deddrandi, 397. e;
459, 579 ; passive use of, 582 ; in poets
and later writers, id. n.
Verbal adjs., 251-263; in -kr, w. gen.,
«j4«7. C.
Verbal nouns w. dat., 367. d.
Verbal nouns and adjs. w. reflexive,
301. d.
Verbal roots, 228. 1.
Verbs, defined, 20. d; inflection, 153,
154; noun and adj. forms of, 155;
signification of forms, 156-162; per-
sonal endings, 163; the three stems,
164; forms of the vb., 164-166 (notes
on origin and hist, of vb. forms, 164.
ftn., 168, 169); table of endings, 166;
influence of imitation, 169. ftn.; reg-
ular vbs., 171-189; the four conjuga-
tions, 171-173; prin. parts of, 173;
mixed vbs., 173. a; deponents, 190,
191 ; semi-deponents, 192 ; periphrastic
forms, 193-196 ; irregular vbs., 197-204 ;
defective, 205, 206; impersonal, 207,
208. Classified lists of vbs., 209-212.
Derivation of vbs., 256-263; comp.
vbs., 267; vowels in comp. vbs., id. a.
N. *. Index of vbs., pp. 437 ft.
Verbs, Syntax. Subject implied in end-
ing, 271. a; rules of agreement, 316-
319; vb. omitted, 319; rules of syn-
tax, 437-^93. Gases w. vbs., see under
Accusative etc. Position of vb., 596,
598. dtj. (See under the names of the
Moods etc.)
veieor, w. gen., 357. b. 1; w. subjv., 564.
Veritas, as pres. part., 491.
ver5, 324. dj; in answers, 336. a. 1; po-
sition of, 599. b.
Verse, 612.
Versification, 612-629; forms of verse,
613.
versas, position of, 599. d.
vert5, constr., 417. b.
vera, gend., 91.
vCram or v€r5, use, 324. dtj.
vescor, w. abl., 410; w. ace., id. a. N. ^;
gerundive, 500. 3, 503. n. >.
vesper, decl., 50. b.
vesperi (loc.), 50. 6, 427. a.
vester, decl., 112. a, 146.
vestd as obj. gen., 143. c, 295. b.
vestnun as part, gen., 143. 6, 295. b (cf.
N.2).
vets, w. ace. and inf., 563. a.
vetas, decl., 119, 121. d; compar., 125.
vift, abl. of manner, 412. b.
vicem, adverbial use of, 397. a.
vlcinas, w. gen., 385. c.
vicis, decl., 103. h. 1.
INDEX OF WORDS AND SUBJECTS
476
Tidglicet, deriyation, 216.
Tided ut, 563.
videor, w. dat., 375. 6.
Tin* (Tisne), 13. n.
Tir, decL, 47, 50. b.
Tirgd, decl., 62.
Tirus, gender of, 48. a.
Tis, stem, 71. 6; decl., 79.
Tisoera, 101. n. i.
Ti80, 263. 4. N.
TO- (Ti-), primary suffix, 234. II. 8.
TdciUs, ded., 76. b. 2.
VocATiYB, defined, 35./; form, 38. a; in
-i of nouns in -ius, decl. II, 49. c; of
Greek nouns, id. c. n. ; of adjs. in -ins,
110. a. Syntax, 340.
Voices, 154. a, 156; middle voice, id. a.
N., 163. ftn. 2, 190. e.
TOld and comps., conj., 199; part, of, w.
dat. of the person judging, 378. n. ; w.
inf., 456 and n. ; w. perf. act. inf. in
prohibitions, 486. c; w. perf. part., 486.
d and n., 497. c. n. ; w. subjv. or inf.,
563.6.
YOlncer, decl., 115. a.
Tolttcris, decl., 78.
-TOlus, adj. in, comp., 127.
yds, 143 and a.
▼oster etc., see vester.
yoti danm&ttts, 352. a.
Vowel changes, 15. 1-3 ; vowel variations,
17.
Vowel roots of verbs, 179. a-c.
Vowel stems of verbs, 259-262.
Vowel suffixes (primary), 234. 1.
Vowels, 1; pronunciation, 8; long and
short, 10 ; contraction, 15. 3 ; quantity
of final vowels in case-endings, 38. g ;
vowel modified in noun stems, decl.
111, 56. a; lengthened in root, 177. d,
231. b ; list of vbs. w. vowel lengthen-
ing in perf., conj. Ill, 211. 6.
TUlgas (volgus), gend., 48. a.
-vus, verbal adj. ending, 251.
W, not in Latin alphabet, 1 ; sound of, 1.
6. N.
Want, words of, w. abl., 401 ; w. gen., 356.
Wajr by which (abl.), 429. a.
Weight, measures of, 637.
Whole, gen. of, 346 ; numbers expressing
the whole, id. e.
Wills, fut. imv. in, 449. 2.
Winds, gender of names of, 31.
Wish, expressed by subjv., 441 ; as a con-
dition, 521. b ; wish in informal ind.
disc., 592. 1.
Wishing, vbs. of, w. inf., 486. d (cf. 457) ;
w. subst. clause of purpose, 563. b ; w.
ace. and inf., id.
Without, w. verbal noun, 496. n. •.
Women, names of, 108. b and ftn.
Words and Forms, 1-267.
Words, formation of, 227-267; arrange-
ment of, 595-601.
Would (Eng. auxiliary), how expressed
in Lat., 157. b.
X, nom. ending, 56; gend., 86; x from s,
in vbs., 211. a.
Y, of Greek origin, 1. n. i.
Year, 630; months of, 630, 631; date,
424. g.
-yVo", suffix, 174.
Yes, in Latin, 336.
yo- (ya-), primary suffix, 234. II. 11.
-ys, nom. ending, 82 ; quantity, 604. i.
Z, of Greek origin, 1. a. n.
LATIK AUTHORS AND THEIR WORKS
CITED IN THIS BOOK
Note. — In the eitationa the names CsBsar, Cicero, Sallnst (with Iuffurtha)t and
Virgil are not generally given. Thus, " B. 6." refers to Caesar's BeUum GaUicuni ;
** Fam." to Cicero's letters ad FanUliares ; " lug." to Sallnst's lugurtha ; ** Aen." to
Virgil's jEneidf etc.
Ap., Apoleias (a.d. 125-?) :
Met., Metamorphoses,
, B. Afr., BellumAf^
cum,
CsBsar (B.C. 100-44):
B. C, BeUum (HvUe,
B. G., BeUum GaUU
cum.
Cato (B.C. 234-149):
de M., (2e Moribus,
R. R., dtf 12^ BusHea.
Catnll., Catallos (b.c. 87-
54).
Cic, Cicero (b.c. 106-43):
Acad., Academioa.
Ad Her., [ad Heren-
nium].
Arch., pro Archia,
Att., ad Atticum,
Balb., pro Balbo.
Brut., Brutus de Claris
Oratoribus,
Caec., pro Caeeina.
Caecil., Divinatio in
CaecUium.
Cael., pro M, Caelioi
Cat., in Catilinam.
Cat. M., Cato Maior {de
Senectute),
Clu., pro Cluentio,
Deiot., pro Deiotaro,
De Or., de Oratore.
Diy., de Dimnatione.
Dom., pro Do mo Sua.
Fam., ad Familiares.
Fat., de Fato.
Fin., de Finihus.
Flacc., pro Flacoo.
Font., pro M. Fonteio.
Har. Resp., de Haruspi-
cum Besponsis.
Iny., de Inventions
Bhetoriea.
Cic. Lael., Laelius {de Ami-
citia).
Leg- A^r., de Lege
Agrarta.
Legs* I de Legibus.
Lig., pro Ligario.
Manil., pro Lege Mor
nilia.
Marc., pro Maroello.
Mil., pro Miione.
Mar., pro Murena.
N. D., de Naiura De-
orum.
OS., de Offlciis.
Or., Orator.
Par., Paradoxa.
Part. Or., de Partitione
Oratoria.
Phil., Philippicae.
Plane, pro Plando.
Pison., in Pisonem.
Prov. Cons., de Provin-
ciis Consularibus.
Q. Fr., ad Q. Fratrem.
Quinct., pro Quinctio.
Rabir., pro Babirio.
Rab. Post., pro Babirio
Postumo.
Rep., de Be Publioa.
Rose. Am., pro Bosdo
Amerino.
Rose. Com., pro Bosdo
Comoedo.
Scaur., pro Scauro.
Sest., pro Sestio.
Sull., pro Sulla.
Tim., Tim^ieus (de Uni-
verso).
Top., Topica.
Tull., pro TuUio.
Tusc., TuscvlanaeDis-
putationes.
Vat., in Vatinium.
476
Cic. Verr., in Verrem,.
Claud., Claudianos (abt.
▲.D. 400) :
iv C. H., de Quarto
Consulcttu Sbnorii.
Enn., Ennius (b.c. 239-
169).
Gell., A. Gtollins (d. a.i>.
175).
Hirtius (d. b.c. 43) :
? B. Al., BeUum Alez-
andrinum.
Hor., Horace (b.c. 65-^) :
A. P., de Arte Poetica.
C. S., Carmen Saecu-
lare.
Ep., Epistles.
E^od. Epodes.
Od. Odes.
8. Satires.
Inst., Jostinns (abt. a.d.
160).
luY., Juvenal (abt. a.d. 60-
140).
Liv., Livy (b.c. 59-a.d. 17) .
Lucr., Lucretius (b.c. i)6-
65).
Mart., Martial (a.d. 43-
?104):
Ep., Epigrams.
Nep., Nepos (b.c. 99-24) :
Ages., AgesUatis.
Ale, Aldbiades.
Att., Atticus.
Dat., Datames.
Dion, Dion.
Epam., Epaminondas.
Eum., Eumenes.
Hann., Hannibal.
Milt., MUtiades.
Pans., Pausanias.
Them., Themistocies.
Timoth., TimotJieus.
LIST OF AUTHORS CITED
477
Ov., Ovid (B.c.4a-A.D. 17) :
A. A., Ars Amatoria.
F., Fa8ti.
H., Heroides.
M., Metamorphoses.
Pont., Epistulae ex
Ponto,
Trist., Tristia.
Pers., Peraius (a.d. 34-62) :
Sat., Satires.
Phaed., Phaednis (abt.
A.D. 40).
PI., Plautus (B.C. 254-184) :
Am., Amphitruo,
Asin., Asinaria.
Aul., Auluiaria.
Bac., Bacchides.
Capt., Captivi.
Cist., Cistellaria.
Cure., Curculio.
Epid., Epidicus.
Men., Menaechmi.
Merc., Mercator.
Mil., Miles Gloriosus.
Most., Mostellaria.
Pers., Persa.
Poen., Poenulits.
Ps., Pseudolus.
Rnd., Rudens.
Stich., Stichus.
Trin., Trinummus.
True, Truculentiut.
Plin., Pliny, senior (a.d.
23-79):
H. N., Historia Natu-
ralis.
Plin., Pliny, junior (a.d.
62-113) ;
Ep., Epistles.
Prop., Propertins (b.c. 49-
16).
Pub. Syr., Publilius Syrus
(abt. B.C. 44).
Q. C, Q. Curtius (abt. a.d.
60).
Quint., Quintilian ^ (abt.
A.D. 35-95).
Sail., Sallust (b.c. 86-34) :
Cat., CatUina.
Ep. Mith., EpisttUa
Mithridatis.
lug., lugurtha.
, S. C. de Bac., Senaius
Consvltum de Bacchor
nalihus (b.c. 186).
Sen., Seneca (b.c. 4-a.d.
65):
Dial., DiaJogues.
Ep., Epistles.
Eterc. Fur., Hercules
Furens.
Here. Oet., Hercules
Oetaeus.
Med., Medea.
Sen. Q. N., QuaestiOTies Na-
turales.
Sil., Silius Italicus (abt.
A.D. 25-101).
Suet., Suetonius (abt. a.d.
75-160) :
Aug., Augustus.
Dom., Domitianus.
Gralb., Galba.
Tac., Tacitus (abt. a.d.
65-120) :
Agr., Agricola.
Ann., Annales.
H., Historiae.
Ter., Terence (d. b.c. 169) :
Ad., Adelphi.
And., Andria.
Eun., Eurvuchus.
Haut., Hautontimoru-
menos.
Hec., Hecyra.
Ph., Phormio.
Val., Valerius Maximus
(abt. A.D. 26).
Varr., Varro (b.c. 116-27) :
R.'R.fde Re Rustica.
Veil., Velleius Paterculus
(abt. B.C. 19-A.D. 31).
Verg., Virgil (b.c. 70-19).
Aen., yEneid.
Eel., Edogues.
Georg., Oeorgics.
ALLEN AND GREENOUGH'S LATIN GRAMMAR
PAKALLEL REFERENCES
Old
New
Old
New
1
1
22
25
1. a
2
23
26 ^
2-4
3-6
24
28
5 (p. 4)
10
25
20
6
1. a and n.
26.
e
20. 6. N. 1
7
6. a, 6
25. f-i
20. e^:^
8-11
14-19
26
22
10. 6
15. 2
27
23
11. a. 1
15.4
28
29
11. a. 2
15. 5
28.
a
80
11. c
15. 11
28.
6. N.
30. a a.nd n. 3
11. e
15.6
29.
1
31
11. e. 3 and n.
16
29.
2
32
12
6
29.
a
31. a, 6, N.
12. a-c
6. N. 1-3
29.
6
32. a, 6
13
13
29.
c
33
13. 6, c
13. N.
30
34
14
7
.30.
a
14.6
7. N. 1
30.
6
34. N.
14. c
7.6
31
35
14. d
31.
h, N.
27. a.
14. e
7. N. 9
32.
f tn. 1
36
15
18
32
37
15 (p. 10)
19 and n. i
33
38
16 .
8
34
39
16. N. 4
11. 6. N.
35
40-42
17. Or-C
36
43
17. N.
8. N.
36./
43. N. 1
18
9-11
37
44
18. Or-C
10. Or-C
37.
a, 6
44. 6, a
18. d
11.6
38
45-47
18. e
11. c
39
48
18./
10. e
39.
a
48. Exc,
19. a, 6
12
39.
6
48 a.
19. c
12. a
40
49
19. d, 1-3
12. a. Exc.
40.
d
49. c and n.
20
21
40.
e-sr
49. d, flr, e
21
24
41
50
479
480 ALLEN AND GREENOUGH'S LATIN GRAMMAR
Old New Old New
41. d, e
50. c
70.6
42
51
70. c
92.6
43
52
70. d
92. c
3d decl.
53-55
70. c
92. d
44-50
56-64
70./
93
44
56,58
70. flf
93. N. 1
45
56. a
10. h
92./
46
57,59
71
94
47
57. a
71. a
94. 6
47. a
70
71.6
94. c
47.6
60. a
72
95,96
47. c
62. N. 3
73
97 and a
48
61, 62. N. 1, 3, 63
74. a
98. N.
48. a
61. 1
74. 6
98. c
48. b
61. 2, 8, 63. 1
74. c
98.6
48. c
61.4
74. d
98. a
48. d
62. N. 9, 68. 2
74. ftn.
98. d
48. e
62. N. 9
75
99, 100
49,50
62-64
76
101, 102
61-54
65-73
76. 1
101. 1, 2
51. b
66
76. 2, 3
101, 3, 4
61. c
68
76. a-c
102. 1-3
52
67,69
77
103
53. a, b
65. 1. a
77. 1-4
103. a-d
53. c
65. 1. 6
77. 2. Or-f
103. 6. 1-6
54
70-72
77. 3. Or-e
108. c
54. 1,2
71. 1-4, 6
77. 4. Or^
103. d. 1-3
54. 3
71. 5
77. 5. a-^
103. / 1-4
54. ftn. 2
73
77. 6. Or-c
103. g. 1-3
55
74
77. 7. Or-c
103. h. 1, 2
56
75
78
104
57
76
78. 1
106
57. c-e
76. N. 1-3
• 78. 1. e
105. e, /
58
77
78. 1. /
106. g
59
78
78. 2
106
60,61
79
79
107
62
80
79. 6
317. d. N. 2
62. a
p. 34. ftB.
79. c
101. N. 1
62. N.
80. ftn.
79. d
101. N. 2
63, 64
81-83
80 and a
108
63. a-€
83. d-e
80. 6-d
108. Or-C
63./
81
P. 47, top
109
63. g-i
82
81
110
64
82
82
111, 112
65
84-87
82. a
111. a. N.
66,67
82. 6
111. a
68
88,89
82. c
112. a
68. N.
82. d
111. 6
69
90
83
113
69. b
91
83. ftn. 2
113. 6
70
92
83. a
113. a
70. a
92. a, c
•
83. 6
113. C-€
PARALLEL REFERENCES
481
Old
84
84. a
84. a. N.
84.6
84. c
85
85. h
85. c
86
86. a
86. b
87
87. b
87. c, d
87. c
87./
88
88. a
88. 6
88. c
88. d
89
89. a
89. 6
89. c
89. d
89. e
89./
90
91
91. c
91. d. 1
91. d. 2
91. d. 3
91. d. N.
92
93. a, b
93. c
93. (^
94
94. N.
94. a
94. 6, c
94. c. 2d par.
94. d-f
95
95. Or^
96
96. N.
97
97. d
97. e
New
114-116
116. a
115. a. N. 1
116. N.
115. N. 9
117-119
119
121. e
120
120. b
120. c
121
121. a. 4
121. b, c
121. d
122. o-c
122
288, 289
122. d
321. c
214. d, e
123. 124
125 and a
126
127
128
124. a
243
129
130, 131
131. c
130. a
131. a
131. b
131. d
218 and a
291. o-c
313.6
291. c. N. 1-3
132-134
133. N. 1
134. a
134. 6 and n.
133. N. 3
134. c-€
136. 137
137. o-d
138
138. a
139
135. e
139. d
Old
New
98
140-145
98. a
142
98. b
143. a
98. c
143. a. N.
98.2
144
98. 3
145
99. a
302. a
99. 6, c
143. 6, c
99. d
145. c
99. e
143./
99./
143. d and n.
100, 101
146
100. ftn.
146. N. 1
100. a
146. N. 4, 6
100. b
146. N. 5
100. c
146. N. 7-9
P. 67, top
146. a
101. a
146. N. s
101. 6
146. N. 6
101. c
146. N. 3
101. d
146. a. N. 9
P. 67. ftn.
146. a. N. 1
102
297, 298
102. e
298. c
102. e. N.
298. c. N. 3
102./
297. e
103
147
104
148-150
104. N.
150
104. b-e
150. Or^
104./
544
105
151
105. d
149, 151. c, /, 810. i
105. d. N.
310.6
105. e
151. flr
105. e, quotas
quisque
313. 6. N. s
105. /, gr
151. A, i
105. ^
811
105. i
148. c, 151. /
106
152
106. 6
308. h
106. c
414. a
107
323.9
108
154
109
155
110
154. c
110. a
480, 484. c, 575. a
110. 6
164. 3. a
110. c
154. c
110. d
164. 3. 6, e and n.
111
166
482 ALLEN AND GREENOUGH'S LATIN GRAMMAR
Old New Old New
157 130 209
157. 6. ftn. 2d conj. 185
168 131 210
409. 2 3d conj. 186
494, 495 Verbs in -id 188
159 132 211
160-162 132. /. N. 211. ftn. 3
472. h 4th conj. 187
466, 467. b 133 212
471 134 189
161 135 190
162 135. h 191
163 135. i 191. a
165 136 192
p. 81. ftn. 137 197
166 137. a 198
p. 76. ftn. 137. N. p. 109. ftn.
170 138 199
170. 6- 139 200
170. h. N. 139. ftn. 200. ftn. 2
170. a 140 201
170. N. 141 203
164 141. c 203. d
164. 1-3 141. d 203. e
171-173 142 204
171 143 205
172 143. N. 205. 6, n. 2
173 144 206
173. a 144. d-f 206. e-g
174 144. g 206. d
175, 176 145 207
176. a 146 208
174. 1 146. d. ftn. 208. d. n.
176. c 147 193
176. d 147. c. 1 203. a
176. d, N. 1 147. c. 2 170. a
176. e 147. c. 3 569. a.
177 P. 119. Note. 1. b 168. b
178 P. 119. Note. 1. c 168. c, d
178. V. 3 P. 120. Note. 1. d 168. e
178. N. 3 P. 120. Note. 1. e 168. /
179 P. 120. Note. 1. / p. 286. ftn. 1
180 P. 120. Note. 2 169
181 P. 121. Note. 3 p. 77. ftn. 1
181. a P. 122, top 213
181. b 148 214
181. 6. V. 9 148. N. 215, 216
182 148. N. a-17 215. 1-6
182. a 148. N. 0 216. a and n.
183 149 217
184 150 326
193-196 151 322
112
112.
6. N.
113
113.
b.2
113.
e-g
114
115
115.
a. 1
115.
a. 2
115.
b
115.
c
115.
d
116
117
117.
N. S
118
118.
N.
119,
120
119.
a
119.
b
119.
b. w.
120.
N.
121
121.
Or-C
122
122.
a
122.
b
122.
c
122.
d
122.
N.
123
123.
a
123.
b
123.
c
123.
d
123.
e
123.
f
124
125
125.
N. 1
125.
N. 3
126
127
128
128.
a. 1
128.
a. 2
128.
b
128.
c
128.
d
128.
e
1st conj.
129
PARALLEL REFERENCES
483
Old
151. d
151. e
P. 127. ftn.
152
153
154
154. N. 1
154. N. 3
155
156
156. a
156. a. 3d par.
156. a. 4th par.
156. b
156. c
156. d, e
156./
156. flr
156. h. 1
156. h, 2
156. i
156. k
Interjections
P. 140. Note
157
157. N.
158
158. 1. a, 6
158. 1. c
159
160
160. a, 6
160. c
160. c. 2. a-6
161
162
163
163. 1. a
163. c
163. d
163. d. N.
163.2
163. /, g
164
164. a
164. a. R.
164. 6
164. c
164. d
164. e
164./
164. flr
Nbw
322. d and n.
322. c, /
219
220
221. 1-28
223
222
224
224
324.6
324. a, 6
328. a
324. c
324. d
324. 6-17
324. h, i
540. N. 1-3
539. 540. a. y.
323. g
323. e
527. c, d
324. i
225, 226
227
228
229. N.
230. 231
231. a, 6
231. c
232
233
233. 1, 2
234
234. IL 1-18
235
236
237
238. a
239
240 and a
240. N.
241. 1, 2 and a
241. 6, c
242
243
243. a
244
249
248
250
246
247
Old
164.
h
164.
i
164.
k
164.
I
164.
m
164.
n
164.
0
164.
P
164.
Q,r
165
165.
2
166
166.
a. 1
166.
b
166.
c
166.
d
167
167.
a
167.
b and n.
167.
c
167.
d, e
168
168.
Or-C
168.
d
169
170
170.
a. K.
170.
c
170.
d
P. 163
171
172
172.
N.
172.
N. 2d par.
173.
1
173.
2
174
174.
2
175
175.
a
175.
b
176
176.
b
177
177.
a
177.
b
177.
c
178
179
180
180.
c-e
180./
New
250. a
254
245
251
252
253. c
253. a
253. b
255 and a
256
257
258
259. 1
260
261
262. a, b
263
263. 1
263. 2 and a
263. 2. b
263. 3, 4
264
265. 1-3
265. a
266
267
267. N. 9
267. d. 1, 2
267. c
268
269
270
272
284. b
339
397. e
271
271. a
273
273.2
273. 1
283
284
274
275
274. a
274. b
276
277
278. 1, 2
279. a-e
308./
484
AliLEK AMD OREENOUGH'S LATIN GRAMMAR
Old
Nbw
181, 182
280
183
281
184
282
184. b
282. c
184. c
282. d
184. (2, e
802. e
185
288,284
186. a,b
285. 1, 2
186. b. 2, S
285. N.
186. c
282. 6, c
186. d
286. a
187
287
187. a
287. 1, 2
187. b
287.8
187. 6. N.
287. 4
187. c
287. 4. a
187. d, c
286. &, N.
188. Or-C
288. a^
188. R.
288. K.
188. d, e
821. c, d
189
289
190
843. a
190. a
802. d
191
290
192
292
192. &
292. a. N.
193
298
P. 178. Note
294
194
295
194. b. N.
295. 6. N. 2
195
296 and 2
195.2
296. 1
195. a
297./
195. b
297. 6. K.
195. c
298. a
195. d
296. a
195. e, /
298. &, c
195. /. R.
298. c. N. 1
195. g
298. d. 1
195. k, i
298. d. 2, 3
195. A:
298. e
195. I
298./
196
299
196. a
300
196. a. 2. N.
300.6
196.6
301. a
196. c
301.6
196. d-/
801. d-f
196. g
801. c
196. h
399. a
196. t
800.6
197
802
Old
197./
P. 186. Note
P. 186, bottom
198
199
200
200. d
200. e
201. a, 6, c
201. d
201. e-h
202
202. a
202. 6
202. c
202. d
202. e
202./
203
203. a
203. c. N.
204
205
205. c and 1
205. c. 2
205. d
206
206. c
206. c. 1
206. c. 2
207
207. N. 9, 3
207. 6
207. c
207. d
208
208. 6. 1^
208. c
208. d
208. e
209
209. a
209. 6
209. c
209. d
209. €
210
210. a
210. 6-d
210. d. R.
210. e
New
806. 6. N.
808
804
805 and n.
806
807
807./
807. d
808. a, c, d
807. e
808. /-i
809
810
811
812
813
813. a
814
814. a
815. a
815
815. N.
816
317
817. d
817. e
817. c
818
819
819. a
819. 6
821
820
432. a
321. 6
321. c. N.
323
323. c. 1-3
323. d
323./
323. A;
825
826, 327
328
826. c
329
329. a
880,331
832
832. Or-c
832. c. N. 2
833
PARALLEL REFERENCES 486
Old New Old Nibw
210. e. B. 333. n. 226. e 365
210. / 333. a 226 366
210./. R. 331. N., 332. b. n. 227 367
211 334, 335 227. k. 3 367. a. m. d
211. B. 335. N. 227. c. n. 367. a. w. i
212 336 227. e 368
212. b 337 227. / 369
212. 6. B. 336. d. n. 228 370
P. 205. Note 338 228. n. i 370. a
P. 206. Note 341 228. a, b 370. 6, c
213 342 228. c 371
213. 1, 2 and n. 343. n. i, 348. n. 229 881
214 and a. 1 343 229. c 368. a
214. a. 2 343. a 230 372
214. b 343. N. 9 231 . 373
214. c 343. 6 231. b. 373. n.
214. c. B. 343. b. N. 231. a 373. 6
214. d 343. c 231. 6, c 373. a
214. d. B. 343. c. N. 1 232 374
214. d. N. 343. c. N. 9 232. n. 374. a and n. i
214. e 344 232. a 376
214. / 343. d 232. b, c 376. a, 6
214. g 369. 6 233 382
215 346 233. a 382. 1 and w. l
216 346 233. b 382. 2
216. B. 346. N. 9 234 383
P. 211, top 347 234. a 384
217 348 234. b-d 386. a-c
218 349 234. e 432. a
218. b 349. c 236 376
218. c 349. d 236. a 377
218. c. B. 368 235. b 378. 1, 2
219 360 236. c 378. 2. h.
219. 6 360. d 236. d 379
219. c 361 236. e 379. a
220 352 236 380
220. b 363 236. b. 379. n.
220. 6. 3 363. 2. w. P. 235. Note 386
220. 6. w. 362. n. 237 387
221 364 237. a 387.6
221. d 364. c. N. 237. 6, d-f 388. a-d and h. i
222 356 237. c 390. a
223 366 237. g 600. 3
223. a 367 237. h 389
223. c 368 238 390
223. d 369 * 238. a, b 390. &-d
223. 6 369. & 238. 'C 388. d
P. 218. Note 360 '238. c. n. 390. d. »• i
224 361 239 391
225 362 239. 1 392
225. b, e 363, 369 239. 1. a, h. i 393, n.
225. d 364 239. a. n. 9 893. a
486
ALLEN AND GREENOUGH'S LATIN GRAMMAR
Old
239. R.
239. 2
239. 2. b
239. c
239. c. N. 1, 3
239. c. B.
239. d
240. a
240. &
240. c, d
240. c. N.
240. e
240. /, flr
241
241. c
241. d
242
242. N.
243
243. a
243. &
243. d
243. e
243. c. N.
243. e. B.
243./
243. /. B.
244
244. a. B.
244. b
244. c-e
245
New
395. N. 3
394
395 and b.
396
396. a, &
396. 6. N.
396. c
390. c, d and n. 3
397. a
397. 6, d
397. c
423, 425
897. e, f
340
339. «
340. c
399
398
400
401
402
402. a
411
411. a
411. b
356
356. N.
403
403. a. N. 1
403. a. N. 2, 3
403. b-d
404
245. a. 1 and n. 3 418. b
245. a. 2
246
246. B.
246. b. N.
247
247. a, c-e
247. a. R.
247. b
P. 253. Note
248
248. N.
248. R.
248. a
248. a. N.
248. a. B.
248. c. 1
248. c. 2
248. c. 2. R.
249
404. a
405
405. N. 3
405. b. N. 3
406
407 and a, c-e
407. a. N. 3
406. a
408
412
412. a
412. b and n.
413
413. a
413. N.
409
409. a
409. a. F.
410
Old
249. b
249. 6. N.
250
250. B. and n.
250. a
251
252
252. a
252. 6-d
253
253. N.
253. a
P. 260. Note
254
254. a
254. b. 1
254. 6. 2
254. b, 2. B.
255
255. d
256
256. a, b
257
258
258. 2. N. 1
258. 2. N. 3
258. a
258. a. N. 1
258. a. N. 3
258. a. N. 3
258. b
258. 6. N. 1
258. b. N. 3
258. b. N. 3
258. b. N. 5
258. 6. B.
258. c. 1
258. c. 2
258. c. 2. B.
258. c. N. 1
258. d
258. e
258. /. 1-^
258.gr
259
259. a
259. b
259. c
259. d
259. e
259. g
259. ^ .
New
410. a, N. 1
410. a. N. 2
414
414. a and n.
414. &
415
416
417
417. Or-C
418
418. a and n.
510. N. 1
421
426. 3
429. 3
431
431. a
431. a. N. 1
419
420
423
424. a, b
425
426. 1, 2
428. h
428. c
427. 1
428. a
428./
428. flr
427. 2
428. A;
428. a
428.6
428. gf
428. i
426. 3
427.3
428. e
428. (2 and n. i
427. a
428. A:
429. 1-4
429. a
424
424. d
424. e
424. c
424./
424. g
428. j. K.
428. i
PARALLEL REFERENCES 487
Old Nbw Old New
260 220 271. c 458
260. a 480 271. c. n. 455. 2. a
260. b 429. h 272 459
260. c 221. 24 272. r. 561. a
260. d . 221. 28 272. a. 1 455
260. e 221. 26 272. a. 2 455. a
261 482 272. h 581. n. 3
261. a. N. 482. 6 278 460
261. h 482. c 278. c 457. a
261. c 482. d 278. d 461
261. d 488 278. e 460. c
262 and n. i 484 278. g 461. a
268. N. 485 278. h 461. 6
P. 274. Note 486 274 462
264 487 275 468
264. a 465 ff. P. 291. Note 464
264. h 487. a 276 465
265 488 276. a 466
266 and r. 439 276. 6 467
266. b 450. (8) and n. 3 276. c 468
266. c 440 276. d 469
266. (2 528. a 276. e 556
266. e 489. 6 276. e. n. 556. a
266. c. R. 439. 6. n. 2 276. / 465. a
266. e. N. 439. 6. n. i 277 470
267 441 277. r. 471
267. h 442 277. a-g 471. a-/
267. 6. N. 1 442. a and n. 1 278 472
267. c 442. 6 279 478
268 444 279. a 474
268. R. 444. N. 279. 6 478. a
269 448 279. c 475
269. N. 460. a, 6 279. d 475. a
269. a 450 279. e 476
269. a. 2. N. 450. n. i 279. r. 476. n.
269. a. 8. N. 450. n. 4 280 477
269. 6. N. 450. N. 3 281 478
269. c 448. a 281. r. 478. n.
269. d, 1, 3 449. 1, 2 282 479
269. e-flr 449. omj 288 480
269. h 588 284 481
269. i 521. N. 285 482
P. 288. Note 451 286 488
270 452 286. n. 483. ftn.
270. a. 1, 2 452. a 286. r., (a), (6) 484, a-c
270. 6 454 287 485
270. 6. N. 1 454. N. 287. c. r. 485. c. n. i
270. c 458 287. /-i 485. g-j
271 456 288. c and a 486 and a
271. a 457 288. d, r. 486. 6, d, e
271. a. N. 1 668. 6. 1 288. e 486. /
271.6 568. a 288./ 569. a
488
ALLEN AND GREENOUGH'S LATIN GRAMMAR
Old
P. 306, mid.
289
290
290. a
290. h
290. c
290.(2
291
29L h
291. h. R.
292
292. R.
292. N. 1, 3
292. a
292. 6~e
292. b. N.
293
293. b
293. c
294
294. a-d
295
296. R.
296
296. R.
297
298
298. N.
298. R.
298. a
298. b
298. c
299
299. a
300
300. N.
301
301. R.
302. headn.
302
302. R.
. 303
303. N. R.
P. 320. Note
304
304. d
305
305. R.
.306
307
307. b. R. c. R.
308
New
487
488
489
490
491
492
493
494
495
495. N.
496
496. y. 1, s
496. N. 3, 4
497
497. a-d
411. a. N. 2
498
499
498. b
500
500. 1-4
502
502. N.
503
503. N. 9
501, 502
504
504. N. 3
504. a. N. 1
504. c
504. N. 1
504. b
505. a
505
506 and n. i
506. N. 2
507
503. a. N. 2
508
509
509. N. 1
510
510. N. 1-3
511
512
513
514
514. C. N.
515
516
516. b. N. c. X.
517
Old
308. b and r.
309
309. b
309. c
310
311
311. a
311. a. N. 1
311. a. N. 2
311. a. N. 3
311. a. R.
311. b
311. c
311. R.
311. C. N.
311. d '
312
312. R., N.
313
313. d
313. d. N.
313. e
313./
318. g
313. A
318. i
314
314. &
315
315. a. 1
315. a. 2
315. d
316
816. a
317
317. 2d par.
817. 3
817. a
317. b
317. 6. N. 1
317. b. N. 3
317. c
317. c. R.
317. c. N. R.
318
P. 343. Note
319
819. 3
319. 3. N. and r.
319. c
319. d
319. d. R.
New
517. b
518
518. c
518. b
521
522
445, 446
447. 2
446
447. a
447. 8. N.
447. 1
522. a
522. N. 1
522. N. 2
528
524
524. N. 2, 1
526, 527
549
549. N. 3
527. d
527. d. N.
527. e
535. e
440
528
528. a
525
525. a
525. a. 3. N.
525. e
519
520
529. 530
531
563
531. 1. N. 1
531. a
558. b
581. a. N.
532
532. N.
531. 2. N. 2
533
534
536. 537
568
537. 2. N. 1, 3
558. b
558, 559
538
PABALLEL REFERENCES
489
Old
320
320. /. N.
P. 348, mid. n.
321
321. N. 3
321. R.
321. Or-e
P. 340, bottom, n.
322
322. R.
323
324
325
325. a
325. a. N.
325. b
325. c
326 and r.
326. a. R.
327
327. a
327. b
328
328. 2
328. 2. N. 1
328. a
328. a. N.
328. R.
328. R.
329
329. N.
329. R.
329. (claasification)
330
330. B.
330. B. 2, 3
330. R.
330. a, b
330. a. 2
330. &. 2
330. c
330. d
330. e
330. /
331 and 6. n.
331. e. 2
331./
381. /. ftn.
331. /. R.
381. g
381. h
331. t
New
535
535. /. N. 2
539
540
540. a
540. N. 3
540. 2m{
541
542
535. a. N. 3
545, 546
543
545-548
545
546. N. 4
546. a
547
549
549. a. N.
550. 551
551. c
551. c. N. s
552, 553
554. 555
555. N. 9
556
556. a. N. 1
556. a. N. 1
556. a. N. 3
560, 561
561. N. 1
561. N. 3
562
452
459
563. a, b
562. N.
582
566. 6
566. c
582. a
582. N.
579. ftn. 1
580. c
663 and b
558. b
564
564. N.
565. a, 569. 2. n. 2
563. N.
566
665
Old
331. i, N. 1
331. i. N. 3
P. 362, bottom, n.
332
332. a
332. b
332. c
332. d
332. e
332./
332.(7
332. g. R.
332. ^. N. 3
332. A
333
333. b. R.
334
334. c
334. c. R.
334. d, e
334./
334. ^
P. 369. Note
335
335. R.
336. 1
336.2
336. 2. N. 3
336. 2. N. 3
336. a. 1
336. a. R.
336. a. 2
336. a. 2. N. 3
336. 6
336. c
336. c. N. 3
336. d
336. A
336. A. N. 1
336. B
336. B. N. 3
336. B. a
337
338
338. a
339
339. R.
P. 378, mid.
340
341
341. b^
341. R.
New
565. N. 3
565. K. 3
567
568
569
571. a
462. a
571. b
568. N. 1
671. c
558
558. a
558. a. v. 3
580. d
572
572. 6. N.
673-575
576
576. N.
575. c, d
576. a
447. a, 6
577
678
678. N.
579
580
580. a
580. c
581
581. N. 3
582
582. a. N. 3
683
583. b
583. c
583. a
584
584. a and H.
686
586. a
586. b
689
586
587
588
588. a
590
591
692
692. 1-3
692. N.
490
ALLEN AND GREENOUGH'S LATIN GRAMMAR
Old
New
Old
New
342 693
342. ftn. 2d par. 603. n. q
J». 381 ft. 6»4
P. 386, top. Note 696
343 696 and a
344 697
344. R. 697. a. v. 9
P. 389, top. R. 697. b
P. 389, top. a 698. a
346 699
346. a 699. d
346. d 699. a
P. 392. Note 600
346 601
P. 394. Note 602
347 603
347. d 603. /
347. d. N. 1, 3 603. /. N. 9, 3
347. d, R. 603. /. N. 4
347. e. R. 603. /. n. i
348 604
348. 1-10 604. Or-j
348. 9. Exc. 604. i. 1-6
340-361
361. h 606
362, 363
364 606
364. d 606. c. n.
P. 402. Note 607
366. R. 608. N.
366 609
366. e 609. n.
366. / 609. e
367 610
367. b
367. c 610. b
368 611
369 612
369. 6, c 612. (2, e
369. b. R. 612. d. n.
369. c. R. 612. e. n.
369. (2 and r. 612. /. v. i, 9
369. e 612. g
369. /, gr 61?. 6, c
860
613
360. R.
613. N.
361
614
362
616
362. a
616. a, b
362. a. K.
616. N.
862. 6 and r.
616. c and n.
362. c
616. d
363
616
864
617
366
618
366
619
367
620
367.6
620. c
P. 414, mid.
Note 621
368
622
369
623
370
624
371
626
872
626
373
627
874
628
876
629
876. 6, c, e
629. 6. 1-5
876. d
629. c
376.6
629. b. 3
376./
876.^
629. d
376. g, 3-6
629. d. 1-8
876. A
629.6
P. 426. Note
630
376
631
377
632
878
633
879
684
380
636
381
636
382
637
383
638
384
P. 429
639
386
640
886
641
887
642
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