THE LIBRARY
OF
THE UNIVERSITY
OF CALIFORNIA
LOS ANGELES
FROM THE LIBRARY
OF
ELI SOBEL
ALLEN AND GREENOUGH'S
NEW
LATIN GRAMMAR
FOR
SCHOOLS AND COLLEGES
FOUNDED ON COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR
EDITED BY
J. B. GREENOUGH G. L. KITTREDGE
A. A. HOWARD BENJ. L. D'OOGE
GINN & COMPANY
BOSTON NEW YORK . CHICAGO . LONDON
ENTKRBD AT STATIONERS' HALL
COPYRIGHT, 1888, BY
J. B. GREENOUGH AND J. H. ALLEN
COPYRIGHT, 1903, BY
GINN & COMPANY
ALL RIGHTS RBSERVBO
310-7
tEfte 1 1 1) c n ; u m r t g
GINN & COMPANY- PRO-
PRIETORS BOSTON U.S.A.
PEEFACE
THE present book is a careful revision of the edition of 1888.
This revision was planned and actually begun in the lifetime oi
Professor Greenough and has been carried out in accordance
with principles that met with his full approval. The renum-
bering of the sections has made it possible to improve the
arrangement of material in many particulars and to avoid a cer-
tain amount of repetition which was inevitable in the former
edition. Thus, without increasing the size of the volume, the
editors have been able to include such new matter as the advance
in grammatical science has afforded. The study of historical
and comparative syntax has been pursued with considerable vigor
during the past fifteen years, and the well-established results of
this study have been inserted in their appropriate places. In
general, however, the principles and facts of Lathi syntax, as
set forth by Professor Greenough, have stood the test both of
scientific criticism and of practical use in the class-room, and
accordingly the many friends of Allen and Greenough's Gram-
mar will not find the new edition strange or unfamiliar in its
method or its contents. The editors have seen no occasion to
change long-settled nomenclature or to adopt novel classifica-
tions when the usual terms and categories have proved satis-
factory. On the other hand, they have not hesitated to modify
either doctrines or forms of statement whenever improvement
seemed possible.
In the matter of " hidden quantity" the editors have been even
more conservative than in the former revision. This subject is
one of great difficulty, and the results of the most recent investi-
gations are far from harmonious. In many instances the facts
ill
iv PREFACE
are quite undiscoverable, and, in general, the phenomena are of
comparatively slight interest except to special students of the
arcana of philology. No vowel has been marked long unless the
evidence seemed practically decisive.
The editors have been fortunate in securing the advice and
assistance of Professor E. S. Sheldon, of Harvard University, for
the first ten pages, dealing with phonetics and phonology. They
are equally indebted to Professor E. P. Morris, of Yale Univer-
sity, who has had the kindness to revise the notes on historical
and comparative syntax. Particular acknowledgment is also
due to Mr. M. Grant Daniell, who has cooperated in the revision
throughout, and whose accurate scholarship and long experience
as a teacher have been of the greatest service at every point.
SEPTEMBER 1, 1903.
CONTENTS
PART I WORDS AND FORMS
PAGE
LETTERS AND SOUNDS 1-10
Alphabet ; Classification of Sounds 1-3
Orthography, Syllables, Pronunciation 3-5
Quantity and Accent 5-7
Combinations ; Phonetic Changes 7-10
WORDS AND THEIR FORMS 11-16
Parts of Speech 11, 12
Inflection; Root, Stem, and Base 12-14
Gender, Number, and Case 14-16
DECLENSION OF NOONS 16-45
General Rules of Declension 17
First Declension 18-20
Second Declension 20-24
Third Declension 24-37
Mute Stems 25, 26
Liquid and Nasal Stems 27, 28
Pure i-Stems ! 29, 30
Mixed i-Stems 30, 31
Irregular Nouns 33, 34
Greek Nouns 34-36
Rules of Gender 36, 37
Fourth Declension 37-39
Fifth Declension 39, 40
Defective and Variable Nouns 40-44
Names of Persons 45
INFLECTION OF ADJECTIVES 46-62
First and Second Declensions 46-49
Third Declension 49-54
Comparison 55-57
Numerals 58-62
INFLECTION OF PRONOUNS 63-71
Personal, Reflexive, Possessive, Demonstrative 63-67
Relative, Interrogative, Indefinite 68-71
Correlatives (Pronouns and Adverbs) 71
CONJUGATION OF VERBS 72-125
Inflection 72
Signification: Voice, Mood, Tense 73-75
Personal Endings 76, 77
V
Vi CONTENTS
PAGE
Forms : Stem and Verb-Endings 77-81
The Verb Sum 81-83
Regular Verbs 84-103
The Four Conjugations ; Principal Parts 84, 85
Formation of the Three Stems 85-89
Synopsis of the Verb 90
Peculiarities of Conjugation 91
First Conjugation 92-95
Second Conjugation 96, 97
Third Conjugation 98, 99
Fourth Conjugation 100, 101
Verbs in -io of the Third Conjugation 102, 103
Deponent Verbs 103-106
Periphrastic Conjugations 106-108
Irregular Verbs 108-115
Defective Verbs 116-119
Impersonal Verbs 119, 120
Classified Lists of Verbs 121-125
PARTICLES 126-139
Adverbs 126-130
Prepositions 130-136
Conjunctions 137-139
Interjections 139
FORMATION OF WORDS 140-162
Roots and Stems 140, 141
Suffixes: Primary; Significant Endings 141-143
Derivation of Nouns 143-148
Derivation of Adjectives 148-154
Nouns with Adjective Suffixes ; Irregular Derivatives .... 154-156
Derivation of Verbs 156-159
Compound Words 160-162
PAKT II SYNTAX
INTRODUCTORY NOTE 163
THE SENTENCE 164-208
Definitions : Subject and Predicate, Modification, etc 164-168
Agreement : the Four Concords 168
NOUNS : Apposition ; Predicate Agreement 168-170
ADJECTIVES 170-175
Rules of Agreement 171, 172
Special Uses 172-175
PRONOUNS 176-192
Personal and Demonstrative 176-180
Reflexive 180-183
Possessive 183, 184
CONTENTS vii
PAGE
Relative 184-189
Indefinite 189-191
Alius and alter 192
VERBS 193-195
Verb and Subject, Incomplete Sentences 193-195
PARTICLES : Adverbs, Conjunctions, Negatives 196-204
QUESTIONS 205-208
CONSTRUCTION OF CASES 209-275
Introductory Note 209
NOMINATIVE CASE 210
VOCATIVE CASE 210
GENITIVE CASE 210-224
Genitive with Nouns 211-216
Possessive Genitive 211,212
Genitive of Material, of Quality 213
Partitive Genitive 213-216
Objective Genitive 215, 216
Genitive with Adjectives 216, 217
Genitive with Verbs 218-223
Verbs of Remembering and Forgetting 218, 219
Verbs of Reminding 219
Verbs of Accusing, Condemning, and Acquitting 220
Verbs of Feeling 221
Interest and refert 221,222
Verbs of Plenty and Want ; Special Verbs 222, 223
Peculiar Genitives : Exclamatory, etc 223, 224
DATIVE CASE 224-239
Indirect Object with Transitives 225-227
Indirect Object with Intransitives 227-232
Dative cf Possession 232,233
Dative of the Agent 233, 234
Dative of Reference 234-236
Ethical Dative 236
Dative of Separation 236, 237
Dative of the Purpose or End 237
Dative with Adjectives 238,239
ACCUSATIVE CASE 240-248
Direct Object 240-242
Cognate Accusative 242-244
Two Accusatives 244-246
Idiomatic and Special Uses 247, 248
ABLATIVE CASE 248-265
Uses of the Ablative Proper 249-255
Ablative of Separation 249, 250
Ablative of Source and Material 250-252
Ablative of Cause 252, 253
Vlll CONTENTS
PAGE
Ablative of Agent 263, 264
Ablative of Comparison 254, 256
Uses of the Ablative as Instrumental 256-265
Ablative of Means or Instrument .".... 256-258
Ablative of Manner 258
Ablative of Accompaniment 258, 269
Ablative of Degree of Difference 259, 260
Ablative of Quality 260
Ablative of Price 261,262
Ablative of Specification 262, 263
Ablative Absolute 263-265
Uses of the Ablative as Locative 265
TIME AND PLACE 266-273
SPECIAL USES OF PREPOSITIONS 274, 275
SYNTAX OF THE VERB 276-386
MOODS 276-293
Introductory Note 276, 277
INDICATIVE MOOD 277
SUBJUNCTIVE IN INDEPENDENT SENTENCES 278-283
Hortatory Subjunctive 278, 279
Hortatory Subjunctive in Concessions . 279
Optative Subjunctive 280, 281
Deliberative Subjunctive 281
Potential Subjunctive 282, 283
IMPERATIVE MOOD 283-285
Prohibition (Negative Command) 285
INFINITIVE MOOD 286-292
Infinitive as Noun 286, 287
Infinitive with Impersonals 287, 288
Complementary Infinitive 289, 290
Infinitive with Subject Accusative 290
Infinitive of Purpose ; Peculiar Infinitives 290, 291
Exclamatory Infinitive 292
Historical Infinitive 292
TENSES 293-308
Introductory Note 293
TENSES OF THE INDICATIVE 293-301
Present Tense . 293-295
Imperfect Tense 296-297
Future Tense 298
Perfect Tense 298-300
Pluperfect Tense 300
Future Perfect Tense 300
Epistolary Tenses 301
TENSES OF THE SUBJUNCTIVE 301-306
Sequence of Tenses 302-306
CONTENTS IX
PAGE
TENSES OF THE INFINITIVE 307, 308
PARTICIPLES 309-316
Distinctions of Tense 309-311
Uses of Participles 311-314
Future Active Participle 314, 315
Gerundive (Future Passive Participle) 315, 316
GERUND AND GERUNDIVE 316-319
SUPINE -320
CONDITIONAL SENTENCES 321-338
Introductory Note 321, 322
Protasis and Apodosis 322, 323
Classification of Conditions 323-325
Simple Present and Past Conditions 325, 326
Future Conditions 326-328
Conditions Contrary to Fact 328-330
General Conditions 331
Conditional Relative Clauses 332, 333
Condition Disguised 333, 334
Condition Omitted 334, 335
Complex Conditions 335
Clauses of Comparison (Conclusion Omitted) 336
Use of SI and its Compounds 337, 338
CONCESSIVE CLAUSES 338, 339
CLAUSES OF PROVISO 340
CLAUSES OF PURPOSE (FINAL CLAUSES) 340-343
CLAUSES OF CHARACTERISTIC 343-346
CLAUSES OF RESULT (CONSECUTIVE CLAUSES) 346-348
CAUSAL CLAUSES 348-350
TEMPORAL CLAUSES 360-369
Ubi, ut, cum, quando, as Indefinite Relatives 350
Postquam, ubi, ut, simul atque 351
Cum Temporal 352-354
Cum Causal or Concessive 354, 355
Antequam and priusquam 355, 356
Dum, donee, and quoad 357-359
CLAUSES WITH quin AND quominus 359-361
SUBSTANTIVE CLAUSES 362-384
Introductory Note 362
Substantive Clauses of Purpose and Infinitive Clauses .... 362-367
Substantive Clauses of Result (Consecutive Clauses) 367-369
Indicative with quod 369, 370
Indirect Questions 370-373
INDIRECT DISCOURSE 373-384
Introductory Note 373, 374
Declaratory Sentences 374-377
Subordinate Clauses 377, 378
X CONTENTS
PAGE
Tenses of the Infinitive 378, 379
Tenses of the Subjunctive 379, 380
Questions in Indirect Discourse 380, 381
Commands in Indirect Discourse 381
Conditions in Indirect Discourse 381-384
INTERMEDIATE CLAUSES 384-386
Informal Indirect Discourse 385
Subjunctive of Integral Part (Attraction) . 386
IMPORTANT RULES OF SYNTAX 387-392
ORDER OF WORDS 393-400
General Rules 393-398
Special Rules 398, 399
Structure of the Period 399, 400
PROSODY
QUANTITY 401-405
RHYTHM 405-409
Introductory Note 405, 406
Measures of Rhythm ; Feet 406-409
The Musical Accent ; Caesura ; Diaeresis 409
VERSIFICATION 410-426
The Verse; Scansion and Elision 410,411
Dactylic Verse 411-414
Dactylic Hexameter 411, 412
Elegiac Stanza ; Other Dactylic Verses 413, 414
Iambic Verse 414-416
Iambic Trimeter 414, 415
Other Iambic Measures 416
Trochaic Verse 417
Mixed Measures 418
Logacedic Verse 418-421
Metres of Horace 421-425
Index to the Metres of Horace 423-425
Other Lyric Poets 425
Miscellaneous Measures 425, 426
EARLY PROSODY 426,427
MISCELLANEOUS 428-431
Reckoning of Time 428, 429
Measures of Value, Length, and Capacity 429-431
GLOSSARY OF TERMS 432-435
INDEX OF VERBS 436-444
INDEX OF WORDS AND SUBJECTS 445-475
LATIN AUTHORS AND THEIR WORKS 476, 477
PARALLEL REFERENCES . . 479-490
ALLEN AND GREENOUGH'S
NEW LATIN GRAMMAR
XI
LATIN GRAMMAR
Latin Grammar is usually treated under three heads: 1. Words and
Forms; 2. Syntax; 3. Prosody. Syntax treats of the function of words
when joined together as parts of the sentence ; Prosody of their arrange-
ment in metrical composition.
PART FIRST WORDS AND FORMS
THE ALPHABET
1. The Latin Alphabet is the same as the English (which is
in fact borrowed from it) except that it does, not contain J, U,
and W.
NOTE 1. The Latin alphabet was borrowed in very early times from a Greek
alphabet (though not from that most familiar to us) and did not at first contain the
letters G and Y. It consisted of capital letters only, and the small letters with which
we are familiar did not come into general use until the close of the eighth century of
our era.
NOTE 2. The Latin names of the consonants were as follows : B, be (pronounced
bay); C, ce (pronounced kay); D, de (day); F, ef; G, ge (gay); H, ha; K, ka; L, el;
M, em; W, en; P, pe (pay); Q, qu (koo); R, er; S, es; T, te (toy); X, ix; Z, zeta (the
Greek name, pronounced dzayta) . The sound of each vowel was used as its name.
a. The character C originally meant G, a value always retained in
the abbreviations C. (for Gaius) and Cn. (for Gnaeus).
NOTE. In early Latin C came also to be used for K, and K disappeared except be-
fore a in a few words, as Kal. (Kalendae), Karthag5. Thus there was no distinction in
writing between the sounds of g and k. Later this defect was remedied by forming
(from C) the new character G. This took the alphabetic place formerly occupied by
Z, which had gone out of use. In Cicero's time (see N. D. ii. 93), Y (originally a form
of V) and Z were introduced from the ordinary Greek alphabet to represent sounds in
words derived from the Greek, and they were put at the end of the Latin alphabet.
&. I and V were used both as vowels and as consonants (see 5).
NOTE. V originally denoted the vowel sound u (oo), and F stood for the sound of
our consonant w. When F acquired the value of our f, V came to be used for the
sound of w as well as for the vowel u.
In this book i is used for both vowel and consonant i, u for vowel u, and
v for consonant u : has, vir, iuvenis
1
2 WORDS AND FORMS [ 2-4
Classification of. Sounds
2. The simple Vowels are a, e, i, o, u, y.
The Diphthongs are ae, au, ei, eu, oe, ui, and, in early Latin, ai,
oi, ou. In the diphthongs both vowel sounds are heard, one fol-
lowing the other in the same syllable.
3. Consonants are either voiced (sonant) or voiceless (surd).
Voiced consonants are pronounced with the same vocal murmur
that is heard in vowels ; voiceless consonants lack this murmur.
1. The voiced consonants are b, d, g, 1, r, m, n, z, consonant i, v.
2. The voiceless consonants are p, t, c (k, q), f, h, s, x.
4. Consonants are further classified as in the following table :
LABIALS DENTALS PALATALS
f Voiced (mediae) b d g
Mutes | Voiceless (tenues) p t c (k, q)
[ Aspirates ph th ch
Nasals m n n (before c, g, q)
Liquids 1, r
Fricatives (Spirants) f 1 B, z
Sibilants a, z
Semivowels v consonant i
Double consonants are x (= cs) and z (= dz) ; h is merely a breathing.
1. Mutes are pronounced by blocking entirely, for an instant, the passage of the
breath through the mouth, and then allowing it to escape with an explosion (distinctly
heard before a following vowel). Between the explosion and the vowel there may be
a slight puff of breath (h), as in the Aspirates (ph, th, ch).2
2. Labials are pronounced with the lips, or lips and teeth.
3. Dentals (sometimes called Linguals) are pronounced with the tip of the tongue
touching or approaching the upper front teeth.
4. Palatals are pronounced with a part of the upper surface of the tongue touching
or approaching the palate. 8
5. Fricatives (or Spirants) are consonants in which the breath passes continuously
through the mouth with audible friction.
6. Nasals are like voiced mutes, except that the mouth remains closed and the
breath passes through the nose.
1 Strictly a labio-dental, pronounced with the under lip touching the upper teeth.
2 The aspirates are almost wholly confined to words borrowed from the Greek. In
early Latin such borrowed sounds lost their aspiration and became simply p, t, c.
8 Palatals are often classed as (l)'velars, pronounced with the tongue touching or ris-
ing toward the soft palate (in the back part of the mouth), and (2) palatals, in which the
tongue touches or ri ses toward the hard palate (farther forward in the mouth) . Compare
the initial consonants in key and cool, whispering the two words, and it will be observed
that before e and i the k is sounded farther forward in the mouth than before a, o, or u.
5, 6] OETHOGRAPHY 3
5. The vowels i and u serve as consonants when pronounced
rapidly before a vowel so as to stand in the same syllable. 1 Con-
sonant i has the sound of English consonant y ; consonant u (v)
that of English consonant w.
Consonant i and u (v) are sometimes called Semivowels.
NOTE 1. The Latin alphabet did not distinguish between the vowel and consonant
sounds of i and u, but used each letter (I and V) with a double value. In modern books
i and u are often used for the vowel sounds, j and v for the consonant sounds ; but in
printing in capitals J and U are avoided : I V LI V S (lulius) . The characters J and U are
only slight modifications of the characters I and V. The ordinary English sounds of
j and v did not exist in classical Latin, but consonant u perhaps approached English v
in the pronunciation of some persons.
NOTE 2. In the combinations qu, gu, and sometimes su, u seems to be the conso-
nant (w) . Thus, aqua, anguis, oonsuetus (compare English quart, anguish, suave). In
these combinations, however, u is reckoned neither as a vowel nor as a consonant. 2
' ORTHOGRAPHY
6. Latin spelling varied somewhat with the changes in the
language and was never absolutely settled in all details.
Thus, we find lubet, vorto, as earlier, and libet, verto, as later forms. Other
variations are optumus and optimus, gerund us and gerendus.
The spelling of the first century of our era, known chiefly from
inscriptions, is tolerably uniform, and is commonly used in modern
editions of the classics.
a. After v (consonant u), o was anciently used instead of u (voltus, 'servos),
and this spelling was not entirely given up until the middle of the first
century of our era.
6. The older quo became cu in the Augustan period ; in the second cen-
tury of our era the spelling quu established itself in some words :
cum, older quom ; 3 equos, ecus, later equus ; sequontur, secuntur, later sequuntur ;
similarly exstinguont, exstingunt, later exstinguunt.
NOTE. In most modern editions the spelling quu is adopted, except in cum.
c. Between consonant i and a preceding a, e, o, or u, an i was developed
as a transient sound, thus producing a diphthong ai, ei, etc., before the con-
sonant i. In such cases but one i was written : as, aid (for fai-io), maius
(for fmai-ius), peius (for fpei-ius).
1 Compare the English word Indian as pronounced in two syllables or in three.
2 In such words it is possible that the preceding consonant was labialized and that
no distinct and separate consonant u was heard.
8 The spelling quum is very late and without authority.
4 WORDS AND FORMS [ 6-8
<f. Similarly in compounds of iacio but one i was written (as, con-icio,
not con-iicio); but the usual pronunciation probably showed consonant i
followed by vowel i (see 11. e).
NOTE. Some variations are due to later changes in Latin itself, and these are not
now recognized in classical texts.
1. Unaccented ti and ci, when followed by a vowel, came to be pronounced alike ;
hence nuntio was later spewed with a c and dicio with a t.
2. The sound of h was after a time lost and hence this letter was often omitted (as,
arena for harena) or mistakenly written (as, humor for umor) .
3. The diphthong ae early in the time of the Empire acquired the value of long open
e (about like English e in there) , and similarly oe after a time became a long close e
(about like the English ey in they) ; and so both were often confused in spelling with
e : as, coena or caena for the correct form cena.
Syllables
7. Every Latin word has as many syllables as it has vowels or
diphthongs :
a-ci-e, mo-ne, fi-li-us, fe-ro-ci-ta-te.
a. In the division of words into syllables a single consonant (including
consonant i and v) between two vowels is written and pronounced with
the following vowel. Doubled consonants are separated :
pa-ter, ml-li-tes, in-iu-ri-a, di-vi-do ; mit-t5, tol-16.
NOTE 1. Some extend the rule for single consonants to any consonant group (as
sp, st, gn) that can begin a word. In this book, dix-it, sax-um, etc. are preferred to
dl-xit, sa-xum; the pronunciation was probably die-sit, sac-sum.
NOTE 2. A syllable ending with a vowel or diphthong is called open : all others
are called close. Thus in pa-ter the first syllable is open, the second close.
b. In compounds the parts are separated :
ab-est, ob-latus, dis-cerno, du-plex, di-sto.
Pronunciation
8. The so-called Roman Pronunciation of Latin aims to repre-
sent approximately the pronunciation of classical times.
VOWELS : a as in father; S as in idea.
as eh? (prolonged), or a in date; 8 as eh? (clipped) or e in net.
I as in machine ; I as in holiest or sit.
6 as in holy; 6 as in obey.
u as oo in boot; tt as oo in foot.
y between u and i (French u or German ii).
DIPHTHONGS : ae like ay; ei as in eight; oe like oy in loy;
eu as eh'oo; au like ow in now; ui as oo'ee.
8-10] PKONUNCIATION AND QUANTITY 5
Consonants are the same as in English, except that
c and g are as in come, get, never as in city, gem.
s as in sea, lips, never as in ease.
Consonant i is like y in young ; v (consonant u) like w in wing.
n in the combinations ns and nf probably indicates nasalization of the
preceding vowel, which was also lengthened ; and final m in an
unaccented syllable probably had a similar nasalizing effect on
the preceding vowel.
ph, th, ch, are properly like p, t, k, followed by h (which may, for con-
venience, be neglected) ; but ph probably became like (or nearly
like) f soon after the classical period, and may be so pronounced
to distinguish it from p.
z is as dz in adze.
TOB is like ps ; bt is like pt.
NOTE. Latin is sometimes pronounced with the ordinary English sounds of the
letters. The English pronunciation should be used in Roman names occurring in
English (as, Julius Csesar) ; and in familiar quotations, as, e pluribus unum ; vivc.
voce; vice versa; a fortiori; veni, vidi, vici, etc.
Quantity
9. The Quantity of a Vowel or a Syllable is the time occupied
in pronouncing it. Two degrees of Quantity are recognized,
long and short.
a. In syllables, quantity is measured from the beginning of the vowel
or diphthong to the end of the syllable.
10. Vowels are either long or short by nature, and are pro-
nounced accordingly ( 8).
a. A vowel before another vowel or h is short : as in via, nihil.
6. A diphthong is long : as in aedes. foedus. So, also, a vowel derived
from a diphthong : as in exclude (from f ex-claudo).
c. A vowel formed by contraction is long : as in nil (from nihil).
d. A vowel before ns, nf, gn, is long : as in constans, infero, ma gnus.
NOTE. But the quantity of the vowel before gn is not certain in all cases.
e. A vowel before nd, nt, is regularly short : as in amandus, amant.
In this book all vowels known to be long are marked (a, e, etc.), and
short vowels are left unmarked (a, e, etc.). Vowels marked with both signs
at once (I, e, etc.) occur sometimes as long and sometimes as short.
NOTE. The Romans sometimes marked vowel length by a stroke above the letter
(called an apex), as, A ; and sometimes the vowel was doubled to indicate length. An
[ made higher than the other letters was occasionally used for I. But none of these
devices came into general use,
6 WORDS AND FORMS [ 11
11. The Quantity of the Syllable is important for the position
of the accent and in versification.
a. A syllable containing a long vowel or a diphthong is said to be long
by nature : as, ma-ter, aes, au-la-.
b. A syllable containing a short vowel followed by two consonants
(except a mute before 1 or r) or by a double consonant (x, z) is said to be
long by position, but the vowel is pronounced short : as, est, ter-ra, sax-um,
Me-zen-tius.
NOTE. When a consonant is doubled the pronunciation should show this dis-
tinctly. Thus in mit-t5 both t's should be pronounced as in out-talk (not merely a
single t as in better).
c. A syllable containing a short vowel followed by a mute before 1 or r
is properly short, but may be used as long in verse. Such a syllable is said
to be common.
NOTE 1. In syllables long by position, but having a short vowel, the length is
partly due to the first of the consonants, which stands in the same syllable with the
vowel. In syllables of " common " quantity (as the first syllable of patrem) the ordi-
nary pronunciation was pa-trem, but in verse pat-rem -was allowed so that the syllable
could become long.
NOTE 2. In final syllables ending with a consonant, and containing a short vowel,
the quantity in verse is determined by the following word : if this begins with a vowel
the final consonant is joined to it in pronunciation ; if it begins with a consonant the
syllable is long by position.
NOTE 3. In rules for quantity h is not counted as a consonant, nor is the appar-
ently consonantal u in qu, gu, su (see 5. N. 2).
d. A syllable whose vowel is a, e, o, or u, followed by consonant i, is
long whether the vowel itself is long or short : as, a-io, ma-ior, pe-ius.
In such cases the length of the syllable is indicated in this book by a
circumflex on the vowel.
NOTE. The length of a syllable before consonant i is due to a transitional sound
(vowel i) which forms a diphthong with the preceding vowel: as, a-io (for fai-io),
mS-ior (for fmai-ior) . See 6. c.
e In some compounds of iacio (as, in-icio) the consonant i of the simple
verb was probably pronounced (though not written). Thus the first syl-
lable was long by position : as, in-icio (for in-iicio). See 6. d.
In such cases the length of the syllable is not indicated in this book by
a circumflex on the vowel.
/. When a syllable is long by position the quantity of the vowel is not
always determinable. The vowel should be pronounced short unless it is
known to be long.
NOTE. The quantity of a vowel under these circumstances is said to be hidden.
It is often determined with a greater or less degree of certainty by inscriptional evi-
dence (see 10. N.) or by other means. In this book, the quantity of all such vowels
known to be long is marked.
12-14] ACCENT
Accent
12. Words of two syllables are accented on the first syllable :
as, Ro'ma, fi'des, tan'go.
Words of more than two syllables are accented on the Penult l
if that is long (as, ami'cus, mone'tur, contin'git) ; otherwise on the
Antepenult (as, do'mmus, a'lScris, dissocia'bilis).
. When an enclitic is joined to a word, the accent falls on the syllable
next before the enclitic, whether long or short : as, dea'que, amare've, tlbi'ne,
ita'que (and ... so), as distinguished from i'tSque (therefore). So (accord-
ing to some) ex'inde, ec'quandd, etc.
Exceptions : 1. Certain apparent compounds of facio retain the accent of the
simple verb: as, benefa'cit, calefa'cit (see 266. a).
NOTE. These were not true compounds, but phrases.
2. In the second declension the genitive and vocative of nouns in -ius and the
genitive of those in -ium retain the accent of the nominative : as, Corne'll, Vergi'li,
inge'ni (see 49. c).
3. Certain words which have lost a final vowel retain the accent of the com-
plete words : as, illTc for illi'ce, produ'c for produce, sati'n for sati'sne.
Combinations
13. In some cases adjacent words, being pronounced together,
are written as one :
unusquisque (Onus quisque), siquis (s! quis), quare (qua re), quamobrem (quam
ob rem ; cf . quas ob res), respublica (res publica), iusiurandum (ius iurandum),
paterfamilias (pater familias).
NOTE. Sometimes a slight change in pronunciation resulted, as, especially in the
old poets, before est in homost (homo est), periculumst (periculum est), ausust (ausus est),
qualist (qualis est). Similarly there occur vin', scin' for visne, sclsne, sis (si vis), s5des
(si audes), sultis (si vultis). Compare in English somebody, to breakfast; he's, I've,
thou'rt.
Phonetic Changes
14. Latin, the language of the ancient Romans, was properly, as its name implies,
the language spoken in the plain of Latium, lying south of the Tiber, which was the first
territory occupied and governed by the Romans. It is a descendant of an early form
of speech commonly called Indo-European (by some Indo-Germanic) , from which
are also descended most of the important languages now in use in Europe, including
among others English, German, the Slavic and the Celtic languages, and further some
now or formerly spoken in Asia, as Sanskrit, Persian, Armenian. Greek likewise
1 The Penult is the last syllable but one ; the Antepenult, the last but twi*
8 WORDS AND FORMS [ 14, 15
belongs to the same family. The Romance (or Romanic) languages, of which the
most important are Italian, French, Provencal, Spanish, Portuguese, and Roumanian,
are modern descendants of spoken Latin.
The earliest known forms of Latin are preserved in a few inscriptions. These in-
crease in number as we approach the time when the language began to be used in litera-
ture; that is, about B.C. 250. It is the comparatively stable language of the classical
period (B.C. 80-A.D. 14) that is ordinarily meant when we speak of Latin, and it is
mainly this that is described in this book.
15. Among the main features in the changes of Latin from
the earliest stages of the language as we know it up to the forms
of classical Latin may be mentioned the following :
Vowel Changes
1. The old diphthong ai became the classical ae (aedilis for old aidilis),
old oi became oe or u (unus for old oinos), and old ou became u (duco for
old douco).
2. In compound verbs the vowel a of the simple verb often appears as i
or e, and ae similarly appears as I :
facio, factum, but conficio, confectum ; caedo, but occidS, and similarly cecidi,
perfect of caedo (cf. cad5, occido; cecidi, perfect of cado).
NOTE. This change is commonly ascribed to an accentuation on the first syl-
lable, which seems to have been the rule in Latin before the rule given above (see 12)
became established. The original Indo-European accent, however, was not limited by
either of these principles ; it was probably a musical accent so-called, consisting in a
change of pitch, and not merely in a more forcible utterance of the accented syllable.
3. Two vowels coming together are often contracted :
cogo for fco-ago ; prom5 for tpro-emo ; nil for nihil ; debeo for tde-hibeo
(tde-habeo).
Consonant Changes
4. An old s regularly became r between two vowels (rhotacism), passing
first through the sound of (English) z :
eram (cf. est); generis, genitive of genus. 1
NOTE. Final s sometimes became r by analogy: as, honor (older honos), from the
analogy of honoris, etc.
5. A dental (t, d) often became s, especially when standing next to t, d,
or s : as, equestris for fequettris, casus for fcadtus (cf . 6, below).
6. Many instances of assimilation, partial or complete, are found:
cessi for tced-si ; summus for tsupraus ; scriptus for scrlbtus (b unvoicing to
p before the voiceless t); and in compound verbs (see 16).
1 A similar change can be seen in English: as, were (cf. was), lorn (cf. lose}.
15-17] VOWEL VARIATIONS 9
Dissimilation, the opposite kind of change, prevented iu some cases the
repetition of the same sound in succcessive syllables :
Thus, parllia for palilia (from Pales); meridiesfor tmedldies; naturalis with suffix
-alls (after r), but popularis with -aris (after 1).
7. Final s was in early Latin not always pronounced : as, plenu(s) fidei.
NOTE. Traces of this pronunciation existed in Cicero's time. He speaks of the omis-
sion of final s before a word beginning with, a consonant as ' ' countrified ' ' (subrusticum) .
8. A final consonant often disappears : as, virgo for fvirgon ; lac for
flact ; cor for f cord.
9. G, c, and h unite with a following s to form x : as, rex for fregs ; dux
for fducs ; traxl for ftrahsi. 1
10. G and h before t become c : as, rectum for fregtum ; actum for fagtum ;
tractum for ftrahtum. 2
11. Between m and s or m and t, a p is often developed : as, sumps! for
fsumsi ; emptum for j-emtum.
16. In compounds with prepositions the final consonant in the preposition was often
assimilated to the following consonant, but usage varied considerably.
There is good authority for many complete or partial assimilations; as, for ad,
ace-, agg-, app-, att-, instead of adc-, adg-, etc. Before a labial consonant we find com-
(comb-, comp-, comm-), but con- is the form before c, d, f, g, cons, i, q, s, t, cons, v; we
find conl- or coll-, conr- or corr-; co- in conecto, conlveo, conitor, conubium. In usually
changes to im- before p, b, m. Ob and sub may assimilate b to a following c, f , g, or
P ; before s and t the pronunciation of prepositions ending in b doubtless had p ; surr-,
summ-, occur for subr-, subm-. The inseparable amb- loses b before a consonant.
Circum often loses its m before i. The s of dis becomes r before a vowel and is assimi-
lated to a following f ; sometimes this prefix appears as di-. Instead of ex we find ef-
before f (also ecf-) . The d of red and sed is generally lost before a consonant. The
preposition is better left unchanged in most other cases.
Vowel Variations
17. The parent language showed great variation in the vowel
sounds of kindred words. 3
a. This variation is often called by the German name Ablaut. It has
left considerable traces in the forms of Latin words, appearing sometimes
as a difference of quantity in the same vowel (as, u, u ; e, e), sometimes as a
difference in the vowel itself (as, e, o ; i, ae) : 4
tego, I cover, toga, a robe ; pendo, I weigh, pondus, weight ; fides, faith, fidus,
faithful, foedus, a treaty ; miser, wretched, maestus, sad ; dare, to give,
donum, a gift; reg5, I rule, rex, a king; dux, a leader, duco (for older
douco), I lead. Compare English drive, drove (dravc), driven ; bind, bound,
band; sing, sang, sung; etc.
1 Really for ftraghsT. Tho h of traho represents an older palatal sound (see 19) .
2 Really for ftraghtum. These are cases of partial assimilation (cf. 6, above).
3 This variation wns not without regularity, but was confined within definite limits.
4 In Greek, however, it is more extensively preserved.
10 WORDS AND FORMS [ 18, 19
Kindred Forms
18. Both Latin and English have gone through a series of phonetic changes, dif-
ferent in the two languages, but following definite laws in each. Hence both pre-
serve traces of the older speech in some features of the vowel system, and both show
certain correspondences in consonants in words which each language has inherited from
the old common stock. Only a few of these correspondences can be mentioned here.
19. The most important correspondences in consonants between
Latin and English, in cognate words, may be seen in the following
table: 1
LATIN ENGLISH
p : pater f : father, earlier fader 2
f from bh : fero, f rater b : to bear, brother
b " " lubet, libet v, f : love, lief
t : tu, tenuis th : thou, thin s
d : duo, dent- t : two, tooth
f from dh : f aci5 d : do
d " " medius d: mid
b " " ruber d: red
c : cord-, cornu h : heart, hor,n
qu : quod wh : what
g : genus, gustus c, k, ch : kin, choose
h (from gh) : hortus, haedus y, g : yard, goat
cons, i : iugum y : yoke
v : ventus, ovis w : wind, ewe
v from gv : vivus (for tgvivos), j k .
vemo (for tgvemio). J
NOTE 1. Sometimes a consonant lost in Latin is still represented in English: as,
niv- (for -fsniv-), Eng. snow ; anser (for tenser), Eng. goose.
NOTE 2. From these cases of kindred words in Latin and English must be care-
fully distinguished those cases in which the Latin word has been taken into English either
directly or through some one of the modern descendants of Latin, especially French.
Thus facio is kindred with Eng. do, but from the Latin participle (factum) of this verb
comes Eng./ac<, and from the French descendant (fait) of factum comes Eng. feat.
1 The Indo-European parent speech had among its consonants voiced aspirates
(bh, dh, gh). All these suffered change in Latin, the most important results being,
for bh, Latin f, b (English has b, v, or f) ; for dh, Latin f, b, d (English has d) ; for gh,
Latin h, g (English has y, g). The other mutes suffered in Latin much less change,
while in English, as in the other Germanic languages, they have all changed consid-
erably in accordance with what has been called Grimm's Law for the shifting of mutes.
2 The th in father is a late development. The older form fader seems to show an
exception to the rule that English th corresponds to Latin t. The primitive Germanic
form was doubtless in accordance with this rule, but, on account of the position of the
accent, which in Germanic was not originally on the first syllable in this word, the
consonant underwent a secondary change to d.
8 But to the group st of Latin corresponds also English st ; as in Latin sto, English
stand.
20] THE PAKTS OF SPEECH 11
THE PARTS OF SPEECH
20. Words are divided into eight Parts of Speech: No.uns,
Adjectives (including Participles), Pronouns, Verbs, Adverbs,
Prepositions, Conjunctions, and Interjections.
a. A Noun is the name of a person, place, thing, or idea : as, Caesar ;
Roma, Rome ; domus, a house ; virtus, virtue.
Names of particular persons and places are called Proper Nouns ; other
nouns are called Common.
NOTE. An Abstract Noun is the name of a quality or idea : as, audacia, boldness ;
senectus, old age. A Collective Noun is the name of a group, class, or the like : as, turba,
crowd; exercitus, army.
b. An Adjective is a word that attributes a quality : as, bonus, good -,
fortis, brave, strong.
NOTE 1. A Participle is a word that attributes quality like an adjective, but, being
derived from a verb, retains in some degree the power of the verb to assert: as,
Caesar consul creatus, Csesar having been elected consul.
NOTE 2. Etymologically there is no difference between a noun and an adjective,
both being formed alike. So, too, all names originally attribute quality, and any com-
mon name can still be so used. Thus, King William distinguishes this William from
other Williams, by the attribute of royalty expressed in the name king.
c. A Pronoun is a word used to distinguish a person, place, thing, or
idea without either naming or describing it: as, is, he; qui, who; nos, we.
. Nouns and pronouns are often called Substantives.
d. A Verb is a word which is capable of asserting something : as, sum,
/ am ; amat, he loves.
NOTE. In all modern speech the verb is usually the only word that asserts any-
thing, and a verb is therefore supposed to be necessary to complete an assertion.
Strictly, however, any adjective or noun may, by attributing a quality or giving a
name, make a complete assertion. In the infancy of language there could have been
no other means of asserting, as the verb is of comparatively late development.
e. An Adverb is a word used to express the time, place, or manner of
an assertion or attribute : as, splendide mendax, gloriously false ; hodie natus
est, he tvas born to-day.
NOTE. These same functions are often performed by cases (see 214-217) of
nouns, pronouns, and adjectives, and by phrases or sentences. In fact, all adverbs
were originally cases or phrases, but have become specialized by use.
/. A Preposition is a word which shows the relation between a noun or
pronoun and some other word or words in the same sentence : as, per agros
it, he goes over the fields ; e pluribus unum, one out of many.
NOTE. Most prepositions are specialized adverbs (cf. 219). The relations ex-
pressed by prepositions were earlier expressed by case-endings.
12 WORDS AND FORMS [ 20-22
gr. A Conjunction is a word which connects words, or groups of words,
without affecting their grammatical relations : as, et, and ; sed, but.
NOTE. Some adverbs are also used as connectives. These are called Adverbial
Conjunctions or Conjunctive (Relative) Adverbs: as, ubi, where; d5nec, until.
h. Interjections are mere exclamations and are not strictly to be classed
as parts of speech. Thus, heus, halloo ! 5, oh !
NOTE. Interjections sometimes express an emotion which affects a person or thing
mentioned, and so have a grammatical connection like other words : as, vae victis, woe
to the conquered (alas for the conquered) !
INFLECTION
21. Latin is an inflected language.
Inflection is a change made in the form of a word to show its
grammatical relations.
a. Inflectional changes sometimes take place in the body of a word, or
at the beginning, but oftener in its termination :
vox, a voice ; vocis, of a voice ; voco, I call ; vocat, he calls ; vocet, let him call ;
vocavit, he has called ; tangit, he touches ; tetigit, he touched.
6. Terminations of inflection had originally independent meanings which
are now obscured. They correspond nearly to the use of prepositions,
auxiliaries, and personal pronouns in English.
Thus, in vocat, the termination is equivalent to he or she; in vocis, to the
preposition of; and in vocet the change of vowel signifies a change of mood.
c. Inflectional changes in the body of a verb usually denote relations of
tense or mood, and often correspond to the use of auxiliary verbs in Eng-
lish : -
frangit, he breaks or is breaking ; fregit, he broke or has broken ; mordet, he
bites; momordit, he bit. 1
22. The inflection of Nouns, Adjectives, Pronouns, and Par-
ticiples to denote gender, number, and case is called Declension,
and these parts of speech are said to be declined.
The inflection of Verbs to denote voice, mood, tense, number,
and person is called Conjugation, and the verb is said to be con-
jugated.
NOTE. Adjectives are often said to have inflections of comparison. These are,
however, properly stein-formations made by derivation (p. 55, footnote).
1 The only proper inflections of verbs are those of the personal endings ; and the
changes here referred to are strictly changes of stem, but have become a part of the
system of inflections.
23-26] ROOT, STEM, AND BASE 13
23. Adverbs, Prepositions, Conjunctions, and Interjections are
not inflected and are called Particles.
NOTE. The term Particle is sometimes limited to such words as num, -ne, an (inter-
rogative), non, ne (negative), si (conditional), etc., which are used simply to indicate
the form or construction of a sentence.
Root, Stem, and Base
24. The body of a word, to which the terminations are attached,
is called the Stem.
The Stem contains the idea of the word without relations ; but, except
in the first part of a compound (as, arti-fex, artificer), it cannot ordinarily be
used without some termination to express them. 1
Thus the stem voc- denotes voice; with -s added it becomes vox, a voice or the
voice, as the subject or agent of an action ; with -is it becomes vocis, and signifies
of a voice.
NOTE. The stem is in many forms so united with the termination that a compari-
son with other forms is necessary to determine it.
25. A Root is the simplest form attainable by analysis of a
word into its component parts.
Such a form contains the main idea of the word in a very general sense,
and is common also to other words either in the same language or in kin-
dred languages. 2
Thus the root of the stem voc- is voc, which does not mean to call, or I call,
or calling, but merely expresses vaguely the idea of calling, and cannot be used
as a part of speech without terminations. With a- it becomes voca-, the stem of
vocare (to call) ; with av- it is the stem of vocavit (he called) ; with ato- it becomes
the stem of vocatus (called) ; with atidn- it becomes the stem of vocatiSnis (of a
calling). With its vowel lengthened it becomes the stem of vox, voc-is (a voice:
that by which we call). This stem voc-, with -alis added, means belonging to a
voice; with -Qla, a little voice.
NOTE. In inflected languages, words are huilt up from Roots, which at a very
early time were used alone to express ideas, as is now done in Chinese. Roots are
modified into Stems, which, by inflection, become fully formed words. The process by
which roots are modified, in the various forms of derivatives and compounds, is called
Stem-building. The whole of this process is originally one of composition, by which
significant endings are added one after another to forms capable of pronunciation and
conveying a meaning.
Roots had long ceased to be recognized as such before the Latin existed as a sepa-
rate language. Consequently the fornyg which we assume as Latin roots never really
existed in Latin, but are the representatives of forms used earlier.
1 Another exception is the imperative second person singular in -e (as, rege).
2 For example, the root STA is found in the Sanskrit tishthdmi, Greek ifr-r^t, Latin
sistere and stare, German fte&en, and English stand.
14 WORDS AND FORMS [26-30
26. The Stem may be the same as the root: as in due-is, of a leader,
fer-t, he bears; but it is more frequently formed from the root
1. By changing or lengthening its vowel : as in scob-s, sawdust (SCAB,
shave); reg-is, of a king (REG, direct)] voc-is, of a voice (voc, call).
2. By the addition of a simple suffix (originally another root) : as in fuga-,
stem of fuga, flight (FUG + a-) ; regi-s, you rule (REG + stem-ending e / -) ;
sini-t, he allows (si + o. e / -). 1
3. By two or more of these methods : as in duci-t, he leads (DUC + stem-
ending %-).
4. By derivation and composition, following the laws of development
peculiar to the language. (See 227 if.)
27. The Base is that part of a word which is unchanged in
inflection : as, serv- in servus ; mens- in mensa ; ign- in ignis.
a. The Base and the Stem are often identical, as in many consonant
stems of nouns (as, reg- in reg-is). If, however, the stem ends in a vowel,
the latter does not appear in the base, but is variously combined with the
inflectional termination. Thus the stem of servus is servo-; that of mensa,
mensa- ; that of ignis, igni-.
28. Inflectional terminations are variously modified by com-
bination with the final vowel or consonant of the Stem, and thus
the various forms of Declension and Conjugation (see 36, 164)
developed.
GENDER
29. The Genders distinguished in Latin are three : Masculine,
Feminine, and Neuter.
30. The gender of Latin nouns is either natural or grammatical.
a. Natural Gender is distinction as to the sex of the object denoted : as,
puer (M.), boy ; puella (F.), girl; rex (M.), king; regina (F.), queen.
NOTE 1. Many nouns have both a masculine aiid a feminine form to distinguish
sex: as, cervus, cerva, stag, doe; cliens, clienta, client; victor, victrix, conqueror.
Many designations of persons (as nauta, sailor) usually though not necessarily male
are always treated as masculine. Similarly names of tribes andpeoples are masculine :
as, Roman!, the Romans; Persae, the Persians.
NOTE 2. A few neuter nouns are used to designate persons as belonging to a class :
as, mancipium tuum, your slave (your chattel).
Many pet names of girls and boys are neuter in form : as, Paegnium, Glycerium.
NOTE 3. Names of dosses or collections of persons may be of any gender : as,
exercitus (M.), acies (F.), and agmen (N.), army; operae (F. plur.), workmen; copiae
(F. plur.), troops; senatus (M..), senate; cohors (F.), cohort; concilium (N.), council.
1 These suffixes are Indo-European stem-endings.
30-34] GENERAL RULES OF GENDER 15
b. Grammatical Gender is a formal distinction as to sex where no actual
sex exists in the object. It is shown by the form of the adjective joined
with the noun: as, lapis magnus (M.), a great stone; mantis mea (F.), my
hand.
General Rules of Gender
31. Names of Male beings, and of Rivers, Winds, Months, and
Mountains, are masculine:
pater, father ; Julius, Julius; Tiberis, the Tiber; auster, south wind; lanua-
rius, January ; Apennmus, the Apennines.
NOTE. Names of Months are properly adjectives, the masculine noun mensis,
month, being understood: as, lanuarius, January.
a. A few names of Rivers ending in -a (as, Allia), with the Greek names
Lethe and Styx, are feminine ; others are variable or uncertain.
b. Some names of Mountains are feminine or neuter, taking the gender
of their termination : as, Alpes (F.), the Alps ; Soracte (N.).
32. Names of Female beings, of Cities, Countries, Plants, Trees,
and Gems, of many Animals (especially Birds), and of most ab-
stract Qualities, are feminine :
mater, mother; lulia, Julia; Roma. Borne; Italia, Italy; rosa, rose; pinus,
pine; sapphirus, sapphire; anas, duck; veritas, truth.
a. Some names of Towns and Countries are masculine : as, Sulmo, Gabii
(plur.) ; or neuter, as, Tarentum, Illyricum.
b. A few names of Plants and Gems follow the gender of their termina-
tion : as, centaureum (N.), centaury ; acanthus (M.), bearsfoot ; opalus (M.),
opal.
NOTE. The gender of most of the above may also be recognized by the termina-
tions, according to the rules given under the several declensions. The names of Roman
women were usually feminine adjectives denoting their gens or house (see 108. b).
33.. Indeclinable nouns, infinitives, terms or phrases used as
nouns, and words quoted merely for their form, are neuter :
fas, right; nihil, nothing; gummi, gum; scire tuum, your knowledge (to
know) ; triste vale, a sad farewell; hoc ipsum diu, this very " long."
34. Many nouns may be either masculine or feminine, accord-
ing to the sex of the object. These are said to be of Common
Gender: as, exsul, exile; b5s, ox or cow; parens, parent.
NOTE. Several names of animals have a grammatical gender, independent of sex.
These are called epicene. Thus lepus, hare, is always masculine, and vulpes, fox, is
always feminine.
16 DECLENSION OF NOUNS [ 35-37
NUMBER AND CASE
35. Nouns, Pronouns, Adjectives, and Participles are declined
in two Numbers, singular and plural; and in six Cases, nomina-
tive, genitive, dative, accusative, ablative, vocative.
a. The Nominative is the case of the Subject of a sentence.
b. The Genitive may generally be translated by the English Possessive,
or by the Objective with the preposition of.
c. The Dative is the case of the Indirect Object ( 274). It may usually
be translated by the Objective with the preposition to or for.
d. The Accusative is the case of the Direct Object of a verb ( 274). It
is used also with many of the prepositions.
e. The Ablative may usually be translated by the Objective with from,
by, with, in, or at. It is often used with prepositions.
/. The Vocative is the case of Direct Address.
g* All the cases, except the nominative and vocative, are used as object-
cases ; and are sometimes called Oblique Cases (cams obllqui).
h. In names of towns and a few other words appear traces of another
case (the Locative), denoting the place ivhere : as, Romae, at Rome ; run, in
the country.
NOTE. Still another case, the Instrumental, appears in a few adverbs ( 215. 4).
DECLENSION OF NOUNS
36. Declension is produced by adding terminations originally significant to differ-
ent forms of stems, vowel or consonant. The various phonetic corruptions in the lan-
guage have given rise to the several declensions. Most of the case-endings, as given
in Latin, contain also the final letter of the stem.
Adjectives are, in general, declined like nouns, and are etymologically to be classed
with them ; but they have several peculiarities of inflection (see 109 ff .) .
37. Nouns are inflected in five Declensions, distinguished by
the final letter (characteristic) of the Stem, and by the case-ending
of the Genitive Singular.
DKCL. 1 CHARACTERISTIC a GEN. SING, ae
2 6 I
3 i or a Consonant la
4 u us
5 e el
a. The Stem of a noun may be found, if a consonant stem, by omitting
the case-ending ; if a vowel stem, by substituting for the case-ending the
characteristic vowel.
38, 39] CASE-ENDINGS OF THE FIVE DECLENSIONS
IT
38. The following are General Rules of Declension :
a. The Vocative is always the same as the Nominative, except in the
singular of nouns and adjectives in -us of the second declension, which have
-e in the vocative. It is not included in the paradigms, unless it differs
from the nominative.
b. In neuters the Nominative and Accusative are always alike, and in
the plural end in -5.
c. The Accusative singular of all masculines and feminines ends in -m ;
the Accusative plural in -s.
d. In the last three declensions (and in a few cases in the others) the
Dative singular ends in -I.
e. The Dative and Ablative plural are always alike.
/. The Genitive plural always ends in -um.
g. Final -i, -o, -u of inflection are always long ; final -a is short, except in
the Ablative singular of the first declension ; final -e is long in the first and
fifth declensions, short in the second and third. Final -is and -us are long in
plural cases.
Case-endings of the Five Declensions
39. The regular Case-endings of the. several declensions are
the following: l
DECL. I
NOM. -a
GEN. -ae
DAT. -ae
Ace. -am
ABL. -a
Voc. -a
DECL. II
M.
-US
N.
-um
-I
-o
-um -um
-o
-e -um
DECL. Ill
DECL.
IV
DECL. V
SINGULAR
M.,F. N.
1C.
N.
F.
-us
-U
-es
(modified stem)
-is
-I
m (-im) (like nom.)
-us
-Ul (-U) -U
-um -u
-ei (-e)
-ei(-e)
-em
-e(-i)
(like nom.) -us
-es
PLURAL
N.V. -ae -I -a
GEN. -arum -orum
D.AB. -is -Is
Ace. -as -OB -a
-es
-a, -la
-um, -ium
-ibus
-es (-is) -a, -ia
-us -ua -es
-uum -erum
-ibus (-ubus) -ebus
-us
-ua -es
1 For ancient, rare, and Greek forms (which are here omitted) , see under the
several declensions.
18 DECLENSION OF NOUNS [ 40-43
FIRST DECLENSION (o-STEMS)
40. The Stem of nouns of the First Declension ends in a-. The
Nominative ending is -a (the stem-vowel shortened), except in
Greek nouns.
41. Latin nouns of the First Declension are thus declined :
stella, F., star
STEM stella-
SINGULAR CASE-ENDINGS
NOM. stella a star -a
GEN. stellae of a star -ae
DAT. stellae to or for a star -ae
Ace. stellam a star -am
ABL. stella with, from, by, etc. a star -a
PLURAL
NOM. stellae stars -ae
GEN. stellarum of stars -arum
DAT. stellis to or for stars -is
Ace. stellas stars -as
ABL. stellis with, from, by, etc. stars -Is
a. The Latin has no article ; hence stella may mean a star, the star, or
simply star.
Gender in the First Declension
42. Nouns of the first declension are Feminine.
Exceptions : Nouns masculine from their signification : as, nauta, sailor. So a
few family or personal names: as, Murena, Dolabella, Scaevola 1 ; also, Hadria, the
Adriatic.
Case-Forms in the First Declension
43. a. The genitive singular anciently ended in -a! (dissyllabic), which
is occasionally found : as, aulal. The same ending sometimes occurs in the
dative, but only as a diphthong.
1 Scaevola is really a feminine adjective, used as a noun, meaning little left hand;
but, being used as the name of a man (originally a nickname), it became masculine.
Original genders are often thus changed by a change in the sense of a noun.
43, 44]
FIRST DECLENSION (^1-STEMS)
19
6. An old genitive in -as is preserved in the word familias, often used in
the combinations pater (mater, fflius, fflia) familias, father, etc., of a family
(plur. patres familias or familiarum).
c. The Locative form for the singular ends in -ae ; for the plural in -is (cf .
p. 34, footnote): as, RSmae, at Rome ; Athenls, at Athens.
d. The genitive plural is sometimes found in -um instead of -arum, espe-
cially in Greek patronymics, as, Aeneadum, sons of ^Eneas, and in compounds
with -cola and -gena, signifying dwelling and descent : as, caelicolum, celes-
tials ; Troiugenum, sons of Troy ; so also in the Greek nouns amphora and
drachma.
e. The dative and ablative plural of dea, goddess, fflia, daughter, end in
an older form -abus (deabus, flliabus) to distinguish them from the corre-
sponding cases of deus, god, and fflius, son (deis, ffliis). So rarely with other
words, as, liberta, freed-woman; mula, she-mule; equa, mare. But, except
when the two sexes are mentioned together (as in formulas, documents,
etc.), the form in -Is is preferred in all but dea and fflia.
NOTE 1. The old ending of the ablative singular (-ad) is sometimes retained in
early Latin : as, praidad, booty (later, praeda) .
NOTE 2. In the dative and ablative plural -eis for -Is is sometimes found, and -iis
(as in taeniis) is occasionally contracted to -is (taenis) ; so regularly in words in -aia (as,
Bals fromBaiae).
Greek Nouns of the First Declension
44. Many nouns of the First Declension borrowed from the
Greek are entirely Latinized (as, aula, court}', but others retain
traces of their Greek case-forms in the singular.
Electro, F.
NOM. Electra (-S)
GEN. Electrae
DAT. Electrae
Ace. Electram (-an)
ABL. ElectrS
Andromache, F.
NOM. Andromache (-a)
GEN. Andromache's (-ae)
DAT. Andromachae
Ace. Andromachin (-am)
ABL. AndromachS (-a)
Voc. AndromachS (-a) Aenea (-a)
synopsis, F.
art of music, F.
epitome
epitomes
epitomae
epitomgn
epitome
musica (-)
musicae (-s)
musicae
musicam (-Sn)
musica (-e)
jEneas, M.
Persian, M.
Aeneas
Aeneae
Perses (-a)
Persae
Aeneae
Persae
Aenean (-am)
Aenea
PersSn (-am)
Persi (-a)
Persa
20 DECLENSION OF NOUNS [44-46
Anchises, M. son of JEneas, M. comet, M.
NOM.
GEN.
Anchises
Anchlsae
Aeneades (-a)
Aeneadae
cometSs (-a)
cometae
DAT.
Anchisae
Aeneadae
cometae
Ace.
ABL.
Voc.
Anchlsen (-am)
Anchlse (-a)
Anchise (-a, -a)
Aeneaden
Aeneade (-a)
Aeneade (-a)
cometen (-am)
comets (-)
cometa
There are (besides proper names) about thirty-five of these words, several being
names of plants or arts : as, crambe, cabbage ; musice, music. Most have also regular
Latin forms: as, cometa ; but the nominative sometimes has the a long.
a. Greek forms are found only in the singular; the plural, when it
occurs, is regular : as, cometae, -arum, etc.
6. Many Greek nouns vary between the first, the second, and the third
declensions : as, Bootae (genitive of Bootes, -is), Thucydidas (accusative plu-
ral of Thucydides, -is). See 52. a and 81.
NOTE. The Greek accusative Scipiadam, from Sclpiades, descendant of the Scipios,
is found in Horace.
SECOND DECLENSION (0-STEMS)
45. The Stem of nouns of the Second Declension ends in 5- :
as, viro- (stern of vir, man), servo- (stem of servus or servos, slave),
bello- (stem of bellum, war).
a. The Nominative is formed from the stem by adding s in masculines
and feminines, and m in neuters, the vowel 5 being weakened to fi (see
6. a, 46. N. 1 ).
6. In most nouns whose stem ends in r5- the s is not added in the Nomi-
native, but o is lost, and e intrudes before r, 1 if not already present : as,
ager, stem agrS- 2 ; cf . puer, stem puero-.
Exceptions : erus, hesperus, iuniperus, morus, numerus, taurus, umerus, uterus,
virus, and many Greek nouns.
c. The stem-vowel 5 has a variant form e, 3 which is preserved in the
Latin vocative singular of nouns in -us : as, servS, vocative of servus, slave.
NOTE. In composition this 5 appears as i. Thus, belli-ger, warlike (from bello/ e -,
stem of bellum, war).
46. Nouns of the Second Declension in -us (-os) and -um (-om)
are thus declined :
1 Compare the English chamber from French chambre.
2 Compare Greek aypbs, which shows the original o of the stem.
8 By so-called Ablaut (see 17. a).
46, 47]
SECOND DECLENSION (0-STEMS)
21
servus, M., slave
STEM servo-
bellum, N., war
STEM bello-
Pompeius, M., Pompey
STEM Pompeio-
SlKGULAR
CASE-ENDINGS
NOM.
servus (-os)
-us (-os)
bellum
GEN.
servi
-I
belli
DAT.
servo
-6
bello
Ace.
servum (-om)
-um (-om)
bellum
ABL.
servo
-6
bello
Voc.
serve
-e
bellum
CASE-ENDINGS
-um Pompelus
-I Pompgi
-6 Pompeio
-um Pompeium
-5 Pompgio
-um PompeT (-ei)
NOM.
GEN.
DAT.
Ace.
ABL.
servi
servorum
servis
servos
servis
PLURAL
-I
bella
-a
Pompgi
-orum
bellorum
-orum
Pompeiorum
-is
bellis
-is
Pompeis
-6s
bella
-a
Pompeios
-Is
bellis
-is
Pompeis
NOTE 1. The earlier forms for nominative and accusative were -os, -om, and these
were always retained after u and v up to the end of the Republic. The terminations
s and m are sometimes omitted in inscriptions : as, Cornelio for Cornelios, Corneliom.
NOTE 2. Stems in quo-, like equo-, change qu to c before u. Thus, ecus (earlier
equos), equl, equo, ecum (earlier equom), eque. Modern editions disregard this principle.
47. Nouns of the Second Declension in -er and -ir are thus de-
clined :
NOM.
GEN.
DAT.
Ace.
ABL.
NOM.
GEN.
DAT.
Ace.
ABL.
puer, M., boy
STEM puero-
puer
pueri
puero
puerum
puero
pueri
puerorum
pueris
pueros
pueris
ager, M., field
STEM agro-
SINGULAR
ager
agri
agro
agrum
agr5
PLURAL
agri
agrorum
agris
agros
agris
vir, M., man
. STEM viro-
vir
viri
viro
virum
viro
viri
virorum
viris
viros
viils
CASE-ENDINGS
-i
-o
-um
-6
-i
-orum
-Is
-6s
-is
NOTE. When e belongs to the stem, as in puer, it is retained throughout ; other-
wise it appears only in the nominative and vocative singular, as in ager.
22 DECLENSION OF NOUNS [ 48, 49
Gender in the Second Declension
48. Nouns ending in -us (-os), -er, -ir, are Masculine ; those end-
ing in -um (-on) are Neuter.
Exceptions : Names of countries and towns in -us (-os) are Feminine : as,
Aegyptus, Corinthus. Also many names of plants and gems, with the following :
alvus, belly ; carbasus, linen (pi. carbasa, sails, N.) ; colus, distaff; humus, ground;
vannus, winnow ing -shovel.
Many Greek nouns retain their original gender : as, arctus (F. ) , the Polar Bear ;
methodus (F.), method.
a. The following in -us are Neuter ; their accusative (as with all neuters)
is the same as the nominative : pelagus, sea ; virus, poison ; vulgus (rarely
M.), the crowd. They are not found in the plural, except pelagus, which has
a rare nominative and accusative plural pelage.
NOTE. The nominative plural neuter cete, sea monsters, occurs; the nominative
singular cetus occurs in Vitruvius.
Case-Forms in the Second Declension
49. a. The Locative form of this declension ends for the singular in -I :
as, hum!, on the ground ; Corinthi, at Corinth ; for the plural, in -is : as,
Philippis, at Philippi (cf. p. 34, footnote).
&. The genitive of nouns in -ius or -ium ended, until the Augustan Age,
in a single -I : as, fill, of a son ; Pompei, of Pompey (Pompeius) ; but the
accent of the nominative is retained: as, ingS'ni, of genius.^
c. Proper names in -ius have -I in the vocative, retaining the accent of
the nominative : as, Vergi'li. So also, films, son ; genius, divine guardian : as,
audi, mi fill, hear, my son.
Adjectives in -ius form the vocative in -ie, and some of these are occa-
sionally used as nouns : as, Lacedaemonie, Spartan.
NOTE. Greek names in -Ius have the vocative -ie : as, Lyrcius, vocative Lyrcle.
d. The genitive plural often has -um or (after v) -om (cf. 6. a) instead
of -drum, especially in the poets : as, deum, superum, divom, of the gods;
virum, of men. Also in compounds of vir, and in many words of money,
measure, and weight : as, Sevirum, of the Seviri ; minimum, of coins ; iugerum,
of acres.
e. The original ending of the ablative singular (-6d) is sometimes found
in early Latin : as, Gnaivod (later, Gnaeo), Cneius.
f. Proper names in -aius, -eius, -6ius (as, Aurunculeius, B6I), are declined
like Pompeius.
1 The genitive in -ii occurs once in Virgil, and constantly in Ovid, but was probably
unknown to Cicero.
49-52] SECOND DECLENSION (O-STEMS) 23
g. Deus (M.), god, is thus declined :
SINGULAR PLURAL
NOM. deus dei(dii), di
GEN. del deorum, deum
DAT. deo dels (diis), dis
Ace. deum decs
ABL. deo dels (diis), dis
NOTB. The vocative singular of deus does not occur in classic Latin, but is said
to have been dee ; deus (like the nominative) occurs iu the Vulgate. For the genitive
plural, divum or divom (from divus, divine) is often used.
50. The following stems in ero-, in which e belongs to the stem,
retain the e throughout and are declined like puer ( 47) :
adulter, adulterer; gener, son-in-law; puer, boy ;
socer, father-in-law ; vesper, evening ; Liber, Bacchus.
Also, the adjective liber, free, of which liberi, children, is the plural ( 111. a),
and compounds in -fer and -ger (stem fero-, gero-) : as, lucifer, morning star ;
armiger, squire.
a. An old nominative socerus occurs. So vocative puere, boy, as if from
fpuerus (regularly puer).
It. Vir, man, has genitive viri ; the adjective satur, sated, has saturi ; ves-
per, evening, has ablative vespere (locative vesperi, in the evening).
c. Mulciber, Vulcan, has -berl and -bri in the genitive. The barbaric
names Hiber and Celtiber retain e throughout.
51. The following, not having e in the stem, insert it in the
nominative singular and are declined like ager ( 47) :
ager, field, stem agro- ; coluber, snake; magister, master;
aper, boar ; conger, sea eel ; minister, servant ;
arbiter, judge ; culter, knife ; oleaster, wild olive ;
auster, south wind; faber, smith; onager (-grus), wild ass;
cancer, crab; fiber, beaver; scomber (-brus), mackerel.
caper, goat; liber, book;
Greek Nouns of the Second Declension
52. Greek nouns of the Second Declension end in -os, -Os, mas-
culine or feminine, and in -on neuter.
They are mostly proper names and are declined as follows in
the Singular, the Plural, when found, being regular :
24 DECLENSION OP NOUNS [52-55
mythos, M. Athos, M. Delos, F. Ilion, N.
fable Athos Delos Ilium
SINGULAR
NOM. mythos Athos (-6) Delos Tlion
GEN. rnythi Atho (-1) Deli Ilii
DAT. mytho Atho Del5 Ilio
Ace. mython Athon (-um) Delon (-um) Ilion
ABL. mytho Atho Dels Ilio
Voc. mythe Athos Dele Ilion
a. Many names in -es belonging to the third declension have also a
genitive in -I: as, Thucydides, Thucydidi (compare 44. I).
b. Several names in -er have also a nominative in -us : as, Teucer or
Teucrus. The name Panthus has the vocative Panthu ( 81. 3).
c. The genitive plnral of certain titles of books takes the Greek ter-
mination -on : as, Georgicon, of the Georgics.
d. The termination -oe (for Greek -01) is sometimes found in the nomi-
native plural : as, Adelphoe, the Adelphi (a play of Terence).
e. Greek names in -eus (like Orpheus) have forms of the second and
third declensions (see 82).
THIRD DECLENSION (CONSONANT AND /-STEMS)
53. Nouns of the Third Declension end in a, e, I, 6, y, c, 1, n,
r, s, t, K.
54. Stems of the Third Declension are classed as follows :
Mute stems.
Liquid and Nasal stems.
f a. Pure i-stems.
II. I-Stems < , , ,. , . ,
[ o. Mixed i-stems.
55. The Nominative is always derived from the stem.
The variety in form in the Nominative is due to simple modi-
fications of the stem, of which the most important are
1. Combination of final consonants : as of c (or g) and s to form x ; dux,
duels, stem due-; rex, regis, stem reg-.
2. Omission of a final consonant : as of a final nasal ; Ie5, leonis, stem
leon-; oratio, Srationis, stem oration-.
3. Omission of a final vowel : as of final i ; calcar, calcaris, stem calcari-.
4. Change of vowel in the final syllable : as of a to e ; princeps (for -caps),
principis, stem princip- (for -cap-).
I. Consonant Stems \ .
\b.
56, 57] THIRD DECLENSION: CONSONANT STEMS
25
CONSONANT STEMS
Mute Stems
56. Masculine and Feminine Nouns with mute stems form the
Nominative by adding s to the stem.
A labial (p) is retained before s : as, prlncep-s.
A lingual (t, d) is dropped before s : as, miles (stem milit-), custos (stem
custod-).
A palatal (c, g) unites with s to form x : as, dux (for fduc-s), rex (for
freg-s).
a. In dissyllabic stems the final syllable often shows e in the nomina-
tive and i in the stem : as, princeps, stem prlncip- (for -cap-).
57. Nouns of this class are declined as follows :
princeps, c., chief
STEM princip-
NOM. princeps
GEN. principis
DAT. principl
Ace. principem
ABL. prlncipe
NOM.
GEN.
DAT.
Ace.
ABL.
principes
principum
principibus
principes
principibus
radix, F., root
STEM radlc-
SINGULAR
radix
radicis
radici
radicem
radice
PLURAL
radices
radicum
radieibus
radices
radicibus
miles, M., soldier
STEM milit-
CASE-ENDINGS
miles
-S
militis
-is
militl
-I
militem
-em
milite
-e
milites
militum
mllitibus
milites
militibus
-es
-um
-ibus
-es
-ibus
custos, e., guard
STEM custod-
NOM. custos
GEN. custodis
DAT. custodl
Ace. custodem
ABL. ciistode
dux, c., leader
STEM duc-
SlNGULAR
dux
ducis
duel
ducem
duce
rex, M., king
STEM reg-
OASE-KNDING8
rex
-8
regis
-is
regl
-I
regem
-em
rege
-e
26
DECLENSION OF NOUNS
[ 67-60
NOM. custodes
GEN. custodum
DAT. custodibus
Ace. custodes
ABL. custodibus
PLURAL
duces
ducum
ducibus
duces
ducibus
rgges
regum
regibus
reggs
regibus
3
-um
-ibus
-es
-ibus
a. In like manner are declined
aries, -etis (M.), ram; comes, -itis (c.), companion; lapis, -idis (M.), stone;
iudex, -icis (M.), judge; comix, -Icis (F.), raven, and many other nouns.
58. Most mute stems are Masculine or Feminine. Those that
are neuter have for the Nominative the simple stem. But,
a. Lingual Stems (t, d) ending in two consonants drop the final mute :
as, cor (stem cord-), lac (stem lact-). So also stems in at- from the Greek :
as, poema (stem poemat-).
b. The stem capit- shows u in the nominative (caput for fcapot).
59. Nouns of this class are declined as follows :
cor, N.-, heart caput, N., head poema, N., poem
STEM cord- STEM capit- STEM poemat-
NOM. cor
GEN. cordis
DAT. cordi
Ace. cor
ABL. corde
NOM. corda
GEN.
DAT. cordibus
Ace. corda
ABL. cordibus
SINGULAR
caput poema
capitis poematis
capiti poemati
caput poema
capite poemate
CASE-ENDINGS
PLURAL
capita
capitum
capitibus
capita
capitibus
poemata
poematum
poematibus
poemata
poematibus
-is
-I
-a
-um
-ibus
-a
-ibus
60. The following irregularities require notice :
a. Greek neuters with nominative singular in -a (as poema) frequently
end in -is in the dative and ablative plural, and rarely in -orum in the geni-
tive plural ; as, poematis (for poematibus), poematorum (for poematum).
6. A number of monosyllabic nouns with mute stems want the geni-
tive plural (like cor). See 103. g. 2.
61,62] THIRD DECLENSION: CONSONANT STEMS
27
Liquid and Nasal Stems (/, , r)
61. In Masculine and Feminine nouns with liquid and nasal
stems the Nominative is the same as the stem.
Exceptions are the following :
1. Stems in on- drop n in the nominative : as in legio, stem legion-.
2. Stems in din- and gin- drop n and keep an original 6 in the nominative : as
in virgo, stem virgin-. 1
3. Stems in in- (not din- or gin-) retain n and have e instead of i in the nom-
inative : as in cornicen, stem cornicin-. 1
4. Stems in tr- have -ter in the nominative : as, pater, stem patr-. 3
62. Nouns of this class are declined as follows :
consul, M., consul leo, M., lion virgo, r., maiden pater, M., father
STEM consul- STEM Icon- STEM virgin- STEM patr-
SlNGULAB
CASE-ENDINGS
NOM. consul
GEN. consults
DAT. consul!
Ace. consulem
ABL. consuls
NOM. consulgs
GEN. consulum
DAT. consulibus
Ace. consules
ABL. consulibus
NOTE 1. Stems in 11-, rr- (N.) lose one of their liquids in the nominative: as, far,
f arris; mel, mellis.
NOTE 2. A few masculine and feminine stems have a nominative in -s as well as
in -r: as, honos or honor, arbos or arbor.
NOTE 3. Canis, dog, and iuvenis, youth, have -is in the nominative.
1 These differences depend in part upon special phonetic laws, in accordance with
which vowels in weakly accented or unaccented syllables are variously modified, and
in part upon the influence of analogy.
2 These, no doubt, had originally ter- in the stem, but this had become weakened
to tr- in some of the cases even in the parent speech. In Latin only the nominative and
vocative singular show the e. But cf . Maspitris and Maspiteris (Ma[r]s-piter), quoted by
Priscian as old forms.
leo
virgo
pater
leonis
virginis
patris
-is
leoni
virgin!
patri
-I
Icon em
virgin em
patrem
-em
leone
virgine
patre
-e
PLURAL
leones
virgines
patres
-es
leonum
virginum
patrum
-um
leonibus
virginibus
patribus
-ibus
leones
virgines
patres
-es
leonibus
virginibus
patribus
-ibus
DECLENSION OF NOUNS
63-65
63. In Neuter nouns with liquid or nasal stems the Nomina-
tive is the same as the stem.
Exceptions: 1. Stems in in- have e instead of i in the nominative: as in
nomen, stem nomin-.
2. Most stems in er- and or- have -us in the nominative : as, genus, stem gener-. 1
64. Nouns of this class are declined as follows :
nomen, N., name genus, N., race corpus, N., body aequor, N., sea
STEM nomin- STEM gener- STEM corpor- STEM aequor-
SINGULAR
NOM. nomen genus corpus aequor
GEN. nominis generis corporis aequoris
DAT. nomini genen corpori aequori
Ace. nomen genus corpus aequor
ABL. nomine genere corpore aequore
PLURAL
NOM.
nomina
genera
corpora
aequora
GEN.
nominum
generum
corporum
aequorum
DAT.
nominibus
generibus
corporibus
aequoribus
Ace.
nomina
genera
corpora
aequora
ABL.
nominibus
generibus
corporibus
aequoribus
So also are declined opus, -eris, work; pignus, -eris or -oris, pledge, etc.
NOTE. The following real or apparent liquid and nasal stems have the genitive
plural in -ium, and are to be classed with the i-stems : imber, linter, uter, venter ; glis,
mas, mus, [fren] ; also vires (plural of vis: see 79).
65. Nouns of this class include
1. Pure i-Stems :
a. Masculine and Feminine parisyllabic 2 nouns in -is and four in -er.
6. Neuters in -e, -al, and -ar.
2. Mixed i-Stems, declined in the singular like consonant stems,
in the plural like i-stems.
1 These were originally s-stems (cf . 15. 4) .
2 I.e. having the same number of syllables in the nominative and genitive singular,
66-68]
THIRD DECLENSION: PURE /-STEMS
29
Pure *-Stems
66. Masculine and Feminine parisyllabic nouns in -is form the
Nominative singular by adding s to the stem.
Four stems in bri- and tri- do not add s to form the nominative, but drop i
and insert e before i. These are imber, linter, uter, venter.
67. Nouns of this class are declined as follows :
sitis, F., thirst
STEM siti-
turris, F., tower
STEM turri-
NOM.
GEN.
DAT.
Ace.
ABL.
Ignis, si., ./ire
STEM igni-
SlNGULAR
NOM.
sitis
turris
Ignis
GEN.
sitis
turris
ignis
DAT.
sitl
turn
Ignl
Ace.
sitim
turrim (-em)
ignem
ABL.
sitl
turn (-e)
Igni (-e)
PLURAL
turres
turrium
turribus
turris (-es)
turribus
ignes
Ignium
Ignibus
Ignis (-es)
Ignibus
imber, M., rain
STEM imbri-
imber
imbris
imbri
imbrem
imbri (-e)
imbres
imbrium
imbribus
imbris (-es)
imbribus
68. In Neuters the Nominative is the same as the stem, with
final i changed to e : as, mare, stem mari-. But most nouns l in
which the i of the stem is preceded by al or ar lose the final vowel
and shorten the preceding a : as, animal, stem animali-. 2
a. Neuters in -e, -al, and -ar have -I in the ablative singular, -ium in the
genitive plural, and -ia in the nominative and accusative plural : as, animal,
animali, -ia, -ium.
1 Such are animal, bacchanal, bidental, capital, cervical, cubital, lupercal, minutal,
puteal, quadrantal, toral, tribunal, vectigal ; calcar, cochlear, exemplar, lacunar, laquear,
lucar, luminar, lupanar, palear, pulvlnar, torcular. Cf. the plurals dentalia, frontalia,
genualia, sponsalia ; altaria, plantaria, specularia, talaria ; also many names of festivals,
as, Saturnalia.
2 Exceptions are augurale, collare, focale, navale, penetrate, lamale, scutale, tibiale;
alveare, capillare, cochleare.
30
DECLENSION OF NOUNS
-71
69. Nouns of this class are declined as follows :
sedile, N. , seat animal, N. , animal calcar, N. , spur
STEM sedili- STEM animali- STEM calcari-
SINGULAR
NOM.
sedile
animal
calcar
GEN.
sedilis
animalis
calcaris
DAT.
sedlli
animali
calcari
Ace.
sedile
animal
calcar
ABL.
sedili
animali
calcari
PLURAL
NOM.
sedllia
animalia
calcaria
GEN.
sedllium
animalium
calcarium
DAT.
sedilibus
animalibus
calcaribus
Ace.
sedllia
animalia
calcaria
ABL.
sedilibus
animalibus
calcaribus
CASE-ENDINGS
-e or
-is
-1
-e or
-I
-ia
-ium
-ibus
-ia
-ibua
Mixed /-Stems
70. Mixed i-stems are either original i-stems that have lost their
i-forms in the singular, or consonant stems that have assumed i-
forms in the plural.
NOTE. It is sometimes impossible to distinguish between these two classes.
71. Mixed i-stems have -em in the accusative and -e in the abla-
tive singular, -ium in the genitive l and -is or -gs in the accusative
plural. They include' the following :
1. Nouns in -es, gen. -is. 2
2. Monosyllables in -s or -x preceded by a consonant: as, ars, pons, arx.
3. Polysyllables in -ns or -rs : as, cliens, Conors.
4. Nouns in -tas, genitive -tatis (genitive plural usually -um) * : as, civitas.
5. Penates, optimates, and nouns denoting birth or abode (patriots) in -as,
-is, plural -ates, -ites : as, Arpinas, plural Arpmates; Quiris, plural Quirites.
6. The following monosyllables in -s or -x preceded by a vowel : dos,
fraus, glis, Us, mas, mus, nix, nox, strix, vis.
1 There is much variety in the practice of the ancients, some of these words having
-ium, some -um, and some both.
2 These are acmaces, aedes, alces, caedes, caTites, clades, compages, contages, fames,
feles, fides (plural), indoles, labes, lues, meles, mSles, nubes, palumbes, pr51es, propages,
pubes, sedes, saepes, sordes, strages, strues, suboles, tabes, torques, tudes, vat6s, vehes,
vepres, verres, vulpes ; aedes has also nominative aedis.
72-75] THIRD DECLENSION: MIXED I-STEMS
72. Nouns of this class are thus declined :
nubes, F., cloud urbs, F., city nox, F., night cliens, M., client
STEM nub(i)- STEM urb(i)- STEM noct(i)- STEM client(i)-
SlNGULAR
NOM. nubgs
GEN. nubis
DAT. nubi
Ace. nubem
ABL. nube
urbs
urbis
urbl
urbem
urbe
cliens
clientis
client!
clientem
cliente
31
aetas, F., age
STEM aetat(i)-
aetas
aetatis
aetati
aetatem
aetate
PLURAL
NOM.
nubes
urbes
noctes
clientes
aetates
GEN.
nubium
urbium
noctium
clientium l
aetatum 2
DAT.
nubibus
urbibus
noctibus
clientibus
aetatibus
Ace.
ABL.
nubis(-es)
nubibus
urbls(-es)
urbibus
noctis(-es)
noctibus
clientis (-es)
clientibus
aetatis (-es)
aetatibus
Summary of *-Stems
73. The i-declension was confused even to the Romans themselves, nor was it stable
at all periods of the language, early Latin having i-forms which afterwards disap-
peared. There was a tendency in nouns to lose the i-forms, in adjectives to gain them.
The nominative plural (-is) 3 was most thoroughly lost, next the accusative singular
(-im) , next the ablative (-1) ; while the genitive and accusative plural (-ium, -is) were
retained in almost all.
74. I-stems show the i of the stem in the following forms :
a. They have the genitive plural in -ium (but some monosyllables lack
it entirely). For a few exceptions, see 78.
It. All neuters have the nominative and accusative plural in -ia.
c. The accusative plural (M. or F.) is regularly -Is.
d. The accusative singular (M. or F.) of a few ends in -im ( 75).
e> The ablative singular of all neuters, and of many masculines and
feminines, ends in -I (see 76).
75. The regular case-ending of the Accusative singular of i-
stems (M. or F.) would be -im : as, sitis, sitim (cf . stella, -am ; servus,
-um); but in most nouns this is changed to -em (following the
consonant declension).
i Rarely clientum. 2 Also aetatium. Cf. 71. 4.
8 An old, though not the original, ending (see p. 32, footnote 21,
32 DECLENSION OF NOUNS [76-78
a. The accusative in -im is found exclusively
1. In Greek nouns and in names of rivers.
2. In buris, cucumis, ravis, sitis, tussis, vis.
3. In adverbs in -tim (being accusative of nouns in -tis), as, partim ; and in
amussim.
ft. The accusative in -im is found sometimes in febris, puppis, restis,
turris, securis, sementis, and rarely in many other words.
76. The regular form of the Ablative singular of i-stems would
be -I : as, sitis, siti ; but in most nouns this is changed to -e.
a. The ablative in -I is found exclusively
1. In nouns having the accusative in -im ( 75) ; also securis.
2. In the following adjectives used as nouns : aequalis, annalis, aqualis, con-
sularis, gentllis, molaris, primipilaris, tribulis.
3. In neuters in -e, -al, -ar : except baccar, iubar, rete, and sometimes mare.
b. The ablative in -I is found sometimes
1. In avis, clavis, febris, finis, ignis, 1 imber, lux, navis, ovis, pelvis, puppis,
sementis, strigilis, turris, and occasionally in other words.
2. In the following adjectives used as nouns : affinis, bipennis, canalis, famili-
aris, natalis, rivalis, sapiens, tridens, triremis, vocalis.
NOTE 1. The ablative of fames is always fame ( 105. e). The defective mane has
sometimes mini ( 103. b. N.) as ablative.
NOTE 2. Most names of towns in -e (as, Praeneste, Tergeste) and Soracte, a moun-
tain, have the ablative in -e. Caere has Caerete.
NOTE 3. Canis and Mivenis have cane, iuvene.
77. The regular Nominative plural of i-stems is -es, 2 but -Is is
occasionally found. The regular Accusative plural -is is common,
but not exclusively used in any word. An old form for both
cases is -Ss (diphthong).
78. The following have -um (not -ium) in the genitive plural :
1. Always, canis, iuvenis, 3 ambages, mare (once only, otherwise want-
ing), volucris ; regularly, sedes, rates.
2. Sometimes, apis, caedes, clades, mensis, strues, suboles.
3. Very rarely, patrials in -as, -atis; -is, -itis ; as, Arpinas. Arpinatum;
Samms, Sammtum.
1 Always hi the formula aqua et Igni interdlci ( 401).
2 The Indo-European ending of the nominative plural, -6s (preserved in Greek in
consonant stems, as 6prv%, 6prvy-s), contracts with a stem- vowel and gives -e"s in the
Latin i-declension (cf. the Greek plural &ts). This -es was extended to consonant
stems in Latin. 8 Canis and iuvenis are really n-stems.
79]
THIRD DECLENSION: IRREGULAR NOUNS
33
Irregular Nouns of the Third Declension
79. In many nouns the stem is irregularly modified in the nomi-
native or other cases. Some peculiar forms are thus declined :
bos, c.
ox, cow
NOM. bos
GEN. bSvis
DAT. bovi
Ace. bovem
ABL. bove
senex, M. caro, F.
old man flesh
SINGULAR
OS, N.
bone
vis, F.
force
senex
caro
03
via
senis
carnis
ossis
vis (rare)
sen!
earn!
OSSl
v! (rare)
senem
camera
OS
vim
sene
came
osse
VI
cattle
JTL.I
(JKAL.
strength
NOM.
boves
senes
car-ngs
ossa
vires
GEN.
bourn
senum
carnium
ossium
virium
DAT.
Ace.
ABL.
bobus (bubus)
bovgs
bobus (bubus)
senibus
senes
senibus
carnibus
carnes
carnibus
ossibus
ossa
ossibus
viribus
vlrls (-es)
viribus
sus, c.
swine
NOM. sus
GEN. suis
DAT. sul
Ace. suem
ABL. sue
luppiter, M.
Jupiter
SINGULAR
luppiter 1
lovis
lovi
lovem
love
nix, F.
snow
nvis
riivi
nivem
nive
iter, N.
march
iter
itineris
itineri
iter
itinere
NOM. sues
GEN. suum
DAT. subus (suibus)
Ace. sus
ABL. subus (suibus)
nives
nivium
nivibus
nives
nivibus
itinera
itinerum
itineribus
itinera
itineribus
1 Also lupiter.
34 DECLENSION OF NOUNS [ 79-81
a. Two vowel-stems in u-, gru- and su-, which follow the third declension,
add 3 in the nominative, and are inflected like mute stems : grus has also
a nominative gruis ; sus has both suibus and subus in the dative and ablative
plural, grus has only gruibus.
b. In the stem bov- (bou-) the diphthong ou becomes 6 in the nominative
(bos, boVis).
In nav- (nau-) an i is added (navis, -is), and it is declined like turris ( 67).
In I5v- (= Zevs) the diphthong (ou) becomes u in lu-piter (for -pSter),
genitive I6Vis, etc. ; but the form luppiter is preferred.
c. In iter, itineris (N.), iecur, iecinoris (iecoris) (N.), supellex, supellectilis
(F.), the nominative has been formed from a shorter stem ; in senez, senis,
from a longer ; so that these words show a combination of forms from two
distinct stems.
d. In nix, nivis the nominative retains a g from the original stem, the g
uniting with s, the nominative ending, to form x. In the other cases the
stem assumes the form niv- and it adds i in the genitive plural.
e. Vas (N.), vasis, keeps s throughout ; plural vasa, vasorum. A dative
plural vasibus also occurs. There is a rare singular vasum.
The Locative Case
80. The Locative form for nouns of the third declension ends
in the singular in -I or -e, in the plural in -ibus : as, run, in the
country; Carthagini or Carthagine, at Carthage; Trallibus, at Tralles. 1
Greek Nouns of the Third Declension
81. Many nouns originally Greek mostly proper names
retain Greek forms of inflection. So especially
1. Genitive singular in -os, as, tigridos.
2. Accusative singular in -a, as, aethera.
3. Vocative singular like the stem, as, Pericle, Orpheu, Atla.
4. Nominative plural in -es, as, heroes.
5. Accusative plural in -as, as, heroas.
1 The Indo-European locative singular ended in -I, which became -S in Latin. Thus
the Latin ablative in -e is, historically considered, a locative. The Latin ablative in
-I (from -id) was an analogical formation (cf. -a from -ad, -o from -od), properly belong-
ing to i-stems. With names of towns and a few other words, a locative function was
ascribed to forms in -I (as, Carthagini) , partly on the analogy of the real locative of
o-stems (as, Corinthi, 49. a) ; but forms in - also survived in this use. The plural
-bus is properly dative or ablative, but in forms like Trallibus it has a locative func-
tion. Cf . Philippis ( 49. a), in which the ending -is is, historically considered, either
locative, or instrumental, or both, and Athems ( 43. c), in which the ending is formed
on the analogy of o-stems.
82, 83]
THIRD DECLENSION: GREEK NOUNS
NOM.
heros
lampas
GEN.
herois
lampados
DAT.
heroi
lampadi
Ace.
heroa
lampada
ABL.
heroe
lampade
82. Some of these forms are seen in the following examples :
herds, M., hero lampas, F., torch basis, F., base tigris, c., tiger nais, F., naiad
STEM hero- STEM lampad- STEM basi- STEM { *" " STEM naid-
l tign-
SINGULAR
basis tigris nais
baseos tigris(-idos) naidos
basi tigrl naidi
basin tigrin(-ida) naida
basi tigri(-ide) naide
PLURAL
NOM. herofe's lampadgs bases tigres nfiides
GEN. heroum lampadum basium(-eon) tigrium naidum
D.jA. 1 heroibus lampadibus basibus tigribus naidibus
Ace. heroas lampadas basis(-eis) tigris(-idas) naidas
Capys
Capyos
Capyi
Capyn
Capye
Capy
Paris
Paridis
Paridi
f Paridem,
[ Parim(-in)
Paride, Pari
Pari
NOTE. The regular Latin forms may be used for most of the above.
83. Other peculiarities are the following :
a. Delphimis, -I (M.), has also the form delphm, -inis ; Salamls, -is (F.),
has ace. Salamina.
b. Most stems in id- (nom. -is) often have also the forms of i-stems : as,
tigris, gen. -idis (-idos) or -is ; ace. -idem (-ida) or -im (-in) ; abl. -ide or -I.
But many, including most feminine proper names, have ace. -idem (-ida).
abl. -ide, not -im or -I. (These stems are irregular also in Greek.)
PROPER NAMES
NOM.
Dido
Simols
GEN.
DAT.
Ace.
ABL.
Voc.
Dldonis(Dldus)
Didoni(Dld6)
Didonem(-6)
Didone(-6)
Dido
Simoentis
Simoenti
Simoenta
Simoente
Simols
NOM.
GEN.
DAT.
Orpheus
Orphei(-eos)
Orphei(-eo)
Pericles
Periclis(-i)
Pericli(-i)
Ace.
Orphea(-um)
Periclem(-ea, -en)
ABL.
Voc.
Orpheo
Orpheu
Pericle
Pericles(-S)
Dative, heroisin (once only).
36 DECLENSION OF NOUNS [83-86
c. Stems in on- sometimes retain -n in the nominative : as, Agamem-
non (or Agamemno), genitive -finis, accusative -Sna.
d. Stems in ont- form the nominative in -on : as, horizon, Xenophon ;
but a few are occasionally Latinized into on- (nom. -o) : as, Draco, -onis ;
Antipho, -onis.
e. Like Simois are declined stems in ant-, ent-, and a few in unt- (nomi-
native in -as, -is, -us) : as, Atlas, -antis ; Trapezus, -untis.
/. Some words fluctuate between different declensions : as Orpheus be-
tween the second and the third.
g, -5n is found in the genitive plural in a few Greek titles of books : as,
Metamorphoseon, of the Metamorphoses (Ovid's well-known poem); Georgicon,
of the Georgics (a poem of Virgil).
Gender in the Third Declension
84. The Gender of nouns of this declension must be learned
by practice and from the Lexicon. Many are masculine or femi-
nine by nature or in accordance with the general rules for gen-
der (p. 15). The most important rules for the others, with their
principal exceptions, are the following : 1
85. Masculine are nouns in -or, -os, -er, -6s (gen. -itis), -ex (gen.
-icis): as, color, flos, imber, gurges (gurgitis), vertex (verticis).
Exceptions are the following :
a. Feminine are arbor ; c5s, d5s ; linter.
6. Neuter are ador, aequor, cor, marmor ; 5s (oris) ; also os (ossis) ;
cadaver, iter, tuber, uber, ver; and names of plants and trees in -er: as,
acer, papaver.
86. Feminine are nouns in -6, -as, -es, -is, -us, -x, and in -s preceded
by a consonant : as, legio, civitas, nubSs, avis, virtus, arx, urbs. The
nouns in -o are mostly those in -d5 and -go, and abstract and collec-
tive nouns in -15.
Exceptions are the following :
a. Masculine are Ie5, leonis ; ligo, onis ; sermo, -onis ; also cardo, harpagS,
margo, ordo, turbo ; and concrete nouns in -io : as, pugio, unio, papilio ; 2
aclnaces, aries, celes, lebes, paries, pes ;
1 Some nouns of doubtful or variable gender are omitted.
2 Many nouns in -6 (gen. -onis) are masculine by signification: as, ger5, carrier;
restio, ropemaker ; and family names (originally nicknames) : as, Cicero, Naso, See
236. c, 255.
86-89]
FOURTH DECLENSION
37
Nouns in -nis and -guis : as, ignis, sanguis ; also axis, caulis, collis, cucumis,
ensis, fascis, follis, fustis, lapis, mensis, orbis, piscis, postis, pulvis, vomis ;
mus;
calix, fornix, grex, phoenix, and nouns in -ex (gen. -icis) ( 85);
dens, ions, mons, pons.
NOTE. Some nouns in -is and -ns which are masculine were originally adjectives
or participles agreeing with a masculine noun: ae, Aprilis (sc. mensis), M., April;
oriens (sc. sol), M., the east; annalis (sc. liber), M., the year-book.
b. Neuter are vas (vasis) ; crus, ius, pus, rus, tus.
87. Neuter are nouns in -a, -e, -1, -n, -ar, -ur, -tis : as, poe"ma, mare,
animal, nomen, calcar, robur, corpus ; also lac and caput.
Exceptions are the following :
a. Masculine are sal, s51, pecten, vultur, lepus.
b. Feminine is pecus (gen. -udis).
FOURTH DECLENSION
88. The Stem of nouns of the Fourth Declension ends in u-.
This is usually weakened to i before -bus. Masculine and Femi-
nine nouns form the nominative by adding s; Neuters have for
nominative the simple stem, but with u (long).
89. Nouns of the Fourth Declension are declined as follows :
manus, F., hand lacus, M., lake
STEM manu- STEM lacu-
genu, N., knee
STEM genu-
NOM.
GEN.
Ace.
ABL.
manus
mantis
inanurn
manu
NOM. manus
GEN. manuum
DAT. manibus
Ace. manus
ABL. manibus
lacus
lacus
DAT. manul(-u) lacui(-u)
lacum
laeu
SINGULAR
CASE-ENDINGS
-US
-us
-ui(-u)
-urn
-u
CASE-ENDINGS
genu
U
genus
-US
genu
-u
genii
-u
genu
-u
PLURAL
lacus -us genua -ua
lacuum -uum genuum -uum
lacubus -ibus(-ubus) genibus -ibus
lacus -us genua -ua
lacubus -ibus (-ub us) genibus -ibus
38 DECLENSION OF NOUNS [ 90-93
Gender in the Fourth Declension
90. Most nouns of the Fourth Declension in -us are Masculine.
Exceptions : The following are Feminine : acus, anus, colus, domus, idus (plural),
manus, nurus, porticus, qumquatrus (plural), socrus, tribus, with a few names of
plants and trees. Also, rarely, penus, specus.
91. The only Neuters of the Fourth Declension are cornu, genii,
pecu (105./), veru. 1
Case-Forms in the Fourth Declension
92. The following peculiarities in case-forms of the Fourth
Declension require notice :
a. A genitive singular in -I (as of the second declension) sometimes
occurs in nouns in -tus : as, senatus, genitive senati (regularly senatus).
6. In the genitive plural -uum is sometimes pronounced as one sylla-
ble, and may then be written -um : as, currum (Aen. vi. 653) for curruum.
c. The dative and ablative plural in -fibus are retained in partus and
tribus ; so regularly in artus and lacus, and occasionally in other words ;
portus and specus have both -ubus and -ibus.
d. Most names of plants and trees, and colus, distaff", have also forms of
the second declension : as, ficus, fig, genitive ficus or fici.
e. An old genitive singular in -uis or -uos and an old genitive plural in
-uom occur rarely : as, senatuis, senatuos ; fluctuom.
/. The ablative singular ended anciently in -ud (cf. 43. N. 1) : as,
magistratud.
93. Domus (F.), house, has two stems ending in u- and o-. Hence
it shows forms of both the fourth and second declensions :
SINGULAR PLUKAL
NOM. domus domus
GEN. domus (domi, loc.) domuum (domorum)
DAT. domui (domo) domibus
Ace. domum domos (domus)
ABL. domo (domu) domibus
NOTB 1. The Locative is domi (rarely domui), at home.
NOTE 2. The Genitive domi occurs in Plautus ; domorum is late or poetic.
1 A few other neuters of this declension are mentioned by the ancient grammarians
as occurring in certain cases.
94-96]
FIFTH DECLENSION (.E-STEMS)
39
94. Most nouns of the Fourth Declension are formed from
verb-stems, or roots, by means of the suffix -tus (-sus) ( 238. b) :
cantus, song, CAN, cano, sing ; casus (for tcad-tus), chance, CAD, cado, fall ;
exsulatus, exile, from exsulo, to be an exile (exsul).
a. Many are formed either from verb-stems not in use, or by analogy :
consulates (as if from tconsulo, -are), senatus, incestus.
b. The accusative and the dative or ablative of nouns in -tus (-sus) form
the Supines of verbs ( 159. ft) : as, spectatum, petitum ; dictu. visu.
c. Of many verbal derivatives only the ablative is used as a noun : as,
iussu (meo), by (my) command ; so iniussu (populi), without (the people's) order.
Of some only the dative is used : as, dmsui.
FIFTH DECLENSION (e-STEMS)
95. The Stem of nouns of the Fifth Declension ends in e-, which
appears in all the cases. The Nominative is formed from the stem
by adding s.
96. Nouns of the Fifth Declension are declined as follows :
res, F., thing
STEM re-
NOM. res
GEN. reT
DAT. rel
Ace. rem
ABL. r
dies, M. , day
STEM die-
SlNGULAR
dies
die! (die)
diei (die)
diem
die
fides, F. , faith
STEM fide-
fides
fidSI
fid6I
fidem
fide
CASE-ENDINGS
-es
-el(-e)
-el(-e)
-em
-g
NOM. rSs
GEN. rerum
DAT. rebus
Ace. res
ABL. rebus
PLURAL
dies
dierum
diebus
dies
diebus
-gs
-erum
-ebus
-es
-ebus
NOTE. The e of tlie stem is shortened in the genitive and dative singular of fides,
spes, res, but in these it is found long in early Latin. In the accusative singular e
is always short.
40 DECLENSION OF NOUNS [97-99
Gender in the Fifth Declension
97. All nouns of the Fifth Declension are Feminine, except
dies (usually M.), day, and meridies (M.), noon.
a. Dies is sometimes feminine in the singular, especially in phrases indi-
cating a fixed time, and regularly feminine when used of time in general:
as, constituta die, on a set day; longa dies, a long time.
Case-Forms in the Fifth Declension
98. The following peculiarities require notice :
a. Of nouns of the fifth declension, only dies and res are declined through-
out. Most want the plural, which is, however, found in the nominative or
accusative in acies, effigies, eluvies, fades, glades, series, species, spes. 1
b The Locative form of this declension ends in -e. It is found only in
certain adverbs and expressions of time :
hodie, to-day ; die quarto (old, quartl), the fourth day ;
perendie, day after to-morrow ; pridie, the day before.
c. The fifth declension is closely related to the first, and several nouns
have forms of both : as, materia, -ies ; saevitia, -ies. The genitive and dative
in -el are rarely found in these words.
(I. Some nouns vary between the fifth and the third declension : as,
requies, saties (also satias, genitive -atis), plebes (also plebs, genitive plebis),
fames, genitive famis, ablative fame.
NOTE. In the genitive and dative -el (-51) was sometimes contracted into -i:
as, tribunus plebdi, tribune of the people (plSbes). Genitives in -I and -e also occur:
as, dii (Aen. i. 636), plebi-scltum, acie (B. G. ii. 23). A few examples of the old geni-
tive in -es are found (cf . -as in the first declension, 43. 6) . The dative has rarely -e,
and a form in -I is cited.
DEFECTIVE NOUNS
Nouns wanting in the Plural
99. Some nouns are ordinarily found in the Singular number
only (singuldria tantum}. These are
1. Most proper names : as, Caesar. Caesar; Gallia, Gaul.
2. Names of things not counted, but reckoned in mass : as, aurum, gold :
aer, air; triticum, wheat.
3. Abstract nouns: as, ambitio, ambition; fortitude, courage; calor, heat.
1 The forms faciSrum, specierum, speciebus, sperum, spebus, are cited by grammarians,
also speres, speribus, and some of these occur in late authors.
100-102] DEFECTIVE NOUNS 41
100. Many of these nouns, however, are used in the plural in
some other sense.
a. The plural of a proper name may be applied to two or more persons
or places, or even things, and so become strictly common :
duodecim Caesares, the twelve CdBsars.
Galliae, the two Gauls (Cis- and Transalpine).
Castores, Castor and Pollux ; loves, images of Jupiter.
b. The plural of names of things reckoned in mass may denote particular
objects: as, aera, bronze utensils, nives, snowflakes; or different kinds of a thing :
as, acres, airs (good and bad).
c. The plural of abstract nouns denotes occasions or instances of the quality,
or the like :
quaedam excellentiae, some cases of superiority ; otia, periods of rest ; calores,
frigora, times of heat and cold.
Nouns wanting in the Singular
101. Some nouns are commonly or exclusively found in the
Plural (plurdlia tantum). Such are
1. Many names of towns : as, Athenae (Athens'), Thurii, PhilippI, Veil.
2. Names of festivals and games : as, Olympia, the Olympic Games; Baccha-
nalia, feast of Bacchus ; Qulnquatrus, festival of Minerva ; ludi Roman!, the
Roman Games.
3. Names of classes: as, optimates, the upper classes; maiores, ancestors;
liberi, children; penates, household gods; Quirites, citizens (of Rome).
4. Words plural by signification: as, arma, weapons; artus, joints; divi-
tiae, riches; scalae, stairs; valvae, folding-doors; fores, double-doors; angustiae,
a narrow pass (narrows) ; moenia, city walls.
NOTE 1. Some words, plural by signification in Latin, are translated by English
nouns in the singular number : as, deliciae, delight, darling; fauces, throat ; flds, lyre
(also singular in poetry) ; insidiae, ambush; cervices, neck; viscera, flesh.
NOTE 2. The poets often use the plural number for the singular, sometimes for
metrical reasons, sometimes from a mere fashion : as, ora (for 6s), the face ; sceptra (for
sceptrum), sceptre; silentia (for silentium), silence.
102. Some nouns of the above classes (101. 1-4), have a corre-
sponding singular, as noun or adjective, often in a special sense :
1. As noun, to denote a single object : as, Bacchanal, a spot sacred to
Bacchus; optimas, an aristocrat.
2. As adjective : as, Cat5 Maior, Cato the Elder.
3. In a sense rare, or found only in early Latin: as, scala, a ladder;
valva, a door; artus, a joint.
42 DECLENSION OF NOUNS [ 103
Nouns Defective in Certain Cases
103. Many nouns are defective in case-forms : 1
a. Indeclinable nouns, used only as nominative and accusative singular :
fas, nefas, Instar, nihil, opus (need), secus.
NOTE 1. The indeclinable adjective necesse is used as a nominative or accusative.
NOTE 2. The genitive nihili and the ablative nihilo (from nihilum, nothing) occur.
6. Nouns found in one case only (monoptotes) :
1. In the nominative singular: glos (F.).
2. In the genitive singular : dicis, nauci (N.).
3. In the dative singular : dlvisui (M.) (cf. 94. c).
4. In the accusative singular : amussim (M.) ; venum (dative veno in Tacitus).
5. In the ablative singular : pondo(N.); mane (N.) ; astu (M.), by craft; iussu,
iniussu, natu, and many other verbal nouns in -us (M.) ( 94. c).
NOTE. Mane is also used as an indeclinable accusative, and an old form man! is
used as ablative. PondS with a numeral is often apparently equivalent to pounds. A
nominative singular astus and a plural astus occur rarely in later writers.
6. In the accusative plural : mfitias.
c. Nouns found in two cases only (diptotes):
1. In the nominative and ablative singular : fors, forte (F.).
2. In the genitive and ablative singular : spontis (rare), sponte (F.).
3. In the accusative singular and plural : dicam, dicas (F.).
4. In the accusative and ablative plural : foras, foris (F.) (cf. fores), used as
adverbs.
cl. Nouns found in three cases only (triptotes) :
1. In the nominative, accusative, and ablative singular : impetus, -urn, -u (M.) 2 ;
lues, -em, -e (F.).
2. In the nominative, accusative, and dative or ablative plural : grates, -ibus (F) .
3. In the nominative, genitive, and dative or ablative plural : iugera, -um, -ibus
(N.) ; but iugerum, etc., in the singular (cf. 105. b).
e. Nouns found in four cases only (tetraptotes) :
In the genitive, dative, accusative, ablative singular: dicionis, -I, -em, -e (F.).
/. Nouns declined regularly in the plural, but defective in the singular :
1. Nouns found in the singular, in genitive, dative, accusative, ablative: frugis,
-1, -em, -e (F.) ; opis, -i (once only), -em, -e (F. nominative Ops as a divinity).
2. Nouns found in the dative, accusative, ablative: precl, -em, -e (P.).
3. Nouns found in the accusative and ablative : cassem, -e (F.) ; sordem, -e (F.).
4. Nouns found in the ablative only : ambage (F.) ; fauce (F.) ; obice (c.).
g. Nouns regular in the singular, defective in the plural :
1 Some early or late forms and other rarities are omitted.
2 The dative singular impetui and the ablative plural impetibus occur once each.
103-105] VARIABLE NOUNS 43
1. The following neuters have in the plural the nominative and accusative
only : fel (fella), far (farra), hordeum (hordea), ius, broth (iura), mel (mella), murmur
(murmura), pus (pura), rus (rura), tus or thus (tura).
NOTE. The neuter ius, right, has only iura in classical writers, but a very rare geni-
tive plural iurum occurs in old Latiu.
2. calx, cor, cos, crux, fax, faex, lanx, lux, nex, 6s (oris), 1 os (ossis), 2 pax, pix,
ros, sal, sol, vas (vadis), want the genitive plural.
3. Most nouns of the fifth declension want the whole or part of the plural
(see 98. a).
h* Nouns defective in both singular and plural :
1. Noun found in the genitive, accusative, ablative singular; nominative,
accusative, dative, ablative plural : vicis, -em, -e ; -es, -ibus.
2. Noun found in the genitive, dative, accusative, and ablative singular;
genitive plural wanting: dapis, -I, -em, -e; -es, -ibus. 8
VARIABLE NOUNS
104. Many nouns vary either in Declension or in Gender.
105. Nouns that vary in Declension are called hetero elites*
a. Colas (F.), distaff"; domus (F.), house (see 93), and many names
of plants in -us, vary between the Second and Fourth Declensions.
&. Some nouns vary between the Second and Third : as, iugerum, -I, -6,
ablative -6 or -e, plural -a, -um, -ibus ; Mulciber, genitive -beri and -beris ;
sequester, genitive -tri and -tris ; vas, vasis, and (old) vasum, -I ( 79. e).
c. Some vary between the Second, Third, and Fourth : as, penus, penum,
genitive peni and penoris, ablative penu.
d. Many nouns vary between the First and Fifth (see 98. c).
e. Some vary between the Third and Fifth. Thus, requies has geni-
tive -etis, dative wanting, accusative -etem or -em, ablative -e (once -etc) ;
fames, regularly of the third declension, has ablative fame ( 76. N. 1),
and pubes (M.) has once dative pube (in Plautus).
/. Pecus varies between the Third and Fourth, having pecoris, etc., but
also nominative pecu, ablative pecu ; plural pecua, genitive pecuum.
g. Many vary between different stems of the same declension : as, femur
(N.), genitive -oris, also -inis (as from ffemen); iecur (N.), genitive iecinoris,
iocinoris, iecoris ; munus (N.), plural munera and munia.
1 The ablative plural oribus is rare, the classical idiom being in ore omnium, in every-
body's mouth, etc., not in oribus omnium.
2 The genitive plural ossium is late ; ossuum (from ossua, plural of a neuter u-stem)
is early and late.
3 An old nominative daps is cited. ^
4 That is, "nouns of different inflections" (Irepos, another, and K\lvw, to inflect).
44
DECLENSION OF NOUNS
106, 107
106. Nouns that vary in Gender are said to be heterogeneous. 1
a. The following have a masculine form in -us and a neuter in -um :
balteus, caseus, clipeus, collum, cingulum, pileus, tergum, vallum, with many
others of rare occurrence.
b. The following have in the Plural a different gender from that of the
Singular :
balneae (F.), baths (an establishment).
caelos (M. ace., Lucr.).
carbasa (N.) (-orum), sails.
deliciae (F.), pet.
epulae (F.), feast.
frem (M.) or frena (N.), a bridle.
ioca (N.), ioci (M.), jests.
loca (N.), loci (M., usually topics, passages in books).
rastri (M.), rastra (N.), rakes.
balneum (N.), bath;
caelum (N.), heaven;
carbasus (F.), a sail;
delicium (N.), pleasure,
epulum (TV.), feast;
frenum (N.), a bit;
iocus (M.), a jest;
locus (M.), place;
rastrum (N.), a rake;
NOTE. Some of these nouns are heteroclites as well as heterogeneous.
107. Many nouns are found in
aedes, -is (F.), temple;
aqua (F.), water ;
auxilium (N.), help ;
bonum (N.), a good;
career (M.), dungeon;
castrum (N.), fort;
comitium (N.), place of assembly ;
copia (F.), plenty ;
fides (F.), harp-string ;
finis (M.), end;
fortuna (F.), fortune ;
gratia (F.), favor (rarely, thanks);
hot t us (M.), a garden;
impedimentum (N.) hindrance;
littera (F.), letter (of alphabet) ;
locus (M.), place [plural loca (N.)] ;
ludus (M.), sport;
mos (M.), habit, custom;
natalis (M.), birthday;
opera (F.), work;
[ops,] opis (F.), help ( 103. /. 1) ;
pars (F.), part;
rostrum (N.), beak of a ship;
sal (M. or N.), salt;
tabella (F.), tablet;
the Plural in a peculiar sense:
aedes, -ium, house.
aquae, mineral springs, a watering-place.
auxilia, auxiliaries.
bona, goods, property.
carceres, barriers (of race-course).
castra, camp.
comitia, an election (town-meeting).
copiae, stores, troops.
fides, lyre.
fines, bounds, territories.
fortunae, possessions.
gratiae, thanks (also, the Graces).
horti, pleasure-grounds.
impedimenta, baggage.
litterae, epistle, literature.
loci, 2 topics, places in books.
ludi, public games.
mores, character.
natales, descent, origin.
operae, day-laborers ("hands").
opes, resources, wealth.
partes, part (on the stage), party.
rostra, speaker's platform.
sales, witticisms.
tabellae, documents, records.
1 That is, "of different genders" (?repos, another, and 7^05, gender).
2 In early writers the regular plural.
108] NAMES OF PERSONS 45
NAMES OF PERSONS
108. A Roman had regularly three names: (1) the praenomen,
or personal name ; (2) the nomen, or name of the gens or house ,
(3) the cognomen, or family name :
Thus in Marcus Tullius Cicero we have
Marcus, the praenomen, like our Christian or given name ;
Tullius, the nomen, properly an adjective denoting of the Tullian gens (or
house) whose original head was a real or supposed Tullus ;
Cicero, the cdgndmen, or family name, often in origin a nickname, in this
case from cicer, a vetch, or small pea.
NOTE. When two persons of the same family are mentioned together, the cogno-
men is usually put in the plural : as, Publius et Servius Sullae.
a. A fourth or fifth name was sometimes given as a mark of honor or
distinction, or to show adoption from another gens.
Thus the complete name of Scipio the Younger was Publius Cornelius Scipio
Africanus Aemilianus : Africanus, from his exploits in Africa ; Aemilianus, as
adopted from the JLmilian gens. 1
NOTE. The Romans of the classical period had no separate name for these addi-
tions, but later grammarians invented the word agnomen to express them.
b. Women had commonly in classical times no personal names, but were
known only by the nomen of their gens.
Thus, the wife of Cicero was Terentia, and his daughter Tullia. A second
daughter would have been called Tullia secunda or minor, a third daughter, Tullia
tertia, and so on.
c. The commonest praenomens are thus abbreviated :
A. Aulus. L. Lucius. Q. Quintus.
App. (Ap.) Appius. M. Marcus. Ser. Servius.
C. (G.) Gaius (Cams) (cf. 1. a). M'. Manius. Sex. (S.)Sextus.
Cn. (Gn.) Gnaeus (Cneius). Mam. Mamercus. Sp. Spurius.
D. Decimus. N. (Num.) Numerius T. Titus.
K. Kaeso (Caeso). P. Publius. Ti. (Tib.) Tiberius.
NOTE 1. In the abbreviations C. and Cn., the initial character has the value of G
(l-a).
1 In stating officially the full name of a Roman it was customary to include the
praenomina of the father, grandfather, and great-grandfather, together with the name
of the tribe to which the individual belonged. Thus in an inscription we find M. TVL-
LIVS M. F. M. N. M. PR. COR. CICERO, i.e. Marcus Tullius Marci filius Marci nepos Marci pro-
nepos Cornelia tribu Cicer5. The names of grandfather and great-grandfather as well as
that of the tribe are usually omitted in literature. The name of a wife or daughter is
usually accompanied by that of the husband or father in the genitive : as, Postumia
Servi Sulpicii (Suet. lul. 50), Postumia, wife of Servius Sulpicius; Caecilia Metelli
(Div. i. 104), Caecilia, daughter of Metellus.
46 DECLENSION OF ADJECTIVES [ 109, 110
ADJECTIVES
109, Adjectives and Participles are in general formed and de-
clined like Nouns, differing from them only in their use.
1. In accordance with their use, they distinguish gender by different
forms in the same word, and agree with their nouns in gender, number, and
case. Thus,
bonus puer, the good boy.
bona puella, the good girl.
bonum donum, the good gift.
2. In their inflection they are either (1) of the First and Second Declen-
sions, or (2) of the Third Declension.
FIRST AND SECOND DECLENSIONS (- AND 0-STEMS)
110. Adjectives of the First and Second Declensions (a- and
o-stems) are declined in the Masculine like servus, puer, or ager;
in the Feminine like Stella ; and in the Neuter like bellum.
The regular type of an adjective of the First and Second Declen-
sions is bonus, -a. -um. which- is thus declined :
bonus, bona, bonum, good
NEUTER
STEM bono-
bonum
boni
bono
bonum
bono
bonum
PLURAL
NOM. bom bonae bona
GEN. bonorum bonarum bonorum
DAT. bonis boms boms
Ace. bonos bonas bona
ABL. bonia bonis bonis
MASCULINE
FEMININE
STEM bono-
STEM bona-
SlNGULAR
NOM.
bonus
bona
GEN.
boni
bonae
DAT.
bond
bonae
Ace.
bonum
bonam
ABL.
bono
bona
Voc.
bone
bona
110, 111] FIRST AND SECOND DECLENSIONS 47
NOTE. Stems in quo- have nominative -cus (-quos), -qua, -cum (-quom), accusative
-cum (-quom), -quam, -cum (-quom), to avoid quu- (see 6. b and 46. N. 2). Thus,
NOM. propincus (-quos) propinqua propincum (-quom)
GEN. propinqui propinquae propinqui, etc.
But most modem editions disregard this principle.
a. The Genitive Singular masculine of adjectives in -ius ends in -ii, and
the Vocative in -ie ; not in -I, as in nouns (cf . 49. b, c) ; as, Lacedaemonius,
-ii, -ie.
NOTE. The possessive meus, my, has the vocative masculine ml (cf. 145).
111. Stems ending in ro- preceded by e form the Nominative
Masculine like puer ( 47) and are declined as follows:
miser, misera, miserum, wretched
MASCULINE FEMININE NEUTEK
STEM misero- STEM misera- STEM misero-
SlNGULAR
NOM. miser misera miserum
GEN. miseri miserae miserl
DAT. misero miserae misero
Ace. miserum miseram miserum
ABL. misero misera misero
PLURAL
NOM. miseri miserae misera
GEN. miserorum miserarum miserorum
DAT. miseris miseris miseiis
Ace. miseros miseras misera
ABL. miseris miseris miseris
a. Like miser are declined asper, gibber, lacer, liber, prosper (also pros-
perus), satur (-ura, -urum), tener, with compounds of -fer and -ger : as, saeti-
ger, -era, -erum, bristle-bearing ; also, usually, dexter. In these the e belongs to
the stem ; but in dextra it is often omitted : as, dextra manus, the right hand.
NOTE. Stems in ero- (as procerus), with morigSrus, propgrus, have the regular nomi-
native masculine in -us.
b. The following lack a nominative singular masculine in classic use :
cetera, infera, postera, supera. They are rarely found in the singular except
in certain phrases : as, postero die, the next day.
NOTE. An ablative feminine in -6 is found in a few Greek adjectives: as, lectica
oct5phor5 (Verr. v. 2Y) .
48
DECLENSION OF ADJECTIVES
112, 113
112. Stems in ro- preceded by a consonant form the Nominative
Masculine like ager ( 47) and are declined as follows :
niger, nigra, nigrum, black
NOM.
GEN.
DAT.
Ace.
ABL.
NOM.
GKN.
DAT.
Ace.
ABL.
MASCULINE
STEM nigro-
niger
nigri
nigro
nigrum
nigro
nigri
nigrorum
nigris
nigros
nigris
FEMININE
STEM nigra-
SlNGULAR
nigra
nigrae
nigrae
nigram
nigra
PLURAL
nigrae
nigrarum
nigris
nigras
nigris
NEUTER
STEM nigro-
mgrum
nigri
nigro
nigrum
nigro
nigra
nigrorum
nigris
nigra
nigris
a. Like niger are declined aeger, ater, creber, faber, glaber, integer, ludicer,
macer, piger, pulcher, ruber, sacer, scaber, sinister, taeter, vafer ; also the pos-
sessives noster, vester ( 145).
113. The following nine adjectives with their compounds have
the Genitive Singular in -lus and the Dative in -1 in all genders :
alius (N. aliud), other. totus, whole. alter, -terms, the other.
nullus, no, none. ullus, any. neuter, -trius, neither.
solus, alone. unus, one. uter, -trius, which (of two).
Of these the singular is thus declined :
M.
F.
N.
M.
F.
N.
NOM.
unus
una
unum
uter
utra
utrum
GEN.
unius
unius
unius
utrius
utrius
utrius
DAT.
uni
uni
uni
utri
utri
utri
Ace.
finiim
unam
unum
utrum
utram
utrum
ABL.
uno
una
uno
utro
utra
utr6
NOM.
alius
alia
aliud
alter
altera
alterum
GEN.
alius
alius
alius
alterius
alterius
alterius
DAT.
alii
alii
alii
alter!
alteri
alteri
Ace.
a Hum
aliam
aliud
alterum
alteram
alterum
ABL.
alio
alia
alio
altero
altera
altero
113-116] ADJECTIVES OF THE THIRD DECLENSION 49
a. The plural of these words is regular, like that of bonus ( 110).
&. The genitive in -lus, dative in -I, and neuter in -d are pronominal in
origin (cf. illius, illl, illud, and 146).
c. The i of the genitive ending -lus, though originally long, may be made
short in verse ; so often in alterius and regularly in utriusque.
d. Instead of alms, alterius is commonly used, or in the possessive sense
the adjective alienus, belonging to another, another's.
e. In compounds as alteruter sometimes both parts are declined,
sometimes only the latter. Thus, alter! utri or alterutri, to one of the two.
NOTE. The regular genitive and dative forms (as in bonus) are sometimes found
in some of these words: as, genitive and dative feminine, aliae; dative masculine,
alid. Rare forms are alls and alid (for alius, aliud).
THIRD DECLENSION (CONSONANT AND /-STEMS)
114. Adjectives of the Third Declension are thus classified:
1. Adjectives of Three Terminations in the nominative singular, one
for each gender : as, acer, acris, acre.
2. Adjectives of Two Terminations, masculine and feminine the same :
as, levis (M., F.), leve (x.).
3. Adjectives of One Termination, the same for all three genders : as,
atrox.
a. Adjectives of two and three terminations are true i-stems and hence retain
in the ablative singular -I, in the neuter plural -ia, in the genitive plural -ium, and
in the accusative plural regularly -Is (see 73 and 74). *
Adjectives of Three and of Two Terminations
115. Adjectives of Three Terminations are thus declined:
acer, acris, acre, keen, STEM acri-
SINGULAR PLURAL
M. F. N. M. F. N.
NOM. acer acris acre acres acres acria
GEN. acris acris acris acrium acrium acrium
DAT. acri acil acri acribus acribus acribus
Ace. acrem acrem acre acris (-es) acris (-es) acria
ABL. acri acri acri acribus acribus acribus
1 But the forms of some are doubtful.
50 DECLENSION OF ADJECTIVES [ 116-117
a. Like acer are declined the following stems in ri- :
alacer, campester, celeber, equester, paluster, pedester, puter, saluber, Silvester,
terrester, volucer. So also names of months in -ber: as, OctSber (cf.
66).
NOTE 1. This formation is comparatively late, and hence, in the poets and in early
Latin, either the masculine or the feminine form of these adjectives was sometimes
used for both genders : as, coetus alacris (Enn.). In others, as faenebris, funebris, illus-
tris, lugubris, mediocris, muliebris, there is no separate masculine form at all, and these
are declined like levis ( 116).
NOTE 2. Celer, celeris, celere, swift, has the genitive plural celerum, used only as a
noun, denoting a military rank. The proper name Celer has the ablative in -e.
116. Adjectives of Two Terminations are thus declined:
levis, leve, ligM, STEM levi-
SINGULAR PLURAL
M., F. N. M., F. K.
NOM. levis leve leves levia
GEN. levis levis levium levium
DAT. levi levi levibus levibus
Ace. levem leve levis (-es) levia
ABL. levi levi levibus levibus
NOTE. Adjectives of two and three terminations sometimes have an ablative in -e
in poetry, rarely in prose.
Adjectives of One Termination
117. The remaining adjectives of the third declension are Con-
sonant stems ; but most of them, except Comparatives, have the
following forms of i-stems : J
-i in the ablative singular (but often -e) ;
-ia in the nominative and accusative plural neuter ;
-ium in the genitive plural ;
-is (as well as -es) in the accusative plural masculine and feminine.
In the other cases they follow the rule for Consonant stems.
a. These adjectives, except stems in 1- or r-, form the nominative singu-
lar from the stem by adding s : as, atrox (stem atroc- + s), egens (stem
egent- + s). 2
b. Here belong the present participles in -ns(stem nt-) 2 : as,amans, monens,
They are declined like egens (but cf. 121).
1 For details see 121. 2 Stems in nt- omit t beforo the nominative -8.
118, 119J ADJECTIVES OF THE THIRD DECLENSION 51
118. Adjectives of one termination are declined as follows :
atrox, fierce, STEM atroc-
egens, needy, STEM egent-
SlNGULAR
M., F. N.
M., F. N.
NOM.
GEN.
DAT.
Ace.
ABL.
atrox atrox
atrocis atrocis
atroci atroci
atrocem atrox
atroci (-e) atroci (-e)
egens egens
egentis egentis
egent! egenti
egentem egens
egent! (-e) egenti (-e)
PLURAL
NOM.
GEN.
DAT.
Ace.
ABL.
atroces atrocia
atrocium atrocium
atrocibus atrocibus
atrocis (-es) atrocia
atrocibus atrScibus
egentgs egentia
egentium egentium
egentibus egentibus
egentis (-es) egentia
egentibus egentibus
119.
Other examples are the following :
concors, harmonious
STEM concord-
praeceps, headlong
STEM praecipit-
SlNGULAR
M., F. N.
M., F. N.
NOM.
GEN.
DAT.
Ace.
ABL.
concors concors
concordis concordis
concord! concord!
concordem concors
concord! concord!
praeceps praeceps
praecipitis praecipitis
praecipit! praecipit!
praecipitem praeceps
praecipit! praecipit!
PLURAL
NOM.
GEN.
DAT.
Ace.
ABL.
Concordes concordia
concordium concordium
concordibus concordibus
concordis (-s) concordia
concordibus concordibus
praecipitSs praecipitia
[praecipitium] 1
praecipitibus praecipitibus
praecipitis (-es) praecipitia
praecipitibus praecipitibus
1 Given by grammarians, but not found.
52
DECLENSION OF ADJECTIVES
[119
iens, going
STEM eunt-
par, equal
STEM par-
dives, rich
STEM divit-
SINGULAR
M., F.
N.
M., F.
N.
M., F.
N.
NOM.
iens
iens
par
par
dives
dives
GEN.
euntis
euntis
paris
paris
divitis
divitis
DAT.
eunti
eunti
pan
pan
divitl
diviti
Ace.
euntem
iens
parem
par
divitem
dives
ABL.
eunte (-1)
eunte (-1)
pan
par!
divite
divite
NOM. eunts
GEN. euntium
DAT. euntibus
euntia
euntium
euntibus
Ace. euntis (-es) euntia
PLURAL
pares paria
parium parium
paiibus paiibus
pans (-es) paria
ABL. euntibus euntibus paiibus paribus
divites [ditia]
dlvitum divitum
dlvitibus dlvitibus
divitis (-es) [ditia]
dlvitibus dlvitibus
fiber, fertile
STEM flber-
vetus, old
STEM veter-
SINGULAR
NOM.
GEN.
DAT.
Ace.
ABL.
M., F.
uber
uberis
uberi
uberem
ubeii 1
N.
uber
uberis
uberi
uber
uberi x
M., F.
N.
vetus
vetus
veteris
veteris
veteri
veteri
veterem
vetus
vetere (-1)
vetere (-T)
PLURAL
NOM.
GEN.
DAT.
Ace.
ABL.
uberes
iiberum
uberibus
uberes
uberibus
ubera
uberum
uberibus
ubera
uberibus
veteres
veterum
veteribus
veteres
veteribus
vetera
vetenim
veteribus
vetera
veteribus
NOTE. Of these vetus is originally an s-stem. In most s-stems the r has intruded
itself into the nominative also, as bi-corpor (for fbi-corpos), degener (for tde-genes).
1 An ahlative in -e is very rare.
120, 121]
DECLENSION OF COMPARATIVES
53
Declension of Comparatives
120. Comparatives are declined as follows :
melior, better
STEM melior- for melios-
plus, more
STEM plur- for plus-
SlNGULAR
M., F.
K.
M., F.
N.
NOM.
melior
melius
plus
GEN.
melioris
melioris
pluris
T> AT
rnplirvrT
meliori
U A. 1 .
Acc.
1UC11VJ1 1
meliorem
melius
plus
ABL.
meliore (-1)
meliore (-1)
plure
PLURAL
NOM.
meliores
meliora
plures
plura
GEN.
meliorum
meliorum
plurium
plurium
DAT.
melioribus
melioribus
pluribus
pluribus
Acc.
meliorSs (-Is)
meliora
plures (-is)
plura
ABL.
melioribus
melioribus
pluribus
pluribus
a. All comparatives except plus are declined like melior.
b. The stem of comparatives properly ended in os-; but this became or
in the nominative masculine and feminine, and or- in all other cases except
the nominative and accusative singular neuter, where s is retained and 8 is
changed to ti (cf . honfir, -oris ; corpus, -tfris). Thus comparatives appear to
have two terminations.
c. The neuter singular plus is used only as a noun. The genitive (rarely
the ablative) is used only as an expression of value (cf. 417). The dative
is not found in classic use. The compound complures, several, has sometimes
neuter plural compluria.
Case-Forms of Consonant Stems
121. In adjectives of Consonant stems
a. The Ablative Singular commonly ends in -I, but sometimes -e.
1. Adjectives used as nouns (as superstes, survivor) have -e.
2. Participles in -ns used as such (especially in the ablative absolute,
410), or as nouns, regularly have -e; but participles used as adjectives
have regularly -i :
domino imperante, at the master's command; ab amante, by a lover ; ab amanti
muliere, by a loving woman.
54 DECLENSION OF ADJECTIVES [ 121, 122
3. The following have regularly -i : amens, anceps, concors (and other
compounds of cor), censors (but as a substantive, -e), degener, hebes, ingens,
inops, memor (and compounds), par (in prose), perpes, praeceps, praepes, teres.
4. The following have regularly -e : caeles, compos, [ fdeses] , dives, hospes,
particeps, pauper, princeps, sospes, superstes. So also patrials (see 71.5) and
stems in at-, it-, nt-, rt-, when used as nouns, and sometimes when used as
adjectives.
b. The Genitive Plural ends commonly in -ium, but has -urn in the
following : l
1. Always in compos, dives, inops, particeps, praepes, princeps, supplex, and
compounds of nouns which have -urn : as, quadru-pes, bi-color.
2. Sometimes, in poetry, in participles in -ns : as, silentum concilium, a coun-
cil of the silent shades (Aen. vi. 432).
c. The Accusative Plural regularly ends in -is, but comparatives com-
monly have -es.
d. Vetus (gen. -Sris) and pubes (gen. -Sris) regularly have -e in the abla-
tive singular, -a in the nominative and accusative plural, and -um in the
genitive plural. For uber, see 119.
e. A few adjectives of one termination, used as nouns, have a feminine
form in -a : as, clienta. hospita, with the appellative luno Sospita.
Irregularities and Special Uses of Adjectives
122. The following special points require notice :
a. Several adjectives vary in declension : as, gracilis (-us), hilaris (-us),
inermis (-us), bicolor (-orus).
6. A few adjectives are indeclinable : as, damnas, frugi (really a dative
of service, see 382. 1. N. 2 ), nequam (originally an adverb), necesse, and the
pronominal forms tot, quot, aliquot, totidem. Potis is often used as an inde-
clinable adjective, but sometimes has pote in the neuter.
c. Several adjectives are defective : as, exspes (only nom.), exlex (exlegem)
(only nom. and ace. sing.), pernox (pernocte) (only nom. and abl. sing.);
and primoris, semineci, etc., which lack the nominative singular.
d. Many adjectives, from their signification, can be used only in the
masculine and feminine. These may be called adjectives of common gender.
Such are adulescens, youthful; [fdeses], -idis, slothful; inops, -opis, poor;
sSspes, -itis, safe. Similarly, senex, old man, and iuvenis, young man, are some-
times called masculine adjectives.
For Adjectives used as Nouns, see 288, 289 ; for Nouns used as Adjectives, see
321. c; for Adjectives used as Adverbs, see 214; for Adverbs used as Adjectives,
see 321. d.
l Forms in -um sometimes occur in a few others.
123-127] COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES 55
COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES
123. In Latin, as in English, there are three degrees of com-
parison: the Positive, the Comparative, and the Superlative.
124. The Comparative is regularly formed by adding -ior (neu-
ter -ius), 1 the Superlative by adding -issimus (-a, -urn), to the stem of
the Positive, which loses its final vowel :
carus, dear (stem caro-) ; carior, dearer ; caiissimus, dearest.
levis, light (stem levi-) ; levior, lighter ; levissimus, lightest.
f elix, happy (stem f elic-) ; f ellcior, happier ; f elicissimus, happiest.
hebes, dull (stem hebet-) ; hebetior, duller ; hebetissimus, dullest.
NOTE. A form of diminutive is made upon the stem of some comparatives: as,
grandius-culus, a little larger (see 243).
a. Participles when used as adjectives are regularly compared :
patiens, patient; patientior, patientissimus.
apertus, open; apertior, apertissimus.
125. Adjectives in -er form the Superlative by adding -rimus to
the nominative. The comparative is regular:
acer, keen; acrlor, acerrimus.
miser, wretched; miserior, miserrimus.
a. So vetus (gen. veteris) has superlative veterrimus, from the old form
veter ; and maturus, besides its regular superlative (maturissimus), has a rare
form maturrimus.
For the comparative of vetus, vetustior (from vetustus) is used.
126. Six adjectives in -lis form the Superlative by adding -limus
to the stem clipped of its final i-. These are facilis, difficilis, simi-
lis. dissimilis, gracilis, humilis.
facilis (stem facili-), easy ; facilior, facillimus.
127. Compounds in -dicus (saying) and -volus (willing) take in
their comparison the forms of the corresponding participles dicens
and volens, which were anciently used as adjectives :
maledicus, slanderous; maledlcentior, maledlcentissimua.
malevolus, spiteful; malevolentior, malevolentissimus.
1 The comparative suffix (earlier -ios) is akin to the Greek -luv, or the Sanskrit -iyans.
That of the superlative (-issimus) is a double form of uncertain origin. It appears to
contain the is- of the old suffix -is-to-s (seen in ^S-to-ro-s and English sweetest) and also
the old -mo-s (seen in pri-mus, mini-mus, etc.) . The endings -limus and -rimus are formed
by assimilation ( 15. 6) from -simus. The comparative and superlative are really new
stems, and are not strictly to be regarded as forms of inflection.
56
COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES
127-130
a. So, by analogy, compounds in -ficus :
magnificus, grand; magnificentior, magnificentisaimus.
128. Some adjectives are compared by means of the adverbs
magis, more, and maxime, most.
So especially adjectives in -us preceded by e or i :
idoneus, fit ; magis idoneus, maxime idoneus.
NOTE. But pius has piissimus in the superlative, a form condemned by Cicero,
but common in inscriptions ; equally common, however, is the irregular pientissimus.
Irregular Comparison
129. Several adjectives have in their comparison irregular
forms :
bonus, good;
malus, bad;
magnus, great;
parvus, small ;
multus, much;
multl, many;
nequam (indecl., 122. 6),
worthless ;
frugl (indecl., 122. 6), use- frugalior;
ful, worthy;
dexter, on the right, handy ;
melior, better;
peior, worse;
maior, greater ;
minor, less;
plus (N.)( 120), more.
plures, more;
nequior ;
dexterior ;
optimus, best.
pessimus, worst.
maximus, greatest.
minimus, least.
plurimus, most.
plurimi, most.
nequissimus.
frugalisaimus.
dextimus.
NOTE. These irregularities arise from the use of different stems (cf . 127) . Thus
frugalior and frugalissimus are formed from the stem frugal!-, but are used as the com-
parative and superlative of the indeclinable frugl.
Defective Comparison
130. Some Comparatives and Superlatives appear without a
Positive :
ocior, swifter; oeissimus, swiftest.
potior, preferable ; l potissimus, most important.
a. The following are formed from stems not used as adjectives : 2
1 The old positive potis occurs in the sense of able, possible.
2 The forms in -tra and -terus were originally comparative (cf. alter), so that the
comparatives in -terior are double comparatives. Inferus and superus are comparatives
of a still more primitive form (cf. the English comparative in -er).
The superlatives in -timus (-tumus) are relics of old forms of comparison ; those in
-mus like imus, summus, primus, are still more primitive. Forms like extrSmus are
superlatives of a comparative. In fact, comparison has always been treated with an
accumulation of endings, as children say furtherer andfurtherest.
130, 131] DEFECTIVE COMPAEISON 57
cis, citra (adv., on this side): citerior, hither; citimus, hithermost.
d6 (prep., down): deterior, worse; deterrimus, worst.
in, intra (prep., t'n, within): interior, inner ; intimus, inmost.
prae, pro (prep., before): prior, former; primus, first.
prope (adv., near): propior, nearer; proximus, next.
ultra (adv., beyond): ulterior, farther ; ultimus, farthest.
b. Of the following the positive forms are rare, except when used as
nouns (generally in the plural):
exterus, outward; exterior, outer; extremus (extimus), outmost.
Inferus, below (see 111.6); inferior, lower ; Infimus (imus), lowest.
posterus, following ; posterior, latter; postremus (postumus), last.
superus, above; superior, higher; supremus or summus, highest.
But the plurals, exteri, foreigners; infer!, the gods below ; poster!, posterity ;
super!, the heavenly gods, are common.
NOTE. The superlative postumus has the special sense of last-born, and was a well-
known surname.
131. Several adjectives lack the Comparative or the Superla-
tive : '
a. The Comparative is rare or wanting in the following :
bellus, inclutus (or inclitus), novus,
caesius, invictus, pius,
falsus, invitus, sacer,
fidus (with its compounds), meritus, vafer.
ft. The Superlative is wanting in many adjectives in -ilis or -bills (as,
agilis, probabilis), and in the following :
actuosus exllis proclivis surdus
agrestis ingens propinquus taciturnus
alacer ieiunus satur tempestlvus
arcanus longinquus segnis teres
caecus obliquus serus vicinus
diuturnus opimus suplnus
c. From iuvenis, youth, senex, old man (cf. 122. d), are formed the com-
paratives iunior, younger, senior, older. For these, however, minor natu and
maior natu are sometimes used (natu being often omitted).
The superlative is regularly expressed by minimus and maximus, with
.or without natu.
NOTE. In these phrases natu is ablative of specification (see 418).
(I. Many adjectives (as aureus, golden) are from their meaning incapable
of comparison.
NOTE. But each language has its own usage in this respect. Thus, niger, glossy
black, and candidus, shining white, are compared ; but not ater or albus, meaning abso-
lute dead black or white (except that Plautus once has atrior).
58
NUMERALS
132, 133
NUMERALS
132. The Latin Numerals may be classified as follows :
I. NUMERAL ADJECTIVES :
1. Cardinal Numbers, answering the question how many? as, unus, one ;
duo, two, etc.
2. Ordinal Numbers, 1 adjectives derived (in most cases) from the Cardi-
nals, and answering the question which in order f as, primus, first ; secun-
dus, second, etc.
3. Distributive Numerals, answering the question how many at a time f
as, singuli, one at a time ; bini, two by two, etc.
II. NUMERAL ADVERBS, answering the question hoio often f as, setnel,
once; bis, twice, etc.
Cardinals and Ordinals
133. These two series are as follows :
CARDINAL
ORDINAL
ROMAN NUMERALS
1. unus, una, unum, one
primus, -a, -urn, first
I
2. duo, duae, duo, two
secundus (alter), second
II
3. tres, tria, three
tertius, third
III
4. quattuor
quartus
mi or iv
5. qulnque
qulntus
V
6. sex
sextus
VI
7. septem
Septimus
VII
8. octo
oetavus
VIII
9. novem
nSnus
vim or ix
10. decem
decimus
X
11. undecim
undecimus
XI
12. duodecim
duodecimus
XII
13. tredecim (decem (et) tr6s)
tertius decimus (decimus (et)
tertius) xm
14. quattuordecim
quartus decimus
xini or xiv
15. qulndecim
qulntus decimus
XV
16. sedecim
sextus decimus
XVI
17. septendecim
septimus decimus
XVII
18. duodevlginti (octodecim)
duodevlcensimus (octavus decimus) xvm
1 The Ordinals (except secundus, tertius, octavus, nonus) are formed by means of suf-
fixes related to those used in the superlative and in part identical with them. Thus,
decimus (compare the form infimus) may be regarded as the last of a series of ten ; pri-
mus is a superlative of a stem akin to pro ; the forms in-tus (quartus, qulntus, sextus) may
be compared with the corresponding Greek forms in -Toy, and with superlatives in
-KT-TO-S, while the others have the superlative ending -timus (changed to -simus) . Of the
exceptions, secundus is a participle of sequor ; alter is a comparative form (compare
-repos in Greek), and nonus is contracted from fnovenos. The cardinal multiples of ten
are compounds of -jint- 'ten' (a fragment of a derivative from decem).
133, 134] CAEDINALS AND ORDINALS 59
CARDINAL ORDINAL ROMAN NUMERALS
19. undgvlgintl (novendecim) undevlcensimus(nonusdecimus)xvmiorxix
20. viginti vicgnsimus (vlgensimus) xx
21. viginti unus vicensimus primus xxi
(or unus et viginti, etc.) (unus et vicensimus, etc.)
30. triginta tricensimus xxx
40. quadraginta quadragensimus xxxx or XL
60. qulnquaginta quinquagensimus ,L or L
60. sexaginta sexagensimus LX
70. septuaginta septuagensimus LXX
80. octoginta octogensimus LXXX
90. nonaginta nonagensimus LXXXX or xc
100. centum centensimus c
101. centum (et) unus, etc. centensimus primus, etc. ci
200. ducenti, -ae, -a ducentensimus cc
300. trecentl trecentensimus ccc
400. quadringenti quadringentensimus cccc
500. quingentl quingentensimus D
600. sescenti sescentensimus DC
700. septingentl septingentensimus DCC
800. octingenti octingentensimus DCCC
900. nongentl nSngentensimus DCCCC
1000. mille mlllensimus oo (cio) or M
5000. quinque mllia (nilllia) quinquiens mlllensimus 100
10,000. decem mllia (mlllia) deciens mlllensimus ccioa
100,000. centum mllia (millia) centiens mlllensimus ccciooo
NOTE 1. The forms in -ensimus are often written without the n : as, vicesimus, etc.
NOTE 2. The forms octodecim, novendecim are rare, duodeviginti (two from twenty),
undevlginti (one from twenty), being used instead. So 28, 29; 38, 39; etc. may be
expressed either by the subtraction of two and one or by the addition of eight and
nine respectively.
Declension of Cardinals and Ordinals
134. Of the Cardinals only unus, duo, tres, the hundreds above
one hundred, and mille when used as a noun, are declinable.
a. For the declension of unus, see 113. It often has the meaning of
same or only. The plural is used in this sense ; but also, as a simple nu-
meral, to agree with a plural noun of a singular meaning : as, una castra,
one camp (cf. 137. 6). The plural occurs also in the phrase unl et alteri, one
party and the other (the ones and the others).
b. Duo, J two, and tres, three, are thus declined :
1 The form in -o is a remnant of the dual number, which was lost in Latin, but is
found in cognate languages. So in ambo, both, which preserves -o (cf . dvu and 629. b) .
60
NUMERALS
[ 134, 135
M.
F.
N.
NOM. duo
duae
duo
GEN. duorum
duarum
duorum
DAT. duobus
duabus
duobus
Ace. duos (duo)
duas
duo
ABI,. duobus
duabus
duobus
M.,F.
tres
trium
tribus
tres (tris)
tribus
N.
tria
trium
tribus
tria
tribus
NOTE. Ambo, both, is declined like duo.
c. The hundreds, up to 1000, are adjectives of the First and Second
Declensions, and are regularly declined like the plural of bonus.
d. Mille, a thousand, is in the singular an indeclinable adjective :
mille modls, in a thousand ways.
cum mille hominibus, with a thousand men.
mille trahens varios colores (Aen. iv. 701), drawing out a thousand various
colors.
In the plural it is used as a neuter noun, and is declined like the plural
of sedile ( 69): milia, milium, mflibus, etc.
NOTE. The singular mille is sometimes found as a noun in the nominative and
accusative: as, mille hominum misit, he sent a thousand (of) men; in the other cases
rarely, except in connection with the same case of milia : as, cum oct5 milibus peditum,
mille equitum, with eight thousand foot and a thousand horse.
e. The ordinals are adjectives of the First and Second Declensions, and
are regularly declined like bonus.
135. Cardinals and Ordinals have the following uses :
a. In numbers below 100, if units precede tens, et is generally inserted :
duo et viginti ; otherwise et is omitted : viginti duo.
b. In numbers above 100 the highest denomination generally stands
first, the next second, etc., as in English. Et is either omitted entirely, or
stands between the two highest denominations : mille (et) septingenti
sexaginta quattuor, 1764.
NOTE. Observe the following combinations of numerals with substantives:
unus et viginti milites, or viginti milites (et) unus, 21 soldiers.
duo milia quingenti milites, or duo milia militum et quingenti, 2500 soldiers.
milites mille ducenti triginta unus, 1231 soldiers.
c. After milia the name of the objects enumerated is in the genitive :
duo milia hominum, two thousand men.. 1
cum tribus milibus militum, with three thousand soldiers.
milia passuum tria, three thousand paces (three miles).
d. For million, billion, trillion, etc.. the Romans had no special words,
but these numbers were expressed by multiplication (cf. 138. a).
1 Or, in poetry, bis mille homines, twice a thousand men.
135-137] DISTRIBUTIVES 61
e. Fractions are expressed, as in English, by cardinals in the numerator
and ordinals in the denominator. The feminine gender is used to agree
with pars expressed or understood : two-sevenths, duae septimae (sc. partes) ;
three-eighths, tres octavae (sc. partes).
One-half is dimidia pars or dimidium.
NOTE 1. When the numerator is one, it is omitted and pars is expressed: one-*
third, tertia pars ; one-fourth, quarta pars.
NOTE 2. When the denominator is but one greater than the numerator, the numer-
ator only is given: two-thirds, duae partes; three-fourths, tres partes, etc.
NOTE 3. Fractions are also expressed by special words derived from as, a pound :
as, triens, a third ; bes, two-thirds. See 637.
Distributives
136. Distributive Numerals are declined like the plural of
bonus.
NOTE. These answer to the interrogative quotem, how many of each? or how
many at a time?
1. singuli, one by one 18. octoni deni or duo- 100. centeni
2. bini, two by two deviceni 200. duceni
3. term, trini 19. noveni deni or un- 300. treceni
4. quaterni deviceni 400. quadringeni
5. quini 20. viceni 500. quingeni
6. seni 21. viceni singuli, etc. 600. sesceni
7. septeni 30. triceni 700. septingeni
8. octoni 40. quadrageni 800. octingeni
9. noveni 50. quinquageni 900. nongeni
10. deni 60. sexageni 1000. milleni
11. undeni 70. septuageni 2000. bina milia
12. duodeni 80. octogeni 10,000. dena milia
13. term deni, etc. 90. nonageni 100,000. centena milia
137. Distributives are used as follows :
a. In the sense of so many apiece or on each side : as, singula singulis, one
apiece (one each to each one) ; agri septena iugera plebi divisa sunt, i.e. seven
jugera to each citizen (seven jugera each), etc.
It. Instead of cardinals, to express simple number, when a noun plural in
form but usually singular in meaning is used in a plural sense : as, bina
castra, two camps (duo castra would mean two forts). With such nouns trim,
not term, is used for three : as, trina (not terna) castra, three camps ; terna
castra means camps in threes.
c. In multiplication : as, bis bina, twice two ; ter septenis diebus, in thrice
seven days.
d. By the poets instead of cardinal numbers, particularly where pairs or
sets are spoken of: as, bina hastflia, two shafts (two in a set).
62
NUMERALS
138, 139
Numeral Adverbs
138. The Numeral Adverbs answer the question quotiens
(quoties), how many times? how often?
1. semel, once
2. bis, twice
3. ter, thrice
4. quater
6. qumquiens (-es) 1
6. sexiens
7. septiena
8. octiens
9. noviens
10. deciens
11. undeciens
12. duodeciens
13. terdeciens
14. quaterdeciens
15. qumdeciens
16. sedecieus
17. septiesdeciens
18. duodevlciens
19. undevlciens
20. viciens
21. semel viciens, 2 etc.
30. triciens
40. quadragiens
50. qulnquagiens
60. sexagiens
70. septuagiens
80. octogiens
90. nonagiens
100. centiens
200. ducentiens
300. trecentiens
1000. mlliens
10,000. deciens miliens
a. Numeral Adverbs are used with mille to express the higher numbers :
ter et triciens (centena milia) sestertium, 3,300,000 sesterces (three and thirty
times a hundred thousand sesterces).
vlcies ac septies milies (centena milia) sestertium, 2,700,000,000 sesterces
(twenty-seven thousand times a hundred thousand).
NOTE. These large numbers are used almost exclusively in reckoning money,
and centena milia is regularly omitted (see 634).
Other Numerals
139. The following adjectives are called Multiplicatives :
simplex, single ; duplex, double, twofold ; triplex, triple, threefold ; quadruplex,
quinquiplex, septemplex, decemplex, centuplex, sesquiplex (1 J), multiplex
(manifold).
a. Proportionals are : duplus, triplus, quadruplus, octuplus, etc., twice as
great, thrice as great, etc.
&. Temporals : bimus. trimus, of two or three years' age ; biennis, triennis,
lasting two or three years ; bimestris, trimestris, of two or three months ; biduum,
a period of two days; biennium. a period of two years.
c. Partitives : bmarius, ternarius, of two or three parts.
d. Other derivatives are: unio, unity; bmio, the two (of dice); prlmanus,
of the first legion; primarius, of the first rank; denarius, a sum of 10 asses;
binus (distributive), double, etc.
1 Forms in -ns are often written without the n.
2 Also written viciens et semel or viciens semel, etc.
140-143] PERSONAL PRONOUNS 63
PEONOUNS
140. Pronouns are used as Nouns or as Adjectives. They are
divided into the following seven classes :
1. Personal Pronouns : as, ego, /.
2. Reflexive Pronouns : as, se, himself.
3. Possessive Pronouns : as, meus, my.
4. Demonstrative Pronouns: as, hie, this; ille, that.
5. Relative Pronouns : as, qui, who.
6. Interrogative Pronouns : as, quis, who ?
7. Indefinite Pronouns : as, aliquis, some one.
141. Pronouns have special forms of declension.
NOTE. These special forms are, in general, survivals of a very ancient form of
declension differing from that of nouns.
Personal Pronouns
142. The Personal pronouns of the first person are ego, /, nos,
we; of the second person, tu, thou or you, vos, ye or you. The
personal pronouns of the third person he, she, it, they are
wanting in Latin, a demonstrative being sometimes used instead.
143. Ego and tu are declined as follows :
FIRST PERSON
Singular Plural
NOM. ego, / nos, ice
GEN. mei, of me nostrum, nostrl, of us
DAT. mini (mi), to me nobis, to us
Ace. me, me nos, us
ABL. me, by me nobis, by us
SECOND PERSON
NOM. tu, thou or you vos, ye or you
GEN. tui, of thce or you vestrum, vestri ; vostrum (-tri)
DAT. tibi vobis
Ace. te vos
ABL. te vobis
a. The plural nos is often used for the singular ego ; the plural v5s is
never so used for the singular tu.
64 PRONOUNS [ 143, 144
NOTE. Old forms are genitive mis, tis; accusative and ablative med, ted (cf.
43. N. 1).
6. The forms nostrum, vestrum, etc., are used partitively :
unusquisque nostrum, each one of us.
vestrum omnium, of all of you.
NOTE. The forms of the genitive of the personal pronouns are really the genitives
of the possessives: mei, tui, sui, nostri, vestri, genitive singular neuter: nostrum, ves-
trum, genitive plural masculine or neuter. So in early and later Latin we find una
vestrarum, one of you (women) .
c. The genitives mei, tui, sui, nostri, vestri, are chiefly used objectively
(347):-
memor sis nostri, be mindful of us (me),
me tui pudet, I am ashamed of you.
d. Emphatic forms of tu are tute and tutemet (tutimet). The other
cases of the personal pronouns, excepting the genitive plural, are made
emphatic by adding -met : as, egomet, vosmet.
NOTE. Early emphatic forms are mepte and tepte.
e. Reduplicated forms are found in the accusative and ablative singu-
lar : as, meme, tete.
/. The preposition cum, with, is joined enclitically with the ablative : as,
tecum loquitur, he talks with you.
Reflexive Pronouns
144. Reflexive Pronouns are used in the Oblique Cases to refer
to the subject of the sentence or clause in which they stand (see
299): as, se amat, Tie loves himself.
a. In the first and second persons the oblique cases of the Personal pro-
nouns are used as Reflexives : as, me video, / see myself te laudas, you
praise yourself; ndbis persuademus, ive persuade ourselves.
b. The Reflexive pronoun of the third person has a special form used
only in this sense, the same for both singular and plural. It is thus
declined :
GEN. sui, of himself, herself, itself, themselves
DAT. sibi, to himself, herself, itself, themselves
Ace. se (sese), himself, herself, itself, themselves
ABI,. se (sese), \by~] himself, herself, itself, themselves
NOTE 1. Emphatic and reduplicated forms of se are made as in the personals (see
143. d, e). The preposition cum is added enclitically: as, scum, with himself, etc.
NOTE 2. An old form sed occurs in the accusative and ablative.
145, 146] DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS 65
Possessive Pronouns
145. The Possessive pronouns are :
FIRST PERSON. meus, my noster, our
SECOND PERSON. tuus, thy, your vester, your
THIRD PERSON. suus, his, her, its suus, their
These are really adjectives of the First and Second Declensions, and are
so declined (see 110-112). But meus has regularly mi (rarely meus) in
the vocative singular masculine.
NOTE. Suus is used only as a reflexive, referring to the subject. For a possessive
pronoun of the third person not referring to the subject, the genitive of a demonstrative
must be used. Thus, patrem suum occidit, he killed his (own) father ; but pattern Sius
occidit, he killed his (somebody else's) father.
a. Emphatic forms in -pte are found in the ablative singular : suopte.
b. A rare possessive cuius (quoius), -a, -um, whose, is formed from the
genitive singular of the relative or interrogative pronoun (qui, quis). It
may be either interrogative or relative in force according to its derivation,
but is usually the former.
c. The reciprocals one another and each other are expressed by inter se or
alter . . . alterum :
alter alterius ova frangit, they break each other's eggs (one ... of the other),
inter se amant, they love one another (they love among themselves).
Demonstrative Pronouns
146. The Demonstrative Pronouns are used to point out or
designate a person or thing for special attention, either with nouns
as Adjectives or alone as Pronouns. They are: hie, this; is,
ille, iste, that; with the Intensive ipse, self, and idem, same; 1 and
are thus declined :
hie, this
SINGULAR PLURAL
M. F. N. M. F. N.
NOM. hie haec hoc hi hae - haec
GEN. huius huius huius horum harum horum
DAT. huic huic huic Ms his his
Ace. hunc hanc hoc hos has haec
ABL. hoc hac hoc his his his
1 These demonstratives are combinations of o- and i- stems, which are not clearly
distinguishable.
66
PRONOUNS
[146
NOTE 1. Hie is a compound of the stem ho- with the demonstrative enclitic -ce.
In most of the cases final e is dropped, in some the whole termination. But in these
latter it is sometimes retained for emphasis : as, huius-ce, his-ce. In early Latin -c alone
is retained in some of these (horunc). The vowel in hie, hoc, was originally short, and
perhaps this quantity was always retained. Ille and iste are sometimes found with
the same enclitic: illic, illaec, illuc ; also illoc. See a, p. G7.
NOTE 2. For the dative and ablative plural of hie the old form hibus is sometimes
found ; haec occurs (rarely) for hae.
is, that-
SINGULAR
M.
F.
N.
NOM.
is
ea
id
GEN.
eius
eius
eius
DAT.
ei
ei
el
Ace.
eum
earn
id
ABL.
eo
ea
eo
M.
ei, ii (i)
eorum
eis, iis (is)
60S
eis, iis (is)
PLURAL
F.
eae
earum
eis, iis (is)
eas
eis, iis (is)
N.
ea
eorum
eis, iis (is)
ea
eis, iis (is)
NOTE 3. Obsolete forms are eae (dat. fern.), and eabus or ibus (dat. plur.). For
dative el are found also ei and ei (monosyllabic); el, e"os, etc., also occur in the plural.
ille, that
SINGULAR
M.
F.
N.
NOM.
ille
ilia
illud
GEN.
illius
illius
illius
DAT.
ill!
illi
illi
Ace.
ilium
illam
illud
ABL.
illo
ilia
illo
M.
illi
illorum
illis
illos
illis
PLURAL
F. N.
illae ilia
illarum illorum
illis illis
illas ilia
illis illis
Iste, ista, istud, that (yonder), is declined like ille.
NOTE 4. Ille replaces an earlier ollus (olle), of which several forms occur.
NOTE 5. Iste is sometimes found in early writers in the form ste etc. The first
syllable of ille and ipse is very often used as short in early poetry.
NOTE 6. The forms ill!, ist! (gen.), and illae, istae (dat.), are sometimes found;
also the nominative plural istaece, illaece (for istae, illae). See a, p. 67.
M.
SINGULAR
F.
ipse, self
N.
ipse psa psum
GEN. ipsius ipsius ipsius
DAT. ipsi ipsi ipsi
Ace. ipsum ipsam ipsum
ABL. ipso ipsa ipso
PLURAL
M.
ipsi ipsae ipsa
ipsorum ipsarum ipsorum
ipsis ipsis ipsis
ipsos ipsas ipsa
ipsis ipsis ipsis
146]
DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS
67
NOTE 7. Ipse is compounded of is and -pse (a pronominal particle of uncertain
origin: cf. 145. a), meaning self. The former part was originally declined, as in
reapse (for rg eapse), in fact. An old form ipsus occurs, with superlative ipsissimus,
own self, used for comic effect.
NOTE 8. The intensive -pse is found in the forms eapse (nominative), eumpse,
eampse, eopse, eapse (ablative).
SINGULAR
idem, the same
M.
F.
N.
NOM.
idem
eadem
idem
GEN.
eiusdem
eiusdem
eiusdem
DAT.
eidem
eidem
eidem
Ace.
eundem
eandem
idem
ABL.
eodem
eadem
eodem
M.
PLURAL
F.
N.
idem (ei-) eaedem eadem
eorundem earundem eorundem
eisdem or isdem
eosdem easdem eadem
eisdem or isdem
NOTE 9. Idem is the demonstrative is with the indeclinable suffix -dem. The mas-
culine idem is for fisdem ; the neuter idem, however, is not for fiddem, but is a relic of
an older formation. A final m of is is changed to n before d : as, eundem for eumdem,
etc. The plural forms Idem, isdem, are often written iidem, iisdem.
. Ille and iste appear in combination with the demonstrative particle -c,
shortened from -ce, in the following forms :
SINGULAR
NOM.
Ace.
ABL.
illic illaec illuc (illoc)
illunc illanc illuc (illoc)
illoc iliac
illoc
istic istaec istuc (istoc)
istunc istanc istuc (istoc)
istoc istac istoc
N., Ace.
PLURAL
illaec
istaec
NOTE 1. The appended -ce is also found with pronouns in numerous combinations :
as, huiusce, hunce, horunce, harunce, hosce, hisce (cf . 146. N.I), illiusce, isce ; also with the
interrogative -ne, in h5cine, h5scine, istucine, illicine, etc.
NOTE 2. By composition with ecce or em, behold ! are formed eccum (for ecce
eum), eccam, eccos, eccas; eccillum (for ecce ilium); ellum (for em ilium), eUam, elloa,
ellas ; eccistam. These forms are dramatic and colloquial.
b. The combinations huiusmodi (huiuscemodi), eiusmodi, etc., ar used as
indeclinable adjectives, equivalent to tails, such: as, res eiusmoii. such a
thing (a thing of that sort : cf. 345. a).
For uses of the Demonstrative Pronouns, see 296 ff.
05 PRONOUNS [ 147-149
Relative Pronouns
147. The Relative Pronoun qui, who,which, is thus declined :
SINGULAR PLURAL
M. F. N. M. F. N.
NUM. qui quae quod qui quae quae
GEN. cuius cuius cuius quorum quarum quorum
DAT. cui cui cui quibus quibus quibus
Ace. quern quam quod quos quas quae
ABU quo qua quo quibus quibus quibus
Interrogative and Indefinite Pronouns
148. The Substantive Interrogative Pronoun quis, who? quid,
what? is declined in the Singular as follows :
M., F. N.
NOM. quis quid
GEN. cuius cuius
DAT. cui cui
Ace. quern quid
ABL. quo quo
The Plural is the same as that of the Relative, qui, quae, quae.
a. The singular quis is either masculine or of indeterminate gender,
but in old writers it is sometimes distinctly feminine.
ft. The Adjective Interrogative Pronoun, qui, quae, quod, what kind of?
what ? which 1 is declined throughout like the Relative :
SUBSTANTIVE ADJECTIVE
quis vocat, who calls ? qui homo vocat, what man calls ?
quid vides, what do you see ? quod templum vides, what temple do you see ?
NOTE. But qui is often used without any apparent adjective force; and quis is
very common as an adjective, especially with words denoting a person : as, qui nomi-
nat me ? who calls my name ? quis dies fuit ? what day was it ? quis hom5 ? what man ?
but often qui homo? what kind of man? nesci5 qui sis, I know not who you are.
c, Quisnam, pray, who ? is an emphatic interrogative. It has both sub-
stantive and adjective forms like quis, qui.
149. The Indefinite Pronouns quis, any one, and qui, any, are
declined like the corresponding Interrogatives, but qua is com-
monly used for quae except in the nominative plural feminine :
149-151] COMPOUNDS OF QUIS AND QUI 69
SUBSTANTIVE : quis, any one quid, anything.
ADJECTIVE : qui, qua (quae), quod, any.
a. The feminine forms qua and quae are sometimes used substantively.
b. The indefinites quis and qui are rare except after si, nisi, ne, and num,
and in compounds (see 310. a, 6).
NOTE. After these particles qui is often used as a substantive and quis as an adjec-
tive (cf. 148. b. N.).
Case-Forms of qui and quis
150. The Relative, Interrogative, and Indefinite Pronouns are
originally of the same stem, and most of the forms are the same
(compare 147 with 148). The stem has two forms in the mas-
culine and neuter, quo-, qui-, and one for the feminine, qua-. The
interrogative sense is doubtless the original one.
Cf. Old forms for the genitive and dative singular are quoius, quoi.
b. The form qui is used for the ablative of both numbers and all genders ;
but especially as an adverb (how, by which way, in any way), and in the combi-
nation quicum, with whom, as an interrogative or an indefinite relative.
c. A nominative plural ques (stem qui-) is found in early Latin. A dative
and ablative quis (stem quo-) is not infrequent, even in classic Latin.
d. The preposition cum is joined enclitically to all forms of the abla-
tive, as with the personal pronouns ( 143. f) : as, quocum, quicum, quibuscum.
NOTE. But occasionally cum precedes: as, cum quo (luv. iv. 9).
Compounds of quis and quf
151. The pronouns quis and qui appear in various combinations.
a. The adverb -cumque (-cunque) (cf. quisque) added to the relative
makes an indefinite relative, which is declined like the simple word: as,
quicumque, quaecumque, quodcumque, whoever, whatever ; cuiuscumque, etc.
NOTE. This suffix, with the same meaning, may be used with any relative: as,
qualiscumque, of whatever sort ; quandocumque (also rarely quandoque), whenever ; ubi-
cumque, wherever.
b. In quisquis, whoever, both parts are declined, but the only forms in
common use are quisquis, quidquid (quicquid) and quSquo.
NOTE 1. Rare forms are queinquem and quibusquibus ; an ablative quiqui is some-
times found in early Latin ; the ablative feminine quaqua is both late and rare. Cuieui
occurs as a genitive in the phrase cuicui modi, of whatever kind. Other cases are
cited, but have no authority. In early Latin quisquis is occasionally feminine.
NOTE 2. Quisquis is usually substantive, except in the ablative quequS, which is
more commonly an adjective,
70
PRONOUNS
[161
c. The indefinite pronouns quidam, a certain (one) ; qums, quilibet, any
you please, are used both as substantives and as adjectives. The first part
is declined like the relative qui, but the neuter has both quid- (substantive)
and quod- (adjective) :
quidam quaedam quiddam (quoddam)
quivis quaevls quidvis (quodvis)
Quidam changes m to n before d iu the accusative singular (quendam, M.;
quandam, F.) and the genitive plural (quorundam, M., N.; quarundam, F.).
d. The indefinite pronouns quispiam, some, any, and quisquam, any at all,
are used both as substantives and as adjectives. Quispiam has feminine quae-
piam (adjective), neuter quidpiam (substantive) and quodpiam (adjective);
the plural is very rare. Quisquam is both masculine and feminine ; the
neuter is quidquam (quicquam), substantive only; there is no plural. Ullus,
-a, -um, is commonly used as the adjective corresponding to quisquam.
e. The indefinite pronoun aliquis (substantive), some one, aliqui (adjec-
tive), some, is declined like quis and qui, but aliqua is used instead of aliquae
except in the nominative plural feminine :
SINGULAR
M.
F.
NOM.
GEN.
aliquis (aliqui)
alicuius
aliqua
alicuius
DAT.
alicui
alicui
Ace.
ABL.
aliquem
aliquo
aliquam
aliqua
aliquid (aliquod)
alicuius
alicui
aliquid (aliquod)
aliquo
NOM.
GEN.
DAT.
Ace.
ABL.
aliqui
aliquorum
aliquibus
aliquos
aliquibus
PLURAL
aliquae
aliquarum
aliquibus
aliquas
aliquibus
aliqua
aliquorum
aliquibus
aliqua
aliquibus
NOTE. Aliqui is sometimes used substantively and aliquis as an adjective.
/. The indefinite pronoun ecquis (substantive), whether any one, ecqui
(adjective), whether any, is declined like aliquis, but has either ecquae or
ecqua in the nominative singular feminine of the adjective form.
NOTK. Ecquis (ecqui) has no genitive singular, and in the plural occurs in the
nominative and accusative only.
g. The enclitic particle -que added to the interrogative gives a universal :
as, quisque, every one; uterque, each of two, or both. Quisque is declined
151, 152]
CORRELATIVES
71
like the interrogative quis, qui : substantive, quisque, quidque ; adjective,
quique, quaeque, quodque.
In the compound unusquisque, every single one, both parts are declined
(genitive uniuscuiusque), and they are sometimes written separately and even
separated by other words :
n6 in uno quidem qudque (Lael. 92), not even in a single one.
h. The relative and interrogative have rarely a possessive adjective
cuius (-a, -um), older quoius, whose; and a patrial cuias (cfilat-), of what
country.
i. Quantus, how great, qualis, of what sort, are derivative adjectives from
the interrogative. They are either interrogative or relative, corresponding
respectively to the demonstratives tantus, talis ( 152). Indefinite com-
pounds are quantuscumque* and qualiscumque (see 151. a).
Correlatives
152. Many Pronouns, Pronominal Adjectives, and Adverbs
have corresponding demonstrative, relative, interrogative, and
indefinite forms. Such parallel forms are called Correlatives.
They are shown in the following table :
DEMON.
REL.
INTERROG.
INDEF. REL.
is
qui
quis ?
quisquis
that
who
who?
whoever
tantus
quantus
quantus ?
quantuscumque
so great
how (as) great
how great ?
however great
tails
qualis
qualis ?
qualiscumque
such
as
of what sort ?
of whatever kind
ibi
ubi
ubi?
ubiubi
there
where
where ?
wherever
eo
quo
quo?
quoquo
thither
whither
whither ?
whithersoever
ea
qua
qua ?
quaqua
that way
which way
which way ?
whithersoever
inde
unde
unde?
undecumque
thence
whence
whence ?
whencesoever
turn
cum
quando ?
quandocumque
then
when
when?
whenever
tot
quot
quot?
quotquot
so many
as
how many ?
however many
totiens
quotiens
quotiens ?
quotienscumque
so often
as
how often ?
however often
INDEF.
aliquis
some one
aliquantus
some
alicubi
somewhere
aliquo
(to) somewhere
aliqua
somewhere
alicunde
from somewhere
aliquando
at some time
aliquot
some, several
aliquotiens
at several times
72 CONJUGATION OF THE VERB [ 163-156
VERBS
CONJUGATION OF THE VERB
153. The inflection of the Verb is called its Conjugation.
Voice, Mood, Tense, Person, Number
154. Through its conjugation the Verb expresses Voice, Mood,
Tense, Person, and Number.
a. The Voices are two : Active and Passive.
6. The Moods are four : Indicative, Subjunctive, Imperative, and In-
finitive. 1 i
NOTE. The Indicative, Subjunctive, and Imperative are called Finite Moods in
distinction from the Infinitive.
C. The Tenses are six, viz. :
1. For continued action, Present, Imperfect, Future.
2. For completed action, Perfect, Pluperfect, Future Perfect.
The Indicative Mood has all six tenses, but the Subjunctive has no
future or future perfect, and the Imperative has only the present and the
future. The Infinitive has the present, perfect, and future.
d. The Persons are three: First, Second, and Third.
e. The Numbers are two : Singular and Plural.
Noun and Adjective Forms
155. The following Noun and Adjective forms are also included
in the inflection of the Latin Verb :
a. Four Participles, 2 viz. :
Active: the Present and Future Participles.
Passive : the Perfect Participle and the Gerundive. 8
b. The Gerund : this is in form a neuter noun of the second declension,
used only in the oblique cases of the singular.
c. The Supine : this is in form a verbal noun of the fourth declension
in the accusative (-um) and dative or ablative (-u) 4 singular.
1 The Infinitive is strictly the locative case of an abstract noun, expressing the
action of the verb ( 451).
2 The Participles are adjectives in inflection and meaning, but have the power of
verbs in construction and in distinguishing time.
3 The Gerundive is also used as an adjective of necessity, duty, etc. ( 158. d). In
late use it became a Future Passive Participle. 4 Originally locative.
156, 157] VOICES AND MOODS 73
SIGNIFICATION OP THE FORMS OF THE VERB
Voices
156. The Active and Passive Voices in Latin generally cor-
respond to the active and passive in English ; but
a. The passive voice often has a reflexive meaning :
ferro accingor, I gird myself with my sword.
Turnus vertitur, Turnus turns (himself),
induitur vestem, he puts on his (own) clothes.
NOTE. This use corresponds very nearly to the Greek Middle voice, and is doubt-
less a survival of the original meaning of the passive (p. 76, footnote 2).
b. Many verbs are passive in form, but active or reflexive in meaning.
These are called Deponents ( 190): 1 as, hortor, / exhort ; sequor, I follow.
c. Some verbs with active meaning have the passive form in the perfect
tenses ; these are called Semi-Deponents : as, audeo, audere, ausus sum, dare.
Moods
157. The Moods are used as follows :
a. The Indicative Mood is used for most direct assertions and interroga-
tions : as, valesne ? valeo, are you well ? I am well.
b. The Subjunctive Mood has many idiomatic uses, as in commands, condi-
tions, and various dependent clauses. It is often translated by the English
Indicative; frequently by means of the auxiliaries may, might, would, should; 2
sometimes by the (rare) Subjunctive ; sometimes by the Infinitive ; and
often by the Imperative, especially in prohibitions. A few characteristic
examples of its use are the following :
eamus, let us go ; ne abeat, let him not depart.
adsum ut videam, I am here to see (that I may see).
tu ne quaesieris, do not thou inquire.
beatus sis, may you be blessed.
quid morer, why should I delay ?
nescio quid scribam, I know not what to write.
si mono am, audiat, if I should warn, he would hear.
1 That is, verbs which have laid aside (deponere) the passive meaning.
2 The Latin uses the subjunctive in many cases where we use the indicative; and
we use a colorless auxiliary in many cases where the Latin employs a separate verb
with more definite meaning. Thus, I may write is often not scribam (subjunctive), but
licet mihi scribere ; / can write is possum scribere ; I would write is scribam, scriberem,
or scribere velim (vellem) ; I should write, (if, etc.), scriberem (si) . . ., or (implying duty)
oportet me scribere.
74 CONJUGATION OF THE VERB [{
c The Imperative is used for exhortation, entreaty, or command; but the
Subjunctive is often used instead ( 439, 450) :
liber esto, he shall be free.
ne O83a legito, do not gather the bones.
<l. The .Infinitive is used chiefly as an indeclinable noun, as the subject
or complement of another verb ( 452, 456. N.). In special constructions it
takes the place of the Indicative, and may be translated by that mood in
English (see Indirect Discourse, 580 ff.).
NOTB. For the Syntax of the Moods, see 436 ff.
Participles
158. The Participles are used as follows :
a. The Present Participle (ending in -ns) has commonly the same
meaning and use as the English participle in -ing ; as, vocans, call-
ing ; legentes, reading. (For its inflection, see egens, 118.)
ft. The Future Participle (ending in -urus) is oftenest used to ex-
press what is likely or about to happen : as, recturus, about to rule ;
auditurus, about to hear.
NOTE. With the tenses of esse, to be, it forms the First Periphrastic Conjugation
(see 195) : as, urbs est casura, the city is about to fall ; mansurus eram, I was going
to stay.
c. The Perfect Participle (ending in -tus, -sus) has two uses :
1. It is sometimes equivalent to the English perfect passive participle :
as, tectus, sheltered ; acceptus, accepted ; ictus, having been struck ; and often
has simply an adjective meaning : as, acceptus, acceptable.
2. It is used with the verb to be (esse) to form certain tenses of the pas
sive : as, vocatus est, he was (has been) called.
NOTE. There is no Perfect Active or Present Passive Participle in Latin. For
suhstitutes see 492, 493.
d. The Gerundive (ending in -ndus), has two uses :
1. It is often used as an adjective implying obligation, necessity, or
propriety (ought or must) : as, audiendus est, he must be heard.
NOTE. When thus used with the tenses of the verb to be (esse) it forms the Second
Periphrastic Conjugation: deligendus erat, he ought to have been chosen ( 196).
2. In the oblique cases the Gerundive commonly has the same meaning
as the Gerund (cf. 159. a), though its construction is different. (For
examples, see 503 ff.)
159-162] TENSES OF THE FINITE VEEB 75
Gerund and Supine
159. The Gerund and Supine are used as follows:
a. The Gerund is a verbal noun, corresponding in meaning to the English
verbal noun in -ing ( 502): as, loquendl causa, for the sake of speaking.
NOTE. The Gerund is found only in the oblique cases. - A corresponding nomi-
native is supplied by the Infinitive : thus, scribere est utile, writing (to write) is use-
ful ; but, ars scribendi, the art of writing.
b. The Supine is in form a noun of the fourth declension ( 94. 6),
found only in the accusative ending in -turn, -sum, and the dative or abla-
tive ending in -tu, -su.
The Supine in -um is used after verbs and the Supine in -u after adjec-
tives (509, 510):
veiiit spectatum, fie came to see; mirabile dictu, wonderful to tell.
Tenses of the Finite Verb
160. The Tenses of the Indicative have, in general, the same
meaning as the corresponding tenses in English :
a. Of continued action,
1. PRESENT : scrlbo, / write, I am writing, I do ivrite.
2. IMPERFECT : scribebam, I'wrote, I was writing, I did write.
3. FUTURE : scribam, I shall write.
ft. Of completed action,
4. PERFECT : scripsl, I have written, I wrote.
5. PLUPERFECT : scripseram, I had written.
6. FUTURE PERFECT : scripsero, I shall have written.
161. The Perfect Indicative has two separate uses, the Per-
fect Definite and the Perfect Historical (or Indefinite).
1. The Perfect Definite represents the action of the verb as completed
in present time, and corresponds to the English perfect with have : as,
scrips!, / have written.
2. The Perfect Historical narrates a simple act or state in past time
without representing it as in progress or continuing. It corresponds to the
English past or preterite and the Greek aorist : as, scripsit, he wrote.
162. The Tenses of the Subjunctive are chiefly used in depend-
ent clauses, following the rule for the Sequence of Tenses ; but
have also special idiomatic uses (see Syntax).
For the use of Tenses in the Imperative, see 448, 449.
76
CONJUGATION OF THE VERB
[ 163
PERSONAL ENDINGS
163. Verbs have regular terminations * for each of the three
Persons, both singular and plural, active and passive. 2 These are :
ACTIVE.
2. -s:
3. -t:
1. -mus:
2. -tis:
3. -nt:
SINGULAR
am-o, / love.
ama-s, thou lovest.
ama-t, he loves.
-r(-or):
-ris (-re)
-tur:
PLURAL
ama-mus, we love.
-mur :
ama-tis, you love.
ama-nt, they love.
-mini :
-ntur :
PASSIVE
amo-r, 7 am loved.
ama-ris, thou art loved.
ama-tur, he is loved.
ama-mur, we are loved.
ama-mim, you are loved.
ama-ntur, they are loved.
a. The Perfect Indicative active has the special terminations 3 :
SING. 1. -I:
2. -is-ti:
3. -i-t:
PLUR. 1. -i-mus :
2. -is-tis:
3. -erunt (-ere)
amav-i, I loved.
amav-is-ti, thou lovedst.
arnav-i-t, he loved.
amav-i-mus, we loved.
amav-is-tis, you loved.
amav-erunt (-ere), they loved.
b. The Imperative has the following terminations :
PRESENT ACTIVE
Singular
2. : ama, love thou.
FUTURE ACTIVE
2. -to : ama-to, thou shalt love.
3. -to : ama-to, he shall love.
Plural
aina-te, love ye.
ama-tote, ye shall love.
ama-nto, they shall love.
1 Most of these seem to be fragments of old pronouns, whose signification is thus
added to that of the verb-stem (cf . 36) . But the ending -mini in the second person
plural of the passive is perhaps a remnant of the participial form found in the Greek
-/xecos, and has supplanted the proper form, which does not appear in Latin. The per-
sonal ending -nt is probably connected with the participial nt- (nominative -ns) .
2 The Passive is an old Middle Voice, peculiar to the Italic and Celtic languages,
and of uncertain origin.
8 Of these terminations -I is not a personal ending, but appears to represent an
Indo-European tense-sign -ai of the Perfect Middle. In -is-ti and -is-tis, -ti and -tis are
personal endings; for -is-, see 169. c. N. In -i-t and -i-mus, -t and -mus are personal
endings, and i is of uncertain origin. Both -erunt and -ere are also of doubtful origin,
but the former contains the personal ending -nt.
163, 164] THE THREE STEMS 77
Singular PRESENT PASSIVE Plural
2. -re : aina-re, be thou loved. -mini : ama-mini, be ye loved.
FUTURE PASSIVE
2. -tor : ama-tor, thou shall be loved.
3. -tor : ama-tor, he shall be loved. -ntor : ama-ntor, they shall be loved.
FORMS OF THE VERB
The Three Stems
164. The forms of the verb may be referred to three stems,
called (1) the Present, (2) the Perfect, and (3) the Supine stem.
1. On the Present stern are formed
The Present, Imperfect, and Future Indicative, Active and Passive.
The Present and Imperfect Subjunctive, Active and Passive.
The Imperative, Active and Passive.
The Present Infinitive, Active and Passive.
The Present Participle, the Gerundive, and the Gerund.
2. On the Perfect stem are formed
The Perfect, Pluperfect, and Future Perfect Indicative Active.
The Perfect and Pluperfect Subjunctive Active.
The Perfect Infinitive Active.
3. On the Supine stem are formed l
a. The Perfect Passive Participle, which combines with the forms of the
verb sum, be, to make
The Perfect, Pluperfect, and Future Perfect Indicative Passive.
The Perfect and Pluperfect Subjunctive Passive.
The Perfect Infinitive Passive.
b. The Future Active Participle, which combines with esse to make
the Future Active Infinitive.
c. The Supine in -um and -u. The Supine in -um combines with iri to
make the Future Passive Infinitive ( 203. a).
NOTE. The Perfect Participle with fore also makes a Future Passive Infinitive
(as, amatus fore). For fore (futurum esse) ut with the subjunctive, see 569. 3. a.
1 The Perfect Passive and Future Active Participles and the Supine, though strictly
noun-forms, each with its own suffix, agree in having the first letter of the suffix (t)
the same and in suffering the same phonetic change (t to s, see 15. 5). Hence these
forms, along with several sets of derivatives (in -tor, -tiira, etc., see 238. 6. N. 1 ), were
felt by the Romans as belonging to one system, and are conveniently associated with
the Supine Stem. Thus, from pingo, we have pictum, pictus, picturus, pictor, pictura;
from rideo, risum (for frid-tum), risus (part.), risus (noun), risurus, risi5, risor, risibilis.
78
CONJUGATION OF THE VERB
[ 165, 166
VERB-ENDINGS
165. Every form of the finite verb is made up of two parts :
1. The STEM (see 24). This is either the root or a modification or
development of it.
2. The ENDING, consisting of
1. the Signs of Mood and Tense (see 168, 169).
2. the Personal Ending (see 163).
Thus in the verb voca-ba-s, you were calling, the root is voc, modified into the
verb-stem voca-, which by the addition of the ending -bas becomes the imperfect
tense vocabas ; and this ending consists of the tense-sign ba- and the personal
ending (-s) of the second person singular.
166. The Verb-endings, as they are formed by the signs for
mood and tense combined with personal endings, are
PASSIVE
INDICATIVE SUBJUNCTIVE
PRESENT
-or (" -r
-ris (-re) , g -ris (-re)
-tur | ' -tur
-mur ^ a -mur
-mini I 3 -mini
.
-ntur [ -ntur
IMPERFECT
-ba-r -re-r
-ba-ris (-re) -re-ris (-re)
ba-tur -re-tur
-ba-mur -re-mur
-ba-mini -re-mini
-ba-ntur -re-ntur
ACTIVE
INDICATIVE SUBJUNCTIVE
PRESENT
SING.
1.
-6
' j
' -m
2.
-s
i
,
-s
3.
-t
|
-"
-t
PLUR.
1.
-mus
%
j
K '*
-mus
2.
-tis
I
5S
-tis
3.
-nt
-- =
-nt
IMPERFECT
SING.
1.
-ba-m
-re-m
2.
-ba-s
-re-s
3.
-ba-t
-re-t
PLUR.
1.
-ba-mus
-re-mus
2.
-ba-tis
-re-tis
3.
-ba-nt
-re-nt
INDICATIVE
FUTURE
i, n 1
ni,
rv
glNG.
PLUR.
1.
2.
3.
1.
-b-6
-bi-s
-bi-t
-bi-mus
l-Chnnge: as
ted in italics;
i-ioretainingi
these vowels.
-a-m
-e-s
-e-t
-e-mus
2.
-bi-tis
S J
j ^
-e-tis
3.
-bu-nt
11 S
-e-nt
INDICATIVE
FUTURE
i, n
-bo-r
-be-ris (-re)
-bi-tur J
-bi-mur
i
-bi-mini ^
-bu-ntur
in, rv *
-a-r
-e-ris (-re)
-e-tur
-e-mur
-e-mini
-e-ntur
These numerals refer to the four conjugations given later (see 171).
VERB-ENDINGS
79
Active
INDICATIVE SU
PERFECT
SING. 1. -I
2. -is-ti
3. -i-t
PLTJR. 1. -i-mus
2. -is-tis
3. -eru-nt (-ere)
PLUPERFECT
SING. 1. -era-m
2. -era-s
3. -era-t
PLUR. 1. -era-mus
2. -era-tis
3. -era-nt
FUTURE PERFECT
SING. 1. -er-o
2. -eri-s
3. -eri-t
PLTJR. 1. -eri-mus
2. -eri-tis
3. -eri-nt
PRESENT
SING. 2
Passive
JJUNCTIVE
INDICATIVE SUBJUNCTIVE
PERFECT
-eri-m
-eri-s
-eri-t
-tus (-ta,
-turn)
sum sim
es sis
est sit
-eri-mus
-eri-tis
-eri-nt
-ti (-tae,
-ta)
sumus simus
estis sltis
sunt sint
P
PLUPERFECT
-isse-m
-isse-s
-isse-t
-tus(-ta,
-turn)
eram essem
eras esses
erat esset
-isse-mus
-isse-tis
-isse-nt
-ti (-tae,
-ta) '
eramus essemus
eratis essetis
erant essent
SCT
FUTURE PERFECT
-tus (-ta,
-turn)
ero
eris
erit
-ti (-tae,
-ta)
erimus
eritis
erunt
IMPERATIVE
FUTURE
JAM \Jf at J.C
2. -t5
2. -tote
2. -tor
3. -to
3. -nto
3. -tor
PRESENT
PLUR. 2. -mini
FUTURE
3. -ntor
For convenience a table of the Noun and Adjective forms of
the verb is here added.
INFINITIVE
PRES. -re (Pres. stem) i, n, iv. -ri ; HI. -i
PERF. -isse (Perf. stem) -tus (-ta, -turn) esse
FUT. -turus (-a, -urn) esse -turn iri
PRES. -HS, -Htis
FUT. -turus, -a, -um
PARTICIPLES
PERF. -tus, -ta, -turn
GER. -ndus, -nda, -ndum
GERUND SUPINE
-ndl. -ndo, -ndum, -ndo -turn, -tu
80 CONJUGATION OF THE VERB [ 167, 168
167. A long vowel is shortened before the personal endings
-m (-r), -t, -nt (-ntur) : as, ame-t (for older ame-t), habe-t (for habe-t),
mone-nt, mone-ntur.
168. The tenses of the Present System are made from the Pres-
ent Stem as follows : 1
a. In the Present Indicative the personal endings are added directly to
the present stem. Thus, present stem ara-: ara-s, ara-mus, ara-tis.
b. In the Imperfect Indicative the suffix -bam, -bas, etc. (originally a com-
plete verb) is added to the present stem : as, ara-bam, ara-bas, ara-barnus.
NOTE. The form fbam was apparently an aorist of the Indo-European root BHU
(cf. ful, futurus, 0tfw, English be, been), and meant I was. This was added to a com-
plete word, originally a case of a verbal noun, as in / was a-seeing; hence vide-bam.
The form probably began in the Second or Third Conjugation and was extended to the
others. The a was at first long, but was shortened in certain forms ( 167) .
c. In the Future Indicative of the First and Second Conjugations a similar
suffix, -bo, -bis, etc., is added to the present stem : as, ara -bo, ara-bis, mone-bo.
NOTE. The form fbo was probably a present tense of the root BHU, with a future
meaning, and was affixed to a noun-form as described in b. N.
d. In the Future Indicative of the Third and Fourth Conjugations the
terminations -am, -es, etc. (as, teg-am, teg-es, audi-am, audi-es) are really sub-
junctive endings used in a future sense (see e~). The vowel was originally
long throughout. For shortening, see 167.
e* In the Present Subjunctive the personal endings were added to a
form of the present stem ending in e- or a-, which was shortened in certain
forms ( 167). Thus, ame-m, ame-s, tega-mus, tega-nt.
NOTE 1. The vowel e (seen in the First Conjugation: as, am-e-s) is an inherited
subjunctive mood-sign. It appears to be the thematic vowel e ( 174. 1) lengthened.
The a of the other conjugations (mone-a-s, reg-a-s, audi-a-s) is of uncertain origin.
NOTE 2. In a few irregular verbs a Present Subjunctive in -im, -is, etc. occurs:
as, sim, sis, simus, velim, veils, etc. This is an old optative, I being a form of the Indo-
European optative mood-sign ye- (cf. siem, sies, siet, 170. b. N.). The vowel has
been shortened in the first and third persons singular and the third person plural.
/. In the Imperfect Subjunctive the suffix -rem, -res, etc. is added to the
present stem : as, ama-rem, ama-res, mone-rem, tege-rem, audi-rem.
NOTE. The stem element -re"- is of uncertain origin and is not found outside of
Italic. The r is doubtless the aorist sign s (cf . es-se-m, es-se-s) changed to r between
two vowels ( 15. 4). The e is probably the subjunctive mood-sign (see e).
1 The conjugation of a verb consists of separate formations from a root, grad-
ually grouped together, systematized, and supplemented by new formations made on
old lines to supply deficiencies. Some of the forms were inherited from the parent
speech ; others were developed in the course of the history of the Italic dialects or of
the Latin language itself.
169, 170] VERB-ENDINGS 81
169. The tenses of the Perfect System in the active voice are
made from the Perfect Stem as follows :
a. In the Perfect Indicative the endings -i, -isti, etc. are added directly
to the perfect stem : as, amav-isti, tex-istis.
ft. In the Pluperfect Indicative the suffix -eram, -eras, etc. is added to the
perfect stem : as, amav-eram, menu-eras, tex-erat.
NOTE. This seems to represent an older f-is-am etc. formed on the analogy of
the Future Perfect in -ero (older f-is-o : see c below) and influenced by eram (imperfect
of sum) in comparison with ero (future of sum) .
c. In the Future Perfect the suffix -ero, -eris, etc. is added to the perfect
stem : as, amav-er5, monu-eris, tex-erit.
NOTE. This formation was originally a subjunctive of the s-aorist, ending prob-
ably in f-is-6. The -is- is doubtless the same as that seen in the second person singular of
the perfect indicative (vid-is-ti), in the perfect infinitive (vid-is-se), and in the plu-
perfect subjunctive (vid-is-sem), s being the aorist sign and i probably an old stem
vowel.
d. In the Perfect Subjunctive the suffix -erim, -eris, etc. is added to the
perfect stem : as, amav-erim, monu-eris, tex-erit.
NOTE. This formation was originally an optative of the s-aorist (-er- for older
-is-, as in the future perfect, see c above) . The i after r is the optative mood-sign I
shortened (see 168. e. N. 2 ). Forms in -is, -it, -imus, -itis, are sometimes found. The
shortening in -is, -Imus, -itis, is due to confusion with the future perfect.
e. In the Pluperfect Subjunctive the suffix -issem, -isses, etc. is added to
the perfect stem : as, amav-issem, monu-isses, tex-isset.
NOTE. Apparently this tense was formed on the analogy of the pluperfect indica-
tive in f-is-am (later -er-am, see 6), and influenced by essem (earlier fessem) in its
relation to eram (earlier fesam).i
The Verb Sum
170. The verb sum, be, is both irregular and defective, having
no gerund or supine, and no participle but the future.
Its conjugation is given at the outset, on account of its impor-
tance for the inflection of other verbs.
1 The signs of mood and tense are often said to be inserted between the root (or
verb-stem) and the personal ending. No such insertion is possible in a language
developed like the Latin. All true verb-forms are the result, as shown above, of com-
position; that is, of adding to the root or the stem either personal endings or fully
developed auxiliaries (themselves containing the personal terminations), or of imita-
tion of such processes. Thus videbamus is made by adding to vide-, originally a signifi-
cant word or a form conceived as such, a full verbal form fbamus, not by inserting
-ba- between vide- and -mus ( 168. 6).
82
CONJUGATION OF THE VERB
[170
PRINCIPAL PARTS : Present Indicative sum, Present Infinitive esse.
Perfect Indicative fui, Future Participle futurus.
PRESENT STEM es-
1NDICATIVE
PERFECT STEM fu-
PKESENT
SING.
1. sum, / am
2. 6s, thou art (you are)
3. est, he (she, it) is
PLUR. 1. sumus, we are
2. estis, you are
3. sunt, they are
IMPERFECT
SING.
PLUR.
SING.
PLUR.
SING.
PLUR.
SING.
eram, / was
eras, you were
erat, he (she, it) was
erarnus, we were
eratis, you were
erant, they were
ero, / shall be
eris, you will be
erit, he will be
erimus, we shall be
eritis, you will be
erunt, they will be
FUTURE
PERFECT
fui, / was (have been)
f uistl, you were
f uit, he was
f uimus, we were
fuistis, you were
fuerunt, fuere, they were
PLUPERFECT
1. fueram, / had been
2. fueras, you had been
3. fuerat, he had been
SUPINE STEM fut-
SUBJUNCTIVE
Sim 1
sis
sit
simus
sitis
sint
essem
esses
esset
essemus
essetis
essent
fuerim
fueris
fuerit
fuerimus
fueritis
fuerint
fuissem
f uisses
fuisset
1 All translations of the Subjunctive are misleading, and hence none is given ; see
5 157. 6.
170] THE VERB SUM 83
PLUR. 1. f ueramus, we had been fuissemus
2. fueratis, you had been fuissetis
3. fuerant, they had been fuissent
FUTURE PERFECT
SING. 1. f uero, / shall have been PLUR. 1. fuerimus, we shall hav e been
2. fueris, you will have been 2. fueritis, you will have been
3. fuerit, he will have been 3. fuerint, they will have been
IMPERATIVE
PRESENT SING. 2. Ss, be thou PLUR. 2. este, be ye
FUTURE 2. esto, thou shall be 2. estote, ye shall be
3. esto, he shall be 3. sunto, they shall be
INFINITIVE
PRESENT esse, to be
PERFECT fuisse, to have been
FUTURE futurus esse or fore, to be about to be
PARTICIPLE
FUTURE futurus, -a, -um, about to be
a. For essem, esses, etc., f orem, fores, foret, f orent, are often used ; so fore
for futurus esse.
b. The Present Participle, which would regularly be fsSns, 1 appears in
the adjective m-sons, innocent, and in a modified form in ab-sens, prae-sens.
The simple form ens is sometimes found in late or philosophical Latin as a
participle or abstract noun, in the forms ens, being ; entia, things which are.
NOTE. Old forms are: Indicative: Future, escit, escunt (strictly an inchoa-
tive present, see 263. 1) .
Subjunctive: Present, siem, sies, siet, sient; fuam, fuas, fuat, fuant; Perfect, fuvi-
mus; Pluperfect, fuvisset.
The root of the verb sum is ES, which in the imperfect is changed to ER (see 15. 4),
and in many forms is shortened to s. Some of its modifications, as found in several
languages more or less closely related to Latin, may be seen in the following table,
the Sanskrit sydrn corresponding to the Latin sim (siem) :
SANSKRIT GREEK LATIN LITHUANIAN
as-mi sydm (optative) e^/it 2 s-um sim (siem) es-mi
as-i syds foel 2 es sis (sies) es-i
as-ti sydt karl es-t sit (siet) es-ti
s-mas sydma t<rv.tv s-umus SWIMS es-me
s-tha sydta effr es-tis sitis es-te
s-anti syus ivri 2 s-unt sint (sient) es-ti
The Perfect and Supine stems, fu-, fut-, are kindred with the Greek |0v, and with
the English be.
1 Compare Sankrit sant, Greek uv. 2 Old form.
84 CONJUGATION OF THE VERB [ 171-173
The Four Conjugations
171. Verbs are classed in Four Regular Conjugations, distin-
guished by the stem-vowel which appears before -re in the Present
Infinitive Active :
CONJUGATION INFINITIVE ENDING STEM
First -are (aruare) a
Second -ere (monere) e
Third -Sre (reggre) 8
Fourth -ire (audire) I
The Principal Parts
172. The Principal Parts of a verb, showing the three stems
which determine its conjugation throughout, are
1. The Present Indicative (as. amo) ] ,
. rr.v> T> ,. T A -4.- / - \ t showing the Present Stem.
2. I he Present Infinitive (as, ama-re) J
3. The Perfect Indicative (as, amav-i), showing the Perfect Stem.
4. The neuter of the Perfect Participle (as, amat-um), or, if that form
is not in use, the Future Active Participle (amat-urus), showing the Supine
Stem.
173. The regular forms of the Four Conjugations are seen in
the following :
First Conjugation :
Active, amo, amare, amavi, aniatum, love.
Passive, amor, amari, amatus.
Present Stem ama-, Perfect Stem amav-, Supine Stem amat-.
Second Conjugation :
Active, deled, delere, delevi, deletum, blot out.
Passive, deleor, deleri, deletus.
Present Stem dele-, Perfect Stein delev-, Supine Stein delet-.
In the Second conjugation, however, the characteristic e- rarely appears
in the perfect and perfect participle. The common type is, therefore :
Active, moneo, monere, monui, monitum, warn.
Passive, moneor, moneri, monitus.
Present Stem mone-, Perfect Stem monu-, Supme Stem monit-.
173, 174] PRESENT STEM 85
Third Conjugation :
Active, tego, tegSre, texi, tectum, cover.
Passive, tegor, tegi, tectus.
Present Stem tegS-, Perfect Stem tex-, Supine Stem tect-.
Fourth Conjugation :
Active, audio, audire, audivi, auditum. hear.
Passive, audior, audiri, auditus.
Present Stem audi-, Perfect Stem audiv-, Supine Stem audit-.
a. In many verbs the principal parts take forms belonging to two or
more different conjugations (cf. 189):
1, 2, domo, domare, domui, domitum, subdue.
2, 3, maneo, manere, mansi, mansum, remain.
3, 4, peto, petSre, petivi, petitum, seek.
4, 3, vincio, vincire, vinxi, vinctum, bind.
Such verbs are referred to the conjugation to which the Present stem
conforms.
Present Stem
174. The parent (Indo-European) speech from which Latin comes had two main
classes of verbs :
1. Thematic Verbs, in which a so-called thematic vowel (%, in Latin Vu) appeared
between the root and the personal ending: as, leg-i-tis (for fleg-e-tes), leg-u-nt (for
tleg-o-nti) .1
2. Athematic Verbs, in which the personal endings were added directly to the root :
as, es-t, es-tis (root Es) 2 , d-mus (do, root DA), fer-t (fero, root FER).
Of the Athematic Verbs few survive in Latin, and these are counted as irregular,
except such as have been forced into one of the four " regular " conjugations. Even
the irregular verbs have admitted many forms of the thematic type.
Of the Thematic Verbs a large number remain. These may be divided into two
classes :
1. Verbs which preserve the thematic vowel e or o (in Latin i or u) before the per-
sonal endings. These make up the Third Conjugation. The present stem is formed
in various ways ( 176) , but always ends in a short vowel e /o (Latin l/n) . Examples are
tego (stem teg e / -), sternimus (stem stern e / -) for fster-no-mos, plectunt (stem plect e / -)
for fplec-to-nti. So nosco (stem gnosc e / -) for gno-sc-6. Verbs like nosco became the
type for a large number of verbs in -sco, called inceptives ( 263. 1).
2. Verbs which form the present stem by means of the suffix y e / -, which already
contained the thematic vowel %. Verbs of this class in which any vowel (except
u) came in contact with' the suffix y%- suffered contraction so as to present a long
vowel a-, e-, i-, at the end of the stem. In this contraction the thematic e / disappeared.
These became the types of the First, Second, and Fourth conjugations respectively.
In imitation of these long vowel-stems numerous verbs were formed by the Romans
themselves (after the mode of formation had been entirely forgotten) from noun- and
1 Cf . Xy--re, Xy-o-/xec ; Doric Xy-o-ri.
2 Cf. tff-rt, Iff-rt (see p. 83, note).
86 CONJUGATION OF THE VERB [ 174-176
adjective-stems. This came to be the regular way of forming new verbs, just as in
English the borrowed suffix -ize can be added to nouns and adjectives to make
verbs: as, macadamize, modernize.
Thematic verbs of the second class in which a consonant or u came into contact
with the suffix y%- suffered various phonetic changes. Such verbs fall partly into
the Third Conjugation, giving rise to an irregular form of it, and partly into the Fourth,
and some have forms of both. Examples are : (c5n)spicio (-spicere) for fspekyo ; venio
(venire) for t (g) vem-yo ; cupio, cupSre, but cupivi ; orior, oritur, but oriri. Note, however,
plu5 (pluere) for fplu-y5 ; and hence, by analogy, acuo (acuere) for facu-yo.
In all these cases many cross-analogies and errors as well as phonetic changes have
been at work to produce irregularities. Hence has arisen the traditional system which
is practically represented in 175, 176.
175. The Present Stem may be found by dropping -re in the
Present Infinitive :
ama-re, stem ama-; mone-re, stem mone-; teg5-re, stem tegS-; audi-re, stem
audi-.
176. The Present Stem is formed from the Root in all regu-
lar verbs in one of the following ways :
ft. In the First, Second, and Fourth conjugations, by adding a long
vowel (a-, e-, I-) to the root, whose vowel is sometimes changed : as, voca-re
(voc), mone-re (MEN, cf. memini), sopi-re (sop). 1
NOTE. Verb-stems of these conjugations are almost all really formed from noun-
stems on the pattern of older formations (see 174) .
6. In the Third Conjugation, by adding a short vowel % 2 to the root.
In Latin this % usually appears as y u , but e is preserved in some forms.
Thus, tegi-s (root TEG), ali-tis (AL), regu-nt (REG) ; but tegS-ris (tege-re), ale-ris.
1. The stem-vowel e/o (Vu) mav he preceded by n, t, or sc : 8 as, tem-ni-tis,
tem-nu-nt, tem-nS-ris (TEM) ; plec-ti-s (PLEC) ; cre-sci-tis (CRE).
2. Verbs in -id of the Third Conjugation (as, capio, capSre) show in some forma
an i before the final vowel of the stem : as, cap-i-unt (CAP), fug-i-unt (FUG).
c. The root may be changed
1. By the repetition of a part of it (reduplication) : as, gi-gn-e-re (GEN).
2. By the insertion of a nasal (m or n) : as, find-e-re (FID), tang-e-re (TAG).
1 Most verbs of the First, Second, and Fourth Conjugations form the present stem by
adding the suffix -y%- to a noun-stem. The a of the First Conjugation is the stem-ending
of the noun (as, planta-re, from planta-, stem of planta). The e of the Second and the i
of the Fourth Conjugation are due to contraction of the short vowel of the noun-stem
with the ending -y e / -. Thus albgre is from alb%-, stem of albus; fimre is from fini-,
stem of finis. Some verbs of these classes, however, come from roots ending in a vowel.
2 This is the so-called " thematic vowel."
8 In these verbs the stem-ending added to the root is respectively -n%-, -t%-,
176, 177] PERFECT STEM 87
d, In some verbs the present stem is formed from a noun-stem in u- :
as, statu-e-re (statu-s), aestu-a-re (aestu-s); cf. acuo, acuere. 1
NOTE 1. A few isolated forms use the simple root as a present stem : as, fer-re,
fer-t ; es-se ; vel-le, vul-t. These are counted as irregular.
NOTE 2. In some verbs the final consonant of the root is doubled before the stem-
vowel: as, pell-i-tis (PEL), mitt-i-tis (MIT).
e. Some verbs have roots ending in a vowel. In these the present stem
is generally identical with the root : as, da-mus (DA), fle-mus (stem fle-, root
form unknown). 2 But others, as rui-mus (RU), are formed with an addi-
tional vowel according to the analogy of the verbs described in d.
NOTE. Some verbs of this class reduplicate the root: as, si-st-e-re (STA, cf. stare).
Perfect Stem
177. The Perfect Stem is formed as follows :
a. The suffix v (u) is added to the verb-stem : as, voca-v-i, audi-v-x ; or
to the root : as, son-u-i (sona-re, root SON), mon-u-I (mone-re, MOX treated
as a root). 8
NOTE. In a few verbs the vowel of the root is transposed and lengthened: as,
stra-v-i (stern5, STAR), spre-v-i (sperno, SPAR).
b. The suffix s is added to the root : as, carp-s-I (CARP), tex-i (for teg-s-i,
TEG). 4
NOTE. The modifications of the present stem sometimes appear in the perfect:
as, finx-i (FIG, present stem flngg-), sanx-i (SAC, present stern sanci-).
c. The root is reduplicated by prefixing the first consonant generally
with g, sometimes with the root-vowel: as, ce-cid-i (cado, CAD), to-tond-i
(tondeS, TOND).
NOTE. Infid-i (for f *e-fld-i, find-6), scid-i (for fsci-scid-i, scindo), the reduplication
has been lost, leaving merely the root.
d. The root vowel is lengthened, sometimes with vowel change : as, leg-I
(leg-6), em-I (Sm-o), vid-I (vid-e-o), fug-i (fug-i-o), eg-I (ag-o).
e. Sometimes the perfect stem has the same formation that appears in
the present tense : as, vert-I (vert-o), solv-I (solv-o).
/. Sometimes the perfect is formed from a lost or imaginary stem : as,
peti-v-I (as if from fpeti-o. fpeti-re, PET).
1 These are either old formations in -y*/ - in which the y has disappeared after the
u (as, statuo for fstatu-yo) or later imitations of such forms.
2 In some of the verbs of this class the present stem was originally identical with
the root ; in others the ending -y e / - was added, but has been absorbed by contraction.
3 The v-perfect is a form of uncertain origin peculiar to the Latin.
4 The s-perfect is in origin an aorist. Thus, dix-i (for fdics-I) corresponds to the
Greek aorist e-5et-a (for te-Sei/ccr-a).
88 CONJUGATION OF THE VERB [ 178, 179
Supine Stem
178. The Supine Stem may be found by dropping -um from the
Supine. It is formed by adding t (or, by a phonetic change, s)
a. To the present stem : as, ama-t-um, dele-t-um, audl-t-um.
&. To the root, with or without I : as, cap-t-um (capio, CAP), moni-t-um
(moiieo, MON used as root), cas-um (for fcad-t-um, CAD), lec-t-um (LEG).
NOTE 1. By phonetic change dt and tt become s (defensum, versum for td5-fend-
t-um, fvert-t-um) ; bt becomes pt (scrip-t-um for fscrlb-t-um) : gt becomes ct (rec-t-um
for treg-t-um).i
NOTE 2. The modifications of the present stem sometimes appear in the supine :
as, tlnc-t-um (tingo, TIG), ten-s-um for ftend-t-um (ten-d-6, TEN).
NOTE 3. The supine is sometimes from a lost or imaginary verb-stem : as, petl-t-um
(as if from fpeti-o, fpeti-re, PET).
NOTE 4. A few verbs form the supine stem in s after the analogy of verbs in d
and t: as, fal-s-um (fallo), pul-s-um (pello).
Forms of Conjugation
179. The forms of the several conjugations from which, by
adding the verb-endings in 166, all the moods and tenses can
be made are as follows :
a. The First Conjugation includes all verbs which add a- to the
root to form the present stem : 2 as, ama-re ; with a few whose root
ends in a (ffor, fa-ri; flo, fla-re; no, na-re; sto, sta-re).
1. The stem-vowel a- is lost before -6 : as, amo = fama-(y)o ; and in the
present subjunctive it is changed to e : as, ame-s, ame-mus.
2. The perfect stem regularly adds v, the supine stem t, to the present
stem : as, ama-v-i, ama-t-um. For exceptions, see 209. a.
6. The Second Conjugation includes all verbs which add g- to the
root to form the present stem : as, mone-re ; with a few whose root
ends in e; as, fle-6, fle-re; ne-6, ne-re; re-or, re-rl (cf. 176. e).
1. In the present subjunctive a is added to the verb-stem: as, mone-a-s,
mone-a-mus (cf. 168. e).
2. A few verbs form the perfect stem by adding v (u), and the supine
stem by adding t, to the present stem : as, dele-v-i, dele-t-um. But most
form the perfect stem by adding v (u) to the root, and the supine stem by
adding t to a weaker form of the present stem, ending in i : as, mon-u-i,
mom-t-um. For lists, see 210.
1 For these modifications of the supine stem, see 15. 5, 6, 10.
2 The present stem is thus the verb-stem. For exceptions, see 209. a.
179] FORMS OF CONJUGATION 89
c. The Third Conjugation includes all verbs (not irregular, see
197) which add e- to the root to form the present stem : as, tege-
re, cape-re ; with a few whose root ends in e : as, se-re-re for fse-se-re
(reduplicated from SE, cf. sStum).
1. The stem-vowel 6 is regularly lost before -6, and becomes u 1 before
-nt and I before the other endings of the indicative and imperative : as,
teg-6, tegi-t, tegu-nt ; in the imperfect indicative it becomes e : as. tege-
bam, tege-bas, etc. ; in the future, e : as, tege-s (except in the first person
singular, tega-m, tega-r) ; in the present subjunctive, a : as, tega-s.
Verbs in -io lose the i before a consonant and also before i, I, and
(except in the future, the participle, the gerund, and the gerundive).
Thus, capi-at, capi-unt, capi-ebat, capi-es, capi-et, capi-ent ; but, cap-it
(not fcapi-it), cap-eret.
2. All varieties of perfect and supine stems are found in this conjuga-
tion. See lists, 211. The perfect is not formed from the present stem,
but from the root.
d. The Fourth Conjugation includes all verbs which add I- to the
root to form the present stem : as, audi-re. 2 In these the perfect and
supine stems regularly add v, t, to the verb-stem : as, audl-y-l, audi-
t-um. 3 Endings like those of the third conjugation are added in the
third person plural of the present (indicative and imperative), in
the imperfect and future indicative, and in the present subjunctive :
as, audi-unt, audi-ebat, audi-etis, audi-at, the i being regularly short
before a vowel.
e. The Present Imperative Active (second person singular) is the
same as the present stem : as, ama, mone, tegg, audi. But verbs in -io
of the third conjugation omit i : as, cape" (not fcapie).
/. The tenses of completed action in the Active voice are all regu-
larly formed by adding the tense-endings (given in 166) to the
perfect stem : as, amav-1, amav-eram, amav-ero, amav-erim, amav-issem,
amav-isse.
(j. The tenses of completed action in the Passive voice are formed
by adding to the perfect participle the corresponding tenses of con-
tinned action of the verb ease : as, perfect amatus sum ; pluperfect
amatus eram, etc.
1 The gerundive varies between -endus and -undus.
2 A few are formed from noun-stems, as finl-re (from fini-s) , and a few roots perhaps
end in i ; but these are not distinguishable in form.
8 For exceptions, see 212. 6.
90
CONJUGATION OF THE VERB
[180
Synopsis of the Verb
180. The following synopsis shows the forms of the verb ar-
ranged according to the three stems ( 164). Amo, a regular verb
of the first conjugation, is taken as a type.
PRINCIPAL PARTS : Active, amo, amare, amavi, amatum.
Passive, amor, amari, amatus sum.
PRESENT STEM ama-
ACTIVE
PERFECT STEM amav-
Present stem, ama-
INDICATIVE
SUPINE STEM amat-
PASSIVE
PRES.
IMPERF.
FUT.
amo
ama-bam
ama-bo
amo-r
ama-bar
ama-bor
PRES.
IMPERF.
SUBJUNCTIVE
anie-m
ama-rem
ame-r
ama-rer
PRES.
FUT.
IMPERATIVE
ama
ama-to
am5-re
ama-tor
PRES.
INFINITIVE
ama-re
ama-ri
PRES.
PARTICIPLE
ama-ns
GERUNDIVE ama-ndus
GERUND
ama-ndi
Perfect stem, amav-
PERF.
PLUPERF.
FUT. PERF.
PERF.
PLUPERF.
PERF.
PERF.
FUT.
araav-i
amav-eram
amav-ero
am5v-erim
amav-iasem
auiav-isse
INDICATIVE
SUBJUNCTIVE
INFINITIVE
Supine stem, amat-
amat-us sum
amat-us erain
amat-us ero
amat-ua aim
amat-us essem
Supine stem, amat-
INFINITIVE
amat-urus esse
PARTICIPLE
ainat-us esae
ainat-um iri
FUT. amat-urus
SUPINE amat-um amSt-u
PERF. amat-ua
181-183] PECULIARITIES OF CONJUGATION 91
Peculiarities of Conjugation
181. In tenses formed upon the Perfect Stem, v between two
vowels is often lost and contraction takes place.
a. Perfects in -avl, -evi, -ovi, often contract the two vowels into a, e, o,
respectively : as, amasse for amavisse ; amarim for amaverim ; amassem for
amavissem ; consuerat for consueverat ; flestis for flevistis ; nosse for novisse.
So in perfects in -vi, where the v is a part of the present stem : as, commorat
for commoverat.
NOTE. The first person of the perfect indicative (as, amavi) is never contracted,
the third very rarely.
6. Perfects in -ivi regularly omit v, but rarely contract the vowels ex-
cept before st and as, and very rarely in the third person perfect :
audieram for audiveram ; audisse for audivisse ; audisti for audivisti ; abiit for
abivit ; abierunt for abiverunt.
NOTE 1. The forms siris, sirit, siritis, sirint, for siveris etc. (from siver5 or siverim) ,
are archaic.
NOTE 2. In many forms from the perfect stem is, iss, sis, are lost in like manner,
when s would be repeated if they were retained : as, dixti for dixisti (x = cs) ; traxe
for traxisse ; Svasti for evasisti ; vixet for vixisset ; erepsemus for erepsissemus ; decesse
for decessisse. These forms belong to archaic and colloquial usage.
182. Four verbs, dico, duco, facio, fer6, with their compounds,
drop the vowel-termination of the Imperative, making die, duc,.ffic,
fgr j but compounds in -ficio retain it, as, confice.
NOTE. The imperative forms dice, duce, face (never fere), occur in early Latin.
a* For the imperative of scio, the future form scito is always used in the
singular, and scitSte usually in the plural.
183. The following ancient forms are found chiefly in poetry :
1. In the fourth conjugation, -ibam, -ibo, for -iebam, -iam (future). These
forms are regular in eo, go ( 203).
2. In the present subjunctive, -im : as in duim, perduim, retained in
religious formulas and often in comedy. This form is regular in sum and
volo and their compounds ( 170, 199).
3. In the perfect subjunctive and future perfect indicative, -sim, -so : as,
faxim, faxo, iusso, recepso (= fecerim etc.) ; ausim '(= ausus sim).
4. In the passive infinitive, -ier : as, vocarier for vocari ; agier for agl.
5. A form in -asso, -assere is found used as a future perfect : as, amassis,
from amo ; levasso, from levo ; impetrassere, from impetro ; iudicassit, from
iudico (cf . 263. 2. b. N.).
92
CONJUGATION OF THE VERB
[184
FIRST CONJUGATION (-STEMS) ACTIVE VOICE
184. The First Conjugation includes all verbs which add a- to
the root to form the present stem, with a few whose root ends
in a-. The verb am6, love, is conjugated as follows :
PRINCIPAL PARTS : Present Indicative am5, Present Infinitive amare,
Perfect Indicative amavi, Supine amatutn.
PRESENT STEM ama-
PERFECT STEM amav-
INDICATIVE
PRESENT
amo, 1 / love, am loving, do love
amas, thou lovest (you love}
aniat, he (she, if) loves
aniamus, we love
amatis, you love
amant, they love
SUPINE STEM amat-
SUBJUNCTIVE
amem 2
ames
amet
amemus
ametis
ament
IMPERFECT
amabam, / loved, was loving, did love amarem
amabas, you loved amares
amabat, he loved amaret
amabamus. we loved
am abatis, you loved
amabant, they loved
amaremua
amaretis
amarent
amabo, / shall love
amabis. you will love
amabit, he will love
amabimus, we shall love
amabitis, you will love
amabunt, they will love
FUTURE
1 The stem-vowel a- is lost before -5, and in the Present Subjunctive becomes e-.
2 The translation of the Subjunctive varies widely according to the construction.
Hence no translation of this mood is given in the paradigms.
184] FIRST CONJUGATION <
INDICATIVE SUBJUNCTIVE
PERFECT
aimivi, / loved, have loved amaverim
aruavisti, you loved amaveris
amavit, he loved amaverit
ainavimus, we loved arnaverimus
amavistis, you loved amaveritia
amavirunt (-re), they loved arnaverint
PLUPERFECT
amaveram, / had loved amavissem
amaveras, you had loved amavisses
amaverat, he had loved amavisset
amaveramus, we had loved ainavissemus
amaveratis, you had loved amavissetia
amaverant, they had loved amavissent
FUTURE PERFECT
Singular Plural
amavero, 7 shall have loved amaverimus, we shall have loved
amaveris, you will have loved amaveritia, you will have loved
amaverit, he, will have loved amaverint, they will have loved
IMPERATIVE
PRESENT ama, love thou amate, love ye
FCTURE amSto, thou shall love amatote, ye shall love
amato, he shall love anianto, they shall love
INFINITIVE
PRESENT amare, to love
PERFECT amavisae or amaase, to have loved
FUTURE amaturua esse, to be about to love
PARTICIPLES
PRESENT amans, -antis, loving
FUTURE amatflrua, -a, -um, about to love
GERUND
GENITIVE amandi, of loving ACCUSATIVE amandum, loving
DATIVE amando, for loving ABLATIVE amando, by loving
SUPINE
amatum, to love amatu, to love
94
CONJUGATION OF THE VERB
[184
FIRST CONJUGATION (-STEMS) PASSIVE VOICE
PRINCIPAL, PARTS : Present Indicative amor, Present Infinitive amari,
Perfect Indicative amatus sum. 1
PRESENT STEM ama-
SUPINE STEM amat-
INDICATIVE
PRESENT
amor, 2 / am loved, being loved
amaris (-re), you are loved
amatur, he is loved
amamur, we are loved
amamim, you are loved
uinantur, they are loved
SUBJUNCTIVE
amer 3
ameris (-re)
amgtur
amemur
amemini
amentur
IMPERFECT
amabar, / was loved, being loved amarer
amabaris (-re), you were loved amareris (-re)
amabatur, he was loved amartur
amabamur, we were loved amSremur
ainabamim, you were loved amSremim
amabantur, they were loved amarentur
FUTURE
amabor, / shall be loved
ainaberis (-re), you will be loved
amabitur, he will be loved
amabimur, we shall be loved
amabimini, you will be loved
amabuntur, they will be loved
1 Fui, fuistl, etc., are sometimes used instead of sum, es, etc. ; so also fueram instead
of eram and fuerS instead of er5. Similarly in the Perfect and Pluperfect Subjunctive
fuerim, fueris, etc. are sometimes used instead of sim, sis, etc., and fuissem instead of
essem.
2 The stem-vowel a- is lost before -or, and in the Present Subjunctive becomes e-.
8 The translation of the Subjunctive varies widely according to the construction.
Hence no translation of this mood is given in the paradigms.
184]
FIRST CONJUGATION
95
INDICATIVE
amtitus sum, 1 / was loved
amatus es, you were loved
amatus est, he was loved
amati sumus, we were loved
amati estis, you were loved
amati sunt, they were loved
PERFECT
SUBJUNCTIVE
amatus sim l
amatus sis
amatus sit
amati simus
amati sitis
amati sint
PLUPERFECT
amatus eram, 1 / had been loved
amatus eras, you had been loved
amatus erat, he had been loved
amati eramus, we had been loved
amati eratis, you had been loved
amati erant, they had been loved
amatus essem 1
amatus esses
amatus esset
amati essemus
amati essetis
amati essent
FUTURE PERFECT
Singular
amatus erS, 1 / shall have been loved
amatus eris, you will have, etc.
amatus erit, he will have, etc.
Plural
amati erimus, we shall have, etc.
amati eritis, you will have, etc.
amati erunt, they will have, etc.
IMPERATIVE
PRESENT amare, be thou loved amamini, be ye loved
FUTURE amator, thou shalt be loved
amator, he shall be loved araantor, they shall be loved
INFINITIVE
PRESENT amari, to be loved
PERFECT amatus esse, to have been loved
FUTURE amatum iri, to be about to be loved
PARTICIPLES
PERFECT amatus, -a, -um, loved (beloved, or having been loved')
FUTURE (GERUNDIVE) amandus, -a, -um, to-be-loved (lovely)
1 See page 94, footnote 1.
96
CONJUGATION OF THE VERB
[ 185
SECOND CONJUGATION (e-STEMS)
185. The Second Conjugation includes all verbs which add 6-
to the root to form the present stem, with a few whose root ends
in &-.
PRINCIPAL PARTS : Active, moneo, monere, monui, monitum;
Passive, moneor, moneri, monitus sum.
PKESENT STEM mone-
PERFECT STEM monu-
SUPINE STEM monit-
ACTIVE VOICE
INDICATIVE
SUBJUNCTIVE
PRESENT
IMPERFECT
nicmebam
mongrern
mongbas
mongres
monSbat
mongret
mongbamua
mongrgmus
monebatis
mongrgtis
rnonebant
mongrent
FUTURE
rnonebo
monSbis
mongbit
mongbimua
monebitis
mongbunt
PASSIVE VOICE
INDICATIVE SUBJUNCTIVE
PRESENT
moneo, / warn
moneam 1
moneor
monear 1
mongs, you ivarn
monet, he warns
moneas
moneat
mongris (-re)
monetur
monearis (-re)
moneStur
monemus
moneamuB
monemur
moneamur
monetis
moneatis
monemim
moneamini
monent
moneant
monentur
moneantur
IMPERFECT
monebar monerer
monebaris (-re) monereris (-re)
monebatur moneretur
monebamur moneremur
monebamini monergrnini
monebantur monerentur
FUTURE
monebor
moneberia (-re)
mongbitur
mongbimur
mongbimim
mongbuntur
See 179. b. 1.
185]
SECOND CONJUGATION
97
Active Voice
INDICATIVE SUBJUNCTIVE
PERFECT
monui monuerim
monuisti monueris
monuit rnonuerit
mouuinius monuerimus
monuistis monueritis
monugrunt (-re) monuerint
PLUPERFECT
Passive Voice
INDICATIVE SUBJUNCTIVE
PERFECT
monitus sum 1 monitus aim 1
monitus es monitus sis
monitus est monitus sit
moniti sunius moniti slmus
moniti estis moniti sitis
moniti suut moniti siut
PLUPERFECT
monueram
monuissem
monitus eram l
monitus essem '
monueras
monuissgs
monitus eras
monitus esses
monuerat
monuisset
monitus erat
monitus esset
monueram us
monuissemus
moniti eramus
moniti essemus
monueratis
inonuissetis
moniti eratis
moniti essetis
monuerant
monuissent
moniti erant
moiirti essent
FUTURE PERFECT
monuero
monueris
monuerit
monuerimus
monueritis
monuerint
Singular
PRESENT mone
FUTURE moneto
moneto
FUTURE PERFECT
monitus ero 1
monitus eris
monitus erit
moniti erimus
moniti eritis
moniti erunt
IMPERATIVE
Plural Singular
monete PRESENT mongre
monetote FUTURE monetor
monento mongtor monentor
Plural
monemini
PRESENT mongre
PERFECT monuisse
FUTURE moniturus esse
INFINITIVE
moneri
monitus esse
monitum iri
PARTICIPLES
PRESENT monens, -entis PERFECT monitus, -a, -um
FUTURE moniturus, -a, -um GERUNDIVE monendus, -a,-um
GERUND SUPINE
monendi, -do, -dum, -do monitum, monitu
1 See footnote 1 on page 94.
98
CONJUGATION OF THE VERB
[ 186
THIRD CONJUGATION (-STEMS)
186. The Third Conjugation includes all verbs (not irregular,
see 197) which add 6- to the root to form the present stem, with
a few whose root ends in g-.
PRINCIPAL PARTS : Active, teg5, tegSre, texl, tectum ;
Passive, tegor, tegi, tectus sum.
PRESENT STEM tege-
ACTIVE VOICE
PERFECT STEM tex-
SUPINE STEM tect-
INDICATIVE SUBJUNCTIVE
PRESENT
tego, 2 / cover tegam 2
tegis, you cover
tegit, he covers
tegimus
tegitia
tegunt
tegas
tegat
tegSmus
tegatis
tegant
IMPERFECT
teggbam tegerem
tegb5s tegeres
tegebat tegeret
tegebamus tegeremus
tegebatis tegeretis
tegebant tegerent
FUTURE
tegam :
teget
teggmus
teggtis
tegent
PASSIVE VOICE
INDICATIVE SUBJUNCTIVE
PRESENT
tegar 2
tegaris (-re)
tegatur
tegSmur
tegamim
tegantur
tegor 2
tegeris (-re)
tegitur
tegimur
tegimini
teguntur
IMPERP^ECT
tegebar
tegebaris (-re)
tegebatur
tegerer
tegereria (-re)
tegeretur
tegebamur tegeremur
teggbamini tegeremini
tegebantur tegerentur
FUTURE
tegar 2
teggris (-re)
teggtur
teggmur
tegemiiii
tegentur
1 The perfect stem in this conjugation is always formed from the root; tx- is for
tSg-s- (see 15. 9) . 2 See 179. c. 1.
186]
THIRD CONJUGATION
99
Active Voice
INDICATIVE SUBJUNCTIVE
PERFECT
texi texerim
texistl texeris
texit texerit
teximus texerimus
texistis texeritis
texerunt (-re) texerint
PLUPERFECT
texeram texissem
texeras texisses
texerat texisset
texeramus texissemus
texeratis texissetis
texerant texissent
FUTURE PERFECT
texero
texerid
texerit
texerimus
texeritia
texerint
Passive Voice
INDICATIVE SUBJUNCTIVE
PERFECT
tectus sum l
tectus es
tectus est
tecti sumus
tecti estis
tecti suut
tectus sim l
tectus sis
tectus sit
tecti slmus
tecti sitis
tecti sint
PLUPERFECT
tectus eram x
tectus eras
tectus erat
tecti eramus
tecti eratis
tecti erant
tectus essem l
tectus esses
tectus esset
tecti essemus
tecti essetis
tecti esseut
FUTURE PERFECT
tectus ero l
tectus eris
tectus erit
tecti erimus
tecti eritis
tecti erunt
IMPERATIVE
Singular Plural Singular
PRESENT tege tegite tegere
FUTURE tegito tegitote tegitor
tegitS tegunto tegitor
Plural
tegimini
teguntor
PRESENT
PERFECT
FUTURE
PRESENT
FUTURE
tegere
texisse
tecturus esse
INFINITIVE
tegi
tectus esse
tectum iri
PARTICIPLES
tegens, -entis PERFECT
tecturus, -a, -um GERUNDIVE
tectus, -a, -um
tegendus (-undus)
GERUND
tegendi, -do, -dum, -do
SUPINE
tectum, tectu
1 See footnote 1 on page 94.
100
CONJUGATION OF THE VERB
[187
FOURTH CONJUGATION (/-STEMS)
187. The Fourth Conjugation includes all verbs which add i-
to the root to form the present stem.
PRINCIPAL PARTS : Active, audio, audlre, audfvi, auditum ;
Passive, audior, audiri, audltus sum.
PRESENT STEM audi-
PERFECT STEM audiv-
SUPINE STEM audit-
ACTIVE VOICE
INDICATIVE SUBJUNCTIVE
PRESENT
audio, I hear audiam 1
uudls, you hear audias
audit, he hears audiat
audimus
auditis
audiunt
audiamus
audiatis
audiant
PASSIVE VOICE
INDICATIVE SUBJUNCTIVE
PRESENT
audior
audiris (-re)
auditur
audiar 1
audiaris (-re)
audiatur
audimur
audimin!
audiuntur
audiamur
audiamim
audiantur
IMPERFECT
audiebam 1 audirem
audiSbas audires
audiibat audlret
;iiidiebamus audlremus
audiebatis audiretis
audiibant audirent
IMPERFECT
audiebar J audirer
audiebaris (-re) audireris (-re)
audiebatur audiretur
audieb&mur audlremur
audiebaminl audiremini
audiebantur audirentur
FUTURE
FUTURE
audiam 1
aiulies
audiet
audiemus
iiudietia
audient
audiar 1
audieris (-re)
audietur
audiemur
audiSmini
audientur
I See 179. d.
187]
FOURTH CONJUGATION
101
Active Voice
INDICATIVE SUBJUNCTIVE
PERFECT
audlvi
audivisti
audivit
audivimus
audlvistis
audiverim
audiveris
audlverit
audiverimus
audtveritis
audivgrunt (-re) audlverint
PLUPERFECT
audiveram
audiveras
audiverat
audiveramus
audiveratis
audiverant
audivissem
audivisses
audivisset
audivissemus
audlvissetis
audivissent
FUTURE PERFECT
audlvero
audiveris
audlverit
audiverimus
audlveritis
audiverint
Passive Voice
INDICATIVE SUBJUNCTIVE
PERFECT
auditus sum l auditus sim 1
auditus es auditus sis
auditus est auditus sit
audit! sumus audit! slmus
audit! estis audit! sitis
audit! sunt audit! sint
PLUPERFECT
auditus ei am l
auditus eras
auditus erat
audit! eramus
audit! eratis
audit! erant
auditus essem *
auditus esses
auditus esset
audit! essemus
audit! essetis
audit! essent
FUTURE PERFECT
auditus ero a
auditus ei is
auditus erit
audit! erimus
audit! eritis
audit! erunt
IMPERATIVE
Singular Plural Singular
PRESENT aud! audite audire
FUTURE aud!to audltote auditor
audlto audiunto auditor
Plural
audlmin!
audiuntor
PRESENT audire
PERFECT audivisse
FUTURE auditurus esse
INFINITIVE
audlr!
auditus esse
auditum iri
PARTICIPLES %
PRESENT audiSns, -ientis PERFECT auditus, -a, -um
FUTURE auditurus, -a, -um GERUNDIVE audiendus, -a, -um
GERUND
audiendl, -do, -dum, -do
SUPINE
auditum, auditii
1 See footnote 1, p. 94.
102
CONJUGATION OF THE VERB
[188
VERBS IN -to OF THE THIRD CONJUGATION
188. Verbs of the Third Conjugation in -15 have certain forms
of the present stem like the fourth conjugation. They lose the
i of the stem before a consonant and also before I, I, and g (except
in the future, the participle, the gerund, and the gerundive). 1
Verbs of this class are conjugated as follows:
PRINCIPAL PARTS: Active, capio, capere, cepi, captum;
Passive, capior, capi, captus sum.
PRESENT STEM capie- (cape-) PERFECT STEM cep- SUPINE STEM capt-
ACTIVE VOICE
INDICATIVE SUBJUNCTIVE
PRESENT
PASSIVE VOICE
INDICATIVE SUBJUNCTIVE
PRESENT
capio, / take
capiam
capior
capiar
capis, you take
capias
caperis (-re)
capiaris (-re)
capit, he takes
capiat
capitur
capiatur
capimus
capiamus
capimur
capiamur
capitis
capiatis
capimini
capiamini
capiunt
capiant
capiuntur
capiantur
IMPERFECT
capiebam caperem
FUTURE
capiam
capies
capiet, etc.
PERFECT
cepi ceperim
PLUPERFECT
ceperam cepissem
FUTURE PERFECT
cepero
IMPERFECT
capifibar caper er
FUTURE
capiar
capieris (-re)
capigtmr, etc.
PERFECT
captus sum captus aim
PLUPERFECT
captus erarn captus essem
FUTURE PERFECT
captus ero
1 This is a practical working rule. The actual explanation of the forms of such
verbs is not fully understood.
188-190]
Active Voice
PRESENT
Singular Plural
cape capite
FUTURE
capito capitote
capitS capiunto
PRESENT capere
PERFECT cepisse
FUTURE capturus esse
PRESENT capiSns, -ientis
FUTURE capturus, -a, -um
GERUND
capiendl, -do, -dum, -do
DEPONENT VEKBS
Passive Voice
103
IMPERATIVE
PRESENT
Singular Plural
capere capiminl
FUTURE
capitor
capitor
INFINITIVE
cap!
captus esse
captum iri
PARTICIPLES
PERFECT
capiuntor
captus, -a, -um
GERUNDIVE capiendus, -a, -um
SUPINE
captum, -tu
Parallel Forms
189. Many verbs have more than one set of forms, of which
only one is generally found in classic use :
Iav5, lavare or Iav6re, wash (see 211. e).
seated, scatere or scatSre, gush forth.
ludifico, -are, or ludificor, -an, mock.
fulgo, fulgSre, or fulged, fulgere, shine.
DEPONENT VERBS
190. Deponent Verbs have the forms of the Passive Voice,
with an active or reflexive signification :
PRINCIPAL
PARTS
First conjugation : miror, mirari, miratus, admire.
Second conjugation : vereor, vereri, veritus, fear.
Third conjugation : sequor, sequi, secutus, follow.
Fourth conjugation : partior, partiri, partitus, share.
104
CONJUGATION OF THE VERB
INDICATIVE
[190
PRES. mlror
n i iraris (-re)
iniratur
vereor
vergris (-re)
vertur
sequor
sequeris (-re)
sequitur
partior
partlris (-re)
partitur
mlramur
miramini
mlrantur
vergmur
verSmini
verentur
sequimur
sequimini
sequuntur
partimur
partimini
partiuntur
IMPF. mirabar
FUT. mirabor
PERF. miratus sum
PLTJP. uairatus eram
F. P. miratus ero
verSbar
verebor
veritus sum
veritus eram
veritus ero
sequSbar
sequar
secutus sum
secutus eram
secutus ero
partiebar
partiar
partitus sum
partitus eram
partltua ero
SUBJUNCTIVE
PRES. mlrer
IMPF. mirarer
PERF. miratus sim
PLUP. miratus esseni
verear
vererer
veritus sim
veritua essem
sequar
sequerer
secutus sim
secutus essem
partiar
partirer
partitus sim
partitus essem
IMPERATIVE
PRES. mirare
FUT. inirator
verere
veretor
sequere
sequitor
partire
partitor
INFINITIVE
PRES. mirari
PERF. miratus ease
FCT. inirfit urus esse
vereri
veritus esse
veriturus esse
sequi
secutus esse
secuturus esse
partm
partituB ease
partiturus esse
PARTICIPLES
PRES. mirans
Fur. miratuniB
PERF. miratus
GER. mirandus
verens
veriturus
veritus
verendus
sequens
secuturus
secutus
sequendus
pitrtiens
partiturua
partitus
partiendus
GERUND
mirandi, -6, etc. verendi, etc. sequendl, etc. partiendi, etc.
SUPINE
miratum, -tu veritum, -tu secutum, -tu partltum, -tu
190, 191] DEPONENT VERBS 105
. Deponents have the participles of both voices :
sequens, following. secuturus, about to follow.
secutus, having followed. seqcendus, to be followed.
b. The perfect participle generally has an active sense, but in verbs
otherwise deponent it is often passive : as, mercatus, bought ; adeptus, gained
(or having gained*).
c. The future infinitive is always in the active form :- thus, sequor has
secuturus (-a, -urn) esse (not secutum In).
d. The gerundive, being passive in meaning, is found only in transitive
verbs, or intransitive verbs used impersonally :
h6c confitendum est, this must be acknowledged.
moriendum est omnibus, all must die.
e. Most deponents are intransitive or reflexive in meaning, correspond-
ing to what in Greek is called the Middle Voice ( 156. a. N.).
f Some deponents are occasionally used in a passive sense : as, criminor,
/ accuse, or I am accused.
g. About twenty verbs have an active meaning in both active and
passive forms : as, mereo or mereor, / deserve.
191. More than half of all deponents are of the First Conju-
gation, and all of these are regular. The following deponents
are irregular :
adsentior, -Iri, adsensus, assent. oblmscor, -I, oblitus, forget.
aplscor, (-ip-), -I, aptus(-eptus), get. opperior, -Iri, oppertus, await.
defetlscor, -I, -fessus, faint. ordior, -iri, orsus, begin.
experglscor, -I, -perrectus, rouse. orior, -Iri, ortus (oriturus), rise (3d
experior, -Iri, expertus, try. conjugation in most forms),
fateor, -eri, fassus, confess. paclscor, -I, pactus, bargain.
fruor, -I, fructus (fruitus), enjoy. patior (-petior), -I, passus (-pessus),
fungor, -I, functus, fulfil. suffer.
gradior (-gredior), -I, gressus, step. -plector, -I, -plexus, clasp.
Irascor, -I, iratus. be angry. proficiscor, -I, profectus, set out.
labor, -I, lapsus, fall. queror, -I, questus, complain.
loquor, -I, locutus, speak. reor, reri, ratus, think.
metier, -Iri, mensus, measure. revertor, -I, reversus, return.
-miniscor, -I, -mentus, think. ringor, -I, rictus, snarl.
morior, -I (-Iri), mortuus (moriturus), die. sequor, -I, secutus, follow.
nanclscor, -I, nactus (nanctus),./ittd. tueor, -eri, tuitus (tutus), defend.
nascor, -I, natus, be born. ulclscor, -I, ultus, avenge.
mtor, -I, nisus (nlxus), strive. utor, -I, usus, use, employ.
NOTE. The deponent comperior, -Iri, compertus, is rarely found for comperio, -Ire.
Revertor, until the time of Augustus, had regularly the active forms in the perfect sys-
tem, revertl, reverteram, etc.
106 CONJUGATION OF THE VERB [ 191-194
a. The following deponents have no supine stem :
devertor, -ti, turn aside (to lodge). medeor, -eri, heal.
diffiteor, -eri, deny. reminiscor, -I, call to mind.
fatiscor, -I, gape. vescor, -I, feed upon.
liquor, -I, melt (intrans.).
NOTE. Deponents are really passive (or middle) verbs whose active voice has
disappeared. There is hardly one that does not show signs of having been used in
the active at some period of the language.
Semi-Deponents
192. A few verbs having no perfect stem are regular in the
present, but appear in the tenses of completed action as deponents.
These are called Semi-deponents. They are :
audeo, audere, ausus, dare. gaudeS, gaudere, gavisus, rejoice.
fido, fid6re, fisus, trust. soleo, solere, solitus, be wont.
a. From audeo there is an old perfect subjunctive ausim. The form sodes
(for si audes), an thou wilt, is frequent in the dramatists and rare elsewhere.
b. The active forms vapulo, vapulare, be flogged, and veneo, venire, be sold
(contracted from venum ire, go to sale), have a passive meaning, and are
sometimes called neutral passives. To these may be added fieri, to be made
( 204), and exsulare, to be banished (live in exile); cf. accedere, to be added.
NOTE. The following verbs are sometimes found as semi-deponents: iuro, iurare,
iuratus, swear; nubo, nubere, nupta, marry ; placeo, placere, placitus, please.
THE PERIPHRASTIC CONJUGATIONS
193. A Periphrastic form, as the name indicates, is a " roundabout way of speak-
ing." In the widest sense, all verb-phrases consisting of participles and sum are Peri-
phrastic Forms. The Present Participle is, however, rarely so used, and the Perfect
Participle with sum is included in the regular conjugation (amatus sum, eram, etc.).
Hence the term Periphrastic Conjugation is usually restricted to verb-phrases con-
sisting of the Future Active Participle or the Gerundive with sum.
NOTE. The Future Passive Infinitive, as amatum iri, formed from the infinitive
passive of eo, go, used impersonally with the supine in -um, may also be classed as a
periphrastic form ( 203. a) .
194. There are two Periphrastic Conjugations, known respec-
tively as the First (or Active) and the Second (or Passive).
a. The First Periphrastic Conjugation combines the Future Active
Participle with the forms of sum, and denotes & future or intended action.
b. The Second Periphrastic Conjugation combines the Gerundive with
the forms of sum, and denotes obligation, necessity, or propriety.
c. The periphrastic forms are inflected regularly throughout the Indica-
tive and Subjunctive and in the Present and Perfect Infinitive.
195, 196]
THE PERIPHRASTIC CONJUGATION
107
195. The First Periphrastic Conjugation :
INDICATIVE
PRESENT amaturus sum, 1 am about to love
IMPERFECT amaturus eram, / was about to love
FCTURE amaturus ero, / shall be about to love
PERFECT amaturus fill, 7 have been, urns, about to love
PLUPERFECT amaturus fueram, / had been about to love
FUTURE PERFECT amaturus fuero, I shall have been about to love
SUBJUNCTIVE
PRESENT amaturus sim
IMPERFECT amaturus essem
PERFECT amaturus fuerim
PLUPERFECT amaturus fuissem
INFINITIVE
PRESENT amaturus esse, to be about to love
PERFECT amaturus fuisse, to have been about to love
So in the other conjugations :
Second : moniturus sum, I am about to advise.
Third : tecturus sum, I am about to cover.
Fourth : auditurus sum, I am about to hear.
Third (in -io) : capturus sum, I am about to take.
196. The Second Periphrastic Conjugation :
INDICATIVE
PRESENT amandus sum, / am to be, must be, loved
IMPERFECT amandus eram, / was to be, had to be, loved
FUTURE amandus ero, 1 shall have to be loved
PERFECT amandus fuT, 7 was to be, had to be, loved
PLUPERFECT amandus fueram, 7 had had to be loved
FUTURE PERFECT amandus fuero, 7 s\all have had to be loved
SUBJUNCTIVE
PRESENT amandus sim
IMPERFECT amandus essem
PERFECT amandus fuerim
PLUPERFECT amandus fuissem
INFINITIVE
PRESENT amandus esse, to have to be loved
PERFECT amandus fuisse, to have had to be loved
108
CONJUGATION OF THE VERB
196-198
So in the other conjugations :
Second : monendus sum, I am to be, must be, advised.
Third : tegendus sum, J am to be, must be, covered.
Fourth : audiendus sum, I am to be, must be, heard.
Third (in -id) : capiendus sum, I am to be, must be, taken.
IRREGULAR VERBS
197. Several verbs add some of the personal endings of the
present system directly to the root, 1 or combine two verbs in
their inflection. These are called Irregular Verbs. They are
sum, volo, fero, edo, do, eo, queo, fI6, and their compounds.
Sum has already been inflected in 170.
198. Sum is compounded without any change of inflection with
the prepositions ab, ad, de, in, inter, ob, prae, pro (earlier form prod),
sub, super.
a. In the compound prosum (help), pro retains its original d before e :
PRINCIPAL PARTS : prosum, prodesse, profui, profuturus
INDICATIVE
PRESENT
IMPERFECT
FUTURE
PERFECT
PLUPERFECT
FUT. PERF.
Singular
prOsum
pr5des
prodest
proderarn
proderO
profui
Plural
prosumus
prodestis
prosunt
proderamus
proderimus
profuimus
pr5fueram profueramus
profuero profuerimus
SUBJUNCTIVE
Singular Plural
prosim prosimus
prosis prositis
prOsit prosint
prodessem prodessemus
profuerim profuerimus
prOfuissem profuissemus
IMPEKATIVE
PRESENT prOdes, prOdeste FUTURE prodesto, prOdestOte
INFINITIVE
PRESENT prodesse PERFECT profuisse
FUTURE profuturus esse
PARTICIPLE
FUTURE profuturus
1 These are athematic verbs, see 174. 2.
198, 199]
IRREGULAR VERBS
109
6. Sum is also compounded with the adjective potis, or pote, able, making
the verb possum (be able, can). Possum is inflected as follows : *
PRINCIPAL PARTS : possum, posse, potui 2
INDICATIVE
SUBJUNCTIVE
Singular
Plural
Singular
Plural
PRESENT
possum
possumus
possim
posslmus
potes
potestis
possls
possltis
potest
possunt
possit
possint
IMPERFECT
poteram
poteramus
possem
possemus
FUTURE
poter5
poterimus
PERFECT
potui
potuimus
potuerim
potuerimus
PLUPERFECT
potueram
potueramus
potuissem
potuissemus
FnT PWWTT
ruit.iiprn
nnt.iioriTrms
INFINITIVE
PRES. posse PERF. potuisse
PARTICIPLE
PRES. potens (adjective), powerful
199.
volo, nolo, malo
PRINCIPAL
PARTS :
volo, velle, volui,
ndlo, nolle, nolui.
malo, malle, malui,
NOTE. W616 and malo are compounds of volo.
volo from mage-volo.
INDICATIVE
PRESENT volo nolo
vis 8 non vis
vult (volt) non vult
volumus nolumus
vultis (voltis) non vultis
volunt nolunt
IMPERFECT volebam nolebam
FUTURE volam, voles, etc. nolam, noles, etc.
PERFECT volui nolui
PLUPERFECT volueram nolueram
FUT. PERF. voluero noluero
-, be willing, will, wish
-, be unwilling, will not
, be more willing, prefer
N615 is for ne-volo, and malo for ma-
malo
mavis
mavult
malumus
mavultis
malunt
malebam
malam, males, etc.
malui
malueram
maluero
1 The forms potis sum, pote sum, etc. occur in early writers. Other early forms are
potesse ; possiem, -es, -et ; poterint, potisit (for possit) ; potestur and possitur (used with
a passive infinitive, cf. 205. a).
2 Potui is from an obsolete fpotSre. 8 Vis is from a different root.
110
CONJUGATION OF THE VERB
[ 199, 200
PRESENT
IMPERFECT
PERFECT
PLUPERFECT
PRESENT
FUTURE
PRESENT
PERFECT
PRESENT
SUBJUNCTIVE
velim, -is, -it, nolim
velimus, -itis, -int
vellem, 1 -es, -et, nollem
vellemus, -etis, -ent
voluerim
voluissem
velle l
voluisse
noluerim
noluissem
IMPERATIVE
noli, nolite
nolito, etc.
INFINITIVE
nolle
noluisse
malim
mallem
maluerim
maluissem
malle
maluisse
PARTICIPLES
volens, -entis nolens, -entis
NOTE. The forms sis for si vis, sultis for si vultis, and the forms ngvis (ng-vis),
nSvolt, mavol5, mavolunt, ma velim, ma vellem, etc., occur in early writers.
200. Fero, bear, carry, endure 2
PRINCIPAL PARTS : fero, ferre, 3 tuli, latum
PRESENT STEM fer- PERFECT STEM tul- SUPINE STEM Ifit-
PASSIVE
feror ferimur
ferris (-re) feriinini
fertur feruntur
ferebar
ferar
latus sum
latus eram
latus ero
1 Vellem is for tvel-sem, and velle for fvel-se (cf. es-se), the s being assimilated to
the 1 preceding.
2 Fero has two independent stems : fer- in the present system, and tul- (for tol-) in
the perfect from TOL, root of tollo. The perfect tetulT occurs in Plautus. In the parti-
ciple the root is weakened to tl-, latum standing for ftlatum (cf . TX?;T6s) .
8 Ferre, ferrem, are for ffer-se, tfer-sem (cf. es-se, es-sem), s being assimilated to pre-
ceding r; or ferre, ferrem, may be for fferese, fferesem (see 15. 4).
ACTIVE
INDICATIVE
PRESENT
fero
ferimus
fers
fertis
fert
ferunt
IMPERFECT
ferebam
FUTURE
feram
PERFECT
tuli
PLUPERFECT
tuleram
FUTURE PERFECT
tulero
200]
IRKEGULAR VERBS
111
Active
PRESENT feram
IMPERFECT ferrem 1
PERFECT tuleriin
PLUPERFECT tulissem
SUBJUNCTIVE
Passive
ferar
ferrer
latus sim
latus essem
PRESENT
FUTURE
fer
ferto
ferto
IMPERATIVE
ferte
f ertote '
ferunto
ferre
fertor
fertor
ferimini
feruntor
PRESENT
PERFECT
FUTORE
INFINITIVE
ferre
tulisse
laturus esse
ferri
latus esse
latum irl
PRESENT
FUTURE
PARTICIPLES
ferens, -entis
laturus
PERFECT
GERUNDIVE
latus
ferendus
GERUND
ferendl, -do, -dum, -do
SUPINE
latum, latu
a. The compounds of fero, conjugated like the simple verb, are the
following :
ad-
au-, ab-
con-
dis-, di-
ex-, e-
in-
ob-
re-
sub-
adfero
aufero
c5nfero
differo
effero
infero
offero
refero
suffers
adferre
auferre
conferre
differre
efferre
inferre
offerre
referre
sufferre
attull
abstull
contull
distull
extul!
intull
obtull
rettull
sustuli 2
allatum
ablatum
collatum
dllatum
elatum
illatum
oblatuui
relatum
sublatum 2
NOTE. In these compounds the phonetic changes in the preposition are especially
to be noted, ab- and au- are two distinct prepositions with the same meaning.
1 See note 3, page 110.
2 Sustuli and sublatum also supply the perfect and participle of the verb tollo.
112 CONJUGATION OF THE VERB [201
201. Ed6, edere, edi, esum, eat, is regular of the third conjuga-
tion, but has also an archaic present subjunctive and some alter-
native forms directly from the root (ED), without the thematic
vowel. These are in full-faced type.
ACTIVE
INDICATIVE
PRESENT edo, edis (es 1 ), edit (est)
edimus, editis (estis), edunt
IMPERFECT edebam, edebas, etc.
SUBJUNCTIVE
PRESENT edam (edim), edas (edis), edat (edit)
edamus (edimus), edatis (editis), edant (edint)
IMPERFECT ederem, ederes (esses), ederet (esset)
ederemus (essemus), ederetis (essetis), ederent (essent)
IMPERATIVE
Singular Plural
ede (es) edite (este)
edito (esto) editote (estote)
edito (esto) edunto
rNFINITTVE PARTICIPLES
PRESENT edere (esse) PRESENT edens, -entis
PERFECT edisse FUTURE esurus a
FUTURE esurus esse
GERUND
edendl, -do, -dum, -do
SUPINE
esum, esu 2
a. In the Passive the following irregular forms occur in the third per-
son singular : Present Indicative estur, Imperfect Subjunctive essetur.
1 In 6s etc. the e is long. In the corresponding forms of sum, e is short. The differ-
ence in quantity hetween Bdo and es etc. depends upon inherited vowel variation ( 17. a).
2 Old forms are essurus and sujnne essum.
202] IRREGULAR VERBS 113
202. The irregular verb d6, give, is conjugated as follows :
PRINCIPAL PARTS : do, dSre, dedi, datum
PRESENT STEM dS- PERFECT STEM ded- SUPINE STEM dat-
PASSIVE
INDICATIVE
PRESENT
ACTIVE
INDICATIVE
do damus
das datis
dat dant
damur
daris (-re) - daminl
datur dantur
IMPERFECT
dabam
dabar
FUTURE
dabo
dabor
PERFECT
dedi
datus sum
PLUPERFECT
dederam
datus eram
FUTURE PERFECT
dedero
datus ero
PRESENT
IMPERFECT
SUBJUNCTIVE
dem, des, det, etc.
darem
, del is ( re),
darer
PERFECT
dederim
datus sim
PLUPERFECT
dedissem
datus essem
IMPERATIVE
PRESENT
FUTURE
da date
dato datote
dato dan to
dare damini
dator
dator dantor
INFINITIVE
PRESENT
dare
dari
PERFECT
dedisse
datus esse
FUTURE
daturus esse
datum iri
PARTICIPLES
PRESENT
FUTURE
dans, dantis PERFECT datus
daturus GERUNDIVE dandus
GERUND
dandl, -do, -dum, -do
SUPINE
datum, data
For compounds of do, see 209. a. H.
114
CONJUGATION OF THE VERB
[203
203.
PRESENT
IMPERFECT
FUTURE
PERFECT
PLUPERFECT
FUTURE PERFECT
E5, go. 1 PRINCIPAL PARTS : eo, Ire, ii (m), ttum
INDICATIVE
eo, is, it
Imus, Itis, eunt
Ibam, Ibas, ibat
ibamus, Ibatis, ibant
ibo, Ibis, ibit
ibimus, ibitis, Ibunt
ii (ivi)
ieram (iveram)
iero (ivero)
IMPERATIVE
PRESENT I FUTURE
ite
PRESENT ire
INFINITIVE
PERFECT Isse (ivisse)
PARTICIPLES
FUTURE iturus
SUBJUNCTIVE
earn, eas, eat
eamus, eatis, eant
Irein, ires, Iret
Iremus, iretis, Irent
ierim (Iverim)
Issem (Ivissem)
Ito, itote
ito, eunto
FUTURE iturus esse
PRESENT iens, gen. euntis
GERUND eundl, -do, -dum, -do
GERUNDIVE eundum
SUPINE itum, itu
. The compounds ade5, approach, ineo, enter, and some others, are tran-
sitive. They are inflected as follows in the passive :
INDICATIVE SUBJUNCTIVE
PRES.
adeor
adlris
aditur
adimur
adimini
adeuntur
IMPF. adibar
FUT. adibor
PERF. aditus sum
PLTJP. aditus eram
F. P. aditus ero
INFIN. adirl aditus esse
PRES. adear
IMPF. adlrer
PERF. aditus sim
PLUP. aditus essem
PART, aditus adeundus
Thus inflected, the forms of eo are used impersonally in the third person
singular of the passive : as, itum est ( 208. d). The infinitive iri is used with
the supine in -urn to make the future infinitive passive ( 1 93. N.). The verb
veneo, be sold (i.e. yenum eo, go to sale), has also several forms in the passive.
6. In the perfect system of eo the forms with v are very rare in the simple
verb and unusual in the compounds.
c. ii before s is regularly contracted to I: as, Isse.
1 The root of ed is EI (weak form i) . This ei becomes i except before a, o, and u,
where it becomes e (cf . eo, earn, eunt) . The strong form ef the root, I, is shortened
before a vowel or final -t ; the weak form, I, appears in itum and iturus.
203, 204] IRREGULAR VERBS 115
d. The compound ambio is inflected regularly like a verb of the fourth
conjugation. But it has also ambibat in the imperfect indicative.
e. Pr5 with eo retains its original d : as, prodeo, prodis, prodit.
204. Facio, facere, feel, factum, make, is regular. But it has im-
perative fac in the active, and, besides the regular forms, the future
perfect faxo, perfect subjunctive faxim. The passive of faciO is
fio, fiSri, factus sum, be made or become.
The present system of fio is regular of the fourth conjugation,
but the subjunctive imperfect is fierem, and the infinitive fieri.
NOTE. The forms in brackets are not used in good prose.
INDICATIVE SUBJUNCTIVE
PRESENT fio, fis, fit flam, fias, fiat
[fimus], [fitis], fiunt fiamus, fiatis, fiant
IMPERFECT fiebam, fiebas, etc. fierem, fieres, etc.
FUTURE fiarn, fies, etc.
PERFECT factus sum factus aim
PLUPERFECT factus eram factus essem
FUTURE PERFECT factus ero
IMPERATIVE
[fi, fite, fits, ] l
INFINITIVE
PRESENT fieri PERFECT factus esse FUTURE factum iri
PARTICIPLES
PERFECT factus GERUNDIVE faciendus
a. Most compounds of facio with prepositions weaken & to i in the present
stem and to 8 in the supine stem, and are inflected regularly like verbs in -io :
conficio, conficere, cdnfeci, confectum, finish.
conficior, confici, confectus.
6. Other compounds retain a, and have -fI5 in the passive : as, benefacio,
-facere, -feel, -factum ; passive benefio, -fieri, -factus, benefit. These retain the
accent of the simple verb : as, bene-fS'cis ( 12. a, Exc.).
c A few isolated forms of fio occur in other compounds :
confit, it happens, confiunt ; confiat ; confieret, confident ; confieri.
defit, it lacks, defiant ; defiet ; defiat ; defieri.
effieri, to be effected.
mfio, begin (to speak), infit.
interfiat, let him perish ; interfieri, to perish.
superfit, it remains over ; superfiat, superfieri.
1 The imperative is rarely found, and then only in early writers.
116
CONJUGATION OF THE VERB
[.205
DEFECTIVE VERBS
205. Some verbs have lost the Present System, and use only
tenses of the Perfect, in which they are inflected regularly.
These are
coepi, 1 I began
PERFECT
PLUPERFECT
FUTURE PERFECT
PERFECT
PLUPERFECT
odi, 2 / hate
INDICATIVE
memini, 3 / remember
coepi
coeperam
coepero
odi
oderam
odero
SUBJUNCTIVE
coeperim oderim
coepi ssem odissem
IMPERATIVE
INFINITIVE
PERFECT
FUTURE
coepisse
coepturus esse
odisse
osurus esse
memini
memineram
meminero
meminerim
meminissem
memento
mementote
meminisse
PARTICIPLES
coeptus, begun osus, hating or hated
coepturus osurus, likely to hate
a. The passive of coepi is often used -with the passive infinitive : as,
coeptus sum vocari, / began to be called, but coepi vocare, / began to call.
For the present system incipio is used.
NOTE. Early and rare forms are coepiS, coepiam, coeperet, coepere.
&. The Perfect, Pluperfect, and Future Perfect of odi and memini have
the meanings of a Present, Imperfect, and Future respectively :
odi, I hate ; oderam, I hated (ioas hating) ; odero, I shall hate.
NOTE 1. A present participle meminens is early and late.
NOTE 2. Novi and consuevl (usually referred to nosco and consuesco) are often used
In the sense of I know (have learned) and / am accustomed (have become accustomed)
as preteritive verbs. Many other verbs are occasionally used in the same way (see
476. N.).
1 Root AP (as in apiscor) with co(n-).
2 Root OD, as in Sdium.
8 Root MEN, as in mgns.
206] DEFECTIVE VERBS 117
206. Many verbs are found only in the Present System. Such
are maereo, -ere, be sorrowful (cf . maestus, sad) ; feriS, -ire, strike.
In many the simple verb is incomplete, but the missing parts
occur in its compounds : as, vad6, vadere, in-vasl, in-vasum.
Some verbs occur very commonly, but only in a few forms :
a. Aio, I say :
INDIC. PKES. ai6, ais, 1 ait ; , , aiunt
IMPF. aiebam, 2 aiebas, etc.
SUBJV. PKES. - , aias, aiat ; , , aiant
IMPER. al (rare)
PART. aiens
The vowels a and i are pronounced separately (a-is, a-it) except some-
times in old or colloquial Latin. Before a vowel, one i stands for two (see
6. c) : thus aio was pronounced ai-y5 and was sometimes written aiio.
b. Inquam, / say, except in poetry, is used only in direct quotations
(cf. the English quoth).
INDIC. PRES. inquam, inquis, inquit ; inquimus, inquitis (late), inquiunt
IMPF. - , , inquiebat; -, ,
FUT. , inquies, inquiet ; , ,
PERF. inquii, inquistl, ; , ,
IMPER. PRES. inque
FUT. inquitS
The only common forms are inquam, inquis, inquit, inquiunt, and the
future inquies, inquiet.
c. The deponent fan, to speak, has the following forms :
INDIC. PRES. - , , fatur; , , fantur
FUT. fabor, , fabitur ; , ,
PERK. , , fatus est ; , , fatl sunt
PLUP. fatus eram, , fatus erat; , ,
IMPER. PRES. fare
INFIN. PRES. far!
PART. PRES. fans, fantis, etc. (in singular)
PERF. fatus (having spoken)
GER. fandus (to be spoken of)
GERUND, gen. fandl, abl. fandO SUPINE fatu
Several forms compounded with the prepositions ex, prae, pro, inter,
occur : as, praefatur, praefamur, affari, profatus, interfatur, etc. The com-
pound infans is regularly used as a noun (child). Infandus, nefandus, are
used as adjectives, unspeakable, abominable.
1 The second singular ais with the interrogative -ne is often written ain.
a An old imperfect aibam, aibas, etc. (dissyllabic) is sometimes found.
118
CONJUGATION OF THE VERB
[206
d. Queo, 1 can, nequeo, / cannot, are conjugated like eo. They are rarely
used except in the present. Queo is regularly accompanied by a negative.
The forms given below occur, those in full-faced type in classic prose.
The Imperative, Gerund, and Supine are -wanting.
INDICATIVE SUBJUNCTIVE
PRESENT
que5
quls
quit
qulmus
qultis
queunt
queam
queas
queat
queamus
INDICATIVE SUBJUNCTIVE
PRESENT
nequeo (non queo) nequeam
queant
nequis
nequit
nequlmus
nequitis
nequeunt
nequeas
nequeat
nequeamus
nequeant
IMPERFECT
qulbam
quibat
qulret
quirent
IMPERFECT
nequlbat
nequibant
nequirem
neqiuret
nequlrent
FUTURE
qulbo
qulbunt
nequlbit
nequibunt
FUTURE
PERFECT
qulvl
nequlvl
nequlstl
PERFECT
qulvit qulverit (-ierit) nequlvit (nequiit)
quiverunt (-ere) quierint nequivgrunt (-quiere)
nequiverim
nequiverit
nequiverint
PLUPERFECT
quivissent
PLUPERFECT
nequiverat (-ierat) nequlvisset (-quisset)
nequiverant (-ierant) nequissent
quire
qulsse
INFINITIVE
nequire
nequivisse (-qulsse)
quiens
PARTICIPLES
nequiens, nequeuntes
NOTE. A few passive forms are used with passive infinitives: as, qultur, queuntur,
quitus sum, qu eatur, queantur, nequitur, nequitum ; but none of these occurs in classic prose.
206, 207]
IMPERSONAL VERBS
119
e. Quaeso, / ask, beg (original form of quaero), has
INDIC. PRES. quaeso, quaesumus
NOTE. Other forms of quaeso are found occasionally in early Latin. For the per-
fect system (quaesivl, etc.), see quaero ( 211. d).
f. Ovare, to triumph, has the following :
INDIC. PRES. ovas, ovat
SUBJV. PRES. ovet
IMPF. ovaret
PART. ovaus, ovaturus, ovatus
GER. ovandl
g. A few verbs are found chiefly in the Imperative :
PRES. singular salve, plural salvete, PUT. salvet5, hail! (from sal-
vus, safe and sound). An infinitive salvere and the indica-
tive forms salved, salvetis, salvebis, are rare.
PRES. singular ave (or have), plural avete, Fox. aveto, hail or/ore-
wett. An infinitive avere also occurs.
PRES. singular ce"do, plural cSdite (cette), give, tell.
PRES. singular apage, begone (properly a Greek word).
IMPERSONAL VERBS
207. Many verbs, from their meaning, appear only in the third
person singular, the infinitive, and the gerund. These are called
Impersonal Verbs, as having no personal subject. 1 The passive
of many intransitive verbs is used in the same way.
CONJ. I
ii
in
IV
PASS. CONJ. i
it is plain
it is allowed
it chances
it results
it is fought
c5nstat
licet
accidit
gvenit
pugnatur
constabat
licebat
accidebat
eveniebat
pugnabatur
c5nstabit
licgbit
accidet -
eveniet
pugnabitur
cOnstitit
licuit, -itum est
accidit
fivenit
pugnatum est
constiterat
licuerat
acciderat
evenerat
pugnatum erat
c5nstiterit
licuerit
acciderit
evenerit
pugnatum erit
constet
liceat
accidat
gveniat
pugnfitur
constaret
licSret
accideret
gveniret
pugnaretur
cOnstiterit
licuerit
acciderit
evgnerit
pugnatum sit
cSnstitisset
licuisset
accidisset
gvenisset
pugnatum esset
c5nstare
licgre
accidSre
gvenire
pugnari
c5nstitisse
licuisse
accidisse
evfinisse
pugnatum esse
-staturum esse
-iturum esse
-turum esse
pugnatum Iri
1 With impersonal verbs the word it is used in English, having usually no repre-
sentative in Latin, though id, hoc, illud, are often used nearly in the same way.
120 CONJUGATION OF THE VERB [208
208. Impersonal Verbs may be classified as follows :
a. Verbs expressing the operations of nature and the lime of day :
vesperascit (inceptive, 263. 1), it grows late. ningit, it snows.
luciscit hoc, it is getting light. f ulgurat, it lightens.
grandinat, it hails. tonat, it thunders.
pluit, it rains. rSrat, the dew falls.
NOTE. In these no subject is distinctly thought of. Sometimes, however, the verb
is used personally with the name of a divinity as the subject : as, luppiter tonat, Jupiter
thunders. In poetry other subjects are occasionally used: as, fundae saxa pluunt, the
slings rain stones.
5. Verbs of feeling, where the person who is the proper subject becomes
the object, as being himself affected by the feeling expressed in the verb
(354. ft):
miseret, it grieves. paenitet (poenitet), it repents.
piget, it disgusts. pudet, it shames.
taedet, it wearies.
miseret me, I pity (it distresses me) ; pudet me, I am ashamed.
NOTE. Such verbs often have also a passive form : as, misereor, I pity (am moved
to pity) ; and occasionally other parts : as, paeniturus (as from tpaenio) , paenitendus,
pudendus, pertaesum est, pigitum est.
c. Verbs which have a phrase or clause as their subject (cf. 454,
569. 2):
accidit, contingit, evenit, obtingit, obvenit, fit, it happens.
libet, it pleases. delectat, iuvat, it delights.
licet, it is permitted. oportet, it is fitting, ought.
certum est, it is resolved. necesse est, it is needful.
constat, it is clear. praestat, it is better.
placet, it seems good (pleases). interest, refert, it concerns.
videtur, it seems, seems good. vacat, there is leisure.
decet, it is becoming. restat, superest, it remains.
NOTE. Many of these verbs may be used personally; as, vacd, I have leisure.
Libet and licet have also the passive forms libitum (licitum) est etc. The participles
libens and licens are used as adjectives.
d. The passive of intransitive verbs is very often used impersonally (see
synopsis in 207) :
ventum est, they came (there was coming).
pugnatur, there is fighting (it is fought).
itur, some one goes (it is gone).
parcitur mihi, I am spared (it is spared to me, see 372).
NOTE. The impersonal use of the passive proceeds from its original reflexive (or
middle) meaning, the action being regarded as accomplishing itself (compare the
French cela sefait).
209, 210] CLASSIFIED LISTS OF VERBS 121
CLASSIFIED LISTS OF VEEBS
First Conjugation
209. There are about 360 simple verbs of the First Conjuga-
tion, most of them formed directly on a noun- or adjective-stem :
anno, arm (arma, arms); caecS, to blind (caecus, blind); exsu!5, be an exile
(exsul, an exile) ( 259).
Their conjugation is usually regular, like am5 ; though of many only a few
forms are found in use.
a. The following verbs form their Perfect and Supine stems irregularly.
Those marked * have also regular forms.
crepS, crepui (-crepavi), -crepit-, resound. plied, *-plicui, *-plicit-, fold.
cubo, *cubui, -cubit-, lie down. poto, potavl, *pot-, drink.
do, dire, dedi, dat-, give (DA). seco, secui, sect-, cut.
domo, domui, domit-, subdue. sono, sonul, sonit-, 1 sound.
fried, fricui, *frict-, rub. sto, steti, -stat- (-stit-), stand.
iuvo (ad-iuvo), iuvl, iut-, 1 help. tono, tonui, *-tonit-, thunder.
mico, micui, , glitter. veto, vetui, vetit-, forbid.
neco, *necui, necat- (-nect-), kill. 2
NOTE. Compounds of these verbs have the following forms :
crepo : con-crepul, dis-crepul or -crepdvl ; in-crepui or -crepdvl.
d5: circum-, inter-, pessum-, satis-, super-, venum-do, -dedi, -dat-, of the first con-
jugation. Other compounds belong to the root DHA.,put, and are of the third
conjugation: as, condo, condere, condidl, conditum.
mico: di-micdvl, -micdt-; e-micul, -micdt-.
plico: re-, sub- (sup-), multi-plied, -plicdvl, -plicdt-; ex-plied (unfold), -ul, -it-;
(explain), -dvi, -at-; im-plico, -dvi (-ul), -dtum (-itum).
st5: con-sto, -still, (-stdturus) ; ad-, re-sto, -stitl, ; ante- (anti-), inter-, super-
sto, -stetl, ; circum-sto, -steti (-stitl), ; prae-sto, -stitl, -stit- (-stdt-);
dl-sto, ex-sto, no perfect or supine (future participle ex-stdturus).
Second Conjugation
210. There are nearly 120 simple verbs of the Second Conju-
gation, most of them denominative verbs of condition, having a
corresponding noun and adjective from the same root, and an
inceptive in -sc6 ( 263. 1):
caleo, be warm ; calor, warmth ; calidus, warm ; calesco, grow warm.
timeo, fear; timor, fear; timidus, timid; per-timesco, to take fright.
1 Future Participle also in -aturus (either in the simple verb or in composition).
2 Weco has regularly necavi, necatum, except in composition.
122 CONJUGATION OF THE VERB [ 210, 211
a. Most verbs of the second conjugation are inflected like moneo, but
many lack the supine (as, arceo, ward off; careo, lack; egeo, need; timeo,
fear), and a number have neither perfect nor supine (as, roaereo, be sad).
b. The following keep e in all the systems :
deled, destroy delere delevi deletum
fled, weep flere flevi fletum
ned, sew nere nevl [netum]
vied, plait viere [vievi] vietum
corn-pled, fill up l -plere -plevi -pletum
c. The following show special irregularities :
alged, alsi, be cold. mulced, mulsi, muls-, soothe.
ardeo, arsi, arsurus, burn. mulgeo, mulsi, muls-, milk.
auded, ausus sum, dare. (cd)nived, -nivi (-nixi), , wink.
auged, auxi, auct-, increase. (ab)oleo, -olevi, -olit-, destroy.
caveS, cavi, caut-, care. pendeo, pependl, -pens-, hang.
censeo, censul, cens-, value. prandeo, prandi, prans-, dine.
cieo, civl, cit-, excite. rideo, risi, -ris-, laugh.
doceo, docul, doct-, teach. sedeo, sedi, sess-, sit.
fave5, favl, faut-, favor. soleo, solitus sum, be ivont.
ferveo, fervi (ferbui), , glow. sorbeo, sorbul (sorpsl), , suck.
foveo, f5vi, fot-, cherish. spondeo, spopondi, spons-, pledge.
fulgeo, fulsi, , shine. strideo, stridi, , whiz.
gaudeo, gavisus sum, rejoice. suadeo, suasi, suas-, urge.
haereo, haesi, haes-, cling. teneo (-tineo), tenul, -tent-, hold.
indulged, indulsi, indult-, indulge. tergeo, tersi, ters-, wipe.
iubeo, iussl, iuss-, order. tondeo, -totondi (-tondi), tons-, shear.
liqueS, licui (Hqui), , melt. torqueo, torsi, tort-, twist.
luceS, luxi, , shine. torre5, torrui, tost-, roast.
lugeo, luxi, , mourn. turgeS, tursT, , swell.
maneo, mans!, mans-, wait. urged, ursi, , urge.
misceo, -cul, mixt- (mist-), mix. video, vidi, vis-, see.
mordeS, momordi, mors-, bite. voved, vovl, vot-, vow.
moved, mdvl, mot-, move.
Third Conjugation
211. The following lists include most simple verbs of the
Third Conjugation, classed according to the formation of the Per-
fect Stem :
a. Forming the perfect stem in s (x) ( 177. b and note):
angd, anxi, , choke. claudd, clausi, claus-, shut.
carpd, carpsi, carpt-, pluck. cdmd, cdmpsi, cdmpt-, comb, deck.
cedd, cessi, cess-, yield. coqud, coxi, coct-, cook.
cingd, cinxi, cinct-, bind. -cutid, -cussl, -cuss-, shake.
1 And other compounds of -pled.
211]
THIRD CONJUGATION
123
demo, dempsi, dempt-, take away.
died, dixi, diet-, say.
divide, divisi, divis-, divide.
duco, duxi, duct-, guide.
emungo, -muiixl, -munct-, clean out.
figo, fixi, fin-, fix.
fingo [FIG], finxi, fict-, fashion.
flecto, flexi, flex-, bend.
-fligS, -flixi, -fllct-, , smite.
flu5, fluxi, flux-, flow.
frendS, , fres- (fress-), gnash.
frigS, frixi, frict-, fry.
gerS, gessi, gest-, carry.
iungS, iunxi, iunct-, join.
laedo, laesl, laes-, hurt.
-licio, -lexl, -lect-, entice (elicui, -licit-).
ludo, lusl, lus-, play.
mergS, mersi, mers-, plunge.
mittS, misi, miss-, send.
necto [NEC], nexi (nexui), nex-, weave.
nubo, nupsi, nupt-, marry.
pecto, pexi, pex-, comb.
pergo, perrexi, perrect-, go on.
pingo [PIG] , pinxi, pict-, paint.
plango [FLAG], planxi, planet-, beat.
plaudo, plausi, plaus-, applaud.
plecto, plexl, plex-, braid.
premo, press!, press-, press.
promo, -mpsi, -mpt-, bring out.
5. Reduplicated in the perfect (
cado, cecldi, cas-, fall.
caedo, cecidi, caes-, cut.
ca.no, cecinl, , sing.
curro, cucurri, curs-, run.
disco [DIC], didici, , learn.
-do [DHA], -didi, -dit- (as in ab-do, etc.,
with credo, vendo), put.
falld, fefelli, fals-, deceive.
pango [PAG], pepigl(-pegi), pact-,/as^en,
fix, bargain.
parco, peperci (parsi), (parsurus), spare.
c. Adding u (v) to the verb-root
alo, alui, alt- (alit-), nourish.
cerno, crevi, -cret-, decree.
colo, colui, cult-, dwell, till.
quatio, (-cussi), quass-, shake.
rado, rasl, ras-, scrape.
rego, rexi, rect-, rule.
repo, repsi, , creep.
rodo, rosi, ros-, gnaw.
scalpo, scalpsi, scalpt-, scrape.
scribo, scrips!, script-, write.
sculpo, sculpsi, sculpt-, carve.
serp5, serpsi, , crawl.
spargo, spars!, spars-, scatter.
-spicio, -spexi, -spect-, view.
-stinguo, -stinxi, -stinct-, quench.
strings, strmxl, strict-, bind.
struS, struxi, struct-, build.
sugo, suxi, suet-, suck.
sumo, sumpsi, sumpt-, take.
surgo, surrexi, surrect-, rise.
tegS, texi, tect-, shelter.
temnS, -tempsi, -tempt-, despise.
tergo, tersi, ters-, wipe.
tingo, tinxi, tmct-, stain.
traho, traxl, tract-, drag.
trudS, trusi, trus-, thrust.
unguo (ungS), unxi, unct-, anoint.
uro, ussi, ust-, burn.
vadS, -vasi, -vas-, go.
veho, vexi, vect-, draw.
vivo, vixi, vict-, live.
177. C ):_
pario, peperi, part- (pariturus), bring
forth.
pellS, pepull, puls-, drive.
pendS, pependl, pens-, weigh.
posco, poposci, , demand.
pungo [PUG], pupugl (-punxi), punct-,
prick.
sistS [STA], stitl, stat-, stop.
tango [TAG], tetigi, tact-, touch.
tendo [TEN] ,tetendl (-tendi),tent-, stretch.
tundS [TUB], tutudi, tuns- (-tus-), beat.
(177. a):-
compesco, compescui, , restrain.
consuls, -lui, cSnsult-, consult.
crescS, crevi, cret-, increase.
124 CONJUGATION OF THE VERB [211
-cumbS [CUB], -cubui, -cubit-, lie down. rapid, rapid, rapt-, seize.
depso, depsiri, depst-, knead. scisco, scivi, scit-, decree.
fremS, fremul, , roar. sero, sevi, sat-, sow.
gemo, gemul, , groan. sero, serui, sert-, entwine.
gigno [GEN], genul, genit-, beget. sino, sivi, sit-, permit.
met5, messui, -mess-, reap. sperno, sprevi, spret-, scorn,
mold, molui, molit-, grind. sternd, stravi, strat-, strew.
occulo, occului, occult-, hide. sterto, -stertul, , snore.
(ad)olesco, -evi, -ult-, grow up. strepo, strepui, , sound.
pasco, pavl, past-, feed. suesco, suevi, suet-, be wont.
percello, -cull, -culs-, upset. texo, texui, text-, weave.
pono [POS], posui, posit-, put. tremo, tremul, , tremble.
quiesco, quievi, quiet-, rest. vomo, vomui, , vomit.
d. Adding iv to the verb-root ( 177. /):
arcessd, 1 -ivi, arcessit-, summon. peto, petivi, petit-, seek.
capesso, capessivl, , undertake. quaerS, quaesivi, quaesit-, seek.
cupio, cupivi, cupit-, desire. rudo, rudivi, , bray.
incesso, incessivl, , attack. sapid, sapivi, , be wise.
lacesso, lacessivi, lacessit-, provoke. tero, trivi, trit-, rub.
e. Lengthening the vowel of the root (cf. 177. d):
ago, egi, act-, drive. lavo, lavi, lot- (laut-), wash (also regu-
capiS, cepl, capt-, take. lar of first conjugation).
edo, edi, esum, eat (see 201). lego, 2 legi, lect-, gather.
emo, emi, empt-, buy. lino [LI], lev! (livi), lit-, smear.
facio, feel, fact-, make (see 204). linquo [LIC], -llqui, -lict-, leave.
fodid, fodi, foss-, dig. nosco [GNO], novi, not- (cd-gnit-, a-gnit-,
frango [FRAG], fregl, fract-, break. ad-gnit-), know.
fugio, ffigi, (fugiturus),./Jee. rumpo [RHP], rupi, rupt-, burst.
fundo [FUD], fudi, fus-, pour. scabo, scabi, , scratch.
iacio, iecl, iact-, throw (-icio, -iect-). vinco [vie], vici, vict-, conquer.
f. Retaining the present stem or verb-root (cf. 177. e):
acuo, -ui, -ut-, sharpen. imbuo, -ul, -ut-, give a taste of.
arguo, -ui, -ut-, accuse. luo, lui, -lut-, wash.
bibo, bibi, (potus), drink. mando, mandi, mans-, chew.
-cendo, -cendi, -cens-, kindle. metuo, -ui, -fit-, fear.
(con)gruo, -ui, , agree. minuo, -ui, -fit-, lessen.
cudo, -cudi, -cus-, forge. -nu5, -nul, , nod.
facesso, -ii (facessi), facessit-, execute. pando, pandi, pans- (pass-), open.
-fendo, -fendi, -fens-, ward off. pinso, -si, pins- (pinst-, pist-), bruise.
findo [FID], fidi, 8 fiss-, split. prehendo, -hendT, -hens-, seize.
ico, ici, ict-, hit. ruo, rui, rut- (ruiturus), fall.
1 Sometimes accerso, etc.
2 The following compounds of Ieg5 have -lexi : diligo, intelleg5, neglego.
8 In this the perfect stem is the same as the verb-root, having lost the reduplica-
tion (177. c. N.).
211, 212]
FOURTH CONJUGATION
125
scandS, -scendl, -scensus, climb.
scindo [SCID], scidi, 1 sciss-, tear.
sid5, sidi (-sedl), -sess-, settle.
solvo, solvi, solfit-, loose, pay.
spuo, -ui, , spit.
statue, -ui, -fit-, establish.
sternuo, -ui, , sneeze.
strido, stridi, , whiz.
suo, sui, sfit-, sew.
(ex)uo, -ui, -fit-, put off.
tribuo, -ui, -fit-, assign.
vello, velll (-vulsi), vuls-, pluck.
verro, -verri, vers-, sweep.
vert5, verti, vers-, turn.
viso [VID], visi, vis-, visit.
volvS, volvl, volut-, turn.
NOTE. Several have no perfect or supine: as, claudS, limp; fatisc5, gape; hisco,
yawn; tol!5 (sustuli, sublatum, supplied from suffers), raise; vergo, incline.
Fourth Conjugation
212. There are besides a few deponents and some regular
derivatives in -tirio, as, esurio, be hungry (cf. 263.4) about
60 verbs of this conjugation, a large proportion of them being
descriptive verbs : like
crocio, croak; mugio, bellow; tinni5, tinkle.
a. Most verbs of the Fourth Conjugation are conjugated regularly, like
audio, though a number lack the supine.
6. The following verbs show special peculiarities :
amicio, amixi (-ctri), amict-, clothe.
aperio, aperui, apert-, open.
comperio, -peri, compert-, find.
farcio, farsi, fartum, stuff.
ferio, , , strike.
fulcio, fulsi, fult-, prop.
haurio, hausl, haust- (hausurus), drain.
operio, operuT, opert-, cover.
reperiS, repperi, repert-, find.
saepiS, saepsl, saept-, hedge in.
salio (-silio), salui (salii), [salt- (-suit-)],
leap.
sancio [SAC], sanxi, sanct-, sanction.
sarcio, sarsi, sart-, patch.
sentio, sensi, sens-, feel.
sepelio, sepelivi, sepult-, bury.
venio, vem, vent-, come.
vincio, vmxi, vlnct-, bind.
For Index of Verbs, see pp. 436 ff.
l See footnote 3, page 124.
D
126 PARTICLES [ 213, 214
PAETICLES
213. Adverbs, Prepositions, Conjunctions, and Interjections
are called Particles.
In their origin Adverbs, Prepositions, and Conjunctions are
either (1) case-forms, actual or extinct, or (2) compounds and
phrases.
Particles cannot always be distinctly classified, for many adverbs are
used also as prepositions and many as conjunctions ( 219 and 222).
ADVERBS
DERIVATION OP ADVERBS
214. Adverbs are regularly formed from Adjectives as follows :
a. From adjectives of the first and second declensions by changing the
characteristic vowel of the stem to -e : as, care, dearly, from carus, dear (stem
caro-) ; amice, like a friend, from amicus, frien dly (stem amlco-).
NOTE. The ending -e is a relic of an old ablative in -ed (cf. 43. N. 1).
&. From adjectives of the third declension by adding -ter to the stem.
Stems in nt- (nom. -ns) lose the t-. All others are treated as i-stems :
fortiter, bravely, from fortis (stem forti-), brave.
acriter, eagerly, from acer (stem acri-), eager.
vigilanter, watchfully, from vigilans (stein vigilant-),
prudenter, prudently, from prudens (stem prudent-),
aliter, otherwise, from alias (old stem ali-).
NOTE. This suffix is perhaps the same as -ter in the Greek -repos and in uter, alter.
If so,these adverbs are in origin either neuter accusatives (cf .a) or masculine nominatives.
c. Some adjectives of the first and second declensions have adverbs of
both forms (-e and -ter) . /<^Thus durus, hard, has both dure and duriter;
miser, wretched, has both miisere and miseriter.
d. The neuter accusative of adjectives and pronouns is often used as an
adverb: as, multum, much; fac^JF, easily; quid-, why. '
This is the origin of the endftig -ius in the comparative degree of ad-
verbs ( 218): as, acrius, more keenly (positive acriter); facilius, more easily
(positive facile).
NOTE. These adverbs are strictly cognate accusatives ( 390).
e. The ablative singular neuter or (less commonly) feminine of adjectives,
pronouns, and nouns may be used adverbially : a, falso, falsely ; cit5,
214-216] DERIVATION OF ADVERBS 127
quickly (with shortened o); recta (via), straight (straightway); crebrS, fre-
quently; volgo, commonly ; forte, by chance; sponte, of one's own accord.
NOTE. Some adverbs are derived from adjectives not in use: as, abunde, plenti-
fully (as if from fabundus ; cf. abundo, abound) ; saepe, often (as if from fsaepis, dense,
close-packed; cf. saepes, hedge, and saepio, hedge in).
215. Further examples of Adverbs and other Particles which
are in origin case-forms of nouns or pronouns are given below.
In some the case is not obvious, and in some it is doubtful.
1. Neuter Accusative forms: non (for ne-oinom, later unum), not; iterum (compara-
tive of i-, stem of is), a second time; demum (superlative of de, down), at last.
2. Feminine Accusatives: partim, partly. So statim, on the spot; saltim, at least
(generally saltern), from lost nouns in -tis (genitive -tis). Thus -tim became a regular
adverbial termination ; and by means of it adverbs were made from many noun- and
verb-stems immediately, without the intervention of any form which could have an
accusative in -tim: as, separatim, separately, from separatus, separate. Some adverbs
that appear to be feminine accusative are possibly instrumental: as, palam, openly;
perperam, wrongly; tarn, so; quam, as.
3. Plural Accusatives: as, alias, elsewhere ; foras, out of doors (as end of motion).
So perhaps quia, because.
4. Ablative or Instrumental forms: qua, where; intra, within; extra, outside; qui,
how; aliqui, somehow ; foris, out of doors; quo, whither; ade5, to that degree; ultro,
beyond; citr5, this side (as end of motion) ; retro, back; illoc (for fillo-ce), weakened to
illuc, thither. Those in -tro are from comparative stems (cf. uls, cis, re-).
5. Locative forms : ibi, there; ubi,where; illi, illi-c, there ; peregri(peregre), abroad;
hie (for fhi-ce), here. Also the compounds hodie (probably for thodie), to-day; perendie,
day after to-morrow.
6. Of uncertain formation: (1) those in -tus (usually preceded by i), with an abla-
tive meaning: as, funditus, from the bottom, utterly; divinitus, from above, provi-
dentially; intus, within; penitus, loithin; (2) those in -dem, -dam, -d5: as, quidem,
indeed; quondam, once; quando (cf. donee), when; (3) dum (probably accusative of
time), while; iam, now.
216. A phrase or short sentence has sometimes grown together
into an adverb (cf . notwithstanding, nevertheless, besides) :
postmodo, presently (a short time after),
denuo (for de novo), anew.
videlicet (for vide licet), to wit (see, you may),
nihilominus, nevertheless (by nothing the less).
NOTE. Other examples are: antea, old antidea, before (ante ea, probably abla-
tive or instrumental) ; ilico (in loco), on the spot, immediately; prorsus, absolutely (pro
versus, straight ahead) ; rursus (re-vorsus) , again ; quotanms, yearly (quot annis, as many
years as there are) ; quam-ob-rem, wherefore ; cominus, hand to hand (con manus) ; e minus,
at long range (ex manus) ; mmirum, without doubt (m mirum) ; ob-viam (as in Ire obviam,
to go to meet) ; pridem (cf. prae and -dem in i-dem),/or some time; forsan (fors an), per-
haps (it's a chance whether); forsitan (fors sit an), perhaps (it would be a chance
whether) ; scilicet (tsci, licet), that is to say (know, you may ; cf. I-licet, you may go) ;
actutum (actu, on the act, and turn, then).
128
PARTICLES
[ 217
CLASSIFICATION OF ADVERBS
217. The classes of Adverbs, with examples, are as follows :
a. Adverbs of Place 1
hie, here.
ibi, there.
istic, there.
illlc, there.
ubi, where.
alicubi, somewhere.
ibidem, in the same
place.
alibi, elsewhere, in
another place.
ubiubi, wherever.
ubivis, anywhere,
where you will.
sicubi, if anywhere.
necubi, lest any-
where.
hue, hither.
eo, thither.
istuc, thither.
iliac, thither.
quo, whither.
aliquo, somewhither,
(to) somewhere.
eodem, to the same
place.
alio, elsewhere, to
another place.
quoquo, whitherso-
ever.
quovis, anywhere,
whither you will.
siquo, if anywhere
(any whither).
nequo, lest any-
whither.
bine, hence.
inde, thence.
istinc, thence.
illinc, thence.
unde, whence.
alicunde,/ro?ft some-
where.
indidem, from the
same place.
aliunde, from an-
other place.
undecunque, whence-
soever.
undique,/rom every
quarter.
sicunde, if from any-
where.
necunde, lest from
anywhere.
hac, by this way.
ea, by that way.
ista, by that way.
ilia (iliac), " "
qua, by what way.
aliqua, by someway.
eadem, by the same
way.
alia, in another
way.
quaqua, in whatever
way.
quavis, by whatever
ivay.
slqua, if anywhere.
nequa, lest any-
where.
NOTE. The demonstrative adverbs hi' 1 , ibi, istic, illi, illlc, and their correlatives,
correspond in signification with the pronouns hie, is, iste, ille (see 146), and are often
equivalent to these pronouns with a preposition : as, inde = ab eo, etc. So the relative or
interrogative ubi corresponds with qui (quis), ali-cubi with aliquis, ubiubi with quisquis,
sl-cubi with siquis (see 147-151, with the table of correlatives in 152).
usque, all the way to ; usquam, anywhere ; nusquam, nowhere ; citro, to this side ;
intro, inwardly; ultro, beyond (or freely, i.e. beyond what is required);
porro, further on.
qudrsum (for quo vorsum, whither turned?), to what end? horsum, this way;
prorsum, forward (prorsus, utterly); introrsum, inwardly; retrorsum, back-
ward; sursum, upward; deorsum, downward; seorsum, apart; aliorsum,
another way.
b. Adverbs of Time
quando, when? (interrogative); cum (quom), when (relative); ut, when, as; nunc,
now; tune (turn), then; mox, presently ; iam, already; dum, while; iam diu,
iam dudum, iam pridem, long ago, long since.
1 All these adverbs were originally case-forms of pronouns. The forms in -bi and
-ic are locative, those in -6 and -uc, -a and -ac, ablative (see 215) ; those in -inc are
from -im (of uncertain origin) with the particle -ce added (thus illim. illin-c).
217, 218] ADVERBS 129
primum (prim5), first; deinde (postea), next after; postremum (postremo),./maWj/;
posteaquam, postquam, when (after that, as soon as).
'.imquam (unquam), ever; numquam (nunquam), never ; semper, always.
aliquando, at some time, at length; quandSque (quandocumque), whenever ; denique,
at last.
quotiens (quoties), how often; totiens, so often; aliquotiens, a number of times.
cotldie, every day ; hodie, to-day ; heri, yesterday ; eras, to-morrow ; pridie, the day
before ; postridie, the day after ; in dies, from day to day.
nondum, not yet; necdum, nor yet; vixdum, scarce yet; quam primum, as soon as
possible ; saepe, often ; crebro, frequently ; iam n5n, no longer.
c. Adverbs of Manner, Degree, or Cause
quam, how, as; tarn, so; quamvis, however much, although; paene, almost; magis,
more; valde, greatly ; viz, hardly.
cur, quare, why ; ide5, idcirco, propterea, on this account, because; eo, therefore;
ergo, itaque, igitur, therefore.
ita, sic, so; ut (uti), as, how; utut, utcumque, however.
d. Interrogative Particles
an, -ne, anne, utrum, utrumne, num, whether.
nonne, annon, whether not ; numquid, ecquid, whether at all.
On the use of the Interrogative Particles, see 332, 335.
e. Negative Particles
non, not (in simple denial) ; baud, minime, not (in contradiction) ; ne, not (in pro-
hibition) ; neve, neu, nor ; nedum, much less.
ne, lest; neque, nee, nor ; ne . . . quidem, not even.
non modo . . . verum (sed) etiam, not only . . . but also.
non modo . . . sed ne . . . quidem, not only NOT . . . but not even.
si minus, if not ; quo minus (quominus), so as not.
quln (relative), but that; (interrogative), why not?
ne, nee (in composition), not ; so in nescio, I know not; nego, I say no (aid, / say
yes) ; negotium, business (tnec-otium) ; nem5 (ne- and nemo, old form of homo),
no one; ne quis, lest any one; neque enim, for . . . not.
For the use of Negative Particles, see 325 ff .
For the Syntax and Peculiar uses of Adverbs, see 320 ff.
COMPARISON OF ADVERBS
218. The Comparative of Adverbs is the neuter accusative of
the comparative of the corresponding adjective ; the Superlative
is the Adverb in -5 formed regularly from the superlative of the
Adjective :
130 PAETICLES [ 218-220
care, dearly (from cams, dear) ; carius, carissime.
rnisere (miseriter), wretchedly (from miser, wretched) ; miserius, miserrime.
leviter (from levis, light) ; levius, levissime.
audacter (audaciter) (from audax, bold) ; audacius, audacissime.
beng, well (from bonus, good) ; melius, optime.
mal5, ill (from malus, bad) ; peiua, pessime.
a. The following are irregular or defective :
diu, long (in time) ; diutius, diutissirne.
potiua, rather ; potissimum, first of all, in preference to all.
saepe, often; saepius, oftener, again; saepissime.
satis, enough ; satius, preferable.
secus, otherwise; setius, worse.
multum (multo), magis, maxime, much, more, most.
parum, not enough; minus, less; minirne, least.
nuper, newly ; nuperrime.
tempere, seasonably ; temperius.
NOTK. In poetry the comparative mage is sometimes used instead of magis.
PREPOSITIONS
219. Prepositions were not originally distinguished from Adverbs in form or mean-
ing, but have become specialized in use. They developed comparatively late in the
history of language. In the early stages of language development the cases alone
were sufficient to indicate the sense, but, as the force of the case-endings weakened,
adverbs were used for greater precision (cf . 338) . These adverbs, from their habitual
association with particular cases, became Prepositions ; but many retained also their
independent function as adverbs.
Most prepositions are true case-forms : as, the comparative ablatives extra, Infra, supra
(for fextera, finfera, fsupera), and the accusatives circum, coram, cum (cf. 215). Circiter
is an adverbial formation from circum (cf. 214. 6. N.) ; praeter is the comparative of
prae, propter of prope.i Of the remainder, versus is a petrified nominative (participle
of verto) ; adversus is a compound of versus ; trans is probably an old present participle
(cf. in-tra-re) ; while the origin of the brief forms ab, ad, de, ex, ob, is obscure and
doubtful.
220. Prepositions are regularly used either with the Accusa-
tive or with the Ablative.
a. The following prepositions are used with the Accusative :
ad, to. circiter, about. intra, inside.
adversus, against. cis, citra, this side. iflxta, near.
adversum, towards. contra, against. ob, on account of.
ante, before. erga, towards. penes, in the power of.
apud, at, near. extra, outside. per, through.
circa, around. infra, below. pone, behind.
circum, around. inter, among. post, after.
1 The case-form of these prepositions in -ter is doubtful.
220, 221] PEEPOSITIONS 131
praeter, beyond. secundum, next to. ultra, on the further side.
prope, near. supra, above. versus^ towards.
propter, on account of. trans, across.
b. The following prepositions are used with the Ablative : *
a, Sb, abs, away from, by. e, ex, out of.
absque, without, but for. prae, in comparison with.
cSram, in presence of. pr5, in front of, for.
cum, with. sine, without.
de, from. tenus, MJ> to, as far as.
c. The following may be used with either the Accusative or the Abla-
tive, but with a difference in meaning :
in, into, in. sub, under.
subter, beneath. super, above.
In and sub, when followed by the accusative, indicate motion to, when by
the ablative, rest in, a place :
venit in aedis, he came into the house; erat in aedibus, he was in the house.
disciplina in Britannia reperta atque hide in Galliam translata esse existi-
matur, the system is thought to have been discovered in Great Britain and
thence brought over to Gaul.
sub ilice consederat, he had seated himself under an ilex.
sub leges mittere orbem, to subject the world to laws (to send the world under
laws).
221. The uses of the Prepositions are as follows :
1. A, ab, away from, 2 from, off from, with the ablative.
a. Of place : as, ab urbe profectus est, he set out from the city.
b. Of time : (1) from : as, ab hora tertia ad vesperam, from the third hour
till evening ; (2) just after : as, ab eo magistratu, after [holding] that office.
c. Idiomatic uses : a reliquis differunt, they differ from the others; a parvulls,
from early childhood ; prope ab urbe, near (not far from) the city ; liberare ab,
to set free from ; occlsus ab hoste (periit ab hoste), slain by an enemy; ab hac
parte, on this side; ab re eius, to his advantage; a re publica, for the interest of
the state.
2. Ad, to, towards, at, near, with the accusative (cf. in, into).
a. Of place : as, ad urbem venit, he came to the city ; ad meridiem, towards
the south; ad exercitum, to the army ; ad hostem, toward the enemy ; ad urbem,
near the city.
b. Of time : as, ad nonam horam, till the ninth hww.
c. With persons : as, ad eum venit, he came to him.
1 For palam etc., see 432.
2 Ab signifies direction from the object, but often towards the speaker; compare dS,
down from, and ex, out of.
132 PARTICLES [ 221
d. Idiomatic uses: ad supplicia descendant, they resort to punishment; ad
haec respondit, to this he answered; ad ternpus, at the [fit] time; adire ad rein
publicam, to go into public life; ad petendam pacem, to seek peace; ad latera,
on the flank; ad arma, to arms; ad hunc rnodum, in this way ; quern ad modum,
how, as; ad centum, nearly a hundred; ad h5c, besides; oinnes ad unum, all to
a man; ad diem, on the day.
3. Ante, in front of, before, with the accusative (cf. post, after).
a. Of place : as, anteportam, in front of the gate; anteexercitum,mada?ice
of the army.
b. Of time : as, ante bellum, before the war.
c. Idiomatic uses : ante urbem captain, before the city was taken; ante diem
qulntum (a.d.v.) Kal., the fifth day before the Calends; ante quadriennium, four
years before or ago ; ante tempus, too soon (before the time).
4. Apud, at, by, among, with the accusative.
a. Of place (rare and archaic) : as, apud forum, at the forum (in the market-
place).
6. With reference to persons or communities : as, apud Helvetios, among
the Helvetians; apud populura, before the people; apud aliquem, at one's house;
apud se, at home or in his senses ; apud Ciceronem, in [the works of] Cicero.
5. Circa, about, around, with the accusative (cf. circum, circiter).
a. Of place : templa circa forum, the temples about the forum ; circa se habet,
he has with him (of persons).
b. Of time or number (in poetry and later writers) : circa eandem horam,
about the same hour; circa Idfis Octobrls, about the fifteenth of October; circa
decem milia, about ten thousand.
c. Figuratively (in later writers), about, in regard to (cf. de) : circa quern
pugna est, with regard to whom, etc. ; circa de6s neglegentior, rather neglectful of
(i.e. in worshipping) the gods.
6. Circiter, about, with the accusative.
a. Of time or number : circiter idus Novembrls, about the thirteenth of Novem-
ber ; circiter meridiem, about noon.
7. Circum, about, around, with the accusative.
a. Of place: circum haec loca, hereabout; circuni Capuam, round Capua;
circum ilium, with him; legatiO circum Insulas missa, an embassy sent to the
islands round about ; circum amlcos, to his friends round about.
8. Contra, opposite, against, with the accusative.
contra Italiam, over against Italy ; contra haec, in answer to this.
a. Often as adverb: as, haec contra, this in reply; contra autem, but on
the other hand ; quod contra, whereas, on the other hand.
9. Cum, with, together with, with the ablative.
221] PREPOSITIONS 133
a. Of place : as, vade mgcum, go with me ; cum omnibus impedimentls,
with all [their] baggage.
b. Of time : as, prima cum luce, at early dawn (with first light).
c. Idiomatic uses: niagno cum dolore, with great sorrow; commuriicare ali-
quid cum aliquo, share something with some one; cum malo suo, to his own hurt;
confligere cum hoste, to fight with the enemy ; esse cum telo, to go armed; cum
silentio, in silence.
10. D6, down from, from, with the ablative (cf. ab, away from ;
ex, out of).
a. Of place : as, de caelo demissus, sent down from heaven ; de navibus
desilire, to jump down from the ships.
b. Figuratively, concerning, about, of: 1 as, cognoscit de ClodI caede, he
learns of the murder of Clodius ; consilia de bello, plans of war.
c. In a partitive sense (compare ex), out of, of: as, unus de plebe, one of the
people.
d. Idiomatic uses: multls de causls, for many reasons; qua de causa, for
which reason; de improvise, of a sudden; de" industria, on purpose; de integro,
anew ; de tertia vigilia, just at midnight (starting at the third watch) ; de mense
Decembri navigare, to sail as early as December.
11. Ex, 3, from (the midst, opposed to in), out of, with the abla-
tive (cf. ab and dg).
a. Of place : as, ex omnibus partibus silvae evolaverunt, they flew out from
all parts of the forest ; ex Hispania, [a man] from Spain.
b. Of time : as, ex e5 die quintus, the fifth day from that (four days after) ;
ex hoc die, from this day forth.
c. Idiomatically or less exactly : ex consulatu, right after his consulship ;
ex eius sententia, according to his opinion; ex aequo, justly ; ex improvise,
unexpectedly ; ex tua re, to your advantage ; magna ex parte, in a great degree ;
ex equ5 pugnare, to fight on horseback; ex usu, expedient; e regione, opposite;
quaerere ex aliquo, to ask of some one; ex senatus consults, according to the
decree of the senate ; ex fuga, in [their] flight (proceeding immediately from it) ;
unus 6 flliis, one of the sons.
12. In, with the accusative or the ablative.
1. With the accusative, into (opposed to ex).
o. Of place : as, in Italiam contendit, he hastens into Italy.
b. Of time, till, until: as, in hlcem, till daylight.
c. Idiomatically or less exactly : in meridiem, towards the south ; amor in
(erga, adversus) patrein, love for his father ; in aram confugit, he fled to the altar
(on the steps, or merely to) ; in dies, from day to day ; in longitudinem, length-
wise; in latitudinem patebat, extended in width; in haec verba iurare, to swear
to these words ; hunc in modum, in this way ; oratiO in Catilinam, a speech against
1 Of originally meant from (cf. off).
134 PARTICLES [ 221
Catiline; in perpetuum, forever ; in pe1us,/or the worse; in diem vivere, to live
from hand to mouth (for the day).
2. With the ablative, in, on, among.
In very various connections : as, in castris, in the camp (cf. ad castra, to, at,
or near the camp) ; in marl, on the sea; in urbe esse, to be in town; in tempore,
in season; in scribendo, while writing ; est mini in animo, I have it in mind, I
intend; in ancorls, at anchor; in hoc homine, in the case of this man; in clubio
esse, to be in doubt.
13. Infra, below, with the accusative.
a. Of place : as, ad mare infra oppidum, by the sea below the town; infra
caelum, under the sky.
b. Figuratively or less exactly: as, infra Homerum, later than Homer;
Infra tres pedes, less than three feet ; infra elephantos, smaller than elephants ;
infra infimos omuls, the lowest of the low.
14. Inter, betiveen, among, with the accusative.
inter me et Scipionem, between myself and Scipio ; inter os et offam, between
the cup and the Up (the mouth and the morsel) ; inter hostium tela, amid
the weapons of the enemy ; inter omnis primus, first of all; inter biben-
dum, while drinking ; inter se loquuntur, they talk together.
15. Ob, towards, on account of, with the accusative.
a. Literally : (1) of motion (archaic) : as, ob Romam, towards Rome
(Ennius) ; ob viam, to the road (preserved as adverb, in the way of). (2) Of place
in which, before, in a few phrases : as, ob oculos, before the eyes.
b. Figuratively, in return for (mostly archaic, probably a word of account >
balancing one thing against another) : as, ob mulierem, in pay for the woman ;
ob rem, for gain. Hence applied to reason, cause, and the like, on account of
(a similar mercantile idea), for : as, ob earn causam, for that reason ; quam ob
rem (quamobrem), wherefore, why.
16. Per, through, over, with the accusative.
a. Of motion: as, per urbem ire, to go through the city; per murOs, over
the walls.
b. Of time : as, per hiemem, throughout the winter.
c. Figuratively, of persons as means or instruments : as, per homines ido-
neos, through the instrumentality of suitable persons ; licet per me, you (etc.) may
for all me. Hence, stat per me, it is through my instrumentality ; so, per se, in
and of itself.
d. Weakened, in many adverbial expressions : as, per iocum, in jest; per
speciem, in show, ostentatiously.
17. Prae, in front of, with the ablative.
a. Literally, of place (in a few connections) : as, prae s6 portare, to carry
in one's arms; prae se ferre, to carry before one, (hence figuratively) exhibit, pro-
claim ostentatiously, make known.
221] PREPOSITIONS 135
6. Figuratively, of hindrance, as by an obstacle in front (compare English
for) : as, prae gauclio conticuit, he was silent for joy.
c. Of comparison : as, prae magnitudine corporum suorum, in comparison
with their own great size.
18. Praeter, along by, by, with the accusative.
a. Literally : as, praeter castra, by the camp (along by, in front of) ; praeter
oculos, before the eyes.
b. Figuratively, beyond, besides, more than, in addition to, except : as, praeter
spem, beyond hope; praeter alios, more than others; praeter paucos, with the
exception of a few.
19. Pro, in front of, with the ablative.
sedens pro aede Castoris, sitting in front of the temple of Castor ; pro populo,
in presence of the people. So pro rostrls, on [the front of] the rostra ;
pro contione, before the assembly (in a speech).
a. In various idiomatic uses: pr5 lege, in defence of the law; pro vitula,
instead of a heifer; pro centum mllibus, as good as a hundred Uiousand; prO
rata parte, in due proportion; pro hac vice, for this once; pro consule, in place
of consul; pro viribus, considering his strength; pro virlli parte, to the best of
one's ability; pro tua priidentia, in accordance with your wisdom.
20. Propter, near, by, with the accusative.
propter te sedet, he sits next you. Hence, on account of (cf. all along of) :
as, propter metum, through fear.
21. Secundum, 1 just behind, following, with the accusative.
a. Literally: as, ite secundum me (Plaut.), go behind me ; secundum litus,
near the shore; secundum flumen, along the stream (cf. secundo flumine, down
stream).
b. Figuratively, according to: as, secundum naturam, according to nature.
22. Sub, under, up to, with the accusative or the ablative.
1. Of motion, with the accusative : as, sub montem succedere, to come close
to the hill.
a. Idiomatically: sub noctem, towards night ; sub lucem, near daylight ; sub
haec dicta, at (following) these words.
2. Of rest, with the ablative : as, sub love, in the open air (under the heaven,
personified as Jove) ; sub monte, at the foot of the hitt.
a. Idiomatically : sub e5dem tempore, about the same time (just after it).
23. Subter, under, below, with the accusative (sometimes, in poetry,
the ablative).
subter togam (Liv.), under his mantle; but, subter litore (Catull.), below
the shore.
24. Super, 2 with the accusative or the ablative.
1 Old participle of sequor. 2 Comparative of sub.
136 PARTICLES [ 221
1. With the accusative, above, over, on, beyond, upon.
a. Of place : super vallum praecipitarl (lug. 58), to be hurled over the ram-
part ; super lateres coria inducuntur (B.C. ii. 10), hides are drawn over the bricks ;
super terrae tumulum statui (Legg. ii. 65), to be placed on the mound of earth ;
super Numidiam (lug. 19), beyond Numidia.
b. Idiomatically or less exactly : vulnus -super vulnus, wound upon wound ;
super vinum (Q. C. viii. 4), over his wine.
2. With the ablative, concerning, about (the only use with this case in
prose).
hac super re, concerning this thing; super tall re, about such an affair; lit-
teras super tanta r6 exspectare, to wait for a letter in a matter of such
importance.
a. Poetically, in other senses : llgna super foco large reponens (Hor. Od. i.
9. 5), piling logs generously on the fire; noete super media (Aen. ix. 61), after
midnight.
25. Supra, on top of, above, with the accusative.
supra terram, on the surface of the earth. So also figuratively : as, supra
hanc memoriam, before our remembrance; supra morem, more than
usual ; supra quod, besides.
26. Tenus (postpositive), as far as, up to, regularly with the abla-
tive, sometimes with the genitive (of. 359. l>~).
1. With the ablative : Tauro tenus, as far as Taurus ; capulo tenus, up to the
hilt.
2. With the genitive : Curaarum tenus (Fam. viii. 1. 2), as far as Cumae.
NOTE 1. Tenus is frequently connected with the feminine of an adjective pronoun,
making an adverbial phrase: as, hactenus, hitherto; quatenus, so far as; de hac re
hactenus, so much for that (about this matter so far).
NOTE 2. Tenus was originally a neuter noun, meaning line or extent. In its use
with the genitive (mostly poetical) it may be regarded as an adverbial accusative
(397. a).
27. Trans, across, over, through, by, with the accusative.
a. Of motion : as, trans mare currunt, they run across the sea ; trans flu-
men ferre, to carry over a river ; trans aethera, through the sky ; trans caput iace,
throw over your head.
b. Of rest : as, trans Rhenum incolunt, they live across the Rhine.
28. Ultra, beyond (on the further side), with the accusative.
cis Padum ultraque, on this side of the Po and beyond; ultra eum numerum,
more than that number; ultra fidem, incredible ; ultra modum, immod-
erate.
NOTE. Some adverbs appear as prepositions: as, intus, insuper (see 219).
For Prepositions in Compounds, see 267.
222-224] CONJUNCTIONS 137
CONJUNCTIONS
222. Conjunctions, like prepositions (cf. 219), are closely related to adverbs, and
are either petrified cases of nouns, pronouns, and adjectives, or obscured phrases : as,
quod, an old accusative; dum, probably an old accusative (cf. turn, cum) ; vero, an old
neuter ablative of verus; nihilSminus, none the less; proinde, lit. forward from there.
Most conjunctions are connected with pronominal adverbs, which cannot always be re-
ferred to their original case-forms.
223. Conjunctions connect words, phrases, or sentences. They
are of two classes, Coordinate and Subordinate :
a. Coordinate, connecting coordinate or similar constructions (see 278.
2. a). These are:
1. Copulative or disjunctive, implying a connection or separation of thought
vus well as of words : as, et, and; aut, or; neque, nor.
2. Adversative, implying a connection of words, but a contrast in thought :
?s, sed, but.
3. Causal, introducing a cause or reason : as, nam, for.
4. Illative, denoting an inference : as, igitur, therefore.
6. Subordinate, connecting a subordinate or independent clause with
that on which it depends (see 278. 2. 6). These are :
1. Conditional, denoting a condition or hypothesis : as, si, if; nisi, unless.
2. Comparative, implying comparison as well as condition : as, ac si, as if.
3. Concessive, denoting a concession or admission : as, quamquam, although
(lit. however much it may be true that, etc.).
4. Temporal : as, postquam, after.
6. Consecutive, expressing result : as, ut, so that.
6. Final, expressing purpose : as, ut, in order that; ne, that not.
7. Causal, expressing cause : as, quia, because.
224. Conjunctions are more numerous and more accurately
distinguished in Latin than in English. The following list
includes the common conjunctions * and conjunctive phrases :
COORDINATE
a. Copulative and Disjunctive
et, -que, atque (ac), and.
et . . . et ; et . . . -que (atque); -que . . . et ; -que . . . -que (poetical), both . . . and.
etiam, quoque, neque n5n (necnSn), quin etiam, itidem (item), also.
cum . . . turn ; turn . . . turn, both . . . and; not only . . . but also.
1 Some of these have been included in the classification of adverbs. See also list
of Correlatives, 152.
138 PARTICLES [ 224
qua . . . qua, on the one hand ... on the other hand.
modo . . . mode, now . . . now.
aut . . . aut ; vel . . . vel (-ve) , either ... or.
sive (seu) . . . sive, whether ... or.
nee (neque) . . . nee (neque); neque . . . nee; nee . . . neque(rare), neither . . . nor.
et . . . neque, both . . . and not.
nee . . . et ; nee (neque) . . . -que, neither (both not) . . . and.
1>. Adversative
sed, autem, verum, vero, at, atqui, but.
tamen, attamen, sed tamen, verum tamen, but yet, nevertheless.
nihilominus, none the less.
at vero, but in truth; enimvero, for in truth.
ceterum, on the other hand, but.
c. Causal
nam, namque, enim, etenim, for.
quapropter, quare, quamobrem, quocirca, unde, wherefore, whence.
d. Illative
ergo, igitur, itaque, ideo, idcirco, inde, proinde, therefore, accordingly.
SUBORDINATE
a. Conditional
si, if; sin, but if; nisi (ni), unless, if not; quod si, but if.
modo, dum, dummodo, si modo, if only, provided.
dummodo ne (dum ne, modo ne), provided only not.
b. Comparative
at, uti, sicut, just as; velut, as, so as; prout, praeut, ceu, like as, according as.
tamquam (tanquam), quasi, ut si, ac si, velut, veluti, velut si, as if.
quam, atque (ac), as, than.
c. Concessive
etsi, etiamsi, tametsi, even if; quamquam (quanquam), although.
quamvis, quantumvis, quamlibet, quantumlibet, however much.
licet (properly a verb), ut, cum (quom), though, suppose, whereas.
d. Temporal
cum (quom), quando, when; ubi, ut, when, as; cum primum, ut primum, ubi primum,
simul, simul ac, simul atque, as soon, as; postquam (posteaquam), after.
prius . . . quam, ante . . . quam, before; non ante . . . quam, not . . . until.
dum, usque dum, donee, quoad, until, as long as, while.
224-226] INTERJECTIONS 139
e. Consecutive and Final
ut (uti), quo, so that, in order that.
ne, ut ne, lest (that . . . not, in order that not) ; neve (neu), that not, nor.
quin (after negatives), quominus, but that (so as to prevent), that not.
f. Causal
quia, quod, quoniam (tquom-iam), quando, because.
cum (quom), since.
quanddquidem, si quidem, quippe, ut pote, since indeed, inasmuch as.
propterea . . . quod, for this reason . . . tliat.
On the use of Conjunctions, see 323, 324.
INTERJECTIONS
225. Some Interjections are mere natural exclamations of feeling; others are
derived from inflected parts of speech, e.g. the imperatives em, lo (probably for erne,
take); age, come, etc. Names of deities occur in hercle, pol (from Pollux), etc. Many
Latin interjections are borrowed from the Greek, as euge, euhoe, etc.
226. The following list comprises most of the Interjections in
common use :
6, en, ecce, ehem, papae, van (of astonishment).
io, evae, evoe, euhoe (oijoy).
heu, eheu, vae, alas (of sorrow).
heus, eho, ehodum, ho (of catting) ; st, hist.
eia, euge (of praise).
pro (of attestation) : as, pro pudor, shame !
140 FORMATION OF WORDS f 227-230
FORMATION OF WORDS
227. All formation of words is originally a process of composition. An clement
significant in itself is added to another significant element, and thus the meaning of
the two is combined. No other combination is possible for the formation either of
inflections or of stems. Thus, in fact, words (since roots and steins are significant
elements, and so words) are first placed side by side, then brought under one accent,
and finally felt as one word. The gradual process is seen in sea voyage, sea-nymph,
neaside. But as all derivation, properly so called, appears as a combination of uuin-
flected stems, every type of formation in use must antedate inflection. Hence words
were not in strictness derived either from nouns or from verbs, but from stems which
were neither, because they were in fact both ; for the distinction between noun-stems
and verb-Stems had not yet been made.
After the development of Inflection, however, that one of several kindred words
which seemed the simplest was regarded as the primitive form, and from this the other
words of the group were thought to be derived. Such supposed processes of formation
were then imitated, often erroneously, and in this way new modes of derivation arose.
Thus new adjectives were formed from nouns, now nouns from adjectives, new adjec-
tives from verbs, and new verbs from adjectives and nouns.
In course of time the real or apparent relations of many words became confused,
so that nouns and adjectives once supposed to come from nouns were often assigned
to verbs, ^nd others once supposed to come from verbs were assigned to nouns.
Further, since the language was constantly changing, many words went out of use,
and do not occur in the literature as we have it. Thus many Derivatives survive of
which the Primitive is lost.
Finally, since all conscious word-formation is imitative, intermediate steps in deriva-
tion were sometimes omitted, and occasionally apparent Derivatives occur for which
no proper Primitive ever existed.
ROOTS AND STEMS
228. Roots 1 are of two kinds :
1. Verbal, expressing ideas of action or condition (sensible phenomena).
2. Pronominal, expressing ideas of position and direction.
From verbal roots come all parts of speech except pronouns and certain
particles derived from pronominal roots.
229. Stems are either identical with roots or derived from them.
They are of two classes: (1) Noun-stems (including Adjective-
stems) and (2) Verb-stems.
NOTK. Noun-stems and verb-stems were not originally different (see p. 163), and
in the consciousness of the Romans were often confounded ; but in general they were
treated as distinct.
230. Words are formed by inflection : (1) from roots inflected
as stems; (2) from derived stems (see 232).
1 For the distinction between Roots and Stems, see 24, 25.
231-233] PRIMARY SUFFIXES 141
231. A root used as a stem may appear
a. With a short vowel : as, due-is (dux), DUC ; nec-is (nex); i-s, i-d. So
in verbs : as, es-t, fer-t (cf. 174. 2).
&. With a long vowel * : as, luc-is (lux), LUC ; pac-is (pax). So in verbs :
duc-6, I-s for feis, from eo, Ire ; fatur from farl.
c. With reduplication : as, fur-fur, mar-mor, mur-mur. So in verbs : as,
gi-gno (root GEN), si-sto (root STA).
DERIVED STEMS AND SUFFIXES
232. Derived Stems are formed from roots or from other stems
by means of suffixes. These are :
1. Primary : added to the root, or (in later times by analogy) to verb-
stems.
2. Secondary : added to a noun-stem or an adjective-stem.
Both primary and secondary suffixes are for the most part pronominal
roots ( 228. 2), but a few are of doubtful origin.
NOTE 1. The distinction between primary and secondary suffixes, not being orig-
inal (see 227) , is continually lost sight of in the development of a language. Suffixes
once primary are used as secondary, and those once secondary are used as primary.
Thus in hosticus (hosti + cus) the suffix -cus, originally ko- (see 234. II. 12) primary, as
in paucus, has become secondary, and is thus regularly used to form derivatives ; but
in pudicus, apricus, it is treated as primary again, because these words were really or
apparently connected with verbs. So in English -able was borrowed as a primary
suffix (tolerable, eatable), but also makes forms like clubbable, salable; -some is prop-
erly a secondary suffix, as in toilsome, lonesome, but makes also such words as meddle-
some, venturesome.
NOTE 2. It is the stem of the word, not the nominative, that is formed by the
derivative suffix. For convenience, however, the nominative will usually be given.
Primary Suffixes
233. The words in Latin formed immediately from the root by
means of Primary Suffixes, are few. For
1. Inherited words so formed were mostly further developed by the
addition of other suffixes, as we might make an adjective lone-ly-some-ish,
meaning nothing more than lone, lonely, or lonesome.
2. By such accumulation of suffixes, new compound suffixes were formed
which crowded out even the old types of derivation. Thus,
1 The difference in vowel-quantity in the same root (as DUC) depends on inherited
variations (see 17. a).
r
e
FORMATION ^OF WORDS [ 233, 234
A word like mens, mentis, by the suffix on- (nom. -o), gave mentis, and this,
being divided into men + tio, gave rise to a new type of abstract nouns in -tio :
as, lega-tio, embassy.
A word like auditor, by the suffix io- (nom. -ius), gave rise to adjectives like
auditor-ius, of which the neuter (auditorium) is used to denote the place where
the action of the verb is performed. Hence torio- (nom. -torium), N., becomes a
regular noun-suffix ( 250. a).
So in English such a word as suffocation gives a suffix -ation, and with this is
made starvation, though there is no such word as starvate.
234. Examples of primary stem-suffixes are :
I. Vowel suffixes :
1. o- (M., N.), a- (F.), found in nouns and adjectives of the first two declen-
sions : as, sonus, ludus, vagus, toga (root TEG).
2. i-, as in ovis, avis ; in Latin frequently changed, as in rupes, or lost, as in
scobs (scobis, root SCAB).
3. u-, disguised in most adjectives by an additional i, as in sua-vis (for tsuad-
vis, instead of fsua-dus, cf. rjSfa), ten-uis (root TEN in tendo), and remaining alone
only in nouns of the fourth declension, as acus (root AK, sharp, in acer, acies,
wKi5s), pecu, genii.
II. Suffixes with a consonant :
1. to- (M., N.), ta- (F.), in the regular perfect passive participle, as tectus,
tectum ; sometimes with an active sense, as in potus, pransus ; and found in a
few words not recognized as participles, as putus (cf. purus), altus (alo).
2. ti- in abstracts and rarely in nouns of agency, as messis, vestis, pars,
mens. But in many the i is lost.
3. tu- in abstracts (including supines), sometimes becoming concretes, as
actus, luctus.
4. no- (M., N.), na- (F.), forming perfect participles in other languages, and in
Latin making adjectives of like participial meaning, which often become nouns,
as magnus, plenus, regnum.
5. ni-, in nouns of agency and adjectives, as Ignis, segnis.
6. nu-, rare, as in manus, pinus, cornu.
7. mo- (ma-), with various meanings, as in animus, almus, firmus, forma.
8. vo- (va-) (commonly uo-, ua-), with an active or passive meaning, as in
equus (equos), arvum, conspicuus, exiguus, vaclvus (vacuus).
9. ro- (ra-), as in ager (stem ag-ro-), integer (cf. intactus), sacer, pleri-que (cf.
plenus, pletus).
10. lo- (la-), as in caelum (for tcaed-lum), chisel, exemplum, sella (for tsedla).
11. yo- (ya-), forming gerundives in other languages, and in Latin making
adjectives and abstracts, including many of the first and fifth declensions, as
eximius, audacia, Florentia, pernicies.
12. ko- (ka-), sometimes primaiy, as in pauci (cf. iravpos), locus (for stlocus).
In many cases the vowel of this termination is lost, leaving a consonant stem:
as, apex, cortex, loquax.
234-236] DERIVATION OF NOUNS 143
13. en- (on-, en-, on-), in nouns of agency and abstracts : as, aspergo, compago
(-inis), gero (-onis).
14. men-, expressing means, often passing into the action itself : as, agmen,
flumen. fulmen.
15. ter- (tor-, ter-, tor-, tr-), forming nouns of agency : as, pater (i.e. protector),
f rater (i.e. supporter), orator.
16. tro-, forming nouns of means: as, claustrum (CLAUD), mulctrum (MULG).
17. es- (os-), forming names of actions, passing into concretes : as, genus
(generis), tempus (see 15. 4). The infinitive in -ere (as in reg-ere) is a locative of
this stem (-er-e for t-es-i).
18. nt- (ont-, ent-), forming present active participles: as, legens, with some
adjectives from roots unknown : as, frequens, recens.
The above, with some suffixes given below, belong to the Indo-European
parent speech, and most of them were not felt as living formations in the
Latin.
Significant Endings
235. Both primary and secondary suffixes, especially in the
form of compound suffixes, were used in Latin with more or less
consciousness of their meaning. They may therefore be called
Significant Endings.
They form : (1) Nouns of Agency ; (2) Abstract Nouns (in-
cluding Names of Actions) ; (3) Adjectives (active or passive).
NOTE. There is really no difference in etymology between an adjective and a
noun, except that some formations are habitually used as adjectives and others as
nouns ( 20. 6. N. 2).
DERIVATION OF NOUNS
Nouns of Agency
236. Nouns of Agency properly denote the agent or doer of an
action. But they include many words in which the idea of agency
has entirely faded out, and also many words used as adjectives.
a. Nouns denoting the agent or doer of an action are formed from roots
or verb-stems by means of the suffixes
-tor (-sor), M. ; -trlx, F.
can-tor, can-trix, singer ; can-ere (root CAN), to sing.
vic-tor, vic-trix, conqueror (victorious); vinc-ere (vie), to conquer.
ton-sor (for ttond-tor), tons-trix (for
ttond-trix), hair-cutter ; tond-ere (TOND as root), to sliear.
petl-tor, candidate; pet-Sre (PET; peti- as stem), to seek.
144 FORMATION OF WORDS [236-238
By analogy -tor is sometimes added to noun-stems, but these may be stems
of lost verbs : as, via-tor, traveller, from via, way (but cf. the verb invio).
NOTE 1. The termination -tor (-sor) has the same phonetic change as the supine
ending -turn (-sum), and is added to the same form of root or verb-stern as that ending.
The stem-ending ist5r- (234. II. 15), which is shortened in the nominative.
NOTE 2. The feminine form is always -trix. Masculines in -sor lack the feminine,
except expulsor (expultrix) and tonsor (tonstrix) .
&. t-, M. or F., added to verb-stems makes nouns in -es (-itis, -etis ; stem
it-, et-) descriptive of a character :
prae-stes, -stitis, (verb-stem from root STA, stare, stand), guardian.
teges, -etis (verb-stem tege-, cf. tego, cover), a coverer, a mat.
pedes, -itis (pes, ped-is, foot, and i, root of Ire, go), foot-soldier.
c. -o (genitive -onis, stem on-), M., added to verb-stems 1 indicates a person
employed in some specific art or trade :
com-bibo (BIB as root in bibo, bibere, drink), a pot-companion.
gero, -onis (GES in gero, gerere, carry), a carrier.
NOTE. This termination is also used to form many nouns descriptive of personal
characteristics (cf. 255).
Names of Actions and Abstract Nouns
237. Names of Actions are confused, through their termina-
tions, with real abstract nouns (names of qualities), and with con-
crete nouns denoting means and instrument.
They are also used to express the concrete result of an action
(as often in English).
Thus legio is literally the act of collecting, but comes to mean legion (the body
of soldiers collected) ; cf. levy in English.
238. Abstract Nouns and Names of Actions are formed from
roots arid verb-stems by means of the endings
a. Added to roots or forms conceived as roots
Now. -or, M. -es, F. -us, N.
GEN. -oris -is -eris or -oris
STEM or- (earlier 6s-) i- er- (earlier e / s-)
tim-or, fear ; timere, to fear.
am-or, love; amare, to love.
sed-es, seat ; sedere, to sit.
caed-es, slaughter; caedere, to kill.
genus, birth, race; GEN, to be born (root of gigno, bear).
1 So conceived, but perhaps this termination was originally added to noun-stems.
238, 239] NAMES OF ACTIONS AND ABSTRACT NOUNS 145
NOTE. Many nouns of this class are formed by analogy from imaginary roots:
as facinus from a supposed root FACIN.
6. Apparently added to roots or verb-stems
NOM. -io, F. -tio (-sio), F. -tura (-sura), F. -tus, M.
GEN. -ionis -tionis (-sionis) -turae (-surae) -tus (-sus)
STEM ion- tion- (sion-) tura- (sura-) tu- (su-)
leg-io, a collecting (levy), a legion; legere, to collect.
reg-io, a direction, a region; regere, to direct.
voca-ti5, a calling ; vocare, to call.
moli-tio, a toiling ; mdliri, to toil.
scrip-tura, a writing ; scribere, to write.
seu-sus (for tsent-tus), feeling ; sentire, to feel.
NOTE 1. tio, -tura, -tus are added to roots or verb-stems precisely as -tor, with the
same phonetic change (cf . 236. a. N. *). Hence they are conveniently associated with
the supine stem (see 178). They sometimes form nouns when there is no correspond-
ing verb in use : as, senatus, senate (cf. senex) ; mentis, mention (cf . mens) ; fgtura, off-
spring (cf. fetus); litteratura, literature (cf. litterae) ; consulatus, consulship (cf. cdnsul).
NOTE 2. Of these endings, -tus was originally primary (cf. 234. II. 3.) ; -io is a com-
pound formed by adding on- to a stem ending in a vowel (originally i) : as, dicio (cf .
-dicus and dicis) ; -tio is a compound formed by adding 5n- to stems in ti- : as, gradatio
(cf . gradatim) ; -tura is formed by adding -ra, feminine of -rus, to stems in tu- : as,
natura from natus ; statura from status (cf. figura, of like meaning, from a simple u-
stem, ffigu-s; and maturus, Matuta).
239. Nouns denoting acts, or means and results of acts, are
formed from roots or verb-stems by the use of the suffixes
-men, N. ; -mentum, N. ; -monium, N. ; -monia, F.
ag-men, line of march, band ; AG, root of agere, to lead.
regi-men. rule : } . / \
regi-mentum, rule; } reg " ^^ Stem f re S ere > to direct '
certa-men, contest, battle ; certa-, stem of certare, to contend.
So colu-men, pillar ; mo-men, movement; no-men, name; flu-men, stream.
testi-monium, testimony ; testari, to witness.
queri-monia, complaint; queri, to complain.
-monium and -monia are also used as secondary, forming nouns from other
nouns and from adjectives : as, sancti-monia, sanctity ( sanctus, holy) ; matri-
monium. marriage (mater, mother).
NOTE. Of these endings, -men is primary (cf. 234. II. 14) ; -mentum is a compound
of men- and to-, and appears for the most part later in the language than -men : as,
momen, movement (Lucr.) ; momentum (later). So elementum is a development from
L-M-N-a, l-m-n's (letters of the alphabet), changed to elementa along with other nouns
in -men. -monium and -monia were originally compound secondary suffixes formed
from mdn- (a by- form of men-), which was early associated with mo-. Thus almus
146 FORMATION OF WORDS [ 239, 241
(stem almo-) , fostering ; Almon, a river near Rome; alimonia, support. But the last
was formed directly from aid when -monia had become established as a supposed
primary suffix.
240. Nouns denoting means or instrument are formed from roots
and verb-stems (rarely from noun-stems) by means of the neuter
suffixes
-bulum, -culum, -brum, -crum, -trum
pa-bulum, fodder ; pascere, to feed.
sta-bulum, stall ; stare, to stand.
vehi-culum, wagon; vehere, to carry.
candela-brum, candlestick ; candela, candle (a secondary formation).
sepul-crum, tomb ; sepelire, to bury.
claus-trum (tclaud-trum), bar ; claudere, to shut.
ara-trum, plough; arare, to plough.
NOTE. trum (stem tro-) was an old formation from tor- (234. II. 15), with the
stem suffix o-, and -clum (stem clo- for tlo-) appears to be related ; -culum is the same
as -clum; -bulum contains lo- ( 234. II. 9, 10) and -brum is closely related.
tt. A few masculines and feminines of the same formation occur as nouns
and adjectives :
fa-bula, tale ; fan, to speak.
ridi-culus, laughable; ridere, to laugh.
fa-ber, smith; facere, to make.
late-bra, hiding-place ; latere, to hide.
tere-bra, auger ; terere, to bore.
mulc-tra, milk-pail ; mulgere, to milk.
241. Abstract Nouns, mostly from adjective-stems, rarely from
noun-stems, are formed by means of the secondary feminine suf-
fixes
-ia (-ies), -tia (-ties), -tas, -tus, -tudo
audac-ia, boldness; audax, bold.
pauper-ies, poverty ; pauper, poor.
tristi-tia, sadness; tristis, sad.
segni-ties, laziness; segnis, lazy.
boni-tas, goodness; bonus, good.
senec-tus, age; senex, old.
magni-tudo, greatness; magnus, yrcal.
1. In stems ending in o- or a- the stem-vowel is lost before -ia (as superb-ia)
and appears as i before -tas, -tus, -tia (as in boni-tas, above).
2. Consonant stems often insert i before -tas : as, loquax (stem loquac-),
loquaci-tas ; but hones-tas, maies-tas (as if from old adjectives in -es), uber-tas,
volup-tas. o after i is changed to e : as, pius (stem pio-), pie-tas ; socius, socie-tas.
241]
NEUTER ABSTRACTS
147
a. In like manner -d5 and -go (F.) form abstract nouns, but are asso-
ciated with verbs and apparently added to verb-stems :
cupl-do, desire, from cupere, to desire (as if from stem cupi-).
dulce-do, sweetness (cf. dulcis, sweet), as if from a stem dulce-, cf. dulce-scd.
lumba-go, lumbago (cf. lumbus, loin), as if from tlumbo, -are.
NOTE. Of these, -ia is inherited as secondary (cf. 234. II. 11). -tia is formed by
adding -ia to stems with a t-suffix : as, militia, from miles (stem milit-) ; molestia
from molestus ; dementia from Clemens ; whence by analogy, mali-tia, avari-tia. -tas
is inherited, but its component parts, ta- + ti-, are found as suffixes in the same sense :
as, senecta from senex ; semen-tis from semen, -tus is tu- + ti-, cf. servitu-do. -do and
-go appear only with long vowels, as from verb-stems, by a false analogy ; but -do is
do- + 6n-: as, cupidus, cupido; gravidus, gravedo (cf. grave-sco) ; albidus, albedo (cf. al-
besco) ; formidus, hot, formido (cf. formidulSsus) , (hot flash?) fear ; -go is possibly co- +
5n-; cf. vorax, vorago, but cf. Cethegus. -tudo is compounded of -do with tu-stems,
which acquire a long vowel from association with verb-stems in u- (cf. volumen, from
volvo) : as, consuetu-do, valetu-d5, habitu-do, sollicitu-do ; whence servitudS (cf . servitus,
-tutis).
6. Neuter Abstracts, which easily pass into concretes denoting offices
and groups, are formed from noun-stems and perhaps from verb-stems by
means of the suffixes
-ium, -tium
hospit-ium, Jiospitality, an inn ; l
colleg-ium, colleagueship, a college ;
auspic-ium, soothsaying, an omen;
gaud-ium, joy ;
effug-ium, escape ;
benefic-ium, a kindness ;
desider-ium, longing ;
adverb-ium, adverb;
interlun-ium, time of new moon ;
regifug-ium, flight of the kings ;
servi-tium, slavery, the slave class ;
hospes (gen. hospit-is), a guest.
collega, a colleague.
auspex (gen. auspic-is), a soothsayer.
gaudere, to rejoice.
effugere, to escape.
benefacere, to benefit; cf. beneficus.
desiderare, to miss, from tde-sldes, out
of place, of missing soldiers,
ad verbum, [added] to a verb.
inter lunas, between moons.
regis f uga, flight of a king.
servus, a slave.
Vowel stems lose their vowel before -ium : as, colleg-ium, from collega.
NOTE. ium is the neuter of the adjective suffix -ius. It is an inherited primary
suffix, but is used with great freedom as secondary, -tium is formed like -tia, by add-
ing -ium to stems with t : as, exit-ium, equit-ium (cf . exitus, equites) ; so, by analogy,
calvitium, servitium (from calvus, servus).
C. Less commonly, abstract nouns (which usually become concrete) are
formed from noun-stems (confused with verb-stems) by means of the
suffixes
1 The abstract meaning is put first.
148 FORMATION OF WORDS [241-243
-nia, F. ; -nium, -Hum, -cinium, N.
pecu-nia, money (chattels) ; pecu, cattle.
contici-nium, the hush of night ; conticescere, to become still.
auxi-lium, help ; augere, to increase.
latrS-cinium, robbery ; latro, robber (cf. latrocinor, rob, im-
plying an adjective tlatrdcinus).
For Diminutives and Patronymics, see 243, 244.
DERIVATION OF ADJECTIVES
242. Derivative Adjectives, which often become nouns, are
either Nominal (from nouns or adjectives) or Verbal (as from roots
or verb-stems).
Nominal Adjectives
243. Diminutive Adjectives are usually confined to one gen-
der, that of the primitive, and are used as Diminutive Nouns.
They are formed by means of the suffixes
-ulus (-a, -um), -olus (after a vowel), -culus, -ellus, -illus
riv-ulus, a streamlet ; rlvus, a brook.
gladi-olus, a small sword ; gladius, a sword.
f Ili-olus, a little son ; filius, a son.
f ili-ola, a little daughter ; filia, a daughter.
atri-olum, a little hall; atrium, a hall.
homun-culus, a dwarf; homo, a maw.
auri-cula, a little ear ; auris, an ear.
munus-culum, a little gift ; munus, N., a gift.
codic-illi, writing-tablets ; codex, a block.
mis-ellus, rather wretched ; miser, wretched.
lib-ellus, a little book ; liber, a book.
aure-olus (-a, -um), golden; aureus (-a, -um), golden.
parv-olus (later parv-ulus), very small; parvus (-a, -um), little.
maius-culus, somewhat larger ; maior (old maios), greater.
NOTE 1. These diminutive endings are all formed by adding -lus to various stems.
The formation is the same as that of -ulus in 231. But these words became set-
tled as diminutives, and retained their connection with nouns. So in English the
diminutives whitish, reddish, are of the same formation as bookish and snappish.
-culus comes from -lus added to adjectives in -cus formed from stems in n- and s- : as,
iuven-cus, Aurun-cus (cf. Auruncule'ius), pris-cus, whence the cu becomes a part of the
termination, and the whole ending (-culus) is used elsewhere, but mostly with n- and s-
stems, in accordance with its origin.
NOTE 2. Diminutives are often used to express affection, pity, or contempt: as,
deliciolae, little pet ; muliercula, a poor (weak) woman ; Graeculus, a miserable Greek.
243-246] NOMINAL ADJECTIVES 149
a. -cio, added to stems in n-, has the same diminutive force, but is used
with masculines only : as, homun-cio. a dwarf (from homo, a man).
244. Patronymics, indicating descent or relationship, are formed
by adding to proper names the suffixes
-ades, -ides, -Ides, -eus, M. ; -as, -is, -eis, F.
These words, originally Greek adjectives, have almost all become nouns
in Latin :
Atlas: Atlanti-ades, Mercury; Atlant-ids (Gr. plur.), the Pleiads.
Sclpio : Sclpi-ades, son of Scipio.
Tyndareus : Tyndar-ides, Castor or Pollux, son of Tyndarus ; Tyndar-is,
Helen, daughter of Tyndarus.
Anchlses: Anchisi-ades, sEneas, son of A nchises.
Theseus : Thes-ides, son of Theseus.
Tydeus : Tyd-ides, Diomedes, son of Tydeus.
Oileus : Aiax Oil-eus, son of Oileus.
Cisseus : Cisse-is, Hecuba, daughter of Cisseus.
Thaumas : Thaumant-ias, Iris, daughter of Thaumas.
Hesperus : Hesper-ides (from Hesper-is, -idis), plur., the daughters of Hesperus,
the Hesperides.
245. Adjectives meaning/nil of, prone to, are formed from noun-
stems with the suffixes
-osus, -lens, -lentus
fluctu-osus, billowy ; fluctus, a billow.
fonn-osus, beautiful ,* forma, beauty.
perlcul-osus, dangerous; perlculum, danger.
pesti-lens, pesti-lentus, pestilent ; pestis, pest.
vino-lentus, vln-osus, given to drink ; vinum, wine.
246. Adjectives meaning provided with are formed from nouns
by means of the regular participial endings
-tus, -atus, -Itus, -utus
funes-tus, deadly ; funus (st. funer-, older fun e / s-), death.
hones-tus, honorable; honor, honor.
faus-tus (for tfaves-tus), favorable; favor, favor.
barb-atus, bearded ; barba, a beard.
turr-itus, turreted ; turris, a tower.
corn-utus, horned; cornu, a horn.
NOTE. atus, -Itus, -utus, imply reference to an imaginary verb-stem ; -tus is added
directly to nouns without any such reference.
150 FORMATION OF WORDS [ 247-249
247. Adjectives of various meanings, but signifying in gen-
eral made of or belonging to, are formed from nouns by means of
the suffixes
-eus, -ius, -aceus, -icius, -an ens (-neus), -ticus
aur-eus, golden; aurum, gold.
patr-ius, paternal ; pater, a father.
uxor-ius, uxorious ; uxor, a wife.
ros-aceus, of roses ; rosa, a rose.
later-Icius, of brick ; later, a brick.
praesent-aneus, operating instantly ; praesens, present.
extr-aneus, external; extra, without.
subterr-aneus, subterranean; sub terra, underground.
sallg-neus, of willow ; salix, willow.
vola-ticus, winged (volatus, a flight) ; volare, to fly.
domes-ticus, of the house, domestic ; domus, a house.
silva-ticus, sylvan ; silva, a wood.
NOTE. ius is originally primitive ( 234. II. 11) ; -eus corresponds to Greek -etos,
-eoj, and has lost a y-sound (cf. yo-, 234. II. 11) ; -Icius and -aceus are formed by add-
ing -ius and -eus to stems in I-c-, a-c- (suffix ko-, 234. II. 12); -neus is no- + -eus
( 234. II. 4) ; -aneus is formed by adding -neus to a-stems ; -ticus is a formation with
-eus (cf. hosti-cus with silva-ticus), and has been affected by the analogy of participial
stems in to- (nominative -tus) .
248. Adjectives denoting pertaining to are formed from noun-
stems with the suffixes
-alis, -Iris, -elis, -His, -ulis
natur-alis, natural; natura, nature.
po^ul-a.iiB,fellow-countryman; populus, a people.
patru-elis, cousin; patruus, uncle.
host-flis, hostile ; hostis, an enemy.
cur-ulis, curule; currus, a chariot.
NOTE. The suffixes arise from adding -lis (stemli-) to various vowel stems. The
long vowels are due partly to confusion between stem and suffix (cf . vlta-lis, from
vita-, with reg-alis), partly to confusion with verb-stems: cf. Aprilis (aperire), edulis
(edere), with senilis (senex). -ris is an inherited suffix, but in most of these formations
-aris arises by differentiation for -alis in words containing an 1 (as mllit-aris).
249. Adjectives with the sense of belonging to are formed by
means of the suffixes
-anus, -enus, -inus; -as, -ensis ; -eus, -acus (-acus), -icus ; -eus,
-eius, -icius
1. So from common nouns :
mont-anus, of the mountains ; mons (stem monti-), mountain.
veter-anus, veteran; vetus (stem veter-), old.
anteluc-anus, before daylight; ante lucem, before light.
249, 250]
NOMINAL ADJECTIVES
151
terr-enus, earthly ;
ser-enus, calm (of evening stillness) ;
coll-mus, of a hill ;
div-inus, divine;
libert-inus, of the class offreedmen;
cui-as, of what country f
infim-as, of the lowest rank ;
for-ensis, of a market-place, or the Forum ;
civi-cus, civic, of a citizen ;
fullon-icus, of a fuller ;
mer-acus, pure ;
femin-eus, of a woman, feminine ;
lact-eus, milky ;
pleb-eius, of the commons, plebeian ;
patr-icius, patrician ;
terra, earth.
serus, late.
collis, hill.
divus, god.
Hbertus, one 1 s freedman.
quis, who ?
infimus, lowest.
forum, a market-place.
clvis, a citizen.
fullo, a fuller.
merum, pure wine.
femina, a looman.
lac, milk (stem lacti-).
plebes, the commons.
pater, father.
2. But especially from proper nouns to denote belonging to or coming from :
R5m-anus, Roman; Roma, Rome.
Sull-am, Sulla's veterans ; Sulla.
Cyzic-em, Cyzicenes, people of Cyzicus ; Cyzicus.
Ligur-inus, of Liguria; Liguria.
Arpm-as, ofArpinum; Arplnum.
Sicili-ensis, Sicilian; Sicilia, Sicily,
Ili-acus, Trojan (a Greek form) ; Ilium, Troy.
Platon-icus, Platonic; Plato.
Aquil-eius, a Roman name : )
. T . , Aquila.
Aquil-eia, a town in Italy ; )
. Many derivative adjectives with these endings have by usage become
nouns :
Silv-anus, M., a god of the woods ; silva, a wood.
membr-ana, F., skin; membrum, limb.
Aemili-anus, M., name of Scipio Africanus ; Aemilia (gens).
lanius, butcher.
fAufidius (Aufidus).
incola, an inhabitant.
caecus, blind.
ru5, fall (no noun existing).
doctor, teacher.
lani-ena, F., a butcher's stall ;
Aufidi-enus, M. , a Roman name ;
inquil-mus, M., a lodger ;
Caec-ma, used as M., a Roman name ;
ru-ina, F., a fall;
doctr-ina, F., learning;
NOTE. Of these terminations, -anus, -enus, -inus are compounded from -nus added
to a stem-vowel : as, area, arcanus ; collis, collinus. The long vowels come from a con-
fusion with verb-stems (as in ple-nus, fini-tus, tribu-tus), and from the noun-stem in a-:
as, arcanus. A few nouns occur of similar formation, as if from verb-stems in 5- and
u-: as, colonus (colo, cf. incola), patronus (cf. patro, -are), tribuntis (cf. tribuo, tribus),
Portunus (cf. portus), Vacuna (cf. vaco, vacuus).
250. Other adjectives meaning in a general way belonging to
(especially of places and times) are formed with the suffixes
152 FORMATION OF WORDS [ 250, 251
-ter (-tris), -ester (-estris), -timus, -nus, -ernus, -urnus, -ternus (-turnus)
palus-ter, of the marshes palus, a marsh.
pedes-ter, of the foot-soldiers ; pedes, a footman.
semes-tris, lasting six, montJis ; sex menses, six months.
silv-ester, silv-estris, woody ; silva, a wood.
fini-timus, neighboring, on the borders ; finis, an end.
mari-timus, of the sea mare, sea.
ver-nus, vernal; ver, spring.
hodi-ernus, of to-day ; hodie, to-day.
di-urnus, daily ; dies, day.
hes-ternus, of yesterday; heri (old hesi), yesterday.
difi-turnus, lasting ; diu, long (in time).
NOTE. Of these, -ester is formed by adding tri- (cf. tro-, 234. IT. 16) to stems in
t- or d-. Thus fpedet-tri- becomes pedestri-, and others follow the analogy, -nus is an
inherited suffix ( 234. II. 4). -ernus and -urnus are formed by adding -nus to s-stems:
as, diur-nus (for fdius-nus), and hence, by analogy, hodiernus (hodie). By an extension
of the same principle were formed the suffixes -ternus and -turnus from words like
paternus and nocturnus.
a. Adjectives meaning belonging to are formed from nouns by means of
the suffixes
-arius, -torius (-sorius)
ordin-arius, regular; ordo, rank, order.
argent-arius, of silver or money ; argentum, silver.
extr-arius, stranger ; extra, outside.
meri-t5rius, profitable ; meritus, earned.
devor-sorius, of an inn (cf. 254. 5) ; devorsus, turned aside.
NOTE 1. Here -ius ( 234. II. 11) is added to shorter forms in -aris and -or : as, pecu-
liarius (from peculiaris), bellat5rius (from bellator).
NOTE 2. These adjectives are often fixed as nouns (see 254).
Verbal Adjectives
251. Adjectives expressing the action of the verb as a quality
or tendency are formed from real or apparent verb-stems with the
suffixes
-ax, -idus, -ulus, -vus (-tms, -ivus, -tivus)
-ILs denotes & faulty or aggressive tendency; -tivus is oftener passive.
pflgn-ax, pugnacious ; pugnare, to fight.
aud-ax, bold ; audere, to dare.
cup-idus, eager ; cupere, to desire.
bib-ulus, thirsty (as dry earth etc.) ; bibere, to drink.
proter-vus, violent, wanton; proterere, to trample.
251-253] VERBAL ADJECTIVES 153
noc-uus (noc-ivus), hurtful, injurious; nocere, to do harm.
recid-ivus, restored ; recidere, to fall back.
cap-tlvus, captive; M., a prisoner of war ; capere, to take.
NOTE. Of these, -ax is a reduction of -acus (stem- vowel a- + -cus), become inde-
pendent and used with verb-stems. Similar forms in -5x, -ox, -ix, and -ux are found
or employed in derivatives: as, imbrex, M., a rain-tile (from imber); senex, old (from
seni-s) ; f erox, fierce (from ferus) ; atrox, savage (from ater, black) ; celox, F., a yacht
(cf. cello) ; felix, happy, originally fertile (cf. felo, suck ) ; fiducia, F., confidence (as
from ffidux) ; cf. also victrix (from victor). So manducus, chewing (from mando).
-idus is no doubt denominative, as in herbidus, grassy (from herba, herb) ; tumidus,
swollen (cf . tumu-lus, hill ; tumul-tus, uproar) ; callidus, tough, cunning (cf . callum,
tough flesh) ; mucidus, slimy (cf. mucus, slime) ; tabidus, wasting (cf. tabes, wasting
disease). But later it was used to form adjectives directly from verb-stems.
-ulus is the same suffix as in diminutives, but attached to verb-stems. Cf . aemulus,
rivalling (cf. imitor and imago) ; sedulus, sitting by, attentive (cf . domi-seda, home-
staying, and sedo, set, settle, hence calm) ; pendulus, hanging (cf. pondo, ablative, in
weight; perpendiculum, a plummet; appendix, an addition); stragulus, covering (cf.
strages) ; legulus, a picker (cf. sacri-legus, a picker up of things sacred).
-vus seems originally primary (cf. 234. II. 8), but -ivus and -tivus have become
secondary and are used with nouns: as, aestlvus, of summer (from aestus, heat);
tempestl vus, timely (from tempus) ; cf. domes-ticus (from domus).
252. Adjectives expressing passive qualities, but occasionally
active, are formed by means of the suffixes
-ills, -bills, -ius, -tills (-silis)
frag-ilis, frail ; frangere (FRAG), to break.
no-bilis, well known, famous; noscere (GNO), to know.
exim-ius, choice, rare (cf. e-greg-ius) ; eximere, to take out, select.
ag-ilis, active; agere, to drive.
hab-ilis, handy ; habere, to hold.
al-tilis, fattened (see note) ; alere, to nourish.
NOTE. Of these, -ius is primary, but is also used as secondary (cf . 241. b. N.) . -ilis
is both primary (as in agilis, fragilis) and secondary (as in similis, like, cf . d/ios, o/uaXos,
English same) ; -bilis is in some way related to -bulum and -brum ( 240. N.) ; in -tilis
and -silis, -lis is added to to- (so-), stem of the perfect participle: as, fossilis, dug up
(from fossus, dug) ; volatilis, winged (from volatus, flight).
253. Verbal Adjectives that are Participial in meaning are
formed with the suffixes
-ndus, -bundus, -cundus
a. -ndus (the same as the gerundive ending) forms a few active or reflex-
ive adjectives:
secu-ndus, second (the following), favorable; sequi, to follow.
rotu-ndus, round (whirling) a ; rotare, to whirl.
l Cf. volvendis mensibus (Aen. i. 269), in the revolving months; cf. oriundi ab Sablnis
(Liv. i. 17), sprung from the Sabines, where oriundi =orti.
154 FORMATION OF WORDS [ 253, 254
ft. -bundus, -cundus, denote a continuance of the act or quality expressed
by the verb :
vita-bundus, avoiding ; vitSre, to shun.
treme-bundus, trembling ; tremere, to tremble.
mori-bundus, dying, at the point of death ; moriri, to die.
fa-cundus, eloquent; fari, to speak.
fe-cundus, fruitful ; root FE, nourish.
ira-cundus, irascible ; cf. irasci, to be angry.
NOTE. These must have been originally nominal: as in the series, rubus, red
bush; rubidus (but no fuMcus), ruddy; Rubicon, Red River (cf. Minio, a river of
Etruria; Minius, a river of Lusitania); rubicundus (as in averruncus, homun-culus).
So turba, commotion; turbo, a top; turbidus, roily, etc. Cf. apexabo, longabo, gravedo,
dulcedo.
c. Here belong also the participial suffixes -minus, -mnus (cf. Greek
-/ACVOS), from which are formed a few nouns in which the participial force is
still discernible : l
fe-mina, woman (the nourisher) ; root FE, nourish.
alu-mnus, a foster-child, nursling ; alere, to nourish.
Nouns with Adjective Suffixes
254. Many fixed forms of the Nominal Adjective suffixes men-
tioned in the preceding sections, make Nouns more or less regu-
larly used in particular senses :
1. -arius, person employed about anything :
argent-arms, M., silversmith, broker, from argentum, silver.
Corinthi-arius, M. , worker in Corinthian bronze (sarcastic nickname of Augustus),
from (aes) Corinthium, Corinthian bronze.
centon-arius, M., ragman, from cento, patchwork.
2. -aria, thing connected with something :
argent-aria, F., bank, from argentum, silver.
aren-ariae, F. plural, sandpits, from arena, sand.
Asin-aria, F., name of a play, from asinus, ass. 2
3. -arium, place of a thing (with a few of more general meaning) :
aer-arium, N., treasury, from aes, copper.
tepid-arium, N., warm bath, from tepidus, warm.
sud-arium, N., a towel, cf. sudo, -are, sweat.
sal-arium, N., salt money, salary, from sal, salt.
calend-arium, N., a note-book, from calendae, calends.
iCf. 163. footnote 1.
2 Probably an adjective with fabula, play, understood.
254] NOUNS WITH ADJECTIVE SUFFIXES 155
4. -toria (-soria) :
Agita-toria, F. , a play of Plautus, The Carter, from agitator,
vor-soria, F. , a tack (nautical), from versus, a turn.
5. -torium (-sorium), place of action (with a few of more general meaning) :
devor-sorium, N. , an inn, as from devorto, turn aside.
audi-torium, N., a lecture-room, as from audid, hear.
ten-torium, N. , a tent, as from tendo, stretch.
tec-torium, N., plaster, as from tego, tectus, cover.
por-torium, N., toll, cf. ports, carry, and portus, harbor.
6. -lie, animal-stall:
bov-ile, N. , cattle-stall, from bos, bSvis, ox, cow.
ov-Ile, N. , sheepfold, from ovis, stem ovi-, sheep.
7. -al for -ale, thing connected with the primitive :
capit-al, N.J headdress, capital crime, from caput, head.
penetr-ale (especially in plural), N., inner apartment, cf. penetro, enter.
Saturn-Ilia, N. plural (the regular form for names of festivals), feast of Sat-
urn, from Saturnus.
8. -etum, N. (cf. -atus, -utus, see 246. N.), -turn, place of a thing, especially
with names of trees and plants to designate where these grow :
qnerc-etum, N. , oak grove, from quercus, oak.
oliv-etum, N. , olive grove, from oliva, an olive tree.
salic-tum, N. , a willow thicket, from salix, a willow tree.
Argil-etum, N., The Clay Pit, from aTgilla, clay.
9. -cus (sometimes with inserted i, -icus), -Icus, in any one of the gen-
ders, with various meanings :
vlli-cus, M. , a steward, vfli-ca, F. , a stewardess, from villa, farm-house.
fabr-ica, F., a workshop, from faber, workman.
am-icus. M., am-ica, F., friend, cf. amare, to love.
bubul-cus, M., ox-tender, from bub-ulus, diminutive, cf. bos, ox.
cant-icum, N. , song, from cantus, act of singing.
rubr-ica, F. , red paint, from ruber, red.
10. -eus, -ea, -eum, with various meanings :
alv-eus, M., a trough, from alvus, the belly.
capr-ea, F., a wild she-goat, from caper, he-goat.
flamm-eum, N., a bridal veil, from flamma, flame, from its color.
11. -ter (stem tri-), -aster, -ester:
eques-ter, M., knight, for tequet-ter.
sequ-ester, M., a stake-holder, from derivative of sequor, follow.
ole-aster, M., wild olive, from olea, an olive tree.
156 FORMATION OF WORDS [ 255-259
IRREGULAR DERIVATIVES
255. The suffix -o (genitive -flnis, stem on-), usually added to
verb-stems (see 236. c), is sometimes used with noun-stems to
form nouns denoting possessed of. These were originally adjec-
tives expressing quality or character, and hence often appear as
proper names :
epulae, a feast; epul-5, a f easier.
nasus, a nose; nas-o, with a large nose (also as a proper name),
volus (in bene-volus), wishing ; vol-6nes (plural), volunteers.
frSns, forehead; front-o, big-head (also as a proper name).
curia, a curia; curi-6, head of a curia (also as a proper name),
restis, a rope ; resti-o, a rope-maker.
a. Rarely suffixes are added to compound stems imagined, but not used
in their compound form :
ad-verb-ium, adverb; ad, to, and verbum, verb, but without the intervening
tadverbus.
lati-fund-ium, large estate ; latus, wide, f undus, estate, but without the inter-
vening tlatifundus.
su-ove-taur-ilia, a sacrifice of a swine, a sheep, and a bull ; sus, swine, ovis,
sheep, taurus, bull, where the primitive would be impossible in Latin,
though such formations are common in Sanskrit.
DERIVATION OF VERBS
256. Verbs may be classed as Primitive or Derivative.
1. Primitive Verbs are those inherited by the Latin from the parent speech.
2. Derivative Verbs are those formed in the development of the Latin
as a separate language.
257. Derivative Verbs are of two main classes :
1. Denominative Verbs, formed from nouns or adjectives.
2. Verbs apparently derived from the stems of other verbs.
Denominative Verbs
258. Verbs were formed in Latin from almost every form of
noun-stem and adjective-stem.
259. 1. Verbs of the First Conjugation are formed directly
from a-stems, regularly with a transitive meaning: as, fuga,
flight ; fugare, put to flight.
269-261] DENOMINATIVE VERBS 157
2. Many verbs of the First Conjugation are formed from o-
stems, changing the o- into a-. These are more commonly tran-
sitive :
stimulS, -are, to incite, from stimulus, a goad (stem stimulo-).
aequo, -are, to make even, from aequus, even (stem aequo-).
hiberno, -are, to pass the winter, from hibernus, of the winter (stem hiberno-).
albo, -are, to whiten, from albus, white (stem albo-).
pio, -are, to expiate, from plus, pure (stem pio-).
novo, -are, to renew, from novus, new (stem novo-).
arm5, -are, to arm, from arma, arms (stem armo-).
damno, -are, to injure, from damnum, injury (stem damno-).
3. A few verbs, generally intransitive, are formed by analogy
from consonant and i- or u-stems, adding a to the stem : l
vigilo, -are, to watch, from vigil, awake.
exsulo, -are, to be in exile, from exsul, an exile.
auspicor, -an, to take the auspices, from auspex (stem auspic-), augur.
pulvero, -are, to turn (anything) to dust, from pulvis (stem pulver-for pulvis-),
dust.
aestuo, -are, to surge, boil, from aestus (stem aestu-), tide, seething.
levo, -are, to lighten, from levis (stem levi-), light.
260. A few verbs of the Second Conjugation (generally in-
transitive) are recognizable as formed from noun-stems ; but most
are inherited, or the primitive noun-stem is lost :
albeo, -ere, to be white, from albus (stem alb%-), white.
caneo, -ere, to be hoary, from canus (stem can%-), hoary.
clareo, -ere, to shine, from clarus, bright.
claudeo, -ere, to be lame, from claudus, lame.
alged, -ere, to be cold, cf. algidus, cold.
261. Some verbs of the Third Conjugation in-u5,-uere, are formed
from noun-stems in u- and have lost a consonant i :
statuo (for tstatu-yo), -ere, to set up, from status, position.
metuo, -ere, to fear, from metus, fear.
acu5, -ere, to sharpen, from acus, needle.
arguo, -ere, to clear up, from inherited stem targu-, bright (cf. Apyvpos).
NOTE. Many verbs in u are inherited, being formed from roots in u: as, flu5,
fluere, _/?OM> ,- so-lvo (for tse-lu5, cf. Xtfw), solvere, dissolve. Some roots have a parasitic
u : as, loquor, locutus, speak.
1 The type of all or most of the denominative formations in 259-262 was Inherited,
but the process went on in the development of Latin as a separate language.
158 FORMATION OF WORDS [ 262, 263
262. Many 1-verbs or verbs of the Fourth Conjugation are
formed from i-stems :
molior, -In, to toil, from moles (-is), mass,
finio, -ire, to bound, from finis, end.
sitio, -Ire, to thirst, from sitis, thirst.
stabilio, -Ire, to establish, from stabilis, stable.
a. Some arise by confusion from other stems treated as i-stems :
bulliS, -Ire, to boil, from bulla (stem bulla-), bubble.
condio, -Ire, to preserve, from condus (stem condo-), storekeeper.
Insanio, -Ire, to rave, from Insanus (stem Insano-), mad.
gesti5, -Ire, to show wild longing, from gestus (stem gestu-), gesture.
NOTE. Some of this form are of doubtful origin: as, ordior, begin, cf. ordo and
exordium. The formation is closely akin to that of verbs in -io of the third conjuga-
tion (p. 102).
5. Some are formed with -io from consonant stems :
custodio, -Ire, to guard, from custos (stem custod-), guardian.
fulguriS, -Ire, to lighten, from fulgur, lightning.
NOTE. Here probably belong the so-called desideratives in -uri5 (see 263. 4. N.).
Verbs from Other Verbs
263. The following four classes of verbs regularly derived
from other verbs have special meanings connected with their
terminations.
NOTE. These classes are all really denominative in their origin, but the forma-
tions had become so associated with actual verbs that new derivatives were often
formed directly from verbs without the intervention of a noun-stem.
1. Inceptives or Inchoatives add -sco 1 to the present stem of verbs.
They denote the beginning of an action and are of the Third Conjuga-
tion. Of some there is no simple verb in existence :
cale-sco, grow warm, from caleo, be warm.
laba-sco, begin to totter, from labo, totter.
sci-sc5, determine, from scio, know.
con-cupl-sco, conceive a desire for, from cupio, desire.
ale-sco, grow, from alo, feed.
So Ira-scor, get angry ; cf . Ira-tus.
iuvene-sco, grow young ; cf . iuvenis, young man.
mlte-sco, grow mild ; cf . mitis, mild.
vespera-scit, it is getting late cf. vesper, evening.
1 For -sco in primary formation, see 176. 6. 1.
268] VERBS FROM OTHER VERBS 159
NOTE. Inceptives properly have only the present stem, but many use the perfect
and supine systems of simple verbs: as, calesco, grow warm, calui; ardesco, blaze
forth, arsi ; proficiscor, set out, profectus.
2. Intensives or Iteratives are formed from the Supine stem and end
in-t5 or -ito (rarely -so). They denote a, forcible or repeated action, but
this special sense often disappears. Those derived from verbs of
the First Conjugation end in -ito (not -ato).
iac-to, hurl, from iacio, throw.
dormi-to, be sleepy, from dormio, sleep.
vol-ito, flit, from volo, fly.
vendi-to, try to sell, from vendS, sell.
quas-so, shatter, from quatio, shake.
They are of the first conjugation, and are properly denominative.
a. Compound suffixes -tito, -sito, are formed with a few verbs. These
are probably derived from other Iteratives ; thus, cantito may come from
cantS, iterative of cano, sing.
b. Another form of Intensives sometimes called Meditatives, or verbs
of practice ends in -esso (rarely -isso). These denote a certain energy or
eagerness of action rather than its repetition :
cap-ess5, lay hold on, from capio, take.
fac-esso, do (with energy), from faciS, do.
pet-esso, pet-isso, seek (eagerly), from pets, seek.
These are of the third conjugation, usually having the perfect and
supine of the fourth :
arcesso, arcessSre, arcessivi, arcessitum, summon.
lacesso, lacessere, lacessivi, lacessitum, provoke.
NOTE. The verbs in -esso, -iss5, show the same formation as levasso, impetrassere,
iudicassit, etc. ( 183. 5), but its origin is not fully explained.
3. Diminutives end in -1116, and denote a feeble or petty action :
cav-illor, jest , cf. cavilla, raillery.
cant-illo, chirp or warble, from canto, sing.
NOTE. Diminutives are formed from verb-stems derived from real or supposed
diminutive nouns.
4. Desideratives end in -turifl (-suri5), and express longing or wish-
ing. They are of the fourth conjugation, and only two are in com-
mon use :
par-turio, 6e in labor, from pario, bring forth.
e-suri5 (for ted-turio), be hungry, from edo, eat.
Others are used by the dramatists.
NOTE. Desideratives are probably derived from some noun of agency: as, 5mp-
turio, wish to buy, from Smptor, buyer. Viso, go to see, is an inherited desiderative of
a different formation.
160 FORMATION OF WORDS [ 264, 266
COMPOUND WORDS
264. A Compound Word is one whose stem is made up of two
or more simple stems.
ft. A final stem-vowel of the first member of the compound usually dis-
appears before a vowel, and usually takes the form of i before a consonant.
Only the second member receives inflection. 1
6. Only noun-stems can be thus compounded. A preposition, however,
often becomes attached to a verb.
265. New stems are formed by Composition in three ways :
1. The second part is simply added to the first :
su-ove-taurilia (sus, ovis, taurus), the sacrifice of a swine, a sheep, and a bull
(cf. 255. a),
septen-decim (septem, decem), seventeen.
2. The first part modifies the second as an adjective or adverb
(Determinative Compounds) :
lati-fundium (latus, fundus), a large landed estate.
omni-potens (omnis, potens), omnipotent.
3. The first part has the force of a case, and the second a verbal
force (Objective Compounds') :
agri-cola (ager, field, tcola akin to colo, cultivate), a farmer.
armi-ger (arma, arms, tger akin to gero, carry), armor-bearer.
corni-cen (cornu, horn, teen akin to cano, sing), horn-blower.
carni-fex (card, flesh, tfex akin to facio, make), executioner.
a. Compounds of the above kinds, in which the last word is a noun,
may become adjectives, meaning possessed of the quality denoted :
ali-pes (ala, wing, pes,foot), wing-footed.
magn-animus (magnus, great, animus, soul), great-souled.
an-ceps (amb-, at both ends, caput, head), double.
NOTE. Many compounds of the above classes appear only in the form of some
further derivative, the proper compound not being found in Latin.
1 The second part generally has its usual inflection ; but, as this kind of composi-
tion is in fact older than inflection, the compounded stem sometimes has an inflection
of its own (as, cornicen, -cinis ; lucifer, -feri ; iudex, -dicis), from stems not occurring in
Latin. Especially do compound adjectives in Latin take the form of i-stems: as,
animus, exanimis; n5rma, abnormis (see 73) . In composition, stems regularly have
their uninflected form: as, Igni-spicium, divining by fire. But in o- and a-stems the
final vowel of the stem appears as i-, as in ali-pes (from ala, stem ala-) ; and i- is so
common a termination of compounded stems, that it is often added to stems which do
not properly have it: as, flori-comus, flower-crowned (from flos, flor-is, and coma, hair).
266, 267] SYNTACTIC COMPOUNDS 161
Syntactic Compounds
266. In many apparent compounds, complete words not
stems have grown together in speech. These are not strictly
compounds in the etymological sense. They are called Syntac-
tic Compounds. Examples are :
a. Compounds of facio, fact5, with an actual or formerly existing noun-
stein confounded with a verbal stem in e-. These are causative in force :
consue-facid, habituate (of. consue-sc5, become accustomed).
cale-facio, cale-facto, to heat (cf. cale-sco, grow warm).
6. An adverb or noun combined with a verb :
bene-dico (bene, well, dico, speak), to bless.
satis-facio (satis, enough, facio, do), to do enough (for).
c. Many apparent compounds of stems :
fide-iubeo (fide, surety, iubeo, command), to give surety.
man-suetus (inanui, to the hand, suetus, accustomed), tame.
Marci-por (Marci puer), slave of Marcus.
luppiter (ilu, old vocative, and pater), father Jove.
anim-advert5 (animum adverto), attend to, punish.
d. A few phrases forced into the ordinary inflections of nouns :
pro-c5nsul, proconsul (for pro cdnsule, instead of a consul).
trium-vir, triumvir (singular from trium virorum).
septen-trio, the Bear, a constellation (supposed singular of septem triones,
the Seven Plough-Oxen).
In all these cases it is to be observed that words, not stems, are united.
267. Many syntactic compounds are formed by prefixing a
Particle to some other part of speech.
. Prepositions are often prefixed to Verbs. In these compounds the
prepositions retain their original adverbial sense :
a, ab, AWAY : a-mittere, to send away.
ad, TO, TOWARDS: af-ferre (ad-fero), to bring.
ante, BEFORE : ante-ferre, to prefer ; ante-cellere, to excel.
circum, AROUND: circum-munire, to fortify completely.
com-, con- (cum), TOGETHER or FORCIBLY: con-terre, to bring together; col-
locare, to set firm.
de, DOWN, UTTERLY: de-spicere, despise; de-struere, destroy
e, ex, OUT: ef-ferre (ec-fero), to carry forth, uplift.
in (with verbs), IN, ON, AGAINST : in-ferre, to bear against.
inter, BETWEEN, TO PIECES : inter-rumpere, to interrupt.
ob, TOWARDS, TO MEET : of-ferre, to offer ; ob-venire, to meet.
sub, UNDER, UP FROM UNDER: sub-struere, tobuild beneath; sub-ducere, toleadup.
super, UPON, OVER AND ABOVE : super-fluere, to over/low.
162 FORMATION OF WORDS
NOTE 1. In such compounds, however, the prepositions sometimes have their
ordinary force as prepositions, especially ad, in, circum, trans, aud govern the case of
a noun : as, transire flumen, to cross a river (see 388. b).
NOTE 2. Short a of the root is weakened to i before one consonant, to e before
two: as, facio, conficio, confectus; iacio, eicid, eiectus. But long a is retained: as,
peractus.
6. VERBS are also compounded with the following inseparable particles,
which do not appear as prepositions in Latin :
amb- (am-, an-), AROUND : amb-Ire, to go about (cf. a/j.<j)l, about).
dis-, dl-, ASUNDER, APART : dis-ccdcre, to depart (cf. duo, two) ; di-vidSre, to
divide.
por-, FORWARD: por-tendere, to hold forth, predict (cf. porro, forth).
red-, re-, BACK, AGAIN: red-ire, to return; re-cludere, to open (from claudo,
shut) ; re-ficere, to repair (make again),
sed-, se-, APART : se-cerno, to separate ; cf. sed-itiS, a going apart, secession
(eo, ire, to go).
c. Many Verbals are found compounded with a preposition, like the
verbs to which they correspond :
per-fuga, deserter; cf. per-fugio.
tra-dux, vine-branch; cf. tra-duc5 (trans-duco).
ad-vena, stranger; cf. ad-venio.
con-iux (con-iunx), spouse; cf. con-iungo.
in-dex, pointer out; cf. in-dico.
prae-ses, guardian; cf. prae-sideo.
com-bibo, boon companion; cf. com-bibo, -Sre.
d. An Adjective is sometimes modified by an adverbial prefix.
1. Of these, per- (less commonly prae-), very ; sub-, somewhat ; in-, not, are
regular, and are very freely prefixed to adjectives :
per-magnus, very large. in-nocuus, harmless.
per-pauci, very few. in-imicus, unfriendly.
sub-rusticus, rather clownish. in-sanus, insane.
sub-fuscus, darkish. in-finitus, boundless.
prae-longus, very long. im-purus, impure.
NOTE. Per and sub, in these senses, are also prefixed to verbs : as, per-terre5, terrify ;
sub-rideS, smile. In Ignosco, pardon, in- appears to be the negative prefix.
2. The negative in- sometimes appears in combination with an adjective
that does not occur alone :
in-ermis, unarmed (cf. anna, arms).
im-bellis, unwarlike (cf. bellum, war).
im-punis, without punishment (cf. poena, punishment).
in-teger, untouched, whole (cf. tango, to touch, root TAG).
in-vitus, unwilling (probably from root seen in vi-s, thou wishest).
PART SECOND SYNTAX
INTRODUCTORY NOTE
268. The study of formal grammar arose at a late period in the history of lan-
guage, and dealt with language as a fully developed product. Accordingly the terms
of Syntax correspond to the logical habits of thought and forms of expression that
had grown up at such a period, and have a logical as well as a merely grammatical
meaning. But a developed syntactical structure is not essential to the expression of
thought. A form of words like o puerum pulchrum! oh! beautiful boy expresses
a thought and might even be called a sentence ; though it does not logically declare any-
thing, and does not, strictly speaking, make what is usually called a sentence at all.
At a very early period of spoken language, word-forms were no doubt significant
in themselves, without inflections, and constituted the whole of language, just as to
a child the name of some familiar object will stand for all he can say about it. At a
somewhat later stage, such uninflected words put side by side made a rudimentary
form of proposition : as a child might say fire bright ; horse run. With this began the
first form of logical distinction, that of Subject and Predicate ; but as yet there was no
distinction in form between noun and verb, and no fixed distinction in function. At a
later stage forms were differentiated in function and by various processes of com-
position which cannot be fully traced Inflections were developed. These served to
express person, tense, case, and other grammatical relations, and we have true Parts
of Speech.
Not until language reached this last stage was there any fixed limit to the asso-
ciation of words, or any rule prescribing the manner in which they should be combined.
But gradually, by usage, particular forms came to be limited to special functions (as
nouns, verbs, adjectives), and fixed customs arose of combining words into what we
now call Sentences. These customs are in part the result of general laws or modes of
thought (logic), resulting from our habits of mind (General Grammar); and in part
are what may be called By-Laws, established by custom in a given language (Particu-
lar Grammar), and making what is called the Syntax of that language.
In the fully developed methods of expression to which we are almost exclusively
accustomed, the unit of expression is the Sentence: that is, the completed statement,
with its distinct Subject and Predicate. Originally sentences were simple. But two
simple sentence-forms may be used together, without the grammatical subordination
of either, to express a more complex form of thought than could be denoted by one
alone. This is parataxis (arrangement side by side). Since, however, the two sen-
tences, independent in form, were in fact used to express parts of a complex whole
and were therefore mutually dependent, the sense of unity found expression in con-
junctions, which denoted the grammatical subordination of the one to the other. This
is hypotaxis (arrangement under, subordination). In this way, through various stages
of development, which correspond to our habitual modes of thought, there were pro-
duced various forms of complex sentences. Thus, to express the complex idea / beseech
you to pardon me, the two simple sentence-forms quaes5 and ignoscas were used side by
side, quaeso ignoscas ; then the feeling of grammatical subordination found expression
in a conjunction, quaes5 ut ignoscas, forming a complex sentence. The results of these
processes constitute the subject-matter of Syntax.
163
164 SYNTAX: THE SENTENCE [269-272
THE SENTENCE
Kinds of Sentences
269. A Sentence is a form of words which contains a State-
ment, a Question, an Exclamation, or a Command.
a. A sentence in the form of a Statement is called a Declarative
Sentence : as, canis currit, the dog runs.
b. A sentence in the form of a Question is called an Interroga-
tive Sentence: as, canisne currit? does the dog run?
c. A sentence in the form of an Exclamation is called an Exclama-
tory Sentence : as, quam celeriter currit canis ! hoivfast the dog runs !
d. A sentence in the form of a Command, an Exhortation, or an
Entreaty is called an Imperative Sentence : as, 1, curre per Alpis, go,
run across the Alps ; currat canis, let the dog run.
Subject and Predicate
270. Every sentence consists of a Subject and a Predicate.
The Subject of a sentence is the person or thing spoken of.
The Predicate is that which is said of the Subject.
Thus in canis currit, the dog runs, canis is the subject, and currit the predicate.
271. The Subject of a sentence is usually a Noun or Pronoun,
or some word or group of words used as a Noun :
equites ad Caesarem venfirunt, the cavalry came to Caesar.
humanum est errare, to err is human.
quaeritur num mors malum sit, the question is whether death is an evil.
a. But in Latin the subject is often implied in the termination of
the verb :
sede-mus, we sit. curri-tis, you run. inqui-t, says he.
272. The Predicate of a sentence may be a Verb (as in canis
currit, the dog runs), or it may consist of some form of sum and
a Noun or Adjective which describes or defines the subject (as in
Caesar consul erat, Ccesar was consul).
Such a noun or adjective is called a Predicate Noun or Adjective,
and the verb sum is called the Copula (i.e. the connective).
Thus in the example given, Caesar is the subject, consul the predicate noun, and
erat the copula (see 288).
273, 274] VERB AND OBJECT 165
Transitive and Intransitive Verbs
273. Verbs are either Transitive or Intransitive.
1. A Transitive Verb has or requires a direct object to complete
its sense (see 274) : as, fratrem cecldit, he slew his brother.
2. An Intransitive Verb admits of no direct object to complete
its sense:
cado, I fall (or am falling). sol lucet, the sun shines (or is shining).
NOTE 1. Among transitive verbs Factitive Verbs are sometimes distinguished
as a separate class. These state an act which produces the thing expressed by the
word which completes their sense. Thus mensam fecit, he made a table (which was
not in existence before), is distinguished from mensam percussit, he struck a table
(which already existed).
NOTE 2. A transitive verb may often be used absolutely, i.e. without any object
expressed : as, arat, he is ploughing, where the verb does not cease to be transitive
because the object is left indefinite, as we see by adding, quid, what? agrum suum,
his land.
NOTE 3. Transitive and Intransitive Verbs are often called Active and Neuter
Verbs respectively.
Object
274. The person or thing immediately affected by the action of
a verb is called the Direct Object.
A person or thing indirectly affected by the action of a verb
is called the Indirect Object.
Only transitive verbs can have a Direct Object ; but an Indirect
Object may be used with both transitive and intransitive verbs
(362,366):-
pater vocat f Ilium (direct object), the father calls his son.
mihi (ind. obj.) agrum (dir. obj.) ostendit, he showed me afield.
mihi (ind. obj.) placet, it is pleasing to me.
NOTE. The distinction between transitive and intransitive verbs is not a fixed dis-
tinction, for most transitive verbs may be used intransitively, and many verbs usually
intransitive may take a direct object and so become transitive ( 388. a).
a. With certain verbs, the Genitive, Dative, or Ablative is used
where the English, from a difference in meaning, requires the direct
object (Objective) :
hominem video, I see the man (Accusative).
homim servio, I serve the man (Dative, see 367).
hominis misereor, J pity the man (Genitive, see 354. a).
nomine amlco utor, I treat the man as a friend (Ablative, see 410).
166 SYNTAX: THE SENTENCE [^74-277
5. Many verbs transitive in Latin are rendered into English by
an intransitive verb with a preposition :
petit aprum, he aims at the boar.
laudem affectat, he strives after praise.
curat valetudinem, he takes care of his health.
meurn casum doluerunt, they grieved at my misfortune.
rldet nostram amentiam (Quinct. 55), he laughs at our stupidity.
275. When a transitive verb is changed from the Active to the
Passive voice, the Direct Object becomes the Subject and is put
in the Nominative case :
Active: pater filium vocat, the father calls his son.
Passive : filius a patre vocatur, the son is called by his father.
Active : lunam et stellas videtnus, we see the moon and the stars.
Passive : liana et stellae videntur, the moon and stars are seen (appear).
Modification
276. A Subject or a Predicate may be modified by a single word,
or by a group of words (a phrase or a clause).
The modifying word or group of words may itself be modified in
the same way.
a. A single modifying word may be an adjective, an adverb, an
appositive ( 282), or the oblique case of a noun.
Thus in the sentence vir fortis patienter fert, a brave man endures patiently,
the adjective fortis, brave, modifies the subject vir, man, and the adverb patienter,
patiently, modifies the predicate fert, endures.
b. The modifying word is in some cases said to limit the word
to which it belongs.
Thus in the sentence puerl patrem video, / see the boy's father, the genitive
pueri limits patrem (by excluding any other father).
277. A Phrase is a group of words, without subject or predicate
of its own, which may be used as an Adjective or an Adverb.
Thus in the sentence vir -fait summa nobilitate, he was a man of the highest
nobility, the words summa nobilitate, of the highest nobility, are used for the
adjective nobilis, noble (or nobilissimus, very noble), and are called an Adjective
Phrase.
So in the sentence magna celeritate venit, he came with great speed, the words
magna celeritate, with great speed, are used for the adverb celeriter, quickly (or
celerrime, very quickly), and are called an Adverbial Phrase.
278, 279] CLAUSES AND SENTENCES 167
Clauses and Sentences
278. Sentences are either Simple or Compound.
1. A sentence containing a single statement is called a Simple
Sentence.
2. A sentence containing more than one statement is called
a Compound Sentence, and each single statement in it is called
a Clause.
a. If one statement is simply added to another, the clauses are
said to be Coordinate. They are usually connected by a Coordinate
Conjunction ( 223. a) ; but this is sometimes omitted :
divide et impera, divide and control. But,
veni, vidl, vlci, I came, I saw, I conquered.
b. If one statement modifies another in any way, the modifying
clause is said to be Subordinate, and the clause modified is called
the Main Clause.
This subordination is indicated by some connecting word, either
a Subordinate Conjunction ( 223. b) or a Relative:
oderint dum metuant, let them, hate so long as they fear.
servum misit quern secum habebat, he sent the slave whom he had with him.
A sentence containing one or more subordinate clauses is some-
times called Complex.
NOTE. A subordinate clause may itself be modified by other subordinate clauses.
279. Subordinate Clauses are of various kinds.
a. A clause introduced by a Relative Pronoun or Relative Adverb
is called a Relative Clause :
Mosa profluit ex monte Vosego, qui est in flnibus Lingonum (B. G. iv. 10),
the Meuse rises in the Vosges mountains, which are on the borders of the
Lingones.
For Relative Pronouns (or Relative Adverbs) serving to connect independent sen-
tences, see 308. /.
b. A clause introduced by an Adverb of Time is called a Tem-
poral Clause :
cum tacent, clamant (Cat. i. 21), while they are silent, they cry aloud.
homines aegri morbo gravl, cum iactantur aestu febrique, si aquam gelidam
biberint, prlmO relevari videntur (id. i. 31), men suffering with a severe
sickness, when they are tossing with the heat of fever, if they drink cold
water, seem at first to be relieved.
168 SYNTAX: AGREEMENT [279-281
c. A clause containing a Condition, introduced by si, if (or some
equivalent expression), is called a Conditional Clause. A sentence
containing a conditional clause is called a Conditional Sentence.
Thus, si aquam gelidam biberint, primo relevarl videntur (in 6, above) is a Con-
ditional Sentence, and si ... biberint is a Conditional Clause.
d. A clause expressing the Purpose of an action is called a Final
Clause :
ed5 ut vivam, I eat to live (that I may live).
misit Iegat5s qui dicerent, he sent ambassadors to say (who should say).
e. A clause expressing the Result of an action is called a Con-
secutive Clause : 1
tarn longg aberam ut n5n viderem, I was too far away to see (so far away that
I did not see).
AGREEMENT
280. A word is said to agree with another when it is required
by usage to be in the same Gender, Number, Case, or Person.
The following are the general forms of agreement, sometimes
called the Four Concords :
1. The agreement of the Noun in Apposition or as Predicate
( 281-284).
2. The agreement of the Adjective with its Noun ( 286).
3. The agreement of the Relative with its Antecedent ( 305).
4. The agreement of the Finite Verb with its Subject ( 316).
a. A word sometimes takes the gender or number, not of the word
with which it should regularly agree, but of some other word implied
in that word.
This use is called Synesis, or construct ad sensum (construction
according to sense).
AGREEMENT OF NOUNS
281. A noun used to describe another, and denoting the same
person or thing, agrees with it in Case.
The descriptive noun may be either an Appositive ( 282) or a
Predicate noun ( 283).
1 Observe that the classes defined in a-e are not mutually exclusive, but that a
single clause may belong to several of them at once. Thus a relative clause is
usually subordinate, and may be at the same time temporal or conditional; and
subordinate clauses may be coordinate with each other.
282] APPOSITION 169
Apposition
282. A noun used to describe another, and standing in the same
part of the sentence with the noun described, is called an Apposi-
tive, and is said to be in apposition :
externus timor, maximum concordiae vinculum, iungebat animos (Liv. ii. 39),
fear of the foreigner, the chief bond of harmony, united their hearts.
[Here the appositive belongs to the subject.]
quattuor hie prlmum omen equos vldl (Aen. iii. 537), I saw here four horses,
the first omen. [Here both nouns are in the predicate.]
litteras Graecas senex didicl (Cat. M. 26), I learned Greek when an old man.
[Here senex, though in apposition with the subject of didici, really states
something further: viz., the time, condition, etc., of the act (Predicate
Apposition).]
a. Words expressing parts may be in apposition with a word
including the parts, or vice versa (Partitive Apposition) :
Nee P. Popilius neque Q. Metellus, clarissiml viri atque amplissiml, vim
tribuniciam sustinere potuerunt (Clu. 95), neither Publius Popilius nor
Quintus Metellus, [both of them] distinguished and honorable men, could
withstand the power of the. tribunes.
Gnaeus et Publius Scipiones, Cneius and Publius Scipio (the Scipios).
6. An Adjective may be used as an appositive:
ea Sex. Roscium inopem recepit (Rose. Am. 27), she received Sextus Roscius
in his poverty (needy).
c. An appositive generally agrees with its noun in Gender and
Number when it can :
sequuntur naturam, optimam ducem (Lael. 19), they follow nature, the best
guide.
omnium doctrlnarum inventrices Athenas (De Or. i. 13), Athens, discoverer
of all learning.
NOTE. But such agreement is often impossible : as, olim truncus eram ficulnus,
inutile lignum (Hor. S. i. 8. 1), I once was a fig-tree trunk, a useless log.
d. A common noun in apposition with a Locative ( 427) is put in
the Ablative, with or without the preposition in :
Antiochiae, celebrl quondam urbe (Arch. 4), at Antioch, once a famous city.
Albae cOnstiterunt, in urbe munlta (Phil. iv. 6), they halted at Alba, a forti-
fied town.
For a Genitive in apposition with a Possessive Pronoun or an Adjective, see 302. e.
For the so-called Appositional Genitive, see 343. d.
For the construction with nomen est, see 373. a.
170 SYNTAX: AGREEMENT [283-285
Predicate Noun or Adjective
283. With sum and a few other intransitive or passive verbs, a
noun or an adjective describing or defining the subject may stand in
the predicate. This is called a Predicate Noun or Adjective.
The verb sum is especially common in this construction, and when
so used is called the copula (i.e. connective).
Other verbs which take a predicate noun or adjective are the so-
called copulative verbs signifying to become, to be made, to be named,
to appear, and the like.
284. A Predicate Noun or Adjective after the copula sum or a,
copulative verb is in the same case as the Subject :
pacis semper auctor ful (Lig. 28), I have always been an adviser of peace.
quae pertinacia quibusdam, eadem alils constantia viderl potest (Marc. 31),
what may seem obstinacy to some, may seem to others consistency.
eius mortis sedetis ultores (Mil. 79), you sit as avengers of his death.
habeatur vir ggregius Paulus (Cat. iv. 21), let Paulus be regarded as an
extraordinary man.
ego patronus exstiti (Rose. Am. 5), I have come forward as an advocate.
dlcit non omnls bonos esse beatos, he says that not all good men are happy.
a. A predicate noun referring to two or more singular nouns is
in the plural :
consules creantur Caesar et Servllius (B. C. iii. 1), Caesar and Servilius are
elected consuls.
b. Sum in the sense of exist makes a complete predicate without a
predicate noun or adjective. It is then called the substantive verb :
sunt viri fortes, there are (exist) brave men. [Cf. vlxere fortes ante Agamem-
nona (Hor. Od. iv. 9. 25), brave men lived before Agamemnon.']
For Predicate Accusative and Predicate Ablative, see 392, 415. N.
AGREEMENT OF ADJECTIVES
Attributive and Predicate Adjectives
285. Adjectives are either Attributive or Predicate.
1. An Attributive Adjective simply qualifies its noun without
the intervention of a verb or participle, expressed or implied: as,
bonus imperator, a good commander; steUae lucidae, bright stars;
verbum Graecum, a GrreeJc word.
285, 286] AGREEMENT OF ADJECTIVES 171
2. All other adjectives are called Predicate Adjectives :
stellae lucidae erant, the stars were bright.
sit Sclpio clarus (Cat. iv. 21), let Scipio be illustrious.
homines mitis reddidit (Inv. i. 2), has rendered men mild.
tria praedia Capitonl propria traduntur (Rose. Am. 21), three farms are
handed over to Capita as his own.
consilium ceperunt plenum sceleris (id. 28), they formed a plan full of
villany.
NOTE. A predicate adjective maybe used with sum or a copulative verb ( 283) ; it
may have the construction of a predicate accusative after a verb of naming, calling, or
the like ( 393. N.) ; or it may be used in apposition like a noun ( 282. b).
Rules of Agreement
286. Adjectives, Adjective Pronouns, and Participles agree
with their nouns in G-ender, Number, and Case :
vir fortis, a brave man.
ilia mulier, that woman.
urbium magnarum, of great cities.
cum ducentis militibus, with two hundred soldiers.
imperator victus est, the general was beaten.
secutae sunt tempestates, storms followed.
NOTE. All rules for the agreement of adjectives apply also to adjective pronouns
and to participles.
a. With two or more nouns the adjective is regularly plural, but
often agrees with the nearest (especially when attributive) :
Nisus et Euryalus primi (Aen. v. 294), Nisus and Euryalus first.
Caesaris omni et gratia et opibus fruor (Fam. i. 9. 21), I enjoy all Caesar' s favor
and resources.
NOTE. An adjective referring to two nouns connected by the preposition cum is
occasionally plural (synesis, 280. a): as, luba cum Labieno capti (B. Afr. 52), Juba
and Labienus were taken.
b. A collective noun may take an adjective of a different gender
and number agreeing with the gender and number of the individuals
implied (synesis, 280. a):
pars certare paratl (Aen. v. 108), a part ready to contend.
colOniae aliquot deductae, Prisci Latin! appellati (Liv. i. 3), several colonies
were planted (led out) [of men] called Old Latins.
multitude convict! sunt (Tac. Ann. xv. 44), a multitude were convicted.
magna pars raptae (id. i. 9), a large part [of the women] ivere seized.
NOTE. A superlative in the predicate rarely takes the gender of a partitive geni-
tive by which it is limited: as, vglocissimum animalium delphinus est (Plin. N. H.
ix. 20), the dolphin is the swiftest [creature] of creatures.
172 SYNTAX: ADJECTIVES [287,288
287. One adjective may belong in sense to two or more nouns
of different genders. In such cases,
1. An Attributive Adjective agrees with the nearest noun:
multae operae ac laboris, of much trouble and toil.
vita moresque mei, my life and character.
si res, si vir, si tempus ullum dlgnum fuit (Mil. 19), if any thing, if any
man, if any time was fit.
2. A Predicate Adjective may agree with the nearest noun, if the
nouns form one connected idea :
factus est strepitus et admurmuratio (Verr. i. 45), a noise of assent was made
(noise and murmur).
NOTE. This is only when the copula agrees with the nearest subject ( 317. c).
3. But generally, a Predicate Adjective will be masculine, if nouns
of different genders mean living beings; neuter, if things without
life :
uxor deinde ac llberl amplex! (Liv. ii. 40), then his wife and children embraced
him.
labor (M.) voluptasque (F.) societate quadam inter se naturall sunt iuncta (N.)
(id. v. 4), labor and delight are bound together by a certain natural alli-
ance.
4. If nouns of different genders include both living beings and
things without life, a Predicate Adjective is sometimes masculine (or
feminine), sometimes neuter, and sometimes agrees in gender with
the nearest if that is plural :
rex regiaque classis una prefect! (Liv. xxi. 50), the king and the royal fleet set
out together.
natura inimlca sunt Hbera clvitas et rex (id. xliv. 24), by nature a free state
and a king are hostile.
legates sortesque oracull exspectandas (id. v. 15), that the ambassadors and
the replies of the oracle should be waited for.
a. Two or more abstract nouns of the same gender may have a
Predicate Adjective in the neuter plural (cf. 289. c):
stultitia et temeritas et iniustitia . . . sunt fugienda (Fin. iii. 39), folly, rash-
ness, and injustice are [things] to be shunned.
Adjectives used Substantively
288. Adjectives are often used as Nouns (substantivefy), the
masculine usually to denote men or people in general of that kind,
the feminine women, and the neuter things :
? 288, 289] ADJECTIVES USED SUBSTANTIVELY 173
omnes, all men (everybody). omnia, all things (everything),
maiores, ancestors. minores, descendants.
Roman!, Romans. barbari, barbarians.
llberta, afreedwoman. Sablnae, the Sabine wives.
sapiens, a sage (philosopher). amicus, a friend.
boni, the good (good people). bona, goods, property.
NOTE. The plural of adjectives, pronouns, and participles is very common in this
use. The singular is comparatively rare except in the neuter ( 289. a, c) and in words
that have become practically nouns.
a. Certain adjectives have become practically nouns, and are often
modified by other adjectives or by the possessive genitive :
tuus vicious proximus, your next-door neighbor.
propinqui ceterl, his other relatives.
meus aequalis, a man of my own age.
gius familiaris Catilina (Har. Resp. 6), his intimate friend Catiline.
Leptae nostri familiarissimus (Fam. ix. 13. 2), a very close friend of our friend
Lepta.
b. When ambiguity would arise from the substantive use of an
adjective, a noun must be added :
boni, the good ; omnia, everything (all things) ; but,
potentia omnium return, power over everything.
c. Many adjectives are used substantively either in the singular
or the plural, with the added meaning of some noun which is under-
stood from constant association :
Africus [ventus], the southwest wind; lanuarius [mensis], January; vitu-
Una [caro], veal (calf's flesh) ; fera [bestia], a wild beast; patria [terra],
the fatherland ; Gallia [terra], Gaul (the land of the Galll) ; hiberna
[castra], winter quarters ; triremis [navis], a three-banked galley, trireme;
argentarius [faber], a silversmith; regia [dornus], the palace; Latinae
[fSriae], the Latin festival.
NOTE. These adjectives are specific in meaning, not generic like those in 288.
They include the names of winds and months ( 31).
For Nouns used as Adjectives, see 321. c.
For Adverbs used like Adjectives, see 321. d.
289. Neuter Adjectives are used substantively in the following
special senses :
a. The neuter singular may denote either a single object or an
abstract quality :
rapto vivere, to live by plunder. in arido, on dry ground.
honestum, an honorable act, or virtue (as a quality).
opus est maturate, there is need of haste. [Cf. impersonal passives, 208. d.J
174 SYNTAX: ADJECTIVES [289-291
It. The neuter plural is used to signify objects in general having
the quality denoted, and hence may stand for the abstract idea :
honesta, honorable deeds (in general). praeterita, the past (lit., bygones),
(mines fortia laudant, all men praise bravery (brave things).
c. A neuter adjective may be used as an appositive or predicate
noun with a noun of different gender (of. 287. a) :
triste lupus stabulls (Eel. iii. 80), the wolf [is] a grievous thing for the fold.
varium et mutabile semper fgmina (Aen. iv. 569), woman is ever a changing
and fickle thing.
malum mihi videtur esse mors (Tusc. i. 9), death seems to me to be an evil.
d. A neuter adjective may be used as an attributive or a predicate
adjective with an infinitive or a substantive clause:
istuc ipsum non esse (Tusc. i. 12), that very " not to 6e."
humanum est errare, to err is human.
aliud est errare Caesarem nolle, aliud nolle miserGrl (Lig. 16), it is one thing
to be unwilling that Caesar should err, another to be unwilling that he
should pity.
Adjectives with Adverbial Force
290. An adjective, agreeing with the subject or object, is often
used to qualify the action of the verb, and so has the force of an
adverb :
primus venit, he was the first to come (came first).
nullus dubito, I no way doubt.
laeti audiere, they were glad to hear.
erat R5mae frequens (Rose. Am. 16), he was often at Rome.
serus in caelum redeas (Hor. Od. i. 2. 45), mayst thou return late to heaven.
Comparatives and Superlatives
291. Besides their regular signification (as in English), the
forms of comparison are used as follows :
a. The Comparative denotes a considerable or excessive degree of
a quality: as, brevier, rather short ; audacior, too bold.
1>. The Superlative (of eminence) often denotes a very high degree
of a quality without implying a distinct comparison : as, mons
altissimus, a very high mountain.
NOTE. The Superlative of Eminence is much used in complimentary reference&
to persons and may often be translated by the simple positive.
291-293] COMPARATIVES AND SUPERLATIVES 175
c. With quam, vel, or unus the Superlative denotes the highest pos-
sible degree :
quam plurimi, as many as possible.
quam maxime potest (maxime quam potest), as much as can be.
vel minimus, the very least.
vir Onus doctissimus, the one most learned man.
NOTE 1. A high degree of a quality is also denoted by such adverbs as admodum,
valde, very, or by per or prae in composition ( 267. d. 1): as, valde malus, very bad =
pessimus; pcrmagnus, very great; praealtus, very high (or deep).
NOTE 2. A low degree of a quality is indicated by sub in composition : as, sub-
rusticus, rather clownish , or by minus, not very ; minime, not at all ; parum, not enough ;
n5n satis, not much.
NOTE 3. The comparative maiores (for maiores natu, greater by birth) has the spe-
cial signification of ancestors ; so minores often means descendants.
For the Superlative with quisque, see 313. 6. For the construction of a substantive
after a Comparative, see 406, 407 ; for that of a clause, see 535. c, 571. a. For the
Ablative of Degree of Difference with a Comparative (multo etc.), see 414.
292. When two qualities of an object are compared, both adjec-
tives are in the Comparative :
longior quam latior acies erat (Liv. xxvii. 48), the line was longer than it was
broad (or, rather long than broad).
verier quam gratior (id. xxii. 38), more true than agreeable.
NOTE. So also with adverbs: as, libentius quam verius (Mil. 78), with more
freedom than truth.
a. Where magis is used, both adjectives are in the positive :
disertus magis quam sapiens (Att. x. 1. 4), eloquent rather than wise.
clarl magis quam honest! (lug. 8), more renowned than honorable.
NOTE. A comparative and a positive, or even two positives, are sometimes con-
nected by quam. This use is rarer and less elegant than those before noticed :
Claris maioribus quam TCtustis (Tac. Ann. iv. 61), of a family more famous than
old.
vehementius quam cautS (Tac. Agr. 4), with more fury than good heed.
293. Superlatives (and more rarely Comparatives) denoting
order and succession also medius, [c5terus], reliquus usually
designate not what object, but what part of it, is meant:
summus mons, the top of the hill.
in ultima platea, at the end of the place.
prior actio, the earlier part of an action.
reliqui captivi, the rest of the prisoners.
in colle medio (B. G. i. 24), halfway up the hill (on the middle of the hill).
inter ceteram planitiem (lug. 92), in a region elsewhere level.
NOTE. A similar use is found in s5ra (multa) nocte, late at night, and the like. But
medium viae, the middle of the way ; multum diei, much of the day, also occur.
176 SYNTAX: PRONOUNS [ 294, 296
PRONOUNS
294. A Pronoun indicates some person or thing without either naming or describ-
ing it. Pronouns are derived from a distinct class of roots, which seem to have denoted
only ideas of place and direction ( 228. 2), and from which nouns or verbs can very
rarely be formed. They may therefore stand for Nouns when the person or thing,
being already present to the senses or imagination, needs only to be pointed out, not
named.
Some pronouns indicate the object in itself, without reference to its class, and have
no distinction of gender. These are Personal Pronouns. They stand syntactically
for Nouns, and have the same construction as nouns.
Other pronouns designate a particular object of a class, and take the gender of the
individuals of that class. These are called Adjective Pronouns. They stand for
Adjectives, and have the same construction as adjectives.
Others are used in both ways ; and, though called adjective pronouns, may also be
treated as personal, taking, however, the gender of the object indicated.
In accordance with their meanings and uses, Pronouns are classified as follows :
Personal Pronouns ( 295). Interrogative Pronouns ( 333).
Demonstrative Pronouns (296). Relative Pronouns (303).
Reflexive Pronouns ( 299). Indefinite Pronouns ( 309).
Possessive Pronouns ( 302).
Personal Pronouns
295. The Personal Pronouns have, in general, the same con-
structions as nouns.
a. The personal pronouns are not expressed as subjects, except for
distinction or emphasis :
te voc5, / call you. But,
quis me vocat ? ego te vocO, who is calling me ? I (emphatic) am calling you.
b. The personal pronouns have two forms for the genitive plural,
that in -um being used partitively ( 346), and that in -i oftenest
objectively ( 348) :
m&ior vestrum, the elder of you.
habetis ducem memorem vestri, oblltum sul (Cat. iv. 19), you have a leader
who thinks (is mindful) of you and forgets (is forgetful of) himself.
pars nostrum, apart (i.e. some) of us.
NOTE 1. The genitives nostrum, vestrum, are occasionally used objectively ( 348) :
as, cupidus vestrum (Verr. iii. 224) , fond of you ; custos vestrum (Cat. iii. 29) , the guar-
dian of you (your guardian).
NOTE 2. " One of themselves " is expressed by unus ex suls or ipsls (rarely ex se) ,
or unus suorum.
c. The Latin has no personal pronouns of the third person except
the reflexive s5. The want is supplied by a Demonstrative or Rela-
tive ( 296. 2, 308. /).
296,297] DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS 177
Demonstrative Pronouns
296. Demonstrative Pronouns are used either adjectively or
substantively.
1. As adjectives, they follow the rules for the agreement of adjec-
tives and are called Adjective Pronouns or Pronominal Adjectives
(286,287):
hoc proelio facto, after this battle was fought (this battle having been fought).
eodem proelio, in the same battle.
ex els aedificiis, out of those buildings.
2. As substantives, they are equivalent to personal pronouns. This
use is regular in the oblique cases, especially of is :
Caesar et exercitus eius, Caesar and his army (not suus). [But, Caesar
exercitum suum dlmlsit, Ccesar disbanded his [own] army.']
si obsides ab eis dentur (B. G. i. 14), if hostages should be given by them
(persons just spoken of).
hi sunt extra provinciain trans Rhodanum prlmi (id. i. 10), they (those just
mentioned) are the first [inhabitants] across the Bhone.
ille minimum propter adulescentiain poterat (id. i. 20), he (emphatic) had
very little power, on account of his youth.
a. An adjective pronoun usually agrees with an appositive or
predicate noun, if there be one, rather than with the word to which
it refers (cf . 306) : -
hie locus est unus quo perfugiant ; hie portus, haec arx, haec ara sociorum
(Verr. v. 126), this is the only place to which they can flee for refuge; this
is the haven, this the citadel, Ihis the altar of the allies.
reTum caput hoc erat, hie fons (Hor. Ep. i. 17. 45), this was the head of things,
this the source.
earn sapientiam interpretantur quam adhuc mortalis nemo est consecutus
[for id ... quod] (Lael. 18), they explain that [thing] to be wisdom which
no man ever yet attained.
297. The main uses of hie, ille, iste, and is are the following:
a. Hie is used of what is near the speaker (in time, place, or
thought). It is hence called the demonstrative of the first person.
It is sometimes used of the speaker himself ; sometimes for " the
latter" of two persons or things mentioned in speech or writing;
more rarely for " the former," when that, though more remote on the
written paye, is nearer the speaker in time, place, or thought. Often
it refers to that which h&sjust been mentioned.
178 SYNTAX: PRONOUNS [297,298
b. Ille is used of what is remote (in time, etc.) ; and is hence called
the demonstrative of the third person.
It is sometimes used to mean "the former"; also (usually follow-
ing its noun) of what is famous or well-known; often (especially the
neuter illud) to mean " the following."
c. Iste is used of what is between the two others in remoteness :
often in allusion to the person addressed, hence called the demon-
strative of the second person.
It especially refers to one's opponent (in court, etc.), and fre-
quently implies antagonism or contempt.
d. Is is a weaker demonstrative than the others and is especially
common as a personal pronoun. It does not denote any special object,
but refers to one just mentioned, or to be afterwards explained by a
relative. Often it is merely a correlative to the relative qui :
venit mihi obviam tuus puer, is mihi litteras abs te reddidit (Att. ii. 1. 1),
your boy met me, he delivered to me a letter from you.
eum quern, one whom.
eum consulem qui non dubitet (Cat. iv. 24), a consul who will not hesitate.
e. The pronouns hie, ille, and is are used to point in either direction,
back to something just mentioned or forward to something about to
be mentioned.
The neuter forms often refer to a clause, phrase, or idea :
est illud quidem vel maximum, animum videre (Tusc. i. 52), that is in truth
a very great thing, to see the soul.
f. The demonstratives are sometimes used as pronouns of refer-
ence, to indicate with emphasis a noun or phrase just mentioned :
nullam virtus aliam mercedem deslderat praeter hanc laudis (Arch. 28),
virtue wants no other reward except that [just mentioned] of praise.
NOTE. But the ordinary English use of that of is hardly known in Latin. Com-
monly the genitive construction is continued without a pronoun, or some other con-
struction is preferred :
cum el Simonides artem memoriae polliceretur : oblivionis, inquit, mallem (Fin. ii.
104), when Simonides promised him the art of memory, "7 should prefer,"
said he, " [that] of forgetfulness."
Caesaris exercitus Pompeian5s ad Pharsalum vicit, the army of Csesar defeated
that of Pompey (the Pompeians) at Pharsalus.
298. The main uses of idem and ipse are as follows :
a. When a quality or act is ascribed with emphasis to a person
or thing already named, is or Idem (often with the concessive quidem)
is used to indicate that person or thing :
298] DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS 179
per unum servum et eum ex gladiatorio Iud5 (Att. i. 16. 5), by means of a
single slave, and that too one from the gladiatorial school.
vincula, et ea seinpiterna (Cat. iv. 7), imprisonment, and that perpetual.
Ti. Gracchus regnum occupare conatus est, vel regnavit is quidem paucos
mensls (Lael. 41), Tiberius Gracchus tried to usurp royal power, or
rather he actually reigned a few months.
NOTE. So rarely with ille : as, nunc dextra ingeminans ictus, nunc ille sinistra
(Aen. v. 457), now dealing redoubled blows with his right hand, now (he) with his left.
[In imitation of the Homeric 8 ye : cf . Aen. v. 334 ; ix. 79G.]
6. Idem, the same, is often used where the English requires an
adverb or adverbial phrase (also, too, yet, at the same time):
oratio splendida et grandis et eadem in primis faceta (Brut. 273), an oration,
brilliant, able, and very witty too.
cum [haec] dicat, negat Idem esse in Deo gratiam (N. D. i. 121), when he
says this, he denies also that there is mercy with God (he, the same man).
NOTE. This is really the same use as in a above, but in this case the pronoun
cannot be represented by a pronoun hi English.
c. The intensive ipse, self, is used with any of the other pronouns,
with a noun, or with a temporal adverb for the sake of emphasis :
turpe mihi ipsi vidfibatur (Phil. i. 9), even to me (to me myself) it seemed
disgraceful.
id ipsum, that very thing; quod ipsum, which of itself alone.
in eum ipsum locum, to that very place.
turn ipsum (Off. ii. 60), at that very time.
NOTE 1. The emphasis of ipse is often expressed in English by just, very, mere, etc.
NOTE 2. In English, the pronouns himself etc. are used both intensively (as, he
will come himself) and reflexively (as, he will kill himself) : in Latin the former would
be translated by ipse, the latter by se or sese.
d. Ipse is often used alone, substantively, as follows :
1. As an emphatic pronoun of the third person :
idque rel publicae praeclarum, ipsis gloriosum (Phil. ii. 27), and this was
splendid for the state, glorious for themselves.
omnes bonl quantum in ipsis fuit (id. ii. 29), all good men so far as was in
their power (in themselves),
di capiti ipsius generlque reservent (Aen. viif. 484), may the gods hold in
reserve [such a fate] to fall on his own and his son-in-law's head.
2. To emphasize an omitted subject of the first or second person :
v5blscum ipsi recordaminl (Phil. ii. 1), remember in your own minds (your-
selves with yourselves).
3. To distinguish the principal personage from subordinate persons :
ipse dlxit (cf. ouris t<j>a), he (the Master) said it.
Nomentanus erat super ipsum (Hor. S. ii. 8. 23), Noment anus was above [the
host] himself [at table].
180 SYNTAX: PRONOUNS
e. Ipse is often (is rarely) used instead of a reflexive (see 300. &).
/. Ipse usually agrees with the subject, even when the real empha-
sis in English is on a reflexive in the predicate :
me ipse consoler (Lael. 10), I console myself. [Not me ipsum, as the Eng-
lish would lead us to expect.]
Reflexive Pronouns
299. The Reflexive Pronoun (se), and usually its corresponding
possessive (suus), are used in the predicate to refer to the subject
of the sentence or clause :
se ex navi proiecit (B. G. iv. 25), Tie threw himself from the ship.
Dumnorlgem ad se vocat (id. i. 20), he calls Dumnorix to him.
sese castrls tenebant (id. iii. 24), they kept themselves in camp.
contemn! se putant (Cat. M. 65), they think they are despised.
Caesar suas copias subducit (B. G. i. 22), Caesar leads up his troops.
Caesar statuit sibi Rhenum esse transeundum (id. iv. 16), dcsar decided that
he must cross the Rhine (the Rhine must be crossed by himself).
a. For reflexives of the first and second persons the oblique cases
of the personal pronouns (mei, tui, etc.) and the corresponding pos-
sessives (meus, tuus, etc.) are used :
morti me obtul! (Mil. 94), I have exposed myself to death.
hinc te reglnae ad limina perfer (Aen. i. 389), do you go (bear yourself)
hence to the queen's threshold.
quid est quod tantls nos in laboribus exerceamus (Arch. 28), what reason is
there why we should exert ourselves in so great toils ?
singulis vobis novenos ex turmls manipullsque vestri similes eligite (Liv.
xxi. 54), for each of you pick out from the squadrons and maniples nine
like yourselves.
300. In a subordinate clause of a complex sentence there is a
double use of Reflexives.
1. The reflexive may always be used to refer to the subject of its
own clause (Direct Reflexive) :
iudicari potest quantum habeat in se boni constantia (B. G. i. 40), it can be
determined how much good firmness possesses (has in itself).
[Caesar] noluit eum locum vacare, ne Gei-mani e suis finibus translrent
(id. i. 28), C&sar did not wish this place to lie vacant, for fear the Ger-
mans would cross over from their territories.
si qua significatio virtutis eluceat ad quam se similis animus adplicet et
adiungat (Lael. 48), if any sign of virtue shine forth to which a similar
disposition may attach itself.
300] REFLEXIVE PRONOUNS 181
2. If the subordinate clause expresses the words or thought of the
subject of the main clause, the reflexive is regularly used to refer to
that subject (Indirect Reflexive) :
petierunt ut sibi liceret (B. G. i. 30), they begged that it might be allowed
them (the petitioners).
Iccius nuntium inittit, nisi subsidium sibi submittatur (id. ii. 6), Iccius sends
a message that unless relief be furnished him, etc.
decima legio el gratias egit, quod de se optimum indicium fecisset (id. i. 41),
the tenth legion thanked him because [they said] he had expressed a high
opinion of them.
si obsides ab els (the Helvetians) sibi (Caesar, who is the speaker) dentur, se
(Caesar) cum els pacem esse facturum (id. i. 14), [Caesar said that] if
hostages were given him by them he would make peace with them.
NOTE. Sometimes the person or thing to which the reflexive refers is not the
grammatical subject of the main clause, though it is in effect the subject of discourse :
Thus, cum ipsi dec nihil minus griitum futurum sit quam nou omnibus patere ad se
placandum viam (Legg. ii. 25), since to God himself nothing will be less pleasing than
that the way to appease him should not be open to all men.
a. If the subordinate clause does not express the words or thought
of the main subject, the reflexive is not regularly used, though it is
occasionally found :
sunt ita multi ut eos career capere non possit (Cat. ii. 22), they are so many
that the prison cannot hold them. [Here se could not be used ; so also
in the example following.]
ibi in proximis villls ita bipartite f uerunt, ut Tiberis inter e5s et pons inter-
esset (id. iii. 6), there they stationed themselves in the nearest farm-
houses, in two divisions, in such a manner that the Tiber and the bridge
were between them (the divisions).
n6n fuit eo contentus quod ei praeter spem acciderat (Manil. 25), he was not
content with that which had happened to him beyond his hope.
Compare : qui fit, Maecenas, ut nemo, quam sibi sortem seu ratio dederit
seu fors obiecerit, ilia contentus vivat (Hor. S. i. 1. 1), how comes it,
Maecenas, that nobody lives contented with that lot which choice has
assigned him or chance has thrown in his way ? [Here sibi is used to
put the thought into the mind of the discontented man.]
b. Ipse is often (is rarely) used instead of an indirect reflexive,
either to avoid ambiguity or from carelessness ; and in later writers
is sometimes found instead of the direct reflexive :
cur de sua virtute aut de ipsius dlligentia desperarent (B. G. i. 40), why
(he asked) should they despair of their own courage or his diligence ?
omnia aut ipsos aut hostes populatos (Q. C. iii. 5. 6), [they said that] either
they themselves or the enemy had laid all waste. [Direct reflexive.]
182 SYNTAX: PRONOUNS [ 300, 301
qui se ex his minus timidos exlstimarl volebant, non se hostem vererl, sed
angustias itineris et magnitudinem silvarum quae intercederent inter
ipsos (the persons referred to by se above) atque Ariovistum . . . timere
dlcebant (B. G. i. 39), those of them who wished to be thought less timid
said they did not fear the enemy, but ivere afraid of the narrows and the
vast extent of the forests which were between themselves and Ariovistus.
audlstis nuper dlcere legates Tyndaritanos Mercurium qul sacrls anniver-
sarils apud eos coleretur esse sublatum (Verr. iv. 84), you have just heard
the ambassadors from Tyndaris say that the statue of Mercury which was
worshipped with annual rites among them was taken away. [Here Cicero
wavers between apud eos colebatur, a remark of his own, and apud se
coleretur, the words of the ambassadors. e5s does not strictly refer to
the ambassadors, but to the people the Tyndaritani.']
301. Special uses of the Reflexive are the following:
a. The reflexive in a subordinate clause sometimes refers to the
subject of a suppressed main clause :
Paetus omms libros quos frater suus rellquisset mihi donavit (Att. ii. 1),
Pcetus gave me all the books which (as he said in the act of donation)
his brother had left him.
b. The reflexive may refer to any noun or pronoun in its own clause
which is so emphasized as to become the subject of discourse:
Socratem elves sui interf ecerunt, Socrates was put to death by his own fellow-
citizens.
qul poterat salus sua cuiquam non probarl (Mil. 81), how can any one fail
to approve his own safety ? [In this and the preceding example the
emphasis is preserved in English by the change of voice.]
hunc si seciitl erunt sui comites (Cat. ii. 10), this man, if his companions
follow him.
NOTE. Occasionally the clause to which the reflexive really belongs is absorbed :
as, studeo sanare sibi ipsos (Cat. ii. 17), / am anxious to cure these men for their own
benefit (i.e. ut sani sibi sint).
c. Suus is used for one's own as emphatically opposed to that of
others, in any part of the sentence and with reference to any word
in it :
suls flammls delete Fldenas (Liv. iv. 33), destroy Fidence with its own fires
(the fires kindled by that city, figuratively). [Cf. Cat. i. 32.]
d. The reflexive may depend upon a verbal noun or adjective:
sui laus, self-praise.
habetis ducem memo rein vestrl, oblltum sui (Cat. iv. 19), you have a leader
mindful of you, forgetful of himself.
perditi homines cum sui similibus servls (Phil. i. 5), abandoned men with
slaves like themselves.
301, 302J POSSESSIVE PRONOUNS 183
e. The reflexive may refer to the subject implied in an infinitive
or verbal abstract used indefinitely :
contentum sals rebus esse maximae sunt dlvitiae (Par. 51), the greatest
wealth is to be content with one's own.
cui proposita sit conservatio sui (Fin. v. 37), one whose aim is self-preservation.
f. Inter se (nos, vos), among themselves (ourselves, yoiirselves), is
regularly used to express reciprocal action or relation :
inter se confligunt (Cat. i. 25), contend with each other.
inter se continentur (Arch. 2), are joined to each other.
Possessive Pronouns
302. The Possessive Pronouns are derivative adjectives, which
take the gender, number, and case of the noun to which they
belong, not those of the possessor :
haec ornamenta sunt mea (Val. iv. 4), these are my jewels, [mea is neuter
plural, though the speaker is a woman.]
mei sunt ordines, mea dlscriptio (Cat. M. 59), mine are the rows, mine the
arrangement, [mea is feminine, though the speaker is Cyrus.]
multa in nostro collegio praeclara (id. 64), [there are] many fine things in
our college, [nostro is neuter singular, though men are referred to. ]
Germanl suas copias castris eduxerunt (B. G. i. 51), the Germans led their
troops out of the camp.
a. To express possession and similar ideas the possessive pro-
nouns are regularly used, not the genitive of the personal or reflexive
pronouns ( 343. a) :
domus mea, my house. [Not domus mei. ]
paternoster, our father. [Not pater nostri.]
patrimonium tuum, your inheritance. [Not tui.]
NOTE 1. Exceptions are rare in classic Latin, common in later writers. For
the use of a possessive pronoun instead of an Objective Genitive, see 348. a.
NOTE 2. The Interrogative Possessive cuius, -a, -um, occurs in poetry and early
Latin : as, cflium pecus (Eel. iii. 1), whose flock ? The genitive cfiius is generally used
instead.
6. The possessives have often the acquired meaning of peculiar to,
favorable or propitious towards, the person or thing spoken of:
[petere] ut sua dementia ac mansuetudine utatur (B. G. ii. 14), they asked
(they said) that he would show his [wonted] clemency and humanity.
ignorant! quern portum petat nullus suus ventus est (Sen. Ep. 71. 3), to
him who knows not what port he is bound to, no wind is fair (his own),
tempore tuo pugnastl (Liv. xxxviii. 45. 10), did you fight at a fit time f
NOTE. This use is merely a natural development of the meaning of the possess-
ive, and the pronoun may often be rendered literally.
184 SYNTAX: PRONOUNS [302,303
c. The possessives are regularly omitted (like other pronouns)
when they are plainly implied in the context :
socium fraudavit, he cheated his partner, [socium sutim would be distinctive,
his partner (and not another's) ; suum socium, emphatic, hisown partner.]
d. Possessive pronouns and adjectives implying possession are
often used substantively to denote some special class or relation :
nostri, our countrymen, or men of our party.
suos continebat (B. G. i. 15), he held his men in check.
flamma extrema meorum (Aen. ii. 431), last flames of my countrymen.
SullanI, the veterans of Sulla's army; Pompeiani, the partisans of Pompey.
NOTE. There is no reason to suppose an ellipsis here. The adjective hecomes
a noun like other adjectives (see 288).
e. A possessive pronoun or an adjective implying possession may
take an appositive in the genitive case agreeing in gender, number,
and case with an implied noun or pronoun :
mea sdllus causa (Ter. Heaut. 129), for my sake only.
in nostro omnium fletu (Mil. 92), amid the tears of us all.
ex Anniana Milonis doino (Att. iv. 3. 3), out ofAnnius MUo's house. [Equiva-
lent to ex Ann! Milonis domo.]
nostra omnium patria, the country of us all.
suum ipsius regnuin, his own kingdom.
For the special reflexive use of the possessive suus, see 299, 300.
Relative Pronouns
303. A Relative Pronoun agrees with some word expressed or implied either in
its own clause, or (often) in the antecedent (demonstrative) clause. In the fullest con-
struction the antecedent is expressed in both clauses, with more commonly a corre-
sponding demonstrative to which the relative refers : as, iter in ea loca facerc coepit,
quibus in locis esse Germanos audiebat (B. G. iv. 7), he began to march into those
PLACES in which PLACES he heard the Germans were. But one of these nouns is com-
monly omitted.
The antecedent is in Latin very frequently (rarely in English) found in the relative
clause, but more commonly in the antecedent clause.
Thus relatives serve two uses at the same time:
1. As Nouns (or Adjectives) in their own clause: as, el qul Alesiae ohsldehantur
(B. G. vii. 77), those who were besieged at Alesia.
2. As Connectives : as, T. Balventius, qui superiore anno primum pllum duxerat
(id. v. 35), Titus Balventius, who the year before had been a centurion of the first rank.
When the antecedent is in a different sentence, the relative is often equivalent
to a demonstrative with a conjunction: as, quae cum ita sint (=et cum ea ita sint),
[and] since this is so.
The subordinating force did not belong to the relative originally, but was developed
from an interrogative or indefinite meaning specialized by use. But the subordinat-
ing and the later connective force were acquired by qul at such an early period that
the steps of the process cannot now be traced.
304-306] RELATIVE PRONOUNS 185
304. A Relative Pronoun indicates a relation between its own
clause and some substantive. This substantive is called the Ante-
cedent of the relative.
Thus, in the sentence
eum nihil delectabat quod fas esset (Mil. 43), nothing pleased him which was
right, '
the relative quod connects its antecedent nihil with the predicate fas
esset, indicating a relation between the two.
305. A Relative agrees with its Antecedent in Grender and
Number; but its Case depends on its construction in the clause
in which it stands :
ea dies quam constituerat venit (B. G. i. 8), that day which he had appointed
came.
pontem qui erat ad Genavam iubet rescind! (id. i. 7), he orders the bridge
which was near Geneva to be cut down.
AduatucI, de quibus supra dlxitnus, domum reverterunt (id. ii. 29), the
Aduatuci, of whom we have spoken above, returned home.
NOTE. This rule applies to all relative words so far as they are variahle in form :
as, quails, quantus, quicumque, etc.
a. If a relative has two or more antecedents, it follows the rules
for the agreement of predicate adjectives ( 286, 287) :
filium et filiam, quos valde dilexit, uno tempore ainisit, he lost at the same
time a son and a daughter whom he dearly loved.
grandes natu matres et parvuli llberl, quorum utrOrumque aetas misericor-
diam nostram requirit (Verr. v. 129), aged matrons and little children,
whose time of life in each case demands our compassion.
Otium atque divitiae, quae prima mortales putant (Sail. Cat. 36), idleness and
wealth, which men count thejirst (objects of desire),
eae fruges et friictus quos terra gignit (N. D. ii. 37), those fruits and crops
which the earth produces.
For the Person of the verb agreeing with the Relative, see 316. a.
306. A Relative generally agrees in gender and number with an
appositive or predicate noun in its own clause, rather than with
an antecedent of different gender or number (cf. 296. a):
mare etiam quern Neptunum esse dlcebas (N. D. iii. 52), the sea, too, which
you said was Neptune. [Not quod.]
Thebae ipsae, quod Boeotiae caput est (Liv. xlii. 44), even Thebes, which is
the chief city of Boeotia. [Not quae.]
NOTE. This rule is occasionally violated: as, flumen quod appellatur Tamesis
(B. G. v. 11), a river which is called the Thames.
186 SYNTAX : PRONOUNS [ 306, 307
a. A relative occasionally agrees with its antecedent in case (by
attraction) :
si aliquid agas eorum quorum consuestl (Fain. v. 14), if you should do some-
thing of what you are used to do. [For eorum quae. ]
NOTE. Occasionally the antecedent is attracted into the case of the relative :
urbem quam statuo vestra est (Aen. i. 573), the city which I am founding isyours.
Naucratem, quern convenire volui, in navi non erat (PI. Am. 100'J), Naucrates,
whom I wished to meet, was not on board the ship.
b. A relative may agree in gender and number with an implied
antecedent :
quartum genus . . . qui in vetere aere alieno vacillant (Cat. ii. 21), a fourth
class, who are staggering under old debts.
unus ex eo numero qui parati erant (lug. 35), one of the number [of those]
who were ready.
coniuravere paucl, de qua [i.e. coniuratione] dlcam (Sail. Cat. 18), a few
have conspired, of which [conspiracy] I will speak.
NOTE. So regularly when the antecedent is implied in a possessive pronoun: as,
nostra acta, quos tyrannos vocas (Vat. 29), the deeds of us, whom you call tyrants.
[Here quos agrees with the nostrum (genitive plural) implied in nostra.]
Antecedent of the Relative
307. The Antecedent Noun sometimes appears in both clauses ;
but usually only in the one that precedes. Sometimes it is
wholly omitted.
a. The antecedent noun may be repeated in the relative clause :
loci natura erat haec quern locum nostrl delegerant (B. G. ii. 18), the nature
of the ground which our men had chosen was this.
b. The antecedent noun may appear only in the relative clause,
agreeing with the relative in case :
quas res in consulatu nostro gessimus attigit hie versibus (Arch. 28), he has
touched in verse the things which I did in my consulship.
quae prima innocentis mihi defensio est oblata suscepl (Sull. 92), I under-
took the first defence of an innocent man that was offered me.
NOTE. In this case the relative clause usually comes first (cf. 308. d) and a
demonstrative usually stands in the antecedent clause :
quae pars civitatis calamitatem populo Romano intulerat, ea prlnceps poenas per-
solvit (B. G. i. 12), that part of the state which had brought disaster on the
Roman people was the first to pay the penalty.
quae gratia currum fuit vivis, eadem seqnitnr (Aen. vi. 653), the same pleasure
that they took in chariots in their lifetime follows them (after death).
qui fit ut nemo, quam sihi sortem ratio dederit, ilia contentus vivat (cf. Hor. S. i.
1. 1), hovj does it happen that no one lives contented with the lot which choice
has assigned him?
307, 308] RELATIVE PRONOUNS 187
c. The antecedent may be omitted, especially if it is indefinite :
qui decimae legionis aquilam ferebat (B. G. iv. 25), [the man] who bore the
eagle of the tenth legion.
qui cognoscerent misit (id. i. 21), he sent [men] to reconnoitre.
d. The phrase id quod or quae res may be used (instead of quod
alone) to refer to a group of words or an idea :
[obtrectatum est] Gabinio dlcam anne Pompeio? an utrlque id quod est
verius? (Manil. 57), an affront has been offered shall I say to Gabinius
or to Pompey t or which is truer to both ?
multum sunt in venationibus, quae res vires alit (B. G. iv. 1), they spend
much time in hunting, which [practice] increases their strength.
NOTE. But quod alone often occurs : as, Cassius noster, quod mihi magnae volup-
tati fuit, hostem reiecerat (Fam. ii. 10), our friend Cassius which was a great satis-
faction to me had driven back the enemy.
e. The antecedent noun, when in apposition with the main clause,
or with some word of it, is put in the relative clause :
firm! [amid], cuius generis est nmgiia penuria (Lael. 62), steadfast friends,
a class of which there is great lack (of which class there is, etc.).
/. A predicate adjective (especially a superlative) belonging to the
antecedent may stand in the relative clause :
vasa ea quae pulcherrima apud eum viderat (Verr. iv. 63), those most beauti-
ful vessels which he had seen at his house. [Nearly equivalent to the
vessels of which he had seen some very beautiful ones.]
Special Uses of the Relative
308. In the use of Relatives, the following points are to be
observed :
a. The relative is never omitted in Latin, as it often is in Eng-
lish :
liber quern mihi dedisti, the book you gave me.
is sum qui semper fui, I am the same man I always icas.
eo in loco est de quo tibi locutus sum, he is in the place I told you of.
b. "When two relative clauses are connected by a copulative con-
junction, a relative pronoun sometimes stands in the first and a
demonstrative in the last :
erat profectus obviam legionibus Macedonicis quattuor, quas sibi conciliare
pecunia cogitabat casque ad urbem addiicere (Fam. xii. 23. 2), he had
setout to meet four legions from Macedonia, which he thought to win over
to himself by a gift of money and to lead (them) to the city.
188 SYNTAX: PRONOUNS [308
c. A relative clause in Latin often takes the place of some other
construction in English, particularly of a participle, an appositive,
or a noun of agency :
leges quae nunc sunt, the existing laws (the laws which now exist).
Caesar qul Galliam vlcit, Caesar the conqueror of Gaul.
iusta gloria qul est fructus virtutis (Pison. 57), true glory [which is] the fruit
of virtue.
ille qul petit, the plaintiff (he who sues),
qul legit, a reader (one who reads).
d. In formal or emphatic discourse, the relative clause usually
comes first, often containing the antecedent noun (cf. 307. V) :
quae pars civitatis Helvetiae msignem calamitatein populo Romano intulerat,
ea prlnceps poenas persolvit (B. G. i. 12), the portion of the Helvetian
state which had brought a serious disaster on the Roman people was the
first to pay the penalty.
NOTE. In colloquial language, the relative clause in such cases often contains a
redundant demonstrative pronoun which logically belongs in the antecedent clause :
as, ille qul consulte cavet, diutine lit! hene licet partum bene (Plaut. Rud. 1240),
he who is on his guard, he may long enjoy what he has well obtained.
e. The relative with an abstract noun may be used in a parenthet-
ical clause to characterize a person, like the English such :
quae vestra prudentia est (Gael. 45), such is your wisdom. [Equivalent to
pr5 vestra prudentia.]
audisses comoedos vel lectorem vel lyristen, vel, quae mea liberalitas, omnes
(Plin. Ep. i. 15), you would have listened to comedians, or a reader, or a
lyre-player, or such is my liberality to all of them.
f. A relative pronoun (or adverb) often stands at the beginning of
an independent sentence or clause, serving to connect it with the
sentence or clause that precedes :
Caesar statuit exspectandam classem ; quae ubi convenit (B. G. iii. 14),
Cozsar decided that he must wait for the fleet; and when this had come
together, etc.
quae qu! audiebant, and those who heard this (which things).
quae cum ita sint, and since this is so.
quorum quod simile factum (Cat. iv. 13), what deed of theirs like this?
quo cum venisset, and when he had come there (whither when he had come).
NOTE. This arrangement is common even when another relative or an interrog-
ative follows. The relative may usually be translated by an English demonstrative,
with or without and.
g. A relative adverb is regularly used in referring to an antecedent
in the Locative case ; so, often, to express any relation of place instead
of the formal relative pronoun :
308-310] INDEFINITE PRONOUNS 189
mortuus Cumis quo se contulerat (Liv. ii. 21), having died at Cumce, whither
he had retired. [Here in quam urbem might be used, but not in quas.]
locus quo aditus non erat, a place to which (whither) there was no access.
regna unde genus duels (Aen. v. 801), the kingdom from which you derive
your race.
unde petitur, the defendant (he from whom something is demanded).
h. The relatives qul, qualis, quantus, quot, etc. are often rendered
simply by as in English :
idem quod semper, the same as always.
cum esset tails qualem te esse video (Mur. 32), since he was such a man as I
see you are.
tanta dlmicatio quanta numquam fuit (Att. vii. 1. 2), such a fight as never
was before.
tot mala quot sldera (Ov. Tr. i. 5. 47), as many troubles as stars in the sky.
i. The general construction of relatives is found in clauses intro-
duced by relative adverbs : as, ubi, quo, unde, cum, quare.
Indefinite Pronouns
309. The Indefinite Pronouns are used to indicate that some
person or thing is meant, without designating what one.
310. Quis, quispiam, aliquis, quidam, are particular indefinites, mean-
ing some, a certain, any. Of these, quis, any one, is least definite,
and quidam, a certain one, most definite ; aliquis and quispiam, some
one, stand between the two :
dixerit quis (quispiam), some one may say.
aliqui philosophi ita putant, some philosophers think so. [quidam would mean
certain persons defined to the speaker's mind, though not named.]
habitant hlc quaedam mulieres pauperculae (Ter. Ad. 647), some poor women
live here [i.e. some women he knows of; some women or other would
be aliquae or nescio quae].
a. The indefinite quis is rare except in the combinations si quis, if
any ; nisi quis, if any . . . not ; ne quis, lest any, in order that none ;
num quis (ecquis), whether any ; and in relative clauses.
ft. The compounds quispiam and aliquis are often, used instead of
quis after si, nisi, ne, and num, and are rather more emphatic :
quid si hoc quispiam voluit deus (Ter. Eun. 875), what if some god had
desired this ?
nisi alicui suorum negotium daret (Nep. Dion. 8. 2), unless he should employ
some one of his friends.
cavebat Pompeius omnia, ne aliquid vos timeretis (Mil. 66), Pompey took
every precaution, so that you might have no fear
190 SYNTAX: PRONOUNS [ 311-313
311. In a, particular negative aliquis (aliqul), some one (some), is
regularly used, where in a universal negative quisquam, any one,
or ullus, any, would be required :
iustitia numquam nocet cuiquam (Fin. i. 50), justice never does harm to any-
body, [alicui would mean to somebody who possesses it. ]
non sine aliquo metu, not without some fear. But, sine ull5 metu, without
any fear.
cum aliquid non habeas (Tusc. i. 88), when there is something you have not.
NOTE. The same distinction holds between quis and aliquis on the one hand, and
quisquam (ullus) on the other, in conditional and other sentences when a negative is
expressed or suggested :
si quisquam, ille sapiens fuit (Lael. 9), if any man was (ever) a sage, he was.
dum praesidia ulla fuerunt (Rose. Am. 126), while there were any armed forces.
si quid in te peccavi (Att. iii. 15. 4), if I have done wrong towards you [in any
particular case (see 310)].
312. Qulvis or quilibet (any one you will), quisquam, and the cor-
responding adjective ullus, any at all, are general indefinites.
Qulvis and quilibet are used chiefly in affirmative clauses, quisquam
and ullus in clauses where a universal negative is expressed or sug-
gested :
n5n cuivis homini contingit adlre Corinthum (Hor. Ep. i. 17. 36), it is not every
man's luck to go to Corinth, [non cuiquam would mean not any man's.]
quemlibet modo aliquem (Acad. ii. 132), anybody you will, provided it be
somebody.
si quisquam est timid us, is ego sum (Fam. vi. 14. 1), if any man is timorous,
I am he.
si tempus est ullum iure hominis necandi (Mil. 9), if there is any occasion
whatever when homicide is justifiable.
NOTE. The use of the indefinites is very various, and must be learned from the
Lexicon and from practice. The choice among them may depend merely on the point
of view of the speaker, so that they are often practically interchangeable. The differ-
ences are (with few exceptions) those of logic, not of syntax.
313. The distributives quisque (every), uterque (each of two), and
unus quisque (every single one) are used in general assertions :
bonus liber melior est quisque quo maior (Plin. Ep. i. 20. 4), the larger a
good book is, the better (each good book is better in proportion, etc. ).
ambo exercitus suas quisque abeunt domos (Liv. ii. 7. 1), both armies go
away, every man to his home.
uterque utrique erat exercitus in conspectu (B. G. vii. 35), each army was
in sight of the other (each to each).
ponite ante oculos unum quemque regum (Par. i. 11), net before your eyes each
of the kings.
313, 314] INDEFINITE PRONOUNS 191
a. Quisque regularly stands in a dependent clause, if there is one:
quo quisque est sollertior, hoc docet Iracundius (Rose. Com. 31), the keener-
fitted a man is, the more impatiently he teaches.
NOTE. Quisque is generally postpositive 1 : as, suum cuique, to every man his own.
b, Quisque is idiomatically used with superlatives and with ordinal
numerals :
nobilissimus quisque, all the noblest (one after the other in the order of their
nobility). 2
primo quoque tempore (Rose. Am. 36), at the very first opportunity.
antlquissimum quodque tempus (B. G. i. 45), the most ancient times.
, decimus quisque (id. v. 52), one in ten.
NOTE 1. Two superlatives with quisque imply a proportion : as, sapientissimus
quisque aequissimo animo moritur (Cat. M. 83) , (he wisest men die with the greatest
equanimity.
NOTE 2. Quotus quisque has the signification of how many, pray? often in a dis-
paraging sense (how few) :
quotus enim quisque disertns? quotus quisque iuris peritus est (Plane. 62), for how
few are eloquent! how few are learned in the law !
quotus enim istud quisque fecisset (Lig. 26), for how many would have done this?
[i.e. scarcely anybody would have done it].
314. Nemo, no one, is used of persons only
1. As a substantive :
neminem accusat, he accuses no one.
2. As an adjective pronoun instead of nullus :
vir nemo bonus (Legg. ii. 41), no good man.
NOTE. Even when used as a substantive, nemo may take a noun in apposition,
as, nemo scriptor, nobody [who is] a writer.
a. Nullus, no, is commonly an adjective ; but in the genitive and
ablative singular it is regularly used instead of the corresponding
cases of nemo, and in the plural it may be either an adjective or a
substantive :
nullum mittitur telum (B. C. ii. 13), not a missile is thrown.
nulls hoste prohibente (B. G. iii. 6), without opposition from the enemy. .
nullius Insector calamitatem (Phil. ii. 98), I persecute the misfortune of no one.
nullo adiuvante (id. x. 4), with the help of no one (no one helping).
nulll erant praedones (Flacc. 28), there were no pirates.
nulll eximentur (Pison. 94), none shall be taken away.
For non nemo, non nullus (n5n nulll), see 326. a.
1 That is, it does not stand first in its clause.
2 As, in taking things one by one off a pile, each thing is uppermost when you
take it
192 SYNTAX: PKONOUNS [315
Alius and Alter
315. Alius means simply other, another (of an indefinite num-
ber); alter, the other (of two), often the second in a series; ceteri
and reliqui, all the rest, the others ; alteruter, one of the two :
propterea quod aliud iter haberent nfillum (B. G. i. 7), because (as they
said) they had no other way.
uni epistulae respond!, venio ad alteram (Fam. ii. 17. 6), one letter I have
answered, I come to the other.
alterum genus (Cat. ii. 19), the second class.
iecissem ipse me potius in profunduin ut ceteros conservarem (Sest. 45), J
should have rather thrown myself into the deep to save the rest.
Servllius consul, reliquique magistratus (B. C. iii. 21), Servilius the consul
and the rest of the magistrates.
cuin sit necesse alterum utrum viucere (Fain. vi. 3), since it must be that one
of the two should prevail.
NOTE. Alter is often used, especially with negatives, in reference to an indefinite
number where one is opposed to all the rest taken singly :
dum ne sit te ditior alter (Hor. S. i. 1. 40), so long as another is not richer than
you (lit. the other, there being at the moment only two persons considered),
non ut magis alter, amicus (id. i. 5. 33), a friend such that no other is more so.
a. The expressions alter . . . alter, the one . . . the other, alius . . .
alius, one . . . another, may be used in pairs to denote either division
of a group or reciprocity of action :
alter! dimicant, alter! victorem timent (Fam. vi. 3), one parly fights, the
other fears the victor.
alteram alter! praesidio esse iusserat (B. C. iii. 89), he had ordered, each (of
the two legions) to support the other.
alii gladils adoriuntur, alii fragments saeptorum (Sest. 79), some make an
attack with swords, others with fragments of the railings.
alius ex alio causam quaerit (B. G. vi. 37), they ask each other the reason.
alius alium percontamur (PI. Stich. 370), we keep asking each other.
It. Alius and alter are often used to express one as well as another
(the other) of the objects referred to:
alter consulum, one of the [two] consuls.
aliud est maledlcere, aliud accusare (Gael. 6), it is one thing to slander,
another to accuse.
c. Alius repeated in another case, or with an adverb from the same
stem, expresses briefly a double statement :
alius aliud petit, one man seeks one thing, another another (another seeks
another thing),
iussit aliSs alibi fodere (Liv. xliv. 33), he ordered different persons to dig in
different places.
alii alio loco resistebant (B. C. ii. 39), some halted in one place, some in another.
316, 317] VERB AND SUBJECT 193
VERBS
Agreement of Verb and Subject
316. A Finite Verb agrees with its Subject in Number and Per-
son:
ego statuO, I resolve. senatus decrevit, the senate ordered.
silent leges inter anna (Mil. 11), the laws are dumb in time of war,
NOTE. In verb-forms containing a participle, the participle agrees with the sub-
ject in gender and number ( 28(5) :
oratio est habita, the plea was delivered. bellum exortum est, a war arose.
a. A verb having a relative as its subject takes the person of the
expressed or implied antecedent :
adsum qul feel (Aen. ix. 427), here am I who did it.
tii, qul scis, omnem diligentiam adhibebis (Att. v. 2. 3), you, who know,
will use all diligence.
videte quam despiciamur omnes qul sumus e municipiis (Phil. iii. 15), see
how all of us are scorned who are from the free towns.
1>. A verb sometimes agrees in number (and a participle in the verb-
form in number and gender) with an appositive or predicate noun :
amantium Irae amoris integratio est (Ter. And. 555), the quarrels of lovers
are the renewal of love.
non omnis error stultitia dlcenda est (Div. ii. 90), not every error should be
called folly.
Corinthus lumen Graeciae exstinctum est (cf. Manil. 11), Corinth, the light
of Greece, is put out.
Double or Collective Subject
317. Two or more Singular Subjects take a verb in the Plural:
pater et avus mortal sunt, his father and grandfather are dead.
NOTE. So rarely (by synesis, 280. a) when to a singular subject is attached an
ablative with cum: as, dux cum aliquot principibus capiuntur (Liv. xxi. 60), the
general and several leading men are taken.
a. When subjects are of different persons, the verb is usually in
the first person rather than the second, and in the second rather than
the third :
si tu et Tullia valetis ego et Cicero valemus (Fam. xiv. 5), if you and Tullia
are well, Cicero and I are well. [Notice that the first person is also
first in order, not last, as by courtesy in English.]
NOTE. In case of different genders a participle in a verb-form follows the rule for
predicate adjectives (see 287. 2-4).
194 SYNTAX: VERBS [317
b. If the subjects are connected by disjunctives ( 223. a), or if
they are considered as a single whole, the verb is usually singular :
quern neque fides neque ius iurandum neque ilium misericordia repressit
(Ter. Ad. 306), not faith, nor oath, nay, nor mercy, checked him.
senatus populusque Romanus intellegit (Fam. v. 8), the Roman senate and
people understand. [But, neque Caesar neque ego habitl essemus (id.
xi. 20), neither Ccesar nor I should have been considered.]
fama et vita innoceutis defenditur (Rose. Am. 15), the reputation and life of an
innocent man are defended.
est in eo virtus et probitas et summum officium summaque observantia (Fam.
xiii. 28 A. 2), in him are to be found worth, uprightness, the highest sense
of duty, and the greatest devotion.
NOTE. So almost always when the subjects are abstract nouns.
c. When a verb belongs to two or more subjects separately, it often
agrees with one and is understood with the others :
intercedit M. Antonius Q. Cassius tribuni plebis (B. C. i. 2), Mark Antony
and Quintus Cassius, tribunes of the people, interpose.
h5c mihi et PeripateticI et vetus Academia concedit (Acad. ii. 113), this both
the Peripatetic philosophers and the Old Academy grant me.
d. A collective noun commonly takes a verb in the singular ; but
the plural is often found with collective nouns when individuals are
thought of ( 280. a) : -
(1) senatus haec intellegit (Cat. i. 2), the senate is aware of this.
ad hlberna exercitus redit (Liv. xxi. 22), the army returns to winter-quarters.
plebes a patribus secessit (Sail. Cat. 33), the plebs seceded from the patricians.
(2) pars praedas agebant (lug. 32), a part brought in booty.
cum tanta multitudd lapides conicerent (B. G. ii. 6), when such a crowd were
throwing stones.
NOTE 1. The point of view may change in the course of a sentence : as, equita-
tum omuem . . . quern habebat praemittit, qui videant (B. G. i. 15), he sent ahead all
the cavalry he had, to see (who should see) .
NOTE 2. The singular of a noun regularly denoting an individual is sometimes
used collectively to denote a group : as, Poenus, the Carthaginians; miles, the soldiery;
eques, the cavalry.
e. Quisque, each, and unus quisque, every single one, have very often
a plural verb, but may be considered as in partitive apposition with a
plural subject implied (of. 282. a):
sibi quisque habeant quod suum est (PI. Cure. 180), let every one keep his
own (let them keep every man bis own).
NOTE. So also uterque, each (of two), and the reciprocal phrases alius . . . alium,
alter . . . alterum ( 315. a).
318, 319J OMISSION OF SUBJECT OR VERB 195
Omission of Subject or Verb
318. The Subject of the Verb is sometimes omitted :
a. A Personal pronoun, as subject, is usually omitted unless em-
phatic:
loquor, I speak. But, ego loquor, it is I that speak.
b. An indefinite subject is often omitted: crederes, you would
have supposed ; putamus, we (people) think ; dicunt, ferunt, perhibent,
they say.
c. A passive verb is often used impersonally without a subject ex-
pressed or understood ( 208. eT):
diu atque acriter pugnatum est (B. G. i. 26), they fought long and vigorously.
319. The verb is sometimes omitted :
a. Dico, facio, ago, and other common verbs are often omitted in
familiar phrases :
quorsum haec [spectant], what does this aim at?
ex ungue leonem [cognosces], you will know a lion by his claw.
quid multa, what need of many words ? (why should I say much ?)
quid ? quod, what of this, that . . . ? (what shall I say of this, that . . . ?)
[A form of transition.]
Aeolus haec contra (Aen. i. 76), jEolus thus [spoke] in reply.
turn Cotta [inquit], then said Cotta.
dl meli5ra [duint] 1 (Cat. M. 47), Heaven forfend (may the gods grant better
things) 1
unde [venls] et quo [tendis] ? (Hor. S. ii. 4. 1), where from and whither
bound? [Cf. id. i. 9. 62 for the full form.]
&. The copula sum is very commonly omitted in the present indica-
tive and present infinitive, rarely (except by late authors) in the sub-
junctive :
tu coniunx (Aen. iv. 113), you [are] his wife.
quid erg5 ? audacissimus ego ex omnibus (Rose. Am. 2), what then ? am I
the boldest of all ?
omnia praeclara rara (Lael. 79), all the best things are rare.
potest incidere saepe contentio et comparatio de duobus honestis utrum
honestius (Off. i. 152), there may often occur a comparison of two
honorable actions, as to which is the more honorable. [Here, if any
copula were expressed, it would be sit, but the direct question would
be complete without any.]
accipe quae peragenda prius (Aen. vi. 136), hear what is first to be accom-
plished. [Direct : quae peragenda prius ?]
196 SYNTAX : PARTICLES [ 320, 321
PARTICLES
Adverbs
320. The proper function of Adverbs, as petrified case-forms, is to modify Verbs :
as, celeriter Ire, to go with speed. It is from this use that they derive their name
(adverbium, from ad, to, and verbum, verb; see 241. b). They also modify adjectives,
showing in what manner or degree the quality described is manifested : as, splendid?
mendax, gloriously false. More rarely they modify other adverbs: as, nimis graviter,
too severely. Many adverbs, especially relative adverbs, serve as connectives, and
are hardly to be distinguished from conjunctions (see 20. g. x.). 1
321. Adverbs are used to modify Verbs, Adjectives, and other
Adverbs.
a. A Demonstrative or Relative adverb is often equivalent to the
corresponding Pronoun with a preposition (see 308. g) :
eo [ = in ea] imponit vasa (lug. 75), upon them (thither, thereon, on the
beasts) he puts the camp-utensils.
eo milites impOnere (B. G. i. 42), to put soldiers upon them (the horses).
apud eos qu5 [ ad quos] se contulit (Verr. iv. 38), among those to whom
(whither) he resorted.
qui eum necasset unde [ = quo] ipse natus esset (Rose. Am. 71), one who should
have killed his own father (him whence he had his birth).
6 condiciones miseras administrandarum provinciarum ubi [ = in quibus]
severitas periculosa est (Flacc. 87), O! wretched terms of managing the
provinces, where strictness is dangerous.
b. The participles dictum and factum, when used as nouns, are regu-
larly modified by adverbs rather than by adjectives ; so occasionally
other perfect participles :
praeclare facta (Nep. Timoth. 1), glorious deeds (things gloriously done),
multa facete dicta (Off. i. 104), many witty sayings.
c. A noun is sometimes used as an adjective, and may then be modi-
fied by an adverb :
victor exercitus, the victorious army.
admodum puer, quite a boy (young).
magis vir, more of a man (more manly).
populum late regein (Aen. i. 21), a people ruling far and wide.
NOTE. Very rarely adverbs are used with nouns which have no adjective force
but which contain a verbal idea :
hinc abitio (Plaut. Rud. 503), a going away from here.
quid cogitem de obviam itione (Alt. xiii. 50), what I think about going to meet
(him). [Perhaps felt as a compound.]
1 For the derivation and classification of adverbs, see 214-217.
321, 322] ADVERBS 197
d. A few adverbs appear to be used like adjectives. Such are
obviam, palam, sometimes contra, and occasionally others :
fit obviam Clodio (Mil. 29), he falls in with (becomes in the way of) Clodius.
[Cf. the adjective obvius : as, si ille obvius el futurus non erat (id. 47),
if he was not likely to fall in with him.~\
haec commemoro quae sunt palam (Pison. 11), I mention these facts, which
are well-known.
alia probabilia, contra alia dicimus (Off. ii. 7), we call some things probable,
others the opposite (not probable). [In this use, contra contradicts a
previous adjective, and so in a manner repeats it.]
eri semper lenitas (Ter. And. 175), my master's constant (always) gentleness.
[An imitation of a Greek construction.]
NOTE. In some cases one can hardly say whether the adverb is treated as an
adjective modifying the noun, or the noun modified is treated as an adjective (as in
c above) .
For propius, pridie, palam, and other adverbs used as prepositions, see 432.
322. The following adverbs require special notice :
a. Etiam (et iam), also, even, is stronger than quoque, also, and
usually precedes the emphatic word, while quoque follows it :
non verbls solum sed etiam vl (Verr. ii. 64), not only by words, but also by
force.
hoc quoque maleficium (Rose. Am. 117), this crime too.
b. Nunc * means definitely now, in the immediate present, and is
rarely used of the immediate past.
Iam means now, already, at length, presently, and includes a refer-
ence to previous time through which the state of things described has
been or will be reached. It may be used of any time. With nega-
tives iam means (no) longer.
Turn, then, is correlative to cum, when, and may be used of any
time. Tune, then, at that time, is a strengthened form of turn
(ftum-ce, cf . nunc) :
ut iam antea dixl, as I have already said before.
si iam satis aetatis atque roboris haberet (Rose. Am. 149), if he had attained
a suitable age and strength (lit. if he now had, as he will have by and by),
non est iam lenitatl locus, there is no longer room for mercy.
quod iam erat institutum, which had come to be a practice (had now been
established).
nunc quidem deleta est, tune flOrebat (Lael. 13), now ('tis true) she [Greece]
is ruined, then she was in her glory.
turn cum regnabat, at the time when he reigned.
i For fnum-ce ; cf. tune (for ftum-ce).
198 SYNTAX : PARTICLES [ 322, 323
c. CertS means certainly, cert5 (usually) at least, at any rate :
certo scio, I know for a certainty ; ego certe, I at least.
d. Prlmum means first (first in order, or for the first time), and
implies a series of events or acts. Prlmo means at first, as opposed
to afterwards, giving prominence merely to the difference of time :
hoc primum sentio, this I hold in the first place.
aedls primd ruere rebamur, at first we thought the house was falling.
NOTE. In enumerations, primum (or primo) is often followed by deinde, secondly, in
the next place, or by turn, then, or by both in succession. Deinde may be several times
repeated (secondly, thirdly, etc.). The series is often closed by denique or postremo,
lastly, finally. Thus, primum de genere belli, deinde de maguitudiue, turn de im-
peratore deligendo (Manil. 6), first of the kind of war, next of its magnitude, then of
the choice of a commander.
e. Quidem, indeed, gives emphasis, and often has a concessive mean-
ing, especially when followed by sed, autem, etc. :
hoc quidem videre licet (Lael. 54), THIS surely one may see. [Emphatic.]
[securitas] specie quidem blanda, sed reapse multls locis repudianda (id. 47),
(tranquillity) in appearance, ' is true, attractive, but in reality to be
rejected for many reasons. [Concessive.]
/. Ne . . . quidem means not even or not . . , either. The emphatic
word or words must stand between ne and quidem :
sed ne lugurtha quidem quietus erat (lug. 51), but Jugurtha was not quiet
either.
ego autem ne TrascI possum quidem iis quos valde am5 (Att. ii. 19. 1), but I
cannot even get angry with those whom I love very much.
NOTE. Equidem has the same senses as quidem, but is in Cicero confined to the
first person. Thus, equidem adprobabo (Fain. ii. 3. 2), I for my part shall approve.
CONJUNCTIONS *
323. Copulative and Disjunctive Conjunctions connect similar
constructions, and are regularly followed by the same case or mood
that precedes them:
scrlptum senatui et populo (Cat. iii. 10), written to the senate and people.
ut eas [partis] sanares et confirmares (Mil. 68), that you might cure and
strengthen those parts.
neque inea priidentia neque humanls consilils fretus (Cat. ii. 29), relying
neither on my own foresight nor on human wisdom.
1 For the classification of conjunctions, see 223, 224.
323] CONJUNCTIONS 199
a. Conjunctions of Comparison (as ut, quam, tamquam, quasi) also
commonly connect similar constructions :
his igitur quam physicis potius credendum existimas (Div. ii. 37), do you
think these are more to be trusted than the natural philosophers ?
hominem callidiorem vldl neminem quam Phormionem (Ter. Ph. 591), a
shrewder man I never saw than Phormio (cf. 407).
ut non omne vinum sic non oranis natura vetustate coacescit (Cat. M. 65),
as every wine does not sour with age, so [does] not every nature.
in me quasi in tyrannum (Phil. xiv. 15), against me as against a tyrant.
b. Two or more coordinate words, phrases, or sentences are often
put together without the use of conjunctions (Asyndeton, 601. c) :
oinnes dl, homines, all gods and men.
summi, medii, Infimi, the highest, the middle class, and the lowest.
iura, leges, agros, libertatem nobls rellquerunt (B. G. vii. 77), they have left
us our rights, our laws, our fields, our liberty.
c. 1. Where there are more than two coordinate words etc., a con-
junction, if used, is ordinarily used with all (or all except the first):
aut aere alieno aut magnitudine tributorum aut iniuria potentiorum (B. G.
vi. 13), by debt, excessive taxation, or oppression on the part of the
powerful.
at sunt morosi et anxii et Iracundl et difficiles senes (Cat. M. 65), but (you
say) old men are capricious, solicitous, choleric, and fussy.
2. But words are often so divided into groups that the members
of the groups omit the conjunction (or express it), while the groups
themselves express the conjunction (or omit it) :
propudium illud et portentum, L. Antonius insigne odium omnium homi-
num (Phil. xiv. 8), that wretch and monster, Lucius Antonius, the abomi-
nation of all men.
utrumque egit graviter, auctoritate et offensione anirn! non acerba (Lael.
77), he acted in both cases with dignity, without loss of authority and
with no bitterness of feeling.
3. The enclitic -que is sometimes used with the last member of a
series, even when there is no grouping apparent :
voce voltu motuque (Brut. 110), by voice, expression, and gesture.
curam c5nsilium vigilantiamque (Phil. vii. 20), care, wisdom, and vigilance.
quSrum auctoritatem dignitatem voluntatemque defenderas (Fain. i. 7. 2),
whose dignity, honor, and wishes you had defended.
d. Two adjectives belonging to the same noun are regularly con-
nected by a conjunction :
multae et graves causae, many weighty reasons.
vir liber ac fortis (Rep. ii. 34), a free and brave man.
200 SYNTAX: PARTICLES [323,324
e. Often the same conjunction is repeated in two coordinate clauses :
et . . . et (-que . . . -que), both . . . and.
aut . . . aut, either ... or.
vel . . . vel, either ... or. [Examples in 324. e.]
sive (seu) . . . slve (seu), whether ... or. [Examples in 324./.]
/. Many adverbs are similarly used in pairs, as conjunctions, partly
or wholly losing their adverbial force :
nunc . . . mine, turn . . . turn, iam . . . iam, now . . . now.
modo . . . modo, now . . . now.
simul . . . simul, at the same time . . . at the same time.
qua . . . qua, now . . . now, both . . . and, alike [this] and [that].
modo ait modo negat (Ter. Eun. 714), now he says yes, now no.
simul gratias agit, simul gratulatur (Q. C. vi. 7. 15), he thanks him and at
the same time congratulates him.
grumpunt saepe vitia amlcorum turn in ipsos amlcos turn in alienos (Lael.
76), the faults of friends sometimes break out, now against their friends
themselves, now against strangers.
qua marls qua feminas (PI. Mil. 1113), both males and females.
g. Certain relative and demonstrative adverbs are used correla-
tively as conjunctions:
ut (rel.) . . . ita, sic (dem.), as (while) ... so (yet).
tarn (dem.) . . . quam (rel.), so (as) ... as.
cum (rel.) . . . turn (dem.), while ... so also; not only . . . but also.
324. The following Conjunctions require notice :
a. Et, and, simply connects words or clauses ; -que combines more
closely into one connected whole, -que is always enclitic to the word
connected or to the first or second of two or more words connected :
cum coniugibus et liberls, with [their] wives and children.
ferro Ignique, with fire and sword. [Not as separate things, but as the
combined means of devastation.]
aqua et igni interdictus, forbidden the use of water and fire. [In a legal
formula, where they are considered separately.]
6. Atque (ac), and, adds with some emphasis or with some implied
reflection on the word added. Hence it is often equivalent to and so,
and yet, and besides, and then. But these distinctions depend very
much upon the feeling of the speaker, and are often untranslatable :
omnia honesta atque inhonesta, everything honorable and dishonorable (too,
without the slightest distinction),
tisus atque disciplina, practice and theory beside (the more important or less
expected).
atque ego credo, and yet I believe (for my part).
324] CONJUNCTIONS 201
c. Atque (ac), in the sense of as, than, is also used after words of
comparison and likeness :
simul atque, as soon as.
non secus (non aliter) ac si, not otherwise than if.
pro eo ac debui, as was my duty (in accordance as I ought),
aeque ac til, as much as you.
baud minus ac iussl f aciunt, they do just as they are ordered.
For and not, see 328. a.
d. Sed and the more emphatic verum or vero, but, are used to intro-
duce something in opposition to what precedes, especially after nega-
tives (not this . . . but something else). At (old form ast) introduces
with emphasis a new point in an argument, but is also used like the
others ; sometimes it means at least. At enim is almost always used
to introduce a supposed objection which is presently to be overthrown.
At is more rarely used alone in this sense.
Autem, however, now, is the weakest of the adversatives, and often
marks a mere transition and has hardly any adversative force percep-
tible. Atqui, however, now, sometimes introduces an objection and
sometimes a fresh step in the reasoning. Quod si, but if, and if, now if,
is used to continue an argument.
NOTE. Et, -que, and atque (ac) are sometimes used where the English idiom would
suggest but, especially when a negative clause is followed by an affirmative clause
continuing the same thought: as, impetum hostes ferre non potuerunt ac terga
verterunt (B. G. iv. 35), the enemy could not stand the onset, but turned their backs.
c. Aut, or, excludes the alternative ; vel (an old imperative of vole)
and -ve give a choice between two alternatives. But this distinction
is not always observed :
sed quis ego sum aut quae est in me facultas (Lael. 17), but who am I or
what special capacity have I ? [Here vel could not be used, because in
fact a negative is implied and both alternatives are excluded.]
aut bibat aut abeat (Tusc. v. 118), let him drink or (if he won't do that, then
let him) quit. [Here vel would mean, let him do either as he chooses.]
vita talis fuit vel fortuna vel gloria (Lael. 12), his life was such either in
respect to fortune or fame (whichever way you look at it).
si propinquos habeant imbecilliores vel animo vel fortuna (id. 70), if they
have relatives beneath them either in spirit or in fortune (in either respect,
for example, or in both).
aut deorum aut regum filii (id. 70), sons either of gods or of kings. [Here
one case would exclude the other.]
implicatl vel usu diutunio vel etiam officils (id. 85), entangled either by
close intimacy or even by obligations. [Here the second case might
exclude the first.]
202 SYNTAX : THE SENTENCE [ 324
/. Sive (seu) is properly used in disjunctive conditions (if either . . .
or if}, but also with alternative words and clauses, especially with
two names for the same thing :
sive inrldens sive quod ita putaret (De Or. i. 91), either laughingly or because
he really thought so.
sive deae seu sint volucres (Aen. iii. 262), whether they (the Harpies) are
goddesses or birds.
g. Vel, even, for instance, is often used as an intensive particle with
no alternative force : as, vel minimus, the very least.
h. Nam and namque, for, usually introduce a real reason, formally
expressed, for a previous statement ; enim (always postpositive), a
less important explanatory circumstance put in by the way ; etenim
(for, you see ; for, you know ; for, mind you) and its negative neque
enim introduce something self-evident or needing no proof.
(ea vita) quae est sola vita nominanda. nam dum sumus inclusl in his
compagibus corporis, munere quodam necessitatis et gravl opere per-
fungimur; est enim animus caelestis, etc. (Cat. M. 77), (that life)
which alone deserves to be called life ; for so long as we are confined by
the body's frame, we perform a sort of necessary function and heavy
task. For the soul is from heaven.
harura trium sententifirum nulll prorsus adsentior. nee enim ilia prlma
vera est (Lael. 57), for of course that first one isn't true.
i. Erg6, therefore, is used of things proved formally, but often has
a weakened force. Igitur, then, accordingly, is weaker than ergo and
is used in passing from one stage of an argument to another. Itaque,
therefore, accordingly, and so, is used in proofs or inferences from the
nature of things rather than in formal logical proof. All of these are
often used merely to resume a train of thought broken by a digression
or parenthesis. Idcirco, for this reason, on this account, is regularly
followed (or preceded) by a correlative (as, quia, quod, si, ut, ne), and
refers to the special point introduced by the correlative.
malum mihi videtur esse mors. est miserum igitur, quoniam malum. certe".
ergo et el quibus evenit iam ut morerentur et el quibus eventurum est
miser!, mihi ita videtur. nemo erg5 non miser. (Tusc. i. 9.) Death
seems to me to be an evil. ' It is wretched, then, since it is an evil. ' Certainly.
' Therefore, all those who have already died and who are to die hereafter are
wretched. ' So it appears to me. ' There is no one, therefore, who is not
wretched. '
quia natura mutarl non potest, idcirco verae amlcitiae sempiternae sunt
(Lael. 32), because nature cannot be changed, for this reason true friend-
ships are eternal.
324-326] NEGATIVE PARTICLES 203
j. Autem, enim, and vgro are postpositive l ; so generally igitur and
often tamen.
7c. Two conjunctions of similar meaning are often used together
for the sake of emphasis or to bind a sentence more closely to what
precedes : as, at vero, but in truth, but surely, still, however; itaque
ergo, accordingly then; namque, for; et-enim, for, you see, for of
course ( 324. h).
For Conjunctions introducing Subordinate Clauses, see Syntax.
Negative Particles 2
325. In the use of the Negative Particles, the following points
are to be observed :
326. Two negatives are equivalent to an affirmative :
nemo non audiet, every one will hear (nobody will not hear),
non possum non confiterl (Fam. ix. 14. 1), I must confess.
ut ... lie non timere quidem sine aliquo timore possimus (Mil. 2), so that we
cannot even be relieved of fear without some fear.
a. Many compounds or phrases of which non is the first part express
an indefinite affirmative :
non nullus, some; non nulll (=aliqul), some few.
non nihil (=aliquid), something.
non nemo (= aliquot), sundry persons.
non numquam (= aliquo tiens), sometimes.
b. Two negatives of which the second is non (belonging to the
predicate) express a universal affirmative :
nemo non, nullus non, nobody [does] not, i.e. everybody [does]. [Cf. non
nemo, not nobody, i.e. somebody.]
nihil non, everything. [Cf. non nihil, something.]
numquam non, never not, i.e. always. [Cf. non numquam, sometimes.]
c. A statement is often made emphatic by denying its contrary
(Litotes, 641) : -
non semel ( = saepissime), often enough (not once only).
non haec sine numine dlvom eveniunt (Aen. ii. 777), these things do not
occur without the will of the gods.
haec non nimis exquiro (Att. vii. 18. 3), not very much, i.e. very little.
NOTE. Compare n5n nullus, n5n nemo, etc., in a above.
1 That is, they do not stand first in their clause.
2 For a list of Negative Particles, see 217. e.
204 SYNTAX : PARTICLES [ 327-329
327. A general negation is not destroyed
1. By a following ne . . . quidem, not even, or non modo, not only :
numquam tu non modo otium, sed ne bellurn quidem nisi nefarium concuplstl
(Cat. i. 25), not only have you never desired repose, but you have never
desired any war except one which was infamous.
2. By succeeding negatives each introducing a separate subordi-
nate member :
eaque nesciebant nee ubi nee qualia essent (Tusc. iii. 4), they knew not where
or of what kind these things were.
3. By neque introducing a coordinate member :
nequed satis mirari neque conicere (Ter. Euu. 547), I cannot wonder enough
nor conjecture.
328. The negative is frequently joined with a conjunction or
with an indefinite pronoun or adverb. Hence the forms of nega-
tion in Latin differ from those in English in many expressions :
null! (neutri) credo (not non credo ulli), I do not believe either (I believe
neither),
sine ullo perlculo (less commonly cum nullo), with no danger (without any
danger).
nihil umquam audlvl iucundius, / never heard anything more amusing.
Cf. nego haec esse vera (not dico non esse), / say this is not true (I deny, etc.).
a. In the second of two connected ideas, and not is regularly ex-
pressed by neque (nee), not by et non :
hostes terga verterunt, neque prius fugere destiterunt (B. G. i. 53), the enemy
turned and fled, and did not stop fleeing until, etc.
NOTE. Similarly nee quisquam is regularly used for et nemo; neque ullus for et
nullus; nee umquam for et numquam ; neve (neu), for et ne.
329. The particle immo, nay, is used to contradict some part of
a preceding statement or question, or its form ; in the latter case,
the same statement is often repeated in a stronger form, so that
immo becomes nearly equivalent to yes (nay but, nay rather} :
causa igitur non bona est? immo optima (Att. ix. 7. 4), is the cause then not
a good one ? on the contrary, the best.
a. Minus, less (especially with si, if, quo, in order that), and minime,
least, often have a negative force :
si minus possunt, if they cannot. [For quo minus, see 558. &.]
audacissimus ego ex omnibus ? minime (Rose. Am. 2), am / the boldest oj
them all? by no means (not at all).
330-332] FORMS OF INTERROGATION 205
QUESTIONS
Forms of Interrogation
330. Questions are either Direct or Indirect.
1. A Direct Question gives the exact words of the speaker :
quid est ? what is it? ubi sum ? where am If
2. An Indirect Question gives the substance of the question, adapted
to the form of the sentence in which it is quoted. It depends on a verb
or other expression of asking, doubting, knowing, or the like :
rogavit quid esset, he asked what it was. [Direct : quid est, what is it ?]
nescio ubi sim, I know not where I am. [Direct : ubi sum, where am I?~\
331. Questions in Latin are introduced by special interrogative
words, and are not distinguished by the order of words, as in
English. 1
NOTE. The form of Indirect Questions (in English introduced hy whether, or by
an interrogative pronoun or adverb) is in Latin the same as that of Direct ; the differ-
ence being only in the verb, which in indirect questions is regularly in the Subjunc-
tive (574).
332. A question of simple fact, requiring the answer yes or no,
is formed by adding the enclitic -ne to the emphatic word :
tune id veritus es (Q. Fr. i. 3. 1), did YOU fear that ?
hicine vir usquam nisi in patria morietur (Mil. 104), shall THIS man die any-
where but in his native land ?
is tibi mortemne videtur aut dolorem timere (Tusc. v. 88), does he seem to
you to fear death or pain ?
a. The interrogative particle -ne is sometimes omitted :
patere tua consilia non sentis (Cat. i. 1), do you not see that your schemes are
manifest ? (you do not see, eh ?)
NOTE. In such cases, as no sign of interrogation appears, it is often doubtful
whether the sentence is a question or an ironical statement.
b. When the enclitic -ne is added to a negative word, as in nonne,
an affirmative answer is expected. The particle num suggests a nega-
tive answer :
nonne animadvertis (N. D. iii. 89), do you not observe?
num dubium est (Rose. Am. 107), there is no doubt, is there?
NOTE. In Indirect Questions num commonly loses its peculiar force and means
simply whether.
1 For a list of Interrogative Particles, see 217. d.
206 SYNTAX : QUESTIONS [ 332-335
c. The particle -ne often when added to the verb, less commonly
when added to some other word, has the force of nonne :
meministine me in senatu dlcere (Cat. i. 7), don't you remember my saying
in the Senate?
rectene interpreter sententiam tuam ('fuse. iii. 37), do I not rightly interpret
your meaning?
NOTE 1. This was evidently the original meaning of -ne; but in most cases the
negative force was lost and -ne was used merely to express a question. So the English
interrogative no ? shades off into eh ?
NOTE 2. The enclitic -ne is sometimes added to other interrogative words : as,
utrumne, whether? anne, or; quantane (Hor. S. ii. 3. 317), how big? quone mal5 (id. ii. 3.
295), by what curse f
333. A question concerning some special circumstance is formed
by prefixing to the sentence an interrogative pronoun or adverb
as in English ( 152):-
quid exspectas (Cat. ii. 18), what are you looking forward to?
quo igitur haec spectant (Fam. vi. 6. 11), whither then is all this tending?
Icare, ubi es (Ov. M. viii. 232), Icarus, where are you?
quod vectlgal vobls tutum fuit ? quern socium defendistis ? cui praesidio
classibus vestrls fuistis ? (Manil. 32), what revenue has been safe for you ?
what ally have you defended ? .whom have you guarded with your fleets ?
NOTE. A question of this form becomes an exclamation by changing the tone of
the voice : as,
qualis vir erat ! what a man he was !
quot calamitates pass! sumus! how many misfortunes we have suffered!
quo studio consentiuni (Cat. iv. 15), with what zeal they unite!
a. The particles -nam (enclitic) and tandem may be added to inter-
rogative pronouns and adverbs for the sake of emphasis :
quisnam est, pray who is it? [quis tandem est? would be stronger.]
ubinam gentium sumus (Cat. i. 9), where in the world are we?
in qua tandem urbe hoc disputant (Mil. 7), in what city, pray, do they main-
tain this ?
NOTE Tandem is sometimes added to verbs:
ain tandem (Fam. ix. 21), you don't say so! (say you so, pray?)
itane tandem uxorem duxit Antipho (Ter. Ph. 231), so then, eh? Antipho's got
married.
Double Questions
334. A Double or Alternative Question is an inquiry as to
which of two or more supposed cases is the true one.
335. In Double or Alternative Questions, utrum or -ne, whether,
stands in the first member ; an, anne, or, annon, necne, or not, in the
second ; and usually an in the third, if there be one :
335] DOUBLE QUESTIONS 207
utrum nescis, an pr5 nihil5 id putas (Fam. x. 26), is it that you don't know,
or do you think nothing of it?
vosne L. Domitium an vos Domitius deseruit (B. C. ii. 32), did you desert
Lucius Domitius, or did Domitius desert you ?
quaero servosne an liberos (Rose. Am. 74), 1 ask whether slaves or free.
utrum hostem an vos an fortunam utrlusque populi Ignoratis (Liv. xxi. 10),
is it the enemy, or yourselves, or the fortune of the two peoples, that you
do not know ?
NOTE. Anne for an is rare. Necne is rare in direct questions, but in indirect ques-
tions it is commoner than ann5n. In poetry -ne . . . -ne sometimes occurs.
a. The interrogative particle is often omitted in the first mem-
ber ; in which case an or -ne (anne, necne) may stand in the second:
Gabinio dicam anne Pompeio an utrlque (Manil. 57), shall I say to Gabinius,
or to Pompey, or to both ?
sunt haec tua verba necne (Tusc. iii. 41), are these your words or not?
quaeslvi a Catillna in conventu apud M. Laecam fuisset necne (Cat. ii. 13),
I asked Catiline whether he had been at the meeting at Marcus Lceca's
or not.
b. Sometimes the first member is omitted or implied, and an (anne)
alone asks the question, usually with indignation or surprise :
an tu miseros putas illos (Tusc. i. 13), what ! do you think those men wretched ?
an iste umquarn de se bonam spem habuisset, nisi de vobis malam oplnionem
animo imbibisset (Verr. i. 42), would he ever have had good hopes about
himself unless he had conceived an evil opinion of you ?
c. Sometimes the second member is omitted or implied, and utrum
may ask a question to which there is no alternative :
utrum est in clarissimls civibus is, quern . . . (Flacc. 45), is he among the
noblest citizens, whom, etc.?
(I. The following table exhibits the various forms of alternative
questions :
utrum ... an ... an
utrum . . . annon (necne, see 335. N.)
... an (anne)
-ne ... an
. . . -ne, necne
-ne . . . necne
-ne . . . -ne
NOTE. From double (alternative) questions must be distinguished those which are
in themselves single, but of which some detail is alternative. These have the common
disjunctive particles aut or vel (-ve). Thus, quaero nuin iniustc aut improbe fecerit
(Off. iii. 54), / ask whether he acted unjustly or even dishonestly. Here there is no
double question. The only inquiry is whether the man did either of the two things
supposed, not which of the two he did.
208 SYNTAX: QUESTIONS [336,337
Question and Answer
336. There is no one Latin word in common use meaning sim-
ply yes or no. In answering a question affirmatively, the verb or
some other emphatic word is generally repeated ; in answering
negatively, the verb, etc., with non or a similar negative :
valetne, is he well? valet, yes (he is well).
eratne tecuui, was he with you? non erat, no (he was not).
num quidnam novl ? there is nothing new, is there ? nihil sane, oh ! nothing.
a. An intensive or negative particle, a phrase, or a clause is some-
times used to answer a direct question :
1. For YES :
vero, in truth, true, no doubt, yes. ita vero, certainly (so in truth), etc.
etiam, even so, yes, etc. sane quidem, yes, no doubt, etc.
ita, so, true, etc. ita est, it is so, true, etc.
sane, surely, no doubt, doubtless, etc.
certe, certainly, unquestionably, etc.
factum, true, it's a fact, you're right, etc. (lit., it was done).
2. For NO :
non, not so. nulls modo, by no means.
minims, not at all (lit., in the smallest degree, cf. 329. a).
minime vero, no, not by any means; oh! no, etc.
non quidem, why, no; certainly not, etc. *
non hercle vero, why, gracious, no ! (certainly not, by Hercules !)
Examples are :
quidnam? an laudationes ? ita, why, what? is it eulogies? just so.
aut etiam aut non respondere (Acad. ii. 104), to answer (categorically) yes or no.
estne ut fertur forma? sane (Ter. Eun. 361), is she as handsome as they
say she is ? (is her beauty as it is said ?) oh ! yes.
miser ergo Archelaus ? certe si iniustus (Tusc. v. 35), was Archelaus wretched
then ? certainly, if he was unjust.
an haec contemnitis ? minime (De Or. ii. 295), do you despise these things ? not
at all.
volucribusne et ferls? minime vero (Tusc. i. 104), to the birds and beasts?
why, of course not.
ex tul anim! sententia tu uxorem habes ? n5n hercle, ex mel animl sententia
(De Or. ii. 260), Lord! no, etc.
337. In answering a double question, one member of the alterna-
tive, or some part of it, must be repeated :
vldistl an de audits nuntias? ego met vld! (Plant. Merc. 902), did you see
it or are you repeating something you have heard ? I saw it myself.
338] CONSTRUCTION OF CASES 209
CONSTRUCTION OF CASES
338. The Cases of nouns express their relations to other words in the sentence.
The most primitive way of expressing such relations was by mere juxtaposition of unin-
flected forms. From this arose in time composition, i.e. the growing together of stems,
by means of which a complex expression arises with its parts mutually dependent.
Thus such a complex as armi-gero- came to mean arm-bearing ; fidi-cen-, playing on the
lyre. Later, Cases were formed by means of suffixes expressing more definitely such
relations, and Syntax began. But the primitive method of composition still continues
to hold an important place even in the most highly developed languages.
Originally the Indo-European family of languages, to which Latin belongs, had at
least seven case-forms, besides the Vocative. But in Latin the Locative and the Instru-
mental were lost 1 except in a few words (where they remained without being recog-
nized as cases), and their functions were divided among the other cases.
The Nominative, Accusative, and Vocative express the simplest and perhaps the
earliest case-relations. The Nominative is the case of the Subject, and generally ends
in -s. The Vocative, usually without a termination, or like the Nominative ( 38. a),
perhaps never had a suffix of its own. 2 The Accusative, most frequently formed by the
suffix -m, originally connected the noun loosely with the verb-idea, not necessarily
expressed by a verb proper, but as well by a noun or an adjective (see 386).
The Genitive appears to have expressed a great variety of relations and to have
had no single primitive meaning ; and the same may be true of the Dative.
The other cases perhaps at first expressed relations of place or direction (TO, FROM,
AT, WITH), though this is not clear in all instances. The sarlier meanings, however,
have become confused with each other, and in many instances the cases are no longer
distinguishable in meaning or in form. Thus the Locative was for the most part lost
from its confusion with the Dative and Ablative ; and its function was often performed
by the Ablative, which is freely used to express the place where (421). To indicate
the case-relations especially those of place more precisely, Prepositions (originally
adverbs) gradually came into use. The case-eudiugs, thus losing something of their
significance, were less distinctly pronounced as time went on (see 36, phonetic decay),
and prepositions have finally superseded them in the modern languages derived from
Latin. But in Latin a large and various body of relations was still expressed by case-
forms. It is to be noticed that in their literal use cases tended to adopt the preposition,
and in their figurative uses to retain the old construction. (See Ablative of Separation,
402-404 ; Ablative of Place and Time, 421 ff .)
The word casus, case, is a translation of the Greek TTTWO-IS, a falling away (from the
erect position). The term TTTWCTIS was originally applied to the Oblique Cases ( 35. g),
to mark them as variations from the Nominative which was called dpffifi, erect (casus
rectus). The later name Nominative (casus nomindtivus) is from nomind, and means
the naming case. The other case-names (except Ablative) are of Greek origin. The
name Genitive (casus genetivus) is a translation of yeviK^ [JFTUHTII], from ytvos (class),
and refers to the class to which a thing belongs. Dative (casus dativus, from d5) is
translated from SOTIK^, and means the case of giving. Accusative (accvsatlvus, from
accusS) is a mistranslation of al-riariK-q (the case of causing), from atria, cause, and
meant to the Romans the case of accusing. The name Vocative (vocdtivus, from voco)
is translated from K\TITIIC/I (the case of calling). The name Ablative (ablatlvus, from
ablatus, aufero) means taking from. This case the Greek had lost.
1 Some of the endings, however, which in Latin are assigned to the dative and
ablative are doubtless of locative or instrumental origin (see p. 34, footnote).
a The e- vocative of the second declension is a form of the stem ( 45. c).
210 SYNTAX: CONSTRUCTION OF CASES [339-341
NOMINATIVE CASE
339. The Subject of a finite verb is in the Nominative :
Caesar Rhenum transire decreverat (B. G. iv. 17), Ccesar had determined to
cross the Rhine.
For the omission of a pronominal subject, see 295. a.
a. The nominative may be used in exclamations :
en dextra fidesque (Aen. iv. 597), lo, the faith and plighted word I
ecce tuae litterae de Varrone (Att. xiii. 16), lo and behold, your letters about
Varro !
NOTE. But the accusative is more common ( 397. d).
VOCATIVE CASE
340. The Vocative is the case of direct address :
Tiberine pater, te, sancte, precor {Liv. ii. 10), father Tiber, thee, holy one,
I pray.
res omnis mihi tecura erit, Hortensi (Verr. i. 33), my whole attention will be
devoted to you, Rortensius.
a. A noun in the nominative in apposition with the subject of
the imperative mood is sometimes used instead of the vocative :
audl tu, populus Albanus (Liv. i. 24), hear, thou people of Alba.
6. The vocative of an adjective is sometimes used in poetry instead
of the nominative, where the verb is in the second person :
qu5 moriture ruis (Aen. x. 811), whither art thou rushing to thy doom?
censorem trabeate salutas (Pers. iii. 29), robed you salute the censor.
c. The vocative macte is used as a predicate in the phrase macte
esto (virtute), success attend your (valor) :
iuberem te macte virtute esse (Liv. ii. 12), I should bid you go on and prosper
in your valor.
macte nova virtute puer (Aen. ix. 641), success attend your valor, boy!
NOTE. As the original quantity of the final e in macte is not determinable, it may
be that the word was an adverb, as in bene est and the like.
GENITIVE CASE
341. The Genitive is regularly used to express the relation of
one noun to another. Hence it is sometimes called the adjective
case, to distinguish it from the Dative and the Ablative, which
may be called adverbial cases.
341-343] POSSESSIVE GENITIVE 211
The uses of the Genitive may be classified as follows :
1. Of Possession ( 343). ^
2. Of Material ( 344). s-
3. Of Quality ( 345). ^
4. Of the Whole, after words designating a Part
(Partitive, 346).
5. With Nouns of Action and Feeling ( 348).
II. Genitive with Adjectives: f J" A ^ r **?*? A fJectives (or Verbals) ( 349).
[ 2. Of Specification (later use) ( 349. d).
III. Genitive with Verbs: ( J j Memory, Feeling etc. ( 350, 351 354)
i . \'i .Ax'ciisiiii^, ore. ^v-vlmr^t* OF i ciiiilty) (^ oo^
I. Genitive with Nouns:
GENITIVE WITH NOUNS
342. A noun used to limit or define another, and not meaning
the same person or thing, is put in the Genitive.
This relation is most frequently expressed in English by the prepo-
sition of, sometimes by the English genitive (or possessive) case :
librl Ciceronis, the books of Cicero, or Cicero's books.
inimlci Caesaris, Caesar's enemies, or the enemies of Caesar.
talentum auri, a talent of gold.
vir summae virtutis, a man of the greatest courage.
But observe the following equivalents :
vacatiO laboris, a respite FROM toil.
pet!ti5 cSnsulatiis, candidacy FOR the consulship.
regnum civitatis, royal power OVER the state.
Possessive Genitive
343. The Possessive Genitive denotes the person or thing to
which an object, quality, feeling, or action belongs:
Alexandrl canis, Alexander's dog.
potentia Pompel (Sail. Cat. 19), Pompey's power.
Ariovisti mors (B. G. v. 29), the death of Ariovistus.
perditorum temeritas (Mil. 22), the recklessness of desperate men.
NOTE 1. The Possessive Genitive may denote (1) the actual owner (as in Alex-
ander's dog) or author (as in Cicero's writings), or (2) the person or thing that possesses
some feeling or quality or does some act (as in Cicero's eloquence, the strength of the
bridge, Catiline's evil deeds). In the latter use it is sometimes called the Subjective
Genitive ; but this term properly includes the possessive genitive and several other
genitive constructions (nearly all, in fact, except the Objective Genitive, 347).
NOTE 2. The noun limited is understood in a few expressions :
ad Castoris [aedes] (Quinct. 17), at the [temple] of Castor. [Cf. St. Paul's.]
Flaccus ClaudI, Flaccus [slave] of Claudius.
Hectoris Andromache (Aen. iii. 319), Hector's [wife] Andromache.
212 SYNTAX: CONSTRUCTION OF CASES [343
a. For the genitive of possession a possessive or derivative adjec-
tive is often used, regularly for the possessive genitive of the per-
sonal pronouns ( 302. a) :
liber metis, my book. [Not liber mei.]
aliena perlcula, other men's dangers. [But also aliorum.]
Sullana tempora, the times of Sulla. [Oftener Sullae.]
b. The possessive genitive often stands in the predicate, connected
with its noun by a verb (Predicate Genitive) :
haec domus est patris mei, this house is my father's.
iam me Pompei totum ease scis (Fain. ii. 13), you know I am now all for Pom-
pey (all Pompey's).
sumina laus et tua et Bruti est (Fam. xii. 4. 2), the highest praise is due both
to you and to Brutus (is both yours and Brutus's).
compendi facere, to save (make of saving).
lucri facere, to get the benefit of (make of profit).
NOTE. These genitives bear the same relation to the examples in 343 that a
predicate noun bears to an appositive ( 282, 283).
c. An infinitive or a clause, when used as a noun, is often limited
by a genitive in the predicate :
neque sui iudici [erat] discernere (B. C. i. 35), nor was it for his judgment to
decide (nor did it belong to his judgment).
cuiusvis hominis est errare (Phil. xii. 5), it is any man's [liability] to err.
negavit moris esse Graecorum, ut in convivio virorum accumberent mulieres
(Verr. ii. 1. 66), he said it was not the custom of the Greeks for women to
appear as guests (recline) at the banquets of men.
sed timidi est optare necein (Ov. M. iv. 115), but "'tis the coivard's part to
wish for death.
stulti erat sperare, suadere impudentis (Phil. ii. 23), it was folly (the part of
a fool) to hope, effrontery to urge.
sapientis est pauca loqul, it is wise (the part of a wise man) to say little.
[Not sapiens (neater) est, etc.]
NOTE 1. This construction is regular with adjectives of the third declension
instead of the neuter nominative (see the last two examples).
NOTE 2. A derivative or possessive adjective may be used for the genitive in this
construction, and must be used for the genitive of a personal pronoun:
mentiri non est meum [not mei], it is not for me to lie.
humanum [for hominis] est errare, it is man's nature to err (to err is human).
d. A limiting genitive is sometimes used instead of a noun in appo-
sition (Appositional Genitive) ( 282) :
nomen insaniae (for nomen insania), the word madness.
oppidum Antiochiae (for oppidum Antiochia, the regular form), the city of
Antioch.
344-346] PARTITIVE GENITIVE 213
Genitive of Material
344. The Genitive may denote the Substance or Material of
which a thing consists (cf. 403):
talentum auri, a talent of gold, flumina lactis, rivers of milk.
Genitive of Quality
345. The Genitive is used to denote Quality, but only when
the quality is modified by an adjective :
vir summae virtutis, a man of the highest courage. [But not vir virtutis.]
magnae est deliberationis, it is an affair of great deliberation.
magni formica laboris (Hor. S. i. 1. 33), the ant [a creature] of great toil.
ille auteiii sui iudicl (Nep. Alt. 9), but he [a man] of independent (his own)
judgment.
NOTE. Compare Ablative of Quality ( 415) . In expressions of quality, the geni-
tive or the ablative may often be used indifferently : as, praestanti prudentia vir, a
man of surpassing wisdom ; maximi anirm homo, a man of the greatest courage. In
classic prose, however, the genitive of quality is much less common than the abla-
tive; it is practically confined to expressions of measure or number, to a phrase with
eius, and to nouns modified by magnus, maximus, summus, or tantus. In general the
Genitive is used rather of essential, the Ablative of special or incidental characteristics.
a. The genitive of quality is found in the adjective phrases eius
modi, cuius modi (equivalent to tails, such ; qualis, of what sort):
eius modi sunt tempestates consecutae, uti (B. G. iii. 29), such storms fol-
lowed, that, etc.
b. The genitive of quality, with numerals, is used to define meas-
ures of length, depth, etc. (Genitive of Measure):
fossa trium pedum, a trench of three feet [in depth],
miirus sedecim pedum, a wall of sixteen feet [high].
For the Genitive of Quality used to express indefinite value, see 417.
Partitive Genitive
346. Words denoting a Part are followed by the Genitive of
the Whole to which the part belongs.
. Partitive words, followed by the genitive, are
1. Nouns or Pronouns (cf. also 3 below) :
pars mllitum, part of the soldiers, quis nostrum, which of us?
nihil erat reliquT, there was nothing left.
uemo edrum (B. G. vii. 66), not a man of them.
magnam partem eorum interf ecerunt (id. ii. 23), they killed a largepart of them.
214 SYNTAX : CONSTRUCTION OF CASES [ 346
2. Numerals, Comparatives, Superlatives, and Pronominal words like
alius, alter, nullus, etc.:
unus tribundrum, one of the tribunes (see c below).
sapientum octavus (Hor. S. ii. 3. 296), the eighth of the wise men.
mllia passuum sescenta (B. G. iv. 3), six hundred miles (thousands of paces).
maior fratrum, the elder of the brothers.
animalium fortiora, the stronger [of] animals.
Sueborum gens est longe maxima et bellicosissima Germanorum omnium
(B. G. iv. 1), the tribe of the Suevi is far the largest and most warlike of
all the Germans.
alter consulum, one of the [two] consuls.
nulla earum (E.G. iv. 28), not one of them (the ships).
3. Neuter Adjectives and Pronouns, used as nouns :
tantum spati, so much [of] space.
aliquid nummorum, a few pence (something of coins).
id loci (or locorum), that spot of ground; id temporis, at that time ( 397. a).
plana urbis, the level parts of the town.
quid novi, what news? (what of new?)
paulum frumenti (B. C. i. 78), a little grain.
plus doldris (B. G. i. 20), more grief.
suialiquidtimoris (B. C. ii. 29), some fear of his own (something of his own fear).
NOTE 1. In classic prose neuter adjectives (not pronominal) seldom take a parti-
tive genitive, except multum, tantum, quantum, and similar words.
NOTE 2. The genitive of adjectives of the third declension is rarely used parti-
tively : nihil novi (genitive) , nothing neio ; but, nihil memorabile (nominative) , noth-
ing worth mention (not nihil memorabilia).
4. Adverbs, especially those of Quantity and of Place :
parum otl, not much ease (too little of ease).
satis pecuniae, money enough (enough of money).
plurimum totius Galliae equitatu valet (B. G. v. 3), is strongest of all Gaul
in cavalry.
ubinam gentium sumus (Cat. i. 9), where in the world are we (where of
nations) ?
ubicumque terrarum et gentium (Verr. v. 143), wherever in the whole world.
res erat eo iam loci ut (Sest. 68), the business had now reached such a point
that, etc.
eo miseriarum (lug. 14. 3), to that [pitch] of misery.
inde loci, next in order (thence of place). [Poetical.]
b. The poets* and later writers often use the partitive genitive
after adjectives, instead of a noun in its proper case :
sequimur te, sancte deorum (Aen. iv. 576), we follow thee, holy deity. [For
sancte deus ( 49. g. N.)]
nigrae lanarum (Plin. H. N. viii. 193), black wools. [For nigrae lanae.]
expeditl militum (Liv. xxx. 9), light-armed soldiers. [For expediti milites.]
hominum cunctOs (Ov. M. iv. 631), all men. [For cunctos homines ; cf. e.]
346-348] OBJECTIVE GENITIVE 215
c. Cardinal numerals (except mflia) regularly take the Ablative
with 6 (ex) or d6 instead of the Partitive Genitive. So also quidam,
a certain one, commonly, and other words occasionally :
unus ex tribums, one of the tribunes. [But also, unus tribunorum (cf. a. 2).]
minumus ex illis (lug. 11), the youngest of them.
medius ex tribus (ib.), the middle one of the three.
quidam ex militibus, certain of the soldiers.
unus de multls (Fin. ii. 66), one of the many.
paucl de nostris cadunt (B. G. i. 15), a few of our men fall.
hominem de comitibus meis, a man of my companions.
d. Uterque, both (properly each}, and quisque, each, with Nouns
are regularly used as adjectives in agreement, but with Pronouns
take a partitive genitive :
uterque consul, both the consuls; but, uterque nostrum, both of us.
unus quisque vestrum, each one of you.
utraque castra, both camps.
e. Numbers and words of quantity including the whole of any
thing take a case in agreement, and not the partitive genitive. So
also words denoting a part when only that part is thought of :
nos crane's, all of us (we all). [Not omnes nostrum.]
quot sunt hostes, how many of the enemy are there ?
cav6 inimlcOs, qui multl sunt, beware of your enemies, who are many.
multi milites, many of the soldiers.
nemo Romanus, not one Roman.
Objective Genitive
347. The Objective Genitive is used with Nouns, Adjectives,
and Verbs.
348. Nouns of action, agency, and feeling govern the Genitive
of the Object :
caritas tul, affection for you. deslderium oti, longing for rest.
vacatiO muneris, relief from duty. gratia benefici, gratitude for kindness.
fuga malorum, refuge from disaster. precati5 deorum, prayer to the gods.
contentiO honorum, struggle for office, opinio virtutis, reputation for valor.
NOTE. This usage is an extension of the idea of belonging to (Possessive Genitive) .
Thus in the phrase odium Caesaris, hate of Csesar, the hate in a passive sense belongs
to Caesar, as odium, though in its active sense he is the object of it, as hate (cf. a).
The distinction between the Possessive (subjective) and the Objective Genitive is very
unstable and is often lost sight of. It is illustrated by the following example : the
phrase amor patris, love of a father, may mean love felt by a father, a father's love
(subjective genitive), or love towards a father (objective genitive).
216 SYNTAX : CONSTRUCTION OP CASES [ 348, 349
a. The objective genitive is sometimes replaced by a possessive
pronoun or other derivative adjective:
mea invidia, my unpopularity (the dislike of which I am the object). [Cf.
odium mei (Har. Resp. 5), hatred of me.~\
laudator metis (Att. i. 16. 5), my eulogist (one who praises me). [Cf. nostri
laudator (id. i. 14. 6).]
Clddiamim crlmen (Mil. 72), the murder of Clodius (the Clodian charge). [As
we say, the Nathan murder.}
metus hostllis (lug. 41), fear of the enemy (hostile fear),
ea quae faciebat, tua se fiducia facere dicebat (Verr. v. 176), what lie was
doing, he said he did relying on you (with your reliance),
neque neglegentia tua, neque id odio fecit tuo (Ter. Ph. 1016), he did this
neither from neglect nor from hatred of you.
b. Rarely the objective genitive is used with a noun already lim-
ited by another genitive :
animi multaram rerum percursio (Tusc. iv. 31), the mind's traversing of many
things.
c. A noun with a preposition is often used instead of the objec-
tive genitive :
odium in Antonium (Fam. x. 5. 3), hate of Antony.
merita erga me (id. i. 1. 1), services to me.
meam in te pietatem (id. i. 9. 1), my devotion to you.
impetus in urbem (Phil. xii. 29), an attack on the city.
excessus e vita (Fin. iii. 60), departure from life. [Also, excessus vitae,
Tusc. i. 27.]
adoptio in Domitium (Tac. Ann. xii. 25), the adoption of Domitius. [A late
and bold extension of this construction.]
NOTB. So also in late writers the dative of reference (cf. 366. 6): as, longo
bello materia (Tac. H. i. 89), resources for a long war.
GENITIVE WITH ADJECTIVES
349. Adjectives requiring an object of reference govern the
Objective Genitive.
a. Adjectives denoting desire, knowledge, memory, fulness, power,
sharing, guilt, and their opposites govern the genitive :
avidl laudis (Manil. 7), greedy of praise.
fastldiosus litterarum, disdaining letters.
iuris perltus, skilled in law. [So also the ablative, iiire, cf. 418.]
memorem vestri, oblitum sui (Cat. iv. 19), mindful of you, forgetful of himself.
ratidnis et oratidnis expertes (Off. i. 50), devoid of sense and speech.
nostrae consuetudinis imperitl (E.G. iv. 22), unacquainted with our customs.
349] GENITIVE WITH ADJECTIVES 217
plenus fidel, full of good faith.
omnis spel egCnain (Tac. Ann. i. 53), destitute of all hope.
tempestatum potentem (Aen. i. 80), having sway over the storms.
impotens irae (Liv. xxix. 9. 9), ungovernable in anger.
coniurationis participes (Cat. iii. 14), sharing in the conspiracy.
affinis rel capitalis (Verr. ii. 2. 94), involved in a capital crime.
insons culpae (Liv. xxii. 49), innocent of guilt.
b. Participles in -ns govern the genitive when they are used as
adjectives, i.e. when they denote a constant disposition and not a
particular act :
s! quern tul amantiorem cognovistl (Q. Fr. i. 1. 15), ;/ you have become
acquainted with any one more fond of you.
multitude Insolens belli (B. C. ii. 36), a crowd unused to war.
erat lugurtba appetens gloriae mllitaris (lug. 7), Jugurtha was eager for mili-
tary glory.
NOTE 1. Participles in -ns, when used as participles, take the case regularly gov-
erned by the verb to which they belong: as, Sp. Maelium regnum appetentem inter-
emit (Cat. M. 56), he put to death Spurius Mxlius, who was aspiring to royal power.
NOTE 2. Occasionally participial forms in -ns are treated as participles (see note 1)
even when they express a disposition or character: as, virtus quam alii ipsam tem-
perantiam dicuut esse, alii obtemperautem temperantiae praeceptis et earn subsequen-
tem (Tusc. iv. 30), observant of the teachings of temperance and obedient to her.
c. Verbals in -ax ( 251) govern the genitive in poetry and later
Latin:
iustum et tenacem prdpositi viruin (Hor. Od. iii. 3), a man just and steadfast
to his purpose.
circus capaxpopull (Ov. A. A. i. 136), a circus big enough to hold the people.
cibi vfnique capacissimus (Liv. ix. 16. 13), a very great eater and drinker
(very able to contain food and wine).
d. The poets and later writers use the genitive with almost any
adjective, to denote that ivith reference to which the quality exists
(Genitive of Specification) :
callidus rel mllitaris (Tac. H. ii. 32), skilled in soldiership.
pauper aquae (Hor. Od. iii. 30. 11), scant of water.
notus animl paterni (id. ii. 2. 6), famed for a paternal spirit.
fessi rerum (Aen. i. 178), weary of toil.
integer vftae scelerisque purus ( Hor. Od. i. 22. 1), upright in life, andunstained
by guilt.
NOTE. The Genitive of Specification is only an extension of the construction with
adjectives requiring an object of reference ( 349). Thus callidus denotes knowledge ;
pauper, want ; purus, innocence ; and so these words in a manner belong to the classes
under a.
For the Ablative of Specification, the prose construction, see 418. For Adjectives
of likeness etc. with the Genitive, apparently Objective, see 385. c. For Adjectives
with animi (locative in origin), see 368.
218 SYNTAX : CONSTRUCTION OF CASES [ 350
GENITIVE WITH VERBS
Verbs of Remembering and Forgetting
350. Verbs of remembering and forgetting take either the Accu-
sative or the Genitive of the object :
a. Memini takes the Accusative when it has the literal sense of
retaining in the mind what one has seen, heard, or learned. Hence
the accusative is used of persons whom one remembers as acquaint-
ances, or of things which one has experienced.
So obliviscor in the opposite sense, to forget literally, to lose all
memory of a thing (very rarely, of a person).
Cinnam raeminl (Phil. v. 17), I remember Cinna.
utinam avum tuum meminisses (id. i. 34), oh! that you could remember your
grandfather! (but he died before you were born).
Postumium, cuius statuam in Isthmo meminisse te dicis (Att. xiii. 32), Postu-
mius, whose statue you say you remember (to have seen) on the Isthmus.
omnia meminit Siron Epicuri dogmata (Acad. ii. 106), Siron remembers all
the doctrines of Epicurus.
multa ab alils audita meminerunt (De Or. ii. 355), they remember many things
that they have heard from others.
totam causam oblitus est (Brut. 217), he forgot the whole case.
hinc iam obllviscere Graios (Aen. ii. 148), from henceforth forget the Greeks
(i.e. not merely disregard them, but banish them from your mind, as if
you had never known them).
6. Memini takes the Genitive when it means to be mindful or
regardful of a person or thing, to think of somebody or something
(often with special interest or warmth of feeling).
So obliviscor in the opposite sense, to disregard, or dismiss from
the mind, and the adjective oblitus, careless or regardless.
ipse sul meminerat (Verr. ii. 136), he was mindful of himself (of his own
interests),
faciam ut hums loci dieique melque semper memineris (Ter. Eun. 801), I will
make you remember this place and this day and me as long as you live.
nee me meminisse pigebit Elissae, dum memor ipse me! (Aen. iv. 335), nor
shall I feel regret at the thought of Elissa, so long as I remember myself.
meminerint verecundiae (Off. i. 122), let them cherish modesty.
humanae infirmitatis meminl (Liv. xxx. 31. 6), I remember human weakness.
oblivlsci temporum meorum, meminisse actionum (Fain. i. 9. 8), to disregard
my own interests, to be mindful of the matters at issue.
nee tamen Epicuri licet oblivlsci (Fin. v. 3), and yet I must not forget Epicurus.
obllviscere caedis atque incendiorum (Cat. i. 6), turn your mind from slaughter
and conflagrations (dismiss them from your thoughts).
350, 351] GENITIVE WITH VERBS 219
NOTE 1. With both memini and oblivlscor the personal and reflexive pronouns are
regularly in the Genitive ; neuter pronouns and adjectives used substantively are regu-
larly in the Accusative ; abstract nouns are often in the Genitive. These uses come
in each instance from the natural meaning of the verbs (as defined above).
NOTE 2. Memini in the sense of mention takes the Genitive : as, eundem Achil-
lam cuius supra meminimus (B. C. iii. 108), that same Achillas whom I mentioned
above.
c. Remimscor is rare. It takes the Accusative in the literal sense
of call to mind, recollect ; the Genitive in the more figurative sense
of be mindful of:
dulcls moriens remimscitur Arg5s (Aen. x. 782), as he dies he calls to mind
his beloved Argos.
reminlsceretur et veteris incommodi popull Rornanl et prlstinae virtutis Helve-
tiorum (B. G. i. 13), let him remember both the former discomfiture of the
Roman people and the ancient valor of the Helvetians. [A warning,
let him bear it in mind (and beware)!]
d. Recorder, recollect, recall, regularly takes the Accusative :
recordelre consensum ilium theatri (Phil. i. 30), recall that unanimous agree-
ment of the [audience in the] theatre.
recordaminl onanis clvilis dissensiones (Cat. iii. 24), call to mind all the civil
wars.
NOTE. Recorder takes the genitive once (Pison. 12) ; it is never used with a per-
sonal object, but may be followed by d6 with the ablative of the person or thing
(cf. 351. N.):
de te recorder (Scaur. 49), / remember about you.
de illis (lacrimis) recorder (Plane. 104), / am reminded of those tears.
Verbs of Reminding
351. Verbs of reminding take with the Accusative of the per-
son a Genitive of the thing ; except in the case of a neuter pro-
noun, which is put in the accusative (cf. 390. c).
So admoneo, commoneo, commonefacio, commoneflo. But moneS with
the genitive is found in late writers only.
Catilina admonejmt alium egestatis, alium cupiditatis suae (Sail. Cat. 21),
Catiline reminded one of his poverty, another of his cupidity.
eos hoc moneo (Cat. ii. 20), I give them this warning.
quod vos lex commonet (Verr. iii. 40), that which the law reminds you of.
NOTE. All these verbs often take de with the ablative, and the accusative of nouns
as well as of pronouns is sometimes used with them:
saepius te admoneo de syngrapha Sittiana (Fam. viii. 4. 5) I remind you again and
again of Sittius's bond.
offlcium vostrum ut vos malo cogatis commonerier (Plaut. Ps. 150), that you may
by misfortune force yourselves to be reminded of your duty.
220 SYNTAX: CONSTRUCTION OF CASES [352,353
Verbs of Accusing, Condemning, and Acquitting
352. Verbs of accusing, condemning, and acquitting, take the
Genitive of the Charge or Penalty :
arguit me furti, he accuses me of theft.
peculatus damnatus (pecuniae publicae damnatus) (Flacc. 43), condemned for
embezzlement.
video non te absolutum esse improbitatis, sed illos damniltos esse caedis
(Verr. ii. 1. 72), 7 sec, not that you were acquitted of outrage, but that
they were condemned for homicide.
a. Peculiar genitives, under this construction, are
capitis, as in damnare capitis, to sentence to death.
maiestatis [laesae], treason (crime against the dignity of the state),
repetundarum [rernm], extortion (lit. of an action for reclaiming money).
voti damnatus (or reus), bound [to the payment] of one's vow, i.e. success-
ful in one's effort.
pecuniae (damnare, iudicare, see note).
dupli etc., as in dupli condemnare, condemn to pay twofold.
NOTE. The origin of these genitive constructions is pointed at by pecuniae dam-
nare (Gell. xx. 1. 38), to condemn to pay money, in a case of injury to the person;
quantae pecuniae iudicati essent (id. xx. 1.47), how much money they were adjudged topay,
in a mere suit for debt; confess! aeris ac debit! iudicati (id. xx. 1. 42), adjudged to owe
an admitted sum due. These expressions show that the genitive of the penalty comes
from the use of the genitive of value to express a sum of money due either as a debt or as
a fine. Since in early civilizations all offences could be compounded by the payment of
fines, the genitive came to be used of other punishments, not pecuniary. From this to
the genitive of the actual crime is an easy transition, inasmuch as there is always a
confusion between crime and penalty (cf . Eng. guilty of death). It is quite unnecessary
to assume an ellipsis of crimine or iudicio.
353. Other constructions for the Charge or Penalty are
1. The Ablative of Price : regularly of a definite amount of fine,
and often of indefinite penalties (cf. 416):
Frusinates tertia parte agri damnati (Liv. x. 1), the people of Frusino con-
demned [to forfeit] a third part of their land.
2. The Ablative with de, or the Accusative with' inter, in idiomatic
expressions :
de alea, for gambling ; de ambitu, for bribery.
de pecunils repetundls, of extortion (cf. 352. a).
inter slcarios (Rose. Am. 90), as an assassin (among the assassins).
de vl et maiestatis damnati (Phil. i. 21), convicted of assault and treason.
NOTE. The accusative with ad and in occurs in later writers to express the pen-
alty : as, ad mortem (Tac. Ann. xvi. 21), to death; ad (in) metalla, to the mines.
354, 355] GENITIVE WITH VERBS 221
Verbs of Feeling
354. Many verbs of feeling take the Genitive of the object
which excites the feeling.
a. Verbs of pity, as misereor and miseresco, take the genitive :
inisereminl familiae, iudices, misereminl patris, misereminl fill (Flacc. 106),
have pity on the family, etc.
miserere animi non digiia ferentis (Aen. ii. 144), pity a soul that endures
unworthy things.
miserescite regis (id. viii. 573), pity the king. [Poetical.]
NOTE. But miseror, commiseror, bewail, take the accusative: as, commuuem
condicionem miserari (Mur. 55), bewail the common lot.
b. As impersonals, miseret, paenitet, piget, pudet, taedet (or pertaesum
est), take the genitive of the cause of the feeling and the accusative
of the person affected :
quos Infamiae suae neque pudet ueque taedet (Verr. i. 35), who are neither
ashamed nor weary of their dishonor.
me miseret parietum ipsorum (Phil. ii. 69), I pity the very walls.
me civitatis m5rum piget taedetque (lug. 4), / am sick and tired of the way.-
of the state.
decemvirorum vos pertaesum est (Liv. iii. 67), you became tired of the decemvirs
c. With miseret, paenitet, etc., the cause of the feeling may be ex
pressed by an infinitive or a clause :
neque me paenitet mortalis inimicitias habere (Rab. Post. 32), nor am I sorry
to have deadly enmities.
non dedisse istunc pudet; me quia n5n accepi piget (PI. Pseud. 282), he is
ashamed not to have given; I am sorry because I have not received.
NOTE. Miseret etc. are sometimes used personally with a ueuter pronoun as sub-
ject: as, non te haec pudent (Ter. Ad. 754), do not these things shame you?
Interest and Refert
355. The impersonals interest and refert take the Genitive of
the person (rarely of the thing) affected.
The subject of the verb is a neuter pronoun or a substantive
clause :
Clodi intererat Milonem perlre (cf. Mil. 56), it was the interest of Clodius that
Milo should die.
aliquid quod illorum magis quam sua retulisse videretur (lug. Ill), something
which seemed to be more for their interest than his own.
video enim quid mea intersit, quid utriusque nostrum (Fam. vii. 23. 4), for I
see what is for my good and for the good of us both.
222 SYNTAX: CONSTRUCTION OF CASES [355,356
a. Instead of the genitive of a personal pronoun the correspond-
ing possessive is used in the ablative singular feminine after interest
or rgfert :
quid tua id refert? magnl (Ter. Ph. 723), how does that concern you? much.
[See also the last two examples above.]
veheinenter intererat vestra qul patres estis (Plin. Ep. iv. 13. 4), it would be
very much to your advantage, you who are fathers.
NOTE. This is the only construction with refert in classic prose, except in one
passage in Sallust (see example above).
6. The accusative with ad is used with interest and refert to ex-
press the thing with reference to which one is interested :
magm ad honorem nostrum interest (Fam. xvi. 1), jt is of great consequence
to our honor.
rgfert etiam ad fructus (Varr. R. R. i. 16. 6), it makes a difference as to the crop.
NOTE 1. Very rarely the person is expressed by ad and the accusative, or (with
rgfert) by the dative (probably a popular corruption) :
quid id ad me aut ad meam rem refert (PI. Pers. 513), what difference does that
make to me or to my interests ?
quid referat intra naturae finis vlventi (Hor. S. i. 1. 49), what difference does it
make to me who live within the limits of natural desire ?
non referre dedecori (Tac. Ann. xv. 05), that it makes no difference as to the
disgrace.
NOTE 2. The degree of interest is expressed by a genitive of value, an adverb,
or an adverbial accusative.
Verbs of Plenty and Want
356. Verbs of Plenty and Want sometimes govern the geni-
tive (cf. 409. a. N.) : -
convlvium vicinorum compleo (Cat. M. 46, in the mouth of Cato), I fill up the
banquet with my neighbors.
implentur veteris BacchI pinguisque ferlnae (Aen. i. 215), they fill themselves
with old wine and fat venison.
n6 quis auxil! egeat (B. G. vi. 11), lest any require aid.
quid est quod defensionis indigeat (Rose. Am. 34), what is there that needs
defence ?
quae ad cons5landum maioris ingeni et ad ferendum singularis virtutis indi-
gent (Fam. vi. 4. 2), [sorrows] which for their comforting need more abil-
ity, and for endurance unusual courage.
NOTE. Verbs of plenty and want more commonly take the ablative (see 409. a,
401), except ege5, which takes either case, and indigeo. But the genitive is by a Greek
idiom often used in poetry instead of the ablative with all words denoting separation
and want (cf. 357. 6. 3):
abstineto irarum (Hor. Od. iii. 27. 69), refrain from wrath.
operum solutls (id. iii. 17. 16), free from toils.
desine mollium querellarum (id. ii. 9. 17), have done with weak complaints.
357-359] PECULIAR GENITIVES 223
Genitive with Special Verbs
357. The Genitive is used with certain special verbs.
a. The genitive sometimes follows potior, get possession of; as
always in the phrase potiri rerum, to be master of affairs :
illlus regni potiri (Fam. i. 7. 5), to become master of that kingdom.
Cleanthes solem dominarl et rerum potiri putat (Acad. ii. 126), Cleanthes
thinks the sun holds sway and is lord of the universe.
NOTE. But potior usually takes the ablative (see 410).
b. Some other verbs rarely take the genitive
1 . By analogy with those mentioned in 354 :
neque huius sis veritus feminae prlmariae (Ter. Ph. 971), and you had no
respect for this high-born lady.
2. As akin to adjectives which take the genitive :
fastldit mei (Plaut. Aul. 245), he disdains me. [Cf. fastldiosus.]
studet tui (quoted N. D. iii. 72), he is zealous for you. [Cf. studiosus.]
3. In imitation of the Greek:
iustitiaene prius mlrer, belllne laborum (Aen. xi. 126), shall I rather admire
his justice or his toils in war?
neque ille sepositi ticeris nee longae invldit avenae (Hor. S. ii. 6. 84), nor did
he grudge his garnered peas, etc. [But cf. invidus, parcus.]
laborum decipitur (Hor. Od. ii. 13. 38), he is beguiled of his woes.
me laborum levas (PI. Hud. 247), you relieve me of my troubles.
358. The apparent Genitive animi (really Locative) is used with
a few verbs and adjectives of feeling and the like:
Antipho me excruciat animi (Ter. Ph. 187), Antipho tortures my mind (me in
my mind).
qul pendet animi (Tusc. iv. 35), who is in suspense.
me animi fallit (Lucr. i. 922), my mind deceives me.
So, by analogy, desipiebam mentis (PI. Epid. 138), I was out of my head.
aeger animi, sick at heart; confusus animi, disturbed in spirit.
sanus mentis aut animi (PI. Trin. 454), sound in mind or heart.
PECULIAR GENITIVES
359. Peculiar Genitive constructions are the following :
a. A poetical genitive occurs rarely in exclamations, in imitation
of the Greek ( Genitive of Exclamation) :
di immortales, mercimom lepidl (PI. Most. 912), good heavens! what a charm-
ing bargain !
foederis heu tacit! (Prop. iv. 7. 21), alas for the unspoken agreement!
224 SYNTAX: CONSTRUCTION OF CASES [359,360
6. The genitive is often used with the ablatives causa, gratia, for
the sake of; ergO, because of; and the indeclinable Instar, like; also
with pridie, the day before; postridie, the day after; tenus, as far as:
honoris causa, with due respect (for the sake of honor),
verbi gratia, for example.
elus legis ergo, on account of this law.
equus instar mentis (Aen. ii. 15), a horse huge as a mountain (the image of
a mountain),
laterum tenus (id. x. 210), as far as the sides.
NOTE 1. Of these the genitive with causa is a development from the possessive
genitive and resembles that innomen insaniae ( 343.d). The others are of various origin.
NOTE 2. In prose of the Republican Period pridie and postridie are thus used only
in the expressions pridie (postridie) eius diel, the day before (after) that (cf . " the eve, the
morrow of that day"). Tacitus uses the construction with other words : as, postridie
insidiarum, the day after the plot. For the accusative, see 432. a. Tenus takes also
the ablative (p. 136).
DATIVE CASE
360. The Dative is probably, like the Genitive, a grammatical case, that is, it is
a form appropriated to the expression of a variety of relations other than that of the
direct object. But it is held by some to be a Locative with the primary meaning of
to or towards, and the poetic uses (like it clamor caelo, Aen. v. 451) are regarded as
survivals of the original use.
In Latin the Dative has two classes of meanings :
1. The Dative denotes an object not as caused by the action, or directly affected by
it (like the Accusative), but as reciprocally sharing in the action or receiving it con-
sciously or actively. Thus in dedit puero librum, he gave the boy a book, or fecit mihi
iniuriam, he did me a wrong, there is an idea of the boy's receiving the book, and of my
feeling the wrong. Hence expressions denoting persons, or things with personal
attributes, are more likely to be in the dative than those denoting mere things. So
in Spanish the dative is used whenever a. person is the object of an action ; yo veo al
hombre, I see [to] the man. This difference between the Accusative and the Dative
(i.e. between the Direct and the Indirect Object) depends upon the point of view implied
in the verb or existing in the mind of the writer. Hence Latin verbs of similar meaning
(to an English mind) often differ in the case of their object (see 367. a).
2. The Dative is used to express the purpose of an action or that for which it serves
(see 382). This construction is especially used with abstract expressions, or those
implying an action.
These two classes of Datives approach each other in some cases and are occasion-
ally confounded, as in 383, 384.
The uses of the Dative are the following :
1. Indirect Object (general ( 1. With Transitives ( 362).
use): 1 2. With Intransitives ( 366-372).
l.K)f Possession (with esse) ( 373).
2^6f Agency (with Gerundive) ( 374).
2. Special or Idiomatic Uses :
3. Wf Reference (dativus commodi) ( 376-381).
4. Of Purpose or End (predicate use) ( 382).
[ 5. Of Fitness etc. (with Adjectives) ( 383, 384).
361-363] DATIVE OF INDIRECT OBJECT 225
INDIRECT OBJECT
361. The Dative is used to denote the object indirectly affected
by an action.
This is called the Indirect Object ( 274). It is usually denoted
in English by the objective with to :
cedite tempori, yield to the occasion.
provincia Ciceroni obtigit, the province fell by lot to Cicero.
inimicis lion credimus, we do not trust [to] our enemies.
INDIRECT OBJECT WITH TRANSITIVES
362. The Dative of the Indirect Object with the Accusative
of the Direct may be used with any transitive verb whose mean-
ing allows (see 274) :
do tibi librum, I give you a book.
illud tibi afflrmo (Fam. i. 7. 5), this I assure you.
commendo tibi eius omnia negotia (id. i. 3), I put all his affairs in your hands
(commit them to you),
dabis profecto misericordiae quod Iracundiae negavistl (Deiot. 40), you will
surely grant to mercy what you refused to wrath.
litteras a te mihi stator tuus reddidit (Fam. ii. 17), your messenger delivered
to me a letter from you.
a. Many verbs have both a transitive and an intransitive use, and
take either the Accusative with the Dative, or the Dative alone :
mihi id aurum credidit (cf. Plant. Aul. 15), he trusted that gold to me.
equo ne credite (Aen. ii. 48), put not your trust in the horse.
concessit senatus postulationi tuae (Mur. 47), the senate yielded to your demand.
concedere amicis quidquid velint (Lael. 38), to grant to friends all they may
wish.
363. Certain verbs implying motion vary in their construction
between the Dative of the Indirect Object and the Accusative
of the End of Motion ( 426, 427) : -
1. Some verbs implying motion take the Accusative (usually with
ad or in) instead of the Indirect Object, when the idea of motion pre-
vails :
litteras quas ad Pompeium scrips! (Att. iii. 8. 4), the letter which I have written
[and sent] to Pompey. [Cf. nOn quo haberem quod tibi scriberem (id.
iv. 4 A), not that I had anything to write to you.~\
226 SYNTAX : CONSTRUCTION OF CASES [ 363, 364
litterae extempl5 Rdmam scriptae (Liv. xli. 16), a letter was immediately written
[and sent] to Rome.
hostls in fugam dat (B. G. v. 61), he puts the enemy to flight. [Cf. ut me dem
fugae (Att. vii. 23), to take to flight.']
omnes rem ad Pompeium deferrl volunt (Fam. i. 1), all wish the matter to be
put in the hands of Pompey (referred to Pompey).
2. On the other hand, many verbs of motion usually followed by
the Accusative with ad or in, take the Dative when the idea of motion
is merged in some other idea :
mihi litteras mittere (Fam. vii. 12), to send me a letter.
earn librum tibi mlsl (id. vii. 19), I sent you that book.
nee quicquam quod non mihi Caesar detulerit (id. iv. 13), and nothing which
Ccesar did not. communicate to me.
cures ut mihi vehantur (id. viii. 4. 5), take care that they be conveyed to me.
cum alius alii subsidium ferrent (B. G. ii. 26), while one lent aid to another.
364. Certain verbs may take either the Dative of the person and
the Accusative of the thing, or (in a different sense) the Accusative
of the person and the Ablative of the thing J :
donat coronas suis, he presents wreaths to his men; or,
donat suSs coronls, he presents his men with wreaths.
vincula exuere sibi (Ov. M. vii. 772), to shake off the leash (from himself).
omnis armis exuit (B. G. v. 51), he stripped them all of their arms.
NOTE 1. Interdlco, forbid, takes either (1) the Dative of the person and the Abla-
tive of the thing, or (2) in later writers, the Dative of the person and the Accusative of
the thing :
aqua et igm alicui interdlcere, to forbid one the use of fire and water. [The regular
formula for banishment.]
interdixit histrionibus scaenam (Suet. Dom. 7), he forbade the actors [to appear on]
the stage (he prohibited the stage to the actors) .
feminls (dat.) purpurae usu interdlcemus (Liv. xxxiv. 7), shall we forbid women
the wearing of purple ?
NOTE 2. The Dative with the Accusative is used in poetry with many verbs of
preventing, protecting, and the like, which usually take the Accusative and Ablative.
Intercludo and prohibeo sometimes take the Dative and Accusative, even in prose :
hisce omnis aditus ad Sullam intercludere (Rose. Am. 110), to shut these men off
from all access to Sulla (close to them every approach). [Cf. uti commeatu
Caesarem intercluderet (B. G. i. 48), to shut Csesar off from supplies.]
hunc (oestrum) arcebis pecori (Georg. iii. 154), you shall keep this away from the
flock. [Cf . ilium arcuit Gallia (Phil. v. .37), he excluded him from Gaul]
solstitium pecori defendite (Eel. vii. 47), keep the summer heat from the flock. [Cf .
uti se a contumeliis inimicorum defenderet (B. C. i. 22), to defend himself
from the slanders of his enemies.] ,
1 Such are d5no, impertio, induo, exu5, adspergo, Inspergo, circumdo, and in poetry
accingd, implico, and similar verbs.
365, 366] DATIVE OF INDIRECT OBJECT 227
365. Verbs which in the active voice take the Accusative and
Dative retain the Dative, when used in the passive : -
nuntiabantur haec eadem Curiom (B. C. ii. 37), these same things were
announced to Curio. [Active : nuntiabant (quidam) haec eadem Curiom.]
nee doceudl Caesaris piopinquis eius spatiuin datur, nee tribums plebis sul
perlcull deprecandl facultas tribuitur (id. i. 5), no time is given Ccesar's
relatives to inform him, and no opportunity is granted to the tribunes of
the plebs to avert danger from themselves.
provinciae privatis decernuntur (id. i. 6), provinces are voted to private
citizens.
INDIRECT OBJECT WITH INTRANSITIVES
366. The Dative of the Indirect Object may be used with any
Intransitive verb whose meaning allows :
cedant arma togae (Phil. ii. 20), let arms give place to the gown.
Caesari respondet, he replies to Caesar.
Caesari respondetur, a reply is given to Caesar (Caesar is replied to). [Cf. 372. ]
respondl maximls criminibus (Phil. ii. 36) , I have answered the heaviest charges.
ut ita cuique eveniat (id. ii. 119), that it may so turn out to each.
NOTE 1. Intransitive verbs have no Direct Object. The Indirect Object, there-
fore, in these cases stands alone as in the second example (but cf. 362. a).
NOTE 2. Cedo, yield, sometimes takes the Ablative of the thing along with the
Dative of the person : as, cedere alicui possessione hortorum (cf . Mil. 75), to give up to
one the possession of a garden.
a. Many phrases consisting of a noun with the copula sum or a
copulative verb are equivalent to an intransitive verb and take a
kind of indirect object (cf. 367. a. N. 2 ):
auctor esse alicui, to advise or instigate one (cf. persuaded).
quis huic rei testis est (Quinct. 37), who testifies (is witness) to this fact?
is finis populationibus fuit (Liv. ii. 30. 9), this put an end to the raids.
b. The dative is sometimes used without a copulative verb in a
sense approaching that of the genitive (cf. 367. d, 377):
legatus fratri (Mur. 32), a lieutenant to his brother (i.e. a man assigned to his
brother),
ministr! sceleribus (Tac. Ann. vi. 36), agents of crime. [Cf. sediti5nis minis-
trl (id. i. 17), agents of sedition.]
miseriis suis re medium mortem exspectare (Sail. Cat. 40), to look for death
as a cure for their miseries. [Cf. s5lus mearum miseriarumst remedium
(Ter. Ad. 294).]
NOTE. The cases in a and b differ from the constructions of 367. a. N. a and
377 in that the dative is more closely connected hi idea with some single word to
which it serves as an indirect object.
228 SYNTAX: CONSTRUCTION OF CASES [367
Indirect Object with Special Verbs
367. Many verbs signifying to favor, help, please, trust, and
their contraries ; also to believe, persuade, command, obey, serve,
resist, envy, threaten, pardon, and spare, 1 take the Dative :
cur mihi invides, why do you envy me?
mihi parcit atque Tgnoscit, he spares and pardons me.
IgnOsce patrio dolor! (Liv. iii. 48), excuse a father's grief.
subveni patriae, opitulare conlegae (Fam. x. 10, 2), come to the aid of your
country, help your colleague.
mihi non displicet (Clu. 144), it does not displease me.
n5n omnibus servio (Att. xiii. 49), I am not a servant to every man.
non parcam operae (Fam. xiii. 27), I will spare no pains.
sic mihi persuasl (Cat. M. 78), so / have persuaded myself.
mihi Fabius debebit Ignoscere si minus eius famae parcere videbor quam antea
consulul (Tull. 3), Fabius will have to pardon me if I seem to spare his
reputation less than I have heretofore regarded it.
huic legion! Caesar confldebat maxime (B. G. i. 40. 15), in this legion Ccesar
trusted most.
In these verbs the Latin retains an original intransitive meaning.
Thus : invidere, to envy, is literally to look askance at ; servire is to be
a slave to / suadere is to make a thing pleasant (sweet) to.
a. Some verbs apparently of the same meanings take the Accusative.
Such are iuv5, adiuvo, help; laedo, injure; iubeo, order; deficio, fail;
delect5, please :
hie pulvis oculum meum laedit, this dust hurts my eye. [Cf. multa oculls
nocent, many things are injurious to the eyes. ]
NOTE 1. Fido and confido take also the Ablative ( 431) : as, multum natura loci
confidebant (B. G. iii. 9), they had great confidence in the strength of their position.
NOTE 2. Some common phrases regularly take the dative precisely like verbs of
similar meaning. Such are praesto esse, be on hand (cf . adesse) ; morem gerere,
humor (cf. morigerari) ; gratum facere, do a favor (cf. gratificari) ; dicto audiens esse,
be obedient (cf. oboedlre) ; cui fidem habebat (E. G. i. 19), in whom he had confidence
(cf. confidebat).
So also many phrases where no corresponding verb exists. Such are bene (male,
pulchre, aegre, etc.) esse, be well (ill, etc.) off ; iniuriam facere, do injustice to ; diem
dicere, bring to trial (name a day for, etc.); agere gratiiis, express one's thanks;
habere gratiam, feel thankful; referre gratiam, repay a favor ; opus esse, be neces-
sary ; damnum dare, inflict an injury; acceptum (expensum) ferre (esse), credit
(charge); hon5rem habere, to pay honor to.
1 These include, among others, the following: adversor, ced5, credo, faveo, fid5,
ignosco, imperd, indulged, invideo, irascor, minitor, noceo, parco, paieo, placeo, resisto,
servio, studeo, suadeo (persuaded), suscenseo, tempero (obtempero).
367, 368] DATIVE WITH SPECIAL VERBS 229
b. Some verbs are used transitively with the Accusative or intran-
sitively with the Dative without perceptible difference of meaning.
Such are adulor, aemulor, despero, praestolor, medeor :
adulatus est Antonio (Nep. Alt. 8), he flattered Antony.
adularl Nerdnem (Tac. Ann. xvi. 19), to flatter Nero.
pacem non desperas (Att. viii. 15. 3), you do not despair of peace.
saluti desperate vetuit (Clu. 68), he forbade him to despair of safety.
c. Some verbs are used transitively with the Accusative or intran-
sitively with the Dative with a difference of meaning : 1
parti civium consulunt (Off. i. 85), they consult for apart of the citizens.
, cum te consuluissern (Fam. xi. 29), ivhen I had consulted you.
metuens pueris (Plant. Am. 1113), anxious for the children.
nee metuunt deos (Ter. Hec. 772), they fear not even the gods. [So also timeo.]
prospicite patriae (Cat. iv. 3), have regard for the state.
prospicere sedera senectutl (Liv. iv. 49. 14), to provide a habitation for old age.
[So also provided.]
d. A few verbal nouns (as insidiae, ambush; obtemperatio, obedi-
ence) rarely take the dative like the corresponding verbs :
insidiae consul! (Sail. Cat. 32), the plot against the consul (cf. insidior).
obtemperatio legibus (Legg. i. 42), obedience to the laws (cf. obtemperd).
sibi ipsi responsio (De Or. iii. 207), an answer to himself (cf. responded).
NOTE. In these cases the dative depends immediately upon the verbal foree of the
noun and not on any complex idea (cf. 366. a, b).
368. The Dative is used -
1. With the impersonals libet (lubet), it pleases, and licet, it is
allowed :
quod mihi maxime lubet (Fam. i. 8. 3), what most pleases me.
quasi tibi non liceret (id. vi. 8), as if you were not permitted.
2. With verbs compounded with satis, bene, and male :
mihi ipse nurnquam satisfacio (Fam. i. 1), I never satisfy myself.
optimo viro maledicere (Deiot. 28), to speak ill of a most excellent man.
pulchrum est benefacere rei publicae (Sail. Cat. 3), it is a glorious thing to
benefit the state.
NOTE. These are not real compounds, but phrases, and were apparently felt as
such by the Romans. Thus, satis omcio me5, satis illorum voluntati qui a me hoc
petiverunt factum esse arbitrabor (Verr. v. 130) , / shall consider that enough has been
done for my duty, enough for the wishes of those who asked this of me.
1 See the Lexicon under caveo, convenio, cupid, insists, maneo, praeverto, recipio, re-
nuntio, solvo, succedo.
230 SYNTAX: CONSTRUCTION OF CASES [368,369
3. With gratificor, gratulor, nubo, permitto, plaudo, probo, studeo, sup-
plico, excello :
Fompeio se gratificarl putant (Fam. i. 1), they suppose they are doing Pompey
a service.
gratulor tibi, nil Balbe (id. vi. 12), 1 congratulate you, my dear Balbus.
tibi permitto respondere (N. D. iii. 4), I give you leave to answer.
mini plaudo ipse doml (Hor. S. i. 1. 66), I applaud myself at home.
cum inimlcl M. Fontel vobls ac popul5 Roman5 minentur, amici ac propinqul
supplicent vobls (Font. 35), while the enemies of Marcus Fonteius are
threatening you and the Roman people too, while his friends and relatives
are beseeching you.
NOTE.' Misced and iungo sometimes take the dative (see 413. a. N.) . Haere5 usually
takes the ablative, with or without in, rarely the dative: as, haerentem capiti cofo-
nam (Hor. S. i. 10. 49), a wreath clinging to the head.
a. The dative is often used by the poets in constructions which
would in prose require a noun with a preposition. So especially
with verbs of contending ( 413. Z>) :
contendis Homero (Prop. i. 7. 8), you vie with Homer. [In prose : cum Homero.]
placitone etiam pugnabis amor! (Aen. iv. 38), will you struggle even against a
love that pleases you ?
tibi certat (Eel. v. 8), vies with you. [tecum.]
differt sermon! (Hor. S. i. 4. 48), differs from prose, [a sermone, 401.]
later! abdidit ensem (Aen. ii. 553), buried the sword in his side, [in latere,
430. ]
For the Dative instead of ad with the Accusative, see 428. h.
369. Some verbs ordinarily intransitive may have an Accusa-
tive of the direct object along with the Dative of the indirect
(cf. 362. a): -
cui cum rex crucem minaretur (Tusc. i. 102), and when the king threatened
him with the cross.
Cretensibus obsides imperavlt (Manil. 35), he exacted hostages of the Cretans.
omnia sibi ignoscere (Veil. ii. 30), to pardon one's self everything.
Ascanione pater Romanas invidet arces (Aen. iv. 234), does the father envy
Ascanius his Roman citadels ? [With invideo this construction is poetic
or late.]
a. With the passive voice this dative may be retained :
qui iam nunc sanguinem ineum sibi indulgerl aequum censet (Liv. xl. 15. 16),
who even now thinks it right that my blood should be granted to him as a
favor.
singulls censSribus denarii trecentl imperat! sunt (Verr. ii. 137), three hun-
dred denarii were exacted of each censor.
Scaevolae concessa est facundiae virtus (Quint, xii. 3. 9), to Scaevola has
been granted excellence in oratory.
370] DATIVE WITH COMPOUNDS 231
Indirect Object with Compounds
370. Many verbs compounded with ad, ante, con, in, inter, ob,
post, prae, pro, sub, super, and some with circum, admit the Dative
of the indirect object :
neque enim adsentior els (Lael. 13), for I do not agree with them.
quantum natura hominis pecudibus antecedit (Off. i. 105), so far as man's
nature is superior to brutes.
si sibi ipse consent! t (id. i. 5), if he is in accord with himself.
virtutes semper voluptatibus inhaerent (Fin. i. 68), virtues are always con-
nected with pleasures.
omnibus negotils non interfuit solum sed praefuit (id. i. 6), he not only had
a hand in all matters, but took the lead in them.
tempestati obsequi artis est (Fam. i. 9. 21), it is a point of skill to yield to
the weather.
nee umquam succumbet inimlcls (Deiot. 30), and he will never yield to his
foes.
cum et Brutus cuilibet ducum praeferendus videretur et Vatlnius null! non
esset postferendus (Veil. ii. 69), since Brutus seemed worthy of being put
before any of the generals and Vatinius deserved to be put after all of them.
a. In these cases the dative depends not on the preposition, but
on the compound verb in its acquired meaning. Hence, if the acquired
meaning is not suited to an indirect object, the original construction
of the simple verb remains.
Thus in convocat sues, he calls his men together, the idea of calling is not so
modified as to make an indirect object appropriate. So hominem interficere, to
make way with a man (kill him). But in praeficere imperatorem bellS, to put a
man as commander-in-chief in charge of a war, the idea resulting from the com-
position is suited to an indirect object (see also b, 371, 388. b).
NOTE 1. Some of these verbs, being originally transitive, take also a direct object :
as, ne offeramus nos periculis (Off. i. 83), that we may not expose ourselves to perils.
NOTE 2. The construction of 370 is not different in its nature from that of 362,
366, and 367 ; but the compound verbs make a convenient group.
6. Some compounds of ad, ante, ob, with a few others, have acquired
a transitive meaning, and take the accusative (cf . 388. b) : *
n5s oppugnat (Fam. i. 1), he opposes us.
quis audeat bene comitatum aggredl (Phil. xii. 25), who would dare encounter
a man well attended ?
munus oblre (Lael. 7), to attend to a duty.
1 Such verbs are aggredior, adeo, antecedo, antee5, antegredior, conveni5, ineo, obeo,
offendo, oppugnd, praecedo, subeo.
232 SYNTAX : CONSTRUCTION OF CASES [ 370-373
c. The adjective obvius and the adverb obviam with a verb take
the dative :
si ille obvius el futurus non erat (Mil. 47), if he was not intending to get in
his way.
mihi obviam venistl (Fam. ii. 16. 3), you came to meet me.
371. When place or motion is distinctly thought of, the verbs
mentioned in 370 regularly take a noun with a preposition :
inhaeret in visceribus (Tusc. iv. 24), it remains fixed in the vitals.
homine coniuncto mecum (Tull. 4), a man united to me.
cum hoc concurrit ipse Eumenes (Nep. Eum. 4. 1), with him Eumenes him-
self engages in combat (runs together).
Inserite oculos in curiam (Font. 43), fix your eyes on the senate-house.
Ignis qul est ob 6s offusus (Tim. 14), the fire which is diffused before the sight.
obicitur contra istorum impetus Macedonia (Font. 44), Macedonia is set to
withstand their attacks. [Cf. si quis vobis error obiectus (Caec. 6), if
any mistake has been caused you.]
in segetem flamma incidit (Aen. ii. 304), the fire falls upon the standing corn.
NOTE. But the usage varies in different authors, in different words, and often in
the same word and the same sense. The Lexicon must be consulted for each verb.
372. Intransitive verbs that govern the dative are used imper-
sonally in the passive (208. d). The dative is retained (cf. 365) :
cui parcl potuit (Liv. xxi. 14), who could be spared?
non modo non invidetur ill! aetati verum etiain favetur (Off. ii. 45), that age
(youth) not only is not envied, but is even favored.
tempori serviendum est(Fam. ix. 7), we must serve the. exigency of the occasion.
NOTE. In poetry the personal construction is sometimes found: as, ciirinvideor
(Hor. A. P. 56), why am I envied?
Dative of Possession
373. The Dative is used with esse and similar words to denote
Possession :
est mihi donil pater (Eel. iii. 33), I have a. father at home (there is to me),
homim curn deo similitude est (Legg. i. 25), man has a likeness to God.
quibus opes nullae sunt (Sail. Cat. 37), [those] ivho have no wealth.
NOTE. The Genitive or a Possessive with esse emphasizes the possessor; the
Dative, the fact of possession: as, liber est meus, the book is MINE (and no one's
else) ; est mihi liber, I HAVE a book (among other things).
a. With nomen est, and similar expressions, the name is often put
in the Dative by a kind of apposition with the person; but the
Nominative is also common :
373-376] DATIVE OF THE AGENT 233
(1) cui Africano fuit cognomen (Liv. xxv. 2), whose (to whom) surname was
Africanus.
puero ab inopia Egerio inditum nomen (id. i. 34), the name Egerius was given
the boy from his poverty.
(2) puero nomen est Marcus, the boy's name is Marcus (to the boy is, etc.).
cui nomen Arethusa (Verr. iv. 118), [a fount] called Arethusa.
NOTE. In early Latin the dative is usual ; Cicero prefers the nominative, Livy the
dative ; Sallust uses the dative only. In later Latin the genitive also occurs (cf . 343. a):
as, Q. Metello Macedonia nomen inditum est (Veil. i. 11), to Quintus Metellus the
name of Macedonicus was given.
b. Desum takes the dative ; so occasionally absum (which regu-
larly has the ablative) :
hoc unum Caesari defuit (E.G. iv. 26), this only ioas lacking to Caesar.
quid huic abesse poterit (De Or. i. 48), what can be wanting to him ?
Dative of the Agent
374. The Dative of the Agent is used with the Gerundive to
denote the person on whom the necessity rests :
haec vobis provincia est defendenda (Manil. 14), this province is for you to
defend (to be defended by you),
mihi est pugnandum, I have to fight (i.e. the need of fighting is to me : cf.
mini est liber, I have a book, 373. N.).
a. This is the regular way of expressing the agent with the Second
or Passive Periphrastic Conjugation ( 196).
NOTE 1. The Ablative of the Agent with ab ( 405) is sometimes used with the Sec-
ond Periphrastic Conjugation when the Dative would be ambiguous or when a stronger
erpression is desired :
quibus est a v5bis consulendum (Manil. 6), for whom you must consult. [Here two
datives, quibus and vobis, would have been ambiguous.]
rem ab omnibus vobis prGvidendam (Rabir. 4), that the matter must be attended to
by all of you. [The dative might mean for all of you.~\
NOTE 2. The Dative of the Agent is either a special use of the Dative of Posses-
sion or a development of the Dative of Reference ( 376).
375. The Dative of the Agent is common with perfect parti-
ciples (especially when used in an adjective sense), but rare with
other parts of the verb :
mihi deliberatum et constitutum est (Leg. Agr. i. 25), I have deliberated and
resolved (it has been deliberated by me).
mihi res provisa est (Verr. iv. 91), the matter has been provided for by me.
sic dissimillimis bestiolls communiter cibus quaeritur (N. D. ii. 123), so by
very different creatures food is sought in common.
234 SYNTAX : CONSTRUCTION OF CASES [ 375-377
a. The Dative of the Agent is used by the poets and later writers
with almost any passive verb :
neque cernitur fill! (Aen. i. 440), nor is seen by any.
fellx est dicta sorori (Ov. Fast. iii. 1. 597), she was called happy by her sister.
Aelia Paetina NarcissS fovebatur (Tac. Ann. xii. 1), jElia Postina was
favored by Narcissus.
b. The dative of the person who sees or thinks is regularly used
after videor, seem :
videtur mihi, it seems (or seems good) to me.
dls aliter vlsum [est] (Aen. ii. 428), it seemed otherwise to Hue, gods.
videor mihi perspicere ipslus animum (Fam. iv. 13. 5), I seem (to myself) to see
the soul of the man himself.
NOTE. The verb probare, approve (originally a mercantile -word), takes a Dative
of Reference ( 376), which has become so firmly attached that it is often retained with
the passive, seemingly as Dative of Agent:
haec sententia et illi et nSbis probabatur (Fam. i. 7. 5), this view met both his
approval and mine (was made acceptable both to him and to me),
hoc consilium plerisque non probabatur (B. C. i. 72), thisplan was not approved by
the majority. [But also, consilium a cunctis probabatur (id. i. 74).]
Dative of Reference
376. The Dative often depends, not on any particular word, but
on the general meaning of the sentence (Dative of Reference).
The dative in this construction is often called the Dative of
Advantage or Disadvantage, 1 as denoting the person or thing for
whose benefit or to whose prejudice the action is performed.
tibi aras (Plaut. Merc. 71), you plough for yourself.
tuas res tibi habeto (Plaut. Trin. 266), keep your goods to yourself (formula
of divorce),
laudavit mihi fratrem, he praised my brother (out of regard for me ; laudavit
fratrem meum would imply no such motive),
meritos mactavit honores, taurum Neptun5, taurum tibi, pulcher Apollo
(Aen. iii. 118), he offered the sacrifices due, a bull to Neptune, a bull to
thee, beautiful Apollo.
NOTE. In this construction the meaning of the sentence is complete without the
dative, which is not, as in the preceding constructions, closely connected with any sin-
gle word. Thus the Dative of Reference is easily distinguishable in most instances
even when the sentence consists of only two words, as in the first example.
377. The Dative of Reference is often used to qualify a whole
idea, instead of the Possessive Genitive modifying a single word :
1 Datlvus commodi aut incommodi.
377-379] DATIVE OF REFERENCE 235
iter Poems vel corporibus suls obstruere (Cat. M. 75), to block the march of
the Carthaginians even with their own bodies (to block, etc., for the dis-
advantage of, etc.).
se in conspectum nautls dedit (Verr. v. 86), he put himself in sight of the
sailors (he put himself to the sailors into sight).
versatur mihi ante oculos (id. v. 123), it comes before my eyes (it comes to me
before the eyes).
378. The Dative is used of the person from whose point of view
an opinion is stated or a situation or a direction is defined.
This is often called the Dative of the Person Judging, 1 but is
merely a weakened variety of the Dative of Reference. It is used
1. Of the mental point of view (in my opinion, according to me,
etc.) :
Plato mihi unus Instar est centum mllium (Brut. 191), in my opinion (to me)
Plato alone is worth a hundred thousand.
erit ille mihi semper deus (Eel. i. 7), he will always be a god to me (in my
regard),
quae est ista servitus tarn clarO homini (Par. 41), what is that slavery according
to the view of this distinguished man ?
2. Of the local point of view (as you go in etc.). In this use the
person is commonly denoted indefinitely by a participle in the dative
plural :
oppidum prlmum Thessaliae venientibus ab Epiro (B. C. iii. 80), the first town
of Thessaly as you come from Epirus (to those coming, etc.).
laeva parte sinum intrant! (Liv. xxvi. 26), on, the left as you sail up the gulf
(to one entering).
est urbe egressls tumulus (Aen. ii. 713) j there is, as you come out of the city,
a mound (to those having come out).
NOTE. The Dative of the Person Judging is (by a Greek idiom) rarely modified by
nolens, volens (participles of nolo, volo), or by some similar word:
ut quibusque bellum invitls aut cupientibus erat (Tac. Ann. i. 59), as each might
receive the war reluctantly or gladly.
ut mllitibus labos volentibus esset (lug. 100), that the soldiers might assume the
task willingly.
379. The Dative of Reference is used idiomatically without
any verb in colloquial questions and exclamations :
qu5 mihi fortunam (Hor. Ep. i. 5. 12), of what use to me is fortune?
unde mihi lapidem (Hor. S. ii. 7. 116), where can I get a stone?
quo tibi, Till! (id. i. 6. 24), what use for you, Tillius?
1 Datwus iudicantis.
236 SYNTAX: CONSTRUCTION OF CASES [379-381
. The dative of reference is sometimes used after interjections :
ei (hei) mihi (Aen. ii. 274), ah me!
vae victis (Liv. v. 48), woe to the conquered.
em tibi, there, take that (there for you)! [Cf. 380.]
NOTE. To express FOB meaning instead of, in defence of, in behalf of the
ablative with pro is used:
pro patria mori (Hor. Od. iii. 2. 13), to die for one's country.
ego ibo pro te (Plaut. Most. 1131), I will go instead of you.
Ethical Dative
380. The Dative of the Personal Pronouns is used to show a
certain interest felt by the person indicated. 1
This construction is called the Ethical Dative. 2 It is really a
faded variety of the Dative of Reference.
quid mihi Celsus agit (Hor. Ep. i. 3. 15), pray what is Celsus doing ?
suo sibi servit patrl (Plaut. Capt. 5), he serves his own father.
at tibi repente venit mihi Canlnius (Fam. ix. 2), but, look you, of a sudden
comes to me Caninius.
hem tibi talentum argentl (PI. True. 60), hark ye, a talent of silver.
quid tibi vis, what would you have (what do you wish for yourself) ?
Dative of Separation
381. Many verbs of taking away and the like take the Dative
(especially of a person) instead of the Ablative of Separation
( 401). *
Such are compounds of ab, de, ex, and a few of ad :
aureum ei detraxit amiculum (N. D. iii. 83), he took from him his cloak of
gold.
hunc mihi tecrorem eripe (Cat. i. 18), take from me this terror.
vitam adulescentibus vis aufert (Cat. M. 71), violence deprives young men of
life.
nihil enim tibi detraxit senatus (Fam. i. 5 B), for the senate has taken nothing
from you.
nee mihi hunc errorem extorquerl volo (Cat. M. 85), nor do I wish this error
wrested from me.
NOTE. The Dative of Separation is a variety of the Dative of Reference. It repre-
sents the action as done to the person or thing, and is thus more vivid than the Ablative.
1 Compare " I '11 rhyme you so eight years together." As You Like It, iii. 2.
2 Datwus ethicus.
381, 382] DATIVE OF THE PURPOSE OR END 237
a. The distinct idea of motion requires the ablative with a prep-
osition thus generally with names of things ( 426. 1) :
ilium ex periculS eripuit (B. G. iv. 12), he dragged him out of danger.
NOTR. Sometimes the dative of the person and the ablative of the thing with a
preposition are both used with the same verb : as, mihi praeda de manibus eripitur
(Verr. ii. 1. 142), the booty is wrested from my hands.
Dative of the Purpose or End
382. ,The Dative is used to denote the Purpose or End, often
with another Dative of the person or thing affected.
This use of the dative, once apparently general, remains in
only a few constructions, as follows :
1. The dative of an abstract noun is used to show that for which
a thing serves or ivhich it accomplishes, often with another dative of
the person or thing affected :
rel publicae cladi sunt (lug. 85. 43), they are ruin to the state (they are for a
disaster to the state),
magno usui nostrls fuit (B. G. iv. 25), it was of great service to our men (to
our men for great use),
tertiam aciein nostrls subsidio misit (id. i. 62), he sent the third line as a relief
to our men.
suls saltiti fuit (id. vii. 60), he was the salvation of his men.
evenit facile quod dls cordl esset (Liv. i. 39), that came to pass easily which
was desired by the gods (was for a pleasure [lit. heart] to the gods).
NOTE 1. This construction is often called the Dative of Service, or the Double
Dative construction. The verb is usually sum. The noun expressing the end for
which is regularly abstract and singular in number and is never modified by an adjec-
tive, except one of degree (magnus, minor, etc.), or by a genitive.
NOTE 2. The word frugi used as an adjective is a dative of this kind :
cogis me dicere inimicum Frugi (Font. 39) , you compel me to call my enemy Honest.
homines satis fortes et plane frugi (Verr. iii. 67) , men brave enough and thoroughly
honest. Cf. ero frugi bonae (Plant. Pseud. 468), I will be good for some-
thing. [See 122. 6.]
2. The Dative of Purpose of concrete nouns is used in prose in a
few military expressions, and with freedom in poetry :
locum castris deligit (B. G. vii. 16), he selects a site for a camp.
receptui canere, to sound a retreat (for a retreat).
receptui signum (Phil. xiii. 15), the signal for retreat.
optavit locum regnS (Aen. iii. 109), he chose a place for a kingdom.
locum insidiis circumspectare (Liv. xxi. 53), to look about for a place for an
ambush. [Cf. locum seditidnis quaerere (id. iii. 46).]
For the Dative of the Gerundive denoting Purpose, see 505. 6.
238 SYNTAX: CONSTRUCTION OF CASES [383-385
Dative with Adjectives
383. The Dative is used after Adjectives or Adverbs, to denote
that to which the given quality is directed, for which it exists, or
towards which it tends.
NOTE. The dative with certain adjectives is in origin a Dative of Purpose or End.
v 384. The Dative is used with adjectives (and a few Adverbs) of
fitness, nearness, likeness, service, inclination, and their opposites : 1
nihil est tarn naturae aptum (Lael. 17), nothing is so fitted to nature.
nihil difficile amanti puto (Or. 33), I think nothing hard to a lover.
castris idoneum locum delegit (B. G. i. 49), he selected a place suitable for a
camp.
tribunl nobis sunt amici (Q. Fr. i. 2. 16), the tribunes are friendly to us.
esse propitius potest nemini (N. D. i. 124), he can be gracious to nobody.
magnis autem viris prosperae semper omnes res (id. ii. 167), but to great men
everything is always favorable.
sedes huic nostro non importuna sermon! (De Or. iii. 18), a place not unsuit-
able for this conversation of ours.
cui fundo erat affinis M. Tullius (Tull. 14), to which estate Marcus Tullius was
next neighbor.
conrenienter naturae vlvere (Off. iii. 13), to live in accordance with nature
NOTE 1. So, also, in poetic and colloquial use, with Idem : as, invitum quT servat
idem facit occidentl (Hor. A. P. 467), he who saves a man against his will does the same
as one who kills him.
NOTE 2. Adjectives of likeness are often followed by atque (ac), as. So also
the adverbs aeque, pariter, similiter, etc. The pronoun Idem has regularly atque or a
relative :
si parem sapientiam habet ac formam (Plaut. Mil. 1251), if he has sense equal to
his beauty (like as his beauty).
te suspicor eisdem rebus quibus me ipsum commover! (Cat. M. 1), I suspect you are
disturbed by the same things by which I am.
385. Other constructions are sometimes found where the dative
might be expected :
a. Adjectives of fitness or use take oftener the Accusative with ad
to denote the purpose or end ; but regularly the Dative of persons :
aptus ad rem militarem, fit for a soldier" 1 s duty.
locus ad msidias aptior (Mil. 53), a place fitter for lying in wait.
nobis utile est ad hanc rem (cf. Ter. And. 287), it is of use to us for this thing.
1 Adjectives of this kind are accommodatus, aptus ; amicus, inimlcus, Infestus, invlsus,
molestus ; idoneus, opportunus, proprius ; utilis, inutilis ; affinis, finitimus, propinquus,
vlclnus ; par, dispar, similis, dissimilis ; iucundus, gratus ; notus, Tgnotus, and others.
385] DATIVE WITH ADJECTIVES 239
6. Adjectives and nouns of inclination and the like may take the
Accusative with in or erga :
comis in uxorem (Hor. Ep. ii. 2. 133), kind to his wife.
dlvlna bonitas erga homines (N. D. ii. 60), the divine goodness towards men.
de benevolentia quam quisque habeat erga nos (Off. i. 47), in regard to each
man's good will which he has towards us.
grati5rem me esse in te (Fam. xi. 10), that I am more grateful to you.
c. Some adjectives of likeness, nearness, belonging, and a few
others, ordinarily requiring the Dative, often take the Possessive
Genitive : 1
quod ut illi proprium ac perpetuum sit ... optare debetis (Manil. 48), which
you ought to pray may be secure (his own) and lasting to him. [Dative.]
fuit hoc quondam proprium populi Roman! (id. 32), this was once the peculiar
characteristic of the Roman people. [Genitive.]
cum utrique sis maxime necessarius (Att. ix. 7 A), since you are especially
bound to both. [Dative.]
procurator aeque utriusque necessarius (Quinct. 86), an agent alike closely
connected with both. [Genitive.]
1. The genitive is especially used with these adjectives when they are
used wholly or approximately as nouns :
amicus Ciceroni, friendly to Cicero. But, Ciceronis amlcus, a friend of Cicero ;
and even, Ciceronis amicissimus, a very great friend of Cicero.
creticus et eius aequalis paean (Or. 215), the cretic and its equivalent thepcean.
hi erant affines istius (Verr. ii. 36), these were this man' s fellows.
2. After similis, like, the genitive is more common in early writers.
Cicero regularly uses the genitive of persons, and either the genitive or the
dative of things. With personal pronouns the genitive is regular (mei, tui,
etc.), and also in veri similis, probable :
domini similis es (Ter. Eun. 496), you 'rflike your master (your master's like).
ut essemus similes deorum (N. D. i. 91), that we might be like the gods.
est similis maiorum suom (Ter. Ad. 411), he's like his ancestors.
patris similis esse (Off. i. 121), to be like his father.
slmia quam similis turpissima bestia nobis (N. D. i. 97, quoted from Enn.),
how like us is that wretched beast the ape!
si enim hoc ill! simile sit, est illud huic (id. i. 90), for if this is like that, that
is like this.
NOTE. The genitive in this construction is not objective like those in 5 349. but
possessive (cf . 343) .
For the Dative or Accusative with propior, proximus, propius, proximo, see 432. a.
1 Such are aequalis, affinis, alienus, amicus, cognatus, communis, consanguineus, contra
rius, dispar, familiaris, finitimus, inimicus, necessarius, par, peculiaris, propinquus, proprius
(regularly genitive), sacer, similis, superstes, vicinus.
240 SYNTAX: CONSTRUCTION OF CASES [386,387
ACCUSATIVE CASE
386. The Accusative originally served to connect the noun more or less loosely
with the verb-idea, whether expressed by a verb proper or by a verbal noun or adjec-
tive. Its earliest use was perhaps to repeat the verb-idea as in the Cognate Accusative
(run a race, fight a battle, see 390). From this it would be a short step to the Factitive
Accusative (denoting the result of an act, as in make a table, drill a hole, cf. 273. N. 1 ).
From this last could easily come the common accusative (of Affecting, break a table,
plug a hole, see 387. a) . Traces of all these uses appear in the language, and the loose
connection of noun with verb-idea is seen in the use of stems in composition (cf . 265. 3) .*
It is impossible, however, to derive the various constructions of the accusative with
certainty from any single function of that case.
The uses of the accusative may be classified as follows :
i 1. Directly affected by the Action ( 387. a).
I. Primary Object: \ f Thing produced ( 387. a).
2. Effect of the Action < .. /c ',
I \ Cognate Accusative ( 390) .
1. Predicate Accusative (Of Naming etc.) ( 393).
2. Of Asking or Teaching ( 396).
3. Of Concealing ( 396. c).
1. Adverbial ( 397. a).
2. Of Specification (Greek Accusative) ( 397. 6).
3. Of Extent and Duration ( 423, 425).
4. Of Exclamation ( 397. d).
5. Subject of Infinitive ( 397. e).
II. Two Accusatives:
III. Idiomatic Uses:
Direct Object
387. The Direct Object of a transitive verb is put in the Ac-
cusative ( 274).
a. The Accusative of the Direct Object denotes (1) that which is
directly affected, or (2) that which is caused or produced by the action
of the verb :
(1) Brutus Caesarem interfecit, Brutus killed Caesar.
(2) aedem f acere, to make a temple. [Cf . proelium pugnare, to fight a battle,
390.]
NOTE. There is no definite line by which transitive verbs can be distinguished
from intransitive. Verbs which usually take a direct object (expressed or implied)
are called transitive, but many of these are often used intransitively or absolutely.
Thus timed, I fear, is transitive in the sentence inimlcum timeo, I fear my enemy, but
intransitive (absolute) in noli timere, don't be afraid. Again, many verbs are transi-
tive in one sense and intransitive in another : as, Helvetids superaverunt Roman!, the
Romans overcame the Helvetians ; but nihil superabat, nothing remained (was left over) .
So also many verbs commonly intransitive may be used transitively with a slight
change of meaning : as, rides, you are laughing ; but me" rides, you 're laughing at me.
1 Compare armiger, armor-bearer, witharma gerere, to bear arms; fldicen, lyre-player,
with fldibus canere, to (play on) sing to the lyre. Compare also istanc tactio (Plaut.), the
[act of] touching her, with istanc tangere, to touch her ( 388. d. N. 2 ).
387, 388] ACCUSATIVE OF DIRECT OBJECT 241
&. The object of a transitive verb in the active voice becomes its
subject in the passive, and is put in the nominative ( 275) :
Brutus Caesarem interfecit, Brutus killed Caesar.
Caesar a Bruto interfectus est, Caesar was killed by Brutus.
domum aedificat, he builds a house.
domus aedificatur, the house is building (being built).
388. Certain special verbs require notice.
. Many verbs apparently intransitive, expressing feeling, take
an accusative, and may be used in the passive :
meum casum luctumque doluerunt (Sest. 145), they grieved at my calamity
and sorrow.
si non Acrisium rlsissent luppiter et Venus (Hor. Od. iii. 16. 6), if Jupiter
and Venus had not laughed at Acrisius.
ridetur ab omnl conventu (Hor. S. i. 7. 22), he is laughed at by the whole
assembly.
For the Cognate Accusative with verbs of taste, smell, and the like, see 390. a.
NOTE. Some verbs commonly intransitive may be used transitively (especially in
poetry) from a similarity of meaning with other verbs that take the accusative:
gemens ignominiam (Georg. iii. 226), groaning at the disgrace. [Cf. doleo.]
festinare fugam (Aen. iv. 575), to hasten their flight. [Cf. accelero.]
comptos arsit crinis (Hor. Od. iv. 9. 13), she burned with love for his well-combed
locks. [Cf. adam5.]
6. Verbs of motion, compounds of circum, trans, and praeter, and
a few others, frequently become transitive, and take the accusative
(cf. 370. I) :
mortem oblre, to die (to meet death).
consulatum ineunt (Liv. ii. 28), they enter upon the consulship.
neminem convenl (Fam. ix. 14), I met no one.
si insulam adisset (B. G. iv. 20), if he should go to the island.
transire flumen (id. ii. 23), to cross the river (cf. 395).
elves qul circumstant senatum (Cat. i. 21), the citizens who stand about the
senate.
NOTE. Among such verbs arc some compounds of ad, in, per, and sub.
c. The accusative is used after the impersonals decet, dedecet, delec-
tat, iuvat, oportet, fallit, fugit, praeterit :
ita ut vos decet (Plaut. Most. 729), so as befits you.
me pedibus delectat claudere verba (Hor. S. ii. 1. 28), my delight is (it
pleases me) to arrange words in measure.
nisi me fallit, unless I am mistaken (unless it deceives me),
ifivit me tibi tuas litteras profuisse (Fam. v. 21. 3), it pleased me that your
literary studies had profited you.
te n5n praeterit (Fam. i. 8. 2), it does not escape your notice.
242 SYNTAX: CONSTRUCTION OF CASES [388-390
NOTE 1. So after latet in poetry and post-classical prose: as, latet plerosque
(Plin. N. H. ii. 82), it is unknown to most persons.
NOTE 2. These verbs are merely ordinary transitives with an idiomatic significa-
tion. Hence most of them are also used personally.
NOTE 3. Decet and latet sometimes take the dative :
ita nobis decet (Ter. Ad. 928), thus it befits us.
hostique Roma latet (Sil. It. xii. 014), and Rome lies hidden from the foe.
d. A few verbs in isolated expressions take the accusative from
a forcing of their meaning. Such expressions are :
ferire foedus, to strike a treaty (i.e. to sanction by striking down a victim),
vincere indicium (sponsionem, rem, hoc), to prevail on a trial, etc. [As if the
case were a difficulty to overcome; cf. vincere iter, Aen. vi. 688.]
aequor navigare (Aen. i. 07), to sail the sea. [As if it were transire, 388. &.]
maria aspera iuro (id. vi. 351), I swear by the rough seas (cf. id. vi. 324).
[The accusative with verbs of swearing is chiefly poetic.]
noctis dormire, to sleep [whole] nights (to spend in sleep).
NOTE 1. These accusatives are of various kinds. The last example approaches
the cognate construction (cf. the second example under 390).
NOTE 2. In early and popular usage some nouns and adjectives derived from tran-
sitive verbs retain verbal force sufficient to govern the accusative :
quid tibi istanc tactio est (Plaut. Poen. 1308) , what business have you to touch her?
[Cf . tangS.]
mirabundi bestiam (Ap. Met. iv. 16), full of wonder at the creature. [Cf. miror.]
vitabundus castra (Liv. xxv. 13), trying to avoid the camp. [Cf. vito.]
389. Many verbs ordinarily transitive may be used absolutely,
having their natural object in the ablative with de ( 273. N. 2 ) :
priusquam Pomponius de eius adventu cognosceret (B. C. iii. 101), before
Pomponius could learn of his coining. [Cf. eius adventu cognito, his
arrival being discovered.]
For Accusative and Genitive after Impersonals, see 354. b. For the Accusative
after the impersonal Gerundive with esse, see 500. 3.
Cognate Accusative
390. An intransitive verb often takes the Accusative of a noun
of kindred meaning, usually modified by an adjective or in some
other manner.
This construction is called the Cognate Accusative or Accusative
of Kindred Signification :
tutiorem vitam vivere (Verr. ii. 118), to live a safer life.
tertiam iam aetatem hominum vivebat (Cat. M. 31), he was now living the
third generation of men.
servitutem servlre, to be in slavery.
colre societatem, to [go together and] form an alliance.
390] COGNATE ACCUSATIVE 243
a. Verbs of taste, smell, and the like take a cognate accusative
of the quality :
vlnum redolens (Phil. ii. 63), smelling [of] wine.
herbam mella sapiunt (Plin. H. N. xi. 18), the honey tastes [of] grass.
olere malitiam (Rose. Com. 20), to have the odor of malice.
Cordubae natis poetis, pingue quiddam sonantibus atque peregrinum (Arch.
26), to poets born at Cordova, whose speech had a somewhat thick and
foreign accent.
6. The cognate accusative is often loosely used by the poets :
huic error! similem [errorem] msanlre (Hor. S. ii. 3. 62), to suffer a delusion
like this.
sal tare Cyclopa (id. i. 5. 63), to dance the Cyclops (represent in dancing).
Bacchanalia vivere (luv. ii. 3), to live in revellings.
Amaryllida resouare (Eel. i. 5), to reecho [the name of] Amaryllis.
intonuit laevum (Aen. ii. 693), it thundered on the left.
dulce ridentem, dulce loquentem (Hor. Od. i. 22. 23), sweetly smiling, sweetly
prattling.
acerba tuens (Aen. ix. 794), looking fiercely. [Cf. Eng. "to look daggers."]
torvum clamat (id. vii. 399), he cries harshly.
c. A neuter pronoun or an adjective of indefinite meaning is very
common as cognate accusative (cf. 214. d, 397. a):
Empedocles multa alia peccat (N. D. i. 29), Empedocles commits many other
errors.
ego illud adsentior Theophrasto (De Or. iii. 184), in this I agree with Theo-
phrastus.
mul turn te ista fefellit oplnio (Verr. ii. 1. 88), you were much deceived in this
expectation (this expectation deceived you much),
plus valeo, I have more strength.
plurimum potest, he is strongest.
quid me ista laedunt (Leg. Agr. ii. 32), what harm do those things do me ?
hoc te moneo, I give you this warning (cf. d. N. J ).
id laetor, I rejoice at this (cf. d. N. x ).
quid moror, why do I delay ?
quae homines arant, navigant, aedificant (Sail. Cat. ii. 7), what men do in
ploughing, sailing, and building.
d. So in many common phrases :
si quid ille se velit (B. G. i. 34), if he should want anything of him (if he
should want him in anything),
numquid, Geta, aliud me vis (Ter. Ph. 161), can I do anything more for you,
Geta (there is nothing you want of me, is there)? [A common form
of leave-taking.]
quid est quod, etc., why is it that, etc.? [Cf. hoc erat quod (Aen. ii. 664),
was it for this that, etc.?]
244 SYNTAX : CONSTRUCTION OF CASES [ 390-393
NOTE 1. In these cases substantives with a definite meaning would be in some
other construction :
in hoc eodem peccat, he errs in this same point.
bonis rebus laetari, to rejoice at prosperity. [Also: in, de, or ex.]
de testaments monere, to remind one of the will. [Later : genitive, .351.]
offlci admonere, to remind one of his duty. [Also : de officio.]
NOTE 2. In some of these cases the connection of the accusative with the verb has
so faded out that the words have become real adverbs: as, multum, plus, plurimum ;
plerumque, for the most part, generally; ceterum, cetera, for the rest, otherwise, but;
prim\im,first ; nihil, by no means, not at all ; aliquid, somewhat ; quid, why ; facile, easily.
So in the comparative of adverbs ( 218). But the line cannot be sharply drawn, and
some of the examples under b may be classed as adverbial.
Two ACCUSATIVES
391. Some transitive verbs take a second accusative in addi-
tion to their Direct Object.
This second accusative is either (1) a Predicate Accusative or
(2) a Secondary Object.
Predicate Accusative
392. An accusative in the Predicate referring to the same per-
son or thing as the Direct Object, but not in apposition with it,
is called a Predicate Accusative.
393. Verbs of naming, choosing, appointing, making, esteeming,
showing, and the like, may take a Predicate Accusative along
with the direct object :
5 Spartace, quern enim te potius appellem (Phil. xiii. 22), Spartacus, for
what else shall I call you (than Spartacus) ?
Ciceronem consulem creare, to elect Cicero consul.
me augurem nominaverunt (Phil. ii. 4), they nominated me for augur.
cum gratias ageret quod se consulem fecisset (De Or. ii. 268), when he thanked
him because he had made him consul (supported his candidacy),
hominem prae se neminem putavit (Rose. Am. 135), he thought nobody a man
in comparison with himself.
ducem se praebuit (Vat. 33), he offered himself as a leader.
NOTE. The predicate accusative may be an adjective: as, homines mitis red-
didit et mansuetos (Inv. i. 2), has made men mild and gentle.
a. In changing from the active voice to the passive, the Predicate
Accusative becomes Predicate Nominative ( 284) :
rex ab suis appellatur (B. G. viii. 4), he is called king by his subjects. [Active :
sul eum regem appellant.]
394, 395] ACCUSATIVE OF THE SECONDARY OBJECT 245
Secondary Object
394. The Accusative of the Secondary Object is used (along
with the direct object) to denote something more remotely affected
by the action of the verb.
395. Transitive verbs compounded with prepositions sometimes
take (in addition to the direct object) a Secondary Object, origi-
nally governed by the preposition :
Caesar Germanos flumen traicit (B. C. i. 83), Caesar throws the Germans
across the river.
idem ius iurandum adigit Afranium (id. i. 76), he exacts the same oath from
Afranius.
quos Poiupeius omnia sua praesidia circumduxit (id. iii. 61), whom Pompey
conducted through all his garrison.
NOTE 1. This construction is common only with traduco, traicio, and transports.
The preposition is sometimes repeated with compounds of trans, and usually with
compounds of the other prepositions. The ablative is also used :
donee res suits trans Halyn flumen traicerent (Liv. xxxviii. 25), till they should get
their possessions across the river Halys.
(exercitus) Pad5 traiectus Cremonam (id. xxi. 56), the army was conveyed across
the Po to Cremona (by way of the Po, 429. a) .
NOTE 2. The secondary object may be retained with a passive verb : as, Belgae
Rhenum traducti sunt (B. G. ii. 4), the Belgians were led over the Rhine.
NOTE 3. The double construction indicated in 395 is possible only when the force
of the preposition and the force of the verb are each distinctly felt in the compound,
the verb governing the direct, and the preposition the secondary object.
But often the two parts of the compound become closely united to form a transitive
verb of simple meaning. In this case the compound verb is transitive solely by virtue
of its prepositional part and can have but one accusative, the same which was for-
merly the secondary object, but which now becomes the direct. So traicio comes to
mean either (1) to pierce (anybody) [by hurling] or (2) to cross (a river etc.):
gladio hominem traiecit, he pierced the man with a sword. [Here iacio has lost
all transitive force, and serves simply to give the force of a verb to the mean-
ing of trans, and to tell the manner of the act.]
Rhodanum traiecit, he crossed the Rhone. [Here iacio has become simply a verb
of motion, and traiciS is hardly distinguishable from transeo.]
In these examples hominem and Rhodanum, which would be secondary objects if traiecit
were used in its primary signification, have become the direct objects. Hence in the
passive construction they become the subjects and are put in the nominative :
homo traiectus est gladio, the man was pierced icith a sword.
Rhodanus traiectus est, the Rhone was crossed.
The poetical traiectus lora (Aen. ii. 273), pierced with thongs, comes from a mixture of
two constructions : (1) eum traiecit lora, he rove thongs through him, 1 and (2) eum
traiecit loris, fie pierced him with thongs. In putting the sentence into a passive form,
the direct object of the former (lora) is irregularly kept, and the direct object of th&
latter (eum) is made the subject.
1 Perhaps not found in the active, but cf . traiecto fune (Aen. v. 488).
246 SYNTAX : CONSTRUCTION OF CASES [ 396
396. Some verbs of asking and teaching may take two accusa-
tives, one of the Person (direct object], and the other of the Thing
(secondary object] :
me sententiam rogavit, he asked me my opinion.
dtium divos rogat (Hor. Od. ii. 16. 1), he prays the gods for rest.
haec praetorem postulabas (Tull. 39), you demanded this of the pr&tor.
aedills populum rogare (Liv. vi. 42), to ask the people [to elect] cedUes.
docere pueros elementa, to teach children their A B C"s.
NOTE. This construction is found in classical authors with 6r6, posed, reposco, rogo,
interrogo, flagito, doceo.
/i Some verbs of asking take the ablative of the person with a
preposition instead of the accusative. So, always, peto (ab), quaero
(ex, ab, de); usually posco (ab), flagito (ab), postulO (ab), and occa-
sionally others :
pacem ab Romams petierunt (B. G. ii. 13), they sought peace from the Romans.
quod quaeslvit ex me P. Apuleius (Phil. vi. 1), what Publius Apuleius asked
of me.
b. With the passive of some verbs of asking or teaching, the^?er-
son or the thing may be used as subject (cf. c. N. 2 ) :
Caesar sententiara rogatus est, Ccesar was asked his opinion.
id ab eo flagitabatur (B. C. i. 71), this was urgently demanded of him.
NOTE. The accusative of the thing may be retained with the passive of rog5, and
of verbs of teaching, and occasionally with a few other verbs :
fuerant hoc rogati (Gael. 64), they had been asked this.
poscor meum Laelapa (Ov. M. vii. 771), 7am asked for my Lselaps.
Cicero cuncta edoctus (Sail. Cat. 45), Cicero, being informed of everything.
But with most verbs of asking in prose the accusative of the thing becomes the
subject nominative, and the accusative of the person is put in the ablative with a
preposition: as, ne postulantur quidem vires a senectute (Cat. M. 34), strength is
not even expected of an old man (asked from old age).
c. The verb celo, conceal, may take two accusatives, and the usually
intransitive lateo, lie hid, an accusative of the person:
non te celavi sermonem T. Amp! (Fam. ii. 16. 3), I did not conceal from you
the talk of Titus Ampins.
nee latuere doli fratrem lunonis (A en. i. 130), nor did the wiles of Juno
escape the notice of her brother.
NOTE 1. The accusative of the person with lateo is late or poetical ( 388. c. N. 1 ).
NOTE 2. All the double constructions indicated in 396 arise from the waver-
ing meaning of the verbs. Thus doceo means both to show a thing, and to instruct
a person ; celo, to keep a person in the dark, and to hide a thing ; rog5, to question
a person, and to ask a question or a thing. Thus either accusative may be regarded
as the direct object, and so become the subject of the passive (cf. 6 above), but for
convenience the accusative of the thing is usually called secondary.
397] IDIOMATIC USES OF THE ACCUSATIVE 247
i
Idiomatic Uses
397. The Accusative has the following special uses :
a. The accusative is found in a few adverbial phrases (Adverbial
Accusative) :
id temporis, at that time ; id (istuc) aetatis, at that age.
id (quod) genus, of that (what) sort (perhaps originally nominative).
meam vicem, on my part.
bonam partem, in a great measure ; maximam pattern, for the most part.
virile (muliebre) secus, of the male (female) sex (probably originally in
apposition),
quod si, but if (as to which, if) ; quod nisi, if not.
b. The so-called synecdochical or Greek Accusative, found in poetry
and later Latin, is used to denote the part affected :
caput nectentur (Aen. v. 309), their heads shall be bound (they shall be bound
about the head).
ardentis oculos suffectl sanguine et Igni (id. ii. 210), their glaring eyes blood-
shot and blazing with fire (suffused as to their eyes with blood and lire).
nuda genii (id. i. 320), with her knee bare (bare as to the knee).
femur tragula ictus (Liv. xxi. 7. 10), wounded in the thigh by a dart.
NOTE. This construction is also called the Accusative of Specification.
c. In many apparently similar expressions the accusative may be
regarded as the direct object of a verb in the middle voice ( 156. a) :
inutile ferrum cingitur (Aen. ii. 510), he girds on the useless steel.
nodo sinus collecta fluentis (id. i. 320), having her flowing folds gathered in
a knot.
umeros Insternor pelle leSnis (id. ii. 722), I cover my shoulders with a lion's
skin.
prOtinus induitur faciem cultumque Dianae (Ov. M. ii. 425), forthwith she
assumes the shape and garb of Diana.
d. The Accusative is used in Exclamations :
o fortunatam rem publicam, O fortunate republic ! [Cf. 6 fortunata mora
(Phil. xiv. 31), oh, happy death! (339. a).]
o me" Infellcem (Mil. 102), oh, unhappy I !
me miserum, ah, wretched me!
en quattuor aras (Eel. v. 65), lo,four altars!
ellum (= em ilium), there he is! [Cf. 146. a. N. 2 .]
eccOs (= ecce eos), there they are, look at them !
pr5 deum fidem, good heavens (O protection of the gods) 1
hocine saeclum (Ter. Ad. 304), this generation !
huncine hominem (Verr. v. 62), this man, good heavens!
248 SYNTAX : CONSTRUCTION OF CASES [ 397, 398
NOTE 1. Such expressions usually depend upon some long-forgotten verb. The
substantive is commonly accompanied by an adjective. The use of -ne in some cases
suggests an original question, as in quid? what? why? tell me.
NOTE 2. The omission of the verb has given rise to some other idiomatic accusa-
tives. Such are :
salutem (sc. dicit) (in addressing a letter), greeting.
me dius fidius (sc. adiuvet), so help me heaven (the god of faith),
unde mihl lapidem (Hor. S. ii. 7. 116), where can I get a stone?
quo mihi fortunam (Hor. Ep. i. 5. 12), of what use to me is fortune? [No verb
thought of.]
e. The subject of an infinitive is in the accusative :
intellego te sapere (Fam. vii. 32. 3), I perceive that you are wise.
eas res iactari nolebat (B. G. i. 18), he was unwilling that these matters should
be discussed.
NOTE. This construction is especially common with verbs of knowing, thinking,
telling, and perceiving ( 580) .
/. The accusative in later writers is sometimes used in apposition
with a clause :
deserunt tribunal . . . mantis intentantes, causam discordiae et initium armo-
rum (Tac. Ann. i. 27), they abandon the tribunal shaking their fists,
a cause of dissension and the beginning of war.
NOTE. This construction is an extension (under Greek influence) of a usage more
nearly within the ordinary rules, such as, Eumenem prodidere Antiocho, piicis merce-
dem (Sail. Ep. Mith. 8), they betrayed Eumenes to Antiochus, the price of peace. [Here
Eumenes may be regarded as the price, although the real price is the betrayal.]
For the Accusative of the End of Motion, see 427. 2 ; for the Accusative of Dura-
tion of Time and Extent of Space, see 423, 425 ; for the Accusative with Prepositions,
see 220.
. ABLATIVE CASE
398. Under the name Ablative are included the meanings and, in part, the forms
of three cases, the Ablative proper, expressing the relation FROM ; the Locative,
IN ; and the Instrumental, WITH or BY. These three cases were originally not wholly
distinct in meaning, and their confusion was rendered more certain (1) by the develop-
ment of meanings that approached each other and (2) by phonetic decay, by means of
which these cases have become largely identical in form. Compare, for the first, the
phrases a parte dextera, ON the right; quam ot> causam, FROM which cause; ad famam,
AT (in consequence of) the report; and, for the second, the like forms of the dative
and ablative plural , the old dative in -e of the fi f th declension ( 9G) , and the loss of the
original -d of the ablative ( 49. e; cf. 43. N. i, 92. /, 214. a. N.).
The relation of FROM includes separation, source, cause, agent, and comparison;
that of WITH or BY, accompaniment, instrument, means, manner, quality, and price ;
that of IN or AT, place, time, circumstance. This classification according to the
original cases (to which, however, too great a degree of certainty should not be
attached) 1 is set forth in the following table:
1 Thus the Ablative of Cause may be, at least in part, of Instrumental origin, and
the Ablative Absolute appears to combine the Instrumental and the Locative.
398-401] ABLATIVE OF SEPARATION
I. Ablative Proper (from)
(Separative):
II. Instrumental Ablative
(with):
1. Of Separation, Privation, and Want (400).
2VX3f Source (participles of origin etc.) ( 403).
<*-0f Cause (laboro, exsilio, etc.) (404).
Agent (with ab after Passives) (405).
5.0f Comparison (THAN) (406).
1. Of Manner, Means, and Instrument ( 408 ff.).
2. Of Object of the Deponents utor etc. ( 410).
3. Of Accompaniment (with cum) ( 413) .
4. Of Degree of Difference (414).
5. Of Quality (with Adjectives) (415).
6. Of Price and Exchange ( 416).
7. Of Specification (418).
8. Ablative Absolute (419).
III. Locative Ablative (in, ( 1. Of Place where (commonly with in) (421).
on, at): { 2. Of Time and Circumstance (423).
399. The Ablative is used to denote the relations expressed in
English by the prepositions from; in, at; with, by:
Hberare metu, to deliver from fear.
excultus doctrina, trained in learning.
hoc ipso tempore, at this very time.
caecus avaritia, blind with avarice.
occlsus gladio, slain by the sword.
USES OF THE ABLATIVE PROPER
Ablative of Separation
400. Words signifying Separation or Privation are followed by
the ablative.
401. Verbs meaning to remove, set free, be absent, deprive, and
want, take the Ablative (sometimes with ab or ex) :
oculis se privavit (Fin. v. 87), he deprived himself of eyes.
omnl Gallia Romanls interdlcit (B. G. i. 46), he (Ariovistus) bars the Romans
from the whole of Gaul.
el aqua et Igni interdlcitur (Veil. ii. 45), he is debarred the use of fire and
water. ' [The regular formula of banishment.]
voluptatibus carere (Cat. M. 7), to lack enjoyments.
noil egeo medicina (Lael. 10), I want no physic.
leviimur superstitione, llberamur mortis metu (Fin. i. 63), we are relieved
from superstition, we are freed from fear of death.
solutl a cupiditatibus (Leg. Agr. i. 27), freed from desires.
multos ex his incommodis pecunia se liberasse (Verr. v. 23), that many have
freed themselves by money from these inconveniences.
For the Genitive with verbs of separation and want, see 356. N.
250 SYNTAX : CONSTRUCTION OF CASES [ 402, 403
402. Verbs compounded with a, ab, de, ex, (1) take the simple
Ablative when used figuratively ; but (2) when used literally to
denote actual separation or motion, they usually require a prepo-
sition ( 426. 1) : -
(1) conatu desistere (B. G. i. 8), to desist from the attempt.
desine communibus locis (Acad. ii. 80), quit commonplaces.
ablre magistrate, to leave one's office.
abstinere iniuria, to refrain from wrong.
(2) a propositS aberrare (Fin. v. 83), to wander from the point.
de provincia decedere (Verr. ii. 48), to withdraw from one' 1 s province.
ab iure ablre (id. ii. 114), to go outside of the law.
ex civitate excessere (B. G. vi. 8), they departed from the state. [But cf.
finibus suls excesserant (id. iv. 18), they had left their own territory.]
a. magno demissum nomen lulo (Aen. i. 288), a name descended (sent down)
from great lulus.
For the Dative used instead of the Ablative of Separation, see 381. For the Abla-
tive of the actual place whence in idiomatic expressions, see 427. 1, 428./.
a. Adjectives denoting freedom and want are followed by the
ablative :
urbs nuda praesidiS (Alt. vii. 13), the city naked of defence.
immunis militia (Liv. i. 43),/ree of military service.
plebs orba tribums (Leg. iii. 9), the people deprived of tribunes.
NOTE. A preposition sometimes occurs :
a culpa vacuus (Sail. Cat. 14), free from blame.
liberi a deliciis (Leg. Agr. i. 27) , free from luxuries.
Messana ab his rebus vacua atque nuda est (Verr. iv. 3), Messana is empty and
bare of these things.
For the Genitive with adjectives of want, see 349. a.
Ablative of Source and Material
403. The Ablative (usually with a preposition) is used to denote
the Source from which anything is derived, or the Material of
which it consists :
1. Source :
Rhenus oritur ex Lepontiis (B. G. iv. 10), the Rhine rises in (from) the
country of the Lepontii.
ab his sermo oritur (Lael. 5), the conversation is begun by (arises from) them.
cfiius ratiSnis vim atque utilitatem ex illo caelestl Epicuri volumine accepi-
mus (N. D. i. 43), of this reasoning we have learned the power and
advantage from that divine book of Epicurus.
Buavitatem odorum qui afflarentur e floribus (Cat. M. 69), the sweetness of
the odors which breathed from the flowers.
403] ABLATIVE OF SOURCE AND MATERIAL 251
2. Material:
erat totus ex fraude et mendacio factus (Clu. 72), he was entirely made up of
fraud and falsehood.
valvas magnificentiores, ex auro atque ebore perfections (Verr. iv. 124),
more splendid doors, more finely wrought of gold and ivory.
factum de cautibus antrum (Ov. M. i. 575), a cave formed of rocks.
templum de marmore ponam (Georg. iii. 13), J'W build a temple of marble.
NOTE 1. In poetry the preposition is often omitted.
NOTE 2. The Ablative of Material is a development of the Ablative of Source.
For the Genitive of Material, see 344.
a. Participles denoting birth or origin are followed by the Abla-
tive of Source, generally without a preposition : 1
love natus et Maia (N. D. iii. 56), son of Jupiter and Maia.
edite regibus (Hor. Od. i. 1. 1), descendant of kings.
quo sanguine cretus (Aen. ii. 74), born of lohat blood.
genitae Pandione (Ov. M. vi. 666), daughters of Pandion.
NOTE 1. A preposition (ab, de, ex) is usually expressed with pronouns, with the
name of the mother, and often with that of other ancestors :
ex me hie natus non est sed ex fratre meo (Ter. Ad. 40), this is not my son, but
my brother's (not born from me, etc.) .
cum ex utraque [uxore] filius natus esset (De Or. i. 183), each wife having had
a son (when a son had been born of each wife).
Belus et omnes a Bel5 (Aen. i. 730), Belus and all his descendants.
NOTE 2. Rarely, the place of birth is expressed by the ablative of source: as,
deskleravit C. Fleginatem Placentia, A. Granium Puteolis (B. C. iii. 71), he lost Caius
Fleginas of Placentia, Aulus Granius of Puteoli.
NOTE 3. The Roman tribe is regularly expressed by the ablative alone : as,
Q. Verrem Romilia (Verr. i. 23), Quintus Verres of the Romilian tribe.
6. Some verbs may take the Ablative of Material without a prep-
osition. Such are constare, consistere, and contineri. 2 But with con-
stare, ex is more common :
domus amoenitas non aedificio sed silva constabat (Nep. Alt. 13), the charm
of the house consisted not in the buildings but in the woods.
ex animo constiimus et corpore (Fin. iv. 19), we consist of soul and body.
vita corpore et spiritu continetur (Marc. 28), life consists of body and spirit.
c. The Ablative of Material without a preposition is used with
facere, fieri, and similar words, in the sense of do with, become of:
quid hoc homine faciatis (Verr. ii. 1. 42), what are you going to do with this
man?
quid Tulliola mea flet (Fam. xiv. 4. 3), what will become of my dear Tullia ?
quid te futurum est (Verr. ii. 155), what will become of you?
1 As natus, satus, editus, genitus, ortus, prognatus, generatus, cretus, creatus, oriundus.
2 The ablative with cSnsistere and contineri is probably locative in origin (cf . 431).
252 SYNTAX : CONSTRUCTION OF CASES [ 403, 404
d. The Ablative of Material with ex, and in poetry without a
preposition, sometimes depends directly on a noun :
n5n pauca pocula ex auro (Verr. iv. 62), not a few cups of gold.
scopulis pendentibus antrum (Aen. i. 166), a cave of hanging rocks.
For Ablative of Source instead of Partitive Genitive, see 346. c.
Ablative of Cause
404. The Ablative (with or without a preposition) is used to
express Cause : 1
neglegentia plectimur (Lael. 85), we are chastised for negligence.
gubernatoris ars utilitate non arte laudatur (Fin. i. 42), the pilot's skill is
praised for its service, not its skill.
certls de causis, for cogent reasons.
ex vulnere aeger (Rep. ii. 38), disabled by (from) a wound.
mare a sole lucet (Acad. ii. 105), the sea gleams in the sun (from the sun).
a. The Ablative of Cause without a preposition is used with laboro
(also with ex), exsilio, exsulto, triumphs, lacrimo, ardeo :
doleo te aliis malls laborare (Fam. iv. 3), I am sorry that you suffer" with
other ills. [Cf. ex acre alieno laborare (B. C. iii. 22), to labor under
debt (from another's money).]
exsultare laetitia, triumphare gaudio coepit (Clu. 14), she began to exult in
gladness, and triumph in joy.
exsilui gaudio (Fam. xvi. 16), I jumped for joy. [Cf. lacrimo gaudio (Ter.
Ad. 409), I weep for joy.]
ardere doldre et Ira (Att. ii. 19. 5), to be on fire with pain and anger.
For gaudeS and glorior, see 431.
b. The motive which influences the mind of the person acting is
expressed by the ablative of cause ; the object exciting the emotion
often by ob 2 or propter with the accusative :
non ob praedam aut spoliandi cupidine (Tac. II. i. 63), not for booty or through
lust of plunder.
amicitia ex se et propter se expetenda (Fin. ii. 83), friendship must be sought
of and for itself.
NOTE. But these constructions are often confused: as, parere legibus propter
mctum (Par. 34), to obey the laws on account of fear. [Here metum is almost equiva-
lent to "the terrors of the law," and hence propter is used, though the ablative would
be more natural.]
1 The cause, in the ablative, is originally source, as is shown by the use of ab, de,
ex ; but when the accusative with ad, ob, is used, the idea of cause arises from nearness.
Occasionally it is difficult to distinguish between cause and means (which is the old
Instrumental case) or circumstance (which is either the Locative or the Instrumental).
2 Originally a mercantile use : cf . ob decem minas, for the price of ten mime.
404, 405] ABLATIVE OF AGENT 253
c. The ablatives causa and gratia, for the sake of, are used with a
genitive preceding, or with a pronoun in agreement :
ea causa, on account of this ; qua gratia (Ter. Eun. 99), for what purpose ?
mea causa, for my sake ; mea gratia (Plant.), for my sake.
ex mea et rei piiblicae causa, for my own sake and the republics.
praedictionis causa (N. D. iii. 5), by way of prophecy.
exempli gratia (verbl gratia) , for example.
sul purgandl gratia, for the sake of clearing themselves.
NOTE. But gratia with possessives in this use is rare.
I
Ablative of Agent
405. The Voluntary Agent after a passive verb is expressed by
the Ablative with a or ab :
laudatur ab his, culpatur ab illls (Hor. S. i. 2. 11), he is praised by these,
blamed by those.
ab animo tuo quidquid agitur id agitur a te (Tusc. i. 52), whatever is done by
your soul is done by yourself.
a filiis in iudiciuin vocatus est (Cat. M. 22), he was brought to trial by his sons.
cum a cuncto consessu plausus esset multiplex datus (id. 64), when great
applause had been given by the whole audience.
ne virtus ab audacia vinceretur (Sest. 92), that valor might not be overborne
by audacity. [Audacia is iii a manner personified. ]
NOTE 1. This construction is developed from the Ablative of Source. The agent
is conceived as the source or author of the action.
NOTE 2. The ablative of the agent (which requires a or ab) must be carefully
distinguished from the ablative of instrument, which has no preposition ( 409) . Thus
occlsus gladio, slain by a sword; but, occisus ab hoste, slain by an enemy.
NOTE 3. The ablative of the agent is commonest with nouns denoting persons, but
it occurs also with names of things or qualities when these are conceived as performing
an action and so are partly or wholly personified, as in the last example under the rule.
a. The ablative of the agent with ab is sometimes used after intran-
sitive verbs that have a passive sense :
perlre ab hoste, to be slain by an enemy.
b. The personal agent, when considered as instrument or means,
is often expressed by per with the accusative, or by opera with a
genitive or possessive :
ab exploratSribus certior factus est (B. G. i. 21), he was informed by scouts (in
person). But,
per exploratores Caesar certior factus est (id. i. 12), Caesar was informed by
(means of) scouts.
elautae opera Neptuni (Plaut. Rud. 699). washed cleanby the services of Neptune.
n5n mea opera evenit (Ter. Hec. 228), it hasn't happened through me (by my
exertions). [Cf. eius opera, B. G. v. 27.]
254 SYNTAX : CONSTRUCTION OF CASES [ 405-407
NOTE 1. The ablative of means or instrument is often used instead of the abla^
tive of agent, especially in military phrases: as, haec excubitoribus tenebantur
(B. G. vii. 69), these (redoubts) were held by means of sentinels.
NOTE 2. An animal is sometimes regarded as the means or instrument, some-
times as the agent. Hence both the simple ablative and the ablative with ab occur :
equo vein, to ride on horseback (be conveyed by means of a horse). [Not ab equo.]
clipeos a muribus esse derosos (Div. i. 99), that the shields were gnawed by mice.
For the Dative of the Agent with the Gerundive, see 374.
Ablative of Comparison
406. The Comparative degree is often followed by the Abla-
tive 1 signifying than :
Cato est Cicerone eloquentior, Goto is more eloquent than Cicero.
quid nobis duobus laboriosius est (Mil. 5), what more burdened with toil than
we two ?
vllius argentum est auro, virtutibus aurum (Hor. Ep. i. 1. 52), silver is less
precious than gold, gold than virtue.
a. The idiomatic ablatives opinione, spe, solito, dicto, aequo, credi-
bill, and iusto are used after comparatives instead of a clause :
celerius opinione (Fam. xiv. 23), faster than one would think.
serius spe omnium (Liv. xxvi. 26), later than all hoped (than the hope of all),
amnis solito citatior (id. xxiii. 19. 11), a stream swifter than its wont.
gravius aequ5 (Sail. Cat. 51), more seriously than was right.
407. The comparative may be followed by quam, than. When
quam is used, the two things compared are put in the same case :
n5n callidior es quam hie (Rose. Am. 49), you are not more cunning than he.
contionibus accommodatior est quam iudiciis (Clu. 2), Jitter for popular assem-
blies than for courts.
misericordia dignior quam contumelia (Pison. 32), more worthy of pity than of
disgrace.
a. The construction with quam is required when the first of the
things compared is not in the Nominative or Accusative.
NOTE 1. There are several limitations on the use of the ablative of comparison,
even when the first of the things compared is in the nominative or accusative. Thus
the quam construction is regularly used (1) when the comparative is in agreement
with a genitive, dative, or ablative : as, senex est eo meliore condicione quam adules-
cens (Cat. M. 68) , an old man is in this respect in a better position than a young man ;
and (2) when the second member of the comparison is modified by a clause : as, minor
fuit aliquanto is qui primus fabulam dedit quam ei qui, etc. (Brut. 73), he who first
presented a play was somewhat younger than those who, etc.
1 This is a branch of the Ablative of Separation. The object with which anything
is compared is the starting-point/?'OHi which we reckon. Thus, " Cicero is eloquent " ;
but, starting from him, we come to Cato, who is " more so than he."
407] ABLATIVE OF COMPARISON 255
NOTE 2. The poets sometimes use the ablative of comparison where the prose
construction requires quam: as, pane egeo iam mellitis potiore placentis (Hor. Ep.
i. 10. 11), / now want bread better than honey-cakes.
NOTE 3. Relative pronouns having a definite antecedent never take quam in this
construction, but always the ablative: as, rex erat Aeneas iiobls, quo iustior alter
nee, etc. (Aen. i. 544), JEneas was our king, than whom no other [was] more righteous.
b. In sentences expressing or implying a general negative the
ablative (rather than quam) is the regular construction when the first
member of the comparison is in the nominative or accusative :
nihil detestabilius dedecore, niliil foedius servitute (Phil. iii. 36), nothing is
more dreadful than disgrace, nothing viler than slavery.
neminem esse cari5rem te (Att. x. 8 A. 1), that no one is dearer than you.
c. After the comparatives plus, minus, amplius, longius, without
quam, a word of measure or number is often used with no change in
its case :
plus septingenti capti (Liv. xli. 12), more than seven hundred were taken.
[Nominative.]
plus tertia parte interfecta (B. G. iii. 6), more than a third part being slain.
[Ablative Absolute.]
aditus in latitudinem non amplius ducentorum pedum relinquebatur (id. ii.
29), an approach of not more than two hundred feet in width was left.
[Genitive of Measure: 345. 6.]
NOTE. The noun takes the case required by the context, without reference to the
comparative, which is in a sort of apposition : ' ' seven hundred were taken [and] more. ' '
(I. Alius is sometimes followed by the ablative in poetic and collo-
quial use ; in formal prose it is followed by ac (atque), et, more rarely
by nisi, quam :
nee quicquam aliud llbertate communi (Fam. xi. 2), nothing else than the com-
mon liberty.
alias Lysipp5 (Hor. Ep. ii. 1. 240), another than Lysippus.
num aliud videtur esse ac meorum bonorum dlreptio (Dom. 51), does it seem
anything different from the plundering of my property ?
erat historia nihil aliud nisi annalium confectio (De Or. ii. 52), history was
nothing else but a compiling of records.
e. The comparative of an adverb is usually followed by quam, rarely
by the ablative except in poetry :
tempus te citius quam oratiS deficeret (Rose. Am. 89), time would fail you
sooner than words. But,
cur olivum sanguine viperino cautius vitat (Hor. Od. i. 8. 9), why does he shun
oil more carefully than viper' 1 s blood ?
NOTE. Prepositions meaning before or beyond (as ante, prae, praeter, supra) are
sometimes used with a comparative: as, scelere ante alios immanior omnis (Aen. i.
347), more monstrous in crime than all other men.
256 SYNTAX : CONSTRUCTION OF CASES [ 408, 409
USES OF THE ABLATIVE AS INSTRUMENTAL
408. Means, Instrument, Manner, and Accompaniment are denoted by the Instru-
mental Ablative (see 398), but some of these uses more commonly require a prepo-
sition. As they all come from one source (the old Instrumental Case) no sharp line
can be drawn between them, and indeed the Romans themselves can hardly have
thought of any distinction. Thus, in omnibus precibus orabant, they entreated with
every [kind of] prayer, the ablative, properly that of means, cannot be distinguished
from that of manner.
Ablative of Means or Instrument
409. The Ablative is used to denote the means or instrument
of an action :
certantes pugms, calcibus, unguibus, morsu denique (Tusc. v. 77), fighting
with fists, heels, nails, and even teeth.
cum pugms et calcibus conclsus esset (Verr. iii. 56), when he had been pum-
melled with their fists and heels.
meis laboribus interitu rem publicam liberavl (Sull. 33), by my toils I have
saved the stale from ruin.
multae istarum arborum mea manu sunt satae (Cat. M. 59), many of those
trees were set out with my own hands.
vi victa vis, vel potius oppressa virtute audacia est (Mil. 30), violence was
overcome by violence, or rather, boldness was put down by courage.
a. The Ablative of Means is used with verbs and adjectives of
filling, abounding, and the like :
Deus boms omnibus explevit mundum (Tim. 3), God has filled the world with
all good things.
aggere et cratibus fossas explent (B. G. vii. 86), they fill up the ditches with
earth and fascines.
t5tum montem hominibus complevit (id. i. 24), he filled the whole mountain
with men.
oplmus praeda (Verr. ii. 1. 132), rich with spoils.
vita plena et conf erta voluptatibus (Sest. 23), lifefilled and crowded ivith delights.
Forum AppI differtum nautis (Hor. S. i. 5. 4), Forum Appii crammed with
bargemen.
NOTE. In poetry the Genitive is often used with these words. Compleo and impleo
sometimes take the genitive in prose (cf . 356) ; so regularly plenus and (with personal
nouns) completus and refertus ( 349. a):
omnia plena luctus et maeroris fuerunt (Sest. 128), everything was full of grief
and mourning.
dllam denariorum implore (Fam. ix. 18), to fill a pot with money. [Here evidently
colloquial, otherwise rare in Cicero.]
convivium vicmSrum compleo (Cat. M. 46, in the moutk of Cato), I fill up the ban-
quet with my neighbors.
cum completus mercatorum career esset (Verr. v. 147), when the prison was full of
traders.
410, 411] ABLATIVE OF MEANS OR INSTRUMENT 257
410. The deponents utor, fruor, fungor, potior, vescor, with several
of their compounds, 1 govern the Ablative :
utar vestra bemgnitate (Arch. 18), 1 will avail myself of your kindness.
ita mihi salva re publica voblscum perfrul liceat (Cat. iv. 11), so may I enjoy
with you the state secure and prosperous.
fungi inanl munere (Aen. vi. 885), to perform an idle service.
auro heros potitur (Ov. M. vii. 1,50), the hero takes the gold.
lacte et feriua carne vescSbantur (lug. 89), they fed on milk and game.
NOTE. This is properly an Ahlative of Means (instrumental) and the verbs are
really in the middle voice ( 156. a). Thus utor with the ablative signifies I employ
myself (or avail myself) by means of, etc. But these earlier meanings disappeared
from the language, leaving the construction as we find it.
a. Potior sometimes takes the Genitive, as always in the phrase
potlri rerum, to get control or be master of affairs ( 357. a) :
totlus Galliae sese potirl posse sperant (B. G. i. 3), they hope they can get
possession of the whole of Gaul.
NOTE 1. In early Latin, these verbs are sometimes transitive and take the
accusative :
functus est officium (Ter. Ph. 281), he performed the part, etc.
ille patria potitur commoda (Ter. Ad. 871), he enjoys his ancestral estate.
NOTE 2. The Gerundive of these verbs is used personally in the passive as if the
verb were transitive (but cf . 500. 3) : as, Heraclio omnia utenda ac possidenda tra-
diderat (Verr. ii. 46), he had given over everything to Heracliusfor his use and posses-
sion (to be used and possessed) .
411. Opus and usus, signifying need, take the Ablative: 2
magistratibus opus est (Leg. iii. 5), there is need of magistrates.
nuiic viribus usus (Aen. viii. 441), now there is need of strength.
NOTE. The ablative with usus is not common in classic prose.
a. With opus the ablative of a perfect participle is often found,
either agreeing with a noun or used as a neuter abstract noun :
opus est tua exprompta malitia atque astutia (Ter. And. 723), / must have
your best cunning arid cleverness set to work.
properato opus erat (cf. Mil. 49), there was need of haste.
NOTE 1. So rarely with usus in comedy: as, quid istis usust conscriptis (PI.
Bacch. 749), what's the good of having them in writing?
NOTE 2. The omission of the noun gives rise to complex constructions : as, quid
opus factost (cf. B. G. i. 42), what must be done? [Cf. quid opus est fieri? with quo
facto opus est ?]
1 These are abutor, deutor (very rare) , defungor, def ruor, perfruor, perfungor.
2 This construction is properly an instrumental one, in which opus and usus mean
work and service, and the ablative expresses that with which the work is performed
or the service rendered. The noun usus follows the analogy of the verb utor, and the
ablative with opus est appears to be an extension of that with usus est.
258 SYNTAX: CONSTRUCTION OF CASES [411-413
b. Opus is often found in the predicate, with the thing needed in
the nominative as subject:
dux nobls et auctor opus est (Fam. ii. 6. 4), we need a chief and responsible
adviser' (a chief, etc., is necessary for us).
si quid ipsl opus esset (B. G. i. 34), if he himself wanted anything (if any-
thing should be necessary for him).
quae opus sunt (Cato R. R. 14. 3), things which are required.
Ablative of Manner
412. The Manner of an action is denoted by the Ablative ; usu-
ally with cum, unless a limiting adjective is used with the noun :
cum celeritate venit, he came with speed. But,
summa celeritate venit, he came with the greatest speed.
quid refert qua me ratione cogatis (Lael. 20), what difference does it make in
what way you compel me ?
a. But cum is often used even when the ablative has a limiting
adj ective :
quants id cum periculS fecerit (B. G. i. 17), at what risk he did this.
non minore cum taedio recubant (Plin. Ep. ix. 17. 3), they recline with no less
weariness.
b. With such words of manner as modo, pacto, ratione, ritu, vi, via,
and with stock expressions which have become virtually adverbs (as
silentio, iure, iniuria), cum is not used :
apis Matinae more modoque carmina fingo (Hor. Od. iv. 2. 28), in the style
and manner of a Matinian bee I fashion songs.
NOTE. So in poetry the ablative of manner often omits cum: as, insequitur cu-
mulo aquae mons (Aen. i. 105), a mountain of water follows in a mass. [CL murmure
(id. i. 124) ; rimis (id. i. 123).]
Ablative of Accompaniment
413. Accompaniment is denoted by the Ablative, regularly with
cum:
cum coniugibus ac liberis (Att. viii. 2. 3), with wives and children.
cum funditoribus sagittariisque flumen transgress! (B. G. ii. 19), having
crossed the river with the archers and slingers.
quae supplicatio si cum ceteris conferatur (Cat. iii. 15), if this thanksgiving
be compared with others.
quae [lex] esse cum telo vetat (Mil. 11), the law which forbids [one] to go
armed (be with a weapon),
si secum suos eduxerit (Cat. i. 30), if he leads out with him his associates.
[For secum, see 144. 6. x. 1 .]
413, 414] ABLATIVE OF DEGREE OF DIFFERENCE 259
a. The ablative is used without cum in some military phrases, and
here and there by early writers :
subsequebatur omnibus copiis (B. G. ii. 19), he followed close with all his
forces. [But also cum omnibus copiis, id. i. 26.]
hoc praesidio profectus est (Verr. ii. 1. 86), with this force he set out.
NOTE. Misce5 and iung5, with some of their compounds, and c5nfundo take either
(1) the Ablative of Accompaniment with or without cum, or (2) sometimes the Dative
(mostly poetical or late) :
mixta dolore voluptas (B. Al. 56), pleasure mingled with pain.
cuius anirnuincum suo misceat (Lael. 81), whose soul he may mingle with his own.
fletumque cruori miscuit (Ov. M. iv. 140), and mingled tears with blood.
Caesar eas cohortis cum exercitu suo coniuuxit (B. C. i. 18), Ciesar united those
cohorts with his own army.
aer coniunctus terns (Lucr. v. 562), air united with earth.
humano capitl cervicem equinam iungere (Hor. A. P. 1), to join to a human head
a horse's neck.
It. Words of Contention and the like require cum :
armls cum hoste certare (Off. iii. 87), to fight with the enemy in arms.
libenter haec cum Q. Catulo disputarein (Manil. 66), I should gladly discuss
these matters with Quintus Catulus.
NOTE. But words of contention may take the Dative in poetry (see 368. a).
Ablative of Degree of Difference
414. With Comparatives and words implying comparison the
ablative is used to denote the Degree of Difference :
qulnque milibus passuum distat, it is five miles distant.
a milibus passuum circiter duobus (B. G. v. 32), at a distance of about two
miles. [For a as an adverb, see 433. 3.]
aliquot ante annls (Tusc. i. 4), several years before.
aliquanto post suspexit (Rep. vi. 9), a while after, he looked up.
multo me vigilare acrius (Cat. i. 8), that I watch much more sharply.
nihilo erat ipse Cyclops quam aries prudentior (Tusc. v. 115), the Cyclops
himself was not a whit wiser than the ram.
a. The ablatives quS . . . eo" (hoc), and quanto . . . tant5, are used
correlatively with comparatives, like the English the . . . the 1 :
quo minus cupiditatis, eo plus auctoritatis (Liv. xxiv. 28), the less greed, the
more weight (by what the less, by that the more).
quanto erat gravior oppugnatio, tantd crebriOres litterae mittebantur (B. G.
v. 45), the severer the siege was, the more frequently letters were sent.
1 In this phrase the is not the definite article but a pronominal adverb, being the
Anglo-Saxon thy, the instrumental case of the pronoun thsRt, that. This pronoun is
used both as relative (by which, by how much) and as demonstrative (by that, by so
much) . Thus the . . . the corresponds exactly to quo . . . e6.
260 SYNTAX : CONSTRUCTION OF CASES [ 414, 416
NOTE. To this construction are doubtless to be referred all eases of qu5 and e5
(h6c) with a comparative, even when they have ceased to be distinctly felt as degree
of difference and approach the Ablative of Cause :
e5que me minus paenitet (N. D. i. 8), and for that reason I regret less, etc. (by so
much the less I regret).
haec c5 facilius faciebant, quod (B. G. iii. 12), this they did the more easily for this
reason, because, etc. [Cf. hoc maiore spe, quod (id. iii. 9).]
6. The Ablative of Comparison ( 406) and the Ablative of Degree
of Difference are sometimes used together with the same adjective :
paulo minus ducentis (B. C. iii. 28), a little less than two hundred.
patria, quae mini vita mea multo est cSrior (Cat. i. 27), my country, which
is much dearer to me than life.
But the construction with quam is more common.
Ablative of Quality
415. The quality of a thing is denoted by the Ablative with an
adjective or genitive modifier.
This is called the Descriptive Ablative or Ablative of Quality : 1
animo meliore sunt gladiatOres (Cat. ii. 26), the gladiators are of a better
mind.
quae cum esset civitas aequissim5 iure ac foedere (Arch. 6), as this was a
city with perfectly equal constitutional rights.
mulierem eximia pulchritudine (Verr. ii. 1. 64), a woman of rare beauty.
Aristoteles, vir summo ingenio, scientia, copia (Tusc. i. 7), Aristotle, a man of
the greatest genius, learning, and gift of expression.
d6 DomitiO dlxit versum Graecum eadem sententia (Deiot. 25), concerning
Domitius he recited a Greek line of the same tenor.
NOTB. The Ablative of Quality (like the Genitive of Quality, 345) modifies a sub-
stantive by describing it. It is therefore equivalent to an adjective, and may be either
attributive or predicate. In this it differs from other ablatives, which are equivalent
to adverbs.
a. In expressions of quality the Genitive or the Ablative may
often be used indifferently ; lout physical qualities are oftener denoted
by the Ablative (cf. 345. N.) :
capillo sunt promisso (B. G. v. 14), they have long hair.
ut capite operto sit (Cat. M. 34), to have his head covered (to be with covered
head),
quam fuit inbecillus P. African! fllius, quam tenul aut nulla potius valetfldine
(id. 35), how weak was the son of Africanus, of what feeble health, or
rather none at all !
1 It was originally instrumental and appears to have developed from accompani-
ment ( 413) and manner ( 412).
$ 416, 417] ABLATIVE OF PRICE 261
Ablative of Price
416. The price of a thing is put in the Ablative :
agrum vendidit sgstertium sex milibus, he sold the land for 6000 sesterces.
Antonius rggna addlxit pecunia (Phil. vii. 16), Antony sold thrones for money.
logos ridicules : quis cena poscit (PI. Stich. 221), jokes : who wants them for
(at the price of) a dinner ?
magno ill! ea cunctatiO stetit (Liv. ii. 36), that hesitation cost him dear.
NOTE. To this head is to be referred the Ablative of the Penalty ( 353. 1).
417. Certain adjectives of quantity are used in the Genitive to
denote indefinite value. Such are magnl, parvi, tanti, quanti, pluris,
minoris :
mea magnl interest, it is of great consequence to me.
illud parvi rgfert (Manil. 18), this is of small account.
est mihi tanti (Cat. ii. 15), it is worth the price (it is of so much).
Verrgsne tibi tanti fuit (Verr. ii. 1. 77), was Verres of so much account to
you?
tantOne minoris decumae vgnigrunt (id. iii. 106), were the tithes sold for so
much less ?
ut tg redimas captum quam queas minimo : si nequeas paululo, at quanti queas
(Ter. Eun. 74), to ransom yourself, when captured, at the cheapest rate
you can ; if you can't for a small sum, then at any rate for what you can.
NOTE. These are really Genitives of Quality ( 345. 6).
a. The genitive of certain colorless nouns is used to denote indefi-
nite value. Such are nihill (nili), nothing; assis, a farthing (rare) ;
flocci (a lock of wool), a straw :
nOn flocci facio (Att. xiii. 50), I care not a straw. [Colloquial.]
utinam ego istuc abs tg factum nili penderem (Ter. Eun. 94), fliat I cared
nothing for this being done by you ! [Colloquial.]
b. With verbs of exchanging, either the thing taken or the thing
given in exchange may be in the Ablative of Price. Such are mut5.
commute, permuto, vertS :
fidem suara et religiOnem pecunia commutare (Clu. 129), to barter his faith
and conscience for money.
exsilium patria side mutavit (Q. C. iii. 7. 11), he exchanged hi native land
for exile (he took exile in exchange for his native land).
vfilOx saepe Lucrgtilem mutat Lycaeo Faunus (Hor. Od. i. 17. 1), nimble
Faunu often changes Lycasus for Lucretilis. [He takes Lucre tilis at
the price o/Lycaeus, i.e. he goes from Lycseus to Lucretilis.]
vertere funeribus triumphOa (id. i. 35. 4), to change the triumph to the funeral
train (exchange triumphs for funerals). [Poetical.]
262 SYNTAX : CONSTRUCTION OF CASES [ 417, 418
NOTE. With verbs of exchanging cum is often used, perhaps with a different con-
ception of the action: as, aries . . . cum croceo mutabit vellera Iut5 (Eel. iv. 44), the
ram shall change his fleece for [one dyed with] the yellow saffron.
c. With verbs of buying and selling the simple Ablative of Price
must be used, except in the case of tanti, quanti, pluris, minoris :
quant! earn emit? vili . . . quot minis? quadraginta minis (PI. Epid. 51),
what did he buy her for f Cheap. For how many mince f Forty.
Ablative of Specification
418. The Ablative of Specification denotes that in respect to
which anything is or is done :
virtute praecedunt (B. G. i. 1), they excel in courage.
claudus altero pede (Nep. Ages. 8), lame of one foot.
lingua haesitantes, voce absoni (De Or. i. 116), hesitating in speech, harsh in
voice.
sunt enim homines non re sed nomine (Off. i. 105), for they are men not in
fact, but in name.
maior natu, older; minor natu, younger (cf. 131. c).
paulum aetate progressl (Cat. M. 33), somewhat advanced in age.
corpore senex esse poterit, animd numquam erit (id. 38), he may be an old man
in body, he never will be [old] at heart.
a. To this head are to be referred many expressions where the abla-
tive expresses that in accordance with which anything is or is done :
meo iure, with perfect right; but, meo modd, in my fashion.
mea sententia, in my opinion; but also more formally, ex mea sententia.
[Here the sense is the same, but the first ablative* is specification, the
second source.]
propinquitate coniunctos atque natura (Lael. 50), closely allied by kindred and
nature. [Here the ablative is not different in sense from those above,
but no doubt is a development of means.]
qul vincit viribus (id. 55), who surpasses in strength. [Here it is impossible
to tell whether viribus is the means of the superiority or that in respect
to which one is superior.]
NOTE. As the Romans had no such categories as we make, it is impossible to
classify all uses of the ablative. The ablative of specification (originally instru-
mental) is closely akin to that of manner, and shows some resemblance to means and
vause.
For the Supine in -u as an Ablative of Specification, see 510.
b. The adj ectives dignus and indignus take the ablative :
vir patre, avo, maiSribus suls dignissimus (Phil. iii. 25), a man most worthy
of his father, grandfather, and ancestors.
te onm! honore indignissimum iudicavit (Vat. 39), he judged you entirely
unworthy of every honor.
418, 419] ABLATIVE ABSOLUTE 263
NOTE 1. So the verb dignor in poetry and later prose : as, baud equidem tali me
dignor honore (Aen. i. 335), I do not deem myself worthy of such an honor.
NOTE 2. Dignus and indignus sometimes take the genitive in colloquial usage and
in poetry :
curam dignissimam tuae virtutis (Balbus in Att. viii. 15), care most worthy of
your noble character.
dignus salutis (Plant. Trin. 1153), worthy of safety.
magnorum baud umquam indignus avorum (Aen. xii. 649), newer unworthy of my
great ancestors.
Ablative Absolute
419. A noun or pronoun, with a participle in agreement, may
be put in the Ablative to define the time or circumstances of an
action. This construction is called the Ablative Absolute : l
Caesar, acceptls litteris, nuntium mittit (B. G. v. 46), having received the
letter, Caesar sends a messenger (the letter having been received),
quibus rebus cognitis Caesar apud mllites contionatur (B. C. i. 7), having
learned this, Ccesar makes a speech to the soldiers.
fugatS omui equitatu (B. G. vii. 68), all the cavalry being put to flight.
interfecto Indutiomaro (id. vi. 2), upon the death of Indutiomarus.
nondum hieme confecta in finis Nerviorum contendit (id. vi. 3), though the
winter was not yet over, he hastened into the territory of the Neroii.
compressl [sunt] conatiis nfillo tumultu publice concitato (Cat. i. 11), the
attempts were put down without exciting any general alarm.
ne vobls quidem omnibus re etiam tuin probata (id. ii. 4), since at that time
the facts were not yet proved even to all of you.
NOTE. The ablative absolute is an adverbial modifier of the predicate. It is,
however, not grammatically dependent on any word in the sentence : hence its name
absolute (absolutus, i.e. free or unconnected). A substantive in the ablative absolute
very seldom denotes a person or thing elsewhere mentioned in the same clause.
a. An adjective, or a second noun, may take the place of the parti-
ciple in the Ablative Absolute construction : 2
exigua parte aestatis reliqua (B. G. iv. 20), when but a small part of the sum-
mer was left (a small part of the summer remaining).
L. Domitio Ap. Claudio consulibus (id. v. 1), in the consulship of Lucius Domi-
tius and Appius Claudius (Lucius Domitius and Appius Claudius [being]
consuls). [The regular way of expressing a date, see 424. g.~\
nil despgrandum Teucro duce et auspice Teucro (Hor. Od. i. 7. 27), there
should be no despair under Teucer's leadership and auspices (Teucer
being leader, etc.).
1 The Ablative Absolute is perhaps of instrumental origin. It is, however, some-
times explained as an outgrowth of the locative, and in any event certain locative
constructions (of place and time) must have contributed to its development.
2 The present participle of esse, wanting in Latin ( 170. b), is used in Sanskrit and
Greek as in English.
264 SYNTAX : CONSTRUCTION OF CASES [ 419, 420
b. A phrase or clause, used substantively, sometimes occurs as
ablative absolute with a participle or an adjective :
incerto quid peterent (Liv. xxviii. 36), as it was uncertain what they should
aim at (it being uncertain, etc.).
comperto vanum esse formldinem (Tac. Ann. i. 66), when it was found that
the alarm was groundless.
cur praetereatur demonstrate (Inv. ii. 34), when the reason for omitting it has
been explained (why it is passed by being explained).
NOTE. This construction is very rare except in later Latin.
c. A participle or an adjective is sometimes used adverbially in
the ablative absolute without a substantive :
consults (Off. i. 27), on purpose (the matter having been deliberated on),
mihi optato vfineris (Att. xiii. 28. 3), you will come in accordance with my
wish.
sereno (Liv. xxxi. 12), under a clear sky (it [being] clear),
nee auspicate nee Htato (id. v. 38), with no auspices or favorable sacrifice.
tranquillo, ut aiunt, qullibet gubernator est (Sen. Ep. 85. 34), in good
weather, as they say, any man 's a pilot.
420. The Ablative Absolute often takes the place of a Sub-
ordinate Clause.
Thus it may replace
1. A Temporal Clause ( 541 ff.):
patre interfect5, [his] father having been killed. [This corresponds to cum
pater interfectus esset, when his father had been killed.]
recentibus sceleris ius vestlgils (Q. C. vii. 1. 1), while the traces of the crime
were fresh. [Cf . dum recentia sunt vestigia. ]
2. A Causal Clause ( 540) :
at el qui Alesiae obsidebantur praeterita di qua auxilia suOrum exspecta-
verant, consumpto omnl frumentS, conciliS coactO consultabant (B. G.
vii. 77), but those who were under siege at Alesia, since the time, etc.,
had expired, and their grain had been exhausted, calling a council (see 6
below), consulted together. [Cf. cum dies praeterisset, etc.]
Dargus, desperata pace, ad reparandas virls intendit animum (Q. C. iv. 6. 1),
Darius, since he despaired of peace, devoted his energies to recruiting
his forces. [Cf. cum pacem d6speraret. ]
3. A Concessive Clause ( 527) :
at e repugnante flebat (consul), iramo verO e5 fiebat magis (Mil. 34), but
though he (Clodius) opposed, he (Milo) was likely to be elected consul;
nay, rather, etc.
turribus excitatis, tamen has altitude puppium ex barbarls navibus supe-
rabat (B. G. iii. 14), although towers had been built up, still the high
sterns of the enemy' 1 s ships rose above them.
420-422] ABLATIVE OF PLACE 265
4. A Conditional Clause ( 521) :
occurrebat el, mancam et debilem praeturam futuram suam, consule Miloae
(Mil. 25), it occurred to him that his prcetorship would be maimed and
feeble, if Milo were consul, [si Milo consul esset. ]
qua (regione) subacta licebit decurrere in illud mare (Q. C. ix. 3. 13), if this
region is subdued, we shall be free to run down into that sea.
qua quidem detracta (Arch. 28), if this be taken away.
5. A Clause of Accompanying Circumstance :
ego haec a Chrysogon5 mea sponte, remote Sex. RosciS, quaerO (Rose. Ana.
130), of my own accord, without reference to Sextus Roscius (Sextus
Roscius being put aside), I ask these questions of Chrysogonus.
nee imperante nee sciente nee praesente domino (Mil. 29), without their master 1 s
giving orders, or knowing it, or being present.
NOTE. As the English Nominative Absolute is far less common than the Abla-
tive Absolute in Latin, a change of form is generally required in translation. Thus
the present participle is oftenest to be rendered in English by a relative clause with
when or while ; and the perfect passive participle by the perfect active participle.
These changes may be seen in the following example :
At ill!, intermisso spatio, imprudenti- But they, having paused a space, while
bus nostrls atque occupdtis in mumtione our men were unaware and busied in for-
castrorum, subito se ex silvls eiecerunt ; tifying the camp, suddenly threw them-
impetuque in eos facto qui erant in sta- selves out of the woods ; then, making an
tione pro castris conlocati, acriter pug- attack upon those who were on guard in
naverunt ; dudbusque missis subsidio front of the camp, they fought fiercely ;
cohortibus a Caesare, cum hae (perexi- and, though two cohorts had been sent by
gud intermisso loci spatio inter se) con- Caesar as reinforcements, after these had
stitissent, novQ genere pugnae perterritls taken their position (leaving very little
nostris, per medios audacissime perrupe- space of ground between them), as our
runt seque inde incolumis receperunt. men were alarmed by the strange kind
CAESAR, B. G. v. 15. of fighting, they dashed most daringly
through the midst of them and got off
safe.
For the Ablative with Prepositions, see 220.
THE ABLATIVE AS LOCATIVE
Ablative of Place
421. The Locative Case was originally used (literally) to denote the place where
and (figuratively) to denote the time when (a development from the idea of place).
But this case was preserved only in names of towns and a few other words, and the
place where is usually denoted by the Ablative. In this construction the Ablative was,
no doubt, used at first without a preposition, but afterwards it became associated in
most instances with the preposition in.
422. In expressions of Time and Place the Latin shows a
variety of idiomatic constructions (Ablative, Accusative, and Loc-
ative), which are systematically treated in 423 ff.
266 SYNTAX : CONSTRUCTION OF CASES [ 423, 424
TIME AND PLACE
Time
423. Time when, or within which, is expressed by the Abla-
tive ; time how long by the Accusative.
1. Ablative :
constituta die, on the appointed day ; prlma luce, at daybreak.
quota hora, at what o'clock? tertia vigilia, in the third watch.
tribus proximls annis (lug. 11), within the last three years.
diebus vlgintl qulnque aggerem exstruxerunt (B. G. vii. 24), within twenty-
five days they finished building a mound.
2. Accusative :
dies continues trlginta, for thirty days together.
cum triduum iter fecisset (B. G. ii. 16), when he had marched three days.
NOTE. The Ablative of Time is locative in its origin ( 421) ; the Accusative is the
same as that of the extent of space ( 425).
424. Special constructions of time are the following :
a. The Ablative of time within which sometimes takes in, and the
Accusative of time how long per, for greater precision :
in diebus proximls decem (lug. 28), within the next ten days.
ludl per decem dies (Cat. iii. 20), games for ten days.
&. Duration of time is occasionally expressed by the Ablative:
mllites qulnque horis proelium sustinuerant (B. C. i. 47), the men had sus-
tained the fight five hours.
NOTE. In this use the period of time is regarded as that within which the act is
done, and it is only implied that the act lasted through the period. Cf. inter annos
quattuordecim (B. G. i. 36) , for fourteen years.
c. Time during which or within which may be expressed by the
Accusative or Ablative of a noun in the singular, with an ordinal
numeral :
quinto die, within [just] four days (lit. on the fifth day). [The Romans
counted both ends, see 631. d.~\
regnat iam sextum annum, he has reigned going on six years.
d. Many expressions have in Latin the construction of time when,
where in English the main idea is rather of place :
pugna CannensI (or, apud Cannas), in the fight at Cannae.
ludls Romania, at the Roman games.
omnibus Gallicl's bellis, in all the Gallic wars.
424, 426] TIME AND PLACE 267
e. In many idiomatic expressions of time, the Accusative with ad,
in, or sub is used. Such are the following :
supplicatio decreta est in Kalendas lanuarias, a thanksgiving was voted for
the first of January.
convenerunt ad diem, they assembled on the [appointed] day.
ad vesperum, till evening ; sub vesperum, towards evening.
sub idem tempus, about the same time; sub noctem, at nightfall.
f. Distance of time before or after anything is variously expressed :
post (ante) tres annos, post tertium annum, tres post annos, tertium post
annum, tribus post annls, tertio post anno ( 414), three years after.
tribus annls (tertio anno) post exsilium (postquam eiectus est), three years
after his exile.
his tribus proximls annls, within the last three years.
paucis annls, a few years hence.
abhinc annos tres (tribus annls), ante hos tres annos, three years ago.
triennium est cum (tres anni sunt cum), it is three years since.
octavo mense quam, the eighth month after (see 434. N.).
g. In Dates the phrase ante diem (a. d.) with an ordinal, or the
ordinal alone, is followed by an accusative, like a preposition ; and
the phrase itself may also be governed by a preposition.
The year is expressed by the names of the consuls in the ablative
absolute, usually without a conjunction ( 419. a) :
is dies erata. d. v. Kal. Apr. (quintum Kalendas Aprills) L. Plsone A. Gablnio
consulibus (B. G. i. 6), that day was the 5th before the calends of April
(March 28), in the consulship of Piso and Gabinius.
in a. d. v. Kal. Nov. (Cat. i. 7), to the 5th day before the calends of November
(Oct. 28).
xv. Kal. Sextills, the 15th day before the calends of August (July 18). [Full
form : quinto decimo die ante Kalendas. ]
For the Roman Calendar, see 631.
Extent of Space
425. Extent of Space is expressed by the Accusative :
fossas quindecim pedes latas (B. G. yii 72), trenches fifteen feet broad.
progressus milia passuum circiter duodecim (id. v. 9), having advanced about
twelve miles.
in omnl vita sua quemque a recta conscientia transversum unguem non
oportet discedere (quoted in Att. xiii. 20), in all one's life, one should
not depart a nail's breadth from straightforward conscience.
NOTE. This Accusative denotes the object through or over which the action takes
place, and is kindred with the Accusative of the End of Motion ( 427. 2).
268 SYNTAX: CONSTRUCTION OF CASES [436,426
a. Measure is often expressed by the Genitive of Quality ( 345. b) \
vallum duodecim pedum (B. G. vii. 72), a rampart of twelve feet (in height).
6. Distance when considered as extent of space is put in the Accu-
sative; when considered as degree of difference, in the Ablative
(414):
mflia passuum tria ab e5rum castris castra ponit (B. G. i. 22), he pitches his
camp three miles from their camp.
qulnque di6rum iter abest (Liv. xxx. 29), it is distant five days' 1 march.
triginta milibus passuum infra eum locum (B. G. vi. 35), thirty miles below
that place (below by thirty miles).
Relations of Place
426. Relations of Place 1 are expressed as follows :
1. The place from which, by the Ablative with ab, dg, or ex.
2. The place to which (or end of motion), by the Accusative with
ad or in.
3. The place where, by the Ablative with in (Locative Ablative).
Examples are :
1. Place from ivhich :
a septentrione, from the north.
cum a vobis discessero (Cat. M. 79), when I leave you.
de provincia decedere, to come away from one' s province.
de monte, down from the mountain.
negotiator ex Africa (Verr. ii. 1. 14), a merchant from Africa.
ex Britannia obsides miserunt (B. G. iv. 38), they sent hostages from Britain.
Mosa profluit ex monte Vosego (id. iv. 10), the Meuse (flows from) rises in
the Vosges mountains.
2. Place to which (end of motion'):
nocte ad Nervios pervenerunt (B. G. ii. 17), they came by night to the Nervii.
adibam ad istum fundum (Caec. 82), I was going to that estate.
in Africam navigavit, he sailed to Africa ; in Italiam profectus, gone to Italy.
legatum in Treveros mittit (B. G. iii. 11), he sends his lieutenant into the
[country of the] Treveri.
1 Originally all these relations were expressed by the cases alone. The accusative,
in one of its oldest functions, denoted the end of motion ; the ablative, in its proper
meaning of separation, denoted the place from which, and, in its locative function, the
place where. The prepositions, originally adverbs, were afterwards added to define
more exactly the direction of motion (as in to usicard, toward us), and by long asso-
ciation became indispensable except as indicated below.
426, 427] RELATIONS OF PLACE 269
3. Place where:
in hac urbe vltam de"git, he passed his life in this city.
si in Gallia rernanerent (B. G. iv. 8), if they remained in Gaul.
dum haec in Venetls geruntur (id. iii. 17), while this was going on among the
Veneti.
oppidum in insula positum (id. vii. 68), a town situated on an island.
427. With names of towns and small islands, and with domus
and rus, the Relations of Place are expressed as follows :
1. The place from which, by the Ablative without a preposition.
2. The place to which, by the Accusative without a preposition.
3. The place where, by the Locative. 1
Examples are :
1. Place from which :
Roma prof ectue, having set out from Rome ; Roma abease, to be absent from
Borne.
domo abire, to leave home ; rure reversus, having returned from the country.
2. Place to which:
cum Romam sexto die Mutina venisset (Fam. xi. 6. 1), when he had come to
Home from Modena in five days (on the sixth day).
Del5 Rhodum navigare, to sail from Delos to Rhodes.
rus Ib5, I shall go into the country.
domum iit, he went home. 2 [So, suas domes abire, to go to their homes.]
3. Place where (or at which):
Romae, at Rome (R5ma). Athgnis, at Athens (Athfinae).
Rhodi, at Rhodes (Rhodus). Lanuvl, at Lanuvium.
Sam!, at Samos. CyprI, at Cyprus.
Tiburl or Tlbure, at Tibur. Curibus, at Cures.
Philippls, at Philippi. Capreis, at Capri (Capreae).
domi (rarely domul), at home. rurl, in the country.
a. The Locative Case is also preserved in the following nouns,
which are used (like names of towns) without a preposition :
belli, mllitiae (in contrast to domi), abroad, in military service.
hum!, on the ground. vesper! (-e), in the evening.
forls, out of doors. animl (see 358).
herl (-e), yesterday. temper!, betimes.
Cf. mfelicl arbor! (Liv. i. 26), on the ill-omened (barren) tree; terra marlque,
by land and sea.
1 The Locative has in the singular of the first and second declensions the same form
as the Genitive, in the plural and in the third declension the same form as the Dative
or Ablative. (See p. 34, footnote.)
2 The English home in this construction is, like domum, an old accusative of the
end of motion.
270 SYNTAX: CONSTRUCTION OF CASES [428
428. Special uses of place from which, to which, and where are
the following :
a. With names of towns and small islands ab is often used to
denote from the vicinity of, and ad to denote towards, to the neighbor-
hood of:
ut a Mutina discederet (Phil. xiv. 4), that Tie should retire from Modena
(which he was besieging).
erat a Gergovia despectus in castra (B. G. vii. 45), there was from about
Gergovia a view into the camp.
ad Alesiam proficiscuntur (id. vii. 76), they set out for Alesia.
ad Alesiam perveniunt (id. vii. 79), they arrive at Alesia (i.e. in the neighbor-
hood of the town).
D. Laelius cum classe ad Brundisium venit (B. C. iii. 100), Decimus Loelius
came to Brundisium with a fleet (arriving in the harbor).
&. The general words urbs, oppidum, insula require a preposition
to express the place from which, to which, or where :
ab (ex) urbe, from the city. in urbe, in the city.
ad urbem, to the city. Romae in urbe, in the city of Rome.
in urbem, into the city. Roma ex urbe, from the city of Rome.
ad urbem Romam (Romam ad uvbem), to the city of Rome.
c. With the name of a country, ad denotes to the borders ; in with
the accusative, into the country itself. Similarly ab denotes away
from the outside ; ex, out of the interior.
Thus ad Italiam pervenit would mean he came to the frontier, regardless of
the destination ; in Italiam, he went to Italy, i.e. to a place within it, to Rome,
for instance.
So ab Italia profectus est would mean he came away from the frontier, regard-
less of the original starting-point; ex Italia, he came from Italy, from within, as
from Rome, for instance.
d. With all names of places at, meaning near (not in), is expressed
by ad or apud with the accusative.
pugna ad Cannas, the fight at Cannae.
conchas ad Caietam legunt (De Or. ii. 22), at Caieta (along the shore),
ad (apud) inferos, in the ivorld below (near, or among, those below),
ad forls, at the doors. ad ianuam, at the door.
NOTE 1. In the neighborhood of may be expressed by circa with the accusative;
among, by apud with the accusative :
apud Graecos, among the Greeks. apud me, at my house.
apud Solensis (Leg. ii. 41), at Soli. circa Capuam, round about Capua.
NOTE 2. In citing an author, apud is regularly used ; in citing a particular work,
in. Thus, apud Xenophontem, in Xenophon ; but, in Xenophontis Oeconomico, in
Xenophon's (Economicus.
428] RELATIONS OF PLACE 271
e. Large islands, and all places when thought of as a territory and
not as a locality, are treated like names of countries :
in Sicilia, in Sicily.
in Ithaca lepores illatl moriuntur (Plin. H. N. viii. 226), in Ithaca hares, when
carried there, die. [Ulysses lived at Ithaca would require Ithacae.]
/. The Ablative without a preposition is used to denote the place
from which in certain idiomatic expressions :
cessisset patria (Mil. 68), he would have left his country.
patria pellere, to drive out of the country.
manu mittere, to emancipate (let go from the hand).
g. The poets and later writers often omit the preposition with the
place from which 01 to which when it would be required in classical
prose :
manls Acheronte remissos (Aen. v. 99), the spirits returned from Acheron.
Scythia prefect! (Q. C. iv. 12. 11), setting out from Scythia.
Italiam Lavlniaque venit ITtora (Aen. i. 2), he came to Italy and the Lavinian
shores.
terrain Hesperiam venies (id. ii. 781), you shall come to the Hesperian land.
Aegyptum proficlscitur (Tac. Ann. ii. 59), he sets out for Egypt.
h. In poetry the place to ivhich is often expressed by the Dative,
occasionally also in later prose :
it clamor caelo (Aen. v. 451), a shout goes up to the sky.
facilis descensus Averno (id. vi. 126), easy is the descent to Avernus.
diadema capiti reponere iussit (Val. Max. v. 1. 9), he ordered him to put back
the diadem on his head.
i. The preposition is not used with the supine in -urn ( 509) and
in the following old phrases :
exsequias ire, to go to the funeral. Infitias Ire, to resort to denial.
pessum ire, to go to ruin. pessum dare, to ruin (cf. perdo).
venum dare, to sell (give to sale). [Hence vendere.]
venum ire, to be sold (go to sale). [Hence venire.]
foras (used as adverb), out: as, foras egrecll, to go out of doors.
suppetias advenire, to come to one's assistance.
j. When two or more names of place are used with a verb of motion,
each must be under its own construction :
quadridu5 quo haec gesta sunt res ad Chrysogonum in castra L. Sullae Vola-
terras defertur (Rose. Am. 20), within four days after this was done, the
matter was reported TO Chrysogonus IN Sulla's camp AT Volaterrae.
NOTE. The accusative with or without a preposition is often used in Latin when
motion to a place is implied but not expressed in English (see k,N.).
272 SYNTAX: CONSTRUCTION OF CASES [428,429
k. Domum denoting the place to which, and the locative doml, may
be modified by a possessive pronoun or a genitive :
domum regis (Deiot. 17), to the king's house. [But also in M. Laecae domum
(Cat. i. 8), to Marcus Lceca's house.~\
dom! meae, at my house ; doml Caesaris, at Caesar's house.
doml suae vel alienae, at his own or another's house.
NOTE. At times when thus modified, and regularly when otherwise modified, in
domum or in domo is used :
in domum privatam conveniunt (Tac. H. iv. 55) , they come together in a private house.
in Marcl Crass! castissima domo (Gael. 9), in the chaste home of Marcus Crassus.
[Cf. ex Anniana MilOnis domo, 302. e.]
429. The place where is denoted by the Ablative without a
preposition in the following instances :
1. Often in indefinite words, such as locS, parte, etc. :
quibus Ioc5 positls (De Or. iii. 153), when these are set in position.
qua parte belli vicerant (Liv. xxi. 22), the branch of warfare in which they
were victorious.
locis certls horrea constituit (B. C. iii. 32), he established granaries in par-
ticular places.
2. Frequently with nouns which are qualified by adjectives (regu-
larly when tOtus is used) :
media urbe (Liv. i. 33), in the middle of the city.
tota Sicilia (Verr. iv. 61), throughout Sicily (in the whole of Sicily).
t5ta Tarracina (De Or. ii. 240), in all Tarracina.
cuncta Asia atque Graecia (Manil. 12), throughout the whole of Asia and
Greece too.
3. In many idiomatic expressions which have lost the idea of place :
pendemus animis (Tusc. i. 96), we are in suspense of mind (in our minds),
socius periculis vObiscum adero (lug. 85. 47), / will be present with you, a
companion in dangers.
4. Freely in poetry :
Htore curvo (Aen. iii. 16), on the winding shore.
antro sgclusa relinquit (id. iii. 446), she leaves them shut up in the cave.
Epiro, Hesperia (id. iii. 503), in Epirus, in Hesperia.
premit altum corde dolOrem (id. i. 209), he keeps down the pain deep in his heart.
a. The way by which is put in the Ablative without a preposition :
via brevi<5re equitgs praemlsi (Fam. x. 9), I sent forward the cavalry by a
shorter road.
Aegaeo man traiecit (Liv. xxxvii. 14), he crossed by way of the ^Egean Sea.
prOvehimur pelago (Aen. iii. 506), we sail forth over the sea.
NOTE. In this use the way by which is conceived as the means of passage.
429-431] RELATIONS OE PLACE 273
6. Position is frequently expressed by the Ablative with ab (rarely
ex), properly meaning from,: 1
a tergo, in the rear ; a sinistra, on the left hand. [Cf. hinc, on this side.]
& parte Pompelana, on the side of Pompey.
ex altera parte, on the other side.
magna ex parte, in a great degree (from, i.e. in, a great part).
430. Verbs of placing, though implying motion, take the con-
struction of the place where :
Such are p5n5, locQ, collocS, status, cSnstituO, etc. :
qul in sede ac dome collocavit (Par. 25), who put [one] into his place and
home.
statuitur eques ROmanus in AprOnl conviviS (Verr. iii. 62), a .Roman knight
is brought into a banquet of Apronius.
Insula Del os in Aegae5 man posita (Manil. 55), the island of Delos, situated in
the ^Egean Sea.
si in un5 PompeiS omnia p5neretis (id. 59), if you made everything depend on
Pompey alone.
NOTE. Compounds of p5n6 take various constructions (see the Lexicon under
each word) .
431. Several verbs are followed by the Ablative.
These are acquiesce", dglector, laetor, gaudefl, gl5rior, nltor, st5, maneO,
fldo, c6nfid5, consists, contineor.
nominibus veterum gloriantur (Or. 169), they glory in the names of the ancients.
[Also, d6 divitils (in virtiite, circa rem, aliquid, haec) gloriarl.]
spe nlti (Att. iii. 9), to rely on hope.
prudentia fldens (Off. i. 81), trusting in prudence.
NOTE. The ablative with these verbs sometimes takes the preposition in (but
fid5 in is late), and the ablative with them is probably locative. Thus, in quibus
causa mtitur (Gael. 25), on whom the case depends.
With several of these verbs the neuter Accusative of pronouns is often found. For
fid5 and c5nfido with the Dative, see 367.
a. The verbals frgtus, contentus, and laetus take the Locative Abla-
tive :
fretus gratia Bruti (Att. v. 21. 12), relying on the favor of Brutus.
laetus praeda, rejoicing in the booty.
contentus sorte, content with his lot. [Possibly Ablative of Cause. ]
n5n fuit contentus gloria (Dom. 101), he was not content with the glory.
NOTE. So intentus, rarely: as, aliquO negotio intentus (Sail. Cat. 2), intent
on some occupation.
1 Apparently the direction whence the sensuous impression comes.
274 SYNTAX: CONSTRUCTION OF CASES [432
SPECIAL USES OF PREPOSITIONS 1
Adverbs and Prepositions
432. Certain Adverbs and Adjectives are sometimes used as
Prepositions :
a. The adverbs pridie, postridie, propius, proxime, less frequently the
adjectives propior and proximus, may be followed by the Accusative :
pridie Nonas Maias (Att. ii. 11), the day before the Nones of May (see 631).
postridie ludos (Att. xvi. 4), the day after the games.
propius periculum (Liv. xxi. 1), nearer to danger.
propior montem (lug. 49), nearer the hill.
proxinms mare oceanum (B. G. iii. 7), nearest the ocean.
NOTE. Pridie and postridie take also the Geuitive ( 359. b). Propior, propius, proxi-
mus, and proxime, take also the Dative, or the Ahlative with ab :
propius Tiberi quam Thermopylis (Nep. Hann. 8), nearer to the Tiber than to Ther-
mopylae.
Sugambri qm sunt proximi Rhen5 (B. G. vi. 35), the Sugambri, who are nearest
to the Rhine.
proximus a postremo (Or. 217), next to the last.
b. Usque sometimes takes the Accusative, but usque ad is much
more common :
terminds usque Libyae (lust. i. 1. 5), to the bounds of Libya.
usque ad castra hostium (B. G. i. 51), to the enemy's camp.
c. The adverbs palam, procul, simul, may be used as prepositions
and take the Ablative :
rem creditor! palam populo solvit (Liv. vi. 14), he paid the debt to his creditor
in the presence of the people.
baud procul castris in modum municipl exstructa (Tac. H. iv. 22), not far
from the camp, built up like a town.
simul nobis habitat barbarus (Ov. Tr. v. 10. 29), close among us dwells the
barbarian.
NOTE. But simul regularly takes cum ; procul is usually followed by ab in classic
writers ; and the use of palam as a preposition is comparatively late.
d. The adverb clam is found in early Latin with the Accusative,
also once with the Genitive and onco in classical Latin with the
Ablative :
clam matrem suam (PI. Mil. 112), unknoivn to his mother.
clam patris (id. Merc. 43), without his father" 1 s knowledge.
clam v5bis (B. C. ii. 32. 8), without your knowledge.
i For a list of Prepositions with their ordinary uses, see 221.
433-435] ADVERBS AND PREPOSITIONS 275
433. Prepositions often retain their original meaning as Ad-
verbs :
1. Ante and post in relations of time :
quSs paulo ante dlximus (Brut. 32), whom I mentioned a little while ago.
post tribus diebus, three days after (cf. 424. /).
2. Adversus, circiter, prope :
nemS adversus Ibat (Liv. xxxvii. 13. 8), no one went out in opposition.
circiter pars quarta (Sail. Cat. 56), about the fourth part.
prope exanimatus, nearly lifeless.
3. A or ab, off, in expressions of distance) with the Ablative of
Degree of Difference ( 414) :
a mllibus passuum circiter duobus Romanorum adventum exspectabant
(B. G. v. 32), at a distance of about two miles (about two miles off) they
awaited the approach of the Romans.
4. In general, prepositions ending in -a :
Aeolus haec contra (Aen. i. 76), thus jffiolus in reply.
forte fuit iuxta tumulus (id. iii. 22), there happened to be a mound dose by.
434. Some Prepositions and Adverbs which imply comparison
are followed, like comparatives, by quam, which may be separated
by several words, or even clauses.
Such words are ante, prius, post, postea, pridie, postridig ; also magis
and prae in compounds :
neque ante diinlsit eum quam fidem dedit (Liv. xxxix. 10), nor did he let him
go until he gave a pledge.
post diem tertium quam dixerat (Mil. 44), the third day after he said it.
Cats ipse iam servire quam pugnare mavult (Att. vii. 15), Cato himself by this
time had rather be a slave than fight.
Gallorum quam Romanorum imperia praeferre (B. G. i. 17), [they] prefer the
rule of Gauls to that of Romans.
NOTE. The ablative of time is sometimes followed by quam in the same way
( 424. /) : as, octavo mense quam (Liv. xxi. 15), within eight months after, etc.
435. The following Prepositions sometimes come after their
nouns : ad, citra, circum, contra, de, e (ex), inter, iuxta, penes, propter,
ultra ; so regularly tenus and versus, and occasionally others :
[usus] quern penes arbitrium est et ius et norma loquendl (Hor. A. P. 72),
custom, under whose control is the choice, right, and rule of speech.
cuius a me corpus est crematum, quod contra decuit ab ills meum (Cat. M.
84), whose body I burned [on the funeral pile], while on the contrary
(contrary to which) mine should have been burned by him.
276 SYNTAX: THE VERB [436
SYNTAX OF THE VERB
MOODS AND TENSES
436. The Syntax of the Verb relates chiefly to the use of the Moods (which express
the manner in which the action is conceived) and the Tenses (which express the time of
the action) . There is no difference in origin between mood and tense ; and hence the
uses of mood and tense frequently cross each other. Thus the tenses sometimes have
modal significations (compare indicative in apodosis, 517. c; future for imperative,
449. 6); and the moods sometimes express time (compare subjunctive in future con-
ditions, 516. b, and notice the want of a future subjunctive).
The parent language had, besides the Imperative mood, two or more forms with
modal signification. Of these, the Subjunctive appears with two sets of termina-
tions, -a-m, -a-s, in the present tense (moneam, dicam), and -e-m, -5-s, in the present
(amem) or other tenses (essem, dixissem) . The Optative was formed by ie-, I-, with the
present stem (sim, duim) or the perfect (dixerim). (See details in 1G8, 169.)
Each mood has two general classes or ranges of meaning. The uses of the Sub-
junctive may all be classed under the general ideas of will or desire and of action
vividly conceived; and the uses of the Optative under the general ideas of wish and
of action vaguely conceived.
It must not be supposed, however, that in any given construction either the sub-
junctive or the optative was deliberately used because it denoted conception or possi-
bility. On the contrary, each construction has had its own line of development from
more tangible and literal forms of thought to more vague and ideal ; and by this
process the mood used came to have in each case a special meaning, which was after-
wards habitually associated with it in that construction. Similar developments have
taken place in English. Thus, the expression / would do this has become equivalent
to a mild command, while by analysis it is seen to be the apodosis of a present condi-
tion contrary to fact ( 517) : if I were you, etc. By further analysis, I would do is
seen to have meant, originally, / should have wished (or I did wish) to do.
In Latin, the original Subjunctive and the Optative became confounded in meaning
and in form, and were merged in the Subjunctive, at first in the present tense. Then
new tense-forms of the subjunctive were formed, 1 and to these the original as well as
the derived meanings of both moods became attached (see 438). All the independent
uses of the Latin subjunctive are thus to be accounted for.
The dependent uses of the subjunctive have arisen from the employment of some
independent subjunctive construction in connection with a main statement. Most fre-
quently the main statement is prefixed to a sentence containing a subjunctive, as
a more complete expression of a complex idea ( 268). Thus a question implying a
general negative (quin rogem? why shouldn't I ask?) might have the general nega-
tive expressed in a prefixed statement (nulla causa est, there is no reason) ; or abeat,
let him go away, may be expanded into sine abeat. When such a combination comes
into habitual use, the original meaning of the subjunctive partially or wholly dis-
appears and a new meaning arises by implication. Thus, in misit legates qui dicerent,
he sent ambassadors to say (i.e. who should say), the original hortatory sense of the
subjunctive is partially lost, and the mood becomes in part an expression of purpose.
Similar processes may be seen in the growth of Apodosis. Thus, tolle hanc opinionem,
luctum sustuleris, remove this notion, you will have done away with grief (i.e. if you
remove, etc.).
1 For the signification of the tense-endings, see 168, 169.
436, 437]
INDICATIVE MOOD
277
The Infinitive is originally a verbal noun ( 451), modifying a verb like other nouns :
volo videre, lit. " I wish for-seeing " : compare English "what went ye out for to see ? "
But in Latin it has been surprisingly developed, so as to have forms for tense, and some
proper modal characteristics, and to be used as a substitute for finite moods.
The other noun and adjective forms of the verb have been developed in various
ways, which are treated under their respective heads below.
The proper Verbal Constructions may be thus classified :
I. Indicative: Direct Assertion or Question (437).
1. Exhortation or Command (439).
2. Concession (440).
3. Wish (441).
4. Question of Doubt etc. (444).
5. Possibility or Contingency (446).
. ,.,. ( Future (less vivid) (516. b, c).
1. Conditions \ ^ ^. !/;
\ Contrary to Fact ( 517).
2. Purpose (with ut, ne) (531).
3. Characteristic (Relative Clause) ( 535) .
4. Kesult (with ut, ut non) (537).
5. Time (with cum) (546).
6. Intermediate (Indirect Discourse) (592).
7. Indirect Questions or Commands ( 574,
II. Subjunctive :
III. Imperative :
IV. Infinitive:
a. Independent
Uses;
b. Dependent
Uses:
1. Direct Commands (often Subjunctive) (448).
2. Statutes, Laws, and Wills (449. 2).
3. Prohibitions (early or poetic use) ( 450. a) .
a. Subject of esse and Impersonal Verbs ( 452, 454).
b. Objective
Construc-
tions :
c. Idiomatic
Uses:
1. Complementary Infinitive (456).
2. Indirect Discourse (with Subject Accusative)
(580).
1. Purpose (poetic or Greek use) ( 460).
2. Exclamation (with Subject Accusative)
(462).
3. Historical Infinitive (463).
4t MOODS
^ INDICATIVE MOOD
437. The Indicative is the mood of direct assertions or ques-
tions when there is no modification of the verbal idea except that
of time.
a. The Indicative is sometimes used where the English idiom
would suggest the Subjunctive :
longum est, it would be tedious [if, etc.]; satius erat, it would have been bet-
ter [if, etc.]; persequl possum, I might follow up [in detail].
NOTK. Substitutes for the Indicative are (1) the Historical Infinitive ( 463), and
(2) the Infinitive in indirect Discourse ( 580) .
For the Indicative in Conditions, see 515, 516 ; for the Indicative in implied Com-
mands, see 449. 6.
278 SYNTAX: THE VERB [438,439
SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD
438. The Subjunctive in general expresses the verbal idea with
some modification 1 such as is expressed in English by auxiliaries,
by the infinitive, or by the rare subjunctive ( 157. b).
a. The Subjunctive is used independently to express
1. An Exhortation or Command (Hortatory Subjunctive: 439).
2. A Concession (Concessive Subjunctive.- 440).
3. A Wish (Optative Subjunctive: 441).
4. A Question of Doubt etc. (Deliberative Subjunctive: 444).
5. A Possibility or Contingency (Potential Subjunctive.- 446).
For the special idiomatic uses of the Subjunctive in Apod^jis, see 514.
6. The Subjunctive is used in dependent claus
1. Condition: future or contrary to fact ( 516. b,
2. Purpose (Final, 531).
3. Characteristic ( 535).
4. Result (Consecutive, 537).
5. Time (Temporal, 546).
6. Jttjrect Question ( 574).
c. HlHfejunctive is also used with Conditional Particles of Com.
parison (^Ss4), and in subordinate clauses in the^Indirect Discourse
( 580).
SUBJUNCTIVE IN INDEPENDENT
Hortatory Subjunctive
439. The Hortatory Subjunctive is used in the present tense
to express an exhortation or a command. The negative is ne.
hos latrOnes interficiamus (B. G. vii. 38), let us kill these robbers.
caveant intemperantiam, meminerint verecundiae (Off. i. 122), let them shun
excess and cherish modesty.
NOTE 1. The hortatory subjunctive occurs rarely in the perfect (except in pro-
hibitions: 450) : as, Epicurus hoc vlderit (Acad. ii. 19), let Epicums look to this.
NOTE 2. The term hortatory subjunctive is sometimes restricted to the first per-
son plural, the second and third persons being designated as the jussive subjunctive;
but the constructions are substantially identical.
1 These modifications are of various kinds, each of which has had its own special
development (cf. 436). The subjunctive in Latin has also many idiomatic uses (as in
clauses of Result and Time) where the English does not modify the verbal idea at all,
but expresses it directly. In such cases the Latin merely takes a different view oi
the action and has developed the construction differently from the English.
439, 440] HOBTATOKY SUBJUNCTIVE 279
NOTE 3. Once in Cicero and occasionally in the poets and later writers the nega-
tive with the hortatory subjunctive is non : as, a legibus n5n recedamus (Clu. 155), let
us not abandon the laws.
a. The Second Person of the hortatory subjunctive is used only
of an indefinite subject, except in prohibitions, in early Latin, and in
poetry :
iniurias f ortunae, quas ferre nequeas, defugiendO relinquas (Tusc. v. 118), the
wrongs of fortune, which you cannot bear, leave behind by flight.
exoriare aliquis ultor (Aen. iv. 625), rise, some avenger.
isto bono utare dum adsit, cum absit ne requiras (Cat. M. 33), use this bless-
ing while it is present ; when it is wanting do not regret it.
doceas iter et sacra ostia pandas (Aen. vi. 109), show us the way and lay open
the sacred portals.
For Negative Commands (prohibitions), see 450.
6. The Imperfect and Pluperfect of the hortatory subjunctive
denote an unfulfilled obligation in past time :
moreretur, inquies (Rab. Post. 29), he should have died, you will say.
potius doceret (Off. iii. 88), he should rather have taught.
ne poposcisses (Att. ii. 1. 3), you should not have asked.
saltern aliquid de pondere detraxisset (Fin. iv. 57), at least he should have
taken something from the weight.
NOTE 1. In this construction the Pluperfect usually differs from the Imperfect
ly in more clearly representing the time for action as momentary or as past.
NOTE 2. This use of the subjunctive is carefully to be distinguished from the
otential use ( 44G) . The difference is indicated by the translation, should or ought
(not would or might) .
440. The Hortatory Subjunctive is used to express a conces-
sion. 1 The Present is used for present time, tHe Perfect for past.
The negative is ne. f
sit fur, sit sacrilegus: at est bonus imperatsJr (Verr. v. 4), grant Tie is a
thief, a godless wretch : yet he is a good general.
fuerit alils ; tibi quando esse coepit (Verr. (\. 1. 37), suppose he was [so] to
others ; when did he begin to be to yo^
nem5 is umquam fuit : ne fuerit (Or. 101), there never was such a one [you
will say] : granted (let there not have, been),
ne sit sumnium malum dolor, malum certS est (Tusc. ii. 14), granted that
pain is not the greatest evil, at least it is an evil.
NOTE. The concessive subjunctive with quamvis and licet is originally hortatory
(527. a, b).
For other methods of expressing Concession, see 527.
For the Hortatory Subjunctive denoting a Proviso, see 528. a.
1 Many scholars regard the concessive subjunctive as a development of the Optative
Subjunctive in a wish.
280 SYNTAX : THE VERB [ 441, 442
Optative Subjunctive
441. The Optative Subjunctive is used to express a Wish. The
present tense denotes the wish as possible, the imperfect as unac-
complished in present time, the pluperfect as unaccomplished in
past time. The negative is ne :
ita vivam (Att. v. 15), as true as I live, so may I live.
ne vivam si scio (id. iv. 16. 8), I wish I may not live if I know.
di te perduint (Deiot. 21), the gods confound thee!
valeant, valeant Give's mel ; sint incolumgs (Mil. 93), farewell, farewell to my
fellow-citizens; may they be secure from harm.
di facerent sine patre forem (Ov. M. viii. 72), would that the gods allowed me
to be without a father (but they do not) !
a. The perfect subjunctive in a wish is archaic :
di faxint (Fain. xiv. 3. 3), may the gods grant.
quod di omen averterint (Phil. xii. 14, in a religious formula), and may the
gods avert this omen.
442. The Optative Subjunctive is often preceded by the par-
ticle utinam ; so regularly in the imperfect and pluperfect :
falsus utinam vates sim (Liv. xxi. 10. 10), I wish I may be a false prophet.
utinam Clodius vlveret (Mil. 103), would that Clodius were now alive.
utinam me mortuum vidisses (Q. Fr. i. 3. 1), would you had seen me dead.
utinam ne vere scrlberem (Fam. v. 17. 3), would that I were not writing the
truth.
NOTE. Utinam n5n is occasionally used instead of utinam ng : as, utinam sus-
ceptus non essem (Att. ix. 9. 3), would that I had not been born.
a. In poetry and old Latin uti or ut often introduces the optative
subjunctive ; and in poetry si or 6 si with the subjunctive sometimes
expresses a wish :
ut pereat positum r5blgine telum (Hor. S. ii. 1. 43), may the weapon unused
perish with rust.
6 si angulus ille accedat (id. ii. 6. 8), if that corner might only be added!
si nunc s6 n5bis ille aureus ramus ostendat (Aen. vi. 187), if now that golden
branch would only show itself to us!
NOTE 1. The subjunctive with uti (ut) or utinam was originally deliberative,
meaning how may I, etc. ( 444). The subjunctive with si or 6 si is a protasis ( 512. a),
the apodosis not being expressed.
NOTE 2. The subjunctive of wish without a particle is seldom found in the imper-
fect or pluperfect except by sequence of tenses in Indirect Discourse ( 585) : as, ac
venerata Ceres, ita culmo surgeret alto (Hor. S. ii. 2. 124), and Ceres worshipped [with
libations] that so she might rise with tall stalk. [In addressing the goddess directly
the prayer would be : ita surgas.]
442-444] DELIBERATIVE SUBJUNCTIVE 281
6. Velim and vellem, and their compounds, with a subjunctive or
infinitive, are often equivalent to an optative subjunctive :
velim tibi persuadeas (Fam. ix. 13. 2), I should like to have you believe (I
should wish that you would persuade yourself).
d6 Menedem5 vellem v6rum fuisset, d6 reglna relim v6rum sit (Att. xv. 4. 4),
about Menedemus I wish it had been true; about the queen I wish it may be.
nollem accidisset tempus (Fam. iii. 10. 2), I wish the time never had come.
mallem Cerberum metueres (Tusc. i. 12), I had rather have had you afraid
of Cerberus (I should have preferred that you feared Cerberus).
NOTE. Velim etc., in this use, are either potential subjunctives, or apodoses with
the protasis omitted ( 447. 1. N.). The thing wished may be regarded as a substantive
clause used as object of the verb of wishing ( 565. N. 1 ).
Deliberative Subjunctive
443. The Subjunctive was used in sentences of interrogative form, at first when
the speaker wished information in regard to the will or desire of the person addressed.
The mood was therefore hortatory in origin. But such questions when addressed by
the speaker to himself, as if asking his own advice, become deliberative or, not infre-
quently, merely exclamatory. In such cases the mood often approaches the meaning
of the Potential (see 445). In these uses the subjunctive is often called Deliberative
or Dubitative.
444. The Subjunctive is used in questions implying (1) doubt,
indignation, or (2) an impossibility of the thing's being done.
The negative is non.
quid agam, iudices? qu5 me vertam (Verr. v. 2), what am I to do, judges?
whither shall I turn ?
etiamne earn salutem (PI. Rud. 1275), shall I greet her?
quid hoc homine facias? quod supplicium dignum libldim gius invenias (Verr.
ii. 40), what are you to do with this man ? what fit penalty can you devise
for his wantonness ?
an ego non venirem (Phil. ii. 3), what, should I not have come ?
quid dlcerem (Att. vi. 3. 9), what was I to say ?
quis enim celaverit ignem (Ov. H. xv. 7), who could conceal the flame?
NOTE. The hortatory origin of some of these questions is obvious. Thus, quid
faciamus?=faciamus [aliquid], quid? let us do what? (Compare the expanded form
quid vis faciamus ? what do you wish us to do ?) Once established, it was readily trans-
ferred to the past: quid faciam? what AM / to do? quid facerem? what WAS I to do?
Questions implying impossibility, however, cannot be distinguished from Apodosis
(cf. 517).
a. In many cases the question has become a mere exclamation,
rejecting a suggested possibility :
mihi umquam bonOrum praesidium defuturum putarem (Mil. 94), could I
think that the defence of good men would ever fail me !
NOTE. The indicative is sometimes used in deliberative questions : as, quid ag5,
what am I to do?
282 SYNTAX: THE VERB [445-447
Potential Subjunctive
445. Of the two principal uses of the Subjunctive in independent sentences (cf.
436), the second, or Potential Subjunctive, 1 is found in a variety of sentence-forms
having as their common element the fact that the mood represents the action as merely
conceived or possible, not as desired (hortatory, optative) or real (indicative). Some
of these uses are very old and may go back to the Indo-European parent speech, but
no satisfactory connection between the Potential and the Hortatory and Optative
Subjunctive has been traced. There is no single English equivalent for the Potential
Subjunctive ; the mood must be rendered, according to circumstances, by the auxil-
iaries would, should, may, might, can, could.
446. The Potential Subjunctive is used to suggest an action
as possible or conceivable. The negative is non.
In this use the Present and the Perfect refer without distinction to
the immediate future; the Imperfect (occasionally the Perfect) to past
time ; the Pluperfect (which is rare) to what might have happened.
447. The Potential Subjunctive has the following uses :
1. In cautious or modest assertions in the first person singular of
expressions of saying, thinking, or wishing (present or perfect) :
pace tua dixerim (Mil. 103), I would say by your leave.
baud sciam an (Lael. 61), I should incline to think.
tu velim sic existimes (Fam. xii. 6), I should like you to think so.
certum afflrmare non ausim (Liv. iii. 23), I should not dare to assert as sure.
NOTE. Vellem, nollem, or mallem expressing an unfulfilled wish in present time
may be classed as independent potential subjunctive or as the apodosis of an unex-
pressed condition (521): as vellem adesset M. Antonius (Phil. i. 16), I could wish
Antony were here.
2. In the indefinite second person singular of verbs of saying, think-
ing, and the like (present or imperfect) :
credas non de puero scrlptum sed a puero (Plin. Ep. iv. 7. 7), you would
think that it was written not about a boy but by a boy.
crederes victos (Liv. ii. 43. 9), you would have thought them conquered.
reos diceres (id. ii. 35. 5), you would have said they were culprits.
videres susurros (Hor. S. ii. 8. 77), you might have seen them whispering (lit.
whispers).
freto assimilare possis (Ov. M. v. 6), you might compare it to a sea.
3. With other verbs, in all persons, when some word or phrase in
the context implies that the action is expressed as merely possible or
conceivable :
1 The name Potential Subjunctive is not precisely descriptive, but is fixed in
grammatical usage.
447, 448] IMPERATIVE MOOD 283
nil ego contulerim iucundo sanus amlcO (Hor. S. i. 6. 44), when in my senses
I should compare nothing with an interesting friend.
fortunam citius reperias quam retineas (Pub. Syr. 168), you may sooner find
fortune than keep it.
aliquis dicat (Ter. And. 640), somebody may say.
NOTE. In this use the subjunctive may he regarded as the apodosis of an unde-
veloped protasis. When the conditional idea becomes clearer, it finds expression in
a formal protasis, and a conditional sentence is developed.
a. Forsitan, perhaps, regularly takes the Potential Subjunctive
except in later Latin and in poetry, where the Indicative is also
common :
forsitan quaeratis qui iste terror sit (Rose. Am. 6), you may perhaps inquire
what this alarm is.
forsitan temere fecerim (id. 31), perhaps I have acted rashly.
NOTE. The subjunctive clause with forsitan (=fors sit an) was originally an Indi-
rect Question : it would be a chance whether, etc.
b. Fortasse, perhaps, is regularly followed by the Indicative; some-
times, however, by the Subjunctive, but chiefly in later Latin:
quaeres fortasse (Fam. xv. 4. 13), perhaps you will ask.
NOTE. Other expressions for perhaps are (1) forsan (chiefly poetical; construed
with the indicative or the subjunctive, more commonly the indicative), fors (rare and
poetical ; construed with either the indicative or the subjunctive). Forsit (or fors sit)
occurs once (Hor. S. i. 6. 49) and takes the subjunctive. Fortasse is sometimes followed
by the infinitive with subject accusative in Plautus and Terence. Fortassis (rare ; con-
strued like fortasse) and fortasse an (very rare; construed with the subjunctive) are
also found.
IMPERATIVE MOOD
448. The Imperative is used in Commands and Entreaties :
consulite vobls, prospicite patriae, conservate vos (Cat. iv. 3), have a care for
yourselves, guard the country, preserve yourselves.
die, Marce TullI, sententiam, Marcus Tullius, state your opinion.
te ipsum concute (Hor. S. i. 3. 35), examine yourself.
vive, valeque (id. ii. 5. 110), farewell, bless you (live and be well) !
miserere animl nOndlgna ferentis (Aen. ii. 144), pity a soul bear ing undesei-ved
misfortune.
a. The third person of the imperative is antiquated or poetic :
ollis salus populi suprema lex est5 (Legg. iii. 8), the safety of the people shall
be their first law.
iusta imperia sunto, elsque elves modeste parents (id. iii. 6), let there be law-
ful authorities, and let the citizens strictly obey them.
NOTE. In prose the Hortatory Subjunctive is commonly used instead ( 439).
284 SYNTAX: THE VERB
449. The Future Imperative is used in commands, etc., where
there is a distinct reference to future time :
1. In connection with some adverb or other expression that indi-
cates at what time in the future the action of the imperative shall take
place. So especially with a future, a future perfect indicative, or
(in poetry and early Latin) with a present imperative :
eras petitS, dabitur (PI. Merc. 769), ask to-morrow [and] it shall be given.
cum valetudin! consulueris, turn cSnsulitS navigationl (Fam. xvi. 4. 3), when
you have attended to your health, then look to your sailing.
Phyllida mitte mini, meus est natalis, lolla ; cum faciam vitula pro frugibus,
ipse vemto (Eel. iii. 76), send Phyllis to me, it is my birthday, lollas;
when I [shall] sacrifice a heifer for the harvest, come yourself.
die quibus in terrls, etc., et Phyllida solus habeto (id. iii. 107), tell in what
lands, etc., and have Phyllis for yourself.
2. In general directions serving for all time, as Precepts, Statutes,
and Wills :
is iuris civllis custos esto (Legg. iii. 8), let him (the praetor) be the guardian
of civil right.
BoreS flante, ne arato, semen ne iacito (Plin. H. N. xviii. 334), when the north
wind blows, plough not nor sow your seed.
a. The verbs sci6, meminl, and habeS (in the sense of consider) regu-
larly use the Future Imperative instead of the Present :
flliolo m6 auctum scitS (Att. i. 2), learn that I am blessed with a little boy.
sic habeto, ml Tiro (Fam. xvi. 4. 4), so understand it, my good Tiro.
d(i palla memento, amab5 (PI. Asin. 939), remember, dear, about the gown.
b. The Future Indicative is sometimes used for the imperative ;
and quin (why not ?) with the Present Indicative may have the force
of a command :
si quid acciderit novl, fades ut sciam (Fam. xiv. 8), you will let me know if
anything new happens.
quin accipis (Ter. Haut. 832), here, take it (why not take it?).
c. Instead of the simple Imperative, cura ut, fac (fac ut), or velim,
followed by the subjunctive ( 565), is often used, especially in col-
loquial language :
cura ut Romae sis (Att. i. 2), take care to be at Rome.
fac ut valetudinem cures (Fam. xiv. 17), see that you take care of your health.
doml adsltis facite (Ter. Eun. 506), be at home, do.
eum mihi velim mittas (Att. viii. 11), I wish you would send it to me.
For commands in Indirect Discourse, see 588.
For the Imperative with the force of a Conditional Clause, see 521. 6.
460] PROHIBITION (NEGATIVE COMMAND) 285
Prohibition (Negative Command)
450. Prohibition is regularly expressed in classic prose (1) by
nSli with the Infinitive, (2) by cave with the Present Subjunctive,
or (3) by ne with the Perfect Subjunctive : 1
(1) noli putare (Lig. 33), do not suppose (be unwilling to suppose),
noli impudens esse (Fam. xii. 30. 1), don't be shameless.
nollte cogere socios (Verr. ii. 1. 82), do not compel the allies.
(2) cave putes (Att. vii. 20), don't suppose (take care lest you suppose),
cave Igiioscas (Lig. 14), do not pardon.
cave festings (Fam. xvi. 12. 6), do not be in haste.
(3) ne necesse habueris (Att. xvi. 2. 5), do not regard it as necessary.
ne sis admlratus (Fam. vii. 18. 3), do not be surprised.
hoc facito; hoc ne feceris (Div. ii. 127), thoushatt do this, thou shalt not do that.
ne Apellae quidem dixeris (Fam. vii. 25. 2), do not tell Apella even.
ne vos quidem mortem timueritis (Tusc. i. 98), nor must you fear death.
All three of these constructions are well established in classic prose. The first,
which is the most ceremonious, occurs oftenest ; the third, though not discourteous, is
usually less formal and more peremptory than the others.
NOTE 1. Instead of noli the poets sometimes use other imperatives of similar
meaning (cf. 457. a):
parce pias scelerare manus (Aen. iii. 42), forbear to defile your pious hands.
cetera mitte loqui (Hor. Epod. 13. 1), forbear to say the rest.
fuge quaerere (Hor. Od. i. 9. 13), do not inquire.
NOTE 2. Cave ne is sometimes used in prohibitions ; also vide ng and (colloquially)
fac ne : as, fac ne quid aliud cures (Fam. xvi. 11), see that you attend to nothing else.
NOTE 3. The present subjunctive with ne and the perfect with cav6 are found in
old writers ; ne with the present is common in poetry at all periods :
ne exspectetis (PI. Ps. 1234), do not wait.
ne metuas (Mart. Ep. i. 70. 13), do not fear.
cave quicquam responderis (PI. Am. 608), do not make any reply.
NOTE 4. Other negatives sometimes take the place of n :
nihil ignoveris (Mur. 65), grant no pardon (pardon nothing).
nee mini illud dixeris (Fin. i. 25), and do not say this to me.
NOTE 5. The regular connective, and do not, is neve.
a. The Present Imperative with nS is used in prohibitions by early
writers and the poets :
ne time (PI. Cure. 520), don't be afraid.
nimium ne crede color! (Eel. ii. 17), trust not too much to complexion.
equO n6 credite (Aen. ii. 48), trust not the horse.
b. The Future Imperative with ng is used in prohibitions in laws
and formal precepts (see 449. 2).
1 In prohibitions the subjunctive with nS is hortatory ; that with cav5 is an object
clause (cf. 450. N. 2, 565. N. i).
286 SYNTAX : THE VEKB [ 451, 462
INFINITIVE MOOD
45 1 . The Infinitive is properly a noun denoting the action of the verb abstractly.
It differs, however, from other abstract nouns in the following points: (1) it often
admits the distinction of tense; (2) it is modified by adverbs, not by adjectives; (3) it
governs the same case as its verb ; (4) it is limited to special constructions.
The Latin Infinitive is the dative or locative case of such a noun 1 and was origi-
nally used to denote Purpose ; but it has in many constructions developed into a sub-
stitute for a finite verb. Hence the variety of its use.
In its use as a verb, the Infinitive may take a Subject Accusative ( 397. e), origi-
nally the object of another verb on which the Infinitive depended. Thus iubeo te valere
is literally I command you for being well (cf. substantive clauses, 562. N.).
Infinitive as Noun
452. The Infinitive, with or without a subject accusative, may
be used with est and similar verbs (1) as the Subject, (2) in Appo-
sition with the subject, or (3) as a Predicate Nominative. 2
1. As Subject :
dolere inalum est (Fin. v. 84), to suffer pain is an evil.
bellum est sua vitia nosse (Att. ii. 17), it 's a fine thing to know one's own
faults.
praestat componere fluctus (Aen. i. 135), it is better to calm the waves.
2. In Apposition with the Subj ect :
proinde quasi iniuriam facere id demum esset imperid fit! (Sail. Cat. 12),
just as if this and this alone, to commit injustice, were to use power.
[Here facere is in apposition with id.]
3. As Predicate Nominative :
id est convenienter naturae vivere (Fin. iv. 41), that is to live in conformity
with nature. [Cf. uti in the last example.]
NOTE 1. An infinitive may be used as Direct Object in connection with a Predi-
cate Accusative ( 393), or as Appositive with such Direct Object:
istiic ipsum non esse cum fueris miserrimum puto (Tusc. i. 12), for I think this
very thing most wretched, not to be when one has been. [Here istuc ipsum
belongs to the noun n5n esse.]
. rniserari, invidere, gestire, laetari, haec omnia morbos Graeci appellant (id. iii. 7),
to feel pity, envy, desire, joy, all these things the Greeks call diseases.
[Here the infinitives are in apposition with haec.]
1 The ending -5 (amare, mongre, regere, audire) was apparently locative, the ending -I
(amari, moneri, regi, audlri) apparently dative ; but this difference of case had no signifi-
cance for Latin syntax. The general Latin restriction of the i-infinitives to the passive
was not a primitive distinction, but grew up in the course of time.
2 In these constructions the abstract idea expressed by the infinitive is represented
as having some quality or belonging to some thing.
452-454] INFINITIVE AS SUBJECT OF IMPEESONALS 287
NOTE 2. An Appositive or Predicate noun or adjective used with an infinitive in
any of these constructions is put in the Accusative, whether the infinitive has a sub-
ject expressed or not. Thus, non esse cupidum pecunia est (Par. 51), to be free from
desires (not to be desirous) is money in hand. [No Subject Accusative.]
a. The infinitive as subject is not common except with est and
similar verbs. But sometimes, especially in poetry, it is used as the
subject of verbs which are apparently more active in meaning :
quos omnis eadem cupere, eadem odisse, eadem metuere, in unum coegit
(lug. 31), all of whom the fact of desiring, hating, and fearing the same
things has united into one.
ingenuas didicisse fideliter artls emollit mores (Ov. P. ii. 9. 48), faithfully to
have learned liberal arts softens the manners.
posse loqul eripitur (Ov. M. ii. 483), the power of speech is taken away.
453. Rarely the Infinitive is used exactly like the Accusative
of a noun :
beate vivere alii in alio, vos in voluptate ponitis (Fin. ii. 86), a happy life
different [philosophers] base on different things, you on pleasure.
quam multa . . . faciraus causa amlcSrum, precari ab indlgn5, supplicate, etc.
(Lael. 57), how many things we do for our friends' 1 sake, ask favors from
an unworthy person, resort to entreaty, etc.
nihil expl5ratum habeas, ne amare quidem aut amari (id. 97), you have noth-
ing assured, not even loving and being loved.
NOTE. Many complementary and other constructions approach a proper accusa-
tive use of the infinitive, but their development has been different from that of the
examples above. Thus, avaritia . . . snperbiam, crudelitatem.deosneglegere, omnia
venalia habSre edocuit (Sail. Cat. 10), avarice taught pride, cruelty, to neglect the gods,
and to hold everything at a price.
Infinitive as Apparent Subject of Impersonate
454. The Infinitive is used as the apparent Subject with many
impersonal verbs and expressions :
Such are libet, licet, oportet, decet, placet, visum est, pudet, piget,
necesse est, opus est, etc. :
libet mihi considerate (Quinct. 48), it suits me to consider.
necesse est mori (Tusc. ii. 2), it is necessary to die.
quid attinet gloriose loqul nisi constanter loquare (Fin. ii. 89), what good does
it do to talk boastfully unless you speak consistently f
neque me vixisse paenitet (id. 84), I do not feel sorry to have lived.
gubernare me taedebat (Att. ii. 7. 4), I was tired of being pilot.
NOTE. This use is a development of the Complementary Infinitive (456); but
the infinitives approach the subject construction and may be conveniently regarded as
the subjects of the impersonals.
288 SYNTAX: THE VERB [ 458
455. With impersonal verbs and expressions that take the In-
finitive as an apparent subject, the personal subject of the action
may be expressed
1. By a Dative, depending on the verb or verbal phrase :
rogant ut id sibi facere liceat (B. G. i. 7), they ask that it be allowed them to
do this.
nOn lubet enim mihi d6pl5rare vltam (Cat. M. 84), for it does not please me
to lament my life.
vlsum est mihi d6 senectute aliquid cSnscrlbere ( id. 1), it seemed good to
me to write something about old age.
quid est tarn secundum naturam quaru senibus Smori (id. 71), what is so
much in accordance with nature as for old men to die ?
exstingul homini suo tempore optabile est (id. 85), for a man to die at the
appointed time is desirable.
2. By an Accusative expressed as the subject of the infinitive or
the object of the impersonal :
si licet vlvere eum quern Sex. Naevius n5n volt (Quinct. 94), if it is allowed
a man to live against the will of Sextus Ncevius.
n5nne oportuit praescisse me ante (Ter. And. 239), ought I not to have known
beforehand ?
oratorem IrascI minime" decet (Tusc. iv. 54), it is particularly unbecoming for
an orator to lose his temper.
puderet me dlcere (N. D. i. 109), I should be ashamed to say.
cOnsilia ineunt quorum eos in vest!gi5 paenitere necesse est (B. G. iv. 5), they
form plans for which they must at once be sorry.
NOTE. Libet, placet, and visum est take the dative only; oportet, pudet, piget, and
generally decet, the accusative only; licet and necesse est take either case.
a. A predicate noun or adjective is commonly in the Accusative ;
but with licet regularly, and with other verbs occasionally, the Dative
is used :
expedit bonas esse vObis (Ter. Haut. 388), it is for your advantage to be good.
licuit esse otidsd Themistocli (Tusc. i. 33), Themistocles might have been inac-
tive (it was allowed to Themistocles to be inactive),
mihi neglegenti esse n5n licet (Att. i. 17. 6), I must not be negligent. [But
also neglegentem.]
cur his esse liberos nOn licet (Flacc. 71), why is it not allowed these men to
be free?
nOn est omnibus stantibus necesse dlcere (Marc. 33), it is not necessary for
all to speak standing.
NOTE. When the subject is not expressed, as being indefinite (one, anybody), a
predicate noun or adjective is regularly in the accusative (cf. 452. 3. N. 2 ): as,
vel pace vel bellQ clarum fieri licet (Sail. Cat. 3), one can become illustrious either in
peace or in war.
456, 467] COMPLEMENTARY INFINITIVE 289
Complementary Infinitive
456. Verbs which imply another action of the same subject to
complete their meaning take the Infinitive without a subject
accusative.
Such are verbs denoting to be able, dare, undertake, remember, for-
get, be accustomed, begin, continue, cease, hesitate, learn, know how,
fear, and the like :
hOc queo dicere (Cat. M. 32), this I can say.
mitt5 quaerere (Rose. Am. 53), I omit to ask.
vereor laudare praesentem (N. D. i. 58), I fear to praise a man to his face.
6r6 ut matures venire (Att. iv. 1), J beg you will make haste to come.
oblivlsci n5n possum quae vol5 (Fin. ii. 104), I cannot forget that which I
wish.
desine id me docere (Tusc. ii. 29), cease to teach me that.
dicere solgbat, he used to say.
audeO dicere, I venture to say.
loqui posse coepl, I began to be able to speak.
NOTE. The peculiarity of the Complementary Infinitive construction is that no
Subject Accusative is in general admissible or conceivable. But some infinitives
usually regarded as objects can hardly be distinguished from this construction when
they have no subject expressed. Thus volo dicere and void me dicere mean the same
thing, / wish to speak, but the latter is object-infinitive, while the former is not
apparently different in origin and construction from queo dicere (complementary infin-
itive), and again volo eum dicere, / wish him to speak, is essentially different from
either (cf. 563. 6).
457. Many verbs take either a Subjunctive Clause or a Com-
plementary Infinitive, without difference of meaning.
Such are verbs signifying willingness, necessity, propriety, resolve,
command, prohibition, effort, and the like (cf . 563) :
decernere optabat (Q. C. iii. 11. 1), he was eager to decide.
optavit ut tolleretur (Off. iii. 94), he was eager to be taken up.
oppugnare contendit (B. G. v. 21), he strove to take by storm.
contendit ut caperet (id. v. 8), he strove to take.
bellum gerere c5nstituit (id. iv. 6), he decided to carry on war.
constitueram ut manerem (Att. xvi. 10. 1), I had decided to remain.
NOTE 1. For the infinitive with subject accusative used with some of these verbs
instead of a complementary infinitive, see 563.
NOTE 2. Some verbs of these classes never take the subjunctive, but are identi-
cal in meaning with others which do :
eos qu6s tutari debent deserunt (Off. i. 28), they forsake those whom they ought to
protect.
aveO pugnSre (Att. ii. 18. 3), I'm anxious to fight,
290 SYNTAX : THE VERB [ 457-460
a. In poetry and later writers many verbs may have the infini-
tive, after the analogy of verbs of more literal meaning that take
it in prose :
furit te reperire (Hor. Od. i. 15. 27), he rages to find thee. [A forcible way
of saying cupit ( 467, 663. &).]
saevit exstinguere nomen (Ov. M. i. 200), he rages to blot out the name.
fuge quaerere (Hor. Od. i. 9. 13), forbear to ask (cf. 450. N. *).
parce pias scelerare mantis (Aen. iii. 42), forbear to defile your pious hands.
458. A Predicate Noun or Adjective after a complementary
infinitive takes the case of the subject of the main verb :
fierlque studebam eius prudentia doctior (Lael. 1), I was eager to become
more wise through his wisdom.
BciO quam soleas esse occupatus (Fam. xvi. 21. 7), I know how busy you
usually are (are wont to be),
brevis esse Iab5r5, obscurus flo (Hor. A. P. 25), I struggle to be brief, I become
obscure.
Infinitive with Subject Accusative
459. The Infinitive with Subject Accusative is used with verbs
and other expressions of knowing, thinking, telling, and perceiving
(Indirect Discourse, 579) :
dicit montem ab hostibus teneri (B. G. i. 22), he says that tJie hill is held by
the enemy. [Direct : mdns ab hostibus tenetur.]
Infinitive of Purpose
460. In a few cases the Infinitive retains its original meaning
of Purpose.
a. The infinitive is used in isolated passages instead of a subjunc-
tive clause after habeo, d5, ministro :
tantum habeo pollicerl (Fam. i. 5 A. 3), so much I have to promise. [Here
the more formal construction would be quod pollicear.]
ut lovl bibere ministraret (Tusc. i. 65), to serve Jove with wine (to drink).
merldiS bibere dat5 (Cato R. R. 89), give (to) drink at noonday.
6. Paratus, suetus, and their compounds, and a few other partici-
ples (used as adjectives), take the infinitive like the verbs from which
they come :
id quod parati sunt facere (Quint. 8), that which they are ready to do.
adsuefactl superari (B. G. vi. 24), used to being conquered.
curru succedere suet! (Aen. iii. 641), used to being harnessed to the chariot.
c5pias bellare c5nsu6tas (B. Afr. 73), forces accustomed to fighting.
460,461] PECULIAR INFINITIVES 291
NOTE. In prose these words more commonly take the Gerund or Gerundive con-
struction (503 ff.) either in the genitive, the dative, or the accusative with ad:
Insuetus navigandi (B. G. v. 6), unused to making voyages.
alendis liberis sueti (Tac. Ann. xiv. 27), accustomed to supporting children.
corpora insueta ad onera portanda (B. C. i. 78), bodies unused to carry burdens.
c. The poets and early writers often use the infinitive to express
purpose when there is no analogy with any prose construction :
filius intro iit videre quid agat (Ter. Hec. 345), your son has gone in to see what
he is doing. [In prose : the supine visum.]
non ferro Libycos populate Penatis venimus (Aen. i. 627), we have not come
to lay waste with the sword the Libyan homes.
lorlcara donat habere viro (id. v. 262), he gives the hero a breastplate to wear.
[In prose: habendam.]
NOTE. So rarely in prose writers of the classic period.
For the Infinitive used instead of a Substantive Clause of Purpose, see 457.
For tempus est abire, see 504. N. 2 .
Peculiar Infinitives
461. Many Adjectives take the Infinitive in poetry, following a
Greek idiom :
durus componere versus (Hor. S. i. 4. 8), harsh in composing verse.
cantari dlgnus (Eel. v. 54), worthy to be sung. [In prose : qui cantetur.]
fortis tractare serpentis (Hor. Od. i. 37. 26), brave to handle serpents.
cantare peritl (Eel. x. 32), skilled in song.
faciles aurem praebere (Prop. iii. 14. 15), ready to lend an ear.
nescia vinci pectora (Aen. xii. 527), hearts not knowing how to yield.
te videre aegrotl (Plaut. Trin. 75), sick of seeing you.
a. Earely in poetry the infinitive is used to express result:
fingit equum docilem magister ire viam qua monstret eques (Hor. Ep. i. 2. 64),
the trainer makes the horse gentle so as to go in the road the rider points
out.
hie levare . . . pauperem laborious vocatus audit (Hor. Od. ii. 18. 38), he,
when called, hears, so as to relieve the poor man of his troubles.
NOTE. These poetic constructions were originally regular and belong to the Infin-
itive as a noun in the Dative or Locative case ( 451). They had been supplanted,
however, by other more formal constructions, and were afterwards restored in part
through Greek influence.
&. The infinitive occasionally occurs as a pure noun limited by a
demonstrative, a possessive, or some other adjective :
h5c non dolere (Fin. ii. 18), this freedom from pain. [Cf. t5tura h5c beate
vivere (Tusc. v. 33), this whole matter of the happy life.]
nostrum vivere (Pers. i. 9), our life (to live),
scire tuum (id. i. 27), your knowledge (to know).
292 SYNTAX : THE VERB [ 462, 463
Exclamatory Infinitive
462. The Infinitive, with Subject Accusative, 1 may be used in
Exclamations (cf. 397. d) :
te in tantas aerumnas propter me incidisse (Fam. xiv. 1), alas, that you
should have fallen into such grief for me !
mene iucept5 desistere victam (Aen. i. 37), what ! I beaten desist from my
purpose f
NOTE 1. The interrogative particle -ne is often attached to the emphatic word (as
in the second example).
NOTE 2. The Present and the Perfect Infinitive are used in this construction with
their ordinary distinction of time ( 486).
a. A subjunctive clause, with or without ut, is often used ellip-
tically in exclamatory questions. The question may be introduced
by the interrogative -ne :
quamquam quid loquor ? t6 ut ulla re's frangat (Cat. i. 22), yet why do I
speak f [the idea] that anything should bend you !
egone ut t interpellem (Tusc. ii. 42), what, I interrupt you f
ego tibi irascerer (Q. Fr. i. 3), I angry with you f
NOTE. The Infinitive in exclamations usually refers to something actually oc-
curring; the Subjunctive, to something contemplated.
Historical Infinitive
463. The Infinitive is often used for the Imperfect Indicative
in narration, and takes a subject in the Nominative :
turn Catillna polliceri novas tabulas (Sail. Cat. 21), then Catiline promised
abolition of debts (clean ledgers).
ego instare ut mihi respondent (Verr. ii. 188), I kept urging him to answer me.
pars cedere, alii insequl ; neque slgna neque ordines observare ; ubi quemque
periculum cgperat, ibi resistere ac propulsare ; arma, tela, equl, virl,
hostes atque elves permixtl ; nihil consilio neque imperi5 agi ; fors
omnia regere (lug. 51), a part give way, others press on ; they hold neither
to standards nor ranks; where danger overtook them, there each would
stand and fight ; arms, weapons, horses, men, foe and friend, mingled
in confusion ; nothing went by counsel or command ; chance ruled all.
NOTE. This construction is not strictly historical, but rather descriptive, and is
never used to state a mere historical fact. It is rarely found in subordinate clauses.
Though occurring in most of the writers of all periods, it is most frequent in the his-
torians Sallust, Livy, Tacitus. It does not occur in Suetonius.
1 This construction is elliptical ; that is, the thought is quoted in Indirect Discourse,
though no verb of saying etc. is expressed or even, perhaps, implied (compare the
French dire que). Passages like bancine ego ad rem natam miseram me memorabo?
(Plant. Rud. 188) point to the origin of the construction.
464, 465] TENSES OF THE INDICATIVE 293
TENSES
464. The number of possible Tenses is very great. For in each of the three times,
Present, Past, and Future, an action may be represented as going on, completed, or
beginning; as habitual or isolated; as defined in time or indefinite (aoristic) ; as
determined with reference to the time of the speaker, or as not itself so determined
but as relative to some time which is determined ; and the past and future times may
be near or remote. Thus a scheme of thirty or more tenses might be devised.
But, in the development of forms, which always takes place gradually, no language
finds occasion for more than a small part of these. The most obvious distinctions,
according to our habits of thought, appear in the following scheme :
1. Definite (fixing the time of the action) 2. Indefinite
INCOMPLETE COMPLETE NARRATIVE
Present: a. I am writing. d. I have written. g. I write.
Past: b. I was writing. e. I had written. h. I wrote.
Future: c. I shall be writing. f. I shall have written. i. I shall write.
Most languages disregard some of these distinctions, and some make other distinc-
tions not here given. The Indo-European parent speech had a Present tense to express
a and g, a Perfect to express d, an Aorist to express h, a Future to express c and i, and
an Imperfect to express 6. The Latin, however, confounded the Perfect and Aorist
in a single form (the Perfect scrips!), thus losing all distinction of form between d and
h, and probably in a great degree the distinction of meaning. The nature of this con-
fusion may be seen by comparing dixi, dicavi, and didici (all Perfects derived from the
same root, Die), with Sa, Skr. adiksham, dtSeixa, Skr. dideqa. Latin also devel-
oped two new forms, those for e (scripseram) and / (scripsero), and thus possessed six
tenses, as seen in 154. c.
The lines between these six tenses in Latin are not hard and fast, nor are they pre-
cisely the same that we draw in English. Thus in many verbs the form corresponding
to I have written (d) is used for those corresponding to lam writing (a) and I write (g)
in a slightly different sense, and the form corresponding to / had written (e) is used in
like manner for that corresponding to I was writing (b). Again, the Latin often uses
the form for / shall have written (f) instead of that for I shall write (i). Thus, n5vi, /
have learned, is used for / know; constiterat, he had taken his position, for he stood;
cogn5ver5, 1 shall have learned, for / shall be aware. In general a writer may take his
own point of view.
TENSES OF THE INDICATIVE
INCOMPLETE ACTION
PRESENT TENSE
465. The Present Tense denotes an action or state (1) as now
taking place or existing, and so (2) as incomplete in present time,
or (3) as indefinite, referring to no particular time, but denoting a
general truth :
294 SYNTAX : THE VERB [ 466, 466
senatus haec intellegit, consul videt, hie tamen vivit (Cat. i. 2), the senate
knows this, the consul sees it, yet this man lives.
tibi concede meas sedis (Div. i. 104), / give you my seat (an offer which may
or may not be accepted).
exspecto quid veils (Ter. And. 34), I await your pleasure (what you wish),
tu actionem mstituis, ille aciem instruit (Mur. 22), you arrange a case, he
arrays an army. [The present is here used of regular employment.]
minora dl neglegunt (N. D. iii. 86), the gods disregard trifles. [General
truth.]
obsequium amlcos, v6ritas odium parit (Ter. And. 68), flattery gains friends,
truth hatred. [General truth.]
NOTE. The present of a general truth is sometimes called the Gnomic Present.
a. The present is regularly used in quoting writers whose works
are extant :
Epicurus ver5 ea dicit (Tusc. ii. 17), but Epicurus says such things.
apud ilium Ulixes lamentatur in volnere (id. ii. 49), in him (Sophocles)
Ulysses laments over his wound.
Polyphemum Homerus cum ariete colloquentem facit (id. v. 115), Homer
brings in (makes) Polyphemus talking with his ram.
Present with iam dm etc.
466. The Present with expressions of duration of time (espe-
cially iam diu, iam dudum) denotes an action continuing in the pres-
ent, but begun in the past (cf. 471. b).
In this use the present is commonly to be rendered by the perfect
in English :
iam diu ignore quid agas (Fam. vii. 9), for a long time I have not known what
you were doing.
te iam dudum hortor (Cat. i. 12), I have long been urging you.
patimur multos iam annos (Verr. v. 126), we suffer now these many years.
[The Latin perfect would imply that we no longer suffer.]
anni sunt octo cum ista causa versatur (cf. Clu. 82), it is now eight years
that this case has been in hand.
annum iam audis Cratippum (Off. i. 1), for a year you have been a hearer of
Cratippus.
adhuc Plancius me retinet (Fam. xiv. 1. 3), so far Plancius has kept me here.
NOTE 1. The difference in the two idioms is that the English states the beginning
and leaves the continuance to be inferred, while the Latin states the continuance and
leaves the beginning to be inferred. Compare he has long suffered (and still suffers)
with he still suffers (and has suffered long).
NOTE 2. Similarly the Present Imperative with iam dudum indicates that the
action commanded ought to have been done or was wished for long ago (cf. the Per-
fect Imperative in Greek): as, iam dudum sumite poenas (Aen. ii. 103), exact the
penalty long delayed.
467-469] PRESENT TENSE 295
Conative Present
467. The Present sometimes denotes an action attempted or
begun in present time, but never completed at all ( Conative Pres-
ent, ct. 471. c):
iam iamque manii tenet (Aen. ii. 530), and now, even now, he attempts to
grasp him.
densos fertur in hostis (id. ii. 511), he starts to rush into the thickest of the foe.
decerno quinquaginta dierum supplicationes (Phil. xiv. 29), / move for fifty
days' 1 thanksgiving. [Cf. senatus decrevit, the senate ordained.']
Present for Future
468. The Present, especially in colloquial language and poetry,
is often used for the Future :
Imusne sessum (De Or. iii. 17), shall we take a seat ? (are we going to sit ?)
hodie uxorem duels (Ter. And. 321), are you to be married to-day f
quod si fit, pereo funditus (id. 244), if this happens, I am utterly undone.
ecquid me adiuvas (Clu. 71), won't you give me a little help ?
in ius voco te. non eo. non Is (PL Asin. 480), I summon you to the court.
I won't go. You won't ?
NOTE. E5 and its compounds are especially frequent in this use (cf. where are
you going to-morrow? and the Greek elfii in a future sense). Verbs of necessity,
possibility, wish, and the like (as possum, volo, etc.) also have reference to the future.
For other uses of the Present in a future sense, see under Conditions ( 516. a. N.),
antequam and priusquam ( 551. c), dum ( 553. N. 2 ), and 444. a. N.
Historical Present
469. The Present in lively narrative is often used for the His-
torical Perfect :
affertur nuntius Syracusas; curritur ad praetorium; Cleomenes in publics
esse non audet ; includit se doml (Verr. v. 92), the news is brought to Syra-
cuse ; they run to headquarters ; Cleomenes does not venture to be abroad ;
he shuts himself up at home.
NOTE. This usage, common in all languages, comes from imagining past events
as going on hefore our eyes (repraesentdtio, 585. 6. N.).
For the Present Indicative with dum, while, see 556.
a. The present may be used for the perfect in a summary enumera-
tion of past events (Annalistic Present) :
Roma interim crescit Albae rulnls : duplicator clvium numerus ; Caelius
additur urbl mons (Liv. i. 30), Rome meanwhile grows as a result of the
fall of Alba: the number of citizens is doubled; the Ccelian hill is added
to the town.
296 SYNTAX : THE VERB [ 470, 471
IMPERFECT TENSE
470. The Imperfect denotes an action or a state as continued
or repeated in past time :
hunc audiebant an tea (Manil. 13), they used to Jiear of him before.
[SOcrates] ita censebat itaque disseruit (Tusc. i. 72), Socrates thougU so (habit-
ually), and so he spoke (then).
prudens esse putabatur (Lael. 6), he was (generally) tfiought wise. [The per-
fect would refer to some particular case, and not to a state of things. ]
iamque rubescebat Aurora (Aen. iii. 621), and now the daion was blushing.
ara vetus stabat (Ov. M. vi. 326), an old altar stood there.
NOTE. The Imperfect is a descriptive tense and denotes an action conceived as
in progress or a state of things as actually observed. Hence in many verbs it does
not differ in meaning from the Perfect. Thus rex erat and rex fuit may often be used
indifferently ; but the former describes the condition while the latter only states it.
The English is less exact in distinguishing these two modes of statement. Hence the
Latin Imperfect is often translated by the English Preterite :
Haedui graviter ferebant, neque legates ad Caesarem mittere audebant (B. G. v.
6), the Haedui were displeased, and did not dare to send envoys to Csssar.
[Here the Imperfects describe the state of things.] But,
id tulit factum graviter Indutiomarus (id. v. 4), Indutiomarus was displeased at
this action. [Here the Perfect merely states the fact.]
aedificia vicosque habebant (id. iv. 4), they had buildings and villages.
471. The Imperfect represents a present tense transferred to
past time. Hence all the meanings which the Present has derived
from the continuance of the action belong also to the Imperfect in
reference to past time.
\a) The Imperfect is used in descriptions :
erant omnln5 itinera duo . . . mOns altissimus impendebat (B. G. i. 6), there
were in all two ways ... a very high mountain overhung. '
\bj With iam diu, iam dudum, and other expressions of duration of
time, me Imperfect denotes an action continuing in the pas't but be-
gun at some previous time (cf. 466).
In this construction the Imperfect is rendered by the English Plu-
perfect :
iam dudum flebam (Ov. M. iii. 656), I had been weeping for a longtime.
c5pias quas diu comparabant (Fam. xi. 13. 5), the forces which they had long
been getting ready.
I cJ the Imperfect sometimes denotes an action as begun (Inceptive
Imperfect), or as attempted or only intendedJ(Conative Imperfect; cf.
467) :
471] IMPERFECT TENSE 297
in exsilium eiciebam quern iam ingressum esse in bellum videbam (Cat. ii.
14), was I trying to send into exile one who I saw had already gone
into war f
hunc igitur diem sibi prop5nens Mil5, cruentls manibus ad ilia augusta cen-
turiarum auspicia veniebat (Mil. 43), was Milo coming (i.e. was it likely
that he would come), etc. ?
si licitum esset veniebant (Verr. v. 129), they were coming if it had been allowed
(they were on the point of coming, and would have done so if, etc.).
NOTE. To this head may be referred the imperfect with iam, denoting the begin-
ning of an action or state: as, iamque arva tenebant ultima (Aen. vi. 477), and now
they were just getting to the farthest fields.
d. The Imperfect is sometimes used to express a surprise at the
present discovery of a fact already existing :
o tu quoque aderas (Ter. Ph. 858), oh, you are here too !
ehem, tun hie eras, mi Phaedria (Ter. Eun. 86), what! you here, Phcedria f
a miser ! quanta laborabas Charybdi (Hor. Od. i. 27. 19), unhappy boy, what
a whirlpool you are struggling in [and I never knew it] !
e. The Imperfect is often used in dialogue by the comic poets
where later writers would employ the Perfect :
ad amicum Calliclem quoi rem aibat mandasse hie suam (PI. Trin. 966), to
his friend Callicles, to wTiom, he said, he had intrusted his property.
praesagibat mi animus frustra me ire quom exlbam dom5 (PI. Aul. 178), my
mind mistrusted when I went from home that I went in vain.
NOTE. So, in conversation the imperfect of verbs of saying (cf . as I was a-saying)
is common in classic prese :
at medic! quoque, ita enim dicebas, saepe falluntur (N. D. iii. 15), but physicians
also, for that is what you were saying just now, are often mistaken.
haec mihi fere in mentem veniebant (id. ii. 67, 168), this is about what occurred
to me, etc. [In a straightforward narration this would be venerunt.]
/. The Imperfect with negative words often has the force of the
English auxiliary could or would :
itaque (Damocles) nee pulchros illos ministratores aspiciebat (Tusc. v. 62),
therefore he could not look upon those beautiful slaves. [In this case did
not would not express the idea of continued prevention of enjoyment by
the overhanging sword.]
nee enim dum eram vobiscum animum meum videbatis (Cat. M. 79), for, you
know, while I was with you, you could not see my soul. [Here the Per-
fect would refer only to one moment.]
Lentulus satis erat fortis orator, sed c5gitandi n5n ferebat laborem (Brut. 268),
Lentulus was bold enough as an orator, but could not endure the exertion
of thinking hard.
For the Epistolary Imperfect, see 479 ; for the Imperfect Indicative in apodosis
contrary to fact, see 517. b, c.
298 SYNTAX : THE VERB [ 472, 473
FUTURE TENSE
472. The Future denotes an action or state that will occur
hereafter.
a. The Future may have the force of an Imperative ( 449. b).
b. The Future is often required in a subordinate clause in Latin
where in English futurity is sufficiently expressed by the main clause :
cum aderit videbit, when he is there he will see (cf. 547).
sanabimur si volemus (Tusc. iii. 13), we shall be healed if we wish (cf . 516. a).
NOTE. But the Present is common in future protases (516. a. N.).
COMPLETED ACTION
PERFECT TENSE
Perfect Definite and Historical Perfect
473. The Perfect denotes an action either as now completed
(Perfect Definite), or as having taken place at some undefined point
of past time (Historical or Aoristic Perfect}.
The Perfect Definite corresponds in general to the English Perfect
with have; the Historical Perfect to the English Preterite (or Past) :
(1) ut ego feci, qui Graecas litteras senex didici (Cat. M. 20), as I have done,
who have learned Greek in my old age.
diuturnl silentl flnern hodiernus dies attulit (Marc. 1), this day has put an
end to my long-continued silence.
(2) tantum bellum extrema hieme apparavit, ineunte vere suscepit, media
aestate confecit (Manil. 35), so great a war he made ready for at the end
of winter, undertook in early spring, and finished by midsummer.
NOTE. The distinction between these two uses is represented by two forms in
most other Indo-European languages, but was almost if not wholly lost to the minds
of the Romans. It must be noticed, however, on account of the marked distinction
in English and also because of certain differences in the sequence of tenses.
a. The Indefinite Present, denoting a customary action or a general
truth ( 465), often has the Perfect in a subordinate clause referring
to time antecedent to that of the main clause :
qui in compedibus corporis semper f uerunt, etiam cum soluti sunt tardius
ingrediuntur (Tusc. i. 75), they who have always been in the fetters of the
body, even when released move more slowly.
simul ac mihi collibitum est, praesto est imago (N. D. i. 108), as soon as I
have taken a fancy, the image is before my eyes.
473-476] PERFECT TENSE 299
haec morte effugiuntur, etiam si non evenerunt, tamen quia possunt evenire
(Tusc. i. 86), these things are escaped by death even if they have not [yet]
happened, because they still may happen.
NOTE. This use of the perfect is especially common in the protasis of General
Conditions in present time ( 518. &).
474. The Perfect is sometimes used emphatically to denote that
a thing or condition of things that once existed no longer exists :
fuit ista quondam in hac re publica virtus (Cat. i. 3), there was once such vir-
tue in this commonwealth.
habuit, non habet (Tusc. i. 87), he had, he has no longer.
f ilium habeo . . . immo habui ; mine habeam necne incertumst (Ter. Haut.
93), / have a son, no, I had one; whether I have now or not is uncertain.
fuimus Troes, fuit Ilium (Aen. ii. 325), we have ceased to be Trojans, Troy is
no more.
Special Uses of the Perfect
475. The Perfect is sometimes used of a general truth, espe-
cially with negatives ( Gnomic Perfect) :
qui studet contingere metam multa tulit fecitque (Hor. A. P. 412), he who
aims to reach the goal, first bears and does many things.
non aeris acervus et aur! deduxit corpore febrls (id. Ep. i. 2. 47), the pile of
brass and gold removes not fever from the frame.
NOTE. The gnomic perfect strictly refers to past time ; but its use implies that
something which never did happen in any known case never does happen, and never
will (cf. the English "Faint heart never won fair lady"); or, without a negative,
that what has once happened will always happen under similar circumstances.
a. The Perfect is often used in expressions containing or implying
a negation, where in affirmation the Imperfect would be preferred :
dicebat melius quam scripsit f Hortensius (Or. 132), Hortensius spoke better
than he wrote. [Here the negative is implied in the comparison : com-*
pare the use of quisquam, ullus, etc. (311, 312), and the French ne
after comparatives and superlatives.]
476. The completed tenses of some verbs are equivalent to the
incomplete tenses of verbs of kindred meaning.
Such are the preteritive verbs 5di, I hate; meminl, I remember; novi,
I know ; c6nsuevl, lam accustomed? with others used preteritively,
as venerat (= aderat, he was at hand, etc.), constiterunt, they stand firm
(have taken their stand), and many inceptives (see 263. 1) :
1 Cf. detestor, remimscor, scio, soleo.
300 SYNTAX: THE VERB [476-478
qui die's aestus maxim5s efficere consuevit (B. G. iv. 29), which day generally
makes the highest tides (is accustomed to make),
cuius splendor obsolevit (Quinct. 69)", whose splendor is now all faded.
NOTE. Many other verbs are occasionally so used : as, dum oculos certamen
averterat (Liv. xxxii. 24), while the contest had turned their eyes (kept them turned).
[Here averterat = tenebat.]
PLUPERFECT TENSE
477. The Pluperfect is used (1) to denote an action or state
completed in past time ; or (2) sometimes to denote an action in
indefinite time, but prior to some past time referred to :
(1) loci natura erat haec, quern locum nostri castrls delegerant (B. G. ii. 18),
this was the nature of the ground which our men had chosen for a camp.
Viridovix summam imperl tenebat earum omnium civitatum quae defece-
rant (id. iii. 17), Viridovix held the chief command of all those tribes which
had revolted.
(2) neque vero cum aliquid mandaverat confectum putabat (Cat. iii. 16), but
when he had given a thing in charge he did not look on it as done.
quae si quando adepta est id quod el fuerat concupltum, turn fert alacritatem
(Tusc. iv. 15), if it (desire) ever has gained what it had [previously]
desired, then it produces joy.
For the Epistolary Pluperfect, see 479.
FUTURE PERFECT TENSE
478. The Future Perfect denotes an action as completed in the
future :
ut sementem feceris, ita metes (De Or. ii. 261), as you sow (shall have sown),
so shall you reap.
carmina turn melius, cum venerit ipse, canemus (Eel. -ix. 67), then shall we
sing our songs better, when he himself has come (shall have come).
t si illlus insidiae clariores hac luce fuerint, turn denique obsecrabo (Mil. 6),
when the plots of that man have been shown to be as clear as daylight,
then, and not till then, shall I conjure you.
ego certe meum officium praestitero (B. G. iv. 25), I at least shall have done
my duty (i.e. when the time comes to reckon up the matter, I shall be
found to have done it, whatever the event).
NOTE. Latin is far more exact than English in distinguishing between mere
future action and action completed in the future. Hence the Future Perfect is much
commoner in Latin than in English. It may even be used instead of the Future, from
the fondness of the Romans for representing an action as completed :
quid inventum sit paulo post videro (Acad. ii. 76), what has been found out I shall
see presently.
qui Antonium oppresserit bellum taeterrimum c5nfecerit (Fam. x. 19), whoever
crushes (shall have crushed) Antony will finish (will have finished) a most
loathsome war.
479-481] TENSES OF THE SUBJUNCTIVE 301
EPISTOLARY TENSES
479. In Letters, the Perfect Historical or the Imperfect may
be used for the present, and the Pluperfect for any past tense, as
if the letter were dated at the time it is supposed to be received:
neque tamen, haec cum scribebam, eram nescius quantis oneribus premerere
(Fain. v. 12. 2), nor while I write this am I ignorant under what burdens
you are weighed down.
ad tuas omnls [epistulas] rescripseram prldie (Att. ix. 10. 1), I answered all
your letters yesterday.
cum quod scrlberem ad te nihil haberem, tamen has dedi litteras (Att. ix. 16),
thofigh I have nothing to write to you, still I write this letter.
NOTE. In this use these tenses are called the Epistolary Perfect, Imperfect, and
Pluperfect. The epistolary tenses are not employed with any uniformity, but only
when attention is particularly directed to the time of writing (so especially scribebam,
dabam, etc.).
TENSES OF THE SUBJUNCTIVE
480. The tenses of the Subjunctive in Independent Clauses de-
note time in relation to the time of the speaker.
The Present always refers to future (or indefinite) time, the Im-
perfect to either past or present, the Perfect to either future or
past, the Pluperfect always to past.
481. The tenses of the Subjunctive in Dependent Clauses were
habitually used in certain fixed connections with the tenses of the
main verb.
These connections were determined by the time of the main
verb and the time of the dependent verb together. They are
known, collectively, as the /Sequence of Tenses.
NOTE. The so-called Sequence of Tenses is not a mechanical law. Each tense
of the subjunctive in dependent clauses (as in independent) originally denoted its
own time in relation to the time of the speaker, though less definitely than the corre-
sponding tenses of the indicative. Gradually, however, as the complex sentence was
more strongly felt as a unit, certain types in which the tenses of the dependent
clause seemed to accord with those of the main clause were almost unconsciously
regarded as regular, and others, in which there was no such agreement, as excep-
tional. Thus a pretty definite system of correspondences grew up, which is codi-
fied in the rules for the Sequence of Tenses. These, however, are by no means
rigid. They do not apply with equal stringency to all dependent constructions, and
they were frequently disregarded, not only when their strict observance would have
obscured the sense, but for the sake of emphasis and variety, or merely from care-
lessness.
302 SYNTAX: THE VERB [482,483
Sequence of Tenses
482. The tenses of the Subjunctive in Dependent Clauses fol-
low special rules for the Sequence of Tenses.
With reference to these rules all tenses when used in independ-
ent clauses are divided into two classes, Primary and Secondary.
1. PRIMARY. The Primary Tenses include all forms that express
present or future time. These are the Present, Future, and Future
Perfect Indicative, the Present and Perfect Subjunctive, and the
Present and Future Imperative.
2. SECONDARY. The Secondary Tenses include all forms that re-
fer to past time. These are the Imperfect, Perfect, and Pluperfect
Indicative, the Imperfect and Pluperfect Subjunctive, and the His-
torical Infinitive.
NOTE. To these maybe added certain forms less commonly used in independent
clauses : (1) Primary : Present Infinitive in Exclamations ; (2) Secondary : Perfect
Infinitive in Exclamations (see 462, 485. a. N.).
The Perfect Definite is sometimes treated as primary (see 485. a).
For the Historical Present, see 485. e ; for the Imperfect Subjunctive in Apodosis,
see 485. A.
483. The following is the general rule for the Sequence of
Tenses : 1
In complex sentences a Primary tense in the main clause is
followed by the Present or Perfect in the dependent clause, and
a Secondary tense by the Imperfect or Pluperfect :
rogo, / ask, am asking
rogabo, I shall ask
rogavi (sometimes), I have asked
rogavero, I shall have asked
quid facias, what you are doing.
quid feceris, what you did, were doing,
have done, have been doing.
quid facturus sis, what you will do.
scnbit, he writes
, . ., ut nos moneat, to warn us.
scribet, he will write }
scribe (scribito), write ut nos moneas, to warn us.
scribit, he writes quasi oblitus sit, as if he had forgotten.
1 The term is sometimes extended to certain relations between the tenses of sub-
ordinate verbs in the indicative and those of the main verb. These relations do not
differ in principle from those which we are considering ; but for convenience the term
Sequence of Tenses is in this book restricted to subjunctives, in accordance with the
usual practice.
483-485] SEQUENCE OF TENSES 303
SECONDARY TENSES
rogabam, I asked, was asking
rogavi, I asked, have asked
rogaveram, / had asked
quid faceres, what you were doing.
quid fecisses, what you had done, had
been doing.
quid facturus esses, ivhat you would do.
scripsit, he wrote ut nos moneret, to warn us.
scripsit, he wrote quasi oblitus esset, as if lie had forgotten.
484. In applying the rule for the Sequence of Tenses, observe
(1) Whether the main verb is (a) primary or (&) secondary.
(2) Whether the dependent verb is to denote completed action (i.e.
past with reference to the main verb) or incomplete action (i.e. pres-
ent or future with reference to the main verb). Then
a. If the leading verb is primary, the dependent verb must be in
the Present if it denotes incomplete action, in the Perfect if it denotes
completed action.
b. If the leading verb is secondary, the dependent verb must be in
the Imperfect if it denotes incomplete action, in the Pluperfect if it
denotes completed action :
(1) He writes [primary] to warn [incomplete action] us, scribit ut nos moneat.
I ask [primary] what you were doing [now past], rogo quid feceris.
(2) lie wrote [secondary] to warn [incomplete] us, scripsit ut nos moneret.
T asked [secondary] what you were doing [incomplete], rogavi quid faceres.
c. Notice that the Future Perfect denotes action completed (at
the time referred to), and hence is represented in the Subjunctive by
the Perfect or Pluperfect :
He shows that if they come (shall have come), many will perish, demonstrat, si
venerint,' multos interituros.
He showed that if they should come (should have come), many would perish,
demonstravit, si venissent, multos interituros.
485. In the Sequence of Tenses the following special points
are to be noted :
a. The Perfect Indicative is ordinarily a secondary tense, but
allows the primary sequence when the present time is clearly in the
writer's mind :
ut satis esset praesidl provisum est (Cat. ii. 26), provision has been made that
there should be ample guard. [Secondary sequence.]
adduxi hominem in quo satisfacere exteris nationibus possetis (Verr. i. 2), /
have brought a man in whose person you can make satisfaction to foreign
nations. [Secondary sequence.]
304 SYNTAX: THE VERB [485
est enim re's iam in eum locum adducta, ut quamquam multum intersit inter
eOrum causas qu! dimicant, tamen inter victorias n6n multura interfu-
turuin putem (Fam. v. 21. 3), for affair shave been brought to such a pass
that, though there is a great difference between the causes of those who are
fighting, still I do not think there will be much difference between their vic-
tories. [Primary sequence.]
ea adhibita doctrlna est quae vel vitiosissimam naturam excolere possit (Q. Fr.
i. 1. 7), such instruction has been given as can train even the faultiest
nature. [Primary sequence.]
NOTE. The Perfect Infinitive in exclamations follows the same rule :
quemquamne fuisse tarn sceleratum qui hoc flngeret (Phil. xiv. 14), was any one so
abandoned as to imagine this? [Secondary.]
adeon rem redisse patrem ut extimescam (Ter. Ph. 153), to think that things have
come to such a pass that I should dread my father! [Primary.]
6. After a primary tense the Perfect Subjunctive is regularly used to
denote any past action. Thus the Perfect Subj uncti ve may represent
1. A Perfect Definite :
nOn dubito quln omnes tul scripserint (Fam. v. 8), I do not doubt that all
your friends have written. [Direct statement : scripserunt. ]
qua re non ignore quid accidat in ultimTs terrls, cum audierim in Italia que-
rellas civium (Q. Fr. i. 1. 33), therefore I know well what happens at the
ends of the earth, when I have heard in Italy the complaints of citizens.
[Direct statement : audivi.]
2. A Perfect Historical :
me autem hie laudat quod rettulerim, non quod patefecerim (Att. xii. 21), me
he praises because I brought tlie matter [before the senate] , not because I
brought it to light. [Direct statement : rettulit.]
3. An Imperfect:
si forte ceciderunt, turn intellegitur quam fuerint inopes amic5rum (Lael. 53),
if perchance they fall (have fallen), then one can see how poor they were
in friends. [Direct question : quam inopes erant?]
qui status rerum fuerit cum has litteras dedi, scire poteris ex C. Titio Stra-
b5ne (Fam. xii. 6), what the condition of affairs was when I wrote this
letter, you can learn from Strabo. [Direct question : qui status erat?]
quam civitati carus fuerit maerore f uneris indicatum est (Lael. 11), how dear
he was to the state has been shown by the grief at his funeral. [Direct
question : quam carus erat ?]
ex epistulls intellegi licet quam frequgns fuerit PlatSnis auditor (Or. 15), it
may be understood from his letters how constant a hearer he was of Plato.
[Direct question : quam frequens erat ?]
NOTE. Thus the Perfect Subjunctive may represent, not only a Perfect Definite
or a Perfect Historical of a direct statement or question, but an Imperfect as well.
This comes from the want of any special tense of the subjunctive for continued past
action after a primary tense. Thus, mlror quid fecerit may mean (1) I wonder what he
has done, (2) I wonder what he did (hist, perf.), or (3) I wonder what he was doing.
485] SEQUENCE OF TENSES 305
c. In clauses of Result, the Perfect Subjunctive is regularly (the
Present rarely) used after secondary tenses :
HortSnsius ardebat dicendi cupiditate sic ut in nullo umquam flagrantius
studium viderim (Brut. 302), Hortensius was so hot with desire of speak-
ing that I have never seen a more burning ardor in any man.
[Siciliam Verres] per triennium ita vexavit ac perdidit ut ea restitui in anti-
quum statum nullo modo possit (Verr. i. 12), for three years Verrts so
racked and ruined Sicily that she can in no way be restored to her former
state. [Here the Present describes a state of things .actually existing.]
videor esse consecutus ut non possit Dolabella in Ttaliam pervenlre (Fain,
xii. 14. 2), I seem to have brought it about that Dolabella cannot come into
Italy.
NOTE 1. This construction emphasizes the result ; the regular sequence of tenses
rould subordinate it.
NOTE 2. There is a special fondness for the Perfect Subjunctive to represent a
Perfect Indicative :
Thorius erat ita non superstitiosus ut ilia plurima in sua patria et sacrificia et
fana contemneret ; ita non timidus ad mortem ut in acie sit ob rem publicam
interfectus (Fiu. ii. 63), Thorius was so little superstitious that he despised
[contemnebat] the many sacrifices and shrines in his country ; so little timor-
ous about death that he was killed [interfectus est] in battle, in defence of
the state.
d. A general truth after a past tense follows the sequence of tenses :
ex his quae tribuisset, sibi quam mutabilis esset reputabat (Q. C. iii. 8. 20),
from what she (Fortune) had bestowed on him, he reflected how inconstant
she is. [Direct : mutabilis est. ]
ibi quantam vim ad stimulandos animos ira haberet apparuit (Liv. xxxiii. 37),
here it appeared what power anger has to goad the mind. [Direct : habet. ]
NOTE. In English the original tense is more commonly kept.
e. The Historical Present ( 469) is sometimes felt as a primary,
sometimes as a secondary tense, and accordingly it takes either the
primary or the secondary sequence :
rogat ut curet quod dixisset (Quinct. 18), he asks him to attend to the thing he
had spoken of. [Both primary and secondary sequence. ]
NOTE. After the historical present, the subjunctive with cum temporal must
follow the secondary sequence :
qu5 cum venisset cognoscit (B. C. i. 34), when he had come there he learns.
cum esset pugnatum horis quinque, nostrique gravius premerentur, impetum in
cohortis faciunt (id. i. 46), when they had fought for five hours, and our
men were pretty hard pressed, they make an attack on the cohorts.
/. The Historical Infinitive regularly takes the secondary se-
quence :
interim cotidiS Caesar HaeduOs frumentum, quod essent pollicitl, flagitare
(B. G. i. 16), meanwhile Caesar demanded of the Hcedui every day the grain
which they had promised.
306 SYNTAX: THE VERB [485
gr. The Imperfect and Pluperfect in conditions contrary to fact
( 517) and in the Deliberative Subjunctive ( 444) are not affected
by the sequence of tenses :
quia tale sit, ut vel si ignorarent id homines vel si obmutuissent (Fin. ii. 49),
because it is such that even if men WERE ignorant of it, or HAD BEEN
silent about it.
quaero a te cur C. Cornelium non defenderem (Vat. 5), I ask you why Twos
not to defend Caius Cornelius ? [Direct : cur non defenderem ?]
h. The Imperfect Subjunctive in present conditions contrary to
fact ( 517) is regularly followed by the secondary sequence :
si alii consules essent, ad te potissimum, Paule, mitterem, ut eos mihi quam
amlcissimosredderes (Fam. xv. 13. 3), if there were other consuls, I should
send to you, Paulus, in preference to all, that you might make them as
friendly to me as possible.
si solos eos diceres miseros quibus moriendum esset, neminem exciperes
(Tusc. i. 9), if you were to call only those wretched who must die, you
would except no one.
i. The Present is sometimes followed by a secondary sequence,
seemingly because the writer is thinking of past time :
sed si res coget, est quiddam tertium, quod neque Selicio nee mihi displice-
bat: ut neque iacere rem pateremur, etc. (Fam. i. 5 A. 3), but if the case
shall demand, there is a third [course] which neither Selicius nor myself
disapproved, that we should not allow, etc. [Here Cicero is led by the
time of displicebat.]
sed tamen ut sclres, haec tibi scribd (Fam. xiii. 47) , but yet that you may know, I
write thus. [As if he had used the epistolary imperfect scribebam ( 470). ]
cfiius praeceptl tanta vis est ut ea non homini cuipiam sed DelphicS deo
tribueretur (Legg. i. 58), such is the force of this precept, that it was
ascribed not to any man, but to the Delphic god. [The precept was an
old one.]
j. When a clause depends upon one already dependent, its se-
quence may be secondary if the verb of that clause expresses past
time, even if the main verb is in a primary tense :
sed tamen qua re accident ut ex meis superioribus litterls id suspicarere nescio
(Fam. ii. 16), but yet how it happened that you suspected this from my
previous letter, I don't know.
tantum profecisse videmur ut a Graecls ne verborum quidem copia vincere-
mur (N. D. i. 8), we seem to have advanced so far that even in abundance
of words we ARE not surpassed by the Greeks.
NOTB. So regularly after a Perfect Infinitive which depends on a primary tense
( 585. a).
486] TENSES OF THE INFINITIVE 307
TENSES OF THE INFINITIVE
486. Except in Indirect Discourse, only the Present and Per-
fect Infinitives are used.
The Present represents the action of the verb as in progress with-
out distinct reference to time, the Perfect as completed.
For the Tenses of the Infinitive in Indirect Discourse see 584.
a. With past tenses of verbs of necessity, propriety, and possibility
(as debul, oportuit, potui), the Present Infinitive is often used in
Latin where the English idiom prefers the Perfect Infinitive :
numne, si Coriolanus habuit amlcos, ferre contra patriam arma illi cum
Coriolano debuerunt (Lael. 36), if Coriolanus had friends, ouglit they to
have borne arms with him against their fatherland ?
pecunia, quam his oportuit civitatibus pro frumento dan (Verr. iii. 174),
money which ought to have been paid to these states for grain.
c6nsul esse qul potui, nisi eum vltae cursum tenuissem a pueritia (Rep. i. 10),
how could I have become consul had I not from boyhood followed that
course of life f
6. With verbs of necessity, propriety, and possibility, the Perfect
Infinitive may be used to emphasize the idea of completed action :
tametsl statim vicisse debeo (Rose. Am. 73), although I ought to win my case
at once (to be regarded as having won it),
bellum quod possumus ante hiemem perfecisse (Liv. xxxvii. 19. 6), a war
which we can have completed before winter.
nil ego, si peccem, possum nescisse (Ov. H. xvi. 47), if I should go wrong,
I cannot have done it in ignorance (am not able not to have known).
NOTE. With the past tenses of these verbs the perfect infinitive is apparently
due to attraction :
quod iam pridem factum esse oportuit (Cat. i. 5), (a thing) which ought to have
been done long ago.
haec facta ab illo oportebat (Ter. Haut. 536), this ought to have been done by him.
turn decnit metuisse (Aen. x. 94), then was the time to fear (then you should have
feared).
c. In archaic Latin and in legal formulas the Perfect Active Infini-
tive is often used with n616 or volo in prohibitions :
Chaldaeum nequem consuluisse velit (Cato R. R. v. 4), let him not venture to
have consulted a soothsayer.
n5llt5 devellisse (PI. Poen. 872), do not have them plucked.
nSquis hu masse velit Aiacem (Hor. S. ii. 3. 187), let no one venture to have
buried Ajax.
NEIQVIS EORVM BACANAL HABVtSE VELET (S. C. de Bac. 1), let no one of them
venture to have had a place for Bacchanalian worship.
308 SYNTAX: THE VERB [486
d. With verbs of wishing 1 the Perfect Passive Infinitive (com-
monly without esse) is often used emphatically instead of the Present:
domestica cura te levatum volo (Q. Fr. iii. 9. 3), I wish you relieved of private
care.
illos monitos volo (Cat. ii. 27), I wish them thoroughly warned.
qui illam [patriarn] exstinctam cupit (Fin. iv. 66), who is eager for her utter
destruction.
illud te esse admonitum volo (Gael. 8), I wish you to be well advised of this.
qui sS ab omnibus desertos potius quam abs te defenses esse malunt (Caecil.
21), who prefer to be deserted by all rather than to be defended by you.
NOTE. The participle in this case is rather in predicate agreement (with or with-
out esse) than used to form a strict perfect infinitive, though the full form can hardly
be distinguished from that construction.
e. In late Latin, and in poetry (often for metrical convenience),
rarely in good prose, the Perfect Active Infinitive is used emphatically
instead of the Present, and even after other verbs than those of wish-
ing :
nemo eorum est qui non perisse te cupiat (Verr. ii. 149), there is no one of
them who is not eager for your death.
baud equidem premendO alium me extulisse velim (Liv. xxii. 59. 10), I
would not by crushing another exalt myself.
sunt qui nolint tetigisse (Hor. S. i. 2. 28), there are those who would not touch.
commisisse cavet (Hor. A. P. 168), he is cautious of doing.
nunc quern tetigisse timerent, anguis eras (Ov. M. viii. 733), again you be-
came a serpent which they dreaded to touch.
fratrgsque tendentes opaco Pelion imposuisse Olympo (Hor. Od. iii. 4. 51),
and the brothers striving to set Pelion on dark Olympus.
f. After verbs of feeling the Perfect Infinitive is used, especially
by the poets, to denote a completed action.
So also with satis est, satis habeo, melius est, contentus sum, and in
a few other cases where the distinction of time is important :
n5n paenitebat intercapedinem scribendl fecisse (Fam. xvi. 21), I was not
sorry to have made a respite of writing.
pudet me non praestitisse (id. xiv. 3), I am ashamed not to have shown.
sunt quos pulvereiu Olympicum collegisse iuvat (Hor. Od. i. 1. 3), some
delight to have stirred up the dust at Olympia.
quiesse erit melius (Liv. iii. 48), it will be better to have kept quiet.
ac si quis amet scripsisse (Hor. S. i. 10. 60), than if one should choose to have
written.
id s5lum dlxisse satis habeo (Veil. ii. 124), I am content to have said only
this.
i Volo, and less frequently n516, male, and cupio.
487-490]
PARTICIPLES
309
I. Participles:
a. Present and
Perfect :
b. Future
c. Gerundive
NOUN AND ADJECTIVE FORMS OF THE VERB
487. The several Noun and Adjective forms associated with the verb are employed
as follows: *
1. Attributive (494).
2. Simple Predicate (495).
3. Periphrastic Perfect (passive) (495. N.).
4. Predicate of Circumstance ( 496).
5. Descriptive (Indirect Discourse) (497eZ).
1. Periphrastic with esse (498. a).
2. Periphrastic with fui (= Pluperfect Subjunc-
tive) (498. 6).
1. As Descriptive Adjective (500. 1).
2. Periphrastic with esse (500. 2).
3. Of Purpose with certain verbs ( 500. 4).
1. Genitive as Subjective or Objective Genitive (504).
2. Dative, with Adjectives (of Fitness), Nouns, Verbs (505).
3. Accusative, with certain Prepositions (506).
4. Ablative, of Means, Comparison, or with Prepositions (507).
1. Accusative Supine (in -um), with Verbs of Motion (509).
2. Ablative Supine (in -u), chiefly with Adjectives ( 510).
II.
Gerund or
Gerundive :
III. Supine:
PARTICIPLES
488. The Participle expresses the action of the verb in the form
of an Adjective, but has a partial distinction of tense and may
govern a case.
NOTE. Thus the participle combines all the functions of an adjective with some
of the functions of a verb. As an Adjective, it limits substantives and agrees with
them in gender, number, and case (286). As a Verb, it has distinctions of time
( 489) and often takes an object.
Distinctions of Tense in Participles
489. Participles denote time as present, past, or future with
respect to the time of the verb in their clause.
Thus the Present Participle represents the action as in progress at
the time indicated by the tense of the verb, the Perfect as completed,
and the Future as still to take place.
490. The Present Participle has several of the special uses of
the Present Indicative. Thus it may denote
1. An action continued in the present but begun in the past ( 466) :
quaerenti mihi iam diu certa res rmlla veniebat in mentem (Fam. iv. 13),
though I had long sought, no certain thing came to my mind.
1 For the Syntax of the Infinitive, see 451 ff ., 486.
310 SYNTAX: THE VERB [490-493
2. Attempted action ( 467) :
C. FlaminiO restitit agrum Plcentem dividenti (Cat. M. 11), he resisted Fla-
minius wJien attempting to divide the Picene territory.
3. Rarely (in poetry and later Latin) futurity or purpose, with a
verb of motion :
Eurypylum scitantem oracula mittimus (Aen. ii. 114), we send Eurypylus to
consult the oracle. [Cf. 468.]
491. The Perfect Participle of a few deponent verbs is used
nearly in the sense of a Present.
Such are, regularly, ratus, solitus, veritus; commonly, arbitratus,
flsus, ausus, secutus, and occasionally others, especially in later
writers :
rem incredibilem ratl (Sail. Cat. 48), thinking the thing incredible.
msidias veritus (B. G. ii. 11), fearing an ambuscade.
cohortatus mTlites docuit (B. C. iii. 80), encouraging the men, he showed.
Iratus dlxistl (Mur. 62), you spoke in a passion.
ad pugnam congress! (Liv. iv. 10), meeting in fight.
492. The Latin has no Present Participle in the passive.
The place of such a form is supplied usually by a clause with dum
or cum :
obiere dum calciantur matutln5 duo Caesares (Plin. N. H. vii. 181), two
Ccesars died while having their shoes put on in the morning.
mgque ista delectant cum Latlng dicuntur (Acad. i. 18), those things please
me when they are spoken in Latin.
NOTE. These constructions are often used when a participle might be employed :
die, hospes, Spartae nos te hie vidisse iacentis, dum sanctis patriae legibus obse-
quimur (Tusc. i. 101), tell it, stranger, at Sparta, that you saw us lying here
obedient to our country's sacred laws. [Here dum obsequimur is a transla-
tion of the Greek present participle irei06(uvoi.']
dum [Ulixes] sibi, dum sociis reditum parat (Hor. Ep. i. 2. 21), Ulysses, while
securing the return of himself and his companions. [In Greek :
493. The Latin has no Perfect Participle in the active voice.
The deficiency is supplied
1. In deponents by the perfect passive form with its regular active
meaning :
nam singulas [navls] nostrl consectati expugnavSrunt (B. G. iii. 16), for our
men, having overtaken them one by one, captured them by boarding.
NOTE. The perfect participle of several deponent verbs may bo either active or
passive in meaning ( 190. 6).
493-495] USES OF PARTICIPLES 311
2. In other verbs, either by the perfect passive participle in the
ablative absolute ( 420. N.) or by a temporal clause (especially with
cum or postquam) :
itaque convocatis centurionibus mllites certiOres facit (B. G. iii. 5), and so,
having called the centurions together, he informs the soldiers (the centu-
rions having been called together).
cum venisset animadvertit collem (id. vii. 44), having come (when he had
come), he noticed a hill.
postquam id animum advertit copias suas Caesar in proximum collem subducit
(B. G. i. 24), having observed this (after he had observed this) Ccesar
led his troops to the nearest hill.
Uses of Participles
494. The Present and Perfect Participles are sometimes used
as attributives, nearly like adjectives :
aeger et flagrans animus (Tac. Ann. iii. 64), his sick and passionate mind.
cum antlquissimam sententiam turn comprobatam (Div. i. 11), a view at once
most ancient and well approved.
signa numquam fere mentientia (id. i. 15), signs hardly ever deceitful.
auspiciis utuntur coactis (id. i. 27), they use forced auspices.
a. Participles often become complete adjectives, and may be com-
pared, or used as nouns :
qu5 mulieri esset res cautior (Caec. 11), that the matter might be more secure
for the woman.
in illls artibus praestantissimus (De Or. i. 217), preeminent in those arts.
sibi indulgentes et corpori deservientes (Legg. i. 39), the self-indulgent, and
slaves to the body (indulging themselves and serving the body),
rgcte facta paria essedebent (Par. 22), right deeds (things rightly done) ought
to be like in value (see 321. b).
male parta male dilabuntur (Phil. ii. 65), ill got, ill spent (things ill acquired
are ill spent).
cOnsuetudo valentis (De Or. ii. 18G), the habit of a man in health.
495. Participles are often used as Predicate Adjectives. As
such they may be joined to the subject by esse or a copulative verb
(see 283) :
Gallia est divlsa (B. G. i. 1), Gaul is divided.
locus qm nunc saeptus est (Liv. i. 8), the place which is now enclosed.
videtis ut senectus sit operosa et semper agens aliquid et moliens (Cat. M. 26),
you see how busy old age is, always aiming and trying at something.
nem5 adhuc convemre me voluit cui fuerim occupatus (id. 32), nobody
hitherto has [ever] wished to converse with me, to whom I have been
"engaged."
312 SYNTAX: THE VERB [495,496
NOTE. From this predicate use arise the compound tenses of the passive, the
participle of completed action with the incomplete tenses of esse developing the idea
of past time : as, interfectus est, he was (or has been) killed, lit. he is having-been-killed
(i.e. already slain).
The perfect participle used with fui etc. was perhaps originally an intensified expres-
sion in the popular language for the perfect, pluperfect, etc.
At times these forms indicate a state of affairs no longer existing :
cotem quoque eodem loco sitam fuisse memorant (Liv. i. 36. 5), they say that a
whetstone was (once) deposited in this same place. [At the time of writing
it was no longer there.]
anna quae fixa in parietibus fuerant, hum! iuventa suut (Div. i. 74), the arms
which had been fastened on the walls were found upon the ground.
But more frequently they are uot to he distinguished from the forms with sum etc.
The construction is found occasionally at all periods, but is most common in Livy
and later writers.
496. The Present and Perfect Participles are often used as a
predicate, where in English a phrase or a subordinate clause would
be more natural.
In this use the participles express time, cause, occasion, condition,
concession, characteristic (or description), manner, means, attendant
circumstances :
volventes hostllia cadavera amlcum reperiebant (Sail. Cat. 61), while rolling
over the corpses of the enemy they found a friend. [Time.]
paululum commoratus, slgnacanere iubet (id. 59), after delaying a little while,
he orders them to give the signal. [Time.]
longius prosequi veritus, ad Cicer5nem pervenit (B. G. v. 52), because he
feared to follow further, he came to Cicero. [Cause.]
qul sclret laxas dare iussus habenas (Aen. i. 63), who might know how to
give them loose rein when bidden. [Occasion. ]
damnatum poenam sequl oportebat (B. G. i. 4), if condemned, punishment
must overtake him. [Condition.]
salutem insperantibus reddidistl (Marc. 21), you have restored a safety for
which we did not hope (to [us] not hoping). [Concession.]
Dardanius caput ecce puer detectus (Aen. x. 133), the Trojan boy with his
head uncovered. [Description.]
nee trepides in usum poscentis aevi pauca (Hor. Od. ii. 11. 5), be not anxious
for the needs of age that demands little. [Characteristic.]
incitatl fuga montis altissimos petebant (B. C. iii. 93), in headlong flight they
made for the highest mountains. [Manner.]
milites sublevati alii ab aliis magnam partem itineris c5nficerent (id. i. 68),
the soldiers, helped up by each other, accomplished a considerable part of
the route. [Means.]
h5c laudans, Pompeius idem iuravit (id. iii. 87), approving this, Pompey took
the same oath. [Attendant Circumstance.]
aut sedens aut ambulans disputabam (Tusc. i. 7), / conducted the discussion
either sitting or walking. [Attendant Circumstance.]
496, 497] USES OF PARTICIPLES 313
NOTE 1. These uses are especially frequent in the Ablative Absolute (420).
NOTE 2. A coordinate clause is sometimes compressed into a perfect participle :
Instructos Ordines in locum aequum deducit (Sail. Cat. 59), he draws up the lines,
and leads them to level ground.
ut hos traductos necaret (B. G. v. 6), that he might carry them over and put them
to death.
NOTE 3. A participle with a negative often expresses the same idea whick in
English is given by without and a verbal noun: as, miserum est nihil proficientem
angi (N. D. iii. 14), it is wretched to vex oneself without effecting anything.
NOTE 4. Acceptum and expensum as predicates with ferre and referre are book-
keeping terms: as, quas pecunias ferebat eis expenses (Verr. ii. 170), what sums he
charged to them.
497. A noun and a passive participle are often so united that
the participle and not the noun contains the main idea : 1
ante conditam condendamve urbem (Liv. Pref.), before the city was built or
building.
ill! libertatem imminutam clvium Romanorum non tulerunt; vos ereptam
vltam neglegetis (Manil. 11), they did not endure the infringement of the
citizens' liberty ; will you disregard the destruction of their lives ?
post natos homines (Brut. 224), since the creation of man.
iam a condita urbe (Phil. iii. 9), even from the founding of the city.
a. The perfect participle with a noun in agreement, or in the
neuter as an abstract noun, is used in the ablative with opus, need
(cf. 411. ):-
opus fact5 est viatico (PI. Trin. 887), there is need of laying in provision.
maturate opus est (Liv. viii. 13. 17), there is need of haste.
1>. The perfect participle with habeo (rarely with other verbs) has
almost the same meaning as a perfect active, but denotes the contin-
ued effect of the action of the verb : 2
fidem quam habent spectatam iam et diu cognitam (Caecil. 11), my fidelity,
which they have proved and long knovm.
cohortls in acie LXXX constitutes habebat (B. C. iii. 89), he had eighty cohorts
stationed in line of battle.
nefarios duces captos iam et comprehens5s tenetis (Cat. iii. 16), you have now
captured the infamous leaders and hold them in custody.
c. A verb of effecting or the like may be used in combination with
the perfect participle of a transitive verb to express the action of that
verb more forcibly :-
1 Compare the participle in indirect discourse in Greek (Goodwin's Greek Grammar,
1588) ; and the English " 'T was at the royal feast for Persia won " (Dryden), i.e. for
the conquest of Persia.
2 The perfect with have, in modern languages of Latin stock, has grown out of this
use of habeo.
314 SYNTAX: THE VERB [497-499
praefectOs su5s multl missds fecerunt (Verr. iii. 134), many discharged their
officers (made dismissed),
hie transactum reddet omne (PI. Capt. 346), he will get it all done (restore it
finished).
ademptum tibi iam fax5 omnem metum (Ter. Haut. 341), I will relieve you
of all fear (make it taken away),
illam tibi incensam dabo (Ter. Ph. 974), I will make her angry with you.
NOTE. Similarly volo (with its compounds) and cupid, with a perfect participle
without esse (cf. 486. d).
d. After verbs denoting an action of the senses the present partici-
ple in agreement with the object is nearly equivalent to the infinitive
of indirect discourse ( 580), but expresses the action more vividly :
ut eum nemO umquam in equo sedentem viderit (Verr. v. 27), so that no one
ever saw him sitting on a horse. [Cf. Tusc. iii. 31.]
NOTE. The same construction is used after facio, induco, and the like, with the
name of an author as subject: as, Xenophon facit SScratem disputantem (N. D. i.
31), Xenophon represents Socrates disputing.
Future Participle (Active)
498. The Future Participle (except futurus and venturus) is
rarely used in simple agreement with a noun, except by poets
and later writers.
a. The future participle is chiefly used with the forms of esse
(often omitted in the infinitive) in the Active Periphrastic Conjuga-
tion (see 195) :
morere, Diagora, non enim in caelum adscensurus es (Tusc. i. Ill), die,
Diagoras, for you are not likely to rise to heaven.
sperat adulescens diu se victurum (Cat. M. 68), the young man hopes to live
long (that he shall live long),
neque petiturus umquam consulatum videretur (Off. iii. 79), and did not seem
likely ever to be a candidate for the consulship.
b. With the past tenses of esse in the indicative, the future parti-
ciple is often equivalent to the pluperfect subjunctive ( 517. d).
For futurum fuisse, see 589. b.
499. By later writers and the poets the Future Participle is
often used in simple agreement with a substantive to express
1. Likelihood or certainty :
rem ausus plfis famae habituram (Liv. ii. 10), having dared a thing which loould
have more repute.
499, 500] GERUNDIVE 315
2. Purpose, intention, or readiness :
egreditur castrls Roman us vallum invasurus (Liv. iii. 60. 8), the Eoman comes
out of the camp with the intention of attacking the rampart.
disperses per agros mllites equitibus invasuris (id. xxxi. 30), while the horse
were ready to attack the soldiers scattered through the fields.
si periturus abls (Aen. ii. 675), if you are going away to perish.
3. Apodosis :
dedit mini quantum maximum potuit, daturas amplius s! potuisset (Plin. Ep.
iii. 21. 6), he gave me as much as he could, ready to give me more if he
had been able. [Here daturus is equivalent to dedisset.]
Gerundive (Future Passive Participle)
NOTE. The participle in -dus, commonly called the Gerundive, has two distinct
uses :
(1) Its predicate and attribute use as Participle or Adjective ( 500).
(2) Its use with the meaning of the Gerund ( 503). This may be called its gerun-
dive use.
500. The Gerundive when used as a Participle or an Adjective
is always passive, denoting necessity, obligation, or propriety.
In this use of the Gerundive the following points are to be
observed :
1. The gerundive is sometimes used, like the present and perfect
participles, in simple agreement with a noun :
fortem et conservandum virum (Mil. 104), a brave man, and worthy to be pre-
served.
gravis iniuria facta est et non ferenda (Flacc. 84), a grave and intolerable
wrong has been done.
2. The most frequent use of the gerundive is with the forms of esse
in the Second (or passive) Periphrastic Conjugation (see 196) :
n5n agitanda res erit (Verr. v. 179), will not the thing have to be agitated?
3. The neuter gerundive of both transitive and intransitive verbs
may be used impersonally in the second periphrastic conjugation.
With verbs that take the dative or ablative, an object may be ex-
pressed in the appropriate case ; with transitive verbs, an object in
the accusative is sometimes found :
temporl serviendum est (Fam. ix. 7. 2), one must obey the time.
legibus parendum est, the laws must be obeyed.
utendum exercitatiOnibus modicls (Cat. M. 36), we must use moderate exercise.
agitandumst vigilias (PI. Trin. 869), I have got to stand guard.
via quam nObis ingrediendum sit (Cat. M. 6), the way we have to enter.
316 SYNTAX: THE VERB [500-503
4. After verbs signifying to give, deliver, agree for, have, receive,
undertake, demand, 1 a gerundive in agreement with the object is used
to express purpose :
redemptor qul columnam illam conduxerat faciendam (Div. ii. 47), the con-
tractor who had undertaken to make that column. [The regular construc-
tion with this class of verbs.]
aedem Castoris habuit tuendam (Verr. ii. 1. 150), he had the temple of Castor
to take care of.
navls atque onera adservanda curabat (id. v. 146), he took care that the ships
and cargoes should be kept.
GERUND
501. The Gerund is the neuter of the Gerundive, used sub-
stantively in the Genitive, Dative, Accusative, and Ablative.
502. The Gerund expresses an action of the verb in the form
of a verbal noun.
As a noun the gerund is itself 'governed by other words ; as a
verb it may take an object in the proper case :
ars bene disserendi et vera ac falsa diiudicandl (De Or. ii. 157), the art of dis-
coursing well, and distinguishing the true and the false.
NOTE. The Nominative of the gerund is supplied by the Infinitive. Thus in the
example above, the verbal nouns discoursing and distinguishing, if used in the nomi-
native, would be expressed by the infinitives disserere and diiudicare.
The Gerund is the neuter of the gerundive used impersonally, but retaining the
verbal idea sufficiently to govern an object. It may therefore be regarded as a noun
(cf. maturate opus est, 497. a) with a verbal force (cf. istanc tacti5, p. 240, footnote).
GERUND AND GERUNDIVE
503. When the Gerund would have an object in the Accusa-
tive, the Gerundive 2 is generally used instead. The gerundive
agrees with its noun, which takes the case that the gerund would
have had :
paratiSres ad omnia pericula subeunda (B. G. i. 5), readier to undergo all
dangers. [Here subeunda agrees with pericula, which is itself governed
by ad. The (inadmissible) construction with the gerund would be ad
subeundum pericula ; ad governing the gerund, and the gerund governing
the accusative pericula.] For details, see 504-507.
1 Such verbs are accipio, adnot5, attribuo, conduc5, euro, denSto, dSposco, do, divide,
dono, edico, edoceo, fero, habeo, loco, mando, obicio, permitt5, pet5, pono, praebed, propSno,
relinquo, rog5, suscipio, trad5, voveo.
2 The gerundive construction is probably the original one.
503, 504] GENITIVE OF GERUND AND GERUNDIVE 317
NOTE 1. In this use the gerund and the gerundive are translated in the same
way, but have really a different construction. The gerundive is a. passive participle,
and agrees with its noun, though in translation we change the voice, just as we may
translate vigiliae agitandae sunt (guard must be kept) by I must stand guard.
NOTE 2. In the gerundive construction the verbs utor, fruor, e<.. are treated like
transitive verbs governing the accusative, as they do in early Latin ( 410. a. N. l ) : as,
ad perfruendas voluptates (Off. i. 25), for enjoying pleasures.
a. The following examples illustrate the parallel constructions of
Gerund and Gerundive :
GEN. consiliurn -I 1 a design of taking the city.
( urbis capiendae J
DAT. dat operam \ ." \ he attends to tilling the fields.
\ agns colendis J
, ( mini parendum 1 ., (to obey me.
Ace. vemunt ad { > they come i .
[ pacem petendam J [to seek peace.
( scribendo epistulas 1 ,
ABL. tent tempus { \ he spends time in writing letters.
{ scribendis epistulis J
NOTE 1. The gerund with a direct object is practically limited to the Genitive and
the Ablative (without a preposition) ; even in these cases the gerundive is commoner.
NOTE 2. The gerund or gerundive is often found coordinated with nominal con-
structions, and sometimes even in apposition with a noun :
(1) in forO, in curia, in amicorum periculis propulsandls (Phil. vii. 1), in the forum,
in the senate-house, in defending my friends in jeopardy.
(2) ad res diversissimas, parendum atque imperandum (Liv. xxi. 4), for the most
widely different things, obeying and commanding.
Genitive of the Gerund and Gerundive
504. The Genitive of the Gerund and Gerundive is used after
nouns or adjectives, either as subjective or objective genitive :
Vivendi finis est optimus (Cat. M. 72), it is the best end of living. [Sub-
jective.]
neque consul habendi neque arma capiendl spatio dato (B. G. iv. 14), time being
given neither for forming plans nor for taking arms. [Objective. ]
n6n tarn commutandarum quam evertendarum rerum cupidos (Off. ii. 3), desir-
ous not so much of changing as of destroying the state. [Objective.]
NOTE 1. In these uses the gerund and the gerundive are about equally common.
NOTE 2. In a few phrases the Infinitive is used with nouns which ordinarily
have the genitive of the gerund or gerundive: as, tempus est abire, it is time to go.
a. The genitive of the gerund sometimes takes a direct object, espe-
cially a neuter pronoun or a neuter adjective used substantively :
nulla causa iusta cuiquam esse potest contra patriam arma capiendl (Phil. ii.
58), no one can have a just cause for taking up arms against his country.
artem vera ac falsa diiudicandl (De Or. ii. 167), the art of distinguishing true
from false.
318 SYNTAX: THE VERB [604,505
NOTE 1. The genitive of the gerund or gerundive is used (especially in later Latin)
as a predicate genitive. When so used it often expresses purpose :
quae postquam gloriosa modo neque belli patrandl cognovit (lug. 88), when he
perceived that these were only brilliant deeds and not likely to end the war.
Aegyptura proficiscitur cognoscendae antlquitatis (Tac. Ann. ii. 59), he sets out for
Egypt to study old times.
6. The genitive of the gerund or gerundive with causa or gratia
expresses purpose ( 533. b) :
pabulandi aut frumentandl causa progress! (B. C. i. 48), having advanced for
the purpose of collecting fodder or supplies.
vitandae suspicionis causa (Cat. i. 19), in order to avoid suspicion.
simulandi gratia (lug. 37), in order to deceive.
exercendae memoriae gratia (Cat. M. 38), for the sake of training the memory.
c. The genitive of the gerund is occasionally limited by a noun or
pronoun (especially a personal pronoun in the plural) in the objective
genitive instead of taking a direct object :
rgiciendi trium iudicum potestas (Verr. ii. 77), the power of challenging three
jurors (of the rejecting of three jurors).
sul colligendl facultas (B. G. iii. 6), the opportunity to recover themselves.
Dative of the Gerund and Gerundive
505. The Dative of the Gerund and Gerundive is used in a few
expressions after verbs : 1
diem praestitit operi faciendo (Verr. ii. 1. 148), he appointed a day for doing the
work.
praeesse agr5 colendS (Rose. Am. 50), to take charge of cultivating the land.
esse solvendo, to be able to pay (to be for paying).
NOTE. The dative of the gerund with a direct object is never found in classic
Latin, but occurs twice in Plautus.
a. The dative of the gerund and gerundive is used after adjec-
tives, 2 especially those which denote fitness or adaptability:
genus armorum aptum tegendis corporibus (Liv. xxxii. 10), a sort of armor
suited to the defence of the body.
reliqua tempora demetendis fructibus et percipiendis accommodata sunt (Cat. M.
70), the other seasons are fitted to reap and gather in the harvest.
perferendis niilituin mandatls idoneus (Tac. Ann. i. 23), suitable for carrying
out the instructions of the soldiers.
NOTE. This construction is very common in Livy and later writers, infrequent
in classical prose.
1 Such are praeesse, operam dare, diem dicere, locum capere.
2 Such are accommodatus, aptus, ineptus, bonus, habilis, idoneus, par, utilis, inutilis
But the accusative with ad is common with most of these (el. 385. a).
506-507] ABLATIVE OF GERUND AND GERUNDIVE 319
b. The dative of the gerund and gerundive is used in certain legal
phrases after nouns meaning officers, offices, elections, etc., to indicate
the function or scope of the office etc. :
comitia consulibus rogandis (Div. i. 33), elections for nominating consuls.
triumvir coloniis deducundis (lug. 42), a triumvir for planting colonies.
triumviri rel publicae constituendae (title of the Triumvirate), triumvirs (a com-
mission of three) for settling the government.
Accusative of the Gerund and Gerundive
506. The Accusative of the Gerund and Gerundive is used
after the preposition ad, to denote Puipose (cf. 533):
me vocas ad scribendum (Or. 34), you summon me to write.
vlvis non ad depdnendam sed ad confirmandam audaciam (Cat. i. 4), you live
not to put off but to confirm your daring.
nactus aditus ad ea conanda (B. C. i. 31), having found means to undertake
these things.
NOTE 1. Other prepositions appear in this construction ; inter and ob a few times,
circa, in, ante, and a few others very rarely: as, inter agendum (Eel. ix. 24), while
driving.
NOTE 2. The Accusative of the gerund with a preposition never takes a direct
object in classic Latin.
Ablative of the Gerund and Gerundive
507. The Ablative of the Gerund and Gerundive is used (1)
to express manner, 1 means, cause, etc.; (2) after Comparatives;
and (3) after the propositions ab, de, ex, in, and (rarely) pro :
(1) multa pollicendo persuadet (lug. 46), he persuades by large promises.
Latine" loquendo cuivis par (Brut. 128), equal to any man in speaking Latin.
his ipsls legendis (Cat. M. 21), by reading these very things.
obscuram atque humilem conciendS ad se multitudinem (Liv. i. 8), calling to
them a mean and obscure multitude.
(2) nullum officium referenda gratia magis necessarium est (Off. i. 47), no duty
is more important than repaying favors.
(3) in re gerenda versarl (Cat. M. 17), to be employed in conducting affairs.
NOTE 1. The Ablative of the Gerund and Gerundive is also very rarely used
with verbs and adjectives: as, nee continuando abstitit magistratu (Liv. ix. 34), he
did not desist from continuing his magistracy.
NOTE 2. The ablative of the gerund rarely takes a direct object in classic prose.
1 In this use the ablative of the gerund is, in later writers nearly, and in mediaeval
writers entirely, equivalent to a present participle : as, cum una dierum FLENDO sedis-
set, quidam miles generosus iuxta earn EQUITAVDO venit (Gesta Romanorum, 66 [58]),
as one day she sat weeping, a certain knight came riding by (compare 507, fourth
example). Hence come the Italian and Spanish forms of the present participle (as man-
dando, esperando), the true participial form becoming an adjective in those languages.
320 SYNTAX: THE VERB [508-510
SUPINE
508. The Supine is a verbal abstract of the fourth declension ( 94. b), having no
distinction of tense or person, and limited to two uses. (1) The form in -um is the
Accusative of the end of motion ( 428. i) . (2) The form in -u is usually Dative of pur-
pose ( 382), but the Ablative was early confused with it.
509. The Supine in -um is used after verbs of motion to express
purpose. It may take an object in the proper case :
quid est, imusne sessum ? etsl admonitum venimus te, non flagitatum (De Or.
iii. 17), how now, shall we be seated? though we have come to remind, not
to entreat you.
nuptum dare (collocare), to give in marriage.
venerunt questum iniurias (Liv. iii. 25), they came to complain of wrongs.
NOTE 1. The supine in -um is especially common witheo, and with the passive
infinitive in forms the future infinitive passive :
fuere elves qul rem publicam perditum irent (Sail. Cat. 36), there were citizens who
went about to ruin the republic.
si sciret se trucldatum Iri (Div. ii. 22), if he (Pompey) had knoion that he was
going to be murdered. [Rare except in Cicero. For the more usual way of
expressing the future passive infinitive, see 569. 3. a.]
NOTE 2. The supine in -um is occasionally used when motion is merely implied.
510. The Supine in-u 1 is used with a few adjectives and with
the nouns fas, nefas, and opus, to denote an action in reference to
which the quality is asserted :
rem non modo vlsii foedam, sed etiam auditu (Phil. ii. 63), a thing not only
shocking to see, but even to hear of.
quaerunt quid optimum factu sit (Verr. ii. 1. 68), they ask what is best to do.
si hoc fas est dictu (Tusc. v. 38), if this is lawful to say.
videtis nefas esse dictu rniseram fuisse talem senectutem (Cat. M. 13), you
see it is a sin to say that such an old age ivas wretched.
NOTE 1. The supine in -u is thus in appearance an Ablative of Specification ( 418) .
NOTE 2. The supine in -u is found especially with such adjectives as indicate an
effect on the senses or the feelings, and those which denote ease, difficulty, and the
like. But with facilis, dimcilis, and iucundus, ad with the gerund is more common :
nee visu facilis nee dictu adfabilis ulll (Aen, iii. 621), he is not pleasant for any
man to look at or address.
difficilis ad distinguendum similitude (De Or. ii. 212), a likeness difficult to dis-
tinguish.
NOTE 3. With all these adjectives the poets often use the Infinitive in the same
sense: as, faciles aurem praebere (Prop. ii. 21. 15), indulgent to lend an ear.
NOTE 4. The supine in -u with a verb is extremely rare: as, pudet dictu (Tac.
Agr. 32), it is a shame to tell. [On the analogy of pudendum dictu.]
1 The only common supines in -u are auditu, dictu, factu, invents, memoratu, natfi,
vlsu. In classic use this supine is found in comparatively few verbs. It is never
followed by an object-case.
511] CONDITIONAL SENTENCES 321
CONDITIONAL SENTENCES
511. The Conditional Sentence differs from other complex sentences in this, that
the form of the main clause (APODOSIS) is determined in some degree by the nature
of the subordinate clause (PROTASIS) upon the truth of which the whole statement
depends. Like all complex sentences, however, the Conditional Sentence has arisen
from the use of two independent sentence-forms to express the parts of a thought
which was too complicated to be fully expressed by a simple sentence. But because
the thoughts thus expressed are in reality closely related, as parts of a single whole, the
sentences which represent them are also felt to be mutually dependent, even though
the relation is not expressed by any connecting word. Thus, Speak the word : my ser-
vant shall be healed is a simpler and an earlier form of expression than If thou speak
the word, etc.
The Conditional Particles were originally pronouns without conditional mean-
ing: thus, si, if, is a weak demonstrative of the same origin as sic, so (si-ce like
hi-ce, see 215. 5), and had originally the meaning of in that way, or in some way.
Its relative sense (if) seems to have come from its use with sic to make a pair of correla-
tives: thus . . . thus (see 512. 6).
In its origin the Conditional Sentence assumed one of two forms. The condition
was from the first felt to be a condition, not a fact or a command ; but, as no special
sentence-form for a condition was in use, it employed for its expression either a state-
ment of fact (with the Indicative) or a form of mild command (the Subjunctive).
From the former have come all the uses of the Indicative in protasis ; from the latter
all the uses of the Subjunctive in protasis. The Apodosis has either (1) the Indicative,
expressing the conclusion as a fact, and the Present and Perfect Subjunctive, express-
ing it originally as future and hence more or less doubtful or (2) the Imperfect
and Pluperfect Subjunctive expressing it asfuturum in praeterito, 1 and so unfulfilled
in the present or past. Thus, rides, maiore cachinn5 concutitur, you laugh, he shakes
with more boisterous laughter, is the original form for the Indicative in protasis and
apodosis ; si rides originally means merely you laugh in some way or other, and so,
later, IF you laugh. So roges Aristonem, neget, ask Aristo, he would say no, is the
original form of the subjunctive in protasis and apodosis ; s! roges would mean ask in
some way or other. In si rogares, negaret, the Imperfect rogare"s transfers the command
of roges to past time, 2 with the meaning suppose you had asked, and si would have the
same meaning as before ; while negaret transfers the future idea of neget to past time,
and means he was going to deny. Now the stating of this supposition at all gives
rise to the implication that it is untrue in point of fact, because, if it were true,
there would ordinarily be no need to state it as a supposition : for it would then be a
simple fact, and as such would be put in the indicative. 8 Such a condition or conclusion
1 Thefuturum in praeterito is a tense future relatively to a time absolutely past.
It denotes a future act transferred to the point of view of past time, and hence is
naturally expressed by a past tense of the Subjunctive : thus dixisset, he would have
said = dicturus fuit, he was about to say [but did not]. As that which looks towards
the future from some point in the past has a natural limit in present time, such a
tense (the imperfect subjunctive) came naturally to be used to express a present con-
dition purely ideal, that is to say, contrary to fact.
2 Compare potius diceret, he should rather have said ( 439. 6).
8 There are, however, some cases in which this implication does not arise : as,
decigns centena dedisses, nil erat in loculis (Hor. S. i. 3. 15), if you 'd given him a mil-
lion, there was nothing in his coffers.
322 SYNTAX: CONDITIONAL SENTENCES [511,512
(originally past, meaning suppose you had asked [yesterday], he was going to deny)
came to express an unfulfilled condition in the present: suppose (or if) you were
noio asking, he would [now] deny just as in English ought, which originally meant
owed, 1 has come to express a present obligation.
For the classification of Conditional Sentences, see 513.
PKOTASIS AND APODOSIS
512. A complete Conditional Sentence consists of two clauses,
the Protasis and the Apodosis.
The clause containing the condition is called the PROTASIS ;
the clause containing the conclusion is called the APODOSIS :
si qui exire volunt [PROTASIS], conlvere possum [APODOSIS] (Cat. ii. 27), if
any wish to depart, I can keep my eyes shut.
si est in exsilio [PROTASIS], quid amplius postulatis [APODOSIS] (Lig. 13), if
Tie is in exile, what more do you ask ?
It should be carefully noted that the Apodosis is the main clause
and the Protasis the dependent clause.
a. The Protasis is regularly introduced by the conditional particle
si, if, or one of its compounds.
NOTE. These compounds are sin, nisi, etiam si, etsT, tametsi, tamenetsi (see Condi-
tional and Concessive Particles, p. 138). An Indefinite Relative, or any relative or
concessive word, may also serve to introduce a conditional clause : see Conditional
Relative Clauses (519, 542) ; Concessive Clauses (527).
6. The Apodosis is often introduced by some correlative word 01
phrase : as, ita, turn (rarely sic), or ea condicione etc. :
ita enim senectus honesta est, si se ipsa defendit (Cat. M. 38), on this condi-
tion is old age honorable, if it defends itself.
si quidem me amaret, turn istuc prodesset (Ter. Eun. 446), if he loved me,
then this would be profitable.
sic scribes aliquid, si vacabis (Att. xii. 38. 2), if you are (shall be) at leisure,
then you will write something.
c. The Apodosis is the principal clause of the conditional sen-
tence, but may at the same time be subordinate to some other
clause, and so appear in the form of a Participle, an Infinitive, or
a Phrase :
sepultura quoque prohibituri, ni rex human iussisset (Q. C. viii. 2. 12), intend-
ing also to deprive him of burial, unless the king had ordered him to be
interred.
i " There was a certain lender which ought him five hundred pieces." Tyndale's
New Testament.
612-514] CLASSIFICATION OF CONDITIONS 323
quod si praetereS, ne"m5 sequatur, tamen s6 cum sola decima legiOne iturum
[esse] (B. G. i. 40. 14), but if no one else should follow, he would go with
the tenth legion alone.
si quos adversum proelium commoveret, hos reperlre posse (id. 40. 8), if the
loss of a battle alarmed any, they might find, etc.
NOTE. When the Apodosis itself is in Indirect Discourse, or in any other depend-
ent construction , the verl> of the Protasis is regularly in the Suhjunctive (as in the above
examples, see 589).
CLASSIFICATION OF CONDITIONS
513. Conditions are either (1) Particular or (2) General.
1. A Particular Condition refers to a definite act or series of acts
occurring at some definite time.
2. A General Condition refers to any one of a class of acts which
may occur (or may have occurred) at any time.
514. The principal or typical forms of Conditional Sentences
may be exhibited as follows :
PARTICULAR CONDITIONS
A. SIMPLE CONDITIONS (nothing implied as to fulfilment)
i. Present Time
Present Indicative in both clauses:
si adest, bene est, if he is [now] here, it is well.
2. Past Time
Imperfect or Perfect Indicative in both clauses:
si aderat, bene erat, if he was [then] here, it was well,
si adfuit, bene fuit, if he has been [was] here, it has been [was] well.
B. FUTURE CONDITIONS (as yet unfulfilled)
i. More Vivid
a. Future Indicative in both clauses :
si aderit, bene erit, if he is (shall be) here, it will be well.
b. Future Perfect Indicative in protasis, Future Indicative in
apodosis :
si adfuerit, bene erit, if he is (shall have been) here, it will [then] be well.
324 SYNTAX: CONDITIONAL SENTENCES [614
2. Less Vivid
a. Present Subjunctive in both clauses:
si adsit, bene sit, if he should be (or were to be) here, it would be well.
5. Perfect Subjunctive in protasis, Present Subjunctive in apod-
osis:
si adfuerit, bene sit, if he should be (should have been) here, it would [then]
be well.
0. CONDITIONS CONTRARY TO FACT
i. Present Time
Imperfect Subjunctive in both clauses:
si adesset, bene esset, if he were [now] here, it would be well (but he is HOT here).
2. Past Time
Pluperfect Subjunctive in both clauses:
si adfuisset, bene fuisset, if he had [then] been here, it would have been well
(but he was NOT here).
NOTE. The use of tenses in Protasis is very loose in English. Thus if he is
alive now is a PRESENT condition, to be expressed in Latin by the Present Indicative ;
if he is alive next year is a FUTURE condition, expressed in Latin by the Future
Indicative. Again, if he were here now is a PRESENT condition contrary to fact,
and would be expressed by the Imperfect Subjunctive ; if he were to see me thus
is a FUTURE condition less vivid, to be expressed by the Present Subjunctive ; and so
too, if you advised him, he would attend may be future less vivid. 1
D. GENERAL CONDITIONS
General Conditions do not usually differ in form from Particular
Conditions (A, B, and (7), but are sometimes distinguished in the
cases following :
i. Present General Condition (Indefinite Time)
a. Present Subjunctive second person singular (Indefinite Subject)
in protasis, Present Indicative in apodosis:
si hoc dicas, creditur, if any one [ever] says this, it is [always] believed.
b. Perfect Indicative in protasis, Present Indicative in apodosis :
si quid dixit, creditur, if he [ever] says anything, it is [always] believed.
1 In most English verbs the Preterite (or Past) Subjunctive is identical in form
with the Preterite Indicative. Thus in such a sentence as if he loved his father, he
would not say this, the verb loved is really a Preterite Subjunctive, though this does
not appear from the inflection. In the verb to be, however, the Subjunctive were has
been preserved and differs in form from the indicative was.
514, 515] SIMPLE PRESENT AND PAST CONDITIONS 325
2. Past General Condition (Repeated Action in Past Time)
a. Pluperfect Indicative in protasis, Imperfect Indicative in apod-
osis :
si quid dixerat, credebatur, if he [ever] said anything, it was [always] believed.
b. Imperfect Subjunctive in protasis, Imperfect Indicative inapod-
osis :
si quid diceret, credebatur, if he [ever] said anything, it was [always]
believed (= whatever he said was always believed). 1
PARTICULAR CONDITIONS
Simple Present and Past Conditions Nothing Implied
515. In the statement of Present and Past conditions whose
falsity is NOT implied, the Present and Past tenses of the Indica-
tive are used in both Protasis and Apodosis :
si tu exercitusque valetis, bene est (Fam. v. 2), if you and the army are well,
it is well. [Present Condition.]
haec igitur, si Romae es ; sin abes, aut etiam si ades, haec neg5tia sic se habent
(Att. v. 18), this, then, if you are at Rome; but if you are away or even
if you are there these matters are as follows. [Present Condition.]
si Caesarem probatis, in me offenditis (B. C. ii. 32. 10), if you favor Caesar,
you find fault with me. [Present Condition.]
si qul magnis ingenils in eo genere exstiterunt, non satis GraecCrum glOri^e
responderunt (Tusc. i. 3), if any have shown themselves of great genius in
that department, tlwy have failed to compete with the glory of the Greeks.
[Past General Condition, not distinguished in form from Particular.]
acce^I ROma sine epistula tua fasciculum litterarum in qu5, si modo valuisti
et Romae fuisti, Philotiml duco esse culpam n5n tuam (Att. v. 17), I have
received from Rome a bundle of letters without any from you, which, pro-
vided you have been well and at Rome, I take to be ttie fault of Philotimus,
not yours. [Mixed: Past condition and Present conclusion.]
quas litteras, si RQmae es, videbis putesne reddendas (id. v. 18), as to this
letter, if you are at Rome, you will see whether in your opinion it ought
to be delivered. [Mixed : Present and Future.]
si nemo impetravit, adroganter rogo (Lig. 30), if no one has succeeded in obtain-
ing it, my request is presumptuous. [Past and Present.]
1 Cf . the Greek forms corresponding to the various types of conditions :
A. 1. tl TrpAfffffi TOVTO, Ka\G>s ex- 2. et firpaffffe TOVTO, KaXws
B. 1. ^dv irpda-ffy TOVTO, icaXws ?et. 2. et Trpdffirot TOVTO, /coXws
C. 1. ft ivpaffffe TOVTO, KaXcDs SLV eT^ef. 2. et jrpae TOVTO, /caXiot &v
D. 1. edv TIJ K\{irTy, (coXiferat. 2. ft Ttj
326 SYNTAX : CONDITIONAL SENTENCES [ 516, 616
a. in these conditions the apodosis need not always be in the In-
dicative, but may assume any form, according to the sense :
si placet . . . videamus (Cat. M. 16), if you please, Id us see. [Hortatory
Subjunctive, 439.]
si uondum satis cernitis, recordamini (Mil. 61), if you do not yet see dearly,
recollect. [Imperative.]
si quid babes certius, velim sclre (Att. iv. 10), if you have any trustworthy
information, I should like to know it. [Subjunctive of Modesty, 447. 1.]
NOTE. Although the/o?'i of these conditions does not imply anything as to the
truth of the supposition, the sense or the context may of course have some such impli-
cation :
nolite, si in uostro omnium fletu nullam lacrimam aspexistis Milonis, hoc minus
ei parcere (Mil. 92), do not, if amid the weeping of us all you have seen no
tear [in the eyes] of Milo, spare him the less for that.
petiinus a vobis, indices, si qua divina in tantis ingeniis cominendatio d5bet
esse, ut eum in vestram accipiatis fidem (Arch. 31), we ask you, judges,
if there ought to be anything in such genius to recommend it to us as
by a recommendation of the gods, that you receive him under your pro-
tection.
In these two passages, the protasis really expresses cause: but the cause is put by
the speaker in the form of a non-committal condition. His hearers are to draw the
inference for themselves. In this way the desired impression is made on their minds
more effectively than if an outspoken causal clause had been used.
Future Conditions
516. Future Conditions may be more vivid or less vivid.
1. In a more vivid future condition the protasis makes a distinct
supposition of a future case, the apodosis expressing what will be the
logical result.
2. In a less vivid future condition, the supposition is less distinct,
the apodosis expressing what would be the result in the case supposed.
a. In the more vivid future condition the Future Indicative is used
in both protasis and apodosis :
sanabimur, si volemus (Tusc. iii. 13), we shall be healed if we wish.
quod si legere aut audire voletis, . . . reperietis (Cat. M. 20), if yon will
[shall wish to] read or hear, you will find.
NOTE. In English the protasis is usually expressed by the Present Indicative,
rarely by the Future with SHALL. Often in Latin the Present Indicative is found in
the protasis of a condition of this kind (cf. 468) :
si vincimus, omnia nobis tuta erunt ; sin metii cesserimus, eadem ilia advorsa fient
(Sail. Cat. 58), if we conquer, all things will be safe for us; but if we yield
through fear, those same things will become hostile.
si pere5, hominum manibus periisse iuvabit (Aen. iii. 606), if I perish, it will be
pleasant to have perished at the handy of men.
516] FUTURE CONDITIONS 327
b. In the less vivid future condition the Present Subjunctive is
used in both protasis and apodosis :
haec si tecum patria loquatur, nonne impetrare debeat (Cat. i. 19), if your
country should thus speak with you, ought she not to prevail?
quod si quis deus mihi largiatur, . . . valde recusem (Cat. M. 83), but if some
god were to grant me this, I should stoutly refuse.
NOTB. The Present Subjunctive sometimes stands in protasis with the Future
(or the Present) Indicative in apodosis from a change in the point of view: *
si dlligenter attendamus, intellegemus (Inv. ii. 44), if we attend (should attend)
carefully, we shall understand.
nisi hoc dicat, "iure feel," non habet defensiOnem (id. i. 18), unless he should
say this, "I acted justifiably," he has no defence.
c. If the conditional act is regarded as completed before that of the
apodosis begins, the. Future Perfect is substituted for the Future
Indicative in protasis, and the Perfect Subjunctive for the Present
Subjunctive :
sin cum potuerO noil venero, turn erit inimlcus (Att. ix. 2 A. 2), but if I do not
come when I can, he will be unfriendly.
si a corona relictus sim, non queam dicere (Brut. 192), if I should be deserted
by the circle of listeners, I should not be able to speak.
NOTE. The Future Perfect is often used in the apodosis of a future condition :
as, vehemeuter mihi gratum feceris, si hunc adulescentem humanitate tua compre-
henderis (Fam. xiii. 15), you will do (will have done) me a great favor, if you receive
this young man ivith your usual courtesy.
d. Any form denoting or implying future time may stand in the
apodosis of a future condition. So the Imperative, the participles in
-dus and -rus, and verbs of necessity, possibility, and the like :
alias finis constituendus est, si prius quid maxirae reprehendere Sclpi5 solitus
sit dlxero (Lael. 59), another limit must be set, if I first state what Scipio
was wont most to find fault with.
si me" praeceperit fatum, vos mandasse memento (Q. C. ix. 6. 26), if fate cuts
me off too soon, do you remember that I ordered this.
nisi oculls vlderitis Insidias Miloni a Clodio factas, nee deprecaturi sumus nee
postulaturi (Mil. 0), unless you see with your own eyes the plots laid against
Milo by Clodius, I shall neither beg nor demand, etc.
nOn possum istum accusare, si cupiam (Verr. iv. 87), I cannot accuse him, if
I should (so) desire.
1 It often depends entirely upon the view of the writer at the moment, and not
upon the nature of the condition, whether it shall be stated vividly or not ; as in the
proverbial "If the sky falls, we shall catch larks" the impossible condition is iron-
ically put in the vivid form, to illustrate the absurdity of some other supposed condi-
tion stated by some one else.
328 SYNTAX : CONDITIONAL SENTENCES [ 516, 517
e. Rarely the Perfect Indicative is used in apodosis with a Pres-
ent or even a Future (or Future Perfect) in protasis, to represent the
conclusion rhetorically as already accomplished :
si h5c bene flxum in animS est, vicistis (Liv. xxi. 44), if this is well fixed in
your minds, you have conquered. [For you will have conquered.]
si eundem [aniinum] habueritis, vicimus (id. xxi. 43), if you shall have kept
the same spirit, we have conquered.
f. A future condition is frequently thrown back into past time,
without implying that it is contrary to fact ( 517); In such cases
the Imperfect or Pluperfect Subjunctive may be used :
n5n poterat, nisi decertare vellet (B. C. iii. 44), he, was not able, unless he
wished to fight.
tumulus apparuit, ... si luce palain iretur hostis praeventurus erat (Liv.
xxii. 24), a hill appeared . . . if they should go openly by daylight, the
enemy would prevent. [The first two appear like Indirect Discourse,
but are not. An observer describing the situation in the first example
as present would say non potest nisi velit (see d), and no indirect dis-
course would be thought of.]
Caesar si peteret, . . . non quicquam proficeret (Hor. S. i. 3. 4), if even Caesar
were to ask, he would gain nothing. [Here the construction is not con-
trary to fact, but is simply si petat, non proficiat, thrown into past time.]
Conditions Contrary to Fact
517. In the statement of a supposition impliedly false, the Im-
perfect and Pluperfect Subjunctive are used in both protasis and
apodosis. 1 The Imperfect refers to present time, the Pluperfect
to past:
si viveret, verba gius audiretis (Rose. Com. 42), if he were living, you would
hear his words. [Present.]
nisi tu amisisses, numquam recepissem (Cat. M. 11), unless you had lost it, I
should not have recovered it. [Past.]
si meuin consiliuin valuisset, tu hodie egeres, re's publica n5n tot duc6s ami-
sisset (Phil. ii. 37), if my judgment had prevailed [as it did not], you
would this day be a beggar, and the republic would not have lost so many
leaders. [Mixed Present and Past.]
1 The implication of falsity, in this construction, is not inherent in the subjunc-
tive ; but comes from the transfer of a future condition to past time. Thus the time
for the happening of the condition has, at the moment of writing, already passed ; so
that, if the condition remains a condition, it must be contrary to fact. So past forms
of the indicative implying a future frequently take the place of the subjunctive in
apodosis in this construction (see c, d, below, and 511).
517] CONDITIONS CONTRARY TO FACT 329
a. In conditions contrary to fact the Imperfect often refers iopast
time, both in protasis and apodosis, especially when a repeated or con-
tinued action is denoted, or when the condition if true would still exist :
si nihil litteris adiuvarentur, numquam s6 ad earum studium contulissent
(Arch. 16), if they had not been helped at all by literature, they never
would have given their attention to the study of it. [Without the condi-
tion, adiuvabantur. ]
hlc si mentis esset suae, ausus esset educere exercitum (Pison. 50), if he were
of sane mind, would he have dared to lead out the army ? [Here esset
denotes a continued state, past as well as present.]
n5n concidissent, nisi illud receptaculum classibus nostrls pateret (Verr. ii.
3), [the power of Carthage] would not have fallen, unless that station had
been [constantly] open to our fleets. [Without the condition, patebat.]
b. In the apodosis of a condition contrary to fact the past tenses
of the Indicative may be used to express what was intended, or likely,
or already begun. In this use, the Imperfect Indicative corresponds
in time to the Imperfect Subjunctive, and the Perfect or Pluperfect
Indicative to the Pluperfect Subjunctive :
si licitum esset, matres veniebant (Verr. v. 129), the mothers were coming if
it had been allowed.
in amplexus flliae ruebat, nisi lictores obstitissent (Tac. Ann. xvi. 32), he was
about rushing into his daughter's arms, unless the lictors had opposed.
iam tuta tenebam, nl gens crudelis ferrO invasisset (Aen. vi. 358), I was just
reaching a place of safety, had not the fierce people attacked me.
NOTE 1. Here the apodosis may be regarded as elliptical. Thus, matres venie-
baut (et vgnissent), the matrons were coming (and would have kept on) if, etc.
NOTE 2. With paene (and sometimes prope), almost, the Perfect Indicative is used
in the apodosis of a past condition contrary to fact: as, pons Her paene hostibus
dedit, nl unus vir fuisset (Liv. ii. 10), the bridge had almost given a passage to the
foe, if it had not been for one hero.
c. Verbs and other expressions denoting necessity, propriety, possi-
bility, duty, when used in the apodosis of a condition contrary to
fact, may be put in the Imperfect or Perfect Indicative.
Such are oportet, decet, debeo, possum, necesse est, opus est, and the Sec-
ond Periphrastic Conjugation : *
nOn potuit fieri sapiens, nisi natus esset (Fin. ii. 103), he could not have become
a sage, if he had not been born.
si prlvatus esset h5c tempore, tamen is erat deligendus (Manil. 50) , if he were
at this time a private citizen, yet he ought to be appointed.
1 Observe that all these expressions contain the idea of futurity (cf . p. 328, footnote).
Thus, decet me [hodie] Ire eras, means it is proper for me [to-day] to go to-morrow ;
and, decebat m5 [heri] ire hodiS, it was proper for me [yesterday] to go to-day, usually
Witk the implication that / have not gone as I was bound to do.
330 SYNTAX : CONDITIONAL SENTENCES [ 517
quod esse caput debebat, si probarl posset (Fin. iv. 23), what ought to be the
main point, if it could be proved.
si ita putasset, certe optabilius Miloni fuit (Mil. 31), if he had thought so, surely
it would have been preferable for Milo.
NOTB 1. In Present conditions the Imperfect Subjunctive (oporteret, possem, etc.)
is the rule, the Indicative being rare ; in Past conditions both the Subjunctive (usually
Pluperfect) and the Indicative (usually Perfect) are common.
For par erat, melius fuit, and the like, followed by the infinitive, see 521. N.
NOTE 2. The indicative construction is carried still further in poetry: as, si
nOn alium iactaret oddrem, laurus erat (Georg. ii. 133), it were a laurel, but for giving
out a different odor.
d. The participle in -urus with eram or ful may take the place of
an Imperfect or Pluperfect Subjunctive in the apodosis of a condi-
tion contrary to fact :
quid enim futurum fuit [= fuisset], si ... (Liv. ii. 1), what would have hap-
pened if, etc.
relicturi agr5s erant, nisi ad eos Me tell us litteras misisset (Verr. iii. 121), they
would have abandoned their fields, if Metellus had not sent them a letter.
neque ambigitur quln ... id facturus fuerit, si ... (Liv. ii. 1), nor is there
any question that he would have done it, if, etc. [Direct : fecisset.]
adeO parata seditiO fuit ut Othonem rapturi fuerint, nl incerta noctis timuis-
sent (Tac. H. i. 26), so far advanced was the conspiracy that they would
have seized upon Otho, had they not feared the hazards of tJie night. [In
a main clause : rapuissent, nl timuissent. ]
e. The Present Subjunctive is sometimes used in poetry in the
protasis and apodosis of conditions contrary to fact :
nl comes admoneat, inruat (Aen. vi. 293), had not his companion warned him,
he would have rushed on. [Cf. tu si hie sis, aliter sentias (Ter. And. 310),
if you were in my place, you would think differently.]
NOTE 1. This is probably a remnant of an old construction (see next note) .
NOTE 2. In old Latin the Present Subjunctive (as well as the Imperfect) is used
in present conditions contrary to fact and the Imperfect (more rarely the Pluperfect)
in past conditions of the same kind. Thus it appears th?t the Imperfect Subjunctive,
like the Imperfect Indicative, once denoted past time, even in conditional sentences.
Gradually, however, in conditional sentences, the Present Subjunctive was restricted
to the less vivid future and the Imperfect (in the rt^in) to the present contrary to fact,
while the Pluperfect was used in past conditions of this nature. The old construction,
however, seems to have been retained as an archaism in poetry.
/. In Plautus and Terence absque me" (tg, etc.) is sometimes used to
introduce conditions contrary to fact :
absque te esset, hodiS nusquam viverem (PI. Men. 1022), if it were not for
you, I should not be alive to-day.
absque eo esset, recte" ego mihi vidissem (Ter. Ph. 188), if it had not been for
him, I should have looked out for myself.
618] GENERAL CONDITIONS 331
GENERAL CONDITIONS
518. General Conditions ( 513. 2) have usually the same forms
as Particular Conditions. But they are sometimes distinguished
in the following cases :
a. The Subjunctive is often used in the second person singular, to
denote the act of an indefinite subject (you = any one). Here the
Present Indicative of a general truth may stand in the apodosis :
vita humana prope ut! ferrum est : si exerceas, conteritur ; si non exerceas,
tamen robigo interficit (Cato de M.), human life is very like iron: if
you use it, it wears away; if you don't use it, rust still destroys it.
virtutem necessario gloria, etiams! tu id non agas, cdnsequitur (Tusc. i. 91),
glory necessarily follows virtue, even if that is not one's aim.
si prohibita impune transcenderis, neque nietus ultra neque pudor est (Tac.
Ann. iii. 64), if you once overstep the bounds with impunity, there is no
fear or shame any more.
b. In a general condition in present time, the protasis often takes
the Perfect Indicative, and the apodosis the Present Indicative. For
past time, the Pluperfect is used in the protasis, and the Imperfect in
the apodosis :
si quos aliqua parte mernbrCrum inutilis notaverunt, necarl iubent (Q. C. ix.
1. 25), if they [ever] mark any infirm in any part of their limbs, they
[always] order them to be put to death. [Present. ]
si a persequendO hostis deterrere nequlverant, ab tergO circumveniebant (lug.
60), if [ever] they were unable to prevent the enemy from pursuing, they
[always] surrounded them in the rear. [Past.]
c. In later writers (rarely in Cicero and Caesar), the Imperfect and
Pluperfect Subjunctive are used in protasis, with the Imperfect In-
dicative in apodosis, to state a repeated or customary action in past
time (Iterative Subjunctive):
si quis a domin5 prehenderetur, concursu mllitum eripiebatur (B. C. iii. 110),
if any (runaway) was arrested by his master, he was (always) rescued by
a mob of soldiers.
accusatorgs, si facultas incideret, poenls adficiebantur (Tac. Ann. vi. 30), the
accusers, whenever opportunity offered, were visited with punishment.
si quis collegam appellasset, ab eo ita discedebat ut paenitgret nSn priOris
de"crSt5 stetisse (Liv. iii. 36. 8), if any one appealed to a colleague, he
[always] came off in such case that he repented not having submitted to
the decree of the former dtcemvir. [Cf. SOcrates, quam s6 cumque in
partein dedisset, omnium fuit facile prlnceps (De Or. iii. 60), in whatever
direction Socrates turned himself, he was (always) easily the foremost (if
In any, etc.).]
332 SYNTAX : CONDITIONAL SENTENCES [ 619, 580
Conditional Relative Clauses
519. A clause introduced by a Relative Pronoun or Relative
Adverb may express a condition and take any of the construc-
tions of Protasis 1 ( 514):
qui enim vitiis modum adponit, is partem suscipit vitiSrum (Tusc. iv. 42), he
who [only] sets a limit to faults, takes up the side of the faults. [= si
quis adponit. Present, nothing implied.]
qui mentlr! solet, peierare cOnsuevit (Rose. Com. 46), whoever is in the habit of
lying, is accustomed to swear falsely. [= si quis solet. Present, nothing
implied.]
quicquid potuit, potuit ipsa per se (Leg. Agr. i. 20), whatever power she had,
she had by herself. [= si quid potait. Past, nothing implied.]
quod qui faciet, non aegritudine solum vacabit, sed, etc. (Tusc. iv. 38), and
he who does (shall do) this, will be free not only, etc. [= si quis faciet.
Future, more vivid.]
quisquis hue venerit, vapulabit (PI. Am. 309), whoever comes here shall get a
thrashing. [= si quis venerit. Future, more vivid.]
quo voles, sequar (Clu. 71), whithersoever you wish (shall wish), I will follow.
[= si quo voles. Future, more vivid.]
philosophia, cui qui pareat, omne tempus aetatis sine molestia possit degere(Cat.
M. 2), philosophy, which if any one should obey, he would be able to qpend
his whole life without vexation. [= si quis pareat. Future, less vivid.]
quaecumque vos causa hue attulisset, laetarer (De Or. ii. 15), I should be glad,
whatever cause had brought you here (i.e. if any other, as well as the one
which did). [= si . . . attulisset. Contrary to fact.]
The relative in this construction is always indefinite in meaning,
and very often inform.
520. The special constructions of General Conditions are some-
times found in Conditional Relative Clauses :
1. The Second Person Singular of the Subjunctive in the protasis
with the Indicative of a general truth in the apodosis ( 518. a) :
bonus tantum modo segnior fit ubi neglegas, at malus improbior (lug. 31. 28),
a good man merely becomes less diligent when you don't watch him, but a
bad man becomes more shameless. [Present General Condition.]
2. The Perfect or Pluperfect Indicative in the protasis and the
Present or Imperfect Indicative in the apodosis ( 518. b) :
cum hue vem, hOc ipsum nihil agere me delectat (De Or. ii. 24), whenever I
come here, this very doing nothing delights me (whenever I have come,
etc.). [Present General Condition.]
1 As in the Greek 3s &v, 8rav, etc. ; and in statutes in English, where tha phrases
if any person shall and ivhoever shall are used indifferently.
620, 521] CONDITION DISGUISED
com rosam viderat, turn incipere v6r arbitrabatur (Verr. v. 27), whenever he
saw (had seeii) a rose, then he thought spring was beginning. [Past
General Condition.]
3. In later writers (rarely in Cicero and Caesar) the Imperfect or
Pluperfect Subjunctive in the protasis and the Imperfect Indicative
in the apodosis ( 518. c) :
ubi imbecillitas materiae postulare videretur, pilae interponuntur (B. C. ii.
16), wherever the weakness of the timber seemed to require, piles were put
between. [Past General Condition : interponuntur = interponebantur.]
quocumque se intulisset, victOriam s6cum trahebat (Liv. vi. 8), wherever he
advanced, he carried victory with him. [Past General Condition.]
Condition Disguised
521. In many sentences properly conditional, the Protasis is
not expressed by a conditional clause, but is stated in some other
form of words or implied in the nature of the thought.
a. The condition may be implied in a Clause, or in a Participle,
Koun, Adverb, or some other word or phrase :
facile m6 paterer 1115 ipso itidice quaerente pr5 Sex. R6sci5 dTcere (Rose.
Am. 85), I should readily allow myself to speak for Boscius if that very
judge were conducting the trial. [Present contrary to fact : si quaereret,
paterer. ]
n6n mihi, nisi admonito, vSnisset in menteui (De Or. ii. 180), it would not have
come into my mind unless [I had been] reminded. [Past contrary to
fact: nisi admonitus essem.]
nuila alia gens tanta m5le cladis n5n obruta esset (Liv. xxii. 54), there is no
other people that would not have been crushed by such a weight of disaster.
[Past contrary to fact : si alia fuisset.]
n6mo umquam sine magna spe immortalitatis s6 prO patria offerret ad mortem
(Tusc. i. 32), no one, without great hope of immortality, would ever expose
himself to death for his country. [Present contrary to fact : nisi magnam
spem haberet.]
quid hunc pauc5rum annorum accessio iuvare potuisset (Lael. 11), what good
could the addition of a few years have done him (if they had been added) ?
[Past contrary to fact : si accessissent.]
quid igitur mihi ferarum laniatus oberit nihil sentienti (Tusc. i. 104), what
harm will the mangling by wild beasts do me if I don't feel anything
(feeling nothing) ? [Future more vivid : si nihil sentiam.]
incitata semel prOclivi labuntur sustineTIque nulls inodo possunt (id. iv. 42),
if once given a push, they slide down rapidly and can in no way be
checked. [Present General : si incitata aunt.]
334 SYNTAX : CONDITIONAL SENTENCES [ 621, 622
NOTE. In several phrases denoting necessity, propriety, or the like, the Imper
feet, Perfect, or Pluperfect Indicative of esse is used in the apodosis of a condition
contrary to fact, the protasis being implied in a subject infinitive (cf. 517. c) :
quanto melius fuerat promissum non esse servatum (Oft. iii. 94), how much better
would it have been if the promise had not been kept ! [promissum . . .
servatum = si promissum non esset servatum.]
mori praeclarum fuit (Att. viii. 2. 2), it would have been honorable to die.
sed erat aequius Triarium aliquid de dissensione nostra iudicare (Fin. ii. 119), but it
would be more equitable if Triarius passed judgment on our dispute. [Tri-
arium iudicare = si Triarius iudicaret.]
satius fuit amittere milites (Inv. ii. 73), it would have been better to lose the soldiers.
[amittere = si amisisset.]
b. The condition may be contained in a wish (Optative Subjunctive),
or expressed as an exhortation or command (Hortatory Subjunctive
or Imperative) :
utinam quidern f uissem ! molestus nobls n5n esset (Fam. xii. 3), I wish I
had been [chief] : he would not now be troubling us (i.e. if I had beer).
[Optative Subjunctive.]
naturam expellas furca, tamen usque recurret (Hor. Ep. i. 10. 24), drive out
nature with a pitchfork, still she will ever return. [Hortatory.]
roges enim Aristonem, neget (Fin. iv. 69), for ask Aristo, he would deny.
manent ingenia senibus, modo permaneat studium et industria (Cat. M. 22),
old men keep their mental powers, only let them keep their zeal and dili-
gence ( 528. N.). [Hortatory.]
tolle hanc opinionem, lucturn sustuleris (Tusc. i. 30), remove this notion, and
you ivill have done away with grief. [Imperative.]
NOTE. The so-called Concessive Subjunctive with ut and ne often has the force
of protasis ( 527. a. N.) : as, ut enim rationem Plate nullam adferret, ipsa auctoritate
me frangeret (Tusc. i. 49), even if Plato gave no reasons, [still] he would overpower
me by his mere authority.
c. Barely the condition takes the form of an independent clause:
rides: maiore cachinno concutitur (luv. iii. 100), you laugh; he shakes with
louder laughter (= if you laugh, he shakes).
commove: senties (Tusc. iv. 54), stir him up, [and] you'll find, etc.
de paupertate agitur : multl patientes pauperes commemorantur (id. iii. 67),
we speak of poverty; many patient poor are mentioned.
For Conditional Relative Clauses, see 519, 520.
Condition Omitted
522. The Protasis is often wholly omitted, but may be inferred
from the course of the argument :
poterat Sextilius impune negare : quis enim redargueret (Fin. ii. 65), Sextilius
might have denied with impunity; for who would prove him wrong (if he
had denied)?
522, 523] COMPLEX CONDITIONS 335
a. In expressions signifying necessity, propriety, and the like, the
Indicative may be used in the apodosis of implied conditions, either
future or contrary to fact :
quod contra decuit ab illo meum [corpus cremari] (Cat. M. 84), whereas on
the other hand mine ought to have been burnt by him.
nam n6s decebat domum lugere ubi esset aliquis in lucem editus (Tusc. i.
116), for it were fitting for us to mourn the house where a man has been
born (but we do not).
quanto melius fuerat (Off. iii. 94), how much better it would have been.
illud erat aptius, aequum cuique concedere (Fin. iv. 2), it would be more fit-
ting to yield each one his rights.
ipsum enim exspectare magnum fuit (Phil. ii. 103), would it have been a great
matter to wait for the man himself?
longum est ea dlcere, sed . . . (Sest. 12), it would be tedious to tell, etc.
[Future.]
NOTE 1. In this construction, the Imperfect Indicative refers to present time;
the Pluperfect to simple past time, like the Perfect. Thus oportSbat means it ought
to be [now], but is not; oportuerat means it ought to have been, but was not.
NOTE 2. In many cases it is impossible to say whether a protasis was present
to the mind of the speaker or not (see third example above).
Complex Conditions
523. Either the Protasis or the Apodosis may be a complex idea
in which the main statement is made with expressed or implied
qualifications. In such cases the true logical relation of the
parts is sometimes disguised :
si quis h5rum dixisset ... si verbum d6 r6 publica fgcisset . . . multa plura
dlxisse quam dixisset putaretur (Rose. Am. 2), if any of these had spoken,
in case he had said a word about politics he would be thought to have said
much more than he did say. [Here the apodosis of dixisset is the whole
of the following statement (si ... putaretur), which is itself conditioned
by a protasis of its own : si verbum, etc.].
quod si in h5c mundo fieri sine deo non potest, n6 in sphaera quidem eQsdem
motus sine dlvin5 ingeniO potuisset imitari (Tusc. i. 63), now if that can-
not be done in this universe without divine agency, no more could [Archi-
medes] in his orrery nave imitated the same revolutions without divine
genius. [Here si potest (a protasis with nothing implied) has for its
apodosis the whole clause which follows, but potuisset has a contrary-
to-fact protasis of its own implied in sine . . . ingenio.]
peream male si n5n optimum erat (Hor. S. ii. 1. 6), confound me (may I
perish wretchedly) if it wouldn't be better. [Here peream is apodosis to
the rest of the sentence, while the true protasis to optimum erat, contrary
to fact, is omitted.]
336 SYNTAX: CONDITIONAL SENTENCES [524
Clauses of Comparison (Conclusion Omitted)
524. Conditional Clauses of Comparison take the Subjunctive,
usually in the Present or Perfect unless the sequence of tenses
requires the Imperfect or Pluperfect.
Such clauses are introduced by the comparative particles tamquam.
tamquam si, quasi, ac si, ut si, velut si (later velut), poetic ceu (all mean-
ing as if), and by quam si (than if) :
tamquam clausa sit Asia (Fam. xii. 9), as if Asia were closed.
tamquam si claudus sim (PI. Asin. 427), just as if I were lame.
ita h5s [honores] petunt, quasi honeste vixerint (lug. 85), they seek them
(offices) just as if they had lived honorably.
quasi v6r5 non specie visa iudicentur (Acad. ii. 58), as if forsooth visible things
were not judged by their appearance.
similiter facis ac si me rogea (N. D. iii. 8), you do exactly as if you asked me.
crudelitatem horrerent velut si coram adesset (B. G. i. 32), they dreaded his
cruelty (they said), as if he were present in person.
hie ingentem pugnam cernimus ceu cetera nusquam bellaforent (Aen. ii. 438),
here we saw a great battle, as if there were no fighting elsewhere. [But
sometimes with the indicative in poetry, as id. v. 88.]
magis a m6 abesse videbare quam si doml esses (Att. vi. 5), you seemed to
be absent from me more than if you were at home.
NOTE 1. These subjunctive clauses are really future conditions with apodosis
implied in the particle itself. Thus in tamquam si claudus sim the protasis is introduced
by si, and the apodosis implied in tamquam.
NOTE 2. The English idiom would lead us to expect the Imperfect and Pluperfect
Subjunctive (contrary to fact) with these particles ; but the point of view is different
in the two languages. Thus the second example above is translated just as if I were
lame, as if it were a present condition contrary to fact; but it really means just as
[it would be] if I should [at some future time] be lame, and so is a less vivid future
condition requiring the Present Subjunctive. Similarly quasi honestS vixerint, as if
they had lived honorably, is really as [they would do in the future] if they should have
lived honorably and so requires the Perfect Subjunctive (516. c).
a. Even after a primary tense, the Imperfect or Pluperfect Sub-
junctive (contrary to fact) is often used in conditional clauses of
comparison :
aequg a tS peto ac si mea negotia essent (Fam. xiii. 43), I entreat you as much
as if it were my own business.
@ius neg5tium sic velim suscipias ut si esset re's mea (id. vii. 20. 1), I would
have you undertake his business as though it were my affair.
NOTE. The practice differs with the different particles. Thus in Cicero a clause
with tamquam or quasi almost always observes the sequence of tenses, but with quam si
the Imperfect or Pluperfect is the rule.
626] USE OF SI AND ITS COMPOUNDS 387
Use of sf and its Compounds
525. The uses of some of the more common Conditional Parti-
cles may be stated as follows :
a. SI is used for affirmative) nisi (nl) and si nOn for negative con-
ditions.
1. With nisi (generally unless) the apodosis is stated as universally true
except in the single case supposed, in which case it is (impliedly) not true :
nisi ConOn adest, maereS, unless Conon is here, I mourn (i.e. I am always in
a state of grief except in the single case of Conon's presence, in which
case I am not).
2. With si non (if not) the apodosis is only stated as true in the (negative)
ease supposed, but as to other cases no statement is made :
si Con5n non adest, maereO, if Conon is not here, I mourn (i.e. I mourn in
the single case of Conon's absence, nothing being said as to other cases
in which I may or may not mourn).
NOTB. It often makes no difference in which of these forms the condition is
stated.
8. Sometimes nisi si, except if, unless, occurs :
n5li putare me ad quemquam longiOres epistulas scribere, nisi si quis ad me
plura scrlpsit (Fam. xiv. 2), ... except in case one writes more to me.
NOTE. Ml is an old form surviving in a few conventional phrases and reappear-
ing in poets and later writers.
b. Nisi v6ro and nisi forte regularly introduce an objection or excep-
tion ironically, and take the Indicative :
nisi vero L. Caesar crudelior visus est (Cat. iv. 13), unless indeed Lucius
Caesar seemed too cruel.
nisi forte volumus Epicur60rum oplnionem sequl (Fat. 37), unless, to be sure,
we choose ti follow the notion of the Epicureans.
NOTE. This is the regular way of introducing a reductio ad absurdum in Latin.
Wisi alone is sometimes used in this sense: as, nisi unum hoc faciam ut in puteo
cenam coquant (PI. Aul. 365), unless I do this one thing, [make them] cook dinner
in the well.
c. Sive (sen) . . . sive (seu), whether . . . or, introduce a condition
in the form of an alternative. They may be used with any form of
condition, or with different forms in the two members. Often also
they are used without a verb :
nam 511ft Ioc5 libentissime" sole5 utl, sive quid mScum ipse cOgitO, sive quid
scribO aut Ieg5 (Legg. ij. 1), for I enjoy myself most in that place, whethe*
I am thinking by myself, or am either writing or reading.
NOTE. Sive . . . seu and seu . . . sive are late or poetic.
838 SYNTAX : CONCESSIVE CLAUSES [ 625-627
d. Sin, but if, often introduces a supposition contrary to one that
precedes :
accusator ilium defeudet si poterit; sin minus poterit, negabit (Inv. ii. 88),
the accuser will defend Mm if he can ; but if he cannot, he will deny.
e. Nisi is often used loosely by the comic poets in the sense of only
when a negative (usually nescio) is expressed, or easily understood, in
the main clause :
nescio : nisi me dlxisse nnrin! certo scio (Ter. Ph. 952), 7 don't know : only
I am sure that I haven't told anybody.
CONCESSIVE CLAUSES
526. The concessive idea is rather vague and general, and takes a variety of forms,
each of which has its distinct history. Sometimes concession is expressed by the Hor-
tatory Subjunctive in a sentence grammatically independent (440), but it is more
frequently and more precisely expressed by a dependent clause introduced by a con-
cessive particle. The concessive force lies chiefly in the Conjunctions (which are
indefinite or conditional in origin), and is often made clearer by an adversative par-
ticle (tamen, certe) in the main clause. As the Subjunctive may be used in independ-
ent clauses to express a concession, it is also employed in concessive clauses, and
.somewhat more frequently than the indicative.
527. The Particles of Concession (meaning although, granting
that] are quamvis, ut, licet, etsl, tametsi, etiam si, quamquam, and cum.
Some of these take the Subjunctive, others the Indicative, ac-
cording to the nature of the clause which each introduces.
a. Quamvis and ut take the Sxibjunctive :
quamvis ipsl infantes sint, tamen . . . (Or. 76), however incapable of speaking
they themselves may be, yet, etc.
quamvis scelerati illi fuissent (De Or. i. 230), however guilty they might have
been.
quamvis cOmis in aniicls tuendis fuerit (Fin. ii. 80), amiable as he may have
been in keeping his friends.
ut ne"minem aliuin rogasset (Mil. 46), even if he had asked no other.
ut enim n5n efficias quod vis, tamen mors ut maluin n5n sit efficies (Tusc. i.
16), for even if you do not accomplish what you wish, still you will prove
that death is not an evil.
ut ratiOnem Plato nullam adferret (id. i. 49), though Plato adduced no reasons.
NOTE. Quamvis means literally as much as you will. Thus in the first example
above, let them be as incapable as you will, still, etc. The subjunctive with quamvis
is hortatory, like that with ne ( 440) ; that with ut (ut non) is of uncertain origin.
&. Licet, although, takes the Present or Perfect Subjunctive :
licet omngs mihi ten-Ores perlculaque impendeant (Bosc. Am. 31), though aL 1 .
terrors and perils should menace me.
627] . CONCESSIVE CLAUSES 339
NOTE. Licet is properly a verb in the present tense, meaning it is granted. Hence
the subjunctive is by the sequence of tenses limited to the Present and Perfect. The
concessive clause with licet is hortatory in origin, but may be regarded as a substan-
tive clause serving as the subject of the impersonal verb (565. N. 1 ).
c. Etsi, etiam si, tametsi, even if, take the same constructions as si
(see 514) : -
etsi abest maturitas, tamen non est inutile (Fam. vi. 18. 4), though ripeness
of age is wanting, yet it is not useless, etc.
etsi numquam dubium fuit, tamen perspicio (id. v. 19), although it has never
been doubtful, yet I perceive, etc.
etsi statueram (id. v. 5), though I had determined.
etsi nihil aliud abstulissetis, tamen contentos vos esse oportebat (Sull. 90),
even if you had taken away nothing else, you ought to have been satisfied.
etiam si quod scribas non habebis, scribit5 tamen (Fam. xvi. 26), even if you
[shall] have nothing to write, still write.
sed ea tametsi vos parvi pendebatis (Sail. Cat. 62. 9), but although you regarded
those things as of small account.
NOTE 1. Tametsi with the subjunctive is very rare.
NOTE 2. A protasis with si often has a concessive force: as, ego, si essent ini-
mioitiae mini cum C. Caesare, tamen hoc tempore rei publicae c5nsulere . . . deberem
(Prov. Cons. 47), as for me, even if I had private quarrels with Csesar, it would still
be my duty to serve the best interests of the state at this crisis.
d. Quamquam, although, introduces an admitted fact and takes the
Indicative :
omnibus quamquam ruit ipse suis cladibus pestem dfinuntiat (Phil. xiv.
8), though he is breaking down under his disasters, still he threatens all
with destruction.
NOTE. Quamquam more commonly means and yet, introducing a new proposition
in the indicative : as, quamquam haec quidem iam tolerabilia videbantur, etsi, etc.
(Mil. 76), and yet these, in truth, seemed now bearable, though, etc.
e. The poets and later writers frequently use quamvis and quam-
quam like etsi, connecting them with the Indicative or the Subjunc-
tive, according to the nature of the condition :
quamquam moveretur (Liv. xxxvi. 34), although he was moved.
PolliO amat nostram, quamvis est rustica, musam (Eel. iii. 84), Pollio loves
my muse, though she is rustic.
quamvis perveneras (Liv. ii. 40), though you had come.
f. Ut, as, with the Indicative, may be equivalent to a concession :
v6rum ut errare potuisti, sic decipi t6 n5n potuisse quis n5n videt (Fam. x.
20. 2), suppose you could have been mistaken, who does not see that you
cannot have been deceived in this way ?
For cum concessive, see 549 ; for qul concessive, see 535. e. For concession e*
pressed by the Hortatory Subjunctive (negative n6), see 440.
340 SYNTAX : CLAUSES OF PROVISO [ 628-531
CLAUSES OF PROVISO
528. Dum, modo, dummodo, and tantum ut, introducing a Proviso,
take the Subjunctive. The negative with these particles is ng :
Oderint dum metuant (Off. i. 97), let them hate, if only they fear.
valetudo modo bona sit (Brut. 64), provided the health be good.
dummodo inter me atque te murus intersit (Cat. i. 10), provided only the wall
(of the city) is between us.
tantum ut sciant (Att. xvi. 11. 1), provided only they know.
modo ne sit ex pecuduin genere (Off. i. 105), provided [in pleasure] he be
not of the herd of cattle.
id faciat saepe, dum ne lassus fiat (Cato R. R. v. 4), let him do this often,
provided he does not get tired.
dummodo ea (severitas) ne varietur (Q. Fr. i. 1. 20), provided only it (strictness)
be not allowed to swerve.
tantum ne noceat (Ov. M. ix. 21), only let it do no harm.
NOTE. The Subjunctive with modo is hortatory or optative; that with dum and
dummodo, a development from the use of the Subjunctive with dum in temporal clauses,
553 (compare the colloquial so long as my health is good, I don't care).
. The Hortatory Subjunctive without a particle sometimes ex-
presses a proviso :
sint Maecenates, n5n deerunt Marones (Mart. viii. 66. 5), so there be Maece-
nases, Virgils will not be lacking.
b. The Subjunctive with ut (negative ng) is sometimes used to de-
note a proviso, usually with ita in the main clause :
probata condiciS est, sed ita ut ille praesidia deduceret (Att. vii. 14. 1), the
terms were approved, but only on condition that he should withdraw the
garrisons.
NOTE. This is a development of the construction of Characteristic or Result.
For a clause of Characteristic expressing Proviso, see 535. d.
CLAUSES OF PURPOSE (FINAL CLAUSES)
529. The Subjunctive in the clause of Purpose is hortatory in origin, coming
through a kind of indirect discourse construction (for which see 592). Thus, misit
legates qui dicerent means he sent ambassadors who should say, i.e. who were directed
to say ; in the direct orders the verb would be dicite, which would become dicant in the
Indirect Discourse of narrative ( 588) or dicerent in the past (cf. hortatory subjunctive
in past tenses, 439. b). The Subjunctive with ut and n5 is, in general, similar in
origin.
530. A clause expressing purpose is called a Final Clause.
531. Final Clauses take the Subjunctive introduced by ut (uti),
negative ng (ut ng), or by a Relative Pronoun or Adverb :
531] CLAUSES OF PURPOSE 341
1. Pure Clauses of Purpose, with ut (uti) or nS (ut n6), express the
purpose of the main verb in the form of a modifying clause :
ab aratrO abdilxfirunt Cincinnatum, ut dictator esset (Fin. ii. 12), they brought
Cincinnatus from the plough that he might be dictator.
ut sint auxilio siiis, subsistunt (B. C. i. 80), they halt in order to support (be
an aid to) their own men.
ne mllites oppidum inrumperent, portas obstruit (id. i. 27), he barricaded the
gates, in order that the soldiers might not break into the town.
scalas pararl iubet, ne quam facultatem dimittat (id. i. 28), he orders scaling-
ladders to be got ready, in order not to let slip any opportunity.
ut ne sit impune (Mil. 31), that it be not with impunity.
NOTE 1 . Sometimes the conjunction has a correlative (ideo, idcirco, e5 consilio, etc.)
in the main clause (cf. 561. a) :
legum idcircS servl sumus, ut Hberi simus (Clu. 146), for this reason we are subject
to the laws, that we may be free.
capias transduxit ed consilio, ut castellum expugnaret (cf. B. G. ii. 9), he led the
troops across with this design to storm the fort.
NOTE 2. Ut non sometimes occurs in clauses of purpose when non belongs to some
particular word: as, ut plura non dicam (Manil. 44), to avoid unnecessary talk.
2. Eelative Clauses of Purpose are introduced by the relative pro-
noun qui or a relative adverb (ubi, unde, quO, etc.). The antecedent
is expressed or implied in the main clause:
mittitur L. Dficidius Saxa qui loci natiiram perspiciat (B. C. i. 66), Lucius
Decidius Saxa is sent to examine the ground (who should examine, etc.).
scribebat or&tiOngs quas alii dicerent (Brut. 206), he wrote speeches for other
men to deliver,
ed exstinct5 fore unde discerem nSminem (Cat. M. 12), that when he was dead
there would be nobody from whom (whence) I could learn.
huic ng ubi cSnsisteret quidem contra te locum rellquistl (Quinct. 73), you
have left him no ground even to make a stand against you.
habebam qu5 confugerem (Fam. iv. 6. 2), I had [a retreat] whither I might flee.
NOTE. In this construction qui = ut is (etc.), ubi = ut ibi, and so on ( 537. 2).
a. The ablative qu5 (= ut eO) is used as a conjunction in final
clauses which contain a comparative :
comprimere eOrum audaciam, quo facilius c8ter<5rum animi frangerentur
(Fam. xv. 4. 10), to repress their audacity, that the spirit of the others
might be broken more easily (by which the more easily),
libertate usus est, quo impunius dicax esset (Quinct. 11), he took advantage
of liberty, that he might bluster with more impunity.
NOTE. Occasionally quo introduces a final clause that does not contain a compara-
tive : as, L. Sulla exercitum, quo sibi fidum faceret, Iuxuri5se habuerat (Sail. Cat. 11),
Lucius Sulla had treated the army luxuriously, in order to make it devoted to him.
^or qu5minus (=ut e<5 minus) after \erbs of hindering, see 558. 6.
342 SYNTAX: CLAUSES OF PURPOSE [532,533
532. The principal clause, on which a final clause depends, is
often to be supplied from the context :
ac ne longum sit ... iussimus (Cat. iii. 10), and, not to be tedious, we ordered,
etc. [Strictly, in order not to be tedious, I say we ordered.]
sed ut ad Dionysium redeamus (Tusc. v. 63), but to return to Dionysius.
sed ut eodem revertar, causa haec fuit timoris (Fain. vi. 7. 3), but; to return
to the same point, this was the cause of fear.
satis inconsiderati fuit, ne dicam audacis (Phil. xiii. 12), it was the act of one
rash enough, not to say daring.
NOTE 1. By a similar ellipsis the Subjunctive is used withngdum (sometimes n5),
still less, not to mention that :
nedum salvi esse possimus (Clu. 95), much less could we be safe.
nedum istl n6n statim conquisituri sint aliquid sceleris et flagiti (Leg. Agr. ii. 97),
far more will they hunt up at once some sort of crime and scandal.
n6dum in man et via sit facile (Fam. xvi. 8), still less is it easy at sea and on a
journey.
quippe secundae res sapientium animos fatigaut ; nS ill! corruptis moribus vic-
toriae temperarent (Sail. Cat. 11), for prosperity overmasters the soul even
of the wise ; much less did they with their corrupt morals put any check on
victory.
NOTE 2. With nedum the verb itself is often omitted: as, aptius humanitati
tuae quam tota Peloponnesus, ngdum Patrae (Fam. vii. 28. 1), fitter for your refine-
ment than all Peloponnesus, to say nothing of Patrsn.
For Substantive Clauses involving purpose, see 563-566.
533. The Purpose of an action is expressed in Latin in various
ways ; but never (except in idiomatic expressions and rarely in
poetry) by the simple Infinitive as in English ( 460).
The sentence, they came to seek peace, may be rendered
(1) venerunt ut pacem peterent. [Final clause with ut ( 631. 1).]
(2) venerunt qui pacem peterent. [Final clause with Relative ( 531. 2).]
(8) [v6n6runt ad petendum pacem.] Not found with transitive verbs ( 506,
N. 2 ), but cf. ad parendum senatui. [Gerund with ad ( 506).]
(4) venerunt ad petendam pacem. [Gerundive with ad ( 506).]
(5) venerunt pacem petendl causa (gratia). [Gen. of Gerund with causa
( 504. &).]
(6) venerunt pacis petendae causa (gratia). [Gen. of Gerundive with causa
(504. b).]
(7) venerunt pacem petiturl. [Future participle ( 499. 2); in later writers.]
(8) venerunt pacem petltum. [Supine in -um ( 509).]
These forms are not used indifferently, but
a. The usual way of expressing purpose is by ut (negative n5),
unless the purpose is closely connected with some one word, in which
case a relative is more common:
533-535] CLAUSES OF CHARACTERISTIC 343
legates ad Dumnorigem raittunt, ut e5 d6precat6re a Sequanls irapetrarent
(B. G. i. 9), they send envoys to Dumnorix, in order through his interces-
sion to obtain (this favor) from the Sequani.
milites misit ut eos qul fugerant persequerentur (id. v. 10), he sent the sol-
diers to follow up those who had fled.
CuriO praemittit equites qul prlmum inipetum sustineant (B. C. ii. 26), Curio
sends forward cavalry to withstand the first attack.
b. The Gerund and Gerundive constructions of purpose are usually
limited to short expressions, where the literal translation, though not
the English idiom, is nevertheless not harsh or strange.
c. The Supine is used to express purpose only with verbs of motion,
and in a few idiomatic expressions ( 509).
d. The Future Participle used to express purpose is a late con-
struction of inferior authority ( 499. 2).
For the poetical Infinitive of Purpose, see 460. c. For the Present Participle in
a sense approaching that of purpose, see 490. 3.
CLAUSES OF CHARACTERISTIC
534. The relative clause of Characteristic with the Subjunctive is a development
peculiar to Latin. A relative clause in the Indicative merely states something as a
fact 'which is true of the antecedent; a characteristic clause (in the Subjunctive)
defines the antecedent as a person or thing of such a character that the statement
made is true of him or it and of all others belonging to the same class. Thus, non
potest exercitum is continere imperator qul se ipse non continet (indicative) means simply,
that commander who does not (as a fact) restrain himself cannot restrain his army ;
whereas non potest exercitum is continere imperator qul se ipse non cent ineat (subjunctive)
would mean, that commander who is not such a man as to restrain himself, etc.,
that is, who is not characterized by self-restraint.
This construction has its origin in the potential use of the subjunctive (445).
Thus, in the example just given, qui se ipse non contineat would mean literally, who
would not restrain himself (in any supposable case), and this potential idea passes
over easily into that of general quality or characteristic. The characterizing force
is most easily felt when the antecedent is indefinite or general. But this usage is
extended in Latin to cases which differ but slightly from statements of fact, as in
some of the examples below.
The use of the Subjunctive to express Result comes from its use in Clauses of
Characteristic. Thus, n5n sum ita hebes ut haec dicam means literally, / am not dull
in the manner (degree) in which I should say this, hence, I am not so dull as to say
this. Since, then, the characteristic often appears in the form of a supposed result,
the construction readily passes over into Pure Result, with no idea of characteristic ;
as, tantus in curia clamor factus est ut populus concurreret (Verr. ii. 47), such an outcry
was made in the senate-house that the people hurried together.
535. A Relative Clause with the Subjunctive is often used to
indicate a characteristic of the antecedent, especially where the
antecedent is otherwise undefined :
344 SYNTAX : CLAUSES OF CHARACTERISTIC [ 535
neque enim tu is es qul nesciSs (Fam. v. 12. 6), for you are not such a one as
not to know. [Here is is equivalent to such, and is defined only by the
relative clause that follows.]
multa dlcunt quae vix intellegam (Fin. iv. 2), they say many things which
(such as) I hardly understand.
paci quae nihil habitura sit insidiarum semper est c5nsulenduin (Off. i. 35),
we must always aim at a peace which shall have no plots.
a. A Relative Clause of Characteristic is used after general expres-
sions of existence or non-existence, including questions which imply
a negative.
So especially with sunt qui, there are [some] who; quis est qui, who
is there who ?
sunt qui discessum animi a corpore putent esse mortem (Tusc. i. 18), there are
some who think that the departure of soul from body constitutes death.
erant qui censerent (B. C. ii. 30), there were some who were of the opinion, etc.
erant qui Helvidium miserarentur (Tac. Ann. xvi. 29), there were some who
pitied Helvidius. [Cf. est cum (N. 3 , below).]
quis est qui id non maximis efferat laudibus (Lael. 24), who is there that does
not extol it with the highest praise ?
nihil video quod timeam (Fam. ix. 16. 3), I see nothing to fear.
nihil est quod adventum nostrum extimescas (Fam. ix. 26. 4), there is no rea-
son why you should dread my coming.
unde agger comportarl posset nihil erat reliquum (B. C. ii. 15), there was noth-
ing left from which an embankment could be got together.
NOTE 1. After general negatives like nemo est qui, the Subjunctive is regular;
after general affirmatives like sunt qui, it is the prevailing construction, but the Indic-
ative sometimes occurs ; after multi (non null!, quidam) sunt qui, and similar expres-
sions in which the antecedent is partially defined, the choice of mood depends on the
shade of meaning which the writer wishes to express :
sunt bestiae quaedam in quibus inest aliquid simile virtutis (Fin. v. .38), there are
certain animals in lohich there is something like virtue.
But, invent! multi sunt qui vitam prOfundere pr6 patria parati essent (Off. i. 84),
many were found of such a character as to be ready to give their lives for
their country.
NOTE 2. Characteristic clauses with sunt qui etc. are sometimes called Relative
Clauses with an Indefinite Antecedent, but are to be carefully distinguished from the
Indefinite Relative in protasis ( 520).
NOTE 3. The phrases est cum, fuit cum, etc. are used like est qui, sunt qui: as,
ac fuit cum mihi quoque initium requiescendi fore iiistum arbitrager (De Or. i. 1), and
there was a time when I thought a beginning of rest would be justifiable on my part.
It. A Relative Clause of Characteristic may follow unus and solus :
nil admlrarl prope res est una solaque quae possit facere et servare beatum
(Hor. Ep. i. 6. 1), to wonder at nothing is almost the sole and only thing
that can make and keep one happy.
solus es cuius in victSria ceciderit nemo nisi armatus (Deiot. 34), you are the
only man in whose victory no one has fallen unless armed.
535] CLAUSES OF CHARACTERISTIC 345
c. A clause of Kesult or Characteristic with quam ut, quam qul
(rarely with quam alone), may be used after comparatives :
CanachI slgna rigidiora sunt quam ut imitentur veritatem (Brut. 70), the statues
of Canachus are too stiff to represent nature (stiff er than that they should).
maiores arbores caedebant quam quas ferre miles posset (Liv. xxxiii. 5), they cut
trees too large for a soldier to carry (larger than what a soldier could carry).
NOTE. This construction corresponds in sense to the English too . . . to.
d. A relative clause of characteristic may express restriction or
proviso (of. 528. V) :
quod sciam, so far as I know (lit. as to what I know).
CatOnis orationes, quas quidem invenerim (Brut. 65), the speeches of Goto, at
least such as I have discovered.
servus est nemo, qul modo tolerabil! condicione sit servitutis (Cat. iv. 16),
there is not a slave, at least in any tolerable condition of slavery.
e. A Kelative Clause of Characteristic may express cause or conces-
sion :
peccasse mihi videor qul a te discesseiim (Fam. xvi. 1), I seem to myself to
have done wrong because I have left you. [Causal. ]
virum simplicem qul n5s nihil celet (Or. 230), guileless man, who hides noth-
ing from us ! [Causal .]
egomet qui ser5 Graecas litteras attigissem, tamen complurgs Athenis dies
sum commoratus (De Or. i. 82), I myself, though I began Greek literature
late, yet, etc. (lit. [a man] who, etc.). [Concessive.]
NOTE 1. In this use the relative is equivalent to cum is etc. It is often preceded
by ut, utpote, or quippe :
nee consul, ut qui id ipsum quaeslsset, moram certamim fecit (Liv. xlii. 7), nor
did the consul delay the fight, since he had sought that very thing (as [being
one] who had sought, etc.).
Lucius, f rater eius, utpote qui peregre depugnarit, familiam ducit (Phil. v. 30),
Lucius, his brother, leads his household, inasmuch as he is a man who has
fought it out abroad.
convlvia cum patre non inlbat, quippe qul ne in oppidum quidem nisi perrarC
veniret (Rose. Am. 52), he did not go to dinner parties with his father, since
he did not even come to town except very rarely.
NOTE 2. The Relative of Cause or Concession is merely a variety of the Charac-
teristic construction. The quality expressed by the Subjunctive is connected with the
action of the main verb either as cause on account of which (SINCE) or as hindrance
in spite of which (ALTHOUGH).
/. Dignus,' indlgnus, aptus, idOneus take a subjunctive clause with
a relative (rarely ut). The negative is n6n :
dlgna in quibus elaborarent (Tusc. i. 1), (things) worth spending their toil on
(worthy on which they should, etc.).
dlgna res est ubi tu nervOs intendas tuOs (Ter. Eun. 312), Me affair is worthy
of your stretching your sinews (worthy wherein you should, etc.).
346 SYNTAX : CLAUSES OF RESULT [ 586-537
idOneus qui impetret (Manil. 57), fit to obtain.
indlgnl ut redimeremur (Liv. xxii. 59. 17), unworthy to be ransomed.
NOTE 1. This construction is sometimes explained as a relative clause of purpose,
but it is more closely related to characteristic.
NOTE 2. With dignus etc., the poets often use the Infinitive:
fons rivo dare nomen idoneus (Hor. Ep. i. 16. 12), a source fit to give a name to a
stream.
aetas mollis et apta regi (Ov. A. A. i. 10), a time of life soft and easy to be guided.
vivere dignus eras (Ov. M. x. 633), you were worthy to live.
CLAUSES OF RESULT (CONSECUTIVE CLAUSES)
536. The Subjunctive in Consecutive Clauses is a development of the use of that
mood in Clauses of Characteristic (as explained in 534) .
537. Clauses of Result take the Subjunctive introduced by ut, so
that (negative, ut non), or by a relative pronoun or relative adverb.
1. Pure Clauses of Result, with ut or ut n6n, express the result of
the main verb in the form of a modifying clause :
tanta vis probitatis est ut earn in hoste dlligamus (Lael. 29), so great is the
power of goodness that we love it even in an enemy.
pugnatur acriter ad novissimum agmen, adeo ut paene terga convertant
(B. C. i. 80), there is sharp fighting in the rear, so (to such a degree) that
they almost take flight.
multa rumor adfingebat, ut paene bellum confectum videretur (id. i. 53),
rumor added many false reports, so that the war seemed almost ended.
2. Relative Clauses of Result are introduced by the relative pro-
noun qui or a relative adverb (ubi, unde, qu5, etc.). The antecedent is
expressed or implied in the main clause.
The Relative in this construction is equivalent to ut with the corre-
sponding demonstrative : qui = ut is (etc.), ubi = ut ibi, and so on :
nam est innocentia affectio talis animi quae noceat n6minl (Tusc. iii. 16), for
innocence is such a quality of mind as to do harm to no one.
sunt aliae causae quae plane efficiant (Top. 59), there are other causes such as
to bring to pass.
nulla est celeritas quae possit cum animi celeritate contendere (Tusc. i. 43),
there is no swiftness which can compare with the swiftness of the mind.
quis navigavit qui non s6 mortis perlculo committeret (Manil. 31), who went to
sea who did not incur the peril of death ?
NOTE 1. Since the relative clause of Result is a development from the relative
clause of Characteristic ( 534), no sharp line can be drawn between the two construc-
tions. In doubtful cases, it is better to attempt no distinction or to describe the clause
as one of Characteristic.
NOTE 2. Clauses of Result are often introduced by such correlative words as tarn,
tails, tantus, ita, sic, adeo, usque e5, which belong to the main clause.
637, 638] CLAUSES OF RESULT 347
a . A Negative Result is introduced by ut nOn, ut nSmO, qul n5n, etc.,
not by n6 :
multls gravibusque volneribus cOnfectus ut iam 56 sustingre non posset (B. G.
ii. 25), used up with many severe wounds so that he could no longer stand.
tanta vl in Pompel equites impetum fecerunt ut eorum nemo cdnsisteret (B. C.
iii. 93), they attacked Pompey's cavalry with such vigor that not one oj
them stood his ground.
n6m5 est tarn senex qul se annum non putet posse vivere (Cat. M. 24), nobody
is so old as not to think that he can live a year.
NOTE. When the result implies an effect intended (not a simple purpose), ut n5
or ne is sometimes used as being less positive than ut n5n : [librum] ita corrigas n5
mini noceat (Caecina, Fain. vi. 7. 6), correct the book so that it may not hurt me.
b. Frequently a clause of result or characteristic is used in a re-
strictive sense, and so amounts to a Proviso (of. 535. d) :
h5c ita est utile ut n plane inludamur ab accusatOribus (Rose. Am. 55), this
is so far useful that we are not utterly mocked by the accusers (i.e. useful
only on this condition, that, etc.).
nihil autem est molestum quod non desideres (Cat. M. 47), but nothing is
troublesome which ( = provided that) you do not miss.
c. The clause of result is sometimes expressed in English by the
Infinitive with TO or so AS TO or an equivalent :
tarn longe aberam ut n5n viderem, I was too far away to see (so far that I
did not see ; cf . 535. c).
NOTE. Result is never expressed by the Infinitive in Latin except by the poets in
a few passages ( 461. a).
538. The constructions of Purpose and Result are precisely
alike in the affirmative (except sometimes in tense sequence,
485. c) ; but, in the negative, Purpose takes n5, Result ut nOn
etc. :
cfistodltus est n6 effugeret, he was guarded in order that he MIGHT not escape.
custodltus est ut non effugeret, he was guarded so that he DID not escape.
So in negative Purpose clauses n6 quis, n5 quid, n5 ullus, n6 quO, n5
quandd, necubi, etc. are almost always used ; in negative Result clauses,
ut nemO, ut nihil, ut nullus, etc. :
(1) cernere ne quis eos, neu quis contingere posset (Aen. i. 413), that no one
might see them, no one touch them. [Purpose. ]
ne quando llberls pr5script5rum bona patria reddantur (Rose. Am. 145), lest
at some time the patrimony of the proscribed should be restored to their
children.
ipse n5 quo inciderem, revertl Formias (Att. viii. 8. 7), that I might not come
upon him anywhere, I returned to Formice.
SYNTAX : CAUSAL CLAUSES [ 538-540
dispositls exploratOribus nScubi Roman! c5pias traducerent (B. G. vii. 35),
having stationed scouts here and there in order that the Romans might
not lead their troops across anywhere.
(2) multi ita sunt iinbecilll senes ut nullum officl munus exsequl possint (Cat.
M. 35), many old men are so feeble that they cannot perform any duty to
society. [Result.]
qul summum bonum sic Instituit ut nihil habeat cum virtute coniunetum
(Off. i. 5), who has so settled the highest good that it has nothing in com-
mon with virtue.
For clauses of Result or Characteristic with quin, see 559. For Substantive Clauses
of Result, see 567-571.
CAUSAL CLAUSES
539. Causal Clauses take either the Indicative or the Subjunctive, according to
their construction ; the idea of cause being contained, not in the mood itself, but in
the form of the argument (by implication), in an antecedent of causal meaning (like
propterea), or in the connecting particles.
Quod is in origin the relative pronoun (stem quo-) used adverbially in the accusative
neuter (cf . 214. d) and gradually sinking to the position of a colorless relative con-
junction (cf ; English that and see 222) . Its use as a causal particle is an early
special development. Quia is perhaps an accusative plural neuter of the relative stem
qui-, and seems to have developed its causal sense more distinctly than quod, and at
an earlier period. It is used (very rarely) as an interrogative, why? (so in classical
Latin with nam only), and may, like quando, have developed from an interrogative to
a relative particle.
Quoniam (for quom iam) is also of relative origin (quom being a case-form of the
pronominal stem quo-) . It occurs in old Latin in the sense of when (cf . quom, cum) ,
from which the causal meaning is derived (cf . cum causal). The Subjunctive with quod
and quia depends on the principle of Informal Indirect Discourse ( 592) .
Quando is probably the interrogative quam (how ?) compounded with a form of the
pronominal stem do- (cf . dum, do-nec) . It originally denoted time (first interrogatively,
then as a relative), and thus came to signify cause. Unlike quod and quia, it is not
used to state a reason in informal indirect discourse and therefore is never followed
by the Subjunctive.
540. The Causal Particles quod and quia take the Indicative,
when the reason is given on the authority of the writer or
speaker; the Subjunctive, when the reason is given on the
authority of another:
1. Indicative :
cum tibi agam gratias quod me vlvere coegisti (Att. iii. 3), when I may thank
you that you have forced me to live.
cur igitur pacem nolo ? quia turpis est (Phil. vii. 9), why then do I not wish
for peace ? Because it is disgraceful.
ita fit ut adsint propterea quod officium sequuntur, taceant autem quia perl-
culum vitant (Rose. Am. 1), so it happens that they attend because they
follow duty, but are silent because they seek to avoid danger.
540] CAUSAL CLAUSES 349
2. Subjunctive :
mihi gratulabare quod audisses me" uieam prlstinam dignitatem obtinSre
(Fam. iv. 14. 1), you congratulated me because [as you said] you had
heard that I had regained my former dignity.
noctu ambulabat Themistocles quod somnum capere n5n posset (Tusc. iv. 44),
Themistocles used to walk about at night because [as he said] he could not
sleep.
mea mater Irata est quia n5n redierim (PL Cist. 101), my mother is angry
because I did n't return.
NOTE 1. Quod introduces either a, fact or a statement, and accordingly takes either
the Indicative or_the Subjunctive. Quia regularly introduces a fact ; hence it rarely
takes the Subjunctive. Quoniam, inasmuch as, since, when now, now that, has refer-
ence to motives, excuses, justifications, and the like and takes the Indicative.
NOTE 2. Under this head what the speaker himself thought under other circum-
stances may have the Subjunctive (592. 3. N.) : as, ego laeta visa sum quia soror
venisset (PI. Mil. 387), 1 seemed (in my dream) glad because my sister had come.
So with quod even a verb of saying may be in the Subjunctive: as, rediit quod
se oblitum nescio quid diceret (Off. i. 40), he returned because he said he had forgotten
something.
NOTE 3. N5n quod, non quia, non quo, introducing a reason expressly to deny it, take
the Subjunctive ; but the Indicative sometimes occurs when the statement is in itself
true, though not the true reason. In the negative, non quin (with the Subjunctive)
may be used in nearly the same sense as n5n quod n5n. After a comparative, quam
quo or quam quod is used :
pugiles ingemescunt, non quod doleant, sed quia profundenda vOce omne corpus
intenditur (Tusc. ii. 56), boxers groan, not because they are in pain, but
because by giving vent to the voice the whole body is put in a state of
tension.
n5n quia rectior ad Alpis via esset, sed credens (Liv. xxi. 31. 2), not because the
route to the Alps was more direct, but believing, etc.
n5n quin pari virtute et voluntate alii fuerint, sed tantam causam non habuerunt
(Phil. vii. 6), not that there icere not others of equal courage and good-will,
but they had not so strong a reason.
haec am6re magis impulsus scribenda ad te putavi, quam quo te arbitrager monitis
et praeceptis egere (Fam. x. 3. 4), this I thought I ought to write to you,
rather from the impulse of (prompted by) affection than because I thought
that you needed advice and suggestion.
a. Quoniam and quandS, since, introduce a reason given on the
authority of the writer or speaker, and take the Indicative :
locus est a me, quoniam ita MurSna voluit, retractandus (Mur. 64), I must
review the point, since Murena has so wished.
quando ita vis, di bene vortant (PL Trin. 573), since you so wish, may the
gods bless the undertaking.
quando ad maiora natl sumus (Fin. v. 21), since we are born for greater things.
NOTE. The Subjunctive with quoniam is unclassical. Quando, since, in the causal
sense, is mostly archaic or late. Quand5, when, is used as interrogative, relative, and
indefinite : as, quandS ? hodie, when ? to-day ; si quandS, if ever.
350 SYNTAX: TEMPORAL CLAUSES [640-542
&. Causal clauses introduced by quod, quia, quoniam, and quand5
take the Subj unctive in Indirect Discourse, like any other dependent
clause (see 580).
c. A Kelative, when used to express cause, regularly takes the Sub-
junctive (see 535. e).
d. Cum causal takes the Subjunctive (see 549).
For Substantive Clauses with quod, see 572.
TEMPORAL CLAUSES
541. Temporal Clauses are introduced by particles which are almost all of rela-
tive origin. They are construed like other relative clauses, except where they have
developed into special idiomatic constructions. 1
For list of Temporal Particles, see p. 138.
Temporal Clauses may be classified as follows :
I. Conditional Relative Clauses: ubi, ut, cum, quand5, in Protasis (642).
II. Clauses with postquam, ubi, etc. (Indicative), (543).
Ill Clauses with cum / L Cum tem P oral < 545-548).
* i 2. Cum causal or concessive ( 549).
IV. Clauses with antequam and priusquam (Indicative or Subjunctive) (551).
V. Clauses with dum, d6nec, and quoad (Indicative or Subjunctive) ( 552-556).
Conditional Relative Clauses
542. The particles ubi, ut, cum, quandO, either alone or com-
pounded with -cumque, may be used as Indefinite Relatives (in the
sense of whenever), and have the constructions of Protasis (cf.
514):-
cum id malum negas esse, capior (Tusc. ii. 29), whenever you (the indi-
vidual disputant) deny it to be an evil, I am misled. [Present general
condition.]
quod prefects cum me nulla vis cogeret, facere nSn auderem (Phil. v. 61),
which I would surely not venture to do, as long as no force compelled me.
[Present, contrary to fact: cf. 517.]
cum videas e5s dolOre n5n frangi, dfibeas existimare, etc. (Tusc. ii. 66), when
you see that those are not broken by pain, you ought to infer, etc. [Pres-
ent general condition: cf. 518. a.]
cum rosam viderat, turn incipere v6r arbitrabatur (Verr. v. 27), whenever he saw
a rose he thought spring had begun. [Past general condition : cf. 518. 6.]
id ubi dixisset, hastam in finis e5rum 6mitt6bat (Liv. i. 32. 13), when he had
said this, he would cast the spear into their territories. [Past General
Condition, repeated action : see 518. c.]
* With all temporal particles the Subjunctive is often found depending on some
other principle of construction. (See Intermediate Clauses, 591.)
543] POSTQUAM, UBI, ETC. 351
Temporal Clauses with postquam, ubi, etc.
\543\/ The particles postquam (posteaquam), ubi, ut (ut primura, ut
semel), simul atque (simul ac, or siraul alone), take the Indicative
(usually in the perfect or the historical present) :
milites postquam victoriam adept! sunt, nihil reliqul victls f6c6re (Sail. Cat. 11),
when the soldiers had won the victory, they left nothing to the vanquished.
posteaquam forum attigisti, nihil fecistl nisi, etc. (Fam. xv. 16. 3), since you
came to the forum, you have done nothing except, etc.
ubi omnls idem sentire intellexit, posterum diem pugnae cSnstituit (B. G.
iii. 23), when he understood that all agreed (thought the same thing), he
appointed the next day for the battle.
Catilina, ubi eos convenisse videt, secedit (Sail. Cat. 20), when Catiline sees
that they have come together, he retires.
Pompgius ut equitatum suum pulsum vidit, acie" excessit (B. C. iii. 94), when
Pompey saw his cavalry beaten, he left the field.
ut semel e Piraeeo eloquentia evecta est (Brut. 51), as score as eloquence had
set sail from the Piraeus.
nostrl simul in arido cSnstiterunt, in hostis impetum f6c6runt (B. G. iv. 26),
our men, as soon as they had taken a position on dry ground, made an
attack on the enemy.
simul atque introductus est, rem confgcit (Chi. 40), as soon as he was brought
in, he did the job.
a. These particles less commonly take the Imperfect or Pluperfect
Indicative. The Imperfect denotes a past state of things ; the Plu-
perfect, an action completed in past time :
postquam structl utrimque stabant. duc6s in medium procgdunt (Liv. i.
23), when they stood in array on both sides, the generals advance into
the midst.
P. Africanus posteaquam bis consul et censor fuerat (Caecil. 69), when Afri-
canus had been (i.e. had the dignity of having been) twice consul and
censor.
postquam id difficilius vlsum est, neque facultas perficiendl dabatur, ad Pom-
peium transierunt (B. C. iii. 60), when this seemed too hard, and no means
of effecting it were given, they passed over to Pompey.
post diem qulntum quam iterum barbarl male pugnaverant [= victl sunt],
legatl a Boccho veniunt (lug. 102), the fifth day after the barbarians were
beaten the second time, envoys come from Bacchus.
haec iuventutem, ubi familiargs op6s defecerant, ad facinora incendebant
(Sail. Cat. 13), when their inherited resources had given out, etc.
ubi perlcula virtute prdpulerant (id. 6), when they had dispelled the dangers by
their valor.
For the use of ubi, ut, either alone or compounded with -cumque, as Indefinite Rela-
tives, see 542.
352 SYNTAX : TEMPORAL CLAUSES [ 544, 546
USES OF CUM
544. The conjunction cum (quom) is a case-form of the relative pronoun qui. It
inherits from qui its subordinating force, and in general shares its constructions.
But it was early specialized to a temporal meaning (cf. turn, dum), and its range of usage
was therefore less wide than that of qui ; it could not, for example, introduce clauses
of purpose or of result.
With the Indicative, besides the simple expression of definite time (corresponding to
simple relative clauses with the Indicative), it has a few special uses, conditional,
explicative, cum inversum all easily derived from the temporal use.
With the Subjunctive, cum had a development parallel to that of the qul-clause of
Characteristic, a development not less extensive and equally peculiar to Latin.
From defining the time the cum-clause passed over to the description of the time by
means of its attendant circumstances of cause or concession (cf. since, while).
In particular, cum with the Subjunctive was used in narrative (hence the past
tenses, Imperfect and Pluperfect) as a descriptive clause of time. As, however, the
present participle in Latin is restricted in its use and the perfect active participle is
almost wholly lacking, the historical or narrative cum-clause came into extensive use
to supply the deficiency. In classical writers the narrative cum-clause (with the Sub-
junctive) has pushed back the defining clause (with the Imperfect or Pluperfect Indica-
tive) into comparative infrequency, and is itself freely used where the descriptive or
characterizing force is scarcely perceptible (cf. the qul-clause of Characteristic, 534).
Cunt Temporal
545. A temporal clause with cum, when, and some past tense of
the Indicative dates or defines the time at which the action of the
main verb occurred :
e5 [lituo] regiOnSs dlrexit turn cum urbem condidit (Div. i. 30), he traced with
it the quarters [of the sky] at the time he founded the city.
cum occiditur Sex. ROscius, ibidem fuerunt servi (Rose. Am. 120), when
Roscius was slain, the slaves were on the spot, [occiditur is historical
present.]
quern quidem cum ex urbe pellebam, hoc prOvidebarn animO (Cat. iii. 16),
when I was trying to force him (conative imperfect) from the city, 1
looked forward to this.
fulgentis gladios hostium videbant Decii cum in aciem eorum inruebant (Tusc.
ii. 50), the Decii saw the flashing swords of the enemy when they rushed
upon their line.
tum cum in Asia res magnaa permult! amiserant (Manil. 19), at that time,
when many had lost great fortunes in Asia.
NOTE 1. This is the regular use with all tenses in early Latin, and at all times
with the Perfect and the Historical Present (as with postquam etc.). With the Imper-
fect and Pluperfect the Indicative use is (in classical Latin) much less common than
the Subjunctive use defined below (546).
NOTE 2. This construction must not be confused with that of cum, whenever, in
General Conditions ( 542).
645, 546] CUM TEMPORAL 353
a. When the time of the main clause and that of the temporal
clause are absolutely identical) cum takes the Indicative in the same
tense as that of the main verb :
maxima sum laetitia adfectus cum audivi consulem tS factuin esse (Fain,
xv. 7), I was very much pleased when I heard that you had been elected
consul.
546. A temporal clause with cum and the Imperfect or Pluper-
fect Subjunctive. describes the circumstances that accompanied or
preceded the action of the main verb :
cum essem otiosus in Tusculan5, accep! tuas litteras (Fam. ix. 18. 1), when I
ivas taking my ease in my house at Tusculum, I received your letter.
cum servill bell5 premeretur (Manil. 80), when she (Italy) was under the load
of the Servile War.
cum id nuntiatum esset, maturat (B. G. i. 7), when this had been reported, he
made (makes) haste.
cum ad Cybistra qumque dies essem moratus, regem Ariobarzanem Insidils
llberavi (Fam. xv. 4. G), after remaining at Cybistra for five days, I freed
King Ariobarzanes from plots.
is cum ad me Laodiceam venisset mecumque ego emu vellem, repente per-
cussus est atrocissimis litterls (id. ix. 25. 3), when he had come to me at
Laodicea and I wished him to remain with me, he was suddenly, etc.
NOTE 1. This construction is very common in narrative, and cum in this use is often
called narrative cum.
NOTE 2. Cum with the Imperfect or Pluperfect Indicative does not (like cum with
the Imperfect or Pluperfect Subjunctive) describe the time by its circumstances; it
defines the time of the main verb by denoting a coexistent state of things (Imperfect
Indicative) or a result attained when the action of the main verb took place (Pluper-
fect). Thus the construction is precisely that of postquam etc. ( 543. a).
NOTE 3. The distinction between the uses defined in 545, 546, may be illustrated
by the following examples: (1) He had a fever when he was in Spain (Shakspere).
Here the to^en-olause defines the time when Caesar had the fever, namely, in the year
of his Spanish campaign (B.C. 49). In Latin we should use cum with the Imperfect
Indicative. (2) Columbus discovered America when he was seeking a new route to
India; here the wften-clause does not define or date the time of the discovery; it
merely describes the circumstances under which America was discovered, namely,
in the course of a voyage undertaken for another purpose. In Latin we should use the
Imperfect Subjunctive.
NOTE 4. The distinction explained in Note 3 is unknown to early Latin. In
Plautus quom always has the Indicative unless the Subjunctive is required for some
other reason.
a. When the principal action is expressed in the form of a tem-
poral clause with cum, and the definition of the time becomes the
main clause, cum takes the Indicative.
Here the logical relations of the two clauses are inverted ; hence
cum is in this use called cum inversum :
354 SYNTAX : TEMPORAL CLAUSES [ 646-549
dies nOndum decem intercesserant, cum ille alter filius infans necatur (Clu.
28), ten days had not yet passed, when the other infant son was killed.
[Instead of when ten days had not yet passed, etc.]
iamque lux apparebat cum procedit ad milites (Q. C. vii. 8. 3), and day was
already dawning when he appears before the soldiers.
hOc facere noctu apparabant, cum matres familiae repente in publicum pro-
currerunt (B. G. vii. 26), they were preparing to do this by night, when the
women suddenly ran out into the streets.
547. Present time with cum temporal is denoted by the Pres-
ent Indicative ; future time, by the Future or Future Perfect
Indicative :
incidunt tempera, cum ea, quae maxime videntur dlgna esse iustO homine.
fiunt contraria (Off. i. 81), times occur when those things which seem
especially worthy of the upright man, become the opposite.
nOn dubitabO dare operara ut te videam, cum id satis commode facere potero
(Fam. xiii. 1), I shall not hesitate to take pains to see you, when I can do
it conveniently.
longum illud tempus cum n5n ero (Att. xii. 18), that long time when I shtll
be no more.
cum veneris, c5gn5scfis (Fain. v. 7. 3), when you come (shall have come),
you will find out.
548. Cum, whenever, takes the construction of a relative clause
in a general condition (see 542).
For present time, either the Present or the Perfect Indicative is
used ; for past time, regularly the Pluperfect Indicative.
For est cum etc., see 535. a. N. 3 .
Cum Causal or Concessive
549. Cum causal or concessive takes the Subjunctive : -^-
id difficile n5n est, cum tantum equitatu valeamus (B. C. iii. 86), this is not
difficult since we are so strong in cavalry. [Causal.]
cum s5litud5 Insidiarum et metus plena sit, ratio ipsa monet amlcitias com-
parare (Fin. i. 66), since solitude is full of treachery and fear, reason it-
self prompts us to contract friendships. [Causal.]
cum priml 5rdines concidissent, tamen acerrime reliqul resistebant (B. G.
vii. 62), though the first ranks had fatten, still the others resisted vigor-
ously. [Concessive.]
brevl spatiO legiones numerO hominum expleverat, cum initiO n5n amplius
duObus mllibus habuisset (Sail. Cat. 56), in a short time he had filled
out the legions with their complement of men, though at the start he had
not had more than two thousand. [Concessive.]
649-661] ANTEQUAM AND PKIUSQUAM 355
Cum causal may usually be translated by since ; cum concessive by
although or while ; either, occasionally, by when.
NOTE 1. Cum in these uses is often emphasized by ut, utpote, quippe, praesertim:
as, iiec reprehendo : quippe cum ipse istam reprehensionem non fugerim (Att. x. 3 A),
I find no fault ; since I myself did not escape that blame.
NOTE 2. These causal and concessive uses of cum are of relative origin and are
parallel to qui causal and concessive (535. e). The attendant circumstances are re-
garded as the cause of the action, or as tending to hinder it.
NOTE 3. In early Latin cum (quom) causal and concessive usually takes the Indic-
ative: as, quom tua res distrahitur, utinam videam (PI. Trin. 617), since your prop-
erty -is being torn in pieces, that I may see, etc.
a. Cum with the Indicative frequently introduces an explanatory
statement, and is sometimes equivalent to quod, on the ground that:
cum tacent, clamant (Cat. i. 21), when they are silent, they cry out (i.e. their
silence is an emphatic expression of their sentiments),
gratulor tibi cum tantum vales apud Dolabellam (Fam. ix. 14. 3), I congratu-
late you that you are so strong with Dolabella.
NOTE. This is merely a special use of cum temporal expressing coincident time
(545. a).
b. Cum . . . turn, signifying both . . . and, usually takes the Indica-
tive ; but when cum approaches the sense of while or though, the Sub-
junctive is used ( 549) :
cum multa non probo, turn illud in priinis (Fin. i. 18), while there are many
things I do not approve, there is this in chief. [Indicative.]
cum difficile est, turn ne aequum quidem (Lael. 26), not only is it difficult
but even unjust.
cum res tota ficta sit puerlliter, turn ne efficit quidem quod vult (Fin. i. 19),
while the whole thing is childishly got up, he does not even make his point
(accomplish what he wishes). [Subjunctive ; approaching cum causal.]
Antequam and Priusquam
550. Antequam and priusquam, before, introduce Clauses of Time which resemble
those with cum temporal in their constructions. Priusquam consists of two pai-ts (often
written separately and sometimes separated by other words), the comparative adverb
prius, sooner (before), which really modifies the main verb, and the relative particle
quam, than, which introduces the subordinate clause. The latter is therefore a rela-
tive clause, and takes the Indicative or the Subjunctive (like other relative clauses)
according to the sense intended. The Subjunctive with priusquam is related to that of
purpose ( 529) and is sometimes called the Anticipatory or Prospective Subjunctive.
Antequam, like priusquam, consists of two words, the first of which is the adverb ante,
before, modifying the main verb. Its constructions are the same as those of priusquam,
but the latter is commoner in classic prose.
551. Antequam and priusquam take sometimes the Indicative,
sometimes the Subjunctive.
356 SYNTAX : TEMPORAL CLAUSES [ 551
a. With antequam or priusquam the Perfect Indicative states a
fact in past time :
antequam tuas leg! litteras, hominem Ire cupiebam (Att. ii. 7. 2), before I
read your letter, I wished the man to go.
neque ante dimisit eum quam fidem dedit adulescens (Liv. xxxix. 10), and
she did not let the young man go till he pledged his faith.
neque prius fugere destiterunt quam ad flumen pervenerunt (B. G. i. 53), nor
did they stop running until they reached the river.
NOTE. The Perfect Indicative in this construction is regular when the main
clause is negative and the main verb is in an historical tense. The Imperfect Indicative
is rare; the Pluperfect Indicative, very rare. The Perfect Subjunctive is rare and
ante-classical, except in Indirect Discourse.
b. With antequam or priusquam the Imperfect Subjunctive is com-
mon when the subordinate verb implies purpose or expectancy in past
time, or when the action that it denotes did not take place :
ante pugnarl coeptum est quam satis instrueretur acigs (Liv. xxii. 4. 7), the
fight was begun before the line could be properly formed.
priusquam til suum sibi venderes, ipse possedit (Phil. ii. 96), before you could
sell him his own property, he took possession of it himself.
priusquam telum abicl posset aut nostrl propius accederent, omnis Vari acies
terga vertit (B. C. ii. 34), before a weapon could be thrown or our men
approached nearer, the whole line about Varus tookfligM.
NOTE 1. The Pluperfect Subjunctive is rare, except in Indirect Discourse by se-
quence of tenses for the Future Perfect Indicative ( 484. c): as, antequam homines
nefarii de meo adventu audire potuissent, in Macedonian! perrexi (Plane. 98), before
those evil men could learn of my coming, I arrived in Macedonia.
NOTE 2. After an historical present the Present Subjunctive is used instead of the
Imperfect : as, neque ab e5 prius Domitiani milites discedunt quam in conspectum
Caesaris dgducatur (B. C. i. 22), and the soldiers of Domitius did (do) not leave him
until he was (is) conducted into Csesar's presence. So, rarely, the Perfect Subjunctive
(asB. G. iii. 18).
c. Antequam and priusquam, when referring to future time, take the
Present or Future Perfect Indicative ; rarely the Present Subjunctive:
priusquam de cgterls rebus responded, de amlcitia pauca dicam (Phil. ii. 3),
before I reply to the rest, I will say a little about friendship.
n5n defatigabor antequam illorum ancipites vias percepero (De Or. iii. 145),
I shall not weary till I have traced out their doubtful ways.
antequam veniat litteras mittet (Leg. Agr. ii. 53), before he comes, he will send
a letter.
NOTE 1. The Future Indicative is very rare.
NOTE 2. In a few cases the Subjunctive of present general condition is found with
antequam and priusquam (cf. 518. a): as, in omnibus negotiis priusquam aggrediare,
adhibenda est praeparatio diligens (Off. i. 73), in all undertakings, before you proceed
to action, careful preparation must be used.
552-554] DUM, DONEC, AND QUOAD 357
Dunt, Donee, and Quoad
552. As an adverb meaning/or a time, awhile, dum is found in old Latin, chiefly
as an enclitic (cf. vixdum, nondum). Its use as a conjunction comes either through
correlation (cf. cum . . . turn, si ... sic) or through substitution for a conjunction, as
in the English the moment I saw it, I understood. Quoad is a compound of the rela-
tive quo, up to which point, with ad. The origin and early history of donee are unknown.
553. Dum and quoad, until, take the Present or Imperfect Sub-
junctive in temporal clauses implying intention or expectancy :
exspectas fortasse dum dlcat (Tusc. ii. 17), you are waiting perhaps for him
to say (until he say). [Dum is especially commoi after exspecto.]
dum reliquae naves convenirent, ad horam nonam exspectavit (B. G. iv. 23),
he waited till the ninth hour for the rest of the ships to join him.
comitia dllata [stint] dum lex ferretur (Att. iv. 17. 3), the election was post-
poned until a law should be passed.
an id exspectamus, quoad ne vestigium quidem A-siae clvitatum atque urbium
relinquatur (Phil. xi. 25), shall we wait for this until not a trace is left of
the states and cities of Asia ?
Epaminondas exercebatur plurimura luctando ad eum flnem quoad stans
complecti posset atque contendere (Nep. Epam. 2), Epaminondas trained
himself in wrestling so far as to be able (until he should be able) to grapple
standing and fight (in that way).
NOTE 1. Donee is similarly used in poetry and later Latin: as, et duxit longe
donee curvata coirent inter se capita (Aen. xi. 860), and drew it (the bow) until the
curved tips touched each other.
NOTE 2. Dum, until, may be used with the Present or Future Perfect Indicative
to state a future fact when there is no idea of intention or expectancy ; but this con-
struction is rare in classic prose. The Future is also found in early Latin. Donee, until,
is similarly used, in poetry and early Latin, with the Present and Future Perfect Indica-
tive, rarely with the Future :
ego in Arcano opperior dum ista cognosce (Att. x. 3), I am waiting in the villa at
ArcsB until I find this out. [This is really dum, while.]
mihi usque curae erit quid agas, dum quid egeris sciero (Fam. xii. 19. 3), I shall
always feel anxious as to what you are doing, until I actually know (shall
have known) what you have done.
delicta maiorum lues donee templa refeceris (Hor. Od. iii. 6. 1), you shall suffer for
the sins of your ancestors until you rebuild the temples.
ter centum regnabitur aunos, d5nec geminam partu dabit Ilia prOlem (Aen. i. 272),
sway shall be held for thrice a hundred years, until Ilia shall give birth to
twin offspring.
554. Donee and quoad, until, with the Perfect Indicative denote
an actual fact in past time :
dSnec rediit silentium fuit (Liv. xxiii. 31. 9), there was silence until he returned.
usque e5 timul donee ad reiciendos indices venimus (Verr. ii. 1. 17), I was
anxious until the moment when we came to challenge the jurors.
R6mae fuerunt quoad L. Metellus in prOvinciam profectus est (id. ii. 62),
they remained at Rome until Lucius Metellu* set out for the province.
858 SYNTAX : TEMPORAL CLAUSES [ 554-666
NOTE. Bum, until, with the Perfect Indicative is rare: as, mansit in condi-
cidne usque ad eum finem dum iudices reiecti sunt (Verr. i. 16), he remained true to the
agreement until the jurors were challenged.
555. Dum, donee, and quoad, as long as, take the Indicative :
dum anima est, spes esse dicitur (Att. ix. 10. 3), as long as there is life, there
is said to be hope.
dum praesidia ulla fuerunt, in Sullae praesidiis fuit (Rose. Am. 126), so long
as there were any garrisons, he was in the garrisons of Sulla.
dum longius a mun!ti5ne aberant Galli, plus multitudine telorum proficiebant
(B. G. vii. 82), so long as the Gauls were at a distance from the fortifica-
tions, they had the advantage because of their missiles.
donee gratus eram tibl, Persarum vigul rege beatior (Hor. Od. iii. 9. 1), as
long as I enjoyed thy favor, I flourished happier than the king of the
Persians.
quoad potuit fortissimg restitit (B. G. iv. 12), he resisted bravely as long as
he could.
NOTE 1. D5nec in this use is confined to poetry and later writers.
NOTE 2. Quam diu, as long as, takes the Indicative only: as, se oppidotam din
tenuit quam diu in provincia Parthi fuerunt (Fam. xii. 19. 2), he kept himself within the
town as long as the Parthians were in the province.
556. Dum, while, regularly takes the Present Indicative to de-
note continued action in past time.
In translating, the English Imperfect must generally be used :
dum haec geruntur, Caesari nuntiatum est (B. G. i. 46), while this was going
on, a message was brought to Ccesar.
haec dum aguntur, interea Cleomenes iam ad ElOrl lltus pervenerat (Verr. v.
91), while this was going on, Cleomenes meanwhile had come down to the
coast at Elorum.
hoc dum narrat, forte audivl (Ter. Haut. 272), I happened to hear this while
she was telling it.
NOTE. This construction is a special use of the Historical Present ( 469).
a. A past tense with dum (usually so long as) makes the time em-
phatic by contrast ; but a few irregular cases of dum with a past tense
occur where no contrast is intended :
nee enim dum eram voblscum, animum meum videbatis (Cat. M. 79), for
while I was with you, you could not see my soul. [Here the time when
he was alive is contrasted with that after his death.]
coorta est pugna, par dum constabant ordines (Liv. xxii. 47), a conflict began,
well matched as long as the ranks stood firm.
But, dum oculos hostium certamen averterat (id. xxxii. 24), while the
struggle kept the eyes of the enemy turned away.
dum unum adscendere gradum conatus est, venit in perlculum (Mur. 65),
while he attempted to climb one step [in rank] he fell into danger.
656-558] CLAUSES WITH QUlN AND QUOMINUS 359
NOTE. In later writers, dum sometimes takes the Subjunctive when the classical
usage would require the Indicative, and d5nec, until, is freely used in this manner
(especially by Tacitus) :
dum ea in Samnio gererentur, in Etruria interim bellum ingens concitur (Liv. x.
. 18), while this was being done in Samnium, meanwhile a great war was
stirred up in Etruria.
ilia quidem dum te fugeret, hydrum non vidit (Georg. iv. 457), while she was fleeing
from you she did not see the serpent.
dum per vicos deportaretur, condormiebat (Suet. Aug. 78), while he was being car-
ried through the streets he used to fall dead asleep.
Rhenus servat nomen et violentiam cursus (qua Germaniam praevehitur) donee
Oceans misceatur (Tac. Ann. ii. 6), the Rhine keeps its name and rapid course
(where it borders Germany) until it mingles with the ocean.
teinporibusque August! dicendis non defuere decora ingenia dSnec gliscente adu-
latione dgterrerentur (id. i. I), for describing the times of Augustus there
was no lack of talent until it was frightened away by the increasing servility
of the age.
For dum, provided that, see 528.
CLAUSES WITH QulN AND QUOMINUS
557. The original meaning of quin is how not? why not? (qui-ne), and when
used with the Indicative or (rarely) with the Subjunctive it regularly implies a general
negative. Thus, quin ego hoc rogem? why shouldn't I ask this? implies that there is
no reason for not asking. The implied negative was then expressed in a main clause,
like nulla causa est or fieri non potest. Hence come the various dependent construc-
tions introduced by quin.
Quominus is really a phrase (quo minus), and the dependent constructions which it
introduces have their origin in the relative clause of purpose with quo and a com-
parative (see 531. a).
558. A subjunctive clause with quin is used after verbs and
other expressions of hindering, resisting, refusing, doubting, de-
laying, and the like, when these are negatived, either expressly or
by implication :
non huuiana ulla neque divina obstant quin socios amicOs trahant exscindant
(Sail. Ep. Mith. 17), no human or divine laws prevent them from taking
captive and exterminating their friendly allies.
ut n6 Suessiones quidem deterrere potuerint quin euro his consentlrent (B. G.
ii. 3), that they were unable to hinder even the Suessiones from making
common cause with them.
nOn posse milites contineri quin in urbem inrumperent (B. C. ii. 12), that the
soldiers could not be restrained from bursting into tJie city.
non recusat qum indices (Deiot. 43), he does not object to your judging.
neque recusare quin armls contendant (B. G. iv. 7), and that they did not
refuse to fight.
praeterire nSn potul quin scriberem ad te (Caesar ap. Cic. Alt. ix. 6 A), 1 could
not neglect to write to you.
360 SYNTAX: DEPENDENT CONSTRUCTIONS [658
Trgverl tOtius hiemis nullum tempus intermlserunt quin I6gat5s mitterent
(B. G. v. 55), the Treveri let no part of the winter pass without sending
ambassadors. [Cf. B. G. v. 53; B. C. i. 78.]
non cunctandum exlstimavit quin pugna decertaret (B. G. iii. 23), he thought
he ought not to delay risking a decisive battle.
paulum afuit quin Varum interficeret (B. C. ii. 35), he just missed killing
Varus (it lacked little but that he should kill),
neque multum afuit quin castris expellerentur (id. ii. 35), they came near being
driven out of the camp.
facere non possum quin cotidie ad te mittam (Att. xii. 27. 2), I cannot help
sending to you every day.
fieri null5 modo poterat quin CleomenI parceretur (Verr. v. 104), it was out
of the question that Cleomenes should not be spared.
ut effici n5n possit quin e5s oderim (Phil. xi. 36), so that nothing can prevent
my hating them.
a. Quin is especially common with n6n dubito, I do not doubt, nSn
est dubium, there is no doubt, and similar expressions :
non dubitabat quin ei crederemus (Att. vi. 2. 3), he did not doubt that we
believed him.
illud cave dubites quin ego omnia faciam (Fam. v. 20. 6), do not doubt that
I will do all.
quis ignOrat quin tria Graec5rum genera sint (Flacc. 64), who is ignorant
that there are three races of Greeks ?
n5n erat dubium quin Helveti! plurimum possent (cf. B. G. i. 3), there was no
doubt that the Helvetians were most powerful.
neque Caesarem fefellit quin ab iis cohortibus initium vict5riae oriretur (B. C.
iii. 94), and it did not escape Caesar's notice that the beginning of the vic-
tory came from those cohorts.
NOTE 1. Dubito without a negative is regularly followed by an Indirect Ques-
tion ; so sometimes non dubito and the like :
nOn nulli dubitant an per Sardinian! veniat (Fam. ix. 7), some doubt whether he
is coming through Sardinia.
dubitate, si potestis, a qu5 sit Sex. R6scius occisus (Rose. Am. 78), doubt, if you
can, by whom Sextus Roscius was murdered.
dubitabam tu has ipsas litteras essesne accepturus (Att. xv. 9), I doubt whether
you will receive this very letter. [Epistolary Imperfect ( 479).]
qualis sit futurus, ne vos quidem dubitatis (B. C. ii. 32), and what it (the outcome)
will be, you yourselves do not doubt.
n5n dubit5 quid sentiant (Fam. xv. 9), I do not doubt what they think.
dubium illi non erat quid futurum esset (id. viii. 8. 1), it was not doubtful to him
what was going to happen.
NOTE 2. Non dubito in the sense of I do not hesitate commonly takes the Infini-
tive, but sometimes quin with the Subjunctive :
nee dubitare ilium appellate sapientem (Lael. 1) , and not to hesitate to call him a sage.
dubitandum non exlstimavit quin proflcisceretur (B. G. ii. 2), he did not think he
ought to hesitate to set out.
quid dubitas uti temporis opportunitate (B. C. ii. 34), why do you hesitate to take
advantage of the favorable moment ? [A question implying a negative.]
558, 559] CLAUSES WITH QUIN AND QUOMINUS 361
b. Verbs of hindering and refusing often take the subjunctive with
ne or quominus (= ut e6 minus), especially when the verb is not nega-
tived :
plura ne dicam tuae m6 lacrimae impediunt (Plane. 104), your tears prevent
me from speaking further.
nee aetas impedit quominus agrl colendi studia teneamus (Cat. M. 60), nor
does age prevent us from retaining an interest in tilling the soil.
nihil impedit quominus id facere posslmus (Fin. i. 33), nothing hinders us
from being able to do that.
obstitistl ne transire copiae possent (Verr. v. 5), you opposed the passage of
the troops (opposed lest the troops should cross).
NOTE. Some verbs of hindering may take the Infinitive :
nihil obest dicere (Fam. ix. 13. 4), there is nothing to prevent my saying it.
prohibet accedere (Caec. 46), prevents him from approaching.
559. A clause of Result or Characteristic may be introduced by
quin after a general negative, where quin is equivalent to qui (quae,
quod) non:
1. Clauses of Result :
nemo est tarn fortis quin [= qui non] rel novitate perturbetur (B. G. vi. 39),
no one is so brave as not to be disturbed by the unexpected occurrence.
nemo erat adeo tardus qum putaret (B. C. i. 69), no one was so slothful as not
to think, etc.
quis est tarn demens quin sentiat (Balb. 43), who is so senseless as not to
think, etc.?
nil tain difficilest qum quaerendO investlgarl possiet (Ter. Haut. 676), noth-
ing 's so hard but search will find it out (Herrick).
2. Clauses of Characteristic :
n6mo nostrum est qum [ = qui non] sciat (Rose. Am. 55), there is no one of
us who does not know.
nem5 fuit uulitum quin vulneraretur (B. C. ill. 53), there was not one of the
soldiers who ioas not wounded.
ecquis fuit quin lacrimaret (Verr. v. 121), was there any one who did not shed
tears ?
quis est quin intellegat (Fin. v. 64), who is there who does not understand f
horum nihil est quin [ = quod non] intereat (N. D. ill. 30), there is none of
these (elements) ivhich does not perish.
nihil est illOrum quin [ = quod n5n] ego illi dixerim (PI. Bac. 1012), there is
nothing of this that I have not told him.
No'B*. $uim sometimes introduces a pure clause of result with the sense of ut non :
ae, numquam tarn male est Siculis quin aliquid facete et commode dicant (Verr. iv.
95), things are never so bad with the Sicilians but that they have something pleasant
or witty to say.
For quin in independent constructions, see 449. b.
362 SYNTAX : SUBSTANTIVE CLAUSES [ 660-563
SUBSTANTIVE CLAUSES
560. A clause which is used as a noun may he called a Substantive Clause, as
certain relative clauses are sometimes called adjective clauses. But in practice the
term is restricted to clauses which represent a nominative or an accusative case, the
clauses which stand for an ablative being sometimes called adverbial clauses.
Even with this limitation the term is not quite precise (see p. 367, footnote 1). The
fact is rather that the clause and the leading verb are mutually complementary ; each
reinforces the other. The simplest and probably the earliest form of such sentences
is to be found in the paratactic use (see 268) of two verbs like void abeas, dicamus
cSnseo, adeam optimum est. From such verbs the usage spread by analogy to other
verbs (see lists on pp. 363, 367, footnotes), and the complementary relation of the
clause to the verb came to resemble the complementary force of the accusative, espe-
cially the accusative of cognate meaning ( 390).
561. A clause used as a noun is called a Substantive Clause.
a. A Substantive Clause may be used as the Subject or Object of
a verb, as an Appositive, or as a Predicate Nominative or Accusative.
NOTE 1. Many ideas which in English take the form of an abstract noun may be
rendered by a substantive clause in Latin. Thus, he demanded an investigation may
be postulabat ut quaestio haberetur. The common English expression for with the
infinitive also corresponds to a Latin substantive clause: as, it remains for me to
.speo/fc of the piratic war, reliquum est ut de bello dicam piratico.
NOTE 2. When a Substantive Clause is used as subject, the verb to which it is
subject is called impersonal, and the sign of the construction in English is commonly
the so-called expletive IT.
562. Substantive Clauses are classified as follows :
1. Subjunctive Clauses ( a. Of purpose (command, wish, fear) ( 563, 564).
(ut, ne, utnon, etc.). { 6. Of result (happen, effect, etc.) (568).
2. Indicative Clauses with quod : Fact, Specification, Feeling ( 572).
3. Indirect Questions: Subjunctive, introduced by an Interrogative Word
( 573-676).
4. Infinitive Clauses ( * 71 th V f* S f ordering wishing, etc. ( 563).
\ 6. Indirect Discourse ( 579 ff.).
NOTE. The Infinitive with Subject Accusative is not strictly a clause, but in Latin
it has undergone so extensive a development that it may be so classed. The uses of
the Infinitive Clause are of two kinds : (1) in constructions in which it replaces a sub-
junctive clause with ut etc. ; (2) in the Indirect Discourse. The first class will be dis-
cussed in connection with the appropriate subjunctive constructions (563) ; for Indirect
Discourse, see 579 ff.
Substantive Clauses of Purpose
563. Substantive Clauses of Purpose with ut (negative n6) are
used as the object of verbs denoting an action directed toward the
future.
563] SUBSTANTIVE CLAUSES OF PURPOSE 363
Such are, verbs meaning to admonish, ask, bargain, command, de-
cree, determine, permit, persuade, resolve, urge, and ivish : 1
monet ut omnes suspiciones vitet (B. G. i. 20), he warns him to avoid all
suspicion.
hortatur eos ne animO deficiant (B. C. i. 19), he urges them not to lose heart.
te rogo atque oro ut eum iuves (Fam. xiii. 66), I beg and pray you to aid him.
his uti conquirerent imperavit (B. G. i. 28), he ordered them to search.
persuadet Castico ut rggnum occuparet (id. i. 3), he persuades Casticus to
usurp royal power.
suis imperavit ne quod omn!n5 telum reicerent (id. i. 46), he ordered his men
not to throw back any weapon at all.
NOTE. With any verb of these classes the poets may use the Infinitive instead of
an object clause :
hortamur fan (Aen. ii. 74), we urge [him] to speak.
ne quaere doceri (id. vi. 614), seek not to be told.
temptat praevertere (id. i. 721), she attempts to turn, etc.
For the Subjunctive without ut with verbs of commanding, see 565. a.
a. lubeo, order, and vetQ, forbid, take the Infinitive with Subject
Accusative :
Labienum iugum montis ascendere iubet (B. G. i. 21), he orders Labienus to
ascend the ridge of the hill.
llberos ad se adduci iussit (id. ii. 5), he ordered the children to be brought to him.
ab opere legates discedere vetuerat (id. ii. 20), he had forbidden the lieutenants
to leave the work.
vetugre [bona] reddl (Liv. ii. 6), they forbade the return of the goods (that the
goods be returned).
NOTE. Some other verbs of commanding etc. occasionally take the Infinitive:
pontem imperant fieri (B. C. i. 61), they order a bridge to be built.
res monet cavere (Sail. Cat. 52. 3), the occasion teams us to be on our guard.
b. Verbs of wishing take either the Infinitive or the Subj unctive.
With vo!5 (nolo, malo) and cupio the Infinitive is commoner, and
the subject of the infinitive is rarely expressed when it would be the
same as that of the main verb.
With other verbs of wishing the Subjunctive is commoner when
the subject changes, the Infinitive when it remains the same.
1. Subject of dependent verb same as that of the verb of wishing:
augur fieri volul (Fam. xv. 4. 13), I wished to be made augur.
cupio vigiliam meam tibi tradere (id. xi. 24), I am eager to hand over my watch
to you.
1 Such verbs or verbal phrases are id ag5, ad id veni5, caved (ne), cnsed, cdgd, con-
c$do, cdnstitud, euro, decernd, Sdicd, flagitd, hortor, imperS, Insto, mandS, metuo (n5),
moneo, neg5tium do, operam do, oro, persuaded, peto, postulo, praecipi5, precor, pronuntiS,
quaero, rogo, scisco, timed (n), vereor (n5), video, void.
364 SYNTAX : SUBSTANTIVE CLAUSES [ 563
ifldicera me esse, n5n doctOrem vol5 (Or. 117), I wish to be a judge, not a
teacher.
me Caesaris mllitem dici volui (B. C. ii. 32. 13), I wished to be called a soldier
of Ccesar.
cupio me esse clfimentem (Cat. i. 4), I desire to be merciful. [But regularly,
cupio esse Clemens (see 457).]
omnis homines, qui sese student praestare ceterls animalibus (Sail. Cat. 1),
all men who wish to excel other living creatures.
2. Subject of dependent verb different from that of the verb of wishing :
volO te scire (Fam. ix. 24. 1), I wish you to know.
vim volumus exstingui (Sest. 92), we wish violence to be put down.
te tua frui virtute cupimus (Brut. 331), we wish you to reap the fruits of your
virtue.
cupi6 ut impetret (PI. Capt. 102), I wish he may get it.
:numquam optabo ut audiatis (Cat. ii. 15), I will never desire that you shall
hear.
For volo and its compounds with the Subjunctive without ut, see 565.
c, Verbs of permitting take either the Subjunctive or the Infini-
tive. Patior takes regularly the Infinitive with Subject Accusative ;
so often sin6 :
permisit ut faceret (De Or. ii. 366), permitted him to make.
concedO tibi ut ea praetereas (Rose. Am. 54), I allow you to pass by these
matters.
tabernacula statui passus n5n est (B. C. i. 81), he did not allow tents to be
pitched.
vinum importari nou sinunt (B. G. iv. 2), they do not allow wine to be imported.
d. Verbs of determining, decreeing, resolving, bargaining, take
either the Subjunctive or the Infinitive:
c5nstituerant ut L. Bestia quereretur (Sail. Cat. 43), they had determined that
Lucius Bestia should complain.
proelio supersedere statuit (B. G. ii. 8), he determined to refuse battle.
d6 bonis regis quae reddi censuerant (Liv. ii. 5), about the king's goods, which
they had decreed should be restored.
dgcernit uti consules dilectum habeant (Sail. Cat. 34), decrees that the consuls
shall hold a levy.
edictO ne quis iniussu pugnaret (Liv. v. 19), having commanded that none
should fight without orders.
NOTE 1. Different verbs of these classes with the same meaning vary in their
construction (see the Lexicon). For verbs of bargaining etc. with the Gerundive, see
500.4.
NOTE 2. Verbs of decreeing and voting often take the Infinitive of the Second
Periphrastic conjugation: Regulus captivos reddendos [esse] non censuit (Off. i. 39),
Regulus voted that the captives should not be returned. [He said, in giving his formal
opinion : captivl n5n reddend! sunt ]
563-666] SUBSTANTIVE CLAUSES OF PURPOSE 365
e. Verbs of caution and effort take the Subjunctive with ut. But
conor, try, commonly takes the Complementary Infinitive :
cura ut quani prlinum intellegam (Fam. xiii. 10. 4), let me know as soon as pos-
sible (take care that I may understand),
dant operam ut habeant (Sail. Cat. 41), they take pains to have (give their
attention that, etc.).
impellere uti Caesar ndminaretur (id. 49), to induce them to name Ccesar (that
Caesar should be named),
conatus est Caesar reficere pontls (B. C. i. 50), Ccesar tried to rebuild the bridges.
NOTE 1. Conor si also occurs (as B. G. i. 8) ; cf. miror si etc., 572. b. N.
NOTE 2. Dt ne occurs occasionally with verbs of caution and effort (cf. 531):
cura et provide ut nequid el desit (Att. xi. 3. 3), take care and see that he lacks nothing.
For the Subjunctive with quin and quominus with verbs of hindering etc., see 558.
564. Verbs of fearing take the Subjunctive, with n5 affirma-
tive and ne non or ut negative.
In this use ne is commonly to be translated by that, ut and n5 n5n
by that not :
timeo ne Verres fecerit (Verr. v. 3), I fear that Verres has done, etc.
ne anirnum offenderet verebatur (B. G. i. 19), he feared that he should hurt
the feelings, etc.
ne exheredaretur veritus est (Rose. Am. 58), he feared that he should be dis-
inherited.
Orator metuS ne languescat senectute (Cat. M. 28), I fear the orator grows
feeble from old age.
vereor ut tibi possim concedere (De Or. i. 35), I fear that I cannot grant you.
haud sane perlculum est ne non mortem optandam putet (Tusc. v. 118), tJtere
is no danger that he will not think death desirable.
NOTE. The subjunctive in ne-clauses after a verb of fearing is optative in origin.
To an independent ne-sentence, as ne accidat, may it not happen, a verb may be prefixed
(cf . 560), making a complex sentence. Thus, vide ne accidat ; 5ro ne accidat ; cavet ne
accidat ; when the prefixed verb is one of fearing, time5 ne accidat becomes let it not hap-
pen, but I fear that it may. The origin of the ut-clause is similar.
565. Volo and its compounds, the impersonals licet and oportet,
and the imperatives die and fac often take the Subjunctive with-
out ut :
volO ames (Att. ii. 10), I wish you to love.
quaia vellem me invitasses (Fam. x. 28. 1), how I wish you had invited me!
mallem Cerberum metaeres (Tusc. i. 12), I had rather you feared Cerberus.
sint enim oportet (id. i. 12), for they must exist.
queramur licet (Caec. 41), we are allowed to complain.
fac dlligas (Att. iii. 13. 2), do love ! [A periphrasis for the imperative dilige,
love (cf. 449. c).]
.die exeat, tell him to go out.
366 SYNTAX : SUBSTANTIVE CLAUSES [ 565, 566
NOTE 1. In such cases there is no ellipsis of ut. The expressions are idiomatic
remnants of an older construction in which the subjunctives were hortatory or optative
and thus really independent of the verb of wishing etc. In the classical period, how-
ever, they were doubtless felt as subordinate. Compare the use of cave and the sub-
junctive (without ne) in Prohibitions ( 450), which appears to follow the analogy of fac.
NOTE 2. Licet may take (1) the Subjunctive, usually without ut; (2) the simple
Infinitive; (3) the Infinitive with Subject Accusative; (4; the Dative and the Infini-
tive (see 455. 1). Thus, I may go is licet earn, licet Ire, licet me Ire, or licet mihi Ire.
For licet in concessive clauses, see 527. 6.
NOTE 3. Oportet may take (1) the Subjunctive without ut; (2) the simple Infini-
tive ; (3) the Infinitive with Subject Accusative. Thus / must go is oportet earn, oportet
Ire, or oportet me Ire.
a. Verbs of commanding and the like often take the subjunctive
without ut :
huic mandat Remos adeat (B. G. iii. 11), he orders him to visit the Remi.
rogat flnem faciat (id. i. 20), he asks him to cease.
Mnesthea vocat, classem aptent socil (Aen. iv. 289), he calls Mnestheus [and
orders that] his comrades shall make ready the fleet.
NOTE. The subjunctive in this construction is the hortatory subjunctive used to
express a command in Indirect Discourse ( 588) .
Substantive Clauses of Purpose with Passive Verbs
566. A Substantive Clause used as the object of a verb becomes
the subject when the verb is put in the passive (Impersonal Con-
struction] :
Caesar ut cognosceret postulatum est (B. C. i. 87), Ccesar was requested to
make an investigation (it was requested that Caesar should make an
investigation).
si erat Heracli5 ab senatu mandatum ut emeret (Verr. iii. 88), if Heraclius
had been instructed by the senate to buy.
si persuasum erat Cluvio ut mentiretur (Rose. Corn. 51), if Cluvius had been
persuaded to lie.
put5 concedi nobis oportere ut Graeco verbo utamur (Fin. iii. 15), I think
we must be allowed to use a Greek word.
ne quid els noceatur a Caesare cavetur (B. C. i. 86), Caesar takes care that no
harm shall be done them (care is taken by Caesar lest, etc.).
a. With verbs of admonishing, the personal object becomes the
subject and the object clause is retained :
admoniti sumus ut caveremus (Att. viii. 11 D. 3), we were warned to be careful.
cum moneretur ut cautior esset (Div. i. 51), when he was advised to be more
cautious.
monfirl visas est ne id faceret (id. 56), he seemed to be warned not to do it.
566-668] SUBSTANTIVE CLAUSES OF RESULT 367
b. Some verbs that take an infinitive instead of a subjunctive
are used impersonally in the passive, and the infinitive becomes the
subject of the sentence :
loqui non conceditur (B. G. vi. 20), it is not allowed to speak.
c. With iubeo", veto, and c6go, the subject accusative of the infinitive
becomes the subject nominative of the main verb, and the infinitive is
retained as complementary (Personal Construction) :
adesse iubentur postrldie (Verr. ii. 41), they are ordered to be present on the
following day.
ire in exsilium iussus est (Cat. ii. 12), he was ordered to go into exile.
SimSnides vetitus est navigate (Div. ii. 134), Simonides was forbidden to sail.
Mandubil exire coguntur (B. G. vii. 78), the Mandubii are compelled to go out.
Substantive Clauses of Result (Consecutive Clauses)
567. Clauses of Result may be used substantively, (1) as the object of facio etc.
( 568); (2) as the subject of these same verbs in the passive, as well as of other verbs
and verbal phrases' ( 669) ; (3) in apposition with another substantive, or as predicate
nominative etc. (see 570, 571) - 1
568. Substantive Clauses of Result with ut (negative ut n5n)
are used as the object of verbs denoting the accomplishment of
an effort. 2
Such are especially facio and its compounds (efficio, cQnfici5, etc.) :
efficiam ut intellegatis (Clu. 7), I will make you understand (lit. effect that
you, etc.). [So, faciam ut intellegatis (id. 9).]
commeatus ut portarl possent efficiebat (B. G. ii. 5), made it possible that
supplies could be brought.
perfecl ut e regno ille discederet (Fam. xv. 4. 6), I brought about his departure
from the kingdom.
quae libertas ut laetior esset regis superbia fecerat (Liv. ii. 1), the arrogance
of the king had made this liberty more welcome.
gvincunt Tnstand5 ut litterae darentur (id. ii. 4), by insisting they gain their
point, that letters should be sent. [Here evincunt = efficiunt.]
1 In all these cases the clause is not strictly subject or object. The main verb orig-
inally conveyed a meaning sufficient in itself, and the result clause was merely com-
plementary. This is seen by the frequent use of ita and the like with the main verb
(ita accidit ut, etc.) . In like manner purpose clauses are only apparently subject or
object of the verb with which they are connected.
2 Verbs and phrases taking an ut-clause of result as subject or object are accgdit,
accidit, additur, altera est res, committo, consequor, contingit, efficio, gvenit, facio, fit, fieri
potest, fore, impetrd, integrum est, mos est, munus est, necesse est, prope est, rectum est.
relinquitur, reliquum est, restat, tanti est, tantum abest, and a few others
368 SYNTAX : SUBSTANTIVE CLAUSES [ 568-571
NOTE 1. The expressions facere ut, committere ut, with the subjunctive, often form
a periphrasis for the simple verb : as, invitus feci ut Flaminiuim e seuatu eicerem
'Cat. M. 42), it was with reluctance that I expelled Flaminius from the senate.
569. Substantive Clauses of Result are used as the subject of
the following :
1. Of passive verbs denoting the accomplishment of an effort :
impetratum est ut in senatu recitarentur (litterae) (B. C. i. 1), they succeeded
in having the letter read in the senate (it was brought about that, etc.).
ita efficitur ut omne corpus mortale sit (N. D. iii. 30), it therefore is made
out that every body is mortal.
2. Of Impersonals meaning it happens, it remains, it follows, it is
necessary, it is added, and the like ( 568, footnote) :
accidit ut esset luna plena (B. G. iv. 29), it happened to be full moon (it hap-
pened that it was, etc.). [Here ut esset is subject of accidit.]
reliquum est ut officils certemus inter nos (Fain. vii. 31), it remains for us to
vie with each other in courtesies.
restat ut hoc dubitemus (Rose. Am. 88), it is left for us 16 doubt this.
sequitur ut doceam (N. D. ii. 81), the next thing is to show (it follows, etc.).
NOTE 1. The infinitive sometimes occurs: as, nee enim acciderat mini opus
esse (Fam. vi. 11. T),for it had not happened to be necessary to me.
NOTE 2. Necesse est often takes the subjunctive without ut : as, concSdas necesse
est (Rose. Am. 87), you must grant.
3. Of est in the sense of it is the fact that, etc. (mostly poetic):
est ut vir5 vir lathis ordinet arbusta (Hor. Od. iii. 1. 9), it is the fact that one
man plants his vineyards in wider rows than another.
a. Fore (or futurum esse) ut with a clause of result as subject is
often used instead of the Future Infinitive active or passive; so
necessarily in verbs which have no supine stem :
sperC fore ut contingat id n5bls (Tusc. i. 82), I hope that will be our happy lot,
cum viderem fore ut non possem (Cat. ii. 4), when I saw that I should not be able
570. A substantive clause of result may be in apposition with
another substantive (especially a neuter pronoun) :
illud etiam restiterat, ut te in ius educerent (Quinct. 33), this too remained
for them to drag you into court.
571. A substantive clause of result may serve as predicate
nominative after mos est and similar expressions :
est mos hominum, ut nolint eundem pluribus rebus excellere (Brut. 84), it is
the way of men to be unwilling for one man to excel in several things.
571, 572] INDICATIVE WITH QUOD 369
. A result clause, with or without ut, frequently follows quam
after a comparative (but see 583. c) :
Canachi slgna rigidiora sunt quam ut imitentur v6ritatem (Brut. 70), the statues
of Canachus are too stiff to represent nature (stiff er than that they should) .
perpessus est omnia potius quam indicaret (Tusc. ii. 62), he endured all rather
than betray, etc. [Regularly without ut except in Livy.]
5. The phrase tantum abest, it is so far [from being the case],
regularly takes two clauses of result with ut: one is substantive, the
subject of abest ; the other is adverbial, correlative with tantum:
tantum abest ut nostra mlremur, ut usque e5 difficilgs ac m5r<5s! simus, ut
n5bls n5n satis faciat ipse D6mosthenes (Or. 104), so far from admiring
my own works, I am difficult and captious to that degree that not Demos-
thenes himself satisfies me. [Here the first ut-clause is the subject of
abest ( 569. 2); the second, a result clause after tantum ( 637); and
the third, after usque eo.]
c. Rarely, a thought or an Idea is considered as a result, and is
expressed by the subjunctive with ut instead of the accusative and
infinitive ( 580). In this case a demonstrative usually precedes :
praeelarum illud est, ut e5s . . . amemus (Tusc. iii. 73), this is a noble thing,
that we should love, etc.
vfirl simile n5n est ut ille anteponeret (Verr. iv. 11), it is not likely that he
preferred.
For Relative Clauses with qum after verbs of hindering etc., see 558.
Indicative with Quod
572. A peculiar form of Substantive Clause consists of quod
(in the sense of that, the fact that) with the Indicative.
The clause in the Indicative with quod is used when the state-
ment is regarded as a fact:
alterum est vitium, quod quidam nimis magnum studium conferunt (Off. i. 19),
it is another fault that some bestow too much zeal, etc. [Here ut conferant
could be used, meaning that some should bestow ; or the accusative and
infinitive, meaning to bestow (abstractly); quod makes it a fact that men
do bestow, etc.]
inter inanimum et animal h5c maxime interest, quod animal agit aliquid
(Acad. ii. 37), this is the chief difference between an inanimate object and
an animal, that an animal aims at something.
quod rediit nObls mirabile videtur (Off. iii. Ill), that he (Regulus) returned
seems wonderful to us.
accidit perincommode quod eum nusquam vidisti (Att. i. 17. 2), it happened
very unluckily that you nowhere saw him.
370 SYNTAX : SUBSTANTIVE CLAUSES [ 672, 673
opportunissima re's accidit quod GermanI venerunt (B. G. iv. 13), a very for-
tunate thing happened, (namely) that the Germans came.
praetereO quod earn sibi domum sedemque delegit (Clu. 188), I pass over the
fact that she chose that house and home for herself.
mittO quod possessa per vim (Flacc. 79), I disregard the fact that they were
seized by violence.
NOTE. Like other substantive clauses, the clause with quod may be used as sub-
ject, as object, as appositive, etc., but it is commonly either the subject or in apposi-
tion with the subject.
a. A substantive clause with quod sometimes appears as an accu-
sative of specification, corresponding to the English whereas or as
to the fact that :
quod mihi de nostrO statu gratularis, minimg mlramur te" tuis praeclaris operi-
bus laetari (Fam. i. 7. 7), as to your congratulating me on our condition,
we are not at all surprised that you are pleased with your own noble works.
quod de dom5 scribis, ego, etc. (Fara. xiv. 2. 3), as to what you write of the
house, I, etc.
&. Verbs of feeling and the expression of feeling take either quod
(quia) or the accusative and infinitive (Indirect Discourse) :
quod scribis . . . gaude5 (Q. Fr. iii. 1. 9), I am glad that you write.
faciO libenter quod earn non possum praeterire (Legg. i. 63), I am glad that I
cannot pass it by.
quae perfecta esse vehementer laetor (Rose. Am. 136), I greatly rejoice that
this is finished.
qul quia n5n habuit a m6 turmas equitum fortasse suscenset (Att. vi. 3. 6), who
perhaps feels angry that he did not receive squadrons of cavalry from me.
moleste" tull te senatu! gratias non egisse (Fam. x. 27. 1), I was displeased
that you did not return thanks to the senate.
NOTE. Miror and similar expressions are sometimes followed by a clause with si.i
This is apparently substantive, but really protasis (cf. 563. e. N. 1 ). Thus, miror
si quemquam amicum habere potuit (Lael.54), I wonder if he could ever have a friend.
[Originally, If this is so, I wonder at it.}
Indirect Questions
573. An Indirect Question is any sentence or clause which is
introduced by an interrogative word (pronoun, adverb, etc.), and
which is itself the subject or object of a verb, or depends on any
expression implying uncertainty or doubt.
In grammatical form, exclamatory sentences are not distin-
guished from interrogative (see the third example below).
* Cf. the Greek 0ai//*cif e/.
574, 576] INDIRECT QUESTIONS 371
574. An Indirect Question takes its verb in the Subjunctive :
quid ipse sentiam expOnam (Div. i. 10), I will explain what I think. [Direct:
quid sentid ?]
id possetne fieri consuluit (id. i. 32), he consulted whether it could be done.
[Direct: potestne?]
quam sis audax oinn6s intellegere potuerunt (Rose. Am. 87), all could under-
stand how bold you are. [Direct : quam es audax !]
doleam necne doleam nihil interest (Tusc. ii. 29), it is of no account whether I
suffer or not. [Double question.]
quaesivi a Catilina in couventu apud M. Laecam fuisset necne (Cat. ii. 13), /
asked Catiline whether he had been at the meeting at Marcus Loeca's or
not. [Double question.]
rogat m6 quid sentiam, he asks me what I think. [Cf. rogat me sententiam, he
asks me my opinion.]
hoc dubium est, uter nostrum sit inverficundior (Acad. ii. 126), this is doubt-
ful, which of us two is the less modest.
incerti quatenus Volero exerceret victoriam (Liv. ii. 55), uncertain how far
Volero would push victory. [As if dubitantes quatenus, etc.]
NOTE. An Indirect Question may be the subject of a verb (as in the fourth exam-
ple), the direct object (as in the first), the secondary object (as in the sixth), an apposi-
tive (as in the seventh) .
575. The Sequence of Tenses in Indirect Question is illus-
trated by the following examples :
dico quid faciam, I tell you what I am doing.
oico quid facturus sim, I tell you what I will (shall) do.
died quid fecerim, I tell you what I did (have done, was doing).
dixi quid facerem, I told you what I was doing.
dlxi quid fecissem, I told you what I had done (had been doing).
dixi quid facturus essem, I told you what I would (should) do (was going to do).
dixi quid facturus fuissem, I told you what I would (should) have done.
a. Indirect Questions referring to future time take the subjunc-
tive of the First Periphrastic Conjugation :
prOspici5 qui concursus futuri sint (Caecil. 42), I foresee what throngs there
will be. [Direct : qui erunt ?]
quid sit futurum eras, fuge quaerere (Hor. Od. i. 9. IS), forbear to ask what will
be on the morrow. [Direct : quid erit or futurum est?]
posthac n5n scrlbam ad t6 quid facturus sim, sed quid fecerim (Att. x. 18),
hereafter I shall not write to you what I am going to do, but what I have
done. [Direct : quid fades (or facturus eris) ? quid fecisti ?]
NOTE. This Periphrastic Future avoids the ambiguity which would be caused by
using the Present Subjunctive to refer to future time in such clauses.
&. The Deliberative Subjunctive ( 444) remains unchanged in an
Indirect Question, except sometimes in tense :
372 SYNTAX: SUBSTANTIVE CLAUSES [575,576
qu6 in6 vertam nesciS (Clu. 4), I do not know which way to turn. [Direct:
quo me vertam ?]
neque satis cOnstabat quid agerent (B. G. iii. 14), and it was not very clear what
they were to do. [Direct : quid agamus ?]
nee quisquain satis certum habet, quid aut speret aut timeat (Liv. xxii. 7. 10),
nor is any one well assured what he shall hope or fear. [Here the future
participle with sit could not be used.]
incert5 quid peterent aut vitarent (id. xxviii. 36. 12), since it was doubtful
(ablative absolute) what they should seek or shun.
c. Indirect Questions often take the Indicative in early Latin and
in poetry :
vlneam quo in agrO cOnserl oportet sic observat5 (Cato R. R. 6. 4), in what
soil a vineyard should be set you must observe thus.
d. NesciS quis, when used in an indefinite sense (somebody or other),
is not followed by the Subjunctive.
So also nesciS qu5 (unde, etc.), and the following idiomatic phrases
which are practically adverbs :
mirum (nlmlrum) quam, marvellously (marvellous how),
mlrum quantum, tremendously (marvellous how much),
iinmane quantum, monstrously (monstrous how much),
sane quam, immensely.
valde quam, enormously.
Examples are :
qui istam nescio quam indolentiam magnopere laudant (Tusc. iii. 12), who
greatly extol that freedom from pain, whatever it is.
mirum quantum pr5fuit (Liv. ii. 1), it helped prodigiously.
ita fato nescio quo contigisse arbitror (Fam. xv. 13), I think it happened so
by some fatality or other.
nam su5s valde quam paucos habet (id. xi. 13 A. 3), for he has uncommonly
few of his own.
sane quam sum gavlsus (id. xi. 18 A. 4), I was immensely glad.
immane quantum discrepat (Hor. Od. i. 27. 5), is monstrously at variance.
576. In colloquial usage and in poetry the subject of an In-
direct Question is often attracted into the main clause as object
(Accusative of Anticipation) :
n5sti Marcellum quam tardus sit (Fam. viii. 10. 3), you know how slow Mar-
cellus is. [For nosti quam tardus sit Marcellus. Cf. "I know thee who
thouart."]
Cf. potestne igitur earum rerum, qua r6 futurae sint, Qlla esse praesgnsiO (Div.
ii. 15), can there be, then, any foreknowledge as to those things, why they
will occur? [A similar use of the Objective Genitive.]
576, 577] INDIRECT DISCOURSE 373
NOTE. In some cases the Object of Anticipation becomes the Subject by a change
of voice, and an apparent mixture of relative and interrogative constructions is the
result :
quidam saepe in parva pecunia perspiciuntur quam sint leves (Lael. 63), it is often
seen, in a trifling matter of money, how unprincipled some people are (some
people are often seen through, how unprincipled they are).
quern ad modum Pompeium oppugnarent a me indicati sunt (Leg. Agr. i. 5), it has
been shown by me in what way they attacked Pompey (they have been shown
by me, how they attacked) .
a. An indirect question is occasionally introduced by si in the
sense of whether (like if in English, cf. 572. b, N.):
circumfunduntur hostes si quern aditum reperlre possent (B. G. vi. 37), the
enemy pour round [to see] if they can find entrance.
vlsam si doml est (Ter. Haul. 170), I will go see if he is at home.
NOTE. This is strictly a Protasis, but usually no Apodosis is thought of, and the
clause is virtually an Indirect Question.
For the Potential Subjunctive with forsitan (originally an Indirect Question), see
447. a.
INDIRECT DISCOURSE
577. The use of the Accusative and Infinitive in Indirect Discourse (ordtio obliqua)
is a comparatively late form of speech, developed in the Latin and Greek only, and
perhaps separately in each of them. It is wholly wanting in Sanskrit, but some forms
like it have grown up in English and German.
The essential character of Indirect Discourse is, that the language of some other
person than the writer or speaker is compressed into a kind of Substantive Clause, the
verb of the main clause becoming Infinitive, while modifying clauses, as well as all
hortatory forms of speech, take the Subjunctive. The person of the verb necessarily
conforms to the new relation of persons.
The construction of Indirect Discourse, however, is not limited to reports of the
language of some person other than the speaker; it may be used to express what any
one whether the speaker or some one else says, thinks, or perceives, whenever that
which is said, thought, or perceived is capable of being expressed in the form of a com-
plete sentence. For anything that can be said etc. can also be reported indirectly as
well as directly.
The use of the Infinitive in the main clause undoubtedly comes from its use as a
case-form to complete or modify the action expressed by the verb of saying and its
object together. This object in time came to be regarded as, and in fact to all intents
became, the subject of the infinitive. A transition state is found in Sanskrit, which,
though it has no indirect discourse proper, yet allows an indirect predication after verbs
of saying and the like by means of a predicative apposition, in such expressions as
" The maids told the king [that] his daughter [was] bereft of her senses."
The simple form of indirect statement with the accusative and infinitive was after-
wards amplified by introducing dependent or modifying clauses ; and in Latin it became
a common construction, and could be used to report whole speeches etc., which in other
la-nguages would have the direct form. (Compare the style of reporting speeches in
English, where only the person and tense are changed.)
The Subjunctive in the subordinate clauses of Indirect Discourse has no significance
except to make more distinct the fact that these clauses are subordinate ; consequently
no direct connection has been traced between them and the uses of the mood in simple
374 SYNTAX : SUBSTANTIVE CLAUSES [ 577-580
sentences. It is probable that the subjunctive in indirect questions ( 574), in informal
indirect discourse (592), and in clauses of the integral part (593) represents the
earliest steps of a movement by which the subjunctive became in some degree a mood
of subordination.
The Subjunctive standing for hortatory forms of speech in Indirect Discourse is
simply the usual hortatory subjunctive, with only a change of person and tense (if
necessary), as in the reporter's style.
578. A Direct Quotation gives the exact words of the original
speaker or writer (Ordtio Recta}.
An Indirect Quotation adapts the words of the speaker or
writer to the construction of the sentence in which they are
quoted (Ordtio Obllqua).
NOTE. The term Indirect Discourse (oratio obliqud) is used in two senses. In
the wider sense it includes all clauses of whatever kind which express the words
or thought of any person indirectly, that is, in a form different from that in which the
person said the words or conceived the thought. In the narrower sense the term Indi-
rect Discourse is restricted to those cases in which some complete proposition is cited
in the form of an Indirect Quotation, which may be extended to a narrative or an
address of any length, as in the speeches reported by Caesar and Livy. In this book
the term is used hi the restricted sense.
FORMAL INDIRECT DISCOURSE
579. Verbs and other expressions of knowing, thinking, telling,
and perceiving^- govern the Indirect Discourse.
NOTE. Inquam, said I (etc.) takes the Direct Discourse except in poetry.
Declaratory Sentences in Indirect Discourse
580. In Indirect Discourse the main clause of a Declaratory
Sentence is put in the Infinitive with Subject Accusative. All
subordinate clauses take the Subjunctive :
sciO me paene incrgdibilem rem polliceri (B. C. iii. 86), I know that I am
promising an almost incredible thing. [Direct : polliceor. ]
nOn arbitror te ita sentire (Fam. x. 26. 2), I do not suppose that you feel
thus. [Direct: sentis.]
sp6r5 me Hberatum [esse] de metti (Tusc. ii. 67), I trust I have been freed
from fear. [Direct : liberatus sum. ]
1 Such are : (1) knowing, sci5, cogn5sco, compertum habe5, etc. ; (2) thinking, puto,
existimo, arbitror, etc. ; (3) telling, dico, nuntio, refero, polliceor, promittS, certiorem facio,
etc. ; (4) perceiving, sentiS, comperio, video, audio, etc. So in general any word that
denotes thought or mental and visual perception or their expression may govern the
Indirect Discourse.
680] INDIRECT DISCOUKSE 375
[dlcit] esse non nullos quorum auctCritas plurimum valeat (B. G. i. 17), he
says there are some, whose influence most prevails. [Direct : sunt non
null! . . . valet.]
nisi iurasset, scelus se facturum [esse] arbitrabatur (Verr. ii. 1. 123), he
thought he should incur guilt, unless he should take the oath. [Direct :
nisi iuravero, faciam.]
a. The verb of saying etc. is often not expressed, but implied in
some word or in the general drift of the sentence :
cOnsulis alterms n5men invlsum civitati fuit : nimium Tarquinios rggnO
adsuesse ; initium a Prlsco factum ; regnasse dein Ser. Tullium, etc.
(Liv. ii. 2), the name of the other consul was hateful to the state; the Tar-
quins (they thought) had become too much accustomed to royal power, etc.
[Here invisum implies a thought, and this thought is added in the
form of Indirect Discourse.]
orant6s ut urbibus saltern iam enim agros deplorat5s esse opem senatus
ferret (id. xli. 6), praying that the senate would at least bring aid to the
cities for the fields [they said] were already given up as lost.
b. The verb negfl, deny, is commonly used in preference to dlcS with
a negative :
[StOicl] negant quidquam [esse] bonum nisi quod honestum sit (Fin. ii. 68),
the Stoics assert that nothing is good but what is right.
c. Verbs of promising, hoping, expecting, threatening, swearing,
and the like, regularly take the construction of Indirect Discourse,
contrary to the English idiom :
minatur sese abire (PI. Asin. 604), he threatens to go away. [Direct: abeo,
I am going away.]
spgrantse maximum fructum esse captures (Lael. 79), they hope to gain the
utmost advantage. [Direct: capiemus.]
spgrat se absolutum iri (Sull. 21), he hopes that he shall be acquitted. [Direct :
absolvar. ]
quern inimicissimum futurum esse promitt5 ac sponde5 (Mur. 90), who I
promise and warrant will be the bitterest of enemies. [Direct: erit.]
dolor fortitudinem se debilitaturum minatur (Tusc. v. 76), pain threatens to
wear down fortitude. [Direct: debilitabo.]
cOnfidQ me quod velim facile a te impetraturum (Fam. xi. 16. 1), I trust 1
shall easily obtain from you what I wish. [Direct : quod volo, impe-
trabo.]
NOTE. These verbs, however, often take a simple Complementary Infinitive ( 456)
So regularly in early Latin (except spero) : *
pollicentur obsides dare (B. G. iv. 21), they promise to give hostages.
promisl dolium vini dare (PI. Cist. 542), I promised to give ajar of wine.
1 Compare the Greek aorist infinitive after similar verbs.
376 SYNTAX: SUBSTANTIVE CLAUSES [580,581
el. Some verbs and expressions may be used either as verbs of
saying, or as verbs of commanding, effecting, and the like. These
take as their object either an Infinitive with subject accusative or a
Substantive clause of Purpose or Result, according to the sense.
1 . Infinitive with Subject Accusative (Indirect Discourse) :
laudem sapientiae statuo esse inaximam (Fam. v. 18), I hold that the glory of
wisdom is the greatest. [Indirect Discourse.]
r6s ipsa monebat tempos esse (Att. x. 8. 1), the thing itself warned that it
was time, [Cf. monere ut, warn to do something.]
fac mihi esse persuasum (N. D. i. 75), suppose that I am persuaded of that.
[Cf. facere ut, bring it about that.]
h5c volunt persuadere, non interire animas (B. G. vi. 14), they wish to con-
vince that souls do not perish.
2. Subjunctive (Substantive Clause of Purpose or Result) :
statuunt ut decem mllia hominum mittantur (B. G. vii. 21), they resolve tfcat
10,000 men shall be sent. [Purpose clause (cf. 563).]
huic persuadet uti ad hostis transeat (id. iii. 18), he persuades him to pass
over to the enemy.
Pompeius suls praedlxerat ut Caesaris impetum exciperent (B. C. iii. 92),
Pompey had instructed his men beforehand to await Ccesar's attack.
deimnti&vit ut essent anim5 paratl (id. iii. 86), he bade them be alert and
steadfast (ready in spirit).
NOTE. The infinitive with subject accusative in this construction is Indirect Dis-
course, and is to be distinguished from the simple infinitive sometimes found with these
verbs instead of a subjunctive clause ( 563. d).
581. The Subject Accusative of the Infinitive is regularly ex-
pressed in Indirect Discourse, even if it is wanting in the direct :
orator sum, I am an orator ; dicit se esse CratOrem, he says he is an orator.
NOTE 1. But the subject is often omitted if easily understood:
IgnSscere imprudentiae dixit (B. G. iv. 27), he said he pardoned their rashness.
eadem ab aliis quaerit: reperit esse vera (id. i. 18), he inquires about these same
things from others; he finds that they are true.
NOTE 2. After a relative, or quam (than) , if the verb would be the same as that of
the main clause, it is usually omitted, and its subject is attracted into the accusative :
te suspicor eisdem rebus quibus me ipsum commoveii (Cat. M. 1), I suspect that
you are disturbed by the same things as I.
cdnfidS tamen haec quoque tibi non minus grata quam ipsos libros futura (Plin.
Ep. iii. 5. 20), / trust that these facts too will be no less pleasing to you than
the books themselves.
NOTE 3. In poetry, by a Greek idiom, a Predicate Noun or Adjective in the indi-
rect discourse sometimes agrees with the subject of the main verb :
vir bonus et sapiens ait esse paratus (Hor. Ep. i. 7. 22), a good and wise man says
he is prepared, etc. [In prose : ait se esse paratum.]
sensit mediSs delSpsus in hostis (Aen. ii. 377), he found himself fallen among th*
foe. [In prose: se esse delipsum.]
582, 583] INDIRECT DISCOURSE 377
582. When the verb of saying etc. is passive, the construction
may be either Personal or Impersonal. But the Personal con-
struction is more common and is regularly used in the tenses of
incomplete action :
beate vixisse videor (Lael. 15), I seem to have lived happily.
Epammondas fidibus praeclare cecinisse dlcitur (Tusc. i. 4), Epaminondas is
said to have played excellently on the lyre.
multl idem facturl esse dlcuntur (Fam. xvi. 12. 4), many are said to be about
to do the same thing. [Active : dicunt multds facturos (esse).]
priml traduntur arte quadain verba vinxisse (Or. 40), they first are related to
have joined words with a certain skill.
Bibulus audiebatur esse in Syria (Att. v. 18), it was heard that Bibulus was in
Syria (Bibulus was heard, etc.). [Direct: Bibulus est.]
ceterae IllyricI legiones secuturae sperabantur (Tac. H. ii. 74), the rest of the
legions of Illyricum were expected to follow.
videmur enim quieturl fuisse, nisi essemus lacesslti (De Or. ii. 230), it, seems
that we should have kept quiet, if we had not been molested (we seem, etc.).
[Direct : quiessemus . . . nisi essemus lacesslti. ]
NOTE. The poets and later writers extend the personal use of the passive to verbs
which are not properly verba sentiendi etc. : as, colligor dominae placuisse (Ov. Am.
ii. 6. 61), it is gathered [from this memorial] that I pleased my mistress.
a. In the compound tenses of verbs of saying etc., the impersonal
construction is more common, and with the gerundive is regular :
traditum est etiam Hotnerum caecum fuisse (Tusc. v. 114), it is a tradition,
too, that Homer was blind.
ubi tyrannus est, ibi n5n vitiosam, sed dicendum est plane nullam esse rem
piiblicam (Rep. iii. 43), where there is a tyrant, it must be said, not that
the commonwealth is evil, but that it does not exist at all.
NOTE. An indirect narrative begun in the personal construction may be continued
with the Infinitive and Accusative (as De Or. ii. 299; Liv. v. 41. 9).
Subordinate Clauses in Indirect Discourse
583. A Subordinate Clause merely explanatory, or containing
statements which are regarded as true independently of the quo-
tation, takes the Indicative :
quis neget haec omnia quae videmus deOrum potestate administrarl (Cat. iii.
21), who can deny that all these things we see are ruled by the power of
the gods ?
cuius ingenio putabat ea quae gesserat posse celebrarl (Arch. 20), by whose
genius he thought that those deeds which he had done could be celebrated.
[Here the fact expressed by quae gesserat, though not explanatory, is
felt to be true without regard to the quotation : quae gessisset would
mean, what Marius claimed to have done.]
378 SYNTAX: SUBSTANTIVE CLAUSES [583,584
NOTE. Such a clause in the indicative is not regarded as a part of the Indirect
Discourse ; but it often depends merely upon the feeling of the writer whether he shall
use the Indicative or the Subjunctive (cf. 591-593).
a. A subordinate clause in Indirect Discourse occasionally takes
the Indicative when the fact is emphasized :
factum eius hostis perlculum . . . cum, Ciinbris et Teutonls . . . pulsls, n6n
minorem laudem exercitus quam ipse imperator meritus videbatur (B. G.
i. 40), that a trial of this enemy had been made when, on the defeat of the
Cimbri and Teutoni, the army seemed to have deserved no less credit than
the commander himself.
b. Clauses introduced by a relative which is equivalent to a
demonstrative with a conjunction are not properly subordinate, and
hence take the Accusative and Infinitive in Indirect Discourse (see
308./):-
Marcellus requislsse dicitur Archimedem ilium, quern cum audlsset inter-
fectum permoleste tulisse (Verr. iv. 131), Marcellus is said to have sought
for Archimedes, and when he heard that he was slain, to have been greatly
distressed, [quern = et eum.]
consent unum quemque nostrum mundi esse partem, ex qu5 [= et ex e5]
illud natura consequi (Fin. iii. 64), they say that each one of us is a part
of the universe, from which this naturally follows.
NOTE. Really subordinate clauses occasionally take the accusative and infinitive:
as, quern ad modum si non dedatur obses pro rupto foedus se habiturum, sic deditam
inviolatam ad suos remissurum (Liv. ii. 13), [he says] as in case the hostage is not
given up he shall consider the treaty as broken, so if given up he will return her
unharmed to her friends.
c. The infinitive construction is regularly continued after a com-
parative with quam :
addit se prius occlsum In ab eo quam me violatum In (Att. ii. 20, 2), he adds
that he himself will be killed by him, before I shall be injured.
n6nne adfirmavi quidvls me potius perpessurum quam ex Italia exiturum
(Fam. ii. 16. 3), did I not assert that I would endure anything rather
than leave Italy ?
NOTE. The subjunctive with or without ut also occurs with quam (see 535. c).
Tenses of the Infinitive in Indirect Discourse
584. The Present, the Perfect, or the Future Infinitive 1 is used
in Indirect Discourse, according as the time indicated is present,
past, or future with reference to the verb of saying etc. by which
the Indirect Discourse is introduced :
1 For various ways of expressing the Future Infinitive, see 164. 3. c.
584, 685] TENSES IN INDIRECT DISCOURSE 379
cado, lam falling.
dicit se cadere, he says he is falling.
dixit se cadere, he said he was falling.
cadebam, I was fatting; cecidi, I fell, have fatten;
cecideram, I had fallen.
dlcit se cecidisse, he says he was falling, fell, has fallen, had fallen.
dixit se cecidisse, he said he fell, had fallen.
cadam, I shall fall.
dicit se casurum [csse] , he says he shall fall.
dixit se casurum [esse], he said he should fatt.
cecidero, I shall have fallen.
dicit fore ut ceciderit [rare], he says he shall have fallen.
dixit fore ut cecidisset [rare], he said he should have fatten.
a. All varieties of past time are usually expressed in Indirect
Discourse by the Perfect Infinitive, which may stand for the Imper-
fect, the Perfect, or the Pluperfect Indicative of the Direct.
NOTE. Continued or repeated action in past time is sometimes expressed by the
Present Infinitive, which in such cases stands for the Imperfect Indicative of the Direct
Discourse and is often called the Imperfect Infinitive.
This is the regular construction after meminl when referring to a matter of actual
experience or observation: as, te meminl haec dicere, / remember your saying this
(that you said this) . [Direct : dixisti or dicebas.]
6. The present infinitive posse often has a future sense :
totius Galliae sesS potiri posse spSrant (B. G. i. 3), they hope that they shall
be able to get possession of all Gaul.
Tenses of the Subjunctive in Indirect Discourse
585. The tenses of the Subjunctive in Indirect Discourse fol-
low the rule for the Sequence of Tenses ( 482). They depend for
their sequence on the verb of mying etc. by which the Indirect
Discourse is introduced.
Thus in the sentence, dixit se Romam iturum ut consulem videret, he said he
should go to Rome in order that he might see the consul, videret follows the sequence
of dixit without regard to the Future Infinitive, iturum [esse], on which it directly
depends.
NOTE. This rule applies to the subjunctive in subordinate clauses, to that which
stands for the imperative etc. (see examples, 588), and to that in questions ( 586).
a. A subjunctive depending on a Perfect Infinitive is often in the
Imperfect or Pluperfect, even if the verb of saying etc. is in a pri-
mary tense (cf . 485. f) ; so regularly when these tenses would have
been used in Direct Discourse :
380 SYNTAX : SUBSTANTIVE CLAUSES [ 585, 586
Tarquinium dixisse ferunt turn exsulantem s6 intellexisse quos fldos amic5a
habuisset (Lael. 53), they tell us that Tarquin said that then in his exile
he had found out what faithful friends he had had. [Here the main verb
of saying, ferunt, is primary, but the time is carried back by dixisse and
intellexisse, and the sequence then becomes secondary.]
tantum profecisse videmur ut a Graecls ne verborum quidem copia vinceremur
(N. D. i. 8), we seem to have advanced so far that even in abundance of
words we ABE not surpassed by the Greeks.
NOTE 1. The proper sequence may be seen, in each case, by turning the Perfect
Infinitive into that tense of the Indicative which it represents. Thus, if it stands for
an imperfect or an historical perfect, the sequence will be secondary ; if it stands for
a perfect definite, the sequence may be either primary or secondary ( 485. a) .
NOTE 2. The so-called imperfect infinitive after memini (584. a. N.) takes the
secondary sequence : as, ad me adlre quosdam memini, qui dicerent (Fam. iii. 10. 6) , I
remember that some persons visited me, to tell me, etc.
6. The Present and Perfect Subjunctive are often used in depend-
ent clauses of the Indirect Discourse even when the verb of saying
etc. is in a secondary tense :
dicgbant . . . totidem Nervios (pollicerl) qui longissimg absint (B. G. ii. 4),
they said that the Nervii, who live farthest off, promised as many.
NOTE. This construction comes from the tendency of language to refer all time
in narration to the time of the speaker (repraesentatio) . In the course of a long pas-
sage in the Indirect Discourse the tenses of the subjunctive often vary, sometimes fol-
lowing the sequence, and sometimes affected by repraesentatio. Examples may be
seen in B. G. i. 13, vii. 20, etc.
Certain constructions are never affected by repraesentatio. Such are the Imperfect
and Pluperfect Subjunctive with cum temporal, antequam, and priusquam.
Questions in Indirect Discourse
586. A Question in Indirect Discourse may be either in the
Subjunctive or in the Infinitive with Subject Accusative.
A real question, asking for an answer, is generally put in the
Subjunctive ; a rhetorical question, asked for effect and implying
its own answer, is put in the Infinitive :
quid sibi vellet ? cur in suas possessiones veniret (B. G. i. 44), what did he
want ? why did he come into his territories ? [Real question. Direct :
quid vis ? cur venis ?]
num recentiura iniuriarum memoriam [se] depSnere posse (id. i. 14), could
he lay aside the memory of recent wrongs? [Rhetorical Question.
Direct : num possum ?]
quern signum daturum fugientibus ? quern ausurum Alexandrd succgdere (Q. C.
iii. 5. 7), who will give the signal on the retreat ? who will dare succeed
Alexander f [Rhetorical. Direct: quis dabit . . . audebit.]
586-589] COMMANDS IN INDIRECT DISCOURSE 3&1
NOTE J. No sharp line can be drawn between the Subjunctive and the Infinitive
in questions in the Indirect Discourse. Whether the question is to be regarded as
rhetorical or real often depends merely on the writer's point of view :
utrum partem regni petiturum esse, an totum erepturum (Liv. xlv. 19. 15), will you
ask part of the regal power (he said), or seize the whole?
quid tandem praetor! faciendum fuisse (id. xxxi. 48), what, pray, ought aprtetor to
have done ?
quid repente factum [esse] cur, etc. (id. xxxiv. 54), what had suddenly happened,
that, etc. ?
NOTE 2. Questions coming immediately after a verb of asking are treated as Indi-
rect Questions and take the Subjunctive (see 574). This is true even when the verb
of asking serves also to introduce a passage in the Indirect Discourse. The question
may be either real or rhetorical. See quaesivit, etc. (Liv. xxxvii. 15).
For the use of tenses, see 585.
587. A Deliberative Subjunctive ( 444) in the Direct Dis-
course is always retained in the Indirect :
cur aliquOs ex suls amitteret (B. C. i. 72), why (thought he) should he lose
some of his men ? [Direct : cur amittam ?]
Commands in Indirect Discourse
588. All Imperative forms of speech take the Subjunctive in
Indirect Discourse :
reminisceretur veteris incommodi (B. G. i. 13), remember (said he) the ancient
disaster. [Direct: reminiscere.]
finem faciat (id. i. 20), let him make an end. [Direct: fac.]
ferrent opem, adiuvarent (Liv. ii. 6), let them bring aid, let them help.
a. This rule applies not only to the Imperative of the direct dis-
course, but to the Hortatory and the Optative Subjunctive as well.
NOTE 1. Though these subjunctives stand for independent clauses of the direct
discourse, they follow the rule for the sequence of tenses, being in fact dependent on
the verb of saying etc. (cf. 483, 585).
NOTE 2. A Prohibition in the Indirect Discourse is regularly expressed by n5 with
the present or imperfect subjunctive, even when noli with the infinitive would be used
in the Direct: as, ne" perturbarentur (B. G. vii. 29), do not (he said) be troubled.
[Direct : nolite perturbari. But sometimes nollet is found in Indirect Discourse.]
Conditions in Indirect Discourse
589. Conditional sentences in Indirect Discourse are expressed
as follows :
1. The Protasis, being a subordinate clause, is always in the
Subjunctive.
2. The Apodosis, if independent and not hortatory or optative,
is always in some form of the Infinitive.
SYNTAX: SUBSTANTIVE CLAUSES [689
a. The Present Subjunctive in the apodosis of less vivid future
conditions ( 516. 5) becomes the Future Infinitive like the Future
Indicative in the apodosis of more vivid future conditions.
Thus there is no distinction between more and less vivid future
conditions in the Indirect Discourse.
Examples of Conditional Sentences in Indirect Discourse are
1. Simple Present Condition ( 515) :
(dixit) si ipse populo Romans non praescriberet quern ad modum suo iure
uteretur, non oportere sese a populo Romano in suo iure impedlri (B. G.
i. 36), he said that if he did not dictate to the Roman people how they
should use their rights, he ought n f jt to be interfered with by the Roman
people in the exercise of his rights. [Direct : si non praescribo . . . non
oportet.]
praedicavit . . . s! pace utl velint, iniquum esse, etc. (id. i. 44), he asserted
that if they wished to enjoy peace, it was unfair, etc. [Direct: si volunt
. . . est. Present tense kept by repraesentatio ( 685. 6. N.).]
2. Simple Past Condition ( 515):
nOn dlcam nS illud quidem, si maximS in culpS fuerit ApollOnius, tamen in
hominein honestissimae clvitatis honestissimum tarn graviter animad-
yertl, causa indicta, nOn oportuisse (Verr. v. 20), I will not say this
either, that, even if Apollonius was very greatly in fault, still an honorable
man from an honorable state ought not to have been punished so severely
without having his case heard. [Direct: si fuit . . . non oportuit.]
3. Future Conditions ( 516):
(dixit) quod si praeterea n6m5 sequatur, tamen s6 cum sola decima legiOne
iturum (B. G. i. 40), but if nobody else should follow, still he would go
with the tenth legion alone. [Direct : si sequetur . . . ibo. Present tense
by repraesentatio ( 585. 6. N.).]
Haeduls s8 obsides redditurum non esse, neque eis . . . bellum illaturum, si
in e5 manerent, quod convenisset, stipendiumque quotannis penderent :
si id nOn fecissent, longg els fraternum nomen popull R5manl afutu-
rum (id. i. 36), he said that he would not give up the hostages to the
Haedui, but w ndd not make war upon them if they observed the agreement
which had been made, and paid tribute yearly ; but that, if they should
not do this, the name of brothers to the Roman people would be far from
aiding them. [Direct : reddam . . . Inferam . . . si manebunt . . . pen-
dent : si non f ecerint . . . aberit. ]
id DatamSs ut audlvit, s6nsit, si in turbam exisset ab homine tarn necessa-
riO s6 relictum. futurum [esse] ut ceterl cDnsilium sequantur (Nep. Dat.
6), when Datames heard this, he saw that, if it should get abroad that he
had been abandoned by a man so closely connected with him, everybody
else would follow his example. [Direct : si exierH; . . . sequentur. ]
689] CONDITIONS IN INDIRECT DISCOURSE 383
: (putaverunt) nisi me" clvitate expulissent, obtingre s6 n5n posse licentiam
cupiditatum suarum (Att. x. 4), they thought that unless they drove me
out of the state, they could not have free play for their desires. [Direct:
nisi (Ciceronem) expulerimus, obtinere non poterimus.]
b. In changing a Condition contrary to fact ( 517) into the Indi-
rect Discourse, the following points require notice :
1. The Protasis always remains unchanged in tense.
2. The Apodosis, if active, takes a peculiar infinitive form, made by com-
bining the Participle in -urus with fuisse.
3. If the verb of the Apodosis is passive or has no supine stem, the pe-
riphrasis futurum fuisse ut (with the Imperfect Subjunctive) must be used.
4. An Indicative in the Apodosis becomes a Perfect Infinitive.
Examples are :
nee s8 superstitem flliae futurum fuisse, nisi spem ulclscendae mortis elus
in auxilio comimlitOnum habuisset (Liv. iii. 50. 7), and that he should
not now be a survivor, etc. , unless he had had hope, etc. [Direct : non
superstes essem, nisi habuissem.]
illud Asia cogitet, nullam a se neque belli extern! neque discordiarum do-
mesticarum calamitatem afuturam fuisse, si hoc imperiO non teneretur
(Q. Fr. i. 1. 34), let Asia (personified) think of this, that no disaster, etc.,
would not be hers, if she were not held by this government. [Direct :
abesset, si non tenerer.]
quid inimicitiarum creditis [me] excepturum fuisse, si Insontls lacessissem
(Q. C. vi. 10. 18), what enmities do you think I should have incurred, if
I had wantonly assailed the innocent ? [excepissem ... si lacessissem.]
invitum s6 dlcere, nee dicturum fuisse, nl caritas rel publicae vinceret (Liv.
ii. 2), that he spoke unwillingly and should not have spoken, did not love
for the state prevail. [Direct: nee dixissem . . . ni vineeret.]
nisi e5 tempore quldam nuntil d6 Caesaris victoria . . . essent allatl, existi-
ng abant plerlque futurum fuisse uti [oppidum] amitteretur (B. C. iii. 101),
most people thought that unless at that time reports of Caesar's victory
had been brought, the town would have been lost. [Direct : nisi essent
allati . . . amissum esset]
quOrum si aetas potuisset esse longinquior, futurum fuisse ut omnibus per-
fectls artibus hominum vita erudiretur (Tusc. iii. 09), if lift could have
been longer, human existence would have been embellished by every art in
its perfection. [Direct: si potuisset . . . Srudita esset.]
at plerique exlstimant, si acrius Insequi voluisset, belluin e6 diS potuisse
finlre (B. C. iii. 51), but most people think that, if he had chosen to follow
up the pursuit more vigorously, he could have ended the war on that day.
[Direct : si voluisset . . . potuit.]
Caesar respondit ... si alicuius iniuriae sibi conscius fuisset, non fuisse dif-
ficile cavCre (B. G. i. 14), Caesar replied that if [the Roman people] had
been aware of any wrong act, it would not have been hard for them to takt
precautions. [Direct; si fuisset, non difficile fuit ( 617. c).]
384 SYNTAX : SUBSTANTIVE CLAUSES [ 689-691
NOTE 1. In Indirect Discourse Present Conditions contrary to fact are not dis-
tinguished in the apodosis from Past Conditions contrary to fact, but the protasis may
keep them distinct.
NOTK 2. The periphrasis futurum fuisse ut is sometimes used from choice when
there is no necessity for resorting to it, but not in Caesar or Cicero.
NOTE 3. Very rarely the Future Infinitive is used in the Indirect Discourse to ex-
press the Apodosis of a Present Condition contrary to fact. Only four or five examples
of this use occur in classic authors : as, Titurius clamabat si Caesar adesset neque
Carnutes, etc., neque Eburones tanta cum contemptione nostra ad castra ventures esse
(B. G. v. 29), Titurius cried out that if Csesar were present, neither would the Car-
nutes, etc., nor would the Eburones be coming to our camp with such contempt.
[Direct : si adesset . . . venirent.]
590. The following example illustrates some of the foregoing
principles in a connected address :
INDIRECT DISCOURSE DIRECT DISCOURSE
Si pacem populus Romanus cum Si pacem populus Romanus cum
Helvetils faceret, in earn partem ituros Helvgtiis faciet, in earn partem ibunt
atque ibi futures Helvetica, ubi eos atque ibi erunt Helvetii, ubi e5s tu
Caesar constituisset atque esse voluis- constitueris atque esse volueris : sin
set: sin bell5 persequl perseveraret, bello persequi perseverabis, remimscere
reminisceretur et veteris incommodi [inquit] et veteris incommodi populi
populi Roman!, et pristinae virtutis Roman!, et prlstinae virtutis Helve-
Helve' tiorum. Quod improvlso iinum tiorum. Quod improvise unum pagum
pagum adortus esset, cum e! qui flumen adortus es, cum el qu! flumen transie-
transissent suis auxilium ferre non pos- rant suis auxilium ferre nOn possent, ne
sent, ne ob earn rem aut suae magn5 ob earn rem aut tuae magnS opere vir-
opere virtuti tribueret, aut ipsos despi- tuti tribueris, aut nos despexeris : nos
ceret : se ita a patribus mai5ribusque ita a patribus maiQribusque nostris didi-
suis didicisse, ut magis virtute quam cimus, ut magis virtute quam dolo con-
dolQ contenderent, aut insidils niteren- tendamus, aut insidiis nitamur. Qua re
tur. Qua re ne committeret, ut is locus noli committere, ut hie locus ubi consti-
ubi constitissent ex calamitate populi timus ex calamitate populi ROraani et
ROmani et interneciOne exercitus n5- interneciOne exercitus n5men capiat,
men caperet, aut memoriam proderet. aut memoriam prodat.
B. G. i. 13..
INTERMEDIATE CLAUSES
591. A Subordinate clause takes the Subjunctive
1. When it expresses the thought of some other person than the
speaker or writer (Informal Indirect Discourse), or
2. When it is an integral part of a Subjunctive clause or equiva-
lent Infinitive (Attraction). 1
1 See note on Indirect Discourse ( 577).
692] INFORMAL INDIRECT DISCOURSE 385
Informal Indirect Discourse
592. A Subordinate Clause takes the Subjunctive when it
expresses the thought of some other person than the writer or
speaker :
1. When the clause depends upon another containing a wish, a
command, or a question, expressed indirectly, though not strictly in
the form of Indirect Discourse :
animal sentit quid sit quod deceat (Off. i. 14), an animal feels what it is that
is fit.
huic imperat quas possit adeat civitatfis (B. G. iv. 21), he orders him to visit
what states he can.
hunc sibi ex ammo scrupulum, qul se dies noctlsque stimulat ac pungit, ut
gvellatis postulat (Rose. Am. 6), he begs you to pluck from his heart this
doubt that goads and stings him day and night. [Here the relative
clause is not a part of the Purpose expressed in evellatis, but is an
assertion made by the subject of postulat.]
2. When the main clause of a quotation is merged in the verb of
saying, or some modifier of it :
si quid d6 his rebus dlcere vellet, feel potestatem (Cat. iii. 11), if he wished
to say anything about these matters, I gave him a chance.
tulit d6 eaede quae in Appia via facta esset (Mil. 15), he passed a law con-
cerning the murder which (in the language of the bill) took place in the
Appian Way.
nisi restituissent statuas, vehementer minatur (Verr. ii. 162), he threatens them
violently unless they should restore the statues. [Here the main clause,
"that he will inflict punishment," is contained in minatur.]
ils auxilium suum pollicitus si ab Suebls premerentur (B. G. iv. 19), he
promised them his aid if they should be molested by the Suevi. [= polli-
citus se auxilium laturum, etc.]
prohibitiO tollendi, nisi pactus esset, vim adhibebat paction! (Verr. iii. 37),
the forbidding to take away unless he came to terms gave force to the
bargain.
3. When a reason or an explanatory fact is introduced by a rela-
tive or by quod (rarely quia) (see 540) :
Paetus omnis librOs quos frater suus reliquisset mihi dSnavit (Att. ii. 1. 12),
Pcetus presented to me all the-books which (he said) his brother had left.
NOTE. Under this head even what the speaker himself thought under other cir-
cumstances may have the Subjunctive. So also with quod even the verb of saying may
be in the Subjunctive ( 540. N. 2 ). Here belong also n5n quia, n5n quod, introducing a
reason expressly to deny it. (See 540. N. *.)
386 SYNTAX : INTERMEDIATE CLAUSES [ 593
Subjunctive of Integral Part (Attraction)
593. A clause depending upon a Subjunctive clause or an
equivalent Infinitive will itself take the Subjunctive if regarded
as an integral part of that clause : *
imperat, dum r6s iudicetur, hominem adservent : cum iudicata sit, ad se" ut
adducant (Verr. iii. 55), he orders them, till the affair should be decided,
to keep the man; when it is judged, to bring him to him.
etenim quis tarn dissolute animo est, qui haec cum videat, tacere ac neglegere
possit (Rose. Ain. 32), for who is so reckless of spirit that, when he sees
these things, he can keep silent and pass them by ?
m6s est Athenis laudarl in contione eos qui sint in proeliis interfectl (Or.
161), it is the custom at Athens for those to be publicly eulogized who
have been slain in battle. [Here laudarl is equivalent to ut laudentur.]
a. But a dependent clause may be closely connected grammatically
with a Subjunctive or Infinitive clause, and still take the Indicative,
if it is not regarded as a necessary logical part of that clause :
quOdam mod 5 postulat ut, quern ad modum est, sic etiam appelletur, tyrannus
(Att. x. 4. 2), in a manner he demands that as he is, so he may be called,
a tyrant.
natura fert ut els faveamus qui eadem perlcula quibus n5s perfuncti sumus
ingrediuntur (Mur. 4), nature prompts us to feel friendly towards those
who are entering on the same dangers which we have passed through.
n6 hostes, quod tantum multitudine poterant, BUGS circumvenlre possent
(B. G. ii. 8), lest the enemy, because they were so strong in numbers, should
be able to surround his men.
si mea in t6 essent officia s5lum tanta quanta magis a tS ipsO praedicari
quam 5 m6 ponderarl sclent, verecundius a t6 . . . peterem (Fam. ii. 6),
if my good services to you were only so great as they are wont rather to
be called by you than to be estimated by me, I should, etc.
NOTB 1. The use of the Indicative in such clauses sometimes serves to emphasize
the/c, as true independently of the statement contained in the subjunctive or infini-
tive clause. But in many cases no such distinction is perceptible.
NOTE 2. It is often difficult to distinguish between Informal Indirect Discourse
and the Integral Part. Thus in imperavit ut ea fierent quae opus essent, essent may
stand for sunt, and then will be Indirect Discourse, being a part of the thought, but
not a part of the order ; or it may stand for erunt, and then will be Integral Part, being
a part of the order itself. The difficulty of making the distinction in such cases is
evidence of the close relationship between these two constructions.
1 The subjunctive in this use is of the same nature as the subjunctive in the main
clause. A dependent clause in a clause of purpose is really a part of the purpose, as
is seen from the use of should and other auxiliaries in English. In a result clause this
is less clear, but the result construction is a branch of the characteristic (534), to
which category the dependent clause in this case evidently belongs when it takes the
subjunctive.
594] SYNTAX : IMPORTANT RULES 387
594. IMPORTANT RULES OF SYNTAX
1. A noun used to describe another, and denoting the same person or
thing, agrees with it in Case ( 282).
2. Adjectives, Adjective Pronouns, and Participles agree with their
nouns in Gender, Number, and Case ( 286).
3. Superlatives (move rarely Comparatives) denoting order and succes-
sion also medius. (ceterus), reliquus usually designate not what
object, but what part of it, is meant ( 293).
4. The Personal Pronouns have two forms for the genitive plural, that
in -um being used parlitively, and that in -I oftenest objectively
( 295. b).
5. The Reflexive Pronoun (se), and usually the corresponding possessive
(suus), are used in the predicate to refer to the subject of the sen-
tence or clause ( 299).
6. To express Possession and similar ideas the Possessive Pronouns
must be used, not the genitive of the personal or reflexive pro-
nouns ( 302. a).
7. A Possessive Pronoun or an Adjective implying possession may take
an appositive in the genitive case agreeing in gender, number, and
case with an implied noun or pronoun ( 302. e).
8. A Relative Pronoun agrees with its Antecedent in Gender and Num-
ber, but its Case depends on its construction in the clause in
which it stands ( 305).
9. A Finite Verb agrees with its Subject in Number and Person ( 316).
10. Adverbs are used to modify Verbs, Adjectives, and other Adverbs
( 321).
11. A Question of simple fact, requiring the answer yes or no, is formed
by adding the enclitic -ne to the emphatic word ( 332).
12. When the enclitic -ne is added to a negative word, as in nonne,
an affirmative answer is expected. The particle num suggests a
negative answer ( 332. i).
13. The Subject of a finite verb is in the Nominative ( 339).
14. The Vocative is the case of direct address ( 340).
15. A noun used to limit or define another, and not meaning the same
person or thing, is put in the Genitive ( 342).
16. The Possessive Genitive denotes the person or thing to which an
object, quality, feeling, or action belongs ( 343).
388 SYNTAX: IMPOKTANT RULES [694
17. The genitive may denote the Substance or Material of which a
thing consists ( 344).
18. The genitive is used to denote Quality, but only when the quality is
modified by an adjective ( 345).
19. Words denoting a part are followed by the Genitive of the whole to
which the part belongs (Partitive Genitive, 346).
20. Nouns of action, agency, and feeling govern the Genitive of the object
(Objective Genitive, 348).
21. Adjectives denoting desire, knowledge, memory, fulness, power, sharing,
guilt, and their opposites ; participles in -ns when used as adjectives ;
and verbals in -ax, govern the Genitive ( 349. a, b, c).
22. Verbs of remembering and forgetting take either the Accusative or
the Genitive of the object ( 350).
23. Verbs of reminding take with the Accusative of the person a Genitive
of the thing ( 351).
24. Verbs of accusing, condemning, and acquitting take the Genitive of
the charge or penalty ( 352).
25. The Dative is used of the object indirectly affected by an action
(Indirect Object, 361).
26. Many verbs signifying to favor, help, please, trust, and their contraries ;
also, to believe, persuade, command, obey, serve, resist, envy, threaten,
pardon, and spare, take the Dative ( 367).
27. Many verbs compounded with ad, ante, con, in, inter, ob, post, prae,
pro, sub, super, and some with circum, admit the Dative of the
indirect object ( 370).
28. The Dative is used with esse and similar words to denote Possession
( 373).
29. The Dative of the Agent is used with the Gerundive, to denote the
person on whom the necessity rests ( 374).
30. The Dative often depends, not on any particular word, but on the
general meaning of the sentence (Dative of Reference, 376).
81. Many verbs of taking away and the like take the Dative (especially
of a, person) instead of the Ablative of Separation ( 381).
32. The Dative is used to denote the Purpose or End, often with another
Dative of the person or thing affected ( 382).
33. The Dative is used with adjectives (and a few adverbs) of faness t
nearness, likeness, service, inclination, and their opposites ( 384).
594] SYNTAX: IMPORTANT RULES 389
34. The Direct Object of a transitive verb is put in the Accusative
( 387).
35. An intransitive verb often takes the Accusative of a noun of kindred
meaning, usually modified by an adjective or in some other man-
ner (Cognate Accusative, 390).
36. Verbs of naming, choosing, appointing, making, esteeming, showing, and
the like, may take a Predicate Accusative along with the direct
object ( 393).
37. Transitive verbs compounded with prepositions sometimes take (in
addition to the direct object) a Secondary Object, originally gov-
erned by the preposition ( 394).
38. Some verbs of asking and teaching may take two Accusatives, one of
the Person, and the other of the Thing ( 396).
39. The subject of an Infinitive is in the Accusative ( 397. e).
40. Duration of Time and Extent of Space are expressed by the Accusa-
tive ( 424. c, 425).
41. Words signifying separation or privation are followed by the Abla-
tive (Ablative of Separation, 400).
42. The Ablative, usually with a preposition, is used to denote the source
from which anything is derived or the material of which it consists
( 403).
43. The Ablative, with or without a preposition, is used to express cause
( 404).
44. The Voluntary Agent after a passive verb is expressed by the Abla-
tive with a or ab ( 405).
45. The Comparative degree is often followed by the Ablative signifying
than ( 406).
46. The Comparative may be followed by quam, than. When quam is
used, the two things compared are put in the same case ( 407).
47. The Ablative is used to denote the means or instrument of an action
( 409).
48. The deponents, iitor, fruor, fungor, potior, and vescor, with several of
their compounds, govern the Ablative ( 410).
49. Opus and usus, signifying need, are followed by the Ablative ( 411).
50. The manner of an action is denoted by the Ablative, usually with
cum unless a limiting adjective w used with the noun ( 412).
390 SYNTAX : IMPORTANT RULES [ 594
51. Accompaniment is denoted by the Ablative, regularly with cum
( 413).
52. With Comparatives and words implying comparison the Ablative is
used to denote the degree of difference ( 414).
53. The quality of a thing is denoted by the Ablative with an adjective
or genitive Modifier ( 415).
54. The price of a thing is put in the Ablative ( 416).
55. The Ablative of Specification denotes that in respect to which any-
thing is or is done ( 418).
56. The adjectives dignus and indignus take the Ablative ( 418. 6).
57. A noun or pronoun, with a participle in agreement, may be put in
the Ablative to define the time or circumstances of an action
(Ablative Absolute, 419).
An adjective, or a second noun, may take the place of the participle in the
ablative absolute construction ( 419. a) .
58. Time tvhen, or within which, is denoted by the Ablative ; time how
long by the Accusative ( 423).
59- Relations of Place are expressed as follows:
1. The place from which, by the Ablative with ab, de, ex.
2. The place to which (or end of motion), by the Accusative with
ad or in.
3. The place where, by the Ablative with in (Locative Ablative).
( 426.)
60. With names of towns and small islands, and with domus and rus, the
relations of place are expressed as follows :
1. The place from which, by the Ablative without a preposition.
2. The place to which, by the Accusative without a preposition.
3. The place where, by the Locative. ( 427.)
61. The Hortatory Subjunctive is used in the present tense to express
an exhortation, a command, or a concession ( 439, 440).
62. The Optative Subjunctive is used to express a wish. The present
tense denotes the wish as possible, the imperfect as unaccomplished
in present time, the pluperfect as unaccomplished in past time
( 441).
63. The Subjunctive is used in questions implying (1) doubt, indignation,
or (2) an impossibility of the thing's being done (Deliberative Sub-
junctive, 444).
694] SYNTAX: IMPORTANT RULES 391
64. The Potential Subjunctive is used to suggest an action as possible or
conceivable ( 446).
65. The Imperative is used in commands and entreaties ( 448).
66. Prohibition is regularly expressed in classic prose (1) by noli with the
Infinitive, (2) by cave with the Present Subjunctive, (3) by ne with
the Perfect Subjunctive ( 450).
67. The Infinitive, with or without a subject accusative, may be used
with est and similar verbs (1) as the Subject, (2) in Apposition with
the subject, or (3) as a Predicate Nominative ( 452).
68. Verbs which imply another action of the same subject to complete their
meaning take the Infinitive without a subject accusative (Comple-
mentary Infinitive, 456).
69. The Infinitive, with subject accusative, is used with verbs and other
expressions of knowing, thinking, telling, and perceiving (Indirect
Discourse, see 459).
70. The Infinitive is often used for the Imperfect Indicative in narration,
and takes a subject in the Nominative (Historical Infinitive, 463).
71. SEQUENCE OF TENSES. In complex sentences, a primary tense in
the main clause is followed by the Present or Perfect Subjunctive
in the dependent clause ; a secondary tense by the Imperfect or
Pluperfect ( 483).
72. Participles denote time as present, past, or future with respect to the
time of the verb in their clause ( 489).
73. The Gerund and the Gerundive are used, in the oblique cases, in
many of the constructions of nouns ( 501-507).
74. The Supine in -um is used after verbs of motion to express Purpose
( 509).
75. The Supine in -u is used with a few adjectives and with the nouns
fas, nefas, and opus, to denote Specification ( 510).
76. Dum, modo, dummodo, and tantum ut, introducing a Proviso, take
the Subjunctive ( 528).
77. Final clauses take the Subjunctive introduced by ut (uti), negative
ne (ut ne), or by a Relative Pronoun or Relative Adverb ( 531).
78. A Relative Clause with the Subjunctive is often used to indicate a
characteristic of the antecedent, especially where the antecedent is
otherwise undefined ( 535).
79. Dignus, indignus, aptus, and idoneus, take a Subjunctive clause with
a relative (rarely with ut) ( 535. /).
SYNTAX : IMPORTANT RULES . [ 594
80. Clauses of Result take the Subjunctive introduced by ut, so that
(negative, ut ndn), or by a Relative Pronoun or Relative Adverb
( 537).
81. The Causal Particles quod, quia, and quoniam take the Indicative
when the reason is given on the authority of the writer or speaker ;
the Subjunctive when the reason is given on the authority of
another ( 540).
82. The particles postquam (posteaquam), ubi, ut (ut primum, ut semel),
simul atque (simul ac, or simul alone) take the Indicative (usually
in the perfect or the historical present) ( 543).
83. A Temporal clause with cum, when, and some past tense of the Indica-
tive dates or defines the time at which the action of the main verb
occurred ( 545).
84. A Temporal clause with cum and the Imperfect or Pluperfect Sub-
junctive describes the circumstances that accompanied or preceded
the action of the main verb ( 546).
85. Cum Causal or Concessive takes the Subjunctive ( 549).
For other concessive particles, see 527.
86. In Indirect Discourse the main clause of a Declaratory Sentence is
put in the Infinitive with Subject Accusative. All subordinate
clauses take the Subjunctive ( 580).
87. The Present, the Perfect, or the Future Infinitive is used in Indirect
Discourse, according as the time indicated is present, past, or future
with reference to the verb of saying etc. by which the Indirect Dis-
course is introduced ( 584).
88. In Indirect Discourse a real question is generally put in the Subjunc-
tive; a rhetorical question in the Infinitive ( 586).
89. All Imperative forms of speech take the Subjunctive in Indirect
Discourse ( 588).
90. A Subordinate clause takes the Subjunctive when it expresses the
thought of some other person than the writer or speaker (Informal
Indirect Discourse, 592).
91. A clause depending on a Subjunctive clause or an equivalent Infini-
tive will itself take the Subjunctive if regarded as an integral part
of that clause (Attraction, 593).
For Prepositions and their cases, see 220, 221.
For Conditional Sentences, see 512 ff. (Scheme in 614.)
For ways of expressing Purpose, see 533.
696-597] OKDER OF WORDS 393
ORDER OF WORDS
595. Latin differs from English in having more freedom in the
arrangement of words for the purpose of showing the relative
importance of the ideas in a sentence.
596. As in other languages, the Subject tends to stand first, the
Predicate last. Thus,
Pausanias Lacedaemonius magnus homS sed varius in omnl genere vltae fuit
(Nep. Pans. 1), Pausanias the Lacedaemonian was a great man, but in-
consistent in the whole course of his life.
NOTE. This happens because, from the speaker's ordinary point of view, the sub-
ject of his discourse is the most important thing in it, as singled out from all other
things to be spoken of.
a. There is in Latin, however, a special tendency to place the verb itself
last of all, after all its modifiers. But many writers purposely avoid the
monotony of this arrangement by putting the verb last but one, followed
by some single word of the predicate.
597. In connected discourse the word most prominent in the
speaker's mind comes first, and so on in order of prominence.
This relative prominence corresponds to that indicated in Eng-
lish by a graduated stress of voice (usually called emphasis).
a The difference in emphasis expressed by difference in order of words
is illustrated in the following passages :
apud Xenophontem autem moriens Cyrus maior haec dlcit (Cat. M. 79), IN
XENOPHON too, on kis death-bed Cyrus the elder utters these words.
Cyrus quidem haec moriens ; nos, si placet, nostra videamus (id. 82), CYRUS,
to be sure, utters these words on his death-bed; let us, if you please, con-
sider our own case.
Cyrus quidem apud Xenophontem e5 sermSne, quern moriens habuit (id.
30), CYRUS, to be sure, in Xenophon, in that speech which he uttered on
his death-bed.
NOTE. This stress or emphasis, however, in English does not necessarily show
any violent contrast to the rest of the words in the sentence, but is infinitely varied,
constantly increasing and diminishing, and often so subtle as to be unnoticed except
in careful study. So, as a general rule, the precedence of words in a Latin sentence
is not mechanical, but corresponds to the prominence which a good speaker would
mark by skilfully managed stress of voice. A Latin written sentence, therefore, has
all the clearness and expression which could be given to a spoken discourse by the best
actor in English. Some exceptions to the rule will be treated later.
The first chapter of Csesar's Gallic War, if rendered so as to bring
out as far as possible the shades of emphasis, would run thus :
394 ORDER OF WORDS [ 597
GAUL, 1 in the widest sense, is di- Gallia est omnis dlvisa in partis
vided 2 into three parts,* which are tris, quarum unam incolunt Belgae,
inhabited* (as follows): one 8 by the aliara Aqultam, tertiam qul ipsorum
Belgians, another 6 by the Aquitani, lingua Celtae, nostra Galli appellan-
the third by a people called in their tur. HI omnes lingua, Institutis, legi-
own 7 language Celts, in ours Gauls. bus inter se differunt. Gallos ab
THESE * in their language, 9 institutions, Aquitanls Garunina flumen, a Belgis
and laws are all of them 10 different. Matrona et Sequana dlvidit. Horum
The GAULS 11 (proper) are separated 12 omnium fortissiml sunt Belgae, prop-
from the Aquitani by the river Garonne, terea quod a cultu. atque humanitate
from the Belgians by the Marne and
Seine. Of THESE 13 (TRIBES) the brav-
est of all 1 * are the Belgians, for the
reason that they live farthest 15 away
1 GAUL : emphatic as the subject of discourse, as with a title or the like.
2 Divided : opposed to the false conception (implied in the use of omnis) that the
country called Gallia by the Romans is one. This appears more clearly from the fact
that Caesar later speaks of the Galll in a narrower sense as distinct from the other two
tribes, who with them inhabit Gallia in the wider sense.
8 Parts : continuing the emphasis begun in divisa. Not three parts as opposed to
any other number, but into parts at all.
* Inhabited : emphatic as the next subject, " The inhabitants of these parts are, etc. "
6 One : given more prominence than it otherwise would have on account of its close
connection with quarum.
6 Another, etc. : opposed to one.
7 Their own, ours : strongly opposed to each other.
8 THESE (tribes) : the main subject of discourse again, collecting under one head
the names previously mentioned.
9 Language, etc. : these are the most prominent ideas, as giving the striking points
which distinguish the tribes. The emphasis becomes natural in English if we say
" these have a different language, different institutions, different laws."
10 All of them : the emphasis on all marks the distributive character of the adjec-
tive, as if it were "every one has its own, etc."
11 GAULS : emphatic as referring to the Gauls proper in distinction from the other
tribes.
12 Separated : though this word contains an indispensable idea in the connection, yet
it has a subordinate position. It is not emphatic in Latin, as is seen from the fact that
it cannot be made emphatic in English. The sense is: The Gauls lie between the
Aquitani on the one side, and the Belgians on the other.
13 Of THESE: the subject of discourse.
14 All : emphasizing the superlative idea in " bravest " ; they, as Gauls, are assumed
to be warlike, but the most so of all of them are the Belgians.
is Farthest away: one might expect absunt (are away) to have a more emphatic
place, but it is dwarfed in importance by the predominance of the main idea, the effemi-
nating influences from which the Belgians are said to be free. It is not that they live
farthest off that is insisted on, but that the civilization of the Province etc., which
would soften them, comes less in their way. It is to be noticed also that absunt has
already been anticipated by the construction of cultu and still more by longissime, so
that when it comes it amounts only to a formal part of the sentence. Thus, " because
the civilization etc. of the Province (which would soften them) is farthest from them."
597]
ORDER OF WORDS
395
from the CIVILIZATION and REFINEMENT
of the Province, and because they are
LEAST l of all of them subject to the
visits of traders, 2 and to the (conse-
quent) importation of such things as 3
tend to soften 4 their warlike spirit;
and are also nearest 5 to the Germans,
who live across the Rhine, 6 and with
whom they are incessantly 1 at war.
For the same reason the HELVETIANS, as
well, are superior to all the other Gauls
in valor, because they are engaged in
almost daily battles with the Germans,
either defending their own boundaries
from them, or themselves making war
on those of the Germans. Of ALL THIS
country, one part the one which,
as has been said, the Gauls (proper)
occupy BEGINS at the river Rhone.
Its boundaries are the river Garonne,
the ocean, and the confines of the Bel-
gians. It even REACHES on the side
of the Sequani and Helvetians the river
Rhine. Its general direction is towards
the north. The BELGIANS begin at
the extreme limits of Gaul ; they reach
provinciae longissime absunt, minimg-
que ad eos mercatores saepe comme-
ant atque ea quae ad effeminandos
animos pertinent important, proximl-
que sunt Germanis, qul trans Rhenum
incolunt, quibuscum continenter bel-
lum gerunt. Qua de causa Helvetii
quoque reliquos Gallos virtute praece-
dunt, quod fere cotldiamsproeliis cum
Germanis contendunt, cum aut suis
finibus eos prohibent, aut ipsi in eorum
finibus bellum gerunt. Eorum una
pars, quam Gallos obtinere dictum
est, initium capit a flumine Rhodano ;
continetur Garumna flumine, Oceano,
finibus Belgarum ; attingit etiam ab
Sequanis et Helvetils fltimen Rhenum ;
vergit ad septentriones. Belgae ab
extremis Galliae finibus oriuntur :
pertinent ad mferiorem partem flu-
minis RhenI ; spectant in septentrio-
nem et orientem solem. Aqultania
a Garumna flumine ad_ Pyrenaeos
montls et earn partem Ocean! quae
est ad Hispaniam pertinet; spectat
inter occasum solis et stptentriones.
(on this side) as far as the lower part
of the Rhine. They spread to the northward and eastward.
AQUITANIA extends from the Garonne to the Pyrenees, and that part of the
ocean that lies towards Spain. It runs off westward and northward.
&. The more important word is never placed last for emphasis. The
apparent cases of this usage (when the emphasis is not misconceived) are
cases where a word is added as an afterthought, either real or affected, and
so has its position not in the sentence to which it is appended, but, as it
were, in a new one.
1 LEAST : made emphatic here by a common Latin order, the chiasmus ( 598. /) .
2 Traders : the fourth member of the chiasmus, opposed to cultu and humanitate.
s Such things as: the importance of the nature of the importations overshadows the
fact that they are imported, which fact is anticipated in traders.
4 Soften : cf . what is said in note 15, p. 394. They are brave because they have
less to soften them, their native barbarity being taken for granted.
5 Nearest : the same idiomatic prominence as in note 1 above, but varied by a special
usage combining chiasmus and anaphora ( 598. /).
6 Across the Rhine : i.e. and so are perfect savages.
7 Incessantly : the continuance of the warfare becomes the all-important idea, as
if it were " and not a day passes in which they are not at war with them."
396 OBDEK OF WORDS [ 698
598. The main rules for the Order of Words are as follows :
a. In any phrase the determining and most significant word comes
first :
1. Adjective and Noun :
omms homings decet, EVERY man ought (opposed to some who do not).
Lucius Catillna nobili genere natus fuit, magna vl et animl et corporis,
sed ingenio malo pravoque (Sail. Cat. 5), Lucius Catiline was born of a
NOBLE family, with GREAT force of mind and body, but with a NATURE
that was evil and depraved. [Here the adjectives in the first part are
the emphatic and important words, no antithesis between the nouns
being as yet thought of ; but in the second branch the noun is meant
to be opposed to those before mentioned, and immediately takes the
prominent place, as is seen by the natural English emphasis, thus mak-
ing a chiasmus. 1 ]
2. Word with modifying case :
quid magis Epaminondam, Thebanorum imperatorem, quam victoriae Thg-
banorum consulere decuit (Inv. i. 69), what should Epaminondas, com-
mander of the THEBANS, have aimed at more than the VICTORY of the
Thebans ?
lacrima nihil citius argscit (id. i. 109), nothing dries quicker than a TEAR.
nemo fere laudis cupidus (De Or. i. 14), hardly any one desirous of GLORY
(cf. Manil. 7, avidi laudis, EAGER for glory).
b. Numeral adjectives, adjectives of quantity, demonstrative, relative,
and interrogative pronouns and adverbs, tend to precede the word or words
to which they belong :
cum aliqua perturbatione (Off. i. 137), with SOME disturbance.
hoc un5 praestamus (De Or. i. 32), in THIS one thing we excel.
ceterae fere artes, the OTHER arts.
NOTE. This happens because such words are usually emphatic ; but often the
words connected with them are more so, and in such cases the pronouns etc. yield the
emphatic place :
causa aliqua (De Or. i. 250), some CASE.
stilus ille tuus (id. i. 257), that well-known STYLE of yours (in an antithesis; see
passage). [Ille is idiomatic in this sense and position.]
Romam quae apportata sunt (Verr. iv. 121) , what were carried to ROME (in contrast
to what remained at Syracuse) .
c. When sum is used as the Substantive verb ( 284. ft), it regularly
stands first, or at any rate before its subject :
est virl magni punire sontis (Off. i. 82), it is the duty of a great man to pun-
ish the guilty.
i So called from the Greek letter X (chi), on account of the criss-cross arrangement
of the words. Thus, "x (see / below).
698] ORDER OF WORDS 397
d. The verb may come first, or have a prominent position, either (1)
because the idea in it is emphatic ; or (2) because the predication of the
whole statement is emphatic ; or (3) the tense only may be emphatic :
(1) dicebat idem Gotta (Off. ii. 59), Cotta used to SAY the same thing (opposed
to others' boasting).
idem fecit adulgscens M. Antonius (id. ii. 49), the same thing was DONE by
Mark Antony in his youth. [Opposed to dixi just before.]
facis amice (Lael. 9), you ACT kindly. [Cf. amice facis, you are very KIND
(you act KINDLY).]
(2) propensior benignitas esse debgbit in calamitosos nisi forte erunt dlgni
calamitate (Off. ii. 62), liberality ought to be readier toward the unfortu-
nate unless perchance they REALLY DESERVE their misfortune.
praesertim cum scribat (Panaetius) (id. iii. 8), especially when he DOES SAY
(in his books). [Opposed to something omitted by him.]
(3) fuimus TrSes, fuit Ilium (Aen. ii. 325), toe have CEASED to be Trojans, Troy
is now no MORE.
loquor autem de communibus amlcitils (Off. iii. 45), but I am SPEAKING NOW
of common friendships.
e. Often the connection of two emphatic phrases is brought about by
giving the precedence to the most prominent part of each and leaving the
less prominent parts to follow in inconspicuous places :
plures solent esse causae (Off. i. 28), there are USUALLY SEVERAL reasons.
quos amisimus clvis, eos Martis vis perculit (Marc. 17), WHAT fellow-citizens
we have LOST, have been stricken down by the violence of war.
maximas tibi omnes gratias agimus (id. 33), we ALL render you the WARMEST
thanks.
haec res unlus est propria Caesaris (id. 11), THIS exploit belongs to Caesar
ALONE.
obiurgationes etiam non numquam incidunt necessariae (Off. i. 136), OCCA-
SIONS FOR REBUKE also SOMETIMES occur which are unavoidable.
f. Antithesis between two pairs of ideas is indicated by placing the pairs
either (1) in the same order (anaphora) or (2) in exactly the opposite order
(chiasmus') :
(1) rgrum c5pia verborum copiam gignit (De Or. iii. 125), ABUNDANCE of MAT-
TER produces COPIOUSNESS of EXPRESSION.
(2) leges suppliciO improbos afficiunt, defendunt ac tuentur bonos (Legg. ii.
13), the laws VISIT PUNISHMENTS upon the WICKED, but the GOOD they
DEFEND and PROTECT.
NOTE. Chiasmus is very common in Latin, and often seems in fact the more inarti-
ficial construction. In an artless narrative one might hear, "The women were all
drowned, they saved the men."
n6n igitur utilitatem amicitia sed utilitas amicitiam eSnsecuta est (Lael. 51), it is
not then that friendship has followed upon advantage, but advantage upon
friendship. [Here the chiasmus is only grammatical, the ideas being in the
parallel order.] (See also p. 395 : longissime, minime, prozimi.)
398 ORDER OF WORDS [ 698, 599
g. A modifier of a phrase or some part of it is often embodied within
the phrase (cf . a) :
de communi hominum meinoria (Tusc. i. 59), in regard to the UNIVERSAL
memory of man.
h. A favorite order with the poets is the interlocked, by which the attri-
bute of one pair comes between the parts of the other (synchysis) :
et superiecto pavidae natarunt aequore dainmae (Hor. Od. i. 2. 11).
NOTE. This is often joined with chiasmus: as, anna noudum expiatis fine-lit
cruoribus (id. ii. 1. 5).
i. Frequently unimportant words follow in the train of more emphatic
ones with which they are grammatically connected, and so acquire a promi-
nence out of proportion to their importance :
dictitabat se hortulos aliquos emere velle (Off. iii. 58), he gave out that he
wanted to buy some gardens. [Here aliquos is less emphatic than emere,
but precedes it on account of the emphasis on hortulos.]
J. The copula is generally felt to be of so little importance that it may
come in anywhere where it sounds well ; but usually under cover of more
emphatic words :
cSnsul ego quaeslvl, cum vos mihi essetis in cOnsiliO (Rep. iii. 28), as consul
I held an investigation in which you attended me in council.
falsum est id toturn (id. ii. 28), that is all false.
/'. Many expressions have acquired an invariable order :
res publica ; populus Romanus ; honoris causa ; pace tantl virl.
NOTE. These had, no doubt, originally an emphasis which required such an
arrangement, but in the course of time have changed their shade of meaning. Thus,
senatus populusque Romanus originally stated with emphasis the official bodies, but
became fixed so as to be the only permissible form of expression.
I. The Romans had a fondness for emphasizing persons, so that a name
or a pronoun often stands in an emphatic place :
[dlxit] venalls quidem se hortos non habere (Off. iii. 58), [said] that he didn't
have any gardens for sale, to be sure.
m. Kindred words often come together (figura elymologicd) :
ita sensim sine sensu aetas senescit (Cat. M. 38), thus gradually, without
being perceived, man's life grows old.
Special Rules
599. The following are special rules of arrangement :
a. The negative precedes the word it especially affects ; but if it belongs
to no one word in particular, it generally precedes the verb ; if it is espe-
cially emphatic, it begins the sentence. (See example, 598. /. N.)
599-601] STRUCTURE OF THE PERIOD 399
b. Itaque regularly comes first in its sentence or clause; enim, autem.
vero, quoque, never first, but usually second, sometimes third if the second
word is emphatic ; quidem never first, but after the emphatic word ; igitur
usually second ; ne . . . quidem include the emphatic word or words.
c. Inquam, inquit, are always used parenthetically, following one or more
words. So often credo, opmor, arid in poetry sometimes precor.
(I. (1) Prepositions (except terms and versus) regularly precede their
nouns ; (2) but a monosyllabic preposition is often placed between a noun
and its adjective or limiting genitive :
quern ad modum ; quam ob rem ; magno cuin metu ; omnibus cum copiis ;
nulla in re (cf. 598. i).
e. In the arrangement of clauses, the Relative clause more often comes
first in Latin, and usually contains the antecedent noun :
qu5s amisimus civls, eos Mortis vis perculit (Marc. 17), those citizens whom
we have lost, etc.
/. Personal or demonstrative pronouns tend to stand together in the
sentence :
cum vos mihi essetis in consilio (Rep. iii. 28), when you attended me in
counsel.
Structure of the Period
600. Latin, unlike modern languages, expresses the relation of words to each other
by inflection rather than by position. Hence its structure not only admits of great
variety in the arrangement of words, but is especially favorable to that form of sen-
tence which is called a Period. In a period, the sense is expressed by the sentence as a
whole, and is held in suspense till the delivery of the last word.
An English sentence does not often exhibit this form of structure. It was imitated,
sometimes with great skill and beauty, by many of the earlier writers of English prose ;
but its effect is better seen in poetry, as in the following passage :
High on a throne of royal state, which far
Outshone the wealth of Ornius and of Ind,
Or where the gorgeous East with richest hand
Showers on her kings barbaric pearl and gold,
Satan exalted sat. Paradise Lost, ii. 1-5.
But in argument or narrative, the best English writers more commonly give short
clear sentences, each distinct from the rest, and saying one thing by itself. In Latin,
on the contrary, the story or argument is viewed as a whole ; and the logical relation
among all its parts is carefully indicated.
601. In the structure of the Period, the following rules are to
be observed :
a. In general the main subject or object is put in the main clause, not
in a subordinate one :
Hannibal cum rec6nsuisset auxilia Gad6s profectus est (Liv. xxi. 21), when
Hannibal had reviewed the auxiliaries, he set out for Cadiz.
400 ORDER OF WORDS [601
Volscl exiguam spem in arrals, alia undique abscissa, cum tentassent, prae-
ter cStera adversa, Ioc5 quoque inlquO ad pugnam congressl, inlqui5re
ad fugam, cum ab omnl parte caederentur, ad preces a certamine versi
dedito iinperatore traditlsque armls, sub iugum inissl, cum singulls
vestlmentls, ignominiae cladisque plenl dimittuntur (Liv. iv. 10). [Here
the main fact is the return of the Volscians. But the striking circum-
stances of the surrender etc., which in English would be detailed in a
number of brief independent sentences, are put into the several subor-
dinate clauses within the main clause so that the passage gives a com-
plete picture in one sentence.]
b. Clauses are usually arranged in the order of prominence in the mind
of the speaker ; so, usually, cause before result ; purpose, manner, and the
like, before the act.
c In coordinate clauses, the copulative conjunctions are frequently
omitted (asyndeton). In such cases the connection is made clear by some
antithesis indicated by the position of words.
d. A change of subject, when required, is marked by the introduction
of a pronoun, if the new subject has already been mentioned. But such
change is often purposely avoided by a change in structure, the less
important being merged in the more important by the aid of participles
or of subordinate phrases :
quern ut barbarl incendium effugisse vldSrunt, tells eminus missis inter-
fecerunt (Nep. Ale. 10), when the barbarians saw that he had escaped,
THEY threw darts at HIM at long range and killed HIM.
celeriter confecto negotio, in hiberna legiones reduxit (B. G. vi. 3), the mat-
ter was soon finished, AND he led the legions, etc.
e. So the repetition of a noun, or the substitution of a pronoun for it,
is avoided unless a different case is required :
dolOrem slnonpotuero frangere occultabo (Phil. xii. 21), if I cannot conquer
the pain, I will hide IT. [Cf. if I cannot conquer I will hide the pain.]
f. The Romans were careful to close a period with an agreeable succes-
sion of long and short syllables. Thus,
quod scis nihil pr5dest, quod nescls multum obest (Or. 166), what you know
is of no use, what you do not know does great harm.
NOTE. In rhetorical writing, particularly in oratory, the Romans, influenced by
their study of the Greek orators, gave more attention to this, matter than in other
forms of composition. Quintilian (ix. 4. 72) lays down the general rule that a clause
should not open with the beginning of a verse or close with the end of one.
602, 603] QUANTITY OF VOWELS 401
PROSODY
QUANTITY
602. The poetry of the Indo-Europeaii people seems originally to have been some-
what like our own, depending on accent for its metre and disregarding the natural
quantity of syllables. The Greeks, however, developed a form of poetry which, like
music, pays close attention to the natural quantity of syllables ; and the Romans bor-
rowed their metrical forms in classical times from the Greeks. Hence Latin poetry
does not depend, like ours, upon accent and rhyme; but is measured, like musical
strains, by the length of syllables. Especially does it differ from our verse in not
regarding the prose accent of the words, but substituting for that an entirely differ-
ent system of metrical accent or ictus (see 611. a). This depends upon the character
of the measure used, falling at regular intervals of time on a long syllable or its equiva-
lent. Each syllable is counted as either long or short in Quantity ; and a long syllable
is generally reckoned equal in length to two short ones (for exceptions, see 608. e-e).
The quantity of radical (or stem) syllables as of short a in pSter or of long a in
mater can be learned only by observation and practice, unless determined by the
general rules of quantity. Most of these rules are only arbitrary formulas devised to
assist the memory; the syllables being long or short because the ancients pronounced
them so. The actual practice of the Romans in regard to the quantity of syllables is
ascertained chiefly from the usage of the poets ; but the ancient grammarians give some
assistance, and in some inscriptions long vowels are distinguished in various ways,
by the apex, for instance, or by doubling ( 10. e. N.).
Since Roman poets borrow very largely from the poetry and mythology of the
Greeks, numerous Greek words, especially proper names, make an important part of
Latin poetry. These worrls are generally employed in accordance with the Greek,
and not the Latin, laws of quantity. Where these laws vary in any important point,
the variations will be noticed in the rules below.
GENERAL RULES
603. The following are General Rules of Quantity (of. 9-11):
Quantity of Vowels
a. Vowels. A vowel before another vowel or h is short : as, via, tr&ho.
Exceptions. 1 . In the genitive form -ius, I is long : as, utrius, nullius. It
is, however, sometimes short in verse ( 113. c).
2. In the genitive and dative singular of the fifth declension, e is long between
two vowels: as, diei; otherwise usually short, as in fidSi, r5i, spi.
NOTE. It was once long in these also : as, plenu* fide! (Ennius, at the end of a hex-
ameter). A is also long before I in the old genitive of the first declension: as, aulai.
3. In the conjugation of fi5, i is long except when followed by er. Thus, fio,
fiebam, flam, but fieri, fierem ; so also fit ( 606. a. 3).
4. In many Greek words the vowel in Latin represents a long vowel or diph-
thong, and retains its original long quantity : as, Trees (T/xSes), Thalia (6aXo),
heroas (TJ/>WOJ), aer (O.TJP).
402 PROSODY: QUANTITY [003
NOTE. But many Greek words are more or less Latinized in this respect: as,
Academia, chorla, MalSa, platga.
5. In dius, in iheu usually, and sometimes in Diana and one, the first vowel is
long.
b. Diphthongs. A Diphthong is long : as, foedus, cui, 1 aula.
Exception. The preposition prae in compounds is generally shortened before
a vowel: as, pra5-ustis (Aen. vii. 524), prae-eunte (id. v. 186).
NOTE. U following q, s, or g, does not make a diphthong with a following vowel
(see 5. N. 2). For a-io, mi-ior, pe-ior, etc., see 11. d and N.
c. Contraction. A vowel formed by contraction (cross's) is long : as, nfl,
from nihil ; cogo for fee-ago ; malo for ma-vol5.
NOTE. Two vowels of different syllables may be^un together without full con-
traction (synizesis, 642): as, ddinde (for deinde), mebs (for me5s) ; and often two
syllables are united by Synseresis ( 642) without contraction : as when parigtibus is
pronounced paryStibus.
d. A vowel before ns, nf, gn, is long : as, Inst5, infans, signum.
Quantity of Syllables
e. A syllable is long if it contains a long vowel or a diphthong : as,
ca-rus, 5-men, foe-dus.
/. Position. A syllable is long by position if its vowel, though short, is
followed by two consonants or a double consonant : as, adventus, cortex.
But if the two consonants are a mute followed by 1 or r the syllable may
be either long or short {common) ; as, alacris or alacris ; patris or pStris.
Vowels should be pronounced long or short in accordance with their nat-
ural quantity without regard to the length of the syllable by position.
NOTE 1. The rules of Position do not, in general, apply to final vowels before a
word beginning with two consonants.
NOTE 2. A syllable is long if its vowel is followed by consonant i (except in
biiugis, quadrliugis) : see 11. d.
NOTE 3. Compounds of iacio, though written with one i, commonly retain the
long vowel of the prepositions with which they are compounded, as if before a con-
sonant, and, if the vowel of the preposition is short, the first syllable is long by posi-
tion on the principle of 11. e.
obicis host! (at the end of a hexameter, Aen. iv. 549).
inicit et saltu (at the beginning of a hexameter, Aen. ix. 552).
proice tela manfi (at the beginning of a hexameter, Aen. vi. 836).
Later poets sometimes shorten the preposition in trisyllabic forms, and preposi-.
tions ending in a vowel are sometimes contracted as if the verb began with a vowel :
(1) cur an|nos 5bi|cis (Claud, iv C. H. 2(34).
(2) reicg ca|pellas (Eel. iii. 96, at end).
NOTE 4. The y or w sound resulting from synseresis ( 642) has the effect of a con-
sonant in making position: as, abietis (abyetis), fluviorum (fluvyorum). Conversely,
when the semivowel becomes a vowel, position is lost : as, silflae, for silvae.
l Rarely dissyllabic cu! (as Mart. i. 104. 22).
604] FINAL SYLLABLES 403
FINAL SYLLABLES
604. The Quantity of Final Syllables is as follows :
. Monosyllables ending in a vowel are long : as, me, tu, hi, ne.
1. The attached particles -nS, -quS, -vg, -cS, -pt6, and r5- (r5d-) are short; se-
(sed-) and di- are long. Thus, secedit, seditio, exercitumque rSducit, dimitto. But
re- is often long in religio (relligio), retuli (rettuli), repull (reppuli).
&. Nouns and adjectives of one syllable are long : as, sol, 6s (oris), bos,
par, vas (vasis), ver, vis.
Exceptions. c5r, fSl, lac, mSl, 5s (ossis), vas (vSdis), vir, t5t, qu6t.
c. Most monosyllabic Particles are short : as, Sn, in, ds, ne'e. But eras,
cur, en, non, quin, sin with adverbs in c : as, hie, hue, sic are long.
d. Final a in words declined by cases is short, except in the ablative sin-
gular of the first declension ; in all other words final a is long. Thus, ea
stellS. (nominative), cum ea stella (ablative) ; frustra, voca (imperative),
postea, triginta.
Exceptions. eia, ita, quia, puts (suppose) ; and, in late use, triginta etc.
e. Final e is short : as in nube, ducite, saepg.
Exception*. Final e is long 1. In adverbs formed from adjectives of the
first and second declension, with others of like form : as, alte, longe, misere, aperte,
saepissime. So fere, ferae.
But it is short in ben6, malS ; InfernS, supernS.
2. In nouns of the fifth declension : as, fide (also fame), facie, hodie, quare
(qua re).
3. In Greek neuters plural of the second declension : as, cete ; and in some
other Greek words : Phoebe, Circe, Andromache, etc.
4. In the imperative singular of the second conjugation : as, vide.
But sometimes cav5, hab5, tac5, va!5, vide" (cf. 629. 6. 1).
/. Final i is long : as in turn, fill, audi.
Exceptions. Final i is common in mihi, tibi, sibi, ibi, ubi ; and short in nisi,
quasi, sicutl, cul (when making two syllables), and in Greek vocatives : as, Alexl.
g Final o is common : but long in datives and ablatives ; also in nouns
of the third declension. It is almost invariably long in verbs before the
time of Ovid.
Exceptions. cit8, mod8 (dummodS), imm5, prefects, eg5, du5, ced6 (the impera-
tive); so sometimes octd, IlicS, etc., particularly in later writers.
h. Final u is long. Final y is short.
i. Final as, es, os, are long ; final is, us, ja, are short : as, nefas, rupes,
servos (accusative), honos ; hostis, amicus, Tethys.
404 PROSODY: QUANTITY [604-606
Exceptions. 1. as is short in Greek plural accusatives : as, lampadSs ; and
in ans.
2. es is short in the nominative of nouns of the third declension (lingual) hav-
ing a short vowel in the stem * : as, milSs (-itis), obs&s (-Mis), except abies, aries,
paries, pes ; in the present of ease (es, ad8s) ; in the preposition penes, and in the
plural of Greek nouns : as, heroSs, lampadSs.
3. os is short in compSs, impSs ; in the Greek nominative ending : as, barbitSs ;
in the old nominative of the second declension : as, servSs (later servus).
4. is in plural cases is long : as in boms, nobis, vobls, omnis (accusative plural).
5. is is long in the verb forms fis, sis, vis (with quivis etc.), veils, malls, noils,
edis ; in the second person singular of the present indicative active in the fourth
conjugation: as, audis ; and sometimes in the forms in -eris (future perfect indica-
tive or perfect subjunctive).
6. us is long in the genitive singular and nominative, accusative, and vocative
plural of the fourth declension ; and in nouns of the third declension having u
(long) in the stem: as, virtus (-utis), incus (-udis). But pecfis, -fidis.
j. Of other final syllables, those ending in a single consonant are short.
Thus, amat, amatur; donee, fac, procul, iubar.
Exceptions. Me (also hie) ; allec ; the ablatives illoc, etc. ; certain adverbs in
-c : as, illic, istuc ; lien, and some Greek nouns : as, aer, aether, crater.
Perfects and Perfect Participles
605. Perfects and Perfect Participles of two syllables have the
first syllable long: as, iuvi, iutum (iuvo), vidi, visum (video); fugi
(fugio); veni (venio).
Exceptions. bibi, dSdl, fidi, scidl, stSti, stiti, tflli; citum, datum, itum, Htum,
quitum, ratum, rutum, satum. situm, statum. In some compounds of sto, statum
is found (long), as praestatum.
a. In reduplicated perfects the vowel of the reduplication is short ; the
vowel of the following syllable is, also, usually short : as, cgcidl (cad5),
dldlci (disco), pupiigl (pungo), ciicurri (curro), tetendi (tendo), mSmSrdl (mor-
deo). But cecidl from cacdo, pepedl from ped5.
Derivatives
606. Rules for the Quantity of Derivatives are :
a. Forms from the same stem have the same quantity : as, Smo, ama-
visti; gfenus, generis.
Exceptions. 1. bos, lar, mas, par, pes, sal, also arbos, have a long vowel
in the nominative, though the stem-vowel is short (cf. genitive bSvis etc.).
1 The quantity of the stem-vowel may be seen in the genitive singular.
606, 607] RHYTHM 405
2. Nouns in -or, genitive -oris, have the vowel shortened before the final r : as,
honor. (But this shortening is comparatively late, so that in early Latin these
nominatives are often found long.)
3. Verb-forms with vowel originally long regularly shorten it before final m,
r, ort: as, amem, amSr, dicerSr, amet (compare amemus), dicerSt, audit, fit.
NOTE. The final syllable in t of the perfect was long in old Latin, but is short in
the classic period.
4. A few long stem-syllables are shortened : as, acer, Scerbus. So de-iSro and
pe-i5ro, weakened from iuro.
b. Forms from the same root often show inherited variations of vowel
quantity (see 17) : as, dlc5 (cf . maledicus) ; duco (dux, duels) ; fido (perfidus) ;
vox, vocis (v&co); lex, legis (ISgo).
c. Compounds retain the quantity of the words which compose them :
as, oc-cido (cSdo), oc-cido (caedo), in-Iquus (aequus).
NOTE. Greek words compounded with irp6 have o short: as, prSpheta, pr5l5gus.
Some Latin compounds of pro have o short : as, prSflciscor, prSfiteor. Compounds with
ne vary: as, ngfas, nggo, ngqued, nequam.
RHYTHM
607. The essence of Rhythm in poetry is the regular recurrence of syllables
pronounced with more stress than those intervening. To produce this effect in its
perfection, precisely equal times should occur between the recurrences of the stress.
But, in the application of rhythm to words, the exactness of these intervals is sacri-
ficed somewhat to the necessary length of the words; and, on the other hand, the
words are forced somewhat in their pronunciation, to produce more nearly the proper
intervals of time. In different languages these adaptations take place in different
degrees ; one language disregarding more the intervals of time, another the pronun-
ciation of the words.
The Greek language early developed a very strict rhythmical form of poetry, in
which the intervals of time were all-important. The earliest Latin, on the other hand,
as in the Saturnian and Fescennine verse, was not so restricted. But the purely
metrical forms were afterwards adopted from the Greek, and supplanted the native
forms of verse. Thus the Latin poetry with which we have to do follows for the most
part Greek rules, which require the formal division of words (like music) into measures
of equal times, technically called Feet. The strict rhythm was doubtless more closely
followed in poetry that was sung than in that which was declaimed or intoned. In
neither language, however, is the time perfectly preserved, even in single measures;
and there are some cases in which the regularity of the time between the ictuses is
disturbed.
The Greeks and Romans distinguished syllables of two kinds in regard to the time
required for their pronunciation, a long syllable having twice the metrical value of a
short one. But it must not be supposed that all long syllables were of equal length,
or even that in a given passage each long had just twice the length of the contiguous
shorts. The ratio was only approximate at best, though necessarily more exact in
singing than in recitation. Nor are longs and shorts the only forms of syllables that
are found. In some cases a long syllable was protracted, so as to have the time of
three or even of four shorts, and often one long or two shorts were pronounced hi less
than their proper time, though they were perhaps distinguishable in time from one
406 PROSODY : RHYTHM [ 607, 608
short (see 608. c, d). Sometimes a syllable naturally short seems to have been
slightly prolonged, so as to represent a long, though in most (not all) cases the appar-
ent irregularity can be otherwise explained. In a few cases, also, a pause takes the
place of one or more syllables to fill out the required length of the measure. This
could, of course, take place only at the end of a word: hence the importance of
Caesura and Diaeresis in prosody ( 611. b, c).
Measures
608. Rhythm consists of the division of musical sound into
equal intervals of time called Measures or Feet.
The most natural division of musical time is into measures con-
sisting of either two or three equal parts. But the ancients also
distinguished measures of five equal parts.
NOTE. The divisions of musical time are marked by a stress of voice on one or
the other part of the measure. This stress is called the Ictus (beat), or metrical accent
(see 611. a).
a* The unit of length in Prosody is one short syllable. This is called
a Mora. It is represented by the sign w, or in musical notation by the
eighth note or quaver (]*).
6. A long syllable is regularly equal to two morse, and is represented
by the sign , or by the quarter note or crotchet (j*).
c. A long syllable may be protracted, so as to occupy the time of three
or four morse. Such a syllable, if equal to three morse, is represented
by the sign i_ (or dotted quarter i*) ; if equal to four, by i_i (or the half
note or minim, f^).
d. A long syllable may be contracted, so as to take practically the time
of a short one. Such a syllable is sometimes represented by the sign >.
e A short syllable may be contracted so as to occupy less than one mora.
/. A pause sometimes occurs at the end of a verse or a series of verses,
to fill up the time. A pause of one mora in a measure is indicated by the
sign A ; one of two morse by the sign X.
g. One or more syllables are sometimes placed before the proper begin-
ning of the measure. Such syllables are called an Anacrusis or prelude. 1
The anacrusis is regularly equal to the unaccented part of the measure.
1 The same thing occurs in modern poetry, and in modern music any unaccented
syllables at the beginning are treated as an anacrusis, i.e. they make an incomplete
measure before the first bar. This was not the case in ancient music. The ancients
seem to have treated any unaccented syllable at the beginning as belonging to the fol-
lowing accented ones, so as to make with them a foot or measure. Thus it would seem
that there was an original form of Indo-European poetry which was iambic in its
structure, or which, at least, accented the second syllable rather than the first.
609] MEASUKES 407
609. The feet most frequently employed in Latin verse, to-
gether with their musical notation, are the following :
a. TRIPLE OR UNEQUAL MEASURES (f) 1
1 . Trochee (J- w = i* /*) : as, regls.
2. Iambus (w -L = j* i*) : as, duces.
V \
3. Tribrach 2 (w w w = I* j* j) : as, homlnls.
b. DOUBLE OR EQUAL MEASURES (|)
1. Dactyl (_ w w =1* I* I*): as, consults.
2. Anapaest (w w _ = I* I* j*): as, monltos.
3. Spondee ( __ P j*) : as, re^es.
c. SIX-TIMED MEASURES (f)
1. Ionic a mdiore ( __ w w = j* I* I* I*) : as, cGnfecerat.
2. Ionic a minore (ww __ = l*l*l* I*) : as > f^^tssent.
3. Choriambus ( _ ww _ =|* (* (* |*) :as > contulerant.
d. QUINARY OR HEMIOLIC 8 MEASURES (|)
1. Cretic ( _ w _ = (* |* I*) : as, consules.
2. Paeon primus ( _ vy w w = I* I* I* I*) : as, consuKbus.
3. Paeon quartus (w w w _ = I* I* I* (*): as, Mnerl.
4. Bacchlua (^ __ = I* I* I*): as, amlcos.
1 Called diplasic, the two parts (Thesis and Arsis) being in the ratio of 2 to 1.
2 Not found as a fundamental foot, but only as the resolution of a Trochee or Iambus.
8 Called hemiolic, the two parts being in the ratio of 1 to l, or of 2 to 3.
408 PROSODY: RHYTHM [609
NOTE. Several compound feet are mentioned by the grammarians, viz. Pyrrhic
(w w); Amphibrach (w w); Antibacchlus ( w); Proceleusmatic (w w w w);
the Molossus ( ); the 2d and 3d Paeon, 'having a long syllable in the 2d or 3d
place, with three short ones ; 1st, 2d, 3d, and 4th Epitrltus, having a short syllable in
the 1st, 2d, 3d, or 4th place, with three long ones.
Irrational Feet
e. Feet with these apparent quantities do not always occupy equal time,
but may be contracted or prolonged to suit the series in which they occur.
They are then called irrational, because the thesis and arsis do not have
their normal ratio. 1 Such are :
Irrational Spondee :
(in place of a Trochee) J- > 1 J
(in place of an Iambus) > J ^-^ *'*
Cyclic Dactyl (in place of a Trochee) :
-L v_/w or -^ w = J. J; Jj or J. J J
Cyclic Anapaest (in place of an Iambus) :
fe fc h I s fc h
^ -L or w v-*- = J: J: J. or J ^ J.
The apparent dactyl > w vy, as a substitute for an iambus, and the
apparent anapaest w w >, as a substitute for a trochee, occur frequently
in the dramatic writers.
NOTE. Narrative poetry was written for rhythmical recitation, or chant, with
instrumental accompaniment ; and Lyrical poetry for rhythmical melody, or singing.
It must be borne in mind that in ancient music which in this differs widely from
modern the rhythm of the melody was identical with the rhythm of the text. The
lyric poetry was to be sung ; the poet was musician and composer, as well as author.
To this day a poet is said conventionally to " sing."
Thus a correct understanding of the rhythmical structure of the verse gives us the
time, though not the tune, to which it was actually sung. The exact time, however,
as indicated by the succession of long and short syllables, was varied according to
certain laws of so-called " Rhythmic," as will be explained below. In reading ancient
verse it is necessary to bear in mind not only the variations in the relative length of
syllables, but the occasional pause necessary to fill out the measure ; and to remember
that the rhythmical accent is the only one of importance, though the words should be
distinguished carefully, and the sense preserved. Poetry should not be scanned, but
read metrically.
1 It seems probable that both thesis and arsis of an irrational foot were affected by
the necessity of preserving the rhythmical time of the foot.
610, 611] THE MUSICAL ACCENT 409
Substitution
610. In many cases measures of the same time may be substi-
tuted for each other, a long syllable taking the place of two short
ones, or two short syllables the place of a long one.
In the former case the measure is said to be contracted; in the
latter, to be resolved :
a. A Spondee ( __ ) may take the place of a Dactyl (_ w w) or an
Anapaest (w \j _); and a Tribrach (^ w w) may take the place of a
Trochee ( _ v^) or an Iambus (w _ ). The optional substitution of one
long syllable for two short ones is represented by the sign ^o.
b. When a long syllable having the Ictus ( 611. a) is resolved, the
ictus properly belongs to both the resulting short syllables ; but for con-
venience the mark of accent is placed on the first :
mine ex|perlar | sftn S|cet6 | tibl cor | acr in | p^cto|r^. PI. Bac. 405.
The Musical Accent
611. That part of the measure which receives the stress of voice
(the musical accent) is called the Thesis ; the unaccented part is
called the Arsis. 1
a. The stress of voice laid upon the Thesis is called the Ictus (beat).
It is marked thus : _. w w.
5. The ending of a word within a measure is called Caesura. When
this coincides with a rhetorical pause, it is called the Caesura of the verse,
and is of main importance as affecting the melody or rhythm.
c. The coincidence of the end of a word with that of a measure is
called Diaeresis.
1 The Thesis signifies properly the putting down (Ofou, from rftfy/u, put, place) of
the foot in beating time, in the march or dance (" downward beat "), and the Arsis the
raising (dpr, from detpu, raise) of the foot (" upward beat"). By the Latin gram-
marians these terms were made to mean, respectively, the ending and the beginning of
a measure. By a misunderstanding which has prevailed till recently, since the time of
Bentley, their true signification has been reversed. They will here be used in accord-
ance with their ancient meaning, as has now become more common. This metrical
accent, recurring at regular intervals of time, is what constitutes the essence of the
rhythm of poetry as distinguished from prose, and should be constantly kept in mind.
The error mentioned arose from applying to trochaic and dactylic verse a definition
which was true only of iambic or anapaestic.
410 PROSODY: VERSIFICATION [612
VERSIFICATION
THE VERSE
612. A single line of poetry that is, a series of feet set in a
recognized order is called a Verse. 1
NOTE. Most of the common verses originally consisted of two series (hemistichs),
but the joint between them is often obscured. It is marked in Iambic and Trochaic
Tetrameter by the Diseresis, in Dactylic Hexameter by the Csesura.
a. A verse lacking a syllable at the end is called Catalectic, that is, hav-
ing a pause to fill the measure ; when the end syllable is not lacking, the
verse is called Acatalectic, and has no such pause.
b. A final syllable, regularly short, is sometimes lengthened before a
pause : 2 it is then said to be long by Diastole :
nostror Mwl obruimur, oriturque miserrima caedes. Aen. ii. 411.
c. The last syllable of any verse may be indifferently long or short
(sylldba anceps).
Scansion and Elision
d. To divide the verse into its appropriate measures, according to the
rules of quantity and versification, is called scanning or scansion (scansiS,
a climbing or advance by steps, from scando).
NOTE. In reading verse rhythmically, care should be taken to preserve the meas-
ure or time of the syllables, but at the same time not to destroy or confuse the words
themselves, as is often done in scanning.
e. In scanning, a vowel or diphthong at the end of a word (unless an
interjection) is partially suppressed when the next word begins with a vowel
or with h. This is called Elision (bruising). 8
In reading it is usual entirely to suppress elided syllables. Strictly, how-
ever, they should be sounded lightly.
1 The word Verse (versus) signifies a turning back, i.e. to begin again in like
manner, as opposed to Prose (prorsus or pr&versus), which means straight ahead.
3 This usage is comparatively rare, most cases where it appears to be found being
caused by the retention of an originally long quantity.
8 The practice of Elision is followed in Italian and French poetry, and is sometimes
adopted in English, particularly in the older poets:
T' inveigle and invite th' unwary sense. Comus 538.
In early Latin poetry a final syllable ending in 5 often loses this letter even before a
consonant (cf . 15. 7) :
senio confectu* quiescit. Enn. (Cat. M. 14).
612-615] DACTYLIC HEXAMETER 411
NOTE. Elision is sometimes called by the Greek name Synakepha (smearing).
Rarely a syllable is elided at the end of a verse when the next verse begins with a
vowel: this is called Synapheia (binding).
f. A final m, with the preceding vowel, is suppressed in like manner
when the next word begins with a vowel or h : this is called Ecthlipsis
(squeezing out) :
mSnstr""* horrend MTO , inform 6 , inggns, cui lumen adgmptum.
Aen. iii. 658.
NOTE 1. Final m has a feeble nasal sound, so that its partial suppression before
the initial vowel of the following word was easy.
NOTE 2. The monosyllables do, dem, spe, spem, sim, sto, stem, qui (plural), and
monosyllabic interjections are never elided ; nor is an iambic word elided in dactylic
verse. Elision is often evaded by skilful collocation of words.
g. Elision is sometimes omitted when a word ending in a vowel has a spe-
cial emphasis, or is succeeded by a pause. This omission is called Hiatus
(gaping).
NOTE. The final vowel is sometimes shortened in such cases.
FORMS OF VERSE
613. A verse receives its name from its dominant or funda-
mental foot : as, Dactylic, Iambic, Trochaic, Anapcestic; and from
the number of measures (single or double) which it contains:
as, Hexameter, Tetrameter, Trimeter, Dimeter.
NOTE. Trochaic, Iambic, and Anapaestic verses are measured not by single feet,
but by pairs (dipodia), so that six Iambi make a Trimeter.
614. A Stanza, or Strophe, consists of a definite number of
verses ranged in a fixed order.
Many stanzas are named after some eminent poet: as, Sapphic
(from Sappho), Alcaic (from Alcaeus), Archilochian (from Archilo-
chus), Horatian (from Horace), and so on.
DACTYLIC VERSE
Dactylic Hexameter
615. The Dactylic Hexameter, or Heroic Verse, consists theo-
retically of six dactyls. It may be represented thus : -
_.ww|-.vyw|--||wvy|--vyv->|-.ww | -- -
ircrircriricr rcr rc/irH
412 PROSODY: VERSIFICATION [615
NOTE. The last foot is usually said to be a spondee, but is in reality a trochee
standing for a dactyl, since the final syllable is not measured.
a. For any foot, except the fifth, a spondee may be substituted.
&. Rarely a spondee is found in the fifth foot ; the verse is then called
spondaic and usually ends with a word of four syllables.
Thus in Eel. iv. 49 the verse ends with incrementum.
c. The hexameter has regularly one principal ccesura sometimes two
almost always accompanied by a pause in the sense.
1. The principal csesura is usually after the thesis (less commonly in the arsis)
of the third foot, dividing the verse into two parts in sense and rhythm. See
examples in d.
2. It may also be after the thesis (less commonly in the arsis) of the fourth foot.
In this case there is often another csesura in the second foot, so that the verse
is divided into three parts:
parts f6;r6x || ar|densqu c ocu|lfs || et | sibilS | cdlla. Aen. v. 277.
NOTE. Often the only indication of the principal among a number of caesuras is
the break in the sense.
A caesura occurring after the first syllable of a foot is called masculine. A caesura
occurring after the second syllable of a foot is called feminine (as in the fifth foot of
the third and fourth verses in d) . A caesura may also be found in any foot of the verse,
but a proper csesural pause could hardly occur in the first or sixth.
When the fourth foot ends a word, the break (properly a diaeresis) is sometimes
improperly called bucolic csssura, from its frequency in pastoral poetry.
d. The first seven verses of the JEneid, divided according to the fore-
going rules, will appear as follows. The principal caesura in each verse is
marked by double lines :
ArmS vl|rumqu6 c5|no || Trojiae qul | primus ab | 6r!s
Itali|am fa|t5 profu|gus || La[vimaquS | venit
HtorS, | mult wm il|l e et ter|ris || iacjtatus 6t | alto
vi sup8|rum || sae|vae memo|rem Iu|nonis ob | Irm;
nmlta quo|qu e et bel|l5 pasjsus || dum | condgret | urbgm,
Infer|retqu8 d|os Latl|5, || g6nus | unde La|tinum,
Alba|n!qu8 pa|tr6s, || at]qu e altae | moenia | Romae.
1. The feminine ccesura is seen in the following:
Dis ggnl|tl potu|er6: || tSjnent m6dij a omn!a| silvae. Aen. vi. 131.
NOTE. The Hexameter is thus illustrated in English verse:
Over the sea, paat Crete, on the Syrian shore to the southward,
Dwells in the well-tilled lowland a dark-haired ^Ethiop people,
Skilful with needle and loom, and the arts of the dyer and carver,
Skilful, but feeble of heart ; for they know not the lords of Olympus,
Lovers of men ; neither broad-browed Zeus, nor Pallas Athene^
Teacher of wisdom to heroes, bestower of might in the battle ;
Share not the cunning of Hermes, nor list to the songs of Apollo,
Fearing the stars of the sky, and the roll of the blue salt water.
Kingsley's Andromeda.
616, 617] ELEGIAC STANZA 413
Elegiac Stanza
616. The Elegiac Stanza consists of two verses, a Hexame-
ter followed by a Pentameter. 1
The Pentameter verse is the same as the Hexameter, except that it
omits the last half of the third foot and of the sixth foot :
rc/ircj*ir r rcrircrir
a. The Pentameter verse is therefore to be scanned as two half-verses, the
second of which always consists of two dactyls followed by a single syllable.
&. The Pentameter has no regular Caesura ; but the first half-verse
must always end with a word (diceresis, 611. c), which is followed by a
pause to complete the measure. 8
c. The following verses will illustrate the forms of the Elegiac Stanza :
cum sublt | illijus || trls|tissim5, | noctis I|mago
qua mini | supre|inum A" || tempus In | urb8 fu|It, A
cum rep6|t5 noc|tem || qua | tot mlhi | cars r6|liqui,
labltur | ex 6cu|lis 7\ || nunc qu6quS | guttsi m6|!s. A
iam propS | lux Sd8|rat || qua | me dis|ced6r6 | Caesar
flnlbus | extre|mae A" || iussert | Ausoni|ae. A~
Ov. Trist. i. 3.
NOTE. The Elegiac Stanza differs widely in character from hexameter verse (of
which it is a mere modification) by its division into Distichs, each of which must have
its own sense complete. It is employed in a great variety of compositions, epistolary,
amatory, and mournful, and was especially a favorite of the poet Ovid. It has been
Illustrated in English verse, imitated from the German :
In the Hexjameter | rises 1 1 the | fountain's | silvery | column ;
In the Penjtameter ! aye || falling in | melody | back.
Other Dactylic Verses
617. Other dactylic verses or half-verses are occasionally used
by the lyric poets.
1 Called pentameter by the old grammarians, who divided it, formally, into five
feet (two dactyls or spondees, a spondee, and two anapaests), as follows:
||_v-w|_ww|_||_|w^_|ww_||
2 The time of this pause, however, may be filled by the protraction of the preced-
ing syllable :
414 PROSODY : VERSIFICATION [ 617, 618
a. The Dactylic Tetrameter alternates with the hexameter, forming the
Alcmanian Strophe, as follows :
o for|tes pe|i5r5qu6 | passl
mecum | saepe" vl|ri, || nunc | vino | pellltg | curas ;
eras in|g6ns It|rabimus | aequor.
Hor. Od. i. 7 (so 28 ; Ep. 12).
6. The Dactylic Penthemim (five half-feet) consi^s of half a pentame-
ter verse. It is used in combination with the Hexameter to form the First
Archilochian Strophe:
diffu|g6r6 ni|v6s, || r8dS|unt iam | graminS, | campis,
arb6ri|busqu6 co|mae;
mutat | terrS vl|c6s || et | decr6s|centIS | ripas
fluminj | praete"r6|unt. Hor. Od. iv. 7.
For the Fourth Archilochian Strophe (Archilochian heptameter, alternating with
iambic trimeter catalectic), see 626. 11.
IAMBIC VERSE
Iambic Trimeter
618. The Iambic Trimeter is the ordinary verse of dramatic
dialogue. It consists of three measures, each containing a double
iambus (iambic dipody}. The caesura is usually in the third foot.
tJ-^-L\^\\J-^-L\^.L^2-
NOTK. The sign ^ -L denotes possible substitution of an irrational spondee ( >--)
for an iambus (w--).
a. The Iambic Trimeter is often used in lyric poetry (1) as an inde-
pendent system, or (2) alternating with the Dimeter to form the Iambic
Strophe, as follows :
(1) iam \ am e"ff!cajc! || do minus | scKntfae"
supple"x gt 6|ro || regnS pe"r | PrSse'rpinae',
p8r 6t Dia|nae || non mov6n|da numina,
p8r atquS lfb|ros || carmmum | val^ntium
deflxS ca^|!5 || d4voca|r6 sfd8ra,
Canidia, par|c8 || voclbus | tande'm sacrfs,
cltumque r^tjro || re"tro s61|v8 tiirbin^m. Hor. Epod. 17.
The last two lines may be thus translated, to show the movement
in English :
Oh ! stay, Canidia, stay thy rites of sorcery,
Thy charm unbinding backward let thy swift wheel fly !
618] IAMBIC TEIMETEB 416
(2) beitus fl|16 || qui prociil | negottis,
ut prfsca gens | mortalium,
pte"rn rdjra || bQbus e"x|erce"t suls,
soldtus 6m|nl fenor4 ;
n8qu e e"xcita|tur || classico | mll^s trucf,
ne"qu e h6rr6t i|ratum mar6. Hor. Epod. 2.
5. In the stricter form of Iambic Trimeter an irrational spondee ( > __)
or its equivalent (a cyclic anapaest w \_r- or an apparent dactyl > ^ w,
609. e) may be regularly substituted for the first iambus of any dipody.
A tribrach (\j \j w) may stand for an iambus anywhere except in the
last place. In the comic poets any of these forms or the proceleusmatic
(ww v w) may be substituted in any foot except the last: 1
6 Idcls al|m6 rector || e"t | caelf de"cus !
qu* alte"rna cur|ru spatiS || flamlmlfgr 5 ambiens,
illustrg Ia6|tis || 6xsSrls | terrfs cSput.
Sen. Here. Fur. 692-94.
quid quae"rls? anjnos || s6xagfn|ta natus 4s.
Ter. Haut. 62.
hSmo s um : humalnl || nil a m g ali|6num puto.
vel mg mon4|r hoc || v61 perc6n|tari puts.
id. 77, 78.
c. The Choliambic (lame Iambic) substitutes a trochee for the last
iambus :
aequ st be"a|tus || ac p6^|ma ciim scrfbit:
tarn gaudfit fn | s6, || tamqug s ip|s nuVdtur.
Catull. xxiii. 15, 16.
NOTE. The verse may also be regarded as trochaic with anacrusis : as,
d. The Iambic Trimeter Catalectic is represented as follows :
II e -L v, j. | e ii -L w -L | e> L -L \\
It is used in combination with other measures (see 626. 11), and is
shown in the following :
Vulcanus ar|dens || urit 6f |ficmas. Hor. Od. i. 4.
or in English :
On purple peaks a deeper shade descending. Scott.
1 The greater freedom of substitution in the comedy is due to the fact that the reree
is regarded as made up of separate feet rather than of dipodies.
416 PROSODY: VERSIFICATION [619
Other Iambic Measures
619. Other forms of Iambic verse are the following :
a. The Iambic Tetrameter Catalectic (Septenarius). This consists of
seven and a half iambic feet, with diseresis after the fourth and with the
same substitutions as in Iambic Trimeter :
n om id c fr c o arce"s|sor, ndptlas || quod in* adparajrl senslt.
qufbus quldgm quam facl|18 potuerat || qulescl s* hie | qulessgt!
Ter. And. 690, 691.
The metrical scheme of these two verses may be represented as follows :
Its movement is like the following :
In good king Charles's gdlden days, when loyalty no harm meant.
Vicar of Bray.
6. The Iambic Tetrameter Acatalectic (Octonarius). This consists of
eight full iambic feet with the same substitutions as in Iambic Trimeter.
Like the Septenarius it is used in lively dialogue :
dlcat 8am dare" | nos Ph6rml6|nl || nuptum n6 | suscens6at;
et magfe ess* fl|l Mm Id6neum, || qu* ipsf sit fami|llari6r.
Ter. Ph. 720, 721.
The metrical scheme of these two verses may be represented as follows :
c. The Iambic Dimeter. This may be either acatalectic or catalectic.
1. The Iambic Dimeter Acatalectic consists of four iambic feet. It is used
in combination with some longer verse (see 618. a).
2. The Iambic Dimeter Catalectic consists of three and a half iambic feet.
It is used only in choruses :
quonam cru^n|tS, Ma4nas,
praec^ps am6|re sae>o,
rapltiir quod fm|pot&itl
facinus parat | furorg? Sen. Med. 850-853.
NOTE. Owing to the fact that in modern music each measure begins with a down-
ward beat, some scholars regard all these forms of Iambic verse as Trochaic verse
with anacrusis ( 618. c. N.).
620] TROCHAIC VERSE 417
TROCHAIC VERSE
620. The most common form of Trochaic verse is the Tetram-
eter Catalectic (Septendrius), consisting of four dipodies, the last
of which lacks a syllable. There is regularly diaeresis after the
fourth foot :
H_iw-^&|-^w-.sii-.w_.ei-Lv_iA||
In musical notation :
rrrnrcrrirrrnrrr-'
ad t s advenlO, spe"m, salutem, || consul"" 1 , auxIU"" 1 e"xpet6ns.
Ter. And. 319.
In English verse :
Tell me n<5t in mournful numbers || Iffe is but an e'mpty dream.
Longfellow.
a. In the stricter form of the Septenarius substitutions are allowed
only in the even feet, but in comedy the tribrach \j \j w, or an irrational
spondee _L >, cyclic dactyl _L ww, or apparent anapaest v5 w >, may be
substituted for any of the first six feet ; a tribrach for the seventh :
Itid em h&be't p6t5|s MOT ac vest! turn: || tarn c5nsimllistj atqu e egS.
surS, pes, sta|tur5, tonsus, || 6cull, nasum, | ve"l labrS,
malae, me"ntum, | barbS, cdllus; || totus ! qufd ver|bfs opiist?
si tergum ci|catrlc6sum, || nihfl hoc slmflist | simfllus.
PI. Am. 443-446.
The metrical scheme of these four verses is as follows :
\\^vv-t-^,\-L>-L>\\--> ^w>|-Z.v; -- A ||
|| -L w -L ^|_^^^-w||^w>-A> \-L w -i- A ||
\\-L > -L >-L^,-L>J-> _L> --v -*- A
6. The Trochaic Tetrameter Acatalectic (Octonarius), consisting of four
complete dipodies, occurs in the lyrical parts of comedy.
Substitutions as in the Septenarius are allowed except in the last foot.
c. Some other forms of trochaic verse are found in the lyric poets, in
combination with other feet, either as whole lines or parts of lines :
non e"bur n8|qu e aur6um. [Dimeter Catalectic.]
m6a r8nf|d6t fn domo | lacdnar. [Iambic Trimeter Catalectic.]
Hor. Od. ii. 18.
418 PROSODY: VERSIFICATION [621-623
MIXED MEASURES
621. Different measures may be combined in the same verse in two different
ways. Either (1) a series of one kind is simply joined to a series of another kind
(compare the changes of rhythm not uncommon in modern music) ; or (2) single feet
of other measures are combined with the prevailing measures, in which case these odd
feet are adapted by changing their quantity so that they become irrational (see 609. e) .
When enough measures of one kind occur to form a series, we may suppose a
change of rhythm; when they are isolated, we must suppose adaptation. Of the
indefinite number of possible combinations but few are found in Latin poetry.
622. The following verses, combining different rhythmical
series, are found in Lathi lyrical poetry :
1. Greater Archilochian (Dactylic Tetrameter ; Trochaic Tripody) :
s<51vltur | acris hl|e'ms gra|td vlc6 || verfe | 4t FS|v6ni. Hor. Od. i. 4.
NOTB. It is possible that the dactyls were cyclic ; but the change of measure
seems more probable.
2. Verse consisting of Dactylic Trimeter catalectic (Dactylic Penthemim) ;
Iambic Dimeter :
scrfbe're' | ve"rsicu|l6s || 5morg pe"rlculsum grivi. Hor. Epod. 11. 2.
LOGACEDIC VERSE
623. Trochaic verses, containing in regular prescribed positions
irrational measures or irrational feet (cf. 609. e), are called Loga-
oedic. The principal logaoedic forms are
1. Logaoedic Tetrapody (four feet) : GLYCONIC.
2. Logaoedic Tripody (three feet) : PHERECRATIC (often treated as a
syncopated Tetrapody Catalectic).
3. Logaoedic Dipody (two feet) : this may be regarded as a short Phere-
cratic.
NOTB. This mixture of irrational measures gives an effect approaching that of
prose: hence the name Logaoedic (\6-yos, dotSi}). These measures originated in the
Greek lyric poetry, and were adopted by the Romans. All the Roman lyric metres not
belonging to the regular iambic, trochaic, dactylic, or Ionic systems, were constructed
on the basis of the three forms given above : viz., Logaoedic systems consisting respec-
tively of four, three, and two feet. The so-called Logaoedic Pentapody consists of five
feet, but is to be regarded as composed of two of the others.
624, 625] LOGACEDIC VERSE 419
624. Each logacedic form contains a single dactyl, 1 which may
be either in the first, second, or third place. The verse may be
catalectic or acatalectic :
Glyconic Pherecratic
L Il-Ovl *VI JL^I^-MH || -Ow| + w |-Mw)||
ii. || JL w| -t w | .*. w | ^. (w)|| || J- w I -0 w I ^. (w) || or
II ..--C w L-L A
NOTB. The shorter Pherecratic (dipody) (-Ow | w), if catalectic, appears to
be a simple Choriambus ( _ w w | _ A ) ; and, in general, the effect of the logacedic
forms is Choriambic. In fact, they were so regarded by the later Greek and Latin
metricians, and these metres have obtained the general name of Choriambic. But
they are not true Choriambic, though they may very likely have been felt to be such
by the composer, who imitated the forms without much thought of their origin. They
may be read (scanned), therefore, on that principle. But it is better to read them as
logacedic measures ; and that course is followed here.
625. The verses constructed upon the several Logaoedic forms
or models are the following :
1. Glyconic (Second Glyconic, catalectic) :
u^ei^ '-'-^rnrT
Koinae | prfnclpls | tirbi|um.
In English :
F6rms more real than living man. Shelley.
NOTE. In this and most of the succeeding forms the foot preceding the dactyl is
always irrational in Horace, consisting of an irrational spondee ( >).
2. Aristophanic (First Pherecratic) :
temperSt |6r& | fi4ms. Hor. Od. i. 8.
NOTE. It is very likely that this was made equal in time to the preceding by
protracting the last two syllables :
1 Different Greek poets adopted fixed types in regard to the place of the dactyls,
and so a large number of verses arose, each following a strict law, which were imi-
tated by the Romans as distinct metres.
420 PROSODY: VERSIFICATION [626
8. Adonic (First Pherecratic, shortened) :
Te"rrult | urb6m. Hor.
Or perhaps :
4. Pherecratic (Second Pherecratic') :
eras dOnabfirls hatxlo. Hor.
Often scanned as follows :
J- S|-<, w \-Lv
5. Lesser Asclepiadio (Second Pherecratic with syncope and First Phert-
cratic catalectic) :
|| _L > I -<, w | \L || -^ w | -L w | L A ||
Maecenas Stilvis edltS re'glbus. Hor.
6. Greater Asclepiadic (the same as 5, with a syncopated Logacedic Dipody
interposed) :
II -L > | -<, w I L || -o w | L || -o w | _L w | ^ A ||
t<i ne qua^sKrfa scfrS ngfas qu4m inlhl, qu6m tlbf. Hor.
7. Lesser Sapphic (Logaoedic Pentapody, with dactyl in the third place) :
|U^|_/.>|jL||^|^^|i/|^A||
mte'ge'r vltad sc616risqu8 purus. Hor.
Or in English :
Brilliant hopes, all w<Jven in gdrgeous tissues. Longfellow.
8. Greater Sapphic (Third Glyconic; First Pherecratic):
|| JL x> | JL > | -O v/ ftifl -C v | JS. y | |Z 1 ?$ A H
t^ d66s 5r6 SybSrfn || cur pr5p6ras Smando. Hor.
9. Lesser Alcaic (Logaoedic Tetrapody, two irrational dactyls, two
trochees) :
|| -^ w | -0 w | -L w | J- w ||
virglnibiis pu8risqu8 canto. Hor.
625, 626] METRES OF HORACE 421
10. Greater Alcaic (Loga&dic Pentapody, catalectic, with anacrusis, and
dactyl in the third place, compare Lesser Sapphic) :
|| d : _/. I JL > || -^ v, | JL w | 6 A ||
iust MOT e"t t&iacem || proposltf vlrum. Hor.
NOTE. Only the above logacedic forms are employed by Horace.
11. Phalaecean (Logaoedic Pentapody, -with dactyl in the second place):
||^>|-0w|-iw|^w|_^||
qii.it'nam te nialS mens, mlse"!!! Rauidi,
agit prae'clpit 6 " 1 in mfids lambos ? Catull. xl.
In English :
G6rgeous flowerets fn the sunlight shfning. Longfellow.
12. Glyconic Pherecratic (Second Glyconic with syncope, and Second
Pherecratic) :
| ^ d 1 -4> v J ^ v.|l 1 .& & | -C.O 1 1 | .. A |
6 C5l6nia qua6 cupfs || p6nt6 Iud6r6 longo. Catull. xrii.
METRES OF HORACE
626. The Odes of Horace include nineteen varieties of stanza.
These are :
1. Alcaic, consisting of two Greater Alcaics (10), one Trochaic Dimeter
with anacrusis, and one Lesser Alcaic (9) 1 :
iust Mm e"t tenacem || pr6positi virum
nOn civi M * n ardor || prava iub^ntium,
non viiltus instantfe tyrannl
m^nte quatft solida, nequ e Auster. Od. iii. 3.
(Found in Od. i. 9, 16, 17, 26, 27, 29, 31, 34, 35, 37; ii. 1, 3, 5, 7, 9, 11, 13, 14, 15, 17,
19, 20; iii. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 17, 21, 23, 26, 29; iv. 4, 9, 14, 15.)
NOTE. The Alcaic Strophe is named after the Greek poet Alcaeus of Lesbos, and
was a special favorite with Horace, of whose Odes thirty-seven are in this form. It
is sometimes called the Horatian Stanza.
2. Sapphic (minor), consisting of three Lesser Sapphics (7) and one
Adonic (3) :
iam satfe terns || nivis atque dirae
grand in Is mlsft || pater e"t rube"nte
de'xtera sacras |j iaculatus arcls
te"rruit urbem. Od. i. 2.
(Found in Od. i. 2, 10, 12, 20, 22, 25, 30, 32, 38; ii. 2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 16; iii. 8, 11, 14, 18,
20, 22, 27 ; iv. 2, 6, 11 ; Carm. Saec.)
1 The figures refer to the foregoing list ( 625).
422 PKOSODY: VERSIFICATION [626
NOTE. The Sapphic Stanza is named after the poetess Sappho of Lesbos, and
was a great favorite with the ancients. It is used by Horace in twenty-five Odes
more frequently than any other except the Alcaic.
3. Sapphic (major), consisting of one Aristophanic (2) and one Greater
Sapphic (8) :
Lydia die, per <imnfs
t$ deds 5r6, Sybarm || cur properas amand6. Od. i. 8.
4. Asclepiadean I (minor), consisting of Lesser Asclepiadics (5) :
e"x6gf monument"" 1 || ae>e pere"nnius
regallque situ || pyramid" 771 altius. Od. iii. 30.
(Found in Od. i. 1; iii. 30; iv. 8.)
5. Asclepiadean II, consisting of one Glyconic (1) and one Lesser
Asclepiadic (5) :
navis qua4 tibi creditum
debes Ve"rgilium, || ffnibus Atticfs
r^ddas mcolum^in, precdr,
6t serve's animae" || dfmidium meae\ Od. i. 3.
(Found in Od. i. 3, 13, 19, 36 ; iii. 9, 15, 19, 24, 25, 28 ; iv. i, 3.)
6. Asclepiadean III, consisting of three Lesser Asclepiadics (5) and one
Glyconic (1) :
qufs desfderio || sft pudor aiit modus
tarn cari capitfs? || pra^cipe lugubrfs
cantus, Melpomene, || cuf liquidam pateY
vOcem ctim cithard dedft. Od. i. 24.
(Found in Od. i. 6, 15, 24, 33; ii. 12; iii. 10, 16; iv. 5, 12.)
7. Asclepiadean IV, consisting of two Lesser Asclepiadics (5), one
Pherecratic (4), and one Glyconic (1) :
6 f5ns Bandusia6 || sp!6ndidi6r vitr6,
diilcl dfgne rnero, || n6n sine fldribus,
eras dOnaberis ha6d6
cuf frons tdrgida c6rnibus. Od. iii. 13.
(Found in Od. i. 5, 14, 21, 23; iii. 7, 13; iv. 13.)
8. Asclepiadean V (major'), consisting of Greater Asclepiadics (6) :
til n6 quae"sierfs, || scfre nefasl || qum mini, que'm tibf
finein df dedermt, || Leticono^, || nee Babyloni6s
t(5ntarls numer6s. Od. i. 11.
(Found in Od. i. 11, 18; iv. 10.)
9. Alcmanian, consisting of Dactylic Hexameter ( 615) alternating
with Tetrameter ( 617. a). (Od. i. 7, 28 ; Epod. 12.)
626] METRES OF HORACE 423
10. Archilochian I, consisting of a Dactylic Hexameter alternating with
a Dactylic Penthemim (see 617. 6). (Od. iv. 7.)
11. Archilochian IV, consisting of a Greater Archilochian (heptameter,
622. 1), followed by Iambic Trimeter Catalectic ( 618. rf). The stanza
consists of two pairs of verses :
sdlvitur acris hie"ms grata vice || Ve'ris e"t Favom,
trahiintque sfccas |j mdchinae" carfnas;
&c neque iam stabulfs gaude"t pecus, || aiit arator fgnl,
nee prata canls || lbicdnt pruinls. Od. i. 4.
12. Iambic Trimeter alone (see 618). (Epod. 17.)
13. Iambic Strophe (see 618. a). (Epod. 1-10.)
14. Dactylic Hexameter alternating with Iambic Dimeter :
ndx erat, e"t caelo || fulgebat luna serenS
inte"r minora sfdera,
cum tu, magnOrum || nume'n laesura dedrum,
in v^rba idrabas med. Epod. 15. (So in Epod. 14.)
15. Dactylic Hexameter with Iambic Trimeter ( 618):
altera jdm teritiir || bellis clvilibus a^tas,
suis et fpsa Roma || vfribus ruft. Epod. 16.
16. Verse of Four Lesser Ionics ( 609. c. 2): ,
miserar Mffl est | nequ e am5rl j dare ludum | neque dulci
mala vln5 | laver 6 aut ex|animari | metuentis. Od. iii. 12.
17. Iambic Trimeter ( 618); Dactylic Penthemim ( 617. 6); Iambic
Pettf, nihfl me || sfcut antea iuvat
scribere ve"rsiculos || amore p^rculsiim gravf. Epod. 11.
18. Dactylic Hexameter; Iambic Dimeter; Dactylic Penthemim( 617. 6):
h6rrida te'mpestas || caeliim contrdxit, et fmbr6s
niv^sque deduciint Iove"m ; || mine mare, mine sHuae" . . .
Epod. 13.
19. Trochaic Dimeter, Iambic Trimeter, each catalectic (see 620. c).
INDEX TO THE METRES OF HORACE
LIB. I
1. Maecenas atavis : 4. 8. Lydia die : 3.
2. Iam satis terns: 2. 9. Videsutalta: 1.
3. Sic te diva: 5. 10. Mercuri facunde nepds: 2.
4. Solvitur acris hiems: 11. 11. Tu ne quaesieris: 8.
5. Quismulta: 7. 12. Quern virum: 2.
6. Scriberis Vario : 6. 13. Cum tu Lydia : 5.
7. Laudabunt alii : 9. 14. O navis: 7.
424
PKOSODY: VERSIFICATION
[626
16. Pastor cum traheret: 6.
16. matre pulchra : 1.
17. Velox amoenum : 1.
18. NullamVare: 8.
19. Mater saeva : 5.
20. Vilepotabis: 2.
21. Dianam tenerae: 7.
22. Integer vitae : 2.
23. Vitas inuleo : 7.
24. Quis desiderio : 6.
25. Parcius iunctas : 2.
26. Musis amicus : 1.
27. Natisinusum: 1.
28. Te maris: 9.
29. Icci beatis: 1.
30. 6 Venus: 2.
31. Quid dedicatum : 1.
32. Poscimur: 2.
33. Albine doleas: 6.
34. Parcus deorum : 1.
35. 6 diva: 1.
36. Etture: 5.
37. Nunc est bibendum :
38. PersicosOdi: 2.
LIB. II
1. Motum ex MetellO : 1.
2. Nullus argentd : 2.
3. Aequam memento : 1.
4. Ne sit ancillae : 2.
5. N6ndum subacta : 1.
6. Septimi Grades: 2.
7. saepe mecum: 1.
8. Ullasi iuris: 2. '
9. Non semper imbres : 1.
10. Rectius vives : 2.
11. Quid bellicSsus : 1.
12. Nolislonga: 6.
13. Ille et nefasto : 1.
14. Eheufugaces: 1.
15. lam pauca: 1.
16. Otium divos : 2.
17. Cur me querellis: 1.
18. Nonebur: 19.
19. Bacchum in remotis : 1.
20. Nonusitata: 1.
LIB. Ill
1. 6di profanum: 1.
2. Angus tain amice : 1.
3. lustum et tenacem : 1.
4. Descende caelO : 1.
5. Caelo tonantem : 1.
6. Delicta maiorum : 1.
7. Quid fles : 7.
8. Martiis caelebs : 2.
9. DOnec gratus : 5.
10. Extremum Tanain : 6.
11. Mercuri nam te : 2.
12. Miserarum est: 16.
13. 6 fons Bandusiae : 7.
14. Herculis ritu : 2.
15. Uxor pauperis : 5.
1. Intermissa Venus : 5.
2. Pindarum quisquis : 2.
3. Quern tu Melpomene : 5.
4. Qualem ministrnm : 1.
5. Divis orte bonis: 6.
6. Dive quern proles : 2.
7. Diffugere nives : 10.
8 Donarem pateras : 4.
16. Inclusam Danaen : 6.
17. Aeli vetusto : 1.
18. Faune nympharum : 2.
19. Quantum distet : 5.
20. Non vides: 2.
21. Onata mecum: 1.
22. Montium custos : 2.
23. Caelo supinas: 1.
24. Intactis opulentior : 5.
25. Quo me Bacche : 5.
26. Vixipuellis: 1.
27. Impios parrae : 2.
28. Festo quid : 5.
29. Tyrrhena regum : 1.
30. Exegi monumentum : 4.
LIB. IV
9. Ne forte credas: 1.
10. O crudelis adhuc : 8.
11. Est mihi nSnum : 2.
12. lam veris comites : 6.
13. Audivere Lyce : 7.
14. Quae cfira patrum : 1.
15. Phoebus volentem : 1.
Carmen Saeculdre : 2.
626-628] MISCELLANEOUS 425
EPODES
1. IbisLiburms: 13. 10. Malasoluta: 13.
2. Beatusille: 13. 11. Petti nib.il: 17.
3. Parentis olim : 13. 12. Quid tibi vis: 9.
4. Lupis et agms : 13. 13. Horrida tempestas : 18.
5. Atodeorum: 13. 14. Mollis inertia: 14.
6. Quid immerentis : 13. 15. Noxerat: 14.
7. Quo quo scelesti : 13. 16. Altera iam : 15.
8. Rogare longo : 13. 17. Iam iam efficaci : 12.
9. Quando repostum : 13.
627. Other lyric poets use other combinations of the above-
mentioned verses :
. Glyconics with one Pherecralic (both imperfect) :
Dia|na6 sumus | m fid!
puellP* 6t pu6|r l fntggrf:
Diajnam, pu^r 1 fntggrf
puel|lae"qu6 cS[na|mus. Catull. xxxiv.
6. Sapphics, in a series of single lines, closing with an Adonic:
An ma|gfa dl|rf tr8mu|<3r8 | Mdnes
Hercu|l e7n ? ^t vl|sum canls | fnf6|r6rum
fngit | abrup|tis tr6pl|dus ca|tenls?
falll|mur : Iae|t6 venit | ^cc6 | vultu,
qu^m tujlft Poe|as ; hum6|rfsqu8 | teli
gestat | 8t no|ts p5pu|lfs phajr^tras
H^rculls | hires. Sen. Here. Get. 1600-1606.
c. Sapphics followed by Glyconics, of indefinite number (id. Here. Fur.
830-874, 875-894).
MISCELLANEOUS
628. Other measures occur in various styles of poetry.
a. Anapaestic ( 609. 6. 2) verses of various lengths are found in dramatic
poetry. The spondee, dactyl, or proceleusmatic may be substituted for the
hie h5m6st | omnl"" 1 h6ml|num pra|clpu6s
v51uptd|tlbus gau|diisqu e an|tep6t6ns.
ItS c6m[m5dS qua6 | cupl 5 ejvenflint,
qu6d 5g6 | sublt, 4d|s6cu^ | sgqultur :
ItS gau|dium sup|ped!tat. PI. Trin. 1115-1119.
6. Bacchiac ( 609. d. 4) verses (five-timed) occur in the dramatic poets,
very rarely in Terence, more commonly in Plautus, either in verses of two
feet (Dimeter) or of four (Tetrameter). They are treated very freely, as are
426 PROSODY : VERSIFICATION [ 628, 629
all measures in early Latin. The long syllables may be resolved, or the
molossus (three longs) substituted :
multas res | simft" in | m66 cor|d6 vdrso,
mult Mm in co|gitando | dolor 6 in|dlpiscor.
ggome't me | cOg 5 e"t malcer* 5 & de|f&tfg5 ;
mSgfster | mih* e"xer|cit6r anljmus mine est.
PI. Trin. 223-226.
c. Cretic measures ( 609. d. 1) occur in the same manner as the Bac-
chiac, with the same substitutions. The last foot is usually incomplete :
amor 2,mi|cus mihl | n6 fuas | umquam.
his 8go | d g artibus | gratiam | fsiclo.
nfl gg is|tos moror | faecgos | mdres. id. 267, 293, 297.
d. Saturnian Verse. In early Latin is found a rude form of verse, not
borrowed from the Greek like the others, but as to the precise nature of
which scholars are not agreed. 1
1. According to one view the verse is based on quantity, is composed of
six feet, and is divided into two parts by a caesura before the fourth thesis.
Each thesis may consist of a long syllable or of two short ones, each arsis
of a short syllable, a long syllable, or two short syllables ; but the arsis,
except at the beginning of the verse and before the caesura, is often entirely
suppressed, though rarely more than once in the same verse :
dabunt malum Mete"lll || Na6vl6 poetae.
2. According to another theory the Saturnian is made up, without regard
to quantity, of alternating accented and unaccented syllables ; but for any
unaccented syllable two may be substituted, and regularly are so substituted
in the second foot of the verse :
dabunt malum Metelli || Na6vi6 po4tae.
EARLY PROSODY
629. The prosody of the earlier poets differs in several re-
spects from that of the later. 2
. At the end of words s, being only feebly sounded, does not make
position with a following consonant; it sometimes disappeared altogether.
This usage continued in all poets till Cicero's time ( 15. 7).
1 The two principal theories only are given. There are numerous variations, par-
ticularly of the second theory here stated.
2 Before the Latin language was used in literature, it had become much changed
by the loss of final consonants and the shortening of final syllables under the influence
of accent. In many cases this change was still in progress in the time of the early
poets. This tendency was arrested by the study of grammar and by literature, but
shows itself again in the Romance languages.
629] EAELY PROSODY . 427
5. A long syllable immediately preceded or followed by the ictus may
be shortened (iambic shortening) :
1. In a word of two syllables of which the first is short (this effect remained in
a few words like puts, cavS, valS, vide, eg5, modo, duo 1 ):
abi (Ter. Ph. 59); bom (id. 616) ; hom5 suavis (id. 411).
2. If it is either a monosyllable or the first syllable of a word which is pre-
ceded by a short monosyllable :
sld has tabellas (PI. Pers. 195) ; quid hie nunc (id. Epid. 157) ; per Inplu-
vium (Ter. Ph. 707) ; eg ost^nderem (id. 793).
3. "When preceded by a short initial syllable in a word of more than three
syllables :
vemistatis (Ter. Hec. 848) ; senectutem (id. Ph. 434) ; Syracusas (PI. Merc.
37) ; amicitia (id. Ps. 1263).
c. In a few isolated words position is often disregarded. 2 Such are flle,
immo, inde, iste, 8mnis, nempe, quippe, iinde.
d. The original long quantity of some final syllableL is retained.
1. The ending -or is retained long in nouns with long stem-vowel (original r-
stems or original s-stems) :
mddo quom dfct a in m g Ingerebas 6dium n6n uxor eram (PI. Asin. 927).
fta m* in pe"ctor* atque c6rde facit amor ince"ndium (id. Merc. 500).
atque quanto n6x fufsti 16ngi6r hac pr6xuma (id. Am. 548).
2. The termination -es (-itis) is sometimes retained long, as in miles, superstes.
3. All verb-endings in -r, -3, and -t may be retained long where the vowel is
elsewhere long in inflection :
r^gredior audisse me (PI. Capt. 1023); atqu* ut quf fueris et quf nunc (id.
248); me nominat haec (id. Epid. iv. 1. 8); faciat ut semper (id. Poen.
ii. 42); Infuscabat, amabo (cretics, id. Cist. i. 21); qul amet (id. Merc.
1021) ; ut fit in bello capitur alter filiiis (id. Capt. 25); tibi sit ad me
revisas (id. True. ii. 4. 79).
e. Hiatus ( 612. g) is allowed somewhat freely, especially at a pause
in the sense, or when there is a change of speaker. 3
l Cf. ambo (also a dual, p. 59, footnote), in which the o is retained because of the
length of the first syllable.
* Scholars are not yet agreed upon the principle or the extent of this irregularity.
3 The extent of this license is still a question among scholars ; but in the present
state of texts it must sometimes be allowed.
428 MISCELLANEOUS [ 630, 631
MISCELLANEOUS
Reckoning of Time
630. The Roman Year was designated, in earlier times, by the names of the
Consuls ; but was afterwards reckoned from the building of the City (ab urbe condita,
anno urbis conditae), the date of which was assigned by Varro to a period correspond-
ing with B.C. 753. In order, therefore, to reduce Roman dates to those of the Christian
era, the year of the city is to be subtracted from 754: e.g. A.tr.c. 691 (the year of
Cicero's consulship) corresponds to B.C. 63.
Before Caesar's reform of the Calendar (B.C. 46), the Roman year consisted of 355
days : March, May, Quintilis (July) , and October having each 31 days, February hav-
ing 28, and each of the remainder 29. As this calendar year was too short for the
solar year, the Romans, in alternate years, at the discretion of the pontiftces, inserted
a month of varying length (mensis intercaldris) after February 23, and omitted the
rest of February. The "Julian year," by Caesar's reformed Calendar, had 365 days,
divided into months as at present. Every fourth year the 24th of February (vi. Kal.
Mart.) was counted twice, giving 29 days to that month : hence the year was called
bissextilis. The month Quintilis received the name lulius (July), in honor of Julius
Caesar ; and Sextilis was called Augustus (August) , in honor of his successor. The
Julian year (see below) remained unchanged till the adoption of the Gregorian Calen-
dar (A.D. 1582), which omits leap-year three times in every four hundred years.
6 
